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 A cyclopedia of commerce and commercial 
 
 3 1924 013 922 905 
 
Cornell University 
 Library 
 
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 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924013922905 
 
CYCLOPEDIA OF COMMERCE 
 
 AND 
 
 COMMERCIAL MYIGATIOK 
 
 EDITED BY 
 
 ,^,„ . J. SMITH H M A N S, 
 
 00BRE8P0NDING SECRETAinf OF THE onAMBEK OF OOMMEEOE OF TUK STATE OF NEW TOEK, 
 AND EDITOE OF '•THE BANKERS' MAGAZINE AND STATISTICAL REGIBTEE;" 
 
 J. SMITH HOMANS, Jr., B.S., 
 
 AUTHOE OF "AN HISTORICAL AND STATISTICAL SKETCH OF THE FOEBIGN COMMERCE OF TUE u. 8.' 
 
 TOitt) ifttaps axOi SSnflrabfitfls. 
 
 NEW YORK: 
 
 HA E PER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS, 
 
 FRANKLIN SQUARE. 
 1858. 
 
Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the ysar one thousand eight hundred and 
 
 fifty-eight, by 
 
 H A 1! 1' E R & BROTHERS, 
 
 In the Clerk's Office of the District Court for the Southern District of New York. 
 
 1 *§/<yc2 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The want of a compreliehsive commercial work kas long been felt in the United 
 States— a work exhibiting the condition and resources of the United States and 
 the separate States, as well as of foreign nations. The only attempt hitherto made 
 in this country to supply the want of such a work was the reprint, twenty-five 
 years ago, of M'Oulloch's Dictionary of Commerce and Commercial Navigation. 
 This work, probably as complete in rfeference to the commercial statistics of foreign 
 countries as could be made at the time of its compilation, is very deficient in sta- 
 tistics relating to this continent, particularly of the United States. The later edi- 
 tions of Mr. M'Oulloch's work contain much matter of an obsolete or local char- 
 acter, in which the American reader feels but little interest ; while many subjects 
 of great importance to commercial men in this country are, in the EngHsh work, 
 either omitted entirely or mentioned only iucidentally. 
 
 The extensive and important changes that have taken place within the past ten 
 years in commercial affairs — the establishment of new States, new Territories, new 
 commercial places — ^the unexampled increase of the commerce of the United States, 
 of the development and the record of the ^eat industrial resources of the United 
 States — all seem to require a new and distiact work, with a view to place before 
 commercial readers a more ample account of the progress of commerce throughout 
 the world. The present volume has been prepared with a view to supply this 
 want ; and while we have aimed at presenting a fair exhibit of the finances, the 
 internal and foreign commerce, the staple products of ea&h State, we have at the 
 same time gathered together the latest statistics in reference to the products and 
 the commercial relations of foreign nations ; especiaiUy of those with whom the 
 United States have the most intimate intercourse. 
 
 We have endeavored to present, in a condensed manner and fi:om reliable 
 sources, historical and statistical details in reference to the great staples of the 
 country ; of those important products whose export to foreign countries has con- 
 tributed largely to the prosperity of the States ; and the increase of which is cal- 
 culated to give us in future years a control of the vast markets of the world, and 
 
iv PEEFACE. 
 
 thus add greatly to tlie material wealth of the Union. Among these we mention 
 the subjects of Wheat, Corn, Cotton, Eice, Hemp, Provisions, Iron, Copper, Gold 
 and Silver, etc. 
 
 This is the first attempt in the United States to collect the historical and statis- 
 tical facts in reference to these important subjects into one single work. In 
 collecting these materials, and condensing them within a moderate compass, we 
 ■ have been aided by the valuable official Eeports issued by the Treasury Depart- 
 ment and by the Patent Office of the United States, for a series of years ; and by 
 the recent and highly valuable Eeports of the Department of State upon The Com- 
 mercial Relations of the United States. Much of the varied and important informa- 
 tion contained in those official documents is brought together in the present work 
 under its appropriate heads ; so that the reader, instead of the labor of consulting 
 some fifty or sixty volumes, may find every subject discussed under its alphabet- 
 ical order. 
 
 A leading feature of the Cyclopedia of Commerce, at least to the American read- 
 er, is the reproduction, in brief, of views urged by Chancellor Kent, Judge Story, 
 Professor Parsons, and other authors, upon the subjects of the Laws of Shipping, 
 Insurance, Maritime Law, Seamen, etc. The extracts from these writings are only 
 such, however, as will lead the careful reader to refer for further information on 
 these subjects to the several works themselves. 
 
 In regard to the commercial relations of foreign countries — their finances, pop- 
 ulation, internal and foreign trade, staple productions, etc.- — the reader will find 
 condensed, from the most reliable authorities, much valuable information of a late 
 date. The commerce and resources of the principal maritime countries are illus- 
 trated up to the years 1856-'57, and the relative importance of each in reference 
 to the others, especially to the United States, is fally illustrated. The foreign 
 trade of the United States with each country for the last thirty-six years is also 
 shown, compiled with great care from the Treasury Eeports of the United States 
 from 1821 to 1857. These tabular details, valuable as showing the commercial 
 progress of the United States, have not been officially communicated in a com- 
 pact form to Congress, but are reproduced from "an Historical and Statistical 
 Account of the Foreign Commerce of the United States," by the junior editor of 
 this work. 
 
 The editors take pleasure in acknowledging the valuable aid derived from Mr. 
 Poole's Index to Periodical Literature, a necessary appendage to the editorial 
 table, and a key to the fugitive writings of the most able authors, English and 
 American, of the present century ; also from Mr. Alexander's elaborate and relia- 
 ble Dictionary of Weights and Measures ; from Professor Bache's official Eeports on 
 the Coast Survey of the United States ; from Mr. Browne's able work on the 
 Trees of America ; and from Mr. Maury's Physical Geography of the Sea, etc. 
 
PEEFACE. y 
 
 A Cyclopedia of Commerce must necessarily- be, in a great measure, a compilation, 
 and any attempt to prepare a work of tliis character without taking advantage, to 
 the fullest extent, of the labors of predecessors, would result in a failure. And 
 though all of the articles have been rewritten or remodeled, to adapt them to this 
 country, and with new information to bring them up to the present time, many of 
 the important ones are entirely original, as far as compilation goes, and are care- 
 fully collated with the latest commercial statistics. Full use has been made of 
 those standard works on commercial affairs which could give information pertain- 
 ing to the subjects discussed. Under this view nothing more is claimed for this 
 work than that it is a well-digested compilation. The plan of the work is based in 
 many respects upon M'CuUoch's Dictionary of Commerce., and from this work and 
 the eighth edition of -the Encyclopedia Briiannica (now being published) have been 
 principally compiled the articles relating to the commercial law and commercial 
 trade of foreign •countries. The statistics of the commerce of this country have 
 been prepared from official sources, through a series of years ; and in all instances 
 nd pains have been spared to obtain the latest and most reliable tabular details on 
 all subjects, as they are the foundation and principal value of a work of this kind. 
 In all cases where possible, charts of the harbors and sea-ports, by the latest sur- 
 veys, have been obtained ; and in this we are much indebted to the United States 
 Coast Survey Reports for accurate details of the harbors of our own country. We 
 add here a list of those works consulted, from which we have obtained much of 
 the valuable information contained in the present work. 
 
 LIST OF AMERICAN AUTPIORITIES. 
 
 Commercial Relations of the United States. Prepared by the Department of State. 1856-'o7. 
 
 Reports of the Secretary of the Treasury on the Finances, Commerce, and Navigation of the United States. 
 1845-'57. 
 
 The Encyclopedia Americana. Philadeljihia, 14 vols. 8vo. 
 
 History of the Foreign Commerce of the United States. By J. Smith Homans, Jun. 1857. 
 
 Dictionary of Weights and Measures of the World ; adapted to the United States. By John H. Alexander. 
 Baltimore: 8vo. 1856. 
 
 Kent's Commentaries on American Law. (Extracts, by permission of Hon. W. Kent.) 
 
 Manual for Consuls. Regulations prescribed for Consular Officers of the United States, by the Department 
 of State. 8vo, p. 440. 1857. 
 
 The Trees of America, Native and Foreign. By D. J. Browne, of the Patent Office, United States. 8vo, 
 p. 520. New York, 1846. 
 
 Condensed Census of the United States, of 1850-'51. 8vo, p. 400. 1855. 
 
 Index to Periodical Literature. By W. F. Poole, Librarian of the Boston Athoneum. 
 
 American Almanac and Repository of Useful Knowledge. Boston, 1830-'58. 
 
 Elements of International Law. By Henry Wheaton, LL.D. Edited by William Beach Lawrence. 8vo, 
 p. 728. Boston, 1855. 
 
 The Elements of Mercantile Law. By Theophilus Parsons, LL.D., of Cambridge, Massachusetts. 8vo, p. 
 617. Boston, 1856. 
 
 Digest of the General Laws of the United States. By James Dunlop. S'VO, p. 1650. Philadelphia, 1856. 
 
 Hunt's Merchants' Magazine. New York, 1839-57. 
 
 The Physical Geography of the Sea. By Lieutenant ^, F. Maury, LL.D. 8to, p. 360. New York, 1857. 
 
Tl 
 
 PEEFACE, 
 
 United States Patent Office Eepovta. 1850-'56. 
 
 De Bow's Eeview of the South and West. Washington, 1846-'56. 
 
 De Bow's Industrial Eesources of the United States. 3 vols. 8vc. 1854. 
 
 Reports on the Coast Surrey of the United States. By Professor Bache. 4to. 1854-'67. 
 
 The Bankers' Magarzine and Statistical Register, from 1846 to 1857. 
 
 Progress of Arctic Discovery, to 1856. 
 
 Blunt's Coast Pilot. 8vo. N6w York, 1857. 
 
 Harper's Universal Gazetteer. 
 
 LIST OF FOEEIGN AUTHORITIES. 
 
 M'CuUoch's Dictionary of Commerce and Commercial Navigation. London, 1856. 
 
 The Encyclopedia Britannica, eighth edition, now in course of publication at Edinburgh. 1856-'o7. 
 
 Commercial Law of the World ; or, the Mercantile Law of the United Kingdom compared with the Codes 
 and Laws of Commerce of all Mercantile Countries. By Leone Levi. 2 vols. 4to. London, 1854. 
 
 Annals of British Legislation. By Professor Leone Levi. London, 1856-'57. 
 
 Manual of Mercantile Law of Great Britain and Ireland. By Leone Levi. 8vo. London, 1854. 
 
 The Mercantile and Maritime Guide for Great Britain. By Willmore and Bedell. 8vo, p. 1168. Lou- 
 don, 1856. 
 
 Haydn's Dictionarj- of Dates. 8vo, p. 600. London, 1856. 
 
 Tuson's British Consul's Manual. 8vo, p. 572. London, 1836. 
 
 Bohn's Cyclopedia of Political, Constitutional, Statistical, and Forensic Knowledge. 4 vols. 12ma. Lon- 
 don, 1849. 
 
 Pope's Yearly Journal of Trade for 1856-'57. 8vo. London. 
 
 Brando's Dictionary of Science, Literature, and the Arts. 8vo, p. 1352. New York, 1856. 
 
 Ure's Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines. 8vo, 2 vols. p. 1118-1000. New York, 1856. 
 
 Dictionary of Geography, Descriptive, Physical, Statistical, and Historical. By Alex. Keith Johnston. 
 8vo, p. 1352. 1856. 
 
 Gazetteer of the Territories under the Government of the East India Company, and of the Native States on 
 the Continent of India. By Edward Thornton. 8vo, p. 1016. London, 1857. 
 
 The British Almanac and Companion. London, 1829-57. 
 
 Almanach de Gotha, 1857-58. 
 
 Year Book of Facts in Science and Art. By John Timbs, F.S.A. London, 1856-'57. 
 
 Dodd's Curiosities of Industry and the applied Sciences. 8vo. London, 1854. 
 
 LIST OF MAPS AND ENGRAVINGS. 
 
 Artesian Wells Page 62 
 
 Atlantic Ocean 
 
 Harbor of Baliia 
 
 Harbor of Boston 
 
 Harbor of Constantinople 
 
 Dry Docks 
 
 Harbor of Elsineur 
 
 Straits of Gibraltar 
 
 Gulf Stream 
 
 Marine Dynamometer 
 
 Heights of Waves 
 
 Harbor and City of Havana 
 
 73 
 
 84 
 197 
 401 
 550 
 689 
 816 
 915 
 935 
 943 
 949 
 
 Light-houses . 
 
 Life-boats Page 1212 
 
 1213 
 1214 
 1216 
 1220 
 1221 
 1222 
 1223 
 1225 
 1226 
 1637 
 
 Harbor of Eio de Janeiro . 
 
 ABBEEVIATIONS USED. 
 
 E. B, for Encyclopedia Britannica. /. R. M. for John R. M'CuUoch. Com. Rel. for Commercial Rela- 
 tions. , 
 
CYCLOPEDIA 
 
 COMMEECE 
 
 COMMERCIAL NAVIGATION. 
 
 A AM, Atun, or A Tim , a measure for liquids, used 
 at Amsterdam, Antwerp, Hamburg, Frankfort, 
 etc. At Amsterdam it is nearly equal to 41 English 
 wine gallons, at Antwerp to 36^ gallons, at Hamburg 
 to 38i gallons, and at Frankfort to 39 gallons. 
 
 Aback (a sea term), the situation of the sails when 
 the surfaces are flatted against the masts by the force 
 of the wind. The sails are said to be taken aback when 
 they are brought into this situation either by a sudden 
 change of the wind or by an alteration in the ship's 
 course. They are laid aback^ to effect an immediate re- 
 treat, without turning to the right or left ; or in the sea 
 phrase, to give the ship stern-way^ in order to avoid 
 some danger discovered before her in a narrow chan- 
 nel, or when she has advanced beyond her. station in 
 the line of battle, or otherwise. The sails are placed 
 in this position by slackening their lee braces, and 
 hauling in the weather ones ; so that the whole effort 
 of the wind is exerted on the fore part of their surface, 
 which readily pushes the ship astern, unless she is re- 
 strained by some counteracting force. 
 
 Abacus is the name of an ancient instrument for 
 facilitating operations in arithmetic. The exhibition 
 of numbers by counters appears happily fitted for un- 
 folding the principles of calculation. In the schools 
 of ancient Greece, the boys acquired the elements of 
 knowledge by working on a smooth board with a nar- 
 row rim — the ahax; so named, evidently, from the 
 combination of A, B, T, the first letters of their alpha- 
 bet, resembling, except perhaps in size, the tablet like- 
 wise called A, B, C, on which the children with us used 
 to begin to learn the art of reading, the pupils, in 
 those distant ages, were instructed to compute by form- 
 ing progressive rows of counters, which, according to 
 the wealth or fancy of fhe individual, consisted of small 
 pebbles, of round bits of bone or ivory, or even of silver 
 coins. From ipViiOQi the Greek word for apebble, comes 
 the verb Tp^ipc^ew, to compute. But the same board 
 served also for teaching the rudiments of writing and 
 the principles of geometry. . The abax being strewed 
 with green sand, the jmhis eruditus of classic authors, 
 it was easy, with a radius or small rod, to trace letters, 
 draw lines, construct triangles, or describe circles. Be- 
 sides the original word A/3af, the Greeks had the di- 
 minutive K^oKiov ; and it seems very probable that 
 this smaller board was commonly used for calculations, 
 while the larger one was reserved among them for the 
 purpose of tracing geometrical diagrams. 
 
 To facilitate the working by counters, the construc- 
 tion of the abacus was afterward improved. Instead of 
 the perpendicular lines or bars, the board had its surface 
 A 
 
 divided by sets of parallel grooves, by stretched wires, 
 or even by successive rows of holes. It was easy to 
 move small counters in the grooves, to slide perforated 
 beads along the wires, or to stick large nobs or round- 
 headed nails in the different holes. To diminish the 
 number of marks required, every column was surmount- 
 ed by a shorter one, wherein each counter had the same 
 value as five of the ordinary kind, being half the index 
 of the Denary Scale. 
 
 The civil arts of Eome were communicated to other 
 nations by the tide of victory, and maintained through 
 the vigor and firmness of her imperial sway. But the 
 simpler and more useful improvements survived the 
 wreck of empire, among the various people again re- 
 stored by fortune to their barbarous independence. In 
 all transactions wherein money was concerned, it was 
 found convenient to follow the procedure of the abacus, 
 in representing numbers by counters placed in parallel 
 rows. During the Middle Ages, it became the usual 
 practice over Europe for merchants, auditors of ac- 
 counts, or judges appointed to decide in matters of rev- 
 enue, to appear on a covered bank or bench, so called 
 from an old Saxon or Franconian word signifying a 
 seat. Hence those terms were afterward appropriated 
 to ofiices for receiving pledges, chambers for the ac- 
 commodation of money-dealers, or courts for the trying 
 of questions respecting property or the claims of the 
 crown. Hence also the word bankrupt, which occurs 
 in all the dialects of Europe. The term scaccarium, 
 from which was derived the French, and thence the 
 English name for the -Exchequer, anciently signified 
 merely a chess-board, being formed from scaccum, de- 
 noting one of the movable pieces in that intricate 
 game. The reason of this application of the term is 
 sufficiently obvious. The table for accounts was, to 
 facilitate the calculations, always covered with a cloth, 
 resembling the surface of the scaccarium or abacus, and 
 distinguished by perpendicular or chequered lines. The 
 learned Skene was therefore mistaken in supposing that 
 the Exchequer derived its name from the play of chess, 
 because its suitors appear to fight a keen and dubious 
 battle.* 
 
 The Court of Exchequer, which takes cognizance of 
 all questions of revenue, was introduced into England 
 by the Norman Conquest. Richard Fitznigel, in a 
 treatise or dialogue on the subject, written about the 
 middle of the twelfth century, says that the scaccarium 
 
 * "Because mony persons conveenis in the Checker to playe 
 their causes, contrare uthers, as gif they were fechtand in an 
 arrayed battel!, quUk is the forme and ordour of the sadd playe." 
 — Skene, ad voc. Scaccarium. 
 
ABA 
 
 ABA 
 
 was a quadrangular table about ten feet long and five 
 feet broad, with a ledge or border about four inches 
 high, to prevent any thing from rolling over, and was 
 surrounded on all sides by seats for the judges, the 
 tellers, and other officers. It was covered every year, 
 after the term of Easter, with fresh black cloth, divided 
 by perpendicular white lines, or distinctures, at inter- 
 vals of about a foot or a palm, and again parted by sim- 
 ilar transverse lines. In reckoning, they proceeded, he 
 says, according to the rules of arithmetic,* using small 
 coins for counters. The lowest bar exhibited pence, 
 the one above it shillings, the next pounds ; and the 
 higher bars denoted successively tens, twenties, hundreds, 
 thousands, and ten thousands of pounds ; though, in those 
 early times of penury and severe economy, it very sel- 
 dom happened that so large a sum as the last ever came 
 to be reckoned. The first bar, therefore, advanced by 
 dozens, the second and third by scores, and the rest of 
 the stock of bars by the multiples of ten. The teller 
 sat about the middle of the table ; on his right hand 
 eleven pennies were heaped on the first bar, and a pile 
 of nineteen shillings on the second ; while a quantity of 
 pounds was collected opposite to him, on the third bar. 
 For the sake of expedition, he might employ a different 
 mark to represent half the value of any bar, a silver 
 penny for ten shillings, and a gold penny for ten 
 pounds. 
 
 In early times, a chequered board, the emblem of 
 calculation, was hung out, to indicate an office for 
 changing money. It was afterward adopted as the 
 sign of an inn or hosteh^j, where victuals were sold, or 
 strangers lodged and entertained. We ma)' perceive 
 traces of that ancient practice existing even at present. 
 It is customary in London, and in some provincial 
 towns, to have a chequer, diced with red and white, 
 painted against the sides of the door of a chop-house. 
 
 The Chinese have from the remotest ages used, in 
 all their calculations, an instrument called the Swanr- 
 pan, or Cmnputing Table, similar in its shape and con- 
 struction to the abacus of the Romans, but more com- 
 plete and uniform. It consists of a small oblong board 
 surrounded by a high ledge, and parted lengthwise 
 near the top by another ledge. It is then divided vert- 
 ically by ten smooth and slender rods of bamboo, on 
 which are strung two small balls of ivory or bone in 
 the upper compartment, and five such balls in the low- 
 er and larger compartment ; each of the latter on the 
 several bars denoting unit, and each of the former, for 
 the sake of abbreviation, expressing five. 
 
 The system of measures, weights, and coins, which 
 prevails throughout the Chinese empire, being entire- 
 ly founded on the decimal subdivision, the swan-pan 
 was admirably suited for representing it. The calcu- 
 lator could begin at any particular bar, and reclton 
 with the same facility either upward or downward. 
 This advantage of treating fractions exactly like in- 
 tegers was, in practice, of the utmost consequence. 
 Accordingly, those arithmetical machines, but of very 
 different sizes, are constantly used in all the shops and 
 booths of Canton and other cities, and are said to be 
 handled by the native traders with such rapidity and 
 address as quite astonish the European factors. 
 
 Abaft, a sea term signifying the hinder part of a 
 ship, or all those parts both within and without which 
 lie toward the stern, in opposition to afore. Ahaft is 
 also used as a preposition, and signifies yart/iej- aft, or 
 nearer the stern; as, the barricade stands abaft the 
 main-mast, i. e. behind it, or nearer the stem. 
 
 Abandonmeiit, in commerce and navigation, is 
 used to express the abandoning or surrendering of the 
 ship or goods insured to the insurer. 
 
 It is held, by the law of England, that the insured 
 has the right to abandon, and to compel the insurers to 
 pay the whole value of the thing insured, in every case 
 
 * He calls it Arismetica: In the Myrrour of the Worlde, 
 printed by Caxton in 14S1, it is strangely named Ars Metrike, a 
 proof of the total ignorance of Greek at that period in England. 
 
 where, by the happening of any of the misfortunes or 
 perils insured against, the voyage is lost, or not worth 
 pursuing, and the projected adventure is frustrated ; or 
 where the thing insured is so damaged and spoiled as 
 to be of little or no value to the owner ; or where the 
 salvage is verj' high ; or where what is saved is of less 
 value than the freight; or where further expense is 
 necessary, and the insurer will not undertake to pay 
 that expense," etc. — Marshall, book i. cap. 13, § 1. 
 
 Abandonment very frequently takes place in cases 
 of capture : the loss is then total, and no question can 
 arise in respect to it. In cases, however, in which a 
 ship and cargo are recaptured within such a time that 
 the object of the voyage is not lost, the insured is not en- 
 titled to abandon. The mere stranding of a ship is not 
 deemed of itself such a loss as will justify an abandon- 
 ment. If by some fortunate accident, by the exertions 
 of the crew, or by any borrowed assistance, the ship be 
 got off and rendered capable of continuing her voyage, 
 it is not a total loss, and the insurers are only liable for 
 the expenses occasioned by the stranding. It is only 
 where the stranding is followed by shipwreck, or in any 
 other way renders the ship incapable of prosecuting 
 her voyage, that the insured can abandon. 
 
 It has been decided that damage sustained in a voy- 
 age to the extent of forty-eight per cent, of the value 
 of the ship did not entitle the insured to abandon. If 
 a cargo be damaged in the course of a voyage, and it 
 appears that what has been saved is less than the 
 amount of freight, it is held to be a total loss. — Pakk 
 on Insurance, cap. 9. 
 
 When by the occurrence of any of the perils insured 
 against the insured has acquired a right to abandon, 
 he is at liberty either to abandon or not, as he thinks 
 proper. He is in no case bound to abandon ; but if he 
 make an election, and resolve to abandon, he must 
 abide by his resolution, and has no longer the power 
 to claim for a partial loss. In some foreign countries 
 specific periods are fixed by law within which the in- 
 sured, after being informed of the loss, must elect either 
 to abandon or not. In England, however, no partic- 
 ular period is fixed for this purpose ; but the rule is, 
 that if the insured determine to abandon, he must inti- 
 mate such determination to the insurers within a rea- 
 sonable period after he has got intelligence of the loss — 
 any unnecessary delay in making this intimation being 
 interpreted to mean that he has decided not to abandon. 
 
 No particular form or solemnity is required in giv- 
 ing notice of an abandonment. It may be given either 
 to the underwriter himself, or the agent who subscribed 
 for him. 
 
 "The effect of an abandonment is to vest all the 
 rights of the insured in the insurers. The latter be- 
 come the legal owners of the ship, and as such are lia- 
 ble for all her future outgoings, and entitled to her 
 future earnings. An abandonment, when once made, 
 is irrevocable. 
 
 " A total loss within the meaning of the policy may 
 arise either by the total destruction of the thing in- 
 sured, or, if it specifically remains, by such damage to 
 it as renders it of little or no value. A loss is said to 
 be total if the voyage be entirely lost or defeated, or 
 not worth pursuing, and the projected adventure frus- 
 trated. It is a constructive total loss if the thing in- 
 sured, though existing in fact, is lost for any beneficial 
 purpose to the owner. In such cases the insured may 
 abandon all his interest in the subject insured and all 
 his hopes of recovery to the insurer, and call upon him 
 to pay as for a total loss. The object of the provision 
 is to enable the insured to be promptly reinstated in 
 his capital, and be therebj' enabled to engage in some 
 new mercantile adventure. Long interruption to a 
 voyage, and uncertain hopes of recovery, would often be 
 ruinous to the business of the merchant; and therefore, 
 if the object of the voyage be lost, or not worth pursu- 
 ing by reason of the peril insured against, or if the car- 
 go be so damaged as to be of little or no value, or where 
 
ABA 
 
 3 
 
 ABA 
 
 the salvage ia very high and further expense be neces- 
 sary, and the insurer will not engage to bear it, or if 
 what is saved be of less value than the freight, or where 
 the damage exceeds one half the value of the goods in- 
 sured, or where the property is captured, or arrested, 
 or even detained bj' an indefinite embargo; in these 
 and other cases of a like nature the insured may disen- 
 tangle himself and abandon the subject to the under- 
 writer, and call upon him to pay a total loss. In such 
 cases the Insurer stands in the place of the insured, and 
 takes the subject to himself, with all the chances of re- 
 covery and indemnity. A valid abandonment has a 
 retrospective effect, and does of itself, and without any 
 deed of cession, and prior to the actual payment of the 
 loss, transfer the right of property to the insurer to the 
 extent of the Insurance; and if after an abandonment, 
 duly made and accepted, the ship should be recovered, 
 and proceed and make a prosperous voj'age, the in- 
 surer, as owner, would reap the profits. 
 
 "These considerations have introduced the right of 
 abandonment into the insurance law of every country, 
 and yet the text writers have generally condemned the 
 privilege as inconsistent with just notions concerning 
 the nature of the contract of insurance, which is a con- 
 tract of indemnity. But it has now become an ingre- 
 dient so interwoven with the whole system of insur- 
 ance, that it can not be abolished; though the late En- 
 glish cases, says Mr. Benecke, show a stronger inclina- 
 tion in the courts to restrict than to enlarge the right. 
 The laws of Hamburg distinguish themselves from all 
 others, by restricting the right of abandonment to the 
 only case of a missing ship. 
 
 "As soon as the insured is informed of the loss, he 
 ought (after being allowed a reasonable time to in- 
 spect the cargo, and for no other purpose) to determine 
 promptly whether he will or will not abandon, and he 
 can not lie by and speculate on events. If he elects to 
 abandon, he must do it in a reasonable time, and give 
 notice promptly to the insurer of his determination ; 
 otherwise he will be deemed to have waived his right 
 to abandon, and will be entitled to recover only for a 
 partial loss, unless the loss be, in fact, absolutely total. 
 If the thing insured exists in specie, and the insured 
 wishes to go for a total loss, an abandonment is indis- 
 pensable. The same principle which requires the in- 
 sured, who abandons, to do it in a reasonable time, also 
 requires the insurer, who rejects an abandonment, to 
 act promptly. The object of the abandonment is to 
 turn that into a total loss which otherwise would not 
 be one ; and it is unnecessary, and would be idle, to 
 abandon in the case of an entire destruction of the sub- 
 ject. It is only necessary when the loss is construct- 
 ively total within the policy, and not an actual total 
 loss. The right of abandonment does not depend upon 
 the certainty, but upon the high probability, of a total 
 loss, either of the property, or voyage, or both. The 
 insured is to act, not upon certainties, but upon proba- 
 bilities ; and if the facts present a case of extreme haz- 
 ard, and of probable expense, exceeding half the value 
 of the ship, the insured may abandon, though it should 
 happen that she was afterward recovered at a less ex- 
 pense. Though the subject may physically exist, yet 
 there may be a technical total loss to the owner if the 
 things be taken from his free use and possession. Such 
 are the common cases of total losses by embargoes, 
 by captures, and by restraints, and detainments of 
 princes. 
 
 " The right to abandon exists when the ship, for all 
 the useful purposes of the voyage, is gone from the 
 control of the owner ; as in the cases of submersion, or 
 shipwreck, or capture, and it is uncertain, or the time 
 unreasonably distant, when it will be restored in a 
 state to resume the voyage ; or when the risk and ex- 
 pense of restoring the vessel are disproportioned to the 
 expected benefit and objects of the voyage. All these 
 . general doctrines concerning abandonment have been 
 entirely incorporated into our American law, and they 
 
 exist to all essential purposes in the French jurispru- 
 dence. 
 
 " Upon a valid abandonment, either of the vessel or 
 of the cargo insured, the master becomes the agent of 
 the insurer, and the insured is not bound by his subse- 
 quent acts unless he adopts them. The owner or in- 
 sured, equally with the master, becomes the agent of 
 the insurer on abandonment, and he can not purchase 
 in the property on his own account mthout the con- 
 sent of his principals ; and if he does, it revokes the 
 abandonment, and turns the total into a partial loss. 
 It is the duty of the master, resulting from his situa- 
 tion, to act with good faith, and care, and diligence, 
 for the protection and recovery of the property', for the 
 benefit of whom it may eventually concern. The mas- 
 ter of an insured ship injured by the perils of the sea, 
 and not competent to complete the voyage, may sell 
 her in a case of necessity, as when the ship is in a place 
 in which she can not be repaired ; or the expense of 
 repairing her will be extravagant, and exceed her 
 value ; or when he has no money in his possession, and 
 is not able to raise any. In cases of capture, he is 
 bound, if a neutral, to remain and assert his claim un- 
 til condemnation, or the recovery be hopeless. His 
 wages, and those of the crew, are a charge on the 
 owner, and ultimatelj', in case of recovery, to be borne 
 as a general average by all parties in interest; and if 
 the abandonment be accepted, the underwriter becomes 
 owner for the voyage, and in that character liable for 
 the seamen's wages, and entitled to the freight subse- 
 quently earned. If the master purchases in the vessel, 
 or ransoms her, the insurer will be entitled to the ben- 
 efit of the purchase or composition ; and, on the other 
 hand, if the insured affirms the purchase of the master, 
 it will be, at the option of the insurer, a waiver of the 
 abandonment. The insurer can accept of the repur- 
 chase of the master, as his constructive agent, and 
 affirm the act, or he may leave it to fall upon the 
 master. 
 
 " The assured has the right of abandoning the freight 
 when there has been a constructive total loss of the 
 ship ; and he has sustained a total loss of the freight, 
 if he abandons the ship to the underwriters on the ship, 
 when the case justifies it, for after such abandonment, 
 he has no longer the means of earning the freight, or 
 of receiving it if earned, for the freight goes to the un- 
 derwriters on the ship. But it has been a very con- 
 troverted question, whether an abandonment of the 
 ship transferred the freight in whole or in part. It was 
 finally settled in the jurisprudence of New "iotk and of 
 Massachusetts, and adopted as the true rule in the Cir- 
 cuit Court of the United States for Massachusetts, that 
 on an accepted abandonment of the ship, the freight 
 earned previous to the disaster was to be retained by 
 the owner or his representative, the insurer on the 
 freight, and apportioned pro rata itineris; and that 
 the freight subsequently earned went to the insurer 
 on the ship." — See Kent's Comm., Lect. XLVIII. 
 vol. iii. 
 
 Abassi, or Abassis, a silver coin current in Per- 
 sia, equivalent in value to a French livre, or at present 
 tenpence sterling. It took its name from Schah Ab- 
 bas II., king of Persia, under whom it was struck. 
 
 Abatement, or Rebate, is the name sometimes 
 given to a discount allowed for prompt payment ; it is 
 also sometimes used to express the deduction that is 
 occasionally made at the custom-house from the duties 
 chargeable upon such goods as are damaged, and for 
 loss in warehouses. 
 
 Abattoir, the term applied by the French to desig- 
 nate slaughter-houses for cattle. These useful estab- 
 lishments were introduced into Paris and other large 
 cities by Napoleon. Formerly the multitude of ani- 
 mals slaughtered in Paris became a nuisance of great 
 magnitude to the inhabitants, from the exhibition of 
 the barbarities practiced on the poor animals by the 
 butchers, the piteous cries of sheep and cattle pent up, 
 
ABA < 
 
 without food or water, in tlie confined stalls in which 
 they were crowded, and from the offensive exhalations 
 of putrid blood and offal that proceeded from slaugh- 
 ter-houses, often planted in the most populous parts 
 of the city. The same nuisance, till lately, disgraced 
 the British metropolis, and many other English towns. 
 It appears hardly conceivable that London should, till 
 1852, have tolerated the nuisance of Smithfield market. 
 When this mart was established five centuries ago, it 
 was far beyond the precincts of the city. There, in the 
 midst of a dense population, no fewer than 243,537 head 
 of cattle, and 1,455,249 sheep were sold in 1852, to be 
 afterward slaughtered in the crowded lanes and ill- 
 ventilated courts of the metropolis ; while the French, 
 and the people of the United States, do not tolerate 
 such sources of disgust and disease in the interior of 
 their great towns. 
 
 The abattoirs of Paris, created by Napoleon's decree' 
 of 1810, amounted to five in 1818, when they were all 
 completed, and put under excellent regulation. There 
 are three on the north, and two on the south side of 
 Paris ; and all are in the outskirts of the town, about 
 two miles from its centre. The largest to the north is 
 in the Rue Rochechouart, between the Barrieres Pois- 
 sonnieres and des Martyres ; the largest on the south 
 side is just behind the Place Breteuil ; the resfare near 
 the banks of the Seine. The cattle-markets are all at 
 the distance of some miles from Paris ; and the cattle 
 are driven from them to the abattoirs, round by the ex- 
 ternal Boulevards, so as to avoid the streets as much as 
 possible. 
 
 Each butcher goes to his own abattoir ; to which are 
 attached proper places for preserving the meat, pro- 
 vided with an iron rack for the fat, pans for melting 
 the tallow, and stalls for the cattle before they are 
 slaughtered. The stalls are furnished with proper 
 racks and troughs for hay and water, that the animals 
 may suffer as little as possible before they are slaugh- 
 tered. The abattoirs and the whole establishment are 
 kept very clean by an abundant supply of water, that 
 carries off the blood and all impurities into sewers. 
 Considering the nature of the place, every thing is com- 
 mendably clean. 
 
 An inspector is appointed to each abattoir, whose 
 business it is to prevent the sale of unwholesome meat, 
 and to enforce order and cleanliness. For these accom- 
 modations a butcher pays according to the number of 
 animals he slaughters. The sum now paid for each ox 
 is six francs, four for a cow, two for a calf, and one for 
 a sheep or lamb. The money thus raised from all the 
 Parisian abattoirs in 1842 amounted to about £48,000 
 sterling. It is greatly to be wished that some regula- 
 tions like those of the French abattoirs were introduced 
 into the principal English towns, especially London, 
 Liverpool, Manchester, Glasgow, etc., as has lately 
 been done at Edinburgh. 
 
 In 1851, the corporation of Edinburgh constructed a 
 greatly improved abattoir in that city, from designs 
 prepared by Mr. David Cousin, the city architect. It 
 occupies an area of four acres and a quarter, surround- 
 ed by a screen-wall, with entrance gates on each side 
 in the Egj'ptian style of architecture ; behind the screen- 
 wall is a large open area, from which access is given to 
 all the different buildings connected ivitli the establish- 
 ment. The slaughtering booths consist of a double row 
 of buildings, extending in a straight line to about 376 
 feet in length, with a centre roadway 25 feet wide. 
 There are three separate blocks of building on each side 
 of the roadway, the extreme blocks being each 100 feet 
 in length, and the central one 140 feet, with cross-roads 
 18 feet wide between these, giving access to the other 
 portions of the grounds. The different ranges of build- 
 ing contain 42 booths in all; each booth is 18 feet 
 wide, 24 feet in length, and 20 feet in height, having a 
 cattle shed attached, 18 feet by 22 feet, and a small in- 
 closed yard behind, with a separate back entrance, by 
 which all the cattle are driven into the sheds, where 
 
 ACA 
 
 they are kept previously to being slaughtered. By a 
 series of large ventilators along the roof, and by other 
 contrivances, these buildings are thoroughly venti- 
 lated. The large doors of the booths, instead of being 
 hinged in the usual manner, are hung by balance 
 weights, so as to slide up and down similarly to an 
 ordinary sash-window, so that they never interfere 
 with the operations within, or with the thoroughfare 
 of the road. 
 
 Improved mechanical contrivances have been intro- 
 duced, some of them of a novel application, which have 
 secured great facilities in the dressing and prepara- 
 tion of the meat. Each booth is amply provided with 
 water. In addition to the slaughtering booths, there 
 is large accommodation for triperies, pig-slaughtering 
 houses, tallow-weighing houses, and all the other nec- 
 essaries of such an establishment. 
 
 The whole of the booths have been laid with thick, 
 well-dressed pavement, resting on a stratum of con- 
 crete twelve inches thick, and the walls to the height 
 of seven feet are formed of solid ashler, so as to prevent 
 the possibility of rats burrowing in them. With this 
 view also, the whole surface of the roadways has been 
 laid with concrete and causewayed with well-dressed 
 whinstone pavement. The drainage, also, consists en- 
 tirely of glazed earthen-ware tiles, so that the whole 
 area of the buildings is rendered impervious to these 
 destructive vermin. There are two distinct sets of 
 drains, one for surface water, which is conveyed direct- 
 ly into Lochrin burn ; the other for soil from the booths, 
 which is conveyed into large tanks formed for its recep- 
 tion, and sold for agricultural purposes. 
 
 Before the erection of these buildings, private slaugh- 
 ter-houses were scattered all over the city, often in 
 the most populous districts, where, through want of 
 drainage and imperfect ventilation, they contamina- 
 ted the whole neighborhood. Since the opening of the 
 public abattoir, all private slaughter-houses are pro- 
 hibited. 
 
 Aboard, the inside of a ship. Hence any person 
 who enters a ship is said to go aboard: but when an 
 enemy enters in the time of battle, he is said to hoard; 
 a phrase which always implies hostility. — To fall 
 aboard oj, is to strike or encounter another ship Mhen 
 one or both are in motion, or to be driven upon a ship 
 by the force of the wind or current. — A board-Tnain-iackj 
 the order to draw the main-tack, i, e. the lower comer 
 of the mainsail, down to the Chess-Tkeb. 
 
 Abrasion is sometimes used to denote the wear and 
 tear of coins. The deficiency in the weight of the old 
 worn coins, on their being called in to be recoined, falls 
 upon the public. Mr. M'Culloch reckons, that if the cur- 
 rency of the United Kingdom consisted wholly of gold, 
 it would amount to at least sixty millions of sovereigns, 
 and that the loss sustained by abrasion, including what 
 results from shipwreck, fire, and other accidents, would 
 amount to a hundredth part of the sum in circulation, 
 or £600,000 annually .^M'Chlloch's Treatises and 
 Essays on Economical Policy^ p. 33, 
 
 Acacia, Egyptian Thorn, or Binding Bean- 
 tree, in Botany, a species of mimosa, according to Lin- 
 nteus, though other botanists make it a distinct genus. 
 Several species of acacia produce gum arable, especially 
 A . Ekrenbergii, A . tortilis, A . arabica, A. vera, A. Seyal, 
 A. Verek. An inferior sort is produced by A. Adan- 
 sonii, A. aMda, and A. Karro. These are natives of 
 Egypt, Arabia, or Africa. The inspissated gum of 
 the bark of A . catechu forms the astringent substance 
 named catechu; which, however, is also produced in 
 India from several other trees. The bark of several 
 species of acacia produces a tannin ; of which a large 
 quantity is now imported from Van Diemen's Land 
 for the purposes of the tanner, and is chiefly the prod- 
 uce of ^. decurrens and A. mollissima. 
 
 A.julibrissin, a native of Persia, has, on account of 
 its elegant foliage and flowers, been long acclimated in 
 England; A. sophora is a fragrant species, that has 
 
ACA 
 
 ACI 
 
 more lately been introduced, and is nearly acclimated 
 In the south of our island. It flowers early in spring, 
 and bears many clusters of rich yellow flowers. The 
 flowers of a species of the acacia are used by the Chi- 
 nese in making that yellow which we see bears wash- 
 ing in their silks and stufl's, and appears with so much 
 elegance in their painting on paper. The method is 
 this : They gather the flowers before they are fully 
 open ; these they put in a clean earthen vessel over a 
 gentle heat, and stir them continually about as they do 
 the tea-leaves, till they become dryish and of a yellow 
 color ; then to half a pound of flowers they add three 
 spoonfuls of fair water, and after that a little more, till 
 there is just enough to hold the flowers incorporated to- 
 gether ; they boil this for some time, and the juice of 
 the flowers mixing with the water, it becomes thick 
 and yellow ; they then take it from the fire, and strain 
 it through a piece of coarse silk. To the liqnor they 
 add half an ounce of common alum, and an ounce of 
 calcined oyster-shells reduced to a fine powder. All 
 is then well mixed together ; and this is the fine last- 
 ing yellow they have so long used. 
 
 The dyers of large pieces use the flowers and s^eds 
 of the acacia for dyeing three different sorts of yellow. 
 They roast the flowers, as before observed, and then 
 mix the seeds with them, which must be gathered for 
 this purpose when fully ripe ; by different admixtures 
 of these they give the! different shades of color, onl3''f6r 
 the deepest of all they add a small quantity of Brazil 
 wood. 
 
 Mr. Geoffroy attributes the origin of bezoar to the 
 seeds of this plant; which being browsed by certain 
 animals, and vellicating the stomach by their great 
 great sourness and astringency, cause a condensation 
 of the juices, till at length they become coated over 
 with a stony matter which we call Bezoar. 
 
 Acapillco, a sea-port on the western coast of Mex- 
 ico, in lat. 16° 60' 29" N., long. 99° 46' W. Pop. 4000 (?). 
 " It is," says Captain Hall, " the very beau ideal of a 
 harbor. It is easy of access, very capacious, the water 
 not too deep, the holding ground good, quite free from 
 hidden dangers,* and as secure as the basin in the cen- 
 tre of Portsmouth dock-yard." — South America, ii. 172. 
 Previously to the emancipation of Spanish America, a 
 galleon, or large ship, richly laden, was annually sent 
 from Acapulco to Manilla, in the Philippine Islands, 
 and at her return a fair was held, which was much re- 
 sorted to by strangers. But this sort of intercourse is 
 no longer carried on, the trade to Manilla and all other 
 places being now conducted by private individuals. 
 The exports consist of bullion, cochineal, cocoa, indigo, 
 etc. The imports principally consist of cotton goods, 
 hardware, articles of jewelry, raw and wrought silks, 
 spices, and aroniatics. Acapulco, for foreigners, is ex- 
 tremely unhealthy ; and though it be one of the prin- 
 cipal ports on the west coast of Mexico, its commerce 
 is but inconsiderable. The navigation from Acapulco 
 to Guayaquil and Callao is exceedingly tedious and 
 difficult, so that there is but little intercourse between 
 Mexico and Peru, Panama having of late years be- 
 come the leading port for foreign imports near this lat- 
 itude. 
 
 Account, or Accompt, in a general senses com- 
 putation or reckoning of any thing by numbers. Col- 
 lectively, it is used to express the books which mer- 
 chants, traders, bankers, etc., use for recording their 
 transactions in business. 
 
 Accountant, or Accomptant, in the most gen- 
 eral sense, is a person skilled in accounts. ■ In a more 
 restricted sense, it is applied to a person or officer ap- 
 pointed to keep the accounts of a public company or 
 office. 
 
 Accountant-General, an officer in the English 
 
 * This Is not quite accurate. There is one shoal on which a 
 vcBSOl was lost In 1781 ; hut being laid down in the charts, it 
 is easily avoided — Humboldt, Xmvelle Espagne, Iv. 90. 
 
 Court of Chancery, appointed by act of Parliament to 
 receive all moneys lodged in court, instead of the mas- 
 ters, and convey the same to the Bank of England for 
 security. There is also an accountant-general in the 
 Irish Chancery, and one in Scotland, who has charge 
 of the accounts of the Court of Session. 
 
 Accounts, Chamber of, in the French polity, a 
 sovereign court of great antiquity, which took cogni- 
 zance of and registered the accounts of the king's rev- 
 enue; nearly the same with the English Court of Ex- 
 chequer. 
 
 Acids are a class of compounds whieh are distin- 
 guished from all others by the following properties : 
 'fhey are generally possessed of a very sharp and sour 
 taste ; redden the infusions' of blue vegetable colors ; 
 are often highly corrosive, and enter into combination 
 with the alkalies, earths, and metallic oxides ; forming 
 compounds in which the characters of the constituents 
 are entirely destroyed, and new ones produced difi'er- 
 ing in every respect from those previously existing. 
 The quality or strength of an acid is generally ascer- 
 tained either by its specific gravity, which is found by 
 means of the hydrometer, if the acid beliquid, or by the 
 quantity of pure and dry subcarbonate of potass or 
 soda, or of carbonate of lime (marble)^ which a given 
 weight of the acid requires for its exact neutralization. 
 This latter process is termed Acidimetry, or the ascer- 
 taining the quantity of real acid existing in any of the 
 liquid or crystallized acids. . 
 
 The principal acids at present known are, the Acetic, 
 Benzoic, Boracic, Bromic, Carbonic, Citric, Chloric, 
 Cyanic, Fluoric, Ferroprussic, Gallic, Hydrobromic, 
 Hydriodic, Iodic, Lactic, Malic, Margaric, Meconic, 
 Muriatic or Hydrochloric, Nitrous, Nitric, Oleic, Ox- 
 alic, Phosphoric, Prussic or Hydrocyanic, Purpuric, 
 Saccholactic, Suljeric, Sulphurousr, Sulphuric, Tartaric, 
 Uric, and many others which it would be superfluous 
 to detail. It is the most important only of these, how- 
 ever, that will be here treated of, and more particularly 
 those employed in the arts and manufactures. 
 
 Acetic or pyroligneoua Acid. — This acid, in its pure 
 and concentrated form, is obtained from the fluid mat- 
 ter which passes over in distillation, when wood is ex- 
 posed to heat in close iron cylinders. This fluid is a 
 mixture of acetic acid, tar, and a very volatile ether; 
 from these the acid may be separated, after a second 
 distillation, by Saturating with chalk; and evaporating 
 to dryness ; an acetate of lime is thus procured, which, 
 by mixture with sulphate of soda (Glauber's salt), is 
 decomposed, the resulting compounds being an insolu- 
 ble sulphate of lime, and a very soluble acetate of soda ; 
 these are easily separated from each other by solution 
 in water and filtration ; the acetate of soda being ob- 
 tained in the crystalline form by evaporation. From 
 this, or the acetate of lime, some manufacturers em- 
 ploying the former, others the latter, the acetic acid is 
 obtained by distillation with sulphuric acid (oil of vit- 
 riol); as thus procured, it is a colorless, volatile fluid, 
 having a very pungent and refreshing odor, and a 
 strong acid taste. Its strength should be ascertained 
 by the quantity of marble required for its neutraliza- 
 tion, as its specific gravity does not give a correct indi- 
 cation. It is employed in the preparation of the ace- 
 tate of lead (sugar of lead), in many of the pharma- 
 ceutical compounds, and also as an antiseptic. 
 
 Vinegar is an impure and very dilute acetic acid, 
 obtained by exposing either weak wines or infusions 
 of malt to the air and a slow fermentation ; it contains, 
 besides the pure acid, a large quantity of coloring mat- 
 ter, some mucilage, and a little spirit; from these it is 
 readily separated by distillation. The impurities with 
 Which this distilled vinegar is sometimes adulterated, 
 or with which it is accidentally contaminated, are oil 
 of vitriol, added to increase the acidity, and oxides of 
 tin or copper, arising from the vinegar having been 
 distilled through tin or copjper worms. These may be 
 easily detected ; the oil of vitriol by the addition of a 
 
ACI 6 
 
 little solution of muriate of barytes to the distilled vin- 
 egar, -whicli, should the acid be present, will cause a 
 dense white precipitate ; and the oxides of tin or cop- 
 per by the addition of water impregnated with sulphu- 
 reted hydrogen. Vinegar is employed in many culina- 
 ry and domestic operations, and also very largely in the 
 manufacture of the carbonate of lead (white-lead). 
 
 Benzoic A cid exists naturally formed in the gum ben- 
 zoin, and may be procured either by submitting the ben- 
 zoin in fine powder to repeated sublimations, or by di- 
 gesting it with lime and water, straining off the clear 
 solution, and adding muriatic acid, which enters into 
 combination with the lime, and the benzoic acid, being 
 nearly insoluble in water, falls as a white powder ; this 
 may be further purified by a sublimation. Benzoic 
 acid is of a beautiful pearly white color when pure, has 
 a very peculiar aromatic odor, and an acrid, acid, and 
 bitter taste ; it is used in making pastilles and per- 
 fumed incense. This acid also occurs in the balsams 
 of Tolil and Peru, and in the urine of the horse and 
 cow. 
 
 Boracic Acid is found in an uncombiued state in 
 many of the hot springs of Tuscany, as also at Sesso, in 
 the Florentine territory, from whence it has received 
 the name of Sessolin. In Thibet, Persia, and South 
 America, it occurs in combination with soda, and is 
 imported from the former place into this country in a 
 crystalline form, under the name of Tincal. These 
 crystals are coated with a rancid, fatty substance, and 
 require to be purified by repeated solutions and crystal- 
 lizations; after which it is sold under the appellation 
 of borax (biborate of soda) ; from a hot solution of this 
 salt the boracic acid is readily obtained, by the addi- 
 tion of sulphuric acid in slight excess ; sulphate of soda 
 is formed, and the boracic acid crystallizes as the solu- 
 tion cools. When pure, these crystals are white, and 
 have an unctuous greasy feel ; they are soluble in alco- 
 hol, communicating a green tinge to its flame; when 
 fused it forms a transparent glass, and has been found 
 by Mr, Faraday to unite with the oxide of lead, pro- 
 ducing a very uniform glass, free from all defects, and 
 well adapted for the purpose of telescopes and other as- 
 tronomical instruments. Borax is much employed in 
 the arts, particularly in metallurgic operations as a 
 flux ; also in enameliug and in pharmacy. (See Bo- 
 
 KAX,) 
 
 Carbonic Acid. — This acid occurs very abundantly 
 in nature, combined with lime, magnesia, barytes, 
 aerial acid, fixed air, mephitic acid : from any of these 
 it is easily separated by the addition of nearly any of 
 the other acids. In its uncombined form it is a trans- 
 parent, gaseous fluid, having a density of 1'53, atmos- 
 pheric air being unity ; it is absorbed to a considerable 
 extent by water, and when the water is rendered slight- 
 ly alkaline by the addition of carbonate of soda, and a 
 large quantity of gas forced into it by pressure, it forms 
 the well-known refreshing beverage soda water. This 
 gas is also formed in very large quantities during com- 
 bustion, respiration, and fermentation. Carbonic acid 
 gas is destructive of animal life and combustion, and 
 from its great weight accumulates in the bottoms of 
 deep wells, cells, caves, etc, which have been closed for 
 a long period, and numerous fatal accidents arise fre- 
 quently to persons entering such places incautiously. 
 The precaution should always be taken of introducing a 
 lighted candle prior to the descent or entrance of any 
 one ; for, should the candle be extinguished, it would be 
 dangerous to enter until properly ventilated. The com- 
 binations of carbonic acid with the alkalies, earths, and 
 metallic oxides are termed carbonates. 
 
 Citric Acid exists in a free state in the juice of the 
 lemon, lime, and other fruits, combined, however, with 
 mucilage, and sometimes a little sugar, which renders 
 it, if required to be presei-ved for a long period, very 
 liable to ferment ; on this account the crystallized citric 
 acid is to be preferred. It is prepared by saturating 
 the lemon juice with chalk; the citric acid combines 
 
 ACI 
 
 with the lime, forming an insoluble compound, while 
 the carbonic acid is liberated; the insoluble citrate, 
 after being well washed, is to be acted upon by dilute 
 sulphuric acid, which forms sulphate of lime, and the 
 citric acid enters into solution in the water; by filtra- 
 tion and evaporation the citric acid is obtained in col- 
 orless transparent crystals. The chief uses to which it 
 is applied are as a preventive of sea scurvy, and in 
 making refreshing acidulous or effervescing drinks; 
 for which latter purposes it is peculiarly fitted from its 
 very pleasant flavor. 
 
 Fluoric Add is found in the well-known mineral 
 fluor spar in combination with lime ; from which it is 
 procured in the liquid form by distillation with dilute 
 sulphuric acid in a leaden or silver retort : the receiver 
 should be of the same material as the retort, and kept 
 cool by ice or snow. 
 
 This acid is gaseous in its pure form, highly corro- 
 sive, and intensely acid ; it is rapidly absorbed by "wa- 
 ter, communicating its properties to that fluid. Its 
 chief use is for etching on glass, which it corrodes with 
 great rapidity. For this purpose a thin coating of wax 
 is to be melted on the surface of the glass, and the 
 sketch drawn by a fine hard-pointed instrument through 
 the wax ; the liquid acid is then poured on it, and after 
 a short time, on the removal of the acid and coating, 
 an etching will be found in the substance of the glass. 
 A very excellent application of this property, possessed 
 , by fluoric acid, is in the roughing the sbades for table 
 lamps. All the metals, except silver, lead, and platina, 
 are acted upon by this acid. 
 
 Gallic Acid. — The source from which this acid is 
 generally obtained is the nut-gall, a hard protuberance 
 produced on the oak by the puncture of insects. The 
 most simple method of procuring the acid in its pure 
 form is to submit the galls in fine powder to sublima- 
 tion in a retort, taking care that the heat be applied 
 slowly and with caution ; the other processes require a 
 very long period for their completion. When pure, 
 gallic acid has a white and silky appearance, and a 
 highly astringent and slightly acid taste. The nut- 
 galls, which owe their properties to the gallic acid they 
 contain, are employed very extensively in the arts for 
 dyeing and staining silks, cloths, and woods of a black 
 color; this is owing to its forming with the oxide of 
 iron an intense black precipitate. Writing-ink is made 
 on the same principle ; a very excellent receipt of the 
 late Dr. Black's is, to take 3 ounces of the best Aleppo 
 galls in fine powder, 1 ounce sulphate of iron (green 
 vitriol), 1 ounce of logwood finely rasped, 1 ounce of 
 gum arable, 1 pint of the best vinegar, 1 pint of soft 
 water, and 8 or 10 cloves; in this case the black pre- 
 cipitate is kept suspended by the gum. 
 
 Bydriedic Acid is a compound of iodine and hy- 
 drogen. In its separate form it is of very little import- 
 ance in the arts. 
 
 ilalic Acid exists in the juices of many fruits, par- 
 ticularly the apple, as also in the berries of the sei-vice 
 and mountain ash. 
 
 Mecmic A cid is found in opium, in combination with 
 morphia, forming the meconate of morphia, on which 
 the action of opium principally depends. 
 
 Muriatic A cid, or Spirits of Saks. — This acid (the hy- 
 drochloric of the French chemists) is manufactured 
 from the chloride of sodium (dry sea salt), by the action 
 of sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol). The most economical 
 proportions are 20 pounds of fused salt, and 20 pounds 
 of oil of vitriol previously mixed with an equal weight 
 of water; these are placed in an iron or earthen pot, to 
 which an earthen head and receiver are adapted and 
 submitted to distillation ; the muriatic acid passes over 
 in the vaporous form, and may be easily condensed. 
 The liquid acid thus obtained should have a specific 
 gravity of 117, water being equal to 100; it has a 
 strong acid taste, and a slight yellow color; this is ow- 
 ing to a small quantity of oxide of iron. By redistil- 
 lation in a glass retort at a low temperature, it may be 
 
Aci : 
 
 obtained perfectly pure and colorless. It Bometimes 
 contains a little sulphuric acid; this is detected by 
 a solution of muriate of barytes. Muriatic acid, in 
 its uncombined state, is an invisible elastic gas,vhav- 
 ing a very strong affinitj' for water ; that fluid absorb- 
 ing, at a temperature of 40° Fahrenheit^480 times its 
 volume, and the resulting liquid acid has a density 
 of 121. So great is this attraction for water, that 
 when the gas is liberated into the air, it combines 
 with the moisture always present in that medium, 
 forming dense white vapors. Its combinations with 
 the alkalies, etc., are termed muriates ; those of the 
 greatest importance are the muriates of tin, ammonia, 
 barytes, and sea salt. The test for the presence of 
 muriatic acid in any liquid is the nitrate of silver 
 (lunar caustic), which causes a curdy white precipi- 
 tate. 
 
 Nitric Acid, or Aquafortis. — This, which is one of the 
 most useful acids with which the chemist is acquaint- 
 ed, is prepared by acting upon saltpetre (nitric or ni- 
 trate of potass) with oil of vitriol : the proportions best 
 suited for this purpose are three parts, by weight, of ni- 
 tre, and two of oil of vitriol ; or 100 nitre, and 60 oil of 
 vitriol previously diluted with 20 of water : either of 
 these proportions will produce » very excellent acid. 
 When submitted to distillation, which should be con- 
 ducted in earthen or glass vessels, the nitric acid passes 
 over in the form of vapor, and a bisulphate of potass 
 (sal mixum) remains in the retort. 
 
 (Nitric acid of commerce has usually a dark orange- 
 red color, giving off copious fumes, and having a spe- 
 cilio gravity of 160, water being 100. It is strongly 
 acid and highly corrosive. It may be obtained perfect- 
 ly colorless by a second distillation, rejecting the first 
 portion that passes over. It is much employed in the 
 arts for etching on copper- plates for engraving ; also, 
 for the separation of silver from gold in the process of 
 quartation. In pharmacy and surgery it is extensive- 
 ly used, and is employed for destroying contagious ef- 
 fluvia. Combined with muriatic acid, it forms aqua 
 regia (nitro-muriatic acid), used as a solvent for gold, 
 platina, etc. This acid is frequently contaminated 
 with the muriatic and sulphuric acids ; these may be 
 detected by the following methods : A portion of the 
 suspected acid should be diluted with three or four 
 times its volume of distilled water, and divided into 
 two glasses ; to one of which nitrate of silver (lunar 
 caustic) in solution is to be added, and to the other ni- 
 trate of barytes: if muriatic acid be present, a white 
 curdy precipitate will bfe thrown down by the former ; 
 and if sulphuric, a white granular precipitate by the 
 latter. 
 
 Oxalic Acid occurs in combination with potass as 
 binoxalate of potass in the different varieties of sorrel, 
 from whence the binoxalate of potass has been termed 
 salt of sorrel. This acid is usually prepared by the 
 action of nitric acid upon sugar, evaporating the solu- 
 tion, after the action has ceased, to the consistence of a 
 sirup, and redissolving and recrystallizing the crystals 
 which are thus procured. 
 
 It is sold in small white acicular crystals, of a strong- 
 ly acid taste and highly poisonous, and sometimes in 
 its external appearance bears a strong similarity to 
 Epsom salts (sulphate of magnesia), which it has been 
 unfortunately frequently mistaken for. It is instantly 
 distinguished from Epsom salts by placing a small 
 crystal upon the tongue ; when its strong acid taste, 
 compared with the nauseous bitter of the sulphate of 
 magnesia, will be quite a sufficient criterion. In cases 
 of poisoning, however, by this acid, lime or chalk, 
 mixed with water to form a cream, should be immedi- 
 ately administered, the combinations of oxalic acid 
 with these substances being perfectly inert. It is em- 
 ployed in removing ink-stains, iron-moulds, etc;, from 
 linen and leather ; the best proportions for these pur- 
 poses are 1 ounce of the acid to a pint of water. The 
 most delicate test of the presence of oxalic acid is a salt 
 
 ACI 
 
 of lime or lime-water, with either of which it fonns a 
 white precipitate, insoluble in water, but soluble in 
 acids. Its combinations are termed oxalates. 
 
 Phosphoric Acid is of very little importance in a 
 commercial point of view, except as forming with lime 
 the earth of bones (phosphate of lime). It is prepared 
 by heating bones to whiteness in a furnace ; from this 
 phosphoric acid is obtained by the action of sulphuric 
 acid, still combined, however, with a small quantity of 
 lime. The action of nitric acid upon phosphorus, the 
 latter being added gradually and in small pieces, yields 
 this acid in a state of purity : its combinations are 
 termed phosphates. 
 
 Prussic A cid, or Hydrocyanic A cid. — This acid, which 
 is the most virulent and poisonous acid known, is con- 
 tained in peach blossoms, bay leaves, and many other 
 vegetable productions, which owe their peculiar odor to 
 the presence of prussic acid. For the purposes of med- 
 icine and chemistry, this acid is prepared either by dis- 
 tilling one part of the cyanuret of mercury, one part of 
 muriatic acid of specific gravity 1-15, and six parts of 
 water, six parts of prussic acid being collected | or, by 
 dissolving a certain weight of cyanuret of mercury, 
 and passing a current of sulphureted hydrogen through 
 the solution, until the whole of the mercurj' shall be 
 precipitated; if an excess of sulphureted hydrogen 
 should be present, a little carbonate of lead (white 
 lead) will remove it; on filtering, a colorless prussic 
 acid will be obtained. By the first process, which is 
 the one followed at Apothecaries' Hall, the acid has a 
 density of 995, water being equal to 1000 ; by the latter, 
 it may be procured of any required strength, depend- 
 ing on the quantity of cyanuret of mercury dissolved. 
 The best test for the presence of this acid is, first to add 
 a small quantity of the protosnlphate of iron (solution 
 of green vitriol), then a little solution of potassa, and, 
 lastly, diluted sulphuric acid ; if prussic acid be present, 
 Prussian blue will be formed. Its combinations are 
 called prussiates or hydrocyanates ; when in its con- 
 centrated form, it is so rapid in its effects that large 
 animals have been killed in the short space of 80 sec- 
 onds, or from a minute to a minute and a half. 
 
 Sulphurous Acidis formed whenever sulphur is burned 
 in atmospheric air; it is a suffocating and pungent 
 gas, strongly acid, bleaches vegetable colors with great 
 rapidity, and arrests the process of vinous fermenta- 
 tion. For these purposes it is therefore very much 
 employed, especially in bleaching woolen goods and 
 straws. Fermentation may be immediately arrested 
 by burning a small quantity of sulphur in casks, and 
 then racking off the wine while still fermenting into 
 them ; this frequently gives the wine a veiy unpleas- 
 ant taste of sulphur, which is avoided by the use of sul- 
 phate of potass, made by impregnating a solution of 
 potass with sulphurous acid gas. 
 
 Sulphuric Acid, or Oil of Vitriol, called oil of vitriol 
 from its having been formerly manufactured from green 
 vitriol (sulphate of iron). In some parts of the Con- 
 tinent this process is still followed. The method gen- 
 erally adopted in this country is to introduce nine parts 
 of sulphur, intimately mixed with one part of nitre, in 
 a state of active combustion, into large leaden cham- 
 bers, the bottoms of which are covered with a stratum 
 of water. Sulphurous and nitrous acid gases are gen- 
 erated, which, entering into combination, form a white 
 crystalline solid, which falls to the bottom of the cham- 
 ber ; the instant that the water comes in contact with 
 it, this solid is decomposed with a hissing noise and ef- 
 fervescence, sulphuric acid combines with the water, 
 and nitrous gas is liberated, which, combining witli 
 oxygen from the air of the chamber, is converted into 
 nitrous acid gas, again combines with sulphurous aci<t, 
 gas, and again falls to the bottom of the chambeir:: 
 this process continues as long as the combustion of the- 
 sulphur is kept up, or as long as atmospheric air re- 
 mains in the chamber ; the nitrous acid merely serving: 
 as a means for the transference of oxygen fiom-the at- 
 
AGO 
 
 mosphere to the sulphurous acid to convert it Into sul- 
 phuric acid. The water is removed from the cham- 
 ber when of a certain strength, and replaced by fresh. 
 These acid waters are then evaporated in leaden boil- 
 ers, and finally concentrated in glass or platina vessels. 
 As thus manufactured, sulphuric acid is a dense oily 
 fluid, colorless, intensely acid, and highly corrosive, 
 and has a specific gravity of 1846, water being equal 
 to 1000. This acid is the most important with which 
 we are acquainted ; it is employed in the manufacture 
 of the nitric, muriatic, acetic, phosphoric, citric, tartar- 
 ic,, and "many other acids ; also in the preparation of 
 chlorine, for the manufacture of the bleaching powder 
 (oxymuriate of lime, or chloride of lime), for the prep- 
 aration of sulphate of mercury, in the manufacture of 
 calomel and corrosive sublimate, and in innumerable 
 other chemical manufactures. In the practice of physic 
 it is also very much employed. It usually contains a 
 little oxide of lead, which is readily detected by dilut- 
 ing the acid with about four times its volume of wa- 
 ter, and allowing the sulphate of lead to subside. Its 
 combinations are denominated sulphates. The fuming 
 sulphuric acid, as manufactured at Nordhausen, con- 
 tains only one half the quantity of water in its compo- 
 sition. 
 
 Tartaric Acid. — This acid is procured from the cream 
 of tartar (bitartrate of potass), obtained by purifying the 
 crust which separates during the fermentation of wines 
 by solution and crystallization. .When this purified bi- 
 tartrate is dissolved, and lime or carbonate of lime add- 
 ed, an insoluble tartrate of lime falls, which, after wash- 
 ing, should be acted upon by sulphuric acid; sulphate 
 of lime is thus formed, and the tartaric acid enters into 
 solution, and may be obtained by evaporation and crys- 
 tallization. It is employed very much in the arts, in 
 calico-printing, as also in making efiervescing draughts 
 and powders in pharmacy. 
 
 Uric Acid is an animal acid of very little import- 
 ance, except in a scientific point of view : it exists in 
 the excrement of serpents to the amount of 95 per cent., 
 and forms the basis of many of the urinary calculi and 
 gravel. 
 
 Acorn, in sea language, a little omamental piece of 
 wood fashioned like a cone, and fixed on the uppermost 
 point of the spindle, above the vane, on the mast-head. 
 It is used to keep the vane from being blown off from 
 the spindle in a whirlwind, or when the ship leans much 
 to one side under sail. 
 
 Acorns (Ger. Eicheln, Jichern; Fr. Glands; It. 
 Ghiajide ; Sp. Bellotas ; Eus. Schedudii ; Lat. Glandes)^ 
 the seed or fruit of the oak. Acorns formed a part of 
 the food of man in early ages, and frequent allusion is 
 made in the classics to this circumstance (Virgil, 
 Georg. lib. i. lin. 8 ; Ovid, Met. lib. i. lin. 106, etc.). 
 In some countries they are still used, in periods of 
 scarcity, as a substitute for bread. With us they are 
 now rarely used except for fattening hogs and poultry. 
 They are said to make, when toasted, with the addition 
 of a little fresh butter, one of the best substitutes for 
 coffee. Their taste is astringent and bitter. 
 
 Acre, a measure of superficies, and the principal 
 denomination of land-measure in use throughout the 
 whole of Great Britain and the United States. The 
 word (formed from the Saxon acher, or the German 
 aker.^ a field) did not originally signify a determinate 
 quantity of land, but any open ground, especially a 
 wide campaign ; and in this antique sense it seems to 
 be preserved in the names of places ; as. Castle-acre, 
 West-acre, etc. The standard acre is formed by rais- 
 ing a square of which the basis is the chain of 66 feet, 
 or 22 yards, or l-80th of a mile ; and ten of these 
 squares form the acre, which thus contains 4840 square 
 yards. This is divided into roods, of which there are 
 four in the acre ; and into poles or perches, of which 
 there are 40 in each rood, or 160 in the acre. The 
 rood will thus measure 1210 square yards, and the pole 
 30^ square yards, according to the following table, 
 
 8 ADA 
 
 which contains also other denominations useful to be 
 compared with the acre : 
 
 Inches.* 
 
 Linki. 
 
 
 
 62-726 
 
 1 
 
 Poet. 
 
 
 
 144 
 
 2-295 
 
 1 
 
 Yorde. 
 
 Polei 
 
 or 
 Perch. 
 
 
 12% 
 
 20-661 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 39204 
 
 626 
 
 272i 
 
 80} 
 
 1 
 
 ChalDs. 
 
 
 
 627264 
 
 10000 
 
 4356 
 
 484 
 
 16 
 
 1 
 
 Roods. 
 
 
 1568160 
 
 25000 
 
 10890 
 
 1210 
 
 40 
 
 2i 
 
 1 
 
 Acre. 
 
 6272640 
 
 100000 
 
 43560 
 
 4840 
 
 160 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 The following table contains the principal foreign 
 land-measures, with their equivalents in acres : 
 
 Acres. Roods. Perches. 
 
 France, Are S-9538 
 
 Hectare 2 1 35.38 
 
 " Arpent, great 1 1 1*92 
 
 " Arpent, small 3 15.18 
 
 Amsterdam, Morgen 2 1-38 
 
 Berlin, Morgen, large 1 1 24*32 
 
 Movgen, small .'. 2 20-96 
 
 Dantzic, Morgen -. 1 1 19-99 
 
 Hamburg, Morgen 2 1 21-64 
 
 " Scheflfel of coi-n land 1 6- 
 
 Nuremberg, Morgen, com land 1 26-90 
 
 " Morgen, meadow 2 4-09 
 
 Hanover, Morgen 2 22-47 
 
 Prussia, Morgen 2 20-92 
 
 Khineland, Morgen 2 16-69 
 
 Zurich, Acre, common 3 8-11 
 
 " Acre.wood 3 22-35 
 
 " Acre, meadow 2 33-88 
 
 Saxony, Acre 1 1 17-85 
 
 Spain, Fauegada, for com land . 1 21-81 
 
 " An-anzada, for vineyards 8 82-82 
 
 Kussia, Dessetina 2 2 31-95 
 
 Sweden, Tuneland 1 86-04 
 
 Switzerland, Faux 1 2 19-66 
 
 Tuscany, Quadrate 3 14-67 
 
 Vienna, Joch 1 1 27 -73 
 
 Naples, Moggia 3 12-16 
 
 Rome, Pezza 2 24-40 
 
 Portugal, Gcira 1 1 30-41 
 
 In the United States of America the imperial acre is used. 
 The Roman jugerum was somewhat larger than half an impe- 
 rial acre, containing 2 roods, 19 perches, 189 square feet. Two 
 jugera foimed a heredium, so called from its being the quan- 
 tity of land originally assigned to each Roman citizen ; a hun- 
 dred heredia formed a centuria, and four centuriee a saltus. 
 The Greek plethron consisted of 4 aruraj, andwasequaito37 
 perches, 153 square feet. 
 
 Action, in Commerce, is a term used abroad for a 
 certain part or share of a public company's capital 
 stock. Thus, if a company has 400,000 livres capital 
 stock, this may be divided into 400 actions, each con- 
 sisting of 1000 livres. 
 
 Actuary, a person skilled in the doctrine of life 
 annuities and insurances, and who is competent to give 
 opinions upon all cases involving annuities, reversions, 
 etc. An actuary sometimes combines with the profes- 
 sional duties of a scientific adviser those of a secretary, 
 in all matters involving calculation, upon which it may 
 be supposed that the members of the board are not gen- 
 erally conversant. 
 
 Adarcon, or Daric, dpaxjJ-ri, the most ancient gold 
 coin of which any specimens have been preserved to 
 the present day. It was the earliest coined money 
 known among the Jews ; the Impression on the coin is 
 a crowned archer, in a garb such as is seen in the 
 sculptures of Persepolis. The specimens weighed by 
 Dr. Bernard were fifteen grains heavier than the En- 
 glish guinea; their intrinsic value Riay therefore be 
 reckoned at twenty-five shillings sterling. — Eckhel, 
 Doctrina Nummorum, Veterum; Bernard, BeMensuris 
 et Ponderibus. 
 
 Adarme, in Commerce, u. small weight in Spain, 
 which is also used at Buenos Ayres, and in all Spanish 
 America. It is the 16th part of an ounce, which at 
 Paris is called the dend-gros. But the Spanish ounce 
 
ADA 
 
 9 
 
 ADE 
 
 is seven per cent, lighter than that of Paris. Stephens 
 renders it in English by a drachm. 
 
 Adatais, Adatis, or Adatys, in Commerce, a 
 muslin or cotton cloth, very fine and clear, of which 
 the piece is ten French ells long, and three quarters 
 broad. It comes from the East Indies, and the finest 
 is made in Bengal. 
 
 Adelaide, a city of South Australia, capital of the 
 British colony of that name, about 7 miles S.S.E. from 
 its port, an inlet on the east side of St. Vincent's Gulf, 
 lat. 34° 57' S., long. 138° 38' E. Though founded so 
 recently as 1834, and not well situated, this is a well- 
 built, prosperous town. Some of the houses, and most 
 part of the principal buildings, are of brick and stone. 
 Population in 1846, 7143 ; and in 1853 probably about 
 as great. 
 
 The river Torrens, on which Adelaide is built, loses 
 itself in a marsh before reaching the sea, so that the 
 city is about 7 miles distant from its port, an inlet of 
 St. Viniient's Gulf. This inland situation is a serious 
 drawback on the trade of the city ; and it would seem 
 that a mistake was committed in not building it on, or 
 much nearer to, the coast. This, we are aware, has 
 been denied, though, as we think, upon very unsatis- 
 factory grounds. There appears, indeed, to be but little 
 doubt that in no very lengthened period most part of 
 the commerce of the town will be transferred to the 
 port, and that it will be preferred as a residence by all 
 commercial people. In the rainy season the Torrens 
 is much flooded, though it seldom overflows its banks, 
 which are steep and lofty ; but in the dry season it has 
 no current, its bed being then formed into a series of 
 pools or tanks. 
 
 Port Adelaide, 7 miles X.N.W. from the city, in a 
 low and marshy situation, consists of a number of 
 dwelling houses and warehouses, some of which are of 
 stone, with wharves, partly belonging to government, 
 and partly to the South Australian Company. Popu- 
 lation in 1848 about 1800. The inlet of the sea, form- 
 ing the harbor, opposite the entrance to which a light- 
 vessel is moored, stretches from the Gulf, from which it 
 is separated by a narrow neck of land, for about 8 miles 
 southward, surrounding Torrens Island. At its mouth 
 is a sandy bar, with 8 feet water at ebb and 16 feet at 
 flood tide; this depth being considerably increased 
 during south and southwest winds. Ships of 400 or 
 500 tons may, consequently, pass the bar in safety, and 
 once over, there is depth enough for the largest ships 
 to the head of the harbor. — Dutton, South AttstraMaj 
 p. 112. Large vessels are, however, obliged to lie in 
 / mid-channel ; but projects were recently on foot for im- 
 proving the harbor, either by carrying out piers into 
 the deep water, or by establishing a new port about 2 
 miles nearer to the harbor's mouth, where the water in- 
 shore is deeper, and the situation afiTords greater facili- 
 ties for the accommodation of shipping. Port Ade- 
 laide has a custom-house; but vessels are exempted 
 from all port charges in this and in the other ports 
 of the colony. A railway, planned to unite the city 
 with the port, will most likely be completed at an early 
 date. 
 
 The trade of Adelaide is already extensive, and will 
 ■ continue to increase with the increase of the popula- 
 tion and trade of the colony, of which it is the grand 
 emporium. The mines of copper, lead, etc., discovered 
 in its vicinity are of the richest description, and the 
 ores furnished by them form at present the principal 
 article of export. In 1852, the imports of copper into 
 England from South Australia, principally from the 
 Burra-Burra mine, amounted to 8582 tons, worth above 
 £600,000 ! The discovery of the gold fields, by attract- 
 ing many of the laborers from the copper mines, gave 
 a serious check to the progress of the latter, though it 
 is probable that it will be but temporary. Wool is 
 also an important article ; and the imports of it into 
 England, which in 1852 amounted to 3,922,318 pounds, 
 have increased with the same extraordinary rapidity 
 
 as those from the other parts of Australia. Among the 
 items of import from this colony in 1852 were 1358 
 pounds quicksilver, and 2267 cwt. bark. We subjoin 
 the following statements with respect to the trade, 
 shipping, etc., of Port Adelaide in the following years : 
 
 Years. 
 
 1844 
 1845 
 1846 
 1847 
 1S4S 
 1849 
 
 Total Imports. 
 
 £118,918 6 11 
 184,819 18 6 
 829,099 12 9 
 410,826 9 6 
 884,388 19 
 899,548 19 6 
 
 Total Exporta. 
 
 £95,212 14 6 
 148,459 4 7 
 312,837 16 6 
 350,348 12 2 
 604,068 7 
 403,197 6 
 
 Years. 
 
 1844 
 1845 
 1846 
 1647 
 1848 
 1849 
 
 Exports the Produce 
 of South Australia. 
 
 £82,268 13 8 
 131,800 6 
 287,058 13 
 276,115 12 
 466,878 10 
 374,156 10 
 
 Imports re-ex- 
 ported 
 
 £12,921 IS 10 
 16,658 18 7 
 28,778 6 
 75,133 2 
 
 Imports consumed 
 Iq the Colooy, 
 
 £105,993 18 1 
 
 168,160 19 10 
 
 303,321 7 9 
 
 336,602 9 4 
 
 It would be to no purpose to give any later details in 
 regard to the trade of this colony. The discovery of 
 the gold fields in Victoria and New South Wales have 
 had nearly the same influence here as in Van Diemen's 
 Land (see Gold). They occasioned an excessive em- 
 igration, and gave a sudden and severe shock to all 
 sorts of industry. And though, no doubt, the colony 
 will in the end recover from the contingency, and Will 
 most probably be improved by the circumstances in 
 which it originated, some considerable time will have 
 previously to elapse. 
 
 Aden, a sea-port town of Southerh Arabia, in the 
 possession of the East India Company, on the Indian 
 Ocean, 118 miles east from the Straits of Babelmandel, 
 lat. 12° 46' 15" N., long. 45° 10' 20" E. It stands on 
 the east side of a promontory, projecting south into the 
 ocean, called the Peninsula of Aden. This peninsula, 
 which terminates in a lofty mountain, hearing a strik- 
 ing resemblance to the rock of Gibraltar, is connected 
 with the main land by a low isthmus about 400 yards 
 in breadth. On the north and west the town is over- 
 hung by steep and craggy rocks, on which are the re- 
 mains of old fortifications. The east or outward har- 
 bor of Aden, formerly (and apparently at a recent pe- 
 riod) large and commodious, is now partly filled up 
 with sand. But the harbor on the west side of the 
 town, between the promontory on which it stands and 
 another parallel thereto, is a magnificent basin, capable 
 of accommodating the largest fleets. It has a contract- 
 ed entrance, which might easily be fortified, so as to 
 make it inaccessible to a hostile squadron. From this 
 harbor the approach to the town is over a low ridge Of 
 the mountain, the road being in parts cut through the 
 rock. 
 
 The site of this town, the best adapted for trade on 
 the whole coast of Arabia, and the key of the Red Sea, 
 has always made it a point of primary importance in 
 the direct trade between Europe and the East. It be- 
 came at a very early period a celebrated emporium (the 
 Arahke emporium of Ptolemy). Aftef the Romans ob- 
 tained possession of Egypt, and Hippalus (a.d. 50) had 
 discovered the direct route to India, they destroyed 
 Aden, lest it should fall into hostile hands, and interfere 
 with their monopoly of this lucrative trafiSc. — Vin- 
 cent's Comm£rce, etc., of the Indian Ocean, ii. 327, 528. 
 It is not known when or by whom it was rebuilt ; but 
 fi-om the 11th to the 16th century it was the great, 
 or rather the exclusive mtreptit of Eastern commerce. 
 The discovery of the passage by the Cape of Good 
 Hope was the first great blow to Its importance. Si- 
 multaneously with the appearance of the Portuguese in 
 India, the Turks, under Solyman the Magnificent, took 
 possession of various Arabic ports, Aden among the 
 number. They erected the fortifications, the ruins of 
 which excite the admiration of every traveler, and 
 which repelled the attacks of the famous Portuguese 
 general, Albuquerque. From this date, however, Aden 
 
ADJ 
 
 10 
 
 ADM 
 
 rapidly declined; nor did the expulsion of the Turks, 
 ■which took place about the middle of last century, re- 
 tard its downfall. Its ruin was more complete than 
 could have been anticipated; for its convenient har- 
 bors and plentiful supply of water make it, apart from 
 other considerations, a most desirable port. 
 
 When first occupied by the British, it had not more 
 than 100 houses, with a parcel of wretched huts, and 
 from 3000 to 4000 inhabitants. It had, indeed, the ruins 
 of several cisterns and reservoirs cut in the solid roclt, 
 and of aqueducts for conveying water from the mount- 
 ains of the interior, which fully testified its fonner 
 greatness. But within the last half dozen years a vast 
 change has taken place, and the ancient prosperity of 
 Aden bids fair to be again restored. Hotels for the ac- 
 commodation of the passengers by the steamers have 
 been erected; and the population of tlje vicinity, at- 
 tracted by the securitj' aftbrded by the English flag, 
 have flocked to the place, which has now (1853) from 
 25,000 to 30,000 inhabitants ! Some defensive works 
 have already been constructed, and others projected, 
 which, if completed, will make it (which it should be) 
 the Gibraltar of the Red Sea. "While its commanding 
 position, excellent port, and abundant supply of water, 
 make Aden an important station in the route from In- 
 dia to Europe by the Eed Sea, it is no less favorably 
 situated for becoming an entrepot for the contiguous 
 countries of Arabia and Africa. It owed its former 
 consequence mainly to its natural advantages, and 
 these it still retains. . And it can hardly fail again to 
 become an important emporium, and to be of the great- 
 est utility to the surrounding continents. The climate, 
 though hot, is not unhealthy. The abundant supply 
 of water, for which Aden is remarkable among Arabic 
 towns, is drawn from the ravines and gullies of the 
 surrounding mountains, and from the land springs, 
 which are abundant on the sea-shore.. — (See Geograph- 
 ical Dictionary, art. Aden, and other authorities there 
 quotad.) 
 
 Adjustment, in Commercial Navigation, the settle- 
 ment of a loss incurred by the insured. In the case of 
 a total loss, if the policy be an open one, the insurer is 
 obliged to pay the goods according to their prime cost ; 
 that is, the invoice price, and all duties and expenses 
 incurred till they are put on board, including the pre- 
 mium of insurance. Whether they might have arrived 
 at a good or a bad market, is held by the law of En- 
 gland to be immaterial. The insurer is supposed to 
 have insured a constant and not a variable sum ; and 
 in the event of a loss occurring, the insured is merely 
 to be put into the same situation in which he stood be- 
 fore the transaction began. If the policy be a valued 
 one, the practice is to adopt the valuation flxed In it in 
 case of a total loss, unless the insurers can show that 
 the insured had a colorable interest only, or that the 
 goods were greatly over- valued. In the case of all par- 
 tial losses, the value of the goods must be proved. 
 
 " The nature of the contract between the insured 
 and insurer is," says Mr. Justice Park, " that the goods 
 shall come safe to the port of delivery ; or, if they do 
 not, that the insurer will indemnify the owner to the 
 amount of the value of the goods stated in the policy. 
 Wherever, then, the property insured is lessened in val- 
 ue by damage received at sea, justice is done by put- 
 ting the merchant in the same condition (relation being 
 had to the prime cost or value in the policy) in which 
 he would have been had the goods arrived free from 
 damage ; that is, by paying him such proportion of the 
 prime cost or value in the policy as corresponds with 
 the proportion of the diminution in value occasioned by 
 the damage. The question then is, how is the propor- 
 tion of the damage to be ascertained ? It certainly 
 can not be by any measure taken from the prime cost ; 
 but it may be done in this way : AVhere any thing, as 
 a hogshead of sugar, happens to be spoiled, if you can 
 fix whether it be a third, a fourth, or a fifth worse, then 
 the damage is ascertained to a mathematical certain- 
 
 ty. How is this to be found out ? Not by any price 
 at the port of shipment, but it must be at the port of 
 delivery, when the voyage is completed and the whole 
 damage known. Whether the price at the latter be 
 high or low, it is the same thing ; for in either ca&e it 
 equally shows whether the damaged goods are a third, 
 a fourth, or a fifth worse than if they had come sound; 
 consequently, whether the injury sustained be a third, 
 fourth, or fifth of the value of the thing. And as the 
 insurer pays the whole prime cost if the thing be wholly 
 lost, so if it be only a third, fourth, or fifth worse, he 
 pays a third, fourth, or fifth, not of the value for which 
 it is sold, but of the value stated in the polity. And when 
 no valuation is stated in the policy, the invoice of the 
 cost, with the addition of all charge, and the premium 
 of insurance, shall be the foundation upon which the 
 loss shall be computed." 
 
 Admeasurement. See Toskage, 
 
 Administrator, in English Law, he to whom the 
 ordinary commits the administration of the goods of a 
 person deceased, in default of an executor. The origin 
 of administrators is derived from the civil law. Their 
 establishment in England is owing to a statute made 
 in the 31st year of Edward III. Till then no office of 
 this kind was known besides that of executor; in de- 
 fault of whom, the ordinary had the disposal of goods 
 of persons intestate, etc. 
 
 Admiral, a great officer or magistrate, who has the 
 government of a navy, and the hearing of all maritime 
 causes. There can be little doubt of the Asiatic origin 
 of the name given to this officer, which does not appear 
 to have been known in the languages of Europe before 
 the time of the holy "wars. A mir, in Arable, is a chief or 
 commander of forces ; it is the same word as the ameer 
 of the peninsula of' India (as ameer al Omrah, the chief 
 of lords or princes), and the emir of the Turks or Sara- 
 cens, who had, and still have, their emir or ameer'l du- 
 reea, commander of the sea, amirH asker dureea, com- 
 mander of the naval armament. The incorporation of 
 the article with the noun appears, we believe, for the 
 first time in the Annals of Eutychius, patriarch of Alex- 
 andria, in the tenth centur3-, who calls the Calif Omar 
 A mirol munumim, sen, Jmperatnr Jidelium. Spelman 
 says, " In regno Saracenorum quatuor prastores statuit, 
 qui admiralli vocabantur." The d is evidently super- 
 fluous, and is omitted bj' the French, who say Amiral. 
 The Spanish yfrite Almirante ; the Portuguese the same. 
 Milton would seem to have been aware of the origin of 
 the word, when he speaks of "the mast of some great 
 Ammiral." It is obvious,, then, that the supposed der- 
 ivations of aX^upof from the Greek, aumer from the 
 French, and aen mereal from the Saxon, are fanciful 
 and unauthorized etymologies^ 
 
 Admiral is also an appellation given to the most con- 
 siderable ship of a fleet of merchantmen, or of the ves- 
 sels employed in the cod fishery of Newfoundland. 
 This last has the privilege of choosing what place he 
 pleases on the shore to dry his fish ; gives proper orders, 
 and appoints the fishing-places to those who come after 
 him ; and as long as the fishing season continues, he 
 carries a flag on his main-mast. 
 
 Admiralty, High Court of. This is a court of 
 law, in which the authority of the lord high admiral is 
 exercised in his judicial capacity. Very little has 
 been left on record of the ancient prerogative of the 
 admirals of England. For some time after the first in- 
 stitution of the office, they judged all matters relating 
 to merchants and mariners, which happened on the 
 main sea, in a summary way, according to the laws of 
 Oleron (so called because promulgated by Richard I. 
 at that place). These laws, which were little more 
 than a transcript of the Rhodian laws, became the uni- 
 versally received customs of the western part of the 
 world. "All the sea-faring nations,' says Sir Leoline 
 Jenkins, "soon after their promulgation, received and 
 entertained these laws from the English, by way of 
 deference to the sovereignty of our kings in the British 
 
ADU 
 
 11 
 
 ADU 
 
 ocean, and to the judgment of oar countrj'inen in sea 
 Affairs." 
 
 The vice-admiralty courts in the British colonies are 
 of two descriptions. The one has power to inquire 
 into the causes of detention of enemies or neutral ves- 
 sels, to try and condemn the same for the benefit of 
 the captors, as well as to take cognizance of all matters 
 relating to the oSice of the lord high admiral. The 
 other has power only to institute inquiries into misde- 
 meanors committed in merchant vessels, and to determ- 
 ine petty suits, etc., and to guard the privileges of the 
 admiral. The former are usually known by the name 
 of Prize Courts, the latter by that of Instance Courts. 
 
 The following are the colonies and foreign posses- 
 sions of Great Britain in which Prize Courts have been 
 established in the course of the last war : Gibraltar, 
 Malta, Newfoundland, Halifax, Bermuda, Bahama 
 Islands, Barbadoes, Antigua, Tortola, Jamaica, Cape 
 of Good Hope, Ceylon, Bombay', Madi'as, and Calcut- 
 ta. The following British colonies had/natence Courts 
 only: Dominica, Grenada, St. Vincent, St. Christopher, 
 Trinidad, St. Cervix, Martinique, Berbice, Demerara, 
 and Essequibo ; in addition to which is a court estab- 
 lished at Sierra Leone for the trial and condemnation 
 of captured slavers only ; and since that time, Gibral- 
 tar, Malta, St. Helena, Berbi«e, Demerara, and Esse- 
 quibo, Sierra Leone (this court has jurisdiction only 
 over ships concerned in the slave-trade), Newfound- 
 land, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward^s Inland, 
 Lower Canada, Barbadoes, Tobago, and St. Lucia, An- 
 tigua, Montserrat, and Barbadoes, 'Tortola, Jamaica, 
 Bahamas, Falkland Islands, Cape of Good Hope, Gam- 
 bia, Gold Coast, Ceylon, Bombay, Calcutta, Madras, 
 New South Wales, Van Diemen's Land, Western Aus- 
 tralia, South Australia, New Zealand, Vancouver's Isl- 
 and, Hong Kong, Lahuan. — E. B. 
 
 " The ordinary admiralty and maritime jurisdiction, 
 exclusive of prize cases, embraces all civil and crim- 
 inal cases of a maritime nature ; and though there does 
 not seem to be any diSBculty or doubt as to the proper 
 jurisdiction of the prize courts^ there is a great deal of 
 unsettled discussion respecting the civil and criminal 
 jurisdiction of the district court as an instance court, 
 and possessing, under the constitution andrjudiciary 
 act of 1789, admiralty and maritime jurisdiction. 
 
 " The act of Congress gives to the district courts, ex- 
 clusive of the State courts, and concurrently with the 
 circuit courts, cognizance of all crimes and ofienses cog- 
 nizable under the authority of the United States, and 
 committed within their districts, or upon, the high seas, 
 where only a moderate corporal punishment, or fine, or 
 imprisonment, is to be inflicted. This is the ground 
 of the criminal jurisdiction of the district courts ; and 
 it is given to them as district courts ; and as it includes 
 the minor crimes and offenses committed on the high 
 seas, and cognizable in the courts of admiralty under 
 the English law, the district courts may be considered 
 as exercising the criminal jurisdiction of a court ofad- 
 miralty in those cases. The Constitution of the United 
 States declares that the judicial power of the Union 
 shall extend to all cases of admiralty and maritime 
 jurisdiction ; and it has been supposed that the federal 
 courts might, without any statute, and under the gen- 
 eral delegation of admiralty powers, have exercised 
 criminaljurisdiction overmaritime crimes and ofienses. 
 But the courts of the United States have been reluctant 
 to assume the exercise of any criminal jurisdiction 
 which was not specially conferred by an act of Con- 
 gress." — Kent's Comm. Lect. XVII. 
 
 Adulteration, the act of debasing, by mixing with 
 any pure and genuine commodity a spurious article, or 
 an inferior one of the same kind, for pecuniary profit ; 
 but it may also occur accidentally, as, for instance, by 
 the action of acids and oils on vessels of copper or lead 
 in culinary and other operations. But few articles of 
 commerce, comparatively, are exempt from fraudulent 
 deterioration ; and although the adulteration of excis- 
 
 able commodities and of food are ofienses punishable by 
 law, the risk too frequently is outweighed by the temp- 
 tation of gain. In Paris, malpractices connected with 
 the adulteration of food are investigated by the Conseil 
 de Salubrity, and punished ; but English laws are di- 
 rected chiefly to the protection of such articles as afiect 
 the revenue. Adulterations of food, when willful, have 
 been made punishable by the laws of most countries. 
 In Great Britain numerous acts have been passed for 
 the prevention of adulterations ; they are usually pun- 
 ished by a fine, determined by a summary process be- 
 fore a magistrate. In Turkey, a culprit baker has his 
 ears nailed to his door. By 6th and 6th Vict. c. 93, 
 § 1, 3, 8, manufacturers of tobacco or snuff are liable 
 to a penalty of £'200 for having in their possession any 
 substance or liquid to be-used, or capable of being used, 
 as a substitute for tobacco or snuft^ or to adulterate or 
 give them weight. The preparer, v«nder, or disposer 
 of such articles, is liable to the same. For actual adul- 
 teration the penalty is £300, and for having such adul- 
 terated goods in possession, £200. After a similar man- 
 ner, beer is protected by still heavier penalties ; which 
 laws extend to chemists, druggists, and beer retailers. 
 See 56th Geo. III. c. 58, 1st Will. IV. c. 51, 64, ith and 
 5th Will. IV. c. 85. Tea, coflee, cocoa, pepper, etc., are 
 protected by law ; but the adulterations of these, as of 
 most other articles of food, are almost endless. The 
 mixture of chiccory with coffee, is, however, authorized 
 under certain conditions. A treasury minute of 27th 
 July, 1852, prohibiting the sale of " chiccory or other 
 vegetable substances mixed with coffee," was rescinded 
 by a subsequent minute of 25th February, 1853, which 
 permits dealers in coffee " to keep and sell chiccory pre- 
 pared and mixed with cofiee, provided the packages in 
 which such mixture is delivered to purchasers have 
 printed distinctly thereon, Recording to directions which 
 will be given by the Board of Inland Revenue, the whole 
 of the following words, ' Mixture of Coffee and Chic- 
 cory.' " 
 
 The following results were obtained by a recent se- 
 ries of analyses of some articles of common domestic 
 consumption, purchased from different dealers, chiefly 
 in London. In. the several kinds of tea were found 
 (partly, perhaps, accidentally present) exhausted tea- 
 Idaves, leaves of the beech, elm, horse-chestnut, plane, 
 bastard-plane, fancy-oak, willow, poplar, hawthorn, 
 and sloe j catechu,/ rose-pink, black-lead, soap-stone, 
 sulphate of iron, logwood, indigo, starch, rice husks, 
 excrement of silkworms, Prussian blue, sulphate of 
 lime, verdegris, etc. Of 18 samples of chiccory pro- 
 cured from manufactories; 5 were adulterated with 
 roasted wheat-flour ; andof 16 samples of chiccory, pur- 
 chased from different grocers, several were colored with 
 Venetian red, or reddle. Of 68 samples of cocoa and 
 chocolate, 39 contained colored earthy substances ; in 
 some samples of cocoa, sugar and starch constituted 
 more than half the article. Of 24 samples of bread, all 
 contained more or less alum ; and it may be observed 
 that the quartern loaf, as delivered at houses by 13 
 different bakers, showed deficiency in weight, the max- 
 imum being between 3 and 4 ounces. Out of 30 sam- 
 ples of oatmeal, 16 were adulterated with barley-meal ; 
 in one instance, apparently, much more than one half. 
 Of 36 samples of arrow-root, 18 were mixed with potato- 
 flour, or potato-starch, sago-powder, or tapioca-starch, 
 etc. ; and 5 were almost entirely potato-starch. Of 26 
 samples of milk, 11 were mixed with water, in propor- 
 tions varying from 10 to 50 per cent. Of 28 samples 
 purchased as isinglass, 10 consisted entirely of gelatine. 
 It is well known that quack medicines frequently con- 
 tain ingredients they are guaranteed not to contain; 
 hence the evils resulting from their indiscriminate use. 
 Nor are woolen, linen, and silk goods exempt from in- 
 ferior admixture ; various substances are employed to 
 give body to silk fabrics ; as in China a gluey prepara- 
 tion from the Fucus Tenax is used to give them weight 
 and gloss. The above facts will give some idea of the 
 
ADU 
 
 12 
 
 ADV 
 
 extent to which adulteration is practiced in the most 
 common articles of consumption. We may add that 
 all legislative enactments on the subject will prove in- 
 effectual unless the public exercise their own discrim- 
 ination, and dealers who are discovered to have im- 
 posed spurious commodities are made Vo feel that hon- 
 esty is the best policy. 
 
 Adulteration of Wines. — The various substances used 
 in the manufacture to flavor and to color wines (such 
 as almonds, raisins, orris root, burned sugar, brandy, 
 logwood, whortleberries, elderberries, etc.) must be 
 distinguished from others which are directly deleteri- 
 ous, such as alum, used to impart astringencj', and 
 litharge and ceruse, to dulcify " pricked" or sour wines. 
 The following is an excellent test for any of the prep- 
 arations of lead : mix an aqueous solution of tartaric 
 acid with liquid sulphureted hydrogen ; when added to 
 the suspected wine, should any copper or iron be pres- 
 ent, they are kept in solution by the tartaric acid, while 
 the lead is thrown down by the sulphureted hydrogen 
 as a dark precipitate. Ked wine should be decolorized 
 before using the test, which is conveniently done by 
 mixing the iHne with an equal weight of milk, and 
 filtering it. When the tartrate of lead is found in the 
 bottom of the cask, it may easily be detected by calcin- 
 ing a portion of the insoluble matter, and reducing it 
 by the blowpipe on charcoal. A portion of the sedi- 
 ment may be digested with vinegar, which would give, 
 by evaporation, acetate of lead ; and it may be tried by 
 sulphureted hydrogen. Alum may be precipitated from 
 white wine by carbonate of soda gradually added until 
 no more falls down ; filter ; on the filter will be found 
 alumine. The sulphate of potassa remains in the solu- 
 tion ; but the quantity present may be found by precip- 
 itating the sulphuric acid by muriate of baryta. Iron 
 is sometimes accidentally present in wines ; but it is 
 not dangerous, and may be detected by nutgalls. Cop- 
 per sometimes occurs from the use of copper stop-cocks : 
 it is detected by the addition of ammonia; and, if much, 
 by a plate of polished iron left some time in the wine. 
 Arsenic has occasionally occurred from the sulphuring 
 of the cask. After decoloration by animal charcoal, 
 pass a stream of sulphureted hydrogen througli the 
 wine, and a j'ellow precipitate will fall, which may be 
 reduced to the metallic state by charcoal and soda. 
 The same tests are applicable to all fermented liquors. 
 — E. B. (See Hendekson's Ancient and Modem Wines. 
 
 Adulteration of Coin. — This has been accounted 
 among all nations, both in ancient and modern times, 
 a very grave offense, and punishable by death in sev- 
 eral ways. It was formerly considered as treason in 
 Great Britain, and rigorously punished with death; 
 but in the amelioration of the criminal code by Lord 
 John Russell's act (Will. IV. >;. 34, Vict. 1), the pun- 
 ishment has been commuted to transportation for any 
 period not less than seven years, or by imprisonment 
 for not more than four years, at the discretion of the 
 judge. The specific gravity of pure gold =19'30 ; stand- 
 ard gold=18-88; pure silver=10-51 ; standard sil- 
 ver=10'34. The proportion of alloy in the gold and 
 silver coin of Britain is one-twelfth copper, which gives 
 durability. A genuine coin, unless it be cracked, is 
 quite sonorous ; yet even this quality is not an invaria- 
 ble test for counterfeit money. Much false coin is in 
 circulation, especially in the metropolis, a statement 
 confirmed by its very frequent reception as change. 
 Besides the frauds by clipping, filing, casing, electro- 
 plating, etc., the debasement of coin has been effected 
 by boring the edge of a piece, and plugging the cavity 
 with inferior metal : in this manner has platinum been 
 inserted in gold. Another method has been practiced 
 by sawing a gold piece laterally, and skillfully filling 
 the centre with platinum ; a fraud which cutting alone 
 could detect. 
 
 To ascertain the adulteration of silver and gold coin 
 by excess of copper, the following processes will suf- 
 fice : dissolve a given weight of the silver in nitric acid, 
 
 and precipitate by a solution of common salt; dry, 
 and weigh the precipitate, which is the chloride of siU 
 rer, and contains 75'5 per cent, of the metal ; or it may 
 be reduced on charcoal before the blowpipe, when a 
 button of pure silver will be obtained, by weighing 
 which, the proportions of silver and of copper will be 
 known. Silver coin is very frequently imitated by 
 some white alloy, generally of tin, antimony, and lead ; 
 it may be known by its pliancy and dull appearance, 
 or it may be tested for silver, as described above. Ger- 
 man silver, a beautiful imitation of silver by nickel and 
 copper, may be detected by its deficient specific gravi- 
 ty, and its emitting, when briskly rubbed, a faint, cop- 
 pery odor; or by dissolving it in nitric acid, and add- 
 ing a solution of common salt, when it will give no pre- 
 cipitate. The amount of alloy in gold may readily be 
 ascertained, for ordinary purposes, by the streak on 
 touchstone, and comparing that with the streak of the 
 gold needles made for the purpose ; or more nicely by 
 this process : file off a given weight of the gold, and 
 dissolve in aqua regia, then precipitate the gold by im- 
 mersing in the solution a plate of silver or copper ; or 
 more quickly, by weak galvanic action; or the gold 
 may be thrown down by addition of an alkaline solu- 
 tion, or by adding the muriate of tin, which throws 
 down the purple powder of Cassius, from which the 
 quantity of gold may be easily ascertained, by oxidat- 
 ing with the blowpipe a given weight of the powder, 
 and so obtaining a button of pure gold. 
 
 The purity of copper is ascertained by dissolving a 
 given weight in any of the mineral acids, and obtain- 
 ing copper of cementation by immersing a plate of iron 
 or zinc in the solution ; or by decomposing the salt of 
 copper by charcoal, alkali, and heat, in the usual way. 
 (See Chemistey.) It may be noticed as a curious fact 
 that, in England, the copper coinage of William IV. 
 was found to contain gold, from which discovery these 
 coins speedily became scarce. — E. B. 
 
 Ad Valorem, a term chiefly used in speaking of 
 the duties or customs paid per cent, on goods. The du- 
 ties on some articles are paid by the number, weight, 
 measure, tale, etc., and others paid ad valorem, that is, 
 according to their value. 
 
 Advance implies money paid before goods are de- 
 livered, or upon consignment. It is usual with mer- 
 chants to advance from a half to two-thirds of the val- 
 ue of goods consigned to them, on being required, on 
 thfeir receiving invoice, bill of lading, orders to insure 
 them from sea risk, etc. 
 
 Adventurers, Merchant, a celebrated and en- 
 terprising company of merchants, was originally formed 
 for the discovery of territories, extension of commerce, 
 and promotion of trade, by John, duke of Brabant, in 
 1296. This ancient company was afterward translated 
 into England in the reign of Edward III., and Queen 
 Elizabeth formed it into an English corporation in 1664. 
 — Anderson. 
 
 Advertisement, in its general sense, is any in- 
 formation as to any fact or circumstance that has oc- 
 curred, or is expected to occur ; but, in a commercial 
 sense, it is understood to relate only to intimations with 
 respect to the sale of articles, the formation and disso- 
 lution of partnerships, bankruptcies, meetings of cred- 
 itors, etc. Advertisements in newspapers in England, 
 as now published, were not general until the beginning 
 of the 18th century. A penalty of £50 was inflicted 
 on persons advertising a reward with " No questions 
 to be asked" for the return of things stolen, and on the 
 printer, 25 Geo. II. 17 ii.— Statutes. The advertise- 
 ment duty was formerly charged according to the num- 
 ber of lines ; it was afterward fixed in England at 8j. 
 6d., and in Ireland at 2s. 6d. each advertisement. The 
 duty was further reduced, in England to Is. 6d., and in 
 Ireland to Is. each, by statute 3 and 4 Will. IV. 1833. 
 The duty was altogether abolished in the United Kingl 
 dom, by 16 and 17 Vict. e. 63, Aug. 4, 1863.— Hatdn. 
 
 Advice is usually given by one merchant or bank- 
 
AFF 
 
 13 
 
 AFF 
 
 er to another by letter, Informing him of the bills or 
 drafts drawn on him, with all particulars of date, or 
 sight, the sum, to whom made payable, etc. Where 
 bills appear for acceptance or payment, they are fre- 
 quently refused to be honored for want of advice. It is 
 also necessary to give advice, as it prevents forgeries : 
 if a merchant accept or pay a bill for the honor of any 
 other person, he is bound to advise him thereof, and 
 this should always be done under an act of honor by a 
 notary public. 
 
 Affreightment. " A charter-party is a contract 
 of affreightment in writing, by which the owner of a 
 ship lets the whole, or a part of her, to a merchant, for 
 the conveyance of goods on a particular voyage, in con- 
 sideration of the payment of freight. All contracts 
 under seal were anciently called charters, and they 
 used to be divided into two parts, and each party in- 
 terested took one, and this was the meaning of the 
 charta partita. It was a deed or writing divided, con- 
 sisting of two parts, like an indenture at common law. 
 Lord Mansfield observed, that the charter-party was 
 an old informal instrument, and, by the introduction of 
 different clauses at different times, it was inaccurate 
 and sometimes contradictory. But this defect has been 
 supplied by giving it, as mercantile contracts usually 
 receive, a liberal construction, in furtherance of the 
 real intention and the usage of trade. 
 
 "This, mercantile lease of a ship describes the par- 
 ties, the ship and the voyage, and contains, on the part 
 of the owner, a stipulation as to sea-worthiness, and as 
 to the promptitude with which the vessel shall receive 
 the cargo and perform the voyage ; and the exception 
 of such perils of the sea for which the master and ship- 
 owners do not mean to be responsible. On the part of 
 the freighter, it contains a stipulation to load and un- 
 load wi thin a given time, with an allowance of so many 
 lay, or running days, for loading and unloading the car- 
 go, and the rate and times of payment of the freight, 
 and rate of demurrage beyond the allotted days. 
 
 " When the goods of several merchants, unconnect- 
 ed with each other, are laden on board, without any 
 particular contract of affreightment with any individ- 
 ual for the entire ^ship, the vessel is called a general 
 ship, because open to all merchants ; but where one or 
 more merchants contract for the ship exclusively, it is 
 said to be a chartered ship. The ship may be let in 
 whole or in part, and either for such a quantity of goods 
 by weight, or for so much space in the ship, which is 
 letting the ship by the ton. She may also be hired for 
 a gross sum as freight for the voyage, or for a particu- 
 lar sum by the month, or any other determinate pe- 
 riod, or for a certain sum for every ton, cask, or bale 
 of goods put on board ; and when the ship is let by the 
 month, the time does not begin to run until the ship 
 breaks ground, unless it be otherwise agreed. The 
 merchant who hires a ship, may either lade it with his 
 own goods, or wholly underlet it upon his own terms ; 
 and if no certain freight be stipulated, the owner will 
 be entitled to recover, upon a quantum meruit, as much 
 freight as is usual under the like circumstances, at the 
 time and place of shipment. It is the duty of the own- 
 er of the ship, not only to see that she is duly equipped, 
 and in a suitable condition to perform the voyage, but 
 he is bound to keep her in that condition throughout 
 the voyage, unless he be prevented by perils of the sea. 
 If, in consequence of a failure in the due equipment of 
 the vessel, the charterer does not use her, he is not 
 bound to pay any freight ; but if he actually employs 
 her, he must pay the freight, though he has his rem- 
 edy on the charter-party for damages sustained, by rea- 
 son of the deficiency of the vessel in her equipment. 
 The freighter is bound, on his part, not to detain the 
 ship beyond the stipulated or usual time, to load, or de- 
 liver the cargo, or to sail. The extra days beyond the 
 lay days (being the days allowed to load and unload 
 the cargo) are called days ot demurrage ; and that term 
 is likewise applied to payment for such delay, and it 
 
 may become due either by the ship's detention, for the 
 purpose of loading or unloading the cargo, either be- 
 fore, or during, or after the voyage, or waiting for con- 
 voy. If the claim for demurrage rest on express con- 
 tract it is strictly enforced, as where the running days 
 for delivering the cargo under the bill of lading had ex- 
 pired, even though the consignee was prevented from 
 clearing the vessel of the goods by the default of others. 
 
 " The old and the new French codes of commerce re- 
 quire the charter-party to be in writing, though Volin 
 holds that the contract, if by parol, would be equally 
 valid and binding. In the English law, the hiring of 
 ships without writing is undoubtedly valid; but it 
 would be a very loose and dangerous practice, at least 
 in respect to foreign voyages. In the river and coast- 
 ing trade, there is less formality and less necessity for 
 it ; and the contract is, no doubt, frequently without 
 the evidence of deed or writing. If either party be not 
 ready by the time appointed for loading the ship, the 
 other party, if he be the charterer, may seek another 
 ship, or, if he be the owner, another cargo. This right 
 arises from the necessity of precision and punctuality 
 in all maritime transactions. By a very short delay, 
 the proper season may be lost, or the object of the voy- 
 age defeated. And if the ship be loaded only in part, 
 and she be hired exclusively for the voyage, and to 
 take in a cargo at certain specified rates, the freighter 
 is entitled to the full enjoyment of the ship ; for he is 
 answerable to the ^wner for freight, not only for the 
 cargo actually put on board, but what the vessel could 
 have taken had a full cargo been fui'nished. The 
 master has no right to complete the lading with the 
 goods of other persons without the consent of the char- 
 terer ; and if he grants that permission, the master must 
 account to him for the freight. He has no right to com- 
 plain if the charterer refuses to grant the permission, or 
 to complete the lading, provided he has cargo enough 
 to secure his freight. • This was the regulation of the 
 French ordinance', and it has been adopted into the new 
 code. By the contract, the owner is bound to see that 
 the ship be sea-worthy, which means that she must be 
 tight, stanch, and strong, well furnished, manned, vict- 
 ualed, and in all respects equipped in the usual man- 
 ner for the merchant service in such a trade. 
 
 " The ship must be fit and competent for the sort of 
 cargo and for the particular service for which she is en- 
 gaged. If there should be a latent defect in a vessel, 
 unknown to the owner, and undiscoverable upon exam- 
 ination, yet the:better opinion is that the owner must 
 answer for thfe damage occasioned by the defect. It is 
 an implied warranty in the contract, that the ship be 
 sufficient for the voyage, and the owner, like a common 
 carrier, is an insurer against every thing hut the ex- 
 cepted perils. To this head Of sea-worthiness may be 
 referred the owner's obligation to see that the ship is 
 furnished with all the requisite papers according to the 
 laws of the country to which she belongs, and accord- 
 ing to treaties and the laws of nations. Such documents 
 are necessary to secure the vessel from disturbance at 
 home, on the high seas, and in foreign ports. If the 
 charter-party contains any stipulation on the part of 
 the owner to keep, the ship in good order during the 
 voyage, the entire expense of the repairs requisite in 
 the course of the voyage are then to be borne by the 
 owner, and are not, in that case, the subject of general 
 average or contribution. But the owner does not in- 
 sure the cargo against the perils of the sea. He is an- 
 swerable for his own fault or negligence, or those of his 
 agents, and for defects in the ship or her equipments; 
 and generally, as a common carrier, he is answerable 
 for all losses other than what arise from the excepted 
 cases of the act of God and public enemies. The re- 
 sponsibility of the owner begins where that of the 
 wharfinger ends, and when the goods are delivered to 
 some accredited person on board the ship. The cargo 
 must be taken on board with care and skill, and be 
 properly stowed, and the contract by the bill of lading 
 
AFR 
 
 14 
 
 AFK 
 
 imports that the goods are to be safely stowed under 
 deck ; and if they are stowed on deck without the con- 
 sent of the shipper, or without the sanction of custom, 
 they are at the risk of the ship-owner or master, and he 
 and the owners of the vessel would not be protected 
 from liability for their loss by the exception in the bill 
 of lading of the dangers of the seas. If the ship has been 
 advertised by the agent of the owner for freight as a 
 general ship, and the notice had stated that she was to 
 sail with convoy, this would amount to an engagement 
 to that effect; and if she sails without convoy and be 
 lost, the owner becomes answerable to the shipper in 
 damages for the breach of that representation." — 
 Kent's Comm., Lect. XLVII. 
 
 Africa. The knowledge of this great continent 
 which ancient writers have transmitted to posterity is 
 of very limited extent, owing principally to its physic- 
 al construction. The great desert, which in a broad 
 belt stretches quite across the continent, forbade every 
 attempt to pass it until the introduction of the camel 
 by the Arabs. The want of any known great river, ex- 
 cept the Nile, that might conduct into the interior, con- 
 tributed to confine the Greek and Goman colonists to the 
 habitable belt along the northern coast. The Phojni- 
 cians are known to have formed establishments on the 
 northern coast of Africa at a very early period of his- 
 tory, probably not less than 3000 years ago ; and the 
 conquest of Kgypt by Cambyses dates as far back as 
 the year B.C. 525. We may consider, therefore, the 
 coasts of Egypt, of the Red Sea, and of the Mediterra- 
 nean, to have been settled and well known to the an- 
 cient Asiatics, who were constantly passing the narrow 
 isthmus which divided their country from Africa, and 
 led them immediately from parched deserts into a fer- 
 tile valley, watered by a magnificent river. But wheth- 
 er they were much or little acquainted with the western 
 coast, which bounds the Atlantic, and the eastern coast 
 washed by the Indian Ocean, is a question that has ex- 
 ercised the research and ingenuity of the ablest schol- 
 ars and geographers, and has not yet been satisfactorily 
 answered. 
 
 From the shores of the Mediterranean to about the 
 latitude of 20" north, the population of Africa consists 
 largely of tribes not originally native to the soil, but of 
 Arabs and Turks, planted by conquest, with a consid- 
 erable number of Jews, the children of dispersion ; and 
 the recently introduced French. The Berbers of the 
 Atlas region, the Tuaricks and Tibbus of the Sahara, 
 and the Copts of Egypt, may be viewed as the descend- 
 ants of the primitive stock, while those'to whom the 
 general name of Moors is applied are perhaps of mixed 
 descent, native and foreign. From the latitude stated, 
 to the Cape colony, tribes commonly classed together 
 under the title of the Ethiopic or negro family are 
 found, though many depart very widely from the pecul- 
 iar physiognomy of the negro, which is most apparent 
 in the natives of the Guinea coast. In the Cape colony, 
 and on its borders, the Hottentots form a distinct vari- 
 ety in the population of Africa, most closely resembling 
 the Mongolian races of Asia. 
 
 The British colony of Sierra Leone extends from Ro- 
 kelle River in the north, to Kater River in the south, 
 and about twenty miles inland. The population, con- 
 sisting chiefly of liberated slaves, amounted in 1847 to 
 41,735. Freetown, the capital, has 10,580 inhabitants, 
 and is, after St. Louis, the most considerable European 
 town on the western coast of Africa. 
 
 The Malaghetta or Grain Coast extends from Sierra 
 Leone to Cape Palmas. Malaghetta is a species of 
 pepper yielded by a parasitical plant of this region. 
 It is sometimes styled the Windy or Windward Coast, 
 from the frequency of short but furious tornadoes, 
 throughout the year. The Republic of Liberia, a set- 
 tlement of the American Colonization Society, found- 
 ed in 1822, for the purpose of removing free people of 
 color from the United States, occupies a considerable 
 extent of the coast, and has for its capital Monrovia, a 
 
 town named after the president, Mr. Monro. The pop- 
 ulation amounts to from 10,000 to K,000 native inhab- 
 itants, and 3200 liberated negroes from America. 
 
 The Ivory Coast extends from Cape Palmas to Cape 
 Three Points, and obtained its name from the quantity 
 of the article supplied by its numerous elephants. The 
 Gold Coast stretches from Cape Three Points to the 
 River Volta, and has been long frequented for gold 
 dust and other products. The Dutch have several trad- 
 ing ports, of which Elmina, a town of 12,000 inhab- 
 itants, is the principal and oldest of the European sta- 
 tions, founded by the Portuguese in 1411. The British 
 possess Cape Coast Castle, a spacious fortress, and 
 James's Fort, near Accra. The Danish settlements of 
 Christiansburg and Friedensburg were ceded to the 
 English in 1849. The Slave Coast extends from the 
 River Volta to the Calabar River, and is, as its name 
 implies, the chief scene of the most disgraceful traffic 
 that blots the historj' of mankind. Eko, or Lagos, one 
 of the chief towns of the coast, was destroyed in 1852. 
 The kingdoms of Ashanti, Dahomey, Yoruba, and oth- 
 ers, occupy the interior country of the Guinea coast. 
 The coast from the Old Calabar River to the Portu- 
 guese possessions is inhabited by various tribes. Duke's 
 Town, on the former river, is a large town of 30,000 to 
 40,000 inhabitants, with considerable trade in palm-oil, 
 ivor_v, and timber. On the Gabun River, close to the 
 equator, are a French settlement and American mis- 
 sionary stations. At the equator, Southern or Lower 
 Guinea begins, where the only European settlements 
 are those of the Portuguese. Loango is reckoned from 
 the equator to the Zaire or Congo river. Its chief town 
 is Boally, called Loango by the Europeans. Congo ex- 
 tends south of the Zaire, comprising a very fertile re- 
 gion, with veins of copper and iron. Banza Congo, 
 or St. Salvador, is the capital. Angola comprises the 
 two districts of Angola proper and Benguela. In these 
 regions the Portuguese settlements extend farther in- 
 land than in the two preceding districts, namely, about 
 200 miles. The population of the settlements is about 
 400.000, comprising only 1830 Europeans. The capi- 
 tal, St. Paolo de Loando, contains 1600 Europeans and 
 40U0 native inhabitants, and has a fine harbor. St. 
 Felipe de Benguela is situated in a picturesque but 
 very marshy and most unhealthy spot. 
 
 The coast from Benguela to the Cape colony may, 
 in a general arrangement like this, be included either 
 within West Africa or South Africa. The whole coast 
 is little visited or known, being of a most barren and 
 desolate description, and possessing few harbors. From 
 Walfich Bay, Mr. Galton recently penetrated nearly 
 400 miles into the interior toward Lake Ngami, and 
 explored the country inhabited by the Ovaherero, or 
 Damaras, and other tribes. 
 
 Under South Africa the Cape colony only is gener- 
 ally comprised. It takes its name from the Cape of 
 Good Hope, and extends from thence to the Orange 
 River in the north, and to the Tugela River in the east. 
 A large proportion of the territory included within these 
 limits, especially in the north, is either unoccupied, or, 
 excepting missionary stations, entirely in the hands of 
 the aborigines. 
 
 Natal, or Victoria, a district on the east coast, and 
 separated from the Cape colony by KafTraria, is a re- 
 cently formed British settlement, containing an area 
 of about 18,000 square miles. It is highly favored in 
 those respects in which the Cape is most deficient, hav- 
 ing abundance of wood and water, with coal and vari- 
 ous metallic ores, a fine alluvial soil, and a climate 
 adapted to the cultivation of the products for which the 
 home demand is large and constant — cotton, silk, and 
 indigo. Pietermaritzburg, the capital of the settle- 
 ment, lies 50 miles from the coast. Port Natal, now 
 D'Urban, seated on a fine lake-like bay, is the only 
 harbor. 
 
 To Africa belong a considerable number of islands. 
 The Madeiras, belonging to Portugal, lie off the north- 
 
AFR 
 
 15 
 
 ALA 
 
 west coast of Africa, at a distance of abont 360 miles. 
 Madeira, tlie chief island, is about 100 miles in circuit, 
 and has long been famed for its picturesque beauty, 
 rich fruits, and fine climate, which renders it a favor- 
 ite resort of invalids. Wine is the staple produce. 
 Funchal, the chief town, with nearly 30,000 inhabit- 
 ants, is a regular station for the West India mail 
 steam-paclcets from Southampton, and the Brazilian 
 sailing-packets from Falmouth. The Canaries, belong- 
 ing to Spain, the 8nppose4 Fortunate Islands of the 
 ancients, are situated about 300 miles south of Madei- 
 ra. They are 13 in number, all of volcanic origin, Teue- 
 riffe being the largest. The latter is remarkable for 
 its peak, which rises as a vast pyramidal mass to the 
 height of 12,172 feet. The Cape Verd Islands, sub- 
 ject to Portugal, are a numerous group about 80 miles 
 from Cape Verd. They obtained their name from 
 the profusion of sea-weed found by the discoverers in 
 the neighboring ocean, giving it the appearance of a 
 green meadow. They are also of volcanic origin. 
 Fernando Po, a very mountainous island, is in the 
 Bight of Biafra. Formerly a British settlement, it 
 was abandoned owing to its unhealthiness, and is now 
 only inhabited by a few negroes and mulattoes. St. 
 Thomas, immediately under the equator, is a Portu- 
 guese settlement ; as also Prince's Island, 2° north 
 of the line. Annobom, in 2° S. lat., belongs to the 
 Spaniards. Ascension, a small, arid, volcanic islet, 
 was made a British port on the arrival of Kapoleon 
 Bonaparte at St. Helena, and since retained as a sta- 
 tion, at which ships may touch for stores. Green Hill, 
 the summit of the island, rises to the height of 2840 
 feet. St. Helena is a huge dark mass of rock, rising 
 abruptly from the ocean to the height of 2692 feet. 
 James' Town is the only town and port, containing 
 5800 inhabitants. Madagascar, the largest island of 
 Africa, and one of the largest in the world, is separated 
 from the Mozambique coast by a channel of that name, 
 about 250 miles wide. The area exceeds that of 
 France, comprising 225,000 square miles, and the pop- 
 ulation is estimated at 4,000,000. It has an atmos- 
 phere so pestilential, in particular localities, that to 
 breathe it for a short duration is generally, and very 
 quickly, fatal. But other parts are not insalubrious. 
 The lemurs, an interesting tribe of animals, are pecul- 
 iar to Madagascar and the Comoro Archipelago. The 
 inhabitants are diverse races of Negro, Arab, and Ma- 
 lay origin. The Ovahs, a people of the central prov- 
 inces, are now dominant. The principal town, Tan- 
 anarivu, has 8000 inhabitants. The Comoro isles, four 
 in number, are in the north part of the Mozambique 
 Channel, and inhabited by Arab tribes. Bourbon, 
 400 miles east of Madagascar, is a colony of France, 
 producing for export coffee, sugar, cocoa, spices, and 
 timber. Mauritius, ceded to the British by the French 
 in 1814, is 90 miles northeast of Bourbon. The sugar- 
 cane is chiefly cultivated. Port Louis, the capital, 
 beautifully situated, has 26,000 inhabitants. Within 
 the jurisdiction of the Governor of the Mauritius are 
 the islands of Rodriguez, the Seychelles, and the Am- 
 irante islands. Socotra, a large island, east of Cape 
 Jerdaffun, with an Arab population, has been known 
 from early times ; it is now a British possession. This 
 island was long celebrated as producing the finest alo- 
 etic drug ; a few years ago this was denied ; but now 
 it is found still to produce a fine kind of aloe, though 
 much of what passed as Socotrine aloes really came 
 from India. — E. B. 
 
 African Company, a society of merchants trad- 
 ing to Africa. An association in Exeter, which was 
 formed in 1588, gave rise to this company. A charter 
 was granted to a joint stock company in 1618 : a third 
 company was created in 1631 ; a fourth corporation in 
 1662 ; and another formed by letters patent in 1672, 
 and remodeled in 1695. The rights vested in the 
 present company, 23 Geo. II. 1749. — See Slave 
 Tbade. 
 
 Agate (popularly Corselian), Germ. AchU; 
 Dn. Achaat; Fr. Agate; It. Agata; Rus. Agat; Lat. 
 Achates. A genus of semi-pellucid gems, so called 
 from the Greek axare^, because originally found on 
 the banks of the river of that name in Italy. It is 
 never wholly opaque like jasper, nor transparent as 
 quartz-crystal; it takes a very high polish, and its 
 opaque parts usually present the appearance of dots, 
 eyes, veins, zones, or hands. Its colors are yellowish, 
 reddish, bluish, milk-white, honey-orange, or ochre- 
 yellow, flesh-blood, or brick-red, reddish brown, violet 
 blue, and brownish green. . It is found in irregular 
 rounded nodules, from the size of a pin's head to more 
 than a foot in diameter. The lapidaries distinguish 
 agates according to the color of their ground, the finer 
 semi-transparent kinds being termed Oriental. The 
 most beautiful agates found in Great Britain are com- 
 monly known by the name of Scotch pebbles, and are 
 met with in different parts of Scotland, principally on 
 the mountain of Cairngorm ; whence they are some- 
 times termed Cairngorms. The German agates are 
 the largest. Some very fine ones have been brought 
 from Siberia and Ceylon. They are found in great 
 plenty at the eastern extremity of the settlement of 
 the Cape of Good Hope, and are still met with in It- 
 aly. But the principal mines of agate are situated in 
 the little principality of Rajpepla, in the province of 
 Gujrat, 14 miles distant from the city of Broach, where 
 they are cut into beads^ crosses, snuff-boxes, etc. They 
 are exported in considerable quantities to other parts 
 of India, and to this country ; and hence, perhaps, the 
 jewelers' term "broach." 
 
 Agent. See Factor. 
 
 Agio, a term used in Commerce to denote the differ- 
 ence between the real and the nominal value of money. 
 In some states the coinage is so debased, that the real 
 is greatly reduced below the nominal value. Some- 
 times this is owing to abrasion, and the wear of circu- 
 lation. Where this reduction amounts, e.g., to 5 per 
 cent., if 100 sovereigns were offered as payment of a 
 debt in England, while such sovereigns were current 
 at their nominal value, they would be received as just 
 payment ; but if they were offered as payment of the 
 same amount of debt in a foreign state, they would be 
 received only at their intrinsic value of £95, the addi- 
 tional £6 constituting the agio. The same principle 
 is applied to the paper currency of a country, when re- 
 duced below the bullion value which it professes to 
 represent. According to the respective demand for 
 gold or paper money for the purposes of commerce, it 
 becomes necessary, in order to procure the one or oth- 
 er, as the case may require, to pay a premium for it, 
 which is called the agio. — E. B. 
 
 Agrarian Law, Agraria Lex. This was an equal 
 division among the Roman people of all the lands 
 which they acquired by conquest, limiting the acres 
 which each person should enjoy, first proposed by 
 Sp. Cassius, to gain the favor of the citizens, 486 
 B.C. It was enacted under the tribune Tiberius Grac- 
 chus, 132 B.C. ; but this law at last proved fatal to the 
 freedom of Rome under Julius Ca;sar. — Livy ; Vos- 
 
 SICS. 
 
 Ahead, a sea term, signifying farther onward than 
 the ship or at any distance before her, lying immedi- 
 ately on that point of the compass to which her stem 
 is directed. It is used in opposition to astern, which 
 expresses the situation of any object behind the ship. 
 
 Ahull, in Naval Language the situation of a ship 
 when all her sails are furled on account of the violence 
 of the storm, and when, having lashed her helm on the 
 lee-side, she lies nearly with her side to the wind and 
 sea, her head being somewhat inclined to the direction 
 of the wind. 
 
 Alabama, one of the Southern United States, is 
 bounded north by Tennessee, east by Georgia, south by 
 Florida and the Gulf of Mexico, and west by Missis- 
 sippi. It is between 30° 10' and 35° N. lat., and 85° 
 
ALA 
 
 16 
 
 ALA 
 
 and 88° 30' AV. long., and between 8° and 11" 30' W. 
 long, from Washington. It contains 50,722 square 
 miles, or 32,462,080 acres. Population in 1800 was 
 only 2000; in 1810, 10,000; in 1820, 127,901; in 1830, 
 308,997; in 1840, 690,756; and in 1850, 771,671. 
 Whites, 426,507 ; free colored, 2272 ; slaves 342,892. It 
 contained in 1850 fifty-two counties. The capital is 
 Montgomery, situated on the left bank of the Alabama 
 Eiver, 338 miles above Mobile by the course of the riv- 
 er. Mobile, the metropolis, is the most populous and 
 commercial place in the State. The other principal 
 places are Huntsville, Florence, Wetumpka, Tusca- 
 loosa, Cahaba, Eufala, etc. 
 
 Surface, Soil, etc. — The surface of this State exhibits 
 naiuch variety : bordering the Gulf shore, and for some 
 distance interior it is low and level, soil sandy, and the 
 prevailing timber is pine. The central portion exhib- 
 its an undulating surface, with a deep, rich, and pro- 
 ductive soil, especially along the margins of streams. 
 Approaching the north, it rises into a hilly region, and 
 in the northeast corner of the State it becomes mount- 
 ainous. This is caused by the southern termination 
 of the Alleghany Eidge, which here, in crossing the 
 State, melts away into a hilly district, and is finally 
 lost in the rolling prairies and gently undulating 
 plains. The Tennessee Valley, from where it enters the 
 State, near the northeast corner, until it leaves it at the 
 northwest corner, presents rich and fertile bottom lands, 
 and the lands bordering thereon are the richest agricul- 
 tural portion of the State. The climate, varying from 
 the south to the north part of the State, is favorable for 
 the production of its great staples, cotton, rice, sugar, 
 sweet potatoes, and Indian corn, and in the middle and 
 northern part wheat and other cereals. Alabama has 
 great mineral resources; the entire middle region is 
 underlaid with bituminous coal, and deposits of iron 
 ore, and in different localities throughout the State 
 are lead ore, manganese, limestone, marble, etc. ; in 
 the northeast gold mines have been wrought with some 
 success. 
 
 There were in this State, in 1850, 4,435,614 acres of 
 land improved, and 7,702,067 of unimproved land in 
 farms. Cash value of farms, $64,323,224, and the value 
 of implements and machinery was $5,125,663. Live 
 Stock : horses, 128,001 ; asses and mules, 59,895 ; milch 
 cows, 227,791 ; working oxen, 66,961 ; other cattle, 
 433,263; sheep, 371,880; swine, 1,904,540; value of 
 live stock, $21,690,112. 
 
 Agncultural Products, etc. — ^Wheat, 294,044 bushels 
 produced ; rye, 17,261 ; Indian corn, 28,754,048 ; oats, 
 2,965,696; barley, 3,958; buckwheat, 348; peas and 
 beans, 892,701 ; potatoes, 246,001 ; sweet potatoes, 
 5,475,204 ; rice, 2,312,252 pounds. Value of products 
 of the orchard, $15,408 ; produce of market gardens, 
 $84,821 ; pounds of butter made, 4,008,811 ; of cheese, 
 31,412 ; sugar, hogsheads of, 8242 ; maple-sugar, 643 
 pounds; molasses, 83,428 gallons; beeswax and hon- 
 ey, 897,021 pounds ; wool, 657,118 pounds produced ; 
 cotton, 564,429 bales ; tiax, 3921 pounds ; silk cocoons, 
 167 ; hops, 276 pounds; tobacco, 164,990; haj', 32,685 
 tons ; clover seed, 138 bushels ; other grass seeds, 547 ; 
 flax seed, 69 bushels ; and there were made 220 gals, of 
 wine. Value of home-made rhanufactnres, $1,934,120 ; 
 of slaughtered animals, $4,823,485. — Census, 1850. 
 
 Rivers, etc. — Mobile, the principal river, is formed 
 bj' the junction of the Alabama and Tombigbee rivers, 
 and enters Mobile Bay by two months. The Alabama 
 is navigable for vessels requiring six feet of water 
 60 miles above its junction, and has four or five feet of 
 water 150 miles to the mouth of the Cahawba, and to 
 the junction of the Coosa and Tallapoosa, of which it is 
 formed ; it has in its shallowest places three feet of 
 water. The Tombigbee, the other constituent of Mo- 
 bile River, is navigable for schooners 120 miles to St. 
 Stephens, and for steamboats to Columbus, Mississippi. 
 The Black Warrior, a large branch of it, is navigable for 
 steamboats to Tuscaloosa. The Chattahoochee for a 
 
 considerable distance separates this State fl-om Georgia 
 on the east. The Tennessee curves southwardly from 
 the northeast to the northwest corner of the State, and 
 is navigable for steamboats to Florence, at the foot of 
 the Muscle Shoals. 
 
 Mobile Bay sets up 30 miles from the Gulf of Mexico, 
 with an average breadth of 12 miles. See Mobile. 
 
 Internal Improvements, etc. — Muscle Shoals Canal is 
 designed to overcome an obstruction in the Tennessee 
 Eiver, and extends from F,lorence 35| miles, and cost 
 $571,835, and when completed to Brown's Ferry, at the 
 head of the shoal, is estimated to cost $1,361,057. 
 Huntsville Canal extends 16 miles from Triana, on Ten- 
 nessee Eiver, to Huntsville. There were in this State, 
 January, 1854, six railroads, four of which were whol- 
 ly or in part in operation ; aggregate miles finished, 
 221; cost, $3,546,000; and 65 miles chartered or in 
 course of construction. There are three banks in the 
 State, with an aggregate capital of $2,100,000. The 
 State Penitentiary is at Wetumpka. 'There is also a 
 State insane hospital, and a school for the deaf and 
 dumb at Eobinson's Springs. 
 
 The railway system is yet in its infancy in this State. 
 There are 236 miles in operation, and 663 miles in con- 
 struction. Congress has this year (1856) granted land 
 for Alabama railroads, and this grant will doubtless 
 be sufiicient to build the roads now in progress. Ala- 
 bama is one of the States that peculiarly need rail- 
 roads. Its products are not consumed in the State, but 
 have to be transported to the sea-board, and the ab- 
 sence of large rivers makes railroads indispensable to 
 the prosperity of the State. 
 
 Manufactures. — There were in this State in 1850, 13 
 cotton factories, with a capital invested of $681,900, 
 employing 349 males and 397 females, producing 3,281,- 
 000 yards of sheeting, etc., and 790,000 pounds of yam, 
 valued at $398,585 ; 3 woolen factories, with a capital 
 of $3600, employing 11 males and 3 females, manufac- 
 turing cloth valued at $7470 ; 1 establishment making 
 pig iron, with a capital of $25,000, employing 40 per- 
 sons, producing 522 tons of pig iron, valued at $28,896 ; 
 10 establishments with a capital of $216,625, employ- 
 ing 212 persons, and making 1915 tons of castings, 
 etc., valued at $271,126 ; 1 establishment with a cap- 
 ital of $2500, employing 14 persons, manufacturing 
 100' tons of wrought iron, valued at $7500 ; 217 flour- 
 ing, and grist mills, 294 saw mills, 149 tanneries, 50 
 printing-offices, issuing 60 newspapers, etc. 
 
 This State was originally included in the territorial 
 limits of Georgia, except the part which belonged to 
 Florida. In 1802 Georgia ceded all her territory west 
 of Chattahoochee Eiver to the Mississippi River, to the 
 United States, and in 1817 it was constituted the Mis- 
 sissippi Territory, and Alabama continued a part of 
 this territory until it was admitted into the Union, and 
 became an independent State in 1820. 
 
 Alabaster (Germ. Alabaster; It. Alaiastro; Ft. 
 Albdlre; Euss. Alabastr; Lat. Alabastrites). A kind 
 of stone resembling marble, but softer. Under this 
 name are confounded two minerals, the gypseous and 
 calcareous alabasters ; they are wholly distinct from 
 each other when pure, but in some of the varieties are 
 occasionally mixed together. The former, when of a 
 white, or yellowish, or greenish color, semi-transpar- 
 ent, and capable of receiving a polish, is employed by 
 statuaries. It is verj' easily worked, but is not sus- 
 ceptible of a polish equal to marble. Calcareous ala- 
 baster is heavier than the former ; it is not so hard as 
 marble, but is notwithstanding susceptible of a good 
 polish, and is more used in statuary. The statuaries 
 distinguish alabaster into two sorts, the common and 
 Oriental. Spain and Italy yield the best alabaster. 
 That produced at Montania, in the Papal States, is in 
 the highest esteem for its beautiful whiteness. Infe- 
 rior sorts are found in France and Germany. Alabas- 
 ter is wrought into tables, vases, statues, chimney- 
 pieces, etc. 
 
ALC 
 
 17 
 
 ALE 
 
 Alcohol (ardent spikit), (Fr. Esprit de Vin; 
 Germ, Weingdst ; It, Spirito ardente, Spirito di Vino, 
 Acquarzente), the name given to the pure spirit obtain- 
 able by distillation, and subsequent rectification, from 
 all liquors that have undergone the vinous fermenta- 
 tion, and from none but such as are susceptible of it. 
 It is light, transparent, colorless; of a sharp, pene- 
 trating, agreeable smell; and a warm, stimulating 
 taste. It is quite the same, whether obtained from 
 brandy, wine, whisky, or any other fluid which has 
 been fermented. The specific gravity of alcohol when 
 perfectly pure is from -792 to '800, that of water being 
 I'OOO ; but the strongest spirit afforded by mere distil- 
 lation is about '820 ; alcohol of the shops is about '835 
 or '840. Alcohol can not be frozen by any known de- 
 gree of cold. It boils at 174°. It is the only dissolv- 
 ent of many resinous substances, and is extensively 
 used in medicine and the arts. — brs. A. T. Thomson, 
 Uee, etc. 
 
 Alder, the Betula alnus of botanists, a forest tree 
 abundant in England and most parts of Europe. It 
 thrives best in marshy grounds and on the banks of 
 rivers. It rarely attains to a very great size ; its 
 wood is extremely durable in water or in wet ground ; 
 and hence it is much used for piles, planking, pumps, 
 pipes, sluices, and generally for all purposes where it 
 is kept constantly wet. It soon rots when exposed to 
 the weather or to damp ; and, when dry, it is much 
 subject to worms. The color of the wood is reddish 
 yellow, of different shades, and nearly uniform. Tex- 
 ture very uniform, with large septa of the same color as 
 the wood. It is soft, and works easily. — Teedgold's 
 Principles of Carpentry. 
 
 Ale and Beer, well known and extensively used 
 fermented liquors, the principle of which is extracted 
 from several sorts of grain, but most commonly from 
 barley, after it has undergone the process termed malt- 
 ing. 
 
 1. Historical Notice of Ale and Beer. — ^The manu- 
 facture of ale or beer is of very high antiquity. He- 
 rodotus tells us that, owing to the want of wine, the 
 Egyptians drank a liquor fermented from barley (lib, 
 ii, cap, 77). The use of it was also very anciently in- 
 troduced into Greece and Italy, though it does not ap- 
 pear to have ever been very extensively used in these 
 countries. Mead, or metheglin, was probably the ear- 
 liest intoxicating liquor known in the north of Europe, 
 Ale or beer was, however, in common use in Germany 
 in the time of Tacitus (_Morib. G,erm. cap, 23), "All 
 the nations," says Pliny, " who inhabit the west of 
 Europe have a liquor with which they intoxicate them- 
 selves, made of corn and water (fruge madidd). The 
 manner of making the liquor is somewhat different 
 in Gaul, Spain, and other countries, and it is called 
 by many various names ; but its nature and proper- 
 ties are every where the same. The people of Spain, 
 in particular, brew this liquor so well that it will keep 
 good for a long time. So exquisite is the ingenuity 
 of mankind in gratifying their vicious appetites, that 
 they have thus invented a niethod to make water it- 
 self intoxicate," — Hist. Nat. lib. isiv. cap. 22. The 
 Saxons and Danes were passionately fond of beer; 
 and the drinking of it was supposed to form one of the 
 principal enjoyments of the heroes admitted to the 
 hall of Odin. — JIallet's Northern Antiquities, cap. 6, 
 etc. The manufacture of ale was early introduced 
 into England. It is mentioned in the laws of Ina, 
 king of Wessex ; and is particularly specified among 
 the liquors provided for a royal banquet in the reign 
 of Edward the Confessor. It was customary in the 
 reigns of the Norman princes to regulate the price of 
 ale ; and it was enacted by a statute passed in 1272, 
 that a brewer should be allowed to sell two gallons of 
 ale for a penny in cities, and three or four gallons for 
 tlie same price in the country. 
 
 The use of hops in the manufacture of ale and beer 
 seems to have been a German invention. They were 
 B 
 
 used in the breweries of the Netherlands in the begin- 
 ning of the 14th century ; but they do not seem to have 
 been introduced into England till 200 years afterward, 
 or till the beginning of the 16th century. In 1530, 
 Henry VIII. enjoined brewers not to put hops into 
 their ale. It would, however, appear that but little 
 attention was paid to this order ; for in 1552 hop plant- 
 ations had begun to be formed. — Beckmasm's Hist. 
 Invent, vol. iv. p. 336-341, Engl, edition. The addi- 
 tion of hops renders ale more palatable, by giving it an 
 agreeable bitter taste, while, at the same time, it fits 
 it for being kept much longer without injury. Gen- 
 erally speaking, the English brewers employ a much 
 larger quantity of hops than the Scotch. 
 
 Years. 
 
 MALT IN GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 BoeheJa 
 
 
 Rates of Duty per bushel. 
 
 
 charged with 
 fat,. 
 
 Duty paid. 
 
 Eaglaad. 
 
 Scotlaod 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 ». d. 
 
 .. d. 
 
 .. d. 
 
 1801 
 
 19,742,741 
 
 1,317,776 
 
 14i 
 
 8i 
 
 16i 
 
 1802 
 
 04,760,441 
 
 2,988,682 
 
 2 8 
 
 1 8} 
 
 
 1803 
 
 34,710,084 
 
 3,977,369 
 
 46i 
 
 
 i'si 
 
 1804 
 
 24,763,023 
 
 6,240,035 
 
 
 s'iJi 
 
 2 9^ 
 
 1806 
 
 25,568,183 
 
 5,366,300 
 
 
 
 2 3i 
 
 1806 
 
 30,710,947 
 
 6,614,403 
 
 
 
 2 6i 
 
 1807 
 
 27,791,064 
 
 6,936,663 
 
 
 
 
 1808 
 
 25,873,119. 
 
 5,376,042 
 
 
 
 
 1809 
 
 25,852,369 
 
 5,409,614 
 
 
 
 
 1810 
 
 26,889,183 
 
 6,741,992 
 l-68bshls.« 
 
 
 
 
 1811 
 
 29,676,827 
 
 6,332,867 
 
 
 
 
 1812 
 
 21,233,623 
 
 4,493,704 
 
 
 
 
 1813 
 
 25,354,203 
 
 5,401,954 
 
 
 
 
 1814 
 
 29,743,642 
 
 6,411,817 
 
 
 
 s'si 
 
 1SI6 
 
 30,209,038 
 
 6,707.446 
 
 
 
 3 3i 
 
 1816 
 
 24,200,093 
 
 4,741,812 
 
 2'5' 
 
 i'si 
 
 46 
 
 ISIT 
 
 23,334,730 
 
 2,769,188 
 
 
 
 2 a 
 
 1818 
 
 26,204,089 
 
 8,296,229 
 
 
 
 
 1819 
 
 25,816,254 
 
 4,076,486 
 
 3'h 
 
 s'ii 
 
 
 1820 
 
 26,860,121 
 
 4,843,421 
 l-88bshls.' 
 
 
 
 s'ei 
 
 1821 
 
 29,393,411 
 
 4,297,581 
 
 
 
 
 1822 
 
 29,848,080 
 
 4,082,888 
 
 2'7' 
 
 2'7' 
 
 2'7' 
 
 1823 
 
 28,164,497 
 
 3,609,501 
 
 
 3 7i 
 
 
 1824 
 
 81,511,743 
 
 4,172,453 
 
 
 
 
 1825 
 
 36,206,450 
 
 4,631,324 
 
 
 
 
 1826 
 
 32,468,779 
 
 4,177,278 
 
 
 
 
 182T 
 
 29,615,501 
 
 3,809,988 
 
 
 
 
 1828 
 
 36,854;206 
 
 4,731,685 
 
 
 
 
 1829 
 
 29,152,777 
 
 3,743,616 
 
 
 
 
 1830 
 
 32,964,454 
 
 4,231,997 
 l-39bshls.» 
 
 
 
 
 1831 
 
 39,252,269 
 
 5,036,669 
 
 
 
 
 1832 
 
 37,390,686 
 
 4,799,053 
 
 
 
 
 1833 
 
 40,072,896 
 
 5,140,759 
 
 
 
 
 1834 
 
 41,145,591 
 
 6,275,403 
 
 
 
 
 1835 
 
 42,892,055 
 
 5,499,883 
 
 
 
 
 1886 
 
 44,387,780 
 
 5,699,879 
 
 
 
 
 183T 
 
 40,550,748 
 
 5,216,864 
 
 
 
 
 1838 
 
 40,556,566 
 
 5,181,838 
 
 
 .... 
 
 
 1839 
 
 39,928,829 
 
 4,139,804 
 
 
 2 7 
 
 
 1840 
 
 42,406,862 
 
 5,692,477 
 l-60bshls.* 
 
 
 
 
 1841 
 
 36,164,235 
 
 4,889,243 
 
 27 
 
 27 
 
 27 
 
 1842 
 
 35,871,394 
 
 4,848,581 
 
 and 6 
 
 and 5 
 
 and 5 
 
 1843 
 
 35,693,890 
 
 4,827,950 
 
 per cent. 
 
 percent. 
 
 per cent. 
 
 1844 
 
 37,187,186 
 
 5,027,071 
 
 
 
 
 1845 
 
 36,645,990 
 
 6,538,033 
 
 
 
 
 1846 
 
 42,097,085 
 
 6,691,273 
 
 
 
 
 184r 
 
 35,307,818 
 
 4,775,691 
 
 
 
 
 1848 
 
 37,645,912 
 
 5,076,238 
 
 
 
 
 1849 
 
 38,936,460 
 
 5.266,779 
 
 
 
 
 1850 
 
 40,744,760 
 
 6,611,440 
 •72bshls.* 
 
 
 
 
 1851 
 
 40,337,412 
 
 5,080,869 
 
 .... 
 
 
 
 1862 
 
 41,071,636 
 
 5,323,936 
 
 
 
 
 
 * Decennial average annual consumption per head. 
 
 2. Distinction between Ale and Be&r, or Porter. — This 
 distinction has been well elucidated by Dr. Thomas 
 Thomson, in his article on Brewing, in the Encyclopae- 
 dia Britannica : " Both ale and beer are in Great Britain 
 obtained by fermentation from the malt of barley ; but 
 they differ from each other in several particulars. Ale 
 is light-colored, brisk, and sweetish, or at least free 
 from bitter; while beer is dark-colored, bitter, and 
 much less brisk. What is called porter in England is 
 a species of beer ; and the term ' porter' at present 
 signifies what was formerly called strong leer. The 
 original difference between ale and beer was owing to 
 the malt from which they were prepared. Ale malt 
 
ALE 
 
 18 
 
 ALE 
 
 was dried at a very low heat, and consequently was 
 of a pale color ; while beer, or porter malt, was dried 
 at a higher temperature, and had of consequence ac- 
 quired a brown color. This incipient charring had 
 developed a peculiar and agreeable bitter taste, which 
 was communicated to the beer along with the dark 
 color. This bitter taste rendered beer more agreeable 
 to the palate, and less injurious to the constitution than 
 ale. It was consequently manufactured in greater 
 quantities, and soon became the common drink of the 
 lower ranks in England. When malt became high- 
 priced, in consequence of the heavy taxes laid upon it, 
 and the great increase in the price of barley which took 
 place dui'ing the war of the French Kevolution, the 
 brewers discovered that a greater quantity of wort of 
 a given strength could be prepared from pale malt than 
 from brown malt. The consequence was that pale malt 
 was substituted for brown malt in the brewing of por- 
 ter and beer. We do not mean that the whole malt 
 employed was pale, but a considerable proportion of it. 
 The wort, of com-se, was much paler than before ; and 
 it wanted that agreeable bitter flavor which character- 
 ized porter, and made it so much relished by most pal- 
 ates. The porter brewers endeavored to remedy these 
 defects by several artificial additions. At the same 
 time, various substitutes'were tried to supply the place 
 of the agreeable bitter communicated to porter by the 
 use of brown malt. Quassia, cocculus indicus, and we 
 believe even opium, were employed in succession ; but 
 none of them was found to answer the purpose suffi- 
 ciently. Whether the use of these substances be still 
 persevered in we do not know ; but we rather believe 
 that they are not, at least by the London porter brew- 
 ers." 
 
 Ale and Wine are said to have been invented by 
 Bacchus ; the former where the soil, owing to its qual- 
 ity, would not grow grapes. — Tooke's Pantheon. Ale 
 was known as a beverage at least 404 b.c. Herodotus 
 ascribes the first discovery of the art of brewing barle}'- 
 wine to Isis, the wife of Osiris. The Romans and 
 Germans very early learned the process of preparing a 
 liquor from corn by means of fermentation, from the 
 Egyptians. — Tacitus. Ale-houses are made mention 
 of im the laws of Ina, king of Wessex. Booths were 
 set up in England a.d. 728, when laws were passed for 
 their regulation. Ale-houses were licensed 1621 ; and 
 excise duty on ale and beer was imposed on a system 
 nearly similar to the present, 13 Charles II. 1(560. — 
 Haydn. 
 
 Alexandria, so called from its illustrious founder, 
 Alexander the Great, the principal sea-port of Egypt, 
 on the coast of the Mediterranean, about 14 miles 
 W.S.W. of the Canopic mouth of the Nile ; the light- 
 house being in lat. 31° 11' 31" N., long. 29° 51' 28" E. 
 The situation ofthis famous city was admirably chosen. 
 Until the discovery of the route to India by the Cape 
 of Good Hope, Egypt formed the centre of the com- 
 merce between the Eastern and Western Worlds ; and 
 Alexandria was placed in the most favorable position 
 in Egypt for an emporium, being the only port on its 
 northern coast, where there is at once deep water and 
 security for shipping throughout the year. The ports 
 of Eosetta and Damietta, the former on the west, and 
 the latter on the eastern arm of the Nile, are both diffi- 
 cult of entrance, each having a bar, upon which there 
 is always a dangerous surf. Ships bound for Alexan- 
 dria avoid this serious inconvenience ; and by means 
 of an artificial navigation, stretching from the city to 
 the western branch of the Nile, it has almost the same 
 facilities for internal navigation that are enjoyed by 
 the cities referred to. 
 
 It may be proper, however, to mention that this ar- 
 tificial communication with the Nile has not always 
 been open. It existed in antiquity, but fell into decay 
 during the barbarism of more modern times. After 
 being shut up for some centuries, it has been reopened 
 by Mehemet All, who dug the Mahmoudie canal from 
 
 Alexandria to Atfeh, on the Nile, about 27 miles above 
 Eosetta. This important work is 44 miles in length, 
 90 feet in breadth, and from 15 to 18 feet deep. It was 
 opened in 1819 ; but owing partly to the nature of the 
 ground, partly to some defects in its construction, and 
 partly to the mud deposited by the water of the Nile, 
 it is difficult to keep in repair ; and can only be navi- 
 gated by boats that draw little water, and are not suit- 
 able for the navigation of the Nile. But, with all its 
 defects, the construction of this canal has been of the 
 greatest advantage, not to Alexandria only, but to 
 Egypt and even Europe. 
 
 Ports, etc. — The ancient city was situated a little 
 more inland than the modern one, opposite to the small 
 island of Pharos, on which was erected the light-house, 
 so celebrated in antiquity. — C^SAR, De Bello CivUi, lib. 
 iii. cap. 112. This island was, partly by artificial means, 
 and partly by natural causes, gradually joined to the 
 land by a mound, and on this the more modern town 
 is principally built. The isthmus and island have now 
 the form of a T, its head being northeast and southwest. 
 A square castle, or tower, built on a smalLislet or rock, 
 at the extremity of a mole projecting from the north- 
 east angle of the city, is still called the Pharos, and 
 niayperhaps occupy the site of the ancient light-house: 
 a light was exhibited on it down to 1842, when it ceased. 
 On each side of the city there is a port. That on the 
 westem, or African side, called the Old Port, the Eu- 
 nostos of the ancients, is by far the largest and best. It 
 stretches from the town westward to Marabout, about 
 6 miles, and is about li miles in width. It is bound- 
 ed on the north, partly by the western tongue or angle 
 of the island on which the city is partially built, at the 
 extremity of which is the new light-house, and partly 
 by rocks and sand banks. It has three entrances. The 
 first, or that nearest the city, having 17 feet water, is 
 nearly 14 miles southwest from the light-house; but it 
 is too narrow and difiicult to be attempted by any one 
 not thoroughly acquainted with the port. The eastern 
 side of the second or middle entrance is marked by 
 buoys which lie about 2^ miles southwest from the 
 light-house ; it is about a quarter of a mile wide, and 
 has, where shallowest, 27 feet water. The third or 
 western entrance has its westem boundary within about 
 three-eighths of a mile from the east end of Marabout 
 island : it is about half a mile wide, and has from 25 to 
 27 feet water in its shallowest places. This last is the 
 best entrance. Ships, when in, may anchor close to 
 the town in from 22 to 40 feet water, and there is good 
 anchorage in deep water all along the shore. Foreign- 
 ers were formerly excluded from this port; but this 
 prohibition no longer exists, and it is now principally 
 resorted to by the shipping frequenting the port. 
 
 What is called the New (though it be really the old- 
 est) or Asiatic harbor is on the eastern side of the town. 
 A rock called the Diamond lies a little to the east of 
 the Pharos tower ; and ships entering the port ought 
 to have this rock about a cable's length on the right. 
 If they get much farther to the left, they will come in 
 contact with a, shoal which stretches westward from 
 the Pharillon, or little tower, on the east side of the 
 port. The water immediately within the port south- 
 west from the Pharos is from 30 to 40 feet deep ; but 
 the space for anchorage is very limited, and is exposed 
 to the northerly gales ; and the ground being foul and 
 rocky, hempen cables are very apt to chafe, and sev- 
 eral accidents have happened in consequence to ships 
 unprovided with iron cables. Ordinary tides rise 2 
 feet ; but during the overflow of the Nile the rise is 4 
 feet. Variation 13° west. 
 
 ^ Trade of Alexandria.— The imports principally con- 
 sist of cotton stuffs, timber, woolen and silk stuff's, iron 
 and hardware, including copper and tin plates, jewel- 
 ry, machinery, ammunition, paper and stationery, cut- 
 lery, etc., etc. The exports consist principally of raw 
 cotton, rice, wheat and barley, beans, linseed, senna, 
 and other drugs and gums brought from the interior • 
 
ALE 
 
 19 
 
 ALE 
 
 indigo, opium, ostricli feathers, dates, soda, linen clotli, 
 coffee from Arabia, etc. The exports of wheat, barley, 
 and pulse for a while declined in consequence of the 
 superior encouragement given to the growth of cotton ; 
 but they have again increased, and in 1849 we brought 
 from Alexandria 129,954 qrs. wheat, 247,594 qrs. beans, 
 and 13,151 qrs. Indian corn. The culture of flax has 
 declined: formerly from 50,000 to 60,000 quarters of 
 linseed have been exported from Alexandria in a sin- 
 gle season, but the exports are now much less. Sugar 
 has been long cultivated in Egypt, but not to any great 
 extent, though the soil and climate of Upper Egypt 
 are said to be especially favorable to its growth. In- 
 digo and madder are among the articles of culture in- 
 troduced by the late Pacha. 
 
 Cotton has been grown in Egypt from a very re- 
 mote period ; previously, however, to the ascendency 
 of Mehemet All it was but little cultivated, and that 
 little was of inferior quality, short-stapled, and closely 
 resembling " Surats," under which name the small 
 quantities exported from the country were usually 
 sold. But iij 1820 a Frenchman of the name of Jumel 
 accidentally observed a verj' valuable variety of long- 
 stapled cotton, raised from seeds brought from Don- 
 gola and Senaar, growing in the garden of Mah6 Bey, 
 at Cairo. Jumel having represented its superiority to 
 the I'acha, its cultivation was undertaken on a large 
 scale on account of the latter ; and has succeeded so 
 well, that Mah^ or Makko cotton has been for a length- 
 ■ ened period by far the principal article of export from 
 Egypt. At a later period seeds, of the Sea-Island cot- 
 ton were introduced, and for a while it also answered 
 remarkably well; its produce, which in Egypt was 
 called Senaar, and in England " Egyptian Sea-Island," 
 ranking next in the estimation of the manufacturers 
 to genuine " Sea-island." Unfortunately, however, 
 this variety was found to degenerate, and its culture, 
 which was never very extensive, as well as that of the 
 old short-stapled variety, has, we believe, been wholly 
 abandoned. 
 
 Constantinople and the islands of the Archipelago 
 are the great markets for the wheat and other grain 
 exported from Egypt. The supplies are, however, ex- 
 tremely uncertain. Every thing in Egypt depends on 
 the Nile ; and when it does not rise to the usualiieight, 
 the crops are very much below an average. Beans 
 are extensively cultivated, and have sometimes been 
 brought to England, but rarely, if ever, with advant- 
 age to the importers. They are inferior to English 
 beans, and are peculiarly subject to the worm. No 
 oats are raised in Egypt, the horses being entirely fed 
 upon barley. Silk is grown to some extent. The 
 date-palm thrives in every part of Egypt, and the 
 fruit is largely exported. It is singular that, not- 
 withstanding the luxuriance of many of its vegetable 
 productions, Egypt should be entirely destitute of 
 timber. , 
 
 J/oney.— Accounts are kept at Alexandria, as at 
 Cairo, in current piastres, each piastre being equal to 
 40 paras, or medini, and each medino to 30 aspers. 
 The medino is also divided into 8 borbi, or 6 forli. A 
 purse contains 25,000 medini. At the closo of 1842 
 the exchange with England was 93'08 current piastres 
 per £1 ; but in general calculations 100 piastres are 
 supposed to equal £1. Payments, in transactions of 
 any importance, are generally made in Spanish dol- 
 lars. 
 
 Duties. — With the exception of the arbitrary prin- 
 ciples on which the Pacha fixes the prices of commod- 
 ities, there is nothing objectionable in his policy as to 
 commerce. The duties on imports are only 3 per cent. 
 We believe, however, that a small increase of the cus- 
 toms' duty would compensate the Pacha for the aboli- 
 tion of other oppressive charges, and there can be little 
 doubt that his subjects would be materially benefited 
 by the change. 
 
 Letters written last summer (1855) at Alexandria, 
 
 Egypt, state that Said Pasha, the viceroy, has given 
 the necessar}' orders for the construction of a railway 
 across the desert between Cairo and Suez, a distance 
 of 84 miles. The rails are to be brought out from En- 
 gland, and the Pasha's own engineers, who are French- 
 men, are to carry out the works. In about three j'ears 
 from this time it may be hoped that a railroad will run 
 quite across the country, and the transit of passengers, 
 which now occupies more than two daj's of uncomfort- 
 able traveling, will be reduced to ten or twelve hours 
 pf easy conveyance. For the extension of trade and 
 communication with India, it will be very desirable if 
 the Pasha should consent to carry coal to Suez at a 
 moderate charge, as the high price of coal at Suez is 
 at present the principal obstacle to other steamers reg- 
 ularly coming up the Red Sea besides those of the 
 Peninsular and Oriental Steam Nfivigation Company. 
 According to letters from Egypt dated December, 1855, 
 the railway between Alexandria and Cairo has been 
 nearly completed, and, according to the last advices, 
 is about to be opened for passengers and goods. The 
 importance of this communication, in superseding both 
 the canal and the Nile passage, and shortening the 
 transit between the two cities to about eight hours, 
 will be readily appreciated by every person who has 
 traveled across Egypt. The construction of the por- 
 tion of til? railway from Cairo to near Suez, which is 
 to complete the communication between the Mediter- 
 ranean and the Red Sea, is in active progress. The 
 directors are endeavoring to induce his highness, the 
 viceroy, to construct at the termini of these railways 
 at Cairo and the Red Sea commodious hotels, adapted 
 to the convenience of travelers from the East. The 
 spirit of improvement in the East is further shown by 
 the recent establishment of an electric telegraph across 
 Egypt. This has been determined upon by his high- 
 ness the viceroy, and will form an important improve- 
 ment in the overland communication with India, Chi- 
 na, etc. The directors sometime since submitted, at 
 the request of the viceroy, a proposal to establish a 
 monthly postal communication with Australia as soon 
 as the release of the vessels now engaged in the war 
 service should enable them to do so. No definite ar- 
 rangement has, however, been yet made to that ef- 
 fect. 
 
 Ancient Trade'of Alexandria. — Alexandria was for 
 a long series of years — first under the Greek successors 
 of Alexander, and subsequently under the Romans — 
 the principal entrepot of the ancient world. Most part 
 of the trafiic between Asia and Europe, that had at a 
 more early period centred at Tyre, was gradually di- 
 verted to this new emporium. An intercourse between 
 the ports on the eastern coast of Egypt and those on 
 the opposite coast of Arabia had subsisted from a very 
 early period. That between Egypt and India was 
 more recent. It was at first carried on by ships, which 
 having sailed down the Red Sea from Myos Hormos 
 and Berenice, coasted along the Arabian shores till 
 they reached Cape Rasselgate, whence a short course 
 brought them to India, near the mouth of the River 
 Indus. This was the course followed during the dy- 
 nasty of the Ptolemies ; but about eighty years after 
 Egypt had been annexed to the Roman empire, Hip- 
 paAus, the commander of an Egyptian ship trading to 
 India, having observed the regular shifting of the trade- 
 winds, ventured to sail with the western monsoon from 
 the Straits of Babelmandeb right across the Arabian 
 Ocean ; and was fortunate enough, after a prosperous 
 voyage, to arrive at Musiris, in that part of India 
 now known by the name of the Malabar coast. Hav- 
 ing' taken on board a cargo of Indian produce, Hippa- 
 lus returned in safety with the eastern monsoon to 
 Egypt. This discovery was deemed of so much im- 
 portance, that the name of the discoverer was given 
 to the wind which had carried him across the ocean to 
 India: and how trifling soever this voj'age may now 
 appear, those who consider that Hippalus had no com- 
 
ALE 
 
 20 
 
 ALE 
 
 pass by which to direct his course, and that owing to 
 this circnmstance, and the otlierwise imperfect state 
 of the art of navigation, the ancients seldom ventured 
 out of sight of land, even in seas with which they were 
 well acquainted, will be forward to admit that his en- 
 terprise and daring were nowise inferior to his success ; 
 and that he was well entitled to the gratitude of his 
 contemporaries, and the respect of posterity. 
 
 From the epoch of this discovery, fleets traded peri- 
 odically from Egypt to Musiris, conveying the products 
 of Europe to India, and conversely. The Indian goods 
 having been landed at Myos Hormos and Berenice 
 were thence conveyed by caravans to Coptos (the mod- 
 ern Kenn6), on the Nile, where they were put on board 
 lighters and sent to Alexandria, whence they were dis- 
 tributed all over the Western World. The goods sent 
 to India were conveyed to Myos Hormos and Berenice 
 by the same route. Myos Hormos was situated on the 
 shore of the Arabian Gulf, about a degi-ee to the north 
 of the modern port of Cosseir. The distance from it 
 to Coptos, in a straight line, is about 70 English miles. 
 Berenice was situated a good way farther south, being 
 nearly under the tropic. It was built by Ptolemy 
 Philadelphus. Its distance from Coptos is stated by 
 Pliny at 258 Roman miles ; the different resting-places 
 on the road were determined by the wells, and the 
 journey occupied about 12 days. Ptolemy seems to 
 have preferred this station to Myos Hormos, though 
 the land-carriage to Coptos was so much farther, from 
 its gi'eater proximity to the Straits of Babelmandeb, 
 and its lessening the voyage up the Red Sea. Pliny 
 says that the cost of the Indian commodities brought 
 to Rome through Alexandria was increased a hundred- 
 fold (centuplicato veneanf) by the expense of carriage, 
 etc. We suspect, however, that this is a rhetorical 
 exaggeration, meaning merely that their price was 
 very materially enhanced. If the increase was any 
 thing like that mentioned, it must have been owing to 
 the imposition of oppressive tolls and duties, for it could 
 not possibly have been occasioned by the mere expenses 
 of conveyance. In the 16th century, the cost of In- 
 dian commodities, brought to Western Europe by way 
 of Alexandria and Aleppo, was about three times the 
 cost of those brought by the Cape of Good Hope. — See 
 post, East India Company, History, of. But Egypt 
 was then occupied by the Mamelukes and Turks, who 
 threw every sort of obstacle in the way of commerce, 
 and loaded it with the most oppressive exactions. — 
 Plin. Hist. Nat. lib. vi. cap. 23 ; Ameilhon, Commerce 
 des Egyptiens, p. 161-176, etc. ; Robertson's Ancient 
 India, note 20, etc. 
 
 Besides this important traffic, which supplied Rome 
 and the Western World with the silks, spices, precious 
 stones, and other products of Arabia and India, a great 
 trade in corn was carried on from Alexandria to Rome. 
 Egypt, for a lengthened period, constituted thegranary 
 from which Rome, and afterward Constantinople, drew 
 the principal part of their supplies ; and its possession 
 was, on that account, reckoned of the utmost conse- 
 quence. Augustus employed merchantmen of a lar- 
 ger size than any that had previously traded in the 
 Mediterranean to convey the corn of Egypt to Ostia. 
 They were escorted by ships of war. The fleet re- 
 
 ceived the names ofsaei-a sai&felix emhok, and enjoyed 
 several peculiar privileges. The ships belonging to it 
 were the only ones authorized to hoist the small sail 
 called supparum, when they drew near the coasts of 
 Italy. Some of the fast-sailing vessels attached to the 
 fleet were sent on before, to give notice of its approach ; 
 and a deputation of senators went down to Ostia to 
 receive the ships, which anchored amidst the acclama- 
 tions of an immense number of spectators. The cap- 
 tains were obliged to make oath that the corn on board 
 their ships was that which had been delivered to them 
 in Egypt, and that the cargoes were entire as shipped. 
 — HuET, Commerce et Navigation des Anciens, cap. 
 xlviii. ; Senec(S Epist. Ixxvii., etc. 
 
 Intercourse with India through Alexandria.- — These 
 few details will, perhaps, serve to give a faint idea of 
 the importance of Alexandria in the commerce of an- 
 tiquity. It is impossible, indeed, for any one to glance 
 at a map of the world, or of the ancient hemisphere, 
 and not to perceive that Eg}'pt is the natural entrepot 
 of the commerce between Europe and all the vast coun- 
 tries stretching east from Arabia to Chiwa. The dis- 
 covery of the route to India by the Cape of Good Hope, 
 in 1498, must, no doubt, have, under any circumstan- 
 ces, diverted a considerable portion of the trade with 
 the western States of Europe, and in the heavier and 
 bulkier class of articles, into a new channel. It is, 
 however, abundantly certain that, had the same facil- 
 ities for conducting the trade with the East existed in 
 Egypt in the 16th and 17th centuries that existed in 
 it in antiquity, she would have continued to be the 
 centre of the trade for all the lighter and more valua- 
 ble products, and the route of the greater number of 
 the individuals passing between Europe and Asia. But 
 the lawless and arbitrary dominion of the Mamelukes, 
 who loaded all individuals passing through the coun- 
 try with oppressive exactions, at the same lime that 
 they treated all foreigners, and especially Christians, 
 with insolence and contempt, put an entire stop to the 
 intercourse so long carried on by this shortest, most di- 
 rect, and most convenient route. Happily, however, a 
 new era has begun, and Egypt has once more become the 
 grand thoroughfare of the Eastern and Western "\^'orlds. 
 After good order and a regular government had been 
 introduced into Egypt by Mehemet Ali, it was seen 
 that it might be again made the channel of communi- 
 cation with India ; and the importance of facilitating 
 the intercourse with that continent forcibly attracted 
 the attention of the British government aiid the East 
 India Company. We believe, however, that the public 
 are principally indebted to the exertions of Mr. Wag- 
 hom for the early and successful opening of what has 
 been called the " over-land route" to India. At all 
 events, the establishment of a steam communication 
 between Europe and Southern Asia, by way of Alex- 
 andria and Suez, is one of the most striking and im- 
 portant events in recent times. It has shortened the 
 journey to India from England more than a half, and 
 rendered it comparatively safe and expeditious. Steam- 
 ers ascend the Nile as far as Cairo ; and the passengers 
 and mails are thence conveyed across the desert to Suez, 
 and conversely, with comfort and expedition! AVe 
 subjoin the following details : 
 
 OvEBLAND Mails. — Outwakb. 
 
 Dispatched from London. 
 
 Arrive at Alexandria 
 about 
 
 Leave Suez 
 about 
 
 AiTive in Bombay 
 about 
 
 Via Southampton. 
 
 Via Marseilles. 
 
 4th and 
 
 20th of every month by > 
 contract steamers. 
 
 Sth of every montli. 
 24th of every month. 
 
 18th of every month. 
 
 4th or 5th of every 
 month. 
 
 21st or 22d of every 
 month, 
 
 6th or 7th of every 
 month. 
 
 9th of every month. 
 
 Arrive at Calcutta about 
 
 1st and 15th of every 
 
 month. 
 
 The steamers that take the Southampton mails call at Gibraltar, and arrive at Malta about the 14th and 80th. The mails 
 from Marseilles leave that port by one of her Majesty's steamers about the 11th and 27th of each month, and aiTive at Malta 
 the 15fh and Slst At Malta the mails are transhipped, and conveyed by steamers to Alexandria. 
 
ALE 
 
 21 
 
 ALE 
 
 . OvEELAND Mails.— Homeward, Fkom Bombay to London, 
 
 Dispatched firom Bombay 
 
 about 
 
 Arrive at Suez 
 
 about 
 
 Leave Alexandria 
 about 
 
 Arrive in London about 
 
 Via MarBeiUes, 
 
 Via Southampton. 
 
 Istof each month. 
 
 18th of each month. 
 
 2lBt of each month. 
 
 1st of each month. 
 
 26th of each month. 
 
 Dispatched from Calcutta 
 
 8th of each month. 
 
 10th of each month. 
 
 21st of each month. 
 
 7th of each month. \ 
 
 Dispatched from Bombay> 
 
 about aoth of each month) 
 
 The contract steamer with the outward mail waits at Alexandria for the homeward mail, and aiTives at Malta about the loth 
 and 24th of every month, where the Marseilles portion is transferred to one of her Majesty's. steamers, which carries it to Mar- 
 seilles, whence it is sent by land to Paris, and via Dover to London ; the remaining portion is landed at Southampton, and is 
 thence sent by railway to London. Average time to or from Bombay, via MarseiUes, 31 days ; and to or from Calcutta, via 
 Marseilles, about 42 or 48 days ; and via Southampton, from- 47 to 53 days. By ship round the Cape, 4 months. The news- 
 paper proprietors run expresses from Marseilles on the anival of each mail, and thus are enabled to publish the news some 
 two days before the letters arrive in London. 
 
 Routes fou Passengers. — Fikst, via Southampton. 
 
 Time of Starting. 
 
 Fare to 
 Alexandrift. 
 
 Alexandria to 
 Suez. 
 
 Suez to 
 Bombay. 
 
 From Suez to Ceylon, 
 MadriLs, or Calcutta. 
 
 Steamers leave Southampton the 4th and 20th of every month,) 
 and call at Gibraltar and Malta, arriving at Alexandria[- 
 about the ISth, 4th, or 5th of every month. ) 
 
 Ist Cabin, 
 £ 9. d. 
 
 80 
 
 lot Cabin. 
 £ 8. d. 
 
 12 
 
 l8t Cabin. 
 £ a. d. 
 
 to 
 
 iBt Cnbin. 
 60Z. to 70L 
 
 Second Route, via Maeseillks. — By steamer to Boulogne; railway, to Paris and Chalons-sur-Saone; thence to Lyons, 
 Avignon, and to Marseilles, Time occupied, three days. French government steamers leave Marseilles the 9th, 19th, and 
 29th of every inonth, calling at Leghorn, Civita Veechia, Naples, Malta, and Messina. French government steamers also 
 leave Marseilles on the 6th and 23d of every month for Alexandria and Beyroot direct, calling at Malta on the way. 
 
 The Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company have published the following statements : 
 
 
 
 
 PiTBt Class. 
 
 Second Class. 
 
 Servants. i 
 
 Rates of passage between England and Malta 
 
 " " " Alexandria 
 
 
 £ 1. d. 
 20 
 30 
 
 £ 1. d. 
 12 
 19 
 
 £ ,.d. ! 
 10 
 15 i 
 
 Ratrs of Pabsagt:, inclusive of Expenses of Transit turougii Egypt, between England and j 
 
 
 Aden. 
 
 Ceylon 
 
 Madras. 
 
 Calcutta. 
 
 Penang. 
 
 Singa- 
 poro. 
 
 Batavia, 
 
 Honi' 
 Kong, 
 
 Adelaide. 
 
 Port 
 Ptilip, 
 Sydney. 
 
 Gentlemen occupying a berth in a cabin, with 2 or"] 
 3 others, on the lower deck. Ladies, if booked 1 
 eai'ly, a berth in a cabin, with two or three oth- ( 
 ers, on the upper deck J 
 
 Manied couples, occupying a reserved cabin onf 
 the main deck j 
 
 Children with the parent, 3 years and under 10 
 
 200 
 
 35 
 
 Free. 
 
 80 
 
 18 
 
 £96 
 
 240 
 
 48 
 
 Free. 
 
 43 
 
 26 
 
 £100 
 
 250 
 
 SO 
 
 Free. 
 
 46 
 
 2S 
 
 £105 
 
 2T0 
 
 53 
 
 Free. 
 
 60 
 
 80 
 
 £105 
 
 2T0 
 
 53' 
 
 Free. 
 
 50 
 
 30 
 
 £110 
 
 290 
 
 65 
 
 ■Free. 
 
 S2 
 
 31 
 
 £120 
 
 810 
 
 60 
 
 Free. 
 
 55 
 
 33 
 
 :^130 
 
 . 335 
 
 65 
 
 Free. 
 
 60 
 
 . i)6 
 
 £150, 
 
 360 ■ 
 
 78 
 
 Free. 
 
 T5 
 
 ,£160 
 
 860 
 
 80 
 Free. 
 •• 80 
 
 Servants, European 
 
 " native 
 
 For large families an allowance will be made in the foregoing rates to Ceylon, Madras, and Calcutta. | 
 
 Tlie expenses of transit through Egypt are charged at the Company's offices, at the time of securing the passage, for the 
 Egyptian government. We subjoin an extract from the 
 
 Teanbit Administration Taeiff. 
 
 Between Alexandria 
 and Suez. 
 
 Alady ~| (-£12 
 
 Agentleman In vans 12 
 
 A child above ten years , V across the< 12 
 
 A child of five years and under ten Desert, 8 
 
 A child of two yeara and under five J [_ 6 
 
 N.B — ^These charges are now included in the fares to Aden 
 
 Canai between the Nile and the Red Sea. — "We are as- 
 sured that, were it not for the hostilities in which the 
 Pacha has been almost always engaged, he would have 
 attempted to reopen the famous canal that formerly 
 connected the Red Sea and the Nile. According to 
 Herodotus, this canal was commenced by Nechos, king 
 of Egypt, and finished by Darius (lib. iii. § 158, iv. 
 39). Under the Ptolemies, by whonij according to some 
 authorities, it was completed, this canal became an 
 important channel of communicatTon. It joined the 
 east, or Pelusiao branch of the Nile at Bubastis, the 
 ruins of which still remain ; it thence proceeded east 
 to the bitter or natron lakes of Temrah and Cheik- 
 Anedod, whence it followed a nearly south direction to 
 its junction with the Red Sea at Arsinoe, either at or 
 near where Suez now stands. It is said by Strabo 
 (lib. xvii. p. 805) to have been 1000 stadia (122 miles) 
 in length ; but if we measure it on the best modern 
 maps, it could hardly have exceeded from 85 to 95 
 miles. Herodotus says that it was wide enough to ad- 
 mit two triremes sailing abreast. This great work 
 
 Between Alexandria 
 and Suez. 
 
 A child under two years "] , fFree. 
 
 A European female servant Ucrols^fte J ^^ 
 
 A European man servant or mechanic. . . . ( Vi c r+ I 8 
 
 A native female servant J ■'desert. , (^ g 
 
 A native man servant on a dromedary or donkey 4 
 
 and Ceylon, etc. 
 
 having fallen into decay after the downfall of the Ptol- 
 emaic dynasty, was renovated either by Trajan or 
 Adrian ; and it was finally renewed by Amrou, the 
 general of the calif Omar, the conqueror of Egypt, anno 
 639. The French engineers traced the remains of this 
 great work for a considerable distance, and it would be 
 of singular advantage to Egypt and the commerce of 
 the world were it reopened. 
 
 Marshal Marmont states that the ground has been 
 carefully examined by M. Lepfere, an able engineer, 
 and that it presents no sort of difficulty that may not 
 easily be overcome. This, indeed, might have been 
 inferred from the fact of its former construction ; for 
 the ancients, being unacquainted with the use of locks, 
 had to encounter difficulties in the construction and 
 working of canals which are now obviated with the 
 utmost facility. According to M. Lepfere, the cost of 
 constructing a navigable canal from the Nile to the 
 Red Sea would not exceed 17,000,000 francs ,or less 
 than £700,000 (Marmont, iv. ISl). The completion 
 of this work need not, therefore, be despaired of. The 
 
ALI 
 
 22 
 
 ALI 
 
 opening of the Mahmoudieh Canal from Alexandria to 
 Atfeh shows what the present government is able to 
 achieve ; and an enterprise like that now under con- 
 sideration, though more difficult, -would be of still great- 
 er importance to Egypt, as well as to Europe and Asia. 
 
 Algebra is a general method of resolving mathe- 
 matical problems by means of equations, or it is a meth- 
 od of performing the calculations of all sorts of quan- 
 tities by means of general signs or characters. The 
 modern writers on the subject are Lambert, D'Alam- 
 bert, Lagrange, Ozanam, Saunderson, Clairaut, Cousin, 
 Templehof, Kastner, Bezout, Gauss, etc. Where al- 
 gebra was first used, and by whom, is not precisely 
 known. Diophantus first wrote upon it probably about 
 A.D. 170 ; he is said to be the inventor. Brought into 
 Spain by the Saracens, about 900 ; and into Italy by 
 Leonardo, of Pisa, in 1202. The first writer who used 
 algebraical signs was Stifelius, of Nuremberg, in 1544. 
 The introduction of symbols for quantities was by 
 Francis Vieta, in 1590, when algebra came into general 
 use.. — -MoKERi. The binomial theorem of Newton, the 
 basis of the doctrine of fluxions, and the new analysis, 
 1668.— Haydn. 
 
 Alicante, a sea-port town of Spain, in the new 
 province of Alicante, lat. 38° 20' 41" N., long. 0° 30' 
 W. Population of the city about 20,000, and of the 
 province 363,000. The port is an open and spacious 
 bay, between Cape de la Huerta on the northeast, 
 and Isla Plana on the south, distant from each other 
 southwest and northeast about ten miles. Ships may 
 enter on any course between these points, steering di- 
 i-ect for the castle, which stands on an eminence about 
 400 feet high. Those of considerable burden moor 
 north and south, distant from i to 1 mile from shore, 
 in from 4 to 8 fathoms water ; they are exposed to all 
 winds, from E.N.E. to S. by W. ; but the holding 
 ground is good, and there is no instance during the 
 last twenty years of a ship having been drii'en from 
 her moorings. Small craft lie alongside the mole, 
 which is already 320 yards in length, and is continu- 
 ing to be projected still farther into the sea. The 
 mole has a fixed light, 95 feet high, visible 15 miles. 
 The trade of Alicante, though still considerable, has 
 declined much within the last few years ; a conse- 
 quence partly of the emancipation of America from 
 the Spanish yoke, but more of the oppressive duties 
 laid on the importafion of most articles of foreign prod- 
 uce into Spain (see Cadiz), and the extensive smug- 
 gling carried on from Gibraltar, Algiers, etc. 
 
 Kaisins form the principal article of export ; and 
 their produce, which amounts to nearly 200,000 cwt., 
 has increased rapidly of late years. They are princi- 
 pally taken off by England, the shipments thither, in 
 1842, having been 146,496 cwt. But with this single 
 exception all the other articles of export have declined. 
 The principal are silk, wool, barilla, almonds, wine, 
 salt, oil, lead, mats, safl¥on, brandy, anise, etc. The ex- 
 portation of barilla, which formerly amounted to from 
 50,000 to 100,000 cwt., has declined, partly from its 
 having been largely adulterated, but principally from 
 its being to a great extent superseded by sonde faciice 
 (artificial Soda), to little more than 20,000 cwt. The 
 imports consist principally of sugar, coffee, cocoa, and 
 other colonial products; cotton, and linen stuffs, and 
 other manufactured goods, from England and France ; 
 salted fish, tobacco, iron and hardware, deals and tar, 
 etc. ; but it is impossible to form any estimate of the 
 imports from official or other returns, as by far the 
 largest portion are supplied clandestinely. Indeed, 
 ,the whole population of this part of Spain are clothed 
 in prohibited articles, which are sold as openly in the 
 towns as if they were of Spanish manufacture ! — Con- 
 suVs Report fw 1841. An Associacwn Sritanica has 
 recently been formed in this port for smelting and re- 
 fining the rich argentiferous lead ores of Almagrera 
 and other parts of the province of Murcia. The man- 
 ufacture of woolens is carried on pretty extensively 
 
 at Alcoy, 23 miles north from Alicante ; but they are 
 coarse, and of inferior quality. 
 
 Aliens. "An alien, according to the laws of the 
 United States, is a person born out of the jurisdiction 
 and allegiance of the United States. This varies from 
 the rule adopted by the ancient English law, as in the 
 case of the children of public ministers al^road (provid- 
 ed their wives be English women), for they owe not even 
 a local allegiance to any foreign power. So, also, it is 
 said that in every case the children born abroad of En- 
 glish parents were capable, at common law, of inherit- 
 ing as natives, if the father went and continued abroad 
 in the character of an Englishman, with the approba- 
 tion of the sovereign. 
 
 " The Act of Congress of the 14th April, 1802, estab- 
 lishing a uniform rule of naturalization, aflects the 
 issue of two classes of persons. By the 4th section it 
 was declared that ' the children of persons duly natu- 
 ralized under any of the laws of the United States, or 
 who, previous to the passing of anj- law on that sub- 
 ject by the Government of the United States, may 
 have become citizens of any one of the States under 
 the laws thereof, being under the age of twenty-one 
 years at the time of their parents being so naturalized, 
 or admitted to the rights of citizenship, shall, if dwell- 
 ing in the United States, be considered as citizens of 
 the United States.' This provision appears only to 
 apply to the children of persons naturalized^ or spe- 
 cially admitted to citizenship ; and there is color for 
 the construction, that it may have been intended to be 
 prospective, and to apply as well to the case of persons 
 thereafter to he naturalized as to those who had pre- 
 viously been naturalized. It applies to all the chil- 
 dren of 'persons duly naturalized' — under the restric- 
 tions of residence and minority — at the time of the 
 naturalization of the parent. The act applies to the 
 children of persons duly naturalized, but does not ex- 
 plicitly state whether it was intended to apply only to 
 the case where both parents were duly naturalized, or 
 whether it would be sufficient for one of them only to 
 be naturalized, in order to confer, as of course, the 
 rights of citizens upon the resident children being un- 
 der age. Perhaps it would be sufficient for the father 
 only to be naturalized ; for in the supplementary act 
 of the 26th of March, 1804, it was declared, that if any 
 alien who should have complied with thp preliminary 
 steps made requisite by the act of 1082 dies before he 
 is actually naturalized, his widow and children shall be 
 considered as citizens. This provision shows that the 
 naturalization of the father was to have the efficient 
 force of conferring the right on his children ; and it is 
 worthy of notice that this last act speaks of children 
 at large, without any allusion to residence or minority ; 
 and yet, as the two acts are intimately connected, and 
 make but one system, the last act is to be construed 
 with reference to the prior one, according to the doc- 
 trine of the case of Ex parte Overington. By a subse- 
 quent part of the same 4th section, it is declared that 
 ' the children of persons who now are, or have been 
 citizens of the United States, shall, though born out of 
 the limits and jurisdiction of the United States, be con- 
 sidered as citizens of the United States ; provided that 
 the right of citizenship shall not descend to persons 
 whose fathers have never resided within the United 
 States.' This clause is certainly not prospective in its 
 operation, whatever may be the just construction of 
 the one preceding it. It applied only to the children 
 of persons who then were or had been citizens ; and, 
 consequently, the benefit of this provision narrows rap- 
 idly by the lapse of time, and the period will soon ar- 
 rive when there will be no statutory regulation for the 
 henefit of children born abroad, of American parents, 
 and they will be obliged to resort for aid to the dor- 
 mant and doubtful principles of the English common 
 law. The proviso annexed to this last provision seems 
 to remove the doubt arising from the generality of the 
 preceding sentence, and which was whether the act 
 
ALI 
 
 23 
 
 ALK 
 
 intended by the words ' children of persons' both the 
 father and mother, in imitation of the statute of 25 
 Edw. I IT., or the father only, according to the more 
 liberal declaration of the statute of 4 Geo. II.; the 
 provision also differs from the preceding in being 
 without any restriction as to the age or residence of 
 the child, and it appears to have been intended for the 
 children of natural born citizens, or of citizens who 
 were original actors in our Revolution, and therefore 
 it was more comprehensive and more liberal in their 
 favor ; but the whole statute provision is remarkably 
 loose and vague in its terms, and it is lamentably de- 
 fective in being confined to the case of children or par- 
 ents who were citizens in 1802, or had been so previ- 
 ously. The former act of 29th January, 1795, was 
 not so; for it declared generally, that 'the children 
 of citizens of the United States, bom out of the limits 
 and Jurisdiction of the United States, shall be consid- 
 ered as citizens of the United States.' And when we 
 consider the universal propensity to travel, the liberal 
 intercourse between nations, the extent of commercial 
 enterprise, and the genius and spirit of our municipal 
 institutions, it is quite surprising that the rights of 
 the children of American citizens born abroad should, 
 by the existing act of 1802, be left so precarious, and 
 so far inferior in the security which has been given, 
 under like circumstances, by the English statutes." — 
 Kent's Comm., Leot. XXV. 
 
 In England, aliens were grievously coerced up to 
 A.D. 1377. When they were to be tried criminally, 
 the juries were to be half foreigners, if they so desired, 
 1430. They were restrained from exercising any trade 
 or handicraft by retail, 1483. The celebrated Alien 
 Bill passed, January, 1793. Act to register Aliens, 
 1795. Bill to abolish their naturalization by the hold- 
 ing of stock in the banks of Scotland, June, 1820. New 
 Kegistration act, 7 Geo. IV., 1826. This last act was 
 repealed and another statute passed, 6 Will. IV., 1836. 
 The celebrated Baron Geramb, a conspicuous and fash- 
 ionable foreigner, known at court, was ordered out of 
 England, April 6, 1812.— Haydn. 
 
 Influence of the Residence of Aliens. — There can be 
 no doubt that, generally speaking, the resort of for- 
 eigners to a countiy, and their residence in it, are 
 highly conducive to its interests. Those who emi- 
 grate in order to practice their calling in an old set- 
 tled country are pretty uniformly distinguished for 
 activity, enterprise, and good conduct. The native 
 inhabitants have so many advantages on their side, 
 that it would be absurd to suppose that foreigners 
 should ever come into any thing like successful com- 
 petition with them, unless they were acquainted with 
 some branch of trade or manufacture of which the oth- 
 ers were ignorant, or possessed superior skill, industry, 
 or economy. But whether aliens practice new acts, or 
 introduce more perfect processes into the old, or dis- 
 play superior economy, etc., their influx can not fail 
 to be of the greatest advantage. They practically in- 
 struct those among whom they reside in what it most 
 concerns them to know — that is, in those departments 
 of art and science in which they are inferior to others 
 and enable them to avail themselves of whatever for- 
 eign sagacity, skill, or practice has produced that is 
 most perfect. It is not easy, indeed, to overrate the 
 benefits conferred on most countries by the resort of 
 aliens. Previously to the invention of printing, there 
 was hardly any other way of becoming acquainted 
 with foreign inventions and discoveries; and even 
 now it is far easier to learn any new art, method, or 
 process, from the example and instruction of those fa- 
 miliar with its details, than from the best possible de 
 scriptions. The experience, indeed, of every age and 
 country shows that the progress of nations in the ca- 
 reer of arts and civilization depends more on the free- 
 dom of commerce, and on the liberality with which 
 they have treated foreigners, than almost any thing 
 else. 
 
 Alkalies. The distinguishing characters of these 
 bodies are, a strong acrid and powerfully caustic taste ; 
 a corrosive action upon all animal matter, destroying 
 its texture with considerable rapidity ; exposed to the 
 atmosphere, when in their caustic state, they absorb 
 carbonic acid with great rapidity, and become carbon- 
 ated (or mild). Their action upon vegetable colors 
 also affords_us means by which the presence of an un- 
 combined or carbonated alkali may be detected ; the 
 yellow color of turmeric is changed to a red brown tint 
 when immersed into solutions containing them ; the 
 blue color of the litmus, after being reddened by an 
 acid, is again restored; the infusions of the red cab- 
 bage, the violet, and many other purple vegetable col- 
 ors, are converted to green. Litmus paper reddened 
 by carbonic acid is, however, the most delicate test of 
 the presence of an alkali. With the various acids they 
 also combine, forming the very important and extens- 
 ive class of compounds generally called salts — a salt 
 being anj' compound formed by the union of an acid 
 with an alkali or metallic oxide. 
 
 Alkalimetry. — The method by which the value of 
 the alkalies, or carbonated alkalies, is determined, be- 
 ing of considerable importance in a commercial point 
 of view, we shall here treat it somewhat in detail. It 
 is an established fact that 49 parts, by weight, of oil 
 of vitriol of the specific gravity of 1'8485 are exactly 
 equivalent to the neutralization of 70 parts, by weight, 
 of pure carbonate of potash, or 48 of pure potass, or 54 
 of carbonate of soda, or 32 of soda, and that 70 parts of 
 oil of vitriol will therefore be necessary to neutralize 
 100 parts of carbonate of potass. Hence, by employ- 
 ing a glass tube of about two ounces' capacity, and ac- 
 curately divided into 100 equal parts, taking 70 grains 
 of oil of vitriol, and diluting it with water, to make 
 the 100 measures complete, every measure of this di- 
 lute acid must be equal to a grain of pure carbonate 
 of potass. The percentage of real carbonate of potass 
 existing in any sample of pearlash may be at once as- 
 certained by taking 100 grains of the sample, dissolv- 
 ing it in hot water, straining, and adding by degrees 
 100 measures of the test acid above mentioned ; the 
 point of neutralization (when it ceases to affect litmus 
 paper or reddened litmus) being accurately ascertain- 
 ed, the residual acid will give the percentage of im- 
 purities ; for instance, say that 75 measures of the di- 
 lute acid have been employed to render 100 grains of a 
 sample of pearlash perfectly neutral, then we have as- 
 certained that it contains 25 per cent, impurities. The 
 same process, of course, must be followed in examining 
 samples of barilla or kelp, except that the alkali con- 
 tained in them being carbonate of soda, 90*75 of oil 
 of vitriol must be employed instead of 70. The proc- 
 ess recommended by Mr. Faraday, and in which he 
 uses only one test acid, is as follows ; Into a tube about 
 three quarters of an inch in diameter, and nine and a 
 half long, and as cylindrical as possible throughout 
 its whole length, 1000 grains of water are to be weigh- 
 ed, and the space occupied marked on the tube by a 
 fine file ; this space is then divided from above down- 
 ward into 100 equal parts. At 23'44, or 76"66 parts 
 from the bottom, an extra line should be made, and 
 soda marked opposite to it ; at 48"96 potass should be 
 marked in the same way ; at 54*63 carbonate of soda ; 
 and at 65 carbonate of potass. A diluted acid is now 
 to be prepared, which shall have a specific gravity 
 1*127, and this is made by mixing intimately together 
 19 parts, by weight, of oil of vitriol and 81 of water. 
 The method to be followed in the employment of this 
 acid is as follows : The dilute acid is to be measured in 
 the tube up to the line opposite to which the alkali 
 sought for is marked ; if barilla, which contains car- 
 bonate of soda, 54*63 measures are to be taken. The 
 100 measures are then made up by the addition of wa- 
 ter, and is then ready for use, following the method 
 before stated. 
 
 The alkalies are four in number : namelv, ammonia 
 
ALK 
 
 24 
 
 ALK 
 
 (or Tolatile alkali), potass (or vegetable alkali), soda (or 
 mineral alkali), and lithia ; ■which last is of so little im- 
 portance that we shall not treat of it here. The combi- 
 nation of these alkalies with the various acids, ■whenev- 
 er they form compounds of any importance, ■will be no- 
 ticed. 
 
 Ammonia, or Spirits of Hartshorn, or Volatile Alkali, 
 in its uncombired form, is an elastic gaseous body, 
 having a very pungent and suffocating odor, destroys 
 animal life, converts the yellow of turmeric paper to a 
 brown, which, from the volatility of the alkali, is again 
 restored by a gentle heat to its original color. This 
 gas is rapidly absorbed by water, which takes into 
 solution about 780 times its volume, forming the liquid 
 ammonia, or what is commonly called hartshorn. 
 Ammonia is liberated whenever any of the compounds 
 of this alkali are acted upon by potass, soda, lime, and 
 many other alkaline earths. Lime, from its being the 
 most economical, is generally employed ; the best pro- 
 portions for its preparation are equal weights of sal 
 ammoniac (muriate of ammonia) and fresh slaked lime. 
 When these are introduced into a retort, and heat ap- 
 plied, ammonia is liberated in the gaseous form, and is 
 conducted by a Wetter's safety-tube into a vessel of 
 water, by ■which the gas is instantly absorbed. Mu- 
 riate of lime remains in the retort ; sometimes water is 
 added to the mixture, and then distilled. As thus ob- 
 tained, it has a specific gravity of '930 or -940, water 
 being equal to I'OOO. The most concentrated solution 
 of ammonia has the specific gravity of '876. 
 
 Carbonate of Ammonia, or Volatile Salt, or Subcar- 
 bonaie of Ammonia, — This salt, ■which is very much 
 employed in various processes of the arts, ■was for- 
 merly obtained by the action of chalk (carbonate of 
 lime) upon muriate of ammonia ; a double decomposi- 
 tion takes place. Carbonic acid and ammonia are 
 sublimed in vapor, and muriate of lime remains in the 
 vessel. A much less expensive process is, however, 
 now followed, namely, from the waste gas liquors ob- 
 tained in the purification of coal gas ; these are evap- 
 orated, and the black, impure sulphuric acid added. 
 By this means a sulphate of ammonia is formed, and 
 the carbonate procured from it by the action of powder- 
 ed chalk, as in the former process. Its uses are prin- 
 cipally in forming other compounds of ammonia, as 
 smelling salts ; and it is likewise ertiployed rather ex- 
 tensively by pastry-cooks for making light pastry, 
 which is caused by- the volatile carbonate of ammonia 
 escaping and raising up the pastry by the heat of the 
 oven. It is entirely dissipated during the baking, so 
 that no ill effect can arise from its use. Both this 
 compound and the preceding act as violent stimulants 
 on the animal system. 
 
 Muriate of Ammonia, or Sal Ammoniac, was formerly 
 brought to Europe from Egypt, where it was procured 
 by submitting the soot of camels' dung (there employed 
 for fuel) to sublimation in closed vessels ; it is, how- 
 ever, at present manufactured in very large quantities 
 in England in a variety of ways. The most econom- 
 ical processes are either submitting sulphate of ammo- 
 nia mixed intimately with muriate of soda (sea salt) to 
 sublimation, or by substituting the bittern of sea-water, 
 which consists chiefly of muriate of magnesia, for the 
 sea salt. In the first process a. sulphate of soda is 
 formed, and the muriate of ammonia, which, being 
 volatile, rises in the vaporous form, and is condensed 
 in the cool parts of the apparatus ; in the latter process 
 a sulphate of magnesia (Epsom salts) results. It is 
 generallv from this salt (muriate of ammonia) that the 
 liquid ammonia is manufactured ; it is also employed 
 in tinning and soldering, to preserve the metals from 
 oxidation. It is a semi-transparent, tough salt, hav- 
 ing an acrid and cool taste, and is usually met ■with in 
 the form of hemispherical masses. Sal ammoniac is 
 made at Calcutta, and is thence exported to Great Brit- 
 ain, the United States, and the Arabian and Persian 
 Gulfs. In 1824-25 the exports amounted to 114 tons. 
 
 Sulphate of Ammonia. — The preparation of the sul- 
 phate has been already given under the head of am- 
 monia; it is employed in the manufacture both of the 
 carbonate and muriate. 
 
 Acetate of Ammonia.— The spirit of Mindererus is 
 obtained by acting upon the carbonate of ammonia by 
 acetic acid ; the carbonic acid escapes with eflxjrves- 
 cence, and an acetate of ammonia is formed ; it is em- 
 ployed in medicine as a febrifuge. All these salts of 
 ammonia have the following properties ; they are vol- 
 atile at a low red heat; the fixed alkalies decompose 
 them, combining with their acid, and the ammonia is 
 liberated. When combined with a fixed acid, such as 
 the boracic or phosphoric, they are decomposed, the 
 ammonia r.lone being volatilized, and the acid remain- 
 ing pure. This process was describedfor obtaining pure 
 phosphoric acid. 
 
 Potass, or Vegetable Alkali. — The original source of 
 this alkali is in the vegetable kingdom, ■whence is de- 
 rived its name of vegetable alkali. When wood is 
 burned, and the ashes lixiviated with ■water, boiled, 
 strained, and evaporated to dryness, an intensely air- 
 line mass is obtained, which is known by the name of 
 potash, from this process being conducted in iron pots. 
 It is then removed to a reverberatory furnace, and sub- 
 mitted to heat, and a current of air. This burns out 
 extractive matter and other impurities, and the salt 
 assumes a pearly white color, and is hence called pearl- 
 ashes. Care should be taken during this process that 
 the potashes do not enter into fusion, as this would de- 
 stroy the full effect of the operation. 
 
 Pearlashes. — Pearlashes generally contain about 
 from 60 to 83 or 84 per cent, of pure carbonate of pot- 
 ass. Its uses in manufactures are numerous and im- 
 portant. It is employed in making flint-glass, of ivhich 
 it constitutes about one sixth of the materials employ- 
 ed ; in soap-making, especially for the softer kinds of 
 soap ; for this purpose, however, it is first rendered 
 caustic by means of lime. In the rectification of spirits 
 large quantities are employed to combine with the wa- 
 ter previously in union with the spirit. 
 
 Subcarbonate of Potass, or Salt of Tartar, is used in 
 preparing the subcarbonate of potass of the Pharma- 
 copeia (carbonate of potass of the chemical nomen- 
 clature), and likewise in rendering hard spring ■waters 
 soft, and in cleansing substances from grease : it is 
 sometimes called salt of wormwood. When made by 
 the deflagration of two parts of tartar of argol and one 
 of nitre, it is called black flux, and is used extensively 
 in metallurgic operations. From the subcarbonate of 
 potash the pure and uncombined potass is obtained, by 
 adding an equal weight of fresh burned lime, previous- 
 ly slaked, and boiling them with half their weight of 
 water. By this process the lime combines -with the 
 carbonic acid, and the potass remains in solution in 
 its caustic state ; by boiling the clear solution rapidlv 
 in iron vessels, and submitting it to fusion, vcn obtain 
 the fused potass. If it be required perfectly pure for 
 chemical purposes, it is necessary to evaporate in sil- 
 ver vessels, and dissolve in strong alcohol. This takes 
 up the pure potass, and leaves any portion of the 
 subcarbonate that may not have been acted upon by 
 the lime ; then the alcohol is to be distilled off; and 
 the potass fused at a red heat, and poured out in its 
 liquid state on a cold slab. As thus procured, it is a 
 white, brittle mass, highly deliquescent, absorbing 
 moisture and carbonic acid rapidly from the atmos- 
 phere. When evaporated in iron vessels it has a dirty 
 color, and lets fall a quantity of oxide of iron when 
 dissolved in water, from its having acted upon the iron 
 boilers. Potass acts with great rapidity upon animal 
 substances, destroying their texture, and is on this ac- 
 count employed as a caustic, and was formerly called 
 lapis infernalis. 
 
 Carbonate (or, in the chemical nomenclature. Bicar- 
 bonate') of Potass, is prepared bypassing carbonic acid 
 gas through a solution of the subcarbonate ; and evap- 
 
ALK 
 
 25 
 
 ALK 
 
 orating at a temperature below 212°, and crystallizing. 
 It is used in making effervescing draughts. It loses 
 one proportion of its carbonic acid when heated, and is 
 converted into the subcarbonate. 
 
 Sulphate of Potass, or Sal Polyckrest, or Vitriolated 
 Tartar, is obtained by submitting the salt which re- 
 mains after the manufacture of nitric acid from nitre 
 and sulphuric acid to a red heat, or by neutralizing the 
 excess of acid contained in that salt by subcarbonate of 
 potass. 
 
 Bisulphate 0/ Potass, or Sal Enixum. — This is the salt 
 mentioned above, as the residue from the process for 
 obtaining nitric acid. It is employed in very large 
 quantities in the manufacture of alum ; also in tinning 
 iron, for pickling, as it is termed ; it is sometimes also 
 used as a flux. 
 
 Nitrate of Potash, Nitre, or Saltpetre. — This salt, 
 which is of so much importance in every branch of the 
 arts, is found native in many parts of the world, espe- 
 cially in the East Indies. It is obtained from soils 
 composed of decomposing granite, the feldspar of which 
 gives rise, as is supposed, to the potass. The nitric 
 acid is not so easily accounted for, except it is by a 
 union of the nitrogen and oxygen gases in the atmos- 
 phere taking place in those hot climates ; for, from au- 
 thenticated accounts, no decaying animal or vegetable 
 matter exists in the nitre districts of India. By lix- 
 iviation with water the nitre is dissolved from the soil, 
 which is again thrown out into the air, to be washed 
 the following year ; so that it is formed continually. 
 These lixiviations are then evaporated ; and when of 
 a certain strength, a quantity of common salt separates, 
 which is removed as it falls ; and the nitre is then crys- 
 tallized and imported to England, always containing a 
 certain quantity of impurities, which are deducted in 
 the purchase of largo quantities of the article, being 
 termed its refraction. It is generally used for the 
 manufacture of gunpowder and pure nitric, acid, refined 
 or recrystallized. Nitre may be also made artificial- 
 ly, in beds of decaying vegetable or animal substan- 
 ces, mixed with old mortar, or other refuse calcareous 
 earth ; these are watered occasionally, too much moist- 
 ure being hurtful ; after a certain period, depending on 
 the rapidity with which the process has gone on, the 
 whole is submitted to lixiviation together with wood- 
 ashes, which contain subcarbonate of potass, and which 
 decomposes any nitrate of lime formed, of which there 
 is generally a considerable quantity. After the lixivi- 
 ation is complete, which takes some time, the solution 
 is separated and boiled down ; the salt separates as in 
 the other process, and the nitre is then crystallized. It 
 was from this source that the whole of the nitre, nearly, 
 employed by the French during the long-protracted 
 war with the continental powers was obtained. Nitre 
 has a cold, penetrating, and nauseous taste; enters 
 into igneous fusion at a gentle heat, and is then mould- 
 ed into round cakes, called sal prunella. It is employed 
 in the manufacture of nitric acid ; of gunpowder, which 
 is composed of 75 parts by weight of nitre, 16 of char- 
 coal, and 9 of sulphur (the nitre for this purpose should 
 be of great purity) ; and in the manufacture of oil of 
 vitriol : as a flux it is one of the most -powerful we pos- 
 sess ; it is also used for the preservation of animal food, 
 and in making frigorific mixtures : 1 ounce of nitre dis- 
 solved in 5 ounces of water lowers its temperature 15 
 degrees of Fahrenheit's thermometer. — jSee Saltpetre. 
 Oxalate and Bawxalate of Potass. — -The binoxalate 
 of potass, or salt of lemon, or sorrel, by both which 
 last names it is very commonly known, is procured 
 from the juice of the common sorrel (JRumex Acetosa"), 
 or the wood sorrel (Oxalis Acetosella\ by crystalliza- 
 tion, after the feculent matter has been separated by 
 standing a few days. Its chief uses are, in removing 
 ink spots or iron moulds ; and also as a refreshing bev- 
 erage when mixed with sugar and water. The neutral 
 oxalate is obtained from this salt by combining the ex- 
 cess of acid which it contains with a solution of sub- 
 
 carbonate of potass. Is very much used in chemistry, 
 as the best test of the presence of lime. 
 
 Tartrate and Bitartrate of Potass. — Bitartrate of pot- 
 ass, or cream of tartar, is, when in its crude and im- 
 pure state, called argol, and is deposited in the inte- 
 rior of wine-casks during fermentation, and from' this 
 source the whole of the cream of tartar is obtained. It 
 is generally of a very dark brown color, but may be 
 purified and rendered perfectly white by solution and 
 crystallization. It is employed very extensively in 
 dyeing, hat-making, and in the preparation of tartaric 
 acid, and many'of the compounds of tartaric acid, as 
 tartar emetic, soluble tartar (tartrate of potass) : when 
 heated to redness, it is converted into carbonate of pot- 
 ass and charcoal ; mixed with half its weight of nitre 
 and thrown into a red-hot crucible, it forms the black 
 flux, and with its own weight of nitre the white flux, 
 both of which are very much employed in metallnrgic 
 operations. The tartrate is made by the addition of 
 subcarbonate of potass to a solution of the bitartrate 
 until perfectly neutral : it is used in medicine as a mild 
 purgative. 
 
 Ferro-cyanate, or Prussiate of Potass. — This salt is 
 obtained by the action of subcarbonate of potass, at a 
 low red heat, upon refuse animal matter, such as hoofs, 
 horns, skin, etc., in the proportion of two of subcarbon- 
 ate to four or five of the animal matter. But the proc- 
 ess recommended by M. Gautier is preferable ; he finds 
 that when animal matter is heated with nitre, it yields 
 a much larger quantity of the ferro-Prussiate than when 
 either potass or subcarbonate of potass are employed ; 
 the proportions he finds most economical are, 1 part by 
 weight of nitre, 3 parts of dry blood, and iron scales or 
 filings equal to a fiftieth of the blood employed. The 
 coagulum of blood is mixed intimately with the nitre 
 and iron filings, and dried by exposure to the air ; they 
 are then submitted to a very low red heat, in deep iron 
 cylinders, as long as vapors continue to be liberated ; 
 when cold, the contents are dissolved in 12 or 15 times 
 their weight and strained. On evaporation till of the 
 specific gravity 1-284, and allowing it to cool, a large 
 quantity of bicarbonate of potass crystallizes ; and by 
 further evaporation till of the specific gravity 1"306, 
 the ferro-Prussiate of potass crystallizes on <;ooling. 
 This is to be recrystallized. It is a beautiful yellow 
 salt, very tough, having a tenacity similar to sper- 
 maceti, and is decomposed at a red heat. It is em- 
 ployed very extensively in dyeing blues, and in calico 
 printing ; also in the manufacture of Prussian blue, 
 which is a compound of the fen'o-Prussic acid and ox- 
 ide of iron; prepared by adding 1 part of the ferro- 
 Prussiate of potass dissolved in water, to 1 part of cop- 
 peras, and 4 parts of alum in solution. 
 
 Chromate of Potass. — This salt is obtained from the 
 native chromate of iron by the action of nitre at a full 
 red heat in^qual proportions. By solution, filtration, 
 and evaporation, a beautiful lemon-yellow colored salt 
 results. It is very much employed in dyeing, calico 
 printing, and calico making, from its producing bright 
 yellow precipitates with solutions of lead. 
 
 Bichromate of Potass is prepared from the above- 
 mentioned salt, by the addition of nitric acid to the 
 yellow solution obtained from the heated mass by the 
 action of water ; on evaporating this, a dark red col- 
 ored salt crystallizes, which is the bichromate. This 
 is also very largely employed by the calico printers, 
 and when mixed in solution with nitric acid, possesses 
 the property of destroying vegetable colors ; on this 
 account it is of great importance, as it at the same 
 time removes a vegetable color, and forms a base for a 
 yellow dye. 
 
 Chlorate or Hyperoxymuriate of Potass. — The prepa- 
 ration of this salt is attended with some little difiioulty, 
 and requires a great deal of nicety. It is obtained by 
 passing a current of chlorine gas through a solution of 
 caustic potass ; then boiling and evaporating; the first 
 salt that separates is the chlorate of potass ; and by 
 
ALK 
 
 26 
 
 ALL 
 
 further evaporation, muriate of potass is obtained. It 
 is used in making matches for instantaneous light 
 boxes, which are prepared by first dipping the wood in 
 melted sulphur, and then into a thin paste, formed of 
 
 3 parts chlorate of potass, 2 parts starch, and a little 
 vermilion ; with sulphur it forms a very explosive com- 
 pound, generally employed for filling the percussion- 
 caps of fowling-pieces. 
 
 Soda^ or Mineral Alkali. — The sources of this alkali 
 in nature are various. It is obtained in combination 
 with carbonic acid, when plants which grow by the 
 sea-sido are burned. The ashes thus obtained are 
 called barilla and kelp ; and also in some countries it 
 is found as an efflorescence upon the surface of the 
 earth, and is called nitrum or natron ; this occurs par- 
 ticularly in Egypt and Soutli America. Trona is also 
 another native carbonate of soda, and is exported from 
 Tripoli. In combination with muriatic acid it is also 
 found in immense abundance, forming the rock salt, 
 and sea salt or muriate of soda. It is obtained from 
 the carbonate exactly in the same way as potass is ob- 
 tained from its carbonate, namely, by boiling it with 
 fresh-burned lime previously slaked, decanting the 
 clear solution, and evaporating and fusing. It is a 
 white brittle substance, and by exposure to the air be- 
 comes converted into a dry carbonate. Its uses in the 
 arts and manufactures are of considerable importance. 
 In soap-making it is employed in very large quanti- 
 ties, and for this purpose is generally procured from 
 barilla or kelp, by mixing them with lime, and hy the 
 infusion of water procuring a caustic soda ley ; this is 
 mixed with oil and fatty matters in various propor- 
 tions, and boiled ; the saponification of the fatty mat- 
 ter takes place, and the soap formed rises to the sur- 
 face ; the ley is then drawn from beneath, and fresh 
 leys added, until the soap is completely free from oil ; 
 it is then allowed to dry. Soda is also employed in the 
 manufacture of plate, crown, and bottle glass, though 
 for this purpose it is generally in the form of carbon- 
 ate or sulphate. 
 
 Suhcarionate of Soda. (In the chemical nomencla- 
 ture it is called car&ona^e.)— This is generallj' prepared 
 from barilla, which contains about from 16 to 24 per 
 cent. Barilla is procured by incinerating the salsola 
 soda^ and other sea-side plants ; it is made in large 
 quantities on the coast of Spain. Kelp is another im- 
 pure carbonate of soda, but does not contain more than 
 
 4 or 5 per cent. ; it is the ashes obtained from sea-weeds 
 by incineration, and is made on the northern shores 
 of Scotland. From these, the crystallized carbonate 
 (or subcarbonate, as it is more frequently' called) is 
 made by the addition of a small quantity of water, 
 boiling, straining, evaporating, and skimming off the 
 common salt as it forms on the surface ; on cooling, 
 the subcarbonate of soda crystallizes. Another method 
 is by heating the sulphate of soda with carbonate of 
 lime and charcoal, and then dissolving out the soluble 
 carbonate ; also, by the action of carbonate of potass 
 (pearlash) upon solutions of sea salt. — ^ee Barilla 
 and Kelp. 
 
 Bicarbonate of Soda is procured by driving a cur- 
 rent of carbonic acid gas through solutions of the car- 
 bonate, and then evaporating at a temperature below 
 212° Fahrenheit ; it is chiefly employed in making 
 soda-water powders. This is the carbonate of soda of 
 the Pharmacopoeia. By the application of a red heat 
 it loses carbonic acid, and is converted into the sub- 
 carbonate. 
 
 Sulphate of Soda, or Glauber Salts. — This salt, which 
 has received the name of Glauber, from its discoverer, 
 is the residue of a great many chemical processes ; for 
 instance, when muriate of soda is acted upon by oil of 
 vitriol, muriatic acid and sulphate of soda result; in 
 making chlorine gas for the manufacture of the chloride 
 of lime, or bleaching powder, sulphate of soda and sul- 
 phate of manganese result — the materials employed 
 being sea salt, sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol), and black 
 
 oxide of manganese : also, in the preparation of acetic 
 acid from the acetate of soda, and in the preparation 
 of muriate of ammonia from sea salt and sulphate of 
 ammonia. Sulphate of soda is a colorless, transparent 
 salt, effloresces readily when exposed to tlie air, and 
 becomes converted into a dry powder; it has a cold, 
 bitter taste. It is used for the preparation of carbonate 
 of soda, and as a medicine. It is found native in some 
 countries, particularly in Persia and South America — 
 frequently as an efilorescence upon new walls. 
 
 Nitrate of Soda. — This salt is found native in some 
 parts of the East Indies, and is called, from its square 
 form, cubic nitre ; it is, however, very little used. 
 
 Muriate of Soda, or Sea Salt. — This compound is 
 found in immense quantities in the earth, and is called 
 from this circumstance rock salt, or sal gem. The 
 mines of Cheshire and Droitwich, in England, and 
 those in Poland, Hungary, and Spain, and many 
 others, afford immense quantities of this compound. 
 It is also obtained by the evaporation of sea-water, 
 both spontaneously in pits formed for the purpose, and 
 in large iron boilers ; the uncrystallizable fluid is called 
 the bittern ; basket salt is made by placing the salt, 
 after evaporation, in conical baskets, and passing 
 through it a saturated solution of salt, which dissolves 
 and carries off the muriate of magnesia or lime. Pure 
 salt should not become moist by exposure to the air ; 
 it decrepitates when heated : it is employed for the 
 preparation of muriatic acid, carbonate of soda, mu]-iate 
 of ammonia, and many other operations ; also in glaz- 
 ing stone-ware, pottery, etc. ; and from its great anti- 
 septic properties, is used largely for the preservation 
 of animal food ; as a flux also in metallurgy. 
 
 Borate of Soda, or Borax. — This salt is found in 
 Thibet and Persia, deposited from saline lakes ; it is 
 called tincal, and is imported into this country, where 
 it is purified by solution' — the fatty matter with which 
 the tincal is always coated being removed, and the 
 solution evaporated and crystallized : its principal 
 uses are as a flux, from its acting very powerfully' 
 upon earthy substances. 
 
 Alkanet, or Anohtisa (Ger. Orkanet ; Du. Osse- 
 iong ; Fr. Orcanette ; It. Artcusa; Sp. Arcaneia\ a spe- 
 cies of bugloss (Anchusa tinctoria, Linn.). It has been 
 cultivated in England : but is found of the finest quality 
 in Siberia, Spain, and more particularly in the soutli 
 of France, in the vicinity of Montpellier. The roots 
 of the plant are the only parts that are made use of 
 When in perfection, they are about the thickness of 
 the finger, having a thick bark of a deep purplish red 
 color. This, when separated from the whitish woody 
 pith, imparts a fine deep red to alcohol, oils, wax, 
 and all unctuous substances. To water it gives onlv 
 a dull brownish hue. It is principally employed to 
 tint wax, pomatum, and unguents, oils employed in 
 the dressing of mahogany, rose-wood, etc. The alka- 
 net brought from Constantinople yields a more beau- 
 tiful but less permanent dye than that of France. — 
 Lewis's Mat. Med. ; Magsiem, Dictionnaire des Pro- 
 ductions. 
 
 Alligation, the name of a method of solving all 
 questions that relate to the mixture of one ingredient 
 with another. Though writers on arithmetic generally 
 make alligation a branch of that science, yet as it is 
 plainly nothing more than an application of the com- 
 mon properties of numbers, in order to solve a few ques- 
 tions that occur in particular branches of business, we 
 choose rather to keep it distinct from the science 'of 
 arithmetic. -Alligation is generally divided into me- 
 dial and alternate. 
 
 Alligation Medial, from the rates and quantities of 
 the simples given, discovers the rate of the mixture. 
 
 Hule. As the total quantity of the simples. 
 To their price or value ; 
 So any quantity of the mixture. 
 To the rate. 
 
 Example. A grocer mixes 30 pounds of currants, at 
 
ALL 
 
 27 
 
 ALL 
 
 id. per pound, with 10 pounds of other currants, at Sd. 
 per pound : What is the value of 1 pound of the mix- 
 ture ? Ans. iid. 
 
 lb. a. d. 
 
 30 at 4 amounts to 120 
 
 10 at 6 " 60 
 
 40 
 
 lb. d. 
 If 40 : 180 
 
 V). 
 1 : 
 
 180 
 d. 
 
 a. 
 
 Alligation Alternate^ being the converse of alligation 
 medial, from the rates of the simples, and rate of the 
 mixture given, finds the quantities of the simples. 
 
 Rules. I. Place the rate of the mixture on the left 
 side of a brace, as the root ; and on the right side of 
 the brace set the rates of the several simples, under 
 one another, as the branches. II. Linls or alligate the 
 branches, so as one greater and another less than the 
 root may be United or yoked together. III. Set the 
 difference between the root and the several branches 
 right against their respective yoke-fellows. These al- 
 ternate differences are the quantities required. Note 1. 
 If any branch happen to have two or more yoke-fel- 
 lows, the difference between the root and these yolce-fel- 
 lows must be placed right against the said branch, one 
 after another, and added into one sum. 2. In some 
 questions the branches may be alligated more ways 
 than one ; and a question will always admit of so 
 many answers as there are different ways of linking 
 the branches. 
 
 Alligation alternate admits of three varieties ; viz., 1. 
 The question may be unlimited, with respect both to 
 the quantity of the simples and that of the mixture. 
 2. The question may be limited to a certain quantity 
 of one or more of the simples. 3. The question may 
 be limited to a certain quantity of the mixture. 
 
 Variety I. When the question is unlimited, with re- 
 spect both to the quantity of the simples and that of 
 the mixture, this is called Alligation Simple. 
 
 Example. A grocer would mix sugars at id., 'Id., and 
 lOd. per pound, so as to sell the mixture or compound 
 at 8cZ. per pound : What quantity of each must he take ? 
 
 lb. 
 
 I 2 
 2 
 
 I ^■ 
 Here the rate of the mixture 8 is placed on the left 
 side of the brace as the root ; and on the right side of 
 the same brace are set the rates of the several simples, 
 viz., 5, 7, 10, under one another, as the branches ; ac- 
 cording to Rule I. The branch 10 being greater than 
 the root, is alligated or United with 7 and 5, both these 
 being less than the root, as directed in Rule II. The 
 difference between the root 8 and the branch 5, viz., 3, 
 is set right against this branch's yoke-fellow 10 ; the 
 difference between 8 and 7 is likewise set right against 
 the yoke-fellow 10 ; and the difference between 8 and 
 10, viz., 2, is set right against the two yoke-fellows 7 
 and 5, as prescribed bj' Rule III. As the branch 10 
 has two differences on the right, viz., 3 and 1, they are 
 added ; and the answer to the question is, that 2 pounds 
 at 6d., 2 pounds at 7d., and 4 pounds at lOd., will make 
 the mixture required. The truth and reason of the 
 rules will appear by considering that whatever is lost 
 upon any one branch is gained upon its yoke-fellow. 
 Thus, in the above example, by selling 4 pounds of 
 lOd. sugar at Sd. per pound, there is 8d. lost: but the 
 like sum is gained upon its two yoke-fellows, for by 
 selling 2 pounds of od. sugar at 8d!. per pound, there is 
 Sd. gained ; and by selling 2 pounds of Id. sugar at Sd. 
 there is 2d. gained ; and 6d. and 2d. make Sd. Hence 
 it follows that the rate of the mixture must always be 
 mean or middle with respect to the rates of the simples 
 that is, it must be less than the greatest, and greater 
 than the least ; otherwise a solution would be impossi- 
 ble. And the price of the total quantity mixed, com- 
 puted at the rate of the mixture, will always be equal 
 
 ( lO^' 3,1 
 
 to the sum of the prices of the several quantities cast 
 up at the respective rates of the simples. 
 
 Variety II. When the question is limited to a certain 
 quantity of one or more of the simples, this is called 
 Aliigaiion Partial, 
 
 If the quantity of one of the simples only be limited, 
 alligate the branches, and take their differences, as if 
 there had been no such limitation ; and then work by 
 the following proportion : 
 
 As the difference right against the rate of the simple 
 whose quantity is given. 
 
 To the other differences respectively ; 
 
 So the quantity given, 
 
 To the several quantities sought. 
 
 Example. A distiller would, with 40 gallons of bran- 
 dy at 12s. per gallon, mix rum at 7s. per gallon, and 
 gin at 4s. per gallon : How much of the rum and gin 
 must he take to sell the mixture at 8s. per gallon ? 
 Gallons. 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 1,4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 Ans. 
 
 40 of brandy, ' 
 32 of rum, 
 32 of gin. 
 
 The operation gives for answer, 5 gallons of brandy, 
 4 of rum, and 4 of gin. But the question limits the 
 quantity of brandy to 40 gallons ; therefore say, 
 
 If 5 : 4 ; : 40 : 32. 
 The quantity of gin, by the operation, being also 4, the 
 proportion needs not be repeated. 
 
 Variety III. When the question is limited to a cer- 
 tain quantity of the mixture, this is called Alligation 
 Total. 
 
 After linking the branches, and taking the differ- 
 ences, work by the proportion following : 
 As the sum of the differences, 
 To each particular difference ; 
 So the given total of the mixture. 
 To the respective quantities required. 
 Example. A vintner has wine at 3s. per gallon, and 
 would mix it with water, so as to make a composition 
 of 144 gallons, worth 2*. 6d. per gallon: How much 
 wine, and how much water, must he take ? 
 Gallons. 
 
 30 
 
 n 
 
 30 
 
 120 of wine, 
 24 of water. 
 144 total. 
 120X36=4320 
 24 X 0= 
 
 ' Xak 
 
 Proof 144)4320(30 
 
 As 36 : 30 : : 144 : 120 
 
 As 36 : 6 : : 144 : 24. 
 
 There being here only two simples, and the total of 
 
 the mixture limited, the question admits but of one 
 
 answer. — E. B. 
 
 AUocatiOU denotes the admitting or allowing of 
 an article of an account, especially in the exchequer. 
 Hence Allocaiione Facienda is a writ directed to the 
 Lord Treasurer, or Barons of the Exchequer, command- 
 ing them to allow an accountant such sums as he has 
 lawfully expended in the execution of his office. — 
 E.B. 
 
 Allo'wances, Tares, etc. In selling goods, or in 
 paying duties upon them, certain deductions are made 
 from their weights, depending on the nature of the 
 packages in which they are inclosed, and which are 
 regulated in most instances by the custom of mer- 
 chants, and the rules laid down by public offices. 
 These allowances, as they are termed, are distin- 
 guished by the epithets Draft, Tare, Tret, and Cloff. 
 
 Draft is a deduction from the original or gross 
 weight of goods, and is substracted before the tare is 
 taken off. Tare is an allowance for the weight of the 
 bag, box, cask, or other package, in which goods are 
 weighed. Real or open tare is the actual weight of the 
 package. Customary tare is, as its name implies, an 
 established allowance for the weight of the package. 
 Computed tare is an estimated allowance agreed upon 
 
ALL 
 
 ■28 
 
 ALM 
 
 at the time. Average tarei is when a few packages 
 only among several are weighed, their mean or average 
 taken, and the rest tared accordingly. Super-ture is 
 an additional allowance, or tare, where the commodity 
 or package exceeds a certain weight. When tare is 
 allowed, the remainder is called the net weight ; but if 
 tret be allowed, it is called the suttle weight. Tret is a 
 deduction of 4 pounds from every 104 pounds of suttle 
 weight. This allowance, which is said to be for dust 
 or sand, or for the waste or wear of the commodity, 
 was formerly made on most foreign articles sold by the 
 pound avoirdupois ; but it is now nearly discontinued 
 by merchants, or else allowed in the price. It is 
 wholly abolished at the East India warehouses in 
 London ; and neither tret nor draft is allowed at the 
 custom-house, Cloff^ or Chugh^ is another allowance 
 that is nearly obsolete. It is stated in arithmetical 
 books to be a deduction of 2 pounds from every 3cwt. 
 of the second suttle; that is, the remainder after tret 
 is subtracted; but merchants at present know cloff 
 only as a small deduction, like draft, from the original 
 weight, and this only from two or three articles. — ^ee 
 Kelly's Cambist, art. London. 
 
 Alloy, or Allay, properly signifies a proportion 
 of a baser metal mixed with a finer one. The alloy 
 of gold is estimated by carats, that of silver by penny- 
 weights. In difterent nations different proportions of 
 alloy are used ; whence their moneys are said to be of 
 difterent degrees of fineness or baseness, and are valued 
 accordingly in foreign exchanges. The chief reasons 
 alleged for the alloying of coin are, 1, the mixture of the 
 metals, which, when smelted from the mine, are not 
 perfectly pure ; 2, the saving of the expense it must 
 otherwise cost if they were to be refined ; 3, the neces- 
 sity of rendering them harder, by mixing some parts 
 of other metals with them, to prevent the diminution 
 of weight by wearing in passing from hand to hand; 
 
 4, the melting of foreign gold or coin which is alloyed ; 
 
 5, the charges of coinage, which must be made good 
 by the profit arising from the money coined ; 6, and 
 lastly, the duty belonging to the sovereign, on account 
 of the power he has to cause money to be coined in his 
 dominions. — E. B. 
 
 Almadie, a kind of canoe or small vessel, about 
 four fathoms long, commonly made of bark, and used 
 by the negroes of Africa. At Calicut the same name 
 is applied to a kind of long boats, 80 feet in length and 
 six or seven in breadth. Tliey are exceedingly swift, 
 and are otherwise called cathuri. — E. B. 
 
 Almanac, a book or table, containing a calendar 
 of days and months, the rising and setting of the sun, 
 the age of the moon, the eclipses of both luminaries, 
 etc. Authors are divided with regard to the etymology 
 of the word ; some deriving it from the Arabic particle 
 al, and manach, to count ; some from almanack, New- 
 year's gifts, because the Arabian astrologers used at 
 the beginning of the year to make presents of their 
 ephemerides ; and others from the Teutonic almaen 
 achte, observations on all the months. Dr. Johnson 
 derives it from the Arabic particle al, and the Greek 
 fLTjv, a month. But the most simple etj'mology ap- 
 pears from the common spelling; the word being com- 
 posed of two Arabic ones, Al Manack, which signify 
 the Diary. All classes of the Arabs are commonly 
 much given to the study of astronomy and astrology; 
 to both of which they are inclined by their belief in 
 fate, and by their pastoral life, which affords time and 
 opportunity to cultivate them. They neither sow, 
 reap, plant, nor undertake any expedition or business, 
 without previously consulting the stars, or, in other 
 words, their almanacs, or some of the makers of them. 
 From these people, by their vicinity to Europe, this 
 art, no less useful in one sense than trifling and ridicu- 
 lous in another, has passed over to us ; and those astro- 
 nomical compositions have still every where not only 
 retained their old Arabic name, but were, like theirs, 
 for a long while, and still are among many European 
 
 nations, interspersed with a great number of astro- 
 logical rules for planting, sowing, bleeding, purging, 
 etc., down to the cutting of the hair and paring of the 
 nails. Eegiomontanus appears to have been the first 
 in Europe, however, who reduced almanacs into their 
 present form and method, gave the characters of each 
 year and month, foretold the eclipses and other phases, 
 calculated the motions of the planets, etc. His first 
 almanac was published in 1474. The essential part 
 of an almanac is the calendar of months and days, 
 with the risings and settings of the sun, age of the 
 moon, etc. To these are added lists of posts, offices, 
 dignities, public institutions, with many other articles, 
 political as well as local, and differing in diflferent 
 countries. 
 
 Almanac, Nautical. This, which in some respects 
 is a national almanac, is published under the sanction 
 of the Board of Longitude, and is designed chiefly to 
 facilitate the use of Mayer's Lunar Tables, by super- 
 seding the necessity of making calculations to determ- 
 ine the longitude at sea. It commenced with the year 
 1767, and has ever since been continued annuallj', but 
 two or three years in advance. The late Dr. Maske- 
 lyne was the originator of this very valuable publica- 
 tion. It is now published under the immediate super- 
 intendence of the secretary to the board. Similar to 
 this almanac is the French publication entitled Connois- 
 sance des Terns, directed by the Bureau de Longitude, 
 and which commenced so early as the year 1698. At 
 Berlin, the celebrated Bode for about 50 years con- 
 ducted the excellent astronomical almanac, Astronomi- 
 sches Jakrbuck, which is still continued. — E. B. 
 
 The American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac is 
 a valuable work for navigators. The act establishing 
 this work was passed by Congress in 1849, and the 
 preparation of the first volume was commenced in the 
 fall of the same year. The work was put under the 
 superintendence of Commander C. H. Davis, of the 
 navy, with Professor Benjamin Peirce as consulting 
 astronomer. Owing to the smallness of the first ap- 
 propriations, and the great amount of preliminary 
 labor, the first volume, for 1865, was not published 
 until 1852 ; since which time a volume has been issued 
 each year. The volume for 1859 is now in a forward 
 state of preparation, and will be ready about January, 
 1857. The primary object of the work is to promote 
 the interests of commerce ; and for this reason great 
 pains have been taken with those problems upon which 
 the science of navigation depends. Especially is this 
 the case with the Lunar Ephemeris ; and all the tests 
 which have been applied show that this labor has been 
 rewarded with great success. Professor Peirce's Tables 
 are used in preparing this ephemeris. The ephemeris 
 of the sun is prepared from Hansen's Tables. The 
 nautical part of the work, besides the foregoing, con- 
 tains the ephemerides of those planets most commonly 
 used with the moon in determining a ship's place at 
 sea; also the apparent places of about one hundred 
 fixed stars. All this part of the work is referred to 
 the meridian of Greenwich; and to prevent confusion 
 in its use, the arrangement of the British Almanac is 
 adopted. The astronomical part is referred to the 
 meridian of Washington, and such changes in the or- 
 dinary forms of the ephemerides have been adopted as 
 would render them most practical in the daily routine 
 of the observatory. The ephemerides of the planets 
 are being based upon new theories, as fast as can be 
 done consistently with the demands which the regular 
 issues of the almanac make upon the annual appro- 
 priations made by Congi'css for its support. 
 
 The Egyptians computed time by instruments. Log 
 calendars were anciently in use. Almon-aght is of 
 Saxon origin. In the British Museum and universi- 
 ties are curious specimens of early almanacs. Michael 
 Nostrodamus, the celebrated astrologer, wrote an al- 
 manac in the style of Merlin, 1506. — Dufkesnoy. The 
 most noted early almanacs were ; 
 
ALM 
 
 29 
 
 ALU 
 
 John Somer's Calendar, Oxford 1380 
 
 One in Lambeth palace, written in 1460 
 
 First printed one, published at Buda 1472 
 
 First printed in England, by Ittchard Pynson. . 1497 
 
 Tybault's Prognostications 1533 
 
 Lilly's Ephemeris 1644 
 
 Poor Robin's Almanac 1652 
 
 Lady's Diary 1705 
 
 Moore's Almanac 1713 
 
 Season on the Seasons 1735 
 
 Gentleman's Diary. 1741 
 
 Nautical Almanac (materially improved in 1834) 1767 
 Poor Richard's Almanac (Franklin's, Philadel- 
 phia) 1733 
 
 British Imperial Calendai- 1809 
 
 British Almanac and Companion 1828 
 
 American Almanac, Boston 1829 
 
 Nautical Almanac, United States 1855 
 
 Of Moore's, at one period, upward of 500,000 copies 
 were annually sold. The Stationers' company claimed 
 the exclusive right of publishing, until 1790, in virtue 
 of letters patent from James I., granting the privilege 
 to this company, and the two universities. The stamp 
 duty on almanacs was abolished iu England, 1834. 
 
 AlxXLOnds (Ger. Mandeln; Du. Amandelen; Fr. 
 Amandes; It.Mcmdorli; Sp. Ahnendra; Fort. Amendo; 
 Russ. Mmdal; Lat. AmygdaltB amartE, dukes), a Icind 
 of medicinal fruit, contained in, a hard shell, that is in- 
 closed in a tough sort of cotton skin. The tree (Amyg- 
 dalm communis) which produces this fruit nearly re- 
 sembles the peach both in leaves and blossoms; it 
 grows spontaneously only in warm countries, as Spain, 
 and particularly Barbary. It flowers early in the 
 spring, and produces fruit in August. Almonds are of 
 two sorts, sweet and bitter. They are not distinguish- 
 able from eacli other but by the taste of the kernel or 
 fruit. " The Valentia almond is sweet, large, and flat- 
 pointed at one extremity, and compressed in the mid- 
 dle. The Italian almonds are not so sweet, smaller, 
 and less depressed in the middle. The Jordan almonds 
 come from Malaga, and are the best sweet almonds 
 brought to England. They are longer, flatter, less 
 pointed at one end and less round at the other, and 
 have a paler cuticle than those we have described. 
 The sweet almonds are imported in mats, casks, and 
 boxes ; the bitter, which come chiefly from Mogadore, 
 arrive in boxes." — Thomson's Dispensatory. 
 
 Aloes (Du. Aloe; Fr. Aloes; Ger. and Lat. Aloe; 
 Euss. Sabir; Sp. Aloe; Arab. Mucibar), a bitter, gum- 
 my, resinous, inspissated juice, obtained from the leaves 
 of the plant of the same name. There are four sorts of 
 aloes met with in commerce ; viz., Socotrine, Hepatic, 
 Cdballine, and Cape. 
 
 1. Socotrine — so called from the island of Socotra, in 
 the Indian Ocean, not very distant from Cape Guarda- 
 fui, where the plant (Aloe spicaia), of which this spe- 
 cies is the produce, grows abundantly. It is in pieces 
 of a reddish-brown color, glossy as if varnished, and in 
 some degree pellucid. When reduced to powder, it is 
 of a bright golden color. Its taste is extremely bitter, 
 and it has a peculiar aromatic odor, not unlike that of 
 the russet apple decaying. It softens in the hand, and 
 is adhesive, yet Is sufficiently pulverulent. It is im- 
 ported by way of Smyrna and Alexandria, in obests 
 and casks, but is very scarce in England. 
 
 2. Hepatic. — The real hepatic aloes, so called from 
 its liver color, is believed to be the produce of the Aloe 
 perfoliata, which grows in Yemen, in Arabia, from 
 which it is exported to Bombaj', whence it finds its 
 way to Europe. It is duller in the color, bitterer, and 
 has a less pleasant aroma than the Socotrine aloes, for 
 which, however, it is sometimes substituted. Barba- 
 does aloes, which is often passed off for the hepatic, is 
 the produce of the Aloe vulgaris. It is brought home 
 in calabashes, or large gourd shells, containing from 
 60 to 70 pounds. It is duskier in its hue than the 
 Bombay, or real hepatic aloes, and the taste is more 
 nauseous, and intensely bitter. The color of the pow- 
 der is a dull olive yellow. 
 
 3. Cdballine, or Horse Aloes, seems to be merely the 
 coarsest species or refuse of the Barbadoes aloes. It 
 is used only in veterinary medicine ; and is easily dis- 
 tinguished by its rank, fetid smell. 
 
 4. Cape Aloes is the produce of the Aloe spicata, 
 which is found in great abundance in the interior of 
 the Cape colony, and in Melinda. The latter furnishes 
 the greater part of the extract sold in Europe under the 
 name of Socotrine aloes. The odor of the Cape aloes 
 is stronger and more disagreeable than that of the Soc- 
 otrine ; they have also a yellower hue on the outside, 
 are less glossy, softer, and more pliable ; the color of 
 the powder is more lilte that of gamboge than that of 
 the true Socotrine aloes. — Ainslie's Materia Indica ; 
 Thomson's Dispensatory and Materia Medica. 
 
 Aloes-'wrood (Ger. Aloeholz; Du. Alo'ehout, Par- 
 adyshout; Fr. JSois d'Aloes; It. Legno di Aloe; &\).Aloe 
 chino ; Lat. lAgnum Aloes ; Sans. Aguru ; Malay, Agila ; 
 Siam. Kisna), the produce of a large forest tree, to be 
 found in most of the countries between China and In- 
 dia, from the 24th degi-ee of north latitude to the equa- 
 tor. It seems to be the result of a diseased action con- 
 fined to a small part of a few trees, of which the rest of 
 the wood is wholly valueless. It appears to be more 
 or less frequent according to soil and climate, and from 
 the same causes to differ materially in quality. It is 
 produced both in the greatest quantity and perfection 
 in the countries and islands on the east coast of the 
 Gulf of Siam. This article is in high repute for fumi- 
 gations, and as incense, in all Hindoo, Mohammedan, 
 and Catholic countries. It formerly brought » very 
 high price, being at one time reckoned nearly as valu- 
 able as gold. It is now comparatively cheap, though 
 the finest specimens are still very dear. The accounts 
 of this article in most books, even of good authority, 
 are singularly contradictory and inaccurate. This is 
 more surprising, as La Loubfere has distinctly stated 
 that it consisted only of '* certains endroits corrumpus 
 dams des arbres d'une certait^e espece. Toute arbre de 
 cette espece n'en a pas ; et ceux qui en ont, ne les ont pas 
 tous en meme endroit." — Royaume de Siam, t. i. p. 45, 
 12mo edi The difliculty of finding the trees which 
 happen to be diseased, and of getting at the diseased 
 portion, has given rise to the fables that have been 
 current as to its origin. The late Dr. Roxburgh in- 
 troduced the tree which yields this production into the 
 Botanical Garden at Calcutta, from the hills to the 
 eastward of Sylhet, and described it under the name 
 of Aquillaria AgaXocha. 
 
 Alpaca, a species of the South American family of 
 quadrupeds called Uama, the soft hairy wool of which 
 is now largely employed in the fabrication of cloths of 
 different sorts. There would appear to be three spe- 
 cies of this family, the Guanaco, or wild Llama ; the 
 Alpaca, which was domesticated as a beast of burden 
 by the ancient Peruvians, and hence considered as the 
 camel of the New World ; and the Vicuna, a small spe- 
 cies, chiefly valued for the softness of its fine wool. 
 Some consider the Paco a fourth species ; but the de- 
 scriptions of travelers are too indefinite to enable us to 
 decide this point. The fleece of the alpaca is fine, long, 
 and shaggy ; and the animal exceeds much in size the 
 other two. 
 
 Alum (Ger. Alaun; Du. Aluin; Fr. Alun; It. Al- 
 lume; Sp. AUumbre; Russ. Kwassze; Lat. Alumen; 
 Arab. Sheb), a salt of great importance in the arts, 
 consisting of a ternary compound of aluminum, or pure 
 argillaceous earth, potass, and sulphuric acid. Alum 
 is sometimes found native ; but by far the greater part 
 of that which is met with in commerce is artificially 
 prepared. The best alum is the Roman, or that which 
 is manufactured near Civita Vecchia, in the Papal 
 territory. It is in irregular, octahedral, crystalline 
 masses, about the size of a walnut, and is opaque, be- 
 ing covered on the surface with a farinaceous efflores- 
 cence. The Levant, or Eoch alum, is in fragrnents, 
 about the size of the former, but in which the crystal- 
 
AMA 
 
 30 
 
 AMA 
 
 line form is more obscure ; it is externally of a dirty 
 rose-color, and internally exhibits the same tinge, but 
 clearer. It is usually shipped for Europe from Smyr- 
 na ; but it was anciently made at Eoccha, or Edessa, 
 in Syria ; and hence its name, Koch alum. English 
 alum is in large, irregular, semi-transparent, colorless 
 masses, having a glassy fracture ; not efflorescent, and 
 considerably harder than the others. It is very infe- 
 rior to either the Eoman or Eoch alum. The principal 
 use of alum is in the art of dyeing, as a mordant for 
 fixing and giving permanency to colors which other- 
 wise would not adhere at all, or but for a very short 
 time ; but it is also used for a great variety of other 
 purposes. Beckmann has shown (History of Inven- 
 tions^ vol. i. article Alum) that the ancients were un- 
 acquainted with alum, and that the substance which 
 they designated as such was merely vitriolic earth. It 
 was fii'st discovered by the Orientals, who established 
 alum works in Syria in the thirteenth or fourteenth 
 century. The oldest alum works in Europe were erect- 
 ed about the middle of the fifteenth century. Toward 
 the conclusion of the reign of Queen Elizabeth, Sir 
 Thomas Chaloner established the first alum work in 
 England, in the vicinity of Whitby, in Yorkshire, 
 where the principal works of the sort in that country 
 are still can'ied on : the shipments of alum from Whit- 
 by in 1841 amounted to 3237 tons. There is also a 
 large alum work at Hurlett, near Paisley, the produce 
 of which may be estimated at about 1200 tons a year. 
 Alum is largely manufactured in China, and is thence 
 exported to all the western Asiatic countries. In 1837, 
 36,642 piculs (2120 tons) were exported from Canton. 
 
 Amalgamation, the operation of making an amal- 
 gam, or mixing mercury with any metal. Eor the com- 
 bination of one metal with another, it is generally suf- 
 ficient that one of them be in a state of fluidity. Mer- 
 cury being always fluid, is therefore capable of amal- 
 gamation with other metals without heat, iron except- 
 ed ; nevertheless, heat considerably facilitates the op- 
 eration. To amalgamate without heat requires noth- 
 ing more than rubbing the two metals together in a 
 mortar ; but the metal to be united with the mercury 
 should be previously divided into very thin plates or 
 grains. When heat is used (which is always most ef- 
 fectual, and with some metals indispensably necessary), 
 the mercury should be heated till it begin to smoke, 
 and the grains of metal made red hot before they are 
 thrown into it. If it be gold or silver, it is sufficient 
 to stir the fluid with an iron rod for a little while, and 
 then to throw it into a vessel filled with water. This 
 amalgam is used for gilding or silvering on copper, 
 which is afterward exposed to a degree of heat suffi- 
 cient to evaporate the mercury. Amalgamation with 
 lead or tin Is effected by pouring an equal weight of 
 mercury into either of these metals in a state of fusion, 
 and stirring with an iron rod. Copper amalgamates 
 with great difficulty, and iron not at all.— E. B. 
 
 Amazon, Maranon, Orellana, or Solimoes, 
 the chief river of South America, and the largest in 
 the world, whether regarded as to its volume, or the 
 extent of its basin. It is formed by the union of the 
 Maranon and Dcayale ; the former rising in Lake Lauri- 
 cocha (Peru), in lat. 10° 30' S., long. 76° 10' W. ; and 
 the head stream of the latter, the Apurimac, origina- 
 ting about lat. 16° S., long. 72° W. Both rivers have 
 a general course at first northward; the Maranon, for 
 the first 500 miles of its course, flows N.N.W., and at 
 about lat. 6° S. bends eastward, and at lat. 4° 40' takes 
 an almost due east course, and after receiving the Hual- 
 laga from the south (where it is about 500 yards broad), 
 it pursues a course of 46 J^ leagues, and joins the Ucayale 
 at lat. 4° 35' S., long. 74° W. Here the stream has 
 depth sufficient to float the largest class of ships. 
 Thenceforth the Amazon flows generally east to the 
 Atlantic, which it enters nearly under the equator, and 
 between long. 48° and 60° W., its estuary widening un- 
 til it is 180 miles across. Taking the Apurimac as its 
 
 source, its direct length is estimated at 1769 miles, and 
 including its windings, nearly 4000 miles ; for great 
 part of which (viz., from the ocean to Pongo de Man- 
 seriche, long. 76° 60' W.) it is navigable and uninter- 
 rupted by any rapid or cataract. At least twenty no- 
 ble rivers, navigable to near their sources, pour their 
 waters into it, besides numerous other less important 
 streams. Chief tributaries, the Napo, Putumayo, Ya- 
 pura, and Rio Negro, from the north ; the Yavari, 
 Jutay, Jurua, Coary, Purus, Madeira, Tapajos, and 
 Xinga, from the south. By the Casiquiaire, a branch 
 of the Rio Negro, the Amazon has a direct and remark- 
 able connection with the Orinoco. The Amazon and 
 its tributaries afford an immense inland navigation, 
 estimated at 50,000 miles; and the extent of its basin 
 has been computed at about two millions of square 
 miles, or about two fifths of the whole continent of 
 South America. The depth of the river is great ; in 
 mid-current no bottom is found with 20 fathoms. The 
 velocity of the current is pretty uniform, at the rate 
 of 3-J miles an hour. Tides ascend this river for 400 
 miles from the Atlantic — as far as Obidos, where the 
 Amazon is still more than a mile in width— and near 
 the full moon the rise of the tide occasions a formida- 
 ble rush of water into the channel, sometimes bringing 
 in several waves from 10 to 16 feet in height. This 
 phenomenon, called the iore, is witnessed on a smaller 
 scale in the Ganges, and in some European rivers. 
 The upper part of the river, as far as the mouth of the 
 Yavari, which forms the boundary line between Brazil 
 and Peru, is called Maranon ; thence to the mouth of 
 the Rio Negro it is called Solimoes or Solimas ; and 
 from the Negro to its mouth, Amazon. The tropical 
 rains swell the river annually to 40 and 50 feet above 
 its ordinary level. The Maranon attains its greatest 
 height in January, the Solimoes in February, the Am- 
 azon in the middle of March. In the lower part of its 
 course, the Amazon abounds with islands, and in its 
 estuary are Marajo and Caviana, of considerable ex- 
 tent. Santiago (Ecuador), S. Bojja, S. Joaquim, Ta- 
 batinga, Olivenza, Matura, Serpa, Santarem, Mon- 
 talegre, Para, Arayates, and Gurupa, are towns on its 
 banks ; but, with trifling exceptions, the whole coun- 
 try which it traverses is still in a state of nature. In 
 1848, a steamboat made a passage from Para, up the 
 river as far as the Negro. "The estuary of the Amazon 
 was discovered by Pin9on in 1500 ; in 1539, Francis 
 d'Orellana sailed down it from the Napo, and it ob- 
 tained its name of Amazon from his having reported 
 that he had seen armed women on its shores.— Har- 
 PEKS' Gazetteer. 
 
 Its capacities for trade and commerce are inconceiv- 
 ably great. Its industrial future is the most dazzling ; 
 and to the touch of steam, settlement, and cultivation, 
 this rolling stream and its magnificent water-shed 
 would start up into a display of industrial results that 
 would indicate the Valley of the Amazon as one of the 
 most enchanting regions on the face of the earth. From 
 its mountains you may dig silver, iron, coal, copper, 
 quicksilver, zinc, and tin ; from the sands of its tribu- 
 taries you may wash gold, diamonds, and precious 
 stones ; from its forests you may gather drugs of vir- 
 tues the most rare, spices of aroma the most exquisite, 
 gums and resins of the most varied and useful proper- 
 ties, dyes of hues the most brilliant, with cabinet and 
 building woods of the finest polish and most enduring 
 texture. Its climate is an everlasting summer, and 
 its harvest perennial. I translate from a book of trav- 
 els in these countries, by Count Castelnau (received 
 since my return to the United States), an account of 
 the capacities of some of the southern portions of this 
 vast water-shed : 
 
 "The productions of the country are exceedingly 
 various. The sugar-cane, of which the crop is gath- 
 ered at the end of eight months from the time of plant- 
 ing, forms the chief source of wealth of the province 
 of Cercado. 
 
AMA 
 
 31 
 
 AMA 
 
 " Coffee is cultivated also with success in tliis prov- 
 ince, and in that of Chiquitos yields its fruit two years 
 after having been planted, and requires scarcely any 
 attention. Cocoa, recently introduced into these two 
 provinces, gives its fruit at the end of three or four 
 years at most. The tamarind, which thrives in the 
 same localities, produces its harvest in five years. 
 Cotton gives annual crops ; there are two varieties — 
 the one white, the other yellow. Tobacco grows, so 
 to speak, without cultivation, in the province of Valle 
 Grande, where it forms the principal article of com- 
 merce. Indigo, of which there are three cultivated 
 kinds and one wild, is equally abundant. Maize yields 
 at the end of three months all the year round ; it is 
 also cultivated in the province of Cercado. The cas- 
 save produces in eight months after planting ; there 
 are two kinds of it — one sweet, and the other bitter ; 
 the first can replace the potato, and even bread ; the 
 second is only good for starch. There is an enormous 
 amount of kinds or varieties of bananas, which produce 
 in the year from seed ; they are specially cultivated in 
 the province of Cercado. Two kinds of rice — one white, 
 the other colored — are cultivated in the two provinces 
 of Cercado and Chiquitos. They produce every five 
 or six months ; they say it is found wild in the region 
 of Chiquitos. 
 
 "The grape, which grows well every where, and 
 especially in the province of Cordilleras, where it was 
 cultivated in the Missions up to the time of the Inde- 
 pendence, is nevertheless made no article of profit. It 
 will some day, perhaps, form one of the principal sources 
 of wealth of this country. Wheat, barley, and the 
 potato might be cultivated with advantage in the prov- 
 inces of Chiquitos and Cordilleras ; but till now results 
 have been obtained only in that of Valle Grande. The 
 cultivation of cocoa has commenced in the province of 
 Cercado, and it is also found in a wild state, as well as 
 the Peruvian bark, on the mountains of Samaripata. 
 As we have already said, fruits abound in this region. 
 They cultivate there principally oranges, lemons, cit- 
 rons, figs, papaws, pomegranates, melons, water-melons, 
 chirimoyas (which the Brazilians c&W fruto de conde), 
 pine-apples, etc. The last of these fruits grow wild, 
 and in great abundance, in the woods of Chiquitos. 
 We met it, particularly the evening of our arrival, at 
 Santa Ana. Its taste is excellent ; but it leaves in 
 the mouth such a burning sensation that I bitterly re- 
 pented having tasted it. They cultivate in sufficient 
 abundance, in the province, jalap, Peruvian bark, sar- 
 saparilla, vanilla, rocou, copahu, ipecacuanha, caout- 
 chouc, copal, etc. Woods for dyeing, cabinet-making, 
 and building, abound ; and the people of the country 
 collect carefully a multitude of gums, roots, and barks, 
 to which they attribute medicinal virtues the most va- 
 ried. In many points in the departments, and espe- 
 cially in the provinces of Valle Grande and Cordil- 
 leras, iron is found, and traces of quicksilver. Gold 
 is found in the province of Cercado, near the village 
 of San Xavier. The Jesuits wrought mines of sil- 
 ver in the mountains of Colchis. Don Sebastian Ean- 
 cas, while Governor of Chiquitos, announced to the 
 government tliat diamonds, of very fine water, had 
 been found in the streams in the environs of Santo 
 Corazon." 
 
 The citizens of the United States are, of all foreign 
 people, most interested in the free navigation of the 
 Amazon. We, as in comparison with other foreigners, 
 would reap the lion's share of the advantages to be de- 
 rived from it. We would fear no competition. Our 
 geographical position, the winds of heaven, and the 
 currents of the ocean, are our potential auxiliaries. 
 Thanks to Maury's investigations of the winds and 
 currents, we know that a chip flung into the sea at the 
 mouth of the Amazon will float close by Cape Hat- 
 teras. We know that ships sailing from the mouth of 
 the Amazon, for whatever port of the world, are forced 
 to our very doors by the southeast and northeast trade- 
 
 winds ; that New York is the half-way house between 
 Para and Europe. 
 
 The present limited commerce of the Amazon may 
 be judged of by a statement of the exports and im- 
 ports of Para, the port of entry, and situated most ad- 
 vantageously at the mouth of an estuary of the Amazon. 
 
 Commerce of Taka fok 1S51. 
 
 No. of 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 American 
 
 English 
 
 French 
 
 Portuguese . . 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Belgian 
 
 Danish 
 
 Swedish 
 
 Tonnnge. 
 
 4,6U 
 2,732 
 536 
 3,666 
 510 
 320 
 480 
 420 
 
 139 
 
 22 
 
 Valae of 
 Imports. 
 
 $425,484 
 
 275,000 
 
 122,830 
 
 231,457 
 
 27,500 
 
 8,250 
 
 4,750 
 
 $1,092,271 
 
 Value of 
 Exports. 
 
 $476,210 
 335,000 
 188,699 
 215,142 
 131,000 
 16,250 
 84,000 
 28,500 
 
 $1,424,801 
 
 The city of Santa Maria de Belem de Grao Para, 
 founded by Francisco Caldeira do Castello Branco, in 
 the year 1616, is situated on a low elbow of land at the 
 junction of the River Guama with the Elver Para, and 
 at a distance of about eighty miles from the sea. A 
 ship generally requires three tides, which run with a 
 velocity of about four miles to the hour, to reach the 
 sea from the city. The harbor is a very fine one ; it 
 is made, by the long island of On9as in front, and at 
 two miles distant, with some smaller ones farther down 
 the river. There is an abundance of water, and ships 
 of any size may lie within one hundred and fifty yards 
 of the shore. There is a good landing-place for boats 
 and lighters at the custom-house wharf; and at half- 
 tide at the stone wharf, some five hundred yards above. 
 
 Owing to the miserable policy of the Brazilian gov- 
 ernment, the free commerce of the Amazon will be re- 
 tarded until Brazil is forced to do justice to herself and 
 others. 
 
 The Bolivian government are pursuing a more lib- 
 eral policy, and have issued the following decree, dated 
 La Paz, 21th January 1853 : 
 
 " Whereas, 1st, the eastern and western parts of the 
 republic, inclosing vast territories of extraordinarj' fer- 
 tility, intersected by navigable rivers flowing to the 
 Amazon and to the La Plata, offers the most natural 
 channels for the commerce, population, and civiliza- 
 tion of these districts ; 
 
 "Whereas, 2d, the navigation of these rivers is the 
 most efficacious and certain means of developing the 
 riches of this territory, by placing it in communication 
 with the exterior, and applying to its waters the fruit- 
 ful principle of free navigation, as useful to the inter- 
 ests of the republic as to those of the world ; 
 
 "Whereas, 3d, by the law of nature and of nations, 
 confirmed by the conventions of modern Europe, and 
 applied in the New World to the navigation of the Mis- 
 sissippi, Bolivia, as owner of the Pilcomayo, of the 
 tributaries and the greater part of the Madeira, of the 
 left shore of the Itenes from its junction with the Sa- 
 rave to its emptying into the Mamor6, of the western 
 
 bank of the Paraguay to the Marco del I , as far as 
 
 26° 54' of south latitude, and of the greater part and 
 the left shore of the Bermejo, has the right to navigate 
 these rivers from the point in her territory in which 
 they may be susceptible of it to the sea, without any 
 power being able to arrogate to itself the exclusive 
 sovereignty over the Amazon and La Plata; 
 
 "Whereas, 4th, this navigation can not be eflected 
 without the necessary ports are afforded for trade ; 
 
 " Therefore, be it decreed : 
 
 "Art. 1. The Bolivian government declares free to 
 the commerce and mercantile navigation of all the na- 
 tions of the globe the waters of the navigable rivers 
 which, flowing through the territory of this nation, 
 empty into the Amazon and Paraguay. 
 
 "Art. 2. The following are declared free ports, open 
 to the traffic and navigation of all vessels of commerce, 
 whatever may be their flag, destination, or tonnage : 
 
AMB 
 
 32 
 
 AME 
 
 " In the River Mamor6— Exaltacion, Trinidad, and 
 Lore to. 
 
 " In the Beni — Eenenavaque, Muchanis, and Mag- 
 dalena. 
 
 " In the Piray — Cuatro, Ojos. 
 
 " In the Chapare — Coni and ChimorS, tributaries of 
 the Maraore, the points of Asunta, Coni, and Chimor6. 
 
 " In the rivers Mapiri and Coroico, tributaries of the 
 Beni, the points of Guanay and Coroico. 
 
 "In the Pilcomayo — the port of Magrinos, on the 
 east coast of the Paraguay, La Bahia Negra, and the 
 point of Borbon. 
 
 " In the Bermejo — the point situated in 21° 30' south 
 latitude, at which embarlicd, in 1846, the national en- 
 gineers Ondarza and Mujia. 
 
 " Aet. 3. The vessels of war of friendly nations will 
 also be permitted to visit these ports. 
 
 "Akt. 4. The government of Bolivia, availing it- 
 self of the unquestionable rights which the nation has 
 to navigate these rivers as far as the Atlantic, invites 
 all the nations of the earth to navigate them, and 
 promises — 
 
 " 1st. To donate in the Bolivian territory, for the pur- 
 poses which the law allows, tracts of land, from one 
 league to twelve leagues square, to the individuals or 
 companies who, sailing from the Atlantic, shall arrive 
 at any one of the points declared to be ports of entry, 
 and may wish to found near them agricultural or in- 
 dustrial establishments. 
 
 " 2d. To guarantee the reward often thousand dol- 
 lars ($10,000) to the first steamer which, through the 
 La Plata or Amazon, may arrive at either of the above- 
 mentioned points. 
 
 "3d. To decree free the river exportation of the 
 products of the earth, and of the national industry. 
 
 " 4th. In due time there will be established and reg- 
 ulated at the above-mentioned points, where it may be 
 necessary, custom-houses for the loading and unloading 
 of merchandise, the government seeing that the charges 
 for the use of these custom-houses may be as moderate 
 as possible. 
 
 "5th. This decree will be submitted for the ex- 
 amination and approval of Congress on their next 
 meeting. 
 
 " 6th. The Minister of State, in the office of foreign 
 relations, is charged with its fulfillment, by circulating 
 it and communicating it to all whom it may concern. 
 
 " Given in the Palace of the Supreme Government, 
 in the place of Ayacucho, 27th of January, 1853, 
 44th of independence, and 4th of liberty. 
 
 "Manuel Isidoeo Belzu. 
 "Eafael Bcstillo, 
 " Minister (^Foreign Relations. 
 
 " A certified copy : Amaeo Alvarez, 
 
 " El OJJicial Mayai'.^^ 
 — See Heendon's Valley of the Amazon. 
 
 Amber (Ger. Bernstein ; Du. Bamsteen ; Da. Bern- 
 steenj liav. ; Fr. Amhrejaune; It. Ambra gialla; Sp. 
 Ambar ; Russ. Jantar ; Pol. Bursziyn; Lat. Succinum^ 
 Electrum), a. brittle, light, hard substance, usually 
 nearly transparent, sometimes nearly colorless, but 
 commonly yellow, or even deep brown. It has con- 
 siderable lustre. Specific gravity 1"065. It is found 
 in nodules or rounded masses, varying from the size of 
 coarse sand to that of a man's hand. It is tasteless, 
 without smell, except when pounded or heated, when 
 it emits a fragrant odor. It is highly electric. Most 
 authors assert that amber is bituminous; but Dr. Thom- 
 son states, that " it is undoubtedly of a vegetable ori- 
 gin ; and though it differs from resins in some of its 
 properties, yet it agrees with them in so many others, 
 that it may without impropriety be referred to them." 
 ■ — Chemistry, vol. iv. p. 147, 5th ed. Pieces of amber 
 occasionally inclose parts of toads and insects in their 
 substance, which are beautifully preserved. It is prin- 
 cipally found on the shores of Pomerania and Polish 
 Prussia ; but it is sometimes dug out of the earth in 
 
 Ducal Prussia. It is also to be met with on the banks 
 of the River Giaretta, in Sicily. Sometimes it is found 
 on the east coast of Britain, and in gravel pits round 
 London. The largest mass of amber ever found was 
 got near the surface of the ground in Lithuania. It 
 weighs 18 pounds, and is preserved in the royal cabinet 
 at Berlin. Most of the amber imported into this coun- 
 try comes from the Baltic, but a small quantity comes 
 from Sicily. Amber was in very high estimation among 
 the ancients, but is now comparatively neglected. 
 
 Ambergris, or Ambergrease (Ger. Amber; Du. 
 Amber; Fr. Ambergris; It. Ambragrigia; Sp. Amhar- 
 gris ; Lat. Ambra, Ambra grisea), a solid, opaque, 
 generally ash-colored, fatty, inflammable substance, 
 variegated like marble, remarkably light, rugged and 
 uneven in its surface, and has a fragrant odor when 
 heated ; it does not effervesce with acids, melts freely 
 over the fire into a kind of yellow resin, and is hard- 
 ly soluble in spirit of wine. It is found on the sea- 
 coast, or floating on the sea, near the coasts of India, 
 Africa, and Brazil, usually in small pieces, but some- 
 times in masses of 50 or 100 pounds weight. " Various 
 opinions have been entertained respecting its origin. 
 Some affirmed that it was the concrete juice of a tree, 
 others thought it a bitumen ; but it is now considered 
 as pretty well established that it is a concretion formed 
 in the stomach or intestines of the Physeter macroceph- 
 alus, or spermaceti whale." — ^Thomson's Chemistry. 
 Ambergris ought to be chosen in large pieces, of an 
 agreeable odor, entirely gray on the outside, and gray 
 with little black spots within. The purchaser should 
 be very cautious, as this article is easily counterfeited 
 with gums and other drugs. 
 
 America. Our object in this article is to take a 
 comprehensive survey of the American continent in its 
 physical, moral, and general relations. In attempting 
 this, we do not intend to go much into detail upon 
 those subjects which will be more fully and appropri- 
 ately discussed in the distinct articles assigned in this 
 work to the several States included in the Western 
 World ; but we shall dwell at some length upon those 
 features, peculiarities, and classes of facts which either 
 belong to it as a whole, or can be most advantageously 
 considered or described when all its parts are viewed 
 in connection with one another. Such are the climate 
 and physical structure of the country, the geographical 
 distribution of its cultivated plants, its indigenous pop- 
 ulation, its animal tribes, its commercial and political 
 capabilities, and its means of progressive improvement. 
 The new continent may be styled emphatically "a 
 land of promise." ThepreseTzi there sinks into nothing 
 in itself, and derives all its importance from the germs 
 it contains of a mighty future. The change must not 
 only be great, but rapid, beyond all which the past 
 history of mankind would lead us to expect. Even 
 after we have familiarized our minds with the princi- 
 ples upon which its progress depends, we find it diffi- 
 cult to reconcile ourselves to the consequences that in- 
 evitably result from them. But time will do its work ; 
 and the great-grandsons of those now in existence may 
 live to see the New ^Yorld contain a greater mass of 
 civilized men than the Old. It is this greatness in 
 prospect which lends an interest to the '\\'estern Con- 
 tinent similar to that which the Eastern derives from 
 its historical recollections. The same circumstance re- 
 quires that we should dwell at some length on the 
 physical structure of America, and on those indigenous 
 tribes which, in the course of three centuries, will only 
 live in poetry and tradition. The future histoiy of the 
 New World must be read by us in the configuration of 
 it^ surface, the distribution of its mountains and rivers, 
 the productions of its soil, its natural and political ca- 
 pabilities, and in the character rather than the num- 
 bers of its civilized inhabitants. 
 
 The continental part of America extends from the 
 54th degree of south to the 71st of north latitude, its 
 extreme length, from the Straits of Magellan to those 
 
AME 
 
 33 
 
 AME 
 
 of Behring, being 10,500 English miles. The islands 
 of Tieira del Fuego reach one degree beyond its south- 
 ern extremity into the Antarctic Ocean ; and Green- 
 land, which is connected bj' geographers with America, 
 has been traced to the 78th degree of north latitude, 
 and probably is prolonged much farther into the polar 
 circle. The late discoveries of Captains Parry, Koss, 
 and Franklin have given us much more exact ideas 
 than we formerly possessed of the northern regions of 
 America. The coast of the main land has been traced 
 almost completely from Behring's Straits to Fox's 
 Channel on Hudson's Bay, and is found to run in a 
 direction east and west, in an uneven line near the 
 parallel of 70°. The bounds of continental America 
 may therefore be considered as nearly determined on 
 every side. The additional lights furnished by Cap- 
 tain Parry's and other recent voyages render it ex- 
 tremely probable that a great archipelago of islands 
 occupies all the space between the northern coast of 
 the continent and the 80th parallel ; and there is even 
 some reason for believing that the country known by 
 the name of Greenland is traversed from east to west 
 by arms of the sea, like the regions on the west side of 
 Baffin's Bay. 
 
 The new continent, when compared with the old, 
 enjoys three important advantages. First, it is free 
 from such vast deserts as cover a large part of the sur- 
 face of Asia and Africa, and which not only withdraw 
 a great proportion of the soil from the use of man, but 
 are obstacles to communication between the settled dis- 
 tricts, and generate that excessive heat which is often 
 injurious to health, and always destructive to industry. 
 Secondly, no part of its soil is so far from the ocean as 
 the central regions of Asia and Africa. Thirdly, the 
 interior of America is penetrated by majestic rivers, 
 the Mississippi, Amazon, and Plata, greatly surpassing 
 those of the old continent in magnitude, and still 
 more in the facilities they present for enabling the re- 
 motest inland districts to communicate with the sea. 
 
 According to the geographical system adopted in 
 the Old World, America ought to be considered as two 
 distinct continents, connected by the isthmus of Darien. 
 Its two great divisions have evidently more of a defined 
 and separate character than Africa and Asia, or than 
 Asia and Europe ; but though this arrangement may 
 be very properly adopted for the purpose of description, 
 it is too late now to think of assigning separate names 
 to regions which have so long been known by a com- 
 mon appellation. In the physical arrangement of the 
 parts of South and North America there is a remark- 
 able resemblance. Both are very broad in the north, 
 and gradually contract as they proceed southward, till 
 they end, the one in a narrow isthmns, and the other 
 in a narrow promontory. Each has a lofty chain of 
 mountains near its western coast, abounding in vol- 
 canoes, with a lower ridge on the opposite side, desti- 
 tute of any trace of internal fire ; and each has one 
 great central plain declining to the south and the 
 north, and watered by two gigantic streams, the Mis- 
 sissippi corresponding to the Plata, and the St. Law- 
 rence to the Amazon. In their climate, vegetable 
 productions, and animal tribes, the two regions are 
 very dissimilar. 
 
 ■The extent of the American continent and the isl- 
 ands connected with it is as follows : 
 
 Square Eng. Miles. 
 
 North America T,40U,000 
 
 South America 6,500,000 
 
 Islands 150,000 
 
 Greenland, and the islands connected witbk 
 it, lying north of Hudson's Straits, may ieV 900,000 
 
 estimated at ) 
 
 14,950,000 
 
 The American Continent, therefore, with its depend- 
 ent islands, is fully four times as large as Europe, about 
 one third larger than Africa, and almost one half less 
 than Asia, if we include with the latter Australia and 
 Polvnesia. It constitutes about three-tenths of the drv 1 
 C 
 
 land on the surface of the globe. Of the continental 
 part of North America, a considerable portion is con- 
 demned to perpetual sterility by the rigor of the cli- 
 mate, as we shall explain more fully by-and-by. At 
 present it is sufficient to state, that if we draw a line 
 from the head of Cook's Inlet, in latitude 61°, on the 
 west side, to the Straits of Bellisle on the east, so as to, 
 pass through Fort Churchill, on Hudson's Bay, we 
 shall cut off a space rather exceeding one million and 
 a half of square miles, which may be considered as in- 
 capable of cultivation. At the south extremity of 
 America, a small tract, extending 200 miles north of 
 the Straits of Magellan, though far within the limits 
 of the temperate zone, is nearly in the same condition. 
 These and the summits of the Andes are the only parts 
 of the American continent which are rendered incapa- 
 ble of cultivation by the severity of the climate. 
 
 The vast chain of the Andes is distinguished by sev- 
 eral peculiar features from all other mountains in the 
 world. It has its principal direction nearly north and 
 south, while all the great ridges of the old continent 
 run from east to west ; it is unparalleled in its prodig- 
 ious length, in the richness of its mineral treasures, and 
 in the number and magnitude of its volcanoes. The 
 Andes, if we connect with them the Mexican Cordillera 
 and the Kocky Mountains, extend from the Straits of 
 Magellan in a line which may be considered as unbro- 
 ken, to Point Brownlow on the shores of the Arctic 
 Ocean, in the latitude of 70°, over a space equal to 
 10,000 miles in length, or two-fifths of the circumfer- 
 ence of the globe. "Their height, which attains its 
 maximum within the tropics, declines toward both 
 poles, but in such a manner that, with a few excep- 
 tions, its higher summits ascend to the line of perpet- 
 ual snow from one extremity to the other. It may 
 thus be said to carry the temperature of the pole over 
 the whole length of the American continent. The 
 chain of the Andes is common to the two parts of 
 America, and is in fact the link which connects them 
 and makes them one continent. As we propose, how- 
 ever, to describe North and South America separately, 
 we shall reserve the details for another part of this 
 article. 
 
 South America is a peninsula of a triangular form. 
 Its greatest length from north to south is 4550 miles ; 
 its greatest breadth 3200; and it covers an area, as al- 
 ready mentioned, of 6,500,000 square English miles, 
 about three-fourths of which lie between the tropics, 
 and the other fourth in the temperate zone. From the 
 configuration of its surface, the peninsula may be di- 
 vided into five distinct physical regions: 1. The low 
 country skirting the shores of the Pacific Ocean, from 
 50 to 150 miles in breadth, and 4000 in length. The 
 two extremities of this territory are fertile, the middle 
 a sandy desert. 2. The basin of the Orinoco, a coun- 
 try consisting of extensive plains or steppes, called 
 Llanos, either destitute of wood or merely dotted with 
 trees, but covered with a very high herbage during a 
 part of the year. During the dry season the heat is 
 intense here, and the parched soil opens into long fis- 
 sures, in which lizards and serpents lie in a state of 
 torpor. 3. The basin of the Amazon, a vast plain, 
 embracing a surface of more than two millions of 
 square miles, possessing a rich soil and a humid cli- 
 mate. It is covered almost every where with dense 
 forests, which harbor innumerable tribes of wild ani- 
 mals, and are thinly inhabited by savages, who live 
 by hunting and fishing. 4. The great southern plain, 
 watered by the Plata and the numerous streams de- 
 scending from the eastern summits of the Cordilleras. 
 Open steppes, which are here called Pampas, occupy 
 the greater proportion of this region, which is dry, 
 and in some parts barren, but in general is covered 
 with a. strong growth of weeds and tall grass, which 
 feeds prodigious herds of horses and cattle, and affords 
 shelter to a few wild animals. 5. The country of Bra- 
 zil, eastward of the Parana and Araguay, presenting 
 
AME 
 
 34 
 
 AME 
 
 alternate ridges and valleys, thickly covered with wood 
 on the side next the Atlantic, and opening into steppes 
 or pastures in the interior. 
 
 Nine-tenths of North America lying under the tem- 
 perate zone, the climate follows a different law from 
 what is observed in the southern peninsula, and pre- 
 sents more striking contrasts with that of the best 
 known parts of the Old World. The long narrow region 
 now denominated Central America, which connects the 
 two great divisions of the continent, stretching from 
 Panama to Tehuantepec, has in general a very humid 
 atmosphere ; but, for a tropical country, it must be only 
 moderately hot, as eveiy part of it is within a small 
 distance of the sea. At Vera Paz the rains fall during 
 nine months of the year. Mexico is hot, moist, and 
 unhealthy on the low coasts ; but two-thirds of its area, 
 comprising all the populous districts, consist of table- 
 land, from 5000 to 9000 feet in height. In consequence 
 of this singular configuration of its surface, Mexico, 
 though chiefly within the torrid zone, enjoys a tem- 
 perate and equable climate. The mean heat at the 
 capital, which is 7400 feet above the sea, is 62^°, and 
 the difference between the warmest and coldest months, 
 which exceeds 30° at London, is here only about 12° ; 
 but the atmosphere is deficient in moisture, and the 
 country sufiers from drought. Beyond the parallel of 
 24° the western shores are hot and arid. 
 
 In the extensive region lying between the parallels 
 of 30° and 50°, which comprehends three-fourths of the 
 useful soil of North America, we have three well-mark- 
 ed varieties of climate, that of the east coast, the west 
 coast, and the basin of the Mississippi. On the east 
 coast, from Georgia to Lower Canada, the mean tem- 
 perature of the year is lower than in Europe by 9° at 
 the latitude of 40°, and by 12^° at the latitude of 50°, 
 according to Humboldt's calculation. In the next 
 place, the range of the thermometer is much greater 
 than in Europe, the summer being much hotter and 
 the winter much colder. At Quebec the temperature 
 of the warmest month exceeds that of the coldest by 
 no less than 60^° of Fahrenheit ; while at Paris, which 
 is nearly under the same latitude, the diflerence is only 
 31°. In the third place, the climate undergoes a more 
 rapid change in America as we proceed from south to 
 north, a degree of latitude in the middle of the temper- 
 ate zone producing a decrease of annual temperature 
 of 1'13° in Europe, and of 1-57° in America. The com- 
 parison is greatly to the disadvantage of America when 
 made in this form ; but when the east coasts of the two 
 continents are compared, the case is altered : the Old 
 World is found to have no superiority over the New, 
 for Pekin has still colder winters and warmer summers 
 than Philadelphia, which is under the same latitude. 
 It is the west coast of the new continent which ought 
 to exhibit the climate of Europe ; and from the few 
 facts known, we have reason to believe that it is quite 
 as mild and equable. At the mouth of Columbia Riv- 
 er, in latitude 46i°, Captains Lewis and Clarke found 
 the rains to be copious and frequent; but they had 
 very little frost, and saw no ice even in the depth of 
 winter. From observations made in 1822—4, it ap- 
 pears that the mean heat of the warmest month was 
 about 62°, of the coldest about 36°, and of the whole 
 year 51°. Now the place is under the same latitude 
 with Quebec, where the snow lies five months, and the 
 mean temperature during the three winter months is 
 18° below the freezing point. This single circumstance 
 marks emphatically the contrast in the climate of the 
 east and west coasts of North America. But the mouth 
 of Columbia Eiver is also under the same parallel with 
 Nantes at the mouth of the Loire, where snow and ice 
 are no strangers in the cold season of the year. We 
 have, therefore, good grounds to conclude that the 
 •west coast of America, in the middle latitudes, has 
 nearly as mild and equable a climate as the west coast 
 of Europe. The climate of the great central valley, 
 or basin of the Mississippi, has a considerable affinity 
 
 to that of the east coast. It was long a matter of dis- 
 pute in what the difference between the two consists; 
 but this seems at last to have been clearly settled, by 
 the meteorological registers kept at the military posts 
 of the United States. From a comparison of four of 
 these registers, from posts near the centre of this great 
 valley, with others kept on the Atlantic coast in the 
 same latitudes, it appears that in the hottest month 
 the temperature is from 6° to 6° higher, and in the 
 coldest month as much lower, in the basin of the Mis- 
 sissippi, than on the coasts of New England. The 
 proportion of fair weather to cloudy is as 5 to 1 in fa- 
 vor of the east coast. The climate of the interior, 
 therefore, exhibits in still greater excess those ex- 
 tremes of temperature which distinguish the eastern 
 coast of this continent from the western, and from the 
 shores of Europe. The fourth region of extra-tropical 
 America includes the parts beyond Mount St. Elias on 
 the west coast, and, in the interior, the plains extend- 
 ing from the 50th parallel to the Polar Seas. The in- 
 tensity of the cold in this tract of country is scarcely 
 equaled by any thing that is known under the same 
 parallels in Northern Asia. The northernmost spot 
 in America where grain is raised is at Lord Selkirk's 
 colony, on Ked Eiver, in latitude 60°. Wheat, and 
 also maize, which requires a high summer heat, are 
 cultivated here. Barley would certainly gi-ow as far 
 north as Fort Chippeway an, in latitude 584°, w here the 
 heat of the four summer months was found by Captain 
 Franklin to be 4° higher than at Edinburgh. There 
 is even reason to believe that both this species of 
 grain and potatoes might thrive as far north as Slave 
 Lake, since the spruce fir attains the height of 50 feet 
 three degrees farther north, at Fort Franklin, in lati- 
 tude 65°. These, however, were low and sheltered 
 spots ; but in this dreary waste generally it will not 
 be found practicable, we suspect, to carry the arts of 
 civilized life beyond.the 60th parallel ; and the desira- 
 ble countiy, capable of supporting a dense population, 
 and meriting the name of temperate, can scarcely- be 
 said to extend beyond the 50th parallel. At 65° the 
 snow covers the ground in winter to the depth of only 
 two feet, but small lakes continue frozen for eight 
 months. The sea is open only for a few weeks, fogs 
 darken the surface, and the thermometer in February 
 descended, in one instance, to miiius 58°, or 90° below 
 the freezing point. At Melville Island, under the 75th 
 parallel, such is the frightful rigor of the climate, that 
 the temperature of the year falls 1° or 2° below the 
 zero of Fahrenheit's scale. It is a peculiarity in the 
 climate of America, that beyond the parallel of 50° or 
 52°, it seems to become suddenly severe at both ex- 
 tremities. At the one, summer disappears from the 
 circle of the seasons; at the other, winter is armed 
 with double terrors. 
 
 In no single circumstance is the superiority of Amer- 
 ica over the Old World so conspicuous as iu the num- 
 ber and magnitude of its navigable rivers. The Ama- 
 zon alone discharges a greater quantity of water than 
 the eight principal rivers of Asia, the.Euphrates, In- 
 dus, Ganges, Oby, Lena, Amour, and the Tellow River 
 and Kang-tse of China. The Mississippi, with its 
 branches, affords a greater amount of inland naviga- 
 tion than all the sti-eams, great and small, which irri- 
 gate Europe ; and the Plata, in this respect, may prob- 
 ably claim a superiority over the collective Avater of 
 Africa. But the American rivers not only surpass 
 those of the Old World in length and volume of fluid, 
 but they are so placed as to penetrate every where to 
 the heart of the continent. By the Amazon, a person 
 living at the eastern foot of the Andes, 2000 miles of 
 direct distance from the Atlantic, may convey himself 
 or his property to the shores of that sea in forty-five 
 days, almost without effort, by confiding his bark to 
 the gliding current. If he wishes to return, he has 
 but to spread his sails to the eastern breeze, which 
 blows perennially against the stream. The naviga- 
 
AME 
 
 35 
 
 AME 
 
 tion is not interrupted by a single cataract or rapid, 
 from the Atlantic to Jaen, in west longitude 78°, where 
 the surface of the stream is only 1240 feet above the 
 level of its estuary at Para. The remotest and least 
 accessible part of North America is the great interior 
 plain extending from the Rocky Mountains to the Al- 
 leghanies and the lakes, between the parallels of 40° 
 and 50° ; but the Mississippi, Missouri, and St. Law- 
 rence, with their branches, are so wonderfully ramified 
 over this region, that when it is filled with civilized 
 inhabitants, two centuries hence, those who dwell in 
 its inmost recesses, at the falls of the Missouri, for in- 
 stance, 1700 miles from the Atlantic, will have a more 
 easy communication with the ocean than the popula- 
 tion of the interior of Spain and Hungary. It is only 
 necessary to cast the eye over a map of South Amer- 
 ica, to see that all the most sequestered parts of the 
 interior are visited by branches of the Plata and the 
 Amazon. These streams, having their courses in gen- 
 eral remarkably level, and seldom interrupted by cat- 
 aracts, may be considered, without a figure, as a vast 
 system of natural canals, terminating in two main 
 trunks, which communicate with the ocean at the 
 equator and the 35th degree of south latitude. Since 
 the invention of steam navigation, rivers are. In the 
 truest sense of the term. Nature's highways, especially 
 for infant communities, where the people are too poor, 
 and live too widely dispersed, /to bear the expense of 
 constructing roads. There is little risk in predicting 
 that in two or three centuries the Mississippi, the 
 Amazon, and the Plata will be the scenes of an active 
 inland commerce, far surpassing in magnitude any 
 thing at present known on the surface of the globe. 
 The Mississippi is navigable for boats from the sea 
 to the falls of its principal branch, the Missouri, 1700 
 miles from the Mexican Gulf in a direct line, or 3900 
 by the stream; and the whole amount of boat nav- 
 igation afforded by the system of rivers, of which the 
 Mississippi is the main trunk, has been estimated as 
 equal to 40,000 miles in length, spread over a surface 
 of 1,350,000 square miles. Perhaps this is rather be- 
 yond the truth ; but let us call the navigation 35,000 
 miles, and the following table will exhibit the lengths, 
 size of the basins, and probable extent of the naviga- 
 ble waters of the greater rivers of America : 
 
 Length. 
 
 Mississippi to source of Missouri 
 St Lawrence thi'ough the lakes 
 
 Orinoco 
 
 Amazon, not including Araguay 
 Plata, including Uruguay 
 
 Area of 
 Basin. 
 
 Milee. Sq. Miles. 
 4300 1,850,000 
 
 2200 
 1800 
 4000 
 2400 
 
 600,000 
 
 400,000 
 
 2,100,000 
 
 1,200,000 
 
 Navigable 
 Waters. 
 
 MUes. 
 35,000 
 4,000 
 8,000 
 50,000 
 20,000 
 
 The Amazon contains many islands, is broad, and 
 in the upper part so deep, that on one occasion Conda- 
 mine found no bottom with a line 103 toises long. At 
 its mouth, two days before and after the full moon, the 
 phenomenon called a Bore occurs in a very formidable 
 shape. It is a wave of water rushing from the sea, 
 with its front as steep as a wall and as high as a house. 
 No small vessel can encounter it without certain de- 
 struction. 
 
 The estuaries of all these great American rivers 
 open to the eastward ; and thus Providence seems to 
 have plainly indicated that the most intimate com- 
 mercial relations of the inhabitants of America should 
 be with the western shores of the Old World. It 
 should at the same time be observed that the position 
 of the great rivers of America is but one example of a 
 physical arrangement which is common to the whole 
 globe ; for it is remarkable that, in the Old World as 
 well as in the New, no river of the first class flows to 
 the westward. Some, as the Nile, the Lena, and the 
 Oby, flow to the north; others, as the Indus and the 
 rivers of Ava, to the south ; but the largest, as the 
 Wolga, Ganges, Great Eiver and Yellow Eiver of 
 China, the Euphrates, and the Amour, have their 
 
 courses to the east or southeast. This arrangement is 
 not accidental, but depends most probably on the in- 
 clination of the primary rocks, which, in all cases 
 where their direction approaches to tlie south and 
 north, seem to have their steepest sides to the west 
 and the longest declivities to the east. We have ex- 
 amples in the Scandinavian Alps, the mountains of 
 Britain, the Ghauts of India, the Andes, and the 
 Rocky Mountains. 
 
 North America, like the Southern peninsula, natu- 
 rally divides itself into five physical regions : 1. The 
 table-land of Mexico, with a strip of low country on 
 its eastern and wSfetern shores ; 2. The plateau lying 
 between the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific Ocean, 
 a country with a mild and humid atmosphere as far 
 north as the 55th parallel, but inhospitable and barren 
 beyond this boundary ; 3. The great central valley of 
 the Mississippi, rich and well wooded on the east side, 
 bare but not unfertile in the middle, dry, sandy, and 
 almost a desert on the west ; 4. The eastern declivities 
 of the Alleghany Mountains, a region of natural for- 
 ests, and of mixed but rather poor soil ; 5. The great 
 northern -plain beyond the 50th parallel, four-fifths 
 of which is a blealc and bare waste, overspread with 
 innumerable lakes, and resembling Siberia both in the 
 physical character of its surface and the rigor of its 
 climate. 
 
 We should extend this article to an unreasonable 
 length were we to describe in detail the discoveries and 
 settlements made by the several nations of Europe in 
 America. We shall therefore confine ourselves, to a 
 very brief chronological notice of the more important 
 events. 
 
 1495. The first place in which the Spaniards estab- 
 lished their power was the large island of Hayti or 
 Hispaniola, which was inhabited by a numerous race 
 of Indians, of a mild and gentle character, a third part 
 of whom are said to have perished within two or three 
 years after the Spaniards conquered them. — 1497. 
 John Cabot, in the service of Henry VII. of England, 
 discovered Newfoundland, and coasted along the shores 
 of North America to Florida. — 1600. Cabral, a Portu- 
 guese, visited the coast of Brazil, and discovered the 
 mouth of the Amazon, It was probably colonized be- 
 fore 1515, as the first cargo of wood was sent from it to 
 Portugal in that year. — 1508. Vincent Pinzon is said 
 to have entered the Rio de le Plata. It was in the 
 same year that the Spaniards, finding the aborigines 
 too weak for the labor of the mines in Hayti, first im- 
 ported negroes from Guinea, and thus laid the founda- 
 tion of a traffic which continues to this day to disgrace 
 the civilization of Europe. — 1511. Diego Columbus 
 conquered the island of Cuba with 300 soldiers, of 
 whom he did not lose one. — 1513. Balboa crossed the 
 isthmus of Darien with 290 men, and discovered the 
 South Sea. — 1519. Hernando Cortes sailed from Cuba 
 with 11 ships and 550 men, and landed on the coast of 
 Mexico, which had been discovered in the previous 
 year. The conquest of the empire was finished in 
 1521 by 950 Spaniards, assisted by a vast number of 
 the Indians of Tlascala. — 1531. Peru invaded by Pi- 
 zarro, and conquered in little more than one year, with 
 a force of 1000 men. — 1534. James Cartier, a French- 
 man, discovers the Gulf of St. Lawrence. — 1535. Men- 
 doza, a Spaniard, with 2000 followers, founds Buenos 
 Ayres, and conquers all the country, as far as Potosi, 
 at which silver mines were discovered nine years after. 
 — 1537. Cortes discovers California. — 1541. Chili con- 
 quered ; Santiago founded ; Orellana sails down the 
 Amazon to the Atlantic from the sources of the Rio 
 Napo. — 1578. New Albion, on the northwest coast of 
 America, discovered by Sir Francis Drake. — 1586. The 
 Spaniards found St. Thomas's Island, in Guiana. — 
 1587. Davis's Straits and Cumberland Islands discov- 
 ered by John Davis. — 1604. De Monts, a Frenchman, 
 founded the first settlement in Nova Scotia, then called 
 Acadie. — 1607. After many inefl'ectual attempts dur- 
 
AME 
 
 36 
 
 AME 
 
 ing more than twenty years, the first permanent settle- 
 menfof the English in North America was made this 
 year, on the banks of James's River, in Virginia. — 1608. 
 Quebec founded by the French, who had had a small 
 neglected colony in Canada since 1542.— 1611. New- 
 foundland colonized by the English ; a Dutch colony 
 established at Hudson's River. New York was found- 
 ed in 1614. — 1618. Baffin penetrates to the 78th degree 
 of latitude, in the bay which bears his name. — 1620. 
 The first English colony established in New England, 
 at Ph'mouth. It was in this year that the first negroes 
 were imported into Virginia. They were brought by 
 a Dutch vessel. — -1635. A French colony established in 
 Guiana. — 1655. Jamaica conquered by the English. — 
 1664. The Dutch colonies on Hudson's River capitu- 
 late to the English. — 1666. The Buccaneers begin their 
 depredations on the Spanish colonies. — 1682. William 
 Penn establishes a colony in Pennsylvania. La Salle 
 takes possession of Louisiana in the name of the French 
 king. — 1698. A colony of 1200 Scots planted at Darien, 
 and ruined in the-foUowing year, in consequence of the 
 miserable jealousy of the English. — 1733. Georgia col- 
 onized by the English. — 1760. Canada, and all the 
 other French settlements in North America, conquered 
 by the English. 
 
 The following table, given by Humboldt, exhibits 
 the average produce of all the gold and silver mines 
 in the New World about 1803 : 
 
 
 Pure Gold. 
 
 Pure Silver. 
 
 Value of both. 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Peru 
 
 Chili 
 
 La Plata...-. 
 
 Maike. 
 
 7,000 
 
 3,400 
 12,212 
 
 2,200 
 20,605 
 29,900 
 
 Mark.. 
 
 2,333,220 
 
 611,090 
 
 29,700 
 
 481,630 
 
 Dollare. 
 
 23,000,000 
 6,240,000 
 2,060,000 
 
 •4,650,000 
 2,990,000 
 4,360,000 
 
 Colombia(New Granada) 
 Brazil 
 
 In Engli 
 
 75,21T 
 =b money 
 
 S,460,S40 
 
 43,500,000 
 i;8,700,000 
 
 The Spanish mark, in which the quantity is ex- 
 pressed in the first two columns, is valued at 145'82 
 dollars in gold, and at 9'4 dollars in silver. This 
 branch of industry has been injured more deeply than 
 any other during the late wars. The great exertions 
 required to maintain the mines free of water, the 
 amount of capital necessary to keep them working, 
 and the facility with which violent hands could be 
 laid upon their produce, all rendered these establish- 
 ments extremely liable to suffer from domestic convul- 
 sions. Mr. Ward computes that in the 15 years be- 
 tween 18X0 and 1825, the annual produce of the Mexi- 
 can mines did not exceed 10,000,000 of dollars, or about 
 two-fftha of their average annual produce during the 
 15 years preceding. In Brazil, the washings have 
 probably experienced no interruption. Humboldt 
 computes the whole produce of the American mines 
 from 1492 to 1803 to be 6,706,000,000 dollars, or 
 £1,255,000,000, of which only i\ per cent, was retained 
 in America, and 5,445,000,000 dollars (£1,197,900,000), 
 or 95i per cent, was remitted to Europe. 
 
 The project of joining the Atlantic and Pacific 
 Oceans by a canal carried across the narrow part of 
 the American continent, has often excited the atten- 
 tion of statesmen and commercial men. This canal, 
 if executed upon a scale sufficient to admit vessels of 
 300 or 400 tons, would have a powerful influence upon 
 the fate of America. For all the purposes of commer- 
 cial intercourse it would bring the east and west sides 
 of the continent within one-third part of their present 
 distance from one another, and would be of even more 
 advantage to the New World than the discovery of 
 the passage to India b}' the Cape has been to the Old. 
 It has also been proposed to accomplish the same ob- 
 ject by a boat canal, or by a railroad, and four differ- 
 ent routes have been recommended. A digest of the 
 surveys and explorations connected with these, and an 
 estimate of their comparative merits, has been pub- 
 lished in the Journal of the Geographical Sociely (vol. 
 
 XX. 1851), by Captain Fitzroy, K.N. From this our 
 materials are derived. 
 
 1. The Isthmus of Tehuantepec, at Qi\° west longi- 
 tude. The distance from sea to sea in a straight line 
 is 140 English miles, the surface has few great in- 
 equalities, and the lowest summit level is about 700 
 feet above the sea. The climate is Said to be rather 
 better than at the parts of the isthmus farther east- 
 ward, and there is a settled population, though not 
 very numerous, from whom labor might be obtained. 
 On the other hand, there is no port at either end of 
 the line, the rivers are small, and baiTcd at their 
 mouths by sand-banks, and the length of the route, 
 as well as the elevation of its summit level, would 
 render the execution of a railroad or a canal too ex- 
 pensive to permit the hope of even a moderate re- 
 muneration for the outlay. Theproject, however, has 
 found warm support in the United States, as it would 
 render available by far the shortest maritime route to 
 California. A survey has been made, and a cession 
 of the necessary quantity of land has, we believe, been 
 obtained. 
 
 2. The Nicaragua route, at 11° of north latitude. 
 The first portion of this is the River San Juan, which 
 flows from the Lake of Nicaragua, and, aftei: a course 
 of 80 miles, falls into the Caribbean Sea. It is of con- 
 siderable depth, but is obstructed by rapids, and the 
 port at its mouth, now called Greytown, is only capa- 
 ble of receiving small vessels. The lake is 90 or 100 
 miles long, 30 or 40 broad, and 125 feet above mean 
 tide level at Greytown. Its depth varies from 2 fath- 
 oms to 40, but much of it has never been sounded, and 
 recent surveys show shallows at both ends. From this 
 lake to the Pacific six different routes have been traced, 
 and some of them surveyed. One through the Lake 
 Managua (which is 28 feet higher than Nicaragua 
 Lake), westward to the Bay of Fonseca, would require 
 90 or 100 miles of canal, and the whole length of in- 
 land navigation from Greytown would exceed 300 
 miles ; another route from the same lake to Realejo is 
 40 miles shorter; and a third to Tamarinda a good 
 deal shorter still, but both the latter want good ports 
 at their termini on the Pacific. A fourth route goes 
 direct from the southwest side of Nicaragua Lake to 
 San Juan del Sur; it is only 10 to 12 miles in length, 
 but requires a tunnel (for ships) 1 or 2 miles long, and 
 the port at its mouth is very small. A fifth runs from 
 the same lake a little farther east to the Bay of Sali- 
 nas, a distance of 16 miles, half of which is by the 
 River Sapoa, and now navigable for boats ; and the 
 summit level is only 130 feet above the lake, and twice 
 as much above the Pacific. It is believed there would 
 be a sufficient supply of water from the stream, and 
 the canal would further have the advantage of a good 
 port. Captain Fitzroy seems to think this one of the 
 most promising lines, but it has not yet been carefully 
 surveyed. Of the sixth proposed route, running from 
 the east end of the lake to the Gulf of Nicoya, nei- 
 ther the precise length nor the nature of the inter- 
 vening country is known. Of the whole district Cap- 
 tain F'itzroy says, that though insufficiently explored, 
 " enough is known to discourage any attempt to con- 
 struct either canal or railway, unless the Sapoa track 
 (the fifth) should prove to be as eligible as Dr. Oersted 
 believes. Even then there will be the disadvantages 
 of so inferior a harbor as that of Greytown, and the 
 difficulties of the river, which must be cleansed from 
 its numerous obstructions, though renewed annuallv 
 by floods." He considers the climate pestilential, par- 
 ticularly in the low grounds on both sides of the river, 
 which holds its course amidst forests, swamps, and 
 mud banks. Mr. Squier, however, in his work on 
 Nicaragua, thinks the climate comparatively good. 
 In reference to a canal there is a physical evil not to 
 be overlooked, namely, the volcanic'eruptions which 
 shake the soil, and might disturb the levels ; and there 
 is a moral one still more serious, arising from the fre- 
 
AME 
 
 37 
 
 AMI 
 
 quent insurrectionB and political revolutions, which 
 makes property insecure, and may render engagements 
 with the governbient mere waste paper. The latter 
 evil applies to the whole isthmus, but more especially 
 to this district, touching as it does the territories of 
 three States (Nicaragua, Costa Bica, and Mosquito) 
 which are often at war with one another. 
 
 3. The Panama line, at 79° and 80° of west longi- 
 tude. The extreme narrowness of the isthmus here 
 called attention to it as an eligible point for establish- 
 ing a communication between the two seas, before any 
 other locality was thought of. Numerous explorations 
 have been made ; four routes have been pretty care- 
 fully surveyed — those of Loyd, Morel, Garella, and 
 Hughes; and along the last of these a railway has 
 been in operation since February, 1855. It commences 
 on the Atlantic at Limon or Navy Bay, from which the 
 direct distance to Panama, according to Captain FitZ' 
 roy, is (33 geographical) 38^ English miles. It passes 
 by Gorgona, and is carried 42 miles over elevations 
 of nearly 300 feet, through a, tunnel, and over large 
 viaducts and bridges, terminating a little westward 
 of Panama. The port of Ohagres is unfit for large 
 ships. Limon Bay, which is large, and has a good 
 depth of water, is exposed to strong north winds. A 
 brealtwater, to protect it from these, has been pro- 
 posed, but is impracticable on account of the vast sum 
 it would cost. But Captain Fitzroy thinks that a 
 large wet dock or basin miglit be excavated between 
 Manzanilla Island and the main land, at the terminus 
 of the railroad, and might serve as the first step to- 
 ward an artificial harbor, to which Limon Bay would 
 be accessory as a useful roadstead. " On the opposite 
 coast, near Panama, a spacious and tolerably sheltered 
 anchorage, with access to works carried out into the 
 sea, may be found in the bay, but not very near the 
 city." A ship canal here, whether at the elevation of 
 the railroad (300 feet), or at the lower level proposed 
 by Garella, of 150 feet, would require works on a gi- 
 gantic scale ; for his plan includes a tunnel ^r skips^ 
 125 feet in interior height, 97 feet wide, and nearly 
 three miles long, with about 33 locks. Without some 
 better security than can now be obtained, it is not 
 probable that any private company will risk the cap- 
 ital necessary for the execution of such works. Morel, 
 in his survey, professes to have found a valley or tract 
 of low ground between the Trinidad, a branch of the 
 Ohagres, and the Caymito, which falls into the Pacific 
 10 miles west of Panama, of which low ground the 
 summit level is only 40 feet above the sea. This, un- 
 luckily, is contradicted by other authorities; but if 
 such a low summit level exist, a channel navigable 
 by the largest ships might possibly be made from sea 
 to sea without a lock. The portion of the railroad 
 now in progress is the southern half, extending from 
 Panama to Gorgona, and was expected to be finished 
 in 1853. On the north side, the River Chagres is made 
 use of as far as navigable. 
 
 4. The Atrato and Cupica line commences on the 
 Atlantic side in the Gulf of Darien, at 77° of west lon- 
 gitude. It has not been surveyed, but the nature and 
 form of the ground are well' known, and its suitable- 
 ness for a canal was pointed out by Humboldt 40 years 
 ago. The route extends from the inner part of the 
 Gulf of Darien up the River Atrato, thence westward 
 along its branch, the Naipi, and through a low tract 
 of ground to the River Cupica, which falls into the 
 Pacific. The whole length of the proposed line is es- 
 timated at 114 miles. For two-thirds of this distance, 
 or 76 miles, the rivers are said to be navigable by 
 ships, for 19 miles more by loaded boats, and it is sup- 
 posed that a canal might be cut through the remain- 
 ing 19 miles without any extraordinary difiiculty. The 
 proprietor of an estate on the Naipi told Mr. Watts, 
 the British vice-consul at Carthagena, that he was in 
 the habit of crossing to the Bay of Cupica, and the rise 
 between the bay and the river was gradual. — E. B. 
 
 A company with a large capital was formed in En- 
 gland, within a few years, for the purpose of construct- 
 ing a ship canal over the Isthmus ; but according to 
 the recent Report by Lieutenant Strain, of the U.S. 
 Navy (1855), the work is almost impracticable. He 
 represents the summit level between the oceans to be 
 one thousand instead of 6ne hundred and fifty feet. 
 An English expedition started from the Pacific side in 
 December, 1853, and returned after a few days' inves- 
 tigation of the route before suggested, and found it 
 unfavorable for any canal near the proposed route. 
 A few years will perhaps develop a more extended 
 series of observations in this quarter. 
 
 Amethyst (Germ. Amethyst; Fr. ATnethyste; It. 
 Amathta; Sp. Ametisto; Lat. Amethynttis), a precious 
 stone, of which there are two species differing widely 
 in quality and value. The Oriental amethyst is a gem 
 of the most perfect violet color, and of extraordinary 
 brilliancy and beauty. It is said to be as hard as the 
 sapphire or ruby, with which it also corresponds in its 
 form and specific gravity (see Sapphire), differing iti 
 color merely. It has been met with in India, Persia, 
 Siam, and other countries ; but it is exceedingly scarce. 
 That found in India is said by Pliny to be the best. 
 — Principaium amethysti Indicee tenent, Nat. Hist. lib. 
 xxxvii. cap. 9. Mr. Mawe says he had rarely seen an 
 Oriental amethyst offered for sale, unless small and in- 
 ferior in color. Mr. Hope, the author of Anastasius^ 
 had in his cabinet the finest gem of this sort in Europe. 
 This exquisite specimen exceeds an inch in its greatest 
 diameter; in daylight it exhibits the most beautiful 
 violet color, while by candlelight it is a decided blue. 
 The Occidental amethyst is merely colored crystal or 
 quartz. *'When perfect, its color resembles that of 
 the violet, or purple grape ; but it not unfrequently 
 happens that the tinge is confined to one part of the 
 stone only, while the other Is left almost colorless. 
 When it possesses a richness, clearness, and uniformity 
 of hue, it is considered a gem of exquisite beauty ; and 
 as it occurs of considerable size, it is suited to all or- 
 namental purposes. In specific gravity and hardness 
 it bears no comparison with the Oriental amethyst; 
 it is also inferior in beauty and lustre ; though I have 
 often seen the common amethyst offered for sale as 
 Oriental. Brazil, Siberia, and Ceylon produce very 
 fine amethysts: they are found in rolled pieces in 
 the alluvial soil, and finely crystallized in fissures of 
 rock. From the first of these, localities, they have late- 
 ly been imported in such quantities as considerably to 
 diminish their value ; but as they are the only colored 
 stones, except garnets, that are worn with mourning, 
 they still retain, when perfect, a distinguished rank 
 among the precious gems. The present price of infe- 
 rior light-colored stones, in the rough state, is about 
 20«. per pound, while those of good quality sell at 10s. 
 or 12s. per ounce. Amethysts calculated for brooches 
 or seals may be purchased at from 155. to two or three 
 guineas each, for which, ten years ago, treble that sum 
 would have been given." — Mawe on Diamonds, 2d. ed. 
 Amianthus, Asbestos, or Mountain Flax, 
 a mineral of which there are several varieties, all more 
 or less fibrous, flexile, and elastic. It is inconsumable 
 by a high degree of heat ; and in antiquity the art was 
 discovered of drawing the fibres into threads, and then 
 weaving them into cloth. Pliny says that he had seen 
 napkins made of this substance, which, when soiled, 
 were thrown into the fire, and that they were better 
 cleaned by this means than they could have been by 
 washing! Hence it obtained from the Greeks the 
 name of A/^iavTO^ (undefiled). Its principal use, as 
 stated by Pliny, was to wrap the bodies of the dead 
 previously to their being exposed on the funeral pile, 
 that the ashes of the corpse might not be mixed with 
 those of the wood. And in corroboration of this state- 
 ment we may mention, that in 1702, a skull, some cal- 
 cined bones, and a quantity of ashes, were found at 
 Rome, in a cloth of amianthus nine Roman palms in 
 
AMM 
 
 38 
 
 AMS 
 
 length by seven in width. Its employment in this 
 way was, however, confined to a few of the very rich- 
 est families, incombustible cloth being very scarce, and 
 bringing an enormously high price. Rarum inventu, 
 difficile textu propter brevitatem. Cum inveiitum est^ 
 mquat pretia excelientium margaritarum. — Plin., Hist. 
 Nat. lib. xix. cap. 1. The disuse of the practice of 
 cremation, or of burning the dead, caused the manu- 
 facture of amianthine cloth to be neglected. Several 
 modems have, however, succeeded in making it ; but 
 if it be not lost, the art is now rarely practiced. — For 
 further particulars, see Rees's Cyclopedia. 
 
 Ammoniac, Sal. See Alkalies. 
 
 Ardmoniacum (Fr. Gomme Ammoniaque; It. 
 Gomma Avimoniaco ; Sp. Goma Ammoniaco ; Lat. Ani- 
 moniacum; Arab. Feshook), a concrete resinous juice 
 obtained from a plant resembling fennel, found in the 
 north of Africa, Arabia, Persia, the East Indies, etc. 
 Pliny says that it derived its name from its being pro- 
 duced in the vicinity of the temple of Jupiter Amnion, 
 in Africa. — Hist. Nat. lib. xii. cap. 23. It has a faint 
 but not ungrateful smell ; and a bitter, nauseous, sweet 
 taste. The fragments are yellow on the outside and 
 white within, brittle, and break with a vitreous frac- 
 ture; their specific gravity is 1*207. The best am- 
 moniacum is brought from Persia by Bombay and Cal- 
 cutta, packed in cases and chests. It is in large mass- 
 es, composed of small round fragments or tears ; or in 
 separate di'y tears, which is generally considered a sign 
 of its goodness. The tears should be white internally 
 and externally, and free from seeds or other foreign 
 substances. Reject that which is soft, dark-colored, 
 and foul. It is used principally in the materia medica, 
 and the quantity imported is but small. — Rees's Cy- 
 clopedia; Thomson's Dispensatcny. 
 
 Ammuuitioii, a general name for all warlike pro- 
 visions, but more particularly powder, ball, etc. — E. B. 
 
 Amoy, a commercial city and sea-port of China, 
 province of Fo-kien, on an island of the same name in a 
 bay of the China Sea, opposite Formosa, and 320 miles 
 E.N.E. of Canton. Lat. 24° 10' N. ; long. 118° 13' E, 
 Population, 250,000. The city is separated from the 
 suburbs or outer town by a line of rocky hills, com- 
 manded by a citadel on a height, and fortified with 
 numerous works constructed during the late war. The 
 town is not handsome nor clean, but has many roomy 
 public buildings, well-supplied shops, and good private 
 houses. Harbor excellent; ships can lie close to the 
 quays, or in a deep and sheltered creek. There is a 
 considerable trade, especially with Formosa; manu- 
 factures of porcelain, grass cloths, umbrellas, paper, 
 etc., which, with sugar-candy and Congou tea, com- 
 pose its principal exports. Imports comprise rice, sug- 
 ar, camphor, and European produce. Amoy, then the 
 great military depot of the province, was taken on the 
 26th August, 1841, by the English, who held the for- 
 tified Island of Kolungsoo, commanding the entrance 
 to the harbor, until the final payment of the sum of six 
 million dollars exacted from the Chinese government 
 by the treaty of Nankin. 
 
 Amplitude, in Astronomy, an arch of the horizon 
 intercepted between the east or west point and the cen- 
 tre of the sun or a planet at its rising or setting ; and 
 which therefore is said to be either north and south, 
 or oriive and occasive. 
 
 Magnetical Amplitude, the difl^erent rising or setting 
 of the sun from the east or west points of the compass. 
 It is found by observing the sun, at his rising and set- 
 ting, by an amplitude compass. — E.B. 
 
 Amsterdam, the principal city of Holland, situ- 
 ated on the Y, an arm of the Zuyder Zee, in lat. 52° 
 22' 17" N., long. 4° 53' 15" E. From 1580 to 1750, 
 Amsterdam was, perhaps, the first commercial city of 
 Europe ; and though her trade has experienced a great 
 falling off since the last-mentioned epoch, it is still 
 very considerable. In 1785 the population is said to 
 have amounted to 235,000; in 1815 it had declined to 
 
 180,179 ; but its increase in the interval has been such, 
 that it amounted in 1840 to 210,077. The harbor is 
 spacious and the water deep ; and it has recently been 
 much improved by the construction of docks, two of 
 which are already completed, and a third in a very ad- 
 vanced state. Owing, however, to a bank (the Pam- 
 pus) where the Y joins the Zuyder Zee, large vessels 
 going or coming by that sea are obliged to load and 
 unload a part of their cargoes in the roads. The nav- 
 igation of the Zuyder Zee is also, by reason of its nu- 
 merous shallows, very intricate and difficult ; and as 
 there were no hopes of remedying this defect, it became 
 necessary to resort to other means for improving the 
 access to the port. Of the various plans suggested for 
 this purpose, the preference was given to the scheme 
 for cutting a canal capable of admitting the largest 
 class of merchantmen, from the north side of the port 
 of Amsterdam to Newdiep, opposite to the Texel, and 
 a little to the east of the Helder. This canal has fully 
 answered the views of the projectors, and has proved 
 of signal service to Amsterdam, by enabling large ships 
 to avoid the Pampus, as well as the difficult navigation 
 of the Zuyder Zee, where they were frequently detained 
 for three weeks, and to get to and from Newdiep with- 
 out any sort of risk in less than twenty-four hours. 
 The canal was begun in 1819, and completed in 1825. 
 It has five sluices large enough to admit ships of the 
 line ; the dues and charges on account of towing, etc., 
 being at the same time very moderate. At Newdiep 
 the water is deeper than in any other port on the coast 
 of Holland, and ships are there in the most favorable 
 position for getting expeditiously to sea. — See Casals. 
 The imports principally consist of sugar, cofl'ee, spices, 
 tobacco, cotton, tea, indigo, cochineal, wine and brandy, 
 wool, grain of all sorts, timber, pitch and tar, hemp 
 and flax, iron, hides, linen, cotton and woolen stuffs, 
 hardware, rock salt, tin plates, coal, dried fish, etc. 
 The exports consist partly of the produce of Holland, 
 partly and principally of the produce of her possessions 
 in the East and West Indies, and other tropical coun- 
 tries, and partly of commodities brought to Amsterdam, 
 as to a convenient entrepot from different parts of Eu- 
 rope. Of the first class are cheese and butter (very im- 
 portant articles), madder, clover, rape, hemp, and lin- 
 seeds, rape and linseed oils, Dutch linen, etc. Geneva 
 is principally exported from Schiedam and Rotterdam ; 
 oak bark and cattle principally from the latter. Of 
 the second class are spices, cofi'ee, and sugar, principal- 
 ly from Java, but partly also from Surinam, Brazil, 
 and Cuba ; indigo, cochineal, cotton, tea, tobacco, and 
 all sorts of Eastern and colonial products. And of the 
 third class, all kinds of grain, linens from German}', 
 timber, and all sorts of Baltic produce ; Spanish, Ger- 
 man, and English wools ; French, Rhenish, and flun- 
 garian wines, brandy, etc. The trade of jVmsterdam 
 may, indeed, be said to comprise every article that en- 
 ters into the commerce of Europe. Her merchants 
 were formerly the most extensive dealers in bills of ex- 
 change, and though London be now, in this respect, 
 far superior to Amsterdam, the latter still enjoys a re- 
 spectable share of this business. 
 
 The Bank of the Netherlands was established at 
 Amsterdam in 1814. It is not, like the old Bank of 
 Amsterdam, which ceased in 1796, merely a bank of 
 deposits, but a bank of deposit and circulation formed 
 on the model of the Bank of England. Its capital, 
 which originally amounted to 5,000,000 florins, was 
 doubled in 1819. It has the exclusive privilege of 
 issuing notes. Its original charter, which was limited 
 to twenty-five years, was prolonged in 1838 for twen- 
 ty-five years more. About 300 or 350 large ships be- 
 long to Amsterdam ; they are employed in the East 
 and West India trades, and in trading to the Baltic, 
 the Mediterranean, etc. There is comparatively little 
 coasting trade at Amsterdam, the communication with 
 most other ports in the vicinity being principally kept 
 up by canals, and that witli Friesland by regular 
 
AMS 
 
 39 
 
 AMS 
 
 packets. The total imports into Holland in 1851 were 
 estimated at 303,993,224 florins, and tlie exports at 
 242,744,806. The United Kingdom, the Gennan Cus- 
 toms Union, Belgium, Java, France, and Bnssia, are 
 the countries with which she carries on the most ex- 
 tensive trade. 
 
 Butch Commercial Policy. — The policy of Holland, 
 civil, religious, and commercial, has long been of the 
 most liberal and enlightened description (see posf) ; and 
 she was the first country to follow the example set in 
 repealing the Navigation Laws in 1849. The Dutch 
 law on this subject was passed in 1850. Previously to 
 that period discriminating duties were imposed on most 
 articles imported on foreign bottoms, and also on those 
 imported by foreigners into Java and her other colo- 
 nies. But these preferences no longer exist. The fol- 
 lowing is an extract from the law relative to these 
 matters: Differential duties are abolished on the ves- 
 sels of those States which "a. Place the Dutch flag 
 on the same footing with their national flag trading to 
 and from their own ports (coasting trade and fisheries 
 excepted); 6. Which place the Dutch flag on the same 
 footing with their national flag trading to and from 
 their colonies, if they possess any ; and, c. Which do 
 not levy other differential duties to the disadvantage 
 of the produce of the Netherland colonies, or to the 
 prejudice of produce imported from other parts of the 
 world, from Netherland ports, than those which are 
 levied in favor of the produce of their own colonies, 
 when imported direct." 
 
 Tlie fisheries and the coasting trade of Holland and 
 of her colonies is reserved to Dutch ships. But it is 
 no longer necessary that the latter should be of Dutch 
 build. Foreign built ships have, however, to pay, on 
 being registered, an ad valorem duty of 4 per cent, over 
 and above the fee charged on the registration of Dutch- 
 built ships. Several important reductions were at the 
 same time made in the tariff of import duties. The 
 navigation dues or tolls that were formerly charged 
 on vessels or goods passing through Holland by the 
 Rhine and the Yssel, and transit duties of all kinds, 
 have also been repealed. And though it may be said, 
 and truly, that these wise and liberal measures will 
 be much more advantageous to the Dutch than to any 
 other people, still they are of the greatest importance 
 to all commercial nation.s, and especially to those who 
 have an extensive intercourse with them. We are glad 
 to have to state that this liberal policy has in Holland, 
 as in England, had its appropriate reward. Commerce 
 has been largely extended. The mercantile marine is 
 in a highly prosperous state, and is daily receiving 
 large additions. Many Dutch ships have latterly been 
 chartered by English merchants. 
 
 The importations into the United States from Hol- 
 land, in the year 1862-3, were, free of duty, $115,227 ; 
 dutiable, |;l,509,943; total, |1,626,170; In American 
 vessels, $462,641 ; foreign, $1,162,529. Total value of 
 imports for the same year from tlie Dutch East Indies, 
 $384,583; Dutch West Indies, $409,185. 
 
 The exports of domestic produce for the same year 
 were, in American vessels, $872,780 ; in foreign vessels, 
 $1,110,943 ; total, $1,983,723. To the Dutch East In- 
 dies, $202,822 ; to the Dutch West Indies, $251,258. 
 Compahative Table of Exfoets of Domestic Peoduce to 
 
 Holland, fok tue fiscal Yeaks ending June 30, 1853, 
 
 1854 
 
 Yean. 
 
 Eiporta. 
 
 ImpoTtB. 
 
 AmericBQ Vessels. Foreign Vessels. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1853 
 1854 
 
 462,641 
 1,409,195 
 
 1,162,529 
 . 890,i-)15 
 
 1,625,170 
 2,299,T10 
 
 1,983,723 
 1,695,970 
 
 In 1852 Great Britain imported from Holland 221,559 
 quarters of wheat, oats, and other grain, but she fre- 
 quently supplies more considerable quantities. She 
 also sends large quantities of butter and cheese (226,671 
 cwt. of the former, and 266,857 ditto of the latter in 
 1850), with, in 1851, 56,461 head of cattle and 165,365 
 
 sheep ; her other exports are bark for tanning, flax and 
 hemp, clover-seed, madder, geneva, nutmegs, etc. En- 
 gland also takes considerable quantities of Dutch sugar 
 and coflee. The greater portion, however, of the trade 
 between the United Kingdom and Holland is carried on 
 with Rotterdam, which is much more conveniently situ- 
 ated for such intercourse than Amsterdam. But the lat- 
 ter continues to engross by far the larger share of the 
 commerce with the flourishing colony of Java and the 
 other Dutch possessions in the East ; and is, consequent- 
 ly, the principal continental mart for Eastern produce. 
 
 The warehousing system has been long established 
 in Amsterdam ; and all goods, whether for home con- 
 sumption or transit, may be deposited in bonded ware- 
 houses. Speaking generally, goods can only be kept 
 in bonded warehouses for two years ; but grain of all 
 kinds may bo kept for an unlimited period. The ware- 
 house rent chargeable per month on a quarter of wheat 
 is, on an upper loft. Id. and 2-5ths; on an under loft 
 lid. On a ton (Engl.) of sugar in casks the charge is 
 Sd. ; in bags, 6d. 
 
 The dock and its adjacent warehouses, belonging to 
 the Entrepot General^ or establishment for warehousing 
 goods imported by sea, or intended to be re-exported by 
 sea or by the Rhine, are large and commodious. The 
 dock has water to float the largest ships, and the dues 
 and other charges are exceedingly moderate. Mer- 
 chants may employ their own men or those of the dock 
 in loading or unloading; and may either place their 
 property in separate vaults or floors of which they keep 
 the key, or intrust it to the care of the dock officers. 
 
 Dutch Trading Company. — A large proportion of the 
 foreign trade of Holland was for a considerable period 
 engrossed by the large trading company called the 
 Nederlaudsche Handehnaatschappy, created in 1824. Its 
 capital, which consisted originally of 37 million flor- 
 ins, was reduced in 1824 to 24 million florins ; but as 
 the company borrowed 10 million florins in 1835, and 
 13 millions more in 1837, its capital consists of 47 mill- 
 ion florins. At first it extended its operation to Amer- 
 ica and the West Indies, as well as to the East Indies. 
 But it has latterly very much contracted the scale of 
 its operations ; and having lent 40 millions of its cap- 
 ital to government, it is now merely the agent em- 
 ployed by the latter to bring home and sell that part 
 of the produce of Java which, under the new colonial 
 system, belongs to the State, and to carry on the trade 
 with Japan, which, however, is of little or no value. 
 The company has no ships of its own, but charters those 
 of private individuals. Its charges on importation 
 are limited to certain fixed rates. The business of in- 
 surance is extensively practiced at Amsterdam ; the 
 premiums are moderate, and the security unexception- 
 able. The high duty formerly imposed in other coun- 
 tries on policies of insurance contrilDuted to the increase 
 of this business in Holland. 
 
 Credit, Discount, etc. — Holland is, and has always 
 been, a country of short credits. A discount is usually 
 given for prompt payment, at the rate of 1 per cent, 
 for six weeks, and 2 per cent, for two months; but the 
 terms of credit on most articles and the discount al- 
 lowed for ready money, have been fixed by usage, and 
 are regarded as essential conditions in every bargain. 
 In consequence of the preference given in Holland to 
 ready money transactions, it is not a country in which 
 adventurers without capital have much chance of speed- 
 ily making a fortune. " Rien, en effet, de plus facile 
 que de s'etablir a Amsterdam; mais rien de plus diffi- 
 cile de s^y soutenir sajis des grandcs resources. Dans 
 cette ville, ou I'argent abonde, ou on le prete centre 
 des suretes a si bon march^, il est pourtant impossible 
 de s^en procurer a credit ; et sans argent il n'y a plus de 
 possibility d'y travailler, que de trouver quelqu'un qui 
 veuille de se charger d'un papier nouveau qui ne seroit 
 pas appuy^ d'un credit que I'opinion, la protection, ou 
 des eifets r^els feroient valoir a la bourse. Les Hol- 
 landois suivent la^dessus des maximes tr6s aust^res, 
 
AMS 
 
 40 
 
 AMS 
 
 meme a regard des maisons d'une certain considera- 
 tion." — Enct/chpedie Methodique, Commerce, t. ii. p. 650. 
 But this austerity is not a disadvantage, but tlie re- 
 verse. It prevents commerce from degenerating, as it 
 has too often done in other places, into gambling ad- 
 ventures, and places it on a comparatively solid foun- 
 dation. And it should be mentioned to the honor of 
 the Dutch, and as a proof of the excellence of this sys- 
 tem, that notwithstanding the distress and loss of trade 
 occasioned bj' the invasion and occupation of their 
 country by the French, the bankruptcies in 1795 and 
 subsequent years were not, comparatively, so numer- 
 ous as in England in ordinary seasons ! The regula- 
 tions in the Code Napoleon as to bankruptcy are en- 
 forced in Holland. 
 
 It has long been the practice in Holland to make, 
 on selling articles, considerable deductions from their 
 weight, particularly from those of large bulk, as com- 
 pared with their value. These tares and drafts, as 
 they are termed, are now fixed by ancient usage. 
 
 Magnitude of the Commerce of Eolland in the Seven- 
 teenth Century. — Causes of its Prosperity and Decline. — 
 We believe we need make no apology for embracing 
 this opportunity to lay before our readers the follow- 
 ing details with respect to the commerce and commer- 
 cial policy of Holland. It forms one of the most in- 
 structive topics of investigation ; and it is to be re- 
 gretted that so little attention should have been paid 
 to it in this country. Previously to the commence- 
 ment of the long-continued and glorious struggle made 
 by the Dutch to emancipate themselves from the blind 
 and brutal despotism of Old Spain, they bad a consid- 
 erable marine, and had attained to distinction by their 
 fisheries and commerce; and the war, instead of being 
 injurious to the trade of the republic, contributed pow- 
 erfully to its extension. After the capture of Antwerp 
 by the Spaniards, in 1585, the extensive commerce of 
 "which it had been the centre was removed to the ports 
 of Holland, and principally to Amsterdam, which then 
 attained to the distinction she long enjoyed, of the first 
 commercial city of Europe. 
 
 In 1602 the Dutch East India Company was form- 
 ed ; and, notwithstanding the pernicious influence of 
 that association, the Indian trade increased rapidly in 
 magnitude and imporEance. Ships fitted either for 
 commercial or warlike purposes, and having a consid- 
 erable number of soldiers on board, were sent out with- 
 in a few years of the establishment of the company. 
 Amboyna and the Moluccas were first wrested from 
 the Portuguese, and with them the Dutch obtained the 
 monopoly of the spice trade. Factories and fortifica- 
 tions were in no long time established, from Bussorah, 
 near the mouth of the Tigris, in the Persian Gulf, along 
 the coasts and islands of India as far as Japan. Al- 
 liances were formed with several of the Indian princes ; 
 and in many parts, particularly on the coasts of Cey- 
 lon, and in various districts of Malabar and Coroman- 
 del, they were themselves the sovereigns. Batavia, 
 in the large and fertile island of Java, the greater part 
 of whicli iiad been conquered by the Dutch, formed 
 the centre of their Indian commerce ; and though un- 
 healthy, its port was excellent, and it was admira- 
 bly situated for commanding the trade of the Eastern 
 Archipelago. In 1651 they planted a colony at the 
 Capeof Good Hope, which had been strangely neglect- 
 ed by the Portuguese. 
 
 Every branch of commerce was vigorously prose- 
 cuted by the Dutch. Their trade with the Baltic was, 
 however, by far the most extensive and lucrative of 
 which they were in possession. Guicciardini mentions 
 that the trade with Poland, Denmark, Prussia, etc., 
 even before their revolt, was so very great, that fleets 
 of 300 ships arrived twice a year at Amsterdam from 
 Dantzic and Livonia only; but it increased prodig- 
 iously during the latter part of the sixteenth .and the 
 beginning of the seventeenth centuries. The great 
 population of Holland, ^and the limited extent and un- 
 
 fruitful nature of the soil, render the inhabitants de- 
 pendent on foreigners for the greater part of tlieir sup- 
 plies of corn. The countries round the Baltic liave 
 always furnished them with the principal part of tliose 
 supplies ; and it is from them that they have been in 
 the habit of bringing timber, iron, hemp and flax, 
 pitch and tar, tallow, ashes, and other bulky articles 
 required in the building of their houses and ships, and 
 in various manufactures. Nothing, however, redounds 
 so much to the credit of the Dutch as the policy they 
 have invariably followed with respect to the trade in 
 corn. They have at all times had a large capital 
 embarked in this business. The variations which are 
 perpetually occurring in the harvests early led them 
 to engage very extensively in a sort of speculative corn 
 trade. When the crops happened to be unusually 
 productive, and prices low, they bought and stored up 
 large quantities of grain, in the expectation of profit- 
 ing by the advance that was suie to take place on the 
 occurrence of an unfavorable year. Repeated efforts 
 were made, in periods when prices were rising, to pre- 
 vail on the government to prohibit exportation ; but 
 they steadily refused to interfere. In consequence of 
 this enlightened policy, Holland has long been the 
 most important European entrep6t for corn ; and her 
 markets have on all occasions been furnished with the 
 most abundant supplies. Those scarcities whicli are 
 so very disastrous in countries without commerce, or 
 where the trade in corn is subjected to fetters and re- 
 straints, have not only been totally unknown in Hol- 
 land, but became a copious source, of wealth to her 
 merchants, who then obtained a ready and advanta- 
 geous vent for the supplies accumulated in their ware- 
 houses. "Amsterdam," says Sir Walter Ealeigh, "is 
 never without 700,000 quarters of corn, none of it of 
 the growth of Holland ; and a dearth of only one }'car 
 in any other part of Europe enriches Holland for seven 
 years. In the course of a year and a half, during a 
 scarcity in England, there were carried away from the 
 ports of Southampton, Bristol, and Exeter alone near- 
 ly £200,000; and if London and the rest of England 
 be included, there must have been £2,000,000 more." — 
 Observations touching Trade and Commerce with the Hol- 
 lander, Miscel. Works, vol. ii. The very well inform- 
 ed author of the Richesse de la Hollande, published in 
 1778, observes, in allusion to these circumstances, " Que 
 la disette de grains regTie dans les quatre parties du 
 monde ; vous trouverez du froment, du seigle, et d'au- 
 tres grains a Amsterdam ; ils n'y manquent jamais." 
 
 The Bank of Amsterdam was founded in 1609. The 
 principal object of this establishment was to obviate 
 the inconvenience and uncertainty arising from the 
 circulation of the coins imported into Amsterdam from 
 all parts of the world. The merchants who carried 
 coin or bullion to the bank obtained credit for an equal 
 value in its books ; this was called bank-money ; and 
 all considerable payments were effected hj "writing it 
 off' from the account of one individual to that of an- 
 other. The establishment continued to flourish till 
 the invasion of the French in 1795. Between the 
 years 1651 and 1G72, when the territories of the repub- 
 lic were invaded by the French, the commerce of Hol- 
 land seems to have reached its greatest height. De 
 Witt estimates its increase from the treaty with Spain, 
 concluded at Munster in 1643, to 1669, at fully a half. 
 He adds, that during the war "ivith Holland, Spain lost 
 the greater part of Iier naval power; that since the 
 peace, the Dutch had obtained most of the trade to 
 that country, which had been previously carried on by 
 the Hanseatic merchants and the English ; that almost 
 all the coasting trade of Spain was carried on by Dutch 
 shipping; that Spain had even been forced to hire 
 Dutch ships to sail to her American possessions ; and 
 that so great was the exportation of goods from Hol- 
 land to Spain, that, all the merchandise brought from 
 the Spanish West Indies was not sufficient to make 
 returns for them. 
 
AMS 
 
 41 
 
 AMS 
 
 At this period, indeed, the Dutch engrossed, not by 
 means of any artificial monopoly, but by the greater 
 number of their ships, and their superior skill and 
 economy in all that regarded navigation, almost the 
 whole carrying trade of Europe. The value of the 
 goods exported from France in Dutch bottoms, to- 
 ward the middle of the fourteenth century, exceeded 
 40,000,000 livres ; and the commerce of England with 
 the Low Countries was, for a very long period, almost 
 entirely carried on in them. 
 
 The business of marine insurance was largely and 
 successfully prosecuted at Amsterdam ; and the ordi- 
 nances published in 1651, 1563, and 1570, contain the 
 most judicious regulations for the settlement of such 
 disputes as might arise in conducting this difficult but 
 highly useful business. It is singular, however, not- 
 withstanding the sagacity of the Dutch, and their de- 
 sire to strengthen industrious habits, that they should 
 have prohibited insurance upon lives. It was reserved 
 for England to show the advantages that might be 
 derived from this beautiful application of the science 
 of probabilities. 
 
 In 1690, Sir William Petty estimated the shipping 
 of Europe at about 2,000,000 tons, which he supposed 
 to be distributed as follows: viz., England, 500,000; 
 France, 100,000; Hamburg, Denmaric, Sweden, and 
 Dantzic, 250,000 ; Spain, Portugal, and Italy, 250,000 ; 
 that of the Seven United Provinces amounting, accord- 
 ing to him, to 900,000 tons, or to nearly one half of the 
 whole tonnage of Europe ! No great dependance can, 
 of course, be placed upon these estimates ; but the 
 probability is, that, had they been more accurate, the 
 preponderance in favor of Holland would have been 
 greater than it appears to be ; for the official returns 
 to the circulars addressed in 1701 by the commissioners 
 of customs to the officers at the different ports show 
 that the whole mercantile navy of England amounted 
 at that period to only 261,222 tons, carrying 27,196 
 men. — Macpi-ierson's Annals of Commerce^ anno 1701. 
 It may, therefore, be fairly concluded that during the 
 seventeenth century the foreign commerce and naviga- 
 tion of Holland was greater than that of all Europe 
 besides ; and yet the country which was the seat of 
 this vast commerce had no native produce to export, 
 nor even a piece of timber fit for ship-building. All 
 had been the fruit of industry, economy, and a fortu- 
 nate combination of circumstances. Holland owed 
 this vast commerce to a variety of causes : partly to 
 her peculiar situation, the industry and economy of 
 her inhabitants, the comparatively liberal and enlight- 
 ened S3'stem of civil as well as of commercial policy 
 adopted by the republic; and partly also to the wars 
 and disturbances that prevailed in most European 
 countries in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, 
 and prevented them from emulating tlie successful 
 career of the Dutch. 
 
 The ascendency of Holland as a commercial state 
 began to decline from about the commencement of last 
 century. After the war terminated by the treaty of 
 Aix-la-Chapelle, the attention of the government of 
 Holland was forcibly attracted to the state of the ship- 
 ping and foreign commerce of the republic. The dis- 
 covery of means by which their decline might be ar- 
 rested, and the trade of the republic, if possible, re- 
 stored to its ancient flourishing condition, became a 
 prominent object in the speculations of every one who 
 felt interested in the public welfare. In order to pro- 
 cure the most correct information on the subject, the 
 stadtholder, William IV., addressed the following que- 
 ries to all the most extensive and intelligent merchants, 
 desiring them to favor him with their answers : " 1. 
 What is the actual state of trade ? And if the same 
 should be found to be diminished and fallen to decay, 
 then, 2. To inquire by what methods the same may be 
 supported and advanced, or, if possible, restored to its 
 former lustre, repute, and dignity." In discussing 
 these questions, the merchants were obliged to enter 
 
 into an examination, as well of the causes which had 
 raised the commerce of Holland to the high pitch of 
 prosperity to which it had once attained, as of those 
 which had occasioned its subsequent decline. It is 
 stated that, though not of the same opinion upon all 
 points, they, speaking generally, concurred as to those 
 that were most important. When their answers had 
 been obtained and compared with eacli other, the 
 stadtholder had a dissertation prepared from them, 
 and other authentic sources, on the commerce of the 
 republic, to which proposals were subjoined for its 
 amendment. Some of the principles advanced in this 
 dissertation apply to the case of Holland only ; but 
 most of them are of universal application, and are not 
 more comprehensive than sound. We doubt, indeed, 
 whether the benefits resulting from religious toleration, 
 political liberty, the security of property, and the free- 
 dom of industry, have ever been more clearly set forth 
 than in this dissertation. It begins by an enumera- 
 tion of the causes which contributed to advance the 
 commerce of the republic to its former unexampled 
 prosperity : these the authors divide into three classes, 
 embracing under the first those that were natural and 
 physical; under the second, those they denominated 
 moral ; and under the third, those which they con- 
 sidered adventitious and external. 
 
 The central situation of the country, its command 
 of some of the principal inlets to the Continent, and 
 the necessity under which the inhabitants have been 
 placed, in consequence of the barrenness of the soil and 
 its liability to be overflowed, to exert all their indus- 
 try and enterprise, are circumstances that seem to be 
 in a great degree peculiar in Holland. But though 
 there can be no doubt that their influence has been 
 very considerable, no one will pretend to say that it 
 is to be compared for a moment with the influence of 
 those free institutions which, fortunately, are not the 
 exclusive attributes of any particular countrj', but have 
 flourished in Phoenicia, Greece, England, and America, 
 as well as in Holland. 
 
 Many dissertations have been written to account for 
 the decline of the commerce of Holland. But, if we 
 mistake not, its leading causes may be classed under 
 two prominent heads ; viz., first, the natural growth of 
 commerce and navigation in other countries ; and, sec- 
 ond, the weight of taxation at home. During the pe- 
 riod when the republic rose to great eminence as a 
 commercial State, England, France, and Spain, dis- 
 tracted by civil and religious dissensions, or engi'ossed 
 wholly by schemes of foreign conquest, were xmable to 
 apply their energies to the cultivation of commerce, or 
 to withstand the competition of so industrious a people 
 as the Dutch. They, therefore, were under the neces- 
 sity of allowing the greater part of their foreign, and 
 even of their coasting trade, to be carried on in Dutch 
 bottoms, and under the superintendence of Dutch fac- 
 tors. But after the accession of Louis XIV. and the 
 ascendencj' of Cromwell had put an end to internal 
 commotions in France and England, the energies of 
 these two great nations began to be directed to pur- 
 suits of which the Dutch had hitherto enjoyed almost 
 a monopoly. It was not to be supposed that when 
 tranquillity and a regular system of government had 
 been established in France and England, their active 
 and enterprising inhabitants would submit to see one 
 of their most valuable branches of industry in the 
 hands of the foreigners. The Dutch ceased to be the 
 carriers of Europe, without any fault of their own. 
 Their performance of that function necessarily termin- 
 ated as soon as other nations became possessed of a 
 mercantile marine, and were able to do for themselves 
 what had previously been done for them by their neigh- 
 bors. 
 
 Whatever, therefore, might have been the condition 
 of Holland in other respects, the natural advance of 
 rival nations must inevitably have stripped her of a 
 large portion of the commerce she once possessed. But 
 
AMS 
 
 42 
 
 AMS 
 
 the progress of decline seems to have been considerably 
 accelerated, or rather, perhaps, the efforts to arrest it 
 were rendered ineffectual, by the extremely heavy tax- 
 ation to which she was subjected, occasioned by the 
 unavoidable expenses incurred in the revolutionary 
 struggle with Spain, and the subsequent wars with 
 France and England. The necessities of the State 
 led to the imposition of taxes on corn, on flour when 
 it was ground at the mill, and on bread when it came 
 from the oven ; on butter, and flsh, and fruit ; on in- 
 come and legacies ; the sale of houses ; and, in short, 
 almost every article of either necessity or convenience. 
 Sir William Temple mentions that in his time — and 
 taxes were greatly increased afterward — one lish sauce 
 Avas in common use, which directly paid no fewer than 
 thirty different duties of excise ; and it was a common 
 saying at Amsterdam, that every dish of fish brought 
 to table was paid for once to the fishermen, and six 
 times to the State. 
 
 The pernicious influence of this heavy taxation has 
 been ably set forth by the author of the Richesse de la 
 MoUande, and other well-informed writers ; and it has 
 also been very forcibly pointed out in the Dissertation 
 already referred to, drawn up from the communications 
 of the Dutch merchants. " Oppressive taxes," it is 
 there stated, " must be placed at the head of all the 
 causes that have co-operated to the prejudice and dis- 
 couragement of trade ; and it may be justly said, that 
 it can only be attributed to them that the trade of this 
 country has been diverted out of its channel, and trans- 
 ferred to our neighbors, and must daily be still more 
 and more alienated and shut out from ns, unless the 
 progress thereof be stopped by some quick and effect- 
 ual remedy ; nor is it difficult to see, from these con- 
 templations on the state of our trade, that the same 
 will be effected by no other means than a diminution 
 of all duties. In former times this was reckoned the 
 only trading state in Europe ; and foreigners were con- 
 tent to pay the taxes, as well on the goods they brought 
 hither as on those they came here to buy, without ex- 
 amining whether the}' could evade or save them, by 
 fetching the goods from the places where they were pro- 
 duced, and carrying others to the places where they were 
 consumed : in short, they paid us our taxes with pleas- 
 ure, without any further inquiry. But, since the last 
 century, the system of trade is altered all over Europe ; 
 foreign nations, seeing the wonderful effect of our trade, 
 and to what an eminence we had risen only by means 
 thereof, they did likewise apply themselves to it ; and, 
 to save our duties, sent their superfluous products be- 
 side our country, to the places where they are most 
 consumed ; and in return for the same, furnished them- 
 selves from the first hands with what they wanted." 
 But, notwithstanding this authoritative exposition of 
 the pernicious effects resulting from the excess of tax- 
 ation, the necessary expenses of the State were so great 
 as to render it impossible to make any sufficient reduc- 
 tions. And, with the exception of the transit trade 
 carried on through the Rhine and the Meuse, which is 
 in a great measure independent of foreign competi- 
 tion, and the American trade, most of the other branch- 
 es of the foreign trade of Holland, though still very 
 considerable, continue in a comparatively depressed 
 state. 
 
 In consequence principally of the oppressiveness of 
 taxation, but partly, too, of the excessive accumula- 
 tion of capital that had taken place while the Dutch 
 engrossed the carrying trade of Europe, profits in Hol- 
 land were reduced toward the middle of the seven- 
 teenth century, and have ever since continued extreme- 
 ly low. This circumstance would of itself have sapped 
 the foundations of her commercial greatness. Her cap- 
 italists, who could hardly expect to clear more than 
 two or three per cent, of net profit by any sort of un- 
 dertaking carried on at home, were tempted to vest 
 their capital in other countries, and to speculate in 
 loans to foreign governments. There are the best rea- 
 
 sons for thinking that the Dutch were, until very late- 
 ly, ,the largest creditors of any nation in Europe. It 
 is impossible, indeed, to form any accurate estimate of 
 what the sums owing them by foreigners previously to 
 the late French war, or at present, may amount to ; 
 but there can be no doubt that at the foi-mer period 
 the amount was immense, and that it is still very con- 
 siderable. M. Demeunier ^Bictionnaire de I'Economie 
 Politique, tom. iii. p. 720) states the amount of capital 
 lent by the Dutch to foreign governments, exclusive 
 of the large sums lent to France during the American 
 war, at seventy-three millions sterling. According to 
 the author of the Richesse de la HoUande (ii. p. 292), 
 the sums lent to France and England only, previously 
 to 1778, amounted to 1,600,000 livres toumois, or sixty 
 millions sterling. And besides these, vast sums were 
 lent to private individuals in foreign countries, both 
 regularly as loans at interest and in the shape of goods 
 advanced at long credits. So great was the difficulty 
 of finding an advantageous investment for money in 
 Holland, that Sir AVilliam Temple mentions that the 
 payment of any part of the national debt was looked 
 upon by the creditors as an evil of the first magnitude. 
 " They receive it," says he, " with tears, not knowing 
 how to dispose of it at interest with such safety and 
 ease." 
 
 Among the subordinate causes which contributed to 
 the decline of Dutch commerce, or which have, at all 
 events, prevented its growth, we may reckon the cir- 
 cumstance of the commerce with India having been 
 subjected to the trammels of monopoly. De "Witt ex- 
 presses his firm conviction that the abolition of the 
 East India Company would have added very greatly 
 to the trade with the East; and no doubt can now re- 
 main in the mind of any one that such would have 
 been the case. The interference of the administration 
 in regulating the mode in which some of the most im- 
 portant branches of industry should be carried on, 
 seems also to have been exceedingly injurious. Every 
 proceeding with respect to the herring fishery, for ex- 
 ample, was regulated by the orders of government, 
 carried into effect under the inspection of officers ap- 
 pointed for that purpose. Some of these regulations 
 were exceedingly vexatious. The period when the 
 fishery might begin was fixed at five minutes past 
 twelve o'clock of the night of the 24th of June ! and 
 the master and pilot of every vessel leaving Holland 
 for the fishery were obliged to make oath that they 
 would respect the regulation. The species of salt to 
 be made use of in curing different sorts of herrings was 
 also fixed by law; and there were endless regulations 
 with respect to the size of the barrels, the number and 
 thickness of the staves of which they were to be made ; 
 the gutting and packing of the herrings ; the branding 
 of the barrels, etc., etc. — Histoire des Peches, etc., dans 
 les Mers du Nord, tom. i. chap. 24. These regulations 
 were intended to secure to the' Hollanders that supe- 
 riority which they had early attained in the fishery, 
 and to prevent the reputation of their herrings from 
 being injured by the bad faith of individuals. But 
 their real effect was precisely the reverse of this. By 
 tying up the fishers to a system of routine, they pre- 
 vented them from making any improvements ; while 
 the facility of counterfeiting the public marks opened 
 a much wider door to fraud than would have been 
 opened had government wisely declined interfering in 
 the matter. 
 
 In despite, however, of the East India monopoly, 
 and the regulations now described, the commercial 
 policy of Holland has been more liberal than that of 
 any other nation. And in consequence, a country not 
 more extensive than Wales, and naturally not more 
 fertile, conquered, indeed, in a great measure from the 
 sea, has accumulated a population of upward of two 
 millions ; has maintained wars of unexampled dura- 
 tion with the most powerful monarchies ; and, besides 
 laying out immense sums in works of utility and orna- 
 
AN"A 
 
 43 
 
 ANC 
 
 ment at home, has been enabled to lend hundreds of 
 raillions to foreigners. 
 
 During the occupation of Holland by the French, 
 first as a dependent State, and subsequently as an in- 
 tegral part of the French empire, her foreign trade was 
 almost entirely destroyed. Her colonies were succes- 
 sively conquered by England; and, in addition to the 
 loss of her trade, she was burdened with fresh taxes. 
 But such was the vast accumulated wealth of the 
 Dutch, their prudence, and energy, that the influence 
 of these adverse circumstances was far less injurious 
 than could have been imagined ; and, notwithstanding 
 all the losses she had sustained, and the long interrup- 
 tion of her commercial pursuits, Holland continued, at 
 her emancipation from the yoke of the French in 1814, 
 to be the richest country in Europe ! Java, the Mo- 
 luccas, and most of her other colonies were then re- 
 stored, and she is now in the enjoyment of a large for- 
 eign trade. Her connection with Belgium was an 
 unfortunate one for both countries. The union was 
 not agreeable to either party, and was injurious to 
 Holland. Belgium was an agricultural and manu- 
 facturing country ; and was inclined, in imitation of 
 the French, to lay restrictions on the importation of 
 most sorts of raw and manufactured produce. A pol- 
 icy of this sort was directly opposed to the interests 
 and the ancient practice of the Dutch. But though 
 their deputies prevented the restrictive system from 
 being carried to the extent proposed by the Belgians, 
 they were unable to prevent it from being carried to 
 an extent that materially aflected the trade of Hol- 
 land. Whatever, therefore, may be the consequences 
 as to Belgium, there can be little doubt that the sep- 
 aration of the two divisions of the kingdom of the 
 Netherlands will redound to the advantage of Holland. 
 It must ever be for the interest of England, America, 
 and all trading nations, to maintain the independence 
 of a State by whose means their productions find a 
 teady access to the great continental markets. It is 
 to be hoped that the Dutch, profiting by past expe- 
 rience,»will adopt such a liberal and conciliatory sys- 
 tem toward the natives of Java as may enable them 
 to avail themselves to the full of the various resources 
 of that noble island. And if they do this, and freely 
 open their ports, with as few restiictions as possible, 
 to the ships and commodities of all countries, Holland 
 may still be the centre of a very extensive commerce, 
 and maj' continue to preserve a respectable place 
 among mercantile nations. Even at this moment, 
 after all the vicissitudes they have undergone, the 
 Dutch are, beyond all question, the most opulent and 
 industrious of European nations. And their present 
 no less than their former state shows that a free sys- 
 tem of government, security, and the absence of re- 
 strictions on industry, can overcome almost every ob- 
 stacle ; " can convert the standing pool and lake into 
 fat meadows, cover the barren rock with verdure, and 
 make the desert smile with flowers." 
 
 Amulets, or Charms. All nations have been 
 fond of amulets. The Egyptians had a great variety ; 
 so had the Jews, Chaldeans, and Persians. Among 
 the Greeks, they were much used in exciting or con- 
 quering the passion of love. They were also in esti- 
 mation among the Romans. — Pliny. Ovid. Among 
 the Christians of early ages, amulets were made of the 
 wood of the true cross, about a.d. 328. They have 
 been sanctioned by religion and astrology, and even 
 in modern times by medical and other sciences ; wit- 
 ness the anodyne necklace, etc. The pope and Catho- 
 lic clergymake and sell amulets and charms even to 
 this day. — Ashe. Haydn. 
 
 Anam, or An-nam, an empire of Southeastern 
 Asia; between lat. 10° and 23° N., and long. 102° and 
 109° E. ; comprising Cochin-China, Tonquin, and a 
 part of Camboja. Surface generally fertile, and cli- 
 mate healthy. The coasts are bold, and include some 
 of the best harbors in the world. Products, rice, sugar, 
 
 cinnamon, pepper, and other spices ; indigo, dye-woods, 
 an inferior tea, ivory, and the precious metals. These 
 articles form the principal exports. Imports are man- 
 ufactured silks, porcelain, fine teas, and drugs from 
 China, opium from India, cottons from Canton and 
 Singapore, woolens and fire-arms from Europe. The 
 navy is large ; and the people have a maritime taste, 
 excelling most Asiatics in ship-building. — Harper's 
 Gazetteer. 
 
 Anchor, in Navigation, from the Greek uynvpa, 
 which Vossius thinks is from oyKri, a crook or hook, an 
 instrument of iron or other heavy material used for 
 holding ships in any situation in which they may be 
 required to lie, and preventing them from drifting by 
 the winds or tides, by the currents of rivers, or any 
 other cause. This is done by the anchor, after it is 
 let down from the ship by means of the cable, fixing 
 itself into the ground, and there holding the vessel 
 fast. The anchor is thus obviously an implement of 
 the first importance in navigation, and one on which 
 too much attention can not be bestowed in its manu- 
 facture and proper construction, seeing that on it de- 
 pends entirely the safety of the vessel in storms. The 
 invention of so necessary an instrument remounts, as 
 may be supposed, to the remotest antiquity. The 
 most ancient anchors consisted merely of large stones, 
 baskets full of stones, sacks filled with sand, or logs of 
 wood loaded with lead. Of this kind were the anchors 
 of the ancient Greeks, which, according to Apollonius 
 Ehodius and Stephen of Byzantium, were formed of 
 stone ; and Athenajus states that they were sometimes 
 made of wood. These sorts of anchors retained the 
 vessel merely by their inertia, and by the friction 
 along the bottom. Iron was afterward introduced for 
 the construction of anchors, and also the grand im- 
 provement of forming them with teeth or flukes to 
 fasten themselves into the bottom; whence the words 
 bdovTe^ and dentes are frequently taken for anchors in 
 the Greek and Latin poets. The invention of the 
 teeth is ascribed by Pliny to the Tuscans ; but Pausa- 
 nias gives the merit to Midas, king of Phrygia. Orig- 
 inally there was only one fluke or tooth, whence an- 
 chors were called irepoaTO/^oL ; but shortly afterward 
 the second was added, according to Plinj', by Eupala- 
 mus, or, according to Strabo, by Anacharsis, the Scyth- 
 ian philosopher. The anchors with two teeth were 
 called afi(pil3o7iOL or &fi^iCTOjiot, and from ancient mon- 
 uments appear to have been much the same with those 
 used in our days, except that the stock is wanting in 
 them all, Every ship had several anchors, the largest 
 of which, corresponding to our bower or sheet anchor, 
 was never used but in extreme danger, and was hence 
 peculiarly termed hpd or sacra ; whence the proverb 
 sacram anchoram solvere, as flying to the last refuge. 
 
 Weight. — Anchors are now universally made of 
 wrought iron, excepting in Spain and some parts of 
 the South Sea, where they are made of copper. One 
 essential quality in every anchor is a sufiicient weight 
 and angle of arm and fluke to fix itself in the bottom ; 
 and this has been determined by practice for different 
 anchors, and for vessels of different sizes. Large ves- 
 sels have several anchors of different sizes, which are 
 stowed in different parts of the vessel. These are dis- 
 tinguished by diffferent names ; viz., the hest lower to 
 the starboard ; and the small bower to the port cat- 
 head, with the flukes on the bill-board ; the sheet-anchor 
 on the after part of the fore-channels, on the starboard 
 side ; and the spare-anchor on the port side. The above 
 anchors are of the same size and weight. The two lat- 
 ter are only let go in cases of danger, when the vessel 
 is riding in a heavy gale. In men-of-war they are al- 
 ways kept ready for letting go. The stream-anchor is 
 of a much smaller size than the above, used only for 
 riding in rivers or moderate streams. It is not gen- 
 erally above one-fourth or one-fifth of the weight of 
 the others. Lastly, the hedge-anchor is still smaller, 
 being only about one-half of the stream-anchor, and is 
 
ANC 
 
 U 
 
 ANC 
 
 only used when kedging in a river. Ships of the large 
 class carry four large and three small anchors, and the 
 smallest class, as brigs, cutters, and schooners, three 
 or four. 
 
 The "weight of anchors for different vessels is allowed 
 by the tonnage. A pretty near rule for the principal 
 anchor of ordinary-sized vessels is to allow for the 
 owts. in the anchor one-twentieth of the tonnage. Thus 
 a vessel of 400 tons would require her principal anchor 
 to be 20 cwt., or according to the following tables : 
 
 Meecuant Vessels, j 
 
 Vessels of WiK. | 
 
 Ton- 
 
 Cable 
 
 Weight of 
 
 Guns. 
 
 Ton- 
 
 Cable 
 
 Weight of 
 
 nage. 
 
 Chain. 
 
 Anchor. 
 
 nage. 
 
 Chain. 
 
 Anchor. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 In. 
 
 Cwt. 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 In. 
 
 Cwt. 
 
 20 
 
 1% 
 
 1 
 
 20 
 
 500 
 
 If 
 
 25 
 
 35 
 
 H 
 
 If 
 
 24 
 
 700 
 
 IJ 
 
 29 
 
 50 
 
 i 
 
 2| 
 
 28 
 
 750 
 
 14 
 
 33 
 
 65 
 
 u 
 
 H 
 
 32 
 
 920 
 
 If 
 
 38 
 
 70 
 
 
 *i 
 
 36 
 
 970 
 
 If 
 
 41 
 
 80 
 
 7. 
 
 H 
 
 5 
 
 38 
 
 1000 
 
 H 
 
 44 
 
 100 
 
 i« 
 
 5| 
 
 40 
 
 1100 
 
 i| 
 
 47 
 
 130 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 44 
 
 1300 
 
 i| 
 
 50 
 
 160 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 50 
 
 1500 
 
 i| 
 
 61 
 
 190 
 
 'i 
 
 94 
 
 64 
 
 1600 
 
 3 
 
 65 
 
 220 
 
 H- 
 
 io| 
 
 74 
 
 1900 
 
 2 
 
 72 
 
 250 
 
 ifti 
 
 12 
 
 80 
 
 2500 
 
 2A 
 
 85 
 
 280 
 
 4' 
 
 14 
 
 90 
 
 2600 
 
 2| 
 
 92 
 
 320 
 
 
 15|- 
 
 100 
 
 2700 
 
 2I 
 
 94 
 
 380 
 
 If 
 
 m 
 
 120 
 
 3000 
 
 2^ 
 
 99 to 100 
 
 430 
 
 lA 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 480 
 
 H 
 
 21 
 
 
 
 
 
 520 
 
 1* 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 
 
 720 
 
 iH 
 
 33 
 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 Form and Dimensions. — Next to the weight, the form 
 of the anchor, and the proportions of the different parts, 
 are of great importance. The most general form, and 
 that which has indeed been almost universally adopt- 
 ed all over the world, consists of the two hooked arms 
 for penetrating and fixing themselves into the soil; 
 the long bar or shank for attaching the cable ; and the 
 stock, which is attached to the extremity of the shank, 
 and serves to direct one of the points downward into 
 the soil. The weight of the anchor, then, cause's the 
 point to penetrate more or less according to the soft- 
 ness or hardness of the bottom ; and the action of the 
 vessel on the cable, instead of loosening the anchor, 
 tends rather, by the hooked shape of the arms, to fix 
 these deeper and firmer into the soil; so that the ves- 
 sel is held quite fast, unless either the cable itself gives 
 way, or any part of the anchor, or the anchor is dragged 
 along owing to the looseness of the soil. The cable 
 draws upward by the extremity, and turns the whole 
 round the point of the fluke. The one end of the shank 
 is made square, to receive and hold the stock steadily 
 in its place without turning. To keep the stock also 
 from shifting along the shank, there are raised on it 
 from the solid iron, or welded on it, two square tenon- 
 like projections, called nuts. The length of the square 
 of the shank is about one-sixth of the whole length of 
 the shaft, and the thickness about one-twentieth. From 
 the end of this square the shank increases in thickness, 
 tapering toward the extremity, where the arms are at- 
 tached : in all this part it is either made wholly round, 
 or with a flat on opposite sides, or polygonal. The 
 end next the stock is called the small round. The oth- 
 er extremity, where the arms and the shank unite, is 
 called the crovm, and the point of the angle between 
 the arms and the shank the throat. Here the thick- 
 ness of the shank is from li inch in small anchors, to 
 3 inches in large ones, greater than at the small round. 
 A distance equal to that between the throat of one arm 
 and its bill is marked on the shank from the place 
 where it joins the arms, and is called the trend. Near 
 
 the extremity of the square part of the shank is the 
 hole for receiving the shackle for the cable, which is 
 about half the thickness of the small round, and the 
 diameter nearly equal to the length of the square. The 
 shackle is lapped with cordage to prevent the cable 
 from chafing. When hempen cables are used in the 
 British service, one length of bower chain cable, called 
 a ganger, is bent to the spare anchor, and the hempen 
 cable united with Admiral Elliott's shackle. 
 
 The arms make an angle of about 56° with the shank. 
 They are made either round or polygonal like the 
 shank, about half their length. The remainder of the 
 arm consists of three parts, the ilade, the palm, and 
 the Ull. The blade is merely the continuation of the 
 arm in a square form. The palm or fluke is a broad, 
 flat, triangular plate, fixed on the inside of the blade, 
 the use of which is, by exposing a broad surface, to 
 take a firmer hold of the ground. The bill is the ex- 
 tremity of the arm, where it is tapered nearly to a 
 point, for the purpose of penetrating more readily into 
 the soil. In some cases the arm is made quite straight 
 from the crown to the bill ; in others, and particularly 
 in small anchors, the interior half is made with the 
 arch of a circle. The whole length of the arm is near- 
 ly half the length of the round part of the shank. It 
 tapers slightly from the throat to the blade, where it 
 is about the same thickness with the small round of the 
 shank. The palm is about one-third of this in thick- 
 ness, and the breadth of its base is nearly equal to its 
 length. 
 
 The stock of the anchor is made of oak, consisting of 
 two beams embracing the square, and firmly united 
 by iron bolts and hoops. The length of the stock is 
 rather greater than that of the shank, the thickness in 
 the middle about one-twelfth of its length, and taper- 
 ing to about the half of this at the extremities, the 
 taper being all on the under surface next the arms, and 
 the other quite straight. The taper is not quite regu- 
 lar. It commences at about half the breadth of the 
 stock from the shank, and continues in one straight 
 line to the extremity. The beams of the stotk are 
 hooped close together at the extremities, but gradual- 
 ly open toward the centre, that, in case of the wood 
 shrinking, the hoops may be driven farther in. Of 
 late years the stock has frequently been made of 
 wrought iron, the same as the anchor ; and this plan 
 is now very generallj' followed in anchors up to sixty 
 cwt. It has this advantage, that the stock can be at 
 any time taken out and laid parallel with the anchor, 
 which is very convenient for stowage. The iron stock 
 consists merely of a long round bar, about half the di- 
 ameter of the anchor at the square. Instead of em- 
 bracing the anchor, like the wood, it goes through a 
 hole in the square, which is swelled out to receive it. 
 It has a shoulder in the middle, which rests against 
 the square, and a key through a hole in the stock on 
 the other side ke6ps it fast. AVhen the stock is to be 
 taken out of its jilace, the key is driven out : the stock 
 then slides through the hole in the shank, and by 
 means of a bend at its extremity, it is laid parallel 
 with the shank. 
 
 The operation of the anchor is easily understood. 
 Being let down by means of the cable, the weight of 
 the arms throws them downward, and keeps the whole 
 in a vertical position until it reaches the ground, where 
 it lights upon the crown ; and then falling over, the 
 position of the stock at right angles to the arms, and 
 its length and height, together with the weight of the 
 cable, are sure to throw it with one of the arms point- 
 ed into the ground, if it does not take this situation of 
 itself This effect is aided by the anchor descending 
 quickly — and hence it must be allowed to descend free- 
 ly ; for which purpose, in throwing or casting the an- 
 chor, the cable is arranged, one end being attached to 
 the anchor and the cable bitted on deck, and the inner 
 end removed below. Every thing being prepared, the 
 lashing of the anchor is cast off, and the men stand 
 
ANC 
 
 ready to let go ; and ivhen this word ia given by the 
 person in command, the fastenings are all cast off, and 
 the anchor, falling into the sea, descends with rapidity. 
 When the anchor, again, is to be removed from its sit- 
 uation and drawn up into the vessel, the operation is 
 termed weighing; which requires often a very heavy 
 purchase, particularly at starting. This is obtained 
 by means of the windlass or capstan, round which the 
 cable is wound, and a number of hands applied to work 
 it. With cables which are too large to be wound 
 round a windlass, a smaller rope or chain is used, 
 termed a messenger, which, being attached to the ca- 
 ble at different points, and wound round the capstan, 
 serves to bring the cable forward. But since the in- 
 troduction of chain cables this contrivance is not so 
 much required. 
 
 When the anchor is brought above water, a tackle 
 from the cat-head, called the cat, is hooked on to the 
 shackle of the anchor, and hoisted up ; the cat-head 
 stopper is then passed, viz., one end of it is fastened 
 round the cat-head, and the other is brought through 
 the shackle of the anchor, then over the stopper-cleat, 
 and is belayed round a timber head; the cat is then 
 unhooked, and another tackle, called the fish, is hook- 
 ed on just within the flukes, and the arms are hove up 
 so as to lie upon the gunnel, or bill-board ; the stock 
 is then made vertical by hauling upon another tackle, 
 called the stock-tackle, in which position the anchor is 
 secured by the stock-lashing for sea. In the event of 
 bad weather, and before commencing a long voyage, 
 the cat-head stopper and shank painter is doubled. 
 
 Mooring Anchors are those which are fixed in cer- 
 tain situations in harbors or roadsteads, and to which 
 any of the vessels frequenting the place may be se- 
 cured. As these are no way limited as to weight like 
 portable anchors, they often consist merely of a large 
 block of stone, with an inner ring fixed in the middle 
 of the upper side ; or several such stones may be fast- 
 ened together so as to act as one mass. Mooring an- 
 chors are also often made by choosing one of the larg- 
 est anchors used for first-rate ships, weighing 80 cwt., 
 and by bending one of the arms close down upon the 
 shank, to prevent it catching hawsers when transport- 
 ing ships, nets of fishermen, fouling, etc. These an- 
 chors are lowered down into the water with a very 
 strong iron mooring chain fastened to the ring, to which 
 the ships are fastened: they are usually made from 
 such as are damaged in one of the flukes or arms. A 
 new kind of mooring anchor, of cast iron, was described 
 by Mr. Hemman, of Chatham, to the Society for the 
 Encouragement of Arts, etc., in 1809, for which he ob- 
 tained a silver medal from the society. 
 
 Floating ^ncAw.— This is the name given to a sort 
 of anchor which has often been proposed, but never re- 
 duced to practice, for preventing a vessel from drifting. 
 
 Table suowinq the estimated ntjmekioal Valtjbs op tue 
 ESSENTIAL TO A GOOD Anoiioe. — [This Table only professes 
 matical accuracy or precision.] 
 
 45 ANC 
 
 in cases where the great depth of the sea precludes the 
 use of the cable and ordinary anchor. The plan sug- 
 gested by Dr. Franklin seems the most rational. This 
 anchor consisted of two cross-bars, secured together in 
 the middle, and having sail-cloth fastened to them in 
 the shape of a parallelogram. To the centre of these 
 bars the cable was attached, and, being thrown over- 
 board, it was thought the resistance of so large a sur- 
 face would at least check the rapidity of the ship's 
 motion. 
 
 The following is Mr. Aylen's plan for anchoring in 
 deep water out of soundings, to prevent vessels from 
 drifting in a calm when in a tide-way, or if disabled : 
 Hoist out immediately one of the boom boats, let go 
 the kedge anchor, and veer out 40 or 50 fathoms over 
 the bow, and stop it to the jing in the bow and stern 
 of the boat, and then veer out from the ship from 70 to 
 80 fathoms. 
 
 Much attention has been paiij of late to the improve- 
 ment of the manufacture of anchors, and several speci- 
 mens were sent by the makers to the Royal Exliibition 
 in 1851. A committee, consisting of five ship-owners of 
 London, Liverpool, and Glasgow, with five nominated 
 by the Lords of the Admiralty, was appointed to test 
 the relative merits of these. After trying, on the parade 
 ground of Sheerness dock-yard, on the beach at Garri- 
 son point, at Blackstakes in the River Medway, and 
 at the Sore, those that were submitted for competition, 
 viz., Admiralty, Aylen's (a modified Admiralty), Honi- 
 ball (or Porter's), Isaacs' (United States), Lenox's, 
 Mitoheson's, Rodgers', and Trotman's (an improved 
 Porter's), they reported in 1853 that, taking into con- 
 sideration the results of all the trials to which the an- 
 chors had been subjected, they thought it best to re- 
 cord their opinions in the following tabulated forms : 
 
 Table showing the relative obdeb iNwmcn the bevebal 
 
 AjflCIIORS stand with BEQABD to each of the PnOPEBTIBS 
 
 essential to a good Anchob; the Names abba^ued al- 
 phabetically. 
 
 
 •s^ 
 
 T3 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 S 
 
 >. 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 Is 
 
 'i 
 
 
 ,-„ 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 ANCHORS. 
 
 n 
 
 fi 
 
 ■s 
 
 1 
 
 
 ■%^ 
 
 at 
 
 
 
 
 Boa 
 
 beg 
 Mm 
 
 ■3 
 
 1 
 
 -a 
 1 
 
 
 U" 
 
 3 
 
 |-a 
 ■s 
 
 ■a 
 
 1 
 
 
 to 
 
 
 
 
 Of 
 
 u 
 
 t. 
 
 &• 
 
 EC 
 
 
 Admiralty 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 Ayleu 
 
 '( 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 r> 
 
 Honiball (orl 
 Porter's)..]" 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 Isaacs 
 
 1 
 
 <i 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 ,5 
 
 1 
 
 Lenox 
 
 a 
 
 Re- 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 ti 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 Mitcheson 
 
 fused 
 this 
 trml. 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 Rodgers 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 Trotman 
 
 a 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 SEVEEAL Anchors in regard to the Properties considered 
 to show approximate values, and has no pretensions to mathe- 
 
 ANCHORS. 
 
 s 
 
 III 
 
 If: 
 
 tot: 
 
 3 
 1 
 
 ■s 
 
 i 
 
 .S 
 
 ■a 
 
 % 
 
 a 
 
 1 
 t 
 
 -3 
 
 1 
 
 ■sf 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 ■B 
 
 s, 
 
 ll 
 
 1 
 III- 
 
 lis 
 
 J 
 
 1 
 
 Pi-oportionate values of thet 
 Qualities f 
 
 15 
 
 so 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 160 
 
 
 207 
 1-89 
 2-33 
 2-63 
 1-92 
 
 1-94 
 2-22 
 
 6-42 
 
 9 10 
 10-69 
 
 5- 
 
 9-56 
 14-10 
 10"69 
 14-44 
 
 1-82 
 1-82 
 
 •91 
 
 -45 
 1-36 
 
 •91 
 1-82 
 
 -91 
 
 2-01 
 2-01 
 1-53 
 -69 
 2-36 
 2-36 
 2-36 
 1-77 
 
 •89 
 •45 
 •67 
 ■89 
 •87 
 •45 
 •67 
 •31 
 
 •65 
 •65 
 1^85 
 1^85 
 1^11 
 1^39 
 •64 
 1^86 
 
 •95 
 •95 
 •29 
 •29 
 •71 
 •57 
 •95 
 •29 
 
 ■65 
 ■65 
 ■52 
 ■26 
 ■87 
 ■66 
 •87 
 •52 
 
 1-98 
 1-98 
 
 ■85 
 
 -55 
 1-32 
 
 -88 
 2-19 
 
 -55 
 
 -73 
 -44 
 -60 
 -81 
 -73 
 -62 
 •73 
 •44 
 
 18^17 
 19-94 
 19-94 
 13-32 
 20-61 
 21-83 
 22-86 
 23-30 
 
 
 Honiball (Porter's) 
 
 
 Lenox 
 
 Mitcheson 
 
 
 
 
 Totals 
 
 15-00 
 
 80-00 
 
 10-00 
 
 14-99 
 
 6^00 
 
 9^99 
 
 5-00 
 
 4-99 
 
 10-00 
 
 5^00 
 
 169-97 
 
 The following is a recapitulation of the order in I gether with their relative percentage of inferiority or 
 which the anchors were ranked by the committee, to- 1 superiority to the Admiralty anchor, the value of 
 
ANC 
 
 46 
 
 AND 
 
 ■which, as given in the foregoing table (18-17), was 
 taken as the standard or unit : 
 
 Trotman 1-28 or 28 per cent."l 
 
 Eodgers 1-26 or 26 do. 
 
 Mitcheson 1-20 or 20 do. (^ Superior to AdmL* 
 
 Lenox 1-13 or 13 do. ( rally anchor. 
 
 Honiball 1-09 or 9 do. 
 
 Aylen 1-05 or 9 do. J 
 
 Admiralty !■ the standard. 
 
 Isaacs -TS or 2T per cent, inferior to Admiralty. 
 
 Supposing both the iiultes, and about two feet of the 
 shank and crown of the anciior is gone (invariably the 
 place where all anchors break), the weight of the bro- 
 ken part would be about half the weight of the origin- 
 al, say 
 
 Cwt 
 
 Bower anchor for the Hastings class 74 cwt, half. .... 3T 
 
 Stream anchor and stock for the above ship 23 
 
 Kedge and stock for do _U 
 
 7U 
 
 In making anchors in the Eoyal dock-yards of Great 
 Britain, the different parts are forged by the steam- 
 hamniers. In the first place, large slabs or pieces are 
 made about five feet long, and three of them put to- 
 gether, soundly welded, and drawn out of sufficient 
 length for the shank ; the arms and palms ai-e forged 
 nearly in the same way ; the palms are welded on to 
 the arms, and then the arms welded on to the shank, 
 and the shackle is riveted on to the shank, the. anchor 
 then being complete. 
 
 The shank for an anchor is made larger at the low- 
 er end, where the arms are to be welded to it, and is 
 of a square figure. A sort of rebate or scarf is here 
 formed on each side of the square, in order that the 
 arms may apply more properly for welding. This 
 scarf is made in the original shape of the fagot, and 
 finished by cutting away some of the metal with chisels 
 while it is hot, and using sets or punches, properly 
 formed, to make a square angle to the shoulder of the 
 scarf. The upper end of the shank is likewise square ; 
 and the length between these square parts is worked 
 either to an octagon or round, tapering regularly from 
 the lower to the upper end. The hole to receive the 
 ring of the anchor is pierced through the square part 
 at the upper end, first by a small punch, and then larg- 
 er ones are used till it is sufficiently enlarged. The 
 punch is made of steel; and when it is observed to 
 change color by the heat, it is struck on the opposite 
 end to drive it out, and is instantly dipped in water to 
 cool it, and another driven in. The projecting pieces 
 or nuts, which are to keep the stock or wooden beam 
 of the anchor, and its place on the shank, are next 
 welded on. To do this the shank is heated, and at the 
 same time a thick bar is heated in another forge : the 
 end of this is laid across the shank, and the men ham- 
 mer it down to weld it to the shank ; then the piece is 
 cut oflT by the chisel, and another piece welded on the 
 opposite side. 
 
 While this process of forging the shank is going on, 
 the smiths of another forge, placed as near as conven- 
 ient to the former, are employed in making the arms, 
 which are made from fagots in the same manner as 
 the shank, but of less size and shorter, they are made 
 taper, one end of each being smaller than the other ; 
 the larger ends are made square, and cut down with 
 scarfs, to correspond with those at the lower end of the 
 shank. The middle parts of the arms are rounded, 
 and the outer extremities are cut away as much as the 
 thickness of the flukes or palms, that the palms may 
 be flush with the upper sides when they are welded 
 on. The flukes are generally made at the iron-forges 
 in the country, by the forge-hammer; but in some 
 yards they are made by fagoting small bars, leaving 
 a long one for a handle. The next business is to unite 
 the arms to the end of the shank ; and in doing this 
 particular care is necessary, as the goodness of the an- 
 chor is entirely dependent upon its being effectually 
 performed. In so large a weld, the outside is very 
 
 liable to be welded, and make a good appearance, while 
 the middle part is not united. To guard against this, 
 both surfaces of the scarfs should be rather convex, 
 that they may be certain to touch in the middle first. 
 When the other arm is welded, the anchor is complete, 
 except the ring, which is made from several small bars 
 welded together and drawn out into a round rod, then 
 bent to a circle, put through the hole in the shank, and 
 its ends welded together. If the shank or other part 
 is crooked, it is set right by heating it in the crooked 
 part, and striking it over the anvil, or by the Hercules. 
 After all this the whole is heated, but not to a white 
 heat, and the anchor hammered in every part, to finish 
 and make its surface even. This is done by lighter 
 hammers, worked by both hands, but not swung over 
 the head. This operation renders the surface of the 
 metal hard and smooth ; and if very effectually per- 
 formed, the anchor will not rust materially by the ac- 
 tion of the sea-water. 
 
 The iron from which anchors are made ought to be 
 of the best quality : that kind of it which is called red 
 short will not bear sufficient hammering to weld the 
 bars ; and cold short, from its brittleness, is not to be 
 depended upon when the anchor is in use. A good an- 
 chor should be formed of the toughest iron that can be 
 procured. The most extensive establishment for fabri- 
 cating anchors, etc., in England, is that at Woolwich 
 dock-yard, where the British Admiralty anchors are 
 made. There the blowing apparatus, the working of 
 the lift and tilt hammers, etc., is all done by a steam- 
 engine of from fourteen to sixteen horse power. — 
 E. B. 
 
 To steer the ship to her Anchor^ is to steer the ship*s 
 head toward the place where the anchor lies when they 
 are heaving in the cable, or lying in a strong tide-way, 
 that the cable may thereby enter the hawse with less 
 resistance, and the ship advance toward the anchor 
 with greater facility. Ships often prevent collision by 
 attention to the helm. 
 
 Anchorage, or Anchoring Ground. Good 
 anchoring ground should neither be too hard nor too 
 soft ; for, in the first case, the anchor is apt not to take 
 a sufficient hold, and in the other to drag. The best 
 bottom is a stiff clay, and next to it a firm sand. In 
 a rocky bottom the flukes of the anchor are sometimes 
 torn away, and hempen cables are liable to chafe and 
 be cut through. It is also essential to a good anchor- 
 age that the water be neither too deep nor too shallow. 
 When too deep, the pull of the cable, being nearly per- 
 pendicular, is apt to jerk the anchor out of the ground ; 
 and when too shallow, the ship is exposed to the dan- 
 ger, when riding in a storm, of striking the bottom. 
 Where a ship is in water that is land-locked, and out 
 of the tide, the nature of the ground is of comparative- 
 ly little importance. 
 
 Anchovy (Fr. Anchois; It. Acciughe; Lat. En- 
 erasicolus), a small fish {Chpea enarasicolus, Linn.), 
 common in the Mediterranean, resembling the sprat. 
 Those brought from Gorgona, in the Tuscan Sea, are 
 esteemed the best. They should be chosen small, fresh 
 pickled, white outside and red within. Their backs 
 should be round. The sardine, a fish which is flatter 
 and larger than the anchovy, is frequently substituted 
 for it. About 120,000 pounds are annually entered in 
 Great Britain for home consumption. 
 
 Anderson, Adam, was bom in Scotland in 1692. 
 He was a clerk for forty years in the South Sea House 
 in London, where he published a large work, entitled 
 Historical and Chronological Deduction of the Origin of 
 Commerce, containing a History of the Great Commercial 
 Interests of the British Empire, etc., which is volumin- 
 ous and heavy ; but he seems to have anticipated, in 
 some of his speculations, the opinions of later times. 
 It was first published in 1762, in two vols, folio. A 
 third edition appeared in 1797-9, in four vols. 4to, the 
 last volume being an appendix and continuation by the 
 editor, Mr. Walton. Anderson died in 1765, 
 
ANB 
 
 47 
 
 ANN 
 
 Andes. The Andes form a mighty Tnonntain chain 
 running nearly parallel to the western coast of South 
 America. The central ridge extends in an undivided 
 chain from the Rio Atrato, at the Isthmus of Darien, 
 inlat. 8° N., to the Cordilleras of Vilcanoto andOnzco, 
 in lat. 15° 50' S., 'where it separates into western and 
 eastern ridges that inclose the extensive and elevated 
 valley of Desaguedero, and exhibit some stupendous 
 peaks that almost rival the altitude of the Himalayas 
 of the East. After running parallel to each other to 
 lat. 19° 30' S., they again coalesce, and constitute one 
 central chain to the Straits of Magellan, in lat. 53°. 
 The Andes of South America, then, have a range of 
 about 4200 miles. The most western of the two longi- 
 tudinal ridges runs parallel to the Pacific, and is called 
 the Cordillera of the Coast ; the eastern chain is gen- 
 erally termed the CardiUera of the Interior, and its 
 northern prolongation Cordilkra Real. The valley of 
 Desaguedero extends from lat. 15° 5' to lat. 19° 30' S., 
 with a varying breadth of 35 to 60 miles, presenting an 
 area of 16,000 square geographical miles. It contains 
 the celebrated Lake of Titicaca, the cradle of Peruvian 
 civilization. It was on the shores of this lake that 
 Manco Capac, the first Inca, was miraculously discov- 
 ered by the Quichu, the ancestors of the Peruvians. 
 
 " The central Andes are rich beyond conception in 
 all the metals, lead only excepted. One of the most 
 curious ores in the bowels of those mountains is the 
 pacos^ a compound of clay, oxide of iron, and the mu- 
 riate of silver with native silver. The mines of Mex- 
 ico and Peru, so long the objects of envy and admira- 
 tion, far from being yet exhausted, promise, under a 
 liberal and improved system, to become more product- 
 ive than ever. But nature has blended with those 
 hidden treasures the active elements of destruction. 
 The whole chain of the Andes is subject to the most 
 terrible earthquakes. From Cotopaxi to the South 
 Sea no fewer than forty volcanoes are constantly burn- 
 ing ; some of them, especially the lower ones, ejecting 
 lava, and others discharging the muriate of ammonia, 
 scorified basalt, and porphyry, enormous quantities of 
 water, and especially Tnoya^ or clay miied with sul- 
 phur and carbonaceous matter. Eternal snow invests 
 their sides, and forms a barrier to the animal and veg- 
 etable kingdoms. Near that confine the torpor of 
 vegetation is marked by dreary wastes." — Edinb. Re- 
 mew^ vol. XV. p. 233. 
 
 Anemometer and Anemoscope, machines for 
 measuring the force and indicating the course of the 
 wind. 
 
 Augelica, a large umbelliferous plant, with hollow 
 jointed stalks, of which there are several varieties. It 
 grows wild, and is cultivated in moist places near Lon- 
 don, and in most European countries from Lapland to 
 Spain. Its roots are thick, fleshy, and resinous ; have 
 a fragrant agreeable smell, and a bitterish pungent 
 taste, mixed with a pleasant sweetness glowing on the 
 lips and palate for a long time after they have been 
 chewed. To preserve them, they must be thoroughly 
 dried, and kept in a well-aired place. The other parts 
 of the plant have the same taste and flavor as the roots, 
 hut in an inferior degree. The leaves and seeds do 
 not retain their virtues when kept. The London con- 
 fectioners make a sweetmeat of the tender stems. The 
 faculty used to direct that none but the roots of Span- 
 ish angelica should be kept by the druggists. In 
 Norway the roots are sometimes used as bread, and in 
 Iceland the stalks arc eaten with butter. The plant 
 is used mostly in confectionery and the materia medica, 
 —Lewis's Mat. Med. ; Eees's Cyclopedia, etc. 
 
 -Angels, in Commerce. An angel was an ancient 
 gold coin, weighing four pennyweights, and was val- 
 ued at 6s. id. in the reign of Henry VI., and at lOs. 
 in the reign of Elizabeth, 1562. The angelot was an 
 ancient gold coin, value half an angel, struck at Paris 
 when that capital was in the hands of the English, in 
 the reign of Henry VI., 1431. — Wood. 
 
 Anise Seed (Fr. Anis; It. Anise; Lat. Anisuiri), 
 a small seed of an oblong shape. It is cultivated in 
 Gennany, but the best comes from Alicant, in Spain. 
 It is also a product of China, whence it is exported. It 
 should be chosen fresh, large, plump, newly dried, of 
 a good smell, and a sweetish aromatic taste. 
 
 Anker, a liquid measure at Amsterdam. It con- 
 tains about lOi gallons English wine measure. 
 
 Annals (Annales, from amius, a year'), a term com- 
 monly applied to a concise and plain kind of narrative 
 of historical facts digested in the order of time, each 
 event being arranged under the particular year in 
 which it happened. Although this style of composi- 
 tion does not necessarily exclude the casual observa- 
 tions of the writer, episodes or formal digressions are 
 incompatible with the brevity characteristic of annals ; 
 while history, on the other hand, comprises not only 
 the narrative and exposition of facts, but also the writ- 
 er's observations on actions, motives, causes, and con- 
 sequences in general ; thus affording ample scope for 
 illustration and embellishment. Annals may be said 
 to constitute the essence of history, since they are the 
 elements or materials of which it is composed. 
 
 Annealing, by the workmen called nealing, is a 
 process used in glass-making, and in the manufacture 
 of certain metals. In glass-making it consists in plac- 
 ing the bottles, etc., while hot, in a kind of oven or 
 furnace, where they are sufi^ered to cool gradually. 
 They would otherwise be too brittle for use. The dif- 
 ference between unannealed and annealed glass, with 
 respect to brittleness, is very remarkable. When an 
 unannealed glass vessel is broken, it often files into a 
 small powder, with a violence seemingly very unpro- 
 portioned to the stroke it has received. In general it 
 is in greater danger of breaking from a very slight 
 stroke than from one of some considerable force. One 
 of these vessels will often resist the effects of a pistol- 
 ■ bullet dropped into it from the height of two or three 
 feet ; -yet a grain of sand falling into it will make it 
 burst into small fragments. This takes place some- 
 times immediately on dropping the sand info it ; but 
 often the vessel will stand for several minutes after, 
 seemingly secure ; and then, without any new injury, 
 it will fly to pieces. If the vessel be very thin it does 
 not break in this manner, but seems to possess all the 
 properties of annealed glass. 
 
 The same phenomena are still more strikingly seen 
 in glass drops or tears. They are globular at one end, 
 and taper to a small tail at the other. They are the 
 drops which fall from the melted mass of glass on the 
 rods on which the bottles are made. They drop into 
 the tubs of water which are used in the work ; the 
 greater part of them burst immediately in the water. 
 When those that remain entire are examined, they dis- 
 cover all the properties of unannealed glass in the 
 highest degree. They will bear a smart stroke on the 
 thick end without breaking ; but if the small tail be 
 broken, they shiver into small powder with a loud ex- 
 plosion. They appear to burst with more violence, 
 and the powder is smaller in an exhausted receiver 
 than in the open air. When they are annealed they 
 lose these properties. 
 
 Glass is one of those bodies which increase in bulk 
 when passing from a fluid into a solid state. When 
 it is allowed to crystallize regularly, the particles are 
 so arranged that it has a fibrous texture. It is elastic, 
 and susceptible of long-continued vibrations ; but when 
 a mass of melted glass is suddenlj' exposed to the cold, 
 the surface crystallizes, and forms a solid shell round 
 the interior fluid parts. This prevents them from ex- 
 panding when they become solid. They therefore 
 have not the opportunity of a regular crystallization, 
 but are compressed together with little mutual cohe- 
 sion. On the contrary, they press outward to occupy 
 more space, but are prevented by the external crust. 
 In consequence of the effort of expansion in the in- 
 ternal parts, the greater number of glass drops burst 
 
ANN 
 
 48 
 
 ANN 
 
 in cooling ; and those wliicli remain entire are not reg- 
 ularly crystallized. A smart stroke upon them com- 
 municates a vibration to the whole mass, which is 
 nearly synchronous in every part ; and therefore the 
 effort of expansion has little more effect than if the 
 body were at rest ; but the small tail and the surface 
 only are regularly crystallized. If the tail be broken, 
 this communicates a vibration along the crystallized 
 surface without reaching the internal parts. By this 
 they are allowed some expansion ; and overcoming the 
 cohesion of the thin outer shell, they burst it, and are 
 dispersed in powder. 
 
 In an unanneal^d glass vessel the same thing takes 
 place. Sometimes the vibration may continue for a 
 considerable time before the internal parts overcome 
 the resistance. If the vessel be very thin, the regular 
 crystallization extends through the whole thickness ; 
 or at least the quantitj' of compressed matter in the 
 middle is so inconsiderable as to be incapable of burst- 
 ing the external plate. 
 
 By the process of annealing the glass is kept for 
 some time in a state approaching to fluidity ; the heat 
 increases the bulk of the crystallized part, and renders 
 it so soft, that the internal parts have the opportunity 
 of expanding and forming a regular crystallization. 
 
 Iron. — In the manufactures in which the malleable 
 metals are employed, annealing is used to soften a 
 metal after it has been rendered hard by the hammer ; 
 and also to soften cast iron, which is rendered very 
 hard and brittle by rapid cooling. 
 
 In the manufacture of steel goods, which are first 
 formed by the hammer, and require to be filed or oth- 
 erwise treated, and in which softness and flexibility 
 are essential to the change, annealing is absolutely 
 necessary. This is particularly the case in making 
 files and scissors, that the metal may be left sufficient- 
 ly soft for cutting the teeth, and for filing off^ those 
 parts which can not be ground. Annealing is not 
 less necessary in the drawing of wire, whether iron, 
 copper, brass, silver, or gold. The operation of draw- 
 ing soon gives the wire a degree of hardness and elas- 
 ticity which, if not removed from time to time by an- 
 nealing, would prevent the extension of the wire, and 
 render it extremely brittle. The same operation is 
 also necessary in rolling or flattening those metals 
 which are in a cold state, such as brass, silver, gold, 
 etc. The brazier who forms vessels of copper and 
 brass bj' the hammer, can work upon it only for a lit- 
 tle time before he is obliged to anneal it. 
 
 The methods often employed for annealing iron and 
 steel are very injudicious, and materially injure the 
 latter when it is used for making cutting instruments. 
 After they have been formed by the hammer, they are 
 sometimes piled up in an open fire, slowly raised to red 
 heat, and then allowed as gradually to cool. By this 
 method the surface of the steel will be found consider- 
 ably scaled, from the action of the oxygen of the at- 
 mosphere. When it is remembered that steel consists 
 of iron joined to carbon, it will be evident that the 
 steel immediately under the scaly oxide will be de- 
 prived of its carbon, which has been carried off by the 
 attraction of the oxygen ; and, in consequence, will 
 lose the property of acquiring that degree of hardness 
 necessary to a cutting instrument. 
 
 Nothing, therefore, can be more obvious than that 
 steel particularly should be annealed in close vessels, 
 to prevent that effect. For this purpose the goods 
 should be placed in a trough or recess made of fire- 
 stone or fire-brick, and stratified with ashes or clean 
 sand, and finally covered with a thick stratum of the 
 same ; but if the size of the vessel be small, it may 
 have a cover of its own materials. This oven or trough 
 must now be heated by the flame of a furnace passing 
 under and round it, till the whole is of a red heat. It 
 nmst then be suffered to cool, without letting in the 
 air. The goods so treated will be much softer than by 
 the other method. The surface, instead of becoming 
 
 scaled, will have acquired a metallic whiteness, from 
 the presence of a small quantity of carbonaceous mat- 
 ter contained in the ashes in which they were inibed- 
 ded. They will become so flexible also, as to allow 
 them to bend considerably without breaking, which is 
 very far from being the case before the operation. The 
 fracture, before annealing, will be smooth and short ; 
 but afterward it will be rough, exhibiting bright parts, 
 of a crystalline appearance. Wire, especially that of 
 iron and steel, should be treated in a similar way when 
 it is annealed. The wire used for some purposes re- 
 quires to be soft, and is sold in that state. If the wire, 
 after finishing, when it is bright and clean, were to be 
 annealed in contact with oxygen, it would not only 
 lose all its lustre and smoothness, but much of its te- 
 nacity. The process above mentioned will therefore be 
 particularly necessary in annealing finished wire, as 
 well as in softening it from time to time during the 
 drawing. 
 
 Copper and brass suffer much less than iron and 
 steel from annealing in the open air, and do not require 
 to be heated above a low red heat. If, however, the 
 lustre is to be preserved, a close vessel would be de- 
 sirable. The latter metals, after annealing, although 
 much discolored by the oxygen of the atmosphere, may 
 be cleansed by immersion in a hot liquor composed of 
 water and a small quantity of sulphuric or nitric acid. 
 Very small brass or copper wire is frequently annealed 
 by exposing it to the flame of hay or straw. In cast- 
 ing minute pieces of pig-iron, which is generally done 
 in damp sand, the metal possesses the propertj^ of steel 
 to such a degree as to assume, hy the rapid cooling, a 
 degree of hardness equal to hardened steel; at the 
 same time that the articles are so brittle as to break 
 by falling on the ground. When, however, these 
 goods are treated in the way above directed, they ac- 
 quire a degree of softness which renders them penetra- 
 ble by the file, and at the same time capable of bend- 
 ing. In this state they are much less tenacious than 
 steel, but still so much so as to have been sold in the 
 form of cutlery for steel. 
 
 The change which metals undergo by annealing is 
 not yet thoroughly understood. Most of the malleable 
 metals are susceptible of two distinct forms, one called 
 the crystalline form, which they assume by slow cool- 
 ing ; and the other the fibrous, which is acquired by 
 hammering or rolling. When this, however, is car- 
 ried beyond a certain point, the metal becomes so hard 
 that it is not capable of being bent far without break- 
 ing. All the malleable metals in the ingot or in their 
 cast state are brittle, and exhibit a crystalline fracture. 
 By hammering or rolling they become more tenacious, 
 and break with difficulty, exhibiting what is called a 
 fibrous fracture. At the same time they become stiffer 
 and more elastic. They lose the latter properties by 
 annealing, but become more malleable. If the anneal- 
 ing, however, be long continued, the malleability di- 
 minishes, and they again have a ciystalline fracture. 
 Zinc by wire-drawing becomes very flexible, and 
 possesses a degree of tenacity not inferior to that of 
 copper ; but if it be kept in boiling water for a length 
 of time, it will resume its original brittleness, and show 
 a crystalline appearance when broken. This proves 
 that the particles of metals can change their arrange- 
 ment -without losing their solid form; which is still 
 more strongly confirmed by the fact that brass wire 
 loses its tenacity by exposure to the fumes of acids, 
 and even by the presence of a damp atmosphere. This 
 is not caused by the moisture, but by the action of air 
 upon the moistened surface. The manufacturers of 
 common pins are obliged to keep their wire in a dry 
 atmosphere, or immersed in water. If the wire be first 
 moistened, and then exposed to the air, it will assume 
 the brittle state much sooner. In this condition it 
 breaks with a crystalline fracture, similar to that ex- 
 hibited by an ingot. When a steel-plate, such as a 
 watch-spring, has been once tempered, the operation 
 
AJSIN 
 
 49 
 
 ANN 
 
 of simply rubbing it bright will render it soft and 
 elastic. The same change is brought about by slightly 
 hammering it. It, however, resumes its elastic state by 
 being carefully heated till it becomes of a blue color. 
 If the heat be continued to redness, particularly in a 
 close vessel, it becomes perfectly annealed. — E. B. 
 
 Annotto, or Arnotto (Fr. Soam ; Get. Orlean ; 
 It. Oriana), a species of red dye formed of the pulp en- 
 veloping the seeds of the Bixa Orellana, a plant com- 
 mon ill South America, and the East and West Indies ; 
 but dye is made, at least to any extent, only in the 
 first. It is prepared by macerating the pods in boil- 
 ing water, extracting the seeds, and leaving the pulp 
 to subside ; the fluid being subsequently drawn off, the 
 residuum, with which oil is sometimes mixed up, is 
 placed in shallow vessels and gradually dried in the 
 shade. It is of two sorts, viz. flag or cake, and roll 
 annotto. The first, which is by far the most import- 
 ant article in a commercial point of view, is furnished 
 almost wholly by Cayenne. It is imported in square 
 cakes, weighing 2 or 3 pounds each, wrapped in banana 
 leaves. When well made, it should be of a bright yel- 
 low color, soft to the touch, and of a good consistence. 
 It imparts a deep but not durable orange color to sillc 
 and cotton, and is used for that purpose by the dyers. 
 Roll annotto is principally brought from Brazil. The 
 rolls are small, not exceeding 2 or 3 ounces in weight ; 
 it is hard, dry, and compact, brownish on the outside, 
 and of a beautiful red color within. The latter is the 
 best of all ingredients for the coloring of cheese and 
 butter, and is now exclusively used for that purpose in 
 all the British and in some of the Continental dairies. 
 In Gloucestershire it is the practice to allow an ounce 
 of annotto to a cwt. of cheese ; in Cheshire, 8 dwts. 
 are reckoned sufficient for a cheese of 60 pounds. 
 When genuine. It neither affects the taste nor the 
 smell of cheese or butter. The Spanish Americans 
 mix annotto with their chocolate, to which it gives a 
 beautiful tint. — Gray's Supplement to the Phaniiaco- 
 pceias; LouDOs's Encyc. oj^ Agriculture, and private 
 information. 
 
 Annuities. An annuity is a periodical income 
 arising from pensions, lands, houses, or monej' lent. 
 When the possession of an annuity is not to be entered 
 upon until the expiration of a certain period, it is called 
 a reversionary, or deferred annuity ; when the time of 
 possession is not deferred, the annuity is sometimes 
 called immediate, but in general it is simply termed an 
 annuity. 
 
 Annuities or Pensions were first granted in 1512, 
 when £20 were given to a lady of the court for services 
 done ; and £6 13«. 4d. for the maintenance of a gentle- 
 man, 1536. The sum of £13 6s. id. was deemed com- 
 petent to support a gentleman in the study of the law, 
 1564. An act was passed empowering the government 
 to borrow one million sterling upon an annuity of 
 fourteen per cent., 4 and 6 William and Mary, 1691-3. 
 This mode of borrowing soon afterward became gen- 
 eral among civilized governments. An annuity of £1 
 per annum, accumulating at ten per cent., compound 
 interest, amounts in one hundred years to £137,796. — 
 Haydn. 
 
 The doctrine of compound interest and annuities- 
 certain is too simple ever to have occupied much of the 
 attention of mathematicians: inquiries into the values 
 of interests dependent upon the continuance or the 
 failure of human life, being more interesting and diffi- 
 cult, have occupied them more, but yet not so much 
 as their importance would seem to demand ; the dis- 
 coveries both in pure Mathematics and Physics, espe- 
 cially those of Newton, which distinguished the close 
 of the seventeenth century, having provided them with 
 ample employment of a more interesting kind, ever 
 since the subjects of this article were submitted to 
 calculation. 
 
 When annuities are dependent upon the existence 
 of a life or lives thev are called Life Annuities. The 
 
 values of such annuities are calculated by means of 
 tables of mortality, which show, out of a considerable 
 number of individuals born, how many on an average 
 have lived to complete each year of their age, and con- 
 sequently the expectation of life for each particular age : 
 this, combined with a certain rate of per cent., will re- 
 duce the calculations, if made upon a sufficient!}' large 
 scale, to mathematical certainty (see articles Tables of 
 Mortality, Interest, and Life Insurance'). 
 
 In the year 1808 the British government commenced 
 granting life annuities at prices calculated according 
 to the Korthampton Tables of Mortality, and continued 
 so to grant them for 20 years, at a great loss to the 
 nation, especially on younger lives, as was shown at 
 the time by a distinguished writer (Joshua Milne, Esq). 
 None were granted then, however, on lives under 35 
 years of age. After the year 1816 annuities were 
 granted to all persons of ages above 21 years. 
 
 In March, 1819, Mr. Finlaison was appointed govern- 
 ment actuary, with proper assistants and access to the 
 registers of the nominees in tontines, and others on 
 whose lives annuities had been granted by government 
 for more than a hundred years before ; in which regis- 
 ters the exact ages at which the annuitants were nom- 
 inated, and at which they died, were stated. Upon 
 these data Mr. Finlaison made a table of mortality more 
 valuable than any thing of the same kind which had 
 yet been published, according to which the British 
 government grant annuities at the present time. 
 
 By Mr. Finlaison's table it was found that the lives 
 of annuitants were generally better (longer) than the 
 general average of the population, as insured lives 
 generally belong to the better classes. This subject 
 will be more fully treated in Tables of Mortality, inter- 
 est, and Life Insurance. 
 
 Calculations are made, and annuities granted by the 
 British government and by Life Insurance Companies, 
 both in Europe and this country, upon all combina- 
 tions of lives, such as joint lives, survivorships of two 
 or more lives, etc., etc., affording a perfectly safe and 
 reliable investment, and in the case of a Mutual Life 
 Office, one of ver}' great advantage to the annuitant. 
 
 The doctrine of annuities, with its kindred science 
 of Life Insurance, is so abstruse that few writers are 
 found willing to devote their time and attention to it 
 unless actuated by professional motives or an unusual 
 taste for the subject ; fortunately, however, its treat- 
 ment is marked by uniform and eminent talent and 
 ability, so that nearly all the works upon this subject 
 contain something new and valuable. The standard 
 authors are, David Jones, Jenkins Jones, Milne, Mor- 
 gan, Lubbock, Samuel Brown, G. Davies Babbage, and 
 Dr. Price. 
 
 The lives on which annuities depend will generally 
 be somewhat better (by which we here mean, will at- 
 tain to greater longevity) than the general average of 
 the popojlation, though probably not nearly so much 
 better as many believe them to be. The prevailing 
 error in the popular estimate on this subject appears 
 to have arisen in great measure from comparing the 
 mortality among annuitants and assured lives, with 
 that represented to take place by tables of mortality 
 erroneously considered to correspond with the general 
 average of the people ; while, from being constructed 
 on erroneous principles, and from insufiicient data, or 
 else being derived from observations made where the 
 mortality was and is much greater than in Britain, the 
 mortality, according to these tables, was considerably 
 greater than that which actually prevails among the 
 bulk of the people here. Proofs of this will be found 
 under the article Law of Mortality . 
 
 The tables on the following page show the cost of 
 an annuity of $100, and the amount of annuity which 
 a deposit of $1000 will purchase according to the life 
 table of the Mutual Life Insurance Company of New 
 York. The rates charged by that company are found 
 in the columns marked five per cent. 
 
ANN 
 
 50 
 
 ANN 
 
 Anndity pkodtjoed by a deposit of One Thousand Dollaes 11 
 
 StIM EEQTIIEED TO PHKCnASE, AT TIIE KESPECTmS AqEB MEK- 
 
 
 AT THE Age stated. 1; 
 
 tioned, an Annuity op One Hundred D01.1-AE8. 
 
 
 Aga 
 
 Four and a half 
 per Cent. 
 
 Five per Cent. 
 
 Six per Cent. 
 
 Age. 
 
 Four and a half 
 per Cent. 
 
 Five per Cant. 
 
 Six per Gent. 
 
 
 
 » Cts. 
 
 t eta. 
 
 i eta. 
 
 
 i Cte. 
 
 » Cte. 
 
 $ Cte. 
 
 
 10 
 
 66 00 
 
 60 60 
 
 69 70 
 
 10 
 
 1786 46 
 
 1653 76 
 
 1436 62 
 
 
 11 
 
 56 BO 
 
 60 80 
 
 69 90 
 
 11 
 
 1776 73 
 
 1646 63 
 
 1429 69 
 
 
 12 
 
 56 60 
 
 61 10 
 
 70 20 
 
 12 
 
 1766 85 
 
 1687 38 
 
 1423 78 
 
 
 18 
 
 66 90 
 
 61 40 
 
 70 60 
 
 13 
 
 1766 79 
 
 1628 96 
 
 1417 73 
 
 
 14 
 
 67 80 
 
 61 70 
 
 70 80 
 
 14 
 
 1746 65 
 
 1620 38 
 
 1411 66 
 
 
 15 
 
 57 60 
 
 62 00 
 
 71 20 
 
 15 
 
 1786 11 
 
 1611 62 
 
 1405 24 
 
 
 16 
 
 68 00 
 
 62 40 
 
 71 60 
 
 16 
 
 1725 46 
 
 1602 67 
 
 1898 77 
 
 
 IT 
 
 68 30 
 
 62 SO 
 
 71 80 
 
 17 
 
 1714 60 
 
 1693 63 
 
 1392 16 
 
 
 18 
 
 68 70 
 
 63 10 
 
 72 20 
 
 18 
 
 1703 51 
 
 1584 19 
 
 1386 86 
 
 
 19 
 
 69 10 
 
 63 50 
 
 72 60 
 
 19 
 
 1692 20 
 
 1574 63 
 
 1878 40 
 
 
 20 
 
 69 60 
 
 63 90 
 
 72 90 
 
 20 
 
 1680 64 
 
 1504 86 
 
 1871 26 
 
 
 21 
 
 59 90 
 
 04 30 
 
 78 30 
 
 21 
 
 1668 82 
 
 1664 86 
 
 1363 93 
 
 
 22 
 
 60 40 
 
 64 70 
 
 73 70 
 
 22 
 
 1656 76 
 
 1544 62 
 
 1856 41 
 
 
 23 
 
 60 80 
 
 65 20 
 
 74 10 
 
 23 
 
 1644 45 
 
 1534 15 
 
 1348 70 
 
 
 24 
 
 61 80 
 
 05 60 
 
 74 60 
 
 24 
 
 1681 84 
 
 1523 41 
 
 1340 77 
 
 
 25 
 
 61 80 
 
 66 10 
 
 75 00 
 
 26 
 
 1618 96 
 
 1612 41 
 
 1882 62 
 
 
 20 
 
 62 30 
 
 66 00 
 
 75 60 
 
 26 
 
 1605 76 
 
 1501 13 
 
 1324 22 
 
 
 2T 
 
 62 80 
 
 07 10 
 
 76 00 
 
 27 
 
 1592 26 
 
 1489 66 
 
 1315 68 
 
 
 28 
 
 63 40 
 
 67 TO 
 
 76 60 
 
 28 
 
 1678 43 
 
 1477 69 
 
 1806 69 
 
 
 29 
 
 63 90 
 
 63 20 
 
 7T 10 
 
 29 
 
 1564 27 
 
 1465 60 
 
 1297 63 
 
 
 30 
 
 64 60 
 
 68 80 
 
 TT 60 
 
 SO 
 
 1649 78 
 
 1453 01 
 
 1288 09 
 
 
 31 
 
 06 10 
 
 69 40 
 
 78 20 
 
 31 
 
 1534 93 
 
 1440 18 
 
 1273 88 
 
 
 32 
 
 65 80 
 
 TO 00 
 
 T8 80 
 
 82 
 
 1519 71 
 
 1426 99 
 
 1268 36 
 
 
 33 
 
 66 50 
 
 TO TO 
 
 79 50 
 
 33 
 
 1604 12 
 
 1413 46 
 
 1268 01 
 
 
 84 
 
 67 20 
 
 Tl 60 
 
 80 20 
 
 34 
 
 1488 13 
 
 1399 54 
 
 1247 34 
 
 
 35 
 
 67 90 
 
 T2 20 
 
 80 90 
 
 35 
 
 1471 72 
 
 1385 23 
 
 1236 32 
 
 
 36 
 
 68 70 
 
 T3 00 
 
 81 60 
 
 36 
 
 1454 89 
 
 1370 52 
 
 1224 93 
 
 
 3T 
 
 69 60 
 
 73 80 
 
 82 40 
 
 87 
 
 1437 60 
 
 1365 36 
 
 1213 16 
 
 
 38 
 
 70 40 
 
 74 60 
 
 88 SO 
 
 38 
 
 1419 86 
 
 1880 76 
 
 1200 97 
 
 
 39 
 
 71 30 
 
 75 60 
 
 84 10 
 
 39 
 
 1401 61 
 
 1823 69 
 
 1183 60 
 
 
 40 
 
 72 30 
 
 76 60 
 
 85 10 
 
 40 
 
 1332 86 
 
 1307 12 
 
 1176 29 
 
 
 41 
 
 73 SO 
 
 77 60 
 
 86 10 
 
 41 
 
 1363 59 
 
 1290 06 
 
 1161 76 
 
 
 42 
 
 74 40 
 
 78 60 
 
 87 10 
 
 42 
 
 1348 78 
 
 1272 45 
 
 1147 74 
 
 
 43 
 
 76 60 
 
 79 70 
 
 88 20 
 
 43 
 
 1823 41 
 
 1264 30 
 
 1133 20 
 
 
 44 
 
 76 80 
 
 80 90 
 
 89 40 
 
 44 
 
 1302 46 
 
 1286 58 
 
 1118 12 
 
 
 45 
 
 7S 10 
 
 82 20 
 
 90 70 
 
 45 
 
 1280 92 
 
 1216 28 
 
 1102 60 
 
 
 46 
 
 79 40 
 
 68 60 
 
 92 10 
 
 46 
 
 1258 77 
 
 1196 39 
 
 1086 30 
 
 
 47 
 
 80 90 
 
 85 00 
 
 93 6lJ 
 
 47 
 
 1236-04 
 
 1175 90 
 
 1069 53 
 
 
 48 
 
 82 50 
 
 86 60 
 
 95 00 
 
 48 
 
 1212 80 
 
 1164 90 
 
 1052 26 
 
 
 49 
 
 84 10 
 
 88 20 
 
 96 70 
 
 49 
 
 1189 09 
 
 1183 42 
 
 1034 60 
 
 
 60 
 
 85 80 
 
 90 00 
 
 98 40 
 
 50 
 
 1164 92 
 
 1111 47 
 
 1016 27 
 
 
 51 
 
 87 70 
 
 91 SO 
 
 100 20 
 
 51 
 
 1140 80 
 
 1089 06 
 
 997 66 
 
 
 62 
 
 89 70 
 
 98 80 
 
 102 20 
 
 62 
 
 1116 24 
 
 1066 18 
 
 978 38 
 
 
 53 
 
 91 80 
 
 95 90 
 
 104 30 
 
 63 
 
 1089 71 
 
 1042 82 
 
 958 69 
 
 
 54 
 
 94 00 
 
 98 10 
 
 106 60 
 
 54 
 
 1063 74 
 
 1018 99 
 
 988 62 
 
 
 55 
 
 96 40 
 
 100 50 
 
 109 00 
 
 66 
 
 1037 SO 
 
 994 67 
 
 917 82 
 
 
 66 
 
 99 00 
 
 103 10 
 
 111 60 
 
 66 
 
 1010 41 
 
 969 87 
 
 396 62 
 
 
 5T 
 
 101 TO 
 
 105 90 
 
 114 30 
 
 5T 
 
 983 11 
 
 944 62 
 
 374 92 
 
 
 68 
 
 104 70 
 
 108 80 
 
 117 30 
 
 68 
 
 966 42 
 
 918 96 
 
 852 76 
 
 
 59 
 
 107 80 
 
 112 00 
 
 120 50 
 
 69 
 
 927 39 
 
 892 91 
 
 830 15 
 
 
 60 
 
 111 20 
 
 115 40 
 
 123 90 
 
 60 
 
 899 07 
 
 866 82 
 
 SOT 16 
 
 
 61 
 
 114 90 
 
 119 10 
 
 127 60 
 
 61 
 
 870 63 
 
 839 87 
 
 783 82 
 
 
 62 
 
 118 80 
 
 123 00 
 
 181 60 
 
 62 
 
 841 85 
 
 313 03 
 
 T60 21 
 
 
 08 
 
 128 00 
 
 127 20 
 
 136 80 
 
 63 
 
 813 09 
 
 786 05 
 
 T36 88 
 
 
 64 
 
 127 60 
 
 131 70 
 
 140 40 
 
 64 
 
 784 33 
 
 T69 01 
 
 712 39 
 
 
 65 
 
 182 30 
 
 136 60 
 
 146 30 
 
 65 
 
 755 65 
 
 731 99 
 
 683 32 
 
 
 66 
 
 137 50 
 
 141 SO 
 
 160 60 
 
 66 
 
 727 07 
 
 705 01 
 
 664 19 
 
 
 67 
 
 143 10 
 
 147 60 
 
 166 20 
 
 67 
 
 693 67 
 
 678 14 
 
 640 07 
 
 
 68 
 
 149 10 
 
 153 50 
 
 162 30 
 
 68 
 
 670 47 
 
 661 41 
 
 615 98 
 
 
 69 
 
 155 60 
 
 160 00 
 
 168 90 
 
 69 
 
 642 47 
 
 624 81 
 
 591 92 
 
 
 70 
 
 102 70 
 
 167 10 
 
 176 10 
 
 70 
 
 614 63 
 
 598 31 
 
 567 86 
 
 
 71 
 
 ITO 40 
 
 174 90 
 
 183 90 
 
 71 
 
 586 88 
 
 671 86 
 
 543 72 
 
 
 72 
 
 178 70 
 
 183 20 
 
 192 40 
 
 72 
 
 669 58 
 
 545 76 
 
 519 84 
 
 
 73 
 
 187 70 
 
 192 80 
 
 201 60 
 
 73 
 
 632 T2 
 
 620 05 
 
 496 23 
 
 
 74 
 
 197 50 
 
 202 10 
 
 211 50 
 
 T4 
 
 500 34 
 
 494 75 
 
 472 91 
 
 
 75 
 
 208 10 
 
 212 80 
 
 222 30 
 
 76 
 
 480 47 
 
 469 90 
 
 449 93 
 
 ^'Select Lives. — That the lives on which annuities 
 depend can not be so very select or so much better than 
 the common average, as has generally been supposed, 
 might reasonably be expected on these grounds : 1. As 
 to annuitants. The lives are not all chosen on account 
 of their presumed goodness; for many persons who 
 have no occasion to provide for others "who may sur- 
 vive them, purchase annuities on their own lives, only 
 that they may themselves enjoy the whole benefit of 
 the purchase-money, both principal and interest, dur- 
 ing their lives. And the greatest recommendation of 
 these lives seems to be, that they are generally pru- 
 dent persons, of temperate and regular habits. Many 
 other persons, especially females, spendthrifts, and 
 faithful seiTants, enjoy annuities bequeathed to them 
 by their deceased relatives, masters, or mistresses, as 
 the most eligible provision for their future comfort and 
 security from want ; and there seems little ground to 
 suppose them to be better lives than the common aver- 
 age of the same age and sex. 
 
 " 2. In such cases as tontines, where most of the lives 
 
 are selected for their presumed goodness, the best crite- 
 rion probably is, hereditary longevity iu the family of 
 the nominee ; but partiality for their own friends or 
 kindred often has considerable influence in biasing 
 the judgment of those who select them. That they 
 will generally be persons of good constitutions and 
 regular habits when selected, is all that is likely to be 
 obtained under these circumstances ; and that is also 
 the case with the average of the population in comfort- 
 able circumstances. Whatever the constitutions and 
 habits of annuitants may be, the annuities held by 
 them during their own lives, by protecting them from 
 many of the wants, cares, and anxieties which the 
 bulk of the people are exposed to, no doubt contribute 
 to their longevity. But where powerful motives to 
 raise money by the sale of an annuity on a person's 
 own life exist, it is extremely difficult to prevent him 
 from parting with it, whatever precautions may have 
 been taken with that view; and with it he also loses 
 that help to lougevity. 
 
 " 3. Insured lives are also generally supposed to be 
 
ANT 
 
 51 
 
 ANT 
 
 much better than the average of the population, as it is 
 incumbent upon tlie insurance offices to be cautious in 
 selecting them. But bad lives, by the failure of which 
 persona interested in them would sustain loss, are 
 most likely to be offered, and are continually offered, 
 for insurance ; and there is reason to believe that all 
 the caution in selection which the offices in general can 
 exercise, is necessary to keep the lives insured up to 
 the average goodness of the bulk of the population ; 
 supposing always that people in general of the indus- 
 trious classes are in prosperous, or at least in comfort- 
 able circumstances. When that is not the case, as for 
 some years previous to 1830 there is reason to appre- 
 hend it was not in this country, there will be a corre- 
 sponding increase in the general mortality, which will 
 not sensibly affect the general mass of persons on whose 
 lives annuities and reversions or assurances depend." — 
 E. B. 
 
 Antarctic. The south pole is so called because 
 it is opposite to the north or arctic pole. A continent 
 of 1700 miles of coast from east to west, and 64 to 66 
 degrees south, was discovered in the Antarctic Ocean 
 by French and American Exploring Expeditions, un- 
 der D'Urville and Wilkes, respectively on the same 
 day, January 19, 1840 ; a coincidence the more singu- 
 lar, as the discoverers were at a distance from each 
 other of 720 miles. It was coasted by Captain Wilkes 
 for 1700 miles. Mr. Briscow, of the British Navy, fell 
 in with land, which he coasted for 300 miles, in lat. 67°, 
 long. 50°, in the year 1830. 
 
 Antimony (Ger. and Du. Spiesglas; Fr. Antimoine; 
 It. Antimonio ; Kuss. Aritimonia; Lat. Antimonium), a 
 metal which, when pure, is of grayish white color, and 
 has a good deal of brilliancy, showing a radiated frac- 
 ture when broken ; it is converted by exposure to heat 
 and air into a white oxide, which sublimes in vapors. 
 It is found in Saxony and the Hartz ; also in Cornwall, 
 Spain, France, Mexico, Siberia, the Eastern Islands, 
 and Martaban, in Pegu. We are at present wholly 
 supplied with this metal from Singapore, which re- 
 ceives it from Borneo : it is imported in the shape of 
 ore, and commonly as ballast. It is about as hard as 
 gold ; its specific gravity is about 6'7 ; it is easily re- 
 duced to a very fine powder ; its tenacity is such that 
 a rod of one-tenth of an inch in diameter is capable of 
 supporting ten pounds weight. Antimony is used in 
 medicine, and in the composition of metal types for 
 printing. The ores of antimony are soft, and vary in 
 color from light lead to dark lead gray ; their specific 
 gravity varies from 4-4 to 6'8 ; they possess a metallic 
 lustre, are brittle, and occur in the crystallized mas- 
 sive forms. — Thomson's Chemistry and private inform- 
 ation. Antimony was very early known, and applied 
 by the ancients to various purposes. It was used as 
 paint to blacken both men's and women's eyes, as ap- 
 pears from 2 Kings ix. 30, and Jeremiah iv. 30, and in 
 Eastern countries it is thus used to this day. When 
 mixed with lead, it makes types for printing ; and in 
 physic its uses are so various that, according to its 
 preparation, alone, or in company with one or two as- 
 sociates, it is sufficient to answer all a physician de- 
 sires in an apothecary's shop. — Boyle. 
 
 Antipodes, in Geography, a name given to those 
 inhabitants of the globe that live diametrically opposite 
 to each other. The word is Greek, and compounded 
 of lii/n', opposite, and jroiJf, afoot, because their feet are 
 opposite to each other. Plato is regarded as the first 
 who thought it possible that antipodes existed, and is 
 looked upon as the inventor of the word. As this phi- 
 losopher apprehended the earth to be spherical, he had 
 only one step to make to conclude the existence of the 
 antipodes. The ancients in general treated this opin- 
 ^ ion with the highest contempt, never being able to con- 
 ceive how men and trees could subsist suspended in the 
 air with their feet upward, for so they apprehended 
 they must be in the other hemisphere. They never re- 
 flected that these terms upward and downward are 
 
 merely relative, and signify only nearer to, or farther 
 from, the centre of the earth, the common centre to 
 which all heavy ^odies gravitate. — E. B. 
 
 AntTwerp (Flem. Antwerpen ; Fr. Anvers'), a fa- 
 mous fortified city of Belgium, and the centre of its 
 foreign trade (capital and province of the same name) 
 on the Scheldt, 60 miles from the sea, and distant by 
 railroad 27^ miles from Brussels, 32 from Ghent, 150|- 
 from Cologne, 258J from Paris, and 74 from Ostend. 
 Lat. of cathedral, 51° 13' 2" N. ; long. 4° 24' 2" E. 
 Population 90,000. Its port was greatly improved 
 by Napoleon, who erected two large liasins ; and 
 ships anchor in the river opposite the city in from 32 
 to 40 feet water at ebb-tide. Chief manufactures, 
 silk and cotton hosiery, thread, tape, and linen cloths, 
 calico-printing, embroidery, bleaching, and sugar re- 
 fining. Ship-building is extensively carried on, and 
 the diamond-cutters of this city are celebrated. The 
 principal imports are coffee, grain, and seeds, raw 
 sugar and woven fabrics ; exports flax, woven goods, 
 refined sugar, metals, glass, etc. In the 16th century 
 Antwerp was the richest and most commercial city in 
 Europe, and contained 200,000 inhabitants. In 1648, 
 at the' treaty of Westphalia, it was stipulated by Spain 
 and Holland that the navigation of the Scheldt should 
 be shut up — a stipulation which was observed till the 
 occupation of Belgium by the French, when it was 
 abolished. It was taken by the Spaniards in 1576 and 
 in 1585, and by the French in 1792 and 1794. It was 
 the capital of the department Deiix Nethes, under the , 
 dominion of the French, to whom it again surrendered 
 December 24, 1832. It is the birth-place of the paint- 
 ers Teniers, Jordaens, and Vandyck, the geographer 
 Ortelius, and the engraver Edelinck. In 1803, the im- 
 provement of the harbor was begun, and extensive new 
 docks and warehouses have since been constructed. 
 Ships of the largest burden come up to the town, and 
 goods destined for the interior are forwarded with the 
 greatest facility by means of canals and railways. Al- 
 most all the foreign trade of Belgium is at present cen- 
 tred in Antwerp, which has again become a place of 
 much commercial importance. There is regular steam 
 communication between Antwerp and London, and 
 Hull and Rotterdam. 
 
 Goods may be warehoused in Antwerp era entrepot, 
 at the rates of charge specified in a fixed tariff. The 
 exports chiefly consist of flax, cotton and linen manu- 
 factured goods, refined sugar, glass, zinc, oak-bark, 
 grain and seeds, lace, etc. The imports consist prin- 
 cipally of coffee, sugar, and other colonial products, 
 cotton stuffs and other manufactured goods, com, raw 
 cotton, leather, timber, tobacco, wool, rice, dye-stuffs, 
 salt, wines, fruits, etc. A large proportion of the im- 
 ports not being intended for home consumption, but 
 for transit to other countries, their amount is always 
 much greater than the amount of the exports. Of 
 the total value of the articles imported into Antwerp 
 in 1839, amounting to 97,960,200 francs (£3,918,408), 
 those supplied by England were worth very near 
 30,000,000 francs ; ditto by Russia, 14,366,900 francs ; 
 ditto by the United States, 8,217,800 francs ; ditto by 
 France, 7,630,200 francs, etc. The principal articles 
 were coffee, worth 14,746,500 francs ; grain and seeds, 
 13,936,800 francs ; sugar, 11,430,800 francs ; woven fab- 
 rics, 11,339,100 francs; raw cotton, 5,225,200 francs; 
 metals, 4,872,300 francs, etc. The total value of the 
 articles exported during the same year was 35,630,000 
 francs (£1,425,440), whereof those sent to England were 
 worth 14,349,100 francs; ditto to Holland, 5,777,500 
 francs ; the Hanse Towns, 4,320,200 francs. 
 
 Money, Weights, and Measures. — The French sys- 
 tem of moneys, weights, and measures has been adopt- 
 ed in Belgium. Formerly accounts were kept in 
 florins, worth Is. 8id. sterling. The quintal formerly 
 in use, and still sometimes referred to, = 103J pounds 
 avoirdupois. In 1837 the Commercial Bank, a joint- 
 stock association, was founded in Antwerp. It has a 
 
ANV 
 
 52 
 
 APP 
 
 capital of 25,000,000 francs (£1,000,000), divided into 
 25,000 shares of 1000 francs each, and transacts all sorts 
 of banking business. Here also are.two considerable 
 insurance companies. The railway from Antwerp to 
 Brussels, 28J miles in length, has been signally suc- 
 cessful, and has been of great advantage to both cities, 
 but especially to Antwerp. 
 
 CustOfm-house Regulations, — Captains of ships arriv- 
 ing at Antwerp, or any of the Belgian ports, must 
 make, within twenty-four hours, a declaration in writ- 
 ing of the goods of which their cargo consists, specify- 
 ing the marks and numbers of the bales, parcels, etc., 
 their value, according to the current price at the time 
 when the declaration is made, the name of the ship or 
 vessel, as well as that of the captain, and of the coun- 
 try to which she belongs, etc. 
 
 Nine-tenths of the commerce of Belgium carried on 
 by sea centres in Antwerp. The great articles of ex- 
 port are corn, especially wheat ; flax ; cattle, sheep, and 
 pigs ; cast and wrought iron ; muskets, fowling-pieces, 
 and small arms ; linen and "woolen fabrics ; clover and 
 other seeds ; coal, butter, books, etc. The total value 
 of the exports of articles of the growth and manufac- 
 ture of Belgium amounted, in 1850, to 263,647,000 
 francs. Of these the exports to France (principally 
 by land) amounted to 74,480,000 francs ; those to Great 
 Britain to 41,943,000; the other great importers of 
 Belgium produce being the German Customs Union, 
 the Netherlands, and the United States. The great ar- 
 ticles of import are raw cotton, sugar, coffee, and other 
 colonial products ; indigo and all sorts of dyewoods, 
 spices, wine, rice, ashes, fish, oils, etc. We subjoin 
 
 An Accotimt of tue Niimbek and Tonnage of Vessels entered at Antwekp, and at each of the Belgian Ports, in 
 
 1848, 184«, 1847, 1848, ani> 1849. 
 
 Ports. 
 
 1845. 
 
 1846. 
 
 1847. 
 
 1848. 
 
 1849. 1 
 
 V»»ol>. 
 
 Tom. 
 
 Vossels. 
 
 TODB. 
 
 VeiiolB. 
 
 Tom. 
 
 VomlB. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Vessel!. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Antwerp 
 
 Oslend 
 
 1,919 
 624 
 224 
 HI 
 
 280,899 
 02,710 
 80,456 
 3,581 
 
 2,208 
 
 067 
 
 160 
 
 80 
 
 327,680 
 
 65,486 
 
 21,715 
 
 2,897 
 
 1,923 
 608 
 198 
 05 
 
 828,675 
 68,494 
 27,009 
 2,241 
 
 1,184 
 
 407 
 
 110 
 
 80 
 
 204,288 
 48,271 
 10,714 
 3,891 
 
 1,654 
 
 444 
 
 285 
 
 91 
 
 274,428 
 48,918 
 28,814 
 4,207 
 
 Nieuport 
 
 Total 
 
 2,878 
 
 377,646 
 
 8,141 
 
 407,778 
 
 2,794 
 
 411,419 
 
 1,740 
 
 272,064 
 
 2,424 
 
 356,807 
 
 Anville, Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d', a 
 
 French geographer of the highest eminence, and per- 
 haps unsurpassed in any age. This celebrated man 
 was born at Paris on the 11th of July, 1697. His pas- 
 sion for geographical research displayed itself from his 
 earliest years. At the age of twelve, while reading the 
 Latin authors at college, he amused himself with draw- 
 ing maps of the countries which they described. While 
 he was thus busily employing himself one day in the 
 class, his master observed and was about to punish 
 him ; but upon casting his eye upon the performance, 
 he immediately judged him to be rather deserving of 
 ehcouragement. D'Anville from this time devoted 
 himself entirely to geography, particularly that of the 
 ancient world ; and at the age of twenty-two he began 
 to delineate maps which attracted the attention of the 
 most eminent geographers. — E. B. 
 
 Apeak, in Seamen's language, signifies perpendic- 
 ular; thus the anchor is said to be apeak when the 
 stem of the ship is brought directly over it by drawing 
 in the cable. 
 
 Apothecary. In the United States, a dispenser 
 of medicines. In England, frequently'prescriptions as 
 well as medicines are furnished. 
 
 Apron, in Naval Architecture, is a piece of curved 
 timber fixed behind the lower part of the stem, imme- 
 diately above the foremost end of the keel. Apron is 
 also a name given to a platform or flooring of plank 
 raised at the entrance of a dock, against which the dock 
 gates are shut. Apron, in Gunnery, a piece of lead 
 which caps or covers the vent or touch-hole of a gun. 
 
 Appellation, the name by which any thing is 
 known or distinguished when spoken of. Nothing can 
 be more foreign to the original meaning of many words 
 and proper names than their present or vulgar appel- 
 lations, frequently owing to the history of those things 
 being forgotten, or an ignorance of the language in 
 ■which they were expressed. Who, for example, would 
 dream that the legal proclamation called " yes," 
 was a proclamation commanding the talkers to become 
 hearers, being the French word Ot/ez, listen, retained 
 in our courts ever since the law pleadings were held 
 in French? Or would any person suppose that the 
 head-land on the French coast near Calais, called by 
 seamen Blackness, has been so entitled from its French 
 name oi Blanc Nez, or the White Head-landl 
 
 King Henry the Eighth having taken the town of 
 Boulogne in France, the gates of which he brought to 
 Hardes, in Kent, where they are still remaining, the 
 flatterers of that reign highly magnified this action, 
 ivhich, Porto Bello like, became a popular subject for 
 
 signs ; and the port or harbor of Boulogne, called Bou- 
 logne Mouth, was accordingly set up at a noted inn in 
 Holborn. The name of the inn long outliving the sign 
 and fame of the conquest, an ignorant painter, employ- 
 ed by a no less ignorant landlord to paint a new one, 
 represented it by a bull and a large gaping human 
 mouth ; answering to the vulgar pronunciation of bull 
 and mouth. The same piece of history gave being to 
 the hull and gate, originally meant for Boulogne Gate, 
 and represented by an embattled gate or entrance into 
 a fortified town. 
 
 The barber's pole has been the subject of many con- 
 jectures ; some conceiving it to have originated from 
 the word poll or head, with several other conceits as 
 far-fetched and as unmeaning; but the true Intention 
 of that party-colored staff was to show that the master 
 of the shop practiced surgery, and could breathe a vein 
 as well as mow a beard. The white band which en- 
 compasses the staff was meant to represent the fillet 
 thus elegantly twined about it. 
 
 Nor were the chequers, at this time a common sign 
 of a public house, less expressive — being the represent- 
 ation of a kind of draught-board called tailes, and show- 
 ing that there that game might be played. From their 
 color, which was red, and the similarity to a lattice, it 
 was corruptly called the red lettuce, which word is fre- 
 quently used by ancient writers to signify an ale-house. 
 
 The Spectator has explained the sign of the Bell-sav- 
 age Inn plausibly enough, in supposing it to have been 
 originally the figure of a beautiful female found in the 
 woods, called in French la belle sauvage. But another 
 reason has since been assigned for that appellation, 
 namely, that the inn was ouce the property of Lady 
 Arabella Savage, and familiarly caUed Bell Savage's 
 Inn, probably represented, as at present, by a bell and 
 a savage or wild man, which was a rebus for her name, 
 rebuses being much in fashion in the sixteenth centurj-'. 
 
 The three gilt balls so commonly hung out as signs at 
 pawnbrokers' shops, by the vulgar humorously enough 
 said to indicate that it is two to one that the things 
 pledged are never redeemed, were in reality the arms 
 of a set of merchants from Lombardy, who were the 
 first that publicly lent money on pledg'es. They dwelt 
 together in a street, from them named Lombard Street, 
 in London, and also gave their name to another at 
 Paris. The appellation of Lombard was formerly all 
 over Europe considered as synonymous with that of 
 usurer. 
 
 At the institution of yeomen of the guards, they used 
 to wait at table on all great solemnities, and were 
 ranged near the buffets. This procured them the name 
 
APP 
 
 53 
 
 AQU 
 
 of buffetiers, not very unlike in sound to the jocular 
 appellation of beef-eaters, now given them ; though 
 probably it was rather the voluntary misnomer of some 
 wit than an accidental corruption arising from igno- 
 rance of the French language. 
 
 The opprobrious title of hum bayliffe, so constantly 
 bestowed on the sheriff's officers, is, according to Judge 
 Blackstone, only the corruption of bound bayliffe, every 
 sheriff's officer being obliged to enter into bonds, and 
 to give security for his good behavior, previous to his 
 appointment. 
 
 A c<frdv!ainer seems to have no relation to the occu- 
 pation it is meant to express, which is that of a shoe- 
 maker. Bat cordonier, originally spelled cordauimr, is 
 the French word for that trade; the best leather "used 
 for shoes coming originally from Cordova, in Spain. — 
 E.B. 
 
 Apples, the fruit of the Pyrus Malus, or apple-tree. 
 It is very extensively cultivated in most temperate 
 climates. An immense variety and quantity of excel- 
 lent apples are raised in England, partly for the table, 
 and partly for manufacturing into cider. Those employ- 
 ed for the latter purpose are comparatively harsh and 
 austere. The principal cider counties are Hereford, 
 Monmouth, Gloucester, Worcester, Somerset, and Dev- 
 on. Mr. Marshall estimated the produce of the first 
 four at 30,000 hogsheads a year, of which Worcester is 
 suppcsed to supply 10,000; but it is now probably 
 much greater. Half a hogshead of cider may be ex- 
 pected, in ordinarily favorable seasons, from each tree 
 in an orchard in fall bearing. The number of trees 
 on an acre varies from 10 to 40, so that the quantity 
 of cider must vary in the same proportion, that is, from 
 5 to 20 hogsheads. The produce is, however, very fluc- 
 tuating,' and a good crop seldom occurs above once in 
 three years. — Loudon's Encylopedia of Agriculture, etc. 
 Besides the immense consumption of native apples, 
 the English import, for the table, large supplies of 
 French and other foreign apples. Owing, however, 
 to the duty, previously to 1842, having been an ad va- 
 lorem one of 5 per cent., we are unable to specify the 
 quantities imported. They must, however, have been 
 very considerable, as their declared value amounted, 
 in 1841, to £41,197 4s. lOd. In 1842 the duty was fixed 
 at 6rf. per bushel on raw, and 2s. per bushel on dried 
 apples. At an average of 1850 and 1851, the entries 
 for consumption amounted to 442,950 bushels. The 
 duties in England were reduced in the course of the 
 year 1853 to 3d per bushel on raw, and Is. per bushel 
 on dried apples. The apples produced in the vicinity 
 of New York are universally admitted to be the finest 
 of any ; but unless selected and packed with care, they 
 are very apt to spoil before reaching England. The 
 exports of apples from the United States during the 
 year ending the 30th of June, 1852, amounted to 18,411 
 ban-els, valued at 43,635 dollars. Of these 1808 bar- 
 rels were shipped for the United Kingdom. In the 
 year 1854-5, the quantity exported was 33,959 barrels, 
 at a value of $107,600. 
 
 Appraiser (from ad, to, and pretium, value), one 
 who rates or sets a value upon goods, etc., used princi- 
 pally in the custom-house to designate men who ap- 
 praise goods entered for duty. 
 
 Apprentice, a person of either sex bound by in- 
 denture to serve some particular individual or com- 
 pany of individuals for a specified time, in order to be 
 instructed in some art, science, mystery, or trade. 
 
 Apprenticeship, the servitude of an apprentice, 
 or the duration of his indenture. 
 
 Seven years seem anciently to have been, all over 
 Europe, the usual term established for the duration of 
 apprenticeships in the greater part of incorporated 
 trades. All such incorporations were anciently called 
 universities, which indeed is the proper Latin name for 
 any incorporation whatever! The university of smiths, 
 the university of tailors, etc., are expressions which we 
 commonly meet with in the old charters of ancient 
 
 towns. When those particular incorporations which are 
 now peculiarly called universities were first established, 
 the term of years which it was necessary to study in or- 
 der to obtain the degree of master of arts, appears evi- 
 dently to have been copied from the term of apprentice- 
 ship in common trades, of which the incorporations were 
 much more ancient. As to have wrought seven years 
 under a master properly qualifled was necessary in or- 
 der to entitle any person to become a master, and to 
 have himself apprentices in a common trade ; so to 
 have studied seven years under a master properly quali- 
 fied was necessary to entitle him to become a master, 
 teacher, or doctor (words anciently synonymous), in 
 the liberal arts, and to have scholars or apprentices 
 (words likewise originally synonymous) to study under 
 him. 
 
 Apprenticeships were altogether unknown to the an- 
 cients. The reciprocal duties of master and apprentice 
 make a considerable article in every modern code. The 
 Boman law is perfectly silent with regard to them. 
 There is no Greek or Latin word which expresses the 
 idea we now annex to the word apprentice — a servant 
 bound to work at a particular trade for the benefit of 
 a master during a term of years, upon condition that 
 the master shall teach him that trade. — E. B. 
 Aqua Fortis. See Acid (Nitric). 
 Aqua Marina. See Bebyi,. 
 Aqua VitSB (Ger. Aquavit ; Fr. Eau de vie; It. 
 Acqua vite; Sp. Affua de vida; Russ. Wodha; Lat. 
 Aqua vital), a name familiarly applied to all native 
 distilled spirits ; equivalent to the eau de vie, or bran- 
 dy, of the French, the whisky of the Scotch and Irish, 
 the geneva of the Dutch, etc. In this way it is used in 
 the excise laws relating to the distilleries. 
 
 Aqueduct, a conduit or channel for the convey- 
 ance of water. It is derived from aqua, water, and 
 ductus, a conduit. It is applied more particularly to 
 those structures of masonry which have been erected 
 for the conveyance of water across valleys, to which, 
 however, we would rather give the name of aqueduct 
 bridges, extending the term aqueduct to the whole 
 conduit or channel by which the water is conveyed 
 from one place to another. The conveyance of water 
 for the supply of large cities has in all ages formed a 
 very important object of public economy ; and aque- 
 ducts of various kinds have been in use for this pur- 
 pose from the earliest times, the remains of which have 
 been examined by travelers in diflferent parts of the 
 East. Pococke describes a work of this kind erected 
 by Solomon, for convej'ing water from the pools and 
 fountains near Bethlehem to Jerusalem. " The_ aque- 
 duct," he says, " is built on a foundation of stone ; the 
 water runs in round earthen pipes about ten inches 
 diameter, which are cased with two stones, hewn out 
 so as to fit them, and they are covered over with rough 
 stones well cemented together; and the whole is so 
 sunk into the ground on the side of the hills, that in 
 many places nothing is to be seen of it." But it was 
 in the luxurious capital of Rome that the system of 
 aqueducts was brought to the greatest perfection, and 
 carried to an extent which has never been equaled 
 even in modern times, and has justly excited admira- 
 tion both from the number and magnificence of the 
 works themselves, and the prodigious quantities of 
 water which by these means were continually poured 
 into the city. These aqueducts extended, some of 
 them 30, 40, and even 60 miles from the citj', in one 
 continued covered channel of stone, carried by arcades 
 over the widest and deepest valleys, and by tunnels 
 running in many parts for miles through mountains 
 and through the solid rock. " If we consider attentive- 
 ly," says Pliny, " the quantities of water brought into 
 the city for the use of the public, for baths, for fish- 
 ponds, for private houses, for artificial lakes, for gar- 
 dens in the neighborhood of the city, and for villas ; 
 if we look alf at the works which have been construct- 
 ed for forming a regular channel for the waters — arch- 
 
AQU 
 
 54 
 
 AQU 
 
 es raised up, mountains pierced with tunnels, and val- 
 leys filled up to a level ; it must be acknowledged that 
 there is nothing in the whole world more wonderful." 
 
 "Within the last century, the invention and improve- 
 ment of the manufacture of cast iron has completely 
 changed the mode of conducting water into cities, by 
 the introduction of cast-iron pipes instead of the stone 
 conduits of former times. These pipes can now be 
 formed of almost any dimensions, and united together 
 into a continued series, so closely as to prevent the es- 
 cape of the water, even tmder a violent pressure aris- 
 ing from the altitude of the fountain-head. They ena- 
 ble us, therefore, to take advantage of and give effect 
 to that grand principle in hydrostatics, that the fluid 
 element tends continuall}' to a level, even though it be 
 confined in the smallest or most complicated system of 
 pipes ; so that however low it be carried in any valley, 
 or to whatever distance, still it will rise on the opposite 
 side to the orignal altitude of the fountain-head — a prin- 
 ciple which is most important, indeed, in such works, 
 seeing that by it we are not restricted, as the Eomans 
 were, almost to a perfect level in the line of the con- 
 duit. We have seen that, for the purpose of attaining 
 this level, or very gentle declivity, all along the con- 
 duit, they were under the necessity of raising it by ar- 
 cades continued in one unbroken series, frequently 30 
 or 40 miles in extent; and, in addition to this, often 
 prolonging the length of the track by a circuitous 
 route, turning and winding for miles out of its course, 
 for the very purpose of increasing its length. 
 
 But the use of pipes enables us to dispense with 
 these long arcades, all raised nearly to the same level 
 with the fountain-head; because the conduit may be 
 varied in its level to any extent, and still will rise at 
 last to its original altitude. The pipes, therefore, are 
 merely laid all along the surface of the ground, with a 
 cover of two or three feet of soil to place them beyond 
 the reach of frost. To prevent, however, the frequent 
 or abrupt alternations of rise and fall, any sudden in- 
 equalities in the ground are equalized by cuttings and 
 embankments, but not to any thing like the extent 
 that would be required to raise the whole to a level. 
 This, therefore, forms a. capital improvement in the 
 method of conducting water, and the greatest, indeed, 
 which has ever been made in this important branch of 
 practical mechanics. That it was not introduced by 
 the Eomans, is not to be ascribed, as many have done, 
 to their ignorance of the hydrostatic principle that the 
 tiuid would rise to a level in the opposite branches of 
 the same train of pipes. Professor Leslie has shown 
 that they were well acquainted with this principle, 
 and has moreover obtained from Italy a portion of a 
 leaden pipe, supposed to have been used in the baths 
 of Caracalla, which sets this matter at rest. But from 
 the low state of the arts at that period, they were un- 
 able to give effect to the principle. ■ They had not the 
 means of fabricating pipes of such a magnitude as would 
 have been required for the enormous quantity of water 
 consumed in Rome, and at the same time of strength 
 sufficient to withstand the pressure from the fountain- 
 head. Lead was the only material that could be used 
 by them for the purpose ; and besides the enormous 
 thickness that so weak a material would have required, 
 and the impracticability of their forming them, and 
 uniting them together endwise, they were too well ac- 
 quainted with the tendency of lead to render the water 
 unwholesome by its poisonous impregnation. The use 
 of cast iron was quite unknown. There remained, 
 therefore, no resource but in the aqueducts, which, 
 though attended no doubt with vast expense, and re- 
 quiring great enterprise, as well as both skill and pa- 
 tience, were yet attainable by these means, and formed 
 when completed a simple and very perfect mode of ef- 
 fecting the object. Hence arose all those works above 
 described which have since excited such astonishment. 
 Now, however, when the manufacture of cast iron has 
 been brought to such perfection, and rnethods contrived 
 
 for uniting perfectly together all the pipes into one con- 
 nected train, this improved system has been universally 
 adopted. 
 
 Croton A queduct. — The Croton Aqueduct, by which 
 the city of New York is supplied with water, may be 
 regarded as the most magnificent work of the kind ex- 
 ecuted in modern times. It was commenced in 1837, 
 and completed in 1842, at an expense of 8,575,000 dol- 
 lars, the distribution pipes costing 1,800,000 dollars 
 additional. Its length from the Croton Lake to the re- 
 ceiving reservoir is 38^ miles. The Croton Lake, which 
 is formed by the Croton Creek, a small stream of whole- 
 some water falling into the Hudson, covers 400 acres, 
 and contains a body of water of about 500,000,000 gal- 
 lons. To the valley of the Harlem Eiver, a distance 
 of 33 miles, the aqueduct is built of stone, brick, and 
 cement, arched over and under, 6 feet 3 inches wide at 
 the bottom, 7 feet 8 inches at the top, and 8 feet 5 
 inches high; and capable of discharging 60,000,000 
 gallons per day. It is carried over the Harlem valley 
 in iron pipes laid upon a magnificent bridge 1460 feet 
 long, constructed of arches 114 feet above high-water 
 mark at Yorkville. These pipes pass into the receiv- 
 ing reservoir, which is 1826 feet long and 836 feet wide, 
 covering an area of 37 acres, and capable of containing 
 150,000,000 gallons. Hence, to the distributing reser- 
 voir, a distance of 2^ miles, the water is conveyed by 
 a double line of iron pipes 3 feet in diameter. This 
 second reservoir is 420 feet square and 44 feet above the 
 streets, with a capacity of 20,000,000 gallons. — whence 
 the water is conveyed through the city by about 170 
 miles of pipe, principally from 6 to 12 inches in diam- 
 eter. 
 
 In those parts of British India where the fall of rain 
 is scanty and uncertain, recourse is had to artificial ir- 
 rigation, and the waters of many of the rivers of the 
 country have been rendered available for this purpose 
 by means of public works constructed by the govern- 
 ment. Of these the most important is the Ganges 
 Canal, which traverses the northwestern provinces of 
 Bengal, and distributes over their vast area nearly the 
 whole volume of the waters of the Ganges. The canal 
 begins at the point where the river issues from the 
 mountains and enters the plains of Bengal. About 20 
 miles from its source, the line of the canal crosses the 
 valley of the Solani Eiver, and the works for efl'ccting 
 the transit are designed on a scale worthy of the un- 
 dertaking. The valley is between two and three 
 miles in width. An earthen embankment is carried 
 across, raised on an average between 16 and 17 feet 
 above the surrounding country, and having a width 
 of 350 feet at its base, and 290 feet in the upper part. 
 This embankment forms the bed of the canal, which is 
 protected by banks 12 feet in depth and 30 feet wide 
 at the fop. To preserve these banks from the effects 
 of the action of the water, lines of masonry formed 
 into steps extend on each side throughout their entire 
 length. The Solani Eiver is crossed by an aqueduct 
 920 feet long, having side walls 8 feet thick and 12 
 deep, the depth of the water being 10 feet. The water 
 of the canal passes through two separate channels. 
 That of the Eiver Solani flows under fifteen arches, 
 having a span of 50 feet each, constructed in the most 
 substantial manner, and springing from piers resting 
 on blocks of masonry sunk into the bed of the river. 
 
 The great water-works that supply the city of Mar- 
 seilles with the water of the Durance, by a canal 
 about 60 miles in length, are among the boldest under- 
 takings of the kind in modem times. This canal, 
 begun in 1830, and not yet completed (1852), has al- 
 ready cost above £2,000,000 sterling. It is conveyed 
 through three chains of limestone mountains by forty- 
 five tunnels, forming an aggregate length of 81 miles, 
 and across numerous valleys by aqueducts ; the lar- 
 gest of which, the Aqueduct of Eoquefavor, over the 
 ravine of the Elver Arc, about 5 miles from Aix, sur- 
 passes in size and altitude the ancient Pont du Gard. 
 
ABA 
 
 55 
 
 ARB 
 
 The immense volume of water, which passes at the 
 rate of 198,000 gallons per minute, is carried across as 
 in the old Boman aqueducts by a channel of mason- 
 work. The height of this aqueduct is 262 feet, and 
 its length 1287. The number of cubic yards of ma- 
 sonry contained in it is 67,000 ; the total cost has been 
 ^151,394. 
 
 Edinburgh Water-works. — The works undertaken by 
 the Edinburgh Water Company in 1819 were probably 
 the most complete and perfect of the time. They were 
 designed by Mr. Jardine, the then engineer of the 
 company, and carried out under his superintendence 
 in a style quite worthy of the city, and offering, both 
 in the general design and in all the details, a model 
 of propriety and skill in this species of hydraulic archi- 
 tecture. The Crawley springs were conducted by an 
 aqueduct into a covered cistern at a point about 7 
 miles distant from Edinburgh, and a supply from the 
 stream called the Glencorse Burn, conveyed by an 
 open-work tunnel from about a mile and a half west- 
 ward. This tunnel is in some places upward of 30 
 feet deep, and the valley through which it passes, con- 
 sisting entirely of gravel, acts as a filter through which 
 the water descends and percolates, all solid matter 
 being intercepted in its passage to the tunnel from 
 whence it is delivered into the cistern, and conveyed 
 to Edinburgh by a chain of pipes varying from 20 to 
 15 inches of interior diameter, without being exposed 
 to the light of day. From the numerous undulations 
 of the surface, the fall of the pipe is not uniform. 
 Abrupt inequalities, however, were removed by cutting 
 and embanking. Toward the northern termination 
 of the line the pipe is carried through a tunnel of 
 2160 feet in length, and about 70 or 80 feet imder the 
 surface of Heriot's Green. In crossing the Grass Mark- 
 et it forks off by one branch to a reservoir in the Cas- 
 tle Hill, and by another about 120 feet under the 
 reservoir, through a tunnel 7i0 feet in length, cut 
 through the rock of which the ridge leading to the 
 Castle is composed. Branches were laid through all 
 the principal streets. 
 
 The pipes are in lengths of 9^ feet each, and were 
 tested before being laid by a pressure equal to a vert- 
 ical column of 800 feet of water. The joints are what 
 are termed spigot and faucet. Cocks for the discharge 
 of air accumulating in the pipes are placed at the sum- 
 mits of all the considerable elevations; and in the 
 hollows are placed sluice cocks for the purpose of run- 
 ^ning off sand or other solid matter which may collect 
 in the pipe. It is capable of delivering 253-56 cubic 
 feet of water per minute into the reservoir at the 
 Castle Hill. 
 
 The formation of the Compensation Reservoir was 
 undoubtedly the greatest work of hydraulic engineer- 
 ing of its day. It was designed and completed by 
 Mr. Jardine, and, with the then limited experience of 
 contractors and workmen in the construction of similar 
 works, its successful completion does great honor to 
 the genius and perseverance of the engineer. It has 
 been twice enlarged, and now forms an artificial lake 
 extending over an area of 46 imperial acres. — E. B. 
 
 Arangoes, a species of beads made of rough car- 
 nelian. They are of various forms — as, barrel, bell, 
 round, etc. — and all drilled. The barrel-shaped kind, 
 cut from the best stones, are from two to three inches 
 long, and should be chosen as clear as possible, whether 
 red or white, having a good polish, and free from flaws. 
 The bell-shaped are from one to two inches long, being 
 in all respects inferior. Considerable quantities were 
 formerly imported from Bombay, for re-exportation to 
 Africa; but since the abolition of the slave-trade, the 
 imports and exports of ArangOes are comparatively 
 trifling. — Milbdkn's Orient. Cam. 
 
 Arbitration, a term derived from the nomencla- 
 ture of the Roman law, and applied to an arrangement 
 for taking and abiding by the judgment of a selected 
 person in some disputed matter, instead of carrying it 
 
 to the established courts of justice. Arrangements for 
 avoiding the delay and expense of litigation, and re- 
 ferring a dispute to friends or neutral persons, are a 
 natural practice, of which traces may be found in any 
 state of society ; but it is to the Justinian jurisprudence 
 that we owe it as a system which has found its way into 
 the practice of European nations in general, and has 
 even evaded the dislike of the English common law- 
 yers to the civil law. The eighth section of the fourth 
 book of the Pandects is devoted to this subject, and 
 may be consulted through the commentary of Heinec- 
 ciu8, or a more minute critical inquiry by Gerard 
 Noodt, in his commentary on this section (Opera, ii. 
 135). Almost all the advantages, as well as the de- 
 fects of the system in modern practice, seem to have 
 been anticipated by the Roman jurists. Thus it is 
 shown that voluntarily selected judges can only prop- 
 erly decide questions which the parties themselves 
 could settle by giving and taking, and that they ought 
 not to be authorized to deal with criminal inquiries or 
 public questions ; while, by .excluding matters of per- 
 sonal status, such as marriage or legitimacy, the Ro- 
 man jurists anticipated the principle, that even private 
 questions which may affect the public morals or policy 
 can not be thus extrajudicially disposed of. They 
 dwell on the principal advantage of the system in ex- 
 cluding appeal from the arbiter's decision on any such 
 ground as erroneous law, or false views of the influence 
 of well-investigated facts. But, on the other hand, 
 they discuss, with their usual scientific subtlety, the 
 many defects, such as excess of authority, neglect of 
 form, and partiality in receiving pleadings or evidence, 
 and the like, by which arbitrations become vitiated ; 
 and thus these jurists at once suggest what is ever the 
 defect of a system of arbitration, that the more it per- 
 forms its function of doing justice, the more it becomes 
 what the established tribunals of the country ought to 
 be, and fosters two systems of judicature where one 
 should be sufficient. Some of the civilians make a 
 distinction between the, arbitrate; the name technical- 
 ly applicable to a person voluntarily chosen by parties 
 to decide disputes, and the arbiter, an officer to whom 
 the prsetor remitted questions of fact as to a jury. In 
 this sense arbiters appear to have been employed as a 
 substitute for jury trial in some of the old provincial 
 laws of France ; and hence, perhaps, it comes that, bj' 
 a very remarkable provision in the French code of 
 commerce, all questions between partners touching the 
 partnership must be referred to arbitration. In the 
 code of civil procedure, the title des arbitrages is treated 
 so fully and minutely, as very forcibly to convey the 
 impression of a separate system of voluntary jurisdic- 
 tion being created for performing what ought to be ac- 
 complished by the ordinary tribunals in a well-regu- 
 lated judicial system. 
 
 Arbitration, in the Law of England (according to 
 Blackstone), is ** where the parties, injuring and in- 
 jured, submit all matters in dispute, concerning any 
 personal chattels or personal wrong, to the judgment 
 of two or more arbitrators, who are to decide the con- 
 troversy ; and if they do not agree, it is usual to add, 
 that another person be called in as umpire (imjjerator'), 
 to whose sole judgment it is then referred ; or frequent- 
 ly there is only one arbitrator originally appointed." 
 The decision must be in writing (unless otherwise ex- 
 pressly provided in the submission), and is called an 
 award ; and thereby the question is as fully determ- 
 ined, and the right transferred or settled, as it could 
 have been by the agreement of the parties or the judg- 
 ment of a court of law or equity. 
 
 There were, however, many inconveniences attend- 
 ing this mode of proceeding ; and in the year 1698, the 
 Legislature accordingly interfered, and passed the act 
 9th and 10th Will. III., cap. 15, which enacted that, 
 "for promoting trade, and rendering the awards of 
 arbitrators the more effectual in all cases, for the final 
 determination of controversies referred to them by 
 
AEB 
 
 56 
 
 AEC 
 
 merchants and traders, or others, concerning matters 
 of account or trade, or other matters ;" all merchants 
 and others desiring to end any controversy, suit, or 
 quarrel (for which there is no other remedy but by 
 personal action or suit in equity) by arbitration, may 
 agree that their submission of their suit to the award 
 or umpirage of any person shall be made a rule of any 
 of the courts of record, and may insert such agreement 
 in their submission ; which agreement being proved by 
 the atlidavit of one of the witnesses thereto, the court 
 shall make a rule that such arbitration or umpirage 
 pursuant to such submission shall be conclusive ; and 
 after such rule made, the parties disobeying the award 
 shall be liable to be punished, as for- a contempt of 
 court ; unless such award shall be set aside, as pro- 
 cured by corruption or undue means in the arbitrators 
 or umpire, to be proved on oath to the court, before the 
 last day of the next term after the award is made. 
 
 An application for an attachment for not performing 
 an award may be resisted at any time for defects ap- 
 pearing on the face of the award itself; for such an 
 award, after that time, might be pleaded in bar to any 
 action brought upon it, although it can not be set aside 
 for such defects after the end of the next term. Sub- 
 missions of disputes to arbitration may be by consent 
 of the parties, or with the interposition of a court of 
 justice ; by rule of court, or order of a judge, when a 
 cause is pending, either by bond, agreement in writing, 
 or by parole. A verbal agreement, however, to abide 
 by an award can not be made a rule of court. Nor 
 can matters purely criminal be submitted to the de- 
 cision of an arbitrator. And by the 12th and 13lh 
 Vict. c. 45, § 12-15, the provisions of the former stat- 
 utes as to arbitrations are extended to " controversies 
 and disputes, for which the remedy is by appeal to a 
 Court of General or Quarter Sessions of the Peace." 
 Lastly, although the right of real property can not 
 pass by a mere award, yet if a party be awarded to 
 convey land, and refuse, he will be liable to an action, 
 or to an attachment for not performing the award. 
 The agreement of reference must be expressed with 
 great care and accuracy ; provisions should be insert- 
 ed giving power to either party to make the submis- 
 sion a rule of court, to enable the court to refer the 
 matter back to the same or to another arbitrator ; and 
 in case of the death of either party before award, for 
 its making and delivery to his representatives; and 
 also as to the costs, which are usually directed to be in 
 the discretion of the arbitrator as to those of the refer- 
 ence, and as to those of the cause to abide the event of 
 the award; and a certain day should be appointed on 
 or before which the arbitrator is to make his award, 
 with a power to each arbitrator to enlarge the time. 
 
 When arbitratoi*s have the power of electing an um- 
 pire, they may choose him, and call in his assistance 
 as soon as they begin to take the subject into consid- 
 eration ; and this is the mora convenient practice, as it 
 secures a decision upon a single investigation of the 
 controvei'sy. As to the award: it must be in pursu- 
 ance of the submission, and embrace all the matters 
 submitted, and not extend beyond it in the subject- 
 matter, in persons, in time, or in particular circum- 
 stances ; it must be certain ; it must make a final end 
 and determination of all matters contained in the 
 submission ; it must be mutual, that is, it must not 
 be entirely of things to be performed by one part}^, 
 without such things being in satisfaction of the mat- 
 ters in difference ; and, finally, it must not be unreason- 
 able, illegal, or impossible to be effectuated. Former- 
 ly, a submission to arbitration, being a mere authority, 
 might be revoked at any time before execution by an 
 instrument of as high a nature as that by which the 
 submission was created. But now, by the English Law 
 Amendment Act (3d and 4th Will. IV., cap. 42), the 
 submission to arbitration by Hule of Courts or Judge^s 
 order, or order of Nisi Prius, or if there be an agree- 
 ment to Tnake the submission a Rule of Court, can not be 
 
 revoked by any party thereto, without leave of the 
 court or a judge. The death, however, of either party 
 before award is a revocation of the authority, unless 
 otherwise provided in the submission ; and so also is 
 the marriage of a female before award ; the marriage 
 operating as a civil death to all her rights as a feme 
 sole. Under this statute the attendance of witnesses, 
 or production of documents before the arbitrator, may 
 be compelled by a rule of court, or order of a judge, on 
 payment of expenses and loss of time ; and the arbi- 
 trators are empowered to administer oaths to the wit- 
 nesses, where it is so agreed or ordered by the rule or 
 order of reference. Any witnesses failing to attend 
 are deemed to be guilty of contempt of court, or giving 
 false evidence guilty of perjury. The court or judge 
 may also, in the cases within the statute, enlarge the 
 time for an arbitrator to make his award. — E. B. 
 
 Archangel, the principal commercial city of the 
 north of Russia, in lat. 64° 32' 8" N., long. 40° 33' E., 
 on the right bank of the Dwina, about 35 English miles 
 above where it falls into the White Sea. Pop. 24,500. 
 The harbor is at the island of SoUenbole, about a mile 
 from the town. The bar at the mouth of the Dwina 
 has from 13 to 14^ feet water; so that ships drawing 
 more fhan this depth must be partially loaded outside 
 the bar from lighters. The Dwina being a navigable 
 river, traversing a great extent of country, and con- 
 nected by canals with the Wolga on the one hand, and 
 the Neva on the other. Archangel is a considerable en- 
 trepot. It was discovered in 1554, by the famous Rich- 
 ard Chancellor, the companion of Sir Hugh Willough- 
 by in his voyage of discovery: and from that period 
 down to the foundation of Petersburg was the only 
 port in the Russian empire accessible to foreigners. 
 Though it has lost its ancient importance, it still en- 
 joys a pretty extensive commerce. The principal ar- 
 ticles of export are grain, tallow,*flax, hemp, timber, 
 linseed, iron, potash, mats, tar, etc. Deals from Arch- 
 angel, and Onega in the vicinity of Archangel, are con- 
 sidered superior to those from the Baltic. Hemp not 
 so good as at Riga, but proportionally cheaper. Tal- 
 low is also inferior. Iron same as at Petersburg, some- 
 times cheaper and sometimes dearer. The quality of 
 the wheat exported from Archangel is about equal to 
 that from Petersburg. The imports, which are not 
 very extensive, consist principally of sugar, coffee, 
 spices, salt, woolens, hardware, etc. The trade of 
 Archangel has latterly been declining. It is much 
 influenced bj' the demand from the more southerly 
 parts of Europe, and especially from England, for corn. 
 When a brisk demand is anticipated, oats are brought 
 in large quantities from the interior, sometimes even 
 from a distance of 1500 miles, in covered barks capa- 
 ble of holding several hundred quarters. But as there 
 are few extensive establishments here, the supplies are 
 scanty, except when a large demand is expected for 
 some time previously to the season for bringing them 
 down.- — Oddy's European Commerce, and private in- 
 formation. 
 
 Moneys, Weights, and Mei^sures, same as at Peteks- 
 EOKG : which see. 
 
 Archipelago, called by the Turks Ah degniz, the 
 White Sea, to distinguish it from Cara degniz, the 
 Black Sea, is generally applied to that part of the 
 Mediterranean extending from European Turkey and 
 Greece on the west, to Asia Minor on the east, and 
 stretching southward to the island of Candia. 
 
 The name Archipelago was unknown to the an- 
 cients, and is generally supposed to be a corruption of 
 klyalov iTcXa-yoQ, by which name, the derivation of 
 which is uncertain, it was known to the Greeks. The 
 ancients divided it into, (1.) Mare Thracium, the north- 
 ern part, extending southward to the northern coast 
 of Eubcea ; (2.) Mar Myrtoum, the southwestern part, 
 washing the shores of Attica and Argolis ; (3.) Mare 
 Icarium, the southeastern part, extending along the 
 coasts of Caria and Ionia. 
 
ARC 
 
 57 
 
 ARC 
 
 The navigation of this sea is rendered difficult by 
 the many islands and rocks with which it abounds, 
 and by the frequent occurrence of sudden squalls, es- 
 pecially about the equinoxes ; but it has a great num- 
 ber of safe and commodious gulfs and bays. Besides 
 the Cyclades and Sporades, which are the two princi- 
 pal groups of smaller islands, it contains Eubffia, Sa- 
 mos, Chios, Lesbos, Lemnos, Imbros, Samothrace, etc. 
 All these islands are mountainous, and many of them 
 are of volcanic formation ; while others are almost en- 
 tirely composed of pure white marble, for which Paros, 
 one of the Cyclades, in particular, is so celebrated. 
 The larger islands have some very fertile and well- 
 watered valleys and plains. The principal produc- 
 tions are wheat, wine, oil, mastic, figs, raisins, honey, 
 wax, cotton, and silk. The inhabitants are much en- 
 gaged in fishing^ and the coral and sponge fishery are 
 actively prosecuted among the Sporades. Manufac- 
 tures are at a very low ebb, almost the only branch 
 carried on being that of cotton-weaving. The climate 
 is mild, and salubrious ; the heats of summer being 
 tempered by the sea-breezes, while the winters are less 
 severe than on the neighboring main-land. The men 
 are hardy, well-built, and handsome ; and the women 
 are noted for their beauty. The islands of the Archi- 
 pelago are considered to belong partly to Europe and 
 partly to Asia. At present the Cyclades form a por- 
 tion of the Greek kingdom, while most of the other 
 islands are subject to Turkey. 
 
 The name Archipelago, which was primarily given 
 to the Mgean Sea, is now applied to various other seas 
 which contain numerous islands, as the Eastern Archi- 
 pelago, Caribbean Archipelago, etc. 
 
 Archive, or Archives, a chamber or apartment 
 wherein the records, charters, and other papers and 
 evidences, of a state, house, or community are pre- 
 served, to be consulted occasionally. Thus we say 
 the archives of a college, of a monastery, etc. 
 
 Arctic Circle is a lesser circle of the sphere, 
 parallel to the equator, and 23° 30' distant from the 
 north pole ; from whence its name. This, and its op- 
 posite, the antarctic, are called the two polar circks, 
 and may be conceived to be described by the motion 
 of the poles of the ecliptic round the poles of the equa- 
 tor, or of the world. 
 
 Arctic Ocean, that portion of the North Sea which 
 extends from the arctic circle (lat. 66° 30' N.) to the 
 north pole. It receives the waters of the northern slopes 
 of the great continents, and is the recipient of the drain- 
 age of an area of 3,751,270 square miles. It enters 
 deeply, in the form of gulfs, bays, etc., into the northern 
 parts of the continents of both hemispheres. The prin- 
 cipal of these indentations are the White Sea, in Eu- 
 rope ; Sea of Kara, Gulfs of Obe and Yenisee, in Si- 
 beria ; and Baffin's Bay, in North America. It is united 
 to the Pacific by Behring's Strait, and to the Atlantic 
 by Davis' Strait, and a wide sea extending from Green- 
 land on the west to Norway and Lapland on the east. 
 This portion of the Arctic Ocean is occupied centrally 
 by Greenland, and on the east is the extensive group 
 of Spitzbergen, the small island of San Mayen, and 
 Iceland. West of Greenland, and divided from it by 
 Davis' Strait and Baffin's Bay, are a considerable num- 
 ber of islands of great size, which have been but im- 
 perfectly explored. The region north of lat. 70° is the 
 most dreary on the face of the globe. 
 
 The shores are covered with eternal snows, and the 
 surface of the sea, when its icy covering is rent asun- 
 der, presents a series of huge floating masses in per- 
 petual motion, and whose tremendous collisions are 
 attended with the most appalling sounds. Dense fogs, 
 violent storms, and endless nights, add to the horrors 
 of the scene. In the region of Spitzbergen the sun is 
 not seen for several months in the year, and the ther- 
 mometer rarely rises above 45° Fahrenheit ; while there 
 is but one month in the year (July) in which snow 
 does not fall. The only, or at least the greatest de- 
 
 gree of light the inhabitants enjoy during their long 
 winters, or from the latter end of September to the be- 
 ginning of May, is that which proceeds from the bor- 
 rowed lustre of the moon, the stars, the aurora, or the 
 snow blink. This ocean freezes even in summer, and 
 during the eight winter months a continuous body of 
 ice extends over its entire surface, filling the area of 
 the circle of between 3000 and 4000 miles in diameter. 
 The icebergs, of which vast numbers are continually 
 in motion wherever an opening appears, vary from a 
 few yards to miles in circumference, and rise to hun- 
 dreds of feet in height. The ice in these regions is 
 very transparent, compact, and remarkable for the va- 
 riety and beauty of its tints. The water is extremely 
 pure, shells being distinctly visible at a depth of 80 
 fathoms. The pressure of the water at a depth of li 
 miles has been found to be 2809 lbs. on a square inch 
 of surface. 
 
 The history of adventure in the Arctic Seas presents 
 a striking disproportion between efibrt and achieve- 
 ment. All that human daring can do has been done 
 to open up the mysteries of these dreary regions. The 
 first attempt to explore the Polar Seas was made in 
 1553, by Willoughby and Chancellor, who were sent 
 out with instructions to ascertain if there was a north- 
 east passage, or if they could reach China by passing 
 to the north of Europe and Asia. Willoughby reach- 
 ed Nova Zembla, but he and all his crew were frozen 
 to death. Chancellor entered the White Sea, and thus 
 opened a communication with Bussia. Captain Cook 
 reached Icy Cape from the Pacific in 1778. In 1607 
 Captain Hudson was sent out to attempt to discover 
 the northwest passage, and reached the lat. of 81°, but 
 was under the necessity of putting back on account of 
 the ice. In 1773 this experiment was again tried by 
 an expedition under the command of Captain Phipps, 
 who advanced about as far as Captain Hudson had 
 previously done ; and a similar attempt was made in 
 1818, which proved equally unfortunate, under Captain 
 Buchan. In 1818 Captain Ross attempted a northwest 
 passage, and passed through Lancaster Sound. In 
 1819 Captain Parry reached long. 110° W., and in 
 1821-28 examined the coast to the north of Hudson's 
 Bay ; in 1824 he reached Prince Regent Inlet. In 1826 
 Captain Franklin was sent overland to explore the 
 north coast of America, to the west of Mackenzie's 
 River ; and at the same time Captain Beechey was dis- 
 patched to meet him in Behring's Strait. The two ex- 
 peditions approached each other to within a distance 
 of 146 miles, but returned without meeting. In 1827 
 Captain Parry was sent out to penetrate as far as pos- 
 sible in the direction of the Pole in boats and sledges, 
 over the ice, and he reached about 82° 40', the highest 
 latitude yet attained. In 1829-33 Captain Ross sailed 
 up Prince Regent Inlet, ascertained that there is no 
 communication between the Arctic Ocean and the At- 
 lantic south of Barrow's Strait. The expedition sent 
 out in search of the long-desired route from the Atlan- 
 tic to the Pacific, through the Polar Seas, commanded 
 by Sir John Franklin, sailed in 1845, with two ships, 
 the Erebus and Terror, and has not since been heard 
 of. Several expeditions have been dispatched in search 
 of the missing navigator and his companions, but hith- 
 erto without success. One of these expeditions, com- 
 manded by Captain Kellet, attained, on August 15, 
 1849, the lat. of 71° 12' N., long. 170° 10' W. ; and on 
 the 16th discovered an almost inaccessible island of 
 granite, rising 1400 feet above the sea, beyond which 
 a range of high land was seen ; but constant snow- 
 storms compelled him to quit the neighborhood with- 
 out doing more, to prevent his being hemmed in by 
 the pack-ice. 
 
 The long absence of the expedition under the com- 
 mand of Captain Franklin, and the unsuccessful efforts 
 made from Britain to ascertain the fate of the missing 
 navigators, induced Lady Franklin to appeal to Amer- 
 ica for aid in seeking for her husband and his compan- 
 
AEG 
 
 58 
 
 AEK 
 
 ions. Her appeal ivas responded to by Henry Grin- 
 nell. He purcliased vessels, which, -with the counte- 
 nance and aid of the United States Government, were 
 sent to assist in the search. This muniiicent act of 
 Mr. Grinnell is without a precedent. It was an un- 
 dertaking by a private citizen of one country to seek 
 out and restore to their homes, if possible, the officers 
 and crews of the absent ships of another. The Amer- 
 ican searching vessels were placed under the command 
 of Lieutenant De Haven, of the United States navy. 
 The Rescue^ the foremost vessel of the American ex- 
 pedition, entered Wellington Channel in company with 
 the Assistance^ the foremost vessel of all the British ex- 
 peditions, on the 24th of August, 1850 ; and when, at 
 the close of the season, it became apparent that no 
 further progress could be made, the American vessels, 
 without the aid ofsteam^ were at the farthest point that 
 was made by any vessel of the three British expedi- 
 tions then engaged in the search, all of which had been 
 assisted by steam on their outward voyage, when in 
 and while crossing Baffin's Bay. The expeditions of 
 Ross, Austin, and Penny made harbors. The Amer- 
 icans were afloat the whole of a long arctic winter, at 
 the mercy of the winds, the currents, and the ice. On 
 the 18th of September, De Haven was north of Cape 
 Bowditch, the most northern point seen by Parry in 
 1819, and farther north within Lancaster Sound than 
 had been attained by any vessel of all the exploring 
 and searching expeditions. His discoveries began at 
 Cape Bowden, on the 17th of September; by the end 
 of the month he was at 75° 25' N. Here he saw hith- 
 erto unknown land to the east, and the west, and far 
 to the north. To this new-discovered land he gave- 
 the name of Grisnell Land ; and to a height of land 
 seen, Mount Franklin ; and named the bodies of water 
 Maury Channel, etc. The following season this coun- 
 try was explored hy passing over the ice much farther 
 west, by Captain Penny and others of the British navy. 
 The name of Grinnell Land has been ungenerously 
 omitted from the charts of this region published by the 
 British Admiralty, and the name of Albert Land sup- 
 plies its place. — Harper's Gazetteer. Captain Sir 
 Robert M'Clure, in the autumn of 1850, by traveling 
 over ice, connected the geography of the waters of the 
 Pacific and the Atlantic for the first time. When in 
 1863 this news arrived in England, he was hailed, very 
 justly, as the discoverer of the Northwest Passage. 
 But no vessel has ever passed through the frozen straits 
 traversed by M'Clure. The passage discovered by him 
 has been crossed on the ice many times, but never by 
 ship or boat of any sort. 
 
 May 31, 1853, Dr. Kane started on his second voy- 
 age, and being longer than the time proposed, the 
 Arctic, under Lieutenant Hartstein, was sent in search 
 of him. Dr. Kane was found at the Danish settle- 
 ments on his return home, having lost his vessels and 
 suffered great hardship, but without meeting any suc- 
 cess in his efforts or making further discoveries. Lieu- 
 tenant Hartstein arrived, with Dr. Kane, October 11, 
 1855. It is now almost certain that the remains found 
 by Dr. Rae were those of Sir John Franklin and party, 
 and the Royal Geographical Society propose giving 
 him the reward of £10,000 which was offered. 
 
 ArgO, in Antiquity, the ship celebrated in ancient 
 poetry as that in which the Argonauts made their 
 expedition to Colchis in quest of the golden fleece. 
 Jason having happily accomplished his enterprise, 
 consecrated the ship Argo to Poseidon (Neptune), or, 
 as others say, to Athena (Minerva), on the isthmus 
 of Corinth, where, they add, it did not remain long 
 before it was translated into heaven, and made a con- 
 stellation. — E, B. 
 
 Argol, Argal, or Tartar (Germ. Weinsiein; 
 Du. Wynsteen; Fr. Tartre; It. Sp. and Port. Tartaro; 
 Russ. Wimiui Icamen; Lat. Tartarus'), a hard crust 
 formed on the sides of the vessels in which wine has 
 been kept ; it is red or white according to the color 
 
 of the wine, and is otherwise impure. On being 
 purified, it is termed cream or crystals of tartar. It 
 consists principally of bitartrate of potash. White 
 argol is preferable to red, as containing less drossy or 
 earthy matter. The marks of good argol of either 
 kind are, its being thick, brittle, hard, brilliant, and 
 little earthy. That brought from Bologna is reckoned 
 the best, and fetches' the highest price. Argol is of 
 considerable use among dyers, as serving to dispose 
 the stuffs to take their colors the better. Pure argol, 
 or cream of tartar, is extensively used in medicine. 
 It has an acid and rather unpleasant taste. It is 
 very brittle, and easily reduced to powder : specific 
 gravity, 1-95. The English duty on argol, of 6d. per ' 
 cwt., was repealed in 1845. In 1852 the imports and 
 exports of argol into Great Britain amounted respect- 
 ively to 17,839 and 3545 cwt. The price of argol in 
 London, in September, 1853, varied ; Bologna, from 
 58s. to 62s. per cwt. ; Leghorn, 46s. to 66s. per cwt. ; 
 Naples, Sicily, etc., 33s. to 39s. 
 
 Aristolocbia (Fr. Serpentaire ; Germ. jSchlan- 
 c/enwurzel ; It. Serpentaria; Lat. Aristolochia serpen- 
 tarid), the dried root of A^irginia snake-root, or birth- 
 wort : it is small, light, and bushy, consisting of a 
 number of fibres matted together, sprung from one 
 common head, of a brownish color on the outside, and 
 pale or yellow within. It has an aromatic smell, 
 something like that of valerian, but more agreeable ; 
 and a warm, bitterish, pungent taste, very much re- 
 sembling camphor. — Encyclopcedia Metrop. 
 
 Arithmetic. Where first invented is not known, 
 at least with certainty, It was brought from Egypt 
 into Greece by Thales, about 600 B.C. The oldest 
 treatise upon arithmetic is by Euclid (7th, 8th, and 
 9th books of his Elements'), about 300 B.C. The sexa- 
 gesimal arithmetic of Ptolemy was used A.D. 130. 
 Diophantus of Alexandria was the author of thirteen 
 books of arithmetical questions (of which six are ex- 
 tant) in 156. Notation b)- nine digits and zero, 
 known at least as early as the sixth century in Hin- 
 dostan; introduced from thence into Arabia about 
 900 ; into Spain, 1050 ; into England, 1253. The date 
 in Caxton's Mirror of the World, Arabic characters, 
 is 1480. Arithmetic of decimals invented in 1482. 
 First work printed in England on arithmetic {de Arte 
 Supputaudi) was by Tonstall, bishop of Durham, 
 1522. The theory of decimal fractions was perfected 
 by Lord Napier, in his Raldologia, in 1617.— Haydn. 
 
 Ark, Noah's, a floating vessel built by the pa- 
 triarch Noah, for the preservation of his family, and 
 the several species of animals, during the Deluge. 
 The ark has afforded several points of curious inquiry 
 relating to its form, capacity, materials, etc. The 
 wood of which it was built is called in the Hebrew 
 gopher wood, and in the Septuagint, square timhers. 
 Some translate the original cedar, others pine, others 
 box, etc: Pelletier prefers cedar, on account of its in- 
 corruptibility and the great abundance of it in Asia. 
 Fuller and Bochart contend that it was built of what 
 the Greeks call Kviraptaaog, or the cypress-tree ; for 
 taking away the termination, kupar and gopher difl'er 
 very little in sound. In what place Noah built and 
 finished his ark is no less a matter of dispute ; but 
 the most general opinion is, that it was built in 
 Chaldea, in the territories of Babylon. Its dimen- 
 sions, as given by Moses, are 300 cubits in length, 50 
 in breadth, and 30 in height. Dr. Arbuthnot com- 
 putes its burden at 81,062 tons. It contained, besides 
 eight persons of Noah's family, one pair of everv 
 species of unclean animals, and seven pairs of everv 
 species of clean animals, with provisions for them all 
 during the whole year. The insuperable difficulties 
 connected with the belief that all the existing species 
 of animals were provided for in the ark, are obviated 
 by adopting the suggestion of Bishop Stillingfleet, 
 approved by Matthew Poole, Pye Smith, Le Clerc, 
 Rossenmuller, and others, that the Deluge did not 
 
AEK 
 
 59 
 
 AKK 
 
 extend beyond that region of the earth then inhabited, 
 and that only the animals of that region were pre- 
 served in the Ark. — See Deluge, and ICitto's Biblic- 
 al Cyclopedia. 
 
 Arkansas, one of the Western United States, is 
 bounded north by Missouri, east by the Mississippi 
 Eiver, separating it from Tennessee and Mississippi, 
 south by Louisiana, and west by the Indian Terri- 
 tory. It is between 33° and 36° 30' N. lat., and 
 between 89° 30' and 94° 30' W. long., and be- 
 tween 12° 30' and 17° 30' W. long., from Wash- 
 ington. It is 240 miles long and 228 wide, contain- 
 ing 54,500' square miles, or 34,800,000 acres. The 
 population in 1330, 30,388 ; in 1840, 97,574 : in 1860, 
 209,639. It is divided into 51 counties. The capital 
 is Little Rock, situated on the right bank of Arkansas 
 river, 300 miles from its entrance into the Mississippi. 
 The other principal towns are Helena, Columbia, Van 
 Buren, Fort Smith, Washington, Batesville, Fayette- 
 ville. El Dorado, etc. 
 
 The eastern part of the State, for the distance of 
 100 miles from the Mississippi, is low, and much of it 
 is subject to be overflowed at certain seasons ; but this 
 has been in a great measure obviated by an extensive 
 embankment or levee along the Mississippi, Arlcansas, 
 and White Rivers. The central part of the State is 
 uneven and broken, and in the west it is hilly and 
 mountainous. There are some extensive prairies, and 
 some heavily timbered lands. On the margin of the 
 rivers the soil is exceedingly fertile. The Ozark 
 Mountains, rising sometimes to the height of from 
 1000 to 2000 feet, cross its northwest part. A range 
 of hills, called the Black Mountains, runs between 
 the Arkansas and AVhite Rivers, extending west from 
 near White River to the west border of the State. A 
 little southwest of the centre of the State are boiling 
 springs, the temperature of which at times rises nearly 
 to the boiling point, though subject to much variation. 
 Near these springs are ridges of hills, which rise into 
 elevated peaks known as the Poteau and Washita 
 Mountains, whose highest elevations are west of the 
 State in the Indian Territory. Wild animals, as the 
 deer, elk, bear and wolf ; and wild fowls, as the wild 
 goose, turkpy, and quail, are found in abundance. Its 
 mineral productions are extensive, consisting of iron 
 ore, lead, zinc, and copper, gypsum, coal, and salt. 
 The country is well adapted to the raising of cattle. 
 
 There were in this State, in 1850, 781,531 acres of 
 land improved, and 1,816,684 of unimproved land in 
 farms; cash value of farms, $15,265,246; value of 
 implements and machinery, $1,601,296. 
 
 Live Stock. — Horses, 60,197; asses and mules, 
 11,559; milch cows, 93,151; working oxen, 34,239; 
 other cattle, 165,320 ; sheep, 91,256 ; swine, 836,727 ; 
 value of live stock, $6,647,969. 
 
 Agricultural Products, etc. — Wheat, 199,639 bushels 
 produced; rye, 8,047; Indian corn, 8,893,939; oats, 
 666,183; barley, 177; buckwheat, 175; peas and 
 beans, 285,738; potatoes, 193,832; sweet potatoes, 
 788,149 ; rice, 63,179 pounds ; value of products of the 
 orchard, $40,141 ; produce of market gardens, $17,150 ; 
 pounds of butter made, 1,854,239; of cheese, 30,088; 
 maple sugar, 9,330 pounds ; molasses, 18 gallons ; 
 beeswax and honey, 192,338 pounds ; wool, 182,595 
 pounds produced ; cotton, 65,344 ; flax, 12,291 ; hemp, 
 15 tons ; silk cocoons, 38 pounds ; hops, 157 ; tobacco, 
 218,936; hay (tons of), 3976 ; clover seed, 90 bushels ; 
 other grass seeds, 436 ; flax seed, 321 ; and there were 
 made 35 gallons of wine; value of home-made manu- 
 factures, $638,217 ; of slaughtered animals, $1,162,913. 
 In the eastern part, particularly on the borders of 
 tlie rivers, the climate is generally moist and un- 
 healthy, but in the middle and western parts it is 
 salubrious. Its rivers alford great facilities for com- 
 merce. The Mississippi flows along its eastern border 
 for the distance of nearly 400 miles. The Arkansas 
 River, which gives name to the State, flows through it 
 
 in a southeastwardly direction ; is a broad and deep 
 stream, and is navigable for steamboats 300 miles to 
 Little Rock, and in the spring floods 350 miles farther 
 to Port Gibson, beyond the western border of the State. 
 White River rises in Ozark Mountains, flows through 
 a fertile and healthy country, abounding with springs 
 and streams of pure water, and affords many mill 
 seats. It flows into the Arkansas River, and is un- 
 commonly circuitous in its course. The St. Francis 
 River rises in Missouri, and flows south nearly parallel 
 to the Mississippi, which it at last enters. It is boat- 
 able for 300 miles. The Washita waters its southern, 
 and the Red River, a majestic stream, its southwest- 
 ern part. 
 
 The internal improvements are in embryo, but when 
 carried out will form an excellent system. 'The rivers 
 are numerous, and would give good facilities for com- 
 merce, but for the rafts of sunken wood which ob- 
 struct nearly all. Congress has made appropriations 
 for the clearance of some, including the Red River, 
 but to such a limited extent as not to remove the 
 obstructions entirely. The railroad system needs but 
 development to give prosperity to the State. Congress 
 has granted lands to all the principal roads in progress ; 
 one of which, from Memphis to Little Rock, will be 
 important as a part of the trunk line to California. 
 
 Manufactures. — There were in the State in 1850, 
 3 cotton factories, with a capital invested of $16,500, 
 employing 13 males and 18 females, producing sheet- 
 ings and 81,250 pounds of yam, valued at $16,637 ; 
 28 flouring and grist mills, 57 saw mills, 51 tanneries, 
 9 newspapers, including periodicals, published. Capi- 
 tal invested in manufactures, $324,055. 
 
 Ark-wiight, Sir Richard, famous for his inven- 
 tions in cotton-spinning, was born at Preston, in Lan- 
 cashire, in 1732, of parents in humble circumstances. 
 He was the youngest of thirteen children, received but 
 a very indifterent education, and was bred to the trade 
 of a barber. But the res angusta domi could not re- 
 press the native vigor of his mind, or extinguish the 
 desire he felt to emerge from his low situation. In the 
 year 1760 he had established himself in Bolton-le-Moor, 
 where he exchanged the trade of a barber for that of 
 an itinerant hair-merchant ; and having discovered a 
 valuable chemical process for dyeing hair, he was in 
 consequence enabled to amass a little property. It is 
 unfortunate that very little is known of the steps by 
 which he was led to those inventions that raised him 
 to distinction, and have immortalized his name. His 
 residence in a district where a considerable manufac- 
 ture of linen goods, and of linen and cotton mixed, was 
 carried on, must have given him ample opportunities 
 of becoming acquainted with the various processes that 
 were in use in the cotton manufacture, and of the at- 
 tempts that had been made and were then making to 
 improve them. His attention was thus naturally drawn 
 to this peculiar department ; and, while he saw reason 
 to conclude that it was likely to prove the most ad- 
 vantageous in which he could engage, he had sagacity 
 and good fortune to invent and improve those extraor- 
 dinary machines by which, unlike most inventors, he 
 amassed vast wealth, at the same time that he added 
 prodigiously to the demand for labor, and to the riches 
 and comfort of the civilized world. 
 
 The spinning-jenny, invented in 1767 by Hargraves, 
 a carpenter at Blackburn, in Lancashire, gave the 
 means of spinning twenty or thirty threads at once 
 with no more labor than had previously been required 
 to spin a single thread. The thread spun by the jenny 
 could not, however, be used, except as weft, being des- 
 titute of the flrmness or hardness required in the lon- 
 gitudinal threads or warp. But Mr. Arkwright supplied 
 this deficiency by the invention of the spirmvng-frame 
 — that wonderful piece of machinery, which spins a 
 vast number of threads of any degree of fineness and 
 hardness, leaving to man merely to feed the machine 
 with cotton, and to join the threads when they happen 
 
AKK 
 
 60 
 
 ARE 
 
 to break. . It is not diificnlt to understand the princi- 
 ple on which this machine is constructed, and the mode 
 of its operation. It consists of two pairs of rollers, 
 turned by means of machinerj'. The lower roller of 
 each pair is furrowed or fluted longitudinally, and the 
 upper one is covered with leather, to make them take 
 a hold of the cotton. If there were only one pair of 
 rollers, it is clear that a carding of cotton, passed be- 
 tween them, would be drawn forward by the revolution 
 of the rollers ; but it would merely undergo a certain 
 degree of compression from their action. No sooner, 
 however, has the carding, or rovinff as it is technically 
 tenned, begun to pass through the first pair of rollers, 
 than it is received by the second pair, which are made 
 to revolve with (as the case may be) three, four, or five 
 times the volocity of the first pair. By this admirable 
 contrivance, the roving is drawn out into a thread of 
 the desired degree of tenuity, a twist being given to it 
 by the adaptation of the spindle and fly of the common 
 flax wheel to the machinery. 
 
 Such is the principle on which Mr. Arkwright con- 
 structed his famous spinning-frame. It is obvious that 
 it is radically different from the previous methods of 
 spinning either by the common hand wheel or distaff, 
 or by the jenny, which is only a modification of the 
 common wheel. Spinning by rollers was an entirely 
 original idea ; and it is difficult to determine which is 
 most worthy of admiration — the genius which led to so 
 great a discovery, or the consummate skill and address 
 by which it was so speedily perfected and reduced to 
 practice. Mr. Arkwright stated that he accidentally 
 derived the first hint of his great invention from seeing 
 a red-hot iron bar elongated by being made to pass be- 
 tween rollers ; and though there is no mechanical anal- 
 ogy between that operation and his process of spin- 
 ning, it is not difficult to imagine that by reflecting 
 upon it, and placing the subject in different points of 
 view, it might lead him to his invention. The precise 
 era of the discovery is not known ; but it is most prob- 
 able that the felicitous idea of spinning by rollers had 
 occurred to his mind as early as the period when Har- 
 graves was engaged in the invention of the jenny, or 
 almost immediately after. Not being a practical me- 
 chanic, Arkwright employed a person of the name of 
 John Kay, a watch-maker at Warrington, to whom we 
 shall afterward have to refer, to assist him in the prep- 
 aration of the parts of his machine. Having made 
 some progress toward the completion of his inventions, 
 he applied in 1767 to Mr. Atherton, of Liverpool, for 
 pecuniary assistance to enable him to carry them into 
 effect ; but this gentleman declined embarking his prop- 
 erty in what appeared so hazardous a speculation, 
 though he is said to have sent him some workmen to 
 assist in the construction of his machine ; the first 
 model of which was set up in the parlor of the house 
 belonging to the free grammar school at Preston. 
 
 His inventions being at length brought into a pretty 
 advanced state, Arkwright, accompanied by Kay, and 
 a Mr. Smalley, of Preston, removed to Nottingham in 
 1768, in order to avoid the attacks of the same lawless 
 rabble that had driven Hargraves out of Lancashire. 
 Here his operations were at first greatly fettered by a 
 want of capital. But Mr. Strutt, of Derbj', a gentle- 
 man of great mechanical skill, and largely engaged in 
 the stocking manufacture, having seen Arkwright's in- 
 ventions, and satisfied himself of their extraordinary 
 value, immediately entered, conjointly with his part- 
 ner Mr. Need, into partnership with him. The com- 
 mand of the necessary funds being thus obtained, Mr. 
 Arkwright erected his first mill, which was driven by 
 horses, at Nottingham, and took out a patent for spin- 
 ning by rollers, in 1769. But as the mode of working 
 the machinery by horse-power was found too expens- 
 ive, he built a second factory, on a much larger scale, 
 at Cromford, in Derbyshire, in 1771, the machinery of 
 which was turned by a water-wheel, after the manner 
 of the famous silk-mill erected by Sir Thomas Lombe. 
 
 Having made several additional discoveries and im- 
 provements in the processes of carding, roving, and 
 spinning, he took out a fresh patent for the whole in 
 1775 ; and thus completed a series of machinery so 
 various and complicated, yet so admirably combined, 
 and well adapted to produce the intended effect, in its 
 most perfect form, as to excite the astonishment and 
 admiration of every one capable of appreciating the in- 
 genuity displayed and the difficulties overcome. — E. B. 
 
 Armada, a Spanish term, signifying a fleet of 
 war. The armada which attempted to invade En- 
 gland in the time of Queen Elizabeth is, famous in 
 history." 
 
 Armed Neutrality. The confederacy, so called, 
 of the Northern powers, against England, was com- 
 menced by the Empress of Eussia in 1780 ; but its 
 objects were defeated in 1781. The pretension was 
 renewed, and a treaty ratified in order to cause their 
 flags to be respected by the belligerent powers, De- 
 cember 16, 1800. The principle that neutral flags 
 protect neutral bottoms being contrary to the mari- 
 time sj'Stem of England, the British cabinet remon- 
 strated, and Nelson and Parker destroyed the fleet of 
 Denmark before Copenhagen, April 2, 1801. That 
 power, in consequence, was obliged to secede from the 
 alliance, and acknowledge the claim of England to 
 the empire of the sea ; and the Armed Neutrality was 
 soon after dissolved. — Haydk. 
 
 Arms. See Firk-akms. 
 
 Arrack, or Rack (Fr. Arac; Germ. Arrack, 
 Rack; Du. Arak, Rak; It. Araco; Sp. Arak; Port. 
 Araco; Euss. Arak), a spirituous liquor manufactured 
 at different places in the East. 
 
 Arrack is a term applied in most parts of India, 
 and the Indian islands, to designate every sort of 
 spirituous liquors ; a circumstance which accounts for 
 the discrepancy in the statements as to the materials 
 used in making it, and the mode of its manufacture. 
 The arrack of Goa and Eatavia is in high estimation ; 
 that of Columbo or Ceylon has been said to be inferior 
 to the former ; but this is doubtful. Goa and Columbo 
 arrack is invariably made from the vegetable juice, 
 toddy, which flows by incision from the cocoa-nut tree 
 (Kocos nucifera). After the juice is femiented, it is 
 distilled and rectified. It usually yields about an 
 eighth part of pure spirit. Batavia or Java arrack is 
 obtained by distillation from molasses and rice, with 
 only a small admixture of toddy. When well pre- 
 pared, arrack is clear and transparent ; generally, 
 however, it is slightly straw-colored. Its flavor is 
 peculiar; but it differs considerably, no doubt in con- 
 sequence of the various articles of which it is prepared, 
 and the unequal care taken in its manufacture. In 
 England, arrack is seldom used except to give flavor 
 to punch ; formerly the imports were quite inconsid- 
 erable ; but they have recently been a good deal 
 greater, though, as they are mixed up in the official 
 returns with rum from India, it is impossible to state 
 their exact amount. The duty on rack from a British 
 possession is 8s. 2d. a gallon, and on that from a 
 foreign country, 16s. per gallon. In the East its con- 
 sumption is immense. It is issued to the soldiers in 
 India as part of the established rations; and it is 
 supplied, instead of rum, to the seamen of the royal 
 navy employed in the Indian seas. It is one of the 
 principal products of Ceylon. Its prime cost in that 
 island varies from 8d. to 10c?. a gallon ; and large 
 quantities are exported to India and elsewhere. It is 
 sold in Ceylon by the logger of 150, and in Java by 
 the legger of 160 gallons. In 1841 the exports from 
 the latter amounted to 4672 loggers, or 747,520 gal- 
 lons, valued at 286,313 florins. Batavia arrack sold 
 in bond in London, in September, 1853, at from Is. 6d. 
 to 2s. per gallon. 
 
 PariaJi-arrack is a phrase used to designate a spirit 
 distilled in the peninsula of India, which is said to be 
 often rendered unwholesome by an admixture ott/anga 
 
ARR 
 
 61 
 
 ART 
 
 (Cannabis saiiva'), and a species of Datura, in the view 
 of increasing its intoxicating power. But it is not 
 clear whether the term pariah-arrack be meant to im- 
 ply that it is an inferior spirit, or an adulterated com- 
 pound. This liquor is sometimes distilled from cocoa- 
 nut toddy, and sometimes from a mixture of jaggery, 
 water, and the barks of various trees. — See Milbhrn's 
 Orient. Com. ; and Me. Makshall's valuable Essay on 
 the Cocoa-nut Tree, p. 18. 
 
 Arrow-root, the pith or starch of the root Ma- 
 ranta arundinacea. It has received its common name 
 from its being supposed to be an antidote to the pois- 
 oned arrows of the Indians. The powder is prepared 
 from roots of a year old. It is reckoned a very whole- 
 some, nutritious food : it is often adulterated, when 
 in the shops, with the starch or flour of potatoes. It 
 is a native of South America ; but has been long in- 
 troduced into the West Indies, where it forms a pret- 
 ty important article of cultivation. An excellent kind 
 of arrow-root, if it may be so called, is now prepared 
 in India from the root of the Curcuma angustifoUa. 
 The plant is abundant on the Malabar coast, where 
 the powder is made in such quantities as to be a 
 considerable object of trade. Some of it has been 
 brought to England. The Maranta arundinacea has 
 been carried from the West Indies to Ceylon, where 
 it thrives extremely well, and where arrow-root of the 
 finest quality has been manufactured from it. — ^Ains- 
 lie's Mat. Indica. 
 
 Arro-wsmith, Aaron, an eminent geographer 
 and hydrographer, born at London in 1750. He pub- 
 lished, in 1817, a. new General Atlas, 4to, and pro- 
 duced a great number of maps and charts. His map 
 of the world on Mercator's projectionis much esteem- 
 ed. He died in 1823. 
 
 Arsenal (from the Romaunt arthenal, a, citadel), 
 originally denoted exclusively a magazine of naval 
 stores and warlike apparatus, giving probability to 
 the etymology which derives the word from the Latin 
 arx navalis, a naval citadel. Now, however, the term 
 is applied to a repository of warlike stores, whether 
 for land or sea service. The naval arsenals are, 
 however, still the more numerous, and will be found 
 described at length under the article Dock-yakds. 
 
 The great arsenal of Britain (if we except the 
 Tower) is that of Woolwich, where all warlike stores 
 and apparatus are not only preserved, but manufac- 
 tured in the immense buildings devoted to the pur- 
 pose. At Woolwich, Deptford, Chatham, Sheemess, 
 Portsmouth, and Plymouth, are the great naval ar- 
 senals. In France, there are military arsenals at 
 Paris, Strasburg, Metz, Lille, etc. ; and five great 
 maritime arsenals, the chief of which are those of 
 Brest, Toulon, and Eochefort ; next to them L'Orient 
 and Cherbourg. There are also inferior arsenals at 
 Dunkirk, Havre, Saint Servan, Nantes, Bordeaux, 
 and Bayonne. The other principal naval arsenals in 
 Europe are, those of Bussia, at St. Petersburg, Cron- 
 stadt, and Sebastopol ; of Holland, at Anvers, Flush- 
 ing, Helvoetsluys, and the Texel ; of Prussia, at Dant- 
 zig ; of Hamburg ; of Denmark, at Copenhagen ; of 
 Turkey, at Constantinople ; of Italy, at Genoa, Villa- 
 franca, Livorno, Spezzia, Civita Veochia, Naples, An- 
 cona, Venice, and Trieste ; of Spain, at Cadiz, Cartha- 
 gena, and Barcelona, and the British one at Gibraltar ; 
 of Portugal, at Lisbon ; of Britain, at Malta and Cor- 
 fu. — E. B. The principal naval arsenals of the United 
 States are at New York, Boston, and Norfolk. The 
 military arsenals of the United States are at Kennebec, 
 Maine ; Watertown, Massachusetts ; Watervliet, New 
 York; New York city; Alleghany and Frankford, 
 Pennsylvania ; Pikesville, Indiana; Washington, Dis- 
 trict of Columbia ; Fort Monroe, Virginia ; Augusta, 
 Georgia; St. Louis, Mobile ; Baton Rouge, Louisiana; 
 Mount Vernon, Alabama; Detroit, Michigan; Fay- 
 etteville. North Carolina ; Charleston, South Carolina ; 
 Little Rock, Arkansas ; San Antonio, Texas ; Benicia, 
 
 California ; of Brazil, at Rio Janeiro and Bahia ; of 
 La Plata, at Buenos Ayres and Monte Video ; of Chili, 
 at Valparaiso ; and of Mexico, at Vera Cruz. 
 
 Arsenic (Germ. Arsenik; Fr. Arsenic; It. and 
 Sp. Arsenico ; Buss. MuschjaJi ; Lat. Arsenicum). This 
 metal has a bluish white color not unlike that of 
 steel, and a good deal of brilliancy. It has no sens- 
 ible smell while cold, but when heated it emits a 
 strong odor of garlic, which is very characteristic. It 
 is the softest of all the metallic bodies, and so brittle 
 that it may be easily reduced to a very fine powder by 
 trituration in a morta*. Its specific gravity is 6'76. — 
 Thomson's Chemistry. Metallic arsenic is not used 
 in the arts, and is not, therefore, extracted from the 
 ore, except for the purposes of experiment or curiosity. 
 The arsenic of commerce is the white oxide, or arse- 
 nious acid of chemists. It is a white, brittle, compact 
 substance, of a glassy appearance ; is inodorous ; has 
 an acrid taste, leaving on the tongue a sweetish im- 
 pression; and is highly corrosive. In its metallic 
 state arsenic exerts no action on the animal system ; 
 but when oxidized, it is a most virulent poison. The 
 arsenic of the shops is sometimes adulterated with 
 white sand, chalk, or gypsum : the fraud may be de- 
 tected by beating a small portion of the suspected 
 powder, when the arsenic is dissipated, leaving the 
 impurities, if there be any, behind. Though the most 
 violent of all the mineral poisons, the white oxide of 
 arsenic, or the arsenic of the shops, is yet, when judi- 
 ciously administered, a medicine of great efficacy. It 
 is also used for various purposes in the arts. It is 
 principally imported from Saxony and Bohemia. — 
 Thomson's Chemistry; A. T. Thomson's Dispensatory. 
 
 Arsura, a term used in ancient times for the melt- 
 ing of gold or silver, either to refine them or to ex- 
 amine their value. The method of doing this is 
 explained in the Black Book of the Exchequer, as- 
 cribed to Gervaise, in the chapter De Officio Mititis 
 Argentarii, being in those days of great use, on ac- 
 count of the various places and different manners in 
 which the king's money was paid. Arsura is also 
 used for the loss or diminution of the metal in the 
 tr|al. In this sense a pound was said tot ardere 
 denarhs, to lose so many pennyweights. Arsura is 
 likewise used for the dust and sweepings of silver- 
 smiths, and others who work in silver melted down. 
 
 Artesian Wells, the name applied to artificial 
 springs, produced by boring a small hole through 
 strata destitute of water, into lower beds in which 
 water is percolating in considerable quantity. On 
 making such perforation, the water often rises forcibly 
 to the surface, and is conveyed to a convenient re- 
 ceptacle by a pipe introduced by the perforation into 
 the strata aftbrding the water. The first place in 
 Europe where such artificial fountains were extensively 
 formed was in the French province of Artois, ancientlj' 
 Artesium. But there is reason to believe that the art 
 was long before practiced by the Chinese, who are 
 verj' expert in the formation of such wells. They are 
 extensively used in the Milanese, in several parts of 
 Germany, and have also been for several years em- 
 ployed in the south of England, on the coast of Lin- 
 colnshire, and more lately in the vicinity of London. 
 
 An artesian well was sunk at Sheemess in 1781, to 
 the depth of 330 feet. — Philosophical Transactions, 1784. 
 It was carried through a thick bed of London clay, and 
 water, which rose nearly to the surface, was found on 
 reaching the subjacent sand-beds. Two of better 
 construction were earned to the same depth through 
 similar materials at Portsmouth docks in 1828 and 
 1829. The soil of the district on the coast of Lincoln, 
 between Lowth and the sea, rests on a thick bed of 
 clay, which precludes the possibility of springs ; but 
 by penetrating through this, water was found in 
 abundance in the chalk on which the clay reposed ; 
 and artesian wells there now afford a plentiful supply 
 of this necessary element, that rises with such force 
 
ABT 
 
 62 
 
 AET 
 
 through the pipes as to have obtained the local name 
 of bhw-wells. The theory of artesian wells is founded 
 on the fact that water derived from a higher level may 
 percolate through certain strata, or pass in seams 
 between them, and be prevented from reaching the 
 surface by the superposition of other beds or strata 
 impervious to water. In such circumstances a per- 
 foration through the latter allows the water, by hy- 
 drostatic pressure, to reach the surface; and it will 
 overflow, or even gush out, with a force proportional 
 to the difference of level of the different parts of the 
 water-bearing strata, especially if the free course of 
 the subterranean sheet of water be interrupted by 
 what are termedyowfa in the strata, or the occurrence 
 of veins of stony bodies intersecting them. Thus, in 
 the diagram of a supposed section of a country, let P P 
 
 represent a thick bed of plastic clay, ABC strata 
 affording water, alternating with strata D E F, imper- 
 vious to water, and let V represent a vein of trap rock 
 traversing these strata, and producing a shift or fault ; 
 by sinking the pipes ab c into the strata ABC re- 
 spectively, we shall obtain the water derived from the 
 more elevated portions of these strata at such artesian 
 fountains. 
 
 The same principles are applicable to the sinking 
 of common wells. It has sometimes happened that a 
 well has been lost in attempts to increase its flow by 
 a deeper excavation. Thus, if the bottom of the well 
 was a bed of clay resting on sand, a perforation made 
 through that clay has occasionally lost all the water ; 
 because the stratum of clay had prevented the water 
 from escaping to a lower level, and conducted it to- 
 ward the surface. The direction of the strata, as well 
 as their nature, are essential elements for the success- 
 ful formation of either common or artesian wells ; 
 which last are of great consequence in champaign 
 countries, where natural springs are less common. 
 
 Artesian wells have been also sunk for the purpose 
 of obtaining warm, water. It is well ascertained that 
 in the interior of our earth there is a source of heat, 
 which may be reached bj' deep artesian perforations, 
 so as to bring warm water to the surface. Thus Von 
 Bruckmann, of Wiirtemburg, heated a paper manufac- 
 tory at Heilbronn by water from a deep artesian well ; 
 and by the same means prevented the freezing of the 
 water in winter round the wheels of mills. In the 
 artesian well at Eochella, at the depth of 370 feet, the 
 water has a temperature 13° higher than that of the 
 atmosphere. M. Arago was the chief promoter of 
 the artesian well in the plain of Grenelle at Paris, 
 which, at the depth of upward of 1900 feet, affords 
 water at 92° Fahrenheit. In the deepest artesian 
 well j'ct made, that at Kissengen, the temperature of 
 the water is also very considerable. 
 
 The instrument now used in making artesian per- 
 forations to great depths is not the old machine em- 
 ployed in boring for coal, etc., a series of iron rods 
 screwed together, and forced down by repeated blows 
 with a mallet. That was a costly and tedious opera- 
 tion : a Chinese instrument has lately been introduced 
 with great effect. It consists of a heavy bar of 
 cast iron, six feet long and four inches in diameter, 
 armed at its lower end with a cutting chisel, sur- 
 rounded by a cylindrical chamber, which, by means 
 of simple valves, receives and retains the abraded 
 portions of the rock. The instrument is suspended 
 by a rope passing over a wheel. As it is wrought up 
 and down, the torsion of the rope gives a circular 
 
 movement to the bar of iron, sufficient to vary the 
 position of the chisel at each stroke of the instrument ; 
 and when the chamber is full of the debris of the 
 rock, it is drawn up and discharged. This mode of 
 working has greatly diminished the labor and expense 
 of such operations ; and is applicable to manj' pro- 
 cesses in mining, blasting in quarries, and the like. 
 
 An ingenious German engineer, M. Sellow, has by 
 a similar instrument of greater size, succeeded in ven- 
 tilating the mines at Saarbrilck, hy perforations 18 
 inches in diameter, and sevei-al hundred feet in depth. 
 The importance of artesian wells can scarcely be 
 overestimated. They are capable of rendering dis- 
 tricts now scantily supplied with or destitute of pota- 
 ble water, convenient domiciles for man ; and under 
 an enlightened government might render habitable 
 no small portions of the arid wastes of 
 ^^>^ — ^ Africa and Arabia. In the latter, re- 
 cent observations show that there are 
 abundant subterranean sources of wa- 
 ter, and possibly a series of artesian 
 wells might diminish the perils of the 
 passage of the Great Sahara. — E. B. 
 The United States Government has re- 
 cently authorized a series of experi- 
 ments for the construction of a number of artesian wells 
 on the plains of Western Texas, on or near the military 
 and emigrant roads leading toward Kew Mexico and 
 California, for the relief of emigrant parties. An ex- 
 pedition for this purpose left Texas in January, 1855, 
 under the command of Captain Pope, United States 
 army, and had not completed their operations in De- 
 cember, 1856. — See Heeicat de Tiiuky, Considera- 
 tions sur la cause du Jaillissement des Eaux des PuitS' 
 fores, Paris, 1829 ; Von Beuckmann, Ueher Artesische 
 Brunnen, Heilb. 1833 ; M. Arago, Notices Scieniijiques, 
 Annuaire du Sur. des Long, pour Annes plus. 
 
 Artificer, a person who works in iron, brass, 
 wood, etc. — such as smiths, hrasiers, carpenters, etc. 
 The Eoman artificers had their peculiar temples, 
 where they assembled and chose their own patron to 
 defend their causes ; and they were exempted from all 
 personal services. Taruntenus Paternus reckons 32 
 species of artificers, and Constantine 35, who enjoyed 
 this privilege. The artificers were incorporated into 
 divers colleges or companies, each of which had their 
 tutelar gods, to whom they oflfered their worship. 
 Several of these, when they quitted their profession, 
 hung up their tools, as votive offerings to their gods. 
 Artificers were held a degree below merchants and 
 argentarii, or money-changers, and their employment 
 more sordid. Some deny that in tlie earliest ages of 
 the Eoman State artificers were ranked in the number 
 of citizens; others, who assert their citizenship, allow 
 that they were held in contempt, as being unfit for 
 war, and so poor that they could scarcely pay any 
 taxes ; for which reason they were not entered among 
 the citizens in the censor's books ; the design of the 
 census being only to see what number of persons were 
 yearly fit to bear arms and to pay taxes toward the 
 support of the state. It may be added, that much of 
 the artificers' business at Rome was done by slaves 
 and foreigners. 
 
 Artificial Horizon, a contrivance of great utility 
 for enabling an observer to determine the altitude of 
 a heavenly body, or of a terrestrial object, above the 
 horizon of any place, when the sensible horizon is ill 
 defined. ^ The surface of a fluid not easily disturbed 
 by the air, such as quicksilver, or some viscid, opaque 
 fluid, is usually employed for this purpose, as they 
 will adjust themselves to a plane parallel to the ra- 
 tional horizon. To prevent the influence of winds in 
 the open air, the surface is usually covered by a plate 
 of ground-glass with parallel surfaces. In fixed observ- 
 ations this is not necessary ; and the mercury is con- 
 tained in an oblong trough ; for locomotive observa- 
 tions, a cup of three inches in diameter is the containing 
 
AS 
 
 63 
 
 ASI 
 
 vessel. But as carrying about mercury is inconvenient, 
 some have employed polished metallic or glass mir- 
 rors, adjusted by screws at the corners, and a spirit- 
 level, to horizontality ; though this is less accurate 
 than the fluid surface. The surface of the quicltsilver, 
 or mirror so adjusted, is a plane touching the surface 
 of the earth where the observation is made, and parallel 
 to the rational horizon ; therefore, a ray of light pass- 
 ing from the object to the surface of the instrument, 
 forms an angle with that surface equal to the angular 
 elevation of that object above the true horizon of the 
 place, when it is corrected for parallax and refraction. 
 — E. B. 
 
 As, in Antigmty, a weight, consisting of 12 ounces, 
 being the same with libra, or the Roman pound. The 
 word is derived from the Greek aif, which, in the Doric 
 dialect, is used for c(f, one, q. d. an entire thing ; or, 
 according to others, from ms, because made of brass. 
 It was also the name of a Roman coin, which was of 
 different weight and material in different ages of the 
 commonwealth. Under Numa Pompilius, according 
 to Eusebius, the Roman money was either of wood, 
 leather, or shells. In the time of Tullus Hostilius it 
 was of brass, and called as libra, libella, or pondo, 
 because actually weighing a pound, or 12 ounces. 
 The first Punic war, 420 j'ears later, having exhaust- 
 ed the treasury, the as was reduced to two ounces. 
 In the second Punic war it was again reduced to 
 half its weight, viz., to one ounce. And, lastly, by 
 the Papirian law it was still further reduced to thS 
 diminutive weight of half an ounce ; and it is gener- 
 ally thought that it continued the same during the 
 , commonwealth, and even to the reign of Vespasian. 
 The as, therefore, was of four different weights in the 
 commonwealth. Its original stamp was that of a 
 sheep, ox, or sow ; but from the time of the emperors 
 it had on one side a Janus with two faces, and on the 
 reverse the rostrum or prow of a ship. As also de- 
 noted any integer or whole ; whence the English word 
 ace. Thus as signified the whole inheritance ; whence 
 hmres ex asse, the heir to the whole estate. 
 
 Asafoetida (Ger. Teufdsdrech ; Da. Duivelsdrech; 
 Vr, Assa-Jitida ; Sp. A sa-/etida ; 'LaX. Asa-ftetida ; Per. 
 Ungoozeh), a gum resin, consisting of the inspissated 
 juice of a large umbelliferous plant, the Ferula asa- 
 faetida. It is produced in the southern provinces of 
 Persia, and in the territory of Sinde, or country lying 
 at the mouth of the Indus. It is exported from the 
 Persian Gulf to Bombay and Calcutta, whence it is 
 sent to Europe. It has a nauseous, somewhat bitter, 
 biting taste, and an excessively strong, fetid, alli- 
 aceous smell; the newer it is, it possesses its smell 
 and other peculiar properties in the greater perfection. 
 It is imported, packed in irregular masses, in mats, 
 casks, and cases ; the last being, in general, the best. 
 It should be chosen clean, fresh, strong-scented, of a 
 pale reddish color, variegated with a number of fine, 
 white tears : when broken, it should somewhat resem- 
 ble marble in appearance ; and, after being exposed to 
 the air, should turn of a violet red color. That which 
 is soft, black, and foul, should be rejected. The pack- 
 ages should be carefully examined, and ought to be 
 tight, to prevent tlie smell from injuring any other 
 article. Neither the imports nor the quantities cleared 
 for consumption are considerable, though the latter 
 are probably greater than might have been expected, 
 amounting to about 9000 lbs. a year. The duty in 
 JSngland ia Is. a cwt. In England it is used only in 
 the materia medica. In France it is used both in that 
 way, and, to some extent, also as a condiment. It is 
 worth, in bond, in the London market, from 25s. to £6 
 per cwt.— Milbhrn's Orient. Com. ; Pari. Papers ; and 
 private information. 
 
 Ash, Common, the Fraxinus excelsior of botanists, 
 a forest tree of which there are many varieties. It is 
 abundant in England, and is of the greatest utility. 
 The ash is of very rapid growth ; and, unlike most 
 
 other trees, its value is rather increased than dimin- 
 ished by this circumstance. Like the chestnut, the 
 wood of young trees is most esteemed. It grows on a 
 great variety of soils, but is best where the growth 
 has been most vigorous. It is inferior to the oak in 
 stiffness, and is more easily split; but in toughness 
 and elasticity it is far superior to the oak, or to any 
 other species of timber. Hence its universal employ- 
 ment in all those parts of machinery which have to 
 sustain sudden shocks, such as the circumference, 
 teeth, and spokes of wheels, ship-blocks, etc., and in 
 the manufacture of agricultural implements ; in the 
 latter, indeed, it is almost exclusively made use of. 
 The want of prolonged durability is its greatest defect ; 
 and it is too flexible to be employed in building. The 
 wood of old trees is of a dark brown color, sometimes 
 beautifully figured ; the wood of young trees is brown- 
 ish white, with a shade of green. The texture is al- 
 ternately compact and porous : where tlie growth has 
 been vigorous, the compact part of the several layers 
 bears a great proportion to the spongy, and the timber 
 is comparatively tough, elastic, and durable. It has 
 neither taste nor smell, and, when young, is difficult 
 to work. The mountain ash QPyrus aucuparia) is 
 quite a different tree from the common ash, and its 
 timber is far less valuable. — Tkedgold's Principles 
 of Carpentry ; Timber Trees and Fruits, in Library of 
 Entertaining Knowledge, etc. 
 
 Ashes (Fr. Vedasse ;■ Ger. Waidasche ; Dn. Weedas ; 
 Da; Veedashe; It. Feccia bruciata ; Sp. Alumbre de hez ; 
 Russ. Weldasch; hat. Cineres infectorii), the vesiduum, 
 or earthy part, of any substance after it has been 
 burned. In commerce, the term is applied to the ashes 
 of vegetable substances ; from which are extracted the 
 alkaline salts called potash, pearlash, barilla, kelp, 
 etc. ; which see. 
 
 Asia. This division of the globe is distinguished 
 by its vast extent ; by the striking character of its 
 interior geography ; ■ above all, by the stupendous rev- 
 olutions of which it has been the scene ; and, lastly, 
 by the high antiquity of its civilization, of which we 
 can still faintly trace the precious remains. Stretch- 
 ing from the southern hemisphere into the northern 
 regions of perpetual winter, it comprises within its 
 bounds the opposite extremes of heat and cold ; all the 
 varieties, consequently, of the animal and vegetable 
 tribes ; and that still more interesting variety which 
 the irresistible law of climate impresses on the human 
 species. The surface of Asia, towering to its height 
 far above the regions of perpetual snow, presents, when 
 superficially examined, a confused mass of lofty mount- 
 ains, diverging into an endless variety of inferior 
 ridges, apparently without plan or system. But a 
 more attentive survej' discloses, amidst the bold ir- 
 regularities of nature, the same order and unity of de- 
 sign in the structure of this great continent as in all 
 the other works of creation. 
 
 Asia was the earliest abode of the human race ; 
 and, when all the other parts of the world were either 
 uninhabited or sunk in barbarism, it was the seat of 
 great empires, and of flourishing and splendid cities, 
 of commerce, of literature, and of all the arts of civil- 
 ized life. But its early prosperity was blighted by 
 the ruthless devastations of war ; its populous cities 
 were utterly destroyed, so that the spot on which 
 many of them stood is now only marked by masses of 
 ruins ; their arts and literature have perished ; and in 
 such fragments of their writing as still survive, the 
 meaning is buried under the almost impenetrable veil 
 of an ancient and unknown character. In touching 
 on the various topics which are comprehended under 
 the designation of Asia, it must be remembered that 
 In the following article we are to confine our attention 
 to such general views of its geography, history, insti- 
 tutions, policy, and manners, as will not supersede a, 
 more particular description of its various states under 
 their respective designations. 
 
Asr 
 
 64 
 
 ASI 
 
 Asia contains a larger area than any of the other 
 divisions of the globe, viz., including its islands, 
 12,960,000 square geographical miles ; the area of 
 America being 10,600,000, that of Afi'ica 8,550,000, 
 and that of Europe 2,660,000. 
 
 The islands of Asia are : in the Arctic Ocean, Nova 
 Zembla, consisting of two large Islands, and New Si- 
 beria, consisting of three islands of considerable ex- 
 tent discovered in the course of this century. Along 
 the east coast : the volcanic group of the Kuriles ; the 
 Japanese Islands, of ■which Nipon is the principal ; 
 the Lu-ku group to the south of Japan ; the large islands 
 of Formosa and Hainan, on the coast of China. Sag- 
 halia, opposite the coast of Mantchuria, was long be- 
 lieved to be an Island, but is a peninsula extending 
 over 8 degrees of latitude, and connected with the 
 continent by a low, narrow, and sandy isthmus, a little 
 to the south of the mouth of the Eiver Amur. In the 
 southeast and south: the Philippines, among which Lu- 
 zon and Magindanao are the largest, and half a dozen 
 others have areas surpassing or approaching those of 
 Cyprus and Candia ; the great islands of Borneo, Suma- 
 tra, Java, and Celebes ; the Moluccas or Spice Islands, 
 among which Gilolo, Ceram, Euro, and Amboyna, 
 between Celebes and New Guinea; Nias, Batu, the 
 two Pora, etc., on the west coast, and Battam, Linga, 
 Banka, and Billiton, on the east coast of Sumatra ; and, 
 finally, the Sunda and Banda islands, a vast latitu- 
 dinal Archipelago, extending from the east point of 
 Java toward Australia and New Guinea, and composed 
 of myriads of islands, among which the principal are in 
 a direction from west to east ; Madura, Bali, Lambok, 
 Sumbava, Sandelbosh or Tshindana, Flores, Timor 
 (250 miles long), Timor Laut, and Aru, which foi-m a 
 bridge, as it were, between Asia and Australia. In 
 the Indian Ocean: the Nicobar and Andama Archi- 
 pelagos, between the northwest point of Sumatra and 
 the mouths of the Irawaddy ; the large island of 
 Ceylon ; and, on both sides of the 70th meridian east, 
 stretching due north from south lat. S° nearly as far as 
 the latitude of Goa, the Archipelagos of the Tshagos, 
 Maldives, and Lakkadives, all three composed of myr- 
 iads of mostly very small islands of coral formation. 
 In the Persian Gulf: Ormuzd, Kishm, and Bahrein. 
 In the Red Sea: Perim, Arish (erroneously called 
 Harnish), Farsan, and Dhalak. In the Mediterranean : 
 Cyprus, Rhodes, Chios, etc. 
 
 The surface of this vast continent is exceedingly 
 varied. In some places it towers in stupendous mount- 
 ains, forming four great chains, with subordinate 
 branches, of different names. It often exhibits vast 
 plateaux or elevated table-lands, of prodigious extent ; 
 in other points it stretches in plains little elevated 
 above the level of the ocean ; while in certain points 
 it presents enormous hollows or depressions that are 
 lower than the surface of the Black Sea. Humboldt 
 computes the superficies of all Asia at 1,346,000 geo- 
 graphical square leagues. Of this a large proportion 
 is mountainous, or raised in elevated plains. The 
 same eminent authority estimates these as follows : 
 
 Sq. leagnea. 
 The mountainous parts of Arabia, Belnchistan, ori 
 
 the plateau of Kelat, Kandahar, with the mount-^ 240,000 
 
 ain ridges of India ) 
 
 The mountainous parts of China 54,400 
 
 The plateau of Gobi or Sha-mo 42,000 
 
 The plateau of Thibet and Ladak, between the Him-\ ^^ qqq 
 
 alaya and Kuen-lun Mountains / ' 
 
 The plateau of Persia 2T,000 
 
 The Taurus of Asia Minor, Ararat, and the Hindoo) g-^ qqq 
 
 Koosh / * 
 
 Of which that of Ararat alone is 3,600 
 
 The Caucasus, from Baku to Anapa 2,700 
 
 The Oural and Altai groups 3,400 
 
 The northern portion of Asia consists of a series of 
 plains divided by mountains of small elevation, form- 
 ing the comparatively low land of Siberia, intersected 
 by several large rivers, and occupied often by extens- 
 ive swamps. This region is estimated at about 
 400,000 square leagues. The central part of Asia. 
 
 still imperfectly known to Europe, was till lately con- 
 ceived to be one vast table-land, of irregular form, but- 
 tressed on every side by lofty mountains ; but it now 
 appears, on the contrary, to be traversed by long 
 mountain chains. 
 
 Asia presents to the eye such a compactness of con- 
 formation, and its outlines are at the same time so 
 diversified by deep indentures of the sea, forming gulfs 
 and peninsulas of every shape and dimension, that 
 neither Africa can be called more compact, nor North 
 America more diversified. Every prominent feature of 
 this vast continent is on a gigantic scale ; and the ag- 
 gregate of its mountains and rivers, its low plains and 
 its elevated plateaux, surpasses those of the other di- 
 visions, not only in magnitude, but also by its con- 
 trasting variety.* Its mere steppe rivers approach 
 the size of the Don and Dnieper ; and the second of its 
 salt lakes, the Aral, is still larger, by 6400 square geo- 
 graphical miles, than Lake Superior, the largest sheet 
 of water in America ; while the combined superficies 
 of all the American lakes would not suffice to cover 
 the area of the Caspian. Its Indian Archipelago 
 forms a world by itself, with which the West Indian 
 Islands can be compared neither for extent nor import- 
 ance; its mountains rise higher into the regions of 
 eternal snow than the far-famed Chimborazo ; it has 
 its deserts of burning sand and of frozen swamps, 
 alike destructive to the human race. Nowhere is 
 there such an exuberance of animal and vegetable life, 
 not only spread over the whole continent, but also 
 displaying itself within the narrowest limits, as tlie 
 traveler rapidly descends from the crest of the Hima- 
 laya into the plain of Bengal. The same variety, the 
 same contrasts, appear in its histoiy. Asia, the cradle 
 of mankind, the mother of religion, the nurse of civil- 
 ization, where arts and letters wore cultivated in the 
 remotest times, contains within her inaccessible mount- 
 ain forests numerous descendants of her primitive in- 
 habitants, who still continue that brutish life which 
 their forefathers led when the first vine was planted, 
 the first hieroglyphic character cai-ved in the rock. 
 
 Of the domestic animals, the elephant claims the 
 pre-eminence, being unequaled by any other animal 
 for the purposes of draught. This animal is confined 
 to the southern countries of India, where the climate 
 is hot, being seldom seen in the mountainous tracts 
 toward the north. The camel is used for domestic 
 purposes over a far wider extent of country than the 
 elephant. This animal is of two species, the one with 
 two humps, and the common camel with only one 
 hump. The latter is the camel of Arabia, Syria, Per- 
 sia, India, and Northern Africa. A lighter variety 
 of this species is the dromedary, used only for riding, 
 and differs from the camel of burden as the racer does 
 from the draught-horse. The two-humped camel is 
 the Bactrian species, and is so rare, even in Western 
 Asia and India, that Captain Lynch states, that in a 
 caravan of 5000 camels there were not above eight or 
 ten of this Bactrian species. In Mongolia, however, 
 they are very numerous. The dromedary is chiefly 
 used for traveling, and its valuable quality is swift- 
 ness, by which, joined to its capacity of endui-ing 
 
 * According to Bergliaus, there are 10 rivers in America, 
 and 12 in Asia, the basin of each of which contains upward 
 of 10,500 German, or 168,000 geographical square miles. The 
 united area of the former, the first of which is tlie Amazon, 
 and the last the Eio Negro, is 324,500 German, or 6,192,000 
 geographical square miles ; of which the basin of the Amazon 
 occupies not less than 2,018,400. That of the latter, the Obi 
 standing at the head with 924,800 geographical square miles, 
 and the Tarlm being the last, is 363,738 German, or 5,820,000 
 geographical square miles; giving a difference of 628,000 geo- 
 graphical square miles in favor of Asia. The total length of 
 the 10 American rivers, windings included, is 76,640 geo- 
 graphical miles ; that of the Asiatic, 98,448 geographical miles : 
 difference in favor of the latter, 21,808 geographical miles. 
 Yet the system of the Marallon in the former stands unequal- 
 ed by any in the world. 
 
ASI 
 
 65 
 
 ASI 
 
 hardship, it is qualified to travel at an incredible rate 
 for many successive days. In all the low countries, 
 especially in the dry and sandy tracts, such as Arabia, 
 Syria, etc., the common camel is employed. The two- 
 humped camel is a native of the high countries in the 
 neighborhood of the Oxus and the Jaxartes, where it 
 is still chiefly used. So large a portion of Asia is oc- 
 cupied by vast plains and wastes of sand, that its in- 
 terior intercourse must be maintained by land journeys. 
 But without the aid of the cainel, it would be impos- 
 sible to traverse extensive deserts destitute both of food 
 and water ; and in those arid countries such an animal, 
 which has been truly called the ship of the desert, is 
 the most valuable gift which Providence could bestow. 
 
 AnhnaU. — The other domestic animals of South- 
 ern and Western Asia are horses, mules, asses, buf- 
 faloes, black cattle, sheep, goats, etc. Arabia may be 
 considered the native country of the horse, in which 
 he arrives at perfection, and combines all the most es- 
 timable qualities of symmetry, form, fineness of skin, 
 fire, docility of temper, fleetness, and hardiness. It is 
 chiefly from the Arabian breed that the horses in other 
 parts of the world have been improved. In Persia the 
 horses are neither so graceful nor so swift as those of 
 Arabia, being high, with long legs, spare carcasses, 
 and large heads ; but they are highly prized by the 
 inhabitants for their extraordinary capacity of endur- 
 ing fatigue. To the east of Persia, at Herat, the 
 breed of horses is fine ; also on the banks of the Indus 
 and its tributaries ; and in the higher regions of Balk 
 and Bokhara they are excellent and numerous, and 
 are exported in great numbers to Hindostan. The 
 mule and the ass, all over India, are miserable animals. 
 The mules are of better quality in the Punjaub, on the 
 upper course of the Indus, and they improve still 
 more farther west. In the countries west of the Indus, 
 they are superior to those in Hindostan, and in Persia 
 there is a still finer breed. But the mule of the East 
 is inferior to that of Europe. The ass partakes of a 
 similar improvement in his progress westward, and is 
 a far finer animal in Western Asia than in Europe. 
 In Syria, Palestine, and generally in Asia Minor, he 
 is distinguished by agility, fire, and patience of fatigue, 
 and ranks in the first class of domestic animals. Bufi^a- 
 loes are found in the hot plains «f Asia, as well as in 
 the mountainous tracts; and the oxen which are used 
 in the plow have all a hump on their backs. The 
 wealth of the pastoral tribes, who rove about in the 
 western plains of Khorassan, and in the hilly tracts of 
 Afghanistan, consists chiefly in sheep, which have tails 
 a foot broad, and composed entirely of fat, but in other 
 respects resemble the English sheep, being better and 
 handsomer than, those of India. Goats are common 
 all over Asia, especially in the mountains, where there 
 are some breeds with curiously-twisted horns ; and 
 they are bj- no means scarce In the plains. 
 
 In the northern parts of Asia, and in the high 
 mountain tracts, a difl'erent class of animals is to be 
 found. Those cold regions are not distinguished by 
 the same profusion of animal life as the tropical coun- 
 tries. The beasts of the forest decrease in numbers, 
 size, and fierceness ; and the wolf, the bear, the glut- 
 ton, and the wild boar, are the onlj- ferocious animals 
 which thrive in these northern climates. In advanc- 
 ing on the desolate plains of Siberia to about the 60th 
 degree of north latitude, we find the cold still taking 
 efi^ct on the animal as on the vegetable creation, and 
 the living creatures, as well as the plants and trees, 
 stunted in their full proportions. Beyond this limit a 
 difierent order of animals appears, protected against 
 the severity of the climate by a thick covering of fur, 
 which is sought after as a rich article of dress in more 
 opulent countries. These animals are accordingly 
 hunted for their skins, which constitute the great sta- 
 ple article of trade in Northern Asia. In the Arctic 
 regions the bear seems to form the only exception to 
 the diminished grandeur of the animal creation. This 
 E 
 
 animal, nourished in the regions of Northern Asia, 
 acquires a larger size, and far greater power and fierce- 
 ness, than in southern climates. The domestic ani.. 
 mals of the northern and mountainous countries of 
 Asia are of a less imposing appearance, and not nearly 
 of the same strength as those in the lower valleys of 
 the south and west. In the high and cold plains of 
 Central Asia the camel is no longer used as a beast of 
 burden, nor in the northern parts of the continent. 
 Thibet and Central Asia, till beyond the Altai Mount- 
 ains, are inhabited by Mongolish and Turkish tribes, 
 whose wealth consists in their cattle, which not only 
 furnish them with food, clothing, and shelter, but are 
 also used as beasts of burden, and in the labors of 
 agriculture. The yak of Tartary, or the bushy-tailed 
 bull of Thibet, seems to supply the place of the camel 
 in these mountainous countries. This animal is about 
 the size of a small bull, of great strength, and is reck- 
 oned a valuable property among the itinerant hordes 
 of Tartars, to whom it affords the means of easy con- 
 veyance, of clothing, and shelter for their tents, from 
 the prodigious quantity of long, flowing, glossy hair on 
 its tail, and, finally, of subsistence from its milk and 
 flesh. In those mountains is also found the musk-deer, 
 which delights in the most intense cold, and of which 
 the musk, a secretion by the male, affords a revenue 
 to the government, as well as a valuable article of 
 trade. Here, also, on the highest mountains, amidst 
 ice and snow, is the Cashmere goat, the wool of which 
 affords the materials of the finest shawls. Wild horses 
 are seen in the high plains of Thibet ; and the breed of 
 sheep, a peculiar species of which is indigenous to the 
 climate, is of great value. They are nourished on the 
 short and dry herbage of these exposed plains, and 
 serve for subsistence to the ii^abitants, as well as for 
 beasts of burden. The wild and extensive plains of 
 Tartary are inhabited by pastoral tribes, who depend 
 in like manner on their herds. On the southern side 
 of the Altai Mountains we find the same tribes of 
 wanderers, most of them the scattered remnants of the 
 Tartar nations who had formerly so deep a share in 
 the great revolutions of Asia. All these tribes subsist 
 chiefly by pasturage. Near the Ural Mountains some 
 live chiefly by hunting or ensnaring the elk and other 
 wild animals for their furs. Among those who are 
 shepherds, sheep and horned cattle are found ; while 
 the hunting tribes have scarcely any domestic animals. 
 In all these countries the wolf and the bear are known 
 to abound. In the rigorous climate farther to the 
 north, where the cattle are stunted in size, and can 
 scarcely subsist, their place is supplied by the reindeer, 
 a species peculiar to a rigorous climate, and most val- 
 uable for all domestic purposes, whether for draught 
 or for subsistence. During part of the year the in- 
 habitants of those desolate countries subsist upon its 
 flesh or milk ; its skin furnishes them with the chief 
 part of their dress, and its horns with such domestic 
 utensils as they require. The dog is also trained to- 
 draw the sledge. 
 
 Birds. — The feathered race in Asia includes al- 
 most every known species. In the southern parts are 
 found all the tropical birds, distinguished by beautiful' 
 plumage, and some of them uttering sounds that have 
 a resemblance to the human voice. Here are also 
 found some of the largest and rarest birds — the ostrich, 
 the cassowary, and, in the Himalaya Mountains, the 
 gypaete, one of which, shot by a British officer, is 
 stated by Bishop Heber to have measured from the 
 extremity of one wing to another the enormous length 
 of 14 feet. The other birds ai-e eagles, kites, vultures, , 
 magpies in the higher countries, hawks, crows, wild 
 geese and ducks, flamingos, herons, bustards, florikens, 
 rock pigeons, lapwings, storks, plovers, snipes, quails, 
 partridges, different species of fringiliidce, and almost 
 all the other small birds to be found in similar climates. 
 In Northern Asia the feathered creation is nearly tlie 
 same as in Europe. 
 
ASI 
 
 66 
 
 ASI 
 
 Early Commerce. — Asia, notwithstanding the wars 
 by which it has been desolated, was from an early pe- 
 riod the seat of oonimerce and of wealth. The east- 
 ern countries of Hindostan and China preceded Europe 
 in civilization and industry, and, independent of that 
 diversity of natural productions which is the founda- 
 tion of trade, they had cultivated many arts and man- 
 ufactures which were unknown in the Western World. 
 Asia, accordingly, abounded in many pi-ecious commod- 
 ities whieh -could not be produced by the ruder indus- 
 try of Europe. Thus China had its silk and porcelain ; 
 Hindostan its muslins, cotton, precious stones, and 
 aromatics of all sorts ; costus, bdellium, spikenard, 
 ivory, tortoise-shell, pepper, etc. These were in gen- 
 eral demand throughout Europe, where they could not 
 be produced ; and they were procured in exchange 
 chiefly for bullion, which then, as in later times, was 
 the great article -of export to India ; also for woolen 
 cloths, v/ine, brass, lead and tin, glass, coral, female 
 slaves, etc., all which commodities met with a ready 
 sale in the markets of Hindostan. The staple com- 
 modity of China was silk ; and the mode of producing 
 this esteemed luxury being unknown in Europe, it 
 was brought in large 'quantitieSi either by the cara- 
 vans or by the annual fleets, to Alexandria, at that 
 time the great commercial mart of the East, and was 
 thence sent to supply the demand at Kome, where it 
 sold at one time for its weight in gold ; but, owing to 
 the high profit, caravans began to travel so regularly 
 to China, that the supply increased with the demand, 
 and the price was reduced. Betw-een the -sixth and 
 the seventh centuries, Eastei-n Asia was robbed of this 
 j)recious monopoly by the art of two Persian monks, 
 who contrisved, in a hollow cane, to transport the eggs 
 of the silk-worm from Qhina to Europe, where they 
 were hatched by means of heat, and the race^iuiclrfy 
 propagated ; and one great link of commerce between 
 -China and Europe was in this manner broken. The 
 trade of Asia "was interrupted by the irruption of the 
 barbarians, who invaded and finally subverted the 
 Roman empire ; but the moment the storm was past 
 commerce resumed its quiet course. Constantinople, 
 the eastern capital of the empire, was still the centre 
 of luxury and trade ; as were also such parts of the 
 Roman territory as had not been swept by barbarian 
 invasion ; and with those places the caravans still 
 traded, shaping their oourse as they best could to -avoid 
 the distractions of the -interior. .Farther to the east, 
 the califs who reigned at 'Bagdad ^encouraged science, 
 commerce, and the arts ; and the extensive country 
 through which the Oxus and the Jaxartes flowed 
 was the seat-of a flourishing commerce, and of many 
 opulent cities. Besides Bokhara, still a great cit}'. 
 Balk, -Samarcand, Cosh, and- others -in the valley of 
 the Oxus and the Jaxartes, numerous splendid cities 
 are enumerated which are scarcely 'known to Euro- 
 peans. To the east of the great range of mountains, 
 which takes a direction from the main Himalaya ridge, 
 the country of Cashgar contained Cashgar, its capital, 
 and Khoten, which were both large, populous, and 
 wealthy. Those countries served as the connecting 
 link between India and Europe, and the resting-place 
 of the caravans, which there collected in great force, 
 and prepared for their journey to China -across the 
 great eastern desert, or for a more southerly 'course, 
 through the countryof Thibet. The armies of Zinghis 
 Khan in the thirteenth, and of Tamerlane in the be- 
 ginning of the fifteenth century, laid waste this high- 
 ly cultivated and flourishing region. But those con- 
 querors were not the enemies of commerce, and the 
 surplus produce of India still reached Europe, though 
 by a route rendered more difficult and dangerous from 
 the desolation of the intervening countries. But the 
 effect produced on the trade of A.sia in the East by the 
 encroachments of barbarism, and by the disorders in 
 the interior, was more than counterbalanced by the 
 growing civilization of Europe. About the beginninj 
 
 of the fourteenth century, the darkness which had so 
 long* covered the Western World began to dispel, and 
 the Italian cities of Venice, Genoa, and others, had al- 
 ready made advances in letters, science, and commerce. 
 The costly articles of Asia, her rich stuff's and precious 
 aromatics, were now required to answer the growing 
 demands of luxury and wealth ; and the produce of 
 India, imported into Alexandria through the Red Sea, 
 was thence brought into Italy by the nobles of Venice 
 and Genoa, who were all engaged in trade, and was 
 diffused in smaller quantities all over Europe. The 
 Italian .States were enriched by this lucrative traffic, 
 which only ceased with the discovery of the maritime 
 route to India by the Cape of Good Hope. From this 
 period the trade between Asia and Europe took a dif- 
 ferent direction. The commodities of India and China 
 were transported to Europe directly by sea; and nei- 
 ther Alexandria nor the other ports of the Red Sea or 
 of Italy were any longer the depositories of the East- 
 ern trade. The Portuguese, always distinguished by 
 their ardor for maritime discovery, were the first ad- 
 venturers in the Asiatic seas. In the course of the 
 sixteenth century the English and Dutch appeared as 
 their competitors; and with the growing wealth of 
 those countries the trade to the East rapidly increased. 
 The commerce of Asia may therefore be distinguished 
 into the following branches : 1st. The inland trade of 
 China, Hindostan, Burmah, etc , with Turkey, the 
 eastern countries of Europe, and with the intervening 
 countries of Persia, Balk, Bokhara, and the regions 
 of the Oxus ; also, by a diflierent route, the trade with 
 Russia and the north of Asia. 2d. The maritime trade, 
 including the coasting trade and the trade to the East- 
 ern ATchipclago, and the great trade to Europe and 
 America, in which, from the progress of wealth and 
 luxury, there is a great consumption of Asiatic produce. 
 Caravans. — The inland trade is carried on by cara- 
 vans, or bodies of merchants, who travel together for 
 the sake of security through those parts of the country 
 which are disturbed by predatory tribes. It is only 
 from the southern countries of Asia, such as Hindos- 
 tan, China, the Burmese countries, Thibet, and the 
 western countries of Persia, Afghanistan, Bokhara, 
 and the regions of the Oxus and the Jaxartes, that 
 Europe can derive any supply of valuable commodi- 
 ties ; and all this trade, from whatever quarter it comes, 
 ■must flow in its progress to Europe through the coun- 
 tries that lie between the Persian Gulf and the Caspian 
 Sea ; as the caravans could not, without inconvenience 
 and danger from wandering tribes, pass to the north 
 of this sea or the Sea of Aral ; and accordingly, though 
 an annual caravan is sent from Astracan to Khyvah 
 and the countries on the Oxus, the chief trade with 
 Russia is by sea to the port of Mangalshuck, and thence 
 to Khyvah and Bokhara. The Russians have also be- 
 gun to trade with Persia from the Caucasian province 
 of Georgia, of which Tiflis, the capital, has, from a 
 wretched collection of wooden huts, been rapidly im- 
 proved, under the protecting influence of a European 
 government, into a respectable and wealthy town, the 
 future emporium, as may be anticipated, of this grow- 
 ing trade. The caravans from Constantinople and 
 Syria proceed through Asia Minor and the northern or 
 southern provinces of Persia, according as their ulterior 
 route is through Afghanistan and the Punjaub into 
 Hindostan, or to Thibet and China, or the more north- 
 ern districts of Balk, Bokhara, and the country of the 
 Oxus and the Jaxartes. Bokhara, though reduced to 
 desolation by Zinghis Khan, is still one of the largest 
 towns of the East, its population being estimated by 
 Burnes at 160,000. It is also a great commercia"l 
 mart; and the caravans which come from the West, 
 passing along the southern shore of the Caspian Sea] 
 through the Persian province of Astrabad, a most lux- 
 uriant and fertile country, arrive successively at Bal- 
 froosh, Ashrufl", Astrabad, Mushed, Serrukhs, Merve, 
 formerly the capital of the Seljook sovereigns, butno-w 
 
ASI 
 
 C7 
 
 ASI 
 
 surrounded by deserts, and at Bokhara. From this 
 great centre of commerce they proceed northeastward 
 about 400 or 500 miles to Khojend and Koliaun, the 
 former a large city, said to contain 30,000 houses ; and 
 crossing the Bolor range of the Himalaya Mountains, 
 they arrive in the Mohammedan States of Kashgar 
 and Yarkund, 600 miles east of Kokaun, passing some 
 towns on the way, of which Ush is the most important, 
 being a trading and populous town. Those two latter 
 States lie within the precincts of the Chinese authority, 
 where the most exact order is enforced ; and they are 
 fertile, rich, and well cultivated. The town of Cash- 
 gar is said to contain 20,000 houses, and to be throng- 
 ed with strangers from all parts of Asia. Yarkund js 
 also wealthy and populous. So strict a police is main- 
 tained by the Chinese authority, that, according to the 
 information given to Fraser, a single traveler may 
 traverse the whole territory as safely as a large cara- 
 van. From Kashgar there is a constant intercourse 
 through Chinese Tartary, along the edge of the great 
 central desert, with China, though wo know little of 
 tlie intervening countries beyond what we learn from 
 the accounts ,of the early missionaries. Besides this 
 eastern trade, and the trade westward along the south- 
 ern shore of the Caspian, two caravans, consisting of 
 4000 or 5000 camels each, proceed to Astracan by Khy- 
 vah, round the northern shore of the Caspian Sea. 
 The imports from Russia into Bolthara are, iron, 
 steel, copper, brass, quicksilver, vermilion, coral, hard- 
 ware, plated goods, gold and silver embroidery, copper 
 wire ; furs, the broadcloths and cotton manufactured 
 goods of Britain, Germany, and France ; refined sugar, 
 cochineal, paper, and a variety of rich goods, which, 
 from this great commercial depot, are diffused far and 
 wide over Central Asia. Russia receives in exchange 
 blaclc lamb skins, certain manufactures of cotton and 
 silk imported from Persia, antique gems and coins, 
 lapis lazuli, rubies, and turquoises, which are received 
 from the southern country of Buducksha, where there 
 are famous mines of these precious stones. From 
 Cashgar, Yarkund, and the side of China, Bokhara 
 receives large quantities of tea, the great modern staple 
 of the China trade, porcelain and China ware, and the 
 various manufactures of China ; and in return sends 
 turquoises, coral, sheep, lamb, and fox skins, and furs, 
 etc. From Persia shawls are imported, and woolen 
 goods from Kerman ; silk stuffs from the cities of Yezd 
 and Ispahan ; gold and silver embroidery, copper ware, 
 loaf, candy, and raw sugar; Hamadan leather; and 
 turquoises, of which there are mines in Persia ; and, in 
 return, black sheep and lamb skins are sent, which are 
 in great request, to be manufactured into black caps ; 
 oamblet made of camel's hair, coarse colored silk hand- 
 kerchiefs, lapis lazuli, indigo from India, cochineal, 
 tobacco, chintzes from Masulipatam, and cotton manu- 
 factures. Slaves forni a staple article in the commerce 
 of Bokhara, and also of Khyvah. These are made 
 prisoners by the disorderly tribes of Asia, the Koor^s, 
 Turkomans, etc., in the course of the wars in which 
 they are constantly engaged ; and thej' are carried to 
 the great slave markets of Bokhara and Khyvah, 
 where they are exposed for sale like cattle. The 
 balance of trade is always in favor of Bokhara. Mon- 
 ey is consequently in great plenty, and can not be im- 
 ported with a profit into this trading city. The Rus- 
 sian caravans, as they journey round the northern shore 
 of the Caspian Sea, are frequently attacked by the Kir- 
 geesh and Cossack tribes, and prisoners are carried off 
 and sold into slavery. Fraser was assured that the 
 number of Persian slaves in Khyvah and its depend- 
 encies exceeded the male population of these coun- 
 tries, and amounted to 150,000 ; and that, according to 
 inquiries set on foot by the Empress Catherine, there 
 were in Bokhara no less than 60,000 Russian slaves. 
 
 The commerce of the west with the southern conn- 
 tries of Asia — namely, Kaubul of Afghanistan, Cash- 
 mere, and India — passes through Persia by a different 
 
 and more southerly route, namely, by Cashan, Yezd, 
 which is the seat of rich silk manufactures, a great 
 entrepot of commerce, and a convenient resting-place 
 for all the caravans, both from the East and other 
 quarters ; through Furrah and Herat, on the frontiers 
 of Persia, famed for its rich manufactures of silk stuffs, 
 a great channel of communication between the East 
 and the West, and also an entrepot of all the richest 
 productions from Kabul, Cashmere, and India on the 
 one side, and from Bokhara, Persia, Arabia, Turkey, 
 and even Europe, on the other. From Herat the route 
 continues through Furrah ajid across the River Hel- 
 mund and the ranges of the Paropamisan Mountains, 
 to Candahar, a journey of about 800 miles ; thence to 
 Kabul, Peshawur, and the countries on the Indus, and 
 across extensive sandy deserts to the rich valley of the 
 Ganges, whence by this river there is an easy access 
 to Bengal and to Central India. There are various 
 other routes by which the commerce of Asia, concen- 
 trated within the comparatively narrow boundaries of 
 the Caspian Sea and the Persian Gulf, diverges in its 
 progress eastward to the north, as well as to tJie south. 
 From Bokhara there is a mountainous route into Little 
 Thibet, and thence through Thibet into China ; be- 
 sides other more sequestered and difficult roads, through 
 glens and mountains, where the only mode of transport 
 is on the backs of asses and mules. 
 
 Persia. — Persia, from its central situaiion between 
 the East and the West, is not only a great entrepot of 
 trade, but, though on the whole rather a poor country, 
 it still contributes some i valuable productions to the 
 commerce of the East. It has long been famed for its 
 abundant produce of raw silk, of cotton, and of wool — 
 that of the province of Kerman especially being so 
 valuable for shawls that it rivals in some respects that 
 of Cashmere ; of fruits, turquoises, tobacco, grain, etc. 
 Almost all the principal towns of Persia, such as Ka- 
 shan, Ispahan, Yezd, Tabreez, Kerman, Herat, etc., 
 excel in the manufacture of silks, cottons, woolens, 
 fine carpets, etc. ; Kerman also in the manufacture 
 of shawls; and others in that of cutlery, arms, etc. 
 These are its chief exports to other countries, in ex- 
 change for their manufactures or produce. To India 
 Persia sends raw silk, carpets, Kerman shawls, dried 
 fruits, tobacco, horses — in which there is considerable 
 traffic, swords, etc., and specie to make up the deficient 
 balance. The imports from India are cotton goods, as 
 chintzes, sent from Masulipatam by sea to Bushire, 
 whence they reach the interior of Persia, and are 
 thence carried eastward into Kabul and the couiltries 
 on the Indus ; the same article from Moultan, Luck- 
 now, Delhi, etc. ; some muslins, indigo, spices, sugar, 
 and sugar-candj', in large quantities; gold and silver 
 stuff's and brocades from Benares ; precious stones. 
 Cashmere shawls, iron, lead, copper, etc. Many of 
 these articles, namely. Cashmere shawls, spices, indigo, 
 muslins, etc., are carried through Asia Minor by a 
 long land carriage to their final destination in Euro- 
 pean Turkey, and are found, with the Iamb skins of 
 the no less distant Bokhara, in the bazars of Bagdad 
 and Constantinople. To those countries Persia ex- 
 ports also every article of her own rude and manufac- 
 tured produce ; coarse fabrics, both of silk and cotton, 
 for the consumption of Asia Minor; and many heavy 
 articles, such as grain, rice, tobacco, salt, coffee, cotton, 
 etc.; besides fine silks, brocades, and prints, which arc 
 exchanged in Turkey for European goods brought 
 through the countries of the Levant, namely, broad 
 and narrow cloths, cassimeres, cotton goods, chintzes, 
 muslins, veils, silks, satins, French brocades and em- 
 broidered goods, imitation shawls, cutlery of all sorts, 
 glass, etc., and a considerable quantity of gold and 
 silver bullion. Persia imports coffee and pearls from 
 Arabia, in exchange for wheat, dried fruits, and cloaks. 
 The mountainous country of Afghanistan, on the south- 
 ern declivity of the Himalaya ridge, and the country 
 on the head streams of the Indus, export to India 
 
ASI 
 
 68 
 
 ASl 
 
 horses and ponies bred in Tartary, fur, shawls, Moul- 
 tan chintz, madder, asafcetida, tobacco, and dried and 
 other fruits, such aa almonds and pistachio nuts. The 
 imports from India are, coarse cotton cloths, worn by 
 the common people of this country, and also in Tartary ; 
 muslins and other fine manufactures, silken cloth and 
 brocade, indigo in great quantities, ivory, chalk, bam- 
 boos, wax, tin, sandal-wood, almost all the sugar which 
 is used in the country, and spices from the Malabar 
 coast, through Kurrachee and other parts of Sinde, 
 and thence to Kabul and Candahar. The Indian 
 cloths, shawls, chintzes, and also the indigo, are ex- 
 ported to Bokhara, from which are imported the broad- 
 cloths, cutlery, and hardware of Europe, received from 
 the Russians, and finally consumed in Kabul and the 
 countries of the Indus, loaded with the expenses of a 
 land journey across nearly half the globe. 
 
 China. — In the east, China has from the earliest times 
 been the seat of wealth and of an extensive trade. 
 The Chinese have been always noted for their indus- 
 trious habits, and the country has from time immemo- 
 rial abounded in the most valuable produce and manu- 
 factures. These were sent westward in the caravans 
 to Asia Minor and into Europe, or they were trans- 
 ported by sea to India, and carried thence by the Eu- 
 ropean fleets to the Red Sea. The same commerce is 
 still continued, and China exports its produce of wool- 
 ens, silk, and satin ; tea in small boxes of thin lead ; 
 china; porcelain, raw silk, cochineal, crystal, gold 
 dust, golden ingots, and silver with the Chinese stamp. 
 These ai-e sent through Chinese Tartary into the coun- 
 tries on the Oxus, and also to Cashmere, Kabul, and 
 the countries situated on the southern declivity of the 
 Himalaya Mountains. Regular caravans of horses 
 and ponies — no other animal being fit to travel through 
 those mountainous districts — ^set out from Cashmere, 
 and from Peshawur, the capital of the Afghan country 
 of Kabul, and a considerable commercial resort, to 
 make their way through Chinese Tartary with goods 
 imported from India and Persia. China carries on 
 also an interior trade to a considerable extent with 
 Russia, by the frontier town of Maimatchin, in which 
 European goods and furs are received in exchange for 
 tea, silk, aud other articles of Chinese produce and 
 manufacture. 
 
 F<yreign Commerce. — In addition to her internal 
 trade, Asia maintains an extensive intercourse by sea 
 with Europe, America, Egypt and the Mediterrranean. 
 A great trade is also carried on from Hindostan and 
 Chitfa to the Asiatic Archipelago, and the trade of the 
 Asiatic islands with each other is of great importance. 
 It appears that those islands were at a very early 
 period the seat of commerce ; and the learned research- 
 es of Europeans have brought to light, in some of them, 
 the monuments of ancient civilization. Sumatra was 
 the seat of the Malay empire, Java of a Hindoo State; 
 and the Celebes were inhabited by the Bugis, a race 
 of expert navigators and merchants. The productions 
 of these islands, and of the Moluccas and Borneo, 
 namely, spices, aromatics, and gold, entered into the 
 commerce of the ancient world, and were imported into 
 Rome through Egypt. In later times, about the ninth 
 century, the Asiatic Archipelago was visited by the 
 Arabs and the Chinese, while the adventurous Malays 
 frequented the coasts of Asia, and even of Africa, and 
 particularly the African island of Madagascar. "VYhen 
 these islands were visited by Europeans, about the 
 fifteenth century, Malacca, Acheen, and Bantam were 
 the great marts rf the Eastern Archipelago, where the 
 rich produce of Sumatra, Borneo, and the Moluccas, 
 conveyed in the small trading craft of the countr}', 
 was exchanged for that of India and China. The 
 Portuguese fixed on Goa, on the Malabar coast, as the 
 capital of their Eastern settlements ; and they after- 
 ward selected Malacca as a central station for protect- 
 ing and extending their intercourse with the neighbor- 
 ing nations. The Dutch chose Bantam, and afterward 
 
 Batavia, situated midway between Hindostan and 
 China, as the centre of their commercial settlements. 
 The situation was most advantageous, and the port 
 was soon frequented by vessels from China and Ja- 
 pan, Tunkin, Malacca, Cochin China, and the island of 
 Celebes. But the great and flourishing trade of Java 
 was crushed under the colonial monopoly of the Dutch, 
 and under what Sir Stamford Raffles terms "the short- 
 sighted tyranny of a mercantile administration." The 
 conquest of Java by the British in 1812 put an end to 
 this thraldom, and the great trade of the Asiatic Archi- 
 pelago began to centre in Batavia, which was fast ris- 
 ing into a great commercial emporiiim ; all the articles 
 which were the exclusive produce of the Eastern 
 islands being collected at its principal ports for re-ex- 
 portation to India, China, and Europe. Since Java 
 was restored to the Dutch, the free port of Singapore, 
 established by the British, is the centre of a great 
 trade, and is frequented by the Chinese in their junks, 
 and by all the other navigators of those seas with the 
 produce of their respective islands. The Chinese take 
 back with them the nests of a certain species of bird, 
 ^vhich are esteemed a great luxury at their tables, and 
 sell, it is said, for their weight in silver; biche-de-mer 
 or tripang, a dried sea-slug, also used in Chinese di.sh- 
 es ; Malayan camphor, the exclusive produce of Su- 
 matra and Borneo ; the tin of Banca, the spices of the 
 Moluccas, opium, indigo imported from Hindostan; 
 gold and silver, the first collected in Sumatra, Borneo, 
 and some of the other islands. The maritime coun- 
 try trade of the Asiatic islands is carried on chiefly by 
 the Chinese in their junks and brigs, by the Arabs 
 in square-rigged vessels, and by the Bugis, the inhab- 
 itants of Celebes, who are all bold and expert navi- 
 gators. 
 
 Products. — The annual fleet of Chinese junks ar- 
 rives with the favorable monsoon among thesa islands, 
 from Canton, Amoy, and other provinces, with cargoes 
 of teas, raw silk, silk, piece goods, and innumerable 
 minor articles, for the use of the Chinese, who are 
 settled in great numbers here, and are distinguished 
 by their shrewd, intelligent, and industrious habits. 
 The Chinese extend their voyages to Sumatra, the 
 Straits of Malacca, and eastward as far as the Moluc- 
 cas and Timor, collecting edible bird-nests, biche-de- 
 mer, and other articles of which Java is the great 
 entrepot. Java is also a great dSpot of European 
 goods ; and the people being rather industrious culti- 
 vators of their fertile island than mariners or traders, 
 it exports rice, a variety of vetches, salt, oil, tobacco, 
 timber, brass-wire, and its own cloths, and a consider- 
 able quantity of European, Indian, and Chinese goods, 
 in exchange for gold dust, diamonds, camphor, benja- 
 min, and other drugs ; edible bird-nests, biche-de-mer, 
 rattans, beeswax, tortoise-shell, and dyeing woods 
 from Borneo and Sumatra. The rice and other pro- 
 ductions of Java are exchanged for spices and pungent 
 oils of the Moluccas, and for the tin of Banca. The 
 natives of Celebes are famed for the manufacture of a 
 particular species of fine cloths, of a very strong tex- 
 ture, which are in great request, and, along with spices, 
 wax, and sandal-wood, are exchanged for the produce 
 of Sumatra, Borneo, and Java, whence they are ex- 
 ported to China. The Bugis have a largo share of the 
 carrying trade of the Asiatic Archipelago ; and they 
 bring the produce of the Moluccas, and of Borneo and 
 Sumatra, to Java and the other islands, and receive 
 in exchange tobacco, rice, and salt, from Java, besides 
 opium, iron, steel, European chintzes, and broadcloths 
 and Indian piece goods, with which they return east- 
 ward during the southwest monsoon.* 
 
 The eastern countries of Asia, viz., India and China, 
 as we have already stated, have from time immemorial 
 been famed for certain manufactures, such as silks, 
 cambrics, muslins, etc., as well as for other products 
 
 * Raffles' Bistary of Jajia ; Mabsden'b Sumatra. 
 
ASP 
 
 69 
 
 ASS 
 
 peculiar to the climate ; viz., spices, precious aromatics, 
 medicinal herbs, etc. These were always in great 
 demand in Europe, while the produce of Europe was 
 not wanted in Asia. From the rude state of industry 
 among the Western nations, they had nothing to offer 
 in exchange for the finer manufactures of India, and 
 still less could the soil of Europe yield any equivalent 
 for the more genial produce of Eastern climes. Hence 
 the great article of export in those times from Europe 
 to Asia was always bullion, the instrument of exchange 
 all over the world. Bullion could only be procured by 
 an exportation of European produce or manufactures 
 at such low prices as to insure a sale ; and the loss on 
 such transactions must have been made up to the mer- 
 chant by the high price of Asiatic goods. The ancient 
 monopoly of sillc secured to Asia a favorable balance 
 of trade with Europe, bullion being the only article 
 with which it could be purchased. Notwithstanding 
 the introduction of the silk manufacture into Europe 
 about the sixth or seventh century, the commercial 
 pre-eminence of Asia still continued, and bullion was 
 the chief article of export to the East. Throughout 
 the interior of Asia thi^ superiority remains to the 
 present day ; and a continual stream of bullion flows 
 from the Bosphorus eastward, through Asia Minor 
 and Persia, into Hindostan, and is finally dispersed in 
 the great ocean of the Chinese currency. Bullion is 
 also the principal article sent from Arabia to India in 
 exchange for Indian goods. 
 
 But a great revolution has taken place in the trade 
 between Asia and Europe, and especially with Great 
 Britain. Europe is now in a condition to offer an 
 equivalent in manufactures for the produce of Asia ; 
 goods of various kinds are sent in exchange for those 
 of India ; and from Great Britain remittances in bullion 
 have nearly ceased. So prodigiously has the price of 
 goods been lowered by the use of machinery, that the 
 cotton wool of India is now imported into Britain, and, 
 after being manufactured, is re-exported to the place 
 of its growth, and sold at a lower price than the same 
 goods from the loom of the India workman, though it 
 i^ loaded with the expense of a double voyage across 
 half the globe. The goods of the European manufac- 
 turers are poured into Asia through all its sea-ports, 
 and reaching the interior on the backs of mules and 
 asses, often after a journey of several thousand miles 
 over deserts and mountains covered with perpetual 
 snow, they are sold cheaper than the same articles by 
 the native workmen. The woolen manufactures of 
 Yorkshire, the cotton goods of Manchester and Glasgow, 
 French cloths, and German linens, are dispersed all 
 over India, and even parl;ially in China ; they are 
 found in the bazars of Bokhara, Samarcand, and 
 Cashgar, and are carried eastward by the caravans 
 into the wilds of Tartary. The natural productions 
 of Asia, namely, spices, rich aromatics, dyes, and other 
 rare luxuries of tropical climates, will always be in 
 demand in Europe ; and the raonopolj' of tea by the 
 Chinese gives them the command of the European 
 markets. Tea has now almost become one of the nec- 
 essaries of life, and it travels for a market across half 
 the globe. It is the great commercial link between 
 Europe and China, from which, like the precious prod- 
 uce of silk in ancient times, it can only be procured. 
 But the improved- industry of Europe supplies, as 
 is already observed, an equivalent in woolen and cot- 
 ton goods for this highly-prized luxury. Since the 
 expiration of the East India Company's charter, in 
 1834, the trade has been thrown open to all classes of 
 British subjects, and their merchants can now freely 
 trade to all places accessible to Europeans to the east of 
 the Straits of Malacca. During the short time that 
 has elapsed since then, the increase of the exports and 
 imports has fully realized the expectations held out by 
 those who opposed the company's monopoly. — E. B. 
 See Hindostan. 
 
 Asphaltum, Bitumen Judaicum, or Jews- 
 
 pitch, is a light, solid bitumen, of a dusky color on 
 the outside, and a deep shining black within ; of very 
 little taste, and having scarcely any smell unless heat> 
 ed, when it emits a strong pitchy odor. It is found 
 in a soft or liquid state on the surface of the Dead 
 Sea, and by age grows drj' and hard. The same kind 
 of bitumen is met with likewise in the earth in other 
 places of the world — in China, America, and in some 
 places of Europe; as the Carpathian Hills, France, 
 Neufchatel, etc.— E. B. 
 
 Aspin'wall (formerly Colon), a town, province of 
 Panama, depot Ismo, New Granada, Central America. 
 Situated on Navy Bay, lat. 9° 21' N., Ion. 79° 59' W., 
 50 miles by railroad from Panama. It is built on 
 Manzanilla Island, which is connected with the shore 
 by the Panama railroad. Population, '3000. The 
 buildings, 200 in number, are mostly of wood, and all 
 recently erected. The railroad company have hand- 
 some and extensive depots, warehouses, machine-shops, 
 etc., and ample wharfs and piers, alongside which 
 steamers and vessels lay, and the harbor has safe anch- 
 orage. The streets are graded, and many of them 
 lined with shops and hotels, affording every conven- 
 ience for travelers. The vicinity of the place is rath- 
 er low and swampy, making it somewhat unhealthy 
 for strangers. The foreign consuls, who formerly re- 
 sided at Chagres, distant nine miles, now reside here. 
 The American and British Mail Steamers regularly 
 touch here. There is a hospital here, and a light- 
 house, built at the expense of the railroad company. 
 A inewspaper is published tri-weekly. By a govern- 
 ment act, it is necessary to date all papers of business 
 made here Cohn^ otherwise they have no legal force 
 in the local courts. 
 
 Assay, Essay, or Say, in Metallurgy, the proof 
 or trial of the goodness, purity, value, etc., of metals 
 and metalline substances. In ancient statutes this is 
 called touch, and those who had the care of it keepers 
 of the touch. — E. B. 
 
 Assaying, taken in its general acceptation, is a 
 chemical process by which any ore, or other metallic 
 compound, is analyzed, and its constituent parts de- 
 termined. But the term more particularly denotes the 
 peculiar art by which gold and silver are examined, 
 and their qualities ascertained, in relation to their 
 state of purity. By the former the whole contents of 
 the substance under examination are separated and 
 collected ; by the latter it is only necessary in practice 
 to find, by the destruction or separation of the alloys, 
 the amount of pure metal contained in the specimen 
 operated on, so that a value may be given, by compu- 
 tation, to the whole mass. To this specific branch we 
 purpose to confine ourselves in the following observa- 
 tions. 
 
 The art of assaying the precious metals must be es- 
 teemed of considerable importance in many points of 
 view, but more especially to commercial nations trad- 
 ing extensively in these commodities. For although 
 the ultimate destination of these metals be their con- 
 version into coin, plate, or other articles of use and 
 oraament, still theJ'e are vast treasures of bullion con- 
 signed to the stores of different countries merely as 
 commodities, as convenient representatives of value, 
 or in security for nominal wealth, the marketable value 
 of which is determined solely by the skill and accu- 
 racy of the assayer. Every one having experience of 
 such matters knows that, unlike other things of a mer- 
 cantile nature, bullion can not be valued by its bulk, 
 weight, or any simple external characteristic, but by 
 ascertaining in some way the amount of fine metal con- 
 tained in a given quantity. And implicit confidence 
 being placed in the honesty, accuracy, and fidelity of 
 the assayer, who, by examining a small portion only, 
 gives a certificate of its quality upon which the whole 
 is estimated, merchants are enabled to buy and sell 
 bullion without risk of loss, and with the most perfect 
 assurance of the value being maintained. By means 
 
ASS 
 
 70 
 
 ASS 
 
 of the art of assaying, as applicable to small as to large 
 things, "we also possess a certain safeguard against 
 fraud in the manufacture of plate and other articles of 
 personal or domestic use, "which must be regarded as 
 of some importance in a country rich and affluent like 
 Great Britain, "where gold and silver have become so 
 common among the middle classes as scarcely to be 
 esteemed luxuiies. We could only wish that the laws 
 which prevail in reference to plate "were more gener- 
 ally extended in their application to the manufacture 
 of jewelry, and other personal ornaments ; for in these 
 things the public have no guarantee against fraud 
 and knavery beyond the character or assurance of the 
 dealer. 
 
 If the art of assaying be deemed valuable and im- 
 portant as- regards bullion and plate, securing a cer- 
 tain and reliable test of value, as "well as a sufficient 
 check upon fraudulent designs, we can not surely ques- 
 tion its even greater importance in reference to the 
 metallic currency of a country, the standard accuracy 
 of "which affects materially the interests of all, and so 
 far tends to promote the "welfare of mankind, "\Vha(^ 
 ever this standard be, it is obvious the value of all 
 property in exchange must be regulate^ and determ- 
 ined by it, "whether in land, houses, commodities, or 
 the wages ef labor ; and if we had no reliance on the 
 integrity of our coin as a measure of value, we could 
 enjoy no security in our property. In all countries, 
 therefore, claiming a character for honesty, the integ- 
 rity of the standard should be a fundamental principle. 
 Any the slightest deviation from it will instantly be 
 discovered, followed by a loss of credit, and violent 
 fluctuations in the exchange, which of all things are 
 most injurious to trading communities. For the ex- 
 change between one country and another is not de- 
 termined by coin merely as a circulating medium, but, 
 in realit}-, by the exact amount of fine metal contained 
 in the coin ; and, therefore, it is necessary to know 
 that the proportion is maintained called the standard, 
 which, in our gold currency, consists of eleven-twelfths 
 of pure metal and one-twelfth of alloy. This fact can 
 only be ascertained by the process of assay. But when 
 nations acquire a character for honesty and integrity, 
 the currency will freely circulate all over the world 
 without suspicion, at its reputed value, and the cur- 
 rency of one be easily converted into the currency of 
 another. But we should fail to secure this great ad- 
 vantage, this implicit confidence, without the assayer's 
 skill and check, by which the due proportions of metal 
 are guaranteed, and any depreciation detected. 
 
 We need now no longer apprehend any of those ca- 
 pricious and dishonorable changes in the currency, not 
 unknown to our history before the reign of Elizabeth, 
 which enriched the monarch at the expense of his sub- 
 jects, created sudden and violent changes in the value 
 of property, and often spread dismay and poverty 
 among all classes, without any clear knowledge of the 
 cause. That patriotic and sagacious queen, of whom 
 England is justly proud, among other great and dura- 
 ble merits, is honorably distinguished by the restora- 
 tion of our currency to purity, and by fixing our pres- 
 ent standard of value, from which, happily, no devia- 
 tion can be notified in succeeding ages. In this re- 
 spect science and knowledge, if not always the hand- 
 maids of integrity, are the best guarantees against fraud 
 and evil designs ; and we can scarcely believe it pos- 
 sible, in these times, to suffer from a dishonorable de- 
 preciation of the currency, while any vague apprehen- 
 sion of error is instantly dissipated by the numerous 
 checks, public and private, on the purity of our coin. 
 
 Trial qf the Pyx. — Among these we may briefly in- 
 stance the ancient ceremony called the Trial nf the 
 Pyx, which, in the most public manner, secures an 
 impartial examination of the coinage, and a verdict, as 
 public, of its legal or standard purity. In no other 
 country have we been able to discover an institution 
 analogous to this, which, after all intermediate tests 
 
 have been tried in the process of manufacture, afibrds 
 an ultimate and judicious appeal foi- the public satis- 
 faction. And it may be added, to the credit of the 
 officers of the Mint, that, whatever may happen in fu- 
 ture times, amidst the sudden and hasty revolutions 
 in public affairs, during the past, we are unable to ad- 
 duce any instance of this ordeal being passed without 
 honor and integrity ; and instead of the allowance or 
 remedy by law for errors, unavoidable in manufacture, 
 being taken advantage of, as a protection to careless- 
 ness, we may pronounce that the coinage has always 
 been proved to be as nigh to the legal standard as is 
 possible, the deviation being on the average scarcely' 
 worth notification. 
 
 The Trial of the Pyx, in England, takes place once in 
 about every three years, but no specified period is fixed 
 by law. It is so denominated from the pyx, or chest, 
 in which the specimen coins are deposited in the Mint 
 for future examination ; these coins being supposed a 
 fair representation of the whole monej' coined within 
 a certain period. Out of each bag of coin, whether 
 gold or silver, two pieces are taken, one for the trial 
 by assay within the Mint, the other for the general 
 pyx ; and these are carefully sealed up in paper hy 
 three officers, and deposited in the chest. It should 
 be remarked, that previously to the issue of coin to the 
 public, a minor pyx takes place within the Mint, in- 
 tended for the examination of the coined money by 
 appointed officers, as regards both weight and fineness, 
 and no coin is permitted to be delivered before it has 
 passed this necessary ordeal. 
 
 It having been notified to the government that a 
 trial of the pyx is called for, the Lord Chancellor 
 issues his warrant to summon a jury of goldsmiths, 
 who, on the appointed day, proceed to the exchequer 
 office, Whitehall, and there, in presence of several 
 privy-counselors and the officers of the Mint, receive 
 the solemn charge of the Lord Chancellor, who directs 
 them in their important functions, and requests them 
 to deliver to him a verdict of their finding. A piece 
 of gold and silver, cut from the trial-plates deposited 
 in the Exchequer, supposed to be of the exact legal 
 standard, are delivered to the foreman of the jury, who 
 is required to declare to what degree the coin under 
 examination deviates from them. This being done, 
 the jury proceed to Goldsmith's Hall, London, where 
 assaying apparatus, and all other necessary applian- 
 ces, are in daily use for the trial of gold and silver 
 plate ; and sealed packets of the specimen coins being 
 delivered to them by the officers of the Mint, they are 
 first tried by weight, and then a certain number are 
 taken from the whole and melted into a bar, from which 
 the assay trials are subsequently taken. 
 
 The verdict of the jury, founded on Uie results of 
 these proceedings, proving favorable, the Master of the 
 Mint and subordinate officers are released from all 
 further responsibility, while the country receives, by 
 the publicity of the verdict, an attestation of the stand- 
 ard purity of the coinage. 
 
 In times of comparative ignorance, (he art of assay- 
 ing was esteemed a mystery, and, like some other 
 crafts, the practice of it was retained in few hands. 
 There were supposed secrets in the conduct of the proc- 
 esses, which none but the initiated were permitted to 
 know ; but now it is admitted that those secrets are 
 nothing but the knowledge acquired by long experi- 
 ence, amounting in reality to certain allowances or 
 adjustments in the results of the operations. The un- 
 certain tests and appliances employed in ancient times, 
 which afforded only a -(vide approximation to truth, 
 and exposed the public to extortion and fraud, have 
 in more scientific times been superseded by chemical 
 processes as accurate as they arc delicate and beautiful. 
 The exquisite and varied laws of nature, in connection 
 with metals and their transformations, are made instru- 
 mental to the use and knowledge of mankind ; and 
 science, so called, enables man to nicely balance and 
 
ASS 
 
 71 
 
 ASS 
 
 estimate the vast treasures found in the bowels of the 
 earth, and constitute them measures of value more un- 
 changing than any other product of nature. As science 
 has progressed, so has the art of assaying improved, 
 while in modern times new fields liave been opened 
 up for its use and application. Along with increased 
 accuracy, it has become more varied and extensive in 
 its practice. The amount of the precious metals have 
 not only increased immeasurably, thereby magnitying 
 the importance of the art, but in recent times changes 
 in the mode of refining or separating these metals have 
 created a new branch of business little practiced in for- 
 mer ages. The application of sulphuric acid to sepa- 
 rate gold from silver, and silver from gold, by which 
 the operation is effected with great economy, and 
 nearly all the contents recovered at comparatively 
 little cost, has led to an extensive business in parting 
 assays, which did not formerly exist. In this manner 
 the holder of bullion, of a mixed character, has a high- 
 er value put upon his metal b}^ reason of the gold or 
 silver contained in it ; and in the market he is able to 
 realize the whole value by assay, lesS the deduction 
 made to cover the charge of refining. The parting 
 assay is different from the simple assay in this, that it 
 declares upon the certificate of a gold assay the amount 
 of silver combined with it, and of a silver assay the 
 number of grains of fine gold contained in each pound. 
 
 The bullion to be valued having been melted into 
 ingots or bars, small pieces are cut from each and fold- 
 ed separately in slips of paper with a corresponding 
 mark or number of the bar, so as to preseiTe the iden- 
 tification of the assay reports with the bars. On these 
 slips of paper the asaayer writes his report, which de- 
 clares the quality of the gold and silver, and this is the 
 certificate upon which the bullion is bought and sold in 
 the market. The Bank of England, however, and the 
 Mint, in order to guard against any surreptitious 
 change or fraud, require the assays upon which they 
 receive bullion to be cut off in presence of appointed 
 officers. The assayer reports gold by carats, and silver 
 hy pennyweights. In the one case the Troy pound is 
 divided into Si parts or carats, and British standard 
 being ll-12th3 fine gold and l-12th allqy, the carat 
 will thus represent 10 dwts. Troy, the standard being 
 therefore 22 carats fine and 2 carats alloy. In the oth- 
 er the Troy pound is divided Into 240 dwts., and the 
 standard of silver being 222 dwts. fine and 18 dwts. of 
 alloy, the pennyweight will repi-esent the l-240th of 
 the pound. 
 
 Carats are subdivided into four carat grains, = 60 
 Troy grains each, and these are again further subdi- 
 vided into eighths of a carat grain, = 7^ grains Troy. 
 The lowest trade report of gold is one-eighth of a carat 
 grain, and of silver half a pennyweight. In reporting 
 gold, the practice in general use is to take 2 carats as 
 the representative of fine gold for bullion better than 
 standard, and 24 carats for bullion worse than stand- 
 ard. Thus a bar reported better 1 3|-, or one carat, 
 three carat grains, and three-quarters of a grain, is 
 within one-quarter of a carat grain of purity, or 16 
 grains Troy. But if a bar were found to contain only 
 one-half of fine gold, the report would not be one carat 
 worse, but worse 12 carats, or 12-24ths. We may ob- 
 serve, however, that this complex mode of enumeration, 
 so great a mystery to the uninitiated, will probably in 
 a few years be entirely superseded by the decimal sys- 
 tem of notation in general use on the continent. Al- 
 ready it is partially adopted by assayers in England, 
 who are now required to append the decimal report to 
 the ordinary one on the certificate. Instead of carats 
 and pennyweights, the numeral 1000 will represent fine 
 gold and silver, and any deviation in purity from this 
 will be expressed by a decimal instead of a. vulgar 
 fraction. 
 
 It has been already remarked that the lowest denom- 
 ination of the trade report is ^th of a carat grain, or 7J 
 grains Troy, as respects gold, and half a pennyweight, 
 
 or 12 grains, as respects silver ; but practically an as- 
 sayer can arrive at a much nearer approximation to 
 the truth. As in the Royal Mint, in making the com- 
 bination for standard coin, he can report to a single 
 grain, or l-5760th, in each case ; but in buying and 
 selling bullion some protection to the purchaser is 
 deemed necessary as an indemnity against errors and 
 irregular mixture of the alloy, and hence arises the 
 above latitude in the assay report. It is probable, 
 however, that the general use of decimal notation will 
 eventually cause a more accurate report, and deprive 
 the bullion dealer of a share of that advantage which 
 obviously is greater than is necessary. 
 
 An ordinary assay report of gold and silver express- 
 es the variation from the standard, and not the fine 
 metal contained in it; and it is, therefore, marked as 
 either better or worse than standard. The standard of 
 gold being 22 carats fine and 2 alloy, or ll-12ths fine, 
 an ingot of gold found to contain only 21 carats pure 
 gold would be reported worse 1 carat; if it contained 
 23i carats, it would then be reported better 1 carat, 3 
 grains, and half a grain. The standard of silver being 
 11 oz. 2 dwts. fine, and 18 dwts. alloy, an ingot of silver 
 found to contain only 11 oz. of fine would be reported 
 worse 2 dwts., but if it contained 11 oz. 4^, the report 
 would then be better 2^ dwts. 
 
 In buying or selling, the betterness or worseness of 
 the bar is added or deducted from the gross weight ; 
 and the value is computed on this, the standard weight, 
 at the market price of the day. 
 
 When the assay required is a parting assay, or an 
 assay of gold containing silver, a report is given of the 
 weight of fine silver in the pound ; and when the silver 
 exceeds 15 dwts. per pound, all above that is usually 
 added to the value of the gold, that being, an allow- 
 ance made by general agreement for the cost of sepa- 
 ration or refining. So likewise with an assay of silver 
 holding good. The report declares the number of 
 grains of fine gold in the pound, and all above 3 or 4 
 grains is added to the computed value of the silver. 
 
 In these delicate operations we need scarcely impress 
 upon the reader how important an instrument an accu- 
 rate balance must be in securing a certain and uniform 
 result. The specimen taken by an assayer is no more 
 than 12 or 15 grains of the mass, and if 12 grains, each 
 grain would represent an ounce, or l-430th. In the 
 Koyal Mint, the fine balances in use are sensible to the 
 1-lOOOth of a grain. 
 
 The principle of assaying gold and silver is verj- 
 simple theoretically, but in practice great experience 
 is necessary to insure accuracy ; and there is no branch 
 of business which demands more personal and undi- 
 vided attention. The result is liable to the influence of 
 so many contingencies, that no assayer who regards 
 his reputation will delegate the principal processes to 
 one not equally skilled with himself. Besides the re- 
 sult ascertainable by weight, there are allowances and 
 compensations to be made which are known only to 
 an experienced assayer, and if these were disregarded, 
 as might be the case with the mere novice, the report 
 would be wide from the truth. — E. B. 
 
 Assessor, a person appointed to assess property, 
 and particularly to determine the value of property 
 for taxation. 
 
 Assets, in Commerce, a termed used to designate 
 the stock in trade, and the entire property of all sorts, 
 belonging to a merchant or to a trading association. 
 It is also applied to goods or property placed, for the 
 discharge of some particular trust or obligation, in the 
 hands of executors, assignees, etc. 
 
 Assieuto, a Spanish word signifying a contract. 
 In commercial history, it means the contract or agree- 
 ment by which the Spanish government ceded first to 
 a company of French, and afterward (by the treaty 
 of Utrecht) to a company of English merchant, the 
 right to import, under certain conditions, a specified 
 number of slaves into the Spanish colonies. For full 
 
ASS 
 
 Y2 
 
 AST 
 
 particulars with respect to this contract, see Mr. Ban- 
 dinel's valuable work on the Slave-trade. 
 
 Assignat, the name given to a peculiar species of 
 paper monej' issued during the first French Revolution. 
 The influence of the system, operating along with the 
 other attempts to regulate trade, form a prominent 
 feature in the calamitous history of the epoch. The 
 shai'e borne in it by the assignats is at the same time 
 a memorable instance, for the use of the economist and 
 tinancier, of the hopelessness of projects for creating 
 or preserving national wealth by an issue of paper 
 money, not the representative of available wealth and 
 real business transactions. The iirst issue of assignats 
 was made in the security of the forfeited ecclesiastical 
 property, and was adopted as a preferable alternative 
 to throwing the forfeited lands on the market, which 
 it was no doubt judiciously believed that so large an 
 amount of propertj' would glut. The holder of the 
 assignats might use them as money, or claim the land 
 which they represented. As more forfeitures occurred, 
 the issue of assignats was increased. But it soon 
 ceased to be measured by property, and was enlarged 
 according to the exigencies of the revolutionary gov- 
 ernment. The paper money fell to half, then to a 
 sixth part of the value of the same denomination in 
 silver, and sinldng rapidly through successive grades 
 of decrease, silver held at last the value of 150 times 
 its denomination in paper. In August of 1773, 3776 
 millions of francs were thus put in circulation : and 
 virtually the assignats became worthless. The estab- 
 lishment of the maximum, and the other tj'rannical 
 interferences with trade by which revolutionary gov- 
 ernments endeavor to support credit, have their proper 
 place, along with the account of the condition of the 
 country during the depreciation of the assignats, un- 
 der the head of France. — E. B. 
 
 Assignee, a person appointed by competent au- 
 thority to do, act, or transact some business, or exer- 
 cise some particular privilege or power, for or on ac- 
 count of some specified individual or individuals. As- 
 signees may be created by deed, or by law ; by deed^ 
 where the lessee of a farm assigns the same to another ; 
 by law, where the law makes an assignee, without any 
 appointment of the person entitled, as an executor is 
 assignee in law to the testator, and an administrator 
 to an intestate. The term is most commonly applied 
 to the offiqial assignees appointed to manage bankrupt 
 estates. — See Baskrupt. 
 
 Assignment, Assignation, Assignee, are of 
 frequent technical use in law. To assign is to make 
 over, and the tei-m is generally used to express a trans- 
 ference by writing, in contradistinction to a transfer- 
 ence by actual delivery. In England the usual ex- 
 pression is assignment, in Scotland it is assignation. 
 The person making over is called assignerer^ assigner^ 
 or cedent ; the recipient, assignee. This last term is of 
 important application in the law of bankruptcy in En- 
 gland and Ireland, as expressing persons of two class- 
 es, the official assignees and the trade assignees, to 
 whom the realization and distribution of the bankrupt 
 estate is committed.— E. B. See Bankkuptcy. 
 
 Assize. See Bread. 
 
 Association (from the Latin associare, to join in 
 fellowship), the act of associating or constituting a so- 
 ciety or partnership, in order to carry on some scheme 
 or business with more advantage. The reader is re- 
 ferred to the Encyclopedia Britannica, articles Socie- 
 ties and Agitation, in reference to the influence of 
 association upon workmen and employers, and as a 
 political engine. 
 
 Assumption, the capital of the province of Para- 
 guay, in South America. It is situated on an obtuse 
 angle formed bj' the eastern bank of the River Para- 
 guay, 18 miles above the junction of the first mouth of 
 the Pilcomayo, and 48 above that of the second. It 
 was originally a small fort, but, from the convenience 
 of its situation, in a few years it became a city, and in 
 
 1547 was erected into a bishopric. The adjacent ter- 
 ritory is rich and fertile in a high degree, and abounds 
 in a great variety of fruits. The air is temperate and 
 the climate salubrious ; the trees are perpetually green, 
 and the rich pastures in the neighborhood feed numer- 
 ous flocks of cattle. The city is inhabited by Span- 
 iards, Indians, and Mestizoes, who trade in hides, to- 
 bacco, and sugar. The Paraguay affords a channel 
 of communication with Buenos Ayres ; but the passage 
 is long, owing to the rapid flow of the waters of that 
 river : this, however, is considerably obviated by the 
 favorable winds which blow from the south for a great 
 part of the year. Population, 12,000. Long. 67° 37' 
 W. ; lat. 25° 16' S.— E. B. 
 
 Assurance. See Inscrakce. 
 
 Astern, a sea phrase, used to signify any thing at 
 some distance behind the ship ; being the opposite of 
 Ahead, which signifies the space before her. 
 
 Astringents, a class of medicines used for binding 
 or contracting the several parts, external or internal, 
 of the human system, for restraining profuse discharges, 
 coagulating the fluids, condensing and strengthening 
 the solids. The principal astringents are the mineral 
 acids, alum, lime-water, chalk, several preparations of 
 copper, zinc, iron, etc., catechu, kino, oak-bark, galls, 
 and all vegetable substances containing tannin. — E. B. 
 
 Astronomy. The earliest accounts we have of 
 this science are those of Babylon, about 2234 B.C. — 
 Blair. The study of astronomy was much advanced 
 in Chaldea under Nabonassur : it was known to the 
 Chinese about 1100 B.C. ; some say many centuries 
 before. Lunar eclipses were observed at Babylon with 
 exceeding accuracy, 720 e.g. Spherical form of the 
 earth, and the true cause of lunar eclipses, taught by 
 Tkales, 640 B.C. Further discoveries by Pythagoras^ 
 who taught the doctrine of celestial motions, and be- 
 lieved in the plurality of habitable worlds, 500 B.C. 
 Hipparchus began his observations at Rhodes, 167 B.C. ; 
 began his new cycle of the moon in 143 ; and made 
 great advances in the science, 140 B.C. The precession 
 of the equinoxes conflrmed, and the places and dis- 
 tances of the planets discovered, by Ptolemy, a.d. ISO. 
 After the lapse of nearly seven centuries, during which 
 time astronomy was neglected, it was resumed by^the 
 Arabs about 800 ; and was afterward brought into 
 Europe by the Moors of Barbary and Spain, but not 
 sooner than 1201, when they also introduced geography. 
 
 A.n. 
 
 The Alphonsine tables were compoBed 1284 
 
 Clocks first used in aBtronomy about 1500 
 
 True doctrine of the motions of the planetary bodies re- 
 vived by Copernicus isso 
 
 The science greatly advanced by Tycho Brahe about. . 1682 
 
 True laws of the planetary motions, by Kepler 1619 
 
 Telescopes and other instruments used in astronomy 
 
 about ](527 
 
 The discoveries of Galileo were made about 1631 
 
 The transit of Venus over the sun's disk first observed 
 
 by Horrox, November 24 1639 
 
 Cassini draws his meridian line, after Dante '.'.','. 1655 
 
 The abeiTation of the light of the fixed stars discovered 
 
 by Horrebow 1659 
 
 Discoveries of Picart '...'"!!! 1669 
 
 Map of the moon constructed by Hevelius ' '. 1670 
 
 Motion of the sun round its own axis proved by II alley 1676 
 
 Discoveries of Huygens 1686 
 
 Newton's Primipia published, and the system' as iiow 
 
 taught incontrovertibly established 1687 
 
 Catalogue of the stars made by Flamstead 1688 
 
 Satellites of Saturn, etc., discovered by Cassini 1701 
 
 Aberration of the stars clearly explained by Dr. Bradley 1737 
 
 Celestial inequalities found by La Grange 1780 
 
 DranuB and satellites discovered by HerBchel, March 13 1781 
 
 Mecanique Celeste^ published by La Place 1796 
 
 Ceres discovered by Piazzi, January 1 ■•■•■.. ^^^^ 
 
 Pallas, by Dr. Olbers, March 28 1802 
 
 Juno, by Harding, September 1 1904 
 
 Vesta, by Olbers 1807 
 
 Neptune, by Le Verrier !!.".'!!!!!!!! 1846 
 
 United States astronomical expedition to the South 
 
 Hemisphere, under Lieutenant Gilliss, left Baltimore 
 
 J"'yl8 1849 
 
 The distance of the fixed stars is supposed to be 400,000 
 times greater from us than we are from the sun, that 
 is to say, 38 millions of millions of miles ; so that a 
 
Basm of the Nor t}i Atlantic Ocearv. hy liieiit. Mcuiry IZS.JV. 
 
 Ttcttc I. 
 
 13 ;d&Priiiwl by .: i£P.uia.T,Pliil^^?- 
 
ATL 
 
 73 
 
 ATL 
 
 cannon-ball would take near nine millions of years to 
 reach one of them, supposing there were nothing to hin- 
 der it from pursuing its course thither. As light takes 
 about eight minutes and a quarter to reach us from the 
 sun, it would be about six years in coming from one 
 of those stars ; but the calculations of later astrono- 
 mers prove some stars to be so distant, that their light 
 must take centuries before it can reach us ; and that ev- 
 ery particle of light which enters our eyes left the star 
 it comes from three orfour hundred years ago. — Haydn. 
 Atlantic Ocean (^Atlanticue Oceanus), one of the 
 five great hydrographical divisions of the globe, occu- 
 pies an immense valley, and extends from the Arctic 
 circle on the north to the Antartic circle on the south, 
 bounded west by the coast of America to Cape Horn, 
 and thence by a line continued on the same meridian 
 to the Antarctic circle, and east by the shores of Europe 
 and Africa to the Cape of Good Hope, and thence pro- 
 longed on the meridian of Cape Agulhas till it meets 
 the Antartic circle. Its extreme breadth is about 
 6000 miles, and its area is computed at 25,000,000 
 square miles. It is naturally divided into three por- 
 tions : 1st, the north ; 2d, the south ; and, 3d, the in- 
 tertropical Atlantic. The North Sea, or German 
 Ocean, the Caribbean Sea, and tlie Irish Sea, form 
 portions of the Atlantic ; but the Baltic and the Medi- 
 terranean, which communicate with the North Sea by 
 narrow channels, are properly considered separate seas. 
 The principal gulfs of the Atlantic are, in Europe, the 
 Bay of Biscay, or Golfe de Gascogne ; in Africa, the 
 Gulf of Guinea ; in America, the Gulf of Mexico and 
 the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The chief islands are, in 
 Europe, the British Isles and Iceland ; in Africa, the 
 Azores, Madeira, and Canary islands, and the Archi- 
 pelago of the Gulf of Guinea ; in America, the Antilles, 
 Newfoundland, and the islands of the Gulf of St. Law- 
 rence. The Atlantic, with its branches, drains nearly 
 the whole of Europe west of the basin of the Volga ; 
 all North America east of the Rocky Mountains and 
 the Sierra Madre of Mexico ; and the whole of South 
 America east of the Andes. Its chief affluents are, in 
 Europe, the Rhine, Loire, and Tagus ; in Africa, the 
 Senegal, Niger, and Congo; and in North America, 
 the St. Lawrence and Mississippi ; in South America, 
 the Orinoco, Amazon, and La Plata. The bed of the 
 Atlantic is very unequal in elevation, in some places 
 rising in immense sand banks to within a few fathoms 
 of the surface, and in others sinking to great depths. 
 In 1853, Lieutenant Berryman, of the United States 
 navy, ran a line of deep sea soundings from the neigh- 
 borliood of Newfoundland to Ireland, to test the prac- 
 ticability of finding a base for a submarine telegraph 
 between America and Europe. Average depth, 12,000 
 feet. But farther south. Lieutenant Berryman made 
 a sounding (lat. 52° 55' N., 47° 58' W. long.) 39,G00 
 feet in depth, equal to a little over 7i miles. The 
 most extensive banks are those of Newfoundland, the 
 Dogger Bank in the German Ocean, and the Agulhas 
 Bank oif the south point of Africa. The minimum 
 depth on the Bank of Newfoundland is 60 feet. The 
 German Ocean varies in depth from 66 to 500 feet. 
 
 " From the top of Chimborazo to the bottom of the 
 Atlantic, at the deepest place yet reached by the plum- 
 met in the North Atlantic, the distance, in a vertical 
 line, is nine miles. In its entire length, the basin of 
 this sea is a long trough, separating the Old World 
 ■from the New, and extending probably from pole to 
 pole. Could the waters of the Atlantic be drawn off, 
 so as to expose to view this great sea-gash, which sep- 
 arates continents, and extends from the Arctic to the 
 Antartic, it would present a scene the most rugged, 
 grand, and imposing. The very ribs of the solid earth, 
 with the foundations of the sea, would be brought to 
 light, and we should have presented to us at one view, 
 in the empty cradle of the ocean, 'a thousand fearful 
 wrecks,' with that dreadful array of dead men's skulls, 
 great anchors, heaps of pearl, and inestimable stones, 
 
 which, in the poet's eye, lie scattered in the bottom of 
 the sea, making it hideous with sights of ugly death. 
 There is at the bottom of this sea, between Cape Race 
 in Newfoundland and Cape Clear in Ireland, a re- 
 markable steppe, which is now known as the tele- 
 graphic plateau. A company is now engaged with 
 the project of a submarine telegraph across the Atlan- 
 tic. It is proposed to carry the wires along this pla- 
 teau from the eastern shores of Newfoundland to the 
 western shores of Ireland. The great-circle distance 
 between these two shore-lines is one thousand six 
 hundred miles, and the sea along the route is prob- 
 ably nowhere more than two thousand feet deep." — 
 Madry's Geography of the Sea. 
 
 One attempt has been made to lay a cable from Port 
 au Basque, Newfoundland, to Cape North, the extremest 
 point of Cape Breton I4and, but owing to continued 
 storm the cables had to be parted, and it was given up. 
 Preparations are now being made for another trial. 
 
 The trade-winds blow regularly in the intertropical 
 portion of the Atlantic ; beyond these limits the winds 
 are variable. The principal currents of the Atlantic 
 are, the equatorial current, which flows from the coast 
 of Africa to the Caribbean Sea, with a velocity of from 
 30 to 70 miles a day, and the Gulf Stream, which, 
 leaving the Gulf of Mexico, flows through the Strait 
 of Florida, with a velocity of 80 miles a day, and a 
 temperature of 86° Fahrenheit, and extends with a. 
 gradually decreasing velocity and diminished temper- 
 ature to the Azores. Immense numbers of fish are 
 found in the Atlantic, and herring and cod fishing are 
 importaht branches of industry in the northern portion. 
 A great part of the surface of the Atlantic, between 
 lat. 16° and 45' N., and long. 35° and 75° W., is cov- 
 ered with a species of weed (Fuims Natcms) of a beau- 
 tiful green color, from which circumstance it is called 
 the Sargazo Sea — the sea of duck-weed, or the grassy 
 sea. In the higher latitudes of the North and South 
 Atlantic, navigation is impeded by immense icebergs, 
 which are floated from the polar regions, and although 
 these are generally melted before reaching the frequent- 
 ed parts of the ocean, they have occasionally been met 
 with as far south as lat. 40° 45' in the North Atlantic, 
 and in the vicinity of the Cape of Good Hope in the 
 South Atlantic Ocean. For extensive information on 
 the navigation and currents of the Atlantic, see Mau- 
 ey's Wind and Current Charts of the Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 Plate I., from Madky's Geography of the Sea, " pre- 
 sents a map of the depths of the ocean according to re- 
 cent soundings. " It relates exclusively to the bottom 
 of that part of the Atlantic Ocean which lies north of 
 10° south. It is stippled with four shades ; the dark- 
 est (that which is nearest the shore-line) shows where 
 the water is less than 6000 feet deep ; the next, where 
 it is less than 12,000 feet ; the third, where it is less 
 than 18,000 ; and the fourth, and lightest, where it is not 
 over 24,000 feet deep. The blank space south of Nova 
 Scotia and the Grand Banks includes a district within 
 which very deep water has been reported, but from 
 casts of the deep-sea lead which upon discussion do not 
 appear satisfactory. The deepest part of the North 
 Atlantic is probably somewhere between the Bermudas 
 and the Grand Banks, but how deep it may be yet re- 
 mains for the cannon-ball and the sounding-line to 
 determine." — Mahey. 
 
 The Atlantic, according to Humboldt, presents all 
 the indications of a valley, as if a flow of eddying wa- 
 ters had been directed from toward the northeast, then 
 toward the northwest, and back again to the northeast. 
 The parallelism of the coast north of 10° south lati- 
 tude, the projecting and receding angles, the convexi- 
 ty of Brazil opposite to the Gulf of Guinea, that of 
 Africa under the same parallel with the Gulf of the 
 Antilles, all favor this apparently speculative view. 
 In this Atlantic valley, as is almost every where the 
 ease in the configuration of large continental masses, 
 coasts deeply indented and rich in islands are situated 
 
ATL 
 
 74 
 
 ATT 
 
 opposite to those possessing a different cliaracter. The 
 depth of this ocean is extremely various ; and is enor- 
 mous, both to the nortli and south of the equator. 
 Thus, Captain Sir Edward Belcher, R.N., in lat. 0° i' 
 N. long., 10° 6' W., sounded to the depth of 3065 
 fathoms = 18,390 feet ; Captain Barnetfc, E.N., in lat. 
 41° 2' N. long. 44° 3' W., sounded to the depth of 3700 
 fathoms, or 22,200 feet ; Captain Sir James lioss, E.N., 
 in 1840, to 2677 fathoms, or 16,062 feet ; and afterward, 
 in lat. 33° 3' S., long. 9° 1' E., to 4600 fathoms, or 
 27,600 feet ; and Captain H. M. Denham, H.M.S. Ber- 
 cdd, has obtained soundings at the vast depth of 7706 
 fathoms =46,236 feet, or about 8§ English miles. This, 
 ■which is the deepest sounding ever yet taken, occurred 
 on 30th October, 1852, in lat. 36° 49' S., long. 37° 6'W. 
 Two American captains have also obtained soundings 
 at the depth of 3100 and 3500 fathoms. 
 
 The intertropical part of the Atlantic is under the 
 influence of the trade-winds, which frequently extend 
 to the 32d degree of north or south latitude. The 
 winds blow almost invariably in the same direction, 
 from east to west, occasionally varying a few points to 
 the north or south, on the north and south sides of the 
 equator. A region of calms, varying from 3 to 10 de- 
 grees of latitude, according to the season of the year, 
 separates the two trade-winds. It is, however, daily 
 agitated by a squall, which begins about two o'clock 
 in the afternoon, and continues about an hour. This 
 region does not always occupy the same part, but its 
 central line may be placed about the 5th degree of 
 north latitude. In some tracts the influence of the 
 trade-winds extends to the shores, but in general it 
 does not come within 200 miles of the coasts. 
 
 The current of this ocean first known to mariners, 
 is called the equinoctial, and is within the tropics, es- 
 pecially flowing from the coast of Senegal to the Ca- 
 ribbean Sea. Its direction is constantly from east to 
 Avest, with a mean rapidity of 9 or 10 miles in 24 hours. 
 This current is attributed to the impulse which is given 
 to the surface of the sea by the trade-winds. " In the 
 channel," says Humboldt, " which the Atlantic has 
 dug between Guiana and Guinea on the meridian of 
 20 or 23 degrees, and from the 8th or 9th to the 2d or 
 3d degrees of north latitude, "where the trade-winds are 
 often interrupted by winds blowing from the south or 
 south-southwest, the equinoctial current is more incon- 
 stant in its direction. The equinoctial current is felt, 
 though feebly, even beyond the tropic of Cancer, in 
 the 26th and 28th degrees of latitude. In the vast 
 basin of the Atlantic, at 600 or 700 leagues from the 
 coasts of Africa, vessels from Europe bound to the West 
 Indies find their sailing accelerated before they reach 
 the torrid zone." In the Caribbean Sea, the motion 
 of this current is much accelerated by the action of an- 
 other current. The Mozambique current, flowing from 
 north to south, between Madagascar and the eastern 
 coast of Africa, bends to the north of the LaguUas bank, 
 round the southern point of Africa, and advances with 
 much violence along its western coast beyond the equa- 
 tor to the island of St. Thomas. It gives a northwest- 
 erly direction to a portion of the waters of the South 
 Atlantic, causing them to strike Cape St. Augustin, 
 and to follow the shores of Guiana beyond the mouth 
 of the Orinoco, the Boca del Drago, and the coast of 
 Paria. The coast of America presenting a barrier to 
 the equinoctial current, its waters are driven with ve- 
 locity through the strait formed by Cape Catoche and 
 Cape St. Antonio, into the Gulf of Mexico; and, after 
 following the bondings of the coast, force their way 
 back into the open sea north of the Straits of Bahama, 
 where it forms a warm rapid current, known as the 
 Gulf Stream. At first its rapidity is sometimes as 
 great as five miles an hour, but it decreases as it pro- 
 ceeds toward the north, at the same time that its 
 breadth increases and its waters become cool. Between 
 Cayo Biscaino and the bank of Bahama the breadth is 
 only 15 leagues, while in the latitude of 28^ degrees it 
 
 is 17; and in the parallel of Charleston, opposite 
 Cape Henlopen, from forty to fifty leagues. " The 
 waters of the Mexican Gulf forcibly drawn to north- 
 east preserve their warm temperature to such a point, 
 that in 40 and 41 degrees of latitude I found thgm 
 at 22-5° cent. (=72-4° Fahrenheit), when out of the 
 current the heat of the ocean at its surface was 
 scarcely 17-5° (=63-5° Fahrenheit). In the parallel of 
 New York and Oporto, the temperature of the Gulf 
 Stream is consequently equal to that of the seas of the 
 tropics in the 18th degree of latitude ; as, for instance, 
 in the parallel of Porto Eico and the islands of Cape 
 Verd." — Humboldt. In lat. 41° 25' and long. 67°, 
 where it is nearly 80 leagues broad, it turns suddenly 
 to the east, and almost touches the southern edge of 
 the Great. Newfoundland Bank, from whence it con- 
 tinues its course east and east-southeast to the Azores. 
 On the meridian of Corvo and Flores, the most west- 
 erly islands of the Azores group, the breadth of the 
 current is 180 leagues. From the Azores it turns to- 
 ward the Straits of Gibraltar, the island of Madei- 
 ra, and the Canary group. There are several other 
 minor currents in the vast ocean, as the branch sent 
 off by the Gulf Stream before reaching the Western 
 Azores, ■\\ hich at certain seasons of the year flows toward 
 Ireland and Norway. The experiments of Sir James 
 Eoss and Captain Denham show that, after the depth 
 of 200 or 300 fathoms, the temperature of the Atlantic 
 waters is stationary at 40° Fahrenheit, whatever be the 
 temperature at the surface. This uniformity of tem- 
 perature in the waters of great oceans renders them 
 the means of mitigating the extremes of tropical and 
 polar regions. — E. B. See Gulf Stream. See also 
 Rennell's Investigation of the Cwrents of the Atlantic 
 Ocean; Humboldt's Cosmos^ personal narrative; and 
 Maury's Physical Geography of the Sea, 
 
 Atlas, in Literature, a collection of maps, charts, 
 or other tables; so called from the fabulous king of 
 that name, who is sometimes represented as supporting 
 the world on his shoulders. The term was first used 
 in this sense bj' the celebrated geographer Mercator, in 
 the 16th century. 
 
 Atmometer (from ut/ioc, vapor, and /jerpov, a 
 measure), an instrument contrived by Professor Leslie 
 for measuring the quantity of moisture exhaled from 
 any humid surface in a given time. It consists of a 
 very thin ball of porous earthen-ware, from one to three 
 inches in diameter, having a small neck firmly cement- 
 ed to a long and rather wide tube of glass, to which is 
 adapted a brass cap, with a narrow collar of leather to 
 fit close. Being filled with distilled or pure water, the 
 waste and descent of this column serves to indicate the 
 quantity of evaporation from the external surface of 
 the ball. The tube is marked downward, through its 
 whole length, by the point of a diamond, with divisions 
 across it, amounting to from 200 to 500, each of which 
 corresponds to a ring of fluid, that, spread over the 
 whole exhaling surface, would form a film only one 
 thousandth part of an inch in thickness. This gradua- 
 tion is pertbrmed by previously sealing one of the ends 
 of the tube with i\ ax, and introducing successive por- 
 tions of quicksilver, to mark every 20, 50, or 100 of 
 those divisions ; being calculated of equal bulk to 
 disks of water, that have the surface of the ball (ex- 
 clusive of the neck) for their base, and so many thou- 
 sand parts of an inch for their altitude. 
 
 Atmosphere, is the name applied to the invisible 
 elastic medium which surrounds the globe of the earth 
 to an unknown height. The fluid of which it is com- 
 posed is usually known by the name of air. 
 
 Attachment, in English Law, is a process from a 
 court of record, awarded by the justices at their discre- 
 tion, on a bare suggestion, or on their own knowledge ; 
 and is properly gran table in cases of contempt. It difl'ers 
 from arrest, in that he who arrests a man carries him 
 to a person of higher power to be forthwith disposed of; 
 but he that attaches keeps the party attached, and pre- 
 
ATT 
 
 75 
 
 AUG 
 
 Bents him in court at the day assigned, as appears by 
 the words of the writ. Another ditt'erence is, that ar- 
 rest is only upon the body of a man, whereas an attach- 
 ment is often upon his goods. It is distinguished from 
 distress in not extending to lands, as the latter does ; 
 nor does a distress toucli the body, as an attachment 
 docs. Every court of record has power to fine and im- 
 prison for contempt of its authority. — E. B. 
 
 Attar, or Otto of Roses, a well-known perfume 
 of gre^t strength, is an essential oil prepared in several 
 parts of Asia and in Egypt from the Rosa moechata and 
 Rosa Damascena. It is said that 100,000 roses yield 
 but 180 grains of attar. This oil is at first of a palish 
 green color, which by keeping becomes darker, and 
 presents various tints of green, yellow, and red. 
 
 Attorney-at-laTV is one who is put in the place, 
 stead, or turn of another (cdtomatus), to manage or 
 conduct his law proceedings or affairs. The term is 
 used in England to denote the class of legal practition- 
 ers whose functions are preparatory to tliose of tlie 
 barrister or advocate. 
 
 Auction, a well-known mode of selling propertj', 
 in open competition, to the highest offerer, by means 
 of an agent or auctioneer. When the property is of 
 considerable value, a person is sometimes appointed to 
 superintend the sale, who is denominated judge of the 
 roup, and acts as an arbiter in settling any disputes that 
 may arise. The terms of the sale may be regulated 
 at the will of the exposer, provided they are distinctly 
 announced to the public beforehand. The party pfter- 
 ing the highest price is declared the purchaser. When 
 formal articles of sale are employed, they commonly 
 regulate how much each offer shall exceed the pre- 
 vious one ; whetlier the exposer shall be allowed to 
 make an offer, or to withdraw the subject, if the high- 
 est offer does not amount to a given sum ; and some- 
 times it is declared that an installment of the price 
 shall be payable instantly, or that security shall be 
 found witliin a stipulated period; failing which the 
 immediately preceding offerer is preferred. Secret 
 contrivances, either to raise or depreciate the price, are 
 unlawful. The seller must not attempt to practice 
 any imposition on the public ; neither are the bidders 
 permitted to adopt any unfair means to prevent the 
 natural operation of free competition. Where any 
 such thing is detected, not only is the sale vitiated, 
 but reparation is due to the injured party. For ex- 
 ample, the secret employment by the seller of a friend 
 to raise the price by making a fictitious offer is fraud- 
 ulent, and entitles the highest offerer, on detecting it, 
 to repudiate the transaction, or (in case he has been 
 outbidden by such fictitious party) to demand the prop- 
 erty at the price which he fairly offered. On the other 
 hand, the obligation on the part of the public to act 
 fairly is equally stringent. Accordingly, if two or 
 more individuals combine to withhold their biddings 
 that one of tlieir number may purchase cheaply in or- 
 der to divide among them the expected profit, or if a 
 bidder were to give money to others to induce them to 
 refrain from bidding, the exposer is entitled to have 
 tlie sale declared void, on the ground that such a se- 
 cret combination or paction obviously deprived him of 
 the advantage which he expected from that competi- 
 tion which a public sale is intended to secure. — E. B. 
 OJ* Sales at Auction, — "An auctioneer has not only 
 possession of the goods which he is employed to sell, but 
 he has an interest coupled with that possession. He has 
 a special property in the goods, and a lien upon them 
 for the charges of the sale, and his commission, and 
 the auction duty. He may sue the buyer for the pur- 
 chase-money, and if he gives credit to the vender, and 
 makes delivery without payment, it is at his own risk. 
 If the auctioneer has notice that the property he is 
 about to sell does not belong to his principal, and he 
 sells notwithstanding the notice, he will be held re- 
 sponsible to the owner for the amount of the sale. So, 
 if the auctioneer does not disclose the name of his prin- 
 
 cipal at the time of the sale, the purchaser is entitled 
 to look to him personally for the completion of the 
 contract, and for damages on Its non-performance. 
 
 " In the sale of real property at auction, care should 
 be taken that the description of it be accurate, or the 
 purchaser will not be held to a performance of the con- 
 tract. But if the description be substantially true, 
 and be defective or inaccurate in a slight degree only, 
 the purchaser will be required to perform the contract, 
 if the sale be fair and the title good. Some care and 
 diligence must be exacted of the purchaser. If every 
 nice and critical objection be admissible, and sufficient 
 to defeat the sale, it would greatly impair the efficacj' 
 and value of public judicial sales ; and, therefore, if 
 the purchaser gets substantially the thing for which 
 he bargained, he may generally be held to abide by 
 the purchase, with the allowance of some deduction 
 from the price, by way of compensation for any small 
 deficiency in value by reason of the variation. 
 
 " A bidding at an auction may be retracted before 
 the hammer is down. Every bidding is nothing more 
 than an offer on one side, which is not binding on eitlicr 
 side until it is assented to, and that assent is signified, 
 on the part of the seller, by knocking down the ham- 
 mer. 
 
 " If the owner employs puffers to bid for him at an 
 auction, it lias been held to be a fraud upon the real 
 bidders. He must not enhance the price by a person 
 privately employed by him for that purpose. It would 
 be contrary to good faith, as persons resort to an auc- 
 tion under a confidence that the articles set up for sale 
 will be disposed of to the highest real bidder. A se- 
 cret puffer employed by the owner is not fair bidding, 
 and is a fraud upon the public, nor can the owner pri- 
 vately bid upon his own goods ; or secret dealing on 
 the part of the seller is deemed fraudulent. If he be 
 unwilling that his goods shall be sold at an under 
 price, he may order them to be set up at his own price 
 and not lower, or he may previously declare, as a con- 
 dition of the sale, that he reserves a bid for himself." 
 — Kent's Comm., vol. ii. Lect. XXXIX. 
 
 Auctioneer, a person who conducts sales by auc- 
 tion. It is his duty to state the conditions of sale, to 
 declare the respective biddings, and to terminate the 
 sale by knocking down the thing sold to the highest 
 bidder. An auctioneer is held to be lawfully author- 
 ized by the purchaser to sign a contract for him, wheth- 
 er it ie for lands or goods ; and his writing down the 
 name of the highest bidder in his book is sufficient to 
 bind any other person for whom the highest bidder 
 purchased, even though such person be present, pro- 
 vided he do not object before entry. An auctioneer 
 who declines to disclose the name of his principal at 
 the time of sale makes himself responsible. But if he 
 disclose the name of his principal, he ceases to be re- 
 sponsible, either for the soundness of or title to the thing 
 sold, unless he have expressly warranted it on his own 
 responsibility. If an auctioneer pay over the produce 
 of a Sale to his employer, after receiving notice that 
 the goods were not the property of such employer, the 
 real owner of the goods may recover the amount from 
 the auctioneer. It has long been a common practice 
 at certain auctions (called for that reason mock auc- 
 tions) to employ pvffers, or mock bidders, to raise the 
 value of the articles sold by their apparent competi- 
 tion, and many questions have grown out of it. It 
 was long ago decided that if the owner of an estate 
 put up to sale by auction employ puffers to bid for him, 
 it is a fraud on the real bidder, and the highest bidder 
 can not be compelled to complete his contract. — 6 T. 
 Rep. p. 642. But it would seem as if the mere em- 
 ployment of puffers under any circumstances were now 
 held to be illegal. " The inclination of the courts at 
 the present time is, that a sale by auction should be 
 conducted in the most open and public manner possi- 
 ble ; that there should be no reserve on the part of the 
 seller, and no collusion on the part of the buyers. 
 
AUD 
 
 76 
 
 ADS 
 
 Puffing is illegal, according to a late case, even though 
 there be only one puffer ; and it was then decided that 
 the recognized practice at auctions, of employing such 
 persons to bid upon the sale of horses, could not be 
 sustained." — Woolrych on Commerciul La'w, p. 262. 
 A party bidding at an auction may retract his offer at 
 any time before the hammer is down. Another clearly 
 established principle is, that verbal declarations by an 
 auctioneer are not to be suffered to control the printed 
 conditions of sale ; and these, when pasted up under 
 the box of the auctioneer, arc held to be sufficiently 
 notified to purchasers. Auctioneers, like all other 
 agents, should carefully observe their instructions. 
 Should those who employ them sustain any damage 
 through their carelessness or inattention, they will be 
 responsible. They must also answer for the conse- 
 quences, if they sell *the property intrusted to their 
 care for less than the price set upon it by the owners, 
 or in a way contrary to order. 
 
 Auditor, in English Law, is an officer who, by 
 examining yearly the accounts of the under officers, 
 makes up a general book, which shows the difference 
 between their receipts and charges, and their several 
 allowances. — E. B. 
 
 Auncel Weight, an ancient balance, prohibited 
 by several statutes, on account of the deceits practiced 
 by it. It consisted of scales hanging on hooks, fast- 
 ened at each end of a beam, which were lifted up by 
 the hand. In many parts of England auncel weight 
 signifies meat sold by the hand, without scales. — E. B. 
 
 Aureus, the standard gold coin of Rome, first struck 
 A.u.c. 546 ; current value = 25 denarii, or 100 sestertii, 
 equivalent to 175. 8^^^. Forty aurei were made from 
 a pound of gold ; but their value was gradually dimin- 
 ished, till, under Nero, 45 were made from a pound, 
 and under Constantine, 72. — Hcssey, on Ancient 
 Weights and Money. — E. B. 
 
 Australasia, in modern Geoffvaphy, the fifth great 
 division of the earth's surface. The learned and intel- 
 ligent President de Brosses was the first writer who 
 suggested that all the lands and islands in the Austral 
 world should be divided into three portions, corre- 
 sponding with the three great oceans, the Indian or 
 Ethiopic, the Atlantic, and the Pacific; those in the 
 Indian Ocean and to the south of Asia to be named 
 Australasia; those in the two Pacifies, from the multi- 
 tude of islands, Polynesia (a name first used, we believe, 
 by De Barros) ; and those in the Atlantic to the south 
 of Cape Horn and the Cape of Good Hope, Magellan- 
 ica. The last, however, became unnecessary, as soon 
 as it was ascertained that the Terra Australis incognita 
 had no existence. 
 
 The two divisions of Australasia and Polynesia will 
 be found to comprehend, with sufficient convenience, 
 all those islands that can not with propriety be referred 
 to any of the four continents of the globe. Nor is there 
 any difficulty in drawing a line of separation between 
 these two divisions ; though it is not quite so easy to 
 mark the distinct boundary between the Australasian 
 and the Asiatic islands, where they melt into each other, 
 about the equator, at the northwest extremity of Papua 
 or New Guinea. In a geographical view, the small 
 islands of Waygiou, Salwatty, Batanta, Mysol, and 
 Timorlaut, ought strictly to belong to Australasia ; 
 but peopled as they are by Asiatics of the Malay tribe, 
 and under the influence of the Dutch settlements, it 
 may perhaps be more proper, in a moral and political 
 point of view, to consider them as belonging to the 
 Asiatic Islands ; more parficularly as we shall then 
 have all the Australasian population, with vei-y few ex- 
 ceptions, marked with more or less of the African or 
 Negro character. But, in fact, all geographical divi- 
 sions are and must be, to a certain degree, arbitrary. 
 
 If, then, we take the equator as the northern bound- 
 ary from the 132° to the 176° of east longitude ; con- 
 tinue a lino on the latter meridian to the 55th parallel 
 (bending a little to take in New Zealand) for the east- 
 
 ern ; another line along the same parallel to the G5th 
 degree of east longitude for the southern ; and a slant- 
 ing line to the point on the equator from which we set 
 out, so as to include Kerguelen's Land, and pass on 
 the eastern sides of Timorlaut, Ceram, Mysol, and Sal- 
 watty, for the western boundary ; those lines will cir- 
 cumscribe the whole of the Australasian islands. We 
 have included the uninhabited islands of Kerguelen 
 and St. Paul and Amsterdam, because they can not 
 properly be considered as African islands, though ar- 
 ranged, we believe, under that division by Pinkerton ; 
 they are of less importance to geography than to 
 geology. 
 
 Australasia, then, may be subdivided into the fol- 
 lowing groups and islands : 1. Australia, or New Hol- 
 land ; 2. Van Diemen's Land, or Tasmania ; 3. New 
 Guinea, and the Louisiade Archipelago ; 4. New Brit- 
 ian. New Ireland, and neighboring islands ; 5. Solo- 
 mon's Islands; 6. New Hebrides; 7. New Caledonia; 
 8. New Zealand, and isles to the southward ; 9. Ker- 
 guelen's Islands, or Islands of Desolation ; 10. St. 
 Paul and Amsterdam; 11. Numerous reefs and islets 
 of coral scattered over the Australasian Sea. 
 
 The first attempt to explore New Holland, which, 
 from its size, may be considered as the fifth continent 
 of the earth, is unquestionably due to the Dutch ; for 
 although some part of the northern coast may have 
 been seen by the early navigators of Spain and Portu- 
 gal, there is no direct testimony in favor of such a dis- 
 covery. There are two charts in the British Museum 
 which belonged to the Tlarlezan Collection; one French, 
 without date, which was probably the original ;. and 
 the other English, apparently a copy ; the latter ia 
 dedicated to the King of England, and bears date 1542. 
 In both of these charts is marked down an extensive 
 tract of country to the southward of the Moluccas, un- 
 der the name of Great Java, agreeing more nearly with 
 the position and extent of New Holland than any other 
 land. The form given to the northwest part of the 
 coast in these charts approaches nearest to the truth ; 
 a part, indeed, which may have been seen by those 
 early navigators who visited the Moluccas long before 
 the date of the English chart. It is a singular coinci- 
 dence in geographical nomenclature, that, on the east 
 coast of the French chart, something like a Botany Bay 
 should be designated under the name of Coste des Her- 
 baiges. The Abbe Prevo.st, in the Histoire Gaierale 
 des Voyages, and the President de Brosses, in his His- 
 toire des Navigations aux Terres Ausirales, are not very 
 happy in advancing a claim in favor of Paulovier'de 
 Gonneville, a French captain, to the discovery of this 
 Terra Australis in 1504. It was the coast of Mada- 
 gascar upon which Gonneville was driven, as is evi- 
 dent \>j their own accounts. — E. B. 
 
 Australia, or New Holland, the largest island 
 on the globe, is situated in the southern hemisphere; 
 and, as described in the preceding article, forms the 
 main land around which are clustered those groups of 
 islands which, in modern geography, constitute the 
 fifth great division of the earth's surface. Wilson 
 Promontory, its most southern angle, is in lat. 39° 11' 
 S., and Cape York, its northernmost headland, in lat. 
 10° 48' S. Its greatest breadth from north to south is 
 thus 1708 geographical miles, or 1965 statute miles. 
 Cape Byron, the eastern limit, is in long. 153° 37' E., 
 and Cape Inscription, in 112° 55' E., forms its western- 
 most point; making the extreme length of the island 
 from east to west about 2603 British miles, by an aver- 
 age breadth of 1200 miles— a tract of land well entitled 
 to be called a continent, by which name it is frequent- 
 ly designated by geographers. Its superficies approx- 
 imates to 2,690,810 square miles. That of the conti- 
 nent of Europe being 3,684,841 square miles, we can 
 form some idea of its extent by comparison. 
 
 The nomenclature and geographical subdivisions of 
 this island-continent have undergone manv alterations 
 from time to time, as the territory has become colo- 
 
AUS 
 
 77 
 
 AUS 
 
 nized. Before any settlement had been effected by 
 the British government upon its shores, the entire 
 island was designated New Holland, not only by the 
 Dutch — from whom it received its name — but on our 
 own charts and maps. The east coast, first discovered 
 and explored by Captain Cook in 1770, was named by 
 him New South Wales. The middle portion of the north 
 coast bore the name of Arnhem Land, after the ship of its 
 discoverer, Zeachen, in 1618. The west and southwest 
 coasts were named in like manner by their discoverers, 
 the Dutch navigators, in the seventeenth century, De 
 Witt's Land, Endraght's Land, Edel's Land, Leeuwin's 
 Land, and Nuyt's Land. That of Van Diemen's Land 
 was given by Tasman to what he supposed was the 
 southern peninsula of New Holland, but which was 
 afterward discovered by Bass to be an island. The 
 colonists have been anxious to name it after its dis- 
 coverer, but the government still retain the first title. 
 Since this great territory has become the undisputed 
 possession of Britain, other names, with the exception 
 just mentioned, have, according to the law of nations, 
 been substituted for the old Dutch titlesi New South 
 Wales is only applied now to about one-half the east 
 coast territory. The name of the entire island also is 
 changed from New Holland to the more appropriate 
 designation of Australia, by which it is now universal- 
 ly recognized and described. The subdivisions South, 
 North, and Western Australia would be equally proper 
 if their boundaries were defined according to the ordi- 
 nary rules of geographical dissection. But while the 
 first section, South Australia, is only the middle por- 
 tion of the south coast, trending inland to the central 
 region ; and the second. North Australia, embraces all 
 to the north of New South Wales ; the third section. 
 Western Australia, nearly bisects the island, leaving 
 a small tract of land between it and South Australia 
 with no name at all. A better division would be to 
 draw a line right across from east to ivest in lat. 26° 
 S. ; thus bisecting the island near its intertropical par- 
 allel ; for although this line would be 3^ degrees south 
 of the tropic of Capricorn, still the influence of the 
 tropical rains and winds ascend even higher than this 
 parallel. At all events, this would be sufficient for us 
 to designate the northern section Tropical Australia^ 
 and the southern Temperate Australia. Besides these 
 two great meteorological divisions, they could conven- 
 iently be subdivided into four political sections by 
 drawing another line from south to north in the me- 
 ridian of 133° 30'. Each of these sections might then 
 be designated, according to its direction from the cen- 
 tre. Southwestern and Northwestern Australia, North- 
 eastern and Southeastern Australia. And these, again, 
 might be subdivided into provinces, as the last-named 
 section includes the three colonies of New South Wales, 
 Victoria, and South Australia. This arrangement 
 would tend to simplify an important section of geog- 
 raphy which at present is very much confused. 
 
 If, for the better elucidation of our subject, we sup- 
 pose these lines and boundaries to exist on the map, 
 the northern o^ tropical division has little to do with 
 the history of British colonization in Australia. It is 
 within the temperate zone tliat our colonies have been 
 planted and successfully nurtured. And this tract, 
 again, separated by the meridian line suggested, co^i- 
 fines to a still smaller compass the subject of our de- 
 scription. The group of colonies which absorb the at- 
 tention of the statesman and merchant in that far- 
 off land are comprised within the last-named section, 
 Southeastern Australia. On the west it is bounded 
 by a line drawn from the south coast, in long. 132° E., 
 meeting another line drawn at a right angle from the 
 east coast, in lat. 26° S. ; the southern and eastern 
 boundaries being formed by the coast line ; which, by 
 following the sinuosities of the gulfs and bays, com- 
 prehends a sea-board of nearly 2000 miles. .Again, if 
 a line be traced on the map, commencing about 150 
 miles inland from thq head of Gulf St. Vincent, and 
 
 continued more or less (within half a degree) the same 
 distance from the coast until it reaches the northern 
 boundary-line, the intermediate space will give a fair 
 average of the extent of country at present colonized, 
 which may be estimated in round numbers at 1500 
 miles long by 150 miles broad, or 225,000 square miles ; 
 or nearly three times the superficies of England. 
 
 From a letter written by Mr. Edward Hammond 
 Hargraves to the colonial secretary, dated the 3d April, 
 1851, we leara that on the 12th of February previous 
 he had discovered the existence of gold among the al- 
 luvium of the surface rocks over a large area of crown 
 lands within the settled districts of the colony ; which 
 subsequently turned out to be from 20 to 30 miles be- 
 yond the town of Bathurst, an inland town 125 miles 
 from Sydney. He was led to prosecute a search for 
 the precious metal in that locality, from the similarity 
 of that mountainous section of#lew South Wales to 
 the auriferous regions of California, where he had suc- 
 cessfully worked as a gold-digger. Governor Fitzroy 
 was doubtful of the discovery, from the circumstance 
 of a similar statement having been made to him two 
 years before, by a Mr. Smith, of Berrima, who allowed 
 the matter to drop on the governor's refusing to pay 
 him a large fixed sum for the discovery. At the same 
 time. Sir Roderick Impey Murchison, president of the 
 Royal Geographical Society, and other eminent geol- 
 ogists in the colony and in England, had predicted 
 the discovery of gold in the Australian mountain ran- 
 ges, from their presenthig similar characters, both 
 geographically and geologically, to the gold-bearing 
 mountains in Russia. Partly from these representa- 
 tions, and partly from the general claims of the colo- 
 ny to have its mineral wealth scientifically investi- 
 gated, the government had just recently appointed 
 Mr. Samuel Stutchbury as geological surveyor; and 
 that gentleman at this period was prosecuting his ste- 
 reotyped researches not very zealously in the mountain 
 ranges at a short distance from Mr. Hargraves. It is 
 worthy of notice that gold had been found in its na- 
 tive state from time to time some twenty years pre- 
 vious, by a Scotch shepherd, who was known to have 
 sold a large quantity to the jewelers in Sydney ; hav- 
 ing kept the secret so long from a fear, as he staged, 
 that, if any one dogged him to the spot, they might 
 murder him. Notwithstanding these and other evi- 
 dences which need not be specified, no one had prose- 
 cuted the search systematically before Mr. Hargraves, 
 who demonstrated the fact publicly and without delay. 
 To him, therefore, is due all the honor of the discovery. 
 
 After having intimated to the government that he 
 was satisfied to leave to their liberal consideration any 
 reward or remuneration they chose to offer him for his 
 discovery, he posted off to Bathurst, and announced to 
 the astounded inhabitants that they were living with- 
 in a day's journey of the richest gold mines in the 
 world. Followed by a number of the enterprising in- 
 habitants, he led the way to Summerrhill Creek, and 
 there, in a romantic vale, surrounded by hills, where 
 this streamlet wound its course round a picturesque 
 point of land, they dug the auriferous earth from the 
 adjacent bank, washed it in the stream, and found that 
 the soil was mixed with grains of gold. These gold 
 pioneers, who thronged to the first "diggings," re- 
 minded of the resemblance between their country and 
 the rich gold mines mentioned in Scripture, called this 
 spot the Valley of Ophir. 
 
 This was in May, 1851, and it became the signal for 
 the colonists in other parts of the territory to be up 
 and doing. " Ascertaining the nature and description 
 of the rocks occurring in the vicinity of the gold de- 
 posits, they immediately set to work in their own lo- 
 calities to search for the hidden treasure, instead of 
 flocking with the multitude to the Bathurst mountains, 
 concluding wisely that these comprised only a small 
 section of the great mountain chain where it existed. 
 Like the industrious tenants of an Australian ant-hill 
 
AUS 
 
 78 
 
 AUS 
 
 suddenly rouged, the -whole community of bushmen be- 
 came alive among the rocks and valleys of the colon}'. 
 Stock-whips and shepherd's crooks were thrown aside 
 for pickaxes and shovels, with which these adventu- 
 rous men might be seen exploring the gold regions, and 
 with what success is now well known to the world." 
 The Turon River, Muckerwa Creek, Louisa Creek, Me- 
 roo Creek, Frederick's Valley, Abcrcrombie River, and 
 Araluen Vale, had their hidden treasures exhumed bj' 
 the industrious diggers ; and in three months after the 
 workings at Bathurst had been set in operation, the 
 newly-erected province of Victoria, within seven weeks 
 from the time of her separation from New South Wales, 
 disclosed her treasures at Ballarat ; and before the close 
 of the year, the Mount Alexander gold region gave forth 
 that astounding yield of the precious metal, to which no 
 record of ancient or modern times can furnish a paral- 
 lel. The result of th« latter discovery not only arrest- 
 ed the departure of the Victoria colonists who were 
 flocking to the Bathurst Mountains, but aftei'ward turn- 
 ed tlie tide of adventurers from the parent colony to the 
 greater attractions of the Mount Alexander gold fields, 
 which threatened at one time to decimate the popula- 
 lations of Sydney and the surrounding townships. 
 
 The gold was not merely found in the scales or grains 
 which at first came from the stream-washings at Ophir, 
 but it was now dug up in large masses, varying from 
 several ounces to many pounds in weight, which were 
 familiarly called " nuggets" by the diggers, after the 
 Californian name given to these pepitas or nodules ; and 
 in one instance, at Louisa Creels, 106 lb. weight of pure 
 gold was found by an aboriginal shepherd imbedded in 
 the quartz matrix^ which formed one solid block of about 
 3 cwt. Neither was it found in the beginning at any 
 great depth in the ground, but in many localities lay 
 scattered among the surface soil, and hung to the roots 
 of trees and shrubs. So easily and plentifully did it 
 come to the hands of the gold-seekers, that it bore the 
 aspect (and such was the belief of many of the less-in- 
 formed diggers) of having only then sprung into exist- 
 ence from the earth, or having recently been scattered 
 over the land by some mysterious agency, instead of 
 carrying along with it the geological fact tliat its veins 
 are coeA^al with the primary rocks. It was also dis- 
 covered that the convicts had built a bridge across a 
 small stream on the Bathurst road to Carcoar, above 
 the gold formation, and that they had unconsciously 
 paved the road with broken fragments of the gold quartz 
 veins. Even in the streets of Bathurst and Melbourne, 
 small particles of the precious metal were picked up by 
 children in its natural bed ; and several farmers and 
 gardeners found that they had been plowing, digging, 
 sowing, and planting their grain and trees in the aurit- 
 erous soil. A knowledge of these facts industriously 
 circulated by the colonial press throughout a commu- 
 nity possessed of all the modern facilities of informa- 
 tion, and keenly alive to the speculations of money- 
 making, could not but fairly upset the minds of the 
 people. Consequentl}', a gold mania seized every class 
 of colonists, to the temporary suspension of all indus- 
 trial pursuits. 
 
 Then followed a heterogeneous scramble for the cov- 
 eted ore throughout the length and breadth of the land, 
 which spread like wildfire to the neighboring colonies 
 of South Australia, Van Diemen's Land, and New Zea- 
 land, threatening to depopulate them of their male 
 adult inhabitants. Masons and bricklayers left unfin- 
 ished buildings in the towns ; shopmen left their coun- 
 ters, clerks their desks, sailors their ships ; and arti- 
 sans of every description threw up their employments, 
 leaving their masters, and their wives and families, to 
 take care of themselves. All other interests were ab- 
 sorbed in the search for gold ,- scarcely any other S'ib- 
 ject was talked of or thought of; and the mass of the 
 people ran otf to the " diggings," as this new occupa- 
 tion was termed. Nor did the mania confine itself to 
 the laboring classes, for " these "were soon followed by 
 
 responsible tradesmen, farmers, captains of vessels, and 
 not a few of the superior classes ; some unable to with- 
 stand the mania and the force of the stream, or because 
 they were really disposed to venture time and money 
 on the chance ; and others because they were, as em- 
 ployers of labor, left in the lurch and had no alterna- 
 tive. Cottages became deserted, houses to let, busi- 
 ness was at a stand-still, and even schools were closed. 
 In some of the suburbs not a man was left, and the wo- 
 men were known, for self-protection , to forget neighbors' 
 jars, and to group together to keep house." The ships 
 iii the harbor, also, were in a great measure deserted ; 
 and instances were known where not only farmers and 
 respectable agriculturists found that the only thing 
 they could do, seeing that the people employed by them 
 had deserted, was to leave their farms and join their 
 men in the golden scramble; "but even masters of 
 vessels, foreseeing the impossibility of maintaining any 
 control over their men otherwise, agreed to make up 
 parties among them, abandon their vessels, and proceed 
 with their crews to the gold fields." The towns and 
 their environs-being thus drained of their laboring pop- 
 ulations, the prices of provisions rapidly rose. The 
 common necessaries of life reached famine prices, which 
 fell heavily upon those depending upon salaries. This, 
 coupled with the high wages demanded by domestic 
 servants, forced the upper classes of society to dispense 
 with their services, and the ladies had to perform the 
 household drudgery. Clerks and others under govern- 
 ment, and in public and private offices, finding it im- 
 possible to make both ends meet, threw up their ap- 
 pointments and rushed to the diggings, and even the 
 constabulary force were leaving the towns unprotected. 
 During this state of atfairs the government was obliged 
 to raise the salaries of their officers, in order to main- 
 tain a sufficient staff for the public service, and to pre- 
 serve the public peace, which was becoming sadly dis- 
 turbed. The banks and mercantile firms were obliged 
 also to follow their example. 
 
 Meanwhile, the governments of New South Wales 
 and Victoria — the two gold colonies — looked with ap- 
 prehension upon the probable result of this gold-revo- 
 lution among a pastoral population widely scattered 
 over the country, a portion of which had but recentlj' 
 been reclaimed from the ranks of the felon. Therefore, 
 how to regulate the prosecution of this new pursuit on 
 crown lands became a matter of grave consideration. 
 The crime and anarchy which had prevailed in Cali- 
 fornia upon a similar discovery brought the worst fears 
 to their recollection. Precautionary measures were 
 promptly taken, and all the available military force— 
 which was but slender — was called into requisition, as- 
 sisted by the mounted police to maintain order and au- 
 thority at the localities where the diggers were work- 
 ing ; for at some places communities had assembled, and 
 erected tents with the rapidity of a military encamp- 
 ment, in larger numbers than were to be found congre- 
 gated within the ordinary townships scattered over the 
 country. A proclamation was issued asserting the 
 right of the queen's government to all gold or precious 
 metals found on crown lands ; and that every person 
 digging therein in search of it, or any individuals trad- 
 ing or otherwise profitably employed at the diggings, 
 must take out a monthly license and pay the sum of 
 30s. This measure was at once acceptable to the peo- 
 ple, and gold commissioners were appointed to see that 
 it was carried into efi'ect. Notwithstanding the ex- 
 citement which prevailed at the first blush of the dis- 
 covery, and during the subsequent discoveries in other 
 localities, which drew from time to time one half of the 
 adult male population to the gold fields, to the honor 
 of the people of New South Wales be it said, that no 
 greater amount of crime existed in that colonv during 
 the followmg eighteen months than the usualaverage 
 "Every where," as stated in the dispatches of his ex- 
 cellency the governor general, " the gold-diggers were 
 loyal, orderly, and obedient to the laws," and thev 
 
AUS 
 
 79 
 
 AVE 
 
 cheerfully paid the fee of one shilling per diem for li- 
 cense to dig. The same flattering testimony can not 
 be home to Victoria, where a Califomian state of an- 
 archy at one time threatened the subversion of all law 
 and order ; the consideration of which will be reserved 
 for our remarks on that colony. At the close of 1851, 
 six months' experience had proved the most satisfac- 
 tory results as to the extent and richness of the gold 
 deposits. In New South Wales, upward of 20,000 li- 
 censes were Issued ; and the export sheetfrom the port 
 of Sydnej' showed that 142,975 ounces, valued at up- 
 ward of half a million sterling, had left the colony. 
 
 By this time also, hundreds, nay, thousands, had 
 ascertained that they were morally and physically un- 
 fit for the hard labor and privations to be encountered 
 in the search for gold. The consequences were, that 
 not only did many clerks, shopmen, and artisans come 
 back to their former occupations in the towns, but 
 much distress was felt by those who had abandoned 
 lucrative employments, which were shut against them 
 on their return ; in many instances impaired in health 
 from exposure to the rigorous climate of the gold re- 
 gions, which, it will be understood, were first worked 
 in the winter season in Australia. The beneficial ef- 
 fects which accrued from this reaction in favor of the 
 industrial pursuits, was the supply of labor to be had, 
 although at exorbitant wages, for securing the wool- 
 crop of the seasonj Not only was this evil result an- 
 ticipated, among others, at the beginning of the gold 
 discovery, but at many sheep and cattle stations in the 
 far interior, the herds and flocks were abandoned by 
 their keepers, and at that period nothing short of utter 
 ruin to the pastoral interests of the colony hovered over 
 the sheep-farmers and graziers. In one instance, an 
 enterprising squatter drove 26,000 sheep into one flock, 
 which he shepherded with four trusty shepherds on 
 horseback. Here, as in other matters, the- gentlemen 
 settlers and capitalists in the colony proved themselves 
 equal to the occasion ; and much consideration is due 
 to them for assisting to maintain the peace and pros- 
 perity of the community, by their untiring energy and 
 support given to the government, under such an un- 
 loolted-for event. And where at first the squatters 
 anticipated a ruinous reduction in the value of their 
 stock, the demand fbr sheep and cattle to supply the 
 diggers with food raised the prices 50 per cent., while 
 the land-holders found new purchasers of land among 
 the judicious and fortunate gold-diggers. So at the 
 close of the; year 1851, the prospects of New South 
 Wales, on all sides, were most cheering, where the re- 
 verse was expected. The population had increased 
 to 197,168 persons. The value of the imports was 
 £1,563,931, and the exports £1,796,912. Thus the 
 average of the former, for every man, woman, and 
 child in the colony, would be at the rate of £8 per 
 head, and of the latter about £9. The ordinary rev- 
 enue =£277,728; and the crown revenue £208,969; the 
 coin in the colony £560,766 ; and the paper currency 
 £418,5il. The wool exported = 15,269,317 lb., valued 
 at £828,342; the tallow 86,460 cwt., value £114,168; 
 and the gold 144,120 oz. 17 dwt., value £468,336. 
 Shipping inwards 653 vessels, of 153,002 tons, having 
 7955 men on board ; and tlie shipping outwards 563 
 vessels of 139,020 tons, having 7988 men. 
 
 From the circumstance of gold mines having been 
 hitherto only worked by barbarous or despotic nations, 
 wlio, from ignorance or policy, shrouded their opera- 
 tions in mystery, our information regarding the extent 
 and character of gold-bearing rocks throughout the 
 world was of a very meagre description. The " great 
 fact," tlierefore, of gold regions being discovered, and 
 worked within territories claimed by the Anglo-Saxon 
 race in California and Australia, is not only an event 
 of considerable interest in the history of the world, but 
 has proved of the utmost benefit to science in determ- 
 ining this important question in auriferous geology. 
 Not only was the gold found in the ordinary quartz 
 
 matrix, but the reports of the geological surveyors of 
 New South Wales have shown that it is found in gran- 
 ite at Araluen Creek ; schistose or slaty rocks at the 
 Turon ; and In Frederick's Valley specimens were found 
 of a ferruginous rock, beautifully dotted with globules 
 of gold. It would seem, therefore, that gold is the most 
 universally distributed of metals among the unstrati- 
 fied rocks, although found in greatest abundance in the 
 quartz veins which intersect these rocks. However, 
 the great bulk of the gold found in Australia has not 
 been extracted from its matrices, but dug out of the 
 gold alluvium formed by the disintegration of these 
 rocks. Hence the gold mines in this region have re- 
 ceived the familiar name of " diggings," from the prac- 
 tical-minded Americans and Australians. What are 
 termed the " gold diggings," then, are spots where the 
 miners have to dig pits from 10 to 15 feet deep before 
 they arrive at the substratum of auriferous soil in which 
 the particles of gold are found loosely imbedded. This 
 subsoil is generally a stiff blue clay mixed with sand 
 and gravel, and the pure metal appears in scales about 
 the size and shape of bran or shellings ; and in rounded 
 grains and lumps varying from the size of a pin's head 
 to the form and dimensions of flints as they occur in 
 chalk, a specimen of which, when gilded, gives exact- 
 ly the appearance presented by these gold nodules, or, 
 as they are now universally called, " nuggets." This 
 alluvium is collected and mixed freely with water in a 
 tub, which is termed "puddling." After having un- 
 dergone two or three washings, the residue is thrown 
 into a cradle or wooden trough, with "elects" or ribs 
 fastened across the bottom, and a sieve at the head, 
 which prevents large stones or lumps of gold from pass- 
 ing through. The cradle is then rocked and tilted to 
 and fro, while water is poured over the auriferous sand 
 or gravel. When sufBciently washed, the residue at 
 the bottom of the cradle is examined carefully, the 
 large pieces, if any, picked out, and the scales of gold 
 separated from any foreign substance by further wash- 
 ing in a tin dish, until it is perfectly clean ; after which a 
 magnet is passed through'it to extract small particles of 
 iron-s'and, which are frequently mingled with it. Upon 
 reaching the " washing-stuff," as the " diggers" term the 
 gold alluvium, they sometimes see the nuggets dotting 
 the earth, and collected into heaps or "pockets," which 
 they extract easily with the point of a knife. This 
 pleasing operation to the fortunate digger is called 
 " nuggeting." Again, a similar process is followed at 
 some localities where the grains of gold lie on the sur- 
 face of the ground, technically termed " forsicking." — 
 E. B. See Adelaide. 
 
 Average, a term used in maritime commerce to sig- 
 nify damages or expenses resulting from the accidents 
 of navigation. Average is either t/eneral or particu- 
 lar. General average arises when sacrifices have been 
 advisedly made, or expenditures incurred, with a view 
 to the preservation of the ship, cargo, and freight from 
 the effects of some extraordinary peril ; and it implies 
 a subsequent contribution from all the parties con- 
 cerned, in order to make good the loss which one or 
 more of them may thus have sustained. Particular 
 average signifies the damage or partial loss happening 
 to the ship, goods, or freight, in consequence of some 
 fortuitous or unavoidable accident ; and it is borne by 
 the individual owners of the articles damaged, or by 
 their insurers. 
 
 It may be here remarked, that the term Average 
 was originally used to signify what is now distin- 
 guished as General Average. The expression " Par- 
 ticular Average" is not strictly accurate, as it does not, 
 in its current acceptation, imply the idea of an equal- 
 izing contribution, as originally signified by the word 
 Average. It has, nevertheless, been generally adopt- 
 ed, and is now fully recognized as the distinctive ex- 
 pression for damage or partial loss falling on some one 
 of the individuals interested in a sea adventure. Av- 
 erage is said by Cowell to be derived from the Latin 
 
AVE 
 
 80 
 
 AVE 
 
 word averagium, from the verb averare, to carry. He 
 supposes it to have been introduced into commerce to 
 show the proportion to be paid by every man according 
 to his goods earned. Loccenius, on the other hand, de- 
 rives it from the French havre, or the German Jabcn, 
 a port; it being a contribution paid for having goods 
 brought sofdy to port. — De Jure Maritimo, lib. ii. cap. 
 vii. sect. 1. 
 
 Petty Average consisted of certain small charges for 
 pilotages, light-dues, etc., which were apportioned one- 
 third to the ship and two-thirds to the cargo ; but this 
 is now superseded by the agreement that the freight 
 payable for the cargo shall include all such expenses ; 
 and the term has, consequently, become obsolete. 
 
 Although nothing can be more simple than the fun- 
 damental principle of general average — which is, that 
 a loss incurred by one party for the advantage of sev- 
 eral shall be made good in equitable proportions by all 
 who are benefited by it — yet the application of this prin- 
 ciple to the varied and complicated cases which arise 
 in the course of maritime commerce has occasioned 
 many diversities of usage in different countries, and 
 even in the same country at different periods. With- 
 out entering on so wide a field as the discussion of these 
 diversities would open up, we shall endeavor to present 
 a brief summary of the leading principles which have 
 been established in Great Britain, by usage or by legal 
 decisions, in connection with the subject. 
 
 All general average losses may be divided into two 
 principal classes ; 1. Saa-ifices of part of the cargo and 
 freight, or of part of the ship, for the general benefit ; 
 2. Extraordinary expenditures, incurred with the same 
 object. Under the first of these classes we shall begin 
 by noticing the acts which involve sacrifices of part of 
 the cargo and freight. When a. part of the cargo is 
 thrown overboard (or jettisoned, as it is termed) to save 
 the ship from foundering in a storm, or to float her 
 when stranded, or to facilitate her escape from an ene- 
 my, the loss of the goods and of the freight attached to 
 them must be made good by average contribution. In 
 like manner, if goods be damaged in the ship by open- 
 ing the hatches in order to effect a jettison, or by being 
 brought upon deck for that purpose, the damage forms 
 a general average charge. But if goods jettisoned have 
 been originally stowed on deck, no contribution can be 
 demanded for them, unless they are so carried accord- 
 ing to the common usage and course of trade on the 
 voyage for which they were shipped. 
 
 If, instead of being thrown overboard, the goods ai-e 
 put into boats or lighters, and lost or damaged before 
 reaching the shore, such loss is regarded as a virtual 
 jettison, and gives a claim to average contribution. 
 The same rule applies to damage occasioned by the 
 goods being put ashore on muddy ground, as may some- 
 times happen, when there is no other place where they 
 can be landed. But when the goods have been con- 
 veyed to a place of ordinary safety, they are no longer 
 at the risk of the general interest; and should they be 
 damaged by fire or other accidents, the loss must be 
 borne by the individual proprietors or by their insurers. 
 The loss of com, salt, guano, or similar goods, arising 
 ft'om their being pumped up or bailed out with the wa- 
 ter in the vessel, can not be recovered by average con- 
 tribution. If, in consequence of there being no other 
 means of raising money at a foreign port, a part of the 
 cargo be sold for the purpose of repairing losses or de- 
 fraying expenses which are themselves of the nature 
 of general average, the loss arising from the sale gives 
 a claim to contribution. But if the funds are required 
 for the purpose of repairing particular average losses 
 on the ship, or of defraying the ordinary expenses of 
 the navigation, the loss must be borne by the ship- 
 owner. 
 
 The damage done to the cargo by means of water 
 thrown down the hatches to extinguish an accidental 
 fire, or by scuttling the ship for that purpose, is ex- 
 cluded, iy usage, from general average. This point 
 
 seems to have never yet been settled by any legal de- 
 cision ; and the usage referred to is considered by sev- 
 eral writers of high authority to be at variance with 
 sound principle. It is sometimes defended on the 
 ground that the damage in question is secondary and 
 incidental, and woi primary and intentional. But this 
 reason seems somewhat fanciful for the purposes of 
 equity, and is, besides, inconsistent with the analogy 
 of certain other cases, where an opposite principle is 
 practically recognized ; as, for instance, in the case of 
 goods incidentally damaged in effecting a jettison of 
 other goods. The amount of compensation to be made 
 for goods sacrificed by general average acts is determ- 
 ined by the net market price they would have pro- 
 duced on arrival at the port of destination had, they 
 not been sacrificed ; but under deduction of the freight 
 attaching to them (which is made good to the ship- 
 owners), and of the charges for duties and landing ex- 
 penses which are saved. 
 
 We now proceed to notice the general average acts 
 which involve sacrifices of part of the ship or her mate- 
 rials. The same principles which regulate the case of 
 goods thrown overboard apply also to the jettison of 
 the ship's chains, anchors, hawsers, spars, boats, or 
 other stores. But if water-casks are stowed on deck, 
 or if chains and hawsers are carried on deck when the 
 vessel is not near the land, so as to render it necessary 
 that they should be so carried, the loss arising from 
 the jettison of these articles falls on the ship-owner; 
 and if boats are jettisoned in consequence of their 
 having been broken adrift from their fastenings on 
 deck by the force of the sea, they are excluded from 
 general average, and are charged to particular aver- 
 age on the ship. The damage done to the ship by 
 cutting holes to effect a jettison of the cargo, or to pour 
 down water to extinguish a fire, or by scuttling her 
 for that purpose, is allowed as a general average charge. 
 The damage arising from cutting or knocking away a 
 portion of the ship's bulwarks in order to prevent the 
 deck from being flooded in a storm, is compensated in 
 the same manner. When sails or masts are cut away 
 in order to righten a ship which has been thrown on 
 her beam-ends, or to prevent her from driving on a 
 lee shore, the loss is made good by average contribu- 
 tion ; but if the object in cutting away a sail or spar be 
 merely to save a mast, the loss is not made good in 
 general average. 
 
 Itfrequently happens that masts or yards are sprung 
 and carried away by the force of the wind, and are left 
 entangled in the rigging, or hanging over the ship's 
 side in what is termed " a state of wreck ;" in these 
 circumstances it becomes necessary to cut them away, 
 with the sails and rigging attached, and to throw the 
 whole overboard, otherwise they would impede the 
 navigation, and endanger the ship and cargo. On this 
 ground it is held by some authorities that the loss 
 caused by the act of cutting them away should be made 
 good by average contribution. But this act is the 
 direct consequence of the previous accident, which 
 places these articles in a situation where it is impossi- 
 ble to save them without imperiling the ship, cargo, 
 and lives. It would not be reasonable to imperU these 
 for such a purpose; whence it follows that the dis- 
 placed articles are already virtually irrecoverably lost 
 by means of the original accident, before the loss is act- 
 ually consummated by cutting them away. And as 
 the general interest ought not to be endangered for the 
 purpose of attempting to save these articles, so neither 
 should it be implicated in the loss resulting from the 
 only remaining alternative of clearing them away. 
 This loss is accordingly excluded, by the usage of this 
 country, from average contribution. On the same 
 prmciple, no contribution can be demanded for any ar- 
 tides which are sacrificed as having themselves be- 
 come, through previous accident, the immediate cause 
 of danger to the whole interest. 
 
 The loss of sails or spars, in consequence of carrying 
 
AVE 
 
 81 
 
 AVE 
 
 a press of canvas to avoid a lee-shoro, or to escape from 
 an enemy, is not tbe subject of general average in this 
 country ; neither is the damage suffered by the ship 
 from straining, under any such extraordinary press of 
 sail. When anchors and cables are slipped from in 
 order to work a vessel off a lee-shore, or to avoid colli- 
 sion with another ship, the loss is made good by aver- 
 age contribution ; but if the cable is slipped in order 
 that the vessel may join convoy, or because the anchor 
 has become hooked to some object at the bottom and 
 can not be raised, the loss is borne by the ship-owner. 
 When sails, ropes, or other materials are cut up and 
 used at sea for the purpose of stopping leaks or to rig 
 jurymjsts, or when the common benefit requires that 
 they should \)e applied to some purpose for which they 
 were not originally intended, the loss is made good in 
 general average. The same rule applies to the case of 
 hawsers, cables, anchors, sails, or boats, lost or dam- 
 aged in attempting to force off a stranded vessel from 
 the shore. The damage sustained in defending a ship 
 against a pirate or an enemy is not the subject of gen- 
 eral average ; it is treated as particular average on 
 the ship. 
 
 It has been much debated by writers on maritime 
 law, whether the voluntary stranding of a ship, in or- 
 der to prevent her from foundering, should be treated 
 as a general or as a particular average loss. In the 
 United States it has been settled, by judicial decision, 
 that the loss in question constitutes a general average 
 claim ; but the opposite doctrine is acted upon in the 
 usage of Great Britain, and the point has never been 
 raised before the courts of law. It appears to us ,that 
 the argument greatly preponderates against the rule 
 adopted in the United States, and in favor of the usage 
 established in Great Britain. The only reason for re- 
 garding this loss as the subject of general average is, 
 that it originates in the intentional, act of running tho 
 ship aground,, for the preservation, as far as possible, 
 of the whole interest concerned. But it can seldom be 
 known beforehand how tho different interests at stake 
 will be specially affected by th^ act in question ; wheth- 
 er, for instance, the damage^ to the cargo may not be 
 more serious than the .damage to the ship, or vice versa. 
 Thus no particular part of the interest can be said to 
 be intentionally sacrificed for the benefit of the whole ; 
 the intention, indeed, is not to sacrifice any one part, but 
 to place, the whole interest in a situation of less peril 
 than it would otherwise have been in. What particu- 
 lar damages may thereafter ensue to either ship or car- 
 go will depend, in each case, on a variety of circum- 
 stances entirely accidental in their character, and there- 
 fore in no proper sense the subject of previous inten- 
 tion. The same rule, therefore, which excludes from 
 general average accidental damages in all other cases 
 ought to exclude them in this case also. Moreover, 
 when the alternatives are, either that the vessel be left 
 to founder, or that she be run ashore with a chance of 
 preservation, there can really be no room for choice, 
 or, at all events, the elements of will and intention are 
 entirely subordinate in the part they must play under 
 the pressure of the existing circumstances; and in this 
 view the stranding is as truly inevitable as if it had 
 been caused by the force of the winds and waves alone. 
 But, even were these reasons less weighty than we 
 hold them to be, a serious practical objection might be 
 urged against the doctrine that voluntary stranding 
 should be a general average loss, on the ground that 
 it would in most cases be impossible to distinguish be- 
 tween the damages received by the ship and cargo 
 prior to the stranding, and those sustained after or in 
 consequence of it. It is needless to remark, that be- 
 fore a ship can be in such imminent danger of found- 
 ering as to render it necessary to run her ashore, she 
 must be presumed to have sustained a verj' considera- 
 ble amount of damage ; and tbe probability is, that the 
 cargo also will have suffered to a corresponding ex- 
 tent. Up to this point these damages are confessedly 
 F 
 
 particular average ; and were it held that the damages 
 uj'ier the stranding were the subject of ^emcraZ average, 
 it would, of course, be necessary to distinguish the sep- 
 arate damages that belonged to each. But in everj' 
 case these different damages would exist in varying 
 proportions, yet alwa^'s so incorporated together that 
 justice could never have a more perplexing task than 
 that of discriminating between them. Ko general 
 rule could be applied that would meet the widely dif- 
 ferent circumstances of each particular case ; and the 
 arbitrary method of adjustment that would alone be 
 possible would doubtless give rise to endless dissatis- 
 faction and dispute. On the ground of expediency, 
 therefore, as well as on that of principle, the usage now 
 established in Great Britain ought to be maintained, 
 notwithstanding the high authorities by whom the op- 
 posite has been countenanced. 
 
 The amount of general average losses on the ship is 
 compensated by allowing to the owners the cost of re- 
 pairs, or of new materials in place of those sacrificed, 
 subject to the deduction of one-third for the difference 
 of value between old and new ; but no deduction is 
 made from the cost of new anchors, and only one-sixth 
 is deducted from the cost of new chain cables. If the 
 ship be on her first voyage (which is held to include 
 the homeward as well as, the outward passage), the re- 
 pairs and new materials are allowed in full. 
 
 Extraordinary Expenditures^ — When a ship is obliged 
 to put into a- port of refuge, in consequence of damage 
 received in the course of the voyage, the usage in Great 
 Britain is to allow as general average all the charges 
 connected with the entrance of ,t.he vessel into the port, 
 and with the landing and warehousing of the cargo, 
 when this is necessary to admit of the ship being re- 
 paired. Thus the expenses of pilotage or other assist- 
 ance into the port, the harbor dues and similar charges, 
 the costs of the protest taken by the master and 'Crew, 
 and of the survey held to ascertain whether the cargo 
 requires to be discharged, together with the charges 
 ^or landing the cargo and conveying it to a warehouse 
 or other place of safety, are all made good as general 
 average. The costs of repairing the ship are charged 
 to general average only in so far as the repairs may 
 refer to damages which are themselves the proper sub- 
 ject of general contribution. If the damages are of 
 the nature of particular average, as is more usually 
 the case, they are charged accordingly ; or if they pro- 
 ceed from " wear and tear," they are stated against the 
 ship-owner. 
 
 The warehouse rent for the cargo at a port of refuge, 
 and any expenses connected with its preservation, 
 form special charges against that particular interest, 
 and are borne by the proprietors of the, goods, or by 
 their insurers. When goods are insured "free from 
 particular average, unless the ship be stranded," it is 
 necessary, if the ship has not been stranded, to distin- 
 guish the charges for warehouse rent and iirje insur- 
 ance from those incurred in connection with the pres- 
 ervation of the goods from the effects of damage ; the 
 underwriters being liable for the former, but not for 
 the latter. The expenses of reshipping the cargo, and 
 the pilotage or other charges outward, are borne by the 
 freight. If the entire cargo can not be taken on board 
 again, from the want, at the port of refuge, of the usual 
 facilities for stowing it, the loss or expenses resulting 
 from the exclusion of part of it are not treated, in Great 
 Britain, as the subject of general contribution. The 
 wages and provisions of the master and crew during 
 the period of detention at a port of refuge are not ad- 
 mitted as a charge against general average ; it being 
 held that the ship-owner is bound to keep a competent 
 crew on board the ship from the commencement to the 
 end of the voyage at his own expense. 
 
 The charges for agency at a port of refuge are 
 brought against the general average, even though 
 they may have been originally made in the form of 
 separate charges against the ship and cargo respect- 
 
AVE 
 
 82 
 
 AVE 
 
 ively. Commissions on money advanced, maritime 
 interest on bottomry and respondentia, and the loss on 
 exchanges, etc., are apportioned relatively to the gross 
 sums expended on behalf of the several Interests con- 
 cerned. 
 
 The expenses incurred in getting a stranded ship 
 off the ground, the hire of extra hands to pump a ship 
 which has sprung a leak, and the sums awarded for 
 salvage or for other services rendered to the ship and 
 cargo under any extraordinary emergencies, are com- 
 pensated by, average contribution. But this rule ap- 
 plies only to the extraneous assistance that may have 
 been obtained ; the crew being bound to do their ut- 
 most in the service of the ship on all occasions, without 
 extra remuneration for what they might consider ex- 
 traordinary exertions on their part. The costs of re- 
 claiming the ship and cargo after having been cap- 
 tured, are allowed as general average charges ; and 
 although random to an enemy is prohibited in Great 
 Britain by legal enactment, it seems that this does 
 not apply to the case of money or goods given up by 
 way of composition to pirates for the liberation of the 
 ship and cargo, and that this would also form a sub- 
 ject of average contribution. 
 
 When the ship and cargo arrive at the port of des- 
 tination, it is unnecessary, in ordinary cases, to distin- 
 guish, in the adjustment of the general average, be- 
 tween the losses which have arisen from sacrifices, and 
 those which have resulted from expenditures for the com- 
 mon benefit. But if the ship and cargo should be lost 
 before reaching their destination, no contribution is due 
 for the goods or ship's, materials which may have been 
 sacrificed at a former stage of the voyage, the owners 
 of these being in no worse position than any of their 
 coadventurers. On the other hand, it is evident that 
 when money has been expended for the common bene- 
 iit, the subsequent loss of the ship and cargo should 
 not affect the right of the party who has made the ad- 
 vance to recover it in full from all the parties for whose 
 advantage it was originally made. Hence, while sac^ 
 rifices are made good only in the event of the ship and 
 cargo being ultimately saved, expenditures must be re- 
 imbursed whether the ship and cargo be eventually 
 saved or lost ; and the contribution for these expendi- 
 tures must be regulated by the values of the ship, car- 
 go, and freight, as they stood at the time when the ad- 
 vances were made. 
 
 If, however, the money required for average expen- 
 ditures has been raised by means of bottomry, and the 
 ship be lost before "completing the voyage, there can 
 be no claim for reimbursement ; the risk being assumed 
 by the bottomry lender in consideration of the premium 
 he receives on the sum advanced. It is by no means 
 clear that the average expenditures which have been 
 advanced without any contract of bottomry form a 
 specific insurable interest, according to thelaw of Great 
 BritaiUj although in practice they are very frequently 
 insured. When this has been done, and when the 
 amount has been recovered on the subsequent loss of 
 the ship, no claim can be equitably made against the 
 individuals who would otherwise have been liable. 
 But if the expenditures are not insured, either by a 
 bottomry contract, or by a special policy, and if the 
 ship and cargo be totally lost in the subsequent course 
 of the voyage, the parties for whose benefit the expend- 
 itures were incurred must reimburse them on the prin- 
 ciples already explained. These parties, however, 
 have recourse on their original insurers, not only for 
 the total loss of the interests insured, but also for the 
 previous expenditures, although the insurers may thus 
 be called on to pay a hirger sum than the amount of 
 the insurance. 
 
 The contribution for general average losses is regu- 
 lated by the values of the respective interests for the 
 benefit of which they were incurred. The practical 
 rule adopted, in all ordinary cases, is to estimate the 
 ship, cargo, and freight, and their riel values to their 
 
 owners, in the state in which they arrive at the port 
 of destination, iui including in these values the sums 
 made good for sacrifices, and to assess the contribution 
 accordingly. The necessity for including the amount 
 of compensation made for sacrifices in the valuations 
 on which the contribution is charged, arises from the 
 principle that all the parties interested in the adven- 
 ture should bear the ultimate loss in exact proportion 
 to their respective interests, which would not be the 
 case if the owners of the articles sacrificed were to re- 
 cover tlieir full value without being themselves assess- 
 ed for the loss thereon in the same manner as their co- 
 adventurers. 
 
 The contributory value of the ship is accordingly her 
 actual value to her owner in the state in which she ar- 
 rives, whether damaged or otherwise, including the 
 sum made good in the general average for any sacri- 
 fices which may have been made of part of the ship or 
 her materials. 
 
 The value of the cargo for contribution is its net 
 market value on arrival, after deducting the charges 
 incurred for freight, duty, and landing expenses, but 
 without deducting the costs of insurance or commis- 
 sion. If goods be damaged, they contiibute only ac- 
 cording to their deteriorated value ; and if special 
 charges have been incurred on the cargo at a port of 
 refuge (as for warehouse rent, etc.), the amount of these 
 charges is deducted. The sum charged to general 
 average for goods sacrificed is of course added to the 
 valuation. All goods carried in the ship for the pur- 
 pose of traiSc must be included in the valuation of the 
 cargo ; but the wearing apparel, or personal effects, 
 of the passengers and crew are exempted from contri- 
 bution. 
 
 The value of t\ie freight for contribution is the sum 
 received by the ship-owner on the completion of the 
 voyage for the carriage of the cargo, after deducting 
 from that sum the wages then due, the port charges at 
 the place of destination, and the special charges against 
 the freight which may have been incurred at a port of 
 refuge, consisting of the costs of reshipping the cargo, 
 and of outward pilotage, etc. The provisions for the 
 voyage are not deducted, as these are held to have 
 formed part of the original value of the ship. If the 
 freight has been paid in advance, it forms part of the 
 value of the goods, and, consequently, does not con- 
 tribute as a separate interest. It has been decided 
 that when a vessel has been originally chartered for a 
 double voyage, the whole freight to be earned under 
 the charter-party must contribute at its net value, 
 after deducting the wages and other charges whicli 
 must be incurred in earning it. The effect of this rule 
 is to render the freight attaching to the return voyage, 
 as well as that attaching to the voyage outward, liable 
 to contribute for average losses arising in the course 
 of the outward passage ; a result the equity of which 
 is not always very apparent. 
 
 An adjustment of general average made at any for- 
 eign port where the voyage may terminate, if proved 
 to be in conformity with the law and usage of the coun- 
 try to which such foreign port belongs, is binding on 
 all the parties interested as coadventurers, although 
 they may be subjects of Great Britain, and although the 
 adjustment may be made on principles different from 
 those sanctioned by the laws or usages of Britain. The 
 reason for this rule is, that the parties engaging in the 
 adventure are held to assent to the known maritime 
 usage according to which the general average is ad- 
 justed on the arrival of the ship and goods at the port 
 of destination. 
 
 The subject of general average is only incidentallv 
 connected with that of marine insurance, being itself 
 a distinct branch of maritime law. But the subject of 
 particular average arises directly out of the contract 
 of insurance, and will therefore be best considered in 
 connection with it.— E. B. See Insurance, Makine. 
 
 For further information with respect to the subject 
 
AVO 
 
 83 
 
 BAH 
 
 of average, the reader is referred to the famous work 
 of M. Valin, Commentaire aur I'Ordonnance de 1681, 
 tome ii. p. 147-198, ed. 1760 ; to Emerigon, TraUe des 
 Assurances^ tome i. p. 598-674 ; Park on Insurance^ 
 chap, vii. ; Marshall on Insurance, book i. chap. xii. 
 sect. 7 ; Steven's Essay on Average ; Bbnecke on the 
 Principles of Indemniti/ in Marine Insurance ; Lord 
 Tenterden's excellent work on the Law of Shipping, 
 part lii. chap. viii. etc. ; Aknould on Marine Insur- 
 ance ; Baily on General Average ; Kent's Commenta- 
 ries, Leot. XLVII. 
 
 Avoirdupois, the name of a weight, derived from 
 the French, avoir du poise — to have weight. Its pound 
 contains 16 ounces, in distinction to the pound Troj', 
 which has only 12. This weight is used for groceries 
 and all other commodities, except the precious metals, 
 gems, and medicines. The pound avoirdupois con- 
 tains 7000 grains Troy, and is equal to 8532'5 Paris 
 grains. — E. B. See Weights and Measokes. 
 
 Azimuth, in Astronomy, an arc of the horizon in- 
 tercepted between the meridian of the place, and the 
 vertical circle passing through the centre of the object. 
 Azimuth, Magnetical, an arc of the horizon inter- 
 cepted between the vertical circle passing through the 
 centre of any heavenly body and the magnetical me- 
 ridian. Azimuth Compass, an instrument for finding 
 either the magnetical azimuth or amplitude of a heav- 
 enly object. Azimuth Circles, called also azimuths or 
 vertical circles, are great circles of the sphere intersect- 
 ing each other in the zenith and nadir, and cutting the 
 horizon at right angles. On these are reckoned the 
 height of the stars and that of the sun when not in the 
 meridian. — E. B. 
 
 Azoga Ships (from the Spanish azoque, mercury"), 
 vessels which carried quicksilver to the Spanish "West 
 Indies, in order to extract the silver from the mines of 
 Mexico and Peru. They carried no goods except for 
 the king. — E. B. 
 
 B. 
 
 Bacon and Hams. The former is made from the 
 sides and belly of the pig, and the latter from its hind 
 legs. The process of curing may be effected indiffer- 
 ently by the employment of salt or sugar, or both ; but 
 the first is by far the most commonly used. After 
 being impregnated with salt or sugar, and allowed to 
 remain a certain time in the solution, the bacon and 
 hams are taken out, dried, and smoked. In the States 
 of Ohio, Indiana, Kentucky, Virginia, Maryland, etc., 
 large quantities of bacon are put up yearly for do- 
 mestic use and for export. The counties of England 
 most celebrated for bacon and hams are York, Hants, 
 Berks, and Wilts. Ireland produces great quantities 
 of both ; but they are coarse, not so well cured as the 
 English, and much lower priced. Of the Scotch coun- 
 ties, Dumfries, Wigtown, and Kirkcudbright are cel- 
 ebrated for the excellence of their bacon and hams, of 
 which they export large quantities, principally to the 
 Liverpool and London markets. — See Pork Trade. 
 
 Baggage, in Commercial Navigation, the wearing 
 apparel and other articles destined for the sole use or 
 accommodation of the crews and passengers of ships. 
 
 Bahamas, or Iiucayas, a chain of islands stretch- 
 ing in a nortliwesterly direction from the north coast 
 of St. Domingo to that of East Florida, and lying be- 
 tween lat. 21° and 27° 30' N., and long. 70°" 30' and 
 79° 5' W. The group is composed of about twenty in- 
 habited islands, and an immense number of islets and 
 rocks. The principal islands in this group are New 
 Providence, containing the capital, Nassau; Harbor 
 Island; Abaco; Eleuthera; Heneagua, or Inagua; 
 Mayagnana; St. Salvador; Andres Island; Great 
 Bahama ; Bagged Island ; Rum Cay ; Exuma ; Long 
 Island; Crooked Island; Long Cay; Watling's Isl- 
 and ; the Caicos, the Turks, and the Berry Islands. 
 
 Most of these islands are situated on those remarka- 
 ble fiats called the Great and Little Bahama Banks, and 
 some out of soundings in the ocean. The Great Bahama 
 Banl^ is about 300 miles in length from northwest to 
 southeast, and 100 in breadth ; and the Little Bahama 
 is about 130 miles long. The islands have, in general, 
 a very flat appearance, and many of them consist of 
 mere bleak and barren rocks. The soil in those that 
 are under cultivation is thin, and generally light and 
 sandy, but interspersed with occasional patches of 
 rich mould. The substratum, so far as has been ascer- 
 tained, consists of calcareous rocks, composed of coral, 
 shells, madrepores, and marine deposits hardened into 
 solid masses. The surface stratum is a combination of 
 debris of the rock, exuvias, and decayed vegetable 
 matter. Though destitute of running streams, they 
 possess numerous springs ; and by digging wells down 
 to the level of the sea, fresh water is obtained. The 
 productions of the soil comprehend all the varieties of 
 
 a tropical climate. Provisions — such as maize, yams, 
 sweet potatoes, etc. ; and fruits, as oranges, lemons, 
 pine-apples, cocoa-nuts, etc. — are produced in abund- 
 ance. There are also several species of valuable trees ; 
 as mahogany, fustic, lignum vitas, cedars, pines, etc. 
 Oxen, sheep, horses, poultry, and a great variety of 
 live stock are reared ; and wild hogs and agoutis are 
 found in the woods. There are many varieties of 
 birds, and the shores and creeks abound in turtle and 
 excellent fish of various kinds. In the most southerly 
 islands are salt ponds of great value. — E. B. 
 
 Bahia, or St. Salvador, a large city (formerly a 
 capital) of Brazil, contiguous to Cape St. Antonio, 
 which forms the right or eastern side of the entrance 
 of the noble bay of Todos os Santos, or All-Saints, 170 
 miles southwest of Sergipe del Eey, and about 880 miles 
 north-northeast of Rio Janeiro. Population 100,000, 
 one-third of whom are whites, one-third mulattoes, and 
 the rest blacks. According to the observations of M. 
 Roussin, the light-house on the Cape is in lat. 13° 0' 30" 
 S., long. 38° 30' W. The opposite side of the entrance 
 to the bay is formed by the island of Taporica, distant 
 from Cape St. Antonio about 2i leagues. But a bank 
 along the shore of the island narrows the passage for 
 large ships to about two-thirds this distance. Another 
 bank runs south-southwest from Cape St. Antonio about 
 1^ leagues. Within, the bay expands into a capacious 
 basin, having several islands and harbors, the depth 
 of water varying from 8 and 10 to 40 fathoms, afford- 
 ing ample accommodation and secure anchorage for the 
 largest fleets. 
 
 There is another entrance to the bay, partly exhib- 
 ited in the annexed plan, on the west side of the island 
 of Taporica; but it is narrow, intricate, and at its 
 mouth has not more than 6 feet water. Several riv- 
 ers have their embouchure in the bay, which generally 
 occasions a current to set from the north end of the 
 island by Cape St. Antonio ; when the rivers are flood- 
 ed, this current is sometimes very strong. The light- 
 house at the extremity of the cape has no great eleva- 
 tion, and can not be seen at a distance of more than 3 
 or 3^ leagues. The usual place of anchorage is abreast 
 of the city, north and south of Fort do Mar. 
 
 The city stands partly on a height, and partly along 
 the shore of the bay. The lower town is dirty and 
 badly laid out ; but in the upper town and suburbs are 
 several good streets, » rich cathedral, palaces of the 
 archbishop and governor, town-hall, court of appeal, 
 theatre, hospitals, and many religious houses. In the 
 lower town are an exchange, arsenal, and imperial 
 dock-yard ; and about 3 miles northeastward are yards 
 for the construction of mercantile shipping. Houses 
 of the city mostly of stone, and often lofty ; the city 
 is defended by several forts, none of great strength. 
 
BAI 
 
 84 
 
 BAL 
 
 Bahia, founded in 1549, by Thomas da Sonza, first 
 captain general of Brazil, is one of the most important 
 commercial cities in America. 
 
 In 1853, the trade of Bahia was very extensive : 
 about 60,000 tons sugar, 18,500 bags (182 pounds) cot- 
 ton ; 20,000 bags (160 pounds) coffee ; with hides, to- 
 bacco, rice, dye and fancy woods, bullion, etc. The 
 imports consist principally of cottons and other manu- 
 
 factured goods, provisions, flour, salt, salt-fish, soap, 
 wines, etc. 
 
 Plan.— The subjoined wood-cut conveys a clearer 
 and better idea of this celebrated bay than could be 
 acquired from any description. It is copied, without 
 any reduction, from a revised edition of a Portuguese 
 chart published by Mr. Laurie, and exhibits the banks, 
 soundings, anchorage, etc. 
 
 Scale of Nauiic Leagues. 
 
 Beferences to the Plan — A, Cape, light-house, and fort of St. Antonio ; B, Fort do Mar ; C, Fort St. Philip ; D, Tapagippe ; 
 E, Isla do Mar ; F, Isla dos Frados : G, Fort Beaumont The figures in the plan are the soundings in fathoms. 
 
 Bailiffs, or Sheriffs, are said to be of Saxon origin. 
 London had its shire-reve prior to the Conquest, and 
 this officer was generally appointed for counties in En- 
 gland in 1079. Sheriffs were appointed in Dublin, 
 under the name of bailiffs, in 1308 ; and the name was 
 changed to sheriff, 1548. There are still some places 
 where the chief magistrate is called bailiff, as the high 
 bailiff of Westminster. The term BumJiailiff is a cor- 
 ruption of bound-bailiff, every baififf being obliged to 
 enter into bonds of security for his good behavior. — 
 Blackstone. 
 
 Balachong, an article consisting of pounded or 
 bruised fish. It' consists principally of small fish, 
 with prawns and shrimps. Though fetid and offens- 
 ive to strangers, this substance, used as a condiment 
 to rice, is largely consumed in all the countries to the 
 east of Bengal, including the southern provinces of 
 China, and the islands of the Eastern Archipelago. 
 
 Its distribution gives rise to an extensive internal 
 traffic. 
 
 Balance, u. machine for ascertaining the weight 
 of substances. There are several kinds of balances, as 
 the common balance or scales, the steelyard, the Dan- 
 ish or Swedish balance, the Chinese balance, the hy- 
 drostatic balance, etc. The same name is also given 
 to certain kinds of apparatus for measuring or compar- 
 ing the intensities of very small forces, as the balance 
 of torsion, the electric balance, etc. — E. B. Balance, 
 in accounts, is the term used to express the difference 
 between the debtor and creditor sides of an account. 
 
 Balance of Trade, in Commerce, is the term com- 
 monly used to express the difference between the val- 
 ue of the exports from and imports into a country. 
 The balance is said to be favorable when the value of 
 the exports exceeds that of the imports, and unfavor- 
 able when the value of the imports exceeds that of the 
 
BAL 
 
 85 
 
 BAL 
 
 exports. According to the custom-house returns, the 
 official value of the exports from Great Britain, ex- 
 clusive of foreign and commercial merchandise, dur- 
 ing the year ending 5th of January, 1842, amounted 
 to £102,180,517; and the official value of the imports 
 during the year had increased to £64,377,962 ; leav- 
 ing a favorable balance of £37,802, 555. The attainment 
 of a favorable balance was formerly regarded as an ob- 
 ject of the greatest importance. The precious metals, 
 in consequence of their being used as money, were long 
 considered as the only real wealth that could be pos- 
 sessed either by individuals or nations. And as coun- 
 tries without mines could not obtain supplies of these 
 metals except in exchange for exported products, it 
 was concluded that if the value of the commodities 
 exported exceeded that of those imported, the balance 
 would have to be paid by the importation of an equiv- 
 alent amount of the precious metals ; and conversely. 
 A very large proportion of the restraints imposed on 
 the freedom of commerce during the last two centu- 
 ries grew out of this notion. The importance of hav- 
 ing a favorable balance being universally admitted, 
 every effort was made to attain it ; and nothing seemed 
 so effectual for this purpose as the devising of schemes 
 to facilitate exportation, and to hinder the importation 
 of almost all products, except gold and silver, that 
 were not intended for future exportation. But the 
 gradual though slow growth of sounder opinions with 
 respect to the nature and functions of money, showed 
 the futility of a system of policy having such objects 
 in view, It is now conceded on all hands that gold 
 and silver are nothing but commodities, and that it 
 is in no respect necessary to, interfere, either to en- 
 courage their importation or to prevent their exporta^ 
 tion. The truth is, however, that the theory of the 
 balance of trade is not erroneous merely from the false 
 notions which its advocates entertained with respect 
 to money, but proceeds on radically mistalcen views 
 as to the nature of commerce. The mode in which 
 the balance is usually estimated is, indeed, completely 
 fallacious. Supposing, however, that it could be cor- 
 rectly ascertained, it would be found, in opposition to 
 the common opinion, that the imports into every com- 
 mercial coimtry generally exceed the exports; and 
 that when a balance is formed, it is only in certain 
 cases, and those of rare occurrence, that it is canceled 
 by a bullion payment. 
 
 The proper business of the wholesale merchant con- 
 sists in carrying the various products of the different 
 countries of tlie world from the places where their val- 
 ue is least to those where it is greatest ; or, which is 
 the same thing, in distributing them according to the 
 effective demand. It is clear, however, that there 
 could be no motive to export any species of produce, 
 unless that which it was intended to import in its stead 
 were of greater value. When an English merchant 
 commissions a quantity of Polish wheat, he calculates 
 on its selling for so much more than its price in Po- 
 land, as will be sufficient to pay the expense of freight, 
 insurance, etc., and to yield, besides, the common and 
 ordinary rate of profit on the capital employed- If the 
 wheat did not sell for this much, its importation would 
 obviously be a loss to the importer. It is plain, then, 
 that no merchant ever did or ever will export, but in 
 the view of importing something more valuable in re- 
 turn. And so far from an excess of exports over im- 
 ports being any criterion of an advantageous com- 
 merce, it is directly the reverse ; and the truth is, not- 
 withstanding all that has been said and written to the 
 contrary, that unless the value of the imports exceed- 
 ed that of the exports, foreign trade could not be car- 
 ried on. Were this not the case — ^that is, were the 
 value of the exports always greater than the value of 
 the imports — merchants would lose on every transac- . 
 tion with foreigners, and the trade with them would 
 be speedily abandoned. 
 
 In England, the rates at which all articles of export 
 
 and import are officially valued were fixed so far back 
 as 1696. But the very great alteration that has since 
 talien place, not only in the value of money, but also 
 in the cost of most part of the commodities produced 
 in this and other countries, has rendered this official 
 valuation, though valuable as a means of determining 
 theiF quantity, of no use whatever as a criterion of the 
 true value of the exports and imports. In order to 
 remedy this defect, an account of the real or declared 
 value of the exports is annually prepared, from the 
 declarations of the merchants, and laid before Parlia- 
 ment : there is, however, no such account of the im- 
 ports ; and, owing to the difficulties which high duties 
 throw in tlie way, it is, perhaps, impossible to frame 
 one with any thing like accuracy. It has also been 
 alleged, and apparently with some probability, that 
 merchants have not unfrequently been in the habit of 
 exaggerating the value of articles entitled to draw- 
 backs on exportation; but the recent extension and 
 improvement of the warehousing system, and the dim- 
 inution of the number of drawbacks, must materially 
 lessen whatever fraud or inaccuracy may have arisen 
 from this source. Most articles were formerly charged 
 with an ad valorem duty of 10s. per cent, on exporta- 
 tion, so that, if any thing, their value was probably 
 rather under than overrated ; but now that this duty 
 has been repealed (5 and 6 Vict. cap. 47, § 40), the 
 presumption is that their declared value comes very 
 near the truth ; at least, sufficiently so for all practical 
 purposes. Now the declared value of the exports of 
 Great Britain in 1841 was £51,634,623, being only 
 about half their official value, and nearly £13,000,000 
 under the official value of the imports. What the ex- 
 cess of the latter might be, had we the means of com- 
 paring their real value with that of the exports, it is im- 
 possible to say ; but there can be no manner of doubt 
 that, generally speaking, it would be very considera- 
 ble. The value of an exported commodity is esti- 
 mated at the moment of its being sent abroad, and be- 
 Jbre it is increased by the expense incurred in trans- 
 porting it to the place of its destination ; whereas the 
 value of the commodity imported in its stead is esti- 
 mated a/ier it has arrived at its destination, and, con- 
 sequently, after it has been enhanced by the cost of 
 freight, insurance, importer's profits, etc. 
 
 In the United States, the value of the imports, as 
 ascertained by the custom-house returns, always ex- 
 ceeds the value of the exports. And although prac- 
 tical politicians have been in the habit of considering 
 the excess of the former as a certain proof of a disad- 
 vantageous commerce, "it is nevertheless true," says 
 Mr. Pitkin, "that the real gain of the United States 
 has been nearly in proportion as fkeir imports have ex- 
 ceeded their exports." — ComTnerce of tlie United States, 
 2d ed. p. 280. The great excess of American imports 
 has in part been occasioned by the Americans gener- 
 ally exporting their own surplus produce, and, conse- 
 quently, receiving from foreigners not only an equiva^ 
 lent for their exports,, but also for the cost of cpnvey- 
 ing them to the foreign market. " In 1811," says the 
 author just quoted, " flour sold in America for nine 
 dollars and a half per barrel, and in Spain for fifteen 
 dollars. The value of the cargo of a vessel carrying 
 5000 barrels of flour would, therefore, be estimated at 
 tlie period of its exportation at 47,500 dollars; but as 
 this flour wouH sell, when carried to Spain, for 75,000 
 dollars, the American merchant would be entitled to 
 draw on his agent in Spain for 27,500 dollars more than 
 the flour cost in America, or than the sum for which 
 he could have drawn had the flour been exported in a 
 vessel belonging to a Spanish merchant. But the 
 transaction would not end here. The 75,000 dollars 
 would be vested in some species of Spanish or other 
 European goods fit for the American market ; and the 
 freight, insurance, etc., on account of the return car- 
 go, would probably increase its value to 100,000 dol- 
 lars, so that, in all, the American merchant might 
 
BAL 
 
 86 
 
 BAL 
 
 have imported goods worth 52,500 dollars more than 
 the flour originally sent to Spain." It is as impossible 
 to deny that such a transaction as this is advantageous, 
 as it is to deny that its advantage consists entirely in 
 the excess of the value of the goods imported over the 
 value of those exported. And it is equally clear that 
 America might have had the real balance of payirrents 
 in her favor, though such transactions as the above 
 had been multiplied to any conceivable extent. 
 
 The argument about the balance of payment is one 
 of those that contradict and confute themselves. Had 
 the apparent excess of exports over imports, as indi- 
 cated by the British custom-house books for the last 
 hundred years, been always paid in bullion, as the 
 supporters of the old theory contend is the case, 
 there should at this moment be about 450,000,000 or 
 500,000,000 of bullion in the country, instead of 
 50,000,000 or 60,000,000, which it is supposed to 
 amount to ! Nor is this all. If the theory of the 
 balance be good for any thing — if it be not a mere idle 
 delusion — it follows, as every country in the world, 
 with the single exception of the United States, has its 
 favorable balance, that they must be paid by an annual 
 importation of bullion from the mines corresponding 
 to their aggregate amount. But it is certain that the 
 entire produce of the, mines, though it were increased 
 in a tenfold proportion, would be insufficient for this 
 purpose ! This reductio ad ahsurdum is decisive of the 
 degree of credit that should be attached to conclusions 
 respecting the flourishing state of the commerce of any 
 country drawn from the excess of the exports over the 
 imports ! Not only, therefore, is the common theory 
 with respect to the balance of trade erroneous, but the 
 very reverse of that theory is true. In the^rsi place, 
 the value of the commodities imported by every coun- 
 try which carries on an advantageous commerce (and 
 no other will be prosecuted for any considerable period) 
 invariably exceeds the value of those which she ex- 
 ports. Unless siTCh were the case, there would plainly I 
 be no fund whence the merchants and others engaged 
 in foreign trade could derive either a profit on their 
 capital, or a retiirn for their outlay and trouble ; and 
 in the second place, whether the balance of debt be for 
 or against a country, that balance will neither be paid 
 nor received in bullion, unless it be at the time the 
 commodity by the exportation or importation of which 
 the account may be most profitably settled. What- 
 ever the partisans of the doctrine as to the balance 
 may say about money being a preferable product, or 
 marc/mndise par excellence, it is certain it will never 
 appear in the list of exports and imports, while there 
 is any thing else with which to carry on trade, or 
 cancel debts, that will yield a larger profit, or occasion 
 a less expense to the debtors. 
 
 It is difficult to estimate the mischief which the ab- 
 surd notions relative to the balance of trade have occa- 
 sioned in almost every commercial country ; in Great 
 Britain they have been particularly injurious. It is 
 principally to the prevalence of prejudices to which they 
 have given rise that the restrictions on the trade be- 
 tween England and France are to be ascribed. The 
 great, or rather the only argument insisted upon by 
 those who prevailed on the Legislature, in the reign of 
 "William and Mary, to declare the trade with France a 
 nuisance, was founded on the statement that the value 
 of the imports from that kingdom considetably exceed- 
 ed the value of the commodities Great Britain exported 
 to it. The balance was regarded as a tribute paid by En- 
 gland to France ; and it was sagaciously gsked. What 
 had we done, that we should be obliged to pay so much 
 money to our natural enemy ? It never occurred to 
 those who so loudly abused the French trade, that no 
 merchant would import any commodity from France, 
 unless it brought a higher price in the country than 
 the commodity exported to pay it ; and that the profit 
 of the merchant, or the national gain, would be in 
 exact proportion to this excess of price. The very 
 
 reason assigned by these persons for prohibiting the 
 trade affords the best attainable proof of its having 
 been a lucrative one ; nor can there be any doubt that 
 an unrestricted freedom of intercourse between the 
 two countries would still be of the greatest service to 
 both.— J. K. M. 
 
 The production of gold in the United States since 
 the acquisition of California has been such as to stimu- 
 late trade throughout the country. The importations 
 from Europe have been very large, more than com- 
 mensurate with the export trade. Hence gold has 
 been required to the extent of more than 170 millions 
 during the five j'ears 1851-1855 to discharge this ac- 
 cumulated debt or balance of trade. This is demon- 
 strated by the following official table : 
 
 Statement exhibiting the amount of CJoin ant> Bullion 
 impobted into anij exported from the united states 
 annually from 1821 to 1855 inclusive; and also the 
 AMOUNT OF Importation over Exportation, and of Es-V 
 
 PORTATION over IMPORTATION, DURING THE SAME YeARB. 
 
 Yenrs 
 ending 
 Sep.30. 
 
 
 COIN AND 
 
 BULLION. 
 
 , 
 
 
 
 Excess of Im- 
 
 Excess of Ex- 
 
 Imported. 
 
 Exported. 
 
 portation over 
 ExportAtioD. 
 
 portation over 
 Importation. 
 
 1821 
 
 $8,064,890 
 
 $10,478,069 
 
 
 $2,413,169 
 
 1822 
 
 8,869,846 
 
 10,810,180 
 
 
 7,440,334 
 
 1823 
 
 6,097,896 
 
 6,872,987 
 
 
 1,275,091 
 
 1824 
 
 8,379,885 
 
 7,014,652 
 
 $1,365,288 
 
 
 1825 
 
 6,150,765 
 
 8,932,034 
 
 
 2,781,269 
 
 182C 
 
 6,880,966 
 
 4,704,533 
 
 2,176,433 
 
 
 1827 
 
 8,151,180 
 
 8,014,880 
 
 136,260 
 
 
 1828 
 
 7,489,741 
 
 8,243,476 
 
 
 753,736 
 
 1829 
 
 7,403,612 
 
 4,924,020 
 
 2,479,692 
 
 
 1830 
 
 8,155,964 
 
 2,178,773 
 
 5,977,191 
 
 
 1831 
 
 7,305,945 
 
 9,014,981 
 
 
 1,708,986 
 
 1832 
 
 5,907,504 
 
 6,666,840 
 
 251,164 
 
 
 1833 
 
 7,070,368 
 
 2,611,701 
 
 4,468,66T 
 
 
 1834 
 
 17,911,632 
 
 2,076,768 
 
 16,884,874 
 
 
 1835 
 
 18,131,447 
 
 6,477,776 
 
 6,663,672 
 
 
 1836 
 
 13,400,881 
 
 4,324,336 
 
 9,076,546 
 
 
 183T 
 
 10,516,414 
 
 5,976,249 
 
 4,640,166 
 
 
 1838 
 
 17,747,116 
 
 3,508,046 
 
 14,239,070 
 
 
 1830 
 
 6,595,176 
 
 8,776,743 
 
 
 3,181,567 
 
 1840 
 
 8,882,813 
 
 8,417,014 
 
 466,799 
 
 
 1841 
 
 4,988,633 
 
 10,034,332 
 
 
 5,045,699 
 
 1842 
 
 4,087,016 
 
 4,818,539 
 
 
 726,523 
 
 1848* 
 
 22,390,559 
 
 1,520,791 
 
 20,869,768 
 
 
 1844 
 
 t6,S30,429 
 
 5,464,214 
 
 876,216 
 
 
 1845 
 
 4,070,242 
 
 8,606,496 
 
 
 4,536,263 
 
 1846 
 
 8,777,732 
 
 8,905,268 
 
 
 127,536 
 
 184T 
 
 24,121,289 
 
 1,907,024 
 
 22,214,266 
 
 
 1848 
 
 6,860,224 
 
 15,841,616 
 
 
 9,481,392 
 
 1849 
 
 6,651,240 
 
 6,404,648 
 
 1,246,692 
 
 
 1850 
 
 4,628,792 
 
 7,522,994 
 
 
 2,894,202 
 
 1861 
 
 5,453,592 
 
 29,472,762 
 
 
 24,019,160 
 
 1852 
 
 5,505,044 
 
 42,674,136 
 
 
 37,169,001 
 
 1853 
 
 4,201,382 
 
 27,486,875 
 
 
 23,285,403 
 
 1854 
 
 6,758,587 
 
 41,197,300 
 
 
 34,438,713 
 
 1865 
 
 8,659,812 
 
 56,247,343 
 
 
 62,587,631 
 
 $289,098,614 
 
 $390,602,713 
 
 $112,861,645 
 
 $iil8,805,744 
 
 Bale, a pack, or certain quantity of goods or mer- 
 chandise ; as a bale of silk, cloth, etc. Bales are al- 
 ways marked and numbered, that the merchants to 
 whom they belong may know them, and the marks 
 and numbers correspond to those in the bills of lading, 
 etc. Selling under the bale, or under the cords, is a 
 term used in France and other countries for selling 
 goods wholesale, without sample or pattern, and un- 
 opened. 
 
 Balks, large pieces of timber. 
 
 Ballast (Du. Ballast; Fr. Lest; Ger. Ballast; It. 
 Savorra ; Sp. Lastre ; Sw. Ballast), a quantity of iron, 
 stones, sand, gravel, or any other heavy material laid 
 in a ship's hold, in order to sink her deeper in the 
 water, and to render her capable of carrying sail with- 
 out being overset. All ships clearing outward, hav- 
 ing no goods on board other than the personal baggage 
 of the passengers, are said to be in ballast. The quan- 
 tity of ballast required to fit ships of equal burden for 
 a voyage is often materially different ; the proportion 
 being always less or more, according to the sharpness 
 or flatness of the ship's bottom, called by seamen the 
 foor. The proper ballasting of a ship deserves pecul- 
 iar attention, for, although it be known that ships in 
 
BAL 
 
 87 
 
 BAL 
 
 general will not carry sufficient sail till they are laden 
 so that the surface of the water nearly glances on the 
 extreme breadth midships, more than this general 
 knowledge is required. If the ship have a great 
 weight of heavy ballast, as lead, iron, etc., in the bot- 
 tom, the centre of gravity will be too low in the hold ; 
 this no doubt will enable her to carry a press of sail, 
 but it will, at the same time, make her sail heavily, and 
 roll so violently as to run the risk of being dismast- 
 ed. The object in ballasting a ship is, therefore, so to 
 dispose of the ballast or cargo, that she may be duly 
 poisedj and maintain a proper equilibrium on the wa- 
 ter, so as neither to be too stiff nor too cranky qual- 
 ities equally pernicious. If too stiff, she may carry 
 much sail, but her velocity will not be proportionally 
 increased ; while her masts are endangered by sudden 
 jerks and excessive laboring. If too crank, she will 
 be unfit to carry sail without the risk of oversetting. 
 
 Stiffness in ballasting is occasioned by disposing a 
 too great quantity of heavy ballast, as lead, iron, etc., 
 in the bottom, which throws the centre of gravity very 
 near the keel ; and this being the centre about which 
 the vibrations are made, the lower it is placed, the 
 more violent is the rolling. Crankness, on the other 
 hand, is occasioned by having too little ballast, or by 
 disposing the ship's lading so as to raise the centre of 
 gravity too high : this also endangers the masts when 
 it blows hard; for when they cease to be perpen 
 dicular, they strain on the shrouds in the nature of a 
 lever, which increases as the sine of their obliquity ; 
 and it is superfluous to add, that a ship that loses her 
 masts is in great danger of being lost. Hence the art 
 of ballasting consists In placing the centre of gravity 
 to correspond with the trim and shape of the vessel, so 
 as to be neither too high nor too low ; neither too far 
 forward, nor too far aft ; and to lade the ship so deep, 
 that the surface of the water may nearly rise to the 
 extreme breadth midships : she will then carry a good 
 quantity of sail, incline but little, and ply well to 
 windward. — See Falconer's Marine Dictionary. 
 
 The mischievous consequences of not attending to 
 the circumstances now mentioned are often experi- 
 enced by ships loading barilla, brimstone, and such 
 heavy articles, on the coast of Sicily and Spain. The 
 habit there is to cut large quantities of brushwood and 
 fagots, and to spread them in the hold, to hinder the 
 cargo from sinking the centre of gravity too low, and 
 causing the ship to labor violently ; but it very fre- 
 quently happens that the pressure of the cargo on this 
 sort of dunnage is so great as to squeeze it into a much 
 smaller space than could at first have been supposed 
 so that ships after getting to sea are sometimes obliged 
 to return to port to unload a part of their cargo, to 
 prevent their foundering. In such cases, firm dun- 
 nage, such as oak staves, should, if possible, be always 
 employed. — See Jackson's Commerce of Mediterrane- 
 an, p. 125-128. Ships that have cargoes of light goods 
 on board require a quantity of ballast ; increasing, of 
 course, according to the greater lightness of the goods. 
 Balloon. Galien of Avignon wrote on aerostation 
 in 1755. Dr. Black gave the hint as to hydrogen in 
 1767. A balloon was constructed in France by MM. 
 Montgolfier, in 1783, when Eozier and the Marquis 
 d'Arlandes ascended at Paris. Pilatre Desrozier and 
 M. Remain perished in an attempted voyage from 
 Boulogne to England, the balloon having taken fire, 
 June 14, 1785. At the battle of Fleurus, the French 
 made use of a balloon to reconnoitre the enem3''s army, 
 and convey the observations by telegraph, June 17, 
 1794. Garnerin ascended in a balloon to the height 
 of 4000 feet, and descended by a parachute, September 
 21, 1802. Gay-Lussac ascended at Paris to the height 
 of 23,000 feet, September 6, 1804. Madame Blanchard 
 ascended from Tivoli at night, and the balloon, being 
 surrounded by fire-works, exploded, and she was pre- 
 cipitated to the ground and killed, July 6, 1819.— 
 Haydn. 
 
 Balaam (Ger. Balsam; Du. Bahem; Fr. Bourne; 
 It. and Sp. Balsamo ; Lat. Bahamum'). Balsams are 
 vegetable juices, either liquid, or which spontaneously 
 become concrete, consisting of a substance of a resin- 
 ous nature, combined with benzoic acid, or which are 
 capable of affording benzoic acid by being heated 
 alone, or with water. The liquid balsams are copaiva, 
 opobalsam, balsam of Peru, storax, and Tolu ; the con- 
 crete are benzoin, dragon's blood, and red or concrete 
 storax. — ^Ure, 1. Copaiva (Fr. Baums de Copahu; 
 Ger. Kopaiva Balaam ; Sp. Copayvd), obtained from a 
 tree (Copaifera') growing in South America and the 
 West India islands. The largest quantity is furnish- 
 ed by the province of Para, in Brazil. It is imported 
 in small casks, containing from 1 to li cwt. Genuine, 
 good copaiva, or copaiba balsam, has a peculiar but 
 agreeable odor, and a bitterish, hot, nauseous taste. 
 It is clear and transparent ; its consistence is that of 
 oil ; but when exposed to the action of the air it be- 
 comes solid, dry, and brittle, like resin. — Thomson's 
 Bispensatori/. 
 
 2. Opobalsam (Fr. Balsamier de la Mecque ; It. Opo- 
 balsamo; Lat. Balsamum verum alburn^, jEgyptiacum ; 
 Egypt. Balessad), the most precious of all the balsams, 
 commonly called Balm of Gilead. It is the produce 
 of a tree {Amyris GUeaden^is), indigenous to Arabia 
 and Abyssinia, and transplanted at an early period to 
 Judea. It is obtained by cutting the bark with an axe 
 at the time that the juice is in the strongest circulation. 
 The true balsam is of a pale yellowish color, clear and 
 transparent, about the consistence of Venice turpen- 
 tine, of a strong, penetrating, agreeable, aromatic 
 smell, and a slightly bitterish pungent taste. By age 
 it becomes yellower, browner, and thicker, losing by 
 degrees, like volatile oils, some of its finer and more 
 subtile parts. It is rarely, if ever, brought genuine 
 into this country ; dried Canada balsam being gener- 
 ally substitutSd for it. It was in high repute among 
 the ancients, but is now principally used as a cos- 
 metic by the Turkish ladies. — Drs. Ure and Thomson. 
 The Canada balsam, now referred to, is merely J?we tur- 
 pentine. It is the produce of the Pinus Balsamea, and 
 is imported in casks, each containing about 1 cwt. It 
 has a strong, but not a disagreeable odor, and a bitter- 
 ish taste ; is transparent, whitish, and has the consist- 
 ence of copaiva balsam. — See Turpentine. " Szafra 
 and Beder are the only places in the Hedjaz where the 
 balsam of Mecha, or Balessan, can be procured in a 
 pure state. The tree from which it is collected grows 
 in the neighboring mountains, but principally upon 
 Djebel Sobh, and is called, by the Arabs, Beshem. I 
 was informed that it is from 10 to 15 feet high, with a 
 smooth trunk, and thin bark. In the middle of sum- 
 mer, small incisions arc made in the bark ; and the 
 juice, which immediately issues, is taken off with the 
 thumb nail and put into a vessel. The gum appears to 
 be of two kinds, one of a white, and the other of a yel- 
 lowish white color : the first is the most esteemed, I 
 saw here some of the latter sort in a small sheep-skin, 
 which the Bedouins use in bringing it to market : it 
 had a strong turpentine smell, and its tiffite was bitter. 
 The people of Szafra usually adulterate it with sesa- 
 mum oil and tar. When they try its purity, they dip 
 their finger into it and then set it on fire ; if it burn 
 without hurting or leaving a mark on the finger, they 
 judge it to be of good quality ; but if it bum the finger 
 as soon as it is set on fire, they consider it to be adul- 
 terated. I remember to have read, in Bruce's Trav- 
 els, an account of the mode of trying it, by letting a 
 drop fall into a cup filled with water ; the good balsam 
 falling coagulated to the bottom, and the bad dissolv- 
 ing and swimming on the surface. I tried this ex- 
 periment, which was unknown to the people here, and 
 found the drop swim upon the water ; I tried also their 
 test by fire upon the finger of a Bedouin, who had to 
 regret his temerity ; I therefore regarded the balsam 
 sold here as adulterated : it was of less density than 
 
BAL 
 
 88 
 
 BAL 
 
 honey. I wished to purchase some ; but neither my 
 own baggage nor any of the shops of Szafra could fur- 
 nish any thing lilce a bottle to hold it ; the whole skin 
 was too dear. The Bedouins, who bring it here, usu- 
 ally demand 2 or 3 dollars per pound for it when quite 
 pure ; and the Szafra Arabs resell it to the hadjeys of 
 the great caravan at between 8 and 12 dollars per pound 
 in an adulterated state. It is bought up principally 
 by Persians." — Bukckhaedt's Travels in Arabia, vol. 
 ii. p. 123. 
 
 3. Balsam of Peru (Fr. Baume de Peru ; Ger. Peru- 
 vianischer Balsam; Sp. Balsamo de Quinquina; Lat. 
 Balsamum Peruvimium\ the produce of a tree {i-Iyroxy- 
 hn Peimiferum) growing in the warmest parts of South 
 America. The bsilsam procured by incisions made in 
 the tree is called white liquid balsam; that which is 
 found in the shops is obtained by boiling the twigs in 
 water : it is imported in jars, each containing from 20 
 to 40 pounds weight. It has a fragrant aromatic odor, 
 much resembling that of benzoin, with a warm bitter- 
 ish taste. It is viscid, of a deep reddish-brown color, 
 and of the consistence of honey. 
 
 4. Storax (Fr. Storax ; Ger. Siryaxhroom; It. Slo- 
 race; Sp. Azumbar ; Lat. Styrax; Arab. Usteruk), the 
 produce of a tree {Styrax officinale) growing in the 
 south of Europe and the Levant. Only two kinds are 
 found in the shops : storax in tears, which is pure, and 
 storax in the lump, or red storax, which is mixed with 
 sawdust and other impurities. Both kinds are brought 
 from the Levant in chests and boxes. Storax has a 
 fragrant odor, and a pleasant, sub-acidulous, slightly 
 pungent, and aromatic taste : it is of a reddish-brown 
 color, and brittle. — Thomson's Dispensatory. 
 
 5. Tolu, Balsam of(Yr. Baume de Tolu; Ger. Tolu- 
 taniscker Balsam; Sp. Balsamo de Tolu). The tree 
 which yields this balsam is the same as that which 
 yields the balsam of Peru, it being merely the white 
 balsam of Peru hardened by exposure tothe air. 
 
 6. Benzoin, or Benjamin (Fr. Benzoin ; Ger. Benzoe ; 
 Sp. Bengui; It. Belzuino; Lat. Benzoinum; Arab. Li- 
 ban ; Hind. Luban ; . Jav. Menian ; Malay, Oaminyan), 
 is an article of much greater commercial importance 
 than any of those balsams previously mentioned. It 
 is obtained from a tree (^Styrax Benzoin) cultivated in 
 Sumatra and Borneo, but particularly the former. The 
 plants produce in the seventh year. The balsam is 
 obtained by making incisions in the bark, when it ex- 
 udes, and is scraped off. During the iirst three years 
 the balsam is of a clear white color, after which it be- 
 comes brown. Having borne 10 or 12 j^ears, the tree 
 is cut down, a very inferior article being obtained by 
 scraping the wood. The balsams procured in these 
 different stages are distinguished in commerce, and 
 differ widely in value. Benzoin has a very agreeable, 
 fragrant odor, but hardly any taste. It is imported in 
 large masses, packed in chests and casks. It should 
 be chosen full of clear, light-colored, and white spots, 
 having the appearance of white marble when broken ; 
 it is rarely, however, to be met with in so pure a state, 
 but the nearer the approach to it the better. The 
 worst sort is blackish, and full of impurities. — Mil- 
 burn's Orient. Com., and private information. The 
 price of Benzoin in bond varied, in the London mark- 
 et, in February, 1843, from £3 to no less than £iS per 
 cwt. ! Mr. Crawfurd has given the following inter- 
 esting and authentic details with respect to this arti- 
 cle : " Benzoin, or frankincense, called in commercial 
 language Benjamin, is a more general article of com- 
 merce than camphor, though its production be confined 
 to the same islands. Benzoin is divided in commerce, 
 like camphor, into three sorts (head, belly, foot), ac- 
 cording to quality, the comparative value of which 
 may be expressed by the figures 105, 45, 18. Benzoin 
 is valued in proportion to its whiteness, semi-trans- 
 parency, and freedom from adventitious matters. Ac- 
 cording to its purity, the first sort may be bought at 
 the emporia to which it is brought, at from 60 to 100 
 
 dollars per picul (133J- pounds), the second from 25 to 
 45 dollars, and the worst from 8 to 20 dollars. Ac- 
 cording to Linschoten, benzoin, in his time, cost, in 
 the market of Sunda Calapa or Jacatra, from 19'05 to 
 25'40 Spanish dollars the picul. By Niebuhr's account, 
 the worst benzoin of the Indian islands is more esteem- 
 ed by the Arabs than their own best olibanum, or frank- 
 incense. In the London market, the best benzoin is 
 fourteen times more valuable than olibanum, and even 
 the worst two and one third times more valuable. 
 Benzoin usually sells in England at 10s. per pound. 
 The quantity generally imported there in the time of 
 the monopoly was 312 cwt. The principal use of this 
 commodity is as incense, and it is equally in request 
 in the religious ceremonies of Catholics, Moham- 
 medans, Hindoos, and Chinese. It is also used as a 
 luxury by the great in fumigating their apartments, 
 and the Japanese chiefs are fond of smoking it with 
 tobacco. Its general use among nations in such vari- 
 ous states of civilization, and the steady demand for it 
 in all ages, declare that it is one of those commodities 
 the taste for which is inherent in our nature, and not 
 the result of a particular caprice with any individual 
 people, as in the case of Malay camphor with the Chi- 
 nese." — Indian Archipelago, vol. iii. p. 418. An infe- 
 rior description of benzoin, the produce of a different 
 tree from the Styrax benzoin, is produced in Siam. It 
 is comparatively cheap and abundant. 
 
 7. Dragon's blood (Fr. Sang-Dragon; Lat. Sanguis 
 Draconis ; Arab. Dam-uldkhwain ; Hind. Heraduky), the 
 produce of a large species of rattan (Calamus Draco) 
 growing on the north and northeast coast of Sumatra, 
 and in some parts of Borneo. It is largely exported 
 to China, and also to India and Europe. It is either 
 in oval drops, wrapped up in flag-leaves, or ift large and 
 generally more impure masses composed of smaller 
 tears. It is externally and internally of a deep dusky 
 red color, and when powdered it should become of a 
 bright crimson : if it be black, it is worth little. When 
 broken and held up against a strong light, it is some- 
 what transparent, and it has little or no smell or taste ; 
 what it has of the latter is resinous and astringent. 
 Dragon's blood in drops is much preferable to that in 
 cakes, the latter being more friable, and less compact, 
 resinous, and pure than the former. Being a very 
 costly article, it is very apt to be adulterated. Most 
 of its alloys dissolve like gums in water, or crackle in 
 the fire without proving inflammable, whereas the gen- 
 uine dragon's blood readily melts and catches flame, 
 and is scarcely acted on by watery liquors. It sells 
 in the market of Singapore at from 15 to 35 dollars per 
 picul, according to quality ; but the Chinese have the 
 art of purifying and refining it, when it sells at from 
 80 to 100 dollars per picul, — Miledrn's Orient. Com. ; 
 Ckawfurd'3 East. Archip. ; and private information. 
 The price of dragon's blood, in the London market, 
 varied, in November, 1853, from £5 to £15 per cwt. 
 
 Baltic Sea. The denomination of the Baltic, ap- 
 plied to the inland sea which forms the subject of this 
 article, is first found in the work entitled Chorographia 
 Scandinavia;, by Adam of Bremen, who was canon of 
 that city at the close of the eleventh century. The 
 etymology of the name has given rise to many conjec- 
 tures. The Swedes derive it from the Scandinavian 
 word baelt, a girdle, because of its peculiar form ; the 
 Prussians from the Sclavonian or Lettonian word bab, 
 white, from its being frozen part of the year, or from 
 Baltus, one of their kings ; while by others it is de- 
 rived from Baltea, the name of an island mentioned by 
 Pytheas, a merchant of Marseilles, who, in the second 
 or third century before the Christian era, is supposed 
 to have sailed as far north as this sea. In the coun- 
 tries which bound it, its ancient name was Variatzkoie 
 More, or the Sea of Variaghi ; by the modern Russians 
 it is called Baltiskoe More; and by the Swedes, Danes, 
 and Germans, the East Sea. 
 
 Extent of the Baltic.— The Baltic Is inclosed by Swe- 
 
BAL 
 
 89 
 
 BAL 
 
 den, Russia, Prussia, Mecklenburg, and Denmark; 
 and it communicates with the North Sea by the Ska- 
 ger-Raek, Cattegat, Sound, and Great and Little Belts. 
 From Swinemilnde in the south, to Tornea in the north, 
 its length is 770 geographical miles ; and its width 
 from Karlscrona to Uemel is not less than 180 miles. 
 Its whole area, including the Gulf of Bothnia, is about 
 125,000 geographical square miles. It runs iirst in an 
 easterly direction as far as Memel, a distance of 300 
 miles, and then northward as far as lat. 59° 21' N., a : 
 distance of 350 miles, at which point it separates into 
 two great gulfs. One of these, the Gulf of Finland, 
 runs nearly due east ; the other, the Gulf of Bothnia, 
 almost north. The Gulf of Bothnia is 400 miles in 
 length, with an average breadth of 120 miles, but 
 where narrowest it does not exceed 40 miles. The 
 Archipelago of Aland lies at its entrance. The Gulf 
 of Finland is 200 miles in length, with a mean breadth 
 of 60 or 70 miles. Numerous rocky islands and reefs, 
 many of them level with the water, render the naviga- 
 tion of this sea extremely dangerous. 
 
 Depth of the Baltic. — The greatest depth of the 
 Baltic rarely exceeds 100 fathoms. On the western 
 side it is not more than 15 fathoms ; and, in general, 
 only from 8 to 10 fathoms. On the south it nowhere 
 exceeds 50 fathoms. The Gulf of Finland suddenly 
 shallows from 50 or 60 fathoms to 5, or even less. The 
 average depth of the Gulf of Bothnia is not greater 
 than that rf the rest of the sea. It has long been a 
 generally received opinion that the waters of the Bal- 
 tic are gradually diminishing. Celsius, a learned 
 Swede, who flourished toward the middle of last cen- 
 tury, advances this hypothesis; and, from observa- 
 tions made on the coasts of the Baltic, he estimated 
 the diminution at 45 inches in a hundred years. This 
 hypothesis was supported by Linnaeus, who founded 
 on it a theory of tlie earth. M. Otto, in his physical 
 observations on this seii, has suggested another theory 
 to account for its apparent decrease. He supposes 
 that, instead of really subsiding, it may be only shift- 
 ing its position, and gaining in one quarter what it 
 loses in another ; and this he ascribes to the large and 
 rapid rivers, which carry along with them an immense 
 quantity of earth and sand, by which the beds at their 
 mouths are raised, and their banks extend toward the 
 sea. The views of Celsius have been confirmed by 
 the observations of Von Buch, who also discovered at 
 several places on the western shores of Scandinavia, 
 and at considerable elevations, deposits of sand and 
 mud containing numerous marine shells of species still 
 existing in the neighboring ocean. Mr. Lyell at first 
 entertained doubts of these phenomena ; but on subse- 
 quent inspection he was led to concur in the opinion 
 of Von Buch. Mr. Lyell found the marks which were 
 cut in the rocks at water-line some years previous to 
 his visit to be actually several inches above the level 
 of the Baltic. From these observations, that eminent 
 geologist concludes that, in several parts of Sweden, a 
 gradual elevation of the land is taking place. — Lyell's 
 Principks of Geology. The great quantity of sand and 
 mud carried down by the rivers has considerably raised 
 the bottom of this sea, and affected its navigation, so 
 that the mouths of rivers formerly navigable are now 
 inaccessible. 
 
 In the Baltic, the tides are scarcely, if at all, per- 
 ceptible. There are sensible tides in the Skager-Rack ; 
 but these begin to diminish in the Cattegat, and are 
 very trifling in the Sound and Belts. There are, how- 
 ever, irregular variations in the level of the waters of 
 the Baltic which bear some resemblance to tides. These 
 elevations generally occur in autumn, when the weath- 
 er threa>3ns rain ; and they last sometimes a few days, 
 sometimes several weeks. The maximum rise is three 
 feet and a half, and the low shores are occasionally in- 
 undated. They also render brackish the fresh-water 
 lakes which communimte with the sea. In the Gulf 
 of Bothnia, the subsidence of the waters is usually 
 
 succeeded by north winds ; whereas, near Stockholm, 
 these winds usually follow their rise. M. Kraft, for- 
 merly professor of experimental philosophy in the Im- 
 perial Academj' of Sciences at St. Petersburg, in his 
 treatise on the inundations of the Neva at the autumnal 
 equinox, observes that, three or four days before or 
 after the full or new moon, a violent northwest wind 
 drives the waters of the Northern Ocean, during the 
 influx of the tide, into the Baltic, and is accompanied 
 or immediately succeeded by a south wind in that sea 
 and the Gulf of Finland. By Schultens, a learned 
 Swede, who paid particular attention to the physical 
 geography of the Baltic, the irregular elevations of 
 this sea are attributed to the state of the atmosphere. 
 He had observed that when the waters were about to 
 rise the barometer fell, and that when they were about 
 to fall it rose. Hence he inferred that the unequal 
 pressure of the atmosphere on different portions of the 
 water deranged the level of the waters. The difl'er- 
 ence between the greatest and the least rise of the ba- 
 rometer in the northern parts of Europe is two and a 
 half inches, which answers to three and a half feet of 
 water, or the difference of the elevation of the waters 
 at their extremes. 
 
 Superior and inferior Currents. — In the Sound there 
 are superior and inferior currents. These were first 
 observed by some Englishmen, who, being in a boat 
 in the middle of the channel, found that they drifted 
 toward the Cattegat; but having let down a loaded 
 bucket to the depth of four or five fathoms, the boat 
 became stationary ; and when the bucket was sunk 
 deeper, the boat drifted against the superficial cui-rent. 
 The general currents of the Baltic are strong, and evi- 
 dently occasioned by the vast number of rivers and 
 streams that pour their waters into it, many of which, 
 especially toward the north, rise thrice in the course 
 of the year. At the northern extremity of the Island 
 of Bornholm, a violent agitation of the waters, or kind 
 of whirlpool, called by the Swedes malt-quern^ or the 
 grinding-mill, is occasioned by the current rushing 
 over a circular cluster of sunken rocks. The waves 
 of the Baltic are short and broken, in consequence of 
 sudden changes of wind, irregular depths, and strong 
 currents. 
 
 Satinets. — The waters of this sea are not nearly so 
 salt as those of the ocean ; and when the wind blows 
 strong from the north they become so fresh as to be fit 
 for drinking or cooking meat. The degree of their 
 saltness varies in different parts, and even in the same 
 parts, according to the season or wind. According to 
 Bergman, in his Physical Geography, the waters near 
 the south coast of Norway, at the entrance of the Ska- 
 ger-Rack, contain from one-tenth to one-seventh part 
 of their weight of salt ; in the Cattegat, one-twelfth ; 
 in the Baltic, one-sixteenth ; and in the Gulf of Both- 
 nia from one-fortieth to one-fiftieth. The southwest 
 and west winds augment the saltness, by introducing 
 the waters of the ocean. In the summer it requires 
 300 tons of the water of the Gulf of Bothnia to produce 
 one ton of salt, but in the winter only 50 tons. This 
 difference is caused by congelation, and by the dimin- 
 ished flow of fresh water. 
 
 Temperature. — There is great difference in the tem- 
 perature in different parts of the Baltic. The general 
 temperature of the Gulf of Bothnia in July is from 48 ° 
 to 56°, but it is sometimes heated to 70° ; the medium 
 of the thermometer throughout the year at Uleoborg is 
 29°, and at Stockholm 42 4-5°. Near the land in the 
 Gulf of Bothnia, the temperature of the atmosphere in 
 the month of July was observed to be 68°, while the 
 temperature of the surface of the water was 65° ; and 
 in October the temperatures of both were respectively 
 39° and 46. In the Sound, the temperature of the at- 
 mosphere in the month of August was 70° ; on the 
 surface of the water, 68° ; and at three fathoms, 66°. 
 On the 10th of October, 1813, Dr. Thomson found the 
 temperature of the Sound to be 54°. The Skager- 
 
BAL 
 
 90 
 
 BAL 
 
 Rack and Gulf of Norway are open to navigation all 
 the winter, whereas several portions of the Baltic are 
 covered with ice in a very moderate degree of cold ; 
 and generally the bays and channels are encumbered 
 with ice at the latter end of December. The waters 
 toward the heads of the Gulfs of Bothnia and Finland 
 are first frozen ; and the ice being conveyed by the 
 currents to the south, the masses of it are united by 
 the increasing cold into vast fields, which become sta- 
 tionary on the west toward Stockholm, and in the east 
 toward the islands of Dagce and CEsel. In the south- 
 ern parts of the sea the ice begins to break up in April, 
 but the Gulfs of Bothnia and Finland often continue 
 closed till May. The rigor of the climate in the Bal- 
 tic is supposed to be considerably diminished by the 
 clearing of the forests and the progress of cultivation ; 
 at least the frosts during the fourteenth and fifteenth 
 centuries appear, in their intensity and long continu- 
 ance, to have exceeded those of the severest seasons in 
 more recent times. 
 
 The winds are extremely variable in the Baltic, but 
 they blow most commonly from the east in the spring, 
 and from the west in autumn. Calms are seldom ex- 
 23erienced except in the middle of summer. 
 
 Fisheries. — There is historical evidence that the her- 
 ring fishery was a branch of national industry in the 
 Sound as early as the year 1168 ; and in 1389, accord- 
 ing to Philip de Meziferes, such vast shoals of herrings 
 crowded into the Sound, that 40,000 boats, with from 
 six to ten men each, were employed in the fishery, be- 
 sides 900 large vessels, in which the herrings were 
 salted. This important branch of industry, however, 
 no longer exists. " In the year 1238, the inhabitants 
 of GotMa (Sweden) and Frise were prevented, by their 
 fear of the Tartars, from sending, as usual, their ships 
 to the herring fishing on the coast of England ; and as 
 there was no exportation, 40 or 50 of these fish were 
 sold for a shilling. — Matthew Paeis, p. 396. It is 
 whimsical enough that the orders of Mogul Khan, who 
 reigned on the borders of China, should have lowered 
 the price of herrings in the English market." — Gib- 
 eon, vol. xi. p. 422. Salmon ascend the rivers from 
 April to June, according as they are free from ice. On 
 the south, they abound most in the Oder, Vistula, Diina, 
 and Narrowa ; on the north, in the Motala, Dalecarlia, 
 Ulea, Kemi, Tomea, and Ke3'men. Salmon-trout is 
 taken in some bays of the Baltic. In the middle of 
 the River Kemi is a small island where an annual sal- 
 mon fair is held. 
 
 Whales very rarely enter the Baltic. The common 
 porpoise is the only one of the lesser species of ceta- 
 ceous animals that lives habitually in this sea ; and at 
 Middlefahrt, in Funen, is a company which enjoys the 
 exclusive privilege of talking it. There are two vari- 
 eties of the common seal, which are hunted for their 
 oil, in March and April, by the peasants of the Isle of 
 Gottland, and of the islands in the Gulfs of Bothnia 
 and Finland. 
 
 The trade of the Baltic is of great extent and im- 
 portance. In 1852, 17,563 ships passed up and down 
 the Sound, of which 3902 were British ve.isels. The 
 internal trade is also very considerable. The exports 
 consist of the various productions of the countries on 
 its coasts, and include com, timber, pitch and tar, 
 hemp, flax, tallow, hides, linseed, bristles, wool, etc. 
 Its imports are colonial products, manufactured goods, 
 dry stuff's, wines, salt, coal, etc. The most important 
 ports are St. Petersburg, Riga, Konigsberg, Danzig, 
 Swinemunde, Lubeck, Copenhagen, Karlscrona, and 
 Stockholm. By means of numerous large rivers and 
 canals a considerable trade is carried on with the in- 
 terior. — E. B. See Thomson's Travek in Sweden; 
 Tableau de la Mer Baltique^ par Catteau ; Tableau 
 des Etats Oanois, par Catteau. 
 
 Of all seas, the Baltic is one of the most danger- 
 ous to shipping and harassing to crews. Sudden and 
 frequent changes of the wind, shallow waters off shore. 
 
 innumerable shoals and insulated rocks, with currents 
 divided by these obstacles, branching off in difi'erent 
 directions to be divided by the same cause, till, meet^ 
 ing from opposite quarters, the waters are embroiled 
 in the hurly-burly of a sturdy conflict ; these are al- 
 most constant causes of anxiety to the mariner, for 
 the navigation is most beset with such impediments 
 precisely in those parts which are eminently the high- 
 ways of commerce. Hence the proportion of mari- 
 time casiialties is much greater in the case of vessels 
 sailing to the Baltic ports than in the instance of 
 merchantmen passing between Great Britain and 
 America. 
 
 Three of the rivers flow into the North Sea ; the 
 Oder flows into the Baltic, and the trade of all the 
 four, particularly that of the Weser, is increasing. Of 
 the Jahde the world has heard but little till lately, 
 when it was made known that Prussia had acquired 
 a port on it. By an agreement between Oldenburg 
 and Prussia, concluded in July, 1853, and ratified in 
 December, Prussia purchased of Oldenburg for 500,000 
 thalers (about £80,000) the sovereignty of 500 morgens 
 (about 3000 acres) of land and marshes, in order that 
 Prussia might have a sea-port on the North Sea, to 
 give protection to her trade. Jahde, or rather Fahrhuh, 
 will probably hereafter become a place of some im- 
 portance. It is seated on a large and tolerably safe 
 bay between the Ems and the Weser, and may proba- 
 bly, in the hands of Prussia, increase in importance. 
 At present it possesses little except coasting trade. 
 The Weser, a short river, with all its tributaries, so 
 far as navigable, flows through the territories of six 
 diff'erent Powers, and, as their territories are mixed 
 and mingled the sovereignty through which it flows 
 changes no less than thirty-four times. Formerly 
 every sovereign had his tolls, and at every change of 
 sovereignty there was a toll-house. At present the 
 tolls are reduced to one sum, and the toll-houses, 
 which were 22, are reduced to 9. The toll at present, 
 from Bremen to Carlshafen, is nearly a third of the 
 freight. — Die Deutschen Slriime, u. s. w. Vierte abthei- 
 lung die Weser, Ems, Jahde, und Oder : Leipzig. — 
 Pope's Journal of Trade. 
 
 Baltimore, a city, port of entry, metropolis of 
 the State, and capital of Baltimore county, Mary- 
 land. The third city in extent and population in 
 the United States ; situated on the north side of Pa- 
 tapsco River, 10 miles from its entrance into Chesa- 
 peake Bay, and 200 miles from the ocean by ship 
 channel. In 39° 17' 23" N. lat., and 76° 37' 30" W. 
 long. 
 
 It is by railroad route 38 miles from Washington, 
 98 from Philadelphia, 186 from New York, 590 from 
 Pittsburg, and 590 northeast from Charleston. Popula- 
 tion in 1790, 13,503; 1800, 26,514; 1810, 35,583; 1820, 
 62,738; 1830, 80,625; 1840, 102,313; 1850, 169,054; 
 1854, with environs, 200,000. The branch of the Pa- 
 tapsco River, around which the city is built, is about 
 a mile and three-quarters long, and varies from one- 
 eighth to three-quarters of a mile in width, having its 
 greatest breadth opposite to the tract called Canton. 
 It afl'ords an easy access to the city, and a capacious, 
 safe, and well-protected harbor of a depth and extent 
 sufficient to float ships of the largest class, and to af- 
 ford ample accommodation for at least two thousand 
 vessels. Its harbor consists of an inner basin, at the 
 wharves of which vessels drawing ten or twelve feet 
 of water may lie, and an outer bay lying between Fells 
 Point and Canton on the north and east, and Whet- 
 stone Point on the south, with from sixteen to twenty 
 feet of water. Ships of heavy burden do not go up 
 higher than the Point. From the facilities ofl'ered by 
 the depth of the water, the Point is also the seat of 
 the principal ship-yards, from which have been launch- 
 ed some of the finest and fleetest vessels of the Amer- 
 ican marine, which are especially noted for beauty 
 of proportion and excellence of construction. The 
 
BAL 
 
 91 
 
 BAL 
 
 name of Baltimore clipper is synonymous all over the 
 ■world with all that is beautiful in naval architecture, 
 and perfect in the requisites of a stanch and -well-ap- 
 pointed ship. 
 
 The commerce of Baltimore is extensive and rapid- 
 ly increasing. The receipts for the year ending 1853 
 •were 406,000 tons of Cumberland, and 183,000 tons of 
 anthracite coal, 35,003 bales of cotton, 3,411,965 bush- 
 els of wheat, 3,906,494 bushels of com, 780,000 bush- 
 els of oats, 160,000 bushels of rye, 13,000 bushels of 
 peas, 4000 bushels of beans, and 83,000,000 feet of lum- 
 ber. There were 1,181,603 barrels of wheat flour in- 
 spected, 5394 of rye flour, and 38,478 of corn meal. 
 Imports, of coffee, 208,702 bags ; molasses, 3820 hogs- 
 heads, 632 tierces, and 72 barrels from tile West In- 
 dies, and 192 hogsheads, 115 tierces, and 13,187 bar- 
 rels coastwise ; of sugar. New Orleans and West In- 
 dies, 12,582 hogsheads, and 14,350 barrels ; tobacco in- 
 spected, 40,667 hogsheads; wool, foreign and domes- 
 tic, 900,000 pounds; mackerel inspected, 12,697 bar- 
 rels ; herrings, 29,000 barrels ; shad, 6671 barrels. 
 Value of hides imported, $137,690. There were 356 
 (tonnage 88,798) American vessels cleared from this 
 port, and 227 (tonnage 55,772) foreign. Tonnage reg- 
 istered, 92,772-46; enrolled and licensed, 65,706-14; 
 total, 158,478-60. Number of vessels built 71, and 
 their aggregate tonnage 18,391-62. There were, in 
 1853, 12 banks with an aggregate capital of $7,292,315, 
 d. savings bank, and 8 insurance offices ; 20 printing- 
 offices, issuing 5 daily, 4 tri-weekly, 8 weekly news- 
 papers, 1 semi-monthly, and 3 monthly publications. 
 
 Manufactures. — ^A great amount of water-power is 
 concentrated in the vicinity, which has been extens- 
 ively improved for manufacturing purposes. Jones' 
 Falls, a small stream which passes through the city, 
 has a succession of falls which afford considerable wa- 
 ter-power. The Patapsco, though not a large river, 
 has a fall of about 800 feet in the course of 30 miles, 
 affording many valuable mill sites. There are within 
 20 miles of the city sixty flouring mills, besides numer- 
 ous cotton manufactories and other manufactories of 
 cloth, powder, paper, iron, copper, glass, steam-en- 
 gines, chemicals, tobacco, etc. 
 
 Ship-building. — The number of vessels built at Bal- 
 timore, and other ports of Maryland, in the fiscal year 
 1854-5, were as follows ; 
 
 
 1^ 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 1" 
 
 
 1 
 
 sj 
 
 
 ■i 
 
 $ 
 
 BHItimore 
 
 13 
 
 3 
 
 36 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 .57 
 
 $16,618 
 
 Oxford. . . 
 
 
 
 lil 
 
 ., 
 
 
 19 
 
 1,319 
 
 Vienna. . . 
 
 
 
 35 
 
 , , 
 
 
 .S5 
 
 1,758 
 
 Snow Hill 
 
 
 
 1(1 
 
 ,, 
 
 
 in 
 
 604 
 
 Annapolis 
 Total.. 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 R7 
 
 13 
 
 8 
 
 101 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 122 
 
 $20,o6a 1 
 
 List op new Vessels eegisteked, enrolled, etc., at Tirt 
 
 POHT OF BAX.TUHOBE DURING TUE YeaES ISfH, '55, '56. 
 
 
 1864. 1 1865. 1 1966. "1 
 
 No. 
 
 'Tonnage. I No. | Tonnage. 
 
 No. 1 Tonnage. | 
 
 Ships 
 
 Barks 
 
 Brigs 
 
 Scliooners.. 
 
 Sloops 
 
 Steamhoats. 
 Steamships. 
 Canal Boats 
 
 Yachts 
 
 Total .... 
 
 8 
 4 
 
 3 
 82 
 
 1 
 2 
 
 8,352-60 
 1,435-67 
 712-22 
 8,766-10 
 ' 48-85 
 2,276-10 
 
 7 
 5 
 6 
 45 
 5 
 1 
 1 
 2 
 
 9,169-12 
 2,201-65 
 1,491-64 
 4,166-11 
 E5-90 
 
 180-45 
 1,011-83 
 
 116-47 
 
 5 
 12 
 12 
 29 
 
 S 
 
 'i 
 
 6,112-10 
 5,693-36 
 2,881-69 
 2,848-32 
 29-06 
 
 12-71 
 
 50 116,591-04 
 
 72 
 
 18,383-23 
 
 62 
 
 17,577-64 
 
 Valtte or FoKEiGN Impokts and Expobts at the District 
 
 OF BaLTIMOEE for tub J.A6T SEVENTEEN Y'EAKS. 
 
 Ycnrn. 
 
 Impoite. 
 
 Exporte. 
 
 Ifeara. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 1840 
 
 $5,109,274 
 
 $5,868,018 
 
 1849 
 
 .$5,291,566 
 
 $8,660,981 
 
 1841 
 
 6,109,101 
 
 4,097,633 
 
 1860 
 
 6,417,113 
 
 8,630,970 
 
 1842 
 
 4,052,260 
 
 4,448,940 
 
 1851 
 
 7,243,963 
 
 6,466,166 
 
 1843 
 
 8,607,733 
 
 4,740,042 
 
 1852 
 
 8,978,021 
 
 7,649,766 
 
 1844 
 
 4,261,883 
 
 4,622,063 
 
 1853 
 
 6,331,671 
 
 9,686,914 
 
 1845 
 
 3,356,670 
 
 6,266,276 
 
 1854 
 
 7,750,387 
 
 11,306,010 
 
 1846 
 
 4,238,760 
 
 6,710,559 
 
 1855 
 
 7,772,691 
 
 11,601,637 
 
 1847 
 
 4,146,743 
 
 9,826,479 
 
 1856 
 
 9,772,591 
 
 13,362,262 
 
 1848 
 
 5,246,894 
 
 7,209,602 
 
 
 
 
 Ihbpeotionb of Maryland and Ohio Tobacco for the last 
 Sixteen Years. 
 
 Inepeetiona. 
 
 1841 
 
 29,980 
 
 1842 
 
 83,759 
 
 1843 
 
 29,617 
 
 1844 
 
 82,188 
 
 1846 
 
 39,844 
 
 1S46 
 
 41,027 
 
 1847 
 
 33,729 
 
 1848 
 
 23,263 
 
 1849 
 
 80,966 
 
 1850 
 
 27,085 
 
 1851 
 
 26,013 
 
 1S53 
 
 29,670 
 
 1853 
 
 29,248 
 
 1854 
 
 26,048 
 
 1855 
 
 28,470 
 
 1866 
 
 44,779 
 
 Ohio. 
 
 HbdB. 
 
 7,692 
 11,279 
 18,465 
 15,320 
 26,716 
 58,862 
 15,671 
 
 9,845 
 13,618 
 18,966 
 16,791 
 17,720 
 17,947 
 10,362 
 10,097 
 
 6,610 
 
 Stock on Land 
 December 21. 
 
 Hilda. 
 
 Hilda. 
 
 37,672 
 
 10,900 
 
 45,038 
 
 9,660 
 
 43,082 
 
 12,354 
 
 47,503 
 
 12,605 
 
 66,660 
 
 15,342 
 
 69,889 
 
 82,416 
 
 49,400 
 
 28,467 
 
 33,068 
 
 32,761 
 
 44,683 
 
 19,628 
 
 41,040 
 
 10,617 
 
 41,804 
 
 17,699 
 
 47,290 
 
 11,760 
 
 47,185 
 
 9,779 
 
 36,410 
 
 3,715 
 
 38,667 
 
 4,273 
 
 61,289 
 
 4,094 
 
 ExpoKTS OP Flotje feom Bat.timobe foe the last FrvE 
 Yeabb. 
 
 Where to. 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 France . ; 
 
 Brazil 
 
 River Plate 
 
 British N. A. Col. . 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 West Indies 
 
 Pacific 
 
 Other ports 
 
 Total 
 
 Barrels. 
 223,987 
 
 104J55 
 12,928 
 25,086 
 8,766 
 96,723 
 600 
 44,080 
 
 6S2,140|516,475 
 
 1366. 
 
 Barrels. 
 124,294 
 
 30,088 
 108,763 
 
 12,685 
 
 62,062 
 
 4,077 
 
 103,r6'2 
 
 4,006 
 
 80,254 
 
 1856. 
 
 Barrels. 
 126,716 
 
 16,707 
 130,332 
 
 54,150 
 
 88,662 
 
 7,625 
 
 166,645 
 
 2,980 
 
 28,614 
 
 480,120 621,230 
 
 ExpoETS op Mabtland akd Ohio Tobacco feom Baltimoee poe the last Sixteen Yeaks. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Bremen. 
 
 Rotterdam. 
 
 Amsterdam. 
 
 Antwerp. 
 
 Emden. 
 
 France. . 
 
 Trieste. 
 
 England. 
 
 Total Export. 
 
 
 Hhds. 
 
 Hhda. 
 
 Hhds. 
 
 Hhds. 
 
 Hhds. 
 
 Hhds. 
 
 Hhds. 
 
 Hhda. 
 
 Hhds. 
 
 1841 
 
 16,378 
 
 7,918 
 
 8,169 
 
 906 
 
 
 3,814 
 
 1183 
 
 120 
 
 35,482 
 
 1842 
 
 17,719 
 
 10,874 
 
 8,109 
 
 978 
 
 
 4,682 
 
 1401 
 
 
 43,763 
 
 1843 
 
 16,949 
 
 6,474 
 
 7,311 
 
 824 
 
 386 
 
 8,366 
 
 2514 
 
 
 42,324 
 
 1844 
 
 17,187 
 
 11,872 
 
 7,095 
 
 190 
 
 602 
 
 7,212 
 
 902 
 
 
 44,910 
 
 1845 
 
 28,732 
 
 18,171 
 
 10,944 
 
 667 
 
 190 
 
 7,183 
 
 1378 
 
 
 66,910 
 
 1846 
 
 24,674 
 
 8,164 
 
 7,314 
 
 1856 
 
 
 8,166 
 
 • 426 
 
 
 61,386 
 
 1847 
 
 22,261 
 
 8,593 
 
 10,409 
 
 1659 
 
 236 
 
 8,947 
 
 150 
 
 
 53,344 
 
 1848 
 
 12,705 
 
 7,935 
 
 8,090 
 
 131 
 
 
 4,911 
 
 
 260 
 
 29,032 
 
 1849 
 
 18,531 
 
 13,876 
 
 8,736 
 
 200 
 
 310 
 
 9,662 
 
 
 600 
 
 62,848 
 
 1850 
 
 16,936 
 
 7,816 
 
 6,989 
 
 
 
 8,177 
 
 600 
 
 1965 
 
 44,468 
 
 1851 
 
 12,600 
 
 9,661 
 
 4,184 
 
 
 
 2,326 
 
 1861 
 
 1320 
 
 33,840 
 
 1862 
 
 22,707 
 
 11,268 
 
 5,064 
 
 
 329 
 
 7,679 
 
 340 
 
 2815 
 
 61,773 
 
 1863 
 
 18,947 
 
 10,398 
 
 9,980 
 
 
 
 5,380 
 
 1619 
 
 2773 
 
 60,088 
 
 1854 
 
 16,876 
 
 7,263 
 
 5,436 
 
 471 
 
 
 10,180 
 
 
 1116 
 
 41,340 
 
 1855 
 
 8,999 
 
 9,722 
 
 6,754 
 
 
 
 7,626 
 
 640 
 
 20(10 
 
 35,221 
 
 1856 
 
 21,408 
 
 14,028 
 
 10,141 
 
 186 
 
 
 4,919 
 
 802 
 
 4258 
 
 56,698 
 
 Included in the above total are the fcUowing: In 1846, 660 hhds. shipped to St. Petersburg; 1846, 738 hhds. do. ; 1849, 
 633 hhds. do. ; 1850, 1856 hhds. to St. Petersburg, and 2129 to Spain; 1851, 602 hhds. to St. Petersbuig, 1151 hhds. to Spain, 
 and 175 hhds. to Hamburg; 1862, 203 hhds. to St. Petersburg, and 678 hhds. to Hamburg; in 1868, 994 hhds. to Hamburg; 
 1855, 260 hhds. Virginia to Genoa, and 350 hhds. to West Indian and other ports; and in 1856, 366 hhds. to West Indian 
 and other ports. 
 
BAM 
 
 92 
 
 BAN 
 
 ACCOTJKT OP THE INSPECTIONS OF WlIEAT FlOUE, InRIAN CORN MkAL, RtE MeAL, AMD TOJiACCO AT BALTIMORE, DUErSG 
 EACH OF THE EIGHT YeARS ENPING WITit 1852. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Flour. 
 
 Indian Corn Meal. 
 
 Rye Meal. 
 
 Tobacco. 
 
 
 bbls. 
 
 hhds. 
 
 bbls. 
 
 half-bbls. 
 
 bbls. 
 
 half-bbls. 
 
 hhdn. 
 
 1S45 
 
 576,745 
 
 631 
 
 23,949 
 
 1460 
 
 6518 
 
 24 
 
 
 1846 
 
 850,116 
 
 1076 
 
 40,942 
 
 1744 
 
 5402 
 
 
 
 184T 
 
 959,4.56 
 
 9S4 
 
 106,842 
 
 1298 
 
 6666 
 
 49 
 
 60,671 
 
 1848 
 
 736,441 
 
 333 
 
 60,225 
 
 1322 
 
 7620 
 
 105 
 
 33,906 
 
 1849 
 
 764,519 
 
 428 
 
 51,772 
 
 2051 
 
 8007 
 
 9 
 
 46,601 
 
 1850 
 
 896,532 
 
 272 
 
 42,403 
 
 3369 
 
 6419 
 
 22 
 
 41,833 
 
 1851 
 
 912,498 
 
 620 
 
 28,917 
 
 2256 
 
 7654 
 
 53 
 
 42,742 
 
 1852 
 
 1,307,165 
 
 477 
 
 52,658 
 
 746 
 
 6449 
 
 21 
 
 
 Bamboo (Fr. Bavibou, Bambouckes; Ger. Indian- 
 ischer Rohr ; It, Batribu ; Hind. Bans ; Malay, Buluh ; 
 Jav. Preng)^ a species of cane, tlie Bambos arundinacea 
 of botanists. It grows every where within the tropics, 
 and is of the greatest utility ; strictly speaking, it is a 
 gigantic grass with a ligneous stem. It often rises to 
 the height of 40 or 50 feet, and sometimes to even 
 double those heights. Like most plants long and ex- 
 tensively cultivated, it diverges into many varieties. 
 Some of these are dwarfish, while others, instead of 
 being hollow canes, are solid. The bamboo is of rapid 
 growth, and in four or five years is fit for many uses, 
 but does not bear fruit or grain till it is 25 j'ears old, 
 after which it perishes. The grain makes tolerable 
 bread. The young but gigantic shoots, as they spring 
 from the earth, make a tender and good esculent vege- 
 table. The mature bamboo is employed in an im- 
 mense variety of ways — in the construction of houses, 
 bridges, boats, agricultural implements, etc. Some 
 varieties grow to such a size as to be, in the largest 
 part, near two feet in circumference, and single knees 
 of tliese are used as pails or buckets. The Chinese 
 are believed to fabricate their cheap and useful paper 
 of macerated bamboo. The canes used in Europe as 
 walking-sticks are not bamboos, but rattans — a totally 
 distinct class of plants. Bamboos are never used for 
 that purpose. — Private infornudion. 
 
 Banana {Musa sapientum), an herbaceous plant, a 
 native of the West Indies. Its fruit is produced in 
 large clusters weighing .many pounds, and forms a 
 considerable article of food among the better classes. 
 
 Bandanas, silk handkerchiefs, generallj' red spot- 
 ted with white. They were formerly manufactured 
 only in the East Indies ; but they are now manufac- 
 tured of a very good quality at Glasgow and other 
 places. 
 
 Bangkok, or Bankok, the capital city of Siam, 
 and one of the most commercial cities in Asia, on the 
 Menam, about 20 miles above its mouth. Lat. 13° 
 58' N., long. 100° 34' E. Population from 50,000 to 
 60,000 (?), half of whom are Chinese. It stretches 
 along both banks of the river, and consists of three 
 portions ; viz., the palace or citadel, on an island in- 
 closed by walls, and compi'ising the residences of the 
 sovereign and court, with many temples and gardens ; 
 the city proper ; and the floating town, composed of 
 movable bamboo rafts^ each bearing rows of 8 or 10 
 houses. It has numerous Buddhic temples ; and in 
 the palace is a spacious audience-hall. The more solid 
 buildings are of brick ; but the majorit}' of the dwell- 
 ings are of wood, mounted on posts. Most of the in- 
 tercourse is can-ied on by water, and the Menam is 
 navigable to the city for vessels of 250 tons. Bang- 
 kok has manufactures of tin and iron wares, and leath- 
 er. Exports comprise sugar (from 10,000 to 12,000 
 tons yearly), black pepper (4000 to 5000 tons), tin, card- 
 amoms, fine woods, ivory, cotton, rice, hides, horns, 
 skins, and feathers. Imports, tea, quicksilver, raw 
 and manufactured silks, porcelain, and numerous man- 
 ufactured articles from China; camphor, and edible 
 birds' nests, from the Asiatic Archipelago ; and Euro- 
 pean and Indian piece goods, opium, and glass wares, 
 from the British and Dutch settlements ill the East. 
 The country around is flat, but contains rich mines of 
 iron, and extensive forests of teak. The most favor- 
 able time for reaching Bangkok, in ships of consider- 
 
 able draught, is about the beginning of November, 
 when the rains are just over, and the season is cool 
 and healthful. There is then on the bar of the river, 
 at low water, a depth of 3^ fathoms. In the spring 
 and summer months it is sometimes as low as two 
 fathoms, or a little more, and the capital is then reach- 
 ed with some difiiculty. 
 
 Bank. — Banking, Banks are establishments in- 
 tended to serve for the safe custody and issue Of mon- 
 ey ; for facilitating its "payment by one individual to 
 another; and sometimes for the accommodation of 
 the public with loans. These subjects will be consid- 
 ered under the heads : I. General Principles of Bank- 
 ing ; II. Account of Bank of England ; III. English 
 Private and Provincial Banks; IV. Scotch Banks; 
 V. Irish Banks; VI. Foreign Banks; VII. Banking 
 in the United States ; VIII. Savings Banks. 
 
 " The first established was in Italy, a.d. 808, by the 
 Lombard Jews, of whom some settled in Lombard 
 Street, London, where many bankers still reside. The 
 name is derived from banco, a bench, which was erect- 
 ed in the market-place for the exchange of money. 
 The mint in the Tower of London was anciently the 
 depositor}' for merchants' cash, until Charles I. laid 
 his hands upon the money, and destroyed the credit 
 of the mint in 1640. The traders were thus driven to 
 some other place of security for their gold, which, 
 when kept at home, their apprentices frequently ab- 
 sconded with to the army. In 1645, therefore, they 
 consented to lodge it with the goldsmiths in Lombard 
 Street, who were provided with strong chests for their 
 own valuable wares ; and this became the origin of 
 banking in England." — Haydn. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 Bank of Venice formed 1157 
 
 Bank of Geneva 1345 
 
 Bank of Barcelona 1401 
 
 Bank of Genoa 1407 
 
 Bank of Amsterdam ; 1607 
 
 Bank of Hamburg 1619 
 
 Bank of Rotterdam 1635 
 
 Bank of Stockholm 168S 
 
 Bank of England 1694 
 
 Bank of Scotland 1695 
 
 Bank of Copenhagen 1736 
 
 Bank of Berlin 1705 
 
 Caisse d'Escompte, Fl-ance 1776 
 
 Bank of Ireland 1733 
 
 Massachusetts Bank, Boston, established 1784 
 
 Bank of St. Petersburg 1786 
 
 In the East Indies 1787 
 
 Branch Banks in Great Britain 1828 
 
 I. General Principles of Banking.— Banks are 
 commonly divided into the two great classes of banis 
 of deposit and banks of issue. This, however, appears 
 at first sight to be rather an imperfect classification, 
 inasmuch as almost all banks of deposit are at the 
 same time banks of issue, and almost all banks of issue 
 also banks of deposit. But there is in reality no am- 
 biguity ; for by banks of deposit are meant banks for 
 the custody and employment of the money deposited 
 with them or intrusted to their care by their custom- 
 ers, or by the public; while by banks of issue are 
 meant banks which, besides employing or issuing the 
 money intrusted to them by others, issue money of 
 their own, or notes payable on demand. The Bank 
 of England is principally a bank of issue ; but it, as 
 well as the other banks in the difterent parts of the 
 empire that issue notes, is also a great bank of deposit. 
 The private banking companies of London, and the 
 
BAN 
 
 95 
 
 BAN 
 
 various provincial banks that do not issue notes of 
 their own, are strictly banks of deposit. Banking 
 business may be conducted indifferently by individ- 
 uals, by private companies, or by joint-stock compa- 
 nies or associations. 
 
 Utility and Functions of Banks of Deposit, — Banks of 
 this class execute all that is properly understood by 
 banking business; and their establishment has con- 
 tributed in no ordinary degree to give security and 
 facilitj' to commercial transactions. They afford, when 
 properly conducted, safe and convenient places of de- 
 posit for the money that would otherwise have to be 
 kept, at a considerable risk, in private houses. They 
 also prevent, in a great measure, the necessity of car- 
 rying money from place to place to make payments, 
 and enable them to be made in the most convenient 
 and least expensive manner. A merchant or trades- 
 man in London, for example, who employs a banker, 
 keeps but very little money in his own hands, making 
 all his considerable payments by drafts or checks on 
 his banker; and he also sends the various checks, 
 bills, or drafts payable to himself in London, to his 
 bankers before they become due. By this means he 
 saves the trouble and inconvenience of counting sums 
 of money, and avoids the losses he would otherwise be 
 liable to, and would no doubt occasionally incur, from 
 receiving coins or notes not genuine. Perhaps, how- 
 ever, the great advantage derived by the merchant or 
 tradesman from the employment of a banker, consists 
 in its relieving him from all trouble with respect to 
 the presentation for payment of due-bills and drafts. 
 The moment these are transferred to the banker, they 
 are at his risk. And if he either neglect to present 
 them when due, or to have them properly noted in the 
 event of their not being paid, he is responsible for the 
 consequences. "This circumstance alone must cause 
 an immense saving of expense to a mercantile house 
 in the course of a year. Let us suppose that a mer- 
 chant has only two bills due each day. These bills 
 may be payable in distant parts of the town, so that 
 it may take a clerk half a day to present them ; and 
 in large mercantile establishments it would take up 
 the whole time of one or two clerks to present the due- 
 bills and the drafts. The salary of these clerks is, 
 therefore, saved by keeping an account at a banker's : 
 besides the saving of expense, it is also reasonable to 
 suppose that losses upon bills would sometimes occur 
 from mistakes or oversights ; from miscalculation as 
 to the time the bill would become due ; from errors in 
 marking it up; from forgetfulness to present it; or 
 from presenting it at the wrong place. In these cases 
 the indorsers and drawees are exonerated ; and if the 
 acceptor do not pay the bill, the amount is lost. In a 
 banking-house such mistakes occur sometimes, though 
 more rarely ; but when they do occur, the loss falls 
 upon the banker, and not upon his customer." — GiL- 
 baut's Practical Ohservatimis on Banking. 
 
 It is on other grounds particularly desirable for a 
 merchant or tradesman to have an account with a 
 banking-house. He can refer to his bankers as vouch- 
 ers for his respectability ; and in the event of his wish- 
 ing to acquire any information with respect to the cir- 
 cumstances or credit of any one with whom he is not 
 acquainted, his bankers render him all the assistance 
 in their power. In this respect they have great facil- 
 ities, it being the common practice among bankers in 
 London, and most other trading towns, to communi- 
 cate information to each other as to the credit and 
 solvency of their customers. 
 
 In Great Britain, to provide for the public security, 
 the statute 7 & 8 Geo. 4, c. 29, § 49, "for the punish- 
 ment of embezzlement committed by agents intrusted 
 with property," enacts, "That if any money, or se- 
 curity for the payment of money, shall be intrusted to 
 any banker, merchant, broker, attorney, or other agent, 
 with any direction in writing to apply such money, or 
 any part thereof, or the proceeds, or any pait of the 
 
 proceeds of such security, for any purpose specified in 
 such direction, and he shall, in violation of good faith, 
 and contrary to the purpose so specified, in any wise 
 convert to his own use or benefit such money, securi- 
 ty, or proceeds, or any part thereof respective!}', every 
 such offender shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and, 
 being convicted thereof, shall be liable, at the discre- 
 tion of the court, to be transported beyond seas, for 
 any term not exceeding fourteen years, nor less than 
 seven years, or to suffer such punishment by fine or 
 imprisonment, or by both, as the court shall award ; 
 and if any chattel or valuable security, or any power 
 of attorney for the sale or transfer of any share or in- 
 terest in any public stock or fund, whether of this 
 kingdom, or of Great Britain, or of Ireland, or of any 
 foreign State, or in any fund Of any body corporate, 
 company or society, shall be intrusted to any banker, 
 merchant, broker, attorney, or other agent, for safe 
 custody, or for any special purpose, without any author- 
 ity to sell, negotiate, transfer, or pledge, and he shall, 
 in violation of good faith, and contrary to the object 
 or purpose for which such chattel or security, or power 
 of attorney, shall have been intrusted to him, sell, ne- 
 gotiate, transfer, pledge, or in any manner convert to 
 his own use or benefit such chattel or security, or the 
 proceeds of the same, or any part thereof, or the share 
 or interest in stock or fund to which such power of at- 
 torney shall relate, or any part thereof, every such 
 offender shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and, being 
 convicted thereof, shall be liable, at the discretion of 
 the court, to any of the punishments which the court 
 may award, as hereinbefore last mentioned." 
 
 This act is not to affect trustees and mortgagees, 
 nor bankers rfeceiving money due upon securities, nor 
 securities upon which they have a lien, claim, or 
 demand, entitling them by law to sell, transfer, or 
 otherwise dispose of them, unless such sale, transfer, 
 or other disposal shall extend to a greater number or 
 part of such securities or effects than shall be requisite 
 for satisfying such lien, claim, etc. — § 50. 
 
 Nothing in this act is to prevent, impeach, or lessen 
 any remedy at law or in equity, which any party ag- 
 grieved by any such offense might or would have had 
 had it not been passed. No banker, merchant, etc., 
 shall be convicted as an offender against this act, in 
 respect of any act done by him, if he shall at any 
 time previously to his being indicted for such offense 
 have disclosed such act on oath, in consequence of 
 any compulsory process of £iny court of law or equity, 
 in any action 6ona_^rfe -instituted by any party ag- 
 grieved, or if he shall have disclosed the same in any 
 examination or deposition before any commissioner of 
 bankrupt. — § 52. Under the provisions of this act 
 the members of the firm of Strahan, Paul, and Bates, 
 bankers, London, were found guilty, and on the 27th 
 of October, 1855, were sentenced to transportation for 
 fourteen years. 
 
 The Bank of England, and the private banking com- 
 panies of London, as well as some of the English pro- 
 vincial banks, charge no commission on the payments 
 made and received on account of those who deal with 
 them. And until the recent introduction of joint- 
 stock hanks, none of the London bankers, except in 
 peculiar cases, allowed interest on deposits ; nor is it 
 3'et allowed by the great majority of the metropolitan 
 private bankers. It is also either stipulated or dis- 
 tinctly understood that a person employing a banker 
 should, besides furnishing him with sufficient funds to 
 pay his drafts, keep an average balance in the banker's 
 hands, varying, of course, according to the amount of 
 business done on his account ; that is, according to the 
 number of his checks or drafts to be paid, and the 
 number of drafts and bills to be received for him. The 
 bankers then calculate, as well as they can, the prob- 
 able amount of cash that it will be necessary*for them 
 to keep in their coffers to meet the ordinary demands 
 of their customers, and employ the balance in dis- 
 
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 •94 
 
 BAN 
 
 counting mercantile bills, in the purchase of securi- 
 ties, or in some other sort of profitable adventure ; so 
 that their profits consist of the sum they realize from 
 such part of the monej'S lodged in their hands as they 
 can venture to employ in an advantageous way, after 
 deducting the various expenses attendant on the man- 
 agement of their establishments. A bank of deposit 
 would never be established if it had io depend on its 
 own capital ; it makes no profit, in its capacity of bank, 
 till it begins to employ the capital of others. 
 
 The directors of the Bank of England do not allow 
 any individual to overdraw his account. They answer 
 drafts to the full extent of the funds deposited in their 
 hands ; but they will not pay a draft if it exceed their 
 amount. Private bankers are not generally so scrupu- 
 lous ; most of then* allow respectable individuals in 
 whom they have confidence to overdraw their accounts, 
 those who do so paying interest at the rate of 5 per 
 cent, on whatever sums they overdraw. The posses- 
 sion of this power of overdrawing is often a great con- 
 venience to merchants, while it is rarely productive of 
 loss to the banker. The money which is overdrawn is 
 usually replaced within a short period ; sometimes, in- 
 deed, in a day or two. The directors of the Bank of 
 England decline granting this facility, from a disin- 
 clination on their part to come into competition in a 
 matter of this sort with private bankers, who transact 
 this kind of business better, probably, than it could be 
 done by a great establishment like the Bank. 
 
 Banks afford great facilities to the public in the ne- 
 gotiation of bills of exchange, or in the making of pay- 
 ments at distant places. Many of the banking com- 
 panies established in different districts have a direct 
 intercourse with each other, and they have all corre- 
 spondents in London, Hence an individual residing 
 in any part of the country, who may wish to make a 
 payment in any other part, however distant, may effect 
 his object by applying to the bank nearest to him. 
 Thus, suppose A. of Penzance has a payment to make 
 to B. of Inverness : to transmit the money by letter 
 would be hazardous ; and if there were fractional parts 
 of a pound in the sum, it would hardly be practicable : 
 how then will A. manage ? He will pay the sum to a 
 banker in Penzance, and his creditor in Inverness will 
 receive it from a banker there. The transaction is ex- 
 tremely simple : the Penzance banker orders his corre- 
 spondent in London to pay to the correspondent of the 
 Inverness banker the sum in question on account of 
 B., and the Inverness banker, being advised in course 
 of post of what has been done, pays B. A small com- 
 mission charged by the Penzance banker, and the post- 
 ages, constitute the whole expense. There is no risk 
 whatever, and the whole affair is transacted in the 
 most commodious and cheapest manner. 
 
 By far the largest proportion both of the inland bills 
 in circulation in the country, and also of the foreign 
 bills drawn upon Great Britain, are made payable in 
 London, the grand focus to which all the pecuniary 
 transactions of the empire are ultimately brought to be 
 adjusted. And in order still further to economize the 
 use of money, the principal bankers of the metropolis 
 are in the habit of sending a clerk each day to the 
 clearing-house in Lombard Street, who carries with 
 him the various bills in the possession of his house that 
 are drawn upon other bankers ; and having exchanged 
 them for the bills in the possession of those others that 
 are drawn upon his constituertts, the balance on the 
 one side or the other is paid in cash or Bank of En- 
 gland notes. By this contrivance the bankers of Lon- 
 don are able to settle transactions to the extent of sev- 
 eral millions a day, by the employment of not more, at 
 an average, than from £200,000 to £300,000 of cash or 
 bank notes. — See Ci-eaeino-housk. 
 
 In consequence of these and other facilities afforded 
 by the ihtervention of bankers for the settlement of 
 pecuniary transactions, the money required to conduct 
 the business of an extensive country is reduced to a 
 
 trifle only, compared to what it would otherwise be. It 
 is not, indeed, possible to form any very accurate esti. 
 mate of the total saving that is thus eflected ; liut, sup- 
 posing that 50 or 60 millions of gold and silver and 
 bank-notes are at present required, notwithstanding 
 all the devices that have been resorted to for econo- 
 mieing money, for the circulation of Great Britain, it 
 may, one should think, be fairly concluded that 200 
 millions would, at the very least, be required to trans- 
 act an equal extent of business but for those devices. 
 If this statement be nearly accurate, and there are 
 good grounds for thinking that it is rather under than 
 overrated, it strikingly exhibits the vast importance 
 of banking in a public point of view. Bj- its means 
 50 or 60 millions are rendered capable of performing 
 the same functions, and in an infinitely more commo- 
 dious manner, that would otherwise have required 
 four times that sum ; and supposing that 20 or 30 mill- 
 ions are employed by the bankers as a capital in their 
 establishments, no less than 120 or 130 millions will 
 be altogether disengaged, or cease to be employed as 
 an instrument of circulation, and made available for 
 employment in agriculture, manufactures, and com- 
 merce. The security afforded by a bank of deposit is 
 a matter as to which there must always be more or 
 less of doubt. When, indeed, a banking company 
 confines itself to its proper business, and does not em- 
 bark in speculations of unusual hazard, or from which 
 its funds can not be easily withdrawn, in the event of 
 any sudden run or demand, it can hardly' ever fail of 
 being in a situation to meet its engagements ; while 
 the large private fortunes that most commonly belong 
 to the partners afford those who deal with it an addi- 
 tional guarantee. Much, however, depends on the 
 character of the parties, and on a variety of circum- 
 stances with respect to which the public can never be 
 correctly infonned ; so that though there can be no 
 doubt that the security afforded by many private 
 banks of deposit is of the most unquestionable descrip- 
 tion, this may not be the case with others. 
 
 All joint-stock banlts, or banks having more than six 
 partners, whether for deposit and issue, or for deposit 
 merely, are ordered, bj' the act 3 and 4 Will. 4, cap. 
 83, to send quarterly returns of the number and names 
 of their partners to the stamp-office. But this act does 
 not apply to private banks, or banks not having more 
 than six partners, though we see no good reason why 
 similar returns should not, and several why they 
 should, be required from them as well as from others. 
 At present few have any certain knowledge of the 
 partners in private banks. Individuals often appear 
 in the names of firms who have been dead for many 
 years ; and it has not unfrequently been found in cases 
 of bankruptcy that parties of large fortune, who were 
 supposed to have belonged to the concern, had with- 
 drawn long previously. All uncertainty and obscurity 
 of this kind might, however, be easily put an end to 
 by making periodical declarations of the names of the 
 partners ; and provided this were done, and the names 
 made sufficiently public, we doubt whether any other 
 step should be taken for interfering in any way with 
 banks of deposit. There is in this respect a wide dif- 
 ference between them and banks of issue. It is the 
 duty of the government to take care that the value of 
 the currency shall be as invariable as possible ; but it 
 has never been pretended that it is any part whatever 
 of its duty to inquire into the security given by the 
 bon-owers to the lenders of money, any more than into 
 the security given by the borrowers to the lenders of 
 any thing else. Government very properly obliges 
 a goldsmith to have his goods stamped, this being a 
 security to the public that they shall not be imposed 
 on in buying articles of tlie quality of which they are 
 generally ignorant ; but it does not require that the 
 persons to whom the goldsmith sells or lends his goods 
 should give him a guarantee for their payment. This 
 is a matter as to which individuals are fully competent 
 
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 to judge for themselves ; and there neither ie nor can 
 be any reason why a lender or depositor of bullion or 
 notes should be more protected than a lender or depos- 
 itor of timber, coal, or sugar. Gold being the stand- 
 ard or measure of value, government is bound to take 
 effectual precautions that the currency shall truly cor- 
 respond in the whole and in all its parts with that 
 standard — that every pound note shall be worth a sov- 
 ereign, and that the amount and value of the aggregate 
 notes in circulation shall vary exactly as a gold cur- 
 rency would do were it substituted in their stead. But 
 this is all that government is called upon to do. If 
 A. trust a sum of money in the liands of B., it is their 
 affair, and concerns no one else. Provided the money 
 afloat correspond with the standard, it is of no import- 
 ance, in a public point of view, into whose hands it 
 may come. The banliruptcy of a deposit bank, like 
 that of a private gentleman who has borrowed largely, 
 may be productive of much loss or inconvenience to its 
 creditors. But if the paper in circulation be equiva- 
 lent to gold, such bankruptcies can not affect either 
 the quantity or value of monej', and are therefore inju- 
 rious only to the parties concerned. 
 
 SubstUution of Notes for Coins — Banks of Issue — 
 Means by which the Value of Notes may be kept on a 
 Level with the Value of the Precious Metals. — ^Notwith- 
 standing tile precious metals are in man}' respects ad- 
 mirably fitted to serve as a medium of exchange (see.art. 
 Money), they have two verj' serious drawbacks — their 
 cost, and the difficulty and expense of can-ying them 
 from place to place. If the currency of Great Britain 
 consisted only of gold, it would amount to at least six- 
 ty millions of sovereigns ; and the expense attending 
 such a currency, allowing only \ per cent, for wear 
 and tear and loss of coins, could not be reckoned at less 
 than £3,250,000 a year. The weight of 1000 sover- 
 eigns exceeds 21 pounds Troy ; so that, were there no- 
 thing but coins m circulation, the conveyance of large 
 sums from place to place to discharge accounts would 
 be a very laborious process, and even small sums could 
 not be conveyed without considerable difliculty. Hence 
 it is that most commercial and civilized nations have 
 fabricated a portion o£ their money of less costly and 
 heavy materials, and resorted to various devices for 
 economizing the use of coin. Of the substitutes for the 
 latter hitherto suggested, paper is in all respects the 
 most eligible. When governments are sufficiently 
 powerful and intelligent to enforce the observance of 
 contracts, individuals possessed of written promises 
 from others that they will pay certain sums at speci- 
 fied periods begin to assign them to those to whom 
 they are indebted ; and when those by whom such ob- 
 ligations are subscribed are persons of whose solvency 
 no doubt can be 'entertained, they are readilj' accepted 
 in payment of the debts due by one individual to an- 
 other. But when the circulation of obligations or bills 
 in this way has continued for a while, individuals begin 
 to perceive that they may derive a profit by issuing 
 them in such a form as to fit them for being readily 
 used as a substitute for money in the ordinary trans- 
 actions of life. Hence the origin of bank-notes, or 
 paper money. An individual in whose wealth and 
 discretion the public have confidence being applied 
 to for a loan, say of iSOOO, grants the applicant his 
 bill or note payable on demand , for that sum, on 
 Ills receiving adequate security for its repayment 
 with interest. Now, as this note passes, in conse- 
 quence of the confidence placed in the issuer, cur- 
 rently from hand to hand as cash, it is quite as useful 
 to the borrower as if he had obtained an equivalent 
 amount of gold ; and supposing that the rate of inter- 
 est is 4 per cent., it will yield, so long as it continues 
 to circulate, a revenue of £200 a year to the issuer. A 
 sense of the advantages that might, in this way, be 
 derived from tlie circulation of bills or notes, led to the 
 formation of banks for their regular issue. Those who 
 issue such notes coin, as it were, their credit, They 
 
 derive the same revenue from the loan of their written 
 promises to pay certain sums that they would derive 
 from the loan of the sums themselves ; and wliile they 
 thus increase their own income, they at the same time 
 contribute to increase the wealth of society. Besides 
 being incomparably cheaper, bank-notes are also in- 
 comparably more commodious than a metallic curren- 
 cy. A bank-note for £1000 or £100,000 may be carried 
 about with as much facility as a single sovereign. It 
 is of importance, too, to observe, that its loss or de- 
 struction, whether by fire, shipwreck, or otherwise, 
 would be of no greater importance, in a public point of 
 view, than the loss or destruction of as much paper. 
 No doubt it might be a serious calamity to the holder ; 
 but to whatever extent it injured him, it would pro- 
 portionally benefit the issuer, whereas the loss of coin is 
 an injury to the holder without being of service to any 
 one else ; it is, in fact, so much abstracted from the 
 wealth of the community. 
 
 To obviate the endless inconveniences that would 
 arise from the circulation of coins of every weight and 
 degree of purity, were there no restrictions on their is- 
 sue, all governments have forbidden the circulation of 
 coins except they, be of a certain specified or standard 
 weight and fineness. And the recurrence of similar in- 
 conveniences from the issue of notes for varying sums, 
 and payable under varying conditions, has led, in all 
 countries in which paper money is made use of, to the 
 enacting of regulations forbidding the issue of notes 
 below a certain amount, and laying down rules for 
 their payment. In England at this moment no note 
 payable to bearer on demand can be issued for less 
 than five pounds, and they must all be paid the mo- 
 ment tliey are presented. In Scotland and Ireland 
 the minimum value of bank-notes is fixed at one pound, 
 the regulations as to payment being the same as in En- 
 gland. In order to preserve monopoly of the London 
 circulation to the Bank of England, no notes payable to 
 bearer on demand are allowed to be issued by individ- 
 uals or associations, other than the Bank of England, 
 within sixty-five miles of St. Paul's. But beyond 
 these limits every one who complies with the above 
 regulations as to the minimum amount of notes, and 
 who promises to pay them on demand, maj', on pay- 
 ing the stamp-duty, and making returns of the issues 
 to the stamp-office, circulate any amount of notes he 
 can succeed in getting the public to take ofl'. 
 
 But though the condition that they shall be paid on 
 demand, and the belief that this condition will be com- 
 plied with, be necessary to sustain the value of notes 
 issued by private parties or associations, it is not nec- 
 essary to sustain the value of paper money, properly 
 so called, or of notes which have been made legal tender. 
 The only thing required to sustain the value of the lat- 
 ter description of currency is, that it should be issued 
 in limited quantities. Every country has a certain num- 
 ber of exchanges to make ; and whether these are effect- 
 ed by the employment of a given number of coins of a 
 particular denomination, or by the employment of the 
 same number of notes of the same denomination, is, in 
 this respect, of no importance whatever. Notes which 
 have been made legal tender, and are not payable on de- 
 mand, do not circulate because of any confidence placed 
 in the capacity of the issuers to retire them ; neither 
 do they circulate because thej' are of the same real val- 
 ue as the commodities for which they are exchanged ; 
 but they circulate because, having been selected to 
 perfonn the functions of money, they are, as such, read- 
 ily received by all individuals in payment of their 
 debts. Notes of this description may be regarded as a 
 sort of tickets or counters -to be used in computing the 
 value of property, and in transferring it from one indi- 
 vidual to another. And as they are nowise affected by 
 fluctuations of credit, their value, it is obvious, must 
 depend entirely on the quantity of them in circulation 
 as compared with the payments to be made through 
 their instrumentality, or the business they have to per- 
 
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 96 
 
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 form. By reducing the supply of notes below the sup- 
 ply of coins that would circulate in their place were they 
 withdrawn, their value may be raised above the value 
 of gold ; while, by increasing them to a greater extent, 
 it is proportionally lowered. Hence, supposing it were 
 possible to obtain any security, other than immediate 
 convertibility into the precious metals, that notes de- 
 clared to be legal tender would not be issued in excess, 
 but that their number afloat would be so adjusted as to 
 preserve their value as compared with gold nearlj' uni- 
 form, the obligation to pay them on demand might be 
 dispensed with. But it is needless to say that no such 
 security can be obtained. Wherever the power to issue 
 paper, not immediately convertible, has been conceded 
 to any set of persons, it has been abused ; or, which is 
 the same thing, such paper has uniformly been over- 
 issued, and its value depreciated from excess. And it 
 is now admitted on all hands to be quite indispensable, 
 for the prevention of injurious fluctuations in the val- 
 ue of money, that all notes be made payable, at the 
 pleasure of the holder, in an unvarying quantity of 
 gold or silver. 
 
 But though such be the law in this and most other 
 countries, it is, we are sorry to say, operative only on 
 the richest, most cautious, and respectable bankers, 
 and is found to afford no real security against the 
 roguery and misconduct of others. This security is, 
 however, the more indispensable, seeing that the issue 
 of notes is, of ^11 businesses, that which seems to hold 
 out the greatest prospect of success to the schemes of 
 those who attempt to get rich by preying on the pub- 
 lic. The circumstances that excite the public confi- 
 dence in the first instance, and that afterward keep it 
 up, are often of the most treacherous description. The 
 cost of engraving and issuing notes is also but an in- 
 considerable item, compared with the sums for which 
 they are issued, and provided they be got into any 
 thing like extensive circulation, they become at once 
 considerably productive. They arc seldom issued ex- 
 cept on the deposit of bills or other securities yielding 
 a considerable rate of interest ; so that if an individual, 
 or set of individuals, with little or no capital, contrive, 
 by fair appearances, promises, and similar devices, to 
 insinuate himself or themselves into the public confi- 
 dence, and can maintain £20,000, £50,000, or £100,000 
 in circulation, he or they secure a good income in the 
 mean time ; and when the bubble bursts, and the im- 
 posture is detected, they are no worse off than when 
 they set up their bank. On the contrary, the presump- 
 tion is that they are a great deal better off; and that 
 they have taken care to provide, at the cost of the cred- 
 ulous and deceived public, a reserve stock for their fu- 
 ture maintenance. Hence, seeing the facilities for com- 
 mitting fraud are so very great, the propriety, or rather 
 necessity, of providing against them. 
 
 It must not be imagined that this is mere hypothet- 
 ical reasoning. On the contrary, as every body knows, 
 innumerable instances have occurred of the population 
 of extensive districts having suffered severely from the 
 insolvency of bankers in whom they placed the utmost 
 confidence. In 1793, 1814-16, and 1825-26, a very large 
 proportion of the JBritish banks stopped payments, 
 and produced by their fall an extent of bankruptcy and 
 ruin that has seldom been equaled elsewhere. But 
 when such gigantic disasters had already happened, 
 and were on the eve of again happening in 1837-38, it 
 became the bounden duty of government to hinder, by 
 every means in its power, their recurrence. It is no 
 exaggeration to affirm that England has sustained 
 a thousand times more injury from the circulation of 
 worthless paper, or paper- issued by persons without 
 the means of retiring it, than from the issue of spuri- 
 ous coin. 
 
 It has been supposed that the objections to the issue 
 of notes because of the risk of non-payment might be 
 obviated, were they issued only by associations or 
 joiut-.stock companies. But there is no real founda- 
 
 tion for any such supposition. There can not, in fact, 
 be a greater error than to suppose that because a bank 
 has a considerable number of partners it will necessa- 
 rily be either rich or well managed. It may be neither 
 the one nor the other. A single individual may pos- 
 sess more wealth than a number of individuals associa- 
 ted together ; and the chances are that, if he engage in 
 banking or any other business, it will be better man- 
 aged than by a company. Under the present system 
 (and it can not be prevented under any system), the 
 partners in joint-stock banks, as in others, may be men 
 of straw, or persons without property, and unable to 
 fulfill their engagements. It is of the essence of a se- 
 cure and well-established paper currency that the notes 
 of which it consists should be of the exact value of the 
 gold or silver they profess to represent, and that, con- 
 sequently, they should be paid the moment they are 
 presented. But it is not enough to order that this con- 
 dition shall be uniformly complied with. Such order 
 is obeyed only by the opulent, prudent, and conscien- 
 tious banker, and forms little or no check on the pro- 
 ceedings of those of a contrary character. It is the lat- 
 ter class, however, that it is especially necessary to 
 look after ; and it is needless to say that any system 
 that permits notes to be issued without let or hinder- 
 ance by speculative, ignorant, or unprincipled adven- 
 turers, must be essentially vicious. 
 
 It has sometimes been contended, in vindication of 
 the plan of allowing any individual, or set of individ- 
 uals, how bankrupt soever in fortune and character, to 
 issue notes without check or limitation of any kind other 
 than the promise to pay them on demand, that they are 
 essentiaAly private paper ; that their acceptance in pay- 
 ment is optional ; and that, as they may be rejected by 
 every one who either suspects or dislikes them, there 
 is no room or ground for interfering with their issue ! 
 But every body knows that, whatever notes may be in 
 law, they are in most parts of the country practically 
 and in fact legal tender. The bulk of the people are 
 totally without power to refuse them. The currency 
 of many extensive districts consists in great part of 
 coimtry notes, and such small farmers or tradesmen as 
 should decline taking,them would be exposed to the 
 greatest inconveniences. Every one makes use of or 
 is a dealer in money. It is not employed by men of 
 business only, but by persons living on fixed incomes ; 
 by women, laborers, minors ; in short, by every class 
 of individuals, very many of whom are necessarily, 
 from their situation in life, quite unable to form any 
 estimate of the solidity of the different banks whose 
 paper is in circulation. Such parties are uniformly 
 severe sufferers by the failure of banks. The paper 
 that comes into their hands is a part of the currency or 
 money of the country ; and it is quite as much the 
 duty of government to take measures that this paper 
 shall be truly and substantially what it professes to be, 
 as that it should take measures to prevent the issue of 
 spurious coins or the use of false or deficient weights 
 and measures. 
 
 The fact is, that the paper currency of a country 
 can not be on a perfectly Bound footing until the issue 
 of notes, whether by joint-stock banks or private in- 
 dividuals, be suppressed. It has been proposed, to 
 obviate any recurrence of the wide-spread ruin that 
 has so frequently resulted from the bankruptcy of 
 banks of issue, to compel them to give security for 
 the payment of their notes ; and the adoption of such 
 a regulation would, no doubt, have been a vast im- 
 provement on the late system. But though the ex- 
 acting of security would have materially mitigated, it 
 would not have eradicated the vices of a system which 
 allowed banks to be established at the pleasure of in- 
 dividuals. A paper currency is not in a sound or 
 wholesome state, unless, 1st, means be taken to insure 
 that each particular note or parcel of such currency 
 be paid immediately on demand ; and unless, 2d, tile 
 whole currency vary in amount and value exactly as a 
 
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 97 
 
 BAN 
 
 metallic currency would do were the paper curremcy with- 
 drawn and coins substituted in its stead. The last con- 
 dition is quite as Indispensable to the existence of a 
 well-established currency as the former ; and it is one 
 that can not be fully realized otherwise than by con- 
 fining the issue of paper to a single source. 
 
 It is exceedingly difficult to prevent the issue of 
 forged notes. Various schemes have been suggested 
 for this purpose ; and though it be hardly ppssible to 
 suppose that an inimitable note will ever be produced, 
 it is contended that by judiciously combining different 
 sorts of engraving, forgery may be rendered so diffi- 
 cult as to be but rarely attempted. But however this 
 may be, during the period from 1797 to 1819, when 
 the Bank of England issued £1 notes, their forgery 
 was carried on to a great extent. And the desire to 
 check this practice, and to lessen the frequency of cap- 
 ital punishments, appears to have been among the 
 most prominent circumstances which led to the return 
 to specie payments in 1821, and the suppression of £\ 
 notes. 
 
 Bank of England Notes legal tender. — ^According to 
 the law as it stood previously to 1834, all descriptions 
 of notes were legally payable at the pleasure of the 
 holder in coin of the standard weight and purity. But 
 the policy of such a regulation was very questionable ; 
 and we regard the enactment of the stat. 3 & 4 Will. 
 4, c. 98, which makes Bank of England notes legal 
 tender, every where except at the Bank and its 
 branches, for all sums above £6, as a great improve- 
 ment. The unjust liabilities imposed upon the Bank 
 of England by the old system placed her in a situation 
 of great difficulty and hazard. They obliged her to 
 provide a supply of coin and bullion, not for her own 
 exigencies only, but for those of all the countiy banks ; 
 and, what is harder still, they exposed her to be deeply 
 injured by any misconduct on the part of the latter, as 
 well as by the distress in which they might accident- 
 ally be involved. In consequence, her free action was 
 at all times in some degree impeded; and her power 
 to render assistance to the banking and mercantile in- 
 terests in periods of discredit materially diminished. 
 The country banlcs kept but a small supply of coin in 
 their coffers. They were all, however, holders, to a 
 greater or less extent, of government securities ; and 
 whenever any circumstance occurred to occasion a de- 
 mand upon them for coin, they immediately sold or 
 pledged the whole or a portion of their stock, carried 
 the notes to the Bank to be exchanged, and then car- 
 ried the specie to the country. Hence, when any sus- 
 picions were entertained of the credit of the country 
 banks, or when a panic originated among the holders 
 of their notes, as was the case in 1793 and 1825, the 
 whole of them retreated upon the Bank of England, 
 and 700 or 800 conduits were opened, to draw off the 
 specie of that establishment, which was thus, it is evi- 
 dent, exposed to the risk of stoppage without having 
 done any thing wrong. It was not the drain for gold 
 from abroad, but the drain for gold from the country, 
 that nearly exhausted the Bank's coffers in 1825, and 
 forced her to issue about a million of £1 and £2 notes. 
 The currency could not be in a sound, healthy state, 
 while the Bank of England, and, through her, public 
 credit, were placed in so perilous a situation. But 
 the making of Bank of England notes legal tender at 
 all places except the Bank, has tended materially to 
 protect her from the injurious consequences of panics 
 or runs among the holders of country bank paper ; and 
 while it does this, it has not, it appears to us, any 
 wise impaired the securities against overissue or de- 
 preciation. 
 
 It has, no doubt, been contended that the measure 
 now referred to might lead to the depreciation of pro- 
 vincial paper; inasmuch as the expense of sending 
 notes from a distance to London, to be exchanged for 
 gold, would prevent any one from demanding Bank 
 of England notes from country banks in good credit, 
 G 
 
 till the value of the notes issued by them was so much 
 depreciated below the value of gold that the difference 
 would more than pay the expense of sending them to 
 London, and bringing gold back. There can not, how- 
 ever, be the least difference, as respects value, in the 
 provinces, between Bank of England paper, now that 
 it is legal tender, and gold. London being the place 
 where the exchanges are adjusted, the value of moner 
 in every part of the empire must depend on its value 
 in it ; and this, it is plain, is not in any degree affected 
 by the measure under consideration. Formerly the 
 provincial currency, gold as well as paper, might be, 
 and indeed frequently was, depreciated. This was 
 brought about either by an overissue on the part of 
 the country banks, generally in the first instance the 
 effect, but always in the end the cause, of a rise of 
 prices ; or by the issues of the Bank of England being, 
 inconsequence of an adverse exchange, narrowed soon- 
 er or more rapidly than those of the country banks. 
 In either case, the provincial currency being redun- 
 dant as compared with that of the metropolis, there was 
 a demand on its issuers for bills on London ; but it is 
 material to observe that, unless their credit was sus- 
 pected, there was not, in such cases, any demand upon 
 them for gold. It is, indeed, obvious that a redun- 
 dancy of the currency is a defect that can not be ob- 
 viated by getting gold from the countiy banks, unless 
 (as hoarding is out of the question) it be intended to 
 send it abroad; and that may always be done better 
 and cheaper by getting from them Bank of England 
 notes; or bills on London. A local redundancy of the 
 currency may take place now as it has done formerly ; 
 and its occurrence can not be prevented, even though 
 paper were wholly banished from cii-culation, so long 
 as the whole currency is not supplied from one source, 
 and as London is the focus where the exchanges with 
 foreign countries are adjusted. But the statements 
 now made show that it is a radical mistake to suppose 
 that it can take place more readily, or to a greater ex. 
 tent, under the present system than formerly. In this 
 respect no change was made in 1834. And while the 
 ancient security against overissue was maintained un- 
 impaired, the arrangements then made increased the 
 stability of the Bank of England, and consequently im- 
 proved the pecuniary system of the country. 
 
 If any doubt could possibly remain as to the opera- 
 tion of this system, it would.be removed by referring 
 to Scotland. Gold has been practicajiy banished from 
 that country for a long series of years ; and yet no one 
 pretends to say that prices are higher in Scotland than 
 in England, or that her currency is depreciated. The 
 Scotch currency is kept at its proper level, not by the 
 check of gold payments, but by the demand for bills 
 on London ; and it is as effectually limited in this way 
 as it would be were the banks universally in the habit 
 of exchanging notes for gold. On what grounds, then, 
 is it to be apprehended that the obligation to give Bank 
 of England notes or bills on London will be less effect- 
 ual in restraining overissue in Yorkshire or Durham 
 than in Scotland ? A banker who issues notes must 
 keep beside him such a stock of cash and bullion as 
 may be sufficient to answer the demands of the public 
 for their payment. If the value of the cash and bul- 
 lion in his coffers were equal to the value of his notes 
 in circulation, he would not, it is plain, make any 
 profit ; but if he be in good credit, a third, a fourth, or 
 even a fifth part of this sum will probably be suffi- 
 cient ; and his profit consists of the excess of the in- 
 terest derived from his notes in circulation over the in- 
 terest of the sum he is obliged to keep dormant in his 
 strong-box, and the expenses of managing his estab- 
 lishment. The Bank of England, as will be afterward 
 seen, keeps an average stock of coin and bullion equal 
 to a third of her liabilities. 
 
 No particular form of words is necessary in a bank- 
 note. The essential requisites are, that it should be 
 for a definite sum (in England and Wales not less than 
 
BAN 
 
 98 
 
 BAN 
 
 £5, and in Sootland and Ireland not less than £1), that 
 it should be payable to bearer on demand, and that it 
 should be properly stamped. Promissory notes, though 
 issued by bankers, if not payable to bearer on demand, 
 do not come under the denomination of bank-notes ; 
 they are not, like the latter, taken as cash in all or- 
 dinary transactions ; nor ai'e they, like them, assign- 
 able by mere delivery. 
 
 The circulation of notes for less than £5 was re- 
 strained by law (stat. 15 Geo. 3, c. 51) from 1766 to 
 1797. In 1808, it was enacted by stat. 48 Geo. 3, c. 
 88, that all bank-notes, promissory notes, or other ne- 
 gotiable instruments for less than 20s., should be abso- 
 lutely void : a penalty of from 20s. to £6, at the dis- 
 cretion of the justices, being imposed on their issuers. 
 It was enacted by the 7 Geo. 4, c. 6, that the issue of 
 all bank-notes or promissory notes for less than £6 by 
 thfe Bank of England, or by any licensed English bank- 
 ers, and stamped on the 5th of February, 1826, or 
 previously (after which period such notes were not 
 stamped), should terminate on the 5th of AprU, 1829. 
 By the 9 Geo. 4, c. 23, English bankers not in the 
 city of London, or within three miles thereof, are au- 
 thorized to issue promissory notes, and to draw and 
 issue bills of exchange, on unstamped paper, for any 
 sum of £5 or upward, "expressed to be payable to the 
 bearer on demand, or to order, at any period not ex- 
 ceeding 7 days after sight (bills may also be drawn at 
 any period not exceeding 21 days after date), upon 
 obtaining licenses, costing £30, to that effect; pro- 
 vided such bills of exchange be drawn upon bankers 
 in London, Westminster, or Southwark ; or provided 
 such bills be drawn by any banker or bankers at the 
 place where he or they shall be licensed to issue un- 
 stamped notes and bills, upon himself or themselves, 
 or his or their copartner or copartners, payable at any 
 other place where such banker or bankers shall be 
 licensed to issue such notes and bills. Bankers hav- 
 ing such licenses are to give .security, by bond, that 
 they will keep a true account of all promissory notes 
 and bills so issued, and account for the duties on them 
 at the rate of 3s. 6d. for every XlOO, and also for the 
 fractional parts of £100 of the average value of such 
 notes and bills in circulation. Persons posi>dating 
 unstamped notes or bills shall, for every such offense, 
 forfeit £100. 
 
 Legal Effect of the Payment of Jianh-notes, — ^Notes 
 of the Bank of Jngland were not, previously to the 
 act 3 & 4 Will. 4, c. 98, like bills of exchange, mere 
 seciirities, or documents of debt, but were treated as 
 money or cash in the ordinary course or transactions 
 of biisiness ; the receipts given upon their payment 
 being always given as for money. Now, however, 
 they are legal tender, every where except at tlie Bank, 
 for all sums above £5. AH notes payable to bearer 
 are assignable by delivery. The holder of a bank- 
 note is prima facie entitled to its prompt payment, and 
 can not be affected by the previous fraud of any for- 
 mer holder in obtaining it, unless evidence be given to 
 show that he was privy to such fraud. Such privity 
 may, however, be inferred from the circumstances of 
 the case. To use the words of Lord Tenterden, " If a 
 person take a bill, note, or any other kind of security, 
 under circumstances which oucjiht to excite suspicion in 
 the mind of any reasonable man acquainted with the 
 ordinary affairs of life, and which ought to put him on 
 his guard to make the necessary inquiries, and he do 
 not, then he loses the right of maintaining possession 
 of the instrument against the lawful owner." — Guild- 
 hall, 25th October, 1826. 
 
 Country bank-notes are usually received as cash. 
 But though taken as such, if they be presented in due 
 time and not paid, they do not amount to a payment, 
 and the deliverer of the notes is still liable to the 
 Jioider. It is not easy to determine what is a due or 
 reasonable time, inasmuch as it must depend in a great 
 measure on the circumstances of each particular case. 
 
 On the whole, the safest rule seems to be to present 
 all notes or drafts payable on demand, if received in 
 the place where they are payable, on the day on which 
 they are received, or as soon after as possible. When 
 they have to be transmitted by post for payment, no 
 unnecessary delay should be allowed to intervene. — 
 Chitty's Commercial Law, vol. iii. p. 590 ; and the 
 art. Check in this work. 
 
 Bistinction between Bank-notes and SUU of Exchange. 
 — It is common with those who object to any restric- 
 tions being laid on the issue of bank-notes to represent 
 them as substantially identical with ordinary bills of 
 exchange, and to contend that if it would be impru" 
 dent or impracticable to interfere with the issue of the 
 latter, the issue of the former should also be left to the 
 discretion of the parties. The cases, however, are not 
 parallel. It is true that bills of exchange perform in 
 some respects the functions of money; and, being 
 transferred from one individual to another, make pay- 
 ments much in the same way as if they were bank 
 notes. But though there are, no doubt, certain points 
 in which bills of exchange and bank-notes closely re- 
 semble each other, there are others, and those too of 
 the greatest importance, in which there is a distinct 
 and material difference between them. Bank-notes 
 are issued only by parties licensed for the purpose, or 
 by bankers ; they are uniformly payable on demand, 
 or when presented ; they are not indorsed by the holder 
 on his paying them away ; the party receiving has no 
 claim on the party from whom he received them in the 
 event of the failure of the issuers ; and every one is 
 thus encouraged, reckoning on the facility of passing ' 
 them to others, to accept bank-notes, *' even though 
 he should doubt the ultimate solvency of the issuers.'* 
 Thornton on Paper Credit, p. 172. Bills, on the 
 contrary, may be drawn by all individuals ; they are 
 mostly all made payable at some distant period ; and 
 those into whose hands they come, if they be not in 
 want of money, prefer retaining them in their posses- 
 sion, in order that they may get the interest accruing 
 upon them. But the principal distinction between 
 notes and bills is, that tlie latter are not assignable by 
 mere delivery, but that every individual, in passing a 
 bill to another, has to indorse it, and by doing so makes 
 himself responsible for its payment. "A bill circu- 
 lates," says Mr. Thornton, *'in consequence cliiefiy 
 of the confidence placed by each receiver of it in the 
 last indorser, his own correspondent in trade ; whereas 
 the circulation of a bank-note is owing rather to the 
 circumstance of the name of the issuer being so well 
 known as to give it a universal credit." — P. 40. No- 
 thing, then, can be more inaccurate than to represent 
 bills and notes in the same point of view. If A. pay 
 to B. £100 in satisfaction of a debt, there is an end of 
 the transaction ; but if A. pay to B. a bill of exchange 
 for £100, the transaction is not completed ; and, in the' 
 event of the bill not being paid by the person on whom 
 it is drawn, B. will have recourse upon A. for its value. 
 It is clear, therefore, that a great deal more considera- 
 tion is always required, and may be fairly presumed 
 to be given, before any one accepts a bill of exchange 
 in payment, than before he accepts a bank-note. The 
 note is payable on the instant, without deduction — ^the 
 bill not until some future period; the note may be 
 passed to another without incurring any risk or respons- 
 ibility, whereas every fresh issuer of the bill makes 
 himself responsible for its value. Notes form the cur- 
 rency of all classes, not only of those who are, but also 
 of those who are not engaged in business, very many 
 of whom are, as already «een, without the power tore- 
 fuse them, and without the means of forming any cor- 
 rect conclusion as to the solvency of the issuers. Bills, 
 on the other hand, pass only, with very few excep- 
 tions, among persons engaged in business, who, being 
 fully aware of the risk they run in taking them, reject 
 such as they apprehend might involve them in loss. 
 There is plainly, therefore, a wide and obvious distinc- 
 
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 99 
 
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 Hon between the two species of currency ; and it wonld 
 be ridiculous to argue tliat because government is 
 bound to interfere to regulate the issue of the one, it 
 sliould also regulate fbe issue of the other. 
 
 II. ACCODNT OF THE BANK OF ENGLAND. — This 
 
 great establishment, which has Jong been the principal 
 bank of deposit and circulation, not in that country 
 only, but in Europe, was founded in 1694. Its princi- 
 pal projector was Mr. William Paterson, an enterprising 
 and intelligent Scotch gentleman, who was afterward 
 engaged in the ill-fated colony at Darien. Govern- 
 ment being at the time much distressed for want of 
 monej', partly from the defects and abuses in the sys- 
 tem of taxation, and partly from the difficulty of bor- 
 rowing, because of the supposed instability of the revo- 
 lutionary establishment, the bank grew out of a loan 
 of £1,200,000 for the public service. The subscribers, 
 besides receiving eight per cent, on the sum advanced 
 as interest, and £4000 a year as the expense of manage- 
 ment, in all £100,000 a year, were incorporated into a 
 society denominated the Governor and Company of the 
 Bank of England. The charter is dated the 27th of 
 July, 1694. It declares, among other things, that they 
 shall " be capable in law to purchase, enjoy, and re- 
 tain to them and their successors, any manors, lands, 
 rents, tenements, and possessions whatsoever ; and to 
 purchase and acquire all sorts of goods and chattels 
 whatsoever, wherein they are not restrained by act of 
 Parliament ; and also to grant, demise, and dispose of 
 the same. 
 
 "That the management and government of the cor- 
 poration be committed to the governor, deputy gov- 
 ernor, and twenty-four directors, who shall be elected 
 between the 25th day of March and 25th day of April, 
 each year, from among the members of the company, 
 duly qualified. That no dividend shall at any time be 
 made by the said governor and company, save only 
 out of the interest, profit, or produce arising by or out 
 of the said capit4 stock or fund, or by such dealing as 
 is allowed by act of Parliament. Th^ must be natu- 
 ral-born subjects of England, or naturalized subjects ; 
 they shall have in their own name and for their own 
 use, severally, viz. : the governor at least £4000, the 
 deputy governor £3000, and each director £2000 of the 
 capital stock of tie said corporation. That thirteen or 
 more of the said governors and directors (of which the 
 governor or deputy governor must be always one) shall 
 constitute a court of directors, for the management of 
 the affairs of the company, and for the appointment of 
 all agents and servants which may be necessary, pay- 
 ing them such salaries as they may consider reason- 
 able. Every elector must have in his own name and 
 for his own use, £500 or, more capital stock, and can 
 only give one vote. He must, if required by any 
 member present, take the oath of stock ; or the decla- 
 ration of stock, in case he be one of the people called 
 (Quakers. Pour general courts to be held In every 
 year ; in the months of September, December, April, 
 and July. A general court may be summoned at any 
 time, upon the requisition of nine proprietors, duly 
 qualified as electors. The majority of electors in gen- 
 eral courts have the power to make and constitute by- 
 laws and ordinances for the government of the corpora- 
 tion, provided that such by-laws and ordinances be not 
 repugnant to the laws of the kingdom, and be con- 
 firmed and approved, according to the statutes in such 
 case made and provided." The corporation is pro- 
 hibited from engaging in any sort of commercial un- 
 dertaking other than dealing in bills of exchange, and 
 in gold and silver. It is authorized to advance money 
 upon the security of goods or merchandise pledged to 
 it ; and to sell by public auction such goods as are not 
 redeemed within a specified time. 
 
 It was also enacted in the same year in which the 
 Bank was established, by statute 6 William and Mary, 
 c. 20, that the Bank "shall not deal in any goods, 
 wares, or merchandise (except bullion), or purchase 
 
 any lands or revenues belonging to the crown, or ad- 
 vance or lend to their majesties, their heirs or succes- 
 sors, any sum or sums of money by way of loan or an- 
 ticipation, or any part or parts, branch or branches, 
 fund or funds of the revenue, now granted or belong- 
 ing, or hereafter to be granted to their majesties, their 
 heirs and successors, other than such fund or funds, 
 part or parts, branch or branches of the said revenue 
 only, on which a credit of loan is or shall be granted 
 by Parliament." And in 1697 it was enacted that the 
 "common capital and principal stock, and also the 
 real fund of the governor and company, or any profit 
 or produce to be made thereof, or arising thereby, shall 
 be exempted from any rates, taxes, assessments, or 
 impositions whatsoever, during the continuance of the 
 Bank ; and that all the profit, benefit, and advantage, 
 from time to time arising out of the management of 
 the said corporation, shall be applied to the uses of all 
 the members of the said corporation of the Governor 
 and Company of the Bank of England, ratably and 
 in proportion to each member's part, share, and inter- 
 est in the common capital and principal stock of the 
 said governor and company hereby established." It 
 was further enacted, in 1697, that the forgery of the 
 company's seal, or of any sealed bill or bank-note, 
 should be felony without benefit of clergy, and that 
 the making of any alteration or erasure in any bill or 
 note should also be felony. 
 
 In 1696, during the great recoinage, the Bank was 
 involved in considerable difiioulties, and was even 
 compelled to suspend payment of her notes, which 
 were at a heavy discount. Owing, however, to the 
 judicious conduct of the directors, and- the assistance 
 of government, the Bank got over the crisis. But it 
 was at the same time judged expedient, in order to 
 place her in a situation the better to withstand any 
 adverse circumstances that might afterward occur, to 
 increase her capital from £1,200,000 to £2,201,171. 
 In 1708, the directors undertook to pay off and cancel 
 one million and a half of Exchequer bills they had 
 circulated two years before, at 4J per cent., with the 
 interest on them, amounting in all to £1,775,028 ; 
 which increased the permanent debt due by the public 
 to the Bank, including £400,000 then advanced in con- 
 sideration of the renewal of the charter, to £3,375,028, 
 for which they were allowed 6 per cent. The Bank 
 capital was then also doubled or increased to £4, 402, 343. 
 But the year 1708 is chiefly memorable, in the history 
 of the Bank, for the act that was then passed, which 
 declared that, during the continuance of the corpora- 
 tion of the Bank of England, " it should not be lawful 
 for any body politic, erected or to be erected, other 
 than the said Governor and Company of the Bank of 
 England, or for any persons whatsoever, united or to 
 be united in covenants or partnership, exceeding the 
 number of six persons, in that part of Great Britain 
 called England, to borrow, owe, or take up any sum 
 or sums of money on their bills or notes payable on de- 
 mand, or in any less time than six months from the 
 borrowing thereof." This proviso, which has had so 
 powerful an operation on banking in England, is said 
 to have been elicited by the Mine-adventure Company 
 having commenced banking business, and begun to 
 issue notes. 
 
 It has been pretty generally imagined, from the 
 private banking companies in the metropolis not issu- 
 ing notes, that they were legally incapacitated from 
 doing so. But the clause in the act of 1708, which 
 has been the only restriction on the issue of notes, ap- 
 plied generally to all England, and had no peculiar 
 reference to London. The fact that banks with six or 
 fewer partners have not issued notes in the metropolis, 
 as well as in the provinces, is, therefore, ascribable 
 either to their being aware that their notes would ob- 
 tain no considerable circulation concurrently with those 
 of a great association like the Bank of England, or from 
 their believing that their issue would not be profitable. 
 
BAN 
 
 100 
 
 BAN 
 
 As AOCOTOT Of THE BUCOESSrST! RENEWAIS OF THE CDABTEK, OF THE CONDITIONS CNDEK -ft-UIOU THESE RENEWALS WEEE 
 MADE, AND OF THE VaEIATIONS IN THE AMOUNT AND InTEEEST OP TUE PeEMANENT DEBT DUE BY CoVEr.N.MEST TO THE 
 
 Bank, exclusive of the Dead Weight. 
 
 ICOT. 
 
 170S. 
 
 1T42. 
 
 1764. 
 
 1781. 
 
 ISOO. 
 
 1844 
 
 CondilionB under whicli Renewals were made, and Permanent Debt contraeled. 
 
 Charter granted under the act 5 & 6 Will. S, c. 20, redeemable upon the expiration of 13 
 month? notice after the Ist of August, 1705, upon payment by the public to the Bank of 
 the demands therein specified. „. „„„ ^^^ . -j i- c ^.-u • 
 
 Under this act the Bank advanced to the public £1,200,000, m consideration of their 
 receiving an annuity of £100,000 a year, viz. 8 per cent, interest, and £4000 for manage- 
 
 ment . 
 
 Charier contiiiuedby tlie S & 9 Will. 8, c. 20, till 12 months' notice after 1st of August, 1710, 
 
 °" ^iSder t'hu'act the Bank took up and added to their stock £1,001,171 Exchequer bills 
 and tallies. _ ^ , . .,_„_ 
 
 Charter continued by 7 Anne, c. 7, till 12 months' notice after 1st of August, lTu2, on pay- 
 
 IHBUt etc 
 
 Under this act the Bank advanced £400,000 to government without interest; and de- 
 livered up to be canceled £1,776,027 17s. lOd. Exchequer bills, in consideration of their 
 
 receiving an annuity of £100,501 13s. , being at the rate of per cent 
 
 Charter continued by 12 Anne, stat. 1, c. 11, till 12 months' notice after Ist August, 1742, on 
 payment, etc. 
 
 In 1716, by the 3 Geo. 1, c. 8, Bank advanced to government, at 5 per cent 
 
 And by' the same act, the interest on the Exchequer bills canceled in 1708 was reduced 
 from 6 to 5 per cent 
 
 In 1721, by 8 Geo. 1, c. 21, the South Sea Company were authorized to sell £200,000 
 government annuities, and corporations purchasing the same at 26 years' purchase were 
 authorized to add the amount to their capital stock. The Bank purchased the whole of 
 
 these annuities at 20 years' purchase 
 
 5 per cent, interest was payable on this sum to mid-summer, 1727, and thereafter, 
 4 per cent. 
 
 At different times between 1727 and 1738, both inclnsive, the Bank received from the 
 public, on account of permanent debt, £3,275,027 17s. lOd., and advanced to it on ac- 
 count of ditto, £3,000,000 : difference 
 
 Debt due by the public in 1738 
 
 Charter continued by 15 Geo. 2, c. 13, till 12 months' notice after 1st of August, 1764, on 
 payment, etc. 
 
 Under this act the Bank advanced £1,600,000 without interest, which being added to 
 the original advance of £1,200,000, and the £400,000 advanced in 1710, bearing interest 
 
 at 6 per cent., reduced the interest on the whole to o per cent 
 
 In 1745, under authority of 19 Geo. 2, c. 6, the Bank delivered up to be canceled 
 £986,000 of Exchequer bills, in consideration of an annuity of £89,472, being at the rate 
 
 of 3 per cent. 
 
 In 1749, the 23 Geo. 2, c. 6, reduced the interest on the 4 per cent, annuities held by 
 the Bank to 3i per cent, for 7 years from the 25th of December, 1750, and thereafter to 
 3 per cent. 
 Charter continued by 4 Geo. 3, c. 25, till 12 months' notice after Ist of August, 1786, on pay- 
 ment, etc. 
 
 Under this act the Bank paid into the Exchequer £110,000 free of all charge. 
 Charter continued by 21 Geo. 3, c. GO, till 12 months' notice after 1st of August, 1812, on pay- 
 ment, etc. 
 
 Under this act the Bank advanced £3,000,000 for the public service, for 3 years, at 3 
 per cent. 
 Charter continued by 40 Geo. 8, u. 28, till 12 months' notice after 1st of August, 1S3B, on 
 payment, etc. 
 
 Under this act the Bank advanced to government £3,000,000 for 6 years without inter- 
 est; but in pui"suance of the recommendation of the committee of 1807, the advance was 
 continued without interest till 6 months after the signature of a definitive treaty of peace. 
 In 1S16, the Bank, under authority of the act 56 Geo. 3, c. 96, advanced at 8 per cent., 
 
 to be repaid on or before 1st of August, 1883 
 
 Charter continued by 3 & 4 Will. 4, c. 98, till 12 months' notice after 1st of August, 1855, 
 with a proviso that it may be dissolved on 12 months' notice after Ist of August, 1 &45, on 
 payment, etc. 
 
 This act directs that in future the Bank shall deduct £120,000 a year from their charge 
 on account of the management of the public debt, and that a fourth part of the debt due 
 
 by the public to the Bank, or £3,671,700, be paid off 
 
 Permanent advance by the Bank to the public, bearing interest at 3 per cent., inde- 
 pendent of the advances on account of dead weight, etc 
 
 Charter continued by 7 & S Vict. c. 82, till 12 months after the 1st of August, 1855, on pay- 
 ment, etc. 
 
 'This act, an abstract of which is given in a subsequent pai-t of this article, exempts 
 the notes of the Bank from all charge on account of stamp-duty, and directs that in fu- 
 ture the Bank shall deduct £180,000 a year from the charge on account of the manage- 
 ment of the public debt. It also separates the banking from the issuing department of 
 the establishment, and effects other important changes. 
 
 Fermanent Debt. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 1,200,000 
 
 2,175,027 IT 10 
 2,000,000 
 
 4,000,000 
 
 9,375,027 IT 10 
 
 275,027 IT 10 
 
 9,100,000 
 
 1,000,000 
 986,300 
 
 3,000,000 
 
 14,086,800 
 8,6T1,T00 
 
 11,015,100 
 
 The charter of the Bank of England, when first 
 granted, was to continue for eleven years certain, or 
 till a year's notice after the 1st of August, 1705. 'The 
 charter was further prolonged in 1697. In 1708, the 
 Bank having advanced £400,000 for the public service, 
 without interest, the exclusive privileges of the corpo- 
 ration were prolonged till 1733 ; and, in consequence 
 of various arrangements made at dilierent times, the 
 exclusive privileges of the Bank have been continued 
 by successive renewals, till a year's notice after the 1st 
 of August, 1855. For further details as to this subject, 
 see the Appendix No. 1 of the Report ofliil ore the Re- 
 newal of the Bank Charter, and the Acts of Parliament 
 referred to in it ; see also Postlethwait's History of 
 the Revenue, p. 301-310 ; and Fairman on the Funds, 
 7th ed. p. 85-88, etc. . 
 
 The capital of the Bank on which dividends are paid 
 has never exactly coincided with, though till of late it 
 seldom differed very materially from, the permanent 
 advance by the Bank to the public. We have already 
 seen that it amounted, in 1708, to £4,402,343. Between 
 that year and 1727 it was increased to near £9,000,000. 
 In 1746 it amounted to £10,780,000. From this pe- 
 riod it underwent no change till 1782, when it was in- 
 creased 8 per cent., or to £11,642,400. It continued 
 stationary at this sum down to 1816, when it was raised 
 to £14,553,000 by an addition of 25 per cent, from the 
 profits of the Bank, under the provisions of the act 56 
 Geo. 3, c. 96. The act for the renewal of the charter 
 in 1833, the 3 & 4 Will. 4, c. 98, directed that the sum 
 of £3,671,700 of the debt due to the Bank should be re- 
 paid by the .public, giving the directors power, if they 
 
BAN 
 
 101 
 
 BAN 
 
 thought fit, to deduct it from the bank capital. But 
 this was not done, the sum being reinvested in a gov- 
 ernment annuity, terminable in 1860. The Bank of 
 England has been frequently affected by panics among 
 the holders of its notes. In 1745, the alarm occasion- 
 ed by the advance of the Highlanders, under the Pre- 
 tender, as far as Derby, led to a run upon the Bank ; 
 and in order to gain time to concert measures for avert- 
 ing the run, the directors adopted the device of paying 
 in shillings and sixpences ! But they derived a more 
 effectual relief from the retreat of the Highlanders, 
 and from a, resolution agreed to at a meeting of the 
 principal merchants and traders of the city, and very 
 numerously signed, declaring the willingness of the 
 subscribers to receive bank-notes in payment of any 
 sum that might be due to them, and pledging them- 
 selves to use their utmost endeavors to make all their 
 payments in the same medium. During the tremen- 
 dous riots in June, 1780, the Bank incurred considera- 
 ble danger. Had the mob attacked the establishment 
 at the commencement of the riots, the consequences 
 might have proved fatal. Luckily, however, they de- 
 laj'cd their attack till time had been afforded for pro- 
 viding a force sufficient to insure its safety. Since that 
 period a considerable military force is nightly placed 
 in the interior of the Bank, as a protection in any emer- 
 gency that may occur. In the latter part of 1792 and 
 beginning of 1793, there was, in consequence of a pre- 
 vious overissue on their part, a general run on most of 
 the private banks, and about a third part of these es- 
 tablishments were forced to stop payments. This led 
 to a considerable demand for coin from the Bank. 
 
 The year 1797 is, however, the most important epoch 
 in the recent history of the Bank. Owing partly to 
 events connected with the war in which England was 
 engaged — to loans to the Emperor of Germany; to 
 bills drawn on the treasury at home by the British 
 agents abroad; and partly and chiefly, perhaps, to the 
 advances most unwillingly made by the Bank to gov- 
 ernment, which prevented the directors from having 
 a sufficient control over their issues — the exchanges 
 became unfavorable in 1795, and in that and the fol- 
 lowing year large sums in specie were drawn from 
 the Bank. In tho latter end of 1796 and beginning 
 of 1797, considerable apprehensions were entertain- 
 ed of invasion, and rumors were propagated of de- 
 scents having been actually made on the coast. In 
 consequence of the fears that were thus excited, runs 
 were made on the provincial banks in different parts 
 of the country ; and some of them having failed, the 
 panic became general, and extended itself to London. 
 Demands for cash poured in upon the Bank from all 
 quarters, and on Saturday, the 25th of February, 1797, 
 she had only £1,272,000 of cash and bullion in her cof- 
 fers, with every prospect of a violent run taking place 
 on the following Monday. In this emergency an order 
 in council was issued on Sunday the 26th, prohibiting 
 the directors from paying their notes in cash until the 
 sense of Parliament had been taken on the subject; 
 and after Parliament met, and the measure had been 
 much discussed, it was agreed to continue the restric- 
 tion till six months after the signature of a definitive 
 treaty of peace. 
 
 As soon as the order in council prohibiting payments 
 in cash appeared, a meeting of the principal bankers, 
 merchants, traders, etc., of the metropolis was held at 
 the Mansion House, when a resolution was agreed to, 
 and very numerously signed, pledging, as had been 
 done in 1745, those present to accept, and to use every 
 means in their power to cause bank-notes to be accept- 
 ed as cash in all transactions. This resolution tended 
 to allay the apprehensions that the restriction had ex- 
 cited. Parliament being sitting at the time, a com- 
 mittee was immediately appointed to examine into the 
 affairs of the Bank ; and their report put to rest what- 
 ever doubts might have been entertained with respect 
 to the solvency of the establishment, by showing that. 
 
 at the moment when the order in council appeared 
 the Bank was possessed of property to the amount of 
 £15,513,690, after all claims upon her had been de- 
 ducted. 
 
 Much difference of opinion has existed with respect 
 to the policy of the restriction in 1797 ; but, consider- 
 ing the peculiar circumstances under which it took 
 place, its expediency seems abundantly obvious. The 
 run did not originate in any overissue of bank pa- 
 per, but grew entirely out of political causes. So long 
 as the alarms of invasion continued, it was clear that 
 no bank paper immediately convertible into gold would 
 remain in circulation. And as the Bank, though pos- 
 sessed of ample funds, was without the means of in- 
 stantly retiring her notes, she might, but for the inter- 
 ference of government, have been obliged to stop pay- 
 ment — an event which, had it occuned, must have pro- 
 duced consequences in the last degree fatal to the pub- 
 lic interests. It had been generally supposed, previous- 
 ly to the passing of the Eestriction Act, that hank- 
 notes would not circulate unless they were immediate- 
 ly convei'tible into cash ; but the event showed, con- 
 formably to principles that have since been fully ex- 
 plained, that this was not really the case. Though the 
 notes of the Bank of England were not, at the passing 
 of the Eestriction Act, publicly declared to be legal 
 tender, they were rendered so in practice by being re- 
 ceived as cash in all transactions on account of gov- 
 ernment, and of the vast majority of individuals. For 
 the first three years of the restriction, their issues were 
 so moderate that they not only kept on a par with 
 gold, but actually bore a small premium. In the lat- 
 ter part of 1800, however, their quantity was so much 
 increased that they fell to a discount of 8 per cent, as 
 compared with gold, but they soon after rose nearly to 
 par ; and it was not until 1808 that the decline of their 
 value excited any considerable attention. Early in 
 1810 they were at a discount of about 13^ per cent. ; 
 and this extraordinary fall having attracted the atten- 
 tion of the Legislature, the House of Commons appoint- 
 ed a committee to inquire into the circumstances by 
 which it had been occasioned. The committee exam- 
 ined several witnesses ; and in their report, which was 
 drawn up with considerable ability, they justly as- 
 cribed the fall to the overissue of bank paper, and 
 recommended that the Bank should be obliged to re- 
 sume cash payments within two years. This recom- 
 mendation was not, however, acted upon ; and the val- 
 ue of bank paper continued to decline, as compared 
 with gold, till 1814. 
 
 At the period when the restriction on cash paj'ments 
 took place in 1797, it is supposed that there were about 
 280 country banks in existence ; but so rapidly were 
 these establishments multiplied, that they amounted to 
 above 900 in 1813. The price of corn, infiuenced part- 
 ly by the depreciation of the currency, and the facility 
 with which discounts were obtained, but far more by 
 deficient harvests and the unprecedented difliculties 
 which the war threw in the way of importation, had 
 risen to an extraordinary height during the five years 
 ending with 1813. But the harvest of that year being 
 unusually productive, and the intercourse with the 
 Continent being then also renewed, prices, influenced 
 by both circumstances, sustained a very heavy fall in 
 the latter part of 1813 and the beginning of 1814 ; and 
 this fall having ruined a considerable number of farm- 
 ers, and produced a general want of confidence, such a 
 destruction of provincial paper took place as has rare- 
 ly been paralleled. In 1814, 1815, and 1816, no fewer 
 than. 240 country banks stopped payment; and eighty- 
 nine commissions of bankruptcy were issned against 
 these establishments, being at the rate of one commis- 
 sion against every ten and a half of the total number 
 of banks existing in 1813. The great reduction that 
 had been thus suddenly and violently brought about 
 in the quantity of country bank paper, by extending 
 the fi^ld for the circulation of Bank of England paper. 
 
BAN 
 
 102 
 
 BAN 
 
 raised its value in 1817 nearly to a par -with gold. The 
 return to cash payments being thus facilitated, it was 
 fixed, in 1819, by the act 59 Geo. 3, c. 78, commonly 
 called Sir Robert Peel's Act, that they should take 
 place in 1823. But to prevent any future overissue, 
 and at the same time to render the measure as little 
 burdensome as possible, it was enacted, in pursuance 
 of a plan suggested by the late Mr. Ricardo, that the 
 Banlc should be obliged, during the interval from the 
 passing of the act till the return to specie payments, to 
 pay her notes, if required, in bars of standard bullion 
 of not less than sixty ounces weight. This plan was 
 not, however, acted upon during tlie period allowed 
 by law ; for, a large amount of gold having been accu- 
 mulated at the Banlt, the directors preferred recom- 
 mencing specie payments on the 1st of May, 1821. — 
 See Table for an account of the price of bullion, the 
 depreciation of paper, etc., from 1800 to 1821. 
 
 A great diversity of opinion has been entertained 
 with respect to tlie policy of the return to the old 
 standard in 1819. By one party it has been represent-^ 
 ed as a wise and politic measure ; they contend that 
 Sir Robert Peel's Act not only put an end to those iiuo- 
 tuations in 'the value of money, which had previously 
 been productive of great mischief, and gave effect to 
 the solemn engagements into which the public had en- 
 tered with the national creditor, but that it did this 
 without adding any thing material to the national 
 burdens. But another, and also a very numerous par- 
 ty, take a total different view of this measure : they 
 contend that the public was not really bound to return 
 to cash payments at the old standard at the termina- 
 tion of the war; that the return has very greatly en- 
 hanced the value of the currency ; and that this en- 
 hancement, by adding proportionally to the fixed bur- 
 dens laid on the industrious classes, has been most in- 
 jurious to their interests. It will, however, be found 
 in this, as in most cases of the sort, that the statements 
 of botli parties are exaggerated, and that if, on the one 
 hand, the measure has not been so advantageous as its 
 eulogists represent, neither, on the other, has it been 
 nearly so injurious as its enemies would have us be- 
 lieve. 
 
 In discussing this question, it is material to observe 
 that the value of paper, which liad been in 1815 and 
 
 1816 about 16| per cent, below that of gold, rose in 
 
 1817 and 1818, from the causes already mentioned, 
 without any interference whatever on the part of gov- 
 ernment, to within little more than 2^ per cent, of the 
 value of gold ; and that in 1819 the depreciation only 
 amounted to 4i per cent. — See Table. It is, there- 
 fore, futile to ascribe to the act of 1819, as is often 
 done, the whole rise that has taken place in the value 
 of the currency since the peace, seeing that the cur- 
 rency had been for three years previously to its enact- 
 ment from 12i to 14^ per cent, above its value in 1815, 
 and from 21 to 23 per cent, above its value in 1814! 
 The main object which the promoters of the act of 
 1819 had in view was to sustain the value of tlie cur- 
 rency at the point to which it had recovered itself 
 without legislative interference. This, however, could 
 not be done without recurring to specie payments ; and 
 the difference of 4 J per cent, that obtained in 1819, be- 
 tween the value of gold and paper, was not deemed suf- 
 ficiently considerable to warrant a departure from the 
 old standard, and from the acts engaging to restore it. 
 
 But it is alleged that those who suppose that the act 
 of 1819 added only 4i per cent, to the value of the cur- 
 rency mistake altogether the effect of the measure. It 
 is admitted, indeed, that paper was then only 4^ per 
 cent, less valuable than gold ; but by reverting to spe- 
 cie payments, an unexpected purchase of thirty viiUioTis 
 of gold was made ; and it is affirmed that this nov- 
 el and large demand, concurring simultaneously with 
 the contraction of paper in several of the Continental 
 states, and with a falling off in the supply of bullion 
 from the mines, had the efiect of adding very greatly 
 
 to the value of gold itself, and consequently to that of 
 the currency. It is very difficult, or rather, perhaps, 
 impossible, to determine the precise degree of credit 
 that should be attached to this statement ; but, while 
 we incline to think that it is well founded to a certain 
 extent, we see no grounds for believing that it is so to 
 any thing like the extent that has been stated. The 
 gold imported into Great Britain, to enable the Bank 
 to resume specie payments, was not taken from any 
 particular country or district, but was drawn from the 
 market of the world ; and considering the vast extent 
 of the supply whence it was derived, it is against all 
 reason to suppose that its value could be materially 
 influenced by the purchases. "We doubt, too, whether 
 the contraction of the paper currency of some of the 
 Continental states, and the substitution of specie in its 
 stead, was not more than balanced by the cessation of 
 the demand for specie for the military chests of the 
 different armies,- by the stoppage of the practice of 
 hoarding, and the greater security consequent to the 
 return of peace. And with respect to the falling off in 
 the supplies from the mines, it is not a circumstance, 
 supposing it to have had a considerable influence, that 
 Parliament could take into account. It could neither 
 determine the extent to which bullion had been raised, 
 nor at what point the rise would stop, nor how soon it 
 might again begin to decline. The diminution in the 
 supply of bullion had then continued for too short a 
 period, and its influence on the value of gold was much 
 too uncertain, to make it a gi'ound for interfering in 
 any degree with the standard. And notwithstanding 
 the falling off in the productiveness of the American 
 mines still continues, the diminution thence arising 
 has been since more than compensated by the extra- 
 ordinary increase that has taken place of late years in 
 the produce of the Russian mines and washings. 
 
 The decline in the price of most articles that has 
 taken place since the peace has been often referred to 
 as a conclusive proof of the great enhancement in the 
 value of bullion. But the inference is by no means so 
 certain as has been represented. The prices of com- 
 modities are as much affected by changes in the cost 
 of their production as by changes in the quantity of 
 money afloat. Now, there is not one of the great ar- 
 ticles of commerce the cost of which has not been con- 
 siderably reduced^ or which has not been supjilied from 
 new and more productive sources within the last few 
 years. The growth of corn, for example, has been vast- 
 ly extended in France, Prussia, and generally through- 
 out the Continent, by the splitting of large estates, 
 and the complete subversion of the feudal system ; and 
 the reduction of its price in England has been wholly 
 owing to the astonishing improvements made in agi'i- 
 culture, and to the increase of imports from Ireland. 
 The fall in the price of wool is satisfactorily accounted 
 for by the introduction and rapid multiplication of 
 Merino sheep in Germany, where they seem to succeed 
 even better than in Spain ; and by the large and rap- 
 idlj' growing imports from Australia, where little more 
 than 50 years ago there was not a single sheep ! And 
 a very large portion, if not the whole, of the fall in the 
 price of colonial products, is admitted, on all hands, to 
 be owing to the destruction of the monopoly system, 
 and the vast extension of cultivation in Cuba, IBrazil, 
 Java, Louisiana, etc. Although, therefore, we do not 
 deny that the falling off in the supply of bullion from 
 the mines must, at first, have had some infiuence over 
 prices, we hold it to be the greatest imaginable error 
 to ascribe to it the entire fall that took place after the 
 peace. Were its effect rated at from 5 to 10 per cent., 
 we believe it would be very considerably overstated. — 
 See Pkecious Metals. 
 
 On the whole, therefore, wo are disposed to approve 
 of the conduct of those who framed the act of 1819. 
 That it added somewhat to the burdens of the indus- 
 trious classes, and has been in so far hostile to the pub- 
 lic interests, it seems impossible to doubt ; but it has 
 
BAN 
 
 103 
 
 BAN 
 
 not been so in any thing like the degree which its ene- 
 mies represent. The period, too, when it was passed 
 is now so distant, that the existing engagements among 
 individuals have almost all been formed with reference 
 to the altered value of the currency ; so that whatever 
 injury it may have occasioned in the first instance must 
 be nearly gone by. To modify or change the stand- 
 ard at this late period, would not be to repair injustice, 
 but to commit it afresh. At the end of the war, the 
 circumstances wereT considerably different. The stand- 
 ard had been really abandoned for the previous 18 
 years ; and perhaps we may now say that it would 
 have been, better, all things considered, had the mint 
 price of bullion been raised in 1815 to the market price. 
 But having surmounted all the diificulties attendant 
 upon the restoration of the old standard, and maintain- 
 ed it since 1821, it would be in the last degree impoli- 
 tic to subject it to new alterations. Should the coun- 
 try become, at any future period, unable to make good 
 its engagements, it will better consult its honor and its 
 interest by fairly compounding with its creditors, than 
 by endeavoring to slip from its engagements by resort- 
 ing to the underhand and dishonest expedient of en- 
 feebling the standard. 
 
 The price of grain, which had. been very much de- 
 pressed in 1821 and 1822, rallied in 1823 ; and this cir- 
 cumstance contributed, along with others peculiar to 
 that period, to promote an extraordinary rage for spec- 
 ulation. The issues of the country banks being in con- 
 sequence far too much extended, the currency became 
 redundant in the autumn of 1824 ; and the exchanges 
 having been depressed, a drain for gold began to oper- 
 ate upon the Bank of England. But the directors of 
 the Bank having entered, in the early part of that year, 
 into an engagement with government to pay off such 
 holders of 4 per cent, stock as might dissent from its 
 conversion into a 3^ per cent, stock, they were obliged 
 to advance a donsiderable sum on this account after the 
 depression of the exchange. This tended to counter- 
 act the effect of the drain on the Bank for gold ; and, 
 in consequence, the London currency was not very ma- 
 terially diminished till September, 1825. When, how- 
 ever, the continued demand of the public on the Bank 
 for gold had rendered money scarce in the metropolis, 
 the pressure speedily extended to the country. Such 
 of the provincial banks — and they were u numerous 
 class-^as had been originally established without suf- 
 ficient capital, or had conducted their business upon 
 erroneous principles, began to give way the moment 
 they experienced an increased difliculty of obtaining 
 pecuniary accommodations in London. The alarm, 
 once excited, soon became general ; and confidence and 
 credit wei-e, for a while, almost wholly suspended: In 
 the short space of six weeks, above 70 banking estab- 
 lishments were destroyed, notwithstanding the very 
 largo advances made to them by the Bank of England ; 
 and the run upon the Bank for cash to supply the ex- 
 igencies of the country banks was so heavy, that she 
 was well nigh drained of all the coin in her coffers, and 
 obliged, as already remarked, to issue about a million 
 of XI and X2 notes. 
 
 To guard against a recurrence of the wide-Spread 
 mischief and ruin produced by this and the previous 
 bankruptcies of the country banks, it was resolved, in 
 1826, with consent of the Bank of England, to make a 
 change in the law of 1708 limiting the number of part- 
 ners in banking; establishments to six only. And it 
 was accordingly enacted that thenceforth any number 
 of partners might form themselves into associations to 
 carry on the business of banking, including the issue 
 of notes, any where not within sixty-jive miles of Lon- 
 doti. The directors of the! Bank of England came, at 
 the same time, to the resolution of establishing branch- 
 es in some of the principal towns ;' and these have since 
 been established in Gloueester, Manchester, Birming- 
 ham, Leeds, Liverpool, Bristol, Exeter, Newcastle- 
 upon-Tyne, Hull, Norwich, etc. 
 
 Besides attempting to lessen the frequency of bank- 
 ruptcy among the coimtry banks by repealing the law 
 limiting the number of partners, it was further re- 
 solved, in 1826, to prohibit the issue of £1 notes. The 
 policy and effects of this measure gave rise to much 
 dispute. It seems clear that it went far to shut up 
 one of the most convenient channels by which the in- 
 ferior class of country bankers contrived to get their 
 notes into circulation, and must, in so far, have done 
 good. But there were many other channels still open 
 to them ; and to imagine that this measure was to place 
 the provincial currency on that solid basis on which 
 it should bo placed was quite visionary. There were 
 no notes under £b in circulation in 1792 ; and yet fully 
 one third part of the country banks then in existence 
 became bankrupt ! The truth is, as already stated, 
 that it is not possible to guard against loss and fraud 
 from the proceedings of the country bankers, otherwise 
 than by compelling them to give security for their is- 
 sues; and as security may as easily be given for £1 
 notes as for those of £f>, the suppression of the former 
 does not appear to be essential. No doubt can, how- 
 ever, be entertained that the representations of the 
 extreme injury occasioned by the withdrawal of £1 
 notes were greatly exaggerated ; though it is, at the 
 same time, obvious that the means of the bankers to 
 make advances, as well as the profit derived from mak- 
 ing them, must both have been diminished by the su]!- 
 pression of the small notes ; and it would-be foolish to 
 deny that this circumstance must have occasioned son.R' 
 loss and inconvenience to many individuals. These 
 remarks are meant to apply only to the case of the 
 country banks. The extraordinary extent to wliicll 
 the forgery of the £1 notes of the Bank of England was 
 carried affords a suificient vindication of the policy of 
 their suppression. But the comparatively limited cir- 
 culation of the country banks, and perhaps we maj' 
 add the greater attention paid to the manner in which 
 their notes were engraved, hindered their forgery from 
 becoming injuriously prevalent. 
 
 ChaHer of 1844. — The defects inherent in the old 
 system were again fully developed in 1836 and 1837. 
 It is needless now to enter upon any investigation of 
 the circumstances which led to the overtrading of these 
 years ; but it was carried to a great extent in England 
 and in the United States. In nothing, however, was 
 this more strikingly evinced than in the rapid increase 
 of joint-stock banks ; their number, which in 1834-35 
 had amounted in England and Wales to 55, having 
 risen in 1835-36 to no fewer than 100 ! Many of these 
 were banks of issue, and in consequence of the large 
 additions that were thus suddenly made to the number 
 of notes afloat, and still more to the number of bills, 
 checks, and other substitutes for money, the cunxncy 
 became redundant and the exchange depressed ; and 
 the deficient harvests of 1838 and 1839, conspiring with 
 this redundancy, occasioned a further fall in the ex- 
 change, and a severe drain upon the Bank of England 
 for gold. But while the latter was narrowing her is- 
 sues by supplying the exporters of bullion with gold 
 in exchange for notes, the country banks went on in- 
 creasing their issues ! AVhat the former did by con^ 
 tracting on the one hand, the latter more than undid 
 by letting out on the other. The vacuum created by 
 the withdrawal of Bank of England paper was imme- 
 diately filled up, and made to overflow, by the issue of 
 a more than equal amount of provincial paper ; so that 
 had it not been for the rise in the rate of interest, and 
 tlie other repressive measures adopted by the Bank, 
 the probability is that she might have gone on paying 
 away bullion for notes till she was drained of her last 
 sixpence, without in any degree affecting the ex- 
 change ; and as it was, the bullion in her coffers in 
 August, 1839, was reduced to X2,420,000, so that the 
 market narrowly escaped a tremendous crisis. 
 
 This perilous experience having again forcibly at- 
 tracted the public attention to the state of the banking 
 
BAN 
 
 104 
 
 BAN 
 
 system, Sir Robert Peel was encouraged to attempt its 
 improvement. Tlie clause in the act 3 & 4 Will. 4, c. 
 98, for the renewal of the charter in 1833, which gave 
 to Parliament power to revise or cancel it in 1845, 
 afforded a legitimate opportunity for the introduction 
 of the new system. But, however desirable, the total 
 suppression of the issue of notes by joint-stock and pri- 
 vate banking companies would have been a measure 
 too much opposed to popular prejudices, and to the real 
 or supposed interests of a large and powerful class, to 
 have had any chance of being carried ; and there also 
 would have been great, though inferior, difficulties in 
 the way of the plan for taking security. It was, in- 
 deed, indispensable, in attempting to obviate the de- 
 fects inherent in the banking system, to proceed cau- 
 tiously, to respect, in as far as possible, existing inter- 
 ests, and to avoid taking any step that might excite 
 the fears or suspicions of the public ; the grand diffi- 
 culty being to reconcile the introduction of such a 
 course with the adoption of any plan that would ob- 
 viate in any considerable degree the defects complain- 
 ed of. Happily, this difficult problem has been dex- 
 terously and satisfactorily solved by Sir Robert Peel ; 
 the measures he introduced and carried through Par- 
 liament in 1844 and 1845, for the improvement of the 
 banking system, having been so skillfully contrived as 
 to provoke little opposition, at the same time that they 
 effected very extensive and, as we think, most benefi- 
 cial changes. 
 
 The measures in question consist of the act 7 & 8 
 Vict. c. 32, which refers to the Bank of England and 
 the English country banks ; and the acts 8 & 9 Vict, 
 c. 87, 38, referring to the Banks of Scotland and Ire- 
 land. The principal object of these statutes has been 
 to obviate the chances of overissue and of sudden fluc- 
 tuations in the quantity and value of money, by limit- 
 ing the power to issue notes payable on demand, and 
 by making the amount of such notes in circulation vary 
 more nearly than previously with the amount of bull- 
 ion in the possession of the issuers. Sir Robert Peel 
 adopted, in dealing with the Bank of England, the pro- 
 posal made by Mr. Loyd, in 1837, for effecting a com- 
 plete separation between the issuing and banking de- 
 partments of that establishment. And while the di- 
 rectors are left at liberty to manage the latter at dis- 
 cretion, their management of the former, or issue de- 
 partment, is subjected to what seems to be a well-de- 
 vised system of restraint. The Bank is allowed to is- 
 sue £14,000,000 of notes upon securities (of which the 
 debt of £11,015,100 lent by her to government is a 
 part) ; and whatever paper the issue department may 
 at any time issue over and above this maximum 
 amount of securities, it must have an equal amount of 
 coin and bullion in its coffers. A clause is inserted in 
 the act allowing the Bank to increase her issue upon 
 securities in the event of her notes being used instead 
 of those of any or all of the existing banks of issue. 
 Hence it is impracticable for the issue department to 
 increase its issues without, at the same time, propor- 
 tionally increasing its stock of coin and bullion ; or to 
 diminish the latter without proportionally diminishing 
 the amount of paper supplied to the public and the 
 banking department. And, therefore, if the latter is- 
 sued the whole notes assigned to it, the total amount 
 issued by the issue department and the amount in cir- 
 culation would be identical ; and it might under such 
 circumstances be truly said that, in so far as the cur- 
 rency consists of Bank of England notes paj'able on de- 
 mand, it varied in amount and value as it would do 
 were it wholly metallic, and, consequently, by being 
 so closely ideptified with the standard, realized the 
 beau ideal of a paper currency. 
 
 But, though the currency approaches to, it has not 
 arrived at this degree of perfection. The public does 
 not deal alone with the issue, but also, and to a far 
 greater extent, with the banking department. And 
 this latter department retained such a portion of the 
 
 notes issued to it by the former, under the 2d clause of - 
 the 7 & 8 Vict. c. 32, as was supposed at the time to 
 be sufficient to carry on its business, their amount hav- 
 ing since varied with the varying demands for bullion, 
 the sales and purchases of securities, etc. But it is suf- 
 ficient, in illustration of what is now stated, to observe 
 that during the week ending the 4th of November, 1848, 
 notes to the amount of £26,796,060 had been issued to 
 the public and the banking department, of which the 
 latter had £8,242,575 in its cofliers, making the sum in 
 the hands of the public £18,554,085. And as it is 
 sometimes supposed that the banking department 
 might issue this sum of £8,242,575, or the spare notes 
 at any time in its coffers, in the discount of bills, or 
 any other way, it is concluded that there is still room 
 for some, though but little, derangement of the curren- 
 cy from mistaken proceedings on the part of the Bank ; 
 and this, no doubt, may be sometimes true, at least to 
 some extent. But it is idle to suppose that the bank- 
 ing department could carry on business without a large 
 reserve of notes or of coin. This department may have, 
 owing to a variety of circumstances, to meet a drain 
 for deposits ; and as it is very unsafe to trust to the 
 sale of securities in periods of discredit, a very consid- 
 erable supply of notes or of bullion, or of both, can 
 never be advantageously or safely dispensed with. 
 
 This shows the little weight to be attached to the 
 statements of those who contend that the late measure 
 has laid no real restraint on the issues of the Bank, be- 
 cause, say they, she has a large reserve of unissued 
 notes which she migjit legitimately throw on the mark- 
 et. But in truth and reality she can do nothing of 
 the sort. A reserve is indispensable, not only to her 
 safety, but to her ability to carry on banking business ; 
 and it is at present (November, 1848) sufficiently nar- 
 row. More vigilance and caution are now required on 
 the part of the bank directors than formerly; for oth- 
 erwise the banking department of the Bank may be 
 reduced to the greatest difficulties, without its being 
 possible for it to obtain any assistance from the issue 
 department, how able soever the latter might be to 
 render it. This was strikingly evinced in the autumn 
 of 1847 ; and nothing but the exercise of a proper de- 
 gree of foresight and caution can prevent its recur- 
 rence. No gold can now be obtained from the issue 
 department except in exchange for notes ; nor can the 
 latter be obtained from it except in exchange for gold. 
 Hence it is no longer, as formerly, in the power of the 
 Bank to create paper money at pleasure to supply the 
 place of cash in any emergency in which she may be 
 involved : and instead of less she requires to act with 
 more circumspection under the new system than under 
 the old. 
 
 But though the check on the overissue of bank-notes 
 be thus nearly effectual, it appears rather singular that 
 no check should be established on the issue of bank 
 post-bills, which amounted to £1,048,503 on the 4th 
 November, 1848, and which are and may be substituted 
 for notes. No doubt, however, were the Bank (which 
 is hardly to be imagined) to abuse the privilege of issu- 
 ing post-bills, by making advances in them which she 
 could not have made in notes, measures would be taken 
 to prevent the abuse; and perhaps, on the whole, it 
 was as well to postpone devising means for the preven- 
 tion of what seems so unlikely to occur. Weekly re- 
 turns are now published of the issues of the Bank, and 
 of the securities, bullion, etc., in her possession. The 
 sum to be deducted by the Bank from the charge on 
 account of the management of the national debt is in 
 future to be £180,000 instead of £120,000 a year, as 
 fixed by the act 3 & 4 Will. 4, c. 98. The charter is 
 to be continued till twelve months' notice after the 1st 
 of August, 1855. The provisions made in this act for 
 restraining the country circulation were, perhaps, still 
 more important. The maximum future issue of the 
 joint^stock and other banks in England and Wales 
 was limited to the average amount of the circulation 
 
BAJSr 
 
 105 
 
 BAN 
 
 of each dunng the twelve months preceding the 27th 
 of April, 1844. 1 1 was farther enacted that no new bank 
 shall be established for the issae of notes, and that the 
 names of the partners in joint-stock and other banks 
 shall be periodically published. The regulations in 
 the statutes relating to banking in Scotland and Ireland 
 are nearly similar. The maximum amount of notes 
 to be issued by the banks of both countries is, in time 
 to come, not to exceed the average amount which each 
 bank had in circulation during the twelve months end- 
 ing the 1st of May, 1845. Certain returns, including 
 among others the amount of gold and silver coin held 
 by the banks, the names of the partners, etc., are to be 
 periodically published. The small-note currency of 
 Scotland has not been affected by the measure. 
 
 It is impossible to doubt that these regulations in- 
 terpose a formidable obstacle to overissue ; and that, 
 consequently they discourage overtrading, and tend to 
 reduce both the number and the violence of those com- 
 mercial revulsions and changes in the value of money, 
 that have always been, and must necessarily continue 
 to be, productive of the greatest mischief. No one ever 
 pretended to say that these or any other measures which 
 could be adopted with respect to the currency would 
 wholly prevent unsafe speculation and overtrading. 
 These maj^ originate in an endless variety of circum- 
 stances ; but in limes past the tendency to speculation 
 and gambling, when once set on foot, was in most ca- 
 ses powerfully stimulated by the facility which banks 
 then possessed of issuing additional quantities of paper ; 
 and of that facility they are now all but deprived. It 
 is, perhaps, true that the fair and legitimate influence 
 of the acts now referred to may be in some degree 
 countervailed by the circulation, to a greater extent 
 than formerly, of bills and other sorts of paper not pay- 
 able on demand, but at short dates ; and it is not im- 
 probable that sooner or later the question may arise 
 whether any regulations should be adopted in regard 
 to the issue of such paper. In so far, however, as re- 
 spects the issue of paper Ttumei/, or notes payable on 
 demand, the regulations in the act of 1844 appear to 
 have left little to be desired. No doubt, also, numbers 
 of the private and other banks that now issue notes will 
 from time to time wind up their affairs ; and as no new 
 banlis of issue can be established in their stead, the 
 vacuum caused by the withdrawal of their notes will 
 be supplied by those of the Bank of England ; so that 
 a gradual progress will be made toward the desirable 
 consummation of having only one bank of issue. 
 
 It is sometimes contended, by those opposed to the 
 policy of limiting the issues, that they never can be in 
 excess so long as they are paj-able on demand. Such, 
 however, is not the case ; notes payable, and really 
 paid, on demand, can not, it is true, fall below the value 
 of specie in the country in which they are issued ; but 
 the check of payment in specie does not, in fact, begin 
 to operate till their overissue has depreciated the value 
 ' of the whole currency, gold as well as paper, in such 
 country, below its level in the surrounding countries, 
 and till, consequently, the exchange becomes unfavor- 
 able, and it is of advantage to export gold. Then, of 
 course, the overissue is stopped, but such stoppage is 
 almost always accompanied by a great deal of public 
 distress and inconvenience ; while it by no means nec- 
 essarily follows that any considerable portion of the 
 loss thence arising will fall on those banks by whose 
 misconduct or overissue the fall in the exchange and 
 the demand for bullion may have been occasioned. 
 
 The measures adopted in 1844, though they deep- 
 ly affected many powerful privat(! interests, were, as 
 already stated, passed with little difficulty, and were 
 very generally approved of. In this respect, however, 
 the public opinion has, to some extent, changed ; and 
 the act of 1844 has been charged with having aggra- 
 vated the pressure experienced by the mercantile world 
 in 1847. But we are satisfied t^iat there is no real 
 room or ground for any such imputation. The crisis 
 
 of 1847 was a consequence partly of the railway mania 
 of the previous year, and partly of the failure of the 
 potato crops of 1845 and 1846. The failure in the 
 latter year deprived fully two-thirds of the people of 
 Ireland, and a considerable portion, also, of those of 
 Great Britain, of their accustomed supplies of food. 
 In consequence of this deficiency, and of government 
 having come forward to provide the means for its re- 
 lief, there was an unprecedented importation of all 
 sorts of corn ; and the demand for bullion for exporta- 
 tion to meet this importation, occurring simultaneously 
 with a vast railway expenditure, pecuniary accommo- 
 dations were obtained with the greatest difficulty, and 
 the rate of interest rose to an extraordinary height. 
 Instead, however, of being increased by the act of 
 1844, it is abundantly certain that the operation of the 
 latter contributed to alleviate the severity of the crisis. 
 The restraints it imposed on the issues of the country 
 banks had hindered them from embarking to any great 
 extent in railway adventures, so that they were better 
 able to assist their customers ; and it also prevented 
 the Bank of England from attempting to meet the exi- 
 gencies of the case, otherwise than by raising the rate 
 of interest and restricting her issues. And besides 
 being the natural and proper, these were, in fact, the 
 only means by which the value of bullion could be 
 raised, its demand for foreign remittance checked, and 
 the exchange turned in favor of England. A great 
 many mercantile houses that had been trading upon 
 very insufficient capitals, or which had previously been 
 virtually insolvent, were, of course, swept off during 
 the crisis ; and the alarm that was thereby ocasioned, 
 though for the most part without any good founda- 
 tion, gave rise to a species of panic. During the 
 prevalence of the latter, government consented (25th 
 October, 1847) to a temporary suspension of the act 
 of 1844; but there is now, we believe, little doubt 
 that this was an unwise proceeding. When it took 
 place the violence of the crisis had abated. The drain 
 for gold for exportation had not only ceased, but liad 
 begun to react ; and the probability is, that in a very 
 few days all alarm would have passed off, without the 
 dangerous precedent which was set by the interference 
 of ministers. Hence, in our view of the matter, the 
 experience afforded by the crisis of 1847 tells strongly 
 in favor of the act of 1844. But for its influence, it is 
 most probable that the Bank would have attempted 
 to meet the demand for bullion without raising the rate 
 of interest, at least to the extent to which she did 
 raise it; and if so, she should have been exposed to 
 the imminent risk of a suspension of cash payments. 
 If, therefore, the act of 1844 should be subjected to 
 any modifications, it is to be hoped that they may be 
 such as may tend to carry out and strengthen the prin- 
 ciples on which it is founded. 
 
 Previously to the late changes, the Bank directors 
 endeavored, as a general rule, to have as much coin and 
 bullion in their coffers as might together ainount, when 
 the exchange was at par, to a third part of the Banl^s 
 liabilities, including deposits as toell as issues; so that, in 
 the event of the notes afloat, and the public and pri- 
 vate deposits in the coffers of the Bank, amounting to 
 £27,000,000 or £30,000,000, they did not consider the es- 
 tablishment in a perfectly satisfactory state, unless she 
 was, generally speaking, possessed of about £9,000,000 
 or £10,000,000 of coin and bullion. The issues of 
 the Bank were then wholly governed, at least in ordi- 
 nary cases, by what Mr. Horsley Palmer expresively 
 called " the action of the public ;" that is, they were 
 increased during a favorable exchange, or when bullion 
 was sent to the Bank to be exchanged for notes ; and 
 diminished during an unfavorable exchange, or when 
 notes were sent to the bank to be paid. But the vice 
 of the old system was that this rule was not strictly 
 enforced, and that the directors were every now and 
 then compelled to relax it. But under the present 
 system such relaxation is practicable only to a very 
 
BAN 
 
 106 
 
 BAN 
 
 limited extent, and can be but little abusea, -which for- 
 merly -was not always the case. It is frequently said 
 that the value of money, and consequently that the 
 price of all sorts of property, depends on. the fiat of the 
 Bank, by which it is capriciously elevated at one time 
 and depressed at another. But the account previous- 
 ly given of the moc'c in which the issues of the Banlc 
 
 are regulated completely disproves siich statements; 
 and independently of this, every one who knows that 
 the Bank must pay her notes in coin when presented, 
 and that coin may be at all times obtained from the 
 Mint without any charge, in exchange for bullion, 
 must know that the very supposition of thBir bein'g 
 true involves a contradiction. 
 
 An Account of the Notes, Seoueities, Bullion, etc., of tue Bank of E>'gland fok the first Week in eacii Month, as 
 
 PUBLISIIED "WeEICLY IN THE " GAZETTE," FEO-'tt THE PASSING OP TUB ACT 7 AND 8 ViCT. C. S3, TO THE 5tII DECESrijEE, 1846. 
 
 ISSUE DEPARTMENT. 1 
 
 Week ending. 
 
 Notei. 
 
 Government 
 Debt. 
 
 Olher 
 Securities. 
 
 DuJlion. 1 
 
 Cold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 1844, December 7 
 
 27,^17,505 
 
 11,015,100 
 
 2,984,900 
 
 12,223,894 
 
 1,598,011 
 
 1846, January 4 
 
 28,087,055 
 
 11,015,100 
 
 2,984,900 
 
 12,493,444 
 
 1,593,011 
 
 February 1 
 
 28,232,485 
 
 11,015,100 
 
 2,984,900 
 
 12,548,405 
 
 1,084,080 
 
 March 1 
 
 28,952,105 
 
 11,015,100 
 
 2,984,900 
 
 12,948,918 
 
 2,008,187 
 
 April 5 
 
 29,353,145 
 
 11,016,100 
 
 2,984,900 
 
 18,200,543 
 
 2,091,602 
 
 Way 3 
 
 29,167,095 
 
 11,015,100 
 
 2,984,900 
 
 13,088,142 
 
 2,078,953 
 
 June 7 
 
 29,702,600 
 
 11,015,100 
 
 2,984,900 
 
 13,005,716 
 
 2,126,884 
 
 July 6 
 
 29,891,985 
 
 11,015,100 
 
 2,9§4,900 
 
 13,751,933 
 
 2,1-40,003 
 
 August 2 
 
 29,196,760 
 
 11,015,100 
 
 '2,984,900 
 
 13,206,991 
 
 1,989,769 
 
 Septembpr G 
 
 28,953,300 
 
 11,016,100 
 
 2,984,900 
 
 13,983,!591 
 
 1,970,709 
 
 October 4 
 
 28,355,070 , 
 
 11,015,100 
 
 2,984,900 
 
 12,514,730 
 
 1,840,940 
 
 November 1 
 
 27,267,115 
 
 11,015,100 
 
 2,984,900 
 
 11,001,631 
 
 l,605,fe4 
 
 December 6 
 
 26,540,480 
 
 11,015,100 
 
 ' 2,984,900 
 
 10,992,031 
 
 1,547,849 
 
 1846, January 3 
 
 28,675,925 
 
 11,015,100 
 
 2,984,900 
 
 11,093,869 
 
 1,683,068 
 
 February 7 
 
 26,698,620 
 
 11,015,100 
 
 2,9S4,99Q 
 
 11,140,210 
 
 1,558,410 
 
 March 7 
 
 27,079,270 
 
 11,015,100 
 
 2,984,900 
 
 ' 11,417,040 
 
 1,662,230 
 
 April 4 
 
 27,181,980 
 
 11,015,100 
 
 2,984,900 
 
 11,460,445 
 
 1,721,535 
 
 May 2 
 
 27,072,295 
 
 11,016,100 
 
 2,984,900 
 
 11,279,130 
 
 lf793,105 
 
 June 6 
 
 28,325,000 
 
 11,015,100 
 
 2,984,900 
 
 , 12,192,(10 
 
 2,132,290 
 
 July 4 
 
 29,022,200 
 
 11,015,100 
 
 2,984,900 
 
 12,905,074 
 
 2,417,126 
 
 August 1' 
 
 29,292,320 
 
 11,016,100 
 
 2,984,900 
 
 12,854,018 
 
 2,437,702 
 
 September 5 
 
 29,760,870 
 
 11,016,100 
 
 2,984,900 
 
 13,057,997 
 
 2,703,873 
 
 October 3 
 
 29,359,795 
 
 11,015,100 
 
 2,984,900 
 
 12,0.?2,794 
 
 2,727,001 
 
 November 7 
 
 28,235,855 
 
 11,015,100 
 
 2,984,900 
 
 11,724,111 
 
 2,5U,7T4 
 
 December 5 
 
 28,269,105 
 
 11,016,100 
 
 2,984,900 
 
 11,762,047 
 
 2,50C,4!jS, 
 
 BANKING DEPARTMENT. | 
 
 
 
 
 
 .Seven Days' 
 
 
 
 
 Week ending. 
 
 ' Capital. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Public. ' 
 
 Private. 
 
 other BUls. 
 
 Public. 
 
 Other. 
 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ ■ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 1844, Dec. 7 
 
 14,563,000 
 
 3,110,069 
 
 5,796,572 
 
 ■ 8,422,809 
 
 966,456 
 
 18,.540,619 
 
 10,193,718 
 
 8,286,105 
 
 837,468 
 
 1845, Jan. 4 
 
 14,563,000 
 
 3,127,278 
 
 7,366,043 
 
 8,037,320 
 
 1,016,160 
 
 13,639,720 
 
 11,426,996 
 
 8,418,125 
 
 714,566 
 
 Feb. 1 
 
 14,653,000 
 
 3,298,944 
 
 2,852,124 
 
 8,713,690 
 
 1,085,005 
 
 13,541,692 
 
 8,662,761 
 
 7,642,285 
 
 666,145 
 
 Mar. 1 
 
 14,553,000 
 
 3,575,172 
 
 5,476,984 
 
 10,823,799 
 
 983,328 
 
 13,474,379 
 
 11,707.400 
 
 8,952,545 
 
 777,959 
 
 April 5 
 
 14,553,000 
 
 8,586,219 
 
 6,924,106 
 
 10,446,960 
 
 1,068,189 
 
 13,474,379 
 
 13,123,678 
 
 9,252,3.50 
 
 722,057 
 
 May 3 
 
 14,553,000 
 
 3,188,817 
 
 2,712,041 
 
 10,355,640 
 
 1,139,288 
 
 13,616,966 
 
 9,867,686 
 
 7,837,925 
 
 641,159 
 
 June 7 
 
 14,563,000 
 
 3,136,091 
 
 6,745,483 
 
 10,504,624 
 
 1,018,497 
 
 13,384,898 
 
 11,470,806 
 
 9,382,505 
 
 779,486 
 
 July 5 
 
 14,553,000 
 
 3,164,433 
 
 7,330,309 
 
 10,041,440 
 
 1,045,502 
 
 18,384,206 
 
 12,944,496 
 
 9,379,786 
 
 526,197 
 
 Aug. 2 
 
 14,553,000 
 
 3,338,240 
 
 3,215,363 
 
 10,960,214 
 
 1,072,260 
 
 13,321,844 
 
 11,463,603 
 
 7,849,786 
 
 603,851 
 
 Sept. 6 
 
 14,553,000 
 
 3,608,180 
 
 6,474,706 
 
 8,507,213 
 
 1,021,689 
 
 13,468,643 
 
 11,967,081- 
 
 8,366,605 
 
 473,558 
 
 Oct. 4 
 
 14,653,000 
 
 3,629,978 
 
 8,703,497 
 
 8,167,961 
 
 1,088,160 
 
 13,348,643 
 
 15,188,fl66 
 
 7,095,615 
 
 509,873 
 
 Nov. 1 
 
 14,568,000 
 
 3,224,453 
 
 4,487,053 
 
 9,099,737 
 
 1,106,405 
 
 13,203,188 
 
 13,429,813 
 
 6,319,775 
 
 017,927 
 
 Deo. 6 
 
 14,553,000 
 
 3,209,894 
 
 8,110,401 
 
 9,022,019 
 
 1,004,471 
 
 13,201,863 
 
 16,224,712 
 
 6,945,840 
 
 526,870 
 
 1846, Jan. 3 
 
 14,553,000 
 
 3,254,600 
 
 , 9,369,630 
 
 8,850,465 
 
 959,967 
 
 13,301,073 
 
 16,262,593 
 
 6,418,610 
 
 605,647 
 
 Feb. 7 
 
 14,663,000 
 
 3,462,787 
 
 6,054,438 
 
 18,912,446 
 
 963,688 
 
 13,137,047 
 
 23,903,661 
 
 6,263,626 
 
 637,026 
 
 Mar. 7 
 
 14,663,000 
 
 8,767,708 
 
 6,602,355 
 
 17,828,778 
 
 898,176 
 
 13,136,440 
 
 22,118,987 
 
 7,576,625 
 
 707,966 
 
 April 4 
 
 14,563,000 
 
 3,799,508 
 
 7,074,036 
 
 16,768,047 
 
 965,446 
 
 13,136,440 
 
 22,058,631 
 
 7,316,415 
 
 643,541 
 
 May 2 
 
 14,553,000 
 
 3,896,640 
 
 2,678,451 
 
 16,780,380 
 
 965,730 
 
 13,303,066 
 
 17,901,148 
 
 6,408,470 
 
 061,418 
 
 June 6 
 
 14,558,000 
 
 3,379,044 
 
 6,753,512 
 
 16,927,013 
 
 852,008 
 
 12,988,065 
 
 18,321,641 
 
 8,468,180 
 
 686,691 
 
 July 4 
 
 14,653,000 
 
 3,424,178 
 
 7,794,200 
 
 14,402,460 
 
 887,364 
 
 12,987,142 
 
 18,145,319 
 
 9,303,090 
 
 625,661 
 
 Aug. 1 
 
 14,553,000 
 
 3,597,679 
 
 3,793,610 
 
 13,449,388 
 
 943,423 
 
 12,961,735 
 
 14,068,267 
 
 8,796,875 
 
 510,283 
 
 Sept. 5 
 
 14,553,000 
 
 3,864,479 
 
 7,818,919 
 
 8,657,109 
 
 985,880 
 
 12,961,735 
 
 12,623,650 
 
 9,231,036 
 
 512,957 
 
 Oct. 3 
 
 14,553,000 
 
 3,886,985 
 
 9,770,195 
 
 8,167,143 
 
 930,793 
 
 12,961,360 
 
 15,086,775 
 
 8,809,160 
 
 456,831 
 
 Nov. 7 
 
 14,553,000 
 
 8,408,352 
 
 5,428,TSS 
 
 8,281,624 
 
 1,018,610 
 
 12,808,119 
 
 12,163,009 
 
 7,264,620 
 
 5>4,621 
 
 Dec. 5 
 
 14,6r>3,000 
 
 3,432,203 ! 8,612,488 
 
 8,803,523 
 
 896,488 
 
 12,807,417 
 
 13,863,212 
 
 8,402,800 
 
 73.';,76S 
 
 Connection with Government and the Public. — The 
 Bank of England conducts the whole banking business 
 of the British government, " It acts not only," says 
 Dr. Smith " as aji ordinary bank, but as a gr,eat engine 
 of state. It receives and pays the greater part of the 
 annuities which are due to the creditors of the public ; 
 it circulates Exchequer bills ; and it advances to gov- 
 ernment the annual amount of the laud and malt 
 taxes, which are frequently not paid till some years 
 thereafter." 
 
 Advances hy the Bank in Discounts^ etc. — The greater 
 part of the paper of the Bank has generally been is- 
 sued in the way of advances or loans to government, 
 upon security of certain branches of the revenue, and 
 in the purchase of Exchequer bills and bullion; but 
 her issues through the medium of discounts to individu- 
 als have, notwithstanding, been at all times consider- 
 able, while during war, and in periods of distress, they 
 have been occasionally very great. Generally speak- 
 ing, however, the directors do not think it advisable 
 
 to enter into competition with private banliers in the ' 
 transacting of ordinary banking business, or in the 
 discounting of mercantile paper, Mr, Horsley Palmer 
 is decidedly of opinion that all banking business, apart 
 from the issue of notes, is better transacted by private 
 bankers than by public, bodies,— jYire. of Evidence, Re- 
 port of 1832, p. 37, I-Ie also thinks that were the 
 Bank to come fairly into competition at all times 
 with the private bankers and other individuals in dis- 
 counting, it would be very apt to lead, every now and 
 then, to an excess of the currency, and a fall of the 
 exchange, producing fluctuations that could not fail to 
 be injurious. At present, therefore, and generallv 
 since the peace, the rate of interest charged by the 
 Bank for loans has been somewhat above the market 
 rate. The consequence is, that, in ordinary periods, 
 very few applications are made to her for discounts. 
 But, at the same time, every one who has any reason- 
 able security to offer, knows where they may always 
 be had ; , whUe the rate of interest charged by the Bank 
 
BAN 
 
 107 
 
 BAN 
 
 paecessarily forms a maximum, rate -which no other es- 
 tablishment can exceed. When, however, any cir- 
 cumstances occur to occasion a pressure in the money 
 market, or a difficulty of obtaining, accommodations in 
 the usual channels, the market rate of interest imme- 
 diately rises to the rate fixed by the Bank ; and on such 
 occasions the private bankers, and the public general- 
 ly, resort to the Bank for aid. She then becomes, as 
 It were, a bank of support; and has, as such, on many 
 trying occasions,- particularly in 1793, 1815 and 1816, 
 1825-26, arid; 1838, rendered essential service to public 
 credit, and to the commercial interests of the country. 
 The usual limited amount of the Bank's discounts does 
 not, therefore, proceed, as has been absurdly enough 
 Stated' fyom any Indisposition on the part of- the di- 
 rectors to render every assistance in their power to the 
 commercial classes, but is,, in fact, the effect of such 
 disposition. They consider, and we believe justly, 
 ^ that, exqept under peculiar circumstances, the business 
 of discounting and banking is best conducted by private 
 parties ; and that by abstaining from coming into com- 
 petition with them they are better able to act as a 
 bank of support in seasons Of distress and difficulty. 
 This is not to neglect the interests of the mercantile 
 classes, but to promote them in the best and. most effi- 
 cient manner, even though it should be at the expense 
 of the Bank. 
 
 At the same timq, howevet', it must be admitted that 
 the interference of' the Bank in assisting the commer- 
 cial interest is a matter that requires the greatest con- 
 sideration, and that it can only be safely undertaken 
 under very peculiar circumstances. It should always 
 be borne in mind that however . a drain for gold may 
 originate, the fact of its existence is of itself a conclusive 
 proof that gold is more valuable abroad than at home, 
 and consequently that the currency is redundant, and 
 ought to be diminished. Under such circumstances, it 
 is the imperative duty of the directors, in order to pro- 
 vide for the safety of the Bank, to prevent the vacuum 
 caused by the exchange of bullion for notes from "being 
 again filled up by the issue of fresh notes. This may 
 be done in various ways ; but the best and surest way 
 is by raising the rate of discount so as to lessen the 
 number of applicahts for loans. — See Post. It is at 
 such periods, however, that the applications for assist- 
 ance are the most urgent ; and it is exceedingly diffi- 
 cult to 3'ield to them, and at the same time to enforce 
 that systematical and continuous reduction of the Issues 
 that is now indispensable to reduce the currency to its 
 proper level, and to restore the exchange to par. Un- 
 questionably the Bank allowed the stock of bullion in 
 her coffers to be reduced In 1839 a great deal too low. 
 And though, perhaps, as things turnedout, less hard- 
 ship was, in the end, inflicted on individuals than if the 
 directors had adhered more to the stern path of dutj'. 
 Still it is extremely hazardous to trust in matters of 
 such vast importance to the chapter of accidents ; and 
 we Incline to think that in this, as in most other cases, 
 the safest plan, or the systematic reduction of the issues 
 Tv^henever the- exchange becomes unfavorable, is that 
 also which, speaking generally, is most advantageous 
 to all classes.' And this,' as already seen, is now all 
 but imperative on the Bank. 
 
 In 1839, and we believe, also, on a, previous occa- 
 sion, the Batik negotiated credits abroad, and endeav- 
 ored to restore the exchange to par by selling bills on 
 the Continent. The policy of this device gave rise to 
 a good deal of discussion at the time ; but in the par- 
 ticular cases it appears to us to have been most judi- 
 cious; and we incline, alfeo, to think that under the 
 old system the same course might and should have 
 been, followed on various occasions; This device is 
 now less necessary ; hut we may still easily conceive 
 occasions when it might be advantageous. What 
 merchants want during an adverse elcchange is good 
 foreign bills, it being onl.v in default of such that they 
 export bullion; and tlie Bank, by -supplj'ing theni 
 
 with such bills, and getting, of course, her notes in ex- 
 change, is able to diminish her issues quite as effect- 
 ually as if her notes were sent in for bullion. Another 
 advantage of this plan is, that no one knows when it 
 is in operation, and, consequently, that it goes far to 
 obviate that internal discredit and alarm that are apt 
 to be produced when the stock of bullion in th6 Bank 
 is reduced unusually low. In fact, had the Bank not 
 acted, in part at least, on this plan in 1839, the proba- 
 bility is that she must have suspended payments. No 
 doubt the Bank would be exposed, if she adopted this 
 plan, to the contingency of losing by lier foreign secu- 
 rities in the event of the breaking out of hostilities, or 
 of the occurrence of any event by which their value 
 might be reduced. These events may, however, be in 
 general foreseen and provided against; and if the 
 Bank's investments were judiciously made, not in one 
 only, but in several quarters, the risk they would in- 
 volve does not appear to be at all equivalent to the ad- 
 vantage. Perhaps, as the law now stands, there may 
 be legal objections to the Bank's holding foreign se- 
 curities ; but if it be expedient that she should do so, 
 the law might be easily altered. The amount of the 
 discounts of private paper at the Bank and her branch- 
 es varies, as already seen, greatly in dlff'erent periods ; 
 and depends, indeed, wholly on contingent and acci- 
 dental circumstances. Thus, on the' 1st of January, 
 1839, the bills discounted in London amounted to only 
 £396,000, whereas on the 3d of December of the same 
 year they amounted to £3,926,000. The annual aver- 
 age loss by bad debts on the discounts of the Bank 
 of England in London, from 1791 to 1831, both inclu- 
 sive, was £31,698; — A^etidix to Rip. on Bank Charter, 
 No. 60. 
 
 Advances to Government. — These are made on ac- 
 count of the produce of taxes not yet received, and on 
 the security of the Exchequer bills, etc. They varied, 
 from 1792 down to 1810, from about £10,000,000 to 
 about £16j000,000. ■ During the remainder of the war, 
 and down to 1820, they were a good deal lai-ger; but 
 in 1819 provision was made for reducing the amount 
 of these advances; and they do not at present, ex- 
 cluding the permanent advance on account of the dead 
 weight, exceed a fourth part of their amount in 1820. 
 They are represented by the Exchequer bills and defi- 
 ciency bills in the handsof the Bank. 
 
 .Bafa«ccso/"i'w6&iiron«'y.^Ih point of fact, however, 
 a very large part of these advances has been nominal 
 only, or has been virtually canceled by the balances 
 of public money in the hands of the Bank. Thus, from 
 1806 to 1810, both inclusive, the average advances to 
 government amounted to £14,492,970. But the aver- 
 age balance of public money in possession of the Bank 
 during the same period- amounted to about £11,000,000 ; 
 so that the real advance was equal only to the difl'er- 
 ence bet'ween these two sums, or to about £3,500,000. 
 This statement cOmpletelj' negatives, as Mr. Tobke 
 has justly stated, the supposition so commonly enter- 
 tained and reasoned upon as a point beyond doubt, that 
 the Bank was rendered, by the restriction, a mere en- 
 gine in the hand of government for facilitating its 
 financial opferatiOns. — First Letter to Lord Grenville, p. 
 64. The Bank being enabled to employ the greater 
 part of the balances of public money in her hands as 
 capital, they have formed one of the main sources of 
 the profit she has derived from her transactions with 
 the public. This subject was brought very prominently 
 forward in the Second Report of the Committee of the 
 House of Commons on Public Expenditure in 1807. 
 And it was agreed in the same year that the Bank 
 should, in consideration of the advantages derived from 
 the public balances, continue the loan of £3,000,000 
 made to government in 1800 for 6 years without in- 
 terest, on the same terms, till 6 months after the sig- 
 nature of a definitive treaty of peace. In 1816 this 
 sura was finally incorporated with the debt due by gov- 
 iemment to the Bank, at an interest of 3 per cent. " 
 
BAN 
 
 108 
 
 BAN 
 
 Management of Public Debt. — Previously to 1786, the 
 Bank received an allowance on this account ; that is, 
 for trouble in paying the dividends, superintending the 
 transfer of stock, etc., of X562 10s. a million. In 1786 
 this allowance was reduced to £450 a million, the Bank 
 being, at the same time, entitled to a considerable al- 
 lowance for her trouble in receiving contributions on 
 loans, lotteries, etc. This, however, though long re- 
 garded as a very improvident arrangement on the part 
 of the public, was acquiesced in till 1808, when the al- 
 lowance on account of management was reduced to 
 £340 per million on £600,000,000 of the public debt, 
 and to £300 per million on all that it exceeded that 
 sum, exclusive of some separate allowances for annui- 
 ties, etc. The impression, however, was still enter- 
 tained that the allowances for management should be 
 further reduced. In consequence, the act 3 & 4 Will. 
 4, c. 98, directed that £120,000 a year should be de- 
 ducted from their amount ; and the late act, the 7 & 
 8 Vict. c. 32, directs that this deduction shall be in- 
 creased to £180,000. During the year ending the 5th of 
 January, 1846, the Bank received £93,111 19s. lOd. for 
 the management of the public debt and annuities- It 
 should be observed that the responsibility and expense 
 incurred by the Bank in managing the public debt are 
 very great. The temptation to the commission of 
 fraud in transferring stock from one individual to an- 
 other, and in the payment of the dividends, is well 
 known; and notwithstanding the skillfully devised 
 system of checks adopted by the Bank for its preven- 
 tion, she has frequently sustained very great losses by 
 forgery and otherwise. 
 
 In 1803 the Bank lost, through a fraud committed 
 by one of her principal cashiers, Mr. Astlett, no less 
 than £340,000; and the forgeries of Fauntleroy the 
 banker cost her a still larger sum. At an average of 
 the ten years ending with 1831, the Bank lost, through 
 forgeries on the public funds, £40,204 a year. — Report 
 on Bank Charter^ Append.^ p. 165. The total sums 
 paid by the public to the Bank on account of the loans 
 raised, Exchequer bills funded, transfer of 3^ per cent, 
 stock, etc., from 1793 to 1820, both included, amounted 
 to £426,795 Is. lid. — Parliamentary Pajytr^ No. 81, 
 Sess. 1822. 
 
 Dead Weight. — Besides the transactions alluded to, 
 the Bank entered, on the 20th of March, 1823, into an 
 engagement with government with respect to the pub- 
 lic pensions and annuities, or, as they have been more 
 commonly termed, the dead weight. At the end of the 
 war, the naval and military pensions, superannuated 
 allowances, etc., amounted to above £5,000,000 a year. 
 They would, of course, have been gradually lessened 
 and ultimately extinguished by the^ death of the par- 
 ties. But it was resolved in 1822 to attempt to spread 
 the burden equally over the whole period oi forty-five 
 years, during which it was calculated the annuities 
 would continue to decrease. To effect this purpose, it 
 was supposed that, upon government offering to pay 
 £2,800,000 a year for forty-five years, capitalists would 
 be found who would undertake to pay the entire an- 
 nuities, according to a graduated scale previously de- 
 tennined upon, making the first year a payment of 
 £4,900,000, and gradually decreasing the payments un- 
 til the forty-fifth and last year, when they were to 
 amount to only £300,000. This supposition was not, 
 however, realized. No capitalists were found willing 
 to enter into such distant engagements. But in 1823 
 Xh.^ Bank agreed, on condition of receiving an annuity 
 of £585,470 for forty-four years, commencing on the 
 5th of April, 1823, to pay, on account of the pensions, 
 etc., at different specified periods between the years 
 1823 and 1828, both inclusive, the sum of £13,089,419. 
 —4 Geo. 4, c. 22. 
 
 Rate of Discount. — The Bank discounted private bills 
 at 5 per cent, during nearly the whole period from her 
 establishment till 1824, when the rate was reduced to 
 4 per cent. 
 
 From Aug. 8, 1694, to Aug. 80, 1694, on foreign bUla . 6 per cent. 
 
 From Aug. 30, 1694, to Jan. 16, 1695, on " . 4?^ per cent. 
 
 From Oct. 24, 1694, to Jan. 16, 1695, on inland bills . . . 6 percent. 
 
 From Jan. 16, 1695, to May 19, 1695, on foreign bills . . 6 per cent. 
 
 From Jan. 16, 1695, (to cuatomera of thebank) do. ... 3 percent. 
 
 From Jan. 16, 1695, to July 26, ni6, on inland bills , . . 4i^ per cent. 
 
 From May 19, 1695, to Feb. 28, 1704, on foreign bills . . 4 per cent. 
 
 From " on Foreign bills, not payable at the bank . 6 per cent 
 
 From Feb. 28, 1704, to Juno 22, 1710, on foreign bills ■ . B per cent. 
 
 From June 22, 1710, to July 26, 1716, on for. and inland do. 4 per cent. 
 
 FromJulj- 26, 1716, to April 80, 1719, on bills nndnotoB. . 6 percent. 
 
 From April 80, 1719, to Oct. 27, 1T20, on bills 5 per cent. 
 
 From Oct. 27, 1720, to Aug. 23, 1722, on " 4 per cent. 
 
 From Aug. 23, 1722, to Oct. 18, 1742, on inland bills. . . 6 percent. 
 
 From Aug. 23, 1722, to Oct. 18, 1742, on foreign bills . . 4 per cent. 
 
 From Oct. 18, 1742, to Doc. 12, 1744, on " . . 5 per cent. 
 
 From Dec. 13, 1744, to May 1, 1746, on '* (15 d. to run) 4 i>er cent. 
 
 From Dec. 12, 1744, to May ], 1746, on inland bills . . 5 percent. 
 
 From May 1, 1746, to April 5, 1773, on foreign bills . . 5 per cent. 
 From May 1, 1746, to Juno 20, 1822, on bills and notes 
 
 (95 days to run) 4 per cent. 
 
 From June 20, 1822, to Dec. 13, 1825, on " 5 percent. 
 
 From Dec. 13, 1825, to July 6, 1827, on " 5 per cent. 
 
 From July 5, 1827, to July 21, 1836, on " 4 per cent. 
 
 From Ju)y 21, 1836, to Sept. 1, 1836, on " 41^ per cent. 
 
 From Sept. 1, 1836, to July 15, 1838, on " fi per cent. 
 
 From FeD. 18, 1838, to May 16, 1839, on " 4 percent. 
 
 From May 16, 1839, to June 20, 1839, on " 6 percent. 
 
 From June 20, 1839, to Aug. 1, 1839, on " 6?^ per cent. 
 
 From Aug. 1, 1839, to Jan. 23, 1840, on " 6 per cent. 
 
 Froni Jan. 23, 1840, to Oct. 15, 1840, on 65 day bills ... 5 per cent. 
 
 From Oct. 15, 1840, to June 3, 1841, on 95 day bills. . . 5 percent 
 
 From Juno 3, 1841, to April 7, 1842, on " ... 5 per cent 
 
 From April 7, 1S42, to Sept. E, 1844, on " ... 4 per cent 
 
 From Sept. 6, 1844, to Mar. 13, 1845, on bills 2?^ per cent. 
 
 From Sept 5, 1844, to Mnr. 13, 1846, on notes 3 per cent 
 
 From Mar. ' 13, 1845, to Oct. 16, 1846, on minimum rate . . ^% per cent 
 
 From Oct 16, 1845, to Nov. 6, 1846, on " . . 3 percent 
 
 From Nov. fi, 1846, to Aug. 17, 1846, on " ■ . ^h per cent 
 
 From Aug. 17, 184G, to Jan. 14, 1847, on " ■ . 3 per cent 
 
 From Jan. 14, 1847, to Jan. 21, 1847, on " . . 3j^ per cent 
 
 From Jan. 21, 1S47, to April 8, 1847, on . " . . 4 percent. 
 
 From April 8, 1S47, to Aug. 5, 1847, on " . . 6 percent 
 
 From Aug. 5, 1847, to Sept. 23, 1847, on " . . 5^^^ percent 
 
 From Sept 23, 1847, to Oct 26, 1B47, on " . . 6 per cent 
 
 From Oct 25, 1847, to Nov. 22, 1847, on " . . 8 per cent 
 
 From Nov. 22, 1847, to Dec. 2, 1847, on " . . 7 percent. 
 
 From Dec. 2, 1847, to Dec. 23, 1847, on " . . C percent 
 
 From Dec. 23, 1847, to Jan. 27, 1848, on " . . 5 percent 
 
 From Jan. 27, 1848, to Juno 16, 1848, on " . . 4 percent 
 
 From June 15, 1848, to Nov. 2, 1848, on " . . 3^ per "^ent 
 
 From Nov. 2, 1848, to Nov. 22, 1849, on *' . . 3 per cent 
 
 From Nov. 22, 1849, to Dec. 2S, 1850, on " . . 2^; per cent 
 
 From Dee. 26, 1850, to Jan. 1, 1859, on " . . 3 per cent. 
 
 From Jan. 1, 1852, to April 22, 1852, on " . . 2V. per cent 
 
 From April 22, 1852, to Jan. 6, 1863, on " , . 2 per cent 
 
 From Jan. 6, 1853, to Jan. 20, 1853, on " . . 2J-A per cent 
 
 From Jan. 20, 1853, to Juno 2, 1853, ou *' . . 3 per cent 
 
 From June 2, 1863, to Sept 1, 1853, on " . . 3^^ per cent. 
 
 From Sept. 1, 1853, to Sept. 16, 1853, on " , . 4 per cent 
 
 From Sept 15, 1853, to Sept 29, 1853, ou " . . 4?^ per cent. 
 
 From Sept. 29, 1853, to May 11, 1864, on " . . 5 per cent 
 
 From May 11, 1854, to Aug. 3, 3855, ou " . . 6?-^ per cent 
 
 From Aug. 3, 1864, to April 6, 1855, on " . . 5 per cent 
 
 From April 5, 1855, to May 3, 1856, on " . . 4J^ per cent 
 
 From May 3, 1855, to June 14, 1855, on " . . 4 percent 
 
 From Juno 14, 1855, to Sept. 6, 1865, on " . . 31^ per cent 
 
 From Sept. 6, 1855, to Sept. 13, 1865, on " . . 4 percent. 
 
 Prom Sept. 13, 1855, to Sept. 27, 1855, on " . . 4}^ per cent. 
 
 From Sept. 27, 1855, to Oct 4, 1855, on " . . 5 per cent. 
 
 From Oct. 4, 1855, to Oct. IS, 1855, on " . . 5% per cent 
 
 From Oct. 18,1865, on G5 day bills . . . 6 " per cent 
 
 From Oct. 18, 1855, on 95 day biUs ... 7 per cent. 
 
 When the cun-ency happens, from any cause, to become 
 redundant, its contraction, always a matter of some 
 difficulty, is to be effected only (if she hold no foreign 
 securities) by the sale of bullion or public securie.s by 
 the Bank, or by a diminution of the usual discounts, or 
 both. But were the Bank to throw any considerable 
 amount of public securities upon the market, the cir- 
 cumstance would be apt to excite alarm; and, even 
 thoughit didnot,it wouldbe difficult to dispose of them 
 without a heavy loss. Hence, when a reduction is de- 
 termined upon, it is most commonly effected, in part at 
 least, by a contraction of discounts ; and it is plain that 
 such contraction can not be made except by rejecting 
 altogether some of the bills sent in for discount, or, 
 which is in effect the same thing, by shortening their 
 dates, or by raising the rate of interest, so that fewer 
 may be sent in. Of these methods, the last seems to 
 be in every respect the most expedient. When bills 
 are rejected for no other reason than that the cuiTency 
 may be contracted, the greatest injury is done to indi- 
 viduals, who, entertaining no doubt of getting their 
 usual accommodation from the Bank, may have enter- 
 ed into transactions which they are thus deprived of 
 the means of completing. When the reduction is made 
 by raising the rate of interest, it principally affects 
 those who are best able to bear it ; at the same time that 
 its operation, instead of being, like the rejection of bills, 
 arbitrary and capricious, is uniform and impartial. It 
 does, therefore, seem that the Bank should seldom or 
 
BAN 
 
 109 
 
 BAN 
 
 never throw out good billa that she may contract her 
 issues ; but that, when she has resolved upon such a 
 measure, she should, provided the contraction can not 
 bo made by the sale of bullion and public securities, 
 raise the rate of discount so as to lessen the demands 
 upon her for loans. 
 
 The dividends on bank stock, from the establish- 
 ment of the company to the present time, have been as 
 follows : 
 
 Yeori. 
 
 Dividend. 
 
 
 ■ 1B94 
 
 8 per cent. 
 
 
 169T 
 
 9 
 
 
 1T081 
 1729]" 
 
 Varied from 9 to 
 
 
 5^ per cent 
 
 Lady-day 
 
 .. 1730 
 
 
 
 Michaelmas 
 
 .. 1730 
 
 5i " 
 
 Lady-day 
 
 .. 1731 
 
 G 
 
 Michaelmas .... 
 
 .. 1731 
 
 6j- " 
 
 Lady-day ...... 
 
 .. 1732 
 
 6 
 
 Michaelmas.... 
 
 .. 1783 
 
 Bf " 
 
 Lady-day 
 
 .. 1747 
 
 5 
 
 " 
 
 .. 1763 
 
 4} " 
 
 Michaelmas 
 
 . . 1764 
 
 5 
 
 '^ .... 
 
 . . 1767 
 
 5t " 
 
 '* ... 
 
 .. 1781 
 
 
 
 Lady-day 
 
 .. 1788 
 
 7 
 
 „ J 
 
 .. 1807 
 
 10 
 
 .. 1823 
 
 8 
 
 " 
 
 .. 1839 
 
 T 
 
 Previously to 1759, the Bank of England issued no 
 notes for less than .£20. She began to issue £10 notes 
 in 1759 ; £5 notes in 1793 ; and £1 and £2 notes in 
 March, 1797. The issue of the latter may be said to 
 have ceased in 1821, though they were again issued on 
 the emergency in 1825. 
 
 Interest on Deposits. — The Bank of England does not 
 allow, cither in London or at her branches, any inter- 
 est on deposits ; but it would be exceedingly desirable 
 if she could safely make some alteration in this respect. 
 The want of the power readily to invest small sums 
 productively, and at the same time with perfect secu- 
 rity, tends to weaken the motives to save and accumu- 
 late. Nothing has contributed more to diffuse a spirit 
 of economy, and a desire to save, among all classes of 
 the population of Scotland, than the readiness with 
 which deposits of small sums are received by banks of 
 undoubted solidity in that part of the country, and 
 the allowance of interest upon them. — See Scotch 
 Banks. This advantage is now, however, in some 
 degree secured in England, not only by the institution 
 of savings banks, but by the joint-stock banks that 
 have been opened in most parts of the country. The 
 receiving of deposits is, indeed, an essential part of the 
 proper business of a bank. "A banker is a dealer in 
 capital, an intermediate party between the borrower 
 and the lender. He borrows of one party and lends to 
 another ; and the difference between the terms at which 
 he borrows and those at which he lends is the source 
 of his profit. By this means he draws into active op- 
 eration those small sums of money which were pre- 
 viously unproductive in the hands of private individu- 
 als, and at the same time furnishes accommodation to 
 another class, who have occasion for additional capital 
 to carry on their commercial transactions." — See Gil- 
 bart's Practical Observations on Banking^ p. 52. 
 
 In further corroboration of what has now been stated, 
 it may be mentioned tiJiat it is estimated by the best 
 authorities that the deposits in the Scotch banks may 
 amount at present (1846) to about £30,000,000, of which 
 more than a half consists of sums of from £10 to £200 ' 
 This is a most satisfactoiy proof of the vast importance 
 of the system. Perhaps it is not going too far to affirm 
 that but for the receiving of deposits by the banks, and 
 the allowing of interest upon them, not a third part of 
 the sums under £200, and not a half of those above it, 
 would ever have been accumulated. — See Scotch 
 Banks. We are not, however, able to say whether 
 the Bank of England could offer interest on deposits 
 without having so large a sum forced upon her as might 
 in periods of distrust seriously endanger her' stability. 
 
 And it were better that the system should continue as 
 at present, than that any risk of this sort should be in- 
 curred. Since 1826, the private deposits in the hands 
 of the Bank have been greatly augmented. Their in- 
 crease is mainly ascribable to the preceding panic, and 
 the loss that was then occasioned by the failure of pri- 
 vate banks. 
 
 Method of conducting Business at the Banh. — All ac- 
 counts kept at the Bank with individuals are termed 
 drawing accounts ; those with whom they are opened 
 being entitled to draw checks upon them, and to send 
 the bills and drafts in their favor to be presented by 
 the Bank, exactly as if they dealt with private bank- 
 ers. There is no fixed sum with which an individual 
 must open a drawing accoimt ; nor is there any fixed 
 sum which the Bank requires him to keep at his credit 
 to indemnify her for her trouble in answering his 
 drafts, etc. Mr. Horsley Palmer gave in his evidence, 
 in 1832, the following statement as to the facilities 
 granted by the Bank in drawing accounts since 1825 : 
 
 1. The Bank receives dividends by power of attorney 
 for all persons having drawing accounts at the Bank. 
 
 2. Dividend waixants are received at the drawing of- 
 ■Rce for ditto. 3. Exchequer bills and other securities 
 are received for ditto ; the bills exchanged, the interest 
 received, an(J the amount carried to their respective ac- 
 counts. 4. Checks may be drawn for £5 and upward, 
 instead of £10, as heretofore. 5. Cash-boxes taken in, 
 contents unknown, for such parties as keep accounts at 
 the Bank. 6. Bank-notes are paid at the counter, in- 
 stead of drawing tickets for thera on the pay clerks, as 
 heretofore. 7. Checks on city bankers paid in by three 
 o'clock may be drawn for between four and five ; and 
 those paid in before four will be received and passed to 
 account the same evening. 8. Checks paid in after 
 four are sent out at nine o'clock the following morning, 
 received and passed to account, and may be drawn for 
 as soon as received. 9. Dividend warrants taken in at 
 the drawing office until five in the afternoon, instead 
 of three as heretofore. 10. Credits paid in to account 
 are received without the bank-book, and are afterward 
 entered therein without the party claiming them. 11. 
 Bills of exchange accepted payable at the Bank are 
 payable with or without advice ; heretofore with ad- 
 vice only. 12. Notes of country bankers payable in 
 London are sent out the same day for payment. 13. 
 Checks are given out in books, and not in sheets as 
 heretofore. 
 
 A person having a drawing account may have a dis- 
 count account ; but no person can have the latter with- 
 out, at the same time, having the former. When a 
 discount account is opened, the signatures of the par- 
 ties are entered in a book kept for the purpose, and 
 powers of attorney are granted, empowering the per- 
 sons named in them to act for their principals. No 
 bill of exchange drawn in the country is discounted by 
 the Bank in London under £20, nor London note under 
 £100, nor for a longer date, under existing regulations, 
 than three months. The number of holidays foi-merly 
 kept at the Bank has recently been reduced about a 
 half, in the view, as stated by the directors, of prevent- 
 ing the interruption of business. There are no holi- 
 days in the months of March, June, September, and 
 December, excepting Christmas ; Easter Monday and 
 Tuesday are n» longer kept. 
 
 We subjoin an account of the days for transferring 
 stock, and when the dividends are due at the Bank 
 of England, the South Sea House, and the East India 
 House : 
 
 Transfer Days at the Bank. DividandB due. 
 Bank Stock.— Tuesday, Wednesday, Thnrsday,~| 
 
 and Friday .;,:■■■■ l^PF'l„- 
 
 3 per centL Ecd.— Tuesday, Wednesday, Thurs-fOct. 10. 
 
 day, and Friday "..;,"•■ V 
 
 3 per cent 1726.— Tuesday, Wednesday, Thurs-T 
 
 day, and Friday I Jan. 5. 
 
 3 per cent Cons.— Tuesday, Wednesday, Thurs- f July 6. 
 
 day, and Friday J 
 
BAN 
 
 110 
 
 BAN 
 
 Div 
 
 Long. Annuity to Jan., lS60.^-TueBiiay,,WedneE-\ 
 day, Thursday, and Friday . . . , ..,../ 
 
 New Si per cent. Annuity. — Tuesday, Wedhes-) 
 day, Thursday, and Friday 1 
 
 New 5 per cent. Annuity Tuesday, Wednesday, f 
 
 Thursday, and Friday 
 
 Annuities for terms of years, some payable on . . 
 
 Ditto, others on 
 
 Life Annuity, if transferred "between January 5 
 and April 4, or between July 5 and October 9 . . 
 
 Life Annuity, if transferred between April 5 and 
 July 4, or between October 10 and January 4 . . 
 
 idGDcls due. 
 April 5. 
 Oct. 10. 
 
 Jan. 5. 
 July 6. 
 
 April 5. 
 Oct. 10. 
 Jan. 5. 
 July 5. 
 Jan. 5. 
 July S. 
 April 5. 
 Oct. 10. 
 
 At the South Sea House. 
 South Sea Stock. — Monday, "Wednesday, and Fri- ) Jan. 5. 
 
 day J July 5. 
 
 3 per cent. Old Annuity, -~ Monday, "Wednesday, \ April 5. 
 
 and Friday j Oct. 10. 
 
 3 per cent. New Annuity.. — Tuesday, Thursday, { -, g 
 
 and Saturday > , , • r' 
 
 3 per cent. 1751.— Tuesday and Thursday j u ui;. u. 
 
 At the East Tndm House, 
 India Stock. — Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday 
 
 Interest on India bonds, due.. 
 
 Jan. 0. 
 July 5. 
 Mar. 31. 
 Sept. 30. 
 
 Branch Banhs of the Bank of England. — The Bank 
 of England, as already observed, has within these few 
 years established branch banks at several of the most 
 considerable towns throughout the country. The mode 
 and terms of conducting business at these establish- 
 ments have been described as follows: "The branch 
 bank at Swansea (and the same is true of those estab- 
 lished in other places) is to be a secure place of deposit 
 for persons having occasion to make use of a bank for 
 that purpose ; such persons are said to have drawing 
 accounts: to facilitate to the mercantile and trading 
 classes the obtaining discounts of good and unexcep- 
 tionable bills, founded upon real transactions, two ap- 
 proved names being required upon every bill or note 
 discounted; these are called discount accounts. The 
 applications of parties who desire to open discount ac- 
 counts at the branch are forwarded to the parent estab- 
 lishment for approval, and an answer is generally re- 
 ceived in about ten days. "V\'"hen approved, good bills 
 may be discounted at the branch without reference to 
 London. Bills payable at Swansea, London, or any 
 other place where a branch is established, are discount- 
 ed under this regulation. The dividends on any of the 
 public funds, which are payable at the Bank of En- 
 gland, may be received at the branch, by persons who 
 have opened ' drawing accounts,' after signing powers 
 of attorney for that purpose, which the branch will pro- 
 cure from London. No charge is made in this case, 
 except the expense of the power of attorney and the 
 postages incurred in transmitting it. Purchases and 
 sales of every description of government securities are 
 effected by the branch at a charge corresponding to 
 that made by the local bankers where the branch is 
 situated. A commission, including brokerage in Lon- 
 don, and all expenses of postage, is charged on paying 
 at the Bank of England bills accepted by persons hav- 
 ing drawing accounts at Swansea, such bills to be ad- 
 vised by the branch ; also for granting letters of credit 
 on London, or on the other branches. The branch 
 grants bills on London, payable at seven days' date, 
 without acceptance, for sums of JEIO and"upward. Per- 
 sons having drawing accounts at Swansea may order 
 money to be paid at the Bank in London to their credit 
 at Swansea, and vice versa, at a charge of Gd. in lieu of 
 postage. The branch may be caljed upon to change 
 any notes issued and dated at Swansea; but they do 
 not change the notes of the Bank in London, nor re- 
 ceive them in payment, imless as a matter of courtesy 
 where the parties are known. Bank post-billa, which 
 are accepted and due, are received at the branch from 
 parties having drawing accounts, and taken to account 
 without any charge for postage ; but unaccepted bank 
 post-bills, which must be sent to London, are subject 
 
 to the charge of postage, and taken to account when' 
 due. No interest is allowed on deposits^ No advance 
 is made by the branch upon any description of landed 
 or other property, nor is any account allowed to be 
 overdrawn. The notes are the same as those issued by 
 the parent establishment, except being dated SwanseSj 
 and made payable there and in London. No note is- 
 sued exceeds the sum of jESOO, and none are for a less 
 amount than .£5." 
 
 Banh-notes to be legal Tender, except at the Banh and 
 Branch Banks. — From and after the 1st of August, 
 1834, unless and until Parliament shall otherwise di- 
 rect, a tender of a note or notes of the Governor and 
 Company of the Bank of England, expressed to be 
 payable to bearer on demand, shall be a legal tender 
 to the amount expressed in such note or notes,' and 
 shall be taken to be valid as a tender to such amount 
 for all sums above j£5 on all occasions on which/ any 
 tender of money may be legally made, so long as the 
 Bank of England shall continue to pay on demand 
 their said notes in legal coin : provided always, that 
 no such note or notes shall be deemed a legal tendei' 
 of payment by the Governor and Company of the Bank 
 of England, or any branch bank of the said governor 
 and company; but the said governor and company! 
 are not to heCome liable or be required to pay and sat- 
 isfy, at any branch bank of the said governor and 
 company, any note or notes of the said governor and, 
 company not made specially payable at such branch 
 bank; but the said governor and company shall be 
 liable to pay and satisfy' at the Bank of England in 
 London all notes of the said governor and company,- 
 or of any branch thereof. — § 6. 
 
 An Account of tue aveeage Maeket Price of Btjixion in 
 EAon Yeak, from 1800 to 1821 (taken fbom official 
 
 DgGOMENTS) ; OF THE AVERAGE "VaLUE PER CeNT, OF THE 
 CUREENCT, ESTIMATED JlTf THE MARKET PRICE OF GOLU FOE 
 
 THE SAME Period ; and of the average Depreciation 
 PEE Cent. 
 
 yonro. 
 
 AveraKe Prico of 
 Gold per oz. 
 
 Average per Cent, 
 of the Value of 
 Ihe Currency. 
 
 Average Depre- ' 
 ciation per Cent. 
 
 
 £ 8. (?.' 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 £ e. d. 
 
 1800 
 
 3 IT 10} 
 
 100 
 
 Nil. 
 
 1801 
 
 4 6 
 
 91 12 4 
 
 8 7 8 
 
 1802 
 
 4 4 
 
 92 14 2 
 
 7 5 10 
 
 1808 
 
 4 
 
 97 6 10 
 
 2 18 2 
 
 1804 
 
 4 
 
 9T 6 10 
 
 2 13 2 
 
 1805 
 
 4 
 
 97 6 10 
 
 2 13 2 
 
 1808 
 
 4 
 
 97 6 10 
 
 2 13 2 
 
 1801 
 
 4 
 
 97 6 10 
 
 2 13 2 
 
 1808 
 
 4 
 
 97 6 10 
 
 2 13 2 
 
 1809 
 
 4 
 
 97 6 10 
 
 2 13 2 
 
 1810 
 
 4 10 
 
 80 10 6 
 
 13 9 6 
 
 1811 
 
 4 4 6 
 
 93 a 2 
 
 7 16 10 
 
 1812 
 
 4 15 
 
 79 5 3 
 
 20 14 9 
 
 1813 
 
 5 10 
 
 77 2 
 
 22 18 
 
 1814 
 
 6 4 
 
 74 17 6 
 
 26 2 6 
 
 1815 
 
 4 IS G 
 
 83 5 9 
 
 16 14 3 
 
 1816 
 
 4 13 6 
 
 83 6 9 
 
 16 14 3 
 
 181T 
 
 4 
 
 97 6 10 
 
 2 13 2 
 
 1818 
 
 4 
 
 97 6 10 
 
 2 13 2 
 
 1819 
 
 4 10 
 
 95 11 
 
 4 9 
 
 1820 
 
 3 19 11 
 
 97 8 
 
 2 12 
 
 1821 
 
 8 17 lOi^ 
 
 100 
 
 Nil. 
 
 An Accottnt of tue Profits of the Bank of England in 
 
 THE Ye.<UI ending THE 29111 OF FeBKUAET, 1S32; STATING 
 TUE DeSOEIPTION OF THE SECUBITIES nELl> BY TUE BANli, 
 AND THE SOTIECEa FKOM -WHICH THE BAJD PEOFITS HAVE 
 
 ACCRUED.— A^o. 15, A;^end. to Report. 
 
 Interest on commercial bills 
 
 Interest on Exchequer bills 
 
 Annuity for 45 years (the dead-weight ac- 
 count) 
 
 Interest on capital received from government 
 
 Allowance received for management of the 
 public debt 
 
 Interest on loans on mortgages 
 
 Interest on stock in the public funds 
 
 Interest on private loans 
 
 Profit on bullion, commission, rent, receipts 
 on discounted bills unpaid, management of 
 the business of the Banks of Ireland, of 
 Scotland, and Royal Bank of Scotland, and 
 sundry items , . , . 
 
 £130,695 
 204,109 
 
 451,415 
 446,502 
 
 251,896 
 60,684 
 15,075 
 56,941 
 
 71,859 
 
BAN 
 
 111 
 
 BAN" 
 
 An AccotrsT op all Dibteibutioks mai>e by tue Bank op England among the Puophietous op Bank Stock ■wiietiiek 
 BY Money Payments, Teanbpee op 5 pee Cent. ANNUiTiss, or oxim;jiwiSE, ,dhdee the Heads op Bonus, Inoeeabb of 
 
 DlVIDENU, AND InCKEABE OF CAPITAL, UETWEEN, TUE 25T11 OF FeBKUAKV, 1797, AND 81sT OP MaeOH, 1832, IN ADDITION TO 
 THE OKDINARY ANNUAL DIVIDEND OP 7 PER CENT. ON THE CAPITAL STOCK OP TUAT CORPORATION, EXISTING IN 1797, IN- 
 CLVDINO TIIEREIN THE WHOLE blVIllEND PAID SINCE JUNE, 1810, ON THEIE INCREASED CAPITAL ; STATING TUE PeEIOD WHEN 
 
 SUCH Dibteibutioks were made, and the Aggregate AmoCnt op the Whole. 
 
 D«DominatioD and Periods of DiBtribution. 
 
 In June, 1799: £10 percent. bomiB in 5 per cents. 1797, on £11,642,400, ia 
 
 May, 1801 : £5 per cent, ditto, in ^ayy<5 per cents, ditto k.., '.'.['.'. 
 
 November, 1302: £2 lOft per cent, ditto, ditto, ditto !!!!!'.!!! 
 
 October, 1804: £5 per cent, ditto, cash, ditto ; ; ...'.];""""" 
 
 October, 1806 : £6 jicr cent, ditto, ditto, ditto ....;..: '.. 
 
 October, 1806 : £5 per 6ent ditto, ditto, ditto. i ... „..'.'. ; .....'.'.'...'..'.'. 
 
 Prom April, 1807, to October, j Increascbf diyidendsattherateo(£3percent. perannum, on£"ll,642'4ob', 
 
 1822, botli incluBivc ) is, 16 years... .....;.;.■.: 
 
 From' Airii, 1823, to October,' j Increase of dividends atthe rate of £1 per cent, per annum, on £11,642,400, 
 
 1829, both' inclusive , i is, T years ■ ' 
 
 In Jtine, 1816. Increase of capital at 25 per cent., is 
 
 From October, 1816, to Octo- 1 Dividend at the rate of £10 per cent, per annum on £2,910,600, increased 
 
 her, 1822, both inclusive' '} capital, is, 6 J years ... 
 
 Fl'om April, 1823; to October, I Dividend at' the rate of ^8 per cent, per annum, on £2,910,600, increased 
 
 1831, both ihclMye | capital, is, 9 years......... 
 
 Aggregate amount of :the whole. 
 
 Annual dividend payable on Bank stock ill 1797, on a capital of £11,042,400 at the rate of £7 per cent, per 
 
 annum '. ; 
 
 Annual dividend payable since June, 1816, on a capital Of £14,653,000, to October, 1822, inclusive, at the 
 
 rate of £10 per cent, per annum 
 
 Annual dividend payable from April, 1823, to the 31st of March, 1832, both inclusive, on a capital of 
 
 £14,553,000 at the rate of £8 per cehti. per annum ..;... , ". 
 
 £1,184,240 
 582,120 
 291,060 
 582,120 
 582,120 
 582,120 
 
 5,588,352 
 
 2,910,600 
 1,891,890 
 2,095,632 
 
 £17i318,070 
 
 £814,908 
 
 £1,456,300 
 
 £1,164,240 
 
 An Account op the Notes, Post^bii^lb, etc.; of the Bank op England in Ciroulation, on the 28tii of February in 
 
 EAOIYEAE, FRO.M,1698,TO 1792, both INCI.UDED, A8 NEAR AS THE SAME CAN BE MADE UP. 
 
 Yonr. 
 
 28tli February. 
 
 Your. 
 
 28th February. 
 
 Your. 
 
 28th February. 
 
 Year. 
 
 , 28th Pebruery. 
 
 1098 
 
 £ 
 1,221,290 
 
 1722 
 
 £ 
 
 " 2,365,640 
 
 1740 
 
 £ 
 3,383,720 
 
 : 1770 
 
 £ 
 
 5,237,210 
 
 1009 
 
 743,650 
 
 1723 
 
 3,516,110 
 
 1747 
 
 4,107,420 
 
 1771 
 
 6,822,780 
 
 1700 
 
 938,240 
 
 1724 
 
 ■ ,3,232,830 
 
 1748 
 
 3,894,650 
 
 1772 
 
 5,962,160 
 
 1701 
 
 '298,^60 
 
 1725 
 
 ' , 3 'i;84,480 
 
 1749 
 
 3,737,110 
 
 1773 
 
 6,037,060 
 
 1702 
 
 920,730 
 
 1720 
 
 3,076,850 
 
 1750 
 
 3,964,970 
 
 1774 
 
 7,560,780 
 
 1703 
 
 933,760 . 
 
 lt27 ' 
 
 , 3,888,180 , 
 
 1751 
 
 4,022,160 
 
 1775 
 
 9,135,930 
 
 1704 
 
 961,990 
 
 , 1728 
 
 •4:674,92!0 , 
 
 1752 
 
 4,444,960 
 
 17T6 
 
 8,699,720 
 
 i^: 
 
 '556,610 
 
 1729 
 
 4,152,590 : 
 
 1753 
 
 4,401,580 
 
 1777 
 
 8,712,280 
 
 996,840 
 
 ■ 1730 
 
 ,, .3,998,280 , 
 
 1754 
 
 4,002,870 
 
 1T7S . 
 
 7,440,330 
 
 1707 ■ 
 
 969,820 
 
 1731 
 
 ' 4,461,720 , 
 
 17^ 
 
 3,950,660 
 
 1779 
 
 9,012,610 
 
 1708 
 
 648, 6S0 
 
 1732 
 
 " ■ 4,261,660 
 
 1750 
 
 4,100, 7P0 
 
 ■ ITSO 
 
 8,410,790 
 
 1709 
 
 ;707,470- 
 
 1733 
 
 ' 4,^86,060 , 
 
 1757 
 
 5,31(1,130 
 
 ' ■ 1781 
 
 7,092,450 
 
 1710 
 
 601,580 
 
 1734 
 
 ■ .4,203,0710 
 
 1768 
 
 6,320,590 
 
 1 ' 1782 . . 
 
 8,028,880 
 
 1711 
 
 ,477,510 
 
 1736 
 
 4,627,990 
 
 1769 
 
 <t,5g6,8iW 
 
 ; 1783 
 
 7,675,090 
 
 1712 
 
 739,9^0 ' 
 
 1730 
 
 .4,907,790 
 
 1760 
 
 4,969,250 , 
 
 ■1784 
 
 6,202,760 
 
 1713 
 
 , li221,8S0 
 
 • 1737 
 
 5,216,010 
 
 1701 
 
 5,632,360 
 
 1785 
 
 5,923,090 
 
 1714 
 
 l623,0^ 
 
 1738 
 
 4,706,280 
 
 1762 
 
 6,741,090 
 
 1T86 
 
 7,581,960 
 
 1715 
 
 ;972,160 , 
 
 1739 
 
 4,347.270 
 
 1763 
 
 6,999,910 
 
 1787 
 
 8,329,840 
 
 1716 
 
 1)460,660 
 
 1740 
 
 4,660,980 
 
 1764 
 
 5,501,300 
 
 17SS 
 
 9,561,120 
 
 1717' 
 
 2;053,160 
 
 1741 
 
 4,841,840 
 
 1705 
 
 6;316,670 
 
 ■ mo 
 
 9,807,210 
 
 1718 
 
 2,782,420 
 
 1742 
 
 4,471,610 
 
 1766 
 
 6,617,570 
 
 ' 1790 ■ 
 
 10,040,640 
 
 1719 
 
 1,807,010 , 
 
 1743 
 
 4,654,890 
 
 1767 
 
 6,610,900 
 
 1791 
 
 11,439,200 
 
 1720 
 
 2,466,880 
 
 1744 
 
 4,263,010 
 
 ,1708 
 
 5,778,990. 
 
 1792 
 
 11,307,880 
 
 1721 
 
 2,244,280 
 
 1745 
 
 4,279,010 
 
 1709 
 
 5,707,190 
 
 
 
 No previously; published table of tfhe circulation of the Bank of England extendjs further back than 1777 ; 
 we are indebted to the Court of Directors for being able to stfpply this striking defect, and to exhibit for the 
 first time the circulation of the Bank, from within four years of its establishment down to the present day. 
 
 Statement exhibiting tub Town ant> Country Cieculation,' DepositSj Secueities, Bulliqn, etc, op the Bank of 
 England, on the undermentioned days op the following Years. 
 
 Dates. 
 
 Notes in Circulation. 
 
 Deposila. 
 
 Totol 
 Liabilities. 
 
 Securities. 
 
 Bullion.' ■ 
 
 Total Assets. 
 
 Balance of 
 Assets over 
 Liabilities. 
 
 In London. 
 
 In the 
 Country. 
 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ . 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 . £ 
 
 £ . . 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 1332, July 3.... 
 
 14,369,000 
 
 2,734,000 
 
 8,558,000 
 
 25,661,000 
 
 21,230,000 
 
 6,616,00.0 . 
 
 27,846i000 
 
 '2,185;000 
 
 1833, January 1 
 
 14,298,000 
 
 2,778,000 
 
 12,725,000 
 
 29,801,000 
 
 21,947,000 
 
 10,026,000 
 
 31,978,000 
 
 2,172,000 
 
 July 2 . . . . 
 
 15,783,000 
 
 3,159,000 
 
 12,836,000 
 
 31,778,000 
 
 22,683,000 
 
 11,391,000 
 
 34,074,000 
 
 2,296,000 
 
 1834, January 7 
 
 14,193,000 
 
 8,220,000 
 
 19,889,000 
 
 37,811,000 
 
 29,694,000 
 
 10,142,000 
 
 89,886,000 
 
 2,625,000 
 
 July 1 . . . . 
 
 15,518,000 
 
 3,171,000 
 
 15,873,000 
 
 34,062,000 
 
 27,471,000 
 
 8,885,000 
 
 36,356,000 
 
 2,294,000 
 
 1885, January 6 
 
 18,850,000 
 
 3,156,000 
 
 17,894,000 
 
 84,899,000 
 
 80,933,000 
 
 6,838,000 
 
 37,771,000 
 
 2,872,000 
 
 July 7 . . . . 
 
 14,081,000 
 
 3,329,000 
 
 17,702,000 
 
 85,112,000 
 
 81,445,000 
 
 6,536,000 
 
 37,981,000 
 
 2,869,000 
 
 1836, January 5 
 
 18,318,000 
 
 8,896,000 
 
 20,429,000 
 
 37,143,000 
 
 82,057,000 
 
 7,697,000 
 
 39,764,000 
 
 2,611,000 
 
 July 5 . . . . 
 
 13,715,000 
 
 3,596,000 
 
 16,316,000 
 
 33,826,000 
 
 29,397,000 
 
 6,714,000 
 
 86,111,000 
 
 2,785,000 
 
 1837, January 3 
 
 13,023,000 
 
 4,074,000 
 
 16,678,000 
 
 88,775,000 
 
 82,447,000 
 
 4,221,000 
 
 36,668,000 
 
 2,893,000 
 
 July 4.... 
 
 13,149,000 
 
 8,736,000 
 
 10,257,000 
 
 27,141,000 
 
 24,689,000 
 
 6,577,000 
 
 30,166,000 
 
 3,026,000 
 
 1838, January 2 
 
 13.369,000 
 
 8,723,000 
 
 11,230,000 
 
 28,322,000 
 
 20,927,000 
 
 9,909,000 
 
 30,836,000 
 
 2,614,000 
 
 July 8 . . . . 
 
 14,699,000 
 
 4,038,000 
 
 9,199,000 
 
 27,986,000 
 
 20,690,000 
 
 9,980,000 
 
 80,570,000 
 
 2,634,000 
 
 1839, January 1 
 
 13,461,000 
 
 4,068,000 
 
 11,327,000 
 
 28,856,000 
 
 22,377,000 
 
 9,048,000 
 
 31,426,000 
 
 2,569,006 
 
 July 2 . . . . 
 
 13,442,000 
 
 '4,169,000 
 
 7,489,000 
 
 25,100,000 
 
 24,061,000 
 
 3,676,000 
 
 27,737,000 
 
 2,637,000 
 
 1840, January 7 
 
 11,621,000 
 
 3,926,000 
 
 14618,000 
 
 30,065,000 
 23,905,000 
 
 28,411,000 
 
 4,508,000 
 
 32,919,000 
 
 2,854,000 
 
 July 7 . . . . 
 
 12,641,000 
 
 3,971,000 
 
 7,293,000 
 
 21,916,000 
 
 4,819,000 
 
 26,731,000 
 
 2,829,000 
 
 1841, January 5 
 
 11,650,000 
 
 3,971,000 
 
 8,479,000 
 
 24,100,000 
 
 22,860,000 
 
 4,063,000 
 
 26,913,000 
 
 2,8l3,000 
 
 July 6 . . . . 
 
 ■ 12,357,000 
 
 4,167,000 
 
 14,728,000 
 
 31,252,000 
 
 28,947,000 
 
 5,319,000 
 
 34,266,000 
 
 3,014,000 
 
 1842, January 4 
 
 11,816,000 
 
 '4,364.000 
 
 9,008,000 
 
 25,187,000 
 
 22,812,000 
 
 6,602,000 
 
 28,114,000 
 
 2,927,000 
 
 July 2.... 
 
 13,261,000 
 
 4,963,000 
 
 8,670,000 
 
 26,894,000 
 
 21,002,000 
 
 8,593,000 
 
 , 29,595,000 
 
 2,701,000 
 
 1843, Januaiy 7 . . . . 
 
 13,304,000 
 
 5,214,000 
 
 .16,534,000 
 
 36,062,000 
 
 26,706,000 
 
 10,932,000 
 
 37,638,000 
 
 2,686,000 
 
BAN 
 
 112 
 
 BAN 
 
 A EETtmN OF THE AVEKAGE AgQKEQATE AmOUNT OF PEOMIBSOEY NOTEB, PAYABLE TO BeAREB ON DEMAND, IN CIKOTJLATION 
 
 IN THE United Kingdom in tue Months of January and July, distinguishing those oieculated jnr the Banks or 
 England and Ireland, and by Peivate and Joint-stook Banks in England, Scotland, and Ieelahd, together with 
 THE Bullion in the Bank of England, feom Septembek, 1833, to January, 1843. 
 
 DotoB. 
 
 Eugland. 
 
 i Scotland. 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 Total Issues 
 
 in the 
 
 Unitid 
 
 Kingdom. 
 
 Bullion in 
 
 the Bank of 
 
 England. 
 
 Bank of 
 England. 
 
 Private 
 Bonks. 
 
 JoinUtock 
 Banks. 
 
 Unretumed. 
 
 Private and 
 
 Joint.stock 
 
 Banks. 
 
 Bank of 
 Ireland. 
 
 Private and 
 
 Joint-stock 
 
 Banks. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £, 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 1833, September 
 
 19,014,000 
 
 0,168,037 
 
 1,116,621 
 
 2,807,086 
 
 2,644,496 
 
 8,678,900 
 
 1,112,155 
 
 86,085,244 
 
 10,844,260 
 
 1S34, January . 
 
 19,284,500 
 
 6,021,623 
 
 1,200,686 
 
 2,195,989 
 
 3,004,933 
 
 4,017,600 
 
 1,520,578 
 
 37,856,663 
 
 9,962,500 
 
 July 
 
 19,483,400 
 
 6,368,122 
 
 1,537,511 
 
 2,064,514 
 
 3,103,239 
 
 3,638,300 
 
 1,134,764 
 
 37,329,850 
 
 8,403,600 
 
 1835, January . 
 
 18,547,500 
 
 6,670,988 
 
 1,822,481 
 
 1,867,577 
 
 3,060,828 
 
 3,863,560 
 
 1,702,956 
 
 37,526,900 
 
 6,552,500 
 
 July 
 
 13,864,760 
 
 0,635,866 
 
 2,130,968 
 
 1,321,730 
 
 3,053,053 
 
 8,491,175 
 
 3,276,589 
 
 37,178,630 
 
 6,268,500 
 
 1S36, January . 
 
 17,953,500 
 
 6,842,803 
 
 2,472,267 
 
 1,898,915 
 
 3,091,610 
 
 3,484,620 
 
 2,035,709 
 
 37,779,324 
 
 7,032,000 
 
 July 
 
 18,532,750 
 
 0,710,830 
 
 3,371,942 
 
 1,491,240 
 
 3,230,066 
 
 3,230,600 
 
 1,940,976 
 
 88,654,404 
 
 6,224,250 
 
 1837, January . 
 
 18,735,000 
 
 0,831,721 
 
 3,661,669 
 
 640,983 
 
 3,149,321 
 
 3,487,150 
 
 2,148,361 
 
 38,649,195 
 
 3,990,600 
 
 July 
 
 19,174,500 
 
 6,229,418 
 
 3,366,911 
 
 346,242 
 
 2,977,539 
 
 8,091,300 
 
 1,444,762 
 
 36,619,672 
 
 6,857,000 
 
 1838, Januaiy . 
 
 18,948,000 
 
 0,669,282 
 
 3,763,137 
 
 271,498 
 
 8,000,288 
 
 3,812,600 
 
 2,246,424 
 
 38,201,279 
 
 9,912,000 
 
 July 
 
 20,249,400 
 
 6,762,565 
 
 4,239,538 
 
 260,719 
 
 3,121,882 
 
 3,222,360 
 
 1,896,763 
 
 39,743,007 
 
 9,680,800 
 
 1839, January . 
 
 18,564,800 
 
 7,539,120 
 
 4,666,369 
 
 232,592 
 
 3,244,603 
 
 3,651,525 
 
 3,090,246 
 
 40,779,265 
 
 8,813,800 
 
 July 
 
 18,407,800 
 
 6,847,002 
 
 4,243,419 
 
 84,891 
 
 3,166,761 
 
 3,193,176 
 
 2,074,422 
 
 38,016,470 
 
 3,118,800 
 
 1840, Januaiy . 
 
 17,316,000 
 
 6,026,674 
 
 3,941,507 
 
 62,376 
 
 3,076,685 
 
 3,265,650 
 
 2,715,045 
 
 37,003,137 
 
 4,364,600 
 
 July 
 
 17,681,000 
 
 6,336,824 
 
 3,097,041 
 
 67,921 
 
 3,228,695 
 
 2,979,950 
 
 1,876,661 
 
 36,S57,982 
 
 4,499,750 
 
 1841, January . 
 
 10,852,250 
 
 6,301,992 
 
 3,687,819 
 
 164,717 
 
 3,174,655 
 
 3,213,200 
 
 2,366,264 
 
 36,660,297 
 
 3,905.250 
 
 July 
 
 17,976,000 
 
 5,907,682 
 
 3,418,810 
 
 
 3,181,594 
 
 8,055,026 
 
 1,005,672 
 
 35,444,788 
 
 5,011,000 
 
 1842, January . 
 
 16,293,000 
 
 5,478,189 
 
 3,042,197 
 
 .... 
 
 3,070,075 
 
 3,206,875 
 
 2,616,677 
 
 33,005,013 
 
 5,629,000 
 
 July 
 
 19,908,000 
 
 5,166,681 
 
 2,939,195 
 
 
 2,715,680 
 
 2,842,775 
 
 1,680,987 
 
 85,303,218 
 
 8,883,000 
 
 1843, January . 
 
 18,233,000 
 
 4,942,825 
 
 2,839,909 
 
 
 
 2,770,833 
 
 3,112,950 
 
 2,099,641 
 
 34,049,163 
 
 11,064,000 
 
 Account of the Circulation, Deposits, Secueities, Bullion, and Suepltts (BxcLtrsrvE of Capital) of the Assets over 
 THE Liabilities of the Bank of England at (or as near thereto as the Accounts can be made up) the under-men- 
 tioned Dates in each of the following Yeaks. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Rest or Surplus 
 
 Dates. 
 
 Cironlalion. 
 
 Deposits. 
 
 Seciiritios. 
 
 Bullion. 
 
 of Assets over 
 Liabilities. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 1793, February 28 
 
 11,888,910 
 
 5,346,450 
 
 16,005,250 
 
 4,010,680 
 
 2,780,670 
 
 August 31 
 
 10,865,050 
 
 0,442,810 
 
 14,809,080 
 
 6,322,010 
 
 2,823,830 
 
 1794, February 28 
 
 10,744,020 
 
 7,891,810 
 
 14,624,550 
 
 6,987,110 
 
 2,875,830 
 
 August 30 
 
 10,286,780 
 
 5,935,710 
 
 12,440,460 
 
 0,770,110 
 
 2,994,080 
 
 1796, February 28 
 
 14,017,510 
 
 6,973,020 
 
 16,811,340 
 
 0,127,720 
 
 2,948,530 
 
 August 31 
 
 10,862,200 
 
 8,154,930 
 
 16,939,920 
 
 6,136,350 
 
 3,109,090 
 
 1796, February 28 
 
 10,729,520 
 
 5,702,300 
 
 17,189,840 
 
 2,539,630 
 
 3,247,600 
 
 August 31 
 
 9,246,790 
 
 6,656,320 
 
 17,025,470 
 
 2,122,950 
 
 3,245,310 
 
 1797, February 28 
 
 9,674,780 
 
 4,391,530 
 
 10,337,750 
 
 1,086,170 
 
 3,357,610 
 
 August 31 
 
 11,114,120 
 
 7,766,360 
 
 18,201,170 
 
 4,089,620 
 
 3,471,320 
 
 1793, February 28 
 
 13,095,330 
 
 6,148,900 
 
 16,799,500 
 
 5,828,940 
 
 3,883,710 
 
 August 31 
 
 12,130,610 
 
 8,300,720 
 
 17,349,640 
 
 0,546,100 
 
 3,414,410 
 
 1799, Februaiy 23 
 
 12,959,800 
 
 8,131,820 
 
 17,039,030 
 
 7,563,900 
 
 3,511,310 
 
 August 31 
 
 13,389,490 
 
 7,042,240 
 
 10,930,440 
 
 7,000,780 
 
 2,899,490 
 
 1800, February 28 
 
 16,844,470 
 
 7,062,680 
 
 21,024,050 
 
 6,144,260 
 
 3,661,150 
 
 August 31 
 
 16,047,180 
 
 8,335,000 
 
 22,138,420 
 
 6,150,460 
 
 3,906,630 
 
 1801, Febmary 28 
 
 10,218,280 
 
 10,745,840 
 
 26,424,780 
 
 4,040,120 
 
 4,105,730 
 
 August 31 
 
 14,550,110 
 
 3,133,830 
 
 22,209,670 
 
 4,335,260 
 
 3,354,890 
 
 1302, February 28 
 
 15,186,830 
 
 6,363,210 
 
 21,969,820 
 
 4,152,950 
 
 4,007,680 
 
 August 31 
 
 17,097,630 
 
 9,739,140 
 
 27,113,300 
 
 3,891,780 
 
 4,168,870 
 
 1803, February 28 
 
 15,319,930 
 
 8,050,240 
 
 23,914,900 
 
 8,776,760 
 
 4,321,480 
 
 August 31 
 
 16,933,380 
 
 9,817,240 
 
 26,918,840 
 
 3,692,600 
 
 4,710,770 
 
 1304, February 29 
 
 17,077,880 
 
 8,076,830 / 
 
 26,998,970 
 
 3,372,140 
 
 4,616,450 
 
 August 31 
 
 17,153,890 
 
 9,715,530 
 
 26,826,680 
 
 6,379,190 
 
 4,830,450 
 
 1805, February 23 
 
 17,371,170 
 
 12,083,620 
 
 28.e61,.390 
 
 6,333,800 
 
 4,690,400 
 
 August 31 
 
 16,388,400 
 
 14,043,030 
 
 27,772,850 
 
 7,624.600 
 
 4,960,870 
 
 1806, February 28 
 
 17,730,120 
 
 9,980,790 
 
 26,691,070 
 
 5,987,190 
 
 4,807,850 
 
 August 31 
 
 21,027.470 
 
 9,630,880 
 
 29,473,100 
 
 6,215,020 
 
 6,024,320 
 
 1807, February 28 
 
 10,960,080 
 
 11,829,320 
 
 27,408,400 
 
 6,142,840 
 
 4,771,300 
 
 August 31 
 
 19,078,360 
 
 11,739,200 
 
 29,936,950 
 
 6,484,350 
 
 4,968,740 
 
 1803, February 29 
 
 18.138,860 
 
 11,961,960 
 
 27,384,080 
 
 7,856,470 
 
 5,088,780 
 
 August 31 
 
 17,111,290 
 
 13,012,510 
 
 29,244,090 
 
 6,016,940 
 
 6,136,230 
 
 1309, February 28 
 
 18,642,860 
 
 9,982,950 
 
 29,118,200 
 
 4,488,700 
 
 6,081,090 
 
 August 31 
 
 19,674,180 
 
 12,25.7,180 
 
 83,436,270 
 
 3,652,480 
 
 5,256,390 
 
 1810, Februaiy 28 
 
 21,019,600 
 
 12,457,310 
 
 33,878,530 
 
 3,501,410 
 
 5,403,080 
 
 August 31 
 
 24,793,990 
 
 18,617,520 
 
 40,973,770 
 
 3,191,850 
 
 5,764,110 
 
 1311, iFebrunry 28 
 
 23,360,220 
 
 11,445,060 
 
 37,122,350 
 
 3,350,940 
 
 5,667,420 
 
 August 31 
 
 23,280,350 
 
 11,075,660 
 
 37,083,280 
 
 8,243,300 
 
 6,964,070 
 
 1812, February 29 
 
 23,403,320 
 
 11,596,200 
 
 38,026,290 
 
 2,983,190 
 
 6,006,960 
 
 August 31 
 
 23,026,830 
 
 11,843,910 
 
 38,176,120 
 
 3,099,270 
 
 6,399,600 
 
 1813, February 27 
 
 23,210,930 
 
 11,268,180 
 
 ?7,930,960 
 
 2,884,600 
 
 6,336,340 
 
 August 31 
 
 24,828,120 
 
 11,159,730 
 
 40,100,080 
 
 2,712,270 
 
 6,880,500 
 
 1314, February 28 
 
 24,801,080 
 
 12,455,460 
 
 41,989,910 
 
 2,204,480 
 
 6,937,800 
 
 August 31 
 
 28,868,290 
 
 14,849,940 
 
 48,345,960 
 
 2,097,680 
 
 7,225,410 
 
 1815, February 28 
 
 27,261,650 
 
 11,702,260 
 
 44,553,600 
 
 2,036,910 
 
 7,681,510 
 
 August 31 
 
 27,248,670 
 
 12,696,000 
 
 44,854,180 
 
 3,409,040 
 
 8,318,650 
 
 1816, February 29 
 
 27,013,620 
 
 12,338,890 
 
 45,401,310 
 
 4,640,880 
 
 8,039,080 
 
 August 31 
 
 26,758,720 
 
 11,856,380 
 
 37,279,540 
 
 7,562,780 
 
 6,227,220 
 
 1317, February 23 
 
 27,397,900 
 
 10,825,610 
 
 34,278,630 
 
 9,680,970 
 
 5,730,090 
 
 August 30 
 
 29,543,780 
 
 9,084,590 
 
 82,605,680 
 
 11,663,260 
 
 6,645,520 
 
 1818, February 28 
 
 27,770,970 
 
 7,997,550 
 
 30,905.330 
 
 10,055,460 
 
 6,192,270 
 
 August 31 
 
 26,202,150 
 
 7,927,730 
 
 32,370,760 
 
 6,363,160 
 
 4,604,040 
 
 1819, February 27 
 
 2.5,126,700 
 
 6,413,370 
 
 31,456,000 
 
 4,184,620 
 
 4,009,660 
 
 August 31 
 
 25,252,690 
 
 6,304,160 
 
 81,740,560 
 
 8,695,360 
 
 3,779,060 
 
 1820, February 29 
 
 23,484,110 
 
 4,093,650 
 
 26,187,490 
 
 4,911.050 
 
 8,620,880 
 
 August 31 
 
 24,299,340 
 
 4,420,910 
 
 23,846,120 
 
 8,211,030 
 
 3,336,950 
 
 1821, February 28 
 
 23,384,920 
 
 5,622,890 
 
 20,796,270 
 
 11,869,900 
 
 3,158,360 
 
 August 31 
 
 20,295,300 
 
 5,818,450 
 
 18,475,540 
 
 11,283,590 
 
 3,595,830 
 
BAN 
 
 113 
 
 BAN 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Rest or Snrplos 
 
 Sites. 
 
 Circulation. 
 
 Deposits. 
 
 Secnrities. 
 
 Bullion. 
 
 of Aaaeig over 
 Liabilities. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 1822, February 28 
 
 18,666,350 
 
 4,689,940 
 
 15,973,080 
 
 11,067,150 
 
 3,674,940 
 
 August 31 
 
 17,464,790 
 
 6,399,440 
 
 17,290,510 
 
 10,097,960 
 
 3,624,240 
 
 1823, February 28 
 
 18,892,240 
 
 7,181,100 
 
 18,319,730 
 
 10,384,230 
 
 3,130,620 
 
 August 30 
 
 19,231,240 
 
 7,827,350 
 
 17,467,370 
 
 12,058,240 
 
 3,067,020 
 
 1824, February 28 
 
 19,730,990 
 
 10,097;850 
 
 18,872,000 
 
 13,810,060 
 
 2,847,220 
 
 August 31 
 
 20,132,120 
 
 9,679,810 
 
 20,904,530 
 
 11,787,430 
 
 2,880,030 
 
 18C5, February 28 
 
 20,753,760 
 
 10,168,780 
 
 24,961,330 
 
 8,779,100 
 
 2,807,890 
 
 August 31 
 
 19,398,840 
 
 6,410,660 
 
 26,106,030 
 
 3,634,320 
 
 2,930,950 
 
 1826, February 28 
 
 25,467,910 
 
 6,935,940 
 
 32,918,680 
 
 2,469,510 
 
 2,974,240 
 
 August 31 
 
 21,563,560 
 
 7,199,860 
 
 25,083,630 
 
 6,754,230 
 
 3,074,440 
 
 182T, February 28 
 
 21,890,610 
 
 8,801,660 
 
 23,529,630 
 
 10j159,020 
 
 2,996,280 
 
 August 81 
 
 22,747,600 
 
 8,052,090 
 
 23,199,320 
 
 10;463,770 
 
 2,863,400 
 
 1828, February 29 
 
 21,980,710 
 
 9,198,140 
 
 23,581,270 
 
 10,347,290 
 
 2,749,710 
 
 August 30 
 
 21,357,510 
 
 10,201,280 
 
 23,906,630 
 
 10,498,880 
 
 2,845,620 
 
 1829, February 28 
 
 19,870,860 
 
 9,683,960 
 
 25,384,760 
 
 6,835,020 
 
 2,794,960 
 
 August 31 
 
 19,647,380 
 
 9,035,070 
 
 24,661,810 
 
 6,795,530 
 
 2,874,890 
 
 1830, Febrxiary 2T 
 
 20,050,730 
 
 10,763,150 
 
 24,204,390 
 
 9,171,000 
 
 2,561,610 
 
 August 30 
 
 21,464,700 
 
 11,620,840 
 
 24,566,690 
 
 11,150,480 
 
 2,630,630 
 
 1831, February 28 
 
 19,600,140 
 
 11,213,530 
 
 25,208,980 
 
 8,217,050 
 
 2,612,380 
 
 August 31 
 
 18,538,630 
 
 9,069,310 
 
 23,906,030 
 
 6,439,760 
 
 2,736,860 
 
 1832, February 29 
 
 18,051,710 
 
 8,937,170 
 
 24,333,490 
 
 6,293,150 
 
 2,637,760 
 
 August 28 
 
 18,320,000 
 
 10,278,000 
 
 23,420,000 
 
 7,514,000 
 
 2,336,000 
 
 1833, February 26 
 
 19,372,000 
 
 12,455,000 
 
 23,850,000 
 
 10,205,000 
 
 2,228,000 
 
 August 2T 
 
 19,925,000 
 
 11,927,000 
 
 23,246,000 
 
 10,871,000 
 
 2,264,000 
 
 1834, February 25 
 
 19,050,000 
 
 13,087,000 
 
 26,212,000 
 
 9,225,000 
 
 2,300,000 
 
 August 26 
 
 19,195,000 
 
 13,300,000 
 
 27,732,000 
 
 7,303,000 
 
 2,640,000 
 
 1886, February 24 
 
 18,510,000 
 
 10,071,000 
 
 24,896,000 
 
 6,289,000 
 
 2,603,000 
 
 August 26 
 
 18,086,000 
 
 13,725,000 
 
 28,173,000 
 
 6,255,000 
 
 ■ 2,618,000 
 
 1836, February 23 
 
 18,181,000 
 
 14,044,000 
 
 27,368,000 
 
 7,787,000 
 
 2,930,000 
 
 August 30 
 
 18,018,000 
 
 12,040,000 
 
 27,697,000 
 
 6,250,000 
 
 2,889,000 
 
 183T, February 28 
 
 18,105,000 
 
 10,007,000 
 
 27,297,000 
 
 4,077,000 
 
 3,202,000 
 
 August 29 
 
 18,887,000 
 
 10,040,000 
 
 25,357,000 
 
 0,548,000 
 
 2,978,000 
 
 1838, February 27 
 
 18,975,000 
 
 10,825,000 
 
 21,958,000 
 
 10,471,000 
 
 2,629,000 
 
 August 28 
 
 19,488.000 
 
 8,922,000 
 
 21,611,000 
 
 9,540,000 
 
 2,741,000 
 
 1839, February 26 
 
 18,098,000 
 
 7,739,000 
 
 21,741,000 
 
 6,773,000 
 
 2,677,000 
 
 August 27 
 
 17,E82,000 
 
 6,488,000 
 
 25,141,000 
 
 2,420,000 
 
 8,001,000 
 
 1840, February 25 
 
 16,504,000 
 
 0,556,000 
 
 21,011,000 
 
 ■ 4,311,000 
 
 2,862,000 
 
 August 25 
 
 17,170,000 
 
 6,254,000 
 
 22,075,000 
 
 4,299,000 
 
 2,!:60,000 
 
 1841, February 23 
 
 16,399,000 
 
 6,407,000 
 
 21,344,000 
 
 4,335,000 
 
 2,873,000 
 
 August 31 
 
 17,370,000 
 
 6,976,000 
 
 22,602,000 
 
 4,822,000 
 
 3,079,000 
 
 1842, February 22 
 
 16,920.000 
 
 8,239,000 
 
 22,124,000 
 
 6,119,000 
 
 3,084,000 
 
 August 27 
 
 20,332,000 
 
 8,690,000 
 
 22,169,000 
 
 9,729,000 
 
 2,866,000 
 
 1343, February 26 
 
 20,218,000 
 
 11,520,000 
 
 23,664,000 
 
 11,016,000 
 
 2,872,000 
 
 An Account of the Notes in cieoulation op the Bank of 
 
 England, 
 
 AND OF THE 
 
 OTHER Banks op Issue 
 
 IN England 
 
 AND Wales, Scoti.ani>, and Ireland 
 
 SPECIFYING ALSO THE 
 
 Bullion in 
 
 THE Bank 
 
 OF England 
 
 
 Four Weel£9 ending 
 
 England. 
 
 Scotland. 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Bnllion In 
 the Bank of 
 
 Bonk of 
 
 Private 
 
 Joint-Stock 
 
 Chartered, 
 Private, and 
 
 Bank of 
 
 Private and 
 
 
 Englond. 
 
 Banlcs. 
 
 Banks. 
 
 Joiiitetock 
 Banks. 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 Banks. 
 
 
 England. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 24 July, 1841 
 
 17,976,000 
 
 5,907,682 
 
 3,418,810 
 
 3,181,694 
 
 3,056,025 
 
 1,905,672 
 
 35,444,783 
 
 6,011,000 
 
 8 January, 1842 
 
 16,203.000 
 
 5,478,189 
 
 3,042,197 
 
 3,070,076 
 
 3,205,876 
 
 2,516,677 
 
 33,605 013 
 
 5,629,000 
 
 2 April, " 
 
 16,674,000 
 
 5,289,050 
 
 3,047,656 
 
 2,670,290 
 
 3,074,125 
 
 2,259,566 
 
 33,014,677 
 
 7,006,000 
 
 23 July, " 
 
 19,908,000 
 
 5,166,581 
 
 2,939,195 
 
 2,715,680 
 
 2,892,775 
 
 1,680,987 
 
 85,303,218 
 
 8,883,000 
 
 15 October, " 
 
 19,503,000 
 
 6,488,661 
 
 3,064,639 
 
 2,743,796 
 
 3,041,150 
 
 2,002,784 
 
 35,843,929 
 
 9,801,000 
 
 7 January, 1843 
 
 18,283,000 
 
 4,942,826 
 
 2,839,909 
 
 2,770,838 
 
 3,112,860 
 
 2,099,641 
 
 34,049,163 
 
 11,054,000 
 
 1 April, " 
 
 19,539,000 
 
 4,716,506 
 
 2,862,986 
 
 2,467,604 
 
 3,085.400 
 
 2,019,740 
 
 34,681,236 
 
 11,420,000 
 
 22 July, " 
 
 19,809,000 
 
 4,460,098 
 
 2,840,312 
 
 2,665,326 
 
 3,089,100 
 
 1,681,953 
 
 34,545,794 
 
 11,872,000 
 
 14 October, " 
 
 19,024,000 
 
 4,721,109 
 
 8,130,002 
 
 2,762,353 
 
 3,232,675 
 
 2.058,845 
 
 34,928,884 
 
 12,036,000 
 
 6 January, 1844 
 
 18,964,000 
 
 4,822,675 
 
 3,234,999 
 
 2,901,746 
 
 3,489,650 
 
 2,361,189 
 
 35,774,269 
 
 14,838,000 
 
 27 April, " 
 
 21,839,000 
 
 5,295,239 
 
 3,752,867 
 
 ■2,714,627 
 
 3,626,925 
 
 2.357,446 
 
 39,685,104 
 
 15,884,000 
 
 20July, " 
 
 21,448,000 
 
 4,624,179 
 
 3,840,326 
 
 2,903,322 
 
 3,440,700 
 
 1,974,284 
 
 37,730,811 
 
 16,485,000 
 
 12 October, " 
 
 21,029,000 
 
 4,674,162 
 
 3,331,516 
 
 2,987,665 
 
 3,597,850 
 
 2,466,261 
 
 88,076,454 
 
 14,882,000 
 
 4 January, 1845 
 
 20,301,000 
 
 4,429,464 
 
 3,050,862 
 
 8,159,450 
 
 8,917,800 
 
 8,065,751 
 
 37,930,817 
 
 14,867,000 
 
 20 April, " 
 
 22,078,000 
 
 4,680,648 
 
 3,806,245 
 
 3,001,240 
 
 4,036,400 
 
 3,016,231 
 
 40,118,764 
 
 15,924,000 
 
 19 July, " 
 
 22,076,000 
 
 4,478,679 
 
 3,158,775 
 
 3,333,906 
 
 3,860,476 
 
 2,633,657 
 
 39,541,492 
 
 16,274,000 
 
 11 October, " 
 
 21,890,000 
 
 4,55:),712 
 
 3,311,627 
 
 3,428,074 
 
 3,907,025 
 
 2,926,265 
 
 40,022,603 
 
 14,988,000 
 
 3 January, 1846 
 
 21,028,000 
 
 4,505,823 
 
 3,162,742 
 
 3,336,409 
 
 4,351,200 
 
 3,053,166 
 
 39,437,340 
 
 13,313,000 
 
 26 April, " 
 
 21,279,000 
 
 4,736,786 
 
 3.301,184 
 
 3,096,317 
 
 4,355,026 
 
 3,181,298 
 
 39,949:610 
 
 13,682,000 
 
 18 July, " 
 
 21,284,000 
 
 4,410,685 
 
 3,088,619 
 
 3,390,060 
 
 3,995,875 
 
 2,690,616 
 
 38,859,765 
 
 15,898,000 
 
 10 October, " 
 
 21,194,000 
 
 4,666,748 
 
 3,262,588 
 
 3,665,155 
 
 4,184,676 
 
 3,066,980 
 
 40,040,046 
 
 15,983,000 
 
 2 January, 1847 
 
 20,633,000 
 
 4,625,865 
 
 3,138,321 
 
 3,787,151 
 
 4,212,2-26 
 
 3,303.189 
 
 39,699,741 
 
 16,083,000 
 
 27 March, " 
 
 20,087,000 
 
 4,541,543 
 
 3,247,531 
 
 3,360,348 
 
 3,867,800 
 
 2,846,936 
 
 37,941,158 
 
 11,322,000 
 
 1 January, 1848 
 
 17,924,990 
 
 3,528,197 
 
 2,410,276 
 
 3,341,317 
 
 3,088,700 
 
 2,107,416 
 
 32,400,896 
 
 12,404,250 
 
 27 January, 1849 
 
 19,292,000 
 
 3,651,797 
 
 2,621,819 
 
 3,032,872 
 
 2,717,635 
 
 1,967,214 
 
 33,273,227 
 
 15,015,000 
 
 26 January, 1850 
 
 20,244,000 
 
 3,686,291 
 
 2,680,457 
 
 3,112,859 
 
 2,690,800 
 
 1,979,024 
 
 34,392,431 
 
 16,868,000 
 
 26 January, 1851 
 
 20,806,000 
 
 3,673,292 
 
 2,728,624 
 
 3,252,485 
 
 2,646,150 
 
 2,186,501 
 
 35,142,062 
 
 14,607,000 
 
 24 January, 1862 
 
 21,485,000 
 
 3,494,416 
 
 2,743,351 
 
 3,283,602 
 
 2,484,660 
 
 2,196,806 
 
 35,686,725 
 
 17,683,000 
 
 22 January, 1853 . . 
 
 24,848,000 
 
 3,771,528 
 
 2,989,578 
 
 3,612,710 
 
 2,896,100 
 
 2,793,551 
 
 40,911,467 
 
 19,712,000 
 
 24 December, " 
 
 22,112,000 
 
 3,833,763 
 
 3,056,086 
 
 4,112,787 
 
 3,095,900 
 
 3,367,327 
 
 39,567,852 
 
 15,424,000 
 
 Expenses of the Bank of Enolantj fok the Yeae ending 29xh of Febeuat^y, 1832. 
 
 Db. 
 
 National debt department. 
 
 £164,143 
 106,092 
 69,166 
 
 Cn. 
 
 £218,003 
 
 89,187 
 
 8,000 
 
 40,000 
 
 5,702 
 28,508 
 
 Bank-notes , 
 
 
 
 
 
 Rent 
 
 Expenses at eleven branches arising from the 
 
 Expenses attending the circulation of £2,500,000 
 of branch Bank of England notes, at eleven 
 branches 
 
 • 
 
 £339,400 
 
 
 £339,400 
 
 H 
 
BAN 
 
 114 
 
 BAN 
 
 III. English Private and Provincial Banks. 
 
 — Besides charging the usual rate of interest on bills 
 discounted, the provincial bankers are mostly in the 
 habit of charging bs. or 6s. per cent, as commission. 
 They also charge a commission on all payments, and 
 derive a profit from charges for the transmission of 
 money, etc. They usually allow from 2 to 3 per cent, 
 on money deposited ; but the numerous failures that 
 have taken place among them have, by generating a 
 feeling of insecurity in the minds of the depositors, 
 confined this branch of their business within compara- 
 tively narrow limits. Wheh their customers overdraw 
 their accounts, they are charged with interest at the 
 rate of 5 per cent. Country banks, established by in- 
 dividuals possessed of adequate funds, and managed 
 with due discretion, are productive of the greatest 
 service. They form commodious reservoirs, where 
 the floating and unemployed capital of the surround- 
 ing districts is collected, and from which it is again 
 distributed, by way of loan, to those who will employ 
 it to the best advantage. It is, therefore, of the ut- 
 most importance, in a public point of view, that these 
 establishments should be based upon solid foundations. 
 But in England, unfortunately, this, till recently, has 
 been but little attended to; and the destruction of 
 country banks has, upon three different occasions — in 
 1702, in 1814, 1815, and 1816, and in 1825 and 1826— 
 produced an extent of bankruptcy and misery that has 
 never, perhaps, been equaled, except by the breaking 
 up of the Mississippi scheme in France. Government 
 is bound to interfere to hinder such disastrous results, 
 and we have already given some account of the meas- 
 ures adopted in this view. 
 
 The following is an account of the number of com- 
 missions of bankruptcy issued against country bankers 
 in England from 1809 to 1830, both inclusive : 
 
 Year.. 
 
 CommiaaionB. 
 
 Years. 
 
 CommJBsioaB. 
 
 lyo-j 
 
 4 
 
 1820 
 
 4 
 
 1810 
 
 20 
 
 1821 
 
 10 
 
 1811 
 
 4 
 
 1822 
 
 9 
 
 1813 
 
 IT 
 
 1823 
 
 9 
 
 1813 
 
 8 
 
 1824 
 
 10 
 
 1814 
 
 27 
 
 1SC5 
 
 3T 
 
 1816 
 
 25 
 
 1826 
 
 43 
 
 1816 
 
 87 
 
 1827 
 
 8 
 
 1817 
 
 3 
 
 18-8 
 
 3 
 
 1818 
 
 3 
 
 1829 
 
 3 
 
 1819 
 
 18 
 
 1880 
 
 14 
 
 Exclusive of the above, many banks stopped pay- 
 ments, to the great injury of their creditors and the 
 public, that afterward resumed them ; at the same 
 time that the affairs of some bankrupt concerns were 
 arranged "without a commission. During the whole 
 of this period not a single Scotch bank gave way. 
 
 Besides the stamp duties payable on notes, each in- 
 dividual or company issuing them must take out a 
 license, renewable annually, which costs £30. This 
 license specifies the names and places of abode of the 
 body corporate, person or persons in the firm to whom 
 it is granted, the name of such firm, the place where 
 the business is carried on, etc. ; and a separate license 
 is to be taken out for every town or place where any 
 notes shall be issued by or on account of any banker, 
 etc. Unless the license granted to persons in part- 
 nership set forth the names and places of abode of all 
 persons concerned in the partnership, whether their 
 names appear on the notes issued by them or not, such 
 license shall be absolutely void. — 55 Geo. 3, c. 184, 
 a. 24. For the regulations as to the issue of unstamp- 
 ed notes, see ante, p. 69. The issue of notes for less 
 than £b was prohibited in England, as previously 
 shown, from 1777 to 1797 ; but they continued to be 
 issued from the latter period down to the 5th of April, 
 1829, when their further issue ceased, in consequence of 
 an act passed in 1826. This act did not extend to Scot- 
 land or Ireland, and was intended to give greater stabil- 
 ,ity to the system of country banking in England, by 
 shutting up one of the principal channels through which 
 
 the inferior class of bankers had been in the habit of 
 getting their notes into circulation. The joint-stock 
 banks established in different parts of England and 
 Wales, under the provisions of the act 7 Geo. 4, c. 
 46, authorizing their establishment, consist of bodies 
 of partners, varying from seven, the minimum, to any 
 greater number. Each partner holds one or more 
 shares of the company's stock, and is individually lia- 
 ble for the entire debts and engagements of the com- 
 pany ; so that a person holding a £50 or £100 share in 
 a joint-stock bank may, in the event of its becoming 
 bankrupt, be called upon to make payment of as many 
 thousands of pounds ! They are uniformly almost 
 managed by boards of directors appointed by, and gen- 
 erally responsible to, the body of shareholders. The 
 conditions of copartnery vary materially in different 
 associations ; but the above are distinguishing features 
 common to them all. The shares in many joint-stock 
 banks are very small, few being above £100, the great- 
 er number not exceeding £50, while many are only 
 £25, and some not more than £10, and even £5 ! 
 Generally, too, it is understood, or rather it is dis- 
 tinctly set forth in the prospectus, that not more than 
 five, ten, or twenty per cent, of these shares is to be 
 called for ; so that an individual who has ten or twenty 
 shillings to spare may become a shareholder in a bank. 
 And owing to a practice, or rather a flagrant abuse, 
 introduced into the management of various banks, by 
 which they make large advances or discounts on the 
 credit of the stock held by the shareholders, not a few 
 individuals in doubtful or even desperate circumstan- 
 ces take shares in them, in the view of obtaining loans, 
 and bolstei-ing up their credit ! The great danger aris- 
 ing from such banks is obvious ; and were one of them 
 to stop payment, it is plain, even though the claims on 
 it should be ultimately made good, that they could be 
 so only at the cost, and perhaps ruin, of such of its 
 proprietors as had abstained from the abusive practices 
 resorted to by others. It may well excite astonish- 
 ment, that any one who can really afford to make a 
 bond Jide purchase of shares in a bank should be fool- 
 hardy enough to embark in such concerns. 
 
 No doubt a joint-stock bank, if it possess adequate 
 capital, and be discreetly managed, may afford ample 
 security to its shareholders and the public. But there 
 is no foundation for the notion that because a bank has 
 50 or 100 partners, it will therefore be better managed 
 than if it had only 5 or 10. On the contrary, the fair 
 presumption is that it will not be so well managed. A 
 few wealthy individuals engaged in banking or any 
 other sort of business, must, if they would protect 
 themselves from ruin, pay unremitting attention to 
 theu' concerns, and act in a discreet and cautious man- 
 ner. But the partners and managers of a great joint- 
 stock company act under no such direct and pressing 
 responsibility. " I think," said the highest authority 
 on such subjects, "that joint-stock banks are deficient 
 in every thing requisite for the conduct of banking 
 business, except extended responsibility ; the banking 
 business requires peculiarly persons attentive to all its 
 details, constantly, daily, and hourly watchful of every 
 transaction, much more than mercantile or trading bus- 
 inesses. It also requires immediate, prompt decisions, 
 upon circumstances when they arise— in many cases 
 a decision that does not admit of delay for consulta- 
 tion ; it also requires a discretion to be exercised with 
 reference to the special circumstances of each case. 
 Joint-stock banks being, of course, obliged to act 
 through agents, and not by a principal, and therefore 
 under the restraint of general rules, can not be guided 
 by so nice a reference to degrees of difference in the 
 character or responsibility of parties ; nor can they un- 
 dertake to regulate the assistance to be granted to con- 
 cerns under temporary embarrassment by so accurate 
 a reference to the circumstances, favorable or unfavora- 
 ble, of each case."— Evidence of S. J. Lotd, Esq., befm-e 
 the Committee of 1832 on the Renewalofthe Bank Charter. 
 
BAN 
 
 115 
 
 BAN 
 
 In fact, more than nine-tenths of the partners in 
 joint-stock banks are -wholly ignorant of banking bus- 
 iness, and have nothing better to trust to than the sup- 
 posed honesty and intelligence of the directors ; and, 
 even if they were acquainted with the business, the re- 
 sult would be nearly the same, as it would not be pos- 
 sible for any one, by a mere cursory inspection of the 
 books of any bank (if such were permitted), to form 
 any accurate estimate of its condition, or of the mode 
 in which it transacted business. And hence the direct- 
 ors in these establishments are practically all but ab- 
 solute. If they be worthy of the confidence placed in 
 them, all goes on smoothly ; and this also is the case 
 when they are most unworthy, till they have involved 
 the concern in inextricable difficulties ! The history 
 of the Norwich Bank, of the Northern and Central 
 Bank, the Marylebone Bank, the Manchester Bank, 
 and a host of others, sufficiently attests the truth of 
 what has now been stated. The responsibility of the 
 directors to the shareholders has not been found, in 
 any of these instances (and it is, indeed, ludicrous to 
 suppose that it ever should be otherwise), to have been 
 any check whatever over their frauds and improvi- 
 dence. The whole paid-up capital of the Manchester 
 Bank, amounting to about £750,000, had been wasted 
 in the most improvident speculations, and additional 
 debts incurred, before the great body of the sharehold- 
 ers had the least suspicion that the company was oth- 
 erwise than prosperous ! 
 
 We may observe, by-the-way, that the mischief occa- 
 sioned by an establishment of this sort, when perverted 
 from its proper objects, and mismanaged, is not to be es- 
 timated by the ruin it entails on its partners, and proba- 
 bly, also, on its customers. It becomes, in fact, a public 
 nuisance, and entails privations on many who might 
 be supposed to be beyond the sphere of its influence. 
 Within the ten years ending with 1842, we believe it 
 maybe moderately estimated that about £1,500,000 of 
 banking capital was wholly dissipated in Manchester 
 and its immediate vicinity. And as nine-tenths of 
 this enormous loss was occasioned by advances made 
 to manufacturers who had little or no capital of their 
 own, it is not easy to imagine what a ruinous stimulus 
 it must have given to reckless competition, and how 
 very injurious it must have been to parties trading on 
 their own capital. Indeed, no inconsiderable portion 
 of the distress in Manchester, in 1842 and 1843, may be 
 traced to this source. 
 
 Remedial Measures that should be adopted. — The act 
 of 1844, 7 & 8 Vict. c. 32, has successfully obviated 
 some of the defects formerly existing in the joint-stock 
 and private banking system, especially by limiting the 
 extent of their issues ; but in other respects the system 
 is still open to serious objections. , We retain the re- 
 marks made upon it in a former edition of M'Culloch's 
 Diet, of Commerce, before the act of 1844 was passed ; 
 
 " We do not, however, think that it would be at all neces- 
 sary, in providing for a secure system of joint-stock banking, 
 to make any regulations with respect to many of the points no- 
 ticed by the committee as to which the law is silent At pres- 
 ent every partner in a joint-stock bank is liable to the public 
 for the whole debts of the firm ; and this may be truly said to 
 be the saving principle of the system, and without which it 
 would be an unmixed evil. No individual should, however, 
 by merely withdrawing from a joint-stock concern, get rid of 
 his liabilities in connection with it. To prevent fraud, and to 
 insure due caution, these ought to continue for a period of 
 three years at least aflei* he has publicly withdrawn his name. 
 The public, too, are clearly entitled to know the partners in 
 joint-stock associations; that is, to be informed who the indi- 
 viduals are with whom they are dealing, and who ai'e responsi- 
 ble to them. But, unluckily, no eifective means are taken for 
 supplying this necessary information, or, consequently, of 
 properly discriminating between one establishment and an- 
 other. The act of 1833 directed that an account of the places 
 where they carry on business, and of the names and residences 
 of the partners, should be quarterly transmitted to the Stamp- 
 office. But doubts have been entertained as to the correctness 
 of these returns, and comparatively little use has been, or, in- 
 deed, can be made of them. The accounts of the names and 
 
 residences of the proprietors are not published, but are secluded 
 from the public eye in the repositories of Somerset House ! It 
 is true that these lists may be seen, by those who choose to ap- 
 ply at the office, for a small fee, and that certified copies may 
 be procured at no great expense. But few know that such re- 
 turns exist ; and fewer still have the opportunity, or think of 
 availing themselves of them as sources of information. To 
 render them of any real utility, they should be brought under 
 the public eye, by being hung up in the offices of the banks to 
 which they refer, and periodically published in the newspapers 
 of the places where they cany on business. By this means the 
 public wo^ld know exactly to whom they had to look, and 
 would act accordingly. They would not be deceived, as they 
 are liable to be at present, by supposing that, because a bank 
 has a number of partners, some of them must be opulent and 
 trustworthy. They would know the precise state of the fact ; 
 and if it were seen, from the quarterly returns, that opulent 
 and intelligent individuals were withdrawing from a bank, 
 every one would be put on his guard, and would naturally 
 conclude that the parties had very sufQcient reasons for quit- 
 ting the concern. Thus far publicity may be made effectual, 
 and would be of the greatest importance. Neither is it possible 
 to allege a single plausible objection to this proposal. It inter- 
 feres in no degree, nor in any way, with the proceedings of 
 the parties: all that it does is to declare who and what they 
 are; and to this degree of publicity no honest man will ob- 
 ject." And we are glad to have to state that this is now ef- 
 fected by the act 7 & 8 Vict. c. 32, § 21.— See ante, p. 84. 
 
 "But we have great doubts whether it be possible to cany 
 publicity farther than this. The committee state that ' the law 
 does not provide for any publication of the liabilities and as- 
 sets of these banks, nor does it enforce the publication of any 
 balance-sheet to the proprietors at large ; ' and it has been pro- 
 posed to compel the periodical publication of a statement of 
 this sort; hut it is very questionable whether any such publi- 
 cation would not be a great deal worse than useless. It is not 
 proposed that commissioners should be appointed to inspect 
 the accounts of the different banks, and to see that the returns 
 are accurate : this would be too inquisitorial, too cumbrous, 
 and too costly a plan to be thought of for a moment. There 
 would be nothing for it, in fact, but to tnist entirely to the 
 lio-mr of the parties I Hence, in all cases in which a disclosure 
 would be really useful, the publication of an account of as- 
 sets and liabilities would afford the means of deceiving the 
 public, and of representing a bankrupt concern as being in a 
 prosperous condition. Supposing, howevei', that the parties 
 were, in all instances, perfectly honest, still the publication of 
 a balance-sheet would be good for nothing. Every one knows 
 how sanguine people are in relation to their own afiairs, and 
 that debts and obligations that other parties would hardly 
 reckon worth anything are estimated by them as if they were 
 so much bullion. But, independently of this, the futility of the 
 thing is obvious. A bank with a capital of ^6100,000 dis- 
 counts bills and other obligations to the extent, perhaps, of 
 £300,000 or ^00,000; the fact that it has discounted them 
 shows that it believes these bills and obligations to be good ; 
 and they will, consequently, be reckoned among its assets. 
 But should a revulsion take place, or any circumstance occur 
 to shake credit, these bills may not be worth XlOOjOOO; and 
 those who have dealt with the bank, on the hypothesis of its 
 having capital and assets more than enough to meet all its 
 obligations, may find, to their cost, that it is not possessed of 
 a single shilling, but is, on the contrary, some £200,000 or 
 £300,000 worse than nothing I 
 
 ■ ' ' The committee seem to think that some regulation should 
 be enacted, providing that a certain portion of its capital 
 should be paid up before a bank begins business. But the 
 better way would be to prohibit all advertising of nominal cap- 
 ital. This, in fact, is a mere device by which to entrap and 
 delude the public. A bank is announced with a capital of 
 £1,000,000, £2,000,000, or £3,000,000; and a great number of 
 people, perhaps the majority, immediately conclude that there 
 can he no risk in dealing with an establishment possessed of 
 so great an amount of property. But what is the fact ? The 
 capital advertised is nominal merely; not more, perhaps, than 
 a tenth or a fifth part of it has been received into the coflfers 
 of the bank, and we have nothing better than the statement 
 of the bank proprietors, or their agents, that they will pay 
 up the remainder, if necessary ; of which necessity they of 
 course are to be the only judges 1 Practically this is neither 
 more nor less than a fraud upon the public ; it is a contrivance 
 for making £10,000 pass in the public estimation for £100,000, 
 and for procuring the same degree of credit to its holders. 
 This, however, is not all. Where is the secnrity that, if a 
 greater amount of capital were really required, it would be 
 forthcoming ? The notion that the bulk of the shareholders in 
 many, we are pretty sure we might safely say most, of the 
 joint-stock banks now in existence, could pay up the full 
 
BAN 
 
 116 
 
 BAN 
 
 amount of their shares, is too ludicrous to deserve notice. We 
 might as well call upon a man woith £5 to extinguish a debt 
 of £500. 
 
 "There can he no doubt, therefore—unless it be meant to 
 affirm that deception and fallacious statements are indispensa- 
 ble to the success of joint-stock banking schemes — that all ad- 
 vertising of nominal capitals should be put an end to ; and that 
 no association should be allowed to represent its capital as ex- 
 ceeding the sum actually paid up by the proprietors. But 
 though this would obviate one source of fraud and deception, 
 there would still be abundant means of practicing on the cre- 
 dulity of the public at the disposal of parties inclined to use 
 them. Admit that a bank has a capital of £500,000 actually 
 received into its coffers, what is to hinder the directors from 
 lending out the whole of this sum, or even more, to them- 
 selves or to partners in the bank ? or, supposing them not to do 
 this, who can tell whether the entire capital, or some consider- 
 able part of it, be not wholly ingulfed in ruinous speculations ? 
 It is indeed alleged, and truly too, that this could not happen 
 with any 'respectable' bank; that 'gentlemen of character' 
 would not lend themselves to such transactions I Unluckily, 
 however, there are no decisive marks or tests by which the 
 public can, a priori, say ivhat is or what is not a ' respectable' 
 bank, or who is or is not a ' gentleman of character ;' and it is 
 not a little hazardous in such matters to indulge in speculative 
 remarks. Hence it is that the Marylebone Bank, the Bank of 
 Manchester,- and indeed all banks, ai'c held to be respectable, 
 that is, solvent, till the event prove the contrary ; and that all 
 gentlemen connected witli banks are held to be ' men of char- 
 acter,' paragons, in fact, of honor, honesty, and intelligence, 
 till their fraud or ignorance has involved hundreds or thou- 
 sands in bankruptcy and ruin. 
 
 "We do not state these circumstances in order to raise any 
 prejudice against joint-stock banks or other associations, for 
 they apply equally to banks with one or a small number of 
 partners; but we state them to show the folly of placing any 
 reliance on statements as to the capital of any bank, or the 
 character of its managers. Such statements may be either 
 true or false ; hut, as the public can not tell which, they are 
 plainly good for nothing. The only real security is to he found, 
 if it exist at all, in the names of the partners responsible for the 
 debts and obligations of the hank. The number of such part- 
 ners is a very inferior consideration. There can not, in truth, 
 be a greater error than to suppose that because a bank has a 
 great number of partners, its security may be safely depended 
 upon. A single individual worth £100,000 is an incomparably 
 better security than fifty individuals worth £3000 each ; and a 
 hundred individuals worth£1000 would hardly he any security 
 at all, at least for a sum of£lO,000 or £20,000. A private bank 
 with Sii'a; maybe a safer place of deposit than a joint-stock bank 
 with six kuTidTed partners. Every thing depends upon the 
 available wealth of those responsible for the debts of the con- 
 cern; and hence the propriety and justice, whether the firm 
 consist of one or of many partners, of publicly declaring and 
 specifying their names. 
 
 "We are decidedly hostile to a proposition we have heard 
 mooted, and which seems to be countenanced by the commit- 
 tee on joint-stock hanks, for obliging all banks to establish a 
 guarantee fund ; that is, for obliging them to accumulate a^or- 
 tion of their j/rofits as a resei*ve stock. Where is the security 
 that such reserve would be always deducted from profits ? The 
 truth is, that bankrupt and fraudulent concerns, and none else, 
 would gain by such a regulation ; inasmuch as it would ena- 
 ble them, by appearing to be prosperous, the better to deceive 
 the public, and to blind them to the real state of their affairs. 
 It is worse than absurd to induce the public to depend on 
 guarantees that can not be enforced, and which, consequently, 
 must b^ good for nothing. The knowledge of whom the part- 
 ners in hanks really consist, and their unlimited responsibility, 
 are the only securities that, speaking generally, are worth a 
 pinch of snuff. If these can not protect the public from fraud 
 or loss, nothing else will ; and the question will come to be, 
 not whether the system should be reformed, but whether it 
 should be abated as an incurable nuisance. On this ground, 
 also, we should he disposed to dissent from any attempt to pre- 
 vent, by legislative enactment, the making of loans upon the 
 credit of hank stock. We do not question the advantage of 
 such a regulation, provided it were honestly can-ied into effect. 
 But it is useless to say that, whenever the parties were dis- 
 posed to defeat such a regulation, it would he quite inopei*- 
 ative. 
 
 " Some of the joint-stock banks have an extraordinary num- 
 ber of branches; and the multiplication of these subordinate 
 establishments all over the country is not one of the least strik- 
 ing features of the system. Neither is it very difficult to dis- 
 ';ovi;r why hanks of issue, at le&Bt, arc so very anxious about 
 tlic foniiation of these outworks. They are hound, it seems, 
 by the present law, to pay their notes only at tfie parent estab- 
 
 lishment; so that by issuing them at a branch bank, perhaps 
 a hundred miles distant from the head bank, the chances are 
 ten to one that they will continue for a much longer period in 
 cu'culation, and that they will consequently be able to carry on 
 business with a less amount of capital than if they were, as 
 they ought to be, obliged to pay their notes at the branches as 
 well as at the principal office. It is obvious, indeed, that the 
 convertibility of the paper, even of first-class banks, into either 
 cash or Bank of England notes, is at present exceedingly im- 
 perfect ; and that very great facilities are afforded for getting 
 the worst class of notes into circulation, and for keeping them 
 afloat even after their quality may be suspected. This defect 
 in the law should undoubtedly be amended, by obliging all 
 banks that issue notes to pay them indifferently at any of their 
 offices. But we incline to think that Parliament might go 
 farther than this ; and that it should enact that no branch bank 
 be established, whether for the issue of notes or otherwise, be- 
 yond a cei'tain distance (say fifty miles) from the head office. 
 
 *' Several of the points recapitulated by the committee, as to 
 which the law is silent, respect the rights and interests of the 
 partners in joint-stock banks, in relation to each other, and 
 not as between them and the public. But it is always a very 
 difficult matter to interfere to dictate the footing on which 
 parties in any undertaking should stand among tliemselves. 
 Much should, in such cases, he left to the judgment of the par- 
 ties; and public regulations, if enforced at all, should only go 
 to prevent obvious and acknowledged abuse ; the parties may, 
 in most cases, he safely left to take care of themselves. The 
 protection of the public interest is the paramount considera- 
 tion ; and we do not well know what can be done to effect this, 
 in the case at least of such banks as do not issue notes, other 
 than the making known who their partners are. 
 
 " The joint-stock banks formed in the city of London offer a 
 fair rate of interest for deposits ; and if they go on successfully 
 jn doing this, they will confer no slight advantage on the com- 
 munity, and will become, as it were, so many savings' hanks 
 for the middle classes, and for the rich as well as the poor. 
 But the responsibilities this system will bring along with it are 
 neither few nor small. A hank with a numerous body of part- 
 ners of undoubted wealth and integi-ity, that should give 2 per 
 cent, interest on all deposits of £10 and upward, how short so- 
 ever the period forwhich the deposit might remain in the bank, 
 would, there is little doubt, speedily have ample funds at its 
 disposal. In quiet and prosperous times the system would 
 work exceedingly well ; and the hank and the public would be 
 vastly well pleased with each other. But when the cycle of 
 prosperity has gone by, and the cycle of adversity has begun ; 
 when the waters are out, and the winds begin to blow — it is 
 doubtful whether either the bank or its depositors may feel 
 quite at ease. The former will probably raise the rate of in- 
 terest ; but it is doubtful whether that will have the wished-for 
 effect. Should the exchange set against ns, and the Bank of 
 England be forced to narrow her issues, and should bankrupt- 
 cy and a feeling of insecurity begin to prevail, as they have 
 done hitherto on all similar occasions, a run for deposits may, 
 and most probably will, be made upon the bank ; and in such 
 a case her situation, however well she may have been man- 
 aged, will he most critical. She will be compelled to dispose 
 of or pledge securities in a market where they may be all but 
 unsalable; and it will be impossible for her suddenly to pull 
 up in discounting, without exposing herself to the imminent 
 danger of extra loss, by bringing on the stoppage of those who 
 have been accustomed to trust to her for loans. 
 
 "It will be said, perhaps, that this is all imaginary, and that 
 nothing of the sort ever occurs in Scotland I But it would 
 really he about as much to the purpose to say that nothing of 
 the sort ever occurs in Japan. London is the pivot on which 
 the foreign exchanges turn, and when they become depressed 
 many of the London depositors will do what the Scotch depos- 
 itors never so much as dreamed of; that is, they will demand 
 their deposits, convert them into gold, and either send this 
 gold abroad, or get a profit from those who will. Fi'om this 
 source of annoyance and loss the Scotch banks are perfectly 
 free ; and this, by exhausting the resources of the London 
 banks, and subjecting the weaker ones to difficulties, occasions 
 discredit, and, in the end, runs or panics. Nothing, therefore, 
 can be more perfectly futile than to contend that because this 
 system has proved profitable for the Scotch banks, it will also 
 be profitable for the London hanks. We do not presume to 
 affirm that such will not, and we hope that it may, be the case. 
 But it would be rather illogical to affirm, because wheat suc- 
 ceeds remarkably well in the vale of Gloucester, that it will 
 succeed equally well on the AVelsh mountains. 
 
 " The joint-stock banks may, if they do not already, en- 
 deavor to obviate some of the difficulties now stated, by declin- 
 ing to pay interest on deposits unless they lie for a certain time, 
 or by stipulating for a certain notice before they are paid. But 
 either the one condition or the other is subversive of what is 
 
BAN 
 
 117 
 
 BAN 
 
 meant by granUng interest on deposits, and goes far to make 
 tlie announcements to that effect little betterthan a hoax upon 
 the public. All, or nearly all, the existing banks are banks of 
 deposit in this sense of the word ; that is, they give interest 
 on deposits of a certain amount, provided they be not called 
 for till after the lapse of an agreed-on period, and that the de- 
 positors give them no further trouble. But it is doubtful 
 whether money deposited at 2 per cent, under such conditions, 
 and still more under an engagement to give notice of demand, 
 be as well laid out as if it were deposited with the Bank of En- 
 gland, or any other bank of undoubted solidity, at no inter- 
 est, but payable on demand. Most men of business would, un- 
 doubtedly, prefer the latter. Nobody, indeed, not wishing to 
 get into difficulties, would be disposed to deal with any bank 
 that required notice of demand ; and it is questionable wheth- 
 er any such stipulation should be sanctioned by law. 
 
 " The committee on joint-stock banks omitted all reference 
 to what is by far the most prominent evil in our banking sys- 
 tem — we mean the power conceded to all private and joint- 
 stock banks and companies, whether with or without property 
 or character, to issue paper money or notes payable on demand, 
 without let or hindeiance of any sort. This abuse should cer- 
 tainly be put down ;" and we have already seen that this power 
 can now be but little abused. 
 
 " ReyxmsitnUty might not, in any caae, to be limited.— "We 
 protest against the proposal for allowing the partners in banks 
 not issuing notes to limit their responsibility. Such a measure 
 would be good for nothing, except to serve as a premium on 
 every species of fraud. What check would there be, under 
 such a system, to hinder the partners of a bank going on for a 
 series of years dividing large profits, when perhaps they were 
 really incurring a loss, until every farthing of its capital and 
 deposits was absorbed ? To talk of subjecting such persons to 
 punishment as fraudulent bankrupts, on evidence derived from 
 their books, is absurd ; for, supposing that it was the intention 
 of the pai-ties to defraud, they might easily keep then: books so 
 that they could afford no information that was not false or mis- 
 leading. The annexed list of joint-stock banking companies 
 shows that there is no disinclination on the part of individuals 
 to engage in such concerns, even with the present unlimited 
 responsibility. And the way in which some of them are con- 
 ducted proves BufHciently, if such proof were wanted, that the 
 serious liabilities incurred by the partners are not more than 
 enough for the protection of the public. To lessen them would 
 be an act of gratuitous folly. If we are to interfere, 1ft them 
 bo increased, not diminished. But in the case of banks not 
 issuing notes, enough is done, if measures bo taken to prevent 
 deception, by letting the public know the partners in them, and 
 making sure that they shall have no means of evading the re- 
 sponsibility attaching to their engagements. The first object 
 may be secured by compelling all banking associations what- 
 ever to publish annually a list of the names and addresses of 
 their partners, with the amount of their paid-up capital j and 
 to accomplish the latter object, we have merely to abstain from 
 interference, and to let the law take its natural course." 
 
 An Acooumt of ihe NnMiiun or Pkivate akd Joikt Stock 
 Banks in England registeked in eacu Yeah, fkom 1820 
 
 TO 1S42, nOTil INCLUSIVE. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Number of 
 
 Number of 
 
 
 Private Banks. 
 
 Joint-stoclc Bauks. 
 
 1820 to 1821 
 
 621 
 
 
 
 1821 to 1822 
 
 526 
 
 
 1822 to 1823 
 
 647 
 
 
 1823 to 1824 
 
 B4T 
 
 
 1824 to 1825 
 
 844 
 
 
 1825 to 1826 
 
 654 
 
 
 1820 to 182T 
 
 465 
 
 6 
 
 182T to 1828 
 
 456 
 
 T 
 
 1828 to 1829 
 
 460 
 
 11 
 
 1829 to 1830 
 
 439 
 
 15 
 
 1830 to 1831 
 
 436 
 
 19 
 
 1831 to 1832 
 
 424 
 
 25 
 
 1832 to 1833 
 
 416 
 
 35 
 
 1833 to 1834 
 
 416 
 
 47 
 
 1834 to 1S35 
 
 411 
 
 65 
 
 1835 to 1836 
 
 407 
 
 100 
 
 1836 to 183T 
 
 351 
 
 107 
 
 183T to 1838 
 
 341 
 
 104 
 
 1838 to 1839 
 
 332 
 
 108 
 
 1839 to 1840 
 
 332 
 
 113 
 
 1840 to 1841 
 
 321 
 
 116 
 
 1841 to 1842 
 
 811 
 
 118 
 
 Drawing on London.— The act 3 & 4 Will. 4, c. 83, 
 repeals the regulation in the 7 Geo. 4, c. 46, prohibit^ 
 ing banks with more than six partners from drawing 
 on London on demand, or otherwise, for sums of less 
 than £50. — § 2. For statistics of English joint-stock 
 banks, see conclusion of article on Banking. 
 
 IV. Scotch Banks.— The act of 1708, preventing 
 more than six individuals from entering into a partner- 
 ship for carrying on the business of baulking, did not 
 extend to Scotland. In consequence of this exemption, 
 several banking companies, with numerous bodies of 
 partners, have always existed in that country. 
 
 Bank of Scotland. — This institution was projected 
 by Mr. John Holland, mei'chant, of London, and was 
 established by act of the Scotch Parliament (Will. 3, 
 Pari. 1, § 5) in 1695, by the name of the Governor and 
 Company of the Bank of Scotland. Its original cap- 
 ital was 1,200,000 pounds Scotch, or £100,000 sterling, 
 distributed in shares of 1000 pounds Scotch, or £83 6s. 
 &d. sterling, each. The act exempted the capital of 
 the bank from all public burdens, and gave it the ex- 
 clusive privilege of banking in Scotland for twenty-one 
 years. The objects for which the Bank was instituted, 
 and its mode of management, were intended to be, 
 and have been in most respects, similar to those of the 
 Bank of England. The responsibility of the share- 
 holders is limited to the amount of their shares. The 
 capital of the Bank was increased to £200,000 in 1744, 
 and was enlarged by subsequent acts of Parliament, 
 the last of which (44 Geo. 3, c. 23) was passed in 
 1804, to £1,500,000, its present amount. Of thi^ sum, 
 £1,000,000 has been paid up. The last-mentioned act 
 directed that all sums relating to the affairs of the 
 Bank should henceforth be rated in sterling money; 
 that the former mode of dividing bank stock by shares 
 should be discontinued; and that for the future it 
 should be transferred in any sums or parcels. On the 
 union of the two kingdoms in 1707, the Bank of Scot- 
 land undertookthe recoinage, and effected the exchange 
 of the currency in Scotland : it was also the organ of 
 government in the issue of the new silver coinage in 
 1817. The Bank of Scotland is the only Scotch bank 
 constituted by act of Parliament. It began to establish 
 branches in 1696, and issued notes for £1 so early as 
 1704. The bank also began, at a very early period, to 
 receive deposits on interest, and to grant credit on casli 
 accounts, a minute of the directors with respect to the 
 mode of keeping the latter being dated so far back as 
 1729. It is, therefore, entitled to the credit of having 
 introduced and set on foot the distinctive principles of 
 the Scotch banlcing system, which, whatever ]Tiay be 
 its defects, is probably superior to every other system 
 hitherto established. Generally speaking, the Banic 
 of Scotland has always been conducted on sound and 
 liberal principles ; nor can there be a doubt that it has 
 been productive, both directly and as an example to 
 other banking establishments, of much public utility 
 and advantage. It may be worth mentioning, that the 
 act of Will. 3, establishing the Bank of Scotland, de- 
 clared that all foreigners who became partners in the 
 bank should, by doing so, become, to all intents and 
 purposes, naturalized Scotchmen. After being for a 
 long time forgotten, this clause was taken advantage 
 of in 1818, when several aliens acquired property in the 
 bank in order to secure the benefit of naturalization. 
 But after being suspended, the privilege was finally 
 canceled in 1822. We subjoin an (y^cial abstract of 
 the constitution and objects of the Bank of Scotland, 
 printed for the use of the proprietors ; the terms and 
 mode of transacting business are, of course, sometimes 
 altered, according to circumstances : 
 
 I. The Bank of Scotland is a public national establishment, 
 erected and regulated by the Legislature alone ; and express- 
 ly as a public bank in this kingdom ; for the benefit of the 
 nation, and for the advancement of agriculture, commerce, 
 and manufactures, and for other objects of public policy. — 
 Witt. Pari. 1, § 5; 14 Geo. 3, c. 32; 24 Geo. 3, c. 8; 32 Geo. S, 
 0. 25; 34 Geo. 3, c. 19; 44 Geo. 3, c. 23. II. The statutory 
 capital is at present £1,500,000 sterling. It is raised by vol- 
 untary subscription, and has been subscribed for. £1,000,000 
 has been called for, and paid in. — 44 Geo. 3, cap. 23. III. 
 Subsciibers, if not under obligation to the Bank, may, at 
 pleasure, transfer their right. If under obligation to the 
 Bank, the obligation must be previously liquidated ; or the 
 proceeds of the sale, at a price to the satisfaction of the direct- 
 
BAN 
 
 118 
 
 BAN 
 
 ors, must be applied toward such liquidation. Transfers 
 are made by a short assignment and acceptance thereof, both 
 in a register appointed for that purpose. The expense, be- 
 sides the government stamp, is lU.— Will. Pari. 1, § 5. IV. 
 Bank of Scotland stock may be acquired, in any portions by 
 any person, community, or other lawful party whatsoever ; 
 without selection, exclusion, or limitation of numbers. — 
 Will Pari. 1, § 5; 44 Geo. 3, c. 23- V. Bank of Scotland stock 
 may be conveyed by will, and, if specially mentioned, without 
 expense of confirmation. It can not be arrested : the holder's 
 right may be adjudged. Dividends may be arrested.— TTtli. 
 Pari. 1, § 5. YI. The Bank of Scotland is a public coi-pora- 
 tion by act of Parliament. The Bank's transactions are dis- 
 tinct from those of the stockholders, and theirs from those 
 of the Bank— Fiil Pari. 1, § 5. VII. The establishment is 
 expressly debarred from any other business than that of 
 banking. — TTill. Pari. 1, § 5. VIII. The management is vest- 
 ed, by statute, in a governor, deputy governor, twelve ordi- 
 nary, and twelve extraordinary directors. They are chosen 
 annually, on the last Tuesday of March, by the stockholders 
 having £250 of stock or upward. Those above £250 have a 
 vote for every £250, to £5000, or twenty votes. No person 
 can have more than twenty votes. The governor must hold 
 at least £2000 of stock ; the deputy govenior £1500 ; and 
 each director £750. They swear to he equal to all persons, 
 and can not bold any inferior office in the Bank. — Will. Pari. 
 1, § 5; 14 Geo. 3, c. 32; 44 Geo, 3, c. 23.' IX. The executive 
 part is conducted by a treasurer, Eeci'eta!"y, and other public 
 officers, all sworn. Those having the cificial charge of cash 
 find due security. — Will. Pari. 1, § 5. X. The board of di- 
 rectors sits for the general administration of the Bank, at the 
 Bank's public head office in Edinburgh. The local business 
 of that district is also conducted at that office. For the local 
 business in the other parts of the kingdom, the Bank has its 
 regularpublicofficesin the principal towns. At each of these 
 offices there is the bank agent or cashier, who gives due se- 
 curity, and conducts the Bank's business for that district in 
 the manner after mentioned. There is also the Bank's ac- 
 countant for that office, who is appointed by the directors. — 
 Will. Pari. 1, § 5. XI. The Bank takes in money, at all its 
 public offices, on deposit I'cceipts or promissory notes, or on 
 current deposit account. At the head office, drafts on Lon- 
 don, or on any of the agencies, are given; at each agency, 
 drafts on London, or on the head office, are given. All these 
 documents are on the Bank's check (and sealeduith the Bank's 
 seal). They bear, in words, to be "For the Bank of Scot- 
 land ;" or, " For the Governor and Company of the Bank of 
 Scotland. " These documents are signed, if at Edinburgh, by 
 the treasurer, and countersigned by the principal account- 
 ant: if at an agency, they must be signed by the Bank's 
 agent as agent, and countersigned ty the Bank's accountant 
 for that agency; otherwise they infer no obligation on the 
 Banli..— Resolution of Court, 28th Feb. 17E3. XII. Bills on 
 London, Edinburgh, or any town where the Bank has its offi- 
 cial correspondents, are discounted and purchased at all the 
 Bank's public offices. The Bank's agents judge, in ordinary 
 cases, of the bills presented ; so that parties meet with no de- 
 lay. The Bank does not sell, at any of its offices, the bills 
 which it has discounted and purchased. Its agents can not 
 indorse its bills, unless officially to the treasurer. — Resolution 
 of Court, 23d Feb. 1789. XIII. Government stock and oth- 
 er public funds, transferable in London, may be purchased or 
 sold, and dividends thereon may be received through the 
 Bank. XIV. The Bank gives credit on cash accounts at any 
 of its offices, on. bond, with security. The security may be 
 personal co-obligants, conjunctly and severally; or Bank of 
 Scotland stock ; or both ; or such other security as may be 
 specially agreed on. Applications for cash accounts arc given 
 in to the office where the cash account is wanted, and must 
 specify the credit desired and the security proposed; and 
 the individual partners, where copartneries are proposed. 
 Cash accounts are granted by the directors only, and are not 
 recalled unless by their special authority. It is understood 
 that these credits are not need as dead loans, to produce in- 
 terest only. In the fair course of business, the advantage of 
 the Bank is consulted by an active circulation of its notes, 
 and by frequent repayments to it in a way least affecting that 
 circulation.— iZesoItiiioji of Court, 6th Nov., 1729, and 23d 
 Feb., 1789. XV. The Bank's dividend of profits has been for 
 some considerable period six per cent, per annum, on its paid- 
 up capital of £1,000,000 sterling. The dividends are paid 
 regularly twice a year, without expense. They may be drawn 
 either at the Bank's head office, or at any of its other offices, 
 as most agreeable to the stockholder. 
 
 Most of the other Scotch hanks are conducted on the 
 same principles and in the same ^vay as the Bank of 
 Scotland, so that the details as to its management -will 
 
 nearly apply to them all. Th.Q Royal Bank of Scotland 
 was established in 1727. Its original capital of £151,000 
 has been increased to £2,000,000. The British Linen 
 Company was incoi-porated in 1746, for the purpose as 
 Its name implies, of undertaking the manufacture of 
 linen. But the views in which it originated were 
 speedily abandoned ; and it became a banking com- 
 pany only. Its capital amounts to £500,000, None 
 of the other banking companies established in Scotland 
 are chartered associations, with limited responsiljility ; 
 the partners being jointly and individually liable, to 
 the whole extent of their fortunes, for the debts of the 
 firms. Some of them, such as the National Bank, the 
 Commercial Banking Company, the Dundee Commer- 
 cial Bank, the Perth Banking Conipany, etc., have 
 very numerous bodies of partners. Their affairs are 
 uniformly conducted by a Board of Directors, annual- 
 ly chosen by the shareholders. The Bank of Scotland 
 began, as already stated, to issue £1 notes so early as 
 1704 ; and their issue has since been continued without 
 interruption. "In Scotli^nd," to use the statement 
 given in the Eeport of the Committee of the House of 
 ■Commons of 1826 on the Promissorj^ Notes of Scotland 
 and Ireland, ' ' the issue of promissory notes payable to 
 the bearer on demand, for a sum of not less than 2O5., 
 has been at all times permitted by law ; nor has any act 
 been passed limiting the period for which such issue 
 shall continue legal in that country. In England, the 
 issue of promissory notes for a less sum than £5 was 
 prohibited by law from the year 1777 to the epoch of 
 the Bank Restriction in 1797. It has been permitted 
 since 1797 ; and the permission will cease, as the law 
 at present stands, in April, 1829." 
 
 There have been comparatively few bankruptcies 
 among the Scotch banks. In 1793 and 1825, when so 
 many of the English provincial banks were swept off, 
 there was not a single establishment in Scotland that 
 gave way. This superior stability seems to be ascrib- 
 able partly to the formation of so many banks with 
 numerous bodies of partners, which tends to prevent 
 any company with only a few partners, unless they are 
 known to possess considerable fortunes, from getting 
 paper into circulation ; partly to the less risk attend- 
 ing the business of banking in Scotland ; and partly to 
 the facility afforded by the law of Scotland of attach- 
 ing a debtor's property, whether it consist of land or 
 movables, and making it available to the payment of 
 his debts. 
 
 In the Report already quoted, the last-mentioned 
 topic is touched upon as follows: "The general pro- 
 visions of the law of Scotland bearing upon this sub- 
 ject are calculated to promote the solidity of banking 
 establishments, by affording to the creditor great fa- 
 cilities of ascertaining tlie pecuniary circumstances of 
 individual partners, and by making the private fortunes 
 of those parties available for the discharge of the obli- 
 gations of the bank with which they are connected. 
 There is no limitation upon the number of partners of 
 which a banking company in Scotland may consist ; 
 and, excepting in the case of the Bank of Scotland and 
 the two chartered banks, which have very considera- 
 ble capitals, the partners of all banking companies are 
 bound jointly and severally, so that each partner is 
 liable, to the whole extent of his fortune, for the whole 
 debts of the company. A creditor in Scotland is em- 
 powered to attach the real and heritable, as well as the 
 personal estate of his debtor, for payment of personal 
 debts, among which may be classed debts due by bills 
 and promissory notes ; and recourse may be had, for 
 the purpose of procuring payment, to each descnption 
 of property at the same time. Execution is not con- 
 fined to the real property of a debtor merely during his 
 life, but proceeds with equal effect upon that property 
 after his decease. The law relating to the establish- 
 ment of records gives ready means of procuring in- 
 formation with respect to the real and heritable estate 
 of which any person in Scotland may be possessed. 
 
BAN 
 
 119 
 
 BAN 
 
 No purchase of an estate in that country is secure un- 
 til the seizin (that is, the instrument certifying that 
 actual delivery has been given) is put on record, nor is 
 any mortgage effectual until the deed is in lilce man- 
 ner recorded. In the case of conflicting pecuniary 
 claims upon real property, the preference is not regu- 
 lated by the date of the transaction, but by tlie date of its 
 record. These records are accessible to all persons ; 
 and thus the public can with ease ascertain the effect- 
 ive means which a banking company possesses of dis- 
 charging its obligations ; and the partners in that com- 
 pany are enabled to determine, with tolerable accuracy, 
 the degree of risk and responsibility to which the pri- 
 vate property of each is exposed." 
 
 Deposits. — As was previously observed, all the Scotch 
 banks receive deposits of so low a value as £10, and 
 sometimes lower, and allow interest upon them. " The 
 interest," says the committee, " allowed by the bank 
 upon deposits varies, from time to time, according to 
 the current rate of interest which money generally 
 bears. In the year 1826 the interest allowed upon de- 
 posits was 4 per cent." (At this moment [1846] the 
 interest allowed on deposits is 3 per cent.) "It has 
 been calculated that the aggregate amount of the sums 
 deposited with the Scotch banks amounts to about 
 £20,000,000 or £21,000,000." (It is believed to be 
 now [1846] little, if any thing, under £28,000,000 or 
 £30,000,000.) " The precise accuracy of such an esti- 
 mate can not, of course, be relied on. The witness 
 by whom it was made thought that the amount of de- 
 posits could not be less than £16,000,000, nor exceed 
 £25,000,000, and took an intermediate sum as the prob- 
 able amount. Another witness, connected for many 
 years with different banks in Scotland, and who has 
 had experience of their concerns at Stirling, Edin- 
 burgh, Perth, Aberdeen, and Glasgow, stated that 
 more than one half of the deposits in the banks with 
 which he had been connected were in sums from £10 
 to £200. Being asked what class of the community it 
 is that makes the small deposits, he said the laboring 
 class ; from which it appears that the mode of conduct- 
 ing this branch of the banking business in Scotland 
 has long given to that country many of the benefits 
 derivable from the establishment of savings banks. 
 
 The system of cash credits has been very well de- 
 scribed in tlie Report of the Lords' Committee of 1826 
 on Scotch and Irish Banking. ''There is also," say 
 their lordships, " one part of their system, which is 
 stated by all the witnesses (and, in the opinion of the 
 committee, very justly stated) to have had the best 
 effects upon the people of Scotland, and particularly 
 upon the middling and poorer classes of society, in pro- 
 ducing and encouraging habits of frugality and in- 
 dustry. The practice referred to is that of cash cred- 
 its. .Any person who applies to a bank for a cash 
 credit is called upon to produce two or more competent 
 sureties, who are jointly bound ; and, after a full in- 
 quiry into the character of the applicant, the nature 
 of his business, and the sufficiency of his securities, he 
 is allowed to open a credit, and to draw upon the bank 
 for the whole of its amount, or for such part as his 
 daily transactions may require. To the credit of the 
 account he pays in such sums as he may not have oc- 
 casion to use, and interest is charged or credited upon 
 the daily balance, as the case may be. From the fa- 
 cility which these cash credits give to all the small 
 transactions of the counti-y, and from the opportuni- 
 ties which they afford to persons who begin business 
 with little or no capital but their character, to employ 
 profitably the minutest products of their industry, it 
 can not be doubted that the most important advantages 
 are derived to the whole community. The advantage 
 to the banks who give these cash credits arises from 
 the call which they continually produce for the issue 
 of their paper, and from the opportunity wMch they 
 afford for the profitable employment of part of their 
 deposits. The banks are indeed so sensible that, in 
 
 order to make this part of their business advantageous 
 and secure, it is necessary that their cash credits should, 
 as they express it, be frequently operated upon, that 
 they refuse to continue them unless this implied con- 
 dition be fulfilled. The total* amount of their cash 
 credits is stated by one witness to be £5,000,000, of 
 which the average amount advanced by the banks may 
 be one-third." 
 
 Recapitulation of Scotch Banks, September 1, 1855. — 
 The following return shows the circulation of the 
 Scotch banks, and the average amount of coin held 
 during the four weeks ending the 1st September : 
 
 N&mo and Title aa set forth 
 
 J-o 
 
 1 
 8,1 1 
 
 111 
 
 in License. 
 
 Id 
 
 111 
 
 
 
 — 3 
 
 <o.3 
 
 as 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 Bank of Scotland 
 
 800,485 
 183,000 
 
 375,184 
 
 170,812 
 03,626 
 
 Royal Bank of Scotland 
 
 185,562 
 
 BritiBh Linen Company 
 
 438,024 
 
 405,731 
 
 208,735 
 
 Commercial Bank of Scotland 
 
 374,880 
 
 470,407 
 
 160,018 
 
 National Bank of Scotland. . . 
 
 297,024 
 
 835,288 
 
 80,164 
 
 Union Bank of Scotland and 
 
 
 
 
 Banking Company in Aber- 
 
 
 
 
 deen 
 
 415,690 
 186,667 
 
 514 781 
 
 179,078 
 53,948 
 
 Edin burgh and Glasgow Bank 
 
 1G5;773 
 
 Aberdeen Town and County*. 
 
 
 
 
 Banking Company 
 
 70,133 
 
 109,842 
 
 46,243 
 
 North of Scotland Banking 
 
 
 
 
 Company 
 
 154,319 
 
 198,604 
 
 C6,C51 
 
 Dundee Banking Company . . 
 
 33,451 
 
 38,122 
 
 11,837 
 
 Eastern Bank of Scotland 
 
 33,630 
 
 38,684 
 
 18,471 
 
 Western Bank of Scotland. . . 
 
 387,938 
 
 616,102 
 
 286,454 
 
 Clydesdale Banking Company 
 
 104,0£8 
 
 166,028 
 
 82,016 
 
 City of Glasgow Bank 
 
 72,921 
 
 213,463 
 
 162,803 
 
 Caledonian Banking Company 
 
 53, «4 
 
 72,913 
 
 29,559 
 
 i'erth Banking Company 
 
 38,656 
 
 48,r51 
 
 18,174 
 
 Central Bank of Scotland 
 
 42,933 
 
 50,493 
 
 24,772 
 
 V. Irish Banks. — " In no country, perhaps," says 
 Sir Henry Parnell, "has the issuing of paper money 
 been can'ied to such an injurious excess as in Ireland. 
 A national bank was established in 1783, with similar 
 privileges to those of the Bank of England, in respect 
 to the restriction of more than six partners in a hank ; 
 and the injury that Ireland has sustained from the re- 
 peated failure of banks may be mainly attributed to 
 this defective regulation. Had the trade of banking 
 been left as free in Ireland as it is in Scotland, the 
 want of paper money that would have arisen with the 
 progress of trade would, in all probability, have been 
 supplied by joint-stock companies, supported with large 
 capitals, and govenied by wise and effectual rules. 
 
 " In 1797, when the Banlc of England suspended its 
 payments, the same privilege was extended to Ire- 
 land ; and after this period the issues of the Bank of 
 Ireland were rapidly increased. In 1797, the amount 
 of the notes of the Bank of Ireland in circulation was 
 £621,917 ; in 1810, £2,266,471 ; andin 1814, £2,986,999. 
 These increased issues led to corresponding increased 
 issues by the private banks, of which the number was 
 50 in the year 1804. The consequence of this increase 
 of paper was a great depreciation of it ; the price of 
 bullion and guineas rose to 10 per cent, above the 
 mint price, and the exchange with London became 
 as high as 18 per cent., the par being 8f. This un- 
 favorable exchange was afterward corrected, not by 
 any reduction in the issues of the Bank of Ireland, 
 but by the depreciation of the British currency in the 
 year 1810, when the exchange between London and 
 Dublin settled again at about par. The loss that Ire- 
 land has sustained by the failure of banlts may be de- 
 scribed in a few words. It appears by the Eeport of 
 the Committee on Irish Exchanges in 1804, that there 
 were at that time in Ireland 50 registered banks. 
 Since that year a great many more have been estab- 
 lished ; but the whole have failed, one after the other, 
 involving the country from time to time in immense 
 distress, with the following exceptions : first, a few 
 that withdrew from business ; secondly, four banks in 
 Dublin ; thirdly, three at Belfast ; and, lastly, one at 
 Mallow. These eight banks, with the New Provin- 
 
BAN 
 
 120 
 
 BAN 
 
 cial Bank, and the Bank of Ireland, are the only 
 banks now existing in Ireland. 
 
 " In 1821, in consequence of 11 banks having failed 
 nearly at the same time in the preceding year in the 
 south of Ireland, govei'nment succeeded in making an 
 arrangement with the Bank of Ireland by which joint- 
 stock companies were allowed to be established at a 
 distance of 50 miles (Irish) from Dublin, and the Bank 
 was permitted to increase its capital £500,000. The 
 act of 1 & 2 Geo. 4, c. 72, was founded on this agree- 
 ment. But ministers having omitted to repeal in this 
 act various restrictions on the trade of banking that 
 had been imposed by 33 Geo. 2, c. 14, no new com- 
 pany was formed. In 1824 a party of merchants of 
 Belfast, wishing to establish a joint-stock company, 
 petitioned Parliament for the repeal of this act of Geo. 
 2, and an act was accordingly passed in that session 
 repealing; some of the most objectionable restrictions 
 of it (the 5 Geo. 4, c. 73). In consequence of this act 
 the Northern Bank of Belfast was converted into a 
 joint-stock company, with a capital of £500,000, and 
 commenced business on the 1st of January, 1825. But 
 the remaining restrictions of 33 Geo. 2, and certain 
 provisions contained in the new acts of 1 & 2 Geo. 3, 
 and 5 Geo. 4, obstructed the progi-ess of this company, 
 and they found it necessary to apply to government to 
 remove them ; and a bill was accordingly introduced 
 which would have repealed all the obnoxious clauses 
 of the 33 Geo. 2, had it not been so altered in the com- 
 mittee as to leave several of them in force. In 1825 
 the Provincial Bank of Ireland commenced business, 
 with a capital of £2,000,000 ; and the Bank of Ireland 
 has of late established branches in all the principal 
 towns in Ireland. 
 
 "The losses that have been sustained in Ireland by 
 abusing the power of issuing paper have been so great, 
 that much more is necessary to be done, by way of 
 protecting the public from future loss, than the meas- 
 Tire proposed in the year 1826 by Parliament for abol- 
 ishing small notes, and the measure already adopted 
 of allowing joint-stock companies to be established in 
 the interior of the country. As the main source of the 
 evil consists in the interference of the law in creating 
 a national bank with exclusive privileges, the lirst 
 step that ought to be taken for introducing a good sys- 
 tem into Ireland is the getting rid of such a bank, 
 and opening the trade of banking in Dublin. The 
 next measure should be the requiring of each bank to 
 give security for the amount of paper that is issued ; 
 for after the experience of the ignorance with which 
 the Irish banks have conducted their business, and the 
 derangement of the natural course of the trade by the 
 long existence of the Bank of Ireland, it would be un- 
 wise to calculate upon a sound system of banking 
 speedily supplanting that which has been established. 
 Under the circumstances in which Ireland is placed, 
 nothing would so much contribute to her rapid im- 
 provement in wealth as the introducing of the Scotch 
 plan of cash credits, and of paying interest on depos- 
 its. By cash credits the capital which now exists 
 would be rendered more efficient, and the paying of 
 interest on small deposits would lead to habits of econ- 
 omy, and to the more rapid accumulation of new cap- 
 ital." — Observations on Paj)er Money, etc., by Sir Henry 
 Paenell, p. 171-177. 
 
 The capital of the Bank of Ireland, at its establish- 
 ment in 1783, amounted to £600,000, but it has been 
 increased at various periods, and has, since 1821, 
 amounted to £3,000,000. The Bank of Ireland draws 
 on London at 10 days' date. She neither grants cash 
 credits, nor allows any interest on deposits. She dis- 
 counts at the rate of 5 per cent. In 1828 the cur- 
 rency of Ireland was assimilated to that of Great Brit- 
 ain. Previously to that period the currency of the 
 former was 8^ per cent, less valuable than that of the 
 latter. 
 
 Provincial Banh of Ireland. — This important estab- 
 
 lishment was, as already stated, founded in 1825. Its 
 subscribed capital consists of £2,000,000, divided into 
 20,000 shares of £100 each, of which 25 per cent., or 
 £500,000, has been paid up. Its head office is in Lon- 
 don ; and at present it has subordinate offices in Cork, 
 Limerick, Clonmel, Londonderry, Sligo, Wexford, 
 Waterford, Belfast, Galway, Armagh, Athlone, Cole- 
 raine, Kilkenny, Ballina, Tralee, Youghall, Enniskil- 
 len, Monaghan, BanLridge, and Ballymena. The last 
 five have been opened since 1831. The entire manage- 
 ment of the establishment is vested in the court of di- 
 rectors in London. The business of the branch banks 
 is conducted, under the control of the head office, by 
 the managers, with the advice and assistance of two or 
 more gentlemen of respectability in the district, each 
 holding 10 shares in the bank. The business consists 
 of discounting bills ; granting cash credits after the 
 manner of the Scotch banks ; receiving deposits, on 
 which interest, varying according to circumstances, 
 is allowed ; in drawing and giving letters of credit on 
 other places of Ireland, Great Britain, etc. ; and of 
 other details incident to banking. It has had several 
 pretty severe runs to sustain. In the course of a sin- 
 gle week, in October, 1828, about £1,000,000 in gold 
 was sent from England to Ireland on account of the 
 Provincial Bank ! This prompt and ample supply ef- 
 fectuallj'' maintained the credit of the establishment, 
 and did much to restore confidence. 
 
 The notes of the Provincial Bank have always been 
 payable at the places where they are issued. The 
 Bank of Ireland began to establish branches in 1825 ; 
 but the notes issued by her branches were not, at first, 
 payable except at the head office in Dublin. This 
 distinction, which tended to throw the principal pres- 
 sure of runs in the country on the Provincial Bank 
 and other private companies, was abolished by the 
 act 9 Geo. 4. Several joint-stock banks have been 
 established in Ireland since 1825, especially in 1836. 
 But the greatest of these, the Agticijtural and Com- 
 mercial Bank, which had nearly 4000 partners and 28 
 branches, was in no long time obliged to suspend pay- 
 ments. Some of the others have also been abandoned. 
 There are comparatively few private banks in Ireland. 
 
 "Not many years ago there were upward ofsixhun- 
 dred loan societies in Ireland, besides private pawn- 
 brokers, who abounded in every town throughout the 
 kingdom. Two hundred were enrolled under 6 & 7 
 Will. 4, one hundred and sixty-eight were under the 
 direction of the Irish Reproductive Loan Fund, a so- 
 ciety founded in 1822. These various loan associa- 
 tions were productive of very little good to the people, 
 the rates of interest charged to their customers being 
 nearl}' such as are chai'ged at ordinary pawnbrokers' 
 establishments." — Lawson on Banking. 
 
 The provisions in the act 8 & 9 Vict. c. 37, with re- 
 gard to banking in Ireland, do not difi"er materially 
 from those in the preceding act relating to Scotland. 
 The prohibition that formerly existed against joint- 
 stock banks carrying on business in Dublin or any 
 where within 50 miles thereof is repealed ; the charter 
 of the Bank of Ireland is prolonged till January, 1855, 
 when it may-be dissolved on notice ; notes of the Bank 
 of England are declared not to be legal tender in Ire- 
 laud ; and notes for less than 205. are not negotiable. 
 
 AVEEAGE AMOUNT OF BANK-NOTES IN CIKCULATION OP TUE 
 BEVEKAL CUAKTEEEI) BaNKS OF IkELAND, AND OF COIN 
 HELD DCRING THE FOUIt WeEKS ENDING SePT. 27, 1856. 
 
 Name and TiUe. 
 
 Bank of Ireland 
 
 Provincial Bank 
 
 Belfast Bank 
 
 Northern Bank 
 
 Ulster Bank 
 
 National Bank 
 
 Carriek-on-Suir National 
 
 Bank 
 
 Clonmel National Bank . 
 
 Circulation 
 authorized. 
 
 £ 
 3,T3S,428 
 92T,66T 
 281,611 
 243,440 
 311,079 
 761,T5T 
 
 24,034 
 66,428 
 
 £ 
 
 3,132,47.5 
 859,865 
 402,660 
 249.532 
 408,847 
 
 '1,150,964 
 
 30,075 
 57,313 
 
 £ 
 769,199 
 284,134 
 240,177 
 112,032 
 l.S5,365 
 524,467 
 
 7,620 
 13,178 
 
BAN 
 
 121 
 
 BAN 
 
 A Ll9T OP THE JOINT-STOOK BaNEIHG COMPANIES OP IkELAND IN 1846, SPECIFYING THE DaTES OF THEIE EbTABLISUMENT, 
 THE NUMBEB OF TUEIK PaHTNERS, THE AMOUNT OP THEIR PAID-UP CAPITAL, THE SITUATION OF TUEIE HeAD OFFICES, AND 
 OP TUEIE BbANCUES, WHEN THEY HAVE ANY, WITH THE FIXFJ> ISBUE OP THOSE AUTHORIZED TO ISSUE NOTES. 
 
 Bunks. 
 
 When eatnblished. 
 
 Number of 
 Partners. 
 
 Paid-up 
 Cupitnl. 
 
 Amount of fixed 
 Issue. 
 
 Bank of Ireland' 
 
 1T83 
 
 Dec, 182T 
 
 June, 1825 
 
 1843 
 
 24 Jan., 1835 
 
 May, 1836 
 
 May, 1836 
 
 IJan., 1825 
 
 Sept., 1825 
 
 Sept., 1838 
 
 1838 
 
 Apiil, 1836 
 
 258 
 
 426 
 8TT 
 
 1T9 
 891 
 
 436 
 4i9 
 
 £.3,000,000 
 125,000 
 260,000 
 100,000 
 450,000 
 
 150,000 
 
 600,000 
 
 New Shares, 
 
 40,000 
 
 ■ 209,050 
 
 200,000 
 Total. . . . 
 
 £3,788,428 
 
 281,611 
 
 No Issue. 
 
 No Issue. 
 
 T61,T57 
 
 66,428 
 
 24,084 
 
 243,440 
 
 92T,66T 
 
 No Issue. 
 S11,0T9 
 
 
 Hibernian Bank, DublinS 
 
 London and Dublin Bank* 
 
 
 " ** Clonmel* 
 
 " " Carrick-on-Suir5 
 
 Provincial Bank of Ireland^ 
 
 
 Tipperary Joint-stock Bank^ 
 
 Ulster Banking Company, Belfasti" 
 
 . . £6,354,494 
 
 ' Hea,d Office, Dublin ; Branches, Aimagh, Ballinasloe, Belfast, Carlow, Clonmel, Cork, Drogheda, Dublin, Dundalk, Gal- 
 way, Kilkenny, Limerick, Londonderry, Longford, Mountmellick, New Koss, Newry, Sligo, Tralee, Tullamore, Waterford, 
 Westport, Wexford, and Youghal. 
 
 2 Head Office, Belfast; Branches, Armagh, Ballymena, Ballymoney, Coleraine, Cookstown, Derry, Dungannon, Lame, 
 Letterkenny, Magherafelt, Monaghan, Newtownlimavady, Newtownards, Portadown, Strabane, Tandragee, Dublin, Ncwry, 
 and Castlebianoy. 
 
 3 Head Office, Dublin ; Branch, Drogheda. 
 
 * Head OfficS, London ; Branches, Dublin, Dundalk, Wicklow, Mullingar, Kells, Parsonstown, Carrick-on-Shannon, Car- 
 l*ickmacroBB, Athy, and Kinsale. 
 
 * Head Office, London ; Branches, Dublin, Athlone, Ballina, Ballinasloe, Boyle, Carrick-on-Suir, Cashel, Castlerca, Charle- 
 ville, Clonmel, Clonakilty, Cork, Dungarvan, Ennis, Knniscorthy, Fermoy, Galway, Kanturk, Kilkenny, Killarney, Kilrasb, 
 Middleton, Limerick, Longford, Loughrea, Mallow, Mitchelstown, Moate, Nenagh, New Ross, Kathkeale, Boscommon, Kos- 
 crca, Skibbercen, Tallow, Thurles, Tipperary, Tralee, Tuam, Waterford, Westport, and Wexford. 
 
 6 Head Office, Belfast; Branches, Armagh, Ballymena, Colel*aine, Clones, Carrickfergus, Downpatrick, Londonderry, Lur- 
 gan, Lisburn, Magherafelt, and Newtownlimavady. 
 
 ' Head Office, London; Branches, Dublin, Armagh, Athlone, Ballina, Ballymena, Ballyshannon, Banbridge, Bandon, 
 Belfast, Carlow, Cavan, Clonmel, Coleraine, Cork, Cootehill, Downpatrick, Drogheda, Dundalk, Dungannon, Dungarvan, 
 Knnis, Ennlscorthy, Enniskillen, Fermoy, Galway, Kilkenny, Kilrush, Limerick, Londondeiry, Mallow, Monaghan, Newry, 
 Oraagh, Parsonstown, Sligo, Strabane, Skibbereen, Tralee, Waterford, Wexford, and Youghal. 
 
 8 Dublin. 
 
 9 Head Office, Clonmel ; Branches, Athy, Carlow, Carrick-on-Suir, Nenagh, Roscrea, Thurles, Thomastown, and Tipperary. 
 11 Head Office, Belfast; Branches, Armagh, Antrim, Ballymoney, Ballymena, Banbridge, Cootehill, Cookstown, Down- 
 patrick, Enniskillen, Londonderry, Lurgan, Monaghan, Portadown, and Omagh. 
 
 VI. Foreign Banks. — To attempt giving any de- 
 tailed accoun't. of tlie principal foreign banks would 
 very far exceed our limits ; we shall, therefore, only 
 notice a few of the more celebrated. 
 
 The Bank of Venice seems to have been the firat 
 banking establishment in Europe. It was founded so 
 early as 1171, and subsisted till the subversion of the 
 republic in 1797. It was essentially a deposit bank, 
 and its bills bore at all times a premium or agio over 
 the current money of the city. 
 
 The Bank of Amsterdam was established in 1659. 
 It was a deposit bank, and payments were made by 
 writing off sums from the account of one individual to 
 those of another. According to the principles on which 
 the bank was established, it should have had at all 
 times in its coffers bullion equal to the full amount of 
 the claims upon it. But the directors privately lent 
 about 10,500,000 florins to the States of Holland and 
 Friesland. This circumstance transpired when the 
 French invaded Holland, and caused the ruin of the 
 bank. 
 
 The Bank of the Netherlands was established in 1814. 
 It is formed on the model of the Bank of England, and 
 has the exclusive privilege of issuing notes. The orig- 
 inal capital of 5,000,000 florins was doubled in 1819. 
 The king holds one-tenth of the shares. The affairs of 
 the bank are managed b}- a president, secretary, and 
 five directors, who are chosen every six months, but 
 may be indefinitely re-elected. This bank discounts 
 hills of exchange with three responsible signatures ; it 
 takes continuations on stock, and sometimes lends on 
 bullion at such a rate of interest and to such an extent 
 as may be agreed upon. It occasionally, also, makes 
 loans on merchandise, but never at less than 5 per 
 cent. Its notes vary from 1000 florins to 25 florins; 
 that is, from £&S\ to £2 1-12. The dividends have va- 
 ried from 3 to 7 per cent. The shares are each 1000 
 florins. The responsibility of the shareholders is lim- 
 ited to the amount of their stock. Its original charter, 
 which was limited to 25 years, was prolonged, in 1838, 
 for 25 years more. 
 
 The Bank of Hamburg is a deposit bank, and its af- 
 
 fairs are managed according to a system that insures 
 the fullest publicity. It receives no deposits in coin, 
 but only in bullion of a certain degree of fineness. It 
 charges itself with the bullion at the rate of 442 shil- 
 lings the mark, and issues it at the rate of 444 shil- 
 lings, being a charge of four-ninths, or nearly one-half 
 per cent., for its retention. It advances money on jew- 
 els to three-fourths of their value. The city is answer- 
 able for all pledges deposited with the bank ; they may 
 be sold by auction, if they remain 1 year and 6 weeks 
 without any interest being paid. If the value be not 
 claimed within three years, it is forfeited to the poor. 
 The Bank of Hamburg is universally admitted to be 
 one of the best managed in Europe. 
 
 France. — The Bank of France was founded in 1803. 
 The exclusive privilege of issuing notes payable to 
 bearer was granted to it for forty years, and was con- 
 tinued, by a law passed in 1840 (confirmed in 1852), till 
 1867. This law was preceded by a very able Report, 
 drawn up by M. Dufaure, in which, among other ques- 
 tions, the policy of having only one bank of issue in 
 Paris is examined, and decided in the affirmative. The 
 capital of the Bank consisted at first of 45,000,000 fr. ; 
 but it was subsequently increased to 90,000,000 fr., di- 
 vided into 90,000 shares or actions of 1000 fr. each. Of 
 these shares, 67,900 passed into the hands of the pub- 
 lic ; 22,000, having been purchased up by the bank out 
 of the surplus profits, were subsequently canceled; 
 hence the capital of the bank consisted, previously to 
 the Kevolution of 1848, of 67,900,000 fr. (£2,716,000), 
 exclusive of a reserve fund of 10,000,000 fr., since in- 
 creased to 12,980,750 fr. But notwithstanding the 
 laudable skill and caution with which her affairs were 
 conducted, the bank could not avoid suspending pay- 
 ment under a decree of the Provisional Government of 
 the 16th March, 1848, to which and to the city of Par- 
 is she had to make large advances. To set some limit 
 to the abuses that might have taken place under the 
 suspension, the maximum circulation of the Bank was 
 fixed, by the decree now referred to, at 350,000,000 fr. ; 
 while, in the view of supplying a currency suited to 
 the smaller class of payments, she was permitted to re- 
 
BAN 
 
 122 
 
 BAN 
 
 duce tlie denomination of notes in circulation from 500 to 
 100 fr. At the same time, or soon after, the depart- 
 mental banks, or banks which had been established in 
 some of the principal provincial towns, -were consoli- 
 dated with, and made branches of the Bank of France. 
 "We subjoin a copy of the decree of the !27th of April, 
 1848, by which this amalgamation was effected. 
 
 Art. 1. The banks of France, of Uouen, Lyons, Havre, Lille, 
 Toulouse, Orleans, and Marseilles are united. 
 
 Art. 2. The departmental banks above enumerated will 
 continue in operation as branches of tbe Bank of France, con- 
 formably to the regulationB stipulated in the decree of the 
 ISth of May, 1808, and the ordonnance of the 25th of March, 
 
 18J:1. 
 
 The present number of the administrators of the depart- 
 mental banks is maintained, as also the hoards of discount, 
 organized for the service of several of them. 
 
 The number of shares, the possession of which is at pres- 
 ent required as a guarantee from the directord, censors, ad- 
 ministrators, and members of the counc.la of discount of 
 those departmental banks, is provisionally maintained. 
 
 Art. 3. The shares of those banks are annulled, and the 
 holders shall receive in exchange shares of the Bank of 
 France at a nominal value of 1000 fr. for a nominal value of 
 1000 fr. 
 
 Art. 4 In order to execute the above article the Bank of 
 France is empowered to issue 1T,200 new shares, which will 
 increase its capital to 85,100 shares of 1000 fr. 
 
 Art. 5. By the cession of those new shares to the share- 
 holders of the banks of Kouen, Lyons, Havre, Lille, Toulouse, 
 Orleans, and jMarseilles, the Bank of France shall become 
 proprietor of the capital of those banks, and be made charge- 
 able with their engagements. The reserve funds, existing 
 in each of those banks, shall be added to the reserve fund of 
 the Bank of France. The uniting of the landed and chattel 
 property, resulting from the present article, shall be subject- 
 ed to the fixed registry duty imposed on deeds of partnership. 
 
 Art. 6. The Bank of France is authorized to add to the 
 maximum of circulation, fixed by the decree of the 15th of 
 March last, the maxiriium of the circulation fixed for each 
 of the departmental banks by the decree of the 25th of the 
 same month. 
 
 From the date of the promulgation of the present decree 
 the notes issued hy the banks incorporated with the Bank 
 of France shall be received throughout the republic as a le- 
 gal tender hy all the branches of the public treasury and 
 private individuals. The holders of said notes shall have to 
 present them to the Bank of France, or to its branches, with- 
 in the following six months, in order to exchange them fur 
 notes of that hank. Beyond that period those notes shall 
 cease to he current as a legal tender, hut the Bank of France 
 and its branches shall not be exonerated from the obligation 
 of exchanging them. 
 
 Art. 7. The inspectors of the finance department, on an 
 order of the minister, may verify the situation of the branch 
 banks. 
 
 Art. 8. In future the branch hanks of the Bank of France 
 shall bear the following denomination: "Bank of France, 
 Branch Bank of ." 
 
 Bnoks. 
 
 Shares. 
 
 Francs. 
 
 
 3,000 
 2,000 
 4,000 
 2,000 
 1,200 
 1,000 
 4,000 
 
 8,0110,000 
 2,000,000 
 4,000,000 
 2,000,000 
 1,200,000 
 1,000,000 
 4,000,000 
 
 " Lyons 
 
 Havre 
 
 Lille 
 
 " Touljuse 
 
 '' Orleans 
 
 " Marseilles 
 
 Bank of France 
 
 17,200 
 6T,flOO 
 
 17,200,000 
 67,000,000 
 
 
 8B,100 
 
 85,100,000 
 
 The banks of Bordeaux and Nantes were at first 
 disposed strenuously to resist the project for their in- 
 corporation with the Banit of France. In the end, 
 liowever, they gave way ; and, in consequence, 6150 
 shares, and an additional capital of 6,150,000 fr., were 
 added to the shares and capital of the Bank of France, 
 making at present (1853), the former 91,250, and the 
 latter 91,250,jl00 fr. The maximum circulation of the 
 bank was at the same time increased from 350,000,000 
 to 462,000,000 fr. 
 
 On the whole, we are inclined to think that this 
 conversion of the departmental banks into branches 
 of the Bank of France is a considerable improvement. 
 It gives an equality of value to the paper currency, 
 
 which it could not otherwise have had, and makes it 
 equally serviceable in all parts of the country. It is 
 surprising, indeed, how soon the Bank of France re- 
 covered from the severe shocks to which she was ex- 
 posed in 1848, and to what a degree she has regained 
 the public confidence. But despite the able manage- 
 ment of the bank, her intimate connection with the 
 government makes her stability in a great degree de- 
 pendent on that of the latter. 
 
 A decree of the 3d March, 1852, has prolonged the 
 charter of the bank till 1867, and has authorized her to 
 make advances on railway stock and on the bonds of 
 the city of Paris. The issue of notes for 50 fr. and 25 
 fr. would, we incline to think, be a great improvement. 
 There has been, within the last three or four years, a 
 great accumulation of bullion in the coffers of the 
 bank. Recently, however, it has been diminished not- 
 withstanding a rise in the rate of interest. — Seneuil, 
 Traite de Banqiie, p. 196-224, 2d ed., etc. No bills 
 are discounted that have more than three months to 
 run. The bank is obliged to open a compte courant for 
 every one who requires it, and performs services for 
 those who have such accounts similar to those render- 
 ed by the private banks of London to their customers. 
 She is not allowed to charge any commission upon cur- 
 rent accounts, so that her only remuneration arises out 
 of the use of the money placed in her hands by the in- 
 dividuals whose paj'ments she makes. This branch 
 of the business is said not to be profitable. The bank 
 advances money on pledges of different kinds, such as 
 foreign coin or bullion, goveinment or other securities, 
 etc. It also undertakes the care of valuable articles, 
 as plate, jewels, title-deeds, etc. The charge is f per 
 cent, of the value of each deposit for every period of 
 six months or imder. 
 
 The administration of the bank is vested in a coun- 
 cil-general of 20 members, viz., a governor and deputy- 
 governor, nominated by the emperor ; and 15 directors 
 and three censors, chosen by the general body of the 
 shareholders. The bank has a large surplus capital, 
 and at present enjoys a high degree of credit. 
 
 " The circulation of the Bank of France has increased 
 since 1848 ; first, in consequence of smaller notes being 
 put into circulation (for notes of 100 fr. are now cur- 
 rent) ; and, secondly, because of the establishment of 
 branch banks facilitating intercommunication with all 
 the principal cities of the empire. The circulation in 
 1853 and 1864 exceeded 500 millions. But in those 
 years the amount of specie in the bank cellars exceed- 
 ed the amount of the whole circulation, so that the 
 substitution of paper for gold was not of so much serv- 
 ice, or so economical to the country, as it might have 
 been under other circumstances. Not less than the 
 value of 10,000 francs is I'eceived as a deposit, and dis- 
 count for forty-five days is deducted from the amount 
 of the sum advanced ; nor, if the deposit be redeemed 
 the next day, is any part of the discount refunded. 
 The paper of the Bank of France chiefly circulates in 
 Paris and the neighborhood ; at a distance from Paris 
 its notes pass at a discount of one and a half per cent., 
 as they are not received in payment of taxes or cus- 
 tom-house duties in seaports." — E. B. 
 
 Neiu Financial Institution in Paris. — ' ' ThzSocike Gen^ 
 erale de Credit Mabilier, established by a decree of 18th 
 November, 1862, is a species of a bank, the partners in 
 which have not given their names. Its principal op- 
 erations consist in purchasing or acquiring shares in 
 public companies, provided they be en societes ano- 
 nymes; secondly, in circulating its own securities for a 
 sum equivalent to the shares or stock purchased; 
 thirdly, in exchanging all actions and obligations so 
 acquired ; fourthly, in lending on public securities on 
 the deposit of actions and obligations, etc. The capi- 
 tal of the society is fixed at 60,000,000 fr., and it is 
 represented by 120,000 shares of 600 fr. each. The so- 
 ciety can circulate its own ' obligations' for a sum six 
 times as large as its capital." — E. B. 
 
BAN 
 
 123 
 
 BAN 
 
 LlAUlLITlEB AND EESOURCES OB" THE BATIK OF 
 
 Fbance Fon 
 
 SEPTEMUEB and OCTOliEB, 1856. 
 
 LUbiUtiM. 
 
 Oct., 18S6. 
 
 Sept., 1851!. 
 
 
 Franca. 
 
 Frwcs. 
 
 
 91,250,000 
 12,980,750 
 4,000,000 
 
 91,i!6u,000 
 12,980,750 
 4,000,000 
 
 Reserve of the Bank 
 
 Do. ia landed property 
 
 Bank-notes in circulation 
 
 851,975,100 
 
 643,60 i!,200 
 
 Do. of the branch banks 
 
 69,120,700 
 
 77,024,400 
 
 Bank-notes to order 
 
 4,273,280 
 
 4,423,524 
 
 Receipts payable at sight 
 
 3,521,363 
 
 5,033,888 
 
 Treasury account current 
 
 101,412,547 
 
 118,818,302 
 
 Sundry accounts current 
 
 119,085,763 
 
 100,008,205 
 
 Do. with the branch banks 
 
 23,379,947 
 
 25,475,446 
 
 Dividends payable 
 
 916,431 
 
 1,141,905 
 
 Discounts and sundry interests 
 
 11,247,898 
 
 7,480,220 
 
 Re-diacount the last six months 
 
 1,629,993 
 
 1,629,993 
 
 Protested bills 
 
 23,360 
 
 16,862 
 
 
 6,753,523 
 
 5,674,123 
 
 Total 
 
 1,002,170,644 
 
 998,458,913 
 
 Cash in hand 
 
 77,062,910 
 
 113,126,401 
 
 Cash in the branch banka 
 
 89,407,036 
 
 122,676,090 
 
 Commercial bills overdue 
 
 605,681 
 
 2,111,194 
 
 Bills discounted, not yet due . , 
 
 271,065,426 
 
 221,308,498 
 
 Do. in the branch banks 
 
 239,623,602 
 
 217,829,320 
 
 Advanced on deposit of bullion 
 
 3,726,900 
 
 1,749,400 
 
 Do. by the branch banks 
 
 3,745,975 
 
 2,323,475 
 
 Advanced on public securities . 
 
 76,027,936 
 
 78,420,336 
 
 Do. by the branch banks 
 
 11,914,950 
 
 11,876,100 
 
 Advanced on railroad securities 
 
 38,060,000 
 
 38,273,100 
 
 Do. by the branch banks 
 
 17,211,100 
 
 17,180,900 
 
 Advanced to the State on agree- 
 
 
 
 ment of June 30, 1848 
 
 58,000,000 
 
 5.5,000,000 
 
 Discount of Treasury bonds. . . 
 
 40,000,000 
 
 40,000,000 
 
 Government stock reserved . . . 
 
 12,930,750 
 
 12,!'80,750 
 
 Do. disposable 
 
 62,190,045 
 
 52,299,795 
 
 Hotel and furniture of Bank . , . 
 
 4,000,000 
 
 4,000,000 
 
 Landed property of branch 
 
 
 
 
 6,256,405 
 1,188,683 
 
 4,908,307 
 823,684 
 
 Expenses of management ..... 
 
 Premium on gold and silver. . . 
 
 2,128,594 
 
 1,496,313 
 
 Sundries , 
 
 84,551 
 
 7.5,347 
 
 Total 
 
 1,002,170,644 
 
 998,463,»18 
 
 Banks have also been established in Berlin, Copen- 
 hagen, Vienna, and Petersburg. Those who wish for 
 detailed information with respect to these establish- 
 ments may consult the 4th vol. of the Cours d'Econo- 
 mie Politique of M. Storch, which containfs a good ac- 
 count of the paper money of the different Continental 
 states down to 1823. We also refer to other portions 
 of this article ; but in the mean time we lay before our 
 readers the following details with respect to the Com- 
 mercial Bank of Russia, established in 1818 : 
 
 This bank receives deposits in gold and silver, for- 
 eign as well as Russian coin, and in bars and ingots. 
 It has a department for transferring the sums deposit- 
 ed with it, on the plan of the Hamburg Bank. It 
 discounts bills, and lends money on deposits of mer- 
 chandise of Russian produce or origin. Its capital con- 
 sists of 8,571,429 silver rubles. It is administered by 
 a, governor and four directors, appointed by govern- 
 ment; and four directors, elected by the commercial 
 body of Petersburg. The property in the bank is pro- 
 tected against all taxation, sequestration, or attach- 
 ment; and it is enacted that subjects of countries with 
 which Russia may be at war shall be entitled at all 
 times to receive bade their deposits without any reser- 
 vation. It is also declared that at no time shall the 
 bank be called upon for any part of its capital to assist 
 the government. All deposits must be made for 6 
 months at least, and be repayable at or before that pe- 
 riod, and not be less than 600 paper rubles ; sums so 
 deposited to pay i per cent. The deposits, if in bars, 
 ingots, or foreign specie, are estimated in Russian sil- 
 ver coin, and so registered in the attestation ; and if 
 not demanded back within 15 days of the expiration 
 of 6 months, or the necessary premium paid for the pro- 
 longation, the owner loses the right of claiming his 
 original deposit, and must take its estimated value in 
 Russian silver coin. No bills are discounted that have 
 less than 8 days or more than 6 months to run. The 
 rate of discount is 6 per cent. No interest is allowed 
 on money deposited in the bank, unless notice be given 
 that it will be allowed to lie for a year, and 3 months' 
 notice be given of the intention to draw it out, when 
 
 six per cent, interest is allowed. The bank has branch- 
 es at Archangel, Moscow, Odessa, Riga, &c. 
 
 By means of its capital and deposits, which in 1839 
 amounted together to 161,881,839 silver rubles, the 
 bank effected in that year the following operations : 
 
 1. Repayments on deposits in transfer 
 
 2. Transfers from one city to another 
 
 3. Drafts purchased 
 
 4. Repayment of deposits at interest 
 
 6. Discount of billB'of exchange 
 
 6. Advances on deposits of merchandlEc 
 
 7. Advances on the notes of other banks 
 
 8. Discount of notes of the Lombard 
 
 9. Advanced on fixed property by branch at 
 
 Kieff 
 
 Rubles. Cop. 
 
 24,906,101 46 
 
 19,986,313 96 
 
 3,332,061 64 
 
 31,955,776 91 
 
 17,217,541 T 
 
 1,848,604 68 
 
 660,001 13 
 
 1,928,671 43 
 
 174,070 80 
 
 The net proiit during the same year amounted to 
 656,501 silver rubles, and the reserve capital of the 
 bank was then also 1,279,976 silver rubles. — See Sup- 
 plement to the Jaunud de St. Petenbourg for 1839, p. 
 87. 
 
 Banks of Germany. — The Bank Royal of Prussia was 
 foimiled at Berlin in 1765, upon the model of that of 
 Hamburg. So it existed until 1846, when it was re- 
 organized under a new charter, by which more exten- 
 sion was given to its operations. In accordance with 
 this new Constitution, which has been in force since the 
 1st of January, 1847, the issue of notes has been carried 
 to fifteen millions of thalers (the thaler equal to 2s. lOJd 
 sterling). In 1850 this issue was raised to twenty- 
 one millions of thalers. The capital of the bank is.al- 
 ways to be in proportion with the notes in circulation, 
 two-sixths in silver, three-sixths in bills discounted, 
 and the rest in loans on securities. The bank-notes 
 are from twenty-five to fifty thalers each. The share 
 of the government in the bank amounts, at most, to 
 500,000 thalers. The shareholders are entitled to an 
 annual interest of 3i per cent, upon the capital, and, 
 after deduction of the sum set apart for the reserve or 
 rest, which is not to exceed 30 per cent, of the capital, 
 one moiety of the surplus profits is apportioned to them 
 in addition, and the other goes to the treasury. The 
 bank has branches in a great number of cities, as Bres- 
 lau, Konigsberg, Dantzic, Stettin, Magdeburg, Mun- 
 ster, Cologne, Memel, Posen, Stolpe, Elberfeld, Treves, 
 Aix-la-Chapelle, Dusseldorf, Coblentz, Minden, Erfurt, 
 Frankfort-sur-Oder, Stralsund, Kostin, Liegnltz, and 
 Oppeln, and thus forms a vast network of financial op- 
 erations through all the kingdom. 
 
 The private bank of the noblesse of Pomerania was 
 founded at Stettin, in 1824, by an association of noble 
 proprietors, with a capital of 1,000,000 thalers. After 
 the crisis of 1830, this capital was carried to 1,534,500 
 thalers. The operations of this bank embrace discount, 
 loans upon lodgments of merchandise, loans upon pitb- 
 lio and private securities, cun-ent accounts, and de- 
 posits With interest. Formerly, it issued promissory 
 notes to bearer ; but this privilege was withdrawn from 
 it in 1835. There is a circulation of about ninety mill- 
 ions of thalers of mortgage notes in Prussia (these are, 
 in fact, for one hundred and five millions). They have 
 been Issued, at different periods, by associations of pro- 
 prietary nobles in various parts of the kingdom, and 
 carry interest at 3i per cent. 
 
 The National Bank of Vienna was founded in 1815, 
 to re-establish order in the finances of Austria, and 
 more particularlj' for the repurchase or the conversion 
 of the paper money in circulation, the value of which 
 was become almost nominal. The different creations 
 of shares have raised its capital to about 89,000,000 
 florins. This capital is divided into 50,621 shares of 
 1500 florins each. The actual operations of the bank 
 are discount ; the issue of bank-notes, a privilege which 
 it enjoys exclusively throughout the Austrian empire ; 
 loans upon deposits, and negotiations of loans. The 
 bank pays an annual interest of 6 per cent, upon the 
 primitive capital, and a dividend, after deduction of 
 the reserve fund. Its privilege, or charter, extends to 
 the year 1866. It has branches at Prague, Briinn, 
 
BAN 
 
 124 
 
 BAN 
 
 Troppau, Ogen, Temeswar, Kashan, Lemberg, Trieste, 
 Innspruck, Goritz, Linz, and Hermstadt. 
 
 The Bank of Extraordinary Credit of Vienna was 
 constituted in 1846 by imperial decree, and has for its 
 object to devote a part of the sums destined for the re- 
 demption of the national debt to the purchase of cer- 
 tain shares in railway and other enterprises, in order 
 to sustain useful undertakings, and communicate a 
 greater Impulse to them. 
 
 The Loan and Exchange Bank of Bavaria was found- 
 ed at Munich, in 1835, by shares, under the surveil- 
 lance and control of the government. It is privi- 
 leged for ninety-nine years. The original capital was 
 10,000,000 florins, with liberty of increase to 20,000,000. 
 In 1846 there was a new emission of shares of 500 flor- 
 ins. The net profits are divided as follows: Tliree per 
 cent, as divided to the shareholders, and, of the sur- 
 plus, three-fourths as extra dividend, and the remain- 
 ing fourth carried to tlie reserve, until it shall reach to 
 one-ten th of the capital. Three-fifths of the capital are 
 employed in loans on mortgage. The other operations 
 are discounts, loans on securities and ingots ; the issue 
 of bank-notes, whose amount is limited to four-tenths 
 of the capital, and three-fourths of it to be covered bj' 
 a value of double the sum in mortgage credits, or in 
 silver. The bank has a bi'anch at Augsburg. 
 
 The Eoyal Bank of Bavaria, first established at Ans- 
 bach, and now at Nuremberg, is one of the oldest es- 
 tablishments of the liind. Its operations are dis- 
 counts, deposits, loans upon personal and other securi- 
 ties. The government is entitled to half the profits. 
 It has branches at Ansbach and Bamberg. 
 
 The Royal Bank of the Court of Wurtemberg, found- 
 ed in 1802 at Stutgardt, limits its operations to dis- 
 counts and loans. 
 
 The Bank of Leipsic was founded in 1839, under the 
 auspices of the government, with a capital of 1,500,000 
 thalers, divided into shares of 250 thalers, receiving 3 
 per cent, interest. Its operations are deposits, loans, 
 and discounts. It has the right of issuing notes of 20 
 and 100 tliaiers each, of which the two-thirds should be 
 guaranteed by values to the amount in specie or ingots. 
 
 There exists, besides, at Dresden, a loan bank, which 
 makes advances to land proprietors and farmers for the 
 payment of taxes, tithes, etc. Leipsic has also an in- 
 stitution of this kind under the name of " Union of 
 Credit for the hereditary lands of the Saxon nobility." 
 
 It was in agitation, in 1846, to found at Dessau a 
 great central establishment, to answer the purpose of a 
 vast banking system for the north of Germany. It 
 was proposed to endow it with an accumulation of cap- 
 itals to the extent of from 60,000,000 to 100,000,000 
 thalers. But this gigantic project has resolved itself 
 into a private enterprise, established in the beginning 
 of 1847, under the title of the Provisional Bank of An- 
 halt-Dessau, with a capital of 2,500,000 thalers, divided 
 in shares of 200 thalers. This establishment issues 
 notes of 1, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 500, and 1000 thalers each. 
 One-fourth the value of the bank-notes in circulation 
 should be covered by an equivalent sum in specie. 
 
 The Bank of Hamburg was founded in 1619. The 
 minimum deposit of a member desiring to open an ac- 
 count is 100 marks banco in bar silver, or in a bill, for 
 the same sum, of one of the members of the bank, which 
 is then transferred from the account of the latter to that 
 of the former. Transfers can not take place for a less 
 sum than 100 marks, except some days before Christ- 
 mas, or in the middle of July. Hitherto, for each 
 mark of fine silver of Cologne, the depositor was ac- 
 credited with 27|- marks banco ; while, in withdrawing 
 his money for a similar sum, he was debited with 27i 
 marks banco, so that the simple usage of the operation 
 brought a cost of 9-20 per cent. A new regulation, 
 which is to come into force on the 15th of August, 1857, 
 imports that the mark of fine silver of Cologne shall be 
 credited 27f marks banco, and debited at a similar rate 
 after deduction of 1 per mille. Independently of this 
 sort of business, the bank lends upon Spanish and 
 American dollars, and sometimes also on copper. 
 These are its only operations. 
 
 The association of the new loan, established equally 
 at Hamburg, in 1839, possesses a capital of 100,000 
 marks banco, and does business prohibited to the bank, 
 principally loans on securities, public funds, etc. 
 
 There have been numerous financial enterprises, 
 lately started on the Continent of Europe, absorbing a 
 heavy amount of capital hitherto available for other 
 purposes. The following list of new banks in Germany 
 represents a capital of nearly 115,000,000 dollars, which 
 forms but a small part of the amount lately invested 
 by German capitalists within the borders of their own 
 country. The shares of all the banks named hereafter 
 command a high premium, although but few of them 
 have been sufiicient time in operation to pay dividends. 
 
 List op Banks established in Gebmany since 1863. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Nnine. 
 
 Plnce. 
 
 Capital. 
 
 1853 
 
 Landes Bank, 
 
 Dessau, 
 
 4,000,000 Thalers. 
 
 1853 
 
 Braunschweiger Bank, 
 
 Brunswick, 
 
 2,500,000 Thalers. 
 
 1853 
 
 Bank fuer Handel und Industrie, 
 
 Darmstadt, 
 
 25,000,000 Guilders. 
 
 1854 
 
 Weimarsche Bank, 
 
 Weimar, 
 
 5,000,000 Thalers. 
 
 1855 
 
 Frankfurter Bank, 
 
 Frankfort-on-the-Main, 
 
 20,000,000 Guilders. 
 
 1855 
 
 "Wiener Cr, Bank, 
 
 Vienna, 
 
 60,000,000 Guilders. 
 
 1856 
 
 Geraer Bank, 
 
 Gera, 
 
 8,000,000 Thalers. 
 
 1856 
 
 ThueringjBche Bank, 
 
 Sondershausen, 
 
 3,000,000 Thalers. 
 
 1856 
 
 Bank fuer Sued Deutscbland, 
 
 Darmstadt, 
 
 20,000,000 Guilders. 
 
 1856 
 
 Coelncr Bank, 
 
 Cologne, 
 
 1,000,000 Thalers. 
 
 1850 
 
 Bremer Bank, 
 
 Bremen, 
 
 2,500,000 Th. Gold. 
 
 1856 
 
 Hess. Landes Bank, 
 
 Homburg, 
 
 1,000,000 Guilders. 
 
 1866 
 
 Mittel Doutsches Cr. Institut, 
 
 Meiningen, 
 
 8,000,000 Thalers. 
 
 1856 
 
 Credit Anstalt, 
 
 Dessau, 
 
 8,000,000 Thalers. 
 
 1856 
 
 Credit Institut, 
 
 Leipsic, 
 
 10,000,000 Thalers. 
 
 1866 
 
 Disconto Gesellschaft, 
 
 Berlin, 
 
 5,000,000 Thalers. 
 
 1856 
 
 Coburg-GothaiBche Cr. GeaellBCbaft, 
 
 Coburg, 
 
 10,000,000 Thalers. 
 
 1856 
 
 Ci-. und Verisicherungs Gesellschaft, 
 
 Lubec, 
 
 3,000,000 Thalers. 
 
 1856 
 
 Privat Bank, 
 
 Magdeburg, 
 
 1,000,000 Thalers. 
 
 1856 
 
 Norddeutsche Bank, 
 
 Hamburg, 
 
 20,000,000 Marcs Boo. 
 
 1856 
 
 Verelns Bank, 
 
 Hamburg, 
 
 20,000,000 Marcs Bco. 
 
 " The mania for establishing Credit Mobiliers in 
 Germany shows no signs of subsiding. To those of 
 Vienna, Frankfort, Darmstadt, Leipsic, Dessau, and 
 others, of which the shares are at premiums ranging 
 from 10 to 90 per cent., there are now two additions 
 which have been introduced at Berlin. The first con- 
 sists of several second-rate merchants and bankers. 
 The other, which is designated the Society of Commer- 
 cial Credit, counts among its administrators some of 
 the first mercantile names in Berlin. The capital is 
 
 fixed at 15,000,000 thalers (or £2,260,000), of which 
 the directors take 7,650,000 thalers at par, while the 
 remainder are to be sold at a premium, which is to be 
 earned to the credit of the company'. Upon a sub- 
 scription being opened for a portion of the amount, at 
 10 per cent, premium, applications were sent in to the 
 extent of 140,000,000 thalers. The eagerness to obtain 
 shares is attributable to the fact of the company hav- 
 ing at its head commercial men who have always been 
 known to be successful. The managers reserve to them- 
 
BAN 
 
 125 
 
 BAN 
 
 selves 5 per cent, out of the profits, and the directors 
 are to have 5 per cent, before any distribution what- 
 ever is made to the shareholders. The shares are of 
 
 two hundred thalers each, and are already in great 
 demand at 17 per cent, premium." — Loadcm Times, Au- 
 gust, 1856. 
 
 Movements of the Imperiai, Bank or Austkia, foe the Yeaes 1S52-1865. 
 Tra-naiuitiona of the Bank in Florins. 
 
 During the 
 Yejr. 
 
 Advanced to the 
 GoveroDient. 
 
 Drafts. 
 
 
 Advances on 
 Securities. 
 
 Indonements. 
 
 Amount of Bills 
 redeemed. 
 
 1852 
 1853 
 1854 
 1655 
 
 Florins. 
 241,000,525 
 
 Florins. 
 
 89,li5^,531 
 
 84,985,637 
 
 149,917,815 
 
 164,085,575 
 
 Florins. 
 199,364,440 
 231,935,293 
 325,038,183 
 414,188,043 
 
 Florins. 
 91,171,300 
 107,750,600 
 177,705,600 
 282,006,450 
 
 Florins. 
 191,406,338 
 236,043,698 
 224,359,896 
 244,479,407 
 
 Florins. 
 
 112,200 
 30,600 
 66,075 
 22,475 
 
 Attbe close of 
 the Year. 
 
 Clftims on the 
 Government. 
 
 Specie. 
 
 Circulation. 
 
 Notes and Bills of 
 Exchange on hand. 
 
 Amount of pledged 
 Securities. Deposits. 
 
 1852 
 1853 
 1854 
 1855 . 
 
 Florins. 
 130,660,279 
 121,710,790 
 294,226,495 
 263,175,172 
 
 Florins. 
 48,247,366 
 44,881,334 
 • 45,207,083 
 49,410,665 
 
 Fiorina. 
 194,943,256 
 188,309,217 
 383,491,000 
 877,880,276 
 
 Florins. 
 36,321,635 
 63,447,837 
 73,212,203 
 86,764,715 
 
 Florbis. 
 
 31,499,350 
 
 41,805,364 
 
 89,709,600 
 
 154,649,500 
 
 Florins. 
 93,245,428 
 85,764,908 
 83,166,666 
 82,886,229 
 
 JResuUa. 
 
 
 Total Amount of 
 Specie Transactions. 
 
 Total 
 
 Surplus of 
 Receipts, 
 
 Dividend. 
 
 Amount of the 
 Reserve Fund. 
 
 Pension 
 Fund. 
 
 Receipte. 
 
 Expenditures. 
 
 1853 
 18B3 
 1854 
 1865 
 
 Florins 
 2,366,009,255 
 2,324,942,752 
 8,904,144,937 
 3,397,338,028 
 
 Florins. 
 1,284,625,327 
 1,273,106,264 
 2,089,517,161 
 1,862,101,449 
 
 Florins. 
 1,883,512,482 
 1,852,949,833 
 1,939,754,707 
 1,084,999,033 
 
 Florins. 
 101,112,845 
 120,166,931 
 149,772,454 
 177,102,416 
 
 70 
 83 
 85 
 73 
 
 Fiorina. 
 10,361,588 
 10,361,688 
 10,361,588 
 10,861,688 
 
 Florins. 
 907,671 
 936,949 
 961,867 
 992,439 
 
 VII. Banking in the United States.— The bank- 
 ing interest of the United States has attained an import- 
 ance in the varied concerns of this widely-extended 
 country, and is so interwoven with all our commercial, 
 manufacturing and agricultural pursuits, that it must 
 be conceded that it is a great motive power in our 
 condition of national prosperity, and secondary in its 
 influence only to that of the government itself. And 
 yet there are few subjects of a practical nature on which 
 the people of the United States have so widely differed 
 in opinion as upon the policy of banks and the substi- 
 tution of a paper currency, based even upon coin, for 
 one purely metallic. On one side, the zealous friends 
 of banks have sometimes overrated the utility of paper 
 credit, and attributed to it a creative power which 
 even gold and silver do not possess ; on the other side, 
 their opponents, without distinguishing between the 
 uses and abuses of banks, discerned, in these useful 
 and almost indispensable auxiliaries to commerce, 
 manufactures and agriculture, nothing but mischief, 
 and regarded them as impeding the wealth of the na- 
 tion, and even as injurious to its morals as well as dan- 
 gerous to its liberties. Both parties, perceiving the 
 glaring errors of their adversaries, have been strength- 
 ened in their own opinions, and as each party has al- 
 ternately come into power, it has established or sub- 
 verted, encouraged or rejected, the present banking 
 policy of the country. A comparison of the amounts 
 of bank capital in several important years, from 1837 
 to 186G, will exhibit the fluctuations which have taken 
 place during the last twenty years : 
 
 Years. 
 
 Capital. 
 
 Banks. 
 
 Circulation. 
 
 1837 
 
 $290,772,091 
 
 788 
 
 $149,185,890 
 
 1840 
 
 368,442,692 
 
 901 
 
 106,968,672 
 
 1843 
 
 228,861,948 
 
 691 
 
 68,563,608 
 
 1846 
 
 196,894,309 
 
 707 
 
 105,552,427 
 
 1860 
 
 217,817,211 
 
 824 
 
 131,366,526 
 
 1854 
 
 301,376,071 
 
 1208 
 
 204,689,207 
 
 1356 
 
 347,423,246 
 
 1371 
 
 177,157,412 
 
 These banks had, in the cori'esponding years, specie in 
 their vaults, 38, 33, 33J-, 42, 45, 59 and 60 millions of 
 dollars, and the amount of specie in circulation steadily 
 increased from 35 to 191 millions, in addition thereto, 
 according to the most reliable estimates, viz. : 
 
 rears. 
 
 DepoaiU. 
 
 Loans and Discounts. 
 
 1837 
 
 $127,397,185 
 
 $525,115,702 
 
 18J0 
 
 75,696,867 
 
 462,896,623 
 
 1843 
 
 66,168,623 
 
 254,544,937 
 
 1840 
 
 96,913,070 
 
 812,114,404 
 
 1860 
 
 109,586,595 
 
 364,204,078 
 
 1854 
 
 188,188,744 
 
 607,287,423 
 
 1856 
 
 237,964,981 
 
 634,183,280 
 
 It must be borne in mind that the two last crises in 
 bank affairs occurred in the years 1837 and 1842-43, 
 and their circulation, as it appears above, was reduced 
 from $149,200,000 to $58,563,608, and their specie from 
 137,915,340 to $33,515,806. The consequence was a 
 ruinous fall in prices of property, and many business 
 men found it impossible to comply with their engage- 
 ments, under the sudden contraction of bank loans 
 from 525 to 254 millions of dollars. 
 
 The history of all our bank pressures and panics has 
 been the same in 1825, 1837, and 1843, and the causes 
 given in two simple words — universal expansion; and 
 nothing but gold and silver possesses the conservative 
 power to regulate the state of our currency or check 
 the ruinous inflation to which our banks are prone, but 
 for this check on their issues. All other kinds of prop- 
 erty have but a fictitious value, which in periods of 
 continued prosperity is enhanced beyond the limits 
 of reason or common discretion. At such times the 
 banks themselves have aided the popular delusion by 
 stretching their utmost spread of canvas to court the 
 favoring breeze ; but when caught aback, are the most 
 alarmed at the perils which they are sure to encounter. 
 Instead of becoming auxiliary to others, they but in- 
 creased the panic and aggravated the troubles, which 
 foresight might have prevented. Experience has shown 
 that the contraction which succeeds an uninterrupted 
 prosperity is more disastrous than if the community 
 had never enjoyed any bank extension. If the effect 
 of these fluctuations was confined to the speculators 
 who originated them, there would be little- to excite 
 public anxiety or sympathy ; but the misfortune is, 
 that they reach the industrial classes of society, and 
 all who are dependent on their daily labor for support. 
 When the banks fail to redeem their circulation, the 
 laborer, the artisan and small dealer, who earn their 
 ten or twenty dollars per week, are despoiled of their 
 hard earnings, and it is not surprising that among 
 these classes of society there should exist a jealousy 
 of banks, when they are always in danger of receiv- 
 ing and holding bankrupt notes ; since, in the interior, 
 most of them are unacquainted with the character of 
 the currency which is proffered to them in payment. 
 
 But the laborer and the operative not only suffer by 
 the suspension of banks ; they are in a greater or less 
 degree, affected by bank inflations. When money is 
 abundant in what are teimedprosperous times, their dai- 
 ly wages have never 3'et kept pace with the high prices 
 of produce or manufactures. Nor do our seamen al- 
 ways participate in the advanced rate of freights ; but 
 when the price of every thing about us is enhanced, 
 
BAN 
 
 126 
 
 BAN 
 
 we are accustomed to adhere to the same valuation of 
 the wages of labor. If the standard of their value is 
 rightly estimated in part by the cost of subsistence, 
 the rate ought, in justice, to be advanced when prices 
 are high, as well as to reduce the rate when the market 
 is depressed ; but the latter course is frequently adopt- 
 ed, wliile the former is submitted to with evident re- 
 luctance. 
 
 But are the banks al(me to blame for these fluctua- 
 tions of expansions and contractions ? To a certain 
 extent they are, but not wholly so ; they are but aux- 
 iliaries. In periods of prosperity they liave on hand 
 money to loan, and dispense it freely while it is in 
 their power, as it is their duty to do, in order to secure 
 good dividends for their stockholders ; but it was the 
 excess of confidence out of the banks which first in- 
 duced speculation, and the expansion of individual 
 credit to its utmost tension. While money is redun- 
 dant and capital unemploj'ed, temptations are offered 
 to the adventurous, and speculation becomes rife in 
 stocks, lands, railroads, mines, and the countless " fan- 
 cies" which promise such flattering results in such a 
 brief period of time. Nor is this speculative spirit 
 confined to our commercial cities; it pervades the 
 whole country, and a. fictitious value is attached to 
 every thing animate and inanimate, movable or fixed, 
 which possesses any value at all. The property thus 
 enhanced in valuation, without any reasonable cause, 
 is either sold to some ii-responsible purchaser, or per- 
 haps mortgaged as security for some other speculation ; 
 pay day comes round, the sober second thought dis- 
 closes the infatuation, and the dreamer awakes to the 
 appalling perception of his true condition. The prop- 
 erty is sacrificed ; in other words, it is sold for its specie 
 value, and the speculator is ruined, involving in his 
 fall the credulous individuals who have trusted in his 
 supposed forecast or his plausible representations. All 
 classes of the community feel the shock, and the gen- 
 eral outcry is against the banks as the origin of tlie 
 evil ; but is it an evil ? 
 
 It must be acknowledged by all that an uninter- 
 rupted course of prosperity caused by a redundancy of 
 currency, and the consequent supply of bank facilities, 
 would, in the end, be prejudicial to the true and per- 
 manent welfare of the country. We have had expe- 
 rience enough during our intervals of success to note 
 the consequences of a prosperous career, and the bene- 
 fits have never been equally shared by the community. 
 Bold and reckless speculators, monopolists in every 
 branch of trade, wealthy capitalists, and a few adven- 
 turers, may have amassed fortunes in some few in- 
 stances, but ten times the number of each description 
 have been mined ; and under any circumstances, the 
 great mass of the community, the laboring classes, 
 salaried officers, annuitants of every sort, professional 
 men, medical, legal, and clerical, while they derive lit- 
 tle benefit from the golden harvest, are inevitably 
 doomed to suffer their full proportion of the losses 
 which ensue. 
 
 The moral tone of society is also deteriorated and 
 corrupted by the continuance of prosperity ; luxury, 
 with its enervating influence ; extravagance, with its 
 lavish expenditures, undermine the foundation of our 
 moral strength, economy, and integrity, and corrupt 
 not only our morals but our legislation. An extrava- 
 gant style of living and habits of personal expenditure 
 on the nameless artificial wants and luxuries of society, 
 which are almost inseparable from suddenly acquired or 
 even suppositive wealth, have no small share in creating 
 a demand for money, which ultimately leads to ruin ; 
 first, by a loss of confidence and impaired credit; next, 
 temporary sacrifices ; and, finally, by bankruptcy. And 
 it is better that it should be so, for the occasional sifting 
 of the chaff' from the wheat has always been followed 
 by periods of well-regulated trade, reasonable profits, 
 and that degree of thrift with which men of integrity 
 and substance are contented. Trade flows on in its nat- 
 
 ural channels, neither impeded by artificial barriers 
 nor impelled by the force of speculation. Reverses, 
 then, are the surest safeguards against approaching 
 ruin, and banks managed by conscientious and pru- 
 dent directors are the great conservatives which arrest 
 llie proclivity of financial profligacy to national de- 
 struction. What reason is there, then, in the popular 
 outcry in the dominant party against banks, when it 
 is obvious that they are one of the strongest and best 
 protectors of the interests of the industrial classes ? 
 " It is true that the banks are not beyond the reach 
 of adversity ; like other business corporations, they 
 may be on the high tide of success, and tempests from 
 distant quarters may sink them beneath the waters, 
 without any fault of their own. Channels of trade, 
 now full, may dry up ; important departments of in- 
 dustry may be broken down ; the earth may not yield 
 its increase in unpropitious seasons ; wars may arrest 
 or reverse the great currents of trade ; embargoes and 
 non-intercourse may sweep commerce from the ocean ; 
 and when the whole country is overwhelmed with em- 
 barrassment by events so great and controlling in the 
 commerce of the world, it can not be expected that 
 the banks should escape." 
 
 From 1843 to 1850, there was at first a diminution 
 and then an increase of capital, but the circulation 
 steadily advanced each successive year, especially in 
 1848, occasioned by the large exportation of bread- 
 stuffe to Europe the preceding year, and the return of 
 nearly twenty-five millions of specie, which gave to all 
 the western banks the long-needed relief. During 
 the financial year ending in June, 1847, our exports 
 amounted to $158,000,000, of which $68,000,000 were 
 in breadstuffs, and $54,000,000 in cotton, arid exceed- 
 ed our imports $12,000,000. This amount of exports 
 was larger by $40,000,000 than in any preceding year 
 (excepting in 18S9, when the amount was $162,000,000), 
 and about $30,000,000 more than in 1836-'36 or 1841. 
 The amount of domestic exports has never been ex- 
 ceeded before nor since, >vith the exception of 1854, 
 when the export of breadstuff's w-as nearly $66,000,000, 
 and of cotton $94,000,000 ; the whole export having 
 been, in 1847, $158,000,000, as above stated, and in 
 1854, $274,000,000 ; but in the latter year the imports 
 exceeded the exports nearly $30,000,000; while in 
 1847 the latter were $12,000,000 greater. 
 
 We have stated these facts merely to show some of 
 the causes of the fluctuations which periodically occur 
 in our financial difficulties. It is common to attribute 
 these difficulties to excessive importations ; but this is 
 not so. A tabular statement of tbe excess of imports 
 over exports will aid us in our examination of this 
 subject. Since 1800, there have been thirteen years 
 when the exports have exceeded the amount of imports 
 from two to five millions; in 1839, $41,000,000; in 
 1843, $20,000,000 ; and in 1847, $12,000,000. 
 
 
 Eiceiis of 
 
 Years. 
 
 Excess of 
 
 Years. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 1800 
 
 21,000,000 
 
 1828 
 
 16,000,000 
 
 1801 
 
 17,000,000 
 
 1831 
 
 22,000,000 
 
 1S05 
 
 25,000,000 
 
 1832 
 
 14,000,000 
 
 1806 
 
 28,000,000 
 
 1833 
 
 18,000,000 
 
 1807 
 
 30,000,000 
 
 1834 
 
 22,000,000 
 
 1808 
 
 85,000,000 
 
 18l?5 
 
 28,000,000 
 
 1810 
 
 19,000,000 
 
 1836 
 
 61,000,000 
 
 1812 
 
 89,000,000 
 
 1837 
 
 28,000,000 
 
 1816 
 
 61,000,000 
 
 1840 
 
 27,000,000 
 
 1816 
 
 66,000,000 
 
 1850 
 
 42,000,000 
 
 181S 
 
 28,000,000 
 
 1853 
 
 87,000,000 
 
 1819 
 
 17,000,000 
 
 1854 
 
 29,000,000 
 
 1820 
 
 15,000,000 
 
 
 
 In the intervening years the excess -was from two to 
 ten millions, but "which our freights discharged by their 
 earnings. With the exception, therefore, of 1836, none 
 of our crises can "with justice be attributed to excessive 
 importations. 
 
 We do not, however, assert that our banks are in- 
 culpable, nor that they are not responsible for much 
 of the mischief that this overtrading and speculative 
 
BAN 
 
 127 
 
 BAJST 
 
 spirit h^s occasioned. When the course of our foreign 
 trade is prosperous, and specie is not in demand for ex- 
 port, the banlis have been and are strongly tempted to 
 extend their loans, by the seeming impunity with which 
 they can increase their prolits, while the cheering in- 
 fluence of public prosperitj' has given a great spring 
 to the spirit of enterprise, and, by affording aliment to 
 this spirit, they give it a force and vigor of mischief 
 which it would not otherwise attain. Thus, without 
 intending it, and in the mere pursuit of their own vo- 
 cation, they stimulate the love of gain in all sorts of 
 schemes and adventures. The wild and extravagant 
 spirit of speculation is never found to prevail to such 
 an extent as will be found in all places where there are 
 hanks of circulation, and especially in those cities and 
 larger towns where banks are numerous. If banks 
 would confine their discounts to the paper of those who 
 are engaged in a regular course of business, and refuse 
 accommodation to the rash, adventurous, and over- 
 sanguine ; if they would restrain their issues whenever 
 the spirit of speculation was rife and rampant, they 
 would do much to preserve the balance of trade, and 
 keep the equilibrium between imports and exports. 
 But while bank charters, for small capitals in country 
 towns as well as larger ones for cities, can be so easily 
 obtained, and often intrusted to the management of di- 
 rectors destitute of the knowledge even of the theory 
 of banks, and especially of that practical knowledge so 
 essential to a right management, the course pursued by 
 them will inevitably be injurious to the communitj-, 
 and probably disastrous to those who own the stock. 
 
 "We have in the United States at this period 
 (1856) about 1400 banks, with capitals amounting to 
 $34-t,000,000, and a circulation of §200,000,000. The 
 discounted paper of these banks is about $634,000,000, 
 and the amount of bonds and stocks held in Europe is 
 probably near $300,000,000 more, making an aggregate 
 of $934,000,000. Now the value of this immense amount 
 of credit is affected by the condition of our money mark- 
 et, and a depreciation of ten per cent, of its amount is 
 equal to the loss of one of our cotton crops. Should 
 we allow a few reckless adventurers to. trespass upon 
 the lights of others, and by the agency of a few small 
 banks, scattered throughout the country, disturb our 
 flnancial equilibrium and depreciate the value of prop- 
 erty, by causing needless fluctuations ? Still, howev- 
 er, the multiplication is going on with fearful rapid- 
 ity ; some originating with parties who have surplus 
 capital, and wish to facilitate their own and their 
 neighbor's commercial transactions ; with others, who 
 wish to invest funds for the sake of the income ; with 
 another class, who are solicitous to create bank capital, 
 as it is called, for the supply of their business wants, 
 by an exchange of their own stock notes for the bills 
 of their chartered banks ; and last of all, by those whose 
 sordid motive is to speculate on the community, by 
 foisting upon it notes of circulation, and then decrying 
 their value, to purchase them back again through other 
 channels at a discount, or perhaps finally abandon them 
 to their fate, without redemption, on any terms. Our 
 hanks are the ofi'spring of twenty-seven different States, 
 and are founded upon the three different systems of a 
 specie basis, a safety fund, and the " free banking" 
 principle, a deposit of stocks ; but imtil some uniform 
 system of bank circulation is adopted, we can not hope 
 to escape the evils of our present heterogeneous curren- 
 cy. The issues of our banks ought to be regulated by 
 the state of our foreign exchanges, restricted when gold 
 is flowing out of the country, and expanded when it is 
 coming in. As it is now, however, if the banks in our 
 commercial cities curtail their circulation, the vacuum 
 is soon supplied by the country banks, who eagerly 
 avail themselves of the opportunity, and thus nothing 
 is gained, but, on the contrary, much is lost by this 
 substitution of a weaker currency ; and when a pres- 
 sure comes, these smaller banks add fuel to the flames, 
 by their importunate cries for assistance and indul- 
 
 gence. The eftbrts of our banks on the sea-board can pro- 
 duce but little perceptible eft'ect in contracting the cur- 
 rency, if the great mass of the interior banks persist in 
 issuing their paper as long as they have conlidence in 
 their customeis, or the public are willing to receive it. 
 We therefore need a restraining or an overawing pow- 
 er, which can be exercised for the general good ; and 
 until we have this, the currency will continue to be 
 fluctuating, both in quantity and quality. 
 
 An annual report on the condition of the banks 
 throughout the Union is made to Congress by the 
 Treasui-y Department. The resolution adopted in 
 July, 1832, under which these annual reports are made, 
 calls for " such statements and returns as may have 
 been communicated to the Legislatures, governors, or 
 other officers of the several States within the ytar, and 
 made public." The want of uniformity of dates, how- 
 ever, is not the only deficiency in these annual reports ; 
 thei'e is no specification of immediate liabilities and cZe- 
 f erred, or of immediate and deferred resources — without 
 a knowledge of which it is impossible to arrive at a 
 true knowledge of the condition of the banks. It will 
 be fortunate for the country if this subject should ever 
 attract the attention of Congress and the State Legis- 
 latures, and they slioidd be induced to unite in some 
 common system of action, b}' which all the banks in 
 the country should be required to make quarterly state- 
 ments of their affairs at the saine specified dates, at the 
 close of the dafs business, and upon a uniform and sim- 
 ple plan, so that no one who is acquainted witli an or- 
 dinary account current could fail to understand them. 
 Such, however, we fear, will never take place, and for 
 the present we must be content with the imperfect, het- 
 erogeneous, and mystified statements which are annu- 
 ally furnished to Congress in the voluminous documents 
 of the Secretary of the Treasury, with such condensed 
 tables as the arts of finance and divination will enable 
 him to make out, and we must abandon the idea of 
 statistical exactness. 
 
 1800-1810.— The number of State banks in 1800 was 
 thirty-two, having authorized capitals of $23,550,000, 
 but it was not all paid in ; and it has been stated that 
 the capital of the first United States Bank, chartered 
 in 1791 ($10,000,000), probably exceeded the paid up 
 capital of the thirty-two local banks. Of these, eight- 
 een were in New England, five in New York, two each 
 in Pennsylvania, Maryland, District of Columbia and 
 South Carolina, and one in Delaware. There are oo 
 reliable statements of the amount of circulation or 
 specie on record prior to 1808, but estimates have been 
 published by the Secretary of the Treasury, in 1855, 
 which give the circulation at $10,500,000 in 1800, and 
 gradually increasing to $18,000,000 in 1807, while the 
 specie in the country was estimated at $17,500,000, run- 
 ning up to $20,000,000 during the same period ; the 
 amount in the banks, however, is not even conjectured. 
 In 1808 the Bank of the United States had $4,787,000 
 in circulation, against $15,300,000 in specie ; and the 
 Secretary adds, " the policy of the banks in New En- 
 gland was widely different. They pushed their issues 
 to the very limits of their credit, some of them issuing 
 notes for even fractional parts of the dollar. The re- 
 sult was, that there was, in 1808-9, a grand explosion 
 among the banks in New England, by which most of 
 them were shattered, and some of them totally de- 
 stroyed." 
 
 The first return of specie in the banks was in 1811, 
 when the amount was $15,400,000 against a circulation 
 of 28,000,000. This amount must have been mainly 
 drawn from the United States Bank, whose charter ex- 
 pired the same year ; for from the time of the embar- 
 go in 1808 to 1811, "when our produce could no lon- 
 ger be exported, all who had any engagements to meet 
 in foreign countries — all to whom remittances abroad 
 were advantageous, if not indispensable — transmitted 
 specie as the commodity most easily concealed and 
 transported. From this time the amount of specie di- 
 
BAN 
 
 128 
 
 BAN 
 
 minished ; the unsettled state of our commercial and 
 political regulations with foreign powers during the 
 three succeeding years presented a new accumulation ; 
 and soon after our declaration of war against Great 
 Britain, in 1812, the banks throughout the Middle and 
 Southern States, which had for some time been paying 
 specie reluctantly and sparingly, suspended altogether 
 their specie payments." — South Carolina Bank Report. 
 
 In 1814 all the banks in the Union, with the excep- 
 tion of those in New England, suspended payment, and 
 the confusion and depreciation of their notes assisted 
 the plan of re-establishing another United States Bank, 
 which was finally accomplished in 1816, with a capital 
 of $35,000,000, and a charter of twenty years' duration. 
 This capital, as in the former bank, was paid "one- 
 fourth in coin and three-fourths in stock, which the 
 bank might sell at the rate of $2,000,000 per year." 
 Though its affairs were mismanaged, and it sustained 
 some heavy losses in the first years after its establish- 
 ment, it was afterward conducted with great skill, pru- 
 dence, and success. It established branches in nearly 
 every State, and bought and sold bills of exchange be- 
 tween all parts of the Union to an immense amount, 
 because the low rates of its premiums and discounts 
 gave to it almost a monopoly of this branch of busi- 
 ness. While it rendered this and other important serv- 
 ices to commerce, it was the general financial agent 
 of the government through nearly the whole term of 
 its existence, and transmitted the public revenue to 
 whatever points it was wanted with equal promptitude 
 and certainty, and without charge. Its charter ex- 
 piring in 1836, it was then dissolved, after ineffectual 
 attempts in both houses of Congress, during two terms, 
 to counteract the opposition of President Jackson, and 
 to renew its charter. In Jun6, 1832, the renewal of its 
 charter passed the Senate by a vote of 28 to 20, and in 
 July following the House of Eepresentatives confirmed 
 the vote by 107 to 85, but the president vetoed the bill 
 a week afterward. The same corporation afterward 
 obtained a charter from the State of Pennsylvania, but 
 in 1841 it finally suspended payment, and its shares 
 were sold during that year at $17^, and subsequently 
 at $9, the same year. After the fate of the United 
 States Bank was decided, in 1832, the number of local 
 banks was greatly multiplied, and rose from 330 banks 
 in 1830, with capitals amounting to .$ 145,000,000, to 
 829 banks in 1838, with $317,000,000 capital. So great 
 an increase, and the consequent distention of the circu- 
 lation, contributed, with the excessive importations of 
 the four preceding years, especially in 1836, to the gen- 
 eral suspension which took place in May, 1837. At 
 this period we commenced these remarks, and we will 
 now advert to some of the local diversities in banking ; 
 for which jiurpose we will consider the State banks 
 according to the geographical divisions of the United 
 States, as the banks in each of the five divisions have 
 some common features of resemblance. Wo shall then 
 take up the several States where there is a material dif- 
 ference in each division. 
 
 New England. — Banking in the New England States 
 has, with the exception of the Southwestern States, been 
 carried on to a greater extent than in any other por- 
 tion of the Union. The first attempt at banking among 
 the colonies in New England was in the years 1739-40, 
 when the *'Land Bank" was established by abouteight 
 hundi'ed subscribers, who pledged their real estate to 
 the amount of their respective shares, and, after the 
 choice of ten directors and a treasurer, agreed to issue 
 £150,000 in bills, to be circulated as lawful money, 
 each £1 note being equivalent to three ounces of sil- 
 ver ; but it was soon after dissolved by act of Parlia- 
 ment, and each holder of the bills was entitled to a 
 right of action against any individual partner for the 
 amount, with interest. The first legitimate bank in 
 Boston was instituted in 1784, the second in 1792, the 
 third in 1803, all of which are now in existence ; there 
 were, however, four other banks in the State in 1800, 
 
 one of which was the Essex Bank, in Salem, incoi-po- 
 rated in 1799. There are no reliable tables of the ag- 
 gi-egate condition of the banks prior to 1836 ; but from 
 various sources we ascertain that the following tabular 
 statements of the number of banks, and the amount 
 of capital at the periods named, are nearly correct, in 
 reference to New England : 
 
 Yem-a. 
 
 Banks. 
 
 CapilBl. 
 
 ]805 
 
 4T 
 
 $13,353,000 
 
 1811 
 
 4T 
 
 12,207,894 
 
 1815 
 
 63 
 
 19,053,902 
 
 1820 
 
 92 
 
 19,862,194 
 
 1830 
 
 1T2 
 
 36,297,869 
 
 1838 
 
 319 
 
 65,257,540 
 
 1850 
 
 312 
 
 66,299,185 
 
 1850 
 
 480 
 
 111,349,836 
 
 The annual reports of the Treasury for 1850 and 1854 
 present the following comparative views of the condi- 
 tion of the New England banks on the 1st of January : 
 
 18S0. 
 
 Stftt^a. 
 
 Banlis. 
 
 Capital. 
 
 Circulation. 
 
 Specie. 
 
 
 32 
 
 $3,008,000 
 2,186,500 
 
 $2,252,764 
 1,776,921 
 
 $339,231 
 189,125 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 28 
 
 Veraiont 
 
 24 
 
 1,826,975 
 
 2,322,962 
 
 120,798 
 
 Massachusetts . 
 
 110 
 
 84,630,011 
 
 15,700,986 
 
 2,749,917 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 36 
 
 8,928,264 
 
 4,611,570 
 
 576,656 
 
 Ehode Island . . 
 
 61 
 
 11,212,404 
 
 2,625,549 
 
 291,2f5 
 
 1854. 
 
 Maine 
 
 60 
 
 $5,918,870 
 
 $6,817,760 
 
 $1,182,610 
 
 NcTV Hampshire 
 
 35 
 
 0,376,000 
 
 3,021,579 
 
 180,289 
 
 Vermont 
 
 38 
 
 2,914,040 
 
 4,764,439 
 
 188,173 
 
 Massacliusetts . 
 
 143 
 
 49,050,176 
 
 25,620,472 
 
 8,731,764 
 
 Connecticut . . . 
 
 53 
 
 13,164,594 
 
 10,224,441 
 
 1,145,857 
 
 Rhode Island . . 
 
 T7 
 
 15,917,429 
 
 4.S"5,529 
 
 259,699 
 
 Of tbe six States of New England, Ehode Island has 
 the greatest amount of bank capital in proportion to its 
 population, but its extensive manufacturing concerns 
 require it all. Vermont has the smallest capital, but 
 its circulation is proportionately the largest, as the pre- 
 ceding tables exhibit. 
 
 Prior to the commencement of the present century, 
 and for several years afterward, the prosperous condi- 
 tion of the commerce of New England gave an impe- 
 tus to trade, and a speculative spirit prevailed, and 
 large invesments, for those days, were made in real es- 
 tate and the construction of turnpilces. Money, in 1808, 
 was ill great demand, and at a high rate of interest, 
 but during that and the succeeding year a great revul- 
 sion occurred ; real estate and all other descriptions of 
 property depreciated, and several banks failed. The 
 Farmers' Exchange Bank of Ehodc Island, with a cir- 
 culation of $650,000, was among the number, and the 
 entire amount was a total loss to tlie bill-holders, in 
 February, 1809. The failure of this bank caused oth- 
 ers to fall, and among them, the Farmers' Bank of 
 Gloucester, the Coos Bank in New Hampshire, and 
 others of less note. No shock of public or private cred- 
 it had taken place, since 1783, which so alarmed the 
 people of New England as did these failures. 
 
 Massachusetts. — After this period the amount of hank 
 capital was diminished about one million of dollars, al- 
 though the number of banks was, in 1811, the same as 
 that of 1805, being forty-seven in both of those years. 
 In 1811 the State Bank, with a capital of three millions, 
 was chartered in Boston, and the Merchants' Bank in 
 Salem, both of which were subscribed for by the dom- 
 inant party of the day ; and when war was declared in 
 1812, the State Bank subscribed $500,000 toward the 
 first war loan of eleven millions, the Merchants' Bank 
 $20,000, and the Providence Banks $80,000, which was 
 the entire sum taken by the banks of New England of 
 the first loan. Of the second loan of thirteen millions, 
 in December, 1812, $9,230,000 was subscribed for by the 
 banks throughout the country, and $3,870,000 by indi- 
 viduals ; but the whole amount contributed by New En- 
 gland was only $2,311,600, of which Boston and Salem 
 furnished $2,144,100. During the war of 1812-14, all 
 the banks in New England maintained specie pay- 
 ments, while all the rest in the Middle, AVestern, and 
 
BAN 
 
 129 
 
 BAN 
 
 Southern States suspended payment. The following 
 table exhibits the accumulation of specie in Massachu- 
 setts inl814: 
 
 Yain, < 
 
 BsDlla. 
 
 :G>plul. 
 
 Circulatioa. 
 
 Specie. 
 
 I80&. . 
 
 .16 
 
 $5,460,000 
 
 $1,653,824 
 
 $847,988 
 
 1810 
 
 15 
 
 6,085,000 
 
 2,098,491 
 
 1,347,722 
 
 1814 
 
 21 
 
 11,050,000 
 
 2,922,611 
 
 6,946,542 
 
 1815 
 
 25 
 
 •11,462,000 
 
 3,464,241 
 
 2,740,511 
 
 1820 
 
 28 
 
 10,600,000 
 
 2,614,734 
 
 1,280,862 
 
 1825 
 
 41 
 
 14,535,000 
 
 6,994,264 
 
 1,038,988 
 
 1830 
 
 63 
 
 19,295,009 
 
 5,124,090 
 
 1,258,444 
 
 1835 
 
 105 
 
 30.410,000 
 
 9,430,35 
 
 1,130,357 
 
 As all the banks in the other New England State* 
 were founded on the same basis, it is fairly to be infer- 
 red that tljey were all well fortified with specie, but we 
 can not find any specifications of their condition in any 
 authentic ;hape. We give, however, a comparative 
 view from 1820 to 1837,, to show how rapidly both banks 
 and banking capital were multiplied during this brief 
 period of seventeen years: showing an increase be- 
 tween 1820 and 1830 of eighty banks and $16,335,675 
 capital, and between 1830-37, of one hundred and six- 
 ty-three b^njcs and $33,650,328 capital: 
 
 states. 
 
 1820. 
 
 18S0. 
 
 leST. . I 
 
 Banks. 
 
 Capital. ' 
 
 Baidis. 
 
 Capital. 
 
 Backs. 
 
 Capital. 
 
 Maine 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 Vermont 
 
 15 
 10 
 1 
 28 
 30 
 
 8 
 
 $1,654,900 
 
 1,006,276 
 
 44,956 
 
 10,485,700 
 2,982,026 
 3,683,337 
 
 18 
 18 
 10 
 66 
 47 
 13 
 
 $2,050,000 
 
 1,791,670 
 
 432,625 
 
 20,330,000 
 6,118,397 
 4,486,177 
 
 59 
 23 
 20 
 138' 
 64 
 31 
 
 $5,535,000 
 2,603,308 
 2,200,000 
 
 40,830,000 
 9,100,581 
 8,519,308 
 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 92 
 
 $19,862,194 
 
 172 
 
 $35,197,869 
 
 335 
 
 $68,848,197 
 
 In the, suspension of specie payments in 1837, all the 
 New England banks concurred, b^t they all resumed 
 in 1838 ; and in the suspensionof 1839, only three banks 
 in Maine (one of which resumed) suspended ; one in 
 New Hampshire partially, and sixty-three in Rhode 
 Island, twenty-one of which immediately resumed pay- 
 ment ; the remaining banks in the other five States all 
 redeemed their bills. ' 
 
 The banks of New England were originally founded 
 upon the only true principle of banking — a full paid up 
 capital in coin, placed under the management of discreet 
 and responsible directors. The caution which charac- 
 terized these important personages in those early days 
 superseded the necessity of providing against the cun- 
 ning deviceswhich modern financiering has discovered; 
 and banks were regarded as the depositories of surplus 
 wealth, concentrated for the ostensible purpose ctf ac- 
 commodating the public by discounting short paper 
 with ample security, and thereby yielding to the stock- 
 holders a satisfactory remuneration without any person- 
 al exertion or care. The trade of our country was then 
 limited'in its extent ; manufactures were carried on by 
 individual exertions only, and disposed of within the 
 narrow precincts of their own neighborhood. The 
 products of agriculture were exchanged for articles of 
 domestic use, and our commerce, then in its infancy, 
 was principally employed in the conveyance of our do- 
 mestic productions, and the proceeds of our fisheries, to 
 the West Indies, South America, and Europe, and re- 
 turned home with such productions of those countries 
 as were required for consumption or use ; and for such 
 operations bank facilities were not needed. But the 
 unparalleled increase of the commerce and navigation 
 of Massachusetts, Maine, and Rhode Island, as well as 
 throughout the country at large, soon created a class 
 of traders who purchased and held larger stocks of 
 merchandise for their business, and whose transactions 
 were profitably carried on between the merchant and 
 the agriculturist, the importer and the consumer, the 
 exporter and the producer. Inproportion as trade and 
 commerce increased, their operations called into requi- 
 sition a larger amount of capital, and bank facilities 
 were more arid more needed. The stringent regula- 
 tions of earlier days did not suit the wants of the com- 
 munity, and new banks were created with more liberal 
 views, but still conducted with great caution. With 
 every decade of years, the banking institutions have 
 always kept pace with the legitimate wants of trade, 
 and sometimes transcended them. They have now 
 reached a point where it is desirable that they should 
 rest a while, as the banks in New England are more 
 than one-third of all the country in number, and but 
 little less than one-third of its entire bank capital. 
 
 It is now upward of seventy years since the first 
 bank was established in New England, and the coun- 
 try has passed through the various vicissitudes of pros- 
 perity and adversity, commercial seizures and embar- 
 
 goes, peace and war, growing out of the continental 
 troubles in Europe ; and when, after the general peace 
 of 1815, the country emerged from its dark cloud of de- 
 spondency and resumed her commercial pursuits, it 
 was with a buoyancy which astonished the world with 
 her unprecedented success. Since that period we have 
 been in imminent peril of war, once with Fi-ance, three 
 times with Great Britain, once with Spain, and engaged 
 in actual hostilities, with Mexico, to say nothing of 
 Austria and Peru, which were of minor importance ; 
 and although all these national troubles have, with but 
 one exception, been amicably settled without an ap-" 
 peal to arms, still their effects have been felt in pur 
 financial circles, producing those Sudden fluctuations 
 which operate so disastrously upon the interests of 
 trade. Throughout all these perilous periods the New 
 England States have proudly sustained th.eir banking 
 system, yielding only once to the financial crisis of 1837, 
 which prostrated every bank in the United States, for 
 one brief year, and even then with reluctance. It must 
 then be conceded that a system which has been sub- 
 jected, for so long a period, to such various vicissitudes 
 and severe experience and trial, must possess elements 
 of vitality and strength which should entitle it to the 
 confidence and support of the community, however an- 
 tiquated it may appear to be, in comparison with those 
 subtle theories Which our modern financiers so strenu- 
 ously advocate. 
 
 In reviewing the bank history of New England, we 
 find many errors and omissions which have from time 
 to time been corrected, as the various developments of 
 bank failures were scrutinized by successive Legisla- 
 tures in every State. The very first charter granted in 
 Boston was unlimited in its duration, but it has since 
 been restricted by consent, and expires in 1870. But 
 the greatest error was in relation to the power of issu- 
 ing notes. An overissue of paper is one of the great- 
 est mischiefs of banks, and one to which they are most 
 strongly tempted by the desire of increasing their prof- 
 its ; it is obviously wise, therefore, to impose a limit on 
 these issues, which should not under any circumstances 
 be transcended. But we find that when the first char- 
 ters were granted, the Legislatures, being unfamiliar, 
 with the subject of banking, and learning probably 
 from English books that the Bank of England consid- 
 ered it a safe rule to have in its vaults one-third as 
 much specie as it had notes in circulation, they con-, 
 ceived that after having required the whole capital 
 stock to be paid in specie, they were adopting the same 
 rule as the Bank of England, by limiting the amount 
 of circulation to three times the amount of the capital 
 stock. 
 
 This provision having once found its way into some 
 
 of the early charters, it was copied into others on the 
 
 ; presumption that it had been tested by experience. In 
 
 some of the States the only restriction was that the 
 
 amount of their loans should not exceed three times 
 
BAN 
 
 130 
 
 BAN 
 
 the amount of their capital stoclc, or that their issues 
 should not exceed that proportion ; but both these re- 
 strictions are merely nominal, for there is not a bank 
 in New England whose discounts have ever amounted 
 to three times the capital. This error, however, has 
 been remedied in all the States of New England, first 
 by law, and secondly by the operation of the Suffolk 
 Bank system, which exercises a constant watchfulness 
 over the issues of every bank, and not one can venture 
 upon an excessive issue without immediate exposure. 
 The laws of Massachusetts, in relation to circulation 
 and loans, are as perfect as legislation can make them ; 
 they limit the circulation to 25 per cent, beyond the 
 amount of the capital paid in, and impose upon the 
 stockholders an individual liability to the amount of 
 their stock, for the redemption of the bills of the bank. 
 The loans are limited to double the amount of the cap- 
 ital paid in, nor can they be extended beyond this 
 amount, however large or permanent the deposits may 
 be. Weekly returns from the banks in Boston, and 
 monthly returns from all others in the State, are re- 
 quired to be made to the Secretary of State on the first 
 Monday of the month, showing their true condition, un- 
 der a penalty of $500 for every omission ; and, finally, 
 three commissioners are appointed, whose duty it is to 
 visit every bank and savings bank "at least once in 
 every two years, and to examine every new bank, and 
 every bank whose capital has been increased, within a 
 year after they go into operation, or after the stock 
 shall have been paid in respectively." Maine, Ver- 
 mont, and Connecticut have bank commissioners also, 
 and with the aid of the proposed new " Bank of Mutu- 
 al Redemption," should it go into operation, the cur- 
 rency of New England will be the safest in the Union. 
 
 There have been other errors in banking in past 
 times, of which we have not yet taken notice. The 
 Legislatures of the different States have not been suffi- 
 ciently careful to discriminate between real and nom- 
 inal capital ; and while the stockholders have gone 
 through the form of paying up the stock of the banks, 
 it has been too often nothing but form. In some in- 
 stances, stock notes have constituted the chief part of 
 the capital ; gold has been borrowed from other banks 
 for the purpose of examination on pa}' day, and then 
 returned to its rightful owners. The stock notes were 
 the next -day discounted by the new bank, its bills paid 
 out therefor, and scattered far and wide for the pur- 
 pose of circulation. Being new, curiosity would retain 
 them for a while, until the bank could gather in its de- 
 posits, and these would enable it to redeem that portion 
 of them which would be presented for specie payment. 
 
 Again, the banks have been too numerous, though 
 the capital may have been real, and this part of the 
 machinery has been not only more expensive, but more 
 easily deranged. In consequence of the excessive com- 
 petition induced by the undue multiplication of banks, 
 arts and schemes have been resorted to for the purpose 
 of obtaining a larger share of circulation, thereby en- 
 larging their profits, the currency greatly distended, 
 and the safety of the banks themselves endangered. 
 In general, the same capital will be safer, as well as 
 more profitable, if concentrated in one bank, than If 
 distributed among several smaller ones. When the 
 number of banks has been sufficiently enlarged to se- 
 cure to the public the benefit of competition, it appears 
 to be as unwise to multiply them any farther as it 
 would be to make any unnecessary addition to the 
 number of our colleges, churches, or any other public 
 institutions. 
 
 The only innovations which have been attempted 
 upon the banking system of New England have been in- 
 troduced in Vermont, Massachusetts, and Connecticut, 
 by the passage of free banking laws ; but the experi- 
 ment has signally failed, and the laws have become 
 almost inoperative. The charters of the banks in 
 Maine expire by limitation in 1857 ; those in Rhode 
 Island are perpetual, and there, as in Massachusetts, 
 
 stockholders are individually liable for the redemption 
 of the circulation. The failures which have occurred 
 have been numerous, but they have all originated either 
 from a deficiency of the payment of the original capital, 
 or by palpable mismanagement. It has been truly re- 
 marked by a keen observer, that " the personal charac- 
 ter of the oflScers and stockholders of banks is intimately 
 blended with their safety. At the start, good inten- 
 tions prevail as a general rule, and the directors pay 
 strict attention to business ; gradually, however, the 
 management passes into fewer hands, and sometimes 
 into one only. Trade in money has its peculiar effects 
 upon character, like all other occupations and avoca- 
 tions, from which effect only the most sterling men 
 escape. Malpractice will grow as care and diligence 
 slacken ; so, from neglect or undue anxiety to make 
 money, losses occur. This is the general feature of all 
 banking ; much of the safety of banks lies in the unre- 
 mitting attention of directors and stockholders to the 
 affairs of the bank." 
 
 The truth of these remarks will be admitted by those 
 who were conversant with the circumstances attending 
 the disasters of the following banks in Massachusetts : 
 American, Kilby, Commonwealth, Oriental, Middling 
 Interest, Cochituate, and many others in Boston ; and 
 the Newburj'port, Woburn, Eoxbury, Chelsea, Nahant, 
 Dover, and others in the country. In Maine — Kenne- 
 bec, Castine, Hallowell and Augusta, Wiscasset and 
 others. In Connecticut — Eastern, Derby, Eagle of 
 New Haven, Commercial Bank of Tolland, Bridgeport 
 Manufacturing Company, and others. In New Hamp- 
 shire — HillsboroandPiscataqua. In Vermont — Wind- 
 sor, Barrington, Agricultural, Green Mountain, etc. 
 In Rhode Island — Burrillville, Eagle, Franklin, Mount 
 Hope, etc. We have specified these banks because 
 they are the most prominent and the most recent, and, 
 with perhaps some few exceptions, owe their downfall 
 to one of the two causes to which we have alluded, viz., 
 fictitious capital or palpable mismanagement. The 
 art of successful banking is in itself a science^ not ac- 
 quired with facility or mere observation, but by labo- 
 rious study and application to its practical details and 
 operations; and when we investigate the origin, foun- 
 dation, and career of the various banks in New England, 
 and the vicissitudes and political changes through 
 which they have passed during the period which we 
 have been considering, it appears marvelous that any 
 of the earlier banks should have been conducted in 
 safety through the mysteries and perplexities of cur- 
 rency in its frequent contractions and expansions, and 
 of exchange in its constant fluctuations, produced by 
 silent operations in distant markets, and imperceptibly, 
 yet inevitably, influencing the monetary condition of 
 their sphere of operations. And yet, in comparison 
 with the whole number of banks in New England, how 
 few of them have failed ? And to what cause can we 
 more probably attribute it than to the excellence of 
 the system under which they are constituted — a specie 
 basis? 
 
 Middle States. New York. — In the early history 
 of banking in New York, since 1800, politics and finance 
 were so intermingled that the question of granting a 
 bank charter was a matter of direct issue between the 
 two political parties of the day ; but prior to that pe- 
 riod, in the establishment of the first banks, this state 
 of partisan excitement did not exist, but in lieu of it 
 there was a jealousy in regard to the incorporation of 
 moneyed institutions ; and after they were establish- 
 ed, great caution was required to avoid the perils 
 which their opponents had predicted would inevitably 
 ensue. Fortunately, however, the first bank establish- 
 ed in New York was managed with such ability and 
 discretion that it disarmed all opposition, and became 
 an important auxiliary to the government of the 
 United States, by a loan of $100,000 at five per cent., 
 thereby securing in its early career great popularity, 
 as the bank owed no favor to the government, and had 
 
BAN 
 
 131 
 
 BAN 
 
 no interested motives in loaning tlie money. The or- 
 ganization of this banli (the Bank of New Yorlc) was, 
 however, an association for banliing purposes, rather 
 than a regular bank. It commenced businesEhin 1784 
 (its first application for a charter having been unsuc- 
 cessful) without a charter, and discounted short paper 
 at 6 per cent, per annum, which rate was advanced to 
 7 per cent, three years afterward. In 1791 a charter 
 was granted, the act of incorporation having been drawn 
 by General Alexander Hamilton, which was not ma- 
 terially altered before its expiration. Its authorized 
 capital was |1,000,000, but it is now double that amount, 
 and its annual dividends have usually been 8 to 10 per 
 cent, per annum. 
 
 The next banks incorporated were the Bank of Al- 
 bany in 1792, and the Bank of Columbia, which were 
 chartered without any other opposition than that of 
 the timid portion of the community, who had not for- 
 gotten the disastrous losses by the Continental system 
 of paper money. 
 
 In 1799 the Manhattan Company was incorporated, 
 with an unlimited charter, and was regarded as a par- 
 tisan triumph ; and from this period all projected mon- 
 eyed institutions in the city of New York were advoca- 
 ted or opposed on political considerations only, and 
 thus finance and politics became blended in the con- 
 test, which continued until the question of the con- 
 struction of the Erie Canal diverted the gladiature of 
 zealous politicians to this new area of strife. In 1801 
 the whole number of banks in the State was but five, 
 whose authorized capitals were $4,722,000. In 1803 
 the New York State Bank at Albahy was chartered, 
 and in 1805 the Merchants' Bank in New York, having 
 commenced business, however, two years previous to 
 its being chartered. There were then, in 1805, but 
 seven banks in New York State, the aggregate of 
 whose capitals was only $6,430,000; but it has now 
 300 banks, having a capital of $96,000,000. In 1810 
 the Mechanics' Bank was chartered; in 1811, the Union, 
 and the Farmers and Mechanics' in Albany ; in 1812, 
 the Phcenix, the City, and the Bank of America. The 
 projectors of this latter bank originally applied for a 
 capital of six millions of dollars, to supply the place 
 of the United States Bank, whose charter had so re- 
 cently expired, and offered for the charter a bonus to'' 
 the State of $400,000 unconditionally : $100,000 in ten 
 years, and $100,000 in twenty years, if, at the expira- 
 tion of those terms, there should be no additional 
 banking capital authorized by the Assembly in the 
 city of New York, They further offered to loan the 
 State one million of dollars, at 5 per cent., for the 
 construction of the Erie Canal, and one million more 
 at 6 per cent., to be reloaned to farmers and others 
 on landed security. 
 
 As in the case of the Manhattan Compan}''s appli- 
 cation for a charter in 1799, all the arts of political in- 
 trigue were brought into requisition, but after a pro- 
 tracted and violent opposition the bill was finally 
 passed as petitioned for ; but a subsequent Legislature 
 authorized the bank to reduce its capital to two mill- 
 ions of dollars, and at the same time reduced its bonus 
 to the State to $100,000, as immediately after the char- 
 ter was granted war was declared against Great Brit- 
 ain, and "with it came the long series of commercial 
 disasters and financial troubles, and a general inter- 
 ruption of our foreign trade." In 1814 the banks in 
 New York, in consequence of their liberal bonus to the 
 government, and their excessive issues of paper conse- 
 quent thereon, suspended specie payments, in common 
 with all the other banks in the Middle, Western and 
 Southern States. Six months after the suspension, 
 the news of peace was received, but the banks did not 
 resume specie payments ; and instead of contracting 
 their circulation, they increased it, and were encour- 
 aged to do so by the general government, who Contin- 
 ued to receive their inconvertible paper for public dues, 
 until February, 1817, when there was a partial resump- 
 
 tion of specie payments, and the second United States 
 Bank commenced its operations. After the peace in 
 1815, large amounts of specie were annually exported 
 to the East Indies and China, and the premium on sil- 
 ver was from 15 to 18 per cent. The United States 
 Bank resorted to forced importations of specie to sup- 
 ply the vacuum, and having spent $500,000 on one ex- 
 periment, they wisely abandoned the scheme, and al- 
 lowed trade to follow its natural channels. Between 
 1812 and January, 1818, about two hundred new banks 
 were chartered in various parts of the Union, which dis- 
 tended the currency to its utmost point; but a day of 
 reckoning was near at hand, and all further inflation 
 was at an end. In the middle of 1818 the contraction 
 commenced, and banks and individuals were swept 
 away in one promiscuous mass of ruin. The disastrous 
 effects of this local banking mania were felt until the 
 close of 1820, and in many portions of the country for 
 many succeeding years. The following tabular state- 
 ment exhibits the banking capital of New York during 
 this period of twenty years : 
 
 YeniB. 
 
 Banks. 
 
 Cupitol. 
 
 1801 
 
 e 
 
 $4,720,000 
 
 IGOS 
 
 7 
 
 5,430,000 
 
 1811 . 
 
 8 
 
 7,522,700 
 
 1816 
 
 26 
 
 18,940,818 
 
 1816 
 
 2T 
 
 18,700,750 
 
 1820 
 
 33 
 
 18,988,744 
 
 but we have no means of ascertaining the amount 
 of circulation or specie. The estimates of the whole 
 country for 1815 were 208 banks, $82,260,000 capital, 
 $70,000,000 to $110,000,000 circulation, $15,500,000 
 specie. 
 
 When the suspension of specie payments took place 
 in 1814, a public meeting of the merchants and others 
 interested was held, and they promptly sanctioned the 
 measure, under the assurances of the banks, however, 
 that whenever the war was terminated specie pay- 
 ments should be resumed. Doubtless this was the in- 
 tention of the banks, as they commenced the curtail- 
 ment of their loans immediately after their suspension ; 
 but when peace took place the redemption of this 
 pledge was not demanded at the stipulated time, and 
 the banks, regardless of all moral obligations, and 
 stimulated by the prospect of large profits and enor- 
 mous dividends, extended their circulation to an 
 amount unexampled in the annals of folly. The 
 "plenty of monej'," as it was called, was so profuse, 
 that the bank directprs were fearful that they could 
 not find a demand for all the " money" they could fab- 
 ricate, and not unfrequently solicited individuals to 
 become borrowers, under promises of indulgence of the 
 most liberal and tempting nature. Every city, town, 
 and county had its own local currency, bearing no 
 equivalent with, or fixed proportion to, any other ; and 
 a new and extensive class of brokers appeared, who 
 still exist, and have ever been supported at the ex- 
 pense of those who have been defrauded by the banks 
 of their just right, the par value of their notes. 
 
 When the United States Bank was incorporated, the 
 city hanks became alarmed for their safety, and made 
 a retrograde movement, and, by a reduction of their 
 loans immediately, occasioned great commercial dis- 
 tress. This temporarily produced a reduction of the 
 currency, and the directors of the National Bank pro- 
 posed to the State banks a resumption of specie pay- 
 ments on the 21st February, 1817, and the city banks, 
 relying upon the forbearance which had been extend- 
 ed to them by a confiding but defrauded community, 
 who for two years and a half had been paying 6 per 
 cent, per annum for their depreciated and dishonored 
 bank bills, assented to the arrangement, and specie 
 payments were nominally resumed on the appointed 
 day. But the resumption was merely nominal, for 
 silver, both foreign and American, still commanded a 
 premium over the par value of city bank-notes, and de- 
 preciation may result, as well from the forbearance of 
 
BAN 
 
 132 
 
 BAN 
 
 creditors in demanding their rights as from the refusal 
 of banks to meet their engagements ; and this arrange- 
 ment was not a real resumption, but a mere change of 
 one species of inconvertible paper for another of like 
 character. As soon, however, as the directors of the 
 National Bank had completed their arrangement for 
 elevating this depreciated paper to the standard of 
 their own convertible notes, instead of reviewing the 
 experience of the past, or acting upon the general 
 principle that circulation could not be extended beyond 
 a certain limit, and that, when this point was reached, 
 any further issues would occasion depreciation, and 
 with the full knowledge that such was the actual state 
 of existing affairs, they at once commenced issuing 
 their own circulation, and in a few months added to 
 the currency an amount greater than that which had 
 previously been withdrawn. By their operations, the 
 currency nominally convertible was depreciated below 
 its former rate, and retrograded instead of advanced 
 toward restoration. But the bank Jinally discovered 
 its error when almost too late, and sought to retrieve 
 it by withdrawing their circulation, reducing their 
 loans, and curtailing ail their other transactions, there- 
 by causing a second pressure in October, 1818, which 
 continued for more than a year, and in many parts of 
 the country many years longer. If the city banks 
 had availed themselves of the opportunity of curtailing 
 their operations while the United States Bank was ex- 
 tending, it would have been financial wisdom ; but the 
 same cupidity controlled their movements, and they 
 were also compelled to contract their issues, loans, and 
 all other operations. 
 
 The banking system of New York was originally 
 founded on the universal principle of a specie basis ; 
 but after the disasters of the period which we have 
 just been reviewing, financiers and political economists 
 were impressed with the belief that there was some- 
 thing defective in the system ; that some reform was 
 necessary in regard to the currency, and that unless 
 a remedy was found, the whole banking fabric would 
 ultimately be overthrown. The first innovation which 
 was tried commenced in New York with the adoption 
 of tlic " safety fund" system in 1829. It required from 
 each bank an annual contribution of half per cent, of 
 its capital to a common fund, to be deposited with the 
 State Treasurer as a '"bank fund," until it amounted 
 to 3 per cent, of the capital of each bank, and was 
 to be applied to the payment of the debts of any bank 
 which might become insolvent which had contributed 
 to the same ; and in case the fund "was at any time di- 
 minished by payment therefrom, the banks were again 
 required to make their annual contributions, till each 
 had in deposit the 3 per cent, on its capital stock. For 
 a series of years this system was regarded with favor, 
 but the sudden failure of 10 banks, with capitals amount- 
 ing to $2,553,000, occasioned aloss of $1,548,560 for re- 
 demption of circulation, and $1,010,376 for the payment 
 of the other liabilities of these insolvent banks. At the 
 time of the failure, the fund amounted to $1,876,073, 
 and the balance was paid by a 6 per cent, stock au- 
 thorized by the State, the redemption of which stock 
 was provided for by the subsequent contributions of 
 the banks to the fund. Under this same law of 1829, 
 three bank commissioners were appointed, with large 
 powers, to supervise and inspect the several banks of 
 the State. These officers were at first appointed, one 
 by the governor and Senate, one by the city banks, and 
 one by the country banks ; but in 1837 the power of ap- 
 pointing the whole number was transferred to the gov- 
 ernor and Senate, which placed these ofiicers "within 
 the vortex of the great political whirlpool of the State, 
 and the place was sought for and conferred upon parti- 
 san aspirants, without due regard, in all cases, to their 
 qualifications to discharge the delicate trust committed 
 to them." In 1843 the Legislature abolished the office, 
 conferring the power of examining the banks upon the 
 controller of the State. 
 
 After nine years trial of the " safety fund" scheme, 
 it was virtually abandoned, and another experiment 
 was substituted in 1838, by the passage of the " free 
 bank" lAw. By this system "every individual and as- 
 sociation was authorized to engage in the business of 
 banking; and on depositing with the controller the 
 stocks of the United States, the stocks of any State 
 which should be or be made equal to a 5 per cent, 
 stock, or such stocks and bonds, and mortgages to the 
 same amount on improved, productive, and unincum- 
 bered real estate, worth doulile the amount secured by 
 the mortgage, over and above all buildings thereon, 
 and bearing an interest thereon of 6 per cent, per an- 
 num, the controller was required to deliver to such 
 individual or association an equal amount of bank- 
 notes for circulation, duly numbered, registered and 
 signed at his office." No specific amount was required 
 from individual bankers before they commenced opera- 
 tions, nor were the stockholders liable in their individ- 
 ual capacity. The result was, that in the abundant 
 supplj' of stocks of every description, banks were im- 
 mediately created out of the cheapest materials, and 
 bank-notes were furnished to the community with the 
 most generous profusion. This extraordinary expan- 
 sion produced the tisual results, inflation of prices, ex- 
 tension of credits, and wildness of speculation ; and to 
 aid the delusion, the bonds of the Western and South- 
 western States were freely supplied. But the crisis 
 came with fearful results; first in the shape of non- 
 payment of interest, next of great depreciation, and, 
 finally, the repudiation of the State bonds, and the 
 consequent failures of the banks which owned them. 
 But these disasters did not discourage the people from 
 a persistence in the scheme of free banking; on the 
 contrary, the Legislature of 1840 preserved the sj'stem, 
 by excluding the stocks of other States, after that date, 
 and required the banks to deposit the stocks of New 
 York and the United States only. Although the sys- 
 tem has been materially improved by legislative en- 
 actments since it was first established (and almost every 
 year furnishes some valuable amendment to its provi- 
 sions and restrictions), and is now regarded with favor 
 by prominent financiers, as affording ample security to 
 bill-holders, yet even on this point there may linger 
 some doubts. In periods of prosperitj' all would be 
 well; but in the event of severe pressure and a panic, 
 a sudden contraction of the currency, and a general 
 withdrawal of all floating capital, the free banks would 
 find it difficult, if not impossible, to convert their 
 stocks and mortgages into tlie requisite funds to carry 
 on their redemption ; and the failure of even one of 
 them would be disastrous to many. In confirmation 
 of these remarks, we have only to recur to the control- 
 ler's past reports, and ascertain what the results of the 
 failures of some of these free banks were, and we find 
 the following, among others : St. Lawrence Bank, se- 
 curities $81,277, sold for $27,282 50; New York Bank- 
 ing Company, N. Y., securities $26,000, sold for $4,370 ; 
 Erie County Bank, whose mortgages for $15,000 on 
 property valued at $31,500, exclusive of buildings, 
 were sold for $3,000 ; State Bank of New York, Bufl^alo, 
 $5,000 Illinois 6's, sold for $812 50 ; and so on with 
 the remaining 27 banks in his report of 1849. To il- 
 lustrate the rapid progress which the banking interest 
 has made within the last twenty years, we add the fol- 
 lowing table : 
 
 Yean. 
 
 Bnnis. 
 
 Capital. 
 
 1838 
 1860 
 1854 
 1858 
 
 100 
 198 
 238 
 300 
 
 $37,101,460 
 48,018,762 
 80,726,370 
 96,000,000 
 
 Weekly returns of the condition of the banks in the 
 city of New York were first made in September, 1849, 
 and in October, 1853, a " clearing-house" was estab- 
 lished for the city banks. The returns for two 3 ears, 
 for 1853 to 1855, show an aggregate of exchanges of 
 $11,875,996,450, and of balances settled of $600,273,826. 
 
BAN 
 
 133 
 
 BAN 
 
 Pennsylvania. — The first bank which was establish- 
 ed in this State was the Banic of North America, which 
 was chartered by Congress on the 31st December, 1781, 
 with a capital not to exceed ten millions of dollars, and 
 without any limitation of duration. The charter was 
 confirmed by the State in April, 1782, and it com- 
 menced its operations upon a capital, paid in, of 
 $400,000, and as the country was deficient in notes of 
 circulation, and its credit stood high, it was enabled 
 to extend its issues vastly beyond its capital. The ex' 
 tensive circulation of the notes of the bank, occasioned 
 by the disbursements of the government, which was a 
 heavy borrower, emboldened its directors to overstep 
 the bounds of discretion. The channels of circulation 
 soon became surcharged, and the public, beginning to 
 doubt the ability of the bank to redeem its notes on 
 presentation, they were returned so rapidly for pay- 
 ment, that it was compelled to call upon its debtors 
 for payment also. This reduction of loans occasioned 
 a general pressure for money, bankruptcies, usurious 
 extortions, the disappearance of specie, and the impos- 
 sibility of procuring money at the legal rates of inter- 
 est. Petitions were shortly afterward presented to the 
 Legislature for the repeal of the charter, which was 
 granted on the 13th September, 1785 ; but the bank con- 
 tinued its business, claiming the right to do so under 
 the charter granted by Congress. In March, 1787, 
 the Legislature revived its charter, limiting its capital 
 to $2,000,000, of which only $830,000 were paid in, 
 and its duration to fourteen years. In February, 1791, 
 the first Bank of the United States was chartered, 
 with a capital of $10,000,000, for twenty years, and on 
 the expiration of its charter in 1811, it was wound up. 
 In 1793 the Bank of Pennsj-lvania was chartered, 
 with a capital of $2,000,000, for twenty years, with 
 four branches ; In March, 1804, the Philadelphia Bank, 
 with a capital limited to $2,000,000, of which $1,800,000 
 were paid in, and limited to 1st of May, 1814,- but 
 afterward extended to 1824, with liberty to establish 
 branches, and four of which were established ; in 
 March, 1809, the Farmers' and Mechanics' Bank, with 
 a capital of $1,250,000, to continue till the 1st May, 
 1824. These were the only incorporated institutions 
 in 1811, although there were others in the State, such 
 as the Farmers' Bank of Lancaster, with a capital of 
 $300,000, established in 1810, and several others in 
 the city as well as in the State. The following circu- 
 lation of the three chartered banks we give : 
 
 Bonks. 
 
 Circulation. 
 1811. 
 
 Circulation. 
 1616. 
 
 Bank of Pennsylvania 
 
 Philadelphia Bank 
 
 $1,425,203 
 713,309 
 804,730 
 
 $1,400,856 
 654,420 
 504,700 
 
 Fanners' and Mechanics' Bank 
 
 In March, 1810, the Legislature enacted a law to 
 prohibit unincorporated associations from issuing notes 
 or pursuing any of the operations of banks ; but in de- 
 fiance of its provisions, the system was persevered in, 
 and even companies incorporated for the purpose of 
 constructing bridges departed from the spirit of their 
 charters, converted themselves into banks, and issued 
 notes for circulation. This mania for banking would 
 soon have been checked by the return of the notes for 
 payment, had not the war of 1812 intervened, and the 
 cessation of the demand for specie for exportation to 
 India and China removed the usual check at that 
 period against excessive issues of bank paper. The 
 apparent success of the Farmers' Bank of Lancaster, 
 which, from the enormous extent of its issues, was en- 
 abled to divide 12 per cent, per annum, and to ac- 
 commodate its stockholders with hans to double the 
 amount of their stock, had a powerful influence on the 
 pnblio mind. During the session of 1812-'13, a bill 
 was passed by the Legislature, by a majority of one in 
 each branch, to incorporate twenty-five new banks, 
 whose aggregate capitals amounted to $9,525,000, but 
 it was vetoed by Governor Snyder, and returned with 
 his objections, some of which were, that "it would, by 
 
 readiness to give credit, invite to visionary specula- 
 tions, divert men from useful pursuits, damp the ardor 
 of industrious enterprise, and consequently demoralize 
 the community." In March, 1814, the subject was 
 renewed, and a bill was passed incorporating forty- 
 one banks, with capitals amounting to upward of 
 $17,000,000, of which only one-fifth part was required 
 to be paid in. Although the bill passed both houses 
 by large majorities. Governor Snyder returned this 
 bill also, witli his objections, but two-thirds of both 
 houses voted for its passage notwithstanding; it be- 
 came a law, and thirty-seven banks went into opera- 
 tion under its sanction. 
 
 The immediate commencement of a number of these 
 banks, whose honajide capital was little more than the 
 first installment required, increased the amount of cir- 
 culation, already too redundant, and the depreciation 
 of the currency grew worse and worse, and all confi- 
 dence in its convertibility was lost. The new banks 
 discounted stock-notes to meet the remaininff installments, 
 and hence only one-fifth part of their capitals was ever 
 paid in, as before stated. In our remarks upon the 
 New York banks, we have commented upon the move- 
 ments and operations of the United States Bank in 
 1817 and 1818, and their influence was, of course, more 
 severely felt in the central point of its negotiations, 
 Philadelphia. And here it would be most appropriate 
 to glance at the rise, progress, and final doom of the 
 second United States Bank ; but so much has been 
 written on the subject, and its history is so familiar to 
 our readers, that we shall add' no further remarks to 
 those which '^ave already been made in a previous 
 portion of this review. 
 
 In 1819, 15 of the 37 banks chartered in 1814 failed, 
 and in due time were officially announced as " dissolved, 
 unlawful, and unincorporated," and there were at the 
 same time 22 banks more in tlie State transacting bus- 
 iness without charters. In 1820 there were 36 banks 
 in existence, with capitals amounting to $14,681,780, 
 and an Indefinite number of "freebooters." It> is an 
 unpleasant task to run over the next decade of years, 
 from 1820 to 1830, for there is nothing cheering in the 
 review ; throughout almost this entire period there 
 was a rapid succession of untoward events, leflding to 
 embarrassments, insolvency, litigation; dishonesty, and 
 more flagrant crimes. It is a continuous history of 
 bankruptcy throughout a large portion of the coun- 
 try, and of frauds upon the community without any 
 previous parallel. Banks were bribed to fail, that the 
 stockholders might pay their indebtedness in the cur- 
 rency of the same bank, after it bad reached its mini- 
 mum point of depreciation, commonly 50 per cent. 
 " Money mills" were established in New York, Phila- 
 delphia, and other places, which were based on the 
 system of the celebrated Malepar, the keeper "of an 
 oyster cellar in New York, who had the adroitness to 
 swindle the community out of $500,000 by his notes of 
 circulation, and whose motto was, "Make money, hon- 
 'estly if we can, but rascally if we must." In 1822 there 
 was a pressing scarcity of money ; in 1825 and 1826, 
 convulsions and bankruptcies among the banks; in 
 1827 and 1828 among the banks and the manufacturers 
 from New England to Georgia ; but in 1829 and 1830 
 the gloom which had settled so long upon the country 
 was dispelled, and a brighter prospect was linfolded. 
 For the firsttirae for eight years, the natural course of 
 trade had brought a balance in specie of eight millions 
 and a half of dollars into the country, and to Pennsylva- 
 nia there is due a large share of this fortunate result, by 
 her effective act for the suppression of the circulation of 
 small notes within the borders of the State. Here was 
 an illustration of the principles which have been always 
 maintained by the ablest financiers of our country, 
 " that we must widen the basis of our metallic currency 
 by abolishing the use of small notes, so as to allow coin 
 to take the place of them, as it inevitably would." 
 
 Another cause of this influx of gold in 1830, and its 
 
BAN 
 
 134 
 
 BAN 
 
 temporary retention in this country, was the partial 
 cessation of the exportation of specie to India and 
 China, occasioned by the substitution of bills of ex- 
 change, and letters of credit on London for the imports 
 from those countries. On a review of the tabular 
 statements of the capitals of the banks in Pennsylva- 
 nia, there does not appear, with the exception of 1814, 
 when the 41 banks were chartered, any extraordinary 
 augmentation of banking capital. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Banks. 
 
 CapitaJ. 
 
 ISOl 
 
 2 
 
 $5,000,000 
 
 1S05 
 
 3 
 
 T,000,000 
 
 1811 
 
 4 
 
 6,153,000 
 
 1815 
 
 42 
 
 15,068,800 
 
 1820 
 
 36 
 
 14,681,780 
 
 1838 
 
 25 
 
 23,750,338 
 
 1845 
 
 51 
 
 16,154,600 
 
 1860 
 
 54 
 
 18,966,850 
 
 1S56 
 
 5T 
 
 21,281,464 
 
 During the four years of 1832-1836, the specie im- 
 ports exceeded the exports more than thirty-six mill- 
 ions of dollars, owing to a combination of favorable 
 causes, viz., high prices for cotton, an increase of 
 English credits, foreign indemnities paid in gold, in- 
 creased production of our Southern gold mines and the 
 silver mines of Mexico, loans effected in Europe by the 
 United States Bank, and various other operations in 
 stocks and bonds. The consequence of this influx of 
 gold was an increase of issues by the old banks, and 
 the establishment of new ones. The number of banks 
 in the country was estimated in 1830 at 329, with 110 
 millions of capital. In 1837 there were 788, including 
 branches, and a capital of 290 millions. * 
 
 In 1836 the Bank of England required payment 
 from the " American houses" in London, which was re- 
 sounded throughout our commercial cities, and shortly 
 after Congress passed "the surplus revenue" bill, and 
 the bank credits, which represented the surplus rev- 
 enue, were transferred from place to place without any 
 regard to the laws of trade. The combination of these 
 circumstances was too much for the banks, and they 
 all simultaneously stopped specie payments in May, 
 1837, as well as three of the leading American banking 
 houses in London. The depreciation of bank-notes 
 throughout the country varied from 12 to 25 per cent. 
 The banks at the eastward adopted all needful meas- 
 ures to secure a speedy resumption of payments, but 
 in the west and south an opposite policy was adopted, 
 and new banks were created. During the residue of 
 1837 and 1838, the excess of specie imports over ex- 
 ports was eighteen millions of dollars, of which a part 
 was sent by the Bank of England to enable the Ameri- 
 can banks to resume. In May, 1838, the banks in 
 New York and New England resumed, and continued 
 to pay specie. In August following, the banks of Phil- 
 adelphia professed to pay specie; and in January, 
 1839, there was a nominal resumption throughout the 
 United States. In October, 1839, the Philadelphia 
 banks suspended a second time ; resumed in January, 
 1841 ; suspended a third time 4th February following,' 
 and permanently resumed in March, 1842. 
 
 Maryland. — The first bank established in this State 
 was the Bank of Maryland, which was incorporated in 
 1790, with a capital of $300,000. Next in the order of 
 succession was the Bank of Baltimore, incorporated in 
 1795, with a capital of $1,200,000, of which $1,122,900 
 were paid in. In 1803 the Farmers' Bank of Maryland, 
 with two branches, was chartered, with a capital of 
 $1,000,000, of which $752,745 were paid in. Next, 
 
 Capital. 
 
 The Union Bank of Baltimore in 1804, $3,000,000 
 
 The Bank of Hagerstown in 1806, 250,000 
 
 The Commercial and Farmers' in 1810, 1,000,000 
 
 The Fanners' and Merchants' in 1810, 500,000 
 
 The Franklin Bank, Baltimore in 1810, 600,000 
 
 The Marine Bank, Baltimore in 1810, 600,000 
 
 The Elkton Bank, Maryland in ISIO, 800,000 
 
 The Cumberland Bank, Alleghany . . in 1812, 200,000 
 The Farmers' Bank, Cumberland and 
 
 Worcester in 1812, 200,000 
 
 The City Bank of Baltimore in 1813, 150,000 
 
 and four others in 1814, one in 1815, and one in 1816, 
 the aggregate capital of all of which was $13,300,000, 
 of which only $8,506,595 were paid in. 
 
 The annexed tabular statement, derived from the 
 Treasurer's reports and estimates, will exhibit the 
 amount of banking capital in the State for the last fifty 
 years, and presents a striking contrast to the banking 
 mania of other Atlantic cities. 
 
 The progress of bank capital in Maryland ha.s been 
 less than in other States, viz. : 
 
 Yeara. 
 
 Banks. 
 
 Capital. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Banks. 
 
 Capital. 
 
 1T92 
 
 1 
 
 $500,000 
 
 1S36 
 
 21 
 
 $8,203,675 
 
 1801 
 
 2 
 
 1,600,000 
 
 1837 
 
 28 
 
 10,438,065 
 
 1805 
 
 4 
 
 6,800,000 
 
 1S40 
 
 23 
 
 10,5-0,494 
 
 1811 
 
 6 
 
 4,8.5,'202 
 
 1846 
 
 22 
 
 8,858,332 
 
 1815 
 
 IT 
 
 7,832,002 
 
 1860 
 
 23 
 
 8,704,711 
 
 1S20 
 
 14 
 
 6,708,180 
 
 1860 
 
 30 
 
 11,180,821 
 
 1830 
 
 18 
 
 6,250,495 
 
 
 
 
 Some of the banks specified in the preceding schedule 
 failed in 1834, such as the Bank of Maryland, Farmers' 
 Bank of Maryland, Elkton Bank, Havre de Grace 
 Bank, Susquehanna Bridge and Banking Company, 
 and various others ; but the loss of their capitals was 
 supplied by the enlargement of others, and is scarcely 
 perceptible in the above returns. As an illustration 
 of the vicissitudes of some of these banks, we select at 
 random the history of the Franklin Bank, of Baltimore, 
 chartered in 1810, with a capital of $600,000, for five 
 years, and of which $415,000 only were paid in. In 
 1815 the charter was extended twenty years, and in 
 1821 ten years more, but a tax for the benefit of the 
 school fund was imposed, of twenty cents on every 
 hundred dollars of its stock. In 1834 the charter was 
 extended from 1845 to 1857, and in 1835 the bank was 
 authorized to double its stock, making its capital 
 $1,200,000; but in 1840 it was discovered that its 
 cashier had committed large frauds on the bank, and 
 it was compelled to stop paj'ment in 1841. After an 
 examination of its affairs, the Legislature authorized 
 a reduction of its capital to $301,595, and in 1863 it 
 was increased again to $500,000. The adoption of the 
 new Constitution in 1851 imposed upon stockholders 
 in new banks, or in those whose charters might be re- 
 newed, personal liability for the debts or liabilities of 
 such banks, to the extent of the stock held by them 
 respectively. In 1852 the circulation of notes under 
 five dollars was prohibited by law, under similar penal- 
 ties to those in various other States, and we believe 
 has had a favorable influence in creating a larger cir- 
 culation of coin. 
 
 The banks of Maryland all suspended specie pay- 
 ments in 1814 and 1837, in common with all the others 
 in the Middle, "Western, and Southern States; and it 
 would be superfluous to recapitulate the circumstances 
 attending these events, as they have already been de- 
 scribed in the preceding pages. The same causes oc- 
 casioned and the same results followed in both periods. 
 It will be recollected that in 1814 the New England 
 banks did not suspend payment, and this produced 
 great jealousy and acerbity of feeling, especially in 
 Baltimore. In Niles^ Hegister^ in 1814, we find the 
 following remarks : " If money (specie) be the evidence 
 of commercial prosperity, Massachusetts was never half 
 so well off as now. Some years ago, when the trade 
 of the United States naturally sought the places where 
 its commodities were to be had, one of the Baltimore 
 banks had more specie than all the banks in Massa- 
 chusetts combined ; nay, probably more than there 
 was in the whole State, whether in possession of the 
 banks or of individuals; and so it will have again, 
 when a regular and honest commerce shall succeed the 
 British war and Eastern smuffffling." Instead of the 
 " commercial prosperity of Massachusetts" being de- 
 rived from " Eastern smuggling," the true cause may 
 be found in the following abstract from the report of a 
 committee of the Senate of Pennsylvania in 1819 : 
 
 " The laws of the New England States had been so 
 rigorous on the subject of banks, which were liable to 
 
BAN 
 
 135 
 
 BAN 
 
 a penalty of 12 per cent, per annum for the non-paj- 
 ment of their notes, that no di;preciatitm of their cur- 
 rency took place. The consequence thereof was, that 
 the difference between the New England prices of 
 commodities, stocks and foreign bills of exchange, and 
 those of Pennsylvania, was equal to the extent of the 
 depreciation of the currency of the latter, and as our 
 bank-notes were at that time redeemable on demand, 
 the most profitable remittance which could be made to 
 New England in exchange for her commodities was 
 specie ; and this demand created a run upon the banks 
 which they were not able to withstand. The situa- 
 tion of the Southern and Western banks was precisely 
 similar to that of our own ; all had overissued, and a 
 general depreciation had ensued. The same causes 
 produced the same effects, and a general stoppage of 
 payments of all the banks in the United States, except 
 those of New England, took place in August and Sep- 
 tember, 1814. The New England demand, it is true, 
 was increased by two causes, viz. : first, by facilities 
 in foreign trade through neutral vessels, which were 
 afforded them by an exemption from the blockade of 
 the enemy ; and, secondly, by a well-grounded appre- 
 hension that the Southern banks, from their extensive 
 emissions, would necessarilj' become embarrassed. Cer- 
 tain it is, however, that all these causes combined could 
 not have produced a general suspension of payment 
 had our banks observed the same caution in their issues as 
 that which characterized the banks of the Eastern States." 
 Again, in Niles' Register of 1821, we find the follow- 
 ing remarks : *' That country whose money currency 
 is kept at the highest rate of value will have the great- 
 est advantage in trade with other countries. The 
 hand of labor is not injured by money being scarce ; 
 no interest of the country is injured, but the specula- 
 tor and monopolizer. It is true that the scarcity of 
 money checks imports, but it encourages exports ; it 
 is not so important in what the money consists, as 
 that it should be at as high a rate of value as that of 
 other countries." 
 
 New Jersey, — There are two other States in our sub- 
 division of "Middle States" — New Jersey and Dela- 
 ware — which claim our attention next. The increase 
 in New Jersey was as follows : 
 
 Yuan, 
 
 Biuki. 
 
 Capital. 
 
 1805 
 1811 
 1815 
 1820 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 11 
 14 
 
 $1,000,000 
 
 789,740 
 
 2,121,932 
 
 2,130,949 
 
 From and after this period banks occasionally fail- 
 ed, and new ones created to take their places, and tab- 
 ular statements would not exhibit the annual rise and 
 fall of the moneyed institutions. In our ordinary 
 " Bank-note Reporters" there may be found the names 
 of about thirty of these banks, against three of which 
 the word "fraud" appears, and among these is the 
 "Morris Canal and Banking Company" — a concern 
 which made no inconsiderable commotion in Wall 
 Street at one period. Besides these failures, there is 
 nothing in particular to note, until 1835, when the 
 Legislature passed a law prohibiting the issue of small 
 bills. From authentic sources, we learn that the New 
 Jersey banks had in circulation $500,000 in bills of de- 
 nominations below five dollars, and an equal amount 
 in five dollar notes, being one-eighth part of the entire 
 amount of small bills in circulation in the United States, 
 and one-half of their own emissions. 
 
 In 1850, a general banking law was passed in New 
 Jersey, which, like those adopted in other States, has 
 subsequently been revised and amended. "The new 
 banks established, or at least most of them, instead of 
 being legitimate banks of discount as well as of issue, 
 are simply manufactories ofpajier money, for the bene- 
 fit of their owners residing in other States, having^no 
 affinities here, and of no advantage to New Jersey, 
 save in the amount of tax on their capitals that may 
 be paid into the State Treasury ; and it is questionable 
 
 whether that is not more than counterbalanced to the 
 people of the State by the loss they sustain in the dis- 
 count upon notes passing through their hands. As 
 the profits to the owners depend entirely upon the de- 
 preciation and the circulation of their notes, it be- 
 comes desirable that the banks should be ostensibly 
 located in places difficult of access, so that no one will 
 be disposed to apply at their counters (if perchance 
 they should have offices) for the specie or its equiva- 
 lent ; and the more distant and out of the way, the 
 greater the discount they will bear, and the greater 
 the accruing profit. And to extend their circulation, 
 nothing is easier than to adopt the name and general 
 appearance of some well-known bank, in good credit, 
 keeping the place of issue as much in the background 
 as possible. For example, locating a ' Delaware and 
 Hudson Bank' amidst the sands and pines of Ocean 
 County, making the title very prominent, but having 
 thej?^ce quite the reverse, so that the inexperienced 
 are readily induced to receive the notes." These banks 
 are entitled to three days' grace upon any application 
 for redemption, and of course they have ample time 
 to procure the specie from Wall Street whenever they 
 are pressed. In 1853 tliere were 24 regular banks 
 in New Jersey, the aggregate of whose capitals was 
 $4,080,815 — whose charters expired in from one to 
 twenty-one years. Besides these, there were four- 
 teen "free banlcs," the aggregate of whose capitals 
 was $1,026,966, and circulation $722,895. In his mes- 
 sage of 1852, Governor Fort recommended the pro- 
 hibition of the issue of any notes under five dollars ; 
 after two years, all under ten dollars, and in a few 
 years all under twenty dollars, and then proceeds ; 
 "I am satisfied, however, that fifty dollars, as the 
 minimum denomination of bank paper, should be our 
 ultimate aim. If we excommunicate all small notes, 
 whether of our own or other States, specie must neces- 
 sarily flow in to supply their places. The smallness 
 of our territory presents no serious objection ; the con- 
 stant trade with the large cities on our borders would 
 supply us with an abundance of the precious metals, 
 which no adverse policy of neighboring States could 
 possibly prevent. The State which soonest adopts the 
 use of coin, by the expulsion of paper in the smaller 
 business transactions, wiU outstrip all others in the per- 
 Tnanent prosperity of every other branch of useful indus- 
 try. Bank explosions and individual bankruptcies 
 would then be as rare as they are now frequent." 
 
 He further adds^.J,' the persistent evasion of the law 
 by some of the free banks calls for prompt and effi- 
 cient action on the part of the Legislature. They are 
 of no advantage to the business community, and add 
 nothing to our reputation as a State. I would recom- 
 mend that an inquiry be instituted in regard to these 
 banks, to the end that such as do not conduct a regu- 
 lar and bona fide banlting business be dissolved. This 
 may be done by the Legislature, under the provisions 
 of the 17th section of the general banking act." 
 
 The following statement shows the practical work- 
 ing of the general banking law : 
 
 Vean. 
 
 Banks. 
 
 Capital. 
 
 1841 
 
 26 
 
 $3,834,816 
 
 1S49 
 
 25 
 
 3,497,061 
 
 1850 
 
 24 
 
 3,5S5,2SS 
 
 1852 
 
 25 
 
 4,019,900 
 
 1854 
 
 24 
 
 4,080,815 
 
 1854 
 
 14 Free 
 
 1,066,026 
 
 1866 
 
 86 
 
 5,522,060 
 
 Delaware. — In the State of Delaware tliere was one 
 bank in 1801, with a capital of $110,000— Bank of 
 Delaware. 
 
 Yeare. 
 
 Backs. 
 
 Capital. 
 
 1815 
 
 6 
 
 $996,990 
 
 1820 
 
 6 
 
 . 974,900 
 
 183T 
 
 8 
 
 818,020 
 
 1849 
 
 2 
 
 210,000 
 
 1850 
 
 4, with 3 branches 
 
 940,000 
 
 1SIS4 
 
 6, with 3 branches 
 
 680,000 
 
 1856 
 
 8, with 3 branches 
 
 1,690,000 
 
BAN 
 
 136 
 
 BAN 
 
 Banking is done in this State on a specie basis, and 
 we believe tiiat the only failures which have ever oc- 
 curred in it were the Bank of Milford, in 1854, and the 
 Laurel Bank. In New England, as we have previ- 
 ously stated, there are 486 banks, with capitals amount- 
 ing to $111,349,836, of which 170 banks and $69,060,000 
 are in Massachusetts. 
 
 Western States. Ohio.— The first bank chartered 
 in Ohio was in 1803, called the Miami Exporting Com- 
 pany, with a capital of $200,000. It was not a regular 
 bank, but " its main purpose was to facilitate trade, 
 then suffering under great depression." The Bank of 
 Marietta was chartered in 1808, and subsequently the 
 Bank of Chillicothe, the former with $500,000, the lat- 
 ter with $100, 000 capital. Other institutions were soon 
 after incorporated, and the following statement shows 
 the progress of banking in the State : 
 
 Years. 
 
 BaokB. 
 
 . Capital. 
 
 Venn,. 
 
 Banks. 
 
 Capital. 
 
 1305 
 
 1 
 
 $200,000 
 
 1838 
 
 33 
 
 $9,247,296 
 
 ISll 
 
 4 
 
 806,000 
 
 1840 
 
 37 
 
 10,607,521 
 
 1S15 
 
 12 
 
 1,484,719 
 
 1346 
 
 S 
 
 2,171,807 
 
 1810 
 
 21 
 
 2,001,927 
 
 1850 
 
 66 
 
 7,129,227 
 
 1820 
 
 20 
 
 1,797,463 
 
 1856 
 
 60 
 
 6,998,250 
 
 1S85 
 
 24 
 
 5,819,692 
 
 
 
 
 Of the banks chartered in this State, 18 have been 
 closed under various circumstances of disaster or want 
 of success, and their bills are sold at 60 to 75 per cent, 
 discount, and about 36 of them have failed, and their 
 bills are reported as worthless. Two branches of the 
 second Bank of the United States were established in 
 Cincinnati and Chillicothe in 1817, and the State im- 
 posed a tax of $60,000 on each branch in 1819; but 
 after a long controversy in the courts, it was decided 
 at AVashington that the tax was illegal, and the State 
 submitted to the decree. In 1845 a new system 
 of banking was introduced into the State, known as 
 the "safety fund system," and under the same act, an 
 "independent bank system." The former was based 
 upon the New York system, but it was more perfect ; 
 it created a State bank, subdivided into about forty 
 branches, under the supervision of a Board of Control, 
 who furnish all the notes required for circulation ; and 
 to this board each branch is required to contribute 10 
 per cent, of the amount required for circulation, either 
 in stocks of the State or of the United States, or the 
 amount in money ; to be applied by the board, in case 
 of need, to the redemption of the notes of circulation 
 of any one of the branches which may fail to redeem 
 its bills ; and each branch is required to contribute in 
 the ratio of the circulation to which it is entitled, to 
 the sum necessary for the redemption of the notes of 
 the failing bank, to be remunerated from the safety 
 fund as soon as the sale of the stocks in the hands of 
 the board of control can be effected. AVhenever a 
 branch fails, all its property, notes and assets, pass 
 into the hands of the Board of Control, who appoint 
 a receiver to wind up its affairs, and distribute the 
 proceeds among the stockholders after all the debts are 
 paid. Of the 42 branches there are now 36 remaining, 
 whose aggregate capital is $4,034,526; four branches 
 have become insolvent and are closed, and one has 
 withdrawn and become a private bank. The strength 
 of this institution lies in the obligation of each branch 
 to receive the notes of the others in payment of debts, 
 and with a safety fund of 10 per cent., secured by a 
 deposit of $808,000, to protect the circulation in the 
 event of the failure of any one or more branches ; the 
 constant supervision of the Board of Control over all 
 their movements, and the jealous vigilance of each 
 other to protect themselves from los|, by the misman- 
 agement of others. All these furnish a guarantee of 
 the circulation as perfect as can be desired ; quarterly 
 statements are required from each bank, which are 
 regularly published by the Auditor of State, and the 
 community at large have thereby a full knowledge of 
 their true condition at desirable intervals. Under the 
 old system, bank commissioners were appointed to ex- 
 
 amine the banks periodically, but the Board of Control 
 now perform these duties. The independent banks 
 are twelve in number, having a capital of $687,500, 
 one of them having become insolvent, and two (Ahers 
 are liquidating their concerns. These banks are re- 
 quired to deposit with the State Treasurer certificates 
 of stocks, either of the State of Ohio or of the United 
 States, for the entire amount of their circulation, which 
 can not exceed three times the amount of their capital. 
 These banks are annually examined by a commission- 
 er appointed by the auditor, and quarterly returns of 
 their condition must be furnished to him, and are pub- 
 lished with those of the State Bank branches. The 
 banks arc all required to have 30 per cent, of the 
 amount of their circulation always on hand, in gold 
 or silver coin, or its equivalent in value, one-half at 
 least being in gold or silver; "but deposits in any 
 bank or banker's hands of established credit in the 
 cities of New York, Boston, Philadelphia, or Baltimore, 
 subject to drafts at sight, and payable in specie, shall 
 be deemed equivalent to gold and silver." Of the 
 banks chartered prior to 1845, but one remains in ex- 
 istence, the Ohio Life Insurance and Trust Company, 
 whose operations are managed in two departments : 
 the "Trust Department," and the " Banking Depart- 
 ment." Its capital is two millions of dollars, and it was 
 chartered in 1834, and at one time its circulation was 
 nearly one million of dollars ; but in 1842 the bank 
 surrendered the right to issue notes, and its circula- 
 tion has all been redeemed, excepting $4350, which 
 have never been presented for payment, and a large 
 portion of which probably never will be ; as, for the 
 past seven years, long intervals (in one instance, near- 
 ly eighteen months) have elapsed without the presenta- 
 tion of a single bill, and that for only five dollars. In 
 1851, the Legislature passed an act authorizing "free 
 banking," and under its provisions 13 banks were es- 
 tablished, the aggregate of whose capitalswas $738,050, 
 and a circulation was created of $769,397. At one 
 period this was nearly one million of dollars larger; 
 but in consequence of some of the bank plates having 
 been stolen, an alarm was raised, and the notes of 
 these banks were suddenly presented for redemption. 
 A few months after the passage of the free bank law, 
 the new Constitution of Ohio was submitted to the 
 people and was adopted. Hy its provisions, the Gen- 
 eral Assembly were no longer authorized to grant bank- 
 ing powers to associations, until the people ratified 
 any act passed for that purpose, and approved it by 
 their votes, taken at the next general election after 
 the passage of such acts. In addition to this fatal 
 blow to all projected banks, in 1852, the General As- 
 sembly passed the notorious " tax law," which, under 
 a forced construction, levied an exorbitant tax upon 
 all the banks, and which for a time threatened de- 
 struction to every moneyed institution in the State. 
 Fortunately, the Supreme Court of the United States 
 overruled the decisions of partisan judges, and pro- 
 nounced this outrageous tax nnconstiiutional. From 
 the preceding, it appears that there are four classes of 
 banks in Ohio, and each of them has furnished one or 
 more instances of failure, occasioned more by impru- 
 dence and mismanagement than from any defect in 
 the system under which they were organized. The 
 experience of four years has taught the people of Ohio 
 some severe lessons in regard to cun'ency, which has 
 been chiefly supplied to them by the banks of other 
 States, and especially by Indiana ; and a law has pass- 
 ed the Legislature, which is now before the people for 
 adoption or rejection, during the present month, au- 
 thorizing "the incorporation of the Bank of Ohio and 
 other banks," in order to furnish additional banking 
 facilities to the increased trade and population of this 
 prosperous State. We are, however, not without ap- 
 prehension that the " personal liability" clause, or thir- 
 ty-fifth section of the act, will render it inoperative, 
 even if the act should be ratified by the people. 
 
BAJSr 
 
 137 
 
 BAN 
 
 Indiana. — Next in order comes the State of Indiana. 
 This State was admitted into the Union in 1816, and 
 in 1820 it had two banlcs, whose capitals amounted to 
 $202,857. In 1834 the State Bank of Indiana was in- 
 corporated, with a capital of $1,600,000, and with ten 
 tranches, subsequently increased to thirteen in num- 
 ber. By the original charter, $160,000 were as- 
 signed to each branch, but they were subsequently 
 authorized to increase the amount to $250,000 each. 
 The branches were mutually liable for the debts of 
 each other, but divided their own profits ; each share 
 was subject to a tax of 12|r cents for educational pur- 
 poses, in lieu of all other taxes; but in case of an ad 
 valorem system of taxation in the State, then the stock 
 was liable the same as other capital, not exceeding, 
 however, 1 per cent, altogether. No note under jive 
 dollars was allowed to be issued, and the Legislature 
 reserved the right to restrict it to ten dollars within 
 ten years. The capital of any branch might be in- 
 creased by and with the assent and concurrence of the 
 Legislature and the directors of the State Bank. The 
 directors of the parent bank were to have charge of 
 the plates find bank paper of the branches, and were 
 empowered to deliver to them an amount of such paper 
 not exceeding twice the amount of the stock subscribed 
 for. One-half of the stock was subscribed for and 
 owned by the State, for which they authorized bonds 
 to be issued to the amount of $1,300,000, at 6 per 
 cent., to realize the funds to pay for their half of the 
 stock ; the remaining half was to be subscribed for, 
 and owned by individuals and corporations. The 
 debts of each branch were limited to double the amount 
 of capital paid in, exclusive of deposits. In January, 
 1836, an amendment was passed by the Legislature, 
 and the discounts were allowed to be extended to 
 twice and a half of the amount of the capital paid in, 
 In 1841, the branches were authorized to issue notes 
 of a less denomination than five dollars, not exceed- 
 ing one million of dollars, on the payment of one per 
 cent, for the privilege; and of its circulation, about 
 !l((S,800,000, nearly one-sixth part was in small notes. 
 After the resumption of specie payments in 1838, out 
 of the 959 banks then in existence, 343 wholly sus- 
 pended, and 62 partially so ; of which latter number 
 were those of the State Bank of Indiana, which did 
 not again resume the payment of specie until Octo- 
 ber, 1841, when the branches held $1,127,518 in spe- 
 cie, to meet a circulation of $2,960,414, and deposits 
 amounting to $317,890 only. Since that period the 
 
 able management successfully effected a regular re- 
 duction of its suspended debt, which had rapidly ac- 
 cumulated during the inflation of business in former 
 years, without ruinous sacrifices to the debtors of the 
 bank. If we scrutinize the origin of this bank, we 
 perceive at once that it was founded on false principles, 
 and that the issue of the State bonds for $1,300,000, 
 to provide for the payment of $800,000 of stocks, was 
 a violation of the first article of the Constitution of 
 the United States, which prohibits ^y State from is- 
 suing "bills of credit." "No State can coin money 
 — ^no State (not even Congress itself) can make any 
 thing a tender but gold and silver — no State can emit 
 bills of credit." In direct opposition to these views, 
 Indiana issued her bonds to procure her quota of stock, 
 and for upward of twenty years has been participating 
 in the profits of the institution. In November, 1851, 
 a new Constitution went into operation, and in May, 
 1852, a general banking law was passed under its pro- 
 visions ; it \s called " An act to authorize and regu- 
 late the business of banking." It was liberal enough 
 in its details to suit all parties, and ninety-four banks 
 were in a brief period in full operation, and supplying 
 all the neighboring States, and especially Ohio, with 
 every variety of pictorial bank-bills which the art of 
 
 of the banks of Cincinnati, and the returns which were 
 published of 67 of these exhibited $7,425,067 in cir- 
 culation, and their authorized capitals $32,900,000. 
 At one time the circulation was not far from nine 
 millions of dollars, and as the securities deposited with 
 the auditor (and for which bank-notes were exchanged 
 dollar for dollar) might be Indiana 5 per cent, bonds, 
 worth only about 95 per cent., the law presented strong 
 temptations to bank operators. " A Board of Directors 
 was not a necessary appendage to a bank, nor were 
 the stockholders required, to be citizens of the State." 
 The result was, that after the oppressive tax law of 
 Ohio had driven banking capital from that State, it 
 was at once invested in the "free banks" of Indiana. 
 The public were duly warned of the danger of this 
 scheme of banking in the following suggestions : " Is 
 it not obvious that a banker who issues ten times the 
 amount of his capital in circulation does so for specu- 
 lative purposes only ? The temptation is great— for 
 in periods of prosperity he can make 30 to $40,000 per 
 annum by his circulation ; and if the bank fails, he is 
 only liable for $50,000, or the amount of his stock,; 
 and even this he might avoid by a timely transfer of 
 his stock to irresponsible parties) and thus avoid per- 
 sonal responsibility altogether. But how long would 
 it require to dispose of the $500,000 of Indiana 5 
 per cent, bonds in the New York market at par (at 
 which rate they have been received by the auditor), 
 in a period of panic, or even in a severe monetary cri- 
 sis ; and meanwhile, what would be the discount on 
 the bills of his bank if driven into liquidation ? Past 
 experience has taught us that the community would 
 suffer a loss of twenty-jive per cent, of their amount^ and 
 we maintain that that is not legitimate banking which 
 exposes a community to such a contingent hazard." 
 Such was the prediction in 1854 ; what was the result? 
 Of the 94 free banks of Indiana, 51 haVfe suspended^ 
 and their bills are selling at from 25 to 75 per cent. 
 discount in the city of Cincinnati. The charter of the 
 State Bank of Indiana expires this year, but the Leg- 
 islature, at their last session, chartered a new State 
 Bank, with a capital of $6,000,000, having 15 to 20 
 branches, one in each specified district — the new bank 
 purchasing the interest of the State in the old bank, 
 and the capital to be paid in By the 1st of January, 
 1857. 
 
 Illinois. — Bank legislation in Illinois has been quite 
 as extraordinary as in any other State in the Union. 
 This State was admitted into the Union in December, 
 
 bank has maintained its credit inviolate, and undeig 1818, but the first bank was established while it was 
 
 under territorial government, in 1813, at Shawneetown, 
 the whole territory then containing but 1600 inhab- 
 itants. In 1816 it was regularly incorporated, and, 
 aided by the government deposits, it acquired extens- 
 ive credit, paying specie for its bills untU August, 
 3821, after the Kentucky banks had suspended; it 
 was at length compelled to stop, and remained dor- 
 mant until February, 1835, when the Legislature re- 
 newed its charter until 1st January, 1857. In the fol- 
 lowing month its capital, originally $300,000, was in- 
 creased to $1,400,000, and subscribed for by the State ; 
 and their bonds, payable in 1861, were issued to pro- 
 vide the funds for this increase of capital. 
 
 The Constitution, in 1818. prohibited the establish- 
 ment of any new banks except a State Bank and its 
 branches ; and in March, 1819, " the State Bank of 
 Illinois" was incorporated, with a capital of $4,000,000, 
 for 25 years, one-half to be subscribed for by individ- 
 uals, and the balance by the State, whenever the Legis- 
 lature thought proper. This charter was repealed in 
 1821, as no effort was made to carry it into operation, 
 and another bank was chartered in lieu of it, with a 
 capital of $500,000, for ten years, to be owned by the 
 State and managed by the Legislature. The capital 
 consisted of its office furniture and bank-note plates only ; 
 
 engravers could devise. In October, 1854, there were and $300,000 were directed to be issued and loaned on 
 84 of these banks whose bills could be found in any I notes for one year, with mortgages as securities, and 
 
BAN 
 
 138 
 
 BAN 
 
 not exceeding $1000 to each individual. These notes 
 ■were receivable for taxes and all debts due to the State 
 or the bank. It had hardly commenced operations 
 before its bills fell to 75 per cent. ; shortly after to 50 
 per cent., and finally to 25 per cent., when they ceased 
 to circulate at all. The members of the Legislature 
 received their pay in the depreciated currency at the 
 market value, and on one occasion received $9 per day 
 for their sei'vices, which the State was compelled to 
 redeem at par; and a loan of $100,000 received in 
 these notes at par was paid out at fifty cents on the 
 dollar. 
 
 In February, 1835, a new bank was incorporated, 
 with a capital of $1,500,000, with the liberty to in- 
 crease it to $2,500,000— the State taking $100,000 of the 
 stock ; but in March increased the capital $2,000,000 ; 
 the whole of which the State subscribed for. The 
 hank was allowed Jif!y days for the redemption of its 
 bills, and was required to redeem the $100,000 loan 
 above refeiTed to. The career of this bank was brief; 
 it was shortly compelled to suspend payment, and in 
 1842 it went into liquidation. After the suspension 
 of specie payments in 1837, the State was without any 
 banks until 1851, when a general banking law was 
 passed, similar to that in the States we have already 
 described. The bonds of all States paying 6 per 
 cent, interest. United States stocks and Illinois bonds 
 at 80 per cent, were received by the auditor in ex,- 
 change for the notes of circulation, and the bank com- 
 menced operations. The amount of bank-notes is limit- 
 ed to the amount of the bonds in the hands of the aud- 
 itor ; but the denominations are optional, so that the 
 ■whole circulation may be in one dollar notes if the par- 
 ties choose to require them ; but in case of failure to 
 redeem them, they are subject to 12! per cent, damages 
 per annum, ten days having elapsed after specie is 
 demanded, "^nd the corporate privilege becomes for- 
 feited. The stockholders are individually liable for 
 all the debts and liabilities of the bank, and provision 
 is made for the collection of the same, if occasion should 
 require. The act does not limit the amount of capital, 
 excepting that it shall not be less than $50, 000 for each 
 bank, nor the length of time, but leaves both optional 
 with the applicants, who may designate any number 
 of millions for any number of years, unlimited andper- 
 petual. There are now fifty banks in Illinois, whose 
 capitals amount to about $5,000,000, and thirteen of 
 uncertain value, ranging from 10 to 75 per cent, dis- 
 count. 
 
 These three States — Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois- 
 all of which are usually called "Western;" but there 
 are three more designated as "Northwestern" — Michi- 
 gan, Iowa, and Wisconsin — which we include in the 
 same division. Michigan was admitted into the Union 
 of the States in January, 1837 ; and in 1838 there were 
 11 banks, with an aggi'egate capital of $1,400,000. 
 During that year many more were created, as the fol- 
 lowing statement will show : 
 
 Yeoi». 
 
 Banka and Branches. 
 
 Oapllal. 
 
 Febraary, 1838 
 
 43 
 
 $2,3(iT,7]5 
 
 January, 1841 
 
 4 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 January, 1843 
 
 2 
 
 428,700 
 
 December, 1843 
 
 5 
 
 719,100 
 
 December, 1844 
 
 S 
 
 202,650 
 
 December, 1845 
 
 G 
 
 816,697 
 
 December, 1846 
 
 2 
 
 176,167 
 
 Januaiy, 1848 
 
 1 
 
 139,450 
 
 January, 1849 
 
 1 
 
 147,650 
 
 Jannal-y, 1850 
 
 6 
 
 392,520 
 
 January, 1864 
 
 6 
 
 1,084,718 
 
 January, 1856 
 
 5 
 
 1,100,000 
 
 The only banks which are now in existence in the 
 State are the Michigan Insurance Company, the Penin- 
 sular Bank, and Farmers' and Mechanics' Bank, all of 
 Detroit ; the Bank of Macomb County, and Bank of 
 Tecumseh in the interior. "Free bank laws" were 
 adopted by this State in 1849, and personal liability is 
 also imposed upon the stockholders. The Treasurer of 
 the State has the supervision of the banks, and the cus- 
 
 tody of the securities deposited for the bank-note cir- 
 culation. 
 
 Jowa. — Iowa was admitted into the Union in 1846, 
 but at present this State is destitute, of any incorpora- 
 ted banks. There is a private bank, called the Miners' 
 Bank, at Dubuque, but its bills are not cuiTent, nor 
 even salable in Cincinnati. 
 
 Wisconsin was admitted into the Union in 1848. 
 The first bank was established in Milwaukie, in 1851, 
 with a capital of $225,000. In 1852 the free banking 
 law was adopted, similar to those in other States, re- 
 ceiving all State stocks paying 6 per cent., and first 
 mortgage railroad bonds, on roads of their own State, 
 at 80 per cent, of their par value, but not exceeding 
 one-half of the cost of the road on which they are a 
 lien, nor for more than one-half the amount of the cir- 
 culating notes delivered. A tax of 1^ per cent, was 
 imposed, and the personal liability of the stockholders, 
 to the amount of their stock. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Banks. 
 
 Capital. 
 
 CircDlation. 
 
 January, 1854 
 
 10 
 
 $554,000 
 
 $519,814 
 
 July, 18.54 
 
 19 
 
 1,250,000 
 
 786,218 
 
 January, 1855 
 
 22 
 
 1,400,000 
 
 940,000 
 
 January, 1856 
 
 82 
 
 1,983,000 
 
 1,163,5S4 
 
 July, 1R56 
 
 38 
 
 2,636,000 
 
 1,443,215 
 
 There is a bank controller by law, who has the 
 supervision of the banks, receives the securities, and 
 issues the notes therefor. Bills under $5, of foreign 
 banks, are prohibited from circulation. 
 
 SouTHKRN States. Kentucky. — This State was ad- 
 mitted into the Union in June, 1792, and the first bank 
 was established in 1802, with a capital of $150,000, in 
 Lexington, under the covert name of an insurance com- 
 pany^ which was authorized to issue notes, payable to 
 bearer. In 1804 a regular bank was incorporated, under 
 the name of "The Bank of Kentucky," with a capital 
 of $1,000,000. This bank suspended payment in 1814, 
 but resumed it in 1815 ; in 1817 forty new banks were 
 incorporated, with capitals amounting to $10,000,000, 
 and had permission to redeem their notes with the bills 
 of Kentucky banks, instead of specie. In 1818 the 
 State was , inundated with the paper of these banks ; 
 large loans were made, speculation was rife, and most 
 of the bubbles which were set afloat collapsed within 
 one brief year. The pressure became universal, and 
 for "relief" the Legislature chartered a new bank, 
 "The Commonwealth," with u capital of three mill- 
 ions, pledging the public faith for the redemption of 
 its circulation ; and as security held certain lands, 
 south of Tennessee Ei ver, as a guaranty. If a creditor 
 refused to receive this paper in payment, the debtor 
 was authorized to "replevy the debt for the space of 
 two years." The paper of the new bank fell 60 per 
 cent., and creditors had the choice of the payment of 
 one-half the amount of their claims, or a delay of two 
 years in the settlement, with all the hazard of ultimate 
 bankruptcy, and a total loss. The conflict of the two 
 parties, known as the "relief" and anti-relief," or the 
 "old court" and "new court," was the fiercest which 
 ever agitated the State, but after five years struggle, 
 the "old courf'party triumphed, the replevin act was 
 repealed, and the paper of the Commonwealth Bank 
 was suppressed, and ultiniately destroyed by successive 
 acts of the Legislature. In 1833 the dominant party 
 determined to supply the place and currency of the 
 two branches of the United States Bank, at Lexington 
 and Louisville, by the establishment of State banks ; 
 and in 1834 the Bank of Kentucky, with a capital of 
 five millions, the Northern Bank of Kentucky, with 
 three millions, and the Bank of Louisville, with five 
 millions of dollars, were chartered, and are now in 
 existence; but whose aggregate capitals are only 
 $7,030,000,' instead of the thirteen millions granted. 
 In 1837 all these banks suspended payments in specie, 
 but resumed again in 1839, and the Legislature char- 
 tered the Southern Bank of Kentucky. Shortly after- 
 ward, however, the banks suspended a second time. 
 
BAN 
 
 139 
 
 BAN 
 
 and the universal prostration of trade, the repudiation 
 of their bonds by some of the States, and the universal 
 derangement of the currency South and West, pre- 
 vented the stock of the new bank from being taken up. 
 The trading community was in a desperate condition, 
 yet they staggered on under their oppressive load of 
 debts ; but by the liberal accommodations and indul- 
 gences of the banks, they were partially relieved, nntil 
 1843, when the pressure gradually diminished, and 
 shortly afterward it ceased altogether. In 1842 the 
 three banks resumed specie payments, and from a cir- 
 culation of $2,800, 000 in 1842, gradually extended their 
 issues until 1850, when they amounted to $6,683,000. 
 The Southern Bank of Kentucky had its charter amend- 
 ed, and in 1852 went into operation with a capital of 
 $1,300,000. Since then charters have been granted to 
 the Farmers' Bank, with $2,300,000 capital ; the Com- 
 mercial Bank, with $400,000; the Kentucky Trust 
 Company, with an unlimited capital ; and the Newport 
 Safety Fund Bank, with $300,000 capital. Both of 
 these institutions failed in 1854, and their notes arc 
 now selling at 50 per cent, discount; and the small 
 notes of the latter bank at 90 per cent. With the ex- 
 ception of the charters of these two last banks, the 
 legislation of Kentucky has been of a fixed character, 
 and her circulation has ever been esteemed in the 
 Western States as of the highest character. There 
 are now 34 banks and branches in the State, the ag- 
 gregate of whose capitals is $11,730,000, and circu- 
 lation about $13,3000,000. In the session of 1854, it 
 was proposed to charter six new banks, with capitals 
 amounting to $6,100,000; but the governor having 
 vetoed one of the bills of incorporation, tlie bills all 
 failed to pass, and there for the present the matter 
 rests. 
 
 Tennessee. — In 1-807 the Nashville Bank was incor- 
 porated, with a capital of $200,000, afterward in- 
 creased to $400,000, and after one or two suspensions 
 it wound up with loss to all parties. In 1811 the 
 Bank of the State of Tennessee was chartered, with a 
 capital of $400,000, and nine other banks, with capi- 
 tals of $200,000 to $400,000 each, and were permitted 
 tu become branches of the Bank of Tennessee. In 
 1819 the Farmers' and Mechanics' Bank of Nashville 
 was chartered, with a capital of $400,000, but within 
 a year it was insolvent. In 1820 the State Bank of 
 Tennessee was established, with a capital of $1,000,000, 
 on the basis of funds belonging to the State. This 
 bank loaned money to individuals, in sums of $500 to 
 eacli, on twelve months* credit, secured by a mortgage. 
 The bank was iiot required to have any specie^ but was 
 authorized to sell $250,000 6 per cent. State stocks 
 as its working capital. The proceeds of the Hiawasse 
 lands, and some other securities, were pledged for the 
 redemption of the circulation, and although its paper 
 was rejected by two of the oldest banks in the State, 
 and was 10 per cent, below par, yet the bank strug- 
 gled on, and after six years it attained an available 
 capital of $575,000 out of the proceeds of the pledged 
 lands. The bank was finally wound up in 1832, with 
 considerable loss to the State. The Union Bank was 
 incorporated in 1832, with a capital of $3,000,000, the 
 State owning one-third of the stock; in 1833 the 
 Planters' Bank was incorporated, with a capital of 
 $2,000,000 ; and in 1835 the Farmers' and Merchants' 
 Bank of Memphis, with $600,000 capital. This latter 
 bank for a short time enjoyed a high credit, but it at- 
 tempted to do too much business, and failed in conse- 
 quence. In 1838 the Bank of 'Tennessee was incor- 
 porated, with a capital of $8,226,976, all owned by the 
 State, its nominal capital being $5,000,000. The State 
 requisitions on this bank were so onerous, that its cap- 
 ital, in 1849, was reduced to $2,500,000. Subsequently 
 to the charter of the Bank of Tennessee, in 1843, the 
 Bank of East Tennessee, capital of $800,000 ; in 1848, 
 the Lawrenceburg Bank, capital $100,000; 1852, the 
 Citizens' Bank of Nashville and Memphis, capital 
 
 $200,000, were chartered. In 1852 a free banking 
 law was passed, similar in its provisions to those we 
 have previously described, but, like those in other 
 States, requiring amendments. Some eight or ten 
 banks have been organized under it, but it is not very 
 popular in the State. In addition to this, the Legis- 
 lature, in 1853, chartered seven stock banks, with a 
 view of supplying the vacuum which the winding up 
 of tlie Bank of Tennessee would occasion, and which 
 Governor Johnson recommended in 1855. The last 
 returns of the banks in this State are in number 46, 
 capitals $11,827,197, and all are under the supervision 
 of a State controller. 
 
 Arkansas^ — We have little to say of Arkansas, where 
 there are no remaining banks to claim our attention, 
 and proceed at once to Mississippi^ where the theme 
 is as fertile as their cotton crops are luxuriant. There 
 were formerly two banlcs in Arkansas, the Real Es- 
 tate Bank and the Banl: of the State of Arlcansas. 
 They are both in the hands of trustees for liquidation, 
 and are indebted to the State about $1,500,000, and 
 interest to an equal amount for State bonds loaned to 
 tliem, and still unpaid. This State was admitted into 
 the Union in December, 1817, and it had then one 
 bank, with a capital of $100,000. In 1820 this cap- 
 ital was increased to $900,000, and in 1830 it had but 
 one bank, capital $950,600. At this period there were 
 no banks in Kentucky or Missouri, only one in Ten- 
 nessee, two in Alabama, and four in Louisiana. 
 
 Mississippi. — During this year the Planters' Bank 
 of Mississippi was chartered, with a capital of 
 $3,000,000, of wliich two-thirds were reserved for the 
 State, and one-third allotted to individuals. In July, 
 1831, the State issued $500,000 6 per cent, bonds, and 
 in March, 1832, $1,500,000 more, for her proportion 
 of the stock. "These bonds were sold at 13^ per cent, 
 advance, and yielded to the State a premium of 
 $250,000. This was deposited in the bank as a sink- 
 ing fund, to be increased by the dividends on the 
 State's stock in the bank, from which fund the inter- 
 est on the two millions of bonds was to be regularly 
 paid. The bank paid 10 per cent, dividends up to 
 September, 1839, when the State stock was trans- 
 ferred to the Natchez Railroad Company. The sink- 
 ing fund was then $800,000 beyond the amount re- 
 quired to pay the interest on the State bonds. In 
 1836 to 1839, a large proportion of this fund was lost, 
 and the remnants left were only $60,000, to which 
 about an equal sum has since been added by the com- 
 missioners, by collections from the assets of the Plant- 
 ers' Bank. In 1835, the banking capital of the State 
 amounted to $12,000,000, and such was the prosper- 
 ous condition of the State, that it was proposed to 
 add $10,000,000 more to the amount; and in the ses- 
 sion of 1835-'36 about $17,000,000 in banks and rail- 
 roads were chartered. In 1837 there were 18 banks 
 in Mississippi, the aggregate capitals of which were 
 $12,872,815, having a circulation of $5,073,425, and 
 loans $24,351,414. But the end was not yet. In 
 1838 the Mississippi Union Bank was chartered, with 
 a capital of $15,500,000, to be "raised by means of a 
 loan, to be obtained by the directors of the institu- 
 tion." The governor was authorized to issue 7500 
 bonds of $2000 each, interest at 5 per cent., and pay- 
 able in 12, 18, and 24 years, and for the payment of 
 which the faith of the State was pledged. Two and 
 a half per cent, in cash was required of individual sub- 
 scriptions, and the ^balance secured by mortgages on 
 real estate. In June, 1838, Governor M'Nutt exe- 
 cuted and delivered to the bank 2500 of the proposed 
 bonds. The three commissioners appointed under the 
 charter negotiated these bonds with Mr. Biddle, who 
 paid the commissioners of the bank $5,000,000 there- 
 for, in five installments of one million each. This con- 
 tract was guaranteed by the Pennsylvania Bank of the 
 United States, on behalf of Mr. Biddle. Upon this 
 sum of five millions, and $8000 received from indi- 
 
BAN 
 
 140 
 
 BAN 
 
 vidual subscribers, the bank based all its operations, 
 and the deplorable issue of which we shall shortly- 
 state. In 1839 another series of bonds, for a similar 
 amount, was issued to the bank for further '^aclioe 
 capital;" but in 1840 the governor issued a proclama- 
 tion, warning the community against advancing mon- 
 ey on the hypothecation of these bonds, on any tej-vis 
 not authorized by the charter. In 1841 the governor 
 communicated to the Legislature that this proclama- 
 tion had prevented an illegal sale of these bonds, and 
 with it the following interesting summary of the " con- 
 dition" of the Union Bank : 
 
 Suspended deit, inmit $2,680,000 
 
 Suspended debt, fuit in suit 1,777,000 
 
 Kesources, chiefly unavailable 8,034,000 
 
 Specie on hand 4,349 
 
 Circulation 3,034,000 
 
 Nearly a year previous to this date the bank had 
 become hopelessly insolvent. The governor's proc- 
 lamation was followed shortly after by his atrocious 
 scheme of " repudiation" of the $5,000,000 of the bonds 
 of 1838, on the pretext of " alleged fraud and illegal- 
 ity," and communicated to the Legislature; to which 
 they responded, "that the State of Mississippi wSl 
 pay her bonds, and preserve her faith inviolate I" In 
 the whole of this disastrous transaction, there is no- 
 
 thing but disgrace; Governor M'Nutt was the first 
 open, avowed, and relentless assassin of American 
 credit in Europe, and the " deep damnation of its tak- 
 ing off" originated a feeling of distrust and disquie- 
 tude in financial circles, which will be forgotten only 
 when John Law's Mississippi scheme has been sur- 
 passed in extravagance. Well and truly did the Sen- 
 ator from Mississippi utter that unforgotten sentence, 
 " the moral sense of communities and of mankind will 
 condemn us," unless a tax was raised for the payment 
 of these bonds; and it may be safely asserted that 
 the deepest injury ever inflicted upon the commercial 
 and financial reputation of the United States was in 
 this reprobated and dishonest act of "eepudiatioS." 
 The Planters' Bank bonds were not officially repudi'- 
 ated, but the people of the State, in 1852, refused, by 
 a majority of 4400 votes, to authorize a tax to pay 
 them, and redeem "the plighted faith of the State." 
 In July, 1854, the amount of these bonds, with inter- 
 est, was $3,518,081, and the bonds of the Union Bank, 
 for $5,000,000 and interest, may be added thereto, as 
 the cost Of banks to the State, independent of the in- 
 dividual loss that can be superadded thereto. The 
 following tabular statement furnishes a sufficient warn- 
 ing of the fate of banks which are based upon fictitious 
 capital. There were in the State in 
 
 YeaiB. 
 
 Banks. 
 
 Capital. 
 
 Circulation. 
 
 Specie. 
 
 Loans. 
 
 1830 
 1887 
 1840 
 1842 
 1850 
 • 1850 
 
 1 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 •17 
 
 1* 
 
 1 
 
 $950,600 
 12,872,816 
 80,379,403 
 
 9,261,200 
 
 24J0',i65 
 
 $540,190 
 
 6,073,426 
 
 16,071,689 
 
 2,374,189 
 
 234',S80 
 
 $77,000 
 
 1,369,000 
 
 867,000 
 
 11,000 
 
 $1,927,485 
 24,361,414 
 48,333,728 
 13,349,481 
 
 ' "Unpaid capital, not worth reporting." 
 
 Louisiana. — ^We gladly turn away from this melan- 
 choly review of past disasters, and enter upon a scene of 
 still larger operations in Louisiana. The State was ad- 
 mitted into the Union in 1812, but there was a bank cap- 
 ital in the Territory in 1805, of $500,000, which in 1815 
 was increased to $1,432,300, distributed among three 
 banks ; and in 1820 four banks, with $2,597,420. 
 There are no reliable returns of the banks between 
 1820 and 1830 ; but as the increase of their number 
 in the United States was but twenty-two, and of 
 their capital only eight millions, we take Mr. Gallatin's 
 report of four banks in 1880, as the actual number in 
 Louisiana at that period, as "in all the Western and 
 Southwestern States there were, in 1830, only eighteen 
 banks, with capitals amounting to $9,462,268. By the 
 1st of January, 1837, the number of banks in these 
 States was increased to 161, including branches, with 
 
 paid np capitals of the amount of $88,699,974," of 
 which Louisiana had 16 banks, with 31 branches, and 
 $36,769,455 capital, $7,909,788 circulation, $11,487,431 
 deposits, $3,108,416 specie, and loans $59,108,741, 
 which was the highest point of the operations of the 
 banks. Niks' Register, of March, 1836, gives the follow- 
 ing statement of bank capital in Louisiana at that date : 
 
 Yeats. 
 
 Capital. 
 
 Yeors. 
 
 Capital 
 
 1811 
 1815 
 1820 
 1830 
 
 $754,000 
 1,432,000 
 2,697,420 
 6,065,980 
 
 1834 
 1836 
 1836 
 
 $23,364,755 
 27,172,145 
 56,000,000 
 
 of which about thirty-two millions were paid in, and 
 the circulation of six millions — less than the specie in 
 the banks to redeem it. The official reports, however, 
 exhibit a more correct view of the matter, and from it 
 we copy the following table : 
 
 Years. 
 
 Banks. 
 
 Branches. 
 
 Capital. 
 
 circulation. 
 
 Specie. 
 
 Loans. 
 
 1837 
 
 16 
 
 31 
 
 $36,769,466 
 
 $7,909,788 
 
 $3,108,416 
 
 $59,108,741 
 
 1840 
 
 16 
 
 31 
 
 41,711,214 
 
 6,443,783 
 
 3,168,243 
 
 48,646,71/9 
 
 1843 
 
 ,6 
 
 22 
 
 20,929,340 
 
 1,087,377 
 
 4,461,023 
 
 20,420,948 
 
 1846 
 
 6 
 
 22 
 
 17,528,910 
 
 4,206,788 
 
 6,036,394 
 
 21,582,744 
 
 1850 
 
 6 
 
 22 
 
 14,267,520 
 
 6,069,867 
 
 6,979,772 
 
 18,602,649 
 
 The banks in the last line, in 1850, were 
 
 Capital. 
 $3,992,200 
 3,163,750 
 994,400 
 1,734,820 
 1,704,350 
 2,668,000 
 
 Louisiana Bank 
 
 Canal and Banking Company 
 
 City Bank 
 
 Louisiana State Bank 
 
 Mechanics' and Traders' Bank 
 
 Union Bank 
 
 Total $14,257,620 
 
 Besides these, there were the Citizens' Bank and 
 Consolidation Association, with liabilities amounting 
 to $8,751,313, and assets, $8,000,971. In 1852 the 
 new consolidation was adopted, and the Citizens' Bank 
 charter was restored to the bank, which had been for- 
 feited by its continued suspension. The charter of the 
 City Bank expu-ed in 1853 : that of the Mechanics' and 
 Traders' also expired. The latter reorganized under 
 the general banking law. The provisions of the free 
 banking law of Louisiana are such as will compel the 
 banks to retain specie to the amount of one-third of 
 their liabilities. In 1854 the returns were, 
 
 Capital. 
 
 5 Banks $15,87(t,486 
 
 8 Free banks. 2,683,775 
 
 In 1856 there were nine banks, whose capitals 
 amounted to $15,702,600. As New Orleans is the 
 grand entrepot of the products of the whole Western 
 country, large banking facilities are requisite to expe- 
 dite the cotton, sugar, and tobacco shipped annually 
 from this great commercial mart, and to supply the de- 
 mands of the planters during each successive season. 
 For many years past there has been a deficiency of 
 banking capital in New Orleans, in consequence of the 
 restrictive limits of the banking policy of the State in 
 relation to discounts, as the supply of specie in the 
 banks has been always large enough to justify a much 
 larger amount of circulation than has ever been issued. 
 Under the general banking law, it is probable, from the 
 general appearances of things, that this deficiency will 
 no longer exist, but, on the contrary, there will be a 
 tendency to an opposite extreme. 
 
BAN 
 
 141 
 
 BAN 
 
 Statement of tiie Banks of New ORLEANe, Oct, 11, 1866. 
 
 ACTIVE MOVKMBNTa.— LlABILITiaa. i \ 
 
 Banks. 
 
 circulation. 
 
 Depoflit. 
 
 Due Dlntant 
 Banlii. 
 
 Bank of Louisiana 
 
 Louisiana State Bank... 
 
 Canal Bank.. 
 
 Citizens' Bank 
 
 Mechanics* and Traders' 
 
 $793,439 
 
 1,292,100 
 
 908,176 
 
 2,744,946 
 
 351,465 
 
 659,300 
 
 168,620 
 
 665,495 
 
 $7,373,639 
 
 $2,417,644 
 
 2,925,270 
 
 602,896 
 
 3,123,116 
 
 671,412 
 
 949,242 
 
 178,691 
 
 703,301 
 
 $11,741,670 
 
 ' $243,808 
 
 99^858 
 
 174,686 
 
 122,1?1 
 
 20,648 
 
 123,432 
 
 , 60,261 
 
 
 Bank of Nevr Orleana. . . 
 Total 
 
 $844,664 
 
 ItBSOUKCSS. i I ] 
 
 BaqIu. 
 
 Specie. 
 
 flO day Paper. 
 
 EzchaDge. 
 $284,619 
 212,123 
 465,771 
 756,196 
 76,646 
 442,416 
 15S,444 
 187,776 
 
 Bank of Louisiana 
 
 Louisiana State Bank, . . 
 Canal Bank , . . . . 
 
 $1,360,283 
 
 1,649,330 
 
 649,850 
 
 1,915,503 
 
 277,460 
 
 366,702 
 
 132,486 
 
 . . 326,359 
 
 $3,805,323 
 3,725,925 
 2,618,326 
 5,136,112 
 1,004,138 
 1,464,994 
 573,298 
 1,942,480 
 
 Citizens' Bank , 
 
 •Mechanics' and Traders' 
 " Union Bank 
 
 
 •Bank of New Orleans. . . 
 
 $6,674^973 
 
 $20,289,695 
 
 $2,578,990 
 
 
 • Free banks under the general law ; the others are char- 
 tered banks. ' ' 
 
 Alabama -was admitted into the Union in 1819, and. 
 in the following year there were three banks, whose 
 capitals amounted to $469,112; in 1830, one bank, with 
 $495,503 capital ; and we give below the tabular state- 
 ments of four )'ears, to exhibit its bank history during 
 the memorable epoch of 1836-42. 
 
 In 1843the banking capital was reduced to$l,500,000, 
 the Bank of Mobile being the only institution until 1851. 
 The State owned two-fifths of the stock, $600,000, for 
 which it issued its bonds, and the bank paid the inter- 
 est thereon. Since then tlie Southern Bank of Alabama, 
 capital $500,000; Bank of Montgomery, $100,000; 
 and the Northern Bank of Alabama, $200,000, have 
 been organized. In 1850 a fi'ee banking law was 
 passed, but there has been no advantage taken of its 
 privileges, by establishing any such institution in the 
 State. The Bank of the State has been winding up 
 its affairs ever since the expiration of its charter, and 
 it has furnished another illustration of the principle 
 that there should be no interwoven interests of State 
 and bank, or of politics and finance ; they may be cor- 
 relative, but not conjoint. The executive messages 
 have fully argued this point, and there is no occasion 
 for further comment. 
 
 Voan. 
 
 Capital. 
 
 Circulation. 
 
 Specie. 
 
 Deposits. 
 
 Discouiite. . 
 
 1836 
 
 1840 
 
 1841 
 
 ■ 1S42 
 
 $0,553,969 
 14,379,255 
 14,348,834 
 3,067,700 
 
 $6,172,107 
 
 7,211,141 
 
 1,728,042 
 
 19,871 
 
 $1,502,4'J4 
 
 1,589,510 
 
 685,192 
 
 28,204 
 
 $3,152,047 
 
 2,827,622 
 
 980,428 
 
 0'29,659 
 
 $15,020,505 
 24,183,586 
 23,065,522 
 2,948,929 
 
 With the State of Texas we shall close the remarks 
 on the Southwestern division of the Southern States, 
 with merely stating the fact that there is one bank in 
 the State, at Galveston, having a capital of $322,000. 
 This State was admitted into the Union in 1845, and 
 although she has cost the country a vast amount of 
 money, in prolonged debates in Congress, in the wasted 
 hours of the excited masses of the people, in cities, 
 towjiB, and villages, and the exhaustion of all the in- 
 tense expletives that suppositive patriotism could in- 
 vent, yet beyond those straws, after the payment of 
 the hard money of the contract, we believe that the 
 government have made a good bargain, and that her 
 territory may be our favored pathway to the Pacific, 
 We have done with the Southwestern' division, when 
 we have quoted a remark of Professor Tucker, twenty 
 years ago, 18^. " The banking mania has prevailed 
 in the Southwestern States beyond any other in the 
 Union, not excepting New England, but in consequence 
 of which, with the most profitable agriculture in the 
 United States, the bank circulation has been the most 
 depreciated, and they are still suffering the evils of a 
 disordered currency." 
 
 Virginia. — The first notice of any bank in Virginia 
 was in 1805, mentioned in Mr. Gallatin's report, cap- 
 ital $1,500,000. This was the Bank of Virginia, char- 
 tered in 1804, and which expires in April, 1857; its 
 capital has been enlarged to $2,650,000. There was, 
 it is true, a branch of the first Bank of the United 
 States in Norfolk ; but the paper of this bank rarely 
 found its way into the interior of the country, where 
 the currency was purely metallic. "The desk of ev- 
 ery agriculturist in Virginia had some gold or silver to 
 spare, if he was a prudent, industrious man ; or he had 
 something like money to spare in the hands of his mer- 
 chant, who, in the days of which I am speaking, acted 
 as a banker to his prospering customers. The currency 
 being specie, was widely scattered through the land, and 
 in diversified hands, so that its concentration at any par- 
 ticular point was impossible ; and consequently Its re- 
 moval from the country could not happen to any great 
 extent." The same writer proceeds : "No people had 
 more cause to rejoice than the people of Virginia ; but 
 alas ! the banks came, and all things became changed. 
 Like the Upas-tree, they have withered and destroyed 
 the healthful condition of the country, and inflicted an 
 the people political and pecuniary disease of the most 
 deadly character." 
 
 Such was the tone of public sentiment in the South- 
 em States, originating with the establishment of the 
 first United States Bank, 'and cherished by Virginia 
 until the expiration of its charter in 1811, when, 
 through fear that its sovereignty would not be repre- 
 sented at the funeral orgies, the Assembly, in January, 
 1811, passed a special resolve, "to instruct their sen- 
 ators and'request their representatives to vote against 
 the renewal of the charter of the United States Bank" 
 — & puny little institution, on its last legs, with an 
 embargo behind it, and a war before its last expiring 
 moments. But in one brief year the mystery was ex- 
 plained: Virginia wanted a bank of her own, and in 
 February, 1812, we perceive that the Farmers' Bank 
 of Virginia, with a capital of $2,000,000, and with a 
 right to issue $6,000,000 of circulation, was chartered ; 
 and with the Bank of Virginia (in which the State was 
 interested $300,000), and the enlargement of capital to 
 the old, and the creation of new banks, it certainly was 
 very politic that the State should wish to avoid either 
 the rivalry or the surveillance of anational institution. 
 Three other banks followed in quick succession, with 
 capitals amounting to four millions more, and there 
 was no further outcry against paper money or banks, 
 because the " Old Dominion" had adopted them. The 
 charters of the two first banks prohibited the issue of 
 notes under $5, which they adhered to, until it was 
 found convenient to issue $7, $8, and $9 notes to sup- 
 ply the use of coin ; and thus the inteiit of the law was 
 frustrated. Our usual tabular statement furnishes the 
 readiest mode of showing the banking operations of 
 the State from 1820 to 1850 : 
 
 Years. 
 
 1820 
 1830 
 1837 
 1840 
 1842 
 1848 
 1850 
 1854 
 1856 
 
 16 
 60 
 
 Capital. 
 
 $5,212,192 
 5,751,100 
 6,731,200 
 10,283.638 
 10,363,362 
 9,684,9r0 
 9,731,370 
 12,796,436 
 13,734.800 
 
 $7,699,000 
 18,021,000 
 15,596,000 
 16,170,000 
 17,302,000 
 18,163,000 
 24,918,000 
 
 Circulation. 
 
 $3,858,000 
 9,107,000 
 6,707,000 
 7,740,000 
 8,997,000 
 8,944,000 
 
 14,296,000 
 
 With the exception of 1837, there does not appear to 
 be any extravagant banking ; but in January of that 
 year the proportion of loans to capital was larger than 
 that of any other State in the Union— being 50 per cent, 
 above the average rate of all the banks, and its circu- 
 lation in excess by a larger ratio, 214 to 91 average pro- 
 portion of circulation to capital. In 1851 the general 
 
BAN 
 
 142 
 
 banking law was passed, and as the chartered banks 
 expire, they liave been required to comply with the 
 general rule of securing their circulation by a pledge 
 of public stocks. The Bank of Virginia and the Farm- 
 ers' Bank charters expire in 1857 ; but they have been 
 wisely renewed upon their old basis, "as the experi- 
 ment of ' independent banking' has not so triumphant- 
 ly vindicated the sound wisdom of the principle as to 
 induce the public to sacrifice a system which has oper- 
 ated, in the main, equally to the advantage of the State 
 and the community. There is certainly nothing in the 
 financial condition of the State to warrant any hazard- 
 ous experiments with its monetary relations." 
 
 North Carolina. — The first bank incorporated in this 
 State was the Bank of Cape Fear, in 1804, with a cap- 
 ital of $250,000, located at Wilmington. Its charter 
 has been extended, and its capital increased by vari- 
 ous enactments. It has now $2,000,000 of capital, of 
 which the State owns $532,200; and its present char- 
 ter expires, by limitation, in 1880. It has seven 
 branches. The Bank of the State of North Carolina 
 was originally incorporated in 1833, with a capital of 
 $1,500,000. It is now $2,000,000, of which the State 
 owns $500,000; and its charter expires in 1860. It has 
 nine branches. In 1834, the Merchants' Bank, $300,000 
 capital ; in 1847, Commercial Bank, $300,000 ; in 1849, 
 Bank of Fayetteville, $800,000; in 1850, Bank of 
 Washington, $400,000, and Bank of Wadesborough, 
 $200,000 capitals, were severally incorporated; and 
 the whole number in the State at present is 29 banks 
 and branches, the aggregate of whose capital is 
 $6,050,000. In one of the late reports of the Bank of 
 North Carolina we find the following remark: *'By 
 successful management, this banlc has obtained a posi- 
 tion and influence which scarcely any State institution 
 ever possessed, and certainly none in Nqith Carolina. 
 After passing uninjured through the crisis of 1837, un- 
 der the able guidance of its first president, Mr. Cam- 
 eron, it rapidly acquired confidence and strength, and 
 now stands pre-eminent among tlie State institutions 
 of our land." We are happy to add that there are no 
 "free bank" laws in this State. 
 
 South Carolina. — The first bank established in this 
 State was the Bank of South Carolina, chartered in 
 1792, with a capital of $1,000,000. In the appendix to 
 Mr. Woodbury's report of the banks in 1837, he states 
 the South Carolina banks as follows : 
 
 Yuan. 
 1T02 
 ISOl 
 
 1S05 
 
 Banks. 
 
 Capital. 
 
 Yonra. 
 
 Banks. 
 
 Capital. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 itl075,000 
 3,000,000 
 8,000,000 
 
 IKll 
 181B 
 1820 
 
 4 
 5 
 5 
 
 $3,475,000 
 3,730,r;00 
 4,475,000 
 
 But we believe that the account we subjoin is the 
 correct one : 
 
 Years. 
 lT'j'2 
 1S02 
 1810 
 1810 
 1812 
 
 Name. 
 
 Banks. 
 
 Capital. 
 
 Bank of South Carolina 
 
 
 $1,000,000 
 1,000,000 
 1,000,000 
 1,000,000 
 1,123,557 
 
 State Bank of South Carolina 
 
 Union Bank 
 
 Planters' and Mechanics' Bank . . 
 Bank of the State of South Carolina 
 
 Mak 
 
 ng an aggregate capital, in 1820, o 
 
 f 
 
 $5,1'.'S,357 
 
 The Bank of the State of South Carolina was a pure- 
 ly State institution, and had no private stockholders. 
 It was originally founded for the purpose of furnishing 
 temporary aid to planters, by loans of $2000 to each, 
 and for many years was a mere "loan institution." 
 In 1820 the capital of this bank was pledged as securi- 
 ty for the redemption of the bonds of the State, issued 
 to carry out a system of internal improvements recent- 
 
 ly undertaken. The consequence was, that the bank 
 was immediately converted into a commercial institu- 
 tion, and conducted on corresponding principles. In 
 1833 it was deemed " expedient and beneficial, both to 
 the citizens and to the State, to recharter the bank 
 until 1856," but to be wound up in 1860. It has now 
 a surplus of assets over its liabilities of over two mill- 
 ions and a half of dollars, and the last of their bonds 
 due in London is payable in 1868, commonly known 
 as the " fire loan," and is little short of $500,000. 
 
 In regard to tliis bank we will transcribe some ex- 
 tracts from Governor Seabury's message to the Legisla- 
 ture in 1849, which we commend to the notice of some 
 rabid politicians who succeeded in hunting down the 
 United States Bank : " The Bank of the State of South 
 Carolina is a dangerous institution, anti-republican in 
 its character and tendency, and the evils inevitably aris- 
 ing from the connection between a moneyed corporation 
 and the State Increase and ramify the longer the rights 
 and privileges of the former are extended. The polit- 
 ical history of South Carolina has too long presented 
 the anomalous spectacle of its constituted authorities 
 pertinaciously upholding a State corporation, while it 
 denounced any union between a hank and the Federal goV' 
 ernment. I also desire, in this place, to express my 
 settled conviction that the Bank of the State was 
 founded on a false and pernicious principle ; that to 
 grant to the members of a communit}', almost exclu- 
 sively devoted to rural pursuits, unusual facilities for 
 commanding money, is to inflict upon them and their 
 posterity an unmitigated evil." 
 
 In glancing over the Treasury Reports for 1850 and 
 1854, we notice that the Bank of the State of South 
 Carolina had $1,169,541 in circulation in the first- 
 named year, and in the second $1,654,561. By what 
 right did they issue these bills ? In an article on the 
 currency in JIunVs Magazine^ in 1842, by Professor 
 Tellkampf, we find the following remarks : The Con- 
 stitution of the United States declares, "that no State 
 shall coin money, emit bills of credit, or make any 
 thing but gold and silver a tender in payment of 
 debts." It is a known and settled principle, founded 
 on philosophy, that no one can transfer to another a 
 right which he does not himself possess. ' ' Nemo plus 
 jurv! in alium transferre pote.it, quam quod ipse liabet." 
 Since no State can coin money or emit liills of credit 
 (under wliich paper money is included), can they 
 make any thing but gold and silver a tender for the 
 payment of debts? No State has a right to make 
 money, no matter whether gold or silver, or any oth- 
 er material ; and therefore it can not transfer the right 
 to banks by charter. Wherefore, these charters are 
 wholly unconstitutional. Congress only lias the right, 
 and that is the only power which can confer it. 
 
 Other banks have been subsequently chartered in 
 South Carolina, as follows : 
 
 Capital. 
 
 In 1835, Bank of Charleston $3,100,800 
 
 " 1838, Southwestern Itailroad and Banking 
 
 Company 869,426 
 
 Commercial Bank, Columbia 800,000 
 
 Bank of Hamburg 500,000 
 
 Merchants' B.ank of Cheraiv 400,000 
 
 Bank of Camden 877,500 
 
 Bank of Georgetown 200,000 
 
 Farmers' and Exchange Bank 9fl9,900 
 
 Bank of Ncwbeny 300,000 
 
 and some others, numbering altogether 20 banks and 
 branches, having an aggregate capital of $10,600,000. 
 The annexed tabular statement finishes our notice 
 of these banks : 
 
 Years. 
 
 Banks. 
 
 Capital. 
 
 Circulation. 
 
 Deposits. 
 
 Specie. 
 
 Loans. 
 
 18S6 
 
 10 
 
 $7,936,818 
 
 $7,488,727 
 
 $4,021,210 
 
 $2,600,427 
 
 $16,816,319 
 
 1837 
 
 12 
 
 8,686,118 
 
 7,228,616 
 
 6,048,477 
 
 1,664,786 
 
 18,899,888 
 
 1842 
 
 11 
 
 11,472,922 
 
 2,932,164 
 
 1,743,000 
 
 1,866,178 
 
 13,890,083 
 
 1846 
 
 11 
 
 11,036,260 
 
 8,911,860 
 
 2,363,168 
 
 1,723,.'S01 
 
 14,181,722 
 
 18'iO 
 
 14 
 
 13,1S9,.571 
 
 8,741,765 
 
 8,322,132 
 
 1,711,902 
 
 20,601,187 
 
 lHr,6 
 
 19 
 
 16,603,253 
 
 6,739,623 
 
 2,871,096 
 
 1,283,284 
 
 23,149,098 
 
BAN 
 
 143 
 
 BAN 
 
 Georgia. — In Georgia, the first bank which appears 
 in Mr. Woodbury's report is, in 1811, one bank, cap- 
 ital $210,000; in 1815, two banks, capital $623,580; 
 in 1816, three banks, capital $1,502,600 ; in 1820, four 
 banks, with an aggregate capital of $3,401,610; and 
 
 the following table shows that Georgia has had her full 
 share of banking business, notwithstanding her fre- 
 quent complaints of dependence upon Charleston for 
 facilities, and her own want of bank capital. There 
 were in the State, in 
 
 Venn. 
 
 Banka. 
 
 Capltnl. 
 
 circulation. 
 
 Daposita. 
 
 Spee... 
 
 Loans. 
 
 1830 
 
 9 
 
 $4,203,029 
 
 $2,719,856 
 
 $1,382,634 
 
 $1,305,141 
 
 $6,ii62,474 
 
 1837 
 
 32 
 
 11,438,828 
 
 8,058,789 
 
 2,948,632 
 
 2,860,320 
 
 16,692,216 
 
 1840 
 
 89 
 
 15,098,694 
 
 5,518,822 
 
 1,985,413 
 
 1,800,694 
 
 13,783,221 
 
 1843 
 
 24 
 
 10,260,T02 
 
 1,972,215 
 
 1,058,842 
 
 1,206,971 
 
 5,451,751 
 
 1846 
 
 22 
 
 8,970,789 
 
 2,471,264 
 
 1,318,266 
 
 1,104,235 
 
 5,549,232 
 
 1849 
 
 18 
 
 12,695,010 
 
 4,118,419 
 
 1,697,099 
 
 1,547,626 
 
 6,958,106 
 
 18!53 
 
 18 
 
 12,957,600 
 
 9,518,777 
 
 2,523,227 
 
 1,676,813 
 
 )8,567,46« 
 
 1855 
 
 21 
 
 13,413,100 
 
 6,698,869 
 
 2,034,455 
 
 1,461,880 
 
 11,648,559 
 
 These statements give a very imperfect idea of the 
 real state of financial operations in Georgia. For in- 
 stance, in the report of 1849, the Central Bank, the 
 property of the State, which had for ten years been 
 winding up its concerns, had its capital included, 
 $1,480,000, and the two railroad cornpanies, capitals 
 $6,694,000, making, in the aggregate, $8,174,000, 
 which should be deducted from the banking capital, 
 as above stated, when the return would be, in 1849, 
 fifteen banks. 
 
 Capital $4,420,764 
 
 Deposits 1,873,786 
 
 Circulation .... 3,619,749 
 
 Specie $1,404,706 
 
 Loans 5,502,714 
 
 The banking community axe indebted to a distin- 
 guished representative from Georgia (the late Richard 
 Henry Wilde) for the introduction and adoption of the 
 resolution in Congress by which we have our annual 
 reports on the banks of the United States. Imperfect 
 as these reports are, they illustrate the importance of 
 having more attention bestowed upon them, even if 
 their preparation should require an additional bureau 
 at Washington. 
 
 Florida. — ^We come now to Florida, the last State in 
 the Southern division, and which was admitted into 
 the Union in 1846. Under its territorial government, it 
 had, in 1838, five banks, with an aggregate amount of 
 capital of $2,113,302, $774,040 circulation, $146,842 
 specie, $493,623 deposits, and $2,662,614 loans. These 
 were located at Pensacola, Tallahassee, Appalachicola, 
 and Magnolia, but they are all broken and worthless. 
 A law was passed in 1849 authorizing a bank at Talla- 
 hassee, but we believe that it was not organized, and 
 we know of no regular bank in the State. 
 
 Missouri. — This State was admitted into the Union 
 in 1821. There was one bank in existence prior to 
 this date, the operations of which were disastrous, but 
 the first we find in the regular reports is the State Bank 
 of Missouri, at St. Louis, witli one branch, in 1837, and 
 a capital of $683,538, circulation $28,000, and specie 
 $466,000. This is now the only bank in the State, 
 although it has increased the number of its branches 
 to meet the increasing demand for banking facilities. 
 We give a tabular statement of its operations, during 
 a series of years, from 1837 to 1856 : 
 
 Yearn. 
 
 Branches. 
 
 Capital. 
 
 Circulation. 
 
 Deposits. 
 
 Specie. 
 
 Loans. 
 
 1837 
 
 1 
 
 $583,538 
 
 $028,000 
 
 $819,000 
 
 $466,000 
 
 $1,109,000 
 
 1810 
 
 2 
 
 1,116,123 
 
 410,000 
 
 1,174,000 
 
 662,000 
 
 2,077,000 
 
 1848 
 
 3 
 
 1,200,.588 
 
 781,000 
 
 1,116,000 
 
 1,260,000 
 
 951,000 
 
 1846 
 
 6 
 
 1,200,582 
 
 2,195,000 
 
 1,296,000 
 
 1,453,000 
 
 2,958,000 
 
 1849 
 
 6 
 
 1,208,167 
 
 2,569,000 
 
 1,785,000 
 
 2,427,000 
 
 3,152,000 
 
 1850 
 
 6 
 
 1,208,751 
 
 2,594,000 
 
 1,877,000 
 
 1,902,000 
 
 3,265,000 
 
 1856 
 
 6 
 
 1,216,400 
 
 2,805,000 
 
 1,331,000 
 
 1,855,000 
 
 4,800,000 
 
 This bank is owned by the State to the extent of 
 $954,205, and the balance by individuals, and its char- 
 ter will expire in February, 1861, having been ex- 
 tended to that date by act of 1856. A committee on 
 banks formerly recommended a sale of the State's in- 
 terest in the bank, and the charter of a new one with 
 $6,000,000 capital. The constitution allows but one 
 bank and branches, and, of course, without its altera- 
 tion free banks can not be introduced. It will be per- 
 ceived that the bank has always had on hand a large 
 supply of specie for the redemption of its circulation, 
 and has consequently always enjoyed a high reputa- 
 tion. It has maintained specie payments since its in- 
 corporation, although its circulation was necessarily 
 restricted, wliile many of the banks of the East and 
 West were under suspension during the years 1837-1840. 
 We trust that it may continue a fortress of strength to 
 resist the encroachment of free banking principles, 
 which are now pervading several of the States, and 
 furnish an enduring evidence of the profit and security 
 of banks based upon a specie capital. 
 
 Cali/omia. — We are not aware of any incorporated 
 banks in the State of California ; and it only remains 
 for us to speak of those of the District of Columbia. 
 The first bank established at Washington was in 1792, 
 with a capital of $500,000 ; in 1802, there were two 
 banks, $1,500,000; in 1805, three banks, $2,000,000; 
 in 1811, four banks, $2,341,395; in 1816, ten banks, 
 $4,078,295; in 1820, thirteen banks, $5,626,319 capitals. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Bsnlrs. 
 
 Cnpital. 
 
 1880 
 1837 
 1842 
 1844 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 6 
 6 
 
 $3,879,574 
 2,204,445 
 1,786,920 
 1,649,280 
 
 The charters of all these banks expired some years 
 since, and passed into the hands of trustees for the ben- 
 efit of the stockholders. The Farmers and Mechanics' 
 Bank, Georgetown, the Bank of the Metropolis, Bank 
 of Washington, and Patriotic Bank of Washington, are 
 of the above class, and are about the only banks whose 
 bills are current on any terms, and they are looked 
 upon with distrust out of their own neighborhood. 
 
 Conclusions. — The past financial history of the United 
 States abounds with examples and warnings ; but the 
 misfortune is, that they are apt to be unheeded and 
 forgotten. How many of our merchants now on the 
 stage of active enterprise have an intimate acquaint- 
 ance with the past history of commerce in our own 
 country during thepresent century., if, indeed, they know 
 that which relates to their own business, beyond the 
 last twenty years ? 
 
 How few statesmen and financiers of these modem 
 days of high attainments are familiar with the finan- 
 cial events of 1836-42 ! Those who retain a fresh re- 
 membrance of that financial crisis will ever dread a re- 
 currence, and be inspired with caution, prudence, and 
 distrust. But the race of these *' conservatives" is fast 
 passing away, and the counsels of the few remaining 
 are almost derided. Junior partners, or successors, 
 and "Young America," fill their places, and now take 
 the lead. The past is disregarded, and similar errors 
 will probably eventuate in similar disasters. 
 
 Our illustrious statesman, Daniel Webster, who has 
 left for our use invaluable lessons of political wisdom, 
 in his celebrated speech at Trenton, in 1844, uttered 
 these words : "We are well instructed by experience ; 
 but let us not be lost to experience. Let not all the 
 good, all the comforts, all the blessings, which now 
 
BAN 
 
 144 
 
 iiAIN 
 
 Beem in prospect for all classes, be blighted, ruined, 
 and destroyed, by running into danger which we may 
 avoid. The rocks before us are all visible — all high 
 out of water. They lift themselves, covered with the 
 fragments of the awful wrecks and ruin of other times. 
 Let us avoid them. Let the master and the pilots, and 
 the helmsman and all the crew, be wide awake, and 
 give the breakers a good berth." 
 
 In 1832, Mr. Biddle, the President of the United 
 States Bank, was examined by a committee of the 
 House of Representatives, of which Mr. Cambreleng, 
 of New York, was chaii-man. To one of the interroga- 
 tories he answered in the following language : "The 
 idea, at the present day, of doing the business of this 
 country without banks would be equal to the project of 
 renouncing canals, and railroads, and steamboats, and 
 all the other improvements belonging to trade. That 
 banks do occasional mischief there can be no doubt ; 
 but until some valuable improvement is found which 
 supplies unmixed good, this is no objection to them, 
 and, constituted as they now are, the banks of the 
 United States may be considered safe instruments of 
 commerce. On the whole, it seems wiser to retain the 
 established institutions of the country, instead of re- 
 sorting to doubtful and hctza^dous CTperimmts. What 
 is wanted, I think, in our banking system is this : first, 
 to widen the basis of our metallic circulation, by abol- 
 ishing the use of small noteSj so as to allow coin to take 
 the place of them, as it inevitably would ; and, second- 
 ly, to annex to the non-payment of specie by the banks 
 so heavy a penalty, say an interest of 12 per cent., 
 as in the case of the Bank of the United States, or 24 
 per cent., as in some of the Jersey banks, as would 
 deprive the banks of all temptation to incur the risk 
 of insolvency." 
 
 Nearly a quarter of a century has elapsed since these 
 remarks were made by the "moneyed autocrat of Phil- 
 adelphia," and the very principles avowed by him are 
 now the adopted dogmas of his former opponents. We 
 believe that it is now generally admitted that, in order 
 to carry on successfully the extensive business of this 
 country, we require a solid, stable, and uniform cur- 
 rency. It is undeniable, also, that a system like bank- 
 ing, which has constituted a prominent engine of trade, 
 commerce, and manufactures in all civilized communi- 
 ties, must possess intrinsic, fixed, and ascertained prin- 
 ciples ; the discovery, development, and application of 
 which, in the most equitable and advantageous man- 
 ner, should be the leading object of those who exercise 
 any agency in the creation or management of our mon- 
 eyed institutions. 
 
 The early antipathy of our people against banks 
 was a blinded prejudice ; the retrospect of half a cen- 
 tury discloses many great evils and abuses, springing 
 from multifarious causes not imputable to the system, 
 but rather fungous excrescences, which a luxuriant 
 growth has produced: Frauds without number have 
 been perpetrated, undiscovered and hopeless ; thou- 
 sands and millions of dollars have been scattered in 
 thoughtless profusion by Boards of Directors, who knew 
 nothing of the first elements of banking, and loaned 
 their paper promises to oblige their friends, taking a 
 worthless written individual promise for an equally 
 worthless printed l)ank-note. But what of all these 
 things, and many more which might be added, the 
 great extension of credit, consequent upon the in- 
 creased banking facilitieSy unrestraified as they have 
 formerly been, has been beneficial to all classes, to the 
 farmers and mechanics not less than to the merchants. 
 "Young Americans," men of industrious, enterprising, 
 and energetic characters, have left the comforts of their 
 parental homes, and by the aid of bank capital have 
 found the facilities by which they could convert bound- 
 less forests and untrodden wilds into cultivated farms 
 and villages, within the precincts of which they have 
 established schools and churches, erected work-shops 
 and factories, and clustered around them the civiliza- 
 
 tion, the comforts, and refinements which are now 
 spread over our Western States. True it is, that this ' 
 expansion of bank facilities has cast its dark shadow 
 as well as its sunlight. In many a city and town, 
 thousands have been ruined by the recklessness or im- 
 providence of those who have made haste to be rich, 
 and many a possessor of an ample fortune, acquired by 
 a life-long labor, has gone down to his grave in sadness, 
 sorrow, and deprivation, by the violent explosion of 
 those fearful volcanoes which periodically have scat- 
 tered burning lava and ashes over the golden vistas 
 which speculation had conjured up. 
 
 But the question now arises, When are our experi- 
 ments in banking to end? We have tried national 
 banks, specie banks, safety-fund banks, free banks, and 
 bogus banks ; and we have a sub-treasury scheme, and 
 untold treasures of gold in California, but these are 
 merely chaotic materials, moving in space at random — 
 no single mind directs their movements, and the re- 
 sult will probably be "confusion worse confounded." 
 Where, then, are we to look for succor ? We can dis- 
 cover but one sure point, and that is the general gov- 
 ernment, who alone have the power to exercise a salu- 
 tary control over the currency of our whole country, 
 through the agency of that grand regulator of ex- 
 change, an exchequer system, aided, if need be, by 
 that pet of the government, the present sub-treasury 
 scheme. 
 
 From the following table of the number of banks, 
 amount of capital, and circulation, it will appear that 
 the number of banks has doubled in a period of nearly 
 twenty years ; while the capital and circulation have 
 increased only about 30 per cent, in the same time, 
 which ratio is not equal to the growth or increase in 
 wealth of the country. 
 
 THEAStniT EEPORT. 
 
 Yoarj. 
 
 BbdIib. 
 
 Capital paid in. 
 
 Circulation. 
 
 183T 
 
 758 
 
 $290,000,000 
 
 $149,000,000 
 
 1838 
 
 829 
 
 319,000,000 
 
 116,000,000 
 
 18311 
 
 840 
 
 S2T,000,000 
 
 135,000,000 
 
 1840 
 
 OCT 
 
 363,000,000 
 
 107,000,000 
 
 1841 
 
 T84 
 
 313,000,000 
 
 10T,000,000 
 
 1842 
 
 692 
 
 260,000,000 
 
 83,000,000 
 
 1843 
 
 691 
 
 228,000,000 
 
 68,000,000 
 
 1844 
 
 696 
 
 210,000,000 
 
 T6,000,000 
 
 184S 
 
 TOT 
 
 206,000,000 
 
 89,000,000 
 
 1840 
 
 TOT 
 
 196,000,000 
 
 106,000,000 
 
 1847 
 
 T15 
 
 203,000,000 
 
 105,000,000 
 
 1848 
 
 751 
 
 204,000,000 
 
 128,000,000 
 
 1849 
 
 T82 
 
 20T,000,000 . 
 
 114,000,000 
 
 1850 
 
 824 
 
 21T,000,000 
 
 131,000,000 
 
 1861 
 1852 
 
 8T9 
 
 22T,000,000 
 
 155,000,000 
 
 1863 
 
 
 * ■ ■ ' 
 
 
 1854 
 
 1208 
 
 301,000,000 
 
 204,000,000 
 
 1855 
 
 130T 
 
 332,000,000 
 
 187,000,000 
 
 Our task is ended, when we have acknowledged the 
 sources from which this compilation has been derived. 
 From Condy Eaguet and Professor Tucker's works on 
 Banks and Hanking, from Niles' Register, the Bankers' 
 and Hunt's Magazines, liberal extracts have been made, 
 and all the tabular statements have been derived ei- 
 ther from the Bankers' Magazine or the reports of the 
 Secretary of the Treasury. The admirable Index to 
 Periodical Literature, by the accomplished librarian of 
 the Boston Athenseum, has been an efficient guide to 
 authorities and essays which might otherwise have 
 escaped our attention, and has fully verified the motto 
 on his title-page, 
 
 " Qui ecit utii sit ecientia, hahenti est proximus." 
 
 Bank of the United States. — The old Bank of the 
 United States was incorporated by an act of Congress, 
 approved February, 1791. By the limitation of the 
 charter, it was to expire on the 4th of March, 1811. 
 This, like the Banks of England, France, and Sweden, 
 was a bank of deposit, discount, and circulation, with 
 a capital of $10,000,000. 
 
 Those European writers, both British and French, 
 who have eulogized this institution as being purely 
 commercial, and distinguished from those of England 
 
BAJsr 
 
 145 
 
 BAN 
 
 and France by not being connected with the govern- 
 ment, or an engine of finance, can not have read the 
 charter, the preamble to which begins thus : "Where- 
 as the establishment of a bank will be very conducive 
 to the conducting of the national finances, will tend to 
 give facility to the obtaining of loans for the use of the 
 government in sudden emergencies, and will be pro- 
 ductive o{ considerabk advantages to trade and industry 
 in general," etc. Instead of being a merely commer- 
 cial establishment, therefore, it was essentially and 
 mainly of a financial and political character, and it 
 was on this ground that its constitutionality was de- 
 fended ; the right of Congress to grant such a charter 
 being claimed mostly upon the strength of that clause 
 of the Constitution which gives to Congress the power 
 necessary for carrying into execution the powers enu- 
 merated, and expressly vested in that body. The ori- 
 gin of this establishment was, therefore, similar to that 
 of the Bank of England, and the resemblance is not lim- 
 ited to the general purposes of its institution, for, as the 
 Bank of England originated in a loan to the British 
 government, so the act by which the old Bank of the 
 United States was chartered provided that the sums 
 subscribed by individuals and corporations should be 
 payable one-fourth in gold and silver and three-fourths 
 in the public debt certificates. The President of the 
 United States was authorized to subscribe for two mill- 
 ions of the stock in behalf of the United States. The 
 directors, being twenty-five, were chosen by the stock- 
 holders without any interference on the part of the 
 government in the election ; but the government re- 
 served the right of inspecting the affairs of the Bank, 
 and for this purpose the Secretary of the Treasury was 
 authorized to demand of the president and directors a 
 statement of its concerns as often as he might see fit. 
 The corporation was authorized to establish branches 
 in any part of the United States. The only restriction 
 as to circulation was, that the amount of debts due 
 from the corporation by bond, bill, note, or otherwise, 
 besides the debts due for deposits, should never ex- 
 ceed $10,000,000; and in case of excess, the directors 
 by whose agency such debt should be incurred were 
 made personally answerable. This bank went into op- 
 eration, and had a most powerful agency in establish- 
 ing the credit of the government, facilitating its finan- 
 cial operations, and promoting the interests of industry 
 and commerce. Congress having refused to renew the 
 charter, it expired, by its own limitation, in 1811. But 
 during the war which ensued the want of a national 
 bank was severely felt, not only as an agent for collect- 
 ing the revenues, but more especially for transmitting 
 funds from one part of the country to another, and then 
 it might have been a useful auxiliary to the public 
 credit by supplying temporary loans in cases of emer- 
 gency. So thoroughly convinced were the public of 
 the necessity of such an institution, that the members 
 of the same political party from which the constitu- 
 tional objections had been made to the old Bank, and 
 which had refused to renew its charter, passed an act of 
 Congress, which was approved by the President, April 
 10, 1816, chartering the second Bank of the United 
 States, with a capital of $35,000,000, upon principles 
 and with provisions very similar to those contained in 
 the former charter. For this charter the government 
 demanded and received a bonus of $1,500,000 from the 
 stockholders. The government became a stockholder 
 in the same proportion as in the former bank, taking 
 one-fifth, or $7,000,000 of the stock. The direction of 
 the institution was left to the stockholders, as in the 
 old bank, except that the government reserved the 
 right of appointment and removal at pleasure, by the 
 President, of five directors out of the twenty-five, the 
 other twenty being elected by the stockholders. The 
 government also reserved the right to demand a state- 
 ment of the concerns of the institution by committees 
 of either branch of the Legislature. One quarter of 
 the subscription to the stock was payable either in 
 
 gold and silver or United States stock, at the option 
 of subscribers. The $7,000,000 to be subscribed by 
 the government was payable either in gold and silver, 
 or public stock, at an interest of 5 per cent., at the op- 
 tion of the government. The transactions of the cor- 
 poration were limited to making loans and trading in 
 the precious metals, and the sale of such goods or 
 proceeds of such lands as should be pledged. 
 
 Branches were established in various parts of the 
 Union. No other similar corporations could be char- 
 tered by the government, except banks in the District 
 of Columbia, with a capital not exceeding in total 
 $6,000,000, during the period for which the charter 
 was granted, namely, to the 3d of March, 1836. The 
 bank was prohibited from purchasing any part of the 
 public debt, taking interest over 6 per cent., or loan- 
 ing to the government over $500,000, or to any State 
 over $50,000; and the debts of the bank were in no 
 case to exceed the amount of deposits by more than 
 $35,000,000. And in case of refusing specie payment 
 of its notes or deposits in specie, the bank was made 
 liable to pay interest at the rate of 12 per cent, per an- 
 num. The banlc was also obliged, by its charter, to 
 give the government the necessary facilities for trans- 
 ferring the public funds from place to place within the 
 United States without charging commissions, or claim- 
 ing any allowance on account of the difference of ex- 
 change, and to transact all the business of commis- 
 sioners of loans whenever required so to do. The banlc 
 was prohibited from issuing bills under the denomina- 
 tion of $5. 
 
 The bank commenced operations on the 7th of April, 
 1817 ; and soon after entered into a compact with the 
 State banks for a simultaneous resumption of specie 
 payments, which took place on the 20th Febmary, 1817. 
 Every effort was made to push its paper into circu- 
 lation. Its discounts were increased in one month 
 from $3,000,000 to $20,000,000; and in October, nine 
 months after going into operation, they had increased 
 to $33,000,000. Of course, with this immense expan- 
 sion, the currency depreciated ; prices of every thing 
 ranged high; speculation, especially in stocks, was 
 rife. The management of thq bank was very bad; 
 money was lent on the stock of the. bank to its par val- 
 ue, and so persons of no means became stockholders — 
 pledging the stock for the loan with which tliey bought 
 the stock. The branches which had been made at all 
 points,. North, East, West, and South, were issuing 
 notes, limited by the ability to make them. In obe- 
 dience to a fixed law of action and reaction being 
 equal, a revulsion soon came, and, owing to the mis- 
 management of the directors, it was increased. The 
 branches met with great losses : at Baltimore, for in- 
 stance, from the improper conduct of the officers, it 
 was estimated at $1,671,221 ; and the aggregate losses 
 of the parent bank up to the 6th of March, 1819, ex- 
 ceeded $3,500,000. The dividends in the same time 
 amounted to $4,410,000; of this sum $1,348,553 was 
 received for interest on public debt held by the bank, 
 which made the profits on the banking operations less 
 by half a million than its losses. These losses, and 
 the fluctuations caused by the difficulties of the bank. 
 in the currency and in money affairs generally, created 
 a strong feeling against the bank, which added to the 
 party who held that the bank was unconstitutional and 
 inexpedient. 
 
 In the sessions of 1831-'32 the bank made applica- 
 tion to Congress for a renewal of the charter ; and a 
 bill was passed incorporating anew the bank. This 
 was vetoed by President Jackson. It was then re- 
 considered by Congress, but failing to obtain the con- 
 stitutional majority of two-thirds, it was finally re- 
 jected, July, 1832. 
 
 The removal of the government deposits from the 
 Bank of the United States by the President, Septem- 
 ber 23, 1833; the adoption, in consequence, by Con- 
 gress of what was afterward called the "deposit-bank 
 
BAN 
 
 146 
 
 BAN 
 
 system," as a means of safely keeping the public mon- 
 ey ; tlie resolution of the Senate that the removal was 
 uncalled for, and the responsibility assumed by the 
 President unconstitutional, etc., introduced by Mr. 
 Webster, and passed March 28, 1834; the passage of 
 the act of June 23, 1836, for the distribution of the 
 surplus revenue among the different States of the 
 Union ; the issue by the Secretary of the Treasury of 
 the famous specie circular of July 11, 1836 ; the in- 
 corporation of the Bank of the United States by the 
 Legislature of Pennsylvania early in the same year ; 
 the derangement in the currency of the country, which 
 led, in May, 1 837, to the general suspension of specie 
 payments by the banks ; the resumption of specie pay- 
 ments by the banks in the summer of 1838, with the 
 adoption of the " free-banking system" by the State of 
 New York, and several others, were events which may 
 be regarded as being intimately connected with the 
 suspension of the Bank of the United States. — E. A. 
 
 " When it was finally settled that no recharter of 
 the national bank was to be obtained, a plan was pro- 
 jected to combine the advantages of the long-estab- 
 lished correspondence, name, and macliinery of the 
 former bank, by incorporating its stock w^ith a new 
 institution under the name of " The President, Directs 
 ors, and Company of the Bank of the United States 
 of Pennsylvania," which was chartered on the 18th of 
 February, 1836, by the Legislature of that State. The 
 transfer of the funds of the old institution w^as made 
 into the new State bank. More than 15 per cent, was 
 restored by the government beyond its subscription at 
 the period of the transfer, and 3J per cent, had been 
 paid to the same source every six months for a long 
 course of years. In consequence of the advantages to 
 be derived from the new institution, the stockholders 
 were content to subscribe anew in the new State bank ; 
 and it is alleged that all of them might, at this junc- 
 ture, have received their investments back, not only 
 at par, but with a large advance. This the govern- 
 ment actually did, and no power was enjoj^ed by the 
 government that was not shared by every individual. 
 Indeed it was alleged by Mr. Nicholas Biddle (who 
 held the administration of the affairs of the State bank, 
 as he had done in-the national bank), as recently as 
 April, 1841, that the State institution was prosperous 
 down to the end of his administration in Maroh, 1839. 
 The downfall of the State institution, however, soon 
 occurred, bringing disaster upon the stockholders. 
 From March, 1839, to March, 1841, the stock of the 
 State bank declined from 116 to 17 per cent., and this 
 loss fell in considerable part upon those who had been 
 the original stockholders of the national bank. The 
 stock is now quoted from $1 to ^2 per share. The new 
 institution did not rest upon the broad foundation of 
 national aid, and of course had not the confidence pos- 
 sessed by the national bank." — Hunt's Merch, Mag, 
 
 A bill for establishing a Fiscal Bank of the United 
 States passed the House of Representatives, August 6, 
 1841; vetoed by President Tyler, August 16. Another 
 bill for a Fiscal Corporation vetoed September 9, 1841, 
 followed by a resignation of all the Cabinet, except Mr. 
 Webster, which ended for a time all efforts to obtain 
 under any name a new national bank. 
 
 Canada. — There are eight banks in Canada besides 
 the Bank of British North America, which has its chief 
 office in England, and spreads its branches all over 
 British America. This bank, which was incorporated 
 in 1840, has a capital of ^1,000,000 sterling. Of the 
 eight more strictly colonial banks, four are in Lower 
 and four in Upper Canada. The most important of 
 these is the Bank of Montreal, with a present capital 
 of £1,500,000 currency. The three other banks in 
 Lower Canada are, the City Bank of Montreal, with a 
 capital of £300,000; the Banque du Peuple in Mont- 
 real, with a capital of £300,000; and the Quebec 
 Bank, with a capital of £500,000. The banks in Up- 
 per Canada are, the Bank of Upper Canada, Toronto, 
 
 incorporated 1821, with a present capital of £1,000,000 ; 
 the Commercial Bank of the Midland District, Kings- 
 ton, incorporated 1832, capital £1,000,000 ; the Gore 
 Bank, Hamilton, incorporated with a capital of 
 £100,000 ; and the Niagara District Bank at St. Cath- 
 erines, with a capital of £500,000. 
 
 Almost all of these institutions have branches in 
 various parts of the country, and issue notes, payable 
 on demand, from one dollar upward. The least de- 
 nomination of the notes of the Bank of British North 
 America is four-dollar notes, representing £1 colonial 
 currency; The greater number of these institutions 
 are now understood to be paying from 6 to 7 per cent, 
 per annum upon their paid-up stock ; and the stock 
 of the most successful among them was selling, in 
 AprU, 1854, at from 16 to 25 per cent, premium. All 
 accounts are kept in Canada in pounds, shillings, and 
 pence, provincial currency. The present one pound 
 of provincial currency is about equal to 16s. Ad. ster- 
 ling, or four dollars United States currency. The En- 
 glish sovereign is equal to 24s. id. currency ; the shil- 
 ling within a fraction of Is. od. ; and the half-crown 
 about 3s. l^d. colonial currency. The bank capital 
 of Canada was largely increased by act of 1854, viz. : 
 
 Names. 
 
 Former 
 Capital, 
 
 Addition, 
 1854. 
 
 Capital, 
 
 jfce. 
 
 Bank of Montreal 
 
 Bank of Upper Canada . . 
 Oomm. Bank of Canada . 
 
 City Bank, Montreal 
 
 Banque du Peuple 
 
 Quebec Bank 
 
 Total 
 
 £ 
 1,000,000 
 500,000 
 600,000 
 225,000 
 200,000 
 250,000 
 
 £ 
 600,000 
 800,000 
 600,000 
 75,000 
 .100,000 
 250,000 
 
 £ 
 
 1,500,000 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 300,000 
 
 300,000 
 
 500,000 
 
 2,075,000 1 1,925,000 | 4,000,000 | 
 
 Friendly Societies. — Friendly Societies are as- 
 sociations, mostly in England, of persons chiefly in the 
 humbler classes for tlie purpose of making provision 
 by mutual contribution against those contingencies in 
 human life, the occurrence of which can be calculated 
 by way of average. The principal objects contem- 
 plated by such societies are the following : the insur- 
 ing of a sum of money to be paid on the birth of a 
 member's child, or on the death of a member or any 
 of his family ; the maintenance of members in old age 
 and widowhood ; the administration of relief to mem- 
 bers incapacitated for labor by sickness or accident ; 
 and the endowment of members or their nominees. 
 Friendly societies are, therefore, associations for mu- 
 tual assurance, but are distinguished from assurance 
 societies, properly so called, hj the circumstance that 
 the sums of money which they insure are compara- 
 tively small. 
 
 Although the period when such societies originated 
 appears to be unknown, their existence in ancient 
 times is unquestionable. They were numerous in En- 
 gland among the Anglo-Saxons, but from the general 
 want of learning at so early an age, and the difficulty 
 of preserving written documents even of the highest 
 importance relating to a period so remote, it can not 
 be expected we should now possess any very complete 
 records of their history or proceedings. Writers of 
 credit, however, have mentioned several of these fra- 
 ternities or "guilds" as existing both before and sub- 
 sequently to the Norman Conquest, and their rules, 
 which are still preserved, are highly interesting, from 
 their similarity to those of the friendly societies of the 
 present daj-. " These guilds or social corporations," 
 observes an excellent writer, "seem, on the whole, to 
 have been friendly associations made for mutual aid 
 and contribution to meet the peculiar exigencies which 
 were perpetually arising from burials, legal exactions, 
 penal mulcts, and other payments and compensations." 
 — Tdbnee's Anglo-Saxons. Some of them had for 
 their objects the bestowal of annual charity, the pay- 
 ment of stipends to poor persons, the entertainment of 
 poor strangers and travelers, and various other works 
 of a like charitable and benevolent character. 
 
BAN 
 
 147 
 
 BAN 
 
 BanJcs of the United States, 1857.— The following is 
 a summary of the liabilities and tlie resources of the 
 banks of each State in the Union, according to the of- 
 
 ficial returns in or near January, 1857. — From the Fi- 
 nance Report of the Secretary of the Treasury, December, 
 1857. 
 
 StateB. 
 
 L1ABIUTIS8. 1 
 
 No of 
 Banks. 
 
 No. of 
 Branchoa. 
 
 Date. 
 
 Capital. 
 
 circulation. 
 
 Deposits. 
 
 Due other 
 Banlia. 
 
 Otber 1 
 Liabilities. 
 
 Maine 
 
 76 
 
 49 
 
 41 
 
 172 
 
 98 
 
 70 
 
 310 
 
 46 
 
 71 
 
 8 
 
 31 
 
 19 
 
 12 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 22 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 42 
 
 33 
 
 61 
 
 4 
 
 49 
 
 4 
 
 "i 
 
 1 
 
 ■3 
 
 38 
 
 16 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 io 
 
 is 
 
 2T 
 13 
 
 Jan., 1857 
 Dec, 1S50 
 July, 1356 
 Oct., 185Q 
 Dec, 1856 
 April, 1856 
 Sept., 1856 
 Jan., 1857 
 Nov., 1856 
 Jan., 1857 
 Jan., 1867 
 Jan., 1857 
 Jan., 1857 
 Jan., 1857 
 Jan., 1857 
 Jan., 1867 
 Dec, 1856 
 Jan., 1857 
 Jan., 185T 
 Jan., 1857 
 Dec, 1856 
 Oct., 1866 
 Oct., 1856 
 Nov., 1856 
 Dec, 1856 
 Jan., 185T 
 Jan., 1857 
 
 $8,135,735 
 
 4,831,000 
 
 3,856,946 
 
 63,598,800 
 
 20,276,899 
 
 18,913,372 
 
 96,331,301 
 
 6,632,770 
 
 23,609,344 
 
 1,428,185 
 
 12,297,276 
 
 13,863,000 
 
 6,426,250 
 
 14,837,642 
 
 15,428,690 
 
 2,297,800 
 
 21,730,400 
 
 336,000 
 
 8,464.422 
 
 10,596,305 
 
 1,215,405 
 
 5,872,144 
 
 4,123,083 
 
 6,742,421 
 
 841,483 
 
 2,955,000 
 
 206,000 
 
 $4,641,646 
 3,677,639 
 3,970,720 
 
 26,544,316 
 5,621,909 
 9,197,762 
 
 34,019,633 
 4,769,855 
 
 17,368,096 
 1,394,094 
 5,165,036 
 
 12,686,637 
 6,301,262 
 
 10,664,652 
 9,147,011 
 3,177,234 
 9,194,139 
 656,345 
 8,401,918 
 
 13,682,215 
 2,780,380 
 8,534,946 
 4,731,705 
 9,153,629 
 670,549 
 1,702,670 
 363,796 
 
 $1,994,782 
 
 1,058,803 
 
 797,535 
 
 23,437,256 
 3,141,667 
 4,090,835 
 
 96,907,970 
 4,891,970 
 
 27,593,634 
 868,414 
 9,611,324 
 7,397,474 
 1,170,026 
 3,802,733 
 3,126,630 
 2,423,263 
 
 13,478,729 
 83,436 
 4,876,346 
 4,473,378 
 1,188,982 
 1,002,399 
 1,852,742 
 6,543,420 
 1,347,95s 
 S,S65,562 
 125,291 
 
 $145,033 
 
 "7,348 
 
 4,807,601 
 
 1,475,221 
 
 875,287 
 
 29,014,125 
 
 1,438,658 
 
 4,216,616 
 
 147,250 
 
 1,895,284 
 
 729,607 
 
 224,821 
 
 3,518,962 
 
 1,663,429 
 
 703,443 
 
 965,855 
 
 944^917 
 2,983,373 
 111,984 
 210,483 
 272,815 
 1,202,961 
 118,962 
 
 ' i',749 
 
 $121,743 1 
 
 ' ' "317 
 
 931,868 
 
 659,703 
 
 911,458 
 
 6,767,333 
 
 127,659 
 
 679,701 
 
 93,235 
 
 6,645 
 
 3,355,119 
 
 872,644 
 
 6,000 
 
 2,207,583 
 
 95r,262 
 60,000 
 
 157,981 i 
 177,309 i 
 392,758 : 
 82,640 
 1,290,480 1 
 
 New Hampshire . 
 
 "Vermont 
 
 Massachusetts . . 
 Khode Island . . . 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 New York 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 Fenn sylvan ia , . . 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Virginia 
 
 North Carolina. . 
 South Carolina. . 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Missouri 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 Total liabilities 
 
 1283 
 
 133. 
 
 
 $370,834,6811 
 
 $214,778,822 
 
 $230 361,352 | $57,674,833 
 
 $19,816,850 
 
 States. 
 
 SBSOUBCGS. 
 
 Loans. 
 
 Stocks. 
 
 Real Estate. 
 
 Otlier 
 Investments. 
 
 Due by ottier 
 Banks. 
 
 Notes of otiier 
 Banks. 
 
 Specie Funds. 
 
 Specie. 
 
 Maine 
 
 $13,277,020 
 8,846,421 
 
 
 $138,251 
 75,893 
 
 
 $1,158,376 
 741,475 
 
 $375,210 
 136,534 
 
 
 $705,143 
 236,013 
 
 NeT7 Hampshire. 
 
 
 
 
 Vermont 
 
 7,802,951 
 
 $ii4,5S3 
 
 135,268 
 
 $62,881 
 
 1,142,104 
 
 43,146 
 
 $39,'440 
 
 203,868 
 
 Massachusetts .. 
 
 101,132,792 
 
 .... 
 
 1,426,392 
 
 
 7,574,791 
 
 5,248,379 
 
 
 4,555,671 
 
 Rhode Island . . . 
 
 28,679,843 
 
 128,539 
 
 478,652 
 
 70,133 
 
 1,255,822 
 
 1,281,754 
 
 
 548,348 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 28,611,149 
 
 1,216,630 
 
 458,132 
 
 483,188 
 
 3,432,975 
 
 367,319 
 
 246,248 
 
 1,006,493 
 
 New York 
 
 206,892,499 
 
 24,027,533 
 
 6,868,945 
 
 
 12,179,169 • 
 
 2,935,205 
 
 22,678,628 
 
 12,898,771 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 13,380,085 
 
 581,773 
 
 224,711 
 
 288,296 
 
 2,237,204 
 
 710,073 
 
 
 849,926 
 
 Pennsylvania . . . 
 
 53,287,234 
 
 2,301,626 
 
 1,206, .569 
 
 303,730 
 
 6,143,330 
 
 6,719,234 
 
 1,533,696 
 
 5,973,138 
 
 Delaware 
 
 3,021,378 
 
 33,076 
 
 130,000 
 
 1,065 
 
 530,514 
 
 40,680 
 
 ■ 195,601 
 
 146,367 
 
 Maryland 
 
 22,293,554 
 
 763,278 
 
 402,217 
 
 23,528 
 
 1,894,791 
 
 1,666,663 
 
 9,168 
 
 3,522,561 
 
 Virginia 
 
 24,899,676 
 
 3,184,966 
 
 872,3G8 
 
 484,682 
 
 2,405,211 
 
 1,609,089 
 
 13,402 
 
 3,092,741 
 
 North Carolina. . 
 
 12,636,521 
 
 94,116 
 
 192,475 
 
 7,913 
 
 846,416 
 
 366,076 
 
 1,378 
 
 1,156,993 
 
 South Carolina. . 
 
 28,227,370 
 
 3,268,876 
 
 631,273 
 
 638,663 
 
 1,180,938 
 
 639,497 
 
 
 
 1.107,774 
 
 Georgia 
 
 18,649,201 
 
 2,248,083 
 
 8,368,280 
 
 634,619 
 
 1,368,971 
 
 1,480,570 
 
 31,928 
 
 1,702,103 
 
 Alabama 
 
 6,546,209 
 
 142,201 
 
 ■ 78,148 
 
 1,252 
 
 665,302 
 
 604,287 
 
 
 1,139,312 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 31,200,296 
 
 4,794,886 
 
 2,470,683 
 
 1,493,905 
 
 6,416,728 
 
 .... 
 
 
 6,811,163 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 657,020 
 
 619 
 
 11,413 
 
 
 257,505 
 
 26,503 
 
 
 7,912 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 16,893,390 
 
 2,450,303 
 
 590,715 
 
 24,169 
 
 2,380,700 
 
 1,069,408 
 
 62,767 
 
 2,094,632 ■ 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 23,404,551 
 
 739,126 
 
 466,907 
 
 363,924 
 
 4,115,430 
 
 840,959 
 
 
 4,406,106 
 
 Missouri 
 
 4,112,791 
 
 
 93,254 
 
 
 76,991 
 
 196,910 
 
 
 1,215,184 
 
 Illinois 
 
 1,740,671 
 
 6,129,613 
 
 63,832 
 
 
 3,953,450 
 
 433,717 
 
 19,297 
 
 636 810 
 
 
 7,039 691 
 
 1 694,357 
 
 227,599 
 
 380,911 
 
 1,338,418 
 
 657,238 
 
 68 508 
 
 1 430 076 
 
 Ohio 
 
 15,233,241 
 
 2,749,686 
 
 310,145 
 
 687,337 
 
 2,749,558 
 
 1,199,863 
 
 39,007 
 
 2,016,814 
 92,762 
 
 Michigan 
 
 1,903,603 
 
 688,339 
 
 60,110 
 
 11,146 
 
 245,061 
 
 159,489 
 
 9,141 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 5,280,634 
 
 2,026,160 
 
 150,315 
 
 1,893 
 
 463,771 
 
 701,101 
 
 73,222 
 
 642,938 
 
 Nebraska Terri'y 
 Total resources 
 
 418,037 
 
 
 8,975 
 
 2,151 ' 
 
 129,804 
 
 15,069 
 
 210 
 
 136,326 
 
 $684,456,837 
 
 $69,272,329 
 
 $■26,124,523 
 
 $5,9-0,336 
 
 $66,849,205 
 
 $28,124,008 
 
 $25,081,641 
 
 $58,349,838 
 
 Since the early portion of this article was prepared 
 for the press, important events have occurred both in 
 Europe and the United States, involving the stability 
 of the banking concerns of both continents. The above 
 tables contain the latest official returns of the liabilities 
 and resources of the banks of the Union, and may be 
 considered as a fair exhibit of the condition of these in- 
 stitutions in the several States at the beginning of the 
 year 1867. The unfavorable condition of the foreign 
 trade of the Union, added to a redundant bank circu- 
 lation, led to a large export of specie from the United 
 States during the nine months ending September, 1857. 
 A panic followed these continuous exports, which was 
 accompanied by a sudden reduction of bank loans during 
 the months of August and September in the Atlantic 
 cities, producing in September a suspension of the banks 
 of Philadelphia, Baltimore, Washington, and other 
 cities ; and in October, 1857, to a suspension of those of 
 the cities of New York, Boston, and other portions of 
 the Union. Those of Ohio, Kentucky, Illinois, In- 
 diana, and a portion of those in South Carolina, New 
 Orleans, Pennsylvania, Missouri, etc., and one in New 
 York city, being the exceptions. On the 14th Decem- 
 
 ber following, a resumption of specie payments took 
 place throughout New York and Now England; a 
 measure soon after adopted by those of Pennsylvania, 
 Maryland, and other States. 
 
 The suspension of specie payments in the United 
 States was followed by the failure of several provincial 
 banks in England and Scotland; and by an order 
 in council on the 12th November, authorizing the tem- 
 porary suspension of the Bank Charter Act, whereby 
 the bank was authorized to enlarge its issues, if ueces- 
 sary, beyond the chartered prescribed limits. This 
 necessity did not, however, arise; but the announce- 
 ment had the effect at once to allay the panic prevail- 
 ing in England at the time. The rate of interest 
 adopted- by the bank was raised to 10 per cent, tempo- 
 rarily. In Scotland, the City of Glasgow Bank, and 
 Western Bank of Scotland, suspended, and are now in 
 process of liquidation. The Borough Bank of Liver- 
 pool also failed, together with numerous small banks 
 in the interior. — For recent discussions as to the prin- 
 ciples of banking and the currency, the reader is re- 
 ferred to the Banlcers' Magazine, New York, 1850-1858 : 
 London Quarterly, 1857-'58. 
 
BAN 
 
 148 
 
 BAN 
 
 VIII. Savings Banks. — These banks were original- 
 ly established in England for the receipt of small sums 
 deposited by the poorer class of persons, and for their 
 accumulation at compound interest. They are there 
 managed by individuals who derive no benefit what- 
 ever from the deposits. All moneys paid into any 
 Savings Bank established according to the provisions 
 of the acts 9 Geo. 4, o. 92, and 7 & 8 Vict. c. 83, 
 are ordered to be paid into the Banks of England and 
 Ireland, and vested in Bank annuities or Exchequer 
 bills. The interest payable to depositors is not to ex- 
 ceed 2d. per cent, per diBm, or £3 Os. lOd. per cent, per 
 annum. No depositor can contribute more than £30, 
 exclusive of compound interest, to a Savings Bank in 
 any one year ; and the total deposits to be received 
 from any individual are not to exceed £150; and 
 whenever the deposits, and compound interest accruing 
 upon them, standing in the name of any one individual, 
 shall amount to £200, no interest shall be payable 
 upon such deposit so long as it shall amount to £200. 
 The commissioners for the reduction of the national 
 debt have the disposal of the sums vested in the public 
 funds on account of Savings Banks. 
 
 This system began in 1817 ; and on the 20th of No- 
 vember, 1850, there was due to depositors, including 
 interest accruing on deposits, £31,208,322. It farther 
 appears that from the 6th of August, 1815, down to the 
 20th of November, 1842, the public paid on account of 
 interest and charges on the sums due to Savings Banks 
 and Friendly Societies under the act 9 Geo. 4, o. 92, 
 £14,070,341 2^. Qd., and that the dividend received 
 during the same period on the stock and other public 
 securities in which the commissioners for the reduction 
 of the national debt invested the said sums, amounted 
 to £12,039,781 8s. 6d., leaving a balance of £2,030,559 
 145., which consequently may be said to be the sum 
 which the system has cost the public. — Pari. Paper, 
 No. 258, Sess. 1843. . But the reduction of the interest 
 on deposits in 1844 from 2^d. to 2d. per cent, per diem, 
 has either entirely or in a great measure obviated this 
 source of loss. 
 
 The principle and object of Savings Banks can not be too 
 liighly commended. In the metropolis, and many other parts 
 of England, public banks do not receive small deposits, and 
 imtil I'ecently they did not pay any interest on them. And 
 even in Scotland, where the public banks allow interest upon 
 deposits, they do not generally receive less than £5 or ^10. 
 But few poor persons are able to save even this much, except 
 by a lengthened course of economy. The truth, therefore, is, 
 that until Savings Banks were established, the poorer classes 
 were everywhere without the means of securely and profitably 
 investing those small sums they are not unfrequently in a con- 
 dition to save; and were consequently led, from the difficulty 
 of disposing of them, to neglect opportunities for making sav- 
 ings, or, if they did make them, were tempted, by the offer of 
 high interest, to lend them to persons of doubtful characters 
 and desperate fortunes, by whom they were, for the most part, 
 squandered. Under such cii-cumstances, it is plain that no- 
 thing could be more important, in the view of diffusing habits' 
 of forethought and economy among the laboring classes, than 
 the establishment of Savings Banks, where the smallest sums 
 are placed in perfect safety, are accumulated at compound in- 
 terest, and are paid, with their accumulations, the moment they 
 are demanded by the depositors. . The system is yet little more 
 than in its infancy; but the magnitude of the deposits already 
 received sets its powerful and salutaiy operation in a veiy 
 striking point of view. 
 
 "We subjoin a copy of the rules of the St. Pancras Savings 
 Bank, which may be taken as a model for similar institutions, 
 inasmuch as they have been drawn up with great care, and 
 closely correspond with the provisions in the acts 9 G-eo. 4, c. 92, 
 and T & 8 Vict. c. 88. 
 
 1. Management. — This bank is under the management of a 
 president, vice-presidents, trustees, and not less than fifty man- 
 agers, none of whom are permitted to derive any benefit what- 
 soever, directly or indirectly, from the deposits received, or the 
 produce thereof One or more of the managers attend when 
 the bank is open for business. 
 
 2. Superintending Committee-.— A committee ofnot less than 
 ten managers, three of whom form a quorum, is empowered to 
 superintend, manage, and conduct the general business of this 
 bank; to add to their number from among the managers; to 
 
 fill up vacancies in their own body, and to appoint a treasurer 
 or treasurei-s, agent or agents, auditors, an actuary and clerks, 
 and other officers and servants, and to withdraw any such'ap- 
 pointmentB, and to appoint others, should it be considered nec- 
 essary so to do. The pi'oceedmgs of this committee are regu- 
 larly laid before the general meetings of the bank. 
 
 3. ELeciions.—ThQ superintending committee is empowered 
 to add to the number of managers, until they amount to one 
 hundred and twenty, exclusively of the president, vice-presi- 
 dents, and trustees ; and any vacancies of president, vice-presi- 
 dents, and tmstees are to be filled up at a general meeting. ' 
 
 4. General MeetiTVjs. — A general meeting of the president, 
 vice-presidents, ti-ustees, and managers of this bank shall bo 
 held once a year, in the month of February. The superintend- 
 ing committee shall lay before every such meeting a report of 
 the transactions of the bank, and state of the accounts. The 
 superintending committee for the succeeding year shall be 
 elected at such general meeting ; and failing such election, the 
 former committee shall be considered as reappointed, 
 
 5. Special Meetings. — The superintending committee are 
 authorized to call special general meetings when they think 
 proper; and also, on the requisition of any ten managers, de- 
 livered in writing to the actuaiy, or to the manager in attend- 
 ance at the bank ; and of such meeting seven days' notice shall 
 be given. 
 
 6. Liability of Trustees, Managers^ Officers, etc.—^o trustee 
 or manager shall he personally liable except for his own acts 
 and deeds, nor for any thing done by him in virtue of his offlce, 
 except where he shall be guilty of willful neglect or default ; ;^ut 
 the treasurer or treasurers, the actuary, and every officer in- 
 tmsted with the receipt or custody of any sum of money de- 
 posited for the purposes of this institution, and every oflflcer, or 
 other person, receiving salary or allowance for their seiTiceB 
 from the funds thereof, shall give good and sufficient security, 
 by bond or bonds, to the clerk of the peace of the county of 
 Middlesex for the just and faithful execution of such office of 
 trust. 
 
 7. InvestTnent and Limitation of Dejjosi'fs.— Deposits of 
 not less than one shilling, and not exceeding thirty pounda' in 
 the whole, exclusive of compound interest, from any one de- 
 positor, or trustee of a depositor, during each and every year 
 ending on the 20th of November, will be received and invested, 
 pursuant to 9 Geo. 4, c, 92, s. 11, untU the same shall amount 
 to OTIS hundred and fifty pounds in the whole ; and when the 
 principal and interest together shall amount to two hundred 
 pounds, then no "interest will be payable on such deposit, so 
 long as it shall continue to amount to that sum. But depositors 
 whose accounts amounted to or exceeded two hundred pounds 
 at the passing of the said act, on the 2Sth of July, 1828, will 
 continue to be entitled to interest and compound interest 
 thereon. 
 
 8. Interest to he allowed to Depositors. — In conformity with 
 the act 7 & 8 Vict. c. 88, an interest at the rate of 2d, per cent, 
 per day, being X3 Os. Gd. percent, per annum {the full aimunt 
 autliorized by the said acf), will be allowed to depositors, and 
 placed to their accounts as a cash deposit, in the month of No- 
 vemheria each year. Depositors demanding payment of the 
 whole amount of their deposits in this bank will be allowed 
 the interest due on such deposits up to the day on which notice 
 of withdrawing shall be given, hut no interest will be allowed, 
 in any case, on the fractional parts of a pound sterling. 
 
 9. hescription and Declaration. — Every person desirous of 
 making any deposit in this bank shall, at the time of making 
 their first deposit, and at such other times as they shall be re- 
 quired so to do, declare their residence, occupation, profession, 
 or calling, and sign (either by themselves, or, in case of infants 
 under the age of seven years, by some person or persons to he 
 approved of by the tmstees or managers, or their officer) a dec- 
 laration that they are not directly or indirectly entitled to any 
 deposit in, or benefit from, the funds of any other Savings 
 Bank in England or Ireland, nor to any sum or sums standing 
 in the name or names of any other person or persons in the 
 books of this hank. And in case any such declaration shall 
 not be true, every such person (or the person on whose behalf 
 such declaration may have been signed) shall forfeit and lose 
 all right and title to such deposits, and the trustees and mana- 
 gers shall cause the sum or sums so forfeited to be paid to the 
 commissioners for the reduction of the national debt; but no 
 depositor shall be subject or liable to any such forfeiture on 
 account of being a trustee on behalf of others, or of being in- 
 terested in the funds of any Friendly Society legally established. 
 
 10. Ti-ustees on beJialf of others. — Persona may act as 
 trustees for depositors, whether such persons are themselves 
 depositors in any Savings Bank or not, provided that such 
 trustee or trustees shall make such declaration on behalf of such 
 depositor or depositors, and be subject to the like conditions 
 in every respect as are required in the case of persons making 
 deposits on their own account, and the receipt and receipts of 
 
BAN 
 
 149 
 
 BAN 
 
 such trustee or trustees, or the survivor of them, or the execu- 
 tors or administrators of any sole trustee, or surviving trustee 
 with or without (as may be required by the managers) the re- 
 ceipt of the person ou whose account such sum may have been 
 deposited, shall be a good and valid dischai^e to the trustees 
 and managers of the institution. 
 
 11. Minora. — Deposits are received from, or for the benefit 
 of, minors, and are subject to the same regulations sls the de- 
 posits of persons of 21 years of age and upward. 
 
 12. Friendly and Charitable Societies.— Fti&ndly Sodeties, 
 legally established previous to the 28th of July, 1828, may de- 
 posit their funds through their treasurer, steward, or other 
 officer or officers, without any limitation as to the amount. 
 But Friendly Societies formed and enrolled after that date are 
 not permitted to make deposits exceeding the sum of ^300, 
 principal and interest included ; and no interest will be paya- 
 ble thereon, whenever the same shall amount to, or continue 
 at, the said sum of £300 or upward. 
 
 Deposits are received from the trustees or treasurer of Chari- 
 table Societies, not exceeding £100 per annum, provided the 
 amount shall not at any time exceed the sum of £oOO, exclusive 
 of interest. 
 
 13. Deposits of Persons unahU to attend. — ^Forms are given 
 at the office enabling persons to become depositors who are 
 unable to attend personally ; and those who have previously 
 made a deposit may send additional sums, together vrith their 
 hook, by any other person. 
 
 14. Depositors* Booh— The deposits are entered in the books 
 of the bank at the time they are made, and the depositor re- 
 ceives a book with a corresponding entry therein ; which book 
 must be brought to the office every time that any further sum 
 is deposited, also when notice is givdn for withdrawing money, 
 and at the time the repayment is to be made, so that the trans- 
 actions may be duly entered therein. 
 
 16. Withdrawing Deposits. — Depositors may receive the 
 whole or any part of their deposits on any day appointed by 
 the managers, not exceeding fourteen days after notice has 
 been given for that pui'pose; but such deposits can only be 
 repaid to the depositor personally, or to the bearer of an order 
 under the hand of the depositor, signed in the presence of 
 either the minister or a church- warden of the parish in which 
 the depositor resides, of a justice of the peace, or of a manager 
 of this bank. 
 
 The deposHor's hooh ymist always he produced when notice 
 of vHthdrawing is given. 
 
 IC. Money withdrawn way here-depoaited, — Depositors may 
 withdraw any sum or sums of money, and re-deposit the same 
 at any time or times within any one year, reckoning from the 
 20th day of November, provided such sum or sums of money 
 re-deposited, and any previous deposit or deposits which may 
 have been made by such depositor in the course of the year, 
 taken together, shall not exceed, at any time in such year, the 
 sum of £30 additional prinqipal money bearing interest 
 
 IT. Return or Refusal of Deposits. — This bank is at liberty 
 to return the amount of the deposits to all or any of the de^ 
 positors, and may refuse to receive deposits in any case, where 
 it shall be deemed expedient so to do. 
 
 18. ArUtration of Dif&enees.— In case any dispute shall 
 arise between the trustees or managers of this bank, or any 
 person or persons acting under. them, and any individual dC' 
 posltor therein, or any trustee of a depositor, or any person 
 claiming to be such executor, administrator, or next of kin, 
 then, and in every such case, the matter so in dispute shall be 
 referred to the barrister at law appointed by the commissioners 
 for the reduction of the national debt, under the authority of 
 the 9 Geo. 4, c'. 92, s. 45 ; and whatever award, order, or determ- 
 ination shall be made by the said barrister, shall be binding 
 and conclusive upon all parties, and shall be final, to all in- 
 tents and pui'poses, witliout any appeal. 
 
 Government Amtuities by Depositors in Savings Banhs. 
 — ^The act 2 & 3 Will. 4, u. 14, enables depositors in 
 Savings Banks and others to purchase government 
 annuities for life or for years, and either immediate or 
 deferred. At present these annuities are limited to 
 ^30 a year. The money advanced is returnable in 
 case the contracting party does not live to the age at 
 ■which the annuity is to become payable, or is unable 
 to continue the monthly or annual installments. That 
 this measure was benevolently intended, and that it 
 may be productive of advantage to many individuals, 
 can not be doubted ; but we look upon all attempts, and 
 particularly those made by government, to get individ- 
 uals to exchange capital for annuities, as radically ob- 
 jectionable, and as being subversive of principles 
 ■which ought to be strengthened rather than weakened. 
 — *See Funds, We subjoin 
 
 
 
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 Bankok, or Bangkok, the capital of Siam, sit- 
 uated about 20 miles from the sea on both sides the 
 Eiver Menam, but chiefly on its left or eastern bank, 
 in lat. 13° 49' N., long. 101° 10' E. The Menam 
 opens in the centre nearly of the bottom of the Gulf 
 of Siam. There is a bar at its mouth, consisting, for 
 the most part, of a mud flat 10 miles in length. The 
 outer edge of tliis flat, which is little more than 200 
 yards broad, is sandy, and of harder materials than 
 the inner part, which is so soft, that when a ship 
 grounds on it during the ebb, she often sinlvS o feet in 
 the mud and clay, which supports her upright, so that 
 she is but little inconvenienced. The highest ^vater 
 on the bar of the Menam, from February to September, 
 is about 13^ feet; and in the remaining 4 months 
 somewhat more than 14 feet; a diiference probably 
 produced by the accumulation of water at the head of 
 the bay after the southwest monsoon, and by the lieavy 
 floods of the rainy season. On account of the deficien- 
 cy of water on the bar, vessels sent to Bangkok had 
 better, perhaps, not exceed 200 or 250 tons burden. In 
 all other respects the river is extremely safe and com- 
 modious. Its mouth is no sooner approached, than it 
 deepens gradually ; and at Paknam, two miles up, 
 there are G and 7 fathoms water. This depth increases 
 as you ascend, and at Bangkok is not less than 9 
 fathoms. The only danger is, or rather was, a sand- 
 banlc off Paknam, bare at low water ; but on this spot 
 a batteiy has been erected within the last few years, 
 affording at all times a distinct beacon. The channel 
 of the river is so equal, that a ship may range from 
 one side to another, approaching the banks so closely 
 that her yards may literally overhang them. The 
 navigation is said to be equally safe all the way up to 
 the old capital of Yuthia, 80 miles from the mouth of 
 the river. 
 
 The city of Bangkok extends along the banks of the 
 M«nam to the distance of about 2i miles ; but is of no 
 great breadth, probably not exceeding 1 j miles. On 
 the left banlc there is a long street or row of floating 
 houses — each house or sliop, for they are in general 
 both, consisting of a distinct vessel, which may be 
 moored any where along the banks. Besides the prin- 
 cipal river, which at the city is about a quarter of a 
 mile broad, the country is intersected by a great num- 
 ber of tributary streams and canals, so that almost all 
 intercourse at Bangkok is by water. The population 
 has been computed at 50,000 or 60,000, half of whom 
 are Chinese settlers. 
 
 The total area of the kingdom of Siam has been es- 
 timated at 190,000 square miles, and the population at 
 only 2,790,500, principally resident in the rich valley 
 of the Menam. Of the entire population, it is supposed 
 that not less than 440,000 are Chinese. The common 
 necessaries of life at Bangkok are exceedingly cheap. 
 A cwt. of rice may always be had for 2s., and very oft- 
 en for Is. Other necessaries, such as salt, palm-sugar, 
 spices, vegetables, fish, and even flesh, are proportion- 
 ally cheap. The price of good pork, for example, is 
 2id. per lb. A duck may be had for Id., and a fowl for 
 3d. The neighborhood of Bangkok is one of the most 
 productive places in the world for fine fruits ; for liere 
 are assembled, and to be had in the greatest perfection 
 and abundance, the orange and lichi of China, the 
 mango of Hindostan, and the mangostein, durian, and 
 shaddocli of the Malay countries. 
 
 Trade. — The foreign trade of Siam is conducted with 
 China, Cochin China, Cambogia, and Tonquin, Java, 
 Singapore, and the other British ports within the 
 Straits of Malacca, with an occasional intercourse with 
 Bombay and Surat, England and America. The most 
 important branch of the foreign trade is that with 
 China, which is wholly carried on in vessels of Chinese 
 form, navigated by Chinese, the greater portion of them 
 being, however, built in Siam. The imports from 
 China are very numerous, consisting of what are called 
 in commercial language " assorted cargoes." The fol- 
 
 lowing is a list of the principal commodities : coarse 
 earthen-ware and porcelain, spelter, quicksilver, tea, 
 lacksoy (vermicelli), dried fruits, raw silk, crapes, 
 satins, and other silk fabrics, nankeens, shoes, fans, 
 umbrellas, writing paper, sacrificial paper, incense 
 rods, and many other minor articles. Not the least 
 valuable part of the importations are immigrants. 
 
 The exports from Siam are also very various, includ- 
 ing, among others, black pepper, sugar, tin, carda- 
 moms, eagle-wood, sapan-wood, red mangrove bark, 
 rose-wood for furniture and cabinet work, cotton, ivory, 
 stick-lac, rice, areca-nuts, salt fish ; the hides and skins 
 of oxen, buffaloes, elephants, rhinoceroses, deer, tigers, 
 leopards, otters, civet cats, and pangolins; of snakes 
 and rays, with the belly-shell of a species of land tor- 
 toise; the horns of the buffalo, ox, deer, and rhinoceros; 
 the bones of the ox, buffalo, elephant, rhinoceros, and 
 tiger; dried deer's sinews; the feathers of the pelican, 
 of several species of storks, of the peacock and king- 
 fisher, etc.; and, finally, esculent swallows' nests. 
 The tonnage carrying on the China trade amounts in 
 all to probably about 130 junks in number, a few of 
 which are 1000 tons burden, and the whole shipping 
 is not short of 35,000 tons. 
 
 Tlie trade with the different countries of the Malay 
 Archipelago is, also, very considerable. In this in- 
 tercourse, the staple exports of Siam are sugar, salt, 
 oil, and rice ; to which may be added the minor arti- 
 cles of stick-lac, iron pans, coarse earthen-ware, hogs 
 lard, etc. The returns are British and Indian piece 
 goods, opium, with a little glass ware, and some British 
 woolens from the European settlements, with commod- 
 ities suited for the Chinese market — such as pepper, 
 tin, dragon's blood, rattans, biche-de-mer, esculent swal- 
 lows' nests, and Malay camphor from the native ports. 
 • The total exports of claj'ed sugar and black pepper, 
 the staple articles of Siamese export, may be estimated, 
 the former at about 10,000 tons, and the latter from 
 3500 to 4000 tons. 
 
 Bankrupt and Bankruptcy. Bankrupts, in 
 England, first law enacted regarding them, 35 Henry 
 VIII. 1543. Again, 3 of Elizabeth, 1560; again, 1 
 James I. 1602; again, 1700; and more recently. It 
 was determined by the King's Bench that a bankrupt 
 may be arrested except in going and coming from any 
 examination before the commissioners. May 13, 1780. 
 The lord chancellor (Thurlow) refused a bankrupt his 
 certificate because he had lost five pounds at one time 
 in gaming, July 17, 1788. Enacted that members of 
 the House of Commons becoming bankrupts, and not 
 paying their debts in full, shall vacate their seats, 1812. 
 The new bankrupt bill, constituting a new bankrupt 
 court, passed October, 1831. — Statutes at Large. 
 
 NuMBES or Bankeupts in Great Britain at difeehekt 
 Periods. 
 
 ITOO 
 
 88 
 
 1820 
 
 
 1725 
 
 1750 
 
 1775 
 
 416 
 
 432 
 
 620 
 
 1825 
 
 1830 
 
 1835 
 
 1840 
 
 1844 
 
 2eS3 
 
 14CT 
 
 954 
 
 1300 
 
 1810 
 
 1339 
 
 2000 
 
 1808 
 
 1064 
 
 It would really, therefore, as it appears to us, be for 
 the advantage of creditors, were all penal proceedings 
 against the persons of honest debtors abolished. The 
 dependence placed on their efiicacy is deceitful. A 
 tradesman ought rather to trust to his own prudence 
 and sagacity to keep out of scrapes, than to the law 
 for redress : he may deal upon credit with those whom 
 he knows ; but he should deal for ready money only 
 with those of whose circumstances and characters he is 
 either ignorant or suspicious. By bringing penal 
 statutes to his aid, he is rendered remiss and negligent. 
 He has the only effectual means of security in his own 
 hands, and it seems highly inexpedient that he should 
 be taught to neglect them, and put his trust in prisons. 
 
 It is pretty evident, too, that the efficacy of imprison- 
 ment in deterring individuals from running into debt 
 has been greatly overrated. Insolvents who are hon- 
 
BAN 
 
 151 
 
 BAR 
 
 est must have suffered from misfortune, or been disap- 
 pointed in the hopes they entertained of being able, in 
 one way or other, to discharge their debts. The fear 
 of imprisonment does not greatly influence such per- 
 sons ; for when they contract debts they have no doubt 
 of their ability to pay them. And though the imprison- 
 ment of bona fide insolvents were abolished, it would 
 give no encouragement to the practices of those who 
 endeavor to raise money by false representations ; for 
 these are to be regarded as swindlers, and ought, as 
 such, to be subjected to adequate punishment. At 
 present, indeed, the law is much too indulgent to this 
 description of persons. Traders or others who en- 
 deavor to obtain goods or loans of money, whether by 
 concealing or misrepresenting the real state of their 
 affairs, are, in fact, about the very worst species of 
 cheats ; and the temptation to resort to such practices, 
 and the facility with which they may be carried into ef- 
 fect, should make them, when detected, be visited with 
 a proportionally increased severity of punishment, on 
 the principle laid down by Cicero, that ea sunt animad- 
 vertenda peccata maxime^ qucs dlfficUlirm prcecaventur. 
 
 While, however, the law of England has always 
 given the creditor an unnecessary degree of power 
 over the debtor's person, it did not, till very recently, 
 give sufficient power over his property. In thi.s re- 
 spect, indeed, it was so very defective, that one is 
 almost tempted to think it had been intended to pro- 
 mote the practices of fraudulent debtors. The property' 
 of persons subject to the bankrupt and insolvent laws 
 was, it is true, nominally placed at the disposal of 
 assignees or trustees, for the benefit of their creditors ; 
 but when a person possessed of property, but not sub- 
 ject to the bankrupt laws, contracted debt, if he went 
 abroad, or lived within the rules of the King's Bench 
 or the Fleet, or remained in prison without petitioning 
 for relief, he continued most probably to enjoy the 
 income arising from that property without molestation. 
 
 Account of tue N^mijeb of Bankbottoies gazetted in 
 EACU Year, feom 1847 to 1852 inclusive. 
 
 Difltricta. 
 
 1847, 1848. 
 
 1949. 1860. 
 
 18SI. 
 
 1863. 
 
 Liverpool 
 
 MancheBter . . . 
 Bil'niinghnm . . 
 
 Leeds 
 
 Biistol 
 
 Kxeter 
 
 Newcastle 
 
 Total country. . 
 London 
 
 15li 
 164 
 
 1S8 
 140 
 12S 
 63 
 52 
 
 fo;i 
 
 145 
 1T3 
 119 
 152 
 85 
 00 
 
 113 
 
 80 
 
 irs 
 
 94 
 
 98 
 52 
 50 
 
 .06 
 
 66 
 102 
 TO 
 52 
 38 
 32 
 
 96 
 69 
 93 
 90 
 56 
 86 
 22 
 
 T2 
 
 68 
 106 
 
 78 
 
 49 
 . 27 
 
 33 
 
 859 
 800 
 
 903 
 T05 
 
 582 
 5T4 
 
 426 
 411 
 
 462 
 473 
 
 482 
 399 
 
 1653 
 
 1608 
 
 1266 
 
 88T 
 
 936 
 
 822 
 
 France. — In June, 1838, the French law of bank- 
 ruptcy and insolvency was abrogated, and an entirely 
 new law was promulgated, which now forms Book III. 
 of the " Code de Commerce." 
 
 United States. — The power of making uniform laws 
 on the subject of bankruptcy in the United States, is, 
 by the Constitution, conferred upon Congress, and was 
 generally understood to be exclusively vested in that 
 body. This power was exercised by Congress in 1800, 
 by the enactment of a bankrupt law, limited to five 
 years, and which was repealed by act of December 19, 
 1803. — KisNT. The Congress of the United States leg- 
 islated a second time on the subject of bankruptcy, by 
 an act, passed in August, 1841, to establish a uniform 
 system throughout the Union, which took effect on the 
 2d February, 1842, but was repealed March 3, 1843. 
 The repeal of this act scarcely affected any existing 
 interests, as almost every debtor had hastened, in an- 
 ticipation of the possibility of its repeal, to take ad- 
 vantage of it voluntarily. At present there is not any 
 bankrupt system under the general government of the 
 United States, and the several States are left free to 
 institute their own bankrupt systems, under certain 
 limitations. The Supreme Court of New York had de- 
 clared the bankrupt act of Congress to be constitution- 
 al (Justice Bronson dissenting), but the U. S. District 
 Court of Missouri declared it to be unconstitutional. 
 
 Barbadoes, or Barbados, is one of the West 
 India islands belonging to Great Britain, and the old- 
 est of her settlements in that part of the world. The 
 exact date of its discovery is unknown, but it was 
 probably not later than the early part of the sixteenth 
 century. The Portuguese are supposed to have been 
 the first Europeans that visited this island, as it lay 
 almost directly in their course to and from Brazil. 
 They, however, had not regarded it as holding forth 
 sufficient inducements for colonizing, as when first 
 visited by the English in 1605 it was destitute of in- 
 habitants, and covered with thick forests. The first 
 English vessel that arrived there was the Olive 
 Blossom, the crew of which took possession of the 
 island in the name of King James, by erecting a cross 
 upon the spot where Jamestown was afterward built, 
 and cutting upon the bark of a tree that stood near, 
 " James, K. of E. and this island" — James, king of 
 England and this island. The favorable accounts 
 which Sir William Courteen, a London merchant, 
 afterward received of the island from one of his ships 
 that had touched there, induced him to attempt a set- 
 tlement. He accordingly fitted out two large vessels 
 under the protection of Lord Ley, afterward Earl of 
 Marlborough, who had obtained a grant of this island 
 from James I. One only of these ships arrived at its 
 destination on 17th February, 1625, and landed 40 
 English, and 7 or 8 negroes, who laid the foundation 
 of a town, which, in honor of their sovereign, they 
 called Jamestown. 
 
 Barbadoes is the most eastern of the Caribbee islands, 
 Iving 78 miles due east of the island of St. Vincent, 
 between lat. 13° 2' andl3° 19' N., and long. 59° 26' 
 and 59° 39' W. It presents almost the form of an ir- 
 regular triangle; its greatest length, in a direction 
 north by west, is nearly 21 miles, and its extreme 
 breadth from east to west is 14^ miles. Its cii'cumfer- 
 ence, excluding the sinuosities of the bays, is 55 miles, 
 and its area 106,470 acres, or about 166 square miles. 
 In size, and in some measure jn its outline, it bears a 
 considerable resemblance to the Isle of Wight. It is 
 almost encircled by coral reefs, which in some parts 
 extend seaward for nearly three miles, and prove very 
 dangerous to navigation. 
 
 The chief staple articles produced in Barbadoes for 
 export are sugar, arrow-root, aloes, and cotton. The 
 following table gives the value of the imports and ex- 
 ports for the years 1849, 1850, and 1851 : 
 
 Year.. 
 
 Importe. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 1849 
 I860 
 1851 
 
 j:591,4T8 
 734,358 
 789,977 
 
 £791,740 
 831,634 
 887,627 
 
 85,731 
 96,881 
 95,272 
 
 Carlisle Bay, the port or harbor of Barbadoes, forms 
 an open roadstead, which is much exposed to the wind 
 when blowing from the south and southwest. It is 
 spacious, and capable of containing upward of 500 
 vessels of all sizes. It affords, liowever, no protection 
 during gales; and at such times vessels at anchor 
 generally prefer putting to sea, to running the risk of 
 being driven ashore. — E. B. 
 
 Baxcalao, or Bacalao, the Spanish name for cod. 
 
 Barcelona, the capital of Catalonia, and the prin- 
 cipal town of Spain on the Mediterranean, lat. 41° 22' 
 58" N., long. 2° 8' 11" E. It is u. strongly fortified, 
 well-built city. The population is supposed to amount 
 to about 120,000. Barcelona is eminently distinguished 
 in the history of the Middle Ages for the zeal, skill, and 
 success with which her citizens prosecuted commercial 
 adventures at a very early period. She would seem 
 also to be entitled to the honor of having compiled 
 and promulgated the famous code of maritime law 
 known by the name of the Consolato del Mare; and 
 the earliest authentic notices of the practice of marine 
 insurance and of the negotiation of bills of exchange 
 are to be found in her annals. Catalonia has continued, 
 amidst all the vicissitudes it has undergone, to be the 
 most industrious of the Spanish provinces. Several 
 
BAR 
 
 152 
 
 BAR 
 
 extensive manufactures have been established in Bar- 
 celona, especially of cotton; and no fewer than 23 steam- 
 engines were erected in Catalonia in 1842, the greater 
 number being in Barcelona. Latterly, however, her 
 commerce, owing to a variety of causes, but princi- 
 pally to oppressive restrictions on the importation of 
 foreign goods, the emancipation of South America, 
 and internal dissensions, has very much declined. 
 
 Imports. — The principal articles of import are raw 
 cotton, sugar, coft'ee, cocoa, and other colonial prod- 
 ucts, principally from Cuba and Porto Eico ; salted 
 fish, hides, and horns; iron and hardware, etc. Most 
 species of manufactured goods are prohibited ; but it is 
 needless to add that they are, notwithstanding, largely 
 imported into this as into most other parts of Spain. 
 The trade with the colonies, France, and the coasting 
 trade is pretty active. The imports from England are 
 not very considerable, and the exports little ornothing. 
 In 1842, no fewer than 3667 vessels entered the port ; 
 but these were mostly coasters of small size, the bur- 
 den of the whole being only 189,117 tons. 
 
 Exports. — The principal exports are wrought silks, 
 soap, fire-anns, paper, hats, laces, ribbons, steel, etc. 
 But no vessels, except a few that take on board manu- 
 factured goods for the Spanish West Indies, are loaded 
 here ; and even this trade is much fallen off. Upward 
 of 2000 hands used formerly to be employed in the 
 city in the manufacture of shoes for the colonies ; but 
 their export has now nearly ceased. The principal 
 articles of native produce that Catalonia has to export 
 are most conveniently shipped at Villanova, Tarra- 
 gona, and Salon. They consist of wine, brandy, nuts, 
 almonds, cork, bark, wool, fruits, etc. Of these, Cuba 
 takes annually about 12,000 pipes of wine, worth at an 
 average £4 per pipe, and about 3000 pipes of brandy, 
 worth £8 per do. ; South America, 16,000 pipes of wine, 
 and 6000 do. brandy ; the north of Europe, 2000 pipes 
 of wine, and 2000 do. brandy. . A good deal of brandy 
 is sent to Cadiz and Cetto : most part of the former 
 finds its way into the wine vaults of Xeres ; and the 
 latter, being conveyed by the canal of Languedoc to 
 the Garonne, is used in the preparation of the wines of 
 Bordeaux. From 25,000 to 30,000 bags of nuts are 
 annually sent from Tarragona to England. Tarragona 
 also exports about 12,000 bags of almonds. The ships 
 belonging to the port Cixvry on no foreign trade except 
 to the Spanish West Indies ; they are few in number, 
 and are daily decreasing. Those engaged in the coast- 
 ing trade are usually of very small burden. We have 
 derived these details from various sources ; but princi- 
 pally from British Consular Returns^ and from Infflis's 
 Spain in 1830, vol. ii. p. 384-387, and 362. 
 
 Barilla (Du. Soda; Fr. Sonde, Barille ; Ger. Soda, 
 Barilla; It. Barrifjlia ; Port. Solda, Barrilha; Euss. 
 SocianJca; Sp. Barilla ; Arab. Kali), carbonate of soda 
 (see Alkalies), is found native in Hungary, Egj'pt, 
 and many other countries. It is largely used by 
 bleachers, manufacturers of hard soaps, glass-makers, 
 etc. The barilla of commerce consists of the ashes of 
 several marine and other plants growing on the sea- 
 shore. The best, or Alicant barilla, is prepared from 
 the Salsola soda, which is very extensively cultivated 
 for tliis purpose in the huerta of Murcia, and other 
 places on the eastern shores of Spain. — Townsend's 
 Travels in Spain, vol. iii. p. 195. The plants are gath- 
 ered in September, dried, and burned in furnaces heat- 
 ed so as to bring the ashes into a state of Imperfect 
 fusion, when they concrete into hard, dry, cellular 
 masses of a grayish blue color. Sicily and Teneriffe 
 produce good barilla, but inferior to that of Alicant 
 and Carthagena. Kelp, which is a less pure alkali, is 
 formed by the incineration of sea-weed. See Kelp. 
 
 The Saracens established in Spain seem to have been 
 the first who introduced themanufacture of barilla into 
 Europe. They called the plants employed in its prep- 
 aration Icali ; and this, with the Arabic article al pre- 
 fixed, has given rise to the modem chemical term 
 
 alkali. Prime quality in barilla is to be distinguished" 
 by its strong smell when whetted, and by its whitish 
 color. Particular attention should be paid to have as 
 little small or dust as possible. The manufacture of 
 artificial soda (soude Jactice), now very extensively 
 carried on, occasioned an extraordinary decline in the 
 imports of barilla, the quantity entered into Great 
 Britain for home consumption in 1834, amounting to 
 237,712 cwt., having been reduced in 1841 to 47,380 
 cwt. Considerable quantities used formerly to be im- 
 ported from Teneriffe, but it now coraes principally 
 from Alicant in Spain, and Sicily. Thus, of 1744 tons 
 imported into Great Britain in 1850, 836 came from 
 Spain, 763 from Italy (Sicily), 109 from the United 
 States, and none from the Canaries. The duty on 
 barilla, after being reduced in 1842 from 40s. to 5». a 
 ton, was wholly repealed in 1845. But even this judi- 
 cious measure has not had so much influence over the 
 consumption of the article as was expected. In 1852, 
 the imports amounted to 1807 tons, or 36,140 cwt., 
 none of which was re-exported. — Pari. Paper, 1853. 
 
 Bark, the outer rind of plants. There is an im- 
 mense variety of barks known in commerce ; as, cinna- 
 mon, Peruvian bark, oak bark, quercitron, etc. The 
 term " bark" is, however, generally employed to ex- 
 press either Peruvian b'ark or oak bark, and it is 
 these only that we shall notice in this place. 
 
 1. Peruvian or Jesuits^ Baric (Fr. Quinquina; Ger. 
 Kron^cMna; Du. Ckina-bast; Sp. Quina, Quinquina; Lat. 
 Quinquina Cortex Peruvianus). There are three princi- 
 pal species of this bark known in commerce, which 
 have been elaborately described by Dr. A. T. Thomson, 
 from whose account the following particulars are se- 
 lected. The first species is th^pah bark of the shops. 
 It is the produce of the Cinchona lancifulia, and is the 
 original cinchona of Peru. It is now very scarce. It 
 is imported in chests covered with skins, each contain- 
 ing about 200 pounds, well packed, but generally mixed 
 with a quantity of dust and other heterogeneous mat- 
 ter. It consists of pieces 8 or 10 inches long, some of 
 them being scarcely one-tenth of an inch thick, singly 
 and doubly quilled, or rolled inward, the quills gener- 
 ally being in size from a swan's quill to an inch and a 
 half. It is internally of a pallid fawn or cinnamon 
 hue, but approximates, on being moistened, to the 
 color of a pale orange. When in substance it has 
 scarcely any odor, but during decoction the odor is 
 sensible, and agreeably aromatic. The taste is bitter, 
 but not unpleasant, acidulous, and austere. The sec- 
 ond species, or red bark, is obtained from the Cinchona 
 ohlongijolia, growing on the Andes. It is imported in 
 chests containing from 100 to 150 pounds each. It 
 consists of variously sized pieces, most of them flat, 
 but some partially quilled or rolled. The internal 
 part is woody, and of a rust red color : it has a weak 
 peculiar odor, and its taste is much less bitter, but 
 more austere and nauseous, than that of the other 
 barks. The third species, or yellow bark of the shops, 
 is obtained from the Cinchona cordifilia, growing in 
 Quito and Santa Fe. It is imported in chests contain- 
 ing from 90 to 100 pounds each, consisting of pieces 8 
 or 10 inches long, some quilled, but the greater part 
 flat. The interior is of a yellow color, passing to 
 orange. It has nearly the same odor in decoction as 
 the pale ; the taste is more bitter and less austere, and 
 it excites no astringent feeling when chewed. The 
 goodness decreases when the color varies from orange 
 yellow to pale yellow ; when of a dark color, between 
 red and yellow, it should be rejected. It is needless 
 to add, that bark is one of the most valuable medical 
 remedies. The Indians were unacquainted with its 
 uses, which seem to have been first discovered by the 
 Jesuits. It was introduced into Europe in 1632, but 
 was not extensively used till the latter part of the 
 seventeenth century. According to Humboldt, the 
 Jesuits' bark annually exported from America amounts 
 to from 12,000 to 14,000 quintals. Of these, 2000 are 
 
BAR 
 
 163 
 
 BAR 
 
 furnished by Santa Fe, and 110 by Loxa ; Pern fur- 
 nishing the remainder, which is shipped at CallaOj 
 Guayaquil, etc. 
 
 2. Oak Bark (Fr. Ecorce de la Chine ; Ger. Eichen- 
 rinde ; It. Oorteccia della Quercia ; Lat. Quercaa cortex). 
 The bark of the common oak is a powerful astringent, 
 and is preferred to all other substances for tanning leath- 
 er. The bark of the larch is now, however, used for 
 the same purpose. Though the importation of oak bark 
 into England for tanning has somewhat declinedj it is 
 still very considerable. It is impassible, however, to 
 state its exact amount, inasmuch as a species of oak 
 bark, called quercitron, the produce of the Quercus 
 timctoria, imported from abroad, and used to give a 
 yellow dye to silk and wool, is mixed up in the cus- 
 tom-house returns with bark for tanning. The latter, 
 which is by far the most important, is brought princi- 
 pally from Belgium and Holland, Germany, Italy and 
 Spain, Norway and Australia. Quercitron is found 
 principally in the United States. The quality of bark 
 differs — according to the age and size of the tree, tlie 
 season when it is barked, etc. — so mucli tliat its price 
 varies from £5 to £10 a ton. The duty on bark for 
 tanning and dyeing, which previously to 1842 was 8rf. 
 a cwt., after being then reduced to 3^., was repealed in 
 1845. In 1852 the imports and exports of Peruvian 
 bark were respectively 18,207 and 10,092 cwt. Dur- 
 ing the same year was imported 403,930 cwt. bark for 
 the use of tanners and dyers, of which only 146 cwt. 
 was re-exported. But in addition to the above were 
 imported, in 1852, 2515 tons divi divi, and 13,871 tons 
 valonia, of which very little was re-exported. Bel- 
 gium, Holland, the United States, Germany, Italy, 
 and Norway furnish by far the largest portion of the 
 imports of oak bark. We are indebted for the dis- 
 covery and application of the useful properties of quer- 
 citron to Dr. Bancroft. The doctor obtained a patent 
 for his invention in 1775 ; but the American war break- 
 ing out soon after, deprived him of its advantages. In 
 consideration of this circumstance. Parliament passed, 
 in 1785, an act (25 Geo. 3, c. 38) securing to him the 
 privileges conveyed by his patent for 14 years. At 
 the expiration of the latter period the House of Com- 
 mons agreed to extend the doctor's privilege for an 
 additional 7 years, but the House of Lords rejected 
 the bill. Like too many discoverers. Dr. Bancroft 
 profited but little by his Invention, though it has been 
 of great use to the arts and manufactures of the coun- 
 try J. E. M. See Bancroft on, Permanent Colors, 
 
 vol. ii. p. 112, and the Report of the Committee of the 
 Mouse of Commons on Patents, Appendix, p. 175. 
 
 Barley (Fr. Orge ; Ger. Gerstengravpen ; Du. Si/g ; 
 It. Orzo; Sp. Cebada; Euss. Fatschmea; Lat. Hordeum ; 
 Arab. Dhourra; Hind. Jow), a species of bread-corn 
 {Hordeum, Linn.), of which there are several varieties. 
 It is extensively cultivated in most European coun- 
 tries, and in many of the temperate districts of Asia 
 and Africa. It may also be raised between the trop- 
 ics ; but not at a lower elevation than from 3000 to 
 4000 feet, and th?n it is not worth cultivating. Large 
 quantities of barley have been, for a lengthened period, 
 raised in Great Britain. Eecently, however, its culti- 
 vation has been supposed, though probably on no good 
 grounds, to be declining. In 1765 Mr. Charles Smith 
 estimated the number of barley consumers in England 
 and Wales at 739,000 ; and as a large proportion of the 
 population of Wales, Westmoreland, and Cumberland 
 continue to subsist chiefly on barley bread, we are in- 
 clined to think that this estimate may not, at present, 
 be very wide of the mark. But the principal demand 
 for barley in Great Britain is for conversion into malt, 
 to be used in the manufacture of ale, porter, and Brit- 
 ish spirits; and though its consumption in this way 
 has not certainly increased proportionally to the in- 
 crease of wealth and population, still there does not 
 seem to be any ground for supposing that it has di- 
 minished. Barley is also extensively used in fatten- 
 
 ing black cattle, hogs, and poultry. It now generally 
 follows turnips, and is a very important crop in the 
 rotation best adapted to light soils. The produce va- 
 ries, according to soil, preparation, season, etc., from 
 about 20 to 60 or 70 bushels an acre. The most usual 
 crop is from 28 to 36 or 38 bushels. Barley is a ten- 
 der plant, and easily hurt in any stage of its growth. 
 It is more hazardous than wheat, and is, generally 
 speaking, raised at a greater expense ; so that its cul- 
 tivation should not be attempted except when the soil 
 and climate are favorable for its growth. — For further 
 details as to its consumption and culture, see Smith's 
 Tracts on the Com Trade, 2d ed. p. 182 ; Beown on 
 Rural Affairs, vol. ii. p. 42; Loddon's Encycl. of Ag- 
 riculture, etc. 
 
 Barometer and Thermometer. Torricelli, a 
 Florentine, having discovered that no principle of 
 suction existed, and that water did not rise in a pump 
 owing to nature's abhorrence of a vacuum, imitated the 
 action of a pump with mercury, and made the first 
 barometer in 1643, and Descartes explained the phe- 
 nomena. Wheel barometers were contrived in 1668 ; 
 pendent barometers in 1695; marine in 1700. The 
 invention of the thermometer is ascribed to several 
 scientific persons all about the same time. Invented 
 by Drebbel of Alcmaer, a.d. 1609. — Boekhaave. In- 
 vented by Paulo Sarpi, 1609. — FuLGENTio. Invented 
 by Sanctorio in 1610. — Borelli. Fahrenhieit's ther- 
 mometer was invented about 1726 ; and the scale 
 called Reaumur's soon after, 1730. 'The mode of con- 
 struction, by substituting quicksilver for spirits, .was 
 invented some years subsequently. 
 
 Barra, or Vara, in Commerce, a long measure used 
 in Portugal and some parts of Spain, to measure woolen 
 and linen cloths and serges. In Valencia, 13 barras == 
 12 6-7 yards English measure; in Castile, 7 barras = 
 6 4-7 yds. ; and in Aragon, 3 barras = 2 4-7 yds. — E. B. 
 
 Barracan, in Commerce, a sort of stufl^ something 
 like camlet. It is used to make various outer gar- 
 ments. The cities where barracans are chiefly made, 
 in France, are Valenciennes, Lisle, Abbeville, Amiens, 
 and Rouen. — E. B. 
 
 Barratry, in Navigation, is, in its most extensive 
 sense, any fraudulent or xmlawful act committed by 
 the master or mariners of a ship, contrarj' to their duty 
 to their owners, and to the prejudice of the latter. It 
 appears to be derived from the Italian word harratrare, 
 to cheat. It maj' be committed by running awaj' 
 with a ship, willfully carrying her out of the course 
 prescribed by the 'owners, delaying or defeating the 
 voyage, deserting convoy without leave, sinking or 
 deserting the ship, embezzling the cargo, smuggling, 
 or any other ofl'ense whereby the ship or cargo may 
 be subjected to arrest, detention, loss, or forfeiture. 
 It is the practice in most countries to insure against 
 barratry. Most foreign jurists hold that it compre- 
 hends every fault which the master and crew can 
 commit, whether it arise from fraud, negligence, un- 
 skillfulness, or mere imprudence. But in England it 
 is ruled that no act of the master or crew shall be 
 deemed baixatry, unless it proceed from a criminal or 
 fraudulent motive. " Barratry can only be committed 
 by the master and mariners by some act contrary to 
 their duty in the relation in which they stand to the 
 owners of the ship. It is, therefore, an offense against 
 them, and consequently an owner himself can not com- 
 mit barratry. He may, by his fraudulent conduct, 
 make himself liable to the owner of the goods on board, 
 but not for barratry. Neither can barratry be com- 
 mitted against the owner with his consent; for though 
 he may be liable for any loss or damage occasioned by 
 the misconduct of the master to which he consents, 
 yet this is not barratry. Nothing is more clear than 
 that a man can never set up as a crime an act done by 
 his own direction or consent." — Marshall ore Insur- 
 ance, book i. u. 12, §6. 
 
 When, therefore, the owner of a ship is also the mas- 
 
BAR 
 
 154 
 
 BAT 
 
 tev, no act of barratry can be committed ; for no man 
 can commit a fraud against himself. It is a maxim 
 in law, tliat fraud shall not be presumed, but must be 
 clearly proved ; and it is a rule in questions of insur- 
 ance, that he who charges barratry must substantiate 
 it by conclusive evidence. It is not necessary, to 
 render an act barratrous, that it should be committed 
 with a criminal intent as respects the owners,in order 
 to injure them, or to benefit the captain or crew. It 
 may even be committed with a view to promote the 
 owner's interests ; for an illegal act done without the 
 authority or privity of the ow^ners, and which proves 
 detrimental to them, is barratry, whatever be the mo- 
 tives in which it originated. Lord EUenborough, in 
 an able judgment, has laid it down as clear law, "that 
 a breach of duty by the master in respect of his own- 
 ers, with a fraudulent or criminal intent, or ex male- 
 JiciOj is barratry ; that it makes no difference whether 
 this act of the master be induced by motives of ad- 
 vantage to himself, malice to the owner, or a disregard 
 of those laws which it was his duty to obey ; and that it is 
 not for liim to judge or suppose, in cases not intrust- 
 ed to his discretion, that he is not breaking the trust 
 reposed in him, when he endeavors to advance the 
 interests of his owners by means which the law for- 
 bids, and which his owners also must be taken to have 
 forbidden." The circumstance of the owners of ships 
 being permitted to insure against the barratry of the 
 master and mariners can hardly fail, it may be not 
 uncharitably presumed, of rendering them less scru- 
 pulous in their inquiries with respect to their charac- 
 ter than they would otherwise be. Perhaps, there- 
 fore, it might be expedient to prohibit such insur- 
 ances, or to lay some restrictions upon them. They 
 were, indeed, expressly forbidden by the Ordinance 
 of Rotterdam ; and Lord Mansfield, whose authority 
 on all points connected with the law of insurance is so 
 deservedly high, seems to have thought that it would 
 be well to exclude barratry entirely from i;)olicies, and 
 to cease " making the underwriter become the insurer 
 of the conduct of the captain whom ho does not ap- 
 point, and can not dismiss, to the owners who can do 
 either. ' * But though it were expedient to prevent the 
 owners from making an insurance of this sort, nothing 
 can be more reasonable than that third parties, who 
 freight a. ship, or put goods on board, should be al- 
 lowed to insure against such a copious source of loss. 
 
 For a further discussion, of this subject, see the arti- 
 cle Makink Insuuaxck ; and Marshall on Insur- 
 ance^ book i. c. 12, § 6, and PariC on Insurance^ c. 5. 
 Owners, masters, or seamen, who willfully cast away, 
 burn, or destroy ships, to the prejudice of freighters or 
 insurers, incur the penalty of death. — See Ska:v[kx. 
 
 Barrel, y. cask or vessel for holding liquids, par- 
 ticularly ale and beer. Formerly .the barrel of beer in 
 London contained only 32 ale gallons = 32^ Imperial 
 gallons ; but it was enacted by 43 Geo. 3, c. 69, that 
 36 gallons of beer should bo taken to bo a barrel ; and 
 by the 6 Geo. 4, c. 58, it is enacted, that whenever any 
 gallon measure is mentioned in any excise law, it 
 shall always be deemed and taken to be a standard 
 imperial gallon. At present, therefore, the barrel 
 contains 36 imperial gallons. It may be worth while 
 observing that the barrel or cask is exclusively the 
 produce of European ingenuity ; and that no such 
 article is known to any nation of Asia, Africa, or 
 America, who have not derived it from Europeans. 
 
 Barricade, in Naval Architecture, a strong wooden 
 rail, supported by stanchions, extending across the 
 foremost part of the quarter-deck in ships of war. 
 The vacant spaces between the stanchions are com- 
 monly filled with rope-mats, cork, or pieces of old 
 cable ; and the upper part, which contains a double 
 rope-netting above the rail, is stuffed with hammocks, 
 to prevent the execution of small-shot in time of ac- 
 tion. — E. B. 
 
 Barwood, a red dye wood brought from Africa, 
 
 particularly from Angola, and the Kix-er Gaboon. The 
 dark red which is commonly seen upon British ban- 
 dana handkerchiefs is for the most part produced by 
 the coloring matter of barwood, saddened by sulphate 
 of iron. — Bancroft on Colors. The imports of bar- 
 wood into England, in 1841, amounted to 2012 tons. It 
 brought, in January, 1843, from £3 to £4 a ton (duty 
 2s, included) in the London market. 
 
 Baskets (Fr. Corheilles ; Ger. Kiirhe ; It. Paniere ; 
 Sp. Canastas, Canastas ; Euss. Korsinti) are made, as 
 every one knows, principally of the interwoven twigs 
 of willow, osier, birch, etc., but frequently also of 
 rushes, splinters of wood, straw, and an immense 
 variety of other materials. They are used to hold all 
 sorts of dry goods, and are constructed of every vari- 
 ety of quality and shape. 
 
 Bast, for straw hats or bonnets. — See Hats. 
 
 Batavia, a city of the island of Java, the capital 
 of the Dutch possessions in the East Indies, and the 
 principal trading port of the Oriental islands,* lat. 6° 
 8' S., long. 106" 50' E., on the northwest coast of the isl- 
 and, at the mouth of the Jaccatra Eivei', on an extelis- 
 ive bay. The harbor lies between the main land and 
 several small uninhabited islands, which, during the 
 boisterous or northwestern monsoon, afford sufficient 
 shelter and good anchorage. Population in 1842, 
 53,860, including about 3000 Europeans ; the rest are 
 Chinese, Javanese, Malays, etc. It is built on marshy 
 ground, and intersected by canals in the Dutch style ; 
 defended by a citadel and several batteries, and has 
 a considerable garrison and marine arsenal. Mean 
 temperature of j'ear, 78°*3: winter, 78°'l ; summer, 
 78°*6 Fahrenheit. Temperature at mid-daj', 80° to 
 90° ; at night, 70° Fahrenheit. It has a stadthouse, 
 exchange, hospital, numerous churches, a, mosque, a 
 Chinese and two orphan hospitals, several Chinese 
 temples, a large club-house tenned the Ilarmonie, and 
 a botanic garden". Batavia was formerly so ver}' in- 
 salubrious, that General Daendels was anxious to 
 transfer the seat of government to Sourabaj'a; but 
 being thwarted in this, he set about building a new 
 town, a little farther inland, on the heights of Welte- 
 vreden, whither the government offices were immedi- 
 ately removed. Most of the principal merchants have 
 now their residences in the new town, repairing only 
 to the old city, when business requires it, during a 
 portion of the day. In consequence, the old town is 
 at present principally occupied by Chinese, and the 
 descendants of the ancient colonists, several of its 
 streets having been deserted and demolished. More 
 recently, however, the Baron Capellen, whose enlight- 
 ened administration will long be gratefully remem- 
 bered in Java, sensible of the superior advantages of 
 the old town as a place of trade, exerted himself to 
 prevent its further decay, by removing the causes of 
 its unhealthiness ; to accomplish which, he widened 
 several of the streets, filled up some of the canals, and 
 cleansed others, demolished useless fortifications, etc. ; 
 and the effect of these judicious measures has been, 
 that Batavia is now as healthy as any other town of 
 the island. It is the seat of a supreme commission of 
 public instruction for the Dutch East Indies, and has 
 a school of arts and sciences, and publishes a news- 
 papei;. The Jaccatra is navigable by vessels of 40 
 tons two miles inland ; ships of from 300 to 400 tons 
 anchor in the bay, one mile and a half from shore. 
 Batavia is the great commercial emporium of the 
 Asiatic Archipelago, and absorbs by far the greatest 
 proportion of the trade of Java and Jladura ; the an- 
 nual exports of which islands amount to 60,300,000 
 florins ($25,123,000), and the imports to 30,000,00b 
 florins ($12,000,000). Exports consist mostly of cof- 
 fee, sugar, pepper, indigo, hides, cloves, nutmegs, 
 mace, tin, rice, ratans, and aiTack. Chief imports^; 
 linen and cotton goods, woolen stuffs, provisionsj 
 wines, metallic wares, and manufactured articles of 
 all kinds from Europe and America ; with the prod- 
 
BAT 
 
 155 
 
 BAT 
 
 nets of the Archipelago, China, Siam, Bengal, Japan, colonies in the world. It contains, including Madura, 
 and the West Indies. It was founded by the Dutch an area of 52,000 square miles, with a population of 
 in 1619; taken by the English in 1811, and occupied nearly, if not quite, 10,000,000. 
 
 by them till 1816. The district of Batavia, extend- „ „ „ , „ 
 
 • 1 4.1, -1.1, „!,„.„ „f *!,„ !„i ^ -a™* ^A The Values OF THE ExpoBTB FKOM Java, AND TUEin Desti- 
 
 ing along the north shore of the island, is flat and katiom, in 1846, 1836, amb 1826, weee as follows: 
 
 not so fertile as the other provinces of Java. The res- 
 idence of the governor general was transferred from 
 Buitenzorg to Batavia in 1847. As the population 
 has increased since, it may at present be estimated at 
 from 130,000 to 140,000, independently of the military, 
 of which there are always a considerable number. 
 Among the principal merchants are D'utch, English, 
 Americans, French, and Germans. The island of Java 
 forms the most important portion of the Dutch posses- 
 sions in the East, and is, in fact, one of the finest 
 
 OiTioiAL Account of tue Quantities of tue Peinoipal Articles of Produce bxpoeted feom Java aku Madusa in the 
 
 FOLLOWING YEAKS. 
 
 Countiiee. 
 
 1846. 
 
 1886. 
 
 18:8. 
 
 
 Fiorina. 
 
 Plorini. 
 
 Fiorina. 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 39,603,843 
 
 27,232,588 
 
 6,613,525 
 
 Indian Archipelago. 
 
 9,326,648 
 
 6,708,163 
 
 4,357,783 
 
 Crreat Britain 
 
 2,805,987 
 
 139,592 
 
 349,098 
 
 China, Macao, etc. . ■ 
 
 1,886,703 
 
 3,318,706 
 
 1,976,192 
 
 Prance 
 
 1,326,149 
 
 1,944,145 
 
 42,232 
 
 America 
 
 l,l«9,e44 
 
 1,002,629 
 
 211,231 
 
 l-Iauiburg 
 
 615,041 
 
 108,142 
 
 63,834 
 
 
 345,94» 
 711,868 
 
 263,959 
 369,315 
 
 67,172 
 959,736 
 
 Other places 
 
 Yeora. 
 
 Coffee. 
 
 Popper. 
 
 Indigo. Hidea. 
 
 Clovea. 
 
 Nutmaga. 
 
 Sugar. 
 
 Tin. 
 
 Rice. 1 Bstana. Maca. 
 
 ArracV. 
 
 2,075 
 
 5,261 
 
 4,672 
 4,668 
 6,362 
 6,258 
 4,378 
 
 1830 
 1835 
 
 1840 
 1841 
 184i 
 1843 
 1844 
 1845 
 
 Plculs. 
 
 288,740 
 
 406,871, 
 
 1,132,124 
 961,467 
 1,013,854 
 1,018,102 
 1,239,936 
 1,006,190 
 
 Picula. 
 
 6,061 
 11,868 
 
 9,911 
 13,477 
 10,441 
 28,083 
 12,484 
 11,527 
 
 Founda. 
 
 22,063 
 635,753 
 
 2,123,911 
 1,827,386 
 1,627,437 
 1,890,129 
 1,648,520 
 1,653,869 
 
 FiecOB. 
 30,249 
 139,995 
 
 110,494 
 120,472 
 167,677 
 152,310 
 150,224 
 105,761 
 
 Picula. 
 
 803 
 
 4,660 
 
 53 
 
 7,600 
 1,718 
 2,027 
 2,800 
 2,234 
 
 FiculB. 
 1,304 
 6,022 
 
 3,600 
 5,125 
 5,129 
 2,113 
 8,131 
 3,403 
 
 Picula. 
 
 108,640 
 
 439,543 
 
 1,024,493 
 1,046,576 
 884,685 
 929,769 
 1,008,632 
 1,455,423 
 
 Picula. 
 21,426 
 40,836 
 
 62,334 
 48,840 
 69,127 
 45,705 
 68,729 
 73,537 
 
 Coy ana. 
 18,521 
 25,577 
 Picula, 
 680,909 
 676,213 
 884,157 
 1,008,774 
 786,276 
 447,017 
 
 Picula. 
 5,090 
 4,905 
 
 28,032 
 8T,017 
 36,694 
 73,535 
 73,600 
 51,260 
 
 PiculB. 
 
 177 
 1,606 
 
 870 
 1,171 
 1,432 
 
 486 
 2,300 
 
 830 
 
 Account of tue Quantities and Values of tue Pbincipal Aeticles expokted fkow Java and Maduea in 1836 and 
 
 1846. 
 
 Principal Articloa. 
 
 Quantitiea exported 
 in 1836. 
 
 Value of Exporta 
 in 1836. 
 
 I Value of Exports 
 I in 1845. 
 
 AlTaclc 
 
 Hides 
 
 Indigo :. 
 
 Coffee ■ . . . 
 
 Pepper ■ . 
 
 Bice 
 
 Spices, MaCG 
 
 Cloves 
 
 Nutmegs 
 
 Sugar 
 
 Tobacco 
 
 Tin 
 
 All other articles and treasure., 
 
 1,477 leggers. 
 109,008 pieces and 846 picnls. 
 407,798 pounds. 
 498,078 piculs. 
 7,006 piculs. 
 36,430 coyans. 
 991 piculs. 
 2,186 piculs. 
 3,886 piculs. 
 609,514 piculs. 
 2,477 Icodies. 
 47,739 piculs. 
 
 Florins. 
 
 115,995 
 
 217,715 
 
 1,122,382 
 
 16,090,362 
 
 125,035 
 
 3,369,616 
 
 396,268 
 
 163,036 
 
 1,711,600 
 
 9,083,141 
 
 769,860 
 
 2,718,810 
 
 7,367,833 
 
 4,378 leggers. 
 
 105,751 pieces. 
 
 1,543,869 pouhda. 
 
 1,006,100 piculs. 
 
 11,527 piculs. 
 
 447,017 piculs. 
 
 880 piculs. 
 
 2,234 piculs. 
 
 3,403 piculs. 
 
 1,455,423 piculs. 
 
 5,811 kodies. 
 
 73,636 piculs. 
 
 Totals. 
 
 42,261,642 
 
 Fiorina. 
 
 153,222 
 
 220,649 
 
 4,961,608 
 
 20,123,798 
 
 184,438 
 
 2,682,101 
 
 132,834 
 
 201,045 
 
 510,383 
 
 20,350,209 
 
 2,324,480 
 
 4,044,518 
 
 10,005,883 
 
 65,895,108 
 
 SanJe of^atavia. — A bank, for the issue of notes 
 and other banking business, was established at Bata- 
 via in 1827, with branches at Samarang and Soura- 
 baya ; the history of which is not uninstructive. The 
 capital of the bank, consisting of 2,000,000 florins, di- 
 vided into 4000 shares, was subscribed with difiiculty ; 
 and the most unfavorable anticipations were enter- 
 tained of the success of the establishment. No soon- 
 er, however, had the bank been set on foot than she 
 began to enjoy a large share of prosperity. The rapid 
 increase of cultivation and commerce in Java led to a 
 corresponding demand for capital, and to the payment 
 of a very high rate of interest on loans ; and as the 
 loans made Ijy the bank consisted of bank-notes, which 
 cost next to nothing, the profits became quite enor- 
 mous ; so much so that they amounted in 1837 to 33 
 per cent., the price of the 500 florins share of bank 
 stock being then also 1550 florins. But this prosper- 
 ity was as brief as it was signal. The ofi'er of an ex- 
 orbitant interest had tempted, in not a few cases, the 
 bank to make advances on doubtful security ; and in 
 Java, as elsewhere, issues of paper payable on demand 
 necessarily stop, the moment the circulation has been 
 fully saturated with notes; and this result having 
 been attained in 1838, and the notes issued by the 
 banic being henceforth returned on her for payment, 
 she speedily became involved in the greatest difficul- 
 ties ; many of those who depended on her advances 
 for support were no longer able to meet their engage- 
 ments ; and the whole island was subjected to a severe 
 pecuniary and commercial crisis : in fact, but for the 
 intervention of the government, in 1840, when bank- 
 notes were made legal tender for a limited period, she 
 
 must have stopped payments ! This intervention has, 
 however, given her time to recover from the difficul- 
 ties into which she had been precipitated ; and having 
 again, after sustaining a very heavy loss, resumed 
 specie payments, it is to be hoped that she may profit 
 in future by her past experience. We subjoin divi- 
 dends paid by the Bank of Java from 1829 to 1-840, 
 both inclusive : 
 
 
 Per Cent. 
 
 
 Per Cent 
 
 1829 
 
 9 
 
 1835 
 
 30 
 
 1830 
 
 12 
 
 1836 
 
 32 
 
 1831 
 
 12 
 
 1837 
 
 33 
 
 1832 
 
 18 
 
 1838 
 
 26 
 
 1833 
 
 20 
 
 1839 
 
 26 
 
 1334 
 
 27 
 
 1840 
 
 9 
 
 Genial Reimarhs on Java, — The previous statements 
 show that the produce and trade of Java have in- 
 creased during the last dozen years W'lth a rapidity 
 unknown in any other colony, Cuba, perhaps, except- 
 ed ; and if the resources and capabilities of this noble 
 island be fully developed, it is quite impossible to say 
 how much farther her trade may be extended. It 
 would far exceed our limits, and, even were this not 
 the case, it would involve us in discussions nowise 
 suitable for this work, were we to enter into any de- 
 tailed examination of the means by which the exten- 
 sion of culture in Java has been brought aljout. We 
 may, however, shortly mention that the produce for 
 exportation is principally raised on account of govern- 
 ment, partly by contributions in kind, and partly and 
 principally by contributions of compulsory labor ap- 
 plied to its production. And, provided these contri- 
 butions be not carried to an excess, we incline to think 
 that they are at once the least onerous mode in which 
 
BAT 
 
 156 
 
 BDE 
 
 the natives can be made to pay their taxes, and the 
 most profitable for the government. It is, we appre- 
 hend, idle to suppose that industry, if left to itself, 
 will ever become flourishing in a country like Java, 
 where the wants of the inhabitants are so few and so 
 easily satisfied, or where the climate indisposes to ex- 
 ertion. No doubt the system of compulsory labor may 
 be easily abused and converted into an instrument of 
 the most grinding oppression ; but so long as it is man- 
 aged with discretion and good sense, we are disposed 
 to believe, from all we can learn, that it is preferable 
 to every other system hitherto devised for developing 
 the resources of tropical countries. — For some remarks 
 on this subject, see the learned and able Dissertatio 
 Historico-Politica, on the Dutch East India Company, 
 by Van Lijnden, published in 1839, p. 161-171. 
 
 Very great public improvements have also been al- 
 ready effected, and are still in progress in the island. 
 Among others, an excellent high road has been con- 
 structed through its whole length, from Bantam, on its 
 western, to Sourabaya on its eastern coast, whence cross- 
 roads lead to all the principal stations. A number of 
 forts have, also, been constructed in commanding sit- 
 uations in the interior, the principal of which, at Su- 
 rackarta, near the centre of the island, is a regular 
 and strong citadel. It is said to be the intention to 
 transfer the seat of government thither from Batavia. 
 These forts have been erected principally to keep the 
 natives in check, and to prevent those outbreaks that 
 have done so much to retard the prosperity of the isl- 
 and. Several important establishments have also been 
 recently' founded along the southern coast, which had 
 previously been all but neglected. — See Argout sur 
 Java^ Sinf/apore, etc. 
 
 Eice used to be the staple product of Java ;. but it 
 is now far surpassed by coffee and sugar, the culture 
 of both of which has been astonishingly increased. In 
 proof of this we may mention that the exports of cof- 
 fee, which in 1830 amounted to 288,740 piculs, had 
 increased in 1845 to 1,006,190 piculs, or to 61,090 
 tons ; while the exports of sugar, which in 1830 
 amounted to 108,640 piculs, had increased in 1845 to 
 1,455,423 piculs, or 88,365 tons. More than half the 
 trade of the island centres in Batavia. Indigo has 
 also become an important product. The other prin- 
 cipal articles of export are tin from Banca, tobacco, 
 tea, and birds' nests. The imports comprise cottons, 
 woolens, and other manufactured goods ; wines and 
 spirits, with iron, hardware, and machinery ; opium 
 from the Levant and from Bengal ; and a great variety 
 of other articles. 
 
 Port Reffulations. — The following is the substance 
 of the port regulations of Batavia : 1st. The command- 
 er of a ship arriving in the roads is not to land him- 
 self, or permit any of his crew or passengers to land, 
 until his vessel be visited by a boat from the guard- 
 ship. 2d. The master, on landing, is first to wait on 
 the master attendant, and afterward report himself at 
 the police ofiice. 3d. A manifest of the whole cargo 
 must be delivered at the custom-house within 24 hours 
 of the ship's arriving in the roads. 4th. The master 
 of a vessel must lodge the ship's papers with the mas- 
 ter attendant when he first lands, which are duly de- 
 livered up to him when he receives his port clearance 
 from the same authority. 5th. No goods can be shipped 
 or landed after sunset, under a penalty of 500 florins. 
 6th. No goods can be shipped on Sunday without a 
 special permission from the water fiscal, which, how- 
 ever, is never refused on application. 7th. No mus- 
 kets or ammunition can be imported ; but the prohi- 
 bition does not extend to fowling-pieces exceeding 100 
 florins value. 
 
 Tcmff. — After a good deal of negotiation, it has been 
 fixed that goods imported in foreign vessels shall pay 
 an ad valorem duty of 25 per cent., and under the Neth- 
 erlands flag of 12^ per cent. ; that is, a duty upon the 
 wholesale price at Batavia, not in bond. The export 
 
 duty on coffee, if exported on a foreign bottom to a 
 foreign country, is 5 florins per picul ; if on a foreign 
 bottom to a port in the Netherlands, 4 florins ; and if 
 on a Netherlands bottom to a Netherlands port, 2 flor- 
 ins. Sugar exported on a foreign bottom paj-s 2 flor- 
 ins per picul ; but if exported on a Netherlands bottom, 
 1 florin. Rice, on whatever bottom exported, and to 
 whatever country, pays a duty of 3 florins per coyang 
 of 27 piculs. Tin, exported in a foreign ship to what- 
 ever port, 4 florins per picul ; and by a Netherlands 
 ship, 2 florins per picul. The trade in spices is mo- 
 nopolized by the Netherlands Trading Company. 
 
 Goods are received in entrepot not only at Batavia, 
 but at the ports of Samarang, Sourabaya, and Anjier 
 in Java, and Rhio in the Straits of Malacca, on pay- 
 ment of a duty of 1 per cent, levied on the invoice 
 value. 
 
 Money. — ^Accounts are kept, at Batavia, in the florin 
 or guilder, divided into centimes, or 100 parts, repre- 
 sented by a copper coinage or doits. The florin is a 
 new coin made expressly for India, but of the same 
 value as the florin current in the Netherlands. It is 
 usually estimated at the rate of 12 to the pound ster- 
 ling, but the correct par is 11 florins 58 cent, per pound. 
 Doubloons, and the coins of Continental India, are re- 
 ceivable at the custom-house at a fixed tariff; the 
 Spanish dollar, for example, at the rate of 100 for 260 
 florins. 
 
 Weights. — The Chinese weights are invariably used 
 in commercial transactions at Batavia and through- 
 out Java and the other Dutch possessions in India. 
 These are the picul and the cattle, which is its hun- 
 dredth part. The picul is commonly estimated at 125 
 Dutch, or 133J- lbs. avoirdupois, but at Batavia it has 
 been long ascertained and considered to be equal to 
 136 lbs. avoirdupois. — Hogendokp, Coup d'Oiil sur 
 Vile de Java, cap. 8, etc. ; Evidence of Gillian Mac- 
 LAINE, i'sg., iefare the Select Committee of the House of 
 Commons on the Affairs of the East India Company, 1831 ; 
 Nederlandsche Staats-Courant, 13th August, 1842, and 
 other official information. 
 
 Batten, a name in common use for a scantling of 
 wood 2^ inches thick and 7 wide. If above 7 inches 
 wide, it is called deal. 
 
 Bay (Saxon iyge, an angle), an arm of the sea ex- 
 tending into the land. It is smaller than a gulf, and 
 larger than a creek. 
 
 Bayou, bl'oo, or more usually bi'o, a term con- 
 fined chiefly to inlets of the Lower Mississippi River, 
 signifying properly any stream which is derived from 
 some other stream, or from a lake ; in other words, 
 any stream which is not fed by fountains. The 
 word is supposed to be a corruption of the French 
 ioyau, a "gut" or "channel" — a derivation which is 
 rendered more probable by the prevalent pronuncia- 
 tion, bi'o. Several of the bayous from Lake Pontchar- 
 train, near New Orleans, and from the Gulf of Mexico, 
 are very important channels to the interior country, 
 and afford great facilities to commercial intercourse. 
 
 Bazar, a term used in the East to designate a 
 market, or building, in which various articles of mer- 
 chandise are exposed for sale. Bazars are now met 
 with in most large cities of Europe. There are sev- 
 eral in London, of which the one in Soho Square is the 
 most considerable. 
 
 Bdellium (Arab. Aflatoori), a gum-resin, semi- 
 pellucid, and of a yellowish-brown or dark-brown color 
 according to its age, unctuous to the touch, but brit- 
 tle; soon, however, softening between the fingers: 
 in appearance it is not unlike myrrh, of a bitterish 
 taste, and moderately strong smell. Two kinds have 
 been distinguished : the opocalpasum of the ancients, 
 which is thick like wax, and the common dark sort. 
 It is found in Persia and Arabia, but principally in the 
 latter ; all that is met with in India is of Arabic origin. 
 The tree which produces it has not been clearly ascer- 
 tained. — Ainslxe's Matena Indica. 
 
BEA 
 
 157 
 
 BEE 
 
 Beach, a shelving tract of sand or shingle washed 
 \>y the sea or a fresh-water lake, and interposed be- 
 tween the water and the land, on which vegetation 
 grows. The beach of the ocean is, generally speak- 
 ing, little more than the space between high and low 
 water-mark; the beach of a lake, that between the 
 water marks of the highest and lowest ordinary level 
 of the lake. An inland sea without tide, such as the 
 Mediterranean, has commonly very little beach, ex- 
 cept on flat coasts, where the waters are apt to fall and 
 rise considerably, according to the prevailing winds. 
 — E. A. 
 
 Beacons, in Commerce and Navigation, public 
 marks or signals to give warning of rocks, shoals, 
 etc. No man is entitled to erect a light-house, beacon, 
 etc., without being empowered by law. — See Buoys. 
 
 Beads (Fr. liosaires; Ger. Bosenkrcmze ; Du. Pa- 
 ternosten ; It. Corone ; Sp-. Coronas), small globules or 
 balls used as necklaces, and made of different mate- 
 rials ; as pearl, steel, amber, garnet, coral, diamonds, 
 crystal, glass, etc. Roman Catholics use beads in 
 rehearsing their Ave Marias and Paternosters. Glass 
 beads or bugles are imported in large quantities into 
 India and Africa, 288,058 lbs. having been shipped 
 from England to the west coast of the latter in 1841. 
 Large quantities are sent from China to India, the East- 
 ern islands, etc. The glass beads sent from England 
 are nearly all imported, principally from Venice, where 
 they are very largely produced. Their non-manufac- 
 ture in Great Britain is said to be a consequence of the 
 excise regulations as to the manufacture of glass ; but 
 the truth is, tliat the Venetian manufacturers color 
 them better, and give them a. better finish than the 
 English. 
 
 Beam, in weaving, a long thick wooden cylinder, 
 placed lengthwise on the back part of the loom of those 
 who work with a shuttle. That cylinder on which 
 the stuff is rolled as it is weaved is also called the 
 learn or roller, and is placed on the fore part of the 
 loom. — E. B. 
 
 Beam-compass, an instrument consisting of a 
 square wooden or brass beam, with sliding sockets 
 that carry steel or pencil points. Beam-compasses 
 are used for describing larger circles than can conven- 
 iently be drawn by the common compasses. 
 
 Beams of a Ship are the great main cross-tim- 
 bers which hold the sides of the ship from falling to- 
 gether, and also support the deck and the orlops. The 
 main beam is next the main-mast, and from it they 
 are successively reckoned as first, second, third, and 
 so on. The greatest beam of all is called the midship 
 beam. A ship is said to be ore h&r beam-ends when she 
 inclines so much to one side that her beams approach 
 to a vertical position. — E. B. 
 
 Bean-cod, a small fishing vessel, or pilot-boat, 
 common in Portugal. It is extremely sharp forward, 
 having its steih bent above into a great curve inward, 
 plated on the fore side with iron, and fortified with 
 bolts. It is commonly navigated with a large lateen 
 sail.— E. B. 
 
 Beans (Fr. Fhes; Ger. Bohnen; It. Fave; Russ. 
 Boobii; Sp. Habu; Lat. Fdb(B), a well-known vegeta- 
 ble of the pulse species, largely cultivated both in gar- 
 dens and fields. Its cultivation is of much importance 
 in rural economy, inasmuch as it has gone far to su- 
 persede fallows on strong loams and claj'S. 
 
 Bearing, in Namgaiion, an arch of the horizon in- 
 tercepted between the nearest meridian and any dis- 
 tant object, either discovered by the eye and referred 
 to a point on the compass, or resulting from the spher- 
 ical proportion; as, in the first case, "At four p.m. 
 Cape Spado, in the Isle of Candia, bore south by west 
 by the compass." In the second, the longitudes and 
 latitudes of any two places being given, and conse- 
 quently the difiference of latitude and longitude be- 
 tween them, the bearing of one from the other is 
 discovered by the following analogy: As the me- 
 
 ridional difference of latitude is to the difference of 
 longitude, so is the radius to the tangent of the bear- 
 ing. 
 
 Bearing is also the situation of any distant object 
 estimated from some part of the ship according to her 
 position. An object so discovered must be either 
 ahead, astern, abreast, on the bow, or on the quarter. 
 If the ship sails with a side wind, it alters in some 
 measure the names of such bearings, since a distant 
 object on the beam is then said to be to leeward or to 
 windward ; on the lee quarter or bow, and on the 
 weather quarter or bow. — E. B. 
 
 Beating, in Navigation, the operation of making 
 progress at sea against the wind, by steering in a zig- 
 zag course. — E. B. 
 
 Beaver, or Castor, an amphibious quadruped of 
 the order Rodentia, with a thick glossy fur, and hori- 
 zontally flattened tail, abounding in North America 
 and Siberia, and still found in the north of Europe. 
 It formerly appears to have been known as far south 
 as the Rhone and the Danube; and though with us 
 now extinct, was formerly an inhabitant of Great 
 Britain. The fur of the beaver forms a considerable 
 article of commerce. Among traders the skins are 
 distinguished into three kinds: 1. The fresh beaver, 
 which is obtained in winter, before the animal has 
 shed any of its hair, and consequently that is most 
 esteemed by furriers. 2. The dry or lean beaver, 
 which is captured in summer, when the animal is 
 moulting. 3. The fat beaver, which differs from the 
 fresh only in having acquired additional softness and 
 oiliness from being worn for some time on the persons 
 of the native hunters. This is the kind that is chiefly 
 used in hat-making. The substance called castor is 
 found ip pouches in the inguinal region of the beaver. 
 It is regarded as a powerful antispasmodic. — E. B. 
 
 Beech {Fagm sylvaticd), a forest tree met with in 
 England, the United States, etc. There is only one 
 species, the difference in the wood proceeding from 
 the difference of soil and situation. A considerable 
 quantity of beech is grown in the southern parts of 
 Bucks. It is not much used in building, as it soon 
 rots in damp places ; but it is used as piles in places 
 where it is constantly wet. It is manufactured into 
 a great variety of tools, for which its great hardness 
 and uniform texture render it superior to all other 
 sorts of wood ; it is also extensively used in making 
 furniture. 
 
 Beech-mast, the fruit or nuts of the beech-tree, 
 used for fattening hogs, deer, and other animals. It 
 has sometimes proved a useful substitute for bread, as 
 experienced at Chios during a memorable siege. — E. B. 
 
 Beech-oil, an oil expressed from the mast of the 
 beech-tree. It is common in Northern Germany, also 
 in Picardy, and in other parts of France, instead of 
 butter ; but it is said to be unwholesome. — E. B. 
 
 Beef is used either fresh or salted. Formerly it 
 was usual for most families, at least in the country, to 
 supply themselves with a stock of salt beef in October 
 or November, which served for their consumption un- 
 til the ensuing summer ; but in consequence ,of the uni- 
 versal establishment of markets where fresh beef may 
 be at all times obtained, the practice is now nearly re- 
 linquished, and the quantity of salted beef made use 
 of as compared with fresh beef is quite inconsidera- 
 ble. Large supplies of salted beef are, however, pre- 
 pared in the United States for exportation to the East 
 and West Indies. During the war, large supplies 
 were also required for victualing the navy. The ves- 
 sels engaged in the coasting trade, and in short voy- 
 ages, use only fresh provisions. The English have 
 at all times been great consumers of beef ; and at this 
 moment more beef is used in London, as compared 
 with the population, than any where else. Previously 
 to 1842 the importation into England of fresh beef 
 was prohibited ; and salt beef from a foreign country 
 was charged with a duty of 12«. a cwt. But in that 
 
BEE 
 
 158 
 
 year the duties on both sorts were reduced to 8s. 43d. a 
 cwt., and in 1846 they were wholly repealed. In 1852 
 the imports of salted beef into Great Britain amounted 
 to 122,665 cwt., and those of fresh beef to only 2028 
 cwt. — See Pkovisions. 
 
 Beer. All ancient Greek writers agree in assign- 
 ing the honor of the discovery of beer to the Egyp- 
 tians ; but from the circumstance of no notice being 
 taken of beer in the books of Moses, it has been rather 
 rashly concluded that such a drink was unknown to 
 them till after his death. This, however, is unlikely. 
 The vine was alone cultivated in Egypt in those dis- 
 tricts which were bej'ond the reach of the inunda- 
 tions ; and the quantity of wine raised being limited 
 was reserved for the rich, while the poorer classes had 
 to content themselves with a cheaper drink prepared 
 from barle}^. Herodotus, who wrote about 450 years 
 B.C., is perhaps the earliest writer who gives any par- 
 ticulars regarding Egypt, and he describes beer pre- 
 pared from barley as the ordinary drink of the Egyp- 
 tians in his day. Pliny, Aristotle, Strabo, and others, 
 who mention that this beer was known by the name 
 of Zythos, give full descriptions of its qualities and 
 intoxicating properties ; and Diodorus even affirms 
 that some kinds were so palatable as to be scarcely 
 inferior to wine. The researches of Sir J. G. AVilkin- 
 son relative to the ancient Egyptians have thrown 
 much light on this subject, and render it probable that 
 beer was used as » drink by the ancient Egyptians 
 nearly as early as wine itself. Xenophon, in his ac- 
 count of the retreat of the ten thousand Greeks, 400 
 years B.C., mentions that the inhabitants of Armenia 
 used a fermented drink made from barley. Diodorus 
 Siculus states, that the nation of Galatia prepared a 
 fermented drink from barley, styling it zythus, lilte 
 the Egyptians. Beer was distinguished among the 
 Greeks by a variety of names. It was called dtvog 
 npWivoc; (barley wine), from its vinous properties, and 
 from the material employed in its formation. In Soph- 
 ocles, and probably in other Greek writers, it is dis- 
 tinguished by the name of QfivTov. Dioscorides de- 
 scribes two kinds of beer, to one of which he gives the 
 name C^'^of, and to the other Kovpfic ; but he gives no 
 description of either sufficient to enable us to distin- 
 guish them from each other. Both, he informs us, 
 were made from barlej', and similar liquors were man- 
 ufactured in Spain and Britain from wheat. 
 
 Tacitus informs us that in his time beer was the 
 common drink of the Germans, and from his imper- 
 fect description of the process which they followed, it 
 is not unlikely, or rather there can be no doubt, that 
 they were acquainted with the method of converting 
 barley into malt. Pliny gives us some details re- 
 specting beer. He distinguishes it by the name of 
 cerevisia or cervisia, the appellation by which it is 
 known in modern Latin works. 
 
 This beverage does not appear to have come into 
 general use in Greece or Italy ; but in Germany and 
 Britain, and some other countries, it appears to have 
 been the common drink of the inhabitants in the time 
 of Tacitus, and probably long before. It has con- 
 tinued in these countries ever since ; and great quan- 
 tities of beer are still manufactured in Germany, the 
 Low Countries, and Britain. We might quote numer- 
 ous passages from the narratives of recent travelers 
 to show that the use of a drink prepared from barley 
 is nearly universal over the northern and temperate 
 parts of Europe and Asia. One of the latest of these 
 travelers, M. Hue, the Prench missionary, remarks 
 that the drink of the farmers in Thibet is " a sort of 
 sharp drink made with fermented barley, which, with 
 the addition of hops, would be very like our beer." 
 
 Porter is a strong beer of a dark color and peculiar 
 flavor, and is said to be so named, either from its hav- 
 ing been the common drink of the porters, or from 
 Harwood, the original brewer of the drink, sending 
 it round to his customers by men, who when they 
 
 knocked at the doors called out "porter," meaning 
 thereby not the drink, but themselves, its porters or 
 carriers. Porter was originally brewed to take the 
 place of two or three kinds of beer which lused to be 
 mixed by the retailers in the mug as they drew them 
 from the taps ; and as this new drink had the taste 
 of all three, but was brewed at once, and run out of 
 one tap, it saved the publican trouble, and was de- 
 nominated "entire." Hence, as the sign so often no- 
 ticed in London, such a brewer's "entire." 
 
 Bavarian Beer is the only other malt liquor which, 
 from the peculiarities attending its fermentation, re- 
 quires a special notice. The Germans, from the ear- 
 liest historical periods, have been a beer-drinking na- 
 tion, and some excellent malt liquors are made in that 
 country. The "weiss bier," the truly patriotic bev- 
 erage of Prussia, is not made from barley alone, but 
 from 1 part barley malt and 5 parts wheat malt ; but 
 the excessive tendency of wheat beers to sour has 
 caused potato starch to be substituted for the wheat, 
 and tartaric acid to give the admired tartness. The 
 other beers, however, more especially the ones now to 
 be noticed, the Bavarian beei'S, both the common pot 
 beer (schank-bier) and the intoxicating luscious bock- 
 beer, are brewed from barley malt alone. — See Lager 
 Bier. 
 
 A la appears to be an ancient drink, and the name 
 is usually given to strong beer of a pale color, as por- 
 ter is to that of a dark color. The varieties of ale are 
 infinite, but we purpose only to notice the peculiaritj"" 
 in the manufacture of English ale, Indian ale, English 
 home-brewed ale, and Scottish ale. 
 
 In all high-priced English ales of the present day, 
 brilliancy and paleness of color, with as little excess 
 of sweetness as possible, are the objects to be attained 
 by the brewer. To accomplish these ends, nothing 
 but the finest pale malt must be used ; and to secure 
 sound-keeping ale, it is of first importance that the 
 malt shall have been thoroughly dried on the kiln. 
 If prepared from what is technically known as ' ' slack- 
 dried malt, " that is, malt not thoroughly dried for fear 
 of coloring it, or which has had water sprinkled over 
 it while still warm from the kiln, the wort as run 
 from the mash-tun will be found acid, and will tinge 
 litmus paper of a much deeper red than ordinary wort 
 from well dried malt, and the ale prepared from it 
 will not keep beyond a few months. It is necessary 
 also to be careful in the selection of the hops for ale. 
 Good sound hops should alone be used ; many brew- 
 ers now use a proportion of foreign hops along with 
 the English hop. 
 
 Pale, Indian, or Burton A le, originally intended for 
 exportation, and now so deservedly in high repute as 
 among our most esteemed and wholesome beverages, 
 requires more particular treatment in its manufacture. 
 This ale can only be prepared from the best pale malt 
 and the best hops ; and the chief peculiarities attend- 
 ing its manufacture are, that it requires more than 
 double the usual proportion of hops, that the attenua- 
 tion is generally carried to a much greater extent, and 
 that the temperature during the fermentation should 
 never be allowed to exceed 66° Fahrenheit. That a 
 considerable amount of sweetness should exist in com- 
 mon ale is allowable, and indeed it is the presence of 
 a large quantity of undecomposed saccharine extract 
 which gives to common strong ale its luscious, mild- 
 ness. It is, however, the presence of this large quan- 
 tity of undecomposed saccharine extract which pre- 
 vents common ale from being used as a diet drinli; by 
 the invalid, or being relished in a warm country ; and 
 it is the circumstance of the Indian or pale ale having 
 its fermentation carried so much further, and its sac- 
 charine matter reduced in quantity, together with its 
 larger proportion of bitter, that commends it so much 
 as a grateful and stimulant stomachic to the European 
 resident in a warm climate, and to the invalid. 
 
 Home-hrewed Ah, as brewed by the middle classes 
 
BEE 
 
 159 
 
 BEL 
 
 in England, is usually made in quantities of 2 barrels, 
 i. «., 72 gallons. For this purpose a quarter of malt, 
 or if wisiied to be extra strong, 9 bushels of malt, are 
 taken, with 12 lbs. of hops. The malt being crushed 
 or ground, is mashed with 72 gallons of water, at the 
 temperature of 160°, and covered up for three hours, 
 ■when 40 gallons are drawn off ; and into this the 12 lbs. 
 of hops are put, and left to infuse. Sixty gallons of 
 water, at the temperature of 170', are then added to the 
 malt in the mash-tub and well mixed, and, after stand- 
 ing two hours, 60 gallons are drawn off. The wort 
 from these two mashes is boiled along with the hops 
 for two hours, and after being cooled down to 65°, it is 
 strained through a flannel bag into the fermenting-tub, 
 where it is mixed with IJ gallons of yeast, and left to 
 work for twenty-four or thirty-six hours. It is then 
 run into barrels to cleanse, a few gallons being reserved 
 for filling up the casks as the yeast works over. Eight- 
 een or twenty gallons of beer are obtained from the 
 used malt by making a third mash with 25 or 80 gal- 
 lons of water, and boiling the wort thus procured with 
 the used hops. 
 
 Scottish Ale, but especially the Edinburgh ale, has 
 been long celebrated, but as an ordinary beverage it 
 is much more luscious and heady than London porter, 
 English ale, or pale Indian ale. It is a much stronger 
 drink than any of these, the home-brewed English ale 
 approaching nearest to it in this respect ; and as the 
 attenuation of the saccharine extract is only carried 
 the length of the decomposition of two-thirds of its 
 original strength, the large quantity of undecomposed 
 saccharine extract renders it much more luscious to 
 the taste, and milder than the English ales. The Scot- 
 tish ales are brewed of various strengths, and are known 
 in the market by their price per hogshead, and are hence 
 commonly mentioned as £7 ale, £6 ale, etc. — E. B. 
 See Ale and Brewing. 
 
 Lmpoktation op Beeb, Ale, akd Pobter into tub United 
 States, according to Treasury Report of 1855. 
 
 ' 
 
 
 Beer, Ale, atid Porter from 1 
 
 
 England. 
 
 Scotland. \ 
 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Galloae. 
 
 Value. 
 
 1S44 
 
 10T,4S9 
 
 $102,157 
 
 19,230 
 
 $18,343 
 
 1845 
 
 ^9,302 
 
 73,729 
 
 26,711 
 
 ' 21,294 
 
 1846 
 
 117,621 
 
 110,397 
 
 38,464 
 
 39,831 
 
 184T 
 
 173,303 
 
 110,292 
 
 17,526 
 
 10,652 
 
 1818 
 
 130,000 
 
 101,171 
 
 39,282 
 
 21,633 
 
 1S« 
 
 146,473 
 
 118,233 ■ 
 
 52,297 
 
 30,088 
 
 1S50 
 
 156,735 
 
 129,967 
 
 52,856 
 
 41,790 
 
 1851 
 
 275,336 
 
 189,010 
 
 88,179 
 
 66,736 
 
 1852 
 
 262,838 
 
 186,964 
 
 110,762 
 
 67,804 
 
 1353 
 
 397,420 
 
 284,347 
 
 131,357 
 
 77,414 
 
 1854 
 
 826,571 
 
 424,876 
 
 270,004 
 
 128,667 
 
 1855 
 
 919,252 
 
 559,900 
 
 346,016 
 
 188,457 
 
 Beet, or Beta, a well-known genus of plants. 
 The common beet. Beta vulgaris, a variety of the red 
 beet, has long been cultivated as a food for cattle, and 
 is also used for the table as a pickle. It was intro- 
 duced for this purpose in the latter part of the last cen- 
 tury from Germany, where it is known by. the name 
 of mamgel-vmrzel. — See Ageicultuke. The variety 
 termed white beet is smaller than the former, and has 
 chiefly been cultivated on a large scale for the forma- 
 tion of sugar from its root. The chemical elements of 
 beet-root sugar are expressed aiomically thus : C12, H9, 
 Os + 2H0, or, twelve atoms of carbon, nine of hydro- 
 gen, nine of oxygen, and two of water. The largest 
 extract of pure sugar from beet-root in Belgium was 
 formerly 3 per cent., but^is now 6 per cent., and 
 is capable of further increase by improvement in the 
 process of manufacture. The cultivation of beet-root 
 was especially fostered in France by Napoleon, whose 
 policy it was to encourage every thing that tended to 
 render the Continent independent of Britain, then in 
 possession of the chief sugar colonies. It is only with- 
 in u. comparatively recent period, however, that the 
 manufacture of beet-root sugar in Europe has assumed 
 any degree of importance, the total quantity produced 
 in 1828 not exceeding 7000 tons, while in 1851 it was 
 estimated at not less than 180,000 tons. We subjoin a 
 
 few statistics relative to the increasing importance of 
 this manufacture from The Economist (Nos. 431 and 
 432, Nov. 29th, and Dec. 26th, 1851). The quantity 
 of beet-root sugar annually produced in France is 
 60,000 tons, or fully one-half of the entire consump- 
 tion. Though now subject to a higher duty than colo- 
 nial cane sugar, it is considered probable that very 
 shortly it will exclude foreign sugar from the French 
 mai-ket altogether. The production of beet-root sugar 
 in Belgium also is rapidly on the increase, the quanti- 
 ty produced in 1850 being 7000 tons, or half the entire 
 consumption of that kingdom. This had increased in 
 1851 to 10,000 tons, while of foreign cane sugar only 
 4000 tons were imported. In Germany it has made 
 similar progress. In 1848 the quantity produced was 
 26,000 tons, which had risen in 1851 to 43,000, with a 
 corresponding decrease in the imports of foreign sugar. 
 Of 85,000 tons of sugar estimated to have been con- 
 sumed in Russia, 35,000 tons were beet-root sugar. In 
 Austria, also, the production of this article increased 
 from 8000 tons in 1848, to 15,000 tons in 1851, while 
 the consumption of cane sugar had sunk from 32,000 
 to 25,000 tons.— E. B. 
 
 Behring'B Strait,' explored by a Danish navigator 
 in the service of Kussia, whose name it bears. Behr- 
 ing thus established that the continents of Asia and 
 America are not united, but are distant from each oth- 
 er about thirty-nine miles, 1728. 
 
 Belfast, a maritime towni, a municipal and parlia- 
 mentary borough, the capital of Ulster, the chief man- 
 ufacturing and commercial town in Ireland, and since 
 1850 the county town of Antrim. It is mainly com- 
 prised in the county of Antrim ; but the large suburb 
 of Ballymacarret, separated from the town b}' the Elv- 
 er Lagfln, is in the countv of Down. Belfast is situated 
 in lat. 64° 36' 8-5" N., and long. 5° 65' 63-7" W., at 
 _tlie mouth of the River Lagan, which flows immediate- 
 ly into Belfast Lough (Carrickfergus Bay), an estuary 
 about 12 miles in length, and 6 miles broad. The town 
 is built upon an alluvial deposit and land reclaimed 
 from the sea, the greater portion being not more than 
 six feet above high-water mark. In common with all 
 places so situate, it is exposed to occasional inunda- 
 tions, and somewhat to the visitations of epidemics ; 
 but independently of the lowness of its site, Belfast is 
 in other respects advantageously placed, and generally 
 by no means unhealthful. The environs of the town 
 are highly agreeable and picturesque. Belfast has 
 been steadilj' progressive in papulation from an early 
 period. In 1758 the number of inhabitants was 8540 ; 
 in 1782, 13,105; in 1798, 18,320; in 1821, 46,177; in 
 1831, 48,224; in 1841, 75,308; and in 1861, 100,300. 
 The custom duties collected at the port in 1784 
 amounted to £104,376, and, after various fluctuations, 
 reached £288,756 in 1834, £339,989 in 1843, and 
 £377,389 in 1862. The great increase of shipping fre- 
 quenting the port appears in the following account of 
 the number and tonnage of vessels entered inward at 
 various periods : 
 
 Years.' 
 
 No. of. 
 Vessel!. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Years. 
 
 No. of 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 1786 
 1795 
 1805 
 1815 
 
 772 
 
 801 
 
 840 
 
 1,134 
 
 34,287 
 52,576 
 69,685 
 91,371 
 
 18-25 
 1835 
 1845 
 1851 
 
 2,060 
 2,730 
 3,056 
 6,016 
 
 183,441 
 290,709 
 445,537 
 660,938 
 
 The chief export trade is carried on by the cross-chan- 
 nel navigation; but a considerable direct trade also 
 exists with the United States and Canada, the West 
 Indies, the Mediterranean, and the Baltic. Belfast is 
 the centre of the Irish linen manufacture, to the culti- 
 vation of which it is mainly indebted for its prosperity. 
 In 1841 about 240,000 spindles were employed, and the 
 increase during the last ten years has been so rapid, 
 that about 510,000 spindles are now in operation. The 
 total value of all products of the linen manufacture ex- 
 ported abroad in the ten months ending 5th November, 
 1852, was £4,357,874, against £4,150,157 in 1851; and 
 
BEL 
 
 160 
 
 BEL 
 
 the export of linens and yarns, especially of tlie latter, 
 continues on the increase. In 1861, 5,060,160 pounds 
 of linen yarns were exported from Belfast; and in 
 1862, 6,779,680 pounds. The harbor of Belfast, orig- 
 inally a creek of the River Lagan, has been much im- 
 proved of late years, and now allows vessels drawing 
 eighteen feet of water to reach the quays at spring- 
 tides.— E. B. 
 
 Belgium. Belgium extends from lat. 49° 27' to 
 51° 30' N., and from long. 2° 34' to 6° 4' E. On the 
 no.rth it is bounded by Holland ; east by Dutch Lim- 
 bourg and Luxembourg, and Khenish Prussia ; south 
 by France ; and on the west by the North Sea. It is 
 somewhat of a triangular form, of which the longest 
 side is that adjoining France, being 366 miles iia length. 
 The eastern boundary is 233 miles, and the northern 
 and western are together 279 miles in length. Its 
 greatest length from northwest to southeast (from 
 Ostend to Arlon) is 56 leagues of 5000 metres, or 174 
 English miles, and its greatest breadth from north to 
 south is 105 miles. It has an area of 2,945,593 hec- 
 tares, equal to 7,278,968 English acres, or 11,373 square 
 miles ; being about one-eighth of the area of Great 
 Britain. This country is divided into nine provinces 
 —Antwerp in the north ; West and East Flanders and 
 Hainault in the west ; Namur in the south ; Luxem- 
 bourg in the southeast; Litge and Limbourg in the 
 east ; and Brabant in the centre. 
 
 Commercial Association. — Belgium possesses a great 
 mimber of commercial and financial associations. In 
 1851 there were no fewer than 191 legally authorized 
 joint-stock companies for carrying on public works or 
 enterprises, having a united capital of 880,347,298 
 francs. Of these 12 w^ere assurance companies, 12 
 private banking companies, and 14 railway companies. 
 It has eight commercial exchanges, under the direc- 
 tion of government; namely, in Antwerp, Brussels, 
 Ghent, Bruges, Ostend, Mons, Termonde, and Lou-* 
 vain. In 1822 the General Society for the Encourage- 
 ment of National Industry was formed at Brussels, 
 imder a royal charter for 27 years, and which has since 
 been extended to 1875. It has a social capital of 
 30,000,000 florms, divided into 60,000 shares of 500 
 florins, bearing interest at 5 per cent. The admin- 
 istrative body consists of a governor, nominated by the 
 king, six directors, a secretary', and a treasurer. It 
 discounts bills, receives money at interest, grants loans 
 and advances on titles and other deposits, etc. The 
 national banli, instituted by charter granted in 1850, 
 for twenty-five years, has its seat at Brussels, and has 
 branches in all the provincial capitals and several oth- 
 er towns. Its capital is 25,000,000 francs, in shares 
 of 1000 francs each. It pays a dividend of 5 per cent, 
 upon the shares, and one-third at least of the profits, 
 exceeding 6 per cent., goes to form a sinking fund. 
 The administration consists of a governor, nominated 
 by the king, six directors, and a council of censors. 
 The banking operations are superintended by a govern- 
 ment commissary ; a report npou its state is presented 
 to the government every month. The State funds are 
 deposited in this bank. The Bank of Belgium, char- 
 tered in 1835 for twenty-five years, but which has been 
 extended to 1875, has" a capital of 30,000,000 francs. 
 Its seat is at Brussels. The Bank of Flanders is estab- 
 lished in Ghent. Antwerp is the principal sea-port of 
 Belgium ; it has a good harbor, and superior commer- 
 cial facilities. Population, in 1850, 420,000. 
 
 The weights and measures of Belgium are the same 
 as those of France. Gold, silver, and copper coins are 
 struck at the royal mint in Brussels. The gold coins 
 are ten and twenty-five franc pieces ; the silver are of 
 the value of i, \, 1, 2, and i\ francs ; and the cop- 
 per of 1, 2, 5, and 10 centimes. 
 
 Commerce. — In 1851 Belgium possessed 149 trading 
 vessels, of the aggregate burden of 30,677 tons. The 
 value of the imports and exports for the years 1849, 
 1850, and 1851, was as follows : 
 
 .Ysaii,. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 1849 
 1850 
 1851 
 
 Francs. 
 405,i;49,000 
 423,117,000 
 418,555,;)26 
 
 Francs. 
 874,170,000 
 411,292,000 
 401,176,052 
 
 In 1851 the imports by Belgic vessels were valued at 
 44,702,097 francs; by foreign, 124,736,164 francs; and 
 by land and rivers, 249,117,064 francs. Exports 
 by Belgic vessels, 24,107,306 francs; by foreign, 
 81,326,815 francs ; and by land and rivers, 295,741,931 
 francs. The laden Belgic vessels entering were 402, 
 of 70,261 tons; and foreign 1591, of 229,771 tons. The 
 laden Belgic vessels leaving were 361, of 62,996 tons ; 
 and foreign, 1168, of 161,314 tons. The number en- 
 tering ,in ballast was 149, of 17,434 tons ; .1359 vessels 
 entered the port of Antwerp, 448 Ostend, 234 Ghent, 
 and 101 Nieuport. The imports are principally from 
 France, England, Holland, and the United States; 
 and the exports principally to France, Holland, 
 Prussia, and England. The imports are divided into 
 three classes : those for direct consumption in the 
 country, those for transit, and those brought into 
 warehouses to be either consumed in the country on 
 paying the duties, or exported. The value of goods 
 imported for consumption, and of the productions of 
 the country exported, was for the three years above 
 as follows : 
 
 Vcnrs. 
 
 Imported. 
 
 Exported. 
 
 1849 
 1850 
 1851 
 
 Franca. 
 200,777,000 
 211.923,000 
 218,085,070 
 
 Francs. 
 179,064,000 
 210,033,000 
 200,129,620 
 
 These are divided into three branches. 1, Premieres 
 maiil-rcs, articles consumed in the state in which they 
 are found, as coals, etc. ; 2. Articles of food ; and, 3. 
 Manufactures. The imports and exports of 1851, so 
 divided, give 
 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports, 
 
 Premieres ynatures 
 
 Food 
 
 Manuffictures 
 
 Francs. 
 03,603,110 
 84,362,885 
 4O,f50,OT5 
 
 France. 
 9T,742,4S1 
 26,'25S.285 
 76,128,860 
 
 The value of the goods in transit for the years 1850 
 and 1851 "was 
 
 Years. 
 
 Direct. 
 
 By Warehouse. 
 
 1850 
 1851 
 
 Francs. 
 175,553,000 
 175,104,292 
 
 Francs. 
 26,700,000 
 25,942,134 
 
 Of the latter, the value exported by Belgic vessels was 
 7,046,655 francs; by foreign, 28,712,479; and by land 
 and canals, 165,287,292 francs. Although there is a 
 slight decrease in 1851 as compared with 1850, in com- 
 paring 1850 with 1841 we find an increase of 259 per 
 cent. The value of goods in Avarehouse on the 1st 
 Januarj', 1851, was 26, 626,000 francs ; entered during 
 that year, 65,006,000; taken out for consumption, 
 39,922,000; for export, 25,942; and 25,480,000 were 
 in bond at the end of that j-ear. 
 
 Under the rule of France, Belgium, like the other 
 parts of the Continent, had suff'ered severely from the 
 operation of the conscription laws, which had deprived 
 the country of those active laborers who were necessary 
 to cultivate the fields. Although peace could not re- 
 store the great numbers who had perished, yet it stopped 
 the further progress of the evil in the Netherlands, by 
 the establishment of a voluntary enrollment for a small 
 regular army, and of a militia, whose service was re- 
 quired only for one month in the year. The mines felt 
 the benefit of this regulation. The minerals of Bel- 
 gium consist of coal, iron, and calamine. As soon as 
 the union had been formed, and laborers became less 
 scarce, a great impetus was communicated to this 
 branch of industry ; and companies were formed, who 
 were most liberally repaid by the profit of their invest- 
 ments in this branch of industry, ■which was augment- 
 ed from year to year as long as Belgium and Holland 
 constituted one kingdom. By the excitement com- 
 
BEL 
 
 161 
 
 BEL 
 
 municated to mining, the provinces of Liege and 
 Hainault, and a part of Namur, were greatly en- 
 riched ; and a company formed to explore the mines 
 of Luxembourg were amply rewarded in their labors 
 and their profits, till interrupted by internal commo- 
 tions. The various branches of manufacturing indus- 
 try received a similar impulse, though at first they 
 were checked by the peace. The continental system 
 of Bonaparte had given a factitious encouragement to 
 some articles of manufacture, which ceased with the 
 return of peace ; and, till the formation of the kingdom 
 of the Netherlands, many branches were depressed by 
 the rivalry of foreign goods in the markets to which 
 they had access. But as soon as the junction was com- 
 pleted, a stimulus was given to the manufacturers, by 
 opening to their goods the markets of the East and 
 West Indies, and those of all countries with which the 
 Hollanders had traded. The iron manufactures of 
 Liege advanced rapidly in prosperity; the woolen 
 manufactures of Verviers felt most powerfully a simi- 
 lar impulsion ; and many large establishments were 
 formed at Ghent and other places, where cotton goods 
 were fabricated which rivaled those of England,'"and 
 so far surpassed those of France, that much of the 
 goods was sold by the contraband trade in that king- 
 dom. The opening of the Scheldt was the necessary 
 effect of the formation of the united kingdom. Mer- 
 chants from various countries formed establishments 
 with large capitals at Antwerp; its docks became 
 crowded with ships from all countries ; its warehouses 
 were loaded with colonial and other produce ; and it 
 advanced rapidly to a rivalry with Amsterdam, Rot- 
 terdam, and Hamburg in the transit trade to the inte- 
 rior of Germany. The king directed his best efforts 
 to the state of the roads, the greater part of which had 
 suffered dilapidation, while the cross-roads, so import- 
 ant in a country chiefly agricultural, were in manj- 
 places scarcely passable. The management of the 
 former was under the general government, while that 
 of the latter was superintended by the local authorities ; 
 but in the first few years of the union the whole were 
 repaired and placed in the most excellent state. The 
 interests of internal navigation were sedulously watch- 
 ed over by the king. The old canals were repaired, the 
 shallow parts of the rivers were deepened, and new and 
 important water communications were formed. The 
 chief of these, the Canal Guillaume, which extends 
 from Maestricht to Bois-le-Duc, was an expensive but 
 highly beneficial work; and that of Antoing in Hai- 
 nault, that of Charleroy in the province of Namur, 
 and that of Temuse in Flanders, have been found in 
 a very high degree beneficial. Though no longer of 
 any importance to Belgium, it may not be quite out 
 of place to remark, that the spirit of improvement 
 which spread throughout the whole kingdom was to 
 be seen in Plolland in the Grand Canal of North Hol- 
 land, which opens to Amsterdam a way for ships of 
 the largest size to the ocean by way of the Holder, 
 without incurring the ri-sks arising from the shoals of 
 the Zuyder Zee. 
 
 The following table shows the annual income and 
 expenditure for the seven years preceding 1851 : 
 
 Venrs. 
 
 Income. 
 
 Expenditure. 
 
 
 Francs. 
 
 France. 
 
 1844 
 
 198,810,508 
 
 195,185,057 
 
 1845 
 
 139,856,951 
 
 134,889,349 
 
 1846 
 
 114,064,048 
 
 122,752,999 
 
 184T 
 
 113,528,063 
 
 127,572,374 
 
 1848 
 
 146,117,886 
 
 135,060,595 
 
 1849 
 
 113,8n,43T 
 
 ■ 112,267,069 
 
 1850 
 
 13-2,8T7,18T 
 
 118,730,904 
 
 The number of works, in 1850, for the preparation of 
 iron was 351, steel 2, lead 8, copper 20, zinc 19, alum 
 2, glass 35; 13,223 workmen were engaged, and the 
 value of the produce was 51,261,457 francs. There is 
 a decrease of 37 per cent, on the average of the three 
 years preceding 1848, as compared with the tliree sub- 
 sequent, in the iron manufacture. During the former 
 
 period the demand for iron was great, and the prices 
 were augmented by the number of railways construct- 
 ing in Belgium and other countries. 
 
 The population of Belgium in 1831 was 3,785,814 ; 
 in 1840, 4,073,162 ; and in 1850, 4,426,202 ; distributed 
 as follows : 
 
 Antwerp 
 
 Brabant 
 
 West Flanders . 
 East Flanders. . 
 
 Hainault 
 
 Liege 
 
 Limbourg 
 
 Luxembourg... 
 Namur 
 
 Total. 
 
 349,942 
 561,828 
 608,226 
 742,973 
 613,179 
 875,030 
 160,090 
 100,762 
 213,784 
 
 3,785,814 
 
 IS*). 
 
 371,157 
 621,072 
 646,054 
 779,466 
 661,701 
 410,171 
 169,960 
 174,719 
 2S8,862 
 
 4,073,162 
 
 ISEO. 
 
 420,656 
 7,?4,617 
 631,137 
 783,450 
 733,740 
 467,843 
 188,1E8 
 192,568 
 274,073 
 
 4,426,202 
 
 There are nineteen chambers of commerce and man- 
 ufacture established in the principal towns, the mem- 
 bers of which are nominated by the king from a triple 
 list of candidates presented to him by the chambers. 
 The members of each vary in number from nine to 
 twenty-one, one-third going out annually. They pre- 
 sent to the government or legislative chambers their 
 views as, to the best means of increasing the commer- 
 cial and industrial prosperity of the country, report 
 annually upon the state of their districts, and give use- 
 ful information or direction to the provincial or civic 
 authorities under their administration. 
 
 Schools of navigation have been established at Ant- 
 werp and Ostend for furnishing properly educated 
 masters for merchant vessels. Instruction is given 
 gratuitously in navigation and the branches connected 
 with it — as arithmetic, geometry, trigonometry, nautic- 
 al astronomy, etc. ; with the elements of commercial 
 law, as applicable to merchant vessels, the English 
 language, and the manceuvring, rigging, and trim- 
 ming a vessel, both theoretically and practically. 
 Certificates of qualifications as masters or mates are 
 given by a jury of examiners. — E^ B. 
 
 Alterations and Modifications in the Tariff Tonnage 
 Duties, amA Port Regulations of Belgium, hy Acts of the 
 IWi day of April, and tJie 30th day of March, 1855. — A 
 law of the 21st July, 1844, article 6, authorizes the 
 government to provide, by royal order, the necessary 
 measures for admitting, the products of Asia, Africa, 
 and America, imported direct into Belgium under the 
 flag of the countries of production, or of the countries 
 whence imported, on the same terms as if imported 
 under the Belgian flag, provided Belgian vessels are 
 placed in such c^ntries on an equality with the na- 
 tional flag. By royal order of the 12th July, 1854, 
 this law is made applicable to Mexican vessels and 
 products. The law of 8th June, 1853, provides that 
 the government is empowered to allow vessels pro- 
 ceeding from transatlantic countries, or from a port 
 beyond the Straits of Gibraltar, to touch at an inter- 
 mediate port, whether for the purpose of receiving 
 orders or carrying on commercial transactions by dis- 
 charging OF receiving cargoes. This law, being of 
 limited duration, is continued in force until the 31st 
 day of March, 1856, by the law of 30th March, 1855.* 
 The law of the 11th of June, 1853, authorizes the gov- 
 ernment to admit, free of duty, machines, new or im- 
 proved machinery imported for the purpose of intro- 
 ducing new branches of industry or perfecting those 
 already established, or for agricultural purposes ; also, 
 steam-vessels constructed on a new principle or im- 
 proved plan, or such as could be regarded as models. 
 This law is continued in force to the 24th day of May, 
 1856, by law of 4th June, 1855. 
 
 * This law suspends the practical operation of the 7th ar- 
 ticle of the treaty of November 10, 1845, between the United 
 States and Felgium, which restricts the equality of flags in 
 Belgian ports to direct importations from ports in the United 
 States. Under its operation the flag of the United Stales is 
 equalized with the Belgian, whether the vessel proceeds from 
 a port in the United Slates or not. 
 
BEL 
 
 162 
 
 BEL 
 
 Tariff Changes.* 
 
 Descriptioa of MerchaQdise. 
 
 Duty. 
 
 Under whicli Lav. 
 
 Whalebone, raw 
 
 Timber for building, 5 centimetres or under in width, per sea ton 
 
 Spirits — brandy, gin, and liquors of every kind: 
 
 In barrels, per hectolitre 
 
 In bottles, 116 or more to the hectolitre, per 100 bottles 
 
 Terra japonica 
 
 Coffee, from country of production direct: 
 
 In national vesBels,t per 220 pounds 
 
 In foreign vessels, per 220 pounds 
 
 From other places : 
 
 In national vessels, per 220 pounds 
 
 In foreign vessels, per 220 pounds 
 
 Cinnamon and cassia lig^a: 
 
 Of China, per 220 pounds 
 
 Of Ceylon and other places, per 220 pounds 
 
 Pot and pearl ashes 
 
 Flax in bulk, and other vegetable filaments not otherwise enumerated, per 220 pounds 
 
 Horns and bone-tips of oxen, cows, etc 
 
 Cotton, raw 
 
 Hides and skins, untanned and dry, per 220 pounds 
 
 clippings 
 
 Copper ore, 
 
 Spices, not specially enumerated 
 
 Tin, crude 
 
 Ginger . 
 Tar 
 
 Flaxseed, imported dii'ect from Kiga, from 1st Aug. to 1st April, upon proof of origin 
 
 Fat, tallow, and lard, per 220 pounds 
 
 Oil, of palm, cocoa, Touloncuna, per 220 pounds 
 
 Indigo 
 
 Honey, per 220 pounds 
 
 Marble, in blocks and rough 
 
 Lead ore and old lead 
 
 Fish: 
 
 Herrings, other than in diy salt and pickled, per 1000 
 
 Codfish, pickled or in dry salt, per ton of 150 to 160 kilogrammes 
 
 Stockfish, per 220 pounds 
 
 Pepper and pimento, per 220 pounds 
 
 Quercitron bark 
 
 liice, not hulled, or paddy, direct from countries of production : 
 
 In national vessels, per 220 pounds 
 
 In foreign vessels, per 220 pounds 
 
 From elsewhere : 
 
 In national vessels, per 220 pounds 
 
 In foreign vessels, per 220 pounds 
 
 Rice, hulled, from the country of production, or from transatlantic countries : 
 
 In national vessels, per 220 pounds *. , . 
 
 In foreign vessels, per 220 pounds 
 
 From elsewhere: 
 
 In national vessels, per 220 pounds 
 
 In foreign vessels, per 220 pounds 
 
 Saltpetre, crude, per 220 pounds 
 
 Soap, hard, per 220 pounds 
 
 Sirup and molasses of every kind, per 220 pounds 
 
 Tobacco — Havana, Porto Kico, Columbia, and Orinoco, direct from transatlantic 
 countries : 
 
 In national vessels, per 220 pounds 
 
 In foreign Vessels, per 220 pounds 
 
 From ejsewhcre : r^. 
 
 In national vessels, per 220 pounds 
 
 In foreign vessels, per 220 pounds 
 
 Tobacco— St. Domingo, or West Indies, direct from transatlantic countries : ,_ 
 
 In national vessels, per 220 pounds 
 
 In foreign vessels, per 220 pounds 
 
 From elsewhere : ■''— 
 
 In national vessels, pHr^B20 pounds 
 
 In foreign vessels, pei>-220 pounds 
 
 Other kinds of tobacco,^ of countries out of Europe, direct from country of production, 
 or transatlantic* countries: 
 
 In national vessels, per 220 pounds 
 
 In foreign vessels, per 220 pounds 
 
 From elsewhere : 
 
 In national vessels, per 220 pounds 
 
 In foreign vessels, per 220 pounds 
 
 Tea, per 220 pounds .'.j .'.,■.... ., 
 
 Free. 
 $2 05 
 
 1 12 
 
 2 2i 
 Free. 
 
 1 67 
 
 2 14 
 
 Mar. 30,1855. 
 
 4 81 
 
 
 
 s-i 
 
 
 
 Fi-ee. 
 
 
 
 8Ti 
 
 
 
 Free. 
 
 
 
 Free. 
 
 April 12, 1854. 
 
 09f 
 
 Mar. 
 
 SO, 1855. 
 
 Free. 
 
 
 
 Free. 
 
 
 
 20 per cent. 
 
 
 
 ad valorem. 
 
 
 
 Free. 
 
 
 
 20 per cent 
 
 
 
 ad valorem. 
 
 
 
 Free. 
 
 
 
 Free. 
 
 
 
 4T 
 
 
 
 es 
 
 
 
 Free. 
 
 
 
 2 26 
 
 
 
 Free. 
 
 
 
 Free. 
 
 
 
 1 86 
 
 
 
 4 65 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 
 
 2 98 
 
 
 
 Free. 
 
 
 
 46 
 
 
 
 05 
 
 
 
 1 50 
 1 68 
 
 
 ** 
 
 1 36 
 
 2 05 
 2T 
 
 2 79 
 13 96 
 
 Nov. 
 
 30, 1864 
 
 2 74 
 
 3 06 
 
 Mar. 
 
 30, 1856 
 
 2 92 
 
 3 25 
 
 
 
 2 3-2 
 2 61 
 
 
 
 2 52 
 2 79 
 
 
 
 1 86 
 
 2 13 
 
 
 
 2 09 
 
 2 32 
 
 12 10 
 
 
 
 * Within the year ending September SO, 1855, changes and modifications have been made in the general customs tariifs of 
 Mexico, New Granada, Peru, Gu^tfemala, San Salvador, Costa Rica, Turkey, Belgium, Holland, Portugal, England and her 
 dependencies, and France ; but inasmtich as these tariffs, thus modified or changed, will appear in detail in the answer to the 
 resolution of the House of Representatives of December 14, 1853, now in course of preparation at the State Department, the 
 changes in the tariffs of Belgium, Holland, Portugal, Bermuda, and Newfoundland, are alone given in the present report in 
 tabular form ; and those in the tariffs of England and France by abstracts of the acts and decrees of the governments of those 
 countries respectively. 
 
 t Wherever the term "national vessels" occurs, it is to be understood as applicable to vessels of the United States. 
 
 Bell, a well-known instrument, ranked by musi- 
 cians among the musical instruments of percussion. 
 Bells were used among the Jews, Greeks, Roman 
 Catholics, and heathens. The responses of the Do- 
 donajan oracle were in part conveyed by bells. — Stra- 
 Bo. The monument of Porsenna was decorated by 
 pinnacles, each surmounted by bells. — Pliny. Intro- 
 duced by Paulinus, bishop of Nole, in Campagna, 
 
 about A.D. 400. First known in France in 550. The 
 army of Clothair II., king of France, was frightened 
 from the siege of Sens by the ringing of the bells of 
 St. Stephen's church. The second Excerption of the 
 English King Egbert commands every priest, at the 
 proper hours, to sound the bells of his church. Bells 
 were used in churches by order of Pope John IX., os a 
 defense, by ringing them, against thunder and lightning, 
 
BEN 
 
 163 
 
 BEN 
 
 about 900. First cast in England by Turkeytel, chan- 
 cellor of England, under Edmund I. His successor 
 improved the invention, and caused the first tunable 
 set to be put up at Croyland Abbey, 960. — Stowe. 
 
 Great Bell of St. Paul's, weighs 8,400 lbs. 
 
 Great Tom of Lincoln, -weighs 9,894 '* 
 
 Great Tom of Oxford, weighs 1T,000 *' 
 
 Bell of the Palazzo, Florence, -weighs.. 17,000 " 
 
 St. Peter's, at Rome, weighs 13,600 " 
 
 Great Bell at Erfurth, weighs 28,224 " 
 
 St. Ivan's Bell, Moscow, weighs 12T,836 " 
 
 Bell of the Kremlin, weighs 443,772 " 
 
 The last is the great unsuspended bell, the -wonder of 
 travelers. Its metal alone is valued, at a very low- 
 calculation, at £66,565 sterling. In its fusion "great 
 quantities of gold and silver -were thro-wn in as voti%'e 
 offerings by the people. — Haydn. 
 
 Bell-metal, an alloy of copper and tin, usually in 
 the proportion of 80 parts of copper to 20 parts of tin. 
 Zinc generally enters into the composition of small 
 shrill bells. I5y analysis Dr. Thompson found an En- 
 glish bell-metal to consist of 800 parts of copper, 101 
 tin, 56 zinc, and 43 lead. The thickness of a bell's 
 edge is usually 1-loth of the diameter, and its height 
 is t-welve times its thickness. The bell-founders have 
 a diapason, or scale, -wherewith they measure the size, 
 thickness, -weight, and tone of their bells. — ^E. B. 
 
 Bending, in Nautical Language, the tying of two 
 ropes or cables together ; thus, to bend the cable, is to 
 make it fast to the ring of the anchor ; to bend the sail, 
 to make it fast to the yard. 
 
 Bends, in a ship, more generally called wales, are 
 the thickest and stoutest planks in her side, on -which 
 men set their feet when climbing up. Thej' form the 
 chief strength of a ship's sides, and have the beams, 
 Itnees, and foot-hooks bolted to them. 
 
 Bengal, the largest and most important division of 
 Hlndostan, situate toward its eastern extremity, and 
 containing Calcutta, the seat of the British govern- 
 ment in India. Excluding the possessions of the na- 
 tive princes, over which the British government mere- 
 ly exercises political supremacy, and excluding also 
 the Punjab and the Agra, or northwestern provinces, 
 -which are administered hy functionaries having the 
 powers and authority of lieutenant governors, the tract 
 embraced -within the presidency of Bengal lies between 
 10° and 28° N. lat., and bet-ween 83° and 99° E. long. 
 Its most northern extremity is situate in the prov- 
 ince of Assam, and its most southern point lies on the 
 coast of Tenasserim. The district of Mirzapore, under 
 the jurisdiction of the lieutenant governor of Agra, 
 forms tlie extreme boundary on the -west, and the fron- 
 tier of Siam constitutes its most eastern limit. The 
 longest line which could be drawn with extremities ly- 
 ing within the limits of the presidency, is that in a di- 
 rection from southeast to northwest, from the Pak Chan 
 Eiver, in Tenasserim, to the northwestern angle of the 
 district of Sarun, where the Eiver Gunduck issues from 
 the mountains of Nepaul, in lat. 27° 25', long. 83° 55', 
 and would measure about 1550 miles in length. A 
 considerable part of this line would, however, lie across 
 the Bay of Bengal. The longest line that could be 
 drawn without crossing the bay is from northeast to 
 southwest, from the boundary of Assam to that of the 
 British district of Palamow, a distance o£ about 870 
 miles. The extreme breadth of the presidency, meas- 
 ured at right angles to this last-stated line, is about 465 
 miles, bearing from southeast to northwest, from the 
 mouth of the Hooghly to the exit of the Gunduck from 
 the mountains of Nepaul. The area of the presidency, 
 as thus defined, amounts to 225,103 squares miles. 
 
 Bengal, especially as it approaches the sea, may be 
 designated a level country. Even in its northern 
 frontier, it is reached only on one point by any of the 
 branches that diverge from the Himalayas. A spur 
 fi'om the great culminating range bounds the north- 
 eastern extremity of Assam; and thence taking a 
 southerly direction through the native States of Mun- 
 
 neepore and independent Tipperah, forms the eastern 
 frontier of the British district of Chittagong. Contin- 
 uing from tliis point its southerly course, it stretches, 
 under the name of the Yoomadoung Mountains, through 
 the province of Arracan to its soutliernmost point at 
 Cape Negrais, forming the western boundary of the 
 valley of the In-awaddy. This spur where it touches 
 upon Assam attains an elevation of 14,540 feet above 
 the level of the sea, and there its summit is covered 
 with perennial snow. 
 
 The soil of so extensive a province varies, of course, 
 in its character and fertility with the physical pecul- 
 iarities of the country. In the level tract interlaced 
 by the Ganges and Brahmapootra, with their numer- 
 ous branches and tributaries, the soil is alluvial, its 
 basis being composed of sand, on which are annual- 
 ly deposited, by the retiring waters, clay, calcareous 
 matter, and other fertilizing substances. In the tracts 
 which lie beyond the reach of inundation, it is marked 
 by different degrees of productiveness, from the dry and 
 arid rocks of the southwestern frontier overrun with 
 brushwood, to the hills of Chittagong and Tenasserim 
 clothed with magnificent forests. Taken as a whole, 
 however, the soil of Bengal, enriched as it is by- the 
 combined influence of fierce suns and deluging rains, 
 may be said to be characterized by an amazing fertil- 
 ity. Its productions are those both of the tropical and 
 the temperate climates. Of the grains which contrib- 
 ute to the subsistence of man, rice is of the first import- 
 ance : it is the great staple of Bengal agriculture is 
 particularly luxuriant within the tract of inundation, 
 and thrives in all the southern districts. It is sowi| 
 after tlie first showers at the end of March down to the 
 setting in of the rainy season, and occupies a period 
 ranging (according to its variety, of which there are 
 three principal denominations) from three to five 
 months to ripen. The early crop is sown broadcast ; 
 the later crop, after the seed has attained the height 
 of a few inches, is planted with the hand in rows at the 
 distance of about a foot asunder. The rice harvest is 
 succeeded by the cold-weather crops, which are sown 
 in autumn and reaped in spring. They consist chiefly 
 of vetches, gram, barley, peas, mustard, etc. Millet 
 and other small grains, sown at the beginning of the 
 rains and reaped at the end, constitute the food of the 
 poorer classes, and, bearing a very low price, are of im- 
 portance. Maize is less cultivated in Bengal than in 
 those countries where the climate is more suitable, 
 having no preference above millet to compensate for 
 the greater labor required for its culture. Potatoes 
 have lately been introduced into Bengal, and have 
 succeeded well. They are suited to the climate ; and 
 the small potato is little inferior to that raised in En- 
 gland. Esculent plants are found in Bengal in great 
 abundance and variety. The different species of the 
 cucumber are much more numei'ous than in Europe, 
 and whole fields are covered with them. The water- 
 melon is of incredible size ; and its stall-:, leaves, and 
 blossoms form a finely variegated matting, with which 
 most of the cottages in the villages are entirely covered. 
 
 The universal and vast consumption of vegetable 
 oils which takes place in Bengal is supplied by the ex- 
 tensive cultivation of mustard, linseed, sesamum, and 
 palma-christi, in addition to the produce obtained from 
 the cocoa-nut. The sesamum comes to maturity during 
 the rains, or soon after them, the others during the cold 
 season. Among the most important of the commercial 
 crops are tobacco, sugar, the opium poppy, indigo, cot- 
 ton, and silk, most of which require land solely appro- 
 priated to their peculiar culture ; of late years coffee 
 has been successfully cultivated. Tobacco, which was 
 unknown in India before the discovery of America, is 
 now produced every where. The sugar-cane has flour- 
 ished in Bengal from the remotest times; there is 
 scarcely a district in which its cultivation is not pur- 
 sued with success, and there seems to be no limit to its 
 production, except the demand for it. It is cheaply 
 
BEN 
 
 164 
 
 BEN 
 
 and frugally manufactured ; and as it now enters the 
 British market on equal terms with West India sugar, 
 it forms an important article of export. The manufac- 
 ture of indigo appears to have been known and prac- 
 ticed in Bengal from an early period ; and from the 
 East Europe was supplied with this dye until the su- 
 perior produce of America engrossed the markets. 
 European skill has, however, succeeded in reviving 
 this branch of trade in Bengal, and the indigo now ex- 
 ported from this presidency amounts to live-sixths of 
 the supply obtained from the whole world. Cotton is 
 raised in abundance, but the produce scarcely exceeds 
 the consumption ; and the demand of the British and 
 China markets for the cotton wool of India is almost 
 wholly supplied fi'om the western side of the country. 
 Silk is an ancient product of India ; the silkworm, it is 
 said, being originally introduced from China. Former- 
 ly the raw material was brought from India to Greece 
 and Italy, whence Europe was chiefly supplied. Ben- 
 gal still carries on a trade in this valuable article ; 
 ;ind although the quality is scarcely equal to the finest 
 Italian silk, the annual export from Calcutta exceeds 
 in value half a million sterling. A coarse species of 
 silk is procured from the wild silkworm, which is found 
 in the countries bordering on Bengal, and in several 
 districts included within it. It is rendered useful in 
 the fabrication of inferior silks, though bearing no com- 
 parison to the produce of the domesticated insect. The 
 cultivation of the poppy is entirely regulated and con- 
 trolled by the government. Annual contracts are made 
 with the farmers to sow certain quantities of land with 
 the plant, and to deliver the produce to the government 
 in the form of opium at a fixed price. The sowings 
 commence in November, and the crop arrives at ma- 
 turitj' by the end of February. The revenue realized 
 by the government from the sale of opium produced in 
 Bengal alone amounts to between two and three mill- 
 ions sterling per annum. 
 
 The orchard is a great object of cultivation with the 
 peasant in Bengal; and it attaches him to his native 
 soil, from the almost superstitious predilection which 
 he feels for the trees planted by his ancestor. The sea- 
 sons, however, from the long continuance of the rains, 
 which occupy the greater part of the summer, are not 
 particularly favorable for bringing fruit to maturity ; 
 yet the orange, lime, shaddock, citron, tamarind, and 
 other fruits, may be reckoned among the productions 
 of Bengal. Orchards of mango, a tree thriving with 
 little care, and yielding a fruit esteemed one of the best 
 among those of India, diversify the plains. In size and 
 foliage this tree resembles 4;he Spanish chestnut; its 
 fruit is extremely delicious, and is said to surpass in 
 flavor the large yellow peach of Venice. Another 
 fruit tree is the cocoa-nut, valuable not only on ac- 
 count of the nut, from which a superior oil is large- 
 ly extracted, but in consideration also of its timber, 
 wliich is peculiarly fitted for the construction of water- 
 pipes and other useful purposes. Even the husk which 
 envelops the fruit furnishes a fibre from which the best 
 cordage is manufactured. The mulberry is extensive- 
 ly planted in consideration, of its leaves, which afford 
 the food of the silkworm. Assam abounds with the 
 genuine tea plant ; and the bassia thrives in various 
 localities, especially in the hilly districts. Its produce 
 i-; esculent and nutritious, and its flowers yield an in- 
 toxicating spirit. From its seeds is expressed an oil 
 which is sometimes used as a substitute for butter. 
 There are also valuable forest trees, among which may 
 be noticed the teak, equal to the oak for purposes of 
 shiji-building, the sal, and the banyan. There is also 
 the bamboo, which, being hollow, light, and strong, is 
 serviceable in supplying the peasant with materials 
 for his buildings, as well as for the manufacture of 
 baskets, mats, and other articles of like character, to 
 iihich, when split, its flexible fibre is well adapted. 
 
 Minerals. — From the alluvial character of the great- 
 er portion of the soil of Bengal, no great amount of 
 
 mineral wealth is to be expected. In the hilly tracts, 
 however, both in the eastern and western parts of the 
 country, two of the most useful products which the 
 mineral kingdom can boast, coal and iron ore, exist in 
 abundance. Gold, in the form of dust, is found in a 
 few places, but not in quantities sufficient to encourage 
 to any extent the search for it. 
 
 Manvfactures and Commerce. — Cotton piece goods 
 form the staple manufacture of Bengal ; though the 
 use of Indian fabrics of this description in Europe has 
 almost entirely ceased, while even in India the demand 
 for them has been in a great degree superseded by the 
 cheaper goods of Great Britain. The district of Dacca, 
 in the eastern quart.er of Bengal, has long been famed 
 for the manufacture of plain muslins, distinguished by 
 various names according to the fineness and the close- 
 ness of their texture, as well as for flowered, striped, or 
 checkered muslins of the most beautiful and exquisite 
 fabrics. Several kinds more closely woven are manu- 
 factured on the western side of the delta of the Ganges ; 
 but those of a more rigid texture do not seem to be lim- 
 ited to particular districts : coarse turbans and hand- 
 kerchiefs are also made in almost every province. Un- 
 der the general appellation of calicoes are included 
 various species of cloth which are still distinguished 
 bytheir Indian designations. Moorshedabad and its 
 neighborhood is the chief seat of the silk manufacture. 
 
 The internal trade of Bengal consists chiefly in the 
 exportatioii from the grain districts of corn and rice in 
 exchange for salt. The supply of this article in Ben- 
 gal is provided partly by manufacture conducted on 
 account of the government, partly by importation, and 
 to a small extent by private manufacture under a sys- 
 tem of excise. The duty on all imported salt is at the 
 rate of five shillings on 82 pounds, or about three far- 
 things per pound ; and the same rate of duty is levied 
 on the home manufacture of the article, the prime cost 
 of which amounts to about one farthing per pound. 
 The wholesale price of salt at Calcutta may therefore 
 be estimated at one penny the pound. Its supply is no 
 longer a monopoly ; for though the manufacture and 
 sale have not been relinquished by the government, 
 yet the public participate in its provision, under a 
 combined system of customs and excise. The net rev- 
 enue derived from salt by the government within the 
 presidency of Bengal exceeds a million arid a half 
 sterling per annum. 
 
 Salt is a very ancient source of revenue in the East ; 
 but a feeling against its manufacture being carried on 
 by tlio government has been for some time on the in- 
 crease. During the parliamentary session of 1853, a 
 clause was proposed to be inserted in the India bill, 
 then in its progress through Parliament, forbidding the 
 manufacture after the 1st May, 1856 ; and though op- 
 posed by the ministry, it was in the House of Com- 
 mons carried. By the House of Lords it was, howev- 
 er, rejected, it being deemed unsafe thus suddenly to 
 diminish the resources of India by so large an amount 
 as that of the revenue produced by the trade as at pres- 
 ent conducted. The facilities afforded for the intro- 
 duction of English salt have for several years past 
 caused a great increase of the imported article, the 
 quantity received in Calcutta in the official year 
 1850-51 being double that of previous years. 
 
 The int^nal trade of Bengal is greatly aided by the 
 navigable communications which intersect the country 
 in every direction. The boats used in this navigation 
 vary in form and construction, being each adapted to 
 the nature of the rivers which they generally traverse. 
 Steam navigation has been introduced upon the Ganges 
 with success ; and the Macadamized trunk road from 
 Calcutta to Delhi has afforded facility of communica- 
 tion with the capital to various parts of the presidency ; 
 but there can be little doubt that in the course of a few 
 years the rivers and roads of Bengal will alike be- 
 come subsidiary to the great arteries of communica- 
 tion which, in the form of railways, are now com- 
 
BEN 
 
 165 
 
 BER 
 
 mencing to intersect the country. The line from Cal- 
 cutta to Burdwan is advancing rapidly to completion ; 
 from this point it will be continued in a northerly di- 
 rection to Kajmahal, on the Ganges, whence it will 
 traverse the heart of the presidency in a northwesterly 
 direction to Allahabad. 
 
 Bengal carries on an extensive commerce with Brit- 
 ain. The exports consist chiefly of all the staple arti- 
 cles of the country — such as cotton, silk, sugar, rum, 
 and indigo. The imports are metals of all sorts, 
 wrought and unwrought ; woolen and cotton manufac- 
 tures of various kinds, which can be sent from Britain 
 and sold cheaper than the home manufactures of the 
 same description ; naval and military stores ; gold and 
 silver bullion ; and almost every article of British man- 
 ufacture. An extensive trade is carried on to China 
 and the countries and islands to the east. The exports 
 are chiefly opium, saltpetre, gunpowder, cotton, and 
 cotton piece goods. — E. B. 
 
 Bengal, Bay of, a portion of the Indian Ocean of 
 the figure of a triangle, having on its western side the 
 coast of Bengal, and on the east the coast of Arracan, 
 Pegu, and the Malayan peninsula. Its two sides, from 
 Bengal to Ceylon on the west, and to Junkseylon on 
 the east, may be estimated at 1120 miles in length, and 
 the whole is comprehended within the latitudes of 8° 
 and 20° N. At the bottom of the bay the breadth from 
 Chittagong to Balasore is not above 250 miles ; and at 
 its mouth, from Cape Comorin to the Malayan penin- 
 sula, the breadth may be estimated at 1200 miles. The 
 western and eastern coasts of the Bay of Bengal form 
 a singular contrast in all the points most essential to a 
 navigator. On the western coast there are no harbors 
 for large ships, while on the eastern coast there are 
 many excellent harbors, such as Arracan, Cheduba, 
 Negrais, and Syriam, in Pegu ; a harbor near Marta- 
 ban, Tavay River, and King's Island ; and several har- 
 bors in the Mergui Archipelago, besides Junkseylon, 
 Telebone, and Pula Lada. Off the west coast of Coro- 
 mandel there are no soundings about thirty miles from 
 the shore, while the east coast has soundings two de- 
 grees from it. Coromandel presents an open country : 
 it is parched with drought from winds blowing over 
 sultry sands ; the mouths of its rivers are shallow from 
 bars of sand, and it is often visited by dangerous gales. 
 The east coast, on the other hand, is covered with 
 wood. The climate is always temperate ; the rivers 
 are deep and muddy; and the weather is generally 
 calm. The monsoons blow over the Bay of Bengal, 
 though it is remarkable thaf hei'e, as in many parts of 
 India, strong winds are found blowing directly from 
 the sea, while at some distance from the land it is a 
 dead calm. Thus in Bengal there are strong norther- 
 ly winds, while at sea calms prevail until May and 
 June ; and on the Malabar coast the southwest mon- 
 soon does not commence blowing till the beginning of 
 the rainy season, while on shore there are strong west- 
 erly winds about and after the time of the vernal equi- 
 nox.— E. B. 
 
 Bergamoti a species of citron, Citrus Umetia, dis- 
 tinguished from the orange and lemon by having wing- 
 less leaf-stalks. It is a native of the south of Europe, 
 and is produced abundantly in the neighborhood of 
 Nice. The fruit has a delicious taste and smell, and 
 its essential oil is highlj' esteemed as a perfume. The 
 essence of bergamot is also called essenzia di cedro. It 
 is extracted from the yellow rind of the fruit by cut- 
 ting it in small pieces, and expressing the oil, or by 
 distilling it from water. One hundred bergamots of 
 Nice yield, by expression, 2i ounces of oil. 
 
 Bergamot is also the denomination of a coarse 
 tapestry, manufactured with flocks of silk, wool, cot- 
 ton, hemp, cow's or goat's hair, and supposed to be in- 
 vented at Bergamo, in Italy. 
 
 Bergen, the first commercial city of Norway, situ- 
 ated at the bottom of a deep bay, in lat. 60° 24' N., 
 long. 6° 20' E. Population 26,000. The bay is in- 
 
 closed on all sides by rugged rocks and islands : tlie 
 water is deep ; but, owing to the number and intrica- 
 cy of the passages, the access to the town is attended 
 at all times with a good deal of difficulty, and should 
 n^er be attempted without a pilot. Codfish, salted 
 or dried, is the principal article of export : when dried, 
 it is called stock-fish, and goes chiefly to Italy and 
 Holland. The fishery is the principal employment ; 
 and considerable quantities of fish and other products 
 are also brought hither for exportation from the more 
 northerly parts of the kingdom. At an average, from 
 25,000,000 to 30,000,000 lbs. salted and dried fish are 
 annually exported. Herrings, whale-oil, skins, bones, 
 tar, lobsters, etc., are also largely exported. 'The ex- 
 ports of timber from Bergen are inconsiderable, and 
 none has latterly gone to England. Norway timber 
 is not so large as that brought from Prussian ports, 
 nor so free from knots ; but, being of slower growth, 
 it is more compact, and less liable to rot. The planks 
 are either red or white fir or pine: the red wood is 
 produced from the Scotch fir ; the white wood, which 
 is inferior in price and estimation, is the produce of the 
 spruce fir ; each tree yields three pieces of timber of 
 11 or 12 feet in length, and is 70 or 80 years of ago 
 before it arrives at perfection. The planks or deals of 
 Bergen are, however, a good deal inferior to those of 
 Christiana. The imports into Bergen principally 
 consist of grain from the Baltic ; and salt, hardware, 
 coffee, sugar, etc., from England. — For Moneys^ Weights, 
 and Measures, see Christiana, where there are fur- 
 ther details as to the trade and navigation of Norway. 
 
 Berlin Decree, a memorable interdict against the 
 commerce of England. It declared the British islands 
 to be in a state of blockade, and all Englishmen found 
 in countries occupied by French troops were to be 
 treated as prisoners of war ; the whole world, in fact, 
 was to cease from any communication with Great 
 Britain. Issued by Bonaparte from the court of the 
 Prussian king, shortly after the battle of Jena (which 
 for the time decided the fate of Prussia), Nov. 21, 1806. 
 
 Bermudas, or Somers' Isles, were discovered 
 by Joao Bermudas, a Spaniard, in 1527^ but were not 
 inhabited until 1609, when Sir George Somers was 
 cast away upon them. They were settled by a statute 
 9 James I., 1612. Among the exiles from England, 
 during the civil war, was Waller the poet, who wrote, 
 while resident here, a poetical description of the islands. 
 There was an awful hurricane here, Oct. 31, 1780, and 
 another, by which a third of the houses was destroyed, 
 and all the shipping driven ashore, July 20, 1813. 
 
 Berries (BacccB), the fruits or seeds of many differ< 
 ent species of plants. The berries quoted in London 
 price-currents are bay, juniper, Turkey and Persian. 
 1. Bay-berries (Fr. Baies de Laurier ; Ger. Lo'heeren ; It. 
 Bacchi di Lauro ; Sp. Bayas"), the fruit of the Laurus 
 noiilis. This tree is a native of the south of Europe, 
 but is cultivated in England, and is not uncommon in 
 their gardens. The berry is of an oval shape, fleshy, 
 and of a dark purple color, almost black; it has a 
 sweet fragrant odor, and an aromatic astringent taste. 
 Bay-berries, and the oil obtained by boiling them in 
 water, are imported from Italy and Spain. — Thom- 
 son's Dispensatory. 
 
 2. Juniper Berries (Fr. Genevrier; Du. Sevenboom; 
 It. Gintpro ; Sp. Embrd), the fruit of the common juni- 
 per (Juniperus communis'). They are round, of a black 
 purple color, and require two years to ripen. They 
 have a moderately strong, not disagreeable, but peculiar 
 smell, and a warm pungent, sweetish taste, which, if 
 they be long chewed, or previously well bruised, is fol- 
 lowed by a considerable bitterness. They are found 
 in England ; but most of those made use of there are 
 imported from Holland, Germany, and Italy. They 
 should be chosen fresh, not much shriveled, and free 
 from mouldiness, which they are apt to contract in 
 keeping. On distillation with water, they yield a 
 volatile essential oil, very subtle and pungent, and in 
 
BEE 
 
 166 
 
 BEZ 
 
 smell greatly resembling the berries. The peculiar 
 flavor and diuretic qualities of Geneva depend princi- 
 pally on the presence of this oil. English gin is said 
 to be, for the most part, flavored -with oil of turpentine. 
 — Lewis's Mat. Med. ; Thomson's Dispensatory. 
 
 3. Turkey Yellow Berries, the unripe fruit of the 
 Rliamnus ififectorius of Linnaeus. They are used as a 
 dye drug in preparing a lively but very fugitive yel- 
 low, for topical application in calico-printing. Con- 
 siderable quantities of them are exported from Saloni- 
 ca, to which they are brought from Thessaly and Alba- 
 nia. An inferior sort is produced in France. — Ban- 
 croft on Colm-s. Price in the London market, Sep- 
 tember, 1853, 34s. to iOs. per cwt. 
 
 4. Persian Yellow Berries are said by the merchants 
 to be of the same species as the Turkey yellow berries. 
 The colors which they yield are more lively and lasting. 
 They are high-priced, fetching from SOs. to 110s. a cwt. 
 
 Beryl, called by the jewelers Aquamarine. This 
 stone \\'as suspected by Pliny to be a variety of the 
 emerald ; a conjecture which modem mineralogists 
 have completely confirmed. The term emerald is ap- 
 plied to that particular variety which presents its 
 own peculiar color, or emerald green; while that of 
 beryl is given indiscriminately to all the other varie- 
 ties ; as the sea green, pale blue, golden yellow, and 
 colorless. Pliny says that the beryl is found in India, 
 and rarely elsewhere ; but besides India, it is found in 
 Peru and Brazil ; at Nantes and Limoges, in France ; 
 in the Wicklow Mountains, in Ireland ; in the district 
 of Cairngorm, in Scotland ; and in various other places. 
 — Plixy, Hisi. Nat. lib. xxxvii. cap. 5 ; Encyc. Brit. 
 new edition. 
 
 Those only which are of good color and sufficient 
 depth are manufactured ; they have a pretty, lively 
 effect, if in good proportion and well polished. Large 
 stones, from one to three and four ounces, are not un- 
 common, but from their bulk are only in request as 
 specimens for the cabinet; smaller stones, suitable for 
 necklaces, may be bought at low prices, within the 
 reach of every description of purchasers. — Mawe aii 
 Diamonds, etc. 2d edition. 
 
 Besant, or Bezant, a coin of pure gold, struck at 
 Byzantium in the time of the Christian emperors ; and 
 hence the gold offered by the king at the altar is called 
 besant or bisant. It seems to have been current in En- 
 gland from the tenth century till the time of Edward 
 III. Its value is not precisely ascertained, but it is 
 generally estimated at 9s. 4^d. sterling. 
 
 Betel-leaf (Hind. Pan; Malay, Sireh; Javan. 
 Suro), the leaf alluded to in the following article. It 
 is the produce of a species of pepper vine (Piper betW), 
 and somewhat resembles the ivy leaf. In their fresh 
 state, betel leaves form an important article of Eastern 
 traffic, being every where used in the preparation of 
 betel. The Piper betle is a scandent plant, and poles 
 are placed in the ground, round which it twines itself. 
 In consequence of the great consumption of its leaves, 
 it is extensively cultivated throughout tropical Asia. 
 It grows in the greatest perfection in rich soils close to 
 the equator, and is raised with more difficulty the 
 farther we recede from it. — Encyc. Britannica, new edi- 
 tion, article Betel; Crawfvrd's Indian Archipelago, 
 vol. i. p. 403. 
 
 Betel-nut, or Areca (Sans, and Hind. Suapri; 
 Malay, Pinang ; Javan. Jambi), the fruit of the Areca 
 catechu, a slender and graceful palm, rising to the 
 height of about 30 or 40 feet; it produces fruit at the 
 age of five or six years, and continues bearing till its 
 25th or 30th year. The fruit, which is the only part 
 of the palm that is made use of, is eaten both in its 
 unripe and in its mature state. When ripe, it is of the 
 size of a small egg, and of an orange color; the exte- 
 rior part consists of a soft, spongy, fibrous matter, in- 
 closing a nucleus resembling a nutmeg in shape, inter- 
 nal structure, and color, but usually larger, and always 
 harder. A single tree produces, according to its situ- 
 
 ation, age, culture, etc., from 200 to 800 nuts. They 
 are objects of great importance in the East, forming 
 the principal ingredient of a compound in universal 
 use as a masticatory in all Central and tropical Asia. 
 The other ingredients are the leaf of the betel pepper 
 (which see), in which the areca-nut is wrapped; a little 
 Chunam (which see) ; and generally, but not always, 
 a little catechu or terrajaponica.. — See Catechu. The 
 whole compound is called betel, and is used to an ex- 
 tent of which it is difficult for a European to form a, 
 just idea. All individuals, without exception of age 
 or sex, begin at an early period to accustom themselves 
 to betel. They are unceasingly masticating it, and 
 derive a gratification from its use that strangers can 
 neither understand nor explain. It reddens the sa- 
 liva, gives a bright hue to the lips, and, in course of 
 time, renders the teeth quite black. It is said to dispel 
 nausea, excite appetite, and strengthen the stomach. 
 Besides being used as an article of luxury, it is a kind 
 of ceremonial which regulates the intercourse of the 
 more polished classes of the East. When any person 
 of consideration visits another, after the first saluta- 
 tions, betel is presented ; to omit it, on the one part, 
 would be considered neglect, and its rejection would be 
 judged an affront on the other. No one of inferior 
 rank addresses a dignified individual without the pre- 
 vious precaution of chewing betel ; two people seldom 
 meet without exchanging it ; and it is always offered 
 on the ceremonious interviews of public missionaries. 
 The areca-nut is, in consequence, an article of very ex- 
 tensive trade. The countries which yield it most 
 largely for exportion are, Malabar, Ceylon, and Su- 
 matra. Of the extent of this trade some notion may 
 be formed from the fact that the imports of areca into 
 Calcutta in 1841-1842 amounted to 53,033 Ind. maunds, 
 or 1966 tons, and those into Canton in 1837, by Brit- 
 ish ships only, amounted to 25,978 piculs, or 1502 tons, 
 notwithstanding Bengal and Southern China are coun- 
 tries in which areca is largely produced. — See the arti- 
 cle Betel in the new edition of the Encyc. Britannica ; 
 Bell's Jieview of the E3:ternal Commerce of Bengal; 
 CRAwruRD's Indian Archipelago, vol. i. p. 102, vol. 
 ii. p. 414 ; Chinese Calendar and Register, 
 
 Beyrout, Beirout, or Bairut (Berytus), a fortified 
 sea-port, and the most flourishing commercial town of 
 Syria in proportion to its size, pashawlic of Acre, on a 
 bay of the Mediterranean, 57 miles west-northwest of 
 Damascus, of which city it is the port, and 3 miles south 
 of Cape Beyrout, which is in lat. 33° 50' N., long. 35° 
 26' E. Population estimated at 12,000. Its walls are 
 about 3 miles in circumference, outside of which are 
 suburbs equaling the town in extent. It has some 
 large and well supplied bazars. Streets narrow, but 
 clean, it being plentifully furnished with springs ; and 
 it is said to have derived its original name from the 
 Phoenician deity, Baul Beerith, " lord of wells." Along 
 the shore are some remains of antiquity, comprising 
 mosaic pavements, columns, and a thick wall. The 
 harbor, protected by a mole, is adapted only for small 
 boats ; but in the bay beyond it ships may anchor in 
 from to 11 fathoms. 'The town has some manufac- 
 tures of silk stuffs, and gold and silver thread. Prin- 
 cipal exports, silk, galls, madder, gums, wine, and oils : 
 imports, muslins, cottons, tin, hardware, cloths, and 
 manufactures of western Europe. In 1841, 383 ships, 
 mostly Turkish, Arab, and Greek, aggregate burden 
 38,441 tons, entered the port with cargoes to the value 
 of £66,748 ; and nearlj' the same number cleared out 
 with cargoes worth £25,128, besides ballast. Beyrout 
 was bombarded and taken by the English in 1840. 
 
 Bezoar (4rab. Fadvj; Hind. Zeher-morah; Pers. 
 Padzehr Kanie), a concretion found in the stomach of 
 an animal of the goat kind ; it has a smooth glossy 
 surface, and is of a dark green or olive color : the word 
 bezoar, however, has lately been extended to all the 
 concretions found in animals ; such as the hog bezoar, 
 found in the stomach of the wild boar in India ; the 
 
BIB 
 
 167 
 
 BIL 
 
 hoi'ine bezoar, found in the gall-bladder of the ox, com- 
 mon in Nepaul ; and the camel bezoar, found in the 
 gall-bladder of the camel : this last is much prized as 
 a yellow paint by the Hindoos. The finest bezoar is 
 brought to India from Borneo and the sea-ports of the 
 Persian Gulf; the Persian article is particularly sought 
 after, and is said to be procured from animals of the 
 goat kind, Capra Gazella. Many extraordinary virtues 
 were formerly ascribed to this substance, but without 
 any sufficient reason. — Ainslie's Materia Indica. 
 
 Bible. The first translation from the Hebrew into 
 the Greek was made by seventy-two interpreters, by 
 order of Ptolemy Philadelphus ; it is thence called the 
 Septuagint version, and was completed in seventy-two 
 days, at Alexandria, 277 B.C.— Josephcs. It was 
 commenced 284 B.C. — Lenglet. In 283. — Blaik. 
 The Jewish Sanhedrim consisted of seventy or seven- 
 ty-two members, and hence probably the seventy or 
 seventy-two translators of Josephus. — Hewlett. The 
 seventy-two were shut up in thirty-six cells, and each 
 pair translated the whole ; and on subsequent compari- 
 son, it was found that the thirty-six copies did not vary 
 by a word or a letter. — Justin MARiyE. 
 
 Ancient copies of the Bible. — The oldest version of 
 the Old and New Testament belonging to the Chris- 
 tians is that in the Vatican, which was written in the 
 fourth or fifth century, and published in 1587. The 
 next in age is the Alexandrine MS., in the British 
 Museum, presented by the Greek patriarch to Charles 
 I,, and said to have been copied nearly about the same 
 time. The most ancient copy of the Jewish Scriptures 
 existed at Toledo, about a. d. 1000 ; and the copy of 
 Ben Asher, of Jerusalem, was made about 1100. — 
 Haydn. 
 
 Bishops' Bible. — Bishop Alley prepared the Penta- 
 teuch; Bishops Davis and Sandys, the Historical 
 Books ; Bishop Bentham, the Psalms, etc. ; Bishop 
 Home, the Prophets ; Bishop Grindal, the Minor Proph- 
 ets ; Bishops Parkhurst and Barlow, the Apocrypha ; 
 Bishop Cox, the Gospels and Acts ; and Archbishop 
 Parker, the remainder. Printed a.d. 1558. 
 
 Division of the Bible. — The Bible was divided into 
 twenty-two books by the Jews, the number of letters 
 in the alphabet. The Christians divided the Bible 
 into thirty-nine books. The Hebrew division into 
 chapters was made by the Eabbi Nathan about 1445. 
 Our Bible was divided into chapters, and a part into 
 verses, by Archbishop Langton, who died in 1228 ; and 
 this division was perfected by Robert Stephens, about 
 1534. 
 
 Editions of the Bible. — The vulgate edition, in Latin, 
 was made by St. Jerome a.d. 405, and is that ac- 
 knowledged by the Catholic Church to be authentic : 
 it was first printed by Guttenberg at Mayence, 1450- 
 1455. — See Books. The first perfect edition in En- 
 glish was finished, as appears from the colophon, by 
 Tindal and Coverdale, October 4, 1535. A revision of 
 this edition was made, 1538-'39. This last was or- 
 dered to be read in churches, 1549. In 1604, at the 
 conference at Hampton court, a new translation was 
 resolved upon, which was executed 1607-1611, by order 
 of King James I., and is that now generally used in 
 Great Britain. J. Eliot's Indian Bible, one of the first 
 books printed in North America, at Cambridge, 1664. 
 The Bible was first printed in Ireland, at Belfast, in 
 1704. Permitted by the Pope to be translated into 
 the language of the Catholic States, 1759. The Bible 
 was printed in 
 
 Spanisli 14T8 
 
 German 1532 
 
 EngUeh 1534 
 
 Frencli 1B35 
 
 Swedish 1541 
 
 Danish IBBO 
 
 Dutch 1560 
 
 Russian 1581 
 
 Hungarian 15S9 
 
 Polish 1596 
 
 Modern Greek 16S8 
 
 Indian (Mass.) 1604 
 
 Turkish 1668 
 
 Irish 1686 
 
 Portuguese 1748 
 
 Manks 1T75 
 
 Italian 1TT6 
 
 Bengalee 1801 
 
 Tartar 1813 
 
 Persian 1815 
 
 African 1816 
 
 Chinese 1820 
 
 Editions of the Old and New Testament, separately, 
 appeared in several instances at earlier dates, particu- 
 larly in European languages. The Polyglot Bible, 
 edited by Walton, bishop of Chester, in the Hebrew, 
 Syriac, Chaldee, Samaritan, Arabic, Ethiopic, Persic, 
 Greek, and Latin languages, 1657. — Wood's Fasti. 
 Ox'on. — Haydn. 
 
 Bight (Dutch iogt, participle of boogen, to bend), a 
 bend in the sea-coast, forming an open bay; also a 
 round of a rope or cable when coiled. 
 
 Bilbao, a city and principal port of the north of 
 Spain, capital of the province of Vizcaya (Biscay), on 
 the Nervion, 6 miles from its mouth at Portugalete, and 
 28 miles north of Vitoria, lat. 43° 14' 3" N., long. 
 2° 56' 5" W. Population 11,900. It is inclosed by 
 lofty mountains, and is well built. Principal manu- 
 factures, hardware, anchors, leathei*, paper, hats, to- 
 bacco, and earthen-ware ; there are large rope-walk, 
 and docks for building merchant vessels, with iron and 
 copper mines in the vicinity. Exports comprise wool, 
 iron, fish, and fruits. Principal imports, cotton and 
 woolen fabrics, and colonial produce. Bilbao was found- 
 ed in 1300 ; at the end of the 15th century it became 
 the seat of the famous consulado, originally established 
 at Burgos, and having the highest authority in Spain 
 as a commercial tribunal. It was the scene of frequent 
 contests in the late Carlist wars, and Zumalacarregui 
 received his death wound here, June 10, 1835. 
 
 Bilge of a ship, the bottom of her floor, or the 
 breadth of the part she rests on when aground. Bilge- 
 water is that which lodges on her floor below the level 
 of the well of the pump ; and bilge-pumps, or burr- 
 pumps, are those that carry off the bilge-water. A 
 ship is said to be bilged whe^ her bilge is broken in 
 and she springs a lealt. 
 
 Bilge, the greatest circumference of a cask. 
 
 Bill, in Nautical La/nguagCi the point of the fluke 
 of an anchor. 
 
 Bill, in English Law, a. declaration in writing, ex.- 
 pressing either some wrong the, complainant has suf- 
 fered from the defendant, or a fault committed by the 
 person complained of against some law or statute. In 
 Scottish law, every summary application, by way of 
 petition to the Court of Session, is called a bill. 
 
 Bill, in Commerce, has been usually defined a writing 
 in which one man is bound to another to pay a sum of 
 money, on a day that is future, or presently on demand, 
 according to the agreement of tlie parties at the time 
 when it is drawn; and on which, in the event of fail- 
 ure, execution maj- be summarily done to enforce pay- 
 ment. — E. B. 
 
 Bills of Bxchange. Without entering into any 
 investigation regarding the origin of bills of exchange, 
 which has been assigned by different writers to dif- 
 ferent countries and causes, we may say that it is now 
 the most generally adopted opinion that they originated 
 in. the twelfth or thirteenth century, in Italy, at the 
 public fairs, which received a marked importance in 
 commerce, through the Crusades. The money-chang- 
 ers transacted their principal business at the public 
 fairs in the principal cities, and bills or orders for the 
 payment of money at a distant place were at first 
 drawn only from one fair to another, and were called 
 cambia regularia. But when commerce increased, 
 through the Hanseatio League, and extended to places 
 where no public fairs were held, bills of exchange were 
 also drawn upon such other places, and these bills 
 were called cambia irregularia. 
 
 The oldest copy of a formal bill of exchange known 
 at present is one dated at Milan on the 9th of March, 
 1325, and runs in the original as follows : 
 
 " Pagate per questa prima litera \lettxra'] a di IX. 
 Ottobre a Luca de Goro Lib. XLV. Sana per la valuta 
 qui da Masco Rem), al tempo il pagate e ponete a mio 
 canto e R. che Christo vi guarde Bonromeo de Bonromei 
 de Milano IX. de' Marzo, 1325." — " Pay for this first 
 bill of exchange, on the 9th of October, to Luca de 
 
BIL 
 
 168 
 
 BIL 
 
 Goro XLV. Livres ; they are for value received here 
 from Masco Reno ; at the time of maturity pay the 
 same and pass it to my account, and thanliing you, 
 may Christ protect you, Bonromeo de Bonromei of 
 Milan, the 9th of March, 1325." 
 
 In England, reference was made, in the statute of 
 5 Rich. II. eh. 2, to the drawing of foreign bills, which 
 was in the year 1381. The legal properties of bills in 
 England are derived from the custom of merchants, 
 but promissory notes are said to derive their properties 
 from the act of Parliament of the 3d and 4th Anne, c. 9, 
 which puts them on the same footing with inland bills. 
 In the United States, bills of exchange and promissory 
 notes are recognized in law as negotiable instruments, 
 with all the properties usually attached to them by the 
 custom of merchants. The statute laws in many 
 States especially provide for their negotiability ; but 
 in States where this is not the case, the same custom- 
 ary properties would be held to attach to them. 
 
 Name, and Definition, — A bill of exchange, in common 
 speech called a draft, is an open letter of request, ad- 
 dressed by one person to a second, desiring him to pay 
 a sum of money to a third, or to any other to whom 
 that third person shall order it to be paid ; or it may 
 be made payable to bearer. For instance : 
 
 "23o8(o7i, 1st Ja-mtary, 1S52. 
 " Exchange for §1000. 
 
 " Sixty days after sight of this bill of exchange^ pay to 
 the order of George Green, One Thousand Dollars, value 
 received, and place the same to account, as advised by 
 "Charles AViiite. 
 
 "To Mr. Jacob Bkown, New York,'* 
 
 Parties. — The person who writes the request is called 
 the drawer, and he to wh^om It is addressed is called 
 the drawee ; and if he agrees or consents to pay the 
 money signified in the bill, he is said to accept it, and 
 is then called the acceptor. The third person, to whom 
 the money is payable, is called the payee. In the 
 above instance, Charles White is called the drawer, 
 Jacob Brown the drawee, and after he has consented or 
 accepted to pay it, the eccepior, and George Green is 
 called the payee. If it is made payable to him or 
 order, or to the order of him, as above, and he then 
 assigns it to another person, to whom the money is to 
 be paid, by writing his name on the baclt of tlie bill 
 (wliich is called indorsing the bill, and the act itself 
 an indorsement), he is then called an indorser. The 
 person to whom he orders the money to be paid is 
 called the indorsee or holder, and if this one again as- 
 signs the bill to another person, the latter is called the 
 indorsee or holder, and the other the second indorser ; 
 and every other person who successively puts his 
 name on the back of the bill is called an indorser, and 
 the person to whom it is last delivered is called the 
 holder. 
 
 If in the above-cited instance George Green should 
 write on the back of the bill, "Pay to the order of 
 William Baker," signing his name beneath, " George 
 Green." the latter would be called an indorser, and 
 William Baker would be called indorsee or holder ; 
 and if Baker, again, should sign his name under that 
 of Green, and order the contents of the bill to be paid 
 to somebody else. Baker would be called an indorser, 
 and the person designated by him the indorsee or 
 holder, and so on. 
 
 Blank Indorsements, — It is very common for parties 
 to sign simply their names on the bade of the bill, 
 without designating to whom the contents shall be 
 paid. This is called a "blank indorsement," and 
 whosoever holds the bill may write above the signa- 
 ture that It is payable to his order. For instance, if 
 George Green, the original payee in the above specified 
 bill, had simply written his name on the back of it, 
 and had delivered it to William Baker, and Baker 
 again had simply put his name on the back under that 
 of Green, and had delivered the bill to one J. Brown, 
 the latter would be the holder, and might write over 
 
 the signature of Green, " Pay to the order of William 
 Baker," and over the signature of Baker, " Pay to the 
 order of J. Brown." Although these blank indorse- 
 ments are very common, it would be desirable, and it *» 
 is highly to be recommended, that each indorser should 
 write in full over his name the place of bis residence, 
 the date, and the name of his indorsee ; that is, the 
 name of the person to whom he assigns the bill. Thus, 
 in the above instance, if George Green resided in New 
 Tork, he should write on the b^ck, over his signa- 
 ture: 
 
 "New York, January 3d, 1852. 
 
 "Pay to the order of William Baker, 
 
 "Geokge Green." 
 And in a similar way the successive indorsers should 
 do. This way of indorsing has two advantages. In the 
 first place, if the bill should be lost or stolen, with a 
 blank indorsement on it, any person who finds or holds 
 it might fill up the blank in his own name, and de- 
 mand payment ; whereas, if it were indorsed in full, 
 the finder or holder would have to forge the name of 
 the indorsee before he could get payment. In the 
 second place, if the bill should be protested for non- 
 acceptance or non-payment, the holder would know 
 at once the places of residence of the different indorsers, 
 and be able to give them due notice without delay. 
 
 Forms. — When bills of exchange are drawn on a 
 place at a distance, and in a foreign country, it is 
 customary to give a set of three bills of the same tenor, 
 that they may be sent separately by dififerent mails, 
 so that in case one should be lost, one of the others 
 might reach tlie person concerned safely. One of the 
 common forms of a bill of' this kind would be substan- 
 tially as follows : 
 
 " Boston, July tst, 1852. 
 " Exchange for JEIOOO. 
 
 "Sixty days after sight \or after date, or at sight, or 
 on demand^, pay this my first bill of exchange {second 
 and third of the same tenor and date not paid) to the order 
 of Mr, , One Thousand Pounds Sterling, value re- 
 ceived, and place the saine to my account, as advised by 
 
 " Paul Jones. 
 
 "To Messrs. Green & Co., London," 
 
 The second bill of the same set would be in every 
 respect the same with the first, except that it would 
 read, " Pay this my second bill of exchange, first and 
 third, etc., not paid." 
 
 And the third bill would run, " Pay this mj' third 
 bill of exchange, first and second, etc., not paid." 
 
 Foreign and Inland Bills, — Bills of exchange are 
 divided into foreign bills of exchange and inland bills 
 of exchange, because the rights of proceeding and 
 remedies thereon are not uniformly governed by the 
 same rules and regulations. A bill of exchange is 
 called a foreign bill when it is drawn in one state or 
 country upon a person residing in a foreign state or 
 country ; as, for instance, when drawn by a person in 
 one of the United States of America upon a person 
 resident in England, and payable by the latter. And 
 it is called an inland bill (or a domestic bill) when both 
 the drawer and drawee reside in the same state or 
 country ; for instance, when the bill is drawn in Boston 
 upon a person residing in Salem, both places being in 
 the State of Massachusetts. The difteren t States of the 
 United States are considered as foreign to each other, 
 so that a bill drawn in Massachusetts upon a person in 
 New, York is considered a foreign bill. In like manner, 
 a bill drawn in England upon Scotland or Ireland is 
 considered a foreign bill. — Mahoney ». Ashlin, 2 Barn. 
 & Adolph. R. 478, 482. 
 
 The Form, — A bill is not confined to any set form of 
 words, and it is not essential that the very language 
 of the formulary which has been given above should 
 be used. It is only requisite that It be in writing, and 
 contain an order or direction by one person to another 
 person to pay money to a third person, absolutely and 
 
BIL 
 
 169 
 
 BIL 
 
 at all events. The writing may be in pencil, as well as 
 in ink, nor is it necessary that the whole instrument be 
 in writing ; the general formulary is generally printed, 
 but the signatures must be in writing. If a person 
 should order another person to deliver a particular sum 
 of money to A. B., or to be accountable or responsible 
 for a particular sum of money to A. B., it would con- 
 stitute a bill of exchange. So if the expression should 
 be " Please to pay," or " I request you to pay or de- 
 liver," it would be a good bill, because these expres- 
 sions are mere words of politeness, in the place of an 
 absolute order. But if the language used necessarily 
 or naturally imports a request as a favor, and not as a 
 matter of right, it would not be a good bill. So it has 
 been held in England that a note addressed by A to B 
 in these words : " Mr. Little, please to let the bearer 
 have £7, and place it to my account, and you will 
 much oblige your humble servant, J. Slackford," was 
 not a bill of exchange. — Little v. Slackford, 1 MooU. 
 and M. 171. However, where the language used is 
 susceptible of two interpretations, the true rule seems 
 to be, that the mere drawing of a bill is deemed to be 
 the demand of a right, and not the asking of a favor, 
 and to deem it a favor only when the language used 
 repels, in an unequivocal manner, the notion that it is 
 claimed as a right. — Stoky on BiUs of Excliange, § 33. 
 If the word " at," instead of " to," should be put -before 
 the name of the drawee ; e.g., " Two months after date 
 pay to the order of J. J. £78, value received, T. S. 
 At Messrs. John Morson & Co.," it might be held a 
 bill of exchange (Shuttleworth v. Stevens, 1 Camp. 
 407), or a promissory note, at the election of the holder. 
 So in a case where the instrument was as follows : 
 " May 20, 1813. Two months after date pay to me or 
 my order the sum of £30. W. S. Payable at No. 1, 
 Wilmot Street, opposite the Lamb, Bethnal Green, 
 London," and was accepted by the person residing at 
 that place, it was held to be a bill of exchange. — Gray 
 V. Wilmer, .8 Taunt. 739. The rule is, that, where an 
 instrument is so framed as to admit of reasonable doubt 
 whether it was intended for a bill or a note, the holder 
 is at liberty to treat it either as a bill or as a note, 
 as against the maker. 
 
 It does not seem necessary that the whole of the bill 
 be written on one and the same side of a paper, or on 
 one and the same paper ; it may be written in part on 
 one paper, and in part on another separate and de- 
 tached paper, provided the writing on each be done at 
 one and the same time, and both parts be intended to 
 form one entire contract. — Stoky on Bills of Exchange, 
 § 34, and note 1. If there should be no room left for 
 indorsements, a paper might be affixed to the original 
 bill for this purpose, but it would require proof of the 
 fact that this paper formed a part of the bill. It often 
 happens that there are but two parties to a bill, which 
 is the case when the drawer makes the bill payable to 
 his own order ; and when he then indorses it, the in- 
 dorsee becomes in fact the payee. And if no drawee 
 should be named, but the bill be made payable at a 
 particular place, and the person living at that place 
 should accept it, he would be held answerable as ac- 
 ceptor. 
 
 Negotiability. — In order to make a bill negotiable, it 
 must be made payable to the payee and to his order or 
 assigns, or to bearer. The common form, as stated be- 
 fore, is "to the order of A. B.," or "to A. B. or order," 
 or "to bearer." It would be advisable to adopt the 
 form, "to A. B. or his order." If no expression be 
 used which gives to the payee the power of transfer, 
 it is nevertheless a bill. If the payee of a negotiable 
 bill indorse it in blank, it is transferable by mere de- 
 livery, in the same manner as if it were payable to 
 bearer. If the name of the payee be left in blank ; 
 
 e. g., " Pay to or order" — any holder may insert 
 
 his name, and then indorse it ; the effect would be the 
 same as if it were made payable to bearer. So, also, 
 if the name of the payee is fictitious, and the bill be 
 
 indorsed in the name of this fictitious person, a holder 
 who was ignorant of this fact when he took it may re- 
 gard it as a bill payable to bearer, and may sue the 
 drawer, and also the acceptor, if the latter knew that 
 the name of the payee was fictitious. The words 
 " value received" are generally inserted in a bill, but 
 it is not necessary, for the law in cases of negotiable 
 instruments of this kind presumes it. 
 
 Several Drawees. — A bill addressed to "A, or in his 
 absence to B," is valid, and will, if accepted by either, 
 bind him. If a bill is intended to be accepted by two 
 •persons, it should be addressed to both ; otherwise, al- 
 though accepted by both, it will bind only the person 
 to whom it is addressed as acceptor. If a bill is drawn 
 upon A, B, and C, it may be accepted by A and B 
 only, and it will bind them. — Stoky on Jlilh of Ex- 
 change, § 68. On the Continent of Europe it is not 
 unfrequent to put, besides the name of the principal 
 drawee, the name of another person, to whom applica- 
 tion may be made for acceptance or payment, if the 
 first-named drawee should be absent or refuse pay- 
 ment; which is generally done in this form; " In case 
 
 of need, apply to Mr. at " (in French, "Au 
 
 besoin, chez M. , a ;" in German, " Im Noth- 
 
 fall bei Herrn , in "). The holder of the bill 
 
 is obliged to follow the direction, if the first drawee 
 should be absent or refuse. Although it is common 
 to use the words, at the end of the bill, " and put it to 
 my account," or "to your account," or "and put it 
 to the account of A. B.," or " put it to account as per 
 advice," or " as advised by," these words are not es- 
 sential, but are used only as a matter of convenience. 
 If the drawer should be indebted to the drawee, he 
 would say, "and put it to my account;" if, on the 
 other hand, the drawee should be indebted to the 
 drawer, he would say, "and put it to your account;" 
 and if the bill were drawn on account of a third per- 
 son, he would say, " and put it to the account of A. B." 
 If the bill concludes with the words " as per advice," 
 then the drawee is not obliged to accept or pay, with- 
 out receiving further directions or advice, and if he 
 do so, he does it at his own peril. If the bill conclude 
 with the words, "without advice," or "with or with- 
 out advice," then the drawee may accept or pay with- 
 out being further instructed by the drawer. But the 
 words may be altogether omitted without impairing 
 the validity of the bill. We may generally state, that 
 all persons who are legally capable of entering into 
 any other contract are capable of becoming parties to 
 a bill ; or, in other words, all persons of full age and 
 sound mind, both males and females, may draw, hold, 
 indorse, and accept bills. 
 
 Partners. — In regard to partners, the signature of 
 the firm must be put to the bill, either in case of in- 
 dorsement, drawing, or accepting; and each partner 
 has complete authority to use it ; and when so used, 
 the bill is deemed to be on partnership account, unless 
 it appear on the face of the bill, or it can be proved 
 that the party taking it had full knowledge that the bill 
 was drawn, indorsed, or accepted, not for partnership, 
 but individual purposes. 
 
 Agents. — Agents, if empotvered for the purpose, ei- 
 ther expressly or tacitly, may bind their principals to 
 the full extent that their principals might do for them- 
 selves, provided that they do not exceed the scope of 
 their authority. But if agents would bind their prin- 
 cipals, they must draw, indorse, or accept the bills in 
 the name of their principals, and not in their own 
 name. The most proper way of doing this is in the 
 following form, supposing A. Green to be the princi- 
 pal, and B. White, the agent : 
 "A. Green, 
 by B. White, his Agent." 
 
 A number of other forms may be used ; care should 
 be taken, however, by the agent, if he means to ex- 
 empt himself from personal responsibility, to use clear 
 and explicit words to show that intention, and to ex- 
 
BIL 
 
 170 
 
 BIL 
 
 press on the contract the quality in which he acts ; 
 otherwise he does not bind the party who employs 
 him, but binds himself. A great manj' lawsuits have 
 arisen in consequence of an indistinct and loose way 
 of stating the quality in which a person signs a bill, 
 and different decisions in diflerent States have been 
 the consequence. It is understood in all these cases 
 that the agent has sufficient authority from his prin- 
 cipal to draw or accept bills, or make notes. If the 
 agent, however, has no authority, then the agent him- 
 self is liable on the instrument. — See Ballou v. Talbot, 
 16 Mass. 461 ; Eossiter v. Eossiter, 8 Wend. 494. 
 
 Payment in Money.' — A bill of exchange must be for 
 the payment of money, but it matters not what denom- 
 ination the money specified has, whether it is called 
 dollars, francs, pounds sterling. Marc Banco, or any 
 other currency, because the value of each kind can be 
 ascertained. In England negotiable paper mxist be 
 for the payment of money in specie, and not in bank- 
 notes, and it may be said that the same rule obtains 
 generally in the United States of America, although 
 there are some cases in some States which have ex- 
 tended this rule. — Kent's Comm., Lect. XLIV., p. 45, 
 46. Hence an order to pay money *' in good East India 
 bonds," or to pay "in cash or Bank of England notes," 
 or "in foreign bills," or "in goods," is not a negotia- 
 ble bill. In New York it has been held that a note 
 payable "in York State bills or specie" was a nego- 
 tiable paper. — Keith v. Jones, 9 Johns. E 120. So 
 also a note "payable in bank-notes current in the city 
 of New York ; " and the court remarked that it would 
 have been a note under the statute if payable in bank- 
 notes generally. — Judah v. Harris, 19 Johns. E. 144. 
 But a note payable "in Pennsylvania paper currency, 
 or New York, to be cuiTent in the State of Pennsylva- 
 nia or the State of New York," was held in New York 
 not to be a note for the payment of money, within the 
 statute, because the court say that they may take no- 
 tice, officially, of their own bank paper being regarded 
 as cash, but not of the value of the paper currency of 
 other States. — Leiber v. Goodrich, 5 Cowcn, 136. A 
 note made payable in New York in Canada money, is 
 not a negotiable promissory note within the statute. 
 — Thompson v. Sloan, 23 Wendell, 71. In Pennsyl- 
 vania it was held that a note payable to A. B. or or- 
 der ' ' in bank-notes of the chartei-ed banks of Pennsyl- 
 vania" was not a negotiable note. — jM'Cormick v. 
 Trotter, 10 Serg. and Eawle, 94. In New York it was 
 held that a check, drawn in that State, upon a bank 
 in Mississippi, payable in current notes, is not nego- 
 tiable.— Little V. The Phcenix Bank, 7 Hill's E. 359. 
 A note payable to the bearer in goods is not negotiable. 
 — Clark r. King, 2 Mass. 524. Nor a note payable in 
 "foreign bills." — Jones v. Pales, 4 Mass. 245. It is 
 not necessary that the sum payable should be expressed 
 in words ; it is sufficient if it be in figures. But it is 
 necessary that the order bo for a specific amount. A 
 bill or note for a given sum, "and for whatever else 
 may be due to the payee," is not, even between the 
 original parties, a bill or note. — Bayley on Sills, p. 
 12. So an order for "$1000, or what might be due 
 after deducting all advances and expenses," is not ne- 
 gotiable. — Cushman v. Haynes, 20 Pick. 132. 
 
 Payable absolutely. — A bill must also be payable ab- 
 solutely and at all events, and the payment must not 
 be made to depend on anj- uncertainty or contingency, 
 or it will not be considered a bill of exchange. Thus 
 a bill drawn payable " provided the terms mentioned 
 in certain letters shall be complied with ;" or " out of 
 rents;" or "on the sale of produce when sold;" or 
 "when the drawer shall come of age;" or "at thirty 
 days after the ship A. shall arrive at B. ;" "or when 
 the drawer shall marry;" or "when freight becomes 
 due ;" or "if the money be not paid at a certain day 
 by a third party ;" or " provided a certain act is done 
 or not done ;'' or "on the balance of account between 
 the parties ;" or " provided, at the maturity of the bill. 
 
 I am living ;" or " when certain carriages are sold by 
 payee ;" in all these and similar cases the instrument 
 is not considered a bill of exchange. — Baylev on Hills, 
 p. 14-17, and Story on Bills, § 46. But where pay- 
 ment only seemingly depends upon a contingency, but 
 in reality is certain and at all events, although the 
 particular time when it will arrive is uncertain, it will 
 be a good bill of exchange in law ; e. g., a bill payable 
 at the death of the drawer or of another person, or at 
 a fixed time afterward. A note payable " provided 
 the ship Mar^/ arrives," etc., "free from capture and 
 condemnation," is not negotiable. — Coolidge v. Bug- 
 gies, 15 Mass. 387. 
 
 A cceptance. — The person who receives a bill or note 
 thereby contracts with every other party to the bill or 
 note who would be entitled to bring an action on pay- 
 ing it, to present it in proper time to the drawee for 
 acceptance when acceptance is necessary, and to the 
 acceptor for payment when the bill shall have arrived 
 at its maturity and be pa}'able ; to allow no extra tirrie 
 for payment to the acceptor ; and to give notice in a 
 reasonable time, and without delay, to every such per- 
 son, of a failure in procuring a proper acceptance or 
 payment. Any default or neglect in any of these re- 
 spects will discharge every such person from responsi- 
 bility on account of a non-acceptance or non-payment; 
 and will make it operate generally as a satisfaction of 
 any debt, demand, or value for which it was given. — 
 Gkeenleaf on Eridence, vol. ii. § 175; Wallace v. 
 M'Connell, 13 Peters's E. 136 ; Stoky on Litis, § 227. 
 
 When Necessary. — If a bill is payable at sight, or in 
 so many days after sight or after demand, or upon any 
 other contingency, or after a certain event, a present- 
 ment of the bill to the drawee for acceptance must be 
 made, in order to fix the period of payment. But if 
 the bill is payable on demand, or payable at a certain 
 number of days after date, or after any other certain 
 event, it need not be presented merely for acceptance, 
 but only for payment ; but if it be presented for ac- 
 ceptance, and acceptance be refused, the holder must 
 give notice of the dishonor, in the same manner as if 
 the bUl were payable at sight or after sight. — Stoky 
 on Bills, § 112, 227, 228. It is, however, usual and 
 advisable to present a bill drawn payable a certain 
 number of days after date, for acceptance. 
 
 By whom to be presented. — The presentment for ac- 
 ceptance must be made by the holder or his agent. If 
 the bill is presented by one not authorized to hold the 
 bill, the drawee may not be bound to accept it ; but if 
 he does accept it, it is available to the holder. A pre- 
 sentment by any person in possession of a bill or note 
 bona fide is sufficient, and no letter of attorney or oth- 
 er writing from the proprietor of the bill or note is 
 necessary to give an authority to another person to 
 make a presentment. — Freeman v. Boynton, 7 Mass. 
 li. 483; Bank of Utica v. Smith, 18 Johns. E. 280. 
 And a person's having a bill or note in his possession 
 on the day and at the place of payment is presumptive 
 evidence of authority to demand payment. — Agnewj). 
 Bank of Gettysburg, 2 Har. and Gill, 478. 
 
 To whom to be presented. — The bill must be presented 
 to the drawee, or his authorized agent. If it is drawn 
 on partners, a presentment to one of them is sufficient ; 
 but if drawn on several persons not partners, it has 
 been said that it should be presented to each ; and if 
 one of the drawees should refuse to accept, the holder 
 would not be bound to take the acceptance of the oth- 
 ers alone,— Stoky on Bills, § 229. The death, bank- 
 ruptcy, insolvency, or absconding of the drawee will 
 not absolve or excuse the holder from presenting the 
 bill. If he is dead, it should be presented to his per- 
 sonal representatives, his executor or administrator, if 
 any there be, and if not, at his last domicile ; and if 
 he has absconded, it should be presented at his last 
 domicile or place of business.— Chitty and Hulme 
 on Bills, p. 279, 280 ; Groton v. Dalheim, 6 Greenl. 
 476. If the holder, upon presentment, should ascer- 
 
BIL 
 
 171 
 
 BEL 
 
 tain that the drawee is a married woman, or a person 
 under age, or otherwise incapable of contracting, he is 
 not bound to take their acceptance, but may treat the 
 bill as dishonored. — Chitty on Bills, ch. 7, p. 310. 
 
 Time o/ Presentment. — ^As regards the time within 
 which a bill ought to be presented for acceptance, no 
 definite rule can be laid down, and the law says only 
 that it must be presented within a reasonable time ; 
 but what this reasonable time is, depends upon the 
 peculiar circumstances of each case. If the holder 
 keeps a bill, payable at sight, or payable a certain 
 number of days after sight, in his own possession for 
 an unreasonable time, he makes the bill his own, and 
 loses his right of claim upon the drawer and indorsers. 
 But if the bill (whether it be foreign or domestic) is 
 kept in circulation, and not held by anj' one holder an 
 unreasonable time, no particular time can be assigned 
 in which it ought to be presented. It is not necessary 
 to send a bill, payable after sight, by the most direct 
 route to the place where it is payable, when It is the 
 common course of trade to send such bills by an indi- 
 rect route. Thus, where a bill of exchange was drawn 
 in Havana upon London, payable at sixty days after 
 sight, it was held that the holder need not send it di- 
 rectly to London, but might send it to the United 
 States for sale, such being the common course of trade. 
 — Wallace v. Agry, 4 Mason, 336. So, where a bill 
 was drawn at New Orleans on Liverpool, it was held 
 that it might be sent to New York first for sale, that 
 being the usual course of business. — Bolton v. Harrod, 
 9 Martin, 326. But if the holder of a foreign bill carry 
 it to the place where it is payable, he ought to present 
 it for acceptance without delay. — Fernandez v. Lewis, 
 1 M'Cord, 322. But if a bill, payable after sight, is 
 negotiated, and thus sent to different places before it 
 is presented for acceptance, the courts have held this 
 delaj' allowable. — Goupj' v. Harden, 7 Taunt. 159 ; 
 Gowan v. Jackson, 20 Johns. R. 176. A presentment 
 for acceptance or a demand of payment must also be 
 made at a proper time. No drawee is required to ac- 
 cept a bill on any day which is set apart, by laws or 
 observances, or usages of the country or place, for re- 
 ligious or other purposes, and which is not deemed a 
 day for the transaction of secular business, such as 
 Sunday, Fast, orThanksgiving-day, theFourth of July, 
 or any other general holiday. Out of New England, 
 Christmas and New-year's day are also generally re- 
 garded as holidays. The statutes of several States point 
 out the days, which may be found under the statute 
 laws appended. And in all cases the presentment must 
 be made at a reasonable hour of the day. If made at 
 the place of business, it must be made within the usual 
 business hours, or, at farthest, while some person is 
 there who has authority to receive and answer the pre- 
 sentment. If made at the dwelling-house of the drawee, 
 it may be made at any seasonable hour, while the fam- 
 ily is up. — Chitty and Holme on Bills, p. 454, 9th 
 ed. ; Story ore Bills, § 236. 
 
 Place oj" Presentment. — As to the proper place yfh&re 
 presentment for acceptance should be made, the gen- 
 eral rule is, that it is the town or municipality of the 
 domicile of the drawee, without any regard to its being 
 drawn payable generally, or payable at a particular 
 specified place. — Chitty and Hhlme on Bills, p. 365, 
 666, 9th ed. ; Story on Bills, § 235. If the drawee 
 dwells in one place, and has his place of business in 
 another, whether it be in the same town or in another 
 town, the bill may be presented for acceptance at ei- 
 ther place at the option of the holder. If the bill is 
 addressed to the drawee at a place where he never 
 lived, or if he has removed to another place, the pre- 
 sentment should be at the place of his actual domicile, 
 if by diligent Inquiries it can be ascertained ; and if it 
 can not be ascertained, or if the drawee has absconded, 
 the hill may be treated as dishonored. — Chitty and 
 Holme on Bills, p. 654, 655, 9th ed. It has been 
 held that if the drawee or maker of a note has moved I 
 
 out of the State of his former residence, either into a 
 foreign country or into another State, a presentment to 
 him is not necessary. — Magruder ». Bank of Washing- 
 ton, 9 Wheat. E. 598 ; Bayley oU Bills, p. 198, 199. 
 If, however, an absent drawee has a known agent in 
 the same place, the bill should be presented to the 
 agent. — Story on Bills, § 235. Or if he have still a 
 place of business there, it should be presented there. 
 But if he have neither, then it should he presented at 
 his last place of abode, if it can be ascertained, and the 
 bill is to be considered as dishonored. In the case of 
 the drawee's bankruptcy, it is not necessary to present 
 a bill for acceptance to the assignees of his estate, be- 
 cause accepting bills forms no part of their duty. 
 
 Foreign Laws. — -As the English law agrees, in al- 
 most every particular, with that in the United States, 
 we shall here point out only the piincipal and essen- 
 tial rules which prevail on the Continent of Europe, 
 among the different nations, in regard to bills of ex- 
 change and promissory notes. The most important 
 nations are the French and the German. The French 
 Commercial Code on bills and notes has been adopted 
 in a number of other countries, viz. Belgium, Modena, 
 Sardinia, Lucca, Poland, Greece, Geneva, Hayti, Ioni- 
 an Islands, Turkey and Wallachia, the Papal States, 
 Luxemburg, Tessin, and Wallis, with but slight vari- 
 ations here and there ; so that when we speak of the 
 French law, it will equally apply to all these coun- 
 tries. A new and uniform code of laws regarding bills 
 of exchange and promissory notes has been introduced, 
 since 1849, tltfoughout Germany (with the exception 
 of the small States of the Grand Diichy of Luxemburg, 
 the Duchy of Limburg, and the principality of Lich- 
 tenstein), so that when we speak of the German law, 
 it will apply to every one of the thirty-eight States of 
 Germany (excepting the above-named three), includ- 
 ing the whole of Austria and her crown-lands, and 
 the whole of Prussia, Wurtemberg, Bavaria, Hanover, 
 Saxony, Brunswick, Baden, etc., containing more than 
 sixty millions of people, and the important commercial 
 cities of Hamburg, Bremen, Frankfort-on-the-Maine, 
 Luheck, Leipsic, Berlin, Vienna, Trieste, Brunswick, 
 Stuttgart, etc. There exist yet distinct codes-on bills 
 and notes in Russia, Holland, Copenhagen, Spain, 
 Portugal, at Basle, and St. Gallen, which we shall 
 notice where they essentially difler from other codes. 
 The law on the Continent of Europe, in regard to legal 
 remedies on bills and notes, is more stringent than in 
 regard to other civil contracts, in so far as it allows 
 personal imprisonment for a breach bf such a commer- 
 cial engagement, be it as drawer, acceptor, or indorser ; 
 whereas no personal arrest and imprisonment can be 
 had against a debtor for an ordinary debt. When we 
 use the expression, that a party is liable according to 
 the laws of bills of exchange, it must be understood, 
 also, to mean that these extreme legal remedies of 
 coercion may be applied to him. The time of im- 
 prisonment differs in different States, and varies ac- 
 cording to the amount of indebtedness. The French 
 law allows personal imprisonment not exceeding one 
 year, if the debt does not exceed 50 francs ; two years 
 if the debt does not exceed 1000 francs ; three years 
 for a bill of from 1000 to 3000 francs; and four years 
 for a debt of from 3000 to 5000 francs ; and five years 
 for any sum beyond this. But persons of the age of 
 seventy are entirely exempted from arrest, and parties 
 to promissory notes (billets a ordre), if not merchants, 
 except the notes were given on account of some mer- 
 cantile transaction, traffic, exchange, banking, or bro- 
 kerage, are also free from personal arrest in France. 
 In Austria the imprisonment for a debt on bills can not 
 exceed one year, in Prussia five years ; other German 
 States differ in regard to time, but they are generally 
 less rigorous than the French law, and exempt from 
 arrest, besides persons of the age of seventy, various 
 others ; for instance, relations by blood or otherwise, 
 military persons, public officers, etc. The creditor, 
 
BIL 
 
 172 
 
 BIL 
 
 however, has to hear the expense of hoai-d for the 
 debtor, and if he neglects to provide for it, the debtor 
 is released and can not be arrested again. 
 
 Requisites of Bills of Exchange. — A bill of exchange 
 is called in French lettre de change; in Italian, lettera 
 di cambio ; in German, wechsel, or gezogener wechsel (a 
 Drawn Bill, to distinguish it from a promissory note, 
 "vvhich is called a Dry Bill, irochner icechseT). — See 
 Pkomissory Notes. The essential requisites of a 
 bill of exchange in Germany are {Art. 4) : 1. That the 
 word "bill of exchange" (wecAseQbe contained in the 
 instrument, or, if written in a foreign language, the 
 expression corresponding to it. 2. The specification 
 of the sum of money. 3. The name of the person or 
 firm to whom or to whose order it is payable. 4. The 
 statement of the time of payment ; and this can be 
 made only on a day certain, at sight (a vista, etc.), or 
 at a certain time after sight, or at a certain day after 
 date, or at a certain fair (messe). 5. The signature of 
 the drawer, by his name or firm. 6. The statement of 
 the place and date of month and year where and when 
 it was drawn. 7. The name of the person or firm on 
 whom it is drawn (drawee). 8. The specification of 
 the place of payment; if no place is mentioned, the 
 place of the drawee is to be taken as the place of pay- 
 ment and the domicile of the drawee. The bill must 
 be for the payment of a sum of money, and not for 
 goods or State stoclis ; nor can it be made payable with 
 interest, or with any condition attached to it. The 
 Code of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies allows also 
 payment in goods. The bills of exchange payable to 
 bearer {au porteur) are not admissible, either in Ger- 
 many or France. The French law {Art. 110) requires 
 that bills of exchange shall be drawn from one place on 
 another place ; that they shall be dated, and that they 
 specify : 1. The sum to be paid. 2. The name of the 
 person who is to pay the same. 3. The time when, 
 and the place where, the payment is to be made. 4. 
 The value furnished, whether in money, in merchan- 
 dise, in account, or in any other manner. They are 
 drawn to the order of a third person, or to the order of 
 the drawer himself If they be drawn in sets, 1, 2, 3, 
 etc., it must be so expressed. 
 
 In Germany, every person who can lawfully bind 
 himself by a contract may become a party to a bill of 
 exchange. The age of majority is, however, different 
 in different States ; in Prussia it commences with the 
 completion of the twenty-fourth year of age ; in Aus- 
 tria, Bavaria, Saxony, Baden, and in those States on 
 the Rhine where the French Civil Code prevails, it 
 commences with the twenty-first year of age, and the 
 same is the case in France and Turkey. In Sardinia, 
 only merchants can draw inland bills, but any body 
 may draw foreign bills. The Russian law excludes 
 only women who do not carry on commerce. The 
 Code of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies excludes wom- 
 en in general. The Code of Copenhagen makes the 
 capability of becoming a party to a bill of exchange 
 general, but confines it only to bills of exchange, 
 and does not include promissory notes. The Spanish 
 Code of Commerce of 1829, § 434, grants to other per- 
 sons than merchants the right of also becoming parties 
 to bills of exchange, but only in cases where they have 
 drawn or accepted bills on account of a mercantile 
 transaction. Parma and Tuscany grant only to mer- 
 chants the right of becoming parties to bills. The 
 Code of Basle of 1809, § 53, requires that a person's 
 name be entered in the book of mercantile firms, called 
 the book of Raggiones, which is in many cities kept 
 either at the exchange or the city-hall. The law of 
 Basle requires the sum payable to be stated in letters, 
 and not merely in figures; the laws of Russia and 
 Copenhagen require the sum to be stated both in let- 
 ters and in figures; and the law of St. Gallen pro- 
 vides that any erasure or alteration of the sum, or any 
 other requisite part of the bill, renders the bill void, 
 and entitles the drawee to refuse payment. By the 
 
 law of Copenhagen, the bills payable to bearer (lettres 
 auporteuf) are allowed, but not by the law of Germany 
 or France. 
 
 By the French law {A ri. 129) a bill of exchange may 
 be drawn payable at sight, or at one or more days, or 
 mouths, or usances, after sight or after date ; or on a 
 day fixed, or at or during a fair (en f aire') ; and (Art. 
 132) the usance is thirty days, which run from the day 
 after the date of the bill ; and {A 7-1. 133) a bill payable 
 at the fair is at maturity on the evening preceding the 
 day fixed for the termination of the fair, or the day 
 after the fair, if it continue only one day. The Ger- 
 man law {Art. 4, No. 4) does not now allow bills drawn 
 in Germany on a foreign country, or inland bills, to be 
 drawn at usance {a uso, tnezzo uso, doppio uso, i. e. at 
 single, half, or double usance), or a piacere, "on de- 
 mand" (with the exception of Austria, which allows 
 the latter). If foreign bills are drawn upon any Ger- 
 man State at a usance, the time of maturity {fcheance, 
 scandenza") is to be determined by the foreign law, viz. 
 that of the place where the bill is drawn, which law 
 also determines whether the usance is counted from tlie 
 day of presentation, or from the day of drawing. The 
 German law does not admit either of fixing the time 
 by the happening of certain events, or by certain 
 periods of time, as "on Easter," etc. The law in 
 Turkey does not admit usance {Art. 87), differing in 
 this respect from the French law. The law of Nor- 
 way (of 1842) provides {Art. 1) that bills shall not be 
 drawn beyond the time of six months, or, if payable 
 out of Europe, not beyond one year. The law of 
 Copenhagen appoints still shorter ijeriods. 
 
 Indorsement. — In Germany, the law in regard to 
 indorsement {indossament, endosso, giro) is, that the 
 paj'ee can transfer a bill of exchange upon another 
 person by indorsing it either in blank or in full, and 
 the indorsee will have the same rights against all 
 other antecedent parties as the indorser ; and the payee 
 may indorse, and the bill is negotiable, although the 
 drawer did not make it payable to order. If the draw- 
 er does not wish to make it negotiable, he must insert 
 the words "not to order" {nicht an ordre\ or some- 
 thing similar. The mere striking out of the word 
 "order" in the printed formula, and adding the word 
 "self" to the name of the payee, will not operate as 
 forbidding the negotiability. The blank indorsement 
 must be put on the back of the bill, or of a copy of it, 
 or on a piece of paper, commonly called "rider" 
 {ahnge), connected with, and joined to the bill or copy. 
 Every holder may fill up the blank indorsement, or 
 may also indorse it further in blanlc, and is answerable 
 to all subsequent holders, unless he adds the words 
 "without guaranty" (ofoie gewdhrleistung, ohne ohl'gd) 
 or some similar expression, which corresponds to our 
 "without recourse." If the words "not to order" 
 (nicht an ordre), or a similar expression, are added to 
 an indorsement, and the bill is j'et indorsed or handed 
 over to other persons, these subsequent holders can 
 have no recourse against such an indorser. But if 
 the words in procura, "for collecting" {zur einJcassi- 
 rung\ are added to an indorsement, then such an in- 
 dorsement does not transfer the property in the bill 
 but empowers such indorsee to indorse it further for 
 the same purpose, and also to have the bill protested, 
 and to give notice to his antecedent indorser, and to 
 commence legal proceedings for non-payment. The 
 laws of Copenhagen (Denmark), Holland, Russia, and 
 Sweden, also allow blank indorsements. But the 
 French law requires (Art. 137 of the Code) that, in 
 order to pass a valid title to a bill, the indorsement 
 should be dated, and the name of the indorsee and the 
 value should be stated, and if further negotiability be 
 intended, the words "to order" should be added. A 
 blank indorsement is held to be a mere ^^ procura in- 
 dorsement," i. e. for the purpose of collecting. The 
 Spanish law, which also prevails in Mexico and South 
 America, holds the blank indorsement of no effect. 
 
BIL 
 
 173 
 
 BIL 
 
 The French and Eussian laws punish the antedating 
 of an indorsement like forgery. But the Spanish and 
 Dutch laws regard it as forgery only when it is done 
 for an evil purpose. The law of Portugal requires the 
 date to a blank indorsement. The French law, and 
 all the countries following the same, the Russian law^, 
 and that of St. Gallen, hold only bills made payable 
 to order as negotiable and transferable. The Spanish 
 law (of Bilbao) requires the indorsement on the back 
 of the instrument. The Sardinian law regards the 
 clause "without recourse," "without ohligo," as not 
 written at all; and if the drawer should add these 
 words to his name, the instrument is not regarded as a 
 bill. The law in Germany is (^Art. 16), wJagn a bill 
 has been indorsed after the lapse of time ^vded to 
 protesting for non-payment, that the indorsOTKcquires 
 the rights springing from the acceptance against the 
 drawee, and the right of recourse against those who 
 indorsed it after the lapse of this period. But if the 
 bill has been protested for non-payment before the in- 
 dorsement is made, then the indorsee has only the 
 rights which his indorser has against the acceptor, the 
 drawer, and the indorsers up to the time of protest. 
 Nor is such an indorser after protest, in such a case, 
 liable according to the laws on bills, but only accord- 
 ing to the common law. The Eussian law makes a 
 like distinction. The Dutch and Portuguese laws re- 
 gard an indorsement after maturity only as a cession 
 of rights. The Sardinian law regards it only as an 
 Indorsement for proburation. The French law is not 
 decided on this point, and the courts regard such an in- 
 dorsement generally as admissible, but sometimes as a 
 full and good indorsement, and then again only as one 
 for procuration, i, e, power of attorney. In Italy it is 
 regarded as a proeura indorsement, i. e. as a power of 
 attorney. 
 
 Presentation for Acceptance. — The German law (^Art. 
 18) provides that the holder of a bill is entitled to pre- 
 sent the bill for acceptance at once, and, if not ac- 
 cepted, to have it protested for non-acceptance. But 
 bills payable at fairs (mess-wechsel, cambia regularia 
 vel ferianim) can be presented only at the time fixed 
 by the law for presentation. The mere possession of 
 a bill entitles a person to present it, and to have it 
 protested, in case of dishonor. But (Art. 19) the 
 holder of a bill, payable at sight, or a certain time 
 after sight, must present it at least within two years 
 from the date of its being drawn ; and if a period of 
 presentation has been prescribed either by drawer or 
 indorser, the bill must be presented within that period, 
 or the holder will lose his right of recourse against 
 drawer and indorser as debtors on account of the bill. 
 The law of Russia fixes the time within which bills 
 at sight or after sight must be presented at one year, 
 unless the drawer has prescribed a period ; but in case 
 of neglect to present the bill, it will still be good as 
 evidence of indebtedness for the ordinary period be- 
 yond which debts become outlawed. The laws of 
 other countries fix the time of presentation for accept- 
 ance or payment according to the distance from the 
 place of drawing to the place of payment. The French 
 law (Art, 160) requires that the holder of a bill of ex- 
 change, drawn from the Continent and the European 
 islands, and payable in the European possessions of 
 France, whether at sight, or at one or more days, 
 months, or usances after sight, must demand pay- 
 ment, or acceptance, within six months from its date, 
 under the penalty of losing his remedy against the in- 
 dorsers, and even against the drawer, if the latter had 
 made provision for the payment of the bill in the hands 
 of the drawee. A delay of eight months is allowed 
 for the presentment of a bill drawn from the ports of 
 the Levant, and northern coast of Africa, on the Eu- 
 ropean possessions of France, and, reciprocally, from 
 the Continent and European islands on the French es- 
 tablishments in the Levant, and northern coast of Af- 
 rica. A year is allowed for the presentment of biUs 
 
 drawn on the western coast of Africa, as far as, and 
 including, the Cape of Good Hope. A year is also 
 allowed for the presentment of bills of exchange drawn 
 from the American continent and West India islands 
 on the European possessions of France, and, recijiro- 
 cally, from the European continent and Islands on the 
 French possessions or establishments on the western 
 coast of Africa, on the American continent, and West 
 India islands. Two years, is allowed for the present- 
 ment of bills of exchange drawn from the East Indian 
 continent and islands on the European possessions of 
 France, and, reciprocally, from the European conti- 
 nent and islands on the French possessions or establish- 
 ments on the East Indian continent and islands. The 
 delays above mentioned, of eight months, one year, 
 and two years, are allowed to be doubled in time of 
 maritime war. If the drawer has not made provision 
 for payment with the drawee, the former will be held 
 liable, although a protest has been made after the time 
 fixed by law. 
 
 Of Acceptance. — The law of Germany (Art. 21) re- 
 quires that acceptance of a bill shall be made in writ- 
 ing on the bill itself; and if the drawee writes but his 
 name or that of the firm on the face of the bill, it is 
 considered an absolute acceptance, and every declara- 
 tion written on the bill and signed is taken as an ab- 
 solute acceptance, unless the drawee expressly states 
 in it that he will not accept, or will accept only on cer- 
 tain conditions. The acceptance, once made, can not be 
 taken back. The French law (Art. 122) requires that 
 the acceptance of a bill of exchange must be signed ; 
 it is expressed by the word " accepted" (accepte) ; it is 
 dated, if the bill be at one or more days or months 
 after sight. And in the latter case, the want of a date 
 to the acceptance renders the bill payable at the term 
 specified in it, counting from the date when it was 
 drawn. The same rule prevails in those countries 
 which have formed their laws on bills after the French 
 law, which countries have been specified before; it 
 also obtains by the law of Copenhagen. By the Span- 
 ish law, such a bill runs from the day on which it 
 might have been presented, according to the ordinary 
 course of the post. The French law (Art. 124) enacts 
 that the acceptance can not be conditional, but it may 
 be limited in regard to the sum accepted. But in this 
 case the holder is bound to have the bill protested for 
 the deficiency. And (Art. 125) a bill of exchange must 
 be accepted on its presentment, or, at the latest, with- 
 in twenty-four hours afterward. After the twenty- 
 four hours have elapsed, if it be not returned, accept- 
 ed or not accepted, he who has retained it is liable in 
 damages to the holder. The German law (Art. 20) 
 provides, that if a drawee refuses acceptance, or re- 
 fuses to date his acceptance, the holder must have the 
 bill protested within the period prescribed for present- 
 ing a bill (i. e. two years from date or the time pre- 
 scribed by drawer or indorser), or he will lose his legal 
 claim against indorser and drawer. The day of pro- 
 test is, in that case, taken for the day of presentation. 
 If no protest has been taken, and the acceptor has 
 omitted to date his acceptance, the maturity of the 
 bill is counted from the last day of the period within 
 which it ought to have been presented. The law of 
 Portugal and Russia and St. Gallen makes it generally 
 obligatory, and the law of Holland makes it obligatory 
 only upon the holder, who presents the bill for accept- 
 ance, to have the bill protested, absolutely and with- 
 out delay. The Spanish law (Law of Bilbao, chap. 
 13, § 35, which also prevails in Mexico and South 
 America) provides that the drawee who gets the bill 
 into his hands with the consent of the holder, and lets 
 the day of presentation pass by without returning it, 
 is obliged to pay, that is, it is deemed a silent accept- 
 ance ; and if the acceptance is made in writing, it is 
 required (Bilbao, chap. 13, § 38) that, besides the name 
 of the drawee, also the word " accepted" be added. 
 The law of Bilbao (chap. 13, § 32) has yet the peculiar 
 
BIL 
 
 174 
 
 BIL 
 
 provision, that, ■vphen bills at sight are accepted, only 
 one-half of the name of the firm need be signed. By 
 the French and Portuguese laws, a similar word with 
 "accepted" may be substituted; but it is u mooted 
 question whether the word vu, "seen," is sufficient. 
 The laws of Copenhagen and Portugal also allow, like 
 the French and German laws, the acceptance for a 
 smaller sum than the face of the bill states, and oblige 
 the holder to have the bill protested for the rest, but 
 consider all other conditions as not written. The 
 Russian law also requires the holder, in such a case, 
 to have the bill protested, or he will lose his right of 
 recourse against the other parties. In Germany, the 
 law requires the drawee to declare at once, without 
 delay, whether he will accept or not. But the law of 
 France, and of those countries which have been named 
 before as having followed the French luw, allows the 
 drawee twenty-four hours' time, as stated before. The 
 law of Copenhagen also allows twenty-four hours for 
 consideration, and requires the protest only on the 
 next day following. The law of Tessin allows three 
 days for consideration, and the law of Russia grants 
 time, for taking protest and sending it, till to the sec- 
 ond post. 
 
 Proceedings upon Non-acceptance. — ^AVhen acceptance 
 has been refused, or when the acceptance is qualified, 
 or for a smaller sum than stated in the bill, the law in 
 Germany {jirt. 25) obliges the indorsers and drawer, 
 upon receiving the. protest for non-acceptance, to give 
 sufficient security that payment of the whole sum, or 
 of so much as has not been accepted, shall be made on 
 the day the bill falls due for payment, together with 
 the amount of cost. The sum may likewise be depos- 
 ited in some court of justice, or other authorized insti- 
 tution. (Art, 28.) The deposited security is restored 
 if the bill should afterward be fully accepted, or if the 
 holder or other person who takes recourse does not 
 commence a suit within a year from the maturity of 
 the bill, or if the bill has been paid. The French law 
 is the same with that in Germany. But the law 
 of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, like the English 
 and American law, allows immediate recourse against 
 drawer and indorsers for payment if the bill has not 
 been accepted. The law of Portugal follows the French 
 law, but gives the holder also the right to demand 
 from the drawer that he assign and hand over to him 
 all his claims against the drawee, and all the papers 
 relating thereto. The German law further provides, 
 that when the bill has been accepted, and the acceptor 
 stops payment or goes into bankruptcy, or if an exe- 
 cution against the property of the acceptor has not 
 been satisfied, or his person has been arrested for non- 
 payment — in all these cases, the holder of a bill may 
 demand security, if the acceptor has not given securi- 
 ty, and a protest has been taken in consequence. The 
 French law (Art. 163) goes yet farther, and provides 
 that, if the acceptor fails before the day of payment, 
 the bill may be considered as due, and recourse may 
 be had for payment against the drawer and indorsers ; 
 
 and that if the drawer of a promissory note, or the ac-, 
 ceptor of a bill, or the drawer of a non-accepted bill, 
 shall fail, the other persons liable on the instruments 
 shall be obliged to give security (Law of 28th May, 
 1838). 
 
 Time of PaymenL — The following days have been 
 fixed by law at the principal cities : In Brunswick it 
 is law that no protest for non-acceptance can be had 
 on a bill drawn on the Brunswick fair before Monday 
 in the first week of the fair, and the day of payment 
 of these bills is the "VA'ednesday in the first week of the 
 fair. In Frankfort-on-the-Maine it has been enacted 
 that bills which are drawn payable at a fair, without 
 specifying the week of the fair, must be paid or pro- 
 testedJIk Tuesday of the third week, i. e. on the last 
 day osBe fair. In Austria, in the countries where 
 the general civil code prevails, such bills fall due, if 
 the fair last but one day, on this day ; if it last sev- 
 eral days, biit not more than eight, on the day before 
 the legal termination of the fair ; and if the fair last 
 longer than a week, on the third day before the legal 
 termination of the fair. In Hungary such bills fall 
 due, if the markets last but one day, on this day ; if 
 they last from two to eight days, on the last day of 
 the market ; if the markets last longer than eight days, 
 on Wednesday of the second week. In Leipsic bills 
 that are drawn payable at the Michaelmas fair fall due 
 on the Thursday after the fair has been opened by the 
 ringing of the bell, and bills payable at the New-year's 
 fair fall due on the 12th of January, and if this should 
 fall on Sunday, then on the next following day. Ac- 
 cording to the law of Portugal and Spain, bills drawn 
 payable at the fairs fall due on the last day of the fair. 
 The law of France {Art. 130) provides that a bill drawn 
 ,at sight is payable on its presentment, and (Art. 131) 
 that the maturity of a bill, at or after a certain time 
 after sight, is determined by the date of the accept- 
 ance, or by that of the protest for non-acceptance. 
 (Art. 132.) The usance is thirty days, which run from 
 the day after the date of the bill. The months are ac- 
 cording to the regulation of the Gregorian calendar. 
 (Art. 133.) A bill payable at the fair (enfoire) is at ma- 
 turity on the evening preceding the day fixed for the 
 closure of the fair, or the day of the fair if it continue 
 only one day. The law of Copenhagen counts the day 
 when the bill is dated, and grants to the acceptor etffht 
 days of grace, and to the holder ten days of grace (called 
 in Italian giorni di rispetto). The law of Russia (§ 66) al- 
 lows on bills at or after sight three days of grace, and on 
 other bills ten days of grace, and the same on promis- 
 sory notes. The law of St. Gallen allows six days of 
 grace on bills and promissory notes. The German 
 law {Art. 38) enacts that the holder must not refuse an 
 offered part-payment, even though the bill has been 
 accepted for the whole sum. The French law (Art. 
 156) states that the payments made on account, as part 
 of the amount of a bill of exchange, operate in dis- 
 charge of the drawer and indorsers. The holder is 
 bound to have the bill protested for the balance. 
 
 FORMS OF FOREIGN BILLS OF EXCHANGE. 
 
 French. 
 Lilhj le 28 Sepiemhre, 18S6. ... , Son pour £158 9 Sterlings. 
 
 Au vingt-cinq Decemhre procltain, il vous plaira payer par ce mandat a Vordre de nous-memes la somme de cent 
 cinguante'huit livres sterlings 9 shellings valeur en nous-memes et guepasserez suivani Vavis de 
 
 A Messieurs . 
 
 a Londres. 
 
 German. 
 
 Niirnherg^ den 28 Octoher^ 1856. 
 
 Zwei monate nach dato zaklen sie gegen diesen Prima Wecksel cm die Ordre des Berm 
 
 Ein Hundert Vfund Sterling den Werth erkalten. Sie bringen solcke avfRechnung laut Bericht von 
 
 Pro £100 Sterling. 
 
 Herren , 
 
 London. 
 
BIL 
 
 175 
 
 BIL 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 Grouu), den 1st November, 1856. ^o^^ ^jg jy g 
 
 Twee maanden na dato gelieve UEd ie betden voor dezen onzen prima Wisselbrief de secunda niet betaald zynde 
 
 aan de ordre van de Heerm _ negen Sf- vgtlg Vondea zeventien schdlingm zespences ster- 
 
 hng, de waarde m rekenmg UEd stelle het op rekening met of zander advgs van 
 
 de Ileer ~ 
 
 Per £500 SteirKne. 
 , la 
 
 te London. 
 
 Italian. 
 Livorno, le 25 Settembre, 1856. 
 
 A Tre mesi data pagate per questa prima de Cambio (una sol volia) all' ordine 
 
 somma di Lire cinque cento sterline valuta cambiata, eponete in conto M. S. secondo I'avviso Addio 
 
 Al , ■ 
 
 Londra. 
 
 Spakish. 
 
 Malaga, a 20 de Setb" de 1856. Son £300. 
 
 A noventa dias fecha se seniran V ma/ndar pagar por esta primera de cambio a la orden de los S"' 
 
 ' . Tres cientas libras Esterlinas en oro oplata valor recibido de dkos S"" que anotaran 
 
 valor en cuenta segun. aviso de 
 
 A los S'" , 
 
 POBTUGCESE. 
 
 Lisbon, aosSde Dezembro de 1856. 
 ^por esta nossa unica via de Letra Segura, 
 
 Londres. 
 
 £ 600 Esterlinas. 
 
 A Sessenta dias de vista precizospagard V_ 
 a nos ou a nossa Ordem a quantia acima de Seis Centas Livras Esterlinas valor de nos recebido em Fazendas, que 
 passera em Comta segundo o aviso de 
 
 Ao Sen' ' 
 
 Londres. 
 
 Swedish. 
 Bjomeberg, dm 23 September, 1856. For MSter. 100. 
 
 A'ittio Dagar efier data behagade H. H. emxit dernm prima Wexel (secundo obetald) betala till Eerr 
 . -_ _^^_ elle ordres Etthundra Fund Sterling som stalles i rahning enligt avis. 
 
 Ilerrar 
 
 London. 
 
 Danish. 
 Kjobenhavn, 9 December, 1856. 
 
 Tre maaneder efter dato behager de at betale denne Prima Vexel, secunda iMce, til Herr 
 
 eller ordre med Fire Tusinde Rigsbank Daler, Valutla modtaget og stilles i Begning ifSlge advis. 
 
 Sbae 4000. 
 
 Ilerrer _ 
 
 London. 
 
 Proceedings upon the Non-payment of Bills. — In order 
 to entitle the holder to redress, it is required of him, 
 in Germany, that he present the bill for payment, and 
 that he have the bill duly protested. The protest mag 
 be made on the day of payment, but it must be made, 
 at latest, on the second secular day after the day -of 
 payment. The presentation of the bill for payment 
 may likewise be made within this period of two days, 
 and the holder would not lose his rights, even if he 
 had waited with the presentation to the last day of 
 protest, and the drawee were yet solvent on the day 
 the bill fell due. But a protest before the day of ma- 
 turity is not good, although payment would not have 
 been made on the day of maturity. The law of Basle, 
 St. Gallon, Zurich, Russia, Spain, and Portugal, re- 
 quires that the bill be protested on the day of maturi- 
 ty, and up to a certain hour of that day (the latter pro- 
 vision is not law in Portugal). The law of France 
 {Art. 162) and Holland (§ 179), however, requires pro- 
 test on the day after the day of maturity (lendemain) ; 
 and if this day be a legal holiday, the protest is made 
 on the following day. If a bill is made payable at a 
 place different from the domicile of the acceptor, and 
 a person there is specified, the German law requires 
 that it must be presented to such person ; and if no 
 person be specified, it must be presented to the ac- 
 ceptor at the place specified ; and, in case of non-pay- 
 ment, it must be protested there. If the proper pro- 
 test is neglected the holder loses his recourse, not only 
 against the drawer and indorsers, but also against the 
 acceptor. But in no other case is the acceptor dis- 
 charged from his liability by the German law. 
 
 Notes and BUls lost or destroyed. — If a promissory 
 
 note or bill of exchange has been lost or destroyed, the 
 holder must, nevertheless, make demand of payment 
 at its maturity, and, in case of non-payment, give due 
 notice to the antecedent parties. But whether the 
 promisor or acceptor and indorsers can be compelled 
 to make payment, without a delivery or production 
 of the note or bill, is a question on which the authori- 
 ties in America differ. In England it has been held 
 that the holder can not recover in a court of law, but 
 only in a court of equity, on a negotiable note or bill 
 lost or destroyed. A distinction is had between negotia- 
 ble and non-negotiable instruments, or those which have 
 been specially indorsed, so that no person but the holder, 
 who sues, could have acquired a right to sue thereon. 
 In the latter cases, the note or bill may be recovered 
 at law. And in an action ou a lost note, where the 
 evidence does not prove affirmatively that it is nego- 
 tiable, the presumption in New Tork is held to be that 
 it is not negotiable, and the plaintiff is therefore en- 
 titled in such case to recover. If a bill or note trans- 
 ferable by delivery be lost, the loser should ^ive im- 
 mediate notice thereof to the drawee, or persons who 
 are to pay it ; and if such persons afterward pay it to 
 a person who has not taken it bona fide, or paid value 
 for it, they will be responsible to the loser. If the 
 note or bill lost is negotiable and transferable when 
 lost, it has been held in some States that a suit at law 
 is maintainable against the maker, in others that it is 
 not; and, again, in others it has been held that the hold- 
 er may recover at law, provided he executes a prop- 
 er instrument of indemnity. It was held in Massa- 
 chusetts that, where a note has been stolen from 
 the payee, he may still prove his demand against the 
 
BIL 
 
 176 
 
 BIL 
 
 maker, and enforce payment; the court in such ease 
 prescribing the bond to be given to the maker. But 
 if a bill or note be destroyed by fire or other accident, 
 an action may be brought thereon for recovery. — 
 Bayley on Bills. 
 
 Forged Instruments. — When the signature of the 
 drawer of a bill of exchange is forged, and the bill is 
 accepted by the drawee, the latter will be bound to 
 pay the same to a honajide holder ; and if he has paid 
 it, he can not recover back the money from the person 
 to whom he paid it, although he can not recover it 
 back from the reputed drawer. The same doctrine 
 applies to an acceptor supra protest^ as to the signatures 
 of the parties for whose honor he accepts. But if the 
 signature of the payee, or of any other indorser, be 
 forged, and even if the drawer is at the same time 
 payee and indorser, and his signature be forged, in 
 these cases the acceptor is not bound to know their 
 signatures, and if the indorsement under which the 
 holder claims is forged, the acceptor is not bound to 
 pay the bill ; and if he does, the real owner is entitled 
 to recover the amount from him and the holder. If a 
 person not a party to a bill pays it for the acceptor, or 
 indorser, whose name is forged, he may recover back 
 the money from the person to whom he paid it, if he 
 gives notice thereof on the same day to the holder. 
 But if he does not discover it or give notice until the 
 next day, then he is not entitled to recover back the 
 money from the holder. But if an indorser pays the 
 bill under a forged indorsement of the name of a prior 
 indorser, or of the drawer, he can not recover back the 
 money from any subsequent indorsee to whom he paid 
 it, because his indorsement admits the genuineness of 
 the antecedent indorsements and tliat of the drawer. 
 — Story on Bills', § 451. In cases of promissory notes, 
 if the signature of the payee, or other indorser, under 
 whom the actiial holder claims, is forged, and the 
 maker pays the note, such payment to the holder will 
 be null and void, and he will be entitled to recover 
 back the money from the holder. So, if the payee 
 should pay the note to the holder under a subsequent 
 forged indorsement, he may likewise recover back the 
 amount. But if a subsequent indorser should pay the 
 amount to the holder, where the signature of the maker 
 or of a prior indorser is forged, he could not recover it 
 back, because every indorser warrants the genuineness 
 of the signatures of the antecedent parties, both of the 
 indorsers and maker. — See Stoky on. Notes, § 387. 
 Therefore, before the maker or an indorser pays a note, 
 he should be satisfied that the signature of the payee 
 or other indorser under whom the actual holder claims 
 is a genuine signature, for if it be a forgery, the pay- 
 ment would be a nullity. 
 
 Damages to be Recovered. — ^When the holder of a bill 
 of exchange has complied with all the requisitions of 
 the law, upon the dishonor of a bill, either for non-ac- 
 ceptance or non-payment, he is entitled to an imme- 
 diate recourse against the drawer, acceptor, and in- 
 dorsers or guarantors, and to a full reimbursement of 
 all the damages sustained by him. These different 
 parties are liable according to the law of the place 
 where they entered into their respective contracts ; 
 namely, the drawer according to the law of the place 
 where the bill is drawn ; the acceptor according to the 
 law of the place of acceptance ; and the indorsers and 
 guarantors according to the law of the place where the 
 indorsements and guaranties were made. The accept- 
 or, upon non-payment of the bill, is ordinarily liable 
 to the holder only for the principal sum, and the ex- 
 penses of the protest, and interest thereon from the 
 time of the maturity of the bill, and he is not liable 
 for re-exchange. But if the acceptor has expressly 
 or impliedly agreed with the drawer, or with any in- 
 dorser, for a valuable consideration, to pay the bill at 
 its maturity, and has failed so to do, and the drawer 
 or indorser has been compelled to take up the bill, and 
 pay damages and other expenses, he may perhaps be 
 
 liable to the drawer or indorser for all such damages 
 and expenses. — See Story on Bills, § 398, and Bay- 
 LKY en Bills, p. 380. The drawer and Endorsers of 
 bills of exchange are liable to the holder for the prin- 
 cipal sum, and interest, and the damages and expenses 
 incurred by the dishonor. The interest is due accord- 
 ing to the legal rate allowed at the place where the 
 bill is payable; and the expenses are the ordinary 
 cost of protest and other incidental expenditures, such 
 as postage, commission, and brokerage, if the party 
 has been obliged to pay the holder, in consequence of 
 the acceptor's refusal. The damages, in the absence 
 of any positive rule, which, however, exists in nearly 
 all the States of the Union, are ascertained by the rate 
 of re-exchange between the country where the bill is 
 accepted and the country where the bill is drawn, in 
 case of the drawer ; and between the former and the 
 country where the bill is indorsed, in the case of the 
 indorser. If the bill has been in part paid hy the ac- 
 ceptor, damages and interest are -to be deducted in pro- 
 portion. By re-exchange is meant the amount for 
 which a bill can be purchased in the country where 
 the acceptance is made, drawn upon the drawer or in- 
 dorser in the country where he resides, which will 
 give the holder of the bill protested a sum equal to 
 the amount of that bill at the time when it ought to 
 have been paid, together with his necessary expenses 
 and interest. The full indemnity of the holder, hence, 
 requires him to draw for such an amount as will make 
 good the face of the bill, together with interest from 
 the time it ought to have been paid, and the necessary 
 charges of protest, postage, and broker's commission, 
 and the current rate of exchange at the place where 
 the bill was to be demanded or payable, or the place 
 where it was drawn or negotiated. The law does not 
 require an actual re-drawing, but it gives the holder 
 the right to recover what would be the price of an- 
 other new bill, with interest, and the necessary ex- 
 penses, including the amount, or price, of the re-ex- 
 change. But the indorser of a bill is not entitled to 
 recover of the drawer the damages incurred by the 
 non-acceptance of the bill, unless he has paid them, or 
 is liable to pay them. — 3 Kent's Comm., Lect. XLTA''. 
 
 Bills of Exchange drawn in the United 
 States. — In order to avoid the difEiculty of ascertain- 
 ing what is the true rate of exchange, most of the 
 States of the Union have provided by a statute a cer- 
 tain fixed sum, in the place of damages and re-ex- 
 change. The law in the different States, in this re- 
 spect, is as follows : 
 
 Maine. — The damages on bills of exchange negoti- 
 ated in Maine, payable in other States, and returned 
 under protest, are as follows (R. S. 510): 1. New Hamp- 
 shire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Con- 
 necticut, New York, 3 per cent. 2. New Jersey, Penn- 
 sylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, District of 
 Columbia, South Carolina, Georgia, 6 per cent. 3. 
 North Carolina, Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Illinois, 
 Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Louisiana, Michigan, Mis- 
 sissippi, Missouri, Ohio, Tennessee, Texas, Wisconsin, 
 9 per cent. The dafaages on foreign bills of exchange 
 returned under protest are 10 per cent. 
 
 New Hampshire. — No statute in force in this State 
 allowing damages on foreign or domestic bills return- 
 ed under protest. 
 
 Vermont. — There is no statute in this State in refer- 
 ence to damages on protested foreign or domestic bills 
 of exchange. 
 
 Massachusetts. — The damages on bills of exchange 
 negotiated in Massachusetts, payable in other States, 
 and returned under protest, are as follows : 1. Bills 
 payable in Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Rhode 
 Island, Connecticut, or New York, 2 per cent. 2. 
 Bills payable in New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, 
 or Delaware, 3 per cent. 3. Bills payable in Virginia, 
 District of Columbia, North Carolina, South Carolina, 
 or Georgia, 4 per cent. 4. Bills payable elsewhere 
 
BIL 
 
 177 
 
 BEL 
 
 within the United States or the Territories, 6 per cent. 
 6. Bills for one hundred dollars or more, payable at 
 any place' in Massachusetts not within seventy-flve 
 miles of the place where drawn, 1 per cent. Foreign 
 Bills.— '1. Bills payable, returned under protest, beyond 
 the limits of the United States (excepting places in 
 Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope, and places in 
 Asia and the islands thereof) shall pay the current rate 
 of exchange when due, and 6 per cent, additional. 2. 
 Bills payable at any place in Africa beyond the Cape 
 of Good Hope, or any place in Asia or the islands there- 
 of, shall pay damages, 20 per cent. 
 
 Rhode Island. — The damages on bills of exchange, 
 payable in other States, and returned under protest, 
 are uniformly 6 per cent. The damages on foreign 
 bills of exchange returned under protest are 10 per cent. 
 
 Connecticut.^— The damages on bills of exchange ne- 
 gotiated in Connecticut, payable in other States, and 
 returned under protest, are as follows : 1. Maine, New 
 Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, 
 New York (interior). New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Dela- 
 ware, Maryland, Virginia, District of Columbia, 3 per 
 cent. 2. New York city, 2 per cent. 3. North Caro- 
 lina, South Carolina, Georgia, and Ohio, 5 per cent. 
 4. All the other States and Territories, 8 per cent. 
 There is no statute in force in Connecticut in reference 
 to damages on foreign bills of exchange. 
 
 New ypr&.^-The damages on bills of exchange ne- 
 gotiated in this State and payable in other States, and 
 returned under protest for non-acceptance or non-pay- 
 ment, are as follows : 1. Maine, New Hampshire, Ver- 
 mont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New 
 Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, 
 District of Columbia, aud Ohio, 3 per cent. 2. North 
 Carolina, South Carolina, Kentucky, and Tennessee, 
 5 per cent. 3. Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Illinois, 
 Indiana, Iowa, Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri, Mich- 
 igan, Texas, Wisconsin, 10 per cent. The damages on 
 foreign bills, returned under protest, are 10 per cent. 
 
 JVIsm; Jersey. — There is no statute in force in refer- 
 ence to damages on protested bills of exchange, either 
 foreign or domestic. 
 
 Pennsylvania. — The damages on bills of exchange 
 negotiated in this State, payable in other States, and 
 returned under protest, are as follows : 1. Upper and 
 Lower California, New Mexico, and Oregon, 10 per 
 cent. 2. All other States, 6 per cent. The damages 
 on foreign bills returned under protest are as follows 
 (May 19, 1850) : 1. Payable in China, India, or other 
 parts of Asia, Africa, or islands in the Pacific Ocean, 
 20 per cent. 2. Mexico, Spanish Main, West Indies, 
 or other Atlantic islands, east coast of South America, 
 GreatBritain, or other parts of Europe, lOpercent. 3. 
 West coast of South America, 15 per cent. 4. All other 
 parts of the world, 10 per cent. 
 
 Delaware, — There is no statute in force in reference 
 to damages on domestic bills. The damages upon 
 bills of exchange drawn upon any person in England 
 or other parts of Europe, or beyond the seas, and re- 
 turned under protest, are 20 per cent. 
 
 Maryland. — The damages on bills of exchange ne- 
 gotiated in Maryland, payable in other States, and re- 
 turned under protest, are uniformly 8 per cent. The 
 claimant is entitled to receive a sum sufficient to buy 
 another bill of the same tenor, and 8 per cent, dam- 
 ages on the value of the principal sum mentioned in 
 the bill, and interest from the time of protest, and costs. 
 Practice includes the District of Columbia in this law 
 of damages (Act of Assembly, 1785, c. 38), but it is 
 questionable whether the District be within the law, 
 which provides only for States. Foreign Bills. — The 
 damages on these, returned under protest, are 15 per 
 cent. The claimant is to receive a sum sufficient to 
 buy another bill of same tenor, and 15 per cent, dam- 
 ages on the value of the principal sum mentioned in 
 the bill, and interest from the time of protest, and 
 costs. 
 
 M 
 
 Virginia. — Damages on bills of exchange negotiated 
 in Virginia, payable in other States, and returned un- 
 der protest, are uniformly 3 per cent. The damages 
 on foreign bills of exchange returned under protest are 
 uniformly 10 per cent. 
 
 North Carolina. — iThe damages on bills of exchange 
 negotiated in this State, payable in other States, and 
 returned under protest, are uniformly 3 per cent. The 
 damages on foreign bills of exchange returned under 
 protest are as follows : 1. Bills payable in any part of 
 North America, except the northwest coast and the 
 West Indies, 10 per cent. 2. Bills payable on Madei- 
 ra, the Canaries, the Azores, Cape de Verd Islands, 
 Europe, and South America, 15 per cent. 3. Bills 
 payable elsewhere, 20 per cent. 
 
 South Carolina. — ^The damages on bills of exchange 
 negotiated in South Carolina, payable in other States, 
 and protested for non-payment, are uniformly 10 per 
 cent., together with costs of protest. A bill drawn in 
 South Carolina, payable in another State, is deemed a 
 foreign bill, and damages may be claimed, although 
 such bill be not actually returned after protest. For- 
 eign Bills. — The damages on foreign bills of exchange 
 negotiated in South Carolina, are : 1. On bills on any 
 part of North America other than the United States, 
 and on the West Indies, 12J- per cent. 2. On bills 
 drawn on any other part of the world, 15 per cent. 
 
 Georgia. — The damages on bills of exchange nego- 
 tiated in Georgia, payable in other States, and return- 
 ed under protest, are uniformly 5 per cent. The dam- 
 ages on foreign bills of exchange returned under protest 
 are 10 per cent. 
 
 Alabama. — The damages on bills of exchange nego- 
 tiated in Alabama, payable in other States, and re- 
 turned under protest, are uniformlj' 15 per cent. Bills 
 payable within the State of Alabama, 5 per cent. The 
 damages on foreign bills of exchange returned under 
 protest are 20 per cent. 
 
 Arkansas. — The damages on bills of exchange drawn 
 or negotiated in Arkansas, expressed to be for value 
 received, and protested for non-acceptance, or for noji- 
 payment after . non-acceptance, are as follows (E. S. 
 1848, c. 25) : 1. If payable within the State, 2 per cent. 
 
 2. If payable in Alabama, Louisiana, Mississippi, 
 Tennessee, Kentucky, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, or Mis- 
 souri, or at any point on the Ohio River, 4 per cent. 
 
 3. If payable in any other State or Territory, 5 per 
 cent. 4. If payable within either of the United States, 
 and protested for non-payment, after acceptance, 6 per 
 cent. 6. The damages on bills of exchange, expressed 
 for value received, and payable beyond the limits of the 
 United States, 10 per cent. 
 
 California. — By an act passed April 16, 1850, the 
 damages on protested bills of exchange drawn or ne- 
 gotiated in California were fixed as follows: 1. If 
 drawn upon any person or persons east of the Rocky 
 Mountains, and within the limits of the United States, 
 15 per cent. 2. If drawn upon any person or persons 
 in Europe, or in any foreign country, 20 per cent. By 
 an act passed March 13, 1850, the rate of interest on 
 money loaned in California was fixed at 10 per cent, 
 per annum, where there is no special contract; but 
 " parties may agree in writing for the payment of any 
 rate of interest whatever on money due, or to become 
 due, on any contract. Any judgment rendered on such 
 contract shall conform thereto, and shall bear the in- 
 terest agreed upon by the parties." 
 
 Florida.— The damages on bills of exchange nego- 
 tiated in Florida, payable in other States, and returned 
 under protest for non-payment, are uniformly 5 per 
 cent. Damages on foreign bills of exchange, 5 per cent. 
 
 Illinois.— th& damages on bills of exchange nego- 
 tiated in Illinois, payable in other States or Territories, 
 and returned under protest for non-payment, are uni- 
 formly (by act of March, 1845) 5 per cent. Damages 
 an foreign bills, 10 per cent. 
 
 Indiana. — The damages on bills of exchange negoti- 
 
BIL 
 
 178 
 
 BIL 
 
 ated in Indiana, payable in other States, and returned 
 under protest for non-payment, are uniformly 6 per 
 cent. The damages o^ foreign hills are 10 per cent. 
 
 Iowa. — The damages on bills of exchange negotiated 
 in Iowa, payable in other States, and protested for non- 
 payment, are uniformly 5 per cent. No statute exists 
 as to i.&rad.ges an foreign hills of exchange. 
 
 Kentucky, — There is no statute in force upon the 
 subject of damages on either domestic or foreign bills 
 of exchange. 
 
 Louisiana. — The damages on bills of exchange nego- 
 tiated in Louisiana, payable in other States, are uni- 
 formly 5 per cent. The damages on foreign hills of 
 exchange.^ returned under protest, are uniformly (stat- 
 ute of 1838) 10 per cent. 
 
 Michigan. — The damages on bills of exchange ne- 
 gotiated in Michigan, payable in other States, and re- 
 turned under protest, are uniformly 3 per cent. ; and 
 the damages on foreign hills are also 3 per cent. 
 
 Mississippi. — The damages on bills of exchange ne- 
 gotiated in Mississippi, payable in other States, and 
 returned under protest, are uniformly 6 per cent. The 
 damages on foreign hills are 10 per cent. 
 
 Missouri. — The damages on bills of exchange nego- 
 tiated in Missouri, payable in other States, and re- 
 turned under protest, are uniformly 10 per cent. On 
 bills payable within the State, 4 per cent. On foreign 
 hills, 20 per cent. 
 
 Ohio. — The damages on bills of exchange negotiated 
 in Ohio, payable in other States, and returned under 
 protest, are uniformly (by act of February 15, 1831) 6 
 per cent. On foreign hills, 12 per cent. 
 
 Tennessee. — The damages on bills of exchange nego- 
 tiated in Tennessee, payable in other States, and pro- 
 tested for non-payment, are 3 per cent. The damages 
 on foreign hills protested, are : 1. If drawn upon any 
 person out of the United States, and in North Ameri- 
 ca, bordering upon the Gulf of M,exico, or in any part 
 of the West India Islands, 15 per cent. 2. If payable 
 in any other part of the world, 20 per cent. 
 
 Texas. — There is no statute in force in reference to 
 damages on either domestic or foreign bills of ex- 
 change. 
 
 Wisconsin. — The damages on bills of exchange drawn 
 or indorsed in Wisconsin, payable in either of the States 
 adjoining that State, and protested for non-acceptance 
 or non-payment, are 5 per cent. If drawn upon a per- 
 son, or body politic or corporate, within either of the 
 United States, and not adjoining to that State, the 
 damages are 10 per cent. The damages on bills of ex- 
 change drawn or indorsed in Wisconsin, payable be- 
 yond the limits of the United States, and protested for 
 non-aeceptance or non-payment, are (R. S. 1849, p. 263) 
 5 per cent., together with the current rate of exchange 
 at the time of demand. 
 
 See Manual for Notaries Public, by B. Eoelkeb, 
 NewYork; Story on Bills ; Chitty on Bills ; Kent's 
 Commentaries ; and for late decisions in the United 
 States Courts, refer to the Bankers^ Magazine, pub- 
 lished in New York. 
 
 Bill of Health, a certificate or instrument signed 
 by consuls or other proper authorities, delivered to the 
 masters of ships at the time of their clearing out from 
 all ports or places suspected of being particularly sub- 
 ject to infectious disorders, certifying the state of 
 health at the time that such ship sailed. A clean bill 
 imports that at the time that the ship sailed no infec- 
 tious disorder was known to exist. A suspected bill, 
 commonly called a touched patent or bill, imports that 
 there were rumors of an infectious disorder, but that it 
 had not actually appeared. Kfoul bill, or the absence 
 of clean bills, imports that the place was infected when 
 the vessel sailed. — See Quarantine. 
 
 Bill of Lading, is a formal receipt subscribed by 
 the master of a ship in his capacity of carrier, ac- 
 knowledging that he has received the goods specified 
 in it on board his ship, and binding himself (under cer- 
 
 tain exceptions) to deliver them, in the like good order 
 as received, at the place and to the individual named 
 in the bill, or his assigns, on his or their paying him the 
 stipulated freight, etc. When goods are sent by a ship 
 hired by a charter-party, the bills of lading are deliv- 
 ered by the master to the merchant by whom the ship 
 is chartered ; butwhen they are sent by a general ship — 
 that is, by a ship not hired by charter-partj', but em- 
 ployed as a general carrier — each individual who sends 
 goods on board receives a bill of lading for the same. 
 In all cases, therefore, the bill of lading is the evidence 
 of and title to the goods shipped. The liability of a 
 carrier, at common law, to deliver the goods intrusted 
 to his care, is canceled only by "the act of God and 
 the king's enemies." But to limit this responsibility, 
 the following exception is now invariably almost in- 
 troduced into the clause in bills of lading binding the 
 master to the delivery of the goods : " The act of God, 
 the hinges enemies, jire, and all and every other dangers 
 and accidents of th^ seas, rivers, and navigation, of what' 
 ever nature and kind soever, excepted." Bills of lading 
 are not, in general, immediately given by the master 
 on receiving the goods. The usual practice is for the 
 master or his deputy to give a common receipt for the 
 goods, which is delivered up on receiving the bill of 
 lading. The latter should always be required within 
 twenty-four hours after the goods are received on board. 
 Three sets of all bills of lading are made out : one of 
 these should be remitted by the first post to the person 
 to whom the goods are consigned, a second being sent 
 to him by the ship ; the third is retained by the ship- 
 per of the goods, "rhe master ought always to retain 
 copies of the bills of lading for his government. 
 
 TraTisfer of Bills of Lading. — Bills of lading are 
 transferable either by blank or special indorsement, 
 like bills of exchange. And whatever may be the 
 character of the person to whom the goods are con- 
 signed, whether he be a buyer, or merely the factor, 
 agent, or broker of the consigner, the bonajide holder 
 of a bill of lading indorsed by the consignee is entitled 
 to the goods, and may claim them from the master if 
 he can prove that he has purchased the bill for a good 
 consideration; but unless he can do this, he is not en- 
 titled to the goods. — Holt, Law of Shipping, 2d ed. p. 
 363. 
 
 Delivery under Bill oflMding. — It being usual to sign 
 and deliver three bills of lading, it is possible that there 
 may be conflicting demands upon the captain by the 
 difFerent holders. Nothing, however, is, in such a case, 
 required of him, except that he act with good faith, and 
 to the best of his judgment; and that he make deliv- 
 ery of the goods to the person who first demands them 
 of him, upon presentment of the bill of la.(iing, p7'ovided 
 the circumstances he not such- as to justify a suspicion 
 of his having unfairly got possession of it. If he act! 
 differently, he is answerable, according to the pecul- 
 iarities of the case, to the person injured by his negli- 
 gence ; the bill of lading being not only the instruc- 
 tions of the merchant to him, as his carrier or servant, 
 but his own especial agreement to deliver according to 
 its conditions. Where several bills of lading of a dif- 
 ferent import have been signed, no regard is to be paid 
 to the time when they were first signed by the master ; 
 but the person who first gets legal possession of one of 
 them from the owner or shipper, has a right to the 
 consignment ; and where such bills of lading, though 
 different upon the face of them, are constructively the 
 same, and the master has acted bonajide, a delivery 
 according to such legal title will discharge him from 
 all.— Holt, p. 375 and 377. 
 
 Bill of Sale, a contract under seal, by which an 
 individual conveys or passes away the right and inter- 
 est he has in the goods or chattels named in the bill. 
 The property of ships is transferred by bill of sale. 
 
 Bill of Sight. In England, when a merchant is 
 ignorant of the real quantities or qualities of any goods 
 assigned to him, so that he is unable to make a perfect 
 
BIL 
 
 179 
 
 BIR 
 
 entry of them, he must acquaint the collector or con- 
 troller of the circumstance ; and they are authorized, 
 upon the importer or his agent making oath that he 
 can not, for want of full information, make a perfect 
 entry, to receive an entry by Oil qfsigU for the pack- 
 ages, by the best description which can be given, and 
 to grant warrant that the same may be landed and ex- 
 amined by the importer in presence of the officers ; and 
 within three days after any goods shall have been so 
 landed, the importer shall make a perfect entry, and 
 shall either pay down the duties, or shall duly ware- 
 house the same— 3 & 4 Will, i, c. 62, § 24. In de- 
 fault of perfect entry within three days, such goods 
 are to be taken to the king's warehouse ; and if the im- 
 porter shall not within one month make a perfect en- 
 try, and pay the duties thereon, or on such parts as 
 can be entered for home use, together with charges of 
 moving and warehouse rent, such goods shall be sold 
 for payment of the duties. — § 25. 
 
 Bill of Store is a license granted by the custom- 
 house to merchants, to carry such stores and provisions 
 as are necessary for a voyage, free of duty. 
 
 Billiards. Invented by the French, by whom, 
 and by the Germans, Dutch, and Italians, they were 
 brought into general vogue throughout Europe. — Mouv. 
 Diet. The French ascribe their invention to Henrique 
 Devignc, an artist, in the reign of Charles IX., about 
 1571. Slate billiard-tables were introduced in En- 
 gland in 1827. 
 
 Billingsgate, a market for fish', contiguous to the 
 custom-house in London. It is held every lawful day, 
 iind was established in 1669. Every person buying 
 fish in Billingsgate market may sell the same in any 
 other market-place or places within the city of London 
 or elsewhere, by retail, with this condition, that none 
 but fishmongers be permitted to sell in fixed shops or 
 houses. No person or persons shall purchase at Bil- 
 liilgsgate any quantity offish, to be divided by lots or 
 In shares among any fishmongers or other persons, in 
 order to be afterward put to sale by retail or otherwise ; 
 nor shall any fishmonger engross or buy in the said 
 market any quantity of fish, but what shall be for his 
 own sale or use, under the penalty of £20. No person 
 is to have in his possession, or expose to sale, any 
 spawn of fish, or fish unsizable, or out of season.-^a6 
 Geo. c. 118. The minimum size of the lobsters to be 
 sold at Billingsgate is fixed by statute. — See Lobster. 
 Previously to 1842 no fish of foreign taking or cur- 
 ing, or in foreign vessels, could be imported into the 
 United Kingdom, except turbots and lobsters, stock- 
 fish, live eels, anchovies, sturgeon, botargo, and ca- 
 viare. But the importation of all sorts of fish was 
 then permitted on payment of duties, which were final- 
 ly repealed in 1853. At present, therefore, the trade 
 in fish is quite free. — For some further remarks with 
 respect to this subject, see Fisir. 
 
 Binacle, or Binnacle (formerly Bittacle, from the 
 French habiiacW), a wooden case or box in which the 
 compasses are kept on board a ship, with lights to show 
 the compass at night. ■ 
 
 Birch (Fr. ftouleau ; Du. Berke ; Germ. Birke ; It. 
 Betulla; Lat. Betula; Pol. Brzom; Russ. Bereza: Sp. 
 A bedul, Betulla), a forest tree met with every where in 
 the north of Europe. It is applied to various purposes. 
 In Lapland, Norway, and Sweden, the long twigs of 
 the birch are woven into mats and twisted into ropes ; 
 the outer bark forms an almost incorruptible covering 
 for houses ; and the inner barlt is used, in periods of 
 scarcity, as a substitute for bread. Russia leather is 
 prepared by means of the empyreumatic oil of the 
 birch. It is an excellent wood for the turner, being 
 light, compact, and easily worked. Its durability is 
 not very great. It is sometimes iised in the manufac- 
 ture of herring barrels. 
 
 Bird-lime (Germ. Vogelleim; Fr. Glu; It. Pania ; 
 Sp. ZAga ; liuss. Ptitschei Klei) exudes spontaneously 
 from certain plants, and is obtained artificially from 
 
 the middle bark of the holly. Its color is greenish, 
 its flavor sour, and it is gluey, shining, and tenacious. 
 The natural is more adhesive than the artificial bird- 
 lime. — Thomsos's Chemistry. 
 
 Birds' Nests (Germ. Indianisehe Vogelnester ; Du. 
 Tndiaansche Vegetnestjes ; Fr. Nids de TimUn ; It. Nidi 
 di Tunehino; Sp. Nidos de la China; Javan. Susu; 
 Malay, SarungSurung'), the nests of a species of swallow 
 peculiar to the Indian islands (Hirundo esculenta), very 
 much esteemed in China. In shape this nest resem- 
 bles that of other swallows ; it is formed of a viscid 
 substance ; and in external appearance, as well as con- 
 sistence, is not unlike fibrous, ill-concocted isinglass. 
 Esculent nests are principally found in Java, in cav- 
 erns that are most frequently, though not always, sit- 
 uated on the sea-coast. Many conflicting statements 
 have been made as to the substance of nests ; some con- 
 tending that they are formed of sea-foam or other ma- 
 rine products, and others that they are elaborated from 
 the food of the bird, etc. But these are points as to 
 which nothing satisfactory is known. 
 
 We borrow from Mr. Crawfurd's valuable work on 
 the Eastern Archipelago (yo\. iii. p. 432-437) the fol- 
 lowing authentic and curious details as to the traffic 
 in this singular production : " The best nests are those 
 obtained in deep damp caves, and such as are taken 
 before the birds have laid their eggs. The coarsest 
 are those obtained after the young are fledged. The 
 finest nests are the whitest, that is, those taken before 
 the nest has been rendered impure by the food and 
 Jmces of the young birds. They are taken twice a year, 
 and, if regularly collected, and no unusual injury be 
 offered to the eaverns, will produce very equally, the 
 quantity being very little, if at all, improved by the 
 caves being left altogether unmolested for a year or 
 two. Some of the caverns are extremely difficult of 
 access, and the nests can only be collected by persons 
 accustomed from their youth to the oflice. Tlie most 
 remarkable and productive caves in Java, of which I 
 superintended a moiety of the collection for several 
 years, are those of Karang-holang, in the province of 
 Baglen, on the south coast of the island. Here the 
 caves are only to be approached bj' a perpendicular 
 descent of many hundred feet, by ladders of bamboo 
 and ratan, over a sea rolling violently against the 
 rocks. When the mouth of the cavern is attained, the 
 perilous office of taking the nests must often be per- 
 formed by torch-light, by penetrating into recesses of 
 the rock, where the slightest trip would be instantly 
 fatal to the adventurers, who see nothing below them 
 but the turbulent surf making its way into the chasms 
 of the rock. 
 
 "The only preparation which the birds' nests un- 
 dergo is that of simple drying, without direct exposure 
 to the sun, after which thej' are packed in small boxes, 
 usually of half a picul. They are assorted for the 
 Chinese market into three kinds, according to their 
 qualities, distinguished into Jirst or best, second, and 
 third qualities. Caverns that are regularly managed 
 will afford, in 100 parts, 53-3 parts of those of the first 
 quality, 35 parts of those of the second, ]1'7 parts of 
 those of the third. The common prices for birds' nests 
 at Canton are, for the first sort, no less than 3500 
 Spanish dollars the picul, or £5 18s. lid. per pound ; 
 for the second, 2800 Spanish dollars per picul ; and for 
 the third, 1600 Spanish dollars. From these prices it 
 is sufficiently evident that the birds' nests are no more 
 than an article of expensive luxury. They are con- 
 sumed only by the great; and, indeed, the best part is 
 sent to the capital for the consumption of the court; 
 The sensual Chinese use them, under the imagination 
 that they are powerfully stimulating and tonic ; but if 
 is probable that their "most valuable quality is their 
 being perfectly harmless. The people of Japan, who 
 so much resemble the Chinese in many of their habits, 
 have no taste for the edible nests ; and how the latter 
 acquired a taste for this foreign commodity is no less 
 
BIR 
 
 180 
 
 BIT 
 
 singular than their persevering in it. Among the 
 Western nations there is nothing parallel to it, unless- 
 ■\ve except the ■whimsical estimation in which the Ro- 
 mans held some articles of luxury, remarkable for their 
 scarcity rather than for any qualities ascribed to them." 
 Mr. Crawfurd estimates the whole quantity of birds' 
 nests exported from the Archipelago at 242,000 pounds, 
 worth £284,290. "The. value," he observes, "of this 
 immense property to the country which produces it 
 rests upon the capricious wants of a single people. It 
 is claimed as the exclusive property of the sovereign, 
 -.and every where forms a valuable branch of his in- 
 come, or of the revenue of the State. This value, how- 
 evei-, is of course not equal, and depends upon the sit- 
 uation and the circumstances connected with the cav- 
 erns in which the nests are found. Being often in re- 
 mote and sequestered situations, in a country so law- 
 less, a property so valuable and exposed is subject to 
 the perpetual depredation of freebooters, and it not un- 
 frequently happens that an attack upon it is the prin- 
 cipal object of the warfare committed by one petty 
 State against another. In such situations, the expense 
 of affording them protection is so heavy, that they 
 are necessarily of little value. In situations where the 
 caverns are difficult of access to strangers, and where 
 there reigns enough of order and tranquillity to secure 
 them from internal depredation, and to admit of the 
 nests being obtained without other expense tlian the 
 simple labor of collecting them, the value of the prop- 
 erty is very great. The caverns of Karang-holang^ in 
 Java, are of this description. These annually afford 
 6810 pounds of nests, which are worth, at the Bata- 
 via prices of 3000, 2500, and 1200 Spapish dollars the 
 picul, for the respective kinds, nearly 139,000 Spanish 
 dollars ; and the whole expense of collecting, curing, 
 and packing, amounts to no more than 11 per cent, on 
 this amount. The price of birds' nests is of course a 
 monopoly price, the quantity produced being by nature 
 limited, and incapable of augmentation. The value 
 of the labor expended in bringing birds' nests to mark- 
 et is but a trifling portion of their price, which consists 
 of the highest sum that the luxurious Chinese will af- 
 ford to pay for them, and which is a tax paid by that 
 nation to the inhabitants of the Indian islands. There 
 is, perhaps, no production upon which human industry 
 is exerted, of which the cost of production bears so 
 small a proportion to the market price." — See also the 
 valuable work of Count Hogesdorp, Coup d'CEilsur 
 V He de Java, p. 291. 
 
 Biimingham, a parliamentary and municipal bor- 
 ough, one of the principal manufacturing towns of 
 England, near Its centre, county and 17 miles north- 
 west of Warwick, 100 miles northwest of London, and 
 78t miles southeast of Liverpool. Area of borough, 
 which includes the adjacent townships, Aston, Edgbas- 
 ton, etc., 2660 acres. Population in 1690, 4000; in 
 1801,60,822; in 1841, 182,922 ; in 1851, 232,841. The 
 town, on the Kiver Eea, occupies the eastern declivity of 
 three undulating hills, and from the southeast presents 
 to view a mass of red brick houses, interspersed with 
 several lofty church spires, and a vast number of tall 
 chimneys belonging to its factories. Birmingham ex- 
 isted in the reign of Alfred, a.d. 872 ; but its import- 
 ance as a manufacturing town commenced in the reign 
 of William III. Birmingham was besieged and taken 
 by Prince Eupert in 1643. The great works of Soho 
 were established by the illustrious engineer, Matthew 
 Boulton, in 1764. The Birmingham canal was origin- 
 ated by act of Parliament, 1768. Memorable riots 
 commenced here, July 14, 1791, on some persons com- 
 memorating the French Eevolution. The theatre was 
 destroyed by fire, August 17, 1792. More commotions, 
 November, 1800. The theatre again burned in 1817 ; 
 and again, January 7, 1820. Birmingham political 
 union formed, 1831 ; dissolved itself. May 10, 1834. 
 Town Hall built, 1833. Birmingham and Liverpool 
 railway opened as tte Grand Junction, July 4, 1837. 
 
 London and Birmingham Eailway opened its entire 
 length, September 17, 1838. Great political riot, filing 
 of houses and other outrages compiitted by the Chart- 
 ists, July 15, 1839. Corn Exchange opened, October 
 27, 1847. Birmingham has made most rapid progress 
 in manufacturing industry within the present century. 
 Its manufactures comprise almost every description of 
 iron and steel goods, brass and iron founding, saddlery, 
 fire-arms, cutlery, gold, silver, plated, bronze, ormolu, 
 and japanned wares ; papier-mache goods, toys, jewel- 
 ry, electroplated goods, buttons, steel-pens, glass, tools, 
 steam-engines, and all kinds of machinery. 
 
 Biscay, Bay of (Fr. Golfe de Gascogne, Aquita- 
 nicus Sinus), a vast bay or gulf formed by the Atlantic, 
 and extending between Ouessant island on the west 
 coast of France, and Cape Ortegal on the north coast 
 of Spain. It receives the waters of the Loire, Cha- 
 rente, Gironde, and Adour. Its principal ports are, 
 L'Orient, Nantes, La Eochelle, Eochefort, Bordeaux, 
 and Bayonne, in France. Passages, San Sebastian, 
 Bilbao, Santander, and Gihon, in Spain. Chief isl- 
 ands, Belle Isle, Ee, and Oleron, on the coast of France. 
 Its north and south coasts are bold and rocky ; but on 
 the east, from the mouth of the Gironde to the Adour, 
 the coast is composed of sand downs, and interrupted 
 by numerous lagoons. The depth varies from 20 fath- 
 oms on the west coast of France, to 200 fathoms on the 
 north of Spain. Navigation is much impeded by the 
 heavy seas produced by the northwest winds, and by a 
 current (i^enne^s) which sets in from the Atlantic, and 
 sweeping I round the north coast of Spain, runs north 
 and northwest along the west coast of France, and en- 
 ters the Irish Channel. 
 
 Bismuth (Ger. Wismuth ; Du. Bismuth, Bergsteen ; 
 Fr. Bismuth; It. Bismutte ; Sp. Bismuth, Piedra higa; 
 Euss. Wismut; Lat. Bismuthum), a metal of a reddish 
 white color, and almost destitute of taste and smell. 
 It is softer than copper ; its specific gravity is 9-822. 
 When hammered cautiously, its density is considerably 
 increased ; it breaks, however, when struck smartly by 
 a hammer, and, consequently, is not malleable,: neither 
 can it be drawn out into wire ; it melts at the temper- 
 ature of 476°. — Thomson's Chemistry. Bismuth is 
 used in the composition of pewter, in the fabrication 
 of printers' types, and in various other metallic mix- 
 tures. With an equal weight of lead, it forms a bril- 
 liant white alloy, much harder than lead, and more 
 malleable than bismuth, though not ductile ; and if 
 the proportion of lead be increased, it is rendered still 
 more malleable. Eight parts of bismuth, five of lead, 
 and three of tin, constitute the fusible metal, sometimes 
 called Newton's, from its discoverer, which melts at 
 the heat of boiling water, and may be fused over a can- 
 dle in a piece of stiff paper without burning the paper. 
 Pewterers' solder is formed of one part of bismuth, 
 with five of lead, and three of tin. It forms the basis 
 of a sympathetic ink.- — Uke. 
 
 Bitiunen (Germ. Judenpech; Du. Jodenlym; It. 
 Asfalto ; Sp. Asfalto; Port. Asphalto ; 'Russ.AsfaU; Lat. 
 Asphaltum Bitumen Judaictimy. This term includes a 
 considerable range of inflammable mineral substances, 
 burning with the flame in the open air. They difl'er in 
 consistency, from a thin fluid to a solid ; but "the solids 
 are for the most part liquefiable at a moderate heat. 
 They are: 1. Naphtha; afine, white, thin, fragrant, color- 
 less oil, which issues out of white, yellow, or black clays 
 in Persia and Media. This is highly inflammable. Near 
 the village of Amiano, in the State of Parma, there ex- 
 ists a spring which yields this substance in sufficient 
 quantity to illuminate the city of Genoa, for which 
 purpose it is employed. With certain vegetable oils, 
 naphtha is said to form a good varnish. 2. Petroleum 
 is much thicker than naphtha, resembling in consist- 
 ence common tar. It has a strong disagreeable odor, 
 and a blackish or reddish brown color. During com- 
 bustion, it emits a thick black smoke, and leaves a lit- 
 tle residue in the form of black coal. It is more abund- 
 
BLA 
 
 181 
 
 BLA 
 
 ant than the first-mentioned variety, from which it does 
 not seem to differ, except in being more inspissated. It 
 is found in various countries, and is especially abund- 
 ant in the Birman empire, where it is met with above 
 Prorae, within about two miles of the Irrawaddi. The 
 gross annual produce of the wells in this place has been 
 estimated at about 80,000,000 lbs., worth on the spot 
 about Is. 8d. a cwt. ; and the supply might, if a marlc- 
 et could be found, be indefinitely increased. It is used 
 as a lamp oil, and, when mingled with earth or ashes, 
 as fuel and in the paying of boats. — Geographical Dic- 
 tionary, i. 377. In the United States it is found 
 abundantly in Kentucky, Ohio, and New York, where 
 it is known by the name of Seneca or Genesee oil. It 
 is also obtained from wells in the island of Zante. 
 Herodotus tells us that he had seen these wells (lib. 
 iv. c. 195) ; and the description he has given of them, 
 and of the mode of obtaining the petroleum, corre- 
 sponds in all respects with the accounts of the best 
 modern travelers. The average annual produce of the 
 Zante springs is about 100 barrels. — Chandler's 
 Travels in. Greece, 4to ed. p. 301 ; Holland's Travels 
 in Greece, 4to ed. p. 18. Petroleum is particularly 
 abundant in Persia. " When taken from the pit, it is 
 a thick liquid resembling pitch. The bottoms of most 
 vessels which navigate the Euphrates and Tigris are 
 covered with it, and it is also used in lampsins tead 
 of oil by the natives. The most productive fountains 
 are those of Kerkook, Mendali, and Badku. The wells 
 in the neighborhood of the latter seem to be quite in- 
 exhaustible, being no sooner emptied than they again 
 begin to fill. Some of them have been found to yield 
 from 1000 to 1500 lbs. a day!" — Kinnieu's Persian 
 Umpire, p. 39 and 359. 3. Maltha, or Sea-wax, is a 
 solid whitish substance, not unlike tallow. It melts 
 when heated, and in cooling assumes the consistence 
 of white cerate. This is most probably the bitumen 
 candidum of Pliny.-^Hist. Nat. lib. xxxv. c. 15. It is 
 not used as pitch ; but it affords a better light than 
 petroleum, and emits a less disagreeable smell. It is 
 found on the surface of the Baikal Lake in Siberia, at 
 the foot of the mountains of Bucktiari in Persia, and in 
 some other places. 4. Elastic Bitumen yields easily to 
 pressure ; is flexible and elastic. It emits a strong bi- 
 tuminous odor, and is about the weight of water. On 
 exposure to the air it hardens, and loses its elasticity. 
 It takes up the traces of crayons in the same manner 
 as caoutchouc or Indian rubber, whence it has obtain- 
 ed the name of nmicral caoutchouc. It has hitherto 
 been found only in the lead mines of Derbyshire, 5. 
 Compact Bitumen, or Asphaitum, is of a shining black 
 color, solid, and brittle, with a conchoidal fracture. 
 Its specific gravity varies from 1 to 1'6. Like the for- 
 mer varieties, it burns freely, and leaves but little re- 
 siduum. It is found in India, on the shores of the 
 Dead Sea, in France, in Switzerland, and in large de- 
 posits in sandstone in Albania ; but nowhere so largely 
 as in the island of Trinidad, where it forms a lake three 
 miles irt circumference, and of a thickness unknown. 
 A gentle heat renders it ductile, and, when mixed with 
 grease or common pitch, it is used for paying the bot- 
 toms of ships, and is said to protect them from the te- 
 redo of the West Indian seas. The ancients employed 
 bitumen in the construction of their buildings. The 
 bricks of which the walls of Babylon were built were, 
 it is said (Hebodotus, lib. i. § 179), cemented with 
 hot bitumen, which gave them unusual solidity. 
 
 Blacking (Ger. Schuhschwarze, Wichse; Fr. JVbir 
 (de curdonnier') ; It. Nero da ugn^r le scarpe; Sp. Negro 
 de zapatos'). A factitious article, prepared in various 
 ways, used in the blacking of boots and shoes. The 
 principal ingredients in its manufacture are oil, vine- 
 gar, and various sorts of blacking matter. It is in 
 very extensive demand. Some of the establishments 
 for its manufacture, especially those in the metropolis, 
 are on a large scale ; and it is in such only that it can 
 be cheaply and advantageously produced. One of the 
 
 principal, or rather we may say the principal outlay 
 in establishing a blacking business, consists in adver- 
 tising. Indeed, any individual or set of individuals, 
 provided they supply a reasonably good article, may, 
 by continuous advertising and puffing, attain to the 
 highest eminence in the " blacking line." 
 
 Black-lead, Fltimbago, or "Wad (Du. I'otloot; 
 Fr. Mine de Plomb nolr, plonib de mine, Potelot ; Ger. 
 Pottloth, Reissbley ; It. Miniei'a di piomho, PioTnbaggine, 
 Corezolo ; Lat. Plumbago ; Sp. Piedra mineral deplomo"), 
 a mineral of a dark steel gray color, and a metallic 
 lustre ; it is soft, has a greasy feel, and leaves a dark- 
 colored line when drawn along paper. 
 
 This mineral is found only in a state of purity in 
 Borrowdale, in Cumberland, the mines in which have 
 been wrought since the days of Elizabeth. The lead 
 is not found in veins but in detached pieces, or in what 
 are called sops or bellies, so that the supply is very ir- 
 regular, the miners being frequently employed for a 
 lengthened period in seeking at random for the lead. 
 Its quality also differs very widely. The best is that 
 which is lightest, and the trace of which on paper is 
 easily and completely removed by the application of 
 India rubber. The mine used only to be opened at in- 
 tervals, but for a considerable number of years past it 
 has been constantly open. The supply, however, has 
 been extremely scanty, and mostly also very inferior. 
 This lead is now almost wholly employed in making 
 pencils : an inferior variety from Spain and Ceylon 
 being used in the manufacture of crucibles, the polish- 
 ing of cast-iron utensils, the diminishing of friction, 
 and other purposes to which genuine black-lead was 
 formerly applied. 
 
 Black-lead Pencils (Du. Potlootpennen; Fr. Cray- 
 ons noirs ; Ger. Bleystifle ; It. ispt's nero ; Port. Zapie 
 negro' J Buss. Ka/ranaschu; Sp. iMpiz negro') are formed 
 of black-lead, encircled with cedar. There is hardly, 
 perhaps, any thing in which the temptation to substi- 
 tute a spurious for a genuine article is greater, or in 
 which, consequently, the purchaser is more liable to 
 be deceived, than black-lead pencils. This is occasion- 
 ed by the vast difference between the cost of genuine 
 Cumbeiland lead and of the other articles that are or 
 may be substituted for it. Pencils are usually de- 
 scribed as follows : first quality, or drawing pencils ; 
 second qualit)', or prepared pencils; third quality, or 
 composition pencils, 1, Pencils of th6first quality are, 
 when genuine, made of pure Cumberland lead, and 
 cost, in the year 1843, 30s. per lb., or £168 per cwt. 
 From 18 to 20 dozen such pencils are produced from a 
 pound of this lead. These pencils are usually made 
 by sawing the lead into the pieces inserted in the 
 cedar. Sometimes, however, the lead is in parts gritty 
 and defective, so that a pencil of this kind may, in fact, 
 be very inferior. To obviate this defect, some makers 
 prepare the lead, to free it from the grit or earthy parti- 
 cles ; and, provided no antimony or other alloy be mixed 
 up with the prepared lead, the pencils produced from it 
 are most to be depended on, 2, Pencils of the second 
 quality are manufactured out of the sa wings or dust 
 of pure lead, with the dust of the small pieces^ picked 
 up by poor people from the rubbish thrown out of the 
 mine, mixed or alloyed with a greater or less quantity 
 of antimony. The goodness of this pencil depends, of 
 course, on the proportion in which the pure lead ex- 
 ceeds the antimony. But as the cost of the former 
 may be taken at £100 a cwt., and that of the latter at 
 only 26«., there is an all but irresistible temptation to 
 increase the proportion of the latter beyond due bounds. 
 This sort of composition produces about 15 or 16 dozen 
 pencils to the pound; their price varying according to 
 the purity of the lead. 3. The third quality of pencil 
 is made by using Mexican or Spanish lead dust, costing 
 45s. or 60s. a cwt,, with antimony costing about 26«. 
 per cwt. It produces about 14 or 15 dozen pencils to 
 the lb,, which may be sold at from 2s, 6d. to 12s, per 
 gross, according to the cost of" the articles employed 
 
BLA 
 
 182 
 
 BLE 
 
 and the care taken in mixing them. This sort of pen- 
 cil may take a firm point, and make a fine stroke, but 
 its trace will not obliterate on being rubbed with India 
 rubber. The easy and complete obliteration of the 
 stroke is, in fact, the best and perhaps only test of a 
 pencil being of pure Cumberland lead. — Private infor- 
 incUimi. 
 
 Black Sea, or Euxine Sea {Pontus Euxinus of 
 the ancients), is u large inland sea, bounded on the 
 west by Rumelia, Bulgaria, and Bessarabia ; on the 
 north by Russian Tartary ; on the east by Mingrelia, 
 Circassia, and Georgia ; and on the south by Anatolia. 
 It is entered from the Mediterranean through the chan- 
 nel of the Dardanelles, anciently the Hellespont, the Sea 
 of Marmora or Propontis, and the channel of Constan- 
 tinople or Thracian Bosporus ; and it is connected with 
 the Sea of Azof, or Palus McboHs, by the strait between 
 the Crimea and the Isle of Taman, anciently the Cj'jn- 
 Tnerian Bosporus, and known by the various modern 
 names of the Strait of Kertch, of Yenikale, and of 
 Taman, 
 
 Till within less than half a century, the extent of the 
 Black Sea, and the position of several of its principal 
 capes, gulfs, and ports, were very imperfectly ascer- 
 tained. But soon after the commencement of the French 
 Revolution, the National Institute sent M. Beauchamp 
 to examine this sea, and especially its southern shores. 
 In this enterprise he was miich impeded by the jealousy 
 of the Turks : nevertheless, he ascertained that Cape 
 Kerempe, Carambis, was placed in the charts too far 
 to the south ; that the Gulf of Sansoun, Amisenus Sinus, 
 was deeper than it is commonly represented; and that 
 Trebizond, the Tarabazan of the Turks, anciently TVa- 
 pezus, was five or six leagues farther to the west than 
 it appeared in the charts. But recent travelers have 
 discovered that even the Parisian charts are inaccurate. 
 According to Dr. Clarke, the Isle of Serpents, the 
 Ulan-Adassi of the Turks, the Fidonisi of the modern 
 Greeks, and ancient Leuce, lies fifteen minutes, and 
 the port of Odessa twenty-seven minutes, too far to- 
 ward the north (Clarke's Travels, i. 653) ; and Mr. 
 Maogill ascertained, from two observations of his own, 
 compared with those of some captains who had navi- 
 gated this sea, that in the French charts even Cape Ke- 
 rempe is set down fifteen miles too far north, while 
 Cape Aria or Saritch or Careza, Kriu-Metopon, in the 
 Crimea, is placed twenty-two miles too far south. This, 
 of course, makes a difference in the width of the sea 
 at this place of thirty-seven miles. — Macgill's Trav- 
 els, i. 195. 
 
 According to the hest authorities, which Mr. An'ow- 
 smith has followed in his maps of this sea, it lies be- 
 tween 41 and 46^ degrees of north latitude (the bottom 
 of the Bay of Sansoun penetrating nearly to the 40th 
 degree, and Cape Kerempe stretching out nearly to the 
 42d), and between 28 and 41^ degrees of east longi- 
 tude from Greenwich. This will give for its extreme 
 breadth, from Cape Baba, in Anatolia, to Odessa, about 
 380 miles, and for its extreme length, from the coast 
 of Rumelia to the mouth of the Phasis, 700 miles. The 
 Black Sea, however, may be considered as divided into 
 two parts, by Cape Aria on the south of the Crimea, and 
 Cape Kerempe on the coast of Paphlagonia ; the for- 
 mer lying in about 44i, and the latter in about 42 de- 
 grees of north latitude. Both these capes being high 
 land, vessels sailing between them can discover the 
 coast on either side. The circumference of the Black 
 Sea is about 3800 miles. 
 
 Russian statistical reports are so little to be relied 
 upon, that it is difficult to give any very accurate re- 
 turns of the general trade of the Black Sea. Within 
 the last twenty years a total change has been effected 
 in the aspect of its commerce. This is chiefly to be 
 atttributed to the existence of the British market. 
 When importations of corn into England were freed 
 from fiscal influences, the vast and fertile plains of 
 southern Russia, and the rich valley of the Danube, 
 
 supplied the ever-increasing demand ; and the required 
 ments of Great Britain, however they may increase, 
 will be met by enormously elastic powers of produc- 
 tion. The prohibitive policy of Russia exercises, how- 
 ever, a most injurious influence upon foreign trade, and 
 combines to render the expense of freight upon the 
 coasts of the Black Sea higher than upon any other 
 eastern sea-board. In consequence of the more liberal 
 commercial policy of Turkey and the Danubian prin- 
 cipalities, the exports of Rumelia, Moldavia, and Wal- 
 lachia, are increasing far more rapidly than those of 
 the Russian provinces, while the grain is more highly 
 esteemed in the English market. The total amount 
 of wheat received by Great Britain in 1852 from the 
 Russian shores of the Black Sea was 789,750 quarters, 
 in 374 vessels. The total amount shipped from Ru- 
 melia and the Danubian principalities was 112,650 
 quarters, iu 92 vessels. The general exports of the 
 principalities have been gradually increasing. In 
 1849 the total value of the imports amounted to 
 £809,240 ; in 1850, £898,715 ; and in 1851, £896,895. 
 The total value of the exports in 1849 was £1,113,272 ; 
 in 1860 it was £839,712 ; and in 1851, £1,274,625. As 
 the corn trade to the British dominions is the mainly 
 important branch of commerce in the Black Sea, those 
 statistics connected with it which are derived from the 
 English official reports contain all that is most impor- 
 tant. Apart from this no very remarkable features in 
 the local trade have been recently developed, nor, if 
 there were, are there any authentic reports of its ex- 
 tent. 
 
 The principal articles of commerce afforded by the 
 countries on the Black Sea are, wheat, rice, tobacco, 
 hides, tallow, hare-skins, honey, wax, iron, and yellow 
 grains for dyeing from Rumelia and Bulgaria, by the 
 ports of Varna and Bourgas. The same articles, with 
 the addition of wool, butter, hemp, masts, ship-timber, 
 and pitch, are exported from Moldavia and Wallachia, 
 b)' Ibraila and Galatz, on the Danube. From Bessa- 
 rabia by Ovidopol, and from the province of Cherson 
 by Odessa, Akermann, and Cherson, come corn, oak 
 timber, hides, tallow, tar, shagreen, wax, honey, hemp, 
 sail-cloth, and wool ; from the Crimea, by the ports of 
 Actiar, Kosloff, and Cafia, corn, wool, wax, honey, 
 dried and salted hides, deer-skins, morocco leather, 
 sheep-skins, salted and dried fish, potash, felt, caviare, 
 wine, silk, and saltpetre; from the countries on the 
 Sea of Azof, by the ports of Taganrog, Berdianski, and 
 Mariapol, iron (of which Constantinople and Smyrna 
 require about 60,000 quintals each), dried fish, caviare, 
 butter, hides, tallow, wheat, timber, furs, sail-cloth, 
 cordage, hemp, linens, wax, and wool ; from Anatolia, 
 by the ports of Erekli, Amasreh, Ineboli, Sinope, and 
 Uniah, hides, dried fruits, linens, linen thread, wax, 
 honey, hemp, copper, and ship-timber ; from the coast 
 of Roum and Sansoun the same articles ; from the 
 countries of the Laziens and Gurions, principally by 
 Trebizond, all the above articles, except ship-timber j 
 and from Mingrelia, and the country of the Abasses, 
 principally by Soudjuk and Anapa, slaves, timber, 
 box-wood, wool, silk, furs, butter, hides, wax, and 
 honey. The trade to these coasts is entirely carried 
 on by a few Greeks of Constantinople, and is' very in- 
 significant. — E. B. 
 
 Blank (French Blanc) literally signifies white. 
 Blancus, or Blanca, was a kind of white or silver mon- 
 ey, of base alloy, coined by Henry V. in those parts of 
 France which were then subject to England. It was 
 valued at M. sterling. Blank also denotes a small 
 copper coin, formerly current in France, at the rate of 
 five deniers Tournois. — E. B. 
 
 Bleaching is the art of depriving cotton, linen, 
 silk, wool, wax, etc., of their coloring matter, and ren- 
 dering them as white as possible. The word is proba- 
 bly derived from the French term blanchiment, which 
 signifies the process of rendering while. 
 . This art was known early in Egypt, Syria, and 
 
BLO 
 
 183 
 
 BLO 
 
 India. Known in ancient Gaul. — Plixy. In tlie 
 last century an improved chemical system was adopt- 
 ed by the Dutch, who introduced it into England and 
 Scotland in 1768. There are now immense bleach- 
 flelds in both countries, particularly in Lancashire, and 
 in the counties of Fife, Forfar, and Renfrew, also in 
 the vale of the Leven, in Dumbarton. The chemical 
 process of BerthoUet was introduced in 1795. — Slanchi- 
 ment des Toiles. 
 
 Blockade, in war, the shutting up of any place or 
 port by a naval or military force, so as to cut off all 
 communication with those who are without the hostile 
 line. There is, perhaps, no part of the law of nations 
 which, in practice, presents so many perplexing ques- 
 tions as that which concerns the respective rights of 
 neutral and belligerent states. No definite line of dis- 
 tinction has yet been drawn between the privileges of 
 war and peace ; and the consequence has been, that, 
 in all the wars which have been waged in Europe, the 
 general tranquillity of the world has been endanger- 
 ed by the jarring of these two different interests. It 
 has commonly happened, too, that all these important 
 questions have been agitated during a season of war ; 
 when the passions of the contending parties were 
 keenly engaged in the dispute ; wlien principles were 
 already subverted ; and when the minds of men, ex- 
 asperated by the glaring infraction of acltnowledged 
 rights, were not in a state to agree on any system of 
 general equity by which to regulate and reform the 
 erring policy of states. In these circumstances, many 
 points of international law, which appear to rest on 
 the most obvious principles, and which are very clearly 
 settled in the writings of civilians, have, nevertheless, 
 been the occasion in practice of no small controversy, 
 and have frequently involved nations in all the miseries 
 of protracted war. Tliis has been in some measure 
 manifested in the case of the Rights of Blockade, re- 
 specting which, though no difference of opinion has 
 ever prevailed among speculative writers, a controversy 
 arose during the late contests in Europe, which, along 
 with other points, ultimately involved Great Britain 
 in a war with the neutral powers. We propose, in the 
 course of the subsequent observations, to state, 1st. The 
 general principles from which the most approved 
 writers have deduced the rights of blockade ; and, 2d. 
 To give a short account of the differences which took 
 place between the neutral and the belligerent states 
 respecting the extent of those rights. 
 
 In regulating the respective privileges of the neutral 
 and the belligerent, it has generally been held as a 
 fundamental principle, by writers on the law of na- 
 tions, that those rights from the exercise of which 
 less benefit would accrue to one party than detriment 
 to the other should be abandoned ; and in all cases 
 where the rights of war happen to come into collision, 
 the application of this rule will decide which of the 
 two parties must yield to the convenience of the other. 
 Thus the neutral state is debarred from carrying on 
 any trade with either of the belligerents in warlike 
 stores. The general right to a free trade is modified, 
 in this particular instance, by the paramount rights of 
 the belligerent. To refrain for a time from trading 
 with an individual state in warlike stores can at most 
 only impose a trifling inconvenience on the neutral 
 power, while the continuance of such a trade might 
 terminate In the destruction of the belligerent. The 
 detriment occasioned to the one party by the exist- 
 ence of such a trade, is, in this manner, infinitely great- 
 er than the loss suffered by the other from its aban- 
 donment. Warlike stores, and whatever else bears a 
 direct reference to war, are accordingly proscribed as 
 unlawful articles of trade, and made liable to seizure 
 by either of the belligerents. To this inconvenience 
 the neutral is exposed, to avoid the greater inconven- 
 ience and damage which might fall on the belligerent 
 by the licensing of such a trade. On the other hand, 
 the neutral state enjoys the most unlimited freedom of 
 
 trade in all other articles with either of the powers at 
 war ; and though, by means of this beneficial inter- 
 course, they may be both furnished with the means 
 of carrying on a protracted contest, this is a contingent 
 and incidental consequence of the trade, which, in its 
 character, is substantially pacific, and which is attend- 
 ed with such great and immediate advantages, that 
 they could not, with any regard to equity, be sacri- 
 ficed to the remote convenience of the belligerent. 
 
 Applying these principles to a siege or to a blockade, 
 it is evident that the belligerent who had an expensive 
 scheme of hostile operations of either kind in depend- 
 ence would be far more seriously injured by its inter- 
 ruption than the neutral would be benefited by a free 
 intercourse with the blockaded place. On this ground, 
 therefore, a belligerent who has formed a siege or a 
 blockade has an indisputable right to debar the neu- 
 tral from all intercourse with those who are included 
 within his lines; and any attempt to penetrate the 
 blockade for the purposes of trade subjects those who 
 attempt it to destruction, and their properties to con- 
 fiscation. The very existence, indeed, of a siege or a 
 blockade, as a lawful act of hostility, implies the right 
 of enforcing it by an indiscriminate exclusion of all 
 who seek access to the besieged. 
 
 But although this view of the nature of a blockade, 
 and of the rights attaching to it, is clearlj- laid down 
 by all writers on the law of nations, and although it 
 has been acknowledged in practice by all civilized 
 states, a question was agitated in the late wars of 
 Europe, between the neutral and the belligerent pow- 
 ers, as to the degree of restraint necessary to constitute 
 a blockade, and, of course, to entitle the blockading 
 party to all the rights consequent upon this scheme 
 of operations ; and it is this dispute which was, in a 
 great measure, the occasion of a general war with the 
 neutral powers. 
 
 The success which attended the naval operations of 
 Great Britain during the war with France naturally 
 suggested to her rulers the possibility of extending this 
 species of annoyance, and of converting the all-power- 
 ful navy which they possessed into an instrument of 
 active hostilitj'-. With this view, Instead of confining 
 its efforts to the mere watching of the enemy's already 
 ruined trade, it was resolved to give greater scope to 
 such an immense engine of maritime power, by plac- 
 ing under blockade the enemy's ports, the mouths of 
 navigable rivers, and even extensive tracts of his 
 coast. Proclamations to this effect were accordingly 
 issued ; and the neutral trader was duly warned oti^ 
 and prohibited, under the peril of detention, from all 
 intercourse with the interdicted coast. But the legal- 
 ity of these blockades by proclamation being disputed 
 both by the neutral powers and by the enemy, their 
 execution was resisted ^y a counter decree, which, on 
 the plea of retaliation, placed under blockade the whole 
 island of Great Britain, and subjected all neutral ves- 
 sels to detention and capture which should have been 
 found touching at any of its ports. On the same plea 
 of retaliation, several decrees or orders in council were 
 issued by Britain, ordaining that no neutral vessel 
 should have any intercourse with France and her de- 
 pendencies, except such vessel should first touch at a 
 British port, where, in some cases, the cargo was to he 
 landed, and was to pay certain duties to the British 
 government. From this period the maxims of equity 
 and the rules of international law were set aside, and 
 the ocean became a scene of proscription and pillage. 
 All this anarchy having originated in a disagreement 
 respecting the nature and extent of a blockade, it be- 
 comes of importance to bring back the question to its 
 true elements; and to fix the principles by which alone 
 it should be settled. 
 
 The object of a blockade is to reduce the inhabitants 
 of the blockaded town to such straits that they shall 
 be forced to surrender to the discretion of their enemies 
 in order to preserve their livfes ; and hence the legality 
 
BLO 
 
 184 
 
 BOA 
 
 of everj'- blockade, except -with a view to capture, has 
 been questioned. But -without entering into this ques- 
 tion, it seems obvious that, in order to constitute the 
 blockade of a town, either with a view to capture or 
 to temporary annoyance, the line by which it is sur- 
 rounded should be so complete as entirely to obstruct 
 all access into the place. When a place is blockaded 
 with a view to capture, the task of maintaining a real 
 blockade may safely be left to the blockading party. 
 But when a. port is blockaded with a view to mere 
 maritime annoyance, the case is widely different ; be- 
 cause, in these circumstances, the belligerent will 
 equally attain his end by maintaining the mere show 
 of a blockade, while he is in possession of all its sub- 
 stantial rights. He may, to save himself expense and 
 trouble, relax the blockade of his enemy's ports, while 
 he enforces the exclusion of all neutrals as rigorously 
 as if he were maintaining an effectual blockade; and, 
 in this case, his proclamations, while they are issued 
 ostensibly for the blockade of the enemy's ports, would, 
 in reality, amount to edicts for the suppression of the 
 neutral trade. The- urgent, immediate, and obvious 
 interests of the neutral would here be sacrificed to the 
 remote, and in many cases imaginary, convenience of 
 the belligerent. An edict might be issued for the 
 blockade of the enemy's ports, or of extensive tracts of 
 his coast, round which no hostile line could ever be 
 drawn so as to constitute a real blockade ; and the 
 whole trade of the neutral with those interdicted parts 
 of the enemy's territory would be immediately annihi- 
 lated at the arbitrary mandate of one of the belligerents. 
 Instead of being carried on as a matter of right, instead 
 of being regarded as a common benefit to the civilized 
 world, and on this account as proper to be cherished 
 and encouraged, the neutral trade would, under such a 
 63'stem, be looked upon in the light of a tolerated evil, 
 existing only by the sufferance of those who imagined 
 they had an interest in obstructing and in crushing it. 
 The law of nations is not a partial system, modeled to 
 suit the convenience of one party. It is a system of 
 general equity, and its edicts are founded on a compre- 
 hensive view of what is for the common welfare and 
 protection. In this view, then, the consequences to 
 the neutral of those extensive and nominal blockades 
 are sufficient to constitute them illegal. The damage 
 to the neutral is infinitely greater than the benefit to 
 the belligerent. The rights of blockade, and the lim- 
 itation of those rights, must stand upon the same prin- 
 ciple of justice and of public law ; and their extension 
 beyond this equitable principle must terminate in uni- 
 versal confusion and anarchy. 
 
 In opposition to these arguments in favor of the 
 neutral powers, it has been urged that the new system 
 of naval annoyance, introduced by Great Britain in 
 1806, was legal according to the strictest construction 
 of the law of blockade, because the proclamations for 
 interrupting all intercourse between the different parts 
 of the French coast were not issued until it was ascer- 
 tained, by the most particular inquiries, that Great 
 Britain possessed an effectual naval force to blockade 
 the enemy's coast from Brest harbor to the mouth of 
 the Elbe. It is solely upon this principle that the 
 ministers of that country maintained the legality of 
 those blockades ; and any breach in the line of block- 
 ade, they admitted, would be sufficient to constitute 
 them illegal. Such, then, is the state of this import- 
 ant controversy, which seems to resolve itself into a 
 mere question of fact, namely, whether the blockading 
 power has actually carried into effect the blockade, of 
 which notice by proclamation has been given to the 
 neutral powers. 
 
 At the conclusion of the last treaty between Great 
 Britain and America, no settlement of these disputed 
 questions took place. The main war between the Eu- 
 ropean belligerents, out of which the American dispute 
 had incidentally sprung, being at an end, the contro- 
 versy respecting rights which could only be exercised 
 
 in a state of war had lost all practical importance. It 
 had become a mere question of abstract right, the de- 
 cision of which was wisely adjourned by the powers at 
 war, and not suffered to clog the work of a general 
 peace. It is likely, however, that on the breaking 
 out of any new war, this and other questions of a like 
 nature would recur, and on this account it might be of 
 importance to the future peace of the world if these 
 questions could be settled according to some acknowl- 
 edged rule of equitv or policy, and that without delav. 
 — E. B. 
 
 Blubber (Germ. Thran,Fischtran; X>ii.Thraan; It. 
 OHodipesce; Sp^GrassOj Aceitedepescadoi Russ. iSalo 
 worwannoe, Wonvan; Lat. Oleum piscinvrri)^ the fat of 
 whales and other large sea-animals, of which train-oil 
 is made. The blubber is the adeps of the animal : it 
 lies under the skin, and over the muscular flesh ; it is 
 about six inches in thickness, but about the under lip 
 it is two or three feet thick. The whole quantity yield- 
 ed by one of these animals ordinarily amounts to 40 or 
 50, but sometimes to 80 or more hundred weight. For- 
 merly train-oil was manufactured from the blubber in 
 the seas round Spitzbergen, and other places where 
 whales were caught; but the practice is now to bring 
 the blubber home in casks, and to prepare the oil aft- 
 erward. 
 
 Board of Trade. Cromwell seems to have given 
 the first notions of a board of trade. In 1655 he ap- 
 pointed his son Eichard, with many lords of his coun- 
 cil, judges and gentlemen, and about twenty merchants 
 of London, York, Newcastle, Yarmouth, Dover, etc., 
 to meet and consider by what means the trade and nav- 
 igation of the republic might be best promoted. — 
 Thomas's Notes of the Rolls. Charles II., on his res- 
 toration, established a council of trade for keeping a 
 control over the whole commerce of the nation, 1660; 
 he afterward instituted a board of trade and planta- 
 tions, which was remodeled by AVilliam III. Tliis 
 board of superinspection was abolished in 1782 ; and a 
 new council for the affairs of trade, on its present plan, 
 was appointed September 2, 1786. — Haydn. In many 
 cities of Europe and the United States, a voluntary 
 Board of Trade is established by the merchants of such 
 cities — in some instances termed a ^'' Chamber of Com- 
 merce.'''' Such associations are productive of incalcula- 
 ble benefit to the commercial interests at large. 
 
 Boat, a small open vessel, propelled on the water 
 by oars or sails. The construction, machinery, and 
 even the names of boats, are very different, according 
 to the various purposes for which they are intended, 
 and the services on which they are to be employed. 
 Thus they are occasionally slight or strong, sharp or 
 flat-bottomed, open or decked, plain or ornamented; 
 as they may be designed for swiftness or burden, for 
 deep or shallow water, for sailing in a harbor or at sea, 
 and for convenience or pleasure. The largest boat 
 that usually accompanies a ship is the long-boat^ which 
 is generally furnished with a mast and sails. Long- 
 boats fitted for men-of-war are occasionally decked, 
 armed, and equipped, for cruising short distances 
 against merchant ships of the enemy, or smugglers, 
 for impressing seamen, and other services. The barges^ 
 which are next in order, are longer, slighter, and nar- 
 rower. They are employed to carry the principal sea- 
 officers, as admirals and captains of ships of war, and 
 are unfit for the open sea. Pinnaces exactly resemble 
 barges, but are somewhat smaller, and have never 
 more than eight oars ; whereas a barge properly never 
 rows less than ten. The cutters of a ship are broader, 
 deeper, and shorter, than the barges and pinnaces : 
 they are fitter for sailing, and are commonly employed 
 in carrying stores, provisions, passengers, and the like, 
 to and from the ship. In the structure of this sort of 
 boat the lower edge of every plank in the side over- 
 lays the upper edge of the plank below, which is called 
 by ship-wrights clinker-build. Yawls are somewhat 
 less than cutters, nearly of the same form, and used for 
 
BOA 
 
 185 
 
 BOL 
 
 similar services. They are generally rowed with six | 
 oars. The above boats more particularly belong to ! 
 men-of-war. Merchant vessels above 150 tons have at 
 least two, a long-boat and yawl. Merchant ships em- 
 ployed in the Mediterranean find it more convenient to 
 nse a launch, which is longer, flatter in the bottom, and 
 better adapted every way to the harbors of that sea, 
 than a long-boat. A wherry is a light, sharp boat, 
 used in a river or harbor for carrying passengers from 
 place to place. Punts are a sort of oblong, flat-bot- 
 tomed boats, nearly resembling floating stages. They 
 are used by ship-wrights and caulkers, for breaming, 
 caulking, or repairing a ship's bottom. It is also the 
 name for the smallest boat of yachts, etc. A nwses is 
 a very flat, broad boat, used by merchant ships among 
 the Caribbee Islands, to bring hogsheads of sugar oil' 
 from the sea-beach to tlie shipping anchored in the 
 roads. A felucca is a strong passage-boat used in the 
 Mediterranean, and propelled with oars and lateen 
 sails. The pirogue of the Southern and Eastern seas is 
 a kind of canoe made of the trunlc of a tree hollowed 
 out. It is generally worked with paddles, but some- 
 times it is decked and furnished with sails and an out- 
 rigger. The proa, so much used by pirates in the 
 Eastern Archipelago, is sharp at both ends, in order to 
 sail either way. Its lee side is rounded, but the weath- 
 er side is flat, and provided with an outrigger to secure 
 its stability. — E. B. The invention of boats was So 
 early, and their use so general, the art can not be traced 
 to any age or country. Flat-bottomed boats were made 
 in England in the reign of the Conqueror : the flat-bot- 
 tomed boat was again brought into use by Barker, a 
 Dutchman, about 1690. The life-boat was first sug- 
 gested at South Shields ; and one was built by Mr. 
 Greathead, the inventor, and was first put to sea, Jan- 
 uary 30, 1790. — Haydn. 
 
 Boatswain, the ofiicer in a ship who has the charge 
 of the boats, sails, rigging, colors, anchors, cables, and 
 cordage. It is also the duty of this officer to summon 
 the crew to their duty ; to assist with his mates in the 
 necessary business of the ship ; and to relieve the watch 
 when its time expires. He has a mate who has the 
 charge of the long-boat, for setting forth anchors, weigh- 
 , ing or fetching home an anchor, warping, towing, or 
 mooring. ' 
 
 Bobbin, a small cylinder of wood, with a little bor- 
 der or liead at each end, and bored througli to receive 
 an iron pivot. It is used in spinning, to wind thread, 
 worsted, hair, cotton, silk, gold, and silver. 
 
 Bobbing, among fishermen, a method of catching 
 eels, different from sniggling. To bob for eels, a num- 
 ber of large lobs are well scoured, and a twisted silk 
 thread is run through them from end to end with a 
 needle : they are then tied fast with the two ends of 
 the silk thread, that they may hang in so many hanks ; 
 after which the whole mass is attached to a strong 
 cord, with a plummet fixed a little above the worms to 
 sink the bait, and the cord is made fast to a strbng 
 pole. This apparatus is thrown into muddy water: 
 the eels tug lustily at the bait ; the rope is then to be 
 drawn in gently, and the eels are brought ashore. 
 
 Bogs, commonly the remains of fallen forests, cov- 
 ered with peat and loose soil. Moving bogs are slips 
 of land carried to lower levels by accumulated water. 
 Of recent acts, one relating to Ireland for their drain- 
 age, passed March, 1830. The bog land.of Ireland lias 
 been estimated at 3,000,000 acres; that of Scotland at 
 upward of 2,000,000; and that of England at near 
 1,000,000 of acres. In January, 1849, Mr. Rees Keece 
 toolc out a patent for certain valuable products from 
 Irish peat. — Household Words, No. 41. 
 
 Bohea, a species of tea. See Tea. 
 
 Bole, a friable earthy substance, a species of the 
 soap-stone family. Specific gravity 1-4 to 2. It is 
 found in the island of Lemnos, whence it is sometimes 
 called Lemnian earth ; and in Armenia, Italy, France, 
 Silesia, various parts of South America, etc. Arme- 
 
 nian and French boles were at one time not uncommon 
 in this country, being used in the materia medica ; but 
 they are now entirely, or almost entirely, discarded. 
 In India, however, Armenian bole still continues to be 
 in extensive demand. It is brought to Bombay from 
 the Persian Gulf. It is soft, feels greasy to the touch, 
 adheres strongly to the tongue, and is very frangible : 
 it is generally of a yellowish brown color; though 
 sometimes it is seen of a fine flesh red, which is the 
 variety held in the highest estimation. Some savage 
 nations, such as the Ottomaques, described by M. 
 Humboldt, are in the habit of allaying the pains of 
 hunger by eating boles. The Javanese, when they 
 wish to become thin, eat cakes, called tanaampo, made 
 of bole. — Lewis's Materia Medica ; Thomson's Chem- 
 istry ; AixsLlE'a Materia Jndica. 
 
 Bolivia. This name was given in 1825 to a new 
 State or Republic in South America, formed from the 
 provinces of Upper Peru, which formerly constituted 
 part of the vice-royalty of Buenos Ayres, and were 
 well known by the names of Charcas, Potosi, La Paz, 
 Cochabamba, and Santa Cruz de la Sierra. These 
 provinces, on securing their independence, soon after 
 the battle of Ayacucho, 9th December, 1824, found it 
 necessary to come to a determination as to their future 
 political state and institutions ; and therefore it became 
 a question with the inhabitants of Upper Peru wheth- 
 er they should continue their former connection with 
 the Buenos Ayrean or Argentine provinces, attach 
 themselves to the republic of Peru, or form their coun- 
 try into a separate and independent republic. But 
 the existing government of Buenos Ayres having with 
 equal judgment and generosity divested itself of the 
 claim which it had on the provinces of Upper Peru, 
 the inliabitants of the latter were left at perfect liberty 
 to decide on the future political government of their 
 country. Deputies from all the provinces were in 
 consequence nominated; and having assembled in 
 Chuquisaca, the capital of the republic, in August, 
 1825, the result of their deliberations was, that the 
 provinces of Upper Peru should in future constitute a 
 separate and independent nation. This assembly, con- 
 tinuing its sessions, issued a declaration of national 
 independence ; and, in the exuberance of their grati- 
 tude to General Bolivar for the important influence he 
 had exercised in accomplishing the liberation of their 
 country, they determined on giving the name of Bo- 
 livia to the whole country. 
 
 Bolivia extends from 9° 30' to 25° 40' of S. lat., and 
 from 58° to 71° of W. long, from London, and it is 
 bounded on the north by Peru and Brazil, on the east 
 by Brazil and Paraguay, on the south by the Argen- 
 tine provinces and Chili, and on the west by the Pacific 
 Ocean and Peru. It has been divided by the constit- 
 uent Congress of Bolivia into six departments, viz., 
 Potosi, Chuquisaca, La Paz, Santa Cruz, Cochabam- 
 ba, and Oruro ; and these have been subdivided into 
 provinces and cantons. Thus each department in- 
 cludes in its jurisdiction certain provinces of the an- 
 cient regime. The department of Potosi contains Ata- 
 cama, Lipez, Potosi, Porco, Chayanta, and Chicas; 
 Chuquisaca contains Charcas or Chuquisaca, Cinti, 
 Yamparaes, and Tomina ; La Paz, the provinces of La 
 Pazi, Pacajes, Sicasica, Chulumani, Omasuyos, Lareca- 
 ja, and Apolobamba; Santa Cruz, tlie provinces of 
 Santa Cruz, Mojos, Chiquitos, Vallegrande, Pampas, 
 and Baures ; Cochabamba contains Cochabamba, Sa- 
 caba, Tapacari, Arque, Palca, Clissa, and Misque ; and 
 the department of Oruro, the provinces of Pana, Oruro, 
 and Carangas. „ i- • 
 
 The only productions hitherto furnished by Bolivia 
 as articles of commerce have been the precious metals, 
 which were exchanged for various articles of luxury 
 and necessity. The rude and simple fabrics manufac- 
 tured by the Peruvian Indians are usually appropn- 
 ated to their own domestic uses ; while the valuable 
 vegetable productions, and the herds of cattle and 
 
BOL 
 
 186 
 
 BOM 
 
 mules, which are reared in the eastern parts of the re- 
 public, have hitherto scarcely been sufficient for the 
 supply of the inhabitants of those populous mining dis- 
 tricts that are principally dependent on them for sub- 
 sistence. Cocoa to the value of $200,000 is annually 
 exported from La Paz to other parts of Bolivia and 
 Peru. 
 
 Before the Revolution, a very extensive traf&c was 
 maintained between the upper provinces of Peru and 
 the provinces of the Eio de la Plata, for supplies of 
 cattle and mules. These were reared in great num- 
 bers in all the Interior Argentine provinces, expressly 
 for the use of those countries, and were first sent by 
 easy journeys to the luxuriant pastures of Salta and 
 Jujuy, where they were carefully fed and tended dur- 
 ing the winter, previous to their being conveyed to 
 their final destination in Bolivia and Peru. Some idea 
 may be formed of the extent of this traffic by stating, 
 that besides all those furnished by the other.Argentine 
 provinces, the province of Salta alone supplied annu- 
 ally to Upper and Lower Peru from 60,000 to 80,000 
 mules, on all of which they realized considerable prof- 
 its, the prices being proportioned to the distance to 
 which they were conveyed. The war of independence, 
 which has so greatly desolated the northern provinces 
 of the Kio de la Plata, and the diminished working of 
 the mines of Bolivia, have almost annihilated this lu- 
 crative traffic ; but it may be expected to revive with 
 increasing vigor on their again resuming their former 
 habits of tranquillity, and becoming stimulated to in- 
 creased exertion, by the accession of laborious and in- 
 telligent Europeans, and by the spread of education 
 and intelligence. 
 
 By the route of Cordova, Tucuman, and Salta, the 
 provinces of Upper Peru or Bolivia formerly received 
 their supplies of articles of commerce from Europe, 
 which were landed at Buenos Ayres ; and by the same 
 channel they liltewise obtained large supplies of Yerba 
 or l-'araguay tea, to the great amount, it is affirmed, 
 of 100,000 arrobas, or about 2,500,000 pounds annually, 
 which had been previously conveyed by water from 
 Paraguay to Buenos Ayres, and from thence by wag- 
 ons and mules to Jujuy and Bolivia; thus enhancing 
 its value by a circuitous and expensive land-carriage 
 of from 2000 to 3000 miles, while, by a more improved 
 Bj^stem of conveyance, it might be sent by the rivers 
 Vermejo and Pilcomayo into the heart of Bolivia, at a 
 vast saving of trouble and expense. The large amount 
 of goods sent from Buenos Ayres by wagons to Jujuy 
 tended greatly to enrich the various provinces through 
 which they passed, giving employment to numbers of 
 the inhabitants ; and Jujuy, which formed the most 
 distant point that could be reached by wagons or car- 
 riages, became a place of considerable importance, 
 forming the entrepjt of the commerce of Peru and the 
 Argentine provinces. From this place the various ar- 
 ticles of commerce were conveyed on mules to their 
 ulterior destination. 
 
 The new order of affairs consequent on the Eevolu- 
 tion has necessarily produced important changes in 
 this branch of commerce, and Bolivia has in a great 
 measure ceased to receive her supplies of foreign com- 
 modities by this expensive route. Commerce, where 
 unrestricted, always finds out the shortest and least 
 expensive channels for the introduction of its com- 
 modities. The trade is now in a great degree divert- 
 ed to the ports of the Pacific, called the Puertos Inter- 
 medios. Tacna and Arequipa, with their respective 
 ports, have now become the principal channels through 
 which Bolivia receives the produce and manufactures 
 of other countries. How far the Bolivian government 
 has succeeded in making Cobija or Puerto la Mar of 
 that exclusive commercial importance which it con- 
 templated, remains yet to be ascertained. Nature 
 presents great obstacles to the success of the under- 
 taking, which is certainly a most praiseworthy one ; 
 while all the rest of the coast, in which are situated 
 
 the Puertos Intermedins, forms part of the republic 
 of Peru, to which, therefore, they must necessarily pay 
 transit duties. A new and very important channel 
 of communication for commerce will be opened be- 
 tween Bolivia and the Atlantic, whenever commercial 
 enterprise and increasing civilization shall have es- 
 tablished steam navigation on the Eio de la Plata and 
 its tributary streams, the Vermejo and Pilcomayo, and 
 from the mouth of the Amazon to its distant tributa- 
 ries, the Beni and the Mamori. 
 
 By a decree of the republican government of Peru, 
 dated 22d February, 1831, the following judicious reg- 
 ulations have been established for settling the com- 
 mercial relations of that state with the republic of 
 Bolivia : 1. The productions of the territory of the Bo- 
 livian republic, introduced into Peru for its consump- 
 tion, shall be subject to an import duty of 4 per cent. 
 on their valuation. 2. Those productions of Bolivia 
 which only pass through the territory of Peru for em- 
 barkation from its ports, shall only be subjected to a 
 transit duty of 2 per cent.- 3. Silver and gold, either 
 coined or otherwise, introduced from Bolivia into Peru, 
 shall be exempted from any duties. 4. All foreign 
 articles of commerce passing through the territory of 
 Peru, and destined for Bolivia, shall only be subject- 
 ed to the payment of 2 per cent, ad valorem ; and the 
 decree of 22d January, 1830. which imposed transit 
 duties of from 15 to 45 per cent, on such commodities, 
 has been repealed. 
 
 Silver, however, has hitherto been the staple metal- 
 lic production of Bolivia, and has given to it that celeb- 
 rity which it has long possessed. In the rich mountain 
 of Potosi alone, from the year 1545 to the year 1800, 
 no less than $823,950,509 were coined; and if to this 
 be added the amount of the preceding years, not in- 
 cluded, and that obtained in a clandestine manner, 
 $1,647,901,018 has been obtained in the space of 226 
 years. — E. B. 
 
 Bomb (fiofijio^, a loud noise), in military afl'airs, a, 
 large shell of cast iron, with a vent to receive a fusee, 
 which is made of wood. The shell being filled with 
 gunpowder, the fusee is driven into the vent within 
 an inch of the head, and fastened with a cement made 
 of quick-lime, ashes, brick-dust, and steel-filings, work- 
 ed together in a glutinous water ; or of four parts of 
 pitch, two of colophony, one of turpentine, and one of 
 wax. This tube is filled with a combustible matter 
 made of two ounces of nitre, one of sulphur, and three 
 of gunpowder-dust, well rammed. To preserve the 
 fusee, it is pitched over, but uncased when the bomb 
 is put into the mortar, and covered with gunpowder- 
 dust, which, taking fire by the flash of the powder in 
 the chamber of the mortar, burns all the time the bomb 
 is in the air ; and when the composition in the fusee is 
 spent, it fires the powder in the bomb, which bursts 
 with great violence and commits dreadful devastation. 
 
 Bombs may be used without mortars, as was done 
 by the Venetians at Candia, when the Turks had pos- 
 sessed themselves of the ditch. Bombs were rolled 
 down upon them along a plank with ledges set sloping 
 toward their works. Bombs did not come into com- 
 mon use before the year 1634, and then only in the 
 Dutch and Spanish armies. One Malthus, an English 
 engineer, is said to have firstcarried them into France, 
 where they were used at the siege of CoUioure. — E. B. 
 
 Bombay (Portug. Buon-Bahia, "good harbor"), 
 a city, sea-port, and capital of the presidency, is sit- 
 uated on a narrow neck of land at the southeastern 
 extremity of the island of Bombay, separated from the 
 main land by an arm of the sea, forming, with the 
 contiguous islands of Colabah, Salsette, Butcher's Isl- 
 and, and Caranjah, one of the best harbors in India. 
 Lat. 18° 56' N., long. 72° 53' E. In 1716 the popula- 
 tion was 16,000; in 1816, 161,350; and, according to 
 the Bombaji Calendar, in 1845, 235,000. Of these two- 
 thirds are Hindoos, 20,000 Parsees, and the rest Mus- 
 sulmans, Jews, and Christians ; with a great variety 
 
BOM 
 
 187 
 
 BOM 
 
 of fluctuating population, chiefly sailors and traders. 
 It consists of the fort or old town, 1 mile in length 
 by i mile in breadth, in which the European inhabit- 
 ants and most of the Parsee merchants reside ; and the 
 new town, about 1 mile distant nortliward, inhabited 
 by the Hindoos and Mohammedan native population, 
 beyond which suburb are many detached villas and 
 bungalows, belonging to European and other resi- 
 dents. Bombay Island was ceded by the Portuguese 
 to the English in 16G1, as the dower of Queen Cath- 
 arine, wife of Charles II., and was taken possession 
 of in 16B4 ; so that it has been in their occupation about 
 180 years, being by far the oldest Of their possessions 
 in the East. In 1668 it was transferred by the crown 
 to the East India Company by letters-patent, in free 
 and common soccage, on payment of the annual rent 
 of £10. But by the present charter it has reverted to 
 the crown, with the rest of the company's assets, being 
 held by the company in trust merely. On its cession 
 to the crown of England, in 1661, its population did 
 not exceed 15,000; but at present it has upward of 
 230,000 inhabitants. The fort stands on the south- 
 eastern extremity of the island, on a narrow neck of 
 land, immediately over the harbor. The fortifications 
 are extensive, and on the sea-side very strong, 
 
 Bombay has a lively appearance from the sea; but 
 as a citj' it is greatly inferior to Calcutta or Madras. 
 The houses within the walls are built of wood, and 
 covered with tiles. Principal edifices in the fort are 
 the court-house, secretariate, and other government 
 ofiices, custom-house, town-hall, castle, mint, cathe- 
 dral of St. Thomas, St. Andrew's Scotch church, Eu- 
 ropean hospital, etc. In the centre of the fort is an 
 irregular open space called the " Green ;" and outside 
 of the massive fortifications is the esplanade. In the 
 new town are Elphinstone 'college, Sir J. Jejeebhoy's 
 hospital, the BycuUa church and club, the house of 
 correction, theatre, and the great Hindoo temple of 
 Momba Devi. On the southwest the fort is connected 
 by Colabba causeway with the island of Colabba, on 
 which are the light-hoUse, observatory, lunatic asy- 
 lum, some mercantile buildings, and a stone pier. The 
 government-house is at Parell, 6 miles north of the 
 fort. There are two banks— the Bank of Bombay and 
 the Commercial Bank of India. The property of the 
 island belongs principally to the Parsees, who are the 
 chief merchants and moneyed men. The liarbor of 
 Bombay is one of the best in India, and affords good 
 anchorage for ships of the largest burden. On It are 
 also excellent building and other docks for ships of 
 the first class. Next to Calcutta and Canton, Bom- 
 -bay is the principal commercial emporium in the East, 
 and for many years its trade has been uniformly in- 
 creasing. In 1837 a steam navigation was commenced 
 between Bombay and Suez ; three steamers were at 
 first employed, which the war in 1843 Increased to 8 ; 
 and a regular monthly passage is now made from Lon- 
 don to India, under the arrangements of the Oriental 
 Steam Navigation Company. Bombay Island, on which 
 the city is built, is 8 miles in length, and 3 miles in 
 breadth, and is formed of two ranges of green-stone, 
 connected in the middle by sand-stone strata. The in- 
 terior lies low, and was at one time liable to be flood- 
 ed by the tide, but an embankment was erected to keep 
 out the sea. 
 
 Bombay Harbor is one of the safest and most com- 
 modious in India. It' is bounded on the west and 
 north by the island of Colabah, or Old Woman's Isl- 
 and, Bombay Island, and the island of Salsette. The 
 first two are separated only by a narrow creek forda- 
 ble at low water, and Bombay Island was joined to 
 Salsette by a causeway constructed in 1805. On the 
 east side of the harbor, between it and the main land, 
 is Butcher's Island, distant about 4 miles from Bom- 
 bay ; and immediately behind Butcher's Island is the 
 famous island of Elephanta. About 3 miles south from 
 Bxitcher's Island is the island of Caranjah, on the west- 
 
 em side of which, next the harbor, is an extensive 
 shoal. Southwest from Caranjah, distant about 5 
 miles, is Tull Point ; between which and Colabah, or 
 Old Woman's Island, is the entrance to the harbor. 
 There is a light-house on the southern extremity of 
 Colabah Island, elevated about 150 feet above the level 
 of the sea, which in clear weather may bo seen at the 
 distance of 7 leagues. The point on which the light- 
 house stands is surrounded on all sides by an extens- 
 ive reef of rocks divided into prongs : of these, the 
 most dangerous is the prong stretching, southwest 
 about 3 miles from the light-house, and forming the 
 northern boundary of the entrance into the harbor. 
 The reef, stretching west-northwest from Tull Point 
 about 3^ miles, forms the southern boundary of the 
 entrance ; the breadth of the channel between them be- 
 ing about 3 miles, with a depth of from 7 to 8 fathoms. 
 In going into the harbor, it is necessary to clear a sunk- 
 en rock, lying almost due east from the light-house, 
 at about IJ- mile distant; and also a bank, called the 
 middle-ground, lying nearly opposite to and about 1^- 
 mile from the southern extremity of the town. — See 
 Nicholson and Watson's Plan of Bombay Harbor, 
 
 Bocks. — Bombay is the only port of consequence in 
 British India in which the rise and fall of the tide are 
 so considerable as to admit of the formation of extens- 
 ive wet docks. At ordinary spring-tides the rise is 
 about 14 feet, but occasionally as high as 17 feet. The 
 capacious docks constructed by the East India Com- 
 pany are their property, and are for the most part un- 
 der the direction of Parsees, who, excepting the Chi- 
 nese, are the most industrious and intelligent people 
 of the East. Merchant vessels of the largest class, or 
 from 1300 to 1400 tons burden, for the cotton trade to 
 China, have been built in these docks. Frigates and 
 line-of-battle ships have also been occasionally con- 
 structed in them, sometimes under the exclusive di- 
 rection of Parsee artificers. The timber having to be 
 brought from a great distance, ships built at Bombay 
 are very costly ; but being, contrary to the practice in 
 other parts of India, entirely constructed of teak, they 
 are the most durable vessels in the world, requiring 
 little repair, and often running 50 or 60 years. Being 
 for the most part built by natives, without any verj' 
 strict application of the rules of the art, they are com- 
 monly, though not always, heavy sailers. 
 
 Commerce, etc. — The small and sterile island of Bom- 
 bay affbrds no produce for exportation ; indeed, hard- 
 ly a week's consumption of. com for its inhabitants. 
 Nor does the whole presidency of Bombay, although 
 comprising about 130,000 square miles, and from- 
 8,000,000 to 9,000,000 inhabitants, with a net revenue 
 in 1848-49 of £2,460,000, yield, with the exception of 
 cotton,, rice, and coffee, any of the great colonial sta- 
 ples, such as sugar and indigo ; a circumstance which 
 may, perhaps, be ascribed to the impolitic restraints 
 upon the i employment of British settlers and capital 
 that were long imposed by law, and acted upon with 
 peculiar rigor in tliis and the sister presidency of Ma- 
 dras, in contradistinction to the greater latitude af- 
 forded in Bengal. Bombay is also much less favora- 
 bly situated, in respect of internal communications, 
 than Calcutta. The Ganges and its tributarj' streams 
 intersect the richest provinces of India, and give Cal- 
 cutta a vast command of inland navigation ; whereas 
 all the inland trade of Bombay has to be carried on by 
 means of roads that are seldom available for carriages, 
 and which can be used only by paclc-buUocks and 
 camels. The transit duties, by which the inland trade 
 was grievously oppressed, have been abolished ; and 
 if this judicious measure be followed up by the forma- 
 tion of lines of railways to the principal markets in the 
 interior, a great increase of the trade of the town and 
 improvement of the presidency may be expe(;ted. 
 
 The principal trade of Bombay is carried on with 
 China, Great Britain, the countries on the Persian and 
 Arabian gulfs, Calcutta, Cutch and Scinde, the Mala- 
 
BOM 
 
 188 
 
 BOO 
 
 bar coast, foreign Europe, etc. The imports from 
 China consist principally of raw silk, sugar, and sugar- 
 candy, silk piece goods, treasure, etc. The principal 
 articles of export to China are, raw cotton, opium 
 (18,000 chests), principally from Malwa, sharks' fins 
 and fish maws, sandal- wood, pearls, etc. The exports 
 to China being much greater than the imports, the re- 
 turns for several years past have been made to a large 
 extent in bills on London, and on the Indian govern- 
 ments, drawn by the merchants in China. 
 
 The trade with the United Kingdom has been regu- 
 larly increasing since the abolition of the restrictive sys- 
 tem. The chief articles of import from Great Britain are, 
 cotton and woolen stufi's, cotton yarn, hardware, cop- 
 per, iron and lead, glass, apparel, fur, stationery, wine, 
 etc. The principal articles of export to Britain, are, 
 raw cotton, raw silk from China and Persia, ivory, 
 pepper, and spices, piece goods, coffee from the Red 
 Sea, and wool. The export of the last-mentioned arti- 
 cle increased with extraordinary rapidity, the quantity 
 shipped for England in 1833-'34 being only 69,944 
 lbs. ; whereas the shipments for England in 1840-41 
 amounted to 3,428,055 lbs. But it has since continued 
 nearly stationary. At present the principal supply of 
 the article is drawn from Cutch and Scinde, and from 
 Marwar, via Guzerat ; but active measures have been 
 taken bj' government for improving the flocks in the 
 pastoral country of the Deccan, so that a further and 
 very considerable increase of tliis new and important 
 trade may be anticipated. 
 
 Bombay Presidency, the most westerly and 
 the smallest of the three presidencies of British India, 
 mostly between lat. 14° and 24° N., and long. 72° and 
 76° E., having northwest and north the Guicowar's 
 dominions, east the territories of Indore and the Ni- 
 zam, south Goa, Mysore, and the Madras presidency, 
 and west the Indian Ocean. Area, with Scinde and 
 Sattara, 120,065 square miles. Population 10,485,017, 
 and is composed of tlie following subdivisions : Bom- 
 bay Island, Poonah, Ahmednuggur, Candeish, Dhar- 
 war, South Jaghiredars, South Concan, North Concan, 
 Surat, etc., Baroach, Ahmedabad, Kaira, Sattara, etc. 
 The Western Ghauts separate the western or maritime 
 from the eastern districts, whicli latter form a part of 
 the great table-land of the Deccan. In the north the 
 mountains belong to the Sautpoora and other ranges 
 connected with the Vindhyan chain. Principal rivers, 
 the Nerbudda, Taptee, Mhye, and Sabermutty, falling 
 into the Gulf of Carabay. Above the Ghauts, the riv- 
 ers are tributary to the Godavery and Kistnah. Cli- 
 ■mate for the most part less hot and more healthy than 
 in the other presidencies, a great part of the country 
 being under the influence of the sea-breezes. Eice. and 
 cotton are the principal articles of culture, aijd the cot- 
 ton of this presidency is decidedly superior to that of 
 the others. Some sugar and indigo are raised in Can- 
 deish. Opium is nowhere cultivated, and other gi'eat 
 staples of Indian produce are only produced in small 
 quantities ; but in return, the cardamoms, pepper, and 
 teak, exported from India, are almost exclusively the 
 gi'owth of this region. The northern districts are fa- 
 mous for their great variety of fruits ; cocoa palms 
 cover a very large extent of sandy land in the Con- 
 can, etc. ; wool has lately been exported in consider- 
 able quantities from Bombay; and great exertions 
 have been made to introduce the culture of silk. The 
 cattle of Gujerat are a large and fine breed. West of 
 the Ghauts, the ox and buffalo are almost the only do- 
 mestic animals. The whole presidency is assessed un- 
 der the native village system of India, except the dis- 
 tricts of Surat and Kaira, where the ryotviarry system 
 is in force. In the capital of each coUectorate is the 
 seat of a British collector and a judge, subordinate to 
 the central court of Bombay. A few years ago the 
 army comprised about 30,000 men and officers, of whom 
 8550 were Europeans. The whole of the Indian marine 
 is attached to this presidency. In the south there are 
 
 many native and Roman Catholic and Nestorian Chria- 
 tians. The Parsees are now almost confined to this 
 part of Asia. Revenue, 1849, 24,603,376 rupees. There 
 are in the presidency an English episcopal bishopric 
 with 24 clergy, a Scottish kirk, and Roman Catholic 
 establishments, which receive government aid. El- 
 phinstone college was founded in 1837, and there are 
 120 schools for the native Hindoos, in which from 800 
 to 900 boys receive education, besides nearly 2000 na- 
 tive village schools. Bombay was the earliest posses- 
 sion of the British in the East. It was ceded by the 
 Moguls to the Portuguese in 1530, and it came into 
 the possession of the English in 1662 as a part of the 
 dowry of the Infanta of Portugal, on her marriage with 
 Charles II. ; but by far the greater part of the terri- 
 tory has been acquired between 1803 and 1818. — See 
 India. 
 
 Bombazine, a kind of silk stuff, originally manu- 
 factured at Milan, and thence sent into France and 
 other countries. Now, however, it is manufactured 
 in large quantities and of a good quality in Great 
 Britain as well as on the Continent. 
 
 Bomb-vessel, or Bomb-ketch, a small ship of 
 unusual strength, employed for throwing bombs into 
 a fortress ; said to have been invented by M. Reyneau, 
 and first used at the bombardment of Algiers. Till 
 then it had been judged impracticable to bombard a 
 place from the sea. — E. B. 
 
 Bond, in Law, is a deed whereby the party obliges 
 himself, his executors, or administrators (and, if the 
 deed so express it, his heirs also), to pay a certain 
 sum to another at a day appointed. If this be all, the 
 bond is called a simple one (simplex ohligatiu). But 
 there is generally a condition added, that, if the obligor 
 does some particular act, the obligation shall he void, 
 or else shall remain in full force ; as, payment of rent, 
 performance of covenants in a deed, or repayment of a 
 principal sum of money borrowed of the obligee, with 
 interest ; which special sum is usually one-half of the 
 penal sum specified in the bond. In case this condi- 
 tion is not performed, the bond becomes forfeited, or 
 absolute at law, and charges the obligor while living, 
 and, after his death, his personal representatives, and 
 his heirs if the heirs be named in the bond. , In case 
 of a failure to perform the condition of the bond, the 
 obligee can recover only his principal, interest, and 
 expenses ; if the bond were given to secure the pay- 
 ment of money, or if it were given to secure the per- 
 formance of a covenant, he can recover only reasonable 
 damages for the breach. — E. A. 
 
 Bones of cattle and other animals are extensively 
 used in the arts, in forming handles for knives, and 
 various other purposes ; but of late years they have 
 been of most importance in agriculture. "N^'hen em- 
 ployed in the latter, they are, in most instances, ground 
 or reduced to powder, and are commonly used as ma- 
 nure for turnips, being in general drilled in with the 
 seed, though sometimes, also, they are sown broad- 
 cast, and with other crops. The quantity used varies 
 from about 25 bushels oidust to about 40 bushels large 
 an acre. Their effect is said to be considerably in- 
 creased when they have undergone the process of fer- 
 mentation. They were first used in England on a 
 large scale as a manure in Lincolnshire; and there 
 can be no doubt that their extensive employment in 
 that county has been one of the chief causes of its rapid 
 improvement, and of the high state of cultivation to 
 which it has attained. Bone-dust is now, however, 
 very largely used, and its influence in increasing the 
 crops of corn and turnips, and consequently, also, the 
 supplies of butcher's meat and farm manure, has been 
 quite extraordinary'. 
 
 Book-keeping, the art of keeping the accounts 
 and books of a merchant. Book-keeping by double 
 entry means that mode or system in which every en- 
 try is double, that is, has both a debtor and a creditor. 
 It is called also the Italian method, because it was 
 
BOO 
 
 189 
 
 BOO 
 
 first practiced in Venice, Genoa, and otlier towns in 
 Italy, wiiere trade was eondiicted on an extensive 
 scale at a much earlier date than in England, France, 
 or other parts of Europe. This method, however fa- 
 miliar to merchants and hook-keepers, seems intricate 
 to almost all who have not practiced it ; nor is the dry- 
 ness and diiflculty of the task much lessened by the 
 printed works on the subject, which, having been com- 
 piled more by teachers tlmn by practical merchants, 
 contain a number of obsolete rules and unnecessary 
 details. To discuss this subject fully would require 
 more space than could be appropriated in this work. 
 We therefore refer our readers to the reliable volumes 
 of Mr. Marsh (published by ^ppleton & Co., New York) 
 and Qther writers. 
 
 Books (Ger. Bucher; Du. Boeken; Da. Boger; Sw. 
 Booker; Fr. Livres ; It. Lihri; Sp. /it'iras; Port. Li- 
 vros ; Russ. Knigi ; Pol. Ksiaski, Ksiegi ; Lat. Libii), 
 written or printed treatises on any branch of science, 
 art, or literature, composed in the view of instructing, 
 amusing, or persuading the reader. Ancient books 
 were originally boards, or the inner bark of trees ; and 
 bark is still used by some nations, as are also skins, 
 for which latter parchment was substituted. Papy- 
 rus, an Egyptian plant, was adopted in that country. 
 Books whose leaves were vellum were invented by 
 Attains, king of Pergamus, about 198 n.c, at which 
 time books were in vplumes or rolls. The MSS. in 
 Herculaneum consist of papyrus, rolled and charred, 
 and matted together by the fire, and are about nine 
 inches long, and one, two, or three inches in diameter, 
 each being a separate treatise. The Pentateuch of 
 Moses, and the history of Job, are the most ancient in 
 the world; and in profane literature, the poems of 
 Homer, though the names of others still more ancient 
 are preserved. — Haydn. 
 
 Prices of Books. — Jerome states that he had ruined 
 himself by buying a copy of the works of Origen. A 
 large estate was given for one on cosmography, by Al- 
 fred, about A.D. 872. The Roman de la Ro^e was sold 
 for above £30 ; and a Homily was exchanged for 200 
 sheep and live quarters of wheat; and they usually 
 fetched double or treble their weight in gold. They 
 sold at prices varying from £10 to £40 each, in 1400. 
 In our own times, the value of some volumes is very 
 great. A copy of Maeklin^s Bible, ■ornamented by Mr. 
 Tomkins, has been declared worth 500 guineas. — But- 
 ler. A yet more superb copy is at present insured 
 in a London bfflce for £3000. — Times. II Decamerone 
 of Boccacio, edition of 1471, was bought at the Duke 
 of Eoxburgh's sale by the Duke of Marlborough for 
 £2260, June 17, 1812.— Piiilups. A copy of the 
 " Mazarin Bible," being the first edition and first book 
 ever printed (by Guttemberg at Mentz, in 1455), was 
 sold at auction in London, in April, 1846, for £500. This 
 copy, the only one known to exist except 19 in public 
 libraries, is now in a private library in New York. — Id. 
 Printed Books. — The first printed books were trifling 
 hymns and psalters, and, being printed only on one 
 side, the leaves were pasted back to back. The first 
 printing was, as a book, the Book of Psalms, by Faust 
 and Schasffer, his son-in-law, Aug. 14, 1457. Several 
 works were printed many years before ; but as the in- 
 ventors kept the secret to themselves, they sold their 
 first printed works as manuscripts. This gave rise to 
 an adventure that brought calamity on Faust. He 
 began in 1450 an edition of the Bible, which was fin- 
 ished in 1460. The second printed was Cicero de Offi- 
 ciis, 1466. — Blair. The first book printed in England 
 was The Game and Plug of the Ckesse, by Caxton, 1474. 
 The first in Dublin was the Liturgy, in 1550. The 
 first classical work printed in Russia was Com. Nepotis 
 Vitis, in 1762. Lucian's Dialogues was the first Greek 
 book printed in America (at Philadelphia), 1789. 
 Books of astronomy and geometry were all destroyed 
 in England as being infected with magic, 6 Edw. VI. 
 1552. — Stowk's Chronicles. According to Pkttiorew 
 
 (Biblio. Bussea."), the first book printed with movable 
 types was the Latin Bible, printed by John Guttem- 
 berg at Mayence, about 1455. It was in two folio 
 volumes ; and so excellent was the workmanship, both 
 in type, ink, paper, and press-work, that it has scarcely 
 been surpassed since. The succeeding editions for 200 
 years were much inferior. This edition is called the 
 Mazarin- Bible, as a copy was first found in the library 
 of Cardinal Mazarin. Only 20 copies are now known 
 to exist, all but one being in public libraries in Europe. 
 Specimens of the block books, printed with engi-aved 
 wooden blocks, instead oftypej'are now very rare. Of 
 the Biblia Pauperum, done in this way, only two copies 
 exist, one of which belongs to a citizen of New York. 
 Copyright 13 the right which the authors of books or 
 treatises claim to the exclusive privilege of printing, 
 publishing, and selling them. 
 
 Books are divided into classes, according to the mode 
 in which the sheets of the paper ■ on which they are 
 printed or written are folded : viz. ,^oft'o, when the sheet 
 is folded into two leaves ; quarto, when folded into four ; 
 octavo, when folded into eight; duodecimo, when the 
 sheet is folded into twelve, etc. In making these clas- 
 sifications, no attention is paid to the size of the sheet. 
 - Progi^ess and present State of the Law as to the Copy- 
 right of Books. — It has been doubted whether, in an- 
 tiquitj"-, an author had any exclusive right to a work, 
 or whether, having once published it, he could restrain 
 others from copying it and selling copies. We incline 
 to think that he could. The public sale of copies of 
 works is often referred to in the classics ; and in such 
 a way as warrants the inference that they were pro- 
 ductive to the author, which could not have been the 
 case had everj' one been permitted to copy them at 
 pleasure. Terence, in one of his plays (Prol. in Eu- 
 nuch. 1. 20), says, Fabulam, quam nunc acturi sumus, 
 postquam adihsemerunt; \mt why should the magis- 
 trates h^ve bought it, had it been free to every one to 
 copy it ? It would have been singular, indeed, had it 
 been otherwise; Of all the species- of property a man 
 can possess, the fruits of his mental labors seem to be 
 most peculiarly his own. And though it may, we 
 think, be shown that many serious inconveniences 
 would result from giving the same absolute and in- 
 terminable property over ideas that is given over ma- 
 terial objects, these inconveniences could hardly have 
 been perceived in antiquity. It will also be observed 
 that in antiquity a copyright was of much less value 
 tlian in modern times. Books could then only be mul- 
 tiplied by copying them with the pen ; and if any one 
 chose privately to copy a work, or to buy it of another, 
 it must have been very difiicult to hinder him ; but 
 when printing had been introduced, the greater cheap- 
 ness of books not only extended the demand for them 
 in far greater proportion, and consequently rendered 
 copyrights more valuable, but it also afforded the 
 m ean.s of preventing their piracy. Printing is not a de- 
 vice by which a few copies of a boolc can be obtained at 
 a cheap rate. It is productive of cheapness only when 
 it is employed upon a large scale, or when a consider- 
 able impression is to be thrown oS. And hence, after 
 its invention, piracy could hardly be committed in se- 
 cret : the pirated book had to be brought to market ; 
 the fraud was thus sure to be detected, and the offend- 
 ing party might be prosecuted and punished. 
 
 For a considerable time after the invention of print- 
 ing, no questions seem to have occurred with respect 
 to copyrights. This was occasioned by the early adop- 
 tion of the licensing sj'stem. Governments soon per- 
 ceived the vast importance of the powerful engine that 
 had been brought into the field ; and they endeavored 
 to avail themselves of its energies by interdicting the 
 publication of all works not previously licensed by au- 
 thority. During the continuation of this system, piracy 
 was effectually prevented. The licensing act (13 & 14 
 Chas. II. c. 2), and the previous acts and proclamations 
 to the same effect, prohibited the printing of any book 
 
BOO 
 
 190 
 
 BOO 
 
 ■without consent of the o\Tner, as well as without a li- 
 cense. In 1694 the licensing act finally expired, and 
 the press then became really free. Instead, however, 
 of the summary methods for obtaining redress for any 
 invasion of their property enjoyed by them under the 
 licensing acts, authors were now left to defend their 
 rights at common law ; and as no author or bookseller 
 could procure any redress for a piracy at common law, 
 except in so far as he could prove damage^ property in 
 books was virtually annihilated j it being in most 
 cases impossible to prove the sale of one printed copy 
 out of a hundred. Under these circumstances, appli- 
 cations were made to Parliament for an act to protect 
 literary property, by granting some speedy and effectu- 
 al method of preventing the sale of spurious copies. In 
 consequence, the statute 8 Anne, c. 19, was passed, se- 
 curing to authors and their assignees the exclusive 
 right of printing their books for 14 years certain, from 
 the day of publication, with a contingent 14 years, pro- 
 vided the author were alive at the expiration of the 
 first term. Persons printing books protected by this 
 act, without the consent of the authors or their as- 
 signees, were to forfeit the pirated copies, and Id. for 
 every sheet of the same. Such books as were not en- 
 tered at Stationers' Hall were excluded from the bene- 
 fit of this act. 
 
 Every one must be satisfied that 14 yeai's' exclusive 
 possession is far too short a period to indemnify the 
 author of a work, the composition of which has re- 
 quired any considerable amount of labor and research ; 
 though 28 years is perhaps, all things considered, not 
 a very improper period. But the grand defect of the 
 statute of Anne consisted in its making the right to 
 the exclusive possession for 28 years contingent on the 
 fact of a person having lived a day more or less than 
 14 3'ears after the publication of his work. This was 
 malting the enjoyment of an important right depend- 
 ent on a mere accidental circumstance over which man 
 has no control. Could any thing be more oppressive 
 and unjust than to hinder an author from bequeathing 
 that property to his widow and children that would 
 Iiave belonged to himself had he been alive ? Nothing, 
 indeed, as it appears to us, can be more obvious than 
 the justice of extending all copyrights to the same pe- 
 riod, whether the authors be dead or not. 
 
 In the United States, the jurisdiction of this subject 
 is vested in the Federal government by the Constitu- 
 tion (art. 1, sec. 8), which declares thatCongi'ess shall 
 have power " to promote the progress of science and 
 useful arts, by securing for limited times, to authors 
 and inventors, the exclusive right to their respective 
 writings and discoveries." 
 
 By the acts of Congress, May 31, 1790 (c. 15), and 
 April 29, 1802 (c. 36), the authors of maps, charts, 
 books, engravings, etchings, etc., being citizens of the 
 United States, or resident therein, are entitled to the 
 exclusive right of publishing for 14 years, and, if tlie 
 author.be living at the end of that period, for an addi- 
 tional term of 14 years. 
 
 The English law does not distinguish between resi- 
 dents and non-residents, aliens, like the American law. 
 
 A copyright may exist in a translation, or in part 
 of a work (as in notes or additional matter) ; but a hona 
 fide abridgment of a book is not considered in En- 
 gland and the United States a violation of the original 
 copyright. So a person may use a fair quotation, if 
 by application he makes it part of his own work ; but 
 can not take the whole, or large part, under pretense 
 of quotation. If an encyclopedia or review copies so 
 much of a book as to serve as a substitute for it, it be- 
 comes liable to an action for a violation of the law. 
 An encyclopedia is not allowed by its transcripts to 
 sweep up all modern works. In Germany abridg- 
 ments are not protected as in the United States. 
 
 The great practical difficulty in interpreting the 
 copyright acts is in distinguishing between an orig- 
 inal work and a copy made, animo furandi, from one 
 
 already in existence. The following is a summary of 
 Mr. Godson's remarks on this subject : 
 
 " The identity of a literary work consists entirely in the scn- 
 tiTneTUs and language. The same conceptions, clothed in the 
 same words, must necessailly be the same composition; and 
 whatever method is taken of exhibiting that composition to the 
 ear or the eye, by recital^ or by writing, or hy printhig, in any 
 number of copies, or at any period of time, the property of an- 
 other person has been violated ; for the new book is still the 
 identical work of the real author. Thus, therefore, a transcript 
 of nearly all the sentiments and language of a book is a glar- 
 ing piracy. To copy part of a book, either by taking a few 
 pages verbatim, when the sentiments are not new, or by imi- 
 tation of the principal ideas, although the. treatises in other re- 
 spects are different, is also considered to be illegal. Although 
 it was held by Chief-justice Ellenhorough that a variance in 
 foi-m and Tnanner is a variance in substaiice, and that any ma- 
 terial alteration which is a melioration can not be considered 
 as a piracy ; yet a piracy is committed, whether the author at- 
 tempt an original work, or call his book an abridgment, if the 
 principal parts of a hook are servilely copied or unfairly varied. 
 But if the main design be not copied, the circumstance that 
 part of the composition of one author is found in another is not 
 of itself piracy sufficient to support an action. A man may 
 fairly adopt part of the work of another; he may so make use 
 of another's labors for the promotion of science, and the ben- 
 efit of the public; but having done so, the question will be, 
 Was the matter so taken used fairly with that view, and with- 
 out what may be termed the animtts/urandif In judging^of 
 a quotation, whether it is fair and candid, or whether the per- 
 son who quotes has been swayed by the animus furandi, the 
 quantity taken, and the Truinner in which it is adopted, of 
 course must be considered. If the work complained of be in 
 s^tbstance a copy, then it is not necessary to show the intention- 
 to pirate ; for the greater part of the matter of the hook having 
 been purloined, the intention is apparent, and other proof is 
 superfluous. A piracy has undoubtedly been committed. But 
 if only a small portion of the work is quoted, then it becomes 
 necessaiy to show that it was done animo furandi, with the 
 intention of depriving the author of his just reward, by giving 
 his work to the public in a cheaper form. And then the mode 
 of doing it becomes a subject of inquiry ; for it is not sufficient 
 to constitute a piracy that part of one author's book is found 
 in that of another, unless it be nearly the whole, or so much 
 as will show (being a qipestion of fact for the jury) that it was 
 done with a bad intent, and that the matter which accom- 
 panies it has been colorably introduced.— P. 215-21T. If a 
 work be of such a libelous or mischievous nature as to affect 
 the public Tnorals, and that the author can not maintain an ac- 
 tion at law upon it, a court of equity will not interpose with an 
 injunction to protect that which can not be called property. 
 Even if there be a doubt as to its evil tendency, the lord chan- 
 cellor will not interfere." — Godson, p. 212. 
 
 Expediency of limitivg Copyrights to a reasonable 
 Tet^m, — It is argued by many that copyrights should 
 be made perpetual ; that, were this done, men of talent 
 and learning would devote themselves much more read- 
 ily than at present to the composition of works requir- 
 ing great labor ; inasmuch as the copyright of such 
 works, were it perpetual, would be an adequate pro- 
 vision for a family. But we doubt much whether 
 these anticipations would be realized. Most books or 
 manuscripts are purchased by the booksellers, or pub- 
 lished upon the presumption that there will immediate- 
 ly be a considerable demand for them ; and we appre- 
 hend that when copyrights are secured for 42 years 
 certain, very little more would be given for them were 
 they made perpetual. When an annuity, or the rent 
 or profit arising out of any fixed and tangible property, 
 with respect to which there can be no risk, is sold, if 
 the number of years for which it is to continue be con- 
 siderable, the price which it is worth, and which it 
 fetches, does not diff'er materially from what it would 
 bring were it pei-petual. But the copyright of an un- 
 published work is, of all descriptions of property in 
 which to speculate, the most hazardous, and the 
 chances of reaping contingent advantages from it, at 
 the distance of 42 years, would be worth very little 
 indeed. 
 
 Perhaps the period of 28 years has been advanta- 
 geously extended to 42 ; but we are satisfied that more 
 injury than benefit would result to literature by ex- 
 tending it beyond this term. In France, copyrights 
 
BOO 
 
 191 
 
 BOB 
 
 continue for 20 years after the death of the author. In 
 moat of the German States they are perpetual; this, 
 however, until very recently, hardly indemnified the 
 authors for the ease with which spurious copies might 
 be obtained from other States. But by a late resolu- 
 tion of the Diet, a copyright secured in one State is 
 good in all. 
 
 International Copyrights, — The establishment of an 
 international copyright system, that should enable the 
 authors of one country to secure the copyright of 
 their worlts in other countries, has of late excited a 
 good deal of attention. We doubt, however, whether 
 the advantages that would result from such a system, 
 were it established, would be so great as many seem 
 to suppose. No doubt it would be advantageous for 
 the authors of popular worlis in Great Britain and the 
 United States, for example, to be able to secure a 
 copyright in both countries ; but the real question is, 
 would the interests of literature and of the public be 
 promoted by such arrangement ? Now we incline to 
 thinlt that this question must be answered in the neg- 
 ative. The single market of either Great Britain or 
 the United States is quite large enough to secure a 
 sale for really good works sufficient to afford athple en- 
 couragement to their authors ; and such being the case, 
 it is difficult to see on what ground the republication 
 at a cheap rate in the one country of books originally 
 published in the other should be prevented. Indeed, 
 such prevention would appear, by obstructing the cir- 
 culation of knowledge and of amusement, to be inju- 
 rious to both. It has, it is true, been alleged that if 
 we had a copyright system in common with England, 
 English and American books might be published at a 
 less price, inasmuch as the extension of the market 
 would secure them a larger sale. But though this re- 
 sult might, we doubt much whether it really would, 
 happen. We apprehend that then, as now, authors 
 and publishers would impose such prices on their 
 works as they supposed would realize the largest 
 amount of profit, and that if they thought a high price 
 more likely to do this than a low one, it would be pre- 
 ferred. The extensive reprinting of cheap editions of 
 French works that has for a lengthened period been 
 carried on at Brussels has certainly been disadvan- 
 tageous to the literati of France. Still, however, the 
 market of that kingdom seems to be sufficiently ex- 
 tensive to insure the unlimited production of works 
 displaying the greatest talent, research, and industry ; 
 and it is plain that if the production of valuable works 
 be not checked in France by their being reprinted 
 abroad, the injury done to French men of letters re- 
 dounds to the advantage of every foreigner who has 
 occasion to look into or consult their works. Every 
 effort should be made to prevent copyrights being in- 
 vaded by pirates at home, and by the clandestine im- 
 portation of books printed abroad; but farther than 
 this we should not go. We are well convinced that it 
 is for the advantage of the public and of literature that 
 nations should have full liberty to republish each oth- 
 er's works in such forms and at such times and prices 
 as they may think fit. 
 
 The real evil with which our literature has to con- 
 tend originates in the barefaced pitacy carried on at 
 home, and not in the proceedings of foreigners. The 
 latter may, perhaps, interfere a little with the sale of 
 native works, by supplying the public with foreign in- 
 stead of home editions ; but the proceedings of the in- 
 digenous pirates are ten times more mischievous. They 
 consist, for the most part, of knaves and drudges, with- 
 out talent or learning of any sort, save only that of 
 transmuting and adulterating the labors of others, and 
 disguising their own rascality. Such persons fasten 
 like leeches on any new work of talent, research, and 
 industr}' ; they forthwith announce some system, com- 
 pilation, or abridgment of the same sort, every idea 
 and statement in which is stolen; and then publish 
 their spurious rubbish at a low price, advertise it as 
 
 being decidedly the best work on the subject, and find 
 numbers of newspaper writers ready to puff off and 
 eulogize their disinterested and meritorious labors 1 
 It is difficult, we admit, to deal with such a nuisance, 
 and it can not, perhaps, be abated by legislation. But 
 while we regret the fact, there can not, we believe, be 
 a question that courts and juries have for a lengthened 
 period inclined too much to a lenient interpretation of 
 the law as to piracy; and that literary plunderers, 
 whose robberies are but little disguised, too often es- 
 cape with impunity. 
 
 By the following table it will be seen that the foreign 
 trade in books and maps is limited. The imports are 
 from England and France principally, and also a few 
 from Germany. 
 
 Domestic Exports phom the Usiteu States, for the YEins 
 ENDING JlTNE SOtu, 1868, 1854, 1855. 
 
 
 185^. ) 1854. 
 
 1855. 
 
 Books and Maps 
 
 Paper and Stationery 
 
 $142,604 
 122,212 
 
 $187,336 
 191,843 
 
 $207,218 
 185,687 
 
 (mpoets op Paper and Books into the United States, 
 for tue Years ending June 30tu, 1853, 1854, 1855. 
 
 
 1863. 
 
 1864. 
 
 1855. 
 
 Paper and Stationery 
 
 Books and printed matter 
 
 $602,659 
 723,221 
 
 $756,829 
 917,044 
 
 $708,122 
 793,431 
 
 Boom (Dutch boom, a beam), in naval language, 
 a long spar for spreading out the clew or corner of par- 
 ticular sails ; as the jib-boom, studding-sail boom, 
 main boom, square-sail boom, etc. Boom denotes 
 also a strong chain or cable stretched across the mouth 
 of a river or harbor, with spars lashed to it, to prevent 
 the entrance of an enemy's ships.— ^E. B. 
 
 Booming, among sailors, denotes the application 
 of a boom to the sails, in order to accelerate the speed 
 of the ship. — E. B. 
 
 Boots and Shoes, the external covering for the 
 legs and feet, too well known to require any descrip- 
 tion. Boots are said to have been the invention of the 
 Carians, and were made of iron, brass, or leather ; of 
 the last material, some time after their invention, boots 
 were known to the Greeks, for Homer mentions them 
 about 907 B.C. — For an account of the value of the 
 boots and shoes annually produced, see Leather, and 
 for the duties on those imported see Tariff. 
 
 Borax, or Tincal (Arab. Burak; Pers. Tvnkar), 
 one of the salts of soda. It is white, transparent, rath- 
 er greasy in its fracture ; its taste is styptic, and it con- 
 verts sirup of violets to a green. It readily dissolves 
 in hot water, and swells and bubbles in the fire. It is 
 of great use as a flux for metals. — Thomson's Chemis- 
 try. This salt is found in a crystallized state at the 
 bottom of certain lakes in Thibet, and in various local- 
 ities in Persia, China, South America, and Europe. 
 Formerly, however, the demand of Europe was almost 
 wholly supplied from the East, and especially by im- 
 portations from Thibet, where the salt is comparative- 
 ly abundant. Crude borax, when imported, is called 
 tincal, being enveloped in a fatty matter, from which it 
 has to be separated by a process that was long known 
 only to the Venetians and Dutch. Large quantities 
 are supplied from the famous lagoons near Monte Cer- 
 bole, in Tuscany. These lagoons, which occupy a 
 large extent of surface, consist gf an infinite number 
 of low volcanoes, and springs in a furious state of 
 ebullition; the ground, which shakes and burns be- 
 neath the feet, is covered with crystallizations of sul- 
 phur and other minerals ; the whole scene presenting 
 a striking picture of the most tremendous energy and 
 sterility. The vapors that are constantly bursting 
 forth from the boiling lagoons being found to contain 
 boracic acid, it; occurred to a most ingenious person, a 
 M. Larderel, to construct pans through which the 
 vapors being made to pass impregnate the water in 
 them with the acid. The pans are kept boiling by 
 the heat of the lagoons ; and the water being evapora- 
 ted, the acid is deposited in crystals. In consequence 
 
BOR 
 
 192 
 
 BOR 
 
 of this discovery, the lagoons, from being altogether 
 worthless, have become most valuable. Prom 10,000 
 to 12,000 pounds (12 ounces each) of acid were, a few 
 years ago, daily produced : and this vast supply, and 
 the facility with which borax may be obtained from 
 the acid, has occasioned a great reduction in its price, 
 and enabled it to be much more extensively employed 
 than before. — See Br. Bowring's Report on Tuscany. 
 Bordeaux, a large and opulent commercial city of 
 France, on the Garonne, about 75 miles from its mouth, 
 lat. 44° 50' 26" N., long. 0° 34' W. Population, in 1851, 
 130,927. The commerce of Bordeaux is very extens- 
 ive. The Garonne is a noble river, with depth of 
 water sufficient to enable large ships to come up to the 
 city, laying open, in conjunction with the Dordogne 
 and their tributary streams, a large extent of country, 
 
 famous canal of Languedoc, which communicates with 
 the Mediterranean. By its means Bordeaux is enabled 
 to furnish the south of France with colonial products 
 at nearjy as cheap a rate as Marseilles. "Wines, bran- 
 dies, and fruits are the staple articles of export ; but 
 the merchants apply themselves more particularly to 
 the wine trade. Most part of their other business is 
 confined to dealing on commission ; but this they con- 
 duct almost invariably on their own account. The 
 reason they assign for this is, that the difficulties at- 
 tending the purchase, racking, iining, and proper care 
 of wines, so as to render them fit for exportation, are 
 so very great, as to make it almost impossible to con- 
 duct the business on any thing like the ordinary terms 
 so as to satisfy their employers. Colonial products, 
 cotton, dye-stuffs, pepper, hides, tobacco, rice, form 
 
 The commerce of Bordeaux is greatly promoted by the the principal articles of importation, 
 
 Account of Poe,t Chaegeb, Beokeeage, and otiiee fublic Dibbtjesements payable in Bokdeatjx on accottnt of a 
 French oe Foeeign Vesbel of 30O Tons Bukden, feom a Foeeign Poet to Bordeaux, ok feom Boedzatix to a 
 Foreign Poet. 
 
 Nature or Charges. 
 
 On a B*rench or British Vessel. 
 
 In Pvench 
 Money. 
 
 In Sterling 
 
 Money, . 
 
 On n Foreign Vessel. 
 
 In French 
 Money. 
 
 In Sterling 
 Money. 
 
 Report and pilotage from sea to Bordeaux for a vessel drawing 14 
 
 French feet water (15 feet 3"9 in British) 
 
 Lazaretto dues 
 
 Moving vessel up and mooring her 
 
 Entering vessel at custom-house, and brokerage inward 
 
 Advertisement for freight and passengers, 6 francs (4s. lOd.) to each 
 
 newspaper 
 
 Tonnage money and navigation dues on 300 tons 
 
 Visiting ofScers, clearances, harbor master, etc 
 
 Manifest and freight list 
 
 Ballast taken in or out, 1 franc 25 centimes per ton (Is.) 
 
 Consul's bill. Usual fees (English vessels), 17 franca 25 cent. (153.) 
 
 Pilotage from Bordeaux to sea 
 
 Broker's commission outward, care and attendance for expediting 
 the vessel r 
 In ballast, 50 c. per ton (Si.), say 120 fr. at most (£4 16s.)- 
 Ijoaded per charterer on owner's account, 1 fr, (10d.)perton 
 Loaded in freight, 1 franc 50 centimes (Is. 3d.) per ton 
 Total 
 
 .)) a, 
 
 218 93 
 61 
 10 
 
 100 
 
 486 
 
 14 T5 
 
 15 
 
 ■ 300 
 
 £ I. i. 
 
 8 15 2 
 
 2 18 10 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 19 16 
 11 10 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 247 60 
 61 8 
 10 8 
 
 100 
 
 1239 
 
 14 76 
 
 15 
 
 800 
 
 £ I. d. 
 
 9 18 
 2 18 10 
 8 
 4 
 
 49 11 2 
 11 10 
 12 
 
 9 16 3 
 
 12 
 
 2232 59 
 
 N.B. — No regard paid to the nature of the cargo, as all goods are imported cither for consumption or exportation, which 
 does not expose vessels to pay more or less charges. 
 
 Wine. — The culture of the vine is by far the most 
 important branch of industry carried on in the depart- 
 ment of the Gironde. The annual produce of its wines, 
 the red growths of which are Icnown by the general 
 name of claret^ amounts to about 2,500,000 hectolitres, 
 or about 55,000,000 imperial gallons. The vineyards 
 are the property of about 12,000 families, and the ex- 
 penses of their cultivation are estimated to amount to 
 45 or 46 million francs a year. The best growths are 
 from the confines of the "Landes," behind Bordeaux; 
 the secondary growths are chiefly the produce of the 
 country between the Garonne and Dordogne, and the 
 Palus^ a district of a strong rich soil bordering the 
 banks of those rivers. The first growths of the red 
 wines are denominated Jjapte.^ Latour^ Cliateau-Mar- 
 gauT, and Haut Brian. The first three are the produce 
 of the district of Haut Medoc, northwest of Bordeaux, 
 and the last of the district called des Graves. These 
 wines are all of the highest excellence ; their produce 
 is very limited, and in favorable years sells at from 
 3000 to 4000 francs the tun, which contains 210 impe- 
 rial gallons ; but when they have been kept in the cel- 
 lar for six years the ,price is doubled, so that even in 
 Bordeaux a bottle of the best wine can not be had for 
 less than 6 or 7 francs. The Jjifitte is the most choice 
 and delicate, and is characterized by its silky softness 
 on the palate, and its charming perfume, which par- 
 takes of the nature of the violet and the raspberry. 
 The Latour has a fuller body, and, at the same time, a 
 considerable aroma, but wants the softness of the ia- 
 fite. The Ch&teau-Margaux, on the other hand, is 
 lighter, and possesses all the delicate qualities of the 
 Lafitte, except that it has not quite so high a flavor. 
 The Haut Brim, again, has more spirit and body than 
 anj' of the preceding, but is rough when new, and re- 
 quires to be kept 6 or 7 years in, wood; while the 
 
 others become fit for bottling in much less time. — 
 Hendebson on Wines, p. 184. 
 
 Among the secondary red wines, those of Rozan, 
 G(yrce, Leoville, and Larose, Bran-Moutiyn, Pichon- 
 Lovgueville, and Colon, are reckoned the best. The 
 third-rate wines comprise those called Pauillac, Mar- 
 gaux, St. JuUien, St. Estfphe, St. Emilion, etc. It Is 
 but seldom that any of these growths are exported in 
 a state of purity. The taste of the English, for ex- 
 ample, has been so much modified by the long-con- 
 tinued use of port, that the lighter wines of the Gironde 
 would seem to tis to want body. Hence it is usual 
 for the merchants of Bordeaux to mix and prepare 
 wines according to the markets to which they are to be 
 sent. Thus the strong rough growths of the Palus 
 and other districts are frequently bought up for the 
 purpose of strengthening the ordinary wines of Medoc ; 
 and there is even a particular manufacture, called tra- 
 vail a VA nglaise, which consists in adding to each hogs- 
 head of Bordeaux wine three or four gallons of Alicant 
 or Benicarlo (large quantities of which are imported 
 into Bordeaux by way of Cette and the canal of Lan- 
 guedoc), half a gallon stum wine, a bottle of alcohol, 
 and sometimes a small quantity of hermitage. This 
 mixture undergoes a slight degree of fermentation ; and 
 when the whole is sufficiently "fretted in," it is ex- 
 ported under the name of claret. This mixture chiefly 
 consists of secondary wines, the first-rate growths fall- 
 ing far short of the demand for them. — Hesderson, 
 p. 184; see also Jullien, Topographic des VignoUes, p. 
 203. But even the flrst-class wines are most frequent- 
 ly intermixed with the best secondary growths ; and 
 it is customary to employ the wines of a superior to 
 mix with and bring up those of an inferior vintage. 
 Hence we need not wonder at the statement of a gen- 
 tleman who, after living twenty years in the best soci- 
 
BOR 
 
 193 
 
 BOR 
 
 ety in Bordeaux, doubted whether he had tasted more 
 than three times any pure wine of the first quality ! 
 The while wines of the Gironde are of two kinds ; those 
 called Graves, which have a dry, flinty taste, and aii 
 aroma somewhat resembling cloves : of thfese, the prin- 
 cipal are, Saut&rne, Jiarsac, Preiffnae, and Langon, 
 These are said by JuUien to be tres-moelleux, (m,pour 
 mieux dire, temi-liquoreux et assez apiritueux. The 
 white wines of the Gironde have for several years past 
 been advancing in estimation and value, and may be 
 said, speaking generally, to come to us in a less adul- 
 terated state than the red wines. About half the wines 
 of the Gironde are sent to other parts of France : one- 
 fifth part is consumed in the department ; one-fifth is 
 exported, the finest growths to England, but the larger 
 quantity to the north of Europe and HoUand; and 
 about one-fifth part is supposed to be converted into 
 brandy. A person accustomed to good society in Lon- 
 don, and, indeed, in most other parts of the country, 
 would be apt to conclude that French wines were con- 
 sumed in England to the almost total exclusion of 
 other wines. But any such inference would be in the 
 last degree erroneous. The fact is, that French wines 
 are rarely drunk, except by the upper classes, and 
 their consumption is inconsiderable, compared with 
 that of the middle and lower classes. So much is this 
 the case, that while, in 1852, 2,489,350 gallons port, 
 and 2,696,857 gallons sherry, were entered for home 
 consumption, the entries of all descriptions of French 
 wines (including champagne, claret, Sauterne, and 
 every thing else) amounted to only 475,948 gallons ! — 
 See post, art. Wine. The purchase of wines, whether 
 from the grower or merchant, is always efifected through 
 brokers, some of whom have acquired a reputation for 
 accuracy in dissecting the different flavors, and in trac- 
 ing the results of the wines by certain measures of 
 training or treatment. England takes off' nearly half 
 the highest-priced wines, and very little of any other 
 quality. Except in Bordeaux itself, there is but a 
 very moderate portion of the superior Medoc consumed 
 in France. The capital takes off' only second, third, 
 and fourth rate wines. The Dutch, who are large 
 consumers of Bordeaux wine, go most economically to 
 work. They send vessels to the river in the wine sea- 
 son, with skillful supercargoes, who go among the 
 growers, and purchase the wines themselves cheaper 
 even than a broker would do. They live on board 
 ship, take their own time to select, and wait often for 
 months before the cargo is completed ; but they attain 
 their object, getting a supply of good sound wine, and 
 at as low a rate, with all charges of shipping included, 
 as the wine-merchants can deliver it into their stores in 
 Bordeaux, They never purchase old wine ; they take 
 only that newly made, which, being without the sup- 
 port of stronger-bodied wines, must be consumed in the 
 course of 2 or 3 years. They follow the same system at 
 Bayonne, where 2 or 3 ships go annually for the White 
 wines of Juran9on, etc. The cargo wines, which are 
 the lowest class, are so manufactured that it is hardly 
 possible to know of what they are composed. They 
 are put free on board for £2 per hogshead and upward, 
 according as they are demanded. They will not bear 
 exposure in a glass when shipping ; the tasters have a 
 small flat silver cup expressly for them. These wines 
 are principally shipped to America and India, and some 
 at a higher price to the north of Europe, 
 
 Brandies, and Spirits of Wine. — The quantity distill- 
 ed in the neighborhood of Bordeaux is estimated at 
 about 18,000 pieces, of 50 veltes each ; ditto, in the 
 Armagnac, 20,000 ditto ; ditto, in the Marmauduis, 
 8000 ditto ; making in all 46,000 pieces, ordinary proof. 
 Of this quantity France takes off about 23,000 pieces 
 for consumption; England, 2500; United States, 10,000; 
 India, 2500 ; north of Europe, 5000 ; in all 43,000 pieces, 
 Languedoc produces annually about 40,000 pieces, of 
 80 velt«s each, the greater part of which comes to Bor- 
 deaux to be forwarded to the different ports of the 
 N 
 
 north of France, or to foreign countries, France con- 
 sumes about two-thirds of the above quantity ; the re- 
 maining one-third goes to the north of Europe, The 
 prices of brandy are from 130 fr, to 150 fr. per 50 veltes, 
 ordinary proof; spirits of wine, from 4 fr. to 5 fr. per 
 velte. The greatest shipments of brandy take place 
 to England from the port of Formay, on the Charente. 
 Cognac, from which the brandy takes its name, and 
 where there are large distilleries, is a few leagues up 
 the river. The quantity exported is far greater than 
 what is made at Cognac ; the two leading distillers 
 there (Martel and Henessey) buying great quantities 
 from the small cultivators. The greater part of the 
 wines made about Angoulcme, and thence down toward 
 the sea, are of inferior quality, and fit only for making 
 brandy ; and so little do the prices vary, that the pro- 
 prietors look upon it nearly in the same light as gold. 
 When they augment their capital by savings or profits, 
 it is employed in keeping a larger stock of brandy, 
 which has the farther advantage of paying the inter- 
 est of their capital by its improved value from age. 
 England is said to receive upward of 6000 pieces an- 
 nually from Charente. At Bordeaux, as at Paris and 
 Marseilles, there is a constant gambling business in 
 time bargains of spirits of wine. It is in the form of 
 spirits of wine that nearly all the brandy consumed in 
 France is expedited, as in this form there is a great 
 saving in carriage. — ^For an official account of the ex- 
 ports of wine and brandy from France, see Wine. The 
 fruits exported consist almost entirely of prunes and 
 almonds. The latter come principally from Langue- 
 doc. Bordeaux possesses some iron foundries, cotton 
 factories, sugar refineries, glass works, etc., but labor 
 and living are too high to admit of its becoming a con- 
 siderable manufacturing city. 
 
 Banking EstaUishTnents. — The " Bordeaux Bank," 
 which had a capital of 3,000,000 fr,, in shares of 1000 
 fr, each, was incorporated, in 1848, with the Bank of 
 France, of which it is now a branch. Its affairs have 
 been well managed, — See Banks, Foreign, 
 
 Brokers. — No one is allowed to act as a mercantile 
 broker in France who is not 25 yeai-s of age, and who 
 has not served 4 years in a commercial house, or with 
 a broker, or a notary public. They are nominated by 
 the government, after their qualifications have been 
 ascertained by the Chamber of Commerce, All bro- 
 kers must deposit the sum of 8000 fr, in the treasury 
 as a guarantee for their conduct, for which they are 
 allowed interest at the rate of 4 per cent. All foreign- 
 ers are obliged to employ ship brokers to transact their 
 business at the custom-house ; and although masters 
 and owners of French vessels might sometimes dispense 
 with their services, they never do so, finding it to be, 
 in all cases, most advantageous to use their interven- 
 tion. All duties outward on vessels and cargoes are 
 paid by the, ship brokers, who invariably clear out all 
 vessels, French as well as foreign. 
 
 Operation of the French Commercial System on the 
 Trade of Bordeaux, etc. — ^The trade of this great city 
 has suffered severely from the short-sighted, anti- 
 social policy of the French government. This policy 
 was first broadly laid down, and systematically acted 
 upon, by Napoleon ; and we believe it would not be 
 difficult' to show that the privations it entailed on the 
 people of the Continent powerfully contributed to ac- 
 celerate his downfall. But those by whom he has been 
 succeeded have not hitherto seen the expediency of re- 
 turning to a sounder system ; on the contrary, they 
 have carried, in some respects at least, the " continent- 
 al system" to an extent not contemplated by Napoleon. 
 Notwithstanding the vast importance to a country like 
 France of supplies of iron and hardware at a cheap rate, 
 that which is produced by foreigners is excluded, 
 though it might be obtained for a third part of the 
 price of that which is manufactured at home, _A sim. 
 ilar line of policy has been followed as to cotton-yam, 
 earthen-ware, etc, • And in order to force the manufac- 
 
BOB 
 
 194 
 
 BOB 
 
 ture of sugar from the beet-root, oppressive duties have 
 been laid, not only on foreign sugar, but even on that 
 imported from the French colonies. The operation of 
 this system on the commerce and industry of the coun- 
 try has been most mischievous. By forcing France to 
 raise at home articles for the production of which she 
 has no natural or acquired capabilities, the exporta- 
 tion, and consequently the growth, of those articles in 
 the production of which she is superior to every other 
 country, has been very greatly narrowed. All com- 
 merce being bottomed on a fair principle of reciprocity, 
 a country that refuses to import must cease to export. 
 By excluding foreign produce — by refusing to admit 
 the sugar of Brazil, the cottons and hardware of En- 
 gland, the iron of Sweden, the linens of Germany, and 
 the cattle of Switzerland and Wirtemberg — France has 
 done all that was in her power to drive the merchants 
 of those countries from her markets. They are not 
 less anxious than formerly to obtain her wines, bran- 
 dies, and silks ; inasmuch, however, as commerce is 
 merely an exchange of products, and as France will 
 accept very few products belonging to others, they can 
 not, how anxious soever, maintain that extensive and 
 mutually beneficial intercourse with her they would 
 otherwise carry on ; they sell little to her, and their 
 purchases are, of course, proportionally diminished. 
 This, indeed, is in all cases the necessary and inev- 
 itable effect of the prohibitive system. It never fails 
 to lessen exportation to the same extent that it lessens 
 importation; so that, when least injurious, it merely 
 substitutes one sort of industry for another— the pro- 
 duction of the article that had been obtained from the 
 foreigner for the production of that which had been 
 sent to him as an equivalent. 
 
 France is not only extremely well situated for carry- 
 ing on an extensive intercourse with foreign countries, 
 but she is largely supplied with several productions 
 which, were she to adopt a liberal commercial system, 
 would meet with a ready and advantageous sale abroad, 
 and enable her to furnish equivalents for the largest 
 amount of imports. The superiority enjoyed by Amboy- 
 jia in the production of cloves is not more decided than 
 tJiat enjoyed by France in the production of wine. Her 
 .ciaret. Burgundy, Champagne, and brandy are unri- 
 valed, and furnish of themselves the materials of a 
 vast <»mmerce. Indeed, the production of wine is, 
 me-xt to the ordinary business of agriculture, by far the 
 jnost extensive and valuable branch of industry in 
 France, It is stated by the landholders and merchants 
 of the .department of the Gironde, in the admirable Pe- 
 iition .et Memoire a VAppui, presented by them to the 
 Chamber of Deputies in 1828, that the quantity of wine 
 annually pr-oduced in France amounts, at an average, 
 to about 40,000,000 hectolitres, or 1,060,000,000 gal- 
 lons ; that it« value is not less than from 800,000,000 to 
 1,000,000,000 francs, orfrom£32,000,000 to £40, 000, 000 
 sterling ; and that upward of three millions of individ- 
 uals are empioj^ed in its production. In some of the 
 southern departments it is of paramount importance. 
 The population of the Gironde, exclusive of Bordeaux, 
 amounts to about 450,000 individuals, of whom no few- 
 er than 230,000 are supposed to be directly engaged in 
 the cultivation of the vine. Here, then, is a branch 
 of industry in which France has no competitor, which 
 even now affords employment for about a tenth part 
 of her population, and which is susceptible of indefinite 
 extension. She has, in this single article, the means 
 of carrying on the most extensive and lucrative com- 
 merce. " Le gouvernement Franijais," says M. Chap- 
 tal, in his work iSur VIndustrie Fran^uise^ ** doit les 
 plus grands encouragements a la culture des vignes, 
 soit qu'il consid^re ses produitg relativeraent a la con- 
 sommation interieure, soit, qu'il les envisage sous le 
 rapport de notre commerce avec I'etranger, dant il est 
 en effet la base essentielle." 
 
 But instead of laboring to extend this great branch 
 of industry, government has consented to sacrifice it 
 
 to the interests of the iron-founders, the cotton and 
 linen manufacturers, and the planters of Martinique 
 and Guadaloupe! We do not, indeed, imagine that 
 they were at all aware that such would be the effect of 
 their policy." Theirs is only one instance, among mjT- 
 iads that may be specified, to prove that ignorance in 
 a ministry is quite as pernicious as bad intentions. 
 The consideration, apparently not a very recondite one, 
 that, notwithstanding the bounty of nature, wine was 
 not gratuitously produced in France, and could not, 
 therefore, be exported except for an equivalent, would 
 seem never to have occurred to the ministers of Loiiis 
 XVIII. and Charles X. But those whose interests 
 were at stake did not fail to apprise them of the hol- 
 lowness of their system of policy. In 1822, when the 
 project for raising the duties on sugar, iron, linens, etc., 
 was under discussion, the merchants of Bordeaux, 
 Nantes, Marseilles, and other great commercial cities, 
 the silk manufacturers of Lyons, and the wine-growers 
 of the Gironde, and some other departments, present- 
 ed petitions to the Chambers, in which they truly 
 stated that it was a contradiction and an absurdity to 
 attempt selling to the foreigner without, at the same 
 time, buying from him ; and expressed their convic- 
 tion that the imposition of the proposed duties would 
 be fatal to the commerce of France, and would conse- 
 quently inflict a very serious injury on the wine-grow- 
 ers and silk manufacturers. These representations did 
 not, however, meet with a very courteous reception. 
 They were stigmatized as the work of ignorant and in- 
 terested persons. The Chambers approved the policy 
 of ministers ; and, in their ardor to extend and perfect 
 it, did not hesitate deeply to injure branches of indus- 
 try on which several millions of persons are depend- 
 ent, in order that a few businesses, nowise suited to 
 France, and the support of which costs her several 
 millions a year, might be bolstered up and protected ! 
 It is plain, had there not been some powerful counter- 
 acting cause in operation, that the exports of wine from 
 France should have been very greatly augmented since 
 the peace of 1815. The United States, Kussia, En- 
 gland, Prussia, and all those countries that have at all 
 times been the great importers of French wines, have 
 made prodigious advances in wealth and population 
 since 1789 ; and had the commerce with them not been 
 subjected to injurious restrictions, there is every reason 
 to think that their imports of French wine would have 
 been much greater now than at any former period. So 
 far, however, from this being the case, they have de- 
 clined in a most extraordinary degree. This is proved 
 beyond all question by the following extract from a 
 report made to the Council General of the Gironde in 
 1841, and published by its orders and with its sanction. 
 "Previously to 1790, the wine trade at Bordeaux had 
 an immense development. The books of our most an- 
 cient houses, transmitted down religiously from father 
 to son, and the registries of our lands, prove that in 
 the years preceding 1787 our exports had reached more 
 than 100,000 tuns of wine, 10,000 casks of brandy, and 
 5000 of vinegar. They also show that from 1200 to 
 1400 vessels from the north took large quantities of 
 wine, in return for their national produce, which they 
 easily disposed of among us. It was a most lucrative 
 commerce, for we then sent 15,000 tuns to Prussia, 
 18,000 to England and Ireland, 6000 to Dantzic, 40,000 
 to Hamburg, Lubeck, and Bremen, 15,000 to Holland, 
 7000 to Sweden, 5000 to Denmark and Norway, and 
 12,000 to Kussia. But at that period we had not closed 
 our frontiers to the produce of all these nations ; we re- 
 ceived at moderate duties their woolens, linens, hemp, 
 iron, wood, cattle, and other articles, the consumption 
 of which was less expensive, and the quality better, 
 than similar articles made at home, and forced on us 
 by customs duties. At present, notwithstanding the 
 rapid increase of commercial affairs, notwithstandin^f 
 the new nations of America, the advantages of a more 
 expeditious, certain, and economical navigation, the 
 
BOR 
 
 195 
 
 BOR 
 
 demands of nations increased in number and indus- 
 try, and eonsequently more disposed to purchase for 
 consumption, our commerce is declining in a most 
 alarming manner. Authentic documents prove that 
 in 1839 our exports only reached 1339 tuns to England, 
 2499 to Russia, 147 to Sweden, 342 to Norway, 2964 to 
 Prussia, G12 to Denmark, 8188 to the Hans Towns, and 
 7621 to the Netherlands. Since then our exports have 
 not increased, so that instead of 100,000 tuns at least 
 taken by the north of Europe from the department of 
 the Gironde previously to 1790, not more than 25,000 
 tuns are taken at present. Yet the taste for wine and 
 the necessity to use it have not been weakened among 
 the various nations ; but the exaggerated duties with 
 which its introduction has been loaded qnly allow it 
 to be consumed by the wealthy classes, who are every 
 where the least numerous. These duties are establish- 
 ed in retaliation of those which France lays on foreign 
 productions. If the exportation of wine has diminish- 
 ed in so great a proportion, the cause must be sought 
 in the protective system. When the variations in the 
 exports of wine are attentively examined, and their 
 decrease looked to since 1822, when this system attain- 
 ed its height, to 1840, it is impossible not to be struck 
 with the fact that these variations are intimately con- 
 nected with the system itself. The decrease in the 
 exports of wine has followed the increased development 
 of the protective system, and therefore we are forced 
 to draw this conclusion, that it is this system, which de- 
 stroys our export trade. Yet foreign consumption is the 
 most certain and most proiStable for Bordeaux wines, 
 and it is particularly in the markets of the north of 
 Europe and of England that the wines of the finest 
 quality which our department produces find purchasers. 
 Let us, then, insist on the necessity of reopening these 
 markets, which have been closed by the enormous 
 amount of duties imposed by foreigners in reprisal of 
 those laid by us on their products." 
 
 Besides the injury inflicted on the wine trade by the 
 prohibitive system of commercial policy adopted in 
 France, and the retaliatory measures it has provoked 
 in other countries, it has suffered severely from the 
 octrois and other duties on internal consumption. But 
 the depression, though felt every where, is greatest in 
 the Gironde, which is especially dependent on Us ex- 
 port trade. This is strikingly evinced by the large 
 Stocks of wine that remain in the hands of the growers 
 and merchants, and by the fall in its price. This has, 
 of course, reacted on the vineyards, many of which 
 have become all but unsalable ; and a stop has been 
 put to every sort of improvement. Nor have matters 
 been in the least amended during the current year : on 
 the contrary, they seem to be gradually getting worse. 
 Such is the poverty of the proprietors, that wine is now 
 frequently seized and sold by the revenue officers in 
 payment of arrears of taxes ; and such is at present 
 the extent of the evil, that in the course of this year 
 (1843) the committee of wine growers have applied to 
 government for a loan of 2, 000,000 francs to be applied 
 to the payment of taxes due by the wine growers. 
 
 Such are the effects of the restrictive system of poli- 
 cy on the wine trade of France — on a branch of indus- 
 try which, as already seen, employs three' millions of 
 people. It is satisfactory, however, to observe that 
 the land-owners and merchants are fully aware of the 
 source of the misery in which they have been involved. 
 They know that they are not suffering so much from 
 hostile or vindictive measures on the part of foreigners 
 as from the blind and senseless policy of their own 
 government ; that they are victims of an attempt to 
 counteract the most obvious principles — to make France 
 produce articles directly at home, which she might ob- 
 tain from the foreigner in exchange for wine, brandy, 
 etc., at a third or a fourth part of the expense they now 
 cost. They can not export, because they are not allowed 
 to import. Hence they do not ask for bounties and 
 prohibitions ; on the contrary, they disclaim all such 
 
 quack nostrums ; and demand what can alone be use- 
 ful to them, and beneficial to the country — a free com- 
 mercial system. And notwithstanding the powerful 
 interests involved in the support of the prohibitive pol- 
 icy, we can not doubt hut that, in the end, they will 
 be compelled to give way ; and that France, by open- 
 ing her ports to a freer importation of foreign products, 
 will insure the proportional extension of her exports of 
 wines, brandies, silks, and other products, which she 
 can furnish more cheaply and of a better quality than 
 any other country. It is reasonable to suppose that 
 the experience that has been afforded of the ruinous 
 effects of the prohibitive system, and the more general 
 diffusion of correct ideas with respect to the real sources 
 of wealth, will at no distant period occasion the adop- 
 tion of such changes in the commercial legislation of 
 France as may render it more conducive to her inter- 
 est, and more in accordance with the spirit of the age. 
 Indeed, we incline to think that bilt for the unfortunate 
 misunderstanding about the Turkish question, and the 
 irritation thence arising, a commercial treaty on a 
 comparatively liberal footing would have been alreadj' 
 entered into between France and this country ; and it 
 is much to be wished that some such arrangement 
 should speedily be completed. If, indeed, we were 
 hostile to France, we should wish her to continue her 
 present system, for it must effectually prevent her 
 making any considerable progress either in manufac- 
 tures or commerce ; but we disclaim being actuated by 
 any such feelings. We are truly anxious for her pros- 
 perity, for her sake and our own ; for unless she be sur- 
 rounded by Bishop Berkeley's wall of brass, whatever 
 contributes to her well-being must, in some degree, re- 
 dound to the advantage of her neighbors. — J. R. M. 
 
 "Were such narrow and malignant politics to meet 
 with success," said Mr. Hume, writing in the middle 
 of the last century, and when the prosperity of others 
 was generally regarded with an evil eye, " we should 
 reduce all our neighboring nations to the same state 
 of sloth and ignorance that prevails in Morocco and 
 the coast of Barbary. But what would be the conse- 
 quence ? They could send us no commodities ; they 
 could take none from us: our domestic commerce it- 
 self would languish for want of emulation, example, 
 and instruction ; and we ourselves should soon fall into 
 the same abject condition to which we had reduced 
 them. I shall, therefore, venture to acknowledge, that 
 not only as a man, but as a British subject, I pi*ay for 
 the flourishing commerce of Germany, Spain, Italy, 
 and even France itself. I am, at least, certain that 
 Great Britain, and all those nations, would flourish 
 more did their sovereign and ministers adopt such en- 
 larged and benevolent sentiments toward each other." 
 — Essay on the Jealousy of Trade, , 
 
 Borneo, or, as it is called by the natives, Brun6, aii 
 island forming part of the great East Indian Archipel- 
 ago, and, next to New Holland, which may be consid- 
 ered as a species of continent, the largest in the known 
 world. It reaches from about 7° N. to 4° S. lat., and 
 from 109° to 118° E. long. Its length may be esti- 
 mated at 750 miles, its greatest breadtli at 600, and its 
 average breadth at 350. Its area has been calculated 
 by Baron Melville, of Carnbee, at 12,745 geographical 
 square leagues. It exhibits the usual insular structure, 
 a mass of lofty mountains in the centre, sloping gradu- 
 ally down to level and alluvial tracts along the sea- 
 shore. It is in every part intersected by fine rivers, 
 many of them navigable to a considerable distance 
 from the sea." The interior of Borneo is covered with 
 immense forests, filled with wild animals, particularly 
 orang-outangs. A great part of the coast is marshy, 
 so that it is in portions only that it displays the exu- 
 berance of tropical fertility. Of all the East Indian 
 islands, Borneo ranks lowest as to civilization and im- 
 provement. Nothing, perhaps, has tended so power- 
 fully to check its progress as the solid and unbroken 
 form of its coasts, destitute of those large bays or in- 
 
BOS 
 
 196 
 
 BOS 
 
 land seas which have always proved the nursery of 
 commerce. 
 
 The commerce of Borneo, though not equal to its 
 extent and natural capacities, is by no means incon- 
 siderable. Gold is its principal export. Mr. Milburn 
 estimates the annual quantity exported at 200 peculs, 
 or 26,000 lbs. avoirdupois, which would coin into up- 
 ward of 900,000 guineas. Lilie some other commodi- 
 ties, it is divided, by a grotesque scale, into three 
 kinds, called the head, the belly, and the feet ; the 
 fii'st being the best, and the two others gradually di- 
 minishing in value. Camphor is exported to the ex- 
 tent of thirty peculs (3990 lbs.), all to China, where it 
 is more esteemed than that of Sumatra. The singular 
 Chinese luxuries of bicke-de-m^Vj or sea-slug, and edi- 
 ble birds' nests, are found in Borneo, as over all the 
 Indian Archipelago. Pepper to a considerable amount, 
 canes and ratans of various descriptions, sago, and a 
 little tin, complete the list of exports. The chief im- 
 port is opium to a very great extent, with piece goods, 
 hardware, coarse cutlery, arms, and toys. By far the 
 greater proportion of the trade is in the hands of the 
 Chinese. — E. B. 
 
 Boston, city, capital of Massachusetts, and metrop- 
 olis of New England, the second commercial city, and 
 the fourth in population in the United States of Amer- 
 ica, is mostly situated on a peninsula, 3 miles long, 
 and a little more than 1 mile broad, at the head of 
 Massachusetts Bay. The harbor extends from Point 
 Alderton to Medford, a distance of 14 miles ; is 8 miles 
 in width, and covers an area of 75 square miles. It 
 has a depth of water sufHcient for 500 vessels of the 
 largest class to ride at anchor in safety. The entrance 
 is barely sufficient for two ships of a large class to 
 sail abreast, and is defended by three fortresses, two 
 of which, situated on George's and Castle islands, 
 are on the largest scale, and constructed with all 
 the improvements of modern science; the third, or 
 the citadel, on Governor's Island, is still incomplete, 
 but, when iinished, the defenses may be considered 
 impregnable. 
 
 The territory now covered by the city was, in 1630, 
 a peninsula, connected with the mainland by a narrow 
 isthmus : this tract contained 600 acres — it was called 
 Shawmut or Trimountain, and derived its name from 
 
 its springs, and three lofty hills. The spot was un- 
 doubtedly selected for its security from the inroads of 
 the Indians, and its facilities for trade. Before the 
 Revolutionary War, Boston became the most commer- 
 cial town in the colonies. The narrow limits of the 
 peninsula have long since been found insufficient for 
 the growth of the population, and her extended com- 
 merce. Dorchester Point, containing 600 acres, was 
 first annexed, then Noddle's island, comprising GOO 
 acres more, and several hundred acres have been re- 
 claimed from the sea ; but so rapid has been the increase 
 of population, that the number of inhabitants of the 
 suburbs within a few miles of the city limits nearly 
 equals the city proper. Boston lies in 42° 21' 27" N. 
 lat., 71° 3' 30" W. long., from Greenwich, England. 
 It is 105 miles south-southwest from Portland, Maine ; 
 216 miles from New York, ma Stonington, 236 via New 
 Haven and Springfield ; 313 Philadelphia ; 411 Balti- 
 more ; 449 Washington'; 990 Charleston, South Caro- 
 lina, and 1838 from New Orleans. The population in 
 1790 was 18,038; in 1800, 24,937; in 1810, 33,250; in 
 1820,43,298; in 1830, 61,391; in 1840, 93,383 ; in 1850, 
 138,788 ; and in 1854, 178,000. 
 
 Boston has overstepped her sea-girt isles, and at- 
 tached herself to the main land by one wide, enlarged 
 avenue, the Neck, paved, and planted with trees ; by 
 one gi'anite structure, the Western avenue, a mile and 
 a half in length, 6 bridges, 8 railroads, and 3 fer- 
 ries ; 8 railroads branch into 16, and 10 avenues divide 
 into 30, within the first 9 miles from the Exchange. 
 The city exhibits a pictiSresque and beautiful appear- 
 ance when approached from the sea ; and in surveying 
 its several parts, the visitor finds much to admire. 
 Beacon Hill, on which the State House stands, is 110 
 feet above high-water mark; it was originally 30 feet 
 higher. Fort Hill, on the east side, fronting the har- 
 bor, is 80 feet, and Copp's Hill, in the north part, is 50 
 feet above high water. On this hill the British had a 
 battery in 1775, from which, during the memorable 
 battle of Bunker Hill, they bombarded and burn- 
 ed Charlestown. Mount Washington, or Dorchester 
 Heights, is 130 feet above the sea. On these heights, 
 the Americans under Washington erected a fortifica- 
 tion, in 1775, which soon compelled the British to 
 evacuate Boston. 
 
 Table or the Hates op Pilotage on Outward and Inwakd bound Vessels in the Poet of Boston. 
 
 
 
 
 OnrwAED. 
 
 
 
 iNWAEn. 1 
 
 Prom 
 Ship 
 
 NovMnl 
 Dot. 
 
 er 1 to Mn 
 Ships 
 
 yi- 
 
 From May 1 to November J . | 
 
 From Novemt 
 
 er 1 to May 1. 
 
 From 
 
 May 1 to November 1. \ 
 
 Dol. 
 
 Ships 
 
 Dol. 
 
 Ships 
 
 Dol. 
 
 Ship. 
 
 Dol. 
 
 Ships 
 drawing 
 
 Dol. 
 
 Ships 
 
 Dol. 
 
 Ships 
 
 Dol. 
 
 drawing 
 
 Foot. 
 
 drnwjng 
 
 /o'o't. 
 1-10 
 
 drawing 
 
 iG. 
 
 drawing 
 
 per 
 
 (Irawmg 
 
 per 
 
 Iml. 
 
 drawing 
 
 per 
 
 drawing 
 
 per 
 
 Water. 
 
 Water. 
 
 Water. 
 
 Water. 
 
 Foot. 
 
 
 
 
 Water. 
 
 Foot. 
 
 Water. 
 
 Foot. 
 
 7 ft. 
 
 0-90 
 
 17 ft 
 
 7 ft. 
 
 0-T5 
 
 17 ft. 
 
 1-00 
 
 7£t 
 
 1-45 
 
 IT ft. 
 
 1-87 
 
 7 It. 
 
 1-iU 
 
 17 ft. 
 
 1-35 
 
 8 
 
 0-90 
 
 18 
 
 1-20 
 
 8 
 
 0-76 
 
 18 
 
 1-00 
 
 8 
 
 1-45 
 
 18 
 
 2-50 
 
 8 
 
 1-10 
 
 18 
 
 1-88 
 
 9 
 
 0'90 
 
 19 
 
 1-.30 
 
 9 
 
 0-75 
 
 19 
 
 1-25 
 
 9 
 
 1-46 
 
 19 
 
 2-75 
 
 9 
 
 1-10 
 
 19 
 
 1-88 
 
 10 
 
 0-96 
 
 20 
 
 1-60 
 
 10 
 
 0-80 
 
 20 
 
 1-50 
 
 10 
 
 1-56 
 
 20 
 
 3-00 
 
 10 
 
 1-20 
 
 20 
 
 1-83 
 
 11 
 
 1-00 
 
 21 
 
 2-00 
 
 11 
 
 0-85 
 
 21 
 
 1-75 
 
 11 
 
 1-72 
 
 21 
 
 4-00 
 
 11 
 
 1-25 
 
 21 
 
 2-80 
 
 12 
 
 1-06 
 
 22 
 
 2 -,60 
 
 12 
 
 0-90 
 
 23 
 
 2-00 
 
 12 
 
 1-77 
 
 22 
 
 4 00 
 
 12 
 
 1-30 
 
 22 
 
 3-00 
 
 13 
 
 1-10 
 
 23 
 
 2-75 
 
 13 
 
 ore 
 
 23 
 
 2 -55 
 
 13 
 
 1-77 
 
 23 
 
 4-00 
 
 13 
 
 1-35 
 
 23 
 
 3 00 
 
 14 
 
 1-10 
 
 24 
 
 2-76 
 
 14 
 
 0-C6 
 
 24 
 
 2-25 
 
 14 
 
 1-87 
 
 24 
 
 4-00 
 
 14 
 
 1-35 
 
 24 
 
 3-00 
 
 16 
 
 1-10 
 
 26 
 
 2 -75 
 
 15 
 
 0-!,5 
 
 25 
 
 2-26 
 
 15 
 
 1-87 
 
 25 
 
 4-00 
 
 16 
 
 1-35 
 
 25 
 
 3-00 
 
 16 
 
 1-10 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 0-96 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 1-87 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 1-35 
 
 
 
 Statement of the deoiaked Value op Goods, "Waees, and Merchandise expouted fkom-tue Distkict of Boston and 
 
 CUAELEBTOWH DURING TUE YeAES 1853, 1854. 
 
 Qunrter ending. 
 
 American Merchandise. 
 
 Foreign Merchandise. 1 
 
 1868. 
 
 ISM. 
 
 1858. 
 
 1854. 
 
 
 $3,184,914 
 3,115,180 
 1,962,028 
 2,350,707 
 
 $2,084,941 
 2,078,926 
 2,059,292 
 2,450,255 
 
 $415,857 
 516,121 
 477,576 
 365,656 
 
 $627,016 
 607,967 
 583,789 
 574,317 
 
 
 
 
 
 $10,613,029 
 
 $768,286 
 1,072.030 
 1,745,472 
 3,000,672 
 
 $8,674,118 
 
 $934,822 
 2,250,874 
 2,637,796 
 2,206,398 ■ 
 
 $1,774,209 
 
 $279,208 
 378,964 
 220,427 
 321,306 
 
 $2,393,079 
 
 $293,268 
 430,790 
 301,710 
 185,167 
 
 
 
 
 December 31 
 
 
 $7,180,860 
 10,613,029 
 
 $7,979,890 
 8,674,113 
 
 $1,199,575 
 1,774,209 
 
 $1,210,805 
 3,392,079 
 
 Total in American vessels (as above) 
 
 Total 
 
 $17,990,389 
 
 $16,054,003 
 
 $2,078,784 
 
 $3,002,914 
 
BOS 
 
 197 
 
 BOS 
 
 Namic Miles- 
 
 FLA2« OF BOSTON HABBOB. 
 
 Sefermee* to i'lon.— A, outer light-house, 65 feet high, having a revolving light, alternately brilliant 40, and obscured 20 
 seconds ! B, buoy on the outward edge of the shoal, off Alderton Point; C, D,E, Great, Middle, and Outward Brewster's 
 Islands; F, George's Island. The passage for ships, lying between this island and the rocks on the opposite side of Lovell's 
 Island (G), being very narrow, it is, in effect, the key of the harbor ; and large sums have recently been expended on its forti- 
 fication. To the south of George's Island and Hospital Island (H) is Nantaskst road, where there is good anchorage. The 
 outer harbor lies to the west of Lovell's (G) and George's (F) Islands, being separated from the inner harbor by Castle Island (M) 
 and Governor's Island (N). On the north end of Long Island (I) is a harbor fixed light, 2T feet high; K, Deer Island ; L, Spec- 
 tacle Island ; O, Middle Ground, dry at three-quarter ebb ; P, Upper and Middle Ground, having, at ebb, only 6 feet water ; 
 Q, Thomson's Island ; S, Dorehester Peninsubi ; S, Noodle Island ; T. Charlestown. Governor's Island (N), Castle Island (M), 
 and Noodle's Island (S), are all forBfled. The course that a ship ought to steer is marked by the dotted line leading between 
 the light-house and Alderton Point, and between George's Island (F) and Lovell's Island (G). The soundings are laid down 
 in fathoms at low water. 
 
BOS 
 
 198 
 
 BOS 
 
 Statement exhibiting the Nttmber and Tonnag-b of Amebioan and foreign Tebbelb, and op Vesbelb in the coast- 
 ing Trade, which entered into and olbaeed from the Distbiot of Boston and Chaelebtown during the 
 fiscal Years 1848-1856, ending Jttne 30. 
 
 Yiai 
 ending 
 June 30. 
 
 American. 
 
 Fonlgn. 
 
 Coasting Trade. | 
 
 Entered. 
 
 Clesred. 
 
 Entered. 
 
 Cleued. 
 
 Entered. 
 
 Cleared. | 
 
 No. of 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tone. 
 
 No. of 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 No of 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 No. of 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 No. of 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 No. of 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tons, 
 
 1848 
 1849 
 1850 
 1S61 
 1852 
 1853 
 1864 
 1865 
 1856 
 
 115ii 
 976 
 
 1028 
 944 
 908 
 906 
 991 
 
 1073 
 
 1055 
 
 a69,2a7 
 248,095 
 260,640 
 236,939 
 267,344 
 287,969 
 320,638 
 373,826 
 854,5-8 
 
 1012 
 832 
 904 
 881 
 848 
 
 1246 
 990 
 
 1033 
 
 1036 
 
 229,861 
 214,145 
 215,801 
 207,944 
 224 784 
 206,513 
 281.530 
 353.637 
 387,133 
 
 1826 
 2062 
 1908 
 2042 
 1899 
 2089 
 2083 
 2071 
 2033 
 
 163,375 
 203,026 
 213,295 
 275,317 
 260,758 
 294,521 
 333,249 
 334,298 
 327,853 
 
 1828 
 2084 
 2199 
 2045 
 1896 
 2112 
 2064 
 1911 
 2039 
 
 164,019 
 195,185 
 208,776 
 286,828 
 286,845 
 314,682 
 329,038 
 334,238 
 310,164 
 
 16-28 
 
 1422 
 
 1423 
 
 1623 
 
 3670* 
 
 2340* 
 
 2003* 
 
 1676 
 
 1604 
 
 345,888 
 824,134 
 326,837 
 314,979 
 727,171 
 620,232 
 583,989 
 491,439 
 385,631 
 
 3110 
 
 2980 
 
 3171 
 
 2843 
 
 2818* 
 
 2!I18» 
 
 3047' 
 
 2941 
 
 2773 
 
 554,730 
 580.078 
 602,506 
 518.408 
 671,577 
 629,489 
 640,947 
 663,193 
 702,321 
 
 * In these years the number of vessels arriving and departing, but which did not enter and clear, are included in the 
 statement. In the other years only such as entered and cleared are given. 
 
 Value of Imports into, and Exports from, the District of Boston akd Charlestown to foreign ports for 
 
 THE ELEVEN FISCAL YEAES ENDING JUNE 30, 1S56. 
 
 Years, 
 
 Domestic Goods. 
 
 Foreign Goods. 
 
 Domestic and foreign Exports. | Foreign Imports 
 
 Total Value. 
 
 Of which -were 
 Gold and Silver. 
 
 Total Value. 
 
 Of which were 
 Gold and Silver. 
 
 Total Value. 
 
 of which were 
 Gold and Silver 
 
 Total Value. 
 
 1846 
 
 $o.669,5il5 
 7,372,992 
 8,149,933 
 6,714,590 
 6,983,628 
 8.269,645 
 11,110,010 
 15,203,203 
 16,408,341 
 22,970,460 
 24,673,577 
 
 $6j.574 
 
 30,018 
 
 191,100 
 
 33,59T 
 
 170,847 
 
 805,926 
 
 3,970,025 
 
 3,736,939 
 
 4,930,487 
 
 12,022,598 
 
 11,860,362 
 
 $2,298,436 
 1,843,999 
 4,064.879 
 1,977,483 
 2,188,124 
 2,228,508 
 2,278,502 
 2,891,480 
 3,343,675 
 3.671,201 
 3,312,076 
 
 $404,241 
 344,463 
 
 2,369,767 
 144,999 
 338,621 
 459,930 
 236,718 
 267,610 
 337,963 
 266,470 
 149,721 
 
 $8,968,031 
 9,716,991 
 12,204,312 
 8,692,073 
 9,141,652 
 10.498,153 
 13,388,.512 
 18,094,683 
 19,751,916 
 26.641.661 
 27,986653 
 
 $460,816 
 
 374,471 
 
 2,560,867 
 
 178,693 
 
 651.408 
 
 1,265 8.56 
 
 4,206,743 
 
 4,004,549 
 
 5,568,450 
 
 12,279,068 
 
 12,010,033 
 
 $A6i5,117 
 36.6.'3,963 
 27,182,308 
 23,341,145 
 28,659,733 
 30,508,417 
 31,958,192 
 39,300,912 
 46,988,645 
 43,256,279 
 41,661,088 
 
 1S4T 
 
 1S4S 
 
 1849 
 
 1850 
 
 1S61..; 
 
 1362 
 
 1853 
 
 1854 
 
 1855 
 
 1S6G 
 
 
 India Trade of Boston. — This important branch of 
 business has attained in Boston at the present time a 
 magnitude little thouglit of by the early founders of 
 this trade. Salem was the pioneer in many branches 
 of the India trade, and for many years a great mart 
 for the sale of teas, spices, dj'e-stufi's, drugs, cotfee, etc. 
 Ships and brigs from two hundred to three hundred 
 and fifty tons burden were at that time the class and 
 size of the vessels employed. The course of trade, and 
 the superior advantages of Boston and New York as 
 central markets, have diverted this business very much 
 from its ancient seat. Quite a number of Salem houses 
 have still an extensive interest in the East India and 
 Pacific business, but their vessels are, for the most part, 
 fitted from and arrive at Boston or New York. The 
 East India and Pacific trade of the United States em- 
 ploys, in all its various branches, at the present time 
 some six hundred ships and barks. Most of these ves- 
 sels — at least two-thirds of them — are owned in Boston 
 and New York, and many of the remaining third at 
 ports east of Boston, in Massachusetts and Maine, To 
 show the extent of the Boston trade with India, we 
 would state that one hundred and nine ships were, in 
 -January, 1857, expected at this port from Calcutta 
 alone previous to August 1, 1857. 
 
 The sale of the heavy and bulky kinds of East India 
 goods at Boston has greatly increased within a few 
 3'ears, in consequence of the enormous growth of the 
 manufactures and general trade of the commonwealth. 
 The annual sale at the present time in Boston of the 
 principal articles of East India produce would much 
 surprise any one not acquainted with the extent and 
 rapid growth of this important branch of our business. 
 One would hardly believe that we received at this port 
 nearly as many bushels of linseed as of Indian corn ; 
 yet for several years past such has been the fact. — 
 Boston Board of Trade Report, 1857, p. 104. 
 
 Mediterranean Trade. — Among the various branches 
 of commerce which have contributed to augment the 
 wealth and extend the fame of Boston, none deserve 
 mention more than the Mediterranean and fruit trade. 
 At various ports of Malaga, Palermo, Messina, Mar- 
 seilles, Genoa, Leghorn, Trieste, etc., the merchants of 
 Boston enjoy a large portion of the American trade , 
 and at some of the above-named places the trade may 
 be said to be entirely controlled by the cities of New 
 
 York and Boston, the other commercial cities of the 
 United States having but an occasional vessel arriving 
 at their ports from these places. It is well known that 
 Boston has nearly the entire i control of the American 
 trade with Turkey through that country's principal 
 port of Smyrna. — Boston Board of Trade Report. 
 
 Direct Trade with British Provinces. — The treaty be- 
 tween the United States and Great Britain, concluded 
 the 5th of June, 1854, known as the "Reciprocity 
 Treaty," was intended to regulate a direct reciprocal 
 free trade between the British North American prov- 
 inces and the United States in certain designated arti- 
 cles of their respective growth and production. This 
 purpose is clearly stated in the preamble of the treaty, 
 and in the act of Congress carrying it into effect. 
 
 On an application, therefore, for the free admission 
 of certain products of the British North American 
 Provinces, imported into the United States from Ha- 
 vana and London, the Treasury Department decided 
 that they could not be so admitted ; and that the arti- 
 cles, if of the growth and production of the North 
 American British Provinces, and designated as free in 
 the treaty, would be entitled to the privilege of free 
 entry only when imported directly from those prov- 
 inces into the United States, 
 
 Statement exhibiting the declaeed Valtte of Mee- 
 
 OHANDISB TEANSPOETED IN BoNB TO CANADA FROM THE 
 
 District of Boston and Chablebtowh, 3>tieing the 
 TEN Yeaeb ending Jttne 30, 1856. 
 
 1847 $21,715 
 
 1848 24,348 
 
 1849 33,140 
 
 18.50 151.817 
 
 1861 594,709 
 
 1862 $1,966,172 
 
 1863 4.947,484 
 
 1864 5,178,911 
 
 1366 4,970,408 
 
 1866 4,787,336 
 
 This table fully illustrates the operation of the Ke- 
 ciprocity Treaty and other treaties with Great Britain 
 in reference to Canada. 
 
 It may not be uninteresting to mention here that 
 the "Clearing-house" for the banks in Boston, which 
 was organized January 15, 1856, is in full operation, 
 and perfectly successful. The business began March 
 29, 1856, and the transactions from that date to the 
 31st December, inclusive, amount to $1,129,794,519, 
 being a monthly average of $125,532,724. With the 
 commencement of the Clearing-house all the bank 
 ledger accounts of daily transactions with each other 
 were merged into one Clearing-house account. — Hid. 
 
BOS 
 
 199 
 
 EOT 
 
 Ship Building. — ^Number of vessels launched during 
 the years 1854 and 1856, at East Boston, Medford, Chel- 
 sea, South Boston, and Charlestown : 
 
 
 1854. 
 
 1SS6. " 1 
 
 Number. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Totannge. 
 
 East iJOBton .... 
 
 Medford 
 
 Chelsea 
 
 South Boston. . . 
 
 Charleatown 
 
 Total 
 
 30 
 
 13 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 42,6B4 
 
 12,760 
 
 10,110 
 
 4,264 
 
 2,363 
 
 20 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 19(57B ' 
 8,870, i 
 4,805 
 6,000 
 1,308 
 
 CO 
 
 72,147 
 
 41 
 
 39,568 
 
 Estimating this amount at $60 a ton, which is a fair 
 average price paid for ships during the year, the amount 
 of the ship-building in Boston and vicinity during 1855 
 is as follows: 
 
 1 Tona. 
 
 Value. 
 
 
 1U,675 
 8,870 
 5,000 
 4,805 
 1,308 
 
 1,174,500 
 
 532,200 
 
 300,000 
 
 283,300 
 
 78,400 
 
 Medford 
 
 South Boston 
 
 .Chelsea 
 
 Charlestown 
 
 Total 
 
 39,558 
 
 $2,373,480 
 
 
 Duties collected at Boston. — The annexed statement 
 exhibits the amount of duties collected at the port of 
 Boston in each year, from 1838 to 1853, distinguishing 
 the amount paid on merchandise brought in American 
 and foreign vessels. 
 
 Yeora. 
 
 American. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1838 
 
 $2,305,197 
 
 $105,958 
 
 $2,411,155 
 
 1839 
 
 3,184,514 
 
 100,315 
 
 3,284,829 
 
 1840 
 
 2,364,800 
 
 92,419 
 
 2,456,926 
 
 1841 
 
 3,013,083 
 
 213,599 
 
 3,226,683 
 
 1842 
 
 2,643,748 
 
 236,437 
 
 2,780,186 
 
 1S43 
 
 2,734,134 
 
 757,884 
 
 3,491,019 
 
 1844 
 
 4,800,877 
 
 1,234,067 
 
 5,034,945 
 
 1815 
 
 4,027,336 
 
 1,222,297 
 
 5,249,634 
 
 1816 
 
 3,630,744 
 
 1,241,825 
 
 4,872,510 
 
 1847 
 
 3,936,325 
 
 1;512,036 
 
 5,448,361 
 
 1848 
 
 3,790,267 
 
 1,118,659 
 
 4,908,827 
 
 1849 
 
 3,607,603 
 
 1,429,702 
 
 5,037,310 
 
 1850 
 
 3,903,440 
 
 2,224,377 
 
 6,127,817 
 
 1851 
 
 3,899,822 
 
 2,596,704 
 
 0,496,527 
 
 1852 
 
 3,826,428 
 
 2,466,622 
 
 6,293,050 
 
 1853 
 
 4,683,777 
 
 3,137,415 
 
 7,696,193 
 
 In the year ending June 30, 1863, the amount of du- 
 ties was upward of a million dollars more than in any 
 previous year. The foreign trade of Boston has in- 
 creased very rapidly since the Cunard steamers com- 
 menced running between that port and Liverpool. 
 
 British Royal Mail Packets. — The mail packets be- 
 tween England and America (nine in number) leave 
 Liverpool every Saturday, alternately for Boston and 
 New York, The latter convey large quantities of the 
 more valuable descriptions of goods ; the imports by 
 them into Boston in 1846 being estimated at $4,445,000. 
 They also convey large numbers of the more opulent 
 class of passengers. 
 
 Insurance Companies. — Insurance, both fire and ma- 
 rine, is carried on to a great extent by joint-stock com- 
 panies, and to some extent also by individuals. The 
 stocks of the difierent insurance companies amounted, 
 in 1856, to $5,000,000. There is a great deal of risk 
 in the business, which is more, indeed, like a lottery 
 than a regular trade ; and the dividends consequently 
 vary from next to nothing to 10 and sometimes even 
 20 per cent, and upward. The dividends paid by the 
 different companies varied, at an average of the pre- 
 vious ten years, from 3^ to 20 per cent. 
 
 Banks. — There were, in January, 1857, in Boston, 
 36 banking companies, having an aggregate capital of 
 $31,960,000. Their dividends have recently varied 
 from 51^ to 10 per cent. 
 
 JSast Boston, a part of the city, Suffolk county, Mas- 
 sachusetts. Population, in 1860, 10,214 ; and in 1854, 
 15,000. 
 
 The following summary of statistics will exhibit the 
 amount of capital invested in manufacturing and me- 
 chanical business in East Boston, the number of hands 
 employed, and the amount of annual products : 
 
 Manufacturing and mechanics 
 
 Ship-building., 
 
 Lumber, wood, coal, etc 
 
 Teaming, trucking, etc 
 
 Curing and packing fish ■ 
 
 Total 
 
 Capital, 
 
 $1,858,000 
 71,000 
 45,000 
 83,000 
 49,000 
 
 $2,056,000 
 
 Annual 
 Product. 
 
 275 
 
 $3,709,916 
 851,300 
 332,000 
 140,000 
 138,600 
 
 1785 $5,231,710 
 
 Steam power is used in twenty of the establishments 
 mentioned in the, table, and several others are making 
 preparations to use it. There were built in 1850 at the 
 different ship-yards fourteen ships and barks, making 
 an aggregate' tonnage of 14,035 tons. East Boston, 
 with its superior location for commercial and manu- 
 facturing purposes, will doubtless soon double its pres- 
 ent population. It has a water frontage of 17,000 feet 
 on tlie deep water of the harbor, as well adapted and 
 better protected for commerce than wharves in the city 
 proper. The Grand Junction Railroad unites Ea.st 
 Boston with all the principal roads from the city, thus 
 aflbrding an unbroken chain of railroad communica- 
 tion from the deep-water wharves in this section of the 
 city through the great manufacturing districts of New 
 England to the Canadas, the lakes, and the Great West, 
 greatly to the advantage of the commerce of Boston, 
 by bringing to and taking from the ships and ware- 
 houses all merchandise intended for the interior, and 
 products and manufactures destined for shipment, free 
 from expense of transhipment. East Boston was for- 
 merly known as Maverick's, Noddle's, and Williajns' 
 Island. In 1814 the citizens of Boston erected a fort 
 on its eastern extremity, which was called Fort Strong. 
 In 1830 some eight or ten of the most enterprising cap- 
 italists purchased this island, and commenced laying it 
 out into streets and lots,. with a view of making it an 
 important part of the city. Among the important im- 
 provements in that portion of the city termed East Bos- 
 ton are the introduction of the Cochituate water by the 
 city of Boston, the construction of the Grand Junction 
 Railroad, and the construction of the sea-wall across 
 the Basin, thus reclaiming a large quantity of low lands 
 which were hitherto partially covered by the tide-wa- 
 ters. These lands consist of marsh and flats to the ex- 
 tent of about ninety-five acres, lying between West- 
 wood Island and the Eastern railroad. — See Massa- 
 chusetts. 
 
 Botany Bay. A bay of the Pacific Ocean, on the 
 east coast of Australia, New South Wales, county of 
 Cumberland, five miles south of Sydney, about five 
 miles in length and breadth. Lat. 34° S., long. 151° 
 15' E. It was discovered by Captain Cook in 1770, 
 and derived its name from the variety of new plants 
 then observed on its shores. It became an English 
 penal colony in 1787. On its coast is a column erect- 
 ed in 1825 to the memory of the French navigator, La 
 Perouse.-^jSee Sydney. 
 
 Botargo, called in Provence Bouargues, a sausage 
 made on the shores of the Mediterranean and the Black 
 Sea, of the roe of the mullet. The best come from Tu- 
 nis and Alexandria. 
 
 Bottles (Fr. Bouteilles; Ger. BouteiUen ; It. Botiglie, 
 Fiaschi; Russ. Buliilki; Sp. Botellae), glass vessels for 
 holding liquids, too well known to require any descrip- 
 tion. They are manufactured in considerable quanti- 
 ties. The imports of bottle glass into the United States 
 average about $140,000 annually. The imports of all 
 other descriptions of glass amount to about $2,200,000 
 yearly, and are very constant. About one-fourth of 
 this consists of window glass. The principal places 
 of manufacture of bottle glass, in the United States, 
 are Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, and East Cambridge, 
 Massachusetts. — For further details, see Glass. 
 
 Bottles, of glass, were first made in England about 
 1558. The art of making glass bottles and drinking- 
 glasses was known to the Romans at least before 79 
 A.D., for these articles and other vessels have been 
 found in the ruins of Pompeii. A bottle which con- 
 
BOT 
 
 200 
 
 BOT 
 
 tained two hogsheads was blown, we are told, at Leith, 
 in Scotland, in January, 1747-8. 
 
 Bottom, in Mercantile Language, is a familiar ex- 
 pression for a ship ; as in the phrase to ship goods in 
 foreign boUojns. — E. B. 
 
 Bottomry, a maritime contract by which a ship 
 (or bottom) is hypothecated in security for money bor- 
 rowed for the purposes of her voyage, under the condi- 
 tion that, if the ship arrive at her port of destination, 
 the borrower personally, as well as the ship, shall be 
 liable for the repayment of the loan, together with such 
 premium thereon as may have been agreed on ; but 
 that, if the ship be lost, the lender shall have no claim 
 against the borrower, either for the sum advanced or 
 for the premium. In consideration of the risk thus in- 
 curred by the lender, the premium (which is sometimes 
 termed maritime interest) is usually high : it may range 
 from 10 to 26 per cent., or even more, according to the 
 nature of the risk, or the difficulty of procuring the nec- 
 essary funds. The freight may be pledged as well as 
 the ship, and, if necessary, the cargo also. When mon- 
 ey is borrowed on the security of the cargo, it is said to 
 be taken up at respondentia, a term which seems to have 
 been introduced from the circumstance of the borrower 
 engaging to answer for the repayment of the loan on 
 the arrival of the goods. But though the terms are 
 distinctive, there is no essential difference in the nature 
 of bottomrj' and respondentia contracts, and both are 
 regulated by the same principles of maritime law. In- 
 deed, the contract of respondentia is now seldom or nev- 
 er entered into unless in conjunction with that of bof^ 
 tomry. 
 
 A bottomry contract may be written out in any form 
 which sufficiently shows the conditions agreed on be- 
 tween the two parties ; but it is usually drawn up in 
 the form of a bond. The document must show, either 
 by express terms, or from its general tenor, that the 
 risk of loss is assumed by the lender ; this being the 
 consideration for which the high premium is conceded. 
 The lender may transfer the bond by indorsation, in 
 the same manner as a bill of exchange or bill of lading, 
 and the right to recover its value becomes invested in 
 the indorsees. 
 
 According to the law of England, a bottomry con- 
 tract remains in force so long as the ship exists in the 
 form of a ship, whatever amount of damage she may 
 have sustained. Consequently, the "constructive to- 
 tal loss," which is recognized in marine insurance when 
 the ship is damaged to such an extent that she is not 
 worth repairing, is not recognized in reference to bot- 
 tomry, and will not absolve the borrower from his ob- 
 ligation ; but if the ship go to pieces the borrower is 
 freed from all liability under the bottomry contract ; 
 and the lender is not entitled to receive any share of 
 the proceeds of such of the ship's stores or materials as 
 maj^ have been saved from the wreck. Money ad- 
 vanced on bottomry is not liable, in England, for gen- 
 eral average losses. 
 
 If the ship should deviate from the voyage for which 
 the funds were advanced, her subsequent loss will not 
 discharge the obligation of the borrower under the bot- 
 tomry contract. If she should not proceed at all on 
 her intended voyage, the lender is not entitled to re- 
 cover the bottomry premium in addition to his advance, 
 but only the ordinary rate of interest for the tempora- 
 ry loan. As the bottomry premium is presumed in 
 every case to cover the risks incurred by the lender, 
 he is not entitled to charge the borrower with the pre- 
 mium which he may pay for insurance of the sum ad- 
 vanced in addition to that stipulated in the bond. 
 
 The contract of bottomry seems to have arisen from 
 the custom of permitting the master of a ship, when in 
 a foreign country, to pledge the ship in order to raise 
 money for repairs, or other extraordinary expenditures 
 rendered necessary in the course of the voyage. Cir- 
 cumstances often arise in which, without the exercise 
 of this power on the part of the master. It would be im- 
 
 possible to provide means for accomplishing the voy- 
 age ; and it is better that the master should have au- 
 thority to burden the ship, and, if necessary, the freight 
 and cargo also, in security for the money which has be- 
 come requisite, than that the adventure should be de- 
 feated by inability to proceed. But the right of the 
 master to pledge the ship or goods must always be cre- 
 ated by necessitj- ; if exercised without necessity the 
 contract will be void. Accordingly, the master of a 
 British ship has no power to grant a bottomry bond at 
 a British port, or at any foreign port where he might 
 have been able to raise funds on the personal credit of 
 the ship-owners. Neither has he any power to pledge 
 the ship or goods for private debts of his own ; but only 
 for such supplies as are indispensable for the purposes 
 of the voyage. 
 
 The bottomry lender must use reasonable diligence 
 to ascertain that a real necessity exists for the loan ; but 
 he is not bound to see to the application of the money 
 advanced. If the lender have originally advanced tl5e 
 funds on the personal credit of the master or owners, 
 or on any other security than that of bottomry, he is 
 not entitled at a subsequent period to convert his claim 
 into a bottomry obligation; and although the master 
 should grant him such obligation, it would not bind the 
 owners. In every case a bond procured by compulsion 
 would be void. 
 
 The power of the master to pledge the cargo depends 
 upon there being some reasonable prospect of benefit 
 to it by his so doing. He has no such power except 
 in virtue of circumstances which may oblige him to 
 assume the character of agent for the cargo, in the ab- 
 sence of any other party authorized to act on its be- 
 half. Under ordinary circumstances he is not at lib- 
 erty to pledge the cargo for repairs to the ship. If, 
 indeed, the goods be of a perishable nature, and if it 
 be impossible to get the ship repaired in sufficient time 
 to obviate serious loss on them by delay without in- 
 cluding them under the bottomry contract, he has pow- 
 er to do so ; because it may fairly be assumed, in the 
 case supposed, that the cargo will be benefited by this 
 procedure. But if there be time to communicate with 
 the proprietors of the cargo, it is his duty to give them 
 notice before resorting to this course. The general 
 principle is, that the master must act for the cargo, 
 with a reasonable view to the interests of its proprie- 
 tors, under the whole circumstances of the case. When 
 he does this his proceedings will be sustained ; but 
 should he manifestly prejudice the interests of the car- 
 go by including it under bottomry for the mere pui'- 
 pose of relieving the ship, or of earning the freight, the 
 owners of the cargo will not be bound by the bottomry 
 contract. Any bottomry or respondentia bond may 
 be good in part, or bad in part, according as the mas- 
 ter may have acted within or begond the scope of his le- 
 gitimate authority in granting it. If two or more bot- 
 tomry bonds have been granted at diflferent stages of 
 the voyage, and the value of the property be insuffi- 
 cient to discharge them all, the last-dated bond has the 
 priority of payment, as having furnished the means of 
 preserving the ship, and thereby preventing the total 
 loss of the security for the previous bonds. 
 
 In a recent case in the English Admiralty Court 
 (the Cynthia, 20 L. 7, 54), it was decided that a bond 
 granted by a British consul over a British ship, the 
 master of which had been murdered in a mutiny by 
 the crew, was valid, although the new master, appoint- 
 ed by the consul, had not been required to sign it. 
 
 When the sum due under a bottomry bond over ship, 
 freight, and cargo, is not paid at the stipulated time, 
 proceedings may be taken by the bond-holder for re- 
 covery of the freight, and for the sale of the ship ; and 
 should the proceeds of these be insufficient to discharge 
 the claim, a judicial sale of the cargo may be resorted 
 to. Asa general rule, the value of the ship and freight 
 must be exhausted before recourse can be taken against 
 the cargo. 
 
BOU 
 
 201 
 
 BOW 
 
 The bottomry premium must be ultimately paid by 
 the parties for whose especial benefit the advances were 
 obtained, as ascertained on the final adjustment of the 
 average expenditures at the port of destination. 
 
 For further information on this subject the reader is 
 referred to the cases of the Gratitudine, 2 Rob. A. R. 
 240, 272 ; the Lochiel, 3 Rob. 34 ; the Alexander, 1 Rob. 
 346 ; to Soares v. Rahn, 3 E. F. Moore ; Dobson v. Ly- 
 all, 8 Jurist 969 ; and especially to the cases of the Lord 
 Cochrane, 8 Jurist 714, and of Jacobsen v. Reinhardt, 
 22 Scottish Jurist 309. See also Mahshall on Insur- 
 ance^ book 2 ; Park on Insurance^ c. 21 ; Arnould on 
 Insurance; Lord Tenterden on the Law of Merchant 
 Ships, part 2, c. 3.— E. B. 
 
 Bougainville, Count Louis Antonie M., a 
 circumnavigator of the eighteenth century, was born at 
 Pari§, 1729. He first studied law, and was afterward 
 a distinguished soldier, diplomatist, scholar, and navi- 
 gator, and remarkable in each for his energy of char- 
 acter. He fought in Canada, under Montcalm, where 
 he was wounded,, in 1758. On thedeath of his superior 
 and friend, he returned to France, and served with dis- 
 tinction in Germany, in 1761. On the conclusion of 
 peace, he entered the French navy^ and led the expe- 
 dition intended to form a settlement in the Falkland 
 Islands, for which he sailed in 1763. The prior claim 
 of the Spanish government to these islands compelled 
 him to surrender them, and he returned to France, the 
 government of which commissioned him to carry the 
 surrender into execution, on receiving from the Span- 
 ish government remuneration for his expenses. Hav- 
 ing accomplished this, he set sail on his voyage of cir- 
 cumnavigation, and having enriched geographical sci- 
 ence by a number of new discoveries, he retiirned to 
 France in March, 1769. During the American war, 
 he was again in service, from which, however, he whol- 
 ly retired in 1790, and devoted himself exclusively to 
 scientific research. 
 
 Boulogne-sur-mer (Gesoriacuni), a fortified sea- 
 port town of France, capital of arrondissement, depart- 
 ment Pas de Calais, on the English Channel, at the 
 mouth of tile Lianne, and on the Boulogne and Amiens 
 Railroad, 140 miles from Paris, and 112 from London, 
 and 19 southwest from Calais. Lat. (of the column) 
 50° 44' 32" N., long. 1° 36' 15",E. Population, 1853, 
 31,000, of whom a great number are English residents. 
 It is divided into the Upper and Lower towns. The 
 first, on a hill whence the English coast is distinctly 
 visible, is well, though irregularly built, and has two 
 squares ornamented with fountains, u feudal citadel, 
 and ramparts, a modern cathedral, an episcopal palace, 
 a town hall, and a house in which Le Sage, the author 
 of Gil Bias, lived and died. The Lower, or new town, 
 stretcliing from the Upper town to the sea, is newly 
 and regularly built, and more populous. It has fine 
 public baths, with ball and concert rooms, a commer- 
 cial college, a theatre, a museum, including a library 
 of 23,000 volumes, a hospital, custom-house, and bar- 
 racks. Boulogne has also an English library and 
 reading-room, six English churches, several excellent 
 hotels, a great number of boarding-schools (both French 
 and English), a school of navigation, tribunal of com- 
 merce, societies of agriculture, commerce, and arts; 
 manufactories of coarse woolens, sail-cloth, cordage, 
 bottle-glass, and earthen-ware. In its vicinity are im- 
 portant marble quarries. Its fisheries are very extens- 
 ive, and furnisli the chief supply of fish for the Paris 
 markets; but the town is mainly indebted for its pros- 
 perity to its English residents, who, since the peace, 
 have resorted thither in great numbers, particularly 
 during the summer. Steamers make the passage to 
 Folkstone in two hours, and to London in about twelve 
 hours ; and the number of passengers who disembark 
 here annually exceeds 50,000. The port is not very 
 easy of access, being formed by two wooden piers 
 stretching out only to low-water mark, but the tide 
 rises upward of 16 feet, and ships find pretty good anch- 
 
 orage about half a mile from the harbor. It was on 
 the heights of Boulogne that the Emperor Caligula, 
 A.D. 40, encamped an army of 100,000 men fot the 
 fruitless purpose of invading Britain, and here also, in 
 1804, nearly 18 centuries later, the Emperor Napoleon 
 assembled an army of 180,000 men, and a flotilla of 
 2400 transports, with the same design. The Coloimc 
 NapoUone, a column 164 feet high, nearly one mile from 
 the town, commemorates the latter futile attempt. 
 
 Bounties. They were first granted on the export- 
 ation of British commodities — a new principle intro- 
 duced into commerce by the British Parliament. The 
 first bounties granted on com were in 1688. First 
 legally granted in England for raising naval stores in 
 America, 1703. Bounties have been granted by Great 
 Britain on sail-cloth, linen, and other goods, and by 
 this countrj' on fisheries.— /See Fisheries. Elements 
 oJ-'Cnmmerce. Bounties on production are most com- 
 monly given in the view of encouraging the establish- 
 ment of some new branch of industry ; or they are in- 
 tended to foster and extend a branch that is believed 
 to be of paramount importance. In neither case, 
 however, is their utility very obvious. In all old set- 
 tled and wealthy countries, numbers of individuals are 
 always ready to embark in every new undertaking, if 
 it promise to be really advantageous, without any 
 stimulus from government ; and if a branch of indus- 
 try already established be really important and suita- 
 ble for the country, it will assuredly be prosecuted to 
 the necessary extent, without any encouragement other 
 than the natural demand for its produce. 
 
 However injurious to the state, it has been pretty 
 generally supposed that bounties on exportation are 
 advantageous to those who produce and export the ar- 
 ticles on which they are paid. But the fact is not so. 
 A trade that can not be carried on without the aid of a 
 bountj' must be a naturally disadvantageous one. 
 Hence, by granting it, individuals are tempted to en- 
 gage or continue in businesses which are necessarily 
 very insecure, and are rarely capable of being rendered 
 lucrative ; at the same time that they are prevented, by 
 trusting to the bounty, from making those exertions 
 they naturally would have made had they been obliged 
 to depend entirely on superior skill and industry for the 
 sale of their produce. The history of all businesses 
 carried on by the aid of bounties proves that they are 
 hardly less disadvantageous to those engaged in them 
 than to the public. 
 
 Bo'wditch, Nathaniel, a self-taught American 
 mathematician, born in 1773, of humble parents, at 
 Salem, in Massachusetts. He was bred to his father's 
 business as a cooper, and afterward was apprenticed to 
 a ship-chandler. His taste for mathematics early de- 
 veloped itself; and he acquired Latin that he might 
 study Newton's Principia, In 1795 he sailed as super- 
 cargo, in which capacity he made four long voyages ; 
 and, being an excellent navigator, he afterward com- 
 manded a vessel, instructing his crews in taking lunar 
 and other observations. He edited three editions of 
 Hamilton Moore's Navigation. In 1804 he became 
 actuary to a Boston insurance company ; and in the 
 midst of his active and useful career published a trans- 
 lation of the Mecanique Celeste of Laplace, with anno- 
 tations ; a work which will better prove the great ac- 
 quirements of this self-taught philosopher than any la- 
 bored panegyric. He died in 1838, at Boston. A 
 statue of this distinguished mathematician has been 
 erected to his memory in Mount Auburn Cemetery, 
 Cambridge, Massachusetts. 
 
 Bowline, a rope leading forward from the leech 
 (side border) of a square sail, to keep it tightly out. 
 When a vessel is sailing close-hauled she is then said 
 to be sailing on a bowline or on a taut bowline. Bowline 
 bridles are the spans of cord by which the bowline is 
 fastened to the leech. — E. B. 
 
 Bowsprit, or Boltsprit, a large spar which pro- 
 jects over the stem of a ship, resting slopewise on the 
 
BOX 
 
 202 
 
 BRA 
 
 head of the main stem, and having its lower end fast- 
 ened to the partners of the foremast, and further sup- 
 ported by the forestay. It carries the sprit-sail, sprit- 
 top-sail, and jacls-staff; and its length is usually the 
 same as that of the foremast. — E. B. 
 
 Box-haul, in Navigation, to bring a ship, when 
 close-hauled, round upon the other tack, when she re- 
 fuses to stay and there is not room to wear. — E. B. 
 
 Boxing the Compass, denotes the rehearsing 
 the points in their proper order. — E. B. 
 
 Box-wood (Germ. Buclisbaum ; Du. Palmhout; 
 Fr. Buis; It. Busso, Bosso, Bossolo), the wood of the 
 box-tree (Buxus sempei'virens), growing wild from Mas- 
 sachusetts to Florida. A very common name in the 
 United States is dogwood, though both names are 
 used. This tree was greatly admired by the ancient 
 Romans, and has been much cultivated in modern 
 times, on account of the facility with which it is fash- 
 ioned into different forms. Box is a very valuable 
 wood. It is of a yellowish color, close-grained, very 
 hard, and heavy ; it cuts better than any other wood, 
 is susceptible of a very fine polish, and is very dura- 
 ble. In consequence, it is much used by turners, and 
 mathematical and musical instrument makers. It is 
 too heavy for furniture. It is the onli/. wood used by 
 the engravers of wood-cuts for books ; and provided 
 due care be exercised, the number of impressions that 
 may be taken from a box-wood cut is very great. In 
 France, box-wood is extensively used for combs, knife- 
 handles, and button moulds; and sometimes, it has 
 been said, as a substitute for hops in the manufacture 
 of beer. The value of the box-wood sent from Spain 
 to Paris is reported to amount to about 10,000 francs 
 a year. In 1815, the box-trees cut down on Box-hill, 
 near Dorking, in Surrey, England, produced upward 
 of £10,000. 
 
 Bracelets. They were early worn and prized 
 among the ancients ; we read of them in almost all na- 
 tions : those that were called armillm were usually dis- 
 tributed as rewards for valor among the Koman le- 
 gions. — Nouv. Vict. Those of pearls and gold were 
 worn by the Roman ladies ; and armlets are female 
 ornaments to the present day. — Haydn. 
 
 Bradford, a parliamentary borough, market, and 
 parish of England, county of York, West Riding, on 
 an affluent of the Aire, and branch of the Leeds and 
 Liverpool canal, 8 miles west of Leeds, on the Leeds 
 Railroad. Area of parish, 34,146 acres. Population 
 in 1851, 149,543. Population of the borough, 103,778. 
 Area of parliamentary borough, comprising the town- 
 ships of Bradford, Manningham, Bowling, and Horton, 
 6590 acres. The town, built entirely of stone, has streets 
 mostly narrow, but well paved and lighted. Bradford 
 is now the principal seat of the worsted yarn and stuff 
 manufactures in England, and the great mart for the 
 long wools used in these fabrics. In 1838 it had 142 
 worsted, 9 woolen, and 2 cotton mills, employing 
 together 11,675 hands. In the same year there were 
 in the town upward of 1500 power looms, each produc- 
 ing three to four pieces per week. Its rapid advance 
 
 is mainly attributable to its central position in the 
 great manufacturing district of Yorkshire, and to the 
 abundance of coal and iron in its immediate vicinity. 
 The Leeds and Liverpool canal connects it with both 
 the Irish and North Seas. 
 
 Bran, the thin skins or husks of com, particularly 
 wheat, ground, and separated from the corn by a sieve 
 or bolter. 
 
 Brandy Germ. Brantewein; Du. Brandewyn; Fr. 
 Enu de vie, Branderin; It. Aguarzente ; Sp. Aguardi- 
 ente ; Port. Affuardente ; Russ. Wino ; Lat. Vinum adus- 
 tuni), a spirituous and inflammable liquor, obtained 
 by distillation from wine and the husks of grapes. It 
 is prepared in most of the wine countries of Europe ; 
 but the superiority of French brandy is universally 
 admitted. The latter is principally distilled at Bor- 
 deaux, Rochelle, Cognac, the Isle de Ehe, Orleans, 
 Nantes, and in Poitou, Touraine, and Anjou. That 
 of Cognac is in the highest estimation. Wines of all 
 descriptions, but chiefl}' those that are strong andharsh 
 (poitsses), are used in the manufacture of brandy. The 
 superior vintages, and those that have most flavor, are 
 said to make the worst brandy. It is naturally clear 
 and colorless. The different shades of color which it 
 has in commerce arise partly from the casks in which 
 it is kept, but chiefly from the burned sugar, Sanders 
 wood, and other coloring matter intentionally added to 
 it by the dealers. It is said that the burned sugar gives 
 mellowness to the flavor of the liquor, and renders it 
 more palatable. The art of distillation is believed to 
 have been first discovered by the Arabians. From a 
 passage in the Testamentum Novissimum of the famous 
 Raymond LuUy, who flourished in the thirteenth cen- 
 tury', it would appear that the production of brandy 
 and alcohol from wine was familiar to his contempo- 
 raries. — P. 2, edit. Argent. 1571. But the practice does 
 not appear to have been introduced into France till 
 1313. — Le Grand d'Aussi Vie prive de Francois, tome 
 iii. p. 64. When first introduced, brandy or burned 
 wine (vinum adustum) appears to have been used prin- 
 cipally as an antiseptic and restorative medicine ; and 
 the most extravagant panegyrics were bestowed on its 
 virtues. It was described as a sovereign remedy in 
 almost all the disorders of the human frame ; it was 
 commended for its efficacy in comforting the memory 
 and strengthening the reasoning powei'S ; it was ex- 
 tolled, in short, as the elixir of life, and an infallible 
 preservative of youth and beauty. — Henderson's liis- 
 tory of Wine, p. 24. Dr. Henderson says that the ex- 
 perience of later times has shown how little the eulogy 
 was merited ; but in this he i£ contradicted by Burke, 
 who maintains, with equal eloquence and ingenuity, 
 that " the alembic has been a vast benefit and blessing." 
 — Thoughts and Details on Scarcity, p. 41. Brandv form 
 ed, for a lengthened period, a prominent article in the 
 exports of France^few ships sailing from Bordeaux, 
 Rochelle, or Nantes, without taking a certain quantity 
 of it on board ; but of late years there has been an ex- 
 traordinary falling off in the exports of brandy as well 
 as of wine. We subjoin 
 
 An Account of the Quantities Ainj Values of the Brandt exi'Oeted fkom France during each of tue 10 Yeasb end- 
 ing wiTU 1839, TO THE United Kingdom and to all Countries. 
 
 YesraL 
 
 To the United Kingdom. 
 
 To all Countries. | 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Quantity, 
 
 Value. 
 
 1830 
 
 Lilra. 
 9,028,140 
 6,936,719 
 13,569,445 
 10,867,676 
 7,839,366 
 6,512,650 
 7,179,544 
 6,905,236 
 7,410,610 
 6,234,289 
 
 Frane,. 
 8,164,071 
 6,480,000 
 12,208,900 
 9,230,760 
 6,654,956 
 5,226,120 
 5,939,123 
 4,783,241 
 6,002,613 
 4,187,481 
 
 Zitret. 
 17,913,336 
 14,132,788 
 23,787,732 
 22,089,926 
 16,146,280 
 18,468,224 
 19,991,396 
 18,838,909 
 20,609,714 
 1.5,418,665 
 
 Franei, 
 15,357,280 
 11,960,000 
 20,782,624 
 18,703,180 
 13,712,700 
 ■ 14,937,863 ■ 
 16,262,194 . 
 14,928,811 
 16,668,437 
 12,393,609 
 
 
 1832 
 
 
 1834 
 
 
 1836 
 
 1837 
 
 1838 
 
 1839 
 
 Totals 
 
 80,463,575 
 
 67,877,215 
 
 187,886,960 
 
 166,636,618 
 
 Average of ten years 
 
 8,046;857t 
 
 6,787,721} 
 
 18,738,696 
 
 16,663,661 J 
 
 Average of the 10 years in imperial gallons 
 
 1,771,165 
 
 1 4,124,740 
 
 
BKA 
 
 203 
 
 BRA 
 
 The export value of brandy from France to the 
 United States in the year 1853 was 16,661,000 francs; 
 wines, 23,402,000 francs. 
 
 ImtOETATION 01;' BEANUY INTO THE UNITED STATES, TeBABUBY 
 
 Kepokt, 1855. 
 
 Year ending June 30. 
 
 Oallona. 
 
 Value. 
 
 1844 
 
 1645 
 
 1846 
 
 1847 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 ... 
 
 782,810 
 1,081,314 
 963,147 
 964,417 
 1,370,111 
 2,964,091 
 4,145,802 
 8,163,783 
 2,751,810 
 3,854,966 
 2,152,306 
 1,024,497 
 
 $606,633 
 
 819,450 
 
 839,231 
 
 931,082 
 
 1,135,089 
 
 1,847,614 
 
 2,659,537 
 
 2,128,679 
 
 1,792,729 
 
 8,261,408 
 
 2,255,844 
 
 1,479,362 
 
 1850 
 
 1851 
 
 1852 
 
 1853... 
 
 1854 
 
 1855 
 
 Brass, an alloy of copper and zinc. This name, 
 however, has not been exclusively applied to the alloy 
 of these metals ; for the gun-metal, which has been 
 also called brass, is an alloy of copper with tin. The 
 same alloy, with more tin, is used in machinery, and 
 is preferred to the alloy of copper and zinc on account 
 of its greater hardness. It appears from the analysis 
 of the brass of the ancients that it was an alloy of cop- 
 per and tin. A small portion of tin gives to copper 
 great hardness, and renders it capable of bearing much 
 greater resistance. A larger portion of tin gives in- 
 creased hardness, but is less fitted to bear a straining 
 resistance, on account of its brittieness. Its elasticity 
 is very great, which fits it for bells. In this state it is 
 called bell-metal; and with a still greater proportion 
 of tin it forms an alloy employed for the mirrors of re- 
 flecting telescopes. The alloy of copper with tin is 
 easily distinguished from that with zinc, from the 
 agreeable color of the latter, which varies with the 
 proportions of the metals. Pinchbeck has the least 
 proportion of zinc. Common brass has more zinc, and 
 the gold-colored alloy called prince's metal contains a 
 still greater proportion of zinc. An alloy of copper 
 with a very large proportion of zinc is used for the com- 
 mon white metal buttons. 
 
 Brass-colar is. prepared by braziers and eolormen to 
 imitate brass. There are two kinds, the red brass or 
 bronze, and the yellow or gilt brass. The latter is made 
 only-of copperr-filings^ the smallest and brightest that 
 can be found ; with the former it is usual to mix some 
 red ochre, finely pulverized. 
 
 The various alloys of copper with tin and zinc form- 
 ing the different kinds of brass, are to be considered 
 as chemical compounds, and, of course, governed by 
 the same laws of definite proportions which obtain in 
 the more conspicuous compounds. On these princi- 
 ples, which can not be doubted, we hava an unerring 
 rule for uniting these and other raetals in the best pro- 
 portions, the weights of their atoms being previously 
 known. The weight of the atom of copper being 8, tin 
 7'35, and zinc 4, the following tables exhibit the pro- 
 portions of the various alloys, expressed in atoms, and 
 their proportions by weight, tlie third column pointing 
 out the color and character of the resulting compound. 
 C, Z, and T are to represent the atoms of the metals 
 respectively. 
 
 COMPOtTNDS OF ZiNO WITU COPPEE. 
 
 c+z 
 
 C-I-2Z 
 C-I-3Z 
 
 C-f4Z 
 
 C-t-5Z 
 C-I-6Z 
 
 2C-I-Z 
 BC-fZ 
 
 Proportione 
 by Weight. 
 
 2tol 
 Itol 
 2 to 3 
 
 lto2 
 
 2 to 5 
 lto3 
 
 4tol 
 6tol 
 
 Character and Color of the Compounds. 
 
 i The best proportions for common 
 I brass. 
 
 1 The alloy called prince's metal, of 
 ■ a beautiful gold color. 
 I Of a paler yellow, very little malle- 
 I able. 
 
 I Still lighter in color, and not malle- 
 able. 
 
 Yellowish-white and brittle. 
 
 Very brittle, nearly white. 
 [ A very malleable brass, used in 
 J watch-work. 
 
 i An alloy much harder than copper, 
 ' and inclining to its color. 
 
 
 CoiiFOUMDS OF Tin with Ooppeb. 
 
 . Atoms. 
 
 Pro^oriionB 
 by WeiBht. 
 
 Character and Color of the Compoanda. 
 
 2 T+C 
 3T-i-a 
 
 -4T-I-C' 
 
 T-I-2C 
 T+3 
 T+4 
 T+6C 
 T+6C 
 
 T+7 
 T+8 
 
 T+9 
 
 , 11 to 12 
 
 11 to 6 
 11 to 4 
 
 '11 to '3 
 
 11 to 24 
 11 to 36 
 11 to 48 
 11 to 00 
 11 to 72 
 
 11 to 84 
 11 to 96 
 
 11 to 108 
 
 I A very brittle and rather white 
 i aUoy. 
 Still more brittle and more white. 
 Very white, used for speculums. 
 Coarse-grained, and too brittle for 
 
 any purpose. 
 A yellowish alloy, very hai-d and 
 
 sonorous. 
 Bell-metal. 
 A very bard alloy, used for some' 
 
 culinary vessels. 
 Softer, but not malleable. 
 Still increased in softness, and of a 
 
 yellower color. 
 Used for some purposes in machin- 
 ery. 
 An alloy used for cannon. 
 ^More common for cannon and ma- 
 ^ chinery, and used for bronze 
 ( statues. 
 
 Hitherto the proportions of these alloys have de- 
 p^ded upon the practice of worlJmen, guided by nu- 
 merous trials ; but what confirms the law of definite 
 proportions, is the necessity of adhering to fixed pro- 
 portions, ascertained by trial. By attending to the 
 proportions pointed out above, the most striking and 
 proper compounds will be produced, without the trou- 
 ble of trial. Any intermediate proportions will, doubt- 
 less, be marked by defective color, irregular crystalli- 
 zation, or imperfect malleability. 
 
 Although the most direct way of forming these dif- 
 ferent kinds of brass is by immediately combining the 
 metals together, one of them, which is most properly 
 called brass, was manufactured long before zinc, one 
 of its component parts, was known in its metallic form. 
 The ore of the latter metal was cemented with sheets 
 of copper, charcoal being present; and the zinc was 
 united with the copper without becoming visible in a 
 distinct form. The same method is still practiced for 
 making brass. — E. B. 
 
 Brass was known among all the early nations. — 
 Usher. The British, from the remotest period, were 
 acquainted with its use. — "Whittakee. When Lucius 
 Mummius burned Coripth to the ground, 146 B.C., the 
 riches he found were immense, and during the confla- 
 gration, it is said, all the metals in the city melted, 
 and, running together, formed the valuable composition 
 described as Corinthian brass. This, however, may 
 well be doubted, for the Corinthian artists had long 
 before obtained great credit for their method of combin- 
 ing gold and silver with copper ; and the Syriac trans- 
 lation of the Bible says that Hiram made the vessels 
 for Solomon's temple of Corinthian brass. Articles 
 made of this brilliant composition, though in them- 
 selves trivial and insignificant, were yet highly valued. 
 — ^Dn Fkessnoy. 
 
 Brazil, an extensive empire of South America, oc- 
 cupying a large proportion of the eastern and central 
 part of that country, extending between lat. 4° 28' N. 
 and 32° 45' S., and long. 34° 55' and 65° 20' W. Length 
 from north to south, about 2630 miles ; greatest breadth, 
 2540 miles. Its internal boundaries come in contact 
 with all the different states and territories of South 
 America, with the exception of Chili and Patagonia, 
 while the Atlantic Ocean washes its shores from its 
 northeast to its southern limits. 
 
 Brazil was discovered by Alvarez de Cabral, a Por- 
 tuguese, who was driven upon its coasts by a tempest 
 in 1500. He called it the land of the Holy Cross ; 
 but it was subsequently called Brazil, on account of its 
 red wood, and was carefully explored by Amerigo Ves- 
 pucci about 1504. The gold mines were first opened in 
 1684 ; and the diamond mines were discovered in 1730. 
 The French having seized on Portugal in 1807, the 
 royal family and nobles embarked for Brazil. A rev- 
 olution took place here in 1821. Brazil was erected into 
 an empire, when Don Pedro assumed the title of em- 
 peror, Nov. 18, 1826. He abdicated the throne of Port- 
 
BRA 
 
 204 
 
 BEA 
 
 ngal, May 2, 1826 ; and that of Brazil, in favor of his 
 infant son, now (1855) emperor, April 7, 1831, and re- 
 turned to Portugal, where a civil war ensued. — Haydn. 
 The empire is divided into 19 provinces, 14 situated 
 along the shores of the ocean, and four in the interior, 
 the relative population of which is exhibited in the 
 following table, drawn up according to the most recent 
 and accurate authorities. 
 
 Provinces. 
 
 Maritime I'rovinces. 
 
 Para 
 
 Maranbam 
 
 Piauhy 
 
 Ceara 
 
 Rio Grande do Norte 
 
 Paraiba 
 
 Pernambuco 
 
 Alagoas 
 
 Sergipe del Key 
 
 Bahia 
 
 Espirito Santo 
 
 Rio de Janeiro 
 
 Santo Paulo 
 
 Santa Catarina 
 
 Santo Pedro do Sul 
 
 Interior Provinces. 
 
 Amazonati 
 
 Minas Geraes 
 
 Matto Grosso 
 
 Goyaz 
 
 Total 
 
 Area in 
 Square Miles. 
 
 534,270 
 94,900 
 
 10J,C68 
 (i6,378 
 28,860 
 51,948 
 
 103,806 
 75,036 
 40,484 
 
 202,020 
 43,290 
 89,466 
 
 178,160 
 31,746 
 
 118,758 
 
 750,000 
 210,450 
 865,800 
 360,750 
 
 3,950,800 
 
 PopulntioD. 
 
 166,000 
 890,000 
 
 80,000 
 100,000 
 110,000 
 260,000 
 600,000 
 220,000 
 175,000 
 780,000 
 140,000 
 850,000 
 458,000 
 
 90,000 
 260,000 
 
 126,000 
 800,000 
 180,000 
 185,000 
 
 6,150,000 
 
 The surface of Brazil is about equally divided into 
 uplands and lowlands, or valleys. Two parallel mount- 
 ain ranges traverse the country from north to south, 
 forming elevated ridges of table-land — the greatest 
 height of the central range being from 6000 to 7000 feet. 
 Several minor ranges intersect the country, inclosing 
 tracts, some of which are elevated, and others low-ly- 
 ing plains. The northern part of Brazil consists of the 
 greater part of the vast plain- through which flows the 
 Eiver Amazon and its tributaries, and varying in width 
 from 350 to 800 miles. The rivers, lakes, and water 
 courses are so numerous as completely to intersect this 
 great plain, the soil of which is deep and soft, and cov- 
 ered for the most part with dense forests. Southeast 
 of this is another plain. The principal rivers in this 
 direction are the Tocantins, Araguay, Paranahiba, San 
 Francisco, Belmonte, Doce, Paraiba do Sul, and Rio 
 Grande do Sul, all of large size, but of difficult navi- 
 gation, in consequence of rapids, etc. The table-land 
 on the west is separated from the Andes of Bolivia by 
 a large and extensive plain, traversed by those rivers 
 which join to form the Madeira ; the elevation of this 
 plain is from 1200 to 1500 feet. On the banks of the 
 Iriuana, and westward to the north branch of the Serra 
 Parecis, extends a sandy and nearly barren desert, 
 called Campos dos Parecis. From seven lakes (Sete 
 Lagoas) on this table-land rises the River Paraguay, 
 which flows southward through a swampy country, 
 and then through the great plain of Paraguay to join 
 the Parana. The latter has a course of 1000 miles, and 
 receives the Rio Grande, the Paranahiba, Sapncahy, 
 Pardo, etc. Several small streams flow in a southeast 
 direction into the Atlantic. The Uruguay flows south 
 through another table-land of smaller dimensions to 
 the plain of the Missiones. The principal lakes are 
 Patos, an enlargement of the Rio Grande, and Lake 
 Mirim. Many others of less size are in the western prov- 
 inces. The climate of the Amazon valley is of a trop- 
 ical nature ; only the dry and rainy seasons are not 
 very distinctly marked. The nights are cloudless; 
 but in the morning clouds accumulate and continue till 
 the afternoon, when thunder and lightning, with tor- 
 rents of rain, prevail for two hours, and all again is 
 clear. The climate of Central and West Brazil is more 
 varied, the heat in the dry season being excessive, 
 while frostj' nights are of frequent occurrence in win- 
 ter; rain in some situations is of rare occurrence. The 
 climate in the valley of the southeast coast is, notwith- 
 standing its low latitude, as genial as that of Italy, 
 
 being clear and serene, and refreshed by the sea-breeze 
 from the east. At Kio Janeiro the annual mean of 
 Fahrenheit's thermometer is 77°. The shores of the 
 east coast are generally low-lying, the ground rising 
 gradually behind into the mountain region, which runs 
 parallel to the coast. The harbors are generally good, 
 particularly those of Kio de Janeiro and Bahia. The 
 population of Brazil consists of Europeans, w bites born 
 in the country, who call themselves Brazilians ; Mu- 
 lattoes, Mamalucoes, or offsprings of whites and native 
 Indians ; Negroes ; Mestizoes, or Zamboes, mixed castes 
 between Negroes and Indians ; and the Aborigines, or 
 American Indians. The slave population consists of 
 Negroes and mixed breeds. Of the Aborigines, a por- 
 tion are in a civilized condition, who are styled Cabo- 
 ctbes ; the rest are in a savage and unreclaimed state. 
 Dense forests furnish almost every variety of useful 
 and ornamental timber, more than 100 species of palms, 
 logwood, mahogany, Brazil, and numerous other dye- 
 woods, with sassafras, sarsaparilla, ipecacuanha, and 
 a great variety of other drugs. Cocoa, caoutchouc, 
 and manioc, are indigenous products ; maize, sugar, 
 coffee, cotton, rice, wheat, and tobacco, have been in- 
 troduced by European culture. The culture of the tea- 
 plant was, some years ago, unsuccessfully attempted 
 by a colony of Chinese, in the province of Sao Paulo ; 
 the yerha Tnate, or Paraguay tea, is, however, an abund- 
 ant product of the western provinces. The horse, ox, 
 and sheep, derived from European stocks, have long 
 been naturalized in the country ; and vast herds of 
 cattle are reared on all the more open parts. Hides, 
 horns, bones, tallow, and other animal products, form 
 leading articles of the export trade. Wild animals com- 
 prise the jaguar, hyena, tiger-cat, and other rapacious 
 genera; with the tapir, wild-hog, etc., and a great va- 
 riety of birds of the richest plumage; the animal as 
 well as the vegetable products here presenting the 
 greatest diversity. The diamond mines of Alinas Ge- 
 raes are the most productive at present known. Esti- 
 mated value of the diamonds produced here, from 1740 
 to 1850, exceeds $20,000,000. Other gems, and large 
 quantities of gold, besides silver, copper, iron, and pla- 
 tinum, are among the mineral products of the same 
 province. Manufactures are almost wholly in their in- 
 fancy in Brazil, being confined to cotton weaving, tan- 
 ning, and the production of goods of primary necessity ; 
 and nearly all branches of industry are performed by 
 slave labor. From its central position in reference to 
 the chief commercial countries of the globe, and its very 
 extensive line of coast, Brazil is most favorably situ- 
 ated for trade, which, though extensive, is. not yet 
 nearly commensurate with the resources of the empire. 
 The articles., imported in 1850 consisted, of cottons, 
 
 42.560 packages; woolens, 5488; linens, 5695; silks, 
 1088, and mixed goods, 1263; codfish, 54,602 quintals; 
 coal, 42,007 tons ; ale and porter, 23,704 barrels ; flour, 
 283,893 barrels ; candles — sperm, 90, composition, 6052, 
 and tallow, 1043 boxes ; wines — Portugal, 14,033 pipes, 
 Mediterranean, 7644, and Bordeaux, 4421 ; butter, 
 
 25.561 firkins ; cordage, 5480 coils, etc. 
 
 The produce of the country exported consisted of, 
 coffee, 1,846,213 bags; hides, 147,296; sugar, 7824 
 cases ; rum, 3892 pipes ; rice, 8229 bags ; horns, 256,949 ; 
 tobacco, 28,755 rolls ; rose-wood, 36,547 pieces ; half- 
 tanned hides, 12,744 ; tapioca, 17,787 barrels, etc. The 
 imports from the United States, in 1851, amounted in 
 value to 13,764,409, consisting mostly of flour and 
 other provisions, and cotton manufactures ; the ex- 
 ports at the same period amounted to $10,547,360, 
 mostly in coffee, sugar, and hides. 
 
 Commerce of Brazil. — From the report of the Minis- 
 ter of Finance, read in the Chamber of Deputies on 
 the 10th May, we gather the following particulars of 
 the imports into, and exports from, the empire of Bra- 
 zil, for the years 1854-'55. The commerce of Brazil 
 with foreign nations, during the year 1854-'55, em- 
 ployed 5075 ships or vessels, measuring 1,657,015 tons. 
 
BRA 
 
 205 
 
 BRA 
 
 The revenue of the last three years amounted to — 
 1852-'53, $18,191,458; 1853-'54, $17,249,806 ; 1854^'55, 
 $17,797,950. Total, 53,239,214. Average, $17,746,405. 
 
 On the 31st of December, 1855, the exterior public 
 debt amounted to £5,635,900. The passive interior 
 funded debt, $28,969,600. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Proportions. | 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Proportions. 
 
 1863-'64. 
 
 18S4-'66. 
 
 1868-'M. 
 
 J8S4-'65. 
 
 $-^a,775,420 
 
 53-72 
 
 63-59 
 
 $19,687,362 
 
 32-43 
 
 32-32 
 
 4,989,18T 
 
 11-71 
 
 11-67 
 
 4,086,131 
 
 7-95 
 
 9-02 
 
 3,998,868 
 
 9-06 
 
 8-25 
 
 11,903,644 
 
 28-35 , 
 
 26-28 
 
 3,234,396 
 
 6-SS 
 
 7-63 
 
 2,324,889 
 
 4-35 
 
 6-12 
 
 2,442,233 
 
 6-25 
 
 5 76 
 
 3,387,579 
 
 8-27 
 
 T-S7 
 
 a,108,t>45 
 
 6-03 
 
 4-97 
 
 2,087,433 
 
 4-25 
 
 4 61 
 
 885,762 
 
 2-16 
 
 4-97 
 
 1,391,847 
 
 1-78 
 
 3-07 
 
 665,468 
 
 0-84 
 
 1-45 
 
 488,969 
 
 0-84 
 
 0-96 
 
 564,133 
 
 0-49 
 
 1-38 
 
 789,668 
 
 1-02 
 
 1-03 
 
 371,584 
 
 0-78 
 
 0-89 
 
 608,978 
 
 0-88 
 
 1-34 
 
 18!),7T4 
 
 0-26 
 
 0-45 
 
 1,254,649 
 
 2-18 
 
 2-77 
 
 130,277 
 
 0-84 
 
 0-31 
 
 812,011 
 
 3-53 
 
 1-79 
 
 68,750 
 
 0-07 
 
 0-14 
 
 109,611 
 
 0-13 
 
 0-24 
 
 322,327 
 
 0-94 
 
 0-76 
 
 687,557 
 
 1-23 
 
 1-47 
 
 
 
 
 ' 779,938 
 
 2-64 
 
 1-72 
 
 
 
 
 184,709 
 
 0-16 
 
 0-29 
 
 300,460 
 
 .. 
 
 
 
 
 
 $43,040,174 
 
 
 
 $60,534,865 
 
 
 
 Great Britain and her possessions . 
 
 France and her possessions 
 
 United States 
 
 Portugal and her possessions 
 
 Hanseatic Towns 
 
 Kio de la Plata 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Spain and her possessions 
 
 Chili 
 
 Sardinia '. 
 
 Sweden and Norway. 
 
 Austria 
 
 Holland and her possessions 
 
 Other countries 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Turkey 
 
 Re-exportation 
 
 Total.,.. 
 
 A decree of the government of Brazil, under date of 
 January 10th, 1855, exempts foreigners from permits 
 of residence, and permits them to travel in the interior 
 of the empire with such passports as they may have 
 brought with them, and, for the want of such, with the 
 passport of their respective ministers, consuls, or vice- 
 consuls, the same bearing the visa of the Brazilian au- 
 thorities. 
 
 [Translation.] 
 
 Art 1. Permits of residence are abolished, and foreigners 
 coming to the empire are exempted from the same. 
 
 Art. 2. At every police office a hook shall he kept for the 
 registration of foreigners entering or leaving the empire. 
 
 Art. 3. On the occasion of the police visit foreigners shall 
 state their names, condition, the place of theii: nativity^ pro- 
 fession, the object for coming here when they ait^rivj^d, and 
 where they intend to reside. In those places where no police 
 visit is made, the aforesaid declaration shall be made before 
 the chief of police, delegate, or sub-delegate within twenty-four 
 hours after landing, under penalty of from $10 to $50 fine, im- 
 posed by the competent authority. 
 
 Art. 4 The declaration alluded to in the foregoing article 
 does not.exonerake captains and masters of merchant vessels 
 from the obligation imposed upon them by the twenty-fifth ai'- 
 ticle of regulation No. 120, of January 31st, 1842, to declare, in 
 a statement signed by them, the number, name, employment, 
 occupation, and place of nativity of the passengers they bring 
 with them, with or without passports. 
 
 Art. 5. The declaration of the foreigner and of the master or 
 captain of the vessel shall be immediately transmitted to the 
 bureau of police by the visiting officer or the authority who re- 
 ceives them. 
 
 Art. 6. The visiting officer, the chief of police, or the dele- 
 gate or sub-delegate to whom the foreigner presents himself, 
 shall examine his passport, and the same being fotind in due 
 form, it shall be returned to him visaed, dated, and signed. 
 
 Art. 7. If there should be any doubt as to the legality of the 
 passport, or the foreigner come without one, the chief of police, 
 the delegate, or sub-delegate shall permit him to land if there 
 is no reason for suspecting him to be a criminal; but if he 
 should he suspicious, and have no certificate to present in his 
 favor from his minister, or, in the absence thereof, from his 
 respective consul or vice-consul, the chief of police, the dele- 
 gate or Bub-delegate shall compel the vessel which brought 
 him to take him back, reporting the circumatance to the gov- 
 ernment at the capital, and to the president in the provinces. 
 
 Art. 8. To enable a foreigner to travel from one province 
 to another, or in the interior of the same, the passport with 
 which he arrived in the empire will be sufficient, provided it 
 bears the visa of the competent authority \vith this clause, 
 " For the province of ." The visa must be dated, sign- 
 ed, paid for, and renewed every time the fordgner leaves one 
 province for another. 
 
 Art. 9. But if the foreigner should happen to have come 
 without a passport, or have lost tte one he brought with him 
 to the empire, the passport of the minister, or, in the absence 
 thereof, that of his respective consul or vice-consul, with the 
 visa of the Brazilian authorities, as set forth in the preceding 
 article, shall answer the same pui*pose. 
 
 Art. 10. A foreigner who has resided in the empire for two 
 years, being In possession of an establishment, and conduct- 
 ed himself well, or being married to a Brazilian, shall he at 
 liberty to travel freely like a Brazilian, after having obtained 
 
 from the chief of police a certificate of either of said conditions. 
 this certificate i& revokable in case of a cbangc of circum- 
 atances. 
 
 Art. 11. In case of there being no diplomatic or consular 
 agent, or the foreigner be a refugee or emigrant, or not como 
 under the provisions of the preceding article, the passport 
 shall be itjsued by the chief of police, the delegate, or sub-del- 
 egate, the same being always free, of charge for the emigrant 
 or the pobi*. 
 
 Art. 12. The ministers of state, or the chief clerks of the 
 several departments at the seat of government, the presidents 
 or their secretaries in the cap!tal3 of the provinces, the chief 
 of police, the delegate or sub-delegate, at the place of landing 
 or of departure, shall be empowered to grant the passport or 
 the visa referred to in the,precedipg articles. The powers con- 
 ferred by this decree upon the chiijf of police, the delegate 
 and sub-delegate, arc not concurrent, but shall he exercised by 
 the delegate in places where no chief of police resides, or by 
 the sub-delegate where no chief of police or delegate exists. 
 
 Art. 13. In consideration of the foregoing articles; the re-, 
 spectivft portions of the articles in regulation No. 120, of Jan- 
 uary 31st, wl4ch referred to permits of residence, and to pass-, 
 ports for foreigners traveling in the interior of the empire, 
 are hereby abolished. 
 
 Brazil-nuts, or Chestnuts of Brazil, the fruit 
 of the Juvia {Bertholletia excelsa), a majestic tree grow- 
 ing to the height of one hundred or one hundred and 
 twenty feet, abounding on the banks of the Orinoco, 
 and in the northern parts of Brazil. . The nuts are tri- 
 angular, having a cuneiform appearance, with sutures 
 at each of the angles ; the shell is rough and hard, and 
 of a brownish ash color. The kernel resembles that of 
 an almond, but is larger, and tastes more like a com- 
 mon hazel-nut ; it contains a great deal of oil, that may 
 be obtained by expression or otherwise. These nuts 
 do not grow separately or in clusters, but are contain- 
 ed, to the number of from fifteen to fifty or more, in 
 great ligneous pericarps or outer shells, generally of 
 the size of a child's head. This outer shell is very hard 
 and strong, so that it is rather, difficult to get at the 
 nuts, which are closely packed in cells inside. The na- 
 tives are particularly fond of this fruit, and celebrate 
 the harvest of the juvia with rejoicings ; it is also very 
 much esteemed in Europe, The nuts exported to 
 England and the European continent are chiefly from 
 Para, and form an article of considerable commercial 
 importance. — HviABOL-iyr^s Personal Narrative^ vol. v. 
 p. 538, English translation. 
 
 Brazil-wood (Fr. Bois de Bresil; Ger. Brasilien- 
 holzf Du. BrasUienhout ; It, Leyno del Brasile, Verzino; 
 Sp. Madera del Bresil; Port. Pao Brasil). It has been 
 commonly supposed that this wood derived its name 
 from the country in which it is principally produced; 
 but Dr. Bancroft has conclusively shown that woods 
 yielding a red dye were called Brazil-woods long pre- 
 viously to the discovery of America ; and that the ear- 
 ly voyagers gave the name of Brazil to that part of 
 that continent to which it is still applied from their 
 having ascertained that it abounded iii such woods. — 
 
BEE 
 
 206 
 
 BRE 
 
 See the learned and excellent work, Philosophy of Col- 
 ors, vol. ii. p. 316-321. It is found in the greatest 
 abundance, and is of the best quality, in the province 
 of Pernambuco, where it is called Pao de rainha, or 
 Queen's wood ; but it is also found in many other parts 
 of the Western hemisphere. The tree is large, crook- 
 ed, and knotty ; the leaves are of a beautiful red, and 
 exhale an agreeable odor. Its botanical name is Cce- 
 salpinia Brasileio, but it is called by the natives ihirip- 
 itanga. Notwithstanding its apparent bulk, the bark is 
 so thick, that a tree as large as a man's body with the 
 bark will not be so thick as the leg when peeled. When 
 cut into chips, it loses the pale color it before had, and 
 becomes red, and when chewed has a sweet taste. It 
 is used for various purposes by cabinet-makers, and ad- 
 mits of a beautiful varnish, but its principal use is in 
 dyeing red ; and though the color is liable to decay, 
 yet, by mixing with it alum and tartar, it is easily 
 made permanent. There is also made of it, by means 
 of acids, a sort of liquid lake or carmine for painting in 
 miniature. Brazil-wood has been for many years past 
 a royal monopoly ; its exportation, except on account 
 of government, being prohibited under the severest pen- 
 alties. Owing to the improvident manner in which it 
 has been cut down by the government agents, it is now 
 rarely found within several leagues of the coast. In- 
 deed, we are assured that many of the planters have 
 privately cut down the trees on their estates, and used 
 the timber as fire-wood, that they might not expose 
 themselves to annoyance from the arbitrary and vexa- 
 tious proceedings of these functionaries. The quantity 
 of Brazil-wood imported into Great Britain is but in- 
 considerable. Its price in the London market, exclu- 
 sive of the duty (2s. per ton), varies for the first qual- 
 ity from £60 to £80 per ton. — Dr. Bancboft in he. 
 cit. Encyclop. Metrop. Modern Traveler, vol. xxix. p. 
 87 ; Malte Bbun, vol. v. p. 525, English edition, etc. 
 
 Bread, the principal article in the food of most civ- 
 ilized nations, consists of a paste or dough formed of 
 the flour or meal of different sorts of grain mixed with 
 water, and baked. When stale dough or yeast is add- 
 ed to the fresh dough, to make it swell, it is said to be 
 leavened ; when nothing of this sort is added, it is said 
 to be unleavened. 
 
 Historical Sketch of Bread. — The President de Go- 
 guet has endeavored, with his usual sagacity and learn- 
 ing, to trace the successive steps by which it is prob- 
 able men were led to discover the art of making bread 
 (Origin of Laws, etc. vol. i. p. 95-105, English trans- 
 lation) ; but nothing positive is known on the subject. 
 It is certain, however, from the statements in the sa- 
 cred writings, that the use of unleavened bread was 
 common in the days of Abraham {Gen. xviii. 8) ; and 
 that leavened bread was used in the time of Moses, 
 ■for he prohibits eating the Paschal lamb with such 
 bread. — Exod. xii. 15. The Greeks affirmed that Pan 
 had instructed them in the art of making bread ; but 
 they no doubt were indebted for this art, as well as for 
 their knowledge of agriculture, to the Egyptians and 
 Phcenicians, who had early settled in their country. 
 The method of grinding corn by hand-mills was prac- 
 ticed in Egypt and Greece from a very remote epoch ; 
 but for a lengthened period the Eomans had no other 
 method of making flour than by beating roasted corn 
 in mortars. The Macedonian war helped to make the 
 Eomans acquainted with the arts and refinements of 
 Greece ; and Pliny mentions that public bakers were 
 then for the first time established in Rome. — Hist. Nat. 
 lib. xviii., u. 11. The conquests of the Eomans dif- 
 fused, among many other useful discoveries, a knowl- 
 edge of the art of preparing bread, as practiced in Eome, 
 through the whole south of Europe. The use of yeast 
 in the raising of bread seems, however, from a passage 
 of Pliny (lib. xviii. c. 7), to have been practiced by the 
 Germans and Gauls before it was practiced by the Eo- 
 mans; the latter, like the Greeks, having leavened 
 their bread by intermixing the fresh dough with that 
 
 which had become stale. The Eoman practice seems 
 to have superseded that which was previously in use in 
 France and Spain ; for the art of raising bread by an 
 admixture of yeast was not practiced in France in mod- 
 em times till toward the end of the seventeenth centu- 
 ry. It deserves to be mentioned that, though the bread 
 made in this way was decidedly superior to that pre- 
 viously in use, it was declared by the faculty of medi- 
 cine in Paris to he prejudicial to health ; and the use 
 of yeast was prohibited under the severest penalties. 
 Luckily, however, the taste of the public concurring 
 with the interest of the bakers, proved too powerful for 
 these absurd regulations, which gradually fell into dis- 
 use ; and yeast has long been almost every where used 
 in preference to any thing elsein the manufacture of 
 bread, to the wholesomeness and excellence of which 
 it has not a little contributed. 
 
 The species of bread in common use in a country de- 
 pends partly on the taste of the inhabitants, but more 
 on the sort of grain suitable for its soil. But the su- 
 periority of wheat to all other farinaceous plants in the 
 manufacture of bread is so very great, that, wherever it 
 is easily and successfully cultivated, wheaten bread is 
 used, to the nearly total exclusion of most others. 
 Where, however, the soil or climate is less favorable 
 to its growth, rj-e, oats, etc., are used in its stead. A 
 very great change for the better has, in this respect, 
 taken place in Great Britain within the last century. 
 It is mentioned by Harrison, in his description of En- 
 gland (p. 168), that in the reign" of Henry VIII. the 
 gentrj' had wheat sufficient for their own tables, but 
 that their household and poor neighbors were usually 
 obliged to content themselves with rye, barley, and 
 oats. It appears from the household book of Sir Ed- 
 ward Coke that, in 1596, rye bread and oatmeal form- 
 ed a considerable part of the diet of servants, even in 
 great families, in the southern counties. Barley bread 
 is stated in the grant of a monopoly by Charles I., in 
 1626, to be the usual food of the ordinary sort of peo- 
 ple. — Sir F. M. Eden on the Poor, vol. i. p. 561. At 
 the Eevolution, the wheat produced in England and 
 Wales was estimated by Mr. King and Dr. DaVenant 
 to amount to 1,750,000 quarters. — Davenant's Works, 
 vol. ii. p. 217. Mr. Charles Smith, the very well in- 
 formed author of the Tracts on the Corn Trade, origin- 
 ally published in 1758, states that in his time wheat 
 had become much more generallj- the food of the com- 
 mon people than it had been in 1689 ; but he adds (2d 
 ed. p. 182, Lond. 1766) that, notwithstanding this in- 
 crease, some very intelligent inquirers were of opinion 
 that even then not more than half the people of En- 
 gland fed on wheat. Mr. Smith's own estimate, which 
 is very carefully drawn up, is a little higher; for, tak- 
 ing the population of England and Wales, in 1760, at 
 6,000,000, he supposed that 3,750,000 were consumers 
 of wheat; 739,000 of barley ; 888,000 of rye and 623,000 
 of oats. Mr. Smith further supposed that they individ- 
 ually consumed, the first class, 1 quarter of wheat ; the 
 second, 1 quarter and 3 bushels of barley ; the third, 1 
 quarter and 1 bushel of rye ; and the fourth, 2 quarters 
 and 7 bushels of oats. 
 
 About the middle of last century, hardly any wheat 
 was used in the northern coimties of England. In 
 Cumberland, the principal families used only a small 
 quantity about Christmas. The crust of the goose pie, 
 with which almost every table in the county is then 
 supplied, was, at the period referred to, almost uniform- 
 ly made of barley meal. — Eden on the Poor, vol. i. p. 
 564. 
 
 Every one knows how inapplicable these statements 
 are to the condition of the people of England at the 
 present time. Wheaten bread is now universally made 
 use of in towns and villages, and almost every where 
 in the country. Barley is no longer used, except in 
 the distilleries and in brewing ; oats are employed only 
 in the feeding of horses ; and the consumption of rye 
 bread is comparatively inconsiderable. The produce 
 
BEE 
 
 207 
 
 BEE 
 
 of the wheat crops has been, at the very least, quadru- 
 pled since 1760, And if to this immense increase in 
 the supply of wheat we add the still more extraordin- 
 ary increase in the supply of butchers' meat (see article 
 Cattle), the fact of a very signal improvement hav- 
 ing taken place in the condition of the population, in 
 respect of food, will be obvious. 
 
 But great as has been the improvement in the condi- 
 tion of the people of England since 1760, it is but trifling 
 compared to the improvement that has taken place since 
 the same period in the condition of the people of Scot- 
 land. At the middle of last century, Scotch agriculture 
 was in the most depressed state ; the tenants were desti- 
 tute alike of capital and skill ; green crops were almost 
 wholly unknown ; and the quantity of wheat that was 
 raised was quite inconsiderable. A field of eight acres 
 sown with this grain, in the vicinity of Edinburgh, in 
 1727, was reckoned so great a curiosity that it excited 
 the attention of thewhole neighborhood. — Eobeetson's 
 Rural Secottections, p. 267. But even so late as the 
 American war, the wheat raised in the Lothians and 
 Berwickshire did not exceed a third part of what is 
 now grown in them ; and taking the whole country at 
 an average, it will be a moderate estimate to say that 
 the cultivation of wheat has increased in a tenfold pro- 
 portion since 1780. At that period no wheaten bread 
 was to be met with in the country places and villages 
 of Scotland, oat cakes and barley bannocks being uni- 
 versally made use of. But at present the case is wide- 
 ly difterent. The upper and also the middle and low- 
 er classes in towns and villages use only wlieaten bread, 
 and even in farm-houses it is very extensively con- 
 sumed. There is at this moment hardly a village to be 
 met with, however limited its extent, that has not a 
 public baker. In many parts of England it is the cus- 
 tom for private families to bake their own bread. This 
 is partio.ularly the case itj Kent, and in some parts of 
 Lancashire. In 1804 there was not a single public baker 
 in Manchester, and their number is still very limited. 
 The word bread is sometimes used for all the neces- 
 saries of human life, especially in the Scriptures. 
 Ching-Noung, the successor of Fohi, is reputed to have 
 been the first who taught men (the Chinese) the art of 
 husbandry, and the method of making bread from 
 wheat, and wine from rice, 1998 B.C. — -Universal His- 
 tory, Baking of bread was known in the patriarchal 
 ages ; see Exodus, xii. 15. Baking bread became a 
 profession at Rome, 170 B.C. During the siege of 
 Paris by Henry IV., owing to the famine which then 
 raged, bread, which had been sold, while any remained, 
 for a crown a pound, was at last made from the bones 
 of the charnel-house of the Holy Innocents, a.d. 1594. 
 — Henault. In the time of James I. the usual bread 
 of the poor was made of barley ; and now in Iceland, 
 cod-fish, beaten to powder, is made into bread ; and 
 the poor use potato-bread in many parts of Ireland. 
 Earth has been eaten as bread in some parts of the 
 world : near Moscow is a portion of land whose clay 
 will ferment when mixed with flour. Some of the In- 
 dians of the Southwest eat a white earth with salt ; and 
 the Indians of the Oronoko eat a white unctuous earth. 
 — Greiq ; Phillips. 
 
 Sread-making. — Bread ia a most important and gen- 
 erally used article of food, and its proper preparation 
 is a matter of the first importance. In New York it is 
 chiefly composed of wheat .flour, although rye and In- 
 dian meal enter somewhat into the composition of some 
 species. 100 parts of wheat flour consist of 
 
 Starch 68 parts. 
 
 Gluten 24 " 
 
 Sugar 5 " 
 
 Vegetable Albumen 3 " 
 
 Of these different constituents, the gluten is that 
 which gives to it the universal preference it enjoys over 
 all other articles for bread-making. In oats, barley, 
 and rye, the amount of gluten is small. As its name 
 imports, it gives to the flour, when mixed with water. 
 
 in the form of dough, its glutinous or adhesive proper- 
 ty ; and hence, although wheat flour can easily be con- 
 verted into a plastic paste with water, yet it is found 
 exceedingly difficult or impossible to make an adhesive 
 dough with rye or oat meal flour without the addition 
 of a portion of wheat flour. 
 
 The quality of wheat flour is greatly improved by 
 three or four months' age, and it makes a much stronger 
 bread after this period than before. If, however, it is 
 kept too long, it is not only liable to fermentation, but 
 loses in part its glutinous property. It is the custom 
 with bakers, who seldom use flour before it is of the 
 age indicated, to mix that of three or four months' age 
 with that which is one or two years old; beyond this 
 period it can not be well kept without especial care; 
 and, indeed, so gi'eat is the demand, that it is seldom 
 permitted to accumulate for a longer time. 
 
 Most of the bread used in Kew York \a fermented or 
 raised bread, which is induced by adding to the dough 
 a portion of leaven, or yeast, which quickly diffuses it- 
 self through the whole mass, and causes it to ferment. 
 This fermentation, which, although daily observed, 
 is far from being so well understood as at first sight 
 might be supposed, evolves a quantity of fixed air into 
 the dough, which the gluten of the flour, by its tenac- 
 ity, causes to be retained in the little cells seen in the 
 raised dough before baking, or in the bread as it comes 
 into the consumer's hands. Flour is now sold whicli 
 contains tartaric acid and saleratus, or soda, in a dry 
 state. When water is added to this, it causes an evo- 
 lution of the carbonic acid gas contained in the soda, 
 or potash, and the bread is suddenly raised without 
 the process of fermentation. 
 
 The method of making bread in large bakeries is to 
 sift a quantity of flour into a "kneading-trough, into 
 which is thrown a quantity of hot water in which salt 
 has been dissolved. Into this mixture yeast is cast 
 in the centre, and worked with a portion of the sur- 
 rounding mass, which is made of the consistence of a 
 stiff batter. The surface is covered with a little loose 
 flour, and the whole is left in a state of repose until it 
 begins to manifest decided signs of "working," when 
 it is kneaded into dough. 
 
 This dough is sprinkled with a little flour, covered 
 with a warm woolen cloth, and left for an hour and a 
 half, when it is subjected to a second but less general 
 kneading, cut in pieces, weighed, and shaped into the 
 form it is intended to assume in the loaf, and set aside 
 for some time in a warm place. When ready for the 
 oven, the loaves are placed in it, baked, and removed 
 in the form of bread. The loaf increases to about twice 
 the size which it had in the form of dough, but loses 
 somewhat in weight in the process of baking. 
 
 In most European countries the weight of the loaf is 
 regulated by law, the assize being attended with strict 
 regulations and penalties; but in this country the sub- 
 ject of quantity and quality, as a general rule, has been 
 left for the baker and his customers to regulate between 
 themselves, it being considered that competition would 
 probably regulate this matter as advantageously for 
 the consumer as it could be done by strict legal enact- 
 ments. This is the more advisable, because the baker 
 has it in his power to increase the weight of his loaf 
 by adulterations, which are difficult to detect, without 
 adding to its nutritious properties. As it is. he is free 
 to select the mixture of flour which is best suited to the 
 wants and tastes of his customers. 
 
 There is a great difference in the ability of various 
 kinds of flour to make a given quantity of bread. A 
 portion of this difference consists in the capacity of the 
 flour to absorb and retain water, which is not only 
 used to moisten the flour, but absolutely enters into 
 the composition of the bread. Notwithstanding a 
 large portion of the water used in making dough is ex- 
 pelled by the heat of the oven in baking, yet a suffi- 
 ciency is retained to increase the weight of the bread 
 largely over the solid materials used in making it. 
 
BEE 
 
 208 
 
 BEE 
 
 When the bread is weighed immediately after bak- 
 ing, it is found that for every 100 pounds of flour about 
 138 pounds of bread are made. This will diminish, 
 by keeping, four or five pounds, but even when stale 
 It is much above the weight of the flour actually used. 
 As a general rule, fifteen pounds of flour and ten pounds 
 of water will make twenty pounds of bread, so that 
 ona-fourth of each loafofhread consists of water chemic- 
 ally combined and solidified. 
 
 Each baker has his own standard for the size and 
 weight of his loaves, as well aa his particular method 
 of making bread. As a general rule, the sixpenny 
 loaf weighs from one pound two ounces to one pound 
 six oimces, and larger loaves bear a like proportion of 
 weight to price. Those whose custom is among the 
 more fashionable classes use a higher-priced quality 
 of flour, and make a smaller loaf, while those who sup- 
 ply the laboring class of the community use a good but 
 less high-priced flour, and furnish their customers with 
 a large loaf. Many of the .shops contain American, 
 French, and German loaves, while large numbers of 
 establishments confine themselves to the one or the 
 other of these species. The chief difference between 
 the American and French bread consists in the larger 
 quantity of yeast used in the latter, and its greater 
 porosity, or want of closeness. The German bread is 
 more dense than cither of these, and contains, in addi- 
 tion to wheat flour, a small admixture of rye flour, 
 which gives to it a slightly sweetish taste, much rel- 
 ished by those accustomed to its use. 
 
 The amount of bread consumed every where is very 
 gi'eat. According to M. Husson, the Parisian uses 
 about one pound each day, or three hundred and six- 
 ty pounds each year. The Londoner consumes in the 
 same time about three hundred pounds ; and the New 
 Yorker about two hundred and sixty pounds. The 
 reason of this great disparity in the consumption of 
 bread in these three great cities is easily seen in the 
 larger quantitj' of meat and vegetables used in the one 
 than in the other. The Londoner consumes more meat 
 than the Parisian, and consequently less bread, while 
 the amount both of meat and vegetables used by the 
 Kew Yorker exceeds that of the Londoner; and his 
 consumption of bread is proportionably diminished. 
 This, however, is subject, in every country, to great 
 variations ; but it may be safely assumed that the fam- 
 ily that uses much meat consumes but little bread ; 
 and that which consumes but little meat requires a 
 con'esponding increase in the amount of bread. 
 
 Brea(J-fruit. The bread-fruit is a large, globu- 
 lar berry, of a pale-green color, about the size of a 
 child's head, marked on the surface with irregular six- 
 sided depressions, and containing a white and some- 
 what fibrous pulp, which, when ripe, becomes juicy 
 and yellow. The tree that produces it (^Artocarpua in- 
 cisa) grows wild in Otaheite and other islands of the 
 South Seas, is about 40 feet high, with large spreading 
 branches, and has large, bright green leaves, deeply 
 divided into seven or nine spear-shaped lobes. We 
 are informed, in Captain Cook's first Voyage round 
 the World, that the eatable part of this fruit lies be- 
 tween the skin and the core, and that it is as white as 
 snow, and somewhat of the consistence of new bread. 
 When gathered, it is generally used immediately ; if 
 it be kept more than 24 hours, it becomes hard and 
 choky. The inhabitants of the South Sea islands 
 prepare it as food bj- dividing the fruit into three or 
 four parts; and roasting it in hot embers. Its taste is in- 
 sipid, with a slight tartness, somewhat resembling that 
 of the crumb of whcaten bread mixed with Jerusalem 
 artichoke. Of this fruit, the Otaheitans make various 
 messes by mixing it with water, or the milk of the cocoa- 
 nut, then beating it to a paste with a stone pestle, and 
 afterward mingling with it ripe plantains, bananas, or 
 a sour paste, made from the bread-fruit itself, called ma- 
 hie. It continues in season eight months, and so great 
 is its utility in the island of Otaheite, " that," observes 
 
 Captain Cook, "if in those parts where it is not spon- 
 taneously produced, a man plant but ten trees in his 
 whole lifetime, he will as completely fulfill his duty to 
 his own and to future generations as the native of our 
 less temperate climate can do by plowing in the cold 
 of winter, and reaping in the summer's heat, as often 
 as these seasons return ; even if, after he has procured 
 bread for his present household, he should convert the 
 surplus into money, and lay it up for his children." 
 Not only does this tree supply food, but clothing, and 
 numerous other conveniences of life. The inner bark, 
 which is white, and composed of a net-like series of 
 fibres, is formed into a kind of cloth. The wood is 
 soft, smooth, and of a yellowish color, and is used for 
 the building of boats and houses. In whatever part 
 the tree is wounded, a glutinous milky juice issues, 
 which, when boiled with cocoa-nut oil, is employed for 
 making bird-lime, and as a cement for filling up cracks 
 in such vessels as are intended to hold water. Some 
 parts of the flowers serve as tinder, and the leaves are 
 used for wrapping up food, and other purposes. As 
 the climate of the South Sea islands is considered not 
 very different from that of the West Indies, it was, 
 about 42 years ago, thought desirable that some of the 
 trees should be transferred, in a growing state, to the 
 English islands there. His majesty's ship, the Boun- 
 ty, sailed, in 1787, for this purpose, to the South Seas, 
 under the command of Lieutenant, afterward Admiral 
 Bligh. But a fatal mutiny of the crew at that time 
 prevented the accomplishment of this benevolent de- 
 sign. The commander of the vessel, however, re- 
 turned in safety to his country, and a second expedi- 
 tion, under the same person, and for the same purpose, 
 was fitted out in the year 1791. He arrived in safety 
 at Otaheite, and, after an absence from England of 
 about 18 months, landed in Jamaica with about 352 
 bread-fruit trees in a living state, having left many 
 others at ditferent nlaces in his passage thither. From 
 Jamaica these trees were transferred to other islands ; 
 but the Negroes having a general and long-established 
 predilection for the plantain, the bread-fruit is not 
 much relished by them. Where, however, it has not 
 been generally introduced as an article of food, it is 
 used as a delicacy ; and, whether employed as bread, 
 or in the form of pudding, it is considered highly pal- 
 atable by the European inhabitants. — E. A. 
 
 Breadstufis. Next to the cotton trade, that of 
 breadstuff's and provisions is the most important in 
 our foreign export trade, and of far more importance 
 in its general bearings upon commerce, and amounts 
 yearly to about one-ffth of the total exports from the 
 United States. As will appear from the table below, 
 the exports are increasing very rapidly, having quad- 
 rupled from 1844 to 1854. It is probable that this 
 increase will continue, as the same causes are now 
 operating to enlarge the demand that have increased 
 the exports for the past. 
 
 Great Britain has always been the best customer for 
 the surplus breadstutfs of the United States. To most 
 other countries which take breadstuffs of us, our ship- 
 ments of flour have been comparatively uniform, wheth- 
 er the crop was large or small ; but to British ports the 
 shipments have varied with the quantity we have 
 had to spare, although averaging nearly half the total 
 clearances of all foreign ports. Brazil and the West 
 Indies are regular customers for our flour, as they pur- 
 chase about the same quantity every year, and, after 
 Great Britain, take the largest quantity in a series of 
 years ; but a large portion of our shipments of grain 
 (with wheat and corn) go to British ports. Thus, of 
 18,583,151 bushels of wheat shipped to all ports from 
 July 1, 1849, to June 30, 1855, 14,061,211 were sent 
 to Great Britain ; and of 43,737,697 bushels corn ex- 
 ported to all ports within the same period, 36,603,951 
 bushels had the same destination. We annex a tabu- 
 lar statement showing the exports from all ports of 
 the United States to all foreign ports, of wheat, wheat 
 
BEE 
 
 209 
 
 BRE 
 
 flour and Indian com, both in quantity and value, 
 from 1849 to 1855 inclusive, with a comparison of the 
 quantity of each sent to Great Britain. The totals are 
 all taken from official documents, and may be relied 
 upon as authentic, although it must be noted that of 
 many direct clearances to Great Britain for orders 
 there are sometimes considerable quantities directed 
 from thence to Continental ports. The " famine" of 
 1847 led to large shipments of breadstuffs, and to the 
 inauguration of free trade in England, and we com- 
 mence, therefore, with 1848-'49, when the business had 
 become settled under this system. The periods noted 
 are for the fiscal years ending June 30 : 
 
 Exports fecm the United States, op Wheat, Wheat FLoim, 
 AND Indian Cokn, from 1849 to 1855, doth inclusive. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 1849. 
 
 Wheat, bushels. 
 Flour, barrels . . 
 Corn, bushels . . 
 
 1850. 
 Wheat, bushels. 
 Tlour, ban-els . . 
 Corn, bushels . . 
 
 1851. 
 Wheat, bushels. 
 Flour, barrels . . 
 Cora, bushels . . 
 
 1852. 
 
 Wheat, bushels. 
 Flour, barrels . . 
 Com, bushels . . 
 
 1853. 
 
 Wheat, bushels. 
 Flour, barrels . . 
 Corn, bushels . . 
 
 1851 
 Wheat, bushels. 
 Flour, barrels . . 
 Corn, bushels . . 
 
 1865, 
 
 Wheat, bushels. 
 Flour, barrels . . 
 Corn, bushels . . 
 
 To Great 
 I BritniQ. 
 
 Qunntity. 
 
 1,072,780 
 
 953,815 
 
 12,896,242 
 
 316,926 
 
 370,777 
 
 5,967,200 
 
 1,004,783 
 2,760,829 
 
 2,049,667 
 1,,532,094 
 1,894,700 
 
 3,672,248 
 1,388,065 
 1,658,840 
 
 6,068,903 
 2,026,121 
 6,965,860 
 
 396,215 
 
 189,712 
 
 6,935,284 
 
 ToaU 
 Foreign Forts. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 1,527,5^4 
 
 2,108,013 
 
 13,267,309 
 
 608,661 
 1,885,448 
 6,596,092 
 
 1,026,765 
 2,262,335 
 3,426,811 
 
 2,694,540 
 2,790,339 
 2,627,075 
 
 3,890,141 
 2,920,918 
 2,274,909 
 
 8,036,665 
 4,022,376 
 7,768,816 
 
 798,884 
 1,204,540 
 7,807,585 
 
 Value. 
 
 1,766,848 
 
 11,280,582 
 
 7,966,869 
 
 643,745 
 7,079,570 
 8,892,193 
 
 1,025,782 
 10,624,331 
 1,761,649 
 
 2,655,209 
 
 11,869,143 
 
 1,540,225 
 
 4;3S4,403 
 
 14,783,394 
 
 1,374,077 
 
 12,420,172 
 
 21,701,444 
 
 6,074,277 
 
 1,329,246 
 
 10,896,908 
 
 6,961,571 
 
 The ordinary shipments in former years have not in- 
 cluded any thing direct for France. In the first year 
 named above (1849) there were no exports of flour to 
 French ports, and only 108 bushels of wheat ; in 1852 
 the total includes 2700 ban-els of flour, .and in 1863 
 only 8784 barrels; but in the year ending June 30, 
 1854, there were shipped direct to France 1,041,086 
 bushels of wheat, 728,279 barrels of flour, and 39,200 
 bushels of Indian corn. In the following iiscal year 
 (18o4-'65) the shipments of flour to the same ports had 
 dwindled down to 8557 barrels, and there was no ship- 
 ment of wheat, but the exports of corn increased to 
 312,740 bushels. During the year 1855, the partial 
 failure of the crops on the Continent of Europe led to 
 large direct shipments, and the total exports to France 
 for 1855r-'o6, not yet officially compiled, have been 
 larger than ever before recorded to the same ports. As 
 soon as the threshing of wheat commenced in the west 
 and north of France in 1855, its bad quality and light 
 weight created a general panic, and prices continued 
 to advance up to the first of January. The abundance 
 caused by the large receipts from this country, Spain, 
 and other sources of supply, caused a downward tend- 
 ency in prices throughout January, 1856, and every 
 thing was promising for the next harvest until the in- 
 undations in May. These checked the decline without 
 wholly arresting it; but as the harvest approached, 
 the hopes of an average crop became less sanguine, 
 and it is now generally admitted that the supply will 
 be deficient from five to ten million hectolitres, that 
 is, from fourteen to twenty-eight millions of bushels. 
 The quantity of arable land in France is set down at 
 56,810,000 acres, of which fourteen million hectares, 
 or 34,580,000 acres, are devoted to the culture of grain. 
 The average annual product is 495,000,000 bushels of 
 wheat, oats, rye, maize, and meslin, of which about 
 one-fourth are oats, and two-fifths, or 198,000,000 bush- 
 els, are wheat. With an average crop, France has 
 
 
 heretofore been able not only to supply her wants, but 
 to furnish about 5,500,000 bushels of wheat (or its 
 equivalent in flour) for the consumption of Great Brit- 
 ain. It is evident that this export trade must be cut 
 oft' or greatly reduced during the current year, as the 
 crop in France is below the wants of her own people. 
 Indeed the total exports to Great Britain from all the 
 French ports for the year 1856 amounted to an equiva- 
 lent of only 880,000 bushels, or about 15 per cent, of 
 the usual shipments, and this was all foreign produce, 
 shipped from bond. 
 Statement exhibiting the aggbegate Value of Bbead- 
 
 BTUFFS and PkOYISIONS EXPORTED AnnUAI.LY FEOM TUB 
 
 United States, feom the Year 1821 to 1855, doth in- 
 clusive. 
 
 Year ending 
 September 80. 
 
 Amount. 
 
 Year ending 
 
 Amount. 
 
 1821 
 
 $12,841,901 
 
 1839 
 
 $14,147,779 
 
 1822 
 
 13,886,856 
 
 1840 
 
 19,067,635 
 
 1823 
 
 18,767,847 
 
 1841 
 
 17,196,102 
 
 1824 
 
 15,059,484 
 
 1842 
 
 16,902,876 
 
 1826 
 
 11,634,449 
 
 1843* 
 
 11,204,123 
 
 1826 
 
 11,303,496 
 
 1844t 
 
 17,970,135 
 
 1827 
 
 11,685,556 
 
 1846 
 
 16,743,421 
 
 1828 
 
 11,461,144 
 
 1846 
 
 27,701,121 
 
 1829 
 
 13,131,858 
 
 1847 
 
 68,701,921 
 
 1830 
 
 12,075,430 
 
 1843 
 
 37,472,751 
 
 1831 
 
 17,538,227 
 
 1849 
 
 88,156,507 
 
 1832 
 
 12,424,703 
 
 1850 
 
 26,051,373 
 
 1883 
 
 14,209,128 
 
 1851 
 
 21,998,651 
 
 18S4 
 
 11,524,024 
 
 1862 
 
 26,857,027 
 
 1885 
 
 12,009,399 
 
 1853 
 
 32,985,322 
 
 1836 
 
 10,614,130 
 
 1864 
 
 65,941,323 
 
 1837 
 
 9,588,359 
 
 1856 
 
 38,895,348 
 
 
 
 Total .... 
 
 720,834,966 
 
 • 9 months, to June 30. t 12 months, to June 30. 
 
 In Great Britain the crop this year is very good ; 
 but it is never sufficient to supply the wants of the 
 people. The total imports of breadstuff's into the 
 United Kingdom for the last three years (reckoning 
 flour, etc., at its equivalent in grain) are as follows : 
 
 Years. Equal to Qushels Wheat. 
 
 1853 84,419,632 
 
 1854 63,267,240 
 
 1855 56,227,608 
 
 The high prices have contributed to reduce the im- 
 ports into the United Kingdom during the last two 
 years to the lowest possible point; but the first six 
 months of the current year the total imports amounted 
 to 1,859,000 quarters, showing an increase of 161,000 
 quarters, or 1,248,000 bushels, and must continue at 
 about this rate throughout the remainder of the year. 
 Even with a good harvest, the kingdom must need at 
 least 40,000,000 bushels of grain, or its equivalent in 
 flour, for its own consumption. Of this amount Kussia 
 — Northern and Southern ports — whose supplies were 
 cut off during the war, can now furnish 10,000,000 
 bushels ; Prussia, whose harvest is this year below 
 the average, 10,000,000 bushels; all other countries 
 5,000,000 bushels; leaving 15,000,000 to come from the 
 United States. If prices rule at a comparatively low 
 rate, the consumption will be increased, and the quota 
 from this country may reach 20 or 26 millions of bush- 
 els. Spain and Portugal have hitherto exported to both 
 France and England, the shipments to the latter last 
 year being upward of 4,000,000 bushels. * 
 
 It is difficult to ascertain the exact production of 
 the United States. The total arable land under actual 
 cultivation is given in the Census of 1850 at 113,032,614 
 acres, of which 51,700,000 acres were producing bread- 
 stuffs. The following was the total production of grain 
 as given in the Census returns for 1840 and 1850 : 
 
 Articles. 
 
 1840. 
 
 1S50. 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Kyfe 
 
 OatB 
 
 Bushels. 
 84,823,272 
 18,545,567 
 123,071,341 
 877,531,875 
 4,161,504 
 7,291,743 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 100.485,944 
 
 14,188,813 
 
 148,584,179 
 
 592,071,104 
 
 6,167,016 
 
 8,956,912 
 
 
 Barley 
 
 Buckwheat 
 
 Total 
 
 615,525,302 
 
 867,453,967 
 
BRE 
 
 210 
 
 BEE 
 
 A large amount of arable land has been brought under 
 cultivation since 1850, and those most conversant with 
 the West think that the product of wheat has increased 
 60 per cent, since the date last given, while other grain 
 has increased 20 to 25 per cent. The total yield of wheat 
 being computed at 150,000,000 bushels, it is easy to 
 see that the export demand can be fiUed without cre- 
 ating any extraordinary excitement throughout the 
 country. Last year the farmers anticipated such high 
 rates, that many of them refused to sell in time, and 
 thus were obliged to dispose of their stock far below the 
 average price. This year the early sales promised to be 
 the best, but there appears to be a limit below which 
 foreign ordera will rapidly diminish any home ac- 
 cumulation. At present good white wheat is worth 
 here about §1 60, and good red about $1 50. We 
 scarcely expect to see a decline of 20 cents from these 
 rates during the current season, but within that range 
 an active foreign business may be expected. The 
 prospects for Indian corn can not be given until nearer 
 the close of the harvest. Flour will fluctuate more 
 than wheat in price ; sales have been made to arrive 
 in England at a price whidi would net here about $5 
 for a standard superfine, but this is generally thought 
 to be an inside price. We have compiled from the 
 official records a statement of the average export price 
 in flour since 1836. The highest price, since 1800, was 
 $14 75 per barrel, at which all the shipments averaged 
 in the year 1817. The lowest was $4 25, which was the 
 average of 1852. The following is the average of the 
 total shipments to all ports in each year for the last 
 twenty years. The price in 1854— '55 was enhanced 
 materially by the demand,arising for export to Europe 
 during the war with Russia. At intervals of that pe- 
 riod first brands produced over $13 in the New York 
 market, and common shipping flour over $10 per bar- 
 rel. — See CESS03 Report, United States. 
 Ybaelt average Phice of the Exports of Wheat Flour 
 
 FROM THE UjJITED STATES TO FOREIGN POBTS, FROM 1836 TO 
 
 1865. 
 
 The periods before noted are the government fiscal 
 years, ending June 30. The average of 1856 is not 
 yet made up, but will be considerably below that of 
 1855. If any think we have overestimated, in the 
 following table, the present production of wheat in this 
 country, we have only to remind them that the cultiva- 
 tion of this grain for export received but little stimulus 
 until the repeal of the British corn laws ; and since that 
 time we have added the States of Illinois, Iowa, and 
 Michigan to our wheat-producing States, and by means 
 of railroads ihade them equal competitors with the At- 
 lantic States. — See Art. Wheat. 
 
 Production of Wueat, Kte, and Indian Corn in the 
 United States, in 1850. 
 
 Yghts. 
 
 Price. 
 
 Yeini. 
 
 Price. 
 
 Years, 
 
 Price. 
 
 Year., 
 
 Price. 
 
 1836 
 
 $T 50 
 
 1841 
 
 $5 20 
 
 1846 
 
 $518 
 
 1861 
 
 $4 77 
 
 18BT 
 
 10 25 
 
 1842 
 
 6 00 
 
 1847 
 
 5 05 
 
 1852 
 
 4 24 
 
 1838 
 
 9 50 
 
 1843 
 
 4 50 
 
 1848 
 
 6 22 
 
 1853 
 
 6 60 
 
 1839 
 
 6 76' 
 
 1844 
 
 4 75 
 
 1849 
 
 5 35 
 
 1854 
 
 7 83 
 
 1840 
 
 5 37 
 
 1845 
 
 4 61 
 
 1860 
 
 6 00 
 
 1855 
 
 1010 
 
 Statfia and Territoriee. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Eye. 
 
 Indian Com. 
 
 
 Bufihela. 
 
 Busheie. 
 
 BuahelB. 
 
 Maine 
 
 296,269 
 
 102,916 
 
 1,750,066 
 
 New Hampshii'e. 
 
 185,668 
 
 183,117 
 
 1,573,670 
 
 Vermont 
 
 635,956 
 
 176,283 
 
 2,082,396 
 
 Massachusetts... 
 
 31,211 
 
 481,021 
 
 2,345,490 
 
 Rhode Island ... 
 
 49 
 
 26,409 
 
 639,201 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 41,762 
 
 600,893 
 
 1,936,043 
 
 New York 
 
 13,121,498 
 
 .4,148,182 
 
 17,868,400 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 1,601,190 
 
 1,265,578 
 
 8,769,704 
 
 Pennsylvania . . . 
 
 16,367,691 
 
 4,805,160 
 
 19,835,214 
 
 Delaware 
 
 482,511 
 
 8,066 
 
 3,146.642 
 
 Maryland 
 
 4,494,680 
 
 226,014 
 
 11,104,631 
 
 District of Col. . . 
 
 17,870 
 
 8,509 
 
 66.280 
 
 Virginia 
 
 11,282,616 
 
 458,980 
 
 85,254,319 
 
 North Carolina. . 
 
 2,130,102 
 
 229,563 
 
 27,941,051 
 
 South Carolina. . 
 
 1,066,277 
 
 48,790 
 
 16,271,454 
 
 Georgia 
 
 1,088,534 
 
 53,760 
 
 30,080,099 
 
 Florida •. . . 
 
 1,027 
 
 1,152 
 
 1,996,809 
 
 Alabama 
 
 294,044 
 
 17,261 
 
 28,754,048 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 137,990 
 
 9,806 
 
 22,446,552 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 417 
 
 476 
 
 10,266,373 
 
 Texas 
 
 41,680 
 
 3,108 
 
 5,926,611 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 199,639 
 
 -8,047 
 
 8,893,939 
 
 Tennessee '. 
 
 1,619,381 
 
 89,163 
 
 52,276,223 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 2,140,822 
 
 415,073 
 
 58,675,591 
 
 Ohio 
 
 14,487,351 
 
 425,718 
 
 69,078,6E5 
 
 Michigan 
 
 4,925,889 
 
 105,871 
 
 5,641,420 
 
 Indiana 
 
 6,214,458 
 
 78,792 
 
 62,964,863 
 
 
 9,414,576 
 2,981,652 
 
 83,804 
 
 57,646,984 
 
 Missouri 
 
 44,268 
 
 36,214,.637 
 
 Iowa 
 
 1,530,581 
 
 19,916 
 
 '8,656,799 
 
 "Wisconsin 
 
 4,286,181 
 
 81,263 
 
 1,988,979 
 
 California 
 
 17,328 
 
 
 12,236 
 
 Minnesota Ter. . . 
 
 1,401 
 
 126 
 
 16,725 
 
 Oregon Territory 
 
 211,493 
 
 106 
 
 2,918 
 
 Utah TeiTitory . . 
 
 107,702 
 
 210 
 
 9,899 
 
 New Mexico 
 
 Total 
 
 196,516 
 
 
 366,411 
 
 100,508,899 
 
 14,188,689 
 
 592,826,612 
 
 An Accou>'t op the Exports of FLOim, and Wheat, Indian Corn and Indian Corn Meal, Kye, Ship Bread, etc., from 
 THE United States, during the Year ending 30th June, 184:7, known as the " Famine Year" in Ireland, specify- 
 ing TUB COUNTRIEa'TO "WHICII'TIIE SAME "WERE SENT, AND THE QUANTITIES BENT TO EACH, 
 
 TO AMERICA. 
 
 -Articles. 
 
 Flour, barrels 
 
 Wheat, bushels . .- 
 
 IndiaD com, bushels . . 
 
 Corn meal, barrels 
 
 Rye meal, barrels 
 
 Rye, oats, etc 
 
 Ship bread, barrels 
 
 Ship bread, kggs, 
 
 Articles. 
 
 Flour, ban*els 
 
 Wheat, bushels 
 
 Indian corn, busliels . . 
 
 Corn meal, barrels 
 
 Eye meal, barrels 
 
 Rye, oats, etc 
 
 Ship bread, barrels. . . 
 Ship bread, kegs 
 
 Articlca. 
 
 Flour, barrels 
 
 Wheat, bushels 
 
 Indian com, bushels . 
 Corn meal, barrels . . . 
 Rye meal, barrels .... 
 
 Rye, oats, etc. 
 
 Ship bread, barrels. . . 
 
 Ship bread, kegs . , . . . 
 
 Total value. 
 
 Britiah North 
 'American Colonics. 
 
 372,299 
 
 919,068 
 
 119,615 
 
 39,936 
 
 2T,401 
 
 $24,312 
 
 20,506 
 
 220 
 
 West Indies. 
 
 483,571 
 
 15,105 
 
 693,029 
 
 176,418 
 
 3,480 
 
 $113,355 
 
 54,788 
 
 13,267 
 
 South America. 
 
 328,937 
 
 3,964 
 2,760 
 101 
 $2,291 
 1,711 
 7,437 
 
 North Aniericn 
 generally. 
 
 66,998 
 200 
 
 23,925 
 
 10,364 
 
 180 
 
 $18,599 
 
 21,218 
 673 
 
 TO EUROPE. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 France. 
 
 Spam and 
 Portugal. 
 
 other parte of 
 Europe. 
 
 1312 
 
 4892 
 
 113,429 
 
 170,421 
 
 22,203 
 
 605 
 
 8,332 
 
 $752,081 
 
 1,728 
 
 648 
 
 2,144,531 
 
 2,078,662 
 
 7,627,686 
 
 426,070 
 
 4,030 
 
 $565,322 
 
 34,7-36 
 
 6,647 
 
 342,495 
 
 465,911 
 
 7,998,939 
 
 287,013 
 
 2,362 
 
 $06,680 
 
 11,904 
 
 .';56 
 
 612,641 
 
 749,242 
 
 7,248 
 
 4,401 
 
 3,006 
 
 $50,697 
 
 S,771 
 
 16 
 
 TO OTHER COUNTRIES. 
 
 ABia 
 generally. 
 
 Africa 
 generally. 
 
 South Seas and 
 Pacific. 
 
 Total to all 
 Parts. 
 
 Total Value of 
 Exports. 
 
 8,674 
 
 1,862 
 
 175 
 
 77 
 
 $4,696 
 
 3,166 
 
 163, 
 
 36,800 
 
 24474 
 436 
 
 $2^368 
 6,609 
 1,482 
 
 $131 
 
 1,753 
 
 100 
 
 4,882,496 
 
 4,399,981 
 
 16,326,050 
 
 948,060 
 
 48,092 
 
 160,980 ) 
 31,08?. i 
 
 $26,133,811 
 
 6,049,850 
 
 14,395,212 
 
 4,301,834 
 
 225,502 
 
 1,600,962 
 
 656,266 
 
 $53,262,437 
 
BRE 
 
 211 
 
 BRE 
 
 ■ Breakers, a name given to those billows tli at break 
 violently over rocks lying below the surface of the sea. 
 — E. B. 
 
 Breakwater is any obstruction of wood, stone, or 
 other material, as a boom or raft of wood, sunlcen ves- 
 sels, etc., placed before the entrance of a port or harbor, 
 or any projection from the land into the sea, as a pier, 
 mole, or jetty, so placed as to break the force of the 
 waves, and prevent their action on ships and vessels 
 lying at anchor within them. Thus the piers of the 
 ancient Piraeus and of Khodes ; the moles of Naples, 
 Genoa, and Castellamare ; the piers of Ramsgate, Mar- 
 gate, Folkstone, Howth, and the wooden dike do 
 Bichelieu, thrown across the port of Eochelle, may all 
 be denominated Breakwaters. In French it is some- 
 times called Battre d'Eau ; a name which appears to 
 have been applied to the mole at Tangier, a work com- 
 menced in 1663, under the direction of Lord Tiviot, 
 Sir J. Lawson, and Sir Hugh Cholmlej', and finished, 
 or rather discontinued, in 1676, after having cost En- 
 gland the sum of £243,897 5s. 4id. The term Break- 
 water, however, has <Jf late years been considered as 
 more peculiarly appropriate to large insulated dikes 
 of stone, whether of regular masonry or sunk promis- 
 cuously in rough masses, so placed as to form an arti- 
 ficial island across the mouth of an open roadstead, 
 and thereby, from obstructing and breaking the waves 
 of the sea, to convert a, dangerous anchorage into a 
 safe and commodious harbor for the reception of ships 
 of war or merchantmen. 
 
 Of this description of dike for creating an artificial 
 harbor on a grand scale, fit for the reception of ships 
 of war of the largest class, there are remarkable exam- 
 ples in tlie breakwaters of Cherbourg, Plymouth, Port- 
 land, Delaware, etc. The first stone of the breakwa- 
 ter at Plymouth was lowered in the presence of mul- 
 titudes of the people, August 12, 1812. It was de- 
 signed to break the swell at Plymouth, and stretches 
 5280 feet across the Sound ; it is 360 feet in breadth 
 at the bottom, and more than 30 at the top, and con- 
 sumed 3,666,000 tons of granite blocks, from one to 
 five tons each, up to April, 1841 ; and cost a million 
 and a half sterling. The architect was Eennie. — See 
 Art. Chekbourg and Delaw^ake Breakwaters. 
 
 Breeches. Among the Greeks this garment indi- 
 cated slavery. It was worn by the Dacians, Parthians, 
 and other Northern nations ; and in Italy, it is said, it 
 was worn in the time of Augustus Csesar. In the 
 reign of Honorius, about a.d. 394, the braccari, or 
 breeches-makers, were expelled from Rome ; but soon 
 afterward the use of breeches was adopted in other 
 countries, and at length it became general. — Haydn. 
 Bremen, one of the free Hanseatic cities, on the 
 Weser, about 50 miles from its mouth, lat. 63° 4i' N., 
 long. 8° 48' 3" E. Population in 1849, 53,478. Its sit- 
 uation renders Bremen the principal emporium of 
 Hanover, Brunswick, Hesse, and other countries trav- 
 ersed by the Weser. The charges on the buying, 
 selling, and shipping of goods are very moderate. The 
 principal Gei'man exports are, woolen goods, linens, 
 grain, oak bark, glass, smalts, hides, rape-seed, beef 
 and pork, rags, wool, wine, etc. The wheat and bar- 
 ley shipped here are mostly inferior ; but the oats are 
 useful common feed; beans are good. The linens 
 are mostly the same as those from Hamburg. The 
 imports consist of tobacco (of which large quantities 
 are re-exported), coffee, sugar, and other colonial prod- 
 ucts ; whale-oil, iron, rice, hides, wines, ra\f cotton, 
 cotton stuffs and yarn, earthen-ware, brandy, tar, tea, 
 dye-woods, timber, hemp, etc. 
 
 Bremen has long been, and continues to be, the 
 most important entrepot on the Continent for the sale 
 of tobacco. In 1861, about 5000 hands were engaged 
 in the manufacture of cigars, of which the export was 
 estimated at 236,000 boxes of 1000 each ; hut an in- 
 crease of the duty on cigars imported into the German 
 Customs Union subsequently gave the trade a check. 
 
 'Entrance to Bremen. — The entrance to the Weser 
 lies between the Mellum and other sands ou the south- 
 western, and the Teglers Plaat, etc. on the northeast- 
 ern side. Its course from Bremerlehe to its mouth 
 is nearly southeast and northwest. It is buoyed 
 throughout. The buoys on the right or starboard side, 
 when entering, being black and marked with letters, 
 while those on the left or larboard are white and num- 
 bered. The first or outer black buoy has a gilt key 
 upon it, and is, therefore, called the scMuesel, or key 
 buoy ; it lies in lOi fathoms, bearing northeast 5 miles 
 from Wrangeroog light. This is an intef'mitting light, 
 having replaced, in 1850, the old coal-fire beacon on 
 the island of Wrangeroog, opposite to the northern ex- 
 tremity of East Friesland. It is, according to the 
 most authentic statements, in lat. 53° 47^' N., long. 7° 
 51' 55" E. ; iselevated 63i feet above high-water mark, 
 being alternately visible and invisible for the space of 
 a minute. A light-vessel is moored in the fair-way of 
 the Weser, between the black buoys E and F, and the 
 white buoys 2 and 3. She has two masts ; during the 
 day a red flag, with a white cross upon it, is kept flying 
 at the main-mast; and at night she exhibits 7 lantern 
 lights, 28 feet above deck. This vessel is on no ac- 
 count to leave her station, unless compelled by the ice. 
 Large vessels do not now generally ascend farther 
 than Bremerlehe, on the «ast side of the river, about 
 38 miles below Bremen, where a new and spacious 
 harbor, called " Bremer Haven," has been constructed. 
 But vessels not drawing more than 7 feet water come 
 up to town ; and thosedrawing from 13 to 14 feet may 
 come up to Vegesack; about 13 miles from Bremen. 
 The latter had, in 1849, a population of 3538, and 
 Bremer Haven of 3618. — See the Sailing Directions for 
 the North Sea, published by Mr. Norrie. 
 Account of the AanrvALS of Suips at Bremen in 1850 and 
 
 185i, SPECIFYING THE COUNTEIES FKO.M ■W-UESOR THEY 
 CAWE, AND THE NUMUEES AND TONNAGE OF THOSE FKOM 
 EACH. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 iseo. 
 
 1851. 1 
 
 VeaseJn. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 VesseU. 
 
 TOOB. 
 
 Great Brita.n 
 
 Denmark 
 
 381 
 
 84 
 
 44 
 
 151 
 
 133 
 
 66 
 
 ISl 
 
 128 
 
 61 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 8 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 20 
 
 49,237 
 2.631 
 B;649 
 8,813 
 
 12,160 
 T,473 
 9,968 
 
 62,049 
 
 13,146 
 4,310 
 3,515 
 1,301 
 2,485 
 2,873 
 6,400 
 
 402 
 lOT 
 
 51 ' 
 217 
 136 
 125 
 172 
 131 
 
 67 
 
 IT 
 
 21 
 6 
 
 11 
 
 50 
 
 34 
 
 62,481 
 3,270 
 6,068 
 14,364 
 10,452 
 15,561 
 10,600 
 64,714 
 12,245 
 3,398 
 3,868 
 942 
 1,869 
 9,066 
 7,578 
 
 Holland 
 
 Prussia 
 
 Russia. .....* 
 
 Sweden and Norway 
 
 United States 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Hayti 
 
 Porto Rico 
 
 Mexico 
 
 
 Other places 
 
 Breslau, a city of Prussia, capital of the province 
 of Silesia, and of the circle of same name, on the Oder, 
 at the influx of the Ohlau, and on the railroad from 
 Berlin to Vienna, 409 feet above the Baltic, 190 miles 
 southeast of Berlin. Lat. (of observatory) 51° 6' 57" 
 N., long. 17° 2' 33" E. Population of the circle in 
 1849, 1,174,676 ; of the city, 112,194, of whom nearly 
 three-fourths are Protestants. It is the greatest empo- 
 rium for the linens of Silesia, for which it has four an- 
 nual fairs of eight days each, and the greatest mart for 
 wool in Germany. It has manufactures of linen, wool- 
 en, cotton, and silk fairies, lace, needles, plate, jewel- 
 ry, earthen-ware, colors, soap, alum, starch, snuff, and 
 sealing-wax ; and an extensive trade in mining produce, 
 timber, flax, hemp, madder, com, and oxen, from the 
 southern Russian provinces, and in Hungarian wines 
 and other merchandise. It has an active trade on the 
 Oder, and communicates by railroad with Berlin and 
 Frankfort on the north, Dresden on the west, Cracow 
 and Warsaw on the east, and Vienna in the south. It 
 was bombarded and taken by the French, January 7, 
 1807, and its fortress, then partly destroyed, has since 
 been entirely razed. 
 
 Brewing is the art of preparing an exhilarating or 
 
BRI 
 
 212 
 
 BRI 
 
 intoxicating beverage by means of n process of fer- 
 mentation ; but at the present day the term is usually 
 limited to the manufacture of different kinds of beer, 
 from infusions of malt or of grains. In all countries, 
 savage and civilized, one kind or other of exhilarating 
 or intoxicating drink is prepared. In the warmer re- 
 gions of the globe the juice of various palm-trees is 
 extracted, and, when fermented, forms the favorite 
 beverage. Over all the warmer regions of South 
 America, and in Mexico, the universal drink is Pulque^ 
 the fermented juice of the American aloe {Agave Amer- 
 icana). Guarapo, a favorite drink with the Negro 
 races is the fermented juice of the sugar-cane ; and 
 when the sugar-cane is not in season, these races pre- 
 pare fermented drinks from honey and from rice. In 
 many Korthern countries, and even occasionally in 
 the highlands of Scotland, the juices of the birch, 
 maple, or ash, are fermented, and form a palatable 
 drink. Koumis, the intoxicating beverage of the 
 Mongols and the Tartars, is the fermented milk of 
 the mare. In countries favorable to the growth of the 
 vine, wine is tlie usual beverage. The Peruvians and 
 many other Indians prepare their favorite intoxicating 
 drink, chicha, from maize. The Arabians, Abyssini- 
 ans, and several tribes in Africa, prepare their fer- 
 mented drink, bonsa, from the 6our or bread made from 
 teS (^Poa Abt/ssinica) ; but the durrha or millet (<Sor- 
 ghum vulgare), and even barley itself, are occasionally 
 substituted for the teffto prepare the muddy, sour bousd. 
 The universal Russian beverage, kvass or quasSj a 
 sharp, acid, muddy liquid, almost the same in taste 
 and appearance as " bousa," is made by mixing rye 
 bread or rye flour, or sometimes barley flour, with 
 water, and fermenting it. The well-known national 
 German drink, the u-eiss bier, is prepared from a fer- 
 mented infusion of wheat malt with only a sixth part 
 of barley malt. But over almost all the civilized 
 world, the fermented infusion of barley malt, seasoned 
 or not with hops or other bitters, when it takes the 
 name of beer, is the favorite beverage.- — E. B. 
 
 Bribe. The giving or offering a recompense or re- 
 ward to any person to induce him to neglect his duty. 
 
 Bricks and Tiles, well-known "articles used in 
 the building and covering of houses. They are made 
 of baked clay and sand. 
 
 Fire-bricks. — A mode has been invented intended 
 to do away with manual labor in the manufacture of 
 fire-bricks made from ground clay, by passing it di- 
 rectly from the grinding-mill to the machine, where it 
 is made into bricks ready for the kiln, instead of add- 
 ing water and making it into a paste according to the 
 present process. The invention consists of a combina- 
 tion of hydraulic machinery, for compressing clay in a 
 pulverized state into bricks, and for changing the posi- 
 tion of the moulds in which the clay is compressed, so 
 that they may fill and discharge themselves after com- 
 pression. After the clay is formed into bricks the 
 sides and end of the mould recede, and leave them 
 free, without any forcing, which effectually prevents 
 all liability to fracture or damage. A machine with 
 two moulds will produce from 2000 to 4000 per day. 
 
 Bridges. So early and general, and the expedi- 
 ents for their construction so various, their origin can 
 not be traced ; they were first of wood. The ancient 
 bridges in China are of great magnitude, and were 
 built of stone. Abydos is famous for the bridge of 
 boats which Xerxes built across the Hellespont. Tra- 
 jan's magnificent stone bridge over the Danube, 4770 
 feet in length, was built in A.d. 103. The Devil's 
 bridge, in the canton of Uri, so called from its frightful 
 situation, was built resting on two high rocks, so that 
 it could scarcely be conceived how it was erected, and 
 many fabulous stories were invented to account for it. 
 At Shafi'hausen an extraordinary bridge was built 
 over the Rhine, which is there 400 feet wide: there 
 was a pier in the middle of the river, but it is doubtful 
 whether the bridge rested upon it ; a man of the light- 
 
 est weight felt the bridge totter under him, yet wag- 
 ons heavily laden passed over without danger. This 
 bridge was destroyed by the French in 1790. Suspen- 
 sion bridge at Niagara Falls completed July 29, 1848. 
 The ancient bridges in England were of wood, and 
 were fortified with planks and merlined; the first 
 bridge of stone was built at Bow, near Stratford, a.d. 
 1087. Westminster bridge, then the finest erected in 
 these realms, and not surpassed by any in the world, 
 except in China, was completed in twelve years, 17S0. 
 The other London bridges are Blackfriars, completed 
 1770; London (rebuilt), 1831; Southwark, of iron, 
 1819. The first iron bridge, on a large scale, was 
 erected over the Severn, in Shropshire, 1779. The 
 finest chain suspension bridge is that of the Menal 
 Strait, completed in 1825. Hungerford suspension 
 bridge, 1845. — Haydx. 
 
 Bridge'wrater Canal, the first great work of the 
 kind in England, was begun by the Duke of Bridge- 
 water, styled the father of canal navigation in that 
 country, in 1758. Mr. Brindley was the architect. The 
 canal commences at "VVorsley, seven miles from Man- 
 chester; and at Barton bridge is an aqueduct which, 
 for upward of 200 yards, conveys the canal across the 
 navigable Eiver Irwell : the canal is 29 miles long. 
 
 Brimstone. See Sulphuh. 
 
 Bristles (Fr. Soies; Ger. Borsten; Du. Borsiels; 
 It. Setole; Sp. Cerdas, Setas ; Pol. Szezeciny ; Russ. 
 Schtschetina ; Lat. Set(B), the strong glossy hairs grow- 
 ing on the back of the hog and the wild boar. 
 
 Bristol, a city, sea-port, and county of England, sit- 
 uated chiefly in Gloucestershire, and partly in Somer- 
 setshire, on the Avon, at its confluence with the Frome, 
 and 8 miles southeast of its embouchure in the Bris- 
 tol Channel, 11| miles northwest of Bath, 33J miles 
 south-southwest of Gloucester, and 118i miles west of 
 London, with which it is connected by the Great West- 
 ern Railroad. Lat. of cathedral, 51° 27' N., long. 2° 
 36' AV. Area of border. Including the distance added 
 by the municipal act, 9870 acres. Population in 1801, 
 39,914; in 1841, 123,188; and in 1851, 137,328. Bris- 
 tol extends over several hills and intermediate valleys. 
 It long ranked as the second commercial emporium of 
 England, but its progress has not kept pace with that 
 of other ports more advantageously placed as outlets 
 of great manufacturing districts. It has, however, 
 large iron and brass founderies ; copper, tin, zinc, and 
 glass works ; chemical and color works ; sugar refin- 
 eries and distilleries; and considerable manufactures 
 of pins, shot, china, earthen-wares, soap, leather, tobac- 
 co, cottons, hats, and floor-cloths, with extensive estab- 
 lishments for ship-building; and in its vicinity are 
 large brick and coal works. The Avon at Bristol, 
 though narrow, is deep enough for large ships, and ear- 
 ly in the present century its course was turned for some 
 distance at a cost of £700,000, and its own channel now 
 forms a harbor furnished with locks and quays 6000 
 feet in length. Ships of large burden and first-rate 
 steamers load and discharge cargo at Kingroad, in the 
 mouth of this river. The city retains a large share of 
 the West India trade. Imports consisting chiefly of 
 sugar, molasses, rum, coff'ee, tobacco, with wool, tur- 
 pentine, hemp, timber, wine, and brandy, from North 
 and South America, the Baltic, and France. Bristol 
 communicates by railroad with Birmingham and Exe- 
 ter, with the Thames, etc., by the Kcnnet and Avon 
 canal. It was the first port in Britain whence regular 
 steam communication with the United States was es- 
 tablished. It has a chamber of commerce and several 
 mercantile corporate bodies; and it lately had six 
 banking companies. In 1848 it was made a free port. 
 The city is divided into ten wards, and goveraed by a 
 mayor, sixteen aldermen, and forty-eight councilors. 
 Its corporation has jurisdiction on the Avon from four 
 miles above the city down to the sea, and along the 
 channel to Clevedon ; also the right to license pilots 
 for numerous ports on the Bristol Channel. Markets 
 
BRI 
 
 213 
 
 BRU 
 
 daily, that on Thursday for cattle. Fairs for horses, 
 leather, etc., March Ist and September 1st. Spring 
 Assizes for civil causes. Quarter Sessions, Sheriff's and 
 other courts are held here. Bristol belongs to Clifton 
 and Bedminster poor-law union. Under Henry VIII. 
 it was made a bishop's see, lately united with that of 
 Gloucester. It sends two members to the House of 
 Commons. It was a fortified city as early as the fifth 
 century. In Norman times it had a castle built by 
 the Earl of Gloucester, son of Henry I. In 1831 it was 
 the scene of a violent riot, daring which its Episco- 
 pal palace and many other buildings were destroyed. 
 Among its distinguished natives may be noticed Sebas- 
 tian Cabot, Chatterton, Southey, and the sculptor Bai- 
 ley. Bristol confers the title of Marquis on the Her- 
 vey family. The scenery in the vicinity, especially at 
 Hotwell Saline Spring, is exceedingly beautiful. 
 
 Bristol Channel, an arm of the Atlantic, enter- 
 ing between St. Ann's Head on the north and Land's 
 End on the south, extending into the southwest part 
 of Great Britain, between lat. 60° and 51° 40' N., and 
 long. 3° and 5° 30' W., bounded northward by South 
 Wales, and southward by the English counties of Som- 
 erset, t)evon, and Cornwall. At its eastern extremity 
 it terminates in the estuary of the Severn, besides which 
 river it receives the Parrat, Taw, Torridge, Taff, and 
 Towy; Sandy island, with its light-house, is in the 
 mouth of the channel, and the towns of Ilfracombe, 
 Combe-Martin, Watchet, Swansea, Kidwelly, and Ten- 
 by, are on its coasts. It contains Milford Haven, Car- 
 marthen Bay, and Swansea Bay on the north, and Barn- 
 stable, Porlock, and Bridgewater Bay on the south. Its 
 tides flow rapidly upward, and, meeting with the cur- 
 rents of the Severn, cause the phenomenon called the 
 bore. 
 
 Britain. See Great Britain. 
 
 Brocade (Spanish brocado), a stuff of gold, silver, 
 or silk, raised and enriched with flowers, foliages, and 
 other ornaments. Formerly the word signified only a 
 stuff woven all of gold, both in the warp and in the 
 woof, or all of silver, or of both mixed ; at present all 
 stuffs which are raised and enriched with flowers or 
 other figures are called brocades. The trade in this 
 article was carried on by the Venetians. — Anderson. 
 Its manufacture was established with great success at 
 Lyons in 1757. 
 
 Brokerage, the commission or percentage paid to 
 brokers on the sale or purchase of bills, funds, goods, 
 etc. — See Factorage. 
 
 Brokers. Those both of money and merchandise 
 were known early in England. Their dealings were 
 regulated by law, and it was enacted that they should 
 be licensed before transacting business, 8 & 9 Will. 
 III. 1695-'96. The dealings of stock-brokers were reg- 
 ulated by act 6 Geo. I. 1719, and 10 Geo. II. 1736. 
 Some derive the word broker from the French broier, 
 "to grind;" others from trocarder, "to cavil or hig- 
 gle ;" and others, again, from a trader broken, and that 
 from the Saxon broc, " misfortune." 
 
 A broker is an agent or intermediate person appoint- 
 ed for transacting special business on account of an- 
 other, but differing somewhat from an ordinary factor 
 in functions and responsibility. Of this class there are 
 various descriptions exercising employment without 
 the smallest analogy, though all are brought under the 
 general name of brokers ; and of these the principal are 
 exchange brokers, whose province is to ascertain the 
 rates and relation of exchange between countries ; 
 stock-brokers, who negotiate transactions in the public 
 funds; insurance brokers, who effect insurances on lives 
 or property, and pawnbrokers, who advance money on 
 goods, on condition of being allowed to sell the goods, 
 if the sum advanced is not repaid with interest, within 
 a limited time. — See Agent, Insokance, and Sale. 
 
 Separating pawnbrokers and those dealers in old 
 wares who are called brokers, as both distinct from the 
 class to whom the term in its broader acceptation ap- 
 
 plies, the broker is an agent for both parties, the buyer 
 and the seller; and for the general principles of juris- 
 prudence applicable to bis position, reference may be 
 made to the word Agent. It is a marked peculiarity, 
 however, of the broker as an agent, that his quality of 
 agency is not only palpable in the face of the transac- 
 tion, but he is agent for both parties, and therefore 
 those subtle niceties of law which arise out of the agent 
 acting as principal can not apply to this class of agen- 
 cies. The function of the broker is, indeed, a very sim- 
 ple one, and easily separates itself from the usual in- 
 tricacies of the law of sale and of agency. It is his 
 proper function to find buyers and sellers, and to bring 
 them together that they may transact with each other. 
 Hence the rise of such a class in any department of 
 business is an indication of its great increase. In small 
 towns, and in narrow and peculiar departments of busi- 
 ness, the buyers and the sellers know each other, and 
 need not be at the expense of employing a third party. 
 But where both bodies are numerous, and the individ- 
 ual members of each find enough to occupy their atten- 
 tion in the production of their commodity, or its pur- 
 chase and distribution, there is economy in the estab- 
 lishment of a distinct class who bring the buyer and 
 the seller together. The late enlargement of the rail- 
 way system has created a peculiar and extensive sys- 
 tem of brokerage transactions. — E. B. 
 
 Brokers are divided into different classes, as bill or 
 exchange brokers, stock-brokers, ship and insurance 
 brokers, pawnbrokers, and brokers, simply so called, 
 or those who sell or appraise household furniture dis- 
 trained for rent. Exclusive, too, of the classes now 
 mentioned, the brokers who negotiate sales of produce 
 between different merchants usually confine themselves 
 to some one department or line of business, and by at- 
 tending to it exclusively they acquire a more intimate 
 knowledge of its various details, and of the credit of 
 those engaged in it, than could be looked for on the 
 part of a general merchant, and arc consequently able, 
 for the most part, to buy on cheaper and to sell on dear- 
 er terms than those less familiar with the business. It 
 is to these circumstances — to a sense of the advantages 
 to be derived from using their intervention in the trans- 
 action of business — that the extensive emploj'ment of 
 brokers in all large commercial cities is wholly to be 
 ascribed. 
 
 Bronze (Ger. Stukgut, StiikmetaU; Du. Stiikgoed; 
 It. Bronzo ; Sp. Metal de Canones; Lat. Metallum iw- 
 mentoruin), " a mixed metal, consisting chiefly of cop- 
 per, with a small proportion of tin, ajid sometimes oth- 
 er metals. It is used for casting statues, cannon, bells, 
 and other articles, in all of which the pi-oportions of 
 the ingredients vary." — Ure. Bronze was known to 
 the ancients, some of whose statues, vessels, and vari- 
 ous other articles, made of bronze are in the British 
 Museum. The equestrian statue of Louis XIV., 1699, 
 in the Place Vendome at Paris (demolished August 10, 
 1792), was the most colossal ever made ; it contained 
 60,000 pounds' weight of bronze. Bronze is two parts 
 brass and one copper, and the Greeks added one fif- 
 teenth of lead and silver. 
 
 Brooms (Ger. Besen ; Fr. Bdlais ; It. Scope, Gr<v- 
 nate; Sp. Escobas; Euss. Metlii) are principally made 
 of birch or heath. Vast quantities are manufactured 
 in Southwark for the supply of the London market. 
 
 Bruges (Flem. Brugge), a fortified city of Belgium, 
 capital of the province of West Flanders, on the Brus- 
 sels, Ghent, and Ostend railroad, 75 miles from Brus- 
 sels and 14 from Ostend, and at the junction of the 
 canals from Ghent to Ostend, and to Sluis. Lat. (of 
 the halle spire) 51° 12' 30" N., long. 3° 13' 44" E. Pop- 
 ulation, 60,272. Bruges is surrounded by walls, and 
 defended by an old citadel ; it is one of the most flour- 
 ishing commercial cities in the kingdom. It owes its 
 name to the number of its bridges (upward of fifty), 
 which cross its canals, and is remarkable for the many 
 fine Gothic buildings which it contains. Chief Indus- 
 
BKU 
 
 214 
 
 BUG 
 
 try, the manufacture of lace, which is celebrated, and 1 
 occupies more than a sixth part of the female popiJa- 
 tion ; manufactures of linen, •woolen and cotton fab- 
 rics, cordage, tobacco, and soap. Bruges has numer- 
 ous distilleries, breweries, tanneries, dye-works, sugar 
 and salt refineries, and ship-building yards. Its docks 
 are capable of containing one hundred barges, and are 
 surrounded with spacious warehouses. Principal ex- 
 ports, lace and other manufactured goods, grain, and 
 cattle. Imports, wool, cotton, dye-woods, wine, and 
 colonial products. Bruges was formerly the capital 
 and residence of the Counts of Flanders ; in the thir- 
 teenth century it was one of the most commercial cities 
 in the world, and the richest entrepot of the Hanseatic 
 League ; it was long renowned for the excellence of its 
 woolen cloths and tapestries ; it began to decline at the 
 end of the lifteenth century, when the religious perse- 
 cutions of Philip II. obliged its inhabitants to seek ref- 
 uge in England. In 1430 Philip the Good, duke of Bur- 
 gundy, here instituted the order of the Golden Fleece. 
 Charles II. lived at Bruges during his exile from En- 
 gland. 
 
 Brush, a well-known implement used for various 
 purposes, such as clearing away dust, smoothing or pol- 
 ishing surfaces, etc. Ordinary brushes are made of 
 small bundles of bristles or hairs, secured at one end 
 by a ligature ; and this knotted end is set with glue or 
 cement into a wooden stock, which is shaped and pierced 
 with holes for the purpose. A patent was obtained iii 
 1830 for several improvements in the construction of 
 brushes. Of these the chief feature consists in press- 
 ing the knotted ends 'of the bundles into wedge-shaped 
 grooves in the stock ; after which they may be further 
 secured by being covered with a ferule of metal, or a 
 wooden pallet. Small brushes are generally made by 
 doubling the hair or bristle, and bringing it through 
 the holes in the stock by means of a thread or wire 
 which is engaged in the fold, and serves to secure it; 
 after which the bristles are cut even. Brushes vary 
 in their size, form, and materials of construction, ac- 
 cording to the several uses to which they are applied. 
 Silver-smiths and other artificers use a wire brush for 
 scrubbing silver, copper, or brass, previous to gilding. 
 In some countries the bamboo or other fibrous plant is 
 converted into a kind of brush, for painting and simi- 
 lar purposes, by fretting the extremity by beating and 
 then binding it firmly above the part so treated. 
 
 Brussels (Fr. Bruxelles), a city of Central Europe, 
 capital of the kingdom of Belgium and of the province 
 of Brabant, on the Senne, and on the Belgian railroad, 
 88 miles from Ostend, 27 from Antwerp, 48 from Ghent, 
 71 from Liege, 92 from Lille, 149 from Cologne, 150 
 from Paris, and 272 from London. Lat. (of observato- 
 rv) 50° 51' 11" N., long. 4° 21' 10" E. Population in 
 1845, 117,402 ; in 1853, 145,000. Altitude of observa- 
 tory, 190 feet. Climate temperate, humid, and very 
 variable, but healthy. Mean temperature of year, 
 49°'6 ; winter, 38°; summer, 64° Fahrenheit. It is the 
 most important city in the kingdom, and the chief seat 
 of public instruction and industry, the residence of the 
 courts, the seat of the legislative assemblies, courts of 
 appeal, and chamber of commerce. Brussels is re- 
 markable for the number and richness of its ancient 
 buildings; and, from the elegance of its new quarters, 
 it ranks among the finest cities of Europe. It is the 
 seat of the principal banks, and of the only mint of the 
 kingdom, and has a savings bank and many wealthy 
 and charitable institutions ; it is one of the great cen- 
 tres of Belgian industry, and it is still celebrated for 
 its lace, considered the finest in the world ; its other 
 chief manufactures are of fine linens, damask, silk and 
 cotton ribbons, gold and silver embroidery, hats, paper, 
 machinery, jewelry, and mathematical and musical in- 
 struments. It has also establishments for coach-build- 
 ing and cabinet - making, manufactories of chemical 
 products, soap, porcelain, and crystal, and extensive 
 sugar refineries and breweries. It has many extensive 
 
 typographical and lithographic establishments, which 
 are chiefly employed in reprints of works published in 
 France. The commerce of Brussels is facilitated by a 
 canal which connects it with Antwerp, and admits ves- 
 sels of 300 tons burden, by excellent roads and by rail- 
 ways, which radiate from it in every direction. Brus- 
 sels is a very ancient city ; it is believed to have been' 
 founded in the seventh century ; it was fortified in the 
 eleventh century, and was the residence of the Dukes 
 of Brabant, and afterward of the Spanish and Austrian 
 governors general of the Netherlands: its fortifications 
 were dismantled by Joseph II. It was, under the 
 French empire, capital of the dependencies of the Dyle; 
 previous to 1830, it was one of the capitals of the king- 
 dom of the Netherlands, and alternately with the Hague, 
 the seat of the court and of the States-General : it is the 
 birth-place of the physicians Vesalius and Van Hel- 
 mont, and one of the two painters Champaigne. 
 
 Bubbles, a familiar name applied generally to 
 fraudulent or unsubstantial commercial projects, which 
 hold out hopes of rapid gain, for the purpose of enrich- 
 ing the projectors at the expense of sanguine and igno- 
 rant adventurers : and particularly used to designate 
 those projects the funds for which are raised by the 
 sale of shares or subscription to a transferable stock. 
 
 In consequence of the mischief produced by the gam- 
 bling in transferable shares of bubble companies at the 
 time of the South Sea project, 1719 and 1720, the Stat. 
 6 Geo. I. c. 18, reciting that several undertakings or 
 projects had been contrived and practiced, which "man- 
 ifestly tended to the common grievance, prejudice, and 
 inconvenience of great numbers of his majesty's sub- 
 jects in their trade and commerce," and describing, 
 among other practices of the time, the ordinary mode 
 of raising money by shares and subscriptions to a pre- 
 tended transferable stock, enacted that the undertak- 
 ings and attempts so described, and public subscrip- 
 tions, assignments, and transfers for furthering them, 
 and particularly the raising or pretending to raise 
 transferable stocks without authority of charter or act 
 of Parliament, should be deemed illegal and void, and 
 prohibited them under severe penalties. Some decis- 
 ions limited the operation of, and finally the stat. 6 
 Geo. IV. c. 91, altogether repealed these enactments and 
 prohibitions. The projectors of bubbles, therefore, are 
 now punishable only when they can be deemed guilty 
 of frauds or conspiracies at common law ; and there is 
 no other check on the adventurers than the loss and 
 troublesome liabilities under the law of partnership, in 
 whichparticipation in these projects often involves them. 
 
 Buccaneer (from the French boucaner), in its pri- 
 mary sense, denotes one who dries and smokes flesh 
 or fish after the manner of the Indians. The name 
 was particularl}' given to the first French settlers in 
 the island of St. Domingo or Hayti, whose principal 
 employment consisted in hunting bulls or wild boars, 
 in order to sell their hides and flesh. The name has 
 also been applied to those famous piratical adventurers, 
 chiefly English arid French, who joined together to 
 commit depredations on the Spaniards of America. 
 
 The Buccaneers of St. Domingo. — The Spaniards had 
 not long been in possession of the West Indies and of 
 the continent of America, when other nations, especial- 
 ly the English and the French, began to seek estab- 
 lishments there. But though the Spaniards were un- 
 able to people such extensive countries themselves, 
 they were resolved that no others should do it for them, 
 and therefore waged a cruel war on all those of any 
 other nation who attempted to settle in any of the 
 Antilles or Caribbee Islands. The French, however, 
 were at last lucky enough to acquire some footing in 
 the island of St. Christopher's ; but by the time they 
 began to subside into a regular form of government, 
 the Spaniards found means to dislodge them. Upon 
 this the wretched fugitives, considering at how great a 
 distance they were from their mother country, and how 
 near to the island of Hispaniola or St. Domingo, the 
 
BUG 
 
 215 
 
 BUG 
 
 northern parts of which were then uninhabited, and 
 full of swine and black cattle, immediately resolved to 
 take possession of that country, in conjunction with 
 several other adventurers of their own and the English 
 nation ; especially as the Dutch, who now began to 
 appear in these seas, promised to supply them plenti- 
 fully with all kinds of necessaries they might require, 
 in exchange for the hides and tallow they should pro- 
 cure by hunting. 
 
 These new settlers obtained the name of buccaneers, 
 from their custom of bucanning their beef and pork in 
 order to keep it for sale or for their own censumption. 
 But some of them soon grew tired of this new way of 
 life, and took to planting ; while many more chose to 
 tijrn pirates, trusting to find among those who remain- 
 ed on shore a quick sale for all the plunder they could 
 make at sea. This new body of adventurers were 
 culled freebooters, from their making free prey or booty 
 of whatever came in their way. 
 
 The colony now began to thrive at a great rate, by 
 the cheap and easy manner in which the freebooters 
 acquired the greatest riches, and the profusion with 
 which they distributed them among their old compan- 
 ions, the buccaneers and planters, for the merest trifles. 
 This brought numbers of settlers from France in qual- 
 ity of indentured servants, though they toiled rather 
 like slaves than servants during the three years for 
 which they generally bound themselves. One of these 
 men presuming to represent to his master, who always 
 fixed upon Sunday for sending him with skins to the 
 port, that God had forbidden such a practice when he 
 had declared that " six days shalt thou labor, and on 
 the seventh day shalt thou rest," the brutish buccaneer 
 replied, "And I say to thee, six days shalt thou kill 
 bulls, and strip them of their skins, and on the seventh 
 day shalt thou carry their hides to the sea-shores ;" and 
 this command was followed by blows. Thus the colo- 
 ny consisted of four classes — buccaneers, freebootersj 
 planters, and indentured servants, who generally re- 
 mained with the buccaneers or planters. And these 
 four orders composed what they now began to call the 
 body of adventurers, who lived together in perfect har- 
 mony, under a kind of democracj*; every freeman hav- 
 ing a despotic authority over his own family, and ev- 
 ery captain being sovereign in his ship, though liable 
 to be discarded at the discretion of the crew. 
 
 The planters had settled chiefly in the little island 
 of Tortuga, on the northern coast of Hispaniola ; but 
 soon afterward some of them having gone to the great 
 island to hunt wim the buccaneers, the rest were sur- 
 prised by the Spaniards; and all, even those who had 
 surrendered at discretion in hopes of mercy, were put 
 to the sword or hanged. The next care of the Span- 
 iards was to rid the great island of the buccaneers ; and 
 for this purpose they assembled a body of five hundred 
 lance-men, who, by their seldom going fewer than fifty 
 in a company, obtained from their enemies the name 
 of the Fifties. But before detailing the particulars of 
 this attack we shall endeavor to give some account of 
 the manners and customs of the people whom it was 
 proposed to extirpate. 
 
 The buccaneers lived in little huts built on some spots 
 of cleared ground, just large enough to dry their skins 
 on, and contain their bucanning houses. These spots 
 they called boucans, and the huts they dwelt in ajoupas, 
 a word which they borrowed from the Spaniards, and 
 the Spaniards from the natives. Though these ajoupas 
 lay open on all sides, they were very agreeable to the 
 hardy inhabitants in a climate where a free circulation 
 of air is so desirable. As the buccaneers had neither 
 wives nor children, they associated by pairs, and mu- 
 tually rendered each other all the services a master 
 could reasonably expect from a servant, living togeth- 
 er in so perfect a community that the survivor always 
 succeeded his deceased partner. This kind of union or 
 fellowship they called s'ematehter (insailoring), and 
 each other matelot (sailor), whence is derived the custom 
 
 of giving, at least in some parts of the French Antilles, 
 the name vmtelotage (sailorage) to any kind of society 
 formed by private persons for their mutual advantage. 
 They behaved to each other with the greatest justice 
 and openness of heart ; it was considered as a crime to 
 keep any thing under lock and key ; but, on the other 
 hand, the least pilfering was unpardonable, and pun- 
 ished with expulsion from the community. And, in- 
 deed, there could be no great temptation to steal, see- 
 ing it was reckoned a point of honor never to refuse a 
 neighbor what he wanted ; and where there was so lit- 
 tle property, it was impossible there should be many 
 disputes. If any such happened, the common friends 
 of the parties at variance interposed, and soon put an 
 end to the diflference. 
 
 As to laws, the buccaneers acknowledged none but 
 an odd jumble of conventions made between them- 
 selves, which, however, they regarded as the sovereign 
 rule. They silenced all objections by coolly answer- 
 ing that it was not the custom of the coast; and 
 grounded their right of acting in this manner on their 
 baptism under the tropic, which freed them, in their 
 opinion, from all obligations antecedent to that marine 
 ceremony. The governor of Tortuga, when that isl- 
 and was again settled, though appointed by the French 
 court, had very little authority over them ; and they 
 contented themselves with rendering him from time to 
 time some .slight homage. They had in a manner en- 
 tirely shaken off the yoke of religion, and thoiight they 
 did a' great deal in not wholly forgetting the God of 
 their fathers. We are surprised to meet with nations 
 among whom it is u difficult matter to discover any 
 trace of a religious worship ; and yet it is certain that, 
 had the buccaneers of St. Domingo been perpetuated on 
 the same footing on which they subsisted at the time 
 we are speaking of, the third or fourth generation of 
 them would have possessed as little religion as the Caf- 
 fres and Hottentots of Africa, or the Cannibals of the 
 South Sea islands. 
 
 Such were the buccaneers of St. Domingo, and such 
 was their situation when the Spaniards undertook to 
 extirpate them. And at first the assailants met with 
 great success ; for as the buccaneers hunted separately, 
 every one attended by his servants, they were easily 
 surprised. Hence the Spaniards killed numbers, and 
 took many more, whom they condemned to a most cru- 
 el slavery. But whenever the buccaneers had time to 
 put themselves into a state of defense, they fought like 
 lions, to avoid falling into the hands of a nation from 
 whom they were sure to receive no quarter; and by 
 this means they often escaped; nay, there arc many 
 instances of single men fighting their way through 
 numbers. These dangers, however, and the success 
 of the Spaniards in discovering their boucans, where 
 they used to surprise and cut the throats of the bucca- 
 neers and their servants in their sleep, engaged them to 
 cohabit in greater numbers, and even to act offensive- 
 ly, in hopes that by so doing they might at last inducfe 
 the Spaniards to let them live in peace. But the 
 fury with which they behaved whenever they met any 
 Spaniards served only to make their enemies more in- 
 tent on their destruction; and assistance coming to 
 both parties, the whole island was turned into a slaugh- 
 ter-house, and so much blood spilled on both sides, that 
 many places, on account of the carnage of which they 
 had been the scenes, were described as the hill of the 
 massacre, the plain of the massacre, the valley of the 
 massacre, and so forth. 
 
 At length the Spaniards grew tired of this mode of 
 proceeding, and had recourse to their old method of 
 surprise, which, against enemies of more courage than 
 vigilance, was likely to succeed better. This placed 
 the buccaneers under the necessity of never hunting ex- 
 cept in large parties, and fixing their boucans in the 
 little islands on the coast, where they retired every 
 evening ; an expedient which succeeded very wel], 
 and the boucans, by being more fixed, soon acquired 
 
BUG 
 
 216 
 
 BUG 
 
 the air and consistency of little towns. When the 
 buccaneers had once estahlished themselves, as here 
 related, each boucan sent out scouts every morning to 
 the highest part of the island, in order to reconnoitre 
 the coast, and see if any Spanish parties were abroad. 
 If no enemy appeared, they appointed a place and hour 
 of rendezvous in the evening, and were never absent if 
 not lulled or made prisoners. When, therefore, any 
 one of the company was missing, it was not lawful fur 
 the rest to hunt again till they had got intelligence of 
 him if taken, or avenged his death if killed. Things 
 continued in this situation for a long time, till the 
 Spaniards made a general hunt over the whole island, 
 and, by destroying the game, forced the buccaneers to 
 betake themselves to another course of life. Some of 
 them turned planters, and thus increased the French 
 settlements on the coast, or formed others ; while the 
 rest, not relishing so confined and regular a life, enter- 
 ed among the freebooters, who thereby became a very 
 powerful body. France, which had hitherto disclaim- 
 ed for her subjects these ruffians, whose successes were 
 only temporary, acknowledged them, however, as soon 
 as they formed themselves into settlements, and took 
 proper measures for their government and defense. 
 
 Buccaneers^ the Pirates. — Before the English had ef- 
 fected any settlement in Jamaica, and the French in 
 St. Domingo, some pirates of both nations, who were 
 afterward so much distinguished by the name of Buc- 
 ccmeers, had driven the Spaniards out of the small isl- 
 and of Tortuga; and, fortifying themselves therfe, had 
 with an amazing intrepidity made excursions against 
 the common enemy. They formed themselves into 
 small companies consisting of fifty, a hundred, or a 
 hundred and fifty men each. A boat, of greater or 
 smaller size, was their only armament. Here they 
 were exposed night and day to all the inclemencies of 
 the weather, having scarce room enough to lie down. 
 A love of absolute independence rendered them averse 
 from those mutual restraints which the members of 
 society impose upon themselves for the common good ; 
 and as the authority they had conferred on their cap- 
 tain was confined to his giving orders in battle, they 
 lived in the greatest confusion. Like the savages, 
 having no apprehension of want, nor any care to pre- 
 serve the necessaries of life, they were constantly ex- 
 posed to the severest extremities of hunger and thirst ; 
 but deriving from their very distresses a courage su- 
 perior to every danger, the sight of a ship transported 
 them to a degree bordering on frenzy. They never 
 deliberated on the attack, btit it was their custom to 
 board the ship as soon as possible. The smallness of 
 their vessels, and the skill they showed in the man- 
 agement of them, screened them from the fire of the 
 larger class of ships ; and they presented only the fore 
 part of their little vessels filled with fusileers, who 
 fired at the port-holes with so much exactness that it 
 entirely confounded the most experienced gunners. 
 As soon as they threw oiit the grappling, the largest 
 vessels seldom escaped them. 
 
 In cases of extreme necessity they attacked the peo- 
 ple of every nation, but fell upon the Spaniards at all 
 times. They thought that the cruelties whicli the lai> 
 ter had exercised on the inhabitants of the New World 
 justified the implacable aversion they had sworn 
 against them. But this was heightened by the mor- 
 tification they felt in seeing themselves debarred from 
 the privileges of hunting and fishing, which they con- 
 sidered as natural rights. Their principles of justice 
 and religion in no degree interfered with their preda- 
 atory habits ; for whenever they embarked on any ex- 
 pedition, they used to pray to Heaven for the success 
 of it ; and they never came back from plundering 
 without returning thanks to God for their victory. 
 
 The ships which sailed from Europe to America sel- 
 dom tempted their avidity, since the merchandise which 
 these contained could not have been easily sold, nor 
 indeed very profitable to those barbarians, They al- 
 
 ways waited for them on their return, when they were 
 certain they were laden with gold, silver, jewels, and 
 all the valuable productions of the New World. If 
 they met with a single ship, they never failed to attack 
 her. As to the fleets, they followed them tUl they 
 sailed out of the Gulf of Bahama ; and as soon as any 
 one of the vessels was separated by accident from the 
 rest, it was taken. The Spaniards, who trembled at 
 the approach of the buccaneers, whom they called dev- 
 ils, immediately surrendered. Quarter was granted 
 if the cargo proved to be a rich one ; if not, all the 
 prisoners were thrown into the sea. 
 
 The buccaneers, when they had got a considerable 
 booty, at first held their rendezvous at the island of 
 Tortuga, in order to divide the spoil ; but afterward 
 the French went to St. Domingo, and the English to 
 Jamaica. Each person, holding up his hand, solemn- 
 ly protested that he had secreted nothing of what he 
 had taken. If any one among them was convicted 
 of perjury, a case which seldom happened, he was left, 
 as soon as an opportunity oflTered, upon some desert 
 island, as a traitor unworthy to live in society. Such 
 of their number as had been maimed in any of their 
 expeditions were first provided for. If they had lost 
 a hand, an arm, a leg, or a foot, they received twenty- 
 six pounds ; "while an eye, a finger, or a toe, lost in 
 fight, was valued only at half this sum. The wound- 
 ed were allowed half a crown per day for two months, 
 to enable them to have their wounds taken care of; 
 and if they had not money enough to answer these 
 several demands, the whole company were obliged to 
 engage in some fresh expedition, and to continue it till 
 they had acquired a sufficient stock to enable them to 
 satisfy these honorable contracts. The remainder of 
 the booty was then divided into as many shares as 
 there were buccaneers. The commander could only 
 lay claim to a single share ; but they complimented 
 him with two or three, in proportion as he had acquit- 
 ted himself to their satisfaction. Favor never had any 
 influence in the division of the booty, for every share 
 was determined by lot. The most rigid justice was 
 extended even to the dead. His share was given to 
 the man who was known to be his companion when 
 alive, and therefore accounted his heir. If the person 
 who had been killed had no intimate, his portion was 
 sent to his relations when they were known ; and if 
 there were no friends or relations, it was distributed 
 in charity to the poor, and to the churches, which con- 
 sented to offer up prayers for the person in whof e name 
 these benefactions were given. # 
 
 Among the buccaneers who signalized themselves 
 in this new species of freebooting, Montbar, a gentle- 
 man of Languedoc, particularly distinguished himself. 
 Having by chance, in his infancy, met with a circum- 
 stantial account of the cruelties practiced in the con- 
 quest of the New World, he conceived an aversion, 
 which he carried to a degree of frenzy, against that 
 nation which had committed such enormities. The 
 enthusiasm which this spirit of humanity worked him 
 up to merged in a ferocity still more cruel than that 
 of the religious fanaticism to which so many victims 
 had been sacrificed. The manes of these unhappy suf- 
 ferers seemed to rouse him, and call for vengeance. 
 He had heard some account of the buccaneers, who 
 were said to be the most inveterate enemies to the 
 Spanish name ; and he therefore embarked, w ith some 
 others, on board a ship in order to join them. 
 
 His savage disposition, as well as that of the oth- 
 er buccaneers who attended him, having obliged the 
 Spaniards to confine themselves within their settle- 
 ments, the freebooters resolved to attack them there. 
 This new method of carrying on the war required supe- 
 rior forces ; and their associations in consequence be- 
 came more numerous. The first considerable one was 
 thatformedby L'Olonois, who derived his name from the 
 sands of Clones, the place of his birth. From the abject 
 state of a bondsman, he had gradually raised himself to 
 
BUG 
 
 217 
 
 BUG 
 
 the command of two canoes, with twenty-two men ; and 
 with these he was so successful as to take a Spanish 
 frigate on the coast of Cuba. He then repaired to Port- 
 au-Prince, in which were four ships, iitted out pur- 
 posely to sail in pursuit of him ; but he took them, 
 and threw all the crews into the sea except one man, 
 whom he saved in order to send him with a letter to 
 the governor of the Havana, acquainting him with 
 what he had done, and assuring him that he would 
 treat in the same manner all the Spaniards who should 
 fall into his hands, not excepting the governor him- 
 self, if he were fortunate enough to take him. After 
 this expedition he ran his canoes and prize ships 
 aground, and sailed with his frigate only to the island 
 of Tortuga. 
 
 But while they were idly dissipating the spoils 
 which they had made on the coast of Venezuela, Mor- 
 gan, the most renowned of the English buccaneers, 
 sailed from Jamaica to attack Porto Bello. His plan 
 of operations was so well contrived that he surprised 
 and took the city "without opposition. The conquest 
 of Panama was an object of much greater importance. 
 To secure tliis, Morgan thought it necessary to sail in 
 the latitudes of Costa Rica, in order to procure some 
 guides in the island of St. Catharines, where the Span- 
 iards confined their malefactors. This place was so 
 strongly fortified that it might have held out for ten 
 years against a considerable army. But notwithstand- 
 ing this, the governor, on the first appearance of the 
 pirates, sent privately to concert measures how he 
 might surrender himself without incurring the impu- 
 tation of cowardice; and the result of this consultation 
 was, that Morgan in the night-time was to attack a 
 fort at some distance, while the governor was to sally 
 out of the citadel to defend a post of so much conse- 
 quence, and that the assailants should then attack him 
 in the rear and take him prisoner, which would occa- 
 sion an immediate sm-render of the place. It was 
 agreed that a smart firing should be kept up on both 
 sides, without doing mischief to either. This farce 
 was admirably carried on. The Spaniards, without 
 being exposed to any danger, appeared to have done 
 their duty; and the buccaneers, after having totally 
 demolished the fortifications, and put on board their 
 vessels a prodigious quantity of warlilte ammunition, 
 which they found at St. Catharines, steered their course 
 toward the River Chagres, the only channel whereby 
 they could arrive at the place which was the object of 
 their wishes. 
 
 Morgan left his vessels at anchor, with a sufficient 
 number of men to guard them, aud sailed up the river 
 in his sloops for thirty-three miles, till he came to Gra- 
 ces, where it ceases to be navigable ; and he then pro- 
 ceeded by land to Panama, which was only five leagues 
 distant. Upon a large and extensive plain which 
 stretched out before the city, he met with a consider- 
 able body of troops, whom he put to flight with the 
 greatest ease, and entered the city, which was now 
 abandoned. Here were found prodigious treasures 
 concealed in the wells and caves ; some valuable com- 
 modities were also taken in the boats which were left 
 aground at low water ; and in the neighboring forests 
 were likewise found several rich deposits. Having 
 burned the city, they set sail with a great number of 
 prisoners, who were ransomed a few days afterward, 
 and arrived at the mouth of the Chagres with a prodig- 
 ious booty. 
 
 Ip 1603 an expedition of the greatest consequence 
 was formed by Van Horn, a native of Ostend, but who 
 had served all his life among the French. His own 
 intrepidity prevented his tolerating the least sign of 
 cowardice among those who associated with him. In 
 the heat of an engagement he went about his ship, ob- 
 served his men in succession, and immediately killed 
 those who shrunk at the sudden report of a pistol, gun, 
 or cannon. This extraordinary discipline rendered 
 him the terror of the coward and the idol of the brave. 
 
 In other respects he readily shared with the men of 
 spirit and bravery the immense riches which were ac- 
 quired in the course of his marauding expeditions. 
 When he went upon such expeditions, he generally 
 sailed in his frigate, which was his own property'. But 
 his designs requiring greater numbers to carry them 
 into execution, he called to his assistance Grammont, 
 Godfrey, and jonque, three Frenchmen distinguished 
 by their exploits, and Lawrence de GraflT, a Dutch- 
 man, who had signalized himself still more than thej'. 
 Twelve hundred buccaneers joined themselves to these 
 commanders, and sailed in six vessels for Vera Cruz. 
 
 The darkness of the night favored their landing, 
 which was effected about three leagues from the place, 
 where they arrived without being discovered. The 
 governor, the fort, the barracks, and the posts of the 
 greatest consequence, every thing, in short, which 
 could occasion any resistance, were taken by the break 
 of day. All the citizens, men, women, and children, 
 were shut up in the churches, whither they had fled 
 for shelter. At the door of each church were placed 
 barrels of gunpowder to blow up the building ; and a 
 buccaneer, with a lighted match, was to set fire to it 
 upon the least appearance of an insurrection. 
 
 While the city was kept in this state of terror, it 
 was easily pillaged ; and after the buccaneers had car- 
 ried ofi' whatever was most valuable, they made a pro- 
 posal to the citizens who were kept prisoners in the 
 churches to ransom their lives and liberties by a con- 
 tribution of £437,500. This unfortunate people, who 
 had neither eaten nor drunken for three days, cheerfully 
 accepted the terms which were offered them. Half of 
 the money was paid the same day, and the other part 
 was expected from the interior of the country, when 
 there appeared on an eminence a considerable body of 
 troops advancing, and near the port a fleet of seventeen 
 ships from Europe. At the sight of this armament, 
 the buccaneers, without any marks of surprise, retired 
 quietly, with fifteen hundred slaves they had seized, 
 as a trifling indemnification for the rest of the money 
 they expected, the settling of which they refeiTed to a 
 more favorable opportunity. Their retreat was equal- 
 ly daring. They boldly sailed through the midst of 
 the Spanish fleet, which let them pass without firing a 
 single gun, and, in fact, seemed afraid of being attacked 
 and beaten. The Spaniards would not probably have 
 escaped so easily if the vessels of the pirates had not 
 been laden with silver, or if the Spanish fleet had been 
 freighted with any other effects but such merchandise 
 as was little valued by these daring freebooters. 
 
 A year had scarcely elapsed since their return from 
 Mexico, when, on a sudden, they were all seized with 
 a passion for going to plunder Peru. It is probable 
 that the hopes of finding greater treasures upon a sea 
 little frequented than on one long exposed to piracies 
 of this kind, was the cause of this expedition ; but it 
 is somewhat remarkable that both the English and 
 French, and the associations of these two nations, had 
 projected this plan at the same time, without any com- 
 munication, intercourse, or design of acting in concert 
 with each other. About four thousand men were em- 
 ployed in this expedition. Some of them proceeded 
 by Terra Firma, others by the Straits of Magellan, 
 to the place which formed the object of their wishes ; 
 and if the intrepidity of these barbarians had been di- 
 rected, under the influence of a skillful commander, to 
 a single end, it is certain that they would have de- 
 prived the Spaniards of this important colony. But 
 their natural character presented an invincible obsta- 
 cle to so rare a union ; for they always formed them- 
 selves into several distinct bodies, sometimes even so 
 few in number as ten or twelve, who acted together, or 
 separated, as whim or caprice dictated. Grognier, 
 Lecuyer, Picard, and Le Sage, were the most distin- 
 guished officers among the French; David Samms, 
 Peter Wilner, and Towley, among the English. 
 
 Such of these adventurers as had got into the South 
 
BUG 
 
 218 
 
 BUG 
 
 Sea by the Straits of Darien seized upon the first ves- 
 sel which they found upon the coast ; and their asso- 
 ciates, who had sailed in their own vessels, were not 
 much better provided. Weak, however, as they were, 
 they several times beat the squadrons which were fit- 
 ted out against them. But these victories were prej- 
 udicial to them, by interrupting their navigation ; 
 and when tliere were no more ships to be taken, they 
 were continually obliged to make descents upon the 
 coasts to get provisions, or to go by land in order to 
 plunder those cities where the booty had been secured. 
 They successively attacked Seppa, Puebla-Nuevo, Leon, 
 Eealejo, Puebla-Vicjo, Chiriquita, Lesparso, Granada, 
 Villia, Nicoy, Tecoanteca, Mucmeluna, Cbiloteca, New 
 Segovia, and Guayaquil, the most considerable of all 
 these places. 
 
 Many of these places were taken by surprise, and 
 most of them deserted by their inhabitants, who iied 
 at the sight of the enemy. As soon as the buccaneers 
 took atown, it was directly set on fire, unless a sum 
 proportioned to its value was paid to save it. The 
 prisoners taken in battle were massacred without mer- 
 cy if they were not ransomed by the governor or some 
 of the inhabitants ; while gold, pearls, or precious 
 stones, were the only things accepted of for the pay- 
 ment of their ransom. Silver being too common, and 
 too weighty for its current value, would have been 
 troublesome to them. The chances of fortune, which 
 seldom leave guilt unpunished, or adversity without 
 a compensation for its suffering, atoned for the crimes 
 committed in the conquest of the New "World ; and the 
 Indians were amply avenged on the Spaniards. 
 
 While such piracies were being committed on the 
 Southern Ocean, the Northern was threatened with 
 the same by Grammont. He was a native of Paris, 
 by birth a gentleman, and had distinguished himself 
 in a military capacity in Europe ; but his passion for 
 wine, gaming, and women, had obliged him to join 
 the pirates. Nevertheless, he was affable, polite, gen- 
 erous, and eloquent ; endued with u sound judgment, 
 and a person of approved valor ; qualities which soon 
 made him be considered as the chief of the French buc- 
 caneers. As soon as it was known that he had taken 
 up arms, he was immediately joined by a number of 
 brave men. The governor of St. Domingo, who had 
 at length prevailed upon his master to approve of the 
 project, equally wise and just, of fixing the pirates in 
 some place, and inducing them to become cultivators, 
 was desirous of preventing the concerted expedition, 
 and forbade it in the king's name. But Grammont, 
 who had a greater share of sense than his associates, 
 was not on that account inclined to comply, and stern- 
 ly replied, " How can Louis disapprove of a design he 
 is unacquainted with, and which has been planned only 
 a few days ago ?" This answer highly pleased all the 
 buccaneers, who directly embarked in 1685 to attack 
 Campeachy. 
 
 They landed without opposition. But at some dis- 
 tance from the coast they were attacked by eight hun- 
 dred Spaniards, who were beaten and pursued to the 
 town, which both parties entered pell-mell together. 
 The cannon they found there were immediately leveled 
 against the citadel ; but as these had very little effect, 
 they were contriving some stratagem to enable them 
 to become masters of the place, when intelligence was 
 brought that it had been abandoned. There remained 
 in it only a gunner, an Englishman, and an officer of 
 signal courage, who chose rather to expose himself to 
 the greatest extremities than basely to fly from the 
 place with the rest. The commander of the buccaneers 
 received him with marks of distinction, generously re- 
 leased him, gave him up all his effects, and, besides, 
 complimented him with some valuable presents ; such 
 influence have courage and fidelity even on the minds 
 of those who systematically violate all the rights of 
 society. 
 
 In 1697, twelve hundred buccaneers were induced to 
 
 join a squadron of seven ships which sailed from Eu- 
 rope under the command of one Pointis, to attack the 
 famous city of Carthagena. This was the most difii- 
 cult enterprise which could be attempted in the New 
 World. The situation of the port, the strength of the 
 place, and the badness of the climate, were so many 
 obstacles which would have seemed insurmountable to 
 any but such men as the buccaneers. But every ob- 
 stacle yielded to their valor and good fortune; the 
 city was taken, and booty gained to the amount of 
 £1,750,000. Their rapacious commander, however, 
 deprived them of the' advantages resulting from their 
 success. He scrupled not, as soon as they set sail, to 
 offer X5250 for the share of those who had been the 
 chief instruments in procuring him so considerable a 
 spoil. 
 
 The buccaneers, exasperated at this treatment, re- 
 solved immediately to board the vessel called the jScfp- 
 tre, where Pointis himself was, and were with great 
 difficulty prevented from assassinating him. They 
 then set sail for Carthagena, where they amply repaid 
 themselves for the losses they had sustained through 
 the avarice of their late commander. 
 
 At length, after amassing all they could, these ad- 
 venturers set sail, when unfortunately they met with a 
 fleet of Dutch and English ships, then in alliance with 
 Spain. Several of the pirates were either taken or 
 sunk, with the cargoes they had on board ; and the 
 rest escaped to St. Domingo. 
 
 Such was the last memorable event in the history 
 of the buccaneers. The separation of the English and 
 French, when the war on account of the Prince of 
 Orange divided the two nations ; the success of the 
 means employed to promote the 'cultivation of land 
 among their colonies, by the assistance of these enter- 
 prising men ; the prudence evinced in selecting the 
 most distinguished among them, and intrusting them 
 with civil and military employments ; and the protec- 
 tion afi'orded to the Spanish settlements, which till 
 then had been a general object of plunder; all these 
 circumstances, and various others, besides the impossi- 
 bility of supplying the place of these remarkable men, 
 who were continually dropping off, concurred to put 
 an end to a society as extpaordinary as any that ever 
 existed. Without any regular system, without laws, 
 without subordination, and even without any fixed 
 revenue, they became the astonishment of the age in 
 "which they lived, a-s they will be also of posteritv.- — 
 E. B. 
 
 Buckles. The wearing of buckles commenced in 
 the reign of Charles II., but people of inferior rank, 
 and such as affected plainness in their garb, wore 
 strings in their shoes some years after that period: 
 these last were, however, ridiculed for their singulari- 
 ty in using them. Buckles continue to be used in 
 court dress, and by persons of rank in most countries 
 of Europe. 
 
 Buok'Wheat (Fr. BU Sarradn, Ble noir ; Germ. 
 Buchv:eizen^ lieidekfym ; It. Grano Saraceno^ Faggina, 
 Fraina ; Sp. Trigo Saraceno, Trigo negro ; Pol. Ta- 
 tarca, Gryha, Pohanca ; Russ. Gretscka; Lat. Fagopy- 
 rum') is principally cultivated in order that it may be 
 cut when young and green, and employed as fodder 
 for cattle ; when allowed to ripen, the grain is usually 
 employed to feed pigeons and poultry. When ripe, it 
 is of a deep yellow color, the seeds bearing a great re- 
 semblance to beech-mast : it will grow on the poorest 
 soils. It is cultivated in almost every part of the {em- 
 perate and arctic climates of the civilized world for 
 the farinaceous albumen of its seeds, which, when prop- 
 erly cooked, affords a delicious article of food to a large 
 portion of the human race. It also serves as excel- 
 lent fodder to milch cows, and the straw, when cut 
 green and converted into hay, as well as the ripened 
 seeds, are fed to cattle, poultry, and swine. It is be- 
 lieved to be a native of Central Asia, as it is supposed 
 to have been first brought to Europe in the early part 
 
BUE 
 
 219 
 
 BUE 
 
 of the twelfth century, at the time of the Crusades for 
 the recovery of Syria from the dominion of the Sara- 
 cena ; while others contend that it was introduced into 
 Spain by the Moors, four hundred years before. This 
 grain appears not to have been much cultivated in this 
 country prior to the last century, as it is not often men- 
 tioned by writers on America previous to that period. 
 Holm, in his History of Pennsylvania (Nieu Swede- 
 land), published at Stockholm in 1702, mentions it 
 among the productions of that province ; and Kalm, 
 the Swedisli naturalist, "who visited this country in 
 1748-49, speaks of it as growing in Pennsylvaida, New 
 Jersey, and New York ; and several American writers 
 on agricultural subjects have treated of it since. The 
 cultivation of buckwheat, in one or other of its species, 
 is principally confined to Great Britain, France, Switz- 
 erland, Italy, Netherlands, Germany, Sweden, Rus- 
 sia, China, Tartary, Japan, Algeria, Canada, and the 
 middle and northern portions of the United States. In 
 this country, from thirty to forty-five bushels per acre 
 may be considered as an average yield in favorable 
 seasons and situations, but sixty or more bushels are 
 not unfrequently produced. , This grain heretofore has 
 never entered into our foreign commerce. According to 
 the census returns of 1840, the annual quantity raised 
 in the United States was 7,291,743 bushels ; and of 
 1850, 8,956,916 bushels. — Census Report. See Bkead- 
 
 STUFFS. 
 
 The following table shows the product of barley in 
 the year 1840, and of buckwheat in 1840 and 1850,in 
 each State, according to the census returns : 
 
 States iind Territories. 
 
 Barley. | Buckwheat. 
 
 1840. 1 1840. 1 1850. 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Ai'kansas 
 
 BuehelB. 
 7,093 
 760 
 
 ■ 294 
 
 83,759 
 
 6,260 
 
 80 
 
 12,979 
 
 82,251 
 
 28,015 
 
 7-28 
 
 17,491 
 
 . 355,161 
 
 8,594 
 
 165,819 
 
 127,803 
 
 1,654 
 
 9,801 
 
 121,899 
 
 12,601 
 
 2,520,068 
 
 3,574 
 
 212,440 
 
 209,893 
 
 66,490 
 
 3,967 
 
 4,809 
 
 84,781 
 87,430 
 11,062 
 
 BuBhola. 
 68 
 SS 
 
 ' 272 
 
 303,043 
 
 11,299 
 
 ■ 141 
 67,884 
 49,019 
 
 6,212 
 , 8,169 
 
 61,543 
 
 73,006 
 
 87,000 
 
 113,592 
 
 01 
 
 15,318 
 
 105,103 
 
 856,117 
 
 2,287,885 
 
 15,391 
 
 633,139 
 
 2,113,743 
 
 2,979 
 
 73 
 
 17,118 
 
 228,416 
 243,833 
 - 10,054 
 
 Buahels. 
 348 
 175 
 
 ' 378 
 
 229,297 
 
 8,615 
 
 65 
 
 250 
 
 134,504 
 
 149,740 
 
 5J,516 
 
 10,097 
 
 8 
 
 104,523 
 
 108,671 
 
 105,895 
 
 472,917 
 
 1,12]« 
 
 23,041 
 
 65,265 
 
 878,984 
 
 3,183,955 
 
 10,704 
 
 038,000 
 
 2,193,693 
 
 1,245 
 
 283 
 
 19,437 
 
 59 
 
 209,819 
 
 214,«98 
 
 79,878 
 
 515 
 
 100 
 
 ' 333 
 
 Columbia, District of. . 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Florida 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Illinois . ; 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Michigan 
 
 MiSBiSBlppi 
 
 New Hampsllire 
 
 New York 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 Texas 
 
 
 "Virginia 
 
 
 Minnesota Territory . . 
 New Mexico Territory. 
 
 Oregon Territory 
 
 Utah Territory 
 
 Total 
 
 4,161,504 1 7,291,743 
 
 8,956,916 
 
 Buenos Ajrres, the largest and most important 
 province of the Argentine Confederation, is bounded 
 on the north by the Parana, which separates it from the 
 province of Entre Eios ; and by the provinces of Santa 
 Fe, San Luis, and Mendoza ; on the east by the At- 
 lantic ; on the south by the Eio Negro, which separates 
 it from Patagonia ; and on the west by the country of 
 the Indians, which extends westward to the Andes. 
 The area of the province is estimated by Sir Woodbine 
 Parish at about 200,000 square miles, being little less 
 than that of France. Its sea^board along the Eio de la 
 Plata and the ocean is upward of 600 miles in length. 
 Since 1825 no census of the population has been taken. 
 
 At that date it was found to amount to 183,000. Par- 
 ish estimates the present population at 320,000, of which 
 number 120,000 belong to the city of Buenos Ayres. 
 By M'Cann, another authority, the entire population 
 of the province is computed at 200,000. This small 
 increase over the results of the census of 1825 is attrib- 
 uted by him to the civil wars, to the prohibition of the 
 slave-trade, and other causes. 
 
 The general aspect of the country, as viewed from 
 the' sea, is eminently uninteresting. From the mouth 
 of the Plata to the Bahia Blanca the sea-line presents 
 an unbroken series of sand-dunes, varied here and there 
 with low ridges of rock. From this latter point to the 
 Patagonian frontier the aspect of the coast is less mo- 
 notonous, though equally destitute of life or interest. 
 Thougli Buenos Ayres is the only province of the Ar- 
 gentine Confederation that borders upon the sea, and 
 though all the exports and imports of the country pass 
 through it, it possesses only two harbors, one of which 
 (that of the city of Buenos Ayres) is extremely bad ; the 
 other (that of Belgrano, near the southern extremity 
 of the province), though possessing great natural ad- 
 vantages, is by no means adequately appreciated. It 
 might be turned to good account as a starting-point 
 for vessels engaged in trade with the South American 
 states that border upon the Pacific, but the difficult 
 and somMimes dangerous navigation of the adjoining 
 seas counterbalances in the mean time the other ad- 
 vantages which it offers. The interior of the country, 
 except where it is intersected by the low mountain 
 ranges of the Ventana and Vaulcan in its soutl^f rn por- 
 tion^ and the spurs of the Andes in the west, is one 
 vast plain, of which by far the larger part is laid out in 
 esiandas, or cattle farms, though the soil is in itself 
 well adapted, for producing all the European cerealia. 
 Agricultural pursuits, however, are by no means in 
 favor with the natives, who can not bring themselves 
 to engage in any pui'suit that can not be prosecuted on 
 iiorseback. "Every man, woman, and child in the 
 country rides," says Parish. " One miglit fancy one's 
 self in tile land of centaurs, amid a population half-men 
 half-liorses. Even beggars ride on horseback." Some 
 of the cattle-farms are of immense extent ; one in par- 
 ticular is mentioned by travelers as comprising more 
 than 300 square miles of land, and yielding an enor- 
 mous revenue to the proprietor. Some of the largest 
 of them belong to British setttlers, and are worked by 
 British servants. The cattle were formerly hunted 
 down and killed merely for the sake of their hides and 
 tongues, while the carcasses were abandoned to beasts 
 and birds of prey. They are now slaughtered in abat- 
 toirs, where every part of the animal is made availa- 
 ble. The beef is salted for exportation ; the tallow is 
 boiled down, and now forms an important item in the 
 farmer's revenue; and the trade in hides is steadily 
 increasing. Beef and an infusion of the native tea are 
 the staple food of the natives. By the care of a few 
 British colonists, sheep have of late years been extens- 
 ively reared, and their wool is annually increasing in 
 value. Till recently they were reputed so valueless 
 that their carcasses were used as fuel for kilns, etc. A 
 decree of government ordained that no live sheep should 
 be employed for this purpose. The number of cattle 
 in the province is estimated at 12,000,000 ; of sheep, 
 about the half of that number. The total value of ex- 
 ports from Buenos Ayres in 1849, was i!2,537,821 ; in 
 1850, £1,983,513 ; and in 1851, £2,126,705. In this 
 latter year the value of the jerked beef exported was 
 £172,749; of hides, £1,300,570; of tallow, £217,690; 
 of wool, £190, 060. Tlie other exports consisted chief, 
 ly of hair, horns, bones, skins, and feathers. The value 
 of imports into Buenos AyiKis may be stated approxi, 
 roately, for the year 1851, at £2,110,000 ; of which 
 Great Britain contributes £900,000; France, £500,000; 
 northern Europe, £170,000; Gibraltar, Spain, and the 
 Mediterranean, £120,000; the United States, £200,000; 
 Brazil and other countries, £220,000. Of the cereals 
 
BUE 
 
 220 
 
 BUE 
 
 grown in Buenos Ayres, the most important is maize, 
 wliich is indigenous to tile country. Wiieat thrives 
 well in the southern parts of the province, but the in- 
 habitants rarely grow more than enough to supply 
 their own necessities. In the event of a surplus, it is 
 commonly exported to BrazU. Flax and hemp are 
 cultivated with success. The vine, fig, orange, and 
 olive, have been introduced from the Old World, and 
 are found to suit the climate admirably ; but the most 
 valuable of European fruits is the peach. A consider- 
 able fruit trade is carried on in coasting vessels, by 
 merchants for the most part Italian or French. The 
 geographical position of Buenos Ayres is such as to 
 enable it completely to control the foreign commercial 
 relations of the entire confederation of which it forms 
 a part. The exclusive policy which it has always 
 pursued on this point has often involved it in serious 
 quarrels, not only with many of the South American 
 states and the other provinces of the Argentine Con- 
 federation, but with England and France. Since the 
 expulsion of General Rosas, the navigation of the Pa- 
 rana and Uruguay has been thrown open, and other 
 measures have been taken to place both the province 
 and city of Buenos Ayres on a level with the other 
 provinces of the confederation. Buenos Ayres has 
 published a protest against any such measure, and the 
 dispute is still unsettled. The only other towns in 
 the province of any importance, besides the capital, 
 are San Nicolas, which is situated on the Parana, about 
 200 miles northwest of Buenos Ayres, and contains a 
 population of about 10,000; San Pedro, also on the 
 Parana, about 150 miles from the capital in the%ame 
 direction, with a population of 1000 ; Chascamas, on 
 the shores of a cognominal lake, once a place of con- 
 siderable importance, but seriously injure.d by the long 
 continuance of the civil wars ; and Belgrano, which, 
 from its position, bids fair to become the rival of the 
 capital itself. 
 
 Buenos Ayres, the capital of the Argentine Con- 
 federation and of the province of Buenos Ayres, is sit> 
 uated on the right bank of the estuary of the Plata, 
 in lat. 34° 39' S., long. 58° 18' W. The river is at 
 this point so wide, that it is quite impossible with the 
 naked eye to distinguish the opposite bank ; and at the 
 same time so shallow, that ships drawing 15 or 16 feet 
 of water must anchor seven or eight miles from the 
 city. Small craft generally anchor in what are called 
 the inner roads, abreast of the city. As the depth of 
 water is never sufficient to admit of their coming to 
 shore, passengers and goods are landed by means of 
 large-wheeled carts, which are either drawn or pushed 
 by the requisite number of horses. The town of Bue- 
 nos Ayres is situated in a vast plain extending west- 
 ward to the Andes. The level uniformity of its out- 
 line is only broken by the spires of the various churches. 
 The stranger, on landing, is struck with the regularity 
 of the streets, which are quite straight, and intersect 
 each other at distances ofl50 yards, forming squares like 
 those of a chess-board, with the cleanly appearance of 
 the houses, and the general air of independence that 
 distinguishes the inhabitants. The only public build- 
 ings that have any pretensions to architectural beauty 
 are the churches, which were built for the most part 
 by the Jesuits. The houses have never more than two 
 stories, and commonly only one, the rooms of which 
 open into each other, and till lately were chiefly sup- 
 plied with furniture of a very inferior description from 
 the United States. A chimney was a thing unknown, 
 as the old Spanish brazero alone was employed in 
 
 heating the damp and white-washed rooms. A great 
 change has, however, taken place in these respects 
 within the last few years. The furniture is now sup- 
 plied from Europe, the walls are papered, grates and 
 chimneys have come into fashion, and English coal is 
 burned at a lower price than it brings in the London 
 market. These comforts are all the more valuable, as 
 the climate of Buenos Ayres is one of the most humid 
 and changeable in the world. As the system of police 
 is still somewhat of the rudest, the inhabitants are 
 obliged to guard themselves and their property by 
 means of the iron railings with which thej' protect the 
 windows of the houses. Even this, however, is not 
 always found to be an efficient guard against the dex- 
 terity of thieves. Though the city is built witliin 50 
 yards of the largest river in the world, the supplies 
 of fresh water are both scanty and expensive. There 
 are no public reservoirs or fountains, and the wells of 
 the city yield only a brackish and disagreeable water. 
 By the wealthier classes tanks are constructed, in which 
 a suificiency of rain-water for domestic purposes is col- 
 lected from the roof of the house. The common people 
 are obliged to purchase water from the water-carriers. 
 As it is derived from the river, it is commonly muddy, 
 and must stand for twenty-four hours till the sediment 
 sinks to the bottom. It is then found to be excellent. 
 The streets of the city are now tolerably paved with 
 granite. Many of them, however, are still unpaved; 
 and these in wet weather can hardly be traversed by a 
 mounted horseman, and are utterly impassable by a 
 person on foot. Floriculture is i favorite pursuit; 
 and many English and Scotch gardeners have nurse- 
 ries in the neighborhood of the toAvn. — E. B- 
 
 The Plata is one of the largest rivers of the world, 
 traversing a vast extent of country, of which it is the 
 great outlet. Unluckily, however, its estuary, though 
 broad, is in most parts shallow, being also encumbered 
 with sand banks, and infested with sudden gusts of 
 wind called ^am^eros. Its navigation is consequently 
 attended with a good deal of difficulty, and ships bound 
 for Buenos Ayres generally take pilots on board. 
 There is no harbor, and vessels drawing 16 or 17 feet 
 of water anchor in the outer roads, called the Amar- 
 radero, 7 or 8 miles from shore, loading and unload- 
 ing by means of lighters. This, too, is an operation 
 by no means free from danger, boats being sometimes 
 swamped in crossing the bar between the outer and in- 
 ner roads. From the want of a pier, and the shallow- 
 ness of the water on the beach, even the boats are not 
 able to come close to the shore, but are met at a little 
 distance from it by a rude sort of ox-carts, into which 
 they deposit their goods at no little risk, and some- 
 times much loss. These unfavorable circumstances, 
 which might, Jiowever, be materially improved by a 
 little exertion and outlay on the part of the govern- 
 ment, operate as a heavy drawback on the trade of the 
 city, and tend proportionally to augment that of Mon- 
 tevideo, which is more easily accessible. But not- 
 withstanding the competition of the latter, Buenos 
 Ayres is still the principal outlet for the produce of 
 the vast countries traversed by the Plata, and espe- 
 cially for the provinces situated on its right bank. 
 The principal articles of export are specified in the 
 subjoined table. — See Plata River. 
 
 Previously to 1828 no wool was exported from Bue- 
 nos Ayres. But in that year merino and Saxon sheep 
 were introduced ; and notwithstanding the constant 
 recurrence of disturbances, they have succeeded re- 
 markably well, as is obvious from the following 
 
 ACCOTTNT OF THE ExpOETB ( .' WOOL ITIOM BUENOS AyrEB FOE FIVE YEARS, ENDIKG WITH 1852. 
 
 years. 
 
 England. 
 
 Prance. 
 
 United States. 
 
 Genoft, 
 
 Belgium. 
 
 Sundries. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Ponnds. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 
 1852 
 
 2,599,600 
 
 2,9OT,TB0 
 
 5,589,000 
 
 516,000 
 
 1,814,147 
 
 81,103 
 
 13,507,500 
 
 1851 
 
 663,312 
 
 354,614 
 
 11,827,530 
 
 306,942 
 
 360,270 
 
 105,300 
 
 13,636,974 
 
 1860 
 
 1,860,100 
 
 2,0B8,T52 
 
 8,611,820 
 
 267,462 
 
 765,420 
 
 271,382 
 
 18,843,380 
 
 1849 
 
 3,139,442 
 
 1,696,798 
 
 10,934,228 
 
 890,415 
 
 665,840 
 
 168,936 
 
 17,495,659 
 
 1848 
 
 3,784,242 
 
 2,012,018 
 
 7,686,406 
 
 170,120 
 
 98,389 
 
 69,146 
 
 13,820,821 
 
BUF 
 
 221 
 
 BUI 
 
 Corn, which, for a considerable period was not pro- 
 duced in sufficient quantity for home consumption, has 
 latterly become an occasional article of export. Most 
 part of the jerked beef, and numbers of mules, are ex- 
 ported to the Havana and Brazil. Hides, tallow, 
 skins, bones, and horns, especially the first, are leading 
 articles of export. Sir Woodbine Parish estimates the 
 total amount of the imports into the Plata at about 
 £2,110,000, of which about one half may be for Buenos 
 Ayres. The value of British exports to the latter, in 
 1851, amounted to £458,329, cottons being by much 
 the most important article, and next to it silks, lin- 
 ens, and woolens, with cutlery, hardware, etc. France 
 supplies silks, wines (of which the imports have large- 
 ly increased), jewelry, perfumery, etc. The imports 
 from the United States consist chiefly of unbleached 
 cloths, spirits, soap, sperm candles, dried and salted 
 provisions, tobacco, furniture, and deals. Germany 
 sends woolen, and linen cloths, and Rhenish cottons ; 
 the Netherlands, fire-arms, swords, etc. ; Holland, but- 
 ter, cheese, Westphalia hams, etc. The Baltic furnish- 
 es iron, cqrdage, canvas, pitch, deals, etc. The Medi- 
 terranean trade is principally in Sicilian and Spanish 
 produce, particularly cheap wines, brandies, olive oil, 
 macaroni, dried fruits, and pepper. Spanish goods 
 are in little demand, though some serges, handker- 
 chiefs, and ribbons, sewing silk, and salt, are import- 
 ed. The annual importation of Spanish and Sicilian 
 wines is from 10,000 to 12,000 pipes, besides about 1000 
 pipes of brandy. The yerha mife, or Paraguay tea, 
 formerly an import article of some consequence, has 
 been nearly superseded, even in Buenos Ayres, by 
 genuine tea. The trade with Chili and Peru is insig- 
 nificant. The markets are well supplied with butch- 
 er's meat and fish. Poultry, vegetables, and fruit are 
 generally dear. All the butter used is imported. (We 
 have derived these details principally from the excel- 
 lent work of Sir Woodbine Parish on Buenos Ayres, 
 2d edition, p. 349-369.) , 
 
 Port Charges. — The Argentine government has no- 
 tified that, 1. From tlie Ist of January, 1847, national 
 vessels sailing for ports beyond sea shall pay 3 dollars 
 per ton ; 2. Foreign vessels shall pay 4 dollars per ton, 
 except those which, in virtue of existing treaties, are 
 assimilated to national vessels ; 3. Foreign vessels sliall 
 pay, for the visit of the health ofiicer 26 dollars, and 
 the same amount for the bill of health ; 4. Foreign ves- 
 sels belonging to nations having no consul, and whose 
 roll is made out by the captain of the port, shall pay 
 40 dollars for it ; 5. The duties fixed by the preceding 
 articles shall be paid one half on the entrance of the 
 vessel, and the other half on her departure ; 6. National 
 and foreign vessels, which do not leave nor receive car- 
 goes, shall pay one half of the duties here established ; 
 7. Let this decree be communicated and published in 
 the official registers. 
 
 Buff (Ger. Biiffel, Biiffelhdute; Fr. Buffle, Peau de 
 luffles, et Peaux passks en bugles; It. BufcUo, Cuojo di 
 bufalo), a sort of leather prepared from the skin of the 
 buffalo, dressed with oil, after the manner of chamois. 
 The skin of elks, oxen, and other like animals, when 
 prepared after the same manner as that of the buffalo, 
 is likewise called buff. It Is used in making sword- 
 belts and other articles, where great thiclmess and firm- 
 ness are required. 
 
 Buffalo, city, port of entry, and capital of Erie coun- 
 ty, New Yorlt, is situated at the entrance of Buffalo 
 Creek into Lalie Erie; it is at the northeastern ex- 
 tremity of the lake, and near the commencement of its 
 outlet, Niagara Eiver. Lat. 42° 53' N., and 78° 56' W. 
 long, from Greenwich, England ; 298 miles west from 
 Albany, 391 northwest from New York, 183 east from 
 Cleveland, Ohio, 327 from Detroit, and 310 from Wasii- 
 ington. Population in 1810, 1508; 1820, 2095; 1830, 
 8653; 1840,18,213; 1845,29,773; 1850,42,261; and in 
 1864, with the addition of Black Rock, annexed to it in 
 1853, 76,000. 
 
 The city of Buffalo occupies a very important and 
 commanding position at the western terminus of the 
 Erie Canal and the central line of railroad from Albany 
 and Boston, and also the northern termination of the 
 Erie and otlier railroads, and has communication with 
 the principal cities of the Western States, and also with 
 Western Canada. It is the eastern port of tranship- 
 ment of the great lakes Erie, Huron, Michigan, and 
 Superior. Its commerce is immense, employing a vast 
 number of steamers, brigs, and sloops, which convey 
 from the several lake ports a large amount of prod- 
 uce, which from hence is transported to eastern mark- 
 ets by canal and railroad. The ground on which the 
 city is built rises gradually from Buffalo Creek on the 
 south, and within a short distance from the lake on the 
 west it becomes an extended plain 50 feet above the'sur- 
 face of Lake Erie. From this elevation is obtained a 
 picturesque view of the Canadian shore, Niagara Riv- 
 er, and the lake. The streets are broad and straight, 
 crossing each other mostly at right angles. Main Street 
 is 100 feet in breadth, and extends for a distance of 
 four miles, apd is built very compactly with stores, 
 hotels, and expensive private dwellings. The houses 
 generally are constructed with neatness and taste. 
 
 The manufactures of Buffalo are very extensive, con- 
 sisting of engine and boiler factories, furnaces, car- 
 work, founderies, etc. The capital employed in 1850 was 
 $1,946,348 ; value of manufactured articles, $3,674,988 ; 
 and since that time both the capital employed and 
 value of products have been largely increased. In 
 1853 there were" six steam flouring mills, manufactur- 
 ing during the year 216,296 barrels of flour. 
 
 The commerce of Buffalo is immensely large, far sur- 
 passing all other ports on the great lakes. The num- 
 ber of arrivals and clearances in 1853 were 8298 ves- 
 sels, with an 'aggregate tonnage of 3,252,978. There 
 are owned in Buffalo 30 steamers, witli an aggregate 
 tonnage of 26,593; 46 propellers, aggregate tonnage 
 18,004 ; 39 brigs and barks, aggregate tonnage 10,376 ; 
 115 schooners, aggregate tonnage 17,999 ; total tonnage 
 of steam and sail yessels, 72,917. Value of the lead- 
 ing articles landed at Buffalo during the year 1853, 
 $868,898,360. Value of the real and personal estate, 
 §27,455,752. Buffalo was originally laid out by the 
 Holland Land Company in 1801. Its progress was slow 
 for many years. In 1812 it contained 100 houses ; in 
 December of the next year (1813) it was entirely burn- 
 ed by the British and Indians, with the exception of 
 two houses, and at the close of the war the inhabitants 
 received from the United States government $80,000 
 as a compensation for their losses. The rapid growth 
 and its commercial importance commenced at the com- 
 pletion of the Erie Canal in 1825. It was incorporated 
 as a city in 1832. It is divided into thirteen wards, 
 and is governed by a mayor and common council, elect- 
 ed by the people. — See Lake Trade. 
 
 Bugle-hom, a small brass instrument used in the 
 hunting-field, and in cavalry regiments. The compass 
 of the bugle is now extended by finger-keys. 
 
 Bugles, small glass beads of different colors. They 
 are in considerable demand in Africa, to which they 
 are mostly exported. 
 
 Buhl, ornamental wood-work, inlaid with mother- 
 of-pearl, brass, etc. The name is derived from the in- 
 ventor. 
 
 Builder, in the general sense of the term, and un- 
 dertaker of works of building. With reference to the 
 operations of civil architecture particularly, the builder 
 stands between the proprietor and architect on the one 
 hand, and the artisan, merchant, and manufacturer on 
 the other : he engages to the first to carry a certain 
 proposed work into execution, as he may be directed 
 by the second, and saves to both of them the trouble 
 and responsibility of procuring materials and employ- 
 ing workmen. 
 
 The builder's emolument arises from an improved 
 price, or charges bearing an advance on the prime cost, 
 
BUI 
 
 222 
 
 BUR 
 
 to remunerate him for the use of his capital in materi- 
 als, work-shops, plans, and labor, and his own personal 
 application and risk. A builder has the power also of 
 deriving an advantage from the division of labor by 
 employing artisans in those operations only which hab- 
 it enables them to execute with the greatest facility. 
 
 The builder contracts to do certain specified works for 
 a certain total sum of money, the amount of which he 
 determines by a previous estimate, or to do prescribed 
 operations at so much for a certain fixed quantity of 
 every sort involved, per yard, per rod, per foot, and so 
 on, the amount to be ascertained, when they are com- 
 pleted, by measurement; or he executes works accord- 
 ing to instructions or specifications, leaving the charges 
 to be determined according to the usual and accustom- 
 ed ra'tes, on the quantities ascertained by admeasure- 
 ment. In the two former cases he is said to work by 
 contract, and in the last by measure and value. For 
 jobbing, in repairs and alterations, a day account is 
 kept; that is, a record of the time workmen are em- 
 ployed, and of the materials used, in performing certain 
 operations. This is made out with an advance of so 
 much per cent, on the prime cost, or wages of the work- 
 men and selling prices of the unwrought materials, for 
 the builder's profit or remuneration, as before stated. 
 
 A builder should be theoretically acquainted with 
 the principles of construction, and practically conver- 
 sant with the details of all the mechanic arts used in 
 building ; as well to be enabled to carry on his business 
 with advantage to his own interest as to the proper ex- 
 ecution of the works he may undertake. He should be 
 qualified to ascertain with the utmost minuteness, from 
 the drawings of a design, and the specification of the 
 manner in which, and matter of which, it is to be car- 
 ried into execution, the quantity of labor and materials 
 of ever}' kind and description, and the exact value of 
 tliem all. In this is involved the necessity of being 
 well acquainted witli the market prices of raw and 
 manufactured articles to a very great extent, and a ma- 
 tured judgment of the quantity of labor required, or 
 how much time a workman will take to produce a cer- 
 tain result. These things, however, which involve the 
 making of estimates on which to make contracts, in the 
 practice of this country are generally referred to a sur- 
 veyer or measurer, because of the general ignorance 
 and incompetence of builders, or because of the greater 
 aptitude of the latter, in consequence of their attention 
 being solely occupied by such things. — E. B. 
 
 Building. The first structures were of wood and 
 clay, than of rough stone, and, in the end, the art ad- 
 vanced to polished marble. Building with stone Avas 
 practiced early among the Tyrians ; and as ornaments 
 and taste arose, every nation pursued a different sys- 
 tem. The art of building with stone may be referred 
 in England to Benedict or Benet, a monlt, about A.D. 
 G70. The first bridge of this material in England was 
 at Bow, in 1087. Building with brick was introduced 
 by the Romans into their provinces. Alfred encour- 
 aged it in England in 886. Brick-building was gen- 
 erally introduced by the Earl of Arundel, about 1598, 
 London being then almost built of wood. The increase 
 of building in London was prohibited within three 
 miles of the city gates by Elizabeth, who ordered that 
 one family only should dwell in one house, 1580. 
 
 Bulk-heads are partitions made athwart a ship 
 with boards, by which one part is divided from the oth- 
 er; as the great cabin, gun-room, bread-room, etc. — 
 E. B. 
 
 Bulk of a Ship, the whole space in the hold for 
 the stowage of goods. 
 
 Bullets. Those of stone were in use, a.d. 1514 ; 
 and iron ones are first mentioned in the Fmdera^ 1650. 
 Leaden bullets were made before the close of the six- 
 teenth century, and continue to be those in use in all 
 nations for musketry. The cannon-ball in some East- 
 ern countries is still of stone instead of iron. — Ashe. 
 
 Bullion, uncoined gold or silver in the mass. The 
 
 precious metals are so called either when smelted and 
 not perfectly refined, or when refined and melted down 
 in bars or ingots, or in any form uncoined, as in plate. 
 — E. B. 
 
 Bum-boat, a small boat used to sell vegetables, 
 etc., to ships lying at a distance from shore. 
 
 Bunk is a word used, in the United States, to sig- 
 nify a case or cabin of boards for a bed. Thus, in the 
 army, the soldier's berth is called his bunk. 
 
 Bunt, the middle part or cavity of the principal 
 square sails, as the mainsail, foresail, etc. : if one of 
 them be supposed to be divided into four equal parts 
 from one side to the other, the two middle divisions, 
 which comprehend half of the sail, form the limits of 
 the bunt.— E. A. 
 
 Bunting, a thin woolen stullj of which the colors 
 and signals of a ship are usually formed. 
 
 Buoy, a close empty cask, or a block of wood or 
 cork fastened by a rope to an anchor, and floating on 
 the water to show where the anchor is situated. Buoys 
 are of various kinds ; as can-buoys^ in the form of a 
 cone ; nun-buoys^ which swell in the middle, and taper 
 to a point at each end ; cabk-buoys, empty casks em- 
 ployed to buoy up the cable in rocky anchorage. Buoys 
 are also used to indicate the position of rocks and shoals, 
 or to mark a channel. 
 
 The life-buoy, of which there are various kinds, is 
 used to throw overboard to preserve a person from 
 drowning. The Itind now commonly used in the navy 
 consists of two hollow copper vessels connScted togeth- 
 er, between which there is fixed a hollow pole, with a 
 port-fire fixed to its top. This apparatus, which is 
 properly ballasted, is suspended so as to be ready for 
 use at a moment's notice ; and it is so contrived that 
 by the act of letting it off the port-fire is ignited ; thus 
 enabling the person in the water to discern the buoy 
 in the darkest night. 
 
 Burden or Burthen (Saxon byrden or lyrthen), a 
 fixed quantity of any commodity for transit. 
 
 Burden of a Ship, its contents, or the number of 
 tons it will carry. — See Tonnage. 
 
 Burgundy. See Wine. 
 
 Burgundy Pitch, a resin, the produce of khe Pinus 
 Abies, or spruce fir. It is obtained by making incis- 
 ions in the bark down to the wood, whence it flows 
 thickly and languidly, immediately concreting into 
 flakes that adhere firmly to the tree. Tliese, being 
 taken off, are melted in boiling water, and strained 
 through coarse cloths. It is of a close consistence, 
 rather soft, has a reddish-brown color, and a not un- 
 pleasant smell: it is very adhesive. The greatest 
 quantity is collected in the neighborhood of Neufcha- 
 tel, from whence it is brought packed in casks. A fic- 
 titious sort is made in England, and found in the shops 
 under the title of common Burgundy pitch ; it may be 
 distinguished by its friability, want of viscidity, and 
 of the odor which characterizes the genuine sort. 
 
 A species of Burgundy pitch exudes spontaneously 
 from the Norway spruce fir. This, whidi undergoes 
 no preparation, is the resin or thus of the old London 
 Pharmacopoeias. It is imported in the form of tears 
 or small masses, packed in casks, each containing from 
 1 to 2 cwt. It fetches about half the price as that which 
 is strained. — Gkay's Supplement to the Pharmaccj)mias, 
 Thomson's Dispensatory. 
 
 Burmah, or Birmah, the Burmese empire, or 
 kingdom of Ava, a state of Farther India, and former- 
 ly the most extensive and powerful in that peninsula; 
 but since the war of the Burmese with the British, in 
 1824-'26, its territories have been comprised within lat. 
 16° and 27° N., and long. 93° and 99° E., having on 
 the west Aracan and Munipoor, on the north the Na- 
 gas territory and Upper Assam, on the east the Chi- 
 nese province of Yun-nan, the independent Laos coun- 
 try, and the British province of Martaban (from which 
 last it is separated by the Sa-luen or Than-lweng Riv- 
 er), and on the south the Gulf of Martaban, a portion 
 
BUR 
 
 223 
 
 BUS 
 
 of the Bay of Bengal. Estimated area, 200,000 square 
 miles; population from two to three millions. It Is 
 composed of the kingdoms of Burmah, Pegu, and Pong, 
 with portions of the countries inhabited by the Khyen, 
 and the Shang countries, and the Kubo valley (Muni- 
 poor), reannexed to it by treaty with the British in 
 1834 ; it is inclosed on most sides by mountain ranges, 
 in elevation from 2000 to 6000 feet above the sea, its 
 central part consisting of the basin of the Irrawaddi. 
 Lagoons are numerous in low beds of the south, and in 
 the centre, a little north of Ava, is a lake thirty miles 
 in length by ten miles across. The country is reckon- 
 ed salubrious. From May till the middle of Septem- 
 ber is the rainy season. , From September till March 
 the weather is delightful, the temperature seldom ex- 
 ceeding 75° ; in April and May the heat becomes very 
 great, but is soon mitigated by the commencement of 
 rain. Annual fall of rain 150 to 200 inches. The soil 
 is of very high fertility ; but except near the towns 
 most of it lies waste, or is only irregularly tilled ; and 
 agriculture is generally in the most backward condi- 
 tion. Eice is the chief crop, especiallj' in the south ; 
 pulses, Indian millet, and maize are raised in the north, 
 and sesamum is universally cultivated for cattle. Other 
 products are, cotton of short staple, indigo (though this 
 product is so badly managed as to be unfit for export), 
 yams, sweet potatoes, tobacco, capsicums in great quan- 
 tities, gourds, oil-plants, bananas, and otherfruits, betel 
 nut and leaf, sugar-cane, onions, garlic, and in the north 
 a kind of tea. Teak, of a quality inferior to that of 
 both Malabar and Java, oak, and other valuable woods, 
 abound on the mountain ranges, and palm and bamboo 
 are also plentiful. Oxen, buffaloes, and goats are the 
 principal domestic animals used for draft, and the ele- 
 phant is domesticated for the same purpose ; a good 
 breed of horses is also reared. Mineral products are 
 numerous and valuable. The gold and silver obtain- 
 ed in the empire has been estimated in value at up- 
 ward of £200,000, and the produce of petroleum in pits, 
 along the Irrawaddi, to 8,000,000 lbs. annually. Fine 
 marble, serpentine, amber, sapphires, and other gems, 
 iron, copper, tin, lead, antimony, sulphur, nitre, and 
 coal, are also found. In physical form the Burmese 
 are more allied to the Mongolians of Eastern Asia than 
 to the Hindoos. Their figure is short, squat, robust, 
 and fleshy, face lozenge-shaped, cheek-bones large, and 
 eyes obliquely placed. They excel in boat-building, 
 and they cast bells, work in gold and silver, and dye 
 silk and other fabrics, weave silk and cotton goods, and 
 manufacture lacquered wares, paper, coarse earthen- 
 wares, and some other articles in a respectable manner ; 
 but most of their manufactured goods in ordinary use 
 are imported from foreign countries. China sends silks, 
 porcelain, copper, carpets, metals, drugs, tea, etc., in 
 return for raw cotton, feathers, ivory, birds' nests, 
 horns, gums, and some British manufactures ; this in- 
 tercourse being chiefly conducted-at a large annual fair 
 at Bhamo. From the Shan tribes the Burmese obtain 
 their best sword-blades, with lac, wax, varnish, in re- 
 turn for salt and dried fish ; other articles are mostly 
 imported by sea from British India and the Asiatic 
 Archipelago, and consist of British cotton goods, areca 
 and cocoa-nuts, tobacco, iron, hardwares, copper, lead, 
 and other minerals, opium, sugar, spirits, English glass, 
 earthen-wares, fire-arms, and gunpowder, the manufac- 
 tures of the Burmese in the two last articles being of 
 the most wretched description. Public revenue is de- 
 rived from a tithe of the profit of cultivation, duties 
 of 10 per cent, on imports, and 5 per cent, on exports, 
 and on petroleum collected, a royal monopoly of mar- 
 ble, amber, and the precious metals, and gems above a 
 certain size, a poll tax on the unsettled tribes, etc. ; 
 and the whole fiscal system is "replete with uncertain- 
 ty, rapacity, and violence." The Burmese empire is 
 divided into seven provinces. Ava and Monchobo 
 have alternately been constituted the capital of the em- 
 pire. The other principal towns are, Amarapure, Sa- 
 
 kaing, Rangoon, Bassain, Martaban, Setang, Taungo, 
 Prome, Patango, Yandabo, and Bhamo. In 1823 the 
 Burmese, by encroaching on the East India Company's 
 territories, brought on a war with the British, which 
 lasted during the years 182^'25, and terminated in 
 their defeat and the cession of several territories to 
 the English. 
 
 Burning-glass and Concave Mirrors. Their 
 power was not unknown to Archimedes, but the pow- 
 ers of these instruments are rendered wonderful by the 
 modern improvements of Settalla; of Tchirnhausen, 
 1680 ; of Buff'on, 1747 ; and of Parker and others more 
 recently. The following are experiments of the fusion 
 of substances made with Mr. Parker's lens, or burning 
 mirror : 
 
 Bubitaneea futed. Weight, Time. 
 
 Pure gold 20 grains 4 eeconds. 
 
 Silver 20 grains 3 seconda. 
 
 Copper 33 grains 20 seconds. 
 
 Flatina 10 grains 3 seconds. 
 
 Cast iron 10 grains S seconds. 
 
 Steel 10 grains 12 seconds. 
 
 A topaz 3 grains 45 seconds. 
 
 An emerald 2 grains 25 seconds, 
 
 A crystal pebble 7 grains 6 seconds. 
 
 Flint 10 grains 30 seconds. 
 
 Cornelian 10 gi-ains 75 seconds. 
 
 Pumice-stone 10 grains 24 seconds. 
 
 Green wood takes fire instantaneously ; water boils 
 immediately ; bones are calcined ; and things not ca- 
 pable of melting at once become red hot like iron. 
 
 BusMre or Abushire, a sea-port town of Persia, 
 in the province of Fara, on the northeast coast of the 
 Persian Gulf, lat. 29° N., long. 50° 50' E. Population 
 uncertain, but estimated by Major Wilson at from 
 15,000 to 20,000. Bushire is situated at the northern 
 extremity, of a sandy peninsula, to the north and east 
 of which is the bay. There is a convenient anchor- 
 age for large ships due west from the town, three or 
 four miles distant, in from 25 to 28 feet of water ; but 
 ships of 300 tons burden or thereby lie in the inner 
 roads, to the north, about six miles from shore ; the 
 anchorage is pretty good ; but during violent north- 
 westerly gales they are sometimes obliged to cut their 
 cables, and bear up for Karak, a small island about 15 
 leagues west-northwest of Bushire. The water imme- 
 diately to the east of the town is deep, but the passage 
 to it is obstructed by a bar, which can not be passed by 
 vessels drawing more than eight or nine feet of wa? 
 ter, except at spring-tides, when there is a rise of from 
 eight to ten feet. The variation in 1811 was 4° 43' 
 W. — Cliart of the Persian Gulf, hj Captain Ritchie, 
 etc. The climate here, as in all the other ports of the 
 Persian Gulf, is extremely hot, particularly June, July, 
 and August. The unhealthy season is in the fall of 
 the year. 
 
 Buss, a small sea-vessel, used by the English and 
 the Dutch in the herring fishery, commonly from 50 to 
 60 tons burden, and sometimes more. A buss has two 
 small sheds or cabins ; one at the prow, and the other 
 at the stern : that at the prow serves for a kitchen. 
 
 Bussorah, or Basrah, a city of Arabia, on the 
 western bank of the Shat-el-Arab (the name given to 
 the river formed by the Junction of the Tigris and the 
 Euphrates), above 70 miles from its mouth, lat. 30° 
 30' N., long. 47° 32' 05. Population about 60,000, 
 consisting of Arabs, Turks, Persians, Armenians, Jews, 
 etc. The houses and streets are mean and filthy. 
 There is a vast area within the walls, occupied princi- 
 pally by gardens and plantations of date-trees, and in- 
 tersected by canals, on which are numerous small craft. 
 The bar at the mouth of the Shat-el-Arab has only 
 about twelve feet of water, but the channel within is 
 deep, so that ships of 500 tons burden, provided they 
 cross the bar at the springs, may without difiiculty 
 ascend the river as far as the city ; and both its grand 
 branches may be navigated to a great distance by 
 smaller vessels. Bussorah is the principal inlet on the 
 east, through which Indian and other Eastern products 
 find their way into the TurMsh empire. Its commerce 
 
BUT 
 
 224 
 
 BUT 
 
 is, therefore, even at present, pretty considerable ; and 
 ■were the rich and extensive countries traversed by the 
 Tigris and the Euphrates occupied by a civilized and 
 industrious people, it would be very great. Its im- 
 ports from India and Europe are similar to those at 
 Bushire. From Persia it imports shawls, pearls from 
 Bahrein, etc., and coffee from Mocha. At an average, 
 six or eight British ships aiTive in the course of the 
 year from India ; but the principal part of the trade is 
 carried on in Arabian bottoms, the merchants of Mus- 
 cat being the owners of some of the finest ships that 
 are to be met with in the Indian seas. Its exports are 
 principallj- bullion, pearls, dates, copper, raw silk, 
 horses, gall-nuts, and drugs. Captain Hamilton men- 
 tions that in the early part of last century the exports 
 . of dates from Bussorah exceeded 10,000 tons a year. — 
 Aew Account of the East Indies, vol. i. p. 78. The 
 commerce with the interior is conducted by means of 
 caravans to Aleppo and Bagdad ; but it might be car- 
 ried on to much more advantage by means of steam- 
 boats. It was at one time proposed to forward mails 
 from India by steam by the Shat-el-Arab and the Eu- 
 phrates to Bir, thence by land to Scanderoon, and again 
 by steam to the Gibraltar and England ; but this proj- 
 ect was very wisely given up in favor of the route by 
 the Bed Sea. 
 
 Money. — All sorts of coins circulate here, but their 
 values are constantly fluctuating. Accounts are kept 
 in mamoodis of 10 danims, or 100 floose ; 100 mamoodis 
 malte a toman, which may be valued at about 15 sicca 
 rupees, or 365. sterling. 
 
 Weights and Measures, — Gold and silver are weighed 
 by the cheki of 100 miscals, or 7200 English grains. 
 
 The commercial weights are the maund atteree, the 
 maund sofy or sesse, and the oke of Bagdad. 1 vakia 
 =19 oz. avoirdupois; 2^ vakias = l oke of Bagdad=^ 
 H^ oz. avoirdupois; 1 maund atteree = 28 lbs. 8 oz. 
 avoirdupois ; 1 maund sofy =20 lbs. 4 oz. avoirdupois ; 
 1 cutra of indigo ^138 lbs. 15 oz. avoirdupois. 
 
 These are the weights used by the Europeans settled 
 at Bussorah ; those used by the Arabians differ a little 
 from the above, and frequently also among themselves 
 — a circumstance to which the merchant must pay par- 
 ticular attention. 
 
 The long measures are the Aleppo yard for sillcs and 
 woolens =2 feet 2'4 inches; the Hadded ditto for cot- 
 ton and linens ^2 feet 1'2 inches; the Bagdad ditto 
 for all purposes =2 feet 7-6 inches. 
 
 For further details as to the commerce of Bussorah, 
 see Kinney's Memoir cm the Persian Empire, p. 283 ; 
 Kelly's Oriental Metrology j Thornton's East Indian 
 Calculator, p. 424. Niebuhr has given a plan of Bus- 
 sorah, Voyage en Arabia, tome ii. p. 170. 
 
 Butchers. Among the Eomans there were three 
 classes : the Suarii provided hogs ; the Boarii oxen ; 
 and the Lanii, whose office was to kill. The butchers' 
 trade is very ancient in England ; so is their company 
 in London, although it was not incorporated until the 
 second year of James I., 1604. — Annals of London. 
 
 Butlerage. See Prisage. 
 
 Butt, a vessel or measure for wine, containing two 
 hogsheads, or 126 wine gallons. 
 
 Butter and Cheese (Da. Smor; Du. Boter; Fr. 
 Beurre; Germ. Butter; It. Burro, Butiro; Lat. Buiy- 
 rum; Pol. Mash; Port. Manteiga; Buss. Masslo Ko- 
 rowe; Sp. Manteca; Sw. Smor'). Butter is known as 
 a fat, unctuous, and, in temperate climates, a pretty 
 firm substance, obtained from milk, or rather from 
 cream, by the process of churning. According to some 
 writers, it was late before the Greeks had any notion 
 of butter, and by the early Romans it was used only 
 as a medicine — ^never as food. The Christians of Egypt 
 burned butter in their lamps, instead of oil, in the third 
 century. In 1675, there fell in Ireland, during the 
 winter time, a thick yellow dew, which had all the 
 medicinal properties of butter. In Africa, vegetable 
 butter is made from the fruit of the shea-tree, and is 
 
 of richer taste, at Kebba, than any butter made from 
 cows' milk. — Mungo Park. The various circum- 
 stances attending the introduction and use of butter in 
 antiquity have been investigated by Beckmann with 
 great learning and industry. The conclusion at which 
 he arrives is, "that butter was not used either by the 
 Greeks or Eomans in cooking or the preparation of 
 food, nor was it brought upon their tables by way of 
 dessert, as is everj' where customary at present. M'e 
 never find it mentioned by Galen and others as a food, 
 though they have spoken of it as applicable to other 
 purposes. No notice is taken of it by Apicus ; nor is 
 there any thing said of it in that respect by the au- 
 thors who treat of agriculture, though they have given 
 us verj' particular information with respect to milk, 
 cheese, and oil. This, as has been remarked b}- others, 
 may be easily accounted for by the ancients having 
 accustomed themselves to the use of good oil ; and in 
 the like manner, butter is very little employed at pres- 
 ent in Italy, Spain, Portugal, and the southern parts 
 of France." — History of Inventions, vol. ii. p. 413, En- 
 glish edition. 
 
 Beckmann has further shown that the little butter 
 that was used by the ancients was in an oily or liquid 
 state ; and such is its usual state in all hot countries. 
 It is rather singular that Beckmann does not allude 
 to the consumption of butter by the Arabs, by whom 
 it has been very extensively used from a remote period. 
 
 "Arab cookery is extremely f riant, more so than 
 even the Italian ; but no oil is used for culinai-y pur- 
 poses, except in frying fish. Butter is their universal 
 sauce, and of it the consumption is immense ; their 
 vegetable dishes float in butter ; with it they work 
 their adjoue (paste made of dates) into a proper consist- 
 ency ; dried corn, or bread crumbs, boiled in butter, is 
 a common breakfast with all classes ; and in the des- 
 sert, the kemmayes are prepared for use in the same 
 manner. In short, butter forms an indispensable part 
 of the diet of the Arab ; and, besides the various forms 
 in which it is taken with other articles, it is a common 
 practice with both Bedouins and townspeople to swal- 
 low a coffee-cupful of butter every morning ; the for- 
 mer, and the lower orders of the latter, adding another 
 half cup, which — to the disgust of strangers — they snuff 
 up their nostrils ! Arab butter is made from the milk 
 of sheep and goats, that of camels not being used for 
 that purpose. The home supply is not nearly sufficient 
 for the consumption, and butter consequently forms 
 an important article of importation." — Geographical 
 Dictionary, article Arabia. 
 
 Considerable quantities of butter are made in Ire- 
 land, and it forms a prominent article in the exports 
 of that country : generally it is very inferior to that of 
 Britain ; but this is a consequence rather of the want 
 of cleanliness and attention than of any inferiority' in 
 the milk. Some of the best Irish butter brought to 
 London, after being washed and repacked, is sold as 
 Dorsetshire and Cambridge butter. The salt butter 
 of Holland is superior to that of eveiy other country ; 
 large quantities of it are annually exported. It forms 
 about two-thirds of all the foreign butter imported 
 by England, the rest being brought from Germanyj 
 Denmark, etc. The production and consumption of 
 butter in Great Britain is very great. The consump- 
 tion in the English metropolis may, it is believed, be 
 averaged at about eight pounds a year for each indi- 
 vidual ; and supposing this estimate to be nearly accu- 
 rate, and the population to amount to 2,300,000, the to- 
 tal annual consumption would, on this hypothesis, be 
 18,400,000 lbs., or 8214 tons; but to this may be added 
 3000 tons for the butter required for the victualing of 
 ships and other purposes ; making the total consump- 
 tion, in round numbers, 11,200 tons, or 25,088,000 lbs., 
 which at lOi per pound would be worth £1,045,333. 
 
 The census of 1840 furnishes us no statistics from 
 which we can accurately determine the quantity of 
 butter and cheese then produced. The value of both 
 
BUT 
 
 225 
 
 BUT 
 
 is given under the heading of ' ' value of the products 
 of the dairy" at the sum of $33,787,008. It is pre- 
 sumed that the marshals mad? their returns in accord- 
 ance with the prices governing in their respective dis- 
 tricts, which would differ so widely as to render any 
 assumed average a mere conjecture. New York is far 
 in advance of any other State in the productiveness of 
 its dairies. .They yield one-fourtt of all tlie butter, 
 and nearly one-half the cheese produced in the Union. 
 Pennsylvania, which makes 40,000,000 pounds of but- 
 ter, is less prolific in cheese than several smaller States. 
 In this latter article Ohio is before all other competi- 
 tors, except New York. 
 
 Census Report, 1850. — The following table shows the 
 
 amount of dairy 
 States for several 
 
 products 
 years 
 
 exported from the United. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Butter. 
 
 Cheese. 
 
 Valuo. ' 
 
 
 FoiiodB. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 % 
 
 1820-'ai 
 
 1,069,024 
 
 766,431 
 
 190,287 
 
 1830-'S1 
 
 . 1,728,218 
 
 1,131,817 
 
 264,766 
 
 ]840-'41 
 
 3,785,993 
 
 1,748,471 
 2,456,607 
 
 604,815 
 
 1841-'42 
 
 2,055,133 
 
 885,185 ' 
 
 1842-'43 
 
 8,408,247 
 
 3,440,144 
 
 508,968 
 
 1843-'44 
 
 3,251,952 
 
 7,343,145 
 
 758,829 
 
 1844-'4fi 
 
 3,587,489 
 
 7,941,187 
 
 878,865 
 
 1845-'46 
 
 3,436,660 
 
 8,675,390 
 
 1,063,087 
 
 1846-'4T 
 
 4,214,433 
 
 15,673,600 
 
 1,741,770 
 
 l84T-'48 :. 
 
 2,751,086 
 
 12,913,805 
 
 1,361,668 
 
 1848_'49....... 
 
 3,406,242 
 
 17,433,682 , 
 
 1,654,157 
 
 a849-'50 
 
 3,876,175 
 
 13,020,817 
 
 1,215,463 
 
 1850-'51 
 
 3,994,542 
 
 10,361,189 
 
 ^(,124,652 
 
 FnODUOT OF BUTTElt AKD CHEESE IN THE BEVEEAL STATES IN 1850, AND TalDE oy DaiKT PeODUOTS IN 1840. 
 
 States and Territories. 
 
 Butler. 
 
 dieeee. 
 
 Total, 1860. 
 
 Dairy Prodgcta. 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 California .,... 
 
 Columbia, District of. 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 DelaVare 
 
 Florida 
 
 Georgia 
 
 IlUnoiB 
 
 Indiana ,. . 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Kentucky ••:•■ 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Maine -.. 
 
 Maiyland 
 
 Maasacbuaetts 
 
 Michigan . 
 
 Missouri. 
 
 New Hampshire ..■,.... 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 New York 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Bhode Island 
 
 South CaroliAa. : 
 
 Tennessee ' 
 
 Texas 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Virginia 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 Minneapt^ Territory . . . 
 New Mexico Territory. , 
 
 Oregon Territory 
 
 Utah Territory 
 
 Totol 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 4,008,811 
 
 1,854,239 
 
 705 
 
 14,872 
 
 6,498,119 
 
 1,055,308 
 
 871,493 
 
 4,640,559 
 
 12,526,543 
 
 12,881,535 
 
 2,171,188 
 
 9,947,523 
 
 683,069 
 
 9,213,811 
 
 8,806,160 
 
 8,071,370 
 
 7,065,878 
 
 4,846,234 
 
 ' 7;834,369 
 
 6,977,056 
 
 9,487,210 
 
 79,766,094 
 
 4,146,290 
 
 34,449,379 
 
 39,878,418 
 
 995,670 
 
 2,981,850 
 
 8,139,585 
 
 2,344,900 
 
 12,137,980 
 
 11,089,359 
 
 8,633,750 
 
 1,100 
 
 111 
 
 211,464 
 
 83,309 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 31,412 
 
 30,088 
 
 150 
 
 1,500 
 
 6,863,277 
 
 3,187 
 
 18,015 
 
 46,976 
 
 1,278,225 
 
 624,564 
 
 209,840 
 
 213,954 
 
 1,957 
 
 2,434,464 
 
 3,975 
 
 7,088,142 
 
 1,011,492 
 
 21,191 
 
 203,5.72 
 
 3,196,563 
 
 365,766 
 
 49,741,413 
 
 95,921 
 
 20,819,542 
 
 2,505,034 
 
 316,608 
 
 4,970 
 
 177,681 
 
 95,299 
 
 8,720,834 ■ 
 
 ' '436,292 
 
 400,283 
 
 36,980 
 30,998 
 
 Founds. 
 
 4,040,223 
 
 1,884,327 
 
 855 
 
 16,372' 
 
 11,861,896 
 
 1,058,495 
 
 389,513 
 
 4,687,535 ' 
 
 13,804,768 
 
 13,506,099 
 
 2,381,028 
 
 10,161,477 
 
 685,026 
 
 11,678,265 
 
 3,810,135 
 
 16,169,612 
 
 8,077,370 
 
 4,367,426 
 
 8,037,931 
 
 10,173,619 
 
 9,852,966 
 
 129,507,507 
 
 4,242,211 
 
 65,268,921 
 
 42,383,453 
 
 1,312,178 
 
 2,986,820 
 
 8,317,266 
 
 2,440,199 
 
 21),858,.814 
 
 11,525,651 
 
 4,034,033 
 
 1,100 
 
 6,969 
 
 248,444 
 
 114,307 
 
 205,200 
 59,205 
 
 5,566 
 
 1,376,584: 
 
 113,828 
 
 23,094 
 
 605,172 ^ 
 
 428jl76 
 
 742,269, 
 
 23,609 
 
 931,363 
 
 153,069 
 
 1,496,902 
 
 457,466 
 
 2,373,299 
 
 301,052 
 
 359,585 
 
 10,0,432 
 
 1,688,543 
 
 1,328,032 
 
 10,496,021 
 
 674,349 
 
 1,843,869 
 
 3,187,292 
 
 223,229 
 
 677,810 
 
 472,141 
 
 2,008,737 
 
 1,480,488 
 
 35,677 
 
 813,345,306 
 
 105,585,894 
 
 418,881,200 
 
 $33,776,808 
 
 MUch Cows. — ^Under the general term of "neat cat- 
 tle" were embraced in the sixth census of the United 
 States the three descriptions of animals designated in 
 that of 1850 as milch cows, working oxen, and other 
 cattle. The aggregate of the three classes, in 1840, 
 was 14,971,586; in 1850, 18,355,287. The increase, 
 therefore, between the two periods was 3,383,701, or 
 about 20 per cent. They appear to be distributed quite 
 equally over the Union. The amount of butter pro- 
 duced gives an average of something over 49 pounds 
 to 6ach milch cow. The average production of cheese 
 to each cow is 16J pounds. As with horses, the same 
 allowance must be made, on account of the omission of 
 cows, except in connection with agriculture. The only 
 schedules in which the live stock of the country could 
 be enumerated were those used for obtaining the agri- 
 cultural products of farms. From the fact that the 
 schedules for enumerating agricultural productions and 
 live stock were not used in cities, their live stock was 
 necessarily omitted. The value of the butter pro- 
 duced in the United States in 1850 was estimated at 
 $50,135,000 ; and cheese, $5,276,000.— C7eiMtM Report, 
 1850. 
 
 Butternut-tree (Jughm cathartica). This species 
 of walnut is knowji in the United States under differ- 
 ent denominations. In Massachusetts, New Hamp- 
 shire, and Vermont, it bears the name of oil-nut ; in 
 Pennsylvania and Maryland, and on the banks of the 
 Ohio, it is generally known by that of white walnut ; 
 in Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Virginia, and 
 P 
 
 the mountainous districts of th^ upper parts of the 
 Carolinas, it is called butternut. The last of these 
 names we have adopted, because it is most generally 
 used. This tree is found in the Canadas, in all of the 
 New England States, New York, New Jersey, Ken- 
 tucky, Tennessee, and on the banks of the Missouri, 
 and in the bottoms which border on the Ohio. It 
 flourishes most abundantly in a cold, unproductive 
 soil, interspersed with large rocks, and on the steep, 
 elevated banks of rivers. From its want of solidity, 
 and from the difficulty of procuring pieces of consider- 
 able length, the timber of the butternut is seldom used 
 in the construction of houses. As it long resists the 
 effects of heat and of moisture, it is esteemed for the 
 posts and rails of rural fence. For com shovels and 
 wooden dishes, it is preferred to the red flowering ma- 
 ple, because it is lighter and less liable to split. In 
 Vermont it is used for the panels of coaches and chaises ; 
 the workmen find it excellently adapted to this object, 
 not only from its lightness, but because it is not liable 
 to split, and receives paint in a superior manner. — 
 Brown's Syha Americana. 
 
 Buttoji--wood, or Sycamore-tree. In the At. 
 lantic States this tree is commonly known by the name 
 of button-wood, and sometimes in Virginia by that of 
 water-beech. On the banks of the Ohio, and in the 
 States of Kentucky and Tennessee, it is most frequent- 
 ly known by the name of sycamore, and by some per- 
 sons .pZanc-*r«e. The French of Canada and of Upper 
 Louisiana, give it the name of cotton-tree. The wood, 
 
BUT 
 
 226 
 
 CAB 
 
 in seasoning, becomes of a dull red ; its grain is fine 
 and close, and it is susceptible of a brighter polish 
 than the wood of the beech, to which it bears some 
 resemblance. Its concentric circles are divided into 
 numerous sections, by fine medullary rays extending 
 from the centre to the circumference. When a trnnlc 
 is sawn in a direction parallel to these rays, they ap- 
 pear larger than when it is cut parallel to the concen- 
 tric circles. It would seem, then, that the division 
 should be made in the intermediate direction, so that 
 the spots may be of a proper size and at equal distances, 
 which gives an elegant surface to the wood. Cabinet- 
 makers seldom make use of this wood, on account of 
 its liability to warp, except for bedsteads, which re- 
 tain the color of the wood, and are coated with varnish. 
 This wood speedily decays when exposed to the at- 
 mosphere, hence it is only proper for work that is shel- 
 tered from the weather ; when thoroughly seasoned, it 
 may be usefully employed in the interior of houses for 
 joists, and for sheathing the frame. It never is used 
 in naval architecture. — Bkown's Sylva Americana. 
 
 Buttons (Du. Knoopen ; Fr. Bouton ; Ger. KnSpfe ; 
 It. Bottmi; Euss. Pogawizu; Sp. Botones) are well- 
 known articles, serving to fasten clothes, etc. They 
 are manufactured of an endless variety of materials 
 and forms. Buttons were of early manufacture in En- 
 gland ; those covered with cloth were prohibited by a 
 statute, thereby to encourage the manufacture of met- 
 al buttons, 8- Geo. I., 1721. The manufacture owes 
 nothing to encouragement from any quarter of late 
 years. 
 
 Buttress, a kind of abutment built archwise, or a 
 mass of stone or brick, serving to support the side of a 
 
 building or wall externally, when very high or loaded 
 with a heavy superstructure. Buttresses are chiefly 
 used against the angles of steeples and on the outside 
 of such buildings as have heavy roofs, which would be 
 apt to thrust out the walls if unsupported in this man- 
 ner. They are sometimes placed for a support and 
 abutment against the feet of arches that are turned 
 across great halls in old palaces, abbeys, etc. Flyings 
 buttresses are such as are carried across by an arch from 
 one wall to another. 
 
 Byron, John, was the second son of M'illiam, lord 
 Byron ; born November 8, 1723. He went out with 
 Lord Anson, in the Wager, about 1740, and was wreck- 
 ed on the coast of South America. An Indian chief- 
 tain conveyed him and his companions, after thirteen 
 months of dreadful sufl'erings and privations, to the 
 island of Chiloe, from whence they made their way 
 northward, and were kindly treated by the Spaniards 
 (though they were at war with England), in conse- 
 quence of the chivalrous conduct of Lord Anson toward 
 some Spanish ladies whom he had taken prisoners. 
 This wreck, and the sufferings through which thev 
 passed, form the subject of "Byron's Narrative," which 
 was published in 1745. He was constantly employed 
 by the British government, both in war and peace, 
 and, among otlier public services, he destroyed the 
 French squadron, then lying in Chaleur Bay. In 
 command of two ships, he made a voyage to the South 
 Sea in 1764 ; was appointed superior of the West India 
 fleet in 1778, and soon after created vice-admiral of 
 the white. He died in London, April 10, 1786, enjoy- 
 ing to the last a well-earned reputation. The poet, 
 Lord George Gordon Byron, was his grandson. 
 
 c. 
 
 Cabbage, a biennial plant (Brassioa, Linn.), of 
 which there are many varieties. It is too well known 
 to require any particular description ; it is extensively 
 cultivated in the United States. Sour-crout, or more 
 properly sauer-lcraut, is a' very favorite dish in Ger- 
 many ; it consists of a fermented mess of salted cab- 
 bage. ■■ 
 
 Cabin, an apai-tment in a ship for oflScers and pas- 
 sengers. In large ships there are several cabins, the 
 principal of which is occupied by the commander. In 
 small vessels there is only one cabin, which is in the 
 stern. The bed-places in ships are also called cabins ; 
 or, more conMuonly, berths. Berth is used, likewise, 
 for the room where a number of men mess and reside. 
 — E. A. 
 
 Cables are strong ropes or chains, principally used 
 in the anchoring or mooring of ships. Eope cables are 
 principally manufactured of hemp ; but in the East 
 they are more frequently made of coir, or the fibrous 
 part of the cocoa-nut, and in some places, particularly 
 on the Eed Sea, of the coating of the branches of the 
 date-tree. Hemp cables are formed of three principal 
 strands, every strand of three ropes, and each rope of 
 three twists. The twists have more or fewer threads, 
 according to the greater or less thickness of the cable. 
 All vessels have ready for service three cables, which 
 are usually designated the sheet cable, the best bower 
 cable, and the small bower cable ; but besides these, 
 most ships have some spare cables. The ordinary 
 length of a cable is from 100 to 120 fathoms. 
 
 Iron Cables. — ^The application of strong iron chains 
 or cables to the purposes of navigation is a late and an 
 important discovery by Captain Samuel Brown, Brit- 
 ish navy. It is singular, indeed, that this application 
 should not have been made at a much earlier period. 
 On rocky bottoms, or where coral is abundant, a hemp- 
 en cable speedily chafes, and is often quite destroyed 
 in a few months, or perhaps days. M. Bougainville, 
 the French navigator, in his voyage of discovery, lost 
 six anchors in the space of nine days, and narrowly 
 
 escaped shipwreck— a result, says that able seaman, 
 which would not have happened, " si nous eussions Ue 
 munis des guelques chaines defer. C'est une precaution 
 que ne doivent jamais oiiblier tous les navigateurs destines 
 adepareils voyages.^ — Voyage autour du Monde, p. 207, 
 4to ed. The work from which this extract is taken 
 was published in 1771 ; and yet it was not till nearly 
 forty years after that any attempt was made practi- 
 cally to profit by so judicious a suggestion. The dif- 
 ficulties in the way of importing hemp from 1808 to 
 1814, and its consequent high price, gave the first 
 great stimulus to tlie manufacture of iron cables. Iron 
 cables are constructed in dififerent n-aj'S (see Encyclo- 
 pedia MetropoWana) ; but they are unifonnly tested by 
 a machine, which strains them by a force greater than 
 the absolute strength of the hempen cable they are 
 intended to replace. By this means the risk of acci- 
 dent from defective links is effectuallj- obviated ; and 
 there are exceedinglj' few instances in which an iron 
 cable has broken at sea. Their great weight also con- 
 tributes to their strength, inasmuch as the impulse of 
 the ship is checked before the cable is brought nearly 
 to a straight line, or that the strain approaches to a 
 maximum. Bolts and shackles are provided at every 
 fathom or two fathoms, by striking out which the ship 
 may, if necessary, be detached from her anchors with 
 less difiiculty than a hempen cable can be cut. Even 
 in their most defective form, iron cables are a great 
 deal stronger than those of hemp ; and as to durabil- 
 ity, no sort of comparison can be made. No wonder, 
 therefore, that they should be rapidly superseding the 
 latter; which are now almost wholly laid aside in the 
 navy, and to a great extent also in the merchant serv- 
 ice. The sheet anchor cable is the greatest cable be- 
 longing to a ship. The stream cable is a hawser or 
 rope used to moor the ship in a river or haven shelter- 
 ed from the wind and sea. 
 
 Cabot, Sebastian, the celebrated navigator and 
 re-discoverer of the American continent (the continent 
 of North America had been seen, and even repeatedly 
 
CAB 
 
 227 
 
 CAB 
 
 visited about five centuries before by tlie Icelanders), 
 was the son of John Cabot, a Venetian merchant resi- 
 dent in England, and was born about the year 1477. 
 Although long the subject of much dispute, it is now 
 certain that England was the place of his nativity. In 
 an ancient collection of voyages and travels by Rich- 
 ard Eden, a learned writer and contemporary of Sebas- 
 tian, the author, in a marginal note, says, " Sebastian 
 Cabote tould me, that he was borne in Brystowe (Bris- 
 tol), and that at liii yeare ould he was carried with 
 his father to Venice, and so returned agayne into En- 
 gland with his father after certayne years, whereby he 
 was thought to have been born in Venice." — Decades 
 of the ifeio World, fol. 255. It also appears that he 
 returned, while still young (jicene infans), to England, 
 and remained there till he grew up to manhood. The 
 brilliant discoveries of Columbus having awakened a 
 spirit of enterprise throughout the ertlightened nations 
 of Europe, Henry VII. of England was not slow in 
 perceiving the advantages to be gained by promoting 
 adventure in the new career opened up to human am- 
 bition. The all-important and engrossing object was 
 to discover a route to India ; and an expedition in a 
 northwesterly direction, ostensibly to reach what was 
 called Cathay, or tlie Land of Spice, was projected by 
 Sebastian Cabot, and fitted out under the auspices of 
 the English government. The first patent, which bears 
 date March 5, 1496 (Rymek, Fcedera, vol. xii. p. 595), 
 was given to John Cabot and his three sons, Lewis, 
 Sebastian, and Sancius. The patentees were empow- 
 ered to set up the royal banner, and occupy and pos- 
 sess all the " newly-foiind" lands in the name of the 
 king, who reserved a fifth of the profits. It was also 
 stipulated that the vessels should return to Bristol, and 
 that the privilege of exclusive resort and traffic should 
 belong to the patentees. Although the patent was 
 conferred on John Cabot and his three sons, there can 
 be no doubt, even if the father did accompany the ex- 
 pedition, that its success was entirely owing to the gen- 
 ius of Sebastian. 
 
 It is now undoubted that to Sebastian alone belongs 
 the glory of the re-discovery of the terra firma of the 
 Western World. The expeditios, consisting of the 
 ship commanded by Sebastian, and three or four 
 smaller vessels, sailed from Bristol in the beginning 
 of Maj', 1497; and an ancient Bristol manuscript re- 
 cords the fact that "in the year 1497, the 24th June, 
 on St. John's day, was Newfoundland found, by Bris- 
 tol men, in a ship called the Maihem." On the author- 
 ity of Peter Martvr, we learn that, after quitting the 
 north, where he reached latitude sixty-seven and a 
 half, Cabot proceeded along the coast of the continent, 
 to a latitude corresponding probably with that of the 
 Straits of Gibraltar. Indeed, he is said to have gone 
 so far southward, " ut Cubam Insulam a Iseva longi- 
 tudine graduum perie parem habuerit." A failure of 
 provisions at this point compelled him to desist from 
 further pursuit, and the expedition returned to En- 
 gland. The second patent is dated 3d February, 1498, 
 and gives authority to "John Kabotto, or his depu- 
 ties," to take at pleasure six English ships, and "them 
 convey and lede to the loude and isles of late found." 
 Shortly after the date of this patent, John Cabot died ; 
 and it is said that his sons, Lewis and Saucius, went to 
 settle in Italy. Sebastian, however, did not abandon 
 the enterprise in which he had embarked; and a sec- 
 ond voyage was zealously undertaken under his super- 
 intendence. A ship equipped at the king's expense, 
 along with four small vessels, sailed from Bristol in 
 the spring of the year 1498. The result of the expe- 
 dition is unfortunately wrapt in much obscurity. Go- 
 mara alone furnishes us with what may be a correct 
 account. According to this author, Cabot "directed 
 his course by the tracte of islande, uppon the Cape of 
 Labrador, at Iviii. degrees; affirmynge that, in the 
 monethe of July, there was such could, and heapes of 
 ise, that he dnrst passe no further; also, that the dayes 
 
 were very longe, and in maner without nyglit, and the 
 nyghtes very clear. Certayne it is, that at the Ix. 
 degrees, the longest day is of xviii. houres. But con- 
 syderynge the coulde, and the straungeness of the 
 unknowen lande, he turned his course from thense to 
 the west, folowynge the coast of the lande of Baccalaos 
 unto the xxxviii. degrees, from whense he returned t& 
 Englande." — Eden's Decades, fol. 318. The results of 
 this second voyage were not sufficiently important to 
 induce Henry to equip another expedition. We have 
 good authority for believing, however, that Cabot, in 
 1499, "with no extraordinary preparations sett forth 
 from Bristol!, and made greatc discoveries." — Seyer's 
 Memoirs of Bristol. But the narritive of Cabot's life 
 for the fifteen years subsequent to the departure of his 
 second expedition is meagre and unsatisfactory. One 
 circumstance deserves notice, that during that period 
 Amerigo Vespucci, in company with Hojeda, crossed 
 the Atlantic for the first time, while Sebastian was 
 prosecuting his third Voyage. 
 
 After the death of Henry VII., upon the invitation 
 of Ferdinand, Sebastian Cabot went to Spain; and 
 Vespucci, who held the office of pilot-major, having 
 died, he was appointed his successor. He was soon 
 employed in a general revision of maps and charts ; 
 and his public and private character endeared him to 
 most of the learned and good men in Spain. The death 
 of Ferdinand put an end to an expedition then in con- 
 templation. The ignoble commencement of the reign 
 of Charles V. frustrated all further hopes of its prose- 
 cution ; and Cabot returned to England, where, under 
 Henry VIII., he got honorable employment, and per- 
 formed another westwardly voyage in 1617, which, 
 however, proved unsuccessful. In 1618 we find Cabot 
 in Spain, and again reinstated in the appointment of 
 pilot-major. The dispute between Spain and Portugal 
 in regard to their respective rights to the Moluccas 
 having been decided at the Congress of Badajos, in 
 1624 in favor of Spain, a company was formed at Se- 
 ville to open a commercial intercourse with those 
 islands ; and Cabot, with the title of captain general, 
 after many delays, set sail with a fleet in April, 1526. 
 The squadron was ill assorted, and a mutiny broke out ; 
 in consequence of which he diverted his course from 
 the Moluccas to the mouth of the Eio de la Plata, up 
 which he penetrated about three hundred and fifty 
 leagues. He erected a fort at St. Salvador, and after- 
 ward sailing up the Parana, he built other two forts. 
 He subsequently entered the Paraguaj', where he was 
 drawn into a sanguinary contest with the natives. 
 From the report then made by him to Charles V., it is 
 probable, had he been supplied with means and ammu- 
 nition, he would have made the conquest of Peru, 
 which Pizarro afterward accomplished with his own 
 private resources. After tarrying in the hopes of re- 
 ceiving supplies, Cabot was forced to return to Spain, 
 where he resumed his functions of pilot-major. 
 
 He finally settled in England, where he appears to 
 have exercised a general supervision over the mari- 
 time concerns of the country, and enjoyed a pension of 
 two hundred and fifty merks. It was then that he dis- 
 closed to Edward VI. his discovery of the phenomenon 
 of the variation of the needle ; a discovery for which 
 alone his name deserves to be immortalized. It was 
 also at his instigation that the important expedition 
 was undertaken which resulted in the opening of the 
 trade with Russia ; and in the charter of the company 
 of merchant adventurers he was nominated governor 
 for life, as " the chiefest setter forth" of the enterprise. 
 Cabot lived to a very advanced age, and died about 
 1667, probably in London ; but neither the date of his 
 death nor the place of his interment is properly authen- 
 ticated. Sebastian Cabot may be justly regarded as 
 one of the most illuslrious navigators the world has 
 ever seen, and the world owes him a debt of imperish- 
 able gratitude. "He ended," says the author of the 
 memoir which has rescued so much of his life from 
 
CAC 
 
 228 
 
 CAD 
 
 obscurity, "he ended, as he had begun, his career in 
 the service of his native country ; infusing into her 
 marine a spirit of lofty enterprise, a high moral tone, 
 and a system of mild but inflexible discipline, of 
 which the results were not long after so conspicuously 
 displayed. Finally, he is seen to open new sources of 
 commerce, of which the influence may be distinctly 
 traced on her present greatness and prosperity." — E. 
 B. See Memoir of Sebastian Cabot, with a Review of the 
 History of Maritime Discovery, illustrated by documents 
 from, the Rolls, nmo first published. 8vo. London, 1831. 
 
 Cacao, or Cocoa, the substance prepared from the 
 seeds of the Theobronia cacao. When the bruised seeds 
 are flavored with the Epidendrum vanilla, mixed with 
 a little sugar, they form the agreeable confection well 
 known, under the name of chocolate, 
 
 Cadiz, the principal commercial city and sea-port 
 of Spain, on its southwestern coast, on the rocky and 
 elevated extremity of a narrow, low peninsula, or 
 tongue of laud, projecting from the Isla de Leon, north- 
 northwest about 4i- nautical miles. It is surrounded 
 on all sides, except the south, where it joins the land, 
 by the sea, and is very strongly fortified. Population 
 in 1837, 58,525. It is well built, and has, at a distance, 
 a very striking appearance. The tower or light-house 
 of St. Sebastian stands on the western side of the city, 
 being, according to Tofiiio, in lat. 36° 31' 7" N., long. 
 6° 18' 52" W. It is a most conspicuous object to ves- 
 sels approaching from the Atlantic. The light, which 
 is 172 feet high, is of great brilliancy, revolves once a 
 minute, and in fair weather may be seen more than six 
 leagues off. 
 
 Bay of Cadiz. — The entrance to this noble basin lies 
 between the city and the town and promontory of Kota, 
 bearing northwest by north, distant about If league. 
 The bay is of very great extent, affording, in most 
 places, good anchorage. The port is on the eastern 
 side of the city, where a mole of considerable dimen- 
 sions has been constructed ; but the water is not suffi- 
 ciently deep to allow large vessels to approach nearer 
 than within about three-quarters of a mile, where they 
 anchor in from 5 to 7 fathoms. The rocks called the 
 Cochinos, the Puercas, and the Diamante, lie to the 
 north of the city, in the entrance to the bay ; the first 
 two at about three-fifths of a mile distant, and the Dia- 
 mante at rather more than 1 \ mile from the city. Ves- 
 sels may enter between the Puercas and the Diamante ; 
 but none, except those not drawing more than 15 feet 
 water, and well acquainted with the channel, ought to 
 attempt entering between the Cochinos and Puercas 
 and the city. The town of St. Mary's, on the opposite 
 side of the bay, is famous for being the depot of the 
 wines of Xeres. The outer bay, or that of Cadiz prop- 
 erly so called, is separated from the inner bay by the 
 promontory having at its extremity the castle of Mata- 
 gorda, which approaches within about three-quarters 
 of a mile of the Puntales castle, on the Isla de Leon. 
 
 Within the inner bay is the famous arsenal of the Car- 
 acas, the town of San Carlos, the canal of Trocadero, 
 etc. At spring-tides the water in the bay rises 10 or 
 11 feet, but at neaps the rise does not exceed 6 feet. — 
 For further particulars see the excellent Chait of the 
 Bay of Cadiz, by Tofino ; Malham's Naval Gazetteer; 
 and Pukdy's Sailing Directions for the Bay of Biscay, etc. 
 
 History, Trade, etc. — Cadiz is a very ancient city, 
 having been founded by the Phoenicians about 1200 
 years before the Christian era. The temple which 
 they erected in it in honor of Hercules was one of the 
 most celebrated in antiquity. — Sainte Croix, des An- 
 ciennes Colonies, p. 14; Pomp. Mela, lib. iii. cap. 6. 
 Its excellent port, and its situation, favorable alike for 
 commertfftartid security, have made it, whether possess- 
 ed by Carthaginians, Komans, Moors, or Christians, 
 and under every vicissitude, a place of considerable 
 commercial and political importance. It has long been 
 one of the principal stations of the Spanish naval force. 
 In 1720 the commerce with Spanish America, which had 
 previously been exclusively carried on from Seville, 
 was transferred to Cadiz. It enjoyed this valuable mo- 
 nopoly till 1765, when it was partially relaxed by the 
 trade to Cuba, St. Domingo, Porto Eico, and the other 
 islands, being opened to all the greater ports of Spain. 
 The benefits resulting from this relaxation were so very 
 great, that in 1778 the trade to all parts of America was 
 opened to ships from every considerable Spanish port, 
 except those of Biscay, which, not being subject to the 
 general laws of the kingdom, were not allowed to par- 
 ticipate in this privilege. In consequence, however, 
 of her situation, the great capital of her merchants, 
 and their established connections, Cadiz continued, 
 notwithstanding the abolition of the monopoly, to pre- 
 serve by far the largest share of the American trade. 
 But since the colonies achieved their independence, her 
 commerce has been contracted within comparatively 
 narrow limits ; nor is there much prospect of its being 
 materially improved, without a total change of policj' 
 on the part of the Spanish government. Barcelona is 
 at present the principal seat of Spanish commerce. — 
 Robertson's America, b. viii. passim ; Townsend's 
 Travels in Spain, vo^ ii. p. 395-401, 2d edition. 
 
 The white wines of Xeres in its vicinity form by far 
 the principal article of export from Cadiz. The quan- 
 tity exported may amount to about 30,000 pipes a year. 
 The prices vary from £12 to £65 per pipe ; but, as the 
 lower qualities predominate, the price may be taken, 
 at a medium, at about £26, making the total value of 
 the exports £750,000. More than three-fourths of the 
 whole goes to England. The other articles of export 
 are quicksilver, brandy, oranges, and other fruits, oil, 
 provisions, flour, salt, wool, etc. The imports consist 
 principally of sugar and coffee from the Havana and 
 Porto Kico, cocoa, hemp, flax, linens, dried fish, hides, 
 cotton wool and cotton manufactures, rice, spices, in- 
 digo, staves and timber, etc. 
 
 Statement off the Numbed, Tonnage, Chews, and Valties of the Caegoes off Vessels, belonging to vabious Nations, 
 
 WmOH ENTERED AMD CLEAEED AT TUB POET OF CaDIZ IN 1845 AND 1846. 
 
 Nations. 
 
 Entered. 
 
 Cleared. | 
 
 VeflBOlfl. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Crews. 
 
 Value of 
 Cargoes. 
 
 VosBOls. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Crew 8. 
 
 Valne of 
 Cargoes. 
 
 rBritiBh 
 
 297 
 40 
 63 
 64 
 46 
 
 284 
 
 49,576 
 6,217 
 7,541 
 13,090 
 15,231 
 42,708 
 
 2,867 
 635 
 631 
 668 
 683 
 
 8,416 
 
 £30,616 
 20,554 
 12,071 
 7,684 
 20,280 
 
 471,631 
 
 307 
 .37 
 66 
 68 
 62 
 
 161 
 
 51,122 
 6,684 
 8,213 
 14,370 
 17,121 
 36,125 
 
 2,E65 
 578 
 657 
 721 
 774 
 
 2,890 
 
 £847,247 
 
 14,937 
 
 15,676 
 
 13,620 
 
 6,010 
 
 223,217 
 
 a J American (TJ. S.) 
 
 * ] Swedish and Norwegian 
 
 ^ Prussian 
 
 [_SpaniBli 
 
 Total..... 
 
 fBritlsh 
 
 734 
 
 184,763 
 
 8,390 
 
 £562,786 
 
 681 
 
 132,636 
 
 8,676 
 
 £1,121,807 
 
 257 
 42 
 63 
 55 
 54 
 
 217 
 
 39,833 
 7,834 
 20,688 
 11,280 
 15,479 
 45,881 
 
 2,334 
 677 
 729 
 681 
 747 
 
 3,146 
 
 £80,808 
 
 8,610 
 
 35,719 
 
 11,485 
 
 44,104 
 
 506,670 
 
 250 
 45 
 48 
 46 
 49 
 
 162 
 
 88,633 
 7,908 
 
 19,286 
 9,194 
 
 13,271 
 
 30,524 
 
 2,270 
 729 
 678 
 479 
 650 
 
 2,214 
 
 £707,840 
 
 12,882 
 
 14,397 
 
 7,117 
 
 6,500 
 
 2£6,680 
 
 French 
 
 ^ J American (U. S.) 
 
 » 1 Swedish and Norwegian 
 
 Prussian 
 
 (^Spanish 
 
 Total 
 
 678 
 
 140,4!:'5 
 
 8,214 
 
 £037,390 
 
 590 
 
 124,766 
 
 7,020 
 
 £975,416 
 
 The commercial greatness of Cadiz has long been | commercial intercourse between Spain and the Spanish 
 on the wane. At one time it was the great focus of I colonies, and from 1720 to 1765 it enjoyed a monopoly 
 
CAE 
 
 229 
 
 CAL 
 
 of the traffic with Spanish America. Its prosperity 
 began to decline when the trade of St. Domingo, Cuba, 
 Porto Rico, and the other islands was opened up to the 
 greater ports of Spain, and decayed almost entirely in 
 the beginning of the present century, when the colo- 
 nies achieved their independence. An attempt was 
 made by the Spanish government in 1828 to restore its 
 former greatness, by making it a free warehousing 
 port; but this valuable privilege was withdrawn in 
 1832, and commerce relapsed into its former depressed 
 condition. By far the greatest obstacle in the way of 
 its future prosperity is the oppressive commercial re- 
 strictions imposed by government on all imports — a 
 policy which throws three-fourths of the trade of Spain 
 into the hands of contrabandistas. The principal manu- 
 factures of Cadiz are, soap, glass, coarse woolen, cot- 
 ton, and silk stulfs, and hats. There are also some 
 sugar refineries and tanneries. A considerable stimu- 
 lus to industry is given by the Sociedad economica de_ 
 Amiffos delpais^ which introduced the cochineal plant, 
 and grants medals for improvements in manufactures. 
 — E. B. 
 
 Caen, the capital of the arrondissement of the same 
 name, in the department of Calvados, in France. It 
 stands in an extensive valley, on the left bank of the 
 Orne, at the influx of the Odon, 9 miles from the Eht 
 glish Channel, and 122 west of Paris. Lat. 49° 11' 12" 
 N., long. 0° 21' 38" W. The town is handsome and 
 well built; the streets are generally wide, straight, 
 and clean ; and the houses, being built of freestone, 
 have a very good appearance. Population (1851), 
 40,569 ; while that of the arrondissement amounted to 
 139,922. The commerce and manufactures of Caen 
 are considerable. It exports corn, wine, brandy, fruit, 
 cattle, stones, hardware, etc. Its manufactures con- 
 sist chiefly of laces, caps, table-linen, cotton fabrics, 
 earthen-ware, cutlery, etc. ; it has also breweries, dye- 
 works, and ship-building yards. Several large fairs 
 are annually held here. At high water, vessels of 160 
 or 160 tons can come up to the town, and a canal to 
 connect it with the sea is in course of construction, 
 which will render it accessible to large vessels. — E. B. 
 Caffila, a kind of caravan or company of merchants. 
 It differs, however, from a caravan, at least in Persia ; 
 for the caffila properly belongs to some sovereign, or 
 to some powerful company in Europe ; whereas a cara- 
 van is a company of particular merchants, each trading 
 upon his own account. Caffilas also cross some parts 
 of the deserts of Africa, particularly that of Sahara. — 
 E. B. 
 
 Cagliari, the capital of Sardinia, on the northeast 
 shore of a spacious bay on the south coast of the island, 
 lat. 39° 12' 13" N., long. 9° 7' 44" E. Population in 
 1850, 30,000 ? The city stands on a rising ground, and 
 has an imposing eflect from the sea. The public 
 buildings and churches are numerous, and some of 
 them splendid ; but the streets are, for the most party 
 narrow, steep, and filthy. The Gulf of Cagliari ex- 
 tends from Pula on the west, to Cape Carbonara on the 
 east, a distance of about 24 miles across, and about 12 
 in depth, with good anchorage every where after get- 
 ting into soundings. A mole projects from the Pra- 
 tique office, and ships usually lie about 1 mile south- 
 west by south from it, in 6 or 8 fathoms water, on an 
 excellent bottom of mud. There is a very convenient 
 pier harbor at the south angle of the tower wall, capa- 
 ble of containing 14 or 16 vessels of a tolerable size, 
 besides small craft. Altogether, Cagliari is one of the 
 best and safest ports in the Mediterranean. — See Sar- 
 dinia. 
 
 Cairo, the modern capital of Egypt, occupies the 
 natural centre of the country, situate on the east bank 
 of the Nile, 12 miles above the apex of its delta, 112 
 miles southeast of Alexandria, and 75 miles west from 
 Suez. N. lat. 30° 2' 4 " ; E. long. 31° 15' 36 ". It is 
 built partly on the plain and partly on the lower slopes 
 of the rocky range of Mokattem, on a spur of which 
 
 stands the citadel, in a most advantageous position to 
 command the town. Cairo occupies a site of about 7 
 miles in circumference, and is surrounded by a wall 
 strongly built and fortified with lofty towers. The 
 prospect from the ramparts of the citadel is one of 
 great magnificence and beauty. The commerce of 
 Cairo, although still depressed, is considerable. Being 
 the rendezvous of one of the great caravans to Mecca, 
 it is the central mart in which the slaves, gum, and 
 gold dust of the interior, and the oils and flannels of 
 the north of Africa, with the European merchandise 
 from Alexandria, are exchanged for the coffee, per- 
 fumes, spices, and shawls of Arabia and India. As 
 the residence of the learned and wealthy of Egypt, it 
 affords a market for the agricultural produce of the 
 surrounding districts ; and in addition to the making 
 of arms, already extensive, it contains manufactories 
 of sal-ammoniac, saltpetre; coarse gunpowder, glass 
 lamps, and linen cloths. From the central situation 
 of Cairo, and its proximity to the hot sandy deserts, its 
 temperature is much higher than near the coast ; but 
 the diseases which infest it, such as the plague, oph- 
 thalmia, and malignant fevers, seem to originate in 
 its " stifled filth," and other local causes which advanc- 
 ing civilization will greatly remove, rather than in the 
 unhealthiness of its situation. Population estimated 
 at about 200,000, comprising about 121,000 Moham- 
 medans, 60,0U0 Copts, 4000 Jews, and the rest Franks, 
 Greeks, and Armenians. — E. B. 
 
 Cajeput Oil, the volatile oil obtained from the 
 leaves of the cajeput-tree (^MelaUupa LeucadmdTon, 
 Linn.). The name is a corruption of the native term 
 cayu-puti, that, is, white- wood oil ; because the bark of 
 the tree which yields it has a whitish appearance, like 
 our birch. This tree is common in Amboyna and 
 other Eastern islands. The oil is obtained by distilla- 
 tion from the dried leaves of the smaller of two varie- 
 ties. It is prepared in great quantities in Banda, and 
 sent to Holland in copper flasks. It is of a green col- 
 or, very limpid, lighter than water, of a strong smell 
 resembling camphor, and a strong pungent taste. It 
 bums entirely away without leaving any residuum. 
 It is often adulterated with other essential oils, colored 
 with resin of milfoil. In the genuine oil, the green 
 color depends on the presence of copper ; for, when 
 rectified, it is colorless. — Thomson's Dispematory. 
 
 Calabar Skin (Fr. Peftt-^ts ; Ga. Grauxerk ; It. 
 Vmr, Vajo ; Buss. Bjellca ; Sp. Gris pequeno), the Si- 
 berian squirrel skin, of various colors, used in making 
 muffs, tippets, and trimmings for clothes. 
 
 Calabash (Spanish calaiaza), in Commerce, a kind 
 t>f vessel formed of the dried shell of the cucurUta, or 
 gourd plant. It is used for containing liquors or 
 gums, as pitch, rosin, and the like. 
 
 Calamander Wood, a beautiful species of tim- 
 ber brought from Ceylon. It is so hard that common 
 edge-tools can not work it, so that it must be rasped 
 and almost ground into shape. It is singularly re- 
 markable for the variety and admixture of colors. The 
 most prevailing is a fine chocolate, now deepening al- 
 most into absolute black, now fading into a medium 
 between fawn and cream colors. It arrests the eye 
 from the rich beauty of the intermingled tints, not 
 from any undue showiness. It takes a very high 
 polish ; and is wrought into chairs, and particularly 
 into tables. Sir Robert Brownrigg, late governor of 
 Ceylon, had the doors of the dining-room of his seat in 
 Monmouthshire mai^e of calamander. It is scarce in 
 Ceylon, and is not regularly imported. In a few in- 
 stances, it has been imported by private gentlemen, re- 
 turning from the colony, for their own use. It is by 
 far the most beautiful of all the fancy woods. The 
 nearer it is taken from the root of the tree, the finer it 
 is. — MiLBDRs's Orient. Com. ; Library of Entertaining 
 Knowledge, Vegetable Substances, p. 179. 
 
 Calcedony. The distinction between this sub- 
 stance and agate rests upon very arbitrary grounds. 
 
CAL 
 
 230 
 
 CAL 
 
 Agate frequently presents a variety of colors, and a 
 multiplicity of beautiful delineations. Calcedony is 
 generally of one uniform color, of a light brown, and 
 sometimes nearly white. It occurs in irregular mass- 
 es, forming grotesque cavities in the trap rocks, par- 
 ticularly in Iceland and the Faroe Isles, from the for- 
 mer of which there are specimens in the Museum of 
 Edinburgh of a very large size. These stalactites ap- 
 pear always to have proceeded from the upper part of 
 the cavity, which is sometimes filled to the very sum- 
 mit with solid matter. Calcedony is used for the con- 
 struction of cups and plates, and other articles of taste, 
 of which the most splendid specimens are imported 
 from India. The labor which has been bestowed in 
 the manufacture of these articles, and the perfection 
 with which it has been accomplished, is a matter of 
 surprise to all who examine them. There are some 
 of them as thin and as delicate as china. The finest 
 stones are of course selected for this purpose. They 
 are generally clear and almost transparent, still main- 
 taining the warm brown color which characterizes the 
 stone. They often have the appearance of having 
 been hammered, so shaded and undulated is the aspect 
 of the mass ; and to add to their beauty, the fine den- 
 dritic Mocha stones are often selected. "We are in ig- 
 norance even of the locality where these beautiful ob- 
 jects are manufactured, whether in Japan or China ; 
 but they generally come from India, where, we believe, 
 they are found among the most precious treasures in 
 the repositories of the nabobs and princes of the East. 
 — E. B. 
 
 Calcutta, the principal city of the province of Ben- 
 gal, the capital of the British dominions in India, and, 
 with the exception, perhaps, of Canton, the greatest 
 emporium to the eastward of the Cape of Good Hope. 
 Its citadel is in lat. 22° 34' 49" N., long. 88° 27' 16" E. 
 It is about 100 miles from the sea, being situated on 
 the eastern bank of the western branch of the Ganges, 
 denominated by Europeans the Hooghly River, which 
 is the only arm of the Ganges navigable to any con- 
 siderable distance by large ships. At high water the 
 river opposite to the town is about a mile in breadth ; 
 but during the ebb the side opposite to Calcutta ex- 
 poses a long range of dry sand banks. Owing to the 
 length and intricacy of the navigation from the sea, 
 it can not be undertaken without a pilot ; so that, even 
 if it did not exceed our limits, it would be useless to 
 attempt any description of it in this place. — See Hooghly 
 Hiver. 
 
 In 1717 Calcutta was only a petty village ; but it 
 subsequently increased very rapidly, and was sup- 
 posed, toward the close of the last century, to have 
 600,000 or 700,000 inhabitants. This, however, was a 
 gross exaggeration. A census of the population, taken 
 in May, 1850, by order of the chief magistrate, gives 
 the following results : 
 
 Europeans ; G,2S8 
 
 Eurasians (the progeny of European fathers and 
 
 native mothers) 4,615 
 
 Americans 892 
 
 Chinese 84T 
 
 Armenians 16,342 
 
 Hindoos 274,336 
 
 Mohammedans 110,918 
 
 Total 413,182 
 
 The occupations of these various classes are nearly 
 what might be expected in the luxurious capital of a 
 great empire, and in so great an emporium of mari- 
 time commerce. Public oflicers,.lawyers, physicians, 
 merchants, and their families, make up the bulk of 
 the British inhabitants. The natives and foreigners 
 of respectability are mostly engaged in trade, or live 
 upon their property ; and the lower classes are princi- 
 pally composed of retail dealers, mechanics, and serv- 
 ants, A great part, however, of what may be fairly 
 considered the population of Calcutta, consisting of 
 laborers, mechanics, and persons engaged in trade, 
 reside at night in the suburbs, qr neighboring villa- 
 
 ges, coming into town early in the morning to their 
 respective employments. These were estimated, in 
 1837, on tolerably good data, at 177,000. The small 
 number of English resident in Calcutta (where, how- 
 ever, they are far more numerous than In any other 
 part of India) may well excite surprise. It was sup- 
 posed that the cessation of the East India Company's 
 monopoly, and of the pi'ohibition of European resort 
 to India, would occasion an influx of British settlers 
 and capital. But this anticipation has not been real- 
 ized. Scarcely a single English agriculturist, with 
 capital sufficient to cultivate 100 acres of land, has 
 established himself in India, and there has been no 
 immigration of artisans. And this, after all, is only 
 what might have been expected — the country being 
 too fully occupied, the burdens on the land too heavy, 
 and the wages of labor far too low, to admit of any 
 thing like an extensive immigration. The Eurasians, 
 the progeny of white fathers and native mothers, are 
 mostly employed as clerks in the government offices 
 and mercantile establishments, and are said to be an 
 industrious and useful class. — Bengal and Agra Gazet- 
 teer. The town, excluding suburbs, extends about 4i 
 miles along the bank of the river, with an average 
 breadth inland of 1^ mile. Fort William, the cita- 
 del, lies on the same side of the river, a little lower 
 down. It is a strong, regular fortification; but so 
 extensive that it would require a garrison of 10,000 
 men for its effectual defense. Calcutta possesses gi'eat 
 natural advantages for inland navigation, all sorts of 
 foreign produce being transported with great facility 
 on the Ganges and its subsidiary streams to the north- 
 western quarters of Hindostan, over a distance of at 
 least 1000 miles, while the productions of the interior 
 are received by the same easy channels. 
 
 The principal merchants and traders consist of Brit- 
 ish and other Europeans, Portuguese bom in India, 
 Armenians, Jews, Persians from the coast of the Per- 
 sian Gulf, commonly called Parsees, Moguls, Moham- 
 medans of Hindostan, and Hindoos ; the latter usu- 
 ally either of the Brahminical or mercantile castes, 
 and natives of Bengal. The native Portuguese and 
 Armenian merchants have of late greatly declined in 
 wealth and importance. On the other hand, the Per- 
 sian merchants have increased in numbers and wealth, 
 several of them being worth £250,000 sterling. The 
 largo fortunes of the Hindoo merchants have been 
 much broken down of late years by litigation in the 
 courts, and naturally through the law of equal copar- 
 cenary among brothers. To counterbalance this, there 
 has been, since the opening of the free trade in 1814, 
 a vast augmentation of the number of inferior mer- 
 chants, worth from £20,000 to £50,000 sterling. There 
 are but few Hindoo merchants at present whose wealth 
 exceeds £200,000 sterling. 
 
 The British merchants form a most respectable 
 class, and contribute essentially to the prosperity of 
 the settlement. Many of them are possessed of large 
 fortunes, and live in a style of suitable splendor. The 
 Armenians are the most numerous body of foreign 
 merchants in Calcutta. They trade extensively to all 
 parts of the East, are uncommonly diligent and atten- 
 tive to business, and are considered to have a more 
 minute intelligence from foreign ports than any other 
 body of merchants. The native bankers, agents, and 
 money-dealers, are numerous. Though formerly tim- 
 orous, the Hindoo now adventures in almost every 
 species of mercantile speculations ; and goods belong- 
 ing to native merchants, to the amount of several mil- 
 lions sterling, are generally lying for sale in the ware- 
 houses of Calcutta. The native merchants of an infe- 
 rior class engross nearly the whole of the retail trade 
 of Calcutta, under the titles of Banians, Sircars, and 
 other appellations. In the transactions of usury, these 
 men are watchful and acute beyond even those en- 
 gaged in similar pursuits in the West. 
 
 The English society in Calcutta is of the best de- 
 
GAL 
 
 231 
 
 CAL 
 
 acription, and numerous futes are given during the 
 cold seaaon, which lasts from September to April, on 
 a splendid scale^ by the governor general and other 
 public functionaries, as well as by private individuals. 
 There is a theatre, chiefly supported by amateur per- 
 formers; and public concerts are given, also supported 
 by amateur talent. The usual mode of visiting is in 
 palanquins, but many of the British have carriages 
 adapted to the climate ; and the breed of horses hav- 
 ing been greatly improved, it is the universal practice 
 to drive out between sunset and dinner. It is only 
 during the cold season that it is possible to venture 
 
 abroad in the heat of the day, which, in the rest of 
 the year, is devoted to repose. The hot season begins 
 in April. Every day the heat increases until the mid^ 
 die of June, wh^n the periodical rains begin, which 
 last till August. The weather then being extremely 
 close, is more oppressive and more unhealthy than be- 
 fore. The mean tempera1;ure is about;, 66° injanu^ry, 
 69° in February, 80° in March, 85° in April and May, 
 83'^. in June, 81° in July, 82° in August and September, 
 79° in October, 74° in November, and 66° in Decem- 
 ber. The annual fall of rain during six yeais^ com- 
 mencing with 1830, averaged sixty-four inches. — E. B. 
 
 Commercial Weiquts and Meastjeeb of India, with tiieih Eqtjivalemtb in English Avoiedupois, Bengal Factoeti 
 
 Madeas^ and Bomjuay "Weights. 
 
 Commarcial Meaaures, etc. 
 
 Acheen hahat of 200 catties 
 
 Acheen gtlncha of 10 nelly 
 
 Anjengo candy of SO.maunds... . 
 
 Batavia pecul of 100 catties 
 
 Behcoolen ^ahar 
 
 BengaLfactory<niaund 
 
 Bengal bazar maund 
 
 Bombay candy of 20 maunds . . . . 
 BuBSoi'ah i^aund of 76 vakias . . . 
 Bii&BOTah maund of 24 vakias . . . 
 
 Calicut maund of 100 pools 
 
 Ch^pa pecul of 100 Ci^tti^B. . ^ . . . . 
 
 Cochin candy of 20 maunds 
 
 GotnbroOn bazar candy 
 
 Goalcandy of 20 maunds 
 
 Jpnkceylon bahar of S capins . . . 
 
 Madras candy of 20 maunds 
 
 Malacca bahar of 3 peculs 
 
 Mocha bahar of 15 &az!ls 
 
 Muscat Custom-hQuse maund . . . 
 
 Mysore oandy of 7 mprahs 
 
 Pegu candy of 150 vis 
 
 Penang pecul of 100 catties 
 
 Surat maund of 40 seers 
 
 Surat Pucca maund 
 
 Tellicherry candy of 20 maunds . 
 
 Avoirdupois. 
 
 Bengal Factory, 
 
 Madral. 
 
 Bombay. 
 
 Lbi. o:. 
 
 dr. 
 
 Mdg. 8. 
 
 oil. 
 
 Mds. 
 
 Vin. 
 
 Pol. 
 
 Mds 
 
 S. Pita. 
 
 423 6 
 
 13 
 
 5 20 
 
 13 
 
 1« 
 
 r 
 
 19 
 
 15 
 
 4 27 
 
 220 
 
 
 
 2 37 
 
 13-7 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 16 
 
 7 
 
 34 8-6 
 
 660 
 
 
 
 7 20 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 135 10 
 
 
 
 1 32 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 4 
 
 33 22-4 
 
 660 
 
 
 
 7 20 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 74 10 
 
 10-7 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 35-7 
 
 2 
 
 26 20 
 
 ,82 2 
 
 2-1 
 
 1 4 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 11-3 
 
 2 
 
 37 10 
 
 S60 
 
 
 
 7 20 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 3 
 
 8 ■ 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 90 4 
 
 
 
 1 8 
 
 6-6 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 36-2 
 
 8 
 
 8 27-9 
 
 28 8 
 
 
 
 IB 
 
 4-3 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 4-8 
 
 1 
 
 21-4 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 24 
 
 1 
 
 2 28-7 
 
 133 5 
 
 6-3 
 
 1 81 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 iB 
 
 4 
 
 SO 14-3 
 
 B43 8 
 
 
 
 7 11 
 
 2-6 
 
 21 
 
 5 
 
 36-8 
 
 19 
 
 16 12-9 
 
 T 8 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 10 21-4 
 
 496 
 
 
 
 6 26 
 
 2-9 
 
 19 
 
 6 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 27 4-3 
 
 485 6 
 
 6-3 
 
 6 20 
 
 
 
 19 
 
 ii 
 
 12 
 
 17 
 
 13 lO 
 
 500 
 
 
 
 6 28 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 17 
 
 34 8-8 
 
 405 
 
 
 
 6 16 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 1 
 
 24 
 
 14 
 
 18 17-1 
 
 450 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 2 25-7 
 
 8 12 
 
 
 
 4i 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 32 
 
 n 
 
 12 16 
 
 560 
 
 
 
 7 20 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 f! 
 
 '8 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 500 
 
 
 
 28 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 34 8'6 
 
 133 6 
 
 BO 
 
 1 31 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 << 
 
 26 
 
 4 
 
 30 14-3 
 
 3T B 
 
 BS 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 » 
 
 37-9 
 
 1 
 
 18 10 
 
 74 10 
 
 10-7 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 85-7 
 
 2 
 
 20 20 
 
 000 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 
 
 21 
 
 17 4-3 
 
 Calcutta is the great emporium of India. By means 
 of the Ganges and its tributary streams, it has an 
 uninterrupted water communication with the whole 
 of the lower provinces of Bengal, and also with the 
 fertile territory subject to the jurisdiction of the lieu- 
 tenant governor of Agra. Being thus advantageously 
 situated for commerce, it trades extensively with al- 
 most every country in the world, and numbers of ves- 
 sels of every form and description are constantly 
 arriving in or departing from the river, which, in the 
 vicinity of the town, presents the busiest scene imag- 
 inable. Numerous dock-yards have also been estab- 
 lished, in which are built vessels of great burden and 
 of admirable construction. Indigo, sugar, cotton, 
 rice, opium, silk, and saltpetre, are the staple com- 
 jnodities of export. Those of import are, British cot- 
 ton goods, salt, copper, i/on, and hardware. 
 
 The commerce of Calcutta has for a long period of 
 years enjoyed the advantage of a bank, called the 
 Bank of Bengal, established by government authority 
 and carried on under government inspection. Various 
 acts have at different periods been passed by the gov- 
 ernment of India for its regulation ; the last bears date 
 the 18th of March, 1839, and took effect from the 1st 
 of May following. By this all previous charters and 
 acts, except so far as continued by the new act, were 
 canceled and repealed ; the capital stock, previously 
 fixed at 75 lacs of rupees, was increased by one half, 
 the nature of the transactions in which the bank might 
 engage was prescribed, and the conditions and limita- 
 tions under which its business was to be conducted 
 were laid down. The stock is divided into shares of 
 4000 rupees, or quarter shares of 1000 rupees each ; 
 and a portion is, and always has been, held by govern- 
 ment. 
 
 Pilotage. — The navigation of the Kiver Hooghly, 
 from the Sand Heads to Calcutta, a distance of about 
 130 miles, is naturally dangerous and intricate; but 
 rendered comparatively safe by a skillful and excel- 
 lent, though costly, pilot establishmeqt. 
 
 All foreign vessels pay the same pilotage as those 
 under British colors. By broken pilotage is meant 
 the proportion of full pilotage between the different 
 stages or places of anchorage. AH ships the property 
 of foreigners, as well Asiatic as -European, are subject 
 to the charge termed "lead money.)" it being indis- 
 pensably necessary that the pilot should have with him 
 a leadsman in whom he can confide. 
 
 Detention money, at the rate of is. per diem, from 
 British and foreign vessels, is charged by persons of 
 the pilot service kept on board ships at anchor by de- 
 sire of the commander or owner. 
 
 In the river before Calcutta, and in other parts, there 
 are chain moorings, of which the charges are as fol- 
 low: 
 
 BardeQ of Shipi. , 
 
 Aprilto October, , 
 7 Months. 
 
 November to March, 
 fi Months. 
 
 500 tons and upward. 
 Under 600 ton^: 
 
 IGs. per diem 
 14a. per diem 
 
 128. per diem' 
 lOs. per diem 
 
 Hire of the chain-moorings at Diamond Harbor, £1 
 per diem. The lowest charge to a ship requiring the 
 accommodation of the chain moorings at either of the 
 places above mentioned is for ten days; and using 
 them longer, a farther charge is made at the estab- 
 lished rate per diem for every day exceeding ten. The 
 charge for transporting a ship. from her moorings into 
 any of the docks at Kidderpore, Howrah, or Sulkea, 
 or from any of the docks to her moorings, is fixed at 
 50 rupees ; and no higher charge for such service is 
 authorized. Besides pilotage, every ship is chargea- 
 ble with the hire of a row-lioat to accompany her; 
 viz. : for a boat of the first class, 24s. ; of the second 
 class, 18s. ; and of the third class, 14s. Of late years 
 a light-house has been erected at Kedgeree, for which 
 the charge on British or American flags is at the rate 
 of 3d. per ton per annum. Ships proceeding to Cal- 
 cutta must land their gunpowder at the powder maga- 
 zine at Moyapore : the charge is at the rate of lid. 
 per ton for each voyage. The whole pilot establish- 
 ment, and the care pf the navigation of the Hooghly, 
 
CAL 
 
 232 
 
 CAL 
 
 is under the management of government, and is direct- 
 ed by a marine board, -with a master attendant and har- 
 bor-master. 
 
 The Marine Board at Calcutta have issued the fol- 
 lowing resolutions with respect to pilotage, etc. : 
 
 1. Commanders are requested, prior to quitting their vessels, 
 on arrival off Calcutta, to fill up and certify, or cause to be 
 filled up and certified,' a form of certificate showing the actu- 
 al registered tonnage, the draught of water, and whether the 
 vessel has or has not been tugged by a steamer any part of 
 the way, or has or has not had the use of a row-boat ; which 
 form will be furnished to the pilot, in order to the bills of the 
 vessels being correctly made out. 3. Commanders are further 
 requested, as early after their arrival as possible, to notify in 
 writing to the master attendant the name and residence of 
 the reference for the payment of his vessel's bills. On the 
 receipt by the master attendant of the above certificate, and 
 written reference for payment, a single bill will be prepared, 
 including inward pilotage, light-house duty, Moyapore maga- 
 zine duty, and row-boat hire (if any), which, together with 
 the certificate, will be forwarded to the marine paymaster, for 
 collection within fifteen days of the arrival of the vessel, and 
 ha^ng on it the name and residence of the party referred to 
 for payment, which commanders are requested to furnish to 
 Uie master attendant, in writing, as early after their arrival as 
 practicable, that officer will more readily be enabled to present 
 it. By this arrangement, all the charges connected with the 
 vessel, up to her aiTival off Calcutta, will be embodied in one 
 bill, instead of, as hitherto, being made up in sepai'ate bills. 
 4. In the event of vessels docking, or being transported at the 
 desire of the commander, it is requested that a certificate may 
 be given by the commanding officer of the operation having 
 been perfonned, in order to its accompanying the bill when pre- 
 sented for payment to the referee. 6. The practice of charg- 
 ing for hauling to the chain-moorings, for their monthly hire, 
 and for hauling from the moorings, in separate bills, is discon- 
 tinued, and henceforward one bill will be prepared, including 
 the charge for hauling to the moorings, that for occupying 
 them, and that for hauling from them ; and commanders are 
 requested to give, or cause their commanding officers to give, 
 to the master attendant, or the harbor-master, certificate of the 
 date of hauling to and from the moorings, which certificate, as 
 before, lyill accompany the bill when presented for payment. 
 The hire of the moorings will be charged for the day on which 
 the vessel is hauled thereto, without reference to the period of 
 the day ; and in like manner, no charge will be made for the 
 day on which she hauls from her moorings, however late in the 
 day she may quit them. The charges connected with the chain- 
 moorings will thus he embodied in one hill, and be discharged in 
 one payment, instead of three or more, according to the num- 
 ber of months the vessel occupied the moorings. 6. The system 
 of charging outward pilotage on an estimated draught of wa- 
 ter, with an addition of 10 per cent, subject to adjustment after 
 the vessel has sailed, and of charging a certain number of days 
 for a row-boat, subject to a like adjustment, is abolished; and 
 in future the outward pilotage and charge for row-boat hire on 
 outward-bound vessels will be as follows : When the vessel is 
 finally laden, the commander is to give notice thereof to the 
 master attendant, when the draught of water is to he ascer- 
 tained and certified by the commander or commanding officer 
 oh the pai*t of the vessel, and by the harbor-master on the 
 part of the government; subject, in case of dispute, to the 
 decision of the master attendant. On receipt of the certifi- 
 cate, the master attendant will cause a bill to be made out for 
 the regular amount of pilotage, and for the row-boat hire, ac- 
 cording to an average rate, with reference to the size of the 
 vessels and the season of the year, fixed by a marine committee 
 which lately sat at the Bankshall, the majority of which was 
 composed of members of houses of agency and commanders 
 of ships. The bill and certificate will be presented in due 
 course for payment. 7. As, however, it frequently happens 
 that vessels are taking in cargo or filling their water up to the 
 last day of their departure, or that from other causes the bills 
 for the chaiu-raoorings and outward pilotage can not be made 
 out till the eve of departure, oivners, agents, and commanders 
 are in such cases particularly requested, with a view to dis- 
 patch, to cause an individual to attend at the Bankshall, and 
 expedite the transmission of the bill and certificate to the 
 board for registry, and to the pay-office for collection; at each 
 of TVhich offices they juay in such cases depend upon the most 
 ready and special attention. 8. In the event of a vessel be- 
 ing ttig^ed any part of the way down by steam, or not hav- 
 ing the use of a row-boat, commanders are to obtain from the 
 pilot of Kedgeree a certificate to that effect, which they should 
 forward by the. Dftk to their agents. On receipt thereof, 
 agents are requested to make out a bill against the honorable 
 company for the quarter deduction from the pilotage allowed 
 
 if tugged by steam, or for the row-boat hire paid, as the case 
 may be ; and to forward it, together with the certificate, to 
 the marine board for audit and payment. 9. In cases where 
 a vessel leaves Calcutta avowedly intended to fill up cargo at 
 some place below, the pilotage will be chained at the draught 
 at which she leaves Calcutta, in like manner, though at the 
 reduced amount, as if she had proceeded to sea; and, with 
 respect to the subsequent pilotage chaise, from the place at 
 which the vessel takes in the additional cargo to sea, owners 
 or agents of vessels will be required to furnish a special guar- 
 antee to pay the amount chargeable according to a certificate 
 of the draught of water, to be signed by the commander, or 
 commanding officer and pilot. 10. Six sets of moorings at 
 Diamond Harbor having been fitted especially to enable vessels 
 arriving in distress from loss of anchors and cables to be read- 
 ily moored, the charge will be Co.'s Rs, 50 for mooring and un- 
 mooring, and the daily hire the same as for the moorings at 
 Calcutta. The moorings will, of course, be available to ves- 
 sels not in distress from loss of anchors and cables; but the 
 harbor-master will be. instructed at all times to keep two sets 
 vacant during the southwest monsoon, to meet casualties. 
 
 There are several dry docks at Calcutta, in which 
 vessels of any size may he built or repaired. Ships 
 built at Calcutta are of inferior durability to those 
 constructed at Bombay, in consequence of the frame- 
 work being always of the inferior woods of the coun- 
 try ; and the planks, sheathing, upper works, and 
 decks, alone of teak ; which last is furnished almost 
 entirely from Pegu. In 1848, the number of register- 
 ed ships belonging to the port of Calcutta was 134, of 
 the burden of 43,569' tons ; being at an average of 
 about 330 tons for each. The largest class of vessels 
 carry nearly 750 tons ; but ships drawing so much wa- 
 ter are unfit for the navigation of the Hooghly. Not 
 being able to load at Calcutta, they are obliged to re- 
 ceive part of their cargo at Diamond Harbor, about 
 thirty-four miles farther down the river. The most 
 convenient-sized ship for trade between Calcutta, and 
 Europe, and America, is from 400 to 500 tons. 
 
 Duties, etc, — The export and import duties and draw- 
 backs are regulated by an ordinance of the year 1836, 
 revised in 1845, and are the same for every port un- 
 der the government of Bengal ; or, as it is technically 
 called, the Presidency of Port William and British In- 
 dia generally. 
 
 The following is an act of the Indian government, 
 which took effect from the 25th March, 1848, and which 
 abolished all duties on goods carried coastwise in the 
 company's territories. 
 
 I. It is hereby enacted, that from and after the 25th day of 
 March, 1848, all goods imported on foreign bottoms by sea into 
 any port of the Presidencies of Fort WiUiam, in Bengal, 
 Fort St. George, or Bombay, shall be charged only with the 
 same rates of duty as such goods would now by law be 
 charged with if such goods were imported into any of the 
 said ports on British bottoms, any thing in any act of the 
 Council of India contained to the contrary notwithstanding. 
 
 II. And it is hereby enacted, that from and after the said 
 day, all goods exported on foreign bottoms by sea, from any 
 port of the said presidencies, shall be charged only with the 
 same rates of duty as such goods would now by law be charged 
 with if such goods were exported from any of the said ports 
 on British bottoms, any thing in any act of the Council of 
 India contained to the contrary notwithstanding. 
 
 III. And it is hereby enacted, that from and after the said 
 day, no duty shall be charged on any goods lawfully carried 
 from any port in the territories subject to the government of 
 the East India Company, to any other port in the said terri- 
 tories, any thing in any act of the Council of India contained 
 to the contrary notwithstanding. 
 
 ly. Provided always, that nothing In this Act contained 
 shall apply to the articles of salt or opium. 
 
 Schedule A. — Rates of duty to be charged on goods import- 
 ed by sea into any port of the Presidencies of Fort Will- 
 iam, in Bengal, Bombay, or Fort St George. 
 
 Bullion and coin Free. 
 
 Precious stones and pearls Free. 
 
 Grain and pulse Free. 
 
 Morses and other living animals Free. 
 
 Ice Free. 
 
 Coal, coke, bricks, chalk, and stones Free. 
 
 Books printed in the United Kingdom, or in any Brit- 
 ish possession Fred. 
 
CAL 
 
 Foreign books 3 per cent. 
 
 Mavinu stores, the produce or manufac- 
 ture of the United Kingdom, or of any 
 British possession 5 per cent. 
 
 Marine stores, the produce or manufac- 
 ture of any other place or country .... 10 per cent. 
 
 Metals, wrought or unwrought, the prod- 
 uce or manufacture of the United King- 
 dom, or any British possession 5 per cent, 
 
 Metals, wrought or unwrought, Hxe pro- 
 duction or manufacture of any other 
 place 10 per cent 
 
 Woolens, the produce or ma,nufacture of 
 the United Kingdom, or any British 
 possession *...., 6 per cent 
 
 Woolens, the produce of any other place 
 or country , 10 per cent. 
 
 Cotton and silk piece goods, and all 
 manufactures of cottoa or silk, except 
 thread, twist, and yam, or of cotton, 
 or silk mixed with any other material, 
 the produce of the United Kingdom, 
 or of any British possession 
 
 Ditto, the produce of other places 
 
 Opium 
 
 Porter, ale, heer, cider, and other fer- 
 mented liquors 
 
 Salt 
 
 233 
 
 CAL 
 
 Alum 
 
 Camphor 
 
 Cassia 
 
 Cloves 
 
 Coflfee \. 
 
 Coral 
 
 Nutmegs and mace 
 
 Pepper 
 
 Ratans , 
 
 Tea. 
 
 Vermilion , 
 
 Wines and liquors. 
 Spirits 
 
 5 per cent 
 10 per cent 
 24 rsB. per seer of 80 
 
 tolas. 
 
 6 per cent 
 £s. 8-4 per md. of 
 
 80 tolas per seer. 
 10 per cent 
 10 per cent 
 10 per cent 
 10 per cent 
 7k per cent 
 10 per cent 
 10 per cent 
 10 per cent. 
 7i per cent. 
 10 per cent. 
 10 per cent. 
 1 rup. per imp. gal. 
 1 rup. S annas, per 
 
 imp. gal. 
 
 And the duty pn spirits shall he ratably 
 increased as the strength exceeds Lon- 
 don proof, and when imported in bot- 
 tles, five (^uart bottles shall he deemed 
 equal to the imperial gallon. 
 
 All manufactured articles not included In 
 the above enumeration 6 per cent 
 
 All other articles not included in the 
 above enumeration 8i per cent 
 
 And when the duty is declared to be ad valor&m, it shall be 
 levied on the market value without deduction ; and if the col- 
 lector of customs shall see I'eason to doubt whether the goods 
 come from the country from which they are declared to come 
 by tlie importer, it shall be lawful for the collector of customs 
 to call on the importer to furnish evidence as to the place of 
 manufacture or production, and if such evidence shall not 
 satisfy the said collector of the truth of the declaration, the 
 goods shall be charged with the highest rates of duty, subject 
 always to an appeal to the Board of Customs, salt and opium. 
 
 And upon the re-export by sea of goods imported, excepting 
 opium and salt, provided the re-export be made within two 
 years of the date of import as per custom-house register, and 
 the goods be identified to the satisfaction of the collector of 
 customs, there shall be retained one-eighth of the amount of 
 duty levied, and the remainder shall be repaid as dj-awback. 
 And if goods be re-exported in the same ship irithout being 
 landed (always excepting opium and salt, in regard to which 
 the special rules in force shall continue to apply), there shall 
 be no import duty levied thereon. 
 
 ScTiedule B, — Rates of duty to be charged upon goods export- 
 ed by sea from any port or place in the Presidency of Port 
 William, in Bengal. 
 
 Bullion and coin Free. 
 
 Precious stones and pearls Free! 
 
 Books printed in India Free! 
 
 Horses and living animals Free! 
 
 Opium purchased at government sales in 
 Calcutta Free. 
 
 Cotton wool exported to Europe, the Uni- 
 ted States of America, or any British 
 possession in America Free. 
 
 Cotton wool exported to places other than 
 
 the above As. Spermd. of 80 
 
 tolas to the seer. 
 
 Sngar and mm exported to the United 
 Kingdom, or to any British posBession. Free. 
 
 Sugar and rum exported to any other 
 place 8 per cent 
 
 Grain and pulse of all sorts 1 anna per bag. 
 
 Indigo Rs. Spermd. of 80 
 
 tolas to the seer. 
 
 Lac-dyc and shellac 4 \iqv cent. 
 
 Silk raw, filature ai as. per seer of 80 
 
 tolas. 
 
 Silk, Bengal, wound 8 as. per seer of 80 
 
 tolas. 
 
 Tobacco 4 as. per maund. 
 
 All country articles not enumerated or 
 
 named above 3 per cent 
 
 When the duty is declai-ed to be ad valorem, the same shall 
 be levied on the market value Of the article at the place of 
 export, without deduction. Since the 1st of April, 1837, credit 
 has not been given, nor drawback allowed, of any inland 
 customs or land-frontier duty paid at any custom-house or 
 chokee of the Jumna frontier line, or of Benares, except only 
 upon the article of cotton wool, covered by niwanas taken 
 out at the custom-house of the western provinces, and proved 
 to have been destined for export by sea when passed out of 
 those provinces. * 
 
 The policy of charging duties on exported articles 
 seems verj-- questionable. The great difficulty under 
 Trhich India labors, 'in a commercial poiijt of view, 
 consists principally in her inability to furnish equiva/- 
 lents for foreign imported goods, and to make the nec- 
 essary payments abroad ; and, when such is the case, 
 it is certainly not a little contradictory to lay duties 
 on exports. The most obvious considerations of ex- 
 pediency and common sense would suggest that they 
 should be allowed to be exported duty free. There 
 can be no doubt that the stimulus this would give to 
 their production would, by increasing the public wealth, 
 infinitely more than compensate the government for 
 the loss of the inconsiderable sum produced by the du- 
 ties with which they are charged. 
 
 Trade of Calcutta. Exports. — During the last forty 
 years the trade of Calcutta has experienced some very 
 striking vicissitudes. Previously to the opening of 
 the trade in 1814^*15, cotton piece goods formed the 
 principal article of export from India ; the value of 
 those exported from Calcutta, at an average of the 
 five years from 1814-'15 to 18i8-'19, being (at 2s. per 
 sicca rupee) £1,260,736 a year. The extreme cheap- 
 ness of labor in India, and the excellence to which 
 the natives had long attained in several departments 
 of the manufacture, would, it might have been sup- 
 posed, have sufficed to place this important depart- 
 ment beyond the reach of foreign competition. But 
 the wonderful genius and the admirable skill of the 
 European machinists, and their immense capital, have 
 far more than countervailed tJie apparently insupera- 
 ble drawback of high wages, and the expense of bring- 
 ing the raw material of the manufacture from America, 
 and even India itself; and have enabled English man- 
 ufacturers to bear down all opposition, and to triumph 
 over the cheaper labor, contiguous material, and tra^ 
 ditional art of the Hindoos. The imports of British 
 cottons and twist into India have increased since 
 1814-'15 with a rapidity unexampled in the annals of 
 commerce, and the native manufacture has sustained 
 a shock from which it is not very likely it will ever 
 recover. The influence of these circumstances on the 
 trade in piece goods has been very striking. During 
 the year 1851-52, the value of those exported from 
 Bengal was no more than £62,352, being only about 
 one-twentieth part of what it amounted to twenty-six 
 or twenty-eight years previously. 
 
 It does not, however, appear to be very difficult to 
 account for these variations. Formerly the export of 
 bullion to India, though influenced by other causes, 
 was mainly occasioned by the difficulty under which 
 merchants were placed of providing articles of merchan- 
 dise suitable for the Indian markets sufficient to bal- 
 ance the imports. The astonishing increase of British 
 exports of cotton goods and yarn to India has, how- 
 ever, gone far to obviate this difficulty ; in truth, the 
 fair presumption seems to be, that in future the cir- 
 cumstances of the case will be reversed, and that the 
 difficulty of procuring return cargoes of produce suita^ 
 ble for a market will, in ordinary years, be found to 
 be the principal obstacle to the extension of the trade 
 with Hindostan as well as with China. There seems 
 
CAL 
 
 234 
 
 CAL 
 
 to be no limit other than the necessity of famishing 
 equivalents in their stead, to the indefinite sale of our 
 products in the East ; and in so far, at least, as India 
 is concerned, the facilities for furnishing such equiva- 
 lents will, most likely, be gradually Increased. The 
 soil and climate of Bengal seem to be peculiarly -well 
 suited to the production of grain, sugar, indigo, opium, 
 silk, cotton, saltpetre, and a host of other articles. 
 And as the inhabitants are not deficient in industry, 
 nor in the desire to improve their condition, it would 
 seem that there wants only a reduction of the land- 
 tax, which is so heavy as to paralyze all their ener- 
 gies, to enable them to increase their articles of export 
 to an indefinite extent, and to render their country 
 comparatively flourishing and prosperous. 
 
 In the year 1853, the great articles of export from 
 Calcutta were opium, indigo, sugar, raw silk and silk 
 piece goods, saltpetre, rice, hides, cotton and cotton 
 piece goods, gunny bags and gunny cloth, rum, etc. 
 We subjoin 
 
 An Account of the Quantities and Values of the Native 
 Peoducb and Teeabube expokted feodi Calcutta dubing 
 the Official Year 1851-52. 
 
 
 IJSl 
 
 -'62. 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 Quantity. ' 
 
 Vnlue. 
 
 
 Chests. 
 
 
 Rupees. 
 3,10,77,814 
 1,82,16,636 
 
 Indigo 
 
 Indian mds. 
 
 1,77,004} 
 
 Sugar 
 
 " 
 
 16,16,826 
 
 1,61,38,613 
 
 Saltpetre 
 
 " 
 
 7,09,6001- 
 
 41,09,903 
 
 Rice 
 
 " 
 
 30,91,562 
 
 35,38,136 
 
 Paddy 
 
 ** 
 
 1,494 
 
 879 
 
 Wheat 
 
 " 
 
 2,8T,253 
 
 3,23,510 
 
 
 
 1,01,640 
 86,630 
 
 1,06,594 
 90,272 
 
 Dholl and peas 
 
 " 
 
 Oats 
 
 " 
 
 40,614} 
 
 44,158 
 
 Barley 
 
 " 
 
 250 
 
 250 
 
 Bran 
 
 " 
 
 1,170 
 
 877 
 
 Kaw' cotton 
 
 " 
 
 4,95,890 
 
 49,68,758 
 
 RaT7 silk 
 
 
 20,858i 
 46,962 
 
 77,65,384 
 62,352 
 
 Cotton piece goods 
 (countiy) 
 
 1 Pieces. 
 
 Silk piece goods . . 
 
 *' 
 
 5,60,127 
 
 27,47,653 
 
 Mixed piece goods 
 
 *' 
 
 1,26,819 
 
 2,73,486 
 
 Country woolens , 
 
 " 
 
 8,003 
 
 76,720 
 
 Arrow-root 
 
 Indian mds. 
 
 79} 
 
 2,118 
 
 Borax andtincal.. 
 
 " 
 
 12,767} 
 
 1,82,794 
 
 Castor oil 
 
 '* 
 
 60,085} 
 
 5,00,863 
 
 Canvas 
 
 Bolts. 
 
 1,520 
 
 9,707 
 
 Cigars 
 
 Indian mds. 
 
 
 40,057 
 
 Elephants' teeth . . 
 
 " 
 
 3} 
 
 494 
 
 Ghee 
 
 " 
 
 1,008} 
 
 14,123 
 
 Ginger 
 
 " 
 
 32,678 
 
 1,15,690 
 
 Gunny bags 
 
 Nos. 
 
 1,44,56,498 
 
 16,63,846 
 
 Gunny cloth 
 
 Pieces. 
 
 4,34,349 
 
 17,36,424 
 
 Hemp twine 
 
 Indian mds. 
 
 11,854} 
 
 1,04,779 
 
 Hemp 
 
 " 
 
 8,31Ci 
 
 10,632 
 
 Hides of sorts 
 
 Nos. 
 
 38,62,554 
 
 27,62,171 
 
 Horn tips 
 
 Indian mda. 
 
 4,397i 
 
 29,567 
 
 Jute 
 
 " 
 
 7,28,707 
 
 18,10,308 
 
 Lac Dye 
 
 *' 
 
 32,881} 
 
 6,60,707 
 
 „ (Shell 
 
 9 4seed 
 
 •^ (stick 
 
 " 
 
 48,140 
 
 3,87,084 
 
 *' 
 
 634} 
 
 2,637 
 
 " 
 
 539} 
 
 2,289 
 
 Linseed 
 
 u 
 
 14,26,821} 
 
 82,63,661 
 
 Molasses 
 
 *' 
 
 9,060} 
 
 6,613 
 
 Munjeet 
 
 " 
 
 694} 
 
 1,786 
 
 Mustard seed 
 
 *' 
 
 6,48,391 
 
 10,96,776 
 
 Mustard oil 
 
 " 
 
 8,327 
 
 62,969 
 
 Pntchuck 
 
 " 
 
 8,405} 
 
 89,135 
 
 Provisions and lard 
 
 " 
 
 
 1,62,093 
 
 Rum (Bengal) .... 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 8,83,766} 
 
 1,19,927 
 
 Safflower 
 
 Indian mds. 
 
 23,128} 
 
 6,90,203 
 
 Sal ammoniac 
 
 " 
 
 236} 
 
 3,243 
 
 Soap 
 
 » 
 
 2,421 
 
 14,610 
 
 Tallow 
 
 *' 
 
 9,364 
 
 91,489 
 
 Teel seed 
 
 
 60,096} 
 
 1,20,191 
 1,792 
 
 Teel-seed oil 
 
 " 
 
 256 
 
 Tobacco leaf. 
 
 *' 
 
 18,802 
 
 47,720 
 
 Turmeric 
 
 " 
 
 59,583} 
 
 1,53,371 
 
 AH other exports . . " 
 
 ■ ■.. 
 
 6,44,727 
 
 rupees ..... 
 
 10,49,66,641 
 
 
 
 34,97,366 
 19,45,809 
 
 Treasure ex] 
 Total private 
 Specie exporl 
 
 
 
 
 
 11,04,09,706 
 
 cd by E. I. C 
 
 )mpany .... 
 
 6,82,000 
 
 The export trade of Calcutta would be much in- 
 creased if facilities were created for internal commerce, 
 especially in building railroads and improving the wa- 
 ter communications with the interior. Something has 
 
 been done in the way of building good turnpike roads 
 and in locating railroads, and farther improvements 
 may be anticipated. The present mode of communi- 
 cation between Howra, on the opposite bank of the 
 river, and the metropolis, is by ferry ; but Howra has 
 been selected as the locality for the tei-minus of the 
 East India railway ; and upon the opening of the first 
 section, which is now complete, greater facilities will 
 be required, as well of access from Howra, as of egress 
 from the city in the same direction. 
 
 Opium. — The trade in opium has rapidly grown in 
 magnitude and importance. At an average of the 
 years 1830-'31 and 1831-'32, the exports from Calcutta 
 were 7273 chests, worth £1,121,560,; whereas during 
 the year 1851-52: the exports had increased to 32,306 
 chests, worth £3,137,781. China is not the principal 
 merely, but almost the only market for opium, so that 
 the trade between Calcutta and her is now second only 
 to that between the former and England. It is true 
 that large quantities of opium are shipped for Singa- 
 pore and other intennediate ports, but China is its ul- 
 timate destination. ■ Subjoined is a statement of the 
 quantity and value of the opium shipped from Calcut- 
 ta in 1840-'41 and 1851-'52. 
 
 
 1840-'41. 
 
 1851-'5!!. 1 
 
 
 Qiiuntity. 
 
 Vnluo. 
 
 Qunutity. 
 
 Vnluo. 
 
 China 
 
 Singapore . . . 
 
 Penang 
 
 Batavia 
 
 Pegu 
 
 Elsewhere... 
 Total. . . . 
 
 6,8fe 
 
 10,822 
 
 546 
 
 55 
 
 79 
 
 2 
 
 Rupees. 
 
 39,47,745 
 
 70,05,633 
 
 3,64,340 
 
 82,075 
 
 49,130 
 
 1,390 
 
 27,921 
 
 3,916 
 
 398 
 
 50 
 
 21 
 
 Rupees. 
 
 2,71,34,689 
 
 37,95,980 
 
 3,77,040 
 
 50,360 
 
 19,756 
 
 17,356 
 
 1,13,90,313 
 
 .32,306 ,3,18,77,814 | 
 
 Previously to the year 1815, the exports of indigo 
 from Calcutta were comparatively trifling. But about 
 that period Europeans began to engage in the busi- 
 ness ; and the culture of the plant was, in consequence, 
 so much extended, and the preparation of the drug so 
 much improved, that it has been for a lengthened pe- 
 riod an article of primary commercial importance. Of 
 late years, however, the growth of indigo appears to 
 have been nearly stationary, the shipments in 1830- 
 '31 and 1831-32 being about equal to those in 1840-'41 
 and 1851-52. This stationary state of the trade has 
 been ascribed partly to the influence of the importa- 
 tions from Java, where indigo is now very extensively 
 raised, and partly to the alleged decrease in the use 
 of blue cloth. France is, next to England, the great 
 market for indigo. 
 
 Statement of the Quantity and Value of the Indigo 
 
 SHIPPED FEOM CALCUTTA IN 1840-41, AND 1851-52. 
 
 CouDtrieB. 
 
 1640-'41. 
 
 1861-'62. -,,."j 
 
 Quaotilj. 1 Vnlue, 
 
 Qunntity. 
 
 Vnlue. ., 
 
 Great Britain. . 
 
 France 
 
 North America. 
 Arabia, etc. . . , 
 
 Bombay 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Elsewhere 
 
 Total 
 
 Beinginlbs. . 
 
 84,206 
 
 20,260} 
 
 4,822} 
 
 5,063} 
 
 637 
 
 206} 
 
 78} 
 
 1,16,263} 
 
 Rupees. 
 
 1,65,31,074 
 
 40,86,266 
 
 9,45,368 
 
 9,64,414 
 
 1,27,499 
 
 41,256 
 
 15,775 
 
 2,27,11,602 
 
 Indinn Mdi. 
 
 80,679} 
 
 24,791} 
 
 3,751} 
 
 6,887} 
 
 207} 
 
 1,687} 
 1,17,004} 
 
 l,27°?l'i2T 
 
 89,68,162 
 
 5,97,297 
 
 6,31,194 
 
 22,796 
 
 2,78,961 
 
 1,82,16,530 
 
 8,601,5574 
 
 
 9,638,371 
 
 
 In 1835, the British duty on East India sugar, which 
 had previously been comparatively high, was reduced 
 to the same amount as that on West India sugar ; and 
 that circumstance, and the continued high price of 
 sugar, did not fail to give a powerful stimulus to its 
 culture in and exportation from India. On the whole, 
 however, great as was the increase in the exports of 
 sugar between 1830 and 1840, it has since recededi 
 And now that the sugar trade is placed on a proper foot- 
 ing by the abolition in Great Britain of the discrim- 
 inating duties on foreign sugars, the importations 
 fi-om India will, perhaps, be still farther reduced. 
 Subjoined is a statement of the quantity and value 
 of the sugar shipped from Calcutta in 1840-' 41 and 
 1861-'62. 
 
GAL 
 
 235 
 
 CAL 
 
 Conntriei. 
 
 1840-'41. 
 
 18Bl-'6a. . 1 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Vaino. 
 
 
 Indian Msunds. 
 17,17,290 
 48,131 , 
 6,67li: 
 
 261 V, 
 1,2341., 
 240f 
 
 2,036t 
 
 Rupees. 
 
 1,59,90,863 
 
 3,40,665 
 
 6T,170 
 
 2,063 
 
 9,568 
 
 1,864 
 
 ^,m 
 
 10,837 
 
 Indian Maonda 
 
 15,06,4474 
 
 80,513t 
 
 2,999t 
 
 300} 
 
 6,434} 
 
 9641 
 
 671i 
 
 10,413 
 
 B75i 
 
 ' 7,616 ' 
 
 Rupees. 
 
 l,42,Kl,593 
 
 6,17,866 
 
 24,967 
 
 1,600 
 
 53,714 
 
 7,417 
 
 6,2B« 
 
 99,221 
 
 6,768 , 
 
 71,131 
 
 
 
 Madras 
 
 
 Pegu ..^. 
 
 Maldives.... 
 
 New Holland 
 
 
 KlsBwhere 
 
 Total : 
 
 17,81,791 J 
 
 1,64,68,818 
 
 16,16,824 
 
 1,61,88,515 
 
 
 146,676,981|| 
 
 
 133,118,674 
 
 
 
 The exports of cotton from Calcutta continue sta- 
 tionary ; the expectations that it would be improved 
 in its quality by greater attention being given to its 
 culture and preparation have not been realized. The 
 exports of saltpetre from India have not, as many an- 
 ticipated, been affected by the competition of nitrate 
 of soda from South America. In 1830-'31, the exports 
 from Calcutta were 424,729 factory mannds, whereas 
 in 1851-'52 they amounted to 7O9,SQ0 Indian maunds. 
 The exports of rice from Bengal fluctuate very great- 
 ly. This is not caused so much by variations in the 
 crops of the country as by variations in those of other 
 countries ; for when a scarcity occurs in most parts of 
 continental Asia, or in any of its islands, recourse is 
 almost invariably had to Bengal to supply the defl- 
 ciency ; and the demands thence arising have been 
 sometimes enormous. In 1831-'?2, for example, the 
 exports of rice from Calcutta to the coast of Coro- 
 mandel amounted to only 16,545 maunds, whereas in 
 1833-'34 they amounted to 1,252,056 maunds. — Bell's 
 Comparative View of 1832-'3S and 1833-'34, p. 41. It is 
 worthy of remarlc, that while Bengal is shipping im- 
 mense supplies of rice and other grain to distant parts, 
 
 a large part of her own population is frequently in a 
 state of great want and suffering. Ireland is not, 
 therefore, the only country in which the most abject 
 poverty and wretchedness on the part of the inhabit- 
 ants are found combined with great fertility of soil 
 and a large exportation of food. Besides the articles 
 of native Indian produce exported from Calcutta, she 
 re-exports pretty considerable quantities of various 
 articles brought from other parts. The value of the 
 British cotton goods re-exported amounts to about 
 ^200,000 a year. They are principally bartered with 
 the Burmese for silver. The conveyance of the latter 
 out of the Burmese dominions is strictly prohibited ; 
 but in Burma, as in England and elsewhere, the inge- 
 nuity of the smuggler is too much for the vigilance of 
 the government, and the trade is carried on without 
 much difficulty. The great articles of import into Cal- 
 cutta are, cotton manufactures and cotton twist ; bul- 
 lion; copper, with spelter, tin, lead, iron, and other 
 metals; woolens; wines and spirits; ale and beer; 
 haberdE^hety, millinpry, etc. ; coffee ; hardware and 
 cutlery; spices; coal; coral, glass, and bottles; plate, 
 jewelry, watches, etc. ; books and stationery ; tea, etc. 
 
 Statement of the Quantity anb Value op tub prtnoipat. Aktioles of Merchandise imported into Calcutta dubino 
 
 THE Years 1851-52. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Alum , 4 Indian maunds. 
 
 Beads and false pearls — 
 
 Books and pamphlets — 
 
 Cloves J — 
 
 CofTec — 
 
 Coals — 
 
 Coral ...,...., Sa. wt. 
 
 Cocoaniit shells, etc — 
 
 GlaSB-ware, etc J , — 
 
 Haberdashery, millinery, and apparel — 
 
 Hardware and cutlery — 
 
 I ( Slab and tile Indian maunds. 
 
 Cobper \ Sheet and nail — 
 
 (Old — 
 
 Spelter i — 
 
 Tin-block , . , ...,., , . . — 
 
 Iron' — 
 
 Steel — 
 
 ^Ironmongery, machinery, and anchors — 
 
 Pepper, black — 
 
 " I ' , ( Pieces. 
 
 White cotton } Yards. 
 
 ( Dozens. 
 f Pieces. 
 
 Colored cotton } Yards. 
 
 ' ( Dozens. 
 
 / Pieces. ' 
 
 Silk and mixed < Metres. 
 
 ^ ' ■ ' ( Yards. 
 
 Salt (duty paid) , Indian maunds. 
 
 Sugars and cheroots : J — 
 
 Stationery and cords . . . .' — 
 
 Ale and porter..., — 
 
 Twist and yarn . . : i Lbs. 
 
 "Wines : — 
 
 Woolens ..., — 
 
 AU other articles — 
 
 Total merchandise by private traders . 
 
 Treasure by private traders 
 
 Private trade, grand total. 
 
 3,238 
 10,591f 
 7,57,794 
 8,06,293} 
 
 . .6^,820} 
 
 : 25,444} 
 
 2,315 
 
 fi6,671i 
 
 24,480} 
 
 4,42,383} 
 
 4,837 
 
 , 62^3471 
 
 86,89,758 
 
 30,36,451 1 
 
 7,364} 
 
 11,58,792 
 
 36, 
 
 80,395} 
 
 13,306 
 
 8,60,622} 
 
 305} 
 
 81,74,370 
 
 8,792 ) 
 6,123 J 
 0,395} ) 
 
 1,76,86,355 
 
 Rupees. 
 28,532 
 2,28,938 
 2,85,148 
 78,052 
 1,33,760 
 3,82,242 
 1,82,164 
 3,78,441 
 2,83,774 
 
 13,94,440 
 5,08,077 
 
 21,49,482 
 
 8,77,368 
 
 78,190 
 
 4,06,696 
 
 6,87,600 
 
 13,78,646 
 37,977 
 
 14,18,984 
 4,08,149 
 
 2,54,96,107 
 
 65,43,032 
 
 5,79,198 
 
 31,74,370 
 
 1,62,718 
 
 4,50,477 
 
 6,72,904 
 
 97,03,546 
 
 11,34,082 
 
 13,27,383 
 
 S0;4S,314 
 
 6,76,14,750 
 9,24,77,934 
 
 • In addition to this, the registered amount of specie imported by the Honorable Company is as follows: 
 1S60-'61 = Company's vessels = 37,47,130 | lS51-'62 = Company's Tessels=l,24,653. 
 
CAL 
 
 236 
 
 CAL 
 
 Abstkact View op the Exteenal Commeuce of Bengal. 
 
 CoimtrieB or States. 
 
 Impobts. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 1861-'S2. 
 
 1851-'62. 
 
 MerchandiBe. 
 
 Treasure. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Merchandise. 
 
 Treaeure. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 6,59,79,282 
 
 9,38,031 
 
 9,99,683 
 
 9,24,838 
 
 30,681 
 
 1,36,292 
 
 17,78,800 
 
 7,29,208 
 
 14,69,481 
 
 6,12,629 
 
 16,00,846 
 
 12,66,258 
 
 37,182 
 
 6,34,963 
 
 22,823 
 
 20,053 
 
 36,675 
 
 1,49,014 
 
 1,18,996 
 
 1,568 
 
 35,956 
 96,602 
 
 91,74,844 
 4,25,860 
 2,22,090 
 
 18,08,853 
 1,30,226 
 
 3,47,380 
 
 1,80,722 
 
 16,26,031 
 
 1,34,631 
 
 89,12,398 
 
 16,452- 
 
 2,497 
 
 8,51,063 
 
 8,61,993 
 
 7,33,906 
 
 35,860 
 
 6,81,83,826 
 
 13,63,881 
 
 12,21,743 
 
 27,32,891 
 
 1,60,906 
 
 1,36,292 
 
 21,23,180 
 
 9,09,927 
 
 30,94,462 
 
 7,47,260 
 
 1,05,13,244 
 
 12,82,707 
 
 89,649 
 
 8,86,026 
 
 8,84,316 
 
 7,63,963 
 
 71,525 
 
 1,49,014 
 
 1,18,996 
 
 1,668 
 
 35,956 
 96,602 
 
 4,78,20,145 
 
 48,07,431 
 
 76,84,224 
 
 12,52,690 
 
 1,60,240 
 
 60,633 
 
 29,71,601 
 
 12,61,697 
 
 44,04,137 
 
 6,44,769 
 
 3,22,17,277 
 
 3,16,844 
 
 68,971 
 
 14,43,883 
 
 18,98,297 
 
 6,06,865 
 
 2,68,888 
 
 2,27,960 
 
 83,063 
 4,21,888 
 2,66,278 
 
 78,083 
 
 1,47,924 
 57,100 
 
 "640 
 7,148 
 
 16,96,174 
 86,370 
 
 2,560 
 
 4,78,98,188 
 
 48,07,431 
 
 76,84,224 
 
 14,00,614 
 
 2,07,340 
 
 60,632 
 
 29,71,801 
 
 12,81,897 
 
 44,04,677 
 
 8,61,907 
 
 3,22,17,277 
 
 8,16,844 
 
 63,971 
 
 30,40,067 
 
 16,51,667 
 
 6,06,865 
 
 2,71,085 
 
 2,27,960 
 
 83,083 
 
 4,21,838 
 2,66,278 
 
 
 North America 
 
 
 Ceylon , 
 
 
 
 Arabian and Persian Gulfe 
 
 
 
 China 
 
 New Holland 
 
 
 Pegu 
 
 Mauritius 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 
 Other places 
 
 Total, Company's rupees 
 
 6,78,14,780 
 
 2,49,63,184 
 
 9,24,77,934 
 
 10,84,63,897 
 
 19,46,809 
 
 11,04,09,706 
 
 Statement exhibiting twe PaoroETiON of the Extehnal Commekce op Bengal enjoyed by each CotrNTUT aiJd State 
 
 DUKiNG THE Yeaes 1850-51 and 1851-52. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Import Trade. | 
 
 Export Trade. | 
 
 1850-'61. 
 
 1851-'52. 1 
 
 1860-'51. 
 
 1851-'62. 1 
 
 Value. 
 
 Per Cent. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Per Cent. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Per Cent. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Per Cent. 
 
 Europe. 
 
 Rupees. 
 4,91,12,788 
 16,80,031 
 6,63,938 
 
 1,36,760 
 
 55;856 
 1,171891 
 
 69-6 
 2-4 
 0;8 
 
 6-2 
 
 61 
 6-2 
 
 Rupees. 
 6,51,83,826 
 18,63,881 
 1,49,014 
 
 1,18,996 
 
 37,436 
 1,568 
 
 35,956 
 
 70-8 
 1-8 
 0-2 
 
 6-i 
 
 Rupees. 
 
 4,93,74,209 . 
 
 40 88,282 
 
 1,86,413 
 
 13,005 
 
 20,450 
 
 1,89,200 
 
 20,732 
 
 06,862 
 66,631 
 
 46 
 4-4 
 0-2 
 
 6-2 
 
 6-i 
 
 0-1 
 
 Rupees. 
 4,78,98,188 
 48,07,431 
 2,27,960 
 
 '88,068 
 
 76,573 
 
 84,559 
 
 4,21,838 
 
 43.4 
 4-3 
 0-2 
 
 6i 
 
 01 
 0-1 
 0-4 
 
 
 
 Altona 
 
 Cadiz 
 
 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 
 
 
 
 Crenoa 
 
 Alia. 
 Coromaudel Coast 
 
 8,16,67,264 
 
 17,72,847 
 
 57,404 
 
 18,90,016 
 
 1,57,479 
 11,68,759 
 60,82,361 
 34,77,786 
 
 6,46,024 
 48,748 
 
 8,38,164 
 
 6,72,341 
 
 'i,'886 
 20,644 
 
 73-8 
 
 2-5 
 0-1 
 2-7 
 0-2 
 1-7 
 8-6 
 4-9 
 0-9 
 01 
 1-1 
 1-0 
 
 6,68,60,677 
 
 27,32,891 
 
 1,60,906 
 
 21,23,180 
 
 1,36,292 
 
 9,09,927 
 
 1,08,13,244 
 
 30,94,462 
 
 7,47,260 
 
 39,649 
 
 12,82,707 
 
 8,86,026 
 
 1,021 
 
 23460 
 
 72-3 
 
 2-9 
 0-2 
 2-3 
 0-2 
 10 
 11-4 
 3-3 
 0-8 
 
 i-4 
 
 10 
 
 8,46,83,684 
 
 15,18,022 
 
 10,77,085 
 
 39,23,987 
 
 79,450 
 
 13,77,938 
 
 3,04,52,909 
 
 38,47,231 
 
 4,88,250 
 
 1,60,784 
 
 1,42,403 
 
 22,66,211 
 
 51-0 
 
 1-4 
 1-0 
 3-7 
 0-1 
 1-3 
 28-4 
 8-6 
 0-4 
 0-2 
 0-1 
 2-1 
 
 5,35,99,602 
 
 14,00,614 
 
 2,07,340 
 
 29,71,501 
 
 60,632 
 
 12,51,697 
 
 3,22,17,277 
 
 44,04,677 
 
 8,81,907 
 
 68,971 
 
 3,16,544 
 
 30,40,057 
 
 48-6 
 
 1-3 
 0-2 
 2-6 
 0-1 
 1-1 
 29-2 
 4-0 
 0-6 
 0-1 
 0-3 
 2-7 
 
 
 Maldives and Laccadives . 
 Arabian and Persian Gulfs 
 
 
 Penang and Malacca 
 
 Java and Sumatra 
 
 
 
 Sandwich Islands 
 
 Manilla 
 
 Africa. 
 
 1,68,22,918 
 
 6,70,863 
 
 4,50,465 
 
 70,441 
 
 29,098 
 
 28-8 
 
 1-0 
 0-6 
 0-1 
 
 2,26,50,721 
 
 8,84,316 
 
 7,53,963 
 
 71,826 
 
 82,200 
 
 24-5 
 
 1-0 
 0-8 
 0-1 
 
 4,63,34,270 
 
 12,83,791 
 4,67,994 
 1,45,217 
 
 42-3 
 
 1-2 
 0-4 
 0-1 
 
 4,64,9iai7 
 
 16,61,667 
 6,06,865 
 2,74,085 
 
 42-1 
 
 1-5 
 0-6 
 0-2 
 
 
 Cape and St. Helena 
 
 Cape Yerd Islands 
 
 America. 
 
 12,20,557 
 8,32,171 
 
 1-7 
 1-2 
 
 17,42,004 
 
 12,21,743 
 2,789 
 
 1-9 
 1-3 
 
 18,97,032 
 
 83,98,553 
 43,280 
 24,107 
 
 1-7 
 6-0 
 
 25,29,617 
 
 76,84,224 
 71,648 
 33,803 
 
 2-3 
 
 6-9 
 0-1 
 
 
 Trinidad 
 
 
 8,32,171 
 
 1-2 
 
 12,24,882 
 
 1-3 
 
 54,65,939 | 8-0 
 
 77,89,370 
 
 7 
 
 7,05,32,910 
 
 100 
 
 9,24,77,984 | 100 
 
 10,72,80,885 | 100 
 
 11,04,09,706 
 
 100 
 
 Exports of Wheat pko.m Calcutta. In Indian Maunds. 
 
 Places. 
 
 Mauritius 
 
 Bourbon , 
 
 Ceylon 
 
 Madras Coast 
 
 Singapore 
 
 Penang 
 
 Batavia 
 
 Pegu 
 
 The Cape 
 
 New Holland and Australian ports. 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 North America 
 
 Other porta 
 
 Total 
 
 1352-'E3. 
 
 75,366 
 48,300 
 440 
 23,050 
 87,828 
 16,212 
 
 lo'fiU 
 2,046 
 48,683 
 
 289,489 
 
 1853-'64. 
 
 64,620 
 
 66,600 
 
 1,400 
 
 35,950 
 
 47,149 
 
 15,026 
 
 6,900 
 
 8,702 
 
 2,000 
 
 4,667 
 
 9,060 
 
 '426 
 
 252,314 
 
 1854-'55. 
 
 116,060 
 60,800 
 
 2,810 
 
 113,196 
 
 88,976 
 
 16,824 
 
 8,480 
 63,122 
 
 8,764 
 
 9,184 
 26,012 
 
 ' 400 
 
 426.078 
 
 May 1, 1856, to 
 January 81, 1856. 
 
 78,940 
 
 65,800 
 
 lOD 
 
 8,668 
 33,491 
 
 9,248 
 16,274 
 
 4,262 
 
 3,730 
 
 66,22s 
 
 473,321 
 
 2,930 
 81,286 
 
 934,178 
 
CAL 
 
 237 
 
 CAL 
 
 Account of the Numbeb of Snirs akj> theik Tonhagb wmoH entered Calcutta in 1851-52, mBTiNGUisniNG those 
 
 "WincH BKOUGHT BbiTIBU IMFOBTS FBOH TUOSE WHICH UBOUGHT FOEEIGN ImpOBTB, AND THE PLACES WHENCE THEY GAME. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Britiah Importa. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Coontrios. 
 
 Foreign Imports. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 United Kingdom 
 
 Foreign Europe 
 
 Bombay and Malabar Coast 
 
 Madras and Coromandel Coast 
 
 Madras and Suez 
 
 Rangoon, Akyab, and Moulmein . . . 
 
 China and Singapore 
 
 Singapore, Malacca, and Fenang . . . 
 
 Mauritius 
 
 Muscat, Judda, and Aleppee 
 
 Cape 
 
 Ceylon, Maldives, and Laccadives. . 
 
 Australia 
 
 Sumatra 
 
 British vessels from North America. 
 
 British vessels from West Indies . . . 
 
 Total British imports 
 
 270 
 1 
 
 34 
 69 
 18 
 66 
 
 , S 
 20 
 22 
 4 
 1 
 4 
 
 164,795 
 669 
 20,221 
 10,fl9T 
 13,629 
 20,048 
 24,614 
 
 9,462 
 18,754 
 10,445 
 
 2,125 
 
 1,915 
 11,146 . 
 
 1,241 
 635 
 
 2,850' 
 
 Foreign Europe 
 
 North America (United States) 
 
 Madias and Coromandel Coast 
 
 China and Singapore 
 
 Bourbon ^ 
 
 Cape 
 
 Muscat, Judda, and Aleppee 
 
 Penang, Malacca, and Singapore . . . 
 
 Mauritius 
 
 Bombay and Malabar Coast 
 
 United Kingdom 
 
 Australia 
 
 Aden 
 
 120 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 1 . 
 18 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 11,620 
 69,415 
 
 997 
 
 950 
 11,156 
 
 256 
 (5,215 
 
 S02 
 1,969 
 
 385 
 9,557 
 
 398 
 
 737 
 
 812,696 
 
 Total foreign imports 
 
 Add total British imports 
 
 Total British and foreign importa. 
 
 237 
 649 
 
 112,957 
 312,596 
 
 426,553 
 
 Total customs duty collected at Calcutta in 1851-52, 
 £1,169,685. "We are indebted for ttese details to Wil- 
 kinson's excellent Account of the Commerce of Bengal 
 in 1850-'51 and 1851-'52. 
 
 The number of vessels which arrived at Calcutta 
 during the year 185i, and their aggregate tonnage, 
 were as follows ; 
 
 British ships 441 
 
 French ships. 103 
 
 American ships 96 
 
 Arabian ships 17 
 
 Dutch ships 8 
 
 Hamburg ships 6 
 
 Swedish ships 6 
 
 Sardinian ships 3 
 
 Belgian ships 2 
 
 Danish ships 2 
 
 FruEsian ships 1 
 
 685 
 Aggregate tonnage about 430,000 tons. 
 
 This gives an increase of vessels over that of the pre- 
 vious year of 49, and of tonnage of 49,281 tons.— .Scre- 
 gal Earkaru, March 21, 1855. 
 
 Failures at Calcutta. — During the three years ending 
 with 1833 some of the principal mercantile establish- 
 ments in this city failed for immense sums. To exam- 
 ine minutely into the origin of these disasters would 
 lead us into inquiries foreign to the object of this work, 
 and with respect to which it would be difficult to get 
 accurate information. "We believe, however, that the 
 main source of the evil was the combination, by most 
 of the principal houses, of the business of merchants 
 with that of bankers. Their credit being high, at the 
 end of the war large sums were deposited in their hands, 
 for which they engaged to pay a high rate of interest. 
 But instead of employing these deposits, as bankers in 
 England would have done, in the discount of bills at 
 short dates, or in the purchase of government securi- 
 ties readily convertible into money, they employed 
 them, probably because they could with difficulty dis- 
 pose of them otherwise, in all manner of mercantile 
 speculations ; advancing very large sums to the indigo 
 planters, exporting goods to Europe, either directly on 
 their own account, or indirectly by lending to those who 
 did, becoming owners of Indian shipping, etc. Most 
 of those speculations turned out exceedingly ill. The 
 production of indigo was so much increased, partly in 
 consequence of the large capitals turned to the busi- 
 ness, and partly of the high prices in England, that 
 "fine blue violet," which had brought in the London 
 market, at an average of tlie three years ending with 
 1827, from 12s. lOd. to 13s. id. per lb., fell, at an aver- 
 age of the three years ending with 1832, to from 5s. 
 8d. to 6s, id. per lb., and other sorts in proportion. 
 At these prices the production would not pay; and 
 very heavy losses were sustained and much capital 
 sunk by the planters and those who had supplied them 
 with funds to extend their undertakings. The invest- 
 ments iq Indian shipping turned out even worse than 
 those in the indigo plantations, the shipping of En- 
 gland having nearly driven that of India out of the 
 
 field. The embarrassment occasioned by this locking 
 up of their capital, and by the ruinous nature of the ad- 
 ventures in which they were embarked, began to man- 
 ifest itself simultaneously with the scarcity of money 
 occasioned by the drains on account of the Burmese 
 war. The great mercantile houses began then to find 
 that they, were entangled in difficulties from which they 
 were wholly unable to extricate themselves. After 
 struggling on, some for a longer and some for a shorter 
 period, most of them subsequently failed, the greater 
 number for very large sums. 
 
 But, however distressing in tlie mean time, the em- 
 barrassment and want of confidence arising from the 
 failures alluded to were not of long continuance, and 
 have in the end been advantageous. It is of the ut- 
 most consequence that the vicious combination of the 
 business of a merchant with that of a banker shoidd be 
 put an end to. It is singular, indeed, that individuals 
 should -be found willing to intrust large sums in the 
 hands of those who they are aware are employing them 
 in the most hazardous adventures. The higher the in- 
 terest promised by such persons, the greater ought to 
 be the caution of the public in dealing with them. 
 
 InterTial Transit Duties. — A very great improvement 
 has been effected in the domestic economy of Brit- 
 ish India by the abolition of the duties on the trans- 
 it of goods from one part of the country to another. 
 This important measure was preceded, and, we believe, 
 principally brought about, by the publication of an 
 elaborate and valuable report on the inland customs of 
 Bengal, by Mr. Trevelyau (now Sir Charles, K. C. B.), 
 then one of the secretaries to the Indian government, 
 and now Secretary to the Treasury. These duties had 
 existed in India from a very remote period ; and, by 
 obstructing the intercourse between its different dis- 
 tricts, were singularly pernicious. After the East In- 
 dia Company began to acquire a footing in India, they 
 availed themselves of a favorable opportunity to pro- 
 cure an exemption from the transit duties in favor of 
 their own trade ; " the goods which they imported be- 
 ing allowed to pass into the interior, and those which 
 they purchased for exportation in the interior being al- 
 lowed to pass to the sea, without either stoppage or du- 
 ties." — Mill's India, 8vo ed. vol. iii. p. 289. They 
 were, however, not long permitted to monopolize this 
 privilege. Immediately after the victories of Clive 
 had raised the company to the situation of a great ter- 
 ritorial power, their servants engaged largely in the 
 inland trade, and endeavored, partly by fraud and part- 
 ly by force, to extend to their own goods the exemp- 
 tion "from transit duties established in favor of those 
 belonging to the company. Everj' reader of Indian 
 history is aware of the multiplied abuses and disturb- 
 ances that grew out of this attempt of the company's 
 servants to release themselves from duties and charges 
 that pressed with grinding severity on the natives, and, 
 by consequence, to engross (for such was their object) 
 the whole internal trade of the country. The company 
 endeavored to obviate the evil by strictly forbidding 
 
CAL 
 
 238 
 
 CAL 
 
 their servants from engaging in internal traffic ; but 
 its orders to this effect were long either totally disre- 
 garded, or but very imperfectly obeyed. At length, in 
 1788, Lord ComwalUs adopted the decisive and judi- 
 cious measure of abolishing the duties. They were, 
 however, again renewed in 1801. The exclusion of 
 Englishmen from all participation in the interior traffic 
 of the country having been gradually carried into com- 
 plete effect for a lengthened period, they were less alive 
 than tlJey would otherwise have been to the injurious 
 influence of the duties, so that their re-establishment 
 met with comparatively little opposition. In 1810 a 
 new tariff was introduced, by which the duties " were 
 frightfully augmented ;" and they continued from that 
 epoch down to their recent abolition seriously to ob- 
 struct all sorts of internal traffic, and to oppose the 
 most formidable obstacle to the improvement of the 
 country. 
 
 Had the inland transit duties been productive of a 
 large amount of revenue, that would have been some 
 setoff against the enormous evils of which they have 
 been productive. But such has not been the case. The 
 expenses of collection, and the interruption of commu- 
 nication, were so verj' great that the net produce of the 
 inland transit duties was quite insignificant ; so much 
 so, that, according to Trevelyan, it did not exceed, in 
 the extensive province of Bengal, the miserable pit^ 
 tance of £27,500 a year. — Report, p. 143. We see no 
 reason to doubt the accuracy of this statement ; and, 
 assuming it to be correct, we are warranted in affirm- 
 ing that there is not another instance to be found in the 
 history of taxation of a tax so fruitful of mischievous 
 results and so barren of revenue. 
 
 Town Duties.— These were charged on the principal 
 articles of consumption in 23 of the chief towns of Ben- 
 gal. They were in many respects similar to the octrois 
 in France ; and, though not nearly so injurious as the 
 internal transit duties, were productive of much incon- 
 venience. We are glad, however, to have to state that 
 they, as well as the transit duties, have recently been 
 abolished ; and that the internal trade of Bengal is now 
 as free, in so far, at least, as statutory regulations can 
 make it, as the internal trade of England. 
 
 This article has been compiled from various authori- 
 ties, including Milbukn's Oriental Commerce ; Bell's 
 Comparative View of the external Commerce of Bengal, 
 with the Continuation by Wilkinson for the years 
 from 1828-29 to 1841-42 ; The Bengal a7id Agra Guide 
 amd Gazetteer for 1841 and 1842 ; Parliamentary Papers 
 relating to the Finances of India, and the Trade of India 
 and China, 1830-1843 ; and private communications. 
 
 Caledouiau Caual, from the North Sea to the 
 Atlantic Ocean. By means of this magnificent canal 
 the nautical intercourse between the western ports of 
 Great Britain, and those also of Ireland, and the North 
 Sea and Baltic, is shortened in some instances 800, and 
 in others 1000 miles. A sum exceeding a million ster- 
 ling was granted by Parliament from time to time ; 
 and this safe navigation for ships of nearly every ton- 
 nage was completed and opened in 1822. — Hatdn. 
 
 Calendar. The Eoman calendar, which has in 
 great part been adopted by almost all nations, was in- 
 troduced by Eomulus, who divided the year into ten 
 months, comprising 304 days, A.D. 738 B.C. The year 
 of Eomulus was of fifty days less duration than the lu- 
 nar year, and of sixty-one less than the solar year, and 
 its commencement did not, of course, correspond with 
 any fixed season. Numa Pompilius, 713 B.C., correct- 
 ed this calendar by adding two months ; and Julius 
 Ctesar, desirous to make it more correct, fixed the so- 
 lar year as being 365 days and six hours, 45 B.C. This 
 almost perfect arrangement was denominated the Ju- 
 lian style, and prevailed generally throughout the 
 Christian world till the time of Pope Gregory XIII. 
 The calendar of Julius Cajsar was defective in this par- 
 ticular, that the solar year consisted of 365 days five 
 hours and forty-nine minutes, and not of 365 days and 
 
 six hours. Thisdifference,atthetimeofGregoryXIII., 
 had amounted to ten entire days, the vernal equinox 
 falling on the 11th instead of the 21st of March. To 
 obviate this error, Gregory ordained, in 1582, that that 
 year should consist of 365 days only ; and, to prevent 
 further irregularity, it was determined that a year be- 
 ginning a century should not be bissextile, with the 
 exception of that beginning each fourth centiify ; thus 
 1700 and 1800 have not been bissextile, nor will 1900 
 be so ; but the year 2000 will be a leap-year. In this 
 manner three days are retrenched in 400 years, because 
 the lapse of eleven minutes makes three da3's in about 
 that period. The year of the calendar is thus made as 
 nearly as possible to correspond with the true solar 
 year ; and future errors in chronology are avoided. — 
 Haydn. See Almanac. 
 
 The Gregorian calendar was introduced into Spain, 
 Portugal, and part of Italy, the same day as at Kome. 
 In France it was received in the same j'car in the month 
 of December, and by the Catholic states of Germany 
 the year following. In the Protestant states of Ger- 
 many the Julian calendar was adhered to till the year 
 1700, when it was decreed hy the Diet of Katisbon that 
 the new st^'le and the Gregorian correction of tiie in- 
 tercalation should be adopted. Instead, however, of 
 employing the golden numbers and epacts for the de- 
 termination of Easter and the movable feasts, it was 
 resolved that the equinox and the paschal moon should 
 be found by astronomical computation from the Eu- 
 dolphine tables. But this method, though at first view 
 it may appear more accurate, was soon found to be 
 attended with numerous inconveniences, and was at 
 length, in 1774, abandoned at the instance 'of Frederick 
 II., king of Prussia. In Denmark and Sweden the re- 
 formed calendar was received about the same time as 
 in the Protestant states of Germany. Eussia still ad- 
 heres to the Julian reckoning. 
 
 In Great Britain the alteration of the style was for 
 a long time successfully opposed by popular prejudice. 
 The inconvenience, however, of using a different date 
 from that employed by the greater part of Europe in 
 matters of history and chronology began to be general- 
 ly felt; and at length, in 1751, an act of Parliament 
 was passed for the adoption of the new style in all pub- 
 lic and legal transactions. The difference of the two 
 styles, which then amounted to eleven days, was re- 
 moved by ordering the day following the 2d of Septein- 
 ber, of the year 1762, to be accounted the 14th of that 
 month ; and in order to preserve uniformity in future, 
 the Gregorian rule of intercalation respecting the secu- 
 lar years was adopted. At the same time, the com- 
 mencement of the legal year was changed from the 25th 
 of April to the first of January. In Scotland the new 
 style was adopted from the beginning of 1600, accord- 
 ing to an act of the Privy Council in December, 1599. 
 This fact is of importance with reference to the date of 
 legal deeds executed in Scotland between that period 
 and 1751, when the change was effected in England. 
 With respect to the movable feasts, Easter is determ- 
 ined by the rule laid down by the Council of Nice ; but 
 instead of employing the new moons and epacts, the 
 golden numbers are prefixed to the days of the full 
 moons. In those years in which the line of epacts is 
 changed in the Gregorian calendar, the golden num- 
 bers are removed to different days, and of course a new 
 table is required whenever the solar or lunar equation 
 occurs. The golden numbers have been placed so that 
 Easter may fall on the same day as in the Gregorian 
 calendar. The calendar of the Church of England is 
 therefore, from century to centuiy, the same in form as 
 the old Eoman calendar, excepting that the golden 
 numbers indicate the full .noons instead of the new 
 moons. — E. B. 
 
 Calender, a mechanical engine employed by cloth- 
 lappers for dressing and finishing cloths and stuffs of 
 various descriptions and fabrics, before exposure to 
 sale, or delivery to purchasers. It is also used by cal- 
 
GAE 
 
 239 
 
 CAL 
 
 ico-printers, In order to extend and smooth the sur- 
 face of their cloths after they have been bleached, and 
 before they are subjected to the operations of the print- 
 ing-table or copper-plate press. British muslins are 
 folded generally to a yard in length, with a small al- 
 lowance for extra measure ; and as the folding is al- 
 ternately from ri^t to left, every part can be instant- 
 ly examined upon a tablfe or counter, every fold open- 
 ing as easily as the leaves of a book in its uncut state. 
 The piece, when folded, is reduced by doubling it lon- 
 gitudinally to about nineteen inches, and it is then fold- 
 ed across to the breadth of about thirteen inches. An 
 ordinary-sized trunk, 39 X 19 inches, thus contains three 
 layers of pieces, in which package goods for exporta- 
 tion to the colonies arc generally packed, the trunk 
 there forming an article of merchandise as much in gen- 
 eral demand as the muslins which it contains. Even 
 the Indian^ornaments of gilt silver threads which were 
 at first woven into one end of each piece, although they 
 did not exceed the value of twopence each, have been 
 either greatly curtailed or totally given up upon prin- 
 ciples of economy. Even the cost of this trivial orna- 
 ment has been computed to have amounted annually in 
 Glasgow and Paisley to about iE30,000. Pullicate and 
 other handkerchiefs are most commonly folded up in 
 dozens. For the African and some other foreign trades, 
 pieces containing only eight handkerchiefs are prefer- 
 red. These are still imitations of Indian precedents, 
 confined to markets where competition continues to ex- 
 ist, not only with the British company, but with Amer- 
 icans and others trading to India. A species of pale 
 orange-colored India handkerchiefs, distinguished by 
 the name of Madras, being in extensive reputation in 
 the Caraocas and other Spanish settlements in South 
 America at the period of the capture of Trinidad,' in 
 1795, patterns were procured by some British traders, 
 who ordered very large quantities to be manufactured 
 in Scotland of the same quality and appearance. With 
 such effect were these imitated in texture, in dye, in 
 finishing, and even in the packages, that some hun- 
 dreds of pieces sent to London for exportation were act- 
 ually seized at the custom-house as India goods, either 
 illegally imported, or stolen from some of the Compa- 
 ny's ships in the river. A scrutiny, however, clearly 
 ascertained that these goods were not Indian, but Brit- 
 ish, and that no trespass either against the privileges 
 or the property of the company had been even attempt- 
 ed. The goods were of course released, and permitted 
 to proceed to their destination, where, after examina- 
 tion and trial, it was found totallj' unnecessary longer 
 to conceal their real origin ; and a very extensive trade, 
 through direct channels, has since been carried on for 
 similar goods. — E. B. 
 
 Calico (Ger. Kattun; Du. Katoen; Dan. Kattun; 
 Sw. Cattun; Fr. Coton, Toile de Colon; It. Tela Bam- 
 bagina, Teladipinia; Sp. Tela de Algodon ; Port. Pano 
 de Algodao; Russ. Wiihoika; Pol. Bawelnihci), cloth 
 made of cotton ; so called from Calicut, on the Malabar 
 coast, whence it was first imported. In England all 
 white or unprinted cotton cloths are denominated cali- 
 coes ; but in the United States this term is applied to 
 those only that are printed. 
 
 Calico Printing. — This art, though apparently one of 
 the most difficult, has been practiced from a very re- 
 mote era. Herodotus mentions (lib. 1, § 202) that a 
 nation on the shores of the Caspian were in the habit 
 of painting the figm'es of animals on their clothes with 
 a color formed from the leaves of trees bruised and 
 soaked in water ; and he adds that this color was not 
 effaceable, and was as durable as the clothes them- 
 .selves. It is difiicult to imagine that the colors could 
 have been so permanent, had not those using them been 
 acquainted with the use of mordants. There is, how- 
 ever, a passage in Pliny (_Hiet. Nat. lib. xxxv. § 11), 
 which, tiiough in some respects obscure, shows that the 
 ancient Egyptians were fully acquainted with the prin- 
 ciple of calico printing. " They paint," says he, " the 
 
 clothes, not with colors, but with drugs (sorbentibua 
 medicamentii) that have no color. This being done, 
 they immerse them in a vatful of boiling dye, and 
 leave them there for a little : when they take them out 
 they are painted of various colors. It is extraordina- 
 ry, seeing that there is only one color in the vat (ana* 
 in cortina colcr)^ that a variety of colors should be pro- 
 duced by the operation of the drugs." Pliny further 
 states that the colors were so adhesive that they could 
 not be washed out ; and that clothes were the stronger 
 for being dyed. A similar process is known to have 
 been followed in India from the earliest times. The 
 chemical and mechanical inventions of modem ages 
 have been the cause of vast improvements in this in- 
 genious and beautiful art ; but the passage now quoted 
 shows distinctly that we have, in this instance, been 
 only perfecting and improving processes practiced in 
 the remotest antiquity. 
 
 California. The name " California" is found in 
 the history of the conquest of Mexico by Bernal Diaz, 
 a companion of Cortez. But there it is only applied 
 to a hay. Afterward it was given to the whole country 
 north of that tan. Its origin is uncertain. Some 
 learned men started the opinion that it ought to be 
 derived from the Latin " Calidafomax" (a hot oven), 
 and that it was given to the rocky peninsula because 
 the first discoverers suffered there touch from the heat. 
 Some other derivations of the name California from 
 the Latin may be found in Clavigero's history of Mex- 
 ico, in paragraph first. Clavigero makes the remark 
 that Cortez was very fond of such Latin words. Prob- 
 ably it is a corruption of the original Indian name. Be- 
 cause it was for a long time supposed that it was a 
 large island, and that many small islands belonged to 
 it, some called the country "Las Californias" (the Cal- 
 ifornias). One hundred and thirty years after Cortez, 
 after the middle of the seventeeth century, some ge- 
 ographers called those supposed Califomian islands 
 "Islas Carolinas" (King Charles' Islands), in honor to 
 Charles II., king of Spain, who intended to conquer 
 the whole. 
 
 What we now call " Tipper CalvfomicC^ was called 
 by the geographers of the sixteenth century ^^Quivi- 
 ra," from a supposed rich kingdom of this name. The 
 northern part of this same Upper California and of our 
 Oregon Territory was called (1578) by Sir Francis 
 Drake " JN'ova Albion," and this name was pretty gen- 
 erally adopted by the European geographers, except 
 the Spanish. It was extended at last over the whole 
 of Oregon and Upper California. 
 
 The name " Upper California or New California" 
 (California Nueva) sprung into existence when the 
 Franciscan missionaries, since 1769, made settlements 
 to the north of the old Califomian Peninsula. They 
 called " California Nueva" the whole Pacific slope, as 
 far north as it became known to them. 
 
 Since 1819, tlie date of the so-called Florida treaty, 
 the northern boundaries of New California were fixed 
 at the 42d degree of latitude, and then soon the more 
 northern part began to be called the " Oregon Cpuntrij." 
 
 Since the conquest and cession of the province to 
 the United States (since 1847), the southern boundaries 
 were fixed at 32° 85' of lat. 
 
 We now generally call the country only " Califor- 
 nia.'" By geographers it is sometimes called " Conti- 
 nental Cakfomia," in contrast-to the Califomian penin- 
 sula. — From Historical Notes on the Ancient and Modern 
 Names with which the Regions, Countries, Territories, 
 and States along the -Coasts of the North American Union 
 have been designated, by J. G. KoHI^. 
 
 California is bounded on the north by Oregon, on 
 the east by Utah and New Mexico, and on the west 
 by the Pacific Ocean. The Constitution of the State 
 thus describes its limits. Commencing at the point 
 of intersection of the 42d degree of north latitude, with 
 the 120th degree of longitude west from Greenwich, 
 and running south on the line of said 120th degree of 
 
CAL 
 
 240 
 
 CAL 
 
 west longitude until it intersects the 39th degree of 
 north latitude ; thence running in a straight line in a 
 southeasterly direction to the Eiver Colorado, at a 
 point where it intersects the 35th degree of north lati- 
 tude ; thence down the middle of the channel of said 
 river to the boundary line between the United States 
 and Mexico, as established by the treaty of May 30, 
 1848 ; thence running west and along said boundary 
 line to the Pacific Ocean, and extending thereon three 
 English miles ; thence running in a northwesterly di- 
 rection, and following the direction of the Pacific coast 
 to the 42d degree of north latitude ; thence on a line 
 of said 42d degree of north latitude to the place of be- 
 ginning. Also all the islands, harbors, and bays along 
 and adjacent to the Pacific coast. Area, 188,982 square 
 miles. Population in 1802 (Humholdf), 16,862, con- 
 sisting of 16,562 converted Indians, and 1300 of other 
 classes ; in 1813 the population was estimated by 
 Forbes to be 23,025. Emigrants from the United 
 States began to enter the country before 1835, and so 
 numerous had become the settlers that when the war 
 commenced with Mexico, Colonel Fremont had little 
 difficulty in raising a regiment of 500 men. At the' 
 close of the war, the population, exclusive of Indians, 
 amounted to about 12,000. 
 
 The number of wild Indians scattered through the 
 mountains is unknown, but is very considerable. The 
 native Californians are, like the Mexicans and South 
 Americans, chiefly of Spanish descent, but generally 
 with a very large mixture of Indian blood, so that in 
 complexion and features they are of all shades and de- 
 grees, from the pure Indian to the pure Castilian. 
 
 The population of the State, according to the census 
 of the United States in 1850, was 92,669 ; arid by the 
 State census in 1852, 264,435. 
 
 The seat of government is at Sacramento City, on 
 the left bank of the Sacramento, just below the en- 
 trance of the American Fork. The principal places are 
 San Francisco, Stockton, Monterey, Santa Barbara, 
 San Diego, Humboldt, etc. 
 
 Surface. — The greater part of the State is hilly or 
 mountainous. The most prominent range of mount- 
 ains is the Sierra Nevada, lying nearly parallel with 
 the coast, and from 100 to 200 miles distant. On the 
 western slope of this range are the principal gold mines, 
 extending 400 or 500 miles in length, and 50 or 60 in 
 width. This slope of the Sierra is broken by the nu- 
 merous tributaries of the Sacramento and San Joaquin 
 into deep gorges and ravines, and the surface of the 
 region is extremely rngged and uneven. "West of the 
 Sierra Nevada range of mountains, the great valley of 
 the Sacramento and San Joaquin spreads 500 miles in 
 length, and 50 or 60 in width. This is very level, 
 contains but little timber, and though fertile in some 
 portions, is extensively covered with an arid unpro- 
 ductive soil back from the streams, and by immense 
 tule or bulrush marshes in the vicinity of the rivers. 
 The annual freshets in this valley occur in the winter 
 and spring, and the streams are often at their maxi- 
 mum height as late as June, in consequence of the 
 melting snows of the Sierra. This great valley is 
 bounded on the west by the coast range of lulls and 
 mountains, which rise in some parts to the height of 
 3000 feet and upward, and lie from 30 to 80 miles 
 back from the coast. These hills are interspersed 
 with numerous valleys, some of them of great beauty 
 and fertility. 
 
 Soil and Productions. — The best agricultural lands 
 are found in the great basins of the Sacramento and 
 San Joaquin, and these valleys in spring and summer 
 are covered with a luxuriant vegetation of various 
 grasses, wild oats, etc. The hills are generally cov- 
 ered with wild oats, and furnish excellent pasturage, 
 though for the most part too dry for cultivation. 
 Farther north, the valley of the Mendocino or Eel Riv- 
 er is represented by recent explorers as well adapted 
 to agriculture. The lands in the vicinity of Humboldt 
 
 harbor are also said to be very fertile, and in conse- 
 quence of occasional showers through the dry season, 
 they stand in no need of irrigation, which, though not 
 essential to the success of most crops in other parts of 
 the country, is, nevertheless, occasionally desirable. 
 
 The grape flourishes all over the State, and wine 
 has long been manufactured at Los Angelos and other 
 places. The various vegetables and fruits of the tem- 
 perate zone flourish finely, and in the southern coun- 
 ties many tropical productions may be successfully 
 cultivated. California seems by nature peculiarly 
 adapted for grazing ; but, under a judicious cultiva- 
 tion, its agricultural resources are very great. 
 
 There were in this State in 1850, 62,324 acres of 
 land improved, and 3,831,571 of unimproved land in 
 farms ; cash value of farms, $3,874,041, and the value 
 of implements and machinery $103,483 ; live stock — 
 horses, 21,719; asses and mules, 1666; n^lch cows, 
 4280; working oxen, 4780; other cattle, 263,599; sheep, 
 17,574 ; swine, 2776 ; value of live stock, $3,351,058. 
 
 Agricultural Products. — Wheat, 17,328 bushels ; In- 
 dian corn, 12,236 bushels; barley, 9712 bushels; peas 
 and beans, 2292 bushels ; potatoes, 9292 bushels ; sweet 
 potatoes, 1000 bushels ; value of products of the or- 
 chards, $17,700 ; produce of market gardens, $75,275 ; 
 pounds of butter made, 705; of cheese, 150; pounds 
 of wool produced, 6520 ; of tobacco, 1000 ; hay, tons 
 of, 2038 ; and were made 58,055 gallons of wine ; value 
 of home-made manufactures, $7000 ; of slaughtered an- 
 imals, $100,173. The State census of 1852 shows an 
 increase of improved lands to 110,748 acres ; of live 
 stock — horses, 64,778; mules, 16,578; milch cows, 
 104,339 ; beef cattle, 315,392 ; working oxen, 29,065 ; 
 agricultural products — wheat, 271,763 bushels ; Indian 
 corn, 62,532 bushels ; oats, 100,497 bushels ; potatoes, 
 1,393,170 bushels; barley, 2,973,734 bushels. 
 
 The State, as a whole, can not be described as well 
 timbered. The plains and valleys are, in the main, 
 destitute of forests, though in many of them is an ex- 
 tensive growth of scattered oaks. Among the coast 
 range of mountains are many forests of red-wood, a 
 species of cedar, growing to an immense size, and fur- 
 nishing an extremely durable material for building. 
 In the northern part of the State, and among the snowy 
 mountains, are forests of gigantic pines, firs, cedars, 
 and other valuable forest trees, ranging from 100 to 
 200 feet in height, and from 5 to 15 feet in diameter. 
 In the central part of the valley of the Sacramento and 
 San Joaquin, near the junction of these rivers with the 
 Bay of Suisun, is an extensive tract of low, marsh land 
 called the Tulares, or Tule lands, from the tule or bul- 
 rush with which they are thicklj' covered. These 
 lands are estimated to cover an area of at least 600,000 
 acres, and are drained by a net-work of sloughs which 
 generally aflbrd navigable channels from two to six 
 fathoms in depth. Should these lands be reclaimed, 
 their fine alluvial soil will doubtless prove well adapts 
 ed to the cultivation of rice. The coast range of mount- 
 ains, and the valleys of the Sacramento and San Joa- 
 quin, abound in deer, elk, antelopes, and other wild 
 game, and the plains are traversed by immense herds 
 of wild horses. The formidable gi-izzly bear is found 
 in nearly all parts of the State. The cattle of the 
 country are fine, and are owned by the native Califor- 
 nians often in herds of many thousands. These were 
 formerly killed in great numbers for their hides and 
 tallow, which constituted the principal exports of the 
 country, and the chief source of wealth to the inhabit- 
 ants. 
 
 Mines. — Silver, lead, copper, platinum, and other 
 mines, have been discovered in California (though not 
 yet worked), but the great mineral wealth of the State 
 consists in its mines of quicksilver and gold, particu- 
 larly the latter. The quicksilver mine of New Alma- 
 den, discovered in 1845, 13 miles south of San Josd, is 
 probably the richest in the world, and, if properly 
 worked, would yield a million of dollars a year. Gold 
 
CAL 
 
 241 
 
 CAL 
 
 is liberally scattered over a large portion of the State. 
 From its first discovery, in February, 1848, to the pres- 
 ent time, new deposits have been successively opened 
 in various directions, and the whole. extent and rich- 
 ness of the mines still remains a matter to be developed 
 hereafter. The first gold discovered was on the Amer- 
 ican Fork, about 60 miles east of Sutter's Fort (now 
 Sacramento City). About three months afterward it 
 began to be found on the Yuba and Feather rivers to 
 the northward, and on the Cosumnes to the south- 
 ward. Subsequently it was discovered on all the 
 principal eastern tributaries of the Sacramento and 
 San Joaquin, and, still later, extensive deposits have 
 been opened among the coast range of mountains in 
 the northern part of the State, particularly on the 
 Trinity and Klamath, and their tributaries. 
 
 Total production of the miaes to Janu- 
 
 , ary 1, 1852 $140,931,103 
 
 Product of 1862 67,699,548 
 
 Product of 1853 92,000,000 
 
 $300,680,651 
 There were in 1852, 108 quartz mills, with a capital 
 of $5,871,405; and other mining operations employing 
 capital of $8,026,042. 
 
 Position of thfi Gold. — The gold is found under two 
 principal forms ; interspersed in irregular veins through 
 beds of quartz jock ; in grains and irregular water-worn 
 lumps of all sizes, mingled with the beds of dnft or 
 gravel, which pover the face of the country, but most 
 abundantly in the bottoms of the mountain ravines. 
 These grains and lumps were once parts of veins trav- 
 ersing quartz rock, and have been dislodged from their 
 original matrix and reduced to the form in which we 
 now behold them by those aqueous and elemental 
 agencies which have every where disintegrated and 
 broken down the surface rocks, and of their ruins 
 formed: 'h^ present sand and gravel beds that cover 
 the face of the earth. Their origin, or rather the orir 
 gin of the forms irj which we see them, was the same 
 as that of all our sand and gravels. They are, in fact, 
 nothing , more nor less than golden pebbles — metallic 
 gravel aijd sand. The idea so prevalent that the gold 
 has been, thrown out from volcanoes in a melted state, 
 is entirely unscientific and erroneous. The gold re- 
 gion is not volcanic, and all search for the " blow- 
 holes," or "fountains," from which the gold is sup- 
 posed to, have been thrown must always be, as it 
 heretofore has been, entirely fruitless. In general, 
 the loose gold is found in the immediate vicinity of 
 the parent veins of which it once formed a part; or, 
 at least, at no great distance down the slopes of the 
 valleys and ravines which have in process of time been 
 excavated, by the elements. 
 
 The vein gold found in place in the. quartz rocks 
 occurs in various parts of the mines, but chiefly in the 
 southern districts^ — in the neighborhood of the Cosum- 
 ne, Moquelumne, Tuolumne, and Mariposa rivers, and 
 elsewhere. . The working of these veins requires ma- 
 chinery, and has not yet been fairly tested. Some 
 trials have been made with flattering success. 
 
 The scale and lump gold is found most abundantly 
 in the bottoms of ravines, and in the banks and beds of 
 the rivers, particularly in the bars of sand and gravel 
 thrown up in the streams by the rush of the mountain 
 torrents. The gravel bed containing the gold lies 
 generally not over two or three feet below the surface ; 
 but occasionally it is covered to the depth of 10, 20, 
 and even 50 feet. Most of tlie gold hitherto obtained 
 has been taken from such localities. The banks and 
 beds of the rivers yield most abundantly at the lowest 
 stage of "water in the autumn and latter part of sum- 
 mer. The side " gulches," or ravines, are usually des- 
 titute of water in the dry season, and hence the ex- 
 plorations in them are denominated "dry 'diggings," 
 and are conducted most successfully during the winter, 
 spring, and early part of summer, particularly the two 
 latter. 
 
 Q 
 
 It is impossible to say which portion of the mines is 
 the richest. All parts of them have yielded immense 
 quantities of gold. The southern mines have turned 
 out the greatest number of large lumps, and more of 
 the coarse or lump gold is generally found in that re- 
 gion. But for this very reason, perhaps, digging in 
 them is somewhat more precarious and lottery-like 
 than elsewhere. In the northern mines the chances of 
 finding large specimens may be less, but the prospect 
 of making fair daily wages has been considered rather 
 more certain there than in the southern mines. The 
 recently-discovered deposits in the coast range on the 
 Klamath and Trinity, and their affluents, are reported 
 to be unusually rich, and many have hastened to give 
 them a trial. 
 
 The implements needed for procuring the alluvial or 
 loose gold are picks, shovels, and washers. The wash- 
 ers are either simple pans or wooden bowls, or ma- 
 chines, generally in the form of a cradle, and hence 
 called cradles or roehers. These are sometimes more 
 expensively constructed, and furnished with cells for 
 quicksilver ; by means of which the gold may be more 
 completely and economically extracted. 
 
 It is well known that comparatively but a small 
 portion of the products of the mines is entered at the 
 San Francisco custom-house. Large sums are taken 
 by passengers leaving, the country among their bag- 
 gage. An immense amount has also been taken out 
 overland, by the Sonoranians and other Mexicans 
 who have returned from the mines to their homes. It 
 may be estimated, therefore, that not much less than 
 three hundred and twenty millions of dollars have 
 been dug from the gold region of California since its 
 discover^'. — H. G. 
 
 For later California statistics, see articles San Fran- 
 cisco and Gold. 
 
 California, G-ulf of, an arm of the Pacific Ocean, 
 separating the peninsula of Lower California from the 
 main land. It lies between lat. 23° and 32° N"., and 
 long. 107° and 114° W. ; and is about 700 miles in 
 length, with a breadth varying from 40 to 150 miles. 
 Its western shores are generally high and rocky, with 
 few places of shelter ; its eastern shores are lower and 
 less rocky. It contains numerous islands, and at its 
 northern extremity receives the rivers Colorado and 
 Gila. 
 
 Calk, to drive a quantity of oakum into the seams 
 of planks, to prevent the entrance of the water. After 
 tlie oakum is driven in, it is covered with melted pitch 
 or resin, to preserve it from the action of the water. 
 
 Callao, afortifled town of Peru, department, and six 
 miles west of Lima, of which it is the port, on the Pa- 
 cific, in lat. 12° S., long. 77° 13' 7" W. Population 
 perhaps 20,000. It is generally well built ; its castle, 
 formerly very strong, has lately been dismantled, and 
 is now used for a custom-house. Its roadstead, shel- 
 tered by the island of San Lorenzo, is the best on the 
 Peruvian coast. It has a convenient quay, and com- 
 municates with Lima by a good carriage road, along 
 which omnibuses now run daily. Customs revenue, 
 about $1,000,000. Exports consist chiefly of bullion, 
 specie,' copper, cotton, bark, and hides. In 1841, 498 
 vessels, aggregate harden 101,084 tons, entered; and 
 494 vessels, burden 99,944 tons, cleared out of the port. 
 In 174G the old town of Callao was destroyed by an 
 earthquake. In 1820, the Earl of Dundonald (then 
 Lord Cochrane) gallantly cut out the Esmeralda, a 
 large Spanish ship of war, from under the guns of the 
 fort. — See Lima. 
 
 Calms, Region of. In the Atlantic Ocean, be- 
 tween the Tropic of Cancer and latitude 29° north, and 
 on the confines of the trade-winds, between 4° and 10° 
 north latitude, calms of long duration prevail; and 
 hence these tracts are called the calm latitudes, or the 
 region of calms. In the latter tract, particularly, these 
 perpetual calms are accompanied by a suffocating heat, 
 bv thunder-storms and floods of rain, so that it is some- 
 
CAL 
 
 242 
 
 CAM 
 
 times called the Sainy Sea. The only winds that oc- 
 cur are sudden squalls of short duration and extent. 
 In these calms the provisions are corrupted, the deck 
 seams open, and the stagnant air breeds disease. 
 When a ship is in this position, if the current sets in 
 toward rocks, and the sea is too deep to cast anchor, 
 her destruction is almost inevitable. In the Mediter- 
 ranean, where there are no tides, dead calms are more 
 common than in the open ocean ; but they are often 
 the presages of approaching storms. — E. A. 
 
 Calomel, a preparation of mercury, much used in 
 medicine. 
 
 Caloric, the principle or matter of heat, or the 
 simple element of heat. 
 
 Cambric, or Cambiick (Ger. KammeHuch; Du. 
 Kameryhsdoeh ; Fr. Cambray Batiste ; It. Cambraja ; 
 Sp. Cambrai ; Port. Cajnbraia ; Russ. KameriU(/), a spe- 
 cies of very fine white linen, first made at Cambray, 
 in French Flanders, whence it derives its appellation. 
 Cambrics were first worn in England, and accounted 
 a great luxury In dress, 22 Elizabeth, 1580. — Stowe. 
 The importation of them was restricted in 1745 ; and 
 was totally prohibited by statute of 32 Geo. II., 1758. 
 Readmitted in 1786, but afterward again prohibited : 
 the importation of cambrics is now allowed in Great 
 Britain. — Haydn. 
 
 Camel (Fr. Chameau ; It. and Sp. Camelo ; Ger. 
 Kameel ; Arab. DjiTnel; Lat. Camelus; Greek Ka//;?Aof), 
 is indigenous to Arabia, and we only mention it in this 
 place on account of its extreme importance in the com- 
 merce of the East. 
 
 The camel is one of the most useful of the animals 
 over which the inhabitants of Asia and Africa have ac- 
 quired dominion. These continents are intersected by 
 vast tracts of burning sand, the seats of desolation and 
 drought, so as, apparently, to exclude the possibility 
 of any intercourse taking place between the countries 
 that they separate. " But as the ocean, which ap- 
 pears at first view to be placed as an insuperable bar- 
 rier between different regions of the earth, has been 
 rendered by navigation subservient to their mutual in- 
 tercourse ; so, by means of the camel, which the Ara- 
 bians emphatically call the Ship of the JJesert, the most 
 dreary wastes are traversed, and the nations which 
 they disjoin are enabled to trade with one another. 
 Those painful journeys, impracticable by any other an- 
 imal, the camel performs with astonishing dispatch. 
 Under heavy burdens of 600, 700, and 800 pounds' 
 weight, they can continue their march during a long 
 period of time, with little food or rest, and sometimes 
 without tasting water for eight or nine days. By the 
 wise economy of Providence, the camel seems formed 
 on purpose to be the beast of burden in those regions 
 where he is placed, and where his service is most want- 
 ed. In ail the districts of Asia and Africa, where 
 deserts are most frequent and extensive, the camel 
 abounds. This is his proper station, and beyond this 
 the sphere of his activity does not extend far. He 
 dreads alike the excesses of heat and cold, and does 
 not agree even with the mild climate of our temperate 
 zone.'"' — Robertson's Ancient India. 
 
 The first trade in Indian commodities of which we 
 have any account (Genesis xxxvii. 25) was carried on 
 by camels ; and they still continue to be the medium 
 employed in the conveyance of merchants and mer- 
 chandise throughout Turkey, Persia, Arabia, Egypt, 
 Barbary, and many contiguous countries. The 
 merchants assemble in considerable numbers, forming 
 themselves into an association, or caravan (see Cara- 
 van), for their mutual protection against the attacks 
 of robbers, and the dangers incident to a journey 
 through such rude and inhospitable countries. These 
 caravans are often very large, and usually consist of 
 more camels than men. The capacity of the camel to 
 endure fatigue, and the small supply of provisions that 
 he requires, is almost incredible. " His ordinary bur- 
 den," says Volney, "is 750 pounds; his food what- 
 
 ever is given him — straw, thistles, the stones of dates, 
 beans, barley, etc. With a pound of food a day, and 
 as much water, he will travel for weeks. In the jour- 
 ney from Cairo to Suez, which is 40 or 46 hours, they 
 neither eat nor drink ; but these long fasts, if often re- 
 peated, wear them out. Their usual rate of traveling 
 is very slow, hardly above two miles an hour ; it is in 
 vain to urge them ; they will not quicken their pace ; 
 but if allowed some short rest, they will travel 15 or 
 18 hours a day." — Voyage in Syrie. The Arabians re- 
 gard the camel as a sacred animal, the gift of Heaven, 
 without whose aid they could neither subsist, nor trade, 
 nor travel. Its milk is their ordinary food ; they also 
 eat its flesh, especially that of the young camel, which 
 they reckon excellent ; its hair, which is renewed ev- 
 ery year, is partly manufactured into stuffs for their 
 clothes and furniture, and partly sent abroad as a valu- 
 able article of merchandise ; and even its faeces serve 
 them for fuel. Blessed with their camels, the Arabs 
 want nothing, and fear nothing. In a single day they 
 can travese 40 or 50 miles of the desert, and interpose 
 its trackless sands as an impenetrable rampart between 
 them and their foes. (See the admirable description 
 of the camel, in Buffon.) But, however useful to the 
 inhabitants of parched, sandy deserts, it may be worth 
 while, perhaps, to observe, that the camel is of very 
 little service elsewhere. He can not walk 100 yards 
 in wet or slippery ground without stumbling. He is 
 totally unknown in tfU hilly or woody countries ; and, 
 with few exceptions, may be said to be as great a stran- 
 ger in the Eastern Islands, Japan, the southern parts of 
 China, the whole country lying between China and In- 
 dia, and all the southern parts of the latter, including 
 Bengal, as he is in Europe. In all those vast countries 
 the ox is the most useful of the lower animals. It is 
 used for draught (for which the camel is totally unfit), 
 in the cart and plow, in the carrying of burdens, in 
 treading corn, in the oil-press, etc., and finally as food. 
 
 In 1855, Congress, in accordance with a recommenda- 
 tion of the Secretary of War, granted an appropriation 
 for the purpose of importing and introducing the cam- 
 el into the United States, to be used principally on the 
 prairies and deserts of the West — the States of Texas 
 and New Mexico especially. To carry out this plan, 
 an expedition, under Major Wayne, of the United States 
 Artillery, and Lieutenant Porter, United States Navy, 
 visited the Mediterranean, and purchased a number of 
 camels and dromedaries, and conveyed them to Texas. 
 A second expedition has just started, as the plan prom- 
 ises to succeed, and the plan will be tested on a larger 
 scale. Emigrants have suffered much in their trains 
 for the want of a burden animal that could do without 
 water for a long time, and a great number of animals 
 are annually lost on the plains with thirst. 
 
 There are now thirty-two camels, old and young, in 
 the State of Texas, in charge of officers of the army, 
 and forty more on their way to this country. With 
 the natural increase, the experiment will thus be com- 
 menced with nearly a hundred of these " ships of the 
 desert." The War Department has the highest ex- 
 pectations of their availability for the inland travel on 
 southern portions of this continent, and there can be 
 little doubt of the justification of his hopes. The route 
 to the Pacific offers better forage for these hardy ani- 
 mals than they find in their own deserts ; and as to 
 climate, the Tartars use them on the steppes of Asia, 
 in regions as inhospitable as can be found on the Cali- 
 fornia route, except in mid-winter, when travel may 
 be suspended. A correspondent of the Galveston News 
 states that the Indians have never yet had a sight of 
 these strange animals, and it is expected that the ap- 
 pearance of such ungainly creatures will cause, for a 
 season at least, such terror to the red man as to prove 
 a protection for caravans. The Indians may get over 
 this ; but, unless the horses of the prairies differ from 
 their Asiatic cousins, they will require long training 
 to learn to like the aspect of the camel. The Tartars 
 
CAM 
 
 243 
 
 CAM 
 
 who visit Chinese frontier towns and marlcets throw 
 every thing into confusion. Horses fling, and bound, 
 and break their halters to escape a creature to which 
 they will np^ get accustomed. We happened once to 
 see a couple of camels driven through a country vil- 
 lage, and n^ver were horses and mules inspirited with 
 more ric(iculous flight than the farmers' nags were at 
 this ungainly apparition. , , , 
 
 Camel, a machine, of Dutch invention, for raising 
 large ships so far above the water-line as to enable 
 them to pass oyer the obstruction of a bar or shallow. 
 It consisted of two large boxes, or half ships, which 
 were applied to each side of the hull of a large vessel, 
 and from which a number of cables were passed under 
 the keel, and attached to horizontal windlasses on the 
 deck of either half of the camel. When the machine 
 was to be used, water was allowed to enter, so as to 
 sink the two parts of the machine to the requisite 
 depth ; the ropes were then cast loose, and large beams 
 were placed horizontally through the port-holes of the 
 ship, with their ends resting on the camel on each side. 
 Wlien the ropes were made fast, and the ship properly 
 secured, the water was pumped out of the camel, which 
 then rose and bore up the ship along with it. By this 
 contrivance. East Indiamen drawing 15 feet could be 
 made to draw only 11 feet; and ships of war carrying 
 90 or 100 guns were enabled to pass the sand banks of 
 the Zuyder Zee. — Becicmann's //is<. of Inventions, vol. 
 iii. p. 338. This machine is also available for raising 
 sunken vessels. — E. B, 
 
 Camel's Hair (Germ. Kanieelhaar ; Fr. Foil de 
 cTpameau, Lame de chevron ; It. Pelo di camello ; Sp. 
 Pelo 6 lana de cameUo). 'The hair of the camel im- 
 ported into this country is principally used in the man- 
 iifacture of fine pencils for drawing and painting. In 
 the East, however, it is an important article of com- 
 merce, and is extensively used in the arts. It serves 
 for the fabrication of the tents and carpets of the Arabs, 
 and for tlieir wearing apparel. Cloth is also manu- 
 factured of it in Persia and other places. The most 
 esteemed hair comes from Persia, divided into three 
 qualities — black, red, and gray. The black is the 
 dearest, and the gray only worth half the red. , Con- 
 siderable quantities of camel's hair are exported from 
 Smyrna, Constantinople, and Alexandria. It is used 
 in the manufacture of hats, particularly by the French. 
 — Rees' Oi/clopedia, art, Camelus. 
 
 Camelia, a very ornamental genus of plants, na- 
 tives of China and Japan, belonging to the natural or- 
 der Ternstromiacete. Many varieties of this plant are 
 grown in England and Belgium, sometimes in the open 
 air, but more generally in hot-houses. Though usually 
 cultivated in pots, they are found to thrive best in open 
 soil in a glass-house artificially heated. 
 
 Cameo, a peculiar kind of onyx ; also a stone, on 
 which are found various figures or representations of 
 landscapes, a kind of liisus natures, exhibiting pictures 
 without painting. It is of these camaieux that Pliny 
 is understood to spealt when he says of the manifold 
 pictures of gems, and the party-colored spots of precious 
 stones, Gemmaricm pictura tarn multiplex lapidumque tarn 
 discolores maculw. Cameo is also frequently applied to 
 any Icind of gem on which figures are sculptured, ei- 
 ther indentedly or in relievo. The shell of large uni- 
 valves is now much used for making cameos, the sub- 
 ject being wrought on the outer or white layer of the 
 shell, and the pfnk or brown under one serving for the 
 ground. Cameo is also used for a painting of only one 
 color, where the lights and shadows are of gold, 
 wrought on a golden or azure ground. When the 
 ground is yellow the French call it drage ; when gray, 
 grissaile. This kind of work is chiefly used to repre- 
 sent basso relievos. The Greeks called such works 
 /iovoxpa/iaTa. — E. B. 
 
 Camera Lucida. Invented by Dr. Hook, about 
 1674. — Wood's Alh. Ox. Also an instrument invent- 
 ed by Dr. WoUaston, in 1807. 
 
 Camera Obecura (i. e. Dark Chamber), in Optics, 
 a machine or apparatus representing an artificial eye, 
 by which the images of external objects, received 
 through a double convex glass, are exhibited distinct- 
 ly, and in their native colors, on a white matter placed 
 within the machine, in the focus of the glass. The 
 camera obscura aflbrds veiy diverting spectacles, by 
 representing images perfectly like their objects, while 
 at the same time it exhibits all their motions. By 
 means of this instrument, a person unacquainted with 
 designing may delineate objects with the greatest ac- 
 curacy. — E. B. The camera obscura, or dark chamber, 
 was invented, it is believed, by the celebrated Roger 
 Bacon, in 1297 ; it was improved by Baptista Porta, 
 the writer on natural magic, about 1500. — ^Mokehi. 
 Sir Isaac Newton remodeled it. By the recent inven- 
 tion of M. Daguerre, the pictures of the camera art- 
 rendered permanent : the last was produced in 1839. — 
 Haydn. 
 
 Camlet, or Camblet (Ger. and Du. Kamelot; Fr. 
 Camelot; It. Ciawhellotto; Sp. Camelote; Euss. Kam- 
 lo(), a plain stuff, manufactured on a loom, with two 
 treadles, as linens are. There are camlets of various 
 colors and sorts ; some wholly of goats' hair ; others 
 in which the warp is of hair, and the woof half hair 
 and half sillc ; others, again, in which botl^ the warp 
 and the woof are of wool ; and, lastly, some of which 
 the warp is of wool and the woof of thread : some are 
 striped, some watered, and some figured. The true 
 Oriental camlet is made of the hair of a sort of goat 
 frequent about Angora, and which constitutes the riches 
 of that city. Camlets are now made in Europe. Writ- 
 ers of the Middle Age mention stuffs of camel's hair, 
 under the denomiuations of oamelefum and camelimcm, 
 whence probably the term ; but these are represented 
 as coarse and rough, and seem to have been chiefly 
 used among the monks by way of mortification, as the 
 hair shirt of later times. 
 
 Camomile, or more properly Chamomile, the 
 flowers of the Anthemis nobilis. The flowers have a 
 white ray with a central yellow disk, and an aromatic 
 bitter taste and powerful odor. The inftision of the 
 flowers is, when cold, a useful stimulant, bitter or tonic; 
 the infusion taken warm, however, acts as an emetic. 
 The virtues reside in a volatile oil, and in a bitter prin- 
 ciple, which may be separated from one another. 
 
 Camphor or Camphire (Ger. Kampfer; Du. 
 Kamfer; Fr. Camphre; It. Canfora; Sp. Alcanfor; 
 Buss. Kamf&ra; Lat. Camphora; Arab, and Pens, Kd- 
 foor; Mai. Kaafur), There are two descriptions of 
 this valuable article, which must not be confounded. 
 1. Camphor of_ Commerce, which is obtained by boiling 
 the, timber of a species of laurel {Laurus camphora} 
 found in the forests of Fokien, in Cliina, near the city 
 of Chinehew, and in certain localities in Japan. Most 
 of the camphor imported into Europe is from China ; 
 but a small quantity, considered of superior quality, 
 comes from Japan by way of Batavia. The exports 
 from Canton may be estimated at about 3000 piculs, 
 or 400,000 lbs. ; and if to this we add the exports from 
 Batavia of Japan camphor, amounting to about 500 
 piculs, the total annual exports will be about 466,000 
 lbs. It is packed in chests, drums, and casks ; and 
 is in small, granular, friable masses, of a dirtj' white 
 or grayish color, very much resembling half-refined 
 sugar. When pure, the camphor of commerce has a 
 strong, peculiar, fragrant, penetrating odor, and a bit- 
 ter, pungent, aromatic taste. It is in reality a con- 
 crete essential oil. Camphor, when refined, is in thin 
 hollow cakes, beautifully white, and, if exposed to the 
 air, totally evaporates. Great care is, therefore, req- 
 uisite in packing camphor to prevent serious loss. 2. 
 Camphor, Malay, commonly called, to distinguish it 
 from the last, camphor of Baros, from the port of Su- 
 matra, where it is mostly shipped. It is a product of 
 the Dryobalanops camplun-a, a forest tree confined to 
 Sumatra, Borneo, and the Malay peninsula. It is 
 
CAM 
 
 244 
 
 CAN 
 
 found in concrete masses in the fissures of the wood : 
 there are, however, but very few trees that afford it ; 
 and those that do, only in small quantities. This spe- 
 cies of camphor is more fragrant, and less biting and 
 pungent, than that yielded by the laurel, and is in high 
 repute among the Chinese, by whom it is almost whol- 
 ly consumed. There is an immense disparity in the 
 prices of the two species in China ; the finest Chinese 
 camphor being sometimes quoted at $30 per picul, 
 while the Malay camphor is quoted at $30 per catty, 
 making the price of the latter 100 times greater than 
 that of the former ! Malay camphor is wholly un- 
 known in this country as an article of trade. 
 
 Camphor Oil (Malay, ilmyak), a fragrant essen- 
 tial oil, obtained in large quantities by heating the 
 wood of the Dryohalanops camphora. It is nearly as 
 cheap as spirits of turpentine, but is not held in any 
 esteem by the Chinese. It might, perhaps, be profit- 
 ably imported as a substitute for spirits of turpentine 
 in the arts, and for medicinal purposes. We may add, 
 that the timber of the Dryobalcmops camphora is not 
 inferior to any produced in the countries where it 
 grows, for the purposes of house and ship building. — 
 Private information, and Crawfurd's Indian Archi- 
 pelago. 
 
 Cam-vood, a red dyewood, first brought to Eu- 
 rope from Africa by the Portuguese. It is principally 
 obtained from the vicinity of Sierra Leone. The col- 
 oring matter which it affords differs but little from 
 that of ordinary Nicaragua wood, either in quality or 
 quantity ; and it may be employed with similar mor- 
 dants. — Banckokt on Colors. 
 
 Canada. This extensive tract of coimtry, and 
 most important colony of England, may be described 
 as a great belt of territory stretching from the centre 
 of North America to the shores of Labrador, and from 
 the waters which iiow into the Northern Ocean to the 
 parallel of Pennsylvania, in the United States. Its 
 extent from east to west is computed at about 1400 
 miles, and from north to south at from 200 to 400 miles. 
 Its precise geographical limits are between the paral- 
 lels of 41° 71' and 50° N. lat., and between the me- 
 ridian of 57° 50' and 117° W. long. Canada, lying 
 diagonally along the frontier of the United States, 
 from northeast to southwest, and possessing an inland 
 navigation along its entire border, in a series of lakes 
 and rivers unrivaled for extent and grandeur, has, es- 
 pecially of late years, been making such rapid prog- 
 ress, that it promises soon to become, in conjunction 
 with its sister British provinces, a power of first-class 
 importance, commercially and politically. The entire 
 surface of the present territory of Canada, exclusive 
 of its great waters, has been estimated at 196,000,000 
 acres, or between two and three times the size of Great 
 Britain and Ireland. This country, formerly divided 
 into two provinces known as Upper and Lower Cana- 
 da, was in 1841, by an act of the Imperial Parliament, 
 constituted one province, with orie Legislature. Al- 
 though now united, however, for legislative and other 
 prirposes, the country will most probably continue to 
 be viewed and spoken of imder its formerly recognized 
 divisions of Upper and Lower Canada. 
 
 Canada may be said to comprise one vast valley, 
 through which the great River St. Lawrence takes its 
 course, issuing from Lake Superior and flowing suc- 
 cessively through Lakes Huron, Erie, and Ontario, 
 until it falls into the ocean after a course of 2000 miles. 
 This immense valley is on each side encompassed by 
 different mountain ranges, sometimes nearly approach- 
 ing the water, and at other times receding into the in- 
 terior, and thus forming extensive plains, for the most 
 part alluvial, and suitable for nearly every description 
 of produce. The high table-land along the northern 
 boundary of this valley separates the streams which 
 take their rise within it and flow into its basin from 
 those that take their rise in the almost unknown ter- 
 ritory beyond, and which fall into Hudson's Bay. The 
 
 high land along the southern boundary of the valley 
 separates the streams which flow northward into its 
 basin from those that have their course southward to- 
 ward the Atlantic and Mississippi. Commencing at 
 the northern shore of the St. Lawrence, toward the 
 mouth of that river, where the width is 90 miles, we 
 find one of the walls of this vast valley which consti- 
 tutes Canada rising boldly in mountainous form, close 
 to the river, and continuing thus to form its rugged 
 bank for upward of 100 miles. One of the most re- 
 markable of the heights of this northern bank is Cape 
 Tourment, overhanging the very brink of the river, 
 and somewhat preparing the voyager for the still bold- 
 er and more magnificent grandeur of Cape Diamond, 
 the Gibraltar of America, which rises to a height of 
 400 feet, and is crowned by the citadel of Quebec. 
 
 The city of Quebec, here clinging around the rocky 
 steeps of Cape Diamond, and overlooking one of the 
 most magnificent harbors in the world, is situate on 
 the northern bank of the St. Lawrence, and about 400 
 miles from the mouth of that river. The view from 
 the citadel presents on every side a country with feat- 
 ures of peculiar and striking grandeur. Immediately 
 opposite Quebec the St. Lawrence contracts to about 
 half a mile in width, with bold rocky banks on either 
 side. The northern or Cape Diamond side, being much 
 the bolder of the two, commands a view of the wide 
 stretch of table-land extending beyond the southern 
 bank, the vast plains presenting for leagues upon 
 leagues their dark masses of forest, with houses and 
 cultivated fields interspersed, until the distant mount- 
 ains of the States of Maine and Vermont bound the 
 view. The northern shore presents a wilder -and more 
 rugged aspect. From the heights of Cape Diamond 
 the spectator surveys bold ranges of hills fringing the 
 northern horizon, and forming the boundaries of almost 
 unexplored territories beyond. 
 
 ■ About 30 miles below Quebec is Cape Tourment, to 
 which, in our upward progress, we had traced the 
 rocky northern bank of the river. Here the ridge, 
 taking a direction west-southwest, terminates on the 
 Eiver Ottawa, about 120 miles above its confluence 
 with the St. Lawrence, thus extending westward from 
 Cape 'Tourment along the course of the St. Lawrence 
 about 300 miles. The tract of country lying between 
 this ridge and the St. Lawrence, which may be esti- 
 mated at from 15 to 30 miles in breadth, is beautifully 
 picturesque, well watered, level, and fertile. This 
 portion of Canada, stretching along the northern shore 
 of the river, from below Quebec upward to Montreal, 
 a distance of about 200 miles, and thence along the 
 banks of the beautiful Ottawa, may be considered, es- 
 pecially toward its upper and western extremity, one 
 of the choicest parts of the country. 
 
 The territory lying beyond this ridge is intersected 
 by another and higher range of mountains, which runs, 
 into the interior in a northwest direction, at the dis- 
 tance of about 200 miles from the other, and forms the 
 water-shed between the tributary streams of the St. 
 Lawrence and those that fall into Hudson's Bay. This 
 territory may be said to he only one great wilderness 
 of forest, whose solitudes are as yet unexplored, and 
 only occasionally tracked by wandering hunters. 
 
 Glancing at the south shore of the St. Lawrence, 
 a ridge commences nearly 100 miles below Quebec, 
 which, passing upward in a southwest direction, op- 
 posite that city, at a distance of 30 miles from the 
 river, crosses the boundary line between Canada and 
 the United States, and finally slopes down to the River 
 Hudson. Beyond this ridge, at about the distance of 
 50 miles, is another and a higher one, which commences 
 at Cape Rozifcre, the bold headland at the mouth of 
 the St. Lawrence, and, running for about 400 miles in 
 a direction nearly parallel with the river and with the 
 other chain, terminates upon the eastern branch of the 
 River Connecticut. This forms the dividing ridge be- 
 I tween the tributary streams of the St. Lawrence and 
 
CAN 
 
 245 
 
 CAN 
 
 those which flow toward the Atlantic Ocean, and sep- 
 arates a portion of Canada from the territory of the 
 United States. The general character of the country 
 along this south side of the river, from Gape Eoziere 
 upward, to within about 100 miles of Quebec, where 
 the lesser ridge commences, is somewhat rugged and 
 mountainous ; but there are many fertile parts near 
 the river which are populous and well cultivated. On 
 the south side of this main ridge, down to the shores 
 of Gasp6 and Chaleur Bay, the country is mountain- 
 ous, but interspersed with level and fertile spots, some 
 of which are under cultivation, especially along the 
 coast, where the inhabitants are principally dependent 
 on the fisheries. The country for 100 miles below 
 Quebec, and extending to the Kiver Chaudi^re, a few 
 miles above that city, has much of the broken and 
 hilly character which it has farther down the river, 
 but with extensive tracts of excellent land. This por- 
 tion, as well as for a distance of above 100 miles far- 
 ther down along the banks of the river, is a succession 
 of settlements. Between Quebec and the lower ridge 
 of mountain-land already mentioned, the country pre- 
 sents a fertile plain, broken by a few insulated hills 
 covered with trees to their summits. It is well set- 
 tled, and a considerable portion of the land cultivated. 
 The country above Quebec, along the south side of the 
 St. Lawrence, to the line 46° of N. lat. (which is the 
 southern boundary of Lower Canada), may be charac- 
 terized as one extensive and fertile plain; in parts 
 agreeably broken and undulating. Much of it is cov- 
 ered with populous and prosperous settlements. As 
 it lies contiguous to the United States, and embraces 
 some of the principal points of communication between 
 the two territories, it is at present, and bids fair to 
 continue to be, the most flourishing portion of this 
 lower division of Canada. 
 
 The city and island of Montreal, situated in Lower 
 Canada, and immediately below the confluence of the 
 River Ottawa with the St. Lawrence, may be said to 
 form the chief connecting link between the, lower and 
 upper provinces. Being about 180 miles above Que- 
 bec, and Quebec being itself about 400 miles up the 
 river, Montreal is thus situated nearly 600 miles in the 
 interior of Canada. 
 
 "The banks of the St. Lawrence are here presented 
 stretched out into smiling plains of most luxuriant 
 appearance, in midst of which, and forming a main 
 feature, is the garden-island of Montreal — producing 
 grain and fruit, especially some descriptions of the lat- 
 ter, in perhaps greater perfection than in any other 
 part of the country. The size of this island is 32 miles 
 in length and about 10 in breadth, upon which is sit- 
 uated the city, covering above one thousand acres — 
 with its quaint mixture of English, American, and old 
 French architecture, in its streets, shops, English, 
 American, and Scotch churches, French cathedrals and 
 spires, and ancient convents. Rising from, and form- 
 ing a sheltering background to the city on the north, 
 is 'The Mountain,' as it is called, thickly wooded to 
 the summit — an elevation of between 500 and 600 feet, 
 commanding a magnificent view of the picturesque 
 and luxuriant country around, the expanse of the St. 
 Lawrence, and the bold mountain scenery in the dis- 
 tance. Along the substantially-built stone wharfs 
 skirting the south of the town, and toward the broad- 
 est channel of the river, lie throngs of ships, barges, 
 and steam-vessels, loading and unloading the natural 
 products of the interior, and the manufactures and 
 other merchandise of Britain. Montreal, situated 
 about 600 miles up the St. Lawrence, forms the head 
 of navigation for the large class of ocean vessels, and 
 is the main point at which the produce of the interior 
 arrives, in steamboats, screw-propellers, and barges, 
 for reshipment on board of the Atlantic vessels." 
 
 Ocean vessels may now, however, by recent im- 
 provements of the internal navigation upward through 
 the great lakes, proceed with their cargoes many hun- 
 
 dreds of miles farther into the interior ; thus opening 
 up to Canada not only the fertile regions of her own 
 most westerly districts, but the famous Far West of 
 the United States, stretching even to the territories 
 of the Mississippi ; and it may be at no remote period 
 to the yet distant shores of the Pacific. 
 
 Upper Canada. — We will now briefly describe the 
 leading features of Upper Canada. This division of 
 the country, commencing about 80 miles up the St. 
 Lawrence from Montreal, upon the north side of the 
 river, extends for about HlO miles farther along this 
 shore of the river to the city of Kingston, at the foot 
 of Lalie Ontario, and thence along the north shores of 
 the great lakes Ontario, Erie, St. Clair, Huron, and 
 Superior, with their connecting rivers or straits, and 
 stretching to the head waters of the streams which 
 flow into Lake Superior. This great stretch of terri- 
 tory, with its almost unsurpassed extent of inland 
 coast navigation, extends from 74° 30' to 117° W. long. 
 The grand course of navigable waters directly inland 
 through Canada, by the St. Lawrence and great lakes, 
 may be safely stated to exceed 2000 miles. The coast 
 of the lakes alone has been estimated at upward of 
 5000 miles. The shores of this great valley, through 
 which these waters take their course, embrace a coun- 
 try which has been styled ' ' the Garden of North Amer- 
 ica." It has already in our own day presented an in- 
 crease in population, and in agricultural and commer- 
 cial wealth, so wonderfully rapid as to be unprece- 
 dented in history. Upper Canada, thus so favorably 
 situated — comprehending one side of the entire upper 
 portion of the great valley of the St. Lawrence — is 
 bounded on the south by the territories of the United 
 States, on the north by the Hudson's Bay Territory, 
 and on the east by Lower Canada, while to the west 
 extends that vast tract of country within British do- 
 minion, but as yet in a comparatively primeval state. 
 an(i most generally known hitherto as the Northwest 
 Indian Territory.- 
 
 That portion of Upper Canada which has been set 
 apart and divided for settlement, extends from its ex- 
 treme eastern point, where it leaves Lower Canada, 
 80 miles above Montreal, and reaches along the north- 
 ern shore of the St. Lawrence, and upward along the 
 lakes to the shores of Lake Huron — a direct course of 
 about 700 miles. This breadth of settled country to- 
 ward the north may be said to vary from 50 to 80 
 miles. Throughout the whole of this tract the soil is 
 excellent, and is not surpassed by any other part of 
 the American continent. It consists, generally speak- 
 ing, of a fine dark loam, mixed with a vegetable mould, 
 but it is in a great measure so varied as to present 
 soils adapted to almost every species of produce. From 
 the commencement of Upper Canada to the head of the 
 Bay of Quirite, on Lake Ontario, the land is spread out 
 into an almost uniform level of great beauty, which 
 rises only a few feet from the banks of the St. Law- 
 rence. It is in every direction well watered by nu- 
 merous streams, which are generally navigable for 
 boats and canoes, and at the same time present the 
 most desirable situations for the erection of machin- 
 ery. Farther into the interior, along the course of the 
 great stream of the Ottawa, which flows into the St. 
 Lawrence a short distance above Montreal, and be- 
 tween the Ottawa and Lake Ontario, the face of the 
 country — which we have noticed as being spread out 
 into a plain so attractive — is, in parts, here diversified 
 by ridges and bold heights, and also by numerous 
 streams and inland lakes. The Bideau Canal, a work 
 constructed by the imperial government for military 
 purposes, passing through this part of the interior, 
 from the town of Bytown, on the Ottowa, 120 miles 
 above Montreal, through the country to Kingston — a 
 distance of 135 miles — is almost one continued chain 
 of natural lakes and streams. The chief link of these 
 waters is Eideau Lake, 24 miles in length, forming the 
 summit level of the canal, and being 280 feet above 
 
CAN 
 
 246 
 
 CAN 
 
 the level of the Ottawa Klver, and 150 feet above Lake 
 Ontario. Lake Ontario, which receives the waters of 
 the upper lakes from the Niagara River, and discharges 
 them into the St. Lawrence, nearly 800 miles from the 
 mouth of that river, may be said to be the first link in 
 oiir upward progress of the chain of great lakes which 
 so distinguish Canada, and confer upon the country 
 unsurpassed means of internal communication. The 
 height of this lake above the sea is 232 feet. It is 180 
 miles in length, 50 miles in breadth, and 470 miles in 
 circumference. While the Miores of this lake present 
 the most populous and prosperous parts of Canada, 
 the lake itself is believed to be the safest of the three 
 lower lakes for the purposes of navigation. It pos- 
 sesses several excellent harbors ; and from its great 
 depth of 500 feet, compared with the two lakes above 
 it, it is not so easily moved by storms as Lake Erie, 
 while it is quite exempt from the shallows, or JlatSj as 
 they are called, of Lake St. Clair. 
 
 There are several pretty large islands scattered over 
 the lower extremity of Lake Ontario, one of which, 
 Amherst Island, is about 10 miles in length and 6 in 
 breadth. One of the most fertile and beautiful por- 
 tions of this lake is the magnificent inlet of the Bay 
 of Quinte, commencing near the city of Kingston, at 
 the foot of the lake, and forming a spacious indenta- 
 tion of about 70 miles to the mouths of the rivers 
 Trent and Moira. The shores of this bay are more 
 diversified and pleasing in their features than those 
 of the great lake itself, whose Indian name, " Onta- 
 rio," signifies the Beautiful. Lake Ontario is never 
 frozen over, and throughout winter steamboats fre- 
 quently run across the upper part of the lake from 
 Toronto to Niagara when the weather is fine. All 
 along the north shore of Lake Ontario, a distance of 
 180 miles, one extensive fertile plain presents itself, 
 now and then agreeably sloping to the very edge of 
 the lake, and bearing evidences of successful cultiva- 
 tion and progress. Several thriving towns are grow- 
 ing up rapidly along the shores of Ontario, the chief 
 of which are, Kingston, at the foot of the lake; Toronto, 
 35 miles from the head ; and Hamilton, at the extreme 
 head. Toronto, which is very finely situated, spread- 
 ing over a wide and gently rising plateau, and in a 
 protected part of the lake shore, is the largest city of 
 Upper Canada. The generally level stretch of well- 
 cultivated plain which forms this northern shore of 
 Lake Ontario is only partially broken by an inconsid- 
 erable ridge which runs through it, and which, cours- 
 ing around the head of the lake, and crossing into the 
 United States at the Falls of Niagara, forms the com- 
 mencement of the extensive and fertile table-land 
 which stretches westward from Lake Ontario, and, 
 situated between Lakes Erie and Huron, forms the 
 great western peninsula of Upper Canada. The east- 
 ern boundary of this peninsula, thus situated between 
 these three great lakes, is the neck of land of 36 miles 
 between the shores of Lake Ontario, at Toronto, and 
 Lake Simcoe, which communicates by means of the 
 Eiver Severn with the Georgian Bay, on Lake Huron. 
 The settled parts of this great peninsula embrace about 
 one-half of the settled parts of Upper Canada; and it 
 is estimated to have at present a cultivated surface 
 equal to about a fourth part of the cultivated surface 
 of Scotland. This settled and partially occupied por- 
 tion of the peninsula contains upward of 9,000,000 
 acres. The entire district has been styled "the Gar- 
 den of Upper Canada." "I am delighted to have seen 
 this part of the country," said the late Lord Syden- 
 ham, in recording his impressions to a friend, after hav- 
 ing visited this district in the course of a tour which 
 he performed in the capacity of governor general of 
 Canada, in the autumn of 1840 — "I am delighted to 
 have seen this part of the country ; I mean the great 
 district, nearly as large as Ireland, placed between the 
 three lakes — Erie, Ontario, and Huron. You can con- 
 ceive nothing finer ! The most magnificent soil in the 
 
 world — 4 feet of vegetable mould ; a climate certainly 
 the best in North America — the greater part of it ad- 
 mirably waterbd. In a word, there is land enough 
 and capabilities enough for some millions of people, 
 and in one of the finest provinces in the world." — E. B, 
 The number of acres held by the 194,309 occupiers 
 of land in Canada is 17,937,148, 9,283,333 acres of 
 which are in Upper Canada. The number of acres 
 under cultivation in Canada in 1852 was 7,303,241, the 
 greater proportion of this cultivated land being in the 
 upper provinces. The increasing quantity of culti- 
 vated land in Upper Canada is another of the gratify- 
 ing proofs of the substantial progress of the country ; 
 and this increase of the area of cultivation keeps full 
 pace with the increase of population. In 1842 the 
 population of Upper Canada, amounting to 486,055, 
 possessed 1,927,816 acres of land under cultivation; 
 and in 1852 the population, which had increased to 
 952,004, possessed an area under cultivation of 3,697,724 
 acres. The proportion of occupied lands in Canada 
 under cultivation, under crops, pasture, and used as 
 gardens and orchards, and also in forest or wild state, 
 were as follows : 
 
 Acres. 
 
 Land under crops 4,347,53!) 
 
 Land under pasture 2,870,004 
 
 Land under gardens 85,698 
 
 Land forest or wild 10,033,907 
 
 Total 17,937,148 
 
 The distribution of the land under crops, and the 
 produce of these crops respectively, were : 
 
 Under 
 
 ■V^Tieat 
 
 Oats 
 
 Peas 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 Buckwheat 
 
 Maize 
 
 Eye 
 
 Barley 
 
 Turnips 
 
 Fallow and other crops . . 
 Total land under crops 
 
 1,209,226 
 
 1,012,106 
 
 357,301 
 
 150,916 
 
 96,046 
 
 93,240 
 
 84,975 
 
 72,843 
 
 21,032 
 
 1,249,854 
 
 4,347,539 
 Total produce of ahove specified crops. . 
 
 Produce. 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 15,768,720 
 
 20,161,438 
 
 4,055,584 
 
 9,443,586 
 
 1.169,801 
 
 2,096,800 
 
 821,0f4 
 
 1,294,501 
 
 4,014,851 
 
 58,826,375 
 
 Besides these amounts of specified produce from 
 these 4,347,539 acres of land under crops, the Canadian 
 farmers possessed other crops, such as hay, clover, and 
 grass seeds, carrots, mangel-wurzel, beans, hops, flax, 
 hemp, and tobacco. The quantity of tobacco produced 
 in Canada in 1852 amounted to 1,253,128 pounds; of 
 this 764,476 pounds were the produce of Upper Canada; 
 and the greater portion of which was grown along the 
 shores of the upper part of Lake Erie, and of the Eiver 
 Detroit, where the soil and climate seem best adapted 
 for this description of crop, and where the farmers in 
 those parts have had the best opportunities of receiv- 
 ing the services of the colored or runaway slave popu- 
 lation of the United States, who have been accustomed 
 to the management of such produce in the tobacco 
 plantations of the South. The produce in tobacco of 
 the two counties of Kent and Essex alone, situated in 
 this southwestern point of Canada, amounted in 1852 
 to 760,300 pounds. 
 
 The growth of hemp in Canada assumes a position 
 of great national importance at the present time, when 
 British supplies have been so seriously checked by the 
 war with Russia. The important towns upon the east 
 coast of Scotland, which are the chief seats of the flax 
 trade, have suffered severely by the check received by 
 their dependence upon Russia for this great staple of 
 a growing branch of national manufactures. 
 
 One effect of the Canadian Reciprocity Treaty has 
 been to give business to the leading railroads of New 
 York and Massachusetts, and to reduce the import and 
 export trade of Quebec ; thus benefiting the towns of 
 Canada West, while those on the St. Lawrence are 
 becoming less and less the points of transhipment. 
 Thus the exports of Quebec in two years have declined 
 
CAN 
 
 247 
 
 CAN 
 
 one-third, and the imports in the same ratio ; while at 
 Toronto the exports have nearly doubled, and the im- 
 ports have increased twenty per cent, between the 
 years 1853 and 1855. The exports and imports of the 
 leading towns for the years 1853, 1854, and 1865 are as 
 follows : 
 
 
 ' lUPOBTAIIONS. 
 
 « 
 
 1 1863. 
 
 ISU. 
 
 1366. 
 
 Quebec 
 
 Montreal 
 
 Toronto 
 
 £l,141,5;i6 
 3,381,540 
 1,165,060 
 
 £1,764,320 
 3,810,082 
 1,362,706 
 
 £732,656 
 3,064,061 
 1,401,454 
 
 BXrOBTS. I 
 
 Quebec 
 
 Montreal 
 
 Toronto 
 
 £2,243,453 
 
 1,883,723 
 
 221,490 
 
 £2,611,767 
 572,514 . 
 ,273,040 
 
 £1,558,702 
 475,650 
 404,105 
 
 DUTIES COLLECTED. | 
 
 Quebec 
 
 Montreal 
 
 Toronto 
 
 £128,454 
 449,102 
 156,033 
 
 £179,189 
 478,603 
 172,576 
 
 £74,307 
 310,219 
 152,586 
 
 CoaL 
 
 Pitch, tar, turpentine. 
 
 Ashes. 
 
 Timher and Lumber of all 
 kinds — round, hewed, and 
 sawed, unmanufactured in 
 whole or in part. 
 
 Fire-wood, plants, shrubs, and 
 trees. 
 
 Pelts. 
 
 Wool. 
 
 Fish-oiL 
 
 Rice. 
 
 Broom-com and bark. 
 
 Gypsum, ground or unground. 
 
 Hewn, or wrought, or un- 
 wrought burr or grind- 
 stones. 
 
 Dye-stu£fs. 
 
 Flax, hemp, and tow, unman- 
 ufactured. 
 
 Unmanufactured tobacco. 
 
 The Canadian £ is equal to four dollars United States 
 currency ; the shilling being equal to twenty cents. 
 Formerly, all the importations into Canada were made 
 via Quebec, but the opening of the Atlantic and St. 
 Lawrence Railroad, between Portland and Montreal, 
 has developed a large and increasing import and ex- 
 port trade with Montreal direct. At the same time, 
 the Reciprocity Treaty is the means of facilitating, by 
 a period of fifteen to twenty days, the delivery of goods 
 at Toronto via New York, in lieu of Quebec. The ex- 
 port trade of the latter is mainly products of the forest, 
 grain, etc. 
 
 Exports of Canada for the Year 1855. 
 
 Produce of the forest £2,355,255 
 
 Produce of the mines 27,339 
 
 Produce of the sea 85,000 
 
 Value of ships built 620,000 
 
 Vegetable food 1,9S5,094 
 
 Animals and their produce 342,031 
 
 Manufactures, produce, etc 525,006 
 
 Total..., ^5,950,325 
 
 The reduced business of Quebec is further shown in 
 the comparative number of arrivals and tonnage at 
 that port for the first ten months of 1854 and 1866. 
 
 Anivnl.. 
 
 VesselH. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 1854 (to Oct. 22) 
 
 1270 
 605 
 
 550,631 
 341,901 
 
 1865 " 
 
 
 The value of exports from the United States to 
 Canada for the fiscal year 1852--' 53 was $7,829,000, ex- 
 ceeding those to any country, except Great Britain, 
 France, and the Hanse Towns. Since then the trade 
 with Canada has been increasing rapidly, and assum- 
 ing each year a greater importance to us. 
 
 Reciprocity Treaty between the United States and Great 
 Britain. — This treaty was concluded and signed by the 
 respective ministers of the two governments on the 5th 
 of June, 1854. The following is a synopsis of it : 
 
 Art. i. It is agreed that United States fishermen shall 
 have the privilege of taking fish on the sea-coasts and 
 shores, in the bays, harbors, and creeks of Canada, New 
 Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward's Island, and 
 the adjacent islands, without being restricted to any 
 distance from the shore; with permission to land on 
 these coasts and islands for the purpose of drying their 
 nets and curing their fish, provided they do not inter- 
 fere with any prior right of British fishermen. It is 
 understood that this includes only sea-fish — shell-fish, 
 salmon, and shad fisheries, and all river fisheries, are 
 reserved exclusively for British fishermen. 
 
 Art. 2. It is agreed that British fishermen shall have 
 similar privileges to take fish on the sea-coasts and 
 shores of the United States north of the 36th parallel 
 of latitude. 
 
 Art. 3. It is agreed that the articles enumerated in 
 the following schedule, being the growth and product of 
 the aforesaid British colonies, or of the United States, 
 shall be admitted into each country free of duty : 
 Grain and breadstuffs of all 1 Manurea. 
 
 Unds. I Ores of metals of all ItindB, 
 
 Animals of all kinds. 
 
 Fresh, smoked, and salted 
 
 meats. 
 Cotton-wool. 
 Seeds and vegetables. 
 Undried fruits. 
 Dried fruits. 
 Fish of all kinds. 
 Products offish, and of all oth- 
 er creatures living in the 
 water. 
 Poultry. 
 Eggs. 
 
 Hides, furs, skins, or tails, un- 
 dressed. 
 Stone or marble in its crude 
 
 or unwrought state. 
 Slate. 
 Butter. 
 Cheese. 
 Tallow. 
 Lard. 
 Horns. 
 
 Art. 4. It is agreed that the citizens and inhabitants 
 of the United States shall have the right tonavigate 
 the River St. Lawrence and the canals in Canada used 
 as a means of communicating between the Great Lakes 
 and the Atlantic Ocean, with their vessels, boats, and 
 crafts, as fully and freely as the subjects of her Britan- 
 nic majesty, subject only to the same tolls and other as- 
 sessments as are now exacted of British subjects. 
 
 Art. 5. It is agreed that British subjects shall have 
 the right to navigate Lake Michigan on the same terms, 
 as long as the Canada canals and St. Lawrence Kiver 
 are open. 
 
 Art. 6. It is agreed that no export duty shall be 
 levied on lumber or timber cut on that portion of the 
 State of Maine watered by the River St. John and its 
 tributaries, and floated down that river and shipped 
 to the United States from the province of New Bruns- 
 wick. 
 
 The effect of this treaty, especially of Art. 3, has 
 been to give a great impetus to the trade between the 
 United States and the British possessions, especially 
 Canada. This treaty has been and will be of great 
 advantage to both countries, promoting intercourse and 
 extending commercial relations. 
 
 Canal, Canals. A canal is an artificial channel, 
 filled with water kept at the desired level by means of 
 locks or sluices, forming a communication between two 
 or more places. 
 
 Ancient Canals. — The comparative cheapness and fa- 
 cility with which goods may be conveyed by sea, or by 
 means of navigable rivers, seem to have suggested at 
 a very early period the formation of canals. The best- 
 authenticated accounts of ancient Egj-pt represent that 
 countrj' as intersected by canals conveying the waters 
 of the Nile to the more distant parts of the countrj-, 
 partly for the purpose of irrigation, and partly for that 
 of internal navigation. The efforts made by the old 
 Egyptian monarchs, and by the Ptolemies, to construct 
 a canal between the Red Sea and the Nile, are well 
 known, and evince the high sense which they enter- 
 tained of the importance of this species of communica- 
 tion. — Ameilhon, Comm. des Egyptiens, p. 76. Greece 
 was too small a territory, too much intersected by arms 
 of the sea, and subdivided into too many independent 
 states, to afford much scope for inland navigation. At- 
 tempts were, however, made to cut a canal across the 
 Isthmus of Corinth ; but they did not succeed. The 
 Romans did not distinguish themselves in canal navi- 
 gation. Their aqueducts, the stupendous ruins of 
 which attest the wealth and power of their founders, 
 were intended to furnish supplies of water to some ad- 
 joining city, and not for the conveyance of vessels or 
 produce, 
 
 Chinese Canals.— In China, canals, partly for irriga- 
 tion and partly for navigation, have existed from a very 
 early period. The most celebrated among them is the 
 Imperial or Grand Canal, commencing at Hang-tchou, 
 near the mouth of the Tching-tang-chiang river, in 
 about lat, 30° 22' N., long. 119° 45' E. ; it then stretch- 
 
CAN 
 
 248 
 
 CAN 
 
 es north, and, crossing the great rivers Yang-tse-Kiang 
 and Hoang-ho, terminates at Ling-ting, on the Eu-ho 
 Eiver, in about lat. 37° N., long. 116° E. The direct 
 distance between the extreme limits of the canal is 
 about 512 miles, but, including its bends, it is above 
 650 miles in length ; and as the Eu-ho, which is a nav- 
 igable river, unites with the Pei-ho, also navigable, an 
 internal water communication is thus established be- 
 tween Hang-tchou and Pelcin across 10° of latitude. 
 But, apart from its magnitude and utility, the Grand 
 Canal does not rank high as a worlc of art. A vast 
 amount of labor has, however, been expended upon it ; 
 for though it mostly passes through a flat country, and 
 winds about to preserve its level, its bed is in parts cut 
 down to a great depth, while in other parts it is carried 
 over extensive hollows, and even lakes and morasses, 
 on vast mounds of earth and stone. The sluices, which 
 preserve its waters at the necessar}' level, are all of vei-y 
 simple construction, being merely intended to elevate 
 or depress the height of the water by a few inches ; as, 
 excepting these, there is not a single lock or inteiTup- 
 tion to the navigation throughout the whole length of 
 the canal. It is seldom more than five or six feet in 
 depth, and in dry seasons is sometimes considerably 
 less. The vessels by which it is navigated are some- 
 times rowed, and sometimes dragged by men, so that 
 the navigation is for the most part slow. The canal is 
 frequently faced with stone. The construction of this 
 great work is usually ascribed to the Tartars, but the 
 Chinese allege that it was merely repaired and reno- 
 vated by the latter, and that it had been completed in 
 the remotest period of their history.-^— Barrow's Chi- 
 na, p. 335, etc. ; La Lasde, Ccmaux de Navigation, p. 
 529, etc. 
 
 Italian Canals. — The Italians were the first people in 
 modern Europe that attempted to plan and execute ca- 
 nals. They were principally, however, undertaken for 
 the purpose of irrigation ; and the works of this sort ex- 
 ecuted in the Milanese and other parts of Lombardy, in 
 the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteentli centuries, are still 
 regarded as models, and excite the warm admiration 
 of every one capable of appreciating them. In 1271, 
 the Navilio Grande, or canal leading from Milan to 
 Abbiate Grasso and the Tesino, was rendered naviga- 
 ble. — Young's Trat-els in France, etc. vol. ii. p. 170. 
 
 Butch Canals. — No country in Europe contains, in 
 proportion to its size, so many navigable canals as the 
 kingdom of the Netherlands, and particularly the prov- 
 ince of Holland. The construction of these canals com- 
 menced as early as the twelfth century, when, owing 
 to its central and convenient situation, Flanders began 
 to be the entrepot of commerce between the north and 
 south of Europe. Their number has since been aston- 
 ishingly increased. " Holland," says Mr. Phillips, in 
 his History of Inland Navigation, "is intersected with 
 innumerable canals. They may be compared in num- 
 ber and size to our public roads and highways ; and as 
 the latter with us are continually full of vehicles and 
 horsemen going from and to the different cities, towns, 
 and villages, so, on the former, the Hollanders in their 
 boats and pleasure barges, their treckschuyts, and ves- 
 sels of burden, are continual!}' journej'ing and convey- 
 ing commodities for consumption or exportation from 
 the interior of the coimtry to the great cities and riv- 
 ers. An inhabitant of Rotterdam may, by means of 
 these canals, breakfast at Delft or the Hague, dine at 
 Leyden, and sup at Amsterdam, or return home again 
 before night. By them, also, a most prodigious in- 
 land trade is carried on between Holland and every 
 part of France, Flanders, and Germany. When tlie 
 canals are frozen over, they travel on them with skates, 
 and perform long journeys in a very short time, while 
 heavy burdens are conveyed in carts and sledges, which 
 are then as much used on the canals as on our streets. 
 The \aax\y profits produced by these canals are almost 
 beyond belief; but ithas been incontestablyproved that 
 they amount to more than £250,000 for about 400 miles 
 
 of inland navigation, which is £625 per mile, the square 
 surface of which mile does not exceed two acres of 
 ground ; a profit so amazing, that it is no wonder other 
 nations should imitate what has been found so advan- 
 tageous. The canals of Holland are generally 60 feet 
 wide and 6 deep, and are carefully kept clean ; the mud, 
 as manur6( is very profitable. The canals being gen- 
 erally level, but few locks are required. From Eotter- 
 dam to Delft, the Hague, and Leyden, the canal is 
 quite level, but is sometimes affected by strong winds. 
 For the most part, the canals are elevated above the 
 fields or the country, to enable them to carry oflF the 
 water, which in winter inundates the land. To drain 
 the water from Delftjand, a province not more than 
 60 miles long, they employ 200 wind-mills in spring- 
 time to raise it into the canals. All the canals of Hol- 
 land are bordered with dams or banks of immense 
 tliickness, and on these depends the security of the 
 country from inundation ; of course, it is of great mo- 
 ment to keep them in the best repair ; to effect which 
 there is a kind of militia, and in ever}' village is a 
 magazine of proper stores, and men whose business it 
 is to convey stones and rubbish in carts to any dam- 
 aged place. When a certain bell rings, or the waters 
 are at a fixed height, every man repairs to his post. 
 To every house or family there is assigned a certain 
 part of the bank, in the repair of which they are to as- 
 sist. When a breach is apprehended, they cover the 
 banks all over with cloth and stones." 
 
 Canal from A msferdam to Nit-wdup, near the Helder. — 
 The object of this canal, which is the greatest work of its 
 kind in Holland, and probably in the world, is to afford 
 a safe and easy passage for large vessels from Amster- 
 dam to the German Ocean. This city has 40 feet of wa- 
 ter in the road in front of its port ; but the pampas or bar 
 at the junction of the Y with the Zuyder Zee, 7 miles be- 
 low, has only a depth of 10 feet ; and hence all ships of 
 any considerable burden entering or leaving the port 
 must unload and load part of their cargoes without the 
 bar. As the Zuyder Zee is every where full of shallows, 
 all ordinary means of improving the access to Amster- 
 dam were necessarily ineffectual; and the resolution 
 was, therefore, at length adopted of cutting a canal from 
 the city to the Helder, the most northern point of the 
 province of Holland. The distance between these ex- 
 treme points is 41 English miles, but the length of the 
 canal is about 50^. The breadth at the surface of the wa- 
 ter is 124i English feet (120 Ehineland feet) ; the breadth 
 at bottom, 36 feet ; the depth, 20 feet 9 inches. Like the 
 Dutch canals generally, its level is that of the highest 
 tides, and it receives its supply of water from the sea. 
 The only locks it requires are two tide-locks at the ex- 
 tremities; but there are, besides, two sluices, with 
 flood-gates in the intermediate space. It is crossed 
 by about 18 draw-bridges. The locks and sluices are 
 double — that is, there are two in the breadth of the ca- 
 nal ; and their construction and workmanship are said 
 to be excellent. They are built of brick, for economy ; 
 but bands of limestone are interposed at intervals, and 
 these project about an inch beyond the brick to protect 
 it from abrasion by the sides of vessels. There is a 
 broad towing-path on each side, and the canal is wide 
 enough to admit of two frigates passing. The line 
 which the canal follows may be easily traced on a map 
 of Holland. From the Y, at Amsterdam, it proceeds 
 north to Purmerend ; thence west to Alkmaar Lake ; 
 again north by Alkmaar to a point within 2 miles of 
 the coast, near Petten ; whence it runs nearly parallel to 
 the coast, till it joins the sea a little to the east of the 
 Helder, at the fine harbor of Niewdiep, formed within 
 the last 30 years. At the latter place there is a pow- 
 erful steam-engine for Supplying the canal with water 
 during neap-tides, and other purposes. The time spent 
 in towing vessels from Niewdiep to Amsterdam is 18 
 hours. The Helder is the only spot on the shores of 
 Holland that has deep water ; and it owes this advant- 
 age to its being opposite to the Texel, which by contract- 
 
CAN 
 
 249 
 
 CAN 
 
 ing the communication between the German Ocean and 
 the Zuyder Zee to a breadth of about a mile, produces 
 a current which scours and deepens the channel. Im- 
 mediately opposite the Holder there are 100 feet water 
 at high tides, and at the shallowest part of the bar to 
 the westward there are 27 feet. In the same way, the 
 artificial mound which runs into th^ Y opposite Am- 
 sterdam, by contracting the water-way to about 1000 
 feet, keeps a depth of 40 feet in the port (at high water), 
 ■while above and below there are only 10 or 12. The 
 canal was begun in 1819, and finished in 1825. The' 
 cost was estimated at 10,000,000 or 12,000,000 florins, or 
 about £1,000,000 sterling. If we compute the magni- 
 tude of this canal by the cubic contents of its bed, it is 
 the greatest, we believe, in the world, unless some of 
 the Chinese canals be exceptions. The volume of wa^ 
 ter which it' contains, or the prisme de remplUsage^ is 
 twice as great as that of the New York and Erie Canal, 
 or the canal of Languedoc, and two and a half times as 
 great as that of the artificial part of the Caledonian 
 Canal. In consequence, however, of the facility with 
 ■which the Dutch canal was dug, and of the evenness 
 of the ground through which it passes, the difficulties 
 with which the engineer had to contend in making it 
 were trifling compared to those which had to be over- 
 come in constructing the canals now mentioned. We 
 have not learned what returns this canal yields ; most 
 probably it is not, at least in a direct point of view, a 
 profitable concern. Even in Holland, notwithstanding 
 the lowness of interest, it would require tolls to the 
 amount of £40,000 a year to cover interest and ex- 
 penses; and so large a sum can hardly, we should 
 tliinic, be raised by the very moderate tolls laid on the 
 ships passing through it. — See Amsterdam. This, 
 however, is not the only consideration to be attended 
 to in estimating the value of a work of this sort. Its 
 influence in promoting the trade of Amsterdam, and, 
 indeed, of Holland, may far more than compensate for 
 its cost. It is evident, too, that the imposition of op- 
 pressive tolls would have effectually counteracted this 
 advantage ; tliat is, they would have defeated the very 
 object for which the canal was constructed. 
 
 Vanish Canals. — The Holstein Canal, in Denmark, 
 is of very considerable importance. It joins the River 
 Eyder with Kiel Bay, on the northeast coast of Hol- 
 stein, forming a navigable communication between the 
 North Sea, a little to the north of Heligoland, and the 
 Baltic ; enabling vessels to pass from the one to the 
 other by a short cut of about 100 miles, instead of the 
 lengthened and difficult voyage round Jutland, and 
 through the Cattegat and the Sound. The Eyder is 
 navigable for vessels not drawing more than 9 feet of 
 water, from Tonningen, near its mouth, to Eendsburg, 
 where it is joined by the canal, which communicates 
 with the Baltic at Holtenau, about 3 miles north of 
 Kiel. The canal is about 26 English miles in length, 
 including about 6 miles of what is principally river 
 navigation. The excavated portion is 95 feet ivide at 
 top, 51 feet 6 inches at bottom, and 9 feet 6 inches deep 
 (English measure). Its highest elevation above the 
 level of the sea is 24 feet 4 inches ; to which height 
 vessels are raised and let down by 6 locks or sluices. 
 It is navigable by vessels of 120 tons burden, or more, 
 provided they are constructed in that view. The to- 
 tal cost of the canal was about £500,000. It was open- 
 ed in 1785, and has so far realized tlie views of its pro- 
 jectors, as to enable coasting vessels from the Danish 
 islands in the Baltic and the east coast of Holstein, 
 Jutland, etc., to proceed to Hamburg, Holland, En- 
 gland, etc., in less time, and with much less risk, than, 
 in the ordinary course of navigation, they could have 
 cleared the point of the Skaw ; and conversely with 
 ships from the west. The smaller class of foreign ves- 
 sels, particularly those under the Dutch and Hanse- 
 atic flags, navigating the Baltic and North Seas, have 
 largely availed themselves of the facilities afi'orded by 
 this canal. About 3000 vessels pass annually through 
 
 the canal. This is a sufficient evidence of its utility. 
 It would, however, be much more frequented, were it 
 not for the difficult navigation of the Eyder from the 
 sea to Eendsburg. The dues are moderate. — Coxe's 
 Traveb in the North of. Europe, 5th edition, vol. v. p. 
 239, where there is a plan of the canal ; CAaTEAU, Ta- 
 bleau, des Etats Damns, tome ii. p. 300-304; and pri- 
 vate information. 
 
 Swedish Canals.- — ^The formation of an internal navi- 
 gation connecting the Cattegat and the Baltic has long 
 engaged the attention, and occupied the efforts, of the 
 people and government of Sweden. Various motives 
 conspired to make them embark in this arduous un- 
 dertaking. The Sound and other channels to the Bal- 
 tic being commanded by the Danes, they were able, 
 when at war with the Swedes, greatly to annoy the 
 latter, by cutting off' all communication by sea be- 
 tween the eastern and western provinces of the king- 
 dom. And hence, in the view, partly of obviating 
 this annoyance, and partly of facilitating the convey- 
 ance of iron, timber, and other bulliy products, from 
 the interior to the coast, it was determined to attempt 
 forming an internal navigation, by means of the River 
 Gotha, and the Lakes Wener, Wetter, etc., from Got- 
 tenburg to Soderkoeping, on the Baltic. The first and 
 most difficult part of this enterprise was the perfecting 
 of the communication from Gottenburg to the Lake 
 Wener. The Gotha, which flows from the latter to the 
 former, is navigable, through by far the greater part 
 ■of its course, for vessels of considerable burden ; but, 
 besides others less difficult to overcome, the navigation 
 at the point called Trflllha!tta is interrupted by a series 
 of cataracts about 112 feet in height. Owing to the 
 rapidity of the river, the stubborn red granite rocks 
 over which it flows, and the perpendicular banks by 
 which it is bounded, the attempt to cut a lateral canal, 
 and still more to render it directly navigable, present- 
 ed the most formidable obstacles. But undismayed by 
 these, on which it is, indeed, most probable he had not 
 sufficiently reflected, Polhem, a native engineer, un- 
 dertook, about the middle of last century, the Hercu- 
 lean task of constructing locl^s in the channel of the 
 river, and rendering it navigable. Whether, however, it 
 were owing to the all but insuperable obstacles opposed 
 to such a plan, to the defective execution, or deficient 
 strength of the works, they were wholly swept away, 
 after being considerably advanced, and after vast sums 
 had been expended upon them. From this period, 
 down to 1793, the undertaking was abandoned ; but in 
 that year the plan was proposed, which should have 
 been adopted at first, of cutting a lateral canal through 
 the solid rock, about li mile from the river. This 
 new enterprise was begun under the auspices of a com- 
 pany incorporated for the purpose in 1794, and was 
 successfully completed in 1800. The canal is about 
 3 miles in, length, and has about OJ feet -water. — Cat- 
 TEAU, Tableau de la Mer Baltique, tome ii. p. 77 ; Oddy, 
 in his European Commerce, p. 306, and B alei, A brege 
 de la Geographie, p. 885, say that the depth of water is 
 10 feet. It has 8 sluices, and admits vessels of above 
 100 tons. In one part it is cut through the solid rock 
 to the depth of 72 feet. The expense was a good deal 
 less than might have been expected, being only about 
 £80,000. The Lake Wener, the navigation of which 
 was thus opened with Gottenburg, is very large, deep, 
 and encircled by some of the richest of the Swedish 
 provinces, ■which now possess the inestimable advant- 
 age of a convenient and ready outlet for their products. 
 As soon as the Trollhsetta canal had been completed, 
 there could be no room for doubt as to the practicabili- 
 ty of extending the navigation to Soderkoeping. In 
 furtherance of this object, the Lake Wener was joined 
 to the Lake Wetter by the Gotha Canal, which admits 
 vessels of the same size as that of Trollhsetta; and the 
 prolongation of the navigation to the Baltic from the 
 Wetter, partly by two canals of equal magnitude with 
 the above, and partly by lakes, has since been com- 
 
CAN 
 
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 CAN 
 
 pleted. The entire undertaking is called the Gotha 
 Navigation, and deservedly ranks among the very first 
 of the kind in Europe. Besides the above, the canal 
 of Arboga unites the Lake Hielmar to the Lake Mae- 
 lar : and, since 1819, a canal has been constructed from 
 the latter to the Baltic at Sodertelge. The canal of 
 Strcemsholm, so called from its passing near the castle 
 of that name, has effected a navigable communication 
 between the province of Dalecarlia and the Lake Mae- 
 lar, etc. — For further details, see, besides the authori- 
 ties already referred to, Coxk's Travels in the North of 
 Em-ope, 6th ed. vol. iv. p. 253-266, and vol. v. p. 
 58-66 ; Thomsos's Travels in /Sweden, p. 35, etc. 
 
 French Canals. — The first canal executed in France 
 was that of Briare, 34^ English miles in length, intend- 
 ed to form a communication between the Seine and the 
 Loire. It was commenced in 1605, in the reign of 
 Henry IV., and was completed in 1642, under his suc- 
 cessor, Louis XIII. The canal of Orleans, which joins 
 the above, was commenced in 1675. But the most 
 stupendous undertaking of this sort that has been exe- 
 cuted in France, or indeed on the continent, is the ca- 
 nal of Languedoc. It was project^d under Francis I. ; 
 but was begun and completed in the reign of Louis 
 XIV. It reaches from Narbonne to Toulouse ; and 
 was intended to form a safe and speedy means of com- 
 munication between the Atlantic Ocean and the Medi- 
 terranean. It is 64 French leagues in length, and 6 
 feet deep ; and has in all 114 locks and sluices. In 
 its highest part it is 600 feet above the level of the sea. 
 In some places it is conveyed, by bridges of great 
 length and strength, over large rivers. It cost upward 
 of i:i,300,000; and reflects infinite credit on the engi- 
 neer, Riquet, by whom it was planned and executed. 
 Besides this great work, France possesses several mag- 
 nificent canals, such as that of the Centre, connecting 
 the Loire with the Saone ; of St. Quentin, joining the 
 Scheldt and the Somme; of Besani^on, joining the 
 Saone, and consequently the Bhone, to the Rhine ; of 
 Burgundj^ joining the lihone to the Seine, etc. Some 
 of these are of very considerable magnitude. The ca- 
 nal of the Centre is about 72 English miles in length. 
 It was completed in 1791, at an expense of about 
 11,000,000 francs. Its summit level is about 240 feet 
 above the level of the Loire at Digoin ; the breadth at 
 the water's edge is about 48 feet, and at bottom 30 feet ; 
 depth of water, 5^ feet ; number of locks, 81. The 
 canal of St. Quentin, 28 English miles in length, was 
 completed in 1810. The canal joining the Khone to 
 the Rhine is the most extensive of any. It stretches 
 from the Saone, a little above St. Jean de Losne, by 
 Dole, Besan9on, and Mulhouse, to Strasburg, where 
 it joins the Rhine — a distance of about 200 English 
 miles. From Dole to Vogeaucourt, near Montbeliard, 
 the canal is principally excavated in the bed of the 
 Doubs. It is not quite finished. The canal of Bur- 
 gundy will, when completed, be about 242 kilometres, 
 or 150 English miles, in length ; but at present it is 
 only navigable to the distance of about 95 kilometres. 
 In addition to these, a great many other canals have 
 been finished, while several are in progress, and oth- 
 ers projected. There is an excellent account of the 
 French canals, in the Histoire de la Navigation Inte' 
 rieure de la France, by M. Dutens, in 2 vols. 4to, and 
 to it we beg to refor the reader for further details. He 
 will find, at the end of the second volume, a very beau- 
 tiful map of the rivers and canals of France. The rail- 
 roads now in the coursfrof construction in France have, 
 however, checked the progress of canals. We may ob- 
 serve, too, that the state of the law in France is very 
 unfavorable to the undertaking and success of all great 
 public works; and we are inclined to attribute the 
 comparative fewness of canals in France, and the re- 
 cent period at which most of them have been construct- 
 ed, to its influence. In that country, canals, docks, 
 and such like works, are mostly carried on at the ex- 
 pense and for behoof of government, under the control 
 
 of its agents. No scope has been given to the enterprise 
 of individuals or associations. Before either, a road or 
 a canal can be constructed, plans and estimates must 
 be made out and laid before the Minister of the Inte- 
 rior, by whom they are referred to the prefect of the 
 department, and then to the Bureau des Fonts et des 
 Chausses ; and supposing the project to be approved by 
 these, and the other functionaries consulted with re- 
 spect to it, the work must after all be carried on under 
 the superintendence of some public officer. In conse- 
 quence of this preposterous sj'stem, very few works of 
 this description have been undertaken as private spec- 
 ulations. And while not a few of those begun by gov- 
 ernment remain unfinished and comparatively useless, 
 those that are completed have, as was to be expected, 
 rarely proved profitable. There are some good re- 
 marks on this subject in the useful work of M, Dupin, 
 on the Forces Commerdales of Great Britain. 
 
 Prussian Canals. — The Prussian states are traversed 
 by the great navigable rivers the Elbe, the Oder, and 
 the Vistula; the first having its embouchure in the 
 North Sea, and the others in the Baltic. The forma- 
 tion of an internal navigation, that should join these 
 great water-ways, excited- the attention of government 
 at a distant period ; and this object has been success- 
 fully accomplished, partly by the aid of the secondary 
 rivers falling into the above, and partly by canals. 
 In 1662, the canal of Muhlrose was undertaken, unit- 
 ing the Oder and the Spree ; the latter being a naviga- 
 ble river falling into the Havel, also a navigable riv- 
 er joining the Elbe near Havelburg. But the naviga- 
 tion from the Oder to the Elbe by this channel was dif- 
 ficult, and liable to frequent interruption; and to ob- 
 viate these defects, Frederick the Great constructed, 
 toward the middle of last century, the Finnow Canal, 
 stretching from the Oder, at Oderburg, to the Havel, 
 near Liebenwalde ; the communication is thence con- 
 tinued by the latter and a chain of lakes to Plauen; 
 from which point a canal has been opened, joining the 
 Elbe near Magdeburg. The Elbe being in this way 
 connected with the Oder by a comparatively easy nav- 
 igation, the latter has been united to the Vistula, part- 
 ly by the River Netze, and partly by a canal joining 
 that river to the Brahe, which falls into the Vistula 
 near Bromberg. A vast inland navigation has thus 
 been completed, barks passing freely through the whole 
 extent of the country from Hamburg to Dantzic ; af- 
 fording the means of shipping the products of the inte- 
 rior, and of importing those of foreign countries, either 
 by the North Sea or the Baltic, as may be found most 
 advantageous. — Cattead, Tableau de la Mer BaUique, 
 tome ii. p. 11-18. 
 
 Russian Canals.— The inland navigation of Russia is 
 of vast extent, and very considerable importance. By 
 means partly of rivers, and partly of canals, St. Peters- 
 burg is connected with the Caspian Sea. Goods are 
 conveyed from the latter to the capital, a distance of 
 7434 miles, without reshipment. 
 
 Bavarian Canals. — A grand canal, which was for a 
 lengthened period in progress in Bavaria, was com- 
 pleted in 1846, and promises to become of great public 
 utility. It extends from Dietfurth, on the Altmuhl, a 
 navigable affluent of the Danube, to Bamberg, on the 
 Mayn, a distance of 23i German, or about 112 English 
 miles. It is on a large scale, and has cost above 
 £1,000,000. This magnificent undertaking, which car- 
 ries an inland navigation through the centre of Europe, 
 and realizes the project of Charlemagne for uniting the 
 Black Sea with the German Ocean, is conducted by a 
 joint-stock company, with the assistance of the Bava- 
 rian government. But the navigation of the Mayn 
 and the Danube requires to be considerably improved 
 before this grand channel of communication acquires 
 all the importance which, most probably, it is des- 
 tined to obtain, 
 
 Austrian Canals — The Austrian empire is traversed 
 in its whole extent by the Danube ; but the advant- 
 
CAN 
 
 251 
 
 CAN 
 
 ages that might result to the foreign trade of the em- 
 pire from so great a command of river navigation have 
 been materially abridged by the jealousy of the Turks, 
 who command the embouchure of the river, and by 
 the difficulties that are in some places incident to its 
 navigation. Two pretty extensive canals have been 
 constructed in Hungary. That called the Bega Ca- 
 nal is 73 English miles in length : it stretches from 
 Fascet through the Bannat, by Temeswar to Becskerek, 
 whence vessels pass by the Bega into the Theiss, a lit- 
 tle abpve its junction with the Danube. The other 
 Hungarian canal is called after the Emperor Francis. 
 It stretches from the Danube by Zambor to the Theiss, 
 which it joins near Fold var, being 62 English miles 
 in length ; its elevation, where highest, does not ex- 
 ceed 27 feet. Besides the above, the canal of Vienna 
 establishes a communication between that city and 
 Neustadt. It is said to be the intention to continue 
 this canal to Trieste ; but however desirable, we doubt 
 much whether this be practicable. A railroad has 
 been made from Munchausen, on the Danube, to Bud- 
 weiss, on the Moldau, a navigable river that falls into 
 the Elbe, which promises to be a highly useful com- 
 munication. — Bkight's Travels m Hungary, p. 246 ; 
 Balbi, AbregS de la Ghgraphie, p. 216. 
 
 Spanish Canals. — Kowhere are canals more neces- 
 saryj both for the purposes of navigation and irriga- 
 tion, than in Spain ; but the nature of the soil, and the 
 poverty and ignorance of the government, as well as 
 of the people, oppose formidable obstacles to their con- 
 struction. During the reign of Charles II., » com- 
 pany of Dutch contractors offered to render the Man- 
 ^anares navigable from Madrid to the Tagus, and the 
 latter from that point to Lisbon, provided they were 
 allowed to levy a duty for a certain number of years 
 on the goods conveyed by this channel. The Council 
 of Castile took this proposal into their serious consid- 
 eration, and, after maturely weighing it, pronounced the 
 singular decision, " That if it had pleased God that 
 these two rivers should have been navigable, he would 
 not have wanted human assistance to have made them 
 such ; but that, as he has not done it, it is plain he did 
 not think it proper that it should be done. To attempt 
 it, therefore, would be to violate the decrees of his 
 providence, and to mend the imperfections which he 
 designedly left in his works!" — Clarke's Letters on, 
 the Spanish Nation, p. 284. But such undertakings 
 are no longer looked upon as sinful ; and many have 
 been projected since the accession of the Bourbon dy- 
 nasty, though few have been perfected. The canal of 
 the Ebro, begun under the Emperor Charles V., is the 
 most important of the Spanish canals ; but it is only 
 partially completed, and during dry seasons it suffers 
 from want of water. It runs parallel to the right bank 
 of the Ebro, from Tudela, in Navarre, to below Sara- 
 gossa ; the intention being to carry it to Sastago, where 
 it is to unite with the Ebro. The canal of Castile is 
 intended to lay open the country between the Douro 
 and Reynosa, and to facilitate the conveyance of grain 
 from the interior to Santander and Bilbao. It passes 
 by Valladolid, Palenoia, and Aguilar del Campos ; a 
 small part has been executed, and is now in operation. 
 A company has also undertaken, what the Dutch con- 
 tractors formerly offered, to render the Tagus naviga- 
 ble from Aranjuez to Lisbon-^the free navigation of 
 the river having been stipulated at the Congress of 
 Vienna. A project for deepening the Guadalquiver 
 and some others are also on foot. — Geographical Dic- 
 tionary, ii. 710. 
 
 British Cbna?s.— Owing partly to the rise of extensive 
 manufactures and commerce in Great Britain, but 
 more, perhaps, to the insular situation of the country, 
 no part of which is very distant from the sea, or from 
 a navigable river, no attempt was made in England 
 to construct canals till a comparatively recent period. 
 The efforts of those who first began to improve the 
 means of internal navigation were limited to attempts 
 
 to deepen the beds of rivers, and to render them better 
 fitted for the conveyance of vessels. So early as 1635, 
 a project was formed for rendering the Avon navigable 
 from the Severn, near Tewkesbury, through the coun- 
 ties of Warwick, Worcester, and Gloucester, " that 
 the towns and country might be better supplied with 
 wood, iron, pit-coal, and other commodities." This 
 scheme was approved by the principal nobility and 
 land-owners in thfe adjoining counties ; but ths civil 
 war having broken out soon after, the project was 
 abandoned, and does not seem to have been revived. 
 After the restoration, and during the earlier part of 
 last century, various acts were at different times ob- 
 tained for cheapening and improving river navigation. 
 For the most part, however, these attempts were not 
 very successful. ' The current of the rivers gradually 
 changed the form of their channels ; the dikes and 
 other artificial constructions were apt to be destroyed 
 by inundations ; alluvial sand banks were formed be- 
 low the weirs ; in summer the channels were fre- 
 quently too dry to admit of being navigated, while at 
 other periods the current was so strong as to render it 
 quite impossible to ascend the river, which at all 
 times, indeed, was a laborious and expensiS-e under- 
 taking. These difficulties in the way of river naviga- 
 tion seem to have Suggested the e^ipediency of aban- 
 doning the channels of most rivers, and of digging 
 parallel to them artificial channels, in which the water 
 might be kept at the proper level by means of locks. 
 The act passed by Parliament in 1755 for improving 
 the navigation of Sankey Brook, on the Mersey, gave 
 riB6 to a lateral canal of this description, about 11^ 
 miles in length, which deserves to be mentioned as 
 the earliest effort of the sort in England. But before 
 this canal had been completed, the celebrated Duke of 
 Bridgewater, and his equally celebrated 'engineer, the 
 self-instructed James Brindley, had conceived a plan 
 of inland navigation independent altogether of natural 
 channels, and intended to afford the gi'eatest facilities 
 to commerce, by carrying canals across rivers and 
 through mountains, wherever it was practicable to 
 construct them. The duke was proprietor of a large 
 estate at Worsley, 7 miles from Manchester, in which 
 were some very rich coal-mines that had hitherto 
 been in great measure useless, owing to the cost of 
 carrying coal to market. Being desirous of turning 
 his mines to some account, it occurred to his grace 
 that his purpose would be best accomplished by cut- 
 ting a canal from Worsley to Manchester. Mr. Brind- 
 ley, having been consulted, declared that the scheme 
 was practicable; and an act having been obtained, 
 the work was immediately commenced. " The prin- 
 ciple," says Mr. Phillips, "laid down at the com- 
 mencement of this business reflects as much honor on 
 the noble undertaker as it does upon his engineer. It 
 was resolved that the canal should be perfect in its 
 kind ; and that, in order to preserve the level of the 
 water, it should be free from the usual obstruction of 
 locks. But in accomplishing this end many difficul- 
 ties were deemed insurmountable. It was necessary 
 that the canal should be carried over rivers, and many 
 large and deep valleys, where it was evident that such 
 stupendous mounds of earth must be raised as would 
 scarcely, it was thought by numbers, be completed by 
 the labor of ages ; and, above all, it was not known 
 from what source so large a supply of water could be 
 drawn, even on this improved plan, as would supply 
 the navigation. But Mr. Brindley, with a strength 
 of mind peculiar to himself, and being possessed of 
 the confidence of his great patron, contrived such ad- 
 mirable machines, and took such methods to facilitate 
 the progress of the work, that the world soon began 
 to wonder how it could be thought so difficult. 
 
 The success that attended the Duke of Bridgewater's 
 canal stimulated public-spirited individuals in other 
 districts to undertake similar works. Mr. Brindley 
 had early formed the magnificent scheme of joining 
 
CAN 
 
 252 
 
 CAN 
 
 the great ports of London, Liverpool, Bristol, and 
 Hull, by a system of internal navigation ; and though 
 he died in 1772, at the early age of 56, he had the satis- 
 faction to see his grand project in a fair way of being 
 realized. The Trent and Mersey, or, as it has been 
 more commonly termed, the Grand Trunk Canal, 96 
 miles in length, was begun in 1766, and completed in 
 1777. A water communication between Hull and 
 Liverpool was thus completed ; and by means of the 
 Staffordshire and Worcestershire Canal, which joins 
 the Grand Trunk near Haywood in the former, and 
 the Severn near Stourport in the latter, the same means 
 of communication was extended to Bristol. During 
 the time that the Grand Trunk Canal was being made, 
 a canal was undertaken from Liverpool to Leeds, 130 
 miles in length ; another from Birmingham to the 
 Staffordshire and Worcestershire Canal, joining it 
 near Wolverhampton ; and one from Birmingham to 
 Fazely, and thence to Coventry. By canals subse- 
 quently undertaken, a communication was formed be- 
 tween the Grand Trunk Canal and Oxford, and conse- 
 quently with London, completing Brindley's magnifi- 
 cent scheme. In 1792 the Grand Junction Canal was 
 begun, which runs in a pretty straight line from Brent- 
 ford, on the Thames, a little above the metropolis, to 
 Braunston, in Northamptonshire, where it unites with 
 the Oxford and other central canals. It is about 90 
 miles in length. There is also a direct water commu- 
 nication, by means of the River Lea navigation, the 
 Cambridge Junction Canal, etc., between London and 
 the Wash. In addition to these, an immense number 
 of other canals, some of them of great magnitude and 
 importance, have been constructed in different parts 
 of the country ; so that a command of internal naviga- 
 tion has been obtained, unparalleled in any European 
 country, with the exception of Holland. 
 
 In Scotland, the great canal to join the Forth and 
 Clyde was begun in 1768, but it was suspended in 1777, 
 and was not resumed till after the close of the Ameri- 
 can war. It was finally completed in 1790. Its total 
 length, including the collateral cuts to Glasgow and 
 the Monkland Canal, is 38J miles. Where highest, it 
 is 150 feet above the level of the sea. It is on a lar- 
 ger scale than any of the English canals. Its medium 
 width at the surface is 56, and at the bottom 27 feet. 
 Originally it was about 8 feet 6 inclies deep ; but with- 
 in these few years its banks have been raised, so that 
 the depth of water is now aboiit 10 feet. It has in 
 all 39 locks. In completing this canal many serious 
 difficulties had to be encountered. These, however, 
 were all successfully overcome ; and though unprofit- 
 able for a while, it has for many years past yielded a 
 handsome return to its proprietors, the dividend hav- 
 ing latterly been about 20 per cent, on the original 
 stock. Swift boats on the plan of those subsequent- 
 ly described were established on this canal in 1832. — 
 See Cleland's Statistics of Glasgow, p. 170, etc. 
 The Union Canal joins the Forth and Clyde Canal 
 near Falkirk, and stretches thence to Edinburgh, be- 
 ing 31i miles in length. It is 40 feet wide at the top, 
 20 at the bottom, and 5 deep. It was completed in 
 1822. But it appears to have been an extremely ill- 
 advised undertaking ; so much so that its proprietors 
 have sold it, at a heavy loss, to the Edinburgh and 
 Glasgow Railway Company, who employ it in the con- 
 veyance of coal and other heavy goods. A canal in- 
 tended to form a communication between Glasgow, 
 Paisley, and Ardrossan, was. commenced in 1807 ; but 
 only that portion connecting Glasgow with Paisley 
 and the village of Johnstoun has hitherto been finish- 
 ed. This part is about 12 miles long ; the canal being 
 30 feet broad at top, 18 at bottom, and 4J deep. It 
 was here that the experiments were originally made 
 on quick traveling by canals, which are said to have 
 demonstrated that it was practicable to impel a proper- 
 ly-constructed boat, carrying passengers and goods, 
 along a canal at the rate of 9 or 10 miles an hour, with- 
 
 out injury to the banks ! The Crinan Canal across 
 the peninsula of Kintyre, admitting vessels of 160 tons 
 burden, is 9 miles in length, and 12 feet in depth. The 
 Caledonian Canal is the greatest undertaking of the 
 sort attempted in the empire. It stretches southwest 
 and northeast across the island from a point near In- 
 verness to another near Fort William. It is chiefly 
 formed by Loch Ness, Loch Oich, and Loch Lochy. 
 The total length of the canal, including the lakes, is 
 60^ miles ; but the excavated part is only about 23 
 miles. At the summit it is 96^ feet above the level of 
 the Western Ocean. It is mostly constructed upon a 
 grand scale, being intended to be 20 feet deep, 50 feet 
 wide at bottom, and 122 at top ; the locks are 20 feet 
 deep, 172 long, and 40 broad ; and had it been wholly 
 executed as was originally intended, frigates of 32 
 guns, and merchant ships of 1000 tons burden, might 
 have passed through it. It was opened in 1822, being 
 executed entirely at the expense of government, from 
 the designs and under the superintendence of Thomas 
 Telford, Esq. The entire cost amounted, exclusive 
 of interest, on the 1st of May, 1853, to £1,347,780. It 
 would appear, however, to have been projected with- 
 out due consideration, and has been a most unprofitable 
 speculation. The revenue of the canal amounted, in 
 1852-'53, to only £5889, whereas the expenditure dur- 
 ing the same year amounted to £7429 ! But this is 
 not all. Owing to a wish to lessen the expense, and 
 to hasten the opening of the canal, parts of it were 
 not excavated to their proper depth, while others were 
 executed in a hurried and insufficient manner. Hence 
 the canal does not really admit vessels of above 250 or 
 300 tons burden ; and previously to steam-tugs being 
 provided on the lakes, they were frequently delaj'ed in 
 making their passage across for a lengthened period. 
 During 1837 and 1838 the works sustained considerable 
 damage ; and the reader need not be surprised to hear 
 that it was gravely debated whether it would not be 
 better entirely to break up and abandon the canal! 
 There was naturally, however, an extreme disinclina- 
 tion to destroy a work which, how inexpedient soever 
 originally, has been executed at an enormous expense : 
 and various schemes have been suggested for relieving 
 the public from the expense of keeping it up without 
 involving its destruction. Among others, it has been 
 proposed to assign it to a joint-stock company, on their 
 agreeing to complete the works and keep them in re- 
 pair; and an act authorizing such transfer was passed 
 in 1840. But hitherto it has not been found possible 
 to dispose of the canal in this way ; and Parliament 
 has since voted large sums for the partial repair of the 
 works, wliicli, though a good deal improved, will every 
 now and then require fresh outla}'s. Some other ca- 
 nals have been projected and completed in different 
 parts of Scotland. Of these the Monkland Canal, for 
 the supply of Glasgow with coal, has been the most 
 successful. 
 
 Irish Canals. — Various canals have been undertaken 
 in Ireland, of which the Grand Canal and the Royal 
 Canal are the principal. The Grand Canal was be- 
 gun in 1765, by a body of subscribers ; but they could 
 not have completed the work without very large ad- 
 vances from government. The canal commences at 
 Dublin, and stretches in a westerly direction, inclining 
 a little to the south, to the Shannon, with which it 
 unites near Banagher, a distance of 85 statute miles, 
 and thence on the west side of the river to Ballinasloer 
 14 miles. But, exclusive of the main trunk, there is 
 a branch to Athy, where it joins the Barrow, a distance 
 of about 27 miles ; and there are branches to Portar- 
 lington, Mount-Mellick, and some other places. The 
 total length of the canal, with its various branches, is 
 about 164 English miles. Its summit elevation is two 
 hundred feet above the level of the sea at Dublin. It 
 is 40 feet wide at the surface, from 24 to 20 feet at 
 bottom, has six feet water, and cost in all above 
 £2,000,000. 
 
CAN 
 
 253 
 
 CAN 
 
 American Ccmdls. — The States of the Union are dis- 
 tinguished by the spirit with which they have under- 
 taken, and the perseverance they have displayed in ex- 
 ecuting, the most magnificent plans for improving and 
 extending internal navigation. The following is a de- 
 scription of the principal canals in the United States : 
 Maine. — Cumberland and Oxford Canal. This nav- 
 igation, partly natural and partly artificial, extends 
 about 50 miles from Portland; Mainej to Sebago Lake. 
 The head of the canal is at the end of Long Pond, which 
 is 10 miles in length. 
 
 New Yobk.— This State has the most extended and 
 important system of canals, connecting the navigation 
 of the Hudson Kiver with that of the great Lakes, and 
 Lake Champlain, l)elaware, and Alleghany Kivers. 
 Champlain Canal is 63J miles in length, 40 feet wide 
 at the surface, 28 feet at the bottom, and 4 feet in depth, 
 and connects Albany, on the Hudson River, with White- 
 hall on Lake Champlain. 
 
 Important Connection of New York Ccmah. — The Lat- 
 eral Canal, connecting the canals of New York State 
 with the head waters of the Alleghany River, has just 
 been finished to its terminus at Olean, on that river, 
 in Cattaraugus county, New York. Prom thence it ex- 
 tends to ,the, Genesee Canal, on the Genesee River, in 
 Alleghany county. New York, which runs north to 
 Rochester, where it commands the trade of Lake Onta- 
 rio, and, connecting with the Erie Canal, leads to Buffa- 
 lo and Albany. The connection of Pittsburg and Roch- 
 ester, by this route, depends on the navigation of the 
 Alleghany River. The whole distance to Olean, 240 
 miles, is said, to be navigable, and for 200 miles above 
 Pittsbyrg it is navigable for small steamboats. The 
 consummation of this work will be of vital importance 
 to the people of the Alleghany Valley, and a large 
 share of the rapidly increasing trade of that section will 
 find its way to this city over the Pennsylvania Rail- 
 road. The distance from Pittsburg to Philadelphia is 
 353 miles, and from Olean to New York, by the New 
 Yoric and Erie- Railroad, is 396 miles.' 
 
 Delaware and Hudson Canal, biiilt by a private com- 
 pany. It is 33 miles in length, 32 feet wide at the sur- 
 face, 20 feet at the bottom, and 4 feet deep. It con- 
 nects the Hudson at Rondout with the Delaware River, 
 and connects with the Lackawaxen Canal, in Pennsyln 
 vania. The principal trade of this canal is in coal, as 
 it extends by its connections into the coal region of' 
 Pennsylvania. 
 
 New .Jersey.— Morris Canal is 102 miles long, 32 
 feet wide at the surface, and 18 feet at the bottom, and 
 4 feet deep. It extends from Jersey City, on the Hud- 
 son, to Easton, Pennsylvania, where it connects with 
 the Lehigh Canal, Pennsylvania. 
 
 Pennsvlvania. — Schuylkill Canal or Navigation. 
 It is 108 miles in length, is 36 feet wide at the surface, 
 24 feet at the bottom,"and 4 f^et deep. It extends from 
 Philadelphia to Reading, and from thence to Mount 
 Carbon, where it has connections with the anthracite 
 coal mines. 
 
 The Pennsylvania Canal, is formed of several divi- 
 sions ; it is to connect Columbia with Pittsburg, on the 
 Ohio ; but its middle division over the Alleghany 
 Mountains, from Hollidaysburg, on the eastern side, to 
 Johnstown, on the western side, is a division of railroad. 
 Its total length, including 37 miles of railroad,- is 315 
 
 miles. 
 
 The Chesapeake Rri4 Ohio Canal, .had it been com- 
 pleted, would, have been i, great and- useful work. It 
 begins at the tide-watc^ of the Potomac River, above 
 Georgetown, in the District of Columbia, and is intend- 
 ed to terminate at Pittsburg, in Pennsylvania, a dis- 
 tance of 341i miles. Its dimensions are nearly iden- 
 tical with those of the new Erie Canal ; its breadth at 
 the surface being from 60 to 80 feet, 50 feet at the bot- 
 tom with » depth of water varying from 6 to 7 feet. 
 Several tunnels occur in the line, which crosses the Al- 
 leghany ridge. The cost of this work was estimated at 
 
 $22,275,000, which were to be subscribed partly by indi- 
 viduals, and partly by the United States and the States 
 of Maryland and Pennsylvania. This canal now term- 
 inates at Cumberland, Maryland, and there is but a 
 slight probability of its ever being completed. 
 
 Ohio. — The principal canal in this State is from 
 Portsmouth, on the Ohio, to Cleveland, on Lake Erie : 
 it is 307 miles long^ 
 
 Illinois. — The canal from Chicago, on Lake Michi- 
 gan, to Peru, on the Illinois River, is of the first import- 
 ance to the trade of this State. 
 
 Indiana. — The Louisville and Portland Canal, now 
 the sole property of the United States, has been under 
 the direction of the Treasury Department the past two 
 years. The tolls, by direction of the department, were 
 reduced one-half, and the receipts for the past two years 
 have been expended in the repair of the locks and en- 
 largement Of the canal, improvement of the bridges, 
 etc. 
 
 Erie Canal, — Besides others of great, though infe- 
 rior, magnitude, a canal has been formed connecting 
 the Hudson with Lake Erie. This work is 363 miles 
 in length, the rise and fall along the entire line being 
 692 feet. It was originally 40 feet wide at the surface, 
 28 feet at the bottom, and 4 feet deep. But these di- 
 mensions being found, from the rapidly increasing traf- 
 fic and importance of the canal, to be far too limited, 
 an act was passed in 1835 providing for its enlarge- 
 ment. Under this act the canal has been increased, 
 so as to be 70 feet wide on the surface, 42 feet at the 
 bottom, and 7 feet in depth, the locks being of corre- 
 sponding dimensions. The original cOst of the canal 
 was $9,027,456; and the cost- of the enlargement has 
 been about $25,000,000, or nearly three times its fli-st 
 cost. The Erie- Canal is the property of the State of 
 New York, and is one of the greatest and most import- 
 ant works of its kind in the world. Notwithstanding 
 the contracted scale on which it was originally con- 
 structed, it has completely verified the predictions of 
 its projector, De Witt Clinton, having been of singu- 
 lar advantage, in a public point of view, to the State of 
 New York and the Union generally. This work was 
 first suggested as early as the year 1816, by a memorial 
 \ from the .'City, of New York to the Legislature. An 
 artificial canal ifrom the Hudson to Lake Erie had, in 
 fact, been under consideration by eminent citizens of 
 the State for a centul-y .before. As early as 1724, Cad- 
 wallader Colden, then surveyor general of the province 
 of New York, described the route as practicable to 
 Lakes Champlain and Ontario. During the Revolu- 
 tion, the importance of such a work was made evident. 
 After that period, General Washington made a tour 
 to the interior of New York, and also westwardly to 
 Pittsburg, and at that early day urged the connection 
 of the Ohio with the waters of the Chesapeak?. Pres- 
 ident Jefferson took a deep interest in the same subject, 
 and said, " there will be a competition^ between the Hud- 
 son and Potomac Rivers for the residue of the com- 
 merce of all the country westward of Lake Erie."— /See 
 Hunt's Merchants' J^iJ^aevie, September, 1850, p. 262. 
 He urged the construction of a canal from the Ohio to 
 the Chesapeake, as nearer to Alexandria than New 
 York by 580 iniles ; and that navigation through New 
 York would be closed several months of the year ; 
 " whereas the channel to the Chesapeake leads direct- 
 ly into a warmer climatS, so that vessels may pass 
 the whole winter, subject only to short delays."— /Aid. 
 The importance of adding facilities for communication 
 with the western parts of New York was also urged by 
 Governor Clinton, in 1 791 and 1792 ; by General Schuy- 
 ler ; Surveyor general De Witt, in 1808 ; and at ev- 
 ery meeting of the Legislature from the time of the 
 adoption of the Constitution, the subject was strongly 
 urged upon the consideration of the members. In 
 March, 1810, a joint resolution was introduced for the 
 appointment of Governeur Morris, Stephen Van Rens- 
 selaer, De Witt Clinton, Peter B. Porter, and others, 
 
CAN 
 
 254 
 
 CAN 
 
 as commissioners for exploring the route for inland 
 navigation from the Hudson to Lakes Ontario and 
 Erie ; and $3000 appropriated for expenses of surveys. 
 A through canal was then considered as the acme of 
 human wishes, so far as communication with the Far 
 We&t was concerned. Eailroads were not dreamed of 
 then, nor, in fact, until the years 1820 and 1825. 
 
 The commissioners said in 1812 : "Viewing the ex- 
 tent and fertility of the country with which this canal 
 is to open a communication, it is not extravagant to 
 suppose that, when settled, its produce will equal the 
 present export of the United States." (The foreign 
 exports of that year amounted to the enormous sum of 
 838,000,000, and four years before were $108,000,000). 
 And they add, "Will it appear improbable that twen- 
 ty 3'ears hence (1832) the canal should annually bring 
 down 250,000 tons?" 
 
 The prophecy of the commissioners was more than 
 fulfilled. In twenty years after the completion of the 
 Erie Canal, there came to tide-water on that canal 
 1,107,000 tons, valued at more than $45,000,000; and 
 the tolls amounted to two and a half millions of dollars. 
 
 On the 26th of October, 1825, eight years and four 
 months from the time of its commencement, the Erie 
 Canal was completed. The original profile of the Erie 
 Canal, published in 1825, shows 83 locks, and a rise and 
 fall equal to 687 feet. These were finally reduced to 71 
 locks, and a rise and fall of 640 feet. 
 
 In 1828, an act was passed to connect the Cayuga 
 and Seneca Canal with Cayuga Lake. In 1829 the 
 construction of the Chenango Canal was authorized, 
 and surveys ordered of a route from the Erie Canal to 
 the Alleghany River ; 2, For the Black River Canal ; 
 3. For a canal from Otsego Lake to the Erie Canal. 
 
 In July, 1835, the Canal Board resolved that the 
 Erie Canal be enlarged, so as to give 6 feet depth and 
 60 feet width of water on the surface, and that the locks 
 be 105 feet long and 15 feet wide in the clear. It was 
 finally decided to make the locks 110 feet long and 18 
 feet wide. 
 
 Previous to this time, in addition to the Efie and 
 Champlain Canals, the following had been authorized : 
 
 1. The Oswego Canal; from the Erie Canal at 
 Syracuse to Lake Ontario, thirty-eight miles, 
 finished in 183S, at a cost of $565,437 
 
 2. The Cayuga and Seneca Canal, connecting the 
 Cayuga and Seneca Lakes with the Erie Canal 
 at Montezuma, twenty-three miles, finished in 
 
 1829, at a cost of 237,000 
 
 3. The Chemung Canal, connecting the Chemung 
 Kiver at Elmira with the head of Seneca Lake ; 
 length in all, thirty-nine miles; finished in 1833, 
 
 at a cost of $816,000 
 
 4. Crooked Lake Canal, eight miles, finished in 
 
 1836 $120,000 
 
 5. The Chenango Canal, from the Susquehanna 
 River at Binghamton to the Erie Canal at Utica, 
 ninety-six miles, finished in 1837 $2,417,000 
 
 Canal Tolls of tub Erie and Champlain Canals. 
 
 
 Erie Conol. 
 
 Chauipl 
 
 ftin Cnnal. 
 
 Totnl Toll.. 
 
 
 MUei. 
 
 Tolls. 
 
 MUei. 
 
 ToUs. 
 
 1820 
 
 94 
 
 $5,244 
 
 
 
 $6,244 
 
 1821 
 
 94 
 
 23,001 
 
 24 
 
 $1,386 
 
 24,388 
 
 1822 
 
 116 
 
 60,446 
 
 49 
 
 3,625 
 
 64,072 
 
 1823 
 
 160 
 
 126,132 
 
 61 
 
 26,966 
 
 163,100 
 
 1824 
 
 280 
 
 294,546 
 
 64 
 
 46,214 
 
 840,761 
 
 1825 
 
 333 
 
 492,664 
 
 64 
 
 73,615 
 
 566,280 
 
 1826 
 
 363 
 
 6TT,466 
 
 64 
 
 84,536 
 
 762,003 
 
 1827 
 
 863 
 
 776,919 
 
 64 
 
 83,341 
 
 859,260 
 
 1828 
 
 868 
 
 727,650 
 
 64 
 
 107,767 
 
 835,407 
 
 1829 
 
 363 
 
 707,883 
 
 64 
 
 87,171 
 
 795,064 
 
 1880 
 
 363 
 
 943,545 
 
 64 
 
 89,053 
 
 1,032,600 
 
 1S31 
 
 368 
 
 1,091,714 
 
 64 
 
 102,896 
 
 1,194,610 
 
 1832 
 
 863 
 
 1,085,612 
 
 64 
 
 110,191 
 
 1,196,804 
 
 1833 
 
 363 
 
 1,290,136 
 
 64 
 
 132,539 
 
 1,422,695 
 
 1834 
 
 363 
 
 1,179,744 
 
 64 
 
 116,211 
 
 1,294,966 
 
 1835 
 
 363 
 
 1,375,821 
 
 64 
 
 116,131 
 
 1,491,952 
 
 1836 
 
 363 
 
 1,440,839 
 
 64 
 
 115,425 
 
 1,555,965 
 
 $12,297,929 
 
 $1,296,084 
 
 $18,694,013 
 
 A further enlargement of the Erie Canal, and of 
 the Genesee Valley and Black River Canals, was au- 
 thorized by the law of July 10, 1851. This Act, al- 
 though declared unconstitutional, was subsequently 
 confirmed.— ^ee New York and Hudson Rivek. 
 
 Canals in the United States — 1850. 
 
 Cana]a. 
 
 Maine. 
 
 Cumher'd and Oxford 
 
 Songo River Impr. . . . 
 
 A'ew Hampshire. 
 
 Bow Falls 
 
 Hookset Falls 
 
 Amoskeag Falls 
 
 SeweU'H Falls. 
 
 Middlesex 
 
 Vermont. 
 White River Falls . . . 
 
 Bellow's Falls 
 
 Waterqueechy 
 
 Massachusetts. 
 
 Middlesex 
 
 Pawtuckct 
 
 Blackstone 
 
 Hampshire 
 
 Montague Falls 
 
 South Hadley Falls . . 
 
 Rhode Island. 
 Blackstone 
 
 Connecticut. 
 Enfield Falls 
 
 Hew York. 
 
 Erie 
 
 Champlain Junction. . 
 Waterford Junction . . 
 
 Oswego 
 
 Cayuga and Seneca . . 
 
 Crooked Lake 
 
 Chemung 
 
 Chemung Feeder .... 
 
 Chenango 
 
 Genesee Valley 
 
 Danville Branch 
 
 Black River 
 
 BIiLck River Feeder . . 
 Delaware and Hudson 
 Harlaem (not used) 
 Croton Aqueduct. . . 
 Oneida ,'.... 
 
 New Jersey. 
 Delaware and Karitan 
 
 Morris 
 
 Salem 
 
 Delaware Division . . . 
 Eastern Division. . 
 Susquehanna Division 
 
 Juniata 
 
 West Branch 
 
 Xorth Brancli 
 
 Western Division . 
 
 Franklin 
 
 Erie and Beaver . . 
 French Creek Feeder. 
 
 Lackawaxen 
 
 Bald Eagle 
 
 Tide-water 
 
 Conestoga 
 
 Codorus 
 
 Schuylkill 
 
 2T- 
 1-6 
 45- 
 22- 
 
 J364- 
 64- 
 2- 
 38- 
 21- 
 8- 
 39- 
 IC- 
 97- 
 
 108-5 
 11- 
 7T-5 
 10- 
 
 42- 
 
 101- 
 
 4- 
 
 59-7 
 44-5 
 39- 
 
 127-5 
 75- 
 73- 
 
 105- 
 22- 
 
 136- 
 27- 
 22- 
 25- 
 45- 
 18- 
 11- 
 
 108- 
 
 Caaalfl. 
 
 C nion 
 
 Lehigh Navigation . . . 
 
 Delawdre. 
 Chesapeake and Del.. 
 
 Maryland. 
 Chesapeake and Ohio 
 Chesapeake and Dela- 
 ware 
 
 Virginia. 
 
 Alexandria 
 
 James River and Kan- 
 awha '. 
 
 Dismal Swamp 
 
 Branches. 
 
 North Carolina. 
 
 Weldon 
 
 Club Foot 
 
 Dismal Swamp 
 
 South Carolina. 
 
 Santce 
 
 Winyaw 
 
 Saluda 
 
 Drehr's 
 
 Lorick 
 
 Lockhart's 
 
 Wateree 
 
 Catawba. 
 
 Georgia. 
 
 Savannah .'. . . 
 
 Bninswick 
 
 Alabama. 
 
 Muscle Shoal 
 
 Huntsville 
 
 Louisiana. 
 
 Orleans Bank 
 
 Carondelet 
 
 Barataria 
 
 Lake Veret 
 
 Kentucky. 
 Louisville and Portl'd 
 Kentucky Eiver Impr. 
 Licking " " 
 Green '' " 
 
 BaiTen " " 
 
 Illinois. 
 Illinois and Michigan 
 
 Indiana. 
 Wabash and Erie. . . . 
 
 Whitewater 
 
 Ohio. 
 
 Ohio and Erie 
 
 Zanesville Branch. . . . 
 Columbus " .... 
 Ivancaster " .... 
 
 Hocking Valley 
 
 Walhonding Branch. . 
 Eastport " 
 
 Dresden " 
 
 Miami and Branches. 
 Miami Extension, etc. 
 Wabash and Erie .... 
 Muskingum Impr. .... 
 Sandy and Beaver. . . . 
 
 14- 
 184- 
 
 7-2 
 
 148- 
 
 23- 
 11- 
 
 12- 
 1-5 
 
 22- 
 7-5 
 6-2 
 1-3 
 
 1- 
 
 2-r 
 
 4- 
 7-S 
 
 16- 
 12- 
 
 35-7 
 IG- 
 
 4-3 
 4- 
 
 85- 
 
 2-6 
 100- 
 
 04- 
 
 ino- 
 
 100- 
 100- 
 367-7 
 
 G07' 
 ]4- 
 
 lo- 
 o- 
 se- 
 
 26- 
 4- 
 2- 
 87-7 
 139- 
 91- 
 91- 
 66- 
 
 COMrAEATIVE COST OF CANALS. 
 
 MiJea. 
 
 Of New York 
 
 Of Pennsylvania 
 
 Of New Jersey 
 
 Of Maryland and Delaware. 
 
 Of Virginia 
 
 Of Ohio 
 
 Of Indiana 
 
 Of Illinois 
 
 Of Canada 
 
 Par Mile. 
 
 513 
 
 642 
 
 144 
 
 2041 
 
 147 
 
 646 
 
 379 
 
 102 
 
 $-J4,150 
 26,100 
 41,300 
 62,350 
 84,150 
 16,600 
 33,968 
 84,846 
 
 155,300 
 
 Recapitulation of canals (including slack-water na- 
 vigation) in each State in 1854. 
 
 states. 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Connecticut . . . 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Florida 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Maine 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Massachusetts . 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Mississippi . . . . 
 
 MUea of 
 Canals. 
 
 51 
 61 
 14 
 
 " " 28 
 100 
 367 
 
 486 
 101 
 50 
 184 
 100 
 
 States, 
 
 Missouri 
 
 New Hampshire , 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 New York 
 
 North Carolina , , 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 South Carolina . , 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Texas , 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Virginia 
 
 Wisconsin , 
 
 Total 4798 
 
 Miles of 
 CanaJs. 
 
 11 
 147 
 989 
 
 13 
 921 
 93G 
 
 ISO 
 
CAN 
 
 255 
 
 CAN 
 
 Canadian Canals. — The British government has ex- 
 pended a very large sum upon the Rideau River and 
 Canal, stretching from Kingston, on Lake Ontario, to 
 Bytown, on the Ottawa, or Grand River, an affluent 
 of the St. Lawrence. But this worli was undertalien 
 as much in the view of improving the military defenses 
 of Canada as of protecting its commerce, though in the 
 latter respect it has been of considerable utility. The 
 British government has also constructed the Welland 
 Canal, uniting Lalies Erie and Ontario, the navigation 
 between which by the river is interrupted by the Falls 
 of Niagara. This canal has become a well-frequented 
 commercial channel, and is every day rising in import- 
 ance. The public works of Canada have already at- 
 tained some degree of celebrity, both in America and 
 England. "There is no country," observes Mr. I. D. 
 Andrews, in his report to the United States Senate, 
 " which possesses canals of the magnitude and import- 
 ance of those in Canada." The Erie Canal, which is 
 the rival American water route for carrying the prod- 
 uce' of the great Western wheat-growing countries to 
 the Atlantic sea-board, is capable only of transporting 
 barges of 75 tons burden ; whereas the canals of Can- 
 ada are on a scale to allow of ocean-going vessels of 
 from 350 to 500 tons, and carrying 4000 barrels of flour, 
 to proceed through them, and thus accomplish an in- 
 land navigation into the heart of the continent for a 
 distance of 1587 miles from tide water at Quebec. The 
 public productive works of Canada, consisting of ca- 
 nals, light-houses, etc. , yielded a net revenue in 1851 of 
 £58,738. The work yielding the largest amount of 
 revenue was the Welland Canal, extending from the 
 head of Lake Ontario to the foot of Lalte Erie, thus 
 overcoming the interruption to navigation caused by 
 the Falls of Niagara. The lengtli of the main trunk 
 of this canal is 28 miles, and of a feeder branch, from 
 the Grand River to the main trunk, 21 miles. Its 
 width at bottom is 35 feet, at top 71 feet, and the depth 
 is 10 feet. The dimensions of the locks are from 150 
 to 200 feet in length, the width from 26 ^ to 45 feet, and 
 the depth on metre 94- feet. The amount of lockage is 
 346 feet, and the number of locks 27. This canal is 
 also important as affording an unlimited supply of 
 water-power to numbers of mills and factories on its 
 banks. The St. Lawrence Canals, connecting Lake 
 Ontario with the River St. Lawrence at Montreal, ex- 
 tend in all to 40^ miles, having 27 locks, and an amount 
 of lockage of 204i feet. The whole of these have the 
 dimensions of their locks as large as those of the Wel- 
 land Canal, and have all 9 feet of water in these locks. 
 The Lachine Canal, cutting through the island of 
 Montreal, is 8 miles in length and 10 feet deep. It is 
 now in contemplation to construct another important 
 canal, connecting Lake Champlain with the St. Law- 
 rence, and thus afford a more desirable route for the 
 trade between the Hudson River and Canada and the 
 Western States. 
 
 Increased Speed of Traveling hy Canals. — Great, how- 
 ever, as have been the advantages derived from the 
 formation of canals, their progress has been to a con- 
 siderable degree checked by the formation of Rail- 
 roads (which see). We believe, however, that canals 
 will always be preferred for the conveyance of coal and 
 other bulky and heavy products; and even passen- 
 gers are now conveyed along them with a rapidity 
 that would previously have been supposed Impossi- 
 ble. This new system was introduced on the Paisley 
 and Glasgow Canal, by Mr. Houston, in June, 1831. 
 The results are described in the following statements, 
 to which it is unnecessary to call the reader's atten- 
 tion. 
 
 Mr. Thomas Grahame, civil engineer, in his " Letter 
 to Canal Proprietors and Traders," says, " The experi- 
 
 ments of great velocity have been tried and proved on 
 the naiTowest, shallowest^ and nwst curved canal in Scot' 
 land, viz., the Ardrossan or Paisley Canal, connecting 
 the city of Glasgow with the town of Paisley and vil- 
 lage of Johnstoun, a distance of 12 miles." The result 
 has disproved every previous theory as to difficulty and 
 expense of attaining great velocity on canals, and as 
 to the danger or damage to their banks by great veloc- 
 ity in moving vessels along them. "The ordinary 
 speed for the conveyance of passengers on the Ardros- 
 san Canal has, for nearly two years,' beenfrom nine to 
 ten miles an hour ; and, although there are fourteen jour- 
 neys along the canal per day at this rapid speed, its hanks 
 have sustained no injury. The boats are 70 feet in length, 
 about 5 feet 6 inches broad, and, but for the extreme 
 narrowness of the canal, might be made broader. They 
 carry easily from 70 to 80 passengers ; and, when re- 
 quired, can and have carried upward of 110 passen- 
 gers. The entire cost of a boat and fittings up is about 
 £125. The hulls are formed of light iron plates and 
 ribs, and the covering is of wood and light oiled cloth. 
 They are more airy, light, and comfortable tlian any 
 coach. They permit the passengers to move about 
 from the outer to tlie inner cabin, and the fares per 
 mile are onepemiy in th^jirst, and three farthings in the 
 second cabin. The passengers are all carried under 
 cover, having the privilege also of an uncovered space. 
 These boats are drawn by two horses (tlie prices of 
 which may be from £50 to £60 per pair), in stages of 
 four miles in length, whicli are done in from 22 to 25 
 minutes, including stoppages to let out and take in 
 passengers, each set of horses doing three or four 
 stages alternately each day. In fact, the boats are 
 drawn through this narrow and shallow canal at a ve- 
 locity which many celebrated engineers had demon- 
 strated, and which the public believed, to be impossible. 
 The entire amount of the whole expenses of attendants 
 and horses, and of running one of these boats four trips 
 of 12 miles each (the length of the canal), or 48 miles 
 daily, including interest on the capital, and 20 per cent, 
 laid aside annually for replacement of the boats, or loss 
 on the capital therein vested, and a considerable sum 
 laid aside for accidents and replacement of the horses, 
 is £700 some odd shillings ; or, taking the number of 
 working days to be 312 annually, something under 
 £2 2s. id. per day, or about lid. per mile. The actual 
 cost of carrying 80 to 100 persons a distance of 30 miles 
 (the length of the Liverpool Railway), at a velocity of 
 nearly 10 miles an hour, on the Paisley Canal, one of 
 the most curved, narrow, and shallow in Britain, is 
 therefore just £1 7s. 6d. sterling. Such are the facts, 
 and, incredible as they may appear, they are facts 
 which no one who inquires can possibly doubt. Boats 
 on. this principle have since been established on a great 
 many British canals, and on the Grand and Royal Ca- 
 nals in Ireland. 
 
 Profits of Canals. — It is a well-known fact that ca- 
 nals, at .an average, and allowing for the length of time 
 that must elapse from the first outlay of capital before 
 they yield any return, are not very productive. When, 
 indeed, they connect places that have an extensive in- 
 tercourse, and when no very extraordinary difficulties 
 have to be surmounted in their construction, they most 
 commonly yield very large profits; but, generally 
 speaking, this does not appear to be the case ; and, on 
 the whole, they seem to have been more beneficial to 
 the public than to their projectors. 
 
 Canary Islands. They lie in the North Atlantic 
 Ocean, between the parallels of lat. 27° 40' and 29° 30' 
 N., and the meridians of long. 13° 30' and 18° 20' W. 
 The names of the seven principal islands, their respect- 
 ive area in English square miles, and their population 
 in 1835, are given in the following table : 
 
 
 Teneriffe. 
 
 Grand Cliniiry, 
 
 Palma. 
 
 Lfmzarote. 
 
 Fuerteventura. 
 
 Gomera. 
 
 Hiarro. 
 
 Area, sq. miles 
 
 Popillntion 
 
 87T-7 
 85,000 
 
 763-3 
 68,000 
 
 T18 5 
 33,000 
 
 323-5 
 IT 400 
 
 3?B-1 
 13 800 
 
 169-7 
 11,700 
 
 82-2 
 4400 
 
CAN 
 
 256 
 
 CAN 
 
 Fuertexentura lies nearest to the African coast, the 
 interval being between 50 and 60 miles. Besides these, 
 there are many islets, most of whioh are uninhabited. 
 The grape disease made its appearance at the Canaries 
 in 1863, and destroyed nearly the whole crop. Pre- 
 viously the total annual produce "was estimated at 
 about 40,000 pipes, of which 25,000 pipes were pro- 
 duced in Teneriffe, Between 8000 and 9000 pipes were 
 exported. The price per pipe on board ranged from 
 £8 to £20. Some of the wine is distilled into good 
 brandy. Sumach for the tanners, canary-seed, and a 
 little flax, are grown. The gardens produce, in addi- 
 tion to the vegetables of English gardens, pumpkins, 
 gourds, yams (taro), garlic, red pepper, and the castor- 
 oil plant. The fruit tr^es are badly managed, so that 
 the fruit is generally inferior. Here are found fruits 
 from every quarter of the globe, including oranges, 
 figs, bananas, dates, pine-apples, pomegranates, pa- 
 paws, guavas, custard apples, and prickly pears (the 
 fruit of the cactus). There are no cocoa-nut trees or 
 bread-fruit trees, as Humboldt reports. A little oil is 
 obtained from the olive in Grand Canary. The agave 
 is abundant, and supplies a material for ropes, girths, 
 etc. The leaves of the date palm are made into hats 
 and baskets. A good deal of orchilla lichen is gath- 
 ered for exportation ; and the ice-plant is cultivated 
 for barilla. The sugar manufacture, once so largely 
 carried on, has fallen before the American and West 
 Indian trade ; the only two existing mills are on 
 Palma. Wine having been for some time so little re- 
 munerative, other things have received attention, the 
 chief of which is the cochineal insect, which feeds on 
 the common cactus ^Opinitm tuna\ and is now largely 
 produced on all the islands, land formerly occupied by 
 grain and vines being devoted to its cultivation. The 
 insect has not been long introduced, but the cultiva- 
 tion has rapidly extended. In 1849, 800,000 pounds 
 were exported, principally to France and England. 
 Since that year the exports have much increased ; the 
 price paid to the Canary exporter is about a dollar per 
 pound. The silkworm is reared to a small extent, 
 chiefly on Palma. Kaw silk is exported, and some is 
 manufactured on the spot into stockings, ribbons, etc. 
 Some linen and woolen stuffs of a coarse kind are made 
 for home consumption, but the great bulk of the cloth- 
 ing in use is of British manufacture. The island goats 
 (a peculiar and esteemed breed) furnish milk, from 
 which butter and cheese are made. Sheep, of a small 
 coarse-wooled breed, are numerous. Horses and cat- 
 tle are scarce ; domestic fowls and rabbits are plenti- 
 ful. Asses and mules are much used. A fishery on 
 the African coast, at present engaging from 40 to 50 
 vessels, and giving employment to many persons, has 
 existed since an early period. It was deemed of such 
 importance, that the home government lately sent out 
 a commissioner to report on it with a view to its im- 
 provement. The fish taken is principally bream. It 
 is salted, and largely consumed at the Canaries. There 
 is an extensive intercourse by means of boats and small 
 sailing vessels among the different islands. In this way 
 wine, raw silk, cochineal, barilla, and dried fruits are 
 taken to the places of export ; and grain is conveyed 
 from those islands where it is abundant to those where 
 the supply is deficient. The principal foreign trade is 
 with England, the chief exports being wine, cochineal, 
 barilla, and orchilla. The imports consist of iron, met- 
 al goods, glass, crockery, leather, silk, cotton, and wool- 
 en manufactures. There is also a considerable trade 
 with the United States, and the countries bordering 
 the Mediterranean. With Hamburg and France an 
 exchange of commodities takes place. The ships em- 
 ployed in this commerce are foreign, chiefly British, 
 but the islanders send a few vessels of their own with 
 brandy, coarse earthen-ware, and silk goods to the 
 Spanish West Indies, bringing back cigars, sugar, cof- 
 fee, rum, cacao (the material of chocolate), and a few 
 other articles. Santa Cruz, Orotava, and Las Palmas, 
 
 are the only ports engaged in foreign trade : nearly 200 
 vessels enter these ports in the course of a year. In 
 1852 the ports were practically made free — the small 
 duty of 2»-. per cent, only being now levied upon im- 
 ported goods, with the exception of tobacco, which 
 pays 5d. per pound, and cigars, which pay lOci. per 
 pound. A Spanish steamer from Cadiz makes two 
 voyages to Santa Cruz every month. The Spanish 
 government packet, on her outward voyage to Ha- 
 vana, touches at Santa Cruz once a month ; and the 
 same port is visited monthly by the English mail 
 steamers to Brazil and the African coast, both on 
 their outward and homeward voyages. 
 
 Teneriffe, the largest island of the group, lies between 
 Canary and Gomera. It is of an irregular shape, 60 
 miles in length, with an extreme breadth of 30 miles. 
 Not more than one-seventh is cultivable. A chain of 
 mountains traverses the island in the direction of its 
 greatest length, and in the middle of the broadest part 
 rises the celebrated peak locally known as the Pico de 
 Teyde, which, with its supports and spurs, occupies 
 nearly two-thirds of the whole island. It has a double 
 top; the highest, El Piton, is 12,180 feet above the 
 sea ; the second, Chahorra, connected with the first by 
 a short and narrow ridge, has a height of 9880 feet. 
 They are both orifices in the same grand dome of 
 trachyte. Neither reaches the line of perpetual snow. 
 There is, however, a natural cavern, 11,000 feet above 
 the sea, where snow is preserved all the year. Snow 
 remains about four months on the upper part of the 
 peak.— E. B. 
 
 There are several species of nopal (la Tunera silvegtre\ 
 Indian fig (Cactus iuna), short leaf with numerous 
 thorns, which serves only for coloring sugar, fruit, and 
 wafers ; and^ti Tunera amarilla, with l^ge, yellow, sweet 
 fruit, and round green leaves. The Tunera blanca is 
 best adapted for the culture of cochineal ; but it is in- 
 convenient on account of its numerous thorns. Lastly, 
 there is an American species, with very soft thorns, 
 which is likewise available for cochineal culture. 
 
 The following table shows the increased product 
 and exportation of cochineal from the Canaries : 
 
 Years. Pounds. 
 
 1801 n 
 
 1832 118 
 
 1833 1,060 
 
 1834 1,T52 
 
 1835 4,501 
 
 1830 5,066 
 
 1S3T 7,001 
 
 1838 23,112 
 
 1830 27,661 
 
 1840 66,521 
 
 1841 00,919 
 
 Yeais. Pounds. 
 
 1842 69,116 
 
 1843 74,964 
 
 1844 88,204 
 
 1845 168,109 
 
 1646 232,560 
 
 1847 296,292 
 
 1848 376,685 
 
 1849 449,757 
 
 1850 782,670 
 
 1861 368,109 
 
 1862 806,254 
 
 Thus, in the year 1853, the exportation would prob- 
 ably amount to 1,300,000 pounds ; and the value of 
 this, since the increased price consequent on the fail- 
 ure of crops in Honduras, would be £225,000. 
 
 Caudle (Ger. Lichter, Kerzen; Du. Kaarzen; Fr. 
 Chandelle; It. Candelk; Sp. and Port. Velas; Euss. 
 Swjetschi; Lat. Candeld), a taper of tallow, wax, or 
 spermaceti, the wick of which is commonly of several 
 threads of cotton spun and twisted together. The Ro- 
 man candles were composed of strings surrounded by 
 wax or dipped in pitch. Splinters of wood, fatted, 
 were used for light among the lower classes in England 
 about A.D. 1300. At this time wax candles were lit- 
 tle used, and esteemed a luxury, and dipped candles 
 usually burned. The Wax Chandlers' Company, of 
 London, was incorporated 1484. Mould candles are 
 said to be the invention of the sieur Le Brez, of Paris. 
 Spermaceti candles are of modem manufacture. The 
 Chinese candles are made from the berries of the can- 
 dlebury-myrtle, and they universally bum this wax, 
 which is fragrant, and yields a bright light. — Hayds. 
 
 Dr. Ure gives the following table, as containing the 
 result of certain experiments he had made, in order to 
 determine the relative intensity of "the light, and the 
 duration of different sorts of tallow candles : 
 
CAN 
 
 25Y 
 
 CAN 
 
 Ntimber la a Poiuid. 
 
 Duration of a 
 
 Weight in 
 
 CouBumption per 
 
 Proportiou of 
 Light. 
 
 Economy of 
 
 Cnndlea equal 
 
 Caudle. 
 
 Graina. 
 
 Hour, in Graina. 
 
 Light. 
 
 one Argand. 
 
 5 hrs. 9 min. 
 
 682 
 
 132 
 
 12i 
 
 68 
 
 6-7 
 
 4 " S6 " 
 
 672 
 
 160 
 
 13 
 
 6Si 
 
 5-25 
 
 6 " 31 " 
 
 856 
 
 132 
 
 10} 
 
 59} 
 
 6-6 
 
 T " a " 
 
 1J60 
 
 163 
 
 14S 
 
 66 
 
 5-0 
 
 9 " S6 " 
 
 178T 
 
 186 
 
 20i 
 
 80 
 
 3-5 
 
 
 
 512 
 
 69-4 . 
 
 100 
 
 
 10 mould 
 
 10 dipped 
 
 8 mould 
 
 6 mould 
 
 4 mould ^ 
 
 Argand oil iiame . 
 
 "A Scotch mutchkin," says Dr. Ure, "or ^th of a 
 gallon of good seal oil, weighs 6010 gr., or 13 1-10 oz. 
 &voirdapois, and lasts in a bright Argand lamp 11 
 hours 44 minutes. The weight of oil ,it consumes per 
 hour is equal to four times the weight of tallow in can- 
 dles eight to the pound,, a^d three times and a quarter 
 the \veight of tallow in candles six to the pound. But 
 its light being' equal to that of 5 of the latter candles, 
 it appears from the above table, that 2 pounds weight 
 of oil, value 9i., in an Argand, are equivalent in il- 
 luminating power to 3 pounds of tallow candles, which 
 cost about 2s. The larger the flame in the above can- 
 dles, the greater the .economy of light." 
 
 Until of Jatei years, candles were solely manufac- 
 tured from beeswax, spermaceti, or tallow. The ap- 
 plication of scientific chemical research, however, to 
 this branch of art, coupled with the withdrawal of the 
 vexations excise supervision, which prevents improve- 
 ments in every tr^de which, comes under its influence, 
 has so improved the materials used, as well as the 
 tiianufactur^ itself, that all the best candles are now 
 made from the pure solid and crystallizable margaric 
 and stearic acids. These are freed from the fluid oleic 
 acid, and from glycerin, which exist in combination 
 with them in ordinary tallow, as well as from other 
 analogous substapces, as from paraiSne (a carbo-hy- 
 drogenoUs substance resembling spermaceti, prepared 
 from tar and pea.t), the stearic and margaric acids of 
 the co^co'a-iiut oil and the palm oil {Elais guineensis\ 
 besides the old substances spermaceti, and wax, both 
 vegetable and animal. 
 
 The discovery by the celebrated French chemist 
 Chevreul, that fats were composed Of three highly in- 
 flammable bodies, stearic and margaric acids (solids), 
 and oleic .acid (a liquid), combined with a compara- 
 tively uninflammable body, glycerin, has led to the 
 creation of the great new manufacture of stearic and 
 composite candles; the importance and growth of 
 which will be understood when we state, that while in 
 1833 the new candles were unknown in England, and 
 the quantity manufactured in France amounted to 
 only twenty-five, tons armuaUy, a single London house 
 (that of E. Price and Co.) manufactured last winter 
 (1854) more than that quantity of stearic and compo- 
 site candles daily, and employs in this business above 
 900 hands, and a capital of nearly three-quarters of a 
 million. The old process for making stearic acid may 
 be thus described : Tallow is boiled up lyith thin cream 
 of lime, which causes the fat acids by superior, afiinity 
 to forsake their glycerin and combine with the lime, 
 the glycerin dissolving in the water; this combina- 
 tion is then broken by means of sulphuric acid, which, 
 seizing on the lime, sets free the fat acids ; tliese are 
 then separated (the liquid from the solid) by means 
 of pressure. This process of making fat acids is called 
 "lime saponification." The hard matter remaining in 
 the press is stearic, or a mixture of stearic and mar- 
 garic acids, and the candles made from it are called 
 stearin, or more properly stearic candles. 
 
 In 1840, it was discovered in England that by com- 
 bining stearic acid with the solid matter, or stearin 
 obtained by pressure from cocoa-nut oil, good candles 
 not requiring snuffing might be made at a considerably 
 less cost than stearic candles. These were called by 
 the inventor "composite." The trade in these com- 
 posite candles is now very great. Since 1840, numer- 
 ous great improvements have been invented, which 
 have resulted in the present manufacture of candles 
 having all the good qualities of the old stearic, while 
 K 
 
 they are sold at prices little exceeding that of tallow 
 candles. The present improved process is this : Palm 
 oil or other fi^tty matter is exposed- at a high tempera- 
 ture to the action of concentrated sulphuric acid, lyhich 
 changes it into a mixture of fat acids of a very dark 
 color, with a high melting point ; this is then distilled 
 in an atmosphere of steam. The distilled material is 
 either used for making the cheaper descriptions of com- 
 posite candles, or is subjected to hydraulic pressure, 
 first at the temperatiire of the iiir, and then at a high 
 heat ; the result of pressure being the material used 
 for making what are known as "Belmont sperm," cor- 
 responding with stearic candles. 
 
 A great improvement has been made in the jnanu- 
 facture of wicks ; instead of the common twisitedwick, 
 a wick is now used plaited ,ty machinery. The new 
 wick, together with an improved process of preparing 
 stearin, are used in the manufacture of the Star can- 
 dles, which are burnedin large quantities in the United 
 States. . . 
 
 Wax candles do not appear to have participated in 
 the improvements which have attended the manuEac- 
 ture of the improved stearic or composite candles, and 
 they appear to be still chiefly manufactured by hand, 
 They . are made of a cotton or flaxen, wick, slightly 
 twisted, and covered with white or yellow wax.. Of 
 these there are several kinds ; some of a conical figure, 
 used to illuminate churches, and in religious proces- 
 sions, funeral ceremonies, etc. ; others of a cylindrical 
 form, used on ordinary occasions. — E. B. 
 
 Sale or Auction iy Inch of Candle, is when a small 
 piece of candle being lighted, the by-standers tire al- 
 lowed to bid for the, merchandise that is selling^ but 
 the moment the :candle is out, ,the commodity is ad- 
 judged to the last bidder. 
 
 Candy, or Sugar Candy, a preparation of sugar 
 m^de by melting and crystallizing ,it six or seven 
 times, to render it hard and transparent. Candying is 
 the method of preserving fruits, etc., in substance, by 
 boiling them in sugar. 
 
 Canella Alba (Fr. Ccmelle blamche ; Ger. Weisser 
 ZiTmnet; It. Canella bianca; Sp. Canella blanca; Lat. 
 Canella albd)^ the inner bark of the Canella alba, a tree 
 growing in the West Indies. It is exported packed in 
 casks and cases, in long pieces, some rolled in quills 
 and others flat ; the quilled sort is considerably.thicker 
 than cinnamon, and the flat nearly one-fourth of an 
 inch in thickness. The quilled pieces are yellow on 
 both sides ; the flat pieces are yellow on the outside 
 and pale brown within. The odor of both kinds, when 
 fresh broken, is arojpatic, something like a mixture of 
 cloves and cinnamon; and the taste slightly bitter, 
 and extremely warm and pungent. 
 
 Canes. See Bamboo, Eataks. 
 
 Cannon, Cannons (Du. Kanonen; Fr. Canons; 
 Ger. Kammen; It. Cannoni; Pol, Dziala; Port. Canhoes; 
 Euss. Puscliki; Sp. Canines; Sw. Kanon), a kind of long 
 hollow engines for throwing iron, lead, or stone balls 
 by the force of gunpowder, commonly made of iron, 
 but frequently also of a mixture of copper, tin, and 
 brass. They are either cast hollow, or solid and then 
 bored ; those made in the latter way being very supe- 
 rior. Brass cannons, or cannons made of mixed metal, 
 are said not to be so well calculated for hard service, 
 or quick and continued firing, as those made of iron. 
 The proportions of the ingredients used in making the 
 former do not difl'er materially in different countries, 
 though they rarely coincide. To 2404)onnds of metal 
 fit for casting, is commonly put 68 pounds of copper, 
 
CAN 
 
 258 
 
 CAN 
 
 52 pounds of brass, and 12 pounds of tin. To 4200 
 pounds of metal fit for casting, tlie Germans put 
 3687 3-41 pounds of copper, 204 11-41 pounds of brass, 
 and 307 36-41 pounds of tin. Others, again, use 100 
 pounds of copper, 6 pounds of brass, and 9 pounds of 
 tin ; and others, 100 pounds of copper, 10 pounds of 
 brass, and 16 pounds of tin. 
 
 It seems to be the general opinion that cannon were 
 first made use of in 1336 or 1338 ; but Don Antonio de 
 Capmany has produced some statements -vvhich render 
 it almost certain that some sort of artillery was used 
 by the Moors in Spain so early as 1312. — Questiones 
 Criticas, p. 181, etc. Cannons were certainly used by 
 the English in 1347 at the siege of Calais, and by the 
 Venetians at Chioggia in 1366, and in their wars with 
 the Genoese in 1379 and 1380. The Turks employed 
 them at the sieges of Constantinople, in 1394 and 1453. 
 When first introduced, they were for the most part 
 very heavy and unwieldy, and threw balls of an enor- 
 mous size; they were^ however, owing to their fre- 
 quently bursting, about as dangerous to those using 
 them as to their opponents. There is a valuable arti- 
 cle on the construction andliistory of -cannons an Rees' 
 Cyclopedia; but it was published previously to the ap- 
 pearance of Capmany's work referred to above. 
 
 The largest known piece of ordnance is of brass, cast 
 in India in 1685. At Ehrenbreitstein Castle, one of 
 the strongest forts in Germany, opposite Coblentz, on 
 the Rhine, is a prodigious cannon eighteen feet and a 
 half long, afoot and a half in diameter in the bore, and 
 three feet four inches in the breech. Tlie ball made 
 for it weig'hs 180 pounds, and its charge of powder 94 
 pounds. The inscription on it shows that 'it was made 
 by one Simon in 1529. In Dover Castle is a brass gun 
 called Queen Elizabeth^s pocket-pistol, which was pre- 
 sented to her by the States of Holland : this piece is 
 24 feet long, and is beautifully ornamented, having on 
 it the arms of the states, and a motto in Dutch, im- 
 porting thus, 
 
 "Charge me well, and sponge me clean, 
 I'll throw a ball to Calais Green.'" 
 Some fine specimens are to be seen in the Tower. A 
 leathern cannon was fired three times in the King's 
 Park, Edinburgh, 'October 23, 1788.— Phillips. 
 
 The precise date of the first cast-iron guns is not 
 known, but it has been asserted by General "Haguenin, 
 that a piece of this description at Bois-le-Duc bears the 
 date 1411. Some doubt, however, has been expressed 
 on this subject ; and it has been thought more proba- 
 ble, with reference to the invention of high smelting 
 furnaces, to suppose tliis date 1511. In 1540 Ralph 
 Page cast eight iron guns at Rackstadt ; and in 1547 
 the use of such artillery began to become general, and 
 was for nearly a century exclusively adopted in some 
 countries. In France cast-iron guns were not manu- 
 factured before 1600 ; but so evident were the advant- 
 ages to be gained by tbeir use, both as regards the qual- 
 ities of the guns and their moderate cost, that they 
 were speedily adopted in most countries ; founderies for 
 iron guns having been established in Silesia in 1470, 
 in Germany in 1577, in Saxon}' in 1594, in the Hartz 
 in 1626, and in Sweden in 1640 ; ouefoundery alone, in 
 the latter country, having been said to have supplied 
 for some time from 400 to 500 cannons annually. 
 
 All these pieces of ordnance were cast hollow until 
 1729, when a horizontal boring machine was establish- 
 ed at Lyons, and, after some trials made in 1734, M. 
 Maritz abandoned hollow casting at Strasburg in 
 1744-'45, and adopted the boring machines. — E. B. 
 
 Canoe, or Canoa, the term generally used to 
 designate the small vessels which uncivilized people, 
 living near the water, use. In the East Indies there 
 is a kind of boat known by this name, sometimes from 
 40 to 50 feet long, and 5 or fi broad. The North Amer- 
 ican Indians generally impel their canoes with paddles, 
 which have a very large blade and are managed per- 
 pendicularly. The canoes of Canada are of the most 
 
 fragile texture, and of so little weight, that in passing 
 from one river to another, the boatmen carry them on 
 their heads across their portages. They are mostly 
 covered with bark, the pieces of which are sewed to- 
 gether with a kind of grass. This bark is generally 
 not more than a quarter of an inch in thickness ; yet, 
 in these frail vessels, the Indians and Canadians do 
 not hesitate to descend very dangerous rapids. The 
 Esquimaux are exceedingly dexterous in the manage- 
 ment of their canoes. These consist of a light, wooden 
 frame, covered with seal-skins, sewed together with 
 sinews. The skins are not only extended round the 
 bottom and sides, but likewise over the top, forming a 
 complete deck, and having only one opening to admit 
 the Indian to his seat. To this hole a flat hoop, rising 
 about four inches, is fitted, to which is fastened the 
 surrounding skin. The paddle is about 10 feet long, 
 light, and flat at each end. In the Esquimaux lan- 
 guage, the canoe is called a kcdak, or man*s boatj to dis- 
 tinguish it from vmiak, the woman's boat, which latter 
 is a large boat for transporting the women with their 
 families and possessions. The Greenlanders and Es- 
 quimaux use the same kind of canoes, and it is aston- 
 ishing, when we consider their insignificant construc- 
 tion, at what a distance from the regions they com- 
 monly inhabit, these people, especially the former, are 
 found in them. In the islands of the South Sea, the 
 natives have a double canoe, united by a strong plat- 
 form, serving in this way as one vessel. Such a canoe 
 is capable of carrying a number of persons, and a con- 
 siderable lading. Captain Cook gives us a long ac- 
 count of the different kinds of canoes used in Otaheite. 
 — E.A. 
 
 Canoe Birch (Betula papyracea). By the French 
 Canadians Bouleau Blanc, white birch, and Bmdeau a 
 Canot, canoe birch.: it is known to the American also 
 by these denominations, and sometimes by that of 
 paper birch. The heart or perfect wood of this tree, 
 when first laid open, is of a reddish hue, and the sap 
 is perfectly white. It has a fine glossy grain, with a 
 considerable share of strength ; that it is but little 
 employed is attributed partly to its speedy decay when 
 exposed to the succession of dryness and moisture, and 
 partly to the existence, in the countries which produce 
 it, of several species of wood, which are far preferable 
 for the uses of the carpenter and the wheelwright. It 
 is sometimes employed by cabinet-makers for tables 
 which are stained in imitation of mahogany. But the 
 most important purpose for which it is employed, and 
 one in which it is replaced by the bark of no other 
 tree, is the construction of canoes. To procure proper 
 pieces, the largest and smoothest trunks are selected : 
 in the spring two circular incisions are made several 
 feet apart, and two longitudinal ones on opposite sides 
 of the tree ; after which, by introducing >i wooden 
 wedge, the hafk is easily detached. These plates are 
 usually ten or twelve feet long, and two feet nine 
 inches broad. Great use is made of these canoes by 
 the Indians and by the French Canadians in their long 
 journeys into the interior of the country ; they are very 
 light, and are easily transported on the shoulders from 
 one lake or river to another, which is called the ^orta^e. 
 A canoe calculated for four persons, with their bag- 
 gage, weighs from forty to fifty .pounds : some of them 
 are made to carry fifteen passengers. Such are the or- 
 dinary uses of the bark and of the wood of this tree. — 
 Brown's iSyha Am^icana. 
 
 Cantharides, or Spanish Fly (Fr. Cantharides, 
 Mouches ctJSspagne; Ger. Spanische Fliegen; It. Can- 
 tarelle ; Lat. Cantharis ; Russ. Hischpanskie muchi ; Sp. 
 Cantaridas). This insect is found on a variety of 
 shrubs in Spain, Italy, France, etc. Those used in 
 England are imported partly from Sicily, but princi- 
 pally from Astracan, packed in casks and small chests : 
 the most esteemed come from St. Petersburg. The 
 best are of a lively fresh color, a small size, and not 
 mouldy. They are frequently adulterated with the 
 
CAN 
 
 259 
 
 CAN 
 
 Melolontha vitis; but this is distinguishable by its 
 form, which is squarer than the cantharis, and by its 
 blaclc feet. If they be properly dried and protected 
 from the air, they may be kept for a very long period. 
 — Thomson's Dispensatory. There were four new va- 
 rieties of oantharides from India shown at the London 
 Exhibition of 1851. 
 
 Canton, one of the greatest emporiums in the East, 
 ranking, as a port of trade, either before, or immedi- 
 ately after, Calcutta, in the province of Quantong, in 
 China; being, previously to 1843, the only place in 
 that empire open by authority to European traders: 
 lat. 23° 7' 10" N., Ion. 113° 14' E. Canton stands on 
 the eastern bank of the Pekin Eiver, which flows from 
 the interior in a navigable stream of 300 miles to 
 this city, where it is rather broader than the Thames 
 at London Bridge ; falling, after an additional course 
 of 80 miles, into the southern sea of China. Near its 
 junction with the sea, it is called by foreigners Bocca 
 Tigris. The town is surrounded by a thick wall, part- 
 ly of stone and partly brick, and is divided into two 
 parts by another wall running east and west. The 
 northern division is called the old, and the southern 
 the new city. In the old city is the Mantchou or 
 Tartar general, with his garrison of Mantchou troops. 
 The lieutenant governor, or Fooyuen's office is also in 
 the old city, but the governor and hoppo (principal 
 customs officer) reside in the new city, not far from 
 the river. 
 
 All foreign commerce is conducted in the southwest 
 suburb, where the foreign factories are situated ; and 
 which, with the. other suburbs, is probably not less 
 populous than the city itself. The residence of Euro- 
 peans is confined to a very small space, on the banks 
 of the river ; . which might, however, be as pleasant as 
 a crowded mercantile place can well be, were it not for 
 the great number of small dwelling boats which cover 
 the face of the river. The people who occupy the 
 larger portion of these boats are said to have come 
 originally from the south; and being a foreign and 
 despised race, were not, at first, allowed to dwell on 
 shore ; but most of the distinctions between them and 
 the rest of the people have been abolished. Although 
 Canton is situated nearly in the same parallel of 
 latitude as Calcutta, there is a considerable difference 
 in their temperature; the former being much the 
 coolest, and requiring fires during the winter montjis. 
 The streets are very narrow, paved with little round 
 stones, and flagged close to the sides of the houses. 
 The front of every house is a shop, and those of par- 
 ticular streets are laid out for the supply of strangers. 
 China Street is appropriated to Europeans ; and here 
 the productions of almost every part of the globe are 
 to be found. One of the shop-keepers is always to be 
 found sitting on the counter, writing with a camel's- 
 hair brush, or calculating with his swampan, on which 
 instrument a Chinese will perform operations in num- 
 bers with as much celerity as the most expert Euro- 
 pean arithmetician. This part of Canton being much 
 frequented by the seamen, every artifice is used by 
 the Chinese retailers to attract their attention ; each 
 of them having an English name for himself painted 
 on the outside of his shop, besides a number of adver- 
 tisements composed for them by the sailors in their 
 own peculiar idiom. The latter, it may be supposed, 
 are often duped by their Chinese friends, who have, in 
 general, picked up a few sea phrases, by which the 
 seamen are induced to enter their shops ; but they suit 
 each other extremely well, as the Chinese dealers 
 possess an imperturbable command of temper, laugh 
 heartily at their jokes without understanding them, 
 and humor the seamen in all their sallies. Ships only 
 ascend the river as far as Whampoa, about 15 miles 
 below .Canton, loading and unloading by means of 
 native boats. 
 
 The Chinese, considered as traders, are eminently 
 active, persevering, and intelligent. They are, in 
 
 fact, a highly commercial people ; and the notion that 
 was once very generally entertained of their being 
 peculiarly characterized by a contempt of commerce 
 and of strangers is as utterly unfounded as any notion 
 can possibly be. Business is transacted at Canton 
 with great dispatch ; and nowhere in the world may 
 cargoes be sold and bought, loaded and unloaded, with 
 more business-like speed and activity. Provisions and 
 refreshments of all sorts are abundant in Canton, and, 
 in general, of an excellent quality ; nor is the price ex- 
 orbitant. Every description of them, dead and alive, 
 is sold by weight. It is a curious fact that the Chi- 
 nese make no use of milk, either in its liquid state, or 
 in the shape of curds, butter, or cheese.' Among the 
 delicacies of a Chinese market are to be seen horse- 
 flesh, dogs, cats, hawks, and owls. The country is 
 well supplied with-fish from the numerous canals and 
 rivers by which it is intersected. 
 
 Foreign Factories. — These extend for a considerable 
 way along the banks of the river, at the distance of 
 about 100 yards. They are named, by the Chinese, 
 hongSj and resemble long, courts, or closes, without a 
 thoroughfare, which generally contain four or five sepa- 
 rate houses. They are built on a broad quay, and have 
 a parade in front. This promenade is railed in, and is 
 generally called Respondentia Walk ; and here the Eu- 
 ropean merchants, commanders, and officers of the ships 
 meet after dinner and enjoy the cool of the evening. 
 The English hong, or factory, far surpasses the others 
 in elegance and extent. This, with the American and 
 Dutch hongs, are the only ones that keep their national 
 flags flying. The neighborhood Of the factories is oc- 
 cupied with warehouses for the reception of European 
 goods, or of Chinese productions, until they are shipped. 
 In 1822, during a dreadful coiiflagration that took place 
 at Canton, the British factories and above 10,000 houses 
 were destroyed; on which occasion the East India Com- 
 pany's loss was estimated at £500,000 sterling, three- 
 fifths in woolens. 
 
 For the space of four or five miles opposite to Can- 
 ton the river resembles an extensive floating city, con- 
 sisting of boats and vessels ranged parallel to each 
 other, leaving a narrow passage for others to pass and 
 repass. In these the owners reside with their families, 
 the latter rarely visiting the shore. All the business 
 at Canton with Europeans is transacted in a jargon of 
 the English language. The sounds of such letters as 
 B, D, B, and X are unknown in China. Instead of 
 these they substitute some other letter, such as L for 
 R, which occasions a Chinese dealer in rice to oflfer for 
 sale in English a rather unmarketable commodity. 
 The name mandarin is unknown among the Chinese, 
 the word used by them to denote a person in authority 
 being quan. Mandarin is a Portuguese word derived 
 from the verb mamdar, to command. — Hamilton's 
 East India Gazetteer; Milbuen's Orient. Commerce; 
 Companion to Anglo-Chinese Calendar^ etc. 
 
 The trade of Canton is retrograding, while that of 
 Shanghai is increasing ; and indeed it is not unlikely 
 that the latter will in time supplant Canton in the Eu- 
 ropean trade, as it enjoys the additional advantage of 
 being nearer the tea districts. Canton was no doubt 
 fixed upon by the Chinese government for the Euro- 
 pean trade, as being the most distant from the capital, 
 Pekin. 
 
 Formerly only a limited number of merchants, called 
 the hong or security merchants, were allowed to trade 
 with foreigners. T'hey were commonly men of large 
 property, and were famed for integrity in their trans- 
 actions. All foreign cargoes passed through the hands 
 of these merchants, and by them also the return car- 
 goes were furnished. They became security for the 
 payment of duties, and it was treason for any other 
 merchant to engage in the trade with foreigners. This 
 severe law, however, has recently been abolished, and 
 foreigners may now deal with any merchant they think 
 fit to employ. 
 
CAN 
 
 260 
 
 CAN 
 
 All goods are sold by weight in CMna — even articles 
 of food, such as fowls, hogs, and the like. 
 
 The foreign trade, of Canton is very extensive ; but 
 the great article of export is tea, for which the demand 
 in Europe has been increasing for upward of a century. 
 This article was formerly monopolized by the East In- 
 dia Company-; and from their accounts it appears that 
 they imported annually into England about 30,000,000 
 of pounds. But this monopoly was abolished in 1834, 
 and the commerce with China was thrown open to all. 
 The other exports are raw silk and silk manufactures, 
 nankeen cloth, cassia, lignea, etc. The principal im- 
 ports are cotton and woolen goods, earthen-ware, iron, 
 steel, etc. In 1848, 176 British vessels of 73,975 tons, 
 with goods of the value of 8,653,033 dollars, left, and 
 171 of 72,315 tons, with goods to the value of 6,534,597 
 dollars, entered the port of Canton. The Americans, 
 French, and Dutch, also carry on a considerable trade 
 with Canton. 
 
 Although situated in the same parallel of latitude 
 as Calcutta, the climate of Canton is much cooler, and 
 is considered superior to that of most places situated 
 between the tropics. The thermometer, during the 
 months of July and August, averages from 80° to 88° ; 
 and in January and February from 50° to 60". The 
 highest recorded observation in 1831 was 94° in July, 
 ai^d the lowest 29° in January. In, shallow vessels ice 
 sometimes forms at Canton a line or two in thickness. 
 A fall of snow, nearly two inches deep, occurred at 
 Canton in February, 1835, and remained on the ground 
 three hours — a. circumstance so unusual that the citi- 
 zens hardly knew its proper name. Fogs are common 
 during February and March. Most of the rain falls 
 during May and June, but it is nothing in comparison 
 of a rainy season in Calcutta. July, August, and Sep- 
 tember are the regular monsoon months, the wind 
 coming from the southwest, with frequent showers, 
 which allay the heat. In the succeeding months the 
 northerly winds commence, with some interruptions 
 at first ; but from October to January the temperature 
 is agreeable, the sky clear, and the air invigorating. 
 Few large cities are more healthy than Canton; no 
 epidemics nor malaria prevail there, though much of 
 the town is built upon piles. 
 
 The intercourse between China and Europe by the 
 way of the Cape of Good Hope began in 1517, when 
 Emanuel, king of Portugal, sent a fleet of eight ships, 
 with an embassador, who was conveyed to Pekin, and 
 who obtained the sanction of the emperor to establish 
 a trade at Canton, It was in 1696, in the reign of 
 Queen Elizabeth, that the English' first attempted, 
 with two ships, to open an intercourse with China; 
 but they were lost in the outward voyage. About 
 1634 several English ships visited Canton; but a mis- 
 understanding having occurred with the Chinese au- 
 thorities, by the treachery of the Portuguese, a rup- 
 ture and a battle took place, and it was with difficulty 
 that this misunderstanding was rectified. China was 
 again visited in 1673 by an English ship that was re- 
 fused admission into Japan. In 1677 a factory was 
 established at Amoy ; but in 1680 the factory was de- 
 stroyed by an irruption of the Tartars, and it was not 
 till 1685 that the emperor permitted any trade with the 
 Europeans, Upon the union of the two East India 
 companies in London, an imperial edict was issued, re- 
 stricting the European commerce to the port of Canton. 
 Tea was first imported about the year 1667. This is 
 one of the five Chinese ports opened to Europeans by 
 the treaty of 1842.— E. B. 
 
 GenEKAL REOnLATIONS UKDEE WHICU THE BElTISir TkADE 
 (AND APPLYING TO ALL FOEEIGNEttS) IS TO BE CONDTtCTED 
 AT THE FIVE FORTS OF CANTON, AmOY, FOO-CHOW-FOO, 
 
 NiNGPO, ANT> Shanghai. 
 
 1. Pilots. ■— Whenever a British merchantman shall arrive 
 off the five ports opened to trade, viz., Canton, Foo-chow-foo, 
 Amoy, Ningpo, or Shanghai, pilots shall be allowed to take her 
 immediately into port ; and in like manner, when such British 
 ship shall have settled all legal duties and charges, and is about 
 
 to return home; pilots shall he immediately granted to take hef 
 out to sea, without any stoppage or delay. Regarding the re- 
 muneration to he given these pilots, that will be equitably set- 
 tled by the British consul appointed to each particular port, 
 who will determine it with due reference "to the distance gone 
 over, the risk run, etc. 
 
 2. CuBtom-house Guards,— The Chinese Superintendent of 
 Customs at each port will adopt the means that he may judge 
 most proper to prevent the revenue suffering by fraud or smug- 
 gling. Whenever the pilot shall have brought any British 
 merchantman into port, the superintendent of customs will de- 
 pute one or two trusty custom-house officers, whose duty it will 
 be to watch against frauds on the revenue. These will either 
 live in a boat of their own, or stay on board the English ship, 
 as may best suit their convenience. Their food and expenses 
 will be supplied them from day to day from the custom-house, 
 and they may not exact any fee whatever from' either the com- 
 mander or consignee. Should they violatethis regulation, they 
 shall be punished proportionately to the amount so exacted. 
 
 8. Masters of Ships reporting themselves on Arrival. — 
 Whenever a British vessel shall have cast anchor at any one 
 of the above-named ports, the captain will, within four-and- 
 twenty hours after aiTival, proceed to the British consulate and 
 deposit his ship's papers, bills of lading, manifest, etc., in the 
 hands of the consul ; failing to do which he will subject him- 
 self to a penalty of 200 dollars. For presenting a false mani- 
 fest the penalty will be 500 dollars. For breaking bulk and 
 commencing to discharge before due permission shall be ob- 
 tained, the penalty will be 500 dollars, and confiscation of the 
 goods so discharged. The consul, having taken possession of 
 the ship's papers, will immediately send a written communica- 
 tion to the superintendent of customs, speciiying the register 
 tonnage of the ship, and particulars of the cargo she has on 
 board ; all of which being done in due form, pennission will 
 then be given to discharge, and the duties levied as provided 
 for in the tariff. 
 
 4. Commercial Dealings between English and China Mer- 
 chants.-x-^i having been stipOlated that English merchants 
 may trade with whatever native merchants they please, should 
 any Chinese merchant fraudulently abscond, or incur debts 
 which he is unable to discharge, the Chinese authorities, upon 
 complaint being made thereof, will of course do their utmost to 
 bring the offender to justice ; it must, however, be distinctly 
 understood that if the defaulter really can not be found, or be 
 dead or bankrupt, and there be not wherewithal to pay, the 
 English merchants may not appeal to the fonner customs of 
 the Hong merchants paying for one another, and can no longer 
 expect to have their losses made good to them. 
 
 5. Tonnage Dues. — Every English merchantman, on enter- 
 ing any one of the above-mentioned five ports, shall pay ton- 
 nage dues at the rate of five mace per register ton, in full of 
 all charges. The fees formerly levied on entry and departure, 
 of every description, are henceforth abolished. 
 
 6. Import and Export Duties. — Goods, whether imported 
 into or exported from any one of the above-mentioned five 
 ports, are thenceforward to be taxed according to the tariff as 
 now fixed and agreed upon, and no further sums are to be lev- 
 ied beyond those which are specified in the tariff. All duties 
 incurred by an English merchant vessel, whether on goods im- 
 ported or in the shape of tonnage dues, must first be paid up in 
 full; which done, the superintendent of customs will grant 
 port clearance, and this being shown to the British consul, he 
 Avill thereupon return the ship's papers, and permit the vessel 
 to depart. 
 
 7. Examination of the Goods at the Cust<ym~7iouse. — ^Every 
 English merchant having cargo to load or discharge must give 
 due intimation thereof, and hand particulars of the same to the 
 consul, who will immediately dispatch a recognized linguist of 
 
 ■ his own establishment to communicate the particulars to the 
 superintendent of customs, that the goods may be examined, 
 and neither party subjected to loss. The English merchant 
 must have a properly qualified person on the spot, to attend to 
 his interests when his goods are being examined for duty ; oth- 
 erwise, should there be complaints, these can not be attended 
 to. Regarding such goods as are subject by the tariff to an ad 
 valorem duty, if the English merchant can not agree with the 
 Chinese officer in fixing a value, then each party shall call two 
 or three merchants to look at the goods, and the highest price 
 at which any of these merchants would be wilhng to purchase 
 shall be assumed as the value of the goods. To fix the tare on 
 any article, such as tea : if the English merchant can not agi'ee 
 with the custom-house officer, then each party shall choose so 
 many chests out of every 100, which, being first weighed in 
 gross, shall afterward be tared, and the average tare upon 
 these shall be assumed as the tare upon the whole, and upon 
 this principle shall the tare be fixed upon all other goods hi 
 packages. If there should still be any disputed points which 
 can not be settled, the Enghsh merchant may appeal to the 
 
.CJlN 
 
 261 
 
 CAN 
 
 consul, who will communicate the particulars of the case to the 
 superintendent of eustoms, tliat it may be equitably arranged.- 
 But the appeal must be made on the same day, or it will not 
 be regarded. While such, points are atiU open, the superin- 
 tendejat of customs will delay -to insert the same In his boolM, 
 thus aflfording an opportunity that the merits of the case may 
 be duly trie^ and-sifted, 
 
 S. MaHn^ of paying the Duties. — It Isherein-before pro- 
 vided, that every English vessel that enters any one of the five 
 ports shall pay all'duties and, fbnnage dues before she be per- 
 mitted tgi depart TJh& superantendent of customs will select 
 certain shroffs, or banking establishments of known stability, 
 to wliom he will give licenses.authorizing them to receive du- 
 ties from the English merchants on behalf of government, and 
 the receipts of these shroffs for any money paid them shall be 
 considered as a government voucher. In the payinig of these 
 duties, different kinds of foreign money may be made use of; 
 but as foreign money is not oif equal purity with sycee silver, 
 the English consuls appointed to the different poiia will, ac- 
 cording to time^ place, and eircumstanceav arrange with the 
 superintendent of customs at each port what coins may be 
 taken in- payment, and what percentage may be necessary to 
 make them equal to standard or pure silver. 
 
 9. Weights and Measures.— Sets o{ balance-yards for the 
 weighing of goods, of money weiglits, and of measures, pre- 
 pared in exact coiifbrmity to those hitherto In use at the cus- 
 tom-house of Canton, and duly stamped and sealed in proof 
 thereof, will be kept in possession of the Superintendent of ctis- 
 toras, and also at the British consulate, at each of the five ports, 
 and these shall be the standard by which all duties shall be 
 charged,, and all sums paid to government In case of any 
 dispute arising between British merchants and the Chinese 
 bi?icei*s pf customs regarding the weights or measures of goods, 
 reference shall be niade to these standards, and disputes de- 
 cided accordingly. 
 
 10. Lighters or Cargo Boats. — Whenever an English mer- 
 (shant shall have to load or discharge cargo, he may hire what- 
 ever kii^d of lighter op cargo boat he' pleases, and the sum, to 
 be paid for sucjili bpat can be settled between the parties them- 
 selves, without the interference of government The number 
 of these boats shall not be limited, nor shall a monopoly of 
 them be granted to any parties. If any smuggling take place 
 in them, the offenders will, of course, be punished according 
 to law. Should any of these boat people, while- engaged in 
 conveying goods for English merchants; fraudulently abscond 
 with the, property, the Chinese authorities will do their best to 
 apprehepd them ; but, at the same tin>e, the English merchants 
 must take every tju? precaution for.the pafety of their goods. 
 
 11. Transhi2mient of Goods. — No English merchant ships 
 may tranship goods without special permission ; should any 
 urgent case happen where transhipment is necessary, the cir- 
 cumstances mustHrst be Submitted to the dbhsul, who will give 
 a certificate to that effect, and the superintendent of customs 
 will send a special officer to Be present at the transhipment. 
 If any one presumes to tranship without such permission being 
 asked for and obtained, the whole of the goods so illicitly tran-, 
 shipped will be confiscated. 
 
 12^ Subordinate Consular OJlcers. — At ahy place selected 
 fpr the anchorage of the English merchant ships, there may 
 be appointed subordinate consular officers, of approved good 
 conduct to exercise due control over the seamen and others. 
 ■ He must exert himself to prevent quarrels between the En- 
 glish seamen and the natives, this being of the utmost import- 
 ance. Should any thing of the kind unfortunately take place,: 
 he will in the like manner do his best to arrange it amicably. 
 Wlien sailors go on shore to walk, officers jshall be required to 
 accompany them ; and should disturbances take place, such 
 officers wih be held repponsible. The Chinese officers may not 
 impede natives fifdm coming, Alongside the shipg^^to sell clothes, 
 or other necessaries to the ^^p-ilors living on board- 
 
 ■Opium. — A notion having been entertained that opi- 
 um might be legally imported into China, under the 
 provisions of this tariff", on paying an ad valorem duty 
 of 5 per -cent., the following proclamation has been is- 
 sued on the subject : 
 
 Peoclamation.— 7i Juiving been brought to my notice that 
 such a step has been contennplated as sendijig vesselsvdth opi- 
 um on board intQ the ports of China to be opemM by treaty to 
 foreign trade, and demanding that the said opium shall be 
 adm-itted to importoMon, by virtue of the concluding clause 
 q/tke new ta/riff, which provides for all articles not aptuaUy 
 enumerated in that tariff passing at an ad valorem diky- of 5 
 percent.,! think it ecspediekt^ by this proclamation^ to point 
 out to all whom U may cojiioem, that opium being an article the 
 tra^c in which is well hmwn to be declared illegal and contra- 
 band by the laws and imperial edicts of China, anyp&'son who 
 
 may take such a step loill do so at his own risk, and vHll, if a 
 British subject, meet ttrith tw support or protection fr<mi h^r 
 Majesty's consaU or otJier officers. This proclamation will he 
 translated and published w* Chinese, so that no one may pJmd 
 ignorance of it. - 
 
 GovEENMENT-iiousB,yiCToaiA, tMslstday of August, 1843. 
 
 But, notwithstanding this proclamation, and in de- 
 fiance of the sti'ong denunciation Of smuggling in the 
 proclamation of the 2d day. of July it is distinctlj^ 
 stated in Hong Kong papers that there was, on the 
 21st day of September, 1843, almost in sight of thfe con- 
 sular ffags, a .''.fleet of BritisTi Vessels openly engaged 
 in the vending of opium to the Chinese 1"' This cer- 
 tainly is a curious commentary on the above proclama^ 
 tion;' and it were much to be wiiShed',*6fefeilvg that the 
 trade can not be suppressed, that it] were .legalized on 
 opium paying a reasonable duty. The consuls for th4 
 United Stated have salaries. — See Consuls. The, pay- 
 ment of .British consuls by fees is much, and we be- 
 lieve justly^ -objected to at Canton. Supposing, how- 
 ever, that the" treaty with China is bona fide carried 
 into effect, still it maybe doubted' whether the trade 
 with that empire .will ever be ao extensive as many 
 suppose. We- believe, indeed, that -China will afford 
 a most extensive outlet for various descriptions of 
 manufactured goods, . provided we . pan bring away 
 equivalents suitable for the - European and other for- 
 eign matkets." But this,' we incline to think, will be 
 no easy matter. Excepting tea, China has few arti- 
 cles suitable for extensive use in Europe, other than 
 silk and silver. Chinese silk is, however, losing ground 
 as compared with that of Italy and Turkey, while it is 
 most probable that the enhancement of .its price,: con- 
 sequent to any great increase in the exportation of sil- 
 ver, would in no very long time bring it to a clogC' 
 Tea is the grand equivalent which the Chinese have 
 ■to exchange for our products, and this trade is increas- 
 ing very rapidly. — For the exports of tea to the United 
 States for the last ten years, see China. 
 
 Hong Kong. — The island .of this name, ceded to En- 
 gland by the above treaty, is situated on the northern 
 side of the entrance from the sea to the estuary of the 
 Canton River, being separated from the main land by' 
 a narrow channel having 14 fathoms water. It stretch- 
 es about 8 miles from east to west, and is of a very ir- 
 regular ifigure^ having several promontories, and bein^ 
 deeply inde-nted with bays. It consists .principally 
 of a series of high hills, the highest having an eleva- 
 tion of about 1200 feet. Victoria, the principal British 
 settlement on the north side of the. island, in lat. 22" 
 16' 27" N., long. 114° 10' 48" E,, has the advantage 
 of an excellent roadstead, with from 3 to 7 fathoms 
 water and good. holding ground. There are also nu- 
 merous well-sheltered roads and bays with deep wa- 
 ter on the south side of the island, which, indeed, ap- 
 pears,, from its position and other advantages, ex- 
 tremely- well fitted for a naval station. Every thing, 
 however, will depend on the fact of its being healthy, 
 of which, we are sorry to observe, grave doubts are 
 entertained. . Should these happily prove unfounded, 
 it is probable that in no very lengthened period a con- 
 siderable portion of the trade which is at present cen- 
 tred in Canton will be transferred to Hong Kong j and, 
 under the above condition^ it can hardlyfail to become 
 ■an important entrep6t not merel)^ for trade with the 
 Canton Eiver, but with China generally. 
 
 In 1844 the total population of Hong Kong (consist- 
 ing of Chinese) was 19,463; while, on the 31st of .De- 
 cember, 1853, the Chinese population was 37,636 ; Eu- 
 ropeans and Americans, 476 ,■ other races, 1005. . In 
 1853, 1103 square-rigged vessels, carr3'ing in all 447,053 
 tons, arrived, in Victoria harbor. Of these vessels 201 
 imported, and 154 exported goods into and from the 
 colony, being an increase over 1852 of 74 and 7.9 ves- 
 sels respectively; while the totaltonnage of vessels 
 arrived as compared with the preceding year shows an 
 increase of 13,670 tons.— *See HoNO Kong. 
 
CAN 
 
 262 
 
 CAN 
 
 Tabifp of Duties on Expokts from China, established in pubbttanoe of the above Treaty, in Chinese and Mercan- 
 tile CuBKENCY (Dollars and Cents), reduced into their equivalent Rates in Sterling Money, according to En- 
 glish "Weights and Measures. 
 
 ExPOBTa. 
 
 Per 
 
 Cbinese. 
 
 Mor. Cor. 
 
 Per 
 
 st«riln(f. 
 
 
 T. M. C. C. 
 
 » Cte. 
 
 
 .. d. 
 
 picul. 
 
 10 
 
 14 
 
 ton. 
 
 11 2-61 
 
 — 
 
 5 
 
 TO 
 
 cwt. 
 
 2 9-66 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 6 94 
 
 pound. 
 
 3-00 
 
 — 
 
 T 5 
 
 1 04 
 
 cwt. 
 
 4 2-47 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 «0 28 
 
 
 
 1 1-46 
 
 — 
 
 5 
 
 TO 
 
 
 
 2 9-65 
 
 — 
 
 15 
 
 2 10 
 
 pound. 
 
 0-90 
 
 — 
 
 Duty free. 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 10 
 
 1 40 
 
 cwt. 
 
 5 7-30 
 
 . , 
 
 15 
 
 2 10 
 
 
 
 8 4-86 
 
 1000. 
 
 5 
 
 TO 
 
 1000. 
 
 3 4-06 
 
 picul. 
 
 3 
 
 42 
 
 cwt. 
 
 1 8-19 
 
 — 
 
 T 5 
 
 1 05 
 
 — 
 
 4 2-4T 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 1 40 
 
 . — . 
 
 5 T-30 
 
 , 
 
 5 
 
 94 
 
 pound. 
 
 3-00 
 
 — . 
 
 2 
 
 28 
 
 cwt. 
 
 1 1-46 
 
 -^ 
 
 5 
 
 TO 
 
 
 
 2 9-65 
 
 . 
 
 5 
 
 TO 
 
 , 
 
 2 9 -06 
 
 , 
 
 6 
 
 TO 
 
 — . 
 
 2 9-65 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 TO 
 
 pound. 
 
 0-30 
 
 __ 
 
 7 5 
 
 1 05 
 
 — 
 
 0-45 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 2 10 
 
 cwt. 
 
 8 4-95 
 
 , 
 
 10 
 
 1 40 
 
 pound. 
 
 0-60 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 28 
 
 cwt. 
 
 1 1-46 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 6T3 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 T8 
 
 
 
 11 2-61 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 TO 
 
 
 
 2 9-65 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 70 
 
 
 
 2 9-65 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 TO 
 
 — 
 
 2 9-65 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 1 40 
 
 
 
 6 T-30 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 70 
 
 — 
 
 2 9-65 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 6 94 
 
 pound. 
 
 3-00 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 TO 
 
 cwt. 
 
 2 9-65 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 1 40 
 
 
 
 5 T-30 
 
 
 
 2 5 
 
 35 
 
 
 
 1 4-82 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 TO 
 
 — 
 
 2 9-68 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 23 
 
 , 
 
 1 1-46 
 
 . 
 
 2 
 
 28 
 
 — 
 
 1 1-46 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 1 40 
 
 pound. 
 
 0-60 
 
 catty. 
 
 5 
 
 TO 
 
 ounce. 
 
 1-8T 
 
 picul. 
 
 10 
 
 1 40 
 
 cwt. 
 
 5 T-30 
 
 each. 
 
 10 
 
 14 
 
 each. 
 
 8-01 
 
 100. 
 
 10 
 
 14 
 
 100. 
 
 8 01 
 
 picul. 
 
 5 
 
 TO 
 
 pound. 
 
 0-30 
 
 — 
 
 5 
 
 70 
 
 cwt. 
 
 2 9-66 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 70 
 
 pound. 
 
 0-SO 
 
 — 
 
 5 
 
 TO 
 
 — 
 
 0-30 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 28 
 
 cwt. 
 
 1 1-46 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 1 40 
 
 pound. 
 
 0-60 
 
 ^- 
 
 10 
 
 18 89 
 
 
 
 6-01 
 
 _^ 
 
 2 6 
 
 3 4T 
 
 
 
 1-50 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 13 89 
 
 
 
 6-01 
 
 — 
 
 10 
 
 13 89 
 
 — 
 
 6-01 
 
 - 
 
 12 
 
 16 6T 
 
 - 
 
 7-01 
 
 
 3 
 
 4 IT 
 
 
 1-80 
 
 _ 
 
 2 
 
 28 
 
 cwt. 
 
 1 1-46 
 
 — 
 
 10 
 
 1 40 
 
 pound. 
 
 0-60 
 
 , — . 
 
 4 
 
 56 
 
 — 
 
 0-24 
 
 — 
 
 10 
 
 13 89 
 
 oz. Troy. 
 
 0-41 
 
 — 
 
 2 5 
 
 0S5 
 
 cwt. 
 
 1 4-82 
 
 — 
 
 8 5 
 
 49 
 
 
 
 1 11-55 
 
 — . 
 
 5 
 
 OTO 
 
 . 
 
 2 9-65 
 
 — 
 
 2 5 
 
 3 4T 
 
 pound. 
 
 1-50 
 
 — 
 
 2 
 
 28 
 
 .— 
 
 0-12 
 
 — 
 
 2 
 
 28 
 
 cwt. 
 
 1 1-46 
 
 — 
 
 10 
 
 13 89 
 
 pound. 
 
 6-01 
 
 — 
 
 2 
 Duty free. 
 
 28 
 
 cwt. 
 
 1 1-46 
 
 — 
 
 8 
 
 4 17 
 
 pound. 
 
 1-80 
 
 ad valorem. 
 
 
 .,. . 
 
 
 
 Alum 
 
 Anise-seed 
 
 Anise-seed oil 
 
 Arsenic 
 
 Bamlaoo screens, and bamboo ware of all kinds. 
 
 Bangles, or glass armlets 
 
 Brass leaf. 
 
 Building materials 
 
 Bone and horn ware 
 
 Cdmphor 
 
 Canes of all kinds 
 
 Capoor eutchery 
 
 Cassia . 
 
 Cassia buds 
 
 Cassia oil 
 
 China-root 
 
 China ware of all kinds 
 
 Clothes, ready-made 
 
 Copper ware, pewter ware, et<5 
 
 Corals (or false coral) 
 
 Crackers and fire-works of all kinds . 
 Cubebs. , 
 
 Fans (as feather fans, etc.) 
 
 Famiture of all kinds 
 
 Galangal 
 
 Gramboge 
 
 Glass and glass ware of all kinds . 
 
 Glass beads 
 
 Glue (as fish glue, etc.) 
 
 Grass cloth of all kinds 
 
 Hartall. , 
 
 Ivory ware of all kinds 
 
 Kittysols, or paper umbrellas .... 
 
 Lacquered ^are of all kinds 
 
 Lead, white' 
 
 Lead, red 
 
 Marble slabs 
 
 Mats (straw, ratan, bamboo, etc.) . 
 
 Mother-of-pearl ware 
 
 Musk . 
 
 Nankeens and cotton cloth of all kinds 
 
 Pictures, viz., large paintings 
 
 Pictures, rice paper 
 
 Paper fans 
 
 Paper of all kinds 
 
 Pearls (false) 
 
 Preserves and sweetmeats of all kinds 
 
 Ratan work of all kinds ; 
 
 Rhabarb 
 
 Silk, raw, whether Chekiang, Canton, or elsewhere, all kinds 
 
 Silk, coarse, or refuse of silk 
 
 Silk organzine of all kinds 
 
 Silk ribbons, thread, etc 
 
 Silk piece goods of all kinds ; as silks, satins, pongees, velvets, 
 
 crapes, lutestrings, etc 
 
 N,B. — The additional duty of so much per piece, hith- 
 erto levied, to be henceforth abolished. 
 Silk and cotton mixtures, silk and woolen mixtures, and goods 
 
 of such class 
 
 Shoes and boots, leather, satin, or otherwise 
 
 Sandal-wood ware 
 
 Soy . 
 
 Silver ware and gold ware . 
 Sugar, white and brown . . . 
 Sugar-candy of all kinds. . . 
 
 Tin-foil 
 
 Tea. 
 
 Tobacco of all kinds 
 
 Turmeric 
 
 Tortoise-shell ware 
 
 Trunks of leather 
 
 Treasure (coin of all kinds) 
 
 Vermilion ■ 
 
 Articles uneniimerated in this tariff to pay 5 per cent. 
 
 Currency. — Doubts having been entei'tained respect- 
 ing the value of the coins current in Hong Kong and 
 its dependencies, the following rates at which such 
 coins are made legal tender were fixed by a proclama- 
 tion dated the 1st of May, 1845: 
 
 "The gold mohur of the East India Company's territory, 
 coined since the 1st day of September, 1835, at the rate of 298. 
 2d. sterling money of the United Kingdom. 
 
 *'The dollar of Spain, Mexico, or American States, at the 
 rate of 4s. 2d. sterling. 
 
 " The rupee of the East India Company's territory, coined 
 since the 1st day of September, 1835, at the rate of Is. lOd. 
 Sterling ; and the half rupee, quarter rupee, and eighth of ru. 
 pee pieces in proportion. 
 
 "The cash, or copper coin current in China, at the rate of 
 288 cash for Is. sterling." 
 
 The following proviso establishes, with respect to 
 silver currency, the principle that prevails in England : 
 
 " Provided that nothing herein contained shall be deemed or 
 taken to render it compulsory on any person to accept at any 
 one payment a lai^r amount in silver coins of the United 
 Kingdom of lower denomination than Is., or in the halfl quar- 
 ter, or eighth rupee pieces herein-before mentioned, than the 
 equivalent to 20s. sterling money, or a larger amount in cop- 
 per coins of the United Kingdom, or in the Chinese copper 
 coins before mentioned, than the equivalent to Is. sterling. 
 
 EsTiivrATiONS.— CAmese Weights^ per steelyard: 1 
 picul = 100 catties = 1600 taels = 133^ lbs. avoirdu- 
 pois ; 1 tael ~ 583^ grains Troy; 400 lbs. avoirdupois 
 = 3 piculs ; 1 cwt. avoirdupois = 84 catties ; 1 lb. 
 avoirdupois = 12 taels. 
 
 Chines Measures i 1 chang = 141 English inches, or 
 
CAN 
 
 263 
 
 CAN 
 
 12 chang = 47 yards. Liquids, and generally grain, 
 are sold by weight. 
 
 Chinese Moneys: 1 tael = 10 mace = 100 candareen 
 = 1000 cash. 
 
 The principal monetary integer, the tael, is this 
 weight of sycee silver, there being no Chinese coins 
 in gold, and no other Chinese currency, or medium 
 of payment, in silver, than small ingots of sycee sil- 
 ver, stamped by the shroffs or bankers appointed by 
 the government. The average parity of sycee silver 
 maybe reckoned at 98 touch, or ISJ dwts., better than 
 British standard ; and as it contains, on the average, 
 about 12 grains of gold in the pound Troy, the net 
 value at 60 pence per ounce standard, after making the 
 usual allowance for the extraction of the gold, is very 
 nearly equal to 78J pence sterling per tael. 
 
 In mercantile currency, or the money of account of 
 foreign hierchants trading with China, the dollar is 
 divided into 100 cents, and 720 taels of Chinese account 
 are recltoned equal to 1000 dollars in this currency, 
 making tile tael equal to $1 38 8-9th cents ; but in 
 small amounts it is reckoned at $1 40 cents. This is, 
 however, only a nominal valuation, by which the dol- 
 lar is made nearly 56f pence sterling, or 13i per cent, 
 above its real value. 
 
 According to the 8th article of the general regula- 
 tions under which the British trade is to be conducted 
 at the five ports of Canton, Amoy, Foo-chow-foo, Ning- 
 po, and Shanghai, the English consuls appointed to 
 these ports are to ai'range with the superintendents of 
 the customs at each what coins may be taken in the 
 payment of the duties, and what percentage maybenec- 
 essary to make them equal to standard or pure silver. 
 In pursuance of this regulation, the following estima- 
 tions have been made at Canton, and will, probably, be 
 followed at the other ports of trade : rupees weighing 
 109(. 7m. 9c. Oc. ; Peruvian dollars. IIK. im. 5c. 5c. ; 
 Mexican dollars, 111*. 9m. Oc. Oc. ; Bolivian dollars, 
 112t. Im. 5c. Oc. ; Chilian dollars, 112f. 5ro. 2c. Oc. ; and 
 chopped dollars, 113*. 2m. 0«. 7o. : are to be accounted 
 as 100 taels of sycee silver, being, according to this 
 monetary tariff, respectively equal to 2 dwts., 5^ dwts., 
 6i dwts., 6} dwts., 7i dwts., and 8J dwts. worse than 
 British standard. To these percentages are to be 
 added ^ per cent, for difference between the hoppo's 
 and the shroff's weights, and another i per cent, for 
 refining. Hence the value of the tael of sycee silver 
 is rendered very neai^y equal to 79^ pence, and ^ith 
 the 1 per cent., to 80^- pence sterling, at which value 
 the Chinese rates in the above schedule have been re- 
 duced.— Tate. 
 
 Moneys. — Accounts are kept at Canton in taels, 
 mace, candarines, and cash; the tael being divided 
 into 10 mace, 100 candarines, or 1000 cash. There is 
 but one kind of money made in China, called cash, 
 which is not coined, but cast, and which is only used 
 ■for small payments : it is composed of six parts of cop- 
 per and four of lead ; it is round, marked on one side, 
 and rather raised at the edges, with a square hole in 
 the middle. These pieces are commonly carried, like 
 beads, on a string of wire. A tael of fine silver should 
 be worth 1000 cash ; but, on accoijnt of their conven- 
 ience for common use, their price is sometimes so much 
 raised that only 750 cash are given for the tael. 
 
 Foreign coins, however, circulate here, particularly 
 Spanish dollars; and for small change they are cut 
 into very exact proportions, but afterward weighed ; 
 for which purpose merchants generally carry scales, 
 called dotchin, made somewhat after the plan of the 
 English steelyards. 
 
 The tael used to be reckoned at 6s. 8d. sterling in 
 the books of the East India Company ; but its value 
 varies, and is generally computed according to the 
 price paid per ounce for Spanish dollars in London. 
 The tables given for this proportional value may be 
 calculated in pence sterling, by the multiplier 1-208. 
 Thus, if the price of the Spanish dollar be fiOd. per 
 
 ounce, the value of the tael will be 60 X 1-208 =72-48(11. ; 
 if at 66d., the value of the tael will be 79-728<i. ; and 
 for any other price in the same proportion. 
 
 Fineness of Gold and Silver. — The fineness of gold 
 and silver is expressed by dividing the weight into 
 100 parts, called toques or touch ; similar to the mod- 
 ern practice of France. Thus, if an ingot be 93 touch, 
 it is understood to contain 7 parts of alloy and 93 of 
 pure metal, making in the whole 100. 
 
 The fineness of the precious metals, expressed in 
 these decimal proportions, may be converted into En- 
 glish proportions by the following analogies : Suppose 
 gold is 91-66 touch ; say, as 100 ; 91-66 : : 12 : 11, the 
 standard, and vice versa ; and to convert standard silver 
 into touch, say, as 240 : 222 : : 100 : 92-5, the touch of 
 sterling silver. Pure gold or silver without alloy is 
 called by the Chinese sycee ; and sometimes, when of 
 less purity, the metal is accepted as sycee. 
 
 Silver Ingots are used as money, and weigh from i 
 a tael to 100 taels, their value being determined by 
 their weight. These ingots are of the best sort of sil- 
 ver ; that is, about 94 touch. 
 
 Gold Ingots. — Gold is not considered as money, but 
 as merchandise : it is sold in regular ingots of a de- 
 termined weight, which the English call shoes of gold ; 
 the largest of these weigh 10 taels each ; and the gold 
 is reckoned 94 touch, though it may be only 92 or 98. 
 
 Weights. — Gold and silver are weighed by the catty 
 of 16 taels ; the tael is divided into 10 mace, 100 can- 
 dareens, or 1000 cash. 100 taels are reckoned to weigh 
 120 oz. 16 dwts. Troy, which makes the tael equal to 
 679-8 English grains or 37-566 grammes. 
 
 The principal weights for merchandise are the pieul, 
 the catty, and the tael ; the picul being divided into 
 100 catties, or 1600 taels. 
 
 Lbe. oz. dwta. 
 1 Tael weighs, avoirdupois . . 1 5-333^ H oz. 
 
 16 Taels, , or 1 catty 1 6 5-833= IJ lb. 
 
 100 Catties, or 1 picul 133 5 5-S33 = 133i lbs. 
 
 Hence the picul weighs 60-472kilogrammes, or 1621bs. 
 oz. 8 dwts. 13 grs. Troy. 
 
 The above weights are sometimes otherwise denom- 
 inated, especially by the natives; thus, the catty is 
 called gin ; the tael, lyang ; the mace, tchen ; the can- 
 dareen, fivan ; and the cash, lis. 
 
 There are no commercial measures in China, as all 
 dry goods and liquids are sold by weight. In deliver- 
 ing a cargo, English weights are used, and afterward 
 turned into Chinese piculs and catties. 
 
 Long Measure. — That used in Chinu is the covid or 
 cobre ; it is divided into 10 punts, and is equal to 
 0-3713 metre, or 14-625 English inches. 
 
 The Chinese have four different measures answering 
 to the foot, viz. : 
 
 Motres. Gng^. incllu 
 
 The foot of the mathematical tribunal . =0-33o =13-125 
 
 The bnilders' foot, called congpu =0-3228 = 12-7 
 
 The tailors* and tradesmen's foot . ^ 0-3383 =13-3S 
 
 The foot used by engineers =0.3211 = 12-66 
 
 The li contains 180 fathoms, each 10 feet of the last- 
 mentioned length ; therefore the li = 1897^ English 
 feet ; and 192} lis measure a mean degree of the me- 
 ridian nearly; but European missionaries in China 
 have divided the degree into 200 lis, each li making 
 1826 English feet, which gives the degree 69-166 En- 
 glish miles, or 11-131 French myriametres. 
 
 European Trade at Canton. — ^As soon as a vessel ar- 
 rives among the islands which front the entrance to 
 the Canton Eiver, she is generally boarded by a pilot, 
 who conducts her into Macao or Hong Kong roads. 
 The entrance is, however, so safe that ships push on 
 without waiting for the pilot, who, if the weather be 
 bad, is sometimes long in coming on board. The pi- 
 lots' names are registered at the Keun-min-foo'S ofiice 
 near Macao ; and for a license to act the sum of $600 
 is paid. The person who takes out the license some- 
 times knows nothing about ships or the river, but 
 employs fishermen to do the duty. On the vessel's 
 
CAN 
 
 264 
 
 CAN 
 
 arrival in the roads, the pilot goes on shore to report 
 her at the office of the keun-min-foo, who, when he 
 has received answers to his inquiries, gives a permit 
 for her to pass through the Bogue, and orders a river 
 pilot on board. This pilot seldom repairs on board the 
 vessel before 24 hours have elapsed. When arrived, 
 the vessel proceeds through the Bogue, and up the Can- 
 ton Eiver toWhampoa. 
 
 Every ship that enters the port requires the service 
 of a linguist and comprador before she can commence 
 unloading. The master used to be required to give a 
 written declaration, in duplicate, solemnly affirming 
 that the ship has brought no opium. All the trade 
 with foreigners used to be confined to the hong or se- 
 curity merchants; but this restriction has recently 
 been abolished ; and foreigners may now deal with any 
 merchant or other party they think fit to employ. The 
 linguists are government interpreters, who procure per- 
 mits for delivering and taking in cargo, transact all 
 the custom-house business, and keep accounts of the 
 duties. AU the minor charges of the government, 
 also, are paid by them ; in consideration of which they 
 receive a fee of about $173 previously to the vessel's 
 departure. When a vessel wishes to discharge or re- 
 ceive cargo, the linguist is informed a day or two pre- 
 viously what kind of goods are to be received or dis- 
 charged, and in what quantities. He then applies for 
 a permit, which being issued, the lighters or chop- 
 boats proceed to Whampoa, where they usually arrive 
 on the evening of the second or morning of the third 
 day. For a single boat the linguist used to receive a 
 fee of $23 ; but if a permit be obtained for from two to 
 six boats at a time, the fee for each boat was only 11 
 taels 2 mace 6 cand., or about $15^. 
 
 When the goods are ready to be landed from or sent 
 to the ship, the hoppo (principal custom-house offi- 
 cer) sends a domestic, a writer, and a police mnner ; 
 the Tiong merchant who has secured the ship sends a 
 domestic, called a court-going man (one who attends 
 at the public offices on ordinary occasions in behalf of 
 his master) ; and the linguist sends an accountant and 
 interpreter to attend at the examination of the goods. 
 The hong merchants used to be held responsible by 
 government for all duties, whether on imports or ex- 
 ports in foreign vessels ; and therefore, when goods 
 were purchased, it was customary for the parties, be- 
 fore fixing the price, to arrange between themselves 
 who was actually to pay thfe duties. Of an import 
 cargo, each chop-boit, according to rule, which, how- 
 ever, is not rigidlj' enforced, should contain — of wool- 
 ens, camlets, and long-ells, 140 bales ; tin, 500 bars ; 
 lead, 600 pigs ; Bombay cotton, 65 bales ; Bengal cot- 
 ton, 80 bales ; betel-nut, pepper, etc., 300 piculs. 
 
 Of export goods, a chop-boat should take — of tea, 
 600 chests ; of other sorts of goods, 500 piculs. If more 
 than this, the hong merchant gives to the chop-boat, 
 for each additional picul, $6|. In calculating the 
 duties on export goods, 90 catties are considered 100. 
 The woolens, long-ells, and camlets, are measured by 
 the Chang of 10 covids, without any deduction; and 
 single articles are numbered. 
 
 If, after entering the port, any persons tranship 
 goods, it is considered that the one ship sold them to 
 the other ; and in that case the same duty has to be 
 paid as if the goods were brought up to Canton. Pro- 
 visions are not included in this regulation. Ships' 
 boats are not allowed to caiTy up or down any thing 
 chargeable with duty; Gold, silver, copper, and iron 
 are prohibited to be exported ; a few culinary utensils 
 are the only exceptions. When it is desired to export 
 treasure, the hong merchant must make an estimate 
 of the value of the import and export cargoes, and 
 whatever balance there may be in favor of the ship 
 may then be shipped off as treasure. If more cargo 
 be sent to a ship than she can take on board, and she 
 wishes it to be shipped on board another, it must be 
 done within 3 days after announcing the goods at the 
 
 custom-house, and a hong merchant must state it to 
 government ; if granted, a hong merchant and linguist 
 are ordered to go to Whampoa and take an account 
 of such goods ; all which, with the expense of boats, 
 runners, etc., at Whampoa, costs 40, or 50 dollars. — 
 Companion to Anglo'Chinese Calendar^ p. 99-101. 
 
 Hong JWercAowi*. ^Previously to the commencement 
 of the new system, it had been the invariable practice, 
 enforced by law, that all foreign vessels arriving in 
 the port should employ, as broker or agent, a hong or 
 security merchant, who became, by doing so, responsi- 
 ble to the government for the duties. These mer- 
 chants, who were but few in number, were the only 
 individuals in the empire legally authorized to trade 
 with foreigners, a privilege for which they had to pay 
 very largely. But after an arrangement had been 
 made with any particular hong merchant for securing 
 a ship, her captain or supercargo might deal with any 
 other hong merchant, or even with any outside mer- 
 chant (or merchant not belonging to the hong) he 
 pleased. The peculiar duty of the hong merchant was 
 to pay the duties on both the inward and outward car- 
 goes ; and hence arose the practice of foreigners buy- 
 ing all goods for export duty paid, and selling all the 
 goods brought with them free of duty, the duties beings 
 in both cases, paid by the hong merchants who had 
 secured the ship; and hence, also, the ignorance of 
 most foreigners as to the amount of the duties. But 
 now that the privilege of the hong merchants has been 
 abolished, the duties will have to be paid to the Chi- 
 nese authorities by the parties importing and export- 
 ing, in the same way as in this country. 
 
 Port Charges are fixed under the new treaty at five 
 mace per register ton, in full of all charges ; so that 
 the complex system that previously obtained for charg- 
 ing those duties is now, in so far at least as British 
 ships are concerned, at an end. Vessels importing rice 
 or other grain into any of the five ports open to British 
 vessels, are liable to no charges whatever ; but if they 
 take away an export cargo, they then have to pay the 
 duties on such cargo agreeably to the tariff, and one 
 moiety of the tonnage dues, or 2^ mace per ton. 
 
 The whole number of vessels arriving at Canton in 
 1854 was 320, with the tonnage of 154,157. Of this 
 number, 137 were British, 65 American, 23 Dutch, 21 
 Spanish, 11 Danish, and 18 Peruvian. The, latter, we 
 imagine, are all engaged in kidnapping, a system which 
 condemns hundreds of C hinese to a speedy death among 
 the guano islands of Callara. These vessels brought 
 in the same year goods to the value of £795,256, con- 
 stituting Canton a good, but not a first-rate customer 
 to Europe. Of cotton goods our merchants purchased 
 $2,706,426; of rice, $300,000 worth ; and every thing 
 else in infinitesimal quantity. Fish-maws, beche-de- 
 mer, cloves, shark-fins, sandal-wood, liquors, appear 
 to meet with the readiest sale in the great sea-port of 
 China. The exports make a little better appearance;" 
 but still they are far from large. ■ The tea trade has 
 flown to Shanghai, the value exported from Canton 
 being in 1854 only .$4,627,552, but a fraction of the 
 export at the northern port. Silk is sold to the value of 
 about $1,140,000, and curiosities make up the remain- 
 der. Bamboo and rattan ware, bone and ivory toys, 
 China dishes and lacquered ware, mother-of-pearl and 
 marble slabs, preserves and drugs, sugar-candy and 
 pitchers, all testify to the ingenuity of the Chinese, 
 and the boundless opulence of certain classes in Europe 
 and America. The whole amounts only to i;i,445,308 
 a year, and this endures an exorbitant weight of tax- 
 ation. 
 
 The tonnage paid by British ships alone amounted 
 to £117,834, or nearly 10 per cent, ad valorem upon 
 the whole movement of British trade in that port. The 
 customs dues of Calcutta, heavy as we believe- them 
 to be, are a trifle when compared to those of Canton, 
 which average very nearly 17 rupees a ton. — Hong 
 Kong Government Gazette, 
 
CAN 
 
 265 
 
 CAN 
 
 Foreign Merchants. — These consist of British. Amer- 
 ican, French, Dutch, Danish, Swedish, Spanish, and 
 Portuguese, -with Parsee and Indian Mohammedan 
 British subjects. The Americans, French, and Dutch 
 have each consular agents recognized by the imperial 
 government. The same privileges have been, or are 
 to be^ conceded to all foreigners that have been grant- 
 ed to the English. 
 Rates of Comjwibbionin CraNA, agbeep upon in November, 
 
 1831, AND ItEVISEB BY THE CHAMBEB OF COMMEKCE, MAKCn, 
 
 1838. 
 
 1. On all sales of opium, cotton, cochineal, 
 
 camphor baroos, birds* nests, diamonds, 
 
 and other precious stones, pearls, ships, \' 
 
 houses ..w* 3 per cent. 
 
 2. On salps of all othei' goods. 5 per cent. 
 
 3. On returns, if in goods 2^- per cent. 
 
 4. On returns, if in treasure, bullion, or bills. 1 per cent. 
 
 5. On purchases, not being returns for goods 
 
 sold : 
 
 1st. Of raw sUk 3 jper cent. 
 
 2d. Of manufactured silk 5 per cent. 
 
 Sd. Of all other goods 5 per cent. 
 
 6. On lijspccting teas, whether for returns or 
 
 otherw,ise, an additional charge oif, i per cent. 
 
 7. On sale, purchase, or shipment of bullion. . 1 per cent. 
 
 8. On drawing, sale, or negotiation of bills 
 
 when not involving responsibility as 
 
 drawer or' indorser ....:: 1 per cent. 
 
 9. On drawing, sale, or negotiating of bills 
 
 when guaranteed Tay the agent as drawer 
 or indoi'ser, and.not>covei'ed by adequate 
 security 2i- per ceijt. 
 
 10. On purchasing bills, or effecting remittance 
 
 by bills, of the agent or, othenrise 1 per cent. 
 
 11. On negotiating loans' or respondentia 2 per cent. 
 
 12; On guaranteeing bills, bonds, or other en- 
 gagements 2i per cent. 
 
 13. On guaranteeing sales when especially re- 
 quired without including responsibility 
 for remittances ., :.. 2i^per cent 
 
 On gaarantecing both sales and remittance 
 of proceeds 1 per cent. 
 
 On bills of exchange, returned protested. . 1 per cent. 
 
 On letters of credit for mercantile pm*poses 2^ per cent. 
 
 17. On yi advances of money for pui-poses of 
 
 trade, whether the goods are consigned 
 to the agent or not, and where a commls- 
 . fiion of 5 per cent, is not chained .-. 2^ per cent. 
 
 18. On. ordering goods or superintending the - 
 
 ^Ifipment of contracts, T?^her& no pthpr 
 commission is derived. 2| per cent. 
 
 19. On all goods, treasure, etc., consigned, and 
 
 afterward- withdrawn or sent to auction, 
 and for goods consigned for additional 
 delivery to others k commission. 
 
 20. On procuring freight, or advertising as 
 
 agents, or owners, or commanders, on the 
 
 .^amount, of freight, whether the same 
 
 , .passesthrough the hands of the agent or 
 
 not 5 per cent 
 
 SI. On receiving inward freight 1 per Cent. 
 
 22. On ships' disbursements 2J per cent. 
 
 23. On chartering ships for other parties 21 per cent 
 
 24. On effecting insurance, or writing ordera 
 
 for insurance + per cent. 
 
 26. Settling insurance losses, total or partial,. 
 
 and on procuring return of premium ... 1 per cent 
 
 26. Debts, where a process at law or arbitra- 
 
 tion is necessaiy, 2i per cent. ; and if re- 
 covered 5 per cent. 
 
 27. Collecting house rent 2^ per cent. 
 
 28. Acting for the estates of persons deceased, 
 
 as executors or administrators 5 per cent. 
 
 29. The management of the estates of others, 
 
 on the amount received 2i per cent. 
 
 80., All cash.repeipts, not serving for the pur- 
 chase of goods, and not otherifvise speci- 
 fied above 1 per cent 
 
 31. Shroffing .' 2 per mil. 
 
 32. Transhipping goods 1 per cent 
 
 83. All advances not punctually liquidated, the 
 
 . agent to have the option of charging a 
 second commission, as upon a fresh ad- 
 vance, provided the charge does not occur 
 
 t>vice in the same year 1 per cent. 
 
 34 At the option of the agent, on the amount 
 debited or credited within the year, in- 
 cludingintereat,aud exceptingonly items 
 !0n which a commission of 6 per cent has 
 
 been chareed 1 per cent 
 
 ' N.B- — This charge not to be applied to paying over a bal- 
 ance due on an account made up to a particular period, unless 
 where such balance is withdrawn without reasonable notice. 
 
 Opium, which is by far the most profitable of all the 
 articles imported into China, ia excluded from the 
 
 14. 
 
 15. 
 
 16. 
 
 official account of imports, -which comprises those ar- 
 ticles only that are legally admissible. Although, 
 
 however, it be nominfiHy excluded, opium is openly, 
 systematically, and easily introduced; the trade in it 
 being, in fact, as safe and as regular as that in any 
 other commodity, while it is incomparably more ex- 
 tensive. Notwithstanding the efforts that have some- 
 times been made to effect its exclusion, the imports 
 have continued rapidly to increase. In 1816-17 they 
 amounted to only 3210 chests, whereas in 1829-30 they 
 had increased to about 14,000 chests ; and they are 
 now estimated at about 54,000 chests, worth about 
 $33,000,000. So rapid an increase in the production 
 and consumption of a dnig is, perhaps, unparalleled in 
 the history of commerce. It is probable, however, 
 that its importation will shortly receive a check ; for 
 it is believed that the Chinese, aware at last of the im- 
 potency of the attempts to prevent its introduction, 
 are about to legalize its importation and culture in the 
 empire. And as the soil in many parts of China ia un- 
 derstood to be well suited to the growth of the poppy, 
 there can be little doubt that its cultivation will be 
 rapidly extended. Should this expectation be realized, 
 it will produce a very important change in the trade 
 of China. On the whole, however, we incline to think 
 that the change will be beuefitnal. It will go far to 
 restore the balance between the imports and exports 
 without draining China of her bullion ; and it will en- 
 able her to purchase larger quantities of the manufac- 
 tures and other products of this and other countries. 
 The change in question, supposing it to be realized, 
 will, however, seriously affect India, which furnishes 
 almost all the opium sent to China, and the culture 
 and sale of which, besides affording employment and 
 subsistence to a large population, yields a net revenue 
 to the East India Company of considerably more than 
 £3,000,000 a year! 
 
 Shanghai is situated in the southern part of the prov- 
 ince of Eliang-Su, at a considerable, distance from the 
 sea, on the River Woo-Sung, in about lat. 31° 10' N., 
 long. 120° 50' E. The river, which may be navigated 
 by large ships for a considerable distance above the 
 town, crosses the grand canal, and, consequently, makes 
 Shanghai an entrepot for all the vast and fertile coun- 
 tries traversed by the canal and by the great rivers 
 with which it is connected ; and hence the present im- 
 portance of this emporium, as evinced by the extent 
 of our trade with it in 1848 ; and hence, also, the in- 
 finitely greater importance to which its commerce will 
 hereafter most probably attain. 
 
 ExponTS OP Tea from China. 
 
 
 Blacl Ton. 
 
 Green Tea. 
 
 Total. 
 
 To Great Britain, 184S-'49. 
 To Great Britain, 1849-'50. 
 To Great Britain, 18S0-'.61. 
 To United StkteB, 185I-62. 
 
 PoundB. 
 38,T63,500 
 45,848,900 
 65,696,800 
 13,361,513 
 
 Pounds. 
 8,479,200 
 8,120,400 
 8,056,600 
 20,965,915 
 
 PoundB. ' 
 47,242,700 
 53,569,300 
 63,753,400 
 34,327,428 
 
 From this statement it will be seen that the amount 
 of the exports of black tea to Great Britain is increas- 
 ing very fast, at the rate of 20 per cent, per annum ; 
 and was in 1850-51 seven times as great as the ex- 
 ports of green tea ; while the exports of black tea to 
 the United States were only two-thirds the exports of 
 
 green tea. 
 
 ExronTS of Tea i-itoM China, 
 
 Year ending June. 
 
 United States. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 1864 
 
 Pounds. 
 27,867,000 
 81,516,000 
 40,246,000 
 
 PoundB. 
 77,217,000 
 86,609,000 
 91,035,000 
 
 1855 
 
 1856 
 
 Trade with the Indian Islands, etc.— In his evidenca 
 before the select committee of the House of Commons, 
 Mr. Crawfurd gave the following details with respect 
 to the native foreign trade with China : 
 
 " The principal part of the junk or shipping trade is carried 
 on by the four contiguous provinces of Canton, Fokien, Che- 
 kiang, and Kiannan. No foreign trade is permitted with the 
 island of Formosa; and I have no means of describing the ex- 
 
CAN 
 
 266 
 
 CAN 
 
 tent of the traffic which may be conducted between China, Co- 
 lea, and the Leechew islands. The following are the coun- 
 tries with which China carries on a trade in junks; viz., Ja- 
 pan, the Philippines, the Soo-loo islands, Celebes, the Moluc- 
 cas, Borneo, Java, Sumatra, Singapore, Ehio, the east coast 
 of the Malayan peninsula, Siam, Cochin China, Cambodia, and 
 Tonquin; and tliese may, in all, employ about 222 junks. 
 The ports of China at which this trade is conducted are, Can- 
 ton, Tchao-tcheou, Nomhong, Hoeitcheon, Suheng, Kong- 
 moon, Changlim, and Hainan, in the province of Canton ; 
 Amoy and Chinchew, in the province of Fokien ; Ningpo and 
 Siang-hai, in the province of Chekiang; and Soutcheon, in 
 the province of Kiannan. The above estimate does not in- 
 clude a great number of small junks belonging to the island 
 of Hainan, which carry on trade with Tonquin, Cochin China, 
 Cambodia, Siam, and Singapore. Those for Siam amount 
 yearly to about 50, and for the Cochin Chinese dominions to 
 about 42 ; these alone would bring the total number of ves- 
 sels carrying on a direct trade between China and foreign 
 countries to 307. The trade with Japan ia confined to the 
 port of Ningpo, in Chekiang, and expressly limited to 10 ves- 
 sels; but as the distance from Nangasaki is a voyage of no 
 more than four days, it is performed twice a year. With the 
 exception of this branch of trade, the foreign intercourse of the 
 two provinces, Chekiang and Kiannan, which are famous for 
 the production of raw silk, teas, and nankeens, is confined to the 
 Philippine Islands, Tonquin, Cochin China, Cambodia, and 
 Siam ; and none of this class of vessels, that I am aware of, 
 have ever found their way to the western parts of the Indian 
 Archipelago. The number of these trading with Siam is 24, 
 all of considerable size ; those trading with the Cochin Chi- 
 nese dominions, 16, also of considerable size ; and those trad- 
 ing with the Philippines, 5; making in all 4S, of which the av- 
 erage burden does not fall short of 17,000 tons. Besides the 
 junks now described, there is another numerous class, which 
 may be denominated the colonial shipping of the Chinese. 
 Wherever the Chinese are settled in any numbers, junks of 
 this description are to be found; such as in Java, Sumatra, 
 the Straits of Malacca, etc.; but the largest commerce of this 
 description is conducted from the Cochin Chinese dominions, 
 especially from Siam, where the number was estimated to me 
 at 200. Several junks of this description from the latter coun- 
 try come annually to Singapore, of which the burden is not 
 less than from 300 to 400 tons. The junks which trade be- 
 tween China and the adjacent countries are some of them 
 owned and built in China; but a considerable number also in 
 the latter countries, particularly in Siam and Cochin China. 
 Of those carrying on the Siamese trade, indeed, no less than 
 81 out of the 89, of considerable size, were represented to me 
 as being built and owned in Siam. The small junks, however, 
 carrying on the trade of Hainan, are all built and owned in 
 China. The junks, whether colonial or trading direct ivith 
 China, vary in burden from 2000 piculs to 15,000, or carry dead 
 weight from 120 to 900 tons. Of those of the last size I have 
 only seen three or four, and these were at Siam, and the same 
 which were commonly employed in carrying a mission and a 
 tribute yearly from Siam to Canton. Of the whole of the large 
 class of junks, I should think the average burden will not be 
 overrated at 800 tons each, which would make the total ton- 
 nage employed in the native foreign trade of China between 
 60,000 and 70,000 tons, exclusive of the small junks of Hainan, 
 which, estimated at 150 tons each, would make in all about 
 80,000 tons. 
 
 "The junks built in China are usually constructed of fir 
 and other inferior woods. When they anive in Cambodia, 
 Siam, and the Malayan islands, they commonly furnish them- 
 selves with masts, rudders, and wooden anchors, of the supe- 
 rior timber of these countries. The junks built in Siam are a 
 superior class of vessels, the planks and upper works being in- 
 variably teak. The cost of ship-building is highest at the port 
 of Amoy, in Fokien, and lowest in Siam. At these places, and 
 at Chang-lim, in Canton, the cost of a junk of 3000 piculs, or 
 476 tons burden, was stated to me, by several commanders of 
 junks, to be as follows: at Siam, $T400; Chang-lim, $10,000; 
 Amoy, $21,000. Ajunk of the size just named has commonly 
 a crew of 90 hands, consisting of the following officers, besides 
 the crew: a commander, a pilot, an accountant, a captain of 
 the helm, a captain of the anchor, and a captain of the hold. 
 The commander receives no pay, but has the advantage of the 
 cabin accommodation for passengers, reckoned on the voyage 
 between Canton and Singapore worth 150 Spanish dollars. He 
 is also the agent of the owners, and receives a commission, 
 commonly of 10 percent, on the profits of such share of the 
 adventure, generally a very considerable one, in which they 
 are concerned. The pilot receives for the voyage $200 of wages, 
 and 50 piculs of freight out and home. The helmsman has 15 
 piculs of freight andnno wages. The captains of the anchor 
 and the hold have 9 piculs of freight each ; and the geameu 7 
 
 piculs each. None of these have any wages. The officere and 
 seamen of the colonial junks are differently rewai'ded. In a 
 Siamese junk, for example, trading between the Siamese cap- 
 ital and Singapore, of 6000 piculs burden, the commander and 
 pilot had each $100 for the voyage, with 12 piculs of freight 
 apiece. The accountant and helmsman had half of this allow- 
 ance, and each seaman had $13, with 5 piculs of freight. In 
 construction and outfit, Chinese junks are clumsy and awk- 
 ward in the extreme. The Chinese are quite unacquainted 
 with navigation, saving the knowledge of the compass; not- 
 withstanding this, as their pilots are expert, their voyages 
 short, and as they hardly ever sail except at the height of the 
 monsoons, when a fair and steady 7 or 8 knots' breeze carries 
 them directly from port to port, the sea risk is very small. 
 During 13 years' acquaintance with this branch of trade, I 
 can recollect hearing of but four shipwrecks ; and in all these 
 instances the crews were saved. The construction and rigging 
 of a Chinese j unk may be looked upon as her proper registiy, 
 and they are a very effectual one ; for the least deviation from 
 them would subject her at once to foreign charges and foreign 
 duties, and to all kinds of suspicion. The colonial junks, 
 which are of a more commodious form and outfit, if visiting 
 China, are subjected to the same duties as foreign vessels. 
 Junks built in Siam, or any other adjacent country, if con- 
 structed and fitted out after the customary model, are admit- 
 ted to trade to China upon the same terms as those built and 
 owned in the country. If any part of the crew consist of Si- 
 amese, Cochin Chinese, or other foreigners, the latter are ad- 
 mitted only at the port of Canton ; and if found in any other 
 part of China, would be seized and taken up by the police ex- 
 actly in the same manner as if they were Europeans. The 
 native trade of China conducted with foreign countries is not 
 a clandestine commerce, unacknowledged by the Chinese laws, 
 but has in every case at least the express sanction of the vice- 
 roy or governor of the province, who, on petition, decides the 
 number of junks that shall be allowed to engage in it, and 
 even enumerates the articles which it shall be legal to export 
 and import. At every port, also, where such a foreign trade 
 JK sanctioned, there is a hong or body of security merchants, 
 as at Canton ; a fact which shows clearly enough that this in- 
 stitution is parcel of the laws or customs of China, and not a 
 peculiar restraint imposed upon the intercourse with Euro- 
 peans. The Chinese junks propei'ly constructed pay no meas- 
 urement duty, and no cumshaw or present; duties, however, 
 are paid upon goods exported and imported, which seem to 
 differ at the different provinces. They are highest at Amoy, 
 and lowest in the island of Hainan. The Chinese traders of 
 Siam informed me that they carried on the fairest and easiest 
 trade, subject to the fewest restrictions, in the ports of Ningpo 
 and Siang-hai, in Chekiang, and Soutcheon, in Kiannan, Great 
 dexterity seems every where to be exercised by the Chinese in 
 evading the duties. One practice, which is very often follow- 
 ed, will afford a good example of this. The coasting-trade of 
 China is nearly free from all duties and other imposts. The 
 merchant takes advantage of this; and, intending in reality to 
 proceed to Siam or Cochin China, for example, clears ajunk 
 out for the island of Hainan, and thus avoids the payment of 
 duties. When she returns she will lie four or five days off the 
 mouth of the port, until a regular bargain be made with the 
 cuhtom-house officers for the reduction of duties. The threat 
 held out in such cases is to proceed to another port, and thus 
 deprive the public officers of their customary perquisites, I 
 was assured of the frequency of this practice by Chinese mer- 
 chants of Cochin China, as well as by several commanders of 
 junks at Singapore. From the last-named'persons I had an- 
 other fact of some consequence, as connected with the Chinese 
 trade ; viz., that a good many of the junks carrying on trade 
 with foreign ports to the westward of China often proceeded 
 on voyages to the northward in the same season. In this 
 manner they stated that about 20 considerable junks, besides 
 a great many small ones, proceeded annually from Canton to 
 Souchong, one of the capitals of Kiannan, and in wealth and 
 commerce the rival of Canton, where they sold about 200 chests 
 of opium at an advance of 50 per cent, beyond the Canton 
 prices. Another place where the Canton junks, to the number 
 of five or six, repair annually, is Chinchew. in the province of 
 Canton, within the Gulf of Pecheley, or Yellow Sea, and as 
 far north as the 37th degree of l&titude"— Appendix, Rep(»i 
 O/1830, p. 298. 
 
 A Chinese ship or junk is seldom the property of one 
 individual. Sometimes 40, 60, or even 100 different 
 merchants purchase ^ vessel, and divide her into as 
 many different compartments as there are partners, so 
 that each knows his own particular part of the ship, 
 which he is at liberty to fit up and secure as he pleases. 
 The bulk-heads, by which these divisions are formed, 
 consist of stout planks, so well caulked as to be com- 
 
CAN 
 
 267 
 
 CAP 
 
 pletely water-tight. A ship thus formed may strike 
 on a rock, and yet sustain no serious injury ; a leak 
 springing in one division of the hold will not he at- 
 tended with any damage to articles placed in another ; 
 and, from her firmness, she is qualified to resist a more 
 than ordinary shock, A considerable loss of stowage 
 is, of course, sustained ; but the Chinese exports gen- 
 erally contain a considerable value in small bulk. It 
 is only the very largest class of junks that have so 
 many owners ; but even in the smallest class the num- 
 ber is very considerable. — See China. 
 
 Canvas (Fr. ToSe a voile ; Ger. Segeltuch ; It. Cane- 
 vazzo, Lona ; Russ. Parussnoe polotno, Parussina ; Sp. 
 Lona\ unbleached cloth of hemp or flax, chiefly used 
 for sails for shipping. 
 
 Caoutchouc. "This substance, which has been 
 improperly termed elastic gum, and vulgarly, from its 
 common application to rub out pencil marks on paper, 
 India rubber, is obtained from the milky juice of differ- 
 ent plants in hot countries. The chief of these are the 
 Jatropha elastica, and Urceola elastica. The juice is 
 applied in successive coatings on a mould of clay, and 
 dried by the fire or in the sun; and when of a suffi- 
 cient thickness, the mould is crushed and the pieces 
 shaken out. Acids separate the caoutchouc from the 
 thinner part of the juice at once, by coagulating it. 
 The juice of old plants yields nearly two-thirds of its 
 weight ; that of younger plants less. Its color, when 
 fresh, is yellowish-white, but it grows darker by ex- 
 posure to the air. The elasticity of this substance is 
 its most remarkable property; when warmed, as \>y 
 immersion in hot water, slips of it may be drawn out 
 to 7 or 8 times their original length, and will return to 
 their former dimensions nearly. Cold renders it stiff 
 and rigid, but warmth restores its original elasticity. 
 Exposed to the fire, it softens, swells up, and burns 
 with a bright flame. In Cayenne it is used to give 
 light as a candle." — Uee's Diet. See India Rubeee. 
 Caoutchouc has become an article of very considera- 
 ble importance. M. de la Condamine, who was one 
 of the first to communicate authentic information with 
 respect to it, mentions that, owing to its being imper- 
 vious to water, it was made into boots by the Indians. 
 ■ — Voyage de la Riviere des Amaztmes, p. 76. It is now 
 employed in a similar way here. Means have, within 
 these few years, been discovered of reducing it to a 
 state of solution ; and when thin filaments of it are 
 spread over cloth or any other substance, it is rendered 
 impervious alike to air and water. Air-cushions and 
 pillows are manufactured in this way ; as are water- 
 proof cloaks, now in very extensive demand, hats, 
 boots, shoes, etc. It is also extensively used in the 
 manufacture of braces and other articles which it is 
 desirable should possess considerable elasticity; and 
 there can be little doubt that it will be employed still 
 more extensively, and in a still greater variety of ways. 
 The great variety of purposes to which its elasticity 
 and imperviousness to water and to air have occasion- 
 ed its application are too numerous and familiar to 
 be particularized in this place. The extent of its em- 
 ployment In Britain in the several branches of manu- 
 facture is shown by the quantity of caoutchouc import- 
 ed, which, for the year ending January 5, 1854, amount- 
 ed to 17,326 cwt. The total quantity exported from 
 Para alone, in 1852, was 32,860 cwt., and 116,465 pairs 
 of shoes. The filature of caoutchouc, for the manufac- 
 ture of elastic fabrics, such as cloth, cord, tape, braces, 
 etc., is an important and increasing branch of our na- 
 tional industry. This operation has been made the 
 subject of various patents, all modifications more or 
 less perfect of our general principle, namely, that of 
 reducing it to threads by means of steel edges acting 
 either on the bottle caoutchouc compressed in a mould, 
 on the solid cake, or by cutting it when stretched on a 
 mandrel of wood, which is set in rapid revolution. In 
 this operation water is allowed to trickle over the cut- 
 ting blades in order to prevent the cohesion that would 
 
 otherwise impede their progress. In this manner 
 thread of 5000 yards to a pound weight is produced. 
 Previous to its employment in the manufacture of tex- 
 tile fabrics, it is necessary to render the thread inelas- 
 tic, which is effected by winding it tightly on reels 
 and allowing it to remain in that condition until near- 
 ly deprived of its elasticity^ — ^which is afterward re- 
 stored by exposing it to the action of a heated smooth- 
 ing-iron. Sheets are sometimes cut from the solid 
 cake, and may likewise be obtained of any size, and 
 of extreme tenuity, by spreading a solution in naphtha 
 upon cloth previously sized, stripping it off when dry. 
 The use of rollers, with a piece of cloth similarly pre- 
 pared and superimposed on the varnished surface of the 
 first, may also be employed in this operation. — E. B. 
 
 Cap. The Romans went for many ages without 
 regular covering for the head, and hence the heads of 
 all the ancient statues appear bare. But at one period 
 the cap was a symbol of liberty, and when the Romans 
 gave it to their slaves it entitled them to freedom. 
 The cap was sometimes used as a mark of infamy ; 
 in Italy the Jews were distinguished by a yellow cap, 
 and in France those who had been bankrupts were for- 
 ever after obliged to wear a green cap. The general 
 use of caps and hats is referred to the year 1449 ; the 
 first seen in these parts of the world being at the entry 
 of Charles VII. into Rouen, from which time they took 
 the place of chaperons or hoods. A statute was pass- 
 ed that none should sell any hat above 20<Z. (40 cents) 
 nor cap above 2s. 6d. (66 cents), 5 Henry VII., 1489. — 
 Haydn. 
 
 Cape Hatteras, a headland, North Carolina. Lat. 
 35° 15' 12" N., long. 75° 30' 54" W. The light-house 
 was built in 1798 of brown sand-stone. The light is 
 fixed, elevated 112 feet above the sea, and is visible 
 for a distance of 17 nautical miles. Very dangerous 
 shoals extend off from this point 10 nautical miles. 
 
 Cape Haytien, formerly Cape Frangais, and Cape 
 Henry, a sea-port town of the island of Hayti, on its 
 north coast, 90 miles north of Port au Prince. Lat, 
 19° 40' N., long. 69° 54' W. Population probably 
 from 12,000 to 16,000. Previously to the Haytian 
 revolution it was a handsome city, and it still has 
 some fine buildings, with a secure and tolerably de- 
 fended harbor, and a considerable trade, chiefly with 
 the United States, Great Britain, France, and Ger- 
 many. 
 
 Cape Henlopen, Delaware, a headland on the 
 soutli side of the entrance to Delaware Bay. Lat. 38° 
 46' 36" N., long. 75° 4' 42" W. The light-house 
 shows a, fixed white light elevated 170 feet above the 
 sea, and is visible for a distance of li\ nautical miles. 
 
 Cape Henry, Virginia, a headland on the south 
 side of the entrance to Chesapeake Bay. Lat. 36° 55' 
 30" N., long. 76° 0' 12" W, The light-house, built in 
 1791, is the leading mark for vessels bound into Ches- 
 apeake Bay. It shows n fixed white light elevated 120 
 feet above the sea, and is visible for a distance of 18 
 nautical miles. 
 
 Cape of Good Hope, an important colony of 
 Great Britain, occupying the south part of the penin- 
 sula of Africa, between lat. 29° 41' and 34° 51' S., and 
 long. 17° 10' and 27° 32' E. ; bounded on the south 
 and east by the Indian Ocean, and on the west by the 
 Atlantic Ocean, on the north by the countries of the 
 Namaquas, Griquas, and other Hottentot tribes, and 
 on the northeast by British Kafraria. Length, west 
 to east (Cape peninsula to Keiskamma River), 550 
 miles ; average breadth, 250 miles. Area, estimated 
 at 110,000 square miles. Population in 1850, 261,436, 
 mostly Africans, Dutch, negroes, and a small number 
 of Hottentots. The country is formed of a series of 
 territories rising in successive stages from south to 
 north. Bays, Helena, Table, False (the west part of 
 which forms Simon's Bay), St. Sebastian, Mossel, Plef^ 
 tenberg, and Algoa. Streams are numerous but rapid, 
 mostly dry in summer, and unfit for navigation ; the 
 
CAP 
 
 268 
 
 CAP 
 
 chief are, on the east and south coast, Keiskamma, 
 Great Fish, Bushman, Sunday, Camtoos, and Breeds ; 
 on the west, Berg and Elephant or Ollphant ; and on 
 the north, several small streams tributary to the 
 Orange. The climate is mild and healthy, but very 
 dry ; rains irregular, often falling in torrents on the 
 coast, but rare in the plains of the interior. Snow falls 
 only in the mountains, and is not permanent, even on 
 the most elevated. December and January are the 
 warmest, and June and July the coldest months. Mean 
 temperature at Cape Town — in summer, 58°'3 ; in win- 
 ter, 76°-6 Fahrenheit. The greater number of diseases 
 are unknown at the Cape ; the most common are con- 
 sumption and apoplexy. Few of the inhabitants at- 
 tain an advanced age. Soil fertile where sufficiently 
 watered, but the general appearance of the country is 
 sterile and monotonous. The arid steppes or Karoos 
 of the interior are destitute of trees, and covered with 
 an ephemeral vegetation, only after heavy rains. The 
 flora of the colony is of a peculiar character, comprising 
 1200 species, which, however, are more remarkable for 
 the variety and beauty of their flowers than for their 
 uses. The most valuable is the aloe, the produce of 
 which has been exported in one year to the amount of 
 $12,000; a species of soda, found in the Karoo, is em- 
 ployed by the inhabitants in the manufacture of soap, 
 and candles are made from the covering of the wax- 
 berry. European grains, and the fruits of temperate 
 and tropical regions, have been successfully introduced. 
 Corn is raised more than requisite for consumption, 
 and the cultivation of the vine is an important source 
 of wealth ; a good white wine is produced in the inte- 
 rior, but only the small vineyard at the foot of Table 
 Mountain produces the celebrated liqueur called Con- 
 staniia. Cattle-rearing is the chief branch of rural 
 industry; and the introduction of the Merino sheep 
 has rendered the rural trade of the colony important. 
 The value of produce of the colony exported in 1840 
 amounted to £359,517. The coasts abound with mack- 
 erel and herrings, and in 1842 the whale and seal fish- 
 ery employed 144 boats. Some of the wild animals 
 of Africa are still met with, but the larger species de- 
 crease in proportion as colonization extends. The lion, 
 hyena, buffalo, hippopotamus, and zebra, are occasion- 
 ally seen ; the rhinoceros is rare, and the elephant is 
 driven beyond the boundary. The ostrich and eagle 
 are found in the mountains, and snakes are numerous. 
 The commerce of the colony is extensive ; the ports 
 are Cape Town and Simon's Town in the west, and fort 
 Elizabeth in the east. Total value of exports in 1844, 
 £350,735, of which £246,217 were to the United King- 
 dom. Imports same year, £1,123,061. In 1845, 35 
 ships (3713 tons) and 307 men belonged to the colony ; 
 and in 1847, 791 ships (209,426 tons) entered, and 782 
 ships (205,618 tons) cleared from its ports. The colo- 
 ny consists of an east and a west province, and these 
 are divided into 14 districts ; viz., Cape Division and 
 Stellenbosch in the southwest ; Zwellendam, George, 
 Uitenhage, and Albany, on the south coast ; Clanwill- 
 iam on the northwest ; Worcester and Beaufort, Graaf 
 Eeynet, and Somerset in the interior ; Colesberg on the 
 northeast ; Cradock and Victoria on the east. The 
 capitals have the same names as the districts, except 
 Graham's Town, which is the capital of Albany, and 
 Fredericksburg, of Victoria district. Stellenbosch is 
 the chief wine, and Zwellendam the principal corn- 
 growing district ; the others are mostly appropriated 
 to grazing. Government is administered by a Parlia- 
 ment, composed of the governor, legislative Council 
 of 16 members, and a House of Assembly of 46 mem- 
 bers,. elected for a term of five years. (Salary of gov- 
 ernor and cammander-in-chief, £5000.) The Dutch 
 founded a colony at the Cape in 1648, which was taken 
 by the British in 1795.— See Cape Town. 
 
 The boers or farmers of the Cape colony, descend- 
 ants of the original Dutch settlers, have lost much of 
 their ancestral industry and cleanliness ; they are afl'ec- 
 
 tionate in their family relations; and strict in religious 
 observances, but prejudiced and illiterate. Education 
 has been long neglected in the colony ; the only insti- 
 tutions of importance were; till lately, the South Afri- 
 can college, and the South African institution at Cape 
 Town ; but a comprehensive' system, embracing pri- 
 mary and classical schools, was instituted by the gov- 
 ernment in 1839. In many of the districts are mission- 
 ary schools supported by different' Protestant societies; 
 In 1842 there were 40 public and 102 private schools, 
 attended by 2700 children. The colonial grants in the 
 same year were, for educational purposes, £6021, and 
 for religious purposes, distributed among the different 
 sects, £10,481. Slavery was abolished In 1833. The 
 English language is alone used in the' courts of law, 
 but the Dutch is also taught in the government schools. 
 The money in use is exclusively British ; and Dutch 
 weights and measures are nearly superseded by the 
 English. The peace of the colony is frequently inter- 
 rupted by incursions of the Kaffers, and other savage 
 tribes on the frontier. 
 
 Capers (Fr. Capres; Germ. Kappern; Du. Rap- 
 pers; It. Cappari ; Sp. Alcaparras ; Russ. Kaperszii; 
 Lat. Capparis'), the pickled buds of the Capparis spino- 
 sa, a low shrub, generally growing out of the joints of 
 old walls and the fissures of rocks, in most of the warm 
 parts of Europe. Capers are imported from different 
 parts of the Mediterranean ; the best from Toulon, in 
 France. Some small salt capers come from Majorca, 
 and a few flat ones from the neighborhood of Lj^ons. 
 In 1852, 117,067 pounds of capers were retained for 
 consumption. 
 
 Cape Town, the capital of the British territory 
 in South Africa, at the bottom of Table Bay, about 32 
 miles north from the Cape of Good Hope, and on the 
 western side of the territory to which -it gives its name ; 
 lat. 33° 55' 56" S., long. 18° 21' E. The town was 
 founded by the Dutch in 1650; and remained, with 
 the territory subject to it, in their possession till it 
 was taken by the British in 1795. It was restored to 
 the Dutch by the treaty of Amiens ; but being again 
 captured by the British in 1806, it was finally ceded 
 to them in 1815. The streets are laid out in straight 
 lines, crossing each other at right angles ; many of 
 them being watered by canals, and planted on each 
 side with oaks. The population in 1842 amounted, 
 according to the statement in the Cape Almanac, to 
 22,543, of whom about a third were blacks. The town 
 is defended by a castle of considerable strength. Ta- 
 ble Bay is capable of containing any number of ships ; 
 but it is exposed to the westerly winds, which, during 
 the months of June, July, and August, throw in a 
 heavy swell, that has been productive of many dis- 
 tressing accidents. This, in fact, is the great draw- 
 back upon Cape Town, which in all other respects is 
 most admirably fitted for a commercial station. At 
 the proper season, however, or during the prevalence 
 of the easterly monsoon, Table Bay is perfectly safe ; 
 while the cheapness and abundance of provisions, the 
 healthiness of the climate, and, above all, its position, 
 render it a peculiarly desirable resting-place for ships 
 bound to or from India, China, Australia, etc. 
 
 The plan of Table Bay on the opposite page is taken 
 from the survey of the Cape of Good Hope, executed 
 by Lieutenant Vidal and others, under the direction of 
 Captain Owen. 
 
 Port Instructions. — Art. 1. On the arrival of mer- 
 chant vessels in Table Bay, a proper berth will be 
 pointed out to the masters thereof by the port captain 
 when he boards them ; and no master of a merchant 
 vessel shall shift his birth without permission from the 
 port captain, unless in case of extreme emergency, 
 ^^■hen he must report his having done so as early as 
 possible at the port-office. 
 
 Art. 2. Should it be the intention of a master of a 
 vessel to discharge or receive on board any consider- 
 able quantity of merchandise, a berth will be pointed 
 
CAP 
 
 269 
 
 CAP 
 
 -i:>i 8 9 
 
 PLAN OP TABLE BAT. BY LIEUTKNANT VIDAL, B. N. — fi'ee p. 268. 
 
 References to the Plan. — A, light-house,, furnished with double lights. They may be seen clearly off deck at 16 miles' dis- 
 tance: but they do not appear double till within 6 or T miles to-the-westward ; from the northwai'd only one light is seen. 
 B, Lion's Rump. C, Table Mountain. D, Devil's Peak, in lat. 33° 5V i". E, Bobbin Island. F, Salt River. The figures 
 denote the soundings in fathoms. 
 
 out to him as close to the jetty, or other landing-place, 
 as the safety of the vessel and other circumstances will 
 admit. And the master will then moor with two bow- 
 er anchors, with an open hawse to the north-northeast, 
 taking especial care, in so mooring, not to overlay the 
 anchors of any other ship, or in any way to give the 
 vessel near him a foul berth. Ships and vessels touch- 
 ing in Table Bay for water and refreshments alone 
 may ride at single anchor in the outer anchorage ; but 
 in this case it is particularly recommended to veer out 
 80 or 90 fathoms, if they ride by a chain cable, as the 
 liability of starting or fouling the anchor, or breaking 
 the chain, will thereby be greatly lessened; and if 
 riding by a rope or coir cable, to run out a stream or 
 good kedge, to steady the ship ; and in both cases the 
 other bower anchor should be kept in perfect readiness 
 to let go. When the vessel is properly moored with 
 bower anchors, or well secured with a bower and stream 
 anchor, and with good cables, buoys, and buoy-ropes, 
 the master will then take the exact place of the ship 
 
 by the bearings of two landmarks, and the depth of 
 the water ; and should accident occur, by which the 
 vessel may drift from this situation, or lose her an- 
 chors, a good bearing and depth of water must be taken 
 at the time, and the same must be notified In writing 
 to the port captain. It is particularly recommended 
 that vessels be kept as snug as possible, to counteract 
 the effects of the periodical winds, which at times blow 
 with considerable violence. 
 
 The district subject to Cape Town is of very great 
 extent, and contains every variety of soil, from the 
 richest level land to the wildest mountain, and tracts 
 destitute of even the appearance of vegetation. The 
 climate fluctuates between the two extremes of rain 
 and drought. On the whole, its advantages and dis- 
 advantages seem to be pretty equally balanced ; and 
 the prospects which it holds out to the industrious 
 emigrant, if not very alluring, are certainly not dis- 
 couraging. 
 
 Population. — According to the official returns, the 
 
CAP 
 
 270 
 
 CAP 
 
 population of the Cape Colony in 1847 consisted of 
 167,995. 
 
 Produce. — Large quantities of corn of a very good 
 description are produced in the immediate neighbor- 
 hood of Cape Town, and in other parts of the colony ; 
 but agriculture is crippled by the Dutch law of suc- 
 cession, which, by dividing a man's property equally 
 among his children, hinders the accumulation of capi- 
 tal in masses, and the formation of proper farming es- 
 tablishments. — Thomson's Travels in Southern Africa, 
 p. 324. 
 
 The Mauritius and Rio Janeiro are the principal 
 markets for the corn of the Cape. The exports of wool 
 have increased very rapidly within the last ten years, 
 and it now forms by far the most important article 
 sent from the colony. The native breed of sheep is 
 very inferior ; its fleece is worth nothing, and it is re- 
 markable only for the size of the tail, which sometimes 
 weighs 20 lbs. ! But fine-wooled Spanish merinos, 
 Saxon and English sheep, succeed remarkably well, 
 and their wool fetches a high price. The eastern dis- 
 trict of Albany is especially suitable for sheep. 
 
 Large quantities of wine, and of what is called 
 brand}', are produced at the Cape ; but, with the ex- 
 ception of Constantia, they are very inferior. The 
 effect of allowing the importation of Cape wines into 
 the United Kingdom at a comparatively low duty 
 is, not to occasion their direct consumption, but to 
 cause them to be employed as a convenient means of 
 adulterating others ; so that, besides being injurious 
 to the revenue, such reduction of duty promotes fraud- 
 
 ulent practices, and detracts from the comforts of the 
 public. 
 
 Considerable quantities of hides, skins, and horns 
 are exported. They are principally brought from Al- 
 goa Bay, on the eastern side of the colony ; and the 
 trade has increased ver}' fast during the last six or 
 seven years. Aloes are an important product; and 
 horses, butter, beef, ivory, argol, and various other 
 articles, are among the exports. The latter also in- 
 clude dried fish, whale and seal oil, etc., the Cape fish- 
 eries being of considerable value. 
 
 The imports at the Cape consist of woolens, cottons, 
 hardware, earthen-ware, furniture, haberdashery, soap, 
 paper, books, and portions of most articles used in this 
 country. Piece goods and teak timber are imported 
 from India, tea from China, sugar from India, the 
 Mauritius, etc. 
 
 Trade. — The trade between the colonists and the in- 
 dependent natives is subjected to various restraints, of 
 which it is not always very easy to discover the pol- 
 icy. The sale of gunpowder and iire-arms to the na- 
 tives has been prohibited : a regulation which might 
 have been a judicious one, had they not been able to 
 obtain them from any one else. The Americans have, 
 however, traded with the eastern coast, and have lib- 
 erally supplied the natives with these and various 
 other articles ; so that by keeping up the regulation in 
 question, the English exclude themselves from partici- 
 pating in what might be an advantageous trade But 
 since they have taken possession of Natal, this inter- 
 course may perhaps have beep stopped. 
 
 AccounT OF TUE Quantities and Values of tub bTAPLE Articles, the Peodtjob of the Colony of the Cafe of Good 
 Hope, exported in the Year ending 5tii January, 1847. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 Quantities. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 QuautiUes. 
 
 Value. 
 
 
 
 
 £ I. d. 
 
 
 
 
 £ ,. d. 
 
 Aloes 
 
 . Pounds. 
 
 213,730 
 
 2,346 
 
 Hides (horse and ox) . . 
 
 Num. 
 
 60,837 
 
 82,777 
 
 Argol 
 
 Beef and Pdrk 
 
 
 60,000 
 4,800 
 
 9E0 
 
 
 
 83,650 
 490 
 
 1,244 
 17,028 
 
 . Casks. 
 
 13,434 
 
 Horses 
 
 _ 
 
 Bone (whale) 
 
 . Pounds. 
 
 3,851 
 
 264 
 
 Ivory 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 28,342 
 
 5,372 
 
 Butter 
 
 
 
 81,765 
 
 5,807 
 
 Mules 
 
 Num. 
 
 13 
 
 216 
 
 Candles 
 
 
 
 E6,299 
 
 945 
 
 Oil— viz. : Whale 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 2,584 
 
 211 
 
 
 
 
 
 Skins— viz.: Calf 
 
 Num. 
 
 120 
 
 26 
 
 Barley 
 
 . Muids. 
 
 2,399 
 
 1,302 
 
 Goat 
 
 — 
 
 230,164 
 
 22,649 
 
 Beans and peas 
 
 . — 
 
 940 
 
 1,068 
 
 Seal.... 
 
 — 
 
 460 
 
 188 
 
 Bran 
 
 . Pounds. 
 
 363,195 
 
 1,432 
 
 Sheep .. 
 
 — 
 
 249,949 
 
 9,790 
 
 Flour 
 
 — 
 
 766,438 
 
 7,918 
 
 Spirits — viz. : Brandy. 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 4,947 
 
 663 
 
 Oats 
 
 . Muids. 
 
 908 
 
 490 
 
 Tallow 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 147,971 
 
 2,491 
 
 Wheat , 
 
 . — 
 
 240 
 
 242 
 
 Wax 
 
 — 
 
 2,848 
 
 168 
 
 Feathers (ostrich)... 
 
 . Founds. 
 
 1,327 
 
 7,666 
 
 Wine— viz. : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,392,926 
 
 7,221 
 
 Constantia 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 3,064 
 
 2,614 
 
 
 
 255,812 
 
 8,838 
 
 
 
 508,708 
 
 37,658 13 6 
 
 
 — 
 
 5,800 
 
 50 
 
 Wool 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 8,271,128 
 
 178,011 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 £366,290 13 6 
 
 
 Other Artie 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 32,485 6 
 
 ^otal 
 
 
 
 
 
 £398,775 13 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 from Cape To 
 
 
 2 
 
 £ .. d. 
 
 28,815 
 
 4T1 13 6 
 
 
 Ditto, exported from Simon's Town . 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ditto, export 
 
 3d from Port Elizaheth' 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 "0,289 
 
 £398,775 18 6 
 
 * Port Elizabeth, on the east side of Algoa Bay, is rapidly rising in commercial importance ; and from the gi-eater fertility 
 of the country in its vicinity, its exports will probably, in no very lengthened period, exceed those from the Cape. 
 
 A Summary View 
 
 of the Trade 
 
 AND Navigation of the Colony in the Y 
 
 EAR ending 5th January, 1847. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Vessels inward. 
 
 Vessels outward. 
 
 Total Customs 
 
 lected by tile Cuetoms, 
 
 Total Value of 
 
 Total Value of 
 
 
 
 
 Duties. 
 
 including Fees, 
 Wharfage, etc. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 No. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 No. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 £ .. d. 
 
 £ 1. d. 
 
 £ t. d. 
 
 £ I. d. 
 
 Cape Town .... 
 
 399 
 
 188,885 
 
 374 
 
 131,708 
 
 74,163 12 8 
 
 80,937 1 7 
 
 814,687 4 
 
 315,090 
 
 Coastwise 
 
 181 
 
 21,884 
 
 195 
 
 27,780 
 
 
 
 
 
 Simon's Town.. 
 
 33 
 
 12,772 
 
 31 
 
 12,360 
 
 423 19 10 
 
 1,046 4 
 
 4,626 16 6 
 
 50,000 
 
 Specie commis. 
 
 470 3 6 
 800 
 Specie. 
 
 
 (i 
 
 . 968 
 
 8 
 
 1,401 
 
 
 
 
 
 Port Elizabeth. 
 
 76 
 
 19,865 
 
 62 
 
 16,328 
 
 18,483 7 11 
 
 18,774 19 2 
 
 253,848 
 
 172,994 
 
 Coastwise 
 
 Total Colony. . . 
 
 99 
 
 15,107 
 
 112 
 
 16,051 
 
 
 
 
 
 508 
 
 171,522 
 
 467 
 
 160,886 
 
 93,081 5 
 
 100,758 4 9 
 
 1,123,061 16 10 
 
 489,854 3 6 
 
 Coastwise 
 
 Grand Total . . . 
 
 586 
 
 37,904 
 
 31b 
 
 45,232 
 
 
 
 
 
 794 
 
 209,426 
 
 782 
 
 205,618 
 
 93,081 5 
 
 100,758 4 9 
 
 1,123,061 15 10 
 
 489,364 8 6 , 
 
 By an act passed by the colonial government of the Cape of 
 Good Hope, it is provided, ' ' That it shall be lawful for the prop- 
 er officers of customs to deliver, from any of the bonded ware- 
 houses in this colony, any articles whatever duly^ warehoused 
 
 therein, being oxiginal packages as imported, to be shipped 
 free from customs duty as stores for the use of any vessel, not 
 being then on any voyage from any one port to any other 
 port of this colony: such delivery and shipment shall be un- 
 
CAP 
 
 271 
 
 CAP 
 
 der such I'ules and regulations as the collector of customs 
 shall direct ; and any such articles shipped as stores contrary 
 to such rules and regulations shall he forfeited, and shall he 
 dealt with in the same manner as is provided in the ordinance 
 No. 6 of 1S53, in respect of goods forfeited, or liahle to for- 
 feiture, for breaches of the customs laws." 
 
 By an act passed June 8th, 1865, it is further provided, 
 " That the following articles shall be exempt from the pay- 
 ment of wharfage and cranage duties, upon being landed or 
 shipped in Table Bay or Simon's Bay respectively — that is to 
 to say, all surplus stores or provisions for the use of whaling 
 vessels; all whalebone, whale-head matter, 'and whale or fish 
 oil, landed or shipped from or on board of whaling vessels, or 
 firom or on board of any othei* vessel conveying such whale- 
 bone, whale-head matter, or oil, from or to any whaling ves- 
 sel i provided, that such whalebone, whale-head matter, be 
 not entered for colonial consumption.'' 
 
 Cape Verd, the most -western cape of Africa, in 
 the Atlantic Ocean, between the rivers Senegal and 
 Gambia. Lat. 14° 43' N., long. 17° 34' W. Its name 
 is derived from a group of enormous baobab-trees which 
 crowns its summit. 
 
 Cape Verd Islands are situated 329 miles west 
 of the Cape, between lat. 14° 45' and 17° 13' N., and 
 long. 22° 45' and 25° 25' W. The Archipelago consists 
 of the following ten islands : Sal, Boavista, Mayo, San- 
 tiago (St. James), the largest, Forgo, Brava, Grande, 
 Kombo, St. Nicolao, and St. Luzia, and four islets, 
 Branco, Kazo, St. Vicente, and St. Antao. Area esti- 
 mated at 1680 square miles. Population in 1850, 
 86,738. The white population, in the whole Archipel- 
 ago is to the colored as 1 to 20. The surface of the 
 islands is in general mountainous, and some of their 
 peaks have a considerable elevation. The volcano of 
 Fogo is 9157 feet in height. The soil is extremely 
 various, but mostly fertile ; the absence of trees and 
 the scarcity of water are the causes of frequent and se- 
 vere distress. Climate very hot, but tempered by the 
 sea-breezes ; mean temperature of May and August, 
 70° -9, April to September 70°, during the other months 
 65° Fahrenheit ; the mornings and evenings are cool, 
 and dews abundant. Chief vegetable products, maize, 
 rice^ and French beans. Coffee, introduced in 1790, 
 has completely succeeded ; the cotton shrub is indige- 
 nous ; indigo grows wild, and tobacco is cultivated in 
 some of the islands ; little sugar is grown, and wine 
 of inferior quality ; tropical fruits are abundant. — See 
 Portugal. 
 
 Capital, in political economy, is that portion of the 
 produce of industry existing in a country which may 
 be made directly available, either for the support of 
 human existence or the facilitating of production. But 
 in commerce, and as applied to individuals, capital is 
 understood to mean the sum of money which a mer- 
 chant, banker, or trader, adventures in any undertak- 
 ing, or which he contributes to the common stock of a 
 partnership. It signifies likewise the fund of a trad- 
 ing company or corporation ; in which sense the word 
 stock is generally added to it. Thus we say the capi- 
 tal stock of the bank, etc. The profit derived from any 
 undertaking is estimated by the rate which it bears to 
 the capital that was employed. 
 
 A desire to accumulate some portion of the produce 
 of industry Being natural to mankind, and nearly uni- 
 versal, the growth of capital may be expected wher- 
 ever the means of accumulation exist ; or, in other 
 words, wherever men are not obliged to consume the 
 whole products of their labor in their own subsistence. 
 From the moment at which a man produces more than 
 he consumes, he is creating a capital ; and the accu- 
 mulated surplus of production over the consumption 
 of a whole community is the capital of a country.— 
 Knight's Cyclopedia. Public credit and public or- 
 der are essentially bound up with each other, and with 
 the maintenance of general prosperity. An infringe- 
 ment of either, or both, is the first and surest signal of 
 derangement in commerce, and lessened employment. 
 At the present moment, when the state of Europe fur- 
 nishes so many sad examples of the misery and ruin 
 
 which have resulted to the commercial and working 
 classes, it is of the greatest importance that we should 
 form a just estimate of the consequences which would 
 result, in this country, to the various classes of society 
 from any important interruption of that peace and order 
 for which it has been generally so much distinguished ; 
 and under which, in comparison with those countries 
 which have been exposed to continual outbreaks, it 
 has risen to so much social and general prosperity. 
 
 Capoc, a sort of cotton, so short and fine, that it 
 can not be' spun. It is used in the East Indies to line 
 palanquins, to make beds, mattresses, etc. 
 
 Capricorn, Tropic of, a lesser circle of the 
 sphere, which is parallel to the equinoctial and at 23° 
 30' distance from it southward, passing through the 
 beginning of Capricorn. 
 
 Capsicum. iSee Pepper. 
 
 Capstan, or Capstem, a strong massive column 
 of timber, formed like a truncated cone, and having its 
 upper extremity pierced with a number of holes to re- 
 ceive the bars or levers. It is let perpendicularly 
 down through the decks of a ship, and is fixed in such 
 a manner that the men, by turning it horizontally with 
 their bars, may perform any work which requires an 
 extraordinary effort. 
 
 Considerable improvements have of late years been 
 made in Phillips' capstans, which in their original form 
 are not now much used in her majesty's service. A 
 part of Phillips' plan, however, is retained, that, name- 
 ly, of connecting the upper and lower capstan together. 
 A French plan was recently devised, in which, instead 
 of the wheel, an iron flange is fitted to take the three 
 cables (the one above and the other below the class, or 
 rate, for ships), and by this means a messenger is not 
 required. Messengers are generally of chain; but 
 rope ones are also supplied to each ship, in case the 
 chain ones should become defective. The chain-mes- 
 senger is made with a large link and a small one. This 
 latter the spikes of the wheel enter as the wheel re- 
 volves. This messenger is passed half round the cap- 
 stan, taken forward round the rollers in the bow, and 
 the two parts of the messenger shackled together. 
 Rope-messengers are passed three times round the cap- 
 stan, and with an eye at each end lashed together. 
 The rope-messengers in all ships are cut from five to 
 eight fathoms longer than the distance between the 
 capstan and the bow, in order that the men may hold 
 on when the cable is hove in. Nippers, made of rope, 
 from four to five fathoms long are used to attach the 
 cables to the messenger. These are taken oflT when the 
 cable is hove in, and come aft to the chain locker (or, 
 if the cable is hempen, to the hatchway near the tier). 
 
 A patent has lately been taken out by Mr. Thomas 
 Brown, of London, in which various improvements are 
 introduced. The principal of these are illustrated in 
 the following wood-cuts. The numbers 1 and 2 repre- 
 sent the plan and elevation of the capstan fiange, for 
 working various sizes of chain cable ; 3 and 4 are the 
 plan and elevation of the deck-pipe stopper, to be used 
 for checking the cable when bringing the ship to, and 
 for riding by when at anchor ; 5 and 6 are the plan and 
 elevation of the clearing guide. 
 
 The annexed wood-cut represents Mr. Aylen's mode 
 
CAP 
 
 272 
 
 CAR 
 
 jiiL 
 
 Ill ° I- 11:1111111^ 
 
 of anchoring a ship during a calm, -when out of sound- 
 ings, to prevent her drifting when a strong current is 
 running against her. 
 
 Supposing a ship of from 500 to 600 tons in a calm, 
 with the current running three knots against her, and 
 out of soundings ; let go the kedge anchor, having 
 previously secured two pieces of canvas to it as per fig- 
 ure, No. 1 and 2 ; veer out 40 to 50 fathoms of 3 to '4 
 inch hawser; then lower the quarter boat or cutter, 
 and stop the above hawser to the ring in the bow and 
 stem of the boat ; then veer from the ship 70 to 80 
 fathoms on the hawser, between the boat and ship; 
 put on a snatch-block to traverse, with one or two pigs 
 of ballast, to be used according to the strength of the 
 current. 
 
 Supposing that the current at from 40 to 50 fathoms 
 deep is running in a different direction from that of 
 the surface — as has been frequently observed in clear 
 water at sea — it is plain that a great strain is taken off 
 the anchor by using the boat, inasmuch as the whole 
 strain would be on the hawser 6 c, the greater part of 
 which is borne by hawser a b ; that if the ship rode 
 immediate at fi, the whole of the strain being at b c, 
 would naturally require a greater weight to hold her ; 
 in fact, a bower anchor with 60 fathoms of cable would 
 not be suflicient, besides the difficulty of again recov- 
 ering the anchor. 
 
 If the surface and deep current should happen to run 
 in the same direction, the ship would not then separate 
 from the boat ; all would drift together. This plan for 
 anchoring, there is every reason to suppose, will an- 
 swer near the equator, or at any place at a distance 
 from the main land, but it is not intended for a tide 
 way.— E. B. 
 
 Captain (Fr. capkaine ; It. capitano, from the Latin 
 
 caput), literally a heacl, or chief officer; 
 but the term is vised in particular to de- 
 note an officer holding a certain rank in 
 the army or the Bavy. In the army, 
 a captain is the oflicer who commands 
 a troop of cavalry, or a company of 
 infantry, or of artillery. His full pay 
 in British cavalry regiments is lie. 
 Id. a day; in the infantry lis. Id. 
 Captains in the Life and Foot Guards 
 rank with the' colonels of other regi- 
 ments, and their full paj' is 15s. a day. 
 Captain General, the commander-in. 
 chief of an army, or of the militia. 
 Captain Lieutenant is an officer who, 
 with the rank of captain, hut the pay 
 of ■ lieutenant, commands a troop 6t 
 company in the name and place of 
 some oliier person. Thus the colonel 
 of a regiment being usually captain of 
 the first iconipany, ithat company is 
 commanded by his deputy under the 
 title of captain lieutenant. Captain 
 of a ship of war, the officer who com- 
 mands a ship of the line or a frigate. 
 Officers who command smaller vessels 
 are called commanders. In ships of 
 the 'line a commaiuder is also appointed 
 with the captain ; the former is there- 
 fore second . captain. ■ The charge of 
 a captain in the navy is very compre- 
 hensive, inasmuch as he is not only 
 answerable for any bad conduct in the 
 military government, navigation, and 
 equipment of the ship he commands, 
 but also for any neglect of duty or 
 'mismanagement on the part of his in- 
 ferior officers, whose several charges 
 he is appointed to superintend and reg- 
 ulate. Captain of a merchant ship, he 
 Who has the direction of the ship, 
 crew, lading, etc. 
 Caracas, or Caraccas, the capital city of Vene. 
 zuela. South America, department and province of 
 Caracas, lat. 10° 30' 13" N., long. 67° 4' 45' W., on a 
 declivity 2880 feet in elevation, and 16 miles south- 
 southeast of La Guayra, its port, on the Caribbean Sea. 
 Population estimated from 35,000 to 50,000. It is reg- 
 ularly built, well supplied with water, and has a healthy 
 climate. Mean temperature of June 72°, February 
 68° -2 Fahrenheit. Principal buildings, a cathedral, 
 the fine church of Alta Gracia, and three hospitals. 
 Exports from La Guayra consist principally of cacao, 
 cotton, indigo, tobacco, coffee, hides, and live cattle. 
 Bj' the earthquake of 1812, 12,000 persons perished; 
 since which time most of its houses have been con- 
 structed of sun-dried bricks. It is the seat of a uni- 
 versity, and the residence of the principal merchants, 
 on whose account the trade of La Guayra is conducted. 
 It is the birth-place of Bolivar. The province lies be- 
 tween lat. 7° 38' and 10° 26' N., and long. 65° 30' and68° 
 "W. Area, 2842 square leagues. Population, 242,888. 
 Surface partly mountainous and partly flat ; the former 
 toward the sea-coast, where several deep indentations 
 occur, and form good harbors ; the latter in the inte- 
 rior, and on the south, where the country stretches out 
 into vast plains. It produces the best cacao, and all 
 tropical fruits are grown in perfection. It is divided 
 into 16 cantons. 
 
 Carat, the weight which expresses the degree of 
 fineness of gold. The word is also written carract, 
 carrot; harract, and Icarrat. Its origin is contested ; 
 but the most probable opinion is that of Kennet, who 
 derives it from carecta, a term which anciently denoted 
 any weight, and came afterward to be appropriated to 
 that which expresses the fineness of gold and the grav- 
 ity of diamonds. Carats are not real determinate 
 
CAR 
 
 273 
 
 CAR 
 
 ■weights, but only imaginary. The whole mass, what- 
 ever be the weight, is conceived to be divided into 
 twenty-four carats ; and as many twenty-fourth parts 
 as it contains of pure gold, it is called gold of so many 
 carats^ or so many carats Jine. Thus, gold of eighteen 
 carats is a mixture, of which eighteen parts are pure 
 gold, and the other six of inferior metal. Catat is also 
 a certain weiglit which goldsmiths and jewelers use 
 for weighing precious stones and pearls. In this sense 
 the word is supposed by some to be derived from the 
 Greelt itepaTiav, a fruit which in Latin is called tiliqua, 
 the cai'oh bean^ each of which may weigh above four 
 grains of wheat ; and hence the Latin siliqua has been 
 used for the weight of four grains. This carat weighs 
 four grains ; but they are sometimes lighter than the 
 grains of other weights. Each of these grains is sub- 
 divided into i, i, i, -^, etc. See Weights and Meas- 
 DKES. — E. B. 
 
 Caravan, an organized company of merchants, or 
 pilgrims, or both, who associate together in many parts 
 of Asia and Africa, that they may travel with greater 
 security through the deserts and other places infested 
 with robbers ; or where the road is naturally danger- 
 ous. The word is derived from the Persian kervan, or 
 cdrvdn, a trader or dealer. — Shaw's Travels in the Le- 
 vant, p. 9, 4to ed. 
 
 Every caravan is under the command of a chief or 
 aga (caravaib-bachi), who has frequently at his disposal 
 such a number of troops or forces as is deemed suffi- 
 cient for its defense. When it is practicable, they en- 
 camp near wells or riyulets, and observe a regular 
 discipline. Camels are used as a means of convey- 
 ance, almost uniformly, in preference to the horse or 
 any other animal, on account of their wonderful pa- 
 tience of fatigue, eating little, and subsisting three or 
 four days or more without water. There are general- 
 ly more camels in a caravan than men. — See Camel. 
 
 The commercial intercourse of Eastern and African 
 nations has been principally carried on, from the re- 
 motest period, by means of caravans. During antiq- 
 uity, the products of India and China were conveyed 
 either from Suez to Rhinoculura, or from Bussorah, 
 near the head of tlje Persian Gulf, by the Euphrates, 
 to Babylon, and thence by Palmyra, in the Syrian des- 
 ert, to the ports of Phoenicia, on the Mediterranean ; 
 where they were exchanged for the European produc- 
 tions in demand in the East. Sometimes, however, 
 caravans set out directly from China, and, occupying 
 about 250 days in the journey, arrived on the shores 
 of the Levant, after traversing the whole extent of 
 Asia. — Gibbon, vol. vii. p. 93. The formation of cara- 
 vans is, in fact, the only way in which it has ever been 
 possible to carry on any considerable internal com- 
 merce with Asia or Africa. The governments that 
 have grown up in those continents have seldom been 
 able, and seldomer indeed have they attempted, to 
 render traveling practicable or safe for individuals. 
 The wandering tribes of Arabs have always infested 
 the immense deserts by which they are intersected; 
 and those only who are sufficiently powerful to protect 
 themselves, or sufficiently rich to purchase an exemp- 
 tion from the predatory attacks of these freebooters, can 
 expect to pass through territories subject to their in- 
 cursions, without being exposed to the risli of robbery 
 and murder. 
 
 Since the establishment of the Mohammedan faith, 
 religious motives, conspiring with those of a less ex- 
 alted character, have tended to augment the intercourse 
 between different parts of the Eastern world. 
 
 The numerous camels of each caravan are loaded 
 with those commodities of every country which are 
 of easiest carriage and readiest sale. The holy city 
 is crowded during the month of Dhalhajja, correspond- 
 ing to the latter part of June and the beginning of 
 July, not only with zealous devotees, but with opu- 
 lent merchants. A fair or market is held in Mecca 
 and its vicinity on the twelve days that the pilgrims 
 S 
 
 are allowed to remain in that city, which used to be 
 one of the best frequented in the world, and continues 
 to be well attended. " Few pilgrims," says Burck- 
 hardt, "except the mendicants, arrive without bring- 
 ing some productions of their respective countries for 
 sale ; and this remark is applicable as well to the mer- 
 chants, with whom commercial pursuits ire the main 
 object, as to those who are actuated by religious zeal ; 
 for, to the latter, the profits derived from selling a few 
 articles at Mecca diminish, in some degree, the heavy 
 expenses of the journey. The Moggrebyns (pilgrims 
 from Morocco and the north coast of Africa) bring their 
 red bonnets and woolen cloaks ; the European Turks, 
 shoes and slippers, hardware, embroidered stuffs, sweet- 
 meats, amber, trinkets of European manufacture, knit 
 silk purses, etc. ; the Turks of Anatolia bring carpets, 
 silks, and Angora shawls; the Persians, Cashmere 
 shawls and large silk handkerchiefs; the Afghans, 
 tooth-brushes, called Mesouak Kattary, made of the 
 spongy boughs of a tree growing in Bokhara, beads of 
 a yellow soap-stone, and plain coarse shawls manufac- 
 tured in their own country ; the Indians, the numer- 
 ous productions of their rich and extensive region ; the 
 people of Yemen, snakes for the Persian pipes, sandals 
 and various other works in leather; and the Africans 
 bring various articles adapted to the slave-trade. The 
 pilgrims are, however, often disappointed in their ex- 
 pectations of gain ; want of money makes them hastily 
 sell their little, ad ventures at the public auctions, and 
 often obliges them to accept very low prices." — Travels 
 in Arabia, vol. ii. p. 21. 
 
 The two principal caravans which yearly rendezvous 
 at Mecca are those of Damascus and Cairo. The first 
 is composed of pilgrims from Europe and Western Asia ; 
 the second of Mohammedans from all parts of 'Africa. 
 The Syrian caravan is said by Burckhardt to be very 
 well regulated. It is always accompanied by the pacha 
 of Damascus, or one of his principal officers, who gives 
 the signal for encamping and starting by firing a mus- 
 ket. On the route, a troop of horsemen ride in the 
 front, and another in the rear to bring up the strag- 
 glers. The different parties of pilgrims, distinguished 
 by their provinces or towns, keep close together. At 
 night torches are lighted, and the daily distance is 
 usually performed between three o'clock in the after- 
 noon and an hour or two after sunrise on the following 
 day. The Bedouins or Arabs, who carry provisions 
 for the troops, travel by day only, and in advance of 
 the caravans ; the encampment of which they pass in 
 the morning, and are overtaken in turn and passed by 
 the caravan on the following night, at their own rest- 
 ing-place. The journey with these Bedouins is less 
 fatiguing than with the great body of the caravan, as 
 a regular night's rest is obtained ; but their bad char- 
 acter deters most pilgrims from joining them. 
 
 At every watering-place on the route is a small castle 
 and a large tank, at which the camels water-. The 
 castles are garrisoned by a. few persons, who remain 
 the whole year to guard the provisions deposited there. 
 It is at these watering-places, which belong to the Be- 
 douins, that the sheikhs of the tribe meet the caravan, 
 and receive the accustomed tribute for allowing it to 
 pass. Water is plentiful on the route; the stations 
 are nowhere more distant than 11 or 12 hours' march ; 
 and in winter pools of rain-water are frequently found. 
 Those pilgrims who can travel with a litter, or on com- 
 modious camel-saddles, may sleep at night, and per- 
 form the journey with little inconvenience ; but of those 
 whom poverty, or the desire of speedily acquiring a 
 large sum of money, induces to follow the caravan on 
 foot, or to hire themselves as servants, many die on the 
 road from fatigue.— rrawe/s in Arabia, vol. ii. p. 3-9. 
 The caravan which sets out from Cairo for Mecca is 
 not generally so large as that of Damascus ; and its 
 route along the shores of the Red Sea is more danger- 
 ous and fatiguing. But many of the African and 
 Egyptian merchants and pilgrims sail from Suez, Cos- 
 
CAR 
 
 274 
 
 CAR 
 
 seir, and other ports on the western shore of the Eed 
 Sea, for Djidda, whence the journey to Mecca is short 
 and easy. The Persian caravan for Mecca sets out 
 from Bagdad ; but many of the Persian pilgrims are 
 now in the habit of embarking at Bussorah, and com- 
 ing to Djidda by sea. Caravans from Bagdad and 
 Bussorah proceed to Aleppo, Damascus, and Diarbeker, 
 laden with all sorts of Indian, Arabian, and Persian 
 commodities ; and large quantities of European goods, 
 principally of English cottons, imported at Bussorah, 
 are now distributed throughout all the eastern parts 
 of the Turkish empire by the same means. The inter- 
 course carried on in this way is, indeed, every day be- 
 coming of more importance. 
 
 The commerce carried on by caravans in the inte- 
 rior of Africa is widely extended, and of considerable 
 value. Besides the gfeat caravan which proceeds from 
 Nubia to Cairo, and is joined by Mohammedan pil- 
 grims from every part of Africa, there are caravans 
 which have no object but commerce, which set out from 
 Fez, Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli, and other states on the 
 sea-coast, and penetrate far into the interior. Some 
 of them take as many as 50 days to reach the place of 
 their destination ; and as their rate of traveling maj' 
 be estimated at about 18 miles a day at an average, the 
 extent of their journeys may easily be computed. -As 
 both the time of their outset and their route is krio>vn; 
 they are met by the people of the countries thi't)iigh 
 which they travel, who trade with them. Indian goods 
 of every kind form a considerable article in this traffic ; 
 in exchange for which the chief commodity the inhab- 
 itants have to give is slaves. Three distinct caravans 
 are employed in bringing slaves and other commodi- 
 ties from Central Africa to Cairo. One of them comes 
 direct from Mourzouk, the capital of Fezzan, across 
 the Libyan desert ; another from Seuaar ; and the third 
 from Darfur. They do not an'ive at stated periods, 
 but after a greater or less interval, according to the 
 success they have had in procuring slaves, ivory, gold 
 dust, drugs, and such other articles as are fitted for the 
 Egyptian markets. The Mourzouk caravan is said to 
 be under the best regulations. It is generally about 
 60 days on its passage ; and seldom consists of less 
 than 100, or of more than 300,. travelers. The cara- 
 vans from Senaar and Darfur used formerly to be very 
 irregular, and were sometimes not seen in Egypt for 
 two or three years together ; but since the occupation 
 of the former by the troops of Mohammed All, the in- 
 tercourse between it and Egypt has become compar- 
 atively frequent and regular. The number of slaves 
 imported into Egypt by these caravans is said to 
 amount at present to about 10,000 a year. The de- 
 parture of a caravan from Darfur is looked upon as a 
 most important event ; it engages for a while the at- 
 tention of the whole country, and even forms a kind 
 of era. — Browne's Travels in Africa, 2d ed. p. 78. A 
 caravan from Dai-fur is considered large if it has 2000 
 camels and 1000 slaves. Many of the Moorish pilgrims 
 to Mecca cross the sea from Souakin and Massouah to 
 the opposite coast of Arabia, and then travel by land 
 to Mecca ; and Burckhardt states, that of all the poor 
 pilgrims who arrive in the Hedjaz, none bear a more 
 respectable character for industry than those from Cen- 
 tral Africa, . 
 
 Caravans are distinguished into heavy and light. 
 Camels loaded with from 500 to 750 lbs. form a heavy 
 caravan ; light caravans being the term applied to des- 
 ignate those formed of camels under a more moderate 
 load, or perhaps only half loaded. The mean daily 
 rate at which heavy caravans travel is about 18^ miles, 
 and that of light caravans 22 miles. 
 
 The safety of a caravan depends materially on the 
 conduct of the caravam-hachi, or leader. Nisbuhr says, 
 that when the latter is intelligent and honest, and the 
 traveler understands the language, and is accustom- 
 ed to the Oriental method of traveling, an excursion 
 through the desert is rarely either disagreeable or dan- 
 
 gerous. But it is not unusual for the Turkish pachas 
 to realize considerable sums by selling the privilege of 
 conducting caravans ; and it is generally believed in 
 the East that leaders so appointed, in order to indem- 
 nify themselves, not unfrequently arrange with the 
 Arabian sheikhs as to the attack of the caravans, and 
 share with them in the booty. At all events, a leader 
 who has paid a large sum for the situation, even if he 
 should be honest, must impose proportionally heavy 
 charges on the association. Hence the best way in 
 traveling with caravans is, to attach one's self to one 
 conducted by an active and experienced merchant, who 
 has a considerable property embarked in the expedi- 
 tion. With ordinary precaution, the danger is then 
 very trifling. It would be easy, indeed, were there 
 any thing like proper arrangements made by govern- 
 ment, to render traveling by Car'avdns, at least on all 
 the great routes, abundantly secure. — Nieeuhr, Voyage 
 en Arable, tome ii. p. 194, ed. AmstT 1780'. 
 
 No particular formalities are required in the forma- 
 tion of a caravan. Those that start at fixed periods 
 are mostly under the control of government, by whom 
 the leaders are appointed. But, generally speaking; 
 any dealer is at liberty to form a company and makg 
 one. The individual in whose name it is raised is con- 
 sidered as the leader, or cararan-tachi, unless he ap- 
 point some one else in his place. "When a number of 
 merchants associate together in the design, they elect 
 a chief, and appoint officers to decide whatever contro- 
 versies may arise during the journey. — For further de- 
 tails with respect to caravans, see the Modern Part of 
 the Universal liistory, vol. xiv. p. 214-243 ; Egbert- 
 son's Disquisition on Ancient India, Note 54 ; Kees' 
 Cyclopedia, art. Caravan, most of which is copied from 
 Robertson, though without a single word of acknowl- 
 edgment; Burckhaedt's Travels in Arabia, vol. ii. 
 passim; Urquhart on Turhey and its Resources, p. 
 137, 151, etc. 
 
 Caravanserai, a large public building or inn ap- 
 propriated for the reception and lodgment of the cara- 
 vans. Though serving in lieu of inns, there is this 
 radical difterence between them — that, generally speak- 
 ing, the traveler finds nothing in a caravanserai for the 
 use either of himself or his cattle. He must carry all 
 his provisions and necessaries with him. They are 
 chiefly built in dry, barren, desert places ; and are 
 mostly furnished with water brought from a great dis- 
 tance and at a vast expense. A well of water is, in- 
 deed, indispensable to a caravanserai. Caravanserais 
 are also numerous in cities; where they serve not only 
 as inns, but as shops, warehouses, and even exchanges. 
 
 Cara'way-seed (Fr. Carvi, Cumin despris; Ger. 
 Keummel, Brodkiimmel ; It. Carvi), a small seed, of 
 an oblong and slender figure, pointed at both ends, and 
 thickest in the middle. It is the produce of a biennial 
 plant (Carum carui), with a taper root like a parsnip, 
 but much smaller. It should be chosen large, new, of 
 a good color, not dusty, and of a strong agreeable smell. 
 It is principally used by confectioners. The stem 
 rises from two to three feet in height, and produces 
 numerous umbels of small whitish or reddish flow- 
 ers ; and each flower is succeeded by two single-seeded 
 capsules, which are the caraway-seeds of commerce. 
 These have a strong peculiar odor, with an aromatic 
 bitter taste, and yield, on distillation, about 4 per cent, 
 of a volatile oil, on which their properties depend. 
 
 Carboy, a large globular bottle of green glass, pro- 
 tected by wicker-work ; used chiefly for holding acids 
 and highly con-osive liquids. The average capacity 
 of these bottles is 12 gallons. 
 
 Carhuncle (Ger. Katfunkel ; Yr. Escarhoukie; It. 
 Caroonchio; Sp. Carhunculo; Lat. Carbunculus), a pre- 
 cious stone of the ruby kind, of a very rich glowing 
 blood-red color, highly esteemed by the ancients.— 
 See Ruby. 
 
 Card(Fr. Cardes; Ger. KarSatschen, Karden, Woll- 
 hraizem; It. Cardi; Euss. Bardu; Sp. Cardas), an in- 
 
CAB 
 
 275 
 
 CAE 
 
 fctrument, or comb, for arranging or sorting the hairs 
 of wool, cotton, etc. Cards are either fastened to a flat 
 piece of wood, and wrought by the hand ; or to a cyl- 
 inder, wrought by machinery. — See Playing Cards. 
 
 Cardamoms (Fr. Cardumomes ; Ger. Kardamam ; 
 It. Cardamomi; Sp. Kardamomos; Hind. Gujaratidor 
 chi), seed capsules produced by a plant, of which there 
 are different species growing in India, Cochin China, 
 Siam, and Ceylon. The capsules are gathered as they 
 ripen ; and when dried in the sun, are tit for sale. The 
 small capsules, or lesser cardamoms, are produced by 
 a particular species of the plant, and are the most val- 
 XLsible. They should be chosen full, plump, and diiB- 
 eult to be broken ; of a bright yellow color ; a piercing 
 smell ; with an acrid, bitterish, though not very un- 
 pleasant taste ; and particular car^ should be taken 
 that they are properly dried. They are reckoned to 
 keep best in a body, and are therefore packed in large 
 chests, well jointed, pitched at the seams, and other- 
 wise properly secured, as the least damp greatly re- 
 duces their value. The best cardamoms are brought 
 from the Malabar coast. They are produced in the 
 recesses of the mountains by felling trees, and after- 
 ward burning them ; for wherever the ashes fall in the 
 openings or iissures of the rocks, the cardamom plant 
 naturally springs up. In Soonda Balagat, and other 
 places where cardamoms are planted, the fruit or ber- 
 ry is very inferior to that produced in the way now 
 mentioned. The Malabar cardamom is described as a 
 species of bulbous plant, growing 3 or 4 feet high. 
 The growers are obliged to sell all their produce to the 
 agents of government at prices fixed by the latter, 
 varying from 550 to 700 rupees the Candy of 600 lbs. 
 avoirdupois ; and it is stated that the contractor often 
 puts an enhanced value on the coins with whicli he pays 
 tlie mountaineers ; or makes them take in exchange 
 tobacco, cloths, salt, oil, betel-nut, and such necessary 
 articles, at prices which are frequently, no doubt, es- 
 timated above their proper level. Such a system 
 ought assuredly to be put an immediate end to. Not 
 more than one hundredth part of the cardamoms raised 
 in Malabar are used in the countrj'. They are sent in 
 large quantities to the ports on the Eed Sea and the 
 Persian Gulf, to Sind, up the Indus, to Bengal, Bom- 
 bay, etc. They form a universal ingredient in cur- 
 ries, pillaus, etc. The market price, at the places of 
 exportation on the Malabar coast, varies from 800 to 
 1200 rupees the candy. — Milburn's Orient. Commerce, 
 and the valuable evidence of T. H. Baber, Esq., before 
 Parliament, 1830. 
 
 Cardinal Points, in Cosmography, are the four 
 intersections of the horizon with the meridian and the 
 prime vertical circle, or North and South, East and 
 West. The cardinal points, therefore, coincide with 
 the four cardinal regions of the heavens, and are 90° 
 distant from each other. The intermediate points are 
 called collateral points. 
 
 Cards, or Playing Cards (Du. Kaarten, Speel- 
 karden ; Fr. Cartes ajouer ; Ger. Karten, Spiel Karten ; 
 It. Carte da ffiuoco ; Kuss.Kartu; Sp. Carras, Naipes ; 
 Sw. Kori), manufactured of pieces of paste-board, hav- 
 ing various devices, and arranged in packs, generally 
 of 52 pieces in a pack and used for playing numerous 
 games. — See Playing Cards. 
 
 Careening (French Faire abbattre carener), heav- 
 ing a vessel down on one side, by applying a strong 
 purchase to the masts, so that the vessel maybe clear- 
 ed from axiyjUth that adheres to it by breaming. A 
 half careen takes place when it is not possible to come 
 at the bottom of the ship , so that only half of it can 
 be careened. 
 
 Caribbean Sea, that part of the Atlantic Ocean 
 lying between the coasts of Central and South America 
 and the islands of Cuba, Hayti, Porto Eico, and the 
 Leeward and Windward Islands. 
 
 Caribbee Islands, in its more extended sense, is 
 applied to the whole of the West Indies ; but strictly 
 
 it only comprehends that cluster of islands stretching 
 from Porto Rico to the coast of South America, and 
 known as the Leeward and Windward Islands. 
 
 Carline, or Caroline, a silver coin current at Na- 
 ples, worth about id. sterling. 
 
 Carlines, or CarlingS, in a ship, two pieces of 
 timber ranging fore and aft from one beam to another 
 directly over the keel. On these rest the ledges to 
 which the planks of the deck are flxed. Carline knees 
 are timbers lying athwart the ship, from the sides to 
 the hatchway, and serving to sustain the deck. 
 
 Carmine (Ger. Karmin; Du. Karmyn; Fr. Car- 
 mine; It. Camdnio ; Lat. Carminium'), a powder of a 
 very beautiful red color, bordering upon purple, and 
 used by painters in miniature. It is a species of lahe, 
 and is formed of finely pulverized cochineal. It is very 
 high priced. * 
 
 Camelian. See Agate. 
 
 Carpet, Carpets (Ger. Teppicfie; Du. Tapyten, 
 Vloer-tapyten ; Fr. Tapis; It. Tappeti; Sp. Alfomhras, 
 Alcatifas, Tapetes; Russ. Kowru,Kilimi), is supposed to 
 be derived ftom Cairo (whence also the French Cairam, 
 a Turkey cai-pet), and from the Latin tapes, tapestry, 
 corresponding to the Italian carpetta and the Dutch 
 lofirpet. It is legitimately applied to an article of man- 
 ufacture used for covering the floors of chambers or 
 spreading on the ground, although, while it was a 
 novelty in Europe, tables also were covered with it. 
 Carpets and rugs were manufactured at a very remote 
 period in Egypt, India, and China ; but those of Per- 
 sia and Turkey are the most celebrated. They were 
 originally used for sitting and reclining upoii, as may 
 still be observed in Eastern countries, where they con- 
 stitute the entire furniture of the people. In Egypt 
 they were first applied to religions purposes by the 
 priests of Heliopolis, and were also used to garnish the 
 palaces of the Pharaohs. It was also a custom of an- 
 tiquity to place them under the couches of guests at 
 banquets. Sardinian carpets are mentioned by Plato, 
 the comic poet, as being disposed in this manner — "be- 
 neath the ivorj' feet of purple-cushioned couches." 
 The carpets of the Homeric Age were generally white 
 or plain cloths ; but they Tvere also sometimes produced 
 with various colors and embroidered designs. At the 
 supper of Iphicrates, purple carpets were spread on the 
 floor ; and at the magnificent banquet of Ptolemy Phil- 
 adelphus (an account of which is given by Callixenus 
 of Rhodes) we learn that underneath 200 golden couches 
 " were strewed purple carpets of the finest wool, with 
 the carpet pattern on both sides ; and there were hand- 
 somely embroidered rugs, very beautifully elaborated 
 with figures. Besides this," he adds, "thin Persian 
 cloths covered all the centre space where the guests 
 walked, having most accurate representations of ani- 
 mals embroidered on them." — AthituKus, v. 26. The 
 Babylonians, who were very skillful in weaving cloths 
 of divers colors (Pliny, viii. 48), delineated upon their 
 carpets entire groups of human figures, together with 
 such fabulous animals as the dragon, the sphinx, and 
 the griffin. These were numbered among the luxuries 
 of Heliogabalus. On the tomb of Cyrus was spread a 
 purple Babylonian carpet, and another covered the bed 
 whereon his body was placed. — ^Arrian, vi. 29. These 
 carpets were exported in considerable quantities to 
 Greece and Rome, where they were highly esteemed. 
 Carthage was also noted by Hermippus, Antiphanes, 
 and others, for its magnificent carpets. 
 
 " Carpets were in use, at least in some kind, as early 
 as the days of Amos, about 800 B.C.— Amos, ii. 8. 
 Carpets were spread on the ground, on which persons 
 sat who dwelt in tents ; but when first used in houses, 
 even in the East, we have no record. In the twelfth 
 century carpets were articles of luxury ; and in En- 
 gland, it is mentioned as an instance of Becket's splen- 
 did style of living, that his sumptuous apartments 
 were every day in winter strewn with clean straw or 
 hay ; about a.d. 1160. The manufacture of woolen 
 
CAK 
 
 276 
 
 CAR 
 
 carpets was introduced into France from Persia, in the 
 reign of Henry IV., between 1589 and 1610. Some 
 artisans wlio had quitted France in disgust went to 
 England, and established the carpet manufacture about 
 1750. There, as with most nations, Persian and Tur- 
 key carpets, especially the former, are most prized. 
 The famous Axminster, Wilton, and Kidderminster 
 manufacture is the growth of the last hundred years. 
 The manufacture of Kidderminster and Brussels car- 
 pets has much advanced within fifteen years, at Low- 
 ell, Massachusetts, and Thomsonville, Connecticut." — 
 Hayds. 
 
 Sir J. Gardiner Wilkinson gives us an account of 
 an ancient carpet-rug of Egyptian manufacture. " This 
 rug," he tells us, "is made, like many cloths of the 
 present day, with woolen threads on linen strings. In 
 the centre is the figure of a boy in white, with a goose 
 above, the hieroglyphic of a 'child,' upon a green 
 ground, around which is a border composed of red and 
 blue lines," etc. — Manners and Customs of the Ancient 
 Egyptians, vol. iii. p. 141-2. He further informs us 
 that there are in the Turin Museum some specimens 
 of worked worsted upon linen, " in which the linen 
 threads of the weft had been picked out, and colored 
 worsted sewed on the warp." In these two examples 
 we have evidence of the existence, at a verj' early 
 time, of a system of tapestry-weaving. The ancient 
 carpet manufacture of the Asiatic countries may re- 
 solve itself under the appellation of needle-work. Of 
 this, the present process of carpet-weaving in Persia 
 and Turkey, and the tapestry manufacture of France, 
 may be considered as fitting examples. The tapestry, 
 as is well known, consists of woolen or other threads 
 sewed on the strings of tlie warp by means of small 
 shuttle-needles. The Persian carpet is formed by 
 knotting into the warp tuft after tuft of woolen yarn, 
 over each row of which a woof shot is passed, the fin- 
 gers being here employed instead of the shuttle-needles, 
 as the fabric is of a coarser description. In both meth- 
 ods the principle is the same. Both are formed in 
 looms of very simple construction, the warp threads 
 are arranged in parallel order, whether upright or hor- 
 izontal, and the fabric and pattern are produced by 
 colored threads, hand-wrought upon the warp. This 
 may be designated the hand-wrought or needle-work 
 method, which only makes one stitch or loop at a time, 
 in contradistinction to the machine-wrought process, 
 the result of mechanical appliances, whereby a thou- 
 sand stitches are effected at once. Herein lies tlie 
 essential difference between the ancient and modem, 
 the simple and complex carpet manufacture. 
 
 Persia. — In Persia there are entire tribes and fam- 
 ilies whose only occupation is that of carpet-weaving. 
 These dispose of their productions at the bazars to 
 native merchants, who remove them to Smyrna or 
 Constantinople, where they meet with European pur- 
 chasers. The trade in real Persian carpets is, howev- 
 er, very limited, owing to their small size. They are 
 seldom larger than hearth-rugs, long and narrow. 
 Very many of them, moreover, are considerably tar- 
 nished by exposure in bazars, if they have not indeed 
 been already used. To render them more salable they 
 are cleaned. This is done by cropping the surface, 
 which in some cases is shaved quite close to the knot ; 
 hence a great proportion of those brought to this coun- 
 try have not their original richness and depth of pile. 
 Felted carpets or mtrmuds are also made in Persia, but 
 do not constitute an export commodity. Sir Henry 
 Bethune, late Persian embassador, had in his posses- 
 sion a veiy singular specimen of this felt carpeting, in 
 which colored tufts of worsted had been inserted dur- 
 ing the process of manufacture, producing a regular 
 pattern when finished. 
 
 Turheij. — The greater part of those Turkey carpets 
 imported into Western Europe are manufactured at 
 tishak or Ouchak, in the province of Aidin, about six 
 days' journey from Smyrna, and rugs principally at 
 
 Kulah or Koula, an adjacent village. In the provinces 
 of Hoodavendigniar, Adana, and Nish, numerous 
 households are employed in their production, as also 
 in the districts of Bozah, the city of Aleppo, and the 
 villages of Trebizond. Here and there, throughout 
 Caramania, such carpets are also made. The Turco- 
 mans of Tripoli, the women of Candia, and the peas- 
 antry of Tunis and Algiers, are likewise engaged in 
 their fabrication. In none of these places, however, 
 does any large manufactory exist ; the carpets are the 
 work of families and households. These carpets are 
 woven in«one piece, and there is tjiis notable peculiari- 
 ty in their manufacture, that the same pattern is never 
 again exactly reproduced ; no two carpets are quite 
 alike. The patterns are very remarkable, and their 
 origin is unknown even to Mussulmans. 'The Turkey 
 carpet pattern represents inlaid jeweled work, which 
 accords with Eastern tales of jewels and diamonds. 
 If this were rightly understood, it would prevent such 
 speculations as those of Mr. Redgrave in his Great Ex- 
 hibition Report on Design, where he remarks, that 
 "the Turkish carpets are generally designed with a 
 fiat border of flowers of the natural size, and with a 
 centre of larger forms conventionalized in some cases 
 even to the extent of obscuring the forms — a fault to 
 be avoided." This is doubtless a very ingenious mode 
 of accounting for the curious forms of a Turkey car- 
 pet ; but these, however fantastic, are never obscured, 
 nor are there any flowers, flat or otherwise, in the bor- 
 ders or elsewhere. The great beauty of these carpets 
 lies in the equal balance of color, of dull neutral shades, 
 somewhat sombre in efi'ect. 
 
 India. — Generally throughout British India the 
 carpet manufacture is carried on. At Benares and 
 Moorshedebad are produced velvet carpets with gold 
 embroidery. A very elaborate carpet, sent from Cash- 
 mere to the Great Exhibition by Maharajah Goolab 
 Singh, was composed entirely of silk, and excited 
 great admiration. In every square foot of this carpet, 
 we are informed, there were at least 10,000 ties or 
 knots. Silk embroidered hookah carpets are made at 
 Lahore, Mooltan, Khyrpoor, Tanjore, and Bengal; 
 cotton carpets, or satrunjees at Kungpore, Agra, and 
 Sasseram ; printed cotton carpets at Ahmedabad ; 
 printed floor-cloth at Mooltan. Woolen carpets are 
 far more extensively manufactured ; some of which 
 come from Ellore, Mirzapore, and Goruckpore ; but the 
 principal manufacture i^ at Masulipatam, 292 miles 
 nortli from Madras. There the capital and enterprise 
 of Great Britain have lent their aid to the rather tardy 
 movements of the natives, and this article is now in 
 general demand. Of late years linen warp has been 
 introduced instead of cotton, and the fabric is thereby 
 much improved. The designs of the Indian carpets 
 have more regularity than those of Turkey, and the 
 colors are mostly warm negatives, enlivened with bril- 
 liant hues interspersed. For the introduction of Masul- 
 ipatam carpets, as of many others, the English are in- 
 debted to the firm of AVatson, Bell, & Co., whose In- 
 dian connection is the sole means of obtaining these 
 beautiful fabrics.- — E. B. 
 
 The total value of Persian, Turkey, and Indian car- 
 pets imported into England may be computed at about 
 £20,000 per annum. 
 
 Oriental carpets were first introduced into Spain by 
 the Moors ; and at a later date the Venetians imported 
 them into Italy, and supplied Western Europe with 
 this luxurious manufacture. We have frequent men- 
 tion of them during the Middle Ages, and their cost- 
 liness and magnificence are celebrated in the illumin- 
 ated pages of fabliaux and romances. They were 
 spread in the presence-chambers of royalty, before the 
 high altars of chapels and cathedrals, in the bowers of 
 "ladyes faire," and on the summer grass. Many ar- 
 ticles of furniture were also covered with them — beds, 
 couches, tables, and regal faldestols ; but here it be- 
 comes difficult to distinguish between carpet and tap- 
 
CAR 
 
 277 
 
 CAR 
 
 estry, both being used promiacuously. Tapestry of 
 Baldekine or Baldachine (from Baldak, ancient name 
 of Bagdad), was a carpet inwrought with gold and 
 silver threads. Such were carried on poles, and up- 
 lifted as a canopy over the host, and over great per- 
 sonages in procession. The troubadours had carpets 
 of gold embroidery which they laid upon the grass 
 beneath them. Hearth-rugs and throne carpets, gor- 
 geously emblazoned with heraldic centre-pieces, were 
 the handiwork of high-born dames during the romance 
 period. To some of these were attached fringes, bnt 
 such were more usually composed of the fag-ends of 
 tlie warp, like those of Persia, India, and Turkey. A 
 blacl^ velvet carpet, "fringed with silv«r and gold, 
 and lined with taffeta," is enumerated in the inveuT 
 tory of Archbishop Parfce's household furniture in 
 1 577. Eushes were strewn on the floor of Queen Ma- 
 ry's presence-chamber, and that of Elizabeth had the 
 additional covering of a Turkey carpet. Long prior 
 to this, however. Eastern carpets had been introduced. 
 In the reign of Edward VI. we read that before com- 
 munion-tables were placed 
 
 " Carpets full gay. 
 That ^7rought were in the Orient." 
 
 Checkered matting appears to have been very gener- 
 ally used about the fifteenth centary. The «ame ar- 
 ticle is produced in many parts of Asia from tlte grassy 
 fibres of the ratan. A superior description is now 
 made from cocoa-nut fibre and Manillan flax. In 
 Lydgate's metrical life of St. Edmund (MS. Harl. No. 
 2278) is a representation of the room wherein that 
 saint was born ; the floor is covered with checfe^ered 
 matting, and a fringed hearth-rug of Gothic design is 
 before the fire-place. Carpets composed entirely of 
 leather strips interlaced together may be seen in our 
 antiquarian museums. A sample of this •description 
 was lately prepared for the inspection of the new houses 
 of Parliament, and offered as a Covering for their halls 
 and passages, but was rejected. 
 
 France. — In the reign of Henry IV. the carpet man- 
 ufacture appears to have been introduced from Persia 
 into France. Colbert, the minister of Louis XIV., 
 established the manufactory at Beauvais in 1664, 
 which is now in the hands of the French government, 
 and produces very artistic specimens. A variety of 
 these, " in Turkish, Peruvian, and Chinese styles," 
 was exhibited in London In 1851. The national man- 
 ufactory of Gobelins, which likewise sent its beautiful 
 carpets and tapestry to the great exhibition, was estab- 
 lished shortly after that of Beauvais. It was pur- 
 chased in 1677 by Colbert from the Gobelin family, 
 whose progenitors, a century ago (Gilles and Jean 
 Gobelin), brought their art, as was supposed, from 
 Flanders. An attempt was made, in the time of Hen- 
 ry VIII., by William Sheldon, to start this manufac- 
 ture in England ; but under the patronage of James I. 
 it was more successfully established, with the super- 
 intendence of Sir Francis Crane, at Mortlake, in Sur- 
 rey, where both carpets and tapestry were produced. 
 Toward this object the sum of £2676 sterling was con- 
 tributed by its royal patron, and French weavers were 
 brought over to assist. But it does not appear that 
 any thing considerable was effected until after the rev- 
 ocation of the edict of Nantes in 1685, when artisans 
 of every trade fled to England, among whom were 
 tapestry and carpet weavers, who settled in various 
 parts. About the year 1750, Mr. Moore was awarded 
 a premium by the Society of Arts for the best imita- 
 tion Turkey carpets ; and Parisot conducted an estab- 
 lishment for their manufacture at Paddihgton, under 
 the patronage of the Duke of Cumberland. Subse- 
 quently, carpets were wrought on the same principle 
 at Axminster, in Devonshire, whence the name ; and 
 afterward at Wilton, where they are still manufac- 
 tured. The board of trustees for the encouragement 
 of arts and manufactures in Scotland offered prizes for 
 the best Persian and Turkey carpets. About ninety 
 
 years previously they had been made in the vicinity 
 of Holyrood Palace. These expensive and magnifi- 
 eent carpets are now made in many parts of Europe, 
 but more particularly at the Gobelins manufactory, at 
 Aubusson and Fellitin, in the department of Creuse, 
 at the manufacture royal de tapis de tournai in Bel- 
 gium, and at Deventer in the Netherlands. They are 
 also made in London and Kidderminster. 
 
 Hitherto we have been treating of the simple hand- 
 wrought or needle-work process, which implies great 
 expense and waste of time and labor, and is therefore 
 not calculated to supply a general demand. The ma- 
 chine-wrought fabric now claims our attention ; and 
 first in order, the common ingrain, Kiddenninster, or 
 Scotch carpet, which is made in many parts of Scot- 
 land, the north of England, and in the United States. 
 This consists of worsted warp traversed by woolen 
 weft, and is woven in pieces about a yard wide. It is 
 composed of two distinct webs interlaced together at 
 one operation, and is therefore a double or two-ply car- 
 pet, similar on either side. In this article only two 
 colors can with propriety be introduced, as otherwise 
 it has a striped or mixed appearance. A pure or plain 
 color can only be obtained where the weft traverses 
 the warp of the same color. Suppose a crimson figure 
 on a maroon ground ; the one web is maroon, the other 
 is crimson, and the pattern is produced by these inter- 
 secting and decussating each other at points predeterm- 
 ined; thus what is crimson on one side is maroon on 
 the other, and vice versa. One beam contains the warp 
 of both plies, arranged in two tiers, which is passed 
 through the mails or metallic eyes of the harness — two 
 threads through each eye — and thence through the 
 reed. The harness dra^vs up certain warp threads, to 
 admit of tbe^ passage of the shuttle with the weft, the 
 pattern depending upon such warp threads as are so 
 drawn up. This was formerly efi'ected by means of 
 a revolving bari'e!, whose surface was studded witJi 
 pins, which by rotation acted upon the warp threads. 
 These studs being arranged so as to produce one pat- 
 tern, a separate barrel, or a new arrangement of the 
 studs, was requisite for every other pattern. But this 
 machine is now superseded by the more efficient Jac- 
 quard apparatus, *hich produces the pattern by.means 
 of an endless chain of perforated cards working against 
 parallel rows of needles. This double fabric is also 
 made in France, and sprigs of divers colors inserted. 
 A detailed account of this process, with elaborate dia- 
 grams, is given by M. Rola>id de la Plati^re, in the 
 Encyclopidie Mkhodique. An improvement upon the 
 Kidderminster cirpet is the triple or three-ply fabric, 
 the invention of Mr. Thomas Morton, of Kilmarnock. 
 This is composed of three distinct webs, which, by in- 
 terchanging their threads, produce the pattern on both 
 sides. A variety of color is thus obtained, and the 
 texture is of great thickness and durability. Figured 
 Venetian carpeting is of similar description ; here the 
 woof is completely covered by a heavy body of warp. 
 Dutch carpeting is much inferior in quality, and was 
 originally made of cow-hair, but now of the coarsest 
 wool. Neither fabric has great capabilities of design; 
 simple diced patterns are wrought in the Venetian, 
 stripes and checkers in the Dutch. 
 
 The Brussels carpet is a very superior texture. It 
 is composed of worsted and linen, and has a rich cord- 
 ed appearance. The figures are raised entirely from 
 the warp, by inserting a series of wires between the 
 linen foundation and the superficial yarn. These wires 
 are afterward withdrawn, leaving a looped surface. 
 In this manufacture there is a great waste of material, 
 and the colors are usually limited to five. Each color 
 has its continuous layer of thread, running from end 
 to end of the web, which rises to the surface at inter- 
 vals indicated by the design, and then sinks into the 
 body of the fabric. Thus there are five layers or cov- 
 ers, only a fifth part of which is visible ; and owing to 
 tlie irregularity of their aseent to the surface, they can 
 
CAR 
 
 278 
 
 CAR 
 
 not be placed upon one beam, but each thread is wound 
 on a separate bobbin, with a weight attached to give 
 a proper tension. These bobbins are arranged in five 
 frames jutting out behind the loom, two hundred and 
 sixty bobbins in each frame for the ordinary width. 
 Additional frames are requisite for additional colors 
 introduced ; but where more than five are engaged the 
 pattern is rather indistinct. The threads of all the 
 bobbins are then drawn through the harness, heddles, 
 and reed, to unite with the linen yarn in the compound 
 fabric, the Jacquard machine being employed to pro- 
 duce the pattern. Brussels carpets were first intro- 
 duced into Wilton about a century ago, from Tournai, 
 in Belgium. Kidderminster is now the chief seat of 
 this manufacture, where upward of 2000 looms are in 
 operation. 
 
 Moquette or Wilton carpets are woven in the same 
 manner, and differ only in this, that the loops are cut 
 open into an elastic velvet pile. To eflfect this, the 
 wires are not circular as in the Brussels fabric, but flat, 
 and furnished with a groove in the upper edge, where- 
 in the sharp point of a knife is inserted and drawn 
 across the yam, cutting the pile. These carpets, be- 
 sides being manufactured in many parts of England 
 and Scotland, are also made in France. 
 
 Recent Improvements. — We now' proceed to describe 
 a very ingenious improvement in this branch of car- 
 pet manufacture, the' invention of Mr. Kichard Why- 
 tock, of Edinburgh. This is a combination of the arts 
 of printing and weaving, at the same time simplifying 
 both. These arts may be said to be combined when 
 any woven fabric 15 printed; but here the process is re- 
 versed, the threads being printed before they are in 
 cloth. This, to be sure, is the case when warps are 
 printed and then woven ; but the grand novelty of this 
 invention is that the threads are printed before even 
 the warp is formed. One thread, or two treated as one, 
 in some cases miles in length, are colored by steps of 
 half an inch, faster than a swift runner would make 
 the distance. When these threads have been all parti- 
 colored in this manner, they form the elements, as it 
 were, of the intended design or fabric. Singly, they 
 exhibit no regular figure or pattern ; but when ar- 
 ranged in their proper order, ready for the weaver's 
 beam, the figure comes into view, much elongated of 
 course, inasmuch as eighteen feet of the warp will 
 sometimes be gathered into four feet of cloth, in order 
 to secure the due proportions of the intended object. 
 It has been said that the two combined arts of printing 
 and weaving are simplified by this contrivance. With 
 regard to the weaving : First. The loom occupies only 
 one-third of the space in length that the Brussels loom 
 requires. Second. The latter must have 1300 little 
 beams or bobbins, from which the worsted pile has to 
 be gathered ; whereas this loom requires only one beam 
 for the whole of the worsted threads. Third. While 
 the Brussels or Wilton, on a web of twenty-seven 
 inches, requires for the best fabric 2860 threads, only 
 780 are here requisite — one layer instead of five — to 
 produce as good or a better surface. Lastly. While the 
 number of colors in succession lengthwise, on the old 
 principle, must not exceed six or seven, upward of 
 twenty or thirty can be introduced by the new method. 
 Then, again, as a simplification of the printing process : 
 whereas formerly' a change of blocks was required for 
 every change of pattern, in this new process the same 
 blocks serve for all patterns, as the pen serves for every 
 form of type. Many of those manufacturers who are 
 now availing themselves of this invention do not see 
 wherein its true economy consists. If an object, say a 
 rosebud, recurs a thousand times in the length of a web, 
 at intervals of four feet, the block printer must apply 
 his block a thousand times to point the opening bud ; 
 but here the buds are congregated, so that one stroke 
 may dye them all. If it be desired to have a thousand 
 buds in the length of the web, let a thread be wound 
 round a hollow cylinder a thousand times, and a trav- 
 
 ersing wheel charged with color be passed across the 
 coil. The thread, when uncoiled, will be found to be 
 marked in a thousand places, exactly where it is want- 
 ed to tip the opening bud with red from end to end of 
 the web. Design-paper, whereon the pattern is indi- 
 cated in small squares, serves as a guide to the print- 
 er ; each square being one stroke of the color-pulley. 
 After the threads are thus streaked across with color 
 they are removed from the cylinder or drum, and the 
 dyes are fixed by the action of steam. The threads 
 are then arranged in setting-frames, according to the 
 squares of the design-paper, to constitute the warp of 
 the projected web. The Jacquard is now so far at a 
 discount, and the loom restored to nearly the same sim- 
 plicity as of old, when 
 
 *' Between two trees the web was hung." 
 
 The principle here referred to is only in its infancy. 
 The works of the first masters may yet be multiplied 
 by this process, if they will condescend to furnish the 
 cartoons. Already flowers are produced which the bot- 
 anist can classify without mistake. 
 
 Like every other improvement, this invention met 
 with considerable opposition, particularly on the part 
 of manufacturers and dealers. During the first four- 
 teen 3'ears, the number of looms employed gradually 
 increased from one to fifty-six, the greatest number in 
 operation at Lasswade in 1847. Now, so extensive is 
 the manufacture in England, that one house produces 
 to the extent of half a million sterling per annum, hav- 
 ing upward of three hundred looms at work by steam- 
 power. It is gratifying to learn that these power- 
 looms, instead of throwing out of employment, engage 
 more operatives with better wages and easier work. 
 Messrs. Henderson and Widnell of Lasswade, John 
 Crossley and Sons of Halifax, Pardee, Hooinans, and 
 Pardee of Kidderminster, and Sutherland and Tod of 
 Lanark, are the principal manufacturers engaged upon 
 this patent. An extraordinary consequence upon the 
 introduction of this article is that it has not interfered 
 with other branches of the carpet manufacture, not one 
 of which appears to have been diminished. There is, 
 therefore, an addition to the trade of the country, to 
 the whole amount of its produce, itself no mean result ; 
 the whole trade being at least doubled, as far as fine 
 carpets are concerned. Whytock's carpets are known 
 under the designation of Patent Tapestry and Velvet 
 Pile Carpets. Bugs, table-covers, fine velvets, and tap- 
 estry hangings, are wrought on the same principle. 
 
 Another great improvement in carpet-making, which 
 originated also in Scotland, was patented by Mr. James 
 Templeton, of Glasgow. It is on the chenille principle, 
 and consists of a process of double weaving. First a 
 thin striped fabric is made ; and this, when cut up, is 
 again woven into a denser fabric for carpets, rugs, and 
 table-covers. The chenille stripes, like the parti-color- 
 ed threads in Whytock's invention, form the elements 
 of the second fabric, only those elements go to compose 
 the woof instead of the warp, as in the former case. 
 Extremely beautiful carpets have been made on this 
 principle, and these being woven in large squares, have 
 interfered much with the Tournai or Axminster car- 
 pets, having the same depth of pile, without being so 
 expensive. Hitherto, however, the manufacture has 
 been confined to the place where it originated. 
 
 Patent wool mosaic is another novelty. This man- 
 ufacture was introduced into England from Germany. 
 It is produced by cementing with caoutchouc a close 
 velvet pile on a plain cloth. Messrs. John Crossley 
 and Sons of Halifax have brought out some admirable 
 specimens of this mosaic-work, in carpets, rugs, and 
 hangings for walls ; but as yet this method has been 
 more extensively applied to the manufacture of small 
 articles. A very cheap description of carpet is now 
 made near Manchester. It is first woven in plain col- 
 ors by steam-power, under Seivier's patent, by Bright 
 & Co. It is then printed with colored blocks by ma- 
 chinery patented by Burch & Co. This article "has a 
 
CAK 
 
 279 
 
 CAB 
 
 large export sale. The carpet manufacture is rapidly 
 Increasing in Great Britain. Upward of 5000 looms, it 
 is computed, are now in operation, upon every descrip- 
 tion. 
 
 It remains to speak of carpet design. This matter 
 is regulated by prevailing fashion and caprice, under 
 the ever-varying semblance of good taste. There are 
 revolutions in decorative art as in all things else, and 
 in these carpet design is involved. An acute observer 
 can discover here symptomatic indications of nation- 
 al or individual character. The supremacy of Gothic 
 architecture, in our day, implies the revival of medi- 
 aeval art. Simple ornamental designs, in quietand sub- 
 dued coloring, are now about to talie the place of their 
 
 more brilliant predecessors. Many colors will only be 
 tolerated in Moorish and Arabesque ornament, or in 
 the bizarra Turkey carpet. — E. B. 
 
 The production of carpets is carried on extensively in 
 the United States, especially in Massachusetts, Rhode 
 Island, Connecticut, New York, and New Jersey. In 
 Massachusetts alone, in 1850, the capital invested in 
 this branch of business amounted to $2,264,000, and 
 the annual product about $1,400,000, in which 1600 
 persons were employed. Our manufacture of carpets 
 is increasingf and will probably equal the demand when 
 the production of wool shall supply the wants of our 
 manufacturers. Of the imports into this country fully 
 nine-tenths come from Great Britain. 
 
 Imposts of Cakpets into the Umited States. 
 
 
 Year ending Juno 80, 1853. 
 
 Year ending June 30, 1654. 
 
 Year endine June 30, 1BS5. 
 
 Yorde. 
 
 Value, 
 
 Yards. 
 
 Value. 
 
 YntdB. 1 1 Valne. „ 
 
 Wilton, Saxony, and Aubuason 
 
 Brussels, Turkey, and treble ingrained 
 
 "Venetian and other ingrained 
 
 Not specified 
 
 Total 
 
 73,879 
 735,402 
 239,157 
 
 $92,671 
 732,487 
 142,817 
 229,404 
 
 63,«i7 
 
 2,236,263 
 
 353,726 
 
 $93,230) 
 
 1,313, 107 f- 
 
 165,391) 
 
 697,087 
 
 1,492,983 
 
 $1,321,707 
 178,870-' 
 
 
 $1,217,279 
 
 
 $2,268,815 
 
 
 $1,806,677 
 
 Tlie duty on carpets and carpeting, and carpet-bags and oil-cloth Imported into the United States is 30 per cent, ad valorem. 
 On straw matting, worsted carpet-bags, and carpet binding, 25 per cent. 
 
 Carriages. The invention of them is ascribed to 
 Ericthonius of Athens, who produced the, first chariot 
 about 1486, B.C. Carriages were known in France in 
 the reign of Henry II. a.d. 1547 ; but they were of 
 very rude construction, and rare. They seem to have 
 been Icnown in, England in 1555; but not the art of 
 making them. Close carriages of good workmanship 
 began to be used, by persons of the highest quality at 
 the close of the sixteenth century. Henry IV. had 
 one, but without straps or springs. Their construction 
 was various : they were first made in England in the 
 reign of, Elizabeth, and were then called whirlipotes. 
 The Duke pf Buckingham, in 1619, drove six horses; 
 and tlip Duke of Northumberland, in rivalry, drove 
 eight. They were first let for hire in Paris, in 1650, 
 at the Hotel Fiacre ; and hence their name. — Haydn. 
 Premiums at the World's Fair held in London were 
 given to the makers of carriages in the United States, 
 as the.v were superior in lightness and strength, with an 
 equal finish. New York carriages are very celebrated. 
 
 Carriers are persons undertaking for hire to carry 
 goods from one place to another. Proprietors of carts 
 and wagons, masters and owners of ships, hoymen, 
 lightermen, bargemen, ferrymen, etc., are denominated 
 common carriers. The master of a stage-coach who 
 only carries passengers /or hire is not liable for goods ; 
 but if he undertake to carry goods and passengers, then 
 he is liable for both as a common carrier. The post- 
 master-general is not a carrier in the common accepta- 
 tion of the term, nor is he subjected to his liabilities. 
 
 Duties and Liabilities of Carriers. — Carriers are bound 
 to receive and carry the goods of all persons for a rea- 
 sonable hire or reward ; to take proper care of them in 
 their passage ; to deliver them safely, and in the same 
 condition as when they were received (excepting only 
 such losses as may arise from the act of God) ; or, in 
 defatilt thereof, to make compensation to the owner 
 for wliatever loss or damage the goods may have re- 
 ceived while in their custody, that might have been 
 prevented. Hence a carrier is Uable, though he be 
 robbed of the goods or they be taken from him by ir- 
 resistible force ; and though this may seem a hard 
 rule, yet it is the only one that could be safely adopt- 
 ed ; for if a carrier were not liable for losses unless it 
 could be showii that he had conducted himself dis- 
 
 King's Bench on a case of this sort. Lord Mansfield 
 said : "A carrier, by the nature of his contract, obli- 
 ges himself to use all due care and diligence, and is 
 answerable for any neglect. But there is something 
 more imposed upon him by custom, tliat is, by the 
 common law. A common carrier is in the nature ofa/n 
 insurer. AH the cases show him to be so. This makes 
 him liable for every thing except the act of God and 
 the king's enemies ; that is, even for inevitable acci- 
 dents, with those exceptions. The question then is, 
 Whit is the act of God ? I consider it to be laid down 
 in opposition to the act of man; such as lightning, 
 storing, tempests, and the like, which could not hap- 
 pen by any human intervention. To prevent litigation 
 and collusion, the law presumes negligence except in 
 those circumstances. An armed force, though ever so 
 great and irresistible, does not excuse ; the reason is, 
 for fear it may give room for collusion, which can 
 never happen with\respect to the act of God. We all, 
 therefore, are of opinion that tliere should be judg- 
 ment for the plaintiff." — Forward v. Piltard, 1 T. R. 27. 
 A carrier is not obliged to have a new carriage for 
 every joui-ney ; it is sufficient if he provide one that, 
 witliout any extraordinary accident, may be fairly 
 presumed capable of performing the journey. A car- 
 rier may be discharged from his liability by any fraud 
 or concealment on the part of the individual employing 
 him, or of the bailer ; as if the latter represent a parcel 
 as containing things of little or no value, when, in 
 fact, it contains things of great value. But when the 
 carrier has not given a notice limiting his responsibili- 
 ty, and when hu puts no questions with respect to the 
 parcel to the bailer, the latter need not say any thing 
 with respect to it ; and though the bailer should rep- 
 resent the thing delivered to the carrier as of no value, 
 yet, if the latter know it to be otherwise, he will be re- 
 sponsible in the event of its being lost or damaged. 
 If the bailer deliver ,goods imperfectly packed, and the 
 carrier does not perceive it, he is not liable in the event" 
 of a loss occurring ; but if the defect in the package 
 were such that the carrier could not but perceive it, he 
 would be liable. On this principle a carrier was made 
 to answer for the loss of a greyhound that had been 
 improperly secured when given to him. A carrier 
 may refuse to admit goods into his warehouse at an 
 
 honestly or negligently, a door would be opened for unseasonable tune, or before he is ready to take his 
 every species of fraud and collusion, inasmuch as it i journey ; but he can not refuse to do the ordinary 
 would be impossible, in most cases, to ascertain wheth- ' duties incumbent on a person in his situation. It is 
 er the facts were such as the carrier represented. On i felony if a carrier open a parcel and take goods out of 
 the same principle a carrier has been held aqcountable [ it with intent to steal them ; and it has been decided 
 for goods accidentally consumed by fire while in his . that if goods be delivered to a carrier to be carried to 
 warehouse. In delivering the opinion of the Court of a specified place, and he carry them to a different 
 
CAE 
 
 280 
 
 CAS 
 
 5)lace, and dispose of them for his own profit, he is 
 guilty of felony ; but the embezzlement of goods by a 
 carrier without a felonious taking merely exposes to a 
 civil action. 
 
 A carrier is always, unless there be an express 
 agreement to the contrary, entitled to a reward for his 
 care and trouble. In some cases his reward is regu- 
 lated by the Legislature, and in others by a special 
 stipulation between the parties ; but though there be 
 no legislative provision or express agreement, he can 
 not claim more than a reasonable compensation. 
 
 CommenceTTient and Termination of Liability. — A car- 
 rier's liability commences from the time the goods are 
 actually delivered to him in the character of carrier. 
 A delivery to a carriei*'s servant is a delivery to him- 
 self, and he will be responsible. The delivery of 
 goods at an inn yard or warehouse, at which other 
 carriers put up, is not a delivery so as to charge a 
 carrier, unless a special notice be given him of their 
 having been so delivered, or some previous intimation 
 to that effect. 
 
 " In New Yorlt it was held that placing goods on 
 the wharf without notice to the consignee is not a de- 
 livery to the consignee, so as to discharge the carrier, 
 even though there was a, usage to deliver goods in 
 that manner. The carrier must not leave or abandon 
 the goods on the wharf, even though there be an ina- 
 bility or refusal of the consignee to receive them." — 
 Kent's Commentaries, 
 
 A carrier's liability ceases when he vests the prop- 
 erty committed to his charge in the hands of the con- 
 signee or his agents, by actual delivery ; or when the 
 property is resumed by the consigner, in pursuance of 
 his right of stopping it in transitu. It is in all cases 
 the duty of the carrier to deliver the goods. The leav- 
 ing goods at an inn is not a sufficient delivery. The 
 rule in such cases, in deciding upon the carrier's lia- 
 bility, is to consider whether any thing remains to be 
 done by the carrier, as such ; and if nothing remains 
 to be done, his liability ceases, and conversely. 
 
 A carrier has a lien upon goods for his hire. Even 
 if the goods be stolen, the rightful owner is not to 
 have them without paying the carriage. 
 
 Fcr further details as to this subject, see Jeremy on 
 the Law of Carriers^ passim ; Chitty's Commercial 
 Law, vol. iii. p. 369-386 ; Burns' Justice of the Peace, 
 title Carriers; and Kent's Cmnmeniaries, Lect. XL. 
 There are some excellent observations with respect to 
 it in Sir William Jones's Essay on the Law of Bail- 
 ments. — For an account of the regulations as to the 
 conveyance of passengers in stage-coaches in England, 
 see M'Culloch's Dictionary. 
 
 Carrot (Daucus carota, Linn.), a biennial plant, a 
 native of Britain. Though long known as a garden 
 plant, its introduction into agriculture has been com- 
 paratively recent. The uses of the carrot in domestic 
 economy are well known. 
 
 Cart, a carriage with two wheels, drawn common- 
 ly by horses, and used to carry heavy goods, etc. The 
 word seems formed from the French charrette, or the 
 Latin carreta, a diminutive of carrus. Carts of War, 
 a peculiar kind of artillery anciently in use among the 
 Scotch. In an act of Parliament, passed in 1456, they 
 are thus described : " It is thought speidfuU, that the 
 king may requeist to certain of the great burrous of 
 the land that are of ony myght, to mak carts of weir, 
 and in ilk cart twa gunnis, and ilk ane to have twa 
 Chalmers, with the remnant of the graith that eflfeirs 
 thereto, and an cunnand man to shute thame." By 
 another act passed in 1471, the prelates and barons are 
 commanded to provide such carts of war against their 
 old enemies the English. — E. B. 
 
 Cartagena (Carthago Nova, or "New Carthage," 
 ithaving been a principal colony of the Carthaginians), 
 a celebrated city and sea-port, and the chief naval ar- 
 senal of Spain, on a noble bay of the Mediterranean, 
 pro vince, and 27 miles south-southeast of Murcia. Lat. 
 
 37° 36' 5" N., long. 0° 56' 36" W. Population 27,727 ; 
 in 1786 it contained 60,000 inhabitants. It occupies 
 the declivity of a hill, and a small plain extending to the 
 harbor, which is one of the best in the Mediterranean, 
 and protected from all winds by surrounding heights, 
 and by an island on the south, which, as well as the 
 city, is strongly fortified. The city, though dull, dilap- 
 idated, and unhealthy, owing to an adjacent swamp, has 
 some good streets and houses, numerous churches and 
 convents, a marine school, large royal hospital, found- 
 ling hospital, town-hall and custom-house, observatory, 
 theatre, circus, etc. In its western division, an arsenal, 
 docks for building men-of-war, and a bagne for galley- 
 slaves. Its port communicates with the Segura River, 
 by the Lorca Canal. Its manufactures of cordage and 
 canvas, with trade in barilla and agricultural produce, 
 have decayed, but it still has a valuable tunny fishery, 
 and a glass factory recently established by an Englisli 
 house ; and in 1843, 14 new smelting works had been 
 set up here. The mines of Cartagena, originally 
 wrought by the Carthaginians, were re-discovered a 
 few years ago ; and in 1839 the new mine of La Carmen 
 was opened successfully by a joint-stock company. 
 Since then, drainages and mining have proceeded vig- 
 orously. Cartagena was taken by Scipio B.C. 208, at 
 which period Livy states that it was one of the richest 
 cities in the world. It was ruined hy the Goths ; 
 and its modern importance dates only from the time 
 of Philip II. 
 
 Cartagena, or Carthagena, a strongly fortified 
 city and sea-port of New Granada, South America, of 
 which republic it is the chief naval arsenal, capital of 
 the province, on a sandy peninsula in the Caribbean 
 Sea. Lat. of the dome" 10° 25' 36" N., long. 75° 34' 
 W. Population 10,000, nine-tenths of whom are a 
 mixed black race. It is well laid out, and built mostly 
 of stone. It has a massive citadel, several churches, 
 a college with about 200 pupils, various seminaries, 
 and two hospitals. The temperature is very high, from 
 80° to 86° Fahrenheit, but the air dry and healthy. 
 Its excellent port is defended by two forts, and is the 
 only harbor on the north coast of New Granada adapt- 
 ed for repairing vessels. Cartagena is the principal 
 d6p6t for the produce of the provinces watered by the 
 Cauca and Magdalena Elvers, and is connected with 
 the Magdalena by a canal. It exports sugar, cotton, 
 coffee, tobacco, hides, specie, bullion, etc. Under the 
 Spaniards, this citj' was the seat of a captain general, 
 and of one of the three tribunals of the Inquisition in 
 America. It was the first town that proclaimed inde- 
 pendence, and in 1815 endured a most vigorous siege, 
 and was subdued only by famine. Population of the 
 province, 103,783. 
 
 Cartridge, in the military art a case of pasteboard 
 or parchment, holding the exact charge of a fire-arm. 
 The cartridges for muskets, carabines, and pistols, 
 contain both the powder and ball. Those made for 
 cannon and mortars are cases of pasteboard or tin, 
 sometimes of wood ; and simple flannel bags have 
 been found convenient in practice. Cartridge-boT, a 
 case of wood or turned iron, covered with leather, with 
 cells for holding a dozen or more cartridges. It is worn 
 upon a belt thrown over the left shoulder, and hangs 
 a little below the pockeUhole on the right side. — E. B. 
 
 Carving. We have Scriptural authority for its 
 early introduction. — See Exodus xxxi. The art of 
 carving is first mentioned in profane history 772 B.C., 
 and is referred to the Egyptians. It was first in wood, 
 next in stone, and afterward in marble and brass. 
 Dipoenus and Scyllis were eminent carvers and sculp- 
 tors, and opened a school of statuary , 568 B.C. — Pliny. 
 See article Wood. Carvers of meat were called by 
 the Greeks derihitares, as mentioned by Homer. — 
 Haydn. 
 
 Case, in Printing, a large, flat, oblong frame or 
 box, placed aslope, and divided into numerous little 
 square compartments, each containing a number of 
 
CAS 
 
 281 
 
 CAS 
 
 tj-pes of the same kind, whence the compositor takes 
 tlie particular letters he requires iu composing hia 
 matter. 
 
 Case-hardening, the process of converting the 
 superficies or outer part of iron into steel. This is 
 effected by placing the article in a box with some an- 
 imal or vegetable charcoal, and exposing it to a red 
 heat. It differs only from the making of steel in the 
 shorter duration of the process. Iron tools, etc., when 
 thus treated, combine the toughness of iron with the 
 hardness of steel. 
 
 Cash, in Commerce, means the coin, bank bills, 
 drafts, bonds, and all immediately negotiable paper in 
 an individual's possession. 
 
 Cash Account, in Book-keeping, an account to 
 which nothing but cash is carried on the one hand, 
 and from which all the disbursements of the concern 
 are drawn on the other. The balance is the cash in 
 hand. When the credit side more than balances the 
 debit or disbursement side, the account is said to be 
 in cash ; when the contrary, to be out of cash. Cash 
 account, in Banking, is the name given to the account 
 of the advances made by a banker in Scotland to an 
 individual who has given security for their repayment, 
 
 CaBheTiv-nuts (Ger. Akajuniisse, Westindische Ana- 
 karden; Du. Catsjoenooten ; Fr. Noix d'acajou; It. 
 Aeaju; Sp. Nueces d'acaju; Port. Jfozes d'acaju), the 
 produce of the Anarcardmm occidentale. They are ex- 
 ternally of a grayish or brownish color, of the shape 
 of a kidney, somewhat convex on tlie one side, and 
 depressed on the other. The shell is very hard ; and 
 the liernel, which is sweet and of a very fine flavor, is 
 covered with a thin film. Between this and the shell 
 is lodged a thick, blackish, inflammable oil, of such a 
 caustic nature in the fresh nuts, that if the lips chance 
 to touch it, blisters immediately follow. The kernels 
 are used in cooking, and in the preparation of choco- 
 late. 
 
 Cashier, a cash-keeper ; he who receives and pays 
 the debts of a society. In the generality of founda- 
 tions the cashier is called treasurer. In a banking 
 institution the cashier is the officer who superintends 
 the books, payments, and receipts of the bank. He 
 also signs or countersigns the notes, and superintends 
 all the transactions under the order of the directors. 
 
 Cashmere, a kingdom in Northern India, so called 
 from its principal division, the celebrated valley of 
 that name, and comprehending within its limits the va- 
 rious territories which constitute the dominions of Gho- 
 lab Singh. Its boundaries are, the Karakorum Mount- 
 ains on the north ; Thibet on the east ; the British pos- 
 sessions of Spiti, Lahoul, and the Punjaub on the south ; 
 and the Huzareh country on the west. It extends from 
 lat. 32° 17' to lat. 36°, and from long. 73° 20' to long. 
 79° 40' ; its extreme length from east to west being 350 
 miles, and its breadth about 270. Area about 25,000 
 square miles. The population has been estimated at 
 750,000. Within its limits are included the valley of 
 Cashmere, and the provinces of Jamoo, Ladahk, Bulti 
 or Iskardoh, Chamba, and some others. Cashmere has 
 been long famed for the manufacture of shawls, which 
 are distributed all over northern and western Asia, 
 and are exported in great quantities to Europe. These 
 shawls owe their peculiar beauty and fine texture to 
 the wool which is brought from 'Thibet, lying at a dis- 
 tance of a month's journey to the northeast. The wool 
 forms the inner coat with which the goat is covered, 
 and the breed is peculiar to Thibet ; all attempts to in- 
 troduce it into India or Persia having invariably failed. 
 The wool, which is originally of a dark gray color, is 
 bleached in Cashmere by a preparation of rice flour. 
 The process of manufacture is very slow, not more 
 than one inch being added to the finest shawls in the 
 course of a day. It is estimated that about 16,000 
 looms were at one time employed in this manufacture ; | 
 but of late years the demand has declined, owing to | 
 tlie decay of the Persian and Ottoman empires, and i 
 
 the desolation and poverty of the Eastern countries. 
 When Cashmere was tributary to Afghanistan, a great 
 portion of the public revenue was exacted in shawls. 
 The yarn into which the wool is spun is dyed with 
 various colors, and, after being woven, the piece is 
 once washed, and the border, in which is displaj-ed a 
 vai'iety of figures and colors, is attached to the shawls 
 in so dexterous a manner that it is hardly possible to 
 discover the junction. The price varies in proportion 
 to the quality. A species of writing-paper is also 
 made iu Cashmere, which is highly praised through- 
 out the East, and was formerly a great article of trafBc ; 
 as were also its lacquered ware, cutlery, and sugar. 
 A wine resembling Madeira is manufactured, and a 
 spirituous liquor is distilled from the grape. The 
 internal intercourse of the country is chiefly main- 
 tained by means of the numerous streams which in- 
 tersect it, and which are navigated in long and nar- 
 row boats moved by paddles.- — E. B. 
 
 Cashmere Shawls. The district from whence 
 come these costly shawls is described as being "the 
 happy valley, and a paradise in perpetual spring." 
 The true Cashmere shawls can be manufactured of 
 no other wool than that of Thibet. They were first 
 brought to England in 166G ; but they were well imi- 
 tated by the spinning at Bradford, and the looms of 
 Huddersfield. Shawls for the omrahs, of the Thibetian 
 wool, cost 150 rupees each, about the year 1650. — 
 Beknier. 
 
 Caspian Sea, the Mare JByrcanum of the ancients, 
 derives its name from the Caspii, a tribe who settled 
 on its shores. Among the Orientals it is known un- 
 der a variety of names ; by the Russians it is called 
 the Sea of Astracan, and by the Turks Bahri-Ghong. 
 It is situated between 36° 35' and 47° 25' N. lat., and 
 46° 15' and 55° 10' E. long., is the largest inland lake 
 in the world, and has no outlet to the ocean. It is 
 surrounded by the Russian governments of Astracan 
 and Orenberg, the Caucasian countries, Persia, and 
 Tartary ; its greatest length is about 760 miles, and 
 its greatest breadth about 400 from east to west ; gen- 
 erally, howevei', only half that breadth, and where 
 narrowest not more than 120 miles across. Its esti- 
 mated area is from 120,000 to 140,000 square miles. 
 There arc no tides in this sea, nor are there any regu- 
 lar currents ; but the high winds which occasionally 
 blow over its large surface cause' considerable and ir- 
 regular agitations in its motions. The mean depth of 
 the Caspian Sea is from 400 to 600 feet, and in some 
 places is found to be 2700 feet; but its waters are 
 every where very shallow near the shore, especially to- 
 ward the west. A''essels drawing 9 or 10 feet water 
 are thus compelled to unload far from the shore, ex- 
 cepting near Bakou and some other parts of tlie lake. 
 Navigation is, in general, dangerous, owing to the fre- 
 quency and violence of the east and west winds ; and 
 the contracted space forces the navigator to beat about 
 in order to ayoid the sand banks concealed near its 
 shores. The waters of the Caspian have a slight- 
 ly bitter taste, communicated by the naphtha which 
 abounds in the surrounding countries, and is carried 
 into it by the streams which it receives : but they are 
 not so salt as those of the ocean, in consequence of the 
 great volume of water jJoured into it by the Volga and 
 its other tributaries. Horses do not refuse todrinlc along 
 the shores and near the mouths of the rivers. — E. B. 
 
 Cassia. There are four species of cassia in the 
 market; viz.. Cassia Lignea, or Cassia Bark; Cassia 
 Fistula ; Cassia Buds ; and Cassia Senna. 
 
 1. Cassia Lignea, or Cassia Bark (Fr. Casse; Ger. 
 Cassia; Port. Cassia lenhosa; Arab. Seleekeh; Hind. 
 Tuj; Malay, Kayu-legi), the bark of a tree {jMurus 
 Cassia, Linn.) growing in Sumatra, Borneo, the Mala- 
 bar coast, Philippine Islands, etc. ; but chiefly in the 
 provinces of Quantong and Kingsi, in China, which 
 furnish the greatest part of the cassia met with in the 
 markets. The tree grows to the height of 50 or 60 
 
CAS 
 
 282 
 
 CAS 
 
 feet, with large, spreading, horizontal branches. The 
 bark resembles that of einnamon in appearance, smell, 
 and taste, and is very often substituted for it ; but it 
 may be readily distinguished; it is thicker in sub- 
 stance, less quilled, breaks shorter, and is more pun- 
 gent. It should be chosen in thin pieces ; the best 
 being that which approaches nearest to cinnamon in 
 flavor : that which is small and broken should be re- 
 jected. A good deal of the cassia in the Indian mark- 
 ets is brought from Borneo, Sumatra, and Ceylon. 
 Malabar cassia is thicker and darker-colored than that 
 of China, and more subject to foul packing ; each bun- 
 dle should be separately inspected. — Aisslie's Mate- 
 ria Jndica, Milbukn's Orient. Com., etc. See CiN- 
 
 NAMOX. 
 
 2. Cassia Buds, the dried fruit or berry of the tree 
 (^Laurus Cassia) which yields the bark described in the 
 previous article. They bear some resemblance to a 
 clove, but are smaller, and, when fresh, have a rich 
 cinnamon flavor. They should be chosen round, fresh, 
 and free from stalk and dirt. Cassia buds are the 
 produce of China. — Milbukn's Orient. Com. ; Anglo- 
 Chinese Kalendar; and Pari. Paper, No. 257, Sess. 
 1843. 
 
 3. Cassia Fistula (Fr. Casse; Ger. Elionhxsie; It. 
 Polpa di cassia ; Lat. Cassia pulpa ; Arab. Khyar she- 
 her) is a tree which grows in the East and West In- 
 dies, and Egypt (^Cassia fistula, Linn.). The fruit is 
 a woody, dark-brown pod, about the thickness of the 
 thumb, and nearly two feet in length. It is exported 
 principally from the West Indies, packed in casks and 
 cases ; but a superior kind is brought from the East 
 Indies, and is easily distinguished by its smaller smooth 
 pod, and by the greater blackness of the pulp. 
 
 Castanet (Spanish Castaneta, or rather Castaiiuela, 
 probably from Castana, a chestnut), an instrument 
 much used by the Spaniards and Moors as an accom- 
 paniment to their dances and guitars. It is composed 
 of two small pieces of ebony, or other well-dried hard 
 wood, shaped like spoons, which are placed together 
 with the concavities inward, fastened by a string to 
 the thumb, and beat with the middle finger, so as to 
 produce a rattling sound. This instrument is very 
 similar to the ancient crotalum, which appears to have 
 consisted, in its original form, of two pieces of reed, 
 which made a clattering noise when shaken with the 
 hand.— E. B. 
 
 Casting, the running of liquid metal into a mould 
 prepared for that purpose. Casting in Sand or Earth, 
 is the running of metals between two frames or moulds 
 filled with sand or earth, in which the figure that the 
 metal is to take has been impressed en creux, by means 
 of the pattern. Casting, among sculptors, implies the 
 taking of casts and impressions of figures, busts, med- 
 als, leaves, or the like. The method of taking casts 
 of figures and busts is most generally by the use of 
 plaster of Paris, that is, alabaster calcined by a gentle 
 heat. The advantage of using this substance in pref- 
 erence to others is, that notwithstanding a slight cal- 
 cination reduces it to a pulverized state, it becomes 
 again a tenacious and cohering body by being moist- 
 ened with water, and afterward suffered to dry. By 
 this means either a concave or a convex figure may be 
 given by a proper mould or model to it when wet, and 
 retained by the hardness it acquires when dry ; and, 
 from these qualities, it is fitted for the double purpose 
 of making casts, and moulds for forming casts. The 
 particular manner of making casts depends on the form 
 of the subject to be taken. Where there are no pro- 
 jecting parts it is very simple and easy, as likewise 
 where there are such as form only a right or any great- 
 er angle with the principal surface of the body ; but 
 where parts project in lesser angles, or fonn a curve 
 inclined toward the principal surface of the body, the 
 work is more difficult. — E. B. 
 
 Castor (Fr. Casloreum; Ger. Kasforeunt; It. Cas- 
 toro ; Sp. Castoreo'), the produce of the beaver. In the 
 
 inguinal region of this animal are found four bags, a 
 large and a small one on each side: in the two large 
 ones there is contained a softish, grayish-yellow, or 
 light-brown substance, which, on exposure to the air, 
 becomes dry and brittle, and of a brown color. This 
 is castor. Ithas a heavy but somewhat aromatic smell, 
 not unlike musk ; and a bitter, nauseous, and subacrid 
 taste. The best comes from Bussia ; but of late years 
 it has been very scarce ; and all that is now found in 
 the shops is the produce of Canada. The goodness of 
 castor is determined by its sensible qualities ; that 
 which is black is insipid, inodorous, oily, and unfit for 
 use. Castor is said to be sometimes counterfeited by 
 a mixture of some gummy and resinous substances ; 
 but the fraud is easily detected by comparing the 
 smell and taste with those of real castor. — Thomson's 
 Dispensatory. 
 
 Castor-oil (Fr. Buile du Ridn; Ger. Rinnusohl; 
 It. Olio di Eicino ; Sp. Micinsoel) is obtained from the 
 seeds of the Eicinus communis, or Palma Chrisfi, an an- 
 nual plant found in most tropical countries, and in 
 Greece, the south of Spain, etc. The oil is separated 
 from the seeds either by boiling them in water, or by 
 subjecting them to the action of the press. It is said 
 that though the largest quantity of oil may be pro- 
 cured by the first method, it is less sweet, and more 
 apt to become rancid, than that procured by expres- 
 sion, which, in consequence, is the process now most 
 commonly followed. Good expressed castor-oil is 
 nearly inodorous and insipid ; but the best leaves a 
 slight sensation of acrimony in the throat after it is 
 swallowed. It is thicker and heavier than the fat oils, 
 being viscid, transparent, and colorless, or of a very 
 pale straw color. That which is obtained by boiling 
 the seeds has a brownish hue ; and both kinds, when 
 they become rancid, thicken, deepen in color to a red- 
 dish-brown, and acquire a hot, nauseous taste. It is 
 Aery extensively employed in the materia medica as 
 a cathartic. — Thomson's Dispensatory. 
 
 Culture and Manufacture of Castor-oil. — Southern Il- 
 linois is the source whence all the castor beans are 
 brought that are sold or manufactured in St. Louis. 
 The ground is prepared as for other crops, and when 
 there is no longer any danger from the spring frosts 
 the seeds are planted in hills and rows, much in the 
 manner of planting Indian corn, with the exception 
 that there is but one seed put into each hill, and that 
 at every fourth row a space is left sufficiently wide to 
 admit of the passage of a team for the purpose of gath- 
 ering the crop. Unlike the cereal grains, the ricinus 
 bears at the sam'e time flowers and fruit, and the se- 
 verity of our climate, which renders it in this latitude 
 an annual plant, destroys its vitality while yet decked 
 with bloom. The ripening commences in August, and 
 the crop is gathered at intervals from this date until 
 the plants are destroyed by frost. 
 
 The yield, of course, varies with the quality of the 
 soil and the care of the culture. Twenty-five bushels 
 from an acre of ground is considered a very large crop, 
 and is but seldom obtained. From sixteen to twenty 
 bushels per acre is a very fair yield in a season not 
 marked by drought or other unfavorable feature. 
 
 The primitive mode of making castor-oil was by 
 putting the (bruised) beans in a bag, and placing the 
 same in a kettle of water, and as the beans were boil- 
 ed the oil came to the surface and was skimmed off. 
 Subsequently there were adopted the screw and lever 
 presses, and other devices for pressing the beans, and 
 many mills sprang up throughout the southern part of 
 Illinois, some of which remain in use until this time. 
 The beans are first kiln-dried, and then pressed with- 
 out grinding, the oil thus obtained being called " cold 
 pressed," to distinguish it from the boiled oil (that 
 obtained by boiling the beans in water). 
 
 About ten years ago, the St. Louis manufacturers 
 1 commenced using the ordinary hydraulic press, in- 
 creasing the yield from the raw material, and work-, 
 
CAT 
 
 283 
 
 CAT 
 
 Jng tha ,bean3 with greater rapidity and economy. 
 About two years since there was introduced a new 
 press, which has brought the business to a greater 
 state of perfection, by increasing the product of oil 
 from the beau 37i per cent, over the ordinary hydrau- 
 lic press, and securing other advantages in the econ- 
 omy of labor and fuel. One of these presses will work 
 150,000 bushels of beans per annum, producing as 
 much as 400,000 gallons of oil. It is said that one of 
 these presses worked on castor-oil, in connection with 
 others on linseed-oil, furnishes sufficient combustible 
 refuse from the castor bean to supply fuel for the 
 works ; and in this way the fuel from the bean is of 
 sufficient value to pay all the expenses of manufactur- 
 ing the oil. The amount saved in Latourette'a estab- 
 lishment by burning the above refuse, when in full 
 operation, is about fifty dollars per week. After the 
 oil is pressed from the beans, it is clarified by boiling 
 in large kettles with a small portion of water, and 
 when perfectly clear is allowed to cool, and is then 
 di'awn off into barrels ready for market. During the 
 months of July, August, and September, 1854, there 
 were manufactured thirty-two thousand gallons of 
 castor-oil at this establishment alone. The manufac- 
 ture of the oil, which, in 1850, was largely carried on 
 in Illinois, is now mostly effected in the city of St. 
 Louis. 
 
 
 I860. 
 
 1851. 
 
 1852. 1 1858. 1 
 
 Crop in bushels. . ; 
 
 Factories in St Louis. . 
 Factories in Illinois . . . 
 Barrels of oil made . . . 
 Equivalent in gallons . 
 
 260,000 
 
 2 
 
 18 
 
 9,900 
 
 850,000 
 
 160,000 
 
 2 
 
 T 
 
 T,000 
 
 255,000 
 
 1)0,000 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 6,500 
 
 192,500 
 
 (15,000 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 4,200 
 
 l4T,ono 
 
 The estimated crop of beans for 1854 was but 10,000 
 bushels, being almost a total failure ; arising from the 
 excessive drought that prevailed during the summer 
 over that part of the country. The number of mills 
 in operation in 1854 was only five, and those only em- 
 ployed part of the time. These statements exhibit a 
 gradual decline in the amount of oil produced, which 
 arises partly from the decreased crops, and partly, 
 probably, from a limitation in the demand. The price 
 of oil in 1852-'53 was as low as 60 to 80 cents per gal- 
 .lon, and is at present about $1 25 by the barrel, which, 
 with the short crop of the past year, will probably 
 prove an inducement to the farmers to again turn their 
 attention to raising the beans. It has been stated that 
 castor-oil had been used on one of the Western rail- 
 roads for oiling the axles of cars, and probably also on 
 the locomotives. Since the rise in the price of whale 
 oil, the attention of machinists ha? been turned to 
 various substitutes, and it is probable that the non- 
 drying quality of the castor-oil, when pure, will ren- 
 der it very valuable for lubricating purposes, if it can 
 be produced at a sufficiently low price. — Ajnerican 
 Journal of Plmrmacy, 1855. 
 
 Catechu (Fr. Cachou; Ger. Kaschu; Hind. Cut, Gdm- 
 bif), a brown astringent substance, formerly known by 
 the name of Ten'a Japonica^ because supposed to be a 
 kind of earth. It is, however, a vegetable substance 
 obtained from two plants ; viz. the Mimosa, or more 
 correctly the Acacia catechu, and the Tjncaria gamhir. 
 The first of these is a tree from 20 to 30 feet high, 
 found in abundance in many of the forests of India, 
 from 16° of lat. up to 30°. The places most remark- 
 able for its production are the Burmese territories ; a 
 large province on the Malabar coast called the Concan ; 
 and the .forests skirting the northern part of Bengal, 
 under the hills which divide it from Nepaul. The 
 catechu is obtained from this tree by the simple process 
 of boiling the heart of the wood for a few hours, when 
 it assumes the look and consistency of tar. The sub- 
 stance hardens by cooling ; is formed into small balls 
 or squares ; and being dried in the sun, is fit for the 
 market, Johnson, in his " Cliemistry nf Common Life," 
 says, . " In the most relaxing climates of the East this 
 strongly astringent substance acts beneficially upon 
 
 the system." Perron, the traveler, states that he pre- 
 served his health during a long and difficult voyage 
 by the habitual use of betel, while his companions, who 
 did not use it, died, mostly of dysentery. 
 
 Cat-head, a strong timber projecting fi'om either 
 bow of a ship, to which the anchor is raised and se- 
 cured. 
 
 Cat's Eye, a mineral of a beautiful appearance, 
 brought from Ceylon. Its colors are gray, green, 
 brown, red, of various shades. Its internal lustre is 
 shining, its fracture imperfectly conchoidal, and it is 
 translucent. From a peculiar play of light, arising 
 from white fibres interspersed, it has derived its name. 
 The French call the appearance chatoyant. It scratch- 
 es quartz, is easily broken, and resists the blow-pipe. 
 It is set by the jewelers as a precious stone. 
 
 Cat Skins. The skin or fur of the cat is used for 
 a variety of purposes, but is principally dyed and sold 
 as false sable. It appears from evidence taken before 
 a late Committee of the House of Commons, that it is 
 a common practice in Loudon to decoy theanimal and 
 kill it for the sake of its skin. The fur of the wild- 
 cat is, however, far more valuable than that of the 
 domestic cat. The wild-cat skins imported into Eu- 
 rope are brought almost wholly from the territories of 
 the Hudson's Bay Company. The animal from which 
 they are taken is a good deal larger than the English 
 wild-cat, and is sometimes called the loup servier, or 
 Canadian lynx. 
 
 Cattle, a collective term applied to designate all 
 those quadrupeds that are used either as food for man 
 or in tilling the ground. By neat or horned cattle is 
 meant the two species included under the names of the 
 ox (fios) and the buffalo (buhulus); but as the latter 
 is principally confined to Asiatic countries, it is the 
 foriper only that we have here in view. The raising 
 and feeding of cattle, and the preparation of the vari- 
 ous products which they yield, have formed, in all 
 countries emerged from the savage state, an important 
 branch of industry. It would be quite inconsistent 
 with the objects and limits of this work to enter into 
 any details with respect to the different breeds of cattle 
 raised in this or other countries. They are exceedingly 
 various. In Great Britain and in this country they 
 have been vastly improved, both in the weight of car- 
 cass, the quality of the beef, and the abundance of the 
 millc, by the extraordinary attention that has been 
 giyen to the selection and crossing of the best breeds, 
 according to the objects in view. - This sort of im- 
 provement began about the middle of last century, or 
 rather later, and was excited and very much forwarded 
 by the skill and enterprise of two individuals — Mr. 
 Bakewell, of Dishley ; and Mr. CuUey, of Northum- 
 berland, England. The success by which their efforts 
 were attended roused a spirit of emulation in others ; 
 and the rapid growth of commerce and manufactures 
 since 1760 having occasioned a corresponding increase 
 in the demand for butcher's meat, improved systems 
 of breeding, and improved breeds, have been very 
 generally introduced. But the improvement in the 
 size and condition of cattle has not been alone owing 
 to the circumstances now mentioned. Much of it is 
 certainly to be ascribed to the great improvement that 
 has been made in their feeding. The introduction and 
 universal extension of the turnip and clover cultiva- 
 tion has had, in this respect, a most astonishing influ- 
 ence, and has wonderfully increased the food of cattle, 
 and consequently the supply of butcher's meat. 
 
 Amgng the various races of cattle existing among 
 us, where strict regard is paid to breeding with a defin- 
 ite object in view, a preference is given to the Dur- 
 hams or short horns, the Herefords, the Ayrshires, and 
 the Devons. The Durhams, from their rapid growth, 
 early maturity, and capability of taking on fat, are 
 adapted only for high keeping, or to the richest pas- 
 tures of the Middle and Northern States, and those of 
 Ohio, Kentucky, and other parts of the West. The 
 
CA.U 
 
 284 
 
 CED 
 
 males, when judiciously crossed with the other breeds, 
 or with the common cows of the country, often beget 
 the best of millcers, and for this purpose they have 
 been especially recommended. The Herefords, on the 
 contrary, from their peculiar organization, are better 
 adapted for poor or indifferent pastures, and regions 
 subject to continued drought ; and for this reason they 
 are well suited for California, New Mexico, Texas, 
 and other parts of the South. The oxen of this breed 
 are good in the yoke, and the cows, when properly fed, 
 give an abundance of millc. The Ayrshires are best 
 suited for a cool, mountainous region, or a cold, rigor- 
 ous climate. They succeed well in Massachusetts, 
 New Hampshire, and Vermont, and are highly prized 
 for their tameness, docile tempers, and rich milk. 
 TheDevons, from their hardihood, comparatively small 
 size, and peculiar structure, appear to be adapted to 
 almost every climate, and to all kinds of pasturage. 
 From their stoutness, good tempers, honesty, and quick- 
 ness of action, they make the best teams, and in this 
 respect their chief excellency consists. The cows make 
 fair milkers, and their flesh very good beef. They also 
 possess great aptitude to take on fat. — See Abattoir. 
 
 Caulking, or Cauking, the driving of oakum or 
 old rope untwisted into the seams between the planks 
 in a ship's deck or sides, to prevent the entrance of 
 water or leakage. The seams are then covered with 
 melted pitch or rosin, to keep the oakum from rotting. 
 
 Cavendish, Thomas, was the son of a gentleman 
 of good estate in Suffolk, England, but having im- 
 poverished himself by early extravagances, with a 
 view to retrieve his affairs he fitted out three vessels 
 for a predatory expedition against the Spanish Ameri- 
 can colonies, for which he sailed in July, 1685. After 
 ravaging the western coasts, and taking a Spanish ves- 
 sel richly ladened, he sailed across the South Sea, and 
 returned to England by way of the Cape of Good Hope, 
 in September, 1688, having circumnavigated the globe 
 in a shorter time than any preceding adventurer. The 
 great wealth which he acquired from this undertaking 
 prompted him to engage in another voyage, on which 
 he embarked in August, 1591. Tempestuous weather, 
 sickness, and other causes contributed to render this 
 scheme unfortunate ; and Cavendish himself died on 
 the coast of Brazil on his passage home, in 1692. 
 
 Caviar (Fr. Caviar^ CavicU ; Ger. Kaviar ; It. Cavi- 
 arioj Caviale; Sp. Caviario; Russ. Ihra; Lat. Caviari- 
 um), a substance prepared in Russia, consisting of the 
 salted roes of large fish. The best, which is made of 
 the roe of the sturgeon, appears to consist entirely of 
 the eggs, and does not easily become fetid. It is 
 packed in small casks or kegs, the inferior sort being 
 in the form of dry cakes. Caviar is highly esteemed 
 in Russia, and considerable quantities are exported to 
 other countries. It is principally made of the roe of 
 the sturgeon caught in the Wolga, in the neighborhood 
 of Astrachan, as many as 30,000 barrels of caviar hav- 
 ing been exported from that city in a single season. — 
 See Geoff. Bid. art. Astrachan. 
 
 Cayenne, a sea-port town, and the capital of French 
 Guiana, on the west point of the island of same name, 
 at the mouth of the Cayenne or Oyaque River, in the 
 Atlantic. Lat. 4° 86' 5" N., long. 52° 30' W. Popu- 
 lation 6000. It is built mostly of wood, and consists 
 of an old town, with the government-house and Jesuits' 
 college, and the new town, with wide and clean streets, 
 large warehouses, and good residences, between which 
 two divisions is a large open space planted with orange- 
 trees. Harbor shallow ; it has two quays, and is pro- 
 tected by a fort and several batteries. Cayenne is the 
 seat of a court of assize, and the centre of all the trade 
 of French Guiana. Exports to France amount to 
 6,000,000 francs, and imports thence to 5,000,000 francs. 
 The island of Cayenne, in the Atlantic, separated from 
 the continent of South America by a narrow channel, 
 is 30 miles in circumference ; chief products, sugar, 
 cotton, coffee, and fruits. Population (exclusive of 
 
 the town of Cayenne) 3000. First settled by thelFrench 
 in 1625, but they left it in 1654. It was afterward 
 successively in the hands of the English, French, and 
 Dutch. 'These last were expelled by the French in 
 1677. Cayenne was taken by the British, January 12, 
 1809, but was restored to the French at the peace in 
 1814. In this settlement is produced the capsicum 
 baccatum, or Cayenne pepper, so esteemed in Europe. 
 — Haydn. 
 
 Cayenne Pepper is prepared from several varie- 
 ties of capsicum, a genus of sol.inaceous plants which 
 produce a fleshy-colored fruit. This fruit contains an 
 extremely pungent principle, that exists in greatest 
 activity in the seed. The capsicum from which the 
 Cayenne is procured is a native of the East Indies and 
 America. The principal Indian species is C. frutescCTis, 
 and the American C. annitvm. The capsicum enters 
 largely into the seasoning of food and the preparation 
 of pickles ; and is also used in medicine, both intern- 
 ally and externally. The pods may be preserved in 
 vinegar, or in a dry state in salt. The strongest vari- 
 ety of Cayenne pepper comes from the West Indies, 
 and is prepared from the capsicum iaccaium (bird pep- 
 per). 
 
 Cedar (Germ. Zeder; Du. Ceder; Fr. Cedre; It. 
 and Sp. Cedro; Russ. Kedr; Lat. Cedrus). The Cedar 
 of Lebanon, or great cedar (Pinus cedrus"), is famous 
 in Scripture : it is a tall, majestic-looking tree. "Be- 
 hold," says the inspired writer, " the Assyrian was a 
 cedar in Lebanon with fair branches, and with a shad- 
 owing shroud, and of a high stature ; and his top was 
 among the thick boughs. His height was exalted 
 above all the trees of the field, and his boughs were 
 multiplied, and his branches became long. The fir- 
 trees were not like his houghs, and the chestnut-trees 
 were not like his branches, nor any tree in the garden 
 of God was like unto him in beauty." — Ezeldel, xxxi. 
 3, 5, 8. The cedar grows to a very great size. The 
 timber is resinous, has a peculiar and powerful odor, a 
 slightly bitter taste, a rich yellowish brown color, and 
 is not subject to the worm. Its durability is very 
 ■ great; and it was on this account {propter ccternitcdem, 
 Vitruvius, lib. ii. § 9) employed in the construction of 
 temples and other public buildings, in the formation 
 of the statues of the gods, and as tablets for writing 
 upon. In the time of Vitruvius, cedars were princi- 
 pally produced in Crete, Africa, and some parts of 
 Syria. — Loc. cit. Very few are now found on Leba- 
 non ; but some of those that still remain are of im- 
 mense bulk, and in the highest preservation. Cedar 
 exceeds the oak in toughness, but is very inferior to 
 it in strength and stiffness. Some very fine cedars 
 have been produced in England. 
 
 There are several other kinds of timber that are 
 usually called cedar : thus a species of cypress is called 
 white cedar in America ; and the cedar used by the Jap- 
 anese for building bridges, ships, houses, etc., is a kind 
 of cypress, which Thunberg describes as a beautiful 
 wood, that lasts long without decay. The Juniperus 
 oxycedrus is a native of Spain, the south of France, and 
 the Levant; it is usually called the brown-berried cedar. 
 The Bermudian cedar (Juniperus Bermudiana), u na- 
 tive of the Bermuda and Bahama islands, is another 
 species that produces valuable timber for many pur- 
 poses ; such as internal joiners' work, furniture, and 
 the like. The red cedar, so well known from its being 
 used in making black-lead pencils, is produced by the 
 Virginian cedar (Juniperus Virginiana), a. native of 
 North America, the West India islands, and Japan. 
 The tree seldom exceeds 45 feet in height. The wood 
 is very durable, and, like the Cedar of Lebanon, is not 
 attacked by worms. It is employed in various ways, 
 but principally in the manufacture of drawers, ward- 
 robes, etc., and as a cover to pencils. The internal 
 wood is of a dark red color, and has a very strong odor. 
 It is of a nearly uniform texture, brittle, and light. — 
 I See Thedgold's Principles of Carpentry. 
 
CEM 
 
 285 
 
 CEN 
 
 Cements. The substances used for producing co- 
 hesion between different materials are very various. 
 Tliey are mostly, however, soft, or serai-fluid, and 
 harden in the course of time. The number employed 
 is very great. We can mention only a few. The 
 joints of iron pipes and tl»e flanges of steam-enginea 
 are cemented with a mixture composed of sulphur and 
 muriate of ammonia, together with a large quantity 
 of iron chippings. The putty of glaziers is a mixture 
 of linseed oil and powdered chalk. Plaster of Paris, 
 dried by heat, and mixed with water, or with resin 
 and wax, is used for uniting pieces of marble. A ce- 
 ment composed of brick-dust and resin, or pitch, is 
 employed by turners, and some other mechanics, to 
 confme the material on which they are working. Com- 
 mon paint, made of whitOrlead and oil, is used to ce- 
 ment Cliina ware. So also, are resinous substances, 
 such as mastic and shellac, or isinglass dissolved in 
 proof-spirit or water. The paste of book-binders and 
 paper-hangers is made by boiling flour. Hice-glue is 
 made by boiling ground rice in soft water to the con- 
 sistence of a thin jelly. Wafers are made of flour, 
 isinglass, yeast, and wliite of eggs, dried in thin layers 
 upon tin plates, and cut by a circular instrument. 
 The}' are colored by red-lead, etc. Sealing-wax is com- 
 posed of shellac and rosin, and is commonly colored 
 ■with vermilion. Common glue is mostly employed 
 for uniting wood, and similar porous substances. It 
 does not answer for surfaces not porous, such as those 
 of metals, and is not durable if exposed to water. The 
 cements mostly used in building are composed of lime 
 and sand. Lime is procmed by burning substances 
 in which it exists in combination with carbonic acid, 
 such as limestone, marbles, chalk, and shells. By this 
 process, the carbonic acid is driven off, and quicldime 
 is obtained. The quicklime is slaked by mixture with 
 water, after which it swells and cracks, becomes hot, 
 and assumes the form of a white and impalpable pow- 
 der. This is a hydrate of lime, and contains about 
 three parts of lime to one of water. When intended 
 for mortar, it should immediately be mixed with sand, 
 and used without delay, before it imbibes carbonic 
 acid anew from the atmosphere. The lime adheres to 
 and unites the particles of sand. Cements thus made 
 increase in strength and solidity for an indefinite pe- 
 riod. Fresh sand, wholly silicious and sharp, is the 
 best. That taken from the sea-shore is unfit for mak- 
 ing mortar, as the salt is apt to deliquesce and weaken, 
 the mortar. The amount of sand is always greater 
 than that of the lime. From two to four parts of sand 
 are used, according to the quality of the lime and the 
 labor bestowed on it. Water cements, called also Ro- 
 man cements, Iiarden under water, and consolidate al- 
 most immediately on being mixed. Common mortar 
 dissolves or crumbles away if laid under water before 
 it has had time to harden ; but certain rocks, which 
 have an argillaceous as well as a silicious character, 
 communicate to lime or mortar the property of harden- 
 ing in a very few minutes, both in and out of water. 
 The ancieilt Romans, in making their water cements, 
 employed a peculiar earth, obtained at the town of 
 Puteoli. This they called pafois Puteolanus. It is the 
 same as is now called Puzzolana, and is evidently of 
 volcanic origin. The Dutch, in their great aquatic 
 structures, have mostly employed a substance denomi- 
 nated tarras, terras, or trass, found near Andernach, in 
 the vicinity of the Rhine. It is said to be a kind of 
 decomposed basalt, but resembles puzzolana. It is 
 very durable in water, but inferior to the other kinds 
 in the open air. Baked clay and the common green- 
 atone afford the basis of very tolerable water cements, 
 when mixed with lime. Some of the ores of manga- 
 nese may be used for the same purpose. Some lime- 
 stones calcined, and mixed with sand and water, also 
 aflbrd water cements, usually in consequence of con- 
 taining some argillaceous earth. Some cements, of 
 great hardness and permanency, have been obtained 
 
 from mixtures into which animal and vegetahle snl>' 
 stances enter, such as oil, milk, mucilage, etc. The 
 name of maltha or mastic is given them. They are not 
 much used. The principal manufacturing places of 
 cement in the United States are in the State of New 
 York, along the Delaware and Hudson Canal. 
 
 Census is now almost solely used to denote that 
 enumeration of the people made at intervals in most 
 European countries, and in Britain decennially. The 
 term had its origin in Rome, where a group of the 
 many functions performed by the high officer called 
 censor received the name of census. An euumeration 
 of the people was only one of them, hut they were 
 chiefly of a statistical character. They were especially 
 directed to fiscal objects ; and it does not appear that 
 the enumeration of the people was then deemed of 
 value as a source of statistical knowledge which might 
 influence morals and legislation. It was connected 
 with the Servian constitution, which apportioned the 
 rights and duties of citizens to the amount of property, 
 dividing them into six clas'^es, which were subdivided 
 into centuries by a mixed ratio of wealth and numbers. 
 
 The Roman census must have been minute and full. 
 It indicated not only the number and respective classes 
 of all free persons, but their domestic position as hus- 
 bands and wives, fathers and mothers, and sons and 
 daughters. The slaves and freedmen were indicated 
 in connection with the possessions of the head of the 
 house, and landed property was analyzed into several 
 classes, according to its character and produce. The 
 important practical effect of the census caused it to be 
 conducted at intervals generally so frequent as every 
 fifth year. It was followed by a sacrifice of purifica- 
 tion or lustration, whence the term of five years came 
 to be denoted a lusl^rum. 
 
 While the word census was thus applied to the tax- 
 ation of the Middle Ages, it will readily be understood 
 that in its modern sense it received no practical appli- 
 cation, since neither taxation nor the adjustment of 
 social rank required a numbering of the people ; and 
 the statistic or economic ends of such a process were 
 as little known as they had been to the Romans. Un- 
 der the despotic governments of the Continent, how- 
 ever, the tendency to central organization for purposes 
 of administration and police prepared the way for sta- 
 tistical inquiries into the numbers of the inhabitants 
 of particular areas whenever there should occur an 
 occasion for enumerating them. It was in Britain, 
 with its abstinent government and unrestrained peo- 
 ple, that the want of population statistics became most 
 flagrantly conspicuous. It is difficult at present to 
 realize the idea that, long after Adam Smith's day, the 
 number of the inhabitants of the British empire could 
 only be guessed at, as the populonsness of China is at 
 the present day ; and, as in all matters of statistics, 
 which have their own simple solution through specific 
 inquiry, the guesses about the population of the empire 
 were not only vague but extravagantly contradictory. 
 During the eighteenth century, the most trust-worthy 
 geographers were generally those who did not venture 
 on an estimate of the population even in those Euro- 
 pean states which had the best means of enumeration 
 at their command. 
 
 The first effort to take a census of the population of 
 Great Britain was made in 1801 ; it did not then ex- 
 tend to Ireland. The success which attended this and 
 the two succeeding efforts was mainly owing to the 
 zeal and ability of Mr. Rickman, the assistant clerk 
 of the House of Commons. Where there is an organ- 
 ization like that in many cf the European states for 
 preserving a constant official record of all the fluctua- 
 tions of the population, not only in their absolute 
 numbers throughout a whole territory but in the rela- 
 tive numbers in its respective parts as they may be 
 affected by fluctuations, systematic arrangements are 
 thus prepared not only for obtaining a general census 
 at any one moment, but for checking its accuracy and 
 
CEN 
 
 286 
 
 CEN 
 
 classifying its elements. But to deal at once with tlie 
 raw material in tlie self-governed British empire, re- 
 quired great ingenuity and sagacity. A census, to be 
 accurate, must be taken on a uniform system, and must 
 be talcen simultaneously. 
 
 The enumerations of 1841 and 1851 in England were 
 much facilitated by the uniform system of registration 
 of births, marriages, and deaths, established in 1836, 
 which not only afl'orded the means of checking the 
 accuracy of the returns, but provided a prompt and 
 skilled machinery accustomed to statistical work. Far 
 more dependence could now be placed on the discretion 
 and skill of the officers to whom the local duties were 
 committed ; and the returns were made more minute 
 and complete. Scotland and Ireland are perhaps the 
 only considerable countries in Christian Europe where 
 there is no uniform system of registration. In Scot- 
 land it was necessary to adopt the clumsy method of 
 employing the parish schoolmasters to perform the 
 local duty in the country districts. In Ireland the 
 first attempt at a generaf census was made in 1811, 
 but it was decidedly unsuccessful. It was repeated in 
 1821, but went no further than a bare enumeration of 
 doubtful accuracy. The census there taken in 1831 
 was subject to correction in 1834, to make it the basis 
 of the new system of national education. In the two 
 subsequent enumerations the aid of the admirable con- 
 stabulary force, and the use of an ordnance survey, 
 nearly complete in 1841, have gone far to supply the 
 want of permanent local statistical machinery. The 
 census of 1851 was taken on the"31st day of March, the 
 previously-distributed schedules being then collected. 
 
 PopuxATiON ANP Number op Inhabitants to the Sqttake 
 Mile of vaeious Ajsiekican and Eueopean Countries. 
 
 Couutries. 
 
 United States 
 
 Canada 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Central America 
 
 Brazil , 
 
 Pei-u 
 
 Russia in Europe 
 
 Austria 
 
 France 
 
 England 
 
 Great Britain and Ireland . 
 
 PlTissia 
 
 Spain 
 
 Turkey in Europe 
 
 Sweden and Norway 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Holland 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Greece 
 
 Population. 
 
 23,191,8T6 
 
 1,842,265 
 
 7,661,919 
 
 2,049,950 
 
 6,065,000 
 
 2,106,492 
 
 60, 315, £60 
 
 36,514,466 
 
 S5,T83,1T0 
 
 16,921,888 
 
 27,475,271 
 
 16,331,187 
 
 14,216,219 
 
 15,600,000 
 
 4,6!l5,007 
 
 4,426,202 
 
 8,473,758 
 
 8,267,638 
 
 2,296,597 
 
 2,892,740 
 
 998,266 
 
 neneity. 
 
 7 -SO 
 
 5-31 
 
 T-B7 
 
 10-07 
 
 2-19 
 
 8-63 
 
 28-44 
 
 141-88 
 
 172-74 
 
 332-00 
 
 225-19 
 
 161 -82 
 
 78-08 
 
 73-06 
 
 15-83 
 
 388-60 
 
 (■6-14 
 
 259-81 
 
 101-92 
 
 160-05 
 
 66-70 
 
 The United States. — There have been seven enumer- 
 ations of the inhabitants of the United States, the pe- 
 riods and aggregate results of which are as follows : 
 
 Census of 1790 3,929,827 
 
 Census of 1800 5,805,925 
 
 Census of 1810 7,289,814 
 
 Census of 1820 9,638,131 
 
 Census of 1830 12,866,020 
 
 Census of 1840 17,069,453 
 
 Census of 1860 23,191,876 
 
 At the close of 1857, the total population of the 
 United States, upon the supposition that its average 
 ratio of increase has been maintained, or nearly so, 
 may be stated in round numbers at 28,600,000. 
 
 The present population of the Union may be said to 
 consist of, first, the number who were in the country 
 on the formation of the government in 1789, and their 
 descendants ; second, of those who have come into the 
 country since that period by immigration, and their 
 descendants (of this class much will be said under the 
 head of Nativities) ; third, of those who have been 
 brought in by annexation, as in Louisiana, Florida, 
 New Mexico, etc., and their descendants. It is suffi- 
 cient to say of the last class, that Louisiana, when 
 purchased, had 77,000 inhabitants, including 53,000 
 
 slaves ; Florida about 10,000 ; California and Ne-w 
 Mexico about 60,000; and that Texas and Oregon 
 only brought back into the Union citizens who had 
 emigrated thither but a short time before. The num- 
 ber of Indians (taxed) domesticated and absorbed in 
 the population can not b# ascertained. The colonial 
 population was swelled, in 1765, by the extension of 
 the boundary to the Mississippi, and the introduction 
 of 2000 French residents of the territory incorporated. 
 
 Cent, a contraction of the Latin centum, a hundred, 
 is used in commerce to denote a certain rate by the 
 hundred ; thus 10 per cent, profit or 10 per cent, loss 
 upon the sale of any merchandise implies that the seller 
 has gained or lost $10 on every flOO of the -price at 
 which he bought that merchandise. The rate is term- 
 ed percentage. — See Dollar. 
 
 Cent is also the name of a copper coin of the United 
 States, equal to the hundredth part of a dollar, or 
 rather more than a halfpenny English money. The 
 copper coinage of the United States to the end of 
 1853 amounted to $1,513,937. We have of that pon- 
 derous currency about 1590 tons of 2000 pounds avoir- 
 dupois. This circulation is almost entirely confined to 
 the Northern and Middle States, as it is rejected by the 
 South and West. According to the laws establishing 
 the Mint of the United States, "of the copper coins, 
 the weight of the cent shall be one hundred and sixty- 
 eight grains, and the weight of the half cent eighty- 
 four grains; and the cent shall be considered of the 
 value of one hundredth part of a dollar, and the half 
 cent of the value of one two-hundredth part of a dollar. 
 Copper bullion shall be purchased for the Mint, from 
 time to time, by the treasurer, under instructions from 
 the director ; the cost shall be paid from the fund here- 
 inafter provided for ; and the copper bullion shall be 
 of good quality, and in the form of planchets fit for 
 passing at once into the hands of the chief coiner. The 
 copper planchets shall be delivered, from time to time, 
 by the treasurer to the chief coiner, to be by him coined ; 
 and all such copper shall be returned to the treasurer 
 by the chief coiner, weight for weight, without allowance 
 for waste. It shall be the duty of the treasurer of the 
 Mint to deliver the copper coins, in exchange for their 
 legal equivalent in other money, to any person who 
 shall apply for them : Provided, That the sum asked for 
 be not less than a certain amount, to be determined by 
 the director, and that it be not so great as in his judg- 
 ment to interfere with the capacity of the Mint to sup- 
 ply other applicants. The copper coins may, at the 
 discretion of the director, be delivered' in any of the 
 principal cities and towns of the United States, at the 
 cost of the Mint for transportation. The money re- 
 ceived by the treasurer in exchange for copper coins 
 shall form a fund in his hands, which shall be used to 
 purchase copper planchets, and to pay the expense of 
 transportation of copper coins; and if there be a sur- 
 plus, the same shall be appropriated to defray the con- 
 tingent expenses of the Mint. No copper coins or 
 pieces whatsoever, except cents and half cents, shall 
 pass current as money, or shall be paid, or offered to 
 be paid, or received in payment for any debt, demand, 
 claim, matter, or thing whatsoever; and all copper 
 coins or pieces, except the cents and half cents, which 
 shall be paid, or offered to be paid, or received in pay- 
 ment, contrary to the prohibition aforesaid, shall be 
 forfeited, and every person by whom any of them shall 
 have been so paid, or offered to be paid, or received in 
 payment, shall also forfeit the sum of ten dollars, and 
 the said forfeiture and penalty shall and may be recov- 
 ered, with costs of suit, for the benefit of any person or 
 persons by whom information of the incurring thereof 
 shall have been given." — See CoiKs, Coinage. 
 
 According to the acts of Congress prior to 1850, the 
 gold and silver coins of the United States were legal 
 tender to any extent, but by the law of 1853, authoriz- 
 ing the debased silver coins, the latter are receivable in 
 small sums only. Copper coins are not by statute le- 
 
CER 
 
 287 
 
 CEY 
 
 gal tender to any amount. Frequent suggestions in 
 Congress have been recently made to reduce tlio weight 
 of the copper coins, but thus far without effect. 
 
 Cereal G-raaaes (Lat. ceres, corn), grasses which 
 produce the bread corns ; such as wheat, rye, barley, 
 oats, maize, rice, and millet. 
 
 Cette, a commercial and fortified sea-port town of 
 France, department of HiSrault, capital of the canton, 
 at the head of the railroad from Beaucairc, between 
 the Mediterranean and the lagoon of Thau, 17 miles 
 southwest of Mon(-pellier. Lat. of light-house, 43° 23' 
 48" N., long. 3° 42' 16" E. Population 16,613. It is 
 a fortress of the first class, defended by a citadel; prin- 
 cipal edifices. Church of St. Louis, public baths, and li- 
 brary. Its harbor is spacious and secure, from 16 to 
 19 feet in depth, formed by two piers with a breakwa- 
 ter in front, defended by two forts, one on eitlier pier. 
 A broad and deep canal, bordered with quays and ware- 
 houses, connects the port with the lagoon of Thau and 
 the canal du Midi, and with canals leading to the 
 Rhone, by which means Cette has an extensive traffic 
 with the interior. Imports comprise Benicarlo wine 
 from Spain, for mixing with French wines for the En- 
 glish and other markets. It has a large establishment 
 where is manufactured sulphate of soda, magnesia, and 
 potash, from sea-water. The exports consist of about 
 36,000 tuns of wine, and 4000 ditto of brandy annually, 
 with almonds, Montpellier verdigris, salt from adjacent 
 salt-works, and sirups, liquors, soap, perfumery, and 
 glass-wares, the products of -its own factories. Cette 
 is the entrepot for an extensive coasting-trade, and pos- 
 sesses much foreign commerce. It has ship-building 
 yards, and an active oyster and anchovy fishery, and 
 is the residence of various European consuls. It is 
 wholly of modern origin, having been founded by Louis 
 XIV. at the base of the ancient Mons Setius (whence 
 its name). Steamboats to Marseilles daily. 
 
 Ceylon, an island in the Indian Ocean, situated at 
 the southern extremity of the Coromandel coast, from 
 which it is separated by the Gulf of Manaar. It lies 
 between lat. 6° 54' and 9° 50' N., and long. 79° 50' and 
 82° 10' E. Its length is 270 miles, and its greatest 
 breadtli 145 miles. It is of an oval form, pointing 
 north and south ; its broadest part being at its south- 
 ern extremity, where also is to be found the great mass 
 of its high lands. It is distant from Cape Comorin, 
 the southernmost point of the Indian peninsula, about 
 175 miles. The most important cultivation is that of 
 coffee, a branch of industry wiiich, since the year 1841, 
 has assumed a position of great and growing promi- 
 nence. Coffee was an article of growth and export 
 from Ceylon so far back as the time of the Portuguese, 
 but lilte the cinnamon it grew wild without any at- 
 tempt at cultivation. Patches of it were to be seen 
 around the Kandian villages in wild luxuriance, and 
 tile berry gathered before ripe, and imperfectly cured, 
 seldom possessed much flavor, and was lightly esteem- 
 ed as an article of European commerce. Coffee cultiva- 
 tion on the West Indian plan was first commenced by 
 Sir E. Barnes, the then governor of Ceylon, in 1824, 
 who hoped by his example to introduce cofiiee-planting 
 by Europeans into the island. 
 
 The Cocos nucifera, or cocoa-nut palm, is a native of 
 the island, and may justly be considered the most val- 
 uable of its trees. It grows in vast numbers along the 
 entire sea-coast of the west and south sides of the isl- 
 and, and furnishes almost all that a Singhalese vil- 
 lager requires. Its fruit, when green, supplies food 
 and drink ; when ripe, it yields oil. Its sap gives him 
 toddy and arrack. The fibrous casing of the fruit, 
 when woven, makes him ropes, nets, and matting. 
 The nut-shells form drinlting-vessels, spoons, etc. The 
 plaited leaves serve as plates and dishes, and as thatch 
 for his cottage. The dried flower-stalks are used as 
 torches, the large leaf-stalks as garden fences. The 
 trunk of the tree sawn up is employed for every possi- 
 ble pui-pose, from knife-handles to door-posts ; hollow- 
 
 ed out, it forms alike a canoe or a coffin. There are four 
 kinds of this palm ; the common, the king cocoa-nut, the 
 dwarf, and the Maldive sorts. The Palmyra and Areca 
 palms grow luxuriantly and abundantl}-, the former in 
 the northern, the latter in the western and central dis- 
 tricts. The one is valuable chiefly for its timber, of 
 which large quantities are exported to the Indian 
 coasts ; the other supplies the betel-nut, in sucli com- 
 mon use among natives of the Eastern tropics as a mas- 
 ticatory. The export trade in this latter to India and 
 Eastern ports is very considerable, amounting in some 
 years to £12,000. Next in importance to the cocoa-nut 
 palm among tlie indigenous products of Ceylon is the 
 cinnamon-plant, yielding the well-known spice of that 
 name. — See Cinnamon. The fruits indigenous to Cey- 
 lon are few and insignificant. Others of more value 
 have been introduced with success from various tropical 
 andextfa-tropical countries; ainongthese are the citron, 
 orange, lime, shaddock, banana, pomegranate, custard 
 applCj guava, grape, rambatam, alligator-pear, etc. 
 
 Pearl Fishery, — Although the once far-famed and lu- 
 crative pearl fishery of this island has ceased since the 
 year 1837, it will be well to give in this place a passing 
 notice of the pearl-oyster, especially as a survey of the 
 " banks" or beds off Aripo, made in 1852, holds out 
 promise of a good fishing at no distant date. Tlie 
 banks on which these oysters arc usually found lie 
 off the northern part of the west coast of Ceylon, at a 
 distance of from 16 to 20 miles from the shore. They 
 extend for many miles north and south, varying con- 
 siderably in their size and productiveness. The oj's- 
 ter arrives at maturity in its seventh year ; the pejrl 
 within is then of full growth, and if the fish be not then 
 taken up, it will shortly die, and the pearl be lost. The 
 fishery, which is in the hands of the local government, 
 toolc place in the month of March, wlien the water was 
 perfectly calm, and most favorable for the worlc of the 
 divers. It was formerly rented to native speculators, 
 who paid a certain sum for the privilege of fishing witli 
 a fixed number of divers during a given period. In 
 1797 and the following year, the rental of the fishery 
 realized £123,982- and £142,780 respectively. Since 
 that time the government have fished on their oivn ac- 
 count, selling the jjroduce of each boat by auction on 
 the beach before the flsli could be examined. This 
 mode, however, had not proved so lucrative as the old 
 method: the annual returns never having exceeded 
 £87,000,' and frequently falling as low as £12,000 ; in 
 some cafes, indeed, amounting to but a few hundred 
 pounds sterling. Various causes have been assigned 
 for the failure of these fisheries. It may, however, be 
 properly attributed to the mismanagement of an in- 
 spector of the pearl banks, who in 1836 toolc charge 
 of them, and, from neglecting to attend to the instruc- 
 tions given him by his predecessors, caused the wrong 
 beds to be fished. The result was a complete failure 
 of the fishery ; the oysters which should- have been 
 brought up were left to die ; young beds were disturb- 
 ed, and from that time this large source of revenue lias 
 been lost to the island. A survey of the pearl banks 
 made in March, 1853, induced the local government to 
 look for a fishery of some extent in 1855 or the follow- 
 ing year. — E. B. 
 
 However, the pearl fishery of Ceylon continues to 
 engross a large share of public attention. The import- 
 ance of any discovery which would enable us to pre- 
 serve and fish the mature oysters is evident from the 
 statement made by Captain Stuart, that from the fifth 
 to the sixth year the pearl-oyster doubles in value, and 
 again doubles should he survive the seventh year. The 
 pearl-oyster, though called the mother-of-pearl shell, 
 and though its interior surface is beautifully lined with 
 the pearly secretion, is valueless as " mother-of-pearl." 
 The latest intelligence from the scene of the fisheries 
 is as follows : 
 
 17(A Sale. — 205,000 oysters brought on shore on the 
 7th (by 42 boats) were sold at rates varying from 15 to 
 
CEY 
 
 288 
 
 CHA 
 
 18 rupees per 1000, and produced £315. Total receipts 
 £9930.— Overland Colombo Observer, April 16tli, 1856. 
 
 The trade of Ceylon has been greatly augmented 
 since the opening of the cinnamon trade and the com- 
 Uiencement of coffee planting. In 1832 the imports 
 amounted to £351,222 ; the exports to £163,587. In 
 1842 the imports and exports amounted to £622,447 
 and £421,413 respectively. In 1852 those amounts 
 were £1,000,474 and £948,400. The largest increase 
 in exported produce has been in coffee, which from 
 17,287 cwts. in 1831 grew to 77,475 cwts. in 1841, and 
 to 287,910 cwts. in 1851. In 1854 the crops of native 
 and plantation kinds are expected to amount to 500,000 
 cwts. The cinnamon trade of Ceylon forms a remark- 
 able exception to the rule that by the removal of fiscal 
 restrictions the consumption of articles will be in- 
 creased. Cinnamon is now exported from Ceylon duty 
 free, yet the annual demand for the spice is found to be 
 no greater than when burdened with an export duty 
 of 3s. the lb. When the island was transferred from 
 the administration of the East India Company to that 
 of the crown in 1802, the government entered into a 
 contract with the company by which the latter acquired 
 the exclusive privilege of exporting cinnamon from the 
 colony. It was agreed that the Ceylon government 
 should deliver annually 400,000 pounds of cinnamon , for 
 which the company was to grant a credit of £60,000, 
 making the price of the cinnamon 3s. per pound. In 
 1814 the company agreed to allow to the Ceylon govern- 
 ment a sum of £200,000 sterling for surplus profits on 
 their sales of cinnamon ; and to give in future £101,000 
 sterling annually, instead of £60,000, for a supply of 
 400,000 pounds of that commodity. This contract was 
 entered into for seven years, and it does not appear that 
 during this period the stipulated quantity of cinnamon 
 was ever delivered. In 1821 the exclusive privilege 
 of exporting cinnamon was given up by the company ; 
 and in 1833 the government abandoned their monopo- 
 ly of the trade, throwing it open to the public, but levy- 
 ing a duty of 3s. per pound on its exportation. 
 
 In 1836 an inferior or third sort was allowed to be 
 shipped on payment of 2s. the pound. Two years later, 
 the duty on the best sorts was lowered to 2s. &d. ; and 
 in 1843 the duty on all kinds was fixed at Is. It was 
 since reduced to id. ; and in 1863 the article was de- 
 clared duty free. These periodical reductions of duty 
 Were in all cases followed by heavy shipments of the 
 spice ; the sole effect of which has been to overstock 
 the European markets, and reduce its price beyond the 
 reduction of duty. The annual European consump- 
 tion is at the present time precisely what it was fifty 
 years ago ; thus proving that articles of mere luxury 
 are not affected by the laws which govern the consump- 
 tion of the necessaries of life. Of the exports, four- 
 fifths are to Great Britain ; of the imports, one-third is 
 from the United Kingdom, and the remainder chiefly 
 from India. The imported goods from Great Britain 
 consist of cotton manufacture, glass-ware, hardware, 
 millinery, hosiery, metals, tools, beer, wines, etc. ; those 
 from India are mainly rice and coarse cotton cloth. 
 The exports to Europe being larger than the Imports 
 thence, the balance of value is drawn for by bills of 
 exchange, a part of which are negotiated in India to 
 pay for rice, the rest for rupees sent down to Ceylon to 
 pay the Malabar coolies on the coffee estates, who car- 
 ry three-fourths of their earnings out of the island. 
 The trade of Ceylon is carried on by upward of twenty 
 European firms, and eight or nine native houses ; the 
 latter confining their transactions to British India. 
 Besides these, there are nearly a dozen European es- 
 tate agents in Kandy, and a great number of small na- 
 tis-e dealers, called '' Clutters," in connection with Mad- 
 ras and Bombay firms. There are no export duties, 
 and the duty on imports is 5 per cent, on the declared 
 value, with some few exceptions, such as arms, wines, 
 spirits, and grain. In 1852 the revenue derived from 
 customs duties was £121,354. 
 
 The coasting and Indian trade is carried on by coun- 
 try-built brigs and dhomies, a craft peculiar to Ceylon. 
 Of the former there are 56, of 3176 tons in the aggre- 
 gate, and 559 dhomies, of a tonnage equal to 24,270 
 tons, belonging to the island. The value of the for- 
 mer is £6 per ton, and of the latter £1 per ton. In 1886 
 the custom-house shipping entries gave 1331 vessels in- 
 ward, and 1200 outward ; in 1852 they gave 3140 in- 
 ward, and 3074 outward. The banking business of the 
 island is conducted by branches of the Oriental Bank 
 Corporation of London, and the Mercantile Bank of 
 Bombay, in Colombo and Kandy. The former estab- 
 lishment possesses the privilege of issuing notes of 10s. 
 and upward. — E. B. 
 
 Chaff. The husk or withered calyx of grasses, and 
 more especially of the bread corns. The term is also 
 applied to straw or hay cut into very short lengths, and 
 used for mixing with corn, roots, or other food for 
 horses or cattle. This kind of chaff', in greater lengths, 
 is also used for mixing with mortar on some parts of 
 the Continent, more particularly in Germany and Rus- 
 sia ; and it is used as a substitute for hair in making 
 plaster for rooms. Both stubble and cut hay were 
 used by the ancient Egyptians in making bricks. 
 
 Chain, in Surveying, a measure of length, composed 
 of a certain number of links made of iron wire, serving 
 to take the distance between two or more places. Gun- 
 ter's chain contains 100 such links, each measuring 
 7 92-100 inches-, consequently equal to 66 feet, or four 
 poles. 
 
 Chaldron, a dry English measure of 36 coal bush- 
 els ; 21 chaldrons make a score. The coal bushel is 
 19^ inches wide from the outside, and 8 inches deep. 
 It contains 2217-6 cubic inches; but when heaped, 
 2815-5, making the chaldron 58-66 cubic feet. There 
 are 12 sacks of coal in a chaldron ; and if 5 chaldrons 
 be purchased at the same time, the seller must deliver 
 63 sacks : the 8 sacks additional are called the ingrain. 
 But coals arc now sold in London and almost every 
 where else by the ton of 20 cwt. avoirdupois. The 
 Newcastle chaldron of coals is 53 cwt., and is exactly 
 double the London chaldron. 
 
 Chaleurs, Bay of, an inlet of the Gulf of St. Law- 
 rence, in North America. Lat. 48° N., long. 65" W. 
 Length from east to west about 90 miles ; breadth va- 
 ries from 12 to 20 miles. It separates Canada East 
 from New Brunswick, and at its western extremity re- 
 ceives the Ristigouche River. This bay possesses great 
 advantages for the prosecutibn of the fisheries. The 
 entire bay may be considered one great harbor, as 
 throughout its entire breadth and extent there is not a 
 single rock, reef, or shoal. During the summer it lit- 
 erally swarms with fish of every description known on 
 the shores of this portion of America; and its ancient 
 name of " Ecketaun Nemaacki" — the sea of fish — well 
 denotes its character. 
 
 Chalk (from calx), in Latin called creta, a species 
 of carbonate of lime, found abundantly in Britain, 
 France, Norway, and other parts of Europe. The isl- 
 and of Candia is said to have received its ancient name 
 of Crete from the quantity of chalk found there. Chalk 
 is used as an anti-acid ; and from the readiness with 
 which it imbihes liquids, it is much employed as an ab- 
 sorbent. When powdered and freed from gritty parti- 
 cles by washing, it forms the substance called whiten- 
 ing, or Spanish white, used to polish metalline utensils 
 and glass. It is prepared as follows : mix chalk that 
 has been well triturated with a largo quantity of water, 
 allow the silicious and ferruginous particles to subside, 
 and then decant the supernatant fluid into a very fine 
 sieve or linen bag, where the whitening will be depos- 
 ited. — Black Chalk, a mineral used by artists for draw- 
 ing. It is a variety of bituminous shale, the schiite- 
 graphique of Hauy. — French Chalk, steatite or soap- 
 stone, a hydrated silicate of magnesia and alumina. It 
 occurs of several colors, as white, brown, green, etc. ; 
 and is used in the preparation of crayons, the manu- 
 
CHA 
 
 289 
 
 CHA 
 
 factnre of porcelain, for polishing marble, and as the 
 basis of certain cosmetic powders. — Red Chalk is an in- 
 durated clayey ochre used for similar purposes. It is 
 reddle, or earthy clay-ironstone of the mincralo^st. — 
 E. B. 
 
 Chamber of Assurance, in France, denotes a 
 society of merchants and others for carrying on the 
 business of insurance ; but in Holland it signifies a 
 court of justice, where causes relating to assurances are 
 tried. 
 
 Chamber of Comm.erce. An assembly of mer- 
 chants and traders, where affairs relating to trade are 
 treated of. There are several establishments of this 
 sort in most of the chief cities. — See Board oi" Trade. 
 
 Chamoiaile Floiwers. The flowor-heads of the 
 Anthemis nobUU, or common chamomile. They arc 
 used in medicine in consequence of their bitter extract, 
 ■which is strengthening, and of their essential oil, which 
 is aromatic and stimulant. 
 
 Cham.pagne, one of the most esteemed and cele- 
 brated of the French wines. An official report, made 
 by the directors of the indirect taxes for the depart- 
 ment of Mame, furnishes the following information as 
 to the trade in champagne between the 1st of April, 
 1846, and the 1st of April, 1847. The produce is dis- 
 tributed among the arrondissements of Chalons, Eper- 
 nay, and Rheims. On the 1st of April last there were 
 in the cellars of the wholesale dealers 18,815,367 bot- 
 tles of this wine ; viz. at Chalons, 4,404,237 bottles ; at 
 Epernay, 5,710,753; and at Rheims, 8,500,377. The 
 number of bottles sold and delivered between the 1st 
 of April, 1846, and the 1st of April, 1847, were, at Cha- 
 lons, 2,497,355; at Epernay, 2,187,553; at Rheims, 
 4,090,577; making a total of 8,775,485 bottles. These 
 quantities were thus distributed : 
 
 Places. 
 
 From Chalons . . 
 
 From Epernay.. 
 
 From Rheims. . . 
 
 Total. 
 
 Togo 
 
 Abrond. 
 
 Bottlss. 
 1,074,214 
 
 806,663 
 2,831,038 
 
 4,711,915 
 
 To other 
 Depots. 
 
 Bottles. 
 
 T53,175 
 
 386,426 
 
 1,215,766 
 
 2,355,366 
 
 Wltlim tto 
 Depot. 
 
 Bottles. 
 6611,066 
 994,465 
 43,773 
 
 1,707,304 
 
 Champlain LsUce lies between the States of New 
 York and Vermont. It extends from Whitehall, New 
 York, to the 45th degree of north latitude 102 miles, 
 and thence about 24 miles to St. John's, in Canada, to 
 which point it is navigable, making its whole length 
 126 miles. Its breadth is from one-fourth of a mile to 
 13 miles ; but, including tlie expanse which contains 
 its large islands, it is 15 miles wide. Its broadest part, 
 unobstructed by islands, is opposite Burlington, Ver- 
 mont. Its chief islands are North Hero, South Hero, 
 and La Motte, which, with some smaller islands, and 
 tlie peninsula of Alburg, constitute Grand Isle county, 
 Vermont. This lake was discovered by Samuel Cham- 
 plain, a French nobleman, in 1609. It was the theatre 
 of many important military operations, in the French, 
 Revolutionary, and the war of 1812. The scenery 
 along its shores is highly picturesque, and rendered 
 grand by the lofty mountains at a little distance from 
 it on both sides. It forms an important medium of 
 commerce, and is navigated by steamboats, and by 
 many sloops, generally from 80 to 100 tons burden. 
 It receives a number of considerable rivers.. Its outlet 
 is Sorelle or Richelieu River, th« navigation of which 
 has been improved bj' the works of the Chambly Canal 
 (Canada), so as to afford an easy communication for 
 large vessels with the St. Lawrence River. The Cham- 
 plain Canal, 64 miles long, connects it with the Hudson 
 River on the south, and cost $1,079,872. It abounds 
 with fish, among which are salmon, lake shad, pike, and 
 other fish. It is generally frozen entirely over, and is 
 passed on the ice, in winter. The broad lake closes in 
 January or February, and opens early in March. The 
 narrow parts continue frozen considerably longer. It 
 has three light-houses on its coasts. It. comprises the 
 collection districts of Burlington and Champlain. Ag- 
 T 
 
 gregate tonnage in 1853, 1,461,749. The aggregate 
 shipping in 1851 measured 197,500 tons, and employed 
 11,860 men. The commerce of the lake in the same 
 year amounted to $26,390,895; and the enrolled ton- 
 nage was, of steam, 4157 tons, and 3983 tons of sailing 
 vessels. 
 
 Chanks, or Chank Shells, common conch shells 
 (yolata pyrum), are fished up by divers in the Gulf of 
 Manaar, on the coast opposite Jaffnapatam, in Ceylon, 
 in about two fathoms water ; and at Travancore, Tuti- 
 coreen, and other places. Large fossil beds of chanks 
 have also been found. They are of a spiral form, and 
 constitute a considerable article of trade in India, where 
 they are in extensive demand all over the country. 
 They are sawn into narrow rings or bracelets, and are 
 worn as ornaments on the arms, legs, fingers, etc., by 
 the Hindoo women; many of them are also buried 
 with the bodies of opulent and distinguished persons. 
 Those which, from being taken with the fish, are called 
 green chanks, are most in demand. The while chink, 
 which is the shell thrown upon the beach by strong 
 tides, having lost its gloss and consistency, is not worth 
 the freight up to Calcutta. The value of the green 
 chank depends upon its size. A chank opening to the 
 right, called in Calcutta the right-handed chank, is so 
 highly prized as sometimes to sell for 400 or 500, or 
 even 1000 rupees. — Bell's Commerce of Bengal, 'and 
 private communications. 
 
 The fishery of chanks used to be monopolized by 
 government, wlio formerly let the banks for from X3000 
 to £4000 a year. But of late years the fisherj-, partly 
 from the poaching of the fishermen of the contiguous 
 coasts, and partly from a decrease in the supply of 
 chanks, declined so that the rental of the banks fell off 
 to from £300 to £400 a year. And this smaller sum 
 was not paid, as formerly, for a license to dive for live 
 chanks, but for pel-mission to dig up the dead shells 
 along the shores of the Gulf of Manaar. Under these 
 circumstances government have wisely abandoned the 
 chank monopoly, which, without being of any value in 
 a financial point of view, obstructed the employment 
 of the inhabitants on the shores of the Gulf. — See the 
 valuable Report of Sir J. E. Tennent, p. 55, ot Papers 
 on Ceylon, presented to Parliament in 1848. 
 
 Charcoal (Fr. Charbon de hois ; Ger. Reine Kohle ; 
 It. Carbone di legna; Sp. Carbon de lena; Lat. Carbo 
 ligni), a sort of artificial coal, consisting of wood burn- 
 ed with as little exposure to the action of the air as 
 possible. " It was customary among the ancients to 
 char the outside of those stakes which were to be driv- 
 en into the ground or placed in water, in order to pre- 
 serve the wood from spoiling. New-made charcoal, 
 by being rolled up in clothes which have contracted a 
 disagreeable odor, effectually destroys it. When boil- 
 ed with meat beginning to putrefy, it takes away the 
 bad taint ; it is, perhaps, the best tooth-powder known. 
 When putrid water at sea is mixed with about one-ninth 
 of its weight of charcoal powder, it is rendered quite 
 fresh ; and a much smaller quantity of charcoal will 
 serve, if the precaution be taken to add a little sul- 
 phuric acid previously to the water. If the water casks 
 be charred before they are filled with water, the liquor 
 remains good in them for years ; this precaution ought 
 always to be taken for long sea voyages. The same 
 precaution, when attended to for wine-casks, will be 
 found very much to improve the quality of the wine." 
 . — Thomson's Chemistry. Common charcoal intended 
 merely for fuel is prepared by cutting pieces of wood 
 from one to three Inches in diameter into lengths of from 
 one to three feet, forming them into a conical pile, and 
 covering them with turf or clay ; leaving two or three 
 small holes close to the ground for lighting the wood, 
 and boring through the turf in the upper part of the 
 cone, a few other small holes for the escape of the smoke. 
 The pile being lighted at the several holes along the 
 bottom, continues burning with a slow smouldering 
 flame for a week or two, and is allowed to cool before 
 
CHA 
 
 290 
 
 CHA 
 
 the turf is removed. In the case of very high winds, 
 the holes to the windward are stopped, to prevent 
 combustion from going on with too great rapidity. 
 Charcoal obtained by distilling beach-wood, log-wood, 
 willow, and other woods which arc free from resin, is 
 called cylinder charcoal. The charcoal employed in 
 the manufacture of gunpowder is now always so pre- 
 pared. 
 
 Charge d' Affaires. The third or lowest class of 
 foreign ministers, according to the regulations adopted 
 at the Congress of Vienna. 
 
 Chariots. The invention of chariots and the man- 
 ner of harnessing horses to draw them, is ascribed to 
 Erichthonius of Athens, 1486 B.C. Chariot-racing was 
 one of the exercises of Greece. The chariot of the 
 Ethiopian officer, mentionedinvlc(s vii. 27, 28, 31, was, 
 it is supposed, something in the form of our modern 
 chaise with four wheels. Ctesar relates that Cassibe- 
 lanus, after dismissing all Ms other forces, retained no 
 fewer than 4000 war chariots. Those of the ancients 
 weic lilce the modern phaetons, and drawn by one horse. 
 — Hatds. 
 
 Charleston, city, port of entry, and capital of 
 Charleston district, South Carolina. It is the metrop- 
 olis of the State, and the twelfth city in population in 
 the United States. Situated in 32° 46' 33" N. lat., 
 and 79° 55' 38" W. long, from Greenwich, England ; 
 2° 56' 3" W. long, from Washington ; 124 miles soutli- 
 fioutheast from Columbia ; 110 miles from Savannah, 
 Georgia ; 165 miles from Wilmington, North Carolina ; 
 547 miles from Washington ; 587 miles from Baltimore ; 
 684 miles from Philadelphia ; 773 miles from New 
 Yorlv, and 989 miles from Boston. The population in 
 1790 was 16,359 ; in 1800, 18,712 ; in 1810, 24,711 ; in 
 1820, 24,780 ; in 1830, 30,289 ; in 1840, 29,261 ; and in 
 1850, 42,985 ; to which may be i^roperly added the in- 
 habitants of the Necli, north of the city, but lying 
 without the charter limits, which contains about 15,000 
 inhabitants. Charleston is on a peninsula, formed by 
 the confluence of Ashley and Cooper Eivers, which 
 unite immediately below the city, and form a spacious 
 and convenient harbor, communicating with the ocean 
 at Sullivan's Island, seven miles southeast of the city. 
 The city is defended by Fort Pinckney, two miles be- 
 low, and Fort Jolmson, four miles; and by Fort Moul- 
 trie on Sullivan's Island. The cit}' is divided into 
 eight wards, and is built on ground but slightly ele- 
 vated, being only about nine feet above the level of the 
 harbor at high tides. It extends from Battery Point 
 on the south to the city limits on the north, a distance 
 of three miles, and at an average width of one and a 
 quarter mile. Meeting Street, the principal street, is 
 sixty feet wide, and extends for a distance of three 
 miles nearly in a direct line north ; the • cross-streets 
 run nearly parallel to each other, and at right angles 
 to Meeting Street, and extend from east to west, and 
 from Ashley to Cooper Rivers. The houses built with- 
 in a few years are of brick ; none are now allowed to 
 be constructed but of this material or of stone. The 
 wooden houses are generallj' kept well painted, and 
 most of them have piazzas extending to the roof, taste- 
 fully arranged with vines and creepers. Those in the 
 suburbs are surrounded by gardens, planted witli or- 
 ange, peach, and other ornamental and useful trees, 
 and a profusion of vines and shrubbery. 
 
 Charleston is a great mart for cotton, rice, and to- 
 bacco ; and rice especially, as it is the heart of the rice- 
 growing region, forms the great staple, of which it ex- 
 ports 125,000 tierces annually. There is a line of 
 steamers with New York weekly, a line with Baltimore 
 and Philadelphia, and also with Havana and Cuba. 
 Tonnage of the port in 1852, 42, 658 tons. The light-house 
 at the entrance of Charleston harbor is on Light-house 
 Island, and west of the ship channel. Lat. 32° 41' 54" 
 N., long. 79° 32' 30" W. from Greenwich. The tower is 
 102 feet high, shows a revolving light elevated 125 feet 
 above (he surface of the sea, and is visible for a distance 
 
 of IGj nautical miles. Tliere is also a beacon, which 
 with the light is used as a range to cross the main bar, 
 and two others, the Morris Island and Sullivan's Isl- 
 and beacons. By its being the port of an extensive 
 system of railroads, it drains supplies from a wide range 
 of territory ; besides almost the entire State of South 
 Carolina, it comprises a large portion of North Caro- 
 lina, Georgia, and of East Tennessee. Charleston was 
 first settled in 1680. A colony of French refugees, ex- 
 iled in 1690, in consequence of the revocation of the 
 edict of Nantes, fled to South Carolina, and a portion 
 of them settled in Charleston, from whom some of its 
 most respectable inhabitants have descended. At the 
 close of the year 1779 the city was captured by the 
 British, who held it until the following May. 
 
 EXTOUT TkADE of ChAELESTON. 
 
 To Great Britain 
 
 To France 
 
 To North of Europe . . , 
 To South of Europe . . , 
 Total to foreign ports . 
 
 ,Sea IslBDd. Uplnod. 
 
 Bales. 
 
 148, T84 
 
 37,2T9 
 
 12,630 
 
 is.ro] 
 
 To Boston 
 
 To Rhode Island, etc. . . 
 
 To New York 
 
 To Philadelphia 
 
 To Baltimore & Norfolk 
 To other U. States ports 
 Total to coastwise ports 
 Total to foreign ports . . 
 Grand total j 24,700 
 
 Bales. 
 14,180 
 3,900 
 
 18,164 
 
 391 
 
 6,140 
 81 
 
 0,612 
 18,lp4 
 
 217,003 
 
 16,321 
 4!-3 
 148,438 
 12,834 
 12,387 
 102 
 
 190,075 
 217,603 
 
 Exports of Rice. 
 
 Bales. 
 14,630 
 4,150 
 
 120 
 6,651 
 
 6,771 
 18,680 
 
 24,451 
 
 Uplnod. 
 ~Bales. 
 
 189,572 
 60,506 
 18,700 
 27,020 
 
 296,798 
 
 12,066 
 
 911 
 
 167,106 
 
 19,118 
 
 9,151 
 
 102 
 
 11,8,453 
 290,7fS 
 
 415,251 
 
 To British ports 
 
 To France 
 
 To North of Europe . 
 
 To "West Indies 
 
 Total foreign ports . . 
 
 To Boston 
 
 To New York 
 
 To Philadelphia 
 
 To Baltimore & Norfolk 
 
 To New Orleans 
 
 To other U. States portt 
 Total to coastwiec ports 
 Total to foreign ports 
 Grand total 
 
 1854. 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 7,204 
 
 7,182 
 
 9,740 
 
 22,15-2 
 
 I Rough Rice. 
 
 1856. 
 
 1864. 
 
 Bushels. 
 2,6'11 
 2,247 
 3,305 
 
 17,057 
 
 40,278 
 
 6,700 
 41,050 
 
 4,785 
 
 10,197 
 
 16,170 
 
 647 
 
 79,521 
 46,278 
 
 125,799 
 
 25,960 
 
 4,383 
 32,r-46 
 5,T6T 
 7,512 
 17,142 
 236 
 
 Bushels. 
 16,539 
 13,122 
 
 154,284 
 100 
 
 67,685 
 26,96 
 '. 3,645 I 323,064 
 
 264,046 
 
 Exports of Lumber. 
 
 185 6. 
 Bushels. 
 41,740 
 
 24,326 
 "06^66 
 
 6,502 
 
 7,002 
 66.000 
 
 73,068 
 
 Places. 
 
 To Great Britain 
 
 To France 
 
 To North of Europe. . . 
 To South of Europe. . . 
 To West Indies, etc... 
 Total to foreign ports. 
 
 To Boston 
 
 To Rhode Island, etc 
 
 To New York 
 
 To Philadelphia 
 
 To Baltimore and Norfolk . . . . 
 To other United States ports . . 
 
 Total to coastwise ports 
 
 Total to foreign ports 
 
 1854. 
 
 1866. 
 
 Feel, 
 i 6U,404 
 330,716 
 648,472 
 1,265,402 
 3,626,661 
 
 6,730,645 
 
 4,190,779 
 4,846,103 
 1,428,361 
 2,993,416 
 2,799,369 
 855,977 
 
 17,114,005 
 6,730,645 
 
 Feel. 
 
 663.542 
 1.143,FS2 
 
 467,805 
 3,0C8,771 
 2,025,053 
 
 7,338,658 
 
 1,633,460 
 6,405,655 
 1,136,198 
 3,556,206 
 2,577 631 
 1,230,709 
 
 16,613.704 
 7,338,653 
 
 Grand total | 23,844,650 | 23,852.417 
 
 — Hunt's Mercltants^ MagazivA. 
 
 Port. — Charleston harbor is spacious and convenient ; 
 but the entrance to it is incommoded by a range of 
 sand banks, stretching from Sullivan's Island on the 
 north to Folly Island on the south, about 2^ leagues. 
 There are several channels through these banks, but 
 only three, the middle or direct channel, the ship chan- 
 nel, and Lawford channel, between the latter and the 
 main land, that ought to be attempted by ships of con- 
 siderable i)urden. The entrance to the ship chafinel is 
 in lat. 32° 40'. The depth of water on the shallowest 
 partofthe baratebb-tide is 12 feet, andatflood-tide from 
 
CHA 
 
 291 
 
 CHA 
 
 17 to 18 feet; while the depth in the middle channel 
 at low water does not exceed 9 feet, and in Lawford 
 channel it does not exceed 10 or 11 feet. A light-house 
 has been erected on the south point of Light-house Isl- 
 and, bearing from the middle of the bar of the ship 
 channel northwest by west half west. It is 80 feet 
 high, having a revolving light, alternately brilliant 
 and obscure, the period of obscuration being double 
 that of brilliancy ; but on approaching the light, the 
 latter gains upon the former, and within IJ league it is 
 never wholly dark. The light may be seen in fine 
 weather at from 3 to 4 leagues off. After getting into 
 the channel, which is marked by the breakers and buoys 
 on each side, the proper course for a ship to steer is to 
 bring the light-house to bear northwest by west, and 
 stand direct for it till you get within the banks, when 
 the course is north by west. But it is unnecessary to 
 enter into further details on these points, as all ships 
 entering Charleston harbor are bound, provided they 
 are hailed by a licensed pilot off the bar, to pay him 
 full pilotage fees, whether they accept his services or 
 not. In point of fact, however, they are alwa}'s ac- 
 cepted ; for the shifting of the sands, the influence of 
 the tides, etc., render the entrance so difficult to those 
 not perfectlj' familiar with it, that even the packet 
 ships that sail regularly to and from New York uni- 
 formly heave to without the bar for a pilot. — See Plan 
 of Charleston Harbor, reduced from the original survey 
 of Major H. Bache. 
 
 Ships usually moor alongside quays or wharfs, where 
 they are in perfect safety. 
 
 Shipping Charges. — The charges of a public nature 
 paid by ships entering this port differ but little in 
 amount on a native and a foreign ship. On a vessel 
 supposed to be of 300 tons burden, entering, unloading, 
 taking on board a mixed cargo and clearing out, they 
 would be as iinder; 
 
 9 eta. £. i. d. 
 
 Fee on entry at the custom-bouse li CO or Oil H 
 
 Surveyor's fee on a foreign ship 5 00 *' 1 1 4t 
 
 Surveyor's fee on a native ship .-. 3 00" 12 (]| 
 
 Harbor-master's fee 2 00" 8 6} 
 
 Portwarden's survey, when required 10 00 " 2 2 si 
 
 Fees, on clearance at the custom-house, \ g^'^" 01^-111 
 
 of a native ship j ^ ^■' " 1* "t 
 
 Ditto, of a foreign ship 2 70 " Oil 6i 
 
 Pilotage inward and outward, supposing ) ^r. nn ti in 10 rti 
 
 the ship to draw 14 feet of water j »" U" lU J i, (if 
 
 Wharfage per diem 100" 4 3i 
 
 The difference in the fees on the clearance at the 
 custom-house of a native and a foreign ship is owing 
 to the former being obliged to give certain bonds which 
 are not required of the latter. 
 
 The greater or smaller tonnage of the ship makes no 
 difl'erence on any of the above charges except that of 
 pilotage, which is in proportion to her draught of water, 
 and is the same whether for a foreign or a native ship. 
 
 Rates of Commission. — The rates of commission or 
 factorage usually charged and allowed at Charleston 
 on transacting different sorts of business, are as fol- 
 lows, viz. : 
 
 For selling domestic produce, 2} per cent. 
 
 For selling foreign merchandise, 5 per cent. 
 
 For guaranteeing either of tliese sales, 2i^ per cent, 
 additional is commonly allowed. 
 
 For purchasing with funds in hand, or drawing do- 
 mestic bills for reimbursement, 2i per cent. 
 
 For purchasing goods and drawing foreign bills for 
 reimbursement, 5 per cent, is charged. 
 
 For the sale of real or personal estate the regular 
 charge is 5 per cent. ; but where the property to be 
 sold is of any considerable value, the parties in general 
 enter into an agreement beforehand, and a much lower 
 rate of commission is allowed. — See Sohth Caeolisa. 
 
 Chart, or Sea-chaii;, a hydrographical map, or 
 a projection of some part of the earth's superficies in 
 piano, toT the use of navigators. Charts differ verj- 
 considerably from geographical or land-maps, which 
 are of no use in navigation. Nor are sea-charts all of 
 
 the same kind ; some being what are called plane charts, 
 others Mercator charts, and others globular charts. 
 Plane Chart is a representation of some part of the su- 
 perficies of the terraqueous globe, in which the merid- 
 ians are supposed parallel to each other, the parallels 
 of latitude at equal distances, and consequently the de- 
 grees of latitude and longitude every where equal to 
 each other. Mercator's Chart is that where the me- 
 ridians are straight lines, parallel to each other, and 
 equidistant ; the parallels also straight lines, and par- 
 allel to each other; but the distance between them in- 
 creasing from the equinoctial toward either pole, in the 
 ratio of the secant of the latitude to the radius. Globu- 
 lar Chart, a meridional projection, in which the distance 
 of the eye from the plane of the meridian, upon which 
 the projection is made, is supposed to be equal to the 
 sine of the angle 45°. This projection comes the near- 
 est of all to the nature of the globe, because the merid- 
 ians are placed at equal distances ; the parallels also 
 are nearly equidistant, and consequently the several 
 parts of the earth have their proper proportion of mag- 
 nitude, distance, and situation, nearly the same indeed 
 as on the globe itself, Hydrographic Charts, sheets of 
 large paper on which several parts of the land and sea 
 are described, with their respective coasts, harbors, 
 sounds, flats, rocks, shelves, sands, etc., together with 
 the longitude and latitude of each place, and the points 
 of the compass. Selenographic Charts represent the 
 spots, appearances, and maculae of the moon. Topo- 
 graphic Charts, draughts of small parts of the earth, or 
 of particular places. Anaximander, of Miletus, was the 
 inventor of geographical and celestial charts, about 750 
 B.C. Modern sea-charts were brought to England by 
 Bartholomew Columbus, with a view to illustrate his 
 brother's theory respecting a Western Continent, 1489, 
 Mercator's chart, in which the world is taken as a plane, 
 was drawn 1556, — E. B, 
 
 Charter-party, the name given to a contract in 
 writing between the owner or master of a ship and the 
 freighter, by which the former hires or lets the ship, or 
 a part of the ship, under certain specified conditions, 
 for the conveyance of the goods of the freighter to some 
 particular place or places. Generally, however, a char- 
 ter-party is a contract for the use of the whole ship : it is 
 in commercial law what an indenture is at common 
 law, — See Afi'keightment, 
 
 No precise form of words, or set of stipulations, is 
 requisite in a charter-party. The forms subjoined to 
 this article are those most commonly in use ; but these 
 may, and, indeed, in many cases must, be varied, to 
 suit .the views and intentions of the parties, A char- 
 ter-party is generally under seal; but sometimes a 
 printed or written instrument is signed by the parties, 
 called a memorandum nf a charter-party ; and this, if a 
 formal charter-party be not afterward executed, is bind- 
 ing. The stamp in either case is the same. Charter- 
 parties, when ships are let or hired at the place of the 
 owners' residence, are generally executed by them, or 
 some of them ; but when the ship is in a foreign port, 
 it must necessarily be executed by the master, and the 
 merchant or his agent, unless the owners have an agent 
 in such port, having proper authority to act for them 
 in such matters. A charter-party made by the master 
 in his name, when he is in a foreign port in the usual 
 course of the ship's employment, and therefore under 
 circumstances which do not afibrd evidence of fraud ; 
 or when it is made by him at home, under circum- 
 stances which afford evidence of the expressed or im- 
 plied assent of the owners, is binding upon the latter. 
 But according to the law of England, no direct action 
 can be maintained upon the instrument itself against 
 the owners, unless it be signed and sealed by them, or 
 unless they authorize the master (or agent, as the case 
 maybe) to enter into the contract, and unless it be dis- 
 tinctly expressed in the charter-party that he acts 
 only as agent. When a ship is chartered by several 
 owners to several persons, the charter-party should be 
 
CHA 
 
 292 
 
 CHA 
 
 executed by each, or they will not be liable to an action 
 for non-performance. But if the charter-party be not 
 expressed to be made between the parties, but runs 
 thus : " This charter-party indented, witnesseth, that 
 C, master of the ship W., with consent of A. and B., 
 the owners thereof, lets the ship to freight to E. and 
 F.," and the instrument contains covenants by E. and 
 F. to and with A. and B. ; in this case A. and B. may 
 bring an action upon the covenants expressed to be 
 made with them; but unless they seal the deed, they 
 can not be sued upon it. This, therefore, is a very 
 proper form. The general rule of law adopted in the 
 construction of this, as of other mercantile instruments, 
 Is, that the interpretation should be liberal, agreeable 
 to the real intention of the parties, and conformable to 
 the usage of trade in general, and of the particular 
 trade to which the contract relates. The charter-par- 
 ty usually expresses the burden of the ship ; and by 
 the famous French Ordinance of 1681, it is required to 
 do so. According to Molloy (book li. c. 4, § 8), if a 
 ship be freighted by the ton, and found of less burden 
 than expressed, the payment shall be only for the real 
 burden ; and if a ship be freighted for 200 tons, or there- 
 aiout, the addition of thereabout (says the same au- 
 thor) is commonl}' reduced to Jive tons, more or less ; but 
 it is now usual to say so many tons " register measure- 
 ment." The usual covenant that the ship shall be sea- 
 worthy, and in a condition to carry the goods, binds 
 the owners to prepare and complete every thing to 
 commence and fullill the voyage. But though the char- 
 ter-part}^ contained no such covenant, the owner of the 
 vessel would be, at common law, bound, as a carj'fer, 
 to take care that the ship should be fit to perform the 
 voj'age ; and even though he should give notice, limit- 
 ing his responsibility from losses occasioned to any car- 
 go put on board his vessel, unless such loss should arise 
 from want of ordinary care, etc., he would be liable if 
 his ship were not sea-worthy. — See Sea-worthy. 
 
 In all inaritime transactions expedition is of the \it- 
 most consequence ; for even by a short delay the ob- 
 ject or season of a voyage may be lost ; and therefore, 
 if either party be not ready by the time appointed for 
 the loading of the ship, the other may seek another ship 
 or cargo, and bring an action to recover the damages he 
 has sustained. The manner in which the owner is to 
 lade the cargo is, for the most part, regulated by the 
 custom and usage of the place where he is to lade it, 
 unless there be any express stipulation in the charter- 
 party with respect to it. Generally, however, the own- 
 er is bound to arrange the diiferent articles of the car- 
 go in the most proper manner, and to take the greatest 
 care of them. If a cask be accidentally staved in let- 
 ting it down into the hold of the ship, the master must 
 answer for the loss. If the owner covenants to load a 
 full and complete cargo, the master must take as much 
 on board as he can do with safety, and without injury 
 to the vessel. The master must not take on board any 
 contraband goods, whereb)' the ship or cargo may be 
 liable to forfeiture and detention ; nor must he take on 
 board any false or colorable papers ; but he must take 
 and keep on board all the papers and documents re- 
 quired for the protection and manifestation of the ship 
 and cargo by the law of the countries from and to which 
 the ship is bound, by the law of nations in general, or 
 by any treaties between particular states. If the mas- 
 ter receive goods at the quay or beach, or send his boat 
 for them, his responsibility commences with the receipt 
 in the port of London. With respects to goods intend- 
 ed to be sent coastwise, it has been held that the chief 
 responsibility of the wharfinger ceases by the deliver}- 
 of them to the mate of the vessel upon the wharf. As 
 soon as he receives the goods, the master must provide 
 adequate means for their protection and security ; for 
 even if the crew be overpowered by a superior force, 
 and the goods taken while the ship is in a port or river 
 ■within the country, the master and owners are liable 
 for the loss, though they may have committed neither 
 
 fraud nor fault. This may seem a harsh rule ; but it is 
 necessary, to put down attempts at collusive or fraud- 
 ulent combinations. The master must, according to 
 the terms of the charter-party, commence the voyage 
 without delay, as soon as the weather is favorable, but 
 not otherwise. 
 
 Sometimes it is covenanted and agreed upon between 
 the parties that a specified number of daj-s shall be 
 allowed for loading and unloading, and that it shall be 
 lawful for the freighter to detain the vessel a further 
 specified time, on payment of a daily sum as demur- 
 rage. — See Demhkrage. If the vessel be detained 
 beyond both periods, the freighter is liable to an action 
 on the contract. The rate of demurrage mentioned in 
 the charter-party will, in general, be the measure of 
 the damages to be paid ; but it is not the absolute or 
 necessary measure ; more or less may be payable, as 
 justice may require, regard being had to the expense 
 and loss incurred by the owner. "When the time is 
 thus expressly ascertained and limited by the terms of 
 the contract, the freighter is liable to an action for 
 damages if the thing be not done within the time, al- 
 though this maij not be attributable to avi/ fault or emis- 
 sion on his part; for he has engaged that it shall be 
 done. — Abbott on the Law of Shipping^ part iii. c. 1. 
 If there has been any undertaking or warranty to sail 
 with convoy, the vessel must repair to the place of 
 rendezvous for that purpose ; and if the master neglect 
 to proceed with convoy, he will be answerable for all 
 losses that may arise from the want of it. The own- 
 ers or master should sail with the ship for the place of 
 her destination with all due diligence, and by the usual 
 or shortest course, unless in cases of convoy, which the 
 master must follow as far as possible. Sometimes the 
 course is pointed out in the charter-party. A deviation 
 from the usual course may be justified for the purpose 
 of repairs, or for avoiding an enemy or the perils of the 
 seas, as well as by the sickness of the master or mar- 
 iners, and the mutiny of the crew. By an exception 
 in the charter-party, not to be liable for injuries arising 
 from the act of God and the king's enemies, the owner 
 or master is not responsible for any injury arising from 
 the sea or the winds, unless it was in his power to pre- 
 vent it, or it was occasioned by his imprudence or gross 
 neglect. " The question," said Lord Mansfield, in an 
 action brought by the East India Company, "is, 
 whether the owners are to pay for the damage occa- 
 sioned by the storm, the act of God; and this must be 
 determined by the intention of the parties and the na- 
 ture of the contract. It is a charter of freight. The 
 owners let their ships to hire, and there never was an 
 idea that they insure the cargo against the perils of the 
 sea. What are the obligations of the owners which 
 arise out of the fair construction of the charter-party? 
 Why, that they shall be liable for damages incurred 
 by their own fault or that of their servants, as from 
 defects in the ship, or improper stowage, etc. If they 
 were liable for damages occasioned by storms, they 
 would become insurers." The House of Lords con- 
 firmed this doctrine by deciding (20th of May, 1788) 
 that the owner is not liable to make satisfaction for 
 damage done to goods by storm. The charterer of a 
 ship may lade it either with his own goods, or, if he 
 have not suSicient, may take in the goods of other per- 
 sons, or (if not prevented by a clause to that effect in 
 the charter-party) he may wholly underlet the ship to 
 another. — For further details, see Abbot on the Law 
 of Shijiping, part iii. c. 1; CiiiITv's Commercial Law, 
 vol. iii. c. 9, etc. ; and the articles Bill of Lading, 
 Freight, and Master. 
 
 Forms of Charter-parties. — The following is one of 
 the most usual forms of a charter-party : 
 
 This charter-party, indented, made, etc., between A. B., etc, 
 mariner, master, and owner of the good ship or vessel, called, 
 etc., now riding at anchor, etc., of the burden of 200 tons, or 
 thereabout, of the one part, and C. D. of, etc, merchant, of 
 the other part, witnesseth, that the said A. B., for the consid- 
 
CHA 
 
 293 
 
 CHA 
 
 eratioQ hereinafter mentioned, hath granted, and to freight 
 letten, and by these presents doth grant, and to freight let, 
 unto the Bald C. D., his executors, administrators, and as- 
 signs, the whole tonnage of the hold, stern-sheets, and half- 
 deck of the eaid ship or vessel, called, etc., from the port of 
 London, to, etc., in a voyage to he made by the said A. B. 
 with the said ship, in manner hereinafter mentioned, (that is 
 to say,) to sail with the first fair wind and weather that shall 
 happen after, etc., next, from the port of London with the 
 goods and merchandise of tlie said G. D., his factors or as- 
 signs, on board, to, etc., aforesaid (the act of God, the king's 
 enemies, fire, and all and every other dangers and accidents 
 of the seas, rivers, and navigation, of whatever nature and 
 kind, in so far as ships are liable thereto, during the said 
 voyage, always excepted), and there unlade and make dis- 
 charge of the said goods and mei'chandises ; and also shall 
 there take into and on board the said ship again the goods 
 and merchandises of the said G. D., his factors or assigns, 
 and shall then return to the port of London with the said 
 goods, in the space of, etc., limited for the end of the said voy- 
 age. In consideration whereof, the said C. D., for himself, 
 his executors, and administrators, doth covenant, promise, 
 and grant, to and with the said A. B., his executors, admin- 
 istrators, or assigns, by these presents, that the said G. D. , 
 his executors, administrators, factors, or assigns, shall and 
 will well and truly pay, or cause to be paid, unto the said A. 
 B., his executors, administrators, or assigns, for the freight 
 of the said ship and goods, the sum of, etc. (or so much per 
 ton), within twenty-one days after the said ship arrived, and 
 goods returned, and discharged at the port of London afore- 
 said, for the end of the said voyage; and also shall and will 
 pay for demurrage (if any shall he by default of him, the 
 said C. D., his factors or assigns) the sum of, etc, per day, 
 daily, and every day, as the same shall grow due. And the 
 said A. B. , for himself, his executors and administrators, doth 
 covenant, promise, and grant, to and with the said C. D., his 
 executors, administrators, and assigns, by these presents, that 
 the said ship or vessel shall be ready at the port of London 
 to take in goods by the said C. D. , on or before, etc. . next com- 
 ing. And the said C. D., for himself, his, etc., doth covenant 
 and promise, within ten days after the said ship or vessel shall 
 be thus ready, to have his goods on board the said ship, to 
 proceed on in the said voyage ; and also, on arrival of the said 
 ship at, etc., within, etc., days to have his goods ready to put 
 on board the said ship, to return on the said voyage. And 
 the said A. B., for himself, his executors and administrators, 
 doth further covenant and grant, to and with the said G. D., 
 Ms executors, administrators, and assigns, that the said ship 
 or vessel now is, and at all times during the voyage shall be, 
 to the best endeavors of him, the said A. B., his executors and 
 administrators, and at his and their own proper costs and 
 charges, In all things made and kept stiff, staunch, strong, 
 well-appareled, furnished, and provided, aa well with men 
 and mariners sufficient and able to sail, guide, and govern 
 the said ship, as with all manner of rigging, boats, tackle, 
 and apparel, furniture, provision, and appurtenances, fitting 
 and necessary for the said men and mariners, and for the said 
 ship during the voyage aforesaid. In witness, etc. 
 
 The great variety of circumstances under which dif- 
 ferent voyages are made produce a corresponding di- 
 versity in charter-parties. The- charter-party of which 
 the following is, a copy affords a good example of the 
 more complex species of these instruments. 
 
 It is this day mutually agreed between Mr. T. B. Bann, 
 owner of the good ship or vessel called the Mermaid, William 
 Henniker, master, of the measurement of 472 tons, or there- 
 about, now in the River Thames, and Mr. David Thomson, 
 of the firm of Messrs. Thomson, Passmore, & Thomson, of 
 Mauritius, merchants, that the said ship, being tight, staunch, 
 and strong, and every way fitted for the voyage, shall, with 
 all convenient speed, sail and proceed to Galcutta, with leave 
 to take convicts out to New South Wales, and from thence 
 troops, merchandise, or passengers, to the afore-mentioned 
 port of Calcutta, with leave to touch at Madras on her way 
 thither, if required on owner's account, or so near thereunto 
 as she may safely get, and there load, from the factors of the 
 said merchants at Calcutta, a full and complete caigo of rice, 
 or any other lawful goods which the charterer engages to ship, 
 and proceed with the same to Port Louis, in the Isle of France, 
 and deliver the same free of freight ; afterward load there 
 a full and complete cargo of sugar in bags, or other lawful 
 merchandise of as favorable tonnage, which ttie charterer en- 
 gages to ship, not exceeding what she can reasonably stow 
 and carry over and above her tackle, apparel, provisions, and 
 furniture ; and, being so loaded, shall therewith proceed to 
 London, or so near thereunto as she may safely get, and de- 
 
 liver the same on. being paid freight, viz., for such quantit>' 
 of sugar equal to the actual quantity of rice, or other goods, 
 that may be shipped at Calcutta, at the rate of ^5 12& 6(2. per 
 ton of 20 cwt net, shipped there; and should the vessel de- 
 liver more net sugar in the port of London than the quantity 
 of rice, or other goods, actually shipped in Calcutta, the own- 
 ers to be paid on the excess at the regular current rate of 
 freight for sugar which other vessels, loading at the same 
 time at Port Louis, receive; the tonnage of the rice, wheat, 
 or grain, to be reckoned at 20 cwt net per ton ; that of other 
 goods at the usual measurement (the act of God, the king's 
 enemies, fire, and all and every other dangers and accidents 
 of the seas, rivers, and navigation, of whatever nature and 
 kind soever, during the said voyage, always excepted). The 
 freight to he paid on unloading and right delivery of the car- 
 go, as is customary in the port of London. Ninety running 
 days are to be allowed the said merchant (if the ship is not 
 sooner dispatched) for loading the ship at Calcutta, discharg- 
 ing the cargo at Fort Louis, and loading the cargo there ; the 
 said lay days to commence on the vessel being ready to re- 
 ceive cargo, the master giving notice in writing of the same 
 at Calcutta, and to continue during the loading there ; and 
 from the time of her arrival at Fort Louis, and being ready 
 to discharge, till the final loading at that poi*t, and to be dis- 
 chai^ed in the port of London with all possible dispatch ; and 
 20 days on demurrage over and above t|ie said laying days, 
 at £12 per day. Penalty for non-performance of this agree- 
 ment, £4000. The cargo to be brought to and taken from 
 alongside at the expense and risk of the merchants. The 
 necessary cash for the disbursements of the vessel at Calcutta, 
 not exceeding £350, to be advanced by the charterer' s agents : 
 they taking the master's drafts on the owner for the same at 
 the regular current rate of exchange, and at three months' 
 sight ; and if the said bills be not regularly accepted and paid 
 when due, the same to be deducted from the freight payable 
 by this charter-party. The vessel to be disbursed at Port 
 Louis by the chartering agents ; sum not to exceed £300, free 
 of commission ; and the amount to be deducted from the 
 freight at the final settlement at the port of London. Captain 
 not to ship goods without consent. In the event of the ship 
 being prevented, by damage or any other cause, reaching the 
 Mauritius on or before the 1st day of January, 1843, the char- 
 terer or his agents shall be at liberty to employ the vessel for 
 one or two voyages to Calcutt-a, at the rate of £2 per ton of 
 rice, or other goods, delivered at Mauritius. Fifty i-unning 
 days, to load and discharge, to be allowed on each voyage ; it 
 being understood that the charterer or his agents shall load 
 the ship, as before agreed, either at the end of the first or 
 second voyage, as the case may be. The freight on the inter- 
 mediate voyages (if any) to be paid on delivery of the cargo, 
 in cash, or by bills on London at usance, at the option of the 
 master. The vessel to he addressed, both at Calcutta and 
 Isle of France, to the ageiits of the charterer. In witness 
 whereof, the said parties have hereunto set their hands and 
 seals, at London, the 2d day of December, 1841. 
 Signed, sealed, and deliv-) Tuos. B, Rajin, (l.s.) 
 
 ered, in the presence of/ 
 (Signed) E. Fobbtth. 
 
 D. Thomson, (l.s.) 
 
 Chase. In nautical language, pursuit; also the 
 vessel pursued. 
 
 Chaser. The vessel pursuing; also guns at the 
 head and stern for, firing when in chase. 
 
 Chay, or Choy Root, the roots of a small biennial, 
 rarely triennial, plant, growing spontaneously in light, 
 drj-, sandy ground near the sea; and extensively cul- 
 tivated, especially on the coast of Coromandel. The 
 cultivated roots are very slender, and from one to two 
 feet in length, with a few lateral fibres ; but the wild 
 are shorter, and supposed to yield one-fourth part more 
 of coloring matter, and of a better quality. The roots 
 are employed to dye the durable reds for which the In- 
 dian cotton yarn and chintzes have been long famous, 
 and which can only be equaled by the Turkey red. 
 
 Chay root forms a. considerable article of export 
 from Ceylon. Only a particular set of people arc al- 
 lowed to dig it. It used to be all bought up by gov- 
 ernment, who paid the diggers a fixed price of 75 or 
 80 rix-dollars a candy, and sold it for exportation at 
 about 175 rix-dollars. — Bertolacci's Ceylon, p. 270. 
 
 This root has been imported into Europe, but with 
 no success. Dr. Bancroft suspects it may be injured 
 by the long voyage ; but he adds, that it can produce 
 no effect which may not be more cheaply produced 
 from madder. It is a very bulky article, and is con- 
 
CHE 
 
 294 
 
 CHE 
 
 sequently burdened with a very heavy freight. — Per- 
 manent Colors, vol. ii. p. 282-303. 
 
 Checks, Cheques, or Drafts, are orders ad- 
 dressed to some person, generally a banker, directing 
 him to pay the sum specified in the check to the person 
 named in it, or bearer, on demand. 
 
 In point of form, checks nearly resemble bills of ex- 
 change. They are assignable by delivery only ; and 
 are payable instantly on presentment, without any 
 days of grace being allowed. But by the custom of 
 some places, a banker has until five of the afternoon 
 of the day on which a check is presented for payment, 
 to return it ; so that where a check was returned before 
 five, with a memorandum of " canceled by mistake" 
 written under it, it was held a refusal to pay. If a 
 check upon a banker be lodged with another banker, 
 a presentment by the latter at the clearing-house is 
 sufficient. Checks are usually taken conditionally as 
 cash ; for unless an express stipulation be made to the 
 contrary, if they be presented in due time and not paid, 
 they are not a payment. It is difficult to define what 
 is the due or reasonable time within which checks, 
 notes, or bills should be presented. A man, as Lord 
 EUenborough has observed, is not obliged to neglect 
 all other business that he may immediately present 
 them : nevertheless, it is the safest plan to present 
 them without any avoidable delay ; and if received in 
 the place where payable, they had better be presented 
 that day, or next at farthest. If a check be not pre- 
 sented within a reasonable time, the party on whom 
 it is drawn will be justified in refusing to pay it; and 
 the holder will lose his recourse upon the drawer. — 
 Chitty on Commercial Law, vol. iii. p. 691; WooL- 
 EYCU an Commercial Law. See Bir^LS OF Exchange. 
 
 Cheese (Germ. Kase; Du. Kaas ; Fr. Fromage; 
 It. Formaggio, Cacio ; Sp. Qucso ; Russ. Sur ; Lat. 
 Caseus). The curd of milk compressed into solid 
 masses of different sizes and shapes; and, when in- 
 tended for keeping, salted and dried, and sometimes 
 colored and flavored. It is almost always made from 
 the milk of cows, but occasionally from that of ewes, 
 and sometimes, though very rarely, from the milk of 
 goats. The following are the principal British 
 cheeses : Brickbat, formed of new milk and cream, 
 chiefly iu Wiltshire, in the autumn, and sold in little 
 square pieces about the size of brickbats. Cheddar, 
 round thick cheeses, weighing about 150 or 200 lbs., 
 with ii spongy appearance, and the eyes or vesicles 
 filled with a rich oil. Cheshire, large, round, thick 
 cheeses, commonly weighing from 100 to 200 pounds 
 each ; solid, homogeneous, and dry and friable rather 
 than viscid. They are made from the whole of the 
 milk and cream ; the morning's milk being mixed 
 with that of the preceding evening previously warmed. 
 Derbyshire is a small, white, rich cheese. Dunlop, 
 originally made in Ayrshire, but now general through- 
 out Scotland, is large, round, white, buttery, and 
 weighs from 30 to 60 pounds. This and the Derby- 
 shire cheese are very much alike in form, color, and 
 flavor, Gloucester, large, round, and mild ; buttery 
 rather than friable. There are two kinds, the single 
 and double Gloucester ; the single is made of the milk 
 deprived of about half the cream, and the double of 
 the milk with the whole of the cream. Green or Sage 
 cheese may be made of any of the other kinds, by mix- 
 ing the milk before it has curdled with a decoction of 
 sage leaves, among which some put a few flowers of 
 marigold and leaves of parsley. In the Highlands of 
 Scotland the leaves or seeds of lovage are added to the 
 sage, which communicate a very strong flavor. Lin- 
 colnshire is made of new milk and cream; it is quite 
 soft, not above two inches thick, and will not keep 
 more than two or three months. Norfolk, the weight 
 is generally from 30 to 50 pounds ; ths curd is dyed 
 yellow with arnotto or saffron ; and though not a rich 
 cheese, it is considered a good keeper. Sofi or Slip-coat 
 is a small, soft, rich cheese, which might almost be 
 
 mistaken for butter, if it were not white, and which 
 must be eaten in a week or two after making. Stilton, 
 so named from the town in Huntingdonshire where it 
 was first brought into notice, but which is made prin- 
 cipally in Leicestershire. It is solid, rich, buttery, 
 and white ; and, unlike all the other cheeses which 
 have been mentioned, it is twice as high as it is broad. 
 It is much improved by keeping, and is seldom used 
 before it is two years old. It is the dearest of all En- 
 glish cheeses, the price being generally to tliat of Ches- 
 ter as 2 to 1, or 2 to 1 J. In order to induce premature 
 decay, and the consequent appearance of age in these 
 cheeses, it is said the makers sometimes bury them in 
 masses of fermenting straw. Cotienham, so named 
 from a town in Cambridgeshire : it differs chiefly from 
 the cream cheese of Stilton in being flat, broader, and 
 superiorly flavored. The flavor is said to be owing to 
 the rich grasses which grow on the fens. Suffolk, or 
 skim-milk, is round and thin, weighing from 25 to 30 
 pounds each, and is the best-keeping cheese made in 
 England. Wiltshire resembles the Cheshire; but is 
 poorer, and of inferior flavor. It is apt to become 
 scurfy, to prevent which it is generally coated over 
 with red paint. Ytyrkshire, or Cream Cheese, is the same 
 as the slip-coat cheese, already mentioned, 
 
 European Cheeses. — The most remarkable of these 
 are the following : Parmesan is chiefly made at Parma 
 and other places in Lombardy, of the curd of skimmed 
 milk hardened by heat. Its flavor is said to be owing 
 to the rich pastures of that part of Italy, where all 
 plants, from the greater quantity of bright sunshine 
 than in Britain, have doubtless their aromatic proper- 
 ties greatly increased. Swiss cheese is of various kinds ; 
 but the chief sorts are the Gruyere or Jura cheese, and 
 Schabzieger or green cheese ; the last is flavored with 
 the seeds and leaves of the melilot (J\Ieliloiis ojjicinalis'). 
 German cheeses are of diflercnt kinds ; but none are 
 celebrated, unless we except that of Westphalia, which 
 is made up into round balls or short cylinders, under 
 a pound weight each. The peculiar flavor which this 
 cheese acquires arises from the curd being allowed to 
 become putrid before it is compressed. In Holland 
 very good cheese is made, particularly the Edam and 
 Gouda cheeses : the former is very salt, and keeps well 
 at sea. In many parts of the Continent, and even in 
 the interior of Poland and Bussia, there are imitations 
 of English cheese made ; but what may be called the 
 indigenous cheese of the Kussian empire is nothing 
 more than salted curd put into a bag and powerfully 
 pressed, and taken to market as soon as it is made, in 
 the same manner as butter is. In some places, instead 
 of a press, the whey is forced out of the curd by putting 
 it into a long cloth midway between the two ends, 
 while a person at each end twists the cloth in an op- 
 posite direction, and thus wrings out the whey. In 
 some miserable Russian villages the curd is exposed 
 for sale in small lumps, retaining the marks of the fin- 
 gers, which shows that no other pressure has been em- 
 ployed than what can be given with the hand. In 
 France the Roquefort cheese is the most esteemed, and 
 next that of Neufchatel. The former somewhat re- 
 sembles Stilton, but is much inferior; and the latter is 
 a cream cheese, seldom exceeding a quarter of a pound 
 in weight.— jSee Johnston's Lectures on Chemistry. 
 
 Cheese, in the United States, except for local con- 
 sumption, is manufactured principally in New York 
 and Ohio. The New York Orange county cheese, 
 when new, is equal to any of the mild cheeses; but it 
 does not acquire by age that richness of flavor that 
 English cheese does. The Ohio cheese is produced at 
 a very low price, and is taking a rank among the im- 
 portant products of that agricultural State, The prai- 
 ries of the West, affording wild grasses of great nutri- 
 ment and fine flavor, are exceedingly well adapted for 
 the production of cheese of good quality, and at a price 
 that excludes foreign cheese from the market, except 
 for epicurean tastes. 
 
CHE 
 
 295 
 
 CHE 
 
 ExrosTS OF Cheesk fkom the United States. 
 
 Ye.r ending June 30. | I°iU."n" 
 
 To other 
 Places. 
 
 Tolol. 
 
 1853 
 
 1854 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 2,038,935 
 
 5,322,864 
 
 { 8,419,637. 
 
 . $554,154 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 724,997 
 1,681,110 
 1,426,637 
 $159,880 
 
 Founds. 
 3,703,932 
 7,003,974 
 4,846,568 
 $614,034 
 
 1855 
 
 
 Imports of Cheese into tue United States. 
 
 Year ending June 30. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Vniue. 
 
 1853 
 
 874,949 
 
 969,416 
 
 1,626,942 
 
 $70,5^8 
 93,152 
 146,269 
 
 1S54 
 
 1855 
 
 Fully one-half of these imports came from France. 
 — iSee Butter. 
 
 Chemistry and Distilling. Introduced into Eu- 
 rope by the Spanish Moors about a.d. 1150; they had 
 learned them from the African Moors, and these from 
 the Egyptians. In Egypt they had, in very early 
 ages, extracted salts from their bases, separated oils, 
 and prepared vinegar and wine ; and embalming was 
 a kind of chemical process. The Chinese also claim an 
 early acquaintance with chemistry ; but the fathers of 
 true chemical philosophy were, Bacon, Boyle, Hooke, 
 Mayow, Newton, etc. The modern character of chem- 
 istry was formed under Beecher and Stahl, who per- 
 ceived the connection of the atmosphere and the gases 
 with ,the production of phenomena. Bergman and 
 Scheele were contemporary with Priestley in England, 
 and Lavoisier in France ; then followed Thomson, Davy, 
 and other distinguished men. — Haydn. 
 
 Cherbourg, a commercial and fortified sea-port 
 town of France, and nearly apposite the western ex- 
 tremity of the Isle of Wight, 16 miles east-south- 
 east of Cape la Hague. Latitude of Fort Royal, 49° 
 40' 3" N., longitude 1° 35' W. Population, 22,460. 
 Its climate is remarkably mild. Its naval docks 
 are cut out of solid rock; and it has a commercial 
 harbor lined with stone quays. Its roadstead, de- 
 fended by several large forts and batteries, is now 
 one of the best in the Channel, being sheltered by a 
 digue, or breakwater, 411 yards in length (or consider- 
 ably more than twice as long as the Plymouth break- 
 water), begun under Louis XVI., and completed in 
 1810. Cherbourg has a maritime tribunal, a national 
 academic society, commercial college, naval school, 
 and museums ; sugar and soda refineries, and tanner- 
 ies ; and an active trade in eggs, cattle, lard, butter, 
 wine, ami other produce, exported to England and the 
 Channel Islands. It was the last place in Normandy 
 resigned by the English. Charles X. embarked here 
 with his family, on quitting France, August 16, 1830. 
 The first French transatlantic steamer arrived at New 
 York from Cherbourg, 8th July, 1847. 
 
 Cherries. They were brought from Pontus, to 
 LucuUus, to Rome, about 70 B.C. Apricots from Epi- 
 rus; peaches from Persia; the finest plums from 
 Damascus and Armenia ; pears and figs from Greece 
 and Egypt; citrons from Media; and pomegranates 
 from Carthage, 114 B.C. The cherry-tree was first 
 planted in Britain, it is said, about a.d. 100. Fine 
 kinds were brought from Flanders, and planted in 
 Kent, and with such success that an orchard of thirty- 
 two acres produced in one year f 1000, a.d. 1540. 
 
 Cherry-tree (Cerams Virginiana). The wild- 
 cherry tree is one of the largest productions of the 
 American forest. In the Atlantic as well as the "West- 
 ern States, this tree is known only by the name which 
 we have adopted. It is more or less abundant as the 
 soil and climate are more or less favorable to its growth, 
 to which the extremes of heat and cold in the seasons, 
 and of dryness and humidity in the soil, are alike uh- 
 propitious. It abounds in Illinois, in New York, and in 
 Upper Canada ; but it is nowhere more profusely mul- 
 tiplied nor more fully developed than beyond the 
 mountains in the States of Ohio, Kentucky, and Ten- 
 nessee. The perfect wood is of a dull, light red tint, 
 
 which deepens with age. It is compact, fine-grained, 
 and brilliant, and not liable to warp when perfectly 
 seasoned. It is extensively employed by cabinet- 
 makers for every species of furniture, and when chosen 
 near the ramification of the trunk it rivals mahogany 
 in beauty. This wood is generally preferred to the 
 black walnut, whose dim complexion with time be- 
 comes nearly black. On the banks of the Ohio it is em- 
 ployed in ship-building, and the French of Illinois use 
 it for the felloes of wheels. — Brownk's Sylva Amer. 
 
 Chesapeake Bay (Maryland), is 190 miles long, 
 and from 7 to 20 broad, and generally 9 fathoms deep, 
 being the largest bay in the United States. Its en- 
 trance is wholly in the State of Virginia, between Cape 
 Charles on the north and Cape Henry on the south, 
 which are about 12 or 15 miles apart. But the bay 
 lies mostly in Maryland, dividing the State into two 
 parts, called the Eastern and the Western Shore. It 
 has several commodious harbors, and a safe and easy 
 navigation. It receives the waters of the Potomac, 
 Rappahannoc, and James rivers, which are all large 
 and navigable ; also of the Susquehanna and York 
 rivers. 
 
 Chestnut (_Fagus castanea), a forest tree growing 
 abundantly in most parts of the southern countries of 
 Europe. It is long-lived, grows to an immense size, 
 and is very ornamental. The wood is hard and com- 
 pact ; when young, it is tough and flexible ; but when 
 old, it is brittle, and often shaky. The chestnut con- 
 tains only a very small proportion of sap-wood; and 
 hence the wood of young trees is found to be superior 
 to even the oak in durability. It is doubtful whether 
 the roof of Westminster Hall be of oak or chestnut, the 
 two woods being, when old, very like each other, and 
 having been formerly used almost indifl'erently in the 
 construction of buildings. A good deal of chestnut 
 has been planted in England within the last thirty 
 years. — Tuicdgold's Principles of Carpentry. 
 
 Chestnut (^Castanea Vesta). The American chest- 
 nut does not venture beyond the 44th degree of lati- 
 tude. It is found in New Hampshire, between the 43d 
 and 44th degrees ; but such is the severity of the win- 
 ter, that it is less common than in Connecticut, New 
 Jersey, and Pennsylvania. It is the most multiplied 
 in the mountainous districts of the Carolinas and of 
 Georgia, and abounds in the Cumberland Mountains 
 and in East Tennessee. The coolness of the summer 
 and the mildness of the winter in these regions are fa- 
 vorable to the chestnut ; the face of the country, also, 
 is perfectly adapted to a tree which prefers the sides of 
 mountains, or their immediate vicinity, where the soil 
 in general is gravelly, though deep enough to sustain 
 its perfect development. It is a stranger in Vermont, 
 the State of Maine, and a great part of New York, to 
 the maritime parts of Virginia, to the Carolinas, Geor- 
 gia, the Floridas, Louisiana, and as far as the mouth 
 of the Ohio. The American chestnut sometimes at- 
 tains the height of 70 or 80 feet, with a circumference 
 of 15 or 16 feet. The wood is strong, elastic, and capa- 
 ble of enduring the succession of dryness and moisture. 
 Its durability renders it especially valuable for posts, 
 which should be made of trees less than ten inches in 
 diameter, and charred before they are set in the earth. 
 It is also used for rails, and is said to last more than 
 fifty years. For shingles this wood is superior to any 
 kind of oak, though it has the same defect of warping. 
 It is not extensively used for staves, and its pores, 
 like those of the red-oak, are so open, that it is proper 
 only for dry wares. The chestnut is little esteemed 
 for fuel, and is not much used ; it is filled with air, 
 and snaps when it burns. The coal is excellent. — 
 Browne's Sylva Americana. 
 
 Chestnuts (Fr. ChMaignes; Ger. Kadanien; It. 
 Caslagne ; Sp. dislanas), the fruit of the chestnut^tree. 
 In some parts of Europe they are frequently used as a 
 substitute for bread, and form a large proportion of 
 the food of the inhabitants. This is particularly the 
 
CHE 
 
 296 
 
 CHI 
 
 case in the Limousin, in Corsica, and of several dis- 
 tricts of Spain and Italy. The inhabitants of the Li- 
 mousin are said to prepare them in a peculiar manner, 
 which deprives them of their astringent and bitter 
 properties. Chestnuts imported from Spain and Italy 
 are frequently kiln-dried, to prevent their germina- 
 tion on the passage. In this country they are princi- 
 pally served up roasted at desserts. 
 
 ChetTwert, or Tsohet'wert, a measure of corn in 
 Eussia, equal to 5-77 Imperial bushels ; hence 100 
 chetwerts = 72-12 Imperial quarters. 
 
 Chicago, citj' and capital of Cook county, and the 
 most commercial place in Illinois, 204 miles north- 
 northeast from Springfield and 717 from Washington. 
 The city was laid out in 1830, and lots first sold in 1831. 
 Population in 1840, 4470; in 1860, 29,964; in 1852, 
 38,734; and in 1854, 55,000. It is beautifully situated 
 at the terminus of the Michigan Central and Southern 
 Railroad, on level ground, elevated about live feet 
 above the lake, "which secures it from ordinary floods, 
 and extends on both sides of the river of the same 
 name, between the junction of its north and south 
 branches, and distant If mile from its entrance into 
 Lake Michigan. The harbor has a depth of from 
 twelve to fifteen feet of water, which makes it a com- 
 modious and safe haven ; and it has been much im- 
 proved artificially by the construction of piers which 
 extend on each side of the entrance of the river for 
 some distance into the lake, to prevent the accumula- 
 tion of sand upon the bar. The light-house is on the 
 south side of the harbor, and shows a fixed light on a 
 tower 40 feet above the surface of the lake ; and there 
 is a beacon on the end of the pier. Numerous steam- 
 boats and vessels ply between this place and Buflalo, 
 and the various intermediate places on the upper lakes. 
 West of the city, toward the West Plains road, is a 
 fertile prairie, which, for the first three or four miles, 
 is elevated and dry. Along the north branch of the 
 Chicago and the lake shore are extensive bodies of fine 
 timber. White pine lumber is obtained from the re- 
 gions about Green Bay and Grand Kiver, in Michigan, 
 and across the lake from St. Joseph's Kiver. The city 
 is a great shipping point for an immense and fertile 
 region. The Illinois and Michigan Canal, which is 
 60 feet wide at the top, 6 feet deep, and 107 miles in 
 length, including 5 miles of river navigation, through 
 which is brought a large amount of produce from the 
 south and southwest ; and the railroads radiating from 
 Chicago, add to the vast accumulation which is here 
 shipped for the Atlantic sea-board. There are 10 steam- 
 ers, 30 propellers, and 190 barks, brigs, schooners, and 
 sloops, engaged in the Chicago trade. In 1836 the 
 value of the exports was $1000 ; in 1840, $228,635 ; in 
 1845, $1,543,519 ; and in 1852, f 12,000,000. The as- 
 sessed value of real artd personal estate in 1853 was 
 $16,841,831. There are twelve trunk railroads now 
 constructed and in process of construction, all centre- 
 ing at Chicago, and measuring in the aggregate 2485 
 miles. Of this amount, 1725 miles will lie within the 
 State of Illinois, and the remainder in Indiana, Michi- 
 gan, and Wisconsin. Besides these trunk roads, there 
 are several hundred miles of branches, all centreing 
 toward Chicago. The trunk and branch roads reach 
 the Mississippi Kiver at ten different points from Ga- 
 lena south to Cairo. Chicago is supplied with the 
 purest of water from the lake, is within a short dis- 
 tance of the most extensive coal fields to be found in 
 Illinois, and is the natural outlet for the produce of one 
 of the richest agricultural sections of the Union.— iSee 
 Lakes, commerce of. 
 
 The lumber trade of Chicago is immense. During 
 the year 1855 over three hundred millions of feet were 
 received here. The following table will show the re- 
 ceipts for the past six years : 
 
 Years. Feet received. 
 
 18.'i0 100,846,779 
 
 1851 125,056,437 
 
 1852 147,816,232 
 
 Years. Feet received. 
 
 18S3 202,101,098 
 
 1864 228,232,000 
 
 1865 808,277,055 
 
 Flouk and Geajn eeceiveu at Chicago foe 
 1854-'55. 
 
 THE YeaBS 
 
 Artides. 
 
 1864. 
 
 18E5. 
 
 Flour, reduced to bushels of wheat 
 "Wheat, tushels 
 
 796,520 
 3,070,880 
 7,478443 
 4,194,188 
 85,600 
 . 200,000 
 
 1,210,000 
 
 7,660,326 
 
 8,489,086 
 
 2,890,922 
 
 68,520 
 
 150,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 15,824,611 
 
 20,458,784 
 15,824,611 
 
 
 1864 
 
 
 
 Increase in 1865 
 
 
 
 4,634,173 
 
 The total value of articles of commerce received at 
 Chicago in 1855 was nearly two hundred millions of 
 dollars ; viz. : 
 
 1 Iviporta. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 By lake 
 
 By canal 
 
 By railroads 
 
 Total value.. 
 
 $96,724,797 43 
 7,417,769 80 
 88,381,597 90 
 
 $34,788,726 32 
 80,913,167 07 
 98,421,324 86 
 
 $191,624,165 13 
 
 $214,118,218 25 
 
 Chicago has grown more rapidly up to this time than 
 any city in the world. In 1823, Major Long and party 
 made a journey to examine the sources of the St. Pe- 
 ter's River, etc. ; and in his account of the expedition 
 writes as follo"K"S of Chicago : 
 
 "The village presents no cheering prospect, as, not- 
 withstanding its antiquity, it consists of but few huts, 
 inhabited by a miserable race of men, scarcely equal 
 to the Indians from whom they are descended. Their 
 log or bark houses are low, filthy, and disgusting, dis- 
 playing not the least trace of comfort. Chicago is, per- 
 haps, one of the oldest settlements in the Indian coun- 
 try' ; its name, derived from the Pota"watomi language, 
 signifies either a skunk or a wild onion ; and either of 
 these significations has occasionally been given for it. 
 A fort is said to have formerly existed there. Mention 
 is made of the place as having been visited in 1671 by 
 Perot, who found ' Chicagou' to be the residence of a 
 po"iverful chief of the Miamis. The number of trails 
 centering all at this spot, and their apparent antiqui- 
 ty, indicate that this "\vas probably for a long period 
 the site of a large Indian village. As a place of busi- 
 ness, it offers no inducement to the settler; for the 
 whole annual amount of the trade of the lake did not 
 exceed the cargo of five or six schooners, even at the 
 time when the garrison received it supplies from Mack- 
 inaw. It is not impossible that at some distant day, 
 when the banks of the Illinois shall have been covered 
 with a dense population, and when the low prairies 
 which extend between that river and Fort Wayne 
 shall have acquired a population proportionate to the 
 produce which they can 3'ield, Chicago may become 
 one of the points in the direct line of communication 
 between the northern lakes and the Mississippi. But 
 even the intercourse "which will be carried on through 
 this communication will, we think, at all times be a 
 limited one ; the dangers attending the navigation of 
 the lake, and the scarcity of harbors along the shore, 
 must ever prove a serious obstacle to the increase of 
 the commercial importance of Chicago. The extent 
 of the sand banks which are formed on the eastern and 
 southern shores by the prevailing north and northwest- 
 erly winds, will likewise prevent any important works 
 from being undertaken to improve the port of Chicago." 
 
 It is estimated that the city now (1857) contains 
 100,000 inhabitants, and does a larger trade in propor- 
 tion to its size than any city in the Union. What bet- 
 ter illustration can be given of the rapid growth of the 
 West at this place ? 
 
 The population for the years between 1850 and 1860 
 (the last four years being estimated) is as follows : 
 
 Years. Population. 
 
 1851 33,000 
 
 1852 40,000 
 
 1853 48,000 
 
 1854 58,000 
 
 1855 li!l,000 
 
 Years. Population. 
 
 1866 83,000 
 
 1857 100,000 
 
 1863 119,000 
 
 1S59 143,000 
 
 1860 172,000 
 
CHI 297 
 
 CHI 
 
 The. following list embraces the trunk roads actually 
 completed and in operation, with their branch and ex- 
 tension lines, centring in Cbicago : 
 
 Miles. 
 
 Chicago and Mllwaukie 85 
 
 Bacine and Missisaippl SO 
 
 Chicago, St. Paul, and Fond da Lac Vii 
 
 Miiwaulcie and Mississippi, Westenl Division 1:5 
 
 Galena and Cliicago Union 121 
 
 Fox River Valley. .■ 33 
 
 ■Wisconsin Central 6 
 
 Bcloit Branch 20 
 
 Beloit and Madison IT 
 
 Mineral Point. 17 
 
 Galena (Fulton) Air Line 136 
 
 Cliioago, Iowa, and Nebraslta 13 
 
 Chicago, Burlington, and Quincy 210 
 
 Burlington and Missouri 30 
 
 Northern Cross : 100 
 
 Hannibal and St. Joseph 30 
 
 Chicago and Rock Island 182 
 
 Mississippi and Missouri, 1st Division £5 
 
 Bd " 13 
 
 Peoria and Bureau Valley 47 
 
 Peoria and Oquawka 143 
 
 Cbicago, Alton, and St. Louis 283 
 
 Illinois Central 704 
 
 Pittsfiurgh, Fort Wayne, and Chicago 333 
 
 Michigan Southern and Northern Indiana 242 
 
 Cincinnati, Peru, and Chicago 28 
 
 Michigan Central 282 
 
 New Albany and Salem 284 
 
 11 trunk and 17 branch and extension lines 3676 
 
 Tailing the portions of the above lines which lie in 
 tlie State of Illinois, and adding the length of the dif- 
 ferent roads completed in the central portions of the 
 State, we find that Illinois now contains Uvo thousand 
 seven hundred and sixtyrone miles of completed railway. 
 Five years ago there were only ninety-five miles. These 
 facts show a most gratifying progress, of which every 
 citizen of Illinois may well be proud. 
 
 GENERAL BU.MMAET OP BAILUOAUB. 
 
 Total number of miles of railway centring in 
 
 Chicago February 20, 1852 40 
 
 Total number of miles now completed and in 
 
 operation 3,676 
 
 Increase in 1856 915 
 
 Total number to be completed in from five to 
 
 eight years 0,929 
 
 Total number of miles of railway in the State of 
 
 Illinois now in operation 2,761 
 
 Increase in 1856 351 
 
 (Only 96 miles were completed five years ago.) 
 Increase in the State in five years (over 500 miles 
 
 per year) 2,066 
 
 Total earnings of all the railways centring in 
 
 Chicago for the year 1856 $17,343,242 
 
 (Five years ago they were only $40,000.) 
 
 Increase in five yeara 17,303,242 
 
 Increase of 1856 over 1855 4,045,041 
 
 Total number of trains arriving and departing 
 
 daily (midwinter), 104; adding 15 per cent as 
 
 soon as navigation opens 120 
 
 Population ofChicago in 1852 38,783 
 
 ** " Jan. 1, 1Sj7, estimate (in 
 
 June, 1865, it was 83,539) 110,000 
 
 Total receipts of grain in Chicago for the year 
 
 1 855 bushels 20,487,053 
 
 Total receipts of grain for the year 1866 (increase 
 
 in 1856 over 20 per cent.) bushels 24,074,824 
 
 Shipments of grain from the port of Chicago for 
 
 the year 1S56 bushels 21,583.221 
 
 Corn received in 1856 bushels 21,888,398 
 
 Wheat " " " bushels 9,392,365 
 
 Number of hogs alive and dressed received in 
 
 Chicago for 1865-'56 308,539 
 
 Number .shipped alive and dressed 170,831 
 
 Averaging the weight at only 200 lbs. and the 
 
 price at $5 per hundred, the value of the bogs 
 
 received would be $3,585,880 
 
 Number of barrels of beef packed in 1856 33,058 
 
 Receipts of lumber at the port of Chicago for the 
 
 year 1866 feet 456,673,000 
 
 Receipts of lead for the year 1656 lbs. 9,527,000 
 
 Now'laid up in the port of Chicago, steamers and 
 
 sail vessels 245 
 
 Total number of vessels arriving in Chicago for 
 
 the year 1856 7,S28 
 
 Total tonnage of vessels arriving in this port for 
 
 the year 1856 1,545,379 
 
 Amount of imports received at the Chicago cus- 
 tom-house on foreign goods for the year 1856. . $162,994 
 Capital invested in manufactures during the year 
 
 1866— showing an increase of $1,464,400 over 
 
 1855 $7,753,400 
 
 Number of hands employed— showing an increase 
 
 over 1865 of 1833 10,673 
 
 Value of manufactured articles, showing an in- 
 crease of .$4,483,572 $15,615,000 
 
 Amount invested during the year 1866 in im- 
 pi'ovements, stores, dwellings, hotels, etc $5,708,000 
 
 Number of passengers carried west by four prin- 
 cipal railways leading out of Chicago 639,666 
 
 Total number of passengers moved on all the 
 roads centring in Chicago 8,360,000 
 
 The above facts and figures will be regarded with 
 special satisfaction by the people of the Northwest 
 generally. They show a healthy, but rapid and most 
 astonishing progress. It may be doubted whether the 
 history of the civilized world can furnish a parallel to 
 the vigorous growth and rapid development of the 
 country which has Chicago for its commercial me- 
 tropolis. AVhen it is remembered that twenty years 
 ago it was not an incorporated city, and less than a 
 quarter of a century since the Indians still had posses- 
 sion of the largest portion of this magnificent country, 
 these facts, stubborn and incontestable though they be, 
 seem more lilte the dreams of some vagrant imagina- 
 tion than sober matters of reality, which scores of men 
 still among us have themselves seen and realized. 
 
 Twenty years ago Chicago was an insignificant town 
 at the southern end of Lalce Michigan, importing near- 
 ly all its produce from Western New York and North- 
 ern Ohio. Last year it shipped 21,583,221 bushels of 
 grain, and the total receipts were over twenty-four and 
 a half millions. Six years ago she had only a single 
 railroad some twenty miles long entering the city ; now 
 there are 3676 miles completed and in operation, and 
 the earnings of these lines for the last year amount to 
 tlie enormous sum of $17,343,242. The increase of 
 earnings during the year 1856 is over four millions of 
 dollars. More than a hundred trains of cars arrive 
 and depart daily. The trade in lumber exceeds bj' far 
 that of any other city in the world, amounting to 
 456,673,169 feet. Ten years ago the manufactures 
 were in their infancy, and were scarcely worthy of com- 
 mendation. In 1856 the capital invested amounted to 
 $7,759,400, and the value of manufactured articles, to 
 more thanffieen inUlions and a lialf of dollars. Six years 
 ago Chicago was reproached as being a city of wooden 
 shanties ; last year she invested in magniiicent stores, 
 many of them with superb marble and iron fronts, 
 elegant palatial residences and other improvements, 
 $5,708,624. And wonderful as has been the progress 
 of the city, it has not been able to keep pace with 
 the improvements of the country by which it is sur- 
 rounded. 
 
 The statistics of the movement of population west- 
 ward show that people enough found their liomes west 
 of Chicago during the year 1857 to form two entire 
 States. Nor is this a movement of mere human bone 
 and muscle ; it is a concentration upon the rich rolling 
 prairies and amid the beautiful groves of a vast host 
 of active, vigorous, intelligent men, who plant schools 
 and churches wherever they settle, and bring with 
 them all the elements of an enterprising Christian 
 civilization — a deep, controlling, ever-abiding rever- 
 ence for liberty and for law. They are laying the 
 foundations for an empire of whoso wealth, intelli- 
 gence, and power, the sun in all his course has never 
 seen the equal. Ere the next quarter of a century 
 shall have rolled away, the beautiful valleys of the 
 Upper Missouri, the Yellow Stone, the Platte, and the 
 Kansas, ay, and even that of the Eed River of the 
 North, will all have been settled, and this ever-deepen- 
 ing current of emigration will meet an equally resist- 
 less stream from the Pacific coast, and roll back in 
 mingling eddies from the summits of the Rocky Mount- 
 ains. Fourteen States as large as Ohio, but on an 
 average more wealthy and populous, will have grown 
 up on the magnificent country between the lakes and 
 the Kocky Mountains, and how many will repose upon 
 the " Pacific slope" we dare not attempt to predict. 
 
CHI 
 
 298 
 
 CHI 
 
 Chicory, ov Succory, the wild endive, or Cicho- 
 rium Intybus of Liiinsous. Tiiis plant is found growing 
 wild on calcareous soils in England, and in most coun- 
 tries of Europe. In its natural state the stem rises 
 from one to three feet high, but when cultivated it 
 shoots to the height of five or six feet. The root, which 
 runs deep into the ground, is white, fleshy, and yields 
 a milky juice. In Germany, the Netherlands, and 
 France, chicory has long been extensively cultivated 
 for the sake of its root, which is used as a substitute 
 for coffee. When prepared on a large scale, the roots 
 are partially dried, and sold to the manufacturers of the 
 article, who wash them, cut them in pieces, kiln-dry 
 them, and grind them between fluted rollers into a pow- 
 der, which is packed up in papers containing from two 
 ounces to three or four pounds. The powder has a 
 striking resemblance to dark ground coffee, and a 
 strong odor of liquorice. It is largely used in Prus- 
 sia, Brunswick, and other parts of Germany ; but as 
 it wants the essential oil and the rich aromatic flavor 
 of coffee, it has little in common witli the latter except 
 its color, and has nothing to recommend it except its 
 cheapness. Chicory is now grown in Westchester coun- 
 ty. New York. 
 
 Chili. The republic of Chili occupies that long 
 strip of land which lies on the southwestern side of 
 South America, extending from 24° to 55° 59' S. lat. ; 
 and from C9° to 72° W. long. It is bounded west by 
 the Pacific Ocean, and east bj' the Andes, by which it 
 is separated from the Argentine Confederation. On 
 the north, Cliili is separated from Bolivia by the extens- 
 ive desert of Atacama ; and it extends southward to 
 the extreme limits of that Archipelago which embraces 
 all the islands between Chiloe and the Straits of Magel- 
 lan. Reckoning its length from the desert of Atacama 
 to Cape Horn, it comprehends 3G degrees of latitude. 
 Its average breadth is only 150, and where greatest 
 not more than 210 geographical miles. The superficial 
 area of Chili is computed at 218,925 English square 
 miles, which is about 3195 miles more extensive than 
 that of France and Belgium together. Except where 
 the Andes are intersected by ravines, which frequent- 
 ly change into vales or plains fit for cultivation, these 
 mountains, with their parallel ranges and spurs, occu- 
 py a great part of its area. South of the Cuesta de 
 Chacabuco there are extensive plains, broken only by 
 a few ridges of hills ; but the highlands are almost 
 continuous from north to south along the coast of the 
 Pacific. 
 
 Chili is rich in almost every class of metals ; but 
 the silver mines of late years have yielded enormous 
 quantities of ore. The metals at present discovered 
 are gold, silver, copper, lead, antimony, cobalt, zinc, 
 nicliel, Ijismuth, iron, molybdenum, and quicksilver; 
 but the only ores which are worked are gold, silver, 
 copper, and occasionally quicksilver. The latter will 
 now be abandoned in consequence of the low price of 
 mercury, caused by the quantity produced in Califor- 
 nia. The metals are fonnd in all the series of rocks be- 
 tween granite and trachyte, in veins which generally 
 run from north and northwest to south and southeast; 
 in some places, however, their course is irregular, 
 or they extend east and west. The auriferous veins 
 run nearly parallel to the grain or imperfect cleav- 
 age of the surrounding granite rocks. Gold is found 
 most abundantly in the beds of detritus, derived from 
 the degradation of the upper portion of the rocks. 
 Copper ores, containing a small quantity of gold, are 
 generally associated with micaceous specular iron. In 
 the hills of Altruc, about four leagues from Eancagua, 
 in the province of Santiago, are the only gold mines 
 worked with any spirit, excepting some new mines 
 near Copiapo, and they are remarkable for the variety 
 of minerals mixed with the gold, such as galena, 
 blende, copper and iron pyrites, and peroxyd of iron. 
 The substances are found disseminated in quartz veins, 
 running nearly north and south. Near lUapel are 
 
 some very poor gold mines, in the beds of the gypseous 
 formation, in altered feldspathic clay-state, which al- 
 ternate with purple porphyritic conglomerate. 
 
 Until 1832, the only silver mines in Chili were those 
 of Dehesa, San Francisco, San Lorenzo, Sema and San 
 Pedro Nolazco, in the province of Santiago, and Ar- 
 queros mineral district, about 17 leagues from Coquim- 
 bo ; but these mines now produce very little silver, 
 and are nearly abandoned for the rich silver mines in 
 the province of Atacama, near to Copiapo. Within 
 a circuit of 25 leagues from Copiapo, there are 19 sil- 
 ver mineral districts ; the richest are Chafiarcillo and 
 Tres Puntas. In Chauarcillo the upper part of the 
 mines produces native silver, iodid, and bromid, as- 
 sociated with chlorid qf silver and carbonate of lead. 
 In the " Colorado" mine of Chafiarcillo, embolite with 
 native silver is occasionally found. In the mine of 
 San Antonio, in the same district, is^found bismuthic 
 silver ore, combined with native silver, copper, and 
 arsenic. As the mines become deeper, the silver ores 
 are changing principally into what the natives call 
 "metales fries" (cold ores); these contain dilSerent 
 proportions of antimony, sulphur, and one sort a little 
 arsenic. The dark-red silver ore is a pyrargerite, con- 
 taining sulphuret of silver and antimony, with some- 
 times a little arsenic. The gray ore contains silver, 
 arsenic, and antimony. Of these two sorts upward of 
 5000 tons were exported to England during 1852, as 
 the natives are unable to extract the silver by the 
 usual plan of amalgamation adopted with the other 
 ores. The export of the "metales fries" to England 
 will in a great measure cease, as an English establish- 
 ment is forming at Caldero, the port of Copiapo, to 
 treat them on an improved plan. Some of the mines 
 in Chafiarcillo yield nearly pure silver ; the most pro- 
 ductive are in the hands of four or five large capitalists. 
 The ground near some of the richest mines is some- 
 times sold at enormous prices, the price being in some 
 regulated by the probability of the rich veins of metal 
 running into it. In Copiapo a regular traffic is car- 
 ried on in buying and selling "barras" (a 24th part) 
 in different mines. 
 
 A railroad runs from Caldera to Copiapo, a distance 
 of 54 miles, which is to be continued on to Chafiarcillo, 
 about 50 miles from the city ; and a tram-road is pro- 
 jected to the rich mineral district of Tres Puntas (8400 
 feet above the sea), which, when completed, will ena- 
 ble the miners to send down the poor silver ores which 
 they now throw away. The commerce of Chili has 
 vastly increased since the time when the country lay 
 torpid under the yoke of Spain. As soon as it had re- 
 covered from the unsettled condition caused by the 
 revolution, business of all kinds acquired new energy, 
 and the trade, freed from its oppressive restrictions, 
 extended to the larger ports of the United States and 
 Europe. A few years were sufficient to show a large 
 increase in its export and import trade, and Valparaiso 
 soon became a flourishing port. 
 
 The precious metals are the most valuable exports 
 from Chili. While obtaining annually from her mines 
 metal to the amount of £1,500,000, she exported in the 
 year 1851 gold to the value of £59,950, silver to the 
 value of £709,467, and copper to the value of £414,503. 
 Flour, wheat, barley, and biscuits figure largely in her 
 exports, but with considerable variations in amount. 
 In 1850 there were shipped more than 68,000.000 lbs. of 
 flour : in 1851, 44,000,000 ; and in 1852 only 41,000,000. 
 Above 62,000 quarters of wheat were exported in 1850 ; 
 in 1851 the quantity was 26,470; and in 1852, 65,570 
 quarters. In barley, however, there has been a con- 
 siderable increase. From 37,750 quarters in 1850, it 
 rose to 96,190 quarters in 1852. The increased export 
 of wheat and flour in 1850 arises from the extensive 
 shipments made in that 3-ear to California. 
 
 In the latter half of 1852 the exports of wool amount- 
 ed in value to £32,330, pulse to £26,808, coal to £13,970, 
 hides and skins to £3762, guano to £5562, and charqui 
 
CHI 
 
 299 
 
 CHI 
 
 or jerked beef to £6393. Among the minor articles of 
 export are figs, dried peaches, walnuts, Cayenne pep- 
 per, wine, brandy, bones, horns, hoofs, leather, ham, 
 fat, cheese, butter, rags, and timber. 
 
 In return for her various exports Chili receives from 
 England cotton goods, from France sillcs and various 
 articles of luxury, and from other countries a variety 
 of articles for domestic use. Chili has reciprocal treat- 
 ies of commerce with Austria, Brazil, Belgium, Bre- 
 men, Sardinia, Denmark, France, Great Britain, Prus- 
 sia, Sweden, Norway, Tuscanj', Hamburg, Lubeck, 
 Oldenburg, the United States, Peru, Ecuador, and the 
 Sandwich Islands. Her commercial relations are most 
 extensive with Great Britain and the British colonies, 
 the imports into Chili amounting in 1852 to £1,159,613, 
 and the exports to £1,093,772. Next in importance is 
 the trade with France, the United States and Califor- 
 nia. With the other republics of South America her 
 commercial transactions, which were once considera- 
 ble, appear to be on the decline. 
 
 In 1851 several important restrictions were removed 
 from the customs code of Chili, which had been only 
 partially modified in 1834. The exportation of nation- 
 al produce was then declared free in principle, but a 
 small duty was to be maintained for a short time upon 
 a very few articles. All imports, with the exception 
 of iron, steel, zinc, cotton, mercury, coal, agi'icultural 
 tools, surgical instruments, and books, are liable to a 
 moderate duty. Jewelry pays 2 per cent. ; horses, 
 mules, and dried fruit, 6 per cent. ; . shoes, linen 
 stuff's, furniture, and articles used only by the wealthy, 
 30 per cent. The duty on white wine is reduced 
 to 10 reals per dozen, and on red to 8 reals. Teas pay 
 2 reals the pound. Grain of all kinds is subject to a 
 movable tariff'. As long as the price in the home 
 market does not exceed 16s. 8d. the fanega of 150 lbs., 
 foreign grain pays an import duty of 12 reals the fa- 
 nega; but if the price rises to 20 shillings, the dutj' 
 falls to 8 reals, and if it exceeds 25 shillings the import 
 duty ceases altogether. Many of the merchants of Val- 
 paraiso are desirous of the complete abolition of all re- 
 strictive duties ; but government will probably delay 
 any further steps in this direction until the advantage 
 of the reform already made has been tested by further 
 experience. The effect of this legislation, introduced 
 under the administration of General Bulnes, has hith- 
 erto been to increase the revenue. 
 
 The weights and measures of Chili are the same as 
 those used in Spain; but according to the decree of 
 Januaiy, 1848, those of France are to be substituted 
 in January, 1858. . The largest dry measure of ca- 
 pacity is the fanega, which is subdivided into twelve 
 almuds, and contains 5,430,626 cubic inches. The 
 usual corn measure is the half fanega, which is a long 
 parallelopipedon having one of its narrow sides trape- 
 zoidal. The imperial bushel contains 2,218,274 cubic 
 inches, so that the fanega of Chili is to the former as 
 2-448 to 1. The average weight of a fanega of wheat 
 is 157 lbs. 
 
 The old table of long measure is divided into lineas, 
 pulgadas, pies, varas, and cuadras, or lines, inches, feet, 
 yards, and quadras. Corresponding exactly in value 
 to Troy weight there are the Spanish granos, onzas, 
 and libras — or grains, ounces, and pounds ; and to 
 avoirdupois weight, onzas, libras, and quintales, or 
 cwt. In liquid measure the English quart is equal to 
 1-022 Spanish cuartillo, and the imperial gallon to 
 4-089 cuartillos. Gold is bought by the castellano or 
 marco. Its relative fineness is expressed by quillates 
 or carats, four granos or grains making one quillate. 
 The weight of the marco is equal to 4800 Spanish grains, 
 or to 7 oz. 7 dwt. and 22 gr. English Troy weight. 
 The standard fineness of gold is 21 quillates. The 
 relative fineness of silver is expressed by dineros, the 
 dinero being equal to 24 granos; and the standard 
 fineness of that metal is 10 dineros and 20 granos. The 
 old gold coins are the ounce, equal to 17 dollars 2 reals, 
 
 
 £ B. d. 
 —2 
 
 Gold Dohlon 
 
 —10 
 
 
 — 8 
 
 Silver Peso 
 
 —0 4 
 
 £3 9s. sterling money ; the half ounce, equal to 8 dol- 
 lars 5 reals, £1 14s. 6d. ; the quarter ounce, equal to 
 4 dollars 2i reals, 17s. 3d. ; and the escudito, equal to 
 2 dollars H real, 8s. 7^d. Among the silver coins, be- 
 sides the real, whose value is 6d., there are now pieces 
 representing various values, expressed in centavos, 
 a copper coin, of which one hundred make a dollar. 
 There are silver pieces of 5, 10, and 20 centavos. One 
 of 50 centavos is equal to half a dollar, or 2s. English 
 money. The new gold and silver coins contain nine- 
 tenths of pure metal, and one-tenth of alloy. The 
 copper coins are quite pure, containing no alloy. Their 
 names,, value, and weight may be most conveniently 
 represented by means of the following table : 
 
 Spaniah French 
 Granos. Ginitimes. 
 306 540 or 15-253 
 152-770 " T-C78 
 81-108 " 8-OTl 
 500-768 " 25 
 
 S.lver Medio peso =020 250 384 " 12-500 
 
 Silver Quinto =0 Ij 100-153" 5 
 
 Silver DcScimo = ^-j 60 0T6 " 2-500 
 
 Silver Veinteno =002| . 250S8 " 1-250 
 
 Copper Centavo =0 0-48 200-307 " 10 
 
 Copper Medio centavo =00 0-24 100-168 " 6 
 
 The communication between the several towns of 
 Chili is now greatly facilitated by roads, railways, 
 and steam-vessels. The excellent road from Santiago 
 to Valparaiso was constructed at a great cost by Gen- 
 eral O'Higgins, when President of the republic. A 
 road, generally kept in good repair, connects the 
 towns of Atacama and Concepcion. By far the most 
 pleasant for the traveler is that by which Santiago 
 and Talca are united. A railroad has been already 
 established between Copiapo and Caldera ; and in 1852 
 the President, M. Montt, laid the first stone on the 
 line (about 90 miles in length) between Santiago and 
 Valparaiso, and it is now rapidly advancing to com- 
 pletion. When finished it will be the most extensive 
 work of the kind in South America. Proposals for 
 railways from Serena to the sea, from Copiapo to Tres 
 Puntas, and from' Concepcion to Talcahuano, have 
 also been laid before Congress. A line of electric 
 telegraph has also been established between Valparaiso 
 and Santiago. 
 
 The revenue of Chili is in a very prosperous condi- 
 tion, exhibiting a surplus of receipts over expenditure 
 in tlie returns of several years. In 1845 the revenue 
 amounted to £1,083,169 13s., leaving, after the neces- 
 sary outlay, a surplus of £410,215. In 1849 the reve- 
 nue, including the surplus from 1848, was £1,352,210. 
 The surplus of 1849 was £57,048, which, together with 
 the receipts of 1851, amounting to £885,381 8s., -n-ere 
 entirely swallowed up during the revolution of the 
 latter year. With the restoration of peace in 1862, 
 the revenue rose to £1,096,096, which, with the sum 
 of £24,000 paid by Peru as interest for its debt, gives 
 an increase of £234,714 12s. over the income of the 
 preceding year. 
 
 Table of Revehtte foe 1863. 
 
 Customs £693,007 14 
 
 Government monopolies 156,672 10 
 
 Licenses 11,155 12 
 
 Stamppaper 12,887 7 
 
 Tithes 105,388 2 
 
 Mint 19.420 60 
 
 Post-offloe 14,065 140 
 
 Peaje 12-582 16 
 
 Anction-honses 1,212 14 
 
 Catostro l^-'f^*}';" 
 
 Alcabala 38-S87 14 
 
 £1,120,096 
 
 The catastro is a duty of 5 per cent, levied upon 
 the sale of lands. The alcabala is a duty of 4 per 
 cent, on the sale and exchange of immovable property, 
 and of 2 per cent, on the sale of mines. Peaje con- 
 sists of tolls and pontages, and is levied on cattle, 
 mules, vehicles, etc. — E. B. 
 
 In 1835, the exclusive right of steam na-vigation 
 between the ports of the republic was granted to a 
 
CHI 
 
 300 
 
 CHI 
 
 company, which commeticed its operations in 1840. 
 A similar privilege was afterward extended to the same 
 company by the governments of Peru, Ecuador, and 
 New Granada. The communication between England 
 and Chili is maintained by way of the Isthmus of Pan- 
 ama. Steamers sail between England and Chagres, 
 
 from which by traveling across the isthmus the Pacific 
 is reached in about four hours, and the remainder of 
 the journey continued in steam-vessels. The voyage 
 from England to Chili by this route occupies about 
 forty or fifty days ; while the voyage from the United 
 States to Chili requires about thirty days. 
 
 
 Commerce 
 
 of the United States witu Chili, prom Octouek 1 
 
 , 1824, to JtLY 1 
 
 1866. 
 
 
 Year ending 
 
 September 80. 
 
 1825 
 
 Eiporte. 
 
 ImportB. 
 
 whereof there waj 
 
 Bullion and Specie. 
 
 Tonnage 
 
 Clelired. 
 
 DomeBtic. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Totol. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Exported. 
 
 Imported. 
 
 American. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 $454,254 
 
 $467,184 
 
 $921,438 
 
 $229,509 
 
 $88,760 
 
 $46,306 
 
 7,207 
 
 
 1838 
 
 612,050 
 
 934.848 
 
 1,447,498 
 
 629,949 
 
 69,100 
 
 251,774 
 
 6,798 
 
 
 182T. ..... 
 
 1,040,748 
 
 661,853 
 
 1,702,601 
 
 184,693 
 
 20,781 
 
 95,502 
 
 12,664 
 
 
 1328 
 
 1,510,978 
 
 1,109,424 
 
 2,629,402 
 
 781,863 
 
 
 330,803 
 
 19,338 
 
 
 182!) 
 
 800,856 
 
 630,778 
 
 1,421,134 
 
 416,118 
 
 
 163,850 
 
 9,079 
 
 
 1830 
 
 Total. . . 
 
 916,718 
 
 620,396 
 
 1,536,114 
 
 182,586 
 
 
 1,669 
 
 12,287 
 
 
 $5,333,704 
 
 $4,324,483 
 
 $9,658,187 
 
 $2,424,717 
 
 $168,641 
 
 $879,804 
 
 67,373 
 
 
 1831 
 
 $849,493 
 
 $518,662 
 
 $1,368,155 
 
 $413,763 
 
 $21,362 
 
 $91,694 
 
 11,145 
 
 
 1832 
 
 679,370 
 
 641,749 
 
 1,221,119 
 
 504,623 
 
 100,762 
 
 37,483 
 
 8,105 
 
 
 1833 
 
 730,140 
 
 733,800 
 
 1,463,940 
 
 834,130 
 
 
 97,669 
 
 8,500 
 
 
 1834 
 
 714,407 
 
 761,948 
 
 1,476,365 
 
 787,409 
 
 361 
 
 385,531 
 
 8,650 
 
 641 
 
 1835 
 
 636,188 
 
 355,696 
 
 941,884 
 
 917,095 
 
 
 416,160 
 
 6,089 
 
 
 1836 
 
 582-,806 
 
 855,051 
 
 937,917 
 
 811,497 
 
 
 203,980 
 
 5,837 
 
 81 
 
 1837 
 
 1,092,35^ 
 
 396,440 
 
 1,487,790 
 
 1,180,156 
 
 1,580 
 
 650,017 
 
 6,944 
 
 
 1838 
 
 1,047,572 
 
 322,692 
 
 1,370,264 
 
 942,095 
 
 
 262,033 
 
 6,235 
 
 
 1830 
 
 1,307,143 
 
 4S7,410 
 
 1,794,653 
 
 1,186,641 
 
 
 134,603 
 
 8,683 
 
 241 
 
 1810 
 
 Total... 
 
 1,372,254 
 
 350,575 
 
 1,728,829 
 
 1,616,859 
 
 
 480,536 
 
 7,414 
 
 
 $8,861,792 
 
 $4,929,023 
 
 $13,790,816 
 
 $8,694,263 
 
 $124,065 
 
 $2,658,684 
 
 77,80e 
 
 903 
 
 1841 
 
 $846,410 
 
 $266,578 
 
 $1,102,988 
 
 $1,230,980 
 
 
 $346,496 
 
 5,962 
 
 991 
 
 1842 
 
 1,270,941 
 
 368,735 
 
 1,639,076 
 
 831,039 
 
 $800 
 
 89,620 
 
 7,092 
 
 694 
 
 1843* 
 
 809,883 
 
 179,680 
 
 1,049,463 
 
 857,666 
 
 
 98,680 
 
 6,878 
 
 
 1844t 
 
 856,046 
 
 248,576 
 
 1,106,221 
 
 750,370 
 
 
 
 185,817 
 
 7,247 
 
 
 184St 
 
 1,247,360 
 
 300,831 
 
 1,548,191 
 
 1,123,690 
 
 
 
 66,086 
 
 8,273 
 
 
 184Ct 
 
 1,539,130 
 
 229,434 
 
 1,768,670 
 
 1,276,960 
 
 
 
 111,929 
 
 8,649 
 
 1,452 
 
 1847t 
 
 1,461,347 
 
 210,263 
 
 1,671,610 
 
 1,716,903 
 
 
 
 70,112 
 
 7,186 
 
 1,077 
 
 1848t 
 
 1,703,626 
 
 220,886 
 
 1,924,611 
 
 1,310,451 
 
 
 
 20,693 
 
 10,465 
 
 366 
 
 lS45t 
 
 1,722,457 
 
 294,643 
 
 2,017,100 
 
 1,817,723 
 
 
 
 170,462 
 
 25,936 
 
 1,351 
 
 1850t 
 
 Total. . . 
 
 1,297,133 
 
 125,538 
 
 1,422,721 
 
 1,796,877 
 
 
 
 119,067 
 
 41,279 
 
 25,383 
 
 $12,814,937 
 
 $2,435,114 
 
 $16,250,061 
 
 $12,711,549 
 
 $800 
 
 $1,228,761 
 
 127,466 
 
 31,314 
 
 1851t 
 
 $1,608,877 
 
 $286,428 
 
 $1,895,305 
 
 $2,734,746 
 
 $3,000 
 
 774 
 
 48,140 
 
 41,667 
 
 lS52t 
 
 2,043,836 
 
 205,297 
 
 2,339,133 
 
 2,062,160 
 
 17,250 
 
 32,723 
 
 21,886 
 
 23,402 
 
 isrm 
 
 2,157,320 
 
 169,117 
 
 2,326,437 
 
 2,214,252 
 
 30,000 
 
 12,318 
 
 23,488 
 
 38,665 
 
 1854t 
 
 1,942,330 
 
 250,929 
 
 2,193,259 
 
 3,832,107 
 
 6,570 
 
 22,805 
 
 22,371 
 
 22,403 
 
 18S5t 
 
 2,994,231 
 
 432,026 
 
 3,426,257 
 
 3,618,896 
 
 13,166 
 
 11,708 
 
 21,667 
 
 10,109 
 
 185St 
 
 2,691,354 
 
 276,389 
 
 2,867,743 
 
 2,467,819 
 
 10,000 
 
 
 22,477 
 
 4,778 
 
 * 6 months to June 30. 
 
 Chillies (Hind. Gas Murridge; Javan. Lonibok; 
 Malay Chabai), the pods or fruit of the Capsicum an- 
 nuum, or Guinea pepper. This is one of the hardiest 
 and most productive plants found in tropical climates ; 
 growing luxuriantly in almost all dry soils, however 
 indifferent. In the wild state the pods are small, and 
 so pungent and acrid as to blister the tongue ; but 
 when raised on rich soils, they are large and compara- 
 tively mild. The plant is said to be a native of both 
 Indies. It is very extensively cultivated ; and, with 
 the exception of salt, it is far rfiore extensivelj' used 
 than any other condiment. In tropical countries, the ! 
 pods iire frequently made use of when unripe and 
 green ; when ripe, they become of a deep red color ; 
 and in that state they are exported dry and entire, or 
 reduced to powder. — See Cayenne Peppek. 
 
 China. The conterminous empires of Russia and 
 China occupy between them about one-flfth part of the 
 habitable globe, in pretty nearly equal portions ; but 
 the population of the latter is about four times greater 
 than that of the former, even after including its recent 
 annexation of Poland. We can easily trace the bound- 
 aries and mark the extreme limits of these two great 
 empires, by parallels of latitude and meridional lines of 
 longitude ; but when we come to reduce them to square 
 miles, or speak of their contents in acres, the mind is 
 bewildered by the magnitude of the numbers required 
 to express them, and forms but an Indistinct idea of 
 their superficial extent. 
 
 No country in the world is better adapted, from situ- 
 ation, climate, and products, for extensive commerce, 
 than China ; yet no civilized country has profited less 
 by these advantages. The happy distribution of its 
 numerous rivers, aided by artificial canals, affords an 
 almost uninterrupted water communication from the 
 
 t 1 year to June 30. 
 
 northern to the southern, and from the western to the 
 eastern extremities of this grand empire ; and thus a 
 facility is given for the interchange of the products of 
 one province with those of another, unknown in any 
 other country, and unequaled even in Great Britain. 
 The multitudes of barges of different sorts and sizes, 
 which vary in their construction on almost every riv- 
 er, are incredible. The Chinese are rarely to be trust- 
 ed where numbers are concerned ; but they are prob- 
 ably not far amiss in stating that the number of im- 
 perial barges employed in the grand canal and its 
 lateral branches, for the purpose of collecting and dis- 
 tributing among the public granaries the rice and 
 grain paid in kind as taxes, amounts to 10,000, or, 
 as they express it, where they mean to be correct, to 
 9999. A vast number of vessels are also employed in 
 conveying the copper currency from place to place, 
 wherever it may be wanted ; others in collecting the 
 silks, cottons, and various articles of taxes, paid in 
 kind, and depositing them in the public magazines ; 
 and the salt barges alone are probably not less numer- 
 ous than those which carry grain. It was calculated 
 that the depot of salt accumulated at Tien-sing for the 
 use of the capital and the northern provinces was suffi- 
 cient for a year's consumption for thirty millions of peo- 
 ple. This was all brought up in the course of the 
 summer, from the sea-coast of Tche-kiang and Pokien, 
 in sea-going vessels. Cakes of coal-dust and turf, for 
 fuel, and cakes made up of various ingredients for gar- 
 den manure, employ a multitude of barges ; and when 
 to these are added the various kinds of vessels em- 
 ployed in general commerce, in the conveyance of pas- 
 sengers, and in the fisheries of the interior, we may be 
 sure that the number of persons who constantly reside 
 upon the water amounts to many millions. 
 
CHI 
 
 301 
 
 CHI 
 
 
 COMUEBCE 
 
 OF THE Ukited States with China, fbom Octobek 1, 1820, to Juiy 1, 
 
 1866. 
 
 
 Tearendlns 1 
 September 30. T 
 
 1821 
 
 
 Exports. 
 
 1 
 
 ImpoTte. 
 
 Whereof there waa in Bulliou aod Specie.] 
 
 Tonaage Cleared. 1 
 
 DomeBtic. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Exported. 
 
 Imported. 
 
 American. | 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 $388,635 
 
 $3,902,025 
 
 $4,290,660 
 
 $3,111,661 
 
 $3,391,487 
 
 
 6,040 
 
 
 1822 
 
 429,230 
 
 5,606,188 
 
 6,985,868 
 
 5,242,536 
 
 6,075,012 
 
 $500 
 
 8,185 
 
 
 1823 
 
 268,376 
 
 4,347,686 
 
 4,686,061 
 
 6,611,425 
 
 3,584,182 
 
 22,036 
 
 9,478 
 
 
 1824 
 
 330,466 
 
 4,970,705 
 
 6,301,171 
 
 5,618,602 
 
 4,463,852 
 
 .... 
 
 9,663 
 
 
 1826 
 
 160,059 
 
 5,410,456 
 
 6,670.615 
 
 7,533,116 
 
 4,528,076 
 
 
 8,667 
 
 
 1826 
 
 242,451 
 
 2,324,193 
 
 2,566,644 
 
 7,422,186 
 
 1,651,596 
 
 
 4,660 
 
 .... 
 
 1827 
 
 290,862 
 
 3,873,543 
 
 3,864,406 
 
 3,617,183 
 
 2,624,818 
 
 
 8,960 
 
 .... 
 
 1828 
 
 2S0,S86 
 
 1,262,417 
 
 1,482,802 
 
 6,339,108 
 
 454,500 
 
 24,'390 
 
 3,664 
 
 
 1829 
 
 260,759 
 
 1,094,103 
 
 1,354,862 
 
 4,680,847 
 
 601,693 
 
 
 6,361 
 
 
 1830 
 
 Total... 
 
 166,290 
 
 585,903 
 
 742,193 
 
 3,878,141 
 
 79,884 
 
 9,194 
 
 3,601 
 
 
 $2,777,412 
 
 $32,967,169 
 
 $36,744,581 
 
 $62,964,994 
 
 $26,350,098 
 
 $56,120 
 
 69,355 
 
 .... 
 
 1831 
 
 $244,790 
 
 $1,046,045 
 
 $1,290,835 
 
 $3,083,206 
 
 $367,024 
 
 
 6,061 
 
 
 1832 
 
 336,162 
 
 924,360 
 
 1,260,622 
 
 6,344,907 
 
 452,119 
 
 $26,932 
 
 7,232 
 
 
 1833 
 
 637,774 
 
 895,986 
 
 1,483,759 
 
 7,541,570 
 
 290,456 
 
 6,400 
 
 9,308 
 
 .... 
 
 1834 
 
 266,756 
 
 754,727 
 
 1,010,483 
 
 7,892,827 
 
 378,830 
 
 
 8,123 
 
 
 1835 
 
 386,868 
 
 1,582,712 
 
 1,868,580 
 
 5,087,187 
 
 1,391,660 
 
 .... 
 
 7,104 
 
 
 18S6 
 
 341,563 
 
 862,701 
 
 1,194,264 
 
 7,324,816 
 
 413,661 
 
 50 
 
 5,662 
 
 .... 
 
 1837 
 
 818,973 
 
 311,618 
 
 630,591 
 
 8,965,337 
 
 166,000 
 
 
 8,793 
 
 .... 
 
 1838 
 
 055,581 
 
 861,021 
 
 1,516,603 
 
 4,764,636 
 
 728,661 
 
 4,000 
 
 7,814 
 
 
 1839 
 
 430,464 
 
 1,103,137 
 
 1,533,601 
 
 8,678,509 
 
 992,568 
 
 
 6,419 
 
 
 1840 
 
 Total... 
 
 469,186 
 
 640,780 
 
 1,009,966 
 
 6,640,829 
 
 477,003 
 
 
 8,360 
 
 
 $3,926,117 
 
 $8,823,086 
 
 $12,749,203 
 
 $61,228,223 
 
 $5,646,983 
 
 $86,382 
 
 68,376 
 
 
 1841 
 
 $715,322 
 
 $486,494 
 
 $1,200,816 
 
 $3,095,388 
 
 $426,692 
 
 $485 
 
 4,ST6 
 
 
 1842 
 
 737,509 
 
 706,888 
 
 1,444,897 
 
 4,934,646 
 
 606,714 
 
 
 7,259 
 
 364 
 
 1843« 
 
 1,755,393 
 
 663,665 
 
 2,418,858 
 
 4,385,566 
 
 671,660 
 
 
 13,532 
 
 
 1844t 
 
 1,110,028 
 
 646,918 
 
 1,756,941 
 
 4,931,255 
 
 560,855 
 
 
 16,035 
 
 
 lS4Bt 
 
 2,079,341 
 
 196,654 
 
 2,275,995 
 
 7,286,914 
 
 158,860 
 
 27,107 
 
 17,477 
 
 
 1846t 
 
 1,178,188 
 
 163,558 
 
 1,331,741 
 
 6,693,881 
 
 112,674 
 
 
 13,697 
 
 
 lS4Tt 
 
 1,708,656 
 
 124,229 
 
 1,832,884 
 
 5,683,343 
 
 33,308 
 
 
 12,384 
 
 
 lS4St 
 
 2,063,625 
 
 126,388 
 
 2,190,013 
 
 8,083,496 
 
 72,013 
 
 .... 
 
 17,160 
 
 
 1849t 
 
 1,460,945 
 
 122,279 
 
 1,683,224 
 
 5,513,786 
 
 9,967 
 
 
 11,740 
 
 
 1850t 
 
 Total... 
 
 1,486,961 
 
 119,266 
 
 1,605,217 
 
 6,698,462 
 
 25,000 
 
 
 17,830 
 
 3,106 
 
 $14,294,962 
 
 $3,345,224 
 
 $17,640,186 
 
 $57,000,735 
 
 $2,688,643 
 
 $27,692 
 
 130,930 
 
 3,470 
 
 1851t 
 
 $2,165,945 
 
 $329,342 
 
 $2,485,287 
 
 $7,066,144 
 
 $147,475 
 
 
 46,317 
 
 10,198 
 
 1852t 
 
 2,480,060 
 
 183,111 
 
 2,663,177 
 
 10,593,960 
 
 19,728 
 
 $281 
 
 67,264 
 
 21,607 
 
 18':3+ 
 
 3,212,574 
 
 524,418 
 
 3,736,992 
 
 • 10,573,710 
 
 489,344 
 
 
 66,041 
 
 24,808 
 
 1854+ 
 
 1,293,925 
 
 104,163 
 
 1,398,088 
 
 10,506,329 
 
 155,588 
 
 108,174 
 
 68,668 
 
 18,.547 
 
 lSi5t 
 
 1,533,057 
 
 186,372 
 
 1,719,429 
 
 11,048,726 
 
 674,883 
 
 
 101,660 
 
 15,708 
 
 18B6t 
 
 2,048,244 
 
 609,993 
 
 2,568,287 
 
 10,454,436 
 
 633,692 
 
 i,ddo 
 
 86,438 
 
 10,467 
 
 * G months to June SO. 
 
 All foreign commerce is systematically discouraged. 
 The extent, fertility, ^d variety of their soil and cli- 
 mate, happily situated between the extremes of heat 
 and cold, partaking of the advantages of both, -without 
 experiencing the inconveniences of either, supply the 
 Chinese with the productions of almost all the world 
 besides, whether to minister to the necessities, the 
 comforts, or the luxuries of their numerous popular- 
 tion ; and leave this great empire, as a nation, almost 
 independent of foreign supplies through the medium of 
 commerce. Satisfied, or affecting to be satisfied, with 
 the prodigal bounty of nature, jealous of strangers, and 
 governed by a gradation of arbitrary despots, the Chi- 
 nese long considered it as a favor bestowed on for- 
 eigners to open any of their ports for the interchange 
 of commodities. The revenue derived from this limits 
 ed intercourse was of little or no importance at the 
 chief seat of government. 
 
 A very extensive intercourse is carried on by them 
 with Japan, the Philippine Islands, Java, Sumatra, 
 Timor, Gelolo, and the great island of Borneo, in all 
 of which are found multitudes of Chinese, living in 
 habits of peaceful industry, in the midst of the more 
 idle and less civilized natives, conducting the concerns 
 of trade, cultivating the ground, and exercising all 
 the various branches of the mechanical arts; in no 
 place, however, varying in the smallest degree their 
 original character. But though the Chinese spread 
 themselves over every part of the Asiatic, and into 
 many of the Polynesian islands, there seems to be no 
 reciprocity of commerce by the vessels of those coun- 
 tries visiting the ports of China, excepting some ten 
 or twelve junks that annually visit the southern ports 
 of Fokien from Japan, and perhaps as many from 
 Cochin China. "From Canton," says Lord Macart- 
 ney, " to Ten-chou-foo, at the entrance of the Gulf of 
 Pe-tche-lee (to say nothing of the country w^ithin the 
 Gulf itself), is an extent of coast of near two thousand 
 miles, indented with innumerable harbors, many of 
 
 t 1 year to June 30. 
 
 them capable of admitting the largest European ships, 
 and all of them safe and sufficiently deep for the ves- 
 sels of the country. Every creek or haven has a town 
 or city upon it ; the inhabitants, who abound beyond 
 credibility, are mostly of a trafficking mercantile cast, 
 and a great part of them, from their necessary employ- 
 ment in the fishery, which supplies them with a prin- 
 cipal article of their subsistence, are accustomed to the 
 sea, and the management of shipping." From Java 
 alone they import birds' nests to the value of half a 
 million dollars annually ; the sea-slug or biche-de-mer 
 (holotlmria), from the coast of New Holland, Timor, 
 and adjoining islands, to a still greater extent ; sharks' 
 fins from the same quarter ; copper from Japan, and 
 tin from Bantam ; pepper, areca-nut, spices of differ- 
 ent kinds, ebony, sandal-wood, red-wood for dyeing, 
 tortoise-shell, pearl-shell, coral^ camphor, wax, and a 
 variety of articles, generally produced or collected by 
 their own countrymen resident in the islands of the 
 East. 
 
 The Chinese levy no specific duties on the articles 
 imported, nor ad valorem duties on the cargoes ; the 
 only impost is on the ship itself, and is estimated by a 
 rule as absurd as it is partial and unequal. They 
 measure the length from the centre of the foremast to 
 the centre of the mizen-mast, and the breadth is taken 
 close abaft the mainmast. The length is then multi- 
 plied by the breadth, and the product, divided by ten, 
 gives the measurement of the ship. AH ships, accord- 
 ing to this measurement, are classed under first, sec- 
 ond, or third rates ; all other vessels, however small, 
 are classed as third-rates. By this rule a ship of a 
 hundred tons would pay from $4000 to $5000, and a 
 ship of a thousand not above double that sum. 
 
 Revenue. — To ascertain exactly or even approxi- 
 mately the revenue of the Chinese Empire is almost 
 impossible. In 1587, Trigault, a French missionary, 
 stated it at 20,000,000 taels — the tael being equal to 
 about 5«. 6d. English, or $1 25 United States cun-ency. 
 
CHI 
 
 302 
 
 CHI 
 
 In 1655, NieuhofF estimated it at 108,000,000 taels. 
 Twelve years later, Magelhaens reckoned it at about 
 £4,000,000 sterling. In 1721, it was calculated to 
 have,risento£10,000,000 or £14,000,000 sterling. To- 
 ward the close of the eighteenth century it was given 
 by Sir George Staunton at£66, 000,000; of which sum, 
 however, little more than a fifth was transmitted to 
 Pekin. According to the Chinese constitution each 
 province is obliged to support itself, and to transmit 
 a certain surplusage for the maintenance of the Em- 
 peror and his court. The manner in which the items 
 of the revenue are divided are thus stated by De 
 Guignes, the last authority on this subject : 
 
 Taela. 
 
 Income in money 27,967,000 
 
 Equal revenuo in kind from grain 27,967,000 
 
 Tax on the second crop in the southern provinces. 21,800,000 
 
 Gabel, coal, transit duties 6,479,400 
 
 Customs at Canton 800,000 
 
 Revenue from silk, porcelain, etc 7,000,000 
 
 Taxes, licences, tonnage duties 4,000,000 
 
 Total 89,713,400 
 
 Till within a few years ago, Canton was the principal 
 mart for foreign commerce, and was in fact the only 
 port open to foreigners. In virtue of the treaties, 
 however, concluded at the termination of the war with 
 England, four additional ports have been thrown open, 
 viz., Shanghai, Ningpo, Foo-chow, andAmoy. Under 
 the respective heads of these articles will be found de- 
 tailed accounts of the exports and imports of the dis- 
 tricts in which they are respectively situated. The 
 foreign commerce of China, as more fully detailed be- 
 low, may be roughly estimated at between 20 and 25 
 millions sterling. This, however, bears a very small 
 proportion to the inland trade. It has been asserted 
 that there is a greater amount of tonnage belonging to 
 the Chinese than to all the other nations of the world 
 combined ; and from the length and number of the ca- 
 nals, and the myriads of boats necessary for carrying 
 on the enormous inland trade of the empire, it is be- 
 lieved that this statement is not very wide of the truth. 
 
 The mode of conducting the trade is fully described 
 in the Chinese Commercial Guide, where the forms of 
 custom-house blanks are given both in English and 
 Chinese. The foreigners themselves employ clerks 
 called UnguUts to transact their business, and these 
 linguists act also in many transactions as brokers. 
 Every Chinese who intends to engage iu trade in this 
 capacity, or as a trader, previously learns to speak 
 English by studying manuscript vocabularies in which 
 the English sounds of words and phrases are written 
 underneath in the Chinese character, the student ob- 
 taining the assistance of more advanced scholars to 
 con-ect his pronunciation. The idioms of the English 
 learned in this viva voce manner are chiefly Chinese, 
 which explains the inverted arrangement of sentences 
 in the Canton English, as this jargon is called, and the 
 utter disregard paid to gender, number, person, time, 
 and other proprieties considered of importance in most 
 languages. The whole trade is conducted in this mea- 
 gre gibberish, which the natives, however, suppose to 
 be as copious and correct as foreigners themselves 
 speak, but which hardly serves even the common pur- 
 poses of trade and household need, much less enables 
 the two parties to exchange ideas upon recondite sub- 
 jects. Much of the misunderstanding and trouble 
 experienced in daily intercourse with the Chinese is 
 doubtless owing to this imperfect medium, for they 
 seldom take the trouble to ascertain if their idea of 
 what is told them is the correct one ; and mutual vex- 
 ation and ill-will arise, when one party finds his orders 
 to have been heedlessly performed, and the other that 
 his efforts to please have only earned maledictions in- 
 stead of commendation. These petty annoyances have 
 also had more serious results in strengthening the 
 national dislikes, and still farther separating those 
 who originally intended, perhaps, to endure each other 
 only so long as they could make gain thereby. 
 
 Canton 
 
 Amoy 
 
 Ningpo 
 
 Foo-chow 
 
 Shanghai 
 
 . £3,046,942 
 6,622,726 
 147,494 
 154,781 
 18,000 
 19,000 
 100,000 
 85,000 
 
 The total amount of the exports and imports of the 
 five towns now open to foreign commerce is given in 
 the subjoined table for 1845 : 
 
 ( Imports in vessels of all nations . 
 
 ( Exports in vessels of all nations , 
 
 J Imports in British vessels. 
 
 J Exports in British vessels . 
 
 I Imports 
 
 \ Exports 
 
 ' Imports 
 
 Exports 
 
 Imparts 1,223,980 
 
 Expoi-ts 1,347,052 
 
 The contraband trade in opium is estimated to 
 amount to upward of 40,000 chests, at a sale price of 
 nearly £5,000,000 sterling, which with the pearls, gold 
 and silver ware, precious stones, and other articles 
 smuggled, will swell the total of the foreign trade to 
 about £21,000,000 sterling annually, exclusive of the 
 Russian trade at Kiakhta. The consumption of tea in 
 England is about 60,000,000 of pounds annually ; in 
 the United States it is about 20,000,000 ; in the Neth- 
 erlands, 2,000,000; in Russia, 5,000,000; in Germany, 
 3,000,000; in New South Wales, 4,000,000; in Spain 
 and France, 3,000,000. The aggregate consumption of 
 tea in China itself has been estimated, though not on 
 very good authority, at about 700,000,000 of pounds. 
 The prospects of the rapid extension of the foreign 
 trade with China are not very promising, except in a 
 few articles. The raw produce furnished fi-om that 
 country is very trifling, silk and alum being the chief, 
 and there is in the mean time little prospect of any 
 great increase in the exportation of her manufactured 
 articles, except tea and silk goods. The opium trade 
 has been for many years between three and four mil- 
 lions sterling in excess of the regular exchange of com- 
 modities, and the drainage of the country for this bal- 
 ance will probably go on as long as the taste for this 
 pernicious narcotic continues, or there is any specie to 
 pay for it. To legalize the opium trade would make 
 no material difference in the exportation of specie, as 
 long as the balance of imports so greatly exceeds the 
 exports. England may make every effort to supply 
 China with her manufactures, hut so long as the Chi- 
 nese furnish so little that she wants beyond a supply 
 of tea, it is difficult to perceive with what they are to 
 pay for all the cottons and woolens they may be ex- 
 pected to buy. 
 
 The Chinese appear to have no regular established 
 system of credit among themselves, and the only cir- 
 culating medium in the shape of coin is a small piece 
 of base metal (copper, tin, or lead mixed), of the value 
 of the one-thousandth part of six shillings and eight- 
 pence, of little more intrinsic value, in fact, than a 
 cowrie-shell, which the Chinese, as well as the Hindus, 
 would seem once to have used ; as the same character 
 in their language wliich signifies a shell signifies also 
 money and wealth, and it enters into the composition 
 of characters which represent buying , selling, paying, etc. 
 Silver in small ingots is used in commerce, but they 
 have no determinate value, the price fluctuating with 
 the demand, as in other articles of commerce. The 
 high rate of interest operates as a discouragement to 
 mercantile speculations, and the rigor of corporal pun- 
 ishment is added, with the view, as it would appear, 
 of deterring the most hardy speculator. The law says, 
 "whoever shall lend either money or goods, shall only 
 receive three parts in the hundred per month," and 
 that "how much soever may be suffered to accumu- 
 late, the capital shall remain the same." It is lent 
 from month to month, and if the lender should com- 
 plain of the interest not being punctually paid, the 
 borrower is subject to the punishment of ten stripes of 
 the bamboo the first month, twenty the second, and 
 so on. The legal rate of interest, however, is seldom 
 paid, and in large transactions among business men it 
 is from 12 to 16 per cent, per annum. The borrower 
 makes a special agreement with the lender for a rate 
 of interest varying between these two sums. 
 
CHI 
 
 303 
 
 CHI 
 
 On the 29th August, 1842, a treaty of peace was 
 signed before Nankin, on board of the CornwnUis, by 
 Sir Henry Pottinger on the part of Great Britain, and 
 by Ke-ying, Elepoo, and Niu-kien, on the part of the 
 Emperor of China. The most important provisions of 
 the treaty were, lasting peace and friendsliip between 
 the two empires ; China to pay twenty-one millions of 
 dollars during that and the three succeeding years ; 
 the ports of Canton, Amoy, Foo-chow, Ningpo, and 
 Shanghai, to be thrown open to foreign trade; con- 
 sular officers to be afjpointed by foreign powers to re- 
 side at these places; regular and just tariff's of import 
 and export and inland transit dues to be established 
 and published ; the island of Hong Kong to be ceded 
 in perpetuity to her Britannic majesty, her heirs, and 
 successors ; and correspondence to be conducted on 
 terms of perfect equality between the officers of both 
 governments. To this important treaty the emperor 
 signified his assent on the 8th of September, and on 
 the 31st of -December it was ratified by the British 
 government. In June, 1843, the ratifications were ex- 
 changed at Hong Kong, which was then taken posses- 
 sion of by proclamation, and the functionaries of gov- 
 ernment appointed. 
 
 The announcement of the treaty of Nankin excited 
 considerable sensation in Europe and America, chiefly 
 in the commercial circles; and agents were sent to 
 Oliina from the governments of Belgium, Holland, 
 Prussia, Spain, and Portugal, and most of them had 
 interviews with Ke-ying at Canton before he returned 
 to court. France and the United States of America 
 sent embassadors extraordinar3' to the court of Pekin, 
 but neither of them went farther than Canton. Ke- 
 ying having been reappointed commissioner for the 
 purpose, a treaty was Signed between China and the 
 United States, embodying all the important stipula- 
 tions of the treaties and commercial regulations agreed 
 to with England, and providing further for the erection 
 of hospitals, chapels, and cemeteries at the five ports ; 
 for permission to ships of war to visit any part of the 
 coasts of China ; and for the extension of these privi- 
 leges to all nations. The ratifications of this treaty 
 were exchanged on 31st December, 1845. The French 
 embassador having also arrived at Canton, and entered 
 into negotiation with Ke-ying, a treaty was concluded 
 between them at Whampoa on the basis of that of the 
 United States. 
 
 Their naval architecture wears the stamp of great 
 antiquity, and is exceedingly grotesque. They have, 
 in fact, made little progress in maritime navigation, 
 from the inveterate dislilce of the government to all 
 foreign intercourse, and to all innovation. The very 
 same kind of vessels as those described by Marco Polo 
 at the port nearest to Pekin, in the thirteenth century, 
 were found without variation by Lord Macartney, five 
 hundred years afterward, and accurate to the^ Italian's 
 description, even to the number of compartments into 
 which the hold of each vessel was divided. They had 
 anchors of wood, and ropes and sails of bamboo. The 
 boats and barges for internal commerce and communi- 
 cation are very varied, generally commodious, espe- 
 cially the passage-boats on the grand canal, and all of 
 them suited to the depth and velocity of the stream, 
 and tlie width of the locks and flood-gates of the re- 
 spective canals and rivers which tliey are intended to 
 navigate. These vessels are so numerous as almost to 
 supersede the necessity of land-carriage ; and the most 
 common and convenient mode of traveling in China is 
 in barges, which are generallj' provided with cabins 
 for sleeping, and a kitchen and utensils for cooking 
 victuals. Their military navy is unworthy of the 
 name. It consists of a flotilla, whose principal occu- 
 pation is that of conveying soldiers where they may 
 be wanted, and looking after pirates and smugglers. 
 An English frigate would beat the whole naval force 
 of China. — Gkoziek, Do Halde, Barkow, De Goiq- 
 NES, etc. 
 
 The principal articles of export from China are tea 
 and raw silk ; and of these the following quantities 
 have been exported during the ten years ending 1st 
 July, 1853 : 
 
 Tea kxpoeteI) fucm China to the United Kingdom. 
 
 Year ODding June. Pounds. 
 
 1851 64,020,000 
 
 1852 66,137,000 
 
 1863 72,906,000 
 
 1854 77,217,000 
 
 1855 80,503,000 
 
 1850 91,035,000 
 
 Year ending June. Founds. 
 
 1844 50,618,600 
 
 1845 63,570,200 
 
 1846 67,584,600 
 
 1847 58,365,000 
 
 184S 47,694,800 
 
 1849 47,242,000 
 
 1850 53,961,000 
 
 Thus, in the last seven years, the quantity of tea 
 shipped from China to the United Kingdom has be- 
 ■come nearly doubled, and, even compared with 1852, is 
 nearly one lialf more. But, as we have already inti- 
 mated, it is as important a question, as regards the 
 exchanges with China, what progress has been made 
 in the shipments to the United States. Tliese have 
 been as follows : 
 
 Tea exported fkom CinNA to the United States. 
 
 Yenr ending June. Pounds. 
 
 ]84'.l 18,072,000 
 
 1850 31,767,000 
 
 1851 28,700,000 
 
 1862 84,334,000 
 
 Year ending June. Pounds. 
 
 1853 40,974,000 
 
 1854 27,867,000 
 
 1865 31,515,000 
 
 1866 40,240,000 
 
 From these two tables it appears that since 1849, only 
 seven years ago, the quantity of tea exported from 
 China to the United Kingdom and the United States 
 has increased from 65,314,000 lbs. to 131,280,000 lbs. 
 Since 1852 the increase has been from 99,471,000 lbs. 
 to 131,282,000 lbs. Then as to silk; the entire ex- 
 ports from China to the United Kingdom, eleven years 
 ago, amounted only to 10,727 bales. In the year end- 
 ing June, 1848, there were 17,229 bales, since which 
 time, particularly during the last four years, they 
 have very rapidly increased. The following table 
 shows the export in each y ear : 
 
 Silks exported to the United Kingdom from China. 
 Bales. 
 17,i28 
 
 Year ending June 30 
 
 1849 
 
 1850 16,134 
 
 1851 22,143 
 
 1852 23,040 
 
 Yenr ending June 30. Bales. 
 
 1853 26,571 
 
 1854 61,948 
 
 1855 ...' 61,486 
 
 1850 55,489 
 
 Imports of Silks into the United States. 
 
 1853. 
 1854. 
 1855. 
 
 7i3,143 
 1,005,510 
 1,372,365 
 
 3,497 
 2,863 
 19,736 
 
 Embroid- 
 eries. 
 
 485,!160 
 
 174,556 
 
 9,164 
 
 347,457 
 748,457 
 455,770 
 
 7,865 
 
 29,420 
 
 1,915 
 
 Statement of Chinese Passengers and Tonnage to Cal- 
 ifornia. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Paaseugora. 
 
 1849 
 
 1860 
 
 1851 
 
 1852 
 
 1853 
 
 13 
 22 
 35 
 84 
 54 
 52 
 37 
 
 8,700 
 7,708 
 11.700 
 43,144 
 26,635 
 28,021 
 16,627 
 
 323 
 447 
 2,716 
 18,434 
 •4,316 
 15,003 
 3,212 
 
 1854..... 
 
 1865 
 
 Total. . . . 
 
 297 
 
 186,335 
 
 44,511 
 
 Statement of Emigration of Ciiinebe to their own Coun- 
 TKY, AND Tonnage employed. 
 
 Yen,,. 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Passengers. 
 
 1851 
 
 1852 
 
 1853 
 
 1854 
 
 96 
 120 
 
 89 
 118 
 
 92 
 
 51,241 
 72,536 
 63,349 
 85,698 
 73,093 
 
 261 
 
 2,056 
 4,406 
 2,386 
 
 3,3i8 
 
 1855 
 
 Total. . . . 
 
 510 
 
 335,977 
 
 12,436 
 
 China Porcelain. This manufacture is first men- 
 tioned in history in 1531 : it was introduced into En- 
 gland in the sixteenth century. Porcelain was made 
 at Dresden in 1706 ; fine ware in England, at Chelsea, 
 1752 ; at Bow in 1758 ; in various other parts of En- 
 gland, about 1760 ; and by the ingenious Josiah Wedg- 
 wood, who much improved the British manufacture, in 
 Staffordshire, 1762 et oti?.— Havdn. See Porcelain. 
 
 China-root (Ger. C/dnawurzel; Du. Ckinawortel , 
 Fr. Squhie, Esquine; Sp. Raiz China, Cocalmeca; Arab, 
 
CHI 
 
 304 
 
 CHR 
 
 Rhuisinie), the root of a species of climber (_Smilax Chi- 
 na^ Linn.). It comes from the West Indies, as ■well as 
 from China ; but that from the latter is best. It is ob- 
 long and thick-jointed, full of irregular knots, of a red- 
 dish-brown color on the outside, and a pale red -within ; 
 ■while new, it will snap short, and look glittering with- 
 in ; if old, the dust flies from it when broken, and it is 
 light and kecky. It should be chosen large, sound, 
 heavy, and of a pale red color internally. It is of no 
 value if the worm be in it. — Milburs's Oriental Com- 
 merce. 
 
 Chints, or Chintz (Fr. Indiennes ; Ger. Zitze ; It. 
 Indiane ; Kuss. Slz ; Sp. Chiles, Zarazd), a peculiar pat- 
 tern upon printed calicoes, in which flowers and other 
 devices are printed in five or six different colors, upon- 
 ■white and colored grounds. A good chintz pattern in 
 fast colors is one of the most surprising and difiicult 
 efforts of the art. It was first manufactured in the East 
 Indies, but is no^w largely manufactured in Europe, 
 particularly in Great Britain. — See Calico. 
 
 Chocolate (I)u. C/iocolade; Fr. Chocolal; Germ. 
 Schokolate ; It. Cioccolata ; Port. Chocolate ; Kuss. Scho- 
 holad; Sp. Chocolate), a kind of cake or confection, pre- 
 pared principally from the cacao-nut. The nuts are 
 first roasted like coffee ; and being reduced to powder 
 and mixed witli water, the paste is put into tin moulds 
 of the desired shape, in which it speedily hardens, be- 
 ing, when taken out and wrapped in paper, fit for the 
 market. Besides cacao, the Spanish use vanilla, sugar, 
 maize, etc., in the preparation of chocolate. Choco- 
 late was first introduced into Europe from Mexico about 
 A.D. 1520. It was sold in the London coffee-houses 
 soon after their establishment in 1650. — Taller. 
 
 " Alilie easy to convey and employ as an aliment, it 
 contains a large quantity of nutritive and stimulating 
 particles in a small compass. It has been said with 
 truth that, in Africa, rice, gum, and shea butter, assist 
 man in crossing the deserts. In the New World, choc- 
 plate and the flour of maize have rendered accessible to 
 him the table-lands of the Andes, and vast uuinhabit- 
 ed forests." — Humeolijt's Personal Narrativey vol. iv. 
 p. 234, Engl, transl. 
 
 Christiana, the capital of Norway, situated at the 
 bottom of a fiord or gulf, in the province of Agger- 
 huus ; in lat. 59° 55^' N., long. 10° 48J' E. Popula- 
 tion in 1845, 26,141. Christiana is about 60 miles 
 from the open sea : the gulf is in some places very 
 narrow, and its navigation somewhat difficult ; but it 
 is sufficiently deep for the largest vessels, having 6 or 
 7 fathoms water close to the quay. It is compulsory 
 on all ships to take a pilot on board at the mouth of 
 the bay. The trade of the town is considerable. The 
 principal exports are timber and deals, which are large- 
 ly imported into England ; glass, particularly bottles ; 
 iron and nails, bones, smalts, oak hark, etc. Salted 
 and pickled fish, one of the staple products of Norway, 
 is principally exported from Bergen. The deals of 
 Christiana have always been in the highest estima- 
 tion — a consequence of the excellence of the timber, 
 and of the care with which the sap-wood and other de- 
 fective parts are cut away ; and not, as Mr. Coxe seems 
 to have supposed, of the skillful sawing of the plank. 
 The saw-mills were formerly licensed to cut a certain 
 quantity only, and the proprietors were bound to make 
 oath that it was not exceeded. — Coxe's Travels in the 
 North of Europe, 5th edition, vol. iv. p. 28. This ab- 
 surd regulation no longer exists. There are far fewer 
 restrictions on industry and commerce in Norway than 
 in Sweden. In the former, manufactured goods are 
 admitted on moderate duties, and are very generally 
 made use of. The principal articles of import are co- 
 lonial produce ; iron and hardware ; machinery ; wool- 
 en, linen, and cotton goods; coals, butter, wine, bran- 
 dy, etc. ; corn is sometimes extensively imported. 
 
 Customs Regidations. —W\t\Aa 24 hours after a ves- 
 sel has got to her moorings, the master should deliver 
 to the collector his general report as to ship and cargo. 
 
 or present the requisite documents for having such re- 
 port made out with the assistance of a ship-broker, 
 whose services masters of foreign vessels can not en- 
 tirely dispense with. On making this general report, 
 the measuring bill is to be exhibited, and payment of 
 the tonnage and other dues inward is to be made. If 
 the ship have not been previously measured in Norway, 
 and is, consequently, not provided with a Norwegian 
 measuring bill, she is to be measured, to ascertain her 
 burden in Norwegian commercial lasts, for the calcu- 
 lation of the tonnage duty. The general report hav- 
 ing been made, the custom-house officers in charge of 
 the vessel are furnished with the books for delivery, 
 and the discharge of the cargo commences under their 
 inspection ; and the consignees may make their special 
 reports under their responsibility and signature. If 
 they are without precise information as to the con- 
 tents of any or all of the packages or bales to their 
 address, these bales or packages may, at their request, 
 be opened in the presence of the officers before report 
 is made. If a consignee omits availing himself of this 
 permission, his pretending thereafter that more or oth- 
 er goods than he had ordered or been advised of have 
 been sent to his address, will not be attended to. In 
 the reports or entries is to be stated whether it is intend- 
 ed to pay the duties forthwith, whether the goods are 
 intended for exportation, or whether they are to be 
 landed. Prior to commencing loading out'ward, the 
 master is to give verbal notice of his intention at the 
 custom-house. If he have no Norwegian measuring 
 bill, the vessel is to be measured. This being done, 
 the shipper or shippers of the outward-bound cargo are 
 each of them to make their special entries as to the 
 quality, weight, and measure of the goods they mean 
 to load. A copy of such entries is to be deposited at 
 the custom-house, and the loading commences under 
 the control of the officers. This applies to all mixed 
 cargoes ; but if the outward-bound cargo consist ex- 
 clusively of wood, the shipper or shippers are on]}' to 
 notify that they intend loading ■«ood, without specify- 
 ing quantity, measure, etc., as the export duty on 
 wood is charged according to the burden of the vessel. 
 When the master clears outward, he produces the prop- 
 er docujnents for showing the burden of his vessel, and 
 to what port she helong.s, and he is then, on proper ap- 
 plication being made, provided ■with a pilot, ■who takes 
 his vessel to sea. 
 
 Warehousing. — In Norway goods brought from 
 abroad may be bonded or warehoused, with a view to 
 theirbeing again exported at some future period. Goods 
 entered for home consumption may also be bonded for a 
 certain period, in order to facilitate the payment of the 
 duties. The former is called ^^ transit oplag ;''^ that is, 
 depositing or warehousing goods for exportation, sub- 
 ject to transit duties only. The latter is called " cred- 
 it oplag;" that is, warehousing or bonding on credit. 
 
 TransitOplag.—\in&exi\i\s,systKm goods from abroad 
 may be warehoused for exportation free of import duty, 
 paying on exportation a transit duty, ■which in most 
 cases is 1-lOth of what they would pay if entered for 
 home consumption. If the goods are deposited in the 
 custom-house warehouses, they lie free of rent or dues 
 during 14 days, and if in private warehouses, under 
 the key and seal of the customs, during six months. 
 If they remain long, viz., beyond 14 days in the one, 
 and beyond six months in the other case, they pay 
 rent or dues equal to ^ of the transit duty per month, 
 which, after the lapse of three months, as regards goods 
 in the custom-house warehouses, is increased to i of 
 the transit duty per month. 
 
 Credit Oplag. — This system allows most goods im- 
 ported from abroad to be placed in the owner's or im- 
 porter's own warehouses, under his own lock, free of 
 duty, for a given time, on his reporting to the customs, 
 every three months, how much ho has sold, otherwise 
 consumed, orexported, and then payingthe duty on such 
 amount ; the custom-house officers, who are bound quar- 
 
CHE 
 
 305 
 
 CHE 
 
 terly to examine the goods, convincing themselves b}' 
 ocnlar demonstration that no more is missing than 
 the quantity reported to have been talcen away. This 
 credit on the duties in no case to exceed two years 
 from the time the goods were imported. 
 
 By way of security for payment of the duties on 
 irhich the credit is granted, government reserve to 
 themselves, 1. Priority of mortgage on all the goods in 
 question. 2. Priority, or first right, in the property, 
 goods, and effects of every description belonging to the 
 trader availing himself of this credit, in as far as such 
 property is not previously legally mortgaged. 3. Lib- 
 erty for the custom-house officers, when and as often as 
 they shall deem it expedient, between the stated quar- 
 terly inspections, to look over the stock on hand, with a 
 view of ascertaining whether there remains sufficient 
 value for the duties ; and if they see reason to doubt 
 this, full right, in default of other satisfactory security 
 being offered, to seize the stock, and to sell the whole, 
 or as much as shall cover the duties. 4. In case of 
 death or failure of the party, an equal right to sell forth- 
 with the whole of his stock at public auction, and to 
 retain as much of the proceeds as shall cover the du- 
 ties ; and in case of deficiency, an established claim for 
 the remainder on the estate of the deceased or bank- 
 rupt, as the case may be. In charging the duties no 
 allowance is made for waste or damage in the ware- 
 houses. The warehouse rent charged on goods bonded 
 under the transit system, in the custom-house ware- 
 houses, is as follows : 
 
 On a quarter of -wheat for the first 3 I „ n.KK-o .,« ™«, 
 
 months ( " " "^"^ V" """'''' 
 
 Afterward I-10T6 " 
 
 On a ton of raw sugar for the first S } n -ti t.io^ ^v 
 
 months Jo 11 -5384 per month 
 
 Afterward 1 11-0T65 " 
 
 Money^ Weights^ and Measures, — In Norway there 
 are no gold coins. The principal silver coin, called a 
 species dollar, is divided into 120 skiUings. There are 
 also half species, or 60 skiUing pieces ; l-5th species, 
 or 24 shilling pieces; l-15th species, or 8 skilling pieces ; 
 and what is denominated skillemynt, or small change 
 — that is, 4 and 2 skilling pieces. The species dollar 
 contains 390-68 English grains of pure silver, and is 
 consequently worth 4s. ejd.sterling, the par of exchange 
 being four species dollars 42 6-17 skiUings =£1. All 
 Norway coins, except the small change, are alloyed 
 with l-7th copper, so that the species dollar weighs 
 448-38 English grains, and its divisions in proportion. 
 Small change coins are allayed with three times their 
 weight of copper. There are one and two skilling 
 pieces of copper. 
 
 Weighls and Measures, same as at Copenhagen ; 
 which see. 
 
 Shipping Charges. — The various charges of a public 
 nature payable by a ship of about 300 tons burden, en- 
 tering the port of Christiana with u mixed cargo on 
 board, unloading there, taking on board another cargo, 
 and clearing out, are as follows : 
 
 £ f. i. 
 
 1. Charges fnward Pilortage from Farder, at the 
 
 mouth of Christiana Ba7, where all ships musb 
 
 take a pilot on board . - 2 2 2 
 
 Bill of health, assuming that the crew, including 
 
 the master, consists of 14 persons IT 9 
 
 Tonnage dues and light money 9 16 9 
 
 Brokers* fees 15 4 
 
 £U 2 
 
 CImrgea Outward. — Pilotage 9 2 
 
 Castledues 17 
 
 Muster-roU of crew 1 o 5 
 
 Pale or stake money 3 2 
 
 Measuring bill 2' 4 5 
 
 Charity cheat 1 7 
 
 Tonnage dues and light money 10 11 1 
 
 Higholm light 9 
 
 Pilotage to Farder llg g 
 
 Brokers' fees 1 is u 
 
 £18 6 11 
 
 N.B. — There is no difference between the charges on native 
 
 ships in Norwegian ports and privileged foreign ships, that 
 
 is, the ships of countries having reciprocity treaties with Nor- 
 
 way ; nor in the duties on goods imported by native ships and 
 such privileged foreign ships. Great Britain is a privileged 
 country. 
 
 The shipping of Norway has declined considerably 
 of late years ; a proof, if any such were wanting, of the 
 groundlessness of the clamors kept up in Great Britain 
 as to the supposed pernicious influence of reciprocity 
 treaties on shipping. 
 
 Banking. — There are no private banking establish- 
 ments in Norway ; but there is a public bank, having 
 its principal office at Drontheim, with branches at 
 Christiana, Bergen, and Christiansand. It was es- 
 tablished by a compulsory assessment in 1816. Its 
 capital consists of 2,000,000 species dollars, in transfer- 
 able shares, divided among those who were forced to 
 contribute to its formation. These shares are'iiow at 
 a premium of 30 per cent. Its managers are appoint- 
 ed by, and are accountable to, the Storthing or Nor- 
 wegian Parliament. It issues notes for 100, 50, 10, 
 and so low as 1 species dollar. These notes should be 
 payable in specie on demand ; but they are at a dis- 
 count of 35 per cent., and are paid by the banlt at that 
 rate. Itdiscounts bills at twoand three monthsdate at6 
 per cent, per annum ; advances money on mortgage at 4 
 per cent. ; and transacts the ordinary banking business 
 of individuals. It does not allow interest on deposits. 
 
 Credit. — Goods are sold partly for ready money, and 
 partly on credit, but principally the former. 
 
 Commission^ etc. — The number of brokers in Chris- 
 tiana is limited to four. Commission on the sale of 
 goods, 2 per cent., or, del credere included, 3 per cent. 
 Brpkerage is fixed by law at 5-6ths per cent., which, 
 in practice, is paid by the sellers. 
 
 Insurance. — All houses situated in Norwegian mark- 
 et towns must be insured in the General Insurance 
 Company at Christiana, which is guaranteed by the 
 state. The premium is moderate, being, on buildings 
 situated in towns, ith, and on those situated in the 
 country, |th per cent. Sometimes, however, when very 
 destructive fires occur, it is raised. 
 
 Provisions, etc. — Christiana is not a favorable place 
 for careening and repairing ships ; but supplies of beef, 
 bread, water, and other sea-stores, may be had as cheap 
 or cheaper than in any other port of Norway ; but its 
 distance from the sea is too great to allow of its being 
 visited by ships desirous merely of victualing. — We 
 have derived these details from various sources, but 
 principally from Consular Keturns. 
 
 Timber. — A standard Christiana deal is 11 feet long, 
 li inch thick, and 9 inches broad ; and 51-2 such deals 
 make a load. Freight of deals from Norway to En- 
 gland is calculated at the rate of single deals, the stand- 
 ard measure of which for Christiana and all the south- 
 ern ports of Norway, except Dram (a small town on 
 the Drammen, about 20 miles southwest of Christiana), 
 is 11 feet long and IJ in thickness. A single deal from 
 Dram is reckoned 10 feet long and li inch thicli:. 
 
 Batteris. — Three battens make 2 deals, retaining their 
 own length and thickness. Half deals are only count- 
 ed as deal ends, if they run under 6 feet ; but if they 
 run 6 or 7 feet long, then two half deals are counted a 
 deal, retaining their own thickness. 
 
 Ends of Deals. — Four ends of deals, although 5 feet 
 long, make but a deal 11 feet long, retaining their 
 thickness ; but as the freighters of ships seldom wish 
 to have this assortment, which commonly run from 
 3 to 5 feet, and are taken on board as stowage, con- 
 sequently for the advantage of the ship and not the 
 freighter, the ship ought to bear the burden. 
 
 Ends of Battens, called Larwich Palings. — No less 
 than six ought to be counted a single deal, 11 feet long 
 and 1^ inch thick. 
 
 Pale-boards, when they have their proper length, are 
 7 feet long ; three pale-boards are counted a single deal. 
 
 Staves for hogsheads take up much room ; in conse- 
 quence of which more than ten can not be computed a 
 single deal. 
 
CHR 
 
 306 
 
 CIN 
 
 Christopher (St.), or St. Kitt's, one of the Brit- 
 ish West India islands, Leeward group. Lat. (Fort 
 Smith) 17° 17' 7" N., long. 60° 42' 2" W., 46 miles 
 west-northwest from Antigua. Length, northwest to 
 southeast, 20 miles, breadth 5 miles, except at its 
 southeastern extremity, where a narrow tongue of land 
 extends toward the island of Nevis. Area, 68 square 
 miles. Population in 1848, 23,127, of whom about 
 2000 are whites. The island is an irregular oblong, 
 traversed in the centre from north to south by a mount- 
 ain ridge of volcanic origin, in the middle of which 
 rises the pei-pendicular craggy summit of Mt. Misery, 
 elevation 3711 feet, and overhanging the crater of an 
 extinct volcano ; from this central ridge the land 
 gradually and uniformly slopes to the sea, every por- 
 tion of which is a rich fertile soil, and highly culti- 
 vated ; pasture and woodlands ascending almost to the 
 mountain summits. Four rivers water this country, 
 and in the northeast there are several salt ponds, pro- 
 ducing abundance of salt. Soil composed of loam, 
 clay, and volcanic ashes, in some places with a depth 
 of 75 feet, resting on gravel. Brimstone-hill consists 
 of granite, limestone, and primary schists. Sulphur 
 is found in the central range, and some indication of 
 silver ore. The climate is dry and healthy ; mean an- 
 nual temperature of coast 80°, but the mornings and 
 evenings are cooled by sea-breezes. The coldest month 
 is February, the warmest August. Prevailing winds, 
 northeast and southeast; rains frequent, but not in 
 excess ; hurricanes occur occasionally, and a terrific 
 and fatal one nearly destroyed the island in 1722. The 
 scenery, especially the vale of Basseterre, is rich and 
 beautiful. The soil is particularly adapted for sugar 
 plantations. Chief towns, Basseterre, the capital, and 
 Sandy Point. Besides the parish churches, there are 
 three Methodist congregations, and several schools. 
 This island was discovered by Columbus in 1493, and 
 was then densely peopled by Caribs. In 1625 it was 
 simultaneously taken possession of by colonies of En- 
 glish and French, and divided into upper and lower 
 portions. From that period it became the scene of 
 frequent and bloody contests between the two nations, 
 till at last it was finally ceded to the British in 1783. 
 
 Chronometer (Greek xpo^oC: time, and fierpov, 
 measure), a watch of peculiar construction, and great 
 perfection of workmanship, used for determining geo- 
 graphical longitudes, or other purposes where time 
 must be measured with extreme accuracy. The chro- 
 nometer differs from the ordinary watch in the princi- 
 ple of its escapement, which is so constructed that the 
 balance is entirely free from the wheels during the 
 greater part of its vibration ; and also in having the 
 balance compensated for variations of temperature. 
 Marine chronometers generally beat half seconds, and 
 are iiung in gimbals, in boxes about six or eight inches 
 square. The pocket chronometer does not differ in 
 appearance from the ordinary watch, excepting that 
 it is generally a little larger. Chronometers are of 
 immense utility in navigation ; and ships going on 
 distant voyages are usually furnished with several, for 
 the purpose of checking one another, and also to guard 
 against the effects of accidental derangement in any 
 single one. The accuracy with which some of the bet- 
 ter sort of chronometers have been found to perform is 
 ti-uly astonishing ; the error in a two months' voyage 
 not exceeding two or three seconds. — See Dent on the 
 Construction and Management of Chrorwmeters. 
 
 Cbunam, the name given in India to lime. The 
 best, obtained by the calcination of shells, is employed 
 in the mastication of betel (which see), to prevent, 
 it is said, its injuring the stomach. 
 
 Cider or Cyder, a vinous liquor made from the 
 expressed and fermented juice of the apple. In En- 
 gland, the counties of Devon and Hereford are noted 
 as the cider counties ; but good cider is also produced 
 in the counties of Gloucester, Monmouth, Worcester, 
 Dorset, Somerset, and Cornwall. Normandy has long 
 
 been known for the excellence of its cider; and con- 
 siderable quantities are manufactured in ether districts 
 of France, and also in Belgium, Germany, and in North 
 America. 
 
 In England the manufacture of cider is almost en- 
 tirely in the hands of the common farmer, so that little 
 or nothing has been done either to improve the machin- 
 ery or bring science to bear on the processes "which are 
 followed. Hence much of the cider is of inferior qual- 
 ity, and much waste ensues in the manufacture. The 
 apples for cider should only be gathered when fully 
 ripe, as it is only then that they contain their full pro- 
 portion of saccharine matter. As the apples are gath- 
 ered they are laid in heaps, and are allowed to lie thus 
 from 15 to 30 days, in Order to become fully ripe or 
 mellow. They are then thrown into a stone tirough, 
 round which a heavy circular stone is turned by means 
 of one or two horses. When the apples are thoroughly 
 ground, the pulp is carried in pails to the screw-press 
 and poured into square pieces of hair-cloth, the edges 
 of the hair-cloth being so folded over the pulp as to 
 prevent any escaping. The pulp is then subjected to 
 pressure, when the juice escapes, leaving a solid cake. 
 The juice is now transferred to casks, where it rapidly 
 undergoes a process of fermentation, without requiring 
 any addition ; and in three or four days the process is 
 completed, when it is drawn off into casks. The best 
 cider is almost always that in which the process offer- 
 mentation has been most slowly conducted. AVhen 
 the fermentation has been rapid the cider is apt to run 
 to acidity. 
 
 In France several manufacturers of cider have lately 
 employed improved apparatus for mashing their ap- 
 ples, somewhat similar to that used for mashing the 
 beet-root in the manufacture of sugar; and have also 
 given special attention to the management of the proc- 
 ess of fermentation. The quality of the cider is said 
 to have been thereby greatly improved. The cake 
 after its first pressure is sometimes broken up with 
 water, and subjected to a second pressure, and the 
 juice it then yields furnishes, on fermentation, an in- 
 ferior cider, which must be soon used, as it will not 
 keep. Cider is not fit to be drunk till about three 
 months after it is made. Good cider yields about 6 
 per cent, of alcohol on distillation, and thus contains 
 nearly the same amount of alcohol as the ordinary bit- 
 ter Indian ales ; but the inferior kinds do not contain 
 above half that proportion. Cider appears to be a re- 
 freshing and healthful drink; and the natives of the 
 counties in which it forms the ordinary drink are re- 
 marked to be nearly exempt from stone and from 
 gravel complaints. — E. B. 
 
 Cigars. See Tobacco. 
 
 Cincinnati, the metropolis of Ohio, capital of 
 Hamilton county, and the largest and most commer- 
 cial place west of the Alleghany Mountains. It is sit- 
 uated on the right bank of the Ohio River, 455 miles 
 below Pittsburg, and 1548 miles above New Orleans, 
 and 502 miles from Washington. It is *he largest 
 city of the Mississippi Valley north of New Orleans, 
 and the fifth in population in the United States. Pop- 
 ulation in 1800, 750 ; in 1810, 2540 ; in 1830, 24,831 ; 
 in 1840, 46,338; in 1845, 65,000; in 1850, 115,438; in 
 1853, 160,141. The suburbs have 25,000 inhabitants 
 additional. 
 
 This city is near the eastern extremity of a valley, 
 about twelve miles in circumference, surrounded by a 
 series of hills, which rise to the height of 300 feet by 
 gentle and varying slopes, and are partly covered with 
 the native forest trees. From the summit of these hills 
 is presented a beautiful and picturesque view of the 
 city and valley. It is built on two table lands, the 
 one elevated from 40 to 60 feet above the other. Low- 
 water mark in the river, which is 108 feet below the 
 upper part of the city, is 432 feet above tide-water at 
 Albany, and 133 feet below the level of Lake Erie. 
 Covington and Newport, opposite, in Kentucky, and 
 
cm 
 
 3Q7 
 
 CIN 
 
 Falton and the adjacent parts of Mill Creek township 
 on the north, are but suburbs of Cincinnati, and if 
 added to the above population would extend it to 
 185,000. The shore of the Ohio at the landing is sub- 
 stantially paved to low-water mark, and is supplied 
 with floating wharves, adapted to tlie great rise and 
 fall of the river, which renders the landing and ship- 
 ping of goods at all times convenient. 
 
 The Ohio River at Cincinnati is 1800 feet, or about 
 one-third of a mile wide, and its mean annual range 
 from low to high water is about 50 feet ; the extreme 
 range may be about 10 feet more. The greatest de- 
 pressions are generally in August, September, and 
 October, and the greatest rise in December, March, 
 May, and June. The upward navigation is in winter 
 very rarely suspended by floating ice, and in some win- 
 ters not at all. Its current at its mean height is about 
 three miles an hour; when higher or rising, it is more; 
 and when very low, it does not exceed two miles 
 
 The commercial returns for the year 1856 show 
 that Cincinnati has participated in the general pros- 
 perity of tlie West. The total value of principal im- 
 ports for the year ending September 1, 1856, was 
 $75,295,000, against $67,501,000 the previous year; 
 and of exports $50,744,000, against $38,777,000 the 
 previous year, showing an increase in the value of im- 
 ports of $7,794,000, and in the value of our exports 
 $11,967,000 : these figures do not represent the total 
 value of imports and exports at Cincinnati. To the 
 value of the imports 10 per cent, may be added, and to 
 the exports 25 per cent., to embrace those articles not 
 included in them. The figures then would stand thus : 
 
 Value of Imports , $82,825,000 
 
 Value of exports 63,430,000 
 
 No record being kept of imports by the Cincinnati cus- 
 tom-house officers, except those which come under cus- 
 tom-house bond, the Chamber of Commerce, at its own 
 expense, keeps a record of the imports and exports. 
 
 Xmpokts into CmoiKNATi FOE Five Years, commencing Septembek 1st, and ending August 31bt, each Yeas. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 1860-'61 
 
 isei-'6s. 
 
 ■ lB6a-'63. 
 
 186«-'64. 
 
 1864-'66. 
 
 16,934 
 
 71,882 
 
 19,845 
 
 81,477 
 
 15,971 
 
 1,101 
 
 1,609 
 
 1,118 . 
 
 1,841 
 
 1,766 
 
 111,237 
 
 69,994 
 
 225,844 ' 
 
 286,536 
 
 204,224 
 
 31,037 
 
 14,187 
 
 26,439^ 
 
 21,332 
 
 17,173 
 
 8,269 
 
 10,203 
 
 16,484< 
 
 , 16,842 
 
 .19,185 
 
 11,043 
 
 13,720 
 
 11,331 
 
 11,692 
 
 7,132 
 
 489,195 
 
 663,788 
 
 723,384 
 
 745,455 
 
 846,579 
 
 205,444 
 
 241,753 
 
 212,336 
 
 216,892 
 
 183,379 
 
 7,168 
 
 12,776 
 
 16,660 
 
 22,613 
 
 15.107 
 
 91,177 
 
 95,782 
 
 109,138 
 
 91,426 
 
 114,113 
 
 482,772 
 
 511,042 
 
 449,089 
 
 427,464 
 
 342,772 
 
 111,484 
 
 160,684 
 
 420,594 
 
 626,273 
 
 496,360 
 
 86,889 
 
 86,047 
 
 61,744 
 
 76,094 
 
 63,654 
 
 31,087 
 
 32,283 
 
 26,159 
 
 19,752 
 
 14,831 
 
 61,490 
 
 93,132 
 
 116,112 
 
 86,430 
 
 66,237 
 
 6,277 
 
 10,333 
 
 15,251 
 
 12,164 
 
 6,947 
 
 1,183 
 
 1,987 
 
 " ' 3,550 
 
 2,736 
 
 6,770 
 
 31,598 
 
 22,501 
 
 1 59,517 
 
 39,387 
 
 . 38,365 
 
 14,961 
 
 17,417 
 
 , 27,209 
 
 27,986 
 
 19,197 
 
 19,648 
 
 20,789 
 
 15,d85 
 
 35,244 
 
 29,282 
 
 44,308 
 
 68,818 
 
 38,670' 
 
 29,592 
 
 63,164 
 
 29,808 
 
 39,324 
 
 44,299 
 
 64,461 
 
 46,953 
 
 18,684 
 
 15,237 
 
 , 24,004 
 
 ,25,441 
 
 , 19,465 
 
 388,660 
 
 377,037 
 
 343,649 
 
 408,084 . 
 
 487,412 
 
 244,049 
 
 272,788 
 
 280,317 
 
 285,343 
 
 272,165 
 
 ApplQU Barrels. \ 
 
 Beef " 
 
 Barley Bushels. 
 
 Beans ** 
 
 Butter Barrels. 
 
 Butter Firkins and kegs. 
 
 Corn Bushels. 
 
 Cheese Boxes. 
 
 Cotton Bales. 
 
 Qoffee ••,•%••• Sacks* 
 
 Flour Barrels. 
 
 Hogs Head. 
 
 Lard.. Barrels. 
 
 Lard Kegs. 
 
 Molasses Bfirrels. 
 
 Fork and Bacon . . . Hogsheads. 
 Pork and Bacon . . . Tierces. 
 Pork and Bacon . . . Barrels. 
 
 Pork in bulk Pounds. 
 
 Potatoes Barrels. 
 
 Rye Bushels. 
 
 Sugar Hogsheads. 
 
 Sugar Barrels. 
 
 Wheat Bushels. 
 
 Whisky Barrels. 
 
 In the above table the number of hogs does not include those driven into the city or by private conveyance. 
 
 VaT.UE of TUE PRINOIPAI. ExPOBTS FROM THE PORT OF CIN- 
 CINNATI FOR THE Years ending August BIst, 1854-'55. 
 
 A«iole«. 
 
 1854. 
 
 1855. 
 
 Alcohol...; :.. 
 
 Beef, Ban-els 
 
 Beef, Tierces 
 
 Butter. 
 
 $528,838 
 
 202,216 
 
 237,609 
 
 308,536 
 
 90,081 
 
 337,761 
 
 1,057,861 
 
 719,950 
 
 440,924 
 
 1,624,099 
 
 1,168,607' 
 
 1,307,850 
 
 5,894,681 
 
 2,010,784 
 
 2,922,612 
 
 20,434,996 
 
 $311,047 
 
 251,594 
 
 122,336 
 
 624,040 
 
 39,426 
 
 464,116 
 
 1,064,476 
 
 502,100 
 
 664,186 
 
 2,096,501 
 
 1,458,000 
 
 1,223,728 
 
 6,378,815 
 
 1,986,355 
 
 1,966,896 
 
 27,390,215 
 
 
 Cheese 
 
 Candles 
 
 Cattle 
 
 
 Flour 
 
 Lard 
 
 Lard-oil 
 
 
 
 Whisky 
 
 Other articles 
 
 Total : 
 
 $38,777,894 
 
 $45,432,780 
 
 — Hunt's Merchatits' Magazine. See Omo. 
 
 Cinnabar (Germ. Zinnober; Du. Cinaber, Vermili- 
 oen; Fr. Cinnabre; It. dnabro ; Sp. Cinabrio; Kuss. 
 Kirwwar; Lat. Cirmabriutn). 
 
 Native Cinnabar — a mineral substance, red, heavy, 
 and brilliant. It is found in various places, chiefly in 
 quicksilver mines, being one of the ores of that metal. 
 The cinnabar of the Philippine Islands is said to be of 
 the highest color ; but that of Almaden, in Spain, is 
 the richest. The best native cinnabar is of a high 
 color, brilliant, and free from earthy or stony matter. 
 
 Arlijicial Cinnabar. — " When two parts of mercury 
 and one of sulphur are triturated together in a mortar, 
 the mercury gradually disappears, and the whole as- 
 sumes the form of a black powder, formerly called 
 Ethiopa mineral. When this mineral is heated red hot, 
 
 it sublimes ; and if a proper vessel be placed to receive 
 it, a cake is obtained of a fine red color. This cake 
 was formerly called cinnabar ; and, when reduced to 
 a fine powder, is well known in commerce under the 
 name of vermilion." — Thomson's Chemistri/, 
 
 Cinnamon (Du. Kaneel; Fr. Canndte ; Get. Zim- 
 met, Kanehlj It. Canella; Lat. Cinnamomum, Canella; 
 Port. Canella; Sp. Canela; Pers. and Hind. Darchinie; 
 Arab. JDarsini; Malay Kaimanis; Greek Kcva/iov), 
 the bark of the cinnamon-tree QLaums cinnamomum), a 
 native of Ceylon, where it grows in great abundance, 
 Cochin China, and perhaps of some other countries. 
 It is brought home in bags or bales weighing 92J 
 lbs. each ; and, in stowing it, black pepper is mixed 
 with the bales to preserve the cinnamon. The best 
 cinnamon is thin and rather pliable ; it ought to be 
 about the substance of royal paper, or somewhat 
 thicker ; is of a light yellow color, approaching nearly 
 to that of Venetian gold ; it is smooth and shining ; 
 fractures splintery ; has an agreeable, warm, aromatic 
 flavor, and a mild, sweetish taste; when chewed, the 
 pieces become soft, and seem to melt in the mouth ; it 
 is not so pungent but that it may be borne on the 
 tongue without pain, and is not succeeded by any 
 after taste. Whatever is hard, thick as a half-crown 
 piece, dark-colored or brown, or so hot that it can not 
 be borne, should be rejected. Particular care should 
 be taken that it be not false packed, or mixed with 
 cinnamon of an inferior sort.— Mileurh's Oriental 
 Commerce ; Marshall's Essat/. 
 
 The cinnamon of Cochin China grows in the dry 
 sandy districts lying northwest of the town of Faifoe, 
 between the 15th and 16th degrees of north latitude. 
 
cm 
 
 308 
 
 crv 
 
 It is preferred in China to the cinnamon of Ceylon. 
 The annual imports into Canton and other ports vai-y 
 from 250,000 to 300,000 lbs. There are no fewer than ten 
 varieties of this species in the market. It is not cured, 
 like that of Ceylon, by freeing it from the epidermis. — 
 Ceawfued's Embassy to Siam, etc., p. 475. 
 
 Cinnamon Monopoly. — Down to 1833, the cultivation 
 of cinnamon in Ceylon was restricted to a few gardens 
 in the neighborhood of Colombo, the production and 
 sale of the article being wholly monopolized by gov- 
 ernment. Upon the transference of the island from 
 the East India Company to the king's government, the 
 former agreed to pay £60,000 a year for 400,000 lbs. 
 or 4342^ bales of cinnamon ; it being stipulated that 
 if the quantity collected .exceeded this amount the sur- 
 plus was to be burned ! But this agreement was after- 
 ward broken off; and the cinnamon was sent to En- 
 gland by government, and sold on its account at quar- 
 terly sales. The net revenue derived from the cinna- 
 mon monopoly, in 1831, is said to have amounted to 
 £127,961. As the monopoly could not be enforced, 
 except by confining the culture of cinnamon to certain 
 districts, it necessarilj' led to the most oppressive in- 
 terferences with the rights of individuals, to the cre- 
 ation of numberless imaginary offenses, and the multi- 
 plication of punishments, forming a heavy drawback 
 upon the prosperity of the island. A sense of these 
 disadvantages led at length to the abolition of the 
 monopoly system in 1833, when England ceased to be 
 amenable to the charge of upholding, without improv- 
 ing, the worst part of the Dutch policy, and restored 
 to the natives their right to cultivate cinnamon any- 
 where and in any way they think fit. 
 
 Cinque Ports (i. e. the five ports), five havens 
 on the southeastern coast of England, opposite France, 
 and thus called by way of eminence, on account of 
 their importance as safeguards against invasion. These 
 comprise Hastings, Eoraney, Hythe, Dover, and Sand- 
 wich; to which were afterward added the two ancient 
 towns of Winchelsea and Eye. These places were an- 
 ciently deemed of so much importance in the defense 
 of the kingdom against invasion, that they received 
 royal grants of particular privileges, on condition of 
 providing during war a certain number of ships at 
 their own expense. They are governed by a warden 
 with the title of Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports, 
 and each had the privilege formerly of returning to 
 Parliament two members imder the title of Barons of 
 the Cinque Ports ; but since 1831 this privilege has 
 been confined to Hastings, Dover, and Sandwich. We 
 are told by Camden that William the Conqueror ap- 
 pointed the first warden of the Cinque Ports ; but their 
 charters are traced to the time of Edward the Conffess- 
 or. The salary of the Lord Warden is £3000 a year. 
 E. B. — See Chitty's Commercial Law. 
 
 Circumnavigators. Among the greatest and 
 most daring of human enterprises was the circumnav- 
 igation of the earth at the period wlien it was first at- 
 tempted, A.D. 1519. The first ship that sailed round 
 the earth, and hence determined its being globular, 
 was Magellan's, or Magelhoen's ; he was a native of 
 Portugal, in the service of Spain, and by keeping a 
 westerly course he returned to the same place he had 
 set out from in 1519. The voyage was completed in 
 three years and twenty-nine days ; but Magellan was 
 Idlled on his homeward passage, at the Philippines, in 
 1521. — BuTLEE. The following are the most renown- 
 ed of this illustrious class of men : their voyages were 
 undertaken at the dates affixed to their names.— /See 
 Navigatoes. 
 
 Magellan, a Portuguese, the first who entered the ^'^' 
 
 Pacific Ocean 1519 
 
 Groalva, a Spanish navigator 1537 
 
 Avalradi, a Spaniard 1537 
 
 Mendana, a Spaniard 1567 
 
 Sir Francis Drake, first English 1577 
 
 Cavendish, his first voyage 15S6 
 
 Le Maire, a Dutchman 1615 
 
 Quiros, a Spaniard 1625 
 
 Taslnan, Dutch 1642 
 
 Cowley, British 1G83 
 
 Dampier, an EngliBhman 1689 
 
 Cooke, an Englishman 1788 
 
 Clipperton, British 1719 
 
 Koggewein, Dutch 1721 
 
 Anson (afterward Lord) I740 
 
 Byron (grandfather of Lord Byron) 1764 
 
 Wallis, British 1766 
 
 Carteret, an Englishman 1766 
 
 Cook, the illustrious captain 1768 
 
 On the death of Captain Cook, his last voyage was 
 
 continued hy King 1779 
 
 Bougainville, French 1776 
 
 Portlocke, British 1788 
 
 Wilkes, American 1837 
 
 D'Urville, French 1837 
 
 Several voyages have been since undertaken, and, 
 among other nations, by the Russians. — Haydn. 
 
 Cities. The word city has been in use in England 
 only since the Conquest, at which time even London 
 was called Londonburgh, as the capital of Scotland is 
 still called Edinburgh. The English cities were verj' 
 inconsiderable in the twelfth century. Cities were first 
 incorporated A.D. 1079. The institution of cities has 
 aided much in introducing regular governments, po- 
 lice, manners, and arts. — Eobeetson. 
 
 Citron (Ger. Succade; Da. Sukkat; It. Confetti di 
 cedro; Sp. Aciiron verde; Fr. Ciironat verd), an agree- 
 able fruit, resembling a lemon in color, smell, and taste. 
 The principal difl'erence lies in the juice of the citron 
 being somewhat less acid, and the yellow rind being 
 somewhat hotter, and accompanied with a considera- 
 ble bitterness. — Lewis' Mat. Med. It is imported, 
 preserved and candied, from Madeira, of the finest 
 quality. 
 
 Civet (Germ. Zibeth; Du. Civet; Fr. Civette; It. 
 Zibetto; Sp. Algalia'), a perfume taken from the civet 
 cat: it is offensive unless extremely diluted, and then, 
 in combination with other perfumes, it adds to their 
 energy. It is brought from the Brazils, Guinea, and 
 the interior of Africa. 
 
 Civita Vecchia, a fortified sea-port town of the 
 papal dominions, on the Mediterranean, lat. 42° 4' 38" 
 N., long. 11° 44' 62" E. Population 7000. The port 
 of Civita Vecchia is artificial, and is formed by three 
 large moles. Two of them projecting from the main 
 land, inclined one to the north and the other to the 
 south, form the sides of the harbor ; while a third mole, 
 or breakwater, constructed opposite to the gap be- 
 tween the other two, serves to protect the harbor from 
 the heavy sea that would otherwise be thrown in by 
 the westerly gales. A light-house, having the lantern 
 elevated seventy-four feet above the level of the sea, is 
 erected on the southern extremity of the outward mole; 
 the distance from its extremities to the extremities of 
 the lateral moles, on which there are towers, being about 
 ninety fathoms. Vessels may enter either by the south 
 or north end of the outer mole, but the southern chan- 
 nel is the deepest, having from eight to six and four 
 fathoms. Ships may anchor within the port, in from 
 sixteen to eighteen feet of water; or between it and 
 the outer mole, where the water is deeper. Within the 
 port there is a dock and an arsenal. — Plan nf Civita 
 Vecchia. 
 
 Imports and Exports.— Thongii the wealth and popu- 
 lation of the country round Civita Vecchia be much 
 fallen off in modern times compared with antiquity, it 
 still continues to be the entrepot of Rome, and engrosses 
 almost the entire trade of the papal dominions on the 
 side of the Mediterranean. The imports consist prin- 
 cipally of cotton, woolen, silk, and linen stuffs ; coffee, 
 sugar, cocoa, and other colonial products ; salt and salt- 
 ed fish, wines, jewelry, glass and earthen ware, etc. 
 The exports consist of staves and timber, corn, coal, 
 wood, cheese, potash, pumice-stone, alum, from Tolfa, 
 in the vicinity, and other articles. The total value 
 of the imports may be reckoned at from £650,000 to 
 £700,000, and it may be fairly presumed that the real 
 value of the exports is not much inferior. Marseilles 
 
CLA 
 
 309 
 
 CLE 
 
 and Genoa have the largest share of the foreign trade 
 of Civita Vecchia, and next to them, England. 
 
 Duties. — Civita Vecchia is a free port ; that is, a port 
 into ivhich produce may be imported, and either con- 
 sumed or re-exported, free of duty. 
 
 Quarantine regulations are strictly enforced, no ves- 
 sel with a foul bill of health being permitted to enter 
 any of the papal ports. — Annuaire du Commerce Mari- 
 time, torn. ii. p. 366, etc. 
 
 Claret, one of the best French wines. It is de- 
 rived from the Latin Claretum, from Clarere, to be 
 clear. — See the articles Bordeaux and Wine. 
 
 Clarification, the act of clearing ; particularly the 
 clearing or fining of liquids from feculent matter by the 
 separation of the insoluble particles. This is perform- 
 ed by depuration, filtration, or coagulation. The sub- 
 stances usually employed for clarifying liquors are 
 the albumen of eggs, blood, and isinglass. The first 
 two are used for such liquors as are clarified while 
 boiling hot ; the last for those which are clarified in 
 the cold state, as wines, etc. The whites of eggs are 
 beaten up into a froth and mixed with the liquor, 
 when they unite with and entangle the impure mat- 
 ters that float in it; and, presently coagulating by 
 the heat, carry these impurities up to the surface in 
 the form of scum. Blood operates in the same manner. 
 Isinglass is much employed for fining wines. For this 
 purpose, about a quarter of an ounce may be thrown 
 into the cask, or the isinglass may be previously dis- 
 solved and boiled down to a slimy consistence. It is 
 then mixed with the liquor by rolling the cask about ; 
 after which it is allowed to settle. 
 
 Clearing, among Londonfianiej's, is amethod adopt- 
 ed for exchanging the drafts on each other's houses, 
 and settling the differences. Thus, at half-past three 
 o'clock, a clerk from each bank attends at the clearing- 
 house, where he brings all the drafts on the other bank- 
 ers which have been paid into his house that day, and 
 deposits them in their proper drawers (a drawer being 
 allotted to each banker) ; he then credits their accounts 
 separately with the articles which they have against 
 him, as found in the drawer. Balances are then struck 
 from all the accounts, and the claims transferred from 
 one to another, until they are so wound up and can- 
 celed that each clerk has only to settle with two or 
 three others, and their balances are immediately paid. 
 Clearing-house, the place where the operation 
 tenned clearing is carried on. The London clearing- 
 house was established some yeai's since, for the conven- 
 ience of bankers and joint-stock banks in the metrop- 
 olis by facilitating the transfer, liquidation, or exchange 
 of bank checks and bills. This object is fully accom- 
 plished by each party, or some one representing it, 
 meeting at a fixed place, at a fixed hour per day, to 
 deliver checks on each other, and receiving in return 
 checks on themselves, or cash to balance. It follows, 
 necessarily, that the payments and receipts daily must 
 exactly counterbalance each other. The utility of 
 this arrangement, its economy of time and labor, and 
 avoidance of risk, may be estimated from the fact that 
 the annual clearings for one year (1839) amounted to 
 £954,000,000 sterling, or over $15,000,000 each business 
 day. In the year ISio, the average payments or clear- 
 ings were $4,700,000 daily, on an average. 
 
 The New York clearing-house was established in 
 1853, and a constitution adopted in September of that 
 year, when fifty-two of the banks of the city weA; rep- 
 resented and became members. Operations were com- 
 menced the second week in October, 1853, and have 
 been carried on regularly ever since. 
 
 The hour for making exchanges at the clearing- 
 house is 10 o'clock A.M., when all the checks or bills 
 of each bank are delivered by a clerk, and distributed 
 by the manager or his assistant to the clerk or repre- 
 sentative of the banks respectively. At 1 o'clock p.m., 
 the debtor banks pay to the manager the balances 
 against them, either in coin or in bank certificates — 
 the latter representing coin and used only by and 
 among the banks, to avoid the carrying of specie to 
 and from the clearing-house. At the same hour the 
 creditor banks receive from the manager, at the same 
 place, the respective balances due to them. The man- 
 ager receives a salary of $3000, and has two clerks 
 under him. The exi)enses of the clearing-house are 
 borne by a tax upon the city banks who are members, 
 now fifty-three in all. Banks having a capital less 
 than $500,000 pay $100 each, annually; less than 
 $1,000,000 pay $200, and those over $1,000,000 pay 
 $300 each, annually. 
 Tkansactionb of the New York CLEAEiNO-nousE, from its 
 
 COWMENCEMKNT, OOTOEEK, 1853, TO OCTOBEE 1, 1856. 
 
 1839. 
 
 Aggregate 
 DemftnOB. 
 
 Bank-notes. 
 
 Per Cent. 
 
 January' 
 
 February . . . ; . 
 
 March .... 
 
 April 
 
 May 
 
 June 
 
 July 
 
 August 
 
 September 
 
 October 
 
 November .... 
 
 December 
 
 Total.... 
 
 £82,762,400 
 76,164,700 
 75,879,200 
 85,839,200 
 80,587,600 
 67,413,900 
 83,865,200 
 87,610,500 
 74,237,700 
 87,478,200 
 81,729,200 
 70,833,800 
 
 .£6,348,600 
 4,960,200 
 6,621„500 
 6,836,000 
 6,615,000 
 6,060,000 
 6,284,800 
 6,164,900 
 6,129,800 
 6,706,800 
 4,793,100 
 4,765,000- 
 
 £7-672 
 6-613 
 7-408 
 6-800 
 6-882 
 7-606 
 7-493 
 7 037 
 6-910 
 6-524 
 5-866 
 6-718 
 
 X964,401,600 
 
 £66,275,600 
 
 £6-944 
 
 Date. 
 
 CleailngB. 
 
 Balances. 
 
 October, 1853.... 
 
 $325,796,792 i)6 
 
 $19,306,275 26 
 
 November, *' 
 
 470,625,765 57 
 
 24,216,666 59 
 
 December, *' 
 
 481,443,321 57 
 
 27,611,805 47 
 
 January, 1854....' 
 
 465,245,490 37 
 
 23,166,400 96 
 
 February, " 
 
 448,236,297 98 
 
 , 23,294,24175 
 
 Marcli, " .... 
 
 529,929,949 17 
 
 26,959,085 11 
 
 April, " .... 
 
 511,931,155 98 
 
 24,484,428 40 
 
 May, " .... 
 
 581,011,472 41 
 
 26,251,982 80 
 
 June, *' 
 
 527,360,722 12 
 
 28,162,991 65 
 
 July, " .... 
 
 469,250,993 11 
 
 26,543,709 51 
 
 August, " 
 
 458,462,906 71 
 
 26,601,446 23 
 
 September, " .... 
 Total 
 
 454,161,119 12 
 
 26,722,465 47 
 
 $5,750,455,987 06 
 
 $297,411,493 69 
 
 October, 1854. . . . 
 
 $478,977,120 38 
 
 $24,574,949 04 
 
 November, " 
 
 447,128,246 10 
 
 22,240,636 87 
 
 December, " 
 
 426,948,104 46 
 
 22,023,515 76 
 
 Januai-y, 1855 
 
 472,204,524 60 
 
 23,159,158 99 
 
 February, " .... 
 
 383,072,087 45 
 
 ■ 20,607,744 42 
 
 March, " .... 
 
 440,302,243 30 
 
 24,164,071 12 
 
 April, " .... 
 
 441,336,357 61 
 
 24,144,093 62 
 
 May, " .... 
 
 488,064,634 24 
 
 25,543,048 94 
 
 June, " 
 
 465,222,844 64 
 
 25,769,645 97 
 
 July, " .... 
 
 438,644,305 99 
 
 27,306,548 85 
 
 August, " 
 
 457,258,918 12 
 
 25,425,105 30 
 
 September, " 
 
 Total 
 
 462,752,711 64 
 
 24,745,618 36 
 
 $5,407,912,098 88 
 
 $289,694,733 14 
 
 October, 1656 
 
 $657,111,464 83 
 
 $26,990,960 26 
 
 
 553,708,677 93 
 
 25,841,747 17 
 
 December, " 
 
 562,993,465 14 
 
 26,166,320 62 
 
 January, 1856. . . . 
 
 544,860,535 98 
 
 28,662,804 67 
 
 February, *' 
 
 644,143,624 37 
 
 26,855,260 68 
 
 Marcli, *' .... 
 
 557,425,29580 
 
 28,864,462 92 
 
 April, " .... 
 
 603,421,614 63 
 
 27,123,724 61 
 
 May, " .... 
 
 665,013,835 28 
 
 32,068,642 09 
 
 
 667,700,30547 
 
 28,227,689 30 
 
 July, " .... 
 
 696,657,439 10 
 
 80,549,968 54 
 
 
 547,674,6E8 61 
 
 26,688,313 78 
 
 September, " 
 
 Total 
 
 615,602,471 64 
 
 27,674,704 95 
 
 $6,906,213,3-i« 88 
 
 $331,714,489 33 
 
 The Boston clearing-house was organized in that 
 city September 26, A.D. 1855, and commenced busi- 
 ness March 29, A.B. 1856. All the banks in the city 
 (thirty-five in number) are connected with the institu- 
 tion, representing a capital of $31,960,000. The execu- 
 tive committee consists of five gentlemen, all of which 
 are presidents of banks. The total transactions from 
 its commencement to November 30th, 1856, amounted 
 to $1,060,390,841. The Merchants' Bank is the de- 
 pository bank for the special deposit of coin from the 
 several banks connected witli the association. 
 
 Cleveland, city, port of entry, and the capital of 
 Cuyahoga county, Ohio, on the south shore of Lake 
 Erie. Lat. 41°30'N., long. 81°47'W. The population 
 in 1799 consisted of one family ; in 1825 about 500 in- 
 habitants ; in 1830, 1000 ; in 1834, 4300 ; in 1840, 6071 ; 
 
CLO 
 
 310 
 
 CLO 
 
 in 1860, 17,034; and in 1854, about 25,000; and with 
 the addition of Ohio City, 7000 more, making a total 
 of 32,'000. Cleveland is the emporium of Northern 
 Ohio, and, next to Cincinnati, the most important town 
 in the State ; possesses a commanding situation on Lake 
 Erie, at the mouth of the Cuyahoga Kiver, and the 
 northern termination of the Ohio Canal, by which it 
 is connected with the Ohio Eiyer, and by railroad to 
 New York, to Buffalo, to Philadelphia via Pittsburg, 
 to Cincinnati, to Chicago. It is 130 miles northwest 
 from Pittsburg, 146 northeast from Columbus, 200 by 
 water from Buffalo, ISO from Detroit, and 369 from 
 Washington. The value of imports in 1861 amount- 
 ed to $22,804,159; exports same year amounted to 
 $12,026,497. The licensed and enrolled tonnage of 
 the district for 1851 was 36,070 tons; 11,355 steam, afiid 
 24,616 sail. The harbor of Cleveland is formed by the 
 mouth of the Cuyahoga Elver, artd improved by a pier 
 on each side, extending 426 yards into the lake, 200 feet 
 apart, and faced with substantial stone masonry. Cleve- 
 land has a ready communication with New York via 
 railroad and the Erie Canal, with Philadelphia by rail- 
 road and canal, with Cincinnati by railroad, and with 
 the Ohio Piiver by the Ohio Canal, and it exports much 
 by theway of the Welland Canal toCanada.^<See Ohio. 
 
 Clock, Clocks (Ger, Uhren^ Crosse Vhren, Wian- 
 dunrhe; Du. Uuren, IfurwcrJcen, Horologien ; Fr. Ilor- 
 loges; It. Orologgi^ Oriuoli; Sp. JRelqjes ; Russ. Tschas-u), 
 a kind of machine put in motion by a gravitating 
 body, and so constructed as to divide, measure, and 
 indicate the successive portions of time with very 
 great accuracy. Most clocks mark the hour by strik- 
 ing or chiming. It is a highly useful instrument, and 
 is extensively employed for domestic and philosophical 
 purposes. Clocks are made of an endless variety of 
 materials and models, so as to suit the different uses 
 to which they are to be applied, and the different tastes 
 of their purchasers. The Germans, Dutch, and Amer- 
 icans are particularly celebrated for their skill in the 
 manufacture of clocks ; while the English, French, and 
 Genevese, especially the former, have carried the art 
 of making metallic clocks, so as to keep time with the 
 greatest precision, to a high degree of perfection. The 
 history of the invention, introduction, and successive 
 improvements in the manufacture of clocks, has been 
 carefully investigated by some very learned and in- 
 dustrious antiquaries (see Beckmann's Hist, of Inven- 
 tions, vol. i. p. 419-462, English ed, ; and Eees' Cy- 
 clopedia) ; but, notwithstanding these researches, the 
 subject is still involved in considerable obscurity. It 
 seems, however, that the middle of the fourteenth cen- 
 tury may be regarded as the epoch when clocks, having 
 weights suspended as a moving power and a regula- 
 tor began to be introduced. The period when, and 
 the individual by whom, the pendulum was first ap- 
 plied to clock-work, have been subjects of much con- 
 tention. Galileo and Huygens have disputed the 
 honor of the discovery. "But whoever may have 
 been the inventor, it is certain that the invention never 
 flourished till it came into the hands of Huygens, who 
 insists that if ever Galileo thought of such a thing, 
 he never brought it to any degree of perfection. The 
 first pendulum clock made in England was in the year 
 1662, by one Fromantel, a Dutchman."— Hdtton's 
 Math, hiciionai'y. 
 
 The origin of clock-work is involved in great ob- 
 scurity. Notwithstanding the statements by many 
 writers that clocks, hm-ologia, were in use so early as 
 the ninth century, and that they were then Invented 
 by an archdeacon of Verona, named Pacificus, there 
 appears to be no clear evidence that they were ma- 
 chines at all resembling those which have been in use 
 for the last five or six centuries. But it is certain 
 that for that period at least clocks have been made 
 depending on the action of a weight on a train of 
 wheels, as distinguished from the water-clocks, clep- 
 sydrae, which are well known to have been used many 
 
 centuries before. We will refer the reader who is 
 curious about it to the articles on clocks, etc., in 
 the Encyclopedia BHfannica and the Various works 
 there cited. We will only add to the information 
 there given, that it appears from a communication of 
 Captain Smith to the Antiquarian' Society in 1851, 
 that there is still a clock ill existence at Dover Castle 
 bearing the date 1348, earlier by thirty years than that 
 of the clock made by De Vick for the palace of the Em- 
 peror Charles V., which has generally been described 
 as the earliest clock of which the actual construction 
 is known. Mr. Denison also, in his Rvdimentary Treat- 
 ise on Clocks (of which we have largely- availed our- 
 selves throughout this article, and also of various pa- 
 pers by him in the Cambridge Philosophical Transac- 
 tions, and the Journal of the Society of Arts), mentions 
 a clock in Peterborough Cathedral, still in use as to 
 the striking part, bf which the construction is more 
 like that of the Dover Castle clock than that of De 
 Vick ; and Lord Chief Justice Coke tells us that'a clock 
 was set up in Westminster Hall in the thirteenth cen- 
 tui-y out of a fine levied on one of his predecessors in 
 that seat, from which, pei'haps, the appropriate inscrip- 
 tion Disciie justitiam moniii 'was copied on to the sun- 
 dial on a house now facing the hall. 
 
 The clock called the clepsydra, or water-clock, was 
 introduced at Eome 158 B. c. by Scipio Nasica. Toothed 
 wheels were applied to them by Ctesibius, about 140 
 B.C. Said to have been found by Cffisar on invading 
 Britain, 55 B.C. The only clock supposed to be then ' 
 in the world was sent by Pope Paul I. to Pepin, king 
 of France, A.D. 760. Pacificus, archdeacon of Verona, 
 invented one in the ninth century. Originally the 
 wheels wore three feet in diameter. The earliest com- 
 plete clock of which there is any certain record was 
 made by a Saracen mechanic, in the thirteenth cen- 
 tury. 
 
 The scapement, ascribed to Gerbeii:, a.d 1000 
 
 A clock constiTxcted by Richard, abbot of St. Alban'B, 
 
 about 1326 
 
 A striking clock in Westminster 1368 
 
 A perfect one made at Paris by Vick 13T0 
 
 The first portable one made 1530 
 
 In England no clock went accurately before that set up 
 
 at Hampton Court (maker's initials, N. O.) 1510 
 
 Itiehard Harris (-vvho erected a clock in the church of 
 
 St Paul's, Covent Garden) and the younger Galileo 
 
 constructed the pendulum 1641 
 
 Christian Huygens contested this discovery, and made 
 
 his pendulum clock some time previously to 1658 
 
 Fromantel, aDutchman, improved the pendulum, about 1659 
 Eepeatingclocks and watches invented by Barlow, about 1676 
 The dead heat, and horizontal escapements, hy Graham, 
 
 about , 1700 
 
 The subsequent improvements were the spiral balance 
 spring suggested, and the duplex scapement invented 
 by Dr. Hooke ; pivot holes jeweled by Facio ; the de- 
 tached scapement invented by Mudge, and improved 
 byBerthoud,Arnold,Earnshaw, and others. — Haydn. 
 
 Clocks imported into the United States pay a duty 
 of 30 per cent. ; watches, 10 per cent. Of clocks, the 
 value imported in the fiscal year 1864-65 was $69,268 ; 
 watches, $3,651,187. 
 
 Olive-oil is most commonly used in lubricating 
 clock machinery and preventing too great wear. We 
 believe, however, that animal oil is better than any 
 of the vegetable oils, as some of them are too thin, 
 while others soon get thick and viscid. For turret, 
 clocks and common house clocks, good sperm oil is fine 
 enough, and is probably the best. For finer work the 
 oil requires some purification. Even common neat's- 
 foot oil may be made extremely fine and clear by the 
 following method : mix it with about the same quan- 
 tity of water, and shake it in a large bottle, not full, 
 until it becomes like a white soup ; then let it stand 
 till fine oil appears at the top, which may be skiinmed 
 off: it will take several months before it has all sep- 
 arated into water at the bottom, dirt in the middle, and 
 fine oil at the top. And it should not be done in hot 
 Aveather, because heat makes some oil come out as fine 
 
CLO 
 
 311 
 
 CLT 
 
 which in cold would remain among the dirty oil in the 
 middle, and in cold weather that fine oil of hot weath- 
 er will become muddy. There are various vegetable 
 oils sold at tool-shops as oil for watches, including 
 some for which a prize medal was awarded in the Ex- 
 hibitiony but not by any of the mechanical juries ; «we 
 have no information as to the test which was applied 
 to it, and none but actual use for a considerable time 
 would be .of much value, Wei have heard of 5 per 
 cent, in power being saved in a manufactory by the 
 iise of aperm instead;of sweet oil to small' spindles re- 
 quu'ing constant lubrication. -j-E. B. - i r 
 
 Close-hauled ; that is, the tbcks dose down, the 
 sheets aft, the yards braced sliarp up, and the bow- 
 lines hauled, the ship malting her progress as near the 
 direction of the wind as she can. ^ ■ r 
 
 Cloth. Both woolen and linen cloth were known 
 in very early times. Coarse woolens were introduced 
 into England A.D, 1191 ; and seventy families of cloth- 
 workers ftom ■the'Netherlands settled in England by 
 Edward III.'s invitation, and the art of weaving was 
 thereby introduced, 1331.— Rymek's Fcedera. Woolens 
 were first made at Kendal in 1390. Medleys were man- 
 ufactured 1614. The fine English broad^cloths were yet 
 sent to Holland to be dyed, 1654. Dyed and dressed in 
 England by one Brewer, from the Low Countries, 1667. 
 The manufacture was discouraged in Ireland and that 
 of linen countenanced,, at the request of both Houses of 
 Parliament, 1698.— Hayds. /See Wool. 
 
 Clover (Ger. Klee; Du. Klaver; Ft. Trefile, Lu- 
 zerne, It. Trifoglio; Sp. Tfebol ; Kuss. ZVi'&teiA; Lat. 
 Tf-rfnlium)^ a very important species of grass. Some 
 of the species iu cultivation are annual, others biennial 
 or triennial, and others perennial.' The seed used for- 
 merly to be principally imported' from Holland; but 
 that whidh is raised in England is now said to be of a 
 superior quality. Culture for seed is, however, very 
 Jjreoarious, and of uncertain profit. For crops of hay 
 and grass seeds (including clover) raised in the United 
 States, see art. Hay. 
 
 Cloves (Ger. Ndglein^ Gewursnelken; Du. Kruid- 
 nageleni Ft. 'Clous degirbjk, GirojUs ; It. Chiovi di ga- 
 rojana, ' Ga/rofani^ Garaffali ; Sp. OlavOs de especia, Cla- 
 viUos f Kuss. GwosdiJca; Arab. Kerenful; Malay, Chan- 
 kee), the fruit, or rather cup of the unopened flowers 
 of the clove-tree, or Caryophyllus aromaticus. The 
 clove-tree is a native of the Moluccas, where it was 
 originally found; but^lants have since been carried 
 to Cayenne and other places, where they succeed tol- 
 erably well. Cloves are shaped like a nail, whence 
 the name, from the French clou, nail. They are im- 
 ported from the Dutch settlements ; the best in chests, 
 and an inferiorkind in bagsi The best variety of the 
 Amboyna cloves is smaller and blacker than the other 
 varieties; very scarce, and, as a mark of pre-eminence, 
 is termed the royal clove. Good cloves have a strong, 
 fragrant, aromatic odor; and a hot, acrid, aromatic 
 taste, which is very permanent. They should be chosen 
 large sized, perfect in all parts ; the color should be a 
 dark brown, almost approaching to black ; and, when 
 handled, should leave an oily moisture upon the fin- 
 gers. Good cloves are sometimes adulterated by mix- 
 ing them with those from which oil has been drawn ; 
 but these are weaker than the rest, and of a paler col- 
 or; and whenever they look shriveled, having lost the 
 knob at the top, and are light and broken, with but lit- 
 tle smell or taste, they should be rejected. As cloves 
 readily absorb moisture, it is not uncommon, when a 
 quantity is ordered, to keep them beside a- vessel of 
 water, by which means a considerable addition is made 
 to their we^ht. — Taouaos's Dispensatory ; Milbukn's 
 Oriental Commerce. 
 
 Policy of the Dutch as to the Trade in Cloves. — From 
 the expulsion of the English from Amboyna, in 1623, 
 the Dutch have, a few short intervals only excepted, 
 enjoyed the exclusive possession of the Moluccas, or 
 Glove Islands. In their conduct as to the clove trade, 
 
 they have exhibited a degree of shortsighted rapacity, 
 which has been, we believe, seldom equaled even in 
 the annals of monopoly. Their object has not been to 
 encourage the growth and trade of cloves, but to con- 
 fine both within the narrowest limits. They have pre- 
 ferred deriving a large profit from a stunted and petty 
 trade to a moderate profit from a trade that might 
 have afforded einployment for a very large amount of 
 capital ; i and to prevent their narrow and selfish proj- 
 ects from being counteracted by the operations of the 
 natives, they have subjected them to the most revolt- 
 ing tyranny. "That they might, "says Mr. Crawfurd, 
 '* regulate and control production and price just as they 
 thought proper, the clov&-trees were extirpated every 
 where but in Amboyna, the seat of their power ; and 
 the surrounding princes were bribed by annual sti- 
 pends to league with them for the destruction of their 
 subjects' property and birth-Tight. This plan was be- 
 gun about the year 1551. ! The contracts are still in 
 force, and an annual fleet visits the surrounding isl- 
 ands to suppress the growth of cloves, which in their 
 native country, spring up with a luxuriance which 
 these measures of Satanic rigor, and of sacrilege to- 
 ward bountiful nature, can scarce repress. By the 
 plan on which the clove trade is now conducted — a 
 plancarried into effect through so much iniquity and 
 bloodshed-^theicountry of spices is rendered a petty 
 farm, of which the natural owners are reduced to the 
 worst condition of predial slavery ; and the great mo- 
 nopolizer and oppressor is that government, whose 
 duty it should have been to insure freedom and afford 
 protection. Human ingenuity could hardly devise a 
 plan more destructive of industry, more hostile to the 
 growth of public wealth, or injurious to morals, than 
 this system framed in a barbarous age ; and it reflects 
 disgrace upon the character of a civiliaed people to 
 persevere in it. i It is .curious to remark how the mo- 
 nopolizers, in carrying the details of this system into 
 effect, at once impose upon the natives and deceive 
 themselves. The womzwa?. price. paid to the natives is 
 actually above the natural price of the commodity, but 
 they are cheated in the details. The cultivator brings 
 his produce' to the public stores, where it is subjected 
 at once to a deduction of one-fifth for payment of the sal- 
 aries of the civil and military officers. The price of the 
 remainder-is fixed at the rate of 9'6 Spanish dollars the 
 picul ; but before payment is made, another deduction 
 of one-fifth is made ; one-half of which is for the chiefs or 
 rajas, andi:he otherfor the native elders, who are over- 
 seers of the forced culture. Tlie real price, therefore, 
 paid to the grower is 8' Spanish dollars per picul, or 
 3id. per pound avbirdupoisy .instead of 11 52-100 Span- 
 ish dollars per piciil,' or 4Jd., which is pretended to be 
 given. When cloves have been sold on the spot, the 
 price usually exacted has been about 64 Spanish dol- 
 lars the picul, or eight times the price paid to the cul- 
 tivator. The average price in Holland, previously to 
 the war of the French Revolution, may be taken at 6s. 
 per pound, or 177 78-100 Spanish dollars per picul, be- 
 ing 2122 per cent, advance on the real cost of the com- 
 modity in the place of its growth. When brought di- 
 rect to England, they have cost at an average 3s. 8d. 
 the pound, making 108 64-100 Spanish dollars per pic- 
 ul, an advance on the natural export price of 1258 per 
 cent."— fitoe™ Archipelago, vol. iii. p. 388-390. 
 
 Oil of Cloves is procured from cloves by distillation. 
 ■When new, it is of a pale reddish brown color, which 
 becomes darker by age. It is extremely hot and fiery, 
 and sinks in water. The kind generally imported from- 
 India contains nearly half its weight of an insipid ex- 
 pressed oil, which is discovered by dropping a little 
 into spirits of wine ; and on shaking it, the genuine 
 oil mixes with the spirit, and the insipid separatingi 
 the fraud is discovered. — MiLBnEN. 
 
 Clyde, one of the largest and most important 
 rivers in Scotland. It takes its rise from numerous 
 streams flowing from the mountain range in the south- 
 
COA 
 
 312 
 
 COA 
 
 ern part of Lanarkshire and borders of Dumfriesshire ; 
 the chief summits of which are the Lowthers, Leadhills, 
 Queensbury Hill, and Rodger Law, with elevation ap- 
 proaching 3000 feet. Its course is through rich and 
 fertile valleys to Glasgow. From this city it expands 
 into a river navigable for ships of 300 to 400 tons, and 
 flows northwest, dividing the county of Renfrew on 
 the west, from Dumbarton on the northeast, receiving 
 the tributaries of the Kelvin, Cart, and Leven. After 
 passingDumbarton, it opens up into a noble estuary four 
 miles in width, spreading northward' into Loch Long, 
 and southward into the Firth of Clyde, with the islands 
 of Bute and Cumbraes, situated at the mouth of the estu- 
 ary. Here the Clyde expands into a jirth averaging 
 about 32 miles in width, and at the distance of 48 miles 
 becomes identified with the North Channel. The length 
 of the river from its source to Glasgow, including wind- 
 ings, is about 75 miles. From Glasgow to the south 
 point of Bute Island about 40 miles. In the Clyde 
 was launched the first steamboat constructed in Britain, 
 1812. Clydesdale is the district forming the valley of 
 the Clyde, and is celebrated for its orchards, coal and 
 iron mines, and horses. 
 
 Coaches, vehicles for commodious traveling. They 
 have sometimes two, and sometimes four wheels. The 
 body of the coach is generally suspended, by rneans of 
 springs, upon the frame-work to which the wheels are 
 attached. They are usually drawn by horses, but re- 
 cently have been impelled by steam. The forms and 
 varieties of coaches are almost innumerable. 
 
 Historical Notice. — Beckmann has investigated the 
 early history of coaches with his usual care and learning, 
 t is certain that a species of coaches was used at Rome ; 
 but whether they were hung on springs, like those now 
 made use of, is not certain. After the subversion of 
 the Roman power, horseback was almost the only mode 
 of traveling. About the end of the fifteenth century, 
 however, covered carriages began to be employed by 
 persons of distinction on great occasions. In 1550, 
 there were at Paris only three coaches ; one of which 
 belonged to the queen ; another to the celebrated Diana 
 of Poitiers ; and the third to a corpulent, unwieldy no- 
 bleman, Reno de Laval, lord of Bois-Dauphin. Coach- 
 es were seen for the first time in Spain in 1546. They 
 began to be used in England about 1580; and were in 
 common use among the nobility in the beginning of the 
 seventeenth century. — History of Inventions^ vol. i. p. 
 Ill, 127, English translation. 
 
 According to Haydn's Dictionary of Dates ^ the coach 
 is of French invention. Under Francis I., who was a 
 contemporary with Henry VIIL, there were but two in 
 Paris, one of which belonged to the queen, and the 
 other to Diana, the natural daughter of Henry II. 
 There were but three in Paris in 1550 ; and Henry IV. 
 had one, but without straps or springs. The first 
 courtier who set up this equipage was John de Laval 
 do Bois-Dauphin, who could not travel otherwise on 
 account of his enormous bulk. Previously to the use 
 of coaches the kings of France traveled on horseback, 
 the princesses were carried in litters, and ladies rode 
 behind their squires. The first coach seen in England 
 was in the reign of Mary, about 1563. — Pkiestley's 
 Lecture. They were introduced much earlier. — An- 
 drews' History of Great Britain. They were introduced 
 by Fitz-AUen, earl of Arundel, in 1580. — Stowe. And 
 in some years afterward the art of making them. — An- 
 derson's History of Commerce. A bill was brought 
 into Parliament to prevent the effeminacy of men rid- 
 ing in coaches, 43 Eliz. 1601. — Haydn. 
 
 Stage-coaches, Traveling hy. — Owing to the improve- 
 ment in the breed of horses and the building of carria- 
 ges, but above all, to the extraordinary improvements 
 that were effected within the last half century in the lay- 
 ing out, construction, and keeping of roads, the ordi- 
 nary rate of traveling by stage-coaches, previously to 
 their all but total extinction by railways, was seldom 
 under 9 or 10 miles an hour, stoppages included, and 
 
 on some roads was as much as 11 or 12. The stages 
 having been shortened, this speed was not found to be 
 materially more injurious to the horses than the slower 
 rate at which they previously traveled. The surface 
 of the roads being perfectly smooth, and most sharp 
 turns or rapid descents having been got rid of, travel- 
 ing even at this rate was comparatively safe ; and it 
 was surprising, considering the number of coaches, how 
 few accidents occurred. They were occasioned, for the 
 most part, by the misconduct of the drivers ; and prin- 
 cipally by their endeavoring to make up b)' increased 
 speed for time lost at stoppages, or by their attempting 
 to pass each other. It is, perhaps, needless to add that, 
 since the opening of railways between all the principal 
 places of the country, traveling by stage-coaches in 
 England no longer exists, except in a few remote dis- 
 tricts, and has now become almost a matter of historj'. 
 
 Coal (Du. Steenkoolen; Fr. Charhon de terre; Ger. 
 Steinhohlen ; It. Carhoni fossili ; Lat. Lithanthrax ; 
 Port. Carvoes de terra, ou de pedraj Russ. V'gofj, Ka~ 
 mennoe ; Sp. Carbones de tierra, Carbones de picdra; 
 Swed. Stenkol). This highly important combustible 
 mineral is divided by mineralogists into the three great 
 families of black coal, uninflammable coal, and brown 
 coal 5 each of these being again divided into many sub- 
 ordinate species. 
 
 It is contended, with much seeming truth, that coals, 
 although they are not mentioned by the Romans in 
 their notices of Britain, were yet in use by the ancient 
 Britons. — Brandt. They were first discovered at 
 Newcastle-upon-Tyne in 1234 ; some say earlier, and 
 others in 1239. Sea-coal was prohibited from being 
 used in and near London, as being "prejudicial to hu- 
 man health ;" and even smiths were obliged to burn 
 wood, 1273. — Stowe. Coals were first made an arti- 
 cle of trade from Newcastle to London, 4 Rich. II., 
 1381, — Rymek's Fcedera. 
 
 This mineral will be considered under the general 
 heads of — I. Origin of Coal; II. Coal Statistics of 
 Great Britain; III. Areas of Coal-beds in the AVorld, 
 and aComparison of theirExtent ; IV. Comparison of 
 the Coal Trade of the United States and Europe ; V. 
 Statistics of the Coal Trade in the United States. 
 
 I. Origin of Coal. Phenomena of Combustion, etc. — 
 Coal beds, or strata, lie among those of gravel, sand, 
 chalk, clay, etc., which form great part of the present 
 surface of the earth, and have been evidently accumu- 
 lated during remote ages by the agency of "moving 
 water" — similar to accumulations now in process of 
 formation at the mouths of all great rivers, and in the 
 bottoms of lakes and seas. When these strata had, by 
 long contact and pressure, been solidified into a rocky 
 crust to the earth, this crust, by subsequent convul- 
 sions of nature, of which innumerable other proofs re- 
 main, has been in various parts broken and heaved up 
 above the level of the sea, so as to form the greater 
 part of our dry or habitable land ; in some places ap- 
 pearing as lofty mountains, in others as extended 
 plains. In many situations, the fracture of the crust 
 exhibits the edges of the various distinct strata found 
 in a given thickness of it. When the fracture has the 
 form of a precipitous cliff, these edges appear one above 
 another, like the edges of piled planks or books ; but 
 often also they are met with in horizontal succession 
 along a plain, as the edges of a pile of books laid down 
 upon a table ; or they may be seen surrounding hills 
 of granite, which protrude through them. Coal, and 
 other precious minerals, were first discovered at the 
 fractures of the strata above described, and by the con- 
 tinued digging of the strata or veins the vast excava- 
 tions called mines have been gradually formed. When 
 it was at last discovered that the mineral strata occur 
 every where in nearly the same order or succession, so 
 that the exposure of a portion of one stratum is a good 
 indication of the other strata being near, the opera- 
 tions of the miner became of much surer result, and 
 expensive boring through superior strata might bo 
 
COA 
 
 313 
 
 COA 
 
 prudently undertaken, even where no specimen of the 
 desired but more deeply buried substance had yet been 
 seen. 
 
 Before the discovery of coal mines, or the invention 
 of cheap means of working them, wood was generally 
 used as fuel ; and in many countries where the arts 
 have not much flourished, it continues to be princi- 
 pally employed as such. Coal, however, for many 
 purposes, answers much better than wood ; and, in 
 fact, the two, although in appearance so different, are 
 in their ultimate composition very nearly allied. They 
 both have for their basis or chief ingredient the sub- 
 stance called by the chemists carbon, and for their chief 
 other ingredient the substance called hydrogen, which, 
 when separated, exists in the form of air or gas. The 
 hydrogen is easily driven away or volatilized from 
 either coal or wood, by heating in a close place ; and 
 when it is caught and preserved, it forms the gas now 
 used to light our streets and public buildings. What 
 remains of coal, after being so treated, is the substance 
 called coke ; and what remains of wood, similarly treat- 
 ed, is the substance called charcoal — both being neai'ly 
 pure carbon, but differing as to the states of compact- 
 ness. This kindred nature of coal and wood does not 
 surprise when the fact is known that much of our coal 
 is really transformed wood ; many coal mines being 
 evidently the remains of antediluvian forests, swept to- 
 gether in the course of the terrestrial changes alluded 
 to, and afterward solidiiied to the state now seen. In 
 these mines the species of the plants or trees which 
 formed them are still quite evident in abundant speci- 
 mens, mixed often with the remnants of the animals 
 which inhabited the earth at the same time. The ex- 
 tensive peat-mosses now existing on the surface of the 
 earth consist chiefly of vegetable remains at an early 
 stage of the tind of change which terminates in the 
 formation of coal. 
 
 A substance which, like coal or wood, cheaply an- 
 swers the purpose of producing great heat and light is 
 called fuel, and the phenomenon of that production is 
 called combustion. Now modern discovery has ascer- 
 tained that, in every instance, combustion is merely 
 an appearance which accompanies the mutual action, 
 when very intense, of two substances in the act ot 
 forming an intimate or chemical union. Where that 
 act is less energetic, the heat produced is less intense, 
 and there is no light. Thus, water and sulphuric acid, 
 when mixing, produce great heat, but no light. Wa- 
 ter and quick-lime produce still greater heat ; sufficient, 
 it is Itnown, to set fire to a ship in which the mixture 
 unfortunately occurs. It is an occurrence of the same 
 kind when heat is evolved from an acid dissolving a 
 metal ; and it is still of the same kind when a mass of 
 coal or wood in a iire-grate is, with the appearance of 
 combustion, undergoing solution in the oxygen of the 
 atmosphere. In this last case, however, the tempera- 
 ture of the fuel is, by the very intense action, raised so 
 much that the fuel becomes incandescent or luminous ; 
 an appearance assumed by every substance, whether 
 burning or not — of a stone, for instance, or piece of 
 metal — when heated beyond the temperature indicated 
 by 800° of Fahrenheit's thermometer. The inferior 
 degrees of such incandescence are called red heat, the 
 superior degrees white heat. The reason why any 
 strongly heated body throws out light, we can not 
 yet explain. When a quantity of wood or coal has 
 been burned to ash in a confined portion of air, the 
 whole of the fuel, vanished from view, is held in solu- 
 tion by the air, as salt is held in water, and is again 
 recoverable by the art of the chemist. The phenom- 
 enon of common iire, or combustion, then, is merely 
 the fuel being chemically dissolved in the air of the 
 atmosphere. If the fuel has nothing volatile in it, as 
 is true of pure carbon, and nearly true of coke and char- 
 coal, it burns with the appearance of red-hot stones ; 
 but if there be an ingredient, as hydrogen, which, on 
 being heated, readily assumes the form of air, that in- 
 
 gredient dilates before burning, and in the act pro-'' 
 duces the more bulky incandescence called flame. 
 
 Varieties of Coal. — There is a curious chain of links 
 which connect living wood with dead coal. First, 
 there is^eoi, consisting of various kinds of plants and 
 moss, imbedded and pressed together into a mass, and 
 exposed to the action of air or water, or both, and per- 
 haps heat, for unnumbered centuries. Then there is 
 lignite, formed in nearly the same %ay from trunks of 
 trees, and accumulated in layers of vast thickness in 
 Germany and other parts of Europe ; it has not hith- 
 erto been much used as fuel, but there are indications 
 that it will so be ere long. Next comes jet, which ap- 
 pears to be a peculiar variety of vegetable matter 
 brought almost to a bituminous state. Then we have 
 carmel coed, which not only yields the best and most 
 abundant gas for street-lighting, but has often such a 
 hardness, blackness, and polish, as to enable it to be 
 worked up into very beautiful ornaments. One peculiar 
 kind of cannel coal, called the Breckinridge coal, was 
 lately discovered in Kentucky, from which a bm-ning 
 oil has been manufactured, which by experiment has 
 proved quite equal to sperm whale oil, if not superior, 
 and can be manufactured for one-half the cost of sperm 
 oil. The United States government have under con- 
 sideration a contract to use it in the light-house sys- 
 tem. Next is the caking, or common bituminous coal, 
 which combines so many useful qualities for house- 
 hold purposes. Somewliat different from this is the 
 stratified coal of the midland counties of England, which 
 is obtained in very long pieces, and has less bitumin- 
 ous or caking quality. A still less gaseous coal is that 
 which, from the purpose to which it is now found to be 
 admirably adapted, is called steam coal ; it is obtained 
 chiefly from Wales, and burns with intense heat, and 
 little flame or smoke. Last on the list is anthracite, 
 so nearly without gas as to consist almost entirely of 
 carbon; its intense heat and freedom from sulphur 
 render it invaluable for iron-smelting and other man- 
 ufacturing processes. 
 
 The two great purposes which combustion serves to 
 man are to give light and heat. By the former he may 
 be said to lengthen considerably the duration of his 
 natural existence ; for he converts the dismal and al- 
 most useless night into what, for many ends, serves 
 him as well as day ; and by the latter, besides con- 
 verting winter into any climate which he desires, he 
 is enabled to effect most important mutations in many 
 of the substances which nature offers for his use ; and, 
 since the invention of the steam-engine, he makes heat 
 perform a great proportion of the work of society. 
 From these considerations may be perceived the im- 
 portance of having fire' at command ; and, as the cheap- 
 est means of commanding fire, of having abundance of 
 coal. 
 
 II. Coal in Great Britain. — As respects the supply 
 of coal. Great Britain is singularly favored, a large 
 portion of the surface of the country having under it 
 continuous and thick beds of this valuable mineral — 
 vastly more precious than would have been mines of 
 the precious metals, like those of Peru and Mexico ; 
 for coal, since it has been applied to tlie steam-engine, 
 is really hoarded power, applicable to almost every 
 purpose which human labor directed by ingenuity can 
 accomplish. It is the possession of her coal mines 
 which has rendered Great Britain, in relation to the 
 whole world, what a city is to the rural district which 
 surrounds it — the producer and dispenser of the va- 
 rious products of art and industry. Calling her coal 
 mines the coal-cellars of the great city, there is in 
 them a supply which, at the present rate of expendi- 
 ture, will last for 2000 years at least ; and, therefore, a 
 provision which, as coming improvements in the arts 
 of life wUI naturally effect economy of fuel, or substitu- 
 tion of other means to effect similar purposes, may be 
 regarded as inexhaustible. 
 
 The kinds or differences of coal depend on then: 
 
COA 
 
 314 
 
 COA 
 
 comparative proportions of carbon and hydrogen, and 
 of earthy impurities totally incombustible. While 
 some species of coal contain nearly a third of their 
 weight of hydrogen, others have not » fiftieth part. 
 The former Icinds are flaming coal, pleasing in parlor 
 fires, and fit for the manufacture of gas. The other 
 kinds — some of the Welsh stone coal, for instance — 
 will only burn when in large heaps, or when mixed 
 with more inflammable coal : they have no flame. 
 When flaming coal is burned where a sufficiency of 
 oxygen can not pass through or enter above the fire, 
 to combine with and consume the hydrogen as fast as 
 it rises, a dense smoke is given out, consisting of hy- 
 drogen and carbon combined in the proportions which 
 form a pitchy substance. The Welsh coal above men- 
 tioned can as little give out smoke as flame, and hence 
 is now much used in great breweries, and in the steam- 
 engine furnaces of towns, where smoke is a serious 
 nuisance. The foliated or culjical coal, and slate coal, 
 are chiefly used as fuel in private houses ; the caking 
 coals, for smithy forges ; the slate coal, from its keep- 
 ing open, answers best for giving great heats in a wind 
 furnace, as in distillation on a large scale ; and glance 
 coal, found in Stafibrdshire, is used for drying grain 
 and malt. The coals of South Wales contain less 
 volatile matter than either the English or the Scotch ; 
 and hence, when employed in smelting the ore, pro- 
 duce a greater quantity of iron. It is supposed that 
 three parts of good Newcastle coal are equivalent, as 
 fuel, to four parts of good Scotch coal. 
 
 Consumption of Coal. Number of Persons engaged in 
 the Trade. Supply of Coal. — The great repositories 
 of coal in England are In Northumberland and Dur- 
 ham, whence London and most parts of the south of 
 England are at present supplied; in Cumberland, 
 whence large quantities of coal are exported to Ire- 
 land ; and in Staffordshire, Derbyshire, Lancashire, 
 Yorkshire, Leicestershire, Warwickshire, South Wales, 
 etc. In Scotland, coal is foimd in the Lothians, Lan- 
 arkshire, Renfrewshire, Ayrshire, and other counties. 
 In Ireland, coal is both deficient in quantity and infe- 
 rior in quality to that of Great Britain ; and turf forms 
 the great article of fuel. 
 
 The importance of coal as a necessary of life, and 
 the degree in which superiority in arts and manufac- 
 tures are dependent upon obtaining supplies of it at 
 a cheap rate, has naturally attracted a good deal of at- 
 tention to tlie question as to the period when the ex- 
 haustion of the coal mines may be anticipated. But 
 the investigations hitherto made as to the magnitude 
 and thickness of the diff"erent coal-beds, and the ex- 
 tent to which they may be wrought, are too vague and 
 unsatisfactory to afford grounds'for forming anything 
 like a tolerably near approximation to a solution of 
 this question. But such as they are, they are suffi- 
 cient to show that Tnany centuries must elapse before 
 posterity can feel any serious difficulties from a dimin- 
 ished supply of coal. According to an estimate pre- 
 pai-ed by Mr. Taylor, an intelligent coal engineer, in 
 1829, the coal-fields of Durham and Northumberland 
 are adequate to furnish the present annual supply for 
 a very long period. We subjoin Mr. Taylor's estimate. 
 
 ESTIILVTE OP TUE EXTENT ANT> PkODUCE OF THE DUEUAM 
 AND NOETHUMBEELAND COAL-FIEI.DS. 
 
 Durham. Sq. Miles. 
 
 From South Shields Bouthward to Castle Eden, 21 
 miles; thence westward to West Auckland, 32 
 miles ; northeast from AVcst Auckland to Elti-ing- 
 ham, 33 miles ; and then to Shields, 22 miles ; be- 
 ing an extent or area of 594 
 
 NortTtumberland. 
 
 From Shields northward 27 miles, hy an average 
 
 breadth of 9 miles ^^^ o.,, 
 
 837 
 
 Portion excavated. 
 
 In Durham; on Tyne, say S9 
 
 on Wear 40 
 
 79 
 In Northumberland, say ID miles by 2 ^^ ini- 
 
 '732 
 
 Estimating the workable coal strata at an av- Tons, 
 erage thickness of J2 feet, the contents of one, 
 square mile will be 12,890,000 tons, and of 
 
 732 square miles 9,069,480,000 
 
 Deduct one-third part for loss by small coal, in- 
 terceptions by dikes, and other interruptions 3,023,160,000 
 
 Remainder 6,946,820,000 
 
 This remainder is adequate, to, supply the. present vend 
 from, Newcastle,, Sunderland, Hartley, Blyth, and Stockton, 
 of 8,500,000 tons, for aperiqd of 1727 years. 
 
 It will be understood that this estimate, of the qujintity of 
 coal in Durham and Northumberland can oiily be an approx- 
 imation, especially as the southeastern coal district of Durham 
 is yet almost wholly unexplored ; but the attempt is made, in 
 the hope of satisfying your lordships that no apprehension 
 need be entertained of this valuable mineral being exhausted 
 for many future generations. 
 
 There is also a considerable extent of coalrfield in the north- 
 ern and southwestern districts of Northumberland, but the 
 foregoing comprises that which is coi^tihuous, and most suit- 
 able and available for exportation. ' It is, however, to be ob- 
 served that the shipments of coal from the ports mentioned 
 by Mr. Taylor has been largely increased during the last 
 dozen years ; so that, supposing the estimate to be in: other 
 respects accurate, it must now -be modified accordingly. — 
 Loriis' Report, 1829, p. 124. 
 
 Dr. Buckland, the celebrated geologist, cbnsiders 
 Mr. Taylor's estimate as greatly exaggerated ; but in 
 his examination before the committee of the House of 
 Commons in 1829, he quoted with approbation a pas- 
 sage of Bakewell's Geology, in which it is stated that 
 the coal-beds in South Wales were alone sufficient to 
 supply the then demand of England for coal for 2000 
 years. The passage is as follows : 
 
 "Fortunately we have in South Wales, adjoining 
 to the Bristol Channel, an alinost exbaustless supply 
 of coal and iron-stone, which are yet nearly unwrought. 
 It has been stated that this coal-field extends over about 
 1200 square miles ; and that there are 23 beds of work- 
 able coal, the total average tliickness of which is 95 
 feet ; and the quantity contained in each acre is 100, 000 
 tons, or 65,000,000 tons per square mile. If from this 
 we deduct one half for waste, and for the minor extent 
 of the upper beds, we shall have a clear supply of coal 
 equal to 32,000,000 tons per square mile. Now if we 
 admit that 5,000,000 tons from the Northumberland 
 and Durham mines is equal to neai'Iy one-third of the 
 total consumption of coal in England,' each square mile 
 of the Welsh coal-field would yield coal for two years' 
 consumption ; and as there are from 1000 to 1200 square 
 miles in this coal-field, it would supply England with 
 fuel for 2000 years, after all the English coal mines 
 are worked out!" 
 
 But supposing this supply to last only 1000 years, 
 that carries us so far into futurity, that it appears to 
 be quite idle either to prohibit or impose heavy duties 
 on the exportation of coal, on the ground of its accel- 
 erating the exhaustion of the mines. 
 
 Profits of Coal Mining. Coal Ovmers^ Monopoly, etc, 
 — Instead of the business of coal mining being, gener- 
 ally speaking, an advantageous one, it is distinctly the 
 reverse. Sometimes, no doubt, large fortunes have 
 been made by individuals and associations engaged in 
 this business ; but these are rare instances. The open- 
 ing of a mine is a very expensive and hazardous opera- 
 tion, and of very uncertain result. Collieries are ex- 
 posed to an infinite number of accidents, against which 
 no caution can guard. The chances of explosion have, 
 it is true, been a good deal lessened by the introduc- 
 tion of Sir Humphry Davy's lamp; and some mines 
 are now wrought that, hut for the invention of this 
 admirable instrument, must have been entirely aban- 
 doned. But besides explosions, which are still every 
 now and then occurring, from the carelessness of the 
 workmen, and other contingencies, mines are very lia- 
 ble to be destroyed by creeps, or by the sinking of the 
 roof, and by drowning, or the irruption of Water from 
 old workings, through fissures which can not be seen, 
 and consequently can not be guarded against. So 
 great, indeed, is the hazard attending this sort of 
 
COA 
 
 315 
 
 COA 
 
 property, that it has never been possible to effect an 
 insurance on a coal-work Against fire, water, or any 
 other accident. 
 
 Co^l Trade. — It is estitnated that not less than for- 
 ty million tons of coals are raised annually from the 
 various mines in the Uhited 'Kitagdoth. Of these 
 the greater part is either used itt the immediate nMgh- 
 borhoodi of the mines, or sent by inlaiid navigation or 
 land carriage to different parts of the kingdom. In 
 1852, 12,709,771 tons of coals, cinders; and culm were 
 shipped from ports in the Uillted Kingdom ; of these, 
 9j069,577 tons were sent coastwise to other portsiof the 
 kingdom ; being, coals 8,805,934 tons, cinders 43,37C 
 tons, culm 220,267 tons; The quantities of coals-, cin- 
 ders, and culm shipped coastwise from the different 
 ports of the United Kingdom in 1851 and 1852, were : 
 
 T 
 
 1861. 
 
 England. 
 
 Portsmouth 
 
 Bristol 
 
 Glouceater 
 
 Cardiff 
 
 Newport .' . . . 
 
 Swansea 
 
 Llanelly 
 
 Milford 
 
 Cliester 
 
 Liverpool 
 
 Preston , . . . 
 
 Fleetwood 
 
 Lancaster 
 
 Whitoiiaven ..,;... 
 
 Workirtgton 
 
 Maryport 
 
 Carlisle . . . . ; . . . 
 
 Newcastle 
 
 Shields 
 
 Sunderland 
 
 Stockton 
 
 Hartlepool 
 
 Gainsborough 
 
 Hull 
 
 Goolo ;........ 
 
 Other porta... 
 
 , Scotland. 
 
 Leith 
 
 Barrowstouhnesa . . 
 
 Grangemouth .' 
 
 Alloa 
 
 Kirkcaldy 
 
 Glasgow 
 
 Irvine. 
 
 Ayr 
 
 O.ther ports 
 
 IBBLAND. 
 
 Koss 
 
 Total. 
 
 Tona. 
 
 6,103 
 
 1,B02 
 
 85,963 
 
 B01,0'5Z. 
 
 ', 451,4!)1 
 
 352,247 
 
 219,460 
 
 49,573 
 
 lOl.P^ 
 
 115,904 
 
 42,267 
 
 9,898 
 
 5,337 
 
 226,266 
 
 95,703 
 
 201,670 
 
 : 15,153 
 
 2,067,112 
 
 214,829 
 
 1,899,160 
 
 388,646 
 
 1,137,089 
 
 9,677 
 
 12,735 
 
 104,336 
 
 4,252 
 
 i),091 
 
 36,859 
 
 6,521 
 
 «3',015 
 
 . 87,035 
 
 86,893 
 
 224,193 
 
 72,569 
 
 430 
 
 476 
 
 8,816,538 
 
 1863. 
 
 Tone. 
 
 0,044 
 
 1,085 
 
 88.801 
 
 462,C43. 
 
 451,770 
 
 876,182 
 
 2i4,73B 
 
 50,102 , 
 
 85,77S', 
 
 105,932 
 
 P7,918 
 
 , 9,349, 
 
 4,838, 
 
 . -222,208 
 
 B6,014 
 
 230,012 
 
 i I 17,851" 
 
 2,175 857 
 
 163,172 
 
 1,078 6il 
 
 336,821 
 
 1,340,876 
 
 7,605 
 
 lOillS 
 
 r96,083 
 
 3,934 
 
 8:358 
 
 34;ii50 
 
 2,943 
 
 13,200 
 
 29,504" 
 
 , 81,966 
 
 250,847 
 
 77,888 
 
 2,091 
 
 179 
 
 In 1852 the exports from the United Kingdom, to 
 foreign countries, including British settlements, were 
 as follows: Coals 3,479,282 tons, of the value of 
 *l,287,62e ; cinders 159,040 tons, of the value of 
 £88,832 ; culm 1872 tons, of the value of £.656 ; total, 
 3,640,194 tons, of the declared value of £1,372,114. 
 
 The principal foreign countries to which coals, cin- 
 dersj and culm were exported from the United King- 
 dom in 1851 and 1852, were the following : 
 
 Russia 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Prussia . . : 
 
 Hanseatic Towns 
 
 Holland 
 
 Franco 
 
 Spain and Canaiies. . 
 
 Italy 
 
 Turkey 
 
 British East Indies . . 
 British West Indies . 
 United States, North Americji . 
 
 Quantities Exported. 
 ~"1851, I 18527" 
 
 Tons. 
 216 221 
 
 295,153 
 
 216,603- 
 
 343,065 
 
 132,268 
 
 602,808 
 
 191,365 
 
 162,919 
 
 98,235 
 
 97,738 
 
 82,147 
 
 83,546 
 
 Tons. 
 
 188,041 
 313,689 
 214.513 
 350,499 
 147,540 
 663,561 
 203,371 
 171,367 
 72,782 
 94,304 
 99,449 
 122,^5 
 
 ~""'" ''•y- 
 
 The quantities of coal brought coastwise and by in 
 land navigation into the port of London were : 
 
 YflAri. 
 
 Cofuitwiso. 
 
 Inlnnd Navi^ii. 
 
 tion and Land 
 
 Carriago. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1851 
 
 1852 
 
 Tona. 
 3,236 542 
 3,330,428 
 
 Tona. 
 264,421 
 414,917 
 
 Tons. 
 3,490,963 
 3,745,346 
 
 During the six months ending SOth June, 1852, 179,386 
 tons of coal were imported ' into London by railway, 
 and 19,637 tons by canal : fo* the corresponding period 
 of 1853 the imports by railway were 296,361 tons, and 
 by canal 10,322; shoiwing a tJecrease by canal, but a 
 very considerable increase by railway. 
 
 Thecoal trade was lohg subjected to very heavy and 
 oppressive duties. A duty of 17s. per chaldron on 
 large, and 4s. M. per chaldron on small coils, was 
 levied on all coal exported to foreign countries. In 
 1831 these duties were considerably modiiied, and in 
 1835 they were repealed, with the exception of aii' ad 
 valorem duty of 10s. per cent, on coal exported in Brit- 
 ish vessels, or in those of foreign countries entitled to 
 the privileges conferred by treaties of reciprocity, while 
 in other foreign vessels it was subject to a duty of 4s. 
 a ton. These duties were, in 1840, altered to lOs. 6d. 
 per cent., and 4s. 2^;d. per ton respectively. In 1842, 
 duties 'of 2s. per ton on large,, and Is. per ton on small 
 coal and culm were imposed, and on all coal exported 
 in foreign vessels not entitled to the privileges con- 
 ferred by treaties of reciprocity a, duty of 4s. per ton. 
 The two former were abolished on 12th March, 1845,' 
 but the last continued in force till 14th August,' 1850. 
 
 In tde reigri of Willisun III., a duty of 5s. per chalJ 
 dron was laid upon coal carried coastwise from one 
 part of the kingdom to another. ■ During the last war 
 with Erance this was raised to;,^Sf;4rf., but jji) 1824 ,it 
 was reduced to 6s., and in 1831 was repealed. This 
 tax pressed unequally on different parts of the empire, 
 for while it amounted ,tp. 6s. a chaldi'on,,or 4^. a ton in 
 the metropolis, and all, the south of England, it was 
 only Is. l^d. a ton ou .coal .carried by sea to Ireland, 
 and. Is. gd. :pn thati tq '\Valss ; while, Scotland was fcir 
 many years entirely exempted from this duty. 
 . Though these duties, arc now abolished, the coal 
 trade is still in som9 places. b.urdeiie.dwith heavy loc^l 
 duties. Thus a duty of Is. IcZ. per ton i^ chargeable^ 
 upon all coal, brought iiito the port, of London. By 
 act 1st and 2d William lY., cap. 76, several oppressive 
 acts.were repealed, and the duties payable to the cor- 
 poration of the] city of London were commuted for a 
 duty of Is. \d. per ton ; ap,<i by 8th and 9th Vict,, cap. 
 101, a like duty was imposed on coal, brought into Lon- 
 don by railway, canal, or other inland carriage. Of 
 this duty Sd. per ton is carried to the London Bridge 
 Approaches Fund, for efl'ecting street improv.ements 
 in the metropolis ; id. per ton is the property of the 
 corporation of the city of London, and after defraying 
 certain charges is carried to the g.eneral account of the 
 corporation; Id. per ton is payable to her majesty's 
 commissioners of works, to be applied by them in ef- 
 fecting public improvements in the metropolis, au- 
 thorized by several acts of Parliament. The produce 
 of these duties, with the drawbacks allowed upon coal 
 exported, was, in 1852, i 
 
 
 'GroB8 Duty. 
 
 Drawback. 
 
 Net Duty. 
 
 Sd. per ton to 5th Jan- 
 uary, 1853 
 
 id. per ton to 31st De- 
 cember, 1852 ' 
 
 Id per ton to 31st De- 
 cember, 1852....... 
 
 Total 
 
 1 £123,657 
 1 , 62,640 
 1 . 15,660 
 
 £10,098 
 6,049 , 
 1,262 
 
 £113,559 
 
 , ,57,591 
 14,298 
 
 £201,857 1 £16,409 
 
 £1SB,443 
 
 In 1851 the gross amount of duty was, on sea-borne 
 coal, £175,840; on coal brought landwise, £12,151. 
 The U. per ton duty, in 1851, amounted to £54,104, 
 of which £215 were salaries in relation to collection j 
 £3009 drawback allowed upon coal exported ;■ £7607 
 retiring allowances paid to deputy sea^coal meters and 
 others, upon the abolition of their offices in conse- 
 quence of act 1st and 2d Will. IV., cap. 76, and which 
 had gradually decreased from £16,820 in 1836 ; and 
 £20,000 an annual charge for making a new street in 
 the line of Canon Street, and other improvements. 
 The attention of government is at present, directed to 
 these unjust local imposts, by which our home trade 
 is unnecessarily burdened, and the merchant and ship- 
 
COA 
 
 316 
 
 COA 
 
 owner made to pay for improvements which ought 
 properly to be charged against the landlords or inhab- 
 itants ; and it is expected that they Tvill speedily be 
 abolished.- — E. B. 
 
 III. Areas of Coal-beds in the World, and a Compar- 
 ison ofiheir Extent, — From the elaborate work, "Sta- 
 tistics of Coal," by K. C. Taylor, we extract a com- 
 parison of the proportionate areas of coal laud in Eu- 
 rope and America : 
 
 The following table shows the relative magnitude 
 of the principal coal-producing countries, and their 
 respective areas of coal land, together with the propor- 
 tions which they severally bear to each other. Those 
 of France and Spain are considerably less than the act- 
 ual amount. Coal occurs in almost every principal 
 subdivision of Spain, but we have only included the 
 Asturias region. 
 
 Hence, as regards European countries, Great Brit- 
 ain takes the first rank ; Belgium, as regards territo- 
 rial proportion, occupies the second rank, although in 
 relative coal area she is the least of the four. Penn- 
 sylvania, in respect to territorial proportion, is higher 
 than any of these, being relatively one-third ; but in 
 absolute area of coal formation, the four eastern colo- 
 nies of British America united exceed them all, being 
 larger than that of Great Britain, France, Belgium, 
 and Spain conjoined. This table is not strictly per- 
 fect, since we possess the areas of the concessions 
 only in France ; and in Spain, only of the single 
 coal region of Asturias. We add the coal areas of 
 Prussia and Austria, but can not state the propor- 
 tions of coal formation therein. The American area 
 of coal is nearly three-fourths of the whole amount in 
 our table. 
 
 Eotire Area of each 
 Country. 
 
 Area of 
 Coal Lands. 
 
 Proportion of Coal 
 
 to their whole 
 
 Areas. 
 
 Froportiona, Rela- 
 tive ParU of 1000, 
 of Coal Areaa. 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 Spain (Asturias region) 
 
 France (area of fixed concession) in 1845 . . , . 
 
 Belgium conceded lands 
 
 Pennsylvania, United States 
 
 British Provinces, North America 
 
 Persian dominions 
 
 Austrian Provinces containing coal or lignite 
 
 United States 
 
 T^relvc principal coal-producing States 
 
 Total 
 
 Square MUea. 
 
 120,290 
 
 IIT.TSI 
 
 203,T30 
 
 11,873 
 
 43,060 
 
 81,113 
 
 107,037 
 
 150,000 
 
 2,280,000 
 
 605,283 
 
 Square Miles. 
 
 11,859 
 
 3,408 
 
 1,719 
 
 518 
 
 15,437 
 
 18,000 
 
 !,132 
 
 1-10 
 
 1-52 
 
 1-118 
 
 1-22 
 
 1-3 
 
 1-4} 
 
 1-17 
 1.4 
 
 64 
 
 IS 
 9 
 3 
 
 84 
 98 
 
 184,073 
 
 1000 
 
 "VYe assume these, in round numbers, as correct ; and 
 here we perceive at a glance the vast resources of the 
 United States in their coal-producing regions, when 
 compared with Europe. It must be recollected, too, 
 that several of our States have not had geological sur- 
 veys ; and it would not be surprising if other States 
 than those enumerated were found hereafter to pos- 
 sess coal in abundant quantities. 
 
 The whole coal region of Europe is by Mr. Taylor 
 shown to be only 50,941 square miles, being somewhat 
 less than that of the Western States of Illinois and Indi- 
 ana ; while England has only 8139 miles, and Ireland 
 3720 miles, the aggregate being somewhat less than 
 that of the State of Ohio. But Great Britain produces 
 annually upward of 34,000,000 tons of coal ; while that 
 of Pennsylvania is about 10,000,000 tons. 
 
 IV. Comparison of the Coal Trade of the United States 
 and Europe. — The consumption of coal in Europe and 
 the United States was estimated as follows in 1845, 
 showing also the square miles of coal formation, the 
 relative proportions, and the value in dollars : 
 
 Countriea. 
 
 Square 
 Milea. 
 
 Production, 
 
 1645. 
 
 Propor- 
 tion. 
 
 Value. 
 
 threat Britain 
 
 Belgium 
 
 United States 
 
 11,859 
 
 518 
 
 133,132 
 
 1.719 
 
 undefined. 
 
 undefined. 
 
 Tona. 
 31,500,000 
 4,960,000 
 4,400,000 
 4,141,000 
 3,500,000 
 
 659,000 
 
 •642 
 •101 
 ■089 
 •084 
 •070 
 ■014 
 
 $45,738,000 
 7,689,000 
 6,660,000 
 7,663,000 
 4,122,000 
 800,000 
 
 Pruasian States . . 
 
 Austrian States . . 
 
 Total 
 
 
 49,160,000 
 
 1-000 
 
 $72,002,000 
 
 The quantities of coal imported into the United 
 States from England and the British provinces were, 
 in 1850, 180,439 tons; and in the year 1853, 231,508 
 tons. From a letter of Mr. E. K. Collins, we learn 
 that the Collins line of steam vessels had used the 
 Cumberland coal, but had relinquished it, and after- 
 ward tried the anthracite, which was used for three 
 years. In January, 1854, they thought of using the 
 Cumberland coal again. 
 
 Mr. Cunard states that for his line they use the 
 Welsh coals on the voyage from Liverpool, and the 
 Cumberland coal on the return trips. 
 
 " We have in the United States more iron ore and more 
 coal, with the usual fluxes, in convenient connection and of 
 cheaper access, than all the other ciyilized nations of the 
 world, and have the necessary capital, skill, and lahor to pro- 
 
 duce all the iron and steel, and manufactures of iron and 
 steel, required for our consumption, or that may be required 
 for our consumption, for centuries to come, and also to enable 
 us to supply the markets of other countries in fair competition 
 with the iron and steel of other nations. Our production of 
 iron and steel, and manufactures of iron and steel, was greater 
 in proportion to population in 1850 than it was in 1840, and 
 that it was greater in 1865 than it was in 1850, giving us the 
 right to assume that, influenced by the same causes, it will be 
 greater in 1860 than it now is, and in time will be sufficient 
 for our own consumption, and then give us a surplus for ex- 
 port. But taking into consideration our present population 
 and accumulated capital, -with the amount of capital annually 
 drawn from other countries in the course of emigration, and 
 the great cost of carriage to the interior of our country, with 
 the late improvements in the modes of production and manu- 
 facture of iron and steel, it would not be rash to expect a full 
 supply for our own consumption between this and the returns 
 of the census of 1870." — United States Treasury Report, 1666. 
 
 The question of duty on coal attracts considerable 
 attention, and it is well to understand certain facts 
 which have a direct bearing upon its decision. 
 
 In the year 1815, when the duty on foreign coal was 
 $3 60, the price in New York was $23 the chaldron of 
 36 bushels. 
 
 From 1816 to 1823 the duty was $1 80, and the aver- 
 age price was $11. 
 
 From 1824 to 1834 the duty was $2 16, and the aver- 
 age price was $14. 
 
 In 1842 the duty was $1 75 per ton, and the market 
 price was $7 16 ; and in 1844, with a duty of $1, the 
 price -was lS5 56. In the year 1846 the duty was al- 
 tered to an ad valorem one of 30 per cent., or about 45 
 cents per ton, and the market price since has ranged 
 from $6 50 to $7 50. 
 
 v. Statistics of the Coal Trade of the United States. 
 ■ — Pennsylvania is rich in its coal product. This arti- 
 cle is one of the great sources of wealth to that State, 
 and its importance may be seen from the single fact 
 that about 6, 000,000 tons are carried over or through the 
 varipus railroads and canals of that State eastwardly. 
 We refer only to the anthracite region, which mines 
 seem to be inexhaustible, and ■we leave out of view 
 the immense production in AVestem Pennsylvania. 
 The latter portion of the State owes its growth mainly 
 to its coal-beds, in conjunction with its iron and glass 
 manufactures. 
 
 The maximum capabilities of the transportation 
 
COA 
 
 317 
 
 COA 
 
 companies may be set down at 7, 600, 000 tons per year, 
 with their present forces ; viz. -. 
 
 Tona. 
 
 Lehigh (Canal) Navigation Company 1 ,800,000 
 
 Schuylkill (Canal) Navigation Company 1,000,000 
 
 Reading Kailroad 4,000,000 
 
 Delaware and Hudson Canal 1,800,000 
 
 Total T,6U0,OUU 
 
 If we may judge by the increase of the last two or 
 three years, the quantity of coal required by the above 
 conveyances will be 7,500,000 tons for the coming year, 
 and between eight and nine millions for the year 1856. 
 We have received from London the special Report of 
 Professor Wilson on the New York Industrial Exhibi- 
 tion, in which document we find a variety of useful in- 
 formation in reference to the manufactures, minerals, 
 mining, and metallurgy of the United States. His re- 
 marks on the iron, lead, copper, and zinc products and 
 manufactures will be a valuable addition to the in- 
 formation already in possession, and will be accepta- 
 ble as well to the legislator as to the manufacturer and 
 merchant. 
 
 Virginia takes the lead among the Eastern (or At- 
 lantic) States as the owner of coal-fields, and is, in 
 fact, one of the prominent States of the whole Union 
 as the possessor of this valuable mineral. 
 
 Area of the several States wiieee Coai. is fottnd, and 
 TUB Coal Area op each, and the Peoportion op Coal. 
 
 are not copious ; but Charles Lyell, who made critical 
 inquiries on the subject, reported the following as the 
 yield for 1851-'52: 
 
 I 
 
 Area. 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Tennessee . . . 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Virginia 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Pennsylvania. 
 Michigan .... 
 
 Missouri 
 
 Total . . . 
 
 Square Miles. 
 60,835 
 68,200 
 44,T30 
 39,015 
 64,000 
 10,829 
 38,850 
 34,800 
 69,130 
 43,960 
 60,520 
 60,384 
 
 665,283 
 
 Coal Areas. 
 
 Proportion of Coal. 
 
 Square Miles. 
 3,400 
 150 
 4,300 
 13,500 
 21,195 
 650 
 11,900 
 T,T00 
 44,000 
 15,43T 
 6,000 
 6,000 
 
 133,132 
 
 1-14 
 
 1-888 
 
 1-10 
 
 1-3 
 
 1-3 
 
 1-20 
 
 1-3 
 
 1-5 
 
 3-4 
 
 1-3 
 
 1-20 
 
 1-10 
 
 Nearly ith 
 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Western Pennsylvania 
 
 35,000,000 
 15,000,000 
 16,000,000 
 
 1,170,000 
 500,000 
 535,000 
 
 Eastern Ohio 
 
 Total 
 
 66,000,000 
 
 2,205,000 
 
 North Carolina is reputed to hold about as much 
 coal land as Georgia. Iowa is one of the richest coal 
 States, and has a coal area almost equal to Ohio. 
 
 From this valuable reference-table it will be seen 
 that Illinois takes the lead, having within her own 
 borders one-third of the entire coal region of the United 
 States. Next in importance is Pennsylvania, produc- 
 ing both anthracite and bituminous coals. Of these 
 immense fields Professor Wilson says : 
 
 '* These comprise the three anthracite coal-fields of 
 Eastern Pennsylvania, known as the Southern Schuyl- 
 kill, the Middle of Shamokin, and the Northern or 
 Wyoming, and the Frostburg pr Cumberland coal-field 
 (semi-bituminous), in the State of Maryland. Besides 
 these beds, a small outlying bed exists in Pennsylva- 
 nia of semi-bituminous coals, known as the Broadtop, 
 which, however, owing to its insulated position, being 
 without any means of access, is only available for local 
 purposes ; and some deposits of considerable area in 
 Virginia, whose importance is being daily recognized, 
 and whose produce is gradually finding its way into 
 the markets. The demand at present, however, is 
 confined chiefly to gas-making purposes. 
 
 " Of the three anthracite beds of Pennsylvania, the 
 Southern is, both by situation and magnitude, the most 
 important, and furnishes a large proportion of the en- 
 tire supply. It presents great facilities of access, 
 which have been made advantageous use of by two 
 Canal Companies, the Lehigh and the Schuylkill, and 
 by the Reading Railroad, which penetrate far into the 
 interior, and form the great outlets for its produce. 
 Other railways are now in progress, which will not 
 only aff'ord additional facilities of transfer to the At- 
 lantic cities, but also open a communication to the lat- 
 ter, and through them to the Western markets." 
 
 The third in importance is Ohio, having nearly one- 
 third of its area in coal. The returns as to production 
 
 At the Exhibition were produced samples of coal 
 from Valley Falls, Rhode Island, but the product is of 
 inferior quality. 
 
 Of the Virginia coal, twelve miles west of Richmond, 
 and extending fifty miles, the seams are 800 feet in 
 thickness, being the deepest mines known in Ameri- 
 ca. In Belgium some of the mines are known to be 
 from 1140 to 1476 feet in depth. In England, 1000 to 
 1794 feet — with an average in Lancashire of 750 feet. 
 Dibtakoes op tue chief Coal Disteiotb of Pennsylvania 
 
 AND MABTLAND from TIDE-WATEE. 
 
 BiTUMiNoua Coal. Miles. 
 
 Farrandsvllle to Havre de Grace 202 
 
 Alleghany Coal Mines to Havre de Grace. . 196 to 200 
 
 Cumberland, Maryland, to Georgetown 199 
 
 Cumberland, Maryland, to Baltimore 189 
 
 Dauphin and Susq. Co. to Havre de Grace 93 
 
 ASTHBACITB COAX. 
 
 Del. and Hudson Co. to Eondout 125 
 
 Pine Grove to Havre de Grace 120 
 
 Lykens' Valley Co. to Havre de Grace 116}- 
 
 Bear Mountain- Co. to Havre de Grace Ill 
 
 Lehigh Room Run to Bristol 110 
 
 P. Grove hy MinersviUe to Philadelphia 110 
 
 Stony Creek Coal Estate to Havre de Grace 100 
 
 MinersviUe to Port Richmond 98 
 
 Pottsville to Port Richmond 95f 
 
 [mpoeted Coal. — The only countries from which 
 coal ever finds its way into the United States are Great 
 Britain and British America, and the contributions 
 from them appear to be annually diminishing. For a 
 time there was an increasing foreign importation ; viz., 
 from 22,123 »ons in 1821, to 181,551 tons in 1839. By 
 the operation of the American tariff this advance was 
 not only checked, but a retrograde movement was pro- 
 duced, so as in 1843 to amount to only 41,163 tons, by 
 the United States returns. By the last annual return, 
 that for 1847, the entry of foreign coals, whether from 
 Europe or from British America, was 148,021 tons ; of 
 which from 12, 000 to 15, 000 tons were re-exported for the 
 service of the English steamships. In 1850, 180,439 
 tons were imported into the United States ; in 1853, 
 231,508 tons ; showing an increase. 
 
 Inceeased Pkoduction of Coal. Anthracite Coal. 
 — The production of anthracite may be said to be en- 
 tirely confined to Pennsylvania, which possesses a nu- 
 merous and interesting group of coal basins of various 
 sizes and character. 
 
 Our returns show that the consumption of anthra- 
 cite, in other words, the coal trade, commenced with 
 365 tons in the year 1820 ; that the production reached 
 48,047 tons in 1827 ; that it had increased to 881,026 
 tons in 1837, and advanced to 3,000,000 of tons in 1847, 
 without including much that is consumed on the spot, 
 in the mining districts, or interior of the country. 
 
 The increased production, therefore, was, in the first 
 ten years, viz., from 1827 to 1837, 1735 per cent. ; in 
 the second ten years, viz., from 1837 to 1847, 240 per 
 cent. ; and in the twenty years previous to 1848, that 
 is, from 1827 to 1847, 6100 per cent. 
 
 We introduce another view of the subject, which ex- 
 hibits this accelerated increase in the consumption of 
 anthracite, perhaps, with yet greater perspicuity. The 
 amount which was periodically forwarded to market, 
 exclusive of the consumption in or near the places of 
 production, and which has not been estimated, is as 
 follows : 
 
 Aggregate in the 21 years, from 1820 to 1840, Tons. 
 incIusiYO .. ......••-■•••■•••••■••••■■•• o^oii^ lH 
 
 In the succeeding i'years, to 184T, inclusive. . 12,371,961 
 Total 19,219,133 
 
 From 1847 to 1863, inclusive 23,841,358 
 
 Total 43,060,491 
 
eXDA 
 
 318 
 
 COA 
 
 We add, the statistics from the various regions for 
 the year 1855. 
 
 Schuylkill Rsqion. 1854. [ 1856. 
 
 iDCfease. . Decreflse.| 
 
 
 TonB. 1 Tona. 
 t.87,854 2,2iy,294 
 907,354 1,105,268 
 62,4!;2| 15,019 
 
 Tone. 
 2i6,438 
 197,909 
 
 15,019 
 
 Tons. 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 2,96T,6T0 3,3U6,037 
 
 438,360 
 
 17,656 
 9,063 
 
 124,616 
 8,1^ 
 
 10,977 
 63,035 
 62,617 
 
 '28,660 
 
 Lehiou Region. 
 
 Lehigh Canal 
 
 Leh%h Valley Kailroad 
 
 Wyomino Kkoiox; 
 Del. and Hudson (Jo. . 
 Pennsylvania (joal Co. 
 
 N. Branch Canal 
 
 White Haven Railroad 
 
 Western Eailroad 
 
 Shamokin 
 
 1,207,186 
 
 440,944 
 496,648 
 492,889 
 
 89,282 
 133,966 
 
 68,506 
 
 1,2?4,842 
 9,063 
 
 565,460 
 507,803 
 564,009 
 ■ 50,209 
 187,000 
 118,117 
 
 
 5,831,834 6,517,569 
 .... |5,831,818 
 
 716,385 
 28,650 
 
 28,650 
 
 Increase of anthra- i 
 cite in 1855 j 
 
 
 680,735 
 
 686,735 
 
 
 Showing an increase of anthracite coal in 1855 of 
 686,735 tons, against 734,690 tons last year. 
 
 An Offictal Statement of the Amottnt of Coal sent, to 
 Maeket feom the LEniGii Region, feom the commence- 
 ment OF TUE Tlt-VDE TO THE ClOSE OF THE YeAK 1856. 
 
 Yenri. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 1820 
 
 365 
 
 1839 
 
 222,042 
 
 1821 
 
 1,073 
 
 1840 
 
 226,591 
 
 1822 
 
 2,441 
 
 1841 
 
 142,807 
 
 1823 
 
 6,823 
 
 1842 
 
 271,913 
 
 1824 
 
 9,641 
 
 1843 
 
 
 1825 
 
 ,28,396. 
 
 1844 
 
 376,363 
 
 430,988 
 
 1826 
 
 31-,280 
 
 1845 
 
 182T 
 
 .... 32,074 
 
 1846 
 
 522,518 
 
 1828 
 
 30,232 
 
 1847 
 
 643,563 
 
 1829 
 
 .... 25,110 
 
 1848 
 
 ..... 680,197 
 
 1830 
 
 41,750. 
 
 1849 
 
 800,988 
 
 1831 
 
 40,966 
 
 1850 
 
 722,681 
 
 1832 
 
 T6,000 
 
 1851 
 
 989.254 
 
 1838 
 
 .... 123,000 
 
 1852 
 
 1,113,843 
 
 1834 
 
 .... 106,244 
 
 1S5B 
 
 1,080,550 
 
 1835 
 
 .... 181,250 
 
 1864 
 
 1,246,815 
 
 1836 
 
 .... 146,522 
 
 1855 
 
 1,274.983 
 
 183T 
 
 .... 225,937 
 
 1850 
 
 1,367,520 
 
 1838 
 
 .... 214,211 
 
 
 
 Bituminous Coal.—'We have given, in the first pM-t 
 of this article, data by Avhich the approximate increase 
 of this description of fuel can be determined, and give 
 here all the statistics that can be collected. 
 
 SlMI- 
 
 tNTKllACITE OB BiTUMI.VOUS. 
 
 
 
 1854. 
 
 1855. 
 
 Increase. 
 
 Decrease. 
 
 
 Tona. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Tona. 
 
 Lykens' Valley Co. . 
 
 57,500 
 
 60,721 
 
 9,221 
 
 
 Short Mountain Co. 
 
 60,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 500 
 
 
 Dauphin Co 
 
 63,000 
 
 1,000 
 
 
 62,000 
 
 Cumberland Region 
 
 643,299 
 
 664,304 
 
 16,005 
 
 
 Foreign coal 
 
 Total 
 
 262,865 
 
 287,408 
 
 84,543 
 00,269 
 
 
 1,071,664 
 
 1,069,933 
 
 62,000 
 
 Decrease in 1855. . . 
 
 1,069,933 
 
 
 
 60,269 
 
 1,731 
 
 
 
 1,7.",1 
 
 The increase of semi-anthracite or bituminous coal 
 in 1854, including foreign, over the previous year, was 
 218,167 tons. This year (1855) there is a decrease of 
 1731 tons, making the total increase of all kinds in 1855 
 684,004 tons, against 952,857 tons in 1854. 
 
 Almost as interesting as tire statistics of the areas 
 and production of the coal countries, is the considera- 
 tion of the means of transportation and the facilities 
 needed to give us fuel in abundance and at a low price. 
 It is of great importance to the consumer, and an ex- 
 tract from a private letter "vvill be of interest, throwing 
 some light on the ways and means, the cost and con- 
 tingencies in the transit to market : 
 
 "By canal, besides the distance and cost of the struc- 
 ture, there are so many contingencies, arising from too 
 much or too little water, as to weaken the dependence ; 
 and on the railroads, the grades and the adaptation to 
 the business are alone the objects by which the price 
 can be regulated. If the grades be level or descending, 
 the capacity of the engine Is not only increased, but 
 the expense is so much reduced as to determine its 
 value, and it is only upon a road so graded and so con- 
 structed as to endure the burden that the price can be 
 
 fixed or defined. On the down-hill grade the momen- 
 tum keeps up the speed, and relieves the engine, while 
 on the up-hill grade the speed is depressed, the power 
 is reducsdj the strain is increased, and the expense aug- 
 mented. 
 
 " On the Reading Railroad, in operation since 1841, 
 these facts are so illustrated and defined a^ to establish 
 their existence beyond a question. On the stem as 
 upon the laterals, the descent is from 22 feet to a mile 
 to a level of 36,000 feet, and as the maximum is but 
 four miles in length, the balance descends to the level 
 without the slightest rise to interfere with the speed. 
 On this descent and over the level, a single engine can 
 take as many cars loaded as it can bring empty to the 
 place of starting. This difference^ from the weight of 
 the descending and ascending trains, is ascertained to 
 be equal to two and three-quarters engines, or 175 per 
 cent, more than on the downward grade — consequent- 
 ly a reversion of the trade ; or upon a road where the 
 grade is equal to twenty-two feet to the mile against 
 the trade, the expense for engines, fuel, and wages, 
 would be more fol: the same distance than the profits 
 derived from the coal in market. 
 
 " But as these are the questions for railroad-makers, 
 we will next consider the extent of the trade, and ar- 
 rive at our object by the expenditure made to accommo- 
 date it. On the Lehigh, we have an expenditure on 
 the part of the Lehigh Coal and Navigation Company 
 of $8,441,405, and on the part of some fourteen or fif- 
 teen companies passing over their works about five 
 ■millions more, making together $13,441,405. From 
 the commencement of the company in 1820 until the 
 close of the season in 1855, the production of the re- 
 gion is 12,278,012 — equal to 353,725 tons per annum. 
 But if we take the amount sent to market during the 
 year just closed, 1,274,986 tons, and admit a clear profit 
 of 75 cents per ton, which it did not give to the sever- 
 al parties concerned, the income would be less than 7 
 per cent, on the money expended. In the region it is 
 also understood the mining operations are above water- 
 level, and that until recently they were conducted on 
 the principle of a quarry, and tliat the expenses, to- 
 gether with the transit, prevented a dividend to the 
 stockholders until the outside operators came in to their 
 relief. 
 
 "On the Lackawana, the Delaware and Hudson 
 Company, and the Pennsylvania Coal Company, with 
 capitals amounting to $11,626,761, brought to market 
 during 1855, 1,092,000 tons, and during the period they 
 have been in existence the average is equal to 332,000 
 tons per annum. The production of 1855, at 75 cents 
 per ton clear profit, gives, however, but 7 per cent. 
 
 *' On the Schuylkill, the operations are more extens- 
 ive, and the expenditure, including the 
 
 Reading Railroad, cost $18,464,114 64 
 
 SchnylkiU Canal cost 10,850,461 41 
 
 496 miles Lateral Roads to the CoUieries. 4,000,000 00 
 
 Total $33,314,566 05 
 
 Besides this expenditure for reaching the trade, there 
 is a population depending upon it of 60,717 in 1850, 
 which is divided into 10,927 families and 10,670 houses. 
 In the region there are also 300 stationarj' engines, 
 equal to 10,000 horse power, used in mining. In 1855, 
 the production was 3,318,340 tons, and during the ex- 
 istence of the works (the Navigation Company thirty- 
 four years, and the Reading fifteen years), the product 
 has been 28,508,944 tons, equal to 838,495 tons per an- 
 num. At 75 cents on the product of the year just 
 closed, clear profit, the percentage on $36,631,516, in- 
 cluding the improvements at the mines, would be be- 
 tween 7 and 8 per cent. 
 
 '■Altogether the cost for improving and reaching 
 the three regions in operation, including the eastern 
 division of the Pennsylvania works, is $62,272,898. The 
 product during 1855 amounted to 6,262,189 tons, which, 
 at 75 cents profit, would be equal to 7i per cent, profit." 
 — See articles Ikon and United States. 
 
JDOA 
 
 319 
 
 COA 
 
 Coasting-trade, tho trade or intercourse carried 
 on by sea between two or more ports or places of the 
 same country; lb has been customary in most coun- 
 tries to exclude foreigners from all participation in the 
 coasting-trade. This.policy began in England in tho 
 reign of Elizabeth (SiEliz. c. 5), or perhaps at a more 
 remote era; and itwasporfectedby the acts of naviga- 
 tion passed in 1661 and 1660. This policy is now entire- 
 ly abrogated in Great Britain. — -See Gukat Britain. 
 
 Of Vessels wMoh may engage inihe IJomestic Trade of 
 
 the United States (Vessels of twenty tons and upward, 
 
 enrolled, and having a lioense in force, and vessels of 
 less than twenty tons, not enrolled, but having a li- 
 cense in force, and no others, shall be deemed vessels 
 of the United States, entitled to the privileges of ves- 
 sels employed in the coasting-trade and fisheries. 
 Every vessel of twenty tons or upward (other than 
 such as are -registered) trading between district and 
 district, or between diftcrent places in the same district, 
 or carrying on the fisherj', without being enrolled and 
 licensed, or if of less than twenty tons, and not less 
 than five tons, without a license, if laden with goods 
 the growth or manufacture of the United States only 
 (distilled spirits only excepted), shall pay the same 
 fees and tonnage in every port at which she may 'ar- 
 rive as are payable by vessels not belonging t6 a citi- 
 zen of the United States ; and if she have on board 
 any articles of foreign growth or manufacture, or dis- 
 tilled spirits, other than sea-stores, she, t'ogelher with 
 her tackle, appftreVj and furniture, and lading, found 
 on board, shall be forfeited. But If such vessel be at 
 sea at the expiration of the time for which the license 
 was given, and the master shall swear that such was 
 the case, and shall also, within forty-eight hours after 
 his arrival, deliver to the collector of the district in 
 which he shall first arrive the license which shall have 
 expired, she shall not be forfeited, nor shall be liable to 
 pay such fees and tonnage. , No goods shall be imported, 
 under penalty of forfeiture thereof, from one to another 
 port of the United States, in a vessel belongingwholly, 
 or in part, to a subject of any foreign power ; but such 
 vessel may sail from one to another such ports, carry- 
 ing such goods only -as were imported in her from some 
 foreign port, and which ?hall not have been unladen. 
 
 Of tlie Em^oUrmnt and License of Vessels. — The like 
 qualifications, and requisites are necessary for the en- 
 rollment as for the registry and record of vessels, 
 and the same duties are imposed on, and authority 
 given to, all officers respectively, in relation to such 
 enrollments, and the same proceedings shall be had 
 in similar cases tiJuching such enrollments ; and ves- 
 sels so enrolled, -with their masters or owners, shall 
 be subject to the same requisites as are in these re- 
 spects provided for registered vessels. , The record of 
 such enrolhnent shall be made, and an abstract orcopj- 
 thereof granted, as nearly as may be, in the form di- 
 rected by law. Enrolled and licensed vessels may be 
 registered upon the registry being given up ; and reg- 
 istered vessels may be enrolled, upon surrendering up 
 the enrollment and license. And when any vessel 
 shall be in any other district than that to -which she 
 belongs, the collector, on application of the master, and 
 on his making oath that, to the best of his knowledge 
 and belief, the property remains as expressed in the 
 register or enrollment, proposed to be given up, and 
 upon his giving the bonds required for granting regis- 
 ter, shall make such exchanges; and such collector 
 shall transmit the register or enrollment given up to 
 the register of the treasury. The register or enroll- 
 ment and license granted in lieu thereof, shall, within 
 ten days after the arrival of the vessel within the dis- 
 trict to which she belongs, be delivered up to the col- 
 lector of such district, and be by him canceled. And 
 if the master shall neglect to deliver such register or 
 enrollment and license within the time specified, he 
 shall forfeit one hundred dollars. In order to the li- 
 censing of any vessel for carrying on the coasting-trade 
 
 or fisheries, the husband, together with the master, 
 with one or more sureties, to the satisfaction of the 
 collector, shall become bound' to pay to the United 
 States, if she be of 'the burden of five tons and less than 
 twenty tons, the sum of one hundred dollars ; and if 
 twenty tons, and hot exceeding thirty tons, the sum 
 Of two hundred dollars; and if above thirty tons, and 
 not exceeding sixty tons, the sum of five hundred dol- 
 lars ; and if above sixty tons, the sum of one thousand 
 dollars, in case it shall appear, within two years from 
 the date of the bond, that she has been employed in 
 any trade whereby the revenue of the United States 
 has been defrauded, during the time her license re- 
 mained in force ; and the ' master of such vessel shall 
 also swear that he is a citizen of the United States, 
 and that such license shall not be used for any other 
 vessel, or any other emplyment; than that for which it 
 is specially granted, or in any trade whereby the reve- 
 nue may be defrauded ; and if such vessel be less than 
 twenty tons burden, her husband shall swear that she 
 is wholly the property of a citizen or citizens of the 
 United States j wjiereupon th^ collector of the district 
 whereto such vessel may belong (the duty of six cents 
 per ton being first paid) shall grant a license, in the 
 form directed by law, for carrying on the coasting- 
 trade, whale fishery, cpd fishery, or mackerel fishery. 
 A steam-vessel, intended to be employed only in a river 
 or bay of the United States, owned wholly or in part 
 by an alien, resident within the United States, shall 
 be enrolled and licensed as if she belonged to a citizen 
 of'the United States, except that no oath shall be re- 
 quired that she belongs to a citizen or citizens of the 
 United States. The owner of such steam-vessel, upon 
 application for enrollment or lioense, shall give bond to 
 thfe, collector of the district, to and for the use of the 
 United States', in the penalty of one thousand dollars,, 
 with sufficient surety, conditioned that she shall not be 
 employed in other waters than the rivers and bays of 
 the United States. When the master of any licensed 
 vessel, ferry-boats excepted, shall be changed, the 
 new master, or, in case of his absence, an owner, shall 
 report such change to the collector residing at the port 
 where the same may happen, if there be one, otherwise 
 to the collector residing at. any port where such vessel 
 may ne.xt arriye, who, upon the oath of such new mas- 
 ter, or in case of his absence, of an owner, that he is a 
 citizen of the United States, and that she shall not, 
 while such license continues in force, be employed in 
 any manner whereby the revenue, may be defrauded, 
 shall indorse such change on the license, with the name 
 of the new master ;, and when any change shall so hap- 
 pen, and shall not be reported, and the indorsement so 
 made, such vessel, found carrying on the coasting-trade 
 or fisheries, shall be subject to pay the same fees and 
 tonnage as a vessel of the United States having a reg- 
 ister, and the new master shall forfeit and pay the sum 
 of ten dollars. Before any vessel, of the burden of five 
 tons, and less than twenty tons, shall be licensed, the 
 same admeasurement shall he made, and the same 
 provisions observed relative thereto, as are to be ob- 
 served in case of admeasuring vessels to be registered ; 
 but in all cases where such vessel, or any other licensed 
 vessel, shall have been once admeasured, it shall not be 
 necessary to measure her anew for the purpose of ob- 
 taining another enrollment or license, except she shall 
 have undergone some alteration as to her burden sub- 
 sequent to the time of her foi-mer license. Every 
 licensed vessel shall have her name, and the port to 
 which she belongs, painted on her stem, as is directed 
 for registered vessels, and if found without such paint- 
 ing, the owner shall pay twenty dollars. No collector 
 shall grant to any vessel, whose enrollment or license 
 for carrying on the coasting-trade has expired, a new 
 enrollment or license, before the master shall have ren- 
 dered a true account of the number of seamen, and the 
 time they have severally been employed on board such 
 vessel d\iring the continuance of the expired license, 
 
COA 
 
 320 
 
 COA 
 
 and shall have paid to the collector twenty cents per 
 month, for every month such seamen have been so 
 severally employed, which sum the master may detain 
 from the wages of such seamen. If the master shall 
 render a false account of the number of men, and the 
 length of time they have severally been employed, he 
 shall forfeit and pay one hundred dollars. Any boat, 
 sloop, or other vessel of the United States, navigating 
 the waters on our northern, northeastern, and north- 
 western frontiers, otherwise than by sea, shall be en- 
 rolled and licensed in such form as may be prescribed 
 by the Secretary of the Treasury ; which enrollment 
 and license shall authorize any such boat, sloop, or 
 other vessel, to be employed either in the coasting or 
 foreign trade ; and no certificate of registrj' shall be re- 
 quired for vessels so employed on said frontiers : Pro- 
 vided, That such boat, sloop, or vessel, shall be, in 
 every other respect, liable to the rules, regulations, 
 and penalties, now in force, relating to registered ves- 
 sels on our northern, northeastern, and northwestern 
 frontiers. — Laws of the United States, 
 
 Tonnage employed in Tms Coasting-teade of tue U. S. 
 
 Years. Tonnage. 
 
 1815 435,066 
 
 1816 470,979 
 
 1817 481,457 
 
 1818 503,140 
 
 1819 523,656 
 
 1820 509,080 
 
 1821 669,436 
 
 1822 673,080 
 
 1828 866,408 
 
 1824 689,223 
 
 1826 587,273 
 
 1326 666,420 
 
 1827 732,987 
 
 1828 758,922 
 
 1829 508,868 
 
 1830 516,978 
 
 1831 639,723 
 
 1832 649,027 
 
 1883 744,198 
 
 1834 783,618 
 
 1836 792,301 
 
 Veare. Tonnage. 
 
 1836 878,0-23 
 
 1837 966,980 
 
 1838 1,041,105 
 
 1839 1,163,561 
 
 1840 1,176,694 
 
 1841 1,107,067 
 
 1842 1,046,763 
 
 1843 1,076,155 
 
 1844 1,109,614 
 
 1846 1,190,898 
 
 1846 1,280,870 
 
 1847 1,452,623 
 
 1848 1,620,988 
 
 1849 1,780,410 
 
 1860 1,756,790 
 
 1851 1,864,317 
 
 1852 2,008,021 
 
 1863 2,134,266 
 
 1864 2,273,900 
 
 1865 2,491,108 
 
 1856 2,211,985 
 
 From this table we see that our coasting-trade has 
 increased 12 per cent, on an average for forty years, 
 and has doubled in the past ten years — from 1845 to 
 1855. The total tonnage has increased from 435,066 
 tons in 1815 to 2,491,108 tons in 1855, giving an in- 
 crease of 10 per cent, per annum ; showing that we have 
 at this time a larger tonnage than any other nation. 
 
 "The coasting-trade of the United States has, from 
 the beginning, been strictly reserved for vessels built 
 within the United States, and owned by citizens of the 
 United States, to the exclusion of foreign-built and 
 foreign-owned vessels. The American tonnage en- 
 gaged in foreign trade and in the coasting-trade has 
 been American built, and has had the absolute pro- 
 tection of our la-ws, and the licensed tonnage absolute 
 protection, in the carrying-trade on our coast, and in 
 our own waters. The protection given to our foreign- 
 commercial and to our coasting-commercial marine has 
 
 secured a. large and efficient body of skillful officers 
 and sailors, at all times ready for the defense of our 
 cities and coast, for repelling aggression on our com- 
 merce, and for manning our ships of war. In the 
 protection given to our shipping interest, for the pur- 
 pose of having at all times the power to repel foreign 
 aggression, and protect our coast and trade, there ap- 
 pears to have been but little division of sentiment, 
 from the earliest time to the present, while the yearly 
 increase of our tonnage proves the wisdom of our laws 
 in this particular. We have no data to ascertain the 
 annual number of persons, or the annual tons of freight 
 carried, in our coasting-trade, nor the value thereof. 
 Each person must make his own estimate-of the ton- 
 nage employed, and the average number of trips the 
 vessels can make, combined with the facts that capital 
 constantly tends to that business, and the growth of 
 our enrolled and licensed tonnage keeps pace with our 
 increasing population and wealth. The amount of 
 coasting-tonnage, and the annual number of tons of 
 freight transported on our railroads, with an estimate 
 of that carried by other modes of transfer, exhibit the 
 magnitude of the means required for our internal 
 trade." — U. S. Treasury Seport, December, 1856. 
 
 Coast Line. The following statement of the river 
 navigation and shore line of the United States was pre- 
 pared by Colonel Abert, of the Topographical Engin- 
 eers, at the request of the Treasury Department, De- 
 cember 7th, 1845. It has since been completed to date. 
 The head of tide-water is assumed as the limit of steam 
 navigation, as impeding falls or rapids are encountered 
 at that point, above which many rivers are adapted to 
 steam navigation, but to what extent is not sufficiently 
 known. The shore line of rivers to head of tide-water, 
 from 
 
 Maine to Texas, is 10,601 miles. 
 
 Elvers of Texas 1 ,210 " 
 
 Lower Mississippi, islands and bayous 8,372 " 
 
 Upper Mississippi and tributaries 2,736 *' 
 
 Big Black, Yazoo, and bayous 1,190 " 
 
 Red Eiver and tributaries 4,924 ** 
 
 Arkansas River and tributaries 3,260 " 
 
 Missouri River and tributaries 7,830 " 
 
 Ohio River and tributaries 7,842 " 
 
 Total 47,365 " 
 
 Add rivers on the Pacific — Sacramento. . . . 600 
 San Joaquin . . . 600 
 
 Oregon 460 
 
 Unipqua 59 
 
 1,710 
 
 Total river shore line in the United States in 
 
 1864, including both banks 49,065 miles. 
 
 Shore line of northern lakes, including bays, 
 
 sounds, and islands (American) 3,620 " 
 
 Total river and lake shore line 52,785 *' 
 
 A calculation made at the office of the Coast Survey 
 in 1853 gives for the total main shore line of the United 
 States (exclusive of bays, sounds, islands, etc.) 12,609 
 statute miles. If all of these be followed, and the riv- 
 ers entered to the head of tide-water, the total shore 
 line will be swelled to 33,069 miles. 
 
 Shore Line of i^u-e, United States in Statute Miles. 
 
 Coasts. 
 
 Main Shore, 
 
 including 
 
 Bays, Sonnds, 
 
 etc. 
 
 Proportion 
 
 of eacli Part 
 
 of Coast to 
 
 Total. 
 
 Islands. 
 
 Propor- 
 tion. 
 
 Rivera to 
 Head of 
 Tide. 
 
 Propor- 
 tion. 
 
 Total 
 
 Propor- 
 tion. 
 
 Ocean Line 
 in Steps of 
 Ten SUles. 
 
 Continental 
 Shore Line of 
 States North 
 of Virginia. 
 
 Continental 
 Shore Line of 
 States South 
 of Maryland. 
 
 Atlantic coast 
 
 Pacific coast'. 
 
 Gulf coast... 
 
 Total.... 
 
 Miles. 
 6,861 
 2,281 
 3,46T 
 
 Per Cent. 
 64-41 
 18-09 
 27-50 
 
 Miles. 
 6328 
 702 
 2217 
 
 PerCt. 
 
 68-44 
 
 7-59 
 
 28-07 
 
 Miles. 
 
 0,656 
 
 712 
 
 3,846 
 
 Per Ct. 
 
 59-35 
 
 6-S5 
 
 84-80 
 
 Miles. 
 19,844 
 8,695 
 9,530 
 
 PerCt. 
 60-01 
 11-17 
 28-82 
 
 MUes. 
 2059 
 1405 
 1643 
 
 MUes. 
 907 
 
 Miles. 
 1266 
 
 1764 
 
 12,609 
 
 100-00 
 
 9247 1100-00 
 
 11,213 
 
 10000 
 
 83,069 
 
 100-00 1 6107 
 
 907 
 
 8030 
 
 The main shore line of the Atlantic, including bays, 
 etc., is twice that of the Gulf, three times that of the 
 Pacific, and more than equal to that of the Pacific and 
 Gulf combined. The Southern States have three times 
 as much sea-coast as the Northern. 
 
 Europe, in extent of shore line, is more favored than 
 any other portion of the earth, and North America next ; 
 the former having, according to Guyot, only 156 miles, 
 and the latter 228 miles of surface to one mile of coast 
 (the United States having 241); while South America 
 has 376, Africa 623, and Asia 459 miles. 
 
 The following table furnishes three measurements : 
 
 1. Tftfi coast line, i. e. sea-coast, bays, islands, 
 
 etc., of the Atlantic coast 12,369 miles. 
 
 The rivers to head of tide, both shores 6,655 " 
 
 For the Gulf of Mexico, the coast line is 5,744 " 
 
 Length of rivers to head of tide 8,846 " 
 
 2. Coast line, exclusive of islands and rivers to 
 
 head of tide— for the Atlantic 6,017 " 
 
 " Gulf 3,551 " 
 
 3. Coast line, exclusive of bays, islands, etc., 
 
 etc., except Massachusetts Bay — Atlantic. 2,163 " 
 
 Gulf.... 1,764 " 
 
eoA 
 
 321 
 
 COA 
 
 The Results of Measuhbments op Coast amd Suoee Line of the United States as bequieed by the Supeeimtendent 
 OP the Cemstjs Bureau fkom the Coast Survey of July 12, 1854, are as follows, in Statute Miles : 
 
 states. 
 
 Shoro Linfl, in- 
 cluding Bays, 
 iBlandB, and all 
 iTTegalaritlea. 
 
 Shora Line, 
 except iBlandB. 
 
 Continent Line; 
 
 viz. : Shore 
 jine, except Isl- 
 ands, Bays, etc. 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 Maine 
 
 2,486 
 49 
 888 
 
 320 
 
 262 
 980 
 640 
 118 
 
 609 
 
 784 
 41 
 
 622 
 
 245 
 240 
 50 
 300 
 106 
 
 411 
 
 278 
 18 
 286 
 
 45 
 
 104 
 
 none. 
 
 120 
 
 23 
 
 33 
 
 Measurements taken on hest maps of the Coast Survey Ar- 
 chives. 
 
 Measured on Greenleaf *b map of Maine, as correct as possible, 
 but the great irregularities of coast prevent a correct result 
 
 Measured on Garrigain's map of N. H., generally correct as 
 compared with Smith's map. 
 
 Measured on Borden's map of Mass., generally correct as com- 
 pared with Smith's map. 
 
 Measured on Smith's and Mitchell's maps. 
 
 Measured on Coast Survey offshore charts. 
 
 Measured on Coast Survey off shore charts. 
 
 Measured on Coast Survey off shore charts. 
 
 Measured on F. Lucas's map of Md., Ches. Bay, and C. S. 
 Sketches and Charts. 
 
 Measured on F. Lucas's map of Md., Ches. Bay, and C. S. 
 Sketches and Charts. 
 
 From northeast boundary to State line between Md. and Va. 
 
 Measured on F. Lucas's map of Md. and C. S. maps. 
 
 Measured on Brazier's map of N. C, and compared with 
 Smith's. 
 
 Measured on Smith's map, and compared with Mitchell's. 
 
 Mea3ured on Smith's map, and compared with Mitchell's. 
 
 Measured on map of Topographical Engineers. 
 
 From State line between Md. and Va. to S. extre^iity of Florida. 
 
 Measured on map of Topographical Engineers. 
 Measured on Smith's map, and compared with Mitchell's. 
 Measured on Smith's map, and compared with Mitchell's. 
 Measured on Gerdes's Reconnoissances and Smith's map. 
 Measured on Blunt's and Smith's map. 
 
 Measured on Alden's Reconnoissances. 
 
 New Hampshire . . . 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 New York 
 
 New Jei-sey 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Northern Atlantic 
 Virginia 
 
 6,160 
 
 2799 
 
 907 
 
 654 
 1,641 
 
 756 
 
 684 
 
 2,474 
 
 348 
 1089 
 
 267 
 480 
 1034 
 
 116 
 320 
 
 220 
 128 
 472 
 
 North Carolina .... 
 South Carolina 
 
 Florida, East Coast. 
 Southern Atlantic 
 Total Atlantic . . . 
 
 Florida, West Coast 
 
 6,209 
 
 3218 
 
 1266 
 
 12,369 
 
 6017 
 
 2163 
 
 1,66a 
 
 816 
 
 287 
 
 2,260 
 
 1,330 
 
 883 
 247 
 226 
 1266 
 940 
 
 674 
 
 68 
 
 88 
 
 652 
 
 392 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Texas 
 
 Total Gulf. 
 
 Total South Atlantic 
 and Gulf 
 
 Total Pacific, fh)m 
 boundary of San 
 Diego to mouth of 
 Frazer's River. . . 
 
 6,744 
 
 3551 
 
 1764 
 
 11,963 
 3,261 
 
 6769 
 .2633 
 
 3020 
 1343 
 
 Coast Survey of the United States. It -was 
 to be expected that a people devoted to the pursuits of 
 commerce, and dependiog in some degree on the sea 
 as a means of communication between distant parts of 
 the national territory, should demand, at an early pe- 
 riod of their history, a competent survey of their coasts 
 and inland waters. 
 
 But a short time previous to the separation of the 
 colonies, charts had been constructed of the shores and 
 harbors of North America, under the direction of F. W. 
 Des Barres, his majesty's Surveyor General for the Col- 
 onies. The progress of his labors was interrupted by 
 the Revolution. The surveys made under the person- 
 al superintendence of Des Barres still bear testimony 
 to his skill and fidelity, and present a generally cor- 
 rect view of those parts of New England and the Brit- 
 ish possessions which, being rocky, are but little liable 
 to change. They continue to form the principal basis 
 of the charts of the northeastern coast of this continent. 
 In the Southern and Middle States, however, they have 
 been rendered worse than useless by the inconstant 
 character of the bottoms, and the unequal merit of the 
 originals. The surveys of Des Barres, covering a vast 
 extent of coast, were originally deficient in minute- 
 ness of detail, and in hydrographical information ; and 
 these defects have been increased by the rapid and ex- 
 tensive changes in the direction, means, and wants of 
 navigation caused by the growth of the country. 
 
 The project of a complete survey, conducted upon a 
 uniform system and extending over the whole coast, 
 was first proposed by the late Professor Patterson, in 
 1806. It combined three objects, the astronomical de- 
 termination of prominent points, a triangulation to con- 
 nect those points, and a hydrographic survey based 
 upon this triangulation. Mr. Gallatin, then Secretary 
 of the Treasury, encouraged the project, and obtained 
 in writing the opinions of learned men as to the best 
 mode of executing it. He selected the plan of opera- 
 tions recommended by Mr. Hassler, the first superin- 
 tendent of the Coast Survey. This gentleman, a na- 
 
 tive of Switzerland, had been employed in the triangu- 
 lation of the Canton of Berne, and bad studied the sci- 
 ence of geodesy under the most distinguished masters. 
 It was exceedinglj' fortunate that his presence and ad- 
 vice here secured the early adoption of the only meth- 
 od of conducting a comprehensive trigonometrical sur- 
 vey that science approves — the only one of which the 
 results have a certain and permanent value. 
 
 It is only, however, since the j-ear 1832 that the sur- 
 vey of the coast has been in steady and active opera- 
 tion. During this long interval of neglect on the part 
 of the government, the coasting trade and foreign com- 
 merce of the country have been chiefly indebted to the 
 indefatigable labors of those distinguished hydrogra- 
 phers, the Messrs. Blunt of New York (both father and 
 son), for the means of safe navigation. 
 
 The history of its fortunes, or rather misfortunes, 
 during the preceding twenty-five years, may be recited 
 in a few words. A law authorizing a survey of the 
 coast was passed in 1807, but nothing was done under 
 the law until 1811, when Mr. Hassler was sent to Europe 
 to procure the instruments specified in his plan. They 
 had all to be constructed. The war of 1812, and the 
 failure of remittances, prevented Mr. Hassler's return 
 before 1816, and in August of that year he was appoint- 
 ed to the office of superintendent. In 1818 Mr. Hass- 
 ler's connection with the work was broken off by the 
 repeal of that part of the law of 1807 which authorized 
 the employment of citizens. During the ten years that 
 followed, the coast survey seems to have been forgot- 
 ten by the public and by Congress. In 1827 Mr. South- 
 ard, the Secretary of- the Navy, a name never to be 
 mentioned without, an expression of the high respect 
 which ability, patriotism, and long, faithful, and valu- 
 able services must always command in the republic, 
 took occasion in his annual report to say that perfect 
 surveys and charts of our harbors could not be made 
 without the aid of the means contemplated by the act 
 of 1807 ; and in February, 1828, the House directed the 
 Committee on Naval Affairs to inquire into the expe- 
 
COA 
 
 322 
 
 COA 
 
 diency of carrying into effect the provisions of that act. 
 Finally, in 1832, the act of 1807 was revised, and an 
 appropriation made for carrying it into execution, and 
 since that period regular annual appropriations have 
 been made, varying in amount, but generally such as 
 have been called for by the estimates of the superin- 
 tendent. 
 
 In 1843 there was added to the appropriation a pro- 
 viso stipulating that a board, consisting of scientific 
 persons in the service of the government, should be em- 
 powered to reorganize the work, and the plan present- 
 ed by them, when approved by the president, was to be, 
 and is now, the law regulating the operations of the 
 survey. The scientific methods pursued by Mr. Hass- 
 ler were continued, and it was directed that the topog- 
 raphy should be carried so far inland as might be nec- 
 essary for a proper delineation of the shore, and for pur- 
 poses either of commerce or defense. 
 
 It is now understood that the aim of the coast survey 
 is to furnish with the utmost attainable accuracy, and 
 in a connected and uniform manner, all the geograph- 
 ical, topographical, and hydrographical data that can be 
 made in any way useful to the navigation and defense 
 of the coast. And it is also supposed that, in collect- 
 ing these data, information will be accumulated that 
 may become serviceable in suggesting and directing 
 local and general improvements ; such as the placing 
 and constructing of light-houses, beacons, buoys, etc., 
 the means of improving channels, the effect of contem- 
 plated constructions upon harbors and tidal deposits, 
 the suitableness of a -submerged soil for building, etc. 
 And, lastly, it is presumed that those States through 
 which the survey passes will, sooner or later, avail 
 themselves of the base it is able to supply, to form a 
 correct geographical map of their own territory, under 
 circumstances very favorable to economy smi accura- 
 cy. These are the practical benefits, either direct or 
 incidental, conferred by the eoast survey. 
 
 In abstract science -it 'has also its mission, equally 
 useful and distinguished. It is to contribute a part of 
 the means by which the irregularly elliptical form of 
 the earth may be satisfactorily determined, the varia- 
 tions in local gravitation, their causes, and thence the 
 internal structure of the earth, be made known, and 
 the phenomena of terrestrial magnetism be explained. 
 It will illustrate the astronomical problem of the tides. 
 Its numerous meteorological records will also contrib- 
 ute to a better knowledge of the climates of the United 
 States, and of the nature and action of meteoric storms, 
 and thus be of service to the farmer -as ivell as the nav- 
 igator. 
 
 The science of geodetics prescribes the principles 
 upon which a survey of an extended region should be 
 conducted. In the ordinary operations of land-survey- 
 ing, the surveyor is permitted to regard his field of 
 work as a plane surface ; but the engineer who is to 
 construct a map of a whole country, or of a long line 
 of continuous sea-coast, must take into consideration 
 the spheroidal figure of the earth, and present an ex- 
 act delineation of that part of the spheroid upon which 
 he is employed. This necessity controls the processes 
 used in computation, and the plan of projection upon 
 which the detailed results are given, whether it be call- 
 ed a map or chart. Both the projection and the form- 
 ulas for computation involve the higher mathematics, 
 and require an acquaintance with the most advanced 
 state of the mathematico-physical sciences. 
 
 The system of projection introduced by Mr.Hassler 
 originated with Flamsteed. It is the -development of 
 a part of the earth's surface upon a cone, either a tan- 
 gent to a certain latitude, or cutting two given paral- 
 lels and two meridians equidistant from the middle me- 
 ridian, and extended on both sides of the meridian and 
 in latitude only so far as to admit of no deviation from 
 the real magnitudes, such as would be sensible in the 
 detail surveys. In this method of reducing the curved 
 surface of the earth to a plane, the radii of curvature 
 
 of the parallels and meridians, depending upon the 
 value given to the expression for the ellipticity, and 
 the assumed form of the globe, are important terms. 
 For practical use, tables have been computed in the 
 office of the coast survey, showing the length in metres 
 of every minute and second of the arcs of the meridi- 
 ans and parallels comprehended in the maps. It has 
 been found necessary to recalculate these tables since 
 1844, on account of the new value of the ellipticity an- 
 nounced by Bessel, and adopted by the present super- 
 intendent. There will be occasion to recur to this 
 subject. 
 
 The practical operations of the coast survey are class- 
 ed under the general heads of triangulation, astronom- 
 ical and magnetic observations, topography, and hy- 
 drography. The fundamental basis of the survey is a 
 net-work of great triangles, the sides of which, varying 
 from ten to one hundred and ten miles, are the longest 
 that the limits of vision or the nature of the country 
 will allow, and hence a mountainous region is much 
 the most favorable for a first or primary triangulation. 
 The starting line, or first side of the first triangle, call- 
 ed the base Une^ is measured by mechanical means, and 
 this is a labor demanding, as much as any other on the 
 survey, accuracy, a philosophical regard to minute de- 
 tails, and long previous preparation. Observing, in 
 passing, that several kinds of measuring-rods have been 
 heretofore used, as wood and glass, and that the appa- 
 ratus of Mr. Hassler consisted of an assemblage of four 
 iron bars, each of them two metres in length, with ivhich 
 he obtained excellent results. In 1817 i\\Q preliminary 
 measurement of two base lines was made by Mr. Hass- 
 ler, and in 1834 the length of the same lines was de- 
 termined by computation, carried from the new base on 
 Tin Island beach. The difference between the meas- 
 ured and computed lengths of these lines was in one 
 case less than a foot, and in the other about four inch- 
 es ; the bases themselves were 5"9 and 4-8 miles long. 
 It will, perhaps, best serve to convey an idea of the dif- 
 .ficulty of measuring a base-line if some account be 
 given of Professor Bache's base-apparatus. The meas- 
 uring bars are upon the compensating system, first used 
 by Colonel Colby in Great Britain, and by Mr. Borden 
 in the trigonometrical survey of the State of Massachu- 
 setts ; but a principle not before applied was introduced 
 in reference to the dimensions of the bars, which is thus 
 stated. Bars of brass and iron (the materials employ- 
 ed), of the same dimensions will not, owing to their dif- 
 ferent conducting powers and specific heats, heat equal- 
 ly in equal times, and therefore, during changes of tem- 
 perature, the sj'stem ceases to be compensating. This 
 Mr. Bache corrected by giving' a coating to the bars 
 that made them absorb equally, and by proportioning 
 the sections to each other, so that both would have the 
 same temperature during variable temperatures of the 
 atmosphere. In order to do this satisfactorily, it was 
 necessary to make direct experiments upon the mate- 
 rials of the bars themselves, after having first arranged 
 them approximately by means of the numbers taken 
 from the books. The contact between two sets of bars 
 is made by a blunt knife-edge and a plane of agate, and 
 a lever of contact at the ends of the bars is corrected 
 by a level so delicate that several of its divisions make 
 up a quantity entirely insignificant in the measure- 
 ment. The bars are covered with a double coliical 
 case of tin, to keep the fluctuations of the temperature 
 within moderate limits, and the bases on which they 
 are supported are covered with several thicknesses of 
 imperfectly conducting material for the same purpose. 
 The length of the apparatus is compared, before and 
 after final measurement, with a standard iron bar 
 that had been compared in the coast-survey office by 
 means of Mr. Saxton's reflecting pyrometer. By this 
 instrument, a change of the one hundred thousandth 
 part of an inch in the length of the standard bar is per- 
 ceptible. 
 
 To the preceding description it should be added thai 
 
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 the bars (regulated in size by the relative specific heats 
 of the two metals) were heated above the possible tem- 
 perature to which they could be exposed in use, in or- 
 der to give them a, set. This precaution was at first 
 overlooked in the compensation base-apparatus of the 
 British ordinance survey, and it was afterward found 
 necessary to resort to it. Those who are at all famil- 
 iar with the subject will perceive that Professor Bache's 
 application of the lever of contact and level (first used 
 by Bessel in standards of measure) has not only great- 
 ly increased the delicacy of the instrument and lessened 
 its complexity, but also removed several, sources of er- 
 ror. By optical contact, and the employment of a mi- 
 croscopic apparatus to determine the distance between 
 the compensation points, the measures are repeated in 
 two different terms, each having its peculiar standard. 
 Such was the case in the British and Indian surveys, 
 and Colonel Everest complains of the consequent lia- 
 bility to error, and the burdensome accumulation of 
 petty corrections. The remeasurement of a base of 
 seven and a half miles, in India, differed, however, only 
 2*4 inches from the first length. In a base of seven 
 miles. Professor Bache found that the same difterence 
 might bo about 0-5 inch, if all the errors were supposed 
 to fall on the same side, which is most improbable. 
 The probable error in remeasuring one hundred and 
 twelve yards was less than five thousandths of an inch, 
 and the actual resulting error in remeasuring one-third 
 of a mile was nothing. 
 
 This may appear like refining too much, but it must 
 be known that the lines measured by the same bar in 
 winter and summer might differ materially in nominal 
 length. This difference in the original base of the 
 coast survey might be about twenty feet, and, at a 
 rough estimate, an error of twenty feet in this place 
 would amount, in one of the large triangles, of which 
 the sides are between fifty and sixty miles, to about 
 one-tentli of a mile. The source of error audits correc- 
 tion being recognized, there is no other limit to accu- 
 racy than the possible. 
 
 We return now to the great triangles of the survey, 
 which, as has been said, form its fundamental basis. 
 The points of the primary triangulation are selected 
 with scrupulous regard to all those conditions which 
 make triangles, in the technical acceptation, good. 
 Scattered at distant intervals over the vast field of 
 work, they are certain guides by which the more de- 
 tailed operations are conducted and controlled. With- 
 in them the space is subdivided into smaller triangles, 
 constituting the seccmdaTy and tertiary triangulatioTis. 
 They bring down the work to the minute details of to- 
 pography and hydrography, and these subsidiary tri- 
 angulations and details, circumscribed as they are by 
 the primary points, are restrained and corrected by 
 them in their deviations. As an additional explana- 
 tion of the necessity for this first net of great triangles, 
 it may be well to inform the general reader that there 
 is no instrument, however delicate in construction, that 
 is not liable to very small errors, which the most stu- 
 dious attention to every disturbing influence, whether 
 mechanical or meteorological, can not altogether re- 
 move. Now this primary triangulation, which in a 
 mountainous region spans the surface with giant strides, 
 has fewer of these unaccountable errors, simply because 
 it has fewer triangles. It is hardly necessary to add 
 that better instruments also are used in it. The two 
 and a half feet theodolite, made by Simms (after 
 Troughton's death), under Mr. Hassler's supervision, 
 and used by him and by Professor Bache in the prima- 
 ry triangulation, is still regarded in this country and 
 in Europe as a master-piece of invention and mechan- 
 ism. It reads to seconds. 
 
 Magnetic and astronomical observations accompany 
 the primary triangulation. The latter are for lati- 
 tude, longitude, and azimuth, or angular direction from 
 the meridian. 
 
 Following the secondary triangulation in order comes 
 
 the Topography, the duty of which is to delineate faith- 
 fully the features of the ground. It exhibits the height 
 and contour of elevations, the shape and extent of 
 plains, the courses of streams, all the constructions of 
 man, and the waving and indented outline of the 
 shores. It distinguishes the tilled land from the pas- 
 turage, and the grove from the orchard, and designates 
 the character of the wood-land. It speaks a universal 
 language, and observes strict fidelity to nature. 
 
 Depending upon the secondary triangulation and 
 the topography for its means of progress, follows the 
 Hydrography. In this term is included all that con- 
 cerns local navigation, as the depths and character of 
 the bottom, the direction and strength of the currents, 
 the ebb and flow of the tides, and the information, com- 
 ing under the head of sailing directions and nautical 
 instruction, which make up the valuable knowledge of 
 the local or general pilot. This branch enjoys the hon- 
 or of announcing the nautical discoveries of the coast 
 survey, which, though resulting from the combined op- 
 erations of all, are yet brought out by its means. 
 
 In the preceding pages the plan of the survey is pre- 
 sented, and the general distribution of its labors is 
 stated ; it remains now to speak of the execution of the 
 various details, and of the benefits that have been con- 
 ferred by the coast survey upon science, and upon the 
 local and general commerce of the country and of the 
 world. In doing this it will be most convenient to 
 keep to its actual state at this day. 
 
 It would not be just, however, to leave its past his- 
 tory without a tribute of respect to the memory and 
 services of the man by whose enlightened efforts a right 
 direction was given to the views of the government in 
 founding tl^ survey, who was faithful to it through 
 thirty-five years of checkered fortunes, and who literal- 
 ly died in the performance of its duties, having written 
 the last few lines of his final report after he felt that he 
 had been touched by the hand of death. Educated in 
 the best European schools of theory and practice, and 
 devoted to the pursuits of science, for which he was 
 eminently qualified by natural endowments. Professor 
 Hassler always brought to the task before him that 
 zeal and tenacity of purpose which give spirit to enter- 
 prises of great moment, and gain for them the name 
 of action. He is honorably known for his mathemat- 
 ical and astronomical writings, and his papers in the 
 American Philosophical Transactions, containing an ac- 
 count of the methods employed by him on the coast 
 survey, will always be regarded as a valuable contri- 
 bution to geodetical knowledge. Those who knew him 
 intimately praise the ardor of his friendship and the 
 generosity of his disposition, while the labors of bis 
 life, and the manner in which they were performed, 
 bear ample witness to bis industry and integritj'. That 
 he had some defects of character it is hardly necessary 
 to say, for this is the inevitable lot of humanity ; but 
 they were not such as it requires the exercise of mag- 
 nanimity to forget, and time, which is rapidly drawing- 
 over them the veil of perfect obscurity, will endear his 
 name -and his virtues to the reverent and affectionate 
 respect of all true lovers of American science. 
 
 On the death of Mr. Hassler, in 1843, the appoint- 
 ment of his successor was regarded with deep Interest 
 by the learned men of the country. The office of su- 
 perintendent of the coast survey is recognized as one of 
 the central positions of American science, an.l the in- 
 cumbent is expected not only to be able to fulfill its 
 prescribed duties, but to be qualified to direct his powers 
 to the advancement of linowledge in every department 
 of the work. How far the present superintendent, Pro- 
 fessor Bache, is suited to answer these expectations, 
 to sustain the national reputation, and to promote the 
 cause of science, may be estimated from the fact that 
 his appointment was solicited by gentlemen in all parts 
 of the country engaged in the pursuits of learning. 
 He was educated at West Point, and since graduating 
 there he has, in connection with the Franklin Institute 
 
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 324 
 
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 and the University of Pennsylvania, followed a coarse 
 of pliysical science that has made him well known in 
 this country and in Europe. While traveling as the 
 President of Girard College, he received from the prin- 
 ciparEuropean academies distinguished marks of con- 
 sideration. It is but justice to Professcfr Bache to say 
 that there is no branch of the work into which he has 
 not been able to introduce improvements, either owing 
 to the discoveries of the day, as in the use of the mag- 
 netic telegraph for meridian differences, or owing (still 
 oftener) to his own great and eminent scientific attain- 
 ments. This must appear in the course of these re- 
 marks, but it is quite as creditable to his administra- 
 tion to state, as may be done with strict accuracy, that 
 the amount of results now obtained is double that un- 
 der the former plan, for an increase of 60 per cent, in 
 the cost. 
 
 The points of the primary trianguhiion are selected 
 by means of a preliminary reconnoissance. The recon- 
 noissances that precedethe triangulations are indispens- 
 able, and require great judgment. The object of the 
 general rconnoissance is to make known the facilities 
 and difficulties of the work, and to discover the best 
 plan for its execution. A particular reconnoissance 
 decides the position of the stations, and presents a gen- 
 eral sketch of the triangles in any section. As they 
 constitute the authority to which the rest is subordin- 
 ate, and by which it is controlled, it is of the greatest 
 consequence to know the circumstances under which 
 a satisfactory result maj' be secured with the least de- 
 lay. The rule generally followed (and adopted by the 
 former superintendent) is to observe on those days only 
 that appear entirely unobjectionable. This rule is at- 
 tended with a serious loss of time. Mr. Bfcche has in- 
 creased the rapidity of the work, and improved rather 
 than diminished its value, by applying the mathemat- 
 ical test of the least probable error to observations 
 made under such conditions as are ordinarily favorable 
 and of frequent occurrence. The number of observa- 
 tions made under these conditions, which will reduce 
 the probable error to what is attributable to the una- 
 voidable errors of instrument and observei*, is ascer- 
 tained and taken as a governing rule. Six triangles 
 measured by Mr. Bache in 1844 gave for the greatest 
 difference from 180°, after allowing for the spherical 
 excess, 0"'2 (of space) to each angle ; from this the 
 difference descended to nothing. 
 
 Allusion has been made to the necessity of recom- 
 puting the first tables of projection, in consequence of 
 the adoption of Bessel's latest determination of the el- 
 lipticity. The tables for computing the triangles have 
 also been affected by this change, and the formulaj 
 have been revised, and undoubtedly greatly improved 
 in convenience and accuracy. The tables have under- 
 gone a further modification by substituting the legal 
 ratio of the metre to the toise in the place of the arbi- 
 trary standard resulting from the ingenious, but (as 
 Bessel has said) "not allowable," comparisons of Mr. 
 Hassler. 
 
 This is the proper place to advert to the mode of op- 
 erations pursued on the Southern coast. It was per- 
 ceived, in the early progress of the work, that the in- 
 aptitude of this level region for a comprehensive trian- 
 gulation was to be overcome, either by great expense, 
 or by resources not yet developed. The most apparent 
 expedient was that employed in the northern section 
 of the great meridional arc of India, where it crosses 
 the flat territory of the Doab. Costly edifices of ma- 
 sonry, with walls five feet thick at the base and two at 
 the surfrait, are erected at each of the principal sta- 
 tions, and their height, about fifty feet, is sufficient to 
 command a view above the vegetation. And this ex- 
 pedient was, if contemplated, in accordance with the 
 former progress of the American survey, which, ad- 
 vancing in two directions from a central base, was nec- 
 essarily slow. 
 
 In 1845, however, the present superintendent exhib- 
 
 ited in his annual report a plan for the more rapid ex- 
 ecution of the survey, which consisted in dividing the 
 whole of our extended sea-board, including the Gulf of 
 Mexico, into nine sections, comprising a nearly equal 
 extent of shore line, and in prosecuting the work sepa- 
 rately and simultaneously in as many of these sections 
 as the appropriations would allow. The work of each 
 section is commenced by the measurement of a base- 
 line, and, as the triangulation is extended, this base 
 serves as the verification^base of an adjoining section. 
 The rapidity of this plan is made apparent by consid- 
 ering that all ihe difl^rent processes of the survey (in 
 their necessary order) may be conducted at the same 
 time in every section, and thus, if the appropriations 
 were sufficient, the whole coast might be completed in 
 the time required for a single division of it. But this 
 plan accommodates itself more easily to the character 
 of the ground than one in which the direction and prog- 
 ress are derived from previous connections. Indeed, 
 every latitude is allowed for the selection of sites for 
 bases, and for the most favorable disposition of the tri- 
 angles, because each section is for the time a distinct 
 undertaking. The combination of all will unite the 
 extended coast of the United States into one compre- 
 hensive scheme of triangulation. 
 
 The value of permanent and conspicuous structures 
 of masonry to designate points of primary triangula- 
 tion is not, however, underrated. AVhile temporary 
 means of elevation are employed, such as the high tri- 
 pods, with independent stands for the instruments, first 
 used in Delaware Bay by the senior assistant of the 
 survey, Mr. Edward Blunt, of New Tork,.it must be re- 
 membered that the coast survey is enabled to avail 
 itself of the light-houses, and other lofty structures 
 along the coast. And it may be safely concluded that 
 the governments of the Southern States will raise ap- 
 propriate edifices at those points of the primary trian- 
 gulation of the coast survey which limit the bases of 
 their local operations. 
 
 Accompanying the primary triangulation, as an es- 
 sential part of it, are the astronomical and magnetic ob- 
 servations. The former are for azimuth, latitude, and 
 longitude. For the determination of azimuths, Mr. 
 Bache has employed (for the first time on the work) 
 the elongations of Polaris in its eastern and western di- 
 gressions. At the time of elongation, when the change 
 in altitude is most rapid, the movement in azimuth is 
 nothing; and thus the opportunity is enjoyed of mak- 
 ing careful and deliberate observations. This method 
 is independent of local time. By using several cir- 
 cumelongation observations, a mean of a number of re- 
 sults is substituted for a single one. In this reduction 
 a very simple formula, first investigated b^- Mr.Nulty, 
 of Philadelphia, has been applied, and the practice is 
 simplified by the use of tables for the computations of 
 latitude, subjected to a slight trigonometrical change. 
 It is proper to state that this method has been in use on 
 the survey since 1845, as one similar to it, if not iden- 
 tical with it, has recently been communicated to the 
 Royal Astronomical Society of London. 
 
 The superintendent has adopted the suggestion of the 
 astronomer royal at Greenwich, who proposed referring 
 the points of greatest elongation of circumpolar stars 
 to marks in the horizon, by perpendicular lines demit- 
 ted by means of an altitude and azimuth circle. Elon- 
 gation signals are established about two miles distant, 
 consisting of a delicate wand by day and a lamp by 
 night, the latter seen through a perforated board. 
 
 The determinations of the latitude (as well as of the 
 azimuths) are frequent. Since 1844 fourteen stations 
 have been occupied for latitude, and seven for azimuth, 
 in Sections I., II., and III. of the survey. A compar- 
 ison of the latitudes deduced geodetically from a cen- 
 tral point with astronomical determinations led the su- 
 perintendent, in 1844, to the discovery of certain vari- 
 ations in the level, which could only be attributed to 
 changes in form and density of the material compos- 
 
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 325 
 
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 ing the earth's cnist. These variations are similar to 
 those caused by the proximity of mountains ; but while 
 the latter have been well understood, the former had 
 escaped notice. The numerous determinations of this 
 element will, therefore, occupy an important place in 
 the future discussions of the general form and internal 
 structure of the earth. A similar discovery has since 
 been made in the ordinance survey of Ireland by Ma- 
 jor-general Colby, and appears to have been antici- 
 pated by Laplace in the opinion given by him in the 
 Chamber of Peers, in 1817, upon the topographical map 
 of France : " If the latitudes of the extreme points (of 
 certain lines) and of several intermediate points are ob- 
 served, and the length of the seconds pendulum corre- 
 sponding to these points measured, a great deal of light 
 will be thrown upon the figure of the earth, and upon 
 the irregularities of its degrees and of gravity." 
 
 It is very interesting, in this respect, to know that 
 latitudes observed at the extremities of the side of a 
 triangle, and forward and backward azimuths on the 
 same line, have differed by several seconds, and that 
 these deviations in the plumb-line have occurred where 
 the want of uniformity (whether arising from differ- 
 ences in density, or the want of homogeneousness of 
 structure) was not apparent as a topographical feature 
 of the country. After the computations from which 
 the preceding conclusions are derived were verified, the 
 results were confirmed by the introduction Of new in- 
 struments on the work. During the last year a zenith 
 telescope has been used for obtaining the latitude, by a 
 method invented by Captain Talcott, which consists in 
 observing the differences of Zenith distances of stars 
 culminating within a short distance of each other, and 
 at nearly the same altitudes, on different sides of the 
 zenith. The eircummeridian altitudes by the repeat- 
 ing circle, the prime vertical transits, and the absolute 
 measurement of zenith distances by the zenith sector, 
 are still used. 
 
 Observations for the comparison of these instruments 
 and methods have been made by the superintendent, 
 and by Captain T. J. Lee, of the United States Topo- 
 graphical Engineers, an assistant in the coast survey, 
 whose valuable labors have been chiefly devoted to the 
 astronomical and magnetic observations. Of the mag- 
 netic observations it will be suificient to say, as an indi- 
 cation of their character, that they are made with the 
 new instruments invented by Dr. Lloyd and Mr. Weber. 
 The portable declinometer of Mr. "Weber (perfected by 
 Lieutenant Riddle, and manipulated according to his 
 instructions) measures inclination, and, by a subsidia- 
 ry apparatus, the horizontal force, by the method of 
 Gauss. Fox's dip circle, with the use of the deflecting 
 magnet, has given very satisfactory results. By means 
 of these instruments, the declination, inclination, and 
 intensity (horizontal and vertical) are determined in a 
 manner that supplies all that is practically necessary, 
 and contributes valuable additions to general magnetic 
 researches. 
 
 Longitudes have been determined by occultations, 
 eclipses, moon-culminations, and the frequent trans- 
 portation of chronometers. Mr. Bond, the director of 
 the observatory at Cambridge, Massachusetts, com- 
 municates the meridian dift'erences by chronometers 
 between the British observatories and Boston. All 
 determinations of this element are referred to a princi- 
 pal port on the sea-coast, and are connected in the ag- 
 gregate with differences obtained from Europe by chro- 
 nometrio and astronomical comparisons. The security 
 against error afforded by employing persons to com- 
 pute who are disconnected with the duties of the field 
 or the observatory, is well understood. Gentlemen in 
 private life are engaged to repeat the important calcu- 
 lations of the survey, and this system, which enlarges 
 the sphere of labor in a way not less commendable for 
 its economy than for its other advantages, receives uni- 
 versal sanction. 
 
 But the discoveries of Professor Henry (secretary 
 
 of the Smithsonian Institute), resulting in the inven- 
 tion of the magnetic telegraph, have provided a new 
 and more precise method of arriving at the difference 
 between the times of two places, or their difference of 
 longitude expressed in time. The details of these ob- 
 servations were consigned to Mr. S. C. Walker. The ■ 
 following concise account of the manner of transmit- 
 ting the signals, of the possible errors of observation, 
 and of the real value of the results, is from the pen of 
 Dr. Bache : "The signals are given at one of the sta- 
 tions by pressing a key, which causes a closing of the 
 circuit. This closing, it is intended, shall be simulta- 
 neous with the ticking of a clock or chronometer at the 
 station. The circuit being closed, if the electrical wave 
 or current takes a sensible time to propagate itself, or 
 to pass from one station to another, the absolute time 
 in which the signal reaches the second or receiving 
 station is sensibly different from that of making the 
 signal at the first or giving station. A coil about the 
 poles of a horse-shoe magnet of soft iron forms part of 
 the circuit through which the electrical effect is trans- 
 mitted. Under its influence the soft iron becomes 
 magnetic, attracting the soft iron bar (armature or 
 keeper) delicately poised at a determined distance from 
 the poles of the magnet ; the movement of this keeper 
 sets in action a local battery, which gives sufiicient 
 power to make the dots and lines constituting the Morse 
 telegraphic signals. The click of the keeper of this 
 temporally magnet is. compared, at the receiving sta- 
 tion, with that of a clock or chronometer, thus marking 
 the time at which the signal made at a known time at 
 the giving station is received. From this explanation, 
 it appears that there is liability to error." 
 
 Dr. Bache then proceeds to enumerate five possible 
 errors, numbered in order, and shows that the numer- 
 ical values can be in each case assigned to two (viz. 1 
 and 5), and that one (viz. 2) is insensible. A compar- 
 ison of the observations proves that the errors denoted 
 by 3 and 4 are canceled by a very small residual quan- 
 tity having the opposite sign, and " the interesting 
 consequences follow, that ' the telegraphic method of 
 comparing clocks, distant two hundredmUes from each 
 other, is free from error when the method of coincidence 
 of beats is employed ; and that the probable error of 
 the longitude, from this method, is the same as the 
 mean result of the computed relative correction of the 
 clocks for the nights of observation.' An investigation 
 of the probable value of such error shows that, under 
 favorable astronomical circumstances, and with due 
 care in the use of the transit instrument, * the astro- 
 nomical difference of longitude between any two sta- 
 tions Of a trigonometrical survey may be determined by 
 telegraphic signals, with a degree of precision of the 
 same order as that of, difference of latitude,' the inac- 
 curacy depending upon the same causes as the devia- 
 tion of the plumb-line." Before concluding with the 
 primary triangulation, it must be observed that Dr. 
 Bache uses reciprocal vertical angles for determining 
 differences of heights at the primary stations. These 
 angles may be measured at a time of day when it is 
 impracticable to observe horizontal angles, and the ef- 
 fect of refraction near the surface is investigated by a 
 long series of observations. The space circumscribed 
 by the terrestrial angles of the first order, and defined 
 by the celestrial observations that accompany them, is 
 subdivided into a minute net-work of smaller triangles, 
 constituting the secondary and tertiary triant/ulaiions, 
 the points of wliich embrace and determine headlands, 
 light-houses, beacons, churches, hills, and all conspicu- 
 ous objects along the coast, that can be made useful in 
 its navigation. They also bring down the work to the 
 details of the topography and hydrography, and sup- 
 ply the bases for these branches of the survey. 
 
 It has been already mentioned that the topography 
 is minutely and exactly descriptive of the ground, both 
 in form and character. The Lehman systeni of topo- 
 graphical drawing has been adopted, but with such 
 
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 326 
 
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 modifications as the nature of this country exacted, in 
 order to presei-ve the beauty of the maps. The slopes 
 are represented by hachures, the strength and distance 
 apart of which indicate the degree of inclination. In 
 the original maps, the horizontal curves limiting the 
 different slopes are drawn in red ink, as the draughts- 
 man progresses in his sheet. 
 
 The scale of the original sheet is ^„^q„ , or about 6i 
 inches English to the mile. Plans are frequently exe- 
 cuted ia the field, and furnished from the office, when 
 wanted for local improvement, on twice this scale. But 
 the charts designed for navigators are necessarily re- 
 duced in dimension. The harbor charts are published 
 on the scale of ^^^1^^ , or about 3J inches English, and 
 the more general charts on that of ,j„ j^)^ , or about 
 three-fourths of an inch to the mile ; which last is the 
 scale of the great topographical map of France. In all 
 the maps, the topographical details are faithfully pre- 
 served, including heiglit, contour, etc. 
 
 It appears from the report of the council oftheEoy- 
 al Astronomical Society to the twenty-seventh annual 
 general meeting, that a similar scale of execution, and 
 an equal fidelity of representation ia the topographical 
 details, have been finally attained ia the ordinance 
 maps of England and Ireland. In both the American 
 and English maps, the subdivisions of the meridians 
 and parallels are so minute, that parts of a second of 
 space can be estimated. 
 
 As the first object of the coast survey is the knowl- 
 edge of our own shores and inland waters, and the gen- 
 eral improvement of the navigation, both external and 
 internal, of the coast, so the large class of facts and re- 
 searches embraced in the general term hydrography are 
 regarded as being of paramount importance. It is to 
 the hydrography that the friends of the coast survey 
 direct the public attention for the evidences of its great 
 practical utility, and the discoveries ia this depart- 
 ment have been so numerous and valuable as to secure 
 for it a high degree of public favor. The first popular 
 inquiry concerning the coast survey is as to the prog- 
 ress it has made, and this inquiry is satisfied by learn- 
 ing the extent of the shore line over which the liydro- 
 grapher has passed. But before estimating its per- 
 formance in this way, it is necessary to say, that, as 
 the operations of the triangulations, etc., must precede 
 the hydrography, this leads to an unfair estimate. The 
 hydrography can only be laid down when the trigono- 
 metrical points on which its operations are based have 
 been established ; thus two-thirds of the work may be 
 completed when the hydrographical labors commence. 
 In 1844, the first year of Dr. Bache's superintendence, 
 nine States on the Atlantic sea-board shared in the 
 benefits conferred by the coast survey ; in 1845, thir- 
 teen States; in 1846, fifteen; and in 1847, eighteen 
 States. The estimates for the present year include 
 all the States on the Atlantic and the Gulf of Mexico, 
 and it may be inferred at once from this statement 
 that, if sufficient appropriations are supplied by Con- 
 gress, a definite and not distant period can be assigned 
 for the completion of the whole work. 
 
 Having premised this statement, which was neces- 
 sary to give a correct idea of the progress of the work, 
 it may be added that the nautical parts of the survey 
 have extended generally from Nantucket Sound to 
 Hampton Roads nearly, including the Vineyard Sound, 
 Block Island and Long Island Sounds, with all their 
 harbors, great and small. New York Bay and harbor, 
 Delaware Bay and river, a large part of Chesapeake 
 Bay, together with most of the rivers emptying into it 
 north of the Potomac, and all the external sea-coast, 
 from the southern coast of Massachusetts to the Capes 
 of the Delaware. In this broad field a little remains 
 to be done, but very little in comparison with the whole. 
 In addition to the above, something has been accom- 
 plished in the hydrography of Albemarle and Missis- 
 sippi Sounds, and in the latter especially great benefits 
 have already resulted to its local commerce. 
 
 It will give, perhaps, the best idea of the value of 
 the hydrographical work to enumerate some of those 
 discoveries and corrections which, in different places, 
 have signalized the progress of the coast survey. The 
 first of these in order and in merit is the discovery of a 
 new channel, straighter and deeper than the channels 
 before known, over the outer bars of New York harbor. 
 Such a gift as this to the first commercial city of the 
 continent, where it was very much needed, ought to gain 
 permanent favor for the enterprise by which it has been 
 made. Important changes in the main ship-channel 
 near Sandy Hook were first noticed by Major Bache, of 
 the Topographical Engineers, by a comparison of his 
 own limits with those of the coast survey in 1842, and 
 this discovery has since been confirmed by the latter. 
 So rapid has been the accumulation upon the extreme 
 point of the Hook, that the high-water mark now stands 
 where there was a depth of 40 feet in 1836. The Cham- 
 ber of Commerce of New York has gratefully acknowl- 
 edged the communication of this important fact by the 
 present superintendent. In Delaware Ba}' a new and 
 straight channel was discovered, lying parallel to the 
 main ship-channel, more narrow than the latter, but 
 likely to prove serviceable in scant winds, and better 
 sheltered from floating ice. Three channels were 
 opened through the ridges of Cape May, and a passage 
 made known through the "Over-falls." The future 
 changes in the latter, which may prove to be the germ 
 of a new pass to the ocean, will be watched with inter- 
 est. The result of the survey in Delaware Bay has 
 been wholly to change the form of the bottom, as it 
 stood on the old charts. Some shoals have been erased 
 altogether, a new one near the deep water of the chan- 
 nel-way has been added, and the limits, shape, depth, 
 and direction of every shoal in the bay have been al- 
 tered. 
 
 In Long Island Sound, Buzzard's Bay, Massachu- 
 setts Bay, and Chesapeake Bay, so much has been add- 
 ed to the safety of navigation hy laying down positions 
 correctly, and by good sailing directions, but chiefly 
 by the actual discovery of useful channels or of hidden 
 and unknown dangers, that a list of these additions 
 alone would occupy too much space. In Long Island 
 Sound, a rock having only 13^ feet of water on it, on 
 the Cerberus Shoal, was discovered and determined by 
 the brig AYashington, in September, 1845; and in the 
 same j-ear three rocks were found ia the most frequent- 
 ed part of Buzzard's Bay by the Gallatin. Changes 
 of the highest importance, which, owing to natural 
 causes, had taken place in the channel-way of the en- 
 trance to Mobile Bay, were found out bv the Phoenix 
 in 1847. 
 
 In the oflf-shore work, the most valuable discoveries 
 have been made by the hydrographical party employ- 
 ed on the Nantucket Shoals. They deeply concern the 
 navigation, foreign and domestic, of the whole coast; 
 especially the European trade from New York and the 
 West India trade from the Eastern States. The insur- 
 ance offices of New York and Boston have publicly ac- 
 knowledged their obligation for these discoveries. 
 
 To this part of the hydrography belongs the exploror- 
 tion of the Gulf Stream^ an enterprise that originated 
 with the present superintendent. This is a work of 
 difficulty and time. It was commenced by the hydro- 
 graphical assistant in command of the brig Washing- 
 ton, in 1845, who obtained bottom near the inner edge 
 of the stream at the depth of 7800 feet, and the marked 
 and rapid change of temperature at this place gave 
 reason to hope that a curve of similar depths might be 
 traced, corresponding to the inner line of direction of 
 the Gulf Stream, of which any point would be known 
 when crossing, from the characteristic changes of tem- 
 perature. The latitude (the most easy of the two co- 
 ordinates to ascertain correctly) being given, the ship's 
 longitude would result sufficiently near the truth to be 
 of essential service in approaching the coast. The deep 
 sea and surface temperatures were both taken in 1846. 
 
COA 
 
 327 
 
 COA 
 
 Lieutenant Bache succeeded to the charge of this 
 duty in 1846. Professor Henry has thus spoken of his 
 merits and success : " In the last report, an account 
 was given of a series of observations on the Gulf 
 Stream, made by Lieutenant George M. Bache, -whose 
 life fell a sacrifice to his zeal in the discharge of his 
 duty, and whose loss science was called upon to mourn 
 just as he was commencing, with his accustomed ar- 
 dor, the investigation of one of the most interesting 
 phenomena of our globe. The results he obtained will 
 be given to the world in another publication, and it will 
 be sufficient to state in this place that he examined 
 three entire sections across the stream. His researches 
 exhibit the remarkable fact that the whole current of 
 ■warm water, to the depth of at least480 fathoms, divides 
 itself into two principal branches, separated by aportion 
 of cold water, and that the transition from the cold wa- 
 ter, along and next to the coast, is almost instantaneous, 
 as if the two were separated by a nearly perpendicu- 
 lar wall, slightly inclining to the east at the top." 
 
 The subject of the tides is now receiving for the first 
 time, in this country, proper attention. The tide-ta- 
 bles on the charts contain all the information as to 
 times, heights, and durations, that is required in prac- 
 tice. Corrected establishments are deduced from the 
 means of the Inni-tidal intervals combined for each half- 
 hour of transit. The astronomical problem of the tides 
 is worked out for prominent points where the observa- 
 tions have sufiiciently accumulated. 
 
 The mean curves of semi-menstrual inequality of 
 time and height, corrected for the mean annual paral- 
 lax and declination, are compared with the curves of 
 observation (freed from the diurnal inequality) at each 
 semi-lunation, and the variations in the times and 
 heights of high water, due to changes in the moon's dec- 
 lination and distance from the earth, are tabulated for 
 the future improvement of the tide-tables. 
 
 By the continuance of careful and constant observa- 
 tions, the means will be supplied of adding to the 
 knowledge of the diurnal and solar inequalities, and of 
 studying all other phenomena of the tides. The resid- 
 ual errors that appear in the semi-menstrual curves, 
 after eliminating the effects of parallax and declination, 
 are caused by atmospheric changes. The local influ- 
 ence, therefore, of particular winds, and the general ef- 
 fect of changes in the pressure of the atmosphere, are to 
 be investigated, and enough is already known to prove 
 that the seaman will derive great profit from this part 
 of the labors of the coast survej'. The direction and 
 velocity of tidal currents are now carefully determined 
 for the normal condition of the tides, and for their dis- 
 turbance by winds and storms, and a knowlege of the 
 courses and conflicts of the tides in the harbors and in- 
 land waters of the United States (as Long Island and 
 Vineyard Sounds) will also result from the comparison 
 of numerous records, kept with a special view to their 
 investigation. 
 
 To the preceding account of the operations of the 
 coast survey it must be added, that the reduction of 
 the maps to the scale of publication, the engraving and 
 printing of them, are entirely executed in the office at 
 Washington. An exception is made in the engraving 
 of the smaller harbor maps, particularly of the harbors 
 of refuge. They are sometimes placed in the hands of 
 private artists, which serves the double object of an 
 earlier publication and of encouraging the art of map- 
 engraving in this country. The propriety of publish- 
 ing to the world the important results of the coast sur- 
 vey as soon as obtained was immediately recognized by 
 ■ Professor Bac}ie. In the case of a discovery affecting 
 the general navigation of the coast, like that of the 
 "New South Shoal," a "preliminary sketch," antici- 
 pating the complete chart, has been freely distributed. 
 In other cases, information has been disseminated 
 through the press, or furnished by authority, to chart- 
 sellers. The office at Washington contains also work- 
 shops, at which the various instruments of the survey 
 
 are repaired and made. All the details of the office 
 duties, whether relating to the verification and engrav- 
 ing of maps, or the occupation of the workmen, in the 
 absence of the superintendent, are under the direction 
 of Captain A. A. Humphreys, of the Topographical 
 Engineers, an assistant. As the operations of the coast 
 survey are numerous and various, and its duties very 
 multiplied in detail and complicated in their connec- 
 tion, it will be readily believed that the direction and 
 adjustment of them — the instructions, the reports, and 
 communications arising from them — make the office of 
 superintendent onk of increasing labor and responsibil- 
 ity. Besides personal attention to these duties, Dr. 
 Bache occupies the station of the primary triangulation 
 at the north, and the observations, whether geodetic, or 
 astronomical, or magnetiCj are either made by himself 
 or under his immediate supervision. In the same man- 
 ner he has also measured a base line for Section VIII., 
 on Dauphin Island, and carried the main triangulation 
 across from the Chesapeake to AYashington. In a work 
 of such magnitude and extent, occasional indirect con- 
 tributions to knowledge may he expected, and there is 
 every disposition to make them. 
 
 A point of interest to the geologist, developed by 
 the operations of the coast survey, is the changes that 
 are constantly occurring in different parts of the coast. 
 In this respect its present accurate determinations will 
 furnish in future the means of interesting comparisons. 
 It must be remarked here, also, that too much import- 
 ance can not be assigned to this view of the results of 
 the coast survey. With regard to most harbors of 
 consequence, the question is repeatedly asked whether 
 they have undergone any change ; and this question 
 can rarely be satisfactorilj' answered, for the want of 
 a correct standard of comparison. The charts of the 
 coast survey will enable the future hydrographer to 
 point out the changes, if any, and the future engineer, 
 in his endeavors to improve or to preserve the channels 
 of navigation, will, by a careful study of these changes, 
 be able to guard against the causes of obstruction, and 
 to co-operate intelligently with natural laws, instead of 
 blindly opposing their effects. The manner in which 
 harbors are aflfected hy the matter held in suspension 
 by the rivers emptying into them, that is, the place and 
 form in which this matter is deposited, will receive such 
 elucidation from the inquiries of the coast survey as 
 will assist the counsels of the constructing engineer. 
 
 The charts of the coast survey exhibit, as far as they 
 go, a view of the topographical formation of the bottom 
 of the sea. Specimens are collected, and preserved in 
 the office, of the bottom in all its varieties, and it was 
 the mtention of the late Lieutenant Bache to form a 
 geological map, on which the materials thus collected 
 should appear, in the natural order of their formation. 
 Besides serving as useful indications to the navigator 
 and pilot, they prove to be, when placed under the mi- 
 croscope, highly interesting to the naturalist. The 
 deep-sea soundings have been examined by Professor 
 I. W. Bailey, of West Point, and have been found to 
 be filled with organisms, particularly those of the cal- 
 careous polythalamia,to an amount that is really amaz- 
 ing, hundreds of millions existing in every cubic inch. 
 " One specimen, from the depth of ninety fathoms, is 
 crowded with remains, most of them large enough to 
 be recognized by a practiced eye without the aid of a 
 magnifier." And it is not impossible that, in similar 
 cases, science may supply the mariner with another 
 mode recognizing the character of the bottom. In 
 1847, Professor L. Agassiz, of Cambridge, accompanied 
 one of the hydrographical parties engaged in the off- 
 shore work, by the invitation of its commander, and 
 enjoyed an opportunity of examining the animals in- 
 habiting depths that are rarely accessible. It proved 
 to be a rich field of discovery. Not only many new 
 species, but several new genera, were added to the 
 known lists ; the subject of embryology received fresh 
 illustrations, and a new light was thrown upon the. 
 
COA 
 
 328 
 
 COA 
 
 laws of the geographical distribution of animals, show- 
 ing that in the different depths of the sea, as in the eleva- 
 tions of the land, distinct families have each their as- 
 signed and native dwelling-place. 
 
 It would lead to hut a partial estimate of the value 
 of the coast survey to omit these examples of its inci- 
 dental benefits to knowledge. There are others upon 
 which there is not room to dwell. The friends of this 
 work have reason to be satisfied with its progress, and 
 it is confidently believed that they may lay aside all 
 
 apprehensions for its future prosperity. It rests upon 
 the firm support of a controlling public opinion in the 
 government and among the people. Working, as it 
 does, in a field that is useful and honorable, and being 
 conducted in all its branches with zeal and efficiency, 
 it can not fail to add every year to the consideration 
 with which it is now regarded, not only at home, but 
 in every country where science aiid its application to 
 the arts of life are justly appreciated. — American A l- 
 manacfor 1849. 
 
 Results of tue Coast Stjetey at diefekkst Peeiods, feom 1844 to 1854. 
 
 Previoua to 
 
 1844, 
 
 From 1844 
 to 1862. 
 
 Total from 
 
 bflginniiig of 
 
 Survey. 
 
 Kecoanoissance ; 
 
 area in square miles 
 
 paitieB, number of 
 
 Base lines : 
 
 number, of. 
 
 preliminary, number of. 
 
 length'of, in miles 
 
 Triaugulatiou ; 
 
 area in square miles 
 
 extent of coast line, in miles 
 
 extent of shore line, in miles 
 
 horizontal angle stations, number of 
 
 points determined, number of 
 
 vertical angle stations, number of 
 
 heights determined, number of 
 
 Astronomical stations : 
 
 azimuth, number of. 
 
 latitude, number of 
 
 longitude, number of 
 
 latitude, extra, number of 
 
 longitude, extra, number of. 
 
 Magnetic stations, number of 
 
 Triangulation parties, number of. 
 
 Astronomical parties, number of. 
 
 Magnetic parties, number of 
 
 Topography : 
 
 area in square miles 
 
 length of shore line, in miles 
 
 Topographical pai-ties, number of 
 
 Hydrography : 
 
 area in square miles 
 
 parties, number of 
 
 soundings, number of 
 
 soundings in Gulf Stream for temperature 
 
 fathoms of line used in same 
 
 tidal stations, number of 
 
 tidal parties, number of 
 
 current parties, number of 
 
 current stations, number of 
 
 specimens of bottom, number of. 
 
 Topographical maps (original), number of 
 
 Hydrograpbical maps (original), number of 
 
 Reductions and other maps 
 
 Total number of manuscript maps 
 
 Records of triangnlations (original), number of volumes 
 
 Records, astronomical (original), number of volumes 
 
 Records, magnetic (original), number of volumes 
 
 Duplicates of the above, number of volumes 
 
 Computations, number of volumes; ; 
 
 Hydrograpliical books, sounding ) (original), number of volumes 
 
 and angle observations j (duplicates), " 
 
 Hydrograpbical books, tidal and ) (original), " 
 
 current observations J (duplicates), " 
 
 Hydrograpbical books, tidal reductions, number of volumes. . . . 
 
 Total records, number of volumes 
 
 Library, number of volumes 
 
 Engraved plates of maps, number of 
 
 Engi'aved plates electrotyped, number of 
 
 Publislied maps, number of 
 
 Printed sheets of maps distributed, number of 
 
 Printed sheets of maps, sale agents, niimber of 
 
 Total number of printed sheets ■ 
 
 Instruments, cost of 
 
 9,642 
 
 1 
 3 
 IH 
 
 9,0T6 
 
 310 
 
 3,215 
 
 750 
 
 1,183 
 
 16 
 
 44 
 
 9 
 9 
 1 
 
 6,222 
 6,100 
 
 9,623 
 
 808,'l47 
 
 ' 1 08 
 
 1,327 
 
 166 
 
 127 
 
 326 
 
 619 
 
 97 
 
 17 
 
 4 
 
 27 
 
 78 
 
 188 
 
 28 
 
 127 
 
 14 
 64 
 
 17,294 
 
 9T6 
 
 6,427 
 
 1,160 
 
 2,008 
 
 71 
 
 244 
 
 32 
 44 
 27 
 
 8,967 
 7,033 
 
 20,950 
 
 1,852,669 
 
 1,455 
 
 143,108 
 
 174 
 
 321 
 
 4,345 
 
 187 
 
 172 
 
 399 
 
 758 
 
 183 
 
 149 
 
 42 
 
 250 
 
 158 
 
 990 
 
 70 
 
 409 
 
 599 
 
 220 
 
 3,110 
 
 1,673 
 
 40 
 
 55 
 
 87 
 
 15,501 
 
 28,077 
 
 67,001 
 
 $167,094 
 
 1,706 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 a 
 
 1,703 
 224 
 900 
 223 
 446 
 14 
 66 
 
 6 
 
 17 
 18 
 
 18 
 4 
 5 
 
 601 
 
 1,301 
 
 15 
 
 288,875 
 
 66 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 21 
 
 252 
 
 29 
 
 25 
 
 174 
 
 228 
 
 33 
 
 48 
 
 7 
 
 73 
 
 72 
 
 206 
 
 27 
 
 139 
 
 132 
 
 26 
 
 763 
 
 171 
 
 3 
 
 23 
 
 5 
 
 5,799 
 
 6,866 
 
 31,818 
 
 $3,835 
 
 1,708 
 5 
 
 4 
 18f 
 
 3,089 
 154 
 888 
 224 
 346 
 7 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 20 
 21 
 
 ""5 
 
 13 
 
 16 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 551 
 1,468 
 
 14 
 
 10 
 305,377 
 
 100 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 89 
 
 105 
 
 34 
 
 49 
 
 133 
 
 216 
 
 64 
 
 29 
 
 6 
 
 76 
 
 101 
 
 183 
 
 15 
 
 123 
 
 114 
 
 6 
 
 717 
 
 273 
 
 4 
 
 47 
 
 5 
 
 8,042 
 
 4,375 
 
 24,076 
 
 $5,296 
 
 24 
 106i 
 
 31,162 
 
 1,664 
 
 11,430 
 
 2,357 
 
 3,983 
 
 107 
 
 363 
 
 56 
 90 
 67 
 
 137 
 
 11,341 
 16,902 
 
 1,253,908 
 
 1,455 
 
 143,108 
 
 431 
 
 6,029 
 
 416 
 
 378 
 
 1,082 
 
 1,821 
 
 327 
 
 243 
 
 59 
 
 426 
 
 409 
 
 1,567 
 
 140 
 
 888 
 
 845 
 
 252 
 
 5,166 
 
 2,117 
 
 62 
 
 125 
 
 47 
 
 29,342 
 
 39,318 
 
 112,865 
 
 $176,225 
 
 General List of Coast Survey Discoveries and Develop- 
 ments to 1853 inclusive, compiled hy Lieutenant E. B. 
 Hunt. — As the operations of the survey advance along 
 the coast, important facts before unknown are con- 
 stantly brought to light. Many facilities for, and 
 dangers to, navigation are thus discovered, which had 
 been before wholly unknown, and those before but im- 
 perfectly known are developed by accurate surveys. 
 Many such developments and discoveries occur in the 
 geodetic and topographical operations, some of which 
 are of no slight value ; hut those which are embraced 
 in the hydrographic work are often of vital importance 
 to commerce and navigation. The following list pre- 
 sents some of the most important items of this nature. 
 
 and may collectively he regarded as exhibiting one of 
 the most valuable results of the survey. In fact, each 
 sheet which gives shore line and hydrography with 
 increased accuracy has somewhat of discovery or de- 
 velopment to claim ; but in this list only those cases 
 are included in which a specific benefit has been con- 
 ferred on navigation, either by unfolding some new 
 facility, disclosing some serious danger, or indicating 
 some important change of configuration. The ai-range- 
 ment is geographical, and in the order of sections. 
 
 1. A rock not on any chart, in the inner harbor of 
 Gloucester, Massachusetts— 7discovered in 1853. 
 
 2. A bank 90 miles eastward of Boston, with about 
 36 fathoms water— probably a knoll connected with 
 
COA 
 
 829 
 
 COA 
 
 Cashe's ledge, but with deep water between it and the 
 ledge— 1863. 
 
 3. Boston harbor : Broad Sound channel thoroughly 
 surveyed, and marks recommended — 1848. 
 
 4. Nantucket Shoals -. Davis's New South Shoal, dis- 
 covered in 1846, six miles south of the old Nantucket 
 South Shoals, in the track of all vessels between New 
 York and Europe, or running along the coast from the 
 Eastern to the Southern States, or South America. 
 
 5. Ditto : Two new shoals north and east of Nan- 
 tucket — discovered in 1847. 
 
 6. Ditto : Six new shoals near Nantucket, the out- 
 ermost one 14J miles frOm land, and with only ten feet 
 water — discovered in 1848. 
 
 7. Ditto; McBIair's Shoals, off Nantucket — discov- 
 ered in 1849. 
 
 8. Ditto : Davis's Bank — discovered in 1848, and 
 survey finished in 1851. 
 
 9. Ditto : Fishing Eip, a large shoal extending 
 north and south about 10 miles to the eastward of 
 Davis's Bank and 30 from Nantucket, with ii fathoms 
 —surveyed In 1852. 
 
 10. Ditto : A ridge connecting Davis's New South 
 Shoal and Davis's Bank — found in 1853. ' 
 
 11. Ditto: A small bank or knoll, with but five 
 fathoms on it, about five miles east of Great Eip, with 
 12 fathoms between it and Davis's Bank and Fishing 
 Rip, the water gradnally deepening outside of it to the 
 northward and eastward, beyond the limits of the se- 
 ries ef shoals. 
 
 12. Contraction of the inlet at the north end of Mon- 
 omoy Island, and opening of new entrance to Chatham 
 harbor— 1853. 
 
 12 bis. Muskeget Channel — surveyed by Lieutenant 
 C. H. Davis in 1848, and Lieutenant C. H. McBlair 
 in 1850. 
 
 13. Numerous rocks in Martha's Vineyard Sound, 
 Long Island Sound, and the various bays and harbors 
 connected with them. 
 
 14. Gedney's Channel into New York Bay, having 
 two feet more water than the old channels. Had the 
 true depth of this channel (which is seen, by compar- 
 ing old and new charts, to have then probably existed) 
 been known in 1778, the French fleet uiider Count 
 D'Estaing would have passed into the bay and taken 
 the assembled British vessels. 
 
 15. Sandy Hook: its remarkable increase out across 
 the main ship-channel has been traced from the sur- 
 veys of the topographical engineers and others, -and 
 by several successive special surveys. 
 
 15 bis. Increase of depth in Buttennilk Channel, as- 
 certained and made known in 1848, by survey of Lieu- 
 tenant D. D. Porter. 
 
 16. Delaware Bay: Blake's Channel at the entrance 
 discovered in 1844-— open when the eastern channel is 
 closed by the ice. This discovery has served to de- 
 velop strikingly the resources of that portion of Dela- 
 ware. 
 
 17. Blunt's Channel in Delaware Bay. 
 
 18. Changes in the Delaware near the Pea Patch. 
 
 19. The true extent and position of the dangerous 
 shoals near Chincoteague Inlet, Virginia — 1852. 
 
 20. Metompkin Inlet, Virginia, shoaling from 11 to 
 8 feet in the channel during 1852. 
 
 21. Two channels into Wachapreague Inlet, Vir- 
 ginia — one from the northward and the other from the 
 eastward — ^both with seven feet water at low tide — 
 1862. 
 
 22. A shoal half a mile in extent, not put down on 
 any chart, 5^ miles east from the north end of Para- 
 more's Island, Virghiia ; it has but four fathoms water 
 on it, and has nine fathoms around it — 1862. 
 
 23. Great Machipungo Inlet, Virginia ; found to 
 have a fine wide channel, with 11 feet water on the 
 bar at low tide and 14 at high ; good anchorage inside 
 in from two to eight fathoms : the best harbor between 
 the Chesapeake and Delaware entrances — 1852. 
 
 24. Two shoals near the entrance to the Chesapeake 
 — one 4-1 nautical miles southeast by east from Smith's 
 Island light-house, with 17 feet upon it ; and the oth- 
 er east by south nearly, 7|- miles from the same light, 
 with 19i"feet upon it— 1853. 
 
 25. Only three feet water upon the " Inner Middle," 
 the shoal part of the Middle Ground west of the "North 
 Channel," at the Chesapeake entrance — 1852. 
 
 26. A 25 fathom hole 2i miles west-southwest from 
 Tazewell triangulation point, eastern shore of the 
 Chesapeake ; all other charts give not more than 16 
 fathoms in this vicinity. 
 
 27. A shoal at the mouth of the Great and Little 
 Choptank, in Chesapeake Bay — 1848. 
 
 28. Deeper water found on Diamond Shoal, and a 
 dangerous nine-feet shoal oft' Cape Hatteras — 1850. 
 
 29. A new channel, with 14 feet water, into Hatte- 
 ras Inlet, formed during the year 1852, which is better 
 and straighter than the old channel. 
 
 30. The well-ascertained influence of prevailing 
 winds in the movement of the bars at Cape Fear and 
 New Inlet entrances, and the gradual shoaling of the 
 main bar ; the latter fact being of great importance to 
 the extensive commerce seeking this harbor — 1853. 
 
 31. Frj'ing-pan Shoals, off Cape Fear, North Caro- 
 lina. A channel of 2i fathoms, upward of a mile 
 wide, distant 11 nautical miles from Bald Head light- 
 house, across the Frying-pan Shoals. A channel ex- 
 tending from 3 to 4 miles from the point of Cape Fear 
 to 8 to 8^ miles from it, with sufficient water at low tide 
 to allow vessels drawing nine or ten feet water to cross 
 safely. A channel at the distance of 14 nautical miles 
 from Bald Head light-house, one mile wide, with Si to 
 7 fathoms water on it. The Frying-pan Shoals ex- 
 tend 20 nautical miles from Bald Head light-house, and 
 16, 17, and 18 feet water is found 17 and 18 nautical 
 miles out from the light — 1851. 
 
 32. Shoaling of Cape Fear River bar thoroughly 
 examined for purposes of improvement — 1852. 
 
 33. Changes at the entrance of Winyah Bay, 
 Georgetown harbor, and the washing away of Light- 
 house Point, at the same entrance — 1853. 
 
 34. Maifitt's new channel, Charleston harbor, with 
 the same depth of water as the sliip-channel — 1850. 
 
 35. Changes in the channels at the entrance of 
 Charleston harbor— 1852. 
 
 36. The remarkable discovery of continuous deep- 
 sea soundings off Charleston, and of soundings in the 
 depth of between 400 and 600 fathoms beyond the Gulf 
 Stream— 1853. 
 
 37. The discovery of cold water at the bottom of the 
 sea below the Gulf Stream, along the coasts of North 
 and South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida-^1853. 
 
 38. The discovery of the cold wall, alternate warm 
 and cold bands, and various other features of the Gulf 
 Stream, especially such as concern its superficial and 
 deep temperatures on sections, and its distribution rel- 
 ative to the shore and bottom. 
 
 39. Various facts relative to the distribution of mi- 
 nute shells on the ocean-bottom, of probable use to 
 navigators for recognizing their positions. 
 
 40. Hetzel Shoal, oft' Cape Canaveral, Florida— 1850. 
 
 41. A new passage, with three fathoms water, 
 through Florida Reef to Legare harbor, under Tri- 
 umph Reef (lat. 25° 30' N., long. 80° 03' W.), which, 
 if properly buoyed, will be valuable as a harbor of 
 refuge. 
 
 42. A new channel into Key 'West harbor— 1850. 
 
 43. Isaac Shoal, near Rebecca Shoal, Florida Reef; 
 not laid down on any chart — 1852. 
 
 44. Channel, No. 4, a northwest entrance into Ce- 
 dar-Keys Bay— 1862. 
 
 45. Mobile Bay Entrance Bar ; in 1822 only 17 feet 
 at low water could be carried over it ; in 1841 it was 
 19 feet ; and in 1847 it was 20J feet, as shown by suc- 
 cessive surreys — 1847. 
 
 46. The diminution, almost closing, of the passage 
 
COA 
 
 330 
 
 COG 
 
 between Dauphine and Pelican Islands, at the entrance 
 of Mobile Bay— 1853. 
 
 47. Horn Island Channel, on the Coast of Missis- 
 sippi. 
 
 48. The removal of the East Spit of Petit Bois Isl- 
 and in the hurricane of 1852, opening a new communi- 
 cation between the Gulf and Mississippi Sound, and 
 the rendering of Horn Island Pass more easy of access 
 by the removal of knolls — 1853. 
 
 49. The accurate determination of Ship Shoal, off 
 the coast of Louisiana, in connection with the site for 
 a light-house — 1853. 
 
 50. The changes at Aransas Pass, Texas, as bearing 
 on the question of a light-house site — 1853. 
 
 51. The determination of the position and soundings 
 on Cortez Bank, near the island of San Clemente, coast 
 of California— 1853. 
 
 52. A shoal inside of Ballast Point, San Diego Bay, 
 with 12^ feet of water ; not laid down on any chart — 
 1852. 
 
 53. Changes in the channels of entrance of Humboldt 
 Bay or harbor, California — 1852 and 1853. 
 
 54. The depth of water on the bars at the entrance 
 of Eogue Elver and Umquah Eiver, Oregon — 1853. 
 
 55. South Channel, Columbia Eiver, surveyed and 
 made available to commerce — 1851. Changes of chan- 
 nels, their southward tendency, and a new three-fath- 
 om channel from Point Hancock, due west to open 
 water, Columbia entrance — 1852. Further changes — 
 1853. 
 
 56. Various surveys and charts of small harbors on 
 the Pacific, and a continuous reconnoissance of the en- 
 tire western coast and islands adjacent, a, great part 
 of which was very imperfectly known. 
 
 Additional List for 1854. 
 
 57. Determination of the dimensions of Alden's 
 Eock, near Cape Elizabeth, Maine. 
 
 58. A bank (Stellwagen's Bank), with lOJ to 14i 
 fathoms of water on it, at the entrance to Massachu- 
 setts Bay, and serving as an important mark for ap- 
 proaching Boston and other harbors. 
 
 59. A dangerous sunken ledge (Davis's Ledge) to the 
 eastward, and in the neighborhood of Minot's Ledge. 
 
 60. Several rocks in the fair channel-way in Boston 
 harbor entrance. 
 
 61. The tidal currents of Nantucket Shoals and the 
 approaches. 
 
 62. The tidal currents of Long Island Sound. 
 
 63. The changes in New York harbor, near the city, 
 between 1845 and 1854. 
 
 64. The general permanence of the Bodkin Channel 
 and shoals in its vicinity, at the entrance of the Pa- 
 tapsco Eiver — between 1844 and 1854. 
 
 65. A shoal (New Point Shoal) in Chesapeake Bay, 
 with 16 feet water on it, southeast from New Point 
 Comfort light-house, off Mobjack Bay. 
 
 66. A reconnoissance of the AVimble Shoals near 
 Nag's Head, coast of North Carolina. 
 
 67. The general permanence in depth on the bar of 
 Beaufort, North Carolina, with the change of position 
 of the channel. 
 
 68. The changes in Maffitt's Channel, Charleston 
 harbor, South Carolina, from 1852 to 1854. 
 
 69. A harbor of refuge (Turtle harbor) to the north- 
 ward and westward of Carysfort light-house, Florida 
 Eeef, with a depth of water of 26 feet at the entrance. 
 
 70. A safe rule for crossing the Florida Eeef near 
 Indian Key. 
 
 71. Co-tidal lines for the Atlantic coast of the United 
 States. 
 
 72. An increase of depth of water on the bar at Pass 
 Fourchon, Louisiana. 
 
 73. A shoal at the entrance to the Straits of Eosario, 
 Washington Territory, giving good holding ground in 
 83 feet. 
 
 74. Belle Eock, in the middle of Kosario Strait, 
 
 Washington Territory, visible only at extreme low 
 tides. 
 
 75. Entrance Eock, at the entrance of Eosario Strait. 
 
 76. Unit Eock, in the Canal de Haro, Washington 
 Territoiy. 
 
 77. A five-fathom shoal in the Strait of Juan de 
 Fuca, between Canal de Haro and Eosario Strait. 
 
 78. The non-existence of two islands at the northern 
 entrance of Canal de Haro, laid down on charts. 
 
 79. The non-existence of San Juan Island, usually 
 laid among the Santa Barbara group. 
 
 80. Tides of San Diego, San Francisco, and Astoria. 
 — Coast Survey Report for 1854. 
 
 Cobalt (Ger. Kobcdt; Du. Kobal; Sived. Coboh; Fr. 
 Cobalt ; It. Colalto ; Euss. Kobolt ; Lat. Cobaltuni), a 
 mineral of a gray color, with a shade of red, and by no 
 means brilliant. It has scarcely any taste or smell ; 
 is rather soft ; specific gravity about 8'6. Sometimes 
 it is composed of plates, sometimes of grains, and some- 
 times of small fibres adhering to each other. Its oxides 
 are principally employed. — iSee Smalts, or Smaltz. 
 They form the most permanent blue with which we are 
 acquainted. The coloring power of oxide of cobalt on 
 vitrifiable mixtures is greater, perhaps, than that of 
 any other metal. One grain gives a full blue to 240 
 grains of glass. — Thomson's Chemistry and Uke's Dic- 
 tionary, 
 
 Cocculus Indicus, or Indian Berry (Sansc. 
 Kakamari; Malay, Tubabidgi), the fruit of the Meni- 
 spermum Cocculus, a large tree of the Malabar coast, 
 Cej'lon, etc. It is a small kidney-shaped berry, having 
 a white kernel inside of a most unpleasant taste. It is 
 of a poisonous and intoxicating quality, and has been 
 employed to adulterate ale and beer. 
 
 Cochineal (Ger. Koschenilje ; Du. Conchenilje ; Fr. 
 Cochenille; It. Cocciniglia; Sp. Cochinilla, Grana; Port. 
 Cochenilha; Euss. Konssenel), an insect (^Coccus cacti) 
 found in Mexico, Georgia, South Carolina, and some 
 of the West India islands ; recently, also, it has been 
 introduced into Java, and promises to become an im- 
 portant product of that rapidly improving colony. 
 Formerly it was in Mexico only that it was reared with 
 care, and formed a valuable article of commerce ; but 
 its culture is now more or less attended to in various 
 parts of the West Indies and of the United States. It 
 is a small insect, seldom exceeding the size of a grain 
 of barley; and was generally believed, for a consider- 
 able time after it began to be imported into Europe, to 
 be a sort of vegetable grain or seed. There are two 
 sorts or varieties of cochineal : the best or domesti- 
 cated, which the Spaniards called grana fna, or fine 
 grain ; and the wild, which they call grana sylvestra. 
 The former is nearly twice as large as the latter, prob- 
 ably because its size has been improved by the favora- 
 ble efl'ects of human care, and of a more copious and 
 suitable nourishment, derived solely from the Cactus 
 cochinillifer, during many generations. Wild cochineal 
 is collected six times in the year, but that which is cul- 
 tivated is only collected thrice during the same period. 
 The insects, of which there are about 70,000 in a pound, 
 being detached from the plants on which they feed by 
 a blunt knife, are put into bags, and dipped in boiling 
 water to kill them, after which they are dried in the 
 sun. It is principally used in the dyeing of scarlet, 
 crimson, and other esteemed colors. The watery in- 
 fusion is of a violet crimson ; the alcoholic, of a deep 
 crimson ; and the alkaline, of a deep purple, or rather 
 violet hue. It is imported in bags, each containing 
 about two hundred pounds ; and has the appearance 
 of small, dry , shriveled, rugose berries or seeds, of a 
 deep brown, purple, or mulberry color, with a white 
 matter between the wrinkles. In this state they suf- 
 fer no change from length of keeping. Dr. Bancroft 
 says that that cochineal is the best which is "large, 
 plump, dry, and of a silver-white color on the surface." 
 
 The species of cochineal called granilla, or dust, is 
 supposed by Dr. Bancroft to be principally formed of 
 
coc 
 
 331 
 
 COC 
 
 The insects of ■which it consists are 
 smaller than those composing the fine cochineal, and 
 it does not yield more than a third part of the coloring 
 matter that is yielded by the latter. The cochineal 
 insect was introduced into India in 1795 ; but a very 
 inferior sort only is produced. It has also been intro- 
 duced into Java and Spain, but with what success re- 
 mains to be seen. — Thomson's Dispensatory; Ban- 
 CKOFT on Colors, etc. 
 
 The cochineal plant (Cactus cochinillifer'), or some of 
 its congeners, is found in varying abundance through- 
 out the torrid zone, as well as in several warm and 
 temperate countries without the tropics. But much 
 doubt still exists as to what particular species nour- 
 ishes the cochineal insect, as it is believed that the 
 plant which was named by Linnasus, and which has 
 been almost universally called Cactus cochinillifer, is not 
 the one that produces the best Mexican cochineal ; nor 
 is it positively known in what part of America it was 
 originally a native. Linnceus speaks of it as indige- 
 nous to Jamaica, and the warmer parts of the New 
 World; but others assert that it was brought from 
 South America by a Spanish priest. 
 
 Cochin China. This extensive kingdom is situ- 
 ated in the southern extremity of Asia, and forms part 
 of the peninsula between China and Hindostan. It 
 is not separated, however, by any distinct boundary 
 from the neighboring countries ; and its limits have 
 been greatly extended by conquest beyond those of 
 Cochin China proper, which is merely a strip of land 
 between the China Sea and the mountains, and is not 
 above sixty or seventy miles broad. The empire of 
 Cochin China, which took its present form in the be- 
 ginning of the present century, comprehends Cochin 
 China proper, Tonquin, the principal part of Cambo 
 dia, and the little state of Chiampa. This state, as 
 it has been aggrandized by conquest, extends from the 
 point of Cambodia, in about 8° 30' N. lat., to the north- 
 ern confines of Tonquin, which reach within a very 
 few miles of the tropic of Cancer, and from the longi- 
 tude of 102° to about 109° E. It is bounded on the north 
 by the Chinese Quangsi or Kiangsi and Yunan ; on the 
 west by the kingdoms of ,Laos and Siam ; while the 
 Gulfs of Siam, Tonquin, and the China Sea bound it 
 on the southwest, east, and northeast. Its area is es- 
 timated at about 98,000 square miles, and its popula- 
 tion at from 12,000,000 to 16,000,000. This great coun- 
 try is divided by long ranges of mountains, which run 
 nearly north and south, and in almost parallel chains, 
 forming it into separate provinces, divided by physical 
 boundaries, and inhabited by distinct tribes and na- 
 tions, although subject to the same sovereign. By 
 these mountainous ridges Tonquin and Cochin China 
 proper are separated from Lactho, Laos, and Cambo- 
 dia. Another chain separates the three latter states 
 from Siam and China, and gradually diminishes in 
 height as it approaches the south, terminating at the 
 southern extremity of Cambodia. 
 
 The soil in Cochin China, especially in the low lands, 
 is fertile, and its products are very valuable. Of these 
 rice, as being the general food of the people, is the sta- 
 ple commodity ; and after supplying the wants of the 
 people, about 100,000 piculs remain annually for ex- 
 portation. The cultivation of the sugar-cane, as well 
 as the preparation of sugar, has of late years much in- 
 creased ; and the annual exportation of sugar is con- 
 sidered to be not less than 70,000 piculs. Cotton of 
 the best quality is produced on the coast ; and of this 
 probably about 60,000 piculs are exported. Though 
 raw silk is produced, it is principally for home con- 
 sumption. Cinnamon ranks high among its produc- 
 tions, and has always been celebrated in China. In 
 the southern parts the cocoa-nut grows very luxuriant- 
 ly, and hence there is a largo exportation of oil. Pep- 
 per of a good quality, but in small quantity and of a 
 high price, is produced in the central provinces of Co- 
 chin China; but the quantity is inadequate to the de- 
 
 mand which the Chinese trade creates for its exporta- 
 tion. It grows among the central mountains of Cochin 
 China, whence it is exported to Cambodia and Tonquin, 
 but principally to China, where it is much more highly 
 valued than any other quality of this aromatic. An- 
 other exclusive product of the central parts of the king- 
 dom, which is extensively cultivated and sent to the 
 neighboring provinces, is tea, which is very coarse and 
 only used by the poorer classes. The other productions 
 of the country are, gamboge, gum, cardamoms, eagle- 
 wood, areca-palm, betel-nut, ivory, stick-lac; hides, 
 consisting of deer-skins, buffalo, elephants', and rhi- 
 noceros hides ; peltry, consisting of tiger, leopard, ot- 
 ter, and cat skins ; feathers, salt fish, horns and bones, 
 dye-woods, and woods for ship-building and for domes- 
 tic purposes. Valuable timber is only found in Cam- 
 bodia, and a small quantity of teak-wood is found in 
 the forests; also ebony cedars, mimosas, walnuts, iron- 
 wood, and poon, and most of the other trees found in 
 the woods of India. The wood used for ship-building 
 and for domestic purposes is strong and durable, and 
 is carried to the capital in large quantities. There is 
 a hard, black wood extensively used in cabinet-work, 
 and of large dimensions, which takes a fine polish, and 
 might form an article of exportation. Cambodia also 
 produces the Portuguese rose-wood, which the Chinese 
 export as they do from Siam ; also sandal-wood and 
 other scented woods. Among the products of Tonquin 
 is a species of vegetable root, a cheap material, which 
 forms the dead-weight of all the Chinese cargoes ex- 
 ported from Tonquin, and is used extensively both 
 throughout Cochin China and the adjacent countries, 
 and also in China, as the material of a red dye. Edible 
 birds'-nests, the sea-slug usually called biche-de-mer, or 
 Sipunculus eduKs, and various marine productions of a 
 gelatinous quality, form standing articles of trade with 
 China, and are always in demand. 
 
 The geological formation of Cochin China is primi- 
 tive ; the mountains are chiefly composed of granite 
 and sienite. Mica slate and primary limestone here 
 and there occur, while several hills consist of quartz 
 rock. Among the mountains of Tonquin is tlie only 
 portion of the Cochin Chinese empire which produces 
 iron, gold, and silver. The iron received from these 
 mines, which is as cheap as that from Siam, supplies 
 the whole kingdom, with the exception of Saigun, 
 which is furnished from the latter country. Gold dust 
 is found in many of the rivers ; and there are immense 
 rocks of marble situated on the banks of the River 
 Faifo, on a kind of sandy plain, of which large quan- 
 tities have been exported. This remarkable range of 
 limestone rocks rises almost perpendicularly from the 
 low sand hills, to a height of from 300 to 400 feet, with- 
 out a hill or mountain near them. 
 
 The foreign trade of the Cochin Chinese is almost 
 exclusively with China; the trade carried on with 
 Siam being inconsiderable, and that with European 
 nations still smaller. But there is no indisposition to 
 trade, though among the European nations the notion 
 has been propagated by travelers that the resort of 
 European traders is in a great measure interdicted in 
 this kingdom, on the same principle as in Japan and 
 China. In 1818, a new tariff was imposed on foreign 
 vessels, by whicli the high duties imposed on all for- 
 eign vessels prior to 1818 were repealed, and equal du- 
 ties substituted in their stead. By this regulation all 
 vessels pay a rated measurement duty, moderate in its 
 amount, and are exempted from all import duties pay- 
 able previous to 1818. Vessels that are driven into 
 the ports of Cochin China by stress of weather, or that 
 visit them for the purpose of commercial inquiries, are 
 free from all charges. Besides the exports above men- 
 tioned are cardamoms, betel-nut, eagle-wood, dye- 
 woods, stick-lac, gamboge, ivory, elephants' hides and 
 bones, and rhinoceros bones. The imports are silk 
 goods of various kinds, the coarser kinds of teas, coarse 
 china-ware, paper, cotton and woolen stuffs, iron, opi- 
 
coc 
 
 332 
 
 COD 
 
 um, cutlery, etc. Of the internal trade of the country, 
 though considerable, little is known. The trade with 
 China is chiefly conducted with Cachao in Tonquin, 
 Saigun in Cambodia, and Faifo and Hu6 in Cochin 
 China. There is also some inconsiderable intercourse 
 with other parts of the empire. 
 
 Cochin China, from its central situation, its naviga- 
 ble rivers, and its many excellent harbors, possesses 
 extraordinary advantages for commerce. Few coun- 
 tries are so amply provided with harbors, there being 
 within the 6^° of latitude which intervene between 
 Cape St. James and the Bay of Turon no less than 
 nine of the finest harbors in the world, accessible in 
 every wind, quite safe to approach, and affording the 
 most complete protection. The Bay of Turon, situated 
 in lat. 16° 7' N., is equaled by few in the Eastern 
 World, and surpassed by none for the security and con- 
 venience which it affords. — E. B. 
 
 Cocket, in Commerce, a scroll of parchment, sign- 
 ed and delivered by the officers of the custom-bouse 
 to merchants upon entering their goods, to certify that 
 their merchandise is customed and may be discharged. 
 
 Cook-pit, of a ship of war, the apartment of the 
 surgeon and his mates appropriated to the use of the 
 womided in time of action. H is situated under the 
 lower deck, below the water-line. 
 
 Cocks'V7aiu (pronounce d coxeti), an officer on board 
 of a man-of-war, who has the care of a boat or sloop, 
 and who must be always ready with his gang or crew. 
 He sits in the stern of the boat, which he steers, anTl 
 has a whistle to summon his men. 
 
 Cocoa, or, more properly, Cacao (Fr. and Sp. Ca- 
 cao; Ger. Kakao), the seed or nuts of the cocoa-tree 
 (Theobroma cacao\ growing in the "West Indies, and in 
 many parts of South America. It is said, by Mr. Bry- 
 an Edwards, to bear some resemblance, both in size 
 and shape, to a j'oung black-heart cherry. The nuts are 
 contained in pods, much like a cucumber, that proceed 
 immediately from all parts of the body and larger 
 branches ; each pod contains from ten to thirty nuts, 
 of the size of large almonds, very compactly set. The 
 shell of the nut is of a dark brown color, brittle and 
 thin ; the kernel is, both internally and externally, 
 brownish, divided into several unequal portions, ad- 
 hering together, but separating without much difficul- 
 ty; it has a light agreeable smell, and an unctuous, 
 bitterish, rather rough and peculiar, but not ungrateful 
 taste. The nuts should be chosen full, plump, and 
 shining, without any mustiness, and not worm-eaten. 
 They yield, by expression, a great deal of oil; but 
 they are cultivated only that they may be employed in 
 the preparation of the excellent beverage cocoa, and 
 the manufacture of chocolate, of which they form the 
 principal ingredient. The finest cocoa is said to be that 
 of Socomusco. The principal importations were for- 
 merly derived from the Caraccas and Guayaquil, partic- 
 ularly the former, the cocoa of which is also the more 
 valuable. The exports from Venezuela amounted in 
 1851 to 8,159,905 pounds, worth $1,299,631. M. Hum- 
 boldt estimated the consumption of cocoa in Europe in 
 1806 at 23,000,000 pounds, of which from 6,000,000 to 
 9,000,000 were supposed to be consumed in Spain. The 
 production of cocoa was languishing in the Caraccas 
 for several years previously to the commencement of the 
 disturbances in South America ; and latterly the culti- 
 vation of coffee seems to have been in most parts gain- 
 ing the ascendency. — Humboldt, Pers. Narrative, vol. 
 iv. p. 236-247, Engl, transl. In 1851 the exports of 
 coffee from Venezuela amounted to 37,968,081 pounds. 
 
 Coco, Coker, or, more properly. Cocoa-nuts 
 (Ger. KoTconusie ; Du. Kokosmoten ,- Fr. and Sp. Cocos ; 
 It. Cocchi; Euss. Kokos ; Sans. Narikela), the fruit of 
 a species of palm-tree (Cocos nucifera, Linn.). This 
 tree is common almost every where within the tropics, 
 and is extremely valuable ; being to the palmivorous 
 inhabitants of manyparts of Ceylon, Brazil, and other 
 intertropical regions, not merely their principal wealth, 
 
 but almost their entire dependence. Every part of the 
 tree is appropriated to some peculiar purpose ; and an 
 Indian with a garden containing twelve cocoa-nut trees 
 and two jack-trees is said to be comparatively independ- 
 ent ! But we may observe that this facility of obtain- 
 ing subsistence is not an advantage, but the reverse ; 
 indolence and a want of civilization being its invariable 
 accompaniment. The tree grows to the height of from 
 50 to 90 feet ; it has no branches, but the leaves are 
 from 12 to 14 feet in length, with a very strong middle 
 rib. The fruit is nearly as large as a man's head ; 
 the external rind is thin, tough, and of a brownish-red 
 color. Beneath this there is a quantity of very tough 
 fibrous matter, which is used in the manufacture of 
 cordage and coarse sail-cloth. It is buoyant and ex- 
 tremely well suited for ropes of large diameter ; and 
 until the introduction of chain cables a majority of the 
 ships which navigated the Indian seas were supplied 
 with cables of this material. Within the fibrous coat- 
 ing is the shell of the nut, which is nearly globular, 
 very bard, susceptible of a high polish, and used for 
 many domestic purposes ; the kernel is white, in taste 
 and firmness resembling that of a hazel-nut ; it is hol- 
 low in the interior, the hollow being filled with a milky 
 fiuid. While the nut is green, the whole hollow of 
 the shell is filled with fluid, which is refreshing, agree- 
 able, and pleasant to the taste. The solid part of the 
 ripe kernel is extremely nutritious, but rather indi- 
 gestible. The kernels yield by expression a great deal 
 of oil, which, when recent, is equal to that of sweet 
 almonds ; but it soon becomes rancid, and is then em- 
 ployed bj' painters. A tree generally yields about 100 
 nuts, in clusters, near the top, of about a dozen each. 
 The wood of the tree is made into boats, rafters, the 
 frames of houses, and gutters to convey water. The 
 leaves are used for thatching buildings; and are 
 wrought into mats, baskets, and many other things 
 for which osiers are employed in Europe ; so that every 
 part of it is applied to some useful end. 
 
 If the body of the tree be bored, there exudes from 
 the wound a white liquor, called palm wine or toddy. 
 It is very sweet when fresh ; kept a few hours, it be- 
 comes more poignant and agreeable ; but next day it 
 begins to grow sour, and in the space of 24 hours is 
 changed into vinegar. When distilled, it produces 
 the best species of Indian arrack ; it also yields a great 
 deal of sugar. Toddy is obtained from several species 
 of palms, but that of the Cocos nucifera is the best. — 
 /See Marshall on the Cocoa-nut Tree; Ainslie's 3/ofcria 
 Indica. An improvement efiected in the preparation 
 of cocoa-oil has made it of much importance in the 
 arts, by rendering it available in the manufacture of 
 candles and soap, and for various purposes to which it 
 was not previously applicable. The palm-oil met with 
 in the market is not obtained from the Cocos nucifera, 
 but from another species of palm. It is chiefly import- 
 ed from the coast of Guinea. — See Palm-oil. 
 
 Cocoa-nuts are produced in immense quantities in 
 Ceylon, forming, with their products — oil, arrack, and 
 coir — the principal articles of export from that island. 
 They are also very abundant in the Maldive Islands, 
 Siam, and on several places of the coast of Brazil. 
 Cocoa oil is in very extensive use all over India, and 
 large quantities are manufactui'ed in the lower provin- 
 ces of Bengal. This latter is said to be superior to 
 that imported from Ceylon. At an average of the 
 three years ending with 1850, 431,071 gallons of cocoa- 
 nut oil were exported from Ceylon. 
 
 Cod (Ger. Cabljau, Bahalau ; Du. Cabeljaauw, Bau- 
 Icadja; Dan. Cdbliau, Skreitorsk, Bakelau; Sw. Cabeljo, 
 Bakelau; Fr. Mm-ue, Cahillaud; It. Bacca, Baccalare; 
 Sp. Bacalao; Port. Bacalhao; Lat. Gadus), a species 
 offish too well known to require any description. " It 
 is amazingly prolific. Leewenhoek counted 9,384,000 
 eggs in a cod-fish of a middling size— a number that 
 will baffie all the efforts of man to exterminate. In 
 the British seas they begin to spawn in January, and 
 
GOD 
 
 333 
 
 COD 
 
 deposit their eggs in rough ground, among rocks. 
 Some continue in roe till the beginning of April. The 
 cod is only found in the Northern parts of the world ; 
 it is an ocean fish, and never met with in the Mediter- 
 ranean. The great rendezvous of the codfish is on the 
 Banks of Newfoundland, and the other sand banks that 
 lie off the coasts of Cape Breton, Nova Scotia, and New 
 England. They prefer those situations, by reason of 
 thequantityof worms produced in these sandy bottoms, 
 which tempt them to resort there for food. But an- 
 other cause of the particular attachment the fish have 
 to these spots is their vicinity to the polar seas, where 
 they return to spawn : there they deposit their roes in 
 full security ; but want of food forces them, as soon as 
 the more southern seas are open, to repair thither for 
 subsistence. Few are taken to the north of Iceland, 
 but the3' abound on its south and west coasts. They 
 swarm on the coasts of Norway, in the Baltic, and off 
 the Orkney and Western Isles ; after which their 
 numbers decrease in proportion as they advance to- 
 ward the south, when they seem quite to cease before 
 they reach the mouth of the Straits of Gibraltar. Be- 
 fore the discovery of Newfoundland, the greater iish- 
 eries of cod were on the seas of Iceland, and oft' the 
 Western Isles, which were the grand resort of ships 
 from all the commercial nations ; but the greatest 
 plenty was met with near Iceland. The English re- 
 sorted thither before the year 1415 ; for we find that 
 Henry V. was disposed to give satisfaction to the King 
 of Denmark for certain irregularities committed by his 
 subjects on those seas. In the reign of Edward IV. 
 the English were excluded from the fishery by treaty. 
 In latter times, wo find Queen Elizabeth condescending 
 to ask permission to fish in those seas from Christian 
 IV. of Denmark. In the reign of her successor, how- 
 ever, no fewer than 150 English ships were emploj'ed 
 in tile Iceland fishery ; which indulgence might arise 
 from the marriage of James with a princess of Den- 
 mark." — Pennant's British Zoology. Cod is prepared 
 in two different ways; it is either gutted, salted, and 
 then barreled — in which state it i? denominated green or 
 pickled cod ; or it is dried and cured — in which state it is 
 called dried cod. Eeady access to the shore is indispen- 
 sable to the prosecution of the latter species of fishery. 
 Distant Cod Fishery. — The great Bank of Newfound- 
 land, discovered by John or Sebastian Cabot in 1497, 
 was long, and perhaps still is, the principal seat of the 
 distant cod fishery. The extraordinary abundance of 
 codfish on its banks having been speedily ascertained, 
 the I'rench, Portuguese, and Spaniards soon after en- 
 gaged in the fisherj'. The English were later in com- 
 ing into the field. In 1578 France had on the Banks 
 of Newfoundland 150 vessels, Spain 120 or 130, Port- 
 ugal 60, and England from 30 to 50. During the first 
 half of last century, the fishery was principally carried 
 on by the English, including the Anglo-Americans and 
 the French ; but the capture of Cape Breton, and of 
 their other possessions in America, gave a severe blow 
 to the fishery of the latter. The American war divided 
 the British fishery ; that portion of it which had previ- 
 ously been carried on from New England being there- 
 after merged in that of the United States. During the 
 last war, the French being excluded from the fisheries, 
 those of England attained to an extraordinary degree 
 of prosperity ; the total value of the produce of the New- 
 foundland fishery in 1814 having exceeded £2,800,000. 
 But since the peace, the British fishery on the New- 
 foundland banks has rapidly declined ; and can hard- 
 ly, indeed, be said, at this moment, to exist. It is 
 now carried ou almost entirely by the French and the 
 Americans ; the facilities enjoyed by the latter for its 
 prosecution being greater than those of any other peo- 
 ple, and the former being tempted to engage in it by 
 the extraordinary encouragements offered by govern- 
 ment. At present, the British fishery carried on by 
 the inhabitants of Newfoundland is confined entirely to 
 the shore or boat fishery. But this, though probably 
 
 not so good a nursery of sailors as the bank fishery, is 
 admitted to be " the most productive of merchantable 
 fish and oil." — M'Grsgok's Brit. Amer., 2d ed. vol. i. 
 Americam, Cod Fishery. — The Americans have at all 
 times prosecuted the cod fishery with great vigor and 
 success. Their fishermen are remarkable for their 
 activity and enterprise, sobriety and frugality ; and 
 their proximity to the fishing-grounds, and the other 
 facilities they possess for carrying on the fishery, give 
 them advantages with which it is very difficult to con- 
 tend. In 1795 the Americans employed in the cod 
 fishery about 31,000 tons of phipping ; in 1807 they are 
 said to have employed 70,306 tons; but it subsequently 
 declined for several years, and was almost entirely sus- 
 pended during the late war. According to the official 
 returns (laid before Congress the 1st of January, 1853), 
 the Americans had, in the year ending the 30th of 
 June, 1852, 102,659 tons shipping engaged in the cod 
 fishery. During the same year they exported 134,732 
 quintals of dried, and 19,379 barrels of pickled cod; 
 their aggregate value being $453,610. " The Amer- 
 icans follow two or more modes of fitting out for the 
 fisheries. The first is accomplishedbysix orseven farm- 
 ers, or their sons, building a schooner during winter, 
 which they man themselves (as all the Americans on 
 the sea-coast are more or less seamen as well as farm- 
 ers) ; and after fitting the vessel with necessary stores, 
 they proceed to the banks. Gulf of St. Lawrence, or Lab- 
 rador ; and, loading their vessel with fish, make a voy- 
 age between spring and harvest. The proceeds they di- 
 vide, after paying any balance they may owe for outfit. 
 They remain at home to assist in gathering their crops, 
 and proceed again for another cargo, which is salted 
 down, and not afterward dried : this is termed mud- 
 fish, and kept for home consumption. The other plan 
 is, when a merchant or any other, owning a vessel, 
 lets her to 10 or 15 men on shares. He finds the ves- 
 sel and nets. The men pay for all the provisions, 
 hooks and lines, and for the salt necessary to cure 
 their proportion of the fish. One of the number is ac- 
 knowledged master ; but he has to catch fish as well as 
 the others, and receives only about 20s. per month for 
 navigating the vessel ; the crew have five-eighths of 
 the fish caught, and the owners three-eighths of the 
 whole. The first spring voyage is made to the banks ; 
 the second either to the banks. Gulf of St. Lawrence, 
 or the coast of Labrador; the third or fall voyage 
 is again to the banks ; and a fourth, or second fall 
 voyage, is also made, sometimes, to the banks." — 
 M'Gregor, vol. i. p. 220. It is stipulated in the 
 first article of a convention between Great Britain and 
 the United States, signed at London, 20th of October, 
 1818, that the citizens of the United States shall have 
 liberty to take all sorts of fish " on that part of the 
 coast of Newfoundland from Cape Bay to the Earaeau 
 Islands, on the western and northern coasts of New- 
 foundland from Cape Ray to the Quirpon Islands, 
 on the Magdalen Islands, and also on the coasts, 
 bays, harbors, and creeks, from Mount Joly, on the 
 southern coast of Labrador, to and through the Straits 
 of Belleisle, and thence northward indefinitely along 
 the coast, without prejudice, however, to any of 
 the exclusive rights of the Hudson's Bay Company ; 
 and that tte American fishermen shall also have liber- 
 ty forever to dry and cure fish in any of the unset- 
 tled hays, ha'rbors, and creeks of the southern parts of 
 the coast of Newfoundland here above described, and 
 of the coast of Labrador ; but so soon as the same, or 
 any portion thereof, shall be settled, it shall not be 
 lawful for the said fishermen to dry or cure fish with- 
 out previous agreement for such purpose with the in- 
 habitants, proprietors, or possessors of the ground. 
 And the United States hereby renounce forever any 
 liberty heretofore enjoyed or claimed by the inhabit- 
 ants thereof, to take, dry, or cure fish on or within 
 three marine miles of any of the coasts, bays, creeks, 
 or harbors of his Britannic majesty's dominions in 
 
COD 
 
 334 
 
 COF 
 
 America not included within the above-mentioned 
 limits." The American fishermen are, however, ad- 
 mitted into all bays, etc., for the pm-pose of shelter, of 
 repairing damages, of purchasing wood, and of obtain- 
 ing water, and for no other purpose whatever ; and 
 when there, they are to be placed under such restric- 
 
 tions as may be necessary to prevent their abusing the 
 privileges hereby reserved to them.— /See Fisheries. 
 
 French Cod Fishery. — France has always enjoved 
 a considerable share of the cod iishery. The follow- 
 ing table shows the extent to which she has carried it 
 since the peace : 
 
 ACOOXTNT OF TUB NUMBER OF Smi'S, WITH THEIR TONNAGE, CKBWS, AMD CARGOES, THAT HAVE ENTERED THE DIFFERENT PoETB 
 
 OF France i-rom the Cod Fibuee* during the under-mentioned Years. 
 
 YeuTB. 
 
 
 shipping. 
 
 
 Imports. 
 
 
 
 
 Men. 
 
 Codfish, green. 
 
 Codfish, dry. 
 
 Oil. 
 
 1825 
 
 336 
 3TT 
 463 
 458 
 449 
 
 35,172 
 45,036 
 55,881 
 64,583 
 54,064 
 
 6,311 
 8,174 
 11,226 
 9,897 
 2,239 
 
 Quintals. 
 72,889 
 104,008 
 161 657 
 
 Quintals. 
 158,237 
 136,457 
 
 Quintals. 
 12,043 
 11,560 
 12,870 
 17,962 
 
 1835 
 
 1840 
 
 1841 
 
 336,740 "'''"' 
 
 The quantities of oil are exclusive of draches (liuiles non epurW ; tliere are also sounds, etc. Marseilles Granville Dun- 
 kirk, Bordeaux, La Roclielle, and Nantes are the principal ports whence ships are fitted out for the fishery. * ' 
 
 But notwithstanding the apparent prosperity of 
 this branch of industry, it may be doubted whether 
 it be reallj'' so beneficial to France as would at first 
 sight appear. It depends more upon artificial regu- 
 lations than upon any thing else. Foreign cod is ex- 
 cluded from the French markets by the oppressive 
 duty with which it is loaded ; and the comparatively 
 great demand for di'ied fish in Catholic countries ren- 
 ders this a very great boon to the French fishermen. 
 But it is admitted that this would not be enough to 
 sustain the fishery ; and high bounties are paid to those 
 engaged in it. These, however, have been reduced of 
 late years ; and they will probably in no long time 
 undergo still further alterations. St. Pierre and Mi- 
 quelon, small islands on the coast of Newfoundland, 
 belong to the French. Their right of fishing upon the 
 shores of that island, and upon the great bank, was re- 
 placed in 1814, upon the footing on which it stood in 
 1792. This concession has been much objected to by 
 Mr. M'Gregor and others : we believe, however, that 
 they have materially overrated its influence. — For fur- 
 ther information, see Fisheries cmd France. 
 
 Cod-liver Oil. Pure cod-liver oil is obtained 
 from the livers of codfish ; and is best prepared when 
 the liver is in a state most nearly approaching that in 
 which it exists when alive, and is best adapted for me- 
 dicinal use. The finest oil is devoid of color, taste, and 
 smell, three physical characters that are more valuable 
 than any chemical tests. The success which has at- 
 tended the use of this oil in pulmonary complaints has 
 led to the introduction of a spurious oil, chiefly pre- 
 pared of bleached whale oil, etc., which does not pos- 
 sess the valuable medicinal properties of pure cod-liver 
 oil. 
 
 Sharlc-Uver Oil is an oil that has been lately import- 
 ed from the coast of Africa. It gives the usual liver- 
 oil reactions with sulphuric acid ; its peculiar interest, 
 however, comes from its low specific gravity. Until 
 now, sperm oil, which has a specific gravity of 'STo, 
 was the lightest oil known ; but the specific gravity of 
 this oil is only -866. It is prepared, as its name im- 
 plies, from shark's liver. 
 
 Coffee (Ger. Koffe, Koffehohnen ; Du. Koffy, Kqffi- 
 hoonen; Da. Kaffe, Kaffebimner; Swed. Koffe; Fr. It. 
 and Port. Caffe; Sp. Cafe; Russ. Kqfe; Pol. Kawa ; 
 Lat. Coffea, Caffea; Axah.Bun; Malay, Tfawa ; Pers. 
 Tochem, Keweh; Turk. Chaube). The cofl'ee-tree is a 
 native of Ethiopia and Abyssinia ; but it was in Ara- 
 bia that it first became an object of interest and im- 
 portance to the civilized world. The plant is an ever- 
 green, and is accurately described by La Eoque as fol- 
 lows ; " The coflree-tree is from six to twelve feet high ; 
 the stem ten, twelve, and fifteen inches in circumfer- 
 ence. "When it is full grown, it much resembles in 
 figure our apple-trees of eight or ten years' standing. 
 The lower branches ordinarily bend when the tree be- 
 gins to grow old, and extend themselves into a round 
 form, somewhat like an umbrella ; and the wood is so 
 very limber and pliable, that the ends of the longest 
 
 branches may be bent down within two or three feet 
 of the earth. The bark is whitish, and somewhat 
 rough ; its leaf is much like that of the citron-tree. 
 It continues green all the year, and the tree is never 
 without leaves, which are ranged almost opposite on 
 each side of the bough, and at small distances from 
 each other. Nothing is more singular in its kind than 
 its productions ; for almost in all seasons of the year 
 blossoms, and green and ripe fruit, may he seen on 
 the same tree at the same time. When the blossom 
 falls off, there remains in its room, or rather springs 
 from each blossom, a small fruit, green at first, but 
 which becomes red as it ripens, and is not unlike a 
 large cherry, and is very good to eat. Under the flesh 
 of this cherry, instead of the stone, is found the beau 
 or berry we call 008*6, wrapped round in a fine thin 
 skin. The berry is then very soft, and of a disagree- 
 able taste ; but as the cherry ripens, the berry in the 
 inside grows harder, and the dried-up fruit, being the 
 flesh or pulp of it, which was before eatable, becomes 
 a shell or pod of a deep brown color. The berry is 
 now solid, and of a clear transparent green. Each 
 shell contains one berry, which splits into two equal 
 parts. When the fruit is sufliciently ripe to be shaken 
 from the tree, the husks are separated from the ber- 
 ries, and are used in Arabia by the natives ; while the 
 berries are exported for the European markets." 
 
 From Arabia the plant was taken by the Dutch 
 about the year 1690 to Java, whence its culture spread 
 slowly among the islands of the Indian Archipelago. 
 In the early part of the eighteenth century it found its 
 way to the West India Islands. The plant is now 
 common in every botanical garden of Europe, and 
 there are few private conservatories without good speci- 
 mens of the tree. When cultivated with a view to 
 trade, it is most productive on hills and mountains, 
 where its root is almost alwaj'S dry, and its head fre- 
 quently watered with gentle showers. It prefers a 
 westerly exposure and a loose gravelly soil, but freed 
 from weeds and grass. The plants are inserted at dis- 
 tances of six or eight feet asunder, and in holes from 
 twelve to eighteen inches deep. 
 
 If left to themselves they would rise to the height 
 of sixteen or eighteen feet ; but in extensive planta- 
 tions the trees are topped and stunted to about five 
 feet, for the convenience of having the fruit within 
 reach of the gatherer. Thus dwarfed, they extend 
 their branches until they cover the whole spot round 
 about them. They begin to yield fruit the third year. 
 By the fifth, sixth, or seventh year, according to the 
 nature of the soil, they are at full bearing, and con- 
 tinue to bear for upward of twenty years. 
 
 It has but recently come to the knowledge of Euro- 
 peans that the leaves of the coffee-plant contain the 
 same essential principle for which the berries are so 
 much valued, and that in the Dutch island of Sumatra, 
 in the Indian Archipelago, the natives scarcely use any 
 thing else, and greatly prefer a beverage made from 
 the leaf to the berry itself. The leaves undergo a proc- 
 
COF 
 
 335 
 
 COF 
 
 ess of curing similar to tea, and they possess all the 
 virtues of either tea or coffee. This may be looked 
 npon as the introduction of a new element among the 
 innocent and beneficial necessaries of life ; for while 
 the culture of the coffee plant for the sake of its fruit 
 is limited to particular soils and high temperatures, 
 the tree produces leaves in abundance any where with- 
 in tlie tropics where the soil is suiiiciently fertile. This 
 extensive habitat, added to its nutritive qualities and 
 freedom from any deleterious principle, points out the 
 coffee plant as the best adapted for general consump- 
 tion of all the productions affording caffein. 
 
 The coffee berry (for which the plant has hitherto 
 been chiefly cultivated), when ripe, is cured in the 
 West Indies, in Java, Ceylon, the East Indies, and 
 South America, by a process called pulping and wash- 
 ing. In Arabia, Persia, etc., it is neither pulped nor 
 washed, but cured in the ancient fashion by the labor 
 of the hands and the action of the sun. The pulping 
 process is performed by machinery, which greatly ex- 
 pedites the work ; but practical experienced West In- 
 dia planters admit that this process is in some import- 
 ant respects inferior to the Oriental mode. " A mani- 
 fest preference," says one, "is given in the leading 
 European markets to coffee which has gone through 
 the pulping and washing process ; but, strange to say, 
 the consumers of this beverage are totally ignorant of 
 the fact that the produce which is cured in the pulp 
 furnishes a stronger decoction than an equal quantity 
 of the same coffee which has undergone the other proc- 
 ess. The mucilaginous substance which is washed off 
 by the pulping process is absorbed by the bean when 
 cured in the pulp. This gives strength to the produce, 
 and enhances its aromatic flavor." Before the berry 
 is available for use, it undergoes a process called roast- 
 ing. The valuable properties of coffee depend very 
 much on the manner in which this process is performed. 
 For the most recent and intelligent dissertation on this 
 point, consult Dr. Ure's Dictionary of Arts, Manufac- 
 tures, and Mines, last edition, vol. i. p. 456. 
 
 jSpecies of Coffee. Roastmg, etc. — The coffees of Ja- 
 maica, Ceylon, and Mocha are generally esteemed the 
 best ; then follow the coffees of Costa Rica, Dominica, 
 Berbice, Demerara, Bourbon, Java, Martinique, and 
 Hayti. Arabian or Mocha coffee is produced in a very 
 dry climate, the best being raised upon mountainous 
 slopes and sandy soils. The most fertile soils are not 
 suitable for the growth of very fine coffee. Mr. Bryan 
 Edwards observes, that "a rich deep soil, frequently 
 ameliorated by showers, will produce a luxuriant tree 
 and a great crop ; but the beans, which are large, and 
 of a dingy green, prove for many years rank and vap- 
 id." And the same remark is made by Mr. Crawfurd 
 with respect to the coffee of Java. — East Indian Archi- 
 pelago, vol.' i. p. 487. Coffee is improved by being 
 kept ; it then becomes of a paler color. Mocha, or, 
 as it is commonly called, Turkey coffee, should be 
 chosen of a greenish light olive hue, fresh and new, 
 free from any mustiness, the berries of a middling size, 
 clean, plump, and without any intermixture of sticks 
 or other impurities. Particular care should be taken 
 that it be not false packed. Good West India coffee 
 should be of a greenish color, fresh, free from any 
 unpleasant smell, the berries small and unbroken. 
 Coffee berries readily imbibe exhalations from other 
 bodies, and thereby acquire an adventitious and disa- 
 greeable flavor. Sugar placed near coffee will, in a 
 short time, so impregnate the berries and injure their 
 flavor, as to lower its value 10 or 20 per cent. Dr. 
 Moseley mentions that a few bags of pepper on board a 
 ship from India spoiled a whole cargo of coffee. 
 
 "The roasting of the berry to a proper degree re- 
 quires great nicety ; the virtue and agreeableness of 
 the drink depend upon it; and both are often injured 
 by the ordinary method. Bernier says, when he was 
 at Cairo, where coffee is so much used, he was assured 
 In- the best judges that there were only two people in 
 
 that great city who understood how to prepare it in 
 perfection. If it be underdone, its virtues will not 
 be imparted, and in use it will load and oppress the 
 stomach ; if it bo overdone, it will yield a flat, burned, 
 and bitter taste, its virtues will be destroyed, and in 
 use it will heat the body, and act as an astringent." 
 
 Coffee also denotes the drink which is made from 
 the coffee berries. This beverage has been familiar in 
 Europe for the last two hundred years. The first hu- 
 man beings who appear to have used the coffee beiTies 
 were the half savage tribes of the higher Ethiopia. 
 According to Bruce, the berries were first parched like 
 any other grain, bruised into powder, and mixed up 
 with any sort of grease into paste rolled into little 
 balls. The same authority declares that two or three 
 of these balls were sufficient to support a man for a 
 whole day in a marauding excursion, or in active war 
 against some neighboring tribe. They merely pre- 
 ferred the coffee beiTy to other grain, because it fed 
 them as well, and cheered them moi'e. 
 
 From Ethiopia, both the coffee plant and the use of 
 its fniit were introduced into Persia and Arabia, and 
 it is to the Arabs that we are indebted both for the 
 first written account of it and for the manner of using 
 it in a liquid state. But though we derive the only 
 authentic account of coffee from the Arabs, they ad- 
 mit that they were taught by the Persians ; and it was 
 in the city of Aden, in Arabia, about the middle of the 
 fifteenth century, that the drinking of coffee first be- 
 came general. The mufti of that city introduced the 
 custom from Persia ; his authority gave reputation to 
 the practice — lawyers began to drink it — those who 
 loved reading followed their example — artisans who 
 were obliged to work in the night did the same thing, 
 as well as travelers who journeyed in the night to 
 avoid the heat of the day. In short, says M. Galland, 
 "the whole inhabitants of Aden soon became drinkers 
 of coffee, and not only at night to keep them awake, 
 but even in the daytime for its other virtues." 
 
 From Aden the taste for coffee found its way to 
 Mecca, from Mecca to Cairo, from Cairo to Damascus, 
 from Damascus to Aleppo and from Aleppo to Con- 
 stantinople ; but it was not until 1615 that the use of 
 coffee found its way from Constantinople to Venice. 
 
 In 1 644 it was introduced to Marseilles, in 1652 to 
 London, and in 1669 to Paris. 
 
 The first English author who mentioned coffee was 
 Burton, in his Anatomy of Melancholy (vol. i. p. 130), 
 published in 1621, thirty years before the introduction 
 of the drink into London. "The Turks," says he, 
 ' ' have a drink called coffee (for they use no wine), so 
 named of a berry as black as soot and as bitter, which 
 they sip up as warm as they can suffer, because they 
 find by experience that that kind of drink so used help- 
 eth digestion and procureth alacrity." 
 
 It would be an error to infer that the mode of mak- 
 ing coffee in Europe and Asia is the same. In Eu- 
 rope, an infusion or a decoction of the roasted berry is 
 all that is consumed ; but this is a refinement in cook- 
 ery not appreciated in Asia ; there the custom is now, 
 and always has been, different. 
 
 A highly trustworthy traveler, Lamartine, in de- 
 scribing the ordinary khan in Palestine and Syria, 
 says, " a charcoal fire is constantly burning on the 
 hearth, and one or two copper coffee-pots are always 
 full of thich farinaceous coffee, the habitual refreshment 
 and only want of the Turks and Arabs."— ^rafeis m 
 Syria and the East, vol. i. p. 292. A cnp of well-made 
 coffee exhilarates, arouses, and keeps awake. It _al- 
 lavs hunger, to a certain extent, gives to the weary in- 
 creased strength and vigor, and imparts a feeling of 
 comfort and repose. Its physiological effects upon the 
 system, so far as they have been scientifically investi- 
 gated, appear to be that, while it makes the brain more 
 active, it soothes the body generallj', makes the change 
 and waste of matter much slower than usual, and the 
 demand for food in consequence proportionately less.- 
 
COF 
 
 336 
 
 COF 
 
 All these effects are produced by the conjoined action 
 of three ingredients, eitlier identical with, or similar to, 
 those contained in tea. There is a volatile oil pro- 
 duced during the roasting ; a variety of tannic acid, 
 which is also altered in some degree during the roast- 
 ing ; and the substance called thein or caffein, which 
 is common to both tea and coffee, and is found in the 
 leaves of Guarana officinalis and Ilex paratjumsis^ both 
 used by the aborigines of South America, as tea is in 
 the Old Continent, a remarkable result of chemical in- 
 vestigation. The chemical constitution of caffein is 
 
 Clg Hjd N, O4. 
 
 Coffee-trade. The extent to which the cultiva- 
 tion of coffee has been carried in the British possessions, 
 the vast amount of capital embarked in plantations 
 suited to its growth, the multitude of hands engaged in 
 its culture, and the shipping necessarily employed in 
 connection with that trade, invest the article, in a com- 
 mercial point of view, with great importance ; while 
 as a beverage, the tendency of which is to wean the 
 commimity from indulgence in intoxicating liquors, 
 it is second to no commodity in the British tariff'. 
 The history of the coffee-trade prior to 1850 is only val- 
 uable now as an example of a commodity for which 
 there is a universal craving among mankind, strug- 
 gling successfully, and at last triumphantly, over fis- 
 cal restrictions, high duties, differential duties, and an 
 endless mass of antiquated obstructions. In common 
 with other important necessaries of life, it has now at- 
 tained to the natural state of unrestricted competition, 
 though it still pays a customs duty of three-pence per 
 pound. — E. B. 
 
 The cultivation of coffee met with great success in 
 St. Domingo, and for many years that was the source 
 whence Europe derived its chief supplies, having ex- 
 ported at one time about 38,000 tons, or about seven- 
 ty-six million pounds; and it was supposed that, had 
 not the revolution broken out in 1792, it would in that 
 year have ex orted 42,000 tons, or about eighty-four 
 million pounds. , The devastation by that event caused 
 almost a total cessation in the supplies. Being driven 
 from St. Domingo, its culture was greatly augmented 
 in Cuba, Jamaica, Surinam, and Java, and was subse- 
 quently introduced with great success into Brazil. As 
 the culture advanced in Brazil, it declined in Cuba, the 
 growth of sugar having been found capable of more 
 rapid extension and being more profit.able. It was 
 some time after coffee was first planted in Brazil before 
 It became an article of export to any great extent. 
 
 In 1774 a Franciscan friar, named Villaso, cultivated 
 a single tree in the garden of the Convent of St. Anto- 
 nio. Brazil was then governed by the Marquis de La- 
 vadio as viceroy. The first fruits of the tree were pre- 
 sented to the marquis, who distributed them among 
 the most respectable planters, explaining to them the 
 advantages of adding another valuable article to the 
 produce of the country; but being strong in their prej- 
 udices in favor of sugar and indigo, few took pains to 
 cultivate it, and hence its progress was very slow. In 
 1808 Don Joas VI. fled from Portugal to Eio Janeiro, 
 and soon after opened the port to foreign trade. The 
 annual crop of coffee then did not exceed 30,000 bags 
 of leOpounds each, or 8,000,000 pounds. Although the 
 revolution in St. Domingo had overthrown its culture 
 there, Cuba and Jamaica continued, to some extent, to 
 supply the trader. In 1820 its increase in Brazil had 
 swelled to 100,000 bags. The decrease of supply, by 
 tho desolation of St. Domingo, caused it to reach the 
 enormous price of 148s. per cwt., or nearly 37J cents 
 per pound, in London, in the years 1817 and 1821. This 
 great price stimulated the production in Brazil. The 
 fall of St. Domingo had caused the culture of indigo to 
 be transferred to British India, and its culture was 
 abandoned in Brazil, with sugar, for coffee. Hence 
 emancipation in St. Domingo gave the monopoly of the 
 cultivation and supply of indigo to British India, where 
 it has remained ever since. 
 
 In 1789, just previous to the revolution, Hayti ex- 
 ported 76,835,219 pounds of coffee ; in 1818 we find the 
 exports fell to about 26,000,000 pounds, and at this 
 time they do not probably exceed thirty or thirty-five 
 millions. The export of sugars in 1789, just before the 
 revolution, reached 140,000,000 pounds. It has now 
 ceased, and the population actually import supplies 
 from Cuba and Porto Eico. In 1834, the year in which 
 the Emancipation Act went into effect, Jamaica export- 
 ed to England, 
 
 
 1834. 
 
 1838. 
 
 Sugar, cwt 
 
 Coffee, pounds 
 
 1,266,263 
 18,268,883 
 
 T06,078 
 9,423,197 
 
 We thus find that the exports of coftee fell off' the 
 first five years after emancipation about one-half, and 
 sugar nearly in an equal ratio. In August, 1834, the 
 negroes were emancipated by the English government 
 in Jamaica, which struck a death-blow at its culture 
 there, while sugarhad measurably superseded its growth 
 in Cuba. These causes combined, with the unrestrict- 
 ed supply of African slave labor, to give its culture a 
 powerful impulse in Brazil. Hence we find by the 
 year 1830 its crop had increased to 400,000 bags, or 
 04,000,000 pounds. The slave-trade, by convention 
 with England, was to cease in February, 1830. This 
 produced an enormous import of slaves, which could 
 only be disposed of at low prices and on long credits. 
 This, again, stimulated the planting of new estates, and 
 the crop rapidly increased, 50 that in 1840 it actually 
 reached 1,060,898 bags, or about 168,600,000 pounds. 
 The cultivation being found profitable, the demand for 
 slaves continued, and notwithstanding the attempts of 
 the British government to put a stop to it, the slave- 
 trade has been continually carried on clandestinely ever 
 since, the importations from Africa having amounted 
 to from 30,000 to 50,000 annually, the vessels supplied 
 for which having been chiefly built and fitted out in 
 the Northern cities of the United States, and sailing 
 under whatever colors best answered their purpose. 
 
 The increase in the crop since 1840 has been very 
 rapid, and in 1847 reached about 1,804,558 bags, about 
 288,383,000 pounds. The low prices in 1848 and 1849 
 had a tendency to check production. The difticulties 
 of importing slaves, under a new treaty made with 
 England in 1845, cut off the supply so far that those 
 which were secretly introduced barely supplied the an- 
 nual loss, which was 10 per cent., and sometimes more ; 
 and should the trade be stopped altogether, as aimed 
 at by England, it will cause the cultivation of coffee to 
 decrease in Brazil, to become augmented in the East 
 Indies, and especially in British India ; and should ne- 
 gro slavery be overthrown, coffee would to a great ex- 
 tent follow the course of indigo, and become to some 
 extent an article of British production and control. 
 The climate of Brazil is highly favorable to the culti- 
 vation of coffee, the trees yielding nearly double those 
 of the West Indies. 
 
 The growth of Brazil, by 1854, reached the astonish- 
 ing quantity of 400,000,000 pounds, while tho produc- 
 tion in the British West India Islands has rapidly de- 
 clined since the emancipation of the slaves in 1834, as 
 will be seen from the following table : 
 
 In the year 1848 tho British West India Isl- 
 ands yielded 10,000,000 lbs. 
 
 In the years 1853, '54, and '65, they yielded 
 
 only : 5,000,000 lbs. 
 
 Jamaica alone, in 1834, the year the 35manci- 
 pation Act wcs declared in the islands, 
 amounted to 1S,268,183 lbs. 
 
 We see by this the same result as that which fol- 
 lowed emancipation in St. Domingo. Coffee, with oth- 
 er tropical products, has fluctuated with the supply, and 
 cheapness, and reliability of African slave-labor. If 
 coolies can be brought in under a voluntary apprentice- 
 ship, why can not Africans be allowed to come in by 
 the same method, placed under proper regulations and 
 guarantees on the coast of Africa ? 
 
COF 
 
 337 
 
 COF 
 
 The coffee-growing districts of Brazil are divided 
 into tile Serra Abaixo (or below the mountains) and 
 Serra Acima (above the mountains). The produce of 
 the former is about one-sixth part of the whole crop in 
 good years, but is much more uncertain than the Serra 
 Acima, being more liable to injury from drought, which 
 is said of late years to have been frequent. The qual- 
 ity is also inferior, and seldom shipped to the United 
 States. The trees usually flower three times each year, 
 generally in August, September, and October, and are 
 ready for picking, in favorable seasons, in March, April, 
 and May, with considerable variation according to 
 situation. In April small quantities of poor new cof- 
 fee appear in market. In May and June the quantity 
 is greater, but never abundant until July and August. 
 The trees of Serra Acima bloom later, but the crop is 
 more uniform, enabling planters to gather a crop at a 
 single picking, which is a great saving of labor. En- 
 tire cargoes are not generally obtained from the Serra 
 Acima district until August and September. Usually 
 the supplies remaining over of the old crop are first 
 sent to the market before planters clean out the new, 
 and hence it is often as late as October and November 
 before the bulk of the new crop is in market. 
 
 The cost of transporting the coffee to market is said 
 to average the planter about two cents per pound, ow- 
 ing to imperfect facilities. The actual cost of produc- 
 tion is said to be not much under 4J- cents per pound, 
 and as negroes are decimated by cholera and other dis- 
 eases, witliout new importations are required to supply 
 their places, negroes must advance in value and en- 
 hance the cost of production. 
 
 The first import of Brazil coffee into the United 
 
 States was made in 1809, which consisted of 1809 bags, 
 landed at Salem, by the ship Marquis de SomeriuUu. 
 Hence, within the brief period of forty-seven years, the 
 exports from Brazil have increased to the large amount 
 of 400,000,000 pounds in 1854, and 320,000,000 in 1853. 
 From 1809 to 1849, or in a period of forty years, the 
 imports of coffee from Brazil into the United States in- 
 creased from 1809 bags to over 100,000,000 pounds. 
 
 For the fiscal year ending the SOth of June, 1855, the 
 United States imported from Brazil 135,369,383 pounds 
 of coffee, of the value of $11,815,818 ; other Brazilian 
 products, including somesugars, amounted to $3,403,117. 
 
 Total imports $16,218,985 
 
 Total exports to Brazil 4.261,278 
 
 Balance of trade against the United States $10,'J57,662 
 
 The imports of coffee alone from Brazil in 1854-56 
 exceeded the exports of the United States to that 
 country by $7,553,545. 
 
 The total importation of coffee into the United States 
 for the year ending June 30th, 1855, amounted to 
 190,764,259 pounds, valued at $16,764,259. For the 
 year ending June, 1856, the quantity has been much 
 larger, and as prices have ruled high, the value has 
 been much greater. 
 
 The consumption of coffee has rapidly increased with- 
 in the past twenty-five years, the greatest augmenta- 
 tion having been in the United States, where it has av- 
 eraged 7^- per cent, per annum,' while in Europe it has 
 been 2^^ per cent, per annum, or at the rate of 4 per 
 cent, per annum for the world. 
 
 We submit the following table, showing the produc- 
 tion and consumption of coffee for the world at differ- 
 ent periods : 
 
 COSIPAKATIVE StATEiMENT OF THE PRODUCTION OF CoFFEE IN TltE WOBLD AT DIFFEEENT PERIODS. (TlIE PeoDUCTIOH OF ONE 
 VeAU enters INTO THE CONSUMPTION OF THE SUCCEEDING YEAR.) 
 
 1848. 
 
 1861. 
 
 1S55. 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Java 
 
 St Domingo -.. 
 
 Cuba and Porto Kico , 
 Britisli West Indies . . 
 
 Sumatra 
 
 Mocha, etc 
 
 Ceylon, India 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Costa Kica 
 
 Total 
 
 Pounds. 
 270,000,000 
 110,000,000 
 40,000,000 
 40,000,000 
 10,000,000 
 10,000,000 
 5,000,000 
 25,000,000 
 20,000,000 
 5,000,000 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 280,000,000 
 
 116,000,000 
 
 46,000,000 
 
 30,000,000 
 
 6,000,000 
 
 16,000,000 
 
 6,000,000 
 
 38,000,000 
 
 25,000,000 
 
 7,000,000 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 400,000,000 
 
 140,000,000 . 
 
 40,000,000 
 
 25,000,000 
 
 6,000,000 
 16,000,000 
 
 5,000,000 
 40,000,000 
 25,000,000 
 
 8,000,000 
 
 Pounds. . 
 
 320,000,000 
 
 120,000,000 
 
 35,000,000 
 
 20,000,000 
 
 5,000,000 
 15,000,000 
 
 5,000,000 
 60,000,000 
 20,000,000 
 
 9,000,000 
 
 540,000,000 
 
 665,000,000 
 
 716,000,000 
 
 607,000,000 
 
 It will be seen from this table that the greatest in- 
 crease in 1855 was in Ceylon, a British East India pos- 
 session, where its future growth is to be most largely 
 augmented should slavery be overthrown in Brazil; 
 with regard to which attempts have already been made 
 by a member of the Legislature. A bill was intro- 
 duced for gradual emancipation, but it, of course, did 
 not pass. The question arises, if negro slavery in Bra- 
 Eil should be overthrown, where will the cultivation of 
 coffee next take refuge ? Java can not materially aug- 
 ment the supplies. There are but two other points, 
 viz., British India and the west coast of Africa. The 
 tree is a native of the latter locality. The consumption 
 of the world in time of peace, and increased wealth from 
 the influx of gold, has overtaken the labor of production. 
 The future consumption in England and in the United 
 States is expected to be materially augmented. 
 
 France. — In France, also, owing to the failure of the 
 vintage for several years, the consumption of coffee is 
 likely to be increased. The annexed statement shows 
 the present estimated consumption of the world : 
 
 Founds. 
 
 United States and British provinces 210,000,000 
 
 German Zolverein 110,000,000 
 
 Austria, and other German states 75,000,000 
 
 Holland and Belgium 90,000,000 
 
 France, Switzerland, and Southern Europe . 126,000,000 
 
 Great Britain 40,000,000 
 
 Denmark, Sweden, and Norway 30,000,000 
 
 Russia 16,000,000 
 
 Cape of Good Hope, Australia, and California 15,000,000 
 
 Total 710,000,000 
 
 Y 
 
 The question of labor in the cultivation of this and 
 other tropical productions which have become com- 
 mercial necessities to the populations of the temperate 
 northern latitudes, which embrace the largest civilized 
 portions of the human race, is becoming one of great 
 importance. The growing deficiency must not only 
 continue, but in time greatly enhance the prices of 
 these products, which have become necessaries of life, 
 and tend to drain the money from Northern nations, in 
 order to secure them, or, in other words, place them 
 under heavy tribute for articles which are, from habit, 
 necessary to their comfort and well-being. England, 
 through her East India possessions, is, no doubt, anx- 
 ious to secure as large a share of this tribute as possi- 
 ble, and may, to a certain extent, succeed with indigo, 
 sugar, and coffee; but she has failed, and will con- 
 tinue to fail, in the production of cotton. The United 
 States have secured, and are likely to keep, and, if 
 necessary, by the aid of England to back the South in 
 securing this indispensable production to her prosper- 
 ity, as well as the prosperity of Europe and the North- 
 ern States of this Union. The value of slaves in Bra- 
 zil — the only South American state which has made 
 any great progress, and that through African labor — 
 has for several years steadily increased. Prior to 
 1830, when the slave-trade was legal, slaves were sold 
 at 12011, or $66. From 1830 to 1850, when the trade 
 was, under treaties with England, prohibited, and had 
 to be conducted clandestinely, they advanced to 400||, 
 or $220. Since 1850, the trade having been almost 
 
COF 
 
 entirely suppressed, they have gradually advanced, 
 aided by the decimation of 5 per cent, per annum, to 
 llOOII, or $605, in 1853. Since then, 10 per cent., it is 
 estimated, have died from cholera, as appears by a re- 
 cent statement of the Minister of the Empire, and they 
 are now stated to be worth 1500||, or $826 each. It 
 was the low price of slaves prior to 1880 which stimu- 
 lated the production of coffee, and caused prices to rule 
 so low, which were in 1835 to 1840 not much over half 
 the present prices. 
 
 It takes four to five years to mature coffee-trees after 
 planting them before they will yield a crop of berries ; 
 hence the sudden rise or fall in prices can not so sud- 
 denly influence production, as is the case with annual 
 crops from new plantations of sugar and cotton. At 
 the present time, owing to the high prices of slaves, 
 no new estates can be formed, and none have been for 
 several years ; and it is stated that there are not hands 
 enough left in the country to pick out a full crop. 
 
 It may be remarked that the rise and fall of tropical 
 productions have fluctuated with the supply of the only 
 labor suitable for their production beneath a tropical 
 sun, and that is African. 
 
 338 COP 
 
 EsTiMATEi> Consumption of Coffee, 
 
 Estimated Supplies op Coffee foe 
 United States. 
 
 Europe and the 
 
 From 
 
 1851. 
 
 1862. 
 
 1853. 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Tons. 
 143,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 18,000 
 5,000 
 6,500 
 
 10,500 
 3,000 
 1,500 
 
 16,000 
 
 600 
 
 600 
 2,000 
 
 Tons. 
 133,000 
 
 69,000 
 
 25,000 
 4,000 
 9,500 
 
 12,000 
 3,000 
 1,500 
 
 21,000 
 
 600 
 
 500 
 2,000 
 
 Tons. 
 126,000 
 
 62,000 
 
 20,000 
 6,000 
 9,500 
 
 12,000 
 3,000 
 1,500 
 
 16,000 
 
 600 
 
 600 
 2,000 
 
 
 St. Domingo 
 
 Cuba 
 
 
 La Guyara and Venezuela. . . 
 
 British West Indies. 
 
 British E. Indies and Ceylon 
 
 French colonies. East and ) 
 
 West Indies ... j 
 
 
 ManUla 600, Arabia 1400 .... 
 
 Total 
 
 Deduct United States 
 
 For Europe 
 
 Consumption in Europe 
 
 Surplus 
 
 Deficit 
 
 264,500 
 94,000 
 
 281,000 
 88,000 
 
 258,000 
 8.5,000 
 
 170,500 
 176,500 
 
 193,000 
 191,400 
 
 172,000 
 193,000 
 
 6,000 
 
 1,600 
 
 21,000 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1851. 
 
 I WM. 
 
 Great Britain (official) 
 
 France (official) 
 
 Belgium (official) 
 
 Holland, estimated 
 
 Germany, Zollverein, etc. . . . 
 Bohemia, Gallicia, and Hnn- \ 
 
 gary | 
 
 Austria .' 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Italy, Greece, Levant, and i 
 
 North AMca ; 
 
 Spain and Portugal .' 
 
 Sweden, Norway, and Den- j 
 
 mark ] 
 
 Kussia, Finland, and Poland. 
 
 Europe 
 
 United States 
 
 Total 
 
 Estimated ftesh supplies in j 
 the year | 
 
 Deficit 
 
 Surplus 
 
 Tons. 
 
 14,500 
 
 18,500 
 
 17,500 
 
 13,500 
 
 56,000 
 
 6,000 
 
 10,500 
 6,500 
 
 14,000 
 
 0,000 
 
 9,000 
 
 4,500 
 
 176,500 
 84,000 
 
 260,500 
 264,500 
 
 4,000 
 
 Tons. 
 
 15,700 
 
 21,600 
 
 20,700 
 
 15,000 
 
 58,000 
 
 6,000 
 
 11,000 
 T,000 
 
 15,000 
 6,000 
 
 10,000 
 5,500 
 
 191,400 
 92,000 
 
 283,400 
 281,000 
 
 2,400 
 
 1853. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 17,600 
 
 21,500 
 
 20,000 
 
 15,000 
 
 53,000 
 
 6,000 
 
 11,000 
 7,000 
 
 15,000 
 6,000 
 
 10,000 
 6,000 
 
 193,000 
 92,000 
 
 285,000 
 258,000 
 
 27,000 
 
 The above quantities may be considered the nearest 
 approximation to the truth which the present state of 
 commercial statistics can supply ; but any one familiar 
 with the writings of modern travelers in the south of 
 Europe and in Asia must be convinced that a very 
 large quantity of coffee is consumed in Turkey, Syria, 
 Palestine, Persia, Egypt, Abyssinia, etc., regarding 
 which commerce takes no note. 
 
 Imports of Coffee into the 
 
 Y«aTS. Pounds. 
 
 1821 21.273,659 
 
 1822 25,782,390 
 
 1823 37,334,732 
 
 1824 30,224,296 
 
 1825 45,190,630 
 
 1826 37.349,497 
 
 1827 60,051,986 
 
 1828 55,194,697 
 
 1829 61,133,538 
 
 1830 51,488,248 
 
 1831 81,767,386 
 
 1832 91,722,329 
 
 1833 99.955,020 
 
 1834 80,150,366 
 
 1835 103,199,777 
 
 United States since 1621. 
 
 Years. Pounds. 
 
 1836 93,790.50T 
 
 1837 88,140,403 
 
 1838 88,139,720 
 
 1839 106,693,992 
 
 1840 94,996,096 
 
 1841 114,984,783 
 
 1842 112,865,927 
 
 1843 92,914,.''57 
 
 1844 160.461,943 
 
 1846 107,880,911 
 
 1846 132,611,696 
 
 1847 156,716,575 
 
 1848 150,550,138 
 
 1849 16.5,334,700 
 
 1850 144,E86,895 
 
 Ke-expokts op Coffee from the United States foe the Year ending June 30. 
 
 Re-exports to 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Hanse Towns 
 
 Italy 
 
 Turkey 
 
 Other places 
 
 Total 
 
 Not excepted by treaty stipulations. 
 
 Total 
 
 I 
 
 Pounds. 
 6,441,060 
 1,194,610 
 1,436,346 
 827,586 
 3,449,717 
 
 13,349,319 
 19,483 
 
 13,308,802 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 537,851 
 103,677 
 133,706 
 70,193 
 318,888 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 3,778,517 
 
 1,515,971 
 988,691 
 640,246 
 
 5,173,475 
 
 1,163,876 
 1,728 
 
 12,005,800 
 3,790 
 
 $1,165,603 I 12,009,590 
 
 Dollars. 
 340,506 
 143,592 
 116,037 
 55,028 
 516,298 
 
 $1,171,367 
 379 
 
 $1,171,746 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 7,914,358 
 685,479 
 
 1,820,564 
 969,995 
 
 5,024,921 
 
 16,315,317 
 12,900 
 
 16,828,217 
 
 Dollars. 
 896,130 
 
 ,58,685 
 170,354 
 
 80,157 
 447,361 
 
 $1,462,687 
 1,290 
 
 $1,463,977 
 
 Imports op Coffee into the United States foe the Yeae enbimg June 30. 
 
 
 Importa from 
 
 1853. 
 
 1854. 
 
 1865. 1 
 
 
 Pound). 
 
 747,978 
 
 3,969,659 
 
 2,012,637 
 
 1,538,532 
 
 2,058,997 
 
 19,747,817 
 
 13,732.879 
 
 153,338,464 
 
 801,741 
 
 891,119 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 86,873 
 
 326,676 
 
 101,002 
 
 119,936 
 
 158,160 
 
 1,590,612 
 
 1,128,783 
 
 11,844,414 
 
 84.629 
 
 84,870 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 1,755,121 
 
 6,828,600 
 
 82,534 
 
 1,796,706 
 
 2,865,523 
 
 19,002,613 
 
 11,238,174 
 
 116,794,773 
 
 716,323 
 
 8,030;455 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 81,520 
 
 494,936 
 
 10,098 
 
 165,597 
 
 294,184 
 
 1,772,398 
 
 1,041,404 
 
 10,329,992 
 
 69,724 
 
 277,142 
 
 PoDnds. 
 
 3,052,410 
 
 8,121,784 
 
 1,068,523 
 
 2,0'?5,352 
 
 335,168 
 
 21,931,807 
 
 14,908,933 
 
 135,369,383 
 
 407,986 
 
 3,547,918 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 325,528 
 
 686,450 
 
 81,779 
 
 177,168 
 
 36,782 
 
 1,986,225 
 
 1,399,976 
 
 11,816,818 
 
 "42,014 
 
 483,101 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hayti 
 
 Brazil 
 
 
 Other places 
 
 
 199,089,823 
 818,222 
 
 $15,52.5,954 
 20,032 
 
 162,100,822 
 155,171 
 
 $14,536,046 
 12,7T3 
 
 190,704,959 
 714,398 
 
 $16,872,929 
 67,471 
 
 Not excepted by treaty or non-producers. 
 Total 
 
 199,408,045 
 
 $15,!>45,986 
 
 162,255,993 
 
 $14,649,718 
 
 101,478,6.'>7 
 
 $16,940,400 
 
 According to Mr. Cook, the prices of Jamaica and I London market, at the close of the following years, 
 St. Domingo (Hayti) coffee, exclusive of duty, in the I were. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Jamaica. 
 
 St. Domingo. 
 
 Yean. 
 
 Jamaica. 
 
 St. Domingo. 
 
 1830 
 
 32s. to 78s. per cwt 
 
 348. to 35s. per cwt. 
 
 1837 
 
 7.58. to 127s. per cwt. 
 
 42s. 6d. to 44s. per cwt. 
 
 1831 
 
 50s. to 86 
 
 4,5s. to 46 " 
 
 1838 
 
 77s. to 141 
 
 48s. 
 
 to 4.5s. 6d. 
 
 1832 
 
 60s. to 90 " 
 
 55s. to 57 
 
 1839 
 
 88s. to 148 
 
 478. 
 
 to 49 " 
 
 1833 
 
 T78. to 110 
 
 65s. to 66 " 
 
 1840 
 
 78s. to 148 
 
 41.1. 
 
 to 43s. «d. " 
 
 18.34 
 
 68s. to 124 " 
 
 48s. to 52 
 
 1841 
 
 648. to 144 
 
 87s. 
 
 to 42 " 
 
 1835 
 
 80s. to 113 " 
 
 51s. to 53 
 
 1842 
 
 47s. to 138 
 
 3l8. 
 
 to 34 " 
 
 1836 
 
 66s. to 120 " 
 
 468. to 54 
 
 
 
 
 
COF 
 
 339 
 
 COI 
 
 Coffee-houses. The first in England was kept 
 by a Jew, named Jacobs, in Oxford, 1660. In that 
 year, Mr. Edwards, an English Turkey merchant, 
 brought home with him a Greek servant named Pas- 
 quet, -who kept the first house for making cofiee in 
 London, which he opened in George-yard, Lombard 
 Street, In 1652. " Pasquet afterward went to Holland, 
 and opened the first house in that country. — Asdek- 
 sox. The Rainbow Coffee-house, near Temple-bar, 
 was represented as a nuisance to the neighborhood, 
 1657. Gofifee-houses were suppressed by proclama- 
 tion, 26 Charles II., 1675. The proclamation was 
 afterward suspended on the petition of the traders in 
 tea and coffee. — Haydn. 
 
 Coffer-dam. In architecture and bridge-building, 
 a case of piling, water-tight, fixed in the bed of a river 
 for the purpose of laying the bottom dry for a. space 
 large enough to build the pier on. Coffer-dams are 
 formed in various ways, either bj' a single inclosure or 
 a double one, with clay or chalk rammed in between 
 the two to prevent the water fi'om coming through the 
 sides. They are also made either with piles only, 
 driven close together, and sometimes notched or dove- 
 tailed into one another; or, if the water is not very 
 deep, by piles driven at a distance of five or six feet 
 from each other, and grooved in the sides, with boards 
 let down between them in the grooves. In order to 
 build in coffer-dams a very good natural bottom of 
 solid earth or clay is required ; for though the sides be 
 made water-tight, if the bed of the river be of a loose 
 consistence, the water will ooze up through it in too 
 . great a quantity to permit the operations to be carried 
 on. It is almost needless to remark that the sides 
 must be very strong, and well braced in the inside to 
 resist the pressure of the ambient water. — Hutton's 
 Tracts, vol. i. 
 
 Coffins. The Athenian heroes were buried in cof- 
 fins of the cedar-tree, owing to its aromatic and in- 
 corruptible qualities. — Thucydides, Coffins of mar- 
 ble and stone were used by the Bomans. Alexander 
 is said to have been buried in one of gold ; and glass 
 coffins have been found in England.^GooGH. The 
 earliest record of wooden cofiins in England is that of 
 the burial of King Arthur, who was buried in an entire 
 trunk of oalc, hollowed, a.d. 542. — Asser. The patent 
 coffins were invented in 1796. — -Haydn. 
 
 Cognac (Conocum,) a commune and town of France, 
 capital of arrondissement, department of Charente, 21 
 miles west from Angoulcme, on the left bank of the Cha- 
 rente. Population 4148. It has an old castle, in which 
 Francis I. was born. It is the entrepot of the brandy 
 of the Charente, to which it gives its name, and which 
 forms the object of a very extensive commerce. Manu- 
 factures, earthen-ware and paper. 
 
 Coins, pieces of metal, most commonly gold, silver, 
 or copper, impressed with a public stamp, and fre- 
 quently made legal tender in payment of debts, either 
 to a limited or an unlimited extent. When the pre- 
 cious metals first began to be used as money, or as 
 standards by which to measure the value of different 
 articles, and the equivalents for which they were most 
 commonly exchanged, they were in an unfashioned 
 state, in bars or ingots. The parties having agreed 
 upon tlie quantity of metal to be given for a commod- 
 ity, the exact amount was then ascertained by weight. 
 But it is obvious that a practice of this sort must have 
 been attended with a great deal of trouble and incon- 
 venience. There can, however, be little doubt that 
 the greatest obstacle to the use of unfashioned metals 
 as money would be found in the difficulty of determin- 
 ing their quality, or the degree of their purity, with 
 sufficient precision. The operation of assaying is one 
 of great nicety and difficulty ; and could not be per- 
 formed in the early ages otherwise than in a clumsy, 
 tedious and inaccurate manner. It is, indeed, most 
 probable that when the precious metals were first used 
 as money their quality would be appreciated only by 
 
 their weight and color. A very short experience 
 would, however, be sufficient to .show the extreme in- 
 exactness of conclusions derived from such loose and 
 unsatisfactory criteria ; and the devising of some meth- 
 od by which the fineness of the metal might be easily 
 and correctly ascertained would very soon be felt as 
 indispensable to the general use of gold and silver as 
 money. Such a method was not long in presenting 
 itself : it was early discovered that, to ascertain the 
 purity of the metal, and also to avoid the trouble and 
 expense of weighing it, no more was necessary than 
 to mark each piece with a stamp declaring its weight 
 and fineness. This invention was made at a very 
 early period. According to Herodotus, the Lydians 
 were the first who coined money. — Lib. i. c. 94. Other 
 ancient authors say that the art of coining was in- 
 vented during the period when Saturn and Janus 
 reigned in Italy ; that is, in a period antecedent to 
 authentic history. — Gogoet, Del'Origine des Ijiix, etc. 
 tome i. p. 267. 
 
 Metal used in the Manvfacture of CotTis. — Before the 
 art of metallurgy was well understood, the baser metals 
 were frequently used as money. Iron was the primi- 
 tive money of the Lacedaemonians, and copper of the 
 Bomans. But both iron and copper deteriorate by 
 being kept; and besides this defect, the rapid improve- 
 ment of the arts, by lowering their price, rendered their 
 bulk too great in proportion to their value to permit 
 of their continuing to be used as money. Copper, in- 
 deed, is still used, in the form of tokens convertible 
 into silver, in very small payments. In England, 
 copper pence and halfpence are rated at about 72 per 
 cent, above their real value ; but as their issue is ex- 
 clusively in the hands of government, and as they are 
 only legal tender to the extent of one shitting in any 
 one payment, this over-valuation is not productive of 
 any bad effect. The use of copper in other countries 
 is limited in much the same way ; gold and silver being 
 every where the only metals made use of in the manu- 
 facture of the coins used in considerable payments. 
 
 Standard of Coins. — By the standard of a coin ia 
 meant the degree of its purity and its weight ; that is, 
 the fineness of the metal of which it is made and the 
 quaiitity of metal contained in it. Silver Coins. — A 
 pound Troy, or 12 ounces, of the metal of which En- 
 glish silver coins are made, contains 11 oz. 2 dwts. 
 pure silver, and 18 dwts. alloy. This pound is coined 
 into 66 shillings; so that each shilling contains 80'727 
 grains fine silver, and 87:27 grains standard silver; 
 and, the moneypound, consisting of 20 shillings, con- 
 tains 1614'545 grains pure silver, and 1745'454 grains 
 standard silver. From 1600 dow'n to 1816, the pound 
 weight of standard silver bullion was coined into 62 
 shillings. All the English silver coins have been 
 coined out of silver of 11 oz. 2 dwts. fine, from the 
 Conquest to this moment, except for the short period 
 of 16 years, from the 34th Henry VIII. to the 2d Eliza, 
 beth. Gold Coins. — The purity of gold is not estimated 
 by the weights commonly in use, but by an Abyssinian 
 weight called a carcU. The carats are subdivided into 
 four parts, called grains, and these again into quar- 
 ters ; so that a carat grain., with respect to the com- 
 mon divisions of a pound Troy, is equivalent to 2J 
 dwts. Gold of the highest degree of fineness, or pure, 
 is said to be 24 carats fine. When gold coins were 
 first made at the English Mint, the standard of the 
 gold put in them was of 23 carats 3J grains fine and \ 
 grain alloy ; and so it continued, without anj' varia- 
 tion, to the 18th of Hemy VIII., who in that year 
 first introduced a new standard of gold of 22 carats 
 fine, and 2 carats alloy. The first of these standards 
 was called the old, and the second the new standard, 
 or crown gold ; because crowns, or pieces of the value 
 of 63., were first coined of this new standard. Henry 
 VIII. made his gold coins of both these standards un- 
 der different denominations; and this practice was 
 continued by his successors until 1633. From that 
 
COI 
 
 340 
 
 COI 
 
 period to the present, the gold of which the coins of 
 England have heen made has been invariably of the 
 new standard, or crown gold ; though some of the coins 
 made of the old standard, previously to 1633, contin- 
 ued to circulate till 1732, when they were forbidden 
 to be any longer current, 
 
 > Variations of the Standard. — The value of all sorts 
 of property being estimated, and the stipulations in 
 almost all contracts for its purchase, sale, or hire, being 
 made in money or coins, it is plain that no change can 
 take place in the value of such money or coins without 
 virtually subverting these estimates and contracts, and 
 enriching the debtor portion of Society at the expense 
 of the creditor portion, or vice versa. As the cost of 
 producing all commodities is liable to vary, from im- 
 provements in the arts, the exhaustion of the present 
 or the discovery of new sources of supply, none can 
 be selected to serve as money or coin that may not 
 vary in its real value. It is believed, however, that 
 the precious metals vary less than any material that 
 could be suggested. And with the exception of the 
 extraordinarj- fall in their value caused by the discov- 
 ery of the American mines, it seems to have been re- 
 markably constant at other periods. But in addition 
 to the fluctuations naturally inherent in the value of 
 coins, arising from variations in the cost of the metal 
 of which they are made, their standard has been re- 
 peatedly changed. Notwithstanding that money or 
 coin, from its being universally iised as a scale by 
 which to compute the value of all commodities, and 
 as the equivalent for which they are commonly ex- 
 changed, is by far the most Important of all measures 
 used in society, and should, consequently, be preserved 
 as invariable as possible, there is none that has been 
 so frequently altered. The necessities or extrava- 
 gance of governments have forced them to borrow ; 
 and to relieve themselves of the incumbrances thus 
 contracted, they have almost universally had recourse 
 to the disgraceful expedient of degrading the coin ; 
 that is, of cheating those who lent them money, to the 
 extent of the degradation, and of enabling every other 
 debtor in their dominions to do the same. 
 
 The ignorance of the public in remote ages facili- 
 tated this species of fraud. Had the names of the 
 coins been changed Avhen the quantity of metal con- 
 tained in them was diminished, there would have been 
 no room for misapprehension. But although the weight 
 of the coins was undergoing perpetual, and their pu- 
 rity occasional, reductions, their aiicient denomina- 
 tions were almost uniformly preserved ; and the peo- 
 ple, who saw the same names still remaining after the 
 substance was diminished^ — who saw coins of a certain 
 weight and fineness circulate under the names of flor- 
 ins, livres, dollars, and pounds ; and who saw them con- 
 tinue to circulate as such, after both their weight and 
 the degree of their fineness had been lessened — ^began 
 to think that they derived their value more from the 
 stamp afiixed to them by the authority of government 
 than from the quantity of precious metals they contain- 
 ed. This was long a very prevalent opinion. But the 
 rise of prices which invariably followed every reduc- 
 tion of the standard, and the derangement that was 
 therebj' occasioned in every pecuniary transaction, un- 
 deceived the public, and taught them and their rulers 
 the expediency of preserving the standard of money 
 inviolate. 
 
 The standard may be reduced by simply raising the 
 denomination of the coin ; by ordering, for example, 
 that a half-sovereign should pass for a sovereign, and 
 the latter for a double sovereign, etc. If injustice be 
 resolved upon, this is the least mischievous way in 
 which it can be perpetrated, inasmuch as it saves all 
 the trouble and expense of a recoinage. But as it ren- 
 ders the fraud obvious and glaring, it has rarely been 
 resorted to; and most reductions have been efiect- 
 ed eitlier by diminishing the weight of the coins, or 
 by increasing the proportion of alloy in the metal of 
 
 which they are made, or both. Originally the coins 
 of all countries seem to have had the same denomina- 
 tion as the weights commonly used in them, and con- 
 tained the exact quantity of the precious metals indi- 
 cated by their name. Thus the talent was a weight 
 used in the earliest period of the Greeks, the as or 
 pondo by the Romans, the liv7-e by the French, and 
 the pound by the English and Scotch ; and the coins 
 originally in use in Greece, Italy, France, and En- 
 gland, bore the same names, and weighed precisely a 
 talent, a pondo, a livre, and a pound. The standard 
 has not, however, been preserved inviolate, either in 
 modern or ancient times. , It has been less degraded 
 in England than any where else ; hut even there the 
 quantity of silver in a pound sterling is less than the 
 third part of a pound weight— the quantity it contain- 
 ed in 1300. In France, the livre current in 1789 con- 
 tained less than one sixty-sixth part of the silver im- 
 plied in its name, and which it had actually contained 
 previous to 1103. In Spain, and some other countries, 
 the degradation has been carried still farther. From 
 1296 to 1355, the coins of England and Scotland were 
 of the same weight and purity ; but at the last-men- 
 tioned epoch the standard of Scotch money was for 
 the first time sunk below that of England ; and by 
 successive degradations, the value of Scotch money, 
 at the union of the crowns in 1600, was only a twelfth 
 part of the value of the English money of the same 
 denomination. It remained at this point till the union 
 of the kingdoms canceled the separate coinage of Scot- 
 land. The gold and silver coins of Ireland have been 
 for a considerable period the same as those of Great 
 Britain ; but, until 1825, they were nominally rated 
 8^ per cent, higher. This difference of valuation, 
 which was attended with considerable inconveniences, 
 was put an end to by the act 6 Geo. IV. c. 79, which as- 
 similated the currency throughout the empire. The 
 tables annexed to this article contain all the informa- 
 tion that can be desired by mercantile men with re- 
 spect to the weight, fineness, etc., of English and Scotch 
 gold and silver coins, from the earliest periods to the 
 present moment 
 
 Mintj or Government Valuation of Gold and Silver 
 Coins. — If both gold and silver coins be made legal 
 tenders, it is obviously indispensable that their value 
 with respect to each other should be fixed by author- 
 ity; or that it should be declared that individuals 
 shall be entitled to discharge the claims upon them by 
 payments, either of gold or silver coins, according to 
 some regulated proportion. The practice of making 
 both metals legal tenders was long adopted in England. 
 From 1257 to 1664, the value of gold coins was regu- 
 lated by proclamation ; or, which is the same thing, it 
 was ordered that the gold coins then current should be 
 taken as equivalent to certain specified sums of silver. 
 From 1664 down to 1717, the relation of gold to sUver 
 was not fixed by authority ; and silver being then the 
 only legal tender, the value of gold coins fluctuated, 
 according to the fluctuations in the relative worth of 
 the metals in the market. But in 1717 the ancient 
 practice was again reverted to ; and it was fixed that 
 the guinea should be taken as the equivalent of 21s., 
 and conversely. But the value of each of the precious 
 metals is liable to perpetual change. And hence, how 
 accurately soever their proportional value, as fixed by 
 the Mint regulations, may correspond with the propor- 
 tion which they actually bear to each other in the mar- 
 ket when the regulation is made, the chances are ten 
 to one that it will speedily cease to express their rela- 
 tion to each other. But the moment that such a change 
 takes place, it becomes the obvious interest of every 
 one who has a payment to make to make it in the 
 overvalued metal ; which, consequently, becomes the 
 sole, or nearly the sole, currency of the country. 
 Hence the reason why the coins of some countries are 
 almost wholly of silver, and others almost wholly of 
 gold. It is estimated, for example, that when it was 
 
COI 
 
 341 
 
 COI 
 
 fixed, in 1717, that the guinea shonld exchange for 
 21«., gold was overvalued as compared with silver to 
 the extent of 1 19-31 per cent. ; and as the real value 
 of silver with respect to gold continued to increase 
 during the greater part of last century, the advantage 
 of paying in gold in preference to silver hecame more 
 decided, and ultimately led to the universal use of gold 
 in all large payments, and to the fusion or exportation 
 of all silver coins of full weight. 
 
 In France, a different valuation of the metals has 
 had a different effect. Previous to the recoinage in 
 1785, the Louis d'or was rated in the Mint proportion 
 at only 24 livres, when it was really worth 25 livres 10 
 sols. Those, therefore, who should have discharged 
 the obligations they had contracted by payments of 
 gold coin instead of silver would plainly have lost 1 
 livre 10 sols on every sum of 24 livres. In conse- 
 quence very few such payments were made ; gold was 
 almost entirely banished from circulation, and silver 
 ■became almost the only species of metallic money used 
 in France. In 1816, however, a new system was adopt- 
 ed in Great Britain ; it being then enacted (56 Geo. III. 
 c. 68) that gold'coins ontif should he legal tender in alljpay- 
 ments of more ikanfirti/ shillings. The pound of silver 
 bullion, that had previously b^en coined into sixty-two 
 shillings, was then also coined into sixty-six shillings, 
 the additional^Mi- shillings being retained by the gov- 
 ernment as a seignorage or duty (amounting to 6 14^31 
 per cent.) upon the coinage. To prevent the silver 
 coins from becoming redundant, government has re- 
 tained the power to issue them in. Us own hands. 
 Under these regulations, silver has ceased to be a 
 'standard of value, and forms merely a subordinate or 
 subsidiary species of currency or change, occupying 
 the same place in relation to gold that copper occupies 
 in relation to itself. This system has been found to 
 answer exceedingly well. . A good deal of difference 
 of opinion has existed as to whether gold . or silver 
 coins are best fitted for being made legal tender. It 
 does not seem that the one possesses any very striking 
 advantage over the other ; none, certainlj', that would 
 justify a change after a selection had been made and 
 acted upon for any consideral^le period, Down to 1626, 
 a seignorage or duty upon the coinage was usually 
 charged upon the gold and silver coins issued by the 
 Mint ; and it may be easily shown that the imposition 
 of such a duty, when it is not carried to an undue 
 height, is advantageous. A coin is more, useful than 
 a piece of uncoined bullion of the same weight and pu- 
 rity ; the coinage fitting it for being used as money, 
 while it does not unfit it for being used for any other 
 purpose. Wlien, therefore, a duty or seignorage is laid 
 upon coin equal to the expense of coinage, it circulates 
 at its real value ; but when this charge is defrayed by 
 the public, it circulates at less thaii its real vajue, and 
 is consequently either melted down or exported when- 
 ever there is any demand for bullion in the arts, or any 
 fall in the exchange. It is, indeed, true, that were a 
 seignorage to he laid on gold coins,, it would be neces- 
 sary, to prevent an enhancement of the value of the 
 currency, that their weight should be proportionally 
 reduced ; and it is on this account better, perhaps, to let 
 them remain on the present footing. But when a seign- 
 orage was laid on the silver coins in 1816, it was not 
 necessary to take the circumstance now alluded to into 
 consideration ; for as they were made subordinate to 
 gold, and were intended to serve as change merely, its 
 imposition had no tendency to raise the value of the 
 <;urrency, at the same time that it was calculated ef- 
 fectually to prevent the fusion of the coins and to yield 
 a small revenue to government. 
 
 Current Coin ; loss by wear.- — From very careful inves- 
 tigations made by the officers of the British Mint to- 
 ward the close of the last century, it was found that 
 78 1-10 silver shillings, taken as a fair average from 
 all those then in circulation, were required to make 
 lib. Troy ; whereas 62 is the number when new. Eleven 
 
 years afterward another fair average was taken, and 
 another examination made, when it was found that 
 82 9-40 shillings were required to make a pound. But 
 this diminution of weight is excessive, and is not like- 
 ly to be exhibited by the lesS-wom and more frequent- 
 ly renewed silver coinage of the present day. Still it 
 is unquestionable that the gold and silver coins are 
 exposed to daily wear and diminution. The British 
 government requested Mr. Cavendish and Mr. Hatch* 
 ett, two distinguished fellows of the Eoyal Society, to 
 make an extensive investigation respecting the power / 
 of metals to resist friction ; and their results are high- 
 ly curious. They made various alloys of silver, cop- 
 per, platina, iron, tin, lead, bismuth, manganese, nickel, 
 cobalt, zinc, antimony, and arsenic, with gold; thej' 
 rubbed plates of different kinds of metal over each 
 other half a million times, to determine which resist 
 friction best ; and they rotated similar pieces among 
 each other in a barrel. The effects were such as to re- 
 flect no little credit on those, whoever they were, who 
 established the standard of English gold coin ; for the 
 English standard (22 gold to 2 alloy) and the quality 
 of the alloy (silver and copper combined) were found 
 about the best of all the combinations sulijected to ex- 
 periment. In 1807 the Mint officers, wisliing to ascer- 
 tain how much the current coin had actually lost by 
 wear, selected at random one thousand good guineas 
 from a broker, and found that they had lost on an aver- 
 age 19s. per cent, in value. A hundred guineas from 
 a shop-keeper's till had lost 22s. per cent. Two hundred 
 half-guineasexhibited a loss of 42s. per cent. — the small- 
 er coins being subjected to more severe wear than the 
 larger. Mr. Jacob, a great authority on the subject of 
 precious metals, stated it as his opinion that, taking the 
 average of all the gold coins in this country, and an aver- 
 age of all the har4 usage to which the coins are exposed, 
 each one bears an annual loss of about 1-900 by fric- 
 tion, which is a little more than a farthing in the pound. 
 In silver coins the loss is supposed to be five or six 
 times greater, owing to the more unceasing circulation 
 of silver than gold, and to the less fitness of the metal 
 to bear frictioii. the matter may be stated thus : put 
 900 new sovereigns and 900 new shillings into average 
 ordinary circulation ; in twelve months' time the for- 
 mer will be worth about 899, and the latter about 894. 
 
 " Recent Coins of the World, — A coin, once set in cir- 
 culation, retains its place and use longer than any 
 other part of the machinery of life, and is extremely 
 slow in going out of fashion; so that the information 
 respecting it which the dealer, the collector, and the 
 public at large require, does not soon become obsolete. 
 
 " Pieces are current among us a full century old ; and 
 all that space of time is included in the hjstory of coin- 
 age, contained in our large manual. But new coins, 
 or modifications of old ones, are continually appear- 
 ing ; and in the latter case, it often happens that the 
 hpldqr, finds he has become, if we may so speak, an 
 unconscious sufferer. Old names are retained, but 
 essential properties are altered ; and a new progeny of 
 doubloons, dollars, francs, or shillings, is found by an 
 assayer's scrutiny to be something different, most like- 
 ly inferior, to the older stock. Keeping a steady watch 
 on these, as it is impliedly our duty, we have collected 
 a number of items which, as in our former publication, 
 will be set forth in alphabetical order, and as briefly 
 as possible." — Manual of Coins, by Eckfeldt and Dtr 
 Bois. 
 
 The weight is expressed in grains, and the fineness 
 in thousandth parts. 
 
 Belgium, — Gold coin, 25 francs; a new denomina- 
 tion : 1848 is the earliest date noticed. It expresses 
 on its reverse the intended standards, 7-915 grammes 
 (equal to 122-12 Troy grains), 900 fine. The average 
 of twenty pieces tried is 121-9, fineness 899 ; value 
 $4 72. This is a slight depreciation : it ought to be 
 $4 79, to compare with the former series of Belgian 
 gold coin, or ^4 81, to be equivalent with the French. 
 
COI 
 
 342 
 
 COI 
 
 We notice also, in silver, a piece of 2-J- francs, 1849, 
 weighing 192 grains ; fineness (of a single specimen) 
 901 ; value 46^ cents. 
 
 Bolivia.— The dollars from 1841 to 1846, tried in 
 parcels, vary in fineness from 896 to 901 ; a very large 
 lot gave 897; showing some tendency downward. 
 Weight, varying from 411 to 421, averages 416^ ; value 
 on a general average, 100'6 cents. 
 
 Britain. — The mew Jhrin, or two-shilling piece, being 
 one-tentli of a pound sterling, is understood to be an 
 advance toward a decimal system. A considerable 
 number have been coined, and the piece is fairly in 
 circulation ; but, like other silver coins of that coun- 
 try, it seldom makes Its way out of the realm. 
 California. — See Coins of United States, p. 344. 
 Central America. — It is not easy tO' keep pace- with 
 the fluctuations in the coinage of this countiy, any 
 more than with its political history. Nine years ago, 
 we averaged the doubloon at $14 96, and the dollar at 
 |1 OO'l. The country now seems to bo divided (we 
 judge by the coins) into, two distinct republics, Cen- 
 tral America and Costa Rica. 
 
 Of the recent gold coinage of Central America, we 
 have had opportunities of examining the quarter-doub- 
 loon, the eighth or esoudo, and the sixteenth. The 
 first, 1850, weighed 97 grains, fineness 863, value $3 60. 
 The second, 1844 to 1849, 48 grains, 809 fine, value 
 $1 67. The third, 1825 to 1849, 24 grains, 809 fine, 
 value 83J cents. In silver, the dollar of 1847 is found 
 to vary from 880 to 820 thousandths in fineness ; those 
 of 1840 to 1842 averaged 887. It would, therefore, not 
 be safe to give more than 92 cents for a single piece, or 
 95 by the quantity ; the laws of wholesale and retail, 
 in the coin market, being directly opposite to those in 
 other branches of trade. 
 
 The coins of Costa Eica, the seceding state, are in 
 several respects quite remarkable ; and in this particu- 
 larly, that the gold pieces are among the handsomest 
 that are current in the world, while the silver are be- 
 yond comparison the rudest ; at least the samples that 
 we have seen. The specimens assayed here lately are 
 the half-doubloon, weighing 208 grains, 851 fine, value 
 $7 G2 ; and the quarter-doubloon, 97 grains, 845 fine, 
 value $3 53. The silver piece is the real (apparently 
 shaped with hammer and chisel), 1846, 29 to 45 grains, 
 550 to 637 fine ; average value 5-^ cents. 
 
 Chili. — In the dollar of 1848 we find a variation of 
 weight from 415 to 419; fineness 901 J, which is lower 
 than former dates ; but the average value is 101 cents. 
 
 Until lately, we had no opportunity of testing the 
 fractional coins. The quarter-dollar, 1843 to 1845, 
 weighs only 92, but is 903 fine ; the eighth, or real, is 
 strictly proportional. Values respectively, 22'4 and 
 11'2 cents; making a profit to government, and a loss 
 to holders, of about 11 per cent. 
 
 The newspapers of the day contain the following 
 statement, concerning which we have no other infor- 
 mation : 
 
 " The Chilian Congress, now in session, has passed 
 a new coinage law, article first of which states that 
 three classes of gold are to be coined, of the standard 
 of nine-tenths fine, to be denominated, respectively, 
 condor, doubloon (doblon), and escudo. 
 
 " 1. The condor to weigh three hundi:ed and five 
 ■f^^ grains, and to correspond in value with ten sil- 
 ver dollars. 
 
 " 2. The doubloon to weigh one hundred and fifty- 
 two ^7^y„ - grains, and to correspond in value with five 
 silver dollars. 
 
 " 3. The escudo to weigh sixty-one -^^ grains, and 
 be of the value of two silver dollars. 
 
 " Art. 2. There shall be five classes of silver money, 
 also of the standard of nine-tenths fine ; viz. : 
 
 " A dollar, weighing five hundred -ff^ grains, and 
 divided into hundredth parts or cents. 
 
 " A piece of fifty cents, containing two hundred and 
 ^^'■y Mh grains. 
 
 " One of twenty cents, with one hundred -j^^^T 
 grains. 
 
 " One of ten cents, with fifty -j-J^ grains. 
 
 " One of five cents, with twenty-five ^gg^ grains. 
 
 " Art. 3d establishes two classes of copper coinage, 
 to be termed cents and half cents, to be composed of 
 pure copper without any alloy." 
 
 China.— The trashy coin of this great empire de- 
 serves notice only by way of recreation. In 1842 we 
 quoted the cash (tong-tsien) at 800 to the Spanish dol- 
 lar; in 1847 the equivalent varied from 1200 to 1300— 
 so hard is it to fasten a value upon that which is value- 
 less. A carpenter or tailor, we are told, receives 160 
 of them (say thirteen cents) for a Aay^s work, of which 
 sixty are required for his daily bread. The coin is ex- 
 tremely convenient for alms-giving, a single piece being 
 the usual quietus for a beggar. 
 
 Ecuador. — The quarter-dollar, or two-real piece, 
 1847, weighs 104, and is only 675 fine ; value 18'9 
 cents. This depreciation corresponds with what pre- 
 vails in some of the fractional coins of Peru. 
 
 France. — The twenty and five-franc pieces of the 
 republic, although entirely changed in face, are the 
 same for weight and fineness as before. 
 
 Germany. — Here there is no change of standards, but 
 we observe the denomination of double gulden, not 
 in general circulation, value 79 cents. The whole 
 German issue of the gulden series gives an average of 
 900 fine by actual assay. 
 
 Since the adoption of the new rate of charges at this 
 Mint, the thaler of Northern Germany, 750 fine, yields 
 a return of 67^ to 68^ cents, according to wear ; the 
 crown, 875 fine, 106 to 107 cents. 
 
 Ilayti. — Large quantities of Haytian coins have been 
 recoined here. The}'' are so variable in weight and 
 fineness that it is not easy to put a definite valuation 
 iipon them. They should, however, yield 76 to 78 
 cents per ounce, taken promiscuously and unwashed. 
 The piece of 100 centimes, dignified with the name of 
 dollar, bearing the head of President Boyer, is wortli 
 about 26 cents upon an average ; while that of 25 cen- 
 times, both of Petion apd Boyer, averages 7^ cents. In 
 a large promiscuous deposit of all sizes, we found the 
 average net value of the "dollar" to be 25'7 cents. 
 The coins range from 600 to 625 fine, if free from coun- 
 terfeits^a baser quality than is to be found in any 
 other coinage on this side of the Atlantic. But since 
 August, 1S49, there has been a new order of things ; 
 and coin collectors and assayers are looking with im- 
 patience for the head of Faustin the First. 
 
 Mexico. — In 1842, we averaged recent dollars at 416i 
 grains, 898 fine, value 100'6 cents. The average fine- 
 ness has since improved to 899, and value 100-75 cents. 
 The coins of two new Mints have recently been tried. 
 The doubloon of Guadalupe y Calvo, in the state of 
 Durango, 1847, varies in weight from 417 to 420 ; fine- 
 ness 869 to 873 ; average value |15 69. The dollar of 
 the same Mint, 1844 to 1847, averages in weight 420^, 
 in fineness 908, and therefore in value as high as 102'8 
 cents. The Mint began operations in 1844 ; its dis- 
 tinctive mark is G. C, in the usual place in the legend. 
 The dollar of Culiacan, in Sinaloa, 1846 to 1848, 
 averages 415^ grains, with a pretty wide variation in 
 individual pieces; fineness 903; value 101 cents. The 
 Mint-mark is the letter C. 
 
 Mexican dollars are not flowing so abundantly in 
 this direction as in former years, although they are 
 yielding a better return. 
 
 MiTca. — The revolution of 1848 produced a new gold 
 coin in Lombardy: it bears on the obverse a female 
 figure with the legend, Italia Libera, Dio lo vholb 
 — " Italy free, God wills it ;" and on the reverse, a 
 wreath, within which is the denomination, 20 Like 
 Italiane — "20 Italian livres;" and outside of it the 
 legend, Goveeno Peovisorio di Lombaedia. It 
 weighs the same as the twenty-franc piece of France, 
 and was evidently meant as a return to the Milanese 
 
COI 
 
 343 
 
 COI 
 
 standard of 1805. The coin is more rare than could be 
 •wished ; only a single specimen has reached us. Coin- 
 collectors will consider it as a prize for its singular 
 beauty and its scarcity, and as the monument of a great 
 event in history. 
 
 Netherlands. — The new 2J^-guilders piece was an- 
 nounced in our Manual as having been decreed, but 
 had not then been received. The legal standards are, 
 25 grammes (385-8 grains) in weight, 945 thousandths 
 in fineness. The actual results of dates 1842 to 1845 
 are, 386 grains, 944 fine ; value 98-2 cents. The coin 
 often appears here in mixed deposits. It is remark- 
 able for its high grade of iineness ; yet it is really a 
 depreciated issue, since, to be equal to the former guil- 
 der series, it ought to be worth 100'2 cents. 
 
 New Granada. — This country continues to send a 
 large supply of doubloons to our market, and this 
 makes it the more important to notice a very recent 
 and considerable reduction in the value of the coin. 
 Within a few months a new piece has appeared, with 
 new devices and standards ; the latter being expressed 
 on the face of the coin by " Lei 0,900 — Peso 25,8064 
 G." That is, fineness, 900 thousandths; weight, so 
 many grammes — a long-drawn fraction, corresponding 
 to 398-31 Troy grains. At those rates, the piece would 
 be worth $15 43-8, and would avowedly fall below the 
 previous value of the doubloon ; but upon actual trial 
 it is still worse, as will be shown directly. This change 
 must have taken place since the beginning of 1849, as 
 we notice pieces of the old style bearing that date. 
 
 But as the doubloons of New Granada are alloyed 
 almost entirely with silver, which is now profitably 
 parted at this Mint, it is necessary to restate the Mint 
 value of the older piece, as well as to give information 
 respecting the new. The silver extracted makes a 
 sensible addition to the values of both kinds ; that is, 
 if they are offered in sufficient quantities to meet the 
 requirement that the net product of a parting must be 
 not less than five dollars; below that limit the opera- 
 tion is not performed. The following terms must there- 
 fore be noticed. The doubloon of the old style, down 
 to the early part of 1849, weighs on an average 416^ 
 grains, and contains 870 thousandths gold, and about 
 120 silver; if presented in a quantity less than 58 
 ounces, its net Mint value will be $15 Gl ; in a larger 
 quantity than that, it will be $15 66. The new doub- 
 loon, beginning with 1849, weighs 398 grains, and con- 
 tains in parcels 893^ to 895 thousandths gold, say 894, 
 and of silver about 100 j net Mint value, in any quan- 
 tity less than 93 ounces, $15 31 ; in a larger quantity 
 $15 36. 
 
 Norway. — The immigration from this country brings 
 us considerable parcels of Norwegian and Swedish 
 silver coins. The dalers of these two realms, which 
 have the same monarch, were stated in the Manual to 
 be interchangeable as to value, although very difi«rent 
 as to their standards. Under our new Mint charges 
 there is some variation of value, since those of Sweden 
 are of so much lower fineness, and are subjected to a 
 greater charge for refining. They will be noticed in 
 place. The daler, and half, of Norway, average 878 
 fine (the law calling for only 875, or seven-eights), and 
 their weights, unworn, are respectively 446 and 228 
 grains ; net Mint value of the daler, 105 cents ; the 
 half, 52i. This valuation is down to 1848, the latest 
 date we have seen. 
 
 Peru. — A new half-dollar, with the word Pasco in 
 the legend, 1844, gives an average weight of 203 (vari- 
 ation 200 to 210), fineness 906; value 49^ cents. 
 
 Prussia. — The years 1848 and 1849, in other respects 
 unsettled, show no change in the gold coinage. It still 
 maintains its superiority to the other classes of ten and 
 five-thaler pieces. The double-Frederick, or ten-thaler, 
 is 903 fine, weighs 206 grains, and is worth $8 01; 
 practically, an even eight-dollar piece for us. 
 
 Bussia. — Five-rouble pieces of 1848 and 1849 show 
 the fineness of 916J ; a proof that the assaying and al- 
 
 loying are conducted with admirable exactness, the 
 standard being 916^. The coin is worth $3 96-7. As 
 the Russian Mint depends, no doubt, upon the Russian 
 mines, and not upon foreign coins, for its material, we 
 felt an interest in examining as to what proportion of 
 silver was left in the alloy of the coin, and found only 
 5i thousandths. Hitherto we have found no gold coins 
 so nearly desilvered. 
 
 Siam. — We were not sufficiently acquainted with the 
 silver bullets of Siara to take account of them in the 
 Manual. Some specimens of this curious money have 
 since been examined. They are of different calibres, 
 and tolerably well proportioned to each other. The 
 tical weighs, without much variation, 235 grains, and 
 is 928 fine ; value 58'7 cents. The salung, 61 grains, 
 929 fine, 15-2 cents. The prang, 30 grains, 907 fine, 
 7'3 cents. Below this wo have, as a present to the 
 Mint collection, three varieties, weighing 10, 4, and IJ 
 grains ; the last being worth about three-eighths of a 
 cent, and very good silver withal. A sight of it would 
 reconcile our people to the gold dollar. Siam may 
 claim the merit of originality in the shape of her coin, 
 which will not admit of piling, and scarcely of lying 
 still — the lively emblem of a true circulating medium. 
 
 Sweden. — The specie daler of Oscar, 1847 and 1848, 
 is 750 fine, weighs 525 grains, and yields 104'2 cents 
 after Mint charges. 
 
 Turkey. — There was a new system of coinage pro- 
 mulgated in 1840, which did not prevail long ; there is 
 a still newer, beginning with 1845. The gold coins 
 are evidently designed to be 22 carats (916-6) fine, as 
 in the neighboring empire of Russia. By actual assay 
 they are 915 fine ; the piece of 100 piastres weighs 111 
 grains, and is worth $4 37-4; the piece of 50 piastres, 
 55i grains, worth $2 18'7. In respect to value they 
 compare with the former series of 20, 10, and 5 pias- 
 tres, though entirely of different standards. 
 
 The silver coins are greatly improved in quality, 
 and apparently based upon the Austrian standard of 
 five-sixths (833^) fine. They are the piece of 20 pias- 
 tres, 3714- grains, 828 fine, net value 82 cents ; 10 pias- 
 tres, 186 grains, 826 fine, 41 cents ; and 5 piastres, 92i 
 grains, 824 fine, 20J cents. These coins are well ad- 
 justed in their weight, and altogether show in their 
 way a gi-eat advance in the progress of Turkish civili- 
 zation. The piastre of commerce seems to be based 
 upon the gold ; the exchange In 1845, when these coins 
 were received, rated the piastre at 4-3 cents. 
 
 United States.— By the law of March 3, 1849, two 
 new gold coins, the double-eagle and the dollar, were 
 added to the list ; the former weighing 516 grains, or 
 21i^ pennyweights, the latter 25^ grains ; and both of 
 the fineness of nine-tenths, as the other coinage. A 
 very large number in both denominations have been 
 issued. 
 
 The new postage law of March 3, 1851, provided for 
 the coinage of a three-cent piece, composed of'' three- 
 fourths silver and one-fourth copper, and weighing 12f 
 grains. 
 
 There are several classes of gold coin which are not 
 of the United States, but which are struck within the 
 national boundaries, and which ought to be noticed in 
 this place. These are the Bechtler's coins of North 
 Carolina, and the various California coins. In the 
 same connection, it will be proper to give some details 
 respecting several varieties of stamped ingots. 
 
 The coins of C. Bechtler are fully described in the 
 Manual (p. 160) ; but since the date of that publica- 
 tion, the mint has passed into the hands of A. Bech- 
 tler, as appears on the face of the coin ; and there is a 
 marked difference of value between the C and A. The 
 five-dollar pieces of the former were deficient from 1 
 to 6 per cent, upon the alleged value, averaging 3 per 
 cent., or $4 86 ; the one-dollar pieces wer« worth 95^^ 
 to 97 cents. The five-dollar pieces of the latter vary, 
 from the full alleged value, to a deficit of li per cent. 
 There are no dates on the coins to enable us to mark 
 
COI 
 
 344 
 
 COI 
 
 the difference ; but the pieces assayed in 1843 were 
 better than those (apparently fresh) assayed in 1849. 
 The last and newest lot gave $i 94 to the fire-dollar 
 piece. It is to be borne in mind, that as Bechtler's 
 pieces are alloyed with silver, they will produce about 
 a half of one per cent, more if offered in sufficient quan- 
 tity. The dollars, as far as tried, are 2 per cent, be- 
 low their nominal value. The coin appears to be con- 
 siderable in amount, but it is not current in the Middle 
 and Northern States ; it is frequently brought to the 
 Mint for recoinage. 
 
 The number of private Mints which have been in 
 operation in California, as indicated by specimens re- 
 ceived here, is fourteen. Some of these have issued 
 but a single denomination of coin, others two, and one 
 (the Mormon) four. Besides these, there are tlie stamp- 
 ed ingots of Moffatt & Co., and of 'F. D. Kohler, State 
 Assayer ; and lastly, the coin of Augustus Humbert, a 
 United States assayer under a legal provision of 1850. 
 
 1. The coin of " N. G. & N." does not profess the 
 same degree of accuracy as Bechtler's as to fineness. 
 Its claim to be full weight of half isagle is proved 
 by a number of trials, the variation not exceeding one 
 grain in any case ; but the legend on the reverse, Cal- 
 ifornia GOLD wiTHODT ALLOY, allows a pretty wide 
 range. As far as our assays go, the truth of this stamp 
 is proved ; there is no alloy other than that already 
 introduced by the hand of nature, and which is gener- 
 ally more than sufficient. Three pieces gave severally 
 the fineness of 870, 880, and 892 thousandths ; all were 
 within the scope of '* California gold." They conse- 
 quently are worth $i 83, $4 89, and $4 95i respective- 
 ly, without the silver ; and including that, 2^^ cents 
 more. 
 
 The coin is neatly executed, and besides the two 
 legends above quoted, bears an eagle, a circle of stars, 
 the date 1849, and the name San Feancisco. It wears 
 the somewhat brassy tint which belongs to gold alloy- 
 ed with silver only. 
 
 2. The Mint of the " Oregon Exchange Company" 
 issues two denominations, 10 and 5 dollars. They re- 
 spectively profess 260 and 130 grains weight of " native 
 gold." One five-dollar piece was found to weigh 127^ 
 grains, was 878 line, and contained only the natural 
 alloy ; resulting value, $4 82 ; with the silver (in suf- 
 ficiently large lots), 2-^ cents more. 
 
 The coin is not well struck, but is pleasantly dis- 
 tinguished by the picture of a beaver, a good emblem 
 of mining industry and of Western life. 
 
 3. Next is the mintage of the " Miners' Bank, San 
 Francisco ;" a ten-dollar piece, of plain appearance. 
 
 The average weight is 263i grains, the fineness about 
 865 thousandths, part of the alloy being copper. Aver- 
 age value $9 87, with a risk of having it as low as 
 $9 75. 
 
 4. Coinage of Moffatt & Co., 1849, 1850 ; pieces of 
 10 and 5 dollars, in imitation of the national coinage. 
 Several of the coining establishments, as will be seen, 
 have adopted the same device, but evidently without 
 evil intent, as most of their coins are worth what is 
 professed, and some even more. The fineness, how- 
 ever, is in every case inferior to the standard of the 
 Mint, and this is likely to prove a source of discredit 
 from European assayers, who will not take the trouble 
 to assort. A large promiscuous lot of both kinds of 
 Moffatt & Co.'s coins, dates 1849, 1850, shows an aver- 
 age of 897 ; average weight, to the ten-dollar piece, 
 258i grains ; average value, $9 97-7. 
 
 The S. M. V. on this and other coins is said to mean 
 " Standard Mint Value." 
 
 5. Ten-dollar piece of J. S. 0. (said to be Dr. Orras- 
 by, of Pennsylvania) ; one piece assayed gave 842 fine ; 
 weight 258i grains; value $9 37. "Very few have 
 come to hand. 
 
 6. Twenty-five dollar and ten-dollar pieces of Tem- 
 pleton Keid; weigh respectively 649 and 260 grains. 
 Being the only two specimens received, they have not 
 
 been cut for assay, but appear to be of California gold 
 without artificial alloy. Assuming this, the values 
 would be about $24 50 for the first, and $9 75 for the 
 second. 
 
 7. Ten-dollar and five-dollar pieces of the "Cincin- 
 nati Mining and Trading Company," 1849. These also 
 have not been cut on account of their rarity, but ap- 
 pear to be of native gold, and, at the weights of 258 
 and 132 grains, may be rated at $9 70 and $4 95 re- 
 spectively. 
 
 8. Ten and five-dollar pieces of the " Pacific Com- 
 pany," 1849; very irregular in weight, and debased in 
 fineness ; a ten-dollar piece weighed 229 grains, a five- 
 dollar, 130; assay of a third, 797 thousandths. At 
 those rates, the larger piece would be worth $7 86, the 
 smaller $4 48; but the valuation is altogether un- 
 certain. 
 
 9. Five-dollar piece of the "Massachusetts and Cal- 
 ifornia Company," 1849 ; a very pretty coin, but ap- 
 parently debased with copper. Only one specimen has 
 been noticed here ; it weighs 115^ grains ; has not been 
 
 10. Coins of Baldwin & Co., four varieties; 1. A ten- 
 dollar piece, 1850, distinguished by a horse and his 
 rider, with a lasso ; 2. Twenty-dollar piece ; 3. Ten- 
 dollar, 1851 ; 4. Five-dollar, 1850; the last two in imi- 
 tation of United States coinage. Of the first, one piece 
 tried weighed 263 grains, fineness 880, value $0 96. 
 Of the second, four pieces tried varied from 511 to 623 
 grains; but one hundred pieces averaged 517; the 
 fineness varied from 861 to 871 ; average fineness 868^, 
 average value $19 33. Of the third, ten pieces averaged 
 259i grains ; average fineness 870 ; average value 
 |9 72. Of the fourth, average value $4 92. The Bald- 
 win coins contain some copper ; about 20 thousandths. 
 
 11. Ten and five-dollar pieces of Dubosq & Co., 
 1850, also in imitation of the national coinage. The 
 larger piece averages 262 grains, and three specimens 
 gave the fineness of 899^^, which is a mere shade below 
 standard; consequent value, $10 15. A single five- 
 dollar piece yielded $4 92. But a mixed parcel con- 
 taining $1000, gave the fineness of 887, and the close 
 value of $1000 20. Consequently the pieces may be 
 averaged at par. 
 
 12. Five-dollar piece of Shultz & Co., 1851. Aver- 
 age weight, 128i grains ; fineness of three pieces, 879 ; 
 value, $4 97'4. The devices are in imitation of United 
 States coin. 
 
 13. The Mormon coinage, although executed in the 
 Territory of Utah, is without impropriety classed 
 among California coins, on account of neighborhood, 
 and the source whence the material is derived. These 
 are the four denominations of twenty, ten, five, and 
 two and a half dollars. Although there is much irreg- 
 ularity both in weight and fineness, the denominations 
 are tolerably in proportion to each other. A parcel 
 made up of all sizes, and counting $562 50, yielded at 
 the Mint $479 20 ; say $8 52 to the ten-dollar piece. 
 The fineness was 886. 
 
 14. Five-dollar piece of Dunbar & Co., in imitation 
 of United States coin. A lot of 111 pieces averages 
 131 grains weight, 883 fineness, value $4 98. 
 
 15. Fifty-dollar piece of the United States Assaj'- 
 Office at San Francisco, established by act of Congress 
 of 1850. It first appeared here in April, 1851. The 
 coin is prepared and issued by Messrs. Blofl'att & Co. 
 as contractors, and bears the stamp of Augustus Hum- 
 bert, assayer. The two professed rates of fineness, 880 
 and 887 thousandths, are found npon assay here to be 
 duly maintained, whether in single pieces or in large 
 quantities. But some irregularity in the weight of so 
 heavy a piece, alloyed with silver only, and offering 
 eight corners to wear is to be expected. When pre- 
 sented in quantities sufl5cient to allow for parting the 
 silver, say 70 ounces, the average Mint value is about 
 $50 10 ; in less quantities, the silver not being allowed 
 for, the average value is about $49 90. But even with- 
 
COI 
 
 345 
 
 out the silver they occasionally come up fully to the 
 alleged value. This coinage is understood to have 
 put a stop to all private issues in California. 
 
 The foregoing comprehend all the varieties of coin 
 that have been brought to this Mint. There have been, 
 besides, two sorts of stamped bars or ingots, evidently 
 intended for currency. 
 
 1. The ingots of MofFatt & Co., of various sizes, from 
 about $9 to $260. It may bo stated, in general, that 
 some were found to be rated too high, and others too 
 low. The sixteen-dollar ingot yields about $15 76, but 
 is irregular. 
 
 2. The issue of bars by F. D. Kohler, Assayer of the 
 State of California, commenced in May, 1850. They 
 are of various sizes, from $40, to $150. Wo find a 
 slight undervaluing in his basis of calculation, and gen- 
 erally an error of assay in the same direction ; so that 
 on the average his bars are worth at the mint 1 per 
 cent., perhaps 1J-, more than the value stamped upon 
 them. 
 
 Secapitulation of the net Mint Value of Gold and, Sil- 
 ver Coins issued within twenty-Jive Years ^ast. — Inquiry 
 has been frequently made at the Mint for a compend 
 of the values of foreign coins, without a due considera- 
 tion .of the difScuUy of putting in a small space such a 
 statement as would be satisfactory. The quarto vol- 
 ume, now entirely out of print, was not found too 
 large for its purpose, which was to supply such infor- 
 mation as dealers, amateurs, and legislators M'ould from 
 time to time be likely to require. Still, a condensed 
 table of the coins more usually seen, and within a con- 
 tracted range of date, would certainly be useful to deal- 
 ers and others, and especially with the modifications 
 occasioned by the new Mint tariff of charges. We 
 therefore offer the following, inserting values only, and 
 leaving the details of legal weight and fineness, and 
 of actual weight and fineness, to be sought for else- 
 where ; as also the particulars concerning coinage of 
 older date than just specified. 
 
 Gold Coins. 
 
 J>. CM. 
 
 Austria. — Quadruple ducat 9 12 
 
 Ducat 2 2T5 
 
 Sovereign (for Lorabardy) 6 75 
 
 Bad^n Five gulden 2 04 
 
 Savaria.—Daea,t 2 2T 
 
 Belgium. — Twenty-franc piece 3 83 2 
 
 Twenty-fiVe-franc piece 4 73 
 
 BoKvia. — Doubloon 15 58 
 
 Brazil Piece of 6400 reis , 8 72 
 
 Britain — Sovereign 4845 
 
 Brunswick. — Ten thaler 7 89 
 
 CaHfomia. — See Umited States. 
 
 Central .dmei-ictt.— Doubloon 14 96 
 
 Escudo 1 67 
 
 Costa iKco.— Half-doubloon, 18S0 7 62 
 
 C/iiii.— Doubloon (before 18D5) 15 57 
 
 " (1836 and since) 16 60 
 
 Denmark. — Double Fred., or ten-thaler 7 88 
 
 ^Braarfor.— Half-Doubloon 7 60 
 
 Egypt. — Hundred Piastres 4 97 
 
 France. — Twenty francs 3 85 
 
 Greece Twenty drachms S 45 
 
 Hanover. — Ten-thaler, George IV. 7 84 
 
 Do. William IV. and Ernest 7 89 
 
 Jlindostan Mohur, East India Company 710 
 
 Mecklenburg. — Ten-thaler 7 89 
 
 Mexico. — Doubloon, average 16 53 
 
 Netherlands Diicat 2 26 6 
 
 Ten guilders 4 00 7 
 
 New Granada. — Doubloon, 21 carat standard 15 61 
 
 " Including the silver 15 66 
 
 *' nine-tenths standard 15 31 
 
 " including the silver 15 36 
 
 Persia. — Tomaun 2 28 
 
 Pern. — Doubloon, Lima, to 1883 15 55 
 
 " Cuzco, to 1838 1562 
 
 " " 1837 1553 
 
 Portugal — Half -joe (full weight)..,. ; 8 66 
 
 Crown 5 81 
 
 Prussia. — Double Frederick , 8 00 
 
 Bomp— Ton scudi 10 87 
 
 Rltssia. — Five roubles 3 96 7 
 
 SariUnicL — Twenty lire 3846 
 
 Soxon!/.— Ten-thaler 7 94 
 
 Ducat . . 2 26 
 
 Spain ^Pistole (quarter doubloon) 3 90 5 
 
 Turkey.— Haairei piastres 4 37 4 
 
 COI 
 
 Gold Coins. 
 
 TurTcey. — Twenty piastres (new) 82^ ' 
 
 Tuscany. — Sequin 2 30 
 
 United S'tates.— Eagle (before June, 1834) 10 02 
 
 Five-doUar piece of C. Bechtler^ average 4 85 
 
 Dollar of the same, average . .' 98 
 
 Five-dollar piece of A. Bechtler. 4 i)'2 to 5 00 
 
 Dollar of the same 96 
 
 Oregon Exchange Company, five dollars 4 82 
 
 N. (J. .and N., San Francisco, five dollars. , 4 83 to 4 95 
 
 Miners* Bank, San Franc, tea dollars, average. . 9 87 
 
 Moffatt's ten-dollar piece 9 75 
 
 " five-dollar piece 5 00 
 
 " sixteen-dollar ingot 15 75 
 
 J. S. O., ten-dollar piece 9 37 
 
 T. Reid, twenty-five dollar piece 24 50 
 
 " ten-dollar piece 9 75 
 
 Pacific Company, tea and five, uncertain. 
 Massachusetts Company, five, uncertain. 
 
 Cincinnati Company, ten, estimated 9 70 
 
 " . five,, estimated 4 95 
 
 Baldwin, twenty dollars 19 33 
 
 ■■' ten " with horsemen 9 96 
 
 " ten " second issue 9 72 
 
 " five » " 492 
 
 Dutaosq, ten " 10 00 
 
 " five " 5 00 
 
 ShultB, " " 497', 
 
 Dunbar, *' " 4 98 
 
 Humbert, United States Assayer, fifty dollars. . . 50 00 
 
 Mormon coinage, twenty dollars, average 17 00 
 
 " ten dollars, average 8 50 
 
 " five dpllars, average 4 25 
 
 " two and a half dollars, average 2 13 
 Kohlers's bjar, about 1 per cent, higher than his 
 valuation. 
 
 Silver Coins. 
 
 Austria. — Rix dollar ' 97 
 
 Florin 43 5 
 
 Twenty kreutzers 16 
 
 Lira (for Lombardy) 16 
 
 Baden, — Crown. 1 07 
 
 Gulden or florin 39 5 
 
 Bavarixu—Qxoyin 1 06 B 
 
 Florin 39 5 
 
 Six kreutzers 03 
 
 Belgium. — Five francs 93 
 
 Two and a half francs 46 5 
 
 Two francs 37 
 
 Franc 18 5 
 
 ^olivio,— Dollar * 1 00 6 
 
 • Half dollar, debased, 1830 3T 5 
 
 Quarter dollar, debased, 1630 18 7 
 
 Brazil. — Twelve hundred i-els 99 2 
 
 Eight " 66 
 
 Four " , 33 
 
 Bremen.— Thirty-six grote 35 6 
 
 £ri(am.— Half crown 54 
 
 ShUling 21 7 
 
 Fourpence . . . . , 07 1 
 
 Brunswick. — Thaler 68 
 
 Central ATnerica. — Dollar, uncertain ; say 97 
 
 Costa Rica, new real of 05 8 
 
 CA«i.— Dollar , 1 01 
 
 Quarter dollar 22 4 
 
 Eighth dollar, or real 11 2 
 
 Denmcwft. —Rigshank daler 52 3 
 
 Specie daler 1 04 7 
 
 Thirty-two skiliings 17 
 
 Ecuador. — Quarter dollar IS 7 
 
 Egypt. — Twenty piastres 96 
 
 trance. — Five francs 93 2 
 
 Franc 18 5 
 
 FranTt^ort—FloTio. 39 5 
 
 Greece. — Drachm 16 5 
 
 Guiana, British, — Guilder 26 2 
 
 Hanover. — Thaler, fine silver 69 2 
 
 750fine 63 
 
 Hayti Dollar, or 100 centimes 25 7 
 
 Sesse Cassel.~-Ths.ler 67 5 
 
 One-sixth thaler 11 
 
 Sesse Darmstadt—FloTin or gulden. 39 5 
 
 Sindostan. — Rupee 44 5 
 
 Mexico. — Dollar, average 1007 
 
 Naples. — Scudo 94 
 
 Netherlands. — Three guilders 1 20 
 
 Guilder 40 
 
 Twenty-five cents 99 5 
 
 Two and a half guilders 98 2 
 
 New Granada. — Dollar, usual weight 1 02 
 
 Dollar, or ten reals, 1851 93 
 
 Norway. — Rigsdaler 1 05 
 
 Persia. — Sahib koran 21 5 
 
 Pent.— Dollar, Lima Mint 1 00 6 
 
 " Cuzco 1 00 8 
 
 Half dollar, Cuzco, debased 36 
 
 " Arequipa, debased 36 
 
 '* Pasco 49 5 
 
 i^tond.— Zloty 11 3 
 
COI 
 
 346 
 
 COI 
 
 Silver Coins. 
 
 ]>. CM. 
 
 JPortttgat—Cmzaio 55 2 
 
 Orown, of 1000 reis 1 12 
 
 Half crown 56 
 
 Prussia. — Thaler, average 68 
 
 One-sixth thaler, average 11 
 
 Double thaler, or SJ^ gulden 1 39 
 
 iiome.— Scudo 1 00 5 
 
 Teston (3-10 scudo) 30 
 
 Hussia. — Rouble 75 
 
 Ten zloty 1 13 5 
 
 Thirty copecks 22 
 
 Sardinia. — Five lire 93 2 
 
 Saxony. — Species thaler 96 
 
 Thaler (XIV. F. M.) 68 
 
 52'am.— Tical 58 5 
 
 Spain. — Pistareen (4 reals vbUod) 19 5 
 
 Sweden. — Species daler 1 04 2 
 
 Half daler 52 
 
 Turkey. — Twenty piastres, neiv coinage 82 
 
 Tuscany. — Leopoldone 1 05 
 
 Florin 26 2 
 
 Wurtemberg.—Gu\6.&n, 1824 38 5 
 
 " 1838 and since G9 5 
 
 Double thaler, or Z\ gulden 1 39 
 
 Comparison of American and Foreign Weights used 
 for Precious Metals. — The normal weight of the United 
 States Mint is the Troy ounce, for considerable quan- 
 tities, and the Troy grain, for single coins. This 
 ounce is equal to 480 grains ; to 31*09815 French 
 grammes ; to 1*08108 Spanish ounce. The grain is 
 64'788 milligrammes. Our standard French kilo- 
 gramme weighs 15,435 grains, or 32-15625 ounces. 
 The gramme is 15*436 grains. The milligramme '0154 
 grain. The average estimate of the Spanish mark is 
 3552 Troy grains, or 7'40 ounces Troy. It is differently 
 subdivided, according as it is applied to the weighing 
 of gold or silver. I'or gold, it is divided into 50 cas- 
 tellanos; each castellano into 8 tomines ; each toniine 
 into 12 granos. For silver, the mark is divided into 
 8 ounces ; each ounce into 8 ochavos ; each ochavo into 
 6 tomines; each tomine into 12 granos. Consequent- 
 ly, in gold weigliings there are 4800 grains, and in sil- 
 ver 4608 grains to the mark. The castellano is much 
 used, however, as a normal weight for gold bullion. 
 By deduction from the above, it should weigh 71*04 
 Troy grains; by an invoice from New Granada, we 
 have found it to correspond with 70*935; so that 71 
 grains might be taken as the equivalent, accurate 
 enough in practice. This is just one grain less than 
 three pennyweights ; or '1479 of a Troy ounce. This 
 mark, being employed not only in Spain, but in all 
 Spanish. America, is of course a very important weight 
 to the bullion and coin dealer, and should be duly un- 
 derstood. It is, perhaps, not more difficult to master 
 than the pounds Troy and avoirdupois, "with their re- 
 spective trains. The Cologne mark, normal money- 
 weight of Germany, by the German Convention of 
 1838, was estimated at 233'855 grammes, answering to 
 3609*55 grains Troy. It was before rated usually at 
 3609. Our silver dollar, since 1837, weighs 26-725 
 grammes. A kilogramme of standard (-j^) gold is 
 worth $598 25 5. 
 
 Bulk, and Packing of Precious Metals.—A solid or 
 cubic inch of iine gold weighs 10*1509 ounces, and is 
 worth $209 84. A cubic foot of the same, $362,600. 
 A cubic inch of standard gold weighs 9'0989 ounces, 
 and is worth $169 28. A cubic foot of the same, 
 $292,500. A cubic inch of fine silver weighs 5*5225 
 ounces, and is worth $7*14. A cubic foot of the same, 
 $12,338. A cubic inch of standard silver weighs 
 5*4173 ounces, and is worth $6 30 3. A cubic foot of 
 the same, $10,891. These calculations are based upon 
 the -weight of water as 262'458 grains to the cubic inch, 
 the thermometer being at 60° and the barometer 30 
 inches. — Sii-liman's First Prin. Chem., 1848. The 
 specific gravity of fine gold is taken at 19-3, standard 
 at 17*3 ; fine silver 10*5, standard 10*3. As these grav- 
 ities are only approximate, we may be excused for not 
 carrying out the decimals very far, as is rather too 
 often done in works of science. Gold is not measured 
 by the pintj at least out of California ; yet it may be 
 
 interesting to know that a dry-measure pint of Cali- 
 fornia grains is found to weigh from 141 to 143^ ounces ; 
 value about $2560. The average specific gravity ia 
 consequently 9'61 ; so that it occupies about twice as 
 much bulk, in that form, as when melted and cast into 
 bars. A pint of African dust was found to weigh 148 
 ounces. The advantage of having gold grains or dust 
 cast into bars as a preparative for exportation, is per- 
 haps overrated. True, it has rather an insufficient 
 outfit, if packed in paper, leather, muslin, Seidlitz- 
 boxes, or porter-bottles, as it came at first from San 
 Francisco. A good tin box, well soldered, will hold 
 fast and- keep dry; and the Mint charges nothing for 
 melting. This is the most general kind of packing 
 now used ; but the tin case, if large, requires to be in- 
 closed in a wooden box, and after that there is need of 
 a vigilant watch and care. A most daring theft was 
 lately committed, somewhere on the route, by boring 
 through box and case ; and about $9000 worth was ab- 
 stracted. A keg IS^ inches high, including the chine, 
 and with a diameter of 10 inches at the head and 11^ 
 at the bilge (outside measures), is a convenient size for 
 $2000 in silver coin, or $50,000 in gold coin. A keg 
 whose measurements are 19, 11, 13, as above, is a prop- 
 er size for $5000 in silver coin. A rectangular box, 
 measuring inside 10 by 8 inches by 5 in depth, is the 
 size used at the Mint for $1000 in silver coin. This 
 allows the coin to be thrown in promiscuously ; if 
 piled, at least one-third more can be put in. Such a 
 box would hold $36,000 in gold coin, laid in order ; or 
 $27,000 in disorder. A bag 6 inches by 9 holds $5000 
 in gold coin, with room to tie. A bag 14 by 18 is a 
 good size for $1000 in silver coin. One thousand 
 pieces of our three-cent coin ($30 worth) make a smaller 
 budget than many of our customers seem to anticipate. 
 A bag 3^ inches b^' 5 easily contains them. — See JJ/anw- 
 al of Coins, hy'EcKFEt.jyT and Du Bois of United States 
 Jlint. Published, New York, 1853, by G. P. Putnam 
 &Co. 
 
 Privilege of Coining. — The privilege of coining money 
 has always been claimed as a prerogative of the ex- 
 ecutive power, which was guarded with extreme jeal- 
 ousy. "The legitimation of money," says Sir Mat- 
 thew Hale, "and the giving it its denominated value, 
 is justly reckoned in jura majestatis, and in England it 
 is one special part of the king's prerogative." And 
 Ruding observes, "As to the impression of the coins, 
 the stamping thereof is the unquestionable prerogative 
 of the crown, and it was in very few instances com- 
 municated to those persons on whom the privilege was 
 conferred; for, in general, the dies were sent either 
 from the Exchequer, or from the master of the mint in 
 the Tower." The privilege implied that the authority 
 of the crown was necessary to give legal cun*ency to 
 the coin ; and although Blackstone thinks it did not 
 extend to the debasement of the coin to the injury of 
 the people, no one can doubt that the power was not 
 always legitimately exercised. In truth, it is only in 
 the case of a depreciated currency that the king's proc- 
 lamation is necessary to give legal circulation to the 
 coin of the realm ; and, as a better protection to his 
 subjects, the tender is limited within very nan*ow 
 bounds. 
 
 Ancient Constitution of the Mints. — The constitution 
 of the mints in the earliest times of British history, 
 and the regulations applied to the coinage, are ques- 
 tions of antiquarian research which will be deemed 
 more curioiis than profitable. The materials for such 
 an inquiry are extremely meagre and incomplete ; for, 
 according to Euding, both the Anglo-Saxon laws and 
 Domesday-Book are silent on the subject. They fre- 
 quently mention the moneyers, but make no allusion 
 to any other officers of the mint ; though it is reason- 
 able to suppose that the crown, whose prerogative it 
 was to coin money, must have had some jurisdiction 
 over those who were employed in the practical opera- 
 tions. — E. B. 
 
COI 
 
 347 
 
 COI 
 
 Tables eelative to tub Coins op Gebat Britain awd otiiee Countries. 
 
 Enolibii Coins.— Account of the Qifgntity of Fine Silver contained in 208. or the Pound Sterling ; the Quantity of Standard 
 Silver, of 11 oz. 2 dvrts. Fine and 11 dwts. Alloy, contained in 208. or the Pound Sterling, in the different Beigns, from the 
 Time of Edward III. to the lieign of George III.— A similar Account with respect to Gold.— And an Account of the propor- 
 tional Value of Fine Gold to Fine Silver, according to the Number of Grains contained in the Coins. — Calculated in Grains 
 and Vmth Parts, Troy Weight. 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 B. 
 
 1. 
 
 9. 
 
 3. 
 
 4. 
 
 
 
 Number of GrainB of 
 
 Number of GrainB of 
 
 Number of Grains 
 
 Number of Grains of 
 
 Proportionate Valne of 
 
 
 Anno Regnl. 
 
 Fine Silver in 20 
 
 Standard Silver, 11 oz. 
 
 of Pine Gold in 30 
 
 Standard Gold 22 Carats 
 
 Fine Gold to Fine Silver, 
 
 ■ ■ 
 
 
 9 dwts. Fine, in QOSbil- 
 
 SlnUings, or the 
 
 Fine, In 20 Shillings, or 
 
 the Pound Sterling, as 
 
 Coined by the Bflnl 
 
 according to the Quan. 
 
 
 
 Pound Storting, as 
 
 linga, or tbe Pound Ster- 
 
 Pound Sterlug, aa 
 Coined by the 
 
 tity of each Metal con- 
 
 
 
 Coined by the 
 
 ling, as Coined by the 
 
 tained in the 
 
 
 
 Mint Indentures. 
 
 Mint Indentures. 
 
 Miut Indentures. 
 
 Indentures. 
 
 Coins. 
 
 
 
 Grains. 
 
 Grains. 
 
 Grains. 
 
 Grains. 
 
 Gold to SUvor. 
 
 1S44 
 
 18 Edward III. 
 
 4933-333 
 
 5333 333 
 
 407 990 
 
 445-080 
 
 1 to 12-091 
 
 1349 
 
 23 Edward III. 
 
 4440-000 
 
 4800-000 
 
 383-T05 
 
 418-588 
 
 1 to 11-571 
 
 1356 
 
 30 Edward III. 
 
 3996-000 
 
 4320 000 
 
 358125 
 
 390682 
 
 1 to 11-158 
 
 1401 
 
 3 Henry IV. . . 
 
 3996 000 
 
 4320-000 
 
 358-125 
 
 390-682 
 
 1 to 11-158 
 
 1421 
 
 9 Henry v.... 
 
 3330 000 
 
 3600-000 
 
 322312 
 
 351-613 
 
 1 to 10-331 
 
 1464 
 
 4 Edward IV. 
 
 2664 000 
 
 2880-000 
 
 257-850 
 
 281491 
 
 1 to 10-331 
 
 1465 
 
 6 Edward IV. 
 
 2664000 
 
 2880-000 
 
 238-750 
 
 260 454 
 
 1 to 11-158 
 
 1470 
 
 49 Henry VI. . . 
 
 2664-000 
 
 2880-000 
 
 238-760 
 
 260-454 
 
 1 to 11 168 
 
 1482 
 
 22 Edward IV. 
 
 2664-000 
 
 2880 000 
 
 238-760 
 
 260-454 
 
 1 to 11 -153 
 
 1509 
 
 1 Heiiry VHI. 
 
 2664-000 
 
 2880-000 
 
 238 750 
 
 260-454 
 
 1 to 11-158 
 
 152T 
 
 18 Henry VIII. 
 
 2868-000 
 
 2660000 
 
 210-149 
 
 229-263 
 
 1 to 11-268 
 
 1543 
 
 34 Henry VIII. 
 
 2000-000 
 
 2162-162 
 
 191-666 
 
 209-090 
 
 1 to 10 434 
 
 1646 
 
 36 Henry VIII. 
 
 1400 000 
 
 1297-297 
 
 176-000 
 
 192 000 
 
 Ito 6-818 
 
 1546 
 
 3T Henry VIII. 
 
 800 000 
 
 864 864 
 
 160-000 
 
 174645 
 
 1 to 5-000 
 
 154T 
 
 1 Edward VI. 
 
 800 000 
 
 864-864 
 
 160-000 
 
 174-645 
 
 Ito 5-000 
 
 1549 
 
 3 Edward VI. 
 
 800-000 
 
 864 864 
 
 155-294 
 
 169-412 
 
 Ito 5151 
 
 ♦1561 
 
 5 Edward VI. 
 
 400-000 
 
 
 
 
 
 1651 
 
 5 Edward VI. 
 
 1T6O-O0O 
 
 1902-702 
 
 160-000 
 
 174-645 
 
 Ito 11 -000 
 
 1552 
 
 6 Edward VI. 
 
 1768-000 
 
 1911-351 
 
 160-000 
 
 174-546 
 
 1 to 11-050 
 
 1553 
 
 1 Mary 
 
 1760 000 
 
 1902-702 
 
 169-166 
 
 173-636 
 
 Ito 11-057 
 
 1600 
 
 2 Elizabeth . . 
 
 1776000 
 
 1920-000 
 
 160-000 
 
 174-645 
 
 1 to 11-100 
 
 1600 
 
 43 Elizabeth . . 
 
 1718-709 
 
 1868-064 
 
 157-612 
 
 IT 1-940 
 
 1 to 10-904 
 
 ]6'l4 
 
 2 James I. . . . 
 
 1718-709 
 
 1853-064 
 
 141-935 
 
 154-838 
 
 1 to 12-109 
 
 1626 
 
 2 Charles I... 
 
 1718 709 
 
 1863-064 
 
 128 780 
 
 140-487 
 
 1 to 13-346 
 
 1666 
 
 18 Charles 11. . 
 
 1718-709 
 
 185S 064 
 
 118-651 
 
 129-438 
 
 1 to 14-486 
 
 171T 
 
 3 George I. . . 
 
 IT 18 709 
 
 185S-064 
 
 113-001 
 
 123-274 
 
 Ito 16-209 
 
 1816 
 
 66 George III. 
 
 1614-545 
 
 1745-454 
 
 113-001 
 
 123-274 
 
 1 to 14-287 
 
 English Coins. — Account of English Silver and Gold Coins; Bhowing their Value, the Seignorage or Profit upon the Coinage, 
 and the Price of the Pound Troy of Standard Gold and Silver, from the Reign of Edward III. to the Reign of George III. 
 
 
 
 SUver. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 1 
 
 
 2. 
 
 8. 
 
 4. 
 
 S. 
 
 6. 
 
 7. 
 
 8. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Equal to thfl 
 
 
 
 
 Equal to the 
 
 
 Anno Regni. 
 
 Fineness of 
 
 Pound 
 
 Profit or 
 
 Mint Price for 
 
 Fineness of 
 
 Pound 
 
 Profit or 
 
 Mint Price 
 
 A. D. 
 
 the Silver 
 
 Weight of 
 
 Seignorage 
 
 Standard Silver 
 
 the Gold 
 
 Weight of 
 
 Seigtforago 
 
 for Standard 
 
 
 
 in the 
 
 auch Silver 
 
 on the 
 
 ofnoz.2dwla. 
 
 mthe 
 
 suoli Gold . 
 
 on the 
 
 Gold of 22 
 
 
 
 Coins. 
 
 coined into 
 
 Coinage. 
 
 fine, Troy. 
 
 Coins. 
 
 coined Into 
 
 Coinage. 
 
 Carats line. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Weight. 
 
 
 
 
 Troy Weight. 
 
 
 
 Oz. 
 
 dwts. 
 
 £ ,. d. 
 
 £ .. d. 
 
 £ .. d. 
 
 Crts. Era. 
 23 3} 
 
 £ ,. d. 
 
 £ .. d. 
 
 £ : d. 
 
 13-14 
 
 13 Edward III.... 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 10 3 
 
 1 3 
 
 1 3i 
 
 13 3 4 
 
 8 4 
 
 12 10 8 
 
 1849 
 
 23 Ed ward HI.... 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 12 6 
 
 13 
 
 12 8 
 
 23 3} 
 
 14 
 
 11 8 
 
 13 3 9 
 
 1356 
 
 30 Edward III.... 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 1 60 
 
 10 
 
 16 9} 
 
 23 3i 
 
 15 
 
 6 8 
 
 14 8 4 
 
 1394 
 
 18 Richard II. ... 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 1 5 n 
 
 23 3J- 
 
 15 
 
 5 
 
 14 9 11 
 
 1401 
 
 3 Henry IV. ... . 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 16 
 
 10 
 
 1 5 94^ 
 
 23 3* 
 
 15 
 
 6 
 
 14 9 11 
 
 1421 
 
 9 Henry V 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 1 10 
 
 010 
 
 1 10 lU 
 
 23 3i 
 
 16 13 4 
 
 5 
 
 16 2 9 
 
 1425 
 
 4 Henry VI 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 1 10 
 
 1 
 
 1 10 lU 
 
 23 3} 
 
 16 13 4 
 
 5 10 
 
 16 1 11 
 
 1464 
 
 4 Edward IV. . . . 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 1 17 6 
 
 4 6 
 
 1 15 2i 
 
 23 3i 
 
 20 10 8 
 
 2 10 
 
 18 5 
 
 1466 
 
 5 Edward IV. . . . 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 1 17 6 
 
 04 6 
 
 1 15 2t 
 
 23 U 
 
 22 10 
 
 1 10 
 
 21 1 10 
 
 1470 
 
 49 Hem-y VI 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 1 IT 6 
 
 02 
 
 1 IT lOi 
 
 23 3i 
 
 22 10 
 
 13 
 
 21 9 T 
 
 14S2 
 
 22 Edward IV. . . . 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 1 IT 6 
 
 16 
 
 1 18 4i 
 
 23 3} 
 
 22 10 
 
 7 6 
 
 21 15 
 
 14S3 
 
 1 Richard III.... 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 1 17 6 
 
 16 
 
 118 4J 
 
 23 3i 
 
 22 10 
 
 T 6 
 
 21 15 
 
 1485 
 
 1 Henry VII. ... 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 1 IT 6 
 
 16 
 
 1 18 41 
 
 23 St 
 
 22 10 
 
 7 6 
 
 21 16 
 
 1609 
 
 1 Henry VIII. .. 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 1 IT 6 
 
 1 
 
 1 18 lU 
 
 23 34 
 
 22 10 
 
 2 6 
 
 22 
 
 tl627 
 
 18 Henry VIII. .. 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1 Oi 
 
 1 18 Hi 
 
 23 3i 
 
 24 
 
 2 8 
 
 22 
 
 16'7 
 
 18 Henry VIII. .. 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 2 6 
 
 1 
 
 2 4 
 
 23!Hj 
 
 27 
 
 2 9 
 
 
 1627 
 
 18 Henry VIII. . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 25 2 6 
 
 3 
 
 24' io' 6 
 
 1643 
 
 34 Henry VIII. .. 
 
 io' 
 
 '6 
 
 2"8'0 
 
 0'8"0 
 
 2 ■4"4S 
 
 23 
 
 28 16 
 
 1 4 
 
 26 8 
 
 1545 
 
 36 Henry VIII. . . 
 
 G 
 
 
 
 2 '8 
 
 20 
 
 2 11 9i 
 
 22 
 
 30 
 
 2 10 
 
 27 10 
 
 1546 
 
 87 Henry VIII. . . 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 2 8 
 
 44 
 
 2 16 6 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 5 
 
 27 10 
 
 1547 
 
 1 Edward VI.... 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 2 8 
 
 44 
 
 2 16 6 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 1 10 
 
 31 7 
 
 1549 
 
 3 Edward VI. . . . 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 3 12 
 
 4 
 
 2 19 2J 
 
 22 
 
 34 
 
 10 
 
 33 
 
 VSSi 
 
 6 Edward VI. .. . 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 3 12 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1551 
 
 5 Edward VI.... 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 23 3i 
 
 36 ■ 
 
 
 • ■ • . 
 
 1651 
 
 5 Edward VI.... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 S3 
 
 
 
 1552 
 
 6 Edward VI. . . . 
 
 ii' 
 
 i 
 
 3 '60 
 
 o'i'"o 
 
 2 ig"3i 
 
 23 3i 
 
 36 
 
 ■ 2 ■ 9 
 
 
 1562 
 
 6 Edward VI.... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 33 
 
 8 
 
 32"i7' 8 
 
 1553 
 
 1 Mary 
 
 ii' 
 
 'li 
 
 3 "60 
 
 i '0 
 
 2 19" '6} 
 
 23 3i 
 
 36 
 
 3 
 
 33 8 
 
 1560 
 
 2 Elizabeth 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 16 
 
 2 18 6 
 
 23 3J 
 
 36 
 
 5 
 
 
 1560 
 
 2 Elizabeth 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 33 
 
 4 
 
 32' ie' 
 
 1600 
 
 43 Elizabeth 
 
 ii' 
 
 '2 
 
 3"2'0 
 
 0'2"0 
 
 3 '6 "0 
 
 23 3i 
 
 36 10 
 
 10 
 
 
 1600 
 
 43 Elizabeth 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 33 10 
 
 10 
 
 33"6' 
 
 1604 
 
 2 James I 
 
 ii' 
 
 '2 
 
 3"2'0 
 
 0"2'6 
 
 2 io "e 
 
 22 
 
 37 4 
 
 10 
 
 35 14 
 
 1626 
 
 2 Charles I 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 3 2 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 22 
 
 41 
 
 1 1 5 
 
 39 18 T 
 
 +1666 
 
 18 Charles II 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 3 2 
 
 
 
 3 2 
 
 22 
 
 44 10 
 
 .... 
 
 44 10,0 
 
 1717 
 
 3 George I 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 3 2 
 
 
 
 3 2 
 
 22 
 
 46 14 6 
 
 
 46 14' 6 
 
 1816 
 
 56 George III. . . . 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 3 6 
 
 4 
 
 
 22 
 
 46 14 6 
 
 
 46 14 6 
 
 * 1651—5 Edward VI.] The coinage of debased silver money, in the 5th year of Edward VI., of 3 oz. fine, ought more 
 piopei-ly to be considered as Tokens. The sum of jei20,000 only was so coined.— See James's Usaays, chapter iv. 
 
 t 1527- Henry VIII.] Tlie Saxon or Tower ponnd was used at the Mint up to this time, when the pound Troy was sub- 
 stituted in its stead. The Tower pound was but 11 oz. 5 dwts., Troy ; so that, from the Conquest to the 28th of Edward I., 
 20 shillings In tale were exactly a pound in weight 
 
 t i666 — 18 Charles II.] The seignorage on the coinage was at this time given up, and the gold bullion brought to the Mint 
 bos ever since been coined free of expense. A seignorage of 6Xi- per cent was Imposed on the coinage of sliver by 56 Geo. III. 
 
COI 
 
 348 
 
 COI 
 
 Gold Coinb of diffekent Countbies. — A Table containing the Assays, Weights, and Values of the principal Gold Coins of 
 ail (Jountries, computed according to the Mint Price of Gold in England, and allowing £1 to equal $4 '84, which is an Att 
 erage Value, will give the Value of the Coin in United States Decimal Currency". Assays have been made both at London 
 and Paris, which have been found to verify each other. 
 
 Assay. 
 
 Wsigil. 
 
 Standard 
 WeiBhl. 
 
 Contenta 
 in Pure 
 Gold. 
 
 Value in 
 Sterling. 
 
 Atjbthlan Domin- } Souverain 
 
 IONS ) Double ducat 
 
 Ducat Kremnitz, or Hungarian 
 
 B AVAjttiA Carolin 
 
 Max d'or, or Maximilian 
 
 Ducat 
 
 Bern Ducat (double, etc., in proportion) 
 
 Pistole , 
 
 Beunbwiok Pistole (double in proportion) 
 
 Ducat 
 
 Cologne Ducat 
 
 Denmark Ducatcurrent 
 
 Ducat specie 
 
 Christian d'or 
 
 England Guinea 
 
 Half-guinea 
 
 Seven-shilling piece 
 
 Sovereign 
 
 FttANOB Double Louis (coined before 1T86) 
 
 Louis 
 
 Double Louis (coined since 1786) 
 
 Louis 
 
 Double Napoleon, or piece of 40 francs. . . 
 
 Napoleon, or piece of 20 francs 
 
 New Louis (double, etc.), the same as the 
 Napoleon. 
 
 Feankfost-on-the-Maine Ducat 
 
 Geneva Pistole, old 
 
 Pistole, new 
 
 Genoa Sequin 
 
 Hamburg Ducat (double in proportion) 
 
 Hanoveb George d'or 
 
 Ducat 
 
 Gold florin (double in proportion) 
 
 Holland Double ryder 
 
 Ryder 
 
 Ducat 
 
 Malta Double Louis 
 
 Louis 
 
 Demi Louis 
 
 Milan Sequin 
 
 Doppia or pistole 
 
 Forty-lire piece of 1808 
 
 Naples Six-ducat piece of 1TS3 
 
 Two-ducat piece, or sequin, of 1T62 
 
 Three-ducat piece, or oncetta, of 1818 
 
 Netherlands Gold lion, or fourteen-florin piece 
 
 Ten-florin piece (1820) 
 
 PAiUiLi Quadruple pistole (double in proportion) . 
 
 Pistole or doppia of 1T8T 
 
 Ditto of 1796 
 
 Maria Theresa (1818) 
 
 Piedmont Pistole coined since 1785 (^, etc., in prop.) 
 
 Sequin d in proportion) 
 
 Carlino, coined sincel785 (i, etc., in prop.) 
 
 Piece of 20 francs, called Marengo 
 
 Poland Ducat 
 
 PoetugaIj Dobraon of 24,000 recs 
 
 Dobra of 12,800 rees 
 
 Moidore or Lisbonnine (J., etc., in prop.) 
 
 Piece of 16 testoons, or 1600 rees 
 
 Old crusado of 400 rees 
 
 New crusado of 430 rees 
 
 Milree (coined for African colonies, 1755) 
 Ducat of 1748 
 
 Ducat of 1787 
 
 Frederick (double) of 1769 
 
 Frederick (single) of 1778 
 
 Frederick (double) of 1800 , 
 
 Frederick (single) of 1800 
 
 Sequin (coined since 1760) 
 
 Scudo of the Republic 
 
 Ducat of 1796 
 
 Ducat of 1763 
 
 Gold ruble of 1T56 
 
 Ditto of 1799 
 
 Gold poltin of 1777 
 
 Imperial of 1801 
 
 Half Imperial of 1801 
 
 Ditto of 1818 
 
 Sardinla Carlino (i in proportion) 
 
 Saxont Ducat of 1T84 
 
 Ducat of 1797 
 
 Augustus of 1754 
 
 Augustus of 1784 
 
 SioiLV* Ounce of 1751 
 
 Double ounce of 1758 
 
 Spain Doubloon of 1772 (double and single in ) 
 
 proportion) J 
 
 Car. gr. 
 
 Fbusbia . 
 
 Rome . . 
 Russia . 
 
 W. 
 B. 1 
 B. 1 
 Vir. 3 
 W. 3 
 B. 1 
 B. 1 
 W. 
 W. 
 B. 1 
 B. 1 
 W. 
 B. 1 
 W. 1 
 
 Stand. 
 
 Stand. 
 
 Stand. 
 
 Stand. 
 W. 2 
 W. 2 
 W. 1! 
 W. li 
 
 w. n 
 w. li 
 
 B. 1 
 
 W. 
 W. 
 B. 1 
 B. 1 
 W. 
 B. 1 
 W. 3 
 
 Stand. 
 
 Stand. 
 
 2i 
 Si 
 8 
 
 3 
 1 
 
 u 
 
 2t 
 2J 
 3i 
 
 B. 1 
 W. 1 
 W. 1 
 W. 1 
 B. 1 
 W. 
 Vf. 
 W. 
 W. 1 
 B. 1 
 
 Stand. 
 W. li 
 W. 1 
 W. 
 W. 1 
 W. 
 W. 
 B. 1 
 W. 
 Vf. 2 
 B. 1 
 
 Stand. 
 
 Stand. 
 
 Stand. 
 W. 0! 
 W. Of 
 W. 08 
 
 stand. 
 B. 1 2i 
 B. 1 2 
 W. 
 W. 
 W. 
 W. 
 B. 1 
 W. 
 B. 1 
 B. 1 
 
 Stand. 
 W. Oi 
 
 Stand. 
 B. 1 2i 
 B. 1 2i 
 B. Oi 
 W. " 
 B. 1 
 B. 1 
 W. 
 W. 
 W. 1 
 W. 1 2 
 
 W. 2i 
 
 It 
 
 u 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 3} 
 
 U 
 
 2} 
 
 2i 
 
 Dwt. gr. 
 
 3 14 
 
 4 12 
 2 5t 
 6 5t 
 4 4 
 2 5i 
 
 1 23 
 4 21 
 4 2H 
 
 2 5* 
 2 6i 
 2 
 2 6t 
 
 4 7 
 6 9i 
 2 161 
 1 19 
 6 3i 
 
 10 11 
 
 5 6i 
 9 20 
 4 22 
 8 7 
 4 34- 
 
 2 5i 
 
 i 7i 
 
 3 15t 
 2 5i 
 2 Si 
 
 4 6J- 
 2 5i 
 2 2 
 
 12 21 
 6 9 
 2 51 
 
 10 16 
 6 8 
 2 16 
 2 51 
 
 4 li 
 8 8 
 
 5 16 
 
 1 20J 
 
 2 lot 
 
 6 7i 
 4 7i 
 
 18 9 
 4 14 
 4 14 
 4 3i 
 6 20 
 2 5i 
 
 29 6 
 4 3t 
 2 5i 
 
 £4 12 
 
 18 6 
 
 6 22 
 2 6 
 16 
 16i 
 
 ]9i 
 2 61 
 2 51 
 8 14 
 4 7 
 8 14 
 4 7 
 2 4i 
 
 17 Oi 
 2 6 
 
 2 51 
 
 1 Oi 
 161 
 9 
 
 7 17i 
 
 3 20J- 
 
 4 3i- 
 10 7i 
 
 2 20i 
 5 17 
 
 17 81 
 
 Dwt. gr. ml. 
 
 3 13 15 
 
 4 20 5 
 
 2 10 3 
 6 5 10 
 
 3 14 
 2 19 11 
 
 2 2 
 4 19 
 4 19 5 
 2 8 9 
 2 9 8 
 
 1 21 19 
 
 2 9 8 
 
 4 5 16 
 6 9 10 
 2 16 15 
 1 19 
 
 5 3 5 
 10 5 G 
 
 5 2 12 
 9 15 19 
 4 19 19 
 8 8 
 4 1 10 
 
 2 9 14 
 
 4 4 18 
 
 3 15 4 
 2 10 6 
 2 9 14 
 
 4 5 3 
 2 10 3 
 
 1 18 6 
 12 21 
 
 6 9 
 
 2 9 12 
 9 18 18 
 4 21 16 
 2 11 3 
 2 10 
 
 4 8 
 8 4 
 6 12 18 
 
 1 10 6 
 
 2 15 1 
 
 5 7 16 
 4 6 15 
 
 17 12 18 
 4 10 4 
 4 8 14 
 
 4 1 10 
 
 5 17 
 
 2 9 12 
 28 20 
 
 3 18 4 
 2 9 12 
 
 34 12 
 
 18 6 
 
 6 22 
 2 5 14 
 14 18 
 16 2 
 
 19 15 
 2 9 14 
 2 9 6 
 8 9 18 
 
 4 5 4 
 8 9 6 
 4 4 13 
 2 9 
 
 16 16 6 
 2 10 
 2 9 8 
 
 1 10 
 18 14 
 9 
 
 8 6 8 
 4 3 4 
 4 3 12 
 
 9 23 16 
 
 2 9 8 
 2 9 14 
 4 8 8 
 
 4 4 12 
 2 15 8 
 
 5 7 14 
 
 Grains. 
 
 78-6 
 
 106-4 
 
 63-3 
 
 115- 
 
 77- 
 
 62-8 
 
 45-9 
 
 105-5 
 
 106-7 
 
 61-8 
 
 62-6 
 
 42-2 
 
 52-6 
 
 93-8 
 
 118-7 
 
 69-3 
 
 39-6 
 
 113 1 
 
 224-9 
 
 112-4 
 
 212-6 
 
 106-8 
 
 179- 
 
 89-7 
 
 52-9 
 
 92-5 
 
 80- 
 
 53-4 
 
 52 9 
 
 92-6 
 
 53-3 
 
 39- 
 
 283-2 
 
 140-2 
 52-8 
 
 215-3 
 
 108- 
 64-5 
 53-2 
 S8-4 
 
 179-7 
 
 121-9 
 37-4 
 58-1 
 
 117-1 
 932 
 
 386- 
 97-4 
 95-9 
 89-7 
 
 126-6 
 62-9 
 
 684-4 
 82-7 
 52-9 
 
 769- 
 
 401-5 
 
 152-2 
 49-3 
 13-6 
 14-8 
 18-1 
 52-9 
 52-6 
 
 185- 
 92-8 
 
 184-6 
 92-2 
 52-2 
 
 367- 
 53-2 
 62-6 
 22-6 
 17-1 
 8-2 
 
 181-9 
 90-9 
 91-3 
 
 219-8 
 526 
 62-9 
 91-2 
 92-2 
 58-2 
 
 117- 
 
 <. d 
 
 13 10-92 
 
 18 9-97 
 
 9 5-91 
 
 20 4-28 
 13 7-44 
 
 9 412 
 
 8 1-48 
 18 7-86 
 18 8-48 
 
 9 2- 
 
 9 8-70 
 
 7 5-62 
 
 9 3-70 
 
 16 6-14 
 
 21 0- 
 10 6- 
 
 7 0- . 
 
 20 0- 
 
 89 9-64 
 
 10 10-71 
 
 37 7-53 
 
 18 9-75 
 
 81 8 36 
 
 15 10-5 
 
 4-84 
 4-45 
 
 14 1-i 
 
 5-41 
 4 •35 
 4-66 
 6-19 
 
 6 10-88 
 60 1-46 
 24 9-75 
 
 9 4-13 
 88 1-25 
 19 1-37 
 
 7-75 
 4-98 
 
 112 
 
 15 7-74 
 
 31 9-64 
 21 6-89 
 
 6 7-42 
 10 3-40 
 20 8 69 
 
 16 5-98 
 68 8-78 
 
 17 2-86 
 16 11-67 
 16 10-5 
 
 2-75 
 
 4-34 
 
 3-33 
 
 14 7-63 
 
 9 4-34 
 
 134 8-96 
 
 71 0-70 
 
 26 11-24 
 
 8 8-70 
 
 2 4-88 
 
 2 7-43 
 
 8 2-44 
 
 9 4-04 
 9 3-71 
 
 32 8-90 
 16 5-08 
 82 7-84 
 16 3-42 
 
 9 2-S6 
 
 64 11-43 
 
 9 4-98 
 
 9 3-71 
 
 8 11-78 
 
 3 0-81 
 1 5-41 
 
 32 2-81 
 16 1-05 
 16 1-98 
 30 810 
 
 9 8-71 
 
 4-34 
 1- 
 
 16 21 16 
 
 16 3-81 
 10 360 
 
 65 10-05 
 
 ' Much variation is found in the fineness of the Sicilian gold coins. 
 
COI 
 
 349 
 
 COI 
 
 Auay. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 StatidaTd 
 Weight. 
 
 CoDtents 
 in Pure 
 Gold. 
 
 Value In 
 Sterling. 
 
 Spain. , 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Switzerland . 
 Tbeveb 
 
 TUEKEY 
 
 TnaoANY . 
 
 United States. 
 
 Venice 
 
 "Wiktembeeg. . . 
 
 East Indies.. 
 
 Quadruple pistole of 1801 
 
 Pistole of 1801 
 
 CoronlUa, gold dollar, or vintem of 1801. 
 
 Ducat 
 
 Pistole of the Helvetic Republic of 1800. . 
 
 Ducat -. . 
 
 Sequin fonducllof Constantinople of 17T3 
 
 Sequin fonducli of 1780 
 
 Half missier (1818) 
 
 Sequin fonducli 
 
 Yermeebeshlek 
 
 Zecchinoor sequin -, .. 
 
 Ruspone of the kingdom of Ktruria 
 
 Eagle (i and i in proportion) ■. . . 
 
 Zecchlno or sequin (| and i in proportion) 
 
 Cai'olin 
 
 Ducat 
 
 Ducat (double and i ducat in proportion) 
 
 . Mohur of ITTO 
 
 Mohur, Half (1787) (i in proportion) . 
 
 Mohur Sicca of Bengal ., 
 
 Mohur of the Dutch East India Cora- ) 
 
 pany (1783) j 
 
 Mohur, Half Ditto (1801) 
 
 Rupee, Bombay (1818) 
 
 Rupee of Madras (1818) 
 
 Pagoda, star 
 
 Car. gr. 
 
 W. 1 1 
 
 W. 1 1 
 
 W. 1 2i 
 
 B. 1 2 
 
 W. 1} 
 
 B. 1 2 
 
 ■W. 2 2i 
 
 W. 2 8t 
 
 W. 6 8f 
 
 W. 2 3 
 
 B. 3i 
 
 B. 1 31 
 
 B. 1 3} 
 
 W. Oi 
 
 B. 1 " 
 W. 3 
 B. 1 
 B. 1 
 B. 1 
 B. 1 
 B. 1 
 
 31 
 
 W. 3 31 
 
 W. 3 It 
 B. OJ 
 
 Stand. 
 W. 3 
 
 Dwt. gr. 
 
 17 
 
 4 Si 
 
 1 3 
 
 2 5 
 4 21i 
 2 5i 
 2 5t 
 2 Si 
 18t 
 2 6 
 
 2 1} 
 
 3 5} 
 
 6 m 
 11 « 
 
 2 6 
 
 6 3t 
 2 5 
 
 2 5} 
 
 7 22t 
 
 3 23i 
 7 23 
 
 10 2 
 
 6 3i 
 
 7 11 
 7 12 
 2 il 
 
 Dwt. gr. mi. 
 
 16 9 6 
 
 4 2 6 
 
 1 13 
 
 2 8 12 
 
 4 19 9 
 
 2 9 8 
 1 23 6 
 1 22 16 
 
 13 5 
 
 1 22 7 
 
 3 4 13 
 
 2 10 14 
 
 7 7 13 
 n 4 8 
 
 2 10 10 
 
 5 4 
 2 8 12 
 2 9 8 
 S 11 16 
 
 4 16 10 
 
 8 15 
 
 8 8 
 
 4 18 IS 
 7 11 13 
 7 12 
 1 21 11 
 
 Grains. 
 
 360-5 
 
 901 
 
 22-8 
 
 51-9 
 
 105-9 
 
 62 6 
 43-3 
 42-9 
 12-16 
 426 
 70-3 
 63-6 
 
 161- 
 246-1 
 
 63 6 
 113-7 
 
 61-9 
 62-6 
 
 186-8 
 94- 
 
 189-8 
 
 183-4 
 
 164-7 
 166- 
 41-8 
 
 •. i. 
 
 63 9-62 
 
 15 11-35 
 4 0-42 
 9 2-22 
 
 18 8-91 
 
 9 3-71 
 
 7 7-94 
 
 7 T-11 
 
 2 1-82 
 
 7 6-26 
 
 12 6-32 
 
 9 5 -S3 
 
 2S 6-93 
 
 43 6-66 
 
 9 6-83 
 
 20 1-47 
 
 9 2-22 
 
 9 3-71 
 
 33 0-72 
 
 16 7-64 
 30 1-04 
 
 32 6-50 
 
 17 0-30 
 29 1-78 
 29 2-42 
 
 7 4-77 
 
 The London Assays in this Table were made by Robert Bingley, Esq., F.RS., the Assay Master of the Royal Mint, and 
 those at Paris by Pierre Fr6d6rick Bonneville, Essayer du Commerce, as published in his elaborate work on the coins of all 
 nations. Specimens of all the foreign coins brought to London for commercial purposes have been supplied for this Table 
 from the Bullion-office, Bank of England, by order of the Bank Directors, and have been selected by John Humble, Esq., the 
 chief clerk of that office, tvho also examined the Tables in their- progress. It "may likewise be added, that the Mint Reports 
 of these commercial coins are chiefly from average assays ; and tliat all the computations have been carefully verified by dif- 
 ferent calculators, — Note by Dr. Kbllt, to second edition of the Ccmibiati published in 1821. 
 
 " By one of the articles of the Zollverein, or Cus- 
 toms-union of Germany, it was stipulated that the set- 
 tlements for the duties should be made either in Prus- 
 sian dollars or in florins, at the rate of 7 florins for four 
 Prussian dollars. There were, however, no florins in 
 existence exactly of this value ; but as the nearest ap- 
 proach to it was a valuation called the 2-i guldenfuss, 
 or florin-foot, these Zollverein florins were nominally 
 reckoned to be in this rate, though the difference 
 amounts to more than 2 per cent;. The term 24 gul- 
 denfuss implies that the mark weight of fine silver is 
 rated at 24 gulden or florins. It was formed by giv- 
 ing to the coins minted or valued in 20 guldenfuss an 
 increased value of one-fifth, as rating the 20-kreutzer 
 piece at 24 kreutzers. At 60d. per ounce standard, the 
 value of this mark of fine silver is worth 40s. l^d. ster- 
 ling, from which the value of the different German 
 monetary integers is readily obtained ; as reckoning 
 27i marks banco or 34 marks current of Hamburg, 14 
 dollars of Prussia, 24J florins of South Germany, 20 
 florins of Austria, and also 60 lire of Austriache of Lom- 
 bardy, to be of this amount. In order, therefore, to pre- 
 vent the loss or inconvenience which would attend their 
 adhering to this mode of valuatioiij a money conven- 
 tion was entered into on the 25th of August, 1837, 
 among the states forming the union, by which it was 
 agreed upon that a new basis of valuation should be 
 adopted for their coins, under the term of Silddeutscher 
 Wahrung, or South German valuation, at the rate of 
 24^ gulden or florins from the mark's weight of fine sil- 
 ver. Bavaria, Wirtemberg, Baden, and Saxony have 
 since issued their coins at this rate, and the other states 
 of the confederation are doing or preparing to do the 
 same. Among them Frankfort, in 1840, began the 
 mintage of coins of this value ; and by a regulation of 
 the Chamber of Commerce of this free city, all the rates 
 of exchange, as well as the values of bullion and for- 
 eign coins, were ordered to be expressed in this Sild- 
 deutscher Wahrung from the commencement of the 
 year (1843). One of these new and very exactly-mint- 
 ed florins was assayed by Messrs. Johnson and Cock, 
 of Hatton Garden, who reported it to be, full weight, 6 
 dwts. 195 grains, worse 6 dwts., gold nnder 2 grains ; 
 from which the value, at 60d. per ounce standard, is 
 very exactly W'id. sterling, making the par of ex- 
 change with London 120i florins in S. D. W. for £10 
 
 sterling. I have been thus particular in these expla- 
 nations, partly because several persons imagine that 
 the late alteration in the rate of exchange with Frank- 
 fort was made in compliance with the wishes, or to suit 
 the convenience, of one or more of our leading houses 
 in exchange negotiations, but more particularly because 
 it is maintained by many that the valuation of this 
 rate is not merely iibmllially, but reallj', in 24 gulden- 
 fuss. This is a point of no small importance to the 
 commercial world, for had it been so, the par of ex- 
 change with London would have been only 118 florins 
 for £10 sterling, and the difference between this and 
 the present price of sight bills on Frankfort would have 
 exceeded 2} per cent. ; a variation which every prac- 
 tical cambist well knows could not exist, except under 
 very extraordinary circumstances, and with nearly cor- 
 responding differences in the other rates of exchange ; 
 neither of whi(;h causes is now in operation." — Letter 
 of William Tate, Esq., cambist to the Times. 
 
 Sterling silver remained in high repute all over the 
 Continent, because it was superior to any other cur- 
 rency ; and even in England the words conveyed for 
 centuries the ideas of goodness and purity, And we 
 may remark here that the gold coins of England, from 
 the reigil of Henry III., when they were generally in- 
 troduced, to the reign of Henry VIII., who debased 
 their purity, were made of fine gold. This is a re- 
 markable circumstance, because as gold in its native 
 state is rarely discovered so pure, the existence for a 
 long period of a coinage fabricated of that metal in a 
 state of purity necessarily implies the knowledge of the 
 art of refining, which must have been practiced at a 
 very early period. Pliny, indeed, says that in his time 
 gold was refined by mercury, which mingled with it, 
 but rejected all alloy, and the gold was freed from the 
 mercuiy by squeezing both in skins, in which opera- 
 tion the mercury ran through and left the gold in a 
 pure state. Some of the Greek gold coins were also 
 of great purity, as those of Philip of Macedon, and his 
 son Alexander the Great, rivaled by those of the other 
 princes and cities which immediately followed. Those 
 of the successors of Alexander in Egypt were 23 carats 
 3 grains fine, and 1 carat grain alloy, which we give 
 on the authority of Jacob in his book on the " Precious 
 Metals." The Greek silver coins were inferior to ours ; 
 as also the Roman of the earliest period. — E. B. 
 
GO! 
 
 350 
 
 COI 
 
 SiLTEB CoiNB OF DIFFERENT CouNTsiES. — A Table Containing the Assays, Weights, and Values of the principal Silver Coins 
 of all Countries, computed at the rate of 65. 2d. per Ounce Standard, from Assays made both at the London and Paris 
 
 Mints. 
 
 AUSTBIA . 
 
 Baden 
 
 Bavaria . . . 
 
 Been 
 
 BllEMEN 
 
 BETJNSWiCK 
 
 England. , 
 
 Geneva . . 
 Genoa . . . 
 HAMBima 
 
 Hebse Gassel , 
 
 LUBEG 
 LUOOA 
 
 Malta 
 Milan 
 
 Modena . 
 
 Netheblandb . 
 
 Eix dollar of Francis II. (1800) 
 
 Rlx dollar of the kingdom of Hungary . . 
 
 Half rix dollar, or florin. Convention 
 
 Copftsuck, or 20-creutzer piece 
 
 IT-creutzer piece 
 
 Halbe copf, or 10-creutzer piece 
 
 Kix dollar 
 
 Rix dollar of 1800 (k in proportion) 
 
 Copftsuck 
 
 Patagon or crown (i in proportion) 
 
 Piece of 10 batzen 
 
 Piece of 48 grotes 
 
 Rix dollar. Convention 
 
 Half rix dollar 
 
 Gulden, or piece of 5, fine, of 1764 
 
 Gulden, cojnmon, of 1764 
 
 Gulden, ditto, oflT95 
 
 Half gulden, or piece of i^, of 1T64 
 
 Ryksdaler, specie, of 1798 
 
 New piece of 4 marks 
 
 Half ryksdaler 
 
 Mark, specie, or -J ryksdaler 
 
 Rix dollar, specie, of Sleswick and Hoi- ) 
 
 stein (pieces of S and i in proportion) j 
 
 Piece of 24 skillings 
 
 Crown (old) 
 
 Half-crown 
 
 Shilling 
 
 Sixpence 
 
 Crown (new) 
 
 Half-crown 
 
 Shilling 
 
 Sixpence 
 
 Ecu of 6 livres 
 
 Demi ecu 
 
 Piece of 24 sous (divisions in proportion) . 
 
 Piece of SO sous (i in proportion) 
 
 Piece of 6 francs 
 
 Piece of 2 francs 
 
 Franc 
 
 Demi franc 
 
 Patagon 
 
 Piece of 15 sous of 1794 
 
 Scudo, of 8 lire, of 1796 (J, i, etc, in prop.) 
 
 Scudo of the Ligurian Republic 
 
 Kix dollar, specie 
 
 Double mark, or 32-schilling piece (sin- ) 
 
 gle in proportion) \ 
 
 Piece of 8 schillings 
 
 Piece of 4 schillings 
 
 Rix dollar, Constitution 
 
 Florin, or piece of §, fine 
 
 Half florin, or piece of f , ditto 
 
 Quarter, oi* piece of 6 good groschen, ditto 
 
 Florin, or piece of i, base 
 
 Rix dollar, Conv&ntion 
 
 Florin, or piece of 5 (i in proportion) .... 
 
 Thaler of 1789 
 
 Ecu, Convention (1815) 
 
 Bon gvos 
 
 Ducatoon 
 
 Piece of 3 florins 
 
 Rix dollar (the assay varies) 
 
 Half rix dollar 
 
 Florin or guilder (i in proportion) . ._ 
 
 12-stiver piece 
 
 Florin of Batavia 
 
 Rix dollar, or 50-stiver piece 
 
 Rix dollar, specie 
 
 Double mark 
 
 Mark 
 
 Scudo 
 
 Barbone , 
 
 Ounce of 30 tari of Emmanuel Pinto 
 
 2-tari piece 
 
 Scudo of 6 lire (i in proportion) 
 
 Lira, new 
 
 Lira, old 
 
 Scudo of the Cisalpine Republic 
 
 Piece of 3D soldi of ditto 
 
 Scudo of 15 lire, 1739 (double, etc., in ) 
 
 proportion) J 
 
 Scudo of 5 lire, of 1782 
 
 Scudo of 1796 
 
 Ducat, new (J- in proportion) 
 
 Piece of 12 Carlini of 1791 
 
 Ditto of 1796 
 
 Ditto of 1805 (f in proportion) 
 
 Ditto oflO Carlini (1818) 
 
 Crown (^, etc. , in proportion) 
 
 5-Btiver piece 
 
 Assay. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Standnrd 
 Weight. 
 
 Contents 
 in Pure 
 Silver. 
 
 Value in 
 Sterling. 
 
 0.. dwt. 
 
 Dwt. gr, 
 18 1 
 
 Jwt. gr. mi 
 
 Grains. 
 
 
 i. 
 
 W. 1 5 
 
 16 4 
 
 355-5 
 
 4 
 
 1-64 
 
 W. 1 2 
 
 IS 1 
 
 18 6 1 
 
 860-9 
 
 4- 
 
 2-39 
 
 W. 1 3 
 
 9 Oi 
 
 8 2 1 
 
 179-6 
 
 9. 
 
 1-07 
 
 "W. 4 8 
 
 4 6i 
 
 2 16 S 
 
 59-4 
 
 
 
 8-29 
 
 W. 4 8 
 
 4 
 
 2 9 18 
 
 53-5 
 
 
 
 7-47 
 
 W. 5 B 
 
 2 11 
 
 1 7 1 
 
 28-8 
 
 
 
 401 
 
 W. 1 4 
 
 18 2 
 
 16 8 1 
 
 858-1 
 
 4 
 
 2- 
 
 W. 1 a 
 
 17 12 
 
 15 13 13 
 
 345-6 
 
 4 
 
 0-25 
 
 W. 4 3 
 
 4 61- 
 
 2 16 3 
 
 59-4 
 
 
 
 8-29 
 
 W. 7 
 
 18 22 
 
 18 7 14 
 
 406-7 
 
 4 
 
 8-79 
 
 W. 1 2 
 
 5 3 
 
 4 14 17 
 
 102-5 
 
 1 
 
 2-31 
 
 "VV. 2 2 
 
 11 
 
 3 22 1 
 
 198- 
 
 2 
 
 3 04 
 
 W. 1 3 
 
 18 1 
 
 16 4 4 
 
 859-2 
 
 4 
 
 2-15 
 
 W. 1 3 
 
 9 Oi 
 
 8 2 2 
 
 179-6 
 
 2 
 
 107 
 
 B. 16 
 
 S lOi 
 
 9 11 
 
 200-8 
 
 2 
 
 4-03 
 
 W. 1 2 
 
 
 
 8 2 10 
 
 130- 
 
 2 
 
 1-13 
 
 W. 2 2 
 
 11 U 
 
 8 28 7 
 
 199-1 
 
 2 
 
 3 SO 
 
 W. 1 2 
 
 4 12 
 
 4 15 
 
 90- 
 
 1 
 
 0-66 
 
 W. 13 
 
 13 14 
 
 17 11 17 
 
 388-4 
 
 4 
 
 6 23 
 
 W. 12 
 
 12 9 
 
 n 1^ 14 
 
 259-8 
 
 3 
 
 0-27 
 
 W. 13 
 
 9 7 
 
 S 17 8 
 
 194-2 
 
 2 
 
 3-11 
 
 W. D 1 
 
 4 
 
 2 21 12 
 
 64-4 
 
 
 
 7-59 
 
 AV. 12 
 
 18 13 
 
 17 12 6 
 
 339-4 
 
 4 
 
 6-37 
 
 W. 4 T 
 
 s n 
 
 3 2 10 
 
 68-9 
 
 
 
 9-62 
 
 Stand. 
 
 19 8J 
 
 19 8 10 
 
 429-7 
 
 5 
 
 0- 
 
 Stand. 
 
 » 16t 
 
 9 16 5 
 
 214-8 
 
 2 
 
 6- 
 
 Stand. 
 
 3 21 
 
 3 21 
 
 85-9 
 
 1 
 
 0- 
 
 Stand. 
 
 1 22f 
 
 1 22 10 
 
 42-9 
 
 
 
 6- 
 
 Stand. 
 
 18 4i 
 
 18 4 7 
 
 403-6 
 
 4 
 
 8-36 
 
 Stand. 
 
 9 2 
 
 9 2 4 
 
 201-8 
 
 2 
 
 4-lS 
 
 Stand. 
 
 3 16} 
 
 3 15 6 
 
 80-7 
 
 11 -?7 
 
 Stand. 
 
 1 ISi 
 
 1 19 14 
 
 40-3 
 
 
 
 5-63 
 
 W. T 
 
 18 IS 
 
 13 7 16 
 
 403-1 
 
 4 
 
 8-28 
 
 W. 7 
 
 9 9 
 
 9 1 18 
 
 201-5 
 
 2 
 
 4-13 
 
 W. T 
 
 3 20 
 
 3 16 19 
 
 88-4 
 
 
 
 11-64 
 
 W. 3 8 
 
 6 12 
 
 4 12 4 
 
 100-2 
 
 1 
 
 1-99 
 
 W. T 
 
 16 1 
 
 15 12 4 
 
 844-9 
 
 4 
 
 0-16 
 
 W. T 
 
 6 11 
 
 6 6 2 
 
 138-8 
 
 1 
 
 7-38 
 
 ■\V. T 
 
 3 5} 
 
 3 3 1 
 
 69-4 
 
 
 
 9-69 
 
 W. 6i 
 
 1 IB 
 
 4 13 6 
 
 S4-7 
 
 
 
 4-84 
 
 W. 1 
 
 17 9 
 
 15 19 3 
 
 351- 
 
 4 
 
 103 
 
 W. 2 
 
 2 H 
 
 1 15 1 
 
 36-1 
 
 
 
 504 
 
 W. 8 
 
 21 9 
 
 20 14 10 
 
 457-4 
 
 5 
 
 3-87 
 
 W. H 
 
 21 9 
 
 20 11 2 
 
 454-3 
 
 5 
 
 3-43 
 
 W. 10 
 
 18 13 
 
 17 21 12 
 
 3t7-5 
 
 4 
 
 7-49 
 
 W. 2 S 
 
 11 IS 
 
 9 11 8 
 
 210-3 
 
 2 
 
 5-36 
 
 VV. 3 12 
 
 3 Si 
 
 2 6 4 
 
 501 
 
 
 
 6-99 
 
 AV. 4 6 
 
 2 2 
 
 1 6 12 
 
 28-3 
 
 
 
 3-!5 
 
 W. 9 
 
 18 19 
 
 13 14 
 
 400-3 
 
 4 
 
 7 89 
 
 B. IG 
 
 8 10 
 
 9 10 
 
 200-3 
 
 2 
 
 3-96 
 
 B. 10 
 
 4 4 
 
 4 11 4 
 
 99-2 
 
 1 
 
 1-85 
 
 B. 16 
 
 2 1 
 
 2 4 10 
 
 48-6 
 
 
 
 6-78 
 
 W. 2 1 
 
 11 01 
 
 8 28 15 
 
 1S9-6 
 
 2 
 
 3 87 
 
 W. 1 6 
 
 18 1 
 
 IB 22 6 
 
 363- 
 
 4 
 
 1-39 
 
 W. 1 G 
 
 9 Oi- 
 
 7 23 3 
 
 176-8 
 
 2 
 
 0-68 
 
 W. m 
 
 12 7t 
 
 11 17 5 
 
 2B9-7 
 
 3 
 
 0-26 
 
 W. 1 6 
 
 17 231 
 
 IB 21 2 
 
 349-3 
 
 4 
 
 0-77 
 
 W. 6 14 
 
 1 4 
 
 11 5 
 
 10-3 
 
 
 
 1-43 
 
 B. 8 
 
 20 22 
 
 21 4 15 
 
 471-6 
 
 5 
 
 5-35 
 
 W. 2 
 
 20 I 
 18 6 
 
 20 2 12 
 
 446-4 
 
 5 
 
 2-33 
 
 W. 16 
 
 16 20 3 
 
 375-9 
 
 4 
 
 4-99 
 
 W. 16 
 
 9 
 
 8 8 8 
 
 185-4 
 
 2 
 
 1-88 
 
 W. 4J 
 
 6 13 
 
 6 14 14 
 
 146-8 
 
 1 
 
 3-49 
 
 W. Ui 
 
 4 12 
 
 4 3 18 
 
 92-4 
 
 1 
 
 90 
 
 W. Bi 
 
 13 
 
 6 9 2 
 
 141-6 
 
 1 
 
 7-77 
 
 W. m 
 
 17 
 
 16 13 18 
 
 367-9 
 
 4 
 
 3-37 
 
 W. 13 
 
 13 3 
 
 17 15 12 
 
 391-9 
 
 4 
 
 6-72 
 
 W. 2 3 
 
 11 18 
 
 9 11 8 
 
 210-3 
 
 2 
 
 5-36 
 
 W. 2 3 
 
 r, 21 
 
 4 17 14 
 
 106-1 
 
 1 
 
 2-67 
 
 W. 3 
 
 17 
 
 16 13 10 
 
 372-3 
 
 4 
 
 3 98 
 
 W. S 3 
 
 1 20} 
 
 1 7 14 
 
 29-3 
 
 
 
 4-09 
 
 W. 2 B 
 
 19 IJ 
 
 15 4 14 
 
 8S7-4 
 
 3 
 
 11-11 
 
 W. 2 19 
 
 1 2 
 
 19 2 
 
 IT -7 
 
 
 
 2-41 
 
 W. T 
 
 14 20i 
 
 14 9 10 
 
 319-6 
 
 3 
 
 8-62 
 
 W. 4 10 
 
 4 
 
 ? 9 
 
 52 8 
 
 
 
 7-37 
 
 W. 8 
 
 2 10 
 
 2 9 4 
 
 62-9 
 
 
 
 7-88 
 
 W. 7 
 
 14 21J. 
 
 14 10 4 
 
 320-2 
 
 3 
 
 8-71 
 
 W. 2 IS 
 
 4 17 
 
 3 11 8 
 
 77-2 
 
 10-78 
 
 W. 14 
 
 13 12J- 
 
 17 8 9 
 
 335-2 
 
 4 
 
 5-73 
 
 W. 8 
 
 6 19 
 
 5 17 2 
 
 126 8 
 
 1 
 
 6-70 
 
 W. 3 8 
 
 18 li 
 
 12 22 12 
 
 287-4 
 
 3 
 
 4-13 
 
 W. 1 
 
 14 15 
 
 13 7 S 
 
 295-4 
 
 3 
 
 5-24 
 
 W. 1 
 
 17 IS 
 
 16 18 
 
 356- 
 
 4 
 
 171 
 
 W. 1 2 
 
 17 16} 
 
 15 22 12 
 
 3.53-9 
 
 4 
 
 1-41 
 
 W. 1 2 
 
 17 18} 
 
 15 23 18 
 
 355-2 
 
 4 
 
 1-60 
 
 W. 1 2 
 
 14 18 
 
 13 7 
 
 295-1 
 
 8 
 
 6-20 
 
 W. 14 
 
 19 
 
 17 19 4 
 
 395-2 
 
 4 
 
 7-18 
 
 W. 6 3 
 
 3 4 
 
 1 9 18 
 
 31-3 
 
 
 
 4-37 
 
COI 
 
 331 
 
 COI 
 
 Netherlands 
 Pasua 
 
 PlBDMOST . . . . 
 
 POLAin> 
 
 POBTUQAI. . . . . 
 
 POBTJUdnESB Coi-i 
 OKIES 
 
 Pbussia*. 
 
 EoMa . 
 
 Sabdikia. 
 Saxont . . 
 
 SlOILT . 
 
 Spaik . . 
 
 Sweden 
 
 switzebland . 
 
 TUBKEY. 
 
 TOBOAST . 
 
 United States. 
 
 Vemoe . 
 
 Florin of 1816 
 
 Half florin (with dmsions in proportion) 
 
 Ducat of 1T84 
 
 Ducat of 1790 (t in proportion) 
 
 Piece of 3 lire 
 
 Scudo, 1T55 (I, etc., in proportion) 
 
 Scudo, 1770 (i and i ,in proportion)' 
 
 Piece of 2 lire (1714) 
 
 5-franG piece (1801) 
 
 Kix dollar, old 
 
 Eix dollar, new (1794) 
 
 Florin, or gulden 
 
 New crusado (1690) 
 
 Ditto (1718) 
 
 Ditto , (1795) 
 
 Doze vintems, or piece of 240 rees (1799). 
 
 Testoon (1T99) 
 
 New eimsado (1809) 
 
 Seisvintetns, or piece of 120 rees (1802). . 
 
 Testoon (1802) 
 
 TreS vintems, or piece of 60 rees (1802) . . 
 
 Half testoon (1802) 
 
 Piece of 8 macutes, of Portuguese Af- / 
 
 rlca $ 
 
 Ditto of 6 ditto 
 
 Ditto of 4 ditto .' 
 
 Kix dollar, Prussian currency (i- in prop.) 
 
 Kix dollar, Convention 
 
 Florin, or piece of 3 
 
 Florin of Silesia 
 
 Drittel, or piece of 8 good groschen. . . . . . 
 
 Fiepe of 6 groschen. .'.... 
 
 Scudo, or crown (coined since 1753) ..'.... 
 
 Mezzo scudo, or half-crown 
 
 Testone (17S5) 
 
 Paolo (1785) 
 
 Grosso, or half Paolo (1785) 
 
 Scudo of the Roman Republic (1799) ..... 
 
 Rouble of Peter the Great 
 
 Ditto of Catharine I. (1725) 
 
 Ditto of Peter II. (1127) 
 
 Ditto of Anne (1734) 
 
 Ditto of Elizabeth (1T50) . . ; 
 
 Ditto of Peter III. a762) .• 
 
 Ditto of Catharine II. (1780) 
 
 Ditto of Alexander 
 
 Scudo, or crown (| and i in proportion) . 
 Rix .dollar, Convgntiony {i and i in pro-) 
 
 portion) J 
 
 Piece of 16 groschen of Leipsie 
 
 Rix dollar current of Saxe Gotha 
 
 t thaler of 1804 
 
 Ditto of 1808 
 
 Ditto of Jerome Bonaparte of 1809 
 
 Scudo a in proportion^ 
 
 Piece of 40 grains 
 
 tDollar, of late coinage 
 
 Half dollar, ditto .'. 
 
 Mexican peceta (1774) 
 
 Real of Mexican plate (1775) 
 
 Peceta provincial of 2 reals of new plate ) 
 
 (1775) i 
 
 Real of new plate (1705) 
 
 Eix dollar (1762) 
 
 Rix dollar of late coinage 
 
 Ecu of 40 batzen of Lucerne (1796) 
 
 Half ditto 
 
 Florin, or piece of 40 schillings of Lu- 
 cerne (1793) 
 
 Ecu of 40 batzen of the Helvetic Eepub- 
 
 Ucl798 (i in proportion) 
 
 Ecu of 4franken 
 
 Piastre of Sellm of 1801 
 
 Piastre of Crim Tartary (1778) 
 
 Piastre of Tunis (1787) 
 
 Piastre (1818) 
 
 Piece of 10 Paoli of the kingdom of 
 
 Etrurta (1801) 
 
 Scudo Pisa of ditto (1803) 
 
 Piece of 10' lire ditto (1803) 
 
 Lira (1803) 
 
 tDollar, 1795 (I, etc., in proportion) . . . 
 
 Dollar (1798) 
 
 Dollar (1802) 
 
 Dollar, an average of 8 years 
 
 Dime, or one-tenth dollar 
 
 Half dime 
 
 Piece of 2 lire, or 24 creutzers (1800) . . . 
 Ditto of 2 lire, called raoneta provinciale 
 
 (1808) 
 
 Ditto of 2 lire, 1802 (J and i in proportion) 
 
 Assay 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Standard 
 Weight. 
 
 Contents 
 In Pure 
 Silver. 
 
 Value In 
 sterling, 
 
 Oz. 
 
 Jwt. 
 
 Dwt gr. 
 6 22 
 
 Dwt. gr. mi. 
 
 Grains. 
 
 <. d. 
 
 W. 
 
 'U 
 
 6 16 6 
 
 148 4 
 
 1 8-72 
 
 W. 4 
 
 51 
 
 5 11 
 
 3 9 2 
 
 ' T5- 
 
 10-46 
 
 W. 
 
 9 
 
 16 11 
 
 16 18 18 
 
 350-6 
 
 4 0-95 
 
 W. 
 
 6+ 
 
 16 12i 
 
 18 2 18 
 
 35T-9 
 
 4 1-97 
 
 W.I 
 
 4 
 
 4 14 
 
 4 2 2 
 
 90 T 
 
 1 0-66 
 
 w. n 
 
 H 
 
 22 14 
 
 22 10 
 
 488 9 
 
 5 8-26 
 
 W..0 
 
 5 
 
 22 14 
 
 22 1 16 
 
 490- 
 
 5 8-42 
 
 W. 
 
 ■*( 
 
 7 20i 
 
 7 16 13 
 
 170-8 
 
 1 11-85 
 
 W. 
 
 8* 
 
 16 1! 
 
 15 11 12 
 
 343-7 
 
 3 11-99 
 
 W. 1 
 
 2 
 
 18 1 
 
 16 6 
 
 360-8 
 
 4 2-38 
 
 W. 2 IT 
 
 15 lOi 
 
 11 11 6 
 
 254-3 
 
 2 11-51 
 
 W. 4 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 8 18 16 
 
 84- 
 
 11-72 
 
 W 
 
 4 
 
 11 
 
 10 19 
 
 239-2 
 
 2 9-40 
 
 W, 
 
 fii^ 
 
 9 8 
 
 9 10 
 
 200-2 
 
 2 3-95 
 
 W. 
 
 7 
 
 9 9 
 
 9 1 18 
 
 201-6 
 
 2 4-15 
 
 W. 
 
 7 
 
 4 16 
 
 4 12 10 
 
 100-4 
 
 1 201 
 
 W. 
 
 T 
 
 2 OV 
 
 1 22 18 
 
 43-4 
 
 6-06 
 
 W. 
 
 4 
 
 9 3 
 
 8 23 
 
 198-2 
 
 2 4-67 
 
 W. 
 
 9 
 
 2 ii 
 
 2 2 8 
 
 46-6 
 
 6-60 
 
 W. 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 1 22 
 
 42-6 
 
 5-93 
 
 W 
 
 9 
 
 1 2i 
 
 114 
 
 28-3 
 
 3-25 
 
 W. 
 
 9 
 
 23 
 
 22 
 
 20-4 
 
 2-84 
 
 W. 
 
 9 
 
 7 12 
 
 T 4 14 
 
 159-8 
 
 1 10-31 
 
 W, 
 
 9 
 
 5 13 
 
 5 7 12 
 
 lis- 
 
 4-47 
 
 W. 
 
 9 
 
 3 16 
 
 3 12 8 
 
 T8-1 
 
 1 10-90 
 
 W. 2 
 
 5 
 
 14 61- 
 
 11 9 
 
 252-6 
 
 2 11-27 
 
 W. 1 
 
 3 
 
 18 1 
 
 16 4 2 
 
 359- 
 
 4 213 
 
 W. 2 
 
 r. 
 
 11 2 
 
 8 22 8 
 
 198-4 
 
 2 3-70 
 
 W. 2 
 
 2 
 
 9 11, 
 
 7 16 
 
 170-3 
 
 1 11-78 
 
 W. 3 
 
 3 
 
 5 8i 
 
 3 20 4 
 
 85-3 
 
 11-91 
 
 W. 2 
 
 R 
 
 3 14 
 
 2 19 6 
 
 62-3 
 
 8-69 
 
 W. 
 
 4 
 
 " 1> 
 
 16 IT 13 
 
 371-5 
 
 4 3-87 
 
 W. 
 
 4 
 
 8 12i 
 
 8 8 16 
 
 185-7 
 
 2 1-93 
 
 W. 
 
 5 
 
 6 2 
 
 4 23 4 
 
 110-3 
 
 1 3-40 
 
 W 
 
 4 
 
 1 17, 
 
 1 16 4 
 
 37-2 
 
 5-19 
 
 W. 
 
 5 
 
 20* 
 
 20 
 
 18-5 
 
 2-68 
 
 W. 
 
 6 
 
 17 1 
 
 16 13 18 
 
 368-1 
 
 , 4 3-40 
 
 w a 
 
 T 
 
 13 1 
 
 14 1 8 
 
 312-1 
 
 8 7-58 
 
 W. 2 
 
 4* 
 
 17 11 
 
 13 23 
 
 309-9 
 
 3 7-27 
 
 W. 2 12 
 
 18 5i 
 
 13 23 4 
 
 310- 
 
 3 7-28 
 
 W 1 
 
 11 
 
 10 14} 
 
 14 6 16 
 
 317-2 
 
 3 8-29 
 
 W 1 
 
 T 
 
 10 12 
 
 14 11 16 
 
 321-8 
 
 3 8-93 
 
 W 2 
 
 2 
 
 15 10 
 
 12 12 
 
 277-5 
 
 3 2-75 
 
 W. 2 
 
 4 
 
 15 12 
 
 12 10 6 
 
 275-9 
 
 3 2-52 
 
 W. 16 
 
 13 12 
 
 12 12 12 
 
 2781 
 
 3 283 
 
 W. 
 
 7 
 
 15 2} 
 
 14 15 
 
 324-7 
 
 3 9-34 
 
 W. 1 
 
 3 
 
 18 
 
 16 3 4 
 
 358-2 
 
 4 2-01 
 
 W. 2 
 
 2 
 
 9 H 
 
 T 14 16 
 
 1691 
 
 1 11-61 
 
 W. 4 
 
 41- 
 
 18 1 
 
 11 4 2 
 
 248-1 
 
 2 10-64 
 
 W. 4 11 
 
 3 11 
 
 2 19 
 
 45-3 
 
 6-32 
 
 W. 4 IH 
 
 3 6^. 
 
 1 21 8 
 
 42-1 
 
 5-87 
 
 W. 5 
 
 4 
 
 3 17 
 
 1 28 6 
 
 43-7 
 
 6-10 
 
 W. 1 
 
 4 
 
 17 14 
 
 15 16 6 
 
 i548-2 
 
 4 0-62 
 
 W. 1 
 
 2 
 
 5 21 
 
 6 7 2 
 
 117-5 
 
 1 4-40 
 
 W. 
 
 S 
 
 17 8 
 
 16 17 
 
 370-9 
 
 4 3-79 
 
 W. 
 
 R 
 
 8 16 
 
 8 8 10 
 
 185-4 
 
 2 1-88 
 
 W. 
 
 S 
 
 4 n 
 
 4 3 16 
 
 92-3 
 
 1 0-88 
 
 W. 
 
 8 
 
 2 3i 
 
 2 1 20 
 
 46-1 
 
 6-43 
 
 W. 1 
 
 9^ 
 
 3 18 
 
 3 6 
 
 72-2 
 
 10-08 
 
 W. 1 
 
 9)- 
 
 1 21 
 
 1 15 
 
 361 
 
 5-04 
 
 W. 12 
 
 18 20 
 
 17 19 10 
 
 395-5 
 
 4 7-22 
 
 W. 14i- 
 
 18 17 
 
 17 12 
 
 S88-5 
 
 4 6-28 
 
 W. 
 
 5 
 
 19 
 
 18 13 14 
 
 412-3 
 
 4 9-57 
 
 W. 1 
 
 2 
 
 9 20 
 
 8 20 12 
 
 196-7 
 
 2 3-46 
 
 W. 1 
 
 5 
 
 4 22 
 
 4 8 14 
 
 96-8 
 
 1 1-51 
 
 W. 
 
 6 
 
 18 23 
 
 18 10 14 
 
 409-5 
 
 4 918 
 
 W. 
 
 7 
 
 18 23 
 
 18 8 12 
 
 40T-6 
 
 4 9-18 
 
 W. 5 
 
 6 
 
 8 6 
 
 4 7 8 
 
 95-7 
 
 1 1-36 
 
 W. 6 13 
 
 10 5 
 
 4 2 4 
 
 90-9 
 
 1 0'69 
 
 W. 6 
 
 5V 
 
 10 
 
 4 8 6 
 
 96 '5 
 
 1 1-47 
 
 W. 5 14 
 
 6 6-} 
 
 3 14 
 
 67-7 
 
 ,9 -45 
 
 W. 
 
 4 
 
 17 13^ 
 
 17 5 18 
 
 382-9 
 
 4 6-46 
 
 W. 
 
 9, 
 
 IT 12 
 
 IT 8 4 
 
 385-0 
 
 4 5-76 
 
 It. 
 
 7 
 
 25 6 
 
 26 1 12 
 
 578-7 
 
 6 8-80 
 
 B. 
 
 7. 
 
 2 8 
 
 2 9 16 
 
 63-4 
 
 7-45 
 
 W. 
 
 H 
 
 17 8 
 
 16 19 16 
 
 S73-5 
 
 4 4-15 
 
 W. 
 
 7 
 
 17 10^ 
 
 16 21 6 
 
 374-9 
 
 4 4-35 
 
 W. 101 
 
 17 10 
 
 16 14 
 
 368-3 
 
 4 3-42 
 
 W. 
 
 8* 
 
 17 8 
 
 16 16 
 
 370-1 
 
 4 3-68 
 
 W. 
 
 4 
 
 1 m 
 
 1 18 14 
 
 39-8 
 
 5-71 
 
 W. 
 
 7 
 
 2U 
 
 21 
 
 19-5 
 
 2-72 
 
 W. 8 
 
 4} 
 
 5 19} 
 
 1 12 2 
 
 33-4 
 
 4-66 
 
 W. 8 
 
 3 
 
 6 13} 
 
 1 11 8 
 
 32-8 
 
 4-68 
 
 W. 8 
 
 4 
 
 5 6t 
 
 1 8 19 
 
 30-5 
 
 4-25 
 
 • The Prussian coins, having been debased at different periods, vary in their reports. 
 
 ■t This is the coin which is nnlversally circulated under the name of the Spanish dollar. 
 
 t The American dollars, and inferior silver pieces of late coinage, vary in fineness from W. 4 dwts. to W. vi dwts. 
 
GOI 
 
 352 
 
 COI 
 
 Weight. 
 
 standard 
 Weight. 
 
 Contents 
 in Pure 
 Silver. 
 
 Vftlue In 
 Sterling. 
 
 WlKTBMBEBG . 
 
 East Indies. . 
 
 Kix dollar, specie .■ 
 
 Copfatuck 
 
 Kupee Sicca, coined by the East India ) 
 Company at Calcutta. . . .' | 
 
 Company's or Standard 
 
 Calcutta (1818) 
 
 Bombay, new, or Surat (1818) 
 
 Fanam, Cananore 
 
 Bombay, old 
 
 Pondicherry -. 
 
 Ditto, double 
 
 Crulden of the Dutch E. I. Co. (1820) . . . 
 
 Ox. dwt. 
 
 \v. 1 a 
 
 W. 4 2 
 B. 13 
 
 stand. 
 
 Stand. 
 W. Oi 
 W. H 
 B. 13 
 B, 6i 
 W. 3 
 W. U 
 
 Dwt. gr. 
 
 18- 1 
 4 161- 
 
 T in 
 
 8 
 T 11 
 1 Hi 
 
 1 Hi 
 
 1 Oi 
 1 18i 
 6 22 
 
 Dwt. gr. mi. 
 16 14 2 
 2 16 13 
 
 T 22 
 
 8 
 T 10 4 
 1 11 10 
 1 13 16 
 112 
 1 18 2 
 6 16 6 
 
 Grains. 
 353-1 
 B9'8 
 
 ITS -8 
 
 166- 
 1T6-9 
 164 -T 
 
 32-9 
 
 35- 
 
 22-8 
 
 89- 
 148-4 
 
 •. d. 
 4 2-14 
 
 8-35 
 
 2 0-54 
 
 1 11-11 
 
 2 0-56 
 1 1101 
 4-6 
 4-88 
 318 
 
 5-44 
 
 1 8-72 
 
 The sterling value of the foreign coins, in the fore- 
 going tables, has been computed from the assays as fol- 
 lows : Let it be required to assign the value, in ster- 
 ling, of a French double Louis d'or coined since 1786, 
 the assaj' master's report being as follows: "Weight, 
 9 dwts. 20 grs. ; assay W. IJ grs.," that is, car. l-jr 
 grs. worse than the English standard. We proceed as 
 under: 
 
 From 22 car. gr. the fineness of English standard 
 gold, take car. IJ gr., there remains 21 car. 2J gr. 
 Then, as 22 car. : 21 car. 2^ grs. : : 9 dwts. 20 grs. : 9 
 dwts. 16 grs., the standard gold contained in the Louis 
 d'or; and hence, as 1 oz. : £3 17s. lO^d. : : 9 dwts. 16 
 grs. : £1 17s. T^d., the value of the Louis in sterling 
 money, and so for any of the other coins. 
 
 Ancient Coins. — We subjoin, for the convenience of 
 such of our readers as may at any time have occasion 
 to consult works in which reference is made to ancient 
 coins, the following tables of those that were princi- 
 pally current among the Jews and Greeks. They 
 were calculated by Dr. Arbuthnot (Tables of Ancient 
 Coins, Weights, etc., 4to ed., Lond., 1754), and do not 
 differ materially from the tables of Paucton, whose 
 Miirologie (4to Paris, 1780) is the most complete and 
 elaborate work that has ever been published with re- 
 spect to ancient moneys, weights, and measures. At 
 the same time we confess we should not be disposed to 
 place much reliance on these tables, and we have else- 
 where stated our reasons for holding this opinion. — 
 Enoyc. Briicmnica, art. Mokey. 
 
 Names and ProportionB. 
 
 Gerah 
 
 Jewish Coins. 
 
 1,200 
 
 60,000 
 
 Bekah 
 
 120 
 
 6000 
 
 Shekel 
 
 50 
 
 3000 
 
 aicaj 
 
 Maneh 
 
 Mina Hebraica. 
 
 Talent 342 
 
 60 
 
 in sterling. 
 
 I. d. 
 
 1 life 
 
 2 3| 
 14 0| 
 
 3 9 
 
 Solidus aureus, or sextula, worth 
 
 Siclus aureus, worth 1 
 
 A talent of gold, worth 5475 
 
 Geeoian Coins. "■ 
 
 Lepton 
 
 Chalcus 
 
 _7_ 
 U 
 
 28 
 
 56 
 
 112 
 
 221 
 
 336 
 
 662 
 
 132^ 
 1660 
 
 16 
 
 _32_ 
 "48" 
 
 96 
 
 112 
 
 384 
 
 Dichalcus 
 
 Hemiobolum 
 
 Obolus 
 
 Diobolum 
 
 Tetrobolum 
 
 Drachma 
 
 16 
 
 24 
 
 48 
 
 96 
 
 120 
 
 12 
 
 24 
 
 48 
 
 60 
 
 12 Oi 
 
 16 6 
 
 
 
 d. qrg. 
 
 0|^ 
 
 lA 
 
 2.f^ 
 
 12 
 
 24 
 
 30 
 
 12 
 
 15 
 
 H 
 
 6 
 
 7J 
 
 Didrachma 1 
 
 2 I Tetradrachma 2 
 
 Pentadrachma. 3 
 
 2^ li 
 
 H 
 
 2i 
 
 05 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 An Aooount or all Gold and Silver coined at tub Beitish Mint from the Ist of Janitakt, 1S16, to tue 31st De- 
 
 OEMBEE, 1S53. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Gold Coinage. 
 
 Silver Coinage. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Gold Comage. 
 
 silver Coinage. 
 
 
 £ e. d. 
 
 £ 
 
 rf. 
 
 
 £ ,. d. 
 
 £ ,. d. 
 
 1816 
 
 
 1,805,261 16 
 
 
 
 1835 
 
 1,109,718 8 10 
 
 146 665 4 
 
 181T 
 
 4,275,337 10 
 
 2,436,297 12 
 
 
 
 1836 
 
 1,787,782 5 5 
 
 497.719 4 
 
 1818 
 
 2,86-2,373 10 
 
 576,279 
 
 
 
 1837 
 
 1,568,088 8 2 
 
 76,385 4 
 
 1819 
 
 3,574 9 3 
 
 1,267,272 12 
 
 
 
 1838 
 
 2,855,364 16 
 
 174,''42 
 
 1820 
 
 949,516 10^ 
 
 847,717 4 
 
 
 
 1839 
 
 504,310 14 3 
 
 390,654 
 
 18 !1 
 
 9,520,758 13 9i 
 
 433,686 
 
 
 
 1840 
 
 
 207,900 
 
 1822 
 
 5,356,787 12 6 
 
 31,430 T 
 
 1 
 
 1841 
 
 878,472 10 
 
 89,641 4 
 
 1823 
 
 769,748 10 
 
 285,271 16 
 
 
 
 1842 
 
 .5,977,0!)! 18 2 
 
 192,852 
 
 1824 
 
 4,065,075 
 
 28-2,070 16 
 
 
 
 1843 
 
 ■ 6,607,849 10 
 
 239,680 6 
 
 182.5 
 
 4,680,919 
 
 417,535 16 
 
 
 
 1844 
 
 3,663,949 7 6 
 
 610.682 
 
 1836 
 
 5,896,461 T 6 
 
 608,605 16 
 
 
 
 1845 
 
 4,244,608 10 6i 
 
 647,658 
 
 182T 
 
 2,612,636 17 6 
 
 33,019 16 
 
 
 
 1846 
 
 4,334,911 17 6 
 
 559,543 
 
 1828 
 
 1,008,559 2 6 
 
 16,288 3 
 
 1 
 
 1847 
 
 5,148,440 
 
 125,730 9 
 
 1829 
 
 2,446,7.54 12 6 
 
 108,259 16 
 
 
 
 1848 
 
 2,451,999 10 1 
 
 35,442 
 
 1830 
 
 2,387,881 2 6 
 
 151 16 
 
 
 
 1849 
 
 2,177,955 1 1 
 
 119,692 
 
 1831 
 
 5' 8,517 5 
 
 33,696 5 
 
 8 
 
 1850 
 
 1,491,836 17 9 
 
 129,096 
 
 1832 
 
 3,787,065 10 
 
 145 4 
 
 
 
 1851 
 
 4,400,411 4 9 
 
 87,868 6 
 
 1833 
 
 1,2-25,269 13 6 
 
 145 4 
 
 
 
 1853 
 
 8,742,270 12 11 
 
 189,596 12 7 
 
 1834 
 
 66,949 12 5 
 
 432,775 4 
 
 
 
 1853 
 Total.. 
 
 11,952,391 5 11 
 
 701,544 14 3 
 
 121,246,628 7 9 
 
 14,837,046 12 8 
 
COI 
 
 353 
 
 COI 
 
 The currency of France consists chiefly of gold and 
 silver, in which larger payments are effected, and of 
 copper coins for the smaller suras. 
 
 It appears that from 1803 to 1814 there were coined, 
 with the effigy of Napoleon, at the different mints, of 
 which there are thirteen in France, in gold to the value 
 of £22,001,018, and in silver to the value of £36,992,602. 
 From 1814 to 1828, the amount of the coinage was 
 £17,081,635 in gold, of twenty and forty franc pieces; 
 and in silver the amount in pieces of five francs down 
 to five sous was £36,996,560 bearing the effigy of Louis 
 XVIII. and Charles X. On tho above data, the 
 amount of circulating specie in the kingdom was esti- 
 mated, on the 1st of January, 1828, at 2,718,731,183 
 francs, equal in value to £118,072,132 sterling. The 
 gold and silver currency, prior to the Revolution in 
 1789, was estimated at £87,600,000 sterling. We can 
 scarcely, however, draw any positive inference from 
 the quantity of gold and silver coined in France, re- 
 specting the amount of specie actually circulating, as 
 within the last twenty-seven years the exportation of 
 coin has been freely permitted. The coinage of France 
 has accordingly become an article of trade ; and bull- 
 ion and coin have been freely exported or imported. 
 
 according' to the necessities of commerce. For the ten 
 years preceding 1830, the quantity of bullion imported 
 exceeded the quantity exported by £39,089,667. 
 
 The amount of the gold and silver coinage in France 
 for 1863, with the value in francs and in sterling 
 money, was : 
 
 Sold. 
 
 Coinage. 
 
 Votao. 
 
 Value sterling. 
 
 20-f ratio pieces. . . . 
 10-franc pleoes 
 
 Total gold 
 
 Silver 
 
 Copper 
 
 Number. 
 16,641,600 
 
 1,763,346 
 
 Franca. 
 812,830,000 
 17,633,463 
 
 X 
 12,513,200 
 705,336 
 
 17,404,846 
 5,090,536 
 30,869,285 
 
 330,463,463 
 20,089,778 
 1,974,939 
 
 13,218,536 
 803,688 
 78,976 
 
 53,364,867 
 
 352,628,180 
 
 14,101,120 
 
 Coinage of the United Stales. — ^The Annual Report 
 of tho Director of the Mint, for the year 1855, shows 
 clearly the operation of the parent Mint and all the 
 branches, as well as of the Assay Office at New York, 
 for the whole year of 1856. It appears that the total 
 coinage for the year was over $56,000,000; and that 
 the aggregate coinage of the Mint and all its branches 
 (including gold bstrs), from the year 1793, has been 
 $498,866,596 82. The portions executed at the parent 
 Mint, and at each branch, have been as follows : 
 
 Minta, 
 
 Commenced 
 Bueinoi.. 
 
 Coinage, ,1855. 
 
 Total Coinage, 
 1793 to end of 1655. 
 
 1793 
 
 $12,046,B52 03 
 
 $377,383,808 87 
 
 1888 
 
 2,368,600 00 
 
 67,380,66500 
 
 1838 
 
 116,778 50 
 
 5,690,260 00 
 
 1838 
 
 217,035 50 
 
 4,222,626 60 
 
 1864 
 
 21,121,752 43 
 
 30,853,326 64 
 
 1854 
 
 20,441,813 63 
 
 23,329,872 81 
 
 
 $66,812,732 99 
 
 $498,866,666 82 
 
 Mint, United States, Fhiladelphia . . 
 
 Branch, New Orleans 
 
 Branch, Cablonega 
 
 Branch, Charlotte, North Carolina . 
 
 Branch, San Francisco 
 
 Assay Office, New York 
 
 Total 
 
 The domestic production of gold, so far as is indi- 
 cated by the deposits at the Mint, amounts to more 
 than three hundred and twenty-two millions of dollars 
 from the year 1793 to 1865, both inclusive. Of this 
 large sum, the gross product to the end of the year 
 1848 was little more than thirteen millions of dollars, 
 as is shown by the annexed table. To this aggregate 
 of three hundred and twenty-two millions of dollars 
 should be added several millions as the export from 
 California, via Panama, to Southampton, and also the 
 export to China and elsewhere. 
 Statement of Gold aj«» Silvek, op Domestic Pboduotion, 
 
 Dhl^OSITED AT THE MiNT AKD BKANCIIES AND AsSAY OFFIOE 
 
 AT New York, fkom 1804 To tue end of 1855. 
 
 Yeare. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 1804-18-^7 
 
 $110,000 00 
 
 5,003,500 00 
 
 7,635,076 00 
 
 896,676 00 
 
 7,079,144 00 
 
 36,988,314 00 
 
 56,540,612 00 
 
 64,606,963 00 
 
 65,622,051 00 
 
 67,258,158 23 
 
 49,851,779 11 
 
 $64;482 
 6,191 
 89,112 
 269,563 
 389,471 
 404,494 
 417,279 
 328,199 
 333,053 
 
 1828-1837 
 
 1838-1847 
 
 1848 
 
 ]8i9 
 
 1850 
 
 1851 
 
 1852 . 
 
 1853. . . i 
 
 1864 
 
 1865 
 
 Total 
 
 Deduct re-deposits of 1864. 
 Actual amount to 1856. . . . 
 
 $331,002,271 84 
 8,041,137 00 
 
 $2,261,634 
 
 $322,961,134 34 
 
 $2,261,534 
 
 Of this aggregate, about ninety-four per cent, has 
 been produced by California, namely ; 
 
 California (eight yeate) $313,235,502 77 
 
 North Carolina $8,282,152 85 
 
 Georgia 6,488,632 86 
 
 Virginia 1,468,210 60 
 
 South Carolina 1,184,305 44 
 
 Alabama 192,206 92 
 
 Tennessee 80,193 00 
 
 New Mexico 46,937 00 
 
 Other sources 64,831 00 
 
 17,766,768 5T 
 
 Total $331,002,27134 
 
 Deduct re-depoBits of 1854 8,041,137 00 
 
 Net product of the States $322,961,134 34 
 
 The gold mines of North Carolina are still in work- 
 ing order, with a large outlay of capital for their pros- 
 ecution ; but the average results may be considered as 
 not very profitable to the shareholders. 
 
 The reduced coinage at Philadelphia for 1855 is ac- 
 counted for by the unavoidable delays in the repairs at 
 the Mint, authorized by an appropriation made by 
 Congress for this purpose in 1855. These repairs and 
 alterations were commenced 19th July last, and occu- 
 pied six months. 
 
 The total value of the coinage of the United States, 
 from the year 1793 to 1855, both inclusive, has been 
 within a fraction of five hundred millions, namely : 
 
 Mints. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Copper. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 $296,371,582 66 
 30,689,261 64 
 37,830,865 00 
 4,222,626 60 
 6,690,266 00 
 23,329,872 81 
 
 $80,440,029 90 
 
 164,075 00 
 
 19,665,800 00 
 
 $1,572,196 31 
 
 $377,383,808 87 
 
 30,858,326 64 
 
 67,386,665 00 
 
 4,222,626 60 
 
 5,690,266 00 
 
 23,329,872 81 
 
 San Francisco Branch, 1S.'54 
 
 New Orleans " 1838-1856 
 
 Charlotte " 1838-1856 
 
 Dahlonega " 1S3S-1855 
 
 Assay Office, New York, 1864 
 
 Totals 
 
 $307,134,464 61 
 
 $100,159,904 90 
 
 $1,572,196 31 
 
 $498,866,565 82 
 
 
 For the year 1855, the aggregate coinage, including fine bars, was $56,312,732 99, namely : 
 
 Fhiladelphia . . . 
 San Francisco . . 
 
 New Orleans 
 
 Charlotte 
 
 Dahlonega 
 
 Assay Office .... 
 Totals. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 $10,610,752 14 
 
 20,957,677 43 
 
 450,500 00 
 
 217,936 50 
 
 116,778 50 
 
 20,441,813 63 
 
 $52,796,467 20 
 
 $1,419,170 
 
 164,076 
 
 1,918,000 
 
 $8,501,245 
 
 Copp er. 
 $16,030 78 
 
 $16,030 78 
 
 Total. 
 
 20, 
 
 ,045,962 98 
 .121,752 48 
 ,368,600 00 
 217,935 60 
 116,778 60 
 ,441,813 68 
 
 $56,812,732 99 
 
COI 
 
 354 
 
 COI 
 
 It will appear from this tabular view that the branch 
 Mints at New Orleans, Dahlonega, and Charlotte 
 couH be advantageously dispensed with. The gold 
 coinage last year at Kew Orleans was only $450,500, 
 and the silver, $1,918,000. All this could have been 
 done at Philadelphia; and now that the parent Mint 
 is provided with new and improved machinery, all the 
 silver coinage may as well be done at that point. 
 
 It appears that the amiual coinage at the Georgia 
 and North Carolina branches is less than the years 
 1848-1853— having declined from #900,000 in 1862, to 
 $333,000 in 1855. According to a report made by Mr. 
 J. Phillips Phenix, of the Committee on Commerce, 
 to the House of Representatives, in September, 1850, 
 when the coinage at these two branches was double 
 what it is now, the expense of coinage was estimated 
 as follows : 
 
 At Philadelphia 2*23 percent. 
 
 At New Orleans 6-68 " 
 
 At Charlotte 900 " 
 
 At Dahlonega 9-97 " 
 
 At this time, the percentage at the branch Mints 
 must be greater, as the work is less. Every dollar 
 coined at the Charlotte and Dahlonega, probably costs 
 ten cents ; whereas the raw material could be trans- 
 ported, at a small cost, to Philadelphia or New York. 
 •The annual expense of thirty or forty thousand dollars 
 for the maintenance of these two Mints could well be 
 dispensed with, and the coinage executed at Philadel- 
 phia and New York. In fact, the heavy expense in- 
 curred by the government for the support of the Mint 
 at New Orleans is entirely superfluous. The receipts 
 of gold at that quarter are now too small to require the 
 further working of a Mint there. 
 
 The Director of the Mint, in his report recently 
 made, alludes to recent improvements in machinery 
 which are calculated to facilitate coinage operations, 
 and to produce more highly finished pieces, namely : 
 " In the coinage of half eagles particularly, we shall 
 be materially aided by a very remarkable machine 
 lately invented. * * * This machine was manufac- 
 tured at Paris, and has been introduced into the Mint 
 there, and one of similar powers is also employed in 
 the Mint of England. The one imported for the United 
 States Mint is adapted to the half eagle only. It is 
 justly regarded as a triumph of mechanism." 
 
 The largely increased production of gold in Austra- 
 lia and California, of late years, has, of course, stimu- 
 lated the workings of the Mints of foreign countries. 
 The coinage may be fairly estimated at about two hun- 
 dred minions of dollars annually in gold, fifty millions 
 in silver, and nearly one million in copper. "We find 
 
 the annexed summary of foreign coinage for the year 
 1853, the latest, to which we add that of the United 
 States for the same year, all reduced to sterling : 
 
 SllMMAKT OP THE COINAGE OF VABI0U8 MlNTa THKOTJQHOUT 
 THE WOELD IN THE YeAB 1863. 
 
 Conn tries. 
 
 Great Biitain, 
 
 France 
 
 Spain 
 
 PruBEiia 
 
 Austria 
 
 United States. 
 India 
 
 Silver. 
 
 £11,962,391 
 13,218,536 
 
 '35,'292 
 
 1,028,700 
 
 11,042,781 
 
 123,000 
 
 Totals... |i;b7,400, 700 
 
 £701,544 
 
 803,588 
 
 360,724 
 
 86,014 
 
 1,657,485 
 
 1,816,614 
 
 4,240,000 
 
 £9,594,869 
 
 Copper. I Total. 
 
 £9,073 
 78,996 
 
 13,412 
 63,600, 
 
 £12,663,008 
 
 14,101,120 
 
 350,724 
 
 131,306 
 
 2,586,185 
 
 12,871,707 
 
 4,426,600 
 
 £165,081|£47,130,650 
 
 The act of Congress to create new silver coins and 
 to reduce the weight of the old denominations, has had 
 a good effect in providing the country with an abund- 
 ance of the small coins, and the new act passed by Con- 
 gress in February, 1857, and now in force, will have 
 the effect to drive out of circulation the old and de- 
 preciated Spanish coins that have for many years been 
 in use. 
 
 The Act of Congress of Februaiy, 1857, in reference 
 to the Coinage, will produce a very desirable reform 
 in our currency of silver and copper coins. The new 
 act authorizes the creation and distribution of a new 
 cent, which relieves us of a hitherto ponderous coin — 
 the comparative weights being as follows : Aci of Jan- 
 uary 18, 1837, 168 grains ; Act of February, 1857, 72 
 grains : diflisrence, 96 grains. The former acts of Con- 
 gress did not make copper coins a legal tender ; and it 
 has been disputed as to what amount they were re- 
 ceivable for debts; nor does the new act make them 
 legal tenders for any sum. The new cent may be read- 
 ily distinguished in the dark from the current silver 
 coin. It presents about the same surface as the ten-cent 
 piece, but is about double the thickness with a smooth 
 edge ; whereas the ten-cent piece has a milled edge. 
 
 With the aid of the twenty millions of dollars in 
 small silver coins executed since the act of March 3, 
 1853, and the coinage of two or three millions more 
 annually, for the next few years, the country will be 
 liberally provided with small silver coins, that will 
 not only enter into general circulation and effect the 
 purposes intended, but they will not be liable to be 
 used for the arts and manufactures, their legal value 
 being about ten per cent, beyond that of their intrinsic 
 value as metal. 
 
 According to a careful table prepared for the Augs- 
 burg Allcjaneine Zeitung, published April 16, 1856, the 
 following table will show the amount of gold and sil- 
 ver that has been extracted during various periods 
 from the birth of Christ down to the year 1855 : 
 
 Years. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 SilTOr. 
 
 Valne. 
 
 Value. > 
 
 From A.D. to 1492 
 
 Kilo. 
 
 6,123,711 
 
 3,856,487 
 
 270,190 
 
 863,614 
 
 339,536 
 
 1,615,654" 
 
 Kilo. 
 13,662,107 
 137,096,830 
 6,237,414 
 16,716,928 
 8,013,411 
 4,054,862 
 
 Francs. 
 28,469,000,000 
 40,523,000,000 
 2,283,000,000 
 6,698,000,000 
 1,803,000,000 
 6,376,000,000 
 
 Dollars. 
 4,691,800,000 
 8,104,600,000 
 
 457,600,000 
 1,819,600,000 
 
 200,600,000 
 1,276,000,000 
 
 " 1492 to 1810 
 
 " 1810 to 1825 
 
 " 1826 to IS'18 
 
 " 1848 to 1861 
 
 " 1861 to 1S55 
 
 
 Total 
 
 
 
 81,046,000,000 
 
 16,209,200,000 
 
 FKODUCTION OF GOLD IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 Statement of Gold, of Domebtio Peoxhtctiom, DEroaiTED at the Mikt anj) Branodes to the olobe of tiie Yeak 18D5. 
 
 yeniB. 
 
 Philadclphw. 
 
 San Francisco. 
 
 New Orleans. 
 
 Clarlolte, N. C. 
 
 Dalilonega, Ga. 
 
 New Vorlt. 
 
 Totals. 
 
 1804-1827. . 
 
 $110,000 00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 $110,000 00 
 
 1828-1837. . 
 
 5,063,600 00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6,063,600 00 
 
 1838-1847. . 
 
 2,623,641 00 
 
 
 $119,699 00 
 
 $1,673,718 00 
 
 $3,218,017 00 
 
 
 7,635,076 00 
 
 1848 
 
 241,544 00 
 
 
 12,593 00 
 
 370,786 00 
 
 271,753 00 
 
 
 896,676 00 
 
 1849 
 
 5,767,092 00 
 
 
 677,189 00 
 
 890,732 00 
 
 244,131 00 
 
 
 7,079,144 00 
 
 1850 
 
 31,790,806 00 
 
 
 4,580,021 00 
 
 320,289 00 
 
 247,098 00 
 
 
 36,988,314 00 
 
 1851 
 
 47,074,620 00 
 
 
 8,770,722 00 
 
 316,061 00 
 
 379,309 00 
 
 
 66,540,612 00 
 
 1852. 
 
 49,821,490 00 
 
 
 3,777,784 00 
 
 430,900 00 
 
 476,789 00 
 
 
 64,506,963 00 
 
 1863 
 
 52,857,931 00 
 
 
 2,006,678 00 
 
 305,157 CO 
 
 462,290 00 
 
 
 55,622,061 00 
 
 1864 
 
 35,713,358 00 
 
 $10,342,281 23 
 
 981,511 00 
 
 213,606 00 
 
 280,225 00 
 
 $9,227,177 00 
 
 57,258,168 23 
 
 1855 
 
 Total.... 
 
 2,691,497 68 
 
 20,860,437 20 
 
 411,617 24 
 
 210,988 SO 
 
 116,652 07 
 
 26,054.686 11 
 
 49,351,779 11 
 
 $233,764,879 63 
 
 $31,702,718 48 
 
 $21,337,709 24 
 
 $4,238,236 86 
 
 !t5,086,864 07 
 
 $34,281,863 11 
 
 $331,002,271 34 
 8,041,187 00 
 
 Deduct rt 
 Actual an 
 
 -deposits of 1854 
 lount of domesti 
 
 
 c gold deposited 
 
 $322,961,134 34 
 
COI 
 
 355 COI 
 
 GOLD) Silver, and Coppek Coins of the United States. 
 
 Coim. 
 
 Fineness. 
 
 Standatd -yrelght. 
 
 Villus. 
 
 Gold Coins of 1855-'56. 
 
 Double eagle 
 
 ■900 
 ■900 
 •BOO 
 ■900 
 •900 
 •900 
 
 ■900 
 ■900 
 •BOO 
 ■900 
 ■900 
 ■900 
 
 Giains. 
 
 B16- 
 
 268- 
 
 189 • 
 TT-4 
 64^5 
 25^8 
 
 412 ■S 
 
 192- 
 96 ■ 
 38-4 
 19 2 
 11-52 
 
 168- 
 84^ 
 1i- 
 
 Dollars. 
 20^00 
 10^00 
 500 
 3-00 
 2-50 
 1-00 
 
 1-00 
 ■50 
 •25 
 •10 
 ■05 
 •03 
 
 •01 
 
 ■005 
 
 •01 
 
 Eagle 
 
 Half-eagle 
 
 Three dollars 
 
 
 Dollar 
 
 SlLTKK Coiwa OF 18Bfi-'e6. 
 
 Dollar , ^ 
 
 Half-dollar 
 
 
 Dime 
 
 Half-dime 
 
 
 CoppBs Coins. 
 Cent(183Tj 
 
 Half-cent 
 
 New cent aSST) 
 
 COINAGIi; 01? THE UNITED STATES. 
 Gold and Silvee Coinage at the Mint op the United 
 States in the bevebal Years from its Establishment, 
 
 IN 1792, AND TNCLITDINQ THE COINAGE OF THE BeANCII 
 
 Mints and the Assay Office (New York), from their 
 Orqanization to September 30, 1S57. 
 
 Yaars, 
 
 1793 to 1T95 . . . 
 
 1796 
 
 1T97 
 
 1798 
 
 1799 
 
 1800 
 
 1801 
 
 1804 
 
 1805 
 
 1803 
 
 1807 
 
 1S08 ;.... 
 
 1809 
 
 1810 
 
 1811 
 
 1812 
 
 1813.; 
 
 1814 
 
 1815 
 
 1816 
 
 1817 
 
 1818 
 
 1819 
 
 1820 
 
 1831 
 
 1822 
 
 1823 
 
 18'24 
 
 18-25 
 
 18-26 
 
 1827 
 
 18-28 
 
 18-29 
 
 1830 
 
 1331 
 
 1832 
 
 1833 
 
 1834 
 
 1835 
 
 1836 
 
 1837 
 
 1838 
 
 1839 
 
 1840 
 
 1841 
 
 1842 
 
 1843 
 
 1844 
 
 1845 
 
 1846 
 
 1847 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 
 
 1850 
 
 1851 
 
 1852 
 
 1853 
 
 1854 
 
 1866 (to Sep. SO) 
 1S66 (to Sep. 30) 
 1857 (to Sep. 30) 
 Total 
 
 Gold. 
 
 DollaTs. cts. 
 
 71,485 00 
 102,727 50 
 103,422 50 
 205,010 00 
 213,285 00 
 317,760 00 
 422,570 00 
 423,310 00 
 253,377 60 
 258,042 60 
 170,367 50 
 324,505 00 
 437,495 00 
 284,666 Ob 
 109,375 00 
 501,48500 
 4')7,005 00 
 290,436 00 
 477,140 00 
 
 77,270 00 
 3,1T5 00 
 
 242,940 00 
 
 258,616 00 
 
 1,310,030 00 
 
 189,325 00 
 
 ' 88,980 00 
 
 72,425 00 
 
 93,200 00 
 
 156,385 00 
 
 92,245 00 
 
 131,565 00 
 
 140,145 00 
 
 295,717 60 
 
 643,105 00 
 
 714,270 00 
 
 798,435 00 
 
 978,559 00 
 
 3,954,210 00 
 
 2,186,175 00 
 
 4,135,700 00 
 
 1,148,305 00 
 
 1,809,596 00 
 
 1.376.760 00 
 1,690,802 0.) 
 1,102,0.57 60 
 1,833,170 50 
 8,302,787 60 
 5,4-28,230 00 
 3,753,447 80 
 4,034,177 60 
 
 20,-221,335 00 
 3,776,512 50 
 
 9.007.761 60 
 31,981,738 50 
 02,614,492 60 
 66,846,187 50 
 55,213,906 94 
 52,094,596 47 
 41,166,557 93 
 58,936,893 41 
 48,437,964 31 
 
 492,880,403 06 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Dollars. Cts. 
 
 370,683 SO 
 
 79,077 50 
 
 12,691 45 
 
 330,29100 
 
 423,515 00 
 
 224,296 00 
 
 74,758 00 
 
 63,343 00 
 
 87,118 00 
 
 100,340 60 
 
 149,388 50 
 
 471,319 00 
 
 697,448 75 
 
 634,300 OO 
 
 707,376 00 
 
 638,773 BO 
 
 608,340 00 
 
 814,029 50 
 
 620,951 53 
 
 561,687 50 
 
 17,303 0,5 
 
 28,575 75 
 
 607,783 50 
 
 1,070,454 50 
 
 l,140i000 00 
 
 501,680 70 
 
 825,762 45 
 
 805,806 50 
 
 835,650 00 
 
 1,753,477 00 
 
 1,564,533 00 
 
 2,002,090 00 
 
 2,869,200 00 
 
 1,675,600 00 
 
 1,994,578 00 
 
 2,495,400 00 
 
 3,176,600 00 
 
 2,579,000 00 
 
 2,769,000 00 
 
 3.415.002 00 
 
 8.443.003 Oil 
 3,606,100 00 
 2,096,010 00 
 2,315,250 00 
 2,098,636 00 
 1,712,178 00 
 1,115,875 00 
 2,325,750 00 
 3,722,250 00 
 2,235,550 00 
 1,873,200 00 
 2,658,680 00 
 2,374,410 00 
 2,040,050 00 
 2,114,969 00 
 1,866,100 00 
 
 774,397 00 
 909,410 00 
 9,077,671 00 
 . 8,619,270 00 
 2,893,745 00 
 5,347,070 49 
 3,375,608 01 
 
 108,276,083 40 
 
 Aggregate. 
 
 Dollars. Cts. 
 
 44'!,168 80 
 
 181,805 00 
 
 116,013 05 
 
 536,901 00 
 
 636,800 03 
 
 542,056 00 
 
 497,328 00 
 
 481,663 00 
 
 346,496.50 
 
 368,983 00 
 
 319,756 00 
 
 ' 795,824 00 
 
 .1,034,943 75 
 
 968,965 00 
 
 876,751 00 
 
 1,140,208 50 
 
 1,106,245 00 
 
 1,104,464 50 
 
 1,098,091 50 
 
 638,957 50 
 
 20,483 00 
 
 28,575 76 
 
 007',783 60 
 
 1,313,394 50 
 
 1,398,615 00 
 
 1,820,710 70 
 
 1,015,087 45 
 
 894,786 60 
 
 967,975 00 
 
 1,845,677 00 
 
 1,720,908 00 
 
 2,094,335 00 
 
 3,000,766 00 
 
 1,715,745 00 
 
 2,290,295 50 
 
 3,138,505 00 
 
 3,889,870 00 
 
 3,377,435 00 
 
 3,737,560 00 
 
 7,369,272 00 
 
 6,629,178 00 
 
 7,741,800 00 
 
 3,244,315 00 
 
 4,124,846 00 
 
 3,474,396 00 
 
 3,402,980 00 
 
 2,217,972 50 
 
 4,158,920 50 
 
 12,025,037 50 
 
 7,663,780 00 
 
 5,629,647 50 
 
 6,532,757 50 
 
 2-3,596,836 00 
 
 6,815,662 50 
 
 11,122,711 50 
 
 33,847,838 .50 
 
 63,338,889 50 
 
 57,845,597 50 
 
 64,291,477 94 
 
 60,713,865 47 
 
 44,060,302 93 
 
 64.283,963 90 
 
 61,813,672 32 
 
 601,155,486 46 
 
 By an act of Congress, 1. The old Spanish coins 
 are receivable at the Treasury of the United States 
 and several offices, at the Post-ofSces and Land-offices, 
 at the following rates : 
 
 Quarter-dollar 20 cents. 
 
 Eighth-dollar 10 cents. 
 
 Sixteenth-dollar ; 5 cents. 
 
 [Bu( bi/ the sixth section, they will be receivable at 25, 
 12f, and 6i cents, respectively, in exchange for the new 
 cents.'\ 
 
 2. Such old coins " shall not again be paid out or 
 put in circulation, but fhall be recoined at the Mint" 
 for distribution, 
 
 8. All former acts authorizing the currency of for- 
 eign gold or silver coins, and declaring the same a legal 
 tender in payment for debts, are repealed ; but it shall 
 be the duty of the Director of the Mint to cause assays 
 to be made; from time to time, of such foreign coins as 
 may be known to our commerce, to determine their 
 average weight, fineness, and value, and to embrace 
 in his annual report a statement of the results thereof. 
 
 4. The standard weight of the centshall be seventy- 
 two grains ; composed of 88 per cent, of copper and 12 
 per cent, of nickel ; and the coinage of the half-cent 
 shall be discontinued. 
 
 5. Authorizes the Treasurer of the Mint to purchase 
 the materials necessary for the coinage of the new cent. 
 
 6. It shall be lawful to pay out the said cent at the 
 Mint in exchange for any of the gold and silver coins 
 of the United States, and also in exchange for the for- 
 mer copper coins issued ; and to transmit parcels of the 
 said cents, fix)m time to time, to the assistant treasurers 
 and other officers for exchange ; and it shall also be 
 lawful for the space of two years from the passage of 
 this act, and no longer, to pay out at the Mint the cents 
 aforesaid for the fractional parts of the dollar herein 
 before named at their nominal value of twenty-five, 
 twelve and a half, and six and a quarter cents respect- 
 ively, 
 
 7. Hereafter the Director of the Mint shall make 
 his Annual Report up to the 30th June (instead of 31st 
 December, as heretofore), so that the results of the 
 year's operations may appear in the Annual Report of 
 the Secretary of the Treasury. 
 
 In the Annual Report of the Director of the Mint of 
 the United States for 1857, he says : " As my Report in 
 January last presented a statement of the operations 
 for the j'ear 1856, this Report will embrace the opera- 
 tions since that time, namely, from the first day of 
 January to the 30th of Jime, a period of six months. 
 
 "For the purpose of exhibiting in a condensed form 
 the entire operations of the Mint and its branches, 1 
 present the annexed summary statement. It embraces 
 the amount of gold and silver bullion operated upon 
 from the time of their respective organizations to the 
 30th of June, 1857 : 
 
 Mint of the United States, established 1793 . . $394,806,440 91 
 Branch Mint at New Orleans, " 1838.. 59,423,415 00 
 Branch Mint at Dahlonega, " 1838. . 5,825,747 00 
 Br.inch Mint at Charlotte, " 1838. . 4,403,669 03 
 Branch Mint at San Francisco " 1654.. 71,909,473 93 
 Assay Office at New York " 1854. . 52.191,443 33 
 Total $888,619,188 17 
 
 " Of this amount there has been received since the 
 1st of January, 1849, of native gold, the production of 
 the United States, the sum of four hundred and two 
 millions of dollars. If, in addition to this sum, we 
 add the gold produced from Australia and other foreign 
 countries during the same period, which may be stated 
 to be about five hundred millions of dollars, and the 
 production of silver bullion from all sources, which is 
 at the rate of about forty millions per annum, it will 
 be seen that within this comparatively brief period the 
 world's supply of the precious metals has been increased 
 to the extent of twelve hundred and forty-two millions 
 of dollars."— Further information on Coins and Coin- 
 age may be obtained by reference to the Quarterly Rev., 
 Ixxii. 194; North American Review, Ivi. 208 (C. F. 
 Adams) ; Hunt's Merchants' Magazine, v. 379, vii. 267, 
 iv. 434 ; De Bow's Review, ii. 281 ; Bankers' Magazine, 
 vol. X. (Professor De Morgan) ; Manual of Coins, by 
 EoKFELDT and Do Bois, of United States Mint. 
 
COK 
 
 356 
 
 COL 
 
 Coir, a species of yam manufactured out of the 
 husk of cocoa-nuts. The husks being steeped in wa- 
 ter, the dry dusty substance mixed with the fibres is 
 separated. Tliese are afterward spun into yarn, and 
 manufactured into cordage, that is deemed by some 
 superior to that made of hemp. The goodness of coir 
 depends on the fineness of the filaments, and on their 
 being of a bright yellow color. About 2,500,000 lbs. 
 weight are annually exported from Ceylon, principally 
 to Calcutta, a:nd other ports in the East Indies. It is 
 also prepared in the Maldive Islands, and many other 
 places ; and is very extensively used throughout the 
 East. — Bektolacci's Cc-ylcn; Bell's Commerce of 
 Bengal^ He. 
 
 Coke, or Coak, charred pit-coal, .prepared for the 
 smelting of iron ore by igniting the coals piled up in 
 long ridges in the open air, and closing in the cinders 
 with earth when brought to a glowing red heat. For 
 the use of the manufacturers, the method hitherto most 
 in practice has been to bum the small or screened coal 
 in conical ovens, built of fire-stone or brick, the floor 
 being generally about 6 feet in diameter, and the oven 
 8 feet high, while ah. aperture of 18 inches diameter is 
 left at the top. The small coal is thrown in to the 
 depth of 15 inches or more, and then ignited. The 
 oven door is at first kept open, and the hole at the top 
 left uncovered till the mass is red hot. The door is 
 then closed, and by degrees the hole at the top is cov- 
 ered over with two large flat stones, gradually ap- 
 proaching each other, when the whole is left to cool. 
 When sufficiently cooled, it is drawn out with long iron 
 rakes, and the mass is found to have assumed a rude 
 columnar arrangement. The oven is immediately 
 charged again with small coal, which the heat remain- 
 ing in the floor is found sufficient to ignite, and so the 
 operation goes on. In both the above ways good cokes 
 are made, but the volatile products are lost. To save 
 these, Lord Dundonald proposed to bum the coals in 
 a close furnace, to which he adapted an apparatus for 
 conveying the coal-tar, with the ammoniacal prod- 
 ucts, into proper recipients. About the same time. 
 Baron Von Haak, a German, constructed works in the 
 neighborhood of Newcastle for distilling the small 
 coal in large cast-iron cylinders upon the plan which 
 has since been adopted in the gas-works, except that 
 the soot from the furnace fires is, at Newcastle, during 
 a certain i>eriod of the combustion, before any gray 
 ashes have begun to arise, conveyed into a chamber 
 contrived for the purpose, and collected for lamp-black. 
 It is a curious circumstance, and illustrative of the 
 changes which the carboniferous structure undergoes, 
 that the coal increases in bulk by getting rid of its 
 gas ; eight sacks of coal will yield ten sacks of coke. 
 
 One of the curiosities in coke is that, although so 
 granular in appearance, some of the particles have al- 
 most the hardness of the diamond, and are found fit- 
 ted for cutting glass. — ^E. B. 
 
 Colliery, a place where coal is found in stratified 
 masses, and excavated by manual labor, and common- 
 ly brought to the surface by mechanical power. The 
 exact date when coal began to be used as a fuel is not 
 very certain ; the appearance, if not the use of the 
 mineral, must have been known for a long time in 
 districts where the deposit was naturally exposed; 
 and, according to some authorities, it is mentioned as 
 haying been used in England in the ninth century, 
 852. In 1259 King Henry III. granted the privilege 
 of digging coals to certain parties in Newcastle. Seven 
 years afterward coal had become an article of export, 
 and was termed sea-coal; and in 1306, so extensive 
 was the use of coals in London, that Parliament com- 
 plained to the king of the noxious vapors therefrom 
 polluting the atmosphere. In consequence of which 
 proclamation was made against their further use, lest 
 the health of the knights of the shire should suffer dur- 
 ing their residence in the metropolis. Blythe, writ- 
 ing in 1649, states; " It was not many years since the 
 
 famous city of London petitioned the Parliament of 
 England against two nuisances or oft'ensive commodi- 
 ties, which were likely to come into great use and es- 
 teem ; and that was, Newcastle coals, in regard of their 
 stench, etc. ; and hops, in regard they would spoyle 
 the taste of drinck, and endanger the people." In Bel- 
 gium the earliest reference to coal was in 1198 or 1200, 
 in the county of Li^ge, where, according to tradition, 
 a blacksmith was the first to use it as fuel. In France 
 the precise period of its adoption as a substitute for 
 wood is not ascertained. The commencement of its 
 use in Paris was in 1520, the coal being drawn, not 
 from the mines of France, but from the collieries of 
 Newcastle. In Scotland coal was known and used 
 probably at a very early date. We are informed by 
 Chalmers, the antiquary, that coal was worked at 
 Bo'ness by William de Verepont before the end of the 
 twelfth century, and that a tenth of the coals was paid 
 to the monks of Holyrood House. It is more curious, 
 however, than important here, to trace the date when 
 mineral coal was first used as a fuel. The earliest em- 
 ployment of it in England in the manufacture of iron 
 was in 1713, at Colebrookdale, in Scotland, about the 
 commencement of the eighteenth century, and in 
 France in 1782.— E. B. See Coal. 
 
 Collision (Fr. Abordat/e), in a. general sense, is 
 the act of any two or more bodies coming forcibly to- 
 gether; but in commercial navigation it means the 
 shock of two ships coming into sudden and violent con- 
 tact at sea, by which one or both may be more or less 
 injured. From the great increase of navigation, the 
 risk of accidents by collision at sea has been propor- 
 tionally augmented. And it is, therefore, of much im- 
 portance, 1st, to adopt such measures as may be most 
 likely to prevent their occurrence ; and, 2d, to determine 
 by whom a loss, when it does occur, should be borne. 
 
 In regard to the first and most essential of tliese ob- 
 . jects, it is effected, in part at least, by whatever con- 
 tributes to the general improvement and security of 
 navigation. At common law, every master of a ship 
 is bound to keep a proper watch at sea, especially in 
 channels much frequented by shipping, and to iise 
 every precaution to avoid coming into contact with 
 other vessels. But this matter has been judged too 
 important to be left wholly to depend on the good sense 
 and care of individuals ; and with a view to the secur- 
 ing of attention to the subject, and to the obviating of 
 the confusion that would unavoidably arise were ship- 
 masters left to follow their own ideas with respect to 
 it, rules and regulations have been laid down in regard 
 to the courses to be steered when ships are passing each 
 other, the signals to be made during fogs, the number 
 and descrii^tion of the lights to be exhibited at night, 
 and other particulars. In 1840, the Trinity House, in 
 Great Britain, promulgated a rule of this sort ; and 
 though not in itself law, masters not complying with 
 its instructions were held to be guilty of unseamaidike 
 conduct, and the owners were made responsible for 
 the consequences. Regulations similar to those con- 
 tained in the Trinity rule have since been enacted by 
 the Legislature. As there is no especial statute law[in 
 the United States, we follow in a measure the decisions 
 of the English courts, and are governed by the prece- 
 dents they have established. — See Kejjt's Comvi., Lect. 
 XLVII. The existing English statute law on the sub- 
 ject is embodied in the following clauses of the En- 
 glish Mercantile Shipping Act of 1854, 17 and 18 Vict, 
 c. 104: 
 
 Regulations as to Lights and Fog Signals, — The following 
 rules shall be observed with regard to lights and fog signals; 
 viz. : 1. The Admiralty shall from time to time make regula- 
 tions requiring the exhibition of such lights, by such classes 
 of ships, whether steam or sailing ships, within such places 
 and under such circumstances as they think fit, and may from 
 time to time revoke, alter, or vary the same, 2. The Admi- 
 ralty may, if they think fit, make regulations requiring the use 
 of such fog signals, by such classes of ships, whether steam or 
 sailing ships, within such places and under such circumstances 
 
COL 
 
 357 
 
 COL 
 
 as they think fit, and may from time to time revoke, alter, or 
 vary the same. 3. All regulations made in pursuance of this 
 section shall be published iu the Loudon Gazette, and shall 
 come into operation on a day to be named in the Gazette iu 
 which they are published, and the Admiralty shall cause all 
 such regulations to be printed, and shall furnish a copy thereof 
 to any owner or master of a ship who applies for the same, and 
 production of the Gazette containing such regulations shall be 
 sufficient evidence of the due making and purport thereof. 4. 
 AH owners and masters shall be bound to take notice of the 
 same, and shall j so long as the same continues in force, exhibit 
 such lights, and use such fog signals, at such times, ^vithin 
 such places, in such manner, and under such circumstances 
 as are enjoined by such regulations, and shall not exhibit any 
 other lights or use any other fog signals, and in case of def^-ult 
 the master, or the owner of the ship, if it appears that he was 
 In fault, shall for each occasion upon which such regulations 
 are infringed incur a penalty not exceeding £20. 
 
 Rule as to Ships meeting each other. — ^Whenever any ship, 
 whether a steam or sailing ship, proceeding in one direction, 
 meets another ship, whether a steam or sailing ship, proceed- 
 ing in another direction, so that if both ships were to continue 
 their respective courses they would pass so near as to involve 
 any risk of a collision, the- helms of both ships shall be put to 
 port so as to pass on the port side of each other ; and this rule 
 shall be obeyed by all steamships and by all sailing ships, 
 whether on the port or starboard tack, and whether close- 
 hauled tirhot, unless the circumstances of the case are such as 
 to render a departure from the rule necessary in order to avoid 
 immediate danger, and subject also to the proviso that due re- 
 gard shall be had to the dangers of navigation, and, as regards 
 sailing ships on the starboard tack close-hauled, to the keep- 
 ing such ships under command. Jtule for Steamers in nar- 
 row Channels. — Every steamship, when navigating any nar- 
 row channel, shall, whenever it is safe and practicable, keep 
 to that side of the fair way or mid-channel which lies on the 
 starboard side of such steamship. If Collision ensms from 
 Brmch of the above Mules, Qwner rwt to he entitled to recover. 
 — If in any case of collision it appears to the court before which 
 the case is tried that such collision was occasioned by the non- 
 observance of any rule for the exhibition of lights or the use 
 of fog signals issued in pursuance of the powers before con- 
 tained, or of the foregoing rules as to the passing of steam 
 and sailing ships, tlie owner of the ship by which such rule 
 has been infringed shall not be entitled to recover any recom- 
 pense whatever fpr any damage sustained by such ship in such 
 collision, unless it is shown to the satisfaction of the court that 
 the circumstances of the case made a departure from the rule 
 necessary. Breaches of such Rules to imply will ful Default. 
 — ^In case any damage to person or property ai-ises from the 
 non-observance by any ship of any of the said mles, such dam- 
 age shall be deemed to have been occasioned by the willful de- 
 fault of the person in charge of the deck of such ship at the 
 time, unless it is shown to the satisfaction of the court that 
 the circumstances of the case made a departure from the rule 
 necessaiy. 
 
 An authority similar to that given to the Lords of 
 the Admiralty by the clause of the Mercantile Ship- 
 ping Act now quoted had been already given to them, 
 and under that authority they issued the following 
 regulations, which ai-e now (1865) in force : 
 
 SteaiYhVessels. — All British sea-going steam vessels (wheth- 
 er propelled by paddles dr screw) shall, within all seas, gulfe, 
 channels; straits, bays, creeks, roads, roadsteads, harbors, 
 havens, ports, and rivers, and under all circumstances, be- 
 tween sunset and sunrise, exhibit lights of such description, 
 and in such manner as hereinafter mentioned; viz., when un- 
 der steam: A bright white light at the foremast head; a green 
 light on the starboard side; a red light on the port side. 1. 
 The mast-head light is to be visible at a distance of at least five 
 miles in a dark night, with a clear atmosphere, and the lan- 
 tern is to be so constructed as to show a uniform and unbroken 
 light over an arc of the horizon of twenty points of the com- 
 pass, being ten points on each side of the ship, viz., from right 
 ahead to two points abaft the beam on either side. 2. The 
 gi-een light on the starboard side is to be visible at a distance 
 of at least two miles in a dark night, with a clear atmosphere ; 
 and the lantern is to be so constructed as to show a uniform 
 and unbroken light over an arc of the horizon of ten points 
 of the compass, viz., fi'om right ahead to twb points abaft the 
 beam on the starboard side. 3. The red light on the poi-t side 
 is likewise to be fitted so as to throw its light the same distance 
 on that Bide. 4. The side lights are, moreover, to be fitted with 
 screens, on. the inboard side, of at least three feet long, to pre- 
 vent the lights from being seen across the bow. Wh^n at an- 
 chor: A common bright light. 
 
 Sailing Veesela. — ^We hereby require that all sailing vessels 
 when under sail, or being towed, approaching or being ap- 
 proached by any other vessel, shall be hound to show between 
 sunset and sunrise a bright light in such a position as can 
 be best seen by such vessel or vessels, and in sufficient time 
 to avoid collision. All sailing vessels at anchor in roadsteads 
 or fair ways shall be also' bound to exhibit, between sunset 
 and sunrise, a constant bright light at the mast-head, except 
 within harbors or other places where regulations for other 
 lights for ships are legally established. The lantern to be 
 used when at anchor, both by steam vessels and sailing-ves- 
 sels, is to be so constmcted as to show a clear good light all 
 round the horizon. We hereby revoke all regulations here- 
 tofore made by us relating to steam vessels exhibiting or car- 
 lying lights; and we require that the preceding regulations 
 be strictly can-ied into efiect after the 1st day of August, 1852. 
 
 pirectiona for Fitting the Lights.— The manner of fitting 
 the colored lights is to be particularly attended to. They 
 should be fitted each with a screen of wood on the inboard 
 side, in order to prevent both being seen at the same moment 
 from any direction but thatof right ahead. This is important, 
 for without the screens (a principle first introduced with this 
 plan) any plan of bow-lights would be ineffective as a means 
 of indicating the. direction of steering. This will be readily 
 understood py a reference to the illustrations, where it will 
 appear evident that in any situation in which two vessels may 
 approach each other in the dark, the colored lights will in- 
 stantly indicate to both the relative course of each ; tliat is, 
 each will know whether the other is approaching dii-ectly or 
 crossing the bows, either to starboard or to poit. This intima- 
 tion is all that is required to enable- vessels to pass each other 
 in the darkest night, with almost equal safety as in broad day, 
 and for the want of which so many lamentable accidents have 
 occurred. Patterns of the lanterns to be carried, and of the 
 mode in which the screens are to be fitted, may be seen at the 
 custom-houses of the principal commercial ports in the United 
 Kingdom. The system of night lights laid down in the above 
 regulations has been adopted in her majesty's service, and by 
 the governments of the principal foreign maritime nations. 
 
 Every master of a ship is bound, as well by the 
 
 duty he owes to his employers and to those on board 
 his ship, as by positive rule, to keep a proper watch at ' 
 sea, especially in channels much frequented by ship- 
 ping, and to use every precaution to avoid coming into 
 contact with other vessels. In order still better to 
 provide against danger, and to obviate disputes, the 
 Trinity House promulgated, on the 30th of October, 
 1840, the following Kule of Navigation : 
 
 Rule of Navigation issued by the Trinity House.— T\\q at- 
 tention of this Coi-poration having been directed to the numer- 
 ous severe, and in some instances fatal, accidents which have 
 resulted from the collision of vessels navigated by steam, and 
 it appearing to be indispensably necessary, in order to guard 
 against the recurrence of similar calamities, that a regulation 
 should be established for the guidance and government of per- 
 sons intrusted with the charge of such vessels ; and whereas, 
 1. The recognized rule for sailing vessels is, that those hav- 
 ing the wind fair shall give way to those on a wind ; that when 
 both are going by the wind, the vessel on the starboard tack 
 shall keep her wind, and the one on the larboard tack bear up 
 strongly, passing each other on the larboard hand ; that when 
 both vessels have the wind lai'ge or abeam, and meet, they 
 shall pass each other in the same way on the larboard hand, 
 to.efiect which two last-mentioned objects the helm must be 
 put to- port ; and as steam vessels may be considered in the 
 light of vessels navigating with a fair wind, and should give 
 way to saili/ng vessels on a wind of either tack, it becomes only 
 necessary to provide a rule for their observance when meeting 
 other steamers, or sailing vessels going large. 
 
 Under these considerations, ai^d with the object before stated, 
 this Board has deemed it right to frame and promulgate the 
 following rule, which, on communication with the Lords Com- 
 missioners of the Admiralty, the Elder Brethren find has been 
 already adopted in respect of steam vessels in her majesty's 
 service; and they desire earnestly to press upon the minds of 
 aU persona having charge of steam vessels the propriety and 
 urgentnecessity of a strict adherence thereto ; viz. : 2. Rjulefor 
 Steam Vessels on different Cowrses.— "When such vessels must 
 inevitably or necessarily cross so near that, by continuing their 
 respective courses, there would be a risk of their coming in 
 collision, each vessel shall put her helm to port, so as always 
 to pass on the larboard side of each other. A steam vessel 
 passing another in a narrow channel must always leave the 
 vessel she is passing on the larboard hand. By order, 
 
 J. Herbeet, Secretary. 
 
 Trinity House, London, ZQth October., 1840. 
 
COL 
 
 358 
 
 COL 
 
 It may, however, be proper to state that neither this 
 nor any rule of the sort Is to be regarded as inflexible, 
 or to be followed at all hazards. The safety of the 
 ship is the paramount consideration, and no master is 
 justified in abiding by a rule, when by doing so he 
 plainly incurs danger. A. may be in his proper course, 
 but if by pursuing It he will run a great risk of coming 
 into collision with B., who is upon a wrong course, he 
 is bound to alter his course so as to avoid a collision. 
 The fact of one master being ignorant, careless, or in 
 fault, is no reason why another should not use every 
 means in his power to provide for the safety of his 
 ship, and, consequently, of the lives and property in- 
 trusted to his care. 
 
 The conditions under which cases of collision take 
 place diflier extremely. Thus, 1st. It may be merely 
 accidental, or be occasioned by circumstances beyond 
 the power of control, as by the violence of the wind or 
 waves dashing or impelling the ships together, without 
 blame being imputable to either party ; or, 2d. It may 
 be owing to the culpable negligence or misconduct of 
 one party ; or, 3d. Both parties may be to blame. In 
 adjudicating upon losses growing out of collisions that 
 have taken place under such different circumstances, 
 the conclusions must also be very different. 
 
 With respect to the first class of cases there is little 
 apparent difficulty ; wherever a loss is occasioned by a 
 storm, a fog, or other accidental circumstance without 
 any blame being ascribable to either party, it would 
 appear to be equitable that it should be borne by the 
 sufferer. And this principle having been embodied in 
 the Roman law, was subsequently ingrafted into that 
 of England. — Marshall on Insurance, cap, 12, § 2. 
 But other authorities, to whom the greatest deference 
 is due, contend that the loss arising from accidental 
 collisions, however it may affect the parties, should be 
 ■ equally divided between them ; and this, in fact, is the 
 rule followed In most maritime states. — Ordonnance of 
 1681, lib. iii. tit. xii. art. 10, with the observations of 
 Valin. It also is the rule sanctioned by the law of 
 England in cases where both parties are lo blame, but 
 where the blame can not be discriminated. Those 
 cases in which the blame is clearly ascribable to either 
 party present no difficulty. 
 
 The leading doctrines of the law of England with re- 
 gard to collisions have been clearly and succinctly stated 
 bj' Lord Stowell. " In the first place," says his lord- 
 ship, " a collision may happen without blame being im- 
 putable to either party, as when the loss is occasioned 
 by a storm or any other ris major. In that case the 
 misfortune must be borne by the party on whom it 
 happens to light; the other not being responsible to 
 him in any degree. Secondly, a misfortune of this 
 kind may arise where both parties are to blame, where 
 there has been a want of due diligence or of skill on 
 both sides ; in such a case the rule of law is, that the 
 loss must be apportioned between them, as having been 
 occasioned by the fault of both of them. Thirdly, it 
 may happen by the misconduct of the suffering party 
 only ; and then the rule is, that the sufferer must bear 
 his own burden. Lastly, it may have been the fault 
 of the ship which ran the other down, and in this case 
 the innocent party would be entitled to an entire com- 
 pensation from the other." — 2 Dodson's Admiralty Re- 
 ports, 83. 
 
 We may add that the rule of the equal division of 
 the damage where both vessels are to blame has been, 
 since Lord Stowell's time, fully recognized and finally 
 established by a decision of the House of Lords, on an 
 appeal from Scotland. 
 
 Various authorities have spoken disparagingly of 
 the rule now referred to, and have called it a judicium 
 rusticorum ; and it would, no doubt, be very desirable 
 in cases of collision where both parties are to blame, 
 that the neglect or culpability of each should be accu- 
 rately determined, and the damages assessed accord- 
 ingly. But from the obscurity in which such cases are 
 
 almost alwaj'S involved, and the conflicting testimony 
 brought forward by the diflerent parties, the difficul- 
 ties in the way of this being done are usually quite in- 
 superable ; and it is better to adopt a rule which, 
 though perhaps less equitable in principle, is fairer in 
 its application than any other that could be adopted. 
 Of its expediency there can, indeed, be no reasonable 
 doubt. The observations of Valin are, in this respect, 
 quite conclusive. " C'etoit," says he, " le moyen le 
 plus propre a rendre les capitaines ou maitres des na- 
 vires extr&mement attentifs a eviter tout abordage, sur- 
 tout ceux des batimens foibles et plus susceptibles d'etre 
 incommodes par le moindre choc, en leur rendrant tou- 
 jours present la crainte de supporter la moitie du dom- 
 mage qu'ils en pourroient recevoir. Et si I'on dit qu'il 
 auroit ete plus simple et plus court de laisser pour le 
 compte particulier d'un chacun le dommage qu'il auroit 
 re9U, comme provenant d'un cas fortuit ; la reponse est 
 qu'alors les capitaines de gros navires n'auroient plus 
 craint de heurter les batimens d'une beaucoup moindre 
 force que le leurs : rien done de plus juste que la con- 
 tribution par moitie." — Commentaire sur VOrdonnance 
 de 1681, ii. 179, ed. 1776. 
 
 In apportioning the damage in cases where both par- 
 ties have been in fault, the question occurs, whether 
 the damage done to the cargo shall be taken into ac- 
 count or left out in the estimate on which the appor- 
 tionment is to be made. This knotty point has been 
 differently decided in different countries. But the rule 
 which limits the liability of owners to the value of the 
 ship and freight applies to cases of damage by colli- 
 sion. For further observations on this curious and im- 
 portant subject, in addition to Valin and the other au- 
 thorities already referred to, the reader may consult the 
 chapter on collision added by Mr. Serjeant Shee to his 
 edition of Lord Tenterden's work on the Law of Ship- 
 ping, and the chapter on the same subject in Maude 
 and Pollock's Treatise on the Law of Merchant Ship- 
 ping. 
 
 Number of Collisions at Sea. — A statement has been 
 prepared by Mr. John A. Rucker, underwriter, giving 
 a classification of the number of collisions at sea re- 
 ported in Lloyd's lists during the ^\v& years from 1845 
 to 1849 inclusive. It thence appears that the annual 
 numbers were 603, 664, 699, 633, and 565 ; so that there 
 was a decrease in 1849, notwithstanding the increased 
 traffic of that year. The total collisions of the five 
 years amounted to 3064. Of these 279 were cases in 
 which a vessel was sunk, run down, or abandoned ; 
 189 were cases in which there was serious damage ; 
 686 in which the damage, although less, was still con- 
 siderable ; and 1910 in which it was only slight. The 
 average of steamers in contact with steamers during 
 each year is about 11 ; of steamers in contact with sail- 
 ing vessels about 37 ; of sailing vessels in contact with 
 steamers 36 ; and of sailing vessels in contact with 
 sailing vessels 533. Since that time the number of 
 collisions has been increasing; and in the years 1855 
 and 1856 they have been particularly large in number ; 
 and attended with great loss of life, especially in the 
 cases of the Arctic, the Pacijic, and the Lycnnais. 
 
 Colchicum Autumnale (_Meadoio Saffron, or Au- 
 tumn Crocus), a plant of the natural order Mdantha- 
 cern, is largely collected for medicinal use in England. 
 Its infusion is well known as a powerful remedy for 
 gout, and has long been celebrated in France under 
 the name of Eau Medicinale. The cormus or bulb, and 
 also the seeds, are used in medicine, and have a strong, 
 persistent, bitter taste. Its medicinal virtues appear 
 to be derived from a peculiar alkaloid, which has been 
 termed colchicia. The best preparation is the wine of 
 colchicum, prepared by digesting eight ounces of the 
 seeds in forty ounces of sheiTy for about a week, shak- 
 ing the vessel daily, and pressing out the liquor. The 
 usual dose is from ten to fifty drops taken in water. It 
 possesses intense activity as a poison. The plant de- 
 rives its name from Colchis, in Armenia, where it is 
 
COL 
 
 359 
 
 COL 
 
 said to have abounded. — E. B. See Christison on 
 Poiions. 
 
 Colooynthis, Coloqiiintida, or Bitter Cu- 
 cumber (Germ. Kohguinten ; Du. Bittervppelen ; Fr. 
 Cohqvintes ; It. Coloquintida ; Sp. Coloquiniidas ; Arab, 
 and Pers. IJunzil), the produce of an annual plant (C«- 
 cumis cohajnthis, Linn.), growing In Turkey, Nubia, 
 India, and other places, much resembling the cucumber 
 in herbage. When ripe, the fruit is peeled and dried 
 in a stove, and in this state is brought to England. It 
 is inodorous, but has an extremely nauseous taste. It 
 is an exceedingly powerful drastic cathartic. When 
 it is larger than a St. Michael's orange, and has black 
 acute-pointed ends, it Is not good. — Ainslie's Materia 
 Indica. 
 
 Cologne (Ger. Koln ; ancient Agrippina colonia), a 
 fortified city of Western Germany, formerly capital of 
 electorate, now capital of Ehenish Prussia, on the left 
 bank of the Rhine, across which a bridge of boats con- 
 nects it with its suburb, Deutz, 45 miles north-north- 
 west of Coblenz. Lat. of cathedral 50° 56' 29" N., 
 long. 6° 57' 52" E. Population 78,500. It communi- 
 cates by railroad with Hamm, Bonn, Aix-la-Chapelle, 
 Mechlin, and has extensive passage traffic with steam- 
 packets on the Rhine. It has manufactures of cotton- 
 yarn and stuffs, silk fabrics, velvets, woolen cloths, 
 hosiery, lace, cordage, tobacco, hats, wax-lights, starch, 
 needles, clocks, gold and silver articles, vinegar, seal- 
 ing-wax, earthen and lacquered wares, and twenty- 
 four factories of JSau de Cologne. Its position gives it 
 an extensive and increasing trade between Germany 
 and the Netherlands, and under the French it was the 
 capital depot of Roer. . Population of arrondissement 
 in 1849, 497,330. 
 
 Colonies: Colony Trade. Colonies are es'iab- 
 lishments founded in foreign countries by individuals 
 who either voluntarily emigrate from, or are forcibly 
 sent abroad by, their mother country. The colon!/ 
 trade is the trade carried on between colonies and 
 their parent states. 
 
 1. EsTAELisiTMENT OF COLONIES. Greek Cclomcs. — 
 Various motives have, in different countries and ages, 
 led to the formation of colonies. The Greek colonies 
 of antiquity seem to have been chiefly founded by citi- 
 zens whom the violence and fury of contending factions 
 forced to leave their native land ; but they were some- 
 times formed for the purpose of relieving the mother 
 country of a redundant population, and sometimes also 
 for the purpose of extending the sphere of commercial 
 transactions, or of providing for their security. The 
 relations between the mother country and the colony 
 depended, in a great measure, on the motives which 
 led to the establishment of the latter. When a colony 
 was founded by fugitives forcibly expelled from their 
 ancient homes ; or when it was founded, as was fre- 
 quently the case, by bodies of voluntary emigrants, 
 who received no assistance from, and were in no re- 
 spect controlled by, the parent state, it was from the 
 first independent; and even in those rarer cases in 
 which the emigration was conducted under the su- 
 perintendence of the parent city, and when the colony 
 was protected by her power and influence, the depend- 
 ence was mostly far from being absolute and com- 
 plete. The great bulk of the Greek colonies were really 
 independent states; and though they commonly re- 
 garded the land of their forefathers with filial respect, 
 though they yielded to its citizens the place of distinc- 
 tion at public games and religious solemnities, and 
 were expected to assist them in time of war, they did 
 so as allies only, on fair and equal terms, and never as 
 subjects. Owing to the freedom of their institutions, 
 and their superiority in the arts of civilized life to the 
 native inhabitants of the countries among whom they 
 were generally placed, these colonies rose in a com- 
 paratively short period to a high pitch of opulence and 
 refinement; and many among them, as Sliletus and 
 Ephesus in Asia Minor, Syracuse and Agrigeutum in 
 
 Sicily, and Tarentum and Locri in Italy, not only 
 equaled, but gi-eatly surpassed, their mother cities in 
 wealth and power. 
 
 Roman Colonies. — ^The Roman colonies were for the 
 most part founded by and under the authority of gov- 
 ernment ; being intended to serve both as outlets for 
 poor and discontented citizens and as military sta- 
 tions or garrisons, to secure the subjection of the con- 
 quered provinces over which they were scattered. The 
 most intimate political union was always maintained 
 between them and the mother city. Their internal 
 government was modeled on that of Rome ; and, while 
 their superior officers were mostly sent from the capi- 
 tal, they were made to contribute their full quota of 
 troops and taxes, to assist in carrying on the contests 
 in which the Republic was almost constantly engaged, 
 
 Spanish Colonies. — The early colonies of most mod- 
 em nations were founded by private adventurers, in- 
 fluenced either by the hope of gain or by a desire to 
 escape from religious persecution, without any wish to 
 relieve the mother country of a surplus population or 
 to bridle subjugated provinces. On their first institu- 
 tion, therefore, the modern polonies approached, though 
 with some essential variations, more nearly to the Gre- 
 cian than the Roman model ; but the period of their 
 freedom was of very limited duration. They were 
 very soon subjected to laws and regulations framed in 
 the metropolis, and calculated, as was to be supposed, 
 rather to promote its interests than those of the colo- 
 ny. At a somewhat later period the foundation of co- 
 lonial establishments was eagerly patronized by most 
 European governments, in the view of extending com- 
 merce and of enriching the mother country, by secur- 
 ing to her the exclusive possession of the market of 
 distant countries ; and where, from the thinness of the 
 aboriginal population, or their inferiority in the arts 
 of civilized life, the colonists were enabled to amass 
 fortunes with comparative rapidity. The Spaniards 
 who first resorted to America after its discovery had 
 no intention of settling in the countrj', or of colonizing 
 it. The idea that gold and silver alone constituted 
 wealth was then universally prevalent ; and the bold 
 and enterprising companions and followers of Colum- 
 bus, instead of engaging in industrious undertakings, 
 which they neither understood nor relished, sought 
 only to enrich themselves by plundering the feeble and 
 defenseless natives of the gold and silver in their pos- 
 session, and of the abundance of which the most exag- 
 gerated accounts were immediately spread through- 
 out Europe. When new adventurers arrived on an 
 unknown coast, their single inquiry was, whether it 
 abounded in gold. If it did, they remained, for some 
 time at least, in the country ; if not, they immediate- 
 ly set sail for some other quarter. Auri rabida siiis a 
 cuUura Eispanos divertit, is the expressive statement of 
 a contemporary writer (Petrus Martyrus, in the Novus 
 Orbis of Grymcus, p. 511). The slow progress of the 
 Spanish colonies after their first discovery must prin- 
 cipally be ascribed to this cause. The gold and silver 
 accumulated by the natives were very soon exhaust- 
 ed ; and the skill and energy of the successive swarms 
 of adventurers, who continued to pour into the coun- 
 try, were principally directed to the unproductive and 
 generally ruinous trade of mining. The few large for- 
 tunes that were made in this way, like the large prizes 
 in a lottery, inflamed the cupidity of the multitude, 
 and gave an appearance of credibility to the fabulous 
 accounts 'of the excessive productiveness of the mines. 
 After the gambling spirit which had exclusively actu- 
 ated the early adventurers had begun to subside, the 
 colonists gradually betook themselves to agricultural 
 and commercial pursuits ; and the vast variety of valu- 
 able productions with which Mexico and the other 
 Spanish colonies abounded, the extreme richness of 
 the soil, and their advantageous situatjon, would, had 
 they been only tolerably well governed, have occasion- 
 ed their rapid increase in wealth and civilization. But 
 
COL 
 
 360 
 
 COL 
 
 a blind and intolerant despotism paralyzed their ener- 
 gies, and fettered and retarded their progress. All the 
 abuses and defects of the government of Old Spain 
 were transferred to, and multiplied in, the colonies. 
 The whole property of those vast regions was consid- 
 ered as vested in the crown of Spain ; and every law 
 or regulation, whether of a local or general nature, 
 affecting their government, emanated from the council 
 of the Indies, in which it was supposed the king was 
 always present. "We can not stop to describe the sort 
 of regulations to which the colonists were subjected 
 with any degree of minuteness ; but we may notice a 
 ■few of them, to furnish the means of judging of their 
 general spirit and probable effect. It was, for examjile, 
 made a capital offense to carry on any intercourse with 
 foreigners ; and the inhabitants of the different colo- 
 nies were even forbidden any intercourse with each 
 other, unless under the strictest and most vexatious 
 regulations. There were several articles, such as flax, 
 hemp, and wine, which they were not permitted to cul- 
 tivate ; at the same time that the crown reserved to 
 itself the monopo-ly of salt, tobacco, gunpowder, and 
 some other less important articles. The alcavala, and 
 other oppressive imposts, which had proved destruc- 
 tive of industry in Old Spain, were rigorously levied 
 as well on the exports as on the imports of the colo- 
 nies. No situation of power or emolument could bo 
 filled except by a native of Old Spain. The Catholic 
 religion was established, to the exclusion of every 
 other ; and bishops, tithes, and the Inquisition follow- 
 ed in its train : while, in order still better to consoli- 
 date and strengthen the foundations of this monstrous 
 despotism, the government endeavored to make the 
 colonists insensible of their degradation, by proscrib- 
 ing every species of instruction, and watchfully oppo.s- 
 ing the introduction and progress of all useful knowl- 
 edge ! Under such circumstances, we can not be sur- 
 prised that the continental colonists, among whom the 
 monopoly system was maintained in its greatest puri- 
 ty, should have languished for above two centuries in a 
 state of sluggish inactivity. Though surrounded by all 
 the means of producing wealth, they were not generally 
 wealthy. Oppression rendered them indolent; and 
 went far to deprive them not only of the power, but 
 also of the wish, to emerge from poverty. The prog- 
 ress of the colonists who occupied the West India Isl- 
 ands was not quite so slow. It is certain, however, 
 that, down to the middle of last century, Spain reaped 
 no greater advantage from the possession of Cuba, 
 Hispaniola, and Porto Rico, than England or Prance 
 from the smallest of its dependencies. In proof of 
 this we may mention that the noble island of Cuba, 
 which could without diificulty supply all Europe with 
 sugar, did not, in 1750, produce a suiKcient quantity 
 even for the consumption of Old Spain. But the com- 
 bined influence of an arbitrary and intolerant govern- 
 ment, and of a degrading superstition, could not bal- 
 ance the means of improvement which the fertility of 
 the soil, and the command thence arising over most of 
 the necessaries and many of the conveniences of life, 
 gave to the colonists. Owing also to the total inca- 
 pacity of Old Spain to furnish her transatlantic prov- 
 inces with a sufficient supply of the articles she had 
 forced them to import from Europe, and the consequent 
 extension of the contraband trade carried on with them 
 by the other European nations, she had been compelled 
 gradually to relax the severity of her commercial mo- 
 nopoly. A new impulse was thus given to the spirit 
 of industry. The colonists began to be more sensible 
 of the natural advantages of their situation, and less 
 inclined to submit to the blind and bigoted policy of 
 the Spanish court. In 1781, a rebellion broke out in 
 Peru, in consequence of an attempt made by the gov- 
 ernment to establish a new monopoly in that province, 
 Tvhich threatened to end in the total dissolution of the 
 connection between Spain and South America, and was 
 not quelled without great difficulty and much blood- 
 
 shed.' But the spirit of liberty, when once excited, 
 could not be suppressed. It continued to gain ground 
 progressively, until the commencement of the last con- 
 test between France and Spain interrupted the commu- 
 nication with the mother country, and gave the colo- 
 nists an opportunity of proclaiming that independence 
 which, after a lengthened and bloody struggle, they 
 happily succeeded in achieving. 
 
 British Colonies. — ^The English, who, like all the other 
 nations of Europe, had been impressed with mingled 
 feelings of admiration and envy by the extent and im- 
 portance of the acquisitions made by the Spaniards in 
 the New "World, speedily entered with enthusiasm and 
 ardor into the career of discovery. Owing, however, 
 to the bull which Ferdinand and Isabella had obtained 
 from the Pope, conveying to them the ample donation 
 of all the countries inhabited by infidels that the Span- 
 iards had discovered or might discover, the English, 
 to .avoid encroaching on the dominions of their rivals, 
 directed their efforts farther to the north. Several at- 
 tempts to found colonies on the coast of America were 
 made in the reign of Elizabeth by Sir Humphrey Gil- 
 bert, Sir Pdchard Grenville, Sir Walter Ealeigh, and 
 others. But in consequence of their ignorance of the 
 country, the deficiency of their supplies of provisions, 
 the loss of time in fmitless searches after gold, and the 
 various difficulties incident to the first settlement of a 
 colony, none of these attempts proved successful ; and 
 it was not until 1607 that a small body of adventurers 
 founded the first permanent establishment of the En- 
 glish in America, at Jamestown, in "Virginia. Let- 
 ters patent were granted in 1609 by King James to the 
 principal persons resident in Loijdon, by whom the ex- 
 pense attending the formation of the colony was to be 
 defrayed, incorporating them into a company, and 
 establishing a council in England for the direction of 
 their proceedings, the members of which were to be 
 chosen by, and removable at the pleasure of, the ma- 
 jority of the partners of the company ; permitting 
 whatever was necessary for the support and sustenance 
 of the colony for the first seven years to be exported 
 free of duty ; declaring that the colonists and their de- 
 scendants were to be secured in all the rights and priv- 
 ileges of Englishmen, the same as if they had remain- 
 ed at home or been born in England ; and reserving 
 only, as the stipulated price of these concessions, and 
 in imitation of the policy of the Spaniards, one-ffih part 
 of the gold and silver ore to be found in the colonies, 
 which was to be paid to his Majesty and his successors 
 in all time to come. In virtue of these powers, the 
 company issued, in 1621, a charter or ordinance, which 
 gave a legal and permanent form to the constitution 
 of the colony. By this charter the supreme legislative 
 authority was lodged, partly in the governor, who held 
 the place of the sovereign, partly in a council of state 
 named by the company, and partly in a general coun- 
 cil or assembly composed of the representatives of the 
 people, in which were vested powers and privileges 
 similar to those of tlie House of Commons. It was 
 not long, however, before the king and the company 
 quarreled. The latter were in consequence divested 
 of all their rights, partly bj' open violence, and partly 
 under color of law, without compensation, after having 
 expended upward of £150,000 in founding the colony; 
 and a governor and council of state appointed by the 
 king succeeded to the powers of those appointed by the 
 committee. — Robertson's History of America, book 
 ix. passim ; Jefferson's Notes on Virginia, p. 179. 
 
 The founders of the colony in "Virginia had been 
 actuated solely by the hopes of gain ; but the colonies 
 that were soon after established in New England were 
 chiefly planted by men who fled from religious and po- 
 litical persecution. The form of govermnent in the 
 New England colonies, though at first modified a good 
 deal by the peculiar religious opinions entertained by 
 the colonists, was in its leading principles essentially 
 free. For a considerable period the colonists elected 
 
COL 
 
 361 
 
 COL 
 
 their own governors, coined money, and exercised 
 most of the rights of sovereignty ; while the English, 
 ■wholly engrossed with the contest between freedom 
 and prerogative at home, had no leisure to attend to 
 their proceedings. Subsequently to the Restoration, 
 however, the governments of most of the New En- 
 gland States were established nearly on the same foot- 
 ing as that of Virginia ; which, indeed, became the fa- 
 vorite model, not only for the constitution of the colo- 
 nies established on the continent, with the exception 
 of the proprietary governments of Pennsylvania and 
 Maryland, but also for those that were established in 
 the West India Islands. But under every vicissitude 
 of government and fortune, the New England colo- 
 nists were distinguished by the same ardent and en- 
 thusiastic love of liberty that had first induced them 
 to quit their native land. Every thing relating to the 
 internal regulation and administration of the different 
 colonies was determined, in the colonial assemblies, by 
 representatives freely chosen by the settlers. The per- 
 sonal liberty of the citizens was well secured and vigi- 
 lantly protected. And, if we except, the restraints on 
 their commerce, the monopoly of which was jealously 
 guarded by the mother country, the inhabitants of Vir- 
 ginia, Pennsylvania, and New England enjoyed nearly 
 the same degree of freedom when colonists of England 
 that they now enjoy a^ citizens of the powerful repub- 
 lic of North America. Their progress in wealtli and 
 population was in consequence quite unprecedented in 
 the history of the world. The white population of the 
 colonies had increased in 1776, at the commencement 
 of the Revolutionary war, to above 2,000,000, and the 
 value of the exports fi;om Great Britain tothem amount- 
 ed to about £1,300,000 a year ! 
 
 It is not difficult to discover the causes of the un- 
 exampled prosperity and rapid growth of our North 
 American colonies, and generally of all colonies placed 
 under similar circumstances. The Nortli American 
 colonists carried with them a knowledge of the arts 
 and sciences practiced by a civilized and polished peo- 
 ple. They had been trained from their infancy to habits 
 of industry and subordination. They were practically 
 acquainted with the best and wisest form of civil polity 
 that had been established in Europe ; and they were 
 placed in a situation that enabled them, without diffi- 
 culty, to remedy its defects, and to try every institu- 
 tion by the test of utility. But the thinness of the abo- 
 riginal population, and the consequent facility of ob- 
 taining inexhaustible supplies of fertile and unoccu- 
 pied land, must certainly be placed at the head of all 
 the causes which have promoted the rapid increase of 
 wealth and population in the United States, and in all 
 the other colonies both of North and South America. 
 On the first foundation of a colony, and for long after, 
 each colonist gets an ample supply of land of the best 
 quality; and having no rent, and scarcely any taxes, 
 to pay, his industry necessarily becomes exceedingly 
 productive, and he has every means and every motive 
 to amass capital. In consequence, he is eager to col- 
 lect laborers from all quarters, and is both willing and 
 able to reward them with high wages. But these high 
 wages afford the means of accumulation, and, joined to 
 the plenty and cheapness of the land, speedily change 
 the more industrious laborers into proprietors, and en- 
 able them, in their turn, to become the employers of 
 fresh laborers ; so that every class participates in the 
 general improvement, and capital and population ad- 
 vance with a rapidity hardly conceivable in old-set- 
 tled and fully-peopled countries. 
 
 It has been frequently said that the establishment 
 of the British American and West India colonies was 
 a device of the supporters of the exclusive. or mercan- 
 tile system — that they founded them in the view of 
 raising up a vast agricultural population, whose com- 
 merce should be confined entirely to an exchange of 
 raw products for other manufactured goods. There 
 is, however, no truth in these assertions. On the con- 
 
 trary, the charters granted to the founders of the set- 
 tlement in Virginia distinctly empower the colonists to 
 carry on a direct intercourse with foreign states. Nor 
 were they slow to avail themselves of this permission ; 
 for they had, so early as 1620, established tobacco 
 warehouses in Middleburg and Flushing ; and the 
 subsequent proceedings of the British government 
 depriving them of this freedom of commerce, were the 
 chief cause of those disputes which brolce out in 1676, 
 in an open rebellion of ominous and threatening im- 
 port. — Robertson's Amfrica. It was not until the 
 colonists had surmounted the difficulties and hardships 
 incident to their first establishment, and had begun to 
 increase rapidly in wealth, that their commerce became 
 an object of importance, and tliat regulations were 
 framed in the view of restricting its freedom, and of 
 rendering it peculiarly advantageous to the mother 
 country. The act of 1650, passed by the republican 
 Parliament, laid the first foundations of the monopoly 
 system, by confining the import and export trade of 
 the colonies exclusively to British or colony built 
 ships. But the famous Navigation Act of 1660 (12 
 Charles II. c. 18) went much farther. It enacted that 
 certain specified articles, the produce of tlie colonies, 
 and since well known in commerce by the name of enu- 
 merated articles, should not be exported directly from 
 the colonies to any foreign country ; but that they 
 should first be sent to Britain, and there unladen (the 
 words of the act are, laid upon the shore} before they 
 could be forwarded to their final destination. Sugar, 
 molasses, ginger, fustic, tobacco, cotton, and indigo, 
 were originally enumerated ; and the list was subse- 
 quently' enlarged by the addition of coffee, hides and 
 slcins, iron, corn, lumber, etc. In 1739, the monopoly 
 system was so far relaxed that sugars were permitted 
 to be carried, directly from the British plantations to 
 any port or place ,southward of Gape Finisterre; but 
 the conditions under which this indulgence was grant- 
 ed continued so strict and njimerous down to 1803, 
 when they were a good deal simplified, as to render it 
 in a great degree nugatory (Edwards's West Indies') ; 
 and with this exception, the oppressive and vexatious 
 restrictions on their direct exportations, to foreign coun- 
 tries were maintained on most of the other enumerated 
 commodities of any importance down to a late period. 
 But besides compelling the colonists to sell their 
 produce exclusively in the English markets, it was 
 next thought advisable to oblige them to buy such for- 
 eign articles as thBy might stand in need of entirely 
 from the merchants and manufacturers of England. 
 For this purpose it was enacted, in 1663, that "no com- 
 modity of tlie growth, production, or manufacture of 
 Europe shall be imported into the British plantations 
 but such as are laden and put on board in England, 
 Wales, or Berwick-upon-Tweed, and in English-built 
 shipping, wliereof the master and three-fourths of the 
 crew are English." The preamble to this statute, 
 which efifectually excluded the colonists from every 
 market for European produce, except that of England, 
 assigns the motive for this restriction to be, ' ' the main- 
 taining a greater correspondence and kindness between 
 the subjects at home and those in the plantations ; 
 keeping the colonies in a firmer dependence on tlie 
 mother country ; making them yet more beneficial to 
 it, in the further employment and increase of English 
 shipping, and the vent of English manufactures and 
 commodities; rendering the navigation to and from 
 them more safe and cheap ; and making that kingdom 
 a staple, not only of the commodities of the plantations, 
 but also of the commodities of other counti'ies and pla- 
 ces for their supply, it being the usage of other nations 
 to Iceep their plantation trade exclusively to them- 
 selves." It was also a leading principle in the system 
 of colonial policy, adopted as weU by England as by 
 the other European nations, to discourage all attempts 
 to manufacture such articles in the colonies as could 
 be provided for them by the mother country. The 
 
COL 
 
 362 
 
 COL 
 
 history of the colonial system is fuU of efforts of this 
 sort ; and so essential was this principle deemed to the 
 idea of a colony, that Lord Chatham did not hesitate 
 to declare, in his place in Parliament, that "the Brit- 
 ish colonists of North America had no eight to manu- 
 facture even a nail for a horseshoe .'" — Edwards's West 
 Indies. And when such were the enactments made by 
 the Legislature, and such the avowed sentiments of a 
 
 great parliamentary leader and a friend to colonies, 
 we need not be surprised at a declaration of the late 
 Lord Sheffield, who did no more. Indeed, than express 
 the opinion of almost all the merchants and politicians 
 of his time, when he affirmed that " the only use of 
 Arnerican colonies or West India islands is the monop- 
 oly of their consumption, and the carriage of their prod- 
 uce!"* 
 
 
 Commerce op tue pbenoipal Noeth Ameeicak Colonies peiob to the 
 
 Eevolution, 1700-1776 
 
 
 
 
 New England. 
 
 New York. 
 
 Pennsylvania. 
 
 Virginia and Maryland. 
 
 Carolina. 
 
 Georgia. | 
 
 oars. 
 
 Exporta. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 A 
 
 
 £ 
 
 1700 
 
 41,486 
 
 91,918 
 
 17,567 
 
 49,410 
 
 4,608 
 
 18,529 
 
 317,302 
 
 173,481 
 
 14,058 
 
 11,008 
 
 
 
 
 ITOl 
 
 32,656 
 
 86,322 
 
 18,547 
 
 81,910 
 
 6,220 
 
 12,003 
 
 235,788 
 
 199,683 
 
 16,973 
 
 13,908 
 
 
 
 
 1703 
 
 37,026 
 
 64,625 
 
 7,965 
 
 29,991 
 
 4,145 
 
 9,842 
 
 274,782 
 
 72,891 
 
 11,870 
 
 10,460 
 
 
 
 
 1703 
 
 33,539 
 
 53,603 
 
 7,471 
 
 17,563 
 
 6,160 
 
 9,899 
 
 144,928 
 
 196,713 
 
 13,197 
 
 12,428 
 
 
 
 
 1704 
 
 30,833 
 
 74,896 
 
 10,540 
 
 23,294 
 
 2,430 
 
 11,319 
 
 264,112 
 
 60,458 
 
 14,067 
 
 6,621 
 
 
 
 
 1705 
 
 22,793 
 
 62,504 
 
 7,893 
 
 27,902 
 
 1,309 
 
 7,206 
 
 116,763 
 
 174,322 
 
 2,693 
 
 19,788 
 
 
 
 
 1706 
 
 22,210 
 
 57,050 
 
 2,849 
 
 81,683 
 
 4,210 
 
 11,037 
 
 149,152 
 
 68,015 
 
 8,652 
 
 4,001 
 
 
 
 
 1707 
 
 38,793 
 
 120,631 
 
 14,283 
 
 29,855 
 
 786 
 
 14,365 
 
 207,625 
 
 237,901 
 
 23,811 
 
 10,492 
 
 
 
 
 1708 
 
 49,635 
 
 115,605 
 
 10,847 
 
 26,899 
 
 2,120 
 
 6,723 
 
 213,493 
 
 79,061 
 
 10,340 
 
 11,996 
 
 
 
 
 1709 
 
 29,559 
 
 120,349 
 
 12,259 
 
 34,577 
 
 617 
 
 6,831 
 
 261,668 
 
 80,268 
 
 20,431 
 
 23,521 
 
 
 
 
 1710 
 
 31,112 
 
 106,338 
 
 8,203 
 
 31,475 
 
 1,277 
 
 8,594 
 
 183,429 
 
 127,689 
 
 20,793 
 
 19,613 
 
 
 
 
 1711 
 
 26,415 
 
 137,421 
 
 12,193 
 
 28,850 
 
 38 
 
 19,408 
 
 273,131 
 
 91,636 
 
 12,871 
 
 20,406 
 
 
 
 
 1712 
 
 24,699 
 
 128,105 
 
 12,466 
 
 18,624 
 
 1,471 
 
 8,464 
 
 297,941 
 
 134,583 
 
 29,394 
 
 20,015 
 
 
 
 
 1713 
 
 49,904 
 
 120,778 
 
 14,428 
 
 46,470 
 
 178 
 
 17,037 
 
 206,263 
 
 76,304 
 
 32,449 
 
 23,967 
 
 
 
 
 1714 
 
 51,541 
 
 121,288 
 
 29,810 
 
 44,643 
 
 2,663 
 
 14,927 
 
 280,470 
 
 128,873 
 
 31,290 
 
 23,712 
 
 
 
 
 1715 
 
 66,555 
 
 104,650 
 
 21,316 
 
 64.629 
 
 6,461 
 
 17,132 
 
 174,756 
 
 199,274 
 
 29,153 
 
 16,681 
 
 
 
 
 1716 
 
 69,695 
 
 121,156 
 
 21,971 
 
 52;i73 
 
 6,193 
 
 21,342 
 
 281,343 
 
 179,595 
 
 46,287 
 
 27,272 
 
 
 
 
 1717 
 
 58,898 
 
 132,001 
 
 24,534 
 
 44,140 
 
 4,499 
 
 22,605 
 
 296,884 
 
 215,962 
 
 41,275 
 
 25,058 
 
 
 
 
 1718 
 
 61,691 
 
 131,885 
 
 27,331 
 
 . 62,960 
 
 5,588 
 
 22,716 
 
 810,676 
 
 191,926 
 
 46,385 
 
 15,841 
 
 
 
 
 1719 
 
 54,462 
 
 125,817 
 
 19,596 
 
 56,355 
 
 6,664 
 
 27,068 
 
 332,069 
 
 164,630 
 
 50,373 
 
 19,630 
 
 
 
 
 1T20 
 
 49,206 
 
 128,769 
 
 16,836 
 
 37,897 
 
 7,928 
 
 24,631 
 
 831,482 
 
 110,717 
 
 62,786 
 
 18,290 
 
 
 
 
 1721 
 
 50,483 
 
 114,624 
 
 15,631 
 
 60,764 
 
 8,037 
 
 21,548 
 
 367,813 
 
 127,376 
 
 61,868 
 
 17,708 
 
 
 
 
 1722 
 
 47,955 
 
 133,722 
 
 20,118 
 
 57,478 
 
 6,883 
 
 26,397 
 
 233,091 
 
 172,754 
 
 79,650 
 
 34,374 
 
 
 
 
 1723 
 
 59,389 
 
 176,456 
 
 27,992 
 
 63,018 
 
 8,332 
 
 15,992 
 
 287,997 
 
 123,883 
 
 78,103 
 
 42,246 
 
 
 
 
 1724 
 
 69,585 
 
 168,507 
 
 21,191 
 
 63,020 
 
 4,057 
 
 30,824 
 
 277,344 
 
 161,894 
 
 90,604 
 
 87,889 
 
 
 
 
 1725 
 
 72,021 
 
 201,763 
 
 24,976 
 
 70,650 
 
 11,981 
 
 42,209 
 
 214,730 
 
 195,884 
 
 91,942 
 
 89,182 
 
 
 
 
 1726 
 
 63,816 
 
 200,882 
 
 38,307 
 
 84,866 
 
 5,960 
 
 57,684 
 
 324,767 
 
 135,981 
 
 98,463 
 
 48,934 
 
 
 
 
 1727 
 
 75,052 
 
 187,277 
 
 31,617 
 
 67,462 
 
 12,823 
 
 31,979 
 
 421,588 
 
 192,965 
 
 96,065 
 
 23,254 
 
 
 
 
 1728 
 
 64,680 
 
 194,590 
 
 21,142 
 
 81,634 
 
 15,230 
 
 37,478 
 
 413,089 
 
 171,092 
 
 91,175 
 
 33,067 
 
 
 
 
 1729 
 
 53,512 
 
 161,102 
 
 16,833 
 
 64,760 
 
 7,484 
 
 29,799 
 
 386,174 
 
 108,931 
 
 118,829 
 
 55,366 
 
 
 
 
 1730 
 
 64,701 
 
 208,196 
 
 8,740 
 
 64,886 
 
 10,532 
 
 48,592 
 
 846,823 
 
 160,931 
 
 151,739 
 
 64,785 
 
 
 
 
 1731 
 
 49,048 
 
 183,467 
 
 20,756 
 
 66,116 
 
 12,780 
 
 44,260 
 
 408,602 
 
 171,273 
 
 159,771 
 
 71,145 
 
 
 
 
 1732 
 
 64,095 
 
 216,600 
 
 9,411 
 
 66,540 
 
 8,624 
 
 41,693 
 
 310,799 
 
 143,289 
 
 126,207 
 
 68.298 
 
 
 
 ■ 328 
 
 1733 
 
 61,983 
 
 184,570 
 
 11,626 
 
 66,417 
 
 14,776 
 
 40,665 
 
 403,198 
 
 186,177 
 
 177,845 
 
 70466 
 
 "203 
 
 1,695 
 
 1734 
 
 83,252 
 
 146,460 
 
 16,307 
 
 81,768 
 
 20,217 
 
 54,392 
 
 873,090 
 
 172,086 
 
 120,466 
 
 99,668 
 
 18 
 
 1,921 
 
 1735 
 
 72,899 
 
 189,125 
 
 14,156 
 
 80,405 
 
 21,919 
 
 48,804 
 
 394,995 
 
 220,881 
 
 146,348 
 
 117,837 
 
 3,010 
 
 12,112 
 
 1736 
 
 66,788 
 
 222,158 
 
 17,944 
 
 86,000 
 
 20,786 
 
 61,513 
 
 380,163 
 
 204,794 
 
 214,033 
 
 101,147 
 
 
 2,012 
 
 1737 
 
 63,347 
 
 223,923 
 
 16,833 
 
 125,833 
 
 16,198 
 
 66,690 
 
 492,246 
 
 211,301 
 
 187,758 
 
 53,986 
 
 
 5,701 
 
 1788 
 
 69,116 
 
 203,233 
 
 16,228 
 
 133,«S 
 
 11,918 
 
 61,450 
 
 391,814 
 
 253,860 
 
 141,119 
 
 87,793 
 
 ' ■ 17 
 
 6,496 
 
 1739 
 
 46,004 
 
 220,378 
 
 18,459 
 
 106,070 
 
 8,134 
 
 54,452 
 
 444,664 
 
 217,200 
 
 236,192 
 
 94,445 
 
 233 
 
 3,324 
 
 1740 
 
 72,389 
 
 171,081 
 
 21,498 
 
 118,777 
 
 15,048 
 
 60,761 
 
 341,997 
 
 281,428 
 
 265,560 
 
 181,821 
 
 924 
 
 3,624 
 
 1741 
 
 60,052 
 
 198,147 
 
 21,142 
 
 140,430 
 
 17,158 
 
 91,010 
 
 677,109 
 
 248,682 
 
 286,830 
 
 224,270 
 
 
 2,553 
 
 1742 
 
 63,166 
 
 148,899 
 
 13,536 
 
 167,591 
 
 8.537 
 
 76,295 
 
 427,769 
 
 264,186 
 
 154,607 
 
 127,068 
 
 i,'622 
 
 17,018 
 
 1743 
 
 63,185 
 
 172,461 
 
 15,067 
 
 184,487 
 
 9,596 
 
 79,340 
 
 657,821 
 
 328,195 
 
 235,136 
 
 111,499 
 
 2 
 
 2,291 
 
 1744 
 
 50,243 
 
 148,982 
 
 14,527 
 
 119,920 
 
 7,446 
 
 62,214 
 
 402,709 
 
 234,365 
 
 192,694 
 
 79,141 
 
 
 769 
 
 1745 
 
 38,943 
 
 140,463 
 
 14,033 
 
 54,957 
 
 10,130 
 
 54,230 
 
 399,423 
 
 196,799 
 
 91,847 
 
 86,815 
 
 
 989 
 
 1746 
 
 33,612 
 
 209,177 
 
 8,841 
 
 80,712 
 
 15,779 
 
 73,699 
 
 419,371 
 
 282,645 
 
 76,897 
 
 102,809 
 
 
 984 
 
 1747 
 
 41,771 
 
 210,640 
 
 14,992 
 
 137,984 
 
 2,832 
 
 82,404 
 
 492,619 
 
 200,088 
 
 107,500 
 
 96,529 
 
 
 24 
 
 1T48 
 
 29,748 
 
 197,682 
 
 12,353 
 
 143,311 
 
 12,863 
 
 75,880 
 
 494,862 
 
 252,624 
 
 167,306 
 
 160,172 
 
 
 1,314 
 
 1749 
 
 89,999 
 
 238,286 
 
 23,413 
 
 265,778 
 
 14,944 
 
 238,637 
 
 484,618 
 
 323,600 
 
 120,499 
 
 164,085 
 
 ' ' 51 
 
 5 
 
 1750 
 
 48,455 
 
 343,659 
 
 35,632 
 
 267,130 
 
 28,191 
 
 217,713 
 
 508.939 
 
 349,419 
 
 191,607 
 
 134,037 
 
 1,942 
 
 2,125 
 
 1751 
 
 0.-l,ilS7 
 
 305,974 
 
 42,363 
 
 248,941 
 
 23.870 
 
 190,917 
 
 460,085 
 
 247,027 
 
 246,491 
 
 138,244 
 
 855 
 
 2,066 
 
 1763 
 
 74,:il3 
 
 273,840 
 
 40,648 
 
 194,030 
 
 29,978 
 
 201,606 
 
 569,453 
 
 825,151 
 
 288,264 
 
 160,777 
 
 1,626 
 
 8,163 
 
 1753 
 
 S3,39r) 
 
 346,523 
 
 40,553 
 
 277,804 
 
 38,527 
 
 245,644 
 
 632,675 
 
 350,776 
 
 164,634 
 
 218,009 
 
 3,057 
 
 14,128 
 
 1754 
 
 66,538 
 
 329,433 
 
 26,663 
 
 127,497 
 
 30,649 
 
 244,647 
 
 673,435 
 
 323,513 
 
 807,288 
 
 149,215 
 
 3,230 
 
 1,974 
 
 1755 
 
 59,533 
 
 341,796 
 
 28,055 
 
 151,071 
 
 32,336 
 
 144,466 
 
 439,663 
 
 286,167 
 
 325,525 
 
 189,887 
 
 4,437 
 
 2,630 
 
 1750 
 
 47,369 
 
 384,371 
 
 24,073 
 
 250,425 
 
 20,091 
 
 200,169 
 
 337,769 
 
 426,687 
 
 222,916 
 
 181,780 
 
 7,155 
 
 686 
 
 1757 
 
 27,556 
 
 863,404 
 
 19,168 
 
 353,311 
 
 14,190 
 
 168,426 
 
 418,881 
 
 334,897 
 
 130,889 
 
 213,949 
 
 
 2,571 
 
 1758 
 
 30,204 
 
 465,694 
 
 14,200 
 
 856,655 
 
 21,388 
 
 260,953 
 
 454,362 
 
 438,471 
 
 150,511 
 
 181,002 
 
 
 10,212 
 
 1769 
 
 26,985 
 
 527,067 
 
 21,684 
 
 030,785 
 
 22,404 
 
 498,161 
 
 367,228 
 
 459,007 
 
 206,684 
 
 215,255 
 
 6,074 
 
 15,178 
 
 1750 
 
 87,803 
 
 699,647 
 
 21,125 
 
 480,106 
 
 22,754 
 
 707,998 
 
 604,451 
 
 006,882 
 
 162,769 
 
 218,131 
 
 12,198 
 
 
 1761 
 
 46,226 
 
 834,225 
 
 48,648 
 
 289,570 
 
 39,170 
 
 204,067 
 
 465,083 
 
 545,350 
 
 253,002 
 
 264,587 
 
 6,764 
 
 24,'279 
 
 1762 
 
 41,783 
 
 247,385 
 
 58,882 
 
 288,046 
 
 88,091 
 
 200,199 
 
 415,709 
 
 418,.599 
 
 181,595 
 
 194,170 
 
 6,522 
 
 23,761 
 
 1763 
 
 74,815 
 
 258,854 
 
 52,998 
 
 238,660 
 
 38,228 
 
 284,162 
 
 642,294 
 
 566,391 
 
 283,366 
 
 260,132 
 
 14,469 
 
 44,908 
 
 1764 
 
 88,157 
 
 469,765 
 
 53,697 
 
 515,416 
 
 86,268 
 
 436,191 
 
 669,508 
 
 615,192 
 
 341,727 
 
 806,803 
 
 81,326 
 
 18,838 
 
 1765 
 
 145,819 
 
 451,299 
 
 54,969 
 
 382,349 
 
 26,148 
 
 363,368 
 
 505,671 
 
 388,224 
 
 386,918 
 
 884,709 
 
 34,183 
 
 29,105 
 
 1766 
 
 141,733 
 
 409,642 
 
 67,020 
 
 330,829 
 
 26,851 
 
 327,814 
 
 461,693 
 
 372,648 
 
 298,687 
 
 296,732 
 
 53,074 
 
 67,268 
 
 1767 
 
 128,207 
 
 406,081 
 
 61,422 
 
 417,967 
 
 37,641 
 
 371,830 
 
 437,926 
 
 437,623 
 
 395,027 
 
 244,093 
 
 35,856 
 
 23,384 
 
 1768 
 
 148,375 
 
 419,797 
 
 87,115 
 
 482,930 
 
 69,404 
 
 482,107 
 
 406,048 
 
 475,984 
 
 603,108 
 
 289,863 
 
 42,402 
 
 66,562 
 
 1769 
 
 129,353 
 
 207,993 
 
 73,466 
 
 74,918 
 
 26,111 
 
 199,906 
 
 861,892 
 
 488,362 
 
 337,114 
 
 306,600 
 
 82,270 
 
 53,840 
 
 1770 
 
 148,011 
 
 394,451 
 
 69,882 
 
 476,991 
 
 28,109 
 
 184,831 
 
 435,094 
 
 717,782 
 
 278,907 
 
 146,273 
 
 65,632 
 
 66,193 
 
 1771 
 
 150,881 
 
 1,420,119 
 
 95,875 
 
 653,621 
 
 31,616 
 
 728,744 
 
 677,848 
 
 920,826 
 
 420,311 
 
 409,169 
 
 63,810 
 
 70,493 
 
 1772 
 
 126,265 
 
 824,830 
 
 82,707 
 
 348,970 
 
 29,133 
 
 607,909 
 
 628,404 
 
 793,910 
 
 425,923 
 
 449,610 
 
 66,083 
 
 92,406 
 
 1773 
 
 124,624 
 
 527,055 
 
 76,246 
 
 289,214 
 
 86,652 
 
 426,448 
 
 589,803 
 
 823,904 
 
 466,513 
 
 344,859 
 
 86,391 
 
 62,982 
 
 1774 
 
 112,248 
 
 562,476 
 
 80,008 
 
 437,987 
 
 69,611 
 
 626,662 
 
 612,030 
 
 528,738 
 
 482,302 
 
 378,116 
 
 67,647 
 
 67,518 
 
 1775 
 
 116,588 
 
 71,625 
 
 187,018 
 
 1,228 
 
 176,962 
 
 1,366 
 
 758,356 
 
 1,921 
 
 579,349 
 
 6,245 
 
 103,477 
 
 118,777 
 
 1776 
 
 762 
 
 65,050 
 
 2,818 
 
 
 1,421 
 
 363 
 
 73,226 
 
 
 13,668 
 
 
 12,669 
 
 
 * " During the war of the Revolution our commerce was suspended ; after the peace, in 1783, our trade continued to languish ; 
 it had to contend with domestic and foreign ohstacles ; foreign nations entertained a jealousy concerning these States ; at home 
 a rivalship was prevalent among the several members of the confederacy, and checked the prosperity of the nation. Each of 
 the thirteen independent sovereignties contemplated its own immediate interests ; some of the States declared the commercial 
 intercourse with them to he equally free to all nations." 
 
COL 
 
 363 
 
 COL 
 
 
 
 Population of toe 
 
 Beitish Nobtu Ameeioaw Colonies 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Inerease per 
 
 Increase per 
 
 Cent., Sd Pari. 
 
 lucreasQ 
 
 Increase 
 
 Increase per 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 per Cent. 
 
 
 
 
 mi. . . 
 
 IHO. 
 
 1176. 
 
 48 YeiiM. 
 
 Annum. 
 
 odi 96 Years. 
 
 per Anniuu. 
 
 , 74 Years. 
 
 in 74 Years 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 "30,000" 
 
 100,000 
 
 263,000 
 
 233 -33 
 
 4-65 
 
 162-00 
 
 6-23 
 
 773-33 
 
 10-45 
 
 Delaware 
 
 
 Incl. in Pa. 
 
 3T,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 *. .. 
 
 Geovgia 
 
 
 6,000 
 
 2T,000 
 
 
 
 350-00 
 
 13-46 
 
 
 
 Maryland 
 
 25,000 
 
 85,000 
 
 174,000 
 
 240-00 
 
 5-00 
 
 104-71 
 
 . 4-00 
 
 696-00 
 
 8-05 
 
 MasBachusetta . . 
 
 70,000 
 
 220,000 
 
 352,000 
 
 214-29 
 
 4-46 
 
 60-00 
 
 2-31 
 
 402-80 
 
 5-44 
 
 New Hampshire. 
 
 10,000 
 
 30,000 
 
 102,000 
 
 200-00 
 
 4-lT ' 
 
 240-00 
 
 9-23 
 
 920-00 
 
 12-43 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 16,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 188,000 
 
 300-00 
 
 6-25 
 
 130-00 
 
 5-00 
 
 820-00 
 
 11-08 
 
 New York 
 
 30,000 
 
 100,000 
 
 238,000 
 
 233-33 
 
 4-86 
 
 138-00 
 
 6-31 
 
 693-33 
 
 9-37 
 
 North Carolina . 
 
 5,000 
 
 46,000 
 
 181,000 
 
 800-00 
 
 16-67 
 
 302-22 
 
 11-62 
 
 3520-00 
 
 47-57 
 
 Pennsylvania, . . 
 
 20,000 
 
 260,000 
 
 S41,000 
 
 1150-00 
 
 23-96 
 
 36-40 
 
 1-40 
 
 1005-00 
 
 21-69 
 
 Rhode Island . . . 
 
 10,000 
 
 3.5,000 
 
 68,000 
 
 250-00 
 
 5-21 
 
 65-71 
 
 2-63 
 
 480.00 
 
 6-49 
 
 South Carolina. . 
 
 T,000 
 
 30,000 
 
 93,000 
 
 328-57 
 
 6-84 
 
 210-00 
 
 8-08 
 
 1228-57 
 
 16-60 
 
 Virginia 
 
 Whites 
 
 40,000 
 
 85,000 
 
 300,000 
 
 112-50 
 
 2-34 
 
 252-94 
 
 9-73 
 
 650-00 
 
 8-78 
 
 2,303,000 
 
 Slaves, estimated 
 All classes 
 
 
 
 500,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 262,000 
 
 1,046,000 
 
 2,803,000 
 
 299-24 
 
 6-23 
 
 167-97 
 
 6-46 
 
 969-85 
 
 13-12- 
 
 At the beginning of the Eevolution the Southern colonies had, therefore, 812,000 white inhahitants, and the Northern 
 1,491,000. Connecticut was the fourth State in rank. Massachusetts and Pennsylvania were each a third larger than New 
 York, which was even excelled by Connecticut. — United States Census Report, 1850. 
 
 II. Magnitude of the British Colonies. — Not- 
 withstanding tlie loss of tlie United States, the colo- 
 nies of Great Britain, exclusive of India, exceed in 
 number, extent, and value, those of every other coun- 
 try. Previously, indeed, to the breaking out of the late 
 contests, the colonial dominions of Spain far exceeded 
 in extent and importance those of any other po-wer. 
 But Cuba, Porto Kico, and the Philippine Islands are 
 now all that remain to her. Those, indeed, are very 
 valuable possessions, though inferior to .those of En- 
 gland. 
 
 North American Culonics.—rln North America, Great 
 Britain possesses the provinces of Lower and Upper, or 
 of East and West Canada, Nova Scotia, New Bruns- 
 wick, Prince Edward's Island, and their dependencies. 
 The situation and boundaries of these provinces will 
 be more easily learned from the inspection of the 
 map than they could be from any description. The 
 shores of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick are wash- 
 ed by the Atlantic Ocean ; and the noble Elver St. 
 Lawrence, by its communication with the great Ameri- 
 can lakes, gives to Canada all the benefits of a most 
 extensive inland navigation, and forms a natural out- 
 let for her surplus produce, as well as for the surplus 
 produce of that part of the United States which is 
 washed, by the lakes. There is every variety in the 
 soil and climate of these regions. In Lower Canada 
 the winter is very severe. The surface of the country 
 is covered with snow for nearly half the year. From the 
 beginning of December to the middle of April the St. 
 Lawrence is frozen over, and affords a smooth and con- 
 venient passage for the sledges by which It is then cov- 
 ered. But though severe, the climate is far from be- 
 ing unhealthy or disagreeable. The weather is gen- 
 erally clear and bracing ; and the labor of artisans, at 
 their out-door employments, is rarely suspended for 
 many days in succession. On the brealdng up of the 
 ice in the latter end of April or the beginning of May, 
 the powers of vegetation almost immediately resume 
 their activity, and bring on the fine season with a ra- 
 pidity that is astonishing to a stranger. The highest 
 temperature in Lower Canada varies from 96° to 102° 
 of Fahrenheit ; but the purity of the atmosphere abates 
 the oppressive heat that is felt in most countries where 
 the mercury ranges so high ; and the -weather is, on the 
 whole, decidedly pleasant. That part of the province 
 of Upper or West Canada which stretches from Lake 
 Siincoe and the Eivers Trent and Severn, westward to 
 Lake Huron and the St. Clair Kiver, and southward to 
 Lake Erie and part of Lake Ontario, has a soil of ex- 
 traordinary fertility, capable of producing luxuriant 
 crops of wheat and every sort of grain. " The cli- 
 mate," says Mr. Bouchette, late surveyor general of 
 Lower Canada, " is so particularly salubrious, that epi- 
 demic diseases, either among men or cattle, are almost 
 entirely unknown. Its influence on the fertility of the 
 soil is more generally perceptible than it is in Lower 
 
 Canada, and is supposed to be congenial to vegetation 
 in a much superior degree. The winters are shorter, 
 and not always marked with such rigor as in the latter. 
 The duration of frost is always accompanied with a fine 
 clear sky and a dry atmosphere. The spring opens, 
 and the resumption of agricultural labors takes place, 
 from six weeks to two months earlier than in the neigh- 
 borhood of Quebec. The summer heats rarely prevail 
 to excess, and the autumns are usually very friendly 
 to the harvests, and favorable for securing all the late 
 crops." — Bouchette's Topographical Description of 
 Canada, p. 595. The ground on the shores of Lake 
 Ontario and Lake Erie, as far west as the junction of 
 the Thames with the St. Clair Lake, is laid out in 
 townships, and partlj' settled. But the population is 
 still very thin. To the north of the Eiver Thames, 
 along the banks of the St. Clair and the shores of Lake 
 Huron, round to tlie River Severn, and thence to the 
 river that joins Lake Nippissing and Lake Huron, is a 
 boundless extent of country that is almost entirely un- 
 occupied. The interior of this space has hitherto been 
 but imperfectly explored ; but the banks of the St. 
 Clair and the shores of Lake Huron afford the finest 
 situations for settlements. The soil is in many places 
 of the greatest fertility, the river and lake teem with 
 fish, and every variety of the best timber is found in 
 the greatest profusion. The winters in the provinces 
 of Nova Scotia, Prince Edward's Island, and New 
 Brunswick are more severe than in Upper Canada, 
 and they are a good deal infested with fogs and mists ; 
 but their proximity to England, and their favorable 
 situation for the fishing business, give them consideiai- 
 ble advantages. In addition to the above. Great Brit- 
 ian possesses the Hudson's Bay territory, a tract of 
 vast extent, but situated in an inhospitable climate, 
 and worth very little except as hunting-grounds. She 
 also possesses the large islands of Newfoundland and 
 Cape Breton, the latter being a dependency of Nova 
 Scotia ; but their soil is barren, and the climate severe 
 and foggy: so that they are valuable principally as 
 fishing stations. The following table exhibits the 
 population of the difi'erent North American colonies at 
 the under-mentioned epochs : 
 
 Colonies. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Date of Census. 
 
 Eastern (Lower) Canada 
 
 Western (Upper) Canada 
 
 1,048,000 
 
 1,260,000 
 
 193,800 
 
 62,034 
 
 86,500 
 
 276,117 
 
 1654 
 1854 
 1851 
 1849 
 1845 
 1850 
 
 Pi-ince Edward's Isl. and C. Breton 
 
 Nova Scotia 
 
 Of the inhabitants of Lower Canada in 1844, no fewer 
 than 518,565 were of French extraction, forming what 
 is called the Nation Canadienne. In Upper Canada, 
 on the other hand, the population is almost wholly of 
 British origin. 
 
 West India Colonies. — In the West Indies the En- 
 glish possess Jamaica, Barbadoes, St. Lucia, Antigua, 
 
COL 
 
 364 
 
 COL 
 
 Grenada, Trinidad, and some other islands, besides 
 Demerara and Berbioe in South America. Jamaica, 
 by far the largest and most valuable of her insular 
 possessions, is about 120 miles in length and 40 miles 
 in mean breadth, containing about 2,800,000 acres, of 
 •which 'from 1,100,000 to 1,200,000 are supposed to be 
 in cultivation. ]3eing situated within the tropic of 
 Cancer, the heat in the AVest Indies Is intense, but is 
 moderated by the sea-breeze ivhich blows regularly 
 during the greater part of the day. The rains make 
 the only distinction of seasons. They sometimes fall 
 with prodigious impetuosity, giving birth to innumer- 
 able torrents, and laying all the low country under 
 water : the trees are green the whole year round : they 
 have no snow, no frost, and hut rarely some hail. The 
 climate is very humid ; iron rusts and corrodes in a 
 very short time ; and it is this, perhaps, that renders 
 the West Indies so unfriendly to European constitu- 
 tions, and produces those malignant fevers that are so 
 very fatal. The vegetable productions are numerous 
 and valuable ; but the sugar-cane and the coffee-plant 
 are incomparably more important than the others, and 
 constitute the natural riches of the islands. 
 
 The Wdst Indies are occasionally assailed by the 
 most dreadful hurricanes, which destroy in a moment 
 the hopes and labors of the planters, and devastate en- 
 tire islands. Whole fields of sugar-canes are sometimes 
 torn up by the roots, houses are either thrown down 
 or unroofed, and even the heavy copper boilers and 
 stills in the works have, in numerous instances, been 
 wrenched from the ground and battered to pieces. The 
 rain pours down in torrents, sweeping hefore it every 
 thing that comes in its way. The destruction caused 
 by such dreadful scourges seldom fails to produce a 
 very great scarcity, and not unfrequcntly famine ; and 
 we are grieved to have to add, that the severity of the 
 distress has on several occasions been materially ag- 
 gravated by a refusal on the part of the authorities to 
 allow importation direct from the United States ! 
 This was the case at Dominica so late as 1817. " It 
 is stated in a report by a comnfittee of the Assembly 
 of Jamaica, that 15,000 negroes perished between the 
 latter end of 1780 and the beginning of 1'787, through 
 famine occasioned by hurricanes and the prohibition 
 of importation from the United States." — Edwards's 
 West Indies, vol. ii. p. 515. 
 
 Jamaica was discovered by Columbus in 1494, and 
 continued in possession of the Spaniards till 1655, when 
 it was wrested from them by the English. Although 
 it had thus been for more than a century and a half 
 under the power of Spain, such was the deadening in- 
 fluence of her colonial system, that it did not, when 
 it was conquered, contain 1500 white inhabitants, and 
 these were immersed in sloth and poverty. Of the 
 many valuable articles which Jamaica soon after pro- 
 duced in such profusion, many were then altogether 
 unknown ; and of those that were known, such a sup- 
 ply only was cultivated as was required for the con- 
 sumption of the inhabitants. "The Spanish settlers," 
 says Mr. Bryan Edwards, " possessed none of the ele- 
 gancies of life ; nor were they acquainted even with 
 many of those gratifications which, in civilized states, 
 are considered necessary to its comfort and conven- 
 ience. They were neither polished by social inter- 
 course nor improved by education ; but passed their 
 days in gloomj* languor, enfeebled by sloth and de- 
 pressed by poverty. They had been for many years 
 in a state of progressive degeneracy, and would prob- 
 ably in a short time have expiated the guilt of their 
 ancestors by falling victims themselves to the venge- 
 ance of their slaves." — Bistai'y of the West Indies, vol. 
 i. p. 297, 8voed. 
 
 For a considerable number of years after England 
 obtained possession of Jamaica, the chief exports were 
 cocoa, hides, and indigo. Even so late as 1772, the 
 exports of sugar amounted to only 11,000 hogsheads. 
 In 1774 they had increased to 78,000 hogsheads of 
 
 sugar, 26,000 puncheons of rum, and 6547 bags of cof- 
 fee. The American war was very injurious to the 
 West India settlements; and they may, indeed, be said 
 to be still suffering from its effects, as the independence 
 of America led to the enactment of those restrictions 
 to the importation of food, lumber, etc., that were so 
 very hurtful to the planters. In 1780 Jamaica was 
 visited by a most destructive hurricane, the devasta- 
 tion occasioned by which produced a dreadful famine ; 
 and other hurricanes followed in the immediately suc- 
 ceeding years. But in 1787 a new era of improvement 
 began. The devastation of St. Domingo by the negro 
 insurrection which broke out in 1792, first diminished, 
 and in a few years almost entirely annihilated, the 
 annual supply of 116,000 hogsheads of sugar, which 
 France and the Continent had previously been accus- 
 tomed to receive from that island. This diminution 
 of suppl_y, by causing a greatly increased demand for, 
 and a consequent rise in the price of, sugar raised in 
 the other islands, occasioned an extraordinary exten- 
 sion of cultivation. So powerful iu this respect was 
 its influence, that Jamaica, which at an average of the 
 six years preceding 1799 had produced only 83,000 
 hogsheads, exported in 1801 and 1802 upward of 
 286,300 hogsheads, or 143,000 a year ! 
 
 The same rise of price, which operated so powerfully 
 in Jamaica, occasioned a similar though less rapid ex- 
 tension of cultivation in other islands, and in Cuba, 
 Porto Kico, and the foreign colonies generally. The 
 vacuum caused by the cessation of the supplies^rom 
 St. Domingo being thus more than filled up, a reaction 
 commenced. The price of sugar rapidly declined ; 
 and, notwithstanding a forced market was for a ivhile 
 opened to it, by substituting it for malt in the distil- 
 ler}', prices did not attain to their former cle\-ation. 
 On the opening of the Continental ports, in 1813 and 
 1814, they, indeed, rose, for a short time, to an extrav- 
 agant height ; but they very soon fell, involving in 
 ruin many of the speculators upon an advance. Prices, 
 however, continued at a pretty high level down to 1818 ; 
 but they sustained a material fall in the course of the 
 following year, and were comparatively low from that 
 period down to 1835, when the extraordinary falling 
 off in the supplies of sugar consequent to the measures 
 connected with the emancipation of the slaves again 
 occasioned a considerable rise of price. But, as al- 
 ready seen, this high price was entirely factitious, be- 
 ing wholly caused by our excluding foreign sugar from 
 our market. Now that the sugar of Brazil, Cuba, and 
 Java is admitted on pay ing reasonable duties, prices are 
 comparatively low. And from the extraordinary fa- 
 cility with which sugar may be raised in the countries 
 referred to and elsewhere, we have no idea, provided 
 they adopt no rash or ill-advised measure in relation 
 to slaves, that its price in their markets would be like- 
 ly to sustain any material or permanent increase, even 
 though the demand for it were doubled or more. The 
 imports to England of sugar from her West Indian col- 
 onies, which amounted to 4,103,800 cwts. in 1831, sunk, 
 in 1841, to 2,151,217 cwts. ! In 1852 they amounted 
 to 3,408,627 cwts. 
 
 The devastation of St. Domingo gave the same pow- 
 erful stimulus to the growth of coffee in the other West 
 Indian colonies that it did to the growth of sugar; 
 and owing to the extraordinary increase in the de- 
 mand for coffee in England and other European coun- 
 tries, the supply went on increasing till it was checked 
 by the influence of the measures relating to slavery. 
 In 1752, for example, only 60,000 lbs. of coffee were 
 exported from Jamaica ; in 1775 the export amounted 
 to 440,000 lbs. ; in 1797 it had increased to 7,981,621 
 lbs. ; and in 1832, when it had attained its maximum, 
 the exports to England only amounted to 19,405,983 
 lbs. Such, however, and so rapid has been their sub- 
 sequent decline, that in 1852 the exports to England 
 from Jamaica amounted to only 3,786,796 lbs. ! 
 
 We have already seen that when Jamaica was taken 
 
COL 
 
 365 
 
 COL 
 
 from the Spaniards it only contained 1500 white inliab- 
 itants. In 1G73 the population amounted to 77C8whites, 
 and 9604 slaves. It would have been well for the isl- 
 and had the races continued to preserve this relation 
 to each other; but, unfortunately, the black popula- 
 tion has increased more than jive times as rapidly as 
 the white ; the latter having onlj' increased from 7768 
 to about 30,000, while the former has increased from 
 9504 to about 310,000, exclusive of persons of color. 
 ' The real value of the exports to Jamaica amounts to 
 about £700,000 a year, being about one-third part of 
 the exports to the West Indian colonies. It was former- 
 ly much more ; but then a large Tportion of the articles 
 sent to Jamaica, and some of the other colonies, were 
 only sent there as to an entrepot; being subsequently 
 exported to the Spanish main. During the ascenden- 
 cy of the Spanish dominion in Mexico and South Amer- 
 ica, this trade, which was then contraband, was carried 
 on to a great extent. It is now much fallen off, and 
 is principally carried on from St. Thomas and Hon- 
 duras. 
 
 Barbadoea was the earliest English possession in the 
 West Indies. It is the most easterly of the Caribbean 
 islands ; Bridgetown, the capital, being in long. 59° 
 41' W. Barbadoes is by far the iDest cultivated of all 
 the West Indian islands. It contains about 105,000 
 acres, having (in 1852) a population of about 13,000 
 whites, 15,000 people of color, and 110,000 blacks. Of 
 late years it has exported from 600,000 to 740,000 cwts. 
 of sugar. Barbadoes had attained tlie ^.cme of its pros- 
 perity in the latter part of the seventeenth century, 
 when the white population is said to have amounted to 
 about 50,000, though this is probably an exaggeration. 
 But it is only as compared with itself that it can be 
 considered as liaving fallen off; for, compared with the 
 other West Indian islands, its superiority is manifest. 
 It raises nearly as much food as is adequate for its sup- 
 ply. The islands next in importance are St. Vincent, 
 Grenada, Trinidad, Antigua, etc. It is unnecessary to 
 enter into any special details with respect to them, 
 their population and trade being exliibited in the an- 
 nexed tables. During the late war Great Britain toolc 
 from the Dutch the settlements of Demerara, Berbice, 
 and Essequibo, in Guiana, which were definitively ceded 
 to them in 1814. The soil of these settlements is nat- 
 urally very rich ; and they have, in this respect, a de- 
 cided advantage over most of the West Indian islands 
 Their advance was for a while very great, but recently 
 their progress has been checked, and their exports have 
 declined most materially. This, however, is entirely 
 in consequence of the want of labor ; for in other re- 
 spects these colonies have every facility of production. 
 Various schemes have been suggested for supplying 
 this want ; but none of them, unless they involve the 
 principle of compulsory service, will, we apprehend, be 
 successful. The rum of Demerara enjoys a high repu- 
 tation. The best samples of Berbice coffee are very 
 superior, and it used to be extensively cultivated both 
 in that colony and in Demerara. In 1831 the exports 
 amounted, from both colonies, to 3,576,744 pounds ; but 
 they have since declined to next to nothing, having 
 amounted in 1852 to only 34,890 pounds. Considera- 
 ble quantities of cotton were formerly, exported from 
 Giiiana ; but the Americans having superior facilities 
 for its production, its culture has nearly ceased. Co- 
 coa, annotto, etc., are produced, but not abundantly. 
 
 Exclusive of the above, the English possess the set- 
 tlement of Balize, on the Bay of Honduras. This is 
 of importance as affording a means of obtaining abund- 
 ant supplies of mahogany ; but it is of more import- 
 ance as an entrepot for the supply of Guatemala and 
 Central America with English manufactured goods. 
 
 The exports from England to the West Indian colo- 
 nies consist of coarse cottons, linens, checks, hats, and 
 other articles of negro clothing ; iron and steel, wrought 
 and unwrought ; leather, including saddlery and har- 
 ness ; glass ; beer and ale ; soap and candles ; station- 
 
 ery ; hardware and earthen-ware ; staves, hoops, coal, 
 lime, paint, lead.; Irish provisions, herrings, and other 
 salt fish; along with furniture, wine, beer, medicines, 
 and indeed almost every article which a great manu- 
 facturing country can supply to one situated 'in a trop- 
 ical climate, which has very few mechanics and hardly 
 any manufactures. Since the opening of the ports on 
 the Spanish Main to ships from England, the exports 
 to the West Indies have decreased both in quantity and 
 value; this decrease being, however, more than bal- 
 anced by the increased shipments to Mexico, Colom- 
 bia, etc. The declared or real value of the exports 
 amounted, in 1852, to £2,031,358. 
 
 Money. — ^What used to be called West India curren- 
 c}' was an imaginary money, and had a different value 
 in different colonies. The value it bore, as compared 
 with sterling money, was supposed to represent the cor- 
 responding value of the coins in circulation in the dif- 
 ferent islands at the time the proportion was fixed : 
 these coins being for the most part mutilated and oth- 
 erwise wora and defaced, currency was in all cases less 
 valuable than sterling. The following are tlie old val- 
 ues of £100 sterling, and of a dollar, in the currencies 
 of the different islands : 
 
 Sterl. Curr, Dol. Curr. 
 
 Jaimaca £XW = £140 1 = 68. 8d. 
 
 Barbadoes £100=^6135 1 = 68. Sd. 
 
 WindwardlBlandB (exceptBar- 
 
 badoes) £100 = £175 1 = 88. 3i. 
 
 Leeivard Islands £100 = £200 1 = 9«. 0(L 
 
 But latterly these currencies have been in great meas- 
 ure superseded by the introduction of sterling money, 
 current at the' same rates as in Engi'and, and of the 
 Spanish dollar. 
 
 By an order in council of the 23d of March, 1825, 
 British silver money was made legal tender through- 
 out all British colonial possessions at the same nom- 
 inal value as in England ; and bills for the same are 
 given on the treasury of London, of £100 each bill for 
 £103 such silver money. By this order, also, the value 
 of the Spanish dollar was fixed at is. id. British silver 
 money throughout all the colonies where it is current ; 
 but this value was further reduced on the 21st of Sep- 
 tember, 1838, to 4s. id. The value of the doubloon was 
 then also fixed at 648. 
 
 Australian Colonies. — This group of colonies, though 
 founded in a very distant part of the world, and at a 
 comparatively recent epoch, will probably, at no very 
 distant epoch, far surpass the others in magnitude and 
 importance. The countries in which they are situated, 
 including the great Australian continent, formerly call- 
 ed New Holland, with Van Diemen's Land or Tasma- 
 nia, Kew Zealand, etc., are of vast extent, and differ 
 in many respects from each other. Hitherto, also, by 
 far the larger portion of the continent is wholly unex- 
 plored ; and even the islands are but very imperfectly 
 known. Enough, however, has transpired to show that 
 this great division of the globe differs in some most im- 
 portant respects from most or all countries with which 
 we were previously acquainted ; and that it is, in fact, 
 full of anomalies. The interior of the continent has 
 not been sufficiently explored to enable any distinct 
 opinion to be formed as to the height of the mountain 
 chains; but it appears to be pretty well established 
 that it has no great rivers, or at least none that reach 
 the sea. Indeed, it seems, speaking generally, to be 
 a law in this new world that rivers are largest near 
 their source ; and that they gradually diminisli as they 
 proceed, and most commonly dwindle into insignifi- 
 cance, or lose themselves in marshes, before they reach 
 the ocean. In consequence, perhaps, of this singular 
 constitution of its river system, it is found that in Aus- 
 tralia the best land is not at the mouths, but toward 
 the sources of the rivers. There are, no doubt, excep- 
 tions to this rule ; but it appears to hold in the greater 
 number of instances. Generally, also, the extent of fine 
 land appears to be comparatively limited ; and in so far 
 as the continental portion of the country has been ex- 
 
COL 
 
 366 
 
 COL 
 
 ploved, it appears to be much better adapted for pastur- 
 age than for tillage. 
 
 Gold Deposits.— The land, the pasturage, the sheep, 
 the copper and other ordinary minerals, -which are found 
 in abundance in various parts of Australia, have all 
 been rendered, for the present at least, of no import- 
 ance compared with the gold deposits with which the 
 continent is so largely endowed. These, which were 
 discovered so late as 1851, are of the most extraordina- 
 ry richness. They exceed in productiveness not only 
 the gold fields of California, but every thing, indeed, 
 of which any idea could previously have been enter- 
 tained. Australia has, in consequence, become an ob- 
 ject of earnest and universal attention. An almost 
 unparalleled amount of emigration has been directed 
 to her shores. Her population and her trade are both 
 increasing with gigantic strides ; and her gold is influ- 
 encing the wages, the prices, and the industry of every 
 civilized people.' — See art. Australia and Gold. 
 
 It were idle to indulge in speculations in regard to 
 the period when the exhaustion of the Australian gold 
 fields may be expected ; there are no data on which to 
 hazard even a conjecture on such a subject. But 
 whether the supplies from them be destined to be of 
 long or short duration, they have already been, and 
 no doubt Avill continue to be, of great advantage. We 
 do not mean bj' this to say or insinuate that the good 
 resulting from the influx of gold from Australia and 
 California has been unaccompanied by any drawbacks. 
 The gambling and dissipation to which it has given 
 rise are obvious. But these, though considerable, are 
 but a trifling deduction from its many advantages; 
 from the powerful stimulus it has given to industry 
 and civilization, from the new channels it has opened 
 to commerce, and from its greatly ameliorating the 
 condition of the laboring classes in this and most other 
 countries. 
 
 The northern portion of Australia, including, per- 
 haps, about a third part of the entire continent, lies be- 
 tween the tropics ; the other portion of the continent, 
 with the adjacent islands of Van Diemen's Land and 
 New Zealand, being in the south temperate zone. The 
 climate of the different parts of the continent must, 
 therefore, it is obvious, differ very widely. We, how- 
 ever, know but little of the climate of intertropical Aus- 
 tralia, except that it is within the range of the Indian 
 monsoon ; that the temperature along the coast is rap- 
 idly raised by a wind from the south, which has been 
 supposed to afford a strong presumption of the exist- 
 ence of sandy deserts in the interior ; and that the air 
 is so very moist that during the season of the monsoon 
 iron implements are with the utmost difficulty pre- 
 served from rusting. It is commonly said that the cli- 
 mate of extra- tropical Australia, and especially of New 
 South Wales, assipiilates closely to that of Southern 
 Italy. But this statement must be taken with consid- 
 erable limitation ; for, 1st. The atmosphere is very de- 
 cidedly denser ; 2d. The extremes of temperature are 
 infinitely greater ; 3d. The average heat is rather loss ; 
 and, 4th. The temperature appears to decline more rap- 
 idly by increase of elevation. The grand defect in the 
 climate of extra-tropical Australia appears to consist 
 in the periodical recurrence of wet and dry seasons. 
 Sometimes hardly a single drop of rain falls for an en- 
 tire year or more ; and though, happily, dews are in 
 such seasons peculiarly abundant, they form no ade- 
 quate substitute for rain. During long -continued 
 droughts crops of all kinds are destroj'ed ; and herbage, 
 except in a few favored spots, suffers severely. Hence, 
 as already stated, all the eastern parts of extra-tropic- 
 al Australia, and perhaps also the southern, would seem 
 to be much better fitted for pasturage than for husband- 
 ry. The droughts are exceedingly injurious to the lat- 
 ter, and they would necessarily involve any large pop- 
 ulation that depended principally on the indigenous 
 products of the soil in extreme privations. Certainly, 
 however, no country seems to be better fitted for graz- 
 
 ing, or rather for the growth of sheep and wool. A 
 dry climate is especially suitable to the latter; and 
 though the pastures be far from luxuriant, tlieir bounds 
 less extent compensates for every other deficiency. 
 Sheep are not native to the country, a small flock of 
 twenty-nine head having been introduced for the first 
 time by the original English settlers in 1788. For a 
 while, however, their value was not appreciated ; but 
 the importance of sheep-farming, and its suitableness 
 to the country, having been demonstrated by John 
 M'Arthur,- Esq. (to whom the colony is under the 
 gi'eatest obligations), it has since increased with un- 
 precedented rapidity. In proof of this, it may be stated 
 that while the import of wool into Great Britain from 
 Australia amounted, in 1822, to only 152,880 pounds, 
 it had increased in 1825 to 411,600 pounds, in 1830 to 
 899,750 pounds, and in 1851 to the enormous amount 
 of 41,810,137 pounds. Van Diemen's Land being less 
 subject to droughts than New South Wales, husbandry 
 is carried on in it to a greater extent, and with more 
 advantage ; but there also sheep-farming is the princi- 
 pal, and perhaps the most advantageous employment. 
 — See Van Diemes's Land. New Zealand, which 
 has only been resorted to by regular colonists since 
 1840, is better fitted for agriculture than either Austra- 
 lia or Van Diemen's Land, and its climate is more like 
 that of England. The ground in it is, however, rather 
 difficult to clear ; the natives are also much more formi- 
 dable, and it is not so suitable for sheep-farming. 
 
 Population. — The European population of the Aus- 
 tralian colonies is believed to have been, at the under- 
 mentioned dates, nearly as follows : 
 
 Coloniea. 
 
 Yenrs. 
 
 Population. 
 
 New Soutli Wales 
 
 1851 
 1853 
 1S50 
 
 1850 
 1850 
 
 197,168 
 200,000 
 70,000 
 64,000 
 7,000 
 22,400 
 
 
 Van Diemen's Land 
 
 
 New Zealand 
 
 Total 
 
 
 500,568 
 
 Expenditure hy Great Britain on the Aitstralian Col- 
 onies. — England does not appear to spend any money 
 in Victoria : the last parliamentary return on colonial 
 expenditure does not mention that colony. The fol- 
 lowing table exhibits the amounts expended on four 
 colonies in the years 1853-'54, and the purposes to 
 which they were applied : 
 
 Colonies. 
 
 Military 
 Cliorgea. 
 
 CivU 
 Charges, 
 
 Naval 
 Charges. 
 
 Total. 
 
 South Australia 
 
 New South Wales . . . 
 Vau Diemen's Land . 
 
 West Australia 
 
 Total 
 
 £10,248 
 61,193 
 65,110 
 36,711 
 
 £2 
 
 10,036 
 
 209,176 
 
 98,123 
 
 £83 
 
 £10,260 
 71,313 
 264,287 
 133,834 
 
 £162,262 
 
 £317,337 
 
 £88 
 
 £470,684 
 
 These totals do not really represent £479,685 spent 
 by Great Britain on her Australian colonies : except 
 South Australia, all are "penal settlements," or have 
 been, and the large expenditure has mostly been in- 
 curred in guarding, disciplining, feeding, and clothing 
 convicts. In fact, the Australian colonies cost her next 
 to nothing, being but a small per cent, of what it would 
 cost to keep convicts at home. Under the new constitu- 
 tionfor the four free colonies, AVestern Australia has be- 
 come a convict settlement by her own choice, and has 
 the advantage of a large expenditure in consequence, 
 the following sums having been reserved out of the rev- 
 enue annually for the purposes indicated. The civil list 
 includes the governor's salary, judicial salaries, and 
 those of departments. The retiring allowances are for 
 officials liable to removal on political grounds. 
 
 Coloniea 
 
 Civil 
 List. 
 
 Retiring 
 AUowances. 
 
 Public 
 Worship. 
 
 Victoria 
 
 New South Wales 
 
 Van Diemen's Land 
 
 South Australia 
 
 Total 
 
 £49,600 
 20,550 
 13,300 
 16,000 
 
 £4,000 
 6,900 
 2,175 
 1,766 
 
 £60,000 
 28,000 
 16,000 
 
 £99,350 
 
 £13,841 
 
 £98,000 
 
COL 
 
 367 
 
 COL 
 
 EETUr.N, ENDMERATING THE VARIOUS COLOSIBB, OF ANY ISIPOaTANCE, BELONGING TO GrBEAT BeITAIN, WITH THEIK POPULA- 
 TION, Teadb, and Natigation. 
 
 CclonieB. 
 
 Fppalatioii, 
 ■ 1S60, 
 or laai Cflosns. 
 
 Imports into the 
 United Kingdom, 
 
 1845. 
 (Official Value.) 
 
 Declnrod Value 
 
 of British and 
 
 Irish FrodnCD and 
 
 Manufactures 
 
 exported from the 
 
 United Kingdom, 
 
 1861.° 
 
 Number and Tonnage of Vessele, 1846. 
 
 Entered Inward into 
 the United Kingdom. 
 
 Cleared Outward from 
 the United Kingdom. 
 
 NOBTU AUBBICA. 
 
 Canada East 
 
 900,000! i 
 
 952,004 
 
 193,800 
 
 j 276,117 ) 
 
 62,634 ) 
 96,606 
 
 £ % 
 
 1,450,500 
 
 372,807 
 
 87,151 
 
 278,171 
 
 £ 
 
 . 2,451,534 
 
 442,198 
 
 1 445,309 
 1 67,109 
 
 334,730 
 
 'ships. 
 1580 
 1020 
 
 236 
 
 173 
 
 Tons. 
 029,824 
 381,913 
 
 56,2!:6 
 
 21,189 
 
 Ships. 
 1371 
 732 
 
 190 
 
 210 
 
 Tons. 
 569,299 
 279,639 
 
 46,736 
 
 29,806 
 
 Canada West 
 
 
 Nova Scotia 
 
 
 Prince Edward's Island 
 
 Newfoundland 
 
 Total 
 
 2,481,061 
 
 37,767 
 
 135,939 
 
 22,200 
 
 32,671 
 
 377,433 
 
 7,053 
 
 9,001 
 28,177 i 
 
 2,934 
 24,516 
 30,128 
 14,378 
 
 6,689 
 68,600 
 27,619 
 11,092 
 127,696 
 11,066 
 
 2,188,719 
 
 373,308 
 
 611,603 
 
 94,742 
 
 120,932 
 
 1,691,661 
 
 17,163 
 
 46,764 
 
 188,052 
 
 120,007 
 
 256,404 
 
 108,013 
 
 10,162 
 
 689,491 
 
 6'S,745 
 
 29,871 
 
 1,227,043 
 
 774,242 
 
 3,730,880 
 
 99,703 
 
 419,479 
 
 33,595 
 
 45,163 
 
 700,290 
 
 173 
 
 2,208 
 
 58,664 
 
 22,974 
 73,201 
 16,820 
 
 276,i's5 
 
 32,088 
 
 32,435 
 
 389,054 
 
 232,633 
 
 8016 
 
 02 
 83 
 12 
 16 
 179 
 2 
 11 
 
 24 
 
 16 
 29 
 17 
 
 1 
 96 
 39 
 
 2 
 
 174 
 
 77 
 
 1,089,221 
 
 15,100 
 21,261 
 3,027 
 4,189 
 66,463 
 672 
 1,7S8 
 
 6,861 
 
 3,479 
 
 8,011 
 
 4,616 
 
 221 
 
 22,392 
 
 6,629 
 
 218 
 
 44,460 
 
 22,846 
 
 2503 
 
 69 
 
 83 
 10 
 
 on 
 
 214 
 1 
 6 
 
 38 
 
 18 
 24 
 16 
 2 
 
 110 
 20 
 28 
 
 212 
 59 
 
 914,980 
 
 13,930 
 
 22,340 
 
 2,838 
 
 16,027 
 
 66,856 
 
 391 
 
 801 
 
 8,122 
 
 4,036 
 
 6,736 
 
 4,150 
 
 432 
 
 26,644 
 
 2,565 
 
 . 10,238 
 
 59,350 
 
 19,323 
 
 West Indies. 
 
 Barbadocs 
 
 Dominica 
 
 
 Jamaica 
 
 Motttserrat 
 
 Nevis 
 
 St. Cliristopher 
 
 Angi^illa , . . 
 
 StLncia 
 
 St Vincent ; . . . 
 
 Tobago 
 
 Tortola 
 
 Trinidad 
 
 
 Bermudas 
 
 
 Honduras 
 
 Total 
 
 970,448 
 
 12,182 
 
 115,864 
 
 293,279 
 
 44,472 ) 
 
 6,671 j. 
 
 382,000 
 
 1,027,849 
 
 192,523 
 
 197,168 
 
 200,000 
 
 70,000 
 
 7,000 
 
 64,000 
 
 22,400 
 
 550 
 
 5,490 
 
 . 32,983 
 
 2,215 
 
 6,428,283 
 
 56,615 
 103,063 
 779,547 
 
 79,146 
 
 64,521 
 
 1,326,899 
 
 1,003,039 
 
 • 723,639 
 
 169,241 
 
 61 
 
 50,798 
 
 21,065 
 
 22,367 
 
 2,483,665 
 
 481,286 
 
 301,443 
 
 753,3t3 
 
 j 94,546 
 
 f 47,197 
 
 107,653 
 
 175,414 
 
 232,665 
 
 1,201,261 
 
 604,403 ' . 
 
 420,922 
 
 ■ 34,726 
 
 876,035 
 
 171,009 
 
 2,841 
 
 23,248 
 
 632,399 
 
 238 
 
 839 
 
 82 
 71 
 175 
 
 52 
 
 44 
 31 
 97 
 
 99 
 4 
 
 '6 
 
 220,.'>38 
 
 18,221 
 11,650 
 47,460 
 
 12,297 
 
 6,901 
 11,718 
 27,199 
 
 36,158 
 1,184 
 2,ibl 
 
 itB4 
 
 203 
 190 
 116 
 
 60 
 
 34 
 67 
 
 71 
 
 140. 
 
 'e 
 
 1 
 
 14 
 
 263,273 
 
 36,258 
 37,062 
 27,136 
 
 16,387 
 
 6,407 
 22,511 
 21,418 
 
 68,537 
 
 'i,878 
 
 189 
 
 • 2,724 
 
 Gib*ltar ... 
 
 Malta and Gozo 
 
 Cape of Good Hope and Natal .... 
 
 
 Gold Coast 
 
 
 Mauritius 
 
 
 Victoria : '. , . . 
 
 
 "Western Australia 
 
 
 New Zealand 
 
 
 St Helena 
 
 
 Heligoland 
 
 Total 
 
 8,278, 04fi 
 
 2,481,061 
 
 070,448 
 
 3,278,646 
 
 4,460,006 
 
 2,188,719 
 6,428,283 
 4,460,005 
 
 6,658,969 
 
 3,730,880 
 2,433,665 
 5,658,969 
 
 664 
 
 3016 
 839 
 664 
 
 174,849 
 
 1,089,221 
 220,538 
 174,849 
 
 898 
 
 •i'03 
 '!4 
 ■!-98 
 
 228,604 
 
 914,980 
 268,273 
 228,504 
 
 ( North American 
 
 Other colonies 
 
 General Totals 
 
 6,780,155 
 
 13,077,007 
 
 11,823,514' 
 
 4518 
 
 1,484,603 
 
 4665 
 
 1,406,767 
 
 Account op tue total Expekditueh incukeed by the United Kingdom Fon Coloneeb and Militaey and Makltimb 
 
 Stations in l84S)-'50. . 
 
 Military and Maritime Stationt, 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 Malta 
 
 Cape of Good Hope 
 
 Mauritius 
 
 Bermuda 
 
 St. Helena 
 
 AecenBlon 
 
 Heligoland 
 
 Ionian Islands 
 
 Falkland Islands 
 
 Hong Kong 
 
 Piantationt and Settlevjents, 
 
 Barbadoes 
 
 Grenada 
 
 St Vincent 
 
 Tobago 
 
 Antigua 
 
 Montserrat 
 
 St. Christoplier's 
 
 Nevis 
 
 AngulUa 
 
 Virgin Islands 
 
 Dominica 
 
 St. Lucia 
 
 Trinidad 
 
 British Guiana 
 
 £ a. d. 
 
 210,740 18 10 
 169,388 12 6 
 291,459 32 3 
 116,307 9 2 
 123,075 2 4 
 60,895 6 11 
 
 1,4S6 5 9 
 
 948 T 10 
 
 133,042 13 6 
 
 3,402 8 
 182,270 5 
 
 339,787 5 10 
 
 Plantations and Setllemfnte. 
 
 Jamaica 
 
 Bahamas 
 
 Honduras 
 
 Canada 
 
 Nova Scotia 
 
 New Brunswick 
 
 Prince Edward's Island 
 
 'Newfoundland 
 
 Sierra Leone 
 
 Gambia 
 
 Cape Coast 
 
 Ceylon 
 
 South Australia 
 
 North Australia 
 
 New Zealand 
 
 Labuan 
 
 Penal Settlementt. 
 
 New South "Wales 
 
 Van Diemen's Land 
 
 West Australia 
 
 General Charges 
 
 Total 
 
 165,931 6 6 
 
 22,958 18 6 
 
 16,006 10 6 
 
 360,264 16 6 
 
 144,716 5 7 
 
 11.984 5 4 
 
 3,689 9 9 
 
 31,069 9 8 
 
 62,610 10 7 
 
 91,616"l2 9 
 3,905 16 8 
 
 150,241 14 7 
 8,221 18 4 
 
 56,184 18 11 
 224,444 8 9 
 18,920 11 6 
 34,264 19 5 
 
 2,979,826 15 11 
 
 III. Othek Colonies. Spanish Colonies. — Spain, 
 whose colonial possessions extended a few years ago 
 from the frontiers of the United States to the Straits 
 
 of Magellan, is not at present possessed of a foot of 
 ground in the whole American continent. Still, how- 
 ever, her colonial possessions are of great value and 
 
COL 
 
 368 
 
 COL 
 
 importance. In the West Indies, she is mistress of 
 Cuba and Porto Rico — the former by far the largest 
 and finest of the West Indian islands, and the latter 
 also a very valuable possession. In the East, Spain 
 is mistress of the Philippine Islands, which, were they 
 in the hands of an enterprising people, would speedi- 
 ly become of very great commercial importance. — S^ 
 the articles Havana, Manilla, Porto Rico. 
 
 Dutch Colonies. — Java is the principal Dutch colo- 
 nial possession, and it is one of which it is not easy to 
 exaggerate the value and importance. — See BatavIa. 
 In the East, the Dutch also possess the Moluccas, Ben- 
 coolen, on the coast of Sumatra, Macassar, and the 
 eastern coast of Celebes, Banda, etc. They have sever- 
 al forts on the Gold Coast in Africa ; and in the AVest 
 Indies they possess the islands of Cura9oa and St. Eu- 
 statius, Saba, and part of St. Martin ; and on the con- 
 tinent of South America they are masters of Dutch 
 Surinam. Curaijoa and St. Eustatius are naturally 
 barren, but they have been both .highly improved. 
 From its being very conveniently situated for main- 
 taining a contraband traffic with the Caraccas and 
 other districts in South America, Cura9oa was for- 
 merly a place of great trade, particularly during war. 
 But since the independence of South AJnerica, Cura- 
 90a has ceased in great measure to be an entrepot ; the 
 goods destined for the continent being now for the 
 most part forwarded direct to the place of their desti- 
 nation. That district of Surinam ceded to the British 
 
 in 1814, comprising the settlements of Demerara, Ber- 
 bice, and Essequibo, formed the most valuable portion 
 of Surinam, or Dutch Guiana. The district which 
 still belongs to the Dutch lies to the south of Berbice. 
 It contains about 38,000 square miles, and a population 
 of about 65,000. It is daily becoming of more value 
 and importance. The exports of sugar may amount 
 to about 25,000,000 pounds, and those of coffee to about 
 4,000,000 pounds. 
 
 French Colonies. — Previously to the negro insurrec- 
 tion that broke out in 1792, St. Domingo was by far 
 the most valuable colony in the West Indies. But 
 this disastrous event, having first devastated the island, 
 terminated in the establishment of the independent 
 black republic of Hayti. — See Poet ah Prikce. Hav- 
 ing also sold Louisiana to the Americans, and ceded 
 the Mauritius to the English, without making any new 
 acquisition, the colonial dominions of France (for Al- 
 giers can not be reckoned among them) are at this 
 moment of very limited extent. They consist of Gua- 
 deloupe and Martinique, and the small islands of Ma- 
 rie-Galante and Deseada, in the West Indies; Cay- 
 enne, in South America ; Senegal and Goree, in Afri- 
 ca; the Isle do Bourbon, in the Eastern Ocean; St. 
 Marie, in Madagascar; and Pondicheriy and Chan- 
 dernagor, with a very small surrounding territory, 
 in the East Indies. The annexed tabular statements 
 show the population, trade, etc., of the French colo- 
 nies. 
 
 Account of the Population of the Fkenou Colonies, and of theie Commekce with Feance, in 1S3<? 
 
 Poputm 
 
 Free. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Ileal Vftlue, IB! 
 
 Exporta from 
 France. 
 
 Ships entered. 
 
 Ships. ToDDagc. 
 
 Sliipa cleared out. 
 ShipsT Tonnage. 
 
 Saint Pierre and Miguelon 
 
 Martinique 
 
 Guadeloupe 
 
 Cayenne 
 
 Bourbon 
 
 Senegal 
 
 French factories in India (1835) 
 Totals 
 
 Number. 
 
 1,400 
 40,013 
 83,059 
 
 5,056 
 36,803 
 18,040 
 
 167,730 
 
 77,459 
 95,609 
 16,592 
 69,296 
 
 Number. 
 
 1,400 
 
 117,602 
 
 127,668 
 
 21,048 
 
 106,099 
 
 18,040 
 
 (ljan.,1836) 
 
 167,736 
 
 Francs. 
 
 2,424,244 
 16,423,438 
 24,575,141 
 
 3,121,752 
 16,748,899 
 
 3,374,724 
 
 4,323,028 
 
 Francs. 
 
 760,836 
 
 17,062,292 
 
 22,119,188 
 
 2,698,166 
 
 9,804,940 
 
 6,466,923 
 
 441,326 
 
 No. 
 144 
 358 
 618 
 
 42 
 156 
 
 36 
 
 Tons. 
 28,926 
 48,861 
 70,027 
 
 6,792 
 43,830 
 
 4,791 
 
 11,098 
 
 No. 
 143 
 363 
 548 
 
 45 
 149 
 
 52 
 
 Tons. 
 
 23,805 
 
 122,214 
 
 69,656 
 
 T,960 
 43,483 
 
 6,963 
 
 16,592 
 
 301,187 
 
 560,093 
 
 70,986,5 
 
 58,348,121 
 
 209,325 
 
 Account of the Quantities of tue rEiworPAL 
 
 Abticles peoditced in the Feenou Colonies in 1S3G. 
 
 
 Colonies and Establishments. 
 
 Sugars 
 
 ofall 
 
 QudUbes. 
 
 Coffee. 
 
 Cocoa. 
 
 Cotton. 
 
 Cloves 
 
 and 
 Spices. 
 
 AnBotto. 
 
 Tobacco. 
 
 Gum. 
 
 Wai. 
 
 Skins. 
 
 Wood. 
 
 Martinique 
 
 KUog. 
 
 34,169,580 
 
 34,836,722 
 
 23,884,110 
 
 2,422,790 
 
 KUog. 
 
 692,807 
 
 471,685 
 
 928,200 
 
 42,000 
 
 1,422 
 
 52,084 
 
 Eilog. 
 126,610 
 10,601 
 10,000 
 25,200 
 1,447 
 
 KUog. 
 
 18,705 
 
 68,194 
 
 286,000 
 6,720 
 
 Kilog. 
 
 ' '239 
 193,500 
 107,080 
 
 Kilog. 
 313,'odo 
 
 Kilog. 
 
 84,047 
 82,000 
 
 Kilog. 
 1,791^S10 
 
 Kilog. 
 46^34 
 
 Kilog. 
 
 227,728 
 Cent. 396 ) 
 Paq. 88 j 
 
 Kilog. 
 
 40,509 
 13,636 
 
 
 Cayenne 
 
 Factories in India (1835). . 
 
 94,803,214 
 
 2,188,198 
 
 172,768 
 
 373,619 
 
 300,8191813.000 
 
 110,047 
 
 1,791,510 
 
 45,184 
 
 227,728 
 Cent. 396 
 Paq. 88 
 
 54,145 
 
 
 
 
 But it would appear from the following account of 
 the exports from Martinique and Guadeloupe, in 1851, 
 that the emancipation of the slaves has had much the 
 same influence over production in the French colonies 
 that it has had in the British colonies, without being, we 
 believe, in any degree more advantageous to the blacks. 
 
 Account of the Exports of Native Produce prom Mar- 
 tinique AND GUAUELOUPE IN 1851. 
 
 MAaTINldUB. 
 
 Sugar, Muscovado kil. 23,466,696 
 
 Sugar, clayed — 807 
 
 Molasses lit. 33,754 
 
 Ram — 206,511 
 
 Coffee kil. 110,933 
 
 Cocoa — 149,033 
 
 Cassia — 163,580 
 
 Logwood — 50,260 
 
 Guadeloupe. 
 
 Sugar, Muscovado kil. 20,048,888 
 
 Molasses lit- 13,879 
 
 Rum - 142,189 
 
 Coffee kil. 221,218 
 
 Cotton - 20,443 
 
 Cocoa — 11452 
 
 Cassia — 165 
 
 Danish Colonies. — In the West Indies, these consist 
 of the islands of St. Croix, St. Thomas, and St. John. 
 St. Croix contains about 100 square miles, and has 
 about 24,000 inhabitants. The soil is fertile, and it is 
 well cultivated. The principal productions are sugar, 
 rum, and cofiee, the exports of sugar having formerly 
 amounted to about 25,000,000 pounds a year. Proba- 
 bly, however, they have been diminished in conse- 
 quence of the emancipation of the slaves in 1848. St. 
 Thomas, which has about 14,000 inhabitants, has long 
 been, and still continues to be, one of the principal em- 
 poriums in the West Indies. It owes this distinction 
 partly to its convenient situation, partly to its spa- 
 cious and safe harbor at St. Thomas, on the south side 
 of the island, and partly and principally to the mode- 
 ration of the import duties, which vary from 1 to li 
 per cent. St. Thomas has in consequence become, as 
 it were, a depot for the supply of the neighboring isl- 
 ands, goods being sent to it to be warehoused till op- 
 portunity offers for conveying them to their final des- 
 tination. The great articles of importation are, man- 
 ufactured goods, principally from England, 'but partly 
 
COL 
 
 369 
 
 COL 
 
 also from other countries of Europe, with provisions, 
 lumber, etc., from the United States. In India the 
 Danes formerly possessed Tranquebar, near Madras ; 
 and Serampoor, near Calcutta ; but these they sold, in 
 1845, to the East India Company. 
 
 Swedish Coloniis. — The Swedes possess one colony — 
 the small island of St. Bartholomew, in the West In- 
 dies. It is only about 25 square miles in extent, but 
 is very fertile. It has no springs, nor fresh water of 
 any sort, except such as is supplied by the rain. Pop- 
 ulation between 8000 and 9000. 
 
 Selection of Sites for Colonial Establishments. — Noth- 
 ing can be more unwise than the plan, if so we may 
 call it, hitherto followed in the selection of places at 
 ■wliich to found colonies. The captain of a ship, with- 
 out any knowledge whatever of the nature of soils or 
 the capacities of a country in an agricultural point of 
 view, falls in after a long cruise with a river or bay, 
 abounding with fish and fresh water, and surrounded 
 with land that loolcs fertile and is covered with herbage. 
 He forthwith reports all these circumstances, duly em- 
 bellished, and strongly recommending the situation as 
 an admirable one at whicli to found a colony ; and, in 
 nine cases out of ten, this is all the information that is 
 required in taking a step of such infinite importance. 
 No wonder, therefore, that many fine schemes of colo- 
 nization should have ended only in loss and disappoint- 
 ment; and that situations which the colonists were 
 taught to look upon as a species of paradise have 
 proved to be any thing but what they were represent- 
 ed. Botany Bay, though described by Captain Cook 
 as one of the finest places in the world, had to be aban- 
 doned by the colonists that were sent out to it, as the 
 country round it, instead of being favorable for cultiva- 
 tion, is a mere sandy swamp. Is it possible to sup- 
 pose, had the proper inquiries been entered into, that 
 any attempt would have been made to cstablisli a col- 
 ony in so pestilential a climate as that of Sierra Leone ? 
 The colony on Swan Eiver, Australia, may be adduced 
 as another instance of misplaced or premature confi- 
 dence in the reports of those who were really without 
 the means of forming a correct estimate of the various' 
 circumstances necessaiy to be attended to in forming a 
 colony. We therefore hope that an end may be put to 
 this system — a system which is in no common degree 
 injurious to the public interests, and is highly criminal 
 toward those who embarlc as colonists. The founding 
 of a colony should be looked upon in its true point of 
 view — ^as a great national enterprise. It is not an ad- 
 venture to be intrusted to presumptuous ignorance, 
 but should be maturely weighed, and every circum- 
 stance connected with it carefully investigated. Above 
 all, the situation in which it is proposed to found the 
 colony should be minutely surveyed ; and its climate, 
 soil, and capacities of production deliberately inquired 
 iftto by competent persons employed for the purpose. 
 Were this done, government and the public would have 
 the best attainable grounds upon wliich to proceed; 
 and neither party would have much reason to fear 
 those disappointments which have hitlierto so often fol- 
 lowed the exaggerated representations of those to whom 
 the important and difiScult task of selecting situations 
 for colonies has been delegated. 
 
 Columbia or Oregon River, in Washington and 
 Oregon territories, and British possessions. Its north- 
 ern branch takes its rise in the Kocky Mountains, in 
 lat. 60° N., long. 116° W. ; from thence it pursues a 
 northern course to nearM'Gillivary's Pass of the Eocky 
 Mountains. At the boat encampment the river is 3600 
 feet above the level of the sea (here it receives two 
 small tributaries — the Canoe Eiver, and that from the 
 Committee's Punch Bowl) ; from thence it turns south, 
 having some obstructions to canoe navigation, and re- 
 ceiving many tributaries in its course to Colville, among 
 which are the Kootanie, or Flat Bow, and the Flat 
 Head, or Clarke Eiver, from the east, and that of Col- 
 ville from the west. This great river is bounded, thus 
 A A 
 
 far on its course, by a range of high mountains, well 
 wooded, and in some places expands into a lino of 
 lakes before it reaches Colville, where it is 2049 feet 
 above the level of the sea, having a fall of 550 feet in 
 220 miles. To the south of this it tends to the west- 
 ward, receiving the Spokane Kiver from the east (which 
 is not navigable), and takes its rise from the Coeur 
 d'Alene. Thence it pursues a westerly course for about 
 60 miles, receiving several smaller streams, and at its 
 bend to the south it is joined by the Okanagan, a riv- 
 er that has its source in a line of lakes, affording canoe 
 and boat navigation for a considerable extent to the 
 northward. The Columbia thence passes to the south- 
 ward until it reaches Wallawalla, in the latitude of 45°, 
 a distance of 160 miles, receiving the Piscous, Y'Aka- 
 ma, and Point de Boise, or Entyatecoom, from the 
 west, which take their rise in the Cascade range, and 
 also its great southeastern branch, the Saptin, or Lew- 
 is, which has its source in the Wind Eiver Mountains, 
 and brings a large quantity of water to increase the vol- 
 ume of the main stream. The Lewis is not navigable, 
 even for canoes, except in reaches. The rapids are ex- 
 tensive, and of frequent occurrence. It generally pass- 
 es between the Eocky Mountain spurs and the Blue 
 Mountains. It receives the Kooskooske, Salmon, and 
 several other rivers from the east and west — the former 
 from the Eocky Mountains, the latter from the Blue 
 Mountains — and, were it navigable, would much facil- 
 itate the intercourse with this part of the countiy. Its 
 length, to its junction with the Columbia, is 520 miles. 
 The Columbia below this point forms the botindary be- 
 tween Oregon and Washington territories to the Pa- 
 cific. The river at Wallawalla is 1286 feet above the 
 level of the sea, and about 3500 feet wide ; it now takes 
 its last turn to the westward, receiving the Umatilla, 
 Quisnel's, John Day's and De Chute rivers from the 
 south, and Cathlatate's from the north, pursuing its 
 rapid course of 80 miles, previous to passing through 
 the range of Cascade Mountains, in a series of falls and 
 rapids that obstruct its flow, and form insurmountable 
 bari'iers to the passage of boats by water during the 
 floods. These difficulties, however, are overcome by 
 portages around the falls. The waters here descend 
 40 feet in the distance of two miles. From thence there 
 is still-water navigation for 40 miles, when its course 
 is again obstructed by rapids. At the Dalles the river 
 is compressed into a narrow channel 300 feet wide and 
 half a mile long, and flows between high walls of ba- 
 salt, and the water falls 60 feet in the distance of two 
 miles. Thence to the ocean, 120 miles, it is navigable for 
 vessels of 12 feet draft of water at the lowest state of the 
 river, though obstructed by many sand bars. In this 
 part it receives the Willamette from the south, and the 
 Cowelitz from the north. The former is navigable for 
 small vessels 20 miles, to the mouth of the Klackamns, 
 three miles below its falls ; the latter can not be called 
 navigable, except for a small part of the year, during 
 the floods, and then only for canoes and barges. The 
 width of the Columbia, within 20 miles of its mouth, is 
 much increased, and it joins the ocean between Cape 
 Disappointment and Point Adams, forming a sand-spit 
 from each, by deposit, and causing a dangerous bar, 
 which greatly impedes its navigation and entrance. 
 The influence of the tides is felt 80 miles above its en- 
 trance into the Pacific. Its entire course is about 750 
 miles. During the year 1850, 160 vessels entered and 
 departed from the ports of Columbia Eiver. Vessels 
 of a draft of 17i Jeet have been safely taken over the 
 south bar, and it is supposed that vessels drawing over 
 20 feet can enter safely. This noble river was discov- 
 ered by Captain Gray, of Boston, in the year 1792, in 
 the ship Columbia, and named from the ship. It was 
 first explored from its sources to the sea in 1804-5, by 
 Messrs. Lewis and Clarke, by order of the government 
 of the United States. By the Oregon treaty its navi- 
 gation is open to British vessels. The Coast Survey 
 are now preparing a chart of this river. 
 
COL 
 
 370 
 
 COL 
 
 Columbo, the modern capital of Ceylon, on the 
 southwest coast of the island ; lat. 6° 56' 6" N., long. 
 79° 4:9' 48'' E. It is defended by a very strong fort, 
 nearly surrounded by the sea, in which is a light-house 
 97 fee t high. Population of the town and fort, in 1831, 
 31,519. The houses, generallj' only one story high, are 
 of stone, clay, and lime ; and the town has more of a Eu- 
 ropean appearance than any other in India. The inhab- 
 itants are principally Cingalese. The temperature is 
 remarkable for its equality ; and though very humid, 
 the climate may, on the whole, be esteemed salubrious 
 and temperate. There is no harbor at Columbo for 
 large ./essels, but only an open roadstead. A pro- 
 jecting rock, on which two batteries are erected, af- 
 fordi) shelter to a small semicircular bay on the north 
 side of the fort, having a wooden quay to facilitate the 
 loading and unloading of boats. The depth of water is 
 not sufficient to allow sloops or large dhonies to come 
 alongside the quay ; those exceeding 100 tons burden 
 lying at about a cable's length from it. A bar of sand, 
 on which the water is not more than 12 feet deep, ex- 
 tends from the projecting rock across this bay. The 
 channel wliere it may be crossed by the larger class of 
 ships is liable to shift ; and it is only in the flue weath- 
 er of the safe season that they venture within the bar. 
 The outer road affords secure anchorage for half the 
 year, from the beginning of October to the end of Jlarch, 
 during the prevalence of the northeast monsoon, when 
 the wind blows off the land ; during the other, or south- 
 west monsoon, when the wind blows from the sea on 
 shore, the road is very far from safe ; and the ships 
 that frequent it are sometimes obliged to slip their ca- 
 bles and stand out to sea. — Miledrn's Oriental Com- 
 merce; Hamilton's Gazetteer, etc. 
 
 As respects its harbor, Columbo is, therefore, very 
 inferior to Trincomalee, the harbor of which is acces- 
 sible at all times, and is one of the best in India ; but 
 the country in the vicinity of Columbo is more fertile ; 
 and it has the command of an internal navigation, 
 stretching in a lateral direction along the coast, from 
 Futlam, to the north of the city, to Caltura on the 
 south, a distance of about 100 miles, partly obtained 
 by rivers, and parly by canals. Many flat-bottomed 
 boats are employed in this navigation, the families de- 
 pendent on which reside mostly on board. Nearly all 
 the foreign trade of Ceylon is carried on from Columbo, 
 and it has also a large share of the coasting traffic. 
 
 Monei/s.^-The rix dollar=ls. 6d. ; but accounts are 
 kept in pounds, shillings, and pence, as in England. 
 
 The Banh of Ceylon, established in 1840, has its head 
 office in London, its principal office in the island being 
 in Columbo. It transacts all sorts of banking busi- 
 ness, remitting money to and from the island, granting 
 cash credits on the Scotch system, discounting bills, etc. 
 
 Weights, Measures, etc. — The weights are divided 
 into ounces, pounds, etc., and are the same as in Great 
 Britain. The. candy or bahar=600 lbs. avoirdupois, 
 or 461 lbs. Dutch 'Troy Weight. The principal dry 
 measures are seers orparrahs. The former is a perfect 
 cylinder, of the depth and diameter under-mentioned; 
 
 Depth. Dinmetoi. 
 
 Seer 4"35 inches, 4"35 inches. 
 
 The jarrah is a perfect cube, its internal dimensions 
 being in every way 11*57 inches. ' 
 
 The liquid measure consists of gallons, and their mul- 
 tiples and submultiples. 150 gallons = 1 leaguer or 
 legger. 
 
 The bale of cinnamon consists of 92^ lbs. very nearly. 
 
 ACCOITST OF TKE QUANTITIES AND VAiUES OF THE rUINCIPAI. AkTICLES mODITCBD IN AND EXPOaTEP FKOM CeTLON DUEING 
 
 1851. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 (juantitioa. 
 
 Values. 
 
 Artioles. 
 
 tiuttntities. | Voltion. J 
 
 Arrack galls, 
 
 Areca nuts cwt. 
 
 Cinnamon pounds. 
 
 Cocoanuta No, 
 
 Cocoanut oil . . . galls. 
 
 Coffee cwt. 
 
 Coir rope — 
 
 Copperah — 
 
 Horns — 
 
 163,789 and 1 keg 
 78,030 25 
 608,491 
 4,637,814 
 443,699^ and 22 jars 
 849,967 10 
 37,512 12 
 27,026 1 
 2,020 3 5 
 25,832 3 17 
 4 
 
 X .. d. 
 6,269 9 7 
 
 54,806 4 11 
 
 50,849 2 
 6,761 4 1 
 
 31,414 9 7 
 688,156 14 9 
 
 18,285 4 1 
 9,078 C 7 
 3,207 IT 8 
 5,608 2 3 
 1,205 
 
 Kum galls. 
 
 Sugar cwt, 
 
 — 
 Wood < pes, 
 
 bdls. 
 
 9,844 
 
 1,708 
 
 34,740 2 14 
 
 809,558 
 
 504 
 
 £ : a. 
 
 654 10 6 
 1,635 4 
 
 I 16,993 4 4 
 
 43,083 4 T 
 133,927 10 11 
 727,311 16 8 
 
 Imports re-exported, j goods, 
 Kx, the warehouse , . / specie. 
 
 
 £I,805,S7T C 1 
 
 Plumbago — ' 
 
 Precious stones, pack. 
 
 
 Account of the Quantities of Coffee, Cinnamon, Cocoa- 
 hut Oil, and Coie, the froduce op the Island, export- 
 ed FEOM Ceylon duuing the following Yeaes, ending 
 THE 5tu January, 
 
 Years. 
 
 Coffee. 
 
 Cinnamoii. 
 
 Cocoa-nut Oil, 
 
 Coir. 
 
 
 Cwt, 
 
 Pouode, 
 
 Galloufl. 
 
 Cwt. 
 
 1840 
 
 41,803 
 
 5S6,692i 
 
 867,543 
 
 23,195 
 
 1841 
 
 08,206 
 
 389,373i 
 
 476,742 
 
 23,440 
 
 1842 
 
 80.584 
 
 317,9191 
 
 321,966 
 
 21,643 
 
 1843 
 
 119,805 
 
 121,145^ 
 
 475,967 
 
 26,130 
 
 1844 
 
 94,847 
 
 662,704 
 
 726,206 
 
 22,187 
 
 1845 
 
 138,967 
 
 1,067,841 
 
 448,301 
 
 25,977 
 
 1846 
 
 178,603 
 
 408,211 
 
 282,186 
 
 19,540 
 
 1847 
 
 173,892 
 
 401,656 
 
 123,981 
 
 28,197 
 
 1848 
 
 293,221 
 
 447,369^ 
 
 197,861 
 
 23,620 
 
 1849 
 
 280,010 
 
 491,087i 
 
 311,526 
 
 26,199 
 
 1850 
 
 373,693 
 
 738,7814 
 
 673,279 
 
 28,422 
 
 1851 
 
 278,473 
 
 644,857 
 
 407,960 
 
 39,886 
 
 1852 
 
 349,967 
 
 503,491 
 
 443,699 
 
 37,512 
 
 Fort Dues — Columbo. 
 
 £ 3.d. 
 
 Entry inward, with cargo, ton 2 
 
 " in ballast Free, 
 
 Clearance outward, with cargo, ton t 3 
 
 " in ballast Free. 
 
 And in no ease to exceed 5 
 
 Cqfee Expoi't, — ^We are enabled by the courtesy of 
 tlie Collector of Customs to afford the total exports of 
 coffee for the year ending October, 10th, 1854, includ- 
 ing shipments at Galle. The exact figures are : plan- 
 tation, 303,908 ; ordinary, 130,177; total, 434,085 cwt., 
 -which is an increase of 85,128 cwt. since 1852.~Co- 
 lumho Observer^ October 28iA, 1854. 
 
 Articles extorted from Columbo and Galle. 
 CTutmber of Commerce^ Columbo, April 11, 1855. 
 
 Article.^'. 
 
 From 
 Oct. 11, 1852, 
 
 to 
 April 10, 1853. 
 
 From 
 Oct. 11, 1853, 
 
 to 
 April 10, 1854. 
 
 From 
 Oct. 11, 1864, 
 
 to 
 Aprino, 1855. 
 
 Coifee : 
 Plantation . cwt. 
 Native cwt. 
 
 181,447 
 74,844 
 
 109,323 
 94,134 
 
 165,396 
 76,211 
 
 205,791 
 
 173,683 
 
 606,477 
 
 7,805 
 
 3,249 
 
 367 
 
 15,233 
 
 1,337 
 
 6,685 
 
 1,132 
 
 896 
 
 263,457 
 
 386,987 
 
 782,218 
 
 14,291 
 
 2,752 
 
 264 
 
 14,485 
 
 3,818 
 
 4,799 
 
 1,118 
 
 500 
 
 241,607 . 
 
 489,869 
 
 885,130 
 
 1,843 
 
 5,988 
 
 1,378 
 
 15,8r5 
 
 3,272 
 
 3,122 
 
 645 
 
 Cinnamon . . . pounds. 
 
 Cocoanut oil. . gallons. 
 
 Plumbago , . , . cwt. 
 
 Coir: Kope. .. — 
 Junk , . — 
 Yarn . . — 
 Fibre . . — 
 
 Ebony cwt. 
 
 Deer horns . . . cwt. 
 
 Arrack gallons. 
 
 Value of Imports and Exports, Ceylon, July iith, 1855. 
 — The value of the imports during the last quarter ivas 
 £2,597,325, and that of the exports £2,245,288. 
 
 Foreign Ships in Coasting Trade. — By order of Coun- 
 cil, Nov. 21st, 1855, goods and passengers may be con- 
 veyed from one part of the island of Ceylon to another 
 part thereof in other than British ships.— /See Ceylon. 
 
 Columbo-root (Du. Columbo wortel ; Fr. Racine 
 de Colombo; Germ. Columbo-wurzel ; It. Radice di Co- 
 lumbo ; Port. Raiz di Columba ; Sp. Raiz di Columbo ; 
 Mozamb. Kalumb}, the root of the plant of that name. 
 It is a staple export of the Portuguese from Mozam- 
 
COL 
 
 371 
 
 COL 
 
 bique. It is not cultivated, but grows naturally in 
 great abundance. It is imported in circular pieces 
 from ^ an inch to 3 inches in diameter, generally from 
 i to i of an inch thiols ; the bark is wrinkled and thick, 
 of a brownish color without, and a brightish yellow 
 within; the pith is spongy, yellowish, and slightly 
 striped : when fresh. Its smell is rather aromatic ; it is 
 disagreeably bitter, and slightly pungent to the taste, 
 somewhat resembling mustard tliat has been too long 
 kept. Choose the largest pieces, fresh, and of a good 
 color, as free from worms as possible, rejecting that 
 which is small and broken. The freight is calculated 
 at 16 cwt. to a ton. — Mileijen's Oriental Commerce. 
 
 Columbus, Christopher, the celebrated naviga- 
 tor and discoverer of the Western World, was born in 
 Genoa about the year 1446. Although several illus- 
 trious families have contended for his alliance to them, 
 his father Doraenico, and his ancestors, appear to have 
 followed the trade of wool-combers or carders, and 
 were of humble, though reputable origin. Columbus 
 received his education at the university of Padua, and, 
 having evinced an early passion for the sea, entered 
 into nautical life at the age of fourteen. The first voy- 
 age in which we have any authentic accounts of his 
 being engaged was a warlike expedition fitted out at 
 Genoa in 1469, wlien, associated with hardy and daring 
 adventurers, he acquired so much distinction as to be 
 intrusted with a separate command. After this, it is 
 supposed, he was employed in various commercial, pi- 
 ous, and predatory expeditions against the Moham- 
 medans and Venetians, in company with a famous cor- 
 sair of his own name and family, and acquired reputa- 
 tion and experience in his profession. His son Fer- 
 nando relates tliat, in an engagement off the coast of 
 Portugal with four Venetian galleys, returning richly 
 laden frpm Flanders, the vessel on board which he 
 served, and one of the Venetian ships to which it was 
 grappled, took fire. Columbus threw himself into the 
 sea, seized an oar which was floating near him, and by 
 this means, and his dexterity in swimming, reached 
 the shore, although two leagues distant. Proceeding 
 thereafter to Lisbon, he was induced to take up liis res- 
 idence in that capital. 
 
 Columbus became acquainted in Lisbon with tlie 
 most eminent men in science and maritime art, whom 
 the encouragement of Prince Henry of Portugal had 
 attracted around Iiim. At this period (anno 1470) ho 
 was in the vigor of manhood, of engaging appearance, 
 grave, courteous, and aflable in his deportment, mod- 
 erate and simple in his diet and apparel, eloquent in 
 discourse, possessing liigh magnanimity, and a temper 
 which, tliough irritable, was under the control of a gen- 
 tle and enthusiastic piety. Here he married Dona Fe- 
 lipa, daughter of Bartolomeo Monis de Palestrello, an 
 Italian cavalier lately deceased, and a distinguished 
 navigator, who had discovered and colonized the isl- 
 and of Porto Santo. Having obtained possession of 
 the journals and charts of this sea captain, and also 
 hearing accounts of his voyages from his widow, Co- 
 lumbus was seized with an irresistible desire of visiting 
 unknown regions. In order to indulge it, he made a 
 voyage to Madeira, and continued during several years 
 to trade with that island, the Canaries, Azores, the set- 
 tlements in Guinea, and the other places which the 
 Portuguese had discovered on the continent of Africa. 
 By the experience acquired in such a number of voy- 
 ages, Columbus became one of the most skillful navi- 
 gators in Europe. 
 
 His eminent biographer, Washington Irving, relates 
 that " he divided the circumference from east to west 
 at the equator, according to Ptolemy, into twenty-four 
 hours, of lifteen degrees each, making three hundred 
 and sixty degrees. Of these he imagined, comparing 
 the globe of Ptolemy with the earlier map of Marinus 
 of Tyre, that fifteen hours had been known to the an- 
 cients, extending from the Canary or Fortunate Isl- 
 ands, to the city of Thinte, in Asia, the western and 
 
 eastern extremities of the known world. The Portu- 
 guese had advanced the western frontier one hour more 
 by the discovery of the Azores and Cape de Verd Isl- 
 ands ; still about eight hours, or one-third of the cir- 
 cumference of the earth, remained to be explored. This 
 space he imagined to be occupied in a great measure by 
 the eastjjm regions of Asia, which might extend so far 
 as to approach the western shores of Europe and Afri- 
 ca. A navigator, therefore, by pursuing a direct course 
 from east to west, must arrive at the extremity of Asia, 
 or discover any intervening land. The great obstacle 
 to be apprehended was from the tract of ocean that 
 might intervene ; but this could not be very wide, if 
 the opinion of Alfraganus the Arabian were admitted, 
 who, by diminishing the size of the degrees, gave to 
 the earth a smaller circumference than was assigned to 
 it by other cosmographers — a tlieory to which Colum- 
 bus seems generally to have given much faith. He 
 was fortified also by the opinion of Aristotle, Seneca, 
 Pliny, and Strabo, who considered the ocean as but of 
 moderate breadth, so that one might pass from Cadiz 
 westward to the Indies in a few days." 
 
 On these grounds Columbus formed the vast and 
 daring enterprise which was destined to hand down his 
 name to posterity with unfading honor; and, firmly es- 
 tablished in a belief of the successful result of his proj- 
 ects, "he never," says Irving, "spoke in doubt or hes- 
 itation, but with as much certainty as if his eyes had 
 beheld the promised land. A deep religious sentiment 
 also mingled with his thoughts, and gave them at 
 times a tinge of superstition, but of a sublime and lofty 
 kind. He looked upon himself as standing in the hand 
 of Heaven, chosen from among men for the accomplish- 
 ment of its high purpose ; he read, as he supposed, his 
 contemplated discovery told in Holy Writ, and shad- 
 owed forth darkly In the prophecies. The ends of the 
 earth were to be brought together, and all nations, and 
 tongues, and languages, united under the banners of the 
 Redeemer." The disturbed state of Portugal under Al- 
 phonso retarded the progress of discovery. The com- 
 pass, though in general use, had not gained that reli- 
 ance which induced mariners fearlessly to brave the 
 dangers of the deep ; and the project of a voyage through 
 boundless wastes appeared extravagant and impracti- 
 cable. Nothing daunted, however, by these disheart- 
 ening symptoms, Columbus pursued hisfavorite schemes 
 with ardor, and longed to put them- into execution. So 
 perilous an adventure was not, however, to be attempt- 
 ed without the patronage of some sovereign power; and 
 John II., of Portugal; having at this juncture ascend- 
 ed the throne, and being favorably inclined to the 
 cause of discovery, Columbus made his proposals, which 
 were graciously received by the monarch, and referred 
 to a learned junto. The result of their conference 
 therefore was, that they recommended the king to fit 
 out a caravel privately, and attempt the proposed dis- 
 covery by the designated route, which they ascertain- 
 ed from charts and details craftily obtained from Co- 
 lumbus. John, in an evil hour, had the weakness to 
 adopt this perfidious counsel. The caravel departed, 
 but the pilots had neither the genius nor fortitude of 
 Columbus ; their courage failed, and putting back to 
 the Cape de Verd Islands, they returned from thence 
 to Lisbon, execrating the project as extravagant and 
 irrational. 
 
 Columbus next carried his proposition to Venice, 
 where he was equally unsuccessful. He also sent his 
 brother Bartholomew to lay his plans before Henry VI,I. 
 of England, having in the mean time sailed himself 
 for Spain, where he arrived after having spent all his 
 means. Columbus, in this state of abject poverty, set 
 out for the Castilian court at Cordova in the spring 
 of 1486. The moment was unpropitious for such a 
 proposition, the Spanish sovereign being at the time 
 engaged in military preparations against the Moorish 
 kings. At length, through the intercession of Cardi- 
 nal Gonzalez, he obtained an interview, and submitted 
 
COL 
 
 372 
 
 COL 
 
 his project to Ferdinand. Worn out with a series of 
 disappointments and delays, and supporting himself 
 by making maps and charts, Columbus, despairing of 
 the Spanish patronage, began to look to other courts, 
 in hopes of meeting more encouragement. He had al- 
 ready made preparations for this purpose, and taken 
 measures for the disposal of his children during his ab- 
 sence, when Juan Perez solicited him to defer his jour, 
 nej', making application at the same time to Isabella- 
 the result of which was a gracious invitation of Colum- 
 bus back to court, accompanied with the present of a 
 small sum to equip him for the journey. The mon- 
 archs were now pledged to attend to his proposals, and 
 negotiations were set on foot to carry them into exe- 
 cution. He proposed that a small fleet should be fit- 
 ted out under his command to attempt the discovery, 
 and stipulating that he should be invested with the 
 titles and privileges of admiral and viceroy of all the 
 seas and lands he should discover, with one-tenth of all 
 gains, either by trade or commerce. He further offer- 
 ed to furnish an eighth of the cost, on condition of en- 
 joying an eighth of the profits. His terms were, howev- 
 er, deemed inadmissible ; the negotiation broke off, and 
 Columbus, in indignation, mounting his mule, was al- 
 ready on the road to Cordova, with the intention of im- 
 mediately proceeding to France, when he was over- 
 taken by a messenger from the queen, who had been 
 prevailed upon by the arguments of Quintanilla and 
 St. Angel, two of Columbus' patrons, to favor his un- 
 dertakings. The negotiations were now completed, 
 and the capitulations were signed by Ferdinand and 
 Isabella at Santa Fe, on the 17th of April, 1492. The 
 articles of agreement were to the following effect: 
 That Columbus should be constituted high admiral in 
 all the seas, islands, and continents he should discover, 
 with similar honors and prerogatives to those enjoyed 
 by the high admiral of Castile in his district. He was 
 .also nominated viceroj'" and governor general over all 
 the said lands and continents; and a tenth of all free 
 profits arising from the merchandise and productions 
 of the countries within his admiralty was granted to 
 him forever. Columbus, or his lieutenant, was to be 
 sole judge of all causes and disputes arising out of traf- 
 fic between those countries and Spain. He was fur- 
 ther permitted to contribute an eighth part of the ex- 
 pense of expeditions to the countries he expected to 
 discover, and was entitled in return to an eighth part 
 of the profits. A principal object of Columbus in this 
 undertaking was the propagation of the Christian faith, 
 to which he was a zealous devotee. Expecting to ar- 
 rive at the extremity of Asia, ho hoped to spread the 
 light of the Gospel among the barbarian nations of the 
 East; and so confident were his anticipations that let- 
 ters were actually given him by the sovereigns for the 
 Grand Khan of Tartary. Although the royal docu- 
 ments were signed both by Ferdinand and Isabella, 
 her separate crown of Castile defrayed all the expense ; 
 and the queen in consequence reserved for her subjects 
 of that kingdom an exclusive right to all the benefits 
 which might accrue from the success of the expedition. 
 The arrangement being finally completed, Columbus 
 set sail on the 3d of August, 1492, in three small ves- 
 sels, only one of which (commanded by himself) was 
 completely decked. The two others were commanded 
 by Martin Alonzo Pinzon and Vincente Yaiiez Pinzon. 
 The expedition had sailed nearly 200 leagues to the 
 westward, when Columbus perceived that the needle of 
 the compass, when night set in, had varied; a circum- 
 stance which filled the pilots with consternation. For 
 this phenomenon he was obliged to invent a reason, 
 which, though it did not satisfy himself, yet served to 
 dispel their fears. As the squadron advanced, various 
 indications of land, such as birds flying from the west, 
 the water becoming less salt, and occasionally covered 
 with weeds, animated and supported the courage of the 
 crew ; but at length murmurs and fears began to pro- 
 's ail among them. They had sailed for eleven days, 
 
 wafted by a most propitious breeze, over a tranquil 
 sea, without lowering or shifting a sail. The rude sea- 
 men began to be alarmed that no other winds blew but 
 easterly, and that it would therefore be impossible for 
 them ever to return home. A few light breezes from 
 the west allayed for a time their apprehensions, and 
 several small singing birds came in the morning and 
 flew away at night. But the sailors lost all patience, 
 and became so mutinous and refractory that it required 
 the utmost address of Columbus to maintain his au- 
 thority. The appearances of land, though frequent, 
 were in many instances deceiving ; and at last the .sea- 
 men broke forth into loud clamors, and insisted upon 
 abandoning the voyage. Fortunately, however, on the 
 following day the manifestations of land were such as 
 no longer to admit of doubt. In the evening Colum- 
 bus perceived a light glimmering at a distance, and 
 the next morning land was clearly seen about two 
 leagues distant. The sailors now burst forth into the 
 most extravagant transports. They threw themselves 
 at the feet of Columbus, implored his pardon, and pro- 
 nounced him to be a person inspired by Heaven with 
 more than human sagacity and fortitude, to accomplish 
 a design so far beyond the ideas and conceptions of all 
 former ages. At daybreak, says his biographer Spo- 
 torno, on the 12th of October, the hero landed, "e di 
 ffrcmcVorma it nuovo mondo impriTtm^' (and with his great 
 footstep impressed the New World). Columbus and 
 his followers threw themselves on their knees; and ris- 
 ing, the admiral drew his sword, planted the cross, 
 hoisted the royal standard, and in the presence of the 
 astonished natives, who imagined that the Spaniards 
 had dropped from heaven, took possession of these new 
 countries in the names of the Castilian sovereigns, giv- 
 ing the island the name of San Salvador. Having 
 visited several of the West India islands, and settled a 
 colony in Hispaniola, he again set sail for Spain. On 
 the voyage he fell in with the Pinta, which had sepa- 
 rated from him for a long time through the wickedness 
 of the captain, who had gone in search of gold. After 
 encountering several violent tempests, Columbus ar- 
 rived in the Tagus, near Lisbon, on the 4th of March, 
 1493. He was treated with the most honorable atten- 
 tions by the court of Portugal, and finally reached the 
 port of Palos on the 16th of March. 
 
 The triumphant return of Columbus excited the most 
 unbounded transport. Wherever he went the air rang 
 with acclamations, and he received such honors as are 
 paid to sovereigns. The court was then at Barcelona, 
 and Columbus took care immediately to acquaint the 
 king and queen of his arrival. They were no less de- 
 lighted than astonished with this unexpected event. 
 The admiral was conducted into the city with all im- 
 aginable pomp. The sovereigns received him seated 
 in state under a rich canopy of brocade of gold, sur- 
 rounded by their principal nobility. When he ap- 
 proached they stood up, and, raising him as he kneel- 
 ed to kiss their hands, ordered him to be seated in their 
 pi-esence, and give a circumstantial account of his voy- 
 age. When he had finished his oration, which he de- 
 livered with much modesty and simplicity, the king 
 and queen, kneeling down, offered up solemn thanks to 
 God for the discovery. Eveiy possible mark of honor 
 that could be suggested by gratitude or admiration was 
 conferred on Columbus ; the former capitulation was 
 confirmed, his family was ennobled, and a fleet ordered 
 to be equipped to enable the navigator to go in quest 
 of those more opulent countries which he still confi- 
 dently expected to find. 
 
 The successful attainment of the splendid discovery 
 of Columbus, great and manifold as were its advant- 
 ages to mankind, was the prelude to the dark and 
 troubled epoch of his life. By his second voyage to 
 the Western World he no doubt in part realized his ex- 
 pectations, extended his discoveries, and came back to 
 Spain with substantial proofs of success; but the os- 
 tensible purpose of his return was to obtain reparation 
 
COL 
 
 373 
 
 COM 
 
 of injurious imputations which had been heaped upon 
 him, and generally to hare his privileges confirmed 
 and enlarged so as to enable him to exercise his au- 
 thority over the colonists, who had become refractory 
 and unmanageable. But his third voyage only accel- 
 erated his disastrous fate. The newly-discovered pos- 
 sessions were distracted with the horrors of rebellion. 
 The verdant and blooming isles, the expected! abodes 
 of peace and happiness, were converted into theatres 
 of sanguinary conflicts and misery; and Columbus 
 found himself an object of fear and. execration. It was 
 during this voyage that he landed on the coast of Pa- 
 ria, in South America. Meanwhile his enemies in the 
 Old World were not idle. An investigation into his 
 conduct was instituted under the control of Francisco 
 Bovadilla, who was empowered, should he find the 
 charges of maladministration proved, to supersede Co- 
 lumbus, and assume the government of Hispaniola. 
 The result was, thfit he iind his brothers Diego and 
 Bartolomeo, after having been treated with the great- 
 est indignities, were gent to Spain in chains. From 
 these disgraceful bonds he was immediately on his ar- 
 rival released by the Spanish monai;chs ; but his com- 
 plaints were tardily acknowledged; he again sank into 
 obscurity, and was reduced to such straitened circum- 
 stances that, according to his own account, " he had no 
 place to repair to except an inn, and very frequently 
 had not wherewithal to pay his reckoning." 
 
 At length he was again employed upon a fourth voy- 
 age, with restricted powers ; but the result was unpro- 
 pitious, and he returned to Spain dejected in mind and 
 worn out with bodily infirmities. Death at last re- 
 lieved him from his earthly aiHictions. He expired on 
 the ,2( th of May, 1506, commending, with his latest 
 breath, his spirit to God. A marble tomb was reared 
 over his dust, bearing the inscription, 
 A Castilla y a Leon, 
 , Nuevo mondo dio Colon. 
 
 Columbus was a man of great and -original genius, 
 energetic in his conduct, and possessed of lofty, daring, 
 but noble ambition. "The magnanimity of his na- 
 ture," says Irving, " shone forth through all the troub- 
 les of his stormy career. Though continually out- 
 raged in his dignity, braved in his authority, foiled in 
 his plans, and endangered in his person, by the sedi- 
 tions of turbulent and worthless men, and that too at 
 times when suffering under anguish of body and anxi- 
 ety of mind enough to exasperate the most patient, yet 
 he restrained his valiant and indignant spirit, and 
 brought himself to forbear, and reason, and even to 
 supplicate." His piety, though tinctured with super- 
 stition, was genuine and fervent. If on certain occa- 
 sions his religion displayed itself in harshness and se- 
 verity, the spirit of the age he lived in must be advert- 
 ed to in palliation of his conduct. His temperament 
 was deeply imbued with poetic enthusiasm. "It 
 spread," remarks Irving, " a golden and glorious world 
 around him, and tinged every thing with its own gor- 
 geous colors. It betrayed him into visionary specula- 
 tions, which subjected him to the sneers and cavils of 
 men of cooler and safer, but more groveling minds. It 
 filled his mind with solemn and visionary meditations 
 on mystic passages of the Scriptures, and on the shad- 
 owy portents of the prophecies." " His soul," observes 
 a Spanish writer, " was superior to the age in whicli he 
 lived. For him was reserved the great enterprise of 
 traversing a sea which had given rise to so many fa- 
 bles, and of deciphering the mystery of his age." 
 "With all the visionary fervor of his imagination," 
 adds Washington Irving, "its fondest dreams, fell short 
 of the reality. He died in ignorance of the real grand- 
 cur of his discover}'. Until his last breath he enter- 
 tained the idea that he had merely opened a new way 
 to the old resorts of opulent commerce, and had discov- 
 ered some of the wild regions of the East. He sup- 
 posed Hispaniola to be the ancient Ophir which had 
 been visited by the ships of King Solomon, and that 
 
 Cuba and Terra Firma were but remote parts of Asia. 
 What visions of glory would have broken upon his 
 mind could he have known that he had indeed discov- 
 ered a new continent, equal to the Old World in mag- 
 nitude, and separated by two vast oceans from all the 
 earth hitherto known by civilized man ! and how would 
 his magnanimous spirit have been consoled, amid the 
 afflictions of age and the cares of penury, the neglect of 
 a fickle public and the injustice of an ungrateful king, 
 could he have anticipated the splendid empires which 
 would arise in the beautiful world he had discovered, 
 and the nations, and tongues, and languages which 
 were to fill its lands with his renown, and to revere and 
 bless his name to the latest posterity !" It will be re- 
 marked that Mr. Irving, in accordance with the gen- 
 erally entertained belief of all his biographers, alludes 
 to Columbus as being the first discoverer of tlie Amer- 
 ican continent, which is emphatically so, as far as the 
 commercial world is concerned. It is, however, cer- 
 tain that the continent was visited by the Icelanders in 
 the end of the tenth and the beginning of the eleventh 
 centuries ; and Sebastian Cabot discovered Newfound- 
 land and Labrador in June, 1497, nearly a year pre- 
 vious to the visit of Columbus on the coast of Faria. 
 It also seems more than probable that Columbus was 
 aware of Cabot's discovery. 
 
 Several controversies have arisen bearing upon the 
 claims of Columbus to the discovery of the Western 
 World ; but such disputes, in so far as they affect the 
 discovery of the Columbian Archipelago^ are proved to 
 be idle and futile, as no doubt now remains of Colom- 
 biis having. been the first navigator of the Old World 
 who reached the island of San Salvador, and the first 
 who visited the shores of the South American conti- 
 nent. One of the most current slanders on our navi- 
 gator's fair fame, as related by Inca Garcilaso, was 
 that Alonzo Sanchez, sailing to the Canaries in 1484, 
 reached the island of St. Domingo, and communicated 
 his voyage and route to Columbus. Some other Span- 
 ish writers notice the event without giving the name 
 of the author of the discovery. viedo considers these 
 relations as mere vulgar fables. We are, however, told 
 by Columbus himself that he took advantage of such 
 accounts as were transmitted to him by Spanish and 
 Portuguese mariners, some of whom had sailed west-, 
 war^ so far as to perceive what they considered to be 
 indications of land. Gallo and Giustiniani, authors 
 contemporaneous with Columbus, assert that Barthol- 
 omew Columbus first conceived the idea of western dis- 
 covery, and communicated it to his brother; but Co- 
 lumbus has been triumphantly vindicated from these 
 ungenerous aspersions by the unanimous testimony of 
 the Spanish writers, among whom Las Casas, who knew 
 both brothers, and preserved many papers belonging to 
 Columbus, merits especial credence. But if any doubts 
 remained, they are completely removed by the written 
 declaration of Ferdinand and Isabella, who, in a com- 
 munication dated the 4th of August, 1494, write thus 
 to the admiral: "One of the principal reasons for which 
 your discovery (the first) has caused so much joy to us 
 is, that it is to be ascrilied to your genius (por ser in- 
 ventada), and that it has been commenced and termi- 
 nated by your own individual endeavors, by your cour- 
 age, your perseverance, and industry." — E. B. 
 
 The discoveries of Columbus were followed, in 1497, 
 by those of Cabot on the northeast coast of Ameri- 
 ca ; in 1500 by Cabrul, a Portuguese, who visited the 
 coast of Brazil and the mouth of the Amazon ; in 1508^ 
 by Pinzon, who is said to have entered the Eio de la 
 Plata. In 1511 Diego Columbus conquered the island 
 of Cuba. In 1513 Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Da- 
 rien. In 1519 Cortez landed in Mexico. In 1531 
 Peru was invaded and conquered by Pizarro. 
 
 Colza, Oil of. The oil expressed from the seed of 
 the Srassica oleracea, a species of cabbage. Colza oil 
 is much used in France and Belgium for burning in 
 lamps and other purposes. 
 
COM 
 
 374 
 
 COM 
 
 Commerce. Commerce, in its most general sense, 
 implies the exchange of articles of any kind for money 
 or other articles. The earliest form of such exchanges 
 is by barter, because the use of gold and silver is not 
 adopted until society has made a certain progress. 
 " The armor of Diomed," says Homer, " was plain, and 
 paid for by nine oxen ; ■while the splendid armor of 
 Glaucus cost a hundred." Barter being now disused 
 in all improved countries, commerce is almost always 
 understood to denote the exchange of commodities for 
 money. In France and the south of Europe the words 
 used to designate commerce are derived from the Lat- 
 in; in Holland, Germany, and other northern coun- 
 tries, a vernacular word is more frequent; but all are 
 alike in meaning, being applied equally to home and 
 foreign trade. 
 
 We propose in the present essay to treat of, 
 
 I. The principles of commerce, and the evils of in- 
 terfering with the free course of trade; II. The history 
 of Commerce, particularly in Great Britain, Holland, 
 and America ; III. Prominent commercial changes of 
 the nineteenth century. 
 
 I. Peinciples of Commerce. — By " principles of 
 commerce," we understand conclusions of two kinds ; 
 those deduced from the practice of merchants, and ap- 
 plicable to the management of trade by individuals ; 
 and those of a more comprehensive character, which, 
 resulting from the course of productive industry gen- 
 erally, are entitled to the attention of a minister, or of- 
 ficer, of the Department engaged in the task of devising 
 regulations for trade. Most of those conclusions seem 
 so plain as to admit of little question ; but it is a fact 
 that several of them have been the result of long, and, 
 in some cases, of dearly bought experience. As a spec- 
 imen we give tlie following : 
 
 1. Mercantile Axioms ; example of them. — Short cred- 
 its and quick returns, however small the commission 
 or profit, are eventiiallj- better than long credits and 
 a large commission or charge. 
 
 2. The greatest mercantile profit arises from inter- 
 course with populous and long-settled countries, such 
 as Holland, because the inhabitants are in general pos- 
 sessed of capital, and punctual in their payments. 
 
 3. Kecently-settled countries, like the United States 
 of America, the West Indies, Spanish and Portuguese 
 America, are always bare of capital. There is a per- 
 petual tendency in them to draw it from Europe ; and 
 mercantile transactions with these countries, profitable 
 in the outset, often become otherwise, from delays of 
 payment, and ultimate insolvency. 
 
 4. Trade should be left as much as possible to its 
 natural course, interference being almost always hurt- 
 ful. Governments ought merely to remove obstacles 
 and grant facilities. Privileges and monopolies were 
 formerly very general ; but these, if necessary in an 
 early age, when individual capital was too scanty for 
 distant undertakings, should be withdrawn as soon as 
 such capital becomes sufficient. 
 
 6. Division and subdivision of employment can be 
 carried to only a limited extent in agriculture. In 
 manufactures they maj' be carried very far, and are 
 productive of the greatest advantage. They afford 
 employment to persons of every age, and they conduce 
 greatly to the finished execution of work. Hence the 
 superiority of towns, in particular of the larger towns. 
 
 Eules or observations like these are very seldom met 
 with, either in printed works or in personal intercourse ; 
 and the reason is, that while few departments of indus- 
 try have been followed in practice to so great an ex- 
 tent as commerce, hardly any other has been less an 
 object of study in regard to its principles. There 
 are hardly any books or written compositions for the 
 purpose of instructing the merchant in the practical 
 management of his business, and not many contain- 
 ing statistical or other information connected with 
 Irade. To no profession are written precepts consid- 
 cied to be so little applicable ; in none is proficiency 
 
 thought to depend so exclusively on practice. Hence 
 an unacquaintance with principles or general rules, 
 and the commission of grievous errors, as well by 
 merchants in the pursuit of business, as by the gov- 
 ernment in the enactment of commercial regulations. 
 Of the former we may take as examples the repeated 
 glutting of foreign markets with goods, and the inju- 
 dicious extension of sugar cultivation in the West In- 
 dies ; of the latter, the fetters imposed upon the banlc- 
 ing system, without stability being given to the sys- 
 tem by the control and interest which should be taken 
 by the general government. 
 
 The belief that it is for the advantage of a nation to 
 manufacture almost every article it consumes has been 
 the cause of the most serious 'inconvenience and loss. 
 It is thus that in France the making of sugar from beet^ 
 root, and the more serious error of erecting blast fur- 
 naces for making iron in districts unprovided "with coal 
 fuel, have placed a large amount of capital in a situa- 
 tion whence it can not be withdrawn without heavy 
 loss. In lilvC manner, the privileges so long conferred 
 by act of parliament on the silk manufacture in En- 
 gland, frequently tended to produce embarrassment, be- 
 cause they interfered with the natural course of trade. 
 No branch of industry cjin be of permanent advantage 
 to a nation, unless it can support itself without indi- 
 rect or artificial aid. Were merchants and manufac- 
 turers left to themselves, the natural course of things 
 would point out the branches of productive industry 
 likely to succeed or not in a particular country; and 
 capital would not then be advanced on an insecure 
 foundation. Plain as this appears, it is quite at vari- 
 ance with the creed of our ancestors ; a creed which, 
 under the name of " mercantile system," long retained 
 an influence over our traders, and, in some degree, over 
 members of the Legislature. 
 
 The Mercantile System explained. — The basis of that 
 system was, that " wealth consisted in the precious met- 
 als ; that what is gained in trade by one nation must 
 be lost by another ; and that our great object in receiv- 
 ing returns for our exports should be to get money in- 
 stead of merchandise." It followed from such notions, 
 that of all possessions, a mining country, such as Mex- 
 ico and Peru, was the most desirable ; and hence in a 
 great measure the rupture of England with Spain in 
 1740, which led to the unfortunate British expedition 
 to Carthagena, involved her in a contest with France, 
 and caused her in the course of eight years an immense 
 waste of blood and treasure. The return to a state of 
 peace in 1748 obliged her to desist from attempts on 
 Spanish America, but the influence of the mercantile 
 system continued, and was singularly favored by the 
 annual custom-house returns. These retunis exhibit 
 an apparent excess of exports above imports, and give 
 rise to the notion that the balance is sent to this country 
 in the shape of money. Supposing the exports of En- 
 gland to the Continent of Europe to amount for any giv- 
 en year to £20,000,000, and the imports to £14,000,000 ; 
 the difference, or £6,000,000, is, according to this absurd 
 notion, the amount of profit paid in money. It is clear, 
 however, that the custom-house returns take no notice 
 of some very important items, such as the export of 
 public money for foreign garrisons, the transmission of 
 bills of exchange to foreign merchants, or the import 
 of smuggled goods. Besides, if the quantum of circu- 
 lating medium remain, as it probably does, very near- 
 ly on a par, what becomes of the supposed importation 
 of money ? Were England in possession of all the an- 
 nual balances which the advocates for this system sup- 
 pose her to liave received in money during tlie last cen- 
 tury, her metallic stockwould not be below £400,000,000 
 sterling ; that is, ten times its actual amount ! 
 
 Wealth supposed to consist in Gold and Silver.- — When 
 a merchant exports goods, the sale, of course, takes 
 place abroad, and a remittance is made, either by bill 
 or by the return of other merchandise. It hardly ever 
 enters into the contemplation of the exporter that he 
 
COM 
 
 375 
 
 COM 
 
 would find an advantage by obtaining a return in coin 
 or bullion. Money owes the reputation it has acquired, 
 as an object of national interchange, to its convenience 
 in other respects; to its being the commodity with 
 which we regularly go to market, and to its fitness for 
 the smallest purchases, by the minuteness of its sub- 
 divisions. But this recommendation, however import- 
 ant in private business, should have no weight in the 
 intercourse of nations ; merchants can be at no loss to 
 dispose of a remittance made in the shape of goods, nor 
 is it any object with them to multiply the means of 
 petty purchases. 
 
 Capital defned. — The interest of a commercial coun- 
 try is not to increase the amount of its currency, but 
 to quicken its circulation ; the same sum performing 
 double and triple duty when passed expeditiously from 
 hand to hand. Now nothing promotes circulation so 
 much as exemption from arbitrary interferences, were 
 the effect nothing more than the general preservation 
 of credit. In France, the monstrous abuse made of the 
 paper system in the beginning of the Revolution has 
 long prevented the use of any other circulating medium 
 than coin ; the result is an annual loss of three millions 
 sterling to the public, such being the difference between 
 the cost of paper and the precious metals, even after 
 making an allowance for the retention of a portion of 
 the latter sufficient for the purpose of banking. Some 
 people, however, imagine that to increase the amount 
 of the circulating medium is to increase the capital of 
 a countr}'. Thesepersons should recollect that capital 
 is by no means limited to money, but embraces all that 
 mass of property which is devoted to reproductive con- 
 sumption. When we wish to lend capital, or to em- 
 ploy it in business, we begin by selling the various ar- 
 ticles at our disposal : the amount is then in our hand 
 in the shape of money ; but this is very transient ; the 
 money disappears as soon as we make payment for the 
 new purchases. The public not having time to enter 
 into all this reasoning, judge from first impressions, and 
 take for granted that money is capital, because its 
 agency is required to put capital in motion. Govern- 
 nientSj however, niiglit have saved themselves much 
 trouble in providing supplies of metallic currency, since 
 the natural course of business will invariably provide 
 them for itself. The plenty or scarcity of the precious 
 metals depends on considerations altogether different 
 from the imagined balance of trade. Specie was so scarce 
 in England in 1809 that the government was not a little 
 embarrassed to find ^£200,000 for the Walcheren expedi- 
 tion ; 3'et in that year her custom-house returns present- 
 ed an apparent balance of above £7,000,000 in her favor. 
 Losses to England from the Mercantile System. — No 
 country has suffered so much from the errors of the 
 mercantile system as England; partly on account of 
 the influence of traders and manufacturers in her legis- 
 lature ; partly from the temporizing policy of the min- 
 isters, who have seldom scrupled to buy the consent of 
 atiy great body of the community to a new tax, by the 
 grant of some injurious preference. Hence a variety 
 of pernicious regulations in favor of the landed, the 
 shipping, and the manufacturing interests ; hence, also, 
 a number of unfortunate measures in the foreign policy. 
 7'he Vlth and \Sth Centuries. — Our English ancestors 
 laid it down as a fundamental rule, that there could be 
 no profit on the one hand, without a corresponding loss 
 on the other. They considered trade as a game of mere 
 transfer, and had no idea how a country could derive 
 wealth by an intercourse between its own inhabitants. 
 Charles II. entered on the war of 1672 with high hopes, 
 imagining that, by destroying the commerce of Hol- 
 land, England would not only increase her own, but in 
 a manner absorb that of the world. Political reasons 
 led England afterward into close alliance with Holland, 
 and prevented the ebullitions of jealousy in that direc- 
 tion ; but the alarming power of Louis XIV. and the 
 prospect of his acquiring the crown of Spain, led her to 
 a closer connection with Portugal, and particularly to 
 
 the well-known Methven treatj-, concluded in 1703, the 
 object of which was to favor the consumption of port 
 wine, .in return for a similar preference to her manufac- 
 tures. The result has been, that she has not scrupled, 
 for more than a century, to import injurious commodi- 
 ties for the sake of an imaginary political advantage ; 
 we say imaginary, because France could evidently have 
 agreed to take English manufactures in return for her 
 produce ; and if the increase of French trade had, on 
 one hand, the effect of augmenting, to a certain extent, 
 her national power, it would, on the other, have in- 
 creased her dependence on England, and have render- 
 ed a war extremely impolitic and unpopular. 
 
 English attachment to Portugal arose, in a great 
 measure, from her not being a manufacturing country, 
 and likely, in the opinion of the calculators of the day, 
 to be so much the more advantageous in the capacity 
 of a customer. This notion has prevailed to a very re- 
 cent period; the administration of 1808 and 1809 not 
 scrupling to give encouragement to the export of mer- 
 chandise, on a large scale, to the unproductive occu- 
 pants of Brazil and Spanish America. Now, the fact 
 is, that the means of extending trade, and consequent- 
 ly profits, with a foreign country, are to be estimated 
 by a quite opposite rule ; they depend on the produc- 
 tive power of that country, on its means of affording 
 equivalents for our commodities ; in other words, on its 
 capability of paying for that which it suits us to sell to 
 it. Now, what country was ever wealthy without in- 
 dusti-y? The mines of Mexico and Peru, the richest 
 the world ever saw, fall, in point of annual produce, 
 far short of the annual value of the cotton, the tobacco, 
 the flour, and other less tempting products of the United 
 States. In like manner, the cochineal, the cocoa, the 
 barilla, and even the indigo of Spanish America, form 
 a small amount when put in competition with the ex- 
 changeable commodities possessed by the industrious 
 nations, such as France, the Netherlands, or the north 
 of Germany. 
 
 Mercantile Policy of other Countries. — If from En- 
 gland's favorite policy we turn our attention to that 
 of Continental states, we find Holland steering a course 
 of impartiality, and guarded from an imitation of these 
 trespasses, not indeed by superior knowledge, but by 
 the characteristic moderation of her government. The 
 northern kingdoms deserve comparatively little atten- 
 tion, their rulers having in general given their thoughts 
 much more to war than to discussions of internal pol- 
 icy. The same thing was long true of a country where 
 the commercial interest has at no time been very con- 
 siderable ; the personal will of the sovereign, and the 
 influence of the nohlesse, having afforded the grand rai- 
 sons determinantesioT public measures. Still the history 
 of France is not without traces of the effects of mercan- 
 tile prejudices. Among other regulations of the kind, 
 there formerly existed several for the purpose of favor- 
 ing linen manufactures instead of cotton, because flax 
 was a home product, while the purchase of cotton car- 
 ried money out of the country. 
 
 France. — At last it was found out by someFrenchmen 
 of greater sagacity than the rest, that cotton might be 
 safely admitted to entry, the money required to buy it 
 proceeding necessarily from the employment of French 
 industry in some shape or other. But the extent of 
 popular prejudice was most singularly exemplified at 
 the time when it was proposed to permit the unrestrain- 
 ed use of toiles peintes, or printed calicoes; every town 
 that had a chamber of commerce remonstrated against 
 it. A deputation sent from Eouen affirmed, that " the 
 proposed measure would throw its inhabitants into de- 
 spair, and make a desert of the surrounding country ;" 
 Lyons, the centre of the silk manufacture, declared that 
 " the news had spread terror into all its workshops ;" 
 Tours "foresaw a commotion likely to cause a convul- 
 sion in the body politic;" Amiens asserted "that the 
 proposed act would become the tomb of the manufac- 
 turing industry of France;" and Paris declared, "that 
 
COM 
 
 376 
 
 COM 
 
 her merchants came forward that they might bathe the 
 throne with their tears." The government, however, 
 stood firm ; the duty on printed calico was withdrawn, 
 and the inspector-general of manufactures ventured 
 some time afterward to challenge the authors of those 
 elegant effusions to compare their predictions with the 
 result. " Will any of you," he said, " deny that the 
 manufacture of printed calico has been the cause of 
 giving a vast extension to the industry of the country, 
 by employing a number of hands in spinning, weaving, 
 bleaching, and printing ? Look only to the branch of 
 dyeing, and say whether this change has not done more 
 for it in a few years than other manufactures would have 
 accomplished in a century." 
 
 Commerce of Austria, — In some countries government 
 go much farther, and still act in a commercial or man- 
 ufacturing capacity, notwithstanding all the admoni- 
 tions of political economists, or the more home-felt les- 
 sons of experience. The Austrian government con- 
 ducts the gold and silver mines of Hungary to so little 
 account, that the profit realized from these splendid es- 
 tablishments does not exceed a few thousands a year. 
 In the year 1817 the French government, desirous of lay- 
 ing in a stock of corn for Paris, obtained a loan of mon- 
 ey, with which they made purchases in various mar- 
 kets both in and out of the kingdom. The result was 
 most distressing ; the price of corn rose from 80i. to 120s. 
 per quarter. The people in the provincial towns be- 
 came apprehensive of a scarcity, and, though in general 
 submissive to a fault, attempted at Eouen and other 
 places to impede the course of the market, and to pre- 
 scribe a limit to the price of corn. The alarm, once 
 given, extended through greatpart of Europe, and gave 
 occasion to a sudden rise, as ma}^ be seen by reference 
 to the corn prices at the time in London, Amsterdam, 
 and Hamburg. Nothing is, therefore, more impolitic 
 than the interference of the public treasury with mar- 
 kets, however good the motive ; a truth which has been 
 BO thoroughly felt in England as to prevent any thing 
 of the kind daring the last sixt)' years, government 
 having confined itself in seasons of scarcity, as 1800, 
 1810, 1816, to permitting the free import of corn. 
 
 Modljiad State of the Mercantile System. — We are nest 
 to advert to the mercantile system in its most limited 
 sense, in the shape which it now bears, after all the 
 modifications of the experience of a century and a half. 
 The predilection for the importation of " hard dollars" 
 has disappeared among a portion of the public, partic- 
 ularly since making the discovery that bank paper can 
 be made to answer the purpose of gold and silver. But 
 even these persons are far from admitting the doctrines 
 of political economists in all their extent ; they still cling 
 to the notion that we should discourage the import of 
 a foreign article whenever a corresponding commodity 
 can be raised at home ; that we should impede, or even 
 prohibit, all foreign manufactures ; and that we should 
 not scruple to encourage certain fabrics of our own hy 
 bounties. Such was formerly the creed of the majority 
 of the merchants and manufacturers; such was, forty 
 years ago, the creed of ministers and presidents of 
 boards of trade. It proceeds on the plausible idea, 
 that there can not be provided too much employment, 
 and that our people would be in danger of falling short 
 of work were we to purchase finished articles at the 
 hands of foreigners. But there is not in the natural 
 course of things any such deficiency of labor as to make 
 it necessary, or even expedient, for us to turn things 
 out of their regular order for the sake of giving em- 
 ployment to our population. Providence has evident- 
 ly ordained that industry should be at no loss for ob- 
 jects ; the interruptions to its peaceful course arise from 
 our own wayward policy ; from our restraints, prohibi- 
 tions, and, above all, from our sudden changes from war 
 to peace, and from peace to war. 
 
 Equally erroneous is the notion that it is more for 
 our interest to send abroad manufactures than raw 
 produce or money. If you grant a bounty on an export, 
 
 you do nothing more or less than bribe a foreigner to 
 make a purchase from you ; you withdraw from its nat- 
 ural destination a portion of your capital and labor; 
 for the sake of extending one branch of business, you 
 weaken your means of competition in others. Mr. 
 Hume has justly remarked, that in a question of per- 
 sonal right, the perception of a half-educated man may 
 be sufficiently sound ; but that the case is different in 
 regard to matters of general policy, where the real is 
 often different from the apparent result. Now this 
 state of half knowledge has been the origin of almost 
 all mercantile miscalculations ; we have listened to first 
 impressions, and have not scrupled to give them a prac- 
 tical operation by acts of government, without ever 
 considering that the remote consequences would be in- 
 jurious to ourselves. 
 
 Tlie true Pnnciples of Commerce. — We may safely dis- 
 charge from our minds all that has been said, and all 
 that has been written, in regard to the greater relative 
 advantage attendant in trading in this or that partic- 
 ular commodity ; we may feel satisfied that profits are 
 much more on an equality than is commonly supposed ; 
 that no one would long be a dealer in that which did 
 not aflbrd him advantage, or remain a stranger to that 
 which was throwing an extra gain into the pockets of 
 his neighbor. The same rule is applicable in a na- 
 tional sense, the traffic in one commodity being either 
 directly or indirectly as productive of profit as in an- 
 other. Even foreign articles of luxury should not be 
 discouraged, since the money required to pay for them 
 must be previously raised by the employment of in- 
 dustry in some useful manner. This affords a new 
 proof of the fallacy of first impressions, and leads to the 
 grand practical conclusion of allowing people to "buy- 
 commodities wherever they can be got cheapest, with- 
 out seeking to favor home produce above colonial, or 
 colonial above foreign." 
 
 Merchants should possess unrestricted freedom, not 
 only in regard to the articles thej' deal in, but in re- 
 spect to the time of keeping them back or bringing 
 them to market ; and this not only from the general 
 title which every one has to the management of his 
 own property, but from a conviction that whatever 
 benefits the individual will be productive of corre- 
 sponding benefit to the public. This is a point of the 
 last importance, as reconciling the lower orders to a 
 variety of unpopular employments of capital, such as 
 buying up goods to be warehoused, and not brought 
 to market till prices are advanced. Take, for instance, 
 the capitalist who buys a thousand hogsheads of sugar 
 on its arrival from the West Indies in August, for the 
 purpose of selling it in the succeeding March or April. 
 Such a transaction is of use to all parties, affording, in 
 the first instance, a customer for the planter or plant- 
 ter's correspondent ; a depository for the public during 
 the season that the article ought in great part to be 
 stored up ; and finally a seller, at a time when, with- 
 out such deposits and such forthcoming of supply, the 
 price might have become exorbitant, and might have 
 continued so until the arrival of the next year's crop. 
 
 The more we study the natural progress of com- 
 merce, the more we shall be satisfied of the expediency 
 of leaving all its various agents to their uncontrolled 
 management. Business then divides itself, particu- 
 larly in a large city, into a variety of separate branch- 
 es, each of which may be carried on to a surprising 
 extent by separate establishments. The commission 
 charged by such persons is small, their dispatch ex- 
 traordinary; capital does not remain locked up in their 
 hands, and goods find their way to the market when- 
 ever prices are encouraging, that is, whenever the con- 
 sumers are in want of them ; they are withheld only 
 when the market is glutted, and when to force sales 
 would be productive of eventual injury to the buyers 
 themselves. The doctrine of the happy medium is no- 
 where more applicable than in commerce : if you re- 
 duce prices for one season below what is necessary to 
 
COM 
 
 377 
 
 COM 
 
 indemnify the producer, you discourage production for 
 the next, and you expose yourself to the hazard of a 
 dearth. 
 
 M(mopolie$, — Monopoly is now generally admitted 
 to be highly impolitic. No new grants of the kind 
 have been issued in Great Britain for many years, and 
 every renewal of the charter of the East India Com- 
 pany has been marked by a diminution of its restrict- 
 ive character, till in 1834 its monopoly was abolished. 
 In the United States monopolies have never been per- 
 mitted, the government having early seen their inju- 
 rious effects. The public are now aware that a privi- 
 leged company can not make its purchases abroad on 
 better terms than individuals, and that the chief ope- 
 ration of the privilege is to enhance the sale prices, or, 
 in other words, to put money into the hands of a few 
 at the expense of the nation. ■ They are further aware 
 that the concerns of a large corporation can not be 
 managed with the minute economy and vigilance of 
 the private merchant, and that its grand advantage 
 lies in the intelligence and dexterity acquired by the 
 transaction of business to a large extent by one estab- 
 lishment; an advantage of great importance, but which 
 has nothing to do with the possession of exclusive 
 privileges. 
 
 The final conclusions to be drawn from the princi- 
 ples of commerce are of the most comprehensive and 
 beneficent nature. They teach us that every nation 
 finds its account in the prosperity of its neighbors j 
 that it would experience a corresponding suffering 
 from their decline; that to aim at engrossing more 
 trade tlian naturally Jails to ourshare^ is sooner or later 
 injurious to ourselves; and that war, even when suc- 
 cessful, is attended with the most serious losses. War 
 turns to waste a large portion of our productive means ; 
 it leaves us oppressed with a ruinous burden in peace ; 
 it impedes the future extension of our exports, for the 
 injury done to our neighbors recoils on ourselves ; in 
 short, it is so replete with evil to the public and indi- 
 viduals, as to be justifiable only in an extreme case, 
 such as the defense of national independence, or the 
 overthrow of a tyrannical usurper. 
 
 Diviaum of Employment ; its manifold Advantages. — 
 Division and subdivision of employment form the great 
 distinction between a backward and an improved state 
 of productive industrj'. It increases the efficiency of 
 the mechanic or manufacturer to an extent of which 
 no one who has not studied the subject can have an 
 adequate conception. Now, the degree to which em- 
 ployment is subdivided depends mainly on tilt size of 
 a city or town ; and in estimating the state of civiliza- 
 tion in a particular countiy, we can not have a better 
 guide than the proportion of the inhabitants of towns 
 to those of the open country. Flanders and Holland 
 were long the most improved part of the north of Eu- 
 rope, and had the greatest number of towns on a given 
 extent of territory. This they still have, with the ex- 
 ception of the counties (Lancashire and the West Hid- 
 ing of York, England) which are the chief seats of En- 
 glish manufactures. After the Netherlands in town 
 population come the north of Italy and northeast of 
 France, along with the western part of Germany. 
 Prussia and Austria have each a comparatively small 
 number of towns ; Poland has still fewer, and Eussia 
 is the most deficient of any country in Europe. In En- 
 gland the increase of town population has been pro- 
 gressive during the last eighty or ninety years, and 
 bids fair to go on in an equal or greater ratio. 
 
 The division of employment is the result of com- 
 merce and of increased population. It is of two kinds : 
 that among individuals, by which a specific task is ap- 
 propriated to each, and that among nations, by which 
 particular kinds of products are raised to a greater ex- 
 tent in one country than in another. The latter is as 
 yet only beginning to claim the attention of public 
 men, for it has been a frequent error with government 
 to establish, in their respective territories, a variety 
 
 of manufactures, without sufficiently weighing the lo- 
 cal obstacles or disadvantages. Of this France fur- 
 nishes some striking examples, particularly in the case 
 of iron. The abundance of Qoal in England, and the 
 ease in conveying it, and other bulky goods, by canals, 
 give to their manufactures of iron and hardware an 
 advantage which France in vain endeavors to equal. 
 Her true policy would be to repeal the very heavy du- 
 ties on the import of foreign manufactures, and to trust 
 to her means of supplying the world with wine, brandy, 
 and the other natuj'al products of her countrj' to an 
 equal or greater amount. 
 
 Principles of Commerce; Iww far understood, — In 
 point of knowledge of the great doctrines of polit- 
 ical economy, Germany, or, to speak more properly, 
 the Protestant part of Germany, particularly Saxony, 
 may be said to take the lead of other countries on the 
 Continent. The Dutch, however exemplary in their 
 practical legislation, have little turn for speculative 
 reasoning ; the French have not patience to follow 
 through its various links a chain of philosophical de- 
 ductions ; but their admiration of whatever is liumane 
 or liberal makes them wonderfully delighted with the 
 brilliant conclusions of the science. They have the 
 advantage of possessing, in the work of the late J. B. 
 Say, the best arranged general treatise that has hith- 
 erto appeared on the subject ; and they are by no means 
 ill prepared for a very extensive application of politi- 
 cal improvements, such as the abolition of privateer- 
 ing, the repeal of all heavy duties on foreign goods, 
 and the substitution of inland taxes for those custom- 
 house imposts which impede the free communication 
 of nations. The rest of Europe is so much in the dark 
 in regard to the great truths of political science as to 
 see merely through the medium of local governments. 
 Such is the case likewise in Italy, although that coun- 
 try can boast individuals of some note among the writ- 
 ers on the principles of commerce, and the reflecting 
 turn of the people is favorable to such investigations ; 
 and even in Britain a large party is still adverse to 
 the unrestricted application of these simple and benef- 
 icent principles, but this party is daily diminishing. 
 The happy effects of the free-trade principles, which 
 have been for some time in operation, as proved by 
 the periodical returns of the English Board of Trade, 
 are facts which can not be withstood ; and we may safe- 
 ly calculate that a few years will convert the remain- 
 ing advocates of protection to the free-trade faith. 
 
 Speculation in Trade. — Among men of business this 
 expression is applied to incurring extensive hazards 
 in the hope of extensive emolument ; in short, to what- 
 ever is foreign to the proper business of the individual, 
 or beyond the control of common rules. It is to such 
 undertakings that vulgar credulity ascribes extraordi- 
 nary profits ; and even well-informed men are apt to 
 give way to the assertions so confidently made, of vast 
 occasional gains in this line of business. Dr. Smith 
 himself, after remarking (^Wealth of Nations, book i. 
 chap. 10) that to make a fortune in a regular line com- 
 monly requires a long life of industry and frugality, 
 adds, no doubt on the faith of repeated assurances from 
 mercantile friends, that there are manj' examples of 
 fortunes realized by speculators in the course of a few 
 years. Now, the men who embark in speculation are, 
 in general, vei*y loose accountants; their estimate of 
 profits applies to the gross, never to the net return ; 
 besides, they are almost always adventurers, and ad- 
 venturers are seldom noted for the observance of truth. 
 Their favorite season of activity is a time like that of 
 1808, when the sudden stoppage of ordinary intercourse 
 caused a rapid fluctuation in the price of commodities, 
 and when the regular merchants withdrew from the 
 scene. Now, what sober estimate can be formed of 
 loss or gain in such a chaos ? Add to this, that these 
 men trade almost always on credit, are in need of all 
 the support which flattering representations, and ru- 
 mors of sudden profit, can give them. All these rea- 
 
COM 
 
 378 
 
 COM 
 
 sons seem to justify a deliberate inquirer in doing -B-Iiat 
 is seldom done on such occasions, we mean in with- 
 holding his belief from the confident allegations of 
 speculators, so long as they are not supported by col- 
 lateral evidence. 
 
 Frequency of Disappointment. — Our opinion is, that 
 instead of the large profits commonly ascribed to this 
 course of trade, the individuals concerned in it expe- 
 rience little else than disappointments, and maintain 
 a perpetual struggle to keep up a fair appearance to 
 tlie world. This opinion is founded partly on a knowl- 
 edge of the actual career and circumstances of specu- 
 lators, but more on the well-known fact that almost 
 every line of business is in the hands of established 
 merchants, who, of course, are too vigilant to overlook 
 the opportunity of emolument, and who have much 
 better means of information than temporary interlop- 
 ers. Still, should there remain doubts as to the accu- 
 racy of our opinion, the question may be brought to a 
 point by reference to the account-books of any given 
 number of celebrated speculators ; their affairs end 
 almost always in bankruptcy ; their papers continue 
 open to access for years in the hands of their solicitors 
 or assignees ; and we are much mistaken if an inspec- 
 tion of them would show, in one case out of ten, that 
 the parties had at any period succeeded in realizing 
 their boasted profits. 
 
 Pernicious EfecU of Speculaticm.—'Wc have been in- 
 duced to dwell the more on the boasts of speculators, 
 because they are productive of great mischief in unset- 
 tling persons in business, particularly young men, and 
 in making them look on their proper line with com- 
 parative indifference. It would be endless to attempt 
 an enumeration of the various ways in which the rage 
 for speculation has brought misfortune on merchants 
 and manufacturers. The opening of a new country, 
 such as Buenos Ayres, Brazil, or Caraccas, led to the 
 export not only of a prodigious overstock of merchan- 
 dise fitted for the countrj', but of many articles totally 
 ■unsuited to the climate and habits of the people. 
 Again, in 1814, when the war with France was draw- 
 ing to a close, goods, both colonial and manufactured, 
 were poured into the Continent of Europe, as if the 
 compass of the markets was unbounded, and as if the 
 calamities of war had produced no decrease of capital. 
 
 Holland ; its instructive Example. — The country in 
 which trade shone forth in all its splendor ; where it 
 was cultivated without the support of arms or prohib- 
 itory regulations ; where, in short, it developed its ben- 
 eficial tendency in all its extent, was Holland. If we 
 look to the early enterprises of the Dutch, we find them 
 enabled, by the power of their productive industry, to 
 assert their independence at home, and to assail their 
 enemies in the remotest part of their empire. The 
 Portuguese in the East, and the Spaniards in the West, 
 were each found unequal to the task of resisting these 
 republicans. A proud stand was made by them against 
 the navy of England, and they did not fall into despair 
 even when assailed by English forces in conjunction 
 with those of France. Afterward, when restored to 
 an alliance with England, and when they co-operated 
 with her in the great struggle against Louis XIV., it 
 is surprising how large a proportion both of troops and 
 subsidies was furnished by this apparently inconsider- 
 able state. " No country," says Sir William Temple, 
 " can be found where so vast a trade has been man- 
 aged, yet the inhabitants have no native commodities 
 toward building vessels, and hardly any that are con- 
 siderable for traffic with their neighbors. Holland is 
 grown rich by force of industry, by improvement and 
 manufacture of foreign growths." Proceeding to spec- 
 ify more particularly the causes of this mercantile pros- 
 perity. Sir William enumerates "the easy communica- 
 tion of water, particularly by the Ehine and Maese ; 
 the security of property; the undisturbed liberty of 
 conscience, and the progressive influx of people perse- 
 cuted for their religious opinions in Flanders, England, 
 
 France, and Germany." Such were the original causes : 
 those of subsequent operation were the " general habit 
 of industry and economy ; the formation of canals ; the 
 institution of banks ; the low interest of money ; the 
 appropriation of particular towns to particular branch- 
 es of business ; application to the fisheries, and, what 
 he regrets much should not exist in England, the prac- 
 tice of keeping an official register of all purchases of 
 land or houses ;" a practice introduced into Holland 
 and Flanders in the reign of Charles V., and which at 
 present exists in Scotland, to the incalculable conven- 
 ience and security of money transactions. 
 
 Effects of Trade upon Individuals. — We are now to 
 say a few words on a different topic, namely, the effects 
 of trade in forming the character of individuals ; a mat- 
 ter of no little importance in a country like ours, where 
 merchants both constitute so large a portion of the com- 
 munity, and exercise such influence on the proceedings 
 of government. The mercantile character has a num- 
 ber of good points, being exempt from the vacuity 
 and indecision so frequent in fashionable life, as well 
 as from the various vices consequent on idleness, and 
 which are so strikingly exemplified in the gambling 
 and libertinism of the French metropolis. Whatever 
 good is produced by continued activity, and by a 
 pointed attention to the specific objects of one's occu- 
 pation, may be confidently looked for among commer- 
 cial men ; with the further advantage, in large con- 
 cerns, of an exemption from petty jealousies and in- 
 vidious interferences. In such cities as London and 
 Amsterdam, merchants are aware that the field is am- 
 ple for all ; that the prosperity of one is very far from 
 impeding that of others; and that when disappoint- 
 ment and failure occur, their origin will be found in a 
 very different cause than competition. Here, how- 
 ever, we must close our encomium, and, in the spirit 
 of impartiality, proceed to exhibit the opposite side of 
 the picture. The merchant's knowledge is particular, 
 not general ; he obtains a habit of understanding indi- 
 vidual character, and a dexterity in managing his own 
 affairs ; but he has not, and can not, from his course of 
 occupation, acquire the power of reasoning compre- 
 hensively on the interests of trade. If he observe in 
 war a tendency to raise prices, or to invigorate partic- 
 ular lines of trade, such as ship-owning or insurance, 
 he will probably be led to the general inference that 
 to a maritime country war is advantageous. The con- 
 tests of Great Britain from 1770 to 1810 having been 
 attended with the undisputed command of the ocean, 
 nothing more was required to satisfy the majority of 
 traders that her mercantile marine was in a state of 
 equal ascendency. They took au pied de la lettre the 
 custom-house reports of annual exports, without ob- 
 serving how much was to be deducted on account of 
 the depreciation of bank paper, or how surely they 
 were laying the foundation of future distress by sub- 
 mitting to enormous taxation. Again, when in 1807 
 the long continuance of war had given a serious wound 
 to her trade and navigation, a majority of the mer- 
 chants ascribed it, not to the true cause, but to the un- 
 dermining competition of the United States. Their 
 range of reflection was not such as to enable them to 
 perceive that, by overturning the prosperity of the lat- 
 ter, they would sap the foundation of their own ; and 
 that every million which they prevented us from add- 
 ing to our capital was so much withdrawn from a 
 fund devoted to the increase of the productive industry 
 of Britain. Hence the unfortunate orders in council, 
 the main cause of the overthrow of her exchanges with 
 the Continent, of the increase of expenses in Spain and 
 Germany, of her war with the United States ; in short, 
 of the long continuance of her sufferings since the 
 peace. 
 
 Sad Effect of long Cretijte.— Nothing would, in our 
 opinion, conduce more to the prosperity of trade than 
 the adoption of the plan of doing all wholesale business 
 for ready money, and the relinquishment of that habit 
 
COM 
 
 879 
 
 COM 
 
 of long credit which prompts to unguarded enterprise, 
 and has for so many j'ears been the principal cause of 
 crowding the columns of the gazettes. 
 
 To show the results of long credit, it is necessary to 
 go at some length into practical illustration, and to 
 apprise our readers of the real sitilation of the majority 
 of our manufacturers and export merchants. A man- 
 ufacturel- on the present footing receives orders in the 
 course of the year from twenty or thirty mercantile 
 houses; the goods to be exported probably to the "West 
 Indies, the Spanish Main, or Brazil ; the understood 
 term of credit twelve months. The manufacturer does 
 not receive the orders from abroad ; he has an inter- 
 mediate guarantee, that of the exporting merchant. 
 Still the risk is considerable ; btit he naturally hopes 
 for the best, and is unwilling to decline an order when 
 it comes to him from a quarter of respectability. Now 
 by mercantile respectability our readers are to under- 
 stand integrity^ and the intention of acting up to en- 
 gagements ; but the power of doing so, especially at a 
 remote date, is a very different question, and is, in gen- 
 eral; possessed in a much smaller degree than the pub- 
 lic imagine. The trader whose capital is largo will 
 not scruple to ship goods to the value of 50 per cent, 
 greater than his capital, iirst in the hope, so general 
 among merchants, of realizing a handsome profit, and 
 next in coiifidence that, should the foreign marltet bo 
 dull, and should delays' occur in obtaining returns 
 within the given time, his credit will procure him in- 
 dulgence for several months, at thte end of which the 
 expected remittances can hardly fail to arrive. Ho 
 may, and in general does go on for several years with- 
 out much embarrassment, receiving, indeed, less than 
 ho sends out, but informed that all has been well sold, 
 and can not fail to be soon realized. He thus goes on 
 pleasing himself at every balance of his boolis with the 
 seeming profit, and only regretting that hitherto that 
 profit has not been tangible, since it exists in the shape 
 of a debt due by his correspondents. He continues, 
 however, under a favorable expectation of their mak- 
 ing up for past deficiencies, and flatters himself that 
 the delay has resultedfrom partial or temporary causes. 
 He begins to find himself straitened for funds, but has 
 as yet little difficulty in obtaining relief from a moneyed 
 friend, or a prolonged credit from the manufacturers. 
 His correspondents continue to write in a strain of con- 
 fidence, and to call for more goods, which if he be of a 
 confiding character, will lead him to extend the annu- 
 al amount of his shipments; but at all events he is 
 obliged to continue a certain supply for the sake of 
 keeping up the assortment of stock. Still he finds that 
 3^ear after year a larger portion of his capital remains 
 with his correspondents, and that they, however de- 
 sirous (for we by no means put an extreme case), are 
 unable to prevent an accumulation of debt, because 
 they are in like manner left unpaid by the inhabitants 
 of the country. To go to law would be of no avail, 
 since it is tlie p&licy of almost every government in a 
 recentlj'-settled country to favor the debtor, and to 
 give him the means of retaining capital in his hands. 
 Affairs now begin to be serious with the exporter ; the 
 manufacturer and other creditors can not or will not 
 give further time, and demand an explanation of his 
 circumstances. This explanation takes place, and 
 serves to show that their debtor is a man of honor, 
 witli more assets than debts, but the latter are certain, 
 while the former are at a distance of 3000 miles. The 
 consequence is a grant of time, an allowance to the 
 debtor of two, three, or four years, to act under letter 
 of license, in the hope of accomplishing that which it 
 is evident can not be performed sooner. This is, in 
 general, both the wisest and most liberal course ; still 
 it is not often found to succeed, because the foreign 
 debts can seldom be realized in climates where life is 
 held by so uncertain a tenure, where respectable agents 
 are so rarely found, where buyers of goods have so lit- 
 tle capital, and, above all, where the law allows them 
 
 such a length oftime for payment. A few of the prom- 
 ised installments are probably made good, but in gen- 
 eral the merchant recognizes the impracticability of 
 fulfilling the remainder, and finds it eventually neces- 
 sary to submit to bankruptcy. 
 
 Holland a Country of short Credit. — In Holland we 
 find that in its better days bargains were almost al- 
 ways made for ready money, or for so short a date as 
 six weeks or two months ; profits were small in their 
 ratio, but the quickness of returns made them eventu- 
 ally large ; failures were rare, even in so distressing an 
 era as the occupation of their country by the French, 
 which began in 1795, and involved from the outset a 
 stoppage of maritime intercourse with all their pos- 
 sessions in India and America. The consequence of 
 this stoppage was a decay of trade, a suspension of va- 
 rious undertakings, a scarcity of work, a miserable 
 dullness in the sale of goods ; all leading, in the first 
 instance, to diminished income; and eventually to en- 
 croachment on capital ; but, amid this distress, the fail- 
 ures were surprisingly few. Another example, equal- 
 ly replete with instruction, was the state of France aft- 
 er the double invasion of ISli and 1815. There pre- 
 vailed at that time a general discouragement among 
 the upper ranks, and a great deal of wretchedness 
 among the lower, trade being at a stand, and stocks of 
 goods lying unsold in shops or warehouses for years ; 
 still bankruptcy was exceedingly rare. All this shows 
 what a satisfactory prospect we may anticipate when 
 we adopt the plan of transacting the greater part of 
 our business for ready iijoney. Yet we are far from 
 rccommeriding any law or measure to enforce that ob- 
 ject : the evident advantage of the plan will not fail to 
 secure its adoption. 
 
 II. History OT' CoMMEECE. Oriffin of Commerce. 
 —It has been an object with many writers to ascertain 
 in what nation of antiquity commerce was first carried 
 to a considerable extent; but as that extent implies a 
 previous population, the more simple inquiry would be, 
 in what country population first acquired density, par- 
 ticularly in towns. The answer is, that mankind first 
 increased their numbers in warm latitudes, especially 
 in situations where irrigation, whether effected by the 
 overflowing of rivers, by the descent of streams from a 
 range of mountains, or by any other means, was so ex- 
 tensive as to counteract the parching effect of heat, and 
 give to vegetation a luxuriance unknown in colder re- 
 gions. It was thus that the Nile gave fertility to 
 Egypt, the Euphrates to Chaldea, and the Ganges, in 
 the lower part of its course, to Bengal. 
 
 The earliest written notice of commercial intercourse 
 is in Scripture, where we read of Joseph being sold by 
 his brethren to a company of Ishmaelites or Arabs, who 
 were going to Egypt witli spices, balm, and myrrh, con- 
 veyed on the backs of camels. These itinerant traders 
 probably brought back corn, Egypt being, even at that 
 remote period, an occasional granary for Syria and oth- 
 er adjacent countries. The conveying of goods on the 
 backs of animals ought to be remarked as indicative 
 of a primitive state of commercial intercourse — of that 
 which is carried on before the forming of roads or the 
 use of wheel-carriages. Such was the casein England 
 two centuries ago ; such at present is the case in Span- 
 ish America, and, in some degree, in Old Spain, the 
 mountainous nature of that country making it a mat- 
 ter of some difficulty to form roads. 
 
 Phcenicia, Sidon, and Tyre. — But whatever might he 
 the inland traffic of the Arabians, Chaldeans, or Egyp- 
 tians, they made very little progress in navigation ; 
 that was the province of the Phosnicians, who acted as 
 naval carriers to the neighboring nations, in the same 
 way as the Dutch did 'during the sixteenth and seven- 
 teenth centuries to the rest of Europe. This almost 
 exclusive possession of navigation may seem strange 
 in the present age, but the cause was the same in both 
 cases — namely, the difficulty in a rude age of finding 
 men capable of conducting vessels in the open sea. 
 
COM 
 
 380 
 
 COM 
 
 Seamanship, now so familiar to the inhabitants of al- 
 most every port in Europe, was in those days under- 
 stood by only a limited number, and was carried on 
 with a degree of caution and slowness hardly credible 
 to a modern reader. Thus the seamen of ancient times 
 made It a rule to keep within sight of land, as if trust- 
 ing for protection to a situation which the mariners of 
 our days look on as attended with considerable risk. 
 This arose from the great difference in the mode of pro- 
 pelling vessels, for which the moderns trust chiefly to 
 the wind, and navigate with comparatively few hands. 
 The small barks of the ancients were fitted out with 
 oars ; a method which required a great sacrifice of man- 
 ual labor, but was attended with the advantage of find- 
 ing a ready shelter in a bay or creek whenever the sky 
 portended tempestuous weather. 
 
 What, it may be asked, was the chief cause of the 
 extension of the navigation of Phoenicia? The vicin- 
 ity of Egypt, and the quantity of provisions and mer- 
 chandise exported from that fertile country. The nav- 
 igation of the Red Sea, also, was conducted chiefly by 
 Phoenicians. History is not sufficiently explicit in re- 
 gard to the commodities forming the object of trafl[ic 
 along the Red Sea, nor have we any certain knowl- 
 edge of the era at which the trade with India by that 
 channel commenced. Bonaparte, when meditating his 
 expedition to Egypt, was led, in his sanguine estimate 
 of its advantages, to consider the Red Sea as the fittest 
 line of communication with India, and to ascribe the 
 wealth of Thebes, in Egypt, one of the earliest of com- 
 mercial cities, to intercourse with the coast of Malabar. 
 But whether the navigators of the Red Sea proceeded 
 at that early date as far as the shores of India, it is ev- 
 ident that an extensive traffic was carried on with Cos- 
 seir, or a sea-port on the Red Sea which communicated 
 with Thebes. The epoch at which Homer celebrated 
 the wealth of that city is nearly the same as that at 
 which Phceniciau mariners navigated the Red Sea on 
 account of the Jewish government in the reign of Sol- 
 omon; but no historical investigator has been able to 
 fix with certainty the situation of Ophir and Tarshish, 
 the ports with which these vessels traded. Some con- 
 fident calculators have considered them to have been 
 in India; but, judging from the limited skill of navi- 
 gators in that early age, it seems more likely that these 
 harbors were near the eastern or more remote parts of 
 the Red Sea, a part from which there probably was a 
 direct communication with India. 
 
 Greece. — Such was the traffic of the Phoenicians with 
 the south and east; it extended also to counti'ies less 
 peopled and in a still more primitive state in the west. 
 The island of Crete seems to have owed to them its 
 early civilization ; and after Crete came Attica, Boeo- 
 tia, the Peloponnesus, in all of which tradition record- 
 ed the early introduction of the arts by settlers arriv- 
 ing from Phoenicia or Egypt. These arrivals seem to 
 have taken place about a thousand years before the 
 Christian era, and half of that time elapsed in the grad- 
 ual attainment of that state of civilization to which 
 Greece had arrived at the period of her political celeb- 
 rity — the itivasion of her territory by the Persians un- 
 der Darius and Xerxes. Greece is in several respects 
 well fitted for foreign commerce. Her coast is greatly 
 indented by the sea, and presents a number of inlets 
 hardly inferior to the well-known gulfs of Argos and 
 Corinth. Hence an early familiarity with the use of 
 shipping, and the practice of sending out colonies at so 
 early a date as a century after the Trojan war. These 
 colonies proceeded in various directions, to Asia Minor 
 in the east, to Thrace and the Euxine in the north, to 
 Sicily and Italy in the west. The progress made by 
 the inhabitants of these colonial settlements was rapid, 
 particularly at Syracuse, whose capacious harbor soon 
 acquired it extensive commerce and a numerous popu- 
 lation, Agrigentum, Messina, Tarentum, were like- 
 wise places of considerable importance. It was the 
 custom of these and other colonies to maintain an al- 
 
 liance and mercantile connection with the parent states, 
 such as Athens, Corinth, Argos ; and a number of char- 
 acters eminent in literature and the arts appeared in 
 the colonies at a time when their establishment might 
 have been considered as too recent to atford more than 
 the necessaries of life. But in a newly-settled coun- 
 try, such as the United States of America, various cir- 
 cumstances occur to increase the number and improve 
 the condition of the inhabitants; provisions are abund- 
 ant, in consequence of the extent of unoccupied land ; 
 the connection with the mother country insures a cer- 
 tain extent of trade; while the monopolies and other 
 abuses natural to a long-settled community are in a 
 manner unknown. 
 
 Athens. — On the other hand, the inland territory of 
 Greece was not well fitted for commercial intercourse. 
 Itis traversed by no navigable river; and being mount- 
 ainous and rugged, it could not, even in the days of its 
 prosperity, boast of roads, merchandise being in those 
 days, as at present, conveyed, not in c^riages, but on 
 the backs of horses and oxen. This deficiency of com- 
 munication by land was one cause of the different 
 states of Greece so long maintaining their independ- 
 ence, and of the limited ascendency attained by Lace- 
 da^mon, Avhich, in extent of military means, was so su- 
 perior to the other states of the Peloponnesus. Sparta 
 and Thebes being inland towns, and Corinth compara- 
 tively a small state, Athens was the chief commercial 
 city of ancient Greece. Her distance from the sea, 
 five miles, was such as to afford her security against a 
 sudden descent from an invading armament, while it 
 was sufficiently near to her harbor, the Piryjus, for the 
 easy transmission of merchandise. The trade and ship- 
 ping of Athens, however small it might appear to a 
 modern reader, was such as to give it an ascendency 
 over the different islands to the eastward of Greece, and 
 to enable it to maintain, in the Peloponnesian war, u. 
 long struggle against ii strong confederacy. M'hen 
 overcome at last, in consequence of what may be termed 
 an accidental cause, the captui'e of its fleet by Lysan- 
 der, its political depression was of short duration ; the 
 activity and industry of its inhabitants revived its 
 trade, so that Athens continued for ages the most pop- 
 ulous and commercial place in Greece. 
 
 Ti/re. — Tyre, though at no time a town of great ex- 
 tent, remained long in the enjoyment of considerable 
 trade. From the reign of Solomon, when its com- 
 mercial activity is described in Scripture, to its cap- 
 ture and destruction by Alexander the Great, there 
 elapsed a period of seven centuries. The formidable 
 resistance it made to the Macedonian arms impressed 
 Alexander with «, strong sense of the value of com- 
 merce, and of its effect in increasing the sources of na- 
 tional power. Though known to the world chiefly as 
 a warrior, Alexander had considerable claims to the 
 character of a politician. He adopted, and caused his 
 followers to adopt, to a certain extent, the manners of 
 the nations they conquered ; and by the expedition of 
 Nearchus from the mouth of the Indus to the Persian 
 Gulf, he discovered a commendable zeal for maritime 
 discovery. Equal judgment was evinced by him in 
 founding his new city of Alexandria in a position such 
 as to command an extensive range of intercourse. The 
 Nile brought to it on one hand the valuable products 
 of Egypt, and afforded on the other a ready inlet to the 
 merchandise imported from Europe. To India, also, the 
 route by Alexandria and the Red Sea was preferable 
 to that of the Persian Gulf, which involved tlie neces- 
 sity of a considerable journey by land. 
 
 Carthage. — Contemporary with the decline of Ath- 
 ens and the rise of Alexandria, but superior to either in 
 commercial activity, was Carthage,, the destruction of 
 which forms one of the foulest blots in the history of 
 the Romans. The situation of Carthage was well adapt- 
 ed for trade; its harbor was good, its range of naviga- 
 tion extensive, both to east and west. Founded by a 
 colony from Tyre, it maintained a friendly intercourse 
 
COM 
 
 381 
 
 COM 
 
 with Phoenicia; while in the west of the Mediterra- 
 nean, in Sicily, Spain, and the south of France, it met 
 with no commercial rival. These countries, at that 
 time uncivilized, and almost uncultivated, were great- 
 ly indebted to Garthage for the introduction of intelli- 
 gent settlers, and derived from her the same advant- 
 ages which Greece, several centuries before, had re- 
 ceived from Phoenicia and Egypt. In Spain the fine 
 harbors of (Darthagena and Cadiz were rendered the re- 
 sort of shipping by the Carthaginians ; and without 
 calling on our reaclers to believe the traditional asser- 
 tions of the extent of their navigation, either to the 
 north of Europe or the south of Africa, we may with 
 confidence affirm that, had not this state unhappily 
 fallen, from the jealousy of the Eomaps, it would have 
 been the means of diffusing industrious habits over a 
 great part of the west of Europe, and of advancing by 
 several centuries the progress of the iiseful arts. 
 
 Borne. — -Thcpolicy of Carthage, though not uniform- 
 ly pacific, was far less pernicious than the perpetual 
 tendency to aggression of a military state like Korae. 
 In navigation' the Romans were at no time remarka- 
 ble^ During their conflicts with the Carthaginians 
 they sustained repeated losses, chiefly from the unskill- 
 fulness of their seamen, and their inability to cope witli 
 the fury of the elements, ; After they had triumphed 
 over the Carthaginians, and extended their conquests 
 to Macedon and Greece, the Komans were no longer 
 imder the necessity of equipping fleets, because no mar- 
 itime power dared to dispute their supremacy. But 
 the extension of the Koman power was favorable, in 
 several respects, to commerce ; piracy was suppressed, 
 and merchant vessels had free access to almost every 
 part of the Mediterranean. Hence a gradual increase 
 
 ■ in the lengtli of mercantile voj'ages, which now extend- 
 ed on one hand to the north of Prince and Germany, 
 on the other to the Indian Ocean, to which it became 
 easy, from the progressive improvement of navigation, 
 to proceed either by the Red Sea or the Persian Gulf. 
 The mariners' compass was still unknown, but the uni- 
 form direction of the wind in certain seasons enabled 
 the navigators to and from India to complete their 
 voyages with little difiiculty. 
 
 The Middle Ages. — It was toward the middle of the 
 fifth century,, about a hundred years after the removal 
 
 ■ of the seat of empire to Constantinople, that the Ko- 
 mans became unable to defend their frontier against 
 the uncivilized tribes who pressed on them from the 
 north and east. The consequence was that the coun- 
 try along the Rhine, the inland provinces of Gaul, and, 
 some time afterwardy Spain and the north of Italy, were 
 overrun by these rude assailants. The increase in the 
 population of towns was checked, many places being- 
 plundered, others subjected to he#vy contributions, and 
 property in general rendered unsafe. There was no 
 longer a central or general government ; the territory 
 of the empire was divided into a number of separate 
 states, the rulers of which had no just idea of the im- 
 portance of commerce. These uneducated governors, 
 accustomed to appeal on almost all occasions to the 
 sword, were not sufficiently enlightened to forego the 
 temptation of a present seizure for the sake of the last- 
 ing advantage of mercantile intercourse. 
 
 Pisa. — Next to Venice in the history of modern com- 
 merce came Pisa, a town built on the banks of the Amo, 
 at a distance of nearly three leagues from the sea. Its 
 trade was chiefly with the western coast of Italy, with 
 Sardinia, Corsica, and Sicily. Its commercial import- 
 ance was prior by two centuries to that of Genoa, al- 
 thpugh it never equaled the latter in extent of naviga- 
 tion, nor in the number of distant settlements. Pisa 
 declined from its commercial rank in consequence of 
 Leghorn, which was situated immediately on the coast, 
 being better adapted to foreign intercourse. 
 
 Genoa. — Genoa continued flourishing from the year 
 1000 until its ill-judged hostilities with Venice in the 
 latter half of the fourteenth century. These were in- 
 
 jurious to both, yet both recovered from the effects SO 
 as to hold, during several centuries, a distinguished 
 rank in trade. They were remarkable also, particu- 
 larly Venice, for a variety of the finer manufactures. 
 Neither could boast of a supply of the raw materials of 
 almost any manufacture in their respective territories ; 
 but their numerous merchant vessels brought a variety 
 of products from a distance, and the amount of the pop- 
 ulation of either city was such as to render practicable 
 that division of employment which is the soul of man- 
 ufacture, and which was at that time almost unknown 
 in other parts of Europe. 
 
 CoKs«arerira(jpfe..^Constantinople had the good for- 
 tune to remain untouched by the enemies of the em- 
 pire until the middle of the fifteenth century, a time 
 when civilization had made progress in the west of Eu- 
 rope, and literature was on the eve of receiving a great 
 extension by the discovCTy of the art of printing. To 
 this fortunate coincidence of the revival of the arts in 
 the west, at a time when the east of Europe was sink- 
 ing under the pressure of barbarism, we owe the pres- 
 ervation of much that was valuable in the ancient 
 world; and, among other things, that of certain man- 
 ufactures and branches of commerce. Constantinople 
 had all along maintained a commercial intercourse with 
 Venice and other ports in Italy, and, in general, with 
 Alexandria. The same had been the case in regard to 
 India ; for when the occupancy of Egypt, by the Sara- 
 cens prevented the trade tp India by the Red Sea, it 
 was kept up by the Caspian and Euxine. But by far 
 the shortest course from the east of Europe to India is 
 by the Euphrates and the Persian Gulf. It was to the 
 extent of intercourse carried on, by this channel, some 
 time after the Christian era, that we are to ascribe the 
 wealth and grandeur of Palmyra, a city erected in the 
 midst of deserts. This would have continued one of 
 the chief routes of communication between Europe and 
 India during the Middle Ages, had not the caravans 
 been in perpetual danger from the Arabs after the de- 
 cline, of the civilized governments in this part of Asia. 
 
 Venice, — The apprehension engendered by the ap- 
 proach of barbarians from the north and east, led a 
 number of traders and manufacturers settled in the 
 .north of Italy to fix their families in the small islands 
 near the mouths- of the Po. There the surrounding 
 waters afforded them a degree of protection against in- 
 vaders, who, however formidable by land, had no means 
 of carrying on hostilities by sea. Such was the origin 
 of Venice, a city situated in the midst of the waters, 
 and destined to acquire extensive trade from the secu- 
 rity attendant on her position, and to take a lead amid 
 the mercantile states of the Middle Ages. 
 
 The growing trade between Europe and India, 
 though of considerable value, was not extensive enough 
 to be productive of the wealth ascribed to it b}' Dr. 
 Robertson and other historians, who, unacquainted 
 practically with commerce and its limited gains, are 
 ready to lend an ear to the sanguine statements of ear- 
 ly writers. Thus the wealth of Venice, commonly as- 
 cribed to its trade with Alexandria and India, was the 
 consequence of a variety of causes, no one being of par- 
 ticular importance, because several centuries were pass- 
 ed in the gradual increase of its population and capital. 
 Venice afforded a secure resort in ages when other 
 countries were in danger of invasion and plunder. It 
 had also a prudent government in times when, in most 
 parts of Europe, there was little idea of a free constitu- 
 tion, or of a regular administration of justice. Venice 
 was in this state when, in the twelfth and thirteenth 
 centuries, the increase of traffic, arising from conveying 
 the crusaders, with their military stores, and the readi- 
 ness of those zealous combatants to extend the sway of 
 a Christian state, enabled that commercial republic to 
 increase her foreign territories. In general, the for- 
 eign policy of Venice was pacific, but she found it dif- 
 ficult to avoid hostilities with the Turks, or to escape 
 from taking a part in the repeated contests which took 
 
COM 
 
 382 
 
 COM 
 
 place between France and Austria for the territory of 
 the Milanese. Those who talse an interest in tracing 
 the gradual extension of industry will find in Venice 
 the origin of several important commercial institutions. 
 In that city was established the first public bank, and 
 there also was first introduced a funded debt transfera- 
 ble from hand to hand. The same thing held in re- 
 gard to lesser matters connected with the details of 
 mercantile business. Bills of exchange, if not invented 
 by Venetian merchants, were first carried by them to a 
 great extent ; and the principles of book-keeping by 
 double entry were there first understood and applied in 
 practice. However familiar those principles may be 
 to merchants of the present day, they were too refined 
 for the rude and primitive state of most parts of Eu- 
 rope in the Middle Ages. 
 
 Spain. — Here it may be well to point out the fallacy 
 of a notion general in Spain, and not uncommon in 
 other parts of Europe, namely, that in the Middle Ages 
 Spain was a flourishing country, and possessed, in Tar- 
 ragona, Tortosa, and Zaragoza, great population and 
 wealth, each of these towns being said to, have contain- 
 ed several hundred thousand inhabitants. This sin- 
 gular opinion was widely spread, in consequence of the 
 prominent figure made by Spain in the politics of Eu- 
 rope, in the reigns of Charles V. and Philip II. The 
 public did not take into account the great addition of 
 power conferred on Spain by her possessions in Italy 
 and the Low Countries ; nor were there in these days 
 statisticians capable of explaining the very slow man- 
 ner in which either cultivation or commerce can ac- 
 quire extension in a country so mountainous, and with 
 so few means of transport, as Spain. Of roads she can 
 boast only the few that are required for the purposes 
 of government, the cross-roads being little more than 
 bridle paths, and the traffic of the country being in gen- 
 ral carried on by mules. All this indicates a scanty 
 population and backward state of society, as has been 
 the case in Spain in every age ; for there is no truth in 
 the traditionary opinion that her population was great- 
 ly thinned by emigration to America. The number of 
 persons who proceeded annually from Spain to America 
 never exceeded the tenth part of tliose who at present 
 go annually from Ireland to Canada. The truth is, 
 that the power of Charles V. and Philip II. was great 
 only because the power of the other princes of Europe 
 was very limited. The military establishments of that 
 age were quite insignificant compared to those of the 
 present times. 
 
 The Hanse Towns.^Oi[ie of the chief features in mer- 
 cantile history during the Middle Ages was the associ- 
 ation of towns in the north of Europe for the purpose of 
 giving security to mercantile propert}'. At that time 
 the different countries of Europe were very imperfectly 
 governed ; there were then no regular posts and very 
 few roads, so that the means Of redressing grievances, 
 or of making communications from one part to anoth- 
 er, were very imperfect. Too much has been said of the 
 political power exercised by the Hanse Towns, but the 
 association was of great use in protecting individual 
 property. It dated from the middle of the thirteenth 
 century, and originated at Lubeck, a sea-port, which 
 had not in those days more population or wealth than 
 at present, but possessed much more comparative im- 
 portance, because very few places in Europe could at 
 that time boast of 30,000 or 40.000 inhabitants. The 
 trade between the Baltic and the west of Germany cen- 
 tred in the harbor of Lubeck, in ages when navigators 
 were not sufficiently skilled to proceed to or come from 
 the Baltic by the circuitous route of the Sound. The 
 association of the Hanse Towns consisted first of Lu- 
 beck, Hamburg, and Brunswick, but soon extended to 
 other places— to Amsterdam, Dordt, Cologne, on the 
 one side, to Dantzic, Konigsberg, Riga, on the other. 
 These and many smaller towns, to the number of sixty 
 and upward, became members of this protecting body, 
 -which continued in a state of union during three cen- 
 
 turies. At the end of that time it was gradually dis- 
 solved, not by any violence or exercise of authority, 
 but by the continued progress of civilization; the dif- 
 ferent governments in the north of Europe having by 
 that time acquired the power of protecting their mer- 
 cantile subjects. It is now about two centuries since 
 the association of the Hanse Towns ceased to exist in 
 a comprehensive sense ; ' and for a considerable time 
 the name has been confined to Hamburg, Lubeck, and 
 Bremen. Hamburg took the lead of other trading 
 towns of the north of Germany, by means chiefly of 
 the extent of its river, and the consequent easy com- 
 munication with the sea on the one hand, and the in- 
 terior of Germany on the other. It gained also by the 
 improvement of navigation in the fifteenth and six- 
 teenth centuries, when vessels from the south of Eu- 
 rope found it no longer necessary to suspend their voy- 
 age at Bruges, but found it practicable, and even easy, 
 to proceed at once as far as the Elbe. , 
 
 The Netherlands. — The wealth and possession of the 
 Netherlands belong, like the early opulence of Tyre, 
 and the magnitude of the trade of Carthage, to the re- 
 markable phenomena of mercantile history. To judge 
 from the physical aspect of Holland, the general marsh- 
 iness of the soil, the indifferent climate, and the total 
 absence of mineral products, we should be inclined to 
 consider it among the least favored countries of Eu- 
 rope ; but all these advantages were balanced, and 
 more than balanced, by the possession of extensive wa- 
 ter communication. No part of Europe equals Flanders 
 and Holland in extent of inlets from the sea, in the 
 breadth of navigable rivers, or in the ease with which 
 canals may be excavated. To these advantages, much 
 more than to civil institutions, we are to ascribe the 
 early prosperity of the Netherlands ; for these appar- 
 ently unpromising countries took a lead in civilization 
 almost as remarkable as the more favored regions of 
 the north of Italy. That they were not so earlv in the 
 career of improvement, was owing to the comparative 
 barbarism of the countries in the north of Europe with 
 which they held intercourse ; while Italy had commu- 
 nication on one hand with Constantinople and the East- 
 ern empire, on the other hand with the south of France, 
 the west of Italy, and various sea-ports which still pre- 
 served a portion of ancient civilization. 
 
 Flanders ; Holland. — The soil of Flanders, without 
 being naturally fertile, was more easily cultivated than 
 the comparatively marshy districts of Holland. Hence 
 the early superiority of the Flemings in agriculture and 
 manufactures. It was in the fourteenth century that 
 the art of weaving the finer woolens was introduced 
 from Flanders into England, and in the sixteenth that 
 we derived from the same quarter many useful imports 
 in agriculture and gardening. The progi-ess of the 
 Dutch in navigation was equally remarkable. The 
 IMaese and Rhine enabled them to bring down the 
 bulky produce of the interior, such as timber, corn or 
 cattle, to their own coast, as well as to carry up these 
 rivers to the inland provinces the various articles of 
 merchandise imported from the south of Europe. Hence 
 the increase of Dordt at Rotterdam. The rise of Am- 
 sterdam was owing to a different cause ; to the extent 
 of the Zuyder Zee ; to the easy access which that ex- 
 panse of water afforded to vessels from the Elbe, the 
 Weser, and the Baltic. 
 
 Bruges. — Bruges owed its increase to its adoption as 
 an intermediate port for vessels from the north and 
 south of Europe. A voyage from the Mediterranean to 
 the Baltic was in those days a formidable undertak- 
 ing ; sea-faring men accounted it too long to be perform- 
 ed out and home in one season, and gladly embraced 
 the opportunity afforded by the warehouses of Bruges 
 for landing their cargo from the south, and taking on 
 board another from the north, without the delay of a 
 passage through the Sound. This plan of dividing the 
 voyages to the north continued during the thirteenth 
 and fourteenth centuries ; in the fifteenth it in a great 
 
COM 
 
 383 
 
 COM 
 
 measure ceased, because the improvements in seaman- 
 ship made it easy for vessels to proceed directly to 
 Hamburg, Copenhagen, and other northern parts. 
 
 Antwerp. — Antwerp succeeded Bruges as the station 
 authorized by the Hanse Towns ; but its prosperity was 
 mainly owing to the width and depth of the Scheldt, 
 which may be said to surpass any of the maritime in- 
 lets in the north of Europe. The time of the chief pros- 
 perity of Antwerp was in the sixteenth century; its 
 population and wealth had attained a great height for 
 so unimproved an age, and would have continued to In- 
 crease, had not the tyranny of Philip II. provoked the 
 inhabitants to insurrection, and exposed them to all 
 the evils of a siege and capture by a military force. 
 The consequence of this misfortune, and of the contin- 
 ued intolerance of the Spanish government, was the re- 
 moval to Amsterdam of many of the inhabitants, and 
 of a great share of the mercantile business of Antwerp. 
 In the next century the Dutch acquired great political 
 weight, and took advantage of it to prevent the navi- 
 gation of th? Scheldt, that Amsterdam and Rotterdam 
 might possess exclusively the trade with the interior 
 provinces. This singular prohibition, unexampled in 
 the history of commerce, remained in force 150 years ; 
 for the Scheldt was not opened to merchant vessels un- 
 til 1794, when the Netherlands fell under the dominion 
 of France. During all that timeAntwerp was deprived 
 of the benefit of foreign trade ; its population ceased to 
 increase, and remained stationary at the number, on an 
 average, of 60,000. 
 
 Maritime Route to Tndia, — The great object of navi- 
 gators in the fifteenth century was to reach India by 
 the ocean, and to carry, on what was accounted a lu- 
 crative traffic without interruption from the Turks or 
 Arabs. The discoveries required for this purpose were 
 made by the Portuguese, who, in situation, were nearer 
 than other Europeans to the western coast of Africa, the 
 line necessarily followed by those who aimed at reaching 
 India by a new course. The Portuguese had in those 
 .days more than one prince of the blood disposed to pat- 
 ronize maritime discovery ; but their seamen were very 
 unskillful, so that in following their awkward efforts at 
 -discovery, we find season after season passed in tracing 
 the unknown part of the coast of Africa to a distance of 
 only fifty or sixty leagues. This inconceivable slow- 
 ness marked the navigation of the Portuguese in their 
 progress toward the equator, until, in 1484, they ven- 
 tured to forsake the coast, stood out to the open ocean, 
 and penetrated 1500 miles to the south of. the line. 
 From that time a bolder course was taken by these ad- 
 venturers, and, at last the discovery of the route to 
 India by the Cape of Good Hope was accomplished in 
 1497. 
 
 Discooery of America. — The discovery of America 
 was effected in a very different manner. Though ac- 
 complished by Spanish vessels, the honor of the enter- 
 prise belonged more properly to Italy ; for it was only 
 in a country accustomed to navigation, and possessing 
 well-educated mariners, that so distant a voyage could 
 have been accounted practicable. Many years were 
 passed, as is well known, by Columbus in forming his 
 plan, and soliciting the aid required to carry it into 
 effect ; but, once embarked in the attempt, the success 
 was speedy, because the mind of the conductor was 
 sufficiently enlightened to persevere in the voyage, in- 
 stead of returning, as would probably have been done 
 by an inferior navigator before traversing the half of 
 the Atlantic. 
 
 We now come to the sixteenth century, the time 
 when the productive industry of Europe received a 
 considerable impulse from the influx of the precious 
 metals from America. At that time the chief trading 
 towns of Europe were in Italy, the Netherlands, and, in 
 a much less degree, in France, England, and Germany. 
 In the latter countries the towns were very small, not 
 being peopled to the extent of one third of their pres- 
 ent numbers. Nothing shows more cleady the back- 
 
 wardness of manufactures in that age, the imperfect 
 division of employment, or the limited communication 
 between one province and another. There were in 
 those days few lines of intercourse entitled to the name 
 of roads, or fit for conveying corn or merchandise by 
 wheel carriages. Even in countries comparatively lev- 
 el, such as the south of England,, the north of France, 
 the north of Germany, there were no carriage roads, 
 and goods were conveyed on the backs of mules and 
 horses, in the same manner as over the mountainous 
 regions of the Alps. Nor were there in that time post- 
 ofiice establishments for the service of either govern- 
 ments or merchants. 
 
 An increase in town population is the best evidence 
 of improvement in agriculture, as in commerce. In a 
 rude state of cultivation, the la])or of seventy or eighty 
 persons is required to raise provisions for a hundred ; 
 so that three fourths of the inhabitants are obliged to 
 live in country districts, for the mere purpose of rais- 
 ing subsistence. But as machinery and implements 
 become improved, and the art of husbandry is better un- 
 derstood, the farmer can render more effectual the labor 
 of himself and his assistants; there remains a greater 
 surplus of provisions for the support of the inhabitants 
 of towns ; and somewhat more of the population are 
 enabled to attach themselves to employments distinct 
 from agriculture, namely, those of mechanics and man- 
 ufactures. To this improved condition Europe was 
 slowly advancing, when the discovery of the silver 
 mines of America had the effect of materially quicken,- 
 ing its progress. This renders it proper to make a few 
 remarks on the supply of gold and silver in early ages. 
 
 The precious Metals. — It is somewhat singular that 
 Egypt, a country never remarkable for mines in its 
 own territory, should have been among the first to give 
 an example of mining on a large scale. But the Egyp- 
 tians had extended their conquests to the southward, 
 where, in the mountains of Nubia, there were extensive 
 mining districts. In these, as in the mines of other 
 parts of the world, masses of ore contained only par- 
 ticles of silver, and the task of raising the ore to the 
 surface was very laborious. This was performed in 
 the Nubian mines with little aid from machinery, and 
 chiefly by manual labor, as is still the case in many 
 parts of Spanish and Portuguese America. The next ac- 
 counts of mining in ancient history relate to Greece, 
 where, from the mountainous nature of the country, 
 the mines were numerous, though not particularly pro- 
 ductive. They were wi'ought in Attica, Thrace, and 
 several of the islands. The laborers were paid partly in 
 money; partly in provisions; and the accounts ha^idecl 
 down to us \ty Greek writers show that mining, like 
 agriculture, afforded a fair return for the capital and 
 labor employed, but no remarkable profit. Spain in 
 those times, as at present, was remarkable for exten- 
 sive mining ; as were in a less degree Sardinia, Corsi- 
 ca, and the small island of Elba. 
 
 Such undertakings were long carried on for the pub- 
 lic account ; but toward the fifth century of the Chris- 
 tian era, the Roman government withdrew from most 
 of its mining establishments, allowing individuals to 
 carry them on for their own account. The quantity 
 of gold and silver in circulation appears to have sub- 
 sequently decreased ; but we are greatly at a loss for 
 correct information in regard either to the state of 
 mines or the prices of commodities, as represented in 
 money, during the Middle Ages. 
 
 Infiux of Silver from America.— It is now three cen- 
 turies since the importation of silver from America, in 
 particular from Mexico and Peru, amounted at first to 
 half a million annually, and increased to one, and af- 
 terward to two millions. This sum was such as to af- 
 fect the prices of com, labor, and merchandise general- 
 ly. It caused a gradual rise of prices, carried to the 
 greatest length in maritime districts, in parts connect- 
 ed with each other by navigation. The published 
 works of the sixteenth century contain many notices 
 
COM 
 
 384 
 
 COM 
 
 of the rise in tlie price of commodities, and of the in- 
 convenience resulting to the consumers from sucli rise : 
 the advantages to agriculturists and producers general- 
 ly were not so clearly perceived, or the humble classes 
 enjoying them had not equal means of stating them 
 to the public. The supplies of gold and silver from 
 America to Europe continued during the seventeenth 
 and eighteenth centuries, and on a much larger scale 
 than during the sixteenth; yet their effect was not so 
 great for several reasons. First, the number of per- 
 sons among whom silver now circulated was far great- 
 er than formerly. Gold also had become more com- 
 mon, and began to form the chief, or almost the sole 
 medium for large payments ; and, lastly, the use of sil- 
 ver for plate, jewelry, watches, and other ornamental 
 purposes, increased greatly in consequence of the im- 
 proved circumstances of the middle and upper classes. 
 There remained thus less silver to add to the coin in 
 circulation. 
 
 Banh-notes. — It was in the eighteenth century, par- 
 ticularly after 1750, that the use of bank-notes became 
 general in England, and subsequently in the United 
 States of America. This may be compared in its ef- 
 fect on prices to an additional supply of gold from the 
 mine, because its tendency to raise prices is consider- 
 able, though not so great as is vulgarly supposed; be- 
 cause banlt paper payable in cash on demand, of 
 which alone we speak, can never be unduly extended. 
 Bank-notes have as yet obtained little currency on the 
 Continent of Europe ; but in Great Britain, Ireland, 
 and North America, their effect on prices may be said 
 to have been similar to that of the iriiportation of the 
 precious metals from America. In either case, the con- 
 sequence was a rise in the money price of corn, and 
 commodities generally. To comprehend the benefit 
 of such rise, we should consider society as divided into 
 two gi'cat parts ; the producing and the non-producing 
 classes. The latter consist of capitalists, landholders, 
 or fixed annuitants ; the former of farmers, especially 
 tenants on lease, manufacturers, merchants, and, in 
 general, all persons who carry on business with borrow- 
 ed capital. If a tenant on lease continue to pay during 
 twenty-one years the same rent, while the market price 
 of his" crops experiences a progressive rise, it follows 
 that his circumstances will improve. Thus, on the aug- 
 mented importation of silver from America to Great 
 Britain, which began three centuries ago, there took 
 place a slow but steady rise in prices, the effect of 
 which was of great advantage to agriculturists, in par- 
 ticular to those who held land on lease. The yeoman 
 who was cautious and persevering thus laid the found- 
 ation of a little property, the next generation added to 
 it, and the third rose from the condition of cottagers to 
 that of farmers. This, or something like this, was the 
 course of circumstances in England, during the chief 
 part of the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth cen- 
 turies. If the effect was at no time very great, it was 
 continued and progressive; for wc can trace no great 
 or general decline in the price of agricultural produce 
 until the general peace of 1814. 
 
 Trade of Great Britain. — The trade and navigation 
 of Great Britain, great as it now is in extent, did not 
 by any means make an early figure in the commercial 
 history of Europe. Of this the principal cause was the 
 thinness of her population compared to that of the north 
 of Italy or the Netherlands, and the consequent insig- 
 nificance of her towns. The slow progress in trade is 
 also to be ascribed to political causes, to the civil trou- 
 bles originating with the great barons, the frequent 
 wars with France, and still more to the long and san- 
 guinary contests in the fifteenth century, respecting the 
 rival claims of the houses of York and Lancaster. It 
 was not till the reign of Henry VII., little more than 
 three centuries ago, that the advantages arising from 
 the extent of coast and abundance of fuel began to be 
 brought into active operation. During the reign of 
 his successor, the progress of improvement received lit- 
 
 tle patronage from the court, but a most eflicient indi- 
 rect aid from the introduction of Protestantism. The 
 advantages resulting froni that happy change, and the 
 development of national industry, were strongly dis- 
 played during the long reign of Elizabeth, under the 
 wise administration of Cecil. At that time, also, was 
 felt the benefit arising to the productive classes, from 
 the augmented import of gold and silver from America. 
 
 Exjiorts to North America. — A striking feature in the 
 trade of England, compared to that of France, Germa- 
 ny, and other Continental countries, is the magnitude 
 of its exports to distant parts, such 'as India, North 
 America, and the AVest Indies. These different branch- 
 es of trade employ a number of seamen, and make a 
 conspicuous figure in the list of yearly exports. They 
 are considered as the pillars of commercial prosperity; 
 but those who estimate them so highly have no idea of 
 the large sums of capital that have been withdrawn 
 by each of these countries from England. The Unit- 
 ed States of America consumed English manufactures 
 largely for nearly a century, but in no one year did 
 we remit back to Great Britain the full value of the 
 articles which we imported. The amount due from the 
 United States to England has exceeded the general 
 estimate, and is known only to the merchants, who feel 
 the deduction thus made from their pecuniary means. 
 A similar drain has long been made by her West India 
 colonies, but in a less degree, until within these fifty 
 years, since which tlie capital drawn from England has 
 amounted to many millions. With India commercial 
 intercourse was more limited ; and the exports, con- 
 fined to the East India Company and to a few mercan- 
 tile houses in London, were on a comparatively small 
 scale until the present age, during which the extension 
 of the private trade from Liverpool, and the advance 
 of capital on indigo plantations, made the India husi- 
 ness assume a considerable resemblance to that with 
 North America and the West Indies. The real and 
 substantial benefit arising from commerce takes place 
 at home, and shows itself in the extension of manufac- 
 tures, the increase of towns, the improvement of roads, 
 canals, and harbors. 
 
 Of the course of trade in Great Britain during the 
 last half century, the following is a brief summary. 
 After the peace with the United States of America in 
 1783, her trade suffered for some time by the transition 
 from war to peace, but gradually improved ; and in the 
 years 1789, 1790, 1791, 1792, was decidedly prosperous. 
 After this came the war with France, which w^as at 
 first injurious to trade, but after the .abundance of mon- 
 ey consequent on the extended circulation of bank 
 paper in 1797, assumed a very different appearance, 
 and seemed to bring a yearly addition to the national 
 wealth. This ostensible increase of profits was kept up 
 during the chief part of the war, but at the peace the 
 state of circumstances underwent a complete change ; 
 the transition was great beyond example ; prices fell in 
 every department of business, and the year 1816 was 
 among the most gloomy in the commercial history. A 
 revival of trade took place in 1817 and 1818, but it was 
 succeeded by a long depression. In 1823 trade revived 
 once more ; in 1824 it became prosperous, and in 1825 
 afforded a striking example of the abuse of mercantile 
 prosperity; at the end of that year a general fall of 
 prices, and afterward the heavy calls to meet the ex- 
 penses of the late gigantic railway undertakings, ag- i 
 gravated by the failure of the potato crop of 1846, oc- 
 casioned the greatest difficulty in procuring pecuniary 
 accommodation, and led to the crisis of 1847. 
 
 Effect of War Expenditure. — From the ease with 
 which money was borrowed by the government of 
 Great Britain during the eighteenth century, the wars 
 carried on were both of frequent occurrence and on a 
 scale of great expense. The result was a continued in- 
 crease of debt and taxation ; but the burden did not ap- 
 pear beyond her means, until the unprecedented length 
 to which it was carried by the wars of 1793 and 1803. 
 
COM 
 
 385 
 
 COM 
 
 Both took place under the ministry of Mr, Pitt, and 
 the extreme to which he allowed expenditure to be car- 
 ried was the more remarkable when we consider his 
 long experience in finance, and that from the time of 
 his coming into office his attention was given to the 
 state of the trade, and revenne. , Several of his, early 
 measures, such as, the commutation of the duty on tea, 
 and the commercial treatyjwith France in 1786, were 
 entitled to great commendaypn>. A similar opinion is 
 not now entertained of hi^ reviva,l qf the sinking fund; 
 and it was in an evil Jiour il^ha^ he allowed himself 
 to ho diverted from his pacific course by the urgency 
 of the aristocracy »nfl hi?, sovereign, to, take up arms 
 against the French revolutionists. Unfortunately the 
 atrocities 9f,tl^ese men, the ,ci)dlsgs usui-pations of Bpna- 
 parte, anfl, above all, the facilities afforded by. the un- 
 checked issue, of hank paper, carried the expenditure 
 , to an unprecedented height. , , , , • , ■ , 
 
 In the :nidst of this hazardous, career, the death of 
 Mr, Pitt, ^"^A- the removal from office of his immediate 
 succ^ssijrsintfapsferredthe management of British finan- 
 . .ces,to,tt;^|Jjan^s <)f men wholly unequal to the task: of 
 men uncoiisciou^ of the precarious nature of paper cur- 
 rency, and of the danger of such measures. a^ a stop- 
 pagq of, neutral iiavigation, ,or a war with the United 
 States of America. , The consequence -ivaS; a ,d,^r.ecgia- 
 tiou of the bani; paper during five years, an enormous 
 waste of the public inoney, »nd a burden on the coun- 
 try of unparalleled (li^iount. A state of war is attend- 
 ed by a groat, t^ef)land for the service of individuals, as 
 well Jn the army and navy as in the public offipea. A 
 gT.e£jt, number of persons are thus withdi^awn, from pro- 
 ductive employment, and the , consequ^hcei is an in- 
 crease of the wages .and incomes of, thQS0,;\vho,3remain 
 so employed, as well as bringing .into activity a number 
 of persons who in a season of peace would hardly have 
 , ,b,eQu accounted worthy of employment. A rise in the 
 price' of corn and other produce lis another consequence 
 of a state of war ; tl»is lead^ to, a rise of rent ; a rise of, 
 rent to increased, expenditure on t^e part of the^ai^d- 
 iord ; and, that to a general activity and continued em- 
 ployment of working classes. Such was the condition 
 of Great Britain ^^ripg the twenty years f^om 1794 to 
 1814, ;while in the twenty years that followed the peace 
 there was a corresponding decline, and then a gradual 
 return to higher prices. The fall in the price of prod- 
 uce lowered ,r9nts, and greatly lessened the income of 
 the upper classes ; hence a contracted expenditure, and 
 a want pf employment for fhe Jower orders. All this 
 exemplifies the precarious. nature. of such a rise of 
 prices as took place in the, late wars, and will, more 
 than any other argument, confirm the public in an ad- 
 , herence to peace. , (.,;.,, 
 
 Decrease off he precious. Metals. — The supply of gold 
 and silver from America to Europe continued regular- 
 .ly to increase until the year 1810, since which, the dis- 
 orders in Spanish Ameripa, particularly in Mexico, 
 shortened the supply from that quarter by at least one- 
 half. Mr. Jacob, in his, work on the precious metals,, 
 calculated the reduction in the, quantity of circulating 
 'coin, during the twenty years that succeeded the peace 
 of 1814, at not les? than 20 per cent. This decrease in 
 the supply of the precious metals must have had some 
 effect in lowering the prices of commodities, but to what 
 extent it is not possible, with our imperfect data, to 
 form an opinion. But the discovery of gojd in Califor- 
 nia in 1848, and in Australia in 1851 , has not only made 
 up for any deficiency in the supplies from other quar- 
 ters, but from, these two countries alone there has been 
 furnished more than twice the amount of the entire an- 
 nual produce of the precious metals from all parts of 
 the world in the most productive periods of their work- 
 ing. The effect of this has been to raise wages and 
 prices very largely both in Europe and America, and 
 to give a great stimulus to emigration from Britain, 
 and especially from Ireland, and to some extent from 
 Germanj-.— (See Emigration. 
 Bb 
 
 Free ZVorfe.— In 1846 Sir Bobert Peel abolished the 
 customs duties on 420 different articles. This measure 
 was a virtual abandonment of the system of protection, 
 which w^s shortly aftjsr followed by the total repeal of 
 the com, laws. 
 
 Progress of American Commerce. — The sixteenth cen- 
 tury introduced the leading European powers to a mi- 
 nute acquaintance with the continent of America. Ad- 
 venturous navigation had rescued, world from savage 
 dominion, and there were adventurous spirits enough 
 to people that world, and identify thenceforward their 
 destinieswithrit. A hundred years after, and civiliza- 
 tion planted her abodes thrpiJgh all this waste. Pe- 
 culiar, indeed, is the feeling, with, which these infant 
 days of our country are regarded, so like an illusion does 
 it seem-T^so like a dream of glowing imagery. We look 
 back as to a classic era, and the romance of Pocahon- 
 tas, and of Saleigh, of Fernando de Soto, and Juan 
 Ponce de Leon, do they thrill us less than the beatific 
 visions of the Greek, recurring to ages long ago, when 
 Ilion resisted the shock pf Agamemnon's heroes, and 
 the Argo sailed, away to distant Colchis? The dim 
 antiquity seems: gathered around both of them alike. 
 But let it pass, allr-rthe romance of our history. They 
 imagined not, the men of that day imagined not the 
 stupendous results which have occurred so soon. They 
 saw not the benign and regenerating influences of a 
 virgin land, preserved for countless ages uncorrupted 
 by tyranny, and ignorant of oppression. Could such 
 a soil. have nurtured else than freemen? They saw it 
 not, and ,do we — even we — see other than darkly yet 
 the great consummation, the mighty destinies of the 
 regions which, three centuries ago, were proclaimed 
 &om the,mastrhead of a crazy ocean bark, a speck upon 
 the distant heaven ? 
 
 The development of American character is replete 
 with instruction, and solves, one of the most remarka- 
 ble problems in the history of mankind. The untried 
 scenes of a new world, cut off by trackless oceans from 
 contact find communion with the civilization of unnum- 
 bered generations, were sufficient to introduce, what 
 might have been predicted of them, results new, strik- 
 ing, and without a precedent. The indomitable will, 
 the stern endurance, the inflexible and hardy spirit of 
 independence, the high daring, the lofty patriotism, the 
 adventurous, unlimited enterprise, the genius resolute, 
 actiyej intrepid ; inexhaustible in resources, elastic in 
 vigor; and in freshness, buoyant ever and hoping on, 
 and executing amid every trying scene, every danger, 
 and difficulty, and disaster — triumphing every where 
 and in all things. Philosophy could have argued this 
 complexipn for the men whose fathers braved so much 
 beyond the ocean, and would philosophy have won less 
 than the fame of prophecy by her judgment ? 
 
 But we pause not here to lament the causes which 
 have counteracted these genial influences, and left whole 
 regions of America stagnated, as it were, in the very 
 elements of vitality and yet living hopelessly on. 
 Should we refer to Mexico and the South American 
 States ? What is there here of progress to chronicle, 
 and how much of humiliation ? Kegions blessed by 
 Heaven in everj' thing but in men. Changing ever 
 their dynasties and their despots in revolution and in 
 blood. In motion always, without progress. In arms, 
 without valor. Loving change rather than hating op- 
 pressors. Proclaiming civilization and annihilating 
 its advances. The bitterness ofVoltaire's sneer has no 
 cruelty or injustice in its application to many of them, 
 " enpansant les chevaux de hy.rs maitres Us se donnent. le 
 titre d'elecieurs des rois et de destmcteurs des tyrans!" 
 Under Heaven, as it was the destiny of the savage ab- 
 original, incapable of civilization, and with no law of 
 progress ingrafted upon his nature, to fade away before 
 the steady advances of European arms and policy, so 
 the Anglo-Saxon element of America, by its flexibility 
 and its power, by the new elements which it has taken 
 to itself in the trying, yet triumphant scenes through 
 
COM 
 
 386 
 
 COM 
 
 which it has passed, will and must, in the inevitable 
 course of events, preside over the destinies of the conti- 
 nent of America, aiding and directing them, adding 
 life and vitality, rousing dormant and sleeping ener- 
 gies, and developing, upon the theatre of the world, 
 movements in comparison with which all that history 
 can furnish before the deluge, before the era of Christ, 
 and since, shall dwindle into insignificance ! It needs 
 no ardent temperament to draw a stronger picture. 
 
 American Commerce in the seventeenth Century. — The 
 early colonists were exposed for a fearful probation to 
 the most extraordinary vicissitudes and necessities. 
 With the axe in one hand they reduced the sturdy for- 
 ests into the farm-yard, and with the knife in the other 
 they resisted the approaches of the stealthy and san- 
 guinary savage. A meagre subsistence rewarded the 
 toils that linew no rest, and the charities of the mother 
 country were invoked for men whose determined wills 
 grew stronger as they suffered. This period had its 
 different limits. Fifteen years after the landing of 
 "William Sale, we find the proprietary government in 
 England complaining to the Carolinas, " we must be 
 silly indeed to maintain idle men." Thirty-three years 
 after the landing of Bienville in Louisiana, the "West- 
 ern Company threw up their charter in utter hopeless- 
 ness and despair. 
 
 New England's rugged soil yielded a too reluctant 
 tribute to the industry of her sons. They went out 
 early upon the ocean by which they were girt in search 
 of bread that the plow yielded not. To this hardy and 
 daring people the boons of Nature wei'c to be found in 
 her apparent denial of them all. 
 
 The seventeenth century affords ns, however, but a 
 few particulars of the trade which had been started in 
 the colonies. That it was limited can be readily im- 
 agined; that it should be worlihy of any regard at all, 
 is the only source of surprise. The materials of this 
 portion of our history are meagre. It is sufficient.that, 
 in 1647, a trade had been opened from the Northern 
 ports to Barbadoes and others of the West Indies ; that 
 a collector of the customs was appointed at Charleston 
 in 1685, and that the hardy enterprises of the Nan- 
 tucket whalemen received their first impulse in 1590. 
 
 American Commerce from 1700 to the Revolution. — In 
 the year 1731 we find a petition read in Parliament from 
 the American colonies that the African trade be thence- 
 forward laid open to them. . In the same Parliament 
 it was conceded that the' whole gain of the mother 
 country from the trade of Virginia and Maryland alone 
 amounted annually to £180,000. The Pennsylvanians 
 were exporting corn to Spain and to Portugal, and with 
 the proceeds of their ships and cargoes selecting out 
 merchandise in the English markets. To the Dutch 
 alone they sold 5000 pistoles annually in liquor and 
 provisions. They had their invoices to Surinam, and 
 Hispaniola, the West Indies, Canaries, Newfoundland, 
 and the other colonies, and £150,000 from the proceeds 
 to trafiSc in Britain. "New York," says a chronicle 
 of this epoch, "sends fewer ships to England than some 
 other colonies do, but those they do send are richer, as 
 dealing more in furs and skins with tlie Indians, and 
 they are at least of equal advantage to England with 
 those of Pennsylvania. The soil of New England is 
 not unlike that of Britain. It employs about 40,000 
 tonsof shipping, and about 600 sail of ships, sloops, etc., 
 about half which shipping sails to Europe." Now be- 
 gan the parent's jealousy of her offspring. Nothing, it 
 was said in Parliament, nothing is more prejudicial, 
 and in prospect more dangerous to any mother king- 
 dom than the increase of shipping in her colonies. The 
 only use of colonies, added Lord Sheffield, is the mo- 
 nopoly of their consumption and the carriage of their 
 produce. In 1730 the Commons of England struck an 
 ineffectual blow at the American trade with the French 
 and Dutch colonies, it having been represented to them 
 as greatly detrimental to England and her colonies. 
 
 In 1732 a writer gravely announced that the con- 
 
 venience of the Americans from the plenty of beavers, 
 hare, coney wool, and many other furs, gave them such 
 advantages that, unless restrained, they would soon 
 supply all the world with hats. The Board of Trade 
 of the same year report that there are more trades car- 
 ried on and manufactures set up in the provinces on the 
 continent of America, northward of Virginia, prejudi- 
 cial to the trade and nianfactures of Great Britain than 
 in any other of the British colonies. In 1750 the Amer- 
 icans were forbidden to work in iron, and Lord Chat- 
 ham declared not long after in Parliament that the col- 
 onies of North America had not even the right of man- 
 ufacturing a nail. So stringent had become the pro- 
 tective policy. 
 
 In 1764 was imposed an onerous burden upon Amer- 
 ican commerce by the mother country, grown jealous 
 of its too great extension. This commerce had great- 
 ly enriched the home as well as the colonial govern- 
 ment, but the former was too much blinded by erro- 
 neous policj' to perceive it. She heeded not the annu- 
 al purchases made in her markets with the avails of 
 lumber, beef, fish; pork, butter, horses, poultry, live- 
 stock, tobacco, corn, flour, bread, cider, apples, cab- 
 bages, onions, etc., disposed of by our traders to the 
 eager West India planters ; and Lord Sheffield, in his 
 observations on the commerce of the American States, 
 tells us that at this time the Carolinians, of their ex- 
 ports to Kingston, Jamaica, took back one-half in the 
 produce of that country, the middle provinces one- 
 fourth. New England one-tenth, and the balance in spe- 
 cie dollars. The trade of Britain with the American 
 colonies employed in 1769, 1078 ships, and 28,910 sea- 
 men. The value of her imports from them for that 
 year amounted to £3,370,000, and of their imports from 
 her to £3,724,606, showing a large difference in favor 
 of the parent country. 
 
 In 1770 the imports of -Carolina were £535,714, those 
 of New England £564,034, of Maryland and Virginia 
 £851,140, the exports of Virginia at the same time be- 
 ing double the ^'alue of those of either of the others 
 named. Mr. Burke triumphantly announced in the 
 House of Commons, "Our trade with America is scarce- 
 ly less than that we carried on at the beginning of the 
 century with the whole world ! In the six years end- 
 ing with 1774 there was an average import from the 
 colonies into England of £1,752,142, and an average 
 export to them in turn of £2,732,036. Crippled as our 
 energies were, they could not be repressed. It was a 
 vain effort to confine the enterprise of a people whose 
 views embraced the world itself, into the narrow com- 
 pass afforded by English ports, and by portions of Eu- 
 rope southward of Cape Finisterre. When the day of 
 reckoning came, as it did at last, for these reckless 
 abuses of power, and they 'were proclaimed in the bill 
 of rights, not the least of the usurpations for which ret- 
 ribution was demanded is "to be found in the clause: 
 ' She has cut off our trade with all parts of the 
 world.' " 
 
 In the article Colonies a table will be found com- 
 piled from the most authentic sources, which exhibits 
 the trade of the mothercountry during the whole of the 
 periods we 'have been considering ; the table is of great 
 interest, embracing as it does in one view almost the 
 entire commerce of America for seventy-six years. 
 
 From these statistics we learn the relative commer- 
 cial position of the diflferent provinces. Dividing the 
 whole time-embraced into periods of twenty-five years 
 each, we o'bserve in thej^rsf period that Virginia, Ma- 
 ryland, and Carolina furnish almost the entire exports, 
 and import much more largely than New England and 
 New York. In the second period New York greatly 
 increases her imports, which still fall short of those of 
 New England, or Virginia and Maryland, while her 
 exports are enhanced but little. The whole exports 
 of New York, Pennsylvania, and New England com- 
 bined did not reach the amount of those of Carolina 
 singly. In the third period Pennsylvania imports more 
 
COM 
 
 387 
 
 COM 
 
 largely than Kew York, but less than New England ; 
 the Southern provinces retain their rank as exporters, 
 Carolina being still greater than New York, New En- 
 gland, and Pennsylvania together ; and Georgia, a new 
 plantation, equals New York. Truly is the empire of 
 trade a tickle and inconstant one. 
 
 Commerce of the United States under the Articles of 
 Federation. — During the Revolution all foreign enter- 
 prise was of necessity suspended, and in struggling for 
 liberty men taught themselves to forget and despise 
 every mere physical want. Leagued together for com- 
 mon defense, the states were able to resist every device 
 of power, and sustain a long and bloody contest. But 
 when that contest was ended and liberty won, the con- 
 federation exhibited at once its nervelessness for peace, 
 and for the arts, and policy, and duties of peace. The 
 fabric which could resist the storm crumbled away 
 when the sunshine succeeded. So true is it that the 
 necessities of men are the only durable bond of their 
 union, and that without this union there is no strength. 
 From the close of the war until the adoption of the 
 Constitution there may be considered to have been no 
 great regulating head in America. No uniformity or 
 system prevailed among the states, and their commerce 
 was consequently exposed to the utmost uncertainty, 
 fluctuation, and loss. Tonnage duties were levied in 
 different ports, as it suited the caprices of the several 
 governments, and as they were more or less desirous 
 of encouraging particular branches of navigation and 
 trade at the expense of others. By a policy more as- 
 tute than that of her neighbors. New York managed in 
 this way soon to increase largely her foreign trade, and 
 laid the foundation of the empire she now maintains. 
 From 1784 to 1790 our commerce exhibited the most 
 remarkable results. For seven years consecutively the 
 imports into American cities from Britain were never 
 otherwise than twice the amount of the exports to her, 
 and for several years were three and even five times 
 their value. A drain of specie is said to have been the 
 consequence, a very natural, though not necessary one, 
 and great commercial embarrassment and distress. . 
 
 The following table made up from records of the En- 
 glish custom-house will be found of interest : ' ■ 
 
 Yonu. 
 
 Exports, America 
 to Btitum. 
 
 Imports, America 
 from Britam. 
 
 1764 
 
 £749,845 
 
 893,594 
 
 443,119 
 
 893,637 
 
 1,023,784 
 
 1,050,198 
 
 1,191,071 
 
 £3,679,467 
 2,808,023 
 1,603,465 
 2,009,111 
 ■ 1,886,142 
 2,525,298 
 3,481,778 
 
 1786 
 
 1786 
 
 178T 
 
 1788 : 
 
 1789 
 
 1790 
 
 Commerce of the United States under the Constitution 
 and until 1812. — In this crisis the attention of thinking 
 men and patriots in all parts of the nation was aroused 
 and there was perhaps nothing which contributed so 
 much in urging the States into a general convention, 
 and into the adoption of a constitutional government 
 and union, calculated to preserve their liberties, their 
 fortunes, and their glory in all the future. One of the 
 first grants of power conceded to Congress under this 
 Constitution was that of ' ' regulating commerce with for- 
 eign nations, among the several states^ and with the In- 
 dians." Keferring to the state of things which exist- 
 ed under the articles of federation, an able writer ob- 
 serves, ' ' Interfering regulations of trade and interfer- 
 ing claims of territory were dissolving the attachments 
 and the sense of the common interest whicli had ce- 
 mented and sustained the Union during the arduous 
 struggles of the Revolution. Symptoms of distress 
 and marks of humiliation were rapidly accumulating. 
 The finances of the nation were annihilated. In short, 
 to use the language of the authors of the Federalist, 
 each state, yielding to the voice of immediate interest 
 or convenience, successively withdrew its support from 
 the confederation, till the frail and tottering edifice was 
 ready to fall upon our heads, and to crush us beneath 
 its ruins. Most of the federal constitutions of the world 
 
 have degenerated in the same way, and by the same 
 means." — Kent, vol. i. p. 217. 
 
 No more, said a memorial from Charleston, on the 
 adoption of this Constitution — no more shall we lament 
 our trade, almost wholly in the possession of foreign- 
 ers, our vessels excluded from the ports of some na- 
 tions and fettered with restrictions in others ; our ma- 
 terials, the produce of our own country, which should 
 be retained for our own use, exported and increasing 
 the maritime consequence of other powers. With this 
 memorial before them, and others of a similar charac- 
 ter. Congress at its first session appointed a committee 
 to report upon " the expediency of increasing the duty 
 upon foreign tonnage carrying American produce to 
 places in America not admitting American vessels ; and 
 to frame a bill placing the same restraints upon the 
 commerce of foreign American states that they place 
 upon us." 
 
 By the report of Alexander Hamilton in 1790, it ap- 
 pears that the total tonnage of the United States at 
 that time was as follows : 
 American vesselB In foreign trade 363,093 tons. 
 
 Coasters above twenty tons 113,181 " 
 
 In the fisheries 26,252 " —502,626 tons. 
 
 Total foreign tonnage 262,913 " 
 
 United States and Britisli 312 " 
 
 United States and other foreign 338 '* 
 
 Total 766,089 " 
 
 The tariff of 1789 was specific and ad valorem, and 
 discriminated 10 per cent, in favor of the trade con- 
 ducted by our own shipping. In this we but imitated 
 the navigation acts of European states, by means of 
 which it has been supposed the enormous maritime 
 consequence of some of them was principally secured. 
 We shall not pause to argue a point in political econo- 
 my so long mooted among writers of the greatest abil- 
 ity. The jealousies of nations have gone and still go 
 veiy far. Even the philosophical Voltaire thought 
 that their gain could not otherwise accrue than with 
 each other's loss. England long imposed the most on- 
 erous restrictions upon all other commerce than her 
 own, and her advances in consequence, or notwith- 
 standing, have been imprecedented. ' Her tonnage 
 when she commenced this system was less than that of 
 the United States at the adoption of the Constitution. 
 
 There was one department of our maritime industry 
 which demanded the earliest attention of government, 
 and we think its general interest will be sufBcicnt apol- 
 ogy for any space we may allot to its consideration — 
 THE FISHERIES. Mr. Jeffcrson, in 1791, then Secre- 
 tary of State, furnished an admirable report upon the 
 subject, which we proceed to analyze. As early as 1520 
 there were fifty ships upon the Newfoundland coasts 
 at a time for cod. In 1577 the French had 150 vessels 
 there, the Spaniards 100, Portuguese 50, and English 
 15. The French fisheries began early to decline. In 
 1768 the Americans took but little less than the En- 
 glish, and the French took least of all. In 1789 England 
 obtained double the quantity of America and France 
 together. During the Revolution the American fish- 
 eries were almost entirely abandoned, and Mr. Jeffer- 
 son left it to the wisdom of Congress to decide whether 
 they should not be restored, by opposing prohibitions 
 to prohibitions and high duties to high duties, on the 
 fish of other nations. 
 
 The whale fishery was prosecuted by the Biscayans 
 as early as the fifteenth century. The British began its 
 encouragement in 1672 by bounties. The Americans 
 opened their enterprises in 1716. They succeeded ear- 
 ly in the discovery in the Southern Seas of the sperma- 
 ceti whale, which they attacked instead of the Green- 
 land hitherto known to navigators. In 1771 we had 
 204 whalers. During the war England held out the 
 largest bounties to the trade, and so irresistible were 
 these in the depressed condition of our fishermen, that 
 it is said many of them were on the eve of removing 
 to Halifax, to prosecute the business there, and were 
 only deterred by a letter from Lafayette declaring that 
 
COM 
 
 388 
 
 COM 
 
 France would abate her duties upon oil. The little isl- 
 ,and of Nantucket is the great heart of these fisheries. 
 A sand-bar, said Mr. Jefierson, fifteen miles long and, 
 three broad, capable by its agriculture of maintaining 
 twenty families, employed in these fisheries, .before the 
 Eevolution, between 5 and 6000 men and boys, and 
 contained in its only harbor 140 vessels.' In agricul- 
 ture, then, they have no resource, and if that of their 
 fisheries can not be pursued from their own habitations, 
 it is natural they should seek others from which it can 
 be followed, and principall}' those where they will find 
 a sameness of language, religion, laws, habits, and kin- 
 dred. 
 
 In 1803 Mr. Huger stated to Congress in his report, 
 that it would seem the cod fisheries had gained ground 
 since the Revolution, but that the whale fisheries, on 
 the contrary, had been for some ■ time past on the de- 
 cline. The war of 1812 was most disastrous to the fish- 
 ermen, but they soon afterward recovered their pros- 
 perity, and on the first of January, 1844, we had 644 
 vessels engaged at sea, of the value, including catch- 
 ings, of $27,784,000. On the first, of January, 1846, 
 there were 680 ships, 34 brigs, 21 schooners, and 1 
 sloop ; tonnage 233,149 ; manned by about 20,000 sea- 
 men and officers, consuming over three million dollars 
 annually of American produce. Proceeds of whale fish- 
 eries $9,000,000 per annum, of which only $2,000,000 
 are re-exported. 
 
 In 1844, Mr. Grinnell stated in Congress : 
 
 *' This fleet of whaling ships is larger tlian ever pursued the 
 busiiiesB before. Commercial history furnishes no account 
 of any parallel. The voyages of those engaged in the sperm 
 fishery average three and a half years ; they search every sea, 
 and often cruise three or four months with a man at each 
 mast-head on the look-out, without the cheering sight of a 
 whale. They are hardy, honest and patriotic, and will, as 
 they did in the last war, stand by their country when in dan- 
 ger; they will man our ships, and fight our battles on the 
 ocean." 
 
 Mr. Clayton remarked in February, 1846 : 
 
 " We have at this time a commerce of 2,417,000 tons of ship- 
 ping, England has 2,420,000 tons; so that we are nearly, nay, 
 it is my opinion, we are completely on a par with her. I 
 doubt, sir, whether England has a greater commercial marine 
 or greater interests to protect. "We have more than 700 whale 
 ships in the Pacific, an extensive Indian commerce ailii a great 
 and daily growing commerce with China." — Browne's Whal- 
 ing Cruise and History of tJie Whaling Fishery^ 1846, p. 539. 
 
 At the close of the last century there were many 
 causes which fended to add a vast importance to the 
 commerce of the United States. For several years this 
 commerce enjoyed unparalleled and almost unmeas- 
 ured prosperity. Scarcely admitted into the family 
 of nations, we found the whole civilized world engaged 
 in the fiercest and most sanguinary conflict. A wise 
 and indeed "masterly" neutrality was of course the 
 true policy of the nation. The carrj'ing trade of the 
 world fell at once into our bands. We supplied the 
 mother countries with the products of their own colo- 
 nies. The East and West Indies alike were opened to 
 our shipping. Their rich products filled our ware- 
 houses, supplying consumption and re-export. Pros- 
 perity such as this, however, was fated to be brief. The 
 conflicting powers sacrificed every thing to their mutu- 
 al hatred, and minded little the rights of a nation they 
 had not even learned to respect. Protestation ended 
 in war, and the rights of our sailors wore established on 
 every sea. With the return of peace in Europe, the 
 carrying trade departed rapidly from us. 
 
 In 1791 the king and council of England admitted 
 American unmanufactured goods, except fish, oil, blub- 
 ber, whale fins, certain naval stores, etc., into Britain 
 at the same duties as British American produce. The 
 treaty of commerce of 1794 between the two govern- 
 ments was a reciprocity one, both parties binding them- 
 selves to impose no greater restrictions upon each oth- 
 er than they imposed upon others. This treaty regu- 
 
 lated our East India commerce, then newly opened and 
 promising a great extension. 
 
 From 1790 until 1797 Pennsylvania continued largO^ 
 ly the greatest exporter in the Union. In 1791 South 
 Carolina occupied the third rank. In 1797 New York 
 for the first time took a leading position, wliich she -has 
 ever after maintained. The first exports of Tennessee 
 and Mississippi date from 1801, those of Kentucky and 
 Indiana from 1802, of Michigan 1803, Orleans Territory 
 1804, and Ohio 1806. - This we shall see more parties 
 ularly hereafter. It' is sufficient now to indulge >the re- 
 flections which the facts before us so naturally awaken. 
 Mysterious have b^en the changes. Old age and pre- 
 mature decay have fallen upon cities once famous for 
 their trade ; and the quays, where the flags of all na- 
 tions floated, have come at last to be comparatively 
 deserted. We look around, and there have started up 
 others like mature creations, full of vigor and stalwart 
 even in their infancy. How hardly can reason realize 
 that these wondrous changes are not all the pictures of 
 a fertile imagination. Where is placed Virginia now-, 
 that mother of states, who in 1769 exported to foreign 
 lands four times as much as New York ? and where is 
 Carolina, whose exports at the same time doubled those 
 of New York and Pennsylvania together, and were 
 equal to five times those of all New England? If trade 
 grow to colossal stature, its proud empire, hastens also 
 to swift decay. 
 
 The difficidties which beset our commerce in the 
 early part of the present century, when the rival hos- 
 tile powers of Europe, jealous of our prosperous neu- 
 trality, strained every nervp to involve us in their dis- 
 putes, will be called to mind by every one familiar with 
 history. We were made the victims of the policy ajld 
 arts of these nations, and even as early as 1793 their 
 depredations uj^on our commerce were considerable. 
 In five months alone of that year it was stated in the 
 House of Peers, th&t sixjiundred American vessels were 
 seized or detained in British ports for alleged violations 
 of orders and decrees claimed as principles under the 
 law of nations. These aggressions upon our rights 
 were long and extensively practiced, as the following 
 table will exhibit : 
 
 Seizukes op Americak Vessels from 1803 to 1812. 
 
 By the British 91T 
 
 By the French 558 
 
 By the Neapolitan »...,. 4T 
 
 By the Danish tribunals 70 
 
 Tof al vessels 159i! 
 
 And this at a time when we were at peace with all 
 the nations on earth ! Indemnity for these spoliations 
 has been the subject of numerous treaties; among oth- 
 ers, that of England in 1794, France 1803, and Spain 
 in the Florida treaty of 1819. But this whole period, 
 so interesting in our annals, deserves a minute survey. 
 
 On the conquest of Prussia in 1806, Bonaparte con- 
 ceived the idea of crushing the maritime power of Brit- 
 ain, by prohibiting all the world, in his famous Berlin 
 Decree, from conducting any trade with her or her nu- 
 merous dependencies. The retaliatory British orders 
 in Council followed at once, and all countries in the 
 world connected in any way with France, or opposed 
 to England, were declared to be under precisely the 
 same restraints as if actually invested in strict block- 
 ade by British forces. Incensed by so unexpected and 
 ruinous a measure. Napoleon issued the memorable J/!- 
 lan Decree, making lawful prize of all vessels submit- 
 ting at any time or in any way to British search or tax- 
 ation. It was natural that these illegal and unauthor- 
 ized proceedings should excite the utmost interest and 
 concern in the United States so materially and even 
 vitally affected by them. We protested in vain. The 
 administration recommended as the sole remaining al- 
 ternative of peace an embargo, which Congress adopted 
 in 1807. This measure the commercial interests warm- 
 ly opposed as ruinous to them, and memorials were for- 
 warded from many quarters praying for its repeal. To 
 
COM 
 
 389 
 
 COM 
 
 these it was replied by government, " Tlie embargo, by 
 teaching foreign nations the value of American com- 
 merce and productions, will inspire them with a dispo- 
 sition to practice justice. They depend upon this coun- 
 try for articles of first necessity, and for raw materials 
 to supply their manufactures."! Such a view of the 
 matter, however, did not occur to the mind of Ndpo- 
 leon, who regarded the embargo as greatly favorable 
 to France, and aiding him in his warfare against En- 
 glish commerce. "To submit," said he to Mr. Liv- 
 ingston, "to pay England the tribute she demands, 
 would be for America to aid her against him, and a 
 just ground of war." 
 
 In 1809, a non4ntercourse with Britain and France 
 was substituted for the embargo, which the latter pow- 
 er, regarded as such an evidence of hostility as to just- 
 ify her in proceeding, at once tO' condemn millions of 
 American property as lawful prize. 
 
 The Congress of 1810 determined upon the admis- 
 sion of the commercial vessels of the powers above- 
 named, if the act were preceded by a revocation of their 
 hostile and arrogant decrees. The French government 
 pretended to close in at once with the proposal, but it was 
 nearly one year later before her.repealing ordiifaiice was 
 officially promulgated, evidencing a disposition on the 
 part of Napoleon to play with us in bad faith, and to 
 turn the game at any time to his advantage — so hu- 
 miliating to our'pride are the events of this entire era. 
 With England it was long doubtful what relationship 
 we might expect to sustain: Hostile and peaceable 
 alternately, according to her caprices or her interests, 
 she had provoked in American minds a resentment too 
 deep to besubdued, and forbearance longer was regard- 
 ed a crime. The Orders of Council remaining in force, 
 and the aggressions Increasing daily, a non-intercourse 
 act of sipty days was resorted to, the prelude only to a 
 solemn declarcstion of war. Then was the hour of se- 
 vere retribution, and then was the national honor and 
 dignity of America triumphantly vindicated ! 
 
 Commerce of the United States since 1812. — This has 
 been an era of prosperity and rapid advance, and the 
 great powers of the civilized world seem to have real- 
 ized for once the rich benefits of a prolonged armis- 
 tice, or, if another expression be preferred, a protract- 
 ed, and we hope permanent peace. In commercial 
 ranl(, , the United States of Amerlea^'suibordinate to Brit- 
 ain only, and having outstripped all the world else, is 
 pj^pared to share a divided sceptre, until that sceptre 
 can be wielded alone by her hand, and the empire of 
 the seas be transferred to her keeping. 
 
 The history of our trade for the last thirty years has 
 material enough for many more pages than we can allot 
 to it, even with the greatest condensation. The period 
 has been celebrated by an approach to a more liberal 
 internationcUiti/, and a reciprocity something else than in 
 name. The progress in the last year or two has been 
 most strongly marked toward that ultimatum, in the 
 minds of every lover of truth and of human advance- 
 ment, perceived first by Lord Bacon, and ably, though 
 imperfectlj-, presented by his followers — commerce un- 
 fettered as the winds that waft it — free religion, free gov- 
 ernment, free press, free traffic — ^freedom every where, 
 and in every righteous thing throughout all the world ! 
 When shall nations sacrifice their foolish jealousies, 
 and meet each other on this high, broad and Christian 
 ground ? We are no partisan here, but a cosmopolite. 
 We advocate a policy as wide as the earth, and as gen- 
 erous. No single nation can afford to act alone — the 
 movement, if made at all, must be universal. 
 
 The condition of Europe now, however, argues little 
 for the early triumph of thoseprinciples to which we have 
 been referring. The latest British, French, and Austrian 
 tariffs have been restrictive, though in the ease of the 
 first-named nation her policy would appear about to be 
 radically changed, as in the late repeal of the corn-laws. 
 The German states maintain the exclusive policy, as 
 do also the Spaniards and Portuguese. Russia was 
 
 latest in adopting the restrictive system, but we see by 
 her last tariff some evidences of improvement, which 
 neither Sweden nor Denmark furnishes. The duties 
 of the Italian states have been generally moderate, ex- 
 cept for Rome and Naples, and we recognize a great 
 improvement in these in the late tariff of his Holiness 
 the Pope. The commercial system of Holland is the 
 most liberal in all Europe, but the South American 
 states appear to be governed by the same spirit as that 
 which dictated the policy of Spain. 
 
 In 1824, Great Britain seemed desirous of rempviiig 
 in some degree her restrictions upon the navigation of 
 other powers. She entered into reciprocity treaties 
 with many of them, and in this was soon after imitated 
 by the United States, in the treaties of 1825-6-8-9 with 
 Central America, Denmark, Sweden, Hanse Towns, 
 -Prussia, Brazil, Austria, Hungary and Bohemia, Mex- 
 ico, Russia, Venezuela, Greece, Sardinia, Netherlands, 
 Hanover, and Portugal. We also entered into similar 
 but limited reciprocity treaties with France in 1822, 
 continued afterward, and with England in 1821, 1825, 
 and 1833, and a full reciprocity treaty with Canada in 
 1854. These treaties were arranged by Mr. Kennedy, 
 Chairman of the Committee of Commerce, into three 
 classes. 
 
 1. Those securing mutual privileges of export and 
 import of produce, the growth, produce, or manufacture 
 of the stipulating powers, transported in their own ves- 
 sels, without discrimination on tonnage. 
 
 2. Those providing for a levy of duties not less favor- 
 able upon the tonnage of either than are levied upon 
 the tonnage of other powers. 
 
 8. Those requiring equality of port Charges. 
 
 For statistics of the commerce of the United States, 
 see article United States. 
 
 Commercial Policy of the United States. — The United 
 States have, since the very commencement of their ex- 
 istence as an independent government, ever been will- 
 ing and ready to reciprocate, to the fullest extent and in 
 the most liberal spirit, all privileges and favors, wheth- 
 er of navigation or commerce, extended to their flag by 
 foreign nations. To this end, and in order to antici- 
 pate the usually dilatory process of treaty negotiations, 
 the President of the United States is vested, by act of 
 Congress, with authority to issue his proclamation 
 granting to the vessels of foreign nations equal and 
 similar privileges and favors to those extended to the 
 vessels of the United States in the ports of such foreign 
 nations, on receiving official notice thereof from the 
 accredited agents of such governments. 
 
 Vessels belonging to the following nations are ad- 
 mitted, under the provisions of law, treaties of com- 
 merce and navigation, or conventions, into the ports 
 of the United States on the same terms as American 
 vessels, with the produce or manufactures of their own 
 or any other country : Argentine Confederation, Aus- 
 tria, Belgium, Brazil, Chili, Denmark,* Ecuador, 
 Great Britain, Greece, New Granada, Guatemala, 
 Hanover, Hanse Towns (Hamburg, Bremen, and Lu- 
 bec), Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Netherlands, Oldenburg, 
 Peru, Prussia, Russia, San Salvador, Sardinia, Sweden 
 and Norway, Tuscany, Two Sicilies,! Venezuela. 
 
 Vessels belonging to the following nations, with 
 which the United States have reciprocal treaties on 
 the footing of the "most favored nations," or with 
 whom reciprocity exists, are admitted into the ports of 
 the United States on the same terms, as respects tonnage 
 or navigation, duties, as vesselb of the United States, with 
 the produce or manufactures of their own or any other 
 country : Bolivia, Costa Rica, Mexico, Muscat, Otto- 
 man Empire, Portugal, and Uruguay. 
 
 • The treaty between the United States and Denmark ex- 
 pired on the 14th, day of April, 1866. 
 
 t By decree of Dccemher 18, 1854, equality with the na- 
 tional flag is offered by the government of the Two Sicilies to 
 the vessels of such nations as reciprocate the &vor. This 
 equality applies to the direct and indirect trade. 
 
COM 
 
 390 
 
 COM 
 
 LEADING EVENTS OF A COMMERCIAL CHARACTER 
 IN THE 16TH, 17TH, 18TH, AND 19TH CENTURIES. 
 
 Sixteenth Century. —\b^^. The Portuguese command- 
 er Albuquerque, on his way to India, discovered Zan- 
 zibar. — 1504. Death of Isabella, Queen of Spain, and 
 friend of Columbus, November 26, m. 53. Columbus 
 returned from his fourth and last voyage. The Vene- 
 tians, jealous of the new Indian trade of the Portu- 
 guese, incite the mamelukes of Egypt to commence 
 hostilities against them. — 1505. Francesco de Almeira, 
 Portuguese viceroy, established factories along the coast 
 of Malabar, and his fleets interrupted the commerce 
 of Egyptians and Venetians. — 1503. The sugar-cane 
 brought to Hispaniola from the Canaries. The Great 
 Harry, the first ship of the English navy, built. — 1507. 
 Margaret of Savoy, governess of the Netherlands, con- 
 cluded a commercial treaty with England. Portu- 
 guese settlements formed on Ormus by Albuquerque, 
 and on Ceylon by Almeida. Madagascar visited by 
 Tristan d'Acunha. — 1500. The Venetians recover Pad- 
 ua, and rise again in po\ver. Diego Columbus (son of 
 Christopher) governor of Spanish America. 
 
 1510-1520. — The Portuguese established themselves 
 at Malacca (1511), which becomes the centre of their 
 trade with the neighboring islands and with China. — 
 1513. Vasco Nunez de Balboa crosses the Isthmus of 
 Darien, and reaches the Paciflo. — 1515. The Eio de la 
 Plata discovered by Juan Diaz de Sotis. — 1516. Death 
 of Ferdinand of Spain, January 23, M. 64. — 1517. The 
 Portuguese trade with China at Macao. Negro slaves 
 brought to Hispaniola. The sweating sickness (cold 
 plague) raged in London. — 1518. Silveyra opens the 
 Portuguese trade with Bengal. — 1519. Fernando Cortez 
 attacked Mexico. Fernando de Magelhaens sailed on 
 his expedition to the Pacific, and having passed through 
 the Straits now bearing his name, discovered the La- 
 drones and Philippines, and was murdered by the na- 
 tives. — 1520. Cortez took the City of Mexico. 
 
 1521-1530.— After the death of Magelhaens (1521), 
 Cano conducted the squadron to the Moluccas, and (in 
 1522) returned to Seville, via Cape of Good Hope ; 
 having concluded the first circumnavigation of the 
 globe, in 1154 days. — 1524. First discovery of Peru, by 
 Pizarro and Almagro. 
 
 1531-1540.— Porto Bcllo and Cartagena (Spanish 
 Main) founded in 1532. — Mines of Zacatecas discover- 
 ed. — 1533. Cortez conquered Cuzco and Quito, the 
 capitals of Peru. — 1534. The Sound opened to the 
 Netherland merchants. Canada discovered by Car- 
 tier. — 1535. The use of tobacco first known in Europe. 
 — 1536. Final subjugation of Peru ; discovery of Cali- 
 fornia by Cortez. — 1537. Conquest of New Granada. — 
 1540. Cherry-trees brought from Flanders and planted 
 in Kent, England. 
 
 1541-1550.— The Portuguese admitted (1542) to trade 
 with Japan. — 1543. Death of Copernicus : he deferred 
 until his last days the publication of his great work, 
 De OrMum Ccdest'mm Revolutionibus. — 1545, Discovery 
 of the mines of Potosi. — 1546. Eate of interest in En- 
 gland fixed at 10 per cent. (37Henry VIII.).— 1548. 
 Introduction of the orange-tree from China into Port- 
 ugal. 
 
 1551-1560. — The London Steelyard Company (the 
 first commercial company established in England, 1232) 
 deprived (1551) of their privileges. — 1552. AH loans at 
 usury declared illegal, and subject to forfeiture in En- 
 gland. The King of France (Henry II.) prohibits the 
 export of money. — 1568, The Salters' Company, Lon- 
 don, established. — 1560. Ordinary rate of interest at 
 Antwerp, 12 per cent. ; and fixed at the same rate in 
 Germany, Flanders, and Spain, by Charles V. Bourse 
 established at Antwerp. 
 
 1561-1570.— Merchant Tailors'School,London(1561), 
 instituted. — 1564. The Manillas, ceded by Portugal to 
 Spain, received the name of the Philippines.— 1567. 
 The Eoyal Exchange, London, founded by Sir Thomas 
 Gresham, September 7. Caraccas, in Venezuela, built 
 
 by the Spaniards. — 1568. Some ships, conveying money 
 from Spain to the Duke of Alva, are detained by Queen 
 Elizabeth at Southampton and Plymouth. — 1569, Luis 
 de Atalde revives the waning power of Portugal in 
 India, Drawing of the first English lottery, — 1570, 
 The Eoyal Exchange, London, opened by Queen Eliza- 
 beth. 
 
 1571-1580. — Eate of interest limited in England to 
 10 per cent. — 1571. Large accumulations of gold from 
 America. Manilla built (1573), and made the seat of a 
 Spanish viceroy.— 1576. The plague devastated Italy. 
 70,000 died at Venice. Martin Frobisher sailed, June 
 
 II, to seek a northwest passage ; failed, and returned, 
 — 1577. Drake commenced his voyage round the world, 
 November 15. — 1578. The Norwegians attempted to 
 interrupt the English commerce with Archangel. Cali- 
 fornia explored by Drake. First colony planted in 
 Virginia, by Gilbert. Tulips introduced into England. 
 — 1579. Queen Elizabeth entered intoa treaty of com- 
 merce with the Sultan, and established the Turkey 
 Company. — ^1580. Drake returned from his voyage, 
 November B ; the order of knighthood conferred upon 
 him. 
 
 1581-1690. — Correction of the Calendar by Gregory 
 
 III. (1582) ; October 5th made the 15th.— 1583. Queen 
 Elizabeth claimed the sovereignty of Newfoundland, 
 and fortified St. John's. — 1584. Ealeigh conducted a 
 second colony to Virginia. — 1585. Drake and Fro- 
 bisher, with a powerful fieet, attacked the Spanish set- 
 tlements in the West Indies, Davis explored the 
 northeast coast of America, Coaches first used in En- 
 gland, — 1586. Success of Drake in Hispaniola, San Do- 
 mingo, and Florida. Potatoes and tobacco introduced 
 into England. Cavendish sailed on his expedition. — 
 1537. The Scottish Parliament (James VI.) adopted 10 
 per cent, as the maximum rate of interest. — 1588. The 
 Spanish armada sailed from Lisbon May 29, entered 
 the English channel July 19, and was defeated. Lord 
 Burleigh established the first newspaper. The English 
 Mercury. — 1589. Cavendish returned with great wealth, 
 taken from the Spanish settlements during his voyage 
 round the world. The stocking frame invented by 
 Eev, William Lee, of Cambridge,' — 1590, The first pa- 
 per-mill in England established by John Spillman, at 
 Dartford, in Kent, 
 
 1591-1600.^ — English ships pursued the whale-fishery 
 (1591) at Cape Breton, Telescopes improved and 
 brought into general notice by Jansen, of Middle- 
 burg. — 1593. Whalebone first used in England. — 1594. 
 The Falkland Islands discovered by Hawkins. — 1595, 
 Oranges first known in England. — 1598. Whale-fishery 
 commenced at Spitzbergen, — 1600, The English East 
 India Company established. 
 
 Seventeenth Century. — 1601-1610. — Debate on mo- 
 nopolies (1601), defended by Francis Bacon — abolished 
 by Queen Elizabeth. The first English factories es- 
 tablished on the Malabar coast. — 1601. The rate of 
 interest in France (Henry IV. and Sully) fixed at 6^ 
 per cent. — 1602. Artichokes introduced into England 
 from Holland ; Asparagus from Asia ; Cauliflower 
 from Cyprus. — 1604. The plague raged violently in 
 London. — 1606. English companies chartered for set- 
 tlements in Virginia. The French established them- 
 selves in Canada. New Holland discovered by the 
 Dutch. — 1608. Hudson explores the bay now known 
 as Hudson's Bay. Quebec built. — 1609. Many Puri- 
 tans left England for Virginia, with Sir Thomas Gates 
 and Sir G. Somers — the latter driven to the Bermudas 
 (or Somers' Islands). The Dutch, by levying heavy 
 tolls at the mouth of the Scheldt, transfer the com- 
 merce of Antwerp to Amsterdam and Eotterdam. Cop- 
 per coin first issued by the Mint, London, Armistice 
 of twelve years concluded between Spain and the Unit- 
 ed Provinces,— 1610, Batavia settled by the Dutch on 
 the island of Java, The invention of the thermometer 
 ascribed to Fra Paolo, to Sanctorio, and to Drebbel of 
 Alkmaar. 
 
COM 
 
 391 
 
 COM 
 
 1611-1620.— The United Provinces obtained (1612) 
 from the Turks advantageous terms in their commerce 
 in the Levant. — ^1613. English factories established 
 at Surat, in India, and at Gombroon, on the Persian 
 Gulf. The buccaneers noted on the coasts of America. 
 — ^1614. Logarithms invented by Lord Napier. — 1615. 
 Coffee in use at Venice. — 1616. Baffin explored the 
 bay to which his name was given. — 1618. First voy- 
 age of the Danes to India, and settlement at Tranque- 
 bar. Patent granted for a fire-engine for raising bal- 
 last and water, nearly on the principle of the steam- 
 engine. — 1620. Silk first manufactured in England. 
 Plymouth colony settled. 
 
 1621-1630. — The conquests of the Dutch commenced. 
 First permanent settlement on Manhattan Island (1621) 
 by the Dutch. The colony at Nova Scotia (1622) set^. 
 tied by the Scotch. — 1624. The rate of interest in En- 
 gland reduced to 8 per cent. (21 James I.), and in 
 Scotland in 1632. — 1625. The culture of silk commenced 
 in Virginia. — -1626. French settlements at Senegal and 
 Guyana. — 1627. Success of the Dutch admiral, Hein, 
 in Brazil : Essequibo, in Guyana, founded by him. 
 
 1631-1640. — Charles I. revived monopolies, sold pat- 
 ents and privileges to new companies, and imposed a 
 stamp on cards. — 1632. A colony of Catholics, under 
 Lord Baltimore, settled in Maryland. The Dutch ac- 
 quired the island of St. Eustatia. — 1634. Writ for levy- 
 ing ship-money in England. The Dutch took Curacoa. 
 — 1535. Proclamation in England against hackney- 
 coaches standing in the streets. Guadaloupe andMar- 
 tinique appropriated by France. — 1637. The levy of 
 ship-money unpopular. — 1640. Ship-money voted to be 
 illegal. 
 
 1641-1650. — Tasman discovered Van Diemen's Land 
 (1642), and named it in honor of the Dutch governor of 
 Batavia. — 1643. Cayenne colonized by the French. Van 
 Diemen sent De Vries and Schaep to explore the ocean 
 north of Japan. — 1645. The greater part ofCandia con- 
 quered by the Turks. — 1647. Huygens invented and 
 applied the pendulum to clocks. — 1650. The Dutch 
 took possession of the Cape of Good Hope. 
 
 1651-1660. — Quarrel between the English and the 
 Dutch (1651) about the right of fishing ; the massacre 
 atAmboyna; and colonial encroachments. Rate of in- 
 terest reduced by the Eump Parliament to 6 per cent. 
 — 1660. Tea used in London. 
 
 1661-1670. — Bombay and Tangier ceded to England 
 (1662), and free trade with Brazil.— 1663. The profits 
 of the English Post-offlce and wine licenses, granted to 
 the Duke of York. The finances, manufactures, com- 
 merce, marine and colonial system of France, improved 
 under Colbert. — 1665. London afflicted by the plague, 
 April 28. — 1666. Great fire in London, from Septem- 
 ber 2 till September 6 ; property destroyed valued at 
 £8,000,000. — 1667, A tax of twelve-pence levied on 
 every ton of coal brought into London, January 18, to 
 aid the rebuilding of London. The first stone of the 
 new Eoyal Exchange laid (August 23) by Charles II. 
 1671-1680. — The money in the Exchequer (12th Janu- 
 ary, 1672) seized by Charles II. Great confusion and 
 commercial distress followed. — 1680. The publication 
 of newspapers and pamphlets without a license de- 
 clared (May 16) to be illegal in England. 
 
 1681-1690. — A penny-post first established in Lon- 
 don (1683) by a private individual named Murray. — 
 1685. The Pope of Eome, by compulsory process, re- 
 duced the rate of interest on the public debt from 4 to 
 3 per cent. — 1688. The Venetians made further prog- 
 ress in Dalmatia. 
 
 1691-1700.— Origin of the Bank of England (1694, 
 25th April), under William III. Stamp duties in En- 
 gland commenced, 28th June. — 1695. Commissioners ap- 
 pointed for building Greenwich Hospital.^697. Char- 
 ter of Bank of England renewed till 12 months' notice. 
 — 1698. Address of the English House of Commons to 
 William III., for the discouragement of the woolen 
 manufacture and the promotion of the linen, 10th June. 
 
 — -1699. Czar Peter introduced the computation of time 
 in Russia by the Christian era, but adhered to the old 
 style. Darapier explored the northwest coast of New 
 Holland. 
 
 Eightemth Century^ — 1704. The Boston News Letter 
 published — the first newspaper in the American colo- 
 nies. — 1708. Bank of England charter renewed, and 
 again in 1713. — 1709. Copyright act in England, 8 
 Anne. — 1710. The South Sea Company originated, 6th 
 May. 
 
 1711-1720.— A capital of £4,000,000 raised (1711) &r 
 the South Sea Company. — 1711. Eio Janeiro taken by 
 the French admiral, Duguai Trouin. — 1712. The first 
 stamp duty on newspapers levied in England. — 1713. 
 The Clarendon Press established at Oxford, by the 
 profits of the History of the Eebellion. — 17i4. The 
 rate of interest in England reduced from 6 to 5 per 
 cent., and all contracts at a higher rate declared void. 
 — 1716. John Law originated his banking and Missis- 
 sippi schemes. — 1717. First project of a sinking fund for 
 the liquidation of the English national debt. Law ob- 
 tained extended privileges for his bank. — 1718. Law's 
 Company declared to be the Royal Bank. — 1720. The 
 South Sea Company Act, passed 7th April. South Sea 
 stock rose to 890, June 2. Rage for speculative schemes. 
 Seventeen petitions for joint- stock patents refused. 
 South Sea bubble burst, 30th September. 
 
 1721-1730.— The directors of the South Sea Com- 
 pany (1721) taken into custody, 24th January. Aisla- 
 bie, and other members of Parliament, implicated, ex- 
 pelled, Walpole, Lord Treasurer and Chancellor of the 
 Exchequer, 2d April. , The estates of directors of South 
 Sea Companj', amounting to two millions sterling, for- 
 feited. — 1723. Act passed to prohibit English subscrip- 
 tions to the Ostend Company. — 1725. Tumults at Glas- 
 gow, 25th June, on account of the Malt tax. — 1726. 
 Cotton a staple product of Hispaniola. — 1729. Fire at 
 Constantinople ; 12,000 houses and 7000 people perish- 
 ed. John Law died at Venice, 21st .March, iE. 58. — 
 1730. Charter of the East India Company renewed. 
 
 173i-1740.— Culture of silk commenced (1732) in 
 Georgia. Parliamentary grant to Sir Thomas Lambe 
 (1732, April 3) for having introduced the silk-engine. 
 — 1733. The English government refused to join the 
 Dutch in stopping the East India commerce of the 
 Danes .and Swedes. — 1733. The Excise law proposed 
 in England, and abandoned by Walpole, — 1 734. En- 
 glish act passed against stock-jobbing. The new 
 Bank of England building opened 5lh June, in Thread- 
 needle Street.— 1736. .High tide in the Thames. West- 
 minster Hall fiooded. Parliamentary debates publish- 
 ed in the Genikman's Magazine. — 1740. The first cir- 
 culating library in London established at 132 Strand. 
 Parliamentary debates prepared by Dr. Johnson. 
 
 1741-1750.— Charter of Bank of England (1742) re- 
 newed. Lord Anson returned (1744) from his voyage 
 round the world, with £1,250,000 in treasure. — 1750. 
 A riot at Tiverton against the introduction of Irish 
 worsted yarns, 16th January. Bounties granted, and 
 a company formed, to encourage the British and white 
 herring and cod fisheries. 
 
 1761-1760.- An act of Pariiament (1751, 24 Geo. II.) 
 orders the Gregorian (or new) style to be used in Great 
 Britain. — 1753. Two thousand bales of cotton exported 
 by Jamaica. — 1754. Commencement of war between 
 England and France, and military operations under 
 Washington in Virginia, etc.- 1759. The Bank of En- 
 gland issued £15 and £10 notes, 31st March.— 1760. 
 Culture of silk commenced in Connecticut. 
 
 1761-1770.-rOpening of the Duke of Bridgewater's 
 Canal(1761)betweenManchester and Liverpool.— 1762. 
 The island of Cuba surrendered to Lord Albemarle and 
 Admiral Pococke. Martinique, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, 
 and other islands taken from the French. — 1764. First 
 improvement of the steam-engine by Watt. Bank of 
 England charter renewed. — 1765. Stamp Act for Amer- 
 ica passed by the British Parliament, March. — 1767. 
 
COM 
 
 392 
 
 COM 
 
 The House of Commons resolved to impose duties on 
 various articles imported into America. 
 
 1771-1780. — Arkwright's second patent (1771) for his 
 improvement in cotton spinning. Culture of silk com- 
 menced in Pennsj'lvania. — 1772. Commercial panic in 
 London, caused by the failure of Neal, Fordyce, & 
 Company, bankers. — 1773. Tea destroyed in IJoston 
 harbor, 16th November. The Governor of Bengal made 
 governor of all the British settlements in India. — 1774. 
 The petition of the Massachusetts Assembly to Parlia- 
 ment presented (January) by Dr. Franklin, TVho was 
 then removed from office of deputy postmaster-general 
 for the colonies. Burke's celebrated speech on the tea 
 tax, April 19. — 1774. Watt, in partnership with Boul- 
 ton, founds his steam-engine establishment at Soho. 
 — 1776. Captain Cook sailed on his third voyage. — 
 
 1780. Charter of the first Banlc of North America, ap- 
 proved by Congress 26th May. 
 
 1781-1790. — Bank of England charter renewed, on 
 making further advances to government of £3,000,000. 
 Necker published his financial statement for France 
 
 1781, and retired from Office. — 1782. National Bank of 
 Ireland established. — 1783. Charter granted to the 
 Bank of Ireland.— 1784. The Bank of New York char- 
 tered, 9th June. — 1786. British treaty of commerce 
 with France. — 1787. " Pennsylvania Society for the en- 
 couragement of Manufactures and the useful Arts" form- 
 ed. Cotton exported by West India Islands.^1789. 
 Issue of assignats in France, 17th December. 
 
 1791-1800. — Vancouver's voyage of discovery (1791). 
 The buckle-makers of Birmingham petitioned Parlia- 
 ment against the use of shoe-strings; Numerous riots 
 at Birmingham. — 1793. The fitst embassador from 
 Turkey arrived in London, December 20. Whitney's 
 cotton-gin invented and first used. — 1795'. Embargo on 
 all Dutch ships in English ports, 26th January. Warren 
 Hastings acquitted, 23d April. — 1797. Suspension of 
 the Bank of England, 26th February. Notes of £1 
 and £2<first issued, March 11.— 1798. Silver tokens 
 issued by the Bank of England, 1st January. — 1799. 
 Stigar first extracted from beet-root, by the Prussian 
 chemist Achard. — 1800. General distress and riots in 
 England, caused by the high price of bread, January. 
 Dispute respecting the close of the century. Lalaude 
 decided that 31st December, 1800, is the last day of 
 the 18th century. Union of Great Britain and Ire- 
 land, 2d July. Bank of England charter renewed un- 
 til 1833i 
 
 Nineteenth Century. — 1801-1810. — Embargo laid 
 (January-, 1801) on all Russian; Danish, and Swedish 
 vessels in English ports. — 1802. Santee Canal, South 
 Carolina, completed. — 1803. Louisiana sold by France 
 to the United States for $15,000,000. The first printing- 
 press in NewSouth Wales established at Sydne3'. Cale- 
 donia Canal opened for travel. Trial of steamboat on 
 the Seine by Fulton, 9th Augttst. The first bank in 
 Ohio chartered.— 1804. Wilberforce's slave-trade bill 
 rejected by the House of Lords. The Code Napoleon 
 adopted. Ice first exported from the United States to 
 the West Indies. — 1805. The Gregorian calendar again 
 adopted in France. — 1806. The Cape of Good Hope 
 surrendered to the English. Abolition of the slave- 
 trade by English Parliament, 10th June. The loom in- 
 vented by Jaoquard, a mechanic of Lyons. East India 
 docks opened at London, 4th August;-^1807. Milan de- 
 crees against English commerce, 11th November. Ful- 
 ton's first voyage on the Hudson. The Bank of Ken- 
 tucky chartered. First manufactory of woolen cloths 
 in the United States established at Pittsfield, Massa- 
 chusetts. Middlesex Canal, Massachusetts, completed. 
 — 1808. Manufacturing districts of Manchester, etc., 
 petitioned for peace. — 1810. Deaths, by suicide, of Abra- 
 ham Goldschmidt, Francis Baring, and other English 
 merchants. 
 
 1811-1820. — English guineas publicly sold for a 
 pound note and seven shillings. — 1811. Mr. Horner's 
 proposition for resumption of cash payments in England 
 
 rejected. First steamboat built at Pittsburgh..— 1812. 
 Serious riots in the manufacturing districts of Lanca- 
 shire and Yorkshire. Declaration ofwar by the United 
 States against England, 18th June. — 1814. London 
 Ti'nK.i first printed by steam, 29th November.— 1815. 
 Veto of the United States bank bill by President Madi- 
 son: Bank rechartered for 20 years. — ^1816. The new 
 Russian tariff prohibited the importation of nearly all 
 British goods. Bank of England advanced £3,000,000 
 further to government; making a total of £14,000,000. — 
 1817. Paris first lighted by gas. First steamboat from 
 New Orleans to Louisville. — 1818. First Polar expedi- 
 tion of Captain John Franklin left England. Steam- 
 boats built on Lake'Erie. — 1819. Emigration to Cape of 
 Good Hope encouraged by the British government. 
 The steamship Savannah arrived at Liverpool from the 
 United States, 15th July. Commencement of the sus- 
 pension bridge over the Menai by Telford. The first 
 bank in Illinois chartered. — 1820. Florida ceded to the 
 United States by Spain. Suspension bridge over the 
 Tweed. First steamer ascended the Arkansas River. 
 
 1821-1830. — Captain Parry's arid Lyon's expedition 
 to the Arctic Ocean left England 30th March, 1821. 
 Bank of England resumed specie payments. — 1822. 
 Funeral of Contts, the London banker, 4th March. The 
 first cotton-mill in Lowell erected.— 1823. Revival of 
 business in the English factories. — 1824. Advance in 
 the prices of agricultural produce in England. Act 
 passed for the Thames Tunnel, 24th June. Fauntleroy, 
 banker, hung for forgery, 30th November. Champlain 
 Canal, New York, completed. — 1825. Panic in the En- 
 glish money market (December). Failure of numer- 
 ous country banks. Erie Canal completed. — 1826. 
 Mr. Huskisson's free-trade policy advocated in House 
 of Commons by vote of 223 to 40. Coin in Bank of 
 England reduced to £2,460,000, 28th February.— 1827. 
 Commercial confidence restored in England, and em- 
 ployment for the poor. " Society for the Dift'usion of 
 useful Knowledge," established at the instance of Lord 
 Brougham. Union Canal, Pennsylvania, completed. 
 Quincy Railroad completed. — 1828. Delaware and Hud- 
 son Canal, Syracuse andOswego Canal, New York, com- 
 pleted. India rubber goods manufactured in Connecti- 
 cut. — 1829. Increase of silk manufactures in England 
 and reduction of duty on raw silk. Prize awarded to 
 Mr. Stephenson for his locomotive engine on the Liv- 
 erpool and Manchester Railway. Subscription by Con- 
 gress to the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, May 3. De- 
 parture of Captain Ross on his voyage of discovery. 
 Chesapeake and Delaware Canal opened, 17th Octo- 
 ber. — 1830. Opening of the Liverpool and Manches- 
 ter Railway, 15th September. Free navigation of the 
 Black Sea opened to the United States by treaty, 7tb 
 May. Charles X. fled from Paris, 31st July. West 
 India trade with the United States opened to British 
 vessels. Independence of Belgium acknowledged. 
 Pennsylyania State Canal finished. 
 
 1831-1840. — Parliamentary reform bill introduced in 
 1831 by Lord John Russell ; rejected by the House of 
 Lords, 8th October. Free trade convention at Phila- 
 delphia, October 1. Stephen Girard died 26th Decem- 
 ber, M. 84. Insurrection in Jamaica, 28th December. 
 —1832. Veto of United States Bank bill by President 
 Jackson, 10th July. New tariff act passed by Con- 
 gress, July. Ohio State Carial finished. Albany and 
 Schenectady Railroad, Columbia Railroad, Pennsylva- 
 nia Railroad, Newcastle and Frenchtown Railroad, com- 
 pleted.— 1833. Ice first exported to the East Indies from 
 the United States, 18tli May. Opening of the China 
 trade to the English. East India Company charter re- 
 newed ; ceased to be a commercial body. Bank of En- 
 gland ciiarter renewed. Usury restrictions removed in 
 England from all commercial paper having less than 
 three months to mature. Mr. Clay's tariff bill passed 
 by Congress. Removal of the deposits from the Unit- 
 ed States Bank, September.— 1834. The Chinese sus- 
 pend intercourse with the English at Canton. The 
 
dOM 
 
 393 
 
 COM 
 
 first l)ank in Indiana chartered; London and West- 
 minster Bank commenced business, 10th March. Reso- 
 lution of the United States Senate condemning Presi- 
 dent Jacltson for removal of deposits, March. Nomi- 
 naiion of Roger B. Taney as' Secretary of the Treasury, 
 rejected by vote Of 28 to 18. Abolition of slavery in 
 British West Indies. Baltimore and Ohio Railroad 
 opened for travel to Harper's Ferry, 1st December. 
 Banlc of Maryland failed, 24th March.— 1835. French 
 iudertinity bill passed, 18th April. Baltimore and 
 Washington Railroad opened for travel, 23d August. 
 Bank of Maryland riots in Baltimore; 8th August. Loss 
 of $20,000,000 by fire in New York, 16th December. 
 Boston and Providence Railroad, Boston and Worcester 
 Railroad, completed.^ — 1836. Charter of United States 
 Bank expired March 4, and' succeeded by Pennsylva- 
 nia United States Bank. ' Reduction of the newspaper 
 Stamp duty in Ehglahd, 16th September. Failure of 
 the Commercial and AgHcuitural Banlc of Ireland. An- 
 thracite coal used fof stehmboats on North River: In- 
 dependence of South' American republics acknowledged 
 by Spain, 4tli December. — 1837. Panic in the Londfan 
 market, June. Failures of Afflerican bankers in Lon- 
 don. Further modifications of the usury laws of En- 
 gland. Failure of banks in the dty of New York, 
 May 10. Grand Junction Railway, England, opened 
 4th July. ' Revolt in Canada. Mont de Pi6t6, Lim- 
 erick, established. — 1838. Railway opened from Lon- 
 don to Southampton, 17th May. Wreck of the/ilJ^/or- 
 shire: heroism of Grace Darling, 5th September. Royal 
 Exchange! London, burned, 10th January. Resumption 
 of specie payments in New York, May. Sub-treasury 
 bill defeated in Congress, June. United States Ex- 
 ploring expedition, under Captain Wilkes, left Hamp- 
 ton Roads, 19th' August. Imprisonment for debt abol- 
 ished in England. — 1839L British trade with China 
 stopped, December. Second suspension by the banks 
 at Philadelphia '(9th September); followed by bank fail- 
 ures in the Sonth'and'West. Western Railroad, Wor- 
 cester to Springfield, opened 1st October. Union Bank, 
 London, commenced business. — 1840. Penny postage 
 adopted in England. Antarctic continent discovered 
 by Wilkes, 19th January. First steam vessel at Boston 
 arrived from England, 3d June. First Cunard steamer, 
 (the Britannia) arrived at Boston 18th July; and the 
 Acadia, 17th August. Fiscal Bank bill vetoed by 
 President Tyler, 16th August. Bankrupt law passed 
 by Congress, 18th August. Bill for distribution of 
 public lands passed by Congress, 23d August. Fiscal 
 corporation bill vetoed by President Tyler; 9th Sep- 
 tember. Loan of $12;000,'000 authorized by Congress. 
 1841-1850. — The island and harbor of Hong Kong 
 fieded (1841)'by the Chinese to England.!' Pennsylva- 
 nia United States Bank failed third time, 6th Febru- 
 ary, and made an assignment 4th' September. Union 
 of Upper and Lower Canada, 10th February. Foreign 
 trade of Canton suspended, and hosfalities with the En- 
 glish renewed, 21st May.' Canton taken 27th. Amer- 
 ican clocks exported to England. — 1842. Anti-corn-law 
 movement in Parliament by Sir R. Peel. Captain 
 Wilkes returned from his exploring expedition, 11th 
 June. Ashburton treaty ratified by the Senate, 20th 
 August. British treaty With China (29th August), by 
 which it was agreed to open five free ports. — 1843. Re- 
 turn of Captain Rcss from the South Pole, 6th Septem- 
 ber. Treaty of commerce by Sir H. Potting'fer with 
 China. — 1844. Treaty of annexation of Texas to the 
 United States rejected by the United States Senate, 8th 
 June. Anti-rent riots in New York, August.' Re- 
 charter Of Bank of England. Magnetic telegraph be- 
 tween Baltimore and Washington. Cheap postage act 
 of United States went into operation July 1. — 1845. 
 Treaty between United States and China ratified by 
 United States Senate, 16th January, Sir John Frank- 
 lin left England 25th May on his Arctic expedition. 
 Anti-corn-law league at Manchester. Steamship Great 
 Britain arrived at New Y'ork, 10th August. Treaty of 
 
 annexation of Texas ratified by United States Senate, 
 1st March. Loss of $6,000,000 by fire in New York 
 city, 19th July. Peel ministry resigned, Uth Decem- 
 ber. — 1846. Oregon treaty between England and the 
 United 'States signed in London, 17th July. Second 
 failure of the potato crop in Ireland. Steamship Great 
 Britain stranded in Dundrum Bay; 22d- October. Dec- 
 laration of war with Mexico by the United States, 12th 
 May. New tarifi'bill passed by 'Congress, 28th July; 
 Veto of French 'spoliation bill by President Polk, 8th 
 August. — 1847. Gold in California discovered. Unit- 
 ed States ship Jamestown left Boston 28th March, and 
 frigate Macedonian, 18th July, with provisions for relief 
 of "the Irish. Great commercial distress throughout 
 Great Britain, Sept.-Nov.— 1848. The State of Mary- 
 land' resumed payment of inlerestlst January. Treaty 
 of peace between Mexico ahd United States, signed 30lh 
 May. Suspension bridge at Niagara Falls, completed 
 29th July. Edict to incorporate Bank of France with 
 nine branches, 27th April. India rubber life-preserv- 
 ers invented. — ^1849. Penny postage adopted in Piussia. 
 First experiment of a submarine telegraph at Folk- 
 stone. — 1850. Lopez invasion of Cuba. £20,000 reward 
 otfered by Parliament for discoveiy of Sir John Frank- 
 lin,' 8th March. Collins line of steamers to Liverpool 
 commenced operations. Steamer Atlantic left New 
 York, 27th April. The celebrated Koh-i-noor diamond, 
 valued at $2,000,000, brought to England, July. 
 
 1851-1858;.i-The London exhibition opened 1851, 
 May 1. ContractofPachaof Egypt with Mr. Stephen- 
 son for a railway from Alexandria to Cairo. Railways 
 completed between St. Petersburg and Moscow, Dub- 
 lin and Galway. Collins steatner Pac!fc arrived in 
 Liverpool, May. Yacht America won the race at 
 Cowes, 22d August. Hudsfln River Railroad opened 
 to Albany, 8th October. Dr. Kane returned from the 
 Grinnell expedition, October. J— 1852. Construction of 
 French Crystal Palace ordered, February. Expedition 
 of United States naval forces to Japan, March. Dr. 
 Rae returned from his search fbr Sir John Franklin, 
 February. Ship Prince Albert retarnedfrom search for 
 Sir John Franklin, 7th October. — 1853. Trial trip of the 
 caloric steamship Ericsson from New York to the Poto- 
 mac, 11th January. Second Arctic expedition left New 
 York, SlstMay. American expedition arrived at Japan, 
 8th July. Loss of the steamship Humboldt, 5th Decem- 
 ber. — 1864. Combined fleets of England and France en- 
 tered the Black Sea, 11th January. Loss of the steamer 
 San Francisco, 5th January. Steamer City of Glasgow 
 lost,' March. Declaration of war by England against 
 Russia in behalf of Turkey, 28th March. Commercial 
 treaty between United States and Japan. Frenchloan 
 of 250,000,000 francs, announced March 11, ahd Turk- 
 ish loan of £2,727,400. London joint-stock bankers 
 admitted to the clearing-house, June 7. Crystal Palace 
 at Sydenham, opened 10th June. Bombardment of 
 San Juan by ship Cyane, 13th July. Loss of steamer 
 Arctic,ili'ii Septembei-. Captain M'Cluro returns from 
 Arctic discovery, 28th September. — 1856. Discovery 
 of Captain Franklin's remains. £10,000 awarded Cap- 
 tain M'Clure by Parliament. Paris exliibition opened 
 15th May; Submarine telegraph -wire laid in Black 
 Sea. Resistance by United States to payment of Sound 
 dues. First railroad train crossed suspension bridge 
 at Niagara, Uth March. French loan of 500,000,000 
 francs taken, 18th January; Suspension of Page, 
 Bacon, & Company, Adams & Company, San Fran- 
 cisco, 22d February. English loan of £16,000,000 taken 
 by Rothschilds; 20th April. Ships Ai-ctic and Release, 
 Captain Harts tene, left New York for relief of Dr. Kane 
 and party. — 1866. The Arctic discovery-ship. Resolute, 
 was delivered to the British authorities at Portsmouth, 
 30th December.— 1857. Trial trip of the United States 
 frigate Niagara, 22d April. Suspension of Ohio Life 
 and Trust Company, New York, 24th August. Suspen- 
 sion of the banks at Philadelphia, 25th September; 
 Baltimore, etc., 26th ; New York, 14th October. 
 
COM 
 
 394 
 
 COM 
 
 Commerce, Code de. This was a part of the 
 Code Napoleon known as Les Cmq Codes and afterward 
 as Les Six Codes. The Code de Commerce was pro- 
 mulgated in January, 1808. It was founded in some 
 measure upon the ordonnances of 1673-'81 of Louis 
 XIV. On account of the many modifications which 
 the code of 1805 had undergone, a new text of the code 
 was promulgated in January, 1841. The Code de Com- 
 merce is considered the best part of French legislation. 
 The institution of the commercial tribunals has been 
 of great advantage to France, and has been adopted in 
 other countries. These courts, of which there are 213, 
 consist of a president and two or morejudges, all chosen 
 by the merchants among themselves, and for a limited 
 time : they are not paid for their services, but the gref- 
 Jier or registrar receives a salary. The Code de Com- 
 merce consists of four books ; the first treats of com- 
 merce in general ; of the various descriptions of com- 
 mercial mSn ; of the keeping of books ; of companies 
 and partnerships ; of brokers, commissioners, carriers, 
 etc. The second treats of maritime commerce ; ship- 
 ping; insurances; bankruptcy, etc. The third con- 
 cerns bankruptcies ; and the fourth treats of the com- 
 mercial tribunals, their jurisdiction, and proceedings. 
 By a law of April, 1838, appeals in matters above 1500 
 francs (formerly 1000 francs) are carried to the Cour 
 Royale of the district. — Boiin's Cyclopedia. 
 
 The French code is retained in Rhenish Prussia ; in 
 the kingdom of Naples with some few modifications ; 
 in the Canton of Geneva, in Switzerland, and in Bel- 
 gium ; and formed the basis of the code of Louisiana, 
 suggested or prepared by the late Edward Livingston. 
 
 Commercial Treaties. The first treaty of com- 
 merce made by England with any foreign nation, was 
 entered into with the Flemings, 1 Edward I., 1272. 
 The second was with Portugal and Spain, 2 Edward 
 II., 1308.— 5ee Tkeatibs. 
 
 Commodore, a general oiBoer in the navy, invest- 
 ed with the command of a detachment of ships of war 
 destined on any particular enterprise, and his ship is 
 distinguished from the rest of his squadron by a broad 
 pendant tapering toward the outer end, and some- 
 times forked. The word is corrupted from the Span- 
 ish comendador, which signifies both the superior of a 
 monastery and a knight who holds a commaudery. 
 Commodore is also a name given to the convoy or lead- 
 ing ship in a fleet of merchantmen, which carries a 
 light in her top to guide the other ships. — E. B. See 
 Convoy. 
 
 Companies. In commerce or the arts a company 
 is a number of persons associated for the purpose of 
 carrying on some commercial or industrial undertak- 
 ing. When there are only a few individuals associated, 
 it is most commonly called a copartnery ; the term com- 
 pany being usually applied to large associations, like 
 the East India Company, the Bank of England, etc., 
 who conduct their operations by means of agents act- 
 ing under the orders of a board of directors. Compa- 
 nies have generally been divided into two great classes 
 — exclusive or joinl>stock companies, and open and reg- 
 ulated companies. 
 
 1. Exclusive or Joint-stoclc Companies. — By an insti- 
 tution of this sort is meant a company having a certain 
 amount of capital, divided into a greater or smaller 
 number of transferable shares, managed for the com- 
 mon advantage of the shareholders by a body of di- 
 rectors chosen by and responsible to them. After the 
 stock of a company of this sort has been subscribed, no 
 one can enter it without previously purchasing one or 
 more shares belonging to some of the existing mem- 
 bers. The partners do nothing individually ; all their 
 resolutions are taken in common, and are carried into 
 effect by the directors and those whom they employ. 
 According to the common law, all the partners in a 
 joint-stock company are jointly and individually lia- 
 ble, to the whole extent of their fortunes, for the debts 
 of the company. They may make arrangements among 
 
 themselves, limiting their obligations with respect to 
 each other ; but unless established by an authority com- 
 petent to set aside the general rule, they are all indefi- 
 nitely responsible to the public. 
 
 "In a private copartnery, no partner, without the 
 consent of the company, can transfer his share to an- 
 other person, or introduce a new member into the com- 
 pany. Each member, however, may, upon proper 
 warning, withdraw from the copartnery, and demand 
 payment from them of his share of the common stock. 
 In a joint-stock company, on the contrary, no member 
 can demand payment of his share from the company ; 
 but each member may, without their consent, transfer 
 his share to another person, and thereby introduce a 
 new member. The value of a share in a joint stock is 
 always the price which it will bring in the market : 
 and this may be either greater or less, in any propor- 
 tion, than the sum which its owner stands credited for 
 in the stock of the company." — Wealth of Nations^ p. 333. 
 
 2. Utility of Joint-stock Companies. — Whenever the 
 capital required to carry on any imdertaking exceeds 
 what may be furnished by an individual, it is indispen- 
 sable, in order to the prosecution of the undertaking, 
 that an association should be formed. In all those 
 cases, too, in which the chances of success are doubt- 
 ful, or where a lengthened period must necessarily 
 elapse before an undertaking can be completed, an in- 
 dividual, though ready enough to contribute a small 
 sum in connection with others, would, generally speak- 
 ing, be very little inclined, even if he had the means, 
 to encounter the whole responsibility of such enter- 
 prises. Hence the necessity and advantage of compa- 
 nies or associations. It is to them that we are indebt- 
 ed for those canals and railways by which every part 
 of the country is intersected, for the formation of so 
 many noble docks and warehouses, for the institution 
 of our principal banks and insurance offices, and for 
 many other establishments of great public utility car- 
 ried on by the combined capital and energies of large 
 bodies and individuals. 
 
 3. Branches of Industry , for the Prosecution of which 
 Joint-stoch Companies may he advantageously establish- 
 ed. — In order to insure a rational prospect of success to 
 a company, the undertaking should admit of being car- 
 ried on according to a regular systematic plan. The 
 reason of this is sufficiently obvious. The business of 
 a great association must be conducted by factors or 
 agents ; and unless it be of such a nature as to admit 
 of their duties being clearly pointed out and defined, 
 the association would cease to have any effectual con- 
 trol over them, and w^ould be, in a great measure, at 
 their mercy. An individual who manages his own af- 
 fairs reaps all the advantage derivable from superior 
 skill, industry, and economy ; but the agents, and even 
 directors of joint-stock companies labor, in most cases, 
 entirely or principally for the advantage of others ; and 
 can not therefore, however conscientious, have the same 
 powerful motives to act with energy, prudence, and 
 economy. " Like," says Dr. Smith, " the stewards of 
 a rich man, they are apt to consider attention to small 
 matters as not for their master's honor, and very easily 
 give themselves a dispensation from having it. Neg- 
 ligence and profusion therefore must always prevail 
 more or less in the management of the affairs of such a 
 company." It also not unfrequently happens that they 
 suft'er from the bad faith, as well as the carelessness 
 and extravagance of their servants ; the latter having 
 in many instances endeavored to advance their own in- 
 terests at the expense of their employers. Hence the 
 different success of companies whose business may be 
 conducted according to a nearly uniform system — such 
 as dock, canal, and insurance companies, railroad com- 
 panies, etc. — and those whose business does not admit 
 of being reduced to any regular plan, and where much 
 must always be left to the sagacity and enterprise of 
 those employed. All purely commercial companies, 
 trading upon a joint stock, belong to the latter class. 
 
COM 
 
 395 
 
 COM 
 
 Not one of them has heeu able to withstand the compe- 
 tition of private adventurers ; they can not subject the 
 agents they employ to buy and sell commodities in dis- 
 tant countries to any effectual responsibility ; and from 
 this circumstance, and the abuses that usually insinu- 
 ate themselves Into every department of their manage- 
 ment, no such company has ever succeeded, unless 
 when it has attained some exclusive privilege, or been 
 protected from competition. 
 
 The Abbe Morellet has given, in a tract published in 
 1769 (JSxamen de la Reponse de M. M., p. 35-38), a list 
 of 55 joint-stock companies, for the prosecution of va- 
 rious branches of foreign trade, established in different 
 parts of Europe since 1600, every one of which had fail- 
 ed, though most of them had exclusive privileges 
 Most of those that have been established since the pub- 
 lication of the Abbe Morellet's tract have had a simi- 
 lar fate. But notwithstanding both principle and ex- 
 perience concur in showing how very ill fitted a large 
 association is for the purpose of prosecuting commer- 
 cial undertakings, there are cases in which they can 
 not be prosecuted except by associations of this sort, 
 and when it may be expedient to grant them certain 
 peculiar privileges. When, owing either to the disin- 
 clination or inability of government to afford protec- 
 tion to those engaged in any particular department of 
 trade, they are obliged to provide for their own de- 
 fense and security, it is obviously necessary that they 
 should have the power to exclude such individuals as 
 may refuse to submit to the measures, or to bear their 
 due share of the expense, required for the common pro- 
 tection of all. The Kussian Company, the East India 
 Companj', the Levant or Turkey Company, and most 
 of the other great trading companies that have exist- 
 ed, seem principally to have grown out of a real or sup- 
 posed necessity of this sort. It was not believed that 
 any safe or advantageous intercourse could be carried 
 on with barbarous countries without the aid of ships of 
 war, factories, interpreters, etc. ; and as government 
 was not able or willing to afford this assistance, the 
 traders were formed into companies or associations, and 
 vested with such peculiar privileges as appeared to be 
 necessary for enabling them to prosecute the trade with- 
 out any extrinsic support. " When," says Dr. Smith, 
 " a company of merchants undertake, at their own risk 
 and expense, to establish a new trade with some re- 
 mote and barbarous nation, it may not be unreasona- 
 ble to incorporate them into a joint-stock company, and 
 to grant them, in case of success, a monopoly of the 
 trade for a certain number of years. It is the easiest 
 and most natural way in which the state can recom- 
 pense them for hazarding a dangerous and expensive 
 experiment, of which the public is afterward to reap 
 the benefit. A temporary monopoly of this kind may 
 be vindicated upon the same principles upon which a 
 like monopoly of a new machine is granted to its in- 
 ventor, and that of a new book to its author. But upon 
 the expiration of the term, the monopoly ought cer- 
 tainly to determine ; the forts and garrisons, if it was 
 found necessary to establish any, to be taken into the 
 hands of the government, their value to be paid to the 
 company, and the trade to be laid open to all the sub- 
 jects of the state."— If eaZ(A of Nations, p. 339. It may 
 be doubted, however, whether it be really necessary, 
 even in such a case as that now mentioned, to estab- 
 lish a joint-slock company with peculiar privileges, and 
 whether the same thing might not be more advanta- 
 geously effected by the establishment of an open or 
 regulated company. 
 
 4. Open or Regulated Companies. — The affairs of 
 such companies or associations are managed by direct- 
 ors appointed by the members. They do not, howev- 
 er, possess a common or joint stock. Each individual 
 pays a fine upon entering into the company, and most 
 commonly an annual contribution : a duty applicable 
 to the business of the company is also sometimes charged 
 upon the goods imported and exported from and to the 
 
 countries witli which they trade. The sums so collect- 
 ed are applied by the directors to tit out embassadors, 
 consuls, and such public functionaries as may be re- 
 quired to facilitate commercial dealings, or to build 
 factories, maintain cruisers, etc. The members of such 
 companies trade upon their own stock, and at their own 
 risk ; so that when the fine, or the sum payable on ad- 
 mission into a regulated companj-, is moderate, it is im- 
 possible for its members to form any combination that 
 would have the effect of raising their profits above the 
 common level ; and there is the same keen and close 
 competition among them that there is among other 
 classes of traders. A regulated company is, in fact, a 
 device for making those engaged in a particular branch 
 of trade bear the public or political expenses incident 
 to it, at the same time that it leaves them to conduct 
 their own business with their own capital, and in their 
 own way. Should, therefore, government at any time 
 refuse, or be unable to afford, that protection to those 
 engaged in any branch of trade which is necessary to 
 enable them to carry it on, their formation into a reg- 
 ulated company would seem to be the most judicious 
 measure that could be adopted, inasmuch as it would 
 obtain for them that protection which is indispensable, 
 without encroaching on the freedom of individual en- 
 terprise. The African and the Levant companies in 
 Great Britain, and some other branches of trade, were 
 for a long time conducted by open or regulated compa- 
 nies. These, however, have been recently abolished : 
 the African Company, by the act 1 and 2 Geo. IV. o. 28 ; 
 and the Levant Company, by the act 6 Geo. IV. c. 33. 
 The Kussia Company still exists. — iSee KnssiA Com- 
 pany. 
 
 In so far as relates to protection, it may perhaps be 
 thought, for the reasons given by Dr. Smith, that a 
 joint-stock company is better calculated to afford it 
 than a regulated company. The directors of the latter 
 having. Dr. Smith alleges, no particular interest in the 
 prosperity of the general trade of the company, for be- 
 hoof of which, ships of war, factories, or forts have to 
 be maintained, are apt to neglect them, and to apply 
 their whole energies to the care of their own private 
 concerns. But the interests of the directors of a joint- 
 stock company are, he contends, in a great measure 
 Identified with those of the association. They have no 
 private capital employed in the trade; their profits 
 must depend Apon the prudent and profitable manage- 
 ment of the common stock ; and it may therefore, it is 
 argued, be fairly presumed that they will be more dis- 
 posed to attend carefully to all the means by which the 
 prosperity of the association may be best secured. On 
 the other hand, however, it is seldom that the direct- 
 ors of joint-stock companies stop at the proper point; 
 having almost invariably attempted to extend their 
 commercial dealings by force, and to become not only 
 merchants but sovereigns. Nor is this any thing but 
 what might have been expected, seeing that the con- 
 sideration and extensive patronage accruing from such 
 measures to the directors is generally of far more im- 
 portance to them than a moderate increase of the divi- 
 dends on their stock. Whenever they have been able, 
 they have seldom scrupled to employ arms to advance 
 their projects ; and instead of contenting themselves 
 with shops and factories, have constructed fortifica- 
 tions, embodied armies, and engaged in war. But such 
 has not been the case with regulated companies. The 
 businesses under their control have uniformly been con- 
 ducted in a comparatively frugal and parsimonious 
 manner; their establishments have been, for the most 
 part, confined to factories; and they have rarely, if 
 ever, allowed themselves to be seduced by schemes of 
 conquest and dominion. 
 
 And hence, con sidering them as commercial machines, 
 it does not really seem that there can be any doubt as 
 to the superiority of a regulated over a joint-stock com- 
 pany. The latter has the defect, for which nothing al- 
 most can compensate, of entirely excluding individual 
 
COM 
 
 396 
 
 COM 
 
 entejrpme and competition. When such a company en- 
 joys any peculiar privilege, it naturally, in pursuing 
 its own interest, endeavors to profit by it, how injuri- 
 ous soever it may be to the public. If it have a mo- 
 nopoly of the trade with any particular country, or of 
 any particular commodity, it rarely fails, by under- 
 stocking the home andforeign markets, to sell the goods 
 which it imports and exports at an artificially enhanced 
 price. It is not its object to employ a comparatively 
 large capital, but to make a large profit on a compara- 
 tively small capital. The conduct of the Dutch East 
 India Company, in burning spices, that their price 
 might not be lowered by larger importations, is an ox- 
 ample of the mode in which such associations uniform- 
 ly, and, indeed, almost necessarily act. All individu- 
 als are desirous of obtaining the highest possible price 
 for what they have to sell : and if they are protected 
 by a monopoly, or an exclusive privilege, from the risk 
 of being undersold by others, they never hesitate abdut 
 raising the price of their products to the highest eleva- 
 tion that the competition of the buyers will allow them ; 
 and thus frequently realize the most exorbitant prof- 
 its. And yet, notwithstanding these advantages, such 
 is the negligence, profusion, and peculation insepara- 
 ble from the management of great commercial compa- 
 nies, that even those that have had the monopoly of 
 the most advantageous branches of commerce have 
 rarely been able to keep out of debt. It will be shown 
 in the article East Ixdia Compant, that that associ- 
 -ation has lost by its trade ; and that, had it not been 
 for the aid derived from the revenues of India, it must 
 long since have ceased to exist. To buy in one mark- 
 et ; to sell with profit in another ; to watch over the 
 perpetually occurring variations in the prices and in 
 the supply and demand of commodities ; to suit with 
 dexterity and judgment the quantity and quality of 
 goods to the wants of each market, and to conduct 
 each operation in the best and cheapest manner, re- 
 quires a degree of unremitting vigilance and attention, 
 which it would be visionary to expect from the directors 
 or servants of a great joint-stock association. Hence 
 it has happened, over and over again, that branches of 
 commerce which proved ruinous to compariies have be- 
 come exceedingly profitable when carried on by indi- 
 viduals. 
 
 5. Constitution of Companies.' — -When application is 
 made for an act to incorporate a number of individuals 
 into a joint-stock company for the prosecution of any 
 useful undertaking, care should be taken not to con- 
 cede to them any privileges that may be rendered in- 
 jurious to the public. If a company be formed for the 
 construction of a dock, a road, or a canal, it may be 
 ne.cessary, in order to stimulate indi\-iduals to engage 
 in the undertaking, to give them some peculiar privi- 
 leges for a certain number of years. But if other per- 
 sons were to be permanently hindered from construct- 
 ing new docks, or opening new lines of communication, 
 a lasting injury might be done to the public. It may 
 be highly expedient to incorporate a company for the 
 purpose of bringing water into a city ; but, supposing 
 there were no springs in the vicinity other than those 
 to which this company had acquired a right, they might, 
 unless restrained by the act incorporating them, raise 
 the price of water to an exorbitant height, and make 
 large profits for themselves at the expense and to the 
 injury of the public. In all cases of this sort, and in 
 the case, indeed, of all joint-stock companies establish- 
 ed for the formation of canals, railroads, etc., it would 
 he sound policy to limit the rates charged for their 
 services, or on account of the water, ships, goods, etc., 
 conveyed by their means, and also to limit the divi- 
 dends, or to fix a maximum beyond which they should 
 not be augmented : enacting, that if the rates charged 
 by the company produce more than sufiicient to pay 
 the maximum rate of dividend, and to defray the wear 
 and tear of the aqueduct, canal, etc., they shall be al- 
 lowed to teduce them till they only yield this much ; 
 
 and, in the event of their declining to do so, that the 
 whole surplus above paying the dividend shall be ap- 
 plied to purchase up the stock of the association, so 
 that ultimately the charges on account of dividends' 
 may be entirely abolished. 
 
 6. Companies en Commandite, — In France there is a 
 sort of companies denominated societes en commandite. 
 A society of this description consists of one or more 
 partners, liable, without limitation, for the debts of the 
 company ; and one or more partners, or commanditaires, 
 liable only to the extent of the funds they have sub- 
 scribed.' A commanditaire must not, however, take 
 any part in the business of the company ; if he do this, 
 he loses his inviolability, and makes himself responsi-^ 
 ble for the debts of the association. The names of the 
 partners in such societies must be published, and the 
 amount of the sums contributed by the ccnmnanditaires. 
 It has been proposed to introduce partnerships of this 
 sort into this country; but it seems very doubtful 
 whether any thing would be gained by such a meas- 
 ure. Partnerships en commandite may be very easily 
 abused, or rendered a means of defrauding the public 
 It is quite visionary to imagine that the commanditaires 
 can be prevented from indirectly influencing the other 
 partners ; and supposing a collusion to exist among 
 them, it might be possible for them to divide large 
 sums as profits, when perhaps they had really sustain- 
 ed a loss ; and to have the books of the association so 
 contrived that it might be very difiicult to detect the 
 fraud. This, it is alleged, is by no means a rare oc- 
 currence in France. ' 
 
 7. Civic Cchnpanies, or Corporations. — Exclusive of 
 the companies previously mentioned, a number of an- 
 cient companies or corporations exist in most European 
 countries, the members of which enjoy certain political 
 as well as commercial privileges. When the feudal 
 system began to be subverted by the establishment of 
 good order and regular government in the tow^ns, the 
 inhabitants were divided into certain trades or corpo- 
 rations, by which the magistrates and other function- 
 aries were chosen. The members of these trades, or 
 corporations, partly to enhance the value of their priv- 
 ileges, and partly to provide a resource, in case of ad-' 
 versity, for themselves, acquired or usurped the power 
 of enacting by-laws regulating the admission of new 
 members, and at the same time set about providing a 
 fund for the support of such as accident or misfortune 
 might reduce to a state of indigence. Hence the ori- 
 gin of apprenticeships, the refusal to allow any one not 
 a member of a corporation to carry on any business 
 within the precincts of any to^vn corporate, and the va- 
 rious regulations that had to be submitted to, and the 
 fees that had to be paid by the claimants for enrollment 
 in corporations. For a lengthened period these privi- 
 leges and regulations were very oppressive. Within 
 the lajt century, however, their influence has been pro- 
 gressively diminishing. In France, where the abuses 
 inseparable from the system had attained to a very 
 great height, it was entirely swept off by the Revolu- 
 tion : and though corporations still exist in Great Brit- 
 ain, they have been stripped of several of their pecul- 
 iar franchises; and should now, for the most part, be 
 regarded more perhaps in the light of charitable than 
 of political institutions. It would be well, however,- 
 were they reduced entirely to the former character, 
 and were the few political and commercial privileges 
 which they still enjoy communicated to the rest of the 
 citizens. At their first institution, and for some time 
 after, corporations, considered as political bodies, were 
 probably useful : but such is no longer the case ; and in 
 so far as they now possess any special immunities, they 
 tend to obstruct that free competition that is so ad- 
 vantageous. 
 
 The following extract from a Beport on the Commerce 
 and Manufactures of the United States^ dra^^-n up by 
 Albert Gallatin, Esquire, then Secretarj' of the Treas- 
 ury, and laid before Congress in 181G, sets the superior 
 
COM 
 
 397 
 
 COM 
 
 ■advahtages resulting from the unirestricted freedom of 
 industry in a verj' striking point of view. " No 
 cause," saj's he, " has, perhaps, more promoted in ev- 
 ery respect the general improvement of the United 
 States, than the absence of those systems of internal 
 restrictions and monopoly which' continue to disfignre 
 the state of society in other countries. No laws exist 
 here, directly or indirectly, confining men to a partic- 
 ular occupation or place, or excludingany citizen from 
 any branch he may at any time thinl£ proper to pur- 
 sue. Industry is, in elveryi respect, ftee and unfetter- 
 ted; every species of trade, commerce, and profession, 
 and manufacture, being equally open to all, w,itfiout re- 
 quiring any. regular Apprenticeship, admission, or.Umjise^, 
 Hence the improvement of America has not been con- 
 fined to the improvement of her agriculture, and to the 
 rapid formation aiid settlement of new states. in, the 
 wildeniess ; but her citizens have extended their com- 
 merce to every part - of the gllobe,.and carry on witli 
 complete success even those branches for which; a mo- 
 nopoly had heretofore been considered essentially nec- 
 essary." 1 • ■ 
 
 There is in Eees' Cj/elope(Mu,' ait. Gompany, a list 
 of the different civic companies belonging to the city 
 of London, in which'the periods of their incorporation, 
 and variousother important particulars with respect to 
 •several of them; are specified. 
 ' Among'the earliest commercial companiesinEngland 
 may be named the Steel-yard Society, established a.d. 
 1232. The second company was the merchants of St. 
 Thomas a Becltet, in 1248. — Stowe. The third was the 
 Merchant Adventurers incorporated by Elizabeth) 1564. 
 -There are ninety-one city companies in London ;' th^ 
 first twelve are, ' ' 
 
 , ..-..,;(i .*.». ; 
 
 1 Mercers , 139o 
 
 2 Grocera :'.;..'.'.:. .1345 ■ 
 
 8 Drapers .:. . .'. ; . . . U09i • ' 
 
 4 Fi^lim'angers 1384 , 
 
 5 Goldsmiyi^ l32T 
 
 G Skinners 13-2T 
 
 T Merchant Tailors 1466 
 
 8 Haberdashers 144T 
 
 9 Saltcrs i 1568 
 
 10 Ii-onmongers , 1464 
 
 ll'Vihtnei's .''...;..'.. 143T 
 
 12 Cloth-workers i . . . ; 1482 
 
 Companies, Bubble. Ruinous speculations com- 
 ing under this name have been formed, commonly by 
 designing persons. Law's Bubble, in 1720-'21, was 
 perhaps the most extraordinary of its kind, and the 
 South Sea Bubble; iiithe same yeary was scarcely less 
 memorable for its ruin of thousands of families. Many 
 companies were established in Great Britain in 1824 
 and 1825, and most !of .them turned out to be hnbbles ; 
 and owing to the rage JFor taking shares in each scheme 
 as it was projected, immense 'losses were incurred by 
 individuals, and the families of thousands of specu- 
 lators were totally rninedi — .See Law's Bdhblk and 
 Bankrupts. 
 
 Coinpass (Germ. Eia Kompass ; Du. Zeekompass ; 
 Da., Sijekompass ; Svf. Sjocompass ; ^r. JBoussole, Compos 
 demer; \t. Bussola; Sp. Aguja de marear ; Port. Com- 
 ' passo de marear; Russ. Kompass Morahelniii), .ot mari- 
 ner's compass, an instrument composed of a needle and 
 card, by which the ship's course is directed. The nee- 
 dle, with little variation, always points to the north ; 
 and hence the mode of steering by the compass. 
 
 The common opinion is that the compass was in- 
 vented by Flavio Gioia, a citizen of the once famous re- 
 public of Amalphi, very near the beginning of the four- 
 teenth century. Dr. Robertson has adopted this opin- 
 ion, and regi-ets that contemporary historians furnish 
 no details as to the life of a man to whose genius soci- 
 ety is so deeply indebted. — History of America, vol. i. 
 p. 47, 8vo ed. But though Gioia may have made im- 
 provements on the compass, it has been shown that he 
 has no claim to be considered as its discoverer. Pas- 
 sages have bf en produced from writers who flourished 
 more than a century before Gioia, in which the polar- 
 
 ity of the needle, when touched by the magnet, is dis- 
 tinctly pointed out. Not only) however, had this sin- 
 gular property been discoi-ered, but also its application 
 to the purposes of navigation, long pieviously to the 
 fourteenth century. Old French writers have been 
 quoted .(Macfhebson's vlmreaZ* of Commerce, anno 
 1200 ; Eees' Cyclopedia), that seem fully to establish 
 this fact. 1 But whatever doubts may exist with respect 
 to them can not alTect the passagbs which the learned 
 Spanish antiquary, Don Antonio de Capmany (C2ues- 
 tiones CriticaSfP. 78-132)j has given from a work of the 
 famous Raymond LuHy (J)e Coniemplatione) published 
 in 1272. ; In one place Lully says, " as the needle, 
 when touched by the magnet, naturally turns to the 
 north" (^sicut acusper naiiiram vertitur'ad- septeniriomm 
 dum sit tacta, a magnete). This is conclusive as to the 
 author's; acquaintance with the polarity of the needle; 
 and the following passage from the same work — " as 
 the nautical needle directs mariners in their naviga- 
 tion" (sicut acus nauticd'dirigit ma/rinO/rios in Sua navi- 
 galiene, etc.\ is no less conclusive as to its being used 
 by sailors in regulating their coui;se. There are no 
 means of ascertaining the mode in which the needle 
 Raymond Lully had in view was made use of. It has 
 been sufficiently established (s^e- the authorities al- 
 ready referi^ed to, and AzuNi, iJissertation svr VOrigine 
 de la Boussple) that it was usual to float the needle, by 
 means of a Straw, on,the snrface of a -basin of water ; 
 and Capmany contends that we are indebted to Gioia 
 for the card' and the method now followed of suspend- 
 ing the needle ; improvements which have given to the 
 compass all its conyenience, and a very large portion 
 of its utility. . Byt this part of his Dissertation, though 
 equally learned aiid ingenious, is, by no means so sat- 
 isfactory as the other. It is "difficult to conceive how 
 inarihers at sea could have availed themselves of a 
 floating needle ; but, however this may be, it seems 
 most probable that Gioia had considerably improved 
 the construction of the compass ; and that, the Amal- 
 phitans having been the first to introduce it to general 
 use; ho was, with excusable partiality, Represented By 
 them, and subsequently regarded by others, as its in- 
 ventor. I ' . i 1 f - ' ■ 
 
 The reader will not consider these detailis out of 
 place in a work on commerce, which the compass has 
 done so much to extend; " Its discovery," to borrow 
 the' language of Mr. Macpherson, "has given birth to 
 a new era in the history of commerce and navigation. 
 Theiformerit has extended to every shore of the globe, 
 and increased and multiplied its operations and bene- 
 ficial effects in a degree which was not conceivable by 
 I those who lived in the earlier ages. The latter it has 
 rendered expeditious, and comparatively safe, by ena- 
 bling the navigator to launch out upon the ocean free 
 from the danger of Tocks and shoals. By the use of 
 this noble instniment, the whole world has become one 
 vast commercial commonwealth, the most distant in- 
 habitants of the earth are brought together for their 
 mutual advantage, ancient prejudices are obliterated, 
 and mankind are civilized and enlightened." 
 
 According to the purposes to which the instrument 
 is chiefly applied, it becomes the mariner's compass, the 
 azimuth compass, the variation compass, each particular 
 application requiring some peculiarity of construction ; 
 but whatever modifications it may receive, the essen- 
 tial parts are the same in all cases. These are a mag- 
 netized bar of steel, called the needle, having fitted to 
 it at its centre a cap, which is supported on an upright 
 pivot made sharp at the point in order to diminish the 
 friction as much as possible and allow the needle to 
 turn with the slightest force. The mariner's compass 
 has a circular card attached to its needle, which turns 
 with it, and on the circumference of which are marked 
 the degrees, and also the thirty-two points or rhumbs, 
 likewise divided into half and quarter points. The 
 pivot. rises from the centre of the bottom of a circular 
 box, called the compass-box, which contains the needle 
 
COM 
 
 398 
 
 CON 
 
 and its card, and which is covered with a glass top to 
 prevent the needle from being disturbed by the agita- 
 tion of the air. The compass-box is suspended within 
 a large box by means of two concentric brass circles or 
 gimbals ; the outer one being fixed by horizontal piv- 
 ots, both to the inner circle which carries the compass- 
 box, and also the outer box, the two sets of axes being 
 at right angles to each other. By means of this ar- 
 rangement, the inner' circle, with the compass-box, 
 needle, and card, always retain a horizontal position, 
 notwithstanding the rolling of the ship. 
 
 The notation of the mariner's compass is as follows : 
 The circumference being divided into the four quad- 
 rants by two diameters at right angles, the extremities 
 of these diameters are the four cardinal points (cardo, 
 u hinge), marked N., S., E., W. (north, south, east, 
 west). Bisecting each of tjie quadrants, the several 
 points of bisection are denoted by placing the two let- 
 ters at the extremities of the quadrant in juxtaposi- 
 tion. Thus N.E. (northeast) denotes the point which is 
 half way between north and east ; and so with N.W., 
 
 
 S.E., S.W. (northwest, southeast, southwest). Let the 
 octants next be bisected ; the points of division are de- 
 noted by prefixing to each of the above combinations 
 first the one and then the other of the two cardi- 
 nal points of which it is formed. Thus N.E. gives 
 N.N.E. and E.N.E. (north-northeast and east-north- 
 east) ; and so in respect of the others. Sixteen points 
 have thus been named. Let the distances be again bi- 
 sected, then each of the points so found is expressed by 
 that one of the preceding points already named to which 
 it is nearest, followed by the name of the cardinal point 
 toward which its departure from the nearest point leads 
 it, the two being separated by the letter b (by). Thus 
 the point half way between H". and N.N.E. is N. by E. 
 (north-by-east); that which is halfway between N.N.E. 
 and N.E. is N.E. by N. (northeast-by-north), etc. The 
 whole of the thirty-two points are thus distinguished 
 in the figure. 
 
 The principal requisites of a compass are intensity 
 of directive force, and susceptibility. The first of these 
 is obtained by constructing the needle of the material 
 and form best suited to receive and retain the magnet- 
 ic virtue. A number of experiments on this subject 
 were made by Coulomo, and more recently by Captain 
 Kater, an account of which is given in the Phil. Trans. 
 for 1821. Captain Kater found that the kind of steel 
 capable of receiving the greatest magnetic force is shear 
 steel ; and that the best form is that of a lozenge or 
 rhomboid, cut out in the middle, so as to diminish the 
 extent of surface in proportion to the mass, it being 
 found that the directive force of the needle, when mag- 
 netized to saturation, depends not on the extent of 
 surface, but on the mass. Beyond a certain limit 
 (about five inches) no additional power is gained by 
 increasing the length of the needle ; and needles ex- 
 ceeding a very moderate length are apt to have several 
 consecutive poles, the effect of which is to produce a 
 great diminution of directive force. On this account 
 short needles, made very hard, are to be preferred.— 
 Bbande's Encyclopedia of Arts. 
 
 Like many other of the most valuable arts of life, the 
 origin of the compass is entirely unknown. By some 
 
 writers it is ascribed to Flavio Gioia, who lived in the 
 thirteenth century ; yet Guyot de Provence, who lived 
 a century earlier, speaks of the loadstone, to which he 
 gives the name of marinetti, or mariner's stone, as use- 
 ful to navigation. Others pretend that it was invent- 
 ed in France ; but there seems to be no other reason 
 for this supposition than the fact that from time im- 
 memorial the north point of the compass card has 
 been distinguished and ornamented with a Jleur de Us, 
 For a reason of a different kind, but perhaps of the 
 same degree of weight. Dr. Wallis and others have 
 supposed the invention to belong to England, the name 
 compass, which is given to the instrument by most Eu- 
 ropean countries, being used in England to signify a 
 circle. The term hussola in Italian and boussole in 
 French, has also been supposed to be derived from our 
 term box, by which the compass is frequently desig- 
 nated. Gilbert, in his celebrated work De Magnete, 
 affirms that Marco Polo brought the invention to Eu- 
 rope from China, about the year 1260. It appears very 
 probable that the Chinese were acquainted with the 
 directive property of the loadstone at an early period. 
 
 The azimuth compass, being intended to show the 
 bearing of objects in respect of the magnetic meridian, 
 has its circle divided merely into degrees, instead of 
 the rhumbs used in navigation, and is provided with 
 sights to allow the angles to be taken more accurately. 
 
 The variation compass is designed to exhibit the di- 
 urnal changes in the deviation of the magnetic from 
 the true meridian ; and the needle is generallj' made 
 of much greater length than the mariner's compass, in 
 order to render minute variations more sensible. 
 
 Compass Vacations. — In a recent publication on the 
 danger to which vessels are exposed from compass va- 
 riations, there was suggested a plan of much import- 
 ance to commerce: that in all large ports at least, 
 where vessels are equipped, a competent person ought 
 to be appointed, whose duties should be to select in ev- 
 ery ship an advantageous position for a standard com- 
 pass, combining the two requisites in such selection of 
 a manageable local attraction, and of convenient ac- 
 cess for navigating the ship — to determine experiment- 
 ally the local deviations of the standard compass in 
 different azimuths, to instruct the master how to repeat 
 the same on future occasions, and to see that he right- 
 ly and thoroughly understands the deduction of the 
 true magnetic courses from those of the standard com- 
 pass, and of the course by the standard compass corre- 
 sponding to the true course which he desires to steer. 
 
 Self-registering Compass. — The selt-registering com- 
 pass, by M. Deluil, is designed to register the changes 
 of direction in a vessel for every three minutes during 
 the twenty-four hours. The marking is made upon a 
 compass card. It consists of a clock movement placed 
 at the centre of the apparatus for causing the point or 
 pivot carrying the needles to move up and down at 
 regular intervals — of an endless screw, furnished with 
 a nut carrying the point, for piercing the paper — and of 
 the compass card, made of three needles fixed to a sheet 
 of mica. The mica is covered with a disk of velvet, 
 firmly glued to it by means of strong glue, and whose 
 tissue has been saturated with a kind of glue that is 
 soft when cold. When the needle is fixed toward the 
 north, the axis or diametral line of the compass card is 
 placed in the line of the axis of the ship, and the punc- 
 tures made every three minutes indicate the deviation 
 of this axis. 
 
 Composition, in Commerce, commonly implies the 
 dividend or sum paid by an insolvent debtor to his cred- 
 itors, and accepted by them in payment for their debts. 
 
 Coney 'Wool (Ger. Kaninchenwolle ; Du. Konyn- 
 hair; Fr. Foil de lapin ; It. Pelo di Caniglio; Sp. Cone- 
 jund), the fur of rabbits. This article is extensively 
 used in the hat manufacture ; and besides the large 
 supplies raised at home, a great deal is imported. The 
 imports usually range from about 300,000 to about 
 500,000 skins a year. 
 
CON 
 
 399 
 
 CON 
 
 Congreve Rockets. Invented by General Sir 
 William Congreve in 1803. The Congreve rockets, 
 first used against Boulogne in 1806, are of various di- 
 mensions, and differently armed, as they are intended 
 for the field or for bombardment. Those of the former 
 class carry shells or case-shot ; those of the latter arc 
 armed with, a very combustible material contained in 
 a strong metallic cylindrical case with a conical head. 
 When once inflamed, this substance is unextinguisha- 
 ble, it scatters its burning particles in every direc- 
 tion, and when spent, the ball explodes like a grenade. 
 The rocket is projected horizontally, and makes a loud 
 ivhizzing noise in its passage through the air. The 
 ammunition used varies from 6 to 42 lbs. and upward. 
 These rockets were certainly a very important inven- 
 tion ; but from their liability to deflection and other 
 defects, they are now regarded as less advantageous 
 than the ordinary red-hot shot and bombs. The se- 
 cret of their composition also is not so great as to defy 
 imitation by foreign artillerists. Sir William Con- 
 greve, Bart. (1772-1828), inventor of the rocket called 
 by his name, was a general of artillery, and co-operated 
 with the Duke of York in reforming the British armj'. 
 He wrote an Elementary Treatise on the Mounting of 
 Naval Ordnance (Lond. 1812) ; and a Description of the 
 Nydro-pneumatic Lock (Lond. 1815). Ho died at Tou- 
 louse in 1828.— E. B. 
 
 Connecticut, the southernmost of the New En- 
 gland States, is situated between lat. 41° and 42° 2' 
 N., and long. 71° 20' and 73° 15' W., and between 3° 
 40' 24" and 5° 41' 24" E. long, from Washington. It 
 is bounded north by Massachusetts, east by Khode Isl- 
 and, south by Long Island Sound, and west by New 
 York. It contains 4750 square miles, or 3,040,000 
 acres. Its population in 1790, was 237,946 ; in 1800, 
 251,002 ; in 1810, 261,942 ; in 1820, 275,248 ; in 1830, 
 297,711 ; in 1840, 800,015 ; in 1850, 370,792. The cap- 
 itals are, Hartford, on the right bank of the Connecti- 
 cut, at the head of steamboat navigation, 50 miles from 
 its entrance into Long Island Sound, and New HSven, 
 at the head of a bay which sets up 4 miles from the 
 sound. It contained, in 1850, eight counties. 
 
 'The beautiful river from which the State of Connec- 
 ticut derives its name was first discovered (in the year 
 1614) by the Dutch Captain Adrian Block, who sailed 
 into it as far up as the present site of Hartford, and 
 who named it "De Versche Bivier" (the Fresh Elver), 
 probably from the fresh appearance of its waters and 
 green valleys. The Dutch from New Amsterdam made 
 some attempts at settlement along this river. But the 
 English colonists and explorers from Plymouth and 
 Boston, on their way to the west, reached it about the 
 year 1630, and became soon the exclusive proprietors 
 of the river and its valley. They adopted for it the 
 original name of the aborigines, which, in its true In- 
 dian shape, is said to have been " Qnonehtucut." The 
 meaning ofthis word is stated to be " T/ie Long Biver," 
 and it appears to be a designation which the Indians 
 applied often as a river name. Among others, we find 
 also in Long Island a Connecticut Elver. The name 
 was at first written in different ways. We find, for in- 
 stance, on one map of the year 1635, the orthography 
 "B. ConokteooJc." At last the orthography "Connec- 
 ticut" prevailed. The English colonists applied the 
 name of the river for the first time to a territory in the 
 year 1631, when they claimed a tract of land around 
 the present site ofHartford, and intended to erect there 
 a colony, to which the name of" Colony of Connecticut" 
 was given. This was an inland country, sometimes 
 also called " the Colony of Bar ford." In the year 1662 
 King Charles II. united with this colony that of New 
 Haven, which was planted on the shores of Long Isl- 
 and Sound, and which had existed for some time sep- 
 arately under a particular name. The king named 
 iDoth united colonies " The Pivvince of Connecticut ;" and 
 in this way this name was extended to the sea-coast. 
 It included then also a great part of Long Island, 
 
 which had been settled and was claimed by planters 
 and emigrants from the Connecticut valleys. But 
 soon after the conquest of New Netherland by the En- 
 glish (1664) the Duke of York claimed the whole of 
 Long Island, which now was separated from the colo- 
 ny of Connecticut and became a part of the province 
 of New York. In compensation for this loss the bound- 
 aries of Connecticut were extended to the west as far 
 as Mormaromek or Byram's Elver, within thirty miles 
 from New York, so that now the name Connecticut 
 covered nearly the whole of the northern shore of Long 
 Island Sound. These boundaries along the sea-coast 
 have, upon the whole, remained unchanged ever since. 
 — J. G. Kohl. 
 
 Though generally hilly and broken, no part of the 
 surface rises to a, great height above the sea. The 
 greatest elevation is a range of mountains commencing 
 at a bluff called East Rock, near New Haven, and con- 
 tinuing northward through the state. The hills are 
 generally of moderate size, and occur in quick succes- 
 sion in ranges trending northward, presenting to the 
 traveler an ever-varying aspect. The soil is gener- 
 ally fertile, but better adapted to grazing than tillage. 
 There were in this state, in 1850, 1,768,178 acres of 
 land improved, and 615,701 of unimproved land in 
 farms. Cash value of farms $72,72*, 422 ; and the value 
 of implements and machinery, $1,892,541; live-stock: 
 horses, 26,879 ; asses and mules, 49 ; milch cows, 85,461 ; 
 working oxen, 46,988; other cattle, 80,226; sheep, 
 174,181; swine, 76,472 ; value of live-stock, $7,467,490. 
 
 Manufactures, — There were in the state, in 1850, 106 
 cotton factories, with a capital invested of $4,012,600, 
 employing 2666 males, and 3313 females, producing 
 54,370,527 yards of sheeting, etc., and 950,000 pounds 
 of yam, valued at $4,122,952 ; 149 woolen factories, 
 with a capital of |2,583,742, employing 1893 males, 
 and 1665 females, producing 8,950,372 yards of cloth, 
 valued at $4,921,152; 12 establishments making pig 
 iron, with a capital of $207,600, employing 120 persons, 
 producing 13,020 tons of pig-iron, etc. ; the entire value 
 of products, $379,600 ; 60 establishments, with a capi- 
 tal of $580,800, employing 949 persons, and making 
 11,210 tons of castings, etc., valued at $981,400 ; 18 es- 
 tablishments, with a capital of $529,600, employing 
 374 persons manufacturing 6325 tons of wrought iron, 
 etc., valued at $667,560; 117 flouring mills, 116 tan- 
 neries, with a capital of $360,500, employing 407 per- 
 sons; value of products, $731,006. Capital invested 
 in manufactures, $23,890,348; value of manufactured 
 articles, $41,897,848. 
 
 The state is watered by numerous rivers and streams. 
 Few of the rivers are navigable for more than a short 
 distance from their mouths. The principal is the Con- 
 necticut, which rises on the northern border of New 
 Hampshire, and after a course of about 400 miles falls 
 into Long Island Sound between Saybrook and Lyme. 
 Its general direction is south-by-west, separating New 
 Hampshire from Vermont, and afterward passing 
 through the western part of Massachusetts and the cen- 
 tral part of Connecticut. Below Middletown it turns to 
 the south-southeast, and continues in that direction to 
 its mouth. It is navigable to Middletown, 30 miles from 
 the sea, for vessels drawing 10 feet, and to Hartford, 20 
 miles higher, for vessels drawing 8 feet of water. The 
 canals and other improvements recently made to over- 
 come the rapids and falls, have rendered it navigable 
 for small boats as far as Wells Eiver, 250 miles above 
 Hartford. The principal tributary of the Connecticut 
 in this state is the Tunxis or Farmington, which rises 
 in the eastern slope of the Green Mountains in Massa- 
 chusetts, and flows southward to Farmington, where it 
 abruptly changes its course to the northward. On 
 breaking through the trap range of the Talcott Mount- 
 ains, it again takes a southerly direction, and falls into 
 the Connecticut opposite East Windsor. The Housa- 
 tonic rises in the western part of Massachusetts and en- 
 ters this state near its northwest comer, after which it 
 
CON 
 
 4oa 
 
 CON 
 
 has a south and southeast course to the Sound. , Its en- 
 tran-ce is obstructed bj; a bar, but there is a.sloop nav- 
 igation for 12 miles. The Thames, fojmed by the 
 junction of the Quinebaug, Shetuclcet, and Yantic Riv- 
 ers near Norwich, falls into the Sound at New Lon- 
 .don. The mineral wealth of Connecticut is considera- 
 ble. Iron ore of excellent quality is found ^ibupdant- 
 ly in various parts. The copper mines of Bristol and 
 Plymouth are said to be the most profitable in the 
 United States. According to Professor Silliman, thp 
 Bristol vein extends in a southerly direction for more 
 than 30 miles, and if fully worked isi capable of afford- 
 ing employment to 30,000 miners. The Plymouth 
 mines are considered to be equally rich.. Copper, is' 
 also found at.Gran by. , Pine marbles of different kinds' 
 are abundant, and extensive' quarries of freestone ex- 
 ist in the, mountain regions, and furnish an excellent 
 
 building material. Zinc, cohalfc,-manganese, and plum- 
 bago are also found,; and the mineral waters of Staf- 
 ford have long been celebrated. 
 
 Connecticut has a larger productive school fund, in 
 proportion to its ; population, ithan any other iState, 
 amounting to $2,049,482. This originated chieiiy from 
 the sale, of the Western Reserve, constituting a large 
 part of the northern portion of, the St!(te of Ohio in- 
 cluded in its, original charter, and ceded to it .by' the 
 United States by way of compromise. In 1852 there 
 were in the state 53 banks, with a capital of $12,509,808. 
 It, has no state debt. There is a state prison at,AVeth- 
 ersfield, erected in 1826. 
 
 The following synopsis of the length, cost, capital, 
 earnings, etc., of the Connecticut railroads, is from the 
 Official Report pf the Railroad. Commissioners of that 
 State fpf 1856 : , , 
 
 Debi' 
 
 Funded and 
 
 Unfimded. 
 
 Total Length in 
 Length. Connecticut. 
 
 Capital 
 Paid in. 
 
 Net 
 Earning!' 
 
 Divi- 
 dends. 
 
 New York and New Haven 
 
 New Haven and H artford 
 
 Norwich and Worcester 
 
 Hartford, I^ovidence, and Fishkill. . 
 N. London, ■Willimantic, and Palmer 
 
 New Haven and New London 
 
 Ilousatonic , 
 
 Naugatuck 
 
 Danbury and Norwalk 
 
 New York, Providence, and Boston . 
 
 New Haven and Northampton 
 
 Boston and New York Central 
 
 Total 
 
 Miles. 
 C2t 
 72 
 66 
 
 im 
 
 66 
 
 50 
 74 
 57 
 
 2Gi 
 
 5a 
 
 56i 
 74i 
 
 Miles. 
 47J-. 
 OS 
 61 
 !l6 
 57 
 5) 
 74 
 57 
 23J- 
 
 6 
 65i 
 
 $2,992,460 
 2,360,000 
 ,2,122,300 
 2,008,110 
 
 509,200 
 
 738,538 
 2,000,000 
 1,031,800 
 
 279,050 
 1,508,000 
 
 923,500 
 2,240,800 
 
 $2,888,010 
 
 146,000 
 
 1,564,689 
 
 2,030,665 
 
 1,073,672 
 
 761,46." 
 
 414.240 
 
 524,244 
 
 97,100 
 
 : 446jT0O 
 
 500,000 
 
 1,518,671 
 
 $5,070,979 
 3,318,932 
 2,597,153 
 4,060,868 
 1,594,682 
 
 .■ 1,455,669 
 
 2,431,773 
 
 1,680,723 
 
 373,460 
 
 ) 2,158,000 
 
 ■1,400,00ft 
 ,?,463,818 
 
 $958,275 
 730,01? 
 804,236 
 268,685 
 124,043 
 
 88,007 
 839,196 
 220,459 
 
 56,241 
 250,627 
 145,135 
 
 r;9,917 
 
 ITU 
 
 590i 
 
 $18,702,248 
 
 $12,165,356]$'.i9,S05,662 
 
 $338,877 
 
 862,799 
 
 88,468 
 
 119,611 
 
 663,330 
 
 30,318 
 
 176,529 
 
 95,965 
 
 21,900 
 
 74,834 
 
 74,054 
 
 8,139 
 
 $236,000 
 62,787 
 l8;i41 
 
 13,970 
 37,692 
 36,900 
 
 $3,534,839|$1,448,4 12 $394,491 
 
 Commerce of the State op CoNNECTTotrr (showing aiso the Distetct Toitnage ih" 1821, 1831, 1841, and 1851) feom Oct. 
 
 1, 1820, TO Jdly 1, 1856. 
 
 Years ending 
 
 
 Exports. 
 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Tonnage 
 
 leaped. 
 
 DiBtrict fonnage. 
 
 Domestic. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 TotaL 
 
 Total. 
 
 American. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 RegiBtored., 
 
 Enrolled and 
 Licensed. 
 
 Sept. 30, 1821 
 
 $366,180 
 
 $10,007 
 
 $376,187 
 
 $312,p90 
 
 14,749 
 
 
 74,084 
 
 31,720 
 
 1S22 
 
 479,353 
 
 6,959 
 
 435,312 
 
 607,094 
 
 17,442 
 
 
 
 
 1823 
 
 480,941 
 
 1,120 
 
 482,061 
 
 456,463 
 
 16,733 
 
 108 
 
 
 
 1824 
 
 570,634 
 
 6,218 
 
 576,852 
 
 681,510 
 
 20,946 
 
 
 
 
 1825 
 
 084,686 
 
 4,584 
 
 689,270 
 
 «07,478 
 
 24,395 
 
 
 
 
 1826 
 
 69^,454 
 
 13,439 
 
 708,893 
 
 736,194 
 
 21,634 
 1S,'078 
 
 
 
 
 1827 
 
 ,"567,100 
 
 23,178 
 
 590,275 
 
 630,004 
 
 
 
 
 1828 
 
 49.3,926 
 
 27,620 
 
 521,645 
 
 485,174 
 
 17,668 
 
 
 
 
 1829 
 
 450,985 
 
 6,985 
 
 467,970 
 
 309,538 
 
 16,090 
 
 
 
 
 1830 
 
 Total. . . 
 
 385,610 
 
 3,901 
 
 889,611 
 
 269,583 
 
 18,285 
 
 77 
 
 
 
 $5,174,868 
 
 $102,008 
 
 $5,27,6j87.6 : 
 
 $4,995,128 
 
 185,940 
 
 186 
 
 
 
 Sept. 80, 1881 
 
 $482,073 
 
 $810 
 
 '$482,883 
 
 $405,066 
 
 20;139 
 
 
 18,063 
 
 34,810 
 
 1832 
 
 430,466 
 
 
 480,466 
 
 437,715 
 
 20,944 
 
 367 
 
 
 
 1833 
 
 427,603 
 
 
 427,603 
 
 352,014 
 
 18,458 
 
 606 
 
 
 • <■ t 
 
 1834 
 
 421,419 
 
 997 
 
 422,416 
 
 885,720 
 
 18,548 
 
 204 
 
 
 
 1836 
 
 487,510 
 
 215,460 
 
 612,970 
 
 439,502 
 
 10,528 
 
 618 
 
 
 . • • • 
 
 1836 
 
 431,176 
 
 7,023 
 
 438,199 
 
 468,163 
 
 20,342 
 
 . 1,642 
 
 
 .... 
 
 1837 
 
 623,103, 
 
 9,487 
 
 532,590 
 
 818,849 
 
 20,299 
 
 2,145 
 
 
 .... 
 
 1838 
 
 543,610 
 
 
 54;3,610 
 
 343,331 
 
 18,892 
 
 420 
 
 
 .... 
 
 1839 
 
 633,226 
 
 
 883,226 
 
 442,847 
 
 26,808 
 
 916 
 
 
 
 1840 
 
 Total... 
 
 518,210 
 
 
 518,210 
 
 277,072 
 
 24,122 
 
 479 
 
 
 
 $4,848,396 
 
 $43,777 
 
 $4,892,173 
 
 $8,870,279 
 
 198,580 
 
 7,297 
 
 
 
 Sept. 30, 1841 
 
 $599,348 
 
 
 $599,348 
 
 $295,989 
 
 27,886 
 
 8,027 
 
 26,421 
 
 38,853 
 
 1842 
 
 532,392 
 
 .... 
 
 632,392 
 
 336,707 
 
 27,253 
 
 4,791 
 
 
 
 9mos., 1843" 
 
 307,223 
 
 
 307,223 
 
 , 230,841. 
 
 14,113 
 
 2,743 
 
 .... 
 
 
 June 30, 1844 
 
 798,725 
 
 1,291 
 
 800,016 
 
 328,299 
 
 83,381 
 
 4,780 
 
 • • . > 
 
 
 1845 
 
 960,810 
 
 8,245 
 
 969,055 
 
 ■ 872,075 
 
 37,086 
 
 2,101 
 
 
 
 1846 
 
 766,912 
 
 10,000 
 
 775,912 : 
 
 413,478 
 
 81,131 
 
 5,937 
 
 • . . . 
 
 
 1847 
 
 598,702 
 
 490 
 
 699,192 
 
 276,823 
 
 20,636 
 
 1,966 
 
 
 
 1848 
 
 501,064, 
 
 
 501,064 
 
 229,810 
 
 23,800 
 
 4,313 
 
 
 
 1849 
 
 264,000 
 
 
 264,000 
 
 . 234,743 
 
 20,440 
 
 3,719 
 
 
 
 1850 
 
 Total... 
 
 241,262 
 
 668 
 
 241,930 
 
 372,390 
 
 17,516 
 
 9,802 
 
 
 
 $6,569,438 
 
 $20,694 
 
 $5,590,132 
 
 $3,083,666 
 
 262,841 
 
 48,179 
 
 
 
 June 30, 1851 
 
 $433,894 
 
 $184 
 
 $434,078 
 
 $342,994 
 
 22„534 
 
 8,127 
 
 41,806 
 
 74,3T4 
 
 1852 
 
 505,904 
 
 270 
 
 506,174 
 
 394,676 
 
 27,607 
 
 10,237 
 
 
 
 1353 
 
 497,769 
 
 11,666 
 
 509,434 
 
 645,793 
 
 19,942 
 
 8,962 
 
 
 
 1854 
 
 721,307 
 
 18,264 
 
 739,576 
 
 662,977 
 
 23,760 
 
 7,342 
 
 
 
 1865 
 
 859,402 
 
 19,382 
 
 878,874 
 
 633,826 
 
 21,369 
 
 7,379 
 
 
 
 1856 
 
 800,682 
 
 20,292 
 
 968,876 
 
 741,766 
 
 31,417 
 
 8,929 
 
 
 
 
 • Nin 
 
 e months to 
 
 June 30, and 
 
 fiscal year be 
 
 jina July 1, 
 
 1843. 
 
 
 
 Consolidated Fund. Down to 1816 the ex- 
 chequers of Great Britain and Ireland were kept sepa- 
 rate, certain portions of the public revenue arising in 
 each kingdom being especially appropriated to the dis- 
 charge of the interest on its own debts, and other pe- 
 culiar purposes. But on January 5th, 1816, the sepa- 
 rate exchequers were consolidated into one ; and an 
 
 act was at the same time passed consolidating certain 
 portions of the joint revenue of Great Britain and Ire- 
 land into one fund, hence called the Consolidated Fund, 
 and providing for its indiscriminate application to the 
 payment of the public debts, civil lists, and other spec- 
 ified expenses of both kingdoms. Some portions of 
 revenue are not included in this fund : but it embraces 
 
CON 
 
 401 
 
 CON 
 
 by far the largest part of the public income. Thus, in 
 1838, of a total net income of £47,333,460, the Consoli- 
 dated Fund included no less than £44,144,438 : the ex- 
 penditure on account of the peculiar charges to be de- 
 frayed by the fund during the same year amounted lo 
 £31,742,918, leaving a surplus of £12,401,570 applica- 
 ble to other objects. — Faibman on tlie Funds, 7th ed. 
 p. 896 ; Pari. Paper, No. 849. Sess. 1839, etc. 
 
 Constantinople, a famous city of southeastern 
 Europe, formerly the metropolis of the Eastern, as it 
 still is of the Turltish empire, on a triangular point of 
 land, on the European side of the Sea of Marmora 
 (Proporitis), at the point where it unites with the Boa- 
 phorus, or channel leading to the Black Sea, lat. 41^ 
 0' 12" N., long. 28° 69' 2" E. Population variously 
 estimated at from 300,000 to 600,000, but believed, by 
 the best authorities, to be about 450,000. The situa- 
 tion of this renowned city is, in a commercial point of 
 
 view, one of the finest imaginable. Standing on the 
 narrow straits uniting the Mediterranean and Euxine 
 Seas, she at once commands and is the entrepot for 
 the commerce between them. The harbor is most ex- 
 cellent. It consists of an extensive inlet, or arm of 
 the sea, stretching along the northeast side of the citj', 
 which it divides from the suburbs of Galata and Pera. 
 It has sufficient depth of water to float the largest 
 ships^ and can accommodate more than 1000 sail. The 
 strong current that sets through the Bosphorus into 
 the Sea of Marmora strikes against Seraglio Point (see 
 Plan) ; a part of the water, being in consequence forced 
 into the harbor, runs along its southwestern side in the 
 direction marked by the arrows (see Plan), till, arriv- 
 ing at its extremity, it escapes by the opposite side. 
 In the middle the water is still. On leaving the port, 
 it is necessary to keep well over to the northern side ; 
 for otherwise the ship might be taken by the current. 
 
 POET OF CONSTANTINOPLE. 
 
 Beferencta to Ptan.—A, Seraglio PoiBt j B, Galata; C, Scutari ; D, Tower and Light-house of Leander. The aiTows show 
 the direction of the currents. The soundings are in fathoms. 
 Cc 
 
CON 
 
 402 
 
 CON 
 
 and driven on Seraglio Point. It may be worth while, 
 however, to remark that, notwithstanding this incon- 
 venience, the current has been of signal service to the 
 city, by scouring the harbor, and carrying away the 
 filth and ballast by which it must otherwise have been 
 long since choked up. The distance across from Se- 
 raglio Point to the opposite suburb of Scutari, on the 
 Asiatic coast, is rather more than an English mile. 
 Within less than a quarter of a mile of the latter is a 
 rocky islet, upon which is a tower and light-house, 
 known by the name of the Tower of Leander. For- 
 eigners reside in Galata, Pera, and the suburbs, on the 
 eastern side of the harbor; and it is there, consequent- 
 1}', that the principal trade of the place is carried on. 
 The quays are good, and ships lie close alongside. 
 
 The Bosphorus, or channel of Constantinople, runs 
 in a northeast by north direction about 15 miles, vary- 
 ing in breadth from IJ to i a mile. It is swept by a 
 rapid current, which it requires a brisk gale to stem, 
 and has throughout a great depth of water. The Hel- 
 lespont, or Strait of the Dardanelles, leading from the 
 Archipelago to the Sea of Marmora, is about 13 leagues 
 in length. Its direction is nearly northeast. Where 
 narrowest, it is little more than a mile across. It 
 also is swept by a strong current, and has deep water 
 throughout. 
 
 The subjoined plan of part of Constantinople and its 
 port is copied, without reduction, from the beautiful 
 plan of the city and Bosphorus, drawn and engraved 
 by M. Merzoff Robert of Munich, and published by Mr. 
 Wilde of London. 
 
 Nothing can be more imposing than the appearance 
 of the city when seen from the sea, but on landing the 
 illusion vanishes. The streets are narrow, dark, ill- 
 paved, and irregular. Owing to the want of any ef- 
 fective system of police, and of the most ordinary at- 
 tention to cleanliness, they are extremely filthj' ; and 
 are infested with herds of dogs, and also with rats, 
 which perform the functions of scavengers. The 
 houses are mostly built of wood, and fires are frequent. 
 Most of these happen designedly ; the burning of a few 
 hundred houses being deemed the readiest and most 
 effectual means of making the government aware of 
 the public dissatisfaction, and of procuring a redress 
 of grievances. 
 
 Monty. — Accounts are kept in piastres of 40 paras, 
 or 120 aspers. The Turkish coin has been so much 
 degraded, that the piastre, which a few years ago was 
 worth 2s. sterling, is now worth little more than 4d. A 
 bag of silver Qcefer) =500 piastres, and a bag of gold 
 (toze) =30,000 piastres. 
 
 Weights and Measures. — The commercial weights 
 are: 176 drams = l rottolo; 2-272 rottoli = l oke ; 6 
 okes = l batman; 7|- batmans = l quintal or cantaro = 
 124-457 (124i very nearly) lbs. avoirdupois =56-437 
 kilogrammes = 116-527 lbs. of Hamburg. The quintal 
 of cotton is 45 okes =127-2 lbs. avoirdupois. 
 
 The pik or pike is of two sorts, the greater and the 
 lesser. The greater, called halehi or arschim, used in 
 the measurement of silks and woolens, is very near 28 
 inches (27-9). The lesser, called endese, used in the 
 measuring of cottons, carpets, etc. =27 inches. Hence 
 100 long piks =77-498 English yards, and 100 short 
 piks =75-154 English yards. But in ordinary com- 
 mercial affairs the pik is estimated at |ths of an En- 
 glish yard. 
 
 Corn is measured by the Hsloz or ii'Bow= 0-941 of a 
 Winchester bushel 8^ kisloz=l quarter. The/ortm 
 =4 kisloz. 
 
 Oil and other liquids are sold by the alma or meter= 
 1 gallon 3 pints, English wine measure. The alma of 
 oil should weigh 8 okes.— Nelkenerecher and Dr. 
 Kelly. 
 
 The Port charges on account of English vessels in 
 the harbors of the Ottoman empire are fixed by treaty 
 at 300 aspers, neither more nor less. 
 
 Trade, etc. — Owing to the vicious institutions of the 
 
 Turks, and the disorganized state of the empire, the 
 trade of Constantinople is very far from being so ex- 
 tensive as might be supposed from its situation and 
 population. The imports consist of corn, iron, timber, 
 tallow, and furs, principally from the Black Sea ; and 
 of cotton stuffs and yarn, coal, tin, tin plates, woolens, 
 silks, cutlerj', watches and jewelry, paper, glass, furni- 
 ture, indigo, cochineal, etc., from England and other 
 European countries. Corn and coffee are imported 
 from Alexandria ; but considerable quautities of Bra- 
 zil and West India coffee are also imported, particular- 
 ly in British and American bottoms. Sugar is partly 
 imported from the East, but principally from the West 
 Indies. The exports consist of silk, which is by far 
 the most important article, carpets, hides, wool, Angola 
 goats' hair, yellow berries, boxwood, opium, galls, bul- 
 lion and diamonds, and a few other articles. But the ex- 
 ports are always very much less than the imports ; and 
 ships carrying goods to Constantinople either return in 
 ballast, or get return cargoes at Smyrna, Odessa, Salon- 
 ica, etc., on which places they frequently procure bills 
 at Constantinople. By far the largest proportion of the 
 trade of the city, and of the Levant generally, is in the 
 hands of Greek merchants, who by their superior skill, 
 industry, and knowledge of those with whom the}' have 
 to deal, have completely distanced their English, 
 Frencli, and other European competitors (denominated 
 Franks). The Armenians only have been able to 
 withstand the competition of the Greeks. Bargains 
 are negotiated by Jew brokers, some of whom are rich. 
 
 Constantinople was known as the Stanboli of tlie 
 Greeks, or Istanboul of the Turks. An attempt was 
 made to change tliis latter name into Islamboul, that 
 is, the town of Islam or Mohammedanism, and coins 
 were even struck bearing the new name ; but tlie at- 
 tempt failed, and the coinage again bears the impres- 
 sion " struck at Istanboul." The entire civil and ec- 
 clesiastical authority of the Turkish empire is concen- 
 trated in the city, where reside the chief pashas, muf- 
 tis, and ulemas; the patriarch and synod of the Greek 
 Church ; an Armenian and a Catholic archbishop. 
 Tliat part of it which is now occupied by the seraglio, 
 and wliich is separated from the rest by a wall, is un- 
 derstood to have been the Byzantium of the ancients. 
 
 Commercial Policy. — It is singular that, as respects 
 commerce, the policy of the Turkish government, 
 whether originating in design or carelesspess, is enti- 
 tled to the highest praise. " No restrictions," says 
 Mr. Thornton, "are laid on commerce, except in the 
 instance of a general prohibition of exporting tho arti- 
 cles necessary for the support of human life to foreign 
 countries, especially from the capital, where alone it is 
 rigorously enforced ; and this impolitic restraint will 
 no doubt be removed when the Turkish government 
 shall become sensible that what is intended as the 
 means of securing abundance is, in fact, the sole cause 
 of that scarcity which is sometimes experienced. With 
 this one exception, commerce is perfectly free and un- 
 fettei-ed. Every article of foreign or domestic growth 
 or manufacture is conveyed into every port, and over 
 every province, without any interference on the part 
 of the magistrates, after payment of the duties. On 
 this subject I speak from actual experience, and may 
 appeal to every foreign or native merchant in Turkey 
 for its general truth." — Present State of Turkey, vol. i. 
 p. 82. 
 
 The duties, too, are extremely moderate, being only 
 five per cent, on imports, viz., three per cent, on goods 
 when landed, and two per cent, on their being admit- 
 ted to consumption {ITbicini, i. 281), and about three 
 per cent, on most articles of export. Hence, in almost 
 all that relates to her commercial regulations, Turkey 
 is entitled to read a lesson to the most civilized Euro- 
 pean powers ; and this she did in a very able manner, 
 in an ofiicial paper published in the Moniteur Ottoman, 
 in September, 1832. We extract a few paragraphs 
 from this interesting document. 
 
CON 
 
 403 
 
 CON 
 
 *' Good Benee, tolerance, and hospitality have long ago done 
 for the Ottoman empire what the other states of Europe are 
 endeavoring to effect by more or less happy political combi- 
 nations. Since the throne of the sultans has been elevated 
 at Constantinople, commercial prohibitions have been un- 
 known ; they opened all the porta of their empire to the com- 
 merce, to the manufactures, to the territorial produce of the 
 Occident, or, to say better, of the whole world. Liberty of 
 commerce has reigned here without limits, as large, as ex- 
 tended as it was possible to he. 
 
 "Here every object of exchange is admitted, and circulates 
 without meeting any obstacle other than the payment of an 
 infinitely small portion of the value to the custom-house. 
 The chimera of a balance of trade never entered into heads 
 sensible enough not to dream of calculating whether there 
 was most proiit in buying or selling. Thus the markets of 
 Turkey, supplied from all countries, refusing no objects which 
 mercantile spirit puts in circulation, and Imposing no charge 
 on the vessels that tmusport them, are seldom or never the 
 scenes of those disordered movements occasioned by the sud- 
 den deficiency of such or such merchandise, which, exorbi- 
 tantly raising prices, are the scourges of the lower orders, by 
 unsettling their habits, and by inflicting privations. From 
 the system of restrictions and prohibitions arise those de- 
 vouring tides and ebbs which sweep away in a day the labor 
 of years, and convert commerce into a career of alarms and 
 perpetual dangers. In Turkey, where this system does not 
 exist, these disastrous effects are unknown. 
 
 *' The extreme moderation of the duties is the, complement 
 of this rL'gime of commercial liberty ; and in no portion of the 
 globe are the officers charged with the collection of liiore 
 confiding facility for the valuations, and of so decidedly con- 
 ciliatory a spirit in every transaction regarding commerce. 
 
 "Away with the supposition that these facilities granted 
 to strangers are concessions extorted from weakness I The 
 dates of the contracts termed capitulations, which establish 
 the rights actually enjoyed by foreign merchants, recall pe- 
 riods at which the Mussulman power was altogether predomi- 
 nant in Europe. The first capitulation which France obtained 
 was in 1535, from Soliman the Canonist (the Magnificent). 
 The dispositions of these contracts have become antiquated, 
 the fundamental principles remain. Thus, 30O years ago, 
 the sultans, by an act of munificence ;and of reason, antici- 
 pated the most ardent desires of civilized Europe, and pro- 
 claimed unlimited freeddm of commerce." 
 
 Did the policy of Turkey in other respects harmonize 
 "with this, she "would be one of the most civilized and 
 powerful of nations, instead of being one of the most 
 abject and degraded. Unfortunately, however, this is 
 very far from being the case. Tyranny and insecuri- 
 ty universally prevail. *' The cultivator of the soil," 
 says one of her eulogists, "is ever a helpless prey to 
 injustice and oppression. The government agents 
 have to suffer in their turn from the cruelty and rapac- 
 ity of which they themselves have been guilty; and 
 the manufacturer has to bear his full share of the com- 
 mon insecurity ; he is flxed to the spot, and can not 
 escape the grasp of the local governor. The raw ma- 
 terial monopolized by a bey or ayan, may be forced 
 upon him at a higher price than he could purchase it 
 himself, and perhaps of inferior quality ; iines may be 
 imposed upon him, he may be taken for forced labor, 
 or troops may bo quartered on his workshop." — Urqu- 
 HAKT on Turiet/ and its Resources, p. 139. 
 
 Some vigorous efforts have been made of late years 
 by the Turkish government to reforni abuses ; but 
 with little or no practical effect. There is, in truth, 
 neither public virtue nor principle in the country to 
 second these efforts. Corruption of every kind is as 
 prevalent as ever; and the rayahs continue to be ex- 
 posed to every sort of oppression. There are no roads 
 in any part of the empire ; and agriculture is every- 
 where in the most abject condition. Indeed, vast 
 tracts of the most fertile (and of old the most flourish- 
 ing) districts of Asia Minor are wholly waste and un- 
 occupied ; and the evil, instead of diminishing, is con- 
 tinually increasing. The greater density of population 
 in European Turkey, and the little industry found in 
 it, are due to the energies of the Christian population. 
 And when the latter have been emancipated from the 
 slavery in which they have been long held, by the ex- 
 pulsion of their barbarian task-masters from Europe, 
 
 the beautiful provinces in which they have been so 
 long permitted to encamp will again become the favor- 
 ite seats of industry and civilization. But the degra- 
 dation in which the native inhabitants are involved 
 would have been still more complete, but for the free- 
 dom of commerce they have always enjoyed. This has 
 tended to keep alive the seeds of industry, and to coun- 
 tervail to some small extent the destructive influence 
 of oppression and insecurity. Had their intercourse 
 with foreigners been either prohibited or placed under 
 oppressive restrictions, the barbarism of Turkey would 
 have been completed, and it is difficult to suppose that 
 there could have been any thing like wealth or indus- 
 try in the empire 
 
 " As the Turks do not allow a census to he taken, 
 all statements of the number of inhabitants in their 
 dominions must be doubtful and conjectural. "Ston 
 calculates the population of Constantinople at no more 
 than 300,000 ; while General Andrfossy calculated it, 
 without including Scutari, at 597,600; his calculation 
 being founded on the daily consumption of bread. The 
 number of houses is about 88,100. According to An- 
 drcossy, the division of the inhabitants is as follows; 
 300,000 Turks, Tatars, and other Mussulmans; 200,000 
 Greeks; 80,000 Armenians ; 30,000 Jews; and the re- 
 mainder of the various Frank nations. In 1861, the 
 census of the resident British gave only 200. The 
 mortality is said to be greater than in any other city 
 in Europe ; but the recruits that arrive from all parts 
 of the Turkish dominions, and especially the slaves 
 brought for sale, till up the numbers faster than they 
 fall away by death. Of late years, too, the rayahs 
 seek refuge from the exactions of the provincial pashas 
 in the neighborhood of the seat of government, where 
 the Tanzimat or new constitution is better observed. 
 Although the public slave-market has been shut for a 
 few years, the trade in slaves is still carried on with 
 all its episodes of horror and abomination. The close- 
 ly' latticed windows of the harems of the rich, the pris- 
 on-like aspect of the better streets, and the caravan of 
 gaunt, shoeless Nubian girls in their cotton wrappers, 
 are part and parcel of the odious system. 
 
 " The trade of Constantinople consists chiefly in the 
 supply of the wants of the state officers, and of the mil- 
 itary and naval persons who are attracted to the cap- 
 ital ; but it is chiefly by foreigners that the handicraft 
 operations are performed. The principal manufactures 
 are those of cotton and silk goods. The Armenians are 
 the chief jewelers and silversmiths. The Jews are 
 perfumers, druggists, and brokers ; the Franks are the 
 principal mechanics; and the chief business is trans- 
 acted at the several bazars. 
 
 " The foreign trade of Constantinople is favored by 
 its excellent harbor, capable of containing 1200 ships. 
 It is the medium of intercourse between that part of 
 Asia whence laden camels arrive, and the different di- 
 visions of Europe, collecting the drugs and silks of the 
 one, and distributing them among the others. It would 
 require much space to collect and enumerate the ram- 
 ifications of such a trade as is carried on in minute ar- 
 ticles to and from the city of Constantinople. The 
 city IS distant 1680 miles from London." — E. B. See 
 
 TuiiKEY. 
 
 Consuls. We propose to divide this article into 
 three parts: I. Consuls, their Origin, and Laws re- 
 specting them ; II. Duties of Consuls ; III. Diplomat- 
 ic and Consular Law of the United States. 
 
 Consul (liTraTOf), the highest ordinary magistrate 
 of the Eoman republic. It is probable that the word 
 is compounded of con and saKo, and is formed like ea-- 
 sul and prcesul, so that consules signifies those who go 
 together. They were anciently called prcetores, impera- 
 iores, or judices. 
 
 I. COSSULS, THEIK ORIGIN, AND LAWS RESPECTING 
 
 THEM. — Consuls, in the nineteenth century, are com- 
 mercial agents, appointed to reside in the sea-ports of 
 foreign countries, with a commission to watch over the 
 
CON 
 
 404 
 
 CON 
 
 commercial rights and privileges of the nation deput- 
 ing them. The establishment of consuls is one of the 
 most useful of modern commercial institutions. They 
 were appointed about the twelfth century in the opu- 
 lent states of Italy, such as Pisa, Lucca, Genoa, and 
 Venice, and their origin has been ascribed to the ne- 
 cessity for extraordinary assistance in those branches 
 of commerce formerly carried on with barbarous and 
 uncivilized nations. The utility of such a mercantile 
 officer has been perceived and felt by all trading na- 
 tions, and the Mediterranean trade in particular stands 
 highly in need of such accredited persons. Consuls 
 have been multiplied and sent to every part of the 
 world where navigation and commerce can successful- 
 ly penetrate ; and their duties and privileges are now 
 generally limited and defined by treaties of commerce, 
 or by the statute regulations of the country which they 
 represent. In some places they have been invested 
 with judicial powers over disputes between their own 
 merchants in foreign ports; but in the commercial 
 treaties made by Great Britain tliere is rarely any 
 stipulation for clothing them with judicial authority, 
 except in treaties with the Barbary powers ; and in 
 England it has been held that a consul is not strictly 
 a judicial officer, and they have there no judicial pow- 
 er. It has been urged by some writers,, as a matter 
 highly expedient, to establish rules requiring mer- 
 chants abroad to submit their disputes to the judicial 
 authority of their own consuls, particularly with ref- 
 erence to shipping concerns. But no government can 
 invest its consuls with judicial power over their own 
 subjects in a foreign country, without the consent of 
 the government of the foreign country, founded on 
 treaty ; and there is no instance in an}' nation of Eu- 
 rope, of the admission of criminal jurisdiction in for- 
 eign consuls. The laws of the United States, on the 
 subject of consuls and vice-consuls, especially authorize 
 them to receive the protests of masters and others in 
 relation to American commerce, and they declare that 
 consular certificates under seal, shall receive credit in 
 the courts of the United States. It is likewise made 
 their duty, where the laws of the country permit, to 
 administer the personal estates of American citizens 
 dying within their consulates, and leaving no legal 
 representative ; and to take charge of and secure the 
 effects of stranded American vessels in the absence of 
 the master, owner, or consignee ; and they are bound 
 to provide for destitute seamen within their consulates, 
 and to send them at the public expense to the United 
 States. It is made the duty of American consuls and 
 commercial agents to reclaim deserters, and to dis- 
 countenance insubordination, and to lend their aid to 
 the local authorities for that purpose, and to discharge 
 the seamen cruelly treated. It is also made the duty 
 of masters of American vessels on arrival at a foreign 
 port, to deposit their registers, sea-letters, and pass- 
 ports, with the consul, vice-consul, or commercial agent, 
 if any, at the port. These particular powers and du- 
 ties are similar to those prescribed to British consuls, 
 and to consuls under the consular convention between 
 the United States and France, in 1788 ; and they are 
 in accordance with the usages of nations, and are not 
 to be construed to the exclusion of others, resulting 
 from the nature of the consular appointment. The 
 consular convention between France and this country 
 in 1778, allowed consuls to exercise police over all ves- 
 sels of their respective nations, " within the interior of 
 the vessels," and to exercise a species of civil jurisdic- 
 tion by determining, disputes concerning wages, and 
 between the masters and crews of vessels belonging to 
 their own country. The jurisdiction claimed under 
 the consular convention with France, was merely vol- 
 untary, and altogether exclusive of any coercive au- 
 thority ; and we have no treaty at present which con- 
 cedes even such consular functions. The doctrine of 
 our courts is, that a foreign consul, duly recognized by 
 our government, may assert and defend, as a compe- 
 
 tent party, the rights of property of the individuals of 
 his nation in the courts of tlie United States, and may 
 institute suits for that purpose without any special au- 
 thority from that party for whose benefit he acts. But 
 the courts, in that case, said that they could not go so 
 far as to recognize a right in a vice-consul to receive 
 actual restitution of the property, or its proceeds, with- 
 out showing some specific power for the purpose from 
 the party in interest. No nation is bound to receive a 
 foreign consul unless it has agreed to do so by treaty, 
 and the refusal is no violation of the peace and amity 
 between the nations. Consuls are to be approved and 
 admitted in the usual form ; and if any consul be guil- 
 ty of illegal or improper conduct, he is liable to have 
 his exequatur (a written recognition of his character) 
 revoked, and to be punished according to the laws of 
 the country in wliich he is consul ; or he may be sent 
 back* to his own country, at the discretion of the gov- 
 ernment which he has offended. The French and 
 American consuls are forbidden to be concerned in 
 commerce, but British consuls are generally allowed to 
 be concerned in trade ; and in such cases the character 
 of consul does not give any protection to that of mer- 
 chant, when these characters are united in the same 
 person. Though the functions of a consul would seem 
 to require that he should not be a subject of the state 
 in which he resides, yet the practice of the maritime 
 powers is quite lax on this point ; and it is useful, and 
 tlxought most convenient, to appoint subjects of the 
 foreign country to be consuls at its ports. 
 
 A consul is not such a public minister as to be enti- 
 tled to the privileges appertaining to that character, 
 nor is he under the special protection of the law of 
 nations. He is entitled to privileges to a certain ex- 
 tent, such as for safe conduct ; but he is not entitled to 
 the jus gentium. Vattel thinks that his functions re- 
 quire that he should be independent of the ordinary 
 cnWma? jurisdiction of the country, and that he ought 
 not to be molested unless he violates the law of nations 
 by some enormous crime, and that if guilty of any 
 crime he ought to be sent home to be punished. But 
 no such immunities have been conferred on consuls by 
 the modern practice of nations ; and it may be consid- 
 ered as settled law that consuls do not enjoy the pro- 
 tection of the law of nations, any more than other per- 
 sons who enter the country under a safe-conduct. In 
 civil and criminal cases they are equally subject to the 
 laws of the country in which they reside. The same 
 doctrine, declared by the public jurists, has been fre- 
 quently laid down in the English and American courts 
 of justice. It seems, however, from some decisions in 
 France, mentioned by Mr. Warden, that foreign con- 
 suls can not be prosecuted before a French tribunal 
 for acts done by them in France by order of their gov- 
 ernment, and with the authorization of the French gov- 
 ernment, and that in general a consul can not be pros- 
 ecuted without the previous consent of his government. 
 
 Consular privileges are much less extensive in Chris- 
 tian than in Mohammedan countries. In the latter, 
 they can not be imprisoned for any cause whatever, 
 except by demanding justice against them of the Porte, 
 and they partake very considerably of the character of 
 resident ministers. They are diplomatic agents under 
 the name of consuls, and enjoy the rights and privi- 
 leges which the Ottoman Porte recognizes in relation 
 to the foreign ministers resident at Constantinople. 
 By treaty an entire immunity is usually given to the 
 persons, domestics, and efi'ects of the resident consuls, 
 and no consuls reside with the Barbary States but un- 
 der the protection of treaties. 
 
 Considering the importance of the consular func- 
 tions, and the activity which is required of them in all 
 great maritime ports, and the approach which consuls 
 
 * As was the case with the British consuls at New York, 
 Philadelpliia, and Cincinnati, in tlie year 1856. The official 
 exequatur of tliese gentlemen was withdrawn by President 
 Pierce, and their oificial functions ceased. 
 
CON 
 
 405 
 
 CON 
 
 make to the efficacy and dignity of diplomatic charac- 
 ters, it was a wise provision in the Constitution of the 
 United States, which gave to the Supreme Court orig- 
 inal jurisdiction in all cases affecting consuls as well 
 as embassadors and other public ministers; and the 
 federal jurisdiction is understood to be exclusive of the 
 state courts. — Kent's Comm.^ Lect. II. 
 
 In the treaty between Sweden and the United States 
 of America, ratified on the 24th of July, 1818, it is stip- 
 ulated that the consuls appointed by either govern- 
 ment to reside within the dominions of the other, or 
 their substitutes, " shall, as such, have the right of 
 acting as judges or arbiters in all cases of differences 
 which may arise between the captains and crews of 
 the vessels of the nation whose affairs are intrusted to 
 their care. The respective governments shall have no 
 right to interfere in this sort of affairs, except in the 
 case of the conduct of the crews disturbing public or- 
 der and tranquillity in the country in which the vessel 
 may happen to be, or in which the consul of the place 
 may be obliged to call for the intervention and support 
 of the executive power, in order to cause his decision 
 to be respected ; it being, however, well understood, 
 that this sort of judgment or arbitration can not de- 
 prive the contending parties of their rights of appeal- 
 ing, on their return, to the judicial authorities of their 
 country." 
 
 II. Duties of Consuls. — The duties of a consul, even 
 in the confined sense in which they are commonly un- 
 derstood, are important and multifarious. It is his 
 business to be always on the spot, to watch over the 
 commercial interests of the subjects of the state whose 
 agent he is; to be ready to assist them with advice 
 on all doubtful occasions ; to see that the conditions in 
 commercial treaties are properly observed; that those 
 he is appointed to protect are subjected to no unneces- 
 sary or unjustifiable demands in conducting their busi- 
 ness ; to represent their grievances to the authorities 
 of the place where they reside, or to the embassador of 
 the sovereign appointing him at the court on which the 
 consulship depends, or to the government at home ; in 
 a word, to exert himself to render the condition of the 
 subjects of the country employing him, within the lim- 
 its of his consulship, as comfortable, and their transac- 
 tions as advantageous and secure as possible. 
 
 The following more detailed exposition of the gen- 
 eral duties of a consul is taken from Mr. Chitty's work 
 on Commercial Lam : "A consul, in order to be proper- 
 ly qualified for his employment, should take cave to 
 make himself master of the language used by the court 
 and the magistracy of the country v here he resides, so 
 as to converse with ease upon subjects relating to his 
 duties. If the common people of the court use anoth- 
 er, he must acquire that also, that he may be able to 
 settle little differences without troubling the magistra- 
 cy of the place for the interposition of their authority ; 
 such as accidents happening in the harbor, by the ships 
 of his nation running foul of and doing damage to each 
 other. He is to make himself acquainted, if he be not 
 already, with the law of nations and treaties, with the 
 tariff or specification of dutie^ on articles imported or 
 expoi'ted, and with all the municipal ordinances and 
 laws. 
 
 " He must take especial notice of all prohibitions to 
 prevent the export or import of any articles, as well on 
 the part of the state wherein he resides, as of the gov- 
 ernment employing him ; so that he may admonish all 
 his countrymen against carrying on an illicit com- 
 merce, to the detriment of the revenues, and in viola- 
 tion of the laws of either ; and it is his duty to attend 
 diligently to this part of his office, in order to prevent 
 smuggling, and consequent hazard of confiscation or 
 detention of ships, and imprisonment of the masters 
 and mariners. It is also his duty to protect from in- 
 sult or imposition his countrymen of every description 
 within his jurisdiction. If redress for injury sufiered 
 is not obtained, he is to carry his complaint by memo- 
 
 rial to the minister residing at the court on which the 
 consulship depends. If there be none, he is to address 
 himself directly to the court; and if, in an import- 
 ant case, his complaint be not answered, he is to trans- 
 mit the memorial to the secretary of state. — Beawes, 
 Wakden, etc. 
 
 "When insult or outrage is offered by one from his 
 country to a native of the place, and the magistrate 
 thereof complains to the consul, he should summon, and 
 in case of disobedience, may by armed force bring be- 
 fore him the ofiender, and order him to give immediate 
 satisfaction ; and if he refuse, he resigns him to the 
 civil jurisdiction of the magistrate, or to the military 
 law of the garrison ; nevertheless always acting as coun- 
 selor or advocate at his trial, when there is question of 
 life or property. But if a subject be accused of an of- 
 fense alleged to have been committed at sea, within the 
 dominion or jurisdiction of his sovereign, it is tlien the 
 duty of the consul to claim cognizance of the cause for 
 his country, and to require the release of the parties, if 
 detained in prison by the magistracy of the place on 
 any such accusation brought before them, and that all 
 judicial proceedings against them do instantly cease ; 
 and he may demand the aid of the power of the coun- 
 try, civil and military, to enable him to secure and put 
 the accused parties on board such a ship as he shall 
 think fit, that they may be conveyed home to be tried 
 by their proper judges. If, contrary to this requisi- 
 tion, the magistrates of the country persist in proceed- 
 ing to try the offense, the consul should then draw up 
 and transmit a memorial to the minister at the court 
 of that country ; and if that court give an evasive an- 
 swer, the consul should, if it be a sea offense, apply to 
 .the proper authorities, stating the case ; and upon their 
 representation, the secretary for the proper department 
 will lay the matter before the king, who will cause the 
 embassador of the foreign state to write to his court 
 abroad, desiring that orders may immediately be given 
 by that government that all judicial proceedings 
 against the prisoner be stayed, and that he be released. 
 — See Case of Horseman and his Crew, Beawes, vol. ii. 
 p. 422. 
 
 "The consul is not to permit a merchant ship to 
 leave the port where he resides without his passport, 
 which he is not to grant until the master and crew 
 thereof have satisfied all just demands upon them; 
 and for this purpose he ojight to see the governor's pass 
 of a garrisoned town, or the burgomaster's, unless the 
 merchant or factor to whom the ship was consigned 
 will make himself responsible. — Beawes, Lex. Merc, 
 vol. ii. p. 423. It is also his duty to claim and recover 
 all wrecks, cables and anchors belonging to the ships 
 of his country found at sea by fishermen or other per- 
 sons, to pay the usual salvage, and to communicate a 
 report thereof to authorities at home. The consuls and 
 vice-consuls are, by express enactment (46 Geo. 3, c. 
 98, § 99), empowered to administer oaths in all cases 
 respecting quarantine, in like manner as if they were 
 magistrates of the several towns or places where they 
 respectively reside. It is also laid down that a con- 
 sul is to attend, if requested, all arbitrations where 
 property is concerned between masters of ships and the 
 freighters, being inhabitants of the place where he re- 
 sides." — Chitty on Commercial Law, vol. i. p. 58-61, 
 and the numerous authorities there quoted. 
 
 Any individual, whether he be a subject of the state 
 by which he is appointed, or of another, may be select- 
 ed to fill the office of consul, provided he be approved 
 and admitted by the government in whose territory he 
 is to reside. In most instances, however, but not al- 
 ways, consuls are the subjects of the state appointing 
 them. Much, however, of the peculiar duties of a con- 
 sul must always depend on the nature of the inter- 
 course with the country to which he is sent, and of the 
 instructions given him. Consuls are regularly sup- 
 plied with copies of all acts relating to trade and navi- 
 gation, quarantine, slave-trade suppression, emigra- 
 
CON 
 
 406 
 
 CON 
 
 tion, etc.. and with the treaties between this and other 
 countries, and must of course shape their conduct ac- 
 cordingly. They are strictly forbidden from corre- 
 sponding with private parties on public matters. Un- 
 der the General Instructions for British Consuls, " he 
 will bear in mind that it is his principal duty to pro- 
 tect and promote the lawful trade and trading interests 
 of his country by every fair and proper means, taking 
 care to conform to the laws and regulations in ques- 
 tion j and while he is supporting the lawful trade, he 
 will take special notice of all prohibitions with respect 
 to the export or import of specified articles as well on 
 the part of the state in which he resides as of his gov- 
 ernment, so that he may caution all his countrymen 
 against carrying on an illicit commerce to the detri- 
 ment of the revenue, and in violation of the laws and 
 regulations of either country ; and he will not fail to 
 give this Department immediate notice of any attempt 
 to contravene those laws and regulations. 
 
 *' The consul will give his best advice and assistance, 
 when called upon, to his countrymen, quieting their 
 differences, promoting peace, harmony, and good-will 
 among them, and conciliating as much as possible the 
 subjects of the two countries upon all points of differ- 
 ence which may fall under his cognizance. In the 
 event of any attempt being made to injure his country- 
 men, either in their persons or property, he will up- 
 hold their rightful interests, and the privileges secured 
 to them by treaty, by due representation in the proper 
 official quarter. He will, at the same time, be careful 
 to conduct himself with mildness and moderation in all 
 his transactions with the public authorities, and he will 
 not, upon any account, urge claims on behalf of his 
 countrymen to which they are not justly and fairly en- 
 titled. If redress can not be obtained from the local 
 administration, or if the matter of complaint be not 
 within their jurisdiction, the consul will apply to the 
 consul-general, or to his minister, if thei'e be no consul- 
 general in the country wherein he resides, in order that 
 he may make a representation to the higher authori- 
 ties, or take such other steps in the case as he may 
 think proper; and the consul will pay strict attention 
 to the instructions which he may receive from the min- 
 ister or consul-general." — See M'Cvi.i.ocn'& Dictionary 
 of Commerce ; Kent's Commentaries ; Encyclopedia Bri- 
 lannica, 8th ed. published by Messrs. Little, Brown and 
 Co., Boston; Manual for United States Consuls, 1857: 
 Tuson''s British Consul's Manual, London, 1856. The 
 reader may with advantage refer to the articles on Con- 
 suls and Consular Duties contained in De Bow's i2e- 
 vieio, vol i. p. 56; Hunt's J/ercAanis'jJ/rtyazme, vol. vi. 
 p. 297, vol. xiii. p. 551, voL x. p. 447, vol. xii. p. 211, 
 vol. xvii. p. 43, vol. xviii. p. 60 ; Foreign Quarterly Re- 
 ifiew^vol. xix, p. 106. 
 
 Jurisdiction, Privileges, and Immunities of Consuls. — 
 ^'The jurisdiction of a consul only extends over the 
 subjects of the nation he is nominated by, either resi- 
 dent in, or arriving at, the place in which he has been 
 appointed to reside. In countries where there are em- 
 bassies as well as consulates the jurisdiction of the lat- 
 ter generally only extends over the sea-faring subjects 
 of our nation, at the same time it watches over her com- 
 mercial interests. That of a consul-general presides 
 over the consul, and that of a consul, in most instances, 
 over that of the vice-consuls. The consular jurisdic- 
 tion depends more entirely into what country the con- 
 sul may be sent. Thus foreign consuls in England 
 have no judicial authority whatever. British consuls, 
 however, in most countries, have judicial power, and 
 consequentlj' their jurisdiction becomes either retrench- 
 ed or extended, according to the nature of the stipula- 
 tions of the ratified treaty. 
 
 "When the consul is appointed he is always pro- 
 vided with copies of the conventions with the country 
 he is sent to. In regard to the privileges and immu- 
 nities a consul enjoys, there have always existed doubts 
 whether he may be considered exempt from the civil 
 
 jurisdiction of the state to which he is nominated; and 
 although many others have laid down to the contrary, 
 still it may be maintained, and in perfect conformity 
 to the law of nations, that where the regular exequa- 
 tur has been accorded to the consul, he ought to be ex- 
 empt from the civil jurisdiction of the state to which 
 he is accredited. By the exequatur the sovereign ac- 
 knowledges him as the consular representative of his 
 empire, bearing her appointment, and protected by her 
 passport; and, as regards the nature of his mission, 
 only resident for a short time at the state. Under 
 these circumstances he ought to be exempt. 
 
 "In countries out of Europe, or, where there is no 
 embassy, the consul enjoys the same privileges as an 
 embassador, and is de facto the embassador or repre- 
 sentative of his sovereign, only under another name. 
 ^e can perform all acts of a notary public, all deeds 
 executed by him being hfld to be valid, and acknowl- 
 edged in our courts of law. He can attend all levees 
 of the sovereign after receiving his exequatur and ei- 
 ther after having been presented to the sovereign by 
 the embassador, or, in his absence, by the minister of 
 foreign affairs. The consulate is generally considered 
 as the territory of the power by which it is tenanted, 
 and all deeds, acts, and any other documents executed 
 under the seal of the consul are valid in the country 
 from which he has been sent. At the same time, it 
 must be perfectly understood that all acts thus issued 
 by the consul are, with a few exceptions, not valid in 
 the country, in which he resides, except there be a spe- 
 cial convention to that eflbct. All documents, required 
 to be valid before the tribunals of the country he is in, 
 ought to be made out by the proper lawyers appoint- 
 ed for that purpose ; for it can not be expected that 
 where a consul is only authorized as judicial authority 
 for his own country, that his acts should be acknowl- 
 edged and received as legal instruments in the tribu- 
 nals of the country he is accredited to, although his 
 acts should be respected, as it might be possible that 
 they could be grounded upon quite a different lex mer- 
 catoria, and could not, therefore, be taken in evidence 
 against documents perhaps quite opposite in a legal 
 point of view, and it would be unjust to allow them to 
 be i-eceived." — Tuson's British Consul's Manual, 1856. 
 
 III. Consular System of the United States. — The es- 
 tablishment of a consular system in the United States 
 Avas nearly coeval with that of the general government. 
 In the second annual address of President Washington 
 to the first Congress, he informed that body that " the 
 patronage of our commerce, of our merchants, and sea- 
 men, called for the appointment of consuls in foreign 
 countries ; that it seemed expedient to regulate by law 
 the exercise of that jurisdiction and those functions 
 which are permitted either by express convention or 
 by a friendly indulgence in the places of their resi- 
 dence." Prior to this period consuls were not allowed 
 salaries, nor permitted to demand fees or recei\'c per- 
 quisites. 
 
 In each branch of Congress this recommendation of 
 the President was referred to the appropriate commit- 
 tee, and consular bills were reported in accordance 
 therewith. They failed, however, to become laws, the 
 House having stricken out the whole of the Senate bill 
 with the exception of the first section. 
 
 la the early part of the second Congress substantial- 
 ly the same bill, probably drawn by Mr. Ellsworth 
 (afterward Chief Justice), was reported to the Senate by 
 a committee to whom the recommendation of the Pres- 
 ident had been referred; and, subsequently, after the 
 adoption of several amendments, it passed both branch- 
 es of Congress unanimously, and became, on the 14th 
 of April, 1792, a law of the' land. 
 
 From this period till the year 1855, ^vith the excep- 
 tion of the act of July 20th,"l840, regulating the ship- 
 ment and discharge of seamen and the duties of con- 
 suls, scarcely any change was made in the laws affect- 
 ing the consular system. 
 
CON 
 
 407 
 
 CON 
 
 In the year 1854, Mr. Perkins, of Louisiana, then a 
 member of the House of Representatives from Loui- 
 siana, having devoted himself most assiduously to the 
 study of the subject, prepared a bill to remodel the dip- 
 lomatic and consular systems' of the United States. 
 
 The bill was advocated in the House, and finally 
 passed by a vote of 143 yeas to 33 nays. 
 
 In the Senate it passed unanimously, received the 
 approval of the President on the 1st of March, 1855, 
 and went into operation on the 1st of July, in the same 
 year. 
 
 According to the recommendation of Mr. Marcy, Sec- 
 retary of State, the subject was again brought forward 
 in August, 1856, and a new act passed by a vote in the 
 House of Representative.s of 103 to 56, and passed tlie 
 Senate unanimously on the 16th of that month. 
 
 It has rarely happened that a law so important as 
 this has passed Congress with such unanimity — one in. 
 solving many and important changes in the diplomat- 
 ic and consular systems of the United States ; creating 
 new offices ; increasing, reducing, or entirely abolish- 
 ing the salaries of many consular oi^iccrs j containing 
 provisions affecting every American merchant and 
 shipmaster engaged in foreign trade, and every Amer- 
 ican traveler in Europe ; repealing provisions of exist- 
 ing laws ; enacting others for the regulation of the 
 agents of the government in foreign countries, and of 
 civil officers in the United States; imposing heavy pen- 
 alties for the violation of the provisions of the statute ; 
 and authorizing and requiring the performance of im- 
 portant duties by the highest executive officers of the 
 government. The favor which the bill received in both 
 branches of Congress was doubtless due, in part, to the 
 fact that the near approach of the close o{ the session 
 left little time for its discussion and amendment, and 
 to the respect entertained by the House for the com- 
 mittee on foreign affairs, which reported the bill, whose 
 chairman, it was understood, had devoted much time 
 and care in its preparation. The law provides for the 
 rate of compensation to be received by all diplomatic 
 and consular officers, of whatever grade; fixes their 
 compensation ; permits the latter to transact business, 
 or prohibits them from doing so, in certain places ; pre- 
 scribes the conditions of official bonds ; Imposes penal- 
 ties for the violation of the provisions of the law, and 
 indicates the manner in which actions for the recovery 
 of penalties shall be tried ; authorizes the appointment 
 of consular pupils, of interpreters, and of additional 
 secretaries of legations ; fixes the period at which the 
 compensation of the officers named in the act shall com- 
 mence and terminate ; provides for the filling of diplo- 
 matic and consular offices temporarily vacant, and the 
 pay to be received by officers acting ad interim; for- 
 bids the exercise of diplomatic functions by unauthor- 
 ized persons ; authorizes the President to define the 
 limits of the several consular and commercial agencies, 
 to provide for the appointment of subordinate consular 
 officers and their compensation, and likewise to fix the 
 rate or tariff of fees for consular services, and designate 
 what shall be regarded as official services; requires 
 the consular tariff' to he reported to Congress annually, 
 and also the amount of fees received at the several con- 
 sulates ; directs the mode in which the payment of fees 
 shall be made and accounted for, and the coin in which 
 they shall be payable ; imposes additional duties upon 
 collectors and shipmasters in respect to consular serv- 
 ices, receipts, and invoices; forbids diplomatic and 
 consular officers to be absent from their posts, or to 
 hold correspondence in regard to the public affairs of 
 any foreign government with the press, or private per- 
 sons, or otherwise than with the proper officers of the 
 United States ; forbids consular officers being pecun- 
 iarily interested in the receipt or disbursement of the 
 wages of seamen, or in expenditures made for their re- 
 lief or transportation ; provides that no compensation 
 shall be paid to diplomatic and consular officers, un- 
 less they shall be citizens of the United States ; au- 
 
 thorizes the President to supplj' the legations and con- 
 sulates of the United States with certain articles nec- 
 essary for the transaction of the public business, and 
 to prescribe such regulations, and make and issue such 
 orders and instructions, not inconsistent with the Con- 
 stitution or any law of the United States, in relation 
 to the duties of all diplomatic and consular officers, the 
 transaction of their business, the rendering of accounts 
 and returns, the payment of compensation, the safe- 
 keeping of the archives and public property in the 
 hands of all such officers, the communication of infor- 
 mation, and the procurement and transmission of the 
 products of the arts, sciences, manufactures, agricul- 
 ture, and commerce, from time to time, as he may 
 think conducive to the public interests ; requires these 
 officers to conform to such regulations, orders, and in- 
 structions ; makes it the duty of the Secretary of State 
 to publish official notifications, from time to time, of 
 such commercial information communicated to him by 
 the diplomatic and consular officers as he may deem 
 important to the public interests, and to report to Con- 
 gress, at least once in each year, a synopsis of so much 
 of the information on all subjects, which shall be so 
 communicated to him, as he may deem valuable for 
 public information ; authorizes the granting and issu- 
 ing of passports, under certain conditions, and the per- 
 formance of notarial duties by secretaries of legation 
 and consular officers ; enacts various provisions in re- 
 gard to the desertion of seamen, the payment and the 
 forfeiture of wages and extra wages in certain cases, 
 and the settlement of seamen's accounts, and their dis- 
 charge in foreign countries ; provides for the account- 
 ability of consular officers for the extra wages of sea- 
 men ; prescribes the kind of returns and reports to be 
 made by consular officers, and requires all shipmasters 
 to apply to consular officers for the transaction of con- 
 sular business, and permits the detention of ships' pa- 
 pers till payment shall be made of all demands 'and 
 wages on account of such ships and vessels ; defines the 
 duties of eonsnlar officers in respect to all citizens of 
 the United States dj^ing abroad, and the meaning to 
 he affixed to the-several titles by whidi -consular offi- 
 cers are designated; imposes heavy penalties for all 
 malfeasance, and for the violation of the provisions of 
 the act; repeals all acts and parts of acts inconsistent 
 with its provisions ; and, finally, provides that the act 
 shall take effect on the first of January, 1857. It will 
 thus be seen that the law which now regulates the dip- 
 lomatic and consular systems of the United States em- 
 braces a great number of subjects, and enters into 
 much detail with respect to all matters pertaining to 
 the consular office. Many of its provisions are emi- 
 nently judicious ; the expediency of others must be 
 tested by time and their practical operation. The 
 treaties and conventions of the United States with for- 
 eign nations contain many important provisions relat- 
 ing to the duties, rights, and privileges of consuls, es- 
 pecially those which have been negotiated with China 
 and the Ottoman Porte. 
 
 But "the most complete consular conventions ever 
 concluded," as remarks Mr. Tuson, the latest writer on 
 the subject of the duties of consuls, " are those between 
 France and the United States, and between the latter 
 country and Holland ; the former negotiated at Wash- 
 ington by Mr. Everett and M. Sartiges, and the latter 
 at the Hague, iinder the instructions of Mr. Marcy. 
 The rules laid down therein are very explicit, and 
 ought to be taken as examples by all other nations. 
 They will be-of great utility to all consuls, in showing 
 them what their present duties are, and what they are 
 most likely to become. These conventions are such as 
 are likely to be taken as precedents for future tre.ities 
 on the same subject." Occurrences which have taken 
 place in the United States and elsewhere, within the 
 last few years, have shown how defective is the legis- 
 lation of this country in respect to consuls. The sub- 
 ject attracted Mr. "Webster's attention, while Secretary 
 
CON 
 
 408 
 
 CON 
 
 of State; and, at his suggestion, the attention of Con- 
 gress was called to it. He remarked that no country 
 has a deeper interest in securing the protection of dip- 
 lomatic and consular agents than the United States. 
 Their commerce spreads over every sea, and visits ev- 
 ery clime ; and these agents are appointed to protect 
 its interests, as well as to guard the peace of the coun- 
 try, and maintain the honor of its flag. While thus 
 engaged in the discharge of important functions, they 
 should be objects of especial respect and protection, 
 each according to the rights belonging to his rank and 
 station. 
 
 As much has been done during the last four years as 
 at any former period in this country, by means of con- 
 sular conventions, by legislation, and by circulars is- 
 sued by the Secretary of State, not only to secure 
 these objects, but to perfect the consular system, and 
 to render it useful to the country. In obedience to the 
 circulars issued by Mr. Marcy to consular oificers on 
 the 8th of October, 1853, the 15th of March, 1854, the 
 11th of July, 1855, and also the genei'al and special in- 
 structions of the Department of State, a vast amount 
 of information relating to ship-building, shipping, nav- 
 igation, tonnage, seamen, foreign tariffs, commercial 
 regulations, and other subjects, has been transmitted 
 to the Department by the United States consuls. The 
 matter thus collected is important and valuable ; its 
 preparation reflects great credit on the industry and in- 
 telligence of the consular coi'ps, and affords a striking 
 illustration of the importance of their services. 
 
 At the present time the consular corps of the United 
 States consists of seven consuls-general, one hundred 
 and seventeen consuls, and nine commercial agents, 
 who receive for their compensation fixed salaries ; 
 ninety consuls, ten commercial agents, and eighty-five 
 consular agents, who are authorized to retain for their 
 compensation the official fees which they receive. Re- 
 siding as these ofiicers do in all the principal marts of 
 traffic and commerce throughout the world, and hav- 
 ing their duties carefully defined by law and the in- 
 structions of the Executive, it may reasonably be ex- 
 pected that all information affecting the commercial 
 relations of the United States with foreign nations will 
 be furnished by them to the Department of State, and 
 published for the benefit of their fellow-citizens. 
 
 As an illustration of the value to be placed on the 
 correspondence of consuls, it may be stated that in a 
 debate which took place in 1842, in the House of Com- 
 mons, Lord Palmerston remarked, that, during the 
 time he had the honor of being at the head of the for- 
 eign department, he had read every report and every 
 letter received from the consular officers abroad, from 
 the most elaborate report of the highest consul-general 
 down to the least-important letter of the lowest vice- 
 consul. "Very laborious reading it was," he adds, 
 "but, scattered through the voluminous papers that 
 thus came under my eye, I found many important 
 matters with which it was ray duty to be acquainted ; 
 and it is quite a mistake to suppose that, because there 
 is a superintendent of the consular department, the 
 Secretary of State does not give the same minute at- 
 tention to the consular as to the other duties of the 
 office, though the consular correspondence amounts to 
 one-half of the whole correspondence of the foreign 
 office." The perfection to which the consular system 
 has attained in France furnishes an illustration of what 
 may be accomplished by a thoroughly organized con- 
 sular establishment. The objects contemplated by such 
 a system, as has been well remarked by a writer prac- 
 tically acquainted with the subject, are nothing less 
 than the advancement of the prosperity and power of 
 nations. Deputed to watch over the commercial rights 
 and privileges of their respective countries, consular 
 officers are intrusted with the care of the highest inte- 
 rests, and exercise a more important influence upon 
 mercantile prosperity, the foundation of national great- 
 ness, than any other foreign agents of government. 
 
 Scattered throughout the whole world, occupying an 
 eminent social position in all the mercantile cities of 
 every nation, and performing duties which bring them 
 more or less into collision with the people among whom 
 they reside, they, by their conduct and manners, influ- 
 ence the judgment which is formed of the country they 
 represent, and either add to its dignity or reflect dis- 
 honor on its national character. 
 
 1. Nature and Duties of the Consular Office. — The 
 word "consuls," as used in the Constitution of the 
 United States, designates a class of public officers ap- 
 pointed by their government to reside in foreign coun- 
 tries, and especially in sea-ports and other places of 
 commerce, to discharge administrative and sometimes 
 judicial functions in regard to their countrymen who 
 dwell or may be in the country where they reside ; to 
 aid in the authentication of documents abroad, and 
 generally to perform such other duties as may be as- 
 signed to them by the laws and orders of their govern- 
 ment. 
 
 2. Classes of Consular Officers, — Accordingly, by va- 
 rious laws of the United States, duties are imposed 
 and rights conferred on this description of public offi- 
 cers, under the names of consuLs-general, consuls, vice- 
 consuls, deputy-consuls, commercial agents, vice-com- 
 mercial, agents, and consular agents. It is provided 
 by the 31st section of the act of Congress approved 
 August 18, 1856, that these official designations shall 
 be deemed to have the respective meanings therein 
 assigned to them, namely: "consul-general," "con- 
 sul," and "commercial agent," shall be taken to de- 
 note full, principal, and permanent "consular officers," 
 as distinguished from subordinates and substitutes ; 
 " deputy-consul" and " consular agent" to denote " con- 
 sular officers" subordinate to such principals, exercis- 
 ing the powers and performing the duties within the 
 limits of their consulates or commercial agencies re- 
 spectively — the former at the same ports or places, 
 and the latter at ports or places different from those 
 at which such principals are located respectively; and 
 " vice-consuls" and " vice-commercial agents" to de- 
 note " consular officers" who shall be substituted, tem- 
 porarily, to fill the places of "consuls-general," "con- 
 suls," or "commercial agents," when they shall be 
 temporarily absent or relieved from duty; and the 
 term " consular officer" to include all such officers as 
 are mentioned in the said section, and none others. 
 
 3. Application of Acts of Congress. — It is further pro- 
 vided by the same section that, in the construction and 
 for the purposes of all other acts and parts of acts which 
 shall remain in force after the act above mentioned 
 shall take eflfect, defining any of the powers, declaring 
 any of the rights, prescribing any of the duties, or im- 
 posing any penalty or punishment for any act of omis- 
 sion or commission of any consul', commercial agent, 
 vice-consul, or vice-commercial agent, or allowing or 
 enjoining the performance of any act, matter, or thing, 
 with or before any such officer, all such acts and parts 
 of acts shall in all these several respects, so far as may 
 be consistent with the subject-matter and context of 
 the same, and with the said act and the treaties of the 
 United States, be deemed and taken to include and 
 apply to all consular officers just as though all such 
 officers were specifically named therein. 
 
 i. Certain Consular Powers. — The important act of 
 1792 contains a declaratory provision, which is to be 
 understood as implied in all other acts of Congress, as 
 follows : 
 
 " The specification of certain powers and duties, 
 * * *, to be exercised or performed by the consuls 
 and vice-consuls of the United States, shall not be 
 construed to the exclusion of others resulting from the 
 nature of their appointments, or any treaty or conven- 
 tion under which they may act."* 
 
 So that the powers and duties of consuls, besides 
 
 * Statutes at large, vol. i, p. 25T. 
 
CON 
 
 409 
 
 CON 
 
 being defined by acts of Congress, are indicated by 
 general treaties and consular conventions entered into 
 between the United States and other sovereign powers. 
 
 5. IntemcUional Law. — Consuls possess, moreover, by 
 the law of nations, many functions, rights, and privi- 
 leges, other than such as are defined by convention, by 
 legislative act, or by regulation. 
 
 6. Consular Primleges. — Their privileges necessarily 
 arise from the character of their appointments ; but 
 they are not, like those of embassadors and other pub- 
 lic ministers, precisely defined by international law ; 
 and, consequently, they may be extended or limited 
 among different nations, either by treaties or the legis- 
 lative policy of those countries. Although the com- 
 missions which United States consuls receive from their 
 government are expressed in the same terms and con- 
 fer the same authority, yet, as the consular functions 
 are to be exercised in a foreign country, and in accord- 
 ance with an exequatur issued by its sovereign, they 
 may be more or less restricted. Whenever the immu- 
 nities, rights, and duties of consuls are prescribed by 
 mutual consular conventions, they are to be enjoyed or 
 exercised in accordance with the stipulations of such 
 conventions. In those countries with which the United 
 States have entered into no consular convention, con 
 sular officers may discharge such duties as are allowed 
 or are not forbidden by the laws of those countries, or 
 which are allowed by common usage ; and sometimes 
 they are permitted to exercise such privileges as are 
 granted to foreign consuls by the United States within 
 its own territory. 
 
 7. Wlien Obstacles are interposed. — If the authorities 
 of the places where consuls reside oppose any obstacles 
 to their enjoyment of the privileges which may have 
 been accorded hy consular conventions, or which, found- 
 ed on usage or reciprocity, may have been claimed by 
 themselves, they will refer the subject to the legation 
 of the United States residing in the country, and re- 
 port the facts, together with their own proceedings and 
 a copy of all their correspondence in relation to the 
 same, to the Department of State, and await its in- 
 structions. In no case will they strilte the consular 
 flag or abandon their post without the express permis- 
 sion of the Department. 
 
 8. Personal' Demeanor. — One of the first duties of 
 consular officers is to exhibit in their official conduct, 
 and in their intercourse with the local authorities and 
 with the people of the country, a proper respect for the 
 supreme authority. 
 
 9. Stt/le of Official Communications. — In their commu- 
 nications with official functionaries, they will be care- 
 ful to set forth tlieir views and opinions courteously 
 but firmly, avoiding in all cases the use of violent or 
 intemperate language. All discussions extending be- 
 yond the limits of a just moderation are injurious and 
 defeat their own object. 
 
 10. Influence of Personal Character. — It is, above all, 
 by their personal influence and character, by circum- 
 spect conduct and a conciliatory spirit, that consuls 
 will best succeed in settling difficulties and in the ac- 
 complishment of important objects. Commercial in- 
 tercourse is a common bond of interest among all coun- 
 tries and all men, and it is by arguments drawn from 
 this source, rather than by unreasonable- pretensions 
 and disputes, that injurious restrictions can be re- 
 moved. — De Clercq, tome ii. p. 32 et seq. 
 
 11. Duties imposed hy Laws. — The laws of the United 
 States on the subject of consuls and vice-consuls spe- 
 cially authorize them to receive the protests of mas- 
 ters and others relating to American commerce, and 
 declare that consular certificates under seal shall re- 
 ceive faith and credit in the courts of the United States. 
 It is likewise made the duty of consular ofiicers, where 
 the laws of the country permit, to collect and remit 
 the assets of the personal estates of American citizens 
 who may die within their consulates and leave no legal 
 representative, and to take charge of and secure the 
 
 effects of stranded vessels, in the absence of the mas- 
 ter, owner, or consignee ; and they are bound to pro- 
 vide for destitute seamen within their consulates, and 
 to send them, at the public expense, to the United 
 States. It is their duty,;likewise, to reclaim deserters, 
 to discountenance insubordination and lend their aid 
 to the local authorities for this purpose, to discharge 
 seamen cruelly treated, and to receive from the mas- 
 ters of American vessels, on their arrival at a foreign 
 port, and after the vessel shall have come to an entry, 
 the registers, sea letters, and passports of such vessels- 
 These duties, and some others >v-hich are prescribed by 
 legal enactment, are in accordance with the usages of 
 nations [Kent, vol. i. p. 42], and with special treaty 
 stipulations with certain countries. 
 
 12. Variety and Importance of Consular Duties. — 
 Many of the consular duties arise from peculiar cir- 
 cumstances : such as the character and habits of tlte 
 nation in which the consul resides, its laws and cus- 
 toms, and the nature of its intercourse with the United 
 States. In the most restricted sense, they are impor- 
 tant and multifarious, are quite difi'erent from those 
 of other ofiicers employed in foreign affairs, and re- 
 quire for their proper performance an amount of prac- 
 tical information for which the consular officer needs a 
 special training. Consuls are so situated as to exer- 
 cise toward their countrymen within their consular 
 jurisdiction the duties of judges, arbiters, and peace- 
 makers ; they are the registers of marriages, births, 
 and deaths ; they act as notaries, and sometimes as 
 revenue ofiicers ; they watch over and verify the san- 
 itary condition of their consulates ; and, by their do- 
 mestic relations, they can furnish a full and accurate 
 idea of the commerce, navigation, and industry pecul- 
 iar to the country of their residence. 
 
 13. Commercial Regulations. — The commercial inter- 
 ests of their own country are, in a measure, commit- 
 ted to their care. -They are to see whether the stipu- 
 
 i lations in commercial treaties are observed, and report 
 all changes in commercial regulations and municipal 
 ordinances. 
 
 Every law, edict, or regulation of the government 
 where they reside, in any way affecting the commerce 
 of the United States, which comes to the knowledge of 
 consular ofiicers, must be immediately transmitted to 
 
 . the State Department ; and, if it be a local regulation, 
 operating only on a particular port, they must also give 
 immediate notice thereof to the minister, if there be 
 one in the country to which the district belongs. 
 
 14. Suggestions. — Consular officers are expected, in 
 their correspondence, to note all events which bear 
 upon the commerce between the country where they 
 reside and the United States, the establishment of new 
 branches of industry within the limits of their consular 
 jurisdiction, and the increase and decline of such as 
 have been before established. They should also make 
 such suggestions as, in their opinion, may lead to an 
 increase of trade, and point out any circumstances 
 which may have produced a contrary effect, with the 
 means that appear proper for avoiding such a result. 
 When new products of the arts, sciences, or manufac- 
 tures appear to be valuable either for export or import, 
 and this is not generally known, the fact should be 
 communicated to the Department, and samples sent, 
 if not too bulky, with the consular letters ; but if too 
 bulky they may be addressed to the collector of some 
 one of our principal ports. Seeds of plants and grain 
 suitable for cultivation in the United States should also 
 be sent. In general, the duties of a consular officer re- 
 quire an attention to every thing that can promote the 
 commerce and navigation of this country, and the in- 
 terests of its citizens. 
 
 15. Contentions to be avoided. — Consular officers are y 
 particularly cautioned not to enter into any conten- 
 tions which can be avoided, either with their country- 
 men or the authorities of the country in which they 
 reside ; referring questions of that nature to the min- 
 
CON 
 
 410 
 
 CON 
 
 ister or to t&e Department j using every endeavor f o 
 settle in an amicable manner all disputes in which their 
 countrymen may be concerned ; and countenancing and 
 protecting them before the authorities of the country in 
 all cases in which they may be injured or oppressed, 
 but withholding from them support when they have 
 been willfully guilty of an infraction of the laws, par- 
 ticularly in any attempt to defraud the revenue. In 
 this last case they will aid the proper officers in check- 
 ing anj5 such practices. 
 
 16. Foreign Politics. — All consular officers are for- 
 bidden to participate in any manner whatever, direct 
 or indirect, in the political concerns of the countries 
 by whose governments they are severally acknowl- 
 edged and recognized in their public character ; and 
 they will be on their guard against the enlistment of 
 their feelings upon the side of any of the political or 
 sectional parties which may exist in these countries. 
 In tlieir letters upon such subjects, even to this De- 
 partment, they will confine themselves to the commu- 
 nication of important or interesting public events, as 
 they occur, in a clear and concise form, avoiding all 
 unnecessary reflections or criticism upon tlie character 
 or conduct of individuals or governments; and they 
 will not give publicity, through the press or otherwise, 
 to opinions or speculations injurious to the public in- 
 stitutions of those countries, or the persons concerned 
 in the administration of them ; but it is, at the same 
 time, no less their duty to report, freely and season- 
 ably, to their own government, all important facts 
 which may come to their knowledge, through authen- 
 tic channels, touching the political condition of these 
 countries, especially if their communications can be 
 made subservient to, or may aflect, the interest and 
 well-being of their own. 
 
 17. Prohibitions. — All consular officers ax'e prohibited 
 b}' the 19th section of the act approved August 18, 
 1856, from corresponding in regard 1o the public affairs 
 of any foreign government with any private person, 
 newspaper, or other periodical, or otherwise than with 
 the proper officers of the United States, and from rec- 
 ommending any person, at home or abroad, for any em- 
 ployment of trust or profit under the government of the 
 country in which they are located ; as well as from ask- 
 ing or accepting, for themselves or any other person or 
 persons, any present, emolument, pecuniary favor, of- 
 fice, or title of any kind, from any such government. 
 
 18. Diplomatic Functions. — As consuls, excepting in 
 Mohammedan states, are not invested with diplomat- 
 ic powers, they are not entitled to communicate direct- 
 ly, except under special circumstances, with the gov- 
 ernment of the country in which they reside. Consu- 
 lar officers are forbidden by the 12th section of the act 
 to exercise diplomatic functions, or hold an}' diplomat- 
 ic correspondence or relation on the part of the United 
 States, in, with, or to the government or country to 
 which they shall be appointed, or any other country 
 or government, when there shall be in such countr\- 
 any officer of the United States authorized to perform 
 diplomatic functions therein, unless expressly author- 
 ized by the President. 
 
 19. Mode nf addressing foreign Governments. — When- 
 ever application is to be made to such government, it 
 must be done through the minister of the United States, 
 if thei'C be one; if not, and the case should require it, 
 the consul may make the application to the proper de- 
 partment, but in respectful terms, stating the exigency 
 of the case, and that an application to the subordinate 
 officers could not be made, or that it had proved inef- 
 fectual. 
 
 20. Privileges, — A consul is not such a public minis- 
 ter as to be entitled to the privileges appertaining to 
 tl\at character, nor is he imder the special protection 
 of the law of nations. In civil and criminal cases, 
 where not otherwise provided by treaty stipulations, 
 he is subject to the lawa of the country in which he 
 resides. I 
 
 21. Treaties and Conventions. — It is the duty of con- 
 suls to be conversant with all treaties, conventions, 
 and consular conventions, also with the laws and com- 
 mercial and other regulations relating to their consular 
 functions. — Manual for Consuls^ issued hy the Depart- 
 ment of State, Washington, 1857. 
 
 An Act to regulate the Diplomatic and Consular Systems 
 of the United States, passed August 16, 1866.— Be it enacted 
 by the Senate aud House of Representatives of the United 
 States of America, in Congress assembled, that embassadors, 
 envoys extraordinary and ministers plenipotentiary, minis- 
 ters resident, commissioners, charges d'affaires, and secretaries 
 of legation, appointed to the countries hereinafter named in 
 schedule A, shall be entitled to compensation for their serv- 
 ices, respectively, at the rates per annum herein after specified ; 
 that is to say, embassadors and envoys extraordinary and 
 ministers plenipotentiary, the full amounts specified therefor 
 in said schedule A ; ministers resident and commissioners, 75 
 per centum; charges d'affaires, 50 per centum; and secretaries 
 of legation, 15 per centum of the said amounts, respectively ; 
 Provided, that the compensation of the Secretary of the Le- 
 gation to China, acting as interpreter, ehall be at the rate of 
 i'500O, and if not acting as such, at the rate of $3000 ; and 
 that of the Secretaiy of Legation to Turkey, acting as drag- 
 oman, at the rate of $3000, and if not acting as such, at tho 
 rate of $2000 per annum. 
 
 Schedule ^.—Grcat Britain, $1T,500 ; Franco, $17,500; 
 Russia, $12,000; Spain, $12,000; Austria, $12, OM: Prussia, 
 $12,000; Brazil, $12,000; Mexico, $12,000; China, $12,000; 
 all other countries, each $10,000. 
 
 Sect. 2. And be it further enacted, that the President be, 
 and is hereby authorized to appoint for the legations at Lon- 
 don and Paris, respectively, an assistant secretary of legation, 
 who shall be entitled to compensation for their services re- 
 spectively, at the rate of fifteen hundred dollars per annum ; 
 for the legation to China, an interpreter, when the secretary 
 of legation shall not be acting as such, who shall he entitled 
 to compensation at the rate of $5000 ; and for the legation to 
 Turkey, a dragoman, when the secretary of legation shall not 
 be acting as such, who shall be entitled to compensation at 
 tho rate of $1000 per annum. 
 
 Sect. 3. And he it further enacted, that consuls-general, 
 consuls, and commercial agents, appointed to the ports and 
 places hereinafter specified in schedulca B and C, shall be 
 entitled to compensation for their services, respectively, at 
 the rates per annum hereinafter specified in said schedules 
 B and C ; and if the President shall think proper to appoint 
 a consul to any port or place named in the said schedules B 
 and C, for a commercial agent, instead of such commercial 
 agent, or vice versa, and an appointment shall he made ac- 
 cordingly, the compensation for such consular officer shall be 
 the same in any such case as that fixed for such port or place 
 in the schedule embracing the same; and if he shall think 
 the public interests will be subserved by appointing to any 
 such port or place a consul-general, instead of a consul or 
 commercial agent, and an appointment shall be made accord- 
 ingly, the compensation for such consul-general shall be the 
 same as that fixed for such port or place in the schedule em- 
 bracing the same. 
 
 Sect. 4. And be it further enacted, that consuls-general, 
 consuls, and commercial agents, not embraced in schedules 
 D and C, shall be entitled, as compensation for their sen-- 
 ices, to such fees as they may collect in pursuance of the pro- 
 visions of this act, respectively. 
 
 Sect. 5. And be it further enacted, that no consul-general, 
 consul, or commercial agent, embraced in schedule B, shall, 
 while ho holds his olfico, be interested in or transact any 
 business as a merchant, factor, broker, or other trader, or as 
 a clerk or other agent for any such person, to, from, or within 
 the port, place, or limits of his consulate or commercial agen- 
 cy, directly or indirectly, either in his own name, or in the 
 name or through the agency of any other person ; and if ap- 
 pointed after this act shall take effect, he shall, in his oflicial 
 bond, stipulate, as a condition thereof, not to violate this pro- 
 hibition ; and if appointed before, and retained in office after 
 this act shall take effect, he shall, within such reasonable 
 time as the President shall prescribe, enter into a new oflicial 
 bond, with such stipulation as a condition thereof; and if 
 any such consul-general, consul, or commercial agent, shall 
 violate such prohibition, he shall be liable to a penalty 
 therefor, for the use of the United States, equal in amount 
 to the annual compensation specified for him in said schedule 
 B, which may be recovered in an action of debt at the suit of 
 the United States, cither directly for the penalty, as such, 
 againstsuch consul-general, or consul, or commercial agent, or 
 upon his official bond, as liquidated damages, for the breach 
 of such condition, against such consul-general, consul, or 
 
CON 
 
 411 
 
 CON 
 
 commercial agent and his sureties, or any one or more of 
 them ; and in every such caae all such actions shall be open to 
 the United States for the collection of such penalty till the 
 same shall be collected in some one of such actions; and 
 every such penalty, when collected, shall be paid into the 
 treasury of the United States ; and such prohibition shall be 
 applicable to all consuls-general, but not to any consul or 
 commercial agent not embraced in taid schedule B, except 
 as hereinafter authorized, unless otherwise expressly pro- 
 vided by law. 
 
 Sect. 6. And be it further enacted, that the President be, 
 and is hereby authorized to appoint three interpreters of the 
 Chinese language, who shall be entitled to compensation for 
 their services, respectively, at a rate not to exceed fifteen 
 hundred dollars per annum, to he determined by the Presi- 
 dent, and to assign such interpreters, from time to time, to 
 such consulates in China, and with such duties as he may 
 think proper. 
 
 Sect. 7. And he it further enacted, that the President be, 
 and is hereby authorized, whenever he shall think the pub- 
 lic good will be promoted thereby, to appoint consular pupils, 
 not to exceed twenty-five in number at any one time, who 
 shall bo citizens of the United States, and entitled to com- 
 pensation for their services, respectively, at a rate not to ex- 
 ceed one thousand dollara per annum, to be determined by 
 the President; and to assign such pupils, from time to time, 
 to such consulates, and with such duties as he may think 
 proper ; and before the appointment of any such pupil shall 
 be made, satisfactory evidence, by examination or otherwise, 
 shall bo furnished of his qualifications and fitness, for the office 
 to tho Secretary of State, and by him laid before the President. 
 
 Sect. 8. And he it further enacted, that no person appoint- 
 ed, after this act shall take effect, to any such office as is 
 mentioned in the first, second, third, sixth, or seventh sec- 
 tions of this act, shall be entitled to compensation for his 
 services therein, except from the time when he shall reach 
 his post, and enter upon his official duties, to the time when 
 ho shall cea.Ee to hold such office, and for such time as shall 
 be actually and necessarily occupied in receiving his instruc- 
 tions, not to exceed thirty days, and in making the transit 
 between the place of his residence, when appointed, and liis 
 post of duty, at tho commencement and termination of the 
 period of his official service, for which he shall in all cases 
 be allowed and paid, except as hereinafter mentioned, and no 
 person shall bo deemed to hold any such office after his suc- 
 cessor shall be appointed and actually enter upon the duties 
 of hia office at his post of duty, nor after his official residence 
 at such post sliall have terminated, if not so relieved; but 
 no 6uch allowance or payment shall be made to any consul- 
 general, consul, or commercial agent, contemplated by the 
 fourth section of this act, or to any vice-consul, vice-com- 
 mercial agent, deputy consul, or consular agent, for the time 
 so occupied In receiving instructions, or in such transit as 
 aforesaid; nor shall any such officer as la referred to in this 
 section be allowed compensation for the tlmo so occupied In 
 such transit, at the termination of the period of his official 
 service, if he shall have resigned, or been recalled therefrom, 
 or for any malfeasance in his office. 
 
 Sect. 9. And be it further enacted, that, when to any dip- 
 lomatic office held by any person there shall be superadded 
 another, such person shall be allowed additional compensa- 
 tion for his services, in such superadded office, at the rate of 
 fifty per centum of the amount allowed by this act for such 
 superadded office; and such superadded office shall be deemed 
 to continue during the time to which it is limited by the terms 
 thereof, and for such time as shall he actually and necessarily 
 occupied in making the transit between the two posts of duty, 
 at tho commencement and termination of the period of such 
 superadded office so limited, and no longer. 
 
 Sect. 10. And be it further enacted, that for such time as 
 any secretaiy of legation shall be lawfully authorized to act 
 as charg6 d'affaires ad interim at the post to which he shall 
 have been appointed, he shall be entitled to receive compen- 
 sation at the rate allowed by this act for a chargiS d'afihires at 
 such post ; but he shall not be entitled to receive, for such 
 time, the compensation allowed for his services as secretary 
 of legation. 
 
 Sect. 11. And be it further enacted, that for such time as 
 any consular officer shall be authorized, pursuant to the pro- 
 visions of this act, to perform diplomatic functions in the ab- 
 sence of the regular diplomatic officer in the country to which 
 he shall be appointed, he shall be entitled, in addition to his 
 compensation as such consular officer, to receive compensa- 
 tion for his services while so authorized, at the rate allowed 
 by this act for a secretary of legation in such country. 
 
 Sect. 12. And be it further enacted, that no consular officer 
 shall exercise diplomatic functions, or hold any diplomatic 
 correspondence or relation on the part of the United States, in 
 
 with, or to the government or the country to which he shall' 
 be appointedt or any other country or government, when there 
 shall be in such country any officer of the United States au- 
 thorized to perform diplomatic functions therein, nor in any 
 case, unless expressly authorized by the President so to do. 
 
 Sect 13. And he it further enacted, that every consul-gen- 
 eral, consul, and commercial agent, appointed before, and re- 
 tained in office. after this act shall take effect, shall, without 
 unnecessai-y delay, and every such officer appointed after this 
 act shall take effect, shall, before he receives his commission 
 or enters upon the duties of his office, enter into a bond with 
 the United States with such sureties, who shall be permanent 
 residents of the United States, as the Secretary of State shall^ 
 approve, in a penal sum not less than one thousand nor more 
 than ten thousand dollars, and in such form as the President 
 shall prescribe, conditioned for the true and faithful account- 
 ing for, paying over, and delivering up of all fees, moneys, 
 goods, effects, books, records, papers, and other property 
 which shall come to his hands, or to the hands of any other 
 person to his use as such consul-general, consul, or commer- 
 cial agent, under any law now or hereafter enacted; and for 
 the true and faithful performance of all other duties now or 
 hereafter lawfully imposed upon him as such consul-general, 
 consul, or commercial agent ; and in the cases of consuls-gen- 
 eral, consuls, and commercial agents embraced in schedule B, 
 such bond shall contain,bywayof further condition, the stip- 
 ulation required by the fifth section of this act; and all such 
 bonds shall be deposited with the Secretary of the Treasury, 
 and in no case shall the penalty of such bond be less than the 
 annual compensation allowed to the officer entering into such 
 bond ; and the President shall be authorized to require a new 
 or additional bond from any such consul-general, consul, or 
 commercial agent, in like form and in such penalty, within 
 the limits aforesaid, in amount, as he shall prescribe, when- 
 ever, in his opinion, the public good shall require it 
 
 Sect 14. And be it further enacted, that the President be, 
 and he is hereby authorized to define the extent of country 
 to be embraced within any consulate or commercial agency, 
 and to provide for the appointment of vice-consuls, vice-com- 
 mercial agents, deputy consuls, and consular agents therein, 
 in such manner, and under such regulations as he shall deem 
 proper ; but no compensation shall be allowed for the serv- 
 ices of any such vice-consul, or vice-commei'cial agent beyond 
 nor except out of the allowance made by this act for the prin- 
 cipal consular officer in whose place such appointment shall 
 be made ; and no vice-consul, vice-commercial agent, deputy 
 consul, or consular agent, shall be appointed otherwise than 
 in such manner and under such regulations as the President 
 shall prescribe, pursuant to the provisions of this act. 
 
 Sect. 15. And be it further enacted, that eveiy vice-consul 
 and vice -commercial agent shall be entitled, as compensation 
 for his services as such to the whole or so much of the com- 
 pensation of the principal consular officer, in whose place he 
 shall be appointed, as shall be detennined by the President, 
 and the residue, if any, shall be paid to such principal con- 
 sular officer ; and every consular agent shall be entitled, as 
 compensation for his services, to such fees as he may collect 
 in pursuance of the provisions of this act, or so much thereof 
 as shall be determined by the President ; and the priucipal 
 officer of the considate or commercial agency within the lim- 
 its of which such consular agent shall be appointed, shall be 
 entitled to the residue, if any, in addition to any other com- 
 pensation allowed him by this act for his services therein; 
 and the President shall have power to subject any consul or 
 commercial agent contemplated by the fourth section of this 
 act, and any vice-consul, vice-commercial agent, deputy con- 
 sul, or consular agent, to the prohibition as to trade contain- 
 ed in the fifth section of this act, and to require from any of 
 them such bond as is provided for by the thirteenth section 
 of this act, whenever he shall think the public interests will 
 be promoted thereby. 
 
 Sect 16. And be it further enacted, that the President be, 
 and is hereby authorized to prescribe, from time to time, the 
 rates or tariffs of fees to be charged for official services, and 
 to designate what shall be regarded as official services, be- 
 sides such as are expressly declared by law, in the business 
 of the several legations, consulates, and commercial agencies, 
 and to adapt the same, by such differences as may be neces- 
 sary or proper, to each legation, consulate, or commercial 
 agency, and such rates or tariffs shall be reported annually to 
 Congress ; and it shall be the duty of all officers and persons 
 connected with such legations, consulates, or commercial 
 agencies to collect for such official services, such and only 
 such fees as may be prescribed for their respective legations, 
 consulates, and commercial agencies, and it shall be the duty 
 of the collectors of the several districts, whenever any clear- 
 ance is granted to any ship or vessel of the United States, 
 duly registered as such, and bound on any foreign voyage, to 
 
CON 
 
 412 
 
 CON 
 
 annex thereto, in every case, a copy of the rates or tariffs of 
 fcea which shall be allowed in pursuance of the provisions of 
 this act, and then in force ; and it shall be the duty of all con- 
 sular officers at all times to keep up in their offices, respect- 
 ively, a copy of such rates or tariffs as shall be in force, in a 
 conspicuous place, and subject to the examination of all per- 
 sons interested therein. 
 
 Sect IT; And be it further enacted, that it shall be the duty 
 of all consular officers to give receipts for all fees which shall 
 be collected for their official serviceB respectively, expressing 
 the particular services for which the same were collected ; 
 and if any such, consular officer shall collect, or knowingly 
 allow to be collected, for any such service, any other or great- 
 er fees than such as shall be allowed pursuant to the provi- 
 sions of this act for such service, he shall, besides his liability 
 to refund the same, be liable to pay to the person by whom or in 
 wHose behalf the same shall be paid treble the amount of said 
 unlawful charge so collected as a penalty therefor, to be re- 
 covered by such person in any proper form of action, to and 
 for the use of such person, besides costs of suit; and in any 
 such case the Secretary of the Treasury is hereby authorized 
 to retain out of the compensation of such officer the amount 
 of such overcharge and of such penalty, and charge the same 
 to such officer in account, and thereupon to refund such, un- 
 lawful charge, and pay such penalty to the person entitled to 
 the same, if he shall think proper so to do. 
 
 Sect 18. And be it further enacted, that all fees collected at 
 any of the legations, or by the consuls-general, consuls, and 
 commercial agents mentioned in schedules B and C, and by 
 vice-consuls and vice-commercial agents appointed to per- 
 form their duties, or by any other persons in their behalf, 
 shall be accounted for to the Secretary of the Treasury, and 
 held subject to his draft, or other directions ; and all such 
 consuls-general, consuls, commercial agents, and consular 
 agents as are allowed for their compensation the whole or 
 any part of the fees which they may collect pursuant to the 
 provisions of this act, and all vice-consuls and vice-commer- 
 cial agents appointed to perform the duties of said consuls- 
 general, consuls, and commercial agents as are allowed for 
 their compensation the whole or any part of such fees as 
 aforesaid, shall make returns of all such fees as they or any 
 other persons in their behalf shall so collect, in such manner 
 as the Secretary of State shall prescribe ; and all such fees as 
 shall be so collected, accounted for, and reported, shall be re- 
 ported annually to Congress, with the report of the rates or 
 tariffs of fees required by the seventeenth section of this act, 
 with a full list of all consular officers ; and if any consul-gen- 
 eral, consul, or commercial agent, mentioned in schedules B 
 and 0, or any vice-consul, or vice-commercial agent, appoint- 
 ed to perform the duty of any such officer mentioned in said 
 schedules B and C, shall omit to collect any fees which be 
 shall be entitled to charge, pursuant to the provisions of this 
 act, for any official service, he shall be liable to the United 
 States therefor, as though he had collected the same, unless, 
 upon good cause shown therefor, the Secretary of the Treas- 
 ury shall think proper to remit the same ; and every consular 
 officer shall number all receipts given by him for fees received 
 for official servicer, in the order of their dates, beginning with 
 number one at the commencement of the period of his serv- 
 ice, and on the first day of January in every year thereafter; 
 and he shall keep a book, in which he shall register all fees 
 so received by him, in the order in which they shall be re- 
 ceived, specifying in such register each item of service and 
 the amount received therefor, from whom, and the dates 
 when received, and if for any service connected with any ship 
 or vessel, the name thereof, and indicating what items and 
 amounts are embraced in each, receipt given by him therefor, 
 and numbering the same according to the number of the re- 
 ceipts respectively, so that the receipts and register shall cor- 
 respond with, each other; and he shall, in such, register, spec- 
 ify the name of the person for whom, and the date when he 
 shall grant, issue, or verify any passport, certify any invoice, 
 or perform any other official service in the entry of the re- 
 ceipt of the fees therefor, and also number each consular act 
 BO receipted for, with the number of such receipt, and as 
 shown by such register; and it shall be the duty of all own- 
 ers, agents, consignees, masters, and commanders of ships 
 and vessels to whom any receipt for fees shall be given by 
 any consular officer, to furnish a copy thereof to the collector 
 of the district in which such ships and vessels shall first ar- 
 rive on their return to the United States; and it shall be the 
 duty of every collector to forward to the Secretary of the 
 Treasuiy all such copies of receipts as shall have been so 
 furnished to him, and also a statement of all certified in- 
 voices which shall come to his office, giving the dates of the 
 certificate and the names of the persons for whom, and of the 
 consular officers by whom the same were certified ; and every 
 consular officer. In rendering bis account or report of fees re- 
 
 ceived, shall furnish a full transcript of the register which he 
 is hereby required to keep, under oath or affirmation that the 
 same is true and correct, and that the same contains a full 
 and accurate statement of all fees received by him, or for his 
 use, for his official services as such consular officer, to the best 
 of his knowledge, during the period for which the same shall 
 purport to be rendered, and that such oath or affirmation may 
 be taken before any person having authority to administer 
 oaths and affirmations at the port or place where such consu- 
 lar officer is located ; and if any such consular officer shall 
 willfully and corruptly commit perjury, in any such oath or 
 affirmation, within the intent and meaning of any act of Con- 
 gress now or hereafter made, he may be charged, proceeded 
 against, tried, and convicted, and dealt with in the same 
 manner, in all respects, as if such offense had been commit- 
 ted in the United States, before any officer duly authorized 
 therein to administer or take such oath or affirmation, and 
 shall be subject to the same punishments and disability there- 
 for as are, or shall be prescribed by any such act for such of- 
 fense. 
 
 Sect. 19. And be it further enacted, that no such officer as 
 is mentioned in the first, second, third, fourth, sixth, or sev- 
 enth sections of this act shall, nor shall any consular agent, 
 be absent fi*om his post, or the performance of his duties, for 
 a longer period than ten days at any one time, without the 
 permission previously obtained of the President ; and no com- 
 pensation shall be allowed for the time of any such absence 
 in any case, except in cases of sickness; nor shall any diplo- 
 matic or consular officer correspond in regard to the public 
 affairs of any foreign government with any private person, 
 newspaper, or other periodical, or otherwise than with the 
 proper officers of the United States, nor recommend any per- 
 son, at home or abroad, for any employment of trust or profit 
 under the government of the coiintry in which he is located; 
 nor ask nor accept, for himself or any other person, any pres- 
 ent, emolument, pecuniary favor, office, or title of any kind, 
 from any such government. 
 
 Sect. 20. And be it further enacted, that the compensation 
 provided by this act shall be in full for all the services and 
 personal expenses which shall be rendered or incurred by the 
 officers or persons respectively for whom such compensation 
 is provided, of whatever nature or kind such services or per- 
 sonal expenses may be, or by whatever treaty, law, or in- 
 structions such services or personal expenses so rendered or 
 incurred are or shall be required; and no allowance, other 
 than such as is provided by this act, shall be made in any 
 case for the outfit or return home of- any such officer or per- 
 son; and no consular officer shall, nor shall any person un- 
 der any consular officer, make any charge or receive, direct- 
 ly or indirectly, any compensation, by way of commission op 
 otherwise, for receiving or disbursing the wages or extra 
 wages to which any seaman or mariner shall be entitled who 
 shall be discharged in any foreign country, or for any money 
 advanced to any such seaman or mariner who shall seek re- 
 lief from any consulate or commercial agency ; nor shall any 
 consular officer, or any person under any consular officer, be 
 interested, directly or indirectly, in any profit derived from 
 clothing, boarding, or othenvisc supplying or sending home 
 any such seaman or mariner; provided, that such prohibi- 
 tion as to profit shall not be construed to relieve or prevent 
 any such officer who shall be the owner or otherwise interest- 
 ed in any ship or vessel of the United States, from transport- 
 ing in such ship or vessel any such seaman or mariner, or 
 from receiving or being interested in such reasonable allow- 
 ance as may be made for such transportation, under and by 
 virtue of the fourth section of the act entitled "An Act sup- 
 plementary to the Act concerning Consuls and Vice-consuls, 
 and for the further protection of American seamen," approved 
 February 28, 1803, 
 
 Sect. 21. And be it further enacted, that no compensation 
 px'ovided by this act for any such officer as is mentioned in 
 the first section of this act, or for any assistant secretary of 
 legation, or for any such officer as is mentioned in schedules 
 B and C of the third section of this act, or any appropria- 
 tion therefor, shall be applicable to the payment of the com- 
 pensation of any person appointed to or holding any such 
 office after this act shall take effect, who shall not be a citi- 
 zen of the United States ; nor shall any other compensation 
 be allowed in any such case. 
 
 Sect 22. And be it further enacted, that the President be, 
 and is hereby authorized to provide at the public expense 
 all such stationery, blanks, record and other books, seals, 
 presses, flags, and signs, as he shall think necessary for the 
 several legations, consulates, and commercial agencies in the 
 transaction of their business ; and wlienever he shall think 
 there is sufficient reason therefor, to allow consuls-general, 
 consuls, and commercial agents, who are not allowed to trade, 
 actual expenses of office rent, not to exceed, in any ease, ten 
 
CON 
 
 413 
 
 CON 
 
 per ceatum of the amount of the annual compensation al- 
 lowed to such otKicer, and to prescribe such regulations and 
 make and issue such orders and instructions, not inconsistent 
 with the Constitution or any law of the United States, In re- 
 lation to the duties of all diplomatic and consular officers, 
 the transaction of their business, the rendering of accounts 
 and returns, the payment of compensation, the safe keeping 
 of the archives and public property in the hands of all such 
 officers, the communication of information, and the procure- 
 ment and transmission of the products of the arts, sciences, 
 manufactures, agriculture, and commerce, from time to time, 
 as he may think conducive to the public interests ; and it 
 shall be the duty of all such of&cers to conform to such reg- 
 ulations, orders, and Instructions. And it shall he the duty 
 of the Secretary of State to publish official notifications, from 
 time to time, of such commercial information communicated 
 to him by such diplomatic and consular officers, an he may 
 deem important to the public interest, in such newspapers, 
 not to exceed three in number, aa ho may Eelcct, and report 
 to Congress, at least once in each year, a synopsis of so 
 much of the information on all subjects which shall be so 
 communicated to him, as he may deem valuable for public 
 hiformation. 
 
 Sect. 23. And be it further enacted, that the Secretary of 
 State shall be authorized to grant and issue passports, and 
 cause passports to be granted, issued, and verified in foreign 
 countries by such diplomatic or consular officers of the United 
 States, and under such rules as the President shall designate 
 and prescribe for and on behalf of the United States, and no 
 other person shall grant, issue, or verify any such passport i 
 nor shall any passport be granted or issued to, or verified for 
 any other persona than citizens of the United States ; nor 
 shall any charge be made for granting, issuing, or verifying 
 any passport except in a foreign country; and in any such 
 caso tlic fee allowed therefor shall not exceed the sum of one 
 dollar, nor shall any such charge be made for more than one 
 such verification in any foreign country ; and if any person 
 acting, or claiming to act, in any office or capacity under the 
 United States,, or any of the states of the United States,, who 
 shall nob he lavyfully authorized so to do, shall grant, issue, 
 or verify any passport, or other instrument in the nature of a 
 passport, to or for any citizen of the United States, or to or for 
 any person claiming to he or designated as such in sucli pass- 
 port or verification, or if any consular officer who shall be au- 
 thorized to grant, issue, or verify passports, shall knowingly 
 and willfully grant, issue, or verify any such passport to or 
 for any person not a citizen of the United States, the person 
 BO offending shall be deemed and taken to be guilty of a mis- 
 demeanor, and, on conviction thereof, shall be imprisoned, 
 not exceeding one year, or fined in a sum not to exceed five 
 hundred dollars, pr both, and may bo charged, proceeded 
 against, tried, convicted, and dealt with, therefor, in the dis- 
 trict where he may bo arrested or in custody; and it shall be 
 the duty of all persons who shall be authorized, pursuant to 
 the provisions of thls.act, to grant, issue, or verify passports, 
 to make return of the same to the Secretary of State, in such 
 manner and as often as he shall require ; and such returns 
 shall specify the names and all other particulars of the per- 
 sons to whom the same shall be granted, issued, or verified, 
 as embraced in such passport : provided, that in any country 
 where a legation of tlio United States is established, no per- 
 son other than the diplomatic representative of the United 
 States at such place shall be permitted to grant or issue any 
 passport, except in the absence therefrom of such represent- 
 ative. 
 
 Sect. 24. And be it further enacted, that every secretaiy 
 of legation and consular officer is hereby authorized, when- 
 ever he shall be required or may deem it necessary or proper 
 so to do, at the post, port, place,, or within the limits of his 
 legation, consulate, or commercial agency, to administer to 
 or take from any person an oath, affirmation, affidavit, or dep- 
 osition, and also to perfoi^n any notarial act or acts such as 
 any notaiy public is required or authorized by law to do or 
 perform within the United States j and every such oath, af- 
 firmation, affidavit, deposition, and notarial act administered, 
 sworn, affirmed, taken, had, or done, by or before any such 
 officer, when certified under his hand and seal of office, shall 
 be as good, valid, effectual and of like force and effect within 
 the United States to all intents and purposes as if such oath, 
 affirmation, affidavit, deposition, or notarial act had been ad. 
 ministered, sworn, affirmed, token, had, or done, by or before 
 any other person within the United States duly authorized 
 and competent thereto : and if any person shall willfully and 
 corruptly commit perjury, or by any means procure any per- 
 son to commit perjury, in any such oath, affirmation, affi- 
 davit, or deposition, within the intent and meaning of any 
 act of Congress now or hereafter made, such offender may be 
 charged, proceeded against, tried, convicted, and dealt with 
 
 In any district of the United States in the same manner, in 
 all respects, as if such offense had been committed in the 
 United States, before any officer duly authorized therein to 
 administer or take such oath, affirmation, affidavit, or depo- 
 sition, and shall he subject to the same punishment and dis- 
 ability therefor as are or shall be prescribed by any such act 
 for such offense ; and any document purporting to have af- 
 fixed, impressed, or subscribed thereto or thereon the seal 
 and signature of the officer administering or taking the same 
 in testimony thereof, shall be admitted in evidence without 
 proof of any such seal or signature being genuine or of the 
 official character of such person; and if, any person shall 
 forge any such seal or signature, or shall tender in evidence 
 any such document with a false or counterfeit seal or signa- 
 ture thereto, knowing the same to be false or counterfeit, he 
 shall be deemed and taken to be guilty of a misdemeanor, 
 and on conviction shall be imprisoned not exceeding three 
 years, nor less than one year, and fined In a sum not to ex- 
 ceed three thousand dollars, and may be charged, proceeded 
 against, tried, convicted, and dealt with, therefor, in the dis- 
 trict where he may be arrested or in custody. 
 
 Sect. 25. And be it further enacted, that whenever any sea- 
 man or mariner of any vessel of the United States shall de- 
 sert such vessel, the master or commander of such vessel 
 shall note the fact and date of such desertion on the list of 
 the crew, and tlio same shall be officially authenticated at 
 the port or place of the consulate or commercial agency first 
 visited by such vessel after such desertion, if such desertion 
 shall have occurred in a foreign country ; or if in such case 
 such vessel shall not visit any place where there shall be any 
 consulate or commercial agency before her return to the 
 United States, or the desertion shall have occurred in this 
 country, the fact and time of such desertion shall be officially 
 authenticated before a notary public immediately at the first 
 port or place where such vessel shall arrive after such deser- 
 tion ; and all wages that may be due to such seaman or mar- 
 iner, and whatever interest he may have in the cargo of such 
 vessel, shall he forfeited to and become the property of the 
 United States, and paid over for their use to the collector of 
 the port where the crew of such vessel are accounted for, as 
 Soon as the same can be ascertained; first deducting there- 
 from any expense which may necessarily have been incurred 
 on account of such vessel in consequence of such desertion ; 
 and in settling the account of such wages or interest no al- 
 lowance or deduction shall be made except for moneys actu- 
 ally paid, or goods at a fair price supplied, or expenses in- 
 curred to or for such seaman or mariner, any receipt or vouch- 
 er from, or arrangement with such seaman or mariner, to the 
 contrary notwithstanding. 
 
 Sect. 26. And he it further enacted, that upon the appli- 
 cation of any seaman or mariner for a discharge, if it shall 
 appear to the consular officer that he is entitled to his dis- 
 charge under any act of Congress, or according to the gene- 
 ral principles or usages of maritime law, as recognized in the 
 United States, ho shall discharge such seaman or mariner, 
 and shall require from the master or commander of the ship 
 or vessel from which such discharge shall be made, the pay- 
 ment of three months' extra wages, as provided by the act 
 hereinbefore mentioned, approved February 28, 1803 ; and it 
 shall he the duty of such master or commander to pay the 
 same, and no such payment or any part thereof shall be re- 
 mitted in any case, except such as are mentioned in the pro- 
 viso of the ninth clause of the act entitled "An Act in addi- 
 tion to the several Acts regulating the Shipment and Dis- 
 charge of Seamen and the Duties of Consuls," approved July 
 20, 1840, and as hereinafter provided, and the extra wages 
 required to be paid by the said ninth clause of the last here- 
 inbefore-mentioned act, and by this section, shall be applica- 
 ble to the same purposes and in the same manner as is di- 
 rected by the said act, approved February 28, 1803, in regard 
 to the extra wages required to be paid thereby; and if any 
 consular officer, when discharging any seaman or mariner, 
 shall neglect to require the payment of, and collect the ex- 
 tra wages required to be paid in the case of the discharge of 
 any seaman or mariner, by either of the said acts, as far as 
 they shall remain in force under this act or by this act, he 
 shall bo accountable to the United States for the full amount 
 of their share of such wages, and to such seaman or mariner 
 to the full amount of his share thereof; and if any seaman 
 or mariner shall, after his discharge, have incurred any ex- 
 pense for board or other necessaries at the port or place of his 
 discharge before shipping again, such expense shall be paid 
 out of the share of the three months* wages to which he shall 
 be entitled, which shall be retained for that purpose, and the 
 balance only paid over to him : provided, however, that in 
 cases of wrecked or stranded ships or vessels, or ships or ves- 
 sels condemned as unfit for service, no payment or extra wa- 
 ges shall be required. 
 
CON 
 
 414 
 
 CON 
 
 Sect. 2T. And lae it further enacted, that every consular 
 officer shall keep a detailed list of all seamen and mariners 
 shipped and discharged by him, specifying their names and 
 the names of the vessels on and from which they shall be 
 shipped and discharged, and the payments, if any, made on 
 account of each so discharged, and also of the number of the 
 vessels arrived and departed, and the amounts of their regis- 
 tered tonnage, ond the number of their seamen and mariners, 
 and of those who are protected, and whether citizens of the 
 United States or not, and as nearly as possible the nature and 
 value of their cargoes, and where produced, and make re- 
 turns of the same, with their accounts and other returns, to 
 the Secretary of the Treasury; and no consular officer shall 
 ' certify any invoice unless he shall be satisfied that the person 
 making the oath or affirmation thereto is the person he rep- 
 resents himself to be, that he is a credible person, and that the 
 statements made under such oath or affirmation are true ; and 
 he shall, thereupon, by his certificate, state that he was so 
 satisfied ; and it shall be the duty of every consular officer to 
 furnish to the Secretary of the Treasury, as often as shall be 
 required, the prices current of all articles of merchandise 
 usually exported to the United States from the port or place 
 in which he shall be located. 
 
 Sect. 28, And be it further enacted, that it shall be the duty 
 of every master and commander of a ship or vessel of the 
 United States, whenever he shall have occasion for any con- 
 sular or other official service, which any consular officer of the 
 United States shall be authorized by law or usage officially 
 to perform, and for which any fees shall be allowed by the 
 said rates or tariffs of fees as aforesaid, to apply to such one 
 of the said officers as may then be officially located at the 
 consulate or commercial agency, if any there be where such 
 service shall be required, to perform such service, and such 
 master or commander shall pay to such, officer such, fees as 
 shall be allowed for such service, in pursuance of the provis- 
 ions of this act ; and if any such master or commander shall 
 omit so to do, he shall be liable to the United States for the 
 amount of the fees lawfully chargeable for such services, as 
 though the said services liad been performed by such officer. 
 And all consular officers are hereby authorized and required 
 to retain in their possession all the papers of such ships and 
 vessels which shall be deposited with them as directed by law, 
 till payment shall be made of all demands and wages on ac- 
 count of such ships and vessels. 
 
 Sect. 29. And be it further enacted, that if any citizen of 
 the United States who shall die abroad shall, by any lawful 
 testamentary disposition, leave special directions for the cus- 
 tody and management, by the consular officer of the port or 
 place where he shall die, of the personal property of which 
 he shall die possessed in such country, as contemplated by 
 the act entitled "An Act concerning Consuls and Vice-con- 
 suls," approved April 14, 1792, it shall be the duty of such 
 officer, so far as the law of such country will permit, strictly 
 to observe such directions ; and if any such citizen so dying 
 shall, by any lawful testamentary disposition, have appointed 
 any other pei'son or persons than such officer to take charge 
 of and manage such property, it shall be the duty of such of- 
 ficer, whenever required by such person or persons so appoint- 
 ed, to give his official aid in whatever way may be necessary 
 to facilitate the proceedings of such person or persona in the 
 lawful execution of such trust, and, so far as the laws of the 
 country permit, to protect the property of the deceased from 
 any interference of the local authorities of the countiy where 
 such citizen shall die ; and to this end it shall be the duty 
 of such consular officer to place his official seal upon all or 
 any of the personal property or effects of the deceased, and 
 to break and remove such seals as may be required by such 
 person or persons, and not otherwise. 
 
 Sect 30. And be it further enacted, that all fees collected 
 for and in behalf of the United States, in pursuance of this 
 act, shall be collected in the coin of the United States, or at 
 its representative value in exchange. 
 
 Sect. 31. And be it further enacted, that in the construc- 
 tion, and for the purposes, of all other acts and parts of acts 
 which shall remain in force after this act shall take effect, 
 defining any of the powers, declaring any of the rights, pre- 
 scribing any of the duties, or imposing any penalty or pun- 
 ishment for auy act of onuBsion or commission of any consul, 
 commercial agent, vice-consul, or vice-commercial agent, or 
 allowing or enjoining the performance of any act, matter, or 
 thing, with or before any such officer, all such acts and parts 
 of acts shall in all these several respects, so far as may be 
 consistent with the subject-matter and context of the same, 
 and with tliis aot and the treaties of the United States, be 
 deemed and taken to include and apply to all consular offi- 
 cers as though all such officers were specially named therein ; 
 and the said official designations in contemplation of all such 
 acts, and parts of acts, and of this act, shall be deemed and 
 
 taken to have the respective meanings hereinafter assigned 
 to them — that is to say, "Consul-General," "Consul," and 
 "Commercial Agent," shall be deemed and taken to denote 
 full, principal, and permanent ''consular officers," as distin- 
 guished from subordinates and substitutes: "Deputy Con- 
 sul" and "Consular Agent" shall be deemed and taken to 
 denote "consular officers" subordinate to such principals, 
 exercising the powers and performing the duties within the 
 limits of their consulates or commercial agencies respective- 
 ly, the former at the same ports or places, and the latter at 
 ports or places different fiom those at which such principals 
 are located, respectively; and "vice-consuls" and "vice-com- 
 mercial agents" shall be deemed and taken to denote "con- 
 sular officers," who shall be substituted temporarily, to fill 
 the places of "consuls-general," "consuls," or "commercial 
 agents," when they shall be temporarily absent, or relieved 
 from duty; and the term "consular officer," as used in this 
 act, shall be deemed and taken to include all such officers as 
 are mentioned in this section, and none others ; and the term 
 " diplomatic officer," as used in this act, shall be deemed and 
 taken to include all the officers mentioned in the first section 
 of this act, and none others. 
 
 Sect. 32. And be it further enacted, that if any consular 
 officer shall willfully neglect or omit to perform seasonably 
 any duty imposed upon him by this or any other act, or by 
 any order or instruction made or given in pursuance of this or 
 any other act, or shall be guilty of any willful malfeasance or 
 abuse of power, or any corrupt conduct in his office, he shall be 
 liable to all persons injured by any such neglect or omission, 
 malfeasance, abuse, or corrupt conduct, for all damages occa- 
 sioned thereby : and for all such damages by any such officer, 
 he, and his sureties upon his official bond, shall be responsible 
 thereon to the full amount of the penalty thereof, to be sued in 
 the name of the United States, for the use of the person or per- 
 sons so injured: provided, that such suit shall in no case preju- 
 dice, but shall be held in entire subordination to the interests, 
 claims, and demands of the United States, as against such offi- 
 cer, under such bond, for every willful act of malfeasance or 
 corrupt conduct in his office ; and if any such officer shall refuse 
 to pay any draft, order, or warrant which may be draivn upon 
 him by the proper officer of the Treasni-y Department for any 
 public moneys of the United States in his hands, or for any 
 amount due from him to the United States, whatever the ca- 
 pacity in which he may have received or may hold the same, 
 or to transfer or disburse any such moneys promptly upon the 
 legalrequireraentofanyauthorizedofficerof the United States, 
 he shall be deemed and taken to be guilty of a misdemeanor, 
 and on conviction thereof shall be punished by imprisonment 
 not to exceed ten years nor less than one year, or by flue not 
 to exceed two thousand dollars nor less than two hundred dol- 
 lars, or both, at the discretion of the court ; and any such offi- 
 cer so offending may he charged, proceeded against, tried, 
 convicted, and dealt with, in any district in which he may be 
 arrested or in custody. 
 
 Sect. 33. And be it further enacted, that the fifth, sixth, 
 and seventh sections of the act hereinbefore mentioned, ap- 
 proved July 20, 1840, and all of the aot entitled "An Act to 
 remodel the Diplomatic and Consular Systems of the United 
 States," approved March 1, 1855, and all acts and parts of acts 
 whereby any such fees as are contemplated by the seventeenth 
 section of this act are fixed or allowed, and any usage or law 
 whereby any attach6 is or may be allowed to any legation 
 other than such as are provided in this act, or requiring auy 
 secretary of legation to be employed otherwise than as pro- 
 vided by this act, and all other acts and parts of acts, so far 
 as the same are inconsistent with this act, be^and the same 
 are hereby annulled and repealed; and no attach6 shall be 
 allowed, in any case, nor any secretary of legation, otherwise 
 than as provided by this act. 
 
 Sect. 34. And be it further enacted, that this act shall take 
 effect on the first day of January, 185T, and not before. 
 
 SCHEDULE B. 
 
 SALABIES or CONSULS-GENERAL AND 00NBTJL8 OF THE UNITED 
 
 STATES. 
 
 I. Consuls-General. — Cuba : Havana, $6000. British In- 
 dia: Calcutta, $5000. British North America!: Quebec, $4000. 
 Japan: Simoda, $5000. Turkey: Constantinople, $3000. 
 Egypt : Alexandria, $3500. Frankfort-on-the-Main, $3000. 
 
 II. Consuls— First Class.— Great Britain: London, $7500; 
 Liverpool, $7500 ; Melbourae, $4000 ; Hong-Kong, $3500 ; 
 Glasgow, $3000; Mauritius, $2500; Singapore, $2500; Bel- 
 fast, $2000; (;ork, $2000; Dundee, $2000; Demarara, 
 Halifax, $2000; Kingston (Jamaica), $2000; Leeds, I 
 Manchester, $2000 ; Nassau (New Providence), $2000; South- 
 ampton, $2000; Turk's Island, $2000. 
 
 France: Havre, $6000; Paris, $5000; Marseilles, 
 Bordeaux, $2000; La Kochelle, $1500; Lyons, $1500. 
 
CON 
 
 415 
 
 CON 
 
 Russia: Moscow, $2000 ; Odedsa, $2000 ; Revel, $2000; St. 
 Petersburg, $2000. 
 
 Spain: Matunzas, $2500; Trinidad de Cuba, $2500; Sant- 
 iago de Cuba, $2500; San Juan (Porto Rico), $2000; Cadiz, 
 $1500; Malaga, $1500; Ponce (Porto Rico), $1500. 
 AuBtx-ia: Trieste, $2000 ; Vienna, $1500. 
 Prussia : Alx la Chapelle, $2500. 
 
 China: Canton, $4000; Shanghai, $4000; Foo-tchow,$3500; 
 Amoy, $3000; Ningpo, $E00O. 
 
 Turkey : Beyrout, $2000 ; Smyrna, $2000 ; Jerusalem, 
 $1500. 
 Netherlands: Rotterdam, $2000 ; Amsterdam, $1000. 
 Belgium : Antwerp, $2500. 
 Portugal: Funchal, $1500; Oporto, $1500. 
 Denmark: St. Thomas, $4000; Elsineur, $1500. 
 Sardinia : Genoa, $1500. 
 Switzerland: Basle, $2000'; Geneva, $1500. 
 Sicilies: Messina, $1500 ; Naples, $1500 ; Palermo, $1500. 
 Saxony: Leipsic, $1500. 
 Bavaria: Munich, $1000. 
 Tuscany : Leghorn, $1500, 
 Wurtemberg: Stuttgardt, $1000. 
 
 Hanseatic and free towns : Bremen, $2000 ; Hamburg, 
 $2000. 
 
 ■ Barbary States : Tangiers, $3000 ; Tripoli, $3000 ; Tunis, 
 $3000. 
 
 Brazil: Rio de Janiero, $6000 ; Pemambuco, $2000. 
 Mexico : Vera Cruz, $3500 ; Acapulco, $2000. 
 Peru: Callao, $3500. 
 Chili : Valparaiso, $3000. 
 Buenos Ayres: Buenos Ayres, $2000. 
 Nicaragua: San Juan del Sur, $2000. 
 New Granada: Aspinwall, $2500; Panama, $3500. 
 Venezuela: Laguayra, $1500. 
 
 Sandwich Islands: Honolulu, $4000 ; Lahaina, $3000, 
 III. Commercial Agents — First Class. — Nicaragua : San 
 Juan del Norte, $2000. 
 
 St. Domingo: Port au Prince, $2000; St. Domingo (city), 
 $1500. 
 
 SCHEDULE C. ' 
 
 I. CoTtsuls — Second Class. — Great Britain : Bay of Islands 
 (New Zealand), $1000; Cape Town, $1000; Falkland Isl- 
 ands, $1000. 
 Austria : Venice, $750. 
 Prussia : Stettin, $1000. 
 Turkey: Candiii, $1000; Cypnis, $1000. 
 Netherlands: Batavia, $1000. 
 
 Portugal: Fayal, $T50; Santiago (Cape de Verdes), $750. 
 Denmark: Saint Croix, $750, 
 Sardinia: Spezzia, $1000. 
 Greece: Athens, $1000. 
 Muscat : Zanzibar, $1000. 
 
 Brazil : Bahia, $1000 ; Maranham Island, $1000 ; Para, 
 $1000 ; Rio Grandn, $1000. 
 
 Mexico : Matamoras, $1000 ; Mexico (city), $1000; Tampico, 
 $1000; Paso del Norte, $500; Tabasco, $500. 
 Peru : Paita, $500 ; Tumbez, $500. 
 Chili: Talcahuano, $1000. 
 
 New Granada : Carfchagena, $500 ; Sabanillo, $500. 
 Honduras: Omoa, $1000. 
 Ecuador : Guayaquil, $750. 
 Bolivia : Cobija, $500. 
 Uruguay: Montevideo, $1000. 
 Society Islands : Tahiti, $1000. 
 Navigators' Islands : Apia, $1000. 
 Feejee Islands: Lanthala, $1000. 
 . II. Commercial Agents— Second Ckcss.—'PoTtugal: St. Paul 
 de Loanda (Angola), $1000. 
 Liberia: Monrovia, $1000. 
 Guinea : Gaboon, $1000. 
 
 St. Domingo: Cape Haytien, $1000; Aux Cayes, $500. 
 Russia: Amoor River, $i(K)0. 
 
 Consular Fees of the United States^ prescribed by the Pres- 
 ident, in accordance with the provisions of the act of Congress 
 approved August 18, 1856. regulating the diplomatic and con- 
 sular systems of the United States : 
 
 Department of State, November 10, 1856, 
 The following is the rate or tariflfof fees prescribed by the 
 President to be charged by all consular oflficers for the serv- 
 ices herein specified, which "shall be regarded as official 
 services," and the fees therefor collected in American or Span- 
 ish silver dollars, or their equivalent. 
 
 At the expiration of each quarter the statement of fees must 
 be rendered, in accordance with the printed instructions, by 
 all consular officers entitled to salaries residing at sea-ports 
 and at inland places, to the Secretary of the Treasury, and 
 the amount thereof held subject to his draft or other direc- 
 
 tions. If the consular officers are not entitled to salaries, the 
 returns must be made to the Secretary of State. 
 
 Receiving and delivering Ship's Papers. — For receiving 
 and delivering ship's register and papers, including consular 
 certificates, half a cent on eveiy ton, registered measurement 
 of the vessel for which the service is performed. 
 
 Discharging or shipping Seamen or Mariners.— For every 
 seaman, from one to ten, who may be discharged, or shipped, 
 including certificates therefor attached to crew list and ship- 
 ping articles, to be paid by the master of the vessel, 50 cents ; 
 but no additional charge shall be made for any number of sea- 
 men exceeding ten, who may be discharged. from or shipped 
 between the date of the arrival and departure of the vessel. 
 Protests^ Poasporte, etc. 
 
 For noting marine protest .t $1 00 
 
 For extending marine protest 2 00 
 
 And if it exceed 200 words; for every additional 100 
 
 words 1 00 
 
 For issuing warrant of survey on vessels, hatches, car- 
 go, provisioi^s, and stores, or either 1 00 
 
 For a passport, including seal 1 00 
 
 For visaing a passport 1 00 
 
 For preparing^flgreenient'of master to give increased 
 
 wages to seamen, attested under seal 1 00 
 
 For preparing any other official document or instru- 
 ment of writing, not herein named or enumerated, 
 
 if under 100 words.". 1 00 
 
 If exceeding 100 words, ftir every additional 100 words 50 
 
 For the follomn^ Certijicates, viz. ; 
 Of the deposit of a ship's register and papers, when re- 
 quired by custom-house authorities 25 
 
 In cases of vessels deviating from the voyage. ....... 50 
 
 When the ship's- register is retained entire in the con- 
 sulate 26 
 
 For master to take home destitute American seamen , no fee. 
 Of conduct of crew on hoard, in cases of refusal of 
 
 duty and in cases of imprisonment, etc 25 
 
 Given to master at his own request 50 
 
 To a seaman, of his discharge. no fee. 
 
 Of appointment of new master, including oath of mas- 
 ter 1 00 
 
 Of the ownership of a vessel 50 
 
 Of decision and award, in cases of protests against 
 
 masters, passengers, or crew , . . . . 2 00 
 
 Of roll or list of crew, when required by the captain 
 
 or authorities of the port ' 50 
 
 To bill of health .' 50 
 
 To shipping articles 50 
 
 Of canceling ship's register 50 
 
 To debenture certificate, including oaths of master 
 
 and mate 1 25 
 
 To invoice, including oath 2 00 
 
 To currency. .\: 50 
 
 Of sea letter 2 00 
 
 Of indorsement of bottomry on ship's register 50 
 
 Of indorsement on payment of bottomry on ship's reg- 
 ister , 60 
 
 Of indorsement of new ownership on ship's register. . 50 
 
 A clmowledgments. 
 
 Of the master to bottomry-bond. 1 00 
 
 Of the merchant to assignment of bottomry-bond. , . . 1 00 
 
 Of the vendor to a bill of sale of vessel , 1 00 
 
 Of the master to a mortgage or mortgage bill of sale 
 
 of vessel 1 00 
 
 Of the master to an order for payment of seamen's 
 
 wages or voyages, at home, including making up 
 
 orderj if required. .'.,,; 60 
 
 Of one or more persons to a deed or instrument of 
 
 writing 2 00 
 
 Of one or more persons to a power of attorney 2 00 
 
 Declarations and Oaths. 
 Of declaration and oath of master to one or more de- 
 sertions, including oaths, attached to crew list and 
 
 shipping articles each 50 
 
 To one or more deaths or losses of seamen overboard 
 at sea, including oaths, attached to crew list, and 
 
 shipping articles each 50 
 
 To not being, able to procure two-thii"ds of a .crew of 
 
 protected American seamen 50 
 
 To ship's inventories or stores 50 
 
 To the correctness of log-book 50 
 
 To ship's bills and vouchers for disbureements and 
 
 repairs ^ ^ 
 
 Authenticating Copies of Papers. 
 
 Of marine note of protest 1 00 
 
 Of extended protest " 00 
 
 Of call, warrant, and report of survey on vessel, hatch- 
 es, cargo, provisions, and stores, or either 1 00 
 
 Of inventories and letters, or either, of masters 1 00 
 
 Of account of sales of vessel, cargo, provisions, and 
 
 stoi-es, or either 1 00 
 
 Of advertisement for funds on bottomry 1 00 
 
 Of advertisement of sale of vessel or cargo, provisions 
 or stores 1 00 
 
CON 
 
 416 
 
 CON 
 
 Authenticating Signatv/res. 
 To reports of survey on vessel or cargo, provisions or 
 
 stores $1 00 
 
 To estimate of repairs of vessel 1 00 
 
 To (auctioneer's) account of sales of vessel or cargo^ 
 
 provisions or stores 1 00 
 
 To average bonds 3 00 
 
 Of governors, judges, notaries public, custom-house 
 
 and other officers 2 00 
 
 Of merchants and individuals 2 00 
 
 For any other consular certificate or services of like 
 
 character not herein named or enumerated 50 
 
 Consuls' Orders and Letters. 
 
 To send seamen to hospital no fee. 
 
 To send seamen to prison 50 
 
 To release seamen Irom prison 50 
 
 To authorities or captain of the port, in cases of sink- 
 ing vessels 50 
 
 Requesting the arrest of seamen 50 
 
 For any other letter or order of like character 50 
 
 Filim} Docwmenta in Consulate. 
 Calls of survey on vessel, hatches, cargoes, provisions, 
 
 and stores, or either 25 
 
 Warrants of survey on vessels, hatches, cargoes, pro- 
 visions, and Stores, or either 25 
 
 Reports of survey on vessels, hatches, cargoes, provis- 
 ions, and stores, or either 25 
 
 Estimate of repairs of vessiel ^ 25 
 
 Consurs certificate to advertisement for funds on bot- 
 tomry : 25 
 
 To advertisement of sale of vessel, cargo, provisions, 
 
 and stores, or either 25 
 
 Inventories of vessels, cargo, provisions, and stores, 
 
 or either 25 
 
 Letter of master notifying consul of sale of vessel, car- 
 go, provisions, and stores, or either 25 
 
 Of master notifying auctioneer of sale of vessel, cargo, 
 
 provisions, and stores, or either 25 
 
 Accounts of sale of vessel, cargo, provisions, and 
 
 stores, or either 25 
 
 For filing any other document prepared in or out of 
 
 the consulate 25 
 
 Recording Documents. 
 Calls of survey on vessel, batches, cargo, provisions, 
 and stores, or either ; warrants and reports of ditto, 
 ditto; estimates of repairs; certificates of consuls to 
 advertisements for funds on bottomry, and of sale 
 of vessel; inventories of vessel, cargo, provisions, 
 and stores; letter of master to consul notifying salo 
 of vessel, cargo, provisions, and stores, or either; 
 letter of master to auctioneer, and account of sales 
 of vessel, cargo, provisions, and stores, or either, 
 
 for every 100 words 20 
 
 (As the original documents arc required to bo filed in the 
 consulate, it will not be necessary to record them. Should 
 it ever become necessary, however, to deliver up the originals, 
 they must he recorded before delivery, the party receiving the 
 same paying the record fee, as above mentioned.) 
 Order and consul's certificate to pay seamen's wages 
 
 or voyages, at home , 25 
 
 Certificate given to master at his own request, when 
 
 required 25 
 
 Appointment of new master 25 
 
 Application of a citizen of the United States for a sea 
 
 letter 25 
 
 Sea letter, for every 100 words 20 
 
 Bill of sale, when required, for every 100 words 20 
 
 Consul's letter to captain of port, or authorities, in 
 
 cases of sinking vessels 25 
 
 Consul's certificates to masters taking home destitute 
 
 American seamen no fee. 
 
 Protests of masters and others, other than marine pro- 
 tests, for every 100 words 20 
 
 Average bonds, when required, for every 100 words. . 20 
 Powers of attorney, when required, for every 100 words 20 
 Any other document or instrument of writing not here- 
 in named or enumerated, prepared in or out of the 
 consulate, and required to he recorded, for every 100 
 
 words 20 
 
 Estates of deceased American Citizens. — For taking into 
 possession the pergonal estate of any citizen who shall die 
 within the limits of a consulate, inventorying, selling, and 
 finally settling and preparing or transmitting, according to 
 law, the balance due thereon, 5 per cent, on the gross amount 
 of such estate. If part of such estate shall be delivered over 
 before final settlement, 2^ per cent, to be charged on the part 
 BO delivered over as is not in money, and 5 per cent, on the 
 gross amount of the residue. If among the eflfects of the de- 
 ceased are found certificates of foreign stocks, loans, or other 
 property, 2i^ per cent, on the amount thereof. No charge will 
 be made for placing the official seal upon the personal prop- 
 erty or eflfects of such deceased citizen, or for breaking or re- 
 moving the seals, when required by the person or persons 
 referred to in section 29 of the act of August 18, 1856. 
 
 Miscellaneous Services. 
 For consul's seal and signature to clearance from cus- 
 tom-house authorities $0 50 
 
 For administering oaths, not hereinbefore provided 
 
 for each 25 
 
 For couBura attendance at a shipwreck, or for the pur- 
 pose of assisting a ship in .distress, or of saving 
 wrecked goods or property, over and above travel- 
 ing expenses, a per diem of $4, whenever the con- 
 sul's interposition is required by the parties inter- 
 ested 4 00 
 
 For attending an appraisement, where the goods or 
 
 effects are under $1000 in value 3 00 
 
 For attending valuation of goods of $1000 and upward 
 in value, for every day's attendance during which 
 
 the valuation continues 5 00 
 
 For attending sale of goods, if the purchase-money be 
 
 under $1000 : . . . 3 00 
 
 For attending sale of goods, if the purchase-money is 
 $1000 and upward, for every day during which the 
 
 sale continues 5 00 
 
 For attending sale of vessel, when required 2 00 
 
 Fees for unojidal Services. — As the unofficial acts of a 
 consular officer may be performed by a notary public, and as 
 the compensation charged therefor is regarded as a perquisite 
 of his office, the rate of such compensation may be determined 
 either by agreement or the custom of the place, subject, how- 
 ever, to future instructions. 
 
 Exterritorial and other PHvileges of Consuls. — Accord- 
 ing to an elaborate opinion prepared by Mr. Gushing, 
 Attorney-General of the United States, under date 
 July 14, 1855, the United States may, -with consent of 
 the government of another country, superadd to the 
 regular duties therein of consul any of those of a min- 
 ister. There are two great classes of cases in ■wluch. 
 this fact exists, and might ■well be systematized, or at 
 least more explicitly recognized, in consular stipula- 
 tions with foreign governments. 
 
 Consular Privileges in Colonial or other Dependencies of 
 Foreign States. — One is, that of the transmarine posses- 
 sions of sundry of the states of Europe. Here, many 
 cogent reasons dictate that the concession should be 
 granted to our consuls, b}' such states, of the right to 
 address the colonial or provincial governor. There is 
 nothing in the law of nations to prevent this ; it is con- 
 venient for all parties ; it is a consular right exercised 
 by treaty in the great pashalics of the Turkish empire. 
 The United States have recently made provision to 
 the same effect in treaty with a Christian power, name- 
 ly, the Netherlands ; and that government having thus 
 wisely relinquished its long-subsisting scruples on this 
 point, we may reasonably expect similar liberality in 
 future commercial negotiations with other countries of 
 Europe. 
 
 Consular Duties wherethere is no Diplomatic Represent' 
 ative of the United States.- — The other class of cases of 
 this nature is that of a consul residing near a metro- 
 politan government where there is no minister, either 
 because of temporary cessation, or because inducements 
 have not existed for the interchange of diplomatic rep- 
 resentatives between such government and the United 
 States. In this case it becomes the office, perhaps it 
 may be said the right, of the consul to place himself, 
 with the permission of his own government, in direct com- 
 munication with the political authority of such gov-' 
 ernment. Here, as in the other case, the fact occurs, 
 and is of common convenience; it is not inconsistent 
 with public law ; and so far as regards the United 
 States, it has example in treaties, for instance, in our 
 last consular convention with France. It is a thing 
 of manifest necessity as between' the United States and 
 some of the countries of Germany, with which our re- 
 lations are entirely amicable, without calling for per- 
 manent diplomatic representation. The German Bund, 
 though in some features resembling our own federal 
 republic, yet differs essentially in this, that, in the for- 
 mer, the federal authority, in matters of peace and war, 
 acts on states, not individuals, and of course each state 
 retains the power of foreign representation and negoti- 
 ation. Hence, if we do not see cause to interchange 
 ministers, we may yet well reciprocally enlarge the 
 consular functions, in our relations with sUch states a3 
 
CON 
 
 417 
 
 CON 
 
 Bavaria, Saxouy, Wvirteraberg, Hanover, the Hessen, 
 the Mechlenburgs, or any other of the members of the 
 Bund. 
 
 Derivation of Privileges hy Consuls. — Meanivhile, it 
 would not in either of these classes of cases foUojv, be- 
 cause a consul of the United States in Bavaria, or one 
 of Bavaria in the United States, may be admitted to 
 address the government, that therefore he becomes a 
 diplomatic personage, with international rights as 
 such, and among them that of exterritoriality. Ifhis 
 commission be that of consul only, if his public recog- 
 nition be an exequatur, the foreign consul is subject to 
 the local law In the United §tates ; and our own con- 
 sul in the foreign country, if invested in any case with 
 quasi-exterritorial rights, does not derive these from 
 tiie law of nations, but only from the special concession, 
 by generallaw or otherwise, of the particular foreign 
 government. If, indeed, the United States see fit, in 
 any case, to 'confer the function of charg6 d'aft'aires on 
 their consul, either with or witliout limitation of time, 
 as they may lawfully do, that is, to superimpose the 
 office of minister on that of consul, then he has a double 
 political capacity, and, though invested with full dip- 
 lomatic privilege,, yet becomes so invested as charge 
 d'affaires, not as consul; and the fact of such casual 
 duplication of function does not change the legal status 
 of consuls, whether they be regarded through the eye 
 of tte law of nations, or that of the United States. 
 
 Pagan <md Mohav^medan Countries. — It has been ob- 
 served, that " in Egypt, Tunis, Tripoli, CHina, the isl- 
 ands of the Pacific, the consuls enjoy all the diplomatic 
 privileges. The motive is not only in the difference 
 of law and religion with ours, but .also in the absence 
 of other diplomatic yepresentaliyes." This remark re- 
 quires qualification. In the case of China and Turkey, 
 for instance, our consuls have not, qua consuls, any 
 "diplomatic privileges," except such as they might 
 have in France during the absence of a minister ; such 
 exterritorial, not diplomatic, privileges, as they really 
 enjoy, they enjoy, not because they are consuls, nor 
 because of the absence of proper diplomatic represent- 
 atives in those countries, for we have them, but be- 
 cause they are citizens of the United States. And the 
 true explanation of the diplomatic rights appertaining 
 to consuls in the Mohammedan states, whether inde- 
 pendent ones, like Morocco and Muscat, or subject to 
 the suzerainty of the Porte, like Tripoli, Tunis, and 
 Egypt, and so of the Pacific' or Indian islands, is, that 
 they are not Christians, and are not admitted to a full 
 community of international law, public or private, 
 with us, the nations of Christendom. 
 
 Institution of the consular Office. — It might be demon- 
 strated historically, what in this place it will suffice to 
 affirm, that the institution of consuls, in their present 
 capacity of international agents, originated in the mere 
 fact of differences in law and religion at that period of 
 modern Europe in which it was customary for distinct 
 nationalities, coexisting under the same general polit- 
 ical head, and even in the same city, to maintain each 
 a distinct municipal government. 
 
 Consuls in the Levant.- — ^^Such municipal colonies, or- 
 ganized by the Latin Christians, and especially by 
 those of the Italian republics in the Levant, were ad- 
 ministered each by its consuls, that is, its proper mu- 
 nicipal magistrates of the well-known municipal de- 
 nomination of ancient Italy. Their commercial rela- 
 tion to the business of their countrymen was a mere 
 incident of their general municipal authority. Such, 
 also, at the outset, was the nature of their political re- 
 lation to other coexisting nationalities around them in 
 the same country, and to that country's own supreme 
 political or military power. 
 
 In Countries not Christian. — The consuls of Christian 
 states, in the countries not Christian, still retain unim- 
 paired, and habitually exercise, their primitive func- 
 tions of municipal magistrates for their countrymen, 
 their commercial or international capacity in those 
 Dd 
 
 countries being but a part of their general capacity as 
 the delegated administrative and judicial agents of 
 their nations. 
 
 Origin of the Lam of Nations. — This condition of 
 things came to be permanent in the Levant, that Is, 
 Greek Europe and its dependencies, by reason of the 
 tide of Arabic and Tartar conquest having overflowed 
 so large a part of the Eastern empire, and established 
 the Moh,ammedan religion there. But the result was 
 different in Latin Europe, because the modern nations, 
 formed in this quarter out of the broken fragments of 
 the Western empire, being Christian, and thus deriv- 
 ing their religion and their civilization from the same 
 fountain-head of Rome, settled into something of ap- 
 proximation to one great political community, under 
 the influences, potential when combined, of the milita- 
 ry power of the Erapkish or Germanic emperors, and 
 the moral power of the Papal See. Thus it was that 
 the mass of legal ideas, which we now call the law of 
 nations, came to exist and have authority. It is, in 
 its origin at least, the system of public law of Latin or 
 Western Europe. 
 
 Approxiinate Unity of Public Law. — This imperfect 
 political unity of Western Europe was obstructed at 
 first by the antagonism of the Cclto-Eoinanic and the 
 Germanic races, and was threatened with complete 
 dissolution when ttat original antagonism reappeared 
 in the separation of some of the Germanic populations 
 from the Papal See, under the popularly assumed re- 
 ligious title of Protestants. But after thirty continu- 
 ous years of reciprocal devastation and slaughter, the 
 states of the old and new faith concluded a truce at 
 least, if not a peace, and agreed, while acquiescing in 
 the fact' of religious difference, to maintain approxi- 
 mate unity of public law, and thus, by subordinating 
 the religious idea to the legal one, to live together in 
 some sort, as they have continued to do, with only oc- 
 casional spasms of fanatical intolerance breaking out 
 into civil or foreign war. At a late period, Russia, 
 though of Greek faith, came into the European system 
 of public law, with the less difficulty, indeed, for the 
 reason that Latin Europe and Greek Europe alike nour- 
 ished the legal traditions of the Roman empire, though 
 these be derived in the former case from Ronie, and 
 in the latter from Constantinople. 
 
 Change in the Nature of the consular Office among Chris- 
 tian Nations. — Thus, by the combination of Romanic 
 law and Christian faith it is that we have come to have 
 a common public law, under whose gradual operation 
 claims of private exterritoriality soon fell into desue- 
 tude among the governments of Christendom ; Italians 
 in England, and Englishmen in Italy, at letigth sub- 
 mitted to the local .law ; foreign colonial nationalities 
 finally ceased to exist of right ; their consuls proceed- 
 ed to sink from the condition of municipal functionaries 
 into that of mere commercial or semi-diplomatic ones ; 
 and thus, in process of time, by traditional usage, by 
 positive provisions of local law, and by treaty stipula- 
 tions, the existing legal character, with its limited 
 rights, was fixed on the foreign consuls mutually ac- 
 credited in the countries of Christian Europe and 
 America. 
 
 In Mohammedan States. — In our relations with nations 
 out of the pale of Christendom, we retain for our own 
 citizens and consuls, though we can not concede to 
 theirs, the rights of exterritoriality. Religion is the 
 chief representative sign, and it is an element of the 
 question of public law. But the critical fact is the 
 difference of law. The legislation of Mohammed, for 
 instance, is inseparable from his religion. We can 
 not submit to one without also undergoing the other. 
 The same legal incompatibility exists, for one reason 
 or another, between us and the unchristian states not 
 Mohammedan. 
 
 Institutes and Pandects. — Whereas Christendom, on 
 the other hand, in all its subdivisions of race, nation- 
 ality, and religion, is the common heir of the political 
 
CON 
 
 418 
 
 CON 
 
 ideas, and especiallj' the legislation, of the Roman em- 
 pire ; for the Institutes and Pandects themselves, 
 though comprising the sum of the legal science of 
 Rome, were compiled and promulgated at Constanti- 
 nople, and constitute the broad foundation of the juris- 
 prudence, public and private, of the whole of Christen- 
 'dom. 
 
 Unity in Christendom.—Whm the countries now Mo- 
 hammedan shall be resubjected to the doctrines of the 
 Roman law, then can they be admitted to the same re- 
 ciprocal community of private rights with us, which 
 prevails in Christian Europe and America. Until 
 that event happens, Turkey, and other Moslem states 
 in Africa or Asia, may, like China or Japan, enter into 
 the sphere of our public law in the relation of govern- 
 ment to government, but not in the relation of govern- 
 ment to men. That full interchange of international 
 rights is admissible only among the nations which 
 have unity of legal thought, in being governed by, or 
 constituted out of, the once dissevered, but since then 
 partially reunited, constituent of the Grteco-Roman 
 empire. — Manual for Consuls.^ United States, 1857. 
 
 'Contralsand, in commerce, a commodity prohib- 
 ited to be exported or imported, bougTit or sold. Con- 
 traband is also a term applied to designate that class 
 of commodities which neutrals are not allowed to carry 
 during war to a belligerent power. It is a recognized 
 general principle of the law of nations, that ships may 
 sail to and trade with all kingdoms, countries, and 
 states in peace with the princes or authorities whose 
 flags they bear; and that the}- are not to be molested 
 by 'the ships of any other power at war with the coun- 
 try T^ith which they are trading, unless they 'engage 
 in the conveyance of contraband goods. But^reat dif- 
 ficulty has arisen in deciding as to the goods'comprised 
 under this -term. The Teason of the limitation sug- 
 gests, however, the species of articles to whi-ch it prin- 
 cipally applies. It is indispensable that those whoi 
 profess to act upon a principle of neutrality, should, 
 carefully abstain from doing any thing that may dis- 
 cover a bias in favor of either party. But a nation 
 who should furnish one of the belligerents with sup- 
 plies of warlilce stores, or with supplies of any article, 
 without which that belligerent might not be able to 
 carry on the contest, would obviously 'forfeit her neu- 
 tral character ; and the other belligerent would be 
 warranted in preventing such succorsfrom 'being sent, 
 and confiscating them as lawful prize. All the best 
 writers on international law admit this principle; 
 which, besides being enforced during every contest, 
 has been sanctioned by repeated treaties. In order to 
 obviate all disputes as to what commodities should be 
 deemed contraband, they have sometimes 'been speci- 
 fied in treaties or conventions. (See the references in 
 Lampredi Del Commercio dePopoli Neiftrali, § 9.} But 
 this classification is not always respected during hos- 
 tilities ; and it is sufficiently evident that an article 
 which might not be contraband at one time, or under 
 certain circumstances, may become contraband at an- 
 other time, or under different circumstances. It is ad- 
 mitted on all hands, even by M. Hubner, the great 
 advocate for the freedom of neutral commerce (IJe la 
 Saisie des Bdtimens Neutres, torn. i. p. 193), that every 
 thing that may be made directly available for hostile 
 purposes is contraband, as arms, ammunition, horses, 
 timber for ship-building, and all sorts of naval stores. 
 The greatest difficulty has occurred in deciding as to 
 provisions, which are sometimes held to be contra- 
 band, and sometimes not. Lord Stowell has shown 
 that the character of the port to which the provisions 
 are destined, is the principal circumstance to be at- 
 tended to in deciding whether they are to be looked 
 upon as contraband. A cargo of provisions intended 
 for an enemy's port, in which it was known that a war- 
 like armament was in preparation, would be liable to 
 arrest and confiscation ; while, if the same cargo were 
 intended for a port where none but merchantmen were 
 
 fitted out, the most that could be done would be to de- 
 tain it, paying the neutral the same price for it he 
 would have got from the enemy. 
 
 Contraband of War. " Questions of contraband 
 were 'much discussed during the continuance of our 
 neutral character, in the furious war between England 
 and France, commencing in 1793, and the United States 
 professed to be governed by the modern usage of na- 
 tions on this point. The national convention of France, 
 on the 9th of May, 1793, decreed, that neutral vessels 
 laden with provisions, destined to an enemy's port, 
 should be arrested and carried into France, and one of 
 the earliest acts of England, in that war, was to detain 
 all neutral vessels going to France, and laden with 
 corn, meal, or fiour. It was insisted, on the part of 
 England, that, by the law of nations, all provisions 
 were to be considered as contraband, lu the case where 
 the depriving of an enemy of those supplies was one 
 of the means employed to reduce him to reasonable 
 terms of peace ; and that the actual situation of France 
 was such as to lead to that mode of distressing her, in- 
 asmuch as she had armed almost the whole laboring 
 class of her people, for the purpose of commencing and 
 supporting hostilities against all the governments of 
 Europe. This claim on the part of England was 
 promptly and perseveringly resisted by the United 
 States ; and they contended that corn, flour, and meal, 
 being the produce of the .soil and labor of the country, 
 were not contraband of war, unless carried to a place 
 actually invested. The treaty of commerce with En- 
 gland, in 1794, in the list of contraband, stated, that 
 whatever materials served directly to the building and 
 equipment of vessels, with the exception of unwrought 
 iron aud fir planks, should be considered contraband, 
 and liable to confiscation; but the treaty left the ques- 
 tion of provisions open and unsettled, and neither power 
 was understood toliave relinquished the construction 
 of the law of nations which it had assumed. The trea- 
 ty -admitted that provisions were not generally contra- 
 band, but might become so according to the existing 
 law of nations, in certain cases, and those cases were 
 not defined. 
 
 '* It was only .stipulated, by way of relaxation of 
 the penalty of the law, that whenever provisions were 
 contraband, the captors or their government should 
 pay to the owner the full value of the articles, togeth- 
 er with the freight. and a reasonable profit. Our gov- 
 ernment has repeatedly admitted that, as far as that 
 treaty enumerated contraband articles, it was declara- 
 tory of thc'law of nations, and that the treaty conceded 
 nothing on the subject of contraband. 
 
 ^'The doctrineof the English admiralty on tlie sub- 
 ject of provisions being considered contraband, was 
 laid down very fully and clearly in the case of the 
 Jonge Margaretha. It was there .observed, that the 
 catalogue of contraband had varied much, and some- 
 times in such a manner as to make it difficultto assign 
 the reasons of the variations, -owing to particular cir- 
 cumstances, the history of which had not accompanied 
 the histoiy of the decisions. In 1673, .certain articles 
 of provisions, as corn, wine, and oil, were deemed con- 
 traband, according to the judgment of.apersoU'Of great 
 knowledge and experience in the practice of the admi- 
 ralty ; and. In much later times, many other sorts of 
 provisions have been condemned as contraband. In 
 1747 and 1748, butter and salted fish and rice were con- 
 demned-as contraband ; and those cases show that arti- 
 cles of human food have been considered as contraband 
 when it was probable they were intended for naval or 
 military use. The modern -established rule is, that 
 provisions are not generally contraband, but may be- 
 come so under circumstances arising out of the partic- 
 ular situation of the war, or the condition of the parties 
 engaged in it. Among the circumstances which tend 
 to preserve provisions from being liable to be treated 
 as contraband, one is, that they are the growth of the 
 country which exports them. Another circumstance 
 
CON 
 
 419 
 
 CON 
 
 to which some indulgence is shown by the practice of 
 nations, is when the articles are in their native or un- 
 manufactured state. Thus iron is treated with indulg- 
 ence, though anchors and other instruments fabricated 
 out of it are direfttly contraband. Hemp is more fav- 
 orably considered than cordage, and wheat is not con- 
 sidered as so objectionable a commodity, when going 
 to an enemy's country, as any of the final preparations 
 of it for human use. The most important distinction 
 is, whether the articles were intended for the ordinary 
 use of life, or even for mercantile ship's use, or whether 
 they were going with a highly probable destination to 
 military use. The nature and quality of the port to 
 which the articles arc going is not an irrational test. 
 If the port be a general commercial one, it is presumed 
 the articles are going for civil use, though occasionally 
 a ship of war may be constructed in that port. But 
 if the great predominant character in that port, like 
 Brest in France, or Portsmouth in England, be that 
 of a port of naval military equipment, it will be pre- 
 sumed that the articles were going for military use, al- 
 though it is possible that the articles might have been 
 applied to civil consumption. As it is impossible to 
 ascertain positively the final use of an article andpitis 
 usus, it is not an injurious rule which deduces the final 
 use from the immediate destination ; and the presump- 
 tion of a hostile use, founded on its destination to a 
 military port, is very much inflamed, if, at the time 
 when the articles were going, a considerable armament 
 was notoriously preparing, to which a supply of those 
 articles would be eminently useful." 
 
 These doctrines of the English prize law were es- 
 sentially the same with those adopted by the American 
 Congress in 1775, for they declared, that all vessels, 
 to whomsoever belonging, carrying provisions or other 
 necessaries, to the British army or navy within the 
 colonies, sliould be liable to seizure and confiscation. 
 They were likewise fully adopted by the Supreme 
 Court of the United States, when we came to know 
 and feel the value of belligerent rights, by becoming a 
 party to a maritime war. In the case of the Commer' 
 cen, a neutral vessel, captured by one of our cruisers 
 in the act of carrying provisions for the use of the Brit- 
 ish armies in Spain, the court held, that provisions, 
 being" neutral property, but the growth of the enemy's 
 country, and destined for the supply of the enemy's 
 military or naval force, were contraband. The court 
 observed, that, by the modern law <of nations, provis- 
 ions were not generally contraband, but they might 
 become so on account of the particular situation of the 
 war, or on account of their destination. If destined 
 for the ordinary use of life in the enemy's country they 
 were not contraband, but it was otherwise if destined 
 for the army or navy of the enemy, or for his ports of 
 military or naval equipment. And if the provisions 
 were the growth of the enemy's country, and destined 
 for the enemy's use, they were to be treated as contra- 
 band, and liable to forfeiture, even though the army 
 or navy were in a neutral port, for it would be a di- 
 rect interposition in the war. 
 
 " This case followed the decisions of Sir William 
 Scott, and carried the doctrine of contraband, as ap- 
 plied to provisions, to as great an extent. It held the 
 voj-age of the Swedish neutral so illegal as to deserve 
 the infliction of the penalty of loss of freight. 
 
 "It was the usvs heUici which determined an article to 
 be contraband ; and as articles come into use as imple- 
 ments of war which were before innocent, there is truth 
 in the remark that as the means of war vary and shift 
 from time to time, the law of nations shifts with them ; 
 not indeed by the change of principles, but by a change 
 in the application of them to new cases, and in order 
 to meet the varying inventions of war. When goods 
 are at once clearly shown to be contraband, confisca- 
 tion to the captbr is the natural consequence. This is 
 the practice in all cases, as to the article itself, except- 
 ing provisions ; and as to them when they become con- 
 
 traband, the ancient and strict right of forfeiture is 
 softened down to a right of pre-emption on reasonable 
 terras. But, generally, to stop contraband goods would, 
 as Vattel observes, prove an ineffectual relief, especial- 
 ly at sea. The penalty of confiscation is applied, in or- 
 der that the fear of loss might operate as a check on 
 the avidity for gain, and deter the neutral merchant 
 from supplying the enemy with contraband articles. 
 The ancient practice was, to seize the contraband goods, 
 and keep them on paying the value. But the modern 
 practice of confiscation is far more agreeable to the 
 mutual duties of nations, and more adapted to the 
 preservation of their rights. It is a general under- 
 standing, grounded on true principles, that the powers 
 at war may seize and confiscate all contraband goods, 
 without any complaint on the part of the neutral mer- 
 chant, and without any imputation of a breach of neu- 
 trality in the neutral sovereign himself. It was con- 
 tended on the part of the French nation in 1796, that 
 neutral governments were bound to restrain their sub- 
 jects from selling or exporting articles contraband of 
 war to the belligerent powers. But it was successfully 
 shown on the part of the United States, that neutrals 
 may lawfully sell, at home, to a belligerent purchaser, 
 or carry, themselves, to the belligerent powers, contra- 
 band articles subject to the rightof seizure, miranst'ftj. 
 This right has since been explicitly declared by the 
 judicial authorities of this country. The right of the 
 neutral to transport, and of the hostile power to seize, 
 are conflicting rights, and neither party can charge the 
 other with a cri^ninal act.".— Kjcsi'a Commentaries, 
 Lect. VIII, 
 
 Contraband articles are said to be of an wjeciious 
 nature, and they contaminate the whole cargo belong- 
 ing to the same owners. By the ancient laws of Eu- 
 rope, the ship also was liable to condemnation when 
 captured. But the modern view, since Grotius, is 
 milder, and latterly the ship is liable to confiscation, 
 and when fraud is detected, the innocent portions of 
 the cargo are also liable. 
 
 By the ancient law of Europe, a ship conveying any 
 contraband article was liable to confiscation as well as 
 the article. But in the modern practice of tlie courts 
 of admiralty of this and other countries, a milder rule 
 has been adopted, and the carriage of contraband ar- 
 ticles is attended only with the loss of freight and ex- 
 penses, unless when the ship belongs to the owner of 
 the contraband cargo, or when the simple n'lisconduct 
 of conveying such a cargo has been connected with other 
 malignant and aggravating circumstances. Of these 
 a false destination and false papers are justly held to 
 be the worst. — (5 Eobinson's Admiralty Reports, 275.) 
 The right of visitation and search is a right inherent 
 in all belligerents ; for it would be absurd to allege 
 that they had a right to prevent the conveyance of con- 
 traband goods to an enemy, and to deny them the use 
 of the only means by which they can give effect to such 
 right. — (Vattel, book iii. c.,7. § 114.) The object of 
 the search is two-fold : jirsi, to ascertain whether the 
 ship is neutral or an enemy, for the circumstance of its 
 hoisting a, neutral flag affords no security that it is 
 really such ; awA, secondly, to ascertain whether it has 
 contraband articles, or enemies' property, on board. 
 All neutral ships that would navigate securely during 
 war must, consequently, be provided with passports 
 from their government, and with all the papers or doc- 
 uments necessary to prove the property of the ship and 
 cargo ; and they must carefully avoid taking any con- 
 traband articles or belligerent property on board ; and 
 hence, as Lampredi has observed, a merchant ship 
 which seeks to avoid a search by crowding sail, or by 
 open force, may justly be captured and sulgected to 
 confiscation. 
 
 It has, indeed, been often contended that free ships 
 mahejree goods (que le pavilion couvre la marchandise), 
 and that a belligerent is not warranted in seizing the 
 property of an enemy in a neutral ship, unless it be 
 
CON 
 
 420 
 
 GON 
 
 contraband. The discussion of this important question | 
 would lead us into details which do not properly come 
 within the scope of this work. We may, however, 
 shortly observe, that no such privilege could be con- 
 ceded to neutrals, without taking from belligerents the 
 right, inseparable from a state of war, of seizing an en- 
 emy's property if found in places where hostilities may 
 be lawfully carried on, as on the high seas. In fact, 
 were the principle in question admitted, the commerce 
 of a belligerent power with its colonies, or other coun- 
 tries beyond the sea, inight be prosecuted in neutral 
 ships, with as much security during war as in peace ; 
 so that neutrals would, in this way, be authorized to 
 render a belligerent more important assistance than, 
 perhaps, they could have done had they supplied him 
 with troops and ammunition ! But it is surely unnec- 
 essary to say, that to act in this way is a proceeding 
 altogether at variance with the idea of neutrality. 
 Neutrals are bound to conduct themselves in the spirit 
 of impartiality, and must not afford such aid or assist- 
 ance to one party as may the better enable him to 
 make head against the other. It is their duty " non 
 interponere se hello, non hoste imminente kostem eripere." 
 And yet it is manifest that the lending of neutral bot- 
 toms to carry on a belligerent's trade is in direct con- 
 tradiction to this rule. The ships or cruisers of a par- 
 ticular power may have swept those of its enemy from 
 the sea, and reduced him to a state of great difficulty, 
 by putting a stop to his commerce with foreigners, or 
 with his own colonies ; but of what consequence would 
 this be if neutrals might step in to rescue him from 
 such difficulties, by carrying on that intercourse for 
 him which he can no longer carry on for himself? It is 
 natural enough that such a privilege should be coveted 
 by neutrals ; but, however advantageous to them, it is 
 wholly subversive of the univei'sally admitted rights 
 of belligerent powers, as well as of the principles of 
 neutralitj' ; and can not, therefore, be truly said to be 
 bottomed on any sound principle. 
 
 In the war of 1756, the rule was laid down by Great 
 Britain, that neutrals are not to be allowed to carry on a 
 trade during war that they were excluded from during 
 peace ; so that, supposing a nation at war with Great 
 Britain had, while at peace, prohibited foreigners from 
 engaging in her colonial or coasting trade, neutrals 
 would not have been permitted to engage in it during 
 war. This rule has been much complained of; but the 
 principle on which it is founded seems a sound one, and 
 it may in most cases be safely adopted. The claims of 
 neutrals can not surely be carried farther than that 
 they should be allowed to carry on their trade during 
 war as they had been accustomed to carry it on during 
 peace, except with places under blockade ; but it is 
 quite a different thing when they claim to be allowed 
 to employ themselves during war in a trade in which 
 they had not previously any right to engage. To grant 
 them this, would not be to preserve to them their for- 
 mer rights, but to give them new ones which may be 
 fairly withheld. Supposing, however, that either of 
 the belligerent powers has force sufficient to prevent any 
 intercourse between the other and its colonies, or any in- 
 tercourse between different ports of the other, she might, 
 in the exercise of the legitimate rights of a belligerent, 
 exclude neijtrals from such trade, even though it had 
 formerly been open to them; because otherwise she 
 would be deprived of the advantage of her superior 
 force ; and the neutrals would, in fact, when employed 
 in this way, be acting as the most efficient allies of her 
 enemy. 
 
 For a full discussion of this Important and difficult 
 question, and of the various distinctions to which it 
 gives rise, see the work of Hubner {Be la Saisie des 
 Bdtimens Neutres, 2 tomes, 12mo, 1757), in which the 
 different arguments in favor of the principle that "the 
 flag covers the cargo," are stated with great perspicu- 
 ity and talent. The opposite principle has been advo- 
 cated by Lampredi, in his very able treatise Del Com- 
 
 mercio de' Pcpoli Neutrali, § 10 ; by Lord Liverpool, in 
 his Discourse on the Conduct of Great Britain in respect 
 to Neutrals, written in 1757 ; and, above all, by Lord 
 Stowell, in his justly celebrated decisions in the Ad- 
 miralty Court; and Kent's Commentaries, Lect. III. 
 Martens inclines to Hubner's opinion.-^See Precis du 
 Droit des Gens, liv. viii. u. 7. 
 
 Contracts. An executory contract is an agree- 
 ment of two or more persons,- upon sufficient consider- 
 ation, to do or not to do a particular thing; The agree- 
 ment is either under seal or not under seal. If under 
 seal, it is denominated a speciality, and if not under a 
 seal, an agreement by parol ; and the latter includes 
 eqtlally verbal and written contracts not under seal. 
 The agreement conveys an interest either in possession 
 or in action. If, for instance, one person sells and de- 
 livers goods to another for a price paid, the agreement 
 is executed, and becomes complete and absolute ; but 
 if the vendor agrees to sell and deliver at a future time, 
 and for a stipulated price, and the other party to ac- 
 cept and pay, the contract is executory, and rests in 
 action merely. There are also express a'nd implied 
 contracts. The former exists when the parties con- 
 tract in express words, or by writing ; and the latter 
 are those contracts which the law raises or presumes, 
 by reason of some value or service rendered, and be- 
 cause common justice requires it. 
 
 Every contract, valid in law, is made between ;Mr- 
 ties having sufficient understanding and age and free- 
 dom of will, and of the exercise of it, for the t/iven case. 
 If the contract be entered into by means of violence 
 offered to the will, or under the influence of undue con- 
 straint, the party may avoid it by the plea of duress ; 
 and it is requisite to the validity of every agreement, 
 that it be the result of free and honctjlde exercise of the 
 will. Nor will a contract be valid if obtained by mis- 
 representation or concealment, or if it be founded in 
 mistake as to the subject matter of the contract. A 
 coritract, valid by the law of the place where it is made, 
 is generally speaking valid every where, jure gentium, 
 and by tacit consent. 
 
 The lex loci contractus controls the nature, construc- 
 tion, and validity of the contract ; and on this broad 
 foundation the law of contracts, founded on necessity 
 and commercial convenience, is said to have been orig- 
 inally established. If the rule were otherwise, the 
 citizens of one country could not safely contract, or 
 carry on commerce in the territories of another. The 
 necessary intercourse of mankind requires that the acts 
 of parties, valid where made, should be recognized in 
 other countries, provided they he not contrary to good 
 morals, nor repugnant to the policy and positive insti- 
 tutions of the state. Parties are presumed to contract 
 in reference to the laws of the country in which the 
 contract is made, and where it is to be paid, unless 
 otherwise expressed. But if a contract be made under 
 one government, and is to be performed under another, 
 and the parties had in view the laws of such other 
 country in reference to the execution of the contract, 
 the general rule is, that the contract, in respect to its 
 construction and force, is to be governed by the law of 
 the country or state in which it is to be executed ; the 
 foreign law is in such cases adopted and effect given to 
 it. Thus, the days of grace allowed upon bills of ex- 
 change are to be completed according to the usage of 
 the place in which they are to be paid, and not of the 
 place in which they are drawn, for that is presumed to 
 have been the intention of the parties. 
 
 It is essential to the validity of a contract that it be 
 founded on a sufficient consideration. It was an early 
 principle of the common law, that a mere voluntarj' 
 act of courtesy would not uphold an assumpsit, but a 
 courtesy shown by a previous request would support 
 it. There must be something given in exchange, 
 something that is mutual, or something which is the 
 inducement to the contract, and it must be a thing 
 which is lawful and competent in value to sustain the 
 
CON 
 
 421 
 
 CON 
 
 aasiiitiption. The rule, that a, consideration is necessary 
 to the validity of a contract, applies to all contracts 
 and agreements not under seal^ with the exception of 
 bills of exchange and negotiable notes after they have 
 been negotiated and passed into the hands of an inno- 
 cent indorsee. The imnjediate parties to a bill or note 
 are affected by the want of consideration, and it is only 
 as to third persons, Tybo come to the possession of the 
 paper in the usual course of trade, without notice of the 
 original defect, that the want of consideration can not 
 be alleged. 
 
 Of the Contract >of Sale. — A sale is a contract for the 
 transfer of property from one person tij> another, for a 
 valuable consideration ; and three things are requisite 
 to its validity, viz, ; the thing sold, which, is the object 
 of the contract, the price, and the consent of the con- 
 tracting [parties. ,• The thing sold must have an actual 
 or potential existence, and be specific : or identified, 
 and capable of delivery, otherwise it is not strictly a 
 contract of sale, but a special ox executory agreement. 
 If the subject matter be in existence, and lOnly con- 
 structively in the possession of tjje seller, as by being 
 in the possession of his agent or carrier abroad, it is 
 nevertheless, a sale, though ,a conditional, or imperfect 
 one depending on the future actual delivery. But if 
 the article intended to be sold has no existence, there 
 can be no contract of sale. Thus if A sells, his horse 
 to B,,and it turns out that the horse Was dead at the 
 time, though the fact was unknown to the parties, the 
 contract is ineoessarily void. 
 
 I The price is an essential ingredient in the contract 
 of sale ; and it mast be real and not merely nominal, 
 and fixed, or be susceptible of being ascertained in the 
 mode prescribed by the contract,;witliout further nego- 
 tiation between the parties. ' Mutual consent is req- 
 uisite to the cr^ation of the contract ; and it becomes 
 binding, when a proposition is, made on one side and 
 accepted on tlie other ; and on the otlier hand, it is no 
 contract if there be an error or mistake of a fact, or in 
 circumstances .going to the essence of it. In creating 
 the contract the negotiation may be carried on by 
 mail; and the^ contract is complete when the answer 
 is sent with all due diligence after .the receipt of pro- 
 posal, and is out of the control of the party accepting. 
 
 In everj' sale of a chattel, if the possession be at the 
 time in another, and there bo no warranty of title, the 
 party buys at his peril. But if the seller has posses- 
 sion, and he sells as his own and not as agent for an- 
 other, and for a fair price, he is understood to warrant 
 the title. With regard to the quality, the seller is not 
 bound to answer unless he expressly warrants, or im- 
 less he has made a false representation or concealment. 
 The coriimon law requires the purchaser to attend to 
 the qualities of the article he buys, which are supposed 
 to be within the reach of his observation and judgment, 
 and which it is equally his interest and duty to exert. 
 
 When the good^ are discovered to be unsound the 
 purchaser ought immediately to give notice or return 
 them, and thereby rescind the contract. In the case 
 of breach of warranty, he may sue upon it without re- 
 turning the goods ; but he must return them and re- 
 scind the contract before he can maintain an action to 
 recover the price. He can not deal with the goods 
 after discover}* of fraud in a sale, without losing his 
 right of action. 
 
 If there be intentional concealment or suppression 
 of material facts in the making of a contract, in cases 
 where both parties have not equal access for informa- 
 tion, it will he deemed unfair dealing, and will vitiate 
 the contract. 
 
 When the bargain is completed, bythe terms of sale 
 being agreed upon, the contract becomes binding be- 
 tween the parties and without actual deliver}' of goods, 
 and the property.is at the risk of the buyer ; andhe is 
 entitled to the goOds on payment of price when no con- 
 ditions have been made. Special conditions may be 
 made as to risk, time of delivery, credit, &c. In the 
 
 first instance to make the contract valid, there must be 
 a delivery or tender of payment, or earnest given, or a 
 memorandum in writing signed by the purchaser. 
 When goods are to be delivered, delivery to an agent, 
 carrier, or master of a vessel is equivalent to delivery 
 to purchasei'. The delivery to agent or' carrier must 
 be such as to create responsibility in that agent or car- 
 rier, and if insurance is the usage it ought to be done, 
 and also the buyer informed, with diligence, of consign- 
 ment and delivery. Symbolical delivery will, in many 
 cases, be suflicient, such as transfer of key of ware- 
 house from seller to buyer, or putting private mark by 
 buyer upon the goods. Unless time and place are 
 specified, the common rule is cash payment and place 
 where thev are at time of eale.^KBm's 'Commentaries, 
 Lect. XXXIX. 
 
 Convoy, in navigation,, the term applied to design 
 nate a ship or ships of warj appointed by government, 
 or by the commander-in-chief on a particular station, 
 to escort'Or protect the merchant ships proceeding to 
 certain ports. Convoys are mostly appointed during 
 war ; , but they are sometimes also appointed during 
 peace, for the security of ships navigating seas infested 
 with, pirates, , 
 
 Individuals have not always been left to themselves 
 to judge as to the expediency of sailing with or with- 
 out convoy.. The governments of most maritime states 
 have thought proper, when they were engaged in hos- 
 tilities, to oblige their subjects to place themselves un- 
 der an escort of this sort, that the enemy might not be 
 enriched by their capture. Acts to this effect were 
 passed in Great Britain during the American war and 
 the last iFrench war. The last of these acts (43 Geo. III. 
 c. 57) enacted, that it should not be lawful for any ship 
 belonging to any of his majesty's subjects (except as 
 therein provided) to depart from any port or place 
 whatever, unless under such convoy as should be ap- 
 pointed for that purpose. The master was required to 
 use his utmost endeavors to continue with the convoy 
 during the whole voyage, or such part thereof as it 
 should be directed to accompany his ship ; and not to 
 separate therefrom without leave of the commander, 
 under very heavy pecuniary penalties. And in case 
 xif any ship departing without convoy contrary to the 
 act, or willfully separating therefrom, all insurances on 
 the shiip, cargo, or freight, belonging to the master, or 
 to any other person directing or privy to such depart- 
 ure or separation, were rendered null and void. The 
 customs officers were directed not fo allow any ship 
 that ought to sail with fconvoy to clear out from any 
 place in the United KingdOm forforeign parts, without 
 requiring from the master bond with one surety, with 
 condition that the ship should not depart without con- 
 voy, nor afterward desert or willfully separate from it. 
 The rSgnlatious of this act did not extend to ships not 
 requiring to he registered, nor to those licensed, to sail 
 without convoy, nor fo those engaged in the coasting 
 trade, nor to those belonging to the East India Com- 
 pany, etc. ' 
 
 It is very common, during periods of war, to make 
 sailing or departing with coniioy a condition in policies 
 of insurance. This, like other warranties in a policy, 
 must be strictly performed. And if a ship warranted 
 to sail with convoy, sail without it, the policy becomes 
 void, whether this be imputable to any negligence on 
 the part of the insured, or the refusal of government to 
 appoint a convoy. 
 
 There are five things essential to sailing with con- 
 voy, viz. : jirsti it must be with a regular convoy un- 
 der an officer appointed by government ; secondly, it 
 must be from the place of rendezvous appointed' by 
 government; thirdly, it must be a convoy for the voy- 
 age ; foitrthly, the master of the ship must have sailing 
 instructions from the commanding officer of the con- 
 voy ; and fflhly, the ship must depart and continue 
 with the convoy till the end of the voyage, unless sep- 
 arated by necessity. 
 
coo 
 
 422 
 
 COP 
 
 With respect to the third of these conditions we may 
 observe, that a warranty to sail with convoy generally 
 means a convoy ^ur the voyage ; and it is not necessary 
 to add the words '■ for the voyage" to make it so. Nei- 
 ther will the adding of these words in some instances 
 make the omission of them in any case the ground of 
 a different construction. A warranty to sail with con- 
 voy does not, however, uniformly mean a convoy that 
 is to accompany the ship insured the entire way from 
 the port of departure to her port of destination f but 
 such convoy as government may think fit to appoint 
 as a sufficient protection for ships going the voyage 
 insured, whether it be for the whole or only a part of 
 the voyage. 
 
 Sailing instructions, referred to in the fourth con- 
 dition, are written or printed directions delivered by 
 the commanding officer of the convoy to the several 
 masters of the ships under his care, that they may un- 
 derstand and answer signals, and know the place of 
 rendezvous appointed for the fleet in case of dispersion 
 by storm, or by an enemj', etc. These sailing instruc- 
 tions are so very indispensable, that no vessel can have 
 the full protection and benefit of the convoy without 
 them ; hence, when, through the negligence of the 
 master, they are not obtained, the; ship is not said to 
 have sailed with convoy ; and a warranty in a policy 
 of insurance to that effect is held not to be complied 
 with. If, however, the master do all in his power to 
 obtain sailing instrnctions, but is prevented from ob- 
 taining them by any insuperable obstacle, as the bad- 
 ness of the weather, or if they be refused by the com- 
 mander of the convoy, the warranty in the policy is 
 held to be complied with. 
 
 For further information as to convoy, see Abbot on 
 the Laio of Shippinff, part iii. c. 3 ; Marshall on In- 
 surance, book i. c. 9 § 5. 
 
 Cook, Captain James. This celebrated navi- 
 gator was born at Marton, near Stockton-on-Tees, Oc- 
 tober 27, 1728, and was originally apprenticed to a 
 merchant in Yorkshire ; but having a strong predilec- 
 tion for II sailor's life, he succeeded in obtaining his 
 discharge, and immediately entered into new indent- 
 ures with some coal shippers in the same county. In 
 their employ he became a good seaman, and was pro- 
 moted to mate, but subsequently entered the British 
 navy as volunteer. In 1755 he was appointed to the 
 mastership of a sloop, and joined the fleet operating 
 against the French, in the St. Lawrence. His judg- 
 ment, braver}', and great skill in conducting hydro- 
 graphic surveys, gained for him a lasting reputation 
 and increasing honors ; and in 1764 he was appointed 
 marine surveyor of Newfoundland and Labrador. In 
 1767, on the recommendation of the Koyal Society, he 
 was sent to the South Pacific to observe the approach- 
 ing transit of Venus, and was accompanied by Messrs. 
 Green, Solander, and Mr. [afterward Sir Joseph] 
 Banks. All the phenomena were successfully observed 
 at Otaheite, June 3, 1769. Cook then sailed in quest 
 of the supposed southern continent, circumnavigating 
 New Zealand, and after other scientific observations he 
 crossed to Batavia, and thence returned to England in 
 the summer of 1771, and was promoted shortly after. 
 In July, 1772, he commenced his second voyage, which 
 lasted three years, when he was raised to a post-cap- 
 taincy, with a lucrative appointment in Greenwich 
 Hospital. In 1776 he volunteered to lead the scientific 
 expedition to determine the problem of a northwest 
 passage between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, and 
 running from the Cape to New Zealand, and thence 
 through the Pacific, he discovered the Sandwich Isl- 
 ands, which he left for further observations, returning, 
 however, to winter at Owyhee. An unfortunate mis- 
 understanding between some of his people and the na- 
 tives terminated in a fray, in which Cook was killed, 
 after a desperate resistance, February 14, 1779. 
 
 Cooperage. This art must be coeval with the 
 dawn of history, and seems to have been early known 
 
 in every country. The coopers of London were incor- 
 porated in 1601. 
 
 Copal, a resin which exudes spontaneously from 
 two trees, the Jihm copaUinum, and the EUeocarpus co- 
 paHfer, the first of which grows in America, and the 
 second in the East Indies. A third species of copal- 
 tree grows on the coasts of Guinea, especially on the 
 banks of some rivers, among whose sands the resin is 
 found. It occurs in lumps of various sizes and of va- 
 rious shades of color, from the palest greenish yellow 
 to darkish brown. Its specific gravity is found to vary 
 in different specimens from 1'059 to I'OTl, being in- 
 termediate in density between its two kindred resins, 
 anime and amber. Some rate its specific gravi-ty so 
 high as 1*139, which is probably one of the errors with 
 which chemical compilations teem. Copal is too hard 
 to be scratched by the nail, whence the excellence of 
 its varnish. It has a conchoidal fracture, and is with- 
 out smell or taste. When exposed to heat in a glass 
 retort over a spirit lamp, it readily melts into a liquid, 
 which being further heated boils with explosive jets. 
 A viscid, oily-looking matter then distills over. After 
 continuing the process for some time, no succinic acid 
 is found in the receiver, but the copal blackens in the 
 retort. Anhydrous alcohol boiled upon it causes it to 
 swell, and transfonns it by degrees into an elastic, vis- 
 cid substance. It is not soluble in alcohol of 0'826 at 
 the boiling point, according to experiment. Copal 
 dissolves in ether, and this ethereous solution may be 
 mixed with alcohol without decomposition. Caout- 
 choucine acts very slightly upon it by an experiment, 
 even at the boiling temperature of this very volatile 
 fluid ; but a mixture of it -with alcohol of 0-825, in equal 
 parts, dissolves it very rapidly in the cold into a per- 
 fectly liquid varnish. Alcohol holding camphor in so- 
 lution also dissolves it, but not nearly so well as the 
 last solvent. According to Unverdorben, copal may 
 be completely dissolved by digesting one part of it for 
 24 hours with one part and a half of alcohol (probably 
 anhydrous), because that portion of copal which is in- 
 soluble in alcohol dissolves in a very concentrated so- 
 lution of the soluble portion. Oil of petroleum and 
 turpentine dissolve only one or two per cent, of raw 
 copal. By particular management, indeed, oil of tur- 
 pentine may be combined with copal. 
 
 Fused copal possesses different properties from the 
 substance in its solid state ; for it then may be made 
 to combine both with alcohol and oil of turpentine. 
 
 Unverdorben has extracted from the copal of Africa 
 five different kinds of resin, none of which has, how- 
 ever, been applied to any use in the arts. 
 
 The ultimate constituents of copal by an analysis 
 are, carbon 79*87, h3'drogen 9*00, oxygen 11*1 ; being 
 of hydrogen 7*6 in excess above the quantity necessary 
 to form water with the oxygen. 
 
 Much information has been received from various 
 sources concerning this somewhat ill-understood prod- 
 uct of late years. It is now known that there are 
 three difl'erent kinds of copal in commerce, but nothing 
 is known of their distinguishing characteristics. We 
 have East Indian and West Indian copal, and, under 
 the latter name, two very different substances. The 
 East Indian, called also African, is more colorless, soft, 
 and transparent than the others; it forms a fine surface, 
 and when heated emits an agreeable odor. It furnish- 
 es the finest varnish. Fresh essence of turpentine dis- 
 solves it completely, but not old. Essence digested 
 upon sulphur will dissolve double its own weight, 
 without letting any fall. Fresh rectified oil of rose- 
 mary will dissolve it in any proportion, but if the oil 
 is thickened by age it serves only to swell this copal. 
 
 AVhen cautiously melted, it may be then dissolved 
 in good essence of turpentine in any proportion, pro- 
 ducing a fine varnish, of little color. 
 
 A good varnish may be made by dissolving one 
 part of copal, one of essence of rosemary, with from 
 two to three of pure alcohol. This varnish should be 
 
COP 
 
 423 
 
 COP 
 
 applied hot, and when cold becomes very hard and 
 durable. 
 
 The West India species, or American, comes, not in 
 lumps of a globular form, but in small flat fragments, 
 ■which are hard, rough, and without taste or smell. It 
 is usually yellow, and never colorless like the other. 
 Insects are very rarely found in it. It is also found in 
 the Antilles, Mexico, and North America. It will not 
 dissolve in essence of rosemary. 
 
 The third kind of copal, known also as West Indian, 
 was formerly sold as a product of the East Indies. It 
 is found in fragments of a concavo-convex form, the 
 outer covering of which appears to have been removed. 
 It contains many insects. When rubbed it emits an 
 aromatic odor. It gives out much ethereous and em- 
 pyreumatic oil when melted. It forms a soft varnish, 
 which dries slowly. 
 
 Fusel oil, or amyle spirit, has been lately used as a 
 solvent of the hard copal ; but it does not dry into a 
 very solid varnish. 
 
 Copal varnish was first discovered in France, and 
 was long known by the name of vernis martin. It is 
 applied to snuff-boxes, tea-boards, and other utensils. 
 It preserves and gives lustre to paintings ; and con- 
 tributes to restore the decayed colors of old pictures, 
 by filling up cracks, and rendering the surface capable 
 of reflecting light more uniformly. Copal is liable to 
 be confounded with f/um anime, when the latter is verj- 
 clear and good. But it is of importance to distinguish 
 between them, as the anirn^, though valuable as a var- 
 nish, is much less so than the finest copal ; the varnish 
 with the former being darker colored, and not so hard. 
 Besides the external appearance of each, which is pret- 
 ty distinct to a practiced eye, the solubility in alcohol 
 furnishes a useful test, the anime being readily soluble 
 in this fluid, while the copal is hardly affected by it ; 
 copal is also brittle between the teeth, whereas anime 
 softens in the mouth. — Rees' Cyclopedia; Ure's Dic- 
 tionary^ etc. 
 
 Copeck (kopeika), a Bussian copper coin, so called 
 from the impression of St. George bearing a lance. A 
 hundred of them make one ruble. The value of tlie 
 copper coin, compared with the assignation-ruble, va- 
 ries in the different governments. 
 
 Copenhagen, the capital of Denmark, on the east 
 coast of the island of Zealand, in the channel of the 
 Baltic called the Sound ; lat. 55° 41' 4" N., long. 12° 
 30' 4G" E. Population, in 1845, 126,787. It is a well- 
 built, handsome city. In going into Copenhagen, the 
 course is between the buoy on the Stubben Bank to the 
 left, and the buoy on the Middle-grounds, and those in 
 advance of the three Crown batteries on the right, west- 
 southwest by compass. From the three Crowns to the 
 roads the course is south-southwest. The water in the 
 channel is from six to four fathoms deep ; but it is nar- 
 row, and the navigation rather difficult. There is no 
 obligation to take a pilot on board ; but if a vessel wish 
 for one, she may heave to abreast of the battery, when 
 he will come to her. Vessels not intending to come 
 into harbor bring up in the roads, at from a quarter to 
 half a mile from shore, in about four fathoms, the town 
 bearing south-southwest. In the harbor, within the 
 boom, the water is from 17 to IS feet deep. Vessels 
 in harbor load and unload alongside the quay. The 
 anchorage in the roads is good and safe. 
 
 Money. — Accounts are kept in rix dollars of 6 marcs, 
 or 96 skillings ; the rix dollar being formerly worth 
 about 4s. Id. sterling. But in 1813, a new monetary 
 system was adopted, according to which the new or 
 Rigshanh dollar is worth 2s. Z^d., being half the value 
 of the old specie dollar, and i of the old current dollar. 
 But the money generally used in commercial transac- 
 tions is bank money, which is commonly at a heavy 
 discount. The^or of exchange, estimated by the Eigs- 
 bank dollar, would be 8 dollars 7'6 skillings per pound 
 sterling. 
 
 Weights and Measures, — The commercial weights 
 
 are, 16 pounds = 1 lispound ; 20 lispound = 1 ship- 
 pound ; 100 lbs. =110i lbs. avoirdupois=134 lbs. Troy 
 =101 lbs. of Amsterdam =103 lbs. of Hamburg. 
 
 The liquid measures are, 4 ankers =1 ahm or ohm; 
 l\ ahm=l hogshea'd; 2 hogsheads=l pipe; 2 pipes 
 =1 quarter. The anker =10 (very nearly) English 
 wine gallons. Xfuder of wine=930 pots; and 100 
 pots=25i wine gallons. 
 
 The drj-measures are,4 viertels=l scheffel ; 8 schef- 
 fels=ltoendeorton;12tons=llast=47^ Winchester 
 bushels. The last of oil, butter, herrings, and other 
 oily substances should weigh 224 lbs. net. 
 
 The measure of length is the Ehineland foot=12i 
 inches very nearly. The Danish ell=2 feet; 100 ells 
 =68§ English yards. 
 
 Trade of Copenhagen. — The trade of Copenhagen has 
 latterly increased considerably, particularly the grain 
 trade with England. At the commencement of 1852, 
 297 merchant vessels of about 35,000 tons burden be- 
 longed to the port. The harbor is large and commo- 
 dious, capable of containing 500 merchant vessels be- 
 sides the navy ; and by the aid of canals, large vessels 
 can come almost to the centre of the town. The en- 
 trance is commanded by the powerful batteries of Trek- 
 roner and Sextus. Tlie principal imports are timber, 
 pitch, and tar, chiefly from Norway and Sweden ; flax, 
 hemp, masts, sailcloth, and cordage, from Eussia; to- 
 bacco from America ; wines and brandy from France ; 
 coal, earthenware, iron, steel, and salt from England; 
 and West India produce. The principal exports are 
 corn, rape-seed, butter, cheese, beef, pork, horses, cat- 
 tle, wool, hides, skins, bones, grain-spirits. 
 
 The manufactures of Copenhagen are not important, 
 but are making considerable advances. There are ex- 
 tensive cloth and calico factories, founderies, and iron- 
 works ; also breweries, distilleries, tanneries, sugar-re- 
 fineries, etc. Piano-fortes, clocks, watches, surgical 
 and mathematical instruments, tobacco, chocolate, por- 
 celain are among its other productions. The royal 
 China factory is celebrated for its models of Thorwald- 
 sen's works in biscuit China. The population of Co- 
 penhagen was in 1769, 92,571 ; in 1801, 100,975 ; in 
 1834, 119,292 ; in 1840, 120,819 ; in 1845, 126,787 ; and 
 in 1855, 143,591; of which last about 67,000 were 
 males, and over 76,000 females, including a Jewish 
 population of 2500. The climate is damp, changeable, 
 and unhealthy ; which, added to the almost total want 
 of sanatory regulations, renders the mortality greater 
 here, it is said, than in any other town of Europe with 
 the exception of Vienna. 
 
 The Port Charges at Copenhagen vary according as 
 the vessel has come from this or the farther side of 
 Cape Finisterre, or from the Indian seas ; as she is 
 wholly, or only part loaded ; and as she clears out with 
 goods that have been in transitu, and are for the most 
 part free of duty, or has on board a cargo of native 
 produce subject to duty. On a ship of 300 tons be- 
 longing to a privileged nation from this side Cape Fin- 
 isterre, unloading and loading mixed cargoes in Copen- 
 hagen, the different public charges, including Sound 
 dues, brokerage, &c., would exceed £60 ; and from the 
 farther side of Cape Finisterre, the charges would be 
 nearly i£100. When a ship is not fully loaded, lastage 
 money and light dues are only charged in proportion 
 to the cargo on board. Lastage money is not charged 
 on ships outward bound, laden with transit goods, as 
 tar, pitch, iron, &c. But notwithstanding these de- 
 ductions, it is obvious that port charges are very heavy, 
 and there can be no doubt that they are a material 
 obstacle to the extension of trade. 
 
 Citizeaship. — To enable a foreigner to trade as a mer- 
 chant in Denmark, he must become a burgher, which 
 costs about £100, and it will require about £60 more 
 to free him from the obligation of serving in the mili- 
 tia. The obstacles in the way of a foreigner estab- 
 lishing himself in Denmark as a manufacturer are 
 much greater, on account of the exclusive privileges 
 
COP 
 
 424 
 
 COP 
 
 enjoyed by the guilds or corporations into which the 
 principal crafts or trades are divided. 
 
 Credit. — Goods imported into Copenhagen are com- 
 monly sold on credit; three months is the term gener- 
 ally allowed on most sorts of goods, and in a few in- 
 stances six months. The discount for ready money is 
 4 per cent. Bankruptcy is of rare occurrence. 
 
 Insurance. — Marine insurance is effected, on liberal 
 terms, by a company established in 1746. Many Co- 
 penhagen risks are, however, insured at Amsterdam 
 and Hamburg. Copenhagen has good building yards, 
 and is in all respects an eligible place for the repair 
 of ships, and for supplying them with provisions. 
 
 General Remarks. — On the whole, the commerce of 
 Denmark used to be in a stationary state; a conse- 
 quence partly of the peculiar circumstances under 
 which the country is placed, and partly of the policy 
 of government. The latter long exerted itself to bol- 
 ster up a manufacturing interest, by laying oppressive 
 duties on most species of manufactured articles. Even 
 under the most favorable circumstances, such conduct, 
 though it may benefit a few individuals, is sure to be 
 productive of great national loss. But in the case of 
 Denmark, the circumstances were such as to render the 
 restrictive system peculiarly injurious. All, or nearly 
 all, the branches of industry carried on in the kingdom 
 were subject to the government of guilds or corpora- 
 tions ; no person Oould engage in any line of business 
 until he was authorized by its peculiar guild ; and as 
 the sanction of this body was rarely obtained without 
 a considerable sacrifice, the real effect of the system 
 was to fetter competition and improvement, and to per- 
 petuate monopoly and routine. Even the Danish writ- 
 ers acknowledge that such was the influence of the late 
 regulations. "iVbs ouvriers" say they, '^ sont chers^ 
 travaillent lentement, et souvent mat et sans gold ; leur 
 education est negligi'c. On ne lesformepoint apenser, et 
 Vapprentif suit machinalement ce qu^il voitjaire au mai- 
 tre." — Catteau, Tableau des Etats Sanois, tome ii. 
 p. 260. But within the last few years this system 
 has been quite changed. Industry has been emanci- 
 pated from many troublesome regulations, and moder- 
 ate duties have been substituted for prohibitions. But, 
 however favorably situated in other respects, it would 
 be idle to expect that a country without waterfalls, 
 and mthout coal, should be able to manufacture cot- 
 tons, woolens, etc., at so cheap a rate as they may be 
 imported from others enjoying greater natural facilities 
 for their production. The staple business of Denmarlc, 
 her agricultural and rural economy, has been most ma- 
 terially improved of late years ; and, as already seen, 
 her exports of raw produce are now of great value and 
 importance. The trade of the country suffers from the 
 too great magnitude of the port dues and of the transit 
 duties ; and the Sound duties, being charged on native 
 as well as foreign ships, operate as an inland duty on 
 trade. Considerable improvements have, however, 
 been effected in the commercial legislation'of the coun- 
 try during the last dozen years, by the opening of the 
 trade to the East and West Indies, and the abolition 
 and reduction of other regulations and duties ; and it 
 may be fairly presumed that the benefits resulting from 
 these measures will pave the way for the introduction 
 of others of a similar character. — See Denmark. 
 
 Coppei {Germ. Kupfer ; Du. Koper; Da,. Kobber; 
 Sw. Kopper; Ft. Cnivre ; It. Bame; Sp.Cobre; Port. 
 Cobre; Euss. Mjed^ Krasnoi mjed; Pol. Miedz ; Lat. 
 Cuprum; Arab. Nehass ; Sans. Tamra), a well-known 
 metal, so called from its having been first discovered, 
 or at least, wrought to any extent, in the island of Cy- 
 prus. It is of a fine red color, and has a great deal of 
 brilliancy. Its taste is styptic and nauseous ; and the 
 hands, when rubbed for some time on it, acquire a pe- 
 culiar and disagreeable odor. It is harder than silver : 
 its specific gravity varies according to its state, being, 
 when quite pure, near 9-000. Its malleabilitj' is great ; 
 it may be hammered out into leaves so thin as to be 
 
 blown about by the slightest breeze. Its ductility is 
 also considerable. Its tenacity is so great, that a cop- 
 per wire 0"078 of an inch in diameter is capable of sup- 
 porting 302*26 lbs. avoirdupois without breaking. Its 
 liability to oxydation from exposure to air or damp is 
 its greatest defect. The rust with which it is then 
 covered is known by the name of verdigris, and is one 
 of the most active poisons. — Thomson's Chemistry. 
 
 It is one of the six primitive metals ; its discovery 
 is said to have preceded that of iron. We read in the 
 Scriptures of two vessels of fine copper, precious as 
 gold. — Ezra viii. 27. The great divisibility of this 
 metal almost exceeds belief; a grain of it dissolved in 
 alkali, as pearl ashes, soda, etc., will give a sensible 
 color to more than 500,000 times its weight in water; 
 and when copper is in a state effusion, if the least drop 
 of water touch the melted ore, it will fly abotit like 
 shot from a gun. — Boyle. The mine of Pahlun, in 
 Sweden, is the most surprising artificial excavation in 
 the world. In England, copper mines were discovered 
 in 1561, and copper now forms an immense branch in 
 the British trade. — Haydn. 
 
 If we except gold and silver, copper seems to have 
 been more early known than any other metal. In the 
 first ages of the world, before the method of working 
 iron was discovered, copper was the principal ingredi- 
 ent in all domestic utensils and instruments of war. 
 Even now it is applied to so many purposes, as to rank 
 next, in point of utility, to iron. 
 
 Alloys of Copper are numerous and of great value. 
 Those of tin are of most importance. Tin added to 
 copper makes it more fusible, less liable to rust, or to 
 be corroded by the air and other common substances, 
 harder, denser, and more sonorous. In these respects 
 the alloy has a real advantage over unmixed copper ; 
 but this is in many cases more than counterbalanced 
 by the great brittleness which even a moderate portion 
 of tin imparts ; and which is a singular circumstance, 
 considering that both metals are separately very mal- 
 leable. 
 
 In a pure state, copper is a very brilliant metal, and 
 susceptible of a high polish. It is of a fine red color, 
 differing in this respect from every other metal except 
 titanium. Its specific gravity varies, according to its 
 density, from 8-584 to 8-0. 
 
 Copper alloyed with from 1 to 5 per cent, of tin is 
 rendered harder than before ; its color is yellow, with 
 a cast of red, and its fracture granular ; it has consid- 
 erable malleability. This appears to have been the 
 usual composition of many of the ancient edged tools 
 and weapons, before the method of working iron was 
 brought to perfection. The ;f oA/cof of the Greeks, and 
 perhaps the 035 of the Romans, was nothing else. Even 
 their copper coins contain a mixture of tin. The an- 
 cients did not, in fact, possess (as has been often contend- 
 ed) any peculiar process for hardening copper, except 
 hy adding a small quantity of tin. An alloy in which 
 the tin is from O'l to one-eighth of the whole is hard, 
 brittle, but still a little malleable, close grained, and 
 yellowish white. When the tin is as much as one-sixth 
 of the mass, it is entirely brittle; and continues so in 
 every higher proportion. The yellowness of the alloy is 
 not entirely lost till the tin amounts to 0-3 of the whole. 
 
 Copper (or sometimes copper with a little zinc), al- 
 loyed with as much tin as will make from about 0-1 to 
 one-sixth of the whole, forms an alloy which is princi- 
 pally employed for bells, brass cannon, bronze statues, 
 and various other purposes. Hence it is called bronse 
 or bell metal; and is excellently fitted for the uses to 
 which it is applied, by its hardness, density, sonorous- 
 ness and fusibility. For cannon, a lower proportion 
 of tin is commonly used. According to Dr. Watson, 
 the metal employed at Woolwich consists of 100 parts 
 of copper and from 8 to 12 of tin ; hence it retains 
 some little malleability, and, therefore, is tougher than 
 it would be with a larger portion of tin. This alloy 
 being more sonorous than iron, brass guns give a loud- 
 
COP 
 
 425 
 
 COP' 
 
 er report than iron gnns. A common alloy for bell 
 metal Is 80 parts of copper and 20 of tin ; some artists 
 add to these ingredients zinc, antimony, and silver, in 
 small proportions.; all of vrhich add to the sonorous- 
 ness of the compound. — See Bell-metal. 
 
 When in an alloy of copper and tin the latter metal 
 amounts to about one-third of the mass, the result is a 
 l.eautiful compound^ very hard, of the color of steel, 
 and susceptible of a very fine polish. It is ■well adapt- 
 ed for the reflection of light for optical purposes ; and 
 is therefore Called speculum metal. Besides the above 
 ingredients, it usually contains a little arsenic, zinc, or 
 silver. The application of an alloy similar to the 
 above to the construction of mirrors is of great antiq- 
 uity, being mentioned by Pliny; who says, that for- 
 merly the best mirrors were reckoned those of Brundu- 
 sium, of tin and copper mixed (stanno et te^e viisiU).-^ 
 Hist. Nat. lib. Xxxiii. § 9. See Thomson's Chemistry ; 
 Eees' Cyclopedia ; Dr. Watsost'S! Chctnicdl Essays, vol. 
 iv., etc. 
 
 British Copper Trade: — Great Britain has various 
 copper mines in Cornwall, Devonshire, Wales, etc, hot 
 particularly in the first. Tliough known long before, 
 the Cornish copper mineSwere not wrought with much 
 spirit tilHast century. ' From 1726 to 1735, they pro- 
 duced at an average about 700 tons a yCar of pure cop- 
 per. During the ten years from 1766 to 1775, they 
 produced at an average 2650 tons. In 1798, the prod- 
 uce exceeded 5000 tons ; and it now amounts to frOm 
 11,000 to 12,500 tons, worth, at ^100 a ton, from 
 £1,100,000 to Xl,250,000 sterling. In 1768, the famous 
 mines in tlie Parys Mountains, near Amlwch, in Angle- 
 sea, were discovered. The supplies of ore furnished 
 by them were for a long time abundant beyond all 
 precedent ; biit for many years past the productiveness 
 of the mine has been dsclining, and' it is now almost 
 exhausted. At present the mines of Anglesea, and 
 other parts of AV ales, dd not furnish 200 tons of copjper. 
 Those of Devonshire yield nearly 2000 tons ; the quan- 
 tity produced in the other parts of England being quite 
 inconsiderable. The Irishmines produce about 960 tons. 
 Those of Scotland never were productive, and have 
 been almost entirely abandoned. ' The entire produce 
 of the copper mines of the empire^ maj', therefore, be 
 estimated at present at from 15,000 to 16,000 tons. In 
 consequence of the greatly increased supplies of copper 
 that were thus obtained, England, instead of 'being, as 
 formerly, dependent on foreigners for the greater part 
 of her supplies of this valuable metal, became, previ- 
 ously tO' 1793; one of the principal markets for the sup- 
 ply of others ; and notwithstanding the vastly increased 
 demand for copper during the warfor the sheathing of 
 ships and other purposes, the exports continued to in- 
 crease and the imports to diminish ; the greater pro- 
 ductiveness of the Cornish mines haying suiBced not 
 only to balance the increased demand, but also to make 
 up for the falling off in the supplies from Anglesea. 
 Owing to the want df coal in Cornwall, the ores are not 
 smelted on the spot, but are all sent to Swansea ; it 
 being found cheaper to carry the ores to the coal than 
 the contrary. The East Indies and China, France, 
 the United States, and Italy, are the great markets for 
 British copper. Thus, in 1851, of the total quantity ex- 
 ported from Great Britain, amounting to 17,555 tons, 
 3603 went to the East Indies and China, 3183 to 
 
 France ; 3083 to the United States ; 1396 to Italy ; and 
 2113 to the Hanse towns and Holland. — Pari. Paper, 
 No. 462 ; Session, 1852. 
 
 Foreign Copper. — Copper ores are abundant in Swe- 
 den; Kussia; Japan, Australia, Cuba, Chili, Columbia, 
 etc. Near Fahlun, in the province of Dalecaria, in Swe- 
 den, is tlie celebrated copper mine of the same name, 
 supposed to have been wrought nearly one thousand 
 years. For a long time it was extremely productive, 
 yielding, toward the beginning of the seventeenth cen- 
 tury, an annual produce of about 8,000,000 pounds of 
 pure metal; hut it has since greatly declined; and it 
 is niost probable that at no distant pei'iod it will be 
 wholly abandoned. — Thomsom's Travels in Sweden, p. 
 221. There are copper mines in other parts of Swe- 
 den ; but the entire produce of copper in that country 
 does'not at present exceed from 760 to 800 tons, of a 
 quality inferior to -that of England. The produce of 
 the copper nlines of Russia has been estimated at 290,000 
 poods or 4661 tons (English) a year. — Tegoeokski, 
 Forces Prodiictives de la Russie, i. 300. The copper 
 mines of Japan are said to be among the richest in the 
 world. ' The Dutch and Chinese export considerable 
 quantities of their produce, which ' is spread all over 
 the East, and is regularly quoted' in the prices current 
 of Canton, Calcutta, and Singapore. It is uniformly 
 met with in the shape of bars or ingots ; and when the 
 copper Of South America is worth in the Canton mark- 
 et from $15 to f 16 per picul, that of Japan is worth 
 from $18 to $20 per piculJ Copper, the produce of the 
 Persian mines, is imported into Bombay and Calcutta 
 from Bushire and' Bussorah. But, in a commercial 
 point of view, thS Copper mines of the United States, 
 Cuba, Chili, and Australia are, after those of En- 
 gland, byfarthe most iftiportant. The working of the 
 mines of Cuba, wbiCh-had been abandoned for a length- 
 ened period, was resumed a few years ago, principally 
 by an English company, which has been eminently 
 successfiil. Large quantities of Cuba ore are taken 
 to Swansea to be smelted; and large quantities of 
 Chili ore are also taken there for the same pui-pose. 
 Of the' to-tal' imports of copper ore in 1851, amounting 
 (includingrt^!ito)tO 42,131 tons, Cuba fui-nished 20,875 
 tons; Chili, 8051 tolls ; 'and Australia, 7219 tons ; the 
 rest being supplied' by Spain, Peru, etc. There was a 
 very Extraordinary increase in the supplies of copper 
 from Australia during the four or five years preceding 
 the discovery of the gold fields. The produce of the 
 Burra Burra Mine; for example, which ih 184'6 was 
 6350i tons of ore, had swelled in 1850 to 18,692 tons. 
 But since then some of the mines have been abandoned, 
 and the progress of the others checked. Foi-eign cop- 
 per imported into Great Britain, and the copper ob- 
 tained from the smelting of foreign ore, were, previous- 
 ly to 1842, wholly, or almost wholly, re-exported ; the 
 duty in Great Britain on the copper ore when it was 
 taken or smelted for home use being so -vGry heavy as 
 to make it be altogether exported in an unwrought 
 state. But in 1842 that duty on copper ores arid un- 
 wrought copper was very materially reduced; and it 
 was i^pealed in'the course of the year 1853. The pre- 
 sumption, therefore, is, that the imports into Great 
 Britain of ore for smelting will increase, and that con- 
 siderable quantities of copper derived frOni foreign ores 
 will be brought into use. 
 
 Exports of Bbitisq Coppeb in tue UNDEBMENTioinED Years. 
 
 YenrB. 
 
 tinwroqglit, 
 
 Coin. 
 
 Sheets, NoUb, etc. 
 
 Wire. 
 
 Wrought Copper of 
 ottier Sorts. 
 
 Totttl of British 
 Copper exported. 
 
 
 Cwt. 
 
 Cwt. 
 
 Cwt. 
 
 Cwt. 
 
 Cwt. 
 
 Cwt. 
 
 1820 
 
 41,155 
 
 10 
 
 68,121 
 
 8 
 
 22,063 
 
 121,958 
 
 1825 
 
 10 
 
 2134 
 
 61,431 
 
 40 
 
 25,002 
 
 7S.6'24 
 
 1830 
 
 66,T22 
 
 640 
 
 66,331 
 
 16 
 
 66,443 
 
 I83;i64 
 
 1836 
 
 39,4(10 
 
 
 100,807 
 
 49 
 
 20,219 
 
 161,624 
 
 1840 
 
 20,365 
 
 'soi 
 
 119,268 
 
 39 
 
 10,427 
 
 150.478 ' 
 
 1846 
 
 105,T2T 
 
 61S 
 
 164,859 
 
 83 
 
 9,493 
 
 300,781 . 
 
 isno 
 
 154,678 
 
 148 
 
 263,007 
 
 357 
 
 7,962 
 
 420,153 
 
 1851 
 
 112,245 
 
 1510 
 
 221,013 
 
 716 
 
 15,628 
 
 351,111 
 
 1852 
 
 118.266 
 
 9.5T 
 
 201,887 
 
 2424' 
 
 15,187 
 
 838,721 
 
COP 
 
 426 
 
 COP 
 
 Copper is in extensive demand all over India, be- 
 ing largely used in the dock-yards, in the manufacture 
 of cooking utensils, in alloying spelter and tin, etc. 
 The funeral of every Hindoo brings an accession to the 
 demand, according to his station ; the relatives of the 
 deceased giving a brass cup to every Brahmin present 
 at the ceremony : so that five, ten, fifty, one hundred, 
 one thousand, and sometimes more than ten times this 
 last number, are dispensed upon such occasions. — 
 Bell's Commerce of Bengal. 
 
 A modern, and now a very extensive use of sheet- 
 copper, is for the sheathing of ships. That part of the 
 hull of a ship that is in the water is covered with sheet- 
 copper. This covering preserves the wood from the 
 attacks of the teredo, and thereby gives the ship the 
 advantage of passing more rapidly through the water, 
 as the copper bottom remains always smooth ; for sea- 
 weed and shells will not take root and attach them- 
 selves to copper, as they do to bare planks, owing to 
 the galvanic effect produced by the action of sea-water. 
 As this action, however, produces a rapid decay of cop- 
 per, it was proposed by Sir Humphry Davy to neutral- 
 ize it by applying metallic protectors — an object which 
 he accomplished ; but as this also deprived the copper 
 of the effect it was intended to produce, and allowed 
 the molluscous tribes to attach themselves, the protect- 
 ing process was abandoned. 
 
 Copper bolts are used for fastening the planks and 
 timbers of ships. This is a great improvement in ship- 
 building. A copper-fastened ship or boat is preferable 
 to one with iron fastenings, because the copper bolts 
 remain unaltered by rust, and endure longer than the 
 wood which they hold together, particularly when used 
 in the state of alloy, which preserves it from waste by 
 neutralizing the galvanic action. For the frames of 
 delicate dipping needles and magnetic compasses, cop- 
 per is employed, as it has been found that the brass 
 generally used in philosophical instruments sometimes 
 contains iron, which of course might affect the mag- 
 netic needle. Copper is drawn into wire, used for com- 
 munication with the bells in houses, and for other 
 purposes. Small pipes for conveying coal-gas from 
 the level of the street to the aperture by which the 
 gas issues were formerly made of copper or of brass, 
 till superseded by tin. These pipes were fitted on 
 an iron cylindrical mandril, and a cylindrical ring 
 drawn over the outside. By this means copper and 
 brass tubes are drawn out. The brass tubes for tele- 
 scopes are drawn out in the same manner. 
 
 Copper may be plated ; that is, its surface may be 
 covered with a layer of silver, by rubbing the surface 
 with a mixture of nitrate of silver, muriate of soda, and 
 acidulous tartrate of potass (cream of tartar). But the 
 method practiced at Birmingham is the most perma- 
 nent and effectual. A plate of copper, with a plate of 
 silver applied to it, and borax placed in the interstice, 
 is heated to a particular degree, which it requires the 
 skill of a workman to know — a degree of heat, in short, 
 near that at which copper and silver melt. The two 
 metals thus heated, and in contact, are then taken out 
 of the furnace and passed through rollers. There is a 
 fusion and combination of the adjacent surfaces ; and 
 their adhesion is perfected by the pressure of the roll- 
 ers. Copper thus plated is manufactured at Birming- 
 ham into candlesticks, teapots, buttons, buckles, and 
 a variety of other articles. 
 
 Standard silver coins contain a small proportion of 
 copper, for the purpose of giving them hardness. This 
 proportion is regulated by government in the several 
 countries of Europe, and varies in different states. The 
 combination of gold and copper in various proportions 
 is used for making rings and other trinkets. Copper 
 is gilded by applying on its surface an amalgam of 
 gold with mercury. Bronze ornaments are gilded in 
 the same way. Copper united with zinc forms brass ; 
 ■when alloyed with tin it forms bronze. This combi- 
 nation is hard and brittle if the proportion of tin be 
 
 great; but when the proportion of tin is small, the 
 bronze is soft, and possesses tenacity so as not to be 
 easily broken. The ancients employed hard bronze, 
 containing much tin, in making sword blades, .spear 
 heads, hatchets, and cutting instruments. Bronze 
 cramps are found in ancient buildings in Egypt. Stat- 
 ues and bas-reliefs, culinary vessels, and a variety of 
 other articles of soft bronze, are to be seen in different 
 collections of antiquities. In modern times soft bronze 
 is used for casting cannon and statues. 
 
 Copper melted with a large proportion of tin consti- 
 tutes bell-metal, which is hard and brittle. The metal 
 of which the Chinese gongs are made is composed of 
 the same ingredients ; and it has the property of being 
 in some degree malleable at a certain stage of its cool- 
 ing, for their gongs are covered with marks of the 
 hammer. The most common ore of copper, from which 
 the chief supplies of that metal are derived, is the yel- 
 low copper ore, or copper pyrites, essentially a combi- 
 nation of copper with sulphur and iron. There are, 
 however, numerous other ores of copper in which the 
 metal is in combination with oxygen, carbonic acid, 
 various other metals, etc. Copper in its varied arti- 
 ficial combinations, as in that of verdegris (acetate of 
 copper), blue vitriol (sulphate of copper), Scheele's green 
 (arsenite of copper), verditer (carbonate of copper), etc., 
 is largely used in the arts of dyeing, painting, enam- 
 eling, glass and porcelain coloring, etc. The salts of 
 copper are poisonous ; and from the facility with which 
 copper utensils become oxydated, their use should be 
 as restricted as possible. One or two of the salts of 
 copper are occasionally used in medicine ; and the sul- 
 phate of copper has been found to be one of the most 
 efficacious emetics in croup, checking the disease and 
 preventing the effusion of the fibrinous matter into the 
 trachea. This salt is also used as a lotion in the treat- 
 ment of ulcers, etc, 
 
 American Copper. — Although the copper-mining in- 
 terest in this country is, as yet, in its infancy, it has 
 already produced results that give promise of its soon 
 standing among the foremost of our mineral products, 
 and of adding greatly to the already diversified re- 
 sources of wealth and power of our people. Previous 
 to 1840 we were, in common with the rest of the world, 
 entirely dependent upon England for our supply of 
 this useful material. 
 
 We are this year, 1856, producing about 5000 tons 
 of it, equal to one-seventeenth of the whole amount re- 
 quired to meet the demand of the world. The copper 
 mines of Cornwall, England, have been worked for 
 centuries, while those of our Lake Superior region have 
 only been opened a few years, and not successfully and 
 systematically worked until within the last five years. 
 The opening of the Sault St. Marie canal, by connecting 
 the navigation of Lake Superior with that of the chain 
 of lower lakes, has given an impetus to the business 
 that will soon make it the great source of supply of 
 copper to our own and foreign countries, on account 
 of its great purity and the inexhaustible beds of its 
 ore. Eighteen ncAv stamping mills have been erected 
 the past year, and at least fifty more will bo put into 
 operation this year. The total shipments of the Lake 
 Superior copper mines are thus stated : 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Ontonagon District 2176 
 
 Portage Lake District 345 
 
 Keweenan Point District 2234 
 
 Total 4T5S 
 
 The value of the copper on the wharves on Lake 
 Superior equals .$440 a ton ; total product, $2,092,200. 
 The increase of the year 1855 over 1854 was about 2000 
 tons, and it is estimated that in 1856-'o7, the increase 
 will be 1600 tons over 1855. The government of France 
 has had Mens. Kivot, of tlie School of Mines in France, 
 examining the Lake Superior copper, in consequence 
 of the supply from Russia being cut off; and the Amer- 
 ican copper has been tested and found equal, if not su- 
 
COP 
 
 427 
 
 COE 
 
 perior to the Russian, and far superior to the English. 
 The superior tenacity of the American copper is a 
 strong recommendation. 
 
 Copper Busts and Statues. — These consist wholly of 
 copper, in a thin sheet ; and the whole of the metal 
 has been reduced or precipitated from a liquid solution. 
 We believe that the first example of this striking pro- 
 duction was a bust of the late Dr. Dalton, made by 
 Mr. Cheverton about ten years ago ; and the practica- 
 bility being thus demonstrated, the art may be now 
 followed to any extent. The processes are curious. 
 The bust is first modeled in some kind of clay, which 
 may afterward easily be brolten away piecemeal ; and 
 on this a thick copper film is deposited by the electro 
 process. The clay core or model being broken away, 
 the copper remains as a hollow shell, the inside of 
 which has taken the exact impress (though reversed) 
 of the outside of the bust. This copper shell, on being 
 properly prepared on the inner surface, is made the 
 groundwork on which a second deposition takes place 
 it is used, in fact, as a mould, from which one or more 
 busts may be procured. 
 
 Architects and sculptors are gradually availing 
 themselves of this art in the furtherance of their pro- 
 fessional labors. The late Bavarian sculptor, Stigl- 
 mayer, who was employed by King Ludwig on so 
 many important works at Munich, devised a mode of 
 coating collossal plaster statues with copper, by the 
 electro process, in a remarkably expeditious way. But 
 one of the most important applications of the art is 
 that which is exhibited in the new and splendid cathe- 
 dral of St. Isaacs, at St. Petersburg, on which the em- 
 peror has expended large sums. Certain parts have 
 been ornamented in a remarkable way. The cathedral 
 has seven very large doors, or rather door-ways, three 
 of which are 44 feet wide by 30 high ; they are formed 
 of bronze, but all the adornments are produced by the 
 electro process. These adornments are of a most elab- 
 orate nature ; they comprise no less than 51 bas-reliefs, 
 63 statues, and 84 alto-relievo busts. It is not simply 
 as a matter of economy that the electro process has 
 been adopted, for the czar is not a man to entertain 
 scruples on such a point ; but there are certain advant- 
 ages of an artistic character. By the electro process 
 the sculptor is sure to have his model faithfully copied ; 
 and the lightness of the material enables him to impart 
 bolder relief to his designs than if they were cast in 
 bronze ; while this lightness of weight also justifies 
 him in suspending pendants or bosses from vaulting, 
 of a larger size than would be safe if made otherwise. 
 Copperas, a term employed by the older chemists, 
 and popularly as synonymous with vitriol. There are 
 three sorts of copperas : tlie green^ or sulphate of iron ; 
 the blue, or sulphate of copper; and the white, or sul- 
 phate of zinc. Of these, the first is the most important. 
 Sulphate of iron is distinguished in common \iy a va- 
 riety of names, as Martial vitriol, English vitriol, etc. 
 When pure it is considerably transparent, of a fine 
 bright, though not very deep, gi-ass green color ; and 
 of a nauseous, astringent taste, accompanied with a 
 kind of sweetness. Its specific gravity is 1'834. It 
 uniformly reddens the vegetable blues. This salt was 
 well known to the ancients, and is mentioned by Pliny 
 (Ilist. Nat. lib. xxxiv. § 12) under the names of miey, 
 son/, and calchantum. It is not made in the direct way, 
 because it can be obtained at less charge from the de- 
 composition of pyrites on a largo scale in the neighbor- 
 hood of collieries. It exists in two states, one con- 
 taining oxy d of iron, with 0-22 of oxygen, which is of 
 a pale green, not altered by gallic acid, and giving a 
 white precipitate with prussiate of potass. The other, 
 in which the iron is combined with 0-30 of oxygen, is 
 red, not crystallizable, and gives a black precipitate 
 with gallic acid, and a blue with prussiate of potass. 
 In the common sulphate, these two are often mixed 
 in various proportions. 
 
 Sulphate of iron is of great importance in the arts. 
 
 It is a principal ingredient in dyeing ; in the manufac- 
 ture of ink, and of prussian blue ; it is also used in tan- 
 ning, painting, medicine, etc. Sulphuric acid, or oil 
 of vitriol, was formerly manufactured from sulphate 
 of iron. — See Acids. 
 
 Sulphate of copper, or blue vitriol, commonly called 
 Roman or Cyprian vitriol, is of an elegant sapphire 
 blue color, hard, compact, and semi-transparent ; when 
 perfectly crystallized, of a fiattish, rhomboidal, decahe- 
 dral figure; its taste is extremely nauseous, styptic, 
 and acrid ; its specific gravity is 2-1943. It is used for 
 various purposes in the arts, and also in medicine. 
 
 Sulphate of zinc, or wJdte vitriol, is found native in 
 the mines of Goslar and other places. Sometimes it is 
 met with in transparent pieces, but more commonly in 
 white efflorescences. These are dissolved in water, 
 and crystallized into large irregular masses, somewhat 
 resembling fine sugar, having a sweetish, nauseous, 
 styptic taste. Its specific gravity, when crystallized, 
 is 1"912 ; when in the state in which it commonly oc- 
 curs in commerce, it is 1'3275. Sulphate of zinc is 
 prepared in the large way from some varieties of the 
 native sulphuret. The ore is roasted, wetted with 
 water, and exposed to the air. The sulphur attracts 
 oxygen, and is converted into sulphuric acid : and the 
 metal, being at the same time oxydized, combines with 
 the acid. After some time the sulphate is extracted 
 by solution in water, and the solution being evapora- 
 ted to dryness, the mass is run into moulds. Thus, 
 the white vitriol of the shops generally contains a small 
 portion of iron, and often of copper and lead. — Lewis's 
 Mat. Medica ; Ure's Dicivmary ; Rees' Cyclopedia. 
 
 Copper Money. The Romans, prior to the reign 
 of Servius TuUius, used rude pieces of copper for mon- 
 ey. In England, copper money is of extensive coin- 
 age. That proposed by Sir Robert Cotton was brought 
 into use in 1609. Copper was extensively coined in 
 1665. It was again coined by the crown, 23 Car. II. 
 1672. Private traders had made them previously to 
 this act. In Ireland, copper was coined as early as 
 1339 ; in Scotland in 1406 ; in France in 1680. Wood's 
 coinage in Ireland commenced in 1723. Penny and 
 two-pennypieceswere extensively issued in 1797. The 
 half-farthing was coined in 1843. — See Cent. 
 
 Copyright. See Books. 
 
 Coracle, a small kind of boat, constructed of wick- 
 er, and covered with leather, or with cloth made water- 
 proof with oil or tar. From its extreme lightness it 
 may be transported on the shoulders from place to 
 place. Coracles are common in Wales. A similar 
 kind of boat has been used in the East from remote 
 antiquity. 
 
 Coral (Germ. Korallen; Du. Koradenj Fr. Corail; 
 It. Corale; Sp. and Port. Coral; Russ. Korallii; Lat. 
 Corallium; Arab. Besed; Pers. Merjan; Hind. Maori' 
 go), a marine production, of which there are several 
 varieties. It was well known to the ancients, but it 
 was reserved for the moderns to discover its real na- 
 ture. It is, in fact, the nidus or nest of a certain spe- 
 cies of vermes, which has the same relation to coral 
 that a snail has to its shell. As an ornament, black 
 coral is most esteemed ; but the red is also very highly 
 prized. Coral is found in very great abundance in the 
 Red Sea, the Persian Gulf, in various places in the 
 Mediterranean, on the coast of Sumatra, etc. It grows 
 on rocks, and on any solid submarine body; and it is 
 necessary to its production that it should remain fixed 
 to its place. It has generally a shrub-like appearance. 
 In the Straits of Messina, where a great deal is fished 
 up, it usually grows to nearly a foot in length, and its 
 thickness is about that of the little finger. It requires 
 eight or ten years to arrive at its greatest size. The 
 depth at which it is obtained is various — ^from 10 to 
 100 fathoms or more ; but it seems to be necessary to 
 its production that the rays of the sun should readily 
 penetrate to the place of its habitation. Its value de- 
 pends upon its size, solidity, and the depth and bril- 
 
COR 
 
 428 
 
 COR 
 
 liauoy of its color, and is so very various, that -wliile 
 some of the Sicilian coral sells for eight or ten guineas 
 an ounce, other descriptions of it ^111 not fetch Is. a 
 pound. It is highly prized by: opulent natives in In- 
 dia, as well as by the fair sex throughout Europe^ The 
 inferior or worm-eaten coral is jised in some parts of 
 the Madras coast, in the celebration of funeral rites. 
 It is also used medicinally. Besides the fishery in the 
 Straits of Messina already alluded to, there are valu- 
 able fisheries on the shores of Majorca and Minorca, 
 and on the coast of Provence. A (good deal of Medi- 
 terranean coral is exported to India, which, however, 
 draws the largest portion of its supplies from the Per- 
 sian Gulf. The produce of the fishery at Messina is 
 stated by Spallanzani (Travels in the Two Sicilies, vol. 
 iv.) to amount to 12 quintals Of 250 lbs. each. 
 
 The manner of fishing coral is nearly the same every- 
 where. That which is most commonly practiced an the 
 Mediterranean is as follows ; seven or eight men go in a 
 boat, commanded by the .proprietor ; the ca«ter throws 
 his net, if we may so call the machine which he uses 
 to tear up the coral from the bottom of the sea; and 
 the rest work the boat, and help to draw in the net. 
 This is composed of two beams of wood tied crossivise, 
 with leads fixed to them to sink them ; to these beams 
 is fastened a quantity of hemp, twisted loosely round, 
 and intermingled with some loose netting. In this 
 condition the machine is let down into the sea ; and 
 when the coral is pretty strongly entwined in the hemp 
 and nets, they draw it up with a rope, which they un- 
 wind according to the depth, and which it sometimes 
 requires half a dozen boats to draw. If this rope hap- 
 pens to break, the fishermen run the hazard of bMng 
 lost. Before the fishers go to sea, they agree for the 
 price of the coral ; and the produce of the' fishery is 
 divided, at the end of the season, into thirteen parts ; 
 of which the. proprietor has four, the caster two, and 
 the other si:c men one each ; the thirteenth belongs to 
 the company for payment of boat-hire, etc. See Aiks- 
 lie's Materia Indica; Rees' Cyclopedia ; Encyclopedia 
 Metropolitana ; Bell's Commerce oj^ Bengal, etc. 
 
 Cordage (Germ. Tauwerlc; Du. Touwwerh; Fr. 
 Manauvres, Cordage; It. Caolame; Sp. Jarcia, Cordaje), 
 a term used in general for all sorts of cord, whether 
 small, middling, or great, made use of in the rigging of 
 ships. The following table shows how many fathoms, 
 feet, and inches, of a rope of any size, not exceeding 
 14 inches, make 1 owt. At the top of the tabic, mark- 
 ed inches, fathoms, feet, inches^ .the firs^ column is the 
 circumference of a rope in inches and quarters ; the sec- 
 ond, the fathoms, feet, and inches that make up 1 cwt. 
 of such a rope. One example will make it plain. . 
 
 Suppose it is required how much of a 7-inch rope 
 will make 1 cwt. ; find 7 in the third column, under 
 inches, or circumference of the rope, and immediately 
 opposite to it you will find 9, 5, 6 ; which shows that in 
 a rope of 7 inches there will be 9 fathoms 5 feet 6 inches 
 required to make 1 cwt. 
 
 s 
 
 i 
 
 J 
 
 gi 
 
 i 
 
 S 
 
 S 
 
 1 '° 
 
 1 
 
 1 i 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 it 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 a « 1 
 
 1 
 
 486 
 
 
 
 6i 
 
 16 1 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 4 5 
 
 H 
 
 31D 3 
 
 
 
 ■H 
 
 14 4 
 
 G 
 
 lOi 
 
 4 4 1 
 
 H 
 
 216 3 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 13 3 
 
 
 
 10^ 
 
 4 2 2 
 
 ]| 
 
 159 3 
 
 
 
 6i- 
 
 12 2 
 
 9 
 
 lOi 
 
 4 18 
 
 2 
 
 124 3 
 
 
 
 6J- 
 
 11 8 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 4 3 
 
 2i 
 
 96 2 
 
 
 
 Ci 
 
 10 4 
 
 
 
 lU 
 
 3 5 7 
 
 n 
 
 77 3 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 9 6 
 
 6 
 
 lU 
 
 3 4 1 
 
 4 
 
 65 4 
 
 
 
 7i 
 
 9 1 
 
 6 
 
 Hi 
 
 8 8 3 
 
 3 
 
 54 
 
 
 
 7* 
 
 8 4 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 3 2 3 
 
 3i 
 
 45 6 
 
 2 
 
 ■a 
 
 8 3 
 
 6 
 
 12i 
 
 3 2 1 
 
 Si 
 
 39 3 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 7 3 
 
 
 
 m ■ 
 
 3 2 
 
 3f 
 
 34 3 
 
 9 
 
 8i 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 12i 
 
 2 7 8 
 
 4 
 
 80 1 
 
 C 
 
 8} 
 
 6 4 
 
 3 
 
 13 
 
 2 5 3 
 
 4i 
 
 20 5 
 
 3 
 
 8i 
 
 6 2 
 
 1 
 
 ISi 
 
 2 4 9 
 
 4J- 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 13i 
 
 2 4 
 
 4i 
 
 21 3 
 
 
 
 94- 
 
 6 4 
 
 
 
 13i 
 
 2 8 6 
 
 6 
 
 19 3 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 5 2 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 2 2 1 
 
 5i 
 
 17 4 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 — See Cable. 
 
 Cord'wainers or Cordiners, the term by which 
 shoemakers are designated in the statutes. The word 
 is formed from the French cordonnier, which Menage 
 derives from cordcma?!!, a kind of leather brought from 
 Cordova, and used for the upper leather of shoes. Oth- 
 ers derive it from corde, rope, because shoes were an- 
 ciently made of cords ;■ as, indeed,' they still ate in 
 some parts of Spain, under the name ot atpargaies. But 
 the former etj'mology is evidently more proper. 
 
 Corea, a large peninsula of Asia, foi-med on one side 
 by the Yellow Sea, and on the oth«r by the Sea of 
 Japan. It is situated immediately to the east of Chi- 
 na; and its length maybe estimated at 400 miles, 
 by 160 in average breadth. A great part of what 
 was formerly supposed' to. be its western coast was 
 found by Captains Hall and Maxwell to consist of 
 an immense archipelago of small islands, which have 
 since been subdivided into several groups, and. arc 
 known as Amherst's Islands, the Corean, and Hall's 
 Archipelago. The largest of these is the island of 
 Qiielpaert, called by the natives Musa, in the centre of 
 which there is a mountain peak about 6000 feet above 
 the level Of the sea. - Though rocky and bare, tliese 
 groups are for the most pai't inhabited. The peninsula 
 itself is divided from the Japanese- Island of Kiusin by 
 the StraitS' of Corea, and by a hi^^h mountain range 
 callfed the Shanalin or Champeshan, from the country 
 of the Mantchoos. It • embraces' an area of about 
 95,000.iniles, with a population of about eight millions.. 
 The interior of the country is rugged andmountamous, 
 being intersected. by a. lofty branch of the northern 
 range, which in turn sends off numerous ofi'shoots to 
 the sea.. Tho principal valleys lie toward the western 
 and southern coasts, and these districts alone enjoy a 
 temperate, climate.. The eastern coast is bleak and 
 precipitous, while the aorthern. frontier is cold and des- 
 olate, and thus subserves the purposes of despotism by 
 cutting off all friendly communication with tjie main 
 land. The principal products of the country comprise 
 wheat, millet, rice, ginseng, tobacco, silk, cotton, and 
 hetnp. The three last are exported both in the raw 
 and manufactured state. Timber and cattle are plenti- 
 fully supplied from tho forests and pasture-grounds, 
 as well as furs from the northern jungles. Its mineral 
 wealth is said to include gold, silver, iron, rock-salt, 
 and coal; and from the tribute sent to the Emperor of 
 China-^consisting both of bullion and manufactured 
 article^ — ^the precious metals seem to be wrought to a 
 considerable extent. The Coreans resemble the Jap- 
 anese and Chinese in dress, habits, and religion, but 
 are said to be as inferior to either of these in mental 
 vigor as they are superior in strength and stature. 
 Their mode of writing is alphabetic, and they are said 
 to possess an extensive literature ; but as all ingress 
 into the country is denied to Europeans, and all egress 
 to natives, little is known of these particulars. They 
 keep up considerable commercial intercourse with Chi- 
 na and Japan, whence they import pepper, aromatic 
 woods, alum, and goods of Dutch manufacture ; but 
 most of the trade is managed by a circuitous overland 
 route; and, being discouraged by the government, is 
 carried on with secrecy and at considerable risk. The 
 kingdom of Corea, although tributary to China, is gov- 
 erned at will by its own king— the Chinese emperor 
 doing little more than formally ratifying his decrees. 
 It is divided into eight provinces, and contains; ac- 
 cording to Chinese accounts, 161 towns. The capital, 
 King-ti-tao, Stands on the river Kiang, a small stream 
 which flows into the Yellow Sea. It is the residence 
 of the king, and contains, among other things, an ex- 
 tensive library. In modern times a few French mis- 
 sionaries have penetrated into the country, but with 
 little success, 
 
 Cork (Germ, ifori; Bu. KorJc, Kurlc, Vlothout ; Fr. 
 Liiga; It. Sughero, Suvero; Sp. Corcho ; Port. Cortica 
 (de Sovreiro) ; Jiuss. Korhowoe derewo ; hat. Suier), the 
 thick and spongy bark of a species of oak {Quercm Su- 
 
COB 
 
 429 
 
 COR 
 
 ier^ Linnaue) abundant in dry Ihountainous districts 
 in the south- of France, and in Spain, Portugalj Italyiy 
 and Barbary. ; The tree grows to the height of thirty 
 feet or more, has a striking resemblance to ttxeQuercus 
 Ihx, or eVcrgreen oak, and attains to a great age. Aft- 
 er arriving" at a certain state of maturity, it periodical- 
 ly sheds its bark; but this yaluable productiis found to 
 be of a itiuch better quality -when it is artificiallyr re- 
 moved from the tree,Tvhich may be efiected ■without 
 any injuiy to the latter. After a tree has attained to 
 the ago of from > twenty-six to.'thirty years, it may be 
 barked; and the aperation may be subsequently re- 
 peated once every eight or ten yearS, the, Quality of the 
 boric improving with tho increasing age Of' -the tree. 
 The bark is taken off in July aind Airgurt-; ami 'trees 
 that are regularly stripped are said tolivefor one liun- 
 dted and fifty years or more.— Poiret, Hist. Philoso- 
 phique des Plantes, tome vii. 419. Cork is light, poi-Qubj 
 readily compressible, and -wonderfully -elastic. It-may 
 be out into any sort of figure, and not-withstanding its 
 porosity, is nearly impervious to- any common liquor. 
 These qualities make it superior to all other substances 
 for stoppers for bottles, in the manufacture lif-which it 
 is principally made use Of; Itiis' also- 'femployed as 
 buoys to float nets, in the construction of life-boats, the 
 mailing of water-proof shoes,. and in various -other 
 ways. Before -being -manufactured-- into -stoppebs^ ithe 
 coric is charred on eaohiside; this miikcs'Jt contract, 
 lessens-its'porosity, and- consequently fits it the better 
 for cutting off all communication between the external 
 air and the liquid in the bottle. Spafai^h black is made 
 of calcined cork, , The cork tree, and the uses to whiclf 
 the bark may be applied, were known fo' th^ Greeks 
 and Romans. Pliny mentions that the Bomans em 
 ployed it to stop all kinds of vessels ;' but the use of it 
 for this purpose does not appear to have, been common 
 till glass botties came into general use, which, accord- 
 ing' to Beckmann', was not till the fifteenth century. 
 iOtlier vegetable productions have been sometinies em- 
 iployed instead of Cork ; as, for instance, the ,spondias 
 lutea^ a tree which grows in South America, particular- 
 ly jn moist places, and, which is there called monbin or 
 imoniain. The roots of liquorice are applied to the 
 same use, and on this account the plant is cultivatfed 
 in Sclavonia, and exported. A tree called nyssa, which 
 grows in North America, has been found also to afford 
 a substitute for cork. — ' 
 
 donsidering it in a politic as well as in an econom- 
 Jcal sense, seasonable measures sliould be taken to form 
 in the United States plantations of this tree, sufficient 
 for the future supply of cork, particularly for the in- 
 creasing demands for that material which are likely to 
 arise from the culture of the vine. As a further argu- 
 ment in showing the importance of fostering this branch 
 of rural economy, it may be stated, that the amount of 
 cork which i^ yearly imported into the United States, 
 .is valued at more than $284,000. 
 
 Cork Jacket, an apparatus to buoy up the body 
 in swimming. It consists of pieces of cork inclosed 
 between two pieces of strong canvas, and is shaped so 
 as to be worn like a jacket, but without arms. It is 
 now almost quite superseded by the air belt made of 
 waterproof cloth. The cork jacket appears to be a 
 very old invention ; for Plutarch, in his life of Camil- 
 lus, mentions that the messenger sent by that general 
 to his fellow-citizens when besieged in the capitol, 
 made use of a cork jacket in swimming across the Ti- 
 ber, the Gauls being in possession pf the bridge. 
 
 Cork, a city, parliamentary borough, and river port 
 of Ireland, capital of the county of Cork, and a county 
 of itself, on the I.ee, eleven miles above the entrance 
 of Cork Harbor, and 137 miles southwest of Dublin. 
 Area of city, 48,006 acres ; of the municipality, 2683 
 acres. Population of county and city, or barony, 
 106,055; of municipal borough (1851)," 84,114. The 
 city proper is built on an island formed by the Lee. 
 Principal manufactures are of leather, iron, and other 
 
 metallic goods, glass, gloves, and paper, and there are 
 some extensive ibraweries and 'distilleries ; the woolen 
 and cotton manufactures, formerly extensive, are now 
 all but extinct. The trade is extensive, the exports 
 consist of com, fionr, butter, and other Irish produce; 
 imports consist cbiefly- of manufactured, goods from 
 England ;. wines,- fruits, and salt from Portugal and 
 the Mediterranean ; timber from the Baltic and North 
 America. Cork communicatesjby steam-packets with 
 London , Dublin, Bristolj Llvfirpocd, and GlAsgow, Coi'h 
 Harbor is a. fine land-locked basin, foiffled bj' the estu- 
 ary of the Lee,which is navigable to li miles above 
 Cork city. It is- large and deep-enough to containthe 
 whole 'British navy, and has an entrance one mile 
 across, within whidiits breadth- varies to eight miles. 
 It contains Spike and Haulbowline Islands, on which 
 are artillery barracks and/ various* ordnance works. 
 Lat. £1° 50- A". N., long. 8° 19"iW. On its shores are 
 the-towns of Cove and Passage, withquays- four miles 
 in length, and which were crtcted at a cost of £100,000. 
 
 Corn (Saxon Corn), the grain or seeds of plants sep- 
 aratedfrom.thespica or ear, and -used for making bread. 
 According to the European interpretation thOre are 
 sfiveral species- of corn, such as wheat, rye, and 'barley, 
 millet- and riee, oats, maize, and lentils, peas, and a 
 nunibcr of other Icinds, each of ■^\hich has -its peculiar 
 qualities and usefulness. Egypt -n-as anciently' the 
 most fertileiof all countries in corn.i This appears both 
 from sacred' and profane .historiy. It supplied a consid- 
 erable part ofithe people subject to the-ifioman empire, 
 and was called the dry nurse of Rome and Italy. Ceres 
 has fhoi credit, of. being .the first who taught them the 
 U3e;of corn, -on which account she was, ranked .by them 
 as a deity. -Some;- however, attributed the honor to 
 T.riptolemus ; while others award the honor to both 
 alike, making Ceres the first' discoverer, and Triptole- 
 mus thfi first plan ter and cultivator of com. Diodorus 
 Siculusi ascribes the whole to Isis; iniwhich, as Poly- 
 dore Virgil observes, he .does not differ from other au- 
 thorsr— Isis and Geres being in reality the same person. 
 The Athenians pretended that it was among them the 
 art of sowing corn \took:its -rise; and the Cretans or 
 Gandiots-,- Sicilians, and-Egj-ptians, also lay claim to 
 the distinction. Some think thetitle of the Sicilians 
 best supported, Sicily being the. country of Ceres ; and 
 it is alleged that she did not- teach, the secret to the 
 Athenians till she' bad first instructed her own com- 
 patriots. Others say that Ceres passed first into Atti- 
 ca, thence into Crete, and last of all into- Sicily. Many 
 scholars, however, m&intain that it was in Egypt the 
 art I of cultivating corn first began; and it is certain 
 that there was com in Egypt and the East long before 
 the time of Ceres E. B. 
 
 Maize, or Indian Com, — Among the objects of cul- 
 ture in the United States, maize, or Indian corn, takes 
 preeedence-in the scale of crops, aS it is best adapted to 
 the soil and climate, and furnishes the largest amount 
 of nutritive food. Where due regard is paid to the 
 selection of varieties, and cultiyated in a proper soil, 
 it may be accounted as a sure crop in almost everj'- 
 portion of the habitable globe between the 44th degree 
 of north latitude and a corresponding parallel south. 
 Besides its production in this country, its principal 
 culture is limited to Mexico, the West Indies, most of 
 the states of South America, France, Spain, Portugal, 
 Lombardy, and southern and central Europe generally. 
 It is also cultivated with success in northern, southern, 
 and western Africa, India, China, Japan, Australia, 
 and the Sandwich Islands, the groups of the Azores, 
 the Madeiras, the Canaries, and numerous other ocean 
 isles. 
 
 Although there has been much written on the East^ 
 em origin of this grain, it did not grow in that part 
 of Asia watered by the Indus at the time of Alexander 
 the Great's expedition, as it is not among the produc- 
 tions of that countrj' mentioned by Nearchus, the com- 
 mander of the fleet. Neither is it noticed by Arrian, 
 
COE 
 
 430 
 
 COR 
 
 Diodorus, Columella, nor any other ancient author, 
 And even as late as 1491, the year before Columbus 
 discovered America, Joan, di Cuba, in his " Ortus 
 Sanitatis," makes no mention of it. It has never been 
 found in any ancient tumulus, sarcophagus, or pyra- 
 mid ; nor has it ever been represented in any ancient 
 painting, sculpture, or work of art, except in America. 
 But in this country, according to Garcilaso de la Vega, 
 one of the earliest Peruvian historians, the palace gar- 
 dens of the Incas were ornamented with maize in gold 
 and silver, with all the grains, spikes, stalks, and 
 leaves; and in one instance, in the "Garden of Gold 
 and Silver," there was an entire corn-field of consider- 
 able size, representing the maize in its exact and nat- 
 ural shape, a proof no less of the wealth of the Incas, 
 than of their veneration for this important grain. 
 
 In further proof of the American origin of this plant, 
 it may be stated that it is still found growing in a wild 
 state, from the Kocky Mountains, in North America, 
 to the humid forest of Paraguay, where, instead of 
 haviug each grain naked, as is always the case after 
 long cultivation, it is completely covered with glumes 
 or husks. It is, moreover, a well-authenticated fact, 
 that maize was found in a state of cultivation by the 
 aborigines on the island of Cuba at the time of its 
 discovery by Columbus, as well as in most other places 
 in America first explored by Europeans. 
 
 The first successful attempt of the English in North 
 America to cultivate this grain was made on James 
 Elver, in Virginia, in 1608. The colonists sent over 
 by the "London Company" adopted the mode then 
 practiced by the Indians, which, with some modifica- 
 tions, has been pursued ever since. The yield at that 
 time is represented to have been from two hundred to 
 more than a thousand fold. The same increase was 
 noticed by the early settlers in Illinois. The present 
 yield, east of the Rocky Mountains, when judiciously 
 cultivated, varies from twenty to one hundred and 
 thirty-five bushels to an acre. 
 
 The varieties of Indian corn are very numerous, ex- 
 hibiting many grades of size, color, and conformation. 
 Among these are, the shrubby reed that grows on the 
 shores of Lake Superior; the gigantic stalks of the 
 Ohio Valley; the tiny ears, with flat, close-clinging 
 grains, of Canada ; the brilliant, rounded little pearl ; 
 the bright-red grains and white cob of the eight-rowed 
 hematite ; the swelling ear of the big white ; and the 
 yellow gourd-seed of the South. 
 
 From the flexibility of this plant, it may be accli- 
 matized, by gradual cultivation, from Texas to Maine, 
 or from Canada to Brazil ; but, in either case, its char- 
 acter is somewhat changed, and often new varieties are 
 the results. The blades of the plant are of great value 
 as food for stocli;, and form an article but rarely esti- 
 mated sufiiciently, when considering the agricultural 
 products of the southern and south-western states es- 
 pecially. 
 
 The increase of production from 18i0 to 1850 was 
 214,000,000 bushels, equal to 66 per cent. The produc- 
 tion of New England has advanced from 6,993,000 to 
 10,377,000 bushels, showing an increase of 3,384,000 
 bushels — nearly 50 per cent. New York, New Jersey, 
 Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Maryland increased 
 20,812,000 bushels — more than 50 per cent. In the 
 production of this crop no state has retrograded. Ohio, 
 which in 1840 occupied the fourth place as a corn-pro- 
 ducing state, now ranks as the first ; Kentucky, second ; 
 Illinois, third; Tennessee, fourth. The crop of Illi- 
 nois has increased from 22,000,000 to 57,500,000 bush- 
 els, or at the rate of 60 per cent, in ten years. 
 
 Of the numerous varieties, some are best adapted to 
 the southern states, while others .are better suited for 
 the northern and eastern. Those generally cultivated 
 in the former are the Southern big and small yellow, 
 the Southern big and small white-flint, the j-ellow Pe- 
 ruvian, and the Virginia white gourd-seed. In the 
 more northerly and easterly states, they cultivate the 
 
 golden Sioux, or Northern yellow-flint, the King Philip, 
 or eight-rowed yellow, the Canada early white, the 
 Tuscarora, the white flour, and the Rhode Island white- 
 flint flour. 
 
 The extended cultivation of this grain is chiefly con- 
 fined to the eastern, middle, and western states, though 
 much more successfully grown in the latter. The 
 amount exported from South Carolina in 1748 was 
 39,308 bushels; from North Carolina, in 1753, 61,580 
 bushels ; from Virginia, for several years preceding 
 the Revolution, annually, 600,000 bushels ; from Phil- 
 adelphia, in 1762, 90,740 bushels ; in 1767-'68, 60,205 
 bushels ; in 17T1, 259,441 bushels. 
 
 The total amount exported from this country in 1770 
 was 578,349 bushels ; in 1791, 2,064,936 bushels, 361,695 
 of which were Indian meal ; in 1800, 2,032,435 bushels, 
 338,108 of which were in meal ; in 1810, 1,140,960 bush- 
 els, 86,744 of which were in meal. In 1820-'21, there 
 were exported 607,277 bushels of corn and 131,669 bar- 
 rels of Indian meal ; in 1830-'31, 571,312 bushels of corn 
 and 207,604 barrels of meal ; in 1840-'41, 535,727 bush- 
 els of corn and 232,284 barrels of meal ; in 1845-'46, 
 1,286,068 bushels of corn and 298,790 barrels of meal; 
 in 1846-'47, 16,326,050 bushels of corn and 948,060 bar- 
 rels of meal ; in 1850-51, 3,426,811 bushels of corn and 
 203,622 barrels of meal. More than 11,000,000 bushels 
 of Indian corn were consumed in 1850 in the manufac- 
 ture of malt and spirituous liquors. 
 
 According to the census of 1840, the corn crop of 
 tlie United States was 377,531,875 bushels ; of 1850, 
 592,326,612 bushels. 
 
 states aod Territories. 
 
 L 
 
 Alabama '. .^ 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 California 
 
 Columbia, District of . ^ 
 
 Connecticut . . .^ 
 
 Delaware .\ 
 
 Florida 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Maine 
 
 Maryland 
 
 MasBa^husetts .... 
 
 Michigan. 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Missouri 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 New York 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Texas 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Virginia 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 Minnesota Teixitory . . , 
 New Mexico Ten-itory. 
 
 Oregon Territory 
 
 Utah Ten-itory 
 
 Total 
 
 Dushela. 
 20,947,004 
 4,846,632 
 
 '39,'4S5 
 
 1,600,441 
 
 2,099,359 
 
 898,974 
 
 20,905,122 
 
 22,634,211 
 
 28,185,837 
 
 1,406,241 
 
 39,847,120 
 
 5,652,913 
 
 950,528 
 
 8,233,080 
 
 1,809,192 
 
 2,277,039 
 
 13,1£1,237 
 
 17,332,524 
 
 1,162,872 
 
 4,361,975 
 
 10,972,286 
 
 23,893,763 
 
 33,668,144 
 
 14,240,022 
 
 460,498 
 
 14,722,805 
 
 44,986,188 
 
 1,119,678 
 
 34,577,891 
 
 .379,389 
 
 377,531,878 
 
 1850. 
 
 BushelB. 
 
 28,764,048 
 
 8,803,939 
 
 12,236 
 
 65,230 
 
 1,935,043 
 
 3,146,542 
 
 1,996,809 
 
 30,080,099 
 
 67,646,984 
 
 62,964,363 
 
 8,656,799 
 
 68,672,691 
 
 10,266,373 
 
 1,760,056 
 
 10,749,858 
 
 2,846,490 
 
 5,641,420 
 
 22,446,552 
 
 86,214,537 
 
 1,873,670 
 
 8,769,704 
 
 17,857,400 
 
 27,941,061 
 
 59,078,695 
 
 19,836,214 
 
 639.201 
 
 16,27i;454 
 
 52,276,223 
 
 «,028,876 
 
 2,032,396 
 
 38,284,319 
 
 1,988,979 
 
 16,725 
 
 365,411 
 
 2,918 
 
 9,899 
 
 592,326,612 
 
 Corn La-ws. An adequate supply of breadstufli 
 is evidently of the very first importance to every coun- 
 try, and should be a« regular as is possible, since sud- 
 den fluctuations in an article of such universal neces- 
 sity are injurious, and scarcity, with tlie consequent 
 high^ prices, brings distress upon the poorer classes, 
 and is a fruitful cause of discontent and convulsions. 
 The best means of securing a sufficient and steady sup- 
 ply of this article is a subject of some diversity of opin- 
 ion, and the practice of governments has varied much 
 at different times. One theory, urged by Adam Smith, 
 but questioned by Mr. Malt'hus and most others, is, 
 that the government should do absolutely nothing in 
 the matter, on the ground that the farmers and com 
 
COR 
 
 431 
 
 COR 
 
 merchants, if unchecked, "will always form correct views 
 of their own interest, and that their interest will coin- 
 cide with that of the rest of the community. But broad, 
 sweeping theories of this sort are rarely adopted in the 
 practical administration of attairs ; and a government, 
 in making regulations on this subject, as on every other, 
 looks at its internal condition, the character and pur- 
 suits of its population, and its foreign commercial rela- 
 tions ; and though it may not judge correctly of the 
 best means of securing a steady and sufficient supply, 
 this does not prove that a total neglect of the subject 
 would be the wisest and the safest policy in all countries 
 and at all times. It is certain, however, that very un- 
 wise measures have often been resorted to, and some- 
 times such as tended rather to aggravate the evil than 
 to provide a remedy. One way to guard against a scar- 
 city is that adopted by the king of Egypt in the time of 
 Joseph — the purchasing of corn by the government in 
 time of plenty at home, or importing it from abroad, 
 and storing it in public magazines, to be distributed 
 as tlie public wants may demand. But this system is 
 attended with great expense, and affords but an uncer- 
 tain and inadequate provision. Most governments, 
 accordingly, instead of making direct purchases, at- 
 tempt to provide a remedy by the passage of laws. 
 This subject of grain legislation is by no means entire- 
 ly modern. The Athenians had laws prohibiting the 
 exportation of corn, and requiring merchants who load- 
 ed their vessels with it in foreign ports to bring their 
 cargoes to Atliens. The public provision and distribu- 
 tion of corn was an important branch of administra- 
 tion at Rome, and very intimately connected with the 
 public tranquillity. The regulation in the supply of 
 corn, and the trade in the article, has been a fruitful 
 subject of legislation in modem Europe. But it is to 
 be observed, that the public solicitude and current of 
 legislation take this direction only in populous coun- 
 tries, or at least those in which the population presses 
 hard upon tlie means -of domestic production of bread- 
 stuffs ; for a country of which, like this, the staple ex- 
 ports are breadstuffs needs to take no measures for se- 
 curing a supplj' ; and, as flour and Indian meal are 
 great articles of exportation in the United States, this 
 country has tad no occasion for laws to guard against 
 a famine, since the ordinary course of industry and 
 trade gives the greatest possible security, by produc- 
 ing a surplus in provisions, which a high price at home, 
 in anticipation of any scarcity, will be sure to retain 
 for the supply -of domestic wants. In agricultural 
 countries the object of solicitude is to supply the want 
 of arts and manufactures, as in populous and highly 
 improved countries it is to supply the want of food. 
 But the laws directed to this object have been very 
 various, and some of them contradictory ; for as in 
 Athens, so in England at one period, the laws prohib- 
 ited the exportation -of corn ; whereas, at another pe- 
 riod, and for a very long one in the latter country, a 
 bounty was given on the exportation; and both these 
 laws had the same object, viz., the adequate and steady 
 supply of the article. For this purpose the bounty is 
 the measure -undoubtedly calculated to produce the ef- 
 fect intended, and the permanent prohibition of export- 
 ation must aggravate the scarcity which it is intended 
 to prevent. Such a bounty tends to stimulate a sur- 
 plus production, and so to give a country, by this fac- 
 titious encouragement, the same security in respect to 
 a supply as results from the spontaneous intercourse 
 of industry and trade in Poland, the southern part of 
 Russia, and the United States. But the objection to 
 the bounty is its great expense, requiring, as it does, 
 the imposition of a tax, and, at the same time, raising 
 the price of the article to the domestic consumer. To 
 secure the advantages and avoid some of the burdens 
 of this law, Mr. Burke, in 1773, proposed the system 
 of corn laws so long adhered to in Great Britain, ac- 
 cording to which no bounty is paid, but the exporta- 
 tion of corn is permitted when it is sold under a certain 
 
 price in the home market. This price is determined 
 by the average sales in certain specified places for a 
 given time ; and when it rises above a certain other 
 fixed price, the importation is permitted. By Mr. 
 Burke's bill, wheat might be exported when the price 
 was under Us. the quarter, and imporftd when it was 
 over iSe. The home grower is, therefore, sure to be 
 free from a foreign competition at any price under 48s., 
 and this gives him confidence in pursuing this species 
 of cultivation. The rates or prices at which exporta- 
 tion and importation have since been allowed, have 
 varied from time to time very materially; but the 
 principles of the laws and their effect are the same. — 
 E. A. 
 
 Reform of the Coi-n Laws of England. — In 1843, a 
 measure was adopted whicli made a wide breach in 
 the corn laws. In 1842 the Legislature of Canada 
 passed a law imposing a duty of 3s. a quarter on all 
 wheat imported into the province, unless from the 
 United Kingdoiji, stating, in the preamble to this act, 
 that it was passed in the expectation and belief that a 
 corresponding reduction would be made in the duties 
 on wheat and wheat flour imported into the United 
 Kingdom from Canada. And conformably to this an- 
 ticipation, the act 6 & 7 Vict. c. 29, passed in 1843, re- 
 duced the duty on wheat imported from Canada to Is. 
 a quarter, and proportionately on wheat flour. This 
 act met with much opposition from a part of the agri- 
 cultural interest in England, who contended that it 
 would lead to the introduction of unlimited supplies 
 of corn from the United States, at a duty of only 45. a 
 quarter, or, allowing for smuggling, at perhaps only 
 half that amount. But experience showed that these 
 anticipations were not likely to be realized ; for, though 
 the imports from Canada were materially increased, 
 the obstacles in the way of the importation of corn from 
 the United States into Canada, and the danger and 
 expense of the voyage from Montreal or Quebec to 
 England, must necessarily have prevented the import- 
 ation through this channel from ever becoming of 
 much importance. Still, however, the measure was in 
 so far an abandonment of the corn laws ; and if Great 
 Britain was justified in admitting the produce of the 
 United States to her markets in this indirect way, it 
 was not easy to discover satisfactory grounds on which 
 to exclude the produce of other countries. 
 
 The success of the measures adopted in 1842 encour- 
 aged Sir Robert Peel to attempt still more considerable 
 changes in 1845, when he abolished the customs' du- 
 ties on about 420 articles, some of which were of very 
 considerable importance. The measures then adopted 
 were equivalent, in fact, to the virtual abandonment 
 of the protective system ; and, under such circum- 
 stances, it could not be expected that the corn laws, 
 on which so serious an inroad had been made by the 
 Canada act, would be able to maintain their place on 
 the statute-book for any very lengthened period. 
 
 They might, however, have been continued for «omo 
 time longer, had not the unsatisfactory corn harvest, 
 and the failure of the potato crop of 184S, made it nec- 
 essary to adopt measures for averting the anticipated 
 deficiency in the supplies of food. Under the critical 
 circumstances in which the population was then be- 
 lieved to be placed, the temporary suspension of the 
 corn laws could hardly have been avoided ; but, if on«e 
 suspended, their re-enactment would have been all but 
 impossible, -and it was better, perhaps, by at once pro- 
 viding for their repeal, to make an end of the system, 
 and of the dissatisfaction and agitation to which it had 
 given birth, than to endeavor to continue it in any 
 modified -^ape. Such was tJie view of the matter tak- 
 en by Sir Robert Peel ; and he fortunately succeeded, 
 despite difficulties tliat none else could have overcome, 
 in carrying the act 9 & 10 Vict. c. 22, for the imme- 
 diate modification of the com laws, and for their total 
 repeal at the end of three years, or on the 1st February, 
 1849. From that date wheat and other corn were sub- 
 
COR 
 
 432 
 
 COS 
 
 jected, on importation into Great Britain, to a fixed 
 duty of Is. a quarter ; and iiour and meal, of all Borts, 
 to a fixed duty of i^d. a cwt.— E. B. 
 
 ,, Cornucopia (Lat, cornu, a horn ; and copia, plen- 
 ty). In the fine arts, an ornament representing a horn, 
 from which issue flowers, fruits, leaves, and the like. 
 The origin of the cornucopia has been variously given. 
 Some authors have traced it to the infant days Of Ju- 
 piter, whose nurse, Amalthea, when one of her goats 
 .^aci broken off a horn against a tree, presented it to 
 the gpd wreathed with flowers and filled with fruit. 
 Hence lit became the emblem of Plenty among the an- 
 cients, ill which light it is regarded also by many mod- 
 ern nations. The cornucopia is found in the types of 
 ancient corns, particularly upon those of Sicily. 
 
 Corporation is the term generally applied to a 
 body of men by special lawendowed with the power 
 and means of acting coUec^vely, with the. distinctness 
 and individuality of one mau pursuing the dictates of 
 his own will, while their existence is kept up 'by a per- 
 petual succession, so that the collective body acts like 
 an individual man with a perpetuated vitality. Though 
 the corporation might be deemed, from the admiration 
 bestowed on it py professional writers, to be the pecul- 
 iar creation of English genius, there is little doubt that 
 the system was- derived from the municipia^ universUor- 
 tes, and collegia of the Eomans ; and there is, even rea- 
 son to believe that, there are corpora,tious which date 
 their history back to the institutions of the Western 
 Empire. The adage, indeed, expressed by a Koman 
 jurisprudent, that it required thrpe to make a college 
 — tresfacere collegium (60 J)ieg, 16, 85) — shows a prac- 
 tical consciousness of the most effective means of 
 strengthening the action of a small corporation, in an 
 adjustment by which equal numbers with the chances 
 of balanced divisions are to be avoided, and that num- 
 ber is selected which always affords a majority of two 
 to one. — ^E. B. Corporations are stated by Livyto 
 have been of very high antiquity among the Romans. 
 They were introduced into other countries from Italy. 
 These political bodies were first planned by Numa, in 
 order to break the force of the two rival factions of 
 Sabines and Romans, by instituting separate societies 
 of every manual trade and profession. — Plutakch. 
 
 Corsair (It. corsard). A term used in the south 
 of Europe and some other parts for a pirate or his ship. 
 The corsairs of Barbary were commissioned by their 
 princes to attack the merchant ships of hostile countries. 
 
 Corvette, a sloop of war; according to, some au- 
 thorities, an advice-boat with fewer than twenty guns. 
 
 Cosmetic Qioaiiio, to adorn), any preparation to 
 render the skin soft and white, or to beautify and im- 
 prove the complexion. The word cosmetce among the 
 Eomans was used to denote a class of slaves whose 
 business it was to dress and adorn their mistresses. — 
 E. B. Preparations for improving beauty were known 
 to the ancients, and some authorities refer them even 
 to mythology, and others to the Grecian stage. The 
 Roman ladies painted ; and those of Italy excelled in 
 heightening their charms artificially, by juices and 
 colors, and by perfumes. Rouge has always been in 
 disrepute among the virtuous and well-ordered women 
 of England, though some simple cosmetics are regarded 
 as innocent, and are in general use.-r-Asi-iE. The fe- 
 males of France and Germany paint more highly than 
 most other nations. — Eichaedson. In Great Britain 
 a stamp was laid on cosmetics, perfumeiy, and such 
 medicines as really or supposititiously beautify the skin 
 or perfume the person, and the vendors were obliged 
 to take out licenses, 26 Geo. III. 1786.— Hatdn. 
 
 Costa Rica, a republic of Central America, bound- 
 ed on the north by Nicaragua, from which it is sepa- 
 rated on the northeast by the river San Juan, on the 
 east and north by the Caribbean Sea, on the east by 
 New Granada, from which it is separated by the river 
 Chirigue entering the Caribbean Sea, and the Chiriqui 
 entering the Pacific, and on the south and west by the 
 
 Pacific ; between lat. 8° and 11° N., and long. 81° 45' 
 and 84° 40' W. Area, about 16,300 square miles. It 
 is divided ipto six districts, viz. : San Jose, . Cartago, 
 Heredia, Alajucla, Guanaceute, and Punta Arenas, and 
 estimated to contain 215,000 inhabitants, of whom 2500 
 are Indians, It is intersected diagonally by the pri- 
 mary range of the isthmus, which throws off numerous 
 spurs on either side, giving to the surface a continued 
 alternation of abrupt heights and sudden depressions. 
 The principal range has several lofty eminences, and 
 also several volcanoes, both active and dormant, in- 
 cluding those of Orosi, Votos, and Cartago ; from the 
 summit of the last of which both the Pacific and the 
 Atlantic waters are distinctly visible. Costa Rica con- 
 tains some exceedingly rich gold mines ; hence the ori- 
 gin of its name. The mines, however, are now very 
 little wrought. Silver and copper also exist. With 
 the exception of the sea-coasts, the climate is mild and 
 temperate, never subject to excessive heats or colds, 
 and rarely experieneing, any other vicissitudes than 
 those from the dry to the rainy season. It is there- 
 fore extremely well adapted to agricultural purposes, 
 and capable of bringing, to maturity most of the plants 
 peculiar to the tropics, and many exotics. The soil is 
 remarkably fertile, especially the valleys and the table- 
 lands. The productions are coffee, cacao, Indian corn, 
 tobacco, sugar, and some nheat. The horses of Costa 
 Eica are of an inferior description, but the mules are 
 much esteemed ; and cattle, sheep, goats, and hogs ai'e 
 reared in great numbers, and of excellent quality. 
 
 Among the principal rivers of Costa Eica are the 
 Tempisque and Grande, falling into the Bay of Nicoya ; 
 the Ucus or Macho, which afterward takes, the name 
 of Reventason, and falls into the Caribbean Sea ; the 
 Matina, , formed by the rivers Chirripo and Barbilla; 
 the Escudo de Veragua, dividing Central from South 
 America; the Banana, Tiribee, and Culabra, all fall- 
 ing into the Caribbean Sea ; the Chrico Mola or Chrick- 
 ani Aula, falling into the Bay of Cheriqui ; the Costa 
 Eica or San Carlos, and the Sarapiqui, into the San 
 Juan. The Baya is a canal, believed by some to be 
 natural, and by others to have been cut by the aborig- 
 ines, commencing at the port of Moin or Salt Creek, 
 and running parallel to the coast as far as Pearl Kay 
 ,Lagoon, a distance of 180 miles. 
 , , Costa Eica produces, in large quantities, mahogany, 
 cedar, Brazil, and various other kinds of timber. On 
 the sea-coast of Nicoya some pearls and large quanti 
 ties of mother-of-pearl shells are found. Coffee, how- 
 ever, forms the most important product of the republic. 
 Its cultivation, though only introduced about the year 
 1830, -has increased so rapidly, that 8000 to 4000 tons 
 are now exported annually. Tobacco, which is of ex- 
 cellent quality', is a government monopoly, and is ex- 
 ported in small quantities. The other exports are gold, 
 sugar, Brazil wood, mother-of-pearl, ox and cow hides, 
 horns, etc. The imports consist chiefly of manufac- 
 tured goods. Total revenue in 1852, $454,113 ; expen- 
 diture in the same year, $415,207. 
 
 The commercial relations between the United States 
 and Costa Eica are regulated by the treaty of July 10, 
 1851, and by the local legislation of the country. The 
 treaty guarantees reciprocal freedom of commerce, and 
 places the two countries, with respect to each other, on 
 the footing of the most favored nations. 
 
 The local commercial legislation of Costa Eica was 
 completely remodeled and materially modified in the 
 3'ear 1854. The decree by which this was effected 
 bears date August 31, 1854. 
 
 The 1st article grants liberty of commerce to the 
 vessels of all nations — specifying certain descriptions 
 of merchandise monopolized by the government, and 
 others prohibited ; which are detailed in the tariff of 
 Costa Eica. 
 
 The 2d article provides that, at the minor ports, the 
 export of productions of the country only can be per- 
 mitted, under proper regulations. 
 
COS 
 
 433 
 
 COT 
 
 Art. S, At the inland orfrontierports, custom-houses 
 shall be established, under such regulations as the gov- 
 ernment may deem fit to adopt. 
 
 Art. 4. At such ports, inland and export commerce 
 only shall be allowed, except in respect of such mer- 
 chandise as shall be monopolized by the government 
 or prohibited. 
 
 The second chapter of the law contains a specifica- 
 tion of free goods, together with a list of prohibited 
 articles ; among the former being the personal effects 
 of, or merchandise exported for the use of, diplomatic 
 agents or their suite, but not those of consuls ; and in 
 the latter are included rum, fire-arms, and munitions 
 of war, which can be imparted only under special au- 
 thority. The monopolized articles are tobacco (in leaf 
 or manufactured), powder, and saltpetre; which can 
 be admitted only on government account. 
 
 This law extends to sixteen chapters; and such 
 parts as apply to navigation and commerce would be 
 translated and inserted at length, were it not under- 
 stood to have been materially modified by a recent de- 
 cree, of which a summary is given, with the tariff of 
 Costa Eica. 
 
 The United States consul at San Jos6 (Costa Eica) 
 communicates the following changes, under date Octo- 
 ber 3, 1865 : 
 
 *' I have the honor to incloGe herewith copies of three de- 
 crees issued by this government, numbered, respectively, 1, 
 2, and 3., No. 1, dated November 24, 1854, is merely pro- 
 roguing the time fixed for the new tariff (a copy of which has 
 been transmitted), to take cfiect from the Ist of December, 
 1854, to the Ist of July, 1855. No. 2, of the same date, re- 
 quires, article Ist, previous to the landing of merchandise, in 
 addition to the manifest heretofore presented by the master 
 «f any vessel arriving at the port of Funta Arenas, that per- 
 mission to disembark be obtained from the collector of cus- 
 toms, and tb.at in the document soliciting this permission must 
 he expressed the quality and origin of the goods intended to 
 be landed, and also their market value in the port. Article 2 
 requires, previous to the clearance of a vessel from any port 
 of the republic, the presentation by the consignees of a man- 
 ifest of the merchandise to be exported, and. its value in the 
 
 port of shipment Article 3, of the same, requires, in cases 
 where a part only of a cargo has been landed, that the con- 
 signees, previous to a clearance, present another ' corrected 
 manifest,* specifying the quality and value of the goods that 
 have been landed. No. 3, dated July 24, 1855, orders that all 
 disUUed spirits landed in the port of Punta Arenas be depos- 
 ited in the public stores, and exacts the payment of four cents 
 per pound, gross weight, upon their removal from bond. No 
 further changes have been made in the commercial system 
 of this republic within the time specified." 
 
 For the last fifteen years the country has been rap- 
 idly progressing, owing to the peaceable and industri- 
 ous character of the people, and the moderate course 
 pursued by the government. Many internal improve- 
 ments, principally in common roads, have been com- 
 pleted ; and the productions of the country have in- 
 creased so that the exports now amount to $1,000,000 
 yearly, while fifteen years ago they amounted only to 
 about $100,000. In the same time the population has 
 been doubled, and may now (1856) be estimated at 
 180,000 inhabitants. Some few emigrants, principally 
 Germans, have gone into the country; but the difli- 
 culties met with on the route to Costa Bica will pre- 
 vent much immigration. The two principal ports of 
 Costa Eica are Punta Arenas, on the Gulf of Nicoya, 
 and Mattina, on the Caribbean Sea. 
 
 Moneys. — ^The money of account is the peso, or dol- 
 lar, valued at the same as the United States dollar ; 
 but some are coined of base metal, which are wortli 
 only 75 cents. At Venezuela and Ecuador, the dollars 
 are similar to those of New Granada. 1 dollar= 8 
 reals (100 cents); 1 real =16 quartos =32 maravedi, 
 also 12 grani.-^Ciw. P. J. of T. 
 
 The values of imports and exports between the 
 United States and Costa Eica can not be distinguished 
 from those given for Central America generally. The 
 following statement, exhibiting the general foreign 
 navigation and trade of the principal port of the re- 
 public (Punta Arenas), furnishes a fair average annual 
 statement. It may be observed, that the values are 
 given from ships' registers, or invoices, and are, conse- 
 quently, considerably below the market values. 
 
 Statement exuibitino the genebai. Fobeigx Navigation and Tbade of tub Poet of Pdhta Abenas, duking the Yeae 
 
 ENDING DeoEMBEE SI, 1855. 
 
 NatiooaUty. 
 
 United States 
 
 British 
 
 French 
 
 Spanish 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Hanoverian 
 
 Sardinian 
 
 Chilian 
 
 Peruvian 
 
 New Granadian 
 
 Central American 
 
 Costa Kican 
 
 Total 
 
 Number of 
 VesselB. 
 
 Number of 
 Tons. 
 
 Invoice Value 
 of Cargoes. 
 
 Number of 
 Veasela. 
 
 Number of 
 Tonfl. 
 
 Invoice Value 
 of pargpea. 
 
 12 
 5 
 2 
 2 
 B 
 1 
 
 10 
 T 
 T 
 
 15 
 4 
 
 15 
 
 2,204 
 
 1,445 
 648 
 560 
 626 
 160 
 
 1,391 
 889 
 
 1,124 
 
 679 
 
 52 
 
 1,249 
 
 $101,8U8 
 265,060 
 17,500 
 
 8,000 
 25,n'0 
 67,659 
 40,906 
 38,406 
 15,756 
 49,026 
 
 4,719 
 64.711 
 
 12 
 6 
 2 
 2 
 3 
 1 
 
 10 
 T 
 7 
 
 16 
 ■ 4 
 
 15 
 
 2,204 
 
 1,445 
 643 
 560 
 C26 
 160 
 
 1,391 
 889 
 
 1,124 
 679 
 
 $86,650 
 330,950 
 87,953 
 
 82,'211 
 
 66,610 
 109,378 
 
 S,832i 
 18,709 , 
 
 1,«10 
 22,633 
 
 83 
 
 11,08T 
 
 $699,311 
 
 83 
 
 11,027 
 
 $765,786 
 
 Costume. Accounts of magnificent attire refer to 
 very remote antiquity. The costume of the Grecian 
 and Roman ladies was comely and graceful. The wo- 
 men of Cos, whose country was famous for the silk- 
 worm, wore a manufacture of cotton and silk of so 
 beautiful and delicate a texture, and their garments, 
 which were always white, wei-e so clear and thin that 
 their bodies could be seen through them. — Ovid. As 
 relates to costume worn on the stage, .fflschylus the 
 Athenian was, it is said, the first who erected a regu- 
 lar stage for his actors, and ordered their dresses to 
 be suited to their characters, about 436 b. c. — Parian 
 Marbles. Excess in dress was restrained by a law in 
 England, in the reign of Edward IV., 1465. And again 
 in the reign of Elizabeth, 1674.— Stowe, Sjr Walter 
 Baleigh, we are told, wore a white satin-pinked vest, 
 close-sleeved to the wrist, and over the body a brown 
 doublet finely flowered, and embroidered with pearls. 
 In the feather of his hat, a large ruby and pearl drop 
 Ee 
 
 at the bottom of the sprig, in place of a button. His 
 breeches, with his stockings and ribbon garters, fringed 
 at the end, all white ; and buff shoes, which on great 
 court days, were so gorgeously covered with precious 
 stones as to have exceeded the value of £6600 ; and 
 he had a suit of armor of solid silver, with sword and 
 belt blazing with diamonds, rubies, and pearls. King 
 James's favorite, the duke of Buckingham, could afford 
 to have his diamonds tacked so loosely on, that when 
 he chose to shake a few off on the ground, he obtained 
 all the fame he desired from the pickers-up, who were 
 generally les dames de la Cour. — Haydn. 
 
 Cott, or Cot, a particular sort of bed-frame, sus- 
 pended from the beams of a ship, between decks, for 
 the officers to sleep in. It consists of a large piece of 
 canvas sewed into the form of a chest, about six feet 
 long, one foot deep, and three feet wide, and is extend- 
 ed by a square wooden frame with a canvas bottom, and 
 used principally in the ward-ropm of a man-of-war. 
 
COT 
 
 434 
 
 COT 
 
 Cotton. This article will be considered under the 
 general heads of I. Species and Places of Production. 
 II. Cotton Climate : 1. Of the World ; 2. Of the 
 United States; 3. Nile; 4. Algeria; 5. Africa; 6. The 
 Mediterranean; 7. British India. III. Cotton Trade 
 of the United States : 1. History ; 2. Statistics. IV. 
 Cotton Trade of the United States with 1. Great Brit- 
 ain ; 2. France ; 3. Spain ; 4. Hanse Towns ; 5. Bel- 
 gium ; 6. Sardinia ; 7. Switzerland ; 8. Russia ; 9. 
 Sweden ; 10. Portugal ; 11. Brazil ; 12. Egypt ; 13. 
 Mexico. V. Capacity of the Cotton Bale. 
 
 CoTTOx Manhfactuees will be treated under its 
 proper head. 
 
 I. Species and Places op Pkoddction of Cot- 
 ton. — Cotton (jSossypium') is a vegetable down of ex- 
 quisite softness, with beautifully fine fibres, and is an 
 indigenous product of all intertropical regions. Lin- 
 nseus subdivided the cotton plant into five species : 
 1. Gosst/pium kerbaceum; 2. G. arhoreum; 3. G. hirsu- 
 tum; 4. G. religiosum; 6. G. Bariadense. 
 
 Other authorities have enumerated as many as ten 
 species, but for all practical purposes the division into 
 three classes will be sufficiently minute. The varieties 
 are exceedingly numerous ; yet of those most widely 
 diffused, herbaceous cotton, shrub cotton, and tree cot- 
 ton need only be especially referred to. The most use- 
 ful cotton is the herbaceous, wbich is an annual plant, 
 chiefly cultivated in the United States and in the East 
 Indies. It grows from two to five feet in height, is 
 rich in foliage, and its fibrous fruit is preceded by flow- 
 ers, of white or pale yellow color, like those of the con- 
 volvulus. As the flowers fade, a pod, or capsule is 
 formed of the size of a small walnut, containing the 
 fibres of cotton, and as the pod ripens it expands, and 
 the snow-white fibres burst forth ready to be gathered. 
 
 1. The Herbaceous Cotton. — This plant grows to the 
 height of eighteen to twenty-four inches, with leaves 
 of dark green, blue-veined, and five-lobed. The flower 
 is, a pale yellow, one pistil, five petals or leaves, purple- 
 spotted at the bottom. On the falling of the flower a 
 pod of triangular shape and triple shell is developed. 
 The pod, in course of ripening, bursts, discloses a snow- 
 white or yellowish ball of down, in three locks, inclos- 
 ing and tightly-adhering to the seeds, which resemble 
 those of the grape, though of several times the size. 
 The seed is planted in spring, and the cotton gathered 
 at fall. The rows in the fields are five or six feet apart ; 
 the distance of the holes, in which several seeds are de- 
 posited, is about eighteen inches. Much care in weed- 
 ing, thinning, and pruning, is required during the 
 process of culture. This is the course pursued in the 
 United States, which has the advantage over that pur- 
 sued in India, by producing a cotton vastly more val- 
 uable. A field of cotton at the gathering, says Mr. 
 Baines, when the globes of snowy wool are seen among 
 the glossy dark leaves, is singularly beautiful ; and in 
 the hottest countries, where the yellow blossom or flow- 
 er and the ripened fruit are seen at the same time, the 
 beauty of the plantation is, of course, still more remark- 
 able. The herbaceous cotton is grown to the greatest 
 extent, and said to be cultivated in nearly every coun- 
 try congenial to the gossypium, existing even at Alep- 
 po, in Upper Egypt, Arabia, and Senegal. 
 
 2. The Hirsutum, or Shrub Cotton. — It is said to grow 
 wherever the herbaceous is found, and to vary accord- 
 ing to climate, being biennial or triennial in the "West 
 Indies, lasting from six to ten years in India and Egypt, 
 perennial in the hottest climates, and in the mildest 
 cotton regions an annual. The shrub cotton is likened 
 to a currant bush, and is of several varieties. The hir- 
 sutum, a low shrub already mentioned, the Tndicum, at- 
 taining ten or twelve feet ; the vUifolium, of the south 
 of France and South America ; the religiosum, of Suri- 
 nam and India ; the laiifolium of the West Indies ; the 
 Barbadense of Barbadoes ; and the Peruvian. The pod 
 of the shrub cotton differs from that of the herb in be- 
 ing egg-shaped. The Guiana and Brazil cotton is of 
 
 this kind, and is said to yield, in the hottest countries, 
 two crops a year. 
 
 3. The Arborescent, or Tree Cotton. — This remark- 
 able plant is of Indian, Chinese, Egyptian, and Amer- 
 ican growth. The height of the tree varies from fifteen 
 to twenty feet. Marco Polo describes the tree at Guz- 
 erat six yards high, and bearing fruit for twenty years. 
 There is a tree described in South America, Indian 
 Isles, West Indies, and on the Guinea coast, of a hun- 
 dred feet high,, bearing a silky cotton, only useful for 
 making quilting and beds. The justly-celebrated 
 Am^ican sea-island cotton is derived from the arboi'C- 
 um. Its fibre is long, strong, silky, and of a yellowish 
 tinge. The seed is black and of Persian origin, though 
 originally introduced into this country from the Baha- 
 ma Islands, where it had been introduced by the Board 
 of Trade from Anguilla, an island of the Caribbean Sea. 
 This cotton was raised first in Georgia in 1786, and the 
 first bag exported by Alexander Bissel, of St. Simon's 
 Island, two years after. The section of country capa- 
 ble of producing this staple is very limited, being con- 
 fined to the low sandy islands along the coast of South 
 Carolina and Georgia, from Charleston to Savannah. 
 Tlie quantity grown in 1805 and in 1832 was precisely 
 the same. 
 
 In the United States the seed of the herbaceous cot- 
 ton is sown generally in the months of March and 
 April, and its marketable fruit is usually gathered 
 in the period commencing with August and terminat- 
 ing with the year. Boweds and Orleans cottons con- 
 stitute the great productions of the United States, an(i 
 are. recognized in the English and European markets 
 as "American cotton." These cottons arc chiefly cul- 
 tivated in the great valley of the Mississippi, the fields 
 of its growth now extending to Texas. The cultiva- 
 tion of cotton in the United States is most scientifically 
 and industriously pursued, and is attended with highly 
 profitable results, the value of the crop being little less 
 than $150,000,000. It is expected that in 1866 the en- 
 tire crop will amount to 3-^ millions of bags, of more 
 than 400 lbs. each. But the skill of the American 
 planter has been most conspicuous in the production 
 of fine sea-island cotton. The seed of this cotton, which 
 is also an annual and herbaceous plant, was obtained 
 in 1786, in the Bahama Islands, where it had been in- 
 troduced from the West Indies, and was first cultivated 
 in Georgia. The small islands which extend along the 
 American coast from Charleston to Savannah were 
 found, from their sandy soil and contiguity to the sea, 
 to be admirably adapted to the production of exqui- 
 sitely fine, long, and strong-stapled cotton. This cotton 
 soon acquired great and deserved celebrity. A great 
 demand arose for it ; but from the limited extent of 
 the islands upon which it can be grown, and the ex- 
 pense attending its cultivation, it can only be supplied 
 at a comparatively high price. Hence the production 
 of this cotton was not susceptible of indefinite extension 
 like the shorter-stapled cottons of the United States ; 
 and from the beginning to the middle of the present 
 centurj- the total j-early amount of the crop has not 
 greatly varied, the annual yield averaging about ten 
 millions of pounds weight. From the circumstance of 
 the seed of this cotton having been first introduced into 
 Georgia, it was consequently called Georgia cotton, 
 though its cultivation had only been successful upon 
 the sea-coast of that state. Its celebrity, however, 
 caused it to be planted upon the high lands of Georgia, 
 where it was found to degenerate ; but still the quality, 
 though shortened in staple, was found to be of a desir- 
 able class, and it acquired the name of uplands, or 
 bowed Georgia cotton, while the same seed yielded the 
 famed sea-island cotton. Here it may be observed that 
 a humid atmosphere and a sandy soil seem most con- 
 ducive to the production of good useful cotton ; but for 
 the growth of very fine and long stapled cotton an im- 
 pregnation of salt, both in the soil and in the air, ap- 
 pears to be indispensable. 
 
GOT 
 
 435 
 
 COT 
 
 Without the energy of the American planter, it is 
 difficult to conceire the possibility of the cotton trade 
 of England and of the world attaining the extent and 
 importance which it now possesses. As the colonies 
 of Great Britain — the West Indies in particular — pos- 
 sessed all the natural advantages of soil and climate 
 for producing cotton to an extent much beyond the 
 probable consumption of the United Kingdom, it might 
 reasonably have been inferred that the colonial inter- 
 ests alone would have stimulated the cultivation and 
 production of cotton to supply the certain and increas- 
 ing home demands of the constantly-enlarging manu- 
 factories. Whether the fatality of protection to the 
 English colonies, maladministration of colonial affairs, 
 or enpineness on the part of the colonists themselves, 
 produced the indifference which caused an article of 
 increasing importance like cotton to be neglected when 
 remunerative markets were opening for indefinite sup- 
 plies of it, may be wisely inquired into, not to remedy 
 the past, but for the purpose of ascertaining how far a 
 new and profitable direction may be given for the fu- 
 ture to colonial labors and efforts ; for the stigma will 
 remain, that while arts and inventions were being de- 
 veloped at home, which became the sources of great 
 national wealth, the cultivation of the material on 
 which to exercise the skill and labor of her working- 
 classes had to be sought and obtained from a foreign 
 source. 
 
 In the British East Indies the cultivation and man- 
 ufacture of cotton have certainly existed longer than 
 in any other country. For five centuries before the 
 Christian era, cotton was largely used in the domestic 
 manufactures of India, and the clothing of the Hindoos 
 then consisted chiefly of garments made from that veg- 
 etable product. Earliest in possession of the herba- 
 ceous cotton plant, the natives of India were enabled 
 to manipulate itsflbres, and to establish a cotton-man- 
 ufacturing industry which has remained almost un- 
 changed to the present time. More than two thousand 
 years before Europe or England conceived the idea of 
 applying modem industry to the manufacture of cot- 
 ton, India had matured a system of hand-spinning, 
 weaving, and dyeing, which, during that vast period 
 of time, received no recorded improvement. With a 
 plant indigenous to the soil, and a people remarkable 
 for intelligence when Europe was in a state of barba- 
 rism, it is wonderful that no approximation was made 
 to the mechanical manufacturing operations of modern 
 times, and still more strange that the agricultural pro- 
 duction of cotton should not within that period have 
 been improved and considerably enlarged. The cotton 
 of India, during its known existence, can only be re- 
 garded as a material for manufacture greatly inferior 
 to the like productions of other countries. India un- 
 questionably possesses soil, climate, and all the requi- 
 site elements from nature for the 'cultivation of cotton 
 to an almost boundless extent, and of a quality which 
 might be most useful and acceptable in the manufac- 
 tures of Europe, and even of America. During a series 
 of j-ears the weight of cotton grown in the East Indies 
 and consumed in Great Britain may have been one- 
 tenth of the whole, while the value can not be estima- 
 ted at more than one-twentieth of the total cost of 
 home-consumed raw cotton. The British West Indies 
 supply only small portions of the cotton required by 
 tho manufacturers of the United Kingdom, though the 
 quality of the cotton there produced is excellent ; and 
 would be very largely bought and consumed if it were 
 largely supplied. For a considerable time the British 
 colonies have not supplied more than one-twentieth 
 part of the British consumption of cotton, and yet m 
 the possession of Great Britain there exists a greater 
 extent of land suited to the growth of cotton than in 
 any other dominion. At Port Natal cotton of excellent 
 quality might be grown to any reasonable extent ; and 
 in Australia, cotton equal to the finest of the fine might 
 be produced to an almost indefinite amount. 
 
 The most remarkable fact is, that although cotton 
 was cultivated in gardens from remote amiquity in 
 China, yet this ingenious people never turned it into 
 any account until the end of the thirteenth century, at 
 which time its manufacture among them began. 
 
 The following passages from the narratives of those 
 who have visited India, are replete with interesting in- 
 formation on the subject before us. Slarco Polo found 
 cotton in Guzerat in large quantities, taken from a tree 
 about six yards high, and bearing for twenty years. 
 The cotton from a tree of this age is adapted only to 
 quilting, but that taken from trees of twelve years is 
 suitable for muslins and other manufactures of extraor- 
 dinary fineness. Sir John Mandeville, in the fifteenth 
 century, later by fifty years than Polo, says, that in 
 many places the seed of the cotton in India which we 
 call tree wool, is sown every year, and there spring up 
 from it copses of low shrubs on which the wool grows. 
 
 A luxuriant field, says another, exhibiting at the 
 same time the expanding blossom, the bursting cap- 
 sule, and the snowy flakes of ripe cotton, is one of the 
 most beautiful objects in the agriculture of Hindostan. 
 Malte Brun is equally instructive on the point : "The 
 cotton tree grows on all the Indian mountains, hut its 
 produce is coarse in quality ; the herbaceous cotton 
 prospers chiefly in Bengal and xrn the Coromandel 
 Coast, and there the best cotton goods are manufac- 
 tured. Next to these two provinces, Madure, Mara- 
 war, Fescaria, and the coast of Malabar produce the 
 finest cotton. The plant is cultivated in every part of 
 India ; the finest grows in the light, rocky soil of Guz- 
 erat, Bengal, Oude, and Agra. The cultivation of this 
 plant is very lucrative, an acre producing about nine 
 quintals of cotton annually." 
 
 Brazil is an extensive cotton-growing country, and 
 sends steady supplies of it to the European markets. 
 The quality of its cotton is every where highly esteemed. 
 Persia, Spain, Italy; Malta, and the adjacent coxmtries, 
 are all capable of producing excellent cotton ; but in 
 Africa there are probably greater undeveloped resources 
 for the cultivation of cotton than can be found in any 
 other portion of the globe. The example of Egypt is 
 a gi'eat lesson for the governors of those countries 
 whose agricultural resources remain undeveloped. In 
 1821, Mehemet Ali conceived the possibility of effect- 
 ually cultivating cotton, and succeeded. From that 
 year to the present time large supplies of that useful 
 and now indispensable raw material have been ob- 
 tained from Egypt, to the great convenience of the 
 British manufacturer, who has found the quality sec- 
 ond only to the sea-island cotton of the United States. 
 
 The herbaceous cotton plant unquestionably exhib- 
 its all the desirable qualities of cotton applicable to 
 manufactures, as proved by the productions of the 
 United States and of the East Indies. The cottons 
 produced in the West Indies, in Brazil, and in Egypt, 
 are from tho shrub ; and it is observed that the older 
 the plant the coarser become the fibres. Tree cotton, 
 as a marketable product, is almost unknown ; but in 
 Borneo, and in many other tropical regions, the plant 
 on which it grows is found flourishing in a wild state. 
 To insure economy of culture, and of gathering the cot- 
 ton as it opens and ripens, it is evident that the plant 
 and the shrub are most accessible, and that the tree 
 can not always be either safely or conveniently climbed 
 to obtain its downy fruit. 
 
 In Central Africa, cotton has also been a staple 
 growth since the date of our earliest records. It is 
 mentioned by travelers as abundant on the banks of 
 the Senegal, the Gambia, and the Niger, at Timbuctoo, 
 Sierra Leone, the Cape de Verd Islands, on the coast 
 of Guinea^ and in Abyssinia. In hot climates, also, 
 says an authority, the cotton plant grows so abundant- 
 ly, that this is the cheapest material of which cloth can 
 be made. With such recommendations, it can not fail 
 to continue the staple and universal manufacture of 
 Africa. 
 
COT 
 
 436 
 
 eoT 
 
 In modern times, no material on whicii tlie industry 
 of manlcind is exerted can be compared with the vast 
 importance of that beneiicent gift of Providence, cot- 
 ton. Millions of our fellow-creatures depend upon its 
 cultivation and manipulation for support. Capitalists 
 embark in its production and manufacture, as also in 
 its trading and mercantile distribution. Kational re- 
 sources are enlarged and benefited by it ; and to Great 
 Britain and the United States it has proved a fountain 
 of wealth, from which streams of prosperity have flowed 
 from the time of its first introduction as an agent of la- 
 bor and traffic to the present moment. 
 
 The upland cotton is a different species from the sea- 
 island, and is separated with such difficulty from the 
 seed, that the expense of cleaning the wool must have 
 put a stop to its further cultivation, had not a ma- 
 chine, by which the operation of cleaning is easily and 
 successfully accomplished, been invented. Tiiis ma- 
 chine was invented in 1795 by Mr. Eli Whitney of 
 Massachusetts. There are two qualities of the cot- 
 ton—the one termed Upland Georgia, grown in the 
 states of Georgia and South Carolina ; and the other, 
 of superior quality, raised upon the banks of the Mis- 
 sissippi, and distinguished in the market by the name 
 of New Orleans cotton. A strong prejudice existed 
 for some time against the upland wool, which was 
 thought to be of inferior quality, and not to take a 
 good color in dyeing ; but being found suitable to dif- 
 ferent coarse fabrics, its cultivation was so rapidly ex- 
 tended, that in 1807, 55,018,448 lbs. of upland cotton 
 were exported from the United States. 
 
 The cotton of the finest quality ever brought to the 
 English market, or probably ever grown, was that for- 
 merly mentioned as having been raised in the island 
 of Tobago, between the years 1789 and 1792, upon the 
 estate of Mr. Robley. That gentleman carried the cul- 
 tivation of this article to some extent ; but the price 
 of cotton falling very low, and the cultivation of sugar 
 becoming extremely profitable in consequence of the 
 destruction of the sugar plantations in the French isl- 
 ands, he was induced to convert his cotton grounds into 
 a sugar plantation. The production of cotton of this 
 very fine description has hardly ever been attempted 
 by any other person, although it is believed that the 
 price it would yield would amply repay its expense. 
 
 Until about the year 1815, it was thought that the 
 cotton wool of India, from the shortness of its staple, 
 could not be spun with advantage upon machinery; 
 and, in consequence, the greater part of the Indian cot- 
 ton was spun upon the common jenny, and used as weft 
 for the coarsest calicoes. It was discovered, however, 
 that by mixing it with the longer stapled wools of other 
 countries, it might be brought into a state fit for the 
 mule and spinning frames. 
 
 The United States consul at Naples, in answer to 
 the cotton circular issued by the Commissioner of Pat- 
 ents, says; "The cotton cultivated in the plains near 
 Castelamari, Angri, Scafata, and Nocura, is similar to 
 that of the United States. The plant is small and an- 
 nual, and is cultivated with so much advantage that 
 various projects by companies have been started to 
 give extension to its cultivation ; but without being 
 carried into execution. It has been cultivated for 
 more than ten years. Before the French occupation 
 there was a very limited quantity, but during the Ber- 
 lin and Milan decrees of Napoleon, the cultivation in- 
 creased very rapidly, and the price reached a dollar a 
 pound, though it had to be sent by land to Lombardy, 
 Switzerland, and France. The quantity has since de- 
 creased. I have not been able to learn whether the 
 French introduced seed, or sowed such as they foimd 
 here ; but the cotton fibre has not deteriorated either 
 as to length, strength, or uniformity. On the contra- 
 ry, the quality has improved. 
 
 "About two millions of pounds are produced here. 
 In Sicily, to the south of the island, the cultivation is 
 greater than in Naples. In past times, small quanti- 
 
 ties of cotton were shipped to Marseilles, but since 
 manufactures have increased here, it is all consumed 
 in the country. The most extensive manufacturers 
 (Vonwiller & Co.) import annually from the United 
 States two cargoes of cotton, of moderate size, besides 
 quantities indirectly. Much twist is imported from 
 England. Manufactures are improving, but are still 
 far from reaching such perfection as to offer any induce- 
 ment to export them. 
 
 " The price of ginned cotton is about 14 to 15 cents 
 per pound. The cultivation is protected by a duty of 
 $8 per cantar of 196 lbs. English if introduced direct 
 from the United States, and $16 if indirect. It is 
 ginned by the ordinary roller and by hand, as well as 
 by the saw-gin ; and 100 lbs of unginned will yield 
 about one-third clear cotton. It is packed with hands 
 and feet, and is not exported, nor is there any fixed 
 number of pounds to the bale. The cost of producing 
 one pound of cotton fibre, well ginned, is from 10 to 12 
 cents. 
 
 "An acre of ground will produce about 600 lbs. of 
 unginned cotton. The value of an acre of cotton land 
 is $450, and the rest is $20 to $25 per annum ; but you 
 must take into consideration the annual land tax of 
 from one-fifth to one-fourth of the rent, which must be 
 paid by the owner of the land every two months in 
 equal rates. 
 
 "If any causes operate injuriously to the cotton 
 crop, they are to be ascribed more to the social con- 
 dition of the inhabitants than to any thing else. The 
 relations generally between the landowner and the 
 cultivator are not of the best kind, the bad faith of 
 the latter being characteristic, while the owner barely 
 leaves him enough to miserably subsist on. In some 
 seasons, too, worms do injury to the plants, as well as 
 fogs and mists in July and August." 
 
 11. Cotton Climates. 1. The Cottcm Districts of 
 the Globe considered with reference to their Climates. — 
 On inquiring into the climate best suited to the culti- 
 vation of cotton, we must remember that we have to 
 pay attention, not only to the air, but also to the va- 
 por. These may be considered in some respects as 
 forming two distinct atmospheres ; the one uniform in 
 quantity, and in the proportion of its ingredients, but 
 ever-varying in temperature ; while the vapor varies 
 not only in this respect, but in the quantity in which 
 it is present, and also in its point of deposition, when 
 alone it becomes perceptible as moisture. 
 
 Cotton is cultivated in so many countries, that we 
 can not but expect it to be capable of flourishing in 
 considerable diversities of climate. Thus, the rich al- 
 luvial lands of the Mississippi differ not only in soil, 
 but also in temperature and dryness, from the sandy 
 fields of Georgia. In dryness, both must differ from 
 the uniformity of moisture which prevails in the isl- 
 ands where sea-island cotton is produced. Some grows 
 naturally in the warmer parts of Mexico, as well as in 
 the countries situated along the east of the Andes ; and 
 much is cultivated in the moist parts of Guiana and 
 Brazil. Humboldt has seen it at 900 feet of elevation 
 in the equatorial Andes, and at 5500 feet in Mexico. 
 But here different species may, perhaps, be included, 
 as we know that which yields Pernambuco cotton is 
 cultivated in many parts of South America. In the 
 Old World, we find cotton growing in the interior, 
 both of Africa and of India, where there must be con- 
 siderable dryness of climate. It is cultivated with 
 some success in Egypt, and also, of late, in Algeria, 
 and near Port Natal, in South Africa ; but, in the two 
 former, only by the aid of artificial u-rigation. It is 
 jltoduced in various islands of the Indian Ocean, in 
 many parts of China, and in almost every part of 
 continental India. Thence it may be said to extend 
 into Persia, Asia Minor, and to the southern parts of 
 Europe, including the islands of the Mediterranean, 
 whence the English manufacturers received their ear- 
 liest supplies of cotton. 
 
COT 
 
 437 
 
 COT 
 
 Within these limits, extending from the equator to 
 forty degrees of latitude, we know that there are con- 
 siderable diversities of climate ; but the heat of sum- 
 mer in many of these localities, does not differ so much 
 as might be expected from their latitudes. The tem- 
 perature of tropical regions Is known to be modified by 
 the amount of moisture, while that«of the interior of 
 continents, even in high latitudes, is increased by the 
 greater clearness of sky, which is dependent on the 
 comparative absence of moisture. This cause tends to 
 increase even the cold of winter, from the more free 
 radiation which takes place at night in a cloudless at- 
 mosphere. Humboldt has remarked that Gossypium 
 Bariadinse^ hirmtum, and rdigiosum, have each their 
 favorite climate, from 0° to 34° of latitude, where the 
 mean annual temperature is from 82° to 68° Fahren- 
 heit, but that G. herbaceum is successfully cultivated 
 in the temperate zone, where, with a mean summer 
 heat of 73° to 75°, the mean of winter is not less than 
 46° or 48°. 
 
 But, in taking a general survey of the localities 
 where cotton is chiefly cultivated, we should observe 
 that many of them are in islands, and others in the 
 vicinity of the sea. This is certainly the case with the 
 districts where the finest cottons are produced, and the 
 largest returns to the acre obtained. It has frequent- 
 ly been stated that the beneficial effects of such locali- 
 ties are chiefly due to the presence of salt in the soil, 
 or to its being carried up in the spray, which is trans- 
 ported by winds into the interior. Koster, in his 
 "Travels in Brazil," states, on the contrary, that "the 
 districts which are universally allowed to be the best 
 adapted for the growth of cotton, are far removed from 
 the sea-coast, arid, and oftentimes very scantily sup- 
 plied with water ; also, that the opinion is very gene- 
 ral, that the cotton plant will not thrive in the neigh- 
 borhood of the coast, and also that plantations were 
 yearly receding farther into the interior, the soil pre- 
 ferred being a deep-red earth, which becomes extreme- 
 ly hard after a long interval without rain." Some- 
 thing, no doubt, must be owing to the species which is 
 cultivated, and to the climate of the plantation being 
 more or less moist. Thus, Spix and Martins, in their 
 "Travels," state that "the cotton tree cultivated at 
 Eio de Janiero (G. Barhadense — sometimes, but more 
 rarely, the G. herbaceum) thrives very well, but is stat- 
 ed not to furnish such durable materials as that in the 
 higher and dryer districts of Minas Novas." 
 
 Proximity to the sea has, however, other peculiari- 
 ties besides the facility of affording saline ingredients 
 to the soil or to the atmosphere. It participates, to a 
 certain degree, in the peculiarities of an insular cli- 
 mate ; that is, in greater uniformity of temperature 
 than is found in places farther in the interior, and in 
 the freer circulation of air from the usually alternating 
 land and sea breezes. There is also greater equability 
 of moisture ; for air, passing over the surface of the 
 sea, necessarily takes up a larger proportion of water. 
 This it does not immediately deposit on the coast, un- 
 less it is backed by hills, because it usually becomes a 
 little warmed by the heated land, and is then capable 
 of taking up more moisture. But, as it reaches the 
 coast in a comparatively moist state, it necessarily 
 rather checks than favors excessive evaporation, and 
 thus does not force the foliage, exposed to its influence, 
 to give up an undue quantity of moisture. This, how- 
 ever, is necessarily the case whenever a dry current of 
 air passes over the surface of the leaves. To the influ- 
 ence of moisture, therefore, we must ascribe the more 
 luxuriant vegetation of some sea-coasts, and of many 
 tropical islands. 
 
 Baron Humboldt and Professor Dove have pointed 
 out that, while Europe has a true insular or sea climate, 
 both in winter and summer. North America inclines to 
 a continental one in winter, and, in many parts, to a 
 sea climate. in summer; that is, it has a cold winter, 
 with a cool summer, with the exception of certain dis- 
 
 tricts, which are excessively hot. But Northern and 
 Central Asia have a true continental climate, both in 
 winter and summer, or a cold winter and a hot sum- 
 mer. Notwithstanding tbis, we must also recollect 
 that, though each locality may participate in the char- 
 acteristic climate of its continent, all places near the 
 coast will have more or less of an insular climate, while 
 those in the interior have such as are of a continental 
 nature, though in varying degrees. 
 
 The different varieties of cotton cultivated in the 
 United States are believed to belong to one species ; 
 that is, that the " Georgian," or "short-staple," is the 
 sea-island, carried into the interior ; and that the ' ' sea- 
 island" itself was originally introduced from the Ba- 
 hamas, or, more remotely, from Anguilla, one of the 
 West India Islands. The "New Orleans" does not 
 differ specifically from the sea-island cotton, and is 
 admitted by the planters of the South to be identical 
 with the plant of Mexico, whence they procure their 
 finest seeds. It is conjectured that it was from the 
 neighboring coast of Mexico that the indigenous cotton 
 of that country was introduced into the West Indies, 
 and thence taken to the island of Bourbon. Hence we 
 may account for Gossypium Barhadense being identical 
 in species with the New Orleans and sea-island, as well 
 as with 'the Bourbon cotton. 
 
 The Mexican plant is not a native of the temperate 
 regions of that country, but of the tierras cedientes, or 
 hot districts. It is produced, for instance, in the neigh- 
 borhood of Vera Cruz, and is represented as growing 
 spontaneously near Valladolid, a town situated on the 
 great plain of the Peninsula of Yucatan, described by 
 Humboldt as one of the warmest regions in equatorial 
 America. Mr. Stephens states that the spontaneous 
 growth of cotton around that town had led to the erec- 
 tion of a cotton-factory in the place. Mr. Norman, in 
 his " Rambles in Yucatan," says, " The cotton planta- 
 tions, or, rather, the districts where the material is 
 raised that is consumed in the manufactory in this city, 
 are to the north, and known as the Tizemen district. 
 The same spot is seldom cultivated for two successive 
 seasons. After the crop is gathered, the ground is suf- 
 fered to be overrun with weeds and brushwood, which, 
 when years have elapsed, are cut down and burned, 
 and the field is replanted." This rude method of cul- 
 ture is adduced only to show how little attention is 
 paid to the plant in its native country. But, as it is 
 desirable to know something precise respecting the cli- 
 mate of one at least of its native districts, we take from 
 Professor Dove the subjoined notice of the means of 
 observations made at Vera Cruz for thirteen years. 
 This town, situated on the coast, in latitude 19° 12' 
 north, and in longitude 96° 9' west, has a mean tem- 
 perature of 77°. 02 Fahrenheit, with a difference of 
 only 12°.42 between the hottest and coldest months, 
 thus: 
 
 January 69-S8 
 
 February 71-60 
 
 March T3-40 
 
 April 12-17 
 
 May 80-48 
 
 June 81-66 
 
 July 81-50 
 
 August 82-40 
 
 September 80-96 
 
 October 78-44 
 
 November 7538 
 
 December 71-06 
 
 The Mexican cotton has been introduced into Texas, 
 as well as into Louisiana and Alabama. In the south- 
 ern parts of Texas, where the climate is very congenial, 
 the plant does not require to be renewed more frequent- 
 ly than once in three or four years, to yield a crop su- 
 perior in quality and quantity to the annual planting 
 of Louisiana. Cotton planting, in that part of Texas, 
 commences in February, and picking begins at an ear- 
 lier and continues for a longer period than in the other 
 states ; the average return, also, to the acre, is consid- 
 erably greater in Texas than in the other states, and 
 the expense of cultivation considerably less, in conse- 
 quence, not only of the greater richness of the soil, but 
 also of the peculiar mildness of the climate. The cot- 
 ton, moreover, is of a superior quality, and planters of 
 
COT 
 
 438 
 
 COT 
 
 acknowledged veracity state that it is not uncommon 
 to pick 4000 pounds of seed-cotton from an acre. 
 
 Mr. Featherstonliaugli, after crossing into Northern 
 Texas, in about latitude 33° 40', observed that he had 
 never seen the cotton plant growing in greater perfec- 
 tion before ; for, in the cotton districts he had passed 
 through, the plant was a low dwarfy bush, not exceed- 
 ing two feet in height; but here the plants were five 
 feet high, often bearing 300 bolls, and yielding from 
 1500 to 2500 pounds of seed-cotton to tlie acre, which 
 gives from 25 to 30 per cent, in weight of raw, market- 
 able fibre. 
 
 The most successful cultivation of cotton in the 
 United States, it is well known, is in the lower parts 
 of Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Tex- 
 as. In these regions there is comparatively little frost, 
 and the winter is always mild, with considerable heat 
 in summer; but this is tempered, to a great extent, 
 by the pleasant and salutary effects of the sea breeze, 
 which sets in from the Gulf or the Atlantic for a great 
 part of the day. There are heavy dews at night, and 
 frequent showers occur, in the spring as well as in the 
 summer. In the interior and more northern portions 
 of these states (which are in some parts elevated from 
 
 500 to 1000 feet above the level of the sea), frost is ex- 
 pected in October, and often continues until April ; 
 sometimes it occurs even in May, so as to injure, but 
 does not then usually destroy, the plant. The heat of 
 summer, though frequently high, still is tempered by 
 the influence of the ocean or the Gulf of Mexico, and 
 of the numerous great rivers, as well as by the dews 
 and occasional showers. The cultivation of cotton is 
 generally commenced about the beginning of April, 
 when the land is still saturated with the winter rains, 
 and difiiculty is sometimes experienced in getting the 
 land sufficiently dry; otherwise, a good shower is es- 
 sential when cotton is first sown, and it is desirable 
 also to have occasional showers during the planting, 
 plowing, and hoeing seasons. The bolls begin to open 
 about the middle of July, and continue to do so until 
 the appearance of frost, from the middle to the end of 
 October, and the first delivery of the new crop on the 
 sea-board is from the first to the twentietii of August. 
 In order to have a more precise idea of the climates 
 of the most favorable cotton districts, and for tlie ad- 
 vantage of comparing them with those of other coun- 
 tries, the subjoined Table is selected from Professor 
 Dove, as published by the British Association : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mean TEiirEEA-ruBE. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ; 
 
 Localities. 
 
 Lit. 
 
 N. 
 
 liong- 
 
 wf 
 
 Jan. 
 
 Feb. 
 
 March. 
 
 April. 
 
 May. 
 
 June. 
 
 Jaly. 
 
 August. 
 
 Sept. 
 
 Get. 
 
 Not.. 
 
 Dec. 
 
 Meku 
 
 of - 
 
 Year. 
 
 74-03 
 
 Galveston, Texas 
 
 29 
 
 18' 
 
 ifH 
 
 10', i 00-80 
 
 62-60 
 
 T6-00 
 
 73-20 
 
 83-50 
 
 86 -6U 
 
 88-20 
 
 68-60 
 
 RT-10 
 
 64-20 
 
 60-10 
 
 59-40 
 
 New Orleans, La. 
 
 29 
 
 58 
 
 !)0 
 
 TO, 
 
 58-76 68-39 
 
 66-68 
 
 72-41 
 
 77-20 
 
 81-18 
 
 8-2-22 
 
 82-12 
 
 79-42 
 
 69-71 
 
 58-71 
 
 52-26 
 
 69-80 
 
 Mobile, Ala. .... 
 
 SO 
 
 12 
 
 81 
 
 M 
 
 56-40 57 -ST 
 
 65-64 
 
 70-00 
 
 76-36 
 
 82-17 
 
 82-41 
 
 82-73 
 
 78-94 
 
 63-97 
 
 61-50 
 
 55-50 
 
 69-92 
 
 Baton Rouge, La. 
 
 .SO 
 
 W 
 
 ill 
 
 81 
 
 52-37 
 
 01-86 
 
 61-55 
 
 68-99 
 
 76-58 
 
 82-90 80-10 
 
 82-04 
 
 76-5S 
 
 66-84 
 
 62-47 
 
 55-89 
 
 6S15 
 
 Jackson, La 
 
 no 
 
 .51 
 
 01 
 
 10 
 
 17-60 
 
 49 -40 
 
 56-60 
 
 65-40 
 
 70-80 
 
 73-70 81-70 
 
 79-90 
 
 75-10 
 
 67-40 
 
 50-00 
 
 43-40 
 
 64-23 
 
 Houston, Texas . 
 
 SX 
 
 n-i 
 
 !!,'> 
 
 iifl 
 
 05-20 
 
 60-60 
 
 68-70 
 
 72-70 
 
 85-50 
 
 80-10 84-20 
 
 81-40 
 
 83-5!) 
 
 72-30 
 
 62-30 
 
 60-00' 
 
 7S-00 
 
 Natchez, Miss. . . 
 
 .",1 
 
 34 
 
 91 
 
 25 
 
 60-ia 
 
 50-89 
 
 62-20 
 
 69-93 
 
 72-72 
 
 80 '62 81-73 
 
 80-13 
 
 T4-99 
 
 64-58 
 
 55-23 
 
 49-09 
 
 66-10 
 
 Vicksburg, Miss. 
 
 :J2 
 
 24 
 
 91 
 
 CO 
 
 61-40 
 
 63-72 
 
 63-99 
 
 74-01 
 
 76-84 
 
 80-65 82-48 
 
 80-11 
 
 76-40 
 
 64-92 
 
 65-26 
 
 50-91 
 
 67-56 
 
 To compare with these, we shall further adduce, from I the Atlantic coast, as in Florida, Georgia, and Caroli- 
 the same Tables, the mean temperatures of places on | na, as well as in the interior of the last two : 
 
 Localities. 
 
 Lat. N. 
 
 Lou. W. 
 
 Jan. 
 
 Feb. 
 
 March. 1 April. | May. 
 
 June. 
 
 July. lAugueLI Sept. | Oct. 
 
 IMov 1 Dec. 1 Vear 1 
 
 St. Augustine, Fla. . 
 
 29° 50' 
 
 81° 27' 
 
 60-73 
 
 64-97 
 
 67-56 
 
 70-00 
 
 76-89 
 
 81-41 
 
 82-81 
 
 82-67 80-16 1 73-83 
 
 63-5 
 
 60-92 
 
 7*-1ii 
 
 Savannah, Ga 
 
 32 5 
 
 81 10 
 
 62-16 
 
 .53-74 
 
 61-19 
 
 6T-S6 
 
 73-14 
 
 77-89 
 
 82-23 
 
 82-OJ 
 
 76-96 66-92 
 
 57-2 
 
 60-60 
 
 66-70 
 
 Charleston, S. C. . . 
 
 32 47 
 
 79 67 
 
 49 61 
 
 52-80 
 
 58-34 
 
 6S-20 
 
 76-19 
 
 78-85 
 
 80-70 
 
 8015 
 
 74-30 66-70 
 
 68-60 
 
 51-80 
 
 65-91 
 
 Fort Johnston, S. C. 
 
 34 
 
 78 8 
 
 51-42 
 
 62-19 
 
 60-5-2 
 
 65-28 
 
 7S-70 
 
 78-98 
 
 81-57 
 
 80-39 
 
 76-32 6911 
 
 60-13 
 
 63-83 
 
 66-96 
 
 Columbia, S. C 
 
 34 
 
 80 58 
 
 37-70 
 
 42-90 
 
 47-30 
 
 62-20 
 
 67 -SO 
 
 72-40 
 
 76-10 
 
 70-60 
 
 66-SO 53-20 
 
 4S-70 
 
 39-50 
 
 57-09 
 
 Augusta, Ga |33 28 |81 64 
 
 45-09 
 
 47-63 
 
 53-66 
 
 62-34 
 
 69-08 
 
 77-72 
 
 79-47 76-96 1 72-96 1 60-35 
 
 64-23 
 
 43-46 |61-96| 
 
 2. Climate of the Coflon Regions of the United States. 
 — The climate of Georgia is somewhat warmer than 
 that of Carolina, but the low, flat country of both, in 
 summer and autumn, is moist, and somewhat un- 
 healthy. The spring is commonly rainy, and the heat 
 of summer is considerable, but is tempered by the gen- 
 tle breezes which blow almost daily from the sea. The 
 winds change from southeast to southwest about the 
 end of July, but are variable, from storms of thunder, 
 and the heavy rains of July and August. The cold 
 weather seldom commences before the beginning of 
 December, and terminates in March, but the winter is 
 usually mild, and snow seldom falls near the sea, and 
 soon melts away. The hilly parts, 200 miles from the 
 sea, are agreeable and favorable to health. The win- 
 ter is colder ; snow falls to a depth of five or six inches. 
 Though the preceding tables are suiBcient to give a 
 general idea of the climates, it would be desirable, for 
 agricultural purposes, to have also the maxima and 
 minima for the spring, summer, and autumnal months, 
 for a series of years, as a night of frost may destroy 
 the plants, and great heat, with drought, will be equal- 
 ly injurious, from drying them up. Cotton, as before 
 observed, is sown in April; picking commences in July 
 or August, and continues until November, and, on the 
 coast, sometimes even as late as December. The sea- 
 island plant yields about 125 or 130 pounds of clean 
 ginned cotton per acre. Of the short staple, in the 
 hill country, from the Mississippi to the Carolinas, not 
 more than 500 pounds of seed cotton, or 150 pounds of 
 clean cotton, can be obtained to the acre. The short 
 staple cotton is more or less cultivated all the way from 
 
 the southern borders of Tirginia, to the southwestern 
 streams of the Mississippi. The mean quantity over 
 all is estimated at 125 pounds of ginned cotton, of both 
 sea-island and of the short staple, to an acre, but the 
 amount of labor is much greater for the former than 
 for the latter. 
 
 In comparing the climates of the cotton regions 
 above described with those of other countries, it is nec- 
 essary to remember the peculiarity of that of America, 
 with which this subject was commenced, and also how 
 much the best cotton districts are influenced by the 
 Atlantic, or the Mexican Gulf. The climate, to the 
 west of the Alleghany Mountains, is considered more 
 mild than that under the same parallels in the Atlan- 
 tic states, and, by some, even to the extent of three de- 
 grees of latitude. This has been explained as caused 
 by the warm air of the Gulf of Mexico being driven 
 up the basin of the Mississippi and that of the Ohio. 
 The direction of the valley, north and south, no doubt 
 favors the course of the southern winds, ivhile the re- 
 gions of the Atlantic slopes, being transverse, oppose 
 any such transmission, and also the migration of 
 plants. The majority of the places of which the mean 
 temperatures have been adduced are on the sea-coast, 
 and necessarily participate, to some extent, in the pe-: 
 culiarities of an insular climate ; that is, of seasons 
 moderately contrasted. Still, the difference between 
 the hottest and the coldest month of the year is much 
 greater than at Vera Cruz ; that is, than 12° ; being, 
 at Mobile, Galveston, and New Orleans, 27°-23, 29°-10, 
 and 29° -96, respectively. But in the interior, at Nat- 
 chez and Vicksburg, the difierences are greater, being 
 
COT 
 
 439 
 
 COT ' 
 
 82°-69 and 31°-57. In the Atlantic districts the difFer- 
 ences are nearly as great as those on the south coast, 
 being 31°-73 at Savannah, and 31°-09 at Charleston, 
 while, in the interior, the differences are much greater, 
 being 36°'02 at' Augusta, and 38°'10 at Columbia. In 
 addition to the fdregoing, it is desirable to notice some 
 of the general features of the climate, both of the Gulf 
 and of the Atlantic. 'states, as it will then be readily 
 seen how much it is modified by the vicinity of the 
 sea, and by the configuration of the coast : 
 
 Miasissvppi. — Near the Gulf of Mexico, the climate 
 resembles that of the- lower parts of Louisiana ; the 
 winter is mild, the summer warm, but tempered by the 
 constant prevalence of the breeze from the Gulf, to- 
 gether with the elevation of the Surface. At Natchez, 
 however, the thermometer in winter sometimes stands 
 as low as 10° Fahrenheit. In sickly seasons, the in- 
 habitants frequently remove to the high banks of the 
 bay of St. Louis. 
 
 Alabama. — In the low and southern parts of this 
 state the heat is very great. The climate of the inland 
 and upper parts resembles that of Georgia, and may be 
 considered remarkably mild. Frost commences gene- 
 rally in October, and continues sometimes as late as 
 the 20th of May, so as to injure, but not destroy, the 
 cotton, in the more elevated parts. During summer, 
 there is usually a prevalence of westerly winds. Those 
 from the southeast are regarded as the sure harbingers 
 of rain. At Mobile, from nine in the morning till even- 
 ing, the pleasant and salutary effects of the sea breeze 
 are felt. The rich verdure of the earth, with the copi- 
 ous dews that fall during the night, and the elevation 
 of the soil, which, in the upland parts, is from 600 to 
 lOOO feet above the sea, produce a beneficial effect on 
 the climate. 
 
 Louisiana. — The climate of most parts of this state 
 is somewhat variable. From the sea to Point Coupee, 
 it seldom snows or freezes, except in the months of Dc 
 cember and January, and then when the wind is from 
 the north or northwest. There is less heat and more 
 moisture than in similar latitudes on the Eastern Con- 
 tinent, and the climate is generally very mild. In 
 winter, the thermometer seldom falls more than two 
 degrees below the freezing point. In December, 1800, 
 the thermometer sank to 12° near New Orleans, and 
 snow fell for the first time in twenty years. In Janu- 
 ary, 1811, the mercury fell from 78° to 10°, and the 
 Mississippi was completely frozen over. At the pres- 
 ent time (February, 1856), it is reported as low as 20°, 
 and the Mississippi as frozen quite over with the ice 
 several inches in thickness, and the ground covered 
 with ice and sleet to a depth of six or eight inches. 
 
 Georgia. — All the flat country of this state is de- 
 scribed as moist and unhealthy during the warmer 
 months, especially the " rice swamps ;" the climate is 
 somewhat warmer than that of South Carolina. The 
 winter is the most pleasant season of the year, when 
 the thermometer usually ranges from 40° to 66°, though 
 sometimes a considerable degree of cold has prevailed ; 
 snow is uncommon, but frosts have been experienced 
 even as late as April. A strong northeast wind will 
 occasionally blight a promising field of cotton, as in- 
 sects will sometimes destroy it. The spring is usually 
 rainy, the summer inconstant, with a temperature of 
 from 76° to 90° from June to September. The atmos- 
 phere feels springy and enlivening, being refreshed by 
 gentle breezes, which blow almost daily from the sea- 
 Shore. About the 20th of July the summer rains set 
 in, often accompanied with storms of thunder, and se- 
 vere winds, which, though not tropical in their violence, 
 are often so heavy as to deluge the fields. About the 
 end of July, or beginning of August, the wind usually 
 changes its direction from southeast to southwest. The 
 month of August is the period of most solicitude to the 
 cotton-grower, as heavy rains at that time occa.sionally 
 cause the plant to part with its young bolls, and even 
 its leaves. The autumn is usually fine and clear ; and 
 
 about the 20th of October frosts are expected, but do 
 not often come before the end of the month. The in- 
 habitants of the hilly tracts, two hundred miles from 
 the coast, enjoy an agreeable climate, which is favor- 
 able to health. The winter is colder, snOW sometimes 
 falling to a depth of five oi six inches. The summer 
 is not SO hot, and the winds of aiitnmn are less violent ; 
 and the cotton, being less exposed, is allowed to hang 
 longer, so as to become perfectly mature. 
 
 South Carolina. — The winter Of the lower parts of 
 this state is mild ; and the difference between the mild- 
 est and severest winter is about seventeen degrees, often 
 with heavy frosts, and sometimes snow, but with a hat 
 sun during the day ; though snow seldom falls near the 
 sea. The winter may be coasidered as terminating in 
 March, when snow and heavy rains usually occur ; but 
 April and Maj' are commonly dry months. In the low 
 country the heat of summer is intense ; but the climate 
 is liable to sudden changes of temperature, when it is 
 damp with fogs and heavy dews. June, July, and Au- 
 gust are generally the wettest months, and the rains 
 consist of heavy bursts and frequent showers, which 
 are liable to occur in spring, summer, and autumn. 
 November is usually fine, even after the coming of 
 frosts, which sometimes do not occur until December. 
 The average quantity of rain, for ten years, Was 49*3 
 inches ; the largest quantity, 83'4 inches, and the least, 
 36-6 inches, in any one year. In the upper country, 
 frost appears earlier and continues later ; but the 
 weather is not so variable. In winter the cold is con- 
 siderable, but does not last very long. . The climate 
 of the Santee Hills, which are situated eighty or nine- 
 ty miles from the coast, is similar in character. 
 
 Texas. — The climate of Texas is decidedly more 
 healthy than that of Louisiana, or any other of the 
 Gulf states; still, on the low^ alluvial coast, intermit- 
 tents are prevalent during the summer and autumnal 
 months ; hut the yellow fever is rarely known. Com- 
 paratively little rain falls from March to October, 
 though gusts of wind, with thunder, frequently occur, 
 with sufficient rain to make excellent crops. During 
 the rest of the year, hot weather generally prevails. 
 The winters are warm and mild on the coast, and, 
 for some distance inland, snow is seldom seen, except 
 on the higher table-lands or mountains. From April 
 to September,- the thermometer, near the coast, usually 
 ranges from 63° to. 100°. The greatest heats, however, 
 are tempered by strong and constant breezes, which 
 begin to blow soon after the rising of the sun, and con- 
 tinue until past noon. The nights throughout the mid- 
 dle regions are cool and refreshing during the year. — 
 Report of the Department of State of the United Stales. 
 
 In connection with the climate of the United States, 
 it is desirable to take some notice of that in which an- 
 other species, the "Brazil" or "kidney" cotton, is cul- 
 tivated. From the observations of the late Dr. Loudon, 
 at Pemambuco, it is found, that the quantity of rain 
 which falls at that place is considerable, and that the 
 air must always be in a moist state. As Koster states 
 that cotton succeeds better from 50 to 150 leagues inte- 
 rior, the climate may still be more moist than that on 
 the coast. 
 
 3. Climate of the Cotton Region of the Nile. — The soil 
 and climate of Egypt are adapted to the growth of cot- 
 ton, but the yield depends greatly on the rise of the 
 Nile. When the river is low the crop suffers, as little 
 or no rain falls before December. Almost all the land 
 in Lower Egypt is particularly well adapted to the 
 growth of this product, yet it is' not all equally good. 
 
 It rains frequently in the vicinity of Alexandria, 
 and but seldom on the Delta. 
 
 The culture of cotton in Egypt, on a large scale, is 
 comparatively recent. It was first undertaken by M. 
 Jumel, a Frenchman, who, in 1821, laid before the Vice- 
 roy all the advantages and results arising from its pro- 
 duction. Previous to .that period, the cotton produced 
 in that country was of inferior quality. A few plants 
 
COT 
 
 440 
 
 COT 
 
 only had been iatroduced from India, and were to be 
 found in the garden at Cairo, where they served as or- 
 naments. From these the culture was extended on a 
 grand scale, and became one of the principal branches 
 of the agriculture of the Viceroy. Although the soil 
 along the Nile appears to be generally well adapted 
 to the growth of the " Jumel" or "Mako" cotton, it is 
 planted in preference in rich, heavy lands, which retain 
 considerable moisture, and where the plant can acquire 
 sufficient strength to produce well-iilled bolls. The 
 grounds where the cotton is cultivated are kept free 
 from the overflowing of the river, as the standing wa- 
 ter would rot the plants and cause them to perish. 
 The agricultural labor of the country is performed ex- 
 clusively by the Fellahs (peasantry), a peculiar race, 
 who labor under a system similar to that of the serfage 
 of Eussia. The black slaves (chiefly Nubians and 
 Abyssinians) in the country are occupied exclusively 
 in domestic duties, and live better and labor less than 
 the Fellahs. The latter are not permitted to leave the 
 premises to which they belong, and the reward of their 
 labor is left to the will of the proprietor, and generally 
 is the minimum of subsistence. They live in mud hov- 
 els, and are allowed to partake of animal food but once 
 a year, and then as a religious duty. Like the Emper- 
 or of Russia, the present Viceroy has made some ex- 
 periments in making the Fellahs nominal proprietors 
 of small farms ; but the exactions of the Turkish offi- 
 cials never leave much margin in their profits. There- 
 fore, having but little interest in the soil they cultivate 
 beyond the merest subsistence, their labor is slovenly, 
 their fields poorly tilled, and, consequently, improve- 
 ments can not well be introduced. The Fellahs take 
 great care to protect the fields by dikes of earth, where 
 they are subject to inundation at the time of the rise 
 of the Nile. Nevertheless the cotton-plants are wa- 
 tered periodically by means of /SaJcyieks, iSkadouJs, or 
 water-wheels. In winter, they water them every fif- 
 teen days ; in the spring, if there is much dew, every 
 twelve daj's; and in summer, every eight days. It 
 may here be remarked that, in summer and autumn, 
 the dews are very copious. The system of irrigation 
 is admirable. The planters of some of our Southern 
 States might profit by its adoption. In every other 
 respect tlie culture by the Fellahs is slovenly to the 
 last degree. They begin to prepare the land for cul- 
 ture by flooding it in December, and allowing the wa- 
 ter to remain upon it from ten to twenty days. No 
 manure is employed, as the ordure of the animals of 
 burden is used for fuel. The only fertilizer is the de- 
 posit of the sediment of the Nile when the land is 
 overflowed. They plant in March and April in Lower 
 Egypt, before which they usually give only one tillage 
 to the ground, if it be rich ; but if the soil be indiffer- 
 ent, it is worked two or three times. In the vicinity 
 of the Said, they every where plow to a depth of about 
 fifteen inches. They then run furrows at the distance 
 of about 3i feet. After plowing they level the ground 
 by breaking the clods, and it requires no further prep- 
 aration. They then make holes from three to fourinch- 
 es in depth, and 3} feet apart, in which they deposit 
 from two to four seeds that have been previously 
 steeped in water for twenty-four hours to hasten their 
 germination. In some cases the Fellahs cultivate 
 vegetables, etc., in the intervals between the plants. 
 At the time of the inundation they eradicate the weeds. 
 The first year, they cut the cotton plants with a kind 
 of pruning-knife, and remove all the branches, which 
 they use for fuel. This operation gives more strength 
 to the plants, and protects them from cold, which would 
 otherwise cause the branches to perish. The second 
 year, they only work the ground when making a new 
 weeding, and the plants, which had before acquired a 
 growth of from 3i to 5 feet in height the first year, now 
 grow only in a less degree. 
 
 The cotton begins to flower early in July, and con- 
 tinues to bloom till December, and even into February 
 
 or March. The period of harvesting varies in different 
 districts. The first year, it commences in July and 
 ends in January, when the season is not too cold. The 
 product of each plant la li pounds in the rough ; the 
 second and third years, from IJ to 2 pounds ; but, in 
 the subsequent years, the plants lose their fecundity, 
 and it has been found necessary to renew them every 
 three, and in some instances every two years. They 
 would produce bolls, however, for a long period — say 
 fifty years. At the expiration of three years the plant 
 increases in its shrubby character, producing a very 
 thick foliage with but few bolls. 
 
 The yield of cotton varies according to the circum- 
 stances under which it is cultivated. That which is 
 sown in winter, called Baaly, and which is watered only 
 during the inundation of the Nile, gives, on an average, 
 above 200 pounds to the acre. That watered by means 
 of wheels, and called Miskawi, gives about 300 pounds 
 to the acre. The maximum yield has been as high as 
 700 pounds ; but such instances are rare. 
 
 4. Climate of the Cotton Regions of Algeria,— T!\\q soil 
 of Algeria is generally well adapted to the cultivation 
 of cotton ; but the climate is quite the reverse, from the 
 deficiency of rain, the very light dews, the extreme 
 heat of summer, and the almost incessant rains in au- 
 tumn. Nor is the whole of Algeria suited to the growth 
 of cotton ; it is necessary to select those parts which are 
 the most propitious. On the chain of the Atlas, as well 
 as on the plains which crown its heights, the heat, al- 
 though in summer excessive, does not continue long 
 enough in autumn to permit the complete maturity of 
 the bolls. In tlic region of Tell, it becomes necessary 
 to abandon its culture at an elevation of 2000, or even 
 1600 feet above the level of the sea. But, beyond this 
 central and mountainous country, there extend two 
 zones which arc declared suitable for the growth of 
 cotton, and it is said that proof has been given to that 
 effect ; one is the region of the coast from La Calle to 
 Nemours ; the other, that of the Saharian oasis. An- 
 other obstacle to its culture is, that cotton, in general, 
 can not be planted before the middle of April without 
 running the risk of the seeds perishing from the excess- 
 ive moisture of the land. Consequently, it can not ar- 
 rive at maturitj' before the prolonged rains of autumn 
 commence, which nearly stop its growth. The province 
 of Oran is reputed to be better adapted to the growth 
 of cotton than the other two, Algiers and Constantine. 
 
 Algeria, situated as it is between the 34th and 37th 
 degrees of north latitude, bounded on one side by the 
 Mediterranean, and on the other by the Desert of Sa- 
 hara, from which it is separated by mountains, pos- 
 sesses a climate, in most parts, similar to the zones 
 bordering on the tropics. It is not, however, strictly 
 a tropical, neither can it be said to be a temperate re- 
 gion. It is particularly remarkable for the uniformity 
 of its temperature throughout the year. 
 
 The Moniteur contains a report from Marshal Vail- 
 lant, addressed to the Emperor, on the subject of the 
 growth of cotton in Algeria. In the document the 
 Minister of War recognized the good effects of the de- 
 crees of the 16th of October, 1863, by which an annual 
 prize of 20,000 francs was allotted for five years to the 
 best cotton-grower in the Franco-African colony ; and 
 for three years, commencing with 1854, the whole cot- 
 ton produce of Algeria was ordered to be purchased by 
 the state at a price fixed beforehand, at an advantageous 
 rate to the producer. In consequence of this encour- 
 agement the growth of cotton has increased, and it is 
 said the quality is equal to that of American growth. 
 
 In the cultivation of cotton in Algeria, stable-dung 
 is sometimes used, though but few farmers pay any 
 attention to their fields. As their cattle are never 
 housed, their means of making manure become very 
 limited. They plant from the loth of April till the 
 10th of May, in rows about two feet apart. The crop 
 is hoed four times, and irrigated as often as water can 
 be spared from other plants ; and, when abundant, it 
 
COT 
 
 441 
 
 COT 
 
 is applied every four days. The bolls begin to form 
 in July, and the plants continue in flower from Sep- 
 tember until the latter part of February. The har- 
 vesting also commences in September, and lasts until 
 the following spring. 
 
 5. Climate of the CQttcm Districts of other Parts of 
 Africa. — Cotton of a very good quality has been culti- 
 vated for some years at Natal, nearly at the southern 
 extremity of Africa. The coast is low along that re- 
 gion, and, in some parts, even swampy ; but the land 
 within ten miles of the sea is considered most favora- 
 ble to the cultivation of cotton, probably from the con- 
 stant moisture of the atmosphere and the warmth of 
 the climate ; though, no doubt, it may be successfully 
 grown farther in the interior. The country beyond is 
 described as being better adapted to the purposes of 
 grazing. Various attempts have been made to obtain 
 cotton from the west coast of Africa, and the seed of 
 the best varieties have been introduced from the United 
 States. In Liberia, Dahomey, and other places, fine 
 samples have been produced, principally from the 
 green-seeded and kidney-seeded sorts. The climate is 
 represented as favorable, but a different population is 
 required for an extended and profitable production. 
 
 6. Climate of the Cotton Hegions and Islands of the 
 Mediterranean. — Considerable quantities of cotton are 
 cultivated in other countries bordering on the Medi- 
 terranean. It is generally the product of the India 
 species, though seeds have been introduced from Egypt 
 and the United States. These are cultivated in Asia 
 Minor, in parts of Greece, and the islands generally 
 known as the Levant. The Italian cottons are pro- 
 duced in Sicily, in Calabria, near Naples, and in Mal- 
 ta. Those of Sicily, Calabria, and Castellamare are 
 the best, and are usually produced from American seed. 
 A Nankin cotton is cultivated in Malta, but is all man- 
 ufactured for domestic use. 
 
 At Naples, the soil and climate are well suited to 
 the growth of cotton, with the aid of artificial irriga- 
 tion in times of drought. In some seasons, however, 
 the plants receive injury from insects, as well as from 
 fogs and mists, in July and August. 
 
 The manure, when employed, is the dung of animals, 
 but no other fertilizer is used. The seed is planted in 
 April, in rows, with sufficient space between them for 
 the passage of water, for the pui-poses of irrigation. 
 The plants are in flower in June and July ; the cotton 
 harvested from September to November ; and the yield 
 per acre, unginned, besides other crops between the 
 rows, 600 pounds. 
 
 The soil and climate of Sicily are better adapted to 
 the growth of cotton than those of Naples, particularly 
 on the southeast side of the island, and within twenty 
 miles of the sea. Farther inland, the heat is not suf- 
 ficient to mature the crop. The maximum tempera- 
 ture of the cotton regions, from Maj" till October, is 
 77° Fahrenheit; minimum, 61i° ; the mean 68°. The 
 quantity of rain which falls during the cotton-growing 
 months is generally fully sufficient for the perfection 
 of the plant. The principal injury to the crop is oc- 
 casioned by long-continued north winds, which, how- 
 ever, but seldom occur. 
 
 7. Climate of the Cotton, Districts of British India. — 
 The British East India possessions embrace an almost 
 boundless extent of territory, extending from the Him- 
 alaya range of mountains on the north, to the ocean, 
 including nearly the whole of the peninsula of Hindo- 
 stan, the island of Ceylon, and that portion of Burmah 
 lying between the 20° of N. lat. and the baj' of Bengal. 
 In the peninsula of India, the climate is greatly influ- 
 enced by the two monsoons — one from the northeast, 
 which blows chiefly on the eastern coast, and the other 
 from the southwest, which is mostly felt in Malabar 
 and the western parts of the country. In some parts, 
 the advantages of both monsoons are enjoyed ; but in 
 others, the change from the moisture of the rains to the 
 heat and dryness which succeed them, is nearly as 
 
 marked in its character as at Saharunpore, and the 
 cotton-plants suflfer as much from the transition. Such 
 being the extremes of temperature and of dryness, as 
 well as the shortness of the several seasons in which 
 the plant may be made to grow-S-that is, during the 
 hot and dry weather, from March- to June, or during 
 the steaming moisture of the rainy season, followed, at 
 first, by a hot and moist summer, and then by a cold 
 and dry autumn, succeeded by a bracing winter — a 
 plant must be hardy to sustain uninjured such extreme 
 and sudden vicissitudes. But all India is not identical 
 in climate. In some parts the accession of the rains 
 is earlier, their termination more gradual, and the cold 
 of winter less, or the country enjoys the advantages of 
 a double monsoon ; so that there is a longer period of 
 growth. 
 
 Temperature, as we have seen, is only one of the el- 
 ements of climate, and, though a very important one, 
 is yet unable of itself to do any thing toward the growth 
 of a plant, unless water be within the reach of its roots 
 to dissolve and carry into the vegetable cells and ves- 
 sels the elements of nutrition. It must be decomposed, 
 in contact with air, not too dry, nor yet too damp, but 
 containing its due proportion of oxygen and carbonic 
 acid gas, and illuminated by the light of the sun. 
 There is no doubt that cotton-plants vaay exist through 
 a long range of temperature, and of moisture and dry- 
 ness of the atmosphere; but it is equally certain that 
 they will never attain healtliy vigor of growth unless 
 there is a due supply of moisture in a moderately warm, 
 or rather hot atmosphere. Though the degree of heat 
 may be measured with a thermometer, moisture is not 
 always indicated by the rain-gauge, for rain may fall 
 and run off the surface, or percolate the sell, and the 
 earth and the atmosphere both be left in a parched 
 state, even during the season of growth. The moist- 
 ure can only be determined by the hygrometer, or the 
 wet and dry-bulbed thermometer; and, imperfect as 
 the majority of such instruments are, the information 
 obtained from many situations would be invaluable, as 
 we might then be more sure of drawing correct infer- 
 ences, because, though we might not be able to calcu- 
 late correctly the exact quantity of moisture contained 
 in the atmosphere, we could see whether this was in a 
 state of saturation, or was capable of taking up a still 
 larger quantity, and thus in the one case checking, and in 
 the other favoring, evaporation from the soil, and from 
 the surface of plants. To the comparative moisture of 
 the air on the sea-coast, and in places within the reach 
 of the moist sea air, must chiefly be ascribed the pref- 
 erence of the cotton-plant for such situations, or, at 
 least, for its successful culture in so many islands and 
 along so many coasts. But to this it may be objected, 
 tlat a long-stapled cotton is successfully grown in the 
 dry climate of Egypt. In that countrj'', however, co- 
 pious irrigation produces the same beneficial effects in 
 a warm, dry atmosphere. Excess of moisture in a 
 warm climate, however, may prove as injurious as its 
 deficiency ; for then the parts of vegetation may be al- 
 together stimulated, or may be in a state of continual 
 growth, when plenty of branches and leaves are pro- 
 duced, but few flowers and very little cotton. 
 
 The seasons of India, over a great part of the coun- 
 try, are divided into the cold, the hot, and the rainy; 
 names which sufficiently indicate the particular char- 
 acteristics of each. If we take an equatorial climate, 
 like that of Singapore, as a standard of comparison, we 
 shall observe' a very great difference between it and 
 that of a northwestern situation in the plains, such as 
 Saharunpore, in 30° of north latitude, the first being 
 remarkable fpr uniformity, and the latter for a great 
 range, both of the dry and wet-bulbed thertnometer. 
 Plants which live throughout the year in the open air 
 at ^ngapore, will, in most cases, suffer both from the 
 cold and the heat of Saharunpore, though they may 
 flourish in the rainy season almost as well in the one 
 as the other. 
 
COT 
 
 442 
 
 COT 
 
 Mean TEsiPEEATtrnB is the Suade, by FAnnEOTiErr'B Scale, of seveeal LooALiTrES in India, -wnEKE Cotton has been 
 
 CULTIVATED. 
 
 Localities, 
 
 la 
 
 g 
 
 H.isht 
 above 
 Son. 
 
 3 
 C 
 
 1 
 
 g 
 
 % 
 
 d 
 
 85-00 
 83-70 
 85-40 
 89-91 
 88-65 
 76-03 
 79-00 
 73-00 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 >. 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 a 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Year. 
 
 
 1°23' 
 18 i 
 ■11 23 
 
 25 18 
 
 26 29 
 ■28 41 
 20 67 
 30 IS 
 
 103° 62' 
 80 14 
 88 28 
 82 50 
 80 22 
 11 IB 
 11 82 
 78 5 
 
 sea level. 
 
 sea level. 
 
 sea level. 
 
 BOO ft. 
 
 500 ft. 
 
 BOO ft. 
 
 1000 ft. 
 
 2350 ft. 
 
 86 00 
 75-50 
 66-20 
 62-50 
 G3-08 
 61-43 
 52 -06 
 52-08 
 
 88 -OU 
 77-70 
 69-80 
 72-49 
 69-05 
 53-29 
 63-25 
 59-05 
 
 89-00 
 SO-SO 
 80 00 
 79-01 
 72-15 
 67-22 
 68-00 
 67-00 
 
 85-00 
 86-80 
 85-70 
 94-S5 
 96 06 
 82-63 
 86-05 
 81-00 
 
 S7 -00 88-0(1 
 S7-70 85-30 
 83-70J81-80 
 90-28 85-71 
 91-23 86-65 
 87-7588-61 
 
 86-00 
 84-60 
 82-00 
 86-T2 
 87-04 
 88-90 
 85-28 
 81-00 
 
 S7-00 
 83-70 
 
 82 -on 
 
 85-99 
 85-03 
 77 -SB 
 78-00 
 78-05 
 
 87-00 bO-00 
 82-02 78-90 
 79-20 74-20 
 81-49 72-18 
 78-95 76-25 
 73-32 60-26 
 74-00 64-75 
 73-05|67-00 
 
 85 00 
 76-00 
 60-00 
 63-40 
 67-06 
 49-35 
 66-06 
 56-06 
 
 86-58 
 81-91 
 78-03 
 80-26 
 80-01 
 71-71 
 73-61 
 70-52 
 
 
 Calcutta. 
 
 
 
 Suronli 
 
 Saharunpore 
 
 Deyrah Doon 
 
 89-00 86-76 
 86-00 83-00 
 
 AVEBAGE QTTANTITY OP RAIN, IN INCHES AND PAHTS, ON THE SiTBS OP EsPEEIMBNTfl IN THE CULTiniE OP COTTOH, ON TIIB 
 
 Low Lands of the Coast, and on tue Table-land of tiie Deocan, in India. 
 
 Sitoe, 
 
 
 § 
 
 Height 
 above 
 eea- 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 a 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 i i 
 
 July. 
 August. 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 1 
 1 1 
 
 Vea,. 
 
 hes. 
 
 
 13° 4' 
 18 60 
 
 19' 00 
 
 17 "56 
 
 17 ' 10 
 16 20 
 
 18 00 
 
 19 66 
 16 00 
 15 28 
 19 10 
 
 80° 14' 
 73 63 
 
 73' 00 
 
 73' 30 
 
 73' 12 
 73 10 
 73 00 
 73 50 
 76 00 
 76 8 
 73 15 
 
 sea level, 
 feea level. 
 150 ft. 
 sea level, 
 900 ft. 
 1740 ft. 
 4500 ft. 
 4000 ft. 
 2320 ft. 
 
 1842 ft. 
 
 2066 it. 
 
 1966 ft. 
 
 1-B3 
 
 0-23 
 
 36 
 
 0-03 
 
 1-03 |2-0y 
 
 il-2u 15-24 
 
 4-70 
 
 10-09 
 
 12-4>;|3:26 
 
 87-20 
 63-73 
 114-65 
 106-10 
 134 96 
 141 -So 
 254-84 
 50-69 
 89-20 
 30-74 
 19-02 
 26-T2 
 40-90 
 38-81 
 21-83, 
 32-16 
 
 
 Konkun, sea CO 
 
 " inlanc 
 
 Western Ghats 
 
 Deccan, table-Is 
 
 ast 
 
 
 
 
 Butnagherry 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dapoolee 
 
 Kuiidaillah 
 
 Mahabuleshwiir: 
 
 Pauncbgunnee 
 
 Sattal-ah 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' ■ ' ■ ' 
 
 east I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ahmednugger 
 
 Shorapore : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — P". S. Patent OJlce Report, 1S55. 
 
 III. Cotton Teade of the United States. 1. 
 History, — Cotton, "which administers so bountifully to 
 the -wants of civilized as well as to savage man, and to 
 the wealth and economy of the countries producing it, 
 stands pre-eminent in the United States, both as re- 
 gards its superior staple and the degree of peifection 
 to which its cultivation has been brought. One or 
 more of its species is found growing wild throughout 
 the torrid zone, -\vhence it has been disseminated, and 
 become an important object of culture in several coun- 
 tries thereto adjacent from time immemorial. It is 
 mentioned by Herodotus as growing in India, where 
 the natives manufactured it into cloth; by Theophras- 
 tu3 as a product of Ethiopia ; and by Pliny as growing 
 in Egypt, toward Arabia, and near the borders of the 
 Persian Gulf. Nieuhoff, who visited China in 1655, 
 says that it was then cultivated in great abundance in 
 that countr}-, where the seed had been introduced about 
 500 years before. Columbus found it in use by the 
 American Indians of Cuba, in 1492 ; Cortez, by those 
 of Mexico, in 1519 ; Pizarro and Almagro, by the In- 
 cas of Peru, in 1532 ; and Cabefa de Vaca, by the na- 
 tives of Texas and California, in 1536. 
 
 Of the precise period of the first introduction of the 
 cultivation of this plant into the North American col- 
 onies, history is silent. In a pamphlet entitled " Nova 
 Britannia offering most excellent fruits by planting in 
 Virginia," published in London in 1609, it is stated 
 that cotton would grow as well in that province as in 
 Italy. It is also stated, on the authority of Beverley, 
 in his History of Virginia, that Sir Edmund Andros, 
 -while governor of the colony, in 1692, " gave particu- 
 lar marks of his favor toward the propagating of cot- 
 ton, which, since his time, has been much neglected." 
 It further appears that it was cultivated for a long time 
 in the eastern parts of Maryland, Virginia, Carolina, 
 and Georgia, in the garden, though not at all as a 
 planter's crop, for domestic consumption. In another 
 pamphlet, entitled "A State of the Province of Georgia, 
 attested upon oath, in the Court of Savannah," in 1740, 
 it was averred that *' large quantities have been raised, 
 and it is much planted; but the cotton, which in some 
 parts is perennial, dies here in the winter; which, 
 nevertheless, the annual is not inferior to in goodness, 
 
 but requires more trouble in cleansing from the seed." 
 About the year -1742, M. Dubreuil invented a cotton 
 gin, which created an epoch in the cultivation of this 
 product in Louisiana, During the Revolution, the in- 
 habitants of St, Mary's and Talbot counties, in Mary- 
 land, as well as those of Cape May county. New Jer- 
 sey, raised a suificient quantity of cotton to meet their 
 wants for the time. It was formerly produced in 
 small quantities, for family use, in the county of Sus- 
 sex, in Delaware, near the head-waters of the Chop- 
 tank, 
 
 The seed of the sea-island cotton "n-as originally ob- 
 tained from the Bahama Islands, in about the year 
 1785, being the kind then known in the "West Indies 
 as the " Anguilla cotton," It was first cultivatedby 
 Josiah Tattnall and Nicholas TurnbuU, on Skidaway 
 Island, near Savannah ; and subsequently by James 
 Spaulding and Alexander Bisset, on St. Simon's Isl- 
 and, at the mouth of the Altamaha, and on Jekyl Isl- 
 and, by Richard Leake. For many years after its in- 
 troduction it was confined to the more elevated parts 
 of these islands, bathed by the saline atmosphere, and 
 surrounded by the sea. Gradually, however, the cot- 
 ton culture was extended to the lower grounds, and 
 beyond the limits of the islands to the adjacent shores 
 of the continent, into soils containing a mixture of 
 clay; and lastly, into coarse clays deposited along the 
 great rivers, where they meet the ocean tides. 
 
 Previous to 1794 — the year after the invention of 
 Whitney's saw gin — the annual amount of cotton pro- 
 duced in North America was comparatively inconsid- 
 erable ; but since that period, there is probably nothing 
 recorded in the history of industry, including its man- 
 ufacture in this country and Europe, that would com- 
 pare with its subsequent increase. 
 
 In the Eastern hemisphere, the growth of cotton is 
 principally restricted to the maritime countries lying 
 between the 40th degree of north latitude and a'cor- 
 responding parallel south. On the easterly side of the 
 Western Continent, this plant will perfect its growth 
 in most of the districts adjacent to the tidal waters, in- 
 cluding the regions bordering on the Mississippi, the 
 Amazon, and the Parana, between latitude 39° north 
 and 40° south ; and on the west coast of America, be- 
 
COT 
 
 443 
 
 COT 
 
 tween the 40tli parallel north and a corresponding de- 
 gree south. 
 
 The growth of this staple is chiefly confined to In- 
 dia, China, Japan, Australia, Persia, Turlcey, southern 
 Europe, Arabia, Egypt, Algeria, southern and western 
 Africa, the southern section of the United States, Brit- 
 ish Guiana, New Granada, Venezuela, Peru, Brazil, 
 Uruguay, the West Indies, and numerous other ocean 
 isles. 
 
 According to Dr. Eoyle, who has recently investi- 
 gated the pubject, the different localities of the four va- 
 rieties or species of cotton (see page 434) may be stated 
 in the foUowing'imanner ; 
 
 1. Gossypium Tndwum, or hevhaccum — the cotton 
 plant of India, China, Arabia, Persia, Asia Minor, and 
 some parts of Afiica.- ■ 
 
 2. GoBsypium arhoreum — a tree cotton, indigenous to 
 India.' 
 
 3. Gossypium 'Barhadensc — the Mexican or AVest In- 
 dian cotton, of which the sea-island. New Orleans, and 
 iipland Georgia, are varieties. It was long since intro- 
 duced into the island of Bourbon, and thence into In- 
 dia; hence it acquired the name of "Bourbon cotton." 
 
 4. GossJ/pium Peruvianum^ or acuminatum — which 
 yields the Pernambuco, Peruvian, Maranham, and 
 Brazilian cotton, especially distinguished by its black 
 seeds, which adhere firmly together. This variety has 
 lon^ since been introduced into India. < 
 
 The chief varieties cultivated in th6' United States 
 tire the black seed, or sea-island (G. arbor^um')^ known 
 also by the name of '* long-staple," from its fine, white, 
 silky appearance and long fibres ; the green seed ((?. 
 Jierbacewn), called "short-staple," from its shorter, 
 white staple, with green seeds, and commercially 
 known by the name of "upland cotton;" and two 
 kidds of Nankin or yellow (_G. Barladinse), the Mex- 
 ican and Petit Gulf. ; The average yield is about 600 
 pounds per acre. 
 
 The earliest record of sending cotton from this coun- 
 try to Europe is in the table of exports from Charles- 
 ton, in 1747-48, when seven bags were shipped ; an- 
 other parcel, consistmg of 2000 pounds, was shipped 
 in 1770 ; and a third shipment of 71 bags was made in 
 1784, which England seized, on the ground that Amer- 
 ica could not produce a quantity so great. The amount 
 exported from the United States in 1791 was 189,316 
 pounds; in 1793, 487,600 pounds; in 1794, 1,601,760 
 pounds ; in 1795, 6,276,300 pounds ; in 1800, 17,789,803 
 pounds ; in 1810, 93,261,462 pounds ; in 1820-'21, 
 124,893,405 pounds ; in 1830-'31, 276,979,784 pounds ; 
 inl840-'41, 530,204,100 pounds; inl850-'ol, 927,237,089 
 pounds. 
 
 ■According to the Cctsus returns of 1840, the amount 
 cultivated was 790,479,275 pounds ; of 1850, 987,449,600 
 jiounds ; showing an increase of 196,970,325 pounds. 
 
 It appears that the culture of cotton is rapidly di- 
 minishing in Virginia and North Carolina. In those 
 states it is doubtless giving place to other productions 
 of the soil. There has been a very heavy falling off 
 also in Louisiana, and no appreciable increase in Mis- 
 sissippi ; but the diminution in the former state, and 
 the failure of any advance in the latter, are accounted 
 for by the terrible inundations of the Mississippi and 
 its tributaries. But for that calamity, it is probable 
 that their increased yield would have equaled that of 
 Alabama, which now occupies the first place as a cot- 
 ton-planting state, and has almost doubled its produc- 
 tion since 1840. Immense as the extent and value of 
 this crop has become, it is not extravagant to antici- 
 pate a rate of increase for the current decennial period 
 which will bring up the aggregate for the year 1860 to 
 4,000,000 bales. 
 
 The average annual yield for the five years ending 
 with 1835 was estimated at 1,055,000 bales; for the 
 same period ending in 1840, 1,440,000 bales; for a like 
 period terminating with 1850, 2,270,000 bales. Had 
 no disturbing cause interrupted the progressive ad- 
 
 vance, the amount of 1850 would have exceeded 
 3,000,000 bales. 
 
 The export of cotton from the United States to the 
 countries of northern Europe commenced some sixty 
 years ago. In the year 1800, Holland, including the 
 territory now known as the kingdom of Belgium, re- 
 ceived 79,694 pounds ; in 1855 the aggregate quantity 
 exported to the two countries was 17,160,967 pounds. 
 In 1803 Norway and Denmark first imported American 
 cotton, amounting that year to 184,193 pounds ; in 1855 
 the aggregate quantity exported to these two countries, 
 including Sweden, was some 7,000,000 pounds. Prussia 
 and Sweden began importing cotton from the United 
 States in 1804. Kussia, in 1809, received cotton from 
 the United States for the first time, and to the amount 
 of half a million of pounds ; while in 1853, the year 
 prior to the commencement of the late war, the export- 
 ation to that country amounted to more than 21 mil- 
 lions. The Ilarise-towns received cotton from the 
 United Stdtes prior to the year 1800, and the progress 
 of the trade with those cities, which is exhibited in the 
 subjoined statement, strikingly exemplifies, in connec- 
 tion with the remarks which have preceded, and the 
 general statement which follows it, the rapid and pow- 
 erful advancement of the king-staple, not of the United 
 States only, but of the commercial world. 
 
 At tlie opening of the present century, the imports 
 of cotton wool into Great Britain were about 75,000 
 bales per an'num ; now the consiimptiori of that coun- 
 try is 2,500,000 bales annually, while the' rest of Eu- 
 rope, and the United States, that then had no manufac- 
 tories, use ahOut 1,900,000 more, to say nothing of the 
 consumption of Asia. Of this 4,000,000 bales, five- 
 sixths are the product of this country. The result of 
 the past three years proves, that neither the existence 
 of a war involving the chief nations of Europe, nor the 
 fluctuations in trade consequent on its cessation, have 
 had any effect on the demand for our great southern 
 staple ; thus establishing the fact that, the next to the 
 leading articles of humail food, it has become a great 
 and fixed necessity. 
 
 A document compiled from the very best data, by 
 one peculiarly fitted for the task, was lately read before 
 the Manchester Chamber of Commerce, exhibiting very 
 imporf;ant facts. The value of the cotton manufactur- 
 ing industry of the world was estimated at £120,000,000 
 sterling, or $600,000,000. Of this amount the entire 
 population of Great Britain consumed, in value, about 
 $3-85 per head per annum. England exports to the 
 United States manufactured goods at the rate of 77 
 cents for each individual in this countr}', but being our- 
 selves large manufacturers, and in view of the general 
 better condition of the bulk of our population, it is 
 probable that our consumption of cotton goods will 
 exceed that of Great Britain 50 per cent, per head. 
 England exports to her North American colonies cot- 
 ton goods at the rate of $r53 per head per annum, for 
 the whole population ; to Bussia, only at a rate of 
 three-fifths of a cent per head ; to France, two cents 
 per head ; to her East India possessions, at the rate of 
 18 cents ; but these three last countries manufacture at 
 home, especially France, who mainly provides for her 
 own wants, while Bussia receives goods from several 
 sources. Estimating the population of the globe at 
 850,000,000, the apportionment of the whole value of 
 manufactured goods would be about 70 cents for every 
 inhabitant, man, woman, and child. 
 
 The tendency of the age is gradually toward an 
 equalization of the moral and physical condition of 
 the human family. The wealthier and middle classes 
 expend much more than heretofore in articles of taste 
 and luxury, in household and personal adornment, 
 whereby the artisan, mechanic, and laborer are benefit- 
 ed, and their condition improved. The barbarous and 
 debased nations and tribes of the world are fast tending 
 toward the habits, and acquiring the tastes of civiliza- 
 tion ; the first symptom of which is the exchange of 
 
COT 
 
 444 
 
 COT 
 
 their former rude and scanty clothing for dresses of our 
 manufactured goods. 
 
 Hence it requires neither reflection nor argument to 
 show that a very small general increase in the consump- 
 tion of cotton goods would demand a supply of raw 
 material beyond t\iQ present ability of the world to af- 
 ford. A reference to table " General Import of Cotton 
 into Great Britain" will show that the small product 
 of the West Indies is almost stationary — that the 
 same Is the case with Brazil, on an average of years ; 
 the export thence, last year, was only 135,000 bales, 
 weighing less than 200 pounds each. In Egypt, the 
 product of the past four years has averaged about 
 twice as much as the preceding period; and last year 
 only 115,000 bales came from that source, weighing 
 250 pounds each ; while the average shipments from 
 the East Indies for the past six years is but 340,000 
 bales per annum, weighing about 380 pounds each. 
 
 The main dependence of the world is on this coun- 
 try, which last year furnished 3,500,000 bales out of a 
 total product of 4,200,000. As the new lands of the 
 "West come into cultivation, and the progress of our 
 railroads brings the crop within reach of the seaboard, 
 there will be a gradual increase of our production ; but 
 to this even there must be a limit, considering the na- 
 ture of the climate and soil necessary ; and the time 
 may not be very far distant Avhen we shall fail to meet 
 the demand. Under this state of things, it is not to 
 be wondered at that the governments of England and 
 France are putting forth every effort to foster the cul- 
 tivation of cotton in their colonies. We have, certain- 
 ly, no cause for fear or jealousy in view of these efforts. 
 Not only are we, as producers, interested, but the for- 
 eign manufacturer, the political economist, and the 
 philanthropist, alike h ave taken the matter into serious 
 consideration. We can scarcely contemplate, without 
 emotion, the disastrous results commercially, political- 
 ly, and socially, that might follow a general failure of 
 only one crop in this country. There would bo no re- 
 serve to fall back upon. The stock in Great Britain 
 on the 1st of January last was but little larger, with a 
 consumption of 2,100,000 bales, than it was in 1841, 
 with a consumption of a little over 1,000,000 bales ; 
 and not half so large as the stock on January 1, 1846- 
 
 3. STATISTICS OF THE COTTON TRADE OF THE 
 UNITED STATES. 
 
 Statement rkbpeoting the Tariff Duties and Custom- 
 uoust: Eegulatio:^8 avplioable to Amekioan Cotton in 
 THE pRiNoiPAL Commercial C0[:nteie8. 
 
 Cotton Ceop op each State, AcooErnwa- to tiib United 
 States Census. 
 
 Great Uritaiu. 
 France 
 
 Spain . 
 
 Russia 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Sardinia 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Austria 
 
 Sweden and Norway. 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Holland 
 
 Two Sicilies 
 
 British N. A. possess. 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Tuscany 
 
 l^apal States 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Quantities. 
 
 220 pounds.. 
 
 101 pounds . . 
 
 36 pounds . . . 
 Ad valorem . 
 
 101 pounds 
 
 Ad valorem . . . 
 
 192-050 pounds. 
 
 101 pounds , 
 
 74-86 pounds . . 
 101 pounds 
 
 Rates of Duty. 
 
 Free. 
 
 In national vessels, 
 $3 72 ; in foreign 
 vessels, $6 48.* 
 
 In national vessels, 
 79 J cents; in for- 
 eign vessels, $1 85. 
 
 iSi cents. 
 
 I of 1 per cent. 
 
 Free. 
 
 Free. 
 
 Free. 
 
 In Sweden, free ; in 
 Norway, nearly i 
 cent per pound. 
 
 $150. 
 
 ^ of 1 per cent. 
 
 Free. 
 
 $8 00. 
 
 Free. 
 
 Free. 
 
 21-5 cents. 
 
 Free. 
 
 10 cents. 
 
 In national vessels, 
 19 J; in foreign ves- 
 sels, 2TS- per cent, 
 on a valuation of 
 $5 00. 
 
 * By the treaty of 1822, United States vessels are equalized 
 with French vessels in the direct importation into France of 
 articles the growth, manufacture, or produce of the United 
 States. 
 
 states and Territories. 
 
 Cotton gathered. 
 
 Ginned Cotton. 
 
 1840. 
 
 1850. 
 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Boles of 400 Pound.. 
 
 Alabama 
 
 li;,138,823 
 
 564,429 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 6,028,642 
 
 65,34-1 
 
 Delaware 
 
 334 
 
 
 Florida 
 
 12,110,533 
 
 46,131 
 
 Georgia 
 
 163,392,390 
 
 499,031 
 
 Illinois 
 
 200,047 
 180 
 
 ""l4 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 691,456 
 
 758 
 
 
 152,555,368 
 6,0T3 
 
 178,737 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 193,401,577 
 
 434,292 
 
 Missouri 
 
 121,122 
 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 51,020,190 
 
 60,545 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 61,710,274 
 
 300,901 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 27,701,277 
 
 194,532 
 
 Tbxas 
 
 
 53,072 
 
 Virginia 
 
 3,494,483 
 
 3,947 
 
 Total 
 
 790,479,275 
 
 2,445,793 
 
 The above are estimates merely; and the totals vary from 
 the tabular returns on page 445. The quantities consumed 
 where grown will account in part for the discrepancies. 
 
 Tabular Compaeativb Statement showing the ateragb 
 Quantities of Cotton rRODUOED and expoeted in the 
 Uniteij States, witu tue Valttes of the Quantities so 
 expokted ; together with the Current Prices of Cot- 
 ton in the United States and Great Britain, eespect- 
 
 IVELY, DURING ITIE FiEST THREE YeAES OF EACH De^JADE, 
 FOttfA PeEIOD OF SIXTY-THREE Ye.\R3, VVLOM 1792 TO 1854, 
 BOTH TNCLUBIVE. (fl) 
 
 Years. 
 
 Produced. 
 Pounds. 
 5,300,000 
 
 60,000,000 
 
 73,300,000 
 
 203,300,000 
 
 431,600,000 
 
 (&) 
 907,100,000 
 
 (&) 
 
 1,227,400,000 
 (d) 
 
 EXPORTED. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 743,000 
 
 33,600,000 
 22,600,000 
 153,500,000 
 344,000,000 
 630,206,000 
 1,004,200,000 
 
 I 
 
 Values. I 1 
 
 Dollars 
 233,000 
 
 6,900,000 
 
 2,700,000 
 
 12,100,000 
 
 38,500,000 
 
 60,706,090 
 
 97,000,000 
 
 (a) This statement, made up with care and labor from 
 sources official and unofficial, and often conflicting, although 
 not perhaps statistically exact, is yet probably enough so for 
 those purposes of general comparison for which it is "submit- 
 ted. For obvious reasons, the aggregate of the exportation 
 and consumption of cotton can not Jie expected to balance the 
 production in any single year, independently of stocks on 
 hand from preceding years. An average, year with year, of 
 some 70,000 pounds consumed for household and other uses, 
 and of some 3,000,000 pounds lost or destroyed, and of some 
 500,000 pounds of imported cotton consumed, are also items 
 to be considered in striking this balance ; as well, moreover, 
 as the fact that the sums are in round numbere, and that the 
 only figures in the statement which can be viewed as at all 
 statistical are those giving the amounts and values of expor- 
 tation. The data for quantities, values, and prices, derived 
 from the Treasury reports, do not, it will be perceived, always 
 afford results entirely consistent. 
 
 (6) The capacity of the bale is computed, agreeably to 
 usage, at 400 pounds, in changing bales into pounds for this 
 statement, although an average of 450 pounds to the bale 
 would probably be more exact 
 
 (c) Nine months only, the year ending June 30 instead of 
 Sept.-^mber 30, as before. 
 
 {(ti The 7th decade terminates in 1861. The statement 
 may, therefore, be viewed as embracing a period of seventy 
 years, from 1792 to 1861, inclusive. 
 
 The following table gives, opposite to each year, 
 the crop of the United States, the number of bales 
 of new crop received in New Orleans up to the 1st 
 of September, with the date of killing frost. The re- 
 marks appended are a brief synopsis of the character 
 of the season. Reasoning from cause to effect, the 
 reader will be enabled to fo^m some idea of the causes 
 
COT 
 
 446 
 
 COT 
 
 operating for or against a large crop, always bearing 
 in mind tlie gradual increase in the breadtli of fresh 
 land planted in tiie West and Soutliwest. 
 
 Ending Sept. 1. 
 
 Crop. 
 
 Balba in August. 
 
 KUliug frost. 
 
 1840 
 
 2,182,000 
 1,634,900 
 1,683,600 
 , 2,878,900 
 2,030,400 
 2,394,600 
 2,100,600 
 1,778,600 
 2,346,600 
 2,728,600 
 2,096,700 
 2,355,000 
 3,015,000 
 3,262,900 
 2,930,000 
 2,847,300 
 3,527,800 
 
 1,734 
 
 292 
 
 5,720 
 
 6,846 
 
 140 
 
 1,089 
 
 2,864 
 
 477 
 
 67 
 
 3,165 
 
 6,077 
 
 74 
 
 1,391 
 
 28,282 
 
 N0V.'l9 
 Nov. 29 
 Nov. 18 
 Oct. 27 
 Nov. 14 
 Nov. 10 
 Nov. 20 
 Nov. 20 
 
 Nov.'26 
 
 Nov. 17 
 Nov. 6 
 Nov. 27 
 
 NoV.'l4 
 Oct. 24 
 
 1841 
 
 1842 
 
 1843 
 
 1844 
 
 1845 
 
 1846 
 
 1847 
 
 184S 
 
 1849 
 
 186!) 
 
 1851 
 
 1852 
 
 1853 
 
 1864 
 
 18.55 
 
 1856 
 
 BEMARKB. 
 
 1839 — First large crop. Season remarkalily fine throughout 
 
 1840 — Unfavorable season. Overflow of Missieaippi River. 
 
 1841 — Western crop good. Severe drought in Alabama, 
 Georgia, Florida, and Mississippi. 
 
 184'2 — Generally good season and early picking. 
 
 1843 — Late spring, rainy summer, and early frost 
 
 1844 — Very good season, and early picking. Partial over- 
 flow of Mississippi River. 
 
 1845— Mississippi River and Western crop good and early. 
 Drought reduced the eastern crop 300,000 bales. 
 
 18^ — Late spring, early and general visitation of army 
 worms J the latter destroying 400,000 to 600,000 bales. 
 
 1847— Late season, but favorable fall. The occurrence of 
 the French Revolution put down prices, and 200,000 bales 
 were held back in the country. 
 
 1848— Summer rainy, but fine fall ; 200,000 bales brought 
 forward of previous crop. 
 
 1849 — Frost in spring, heavy rains in July, partial overflow of 
 Mississippi River : Red River bottoms overflowed in summer. 
 
 1850 — Backward spring, picking began unusually late. 
 Partial ovei^flow of Mississippi River. 
 
 1851 — Favorable summer and early picking. 
 
 1852 — Remarkably fine.season, early picking,, and late frost 
 
 1853 — Late and rainy season. 
 
 lS54-'56 — Backward season. About 260,000 bales kept back 
 by lowness of the waters in Alabama, Louisiana, Arkansas, 
 and Texas. 
 
 1865-'66 — Fine season. Early picking, sufl&ciently good to 
 counterbalance an early frost About 250,000 bales of last 
 crop received, which, in fact, will make the actual product of 
 1884-'65, 8,097,300 bales, and reduce that of 1856-'66 to 
 3,277,800 bales. 
 
 Sea-Island Cotton. The crop of this important staple 
 for the year ending Sept. 1, 1856, was 44,512 bales ; 
 1854-'65, 40,841 bales, and in 1853-'54, 39,686 bales. 
 The receipts in 1855-'56 being, ft'om Florida, 10,900- 
 Georgia, 13,245; South Carolina, 20,367. 
 
 The extraordinary crop of the year 1855-56 in the 
 United States (3,527,300 bales) has passed into the nu- 
 merous channels of consumption at prifces much higher 
 than for five years past, leaving a stock on liand on Ist 
 September last of only 52,000 bales in all the United 
 States ports. This consumption is still going on 
 throughout the British and Continental manufacturing 
 districts ; and the increase of machinery added to mills 
 hitherto working, it is estimated, will reqiiire in Great 
 Britain alone an additional weekly supply of 4000 bales. 
 
 ACOOUTTT SUOWINO TUB DESTINATION OF TITR COTTON EX- 
 rOBTED FBOM TIIE L'SITED STATES IK 1847, 1848, AKU 1849. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Russia 
 Sweden and Nor- 
 way 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Hanse Towns . . . 
 Holland 
 
 Belgium 
 
 England 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Ireland 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 Canada 
 
 British Am. Col. . 
 France, Atlantic . . 
 Mediter'n, 
 
 Spain 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Italy! ,. 
 
 Sardinia 
 
 Austrian ports . . 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Central America 
 China and South 
 
 Founds. 
 6,618,506 
 
 j 2,887,693 
 
 660,732 
 
 10,889,643 
 
 1,978,324 
 
 10,184,348 
 
 838,160,664 
 
 12,688,738 
 
 424,497 
 
 90,199 
 
 103,986 i 
 
 122,607 
 
 97,421,966 
 
 4,696,492 
 
 12,318,668 
 
 8,139,183 
 
 8,720,718 
 4,494,694 
 11,780,673 
 
 848,998 
 
 Total 627,219,958 
 
 18. 
 
 Pounds. 
 10,266,911 
 
 4,978,024 
 
 69,020 
 
 17,420,498 
 
 4,851,609 
 
 15i279,676 
 
 546,911,182 
 
 26,091,966 
 
 ' "133,262 
 
 22,852 
 
 129,263,272 
 7,034,583 
 19,323,425 
 4,557,474 
 774 
 6,077,621 
 2,614,364 
 20,463,680 
 
 12,963 
 
 1849, 
 
 Pounds. 
 10,650,631 
 
 7,024,160 
 
 4,779 
 
 13,844,494 
 
 11,837,386 
 
 28,113,309 
 
 687,490,911 
 
 38,171,778 
 
 3,968,847 
 
 5,726,812 
 
 ! 94,S57 
 
 i 2,747 
 
 142,232,509 
 
 6,858,283 
 
 23,285,804 
 
 1,584,784 
 
 240,896 
 
 10,604,462 
 
 6,053,707 
 
 13,279,884 
 
 2,208,704 
 
 624,721 
 
 760,861 
 
 814,274,431 1,014,633,010 
 
 N.B. — The sea-island, amounting to 11,969,259 lbs., is ex- 
 cluded from the exports in the foregoing table for 1849. In- 
 cluding them, the total exports of that year were 1,026,602,269 
 pounds. 
 
 Statement ExmijiTiNG the Quantity ani> Value of Cotton expobted annually from the United States feom 1821 
 TO 1866, inclusiye, and the average Pbice peb Pound. 
 
 Yours. 
 
 Pounds of Cotton. 
 
 Value. 
 
 ' Average cost 
 per pound. 
 
 Seo-Island. | Other. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1821 
 
 11,344,066 
 
 11,250,635 
 
 12,136,688 
 
 9,525,722 
 
 9,665,278 
 
 6,972,852 
 
 18,140,798 
 
 11,238,419 
 
 12,833,307 
 
 8,147,166 
 
 8,311,762 
 
 8,743,373 
 
 11,142,987 
 
 8,085,937 
 
 7,762,736 
 
 7,849,697 
 
 6,286,971 
 
 7,286,340 
 
 6,107,404 
 
 8,779,669 
 
 6,237,424 
 
 7,254,099 
 
 7,615,079 
 
 6,099,076 
 
 9,380,626 
 
 9,388,533 
 
 6,293,973 
 
 7,724,148 
 
 11,969,269 
 
 8,236,463 
 
 8,299,656 
 
 11,738,075 
 
 11,168,165 
 
 10,486,423 
 
 13,053,590 
 
 113,549,389 
 183,424,460 
 161,886,682 
 132,848,941 
 166,784,629 
 198,662,663 
 279,169,317 
 199.302,044 
 262,003,879 
 290,311,687 
 268,668,022 
 313,451,749 
 813,636,617 
 876,601,970 
 379,686,266 
 415,721,710 
 438,964,666 
 638,615,967 
 408,666,808 
 735,161,392 
 623,966,676 
 677,462,918 
 784,782,027 
 667,834,879 
 668,516,871 
 688,169,522 
 620,925,985 
 806,560,283 
 1,014,683,010 
 627,145,141 
 918,987,433 
 1,081,492,564 
 1,100,406,208 
 977,846,683 
 995,366,011 
 
 124,893,405 
 144,676,095 
 173,723,270 
 142,869,663 
 176,449,907 
 204,636,416 
 294,310,118 
 210,690,463 
 264,837,186 
 298,469,102 
 276,979,784 
 822,215,122 
 324,098,604 
 
 - 384,717,907 
 387,358,992 
 428,631,307 
 444,211,637 
 695,952,297 
 413,624,212 
 743,941,061 
 530,204,100 
 684,717,017 
 792,297,106 
 668,633,485 
 872,906,996 
 647,558,055 
 527,219,658 
 814,274,431 
 
 1,026,602,269 
 635,881,604 
 927,237,089 
 
 1,093,230,689 
 
 1,111,670,370 
 987,833,106 
 
 1,008,424,601 
 
 $20,167,484 
 24,036,068 
 20,446,820 
 21,947,401 
 36,846,649 
 , 25,025,214 - 
 29,369,546 
 22;487,229 
 26,678,311 
 29,674,883 
 26,289,492 
 31,724,682 
 86,191,105 
 49,448,402 
 64,961,302 
 71,284,925 
 63,240,102 
 61,656,811 
 61,238,982 
 63,870,807 
 64,330,841 
 47,693,464 
 49,119,806 
 64,063,501 
 61,739,643 
 42,767,841 
 63,416,848 
 61,998,294 
 66,896,667 
 71,984,616 
 
 112,315,317 
 87,965,732 
 
 109,456,404 
 93,596,220 
 88,143,844 
 
 16-2 
 
 16-6 
 
 11-8 
 
 16-4 
 
 20-9 . 
 
 12-2 
 
 10 
 
 10-7 
 
 10 
 
 9-9 
 
 9-1 
 
 9-8 
 
 11-1 
 
 12-8 
 
 16-8 
 
 16-8 
 
 14-2 
 
 10-3 
 
 14-8 
 
 8-6 
 
 10-2 
 
 8-1 
 
 6-2 
 
 81 
 
 5-92 
 
 7-81 
 
 10-34 
 
 7-61 
 
 6-4 
 
 11-8 
 
 1211 
 
 8-05 
 
 9-85 
 
 9-47 
 
 8-74 
 
 1822 
 
 1823 
 
 1824 
 
 1825 
 
 1826 
 
 1827 
 
 1828 
 
 1829 
 
 1830 
 
 1831 
 
 1832 
 
 1833 
 
 1834 
 
 1836 
 
 1836 
 
 1837 
 
 18S8 
 
 1839 
 
 1840 
 
 1841 
 
 1842 
 
 1843 
 
 1844 
 
 1848 
 
 1846 
 
 1847 
 
 1848 
 
 1849. 
 
 I860 
 
 1861 
 
 1862 
 
 3863 
 
 1884 
 
 1865 
 
 Total lbs 
 
 320,607,294 
 
 18,164,756,946 
 
 18,476,264,240 
 
 $1,830,247,743 
 
 .... 
 
COT 
 
 446 
 
 COT 
 
 TaBULAH OOMrABATIVE STATEMENT SHOWINQ THE QUANTITIES OF COTTON EXrOBTED FEOM THE UNITEB STATES TO THE 
 rMNCIPAL COMMEEOrAL COUNTEIES EE8PE0 rIVELY, AMI> THE AN:>'TrAL AVERAGE AMOUNTS THEREOF; AND THE ANNUAL AV- 
 
 euagb Amounts of Dutxeb dekived theeefkom, foe a rEiuoo of five Yeaes, feom 1S51 to 1866, both inclusive. 
 The Data for this Statement are derivxd feOM the United States Treasury Reports, in wutcu the oommeeoial 
 Year closes June 30. The Year in British and French official D.ocuments coekesponds with that of the Cal- 
 endar: HENCE one Cause of apparent Disceepanoies in Figures for nominally the same Years. 
 
 CoQQtries to which exported. 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 France 
 
 Spain 
 
 Hanse Towns ; . , 
 
 Belgtnm 
 
 Austria 
 
 Sardinia and Italy 
 
 UusEia 
 
 Mexico ? 
 
 Holland. 
 
 Sweden and Norway . . , 
 British N. A. possession! 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Portugal , 
 
 Elsewhere 
 
 To all countries. . . 
 
 Founds of CottoD exported from the United States in the Yeare 
 
 1851, 
 
 670,645,132 
 
 139,164,571 
 
 84,272,6-26 
 
 16,716,671 
 
 16,336,018 
 
 17,309,154 
 
 10,820,406 
 
 10,098,'448 
 
 845,960 
 
 .5,608,670 
 
 6,160,974 
 
 23,626 
 
 113,572 
 722,473 
 
 927,237,089 
 
 762,673,780 
 
 186,214,270 
 
 29,301,928 
 
 42,818,228 
 
 27,157,890 
 
 23,948,434 
 
 17,934,268 
 
 10,476,168 
 
 6,700,091 
 
 10,259,042 
 
 5,939,025 
 
 16,528 
 
 87,042 
 
 294,862 
 
 98,235 
 
 141,1 
 
 1863. 
 
 I 
 
 1854. 
 
 I 
 
 1855. 
 
 Annual aver- 
 age Amounta of 
 Cotton. 
 
 768,596, 
 
 189,226, 
 
 36,861, 
 
 22,671, 
 
 16,494, 
 
 17,968. 
 
 17,487. 
 
 21,286. 
 
 7,463^ 
 
 7,038. 
 
 6,099. 
 
 498 696. 
 913 144 
 
 196, a 
 87,1: 
 652, £ 
 
 247,047 
 ,428,860 
 ,024,074 
 ,719,922 
 ,980,460 
 961,144 
 725,830 
 ,914,964 
 146,080 
 048,165 
 ,212,710 
 72,790 
 82,983 
 250,633 
 121,069 
 ,946,895 
 
 673,498,269 
 
 210,113,809 
 
 33,071,796 
 
 80,809,991 
 
 12,219,668] 
 
 9,761,466 
 
 16,087,064 
 
 448,897 
 
 7,527,079 
 
 4,941,414 
 
 8,428,437 
 
 883,204 
 
 209.186 
 
 9,620 
 
 144,006 
 
 270,822 
 
 1,093, 230,639|1,111,670,370|987,833,106|1, 008,424,601 
 
 712,812,141 
 
 173,829,684 
 
 83,704,292 
 
 26,011,298 
 
 17,037,472 
 
 16,789,767 
 
 14,911,110 
 
 9,044.806 
 
 6,936;612 
 
 6,759,257 
 
 6,968,182 
 
 201,679 
 
 142,876 
 
 173,014 
 
 90,108 
 
 746,918 
 
 1,025,659,166 
 
 Annual average ■ 
 Amounts of Duties 
 paid^^l 
 
 F-ree. 
 $2,939. 
 265. 
 25 
 Free. 
 Free. 
 Different 
 47, 
 103. 
 Fi-ec. 
 Different rates. § 
 Free. 
 Free. 
 
 2,366 42 
 19 64 
 
 300 25 
 296 06 
 796 OOt 
 
 rates. 
 018 36 
 
 ,018 m 
 
 * The amounts of duties paid are calculated on the customs rates given in the preceding statement (?), although those 
 rates, during the five years designated, have in some instances undergone changes. Belgium, for example, did not admit 
 cotton fi-ee until the passage of the law of April 12, 1854. 
 
 t The amount is calculated on the medium of the ad valorem duty of Bremen and Hamburg, on an assumed valuation 
 of 17 cents per pound. 
 
 t The amount is calculated on the rates of the existing tariff of January 31, 1856, prior to which cotton was either pro- 
 hibited or subjected to a duty equivalent to prohibition. 
 
 § United States Treasury reports do not give quantities to Norway distinct irom those to Sweden, In the latter, cotton 
 is free ; in the fonner, the duty is nearly half a cent per pound. 
 
 Export of Cotton to foreign Poets from September 1, 1865, to August 31, 1866. 
 
 Where from. | Great Britain. 
 
 France. 
 
 North of Europe. 
 
 Other foreign Porta. 
 
 Total. 
 
 New Orleans bales 
 
 Mobile " 
 
 986,622 
 
 361,690 
 
 19,661 
 
 80,899 
 
 162,748 
 
 180,533 
 
 166 
 
 424 
 
 178 
 
 181,045 
 
 7,4^1 
 
 244,814 
 
 96,262 
 
 6,166 
 
 2,939 
 
 16,857 
 
 87,896 
 
 ■ " 48 
 
 27,'l65 
 
 162,676 
 29,016 
 9,175 
 2,020 
 2,907 
 49,727 
 
 42,893 
 5,692 
 
 178,812 
 8,067 
 
 '2,808 
 63,456 
 
 '6,371 
 64 
 
 1,572,923 
 
 48.5,035 
 
 34,002 
 
 35,858 
 
 185,329 
 
 371,111 
 
 166 
 
 472 
 
 178 
 
 256,464 
 
 13,077 
 
 Texas ' " 
 
 Florida " 
 
 Savannah " 
 
 Charleston , '* 
 
 Virginia and North Carolina " 
 
 Baltimore " 
 
 Philadelphia " 
 
 New York " 
 
 Boston " 
 
 Grand Total, 1856-56 
 
 Total, year 1S54^'65 
 
 Increase 
 
 1,921,386 
 1,649,716 
 
 480,637 
 409,981 
 
 304,005 
 136,200 
 
 248,578 
 149,362 
 
 2,964,606 
 2,244,209 
 
 371,670 
 
 70,706 
 
 168,805 1 99,216 
 
 710,897 
 
 Quantity of Cotton oonbumed by and rw the hands op Manufaotuiiees noeth of Virsinta. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Bales. 
 
 Yeaie. 
 
 Bales. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Bales. 
 
 Yeam. 
 
 Bales. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Bales. 
 
 1855-'56 
 
 662,789 
 
 lS49-'50 
 
 487,769 
 
 1843-'44 
 
 846,744 
 
 183S-'39 
 
 270,018 
 
 1833-'84 
 
 196,418 
 
 1861-'55 
 
 593,684 
 
 184S-'49 
 
 518,039 
 
 1842-'43 
 
 825,129 
 
 1 837-' 38 
 
 246,063 
 
 1882-'83 
 
 194,412 
 
 ie53-'54 
 
 610,571 
 
 1847-'48 
 
 531,772 
 
 1841-'42 
 
 267,850 
 
 1 836-' 37 
 
 222,640 
 
 1831-'82 
 
 173,800 
 
 1852-'53 
 
 671,009 
 
 1846-'47 
 
 427,907 
 
 1840-'41 
 
 297,288 
 
 ]8:5-'36 
 
 236,738 
 
 1830-'31 
 
 182,142 
 
 1851-'52 
 
 603,029 
 
 1846-'46 
 
 422,597 
 
 1839-'40 
 
 296,193 
 
 183't-'36 
 
 216,888 
 
 1829-'30 
 
 126,512 
 
 1860-'61 
 
 404,108 
 
 1644^' 46 
 
 889,006 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 We give below a table of the amount of cotton con- 
 sumed the past year in the States south and west of 
 Virginia, and not included in the receipts at the ports. 
 We have largely increased the estimate from the year 
 previous, but give it only for what it purports to be, 
 an estimate, which we believe approximates correct- 
 ness. 
 
 There are no statistical returns of the quantities of 
 cotton manufactured in the States south of Virginia ; 
 but it ia well known that the yearly consumption in 
 
 those States is increasing, as well as in Virginia, Ohio, 
 Illinois, and Missouri. At the last census the capital 
 employed in the manufacture of cotton goods in the 
 Southern States was as follows : Maryland, $2,236,000 ; 
 Virginia, $1,908,000; North Carolina, $1,058,000; 
 South Carolina, $857,000; Georgia, $1,736,000; Flor- 
 ida, $80,000 ; Alabama, $651,000 ; Mississippi, $38,000 ; 
 Kentucky, $239,000; Tennessee, |689,000 ; Missouri, 
 $102,000. At this period [1856-7] these sums are 
 probably doubled. 
 
 states. 
 
 1856. 1 1855. 
 
 1854. 
 
 1853. 
 
 1852. 
 
 1851. 
 
 1850. 
 
 North' Carolina bales 
 
 South Carolina " 
 
 Georgia " 
 
 Alabama " 
 
 Tennessee *' 
 
 On the Ohio, etc. .;. . " 
 Total to September 1. . . 
 
 22,000 
 15,000 
 25,000 
 6,500 
 7,000 
 42,000 
 
 18,600 
 10,500 
 20,600 
 5,500 
 4,000 
 26,000 
 
 20,000 
 13,000 
 28,000 
 6,000 
 6,000 
 38,000 
 
 20,000 
 10,000 
 20,000 
 6,000 
 6,000 
 30,000 
 
 15,000 
 10,000 
 22,000 
 5,000 
 7,000 
 16,000 
 
 13,000 
 10,000 
 13,000 
 4,000 
 8,000 
 12,000 
 
 20,000 
 15,000 
 27,000 
 6,000 
 12,000 
 27,600 
 
 117,500 
 
 86,000 
 
 105,000 
 
 90,000 
 
 75,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 107,600 
 
 To which, if added (for the past year) the stocks in 
 the interior towns 1st Sept. (say 3500 bales), the quan- 
 tity now detained in the interior (say 50,000 bales), and 
 that lost on its way to market the past year to the crop 
 as given above, received at the shipping ports, the ag- 
 gregate will show, as near as may be, the amount raised 
 in the United States the past season — say, in round 
 numbers, 3,335,000 bales (after deducting 1800 bales 
 
 new crop received this year to the 1st Sept., and some 
 260,000 bales detained in the interior Sept. 1st, 1855, 
 by low rivers, etc., which it is fair to suppose came 
 forward the past season, and is already added to the 
 receipts at the ports), against 
 
 1866 bales, 3,178,000 
 
 1864 8,000,000 
 
 1853 3,860,000 
 
 1852 3,100,000 
 
 1861 bales, 2,450,000 
 
 1850 2,212,000 
 
 1849 2,840,000 
 
 1848 2,367,000 
 
COT 
 
 447 
 
 Statement anb Totai, Ahottnt of the Cotton Crop op the United States 
 
 AntD 1856. 
 
 GOT 
 
 FOB THE Yeahs esdino AitAdbt 31, 1855 
 
 FBOM NEW onLEAKS, 
 
 Export. 
 
 To foreign ports 1,572,923 
 
 Coastwise 222,100 
 
 Burned at New Orleans 1,200 
 
 Stoclt, 1st September, 1866 6,995 
 
 Leductj, 
 
 Received from Mobile, MontgoiQery, etc. 73,573 
 
 Received fi-om Florida. . .' ......J 8,186 
 
 Received from Texas ; 23,601 
 
 Stock, 1st September, 1855. . . ; . '. 39,425 
 
 MOBILE. 
 
 Export. 
 
 To foreign ports 495,035 
 
 Coastwise 196,286 
 
 Consumed in Mobile ■. 1,9B6 
 
 StoclE, 1st September, 1866 6,005 
 
 Received from New Orleans 5 
 
 Stock, 1st September, 18S5 23,519 
 
 TBTAfl. 
 
 Export. To foreign ports 3<1,002 
 
 Coastwise ^ 83,515 
 
 Stock, 1st September, 1866 623 
 
 Deduct Stock, Ist September, 1865 
 
 FLOBIDA. 
 
 Ex/port, 
 
 To foreign ports — Uplands 35,858- 
 
 Coastwise — Uplands 97,738 
 
 Sea-islands '.:...: •. 10,900 
 
 Stock in Apalachicola, 1st September, 1856 ; 74 
 
 Deduct Stock in Apalacbicola, Ist September, 1856 
 
 ' GEORGIA. 
 
 Export 
 
 To foreign portB.^Uplanas 177,182 
 
 Sea-islands 8,138 
 
 Coastwise— Uplands 200,426 
 
 Sea-islands 7,346 
 
 Stock in Savannah, 1st September, 1856 : 1,550 
 
 Stock in Augusta, 1st September, 1856 1,781 
 
 Deduct. 
 
 Received from Florida — Sea-islands 2,765 
 
 Uplands. ; 386 
 
 Stock in Savannah, 1st September, 1855 2,130 
 
 Stock in Augusta, 1st September, 1855. 1,707 
 
 BOTTrn OABOLINA. 
 
 ■lieportfromCBLtxLmTO^ — ..„ 
 
 To foreign ports— Uplands 362,346 
 
 Sea-islands 18,795 
 
 Coastwise — Uplands 133,451 
 
 Sea Islands 9,288 
 
 Burned at Charleston 751 
 
 Stock in Charleston, 1st September, 1856 3,144 
 
 617,743 
 Export from Geoegetown — 
 
 To Northern ports ■. 2,893 
 
 Deduct. 
 
 Received irom Florida— Sea-islands 6,027 
 
 Uplands 578 
 
 Received from Savannah — Sea-islands 2,689 
 
 Uplands..., 13,281 
 
 Stock in Charleston, 1st September, 1865 2,085 
 
 NOETH OAEOLINA. 
 
 Mtport. To foreign ports 96 
 
 Coastwise 26,002 
 
 VIRGINIA. 
 
 Export. 
 
 To foreign ports 70 
 
 Coastwise, and manufactured (taken from the ports) 20,748 
 
 Stock, Ist September, 1856 842 
 
 652 
 
 550 
 
 Deduct. Received from Mobile 
 
 Stock, 1st September, 1866 . 
 
 Received at New York by the New York and Erie Canal. 
 
 Received at New York by New York and Erie Railroad . 
 
 Received at Baltimore and Philadelphia from the "West . . 
 
 ToTAii Cbop of tue United States. . 
 
 I,80?,a8 
 
 141,785 
 
 28,624 
 
 118,140 
 
 144,570 
 166 
 
 396,423 , 
 
 6,978 
 
 24,060 
 
 21,660 
 
 1,202 
 
 1,661,433 
 
 1,232,644 
 
 659,738 
 
 116,078 
 
 144:404 
 
 464 595 
 
 80,737 
 
 136,51 
 
 389,445 
 
 378,694 
 
 496,976 
 - 26,093 
 
 499,272 
 26,139 
 
 20,458 
 
 305 
 
 1,781 
 
 12,129 
 
 31,000 
 
 377 
 
 684 
 
 6,600 
 
 3,537,845 
 
 2,847,339 
 
 Increase from last year . . . 
 Increase from year before. 
 
 bales, 680,506 
 597,848 
 
COT 
 
 448 
 
 COT 
 
 Statement akd total Amount of the Cotton Crop of the United States foe the Yeabs ending Atjgttbt 31, 1856 
 
 AND 1S57. 
 
 1857. 1856. 
 
 FROM NEW 0ELEAN8. 
 
 Export. 
 
 To foreign ports 
 
 Coastwise 
 
 Stoclc, 1st September, 1S5T 
 
 Deduct. 
 Received from Mobile, Montgomery, etc. 
 
 Received from Florida 
 
 Received from Texas 
 
 Steele, 1st September, 1866 
 
 .1,293, TIT 
 
 . 223,204 
 
 T,321 
 
 JUxport 
 
 To foreign ports 
 
 Coast^vise 
 
 Manufactured in Mobile, etc. 
 
 Burned at Mobile 
 
 Stool:, 1st September, 185T. . . 
 
 Deduct. 
 Received from New Orleans. . . 
 Shipment to Boston returned . 
 Stock, 1st September, 1856 
 
 60,036 
 4,708 
 
 1T,503 
 6,995 
 
 314,989 
 174,065 
 
 2,246 
 12,T0D 
 
 4,604 
 
 Export. 
 
 To foreign ports 
 
 Coastwise 
 
 Stock, Ist September, 1857 
 
 Deditct Stock, 1st September, 1856. 
 
 10 
 
 302 
 
 6,005 
 
 20,90T 
 68,636 
 
 Export 
 To foreign ports — Uplands . 
 
 Coastwise — Uplands 
 
 Sea-islands 
 
 Burned at Apalacliicola 
 
 Stock, Ist September, 1857 . 
 
 Deduct Stock, Ist September, 1856 . 
 
 GEOBGIA. 
 
 Export. 
 
 To foreign porta — Uplands 
 
 Sea-islands 
 
 Coastivise — Uplands 
 
 Sea-islands 
 
 Stock in Savannah, 1st September, 1857 . . . , 
 Stock in Augusta, 1st September, 1857 
 
 Deduct. 
 
 Received from Florida — Sea-islands 
 
 Stock in Savannah, 1st September, 1856. 
 Stock in Augusta, 1st September, 1866 . . 
 
 152,228 
 6,611 
 
 168,791 
 
 10,028 
 
 1,926 
 
 2,747 
 
 SOUTH CAROLINA. 
 
 Export from: Charleston — 
 
 . To foreign ports — Uplands 
 
 Sea-islands 
 
 Coastwise — Uplands 
 
 Sea-islands 
 
 Burned and manufactured at Charleston 
 
 Stock in Charleston, Ist September, 1857 
 
 Export from, Georqbtown— 
 To coastwise ports 
 
 Deduct. 
 
 Received from Florida — Sea-islands 
 
 Received from Key West and Nassau, N. P. (ivrecked) — Uplands . 
 
 Received from Savannah — Sea-islands 
 
 Uplands 
 
 Stock in Charleston, 1st September, 1856 .'.'."." 
 
 1,560 
 1,781 
 
 212,604 
 
 16,681 
 
 162,541 
 
 6,908 
 
 461 
 
 8,644 
 
 404,739 
 
 9,600 
 
 8,307 
 431 
 1,589 
 3,437 
 3,144 
 
 NOBTH CAROLINA. 
 
 Export. To coastwise ports 27 147 
 
 ■VIKaiNIA. 
 
 Export. 
 
 To foreign ports 9,nn 
 
 Coastwise, and manufactured (taken from the ports) 
 
 Stock, 1st September, 1857 
 
 23,996 
 420 
 
 Deduct. Stock, Ist September, 1857 
 
 Received at New York from Memphis, Nashville, etc. (Tenn.) 
 
 Received at Philadelphia from MempJiis, Nashville, etc. (Tenn.) . 
 
 Received at Baltimore from Memphis, Nashville, etc. (Tenn.) 
 
 Total Crop of the United States 
 
 1,624,242 
 
 89,242 
 
 1,436,000 
 
 6,317 
 
 603,177 
 
 90,605 
 623 
 
 659,738 
 
 116,078 
 
 136,418 
 74 
 
 136,344 
 
 144,404 
 
 332,381 
 
 10,220 
 
 322,111 
 
 389,445 
 
 414,239 
 
 24,616 
 842 
 
 397,831 
 27,147 
 
 23,773 
 2,022 
 1,236 
 1,496 
 
 496,976 
 
 20,458 
 2,086 
 7,938 
 4,191 
 
 Decrease from crop of 1856 . 
 Increase over crop of 1855 . . 
 Increase over crop of 1854 , . 
 
 2,939,519 
 
 3,527,845 
 
 bales, 688,326 
 92,180 
 
COT 
 
 449 
 
 COT 
 
 Statement bhowinw the Weekly and Total Begeipts of CoiitOn ikto the Poets op the United States; also 
 THE Weekly and Total Exports op Cotton to Great 39ITAIN, Fbanoe, Noeth of Edeope and otjieb 
 Foreign Poets ; togstheb with the Btook on Hand in the Shipping Posts ; dvbing the last Five Yeabs. 
 Arranged and Published by William P. Weight, pee J. T„ Cotton Bbokeb, New York. (The Figures 
 eepeesent Thousands op BALia.) 
 
 SZPTEMBBE, 1852, TO AuSUST, 1858, IKOLUBITB. 
 
 Sepiembeb, 1858, to AtroirsT, 1854, isoldsive. 
 
 DATS 
 
 
 RECEIPTS. 
 
 EXPORTS. 
 
 u 
 
 RECEIPTS 
 
 EXPORTS. 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 Great 
 BritHin. 
 
 Franco. 
 
 North 
 Europe 
 
 Olher 
 
 foreign 
 porta. 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 Great 
 Britain. 
 
 France. 
 
 North 
 Earope 
 
 Other 
 foreign 
 porta. 
 
 ■j! 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 t^ 
 
 
 >> 
 
 
 f^ 
 
 
 .1 
 
 >, 
 
 1 
 
 ti 
 
 
 e^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 ^ 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 s 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 S 
 
 3 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 H 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 Sept. 
 
 19 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 64 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 9, 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 21 
 
 «i 
 
 82 
 
 " 
 
 Ufl 
 
 29 
 
 47 
 
 4 
 
 16 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 ( 
 
 
 
 ] 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 20 
 
 82 
 
 10 
 
 18 
 
 i 
 
 25 
 
 ( 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 81 
 
 85 
 
 Oct 
 
 B 
 
 88 
 
 85 
 
 t 
 
 22 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 ( 
 
 2 
 
 ■ 8 
 
 28 
 
 100 
 
 17 
 
 35 
 
 5 
 
 80 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 39 
 
 87 
 
 '■^ > 
 
 in 
 
 47 
 
 182 
 
 10 
 
 82 
 
 t 
 
 6 
 
 { 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 15 
 
 43 
 
 180 
 
 23 
 
 58 
 
 5 
 
 85 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 c 
 
 8 
 
 « 
 
 45 
 
 99 
 
 " 
 
 17 
 
 55 
 
 187 
 
 26 
 
 68 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 { 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 28 
 
 71 
 
 161 
 
 27 
 
 85 
 
 11 
 
 46 
 
 1 
 
 R 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 15 
 
 60 
 
 108 
 
 » 
 
 24 
 
 69 
 
 2.56 
 
 U 
 
 68 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 ( 
 
 1 
 
 f 
 
 8 
 
 18 
 
 89 
 
 185 
 
 41 
 
 126 
 
 « 
 
 50 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 68 
 
 181 
 
 " 
 
 31 
 
 81 
 
 387 
 
 30 
 
 98 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 12 
 
 37 
 
 126 
 
 224 
 
 47 
 
 178 
 
 7 
 
 57 
 
 1 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 80 
 
 161 
 
 Nov. 
 
 7 
 
 84 
 
 421 
 
 19 
 
 117 
 
 5 
 
 17 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 16 
 
 29 
 
 165 
 
 262 
 
 50 
 
 228 
 
 14 
 
 71 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 1S 
 
 98 
 
 177 
 
 
 'U 
 
 105 
 
 526 
 
 a 
 
 160 
 
 i 
 
 20 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 f 
 
 19 
 
 51 
 
 206 
 
 302 
 
 66 
 
 289 
 
 U 
 
 KS 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 « 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 19 
 
 117 
 
 214 
 
 " 
 
 21 
 
 109 
 
 685 
 
 6£ 
 
 219 
 
 6 
 
 26 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 25 
 
 72 
 
 278 
 
 824 
 
 68 
 
 852 
 
 16 
 
 100 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 S 
 
 15 
 
 19 
 
 186 
 
 245 
 
 " 
 
 28 
 
 116 
 
 751 
 
 82 
 
 251 
 
 9 
 
 85 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 84 
 
 51 
 
 829 
 
 382 
 
 70 
 
 422 
 
 12 
 
 112 
 
 6 
 
 17 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 2 
 
 17 
 
 22 
 
 168 
 
 278 
 
 Dec, 
 
 5 
 
 113 
 
 864 
 
 54 
 
 805 
 
 6 
 
 41 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 1 
 
 35 
 
 63 
 
 892 
 
 420 
 
 75 
 
 497 
 
 19 
 
 1,81 
 
 10 
 
 27 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 9, 
 
 19 
 
 88 
 
 191 
 
 307 
 
 *' 
 
 12 
 
 138 
 
 1,0112 
 
 65 
 
 860 
 
 l.« 
 
 54 
 
 2 
 
 18 
 
 '. 
 
 89 
 
 74 
 
 466 
 
 465 
 
 72 
 
 569 
 
 24 
 
 1,55 
 
 f. 
 
 35 
 
 1 
 
 15 
 
 4 
 
 28 
 
 37 
 
 228 
 
 888 
 
 " 
 
 1» 
 
 12ft 
 
 1,127 
 
 44 
 
 404 
 
 h 
 
 60 
 
 1 
 
 14 
 
 1 
 
 40 
 
 52 
 
 618 
 
 614 
 
 90 
 
 6.59 
 
 )1 
 
 186 
 
 10 
 
 45 
 
 (, 
 
 15 
 
 4 
 
 27 
 
 45 
 
 278 
 
 352 
 
 " 
 
 26 
 
 117 
 
 1,244 
 
 46 
 
 450 
 
 b 
 
 66 
 
 2 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 54 
 
 672 
 
 560 
 
 105 
 
 764 
 
 81 
 
 217 
 
 7 
 
 62 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 30 
 
 41 
 
 814 
 
 408 
 4«8 
 
 Jan. 
 
 2 
 
 114 
 
 1,8,')8 
 
 66 
 
 516 
 
 15 
 
 81 
 
 8 
 
 19 
 
 9 
 
 49 
 
 93 
 
 665 
 
 662 
 
 108 
 
 872 
 
 26 
 
 243 
 
 5 
 
 57 
 
 8 
 
 18 
 
 2 
 
 82 
 
 86 
 
 850 
 
 " 
 
 9 
 
 185 
 
 1,493 
 
 49 
 
 566 
 
 17 
 
 98 
 
 2 
 
 21 
 
 If 
 
 59 
 
 78 
 
 748 
 
 695 
 
 87 
 
 9.59 
 
 24 
 
 267 
 
 If 
 
 75 
 
 4 
 
 9.9. 
 
 9 
 
 41 
 
 55 
 
 405 
 
 495 
 
 " 
 
 K) 
 
 101 
 
 1,.594 
 
 V6 
 
 641 
 
 7 
 
 106 
 
 5 
 
 26 
 
 E 
 
 68 
 
 97 
 
 840 
 
 570 
 
 76 
 
 1,085 
 
 81 
 
 298 
 
 15 
 
 90 
 
 1 
 
 28 
 
 3 
 
 44 
 
 50 
 
 4.55 
 
 496 
 
 " 
 
 m 
 
 114 
 
 1,708 
 
 51 
 
 692 
 
 5 
 
 110 
 
 1 
 
 27 
 
 £ 
 
 77 
 
 66 
 
 906 
 
 606 
 
 77 
 
 1,112 
 
 84 
 
 8.82 
 
 19 
 
 109 
 
 6 
 
 29 
 
 5 
 
 49 
 
 64 
 
 .519 
 
 607 
 
 *' 
 
 30 
 
 118 
 
 1,826 
 
 58 
 
 750 
 
 16 
 
 126 
 
 9 
 
 36 
 
 5 
 
 82 
 
 88 
 
 994 
 
 621 
 
 97 
 
 1,209 
 
 44 
 
 376 
 
 12 
 
 121 
 
 8 
 
 32 
 
 8 
 
 52 
 
 62 
 
 681 
 
 611 
 
 Feb. 
 
 6 
 
 120 
 
 1,946 
 
 70 
 
 820 
 
 IS 
 
 189 
 
 5 
 
 41 
 
 5 
 
 87 
 
 93 
 
 1,087 
 
 619 
 
 120 
 
 1,.829 
 
 31 
 
 407 
 
 16 
 
 137 
 
 1 
 
 88 
 
 4 
 
 ,56 
 
 52 
 
 688 
 
 556 
 
 '■'■ 
 
 la 
 
 126 
 
 2,072 
 
 26 
 
 846 
 
 7 
 
 146 
 
 4 
 
 45 
 
 6 
 
 98 
 
 43 
 
 1,180 
 
 670 
 
 129 
 
 1,458 
 
 84 
 
 441 
 
 24 
 
 161 
 
 1 
 
 34 
 
 ■i 
 
 60 
 
 63 
 
 696 
 
 605 
 
 " 
 
 20 
 
 129 
 
 2,201 
 
 8(< 
 
 884 
 
 11 
 
 1,57 
 
 2 
 
 47 
 
 5 
 
 98 
 
 56 
 
 1,186 
 
 701 
 
 140 
 
 1,.598 
 
 32 
 
 478 
 
 4 
 
 165 
 
 7 
 
 41 
 
 5 
 
 65 
 
 48 
 
 744 
 
 673 
 
 (( 
 
 2T 
 
 126 
 
 2,327 
 
 28 
 
 912 
 
 17 
 
 174 
 
 6 
 
 58 8 
 
 106 
 
 59 
 
 1,246 
 
 750 
 
 107 
 
 1,705 
 
 44 
 
 517 
 
 17 
 
 182 
 
 8 
 
 49 
 
 4 
 
 69 
 
 78 
 
 817 
 
 692 
 
 March 
 
 B 
 
 108 
 
 2,430 
 
 46 
 
 9.58 
 
 R 
 
 182 
 
 12 
 
 65 8 
 
 109 
 
 69 
 
 1,314 
 
 764 
 
 106 
 
 1,811 
 
 50 
 
 573 
 
 8 
 
 185 
 
 7 
 
 56 
 
 1 
 
 70 
 
 67 
 
 884 
 
 721 
 
 u 
 
 12 
 
 112 
 
 2,542 
 
 86 
 
 994 
 
 11 
 
 193 
 
 
 
 65 
 
 C 
 
 114 
 
 ■52 
 
 1,866 
 
 823 
 
 90 
 
 1,901 
 
 62 
 
 685 
 
 6 
 
 191 
 
 IS 
 
 74 
 
 2 
 
 72 
 
 88 
 
 972 
 
 697 
 
 » 
 
 19 
 
 69 
 
 2,611 
 
 41 
 
 1,085 
 
 17 
 
 210 
 
 2 
 
 67 
 
 7 
 
 121 
 
 67 
 
 1,483 
 
 774 
 
 72 
 
 1,978 
 
 70 
 
 706 
 
 20 
 
 211 
 
 11 
 
 85 
 
 7 
 
 79 
 
 108 
 
 1,080 
 
 646 
 
 " 
 
 26 
 
 79 
 
 2,690 
 
 36 
 
 1,071 
 
 20 
 
 280 8 
 
 70 
 
 8 
 
 124 
 
 62 
 
 1,495 
 
 775 
 
 88 
 
 2,056 
 
 76 
 
 781 
 
 9 
 
 220 
 
 8 
 
 88 
 
 8 
 
 87 
 
 96 
 
 1,176 
 
 618 
 
 Ajril 
 
 2 
 
 72 
 
 2,762 
 
 29 
 
 1,100 
 
 25 
 
 2.55 
 
 10 
 
 SO 
 
 
 
 124 
 
 64 
 
 1,5.59 
 
 777 
 
 72 
 
 2,128 
 
 59 
 
 840 
 
 9 
 
 229 
 
 2 
 
 90 
 
 2 
 
 89 
 
 72 
 
 1,248 
 
 612 
 
 9 
 
 59 
 
 2,821 
 
 41 
 
 1,141 
 
 f 
 
 268 
 
 7 
 
 87 
 
 5 
 
 129 
 
 61 
 
 1,620 
 
 73V 
 
 99 
 
 i,227 
 
 67 
 
 897 
 
 4 
 
 238 
 
 2 
 
 92 
 
 6 
 
 95 
 
 69 
 
 ,817 
 
 6SV 
 
 " 
 
 16 
 
 68 
 
 2,884 
 
 SO 
 
 1,221 
 
 2f 
 
 291 
 
 9 
 
 96 
 
 1 
 
 130 
 
 118 
 
 1,738 
 
 679 
 
 85 
 
 2,312 
 
 50 
 
 947 
 
 1 
 
 284 
 
 4 
 
 96 
 
 1 
 
 96 
 
 ,56 
 
 ;,878 
 
 646 
 
 , '■'■ 
 
 23 
 
 40 
 
 2,924 
 
 41 
 
 1,262 
 
 17 
 
 808 
 
 16 
 
 112 
 
 1 
 
 1.81 
 
 75 
 
 1,813 
 
 629 
 
 87 
 
 2,899 
 
 47 
 
 994 
 
 8 
 
 2.87 
 
 
 
 96 
 
 t 
 
 104 
 
 .58 
 
 .,4.81 
 
 670 
 
 " 
 
 30 
 
 51 
 
 2,975 
 
 48 
 
 1,810 
 
 27 
 
 885 
 
 18 
 
 125 
 
 11 
 
 142 
 
 99 
 
 1,912 
 
 668 
 
 60 
 
 2,459 
 
 45 
 
 1,089 
 
 8 
 
 240 
 
 6 
 
 101 
 
 5 
 
 109 
 
 58 
 
 1,489 
 
 665 
 
 May 
 
 7 
 
 41 
 
 3,016 
 
 45 
 
 1,855 
 
 19 
 
 854 
 
 4 
 
 129 
 
 6 
 
 148 
 
 74 
 
 1,986 
 
 528 
 
 58 
 
 2,617 
 
 29 
 
 1,068 
 
 6 
 
 246 
 
 6 
 
 107 
 
 5 
 
 114 
 
 46 
 
 1,685 
 
 645 
 
 " 
 
 14 
 
 39 
 
 8,055 
 
 41 
 
 1,896 
 
 12 
 
 366 
 
 111 
 
 139 
 
 1 
 
 149 
 
 64 
 
 2,060 
 
 4«» 
 
 44 
 
 2,661 
 
 58 
 
 1,126 
 
 4 
 
 250 
 
 4 
 
 111 
 
 IC 
 
 124 
 
 76 
 
 !,611 
 
 605 
 
 '' 
 
 21 
 
 21 
 
 8,076 
 
 89 
 
 1,486 
 
 11 
 
 .877 
 
 4 
 
 148 
 
 2 
 
 161 
 
 56 
 
 2,106 
 
 489 
 
 44 
 
 2,605 
 
 28 
 
 1,154 
 
 
 
 2.50 
 
 7 
 
 118 
 
 14 
 
 128 
 
 39 
 
 ,650 
 
 608 
 
 ii 
 
 28 
 
 28 
 
 8,104 
 
 40 
 
 1,475 
 
 2 
 
 879 
 
 4 
 
 147 
 
 8 
 
 164 
 
 49 
 
 2,156 
 
 417 
 
 85 
 
 2,640 
 
 57 
 
 1,211 
 
 11 
 
 261 
 
 4 
 
 122 
 
 6 
 
 184 
 
 78 
 
 1,728 
 
 547 
 
 Juno 
 
 4 
 
 ■18 
 
 8,117 
 
 33 
 
 1,508 
 
 10 
 
 889 
 
 4 
 
 1,51 
 
 4 
 
 158 
 
 .51 
 
 2,206 
 
 872 
 
 35 
 
 2,675 
 
 61 
 
 1,272 
 
 5 
 
 266 
 
 2 
 
 184 
 
 6 
 
 140 
 
 84 
 
 1,812 
 
 492 
 
 " 
 
 11 
 
 18 
 
 3,185 
 
 8(J 
 
 1,588 
 
 la 
 
 402 
 
 6 
 
 157 
 
 « 
 
 161 
 
 ,52 
 
 2,2,58 
 
 330 
 
 86 
 
 2,711 
 
 86 
 
 1,308 
 
 4 
 
 270 
 
 2 
 
 136 
 
 5 
 
 14.5 
 
 47 
 
 .,859 
 
 467 
 
 " 
 
 18 
 
 15 
 
 8,150 
 
 81 
 
 1,569 
 
 
 
 402 
 
 8 
 
 160 
 
 2 
 
 163 
 
 36 
 
 2,294 
 
 303 
 
 27 
 
 2,788 
 
 27 
 
 1,385 
 
 8 
 
 278 
 
 2 
 
 188 
 
 2 
 
 147 
 
 89 
 
 ,898 
 
 456 
 
 " 
 
 25 
 
 12 
 
 3,162 
 
 24 
 
 1,593 
 
 7 
 
 409 
 
 2 
 
 162 
 
 1 
 
 164 
 
 34 
 
 2,328 
 
 269 
 
 29 
 
 2,767 
 
 58 
 
 1,388 
 
 15 
 
 293 
 
 3 
 
 141 
 
 8 
 
 150 
 
 74 
 
 1,972 
 
 891 
 
 July 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 .8,172 
 
 26 
 
 1,618 
 
 4 
 
 418 
 
 1 
 
 168 
 
 8 
 
 167 
 
 88 
 
 2,861 
 
 244 
 
 28 
 
 2,790 
 
 87 
 
 1,425 
 
 5 
 
 298 
 
 4 
 
 14,5 
 
 8 
 
 158 
 
 49 
 
 3,021 
 
 855 
 
 " 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 8,178 
 
 28 
 
 1,641 
 
 (. 
 
 418 
 
 1 
 
 164 
 
 2 
 
 169 
 
 26 
 
 2,887 
 
 228 
 
 11 
 
 2,801 
 
 26 
 
 1,461 
 
 8 
 
 806 
 
 7 
 
 L52 
 
 8 
 
 1.56 
 
 44 
 
 i,065 
 
 816 
 
 " 
 
 16 
 
 18 
 
 S,191 
 
 10 
 
 1,651 
 
 (1 
 
 418 
 
 8 
 
 167 
 
 1 
 
 170 
 
 14 
 
 2,401 
 
 217 
 
 11 
 
 2,812 
 
 17 
 
 1,468 
 
 1 
 
 807 
 
 2 
 
 1154 
 
 2 
 
 158 
 
 22 
 
 i,087 
 
 297 
 
 'I 
 
 2S 
 
 2 
 
 3,198 
 
 80 
 
 1,681 
 
 5 
 
 418 
 
 1 
 
 168 
 
 4 
 
 174 
 
 40 
 
 2,441 
 
 172 
 
 17 
 
 2,829 
 
 19 
 
 1,487 
 
 6 
 
 812 
 
 2 
 
 166 
 
 4 
 
 162 
 
 80 
 
 3,117 
 
 268 
 
 " 
 
 80 
 
 B 
 
 8,198 
 
 16 
 
 1,697 
 
 4 
 
 422 
 
 
 
 168 
 
 6 
 
 179 
 
 25 
 
 2,466 
 
 160 
 
 10 
 
 2,889 
 
 83 
 
 1,520 
 
 9 
 
 321 
 
 8 
 
 169 
 
 6 
 
 168 
 
 51 
 
 3,168 
 
 217 
 
 Aug. 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 S,202 
 
 18 
 
 1,715 
 
 
 
 422 
 
 
 
 163 
 
 4 
 
 188 
 
 22 
 
 2,488 
 
 125 
 
 12 
 
 2,851 
 
 16 
 
 1,586 
 
 16 
 
 ■8,87 
 
 3 
 
 161 
 
 2 
 
 170 
 
 .86 
 
 3,204 
 
 186 
 
 
 18 
 
 3 
 
 8,205 
 
 10 
 
 1,725 
 
 
 
 422 
 
 
 
 168 
 
 6 
 
 188 
 
 16 
 
 2,508 
 
 112 
 
 12 
 
 2,863 
 
 26 
 
 1,561 
 
 2 
 
 889 
 
 2 
 
 168 
 
 2 
 
 172 
 
 ■81 
 
 3,285 
 
 156 
 
 " 
 
 20 
 
 10 
 
 8,215 
 
 7 
 
 1,782 
 
 (1 
 
 422 
 
 8 
 
 171 
 
 C 
 
 188 
 
 1(1 
 
 2,518 
 
 99 
 
 11 
 
 2,874 
 
 [2 
 
 1,573 
 
 C 
 
 849 
 
 1 
 
 164 
 
 3 
 
 175 
 
 26 
 
 3,261 
 
 128 
 
 " 
 
 27 
 
 7 
 
 8,222 
 
 6 
 
 1,737 
 
 5 
 
 427 
 
 2 
 
 173 
 
 a 
 
 191 
 
 15 
 
 2.528 83 
 
 18 
 
 A887 
 
 [4 
 
 1,587 
 
 8 
 
 362 
 
 1 
 
 166 
 
 1 
 
 176 
 
 29 
 
 3,290 
 
 108 
 
 Correction 
 
 41 
 
 8,263 
 
 
 
 1,737 
 
 
 
 427 
 
 
 171 
 
 2 
 
 198 
 
 
 
 2,528 107 
 
 48 
 
 2,930 17 
 
 1,604 
 
 12 
 
 874 
 
 
 
 165 
 
 
 
 176 
 
 29 
 
 3,819 
 
 117 
 
 Total.... 
 
 
 3,268 
 
 
 1,787 
 
 
 427 
 
 
 171 
 
 
 193 
 
 2,528 1 107 
 
 
 2,930 
 
 1,604 
 
 
 874 
 
 
 165 
 
 
 176 
 
 2,319 
 
 117 
 
 Contrasted with the preceding season, the year just 
 closed (1856), as we have already observed, may be 
 considered one upon which the trade may well be con- 
 gratulated. The monetary panics, the droughts and 
 the ravages of a deadlj" pestilence in some of the 
 Southern seaports, the periodical embarrassments con- 
 sequent upon the changing fortunes of the European 
 war, all contributed to render the spring and summer 
 of 1855 memorable for the drawbacks and discourage- 
 ments, not only to the cotton interest, but to the gen- 
 eral trade. Far different are the characteristics of the 
 twelve months under review. With nothing to com- 
 plain of in respect to the crop itself, the interior 
 Ff 
 
 streams, during the whole season, have enabled the 
 planter to forward with promptitude to the now ready 
 and remunerative markets abroad. Many of the New 
 Orleans and Mobile houses, which had been compelled 
 to stop payments, improved the earliest opportunity 
 returning prosperity presented to redeem their accept- 
 ances, and, in many instances, with interest in full, 
 thus re-establishing, on an honorable basis, credits 
 which the unanticipated misfortunes of the year before 
 had, perhaps, temporarily impaired. 
 
 The crop of 1855-56, it will be seen by the accom- 
 panying figures, was 3,527,845 bales, which has been 
 so liberally disposed of that the supplies on hand, on 
 
COT 
 
 450 
 
 COT 
 
 Statement 8no"WiNG the "Weekly and Total Receipts op Cotton into the Ports of the United States ; also 
 THE "Weekly and Total ExpoiiTS of Cotton to Great BKiTAii?, Feanoe, North op Europe and other 
 Foreign Ports ; together with the Stock on Hand in the Shipping Ports ; dhking the last Two Years. 
 Arranged and Phblished by William P. "Wright, per J. Y., Cotton Broker, New York. (The Figures 
 
 REPRESENT THOUSANDS OF BaLES.) 
 
 Septembbe 1, 1854, TO Adotot 81, 1835, inolusite. 
 
 September 1, 1855, to August 81, 1856, inolusite. ] 
 
 Date. 
 
 RECEIPTS 
 
 EXPORTS. 
 
 1 
 
 RECEIPTS. 
 
 EXPORTS. 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 Great 
 Britain. 
 
 France. 
 
 North 
 Europe 
 
 Other 
 foreign 
 ports. 
 
 1 
 
 ■i 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Griint 
 Britain. 
 
 France. 
 
 North 
 Europe. 
 
 Other 
 foreign 
 ports, 
 
 3 
 
 ^ 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 >> 
 
 f- 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 i^ 
 
 H 
 
 H 
 
 5 
 
 _ 
 
 >, 
 
 ^ 
 
 >. 
 
 f* 
 
 
 H 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 a 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 ^ 
 
 ■3 
 
 s 
 
 1 
 
 A 
 1 
 
 3- 
 
 > 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 i3 
 
 1 
 
 1 ■^ 
 
 II 
 
 1 3 
 
 
 1 
 
 -3 
 
 ■3 
 
 Sept. 
 
 19 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 82 
 
 o' sol 
 
 19 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 21 
 
 21 
 
 184 
 
 
 9.f, 
 
 10 
 
 18 
 
 f 
 
 14 
 
 ( 
 
 1 
 
 ; 
 
 8 
 
 ) 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 90 
 
 4l 71 10 29 
 
 2 3 
 
 2 2 
 
 1 
 
 14 
 
 .35 
 
 149 
 
 Oct. 
 
 S 
 
 20 
 
 88 
 
 fi 
 
 19 
 
 b 
 
 7 
 
 ( 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 81 
 
 127 
 
 67 128 16 45 
 
 4 7 
 
 1 3 
 
 1 
 
 21 
 
 56 
 
 179 
 
 " 
 
 in 
 
 47 
 
 «i 
 
 14 
 
 88 
 
 u 
 
 IV 
 
 : 
 
 4 
 
 ( 
 
 2 
 
 20 
 
 66 
 
 184 
 
 61 189 16 60 
 
 6 18 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 21 
 
 77 
 
 219 
 
 '( 
 
 IT 
 
 89 
 
 194 
 
 8 
 
 41 
 
 b 
 
 28 
 
 ( 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 16 
 
 72 
 
 146 
 
 70 
 
 259 21 81 
 
 5 18 
 
 1 4 
 
 2 S 
 
 29 
 
 106 
 
 233 
 
 « 
 
 94 
 
 43 
 
 167 
 
 f 
 
 49 
 
 1 
 
 24 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 11 
 
 88 
 
 166 
 
 72 
 
 881 18 99 
 
 8 21 
 
 3 7 
 
 2 5 
 
 26 
 
 132 
 
 974 
 
 " 
 
 81 
 
 41 
 
 208 
 
 6 
 
 65 
 
 5 
 
 29 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 95 
 
 192 
 
 69 
 
 400 26 124 
 
 8 24 
 
 4 11 
 
 9 14 
 
 .41 
 
 178 
 
 292 
 
 Not. 
 
 T 
 
 47 
 
 256 
 
 18 
 
 78 
 
 9 
 
 38 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 29 
 
 124 
 
 211 
 
 81 
 
 4S1-88 102 
 
 9 83 
 
 5 16 
 
 4 18 
 
 56 
 
 299 
 
 289 
 
 
 14 
 
 66 
 
 821 
 
 22 
 
 95 
 
 6 
 
 44 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 11 
 
 34 
 
 1,68 
 
 226 
 
 6b 
 
 586 80 192 10 43 
 
 8 19 
 
 •2 20 
 
 46 
 
 274 
 
 994 
 
 » 
 
 9,1 
 
 66 
 
 887 
 
 ir 
 
 112 
 
 11 
 
 55 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 13 
 
 31 
 
 189 
 
 261 
 
 96 
 
 632 54 246 24 67 
 
 1 20 
 
 6 26 
 
 85 
 
 3,69 
 
 288 
 
 '' 
 
 28 
 
 67 
 
 454 
 
 25 
 
 187 
 
 3 
 
 68 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 17 
 
 32 
 
 221 
 
 289 
 
 92 
 
 724 19 265 12 79 
 
 7 27 
 2 29 
 
 3 29 
 
 41 
 
 400 
 
 831 
 
 Deo. 
 
 5 
 
 Rl 
 
 535 
 
 39 
 
 176 
 
 8 
 
 61 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 19 
 
 46 
 
 267 
 
 314 
 
 116 
 
 840 1 
 
 7 282 1 
 
 ■7 96 
 
 6 84 
 
 41 
 
 441 
 
 402 
 
 
 1^ 
 
 85 
 
 620 
 
 47 
 
 223 
 
 ■I 
 
 68 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 S 
 
 22 
 
 58 
 
 825 
 
 380 
 
 124 
 
 964 < 
 
 5 827 J 
 
 3 114 
 
 7 86 
 
 6 40 
 
 76 
 
 517 
 
 432 
 
 n 
 
 19 
 
 87 
 
 707 
 
 89 
 
 262 
 
 k; 
 
 78 
 
 1 
 
 18 
 
 1 
 
 28 
 
 61 
 
 876 
 
 846 
 
 144 
 
 1,108 6 
 
 887 2 
 
 3 136 
 
 7 43 1 
 
 1 .61 
 
 100 
 
 617 
 
 464 
 
 " 
 
 26 
 
 77 
 
 784 
 
 64 
 
 316 
 
 7 
 
 86 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 6 
 
 29 
 
 67 
 
 443 
 
 864 
 
 144 
 
 1,262 2 
 
 8 415 2 
 
 166 
 
 6 49 
 
 8 59 
 
 62 
 
 670 
 
 523 
 
 
 9, 
 
 70 
 
 854 
 
 48 
 
 364 
 
 7 
 
 92 
 
 1 
 
 14 
 
 8 
 
 82' 69 
 
 602 
 
 864 
 
 187 
 
 1,389 3 
 
 2 447 1 
 
 2 168 
 
 5 64 
 
 6 65 
 
 56 
 
 7.34 
 
 584 
 
 
 9 
 
 S9 
 
 918 
 
 47 
 
 411 
 
 6 
 
 98 
 
 2 
 
 16 
 
 1 
 
 33 
 
 56 
 
 6.68 
 
 860 
 
 187 
 
 1,526 5 
 
 8 500 
 
 9 177 
 
 2 66 
 
 2 67 
 
 66 
 
 800 
 
 640 
 
 (t 
 
 16 
 
 65 
 
 978 
 
 56 
 
 46T 
 
 11 
 
 109 
 
 f 
 
 25 
 
 2 
 
 85 
 
 78 
 
 636 
 
 846 
 
 100 
 
 1,626 2 
 
 9 629 1 
 
 2 189 
 
 6 61 
 
 6 78 
 
 62 
 
 859 
 
 6,sl 
 
 11 
 
 28 
 
 70 
 
 1 048 
 
 V 
 
 525 
 
 12 
 
 121 
 
 T 
 
 82 
 
 8 
 
 38 
 
 80 
 
 716 
 
 813 
 
 107 
 
 1,783 5 
 
 8 687 2 
 
 ) 209 
 
 4 66 1 
 
 1 84 
 
 98 
 
 946 
 
 677 
 
 " 
 
 80 
 
 76 
 
 1,124 
 
 46 
 
 571 
 
 7 
 
 12S 
 
 9 
 
 41 
 
 11 
 
 49 
 
 73 
 
 789 
 
 314 
 
 84 
 
 1,817 5 
 
 637 1 
 
 6 224 1 
 
 2 77 
 
 / 91 
 
 84 
 
 1,029 
 
 647 
 
 Feb. 
 
 6 
 
 121 
 
 1,245 
 
 4;^ 
 
 614 
 
 9 
 
 187 
 
 5 
 
 46 
 
 1 
 
 60 
 
 38 
 
 847 
 
 365 
 
 88 
 
 1,905 7 
 
 6 713 
 
 8 232 
 
 6 88 
 
 3 94 
 
 93 
 
 1,122 
 
 665 
 
 
 13 
 
 105 
 
 1,850 
 
 18 
 
 647 
 
 8 
 
 146 
 
 11 
 
 56 
 
 6 
 
 65 
 
 56 
 
 908 
 
 398 
 
 82 
 
 1,937 6 
 
 763 2 
 
 S 260 
 
 9 92 
 
 4 98 
 
 91 
 
 1,213 
 
 .598 
 
 '1 
 
 20 
 
 101 
 
 1,451 
 
 46 
 
 692 
 
 9 
 
 154 
 
 5 
 
 61 
 
 3 
 
 58 
 
 62 
 
 965 
 
 408 
 
 111 
 
 2,098 7 
 
 3 886 2 
 
 ) 280 2 
 
 i 120 1 
 
 9 117 
 
 110 
 
 1.,36a 
 
 ,5,54 
 
 " 
 
 2T 
 
 77 
 
 1,628 
 
 51 
 
 743 
 
 18 
 
 172 
 
 S 
 
 64 
 
 ' 
 
 m 
 
 81 
 
 1,046 
 
 408 
 
 117 
 
 2,215 4 
 
 1 877 1 
 
 6 296 1 
 
 4 184 
 
 4 121 
 
 76 
 
 1,428 
 
 666 
 
 
 fi 
 
 77 
 
 1,605 
 
 48 
 
 791 
 
 16 
 
 188 
 
 6 
 
 70 
 
 2 
 
 69 
 
 72 
 
 1,118 
 
 898 
 
 161 
 
 2,866 4 
 
 3 920 2 
 
 3 319 1 
 
 1 145 1 
 
 181 
 
 87 
 
 1,615 
 
 628 
 
 
 12 
 
 82 
 
 1,687 
 
 56 
 
 846 
 
 7 
 
 196 
 
 IC 
 
 80 
 
 4 
 
 73 
 
 V6 
 
 1,194 
 
 387 
 
 131 
 
 2,497 6 
 
 9 979 
 
 4 328 1 
 
 6 160 1 
 
 6 144 
 
 91 
 
 1,606 
 
 660 
 
 It 
 
 19 
 
 78 
 
 1T60 
 
 18 
 
 8V9 
 
 12 
 
 207 
 
 2 
 
 82 
 
 1 
 
 74 
 
 48 
 
 1,242 
 
 375 
 
 128 
 
 2,620 6 
 
 ) 1,089 1 
 
 I 384 1 
 
 3 173 
 
 4 148 
 
 88 
 
 1,694 
 
 6*3 
 
 " 
 
 26 
 
 63 
 
 1,828 
 
 66 
 
 986 
 
 28 
 
 280 
 
 6 
 
 88 
 
 3 
 
 ■a 
 
 88 
 
 1,880 
 
 811 
 
 109 
 
 2,729 6 
 
 5 1,094 
 
 5 889 1 
 
 3 186 
 
 6 163 
 
 78 
 
 1,772 
 
 660 
 
 April 
 
 2 
 
 80 
 
 1,903 
 
 28 
 
 968 
 
 19 
 
 249 
 
 2 
 
 90 
 
 
 
 77 
 
 49 
 
 1,379 
 
 320 
 
 97 
 
 2,826 4 
 
 1,184 1 
 
 6 855 
 
 9 196 
 
 2 165 
 
 67 
 
 1,889 
 
 670 
 
 
 9 
 
 92 
 
 1995 
 
 21 
 
 984 
 
 6 
 
 254 
 
 2 
 
 92 
 
 4 
 
 81 
 
 82 
 
 1,411 
 
 857 
 
 88 
 
 2,909 6 
 
 > 1,200 1 
 
 )865 1 
 
 3 208 
 
 bl60 
 
 94 
 
 1 933 
 
 6.68 
 
 u 
 
 16 
 
 86 
 
 2,081 
 
 85 
 
 1,019 
 
 18 
 
 272 
 
 1 
 
 98 
 
 6 
 
 87 
 
 60 
 
 1,471 
 
 846 
 
 89 
 
 2,998 7 
 
 91,279 1 
 
 ) 3T5 
 
 3 211 
 
 i 166 
 
 98 
 
 2,031 
 
 619 
 
 I' 
 
 28 
 
 64 
 
 2,1 ^S 
 
 i9 
 
 1,048 14 
 
 286 
 
 
 
 93 
 
 6 
 
 93 
 
 49 
 
 1,620 
 
 359 
 
 69 
 
 8,067 6 
 
 91,848 1 
 
 2 387 
 
 i 217 
 
 U70 
 
 91 
 
 2199 
 
 587 
 
 " 
 
 80 
 
 85 
 
 2,280 
 
 41 
 
 1,089 
 
 14 
 
 800 
 
 3 
 
 96 
 
 7 
 
 100 
 
 65 
 
 1,686 
 
 354 
 
 76 
 
 3,142 6 
 
 8 1,416 1 
 
 5 402 
 
 5 222 
 
 3 178 
 
 96 
 
 2,218 
 
 650 
 
 Ma7 
 
 7 
 
 81 
 
 2,811 
 
 86 
 
 1,123 
 
 28 
 
 828 
 
 4 
 
 100 
 
 6 
 
 106 
 
 74 
 
 1,659 
 
 841 
 
 60 
 
 8,192 5 
 
 61,472 1 
 
 a 421 
 
 7 220 1 
 
 9 197 
 
 101 
 
 2 819 
 
 600 
 
 
 14 
 
 bb 
 
 2,866 
 
 89 
 
 1,164 
 
 14 
 
 342 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 4 
 
 110 
 
 57 
 
 1,716 
 
 824 
 
 62 
 
 8,244 6 
 
 5 1,637 1 
 
 2 433 
 
 5 284 
 
 204 
 
 89 
 
 2 408 
 
 4411 
 
 (I 
 
 21 
 
 40 
 
 2,406 
 
 n 
 
 1,185 
 
 17 
 
 859 
 
 2 
 
 102 
 
 2 
 
 112 
 
 42 
 
 1,T58 
 
 325 
 
 4b 
 
 8,289 8 
 
 3 1,670 1 
 
 D443 
 
 3 287 
 
 2 206 
 
 48 
 
 94.56 
 
 404 
 
 " 
 
 28 
 
 28 
 
 2,484 
 
 48 
 
 1,238 
 
 IS 
 
 377 
 
 4 
 
 106 
 
 2 
 
 114 
 
 72 
 
 1,880 
 
 265 
 
 41 
 
 8,830 2 
 
 41,594 
 
 a 443 
 
 2 289 
 
 i211 
 
 81 
 
 2,487 
 
 410 
 
 June 
 
 4 
 
 46 
 
 2,479 
 
 39 
 
 1,272 
 
 12 
 
 889 
 
 4 
 
 110 
 
 8 122 
 
 63 
 
 1,893 
 
 202 
 
 30 
 
 3,360 4 
 
 91,648 
 
 4 447 
 
 3 247 
 
 3 214 
 
 64 
 
 9 561 
 
 8,50 
 
 u 
 
 11 
 
 26 
 
 2,504 
 
 86 
 
 1,808 
 
 ■1 
 
 396 
 
 1 
 
 HI 
 
 6 128 
 
 60 
 
 1,94S 
 
 179 
 
 26 
 
 i,3S6 4 
 
 3 1,683 1 
 
 ■464 
 
 3 249 
 
 2 216 
 
 61 
 
 9 619 
 
 380 
 
 « 
 
 18 
 
 84 
 
 2,,6S8 
 
 80 
 
 1,338 
 
 ■6 
 
 899 
 
 8 
 
 114 
 
 1 
 
 129 
 
 37 
 
 1,980 
 
 162 
 
 19 
 
 3,406 6 
 
 n,T45 
 
 i 470 
 
 ■ 256 
 
 1217 
 
 76 
 
 2 688 
 
 969 
 
 " 
 
 26 
 
 61 
 
 2,589 
 
 24 
 
 1,362 
 
 8 
 
 4U2 
 
 
 
 114 
 
 2 
 4 
 
 131 
 
 29 
 
 2,009 
 
 174 
 
 9 
 
 8,414 4 
 
 21,787 
 
 I 472 
 
 4 260 
 
 5 222 
 
 38 
 
 2,741 
 
 213 
 
 Jnly 
 
 2 
 
 81 
 
 2,620 
 
 17 
 
 1,879 
 
 1 
 
 408 
 
 1 116 
 
 185 
 
 28 
 
 2,082 
 
 175 
 
 18 
 
 2,427 4. 
 
 51,832 
 
 3 472' 
 
 2 262 
 
 J 226 
 
 60 
 
 8 791 
 
 177 
 
 
 9 
 
 49 
 
 2,669 
 
 10 
 
 1,389 
 
 2 
 
 406 
 
 1 116 
 
 1 
 
 186 
 
 14 
 
 2,046 
 
 200 
 
 16 
 
 8,443 2 
 
 i 1,858 
 
 5 478 
 
 268 
 
 3 233 
 
 41 
 
 ?,889 
 
 160 
 
 « 
 
 16 
 
 26 
 
 A694 
 
 27 
 
 1,416 
 
 
 
 406 
 
 4] 120 
 
 6 
 
 142 
 
 37 
 
 2,088 
 
 184 
 
 7 
 
 3,460 1 
 
 3 1,876 
 
 1 478 
 
 3 263 
 
 ; 289 
 
 24 
 
 2 856 
 
 192 
 
 u 
 
 23 
 
 21 
 
 2,715 
 
 19 
 
 1,486 
 
 1 
 
 406 
 
 2,' 122 
 
 
 
 142 
 
 22 
 
 2,105 
 
 1V8 
 
 6 
 
 8,456 2 
 
 5 1,901 
 
 1 478 
 
 2 265 
 
 1244 
 
 82 
 
 2,888 
 
 87 
 
 " 
 
 30 
 
 22 
 
 2,787 
 
 20 
 
 1,456 
 
 
 
 406 
 
 4 
 
 126 
 
 5 
 
 147 
 
 29 
 
 2,184 
 
 166 
 
 11 
 
 8,467 
 
 i 1,909 
 
 3 4T8 
 
 1 266 
 
 5 249 
 
 14 
 
 2,902 
 
 78 
 
 
 6 
 
 13 
 
 2,750 
 
 25 
 
 1,480 
 
 1 
 
 407 
 
 2 
 
 128 
 
 1 
 
 148 
 
 29 
 
 2,168 
 
 149 
 
 8 
 
 8,470 1 
 
 31,919 
 
 3 478 
 
 1 267 
 
 3 262 
 
 14 
 
 2 916 
 
 63 
 
 
 18 
 
 12 
 
 2,762 
 
 22 
 
 1,602 
 
 2 
 
 409 
 
 4 
 
 132 
 
 
 
 148 
 
 28 
 
 2,191 
 
 127 
 
 12 
 
 3,482 2 
 
 11,939 
 
 1 478 
 
 3 267 
 
 263 
 
 21 
 
 2 987 
 
 57 
 
 u 
 
 20 
 
 10 
 
 2,772 
 
 18 
 
 1,515 
 
 
 
 409 
 
 
 
 182 
 
 1 
 
 149 
 
 14 
 
 2,205 
 
 121 
 
 8 
 
 3,486 
 
 31,945 
 
 3 478 
 
 1 267 
 
 1 258 
 
 6 
 
 2 943 
 
 51 
 
 u 
 
 27 
 
 18 
 
 2,785 
 
 13 
 
 1,528 
 
 
 
 409 
 
 1 
 
 138 
 
 1 
 
 160 
 
 16 
 
 2,220 
 
 112 
 
 4 
 
 8,489 
 
 i 1,945 
 
 1478 
 
 3 267 
 
 1 253 
 
 
 
 2 944! 
 
 51 
 
 Correction 
 
 62 
 
 2,847 
 
 22 
 
 1,550 
 
 1 
 
 410 
 
 2 135 
 
 
 
 160 
 
 2b 
 
 i,24b 
 
 148 
 
 39 
 
 3,528 
 
 ) 1,921 
 
 J 481 3 
 
 7 804 
 
 3|249 
 
 12 
 
 2,965 
 
 64 
 
 Total.... 
 
 
 2,847 
 
 
 1,660 
 
 
 410 
 
 136 
 
 
 160 
 
 
 2,245 
 
 148 
 
 
 8,528 
 
 1,921 1 1 481 1 
 
 804 
 
 249 
 
 
 2,955 
 
 64 
 
 botli sides of the Atlantic, are down to a figure wMoh 
 encourages the expectation that quite as much, in the 
 aggregate, will be required for actual consumption, at 
 home and abroad, in the course of the year on which 
 we have just entered. Thus much by way of retro- 
 spect. 
 
 To revert to details ; our market opened steady in 
 September, 1855, with a fair business, but during the 
 remainder of that month and throughout October, un- 
 der the influence of adverse accounts from Europe, and 
 heavy receipts at the South, a gradual decline ensued, 
 prices having fallen upward of one cent on nearly all 
 grades during that period. About the beginning of 
 
 November, we received advices of a heavy frost in 
 some of the growing regions, which, in connection 
 with the paucity of our stock, caused a reactionarj' 
 movement : but the response from Liverpool to our 
 frost accounts not proving as favorable as was ex- 
 pected, the market again took a downward turn, and 
 prices gradually receded for several weeks, when in- 
 telligence arrived of the acceptance by Russia of the 
 proposition of the Allies as the basis for peace. Under 
 the influence of this welcome news, greater animation 
 was manifested in the market, and prices were once 
 more in the ascendant. This feeling continued for 
 several weeks — ^the market being supported, mainly by 
 
COT 
 
 451 
 
 COT 
 
 speculative sMppers — ^wheu prices took another turn, 
 and the improvement obtained on the strength of the 
 peace propositions was quite lost. Subsequently, during 
 a period of many weeka, which brings us down to the 
 last of April, the market was very strong, and a rise 
 of fully one cent was realized. Our domestic spinners 
 were, during nearly the whole of this period, the most 
 heavy operators, taking on an average 12 to 15,000 
 bales per week. Early in May, a complete change 
 seems to have taken place in the minds of our leading 
 exporters. Large holders, who had been sanguine of 
 such an advance in Liverpool as would enable them to 
 recover their investments in the staple, were disap- 
 pointed, the market again becoming dull and drooping. 
 
 The depression was not of long duration, however, foi 
 the reduced supply not only here, but in every part 
 of the United States, now began to attract attention, 
 and holders became indiiferent about offering their 
 supplies ; and as the high prices checked consumption, 
 the market assumed an inactivity unusual for the 
 season, which continued throughout July and August, 
 holders all the time maintaining an unrelenting firm- 
 ness. 
 
 The year closed with a reduced stock, both here and 
 at the South, and the supply in the manufacturers' 
 hands at the eastward being also limited, the inclina- 
 tion of prices was to a higher range. 
 
 The trade of New York has apparently fallen off; a 
 
 * Texas at this time was not a part of the United States. 
 FHBiaHiB TO EuEOPB, Eates of Exohamge, Stock on Hand, and Exteemi? Peioes fkom 1828 to 1856. 
 
 
 Cotton Ceop of the United States 
 
 , FOE BACH TeAE, FEOM 
 
 Septembee ] 
 
 , 1828 TO SEPTEMBiiE 1 
 
 1856. 
 
 Data, 
 
 TOTAL 
 
 CHOP EBCBIVHD IN ATLANTIC STATBB. 
 
 TOTAL CHOP KBCBIVBD IN (SULB 6TATB6. 
 
 CROP. 
 Grand I'otol. . 
 
 Georgia. 
 
 Soutli Cflrolina 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 Virginia. 
 
 Florida. 
 
 Alabama. 
 
 Louialmifl. 
 
 Toxaa. 
 
 18M 
 
 162,785 
 
 184,518 
 
 46,000 
 
 and Virginia 
 
 4,500 
 
 44,924 
 
 126,481 
 
 * 
 
 609,158 
 
 1825 
 
 188,000 
 
 97,000 
 
 72,000 
 
 " 
 
 8,000 
 
 58,796 
 
 200,458 
 
 
 
 569,249 
 
 1826 
 
 190,592 
 
 111,978 
 
 88,480 
 
 u 
 
 2,817 
 
 74,201 
 
 261,969 
 
 
 
 720,027 1 
 
 1827 
 
 288,920 
 
 179,810 
 
 112,811 
 
 " 
 
 4,168 
 
 89,707 
 
 386,870 
 
 
 
 957,281 
 
 1828 
 
 153,749x 
 
 109,788 
 
 77,422 
 
 " 
 
 8,940 
 
 71,663 
 
 804,186 
 
 
 
 720,698 
 
 1829 
 
 249,166 
 
 168,275 ■ 
 
 104,621 
 
 tt 
 
 4,146 
 
 79,968 , 
 
 264,249 
 
 
 
 870,415 
 
 1880 
 
 268,117 
 
 188,871 
 
 36,862 
 
 85,500 
 
 5,767 
 
 102,684 
 
 864,024 
 
 
 
 976,845 
 
 1881 
 
 280,502 
 
 186,166 
 
 86,640 
 
 38,895 
 
 18,078 
 
 118,186 
 
 426,485 
 
 
 
 1,038,848 
 
 1882 
 
 276,437 
 
 178,872 
 
 28,461 
 
 87,500 
 
 22,651 
 
 126,921 
 
 822,685 
 
 
 
 987,477 
 
 1838 
 
 271,025 
 
 181,876 
 
 80,258 
 
 80,829 
 
 28,641 
 
 129,366 
 
 408,448 
 
 
 
 1,070,438 
 
 1884 
 
 258,655 
 
 227,859 
 
 33,220 
 
 44,725 
 
 86,788 
 
 ■ 149,978 
 
 464,719 
 
 
 
 1,206,894 1 
 
 1835 
 
 222,670 
 
 ,203,166 
 
 84,899 
 
 83,170 
 
 62,a85 
 
 197,692 
 
 611,146 
 
 
 
 1,264,828 
 
 1886 
 
 270,121 
 
 231,287 
 
 82,057 
 
 29,197 
 
 79,762 
 
 286,715 
 
 481,686 
 
 
 
 1,360,725 
 
 1887 
 
 262,971 
 
 196,877 
 
 18,004 
 
 28,618 
 
 83,703 ■ 
 
 232,248 
 
 600,877 
 
 
 
 1,422,980 
 
 1888 
 
 804,210 
 
 294,884 
 
 21,489 
 
 82,000 
 
 106,171 
 
 809,807 
 
 781,266 
 
 
 
 1,801,497 1 
 
 1889 
 
 205,112 
 
 210,171 
 
 11,186 
 
 22,200 
 
 76,177 
 
 261,742 
 
 684,994 
 
 
 
 1,860,682 
 
 1840 
 
 292,698 
 
 8)8,194 
 
 9,894 
 
 28,650 
 
 186,267 
 
 446,726 
 
 968,672 
 
 
 
 2,177,835 
 
 1841 
 
 148,947 
 
 227,400 
 
 7,865 
 
 20,800 
 
 93,662 
 
 820,701 
 
 814,680 
 
 
 
 ■1,684,946 
 
 1842 
 
 282,271 
 
 260,164 
 
 9,737 
 
 19;013 
 
 114,416 
 
 818,315 
 
 727,668 
 
 
 
 1,68.3,574 
 
 1848 
 
 299,491 
 
 851,658 
 
 9,039 
 
 12,189 
 
 161,088 
 
 481,714 
 
 1,060,246 
 
 
 
 2,378,875 
 
 1844 
 
 255,697 
 
 804,870 
 
 8,618 
 
 14,500 
 
 146,562 
 
 467,990 
 
 882,172 
 
 
 
 2,030,409 
 
 1845 
 
 295,440 
 
 426,361 
 
 12,487 
 
 26,200 
 
 188,693 
 
 517,196 
 
 929,126 
 
 
 
 2,394,508 
 
 1846 
 
 194,911 
 
 251,405 
 
 10,687 
 
 18,282 
 
 141,184 
 
 421,966 
 
 1,037,144 
 
 27,008 
 
 2.100,537 
 
 1847 
 
 242,789 
 
 860,200 
 
 6,061 
 
 18,991 
 
 127,862 
 
 323,462 
 
 705,979 
 
 8,817 
 
 1,778,661 
 
 1848 
 
 254,875 
 
 261,752 
 
 1,518 
 
 8,962 
 
 163,776 
 
 486,836 
 
 1,190,738 
 
 89.742 
 
 2,847,684 
 
 1849 
 
 891,872 
 
 458,117 
 
 10,041 
 
 17,560 
 
 200,186 
 
 618,706 
 
 1,098,797 
 
 38;827 
 
 2,728,696 
 
 1860 
 
 843,685 
 
 884,265 
 
 11,861 
 
 11,500 
 
 181,844 
 
 350,952 
 
 781,886 
 
 31,263 
 
 2,096,706 
 
 1851 
 
 822,376 
 
 387,075 
 
 12,928 
 
 19,940 
 
 181,204 
 
 451,748 
 
 988,689 
 
 45,820 
 
 2,366,257 
 
 1852 
 
 825,714 
 
 476,614 
 
 16,242 
 
 20,820 
 
 188,499 
 
 649,449 
 
 1,878,404 
 
 64,052 
 
 3,015,029 
 
 1853 
 
 849,490 
 
 463,208 
 
 23,496 
 
 25,783 
 
 179,476 
 
 646,029 
 
 1,580,875 
 
 85,790 
 
 8,262,882 
 
 1864 
 
 816,005 
 
 416,754 
 
 11,624 
 
 21,936 
 
 165,444 
 
 638,684 
 
 1,846,925 
 
 110,825 
 
 2,930,027 
 
 1865 
 
 878,694 
 
 499,272 
 
 26,189 
 
 31,000 
 
 186,597 
 
 464,695 
 
 1,282,644 
 
 80,787 
 
 2,847,889 
 
 1856 
 
 389,445 
 
 495,976 
 
 26,098 
 
 20,468 
 
 144,404 
 
 659,738 
 
 1,661,433 
 
 116,078 
 
 8,527,845 
 
 year. 
 
 BKBIGHTS, 
 
 From New York, lafc October. 
 
 BXCHANGB. 
 
 At New York, 1st October. 
 
 STOCK ON HAND. 
 
 Extreme Pr 
 
 ces in Liverpool. 
 
 
 Liverpool. 
 
 Havre. 
 
 London. 
 
 ' France. 
 
 America. 
 
 Liverpool. 
 
 Upland. "Good.' 
 
 Sea Island, | 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 let October. 
 
 let January 
 
 pence. pence- 
 
 
 pence. 
 
 
 peace. 
 
 1823 
 
 _l-2d 
 
 — e. 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 153,000 
 
 8 1-2-10 8-4 
 
 
 22 
 
 ^- 
 
 24 
 
 1824 
 
 8-8 —1-2 
 
 —1 1-4 
 
 10 1-4—10 1-2 
 
 —625 
 
 
 861,000 
 
 8 8-4—10 1-2 
 
 
 22 
 
 
 
 27 
 
 1825 
 
 8-8 —1-2 
 
 1 —1 1-4 
 
 10 1-2—11 
 
 —612 1-2 
 
 
 321,000 
 
 9 1-2—19 1-2 
 
 
 27 
 
 — 
 
 42 
 
 1826 
 
 8-3 —1-2 
 
 —1 
 
 12 —12 1-2 
 
 525 —530 
 
 
 811,500 
 
 6 8-4— 8 8-4 
 
 
 20 
 
 ^ — 
 
 80 
 
 1827 
 
 1-4 —1-2 
 
 1-2— 6-8 
 
 1 1 —11 1-4 
 
 511 1-4—515 
 
 
 287,806 
 
 6 8-4— 7 S-4 
 
 
 18 
 
 — . 
 
 20 
 
 1828 
 
 1-4 —8-8 
 
 3-4—1 
 
 10 1-2—11 
 
 510 -612 1-2 
 
 
 342,700 
 
 6 8-8— 7 8-8 
 
 
 IS 
 
 — 
 
 22 
 
 1829 
 
 —1-4 
 
 7-8 —1 1-8 
 
 9 5-8— j9 8-^ 
 
 —522 1-4 
 
 
 167,590 
 
 6 1-4^7 
 
 
 18 
 
 — 
 
 21 
 
 1830 
 
 8-8 —7-16 
 
 —1 
 
 10 1-4—10 1-4 
 
 682 1-2-5S6 
 
 84'895 
 
 203,200 
 
 7 — 7 7-8 
 
 
 18 
 
 — 
 
 20 
 
 1831 
 
 —1-4 
 
 7-8 —1 
 
 10 3-4—11 
 
 510 —511 1-4 
 
 119,428 
 
 258,000 
 
 6 7-8— 7 1-4 
 
 
 18 
 
 — 
 
 18 
 
 1832 
 
 8-8 —7-16 
 
 — 8-4 
 
 — 8 
 
 580 —582 1-2 
 
 41,599 
 
 212,350 
 
 7 —8 
 
 
 18 
 
 . — 
 
 18 
 
 1888 
 
 1-4 _8-3 
 
 8-4—1 
 
 7 — 7 1-2 
 
 —582 1-2 
 
 48,205 
 
 197,960 
 
 7 7-8—12 1-2 
 
 
 18 
 
 — 
 
 22 
 
 law 
 
 8-8 —1-2 
 
 1-2- 5-8 
 
 7 1-4^ 7 1-2 
 
 630 —632 1-2 
 
 29,617 
 
 180,770 
 
 8 7-8—11 
 
 
 20 
 
 . — 
 
 26 
 
 1886 
 
 8-8 — T-t6 
 
 3-4—1 
 
 9 — 9 1-4 
 
 522 1-2—526 
 
 41,623 
 
 145,810 
 
 10 1-4—13 1-4 
 
 
 30 
 
 ■ — 
 
 88 
 
 1886 
 
 8-8 —1-2 
 
 8-4—1 
 
 8 — 8 1-2 
 
 —525 . 
 
 48,841 
 
 184,700 
 
 10 1-2—12 
 
 
 80 
 
 — 
 
 36 
 
 1887 
 
 1-4 —3-8 
 
 8-4—1 
 
 14 —15 
 
 —502 1-2 
 
 75,820 
 
 204,590 
 
 7 1-4—11 
 
 
 80 
 
 — 
 
 40 
 
 1838 
 
 1-4 —6-16 
 
 1-2 — 8-4 
 
 10 —10 1-4 
 
 517 1-2—520 
 
 40,805 
 
 170,820 
 
 8 1-4— 9 1-2 
 
 
 80 
 
 — 
 
 83 
 
 1889 
 
 5-16—7-16 
 
 8-4—1 
 
 9 8-4—10 1-4 
 
 515 —517 1-2 
 
 62,244 
 
 248,840 
 
 7 1-2—10 1-4 
 
 
 36 
 
 — 
 
 86 
 
 1840 
 
 1-4—6-16 
 
 1-2 — 8-4 
 
 8 — 8 1-4 
 
 —620 
 
 68,442 
 
 1st Sept. 
 
 72,479 
 
 206,042 
 
 6 5-8— 7 1-4 
 
 
 28 
 
 — 
 
 36 
 
 1841 
 
 1-4 —5-16 
 
 8-4-1 
 
 9 8-4-10 
 
 —517 1-2 
 
 866,140 
 
 7' —7 3-4 
 
 
 24 
 
 — 
 
 28 
 
 1842 
 
 8-16—1-4 
 
 1-2— 8-4 
 
 6 8-4L- 7 1-2 
 
 —685 
 
 81,807 
 
 429,830 
 
 6 3-4—7 
 
 
 24 
 
 — 
 
 24 
 
 1848 
 
 8-16—1-4 
 
 8-8 — 5-8 
 
 9 —9 1-4 
 
 523 8-4-526 
 
 94,486 
 
 456,600 
 
 6 1-2— 6 1-2 
 
 
 24 
 
 — 
 
 24 
 
 1844 
 
 5-16-8-8 
 
 8-4—1 
 
 9 3-4—10 
 
 —522 1-2 
 
 159,772 
 
 658,880 
 
 6 1-4— 6 8-4 
 
 
 24 
 
 — 
 
 80 
 
 1845 
 
 1-4 —5-16 
 
 U-lfr- 8-4 
 
 9 8-4—10 1-4 
 
 628 8-4—625 
 
 98,420 
 
 749,680 
 
 5 — 6 3-4 
 
 
 30 
 
 — 
 
 80 
 
 1846 
 
 1-4 -6-16 
 
 5-8 — 7-8 
 
 8 1-2— 9 
 
 680 -632 1-2 
 
 107,122 
 
 885,480 
 
 5 — 7 8-4 
 
 
 80 
 
 — 
 
 30 
 
 1847 
 
 S-IO- 1,4 
 
 3-4—1 
 
 7 1-2—8 
 
 527 1-2—628 8-4 
 
 214,837 
 
 438,970 
 
 6 3-4— 8 1-4 
 
 8 
 
 —12 1-i:— 20— au 
 
 1848 
 
 —8-16 
 
 — 6-8 
 
 9 — 9 3-8 
 
 -ma 
 
 171,468 
 
 863,530 
 
 4 8-4—6 
 
 6 
 
 — 8 
 
 — iiu— ao 1 
 
 1849 
 
 —1-8 
 
 — 1-2 
 
 9 1-2— 9 8-4 
 
 525 —627 1-2 
 
 154,753 
 
 893,840 
 
 4 7-8— 7 1-8 
 
 6 1-2— 9 a-4^2U— HO 1 
 
 1850 
 
 —1-4 
 
 — 1-2 
 
 10 —10 1-2 
 
 520 -522 1-2 
 
 167,930 
 
 468,000 
 
 7 1-2— 8 8-4 
 
 9 — - - — — 
 
 —11 1-z— ai- 
 
 — au 
 
 1861 
 
 —1-8 
 
 — 3-8 
 
 10 l-4r-10 1-2 
 
 511 1-4—612 1-2 
 
 128,804 
 
 658,895 
 
 6 8-4— 8 5-8 
 
 8 
 
 — 11 
 
 — au- 
 
 —22 ' 
 
 1862 
 
 —1-8 
 
 — 1-4 
 
 10 1-4—10 5-8 
 
 518 8-4—515 
 
 91,176 
 
 423,730 
 
 5 3-4- 7 
 
 10 
 
 —18 
 
 — 22 — SJ» ] 
 
 1853 3-16—1-4 
 
 — 1-2 
 
 9 — 9 1-2 
 
 518 8-4—516 
 
 186,643 
 
 577,810 
 
 6 1-2— 7 1-4 
 
 18 
 
 — ^15 
 
 —28—86 
 
 1864 —1-8 
 
 — 1-2 
 
 9 1-4— 9 8-4 
 
 511 1-4—518 8-4 
 
 135,608 
 
 597,500 
 
 6 8-8— 7 
 
 9 1-z— IZ 
 
 —34—36 
 
 1855 6-82—8-16 
 
 — 1-4 9 5-8-10 
 
 —512 1-2 
 
 143,836 
 
 551,840 
 
 6 8-8— 7 1-2 
 
 8 
 
 -10 
 
 —80—34 
 
 1856 — 
 
 
 64,171 
 
 
 
 _.. 
 
 
 
 
 
COT 
 
 452 
 
 COT 
 
 circumstance which discovers a satisfactory explana- 
 tion in the large increase of tramsitu business between 
 the principal southern ports and the markets of Eu- 
 rope. These operations are mainly under the control 
 
 of parties in this city, acting in the capacity of specu- 
 lators, brokers, agents for foreign spinners, etc. It has 
 frequently happened that, when the stock here was re- 
 duced to a comparatively low figure, parties who operate 
 
 Statement showing the Estimated "Weekly Sales or Cotton in the City of New Toek, the Quotations roK 
 "MiDBiiNS Uplands" and "Middlins Okleans," with the Bates of Feeisht to Liveepool, and the couese 
 or Exchange on London and Pabis, fok the Teab ending Sept. 1, 1856. 
 
 Dote. 
 
 Sales. 
 
 Middling 
 Uplands. 
 
 Middling 
 Orleans. 
 
 Freight to Liverpool. 
 
 Exchange on 
 London. 
 
 Exchange on 
 Paris. 
 
 Sept. i, 1855 
 
 " 11 
 
 10,000 
 
 4,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 8,000 
 
 5,000 
 
 5,500 
 
 ■ 5,000 
 
 7,000 
 
 9,000 
 
 5,000 
 
 9,500 
 
 10,500 
 
 9,000 
 
 6,000 
 
 14,000 
 
 7,000 
 
 11,500 
 
 6,500 
 
 11,000 
 
 14,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 5,500 
 
 20,000 
 
 15,000 
 
 82,000 
 
 25,000 
 
 12,000 
 
 12,000 
 
 16,000 
 
 16,500 
 
 28,000 
 
 17,000 
 
 25,000 
 
 22,000 
 
 18,000 
 
 8,000 
 
 12,000 
 
 9,000 
 
 15,000 
 
 5,000 
 
 12.000 
 
 5;ooo 
 
 5,000 
 5,000 
 4,500 
 8,000 
 10,000 
 3,000 
 8,000 
 3,000 
 4,000 
 5,000 
 
 11 
 
 10 3-4 
 101-2 
 101-8 
 
 10 
 
 9 6-8 
 
 91-2 
 
 91-4 
 
 91-3 
 
 9 
 
 91-4 
 
 91-2 
 
 9 6-8 
 
 9 1-2 
 
 91-8 
 
 91-S 
 
 9 1-4 
 
 91-4 
 
 91-4 
 
 91-4 
 
 91-4 
 
 9 1-4 
 
 9 8-4 
 
 9 7-8 
 10 3-8 
 10 8-8 
 10 8-8 
 101-8 
 101-8 
 101-4 
 10 3-8 
 10 1-2 
 10 3-4 
 111-8 
 111-4 
 10 3-4 
 10 3.4 
 10 5.8 
 10 5-8 
 10 8-4 
 
 10 7-8 
 111-8 
 111-S 
 111-4 
 118-8 
 115-8 
 115-8 
 116-8 
 
 11 5.8"»'"- 
 11 5-8 no"- 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 113-8 
 111-8 
 10 8-4 
 10 8-8 
 10 1-4 
 10 
 
 9 7-8 
 
 9 8-4 
 
 9 6-8 
 
 9 8-8 
 
 9 5-8 
 
 9 7-8 
 10 
 
 9 5-8 
 
 9 1-2 
 
 9 1-2 
 
 91-2 
 
 91-2 
 
 91-2 
 
 91-2 
 
 91-2 
 
 9 1-2 
 10 ' 
 101-4 
 10 8-4 
 10 8-4 
 10 8-4 
 10 3-8 
 10 8-8 
 101-2 
 10 5-8 
 10 3-4 
 11 
 
 113-8 
 111-2 
 11 
 11 
 10 7-3 
 
 10 7-S 
 11 
 
 111-8 
 118-8 
 118-8 
 111-2 
 116-8 
 117-8 
 117-8 
 117-8 
 
 11 7-8"»'»- 
 11 7-8 ■">"'• 
 113-8 
 113-8 
 
 8-16— ... per lb. 
 8-16— 7-82 " 
 1-4 — 9-32 " 
 5-16— ... " 
 7-lft- 1-2 " 
 8-8 — 7-16 " 
 3-8—... " 
 5-16-11-82 " 
 6-16— ... " 
 1-4- ... " 
 5-32— 8-16 " 
 1-8 — 5-32 " 
 6-82— 3-16 " 
 6-82— 3-16 " 
 1-4 — . . . " 
 9-32— 5-16 " 
 7-82— 1-4 " 
 8-16— ... " 
 8-16— 7-82 •' 
 1-4— ... " 
 1-4 — ... " 
 1-4 — . . . " 
 3-16— ... " 
 7-32— 1^ " 
 1-4 — . . . 
 1-4 — g.32 " 
 8.16— 7-82 " 
 1-4— ... " 
 1-4 — 9-82 " 
 9-32— 5-16 " 
 1-4— ... " 
 1-4— ... " 
 3-16- ... " 
 1-8 — . . . " 
 1-8 — ... " 
 1-8—... " 
 3-16— ... " 
 3.16— 7-82 " 
 8-16— ... " 
 6-82— 3-16 " 
 8-16— 7-82 " 
 3-16— ... " 
 8-16— ... " 
 S-16— ... " 
 5-32— ... " 
 5-32— ... » 
 1-8 — 5-82 " 
 1-8 — . . . 
 1-8— ... " 
 1-8 — ... " 
 6-32— ... 
 6-32— ... " 
 
 109 3-4—110 
 109 3-4^110 
 109 7-8— .... 
 109 7-8— .... 
 1091-2— .... 
 109 —109 1-4 
 
 108 1-2—109 
 
 109 —109 1-4 
 108 1-2—109 
 108 1-2—109 
 108 —108 1-2 
 108 —108 1-4 
 108 —108 1-4 
 108 T-108 1-4 
 108 3-4^109 
 108 3-4—109 
 108 1-2—108 3-4 
 103 1-2— .... 
 108 —108 1-4 
 108 1-4—108 1-2 
 108 —108 1-2 
 108 1-4—108 1-2 
 
 108 1-2-108 3-4 
 
 109 —109 1-4 
 109 —109 1-4 
 109 —109 1-4 
 109 1-4—109 3-8 
 109 1-4—109 8-8 
 109 1-4—109 3-8 
 109 1-2— .... 
 1091-2— .... 
 1091-2— .... 
 109 5-8— .... 
 109 5-8— .... 
 109 3-4—110 
 1098-4- .... 
 
 109 3-4—110 
 
 110 — 
 
 109 3-4— .... 
 109 1-2—109 3-4 
 109 1-2—109 3-4 
 109 8-4^ .... 
 109 3-4—110 
 109 3-i-llO 
 
 109 8-4^110 
 
 110 —110 1-8 
 110 — .... 
 109 5-8—109 7-8 
 
 109 5-8—109 7-8 
 1098-4- .... 
 
 110 —110 1-4 
 110 —110 1-4 
 
 6.121-2— .... • 
 6.121-2— .... 
 5.121-2— .... 
 5.121-2- .... 
 5.13 3-4— .... 
 6.16 —5,16 1-4 
 6.16 1-4—5.18 8-4 
 
 5.16 1-4-5.18 3-4 
 
 6.17 1-2—5.20 
 
 5.17 1-2—6.18 3-4 
 
 5.18 3-4^-5.20 
 5.18 3-4—5,20 
 5,20 — .... 
 5.21 1-4—5.20 
 5.20 — .... 
 6.18 3-4-5.17 1-2 
 5.20 — .... 
 5.20 —5.22 1-2 
 5.221-2— .... 
 6.211-4— .... 
 6.211-4^ .... 
 5,211-4- ,,,, 
 5,211-4— ,,,, 
 6,211-4- .,,, 
 6.18 8-4—5.21 1-4 
 5.171-2— .... 
 5.171-2— .... 
 5.211-4^ .... 
 5.20 —6.17 1-2 
 5.20 —5.17 1-2 
 6.20 —5.17 1-2 
 5.17 1-2—5.18 8-4 
 5.17 1-2— .... 
 5,171-2— ,.,. 
 6,161-4- ,,.. 
 6.161-4— .... 
 6.161-4— .... 
 5.16 1-4— .... 
 5.161-4- .... 
 5.16 1-4— ,,,. 
 5,161-4— ,,,. 
 
 5.16 1-4- ,,. 
 
 5.17 1-2—5.15 
 5.17 1-2— ,5.16 
 
 5.16 1-4-5.15 
 
 5.17 1-4—5.15 
 5.17 1-2—5.15 
 6.17 1-2—5.15 
 5.17 1-2—5.15 
 5.16 l-4r-5.15 
 5.12 1-2— .... 
 5.12 1-2— .... 
 
 " 18 
 
 " 24 
 
 Oct. 2 
 
 8 
 
 " 16 
 
 " 22 
 
 " 30 
 
 Nov. 6 
 
 " 18 
 
 ■ " 19 
 
 " 2T . 
 
 Deo. 3 
 
 " 11 
 
 " 17 ... 
 
 " 25 
 
 Jan. 1, 1856 
 
 " 11 
 
 " 18 
 
 " 28 
 
 " 28 
 
 Feb. 5 
 
 " 11 
 
 " 19 
 
 " 25 
 
 
 " 10 
 
 " 18 
 
 " 24 
 
 April 1 
 
 7 
 
 " 16 
 
 " 21 
 
 " 29 
 
 Mav 6 
 
 " is;;::;::.:; 
 
 " 19 
 
 " 27 
 
 
 « 10 
 
 " 16 
 
 " 24 
 
 " 80 
 
 July 8 
 
 " 14 
 
 " 22 
 
 " 28 
 
 
 "°' u'::::::::: 
 
 "19 
 
 " 25 
 
 
 
 ExPOETf 
 
 FKOM, AND CONSU-MPTION OF COTTON IN, THE UnITED StATES, 
 
 FKOM 1827 
 
 TO 1356. 
 
 
 Year. 
 
 EXPORTS TO VARIOUS PLACES, 
 
 CONSUMPTION AT VARIOUS PLACES, ; 
 
 ENGLAJJD, 
 
 FRANCE, 
 
 OTHHK POINTS 
 
 TOTAL, 
 
 ENGLAND— 
 
 Bale 
 
 weekly. 
 
 FRANCE, 
 
 United States 
 north of 
 
 CnitcdS tales 
 south k west 
 
 England, 
 weekly, 
 
 
 Bales, 
 
 Bales, 
 
 Bales, 
 
 Bales, 
 
 Uplan.'ls. 
 
 Sea Is, 
 
 Bales. 
 
 Virginia, 
 
 of Virginia. 
 
 of aU kinds. 
 
 1827 
 
 646,1-39 
 
 157,962 
 
 49,707 
 
 853,798 
 
 8,181 
 
 754 
 
 280,000 
 
 103,483 
 
 
 
 12,977 
 
 1828 
 
 424,743 
 
 148,519 
 
 26,738 
 
 600,000 
 
 9,200 
 
 360 
 
 277,600 
 
 120,693 
 
 
 14,030 
 
 1829 
 
 489,001 
 
 184,821 
 
 66,173 
 
 749,000 
 
 9,092 
 
 369 
 
 241,680 
 
 104,858 
 
 
 14,831 
 
 1830 
 
 695,718 
 
 200,791 
 
 42,212 
 
 833,716 
 
 10,208 
 
 678 
 
 264,760 
 
 126,512 
 
 
 16,002 
 
 1881 
 
 618,718 
 
 127,029 
 
 27,036 
 
 772,788 
 
 11,041 
 
 685 
 
 250,784 
 
 182,142 
 
 
 16,496 
 
 1882 
 
 638,148 
 
 207,209 
 
 46,371 
 
 891,728 
 
 11,540 
 
 639 
 
 248,848 
 
 173,800 
 
 
 17,140 
 
 1833 
 
 680,145 
 
 207,517 
 
 29,793 
 
 867,465 
 
 11,863 
 
 460 
 
 272,463 
 
 194,412 
 
 
 16,928 
 
 18.34 
 
 766,291 
 
 216,424 
 
 56,286 
 
 1,027,951 
 
 13,094 
 
 617 
 
 806,000 
 
 196,413 
 
 
 17,667 
 
 1835 
 
 722,718 
 
 252,470 
 
 48,311 
 
 1,023,499 
 
 13,719 
 
 519 
 
 279,000 
 
 216,888 
 
 
 13,848 
 
 1886 
 
 771,148 
 
 266,188 
 
 79,267 
 
 1,116,608 
 
 13,991 
 
 666 
 
 308,736 
 
 236,733 
 
 
 19,452 
 
 1887 
 
 850,786 
 
 200,722 
 
 66,917 
 
 1,168,425 
 
 14,661 
 
 498 
 
 857,212 
 
 222,540 
 
 
 20,.383 
 
 1888 
 
 1,165,155 
 
 321,480 
 
 88,994 
 
 1,.575,629 
 
 17,247 
 
 8.'J4 
 
 360,508 
 
 246,063 
 
 
 23,204 
 
 1889 
 
 798,418 
 
 242,243 
 
 84,023 
 
 1,074,689 
 
 16,379 
 
 379 
 
 391,403 
 
 276,013 
 
 
 21,480 
 
 1840 
 
 1,246,701 
 
 447,465 
 
 181,747 
 
 1,876,008 
 
 19,200 
 
 310 
 
 826,288 
 
 295,193 
 
 
 24,068 
 
 1841 
 
 858,742 
 
 348,776 
 
 106,759 
 
 1,313,277 
 
 17,279 
 
 817 
 
 445,685 
 
 297,238 
 
 
 22,929 
 
 1842 
 
 985,631 
 
 398,129 
 
 181,487 
 
 2,465,247 
 
 16,822 
 
 265 
 
 361,277 
 
 267,850 
 
 
 22,816 
 
 1848 
 
 1,469,711 
 
 ,546,189 
 
 194,287 
 
 2,010,180 
 
 19,978 
 
 892 
 
 44?,086 
 
 825,129 
 
 
 26,294 
 
 1844 
 
 1,208,498 
 
 232,685 
 
 144,807 
 
 1,629,490 
 
 21,821 
 
 296 
 
 830,373 
 
 846,744 
 
 
 27,473 
 
 1845 
 
 1,489,306 
 
 859,367 
 
 285,093 
 
 1,083,766 
 
 24,412 
 
 856 
 
 830,947 
 
 889,006 
 
 
 80,277 
 
 1348 
 
 1,102,869 
 
 859,703 
 
 204,720 
 
 1,666,792 
 
 ?^'5^S 
 
 877 
 
 417,851 
 
 422,597 
 
 
 80,498 
 
 1847 
 
 830,909 
 
 241,486 
 
 163,827 
 
 1,241,222 
 
 16,400 
 
 383 
 
 418,079 
 
 427,967 
 
 
 92,266 
 
 1848 
 
 1,824,265 
 
 279,172 
 
 254,834 
 
 1,368,261 
 
 22,448 
 
 393 
 
 292,407 
 
 531,772 
 
 75,000 
 
 28,146 
 
 1849 
 
 1,587,901 
 
 863,259 
 
 321,684 
 
 2,227,864 
 
 24,111 
 
 868 
 
 269,102 
 
 518,089 
 
 110,000 
 
 30,546 
 
 1850 
 
 1,106,771 
 
 289,627 
 
 193,757 
 
 1,690,165 
 
 20,288 
 
 283 
 
 861,672 
 
 437,769 
 
 107,500 
 
 29,126 
 
 1851 
 
 1,418,265 
 
 301,358 
 
 269,087 
 
 1,988,710 
 
 23,746 
 
 427 
 
 810,612 
 
 404,108 
 
 60,000 
 
 81,988 
 
 1852 
 
 1,668,749 
 
 421,375 
 
 353,622 
 
 2,443,646 
 
 27,748 
 
 577 
 
 851,657 
 
 608,029 
 
 75,000 
 
 35,790 
 
 1858 
 
 1,786,860 
 
 426,728 
 
 364,812 
 
 2,528,400 
 
 27,614 
 
 857 
 
 894,612 
 
 671,009 
 
 90,000 
 
 36,613 
 
 1854 
 
 1,603,750 
 
 874,058 
 
 841,840 
 
 2,819,148 
 
 29,138 
 
 427 
 
 866,786 
 
 610,671 
 
 105,000 
 
 87,829 
 
 1865 
 
 1,649,716 
 
 409,931 
 
 284,560 
 
 2,244,209 
 
 29,728 
 
 550 
 
 
 598,684 
 
 86,000 
 
 40,408 
 
 1856 
 
 1.921,886 
 
 480,637 
 
 652,898 
 
 2,954,606 
 
 
 
 
 652.729 
 
 117.500 
 
 
COT 
 
 453 
 
 COT 
 
 in transitu cotton were purchasing from twenty to thirty 
 thousand bales per week, and not unfrequently turning 
 the staple over two or three times in the period which 
 used to suffice, under the old system, of making but 
 one fair profit out Of it. The theory of certain par- 
 ties, based upon an incorrect estimate of things as they 
 are, favors the impression that the cotton trade of Kew 
 York is on the wane, but like all other theories resting 
 only upon the basis of the imagination, it fades away 
 before the recital of the hard facts that stare it in the 
 face. 
 
 New York being the centre of the world's trade on 
 this continent — ^the grand focus of all the latest intel- 
 ligence from the old world, and all sections of the 
 new, the rendezvous of nearly all the most important 
 lines of ocean steamers, the entrepot of more than five 
 eighths of the entire foreign conmierce of the country, 
 the readiest medium, financially and every other way, 
 between the producer and the consumer, the planter 
 and agriculturist here, and the factor and manufacturer 
 there — New York being all this and much more besides, 
 we repeat, it must continue to control the cotton trade 
 
 of the country for a century to come. But it is some- 
 times inferred that the American cotton trade at large 
 is destined to an eventual decline, in consequence of 
 the constant endeavors of Great Britain to seek new 
 fields for its cultivation by means of what is called 
 free labor, near the pyramids of Egj-pt, and among the 
 sicldy malarias of the East Indies. These experiments, 
 we think, have been sufficiently tested to justify the 
 conclusion, that the cotton planter of the United States 
 has nothing to apprehend, for at least a generation to 
 come, from any competition from these sources. Even 
 did the endeavor to cultivate the plant in the Indies 
 succeed to any considerable extent, it must be conceded 
 that the remoteness of the producer from the manu- 
 facturer, must always give us such an advantage, as 
 regards low freights and expeditious transit, as would 
 render the colonial speculation comparatively profit- 
 less. There are many other considerations and argu- 
 ments which might be adduced to substantiate this 
 conclusion, but these, we take it for granted, are not 
 required, to allay any serious apprehensions of do- 
 mestic ruin from this species of foreign competition. 
 
 Stocks of Cotton on Hand in the United States on 81st August. Bales. 
 
 
 1856. 
 
 1865. 
 
 1854. 
 
 1858. 
 
 1859. 
 
 1851. 
 
 1850. 
 
 1849. 
 
 1848. 
 
 1847. 
 
 New Orleans . . 
 
 Mobile 
 
 Florida. 
 
 Texas 
 
 Sav'h&Ang'a. 
 
 ChaTleston 
 
 N. Carolina.. .. 
 
 Virginia. 
 
 New York 
 
 Other N. ports. 
 Total 
 
 6,995 
 5,005 
 T4 
 628 
 8,331 
 8,144 
 
 "843 
 
 84,667 
 
 9,500 
 
 89,425 
 
 28,619 
 
 166 
 
 2,062 
 
 8,837 
 
 2,085 
 
 "650 
 
 56,846 
 
 9,846 
 
 24,121 
 29,278 
 688 
 2,206 
 11,818 
 17,081 
 
 "750 
 82,988 
 17,129 
 
 10,522 
 7,516 
 628 
 428 
 12,984 
 15,126 
 
 "460 
 67,676 
 20,469 
 
 9,768 
 
 2,819 
 
 451 
 
 817 
 
 6,667 
 
 11,146 
 
 "450 
 45,796 
 
 14,282 
 
 16,890 
 27,797 
 278 
 596 
 84,011 
 10,968 
 
 "620 
 
 86,410 
 
 8,860 
 
 16,612 
 12,962 
 1,148 
 265 
 29,069 
 80,698 
 
 1,660 
 60,720 
 16,456 
 
 16,480 
 
 6,046 
 
 615 
 
 452 
 
 25,319 
 
 28,806 
 
 i',760 
 67,035 
 15,250 
 
 87,401 
 28,684 
 607 
 747 
 86,603 
 14,085 
 
 "444 
 41,967 
 16,180 
 
 23,498 
 24,172 
 2,108 
 82 
 26,020 
 29,656 
 
 "448 
 83,269 
 26,650 
 
 64,171 1 143,836 | 135,688 
 
 186,648 
 
 91,176 
 
 128,900 
 
 167,930 
 
 164,753 
 
 171,468 
 
 214,887 
 
 IV. Cotton Trade of the United States with 
 Great Britain. 1. General Information Respecting 
 the Cotton Trade of the United States. — Great Sritain. — 
 The annual average importation of cotton from all 
 oountries into England the last five years has been 
 838,335,984 pounds, of which quantities, according to 
 British authorities, 661,529,220 pounds, or more than 
 three fourths, were from the United States. The an- 
 nual average exportation to the Continent and else- 
 where has been 122,810,688 pounds, or abont one sixth 
 of the total quantity imported, leaving 715,525,296 
 pounds for the annual average consumption. About 
 one sixth of the whole amount imported was from Brit- 
 *itsh possessions. 
 
 In 1781, Great Britain commenced the re-exportation 
 of cotton to the Continent and felsewhere. In 1815 
 the quantity thus re-exported had risen from the an- 
 nual average of 1,000,000 pounds to that of 6,000,000 
 pounds. In 1853, the aggregate amount exported ex- 
 ceeded 148,500,000 pounds, of which nearly 83,000,000 
 pounds were derived from the United States, and more 
 than 60,000,000 pounds from the East Indies. The 
 quantity of American cotton re-exported by Great 
 Britain to the different markets of Europe, when com- 
 pared with the quantities imported, is much less than 
 of that imported &om other countries — a fact which 
 suggests the superiority of the American article, and its 
 better adaptation to purposes of fabrile industrj'. For 
 example, about one tenth of the cotton imported from 
 the United States is re-exported, against nearly one 
 half of that imported from the East Indies. A com- 
 parison between American and East India cotton, shows 
 a difference of 100 per cent, in favor of the former ; 
 the cotton of the East Indies containing 25 per cent, 
 of waste, while that of the United States contains only 
 12J per cent. The fibre, also, of the latter excels that 
 of the former. 
 
 In 1788, the efibrts of the East India Company com- 
 menced for the promotion of the growth of cotton, and 
 for the improvement of its quality, in British India ; 
 and the first exportation of the article to England was 
 made the same year. In 1814 the exportation amounted 
 to 4,000,000 pounds ; it now averages 165,000,000 
 
 pounds per annum. An area of about 8000 square 
 nules is said to be devoted to the culture. Liverpool 
 is the great mart of the cotton trade of Great Britain 
 and of Europe generaUj'. Thus, while the total im- 
 ports of the article into the United Kingom, according 
 to British authorities, in 1852, amounted to 2,357,338 
 bales, the quantity at this port reached 2,205,738 bales. 
 About six sevenths of the cotton received at Liverpool 
 cames from the United States ; and of this four fifths 
 is estimated to be imported for the factories of Lanca- 
 shire and Yorkshire. Since March, 1845, cotton has 
 been admitted into British ports free of duty. Prior to 
 that period the duty was, of and from British posses- 
 sions, 8 cents; from other places, 70 cents per 112 
 pounds. The number of spindles in operation in En- 
 gland is estiinated at more than 20,000,000. The value 
 of cotton supplied by the United States to Great Britain 
 in 1853 was $57,616,749, being about the average each 
 year the last four. The quantity of cotton exported 
 from the United States to England in 11 months of the 
 fiscal year 1856, is estimated at 2,755,000 bales. It 
 appears from " Commerce and Navigation," that the 
 importation of raw cotton from the British "West Indies 
 into the United States has increased, for some years 
 past, in a ratio quite proportional to the decrease of 
 such importation into Great Britain. Thus, the import- ,- 
 ation of cotton into the United States and Great 
 Britain, respectively, from the British West Indies, 
 from 1851 to 1855, inclusive, was as follows : 
 
 Into the Into 
 
 Tears. United Statea. Great Britain. 
 
 1851 pounds.. 29,858 446,529 
 
 1852 " .. 6,756 708,696 
 
 1858 " .. 252,892 844,060 
 
 1854 " .. 159,881 205,072 
 
 1855 " ..880,217 No data. 
 
 The average price per pound of cotton from 1851 to 
 1855, inclusive, in the United States and Great Britain, 
 respectively, is shown as follows : 
 
 In the 
 Years. United States. 
 
 1851 12.11 cents. 
 
 1852 8.05 " 
 
 1858 9.86 " 
 
 1854 9.47 " 
 
 1855 8.74 " 
 
 At Man- 
 chester, G. B. 
 
 12 1-4 cents. 
 
 11 1-4 " 
 
 12 4-7 " 
 12 3-4 " 
 12 1-1 " 
 
COT 
 
 454 
 
 COT 
 
 The following statement shows the quantities of cot- 
 ton imported into Great Britain, and the countries 
 whence imported, from 1840 to 1855. The figures are 
 derived from a " Statistical Abstract for the United 
 Kingdom, presented to both Houses of Parliament, by 
 command of her Majesty," by Mr. Albany W. Fon- 
 blauque, superintendent of the statistical department 
 of the Board of Trade. The commercial year in En- 
 
 gland begins January 1 ; in the United States, July 1 j 
 hence, seeming discrepancies in figures for apparently 
 the same periods of time. In the following table 
 the column headed Egypt includes Turkey, Syria, and 
 the Mediterranean generally ; the East Indies includes 
 British India generally; the West Indies, the West 
 India Islands belonging to Great Britain, and British 
 Guiana : 
 
 Yean. 
 
 Pounds of Cotton Imported into Great Britain from — 
 
 United States. 
 
 Brazil. 
 
 E^Tpt. \ East Indies. 
 
 West Indies. 
 
 Elsewhere. 
 
 All couatries. 
 
 1840 
 
 487,856,604 
 853,240,964 
 414,030,779 
 674,788,620 
 617,218,622 
 626,650,412 
 401,949,398 
 864,599,291 
 600,247,488 
 634,504,050 
 493,153,112 
 696,638,962 
 766,680,644 
 658,451,796 
 722,151,360 
 679,264,096 
 
 14,779,171 
 16,671,848 
 15,222,828 
 18,676,123 
 21,084,744 
 20,157,633 
 14,746,821 
 19,966,923 
 19,971,378 
 30,738,183 
 80,299,982 
 19,.389,104 
 26,606,144 
 24,190,628 
 19,708,600 
 24,577,962 
 
 8,824,987 
 
 9,097,180 
 
 4,489,017 
 
 9,674,076 
 
 12,406,327 
 
 14,614,699 
 
 14,278,447 
 
 4,814,268 
 
 7,2.31,861 
 
 17,869,848 
 
 18,981,414 
 
 16,960,525 
 
 48,068,640 
 
 28,368,574 
 
 23,353,120 
 
 82,622,688 
 
 77,011,839 
 
 97,338,158 
 
 92,972,609 
 
 65,709,729 
 
 88,639,776 
 
 53,487,426 
 
 34,640,143 
 
 83,934,614 
 
 84,101,961 
 
 70,888,516 
 
 118,872,742 
 
 122,626,976 
 
 84,922,432 
 
 181,848,160 
 
 119,829,162 
 
 146,218,976 
 
 866,157 
 
 1,688,197 
 
 698,603 
 
 1,260,444 
 
 1,707,194 
 
 1,394,447 
 
 1,201,857 
 
 798,933 
 
 640,487 
 
 944,307 
 
 228,913 
 
 446,529 
 
 708,696 
 
 844,060 
 
 205,072 
 
 No data. 
 
 8,649,402 
 
 6,061,618 
 4,441,250 
 8,185,224 
 5,054,641 
 726,886 
 1,140,113 
 698,587 
 827,086 
 1,074,164 
 2,090,698 
 1,377,663 
 8,960,992 
 2,078,662 
 2,090,800 
 8,476,160 
 
 692,448,010 
 487,992,855 
 581,750,086 
 678,198,116 
 646,111,804 
 721,979,958 
 467,856,274 
 474,707,615 
 718,020,161 
 765,469,012 
 668,576,861 
 767,879,749 
 929,782,448 
 895,266,780 
 887,888,104 
 890,159,872 
 
 1841 
 
 1842 
 
 1848 
 
 1844 
 
 1845 
 
 1846 
 
 1847 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 
 
 1860 
 
 1851 
 
 1862 
 
 1853.. 
 
 1864 
 
 1855 
 
 Aggregate 5 years . 
 Average 6 years... 
 
 3,422,136,758 
 684,427,861 
 
 114,817,423 
 22,868,486 
 
 149,888,647 
 29,867,709 
 
 664,445,696 
 180,889,139 
 
 1,699,857 
 424,889 
 
 17,984,167 
 8,596,888 
 
 4,859,921,963 
 871,984,890 
 
 Statement showing the Quantities of Cotton Expoeted bt Great Britain to ale, Countries, respectively, and 
 THE Countries "whence Imported, for a period of Five Years, from 1851 to 1655, both inclusive.* 
 
 Years. 
 
 Exported to aU 
 countries. 
 
 
 Otwhicli 
 
 was Imported 
 
 from— 
 
 
 United State.v 
 
 Brazil. 
 
 Egypt. 
 
 East Indies. 
 
 Elsewhere. 
 
 1851 
 
 Pounds. 
 111,980,400 
 
 111,875,466 
 148,669,680 
 125,554,800 
 124,.345,760 
 
 Founds. 
 66,921,84-1 
 69,217,120 
 82,701,472 
 56,101,200 
 56,989,682 
 
 Pounds. 
 1,888,880 
 8,619,840 
 4,786,768 
 1,488,192 
 
 759,860 
 
 Pounds. 
 211,008 
 124,666 
 948,416 
 369,600 
 386,064 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 42,959,168 
 88,864.672 
 60,082,064 
 68,645,808 
 66.210,704 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 49,168 
 50,960 
 
 1852 
 
 1868 
 
 1864. 
 
 1856 
 
 Annual average 
 
 124,466,219 
 
 66,186,163 
 
 2,498,608 
 
 407,948 
 
 55,852,483 
 
 
 * Compiled from the monthly "Accounts Relating to Trade and Navigation," presented to the British Parliament, the 
 only authority at hand from which the countries whence the cotton exported was imported could he ascertained. Eesnlts 
 gathered fi'om these monthly accounts sometimes vary from those given in the "Annual Statement of the Trade and Navi- 
 gation of the United Kingdom," from which latter document was made up the tahle that follows. 
 
 Countries to which exported. 
 
 Pounds of cotton exported from Great Britain In the years— 
 
 Annual 
 avernge. 
 
 1851. I 18S2. 
 
 1853. 
 
 1864. 
 
 Russia 
 
 86,185,472 
 
 2,4.34,666 
 
 1,676,064 
 
 27,478,040 
 
 22,119,104 
 
 12,866,480 
 
 1,365,604 
 
 2,742,320 
 
 1,366,064 
 
 2,647,120 
 
 45,605,840 
 
 8,691,840 
 
 674,240 
 
 22,472,016 
 
 16,884,224 
 
 12,657,680 
 
 2,225,440 
 
 2,238,208 
 
 1,957,083 
 
 2,824,660 
 
 48,937,892 
 4,414,868 
 1,143,296 
 33,417,440 
 28,676,592 
 18,466,672 
 2,408,968 
 3,860,864 
 3,830,288 
 3,413,800 
 
 208,544 
 
 5,866,660 
 
 28,444,624 
 
 86,066,264 
 
 26,984,644 
 
 14,040,768 
 
 2,769,282 
 
 8,821,828 
 
 4,311,856 
 
 6,888,892 
 
 82,484,812 
 4,076,856 
 6,709,556 
 29,864,410 
 23,391,116 
 14,505,400 
 2,188,586 
 8,166,680 
 2,991,824 
 8,443,468 
 
 
 
 Hanse Towns 
 
 Holland , 
 
 
 France , 
 
 Sardinia 
 
 
 
 Aggregate 
 
 109,765,824 
 
 109,531,136 
 
 148,569,680 
 
 128,826,112 
 
 122,310,688 
 
 
 Statement of Impokt of Cotton in Bales into Great Britain, DtrniNO the last 
 
 Ten Tears. 
 
 18B5. 
 
 Athmllc 
 
 New Orlenna, 
 
 Total 
 
 Brazil. 
 
 
 W. Indies, 
 
 
 Kast 
 
 
 States. 
 
 JUobile, etc. 
 
 United States. 
 
 and Borbice, 
 
 etc. 
 
 
 Indies. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Liverpool 
 
 620,886 
 
 987,594 
 
 1,608,480 
 
 184,442 
 
 1,090 
 
 6,844 
 
 112,100 
 
 279,856 
 
 2,142,812 ■ 
 
 London 
 
 207 
 
 74 
 
 281 
 
 820 
 
 
 468 
 
 40 
 
 99,377 
 
 100,986 
 
 Bristol & Hull.. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 665 
 
 6S5 
 
 Glasgow 
 
 5,726 
 
 8.991 
 
 14,717 
 
 
 
 644 
 
 2,878 
 
 15,626 
 
 88,766 
 
 Total, 1865.... 
 
 626,819 
 
 996,659 
 
 1,623,478 
 
 134,762 
 
 1,090 
 
 7,866 
 
 115,018 
 
 896,014 
 
 2,278,218 
 
 " 1854.... 
 
 618,509 
 
 1,152,970 
 
 1,666,479 
 
 107,893 
 
 672 
 
 8,775 
 
 81,085 
 
 808,298 
 
 2,172,697 
 
 " 1863.... 
 
 508,787 
 
 1,028,276 
 
 1,582,068 
 
 182,443 
 
 572 
 
 8,267 
 
 105,398 
 
 485,627 
 
 2,264,270 
 
 " 1852.... 
 
 562,104 
 
 1,154,809 
 
 1,789,218 
 
 144,197 , 
 
 
 12,530 
 
 189,935 
 
 221,418 
 
 2,357,888 
 
 " 1851.... 
 
 480,464 
 
 913,242 
 
 1,398,706 
 
 108,721 ' 
 
 
 4,877 
 
 67.433 
 
 828,809 
 
 1,908,646 
 
 " 1850.... 
 
 510,248 
 
 615,646 
 
 1,184,194 
 
 171,797 
 
 
 6,660 
 
 79,748 
 
 807,901 
 
 1,749*295, 
 
 " 1849.... 
 
 499,260 
 
 883,777 
 
 1,477,727 
 
 163,768 
 
 
 9,114 
 
 72,651 
 
 182,167 
 
 1,905,427, 
 
 " 1848.... 
 
 451,009 
 
 678,183 
 
 1,875,875 
 
 100,201 
 
 
 7,889 
 
 29,010 
 
 227,512 
 
 1,739,997 
 
 " 1847.... 
 
 274,217 
 
 556,489 
 
 874,087 
 
 110,229 
 
 
 
 4,986 
 
 20,729 
 
 222,766 
 
 1,282,797 
 
 " 1846.... 
 
 246,278 
 
 686,828 
 
 990,996 
 
 84,178 
 
 
 12,998 
 
 60,631 
 
 166,140 
 
 1,248,987 
 
 Export and Consumption of Cotton in Great Britain foe four Tears. 
 
 1855. 
 
 EXPORT. 
 
 CONSUMPTION. 1 
 
 Liverpool. 
 
 London. 
 
 Other 
 Ports. 
 
 .Total. 1 1854. ( 1863. | 1S62. 
 
 1855. [ 1864. 
 
 1863. 
 
 lasa. 
 
 American. . 
 
 Brazil 
 
 West India. 
 
 Egyptian . . 
 
 East India. 
 
 Total.. 
 
 120,800 
 
 4,700 
 
 200 
 
 2,600 
 
 106,500 
 
 850 
 
 60 
 
 50 
 
 . 50 
 
 82,100 
 
 
 120,650 
 
 4,760 
 
 250 
 
 2,650 
 
 188,600 
 
 187,500 
 
 8,200 
 
 100 
 
 2,000 
 
 168,600 
 
 176,000 
 
 18,100 
 
 600 
 
 8,400 
 
 151,500 
 
 166,960 
 
 14,300 
 
 800 
 
 1,000 
 
 100,740 
 
 1,577,948 1,526,589 
 
 114,472 100,678 
 
 9,066 9,177 
 
 120,983 105,215 
 
 276,884 207,728 
 
 1,408,963 
 
 119,813 
 
 10,699 
 
 119,643 
 
 196,687 
 
 1,607,765 
 
 124,464 
 
 9,863 
 
 109,005 
 
 160,461 
 
 284,800 
 
 82,600 
 
 
 816,900 
 
 816,400 
 
 849,600 1 282,800 
 
 2,099,298 1,949,827 | 1,854,610 
 
 1,911,568 
 
COT 
 
 455 
 
 COT 
 
 Statement ob" Stock 
 
 OP OoraON IN BsiTisn Poets, 
 
 A.T TIZB OLOSE OF THE LAST SIX 
 
 Teabs. 
 
 
 Description. 
 
 1865. 
 
 Total In the kingdom. | 
 
 Liverpool. 
 
 Loudoii. 
 
 Other Porta. 
 
 isse. 
 
 1864. 
 
 1863. 
 
 1863. 
 
 1861. 
 
 18S0. 
 
 
 10,240 
 1,590 
 
 84,220 
 
 88,240 
 
 102,590 
 
 22,560 
 
 18,440 
 
 21,900 
 
 48,290 
 
 82,200 
 
 140 
 
 8,400 
 
 "iso 
 '"eo 
 
 100 
 
 49,640 
 890 
 250 
 
 860 
 
 10 
 
 880 
 
 830 
 
 2,550 
 
 2,m 
 
 380 
 
 10,600 
 
 1,600 
 
 85,280 
 
 88,570 
 
 105,140 
 
 22,560 
 
 18,500 
 
 22,000 
 
 50,870 
 
 182,170 
 
 1,080 
 
 8,650 
 
 sii'sio 
 
 47^520 
 
 58,990 
 202,620 
 
 i'oio 
 
 808,870 
 
 49,66o 
 
 85,120 
 
 !• 270,650 
 
 8,940 
 
 860^770 
 
 si'eio 
 
 102,770 
 
 138,210 
 
 6,160 
 
 245,800 
 
 49,600 
 
 25,900 
 J 172,000 
 
 1,300 
 
 278,96o 
 68,f6o 
 
 sb'ioo 
 
 143,400 
 
 i'soo 
 
 Stalueddo 
 
 Upland 
 
 Mobile and Alabama. 
 
 New Orleans 
 
 rernambuco, e*c 
 
 Babia and Macelo 
 
 Maranham 
 
 
 8urat and Madras. . . . 
 
 Bengal and Manilla... 
 
 Other descriptions. . . . 
 
 Total 
 
 428,810 
 
 51,120 
 
 6,540 
 
 486,470 
 
 624,450 
 
 717,580 
 
 657,520 
 
 494,500 
 
 522,400 
 
 
 LIVEEPOOL COTTON STATEMENT. 
 
 Bales. 
 
 Stock, 1st January, 1856 651,800 
 
 Import in 1885 2,142,709 
 
 Bales. 
 
 '^°*'" ^"eeU^retont^^^^'."".^?! [ ^•''*^'»^'' 
 Deduct proportion sold to specu- 
 lators for re-sale 
 
 3,694,000 
 
 Stock, 1st January, 1856 428,800 
 
 Bales. 
 
 '^"'"porfinS"^"™ ''?*.°''" [2.265,200, or 48,562 pr. wk. 
 [In 1854— 2,114,ib'o'or4o|656 
 bales per week.] 
 Ded. esp. to Continent, 228,500 ( o<vi onn 
 " Ireland... S^O f Jf^ 
 
 Taken for consumption 2,080,900, or 89,056 pr. wk. 
 
 [Inl854,.. 1,885,800, or 86,260 " ] 
 
 LONDON COTTON STATEMENT. 
 
 Stockr 1st January, 1855 62,800 
 
 Import in 1865. 101,000 
 
 Bales. 
 
 158,300 
 
 Stock, lot January, 1866 51,100 ) 
 
 Eifportcd to the Continent. . . 82,600 J 
 " Liverpool ) 
 
 Taken for consumption in England . . . 19,600 or 377 pr. wk. 
 [In 1854.. 7,600 " 146 " 
 
 The above figures show that the past year's con- 
 sumption was double that of 1840. The aggregate 
 production of the past 12 j'ears sums up 37,297,500 
 bales, while the consumption has been 38,212,500; the 
 latter being in excess of the former 925,000 bales, thus 
 reducing the stock of new material iiy that much since 
 1845 — a startling fact in view of the great interests 
 involved. 
 
 From a reliable source of intelligence across the 
 water, we learn that new machinery added to mills 
 now working, together with manufactories now in 
 process of erection, will require in 1857 about 4,000 
 bales of cotton per week more than the consumption 
 of the present year, making an aggregate of nearly 
 45,000 bales per week. On the Continent, the exten- 
 sion of mantrfacturing power is supposed to be going 
 on at about the same rate. Consequently prices will 
 advance till they reach a point tending to a diminution 
 of consumption. What that point will be we have yet 
 to learn. Though the stock of cotton, at present, is 
 larger in Liverpool than last year, it will be reduced 
 very rapidly, as the imports up to the close of the 
 year can scarcely be more than half so large as during 
 the latter months of 1845, and perhaps not even that, 
 in consequence of the lateness of the season and dimin- 
 ished receipts at our ports. 
 
 2. France. — Cotton constitutes in value more than 
 two thirds of the domestic exports of the United States 
 to France. By virtue of the treaty of 1832, it is im- 
 ported, like all other " articles of the growth, produce, 
 or manufacture of the United States," on the same 
 terms, whether in United States or national vessels ; 
 but the importation must be direct, and the origin of 
 the article duly authenticated. A ministerial decree 
 
 of December 17, 1851, enlarges the provision of the 
 treaty relative to the direct voyage, so far as to extend 
 the equality between the vessels of the two nations 
 when importing cotton, even should the American ves- 
 sel touch at a British port ; but, in that case, the cap- 
 tain is required to exhibit a certificate from the French 
 consul at that port, stating that no commercial trans- 
 action there took place. The French government is 
 directing its efforts to the development and extension 
 of the cotton culture in its colonial province of Algeria. 
 To that end, in December, 1853, an aggrgate value of 
 20,000 francs, in prizes, was offered by the emperor to 
 the most successful cultivator of cotton in that province. 
 The result is announced as most favorable. In De- 
 cember, 1854, the entire sum was divided between 
 three rivals, whose merits were judged equal — two of 
 them being French colonists, and one an Arab — a gold 
 medal to each being also awarded. To the meritorious 
 of the second rank, a silver medal to each was pre- 
 sented. The amount produced in 1854 was 180,552 
 pounds. Next to Great Britain, France is the largest 
 importer of American cotton ; and what Liverpool is 
 to the former, Havre is to the latter. At those two 
 points the importations are concentrated, and thence 
 distributed to the different markets of either empire, or 
 re-exported to foreign countries. The re-exportations 
 of France are chiefly to Switzerland by railway ; after 
 which country, in this trade, come Sardinia and Hol- 
 land ; smaller quantities being sent also to Spain, the 
 ZoUverein and other countries. Next to the United 
 States, France derives her supplies of cotton from the 
 Levant ; and the third place is held by South America. 
 These facts are illustrated by the following statements, 
 made up from the " Tableau General du Commerce dela 
 France," for the year designated. [The quantities are 
 given in kilogrammes, each kilogramme being equal 
 to about 2 1-5 pounds. Kilogrammes multiplied by 9 
 and divided by 4 will give pounds.] 
 
 Tabulak compaeative Statement showing tiie Quan- 
 tities OP Cotton Imported into Feanoe, and the 
 
 CoUNTEIES WHENCE IMPORTED, FOR A PERIOD OF TbREE 
 
 Tears, from 1852 to 1855, both inclusite. 
 
 Countries whence 
 imported. 
 
 United States.. 
 
 Egypt 
 
 Turkey 
 
 England 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Peru 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Hayti 
 
 East Indies.... 
 Elsewhere 
 
 KilogrammeB of cotton imported into France In 
 the years — 
 
 76,104,454 
 
 4,382,575 
 
 1,027,887 
 
 988,907 
 
 281,074 
 
 418,668 
 
 168,716 
 
 816,958 
 
 76,697 
 
 47,955 
 
 898,091 
 
 1853. 
 
 79,881,785 
 
 4,831,872 
 
 1,871.239 
 
 890;322 
 
 608,449 
 
 280,813 
 
 283,838 
 
 169.686 
 
 104;610 
 
 6,674 
 
 191,029 
 
 88,065,022 
 
 1854.. 
 
 77,746,470 
 
 8,601,827 
 
 875,884 
 
 1,647,994 
 
 875,860 
 
 127,912 
 
 289,688 
 
 68,061 
 
 77,166 
 
 188,649 
 
 206,669 
 
 84,668,022 
 
 The onlj^ country in Europe which can, in any sense, 
 be said to compete with Great Britain in the supply of 
 the extra European demand for cotton goods is France. 
 And when the character and extent of this branch of 
 the French export trade are described it will be seen 
 that this most formidable rival is not yet much to be 
 dreaded. 
 
COT 
 
 456 
 
 COT 
 
 TABULAn COMPAEATITE STATEMENT EXHIBITING THE QlTANTITIEB OP COTTON IMPORTED INTO FbANOE FBOM THE UnITEB 
 
 States, and feom othbe Counteieb, includinq Beazil, -with the Aggeegates, fkom 1820 to 1855. 
 
 Years. 
 
 From 
 United States. 
 
 From 
 other Places. 
 
 1S20 
 
 Kilograms. 
 11,630,000 
 10,155,000 
 9,600,000 
 12,196,000 
 15,749,000 
 13,464,000 
 21,921,000 
 21,880,000 
 21,617,000 
 25,844,000 
 23,150,000 
 22,778,000 
 27,383,000 
 28,819,000 
 31,537,000 
 32,323,000 
 36,368,000 
 36,469,000 
 
 Kilograms. 
 
 8,573,000 
 12,432,000 
 12,072,000 
 
 8,153,000 
 
 1821 
 
 1822 .. . . 
 
 1S2S 
 
 1824 
 
 12,281,000 
 
 1825 
 
 11,213,000 
 
 1826 
 
 9,698,000 
 
 182T 
 
 7,804.000 
 
 1828 
 
 5,7-58,000 
 
 1829 
 
 6,996,000 
 
 1830 
 
 s;iio,ooo 
 
 1831 
 
 5,461,000 
 
 1832 
 
 5,253,000 
 
 1833 
 
 6,791,000 
 
 1334 
 
 6,,n43,000 
 
 1836 
 
 6,437,000 
 
 1836 
 
 7,964,000 
 
 1837 
 
 7,361,000 
 
 Aggregate. 
 
 Aggregate. 
 
 Kilograms. 
 20,203,000 
 22,887,000 
 21,672,000 
 20,364,000 
 28,030,000 
 24,067,000 
 31,914,000 
 29,684,000 
 2T 376,000 
 31,839,000 
 29,260,000 
 28 229,000 
 32,638,000 
 36,610,000 
 86,935,000 
 38,700.000 
 44,832,000 
 43,830,000 
 
 1838. 
 1839. 
 1840. 
 1841. 
 1842. 
 1843, 
 1844. 
 1846. 
 1846. 
 1S47. 
 1848. 
 1840. 
 1850. 
 1851. 
 1852. 
 1853. 
 1S64, 
 1855, 
 
 Kilograms. 
 43,780,000 
 34832,000 
 48,581,000 
 50,360,000 
 52,832,000 
 86,135,000 
 64,249,000 
 56,642,000 
 60,760,000 
 42,225,000 
 43,240,000 
 60,931,000 
 64,919,000 
 53,914 000 
 66,740,000 
 70,221,000 
 67,453,000 
 71,897,000 
 
 Kilograms. 
 7,479,000 
 5,702,000 
 4,361,000 
 5,520,000 
 4,995,000 
 3,865,OaO 
 4,643,000 
 4,116,000 
 3,467,000 
 8,297,000 
 1,660,000 
 3,238,000 
 4,.'47,000 
 4,670,000 
 5.329,000 
 4,870,000 
 4.141,000 
 4,241,000 
 
 Kilograms. 
 51.259,000 
 40,534,000 
 82,942,000 
 65,870,000 
 67,327,000 
 60,000,000 
 58,892,000 
 60,7.^8,000 
 y 64,2i7,000 
 45,622,000 
 44,909,000 
 64,164,000 
 69,466,000 
 68,484,000 
 72,069,000 
 75,091,000 
 71,694,000 
 76,138,000 
 
 From the foregoing table it will be seen that the 
 importation of cotton into France from other countries 
 than the United States, including Brazil, from 1820 to 
 1855, has fallen off more than 50 per cent. ; while from 
 the U. States it has incx'eased more than 600 per cent. 
 
 The French tariff in 1858 imposed five different 
 rates of duty on raw cotton imported in French vessels, 
 according to where it came from ; and three other rates 
 of duty, similarly distinguished, on cotton imported in 
 foreign vessels. The duty most extensively operative 
 — that on American cotton entering in French bottoms 
 —was 20 francs per 100 kilograms, or about sixteen 
 shillings per 220 pounds. And as the whole quantity 
 imported (75,091,000 kilograms) yielded to the revenue 
 17,276,000 francs, giving an average of 22-23 francs per 
 100 kilograms, itisprobable that byfar the greater part 
 of what was imported actually paid this rate of dutj'. 
 
 The bounty on exportation was 25 francs per 100 
 kilograms of manufactures or yarn. It was allowed 
 in 1853 on 7,117,864 kilograms of manufacture and on 
 198,604 kilograms of yarn. This, with a moderate al- 
 lowance for waste of the raw material, though called 
 a bounty, could in effect have been little, if at all, more 
 than a drawback of the import duty. 
 
 It would seem that the French exports in this kind 
 are not more than a tenth in value of our own. And 
 where were they sent, and why ? The largest custom- 
 er for these French manufacturers (taking two parts in 
 seven of the ■whole value) was Algeria ; but Algerian 
 consumption may be deemed practically French con- 
 sumption. The two customers next on the list, when 
 arranged in order of magnitude, are the United States 
 and the United Kingdom. These took between them 
 two other seventh parts of the whole. And the goods 
 sold in the English and American markets are well 
 known to owe their peculiar value rather to the de- 
 signer and the dyer than to the spinner and weaver. 
 Their consumption does not admit of any very rapid 
 or wide increase. French taste and French chemistry 
 have deservedly won for the French textile fabrics, 
 wherever they are applicable, a superiority as well 
 known as it is incontestable. But this has little effect 
 in determining the locality of the cotton manufacture 
 of the whole. With a few trifling exceptions, of which 
 
 cotton lace imported from Belgium is the only one 
 worthy of notice, no cotton foreign manufactures were 
 in 1853 admitted to French consumption. 
 
 The following table will show the exports of cotton 
 to France for six years, ending with June 30, 1855, 
 and the value ; as also the total value of domestic ex- 
 ports to France during the said years, i-espectivelr. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Total Value 
 domestic Exports. 
 
 1850 
 
 li6,S34,1191 
 
 $14,896,449 
 
 $1T,! 50,277 
 
 1851 
 
 139,164,571 
 
 18,124,512 
 
 26,802,086 
 
 1852 
 
 186,214,270 
 
 15,438 586 
 
 22,190,070 
 
 1853 
 
 180,226,913 
 
 19.248,076 
 
 26,120,806 
 
 1854 
 
 144,428,360 
 
 14,582,712 
 
 80,908,252 
 
 1855 
 
 210,113,809 
 
 19,035,423 
 
 31,623,898 
 
 French official documents furnish the foUo-wing facts 
 relative to our cotton trade with that empire. By the 
 custom-house returns for 1855, it appears that there 
 were received for the following years from all countries : 
 
 1852 158,400,000 pounds. 
 
 1853 165,000,000 '* 
 
 1854 15T,620,000 
 
 1855 167,200,000 " 
 
 The following table shows the quantities of cotton 
 imported into Havre from all countries for a period of 
 four years, ending with 1855 : 
 
 Years. 
 
 From the 
 United States. 
 
 From 
 Brazil. 
 
 From 
 elseivbere. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1S52 
 
 1853 
 
 1864 
 
 ISfjS 
 
 Bales. 
 374,900 
 374.600 
 411,000 
 406,600 
 
 Bales. 
 6000 
 2800 
 2000 
 2600 
 
 Bales. 
 14,400 
 12,200 
 12,000 
 9,000 
 
 Bales. 
 395 300 
 889,600 
 42,=>,000 
 418,100 
 
 Table 6howi:ng the Quantities or Cotton eeoeited at 
 THE other Ports op France dueing the same Years. 
 
 Years. 
 
 From the 
 United States. 
 
 From 
 
 Egypt. 
 
 From 
 elsewhere. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1862 
 
 1853 
 
 1854 
 
 1855 
 
 Bales. 
 17,800 
 14,500 
 19,300 
 12,000 
 
 Bales. 
 30,TOO 
 33,000 
 21,400 
 30,700 
 
 Bales. 
 
 12,5!j0 
 
 17,000 
 
 4,300 
 
 2,800 
 
 Bales. 
 67,000 
 64.500 
 45,000 
 45,500 
 
 From the subjoined table, showing the quantities of 
 cotton received by the United States in the course of 
 trade, during a period of five years, from other coun- 
 tries, it will be perceived that none is imported from 
 Brazil : 
 
 Tabulah Statbmknt enowiNG the Quantities of Cotton impoeted into the United States, in Pounds, and Coun- 
 tries WHENCE impoeted, FOR A PERIOD OF FIVE YEARS, FROM 1851 TO 1855, BOTH INCLUSIVE. 
 
 Years, 
 
 Dutch 
 
 West Indies. 
 
 British 
 West Indies. 
 
 Haytl. 
 
 New 
 Granada. 
 
 Veneiueln. 
 
 Elsewhere. 
 
 All 
 Countries. 
 
 1S51 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 22i4T4 
 
 ■ 1 30 
 1,002 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 29,358 
 
 6,756 
 
 252,892 
 
 159,331 
 
 1,880,217 
 
 Pounds. 
 12,000 
 
 216,799 
 196,127 
 189,214 
 
 Pounds. 
 110,190 
 
 09,833 
 192,267 
 185,928 
 
 44,359 
 
 Founds. 
 6,010 
 
 6i,'310 
 
 ' 415 
 
 'Pounds. 
 
 9,204 
 
 146,480 
 
 360 
 
 3.644 
 
 160 
 
 Pounds. 
 166,757 
 244,518 
 722,628 
 545,210 
 2.115,367 
 
 1852 .,, , 
 
 1853 
 
 1S54 
 
 1855 
 
 
 28,606 
 4,721 
 
 2,328,699 
 465,720 
 
 613,140 
 122,028 • 
 
 602,582 
 120,516 
 
 67,735 
 13,547 
 
 158,848 
 31,769 
 
 3,794,610 
 758,902 
 
 Average 
 
 It may be remarked that, with the exception of I imported into the United States was exported during 
 42,522 pounds exported to England in 1853, no cotton I the years designated. 
 
COT 
 
 467 
 
 COT 
 
 TABtTLAE OOMPARATIVB STATEMENT, SHOWING THE QtTAN- 
 
 TiTiEs OP Cotton exported by Franoe to all Coun- 
 
 TBIES, EESPBOTTVELY FOR A PERIOD OF THREE TeAES, FROM 
 
 1852 TO 1854, BOTH inclusive. [The Qd^antities are 
 oiTKN IN Kilogrammes, as in the preceding Table.] 
 
 Countries to wlilch 
 exported. 
 
 Kilogrammes of cotton oxported from FiBnce 
 In the yoBi-s— 
 
 1862. 
 
 1S68. 18M. 1 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 Sardinia 
 
 7,029,667 
 
 1,709,004 
 
 1,554,895 
 
 198,408 
 
 110,554 
 
 17,585 
 
 1,149,966 
 
 76,711 
 
 218,863 
 
 48,916 
 
 74,018 
 
 7,029,099 
 
 857,982 
 
 661,924 
 
 168,637 
 
 182,681 
 
 188,686 
 
 819,820 
 
 123,061 
 
 51,179 
 
 18,488 
 
 80,483 
 
 6,657,008 
 
 688,808 
 
 492,874 
 
 888,974 
 
 19,264 
 
 108,885 
 
 77,008 
 
 63,704 
 
 , 58,825 
 
 1,720 
 
 6,498 
 
 ZoUvereln 
 
 Hanso Towns 
 
 Austria 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Aggregate 
 
 12,177,086 
 
 9,571,840 
 
 8,552,558 
 
 Comparative tabular Statement showing the Quan- 
 tities of Cotton consumed in France, and the 
 Countries whence imported, for a period of three 
 Years, from 1852 to 1854, both inclusive. 
 
 Conntrles whence 
 imported. 
 
 Kilogrammes of cotton consumed in Franco 
 In the years— 
 
 1852. 1 1853. 
 
 1854. 
 
 United States 
 
 66,740,104 
 
 2,754,662 
 
 979,318 
 
 3,966 
 
 231,074 
 
 438,899 
 
 144,184 
 
 , 206,688 
 
 47,860 
 
 296,963 
 
 • 231,448 . 
 
 T0;220,762 
 
 2,401,497 
 
 744,831 
 
 8,442 
 
 661,066 
 
 265,450 
 
 219,077 
 
 161,502 
 
 70,580 
 
 268,374 
 
 175,237 
 
 67,462,508 
 2,818,666 
 671,611 
 170,664 
 896,176 
 105,861 
 254,414 
 
 71,517 
 141,181 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hayti 
 
 :East Indies 
 
 Elsewhere 
 
 Aggregate 
 
 72,068,961 
 
 75,091,258 
 
 71,698,995 
 
 Tabular comparative Statement showing the Quan- 
 
 ' TiTiES OF Cotton ■which passed in transit through 
 
 France, with the Countries -whenoe it came, and 
 
 WHITHER it WEIJT, RESPECTIVELY, DISTINGUISHING THE 
 
 Quantities to and prom each, for the Period or 
 THREE Years, from 1852 To 1354, both inclusive. 
 
 Years. |Countrle8 whence. 
 
 Quantitiep, 
 
 Countries whither. 
 
 Quantities. 
 
 1862- 
 1868- 
 
 r 
 
 1854- 
 
 United States. 
 England 
 
 Elsewhere 
 
 Aggregate... 
 United States. 
 England 
 
 Efaewliere — 
 
 Aggregate.. . 
 
 United States. 
 
 England 
 
 Egypt 
 
 Elsewhere .... 
 Aggregate.. . 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 5,060,457 
 
 1,265,680 
 
 1,026.128 
 
 266,819 
 
 Switzerland. . . 
 Sardinia..,.,.. 
 
 ZoUvereiu 
 
 Elsewhere — 
 
 Aggregate.. . 
 Switzerland. . . 
 
 Sardinia 
 
 ZoUvereln — 
 Belgium....... 
 
 Aggregate.;. 
 Switzerland. . . 
 
 Sardinia 
 
 ZoUvereln 
 
 Elsewhere 
 
 Aggregate.. . 
 
 Kilos. 
 7,027,627 
 864,315 
 196,979 
 18,618 
 
 7,607,534 
 
 7,607,684 
 
 4,800,328 
 
 761,193 
 
 1,822,372 
 
 92,178 
 
 7,006,914 
 197,115 
 192,779 
 79,263 
 
 7,476,071 
 
 7,476,071 
 
 4,623,826 
 
 1,402,372 
 
 884,760 
 
 886,698 
 
 6,601,926 
 265,387 
 873,660 
 56,779 
 
 7,297,641 
 
 7,297,641 
 
 3. /Spatm.^Tabular comparative statement, showing 
 tlie quantities of cotton imported into Spain, and the 
 countries whence imported, for a period of five years, 
 from 1851 to 1855, both inclusive. 
 
 The statistical office has no official Spanish data from 
 which to make up the statement required. 
 
 The quantities of cotton exported from the United 
 States to Spain, according to United States' Treasurj- 
 reports, the year specified, were as follows : 
 
 " ' Pounds. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 1861 84,272,625 
 
 1852 29,301,928 
 
 1868 36,851,042 
 
 1854. 85,024,074 
 
 1856 33,071,795 
 
 Average (5 years) 88,704,292 
 
 From Cuba, the same years, according to Balanzas 
 Generates of that island, the quantities exported to 
 Spain were as follows : 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 1861 18,416 
 
 1852 800,225 
 
 1858 183,626 
 
 Po'undB, 
 
 1864 1,489 
 
 1865 No data. 
 
 Average (4 years) . 113,438 
 
 From Porto Rico, according to official Balanzas' of 
 that island, as follows : 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 ISSl 815,088 
 
 1862 141,807 
 
 1858 245,552 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 1854 Nodata. 
 
 1855 Nodata. 
 
 Average (8 years) . 284,147 
 
 Frqjn Brazil, according to the Froposta e Relatario 
 of that empire, for the years 1852-'3, and 1853-'4, the 
 quantities of cotton exported to Spain were as follows : 
 
 Pounds. II Founds. 
 
 1852—58 2,291,678 Average (2 years) . 2,821,428 
 
 1853—54. 2,851,279 || 
 
 Spain, according to the Cuadro General of that king- 
 dom for 1849, imported that year, from countries of pro- 
 duction, 26,136,881 pounds of cotton ; of which quantity 
 the United States supplied 21,669,441 pounds ; Cuba, 
 3,371,830 pounds ; Brazil, 832,604 pounds ; Porto Rico, 
 370,881 pounds, and Venezuela 21,316 pounds. 
 
 4. Eanse Towns. — The states of Germany are sup- 
 plied with the cotton consumed in their factories chiefly 
 through the Hanseatic cities, Hamburg and Bremen. 
 Bremen sent to the Zollverein, in 1853, cotton imported 
 direct from the United States, to the value of $984,772 
 14, and to Austria to the value of $156,153 21. The fac- 
 tories of Prussia and Saxony are numerous, and import 
 not only the raw material from the cities, but also large 
 quantities of yams. The number of spindles in opera- 
 tion in the states composing the Zollverein is estimated 
 at upward of 1,000,000. This is, doubtless, an under 
 estimate, as the industrial enterprise of the Zollverein 
 has made rapid progress since the date of the official 
 document from which these figures are derived. The 
 export of cotton tissues from the Zollverein in 1853 
 amounted in value to $2,394,497 34, of which amount 
 $2,075,299 68 in value came from the factories of 
 Saxony. 
 
 The Hanse Towns, from geographical position, are, 
 and must always continue to be, the great marts from 
 which raw material of all descriptions will be supplied 
 to the states of the Germanic commercial Union, 
 Hence exports of American cotton and tobacco to these 
 points are heavy, and constantly increasing. These 
 commercial cities receive their supplies of raw cotton 
 not only from the United Stales, in direct trade, as well 
 as from Brazil and other countries of South America, 
 but also in the indirect trade from English ports and 
 other entrepots of Europe. In 1855, the Zollverein sent 
 through the Hanse ports to the United States cotton 
 fabrics to the value of more than $1,500,000 in return 
 for the raw material. 
 
 The following statement shows the quantises of cot- 
 ton exported from the United States to the Hanse 
 Towns every 10 years, for a period of 51 years, from 
 1805 to 1855 : 
 
 Pounds. 11 Pounds. 
 
 In 1805 122,003 , In 1886 2,688,147 
 
 "1815 1,346,283 "1845 17,204,094 
 
 " 1826 677,109 ]| " 1865 90,809,991 
 
 Tobacco is borne in direct voyage from the United 
 States ; not so, however, with cotton, in the carrying 
 trade, of which Great Britain has been for many years 
 an active competitor. Entering the ports of the United 
 Kingdom free of duty, her merchant flag can realize a 
 profitable trade in its re-exportation to the various ports 
 of continental Europe. Thus the Hanse Towns re- 
 ceive their supplies of raw cotton not only from the 
 United States in the direct trade, 'but also in the indi- 
 rect trade from English ports and other entrepots of 
 Europe. The annual average quantity of cotton ex- 
 ported from the United States to the Hanse Towns, in- 
 cluding Prussia, during the 4 years from 1851 to 1854, 
 both inclusive, was 24,811,626 pounds ; while the an- 
 nual average exports from Great Britain during the 4 
 years ending Deo. 31, 1854, was 36,563,996 pounds. 
 
 The annual average quantities of cotton exported 
 from the same countries, respectively, during the same 
 periods, to the other nations of northern Europe, exhib- 
 it similar results. These facts are illustrated by the 
 subjoined statement, and suggest a strong argument 
 for the serious consideration, by the navigation inter- 
 ests of the United States, of such measures as would be 
 likely to promote the direct exportation of our great 
 staple from our own ports, in our own vessels, to those 
 of the countries by which it is consumed. 
 
COT 
 
 458 
 
 COT 
 
 compakative statement showing the qiranthtes of cotton exported to certain cottntries of noetnern 
 Europe, from the United States and Germ; Britain, kespectivelt, foe a Period of three Years, from 
 1852 to 1854, both inclusive. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 FKOM 
 
 THE UNITED 8TATK8. 
 
 FROM GREAT BHITAIN. 
 
 18B2. 
 
 1883. 
 
 18S4. 
 
 1852, 
 
 1853. 
 
 1854. 
 
 
 PoundB. 
 23,188,228 
 27,167,890 
 10,476,168 
 10,269,042 
 
 5,939,025 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 22,671,782 
 
 15,494,442 
 
 21,286,568 
 
 7,088,994 
 
 6,099,517 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 87,719,922 
 
 18,980,450 
 
 2,914,954 
 
 6,048,165 
 
 9,212,710 
 
 Pounds. 
 28,146,266 
 12,657,680 
 45,605,840 
 16,884,224 
 
 8,591,840 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 84,560,736 
 18,466,672 
 48,987,892 
 28,676,592 
 4,414,868 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 59,499,888 
 
 14,040,768 
 
 208,644 
 
 26,984,644 
 
 5,666,560 
 
 
 
 
 Sweden aad Norway 
 
 
 75,969,858 
 
 72,691,298 
 
 69,876,211 
 
 100,885,840 
 
 186,085,760 
 
 106,850,804 
 
 
 5. Belgium. — Most of the cotton imported into Bel- 
 gium is from the United States, and is consumed by 
 her own factories at Ghent, Liege, Antwerp, Malines 
 (Mechlin), etc., whicli are said to employ a capital of 
 $12,000,000, and more than 122,000 operatives, and to 
 turn out an annual value of $17,000,000 in fabrics, 
 which are in high repute. The Tableau General of 
 Belgium for 1854 gives the importation of cotton into 
 that kingdom as follows : 
 
 StatE-ment exhibiting the Quantities of Cotton im- 
 ported INTO Belgium in 1854. 
 
 From Poimds. 
 
 United States.. 15,329,266 
 
 England 14,208,765 
 
 Holland 2,788,259 
 
 France 868,516 
 
 Hanse Towns. . 79,668 
 
 From Pounds. 
 
 Hayti 78,055 
 
 Brazil 19,991 
 
 Other countries 30,594 
 
 Total 32,883,114 
 
 Of the above total, 25,783,292 pounds were consum- 
 ed, and 7,049,823 exported. 
 
 The quantity imported by land and rivers was 
 3,104,851 pounds ; by sea, 29,729,263 pounds. 
 
 Of the quantity exported, 6,969,965 pounds was by 
 land and rivers, and 89,858 pounds by sea. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Prussia receiving (by land and rivers) 5,628,186 
 
 France " " " 842,881 
 
 Holland " " " 488,898 
 
 And all other countries receiving (by sea) . 184,118 
 
 Total by land and rivers and by sea... . 7,094,088* 
 The cotton thus exported was imported as follows : 
 
 Founds. 
 
 From United States 6,529,637 
 
 " England 1,488,582 
 
 " Holland 70,965 
 
 " France 4,999 
 
 Total 7,094,083 
 
 The average annual amount of duties derived by 
 Belgium from cotton for the five years ending with 
 1854 was upward of '$40,000, and, in the latter year, it 
 ranked the thirteenth among articles imported in this 
 regard. The duty under the law of January 31, 1852, 
 was 1 franc 70 centimes per 220 pounds. By the law 
 of April 12, 1854, cotton became free. 
 
 In 1854, Belgium exported cotton fabrics in value as 
 follows : 
 
 Cotton fabrics $4,701,672 
 
 Belgian manuiacture 2,632,686 
 
 Foreign manufactures re-exported.... $2,068,986 
 6. Sardinia. — Sardinia imports, on an average, some 
 four or five million pounds of cotton each year from 
 England and France, and about the same quantity from 
 the United States ; although, in 1855, the importation 
 from the latter country suddenly rose from 1,645,372 
 pounds the preceding year to 14,777,765 pounds ! 
 There seems no suificient reason why American ves- 
 sels should not convey the whole quantity requited by 
 Sardinia directly to Genoa, as well as for English and 
 French vessels to carry thither a portion of American 
 cargoes landed at Liverpool or Havre. A similar re- 
 mark is applicable to the other ports of Italy, and to 
 those of Austria on the Adriatic ; and the enterprise of 
 establishing lines of ocean steamers between ports of 
 the United States and those of the Mediterranean will, 
 if successful, tend greatly to encourage, if not to secure, 
 such direct importation. 
 
 * This is an excess of 44,260 pounds over the amount given 
 above as exported, that quantity liaving been entered for con- 
 sumption but subsequently withdrawn. 
 
 7. Switzerland. — Four fifths of all the cotton con- 
 sumed by the factories of Switzerland is estimated to 
 be imported at Havre, whence it passes through 
 France by railway, being burdened with heavy charges 
 in the transit. In 1833, the quantity thus received 
 amounted to nearly 6,000,000 pounds. In 1843 it Jiad 
 reached nearly 17,000,000 pounds. The entire receipt 
 of cotton in 1843 was 22,000,000 pounds. In 1851 it 
 amounted to 27,035,725 pounds, of which 13,729,320 
 pounds were from the United States. In 1852, Switz- 
 erland received through France 15,816,775 pounds ; in 
 1853, 15,815,473 pounds, and in 1854, 14,978,257 pounds, 
 according to the Tableau GSneral of France for these 
 years. Imports from the United States into Switzer- 
 land are made, for the most part, through the customs 
 frontiers of Berne, Basle, Soleure, and Argovie, bor- 
 dering on France and the southern part of Germany. 
 A severe restriction on the importation of cotton, and 
 also of tobacco, to Switzerland, as well as on the re- 
 ception by the United States of Swiss ware and manu- 
 factures in return, is the vexatious and expensive 
 transitage, especially through France. The oppression 
 of this system may be inferred from the fact, that the 
 annual average aggregate value of merchandise on 
 which transit tolls are paid, proceeding from Switzer- 
 land, is (1853) nearly $30,000,000 ; and the value of that 
 proceeding to that republic more than half as much. 
 Switzerland sent, in transitu to France, cotton tissues 
 to the value of nearly $3,000,000 in 1852 ; and to the 
 value of nearly $4,000,000 in 1853. By the French 
 tariff, such fabrics are excluded from France for con- 
 sumption. Since 1845, Switzerland is stated officially 
 to have quite superseded in the markets of Germany 
 and Austria, the yams of Great Britain. In 1830 that 
 republic had in operation 400,000 spindles; in 1840, 
 750,000, and in 1850, 950,000 j the number having more 
 than doubled in 20 years. 
 
 According to Swiss official custom-house reports, 
 that republic received cotton from the United States as 
 follows, the years specified : 
 
 Pounds. II Pounds. 
 
 1850 15,942,740 1852 19,066,200 
 
 1861 18,729,320 || 1663 18,441,880 
 
 In return, cotton stuffs, as follows, were sent to the 
 United States : 
 
 Founds. II Pounds, 
 
 1850 8,226,800 1862. 4,077,920 
 
 1851 8,609,660 || 1868 5,265,180 
 
 In 1855, Switzerland returned to the United States, 
 in exchange for raw cotton, the same article manufac- 
 tured, to the value of $212,700. 
 
 8. Russia. — Before the breaking out of the late war, 
 the manufacture of cotton in the Russian empire was 
 progressing with extraordinary activity. The num- 
 ber of spindles exceeded 350,000, producing annually 
 upward of 10,000,000 pounds of cotton yams. The 
 barter trade with the Chinese at Kiachta stimulates 
 this branch of manufacture in Eussia, as the article of 
 cotton velvets constitutes the leading staple of ex- 
 change, at that point, for the teas and other merchan- 
 dise of China. In former years this article was sup- 
 plied almost exclusively by Great Britain; but the 
 Chinese prefer the Russian manufacture, and hence the 
 steady progress of that branch of industry'. Thus the 
 annually increasing importations of the raw material, 
 and consequent diminution in the quantities of cotton 
 yams imported is accounted for. Were raw cotton 
 
COT 
 
 459 
 
 COT 
 
 admitted, as in England, free of dutj-, the United 
 States would, most probably, supply, in the direct 
 trade, the whole quantity consumed in that empire. 
 As it is, the commercial reforms in Bussia, already an- 
 nounced ol^cially, and now in progress, comprehend- 
 ing, as they do, the establishment of American houses 
 at St. Peterfturg, must necessarily tend to that re- 
 sult. There are at present in Russia, or there were 
 previously to the war, 495 cotton factories, employing 
 112,427 operatives, and producing annually 40,907,736 
 pounds of yams, and corresponding amounts of textiles. 
 
 9. Sweden. — The importations of cotton in 1851, 
 according to Swedish official authorities, amount to 
 7,989,4281 lbs. against 1,832,431 lbs. in 1841, and 749,434 
 pounds in 1831. In 1843, these authorities show an im- 
 portation of 2,600,000 pounds against 9,888,572 pounds 
 in 1853 ; which latter amoimt exceeded that of the im- 
 portation of 1852 by 1,247,041 pounds, and that of 1850 
 by more than 5,200,000 pounds, being the largest of 
 any preceding year. In 1848 the amount was 8,074,020 
 pounds. The value of cotton manufactures exported 
 fronl Sweden in 1850 was $46,000 against $7,500 only 
 in 1851. 
 
 10. Portugal. — In the year 1855, the quantity of raw 
 manufactured cotton imported into Oporto amounted 
 to 6,697,454 pounds, the value of which is estimated at 
 $1,516,644, on which the duty paid was $399,579 13. 
 This kingdom imported 1,911,451 pounds of cotton in 
 1865, of which quantity 144,006 pounds were exported 
 from the United States, and the residue from Brazil. 
 In 1853-54, according to Brazilian official reports, Por- 
 tugal received thence 2,673,766 pounds of cotton. Her 
 imports of yam in 1855 were 1,213,157 pounds, valued 
 at $171,817 07, and paying an aggregate of duties of 
 $61,142 84. 
 
 11. Brazil. — The exportations of cotton from Brazil, 
 in 1843-44 and 1853-54, are stated by Brazilian official 
 authorities as follows : 
 
 Foands. 
 
 1858—54 28,430,820 
 
 1843—44 26,056,160 
 
 Increase in ten years 2,364,160 
 
 The growth and export of cotton from Brazil appear 
 to be nearly stationary. Great Britain, which is the 
 largest customer, imported from Brazil the following 
 quantities : 
 
 In 1825 23,600,000 pounds. 
 
 Inl856 22,824,000 
 
 In 1852-53 the exportation amounted to 31,933,050 
 pounds, of which quantity Great Britain received 
 26,881,201 pounds, Spain 2,291,578 pounds, Portugal 
 1,896,286 pounds, and France 889,048 pounds. Of the 
 total exportations in 1853-54, Great Britain received 
 22,575,122 pounds, Spain 2,351,279 pounds, Portugal 
 2,673,766 pounds, and France, 543,611 pounds, i Ex- 
 ports from Brazil to England began in 1781. There 
 are insuperable drawbacks to the extension of the cot- 
 ton culture in Brazil, among which may be reckoned 
 the ravages of insects, the peculiarities of the climate, 
 and the expense and difficulties attendant upon its 
 transmission from the interior to the coast. It has 
 long since been ascertained in Brazil that the cotton 
 plant will not flourish near to the sea, and the planta- 
 tions have, in consequence, receded further inland, as 
 well to avoid this difficulty as to seek new and fresh 
 lands. Pemambuco is the principal cotton-growing 
 province of Brazil. The exports from that province 
 were, according to Brazilian authorities, in 
 
 Bales (ofieo Iba. each). Bales (oflSO lbs. each). 
 
 1828 T0,T85 -"'" "'"-" 
 
 1880 61,163 
 
 1885 52,142 
 
 12. Egypt. — The cotton culture in Egypt commenced 
 in 1818, and exportation to England in 1823. The 
 comparative tabular statement subjoined, derived from 
 Egyptian sources, showing the quantities- exported at 
 the port of Alexandria, and the countries to which ex- 
 ported, respectively, for a period of 3 years, from 1853 
 
 1840 85,849 
 
 1842 21,857 
 
 1845 26,663 
 
 to 1855, both inclusive, would indicate an increase in 
 the culture by no means rapid in successive years : 
 
 Years. 
 
 Pounds of Cotton exported from Egypt to 1 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 France. 
 
 Anstria. 
 
 Elsewhere 
 
 All countries. 
 
 1858.,.. 
 1854.... 
 1865.... 
 Total... 
 Average 
 
 26,489,900 
 24,988,700 
 83,980,100 
 
 10,726,500 
 7,464,100 
 9,451,200 
 
 6,821,000 
 
 10,165,200: 
 12,774,900 
 
 897,800 
 988,600 
 668,100 
 
 48,885,200 
 43,646,600 
 66,874,800 
 
 86,858,700 
 
 27,681,800 
 
 29,261,100 
 
 2,504,400 
 
 144,306,000 
 
 28,462,900 
 
 9,210,600 
 
 9,768,700 
 
 684,800 
 
 48,102,000 
 
 If to the aggregate exported be added from 5 to 6 
 million ■ pounds worked up in the country, a, liberal 
 estimate of the annual amount of the cotton crops of 
 Egypt will have been made. The factories established 
 by.Mehemet All are, it is stated, going rapidly to ruin. 
 The cotton goods mantifaotured are coarse " caftas," or 
 soldiers' " nizam" uniform. Much cotton is used, also, 
 in making up divans, the usual furniture in Egypt. 
 The Egyptian bale is estimated at Alexandria at 300 
 pounds. The United States' consul general at that 
 port, in ix despatch dated the 1st instant, from which 
 are derived the abbve facts, says: "The new crop is 
 now coming in, and is supposed to he a little above the 
 average." 
 
 13. Cotton Culture in Mexico. — The .United States' 
 consul at Tampico has furnished the following interest- 
 ing information, in relation to the varieties, culture, 
 and manufacture of cotton in Mexico, in answer to a 
 circular issued by the Commissioner of Patents in Feb- 
 ruary last : " The greatest production in this country 
 of this article is on the coast of Vera Cruz, and south- 
 ward from the capital of the State of that name toward 
 Alvarado, and westward toward Flacotalpan and in its 
 neighborhood. A little over seventy-five pounds of 
 seed cotton yields, when ginned, twenty-five pounds 
 of cotton wool. The quality is good, and the whole is 
 sent up the country for consumption in the factories of 
 Jalapa, Orizaba, and Puebla. From Vera Cruz to 
 Matamoras, notwithstanding the territory being so ex- 
 tensive, and so admirably adapted for the growth of cot- 
 ton, none is produced beyond a little in the neighbor- 
 hood of Papantle, which the Indians cultivate for their 
 own use, and spin in the same primitive manner as did 
 their ancestors at the time of the conquest, viz., by 
 means of a species of wooden spindle, the point of 
 which is put in a common wooden bowl, and its gyra- 
 tions given by the fingers. From the yam thus spun 
 they manufacture a narrow cloth, and this is still the 
 custom in many parts of the country. In the neigh- 
 borhood of Matamoras cotton is raised, but in limited 
 quantities, and is also cultivated in Monclova. One 
 hxmdred pounds of seed are required to produce twenty- 
 five pounds of clean cotton. All that is produced in 
 these places is consumed in the factores of Saltillo. 
 
 " On the west coast mention may be made of Santi- 
 ago, a place situated between Topic and Mazatlan, 
 where a considerable quantity is raised, which is dis- 
 posed of by the factories of Tepic. Further south, and 
 between the towns of Antlin and Colima, and down- 
 ward toward the sea, a very rich cotton country is to 
 be seen, and where immense quantities could be raised 
 were there more hands to attend to its cultivation ; as 
 it is, however, sufficient is gathered for the supply of' 
 the factories of Colima, and some of it even finds its 
 way to Guadalajara, the capital of the State of Jalisco. 
 
 " From Colima, a stretch must be made to the neigh- 
 borhood of Acapulco, where cotton is raised, but by no 
 means in abundance ; but all that is gathered in that 
 section of the country is sent to the market at the city 
 of Mexico. That part of the countrj' is called ' Costa 
 Grande,' and is separated from the ' Costa Chica' by 
 the river Papagayo. On the latter, and in the neigh- 
 borhood of Ayutla, cotton is raised, but in limited 
 quantities, and sent to Puebla for sale. The cotton on 
 the whole of this coast only requires seventy-five 
 pounds of seed to produce twenty-five pounds of cotton- 
 wool when ginned. The whole df the east, as well as 
 
COT 
 
 460 
 
 COT 
 
 that of the west coast, for about 40 leagues inland, is 
 admirably adapted for the growth of cotton. The 
 couutrj' is, however, entirely unpopulated, and con- 
 siderable diificulty is experienced in getting in the har- 
 vest in consequence thereof. There are very few 
 landed proprietors who devote their attention to the 
 cultivation of cotton, except on the coast of Vera Cruz. 
 All the rest is raised by small farmers (rancheros) wlio 
 are content to get about one half the amount of its 
 value. Such pajTuents are made in a few goods and 
 groceries, in anticipation for which they are charged 
 exorbitant prices. An experiment has been made to 
 raise cotton on a fann about 12 leagues from San Luis 
 Potosi, between 6 and 7 thousand feet above the level 
 of the sea, and the result has been favorable. An en- 
 terprising Spaniard is now raising cotton 5 leagues 
 from Tula, with every prospect of a satisfactory return. 
 His farm is about 4500 or 5000 feet above the level 
 of the sea. No care is bestowed on the plant. The 
 seed is put into the ground, and no further notice is 
 taken of it until it is quite ripe and ready for piclcing. 
 The consequence is, that the staple is not so long, nor 
 the cotton very fine, although quite good enough for 
 the manufactories of this country. The growth of 
 cotton throughout Mexico is perennial." 
 
 V. Capacity of the Cotton Bale.— The com- 
 mercial standard of quantity in the cotton trade is gen- 
 erally the bale. The weight of the bale, however, is by 
 no means uniform. Indeed, scarcely any weight, meas- 
 ure, or standard of capacity may be considered less so. 
 It varies, from different causes, in different countries, 
 and in different sections of the same country, at differ- 
 ent periods, and according to the different kinds or 
 qualities of the article. Improvements in pressing 
 and packing, to diminish expense in bagging and 
 freight, tend constantly to augment the weight of the 
 bale. Thus, in 1790, the United States' bale was com- 
 puted at only 200 pounds. In 1824, the average 
 weight of bales imported into Liverpool was 266 
 pounds ; but, increasing constantly, 12 years later the 
 average was 319 pounds. M'CuUoch, however, in 
 1832, considered 300 to 310 pounds a fair average ; and 
 Burns, 310. At the same time, the upland cotton bale 
 was estimated at 320 pounds, and the sea island at 
 280 pounds. According to Pitkins, the Egyptian bale 
 weighed at one time but 90 pounds, though it now 
 weighs more than 3 times as many. At the same 
 period the Brazilian bale contained 180 pounds, though 
 it now contains but 160 pounds, while the AVest Indian 
 bale weighed 350 pounds, and the Colombian bale 101 
 pounds, or the Spanish quintal. According to Bums, 
 the United States' bale at Liverpool averaged 345 
 pounds, the Brazilian, 180 pounds, the Egyptian, 220 
 pounds, the West Indian, 300 pounds, and the East 
 Indian, 330 pounds. At the Lowell factories, in 1831, 
 according to Pitkins, the bale averaged 361 pounds. 
 In 1836, the bale of the Atlantic cotton States was 
 estimated at 300 and 325 pounds, and that of the Gulf 
 States at 300 and 450 pounds. In Liverpool, at the 
 same time, the estimate for the bale of upland or short 
 staple cotton was 321 pounds ; for Orleans and Ala- 
 bama, 402 pounds ; for sea island 322 pounds ; for 
 Brazil, 173 pounds ; for Egyptian, 218 pounds ; for East 
 Indian, 360 pounds ; and for West Indian 230 pounds ; 
 while, according to Burns, bales imported into France 
 were computed at only 200 pounds each. Waterston's 
 Manual of Commerce, a reliable British publication 
 (1855), gives the Virginia,' Carolina, Georgia, and 
 West Indian bale at 300 to 310 pounds ; that of New 
 Orleans and Alabama at 400 to 500 pounds; East 
 Indies at 320 to 360 pounds; Brazil at 160 to 200 
 pounds ; Egyptian at 180 to 280 pounds. Alexander's 
 Universal Dictionary of Weights and Measures gives 
 the bale of Alabama, Louisiana, and Mississippi at 500 
 pounds, that of Georgia at 375 pounds, and that of 
 South Carolina at 362 pounds. At Kio de Janeiro the 
 Brazil bale is estimated at 160 pounds. 
 
 Prior to 1855, the United States' " Commerce and 
 Navigation" gave exports of cotton in pounds only. 
 They are now given in bales as well as in pounds — ^the 
 aggregate amount of the year ending June 30, 1855, 
 being 2,303,403 bales, or 1,008,424,601 pounds: the 
 bale, accordingly, averaging about 438 pounds. Some 
 bales, however, are evidently much heavier, and some 
 much lighter than this. For example, the 210,113,809 
 pounds of cotton exported to France give 446 pounds 
 to each of the 470,293 bales ; and the 955,114 pounds 
 exported to Austria give 492 pounds to each of the 
 1,939 bales ; while the 7,527,079 pounds exported to 
 Mexico give only 290 pounds to each of the 25,917 
 bales in which they were contained. 
 
 Liverpool Weight.- — The relative average weights 
 and cubical contents of bales of cotton imported into 
 Liverpool, in 1852, are thus given : 
 
 Description of bale. Av'ge wt. ialba.- Contents in cu. ft. 
 
 Mobile 604 83 
 
 New Orleans 4SS 82 
 
 Upland 890 2T 
 
 Sealsland 883 85 
 
 Eastlndian 888 15 
 
 Egyptian 245 2T 
 
 West Indian 212 25 
 
 Brazilian 182 2T 
 
 These figures show not only the great variety of 
 bales that enter Liverpool, but that the most eligible 
 form of bale is that of the East Indies — double the 
 weight being packed within the same compass as in 
 any other description of bale. In the great cotton 
 marts of Liverpool and Havre, as in those of New 
 Orleans and Mobile, the article is almost invariably 
 treated of by merchants, brokers, and commercial 
 men, by the bale. Thus, a report on the trade of Liv- 
 erpool gives the import of cotton into Great Britain, in 
 1852, at 2,357,338 bales. The aggregate of cotton im- 
 ported in that year is given in the official report by the 
 Board of Trade, at 929,782,448 pounds ; the bales aver- 
 aging, accordingly, 895 pounds each. 
 
 Cotton Manufacture. This subject will be 
 considered under the general heads of, I. Origin and 
 Introduction. II. Invention and Improvements. III. 
 Cotton Manufactures of Foreign Countries. IV. Sta- 
 tistics of Cotton Manufacture. V. Origin and Early 
 Histor}' of Cotton Manufactures in America. VI. 
 Cotton Manufacture in the United States. 
 
 I. Origin and Intkoddction. — The manufacture 
 of cotton had its origin in the East, where the 
 cotton plant is indigenous, and where the climate 
 renders a light and absorbent fabric a suitable cloth- 
 ing for the people. It has in consequence been 
 long established over every part of Asia, although it 
 was only in India that the fabric was manufactured 
 extensively, with a view to foreign exchange. Arrian 
 mentions cotton cloth among the commodities which 
 the Eomans brought from India ; but the quantity 
 imported by them was inconsiderable, arising from the 
 preference which they gave to woolen clothing. Dr. 
 Robertson remarks, that the difference between the 
 cargoes imported from India in ancient and in modem 
 times appears to have arisen, not from any diversity 
 in the nature of the goods prepared for sale in that 
 country, but from variety in the tastes or in the wants 
 of the nations with which they have successively 
 traded. 
 
 The antiquity of the manufacture of cotton can not 
 be reached by any authentic records. Neither wool, 
 silk, nor linen, can claim a higher antiquity. One 
 thing is pretty certain, that its first manufacture may 
 be traced to India, whence it passed to all the rest of 
 the world. India, indeed, has been the source of many 
 of the arts of civUized life. It was, in all probability, 
 the cradle of mankind, and the source of Assyrian, 
 Egyptian, and Persian civilization. 
 
 The Indians have in all ages maintained an unap- 
 proached and almost incredible perfection in their fab- 
 rics of cotton. Indeed, some of their muslins might be 
 thought the work of fairies or insects rather than of 
 
COT 
 
 461 
 
 COT 
 
 man ; but these aie produced in small quantities, and 
 seldom have been exported. In the same province of 
 India from which the ancient Greeks obtained the finest 
 muslins then known, namely, Bengal, these astonishing 
 fabrics are manufactured at the present day.* 
 
 "We are told by two . Mohammedan travelers, who 
 went to India in the 9th century, that " in that coun- 
 try they make garments of such extraordinary perfec- 
 tion, that nowhere else are the like to be seen. They 
 are woven to that degree of fineness, that they may be 
 drawn through a ring of moderate size.". Marco Polo, 
 in the 16th century, mentions Coromandel, and espe- 
 cially Masulipatam, as producing " the finest and most 
 beautiful cottons that are to be found in any part of 
 the world ;"■ and this is still the case as. to the flowered 
 and glazed cottons, called chintzes. 
 
 The Portuguese adventurers who went to India im- 
 mediately after the discovery of the route by the Cape 
 of Good Hope, speak of " the great quantities of cot- 
 ton cloths admirably painted, also some white, and 
 some striped, held in the highest estimation, which 
 were made in Bengal." Csesar Frederick, a Venetian 
 merchant, who traveled in India in 1563, describes the 
 extensive trade carried on between St. Thom6 (a port 
 150 miles from Negapatam) and Pegu, in bumbast (cot- 
 ton) cloth of every sort, painted, whieh is a rare thing, 
 because this kind of cloth shows as if it were gilded 
 with divers colors ; and the more they are washed, the 
 livelier the colors will become. And there is made 
 such account of this kind of cloth, that a small bale of 
 it will cost 1000 or 2000 ducats. 
 
 Tavernier, who traveled in India about 200 years 
 ago, speaks of the white calicoes (so called from the 
 city of Calicut, in India, where they were first seen 
 by Europeans), or muslins woven in Bengal, and ren- 
 dered so remarlcably white by being dipped in lemon 
 juice. He says : " Some calicuts are so fine that you 
 can hardly feel them in your hand ; and the thread, 
 when spun, is scarcely discernible." The Same writer 
 says that " there is made at Seconge, in the province of 
 Malwa, a sort of calicut so fine, that when a man puts 
 it on, his skin shall appear as plainly through it as if 
 he was quite naked ; but the merchants are not per- 
 mitted to transport it, for the governor is obliged to 
 sejid it all to the Great Mogul's seraglio and the prin- 
 cipal lords of the court, to make the snltanesses and 
 noblemen's wives' shifts and garments for the hot 
 weather. And the king and'the lords take great pleas- 
 ure to behold them in these, and see them dance with 
 nothing else upon them." Speaking of the turbans of 
 the Mohammedan Indians, Tavernier says : " The rich 
 have them of so fine a cloth, that 26 or 30 ells of it put 
 into a turban will not weigh 4 ounces." 
 
 Eighteen hundred years ago, according to Arrian, 
 author of the " Periplus," there were thousands of men, 
 women, and children employed at Baroche, in Guzerat, 
 and the adjacent villages, in the manufacture of cotton, 
 from the coarsest sail-cloth to the finest muslins. So 
 that it is a great mistake to suppose that cotton manu- 
 factories are of a modern origin. They existed in India 
 centuries before the Christian era. 
 
 The ingenuitj' of the Hindoo cotton manufacturers 
 is truly wonderful. The late Kev. William Ward, a 
 missionary of Serampore, says that " at two places in 
 Bengal muslins are made so exceedingly fine that four 
 months are required to weave one piece, which sells at 
 500 rupees. When this muslin is laid on the grass, 
 and the dew has fallen upon it, it is no longer discern- 
 ible." We might cite a great number of creditable 
 authorities in proof of the fineness of India cotton man- 
 ufactures, and the ingenuity of the Hindoos, but these 
 will sufiice. The oriental hyperbole, which describes 
 the muslins of Decca as " webs of woven wijid" is less 
 poetical than is generally supposed. No modem Euro- 
 pean manufacturer of cotton at all approaches the Hin- 
 
 * Baine's History of the Cotton Manufacture, p. 55. 
 
 doos in respect to the fineness of his fabrics. The 
 extreme of fineness to which yams for muslins are 
 now spun in Great Britain is 250 hanks to the pound, 
 though cotton yam has been spun in England making 
 350 banks to the pound. This was, however, only an 
 experiment, to ascertain how fine cotton could be spun. 
 No such yam is or could be used in making muslius, or 
 for any other purpose. The Hindoos are the only ones 
 who have ever woven such yarn into fabrics.v— De 
 Bow's Industrial Resowoes. 
 
 The implements used by the Indians in the different 
 processes of the cotton manufacture, from the cleaning 
 of the wool to its conversion into the finest muslin, 
 may be purchased for the value of a few shillings, and 
 are so rude and simple a construction as to be evidently 
 the invention of a very early period- With the excep- 
 tion of the loom, none of them deserve the, name of a 
 machine, or display the slightest mechanical ingenu- 
 ity. They spin the yarn upon thedistafi'; and yet, 
 with all the advantages which we in this country derive 
 from machinery, we have only, recently been able to 
 equal, either in fineness or quality, the yam which is 
 produced by means of this primitive instrument. The 
 well managed use of the fiiger' and thumb of the In- 
 dian, spinner, patiently and carefully applied in the 
 formation of the. thread, and the moisture at the same 
 time communicated to it, are found to have the effect 
 of incorporating the fibres of the cotton more perfectly 
 than can be accomplished by our most improved ma- 
 chines. 
 
 The loom is composed of a few sticks or reeds, which 
 the Indian carries about with him, and puts up in the 
 fields under. the shade of a tree, or at the side of his 
 cottage. He digs a hole large enough to contain his 
 legs and the lower part of the " geer," and fastens the 
 balance to some convennint branch over-head. Two 
 loops underneath the geer, in which he . inserts his 
 great toes, serve as tradles : and he employs the shut- 
 tle, formed like a large netting-needle, but of a length 
 somewhat exceeding the breadth of the cloth, as " bat- 
 toon," using it alternately to draw through the weft 
 and strike it up. The reed is the only part of the 
 weaving apparatus which approaches, in the perfection 
 of its construction, to the instruments we use. The loom 
 has no beam, and the warp is laid out upon the ground 
 the whole length of the piece bf cloth. The weavers 
 live entirely In villages, as they could not, if shut up 
 in towns, work in this manner. Upon this rude ma^ 
 chine, worked in the way we have mentioned, the In- 
 dians produce these muslins, which have long been 
 such objects of curiosity from the exquisite beauty 
 and fineness of their texture. 
 
 It is probable that the whole of the implements 
 which we have just described existed as we now find 
 them before the people of India were divided into 
 castes. The transmission of the same emploj'ment 
 from father to son (which, although not specially en- 
 joined by the Hindoo code, is the invariable practice 
 In India), while it has the effect of conveying unim- 
 paired the knowledge acquired in any art, tends to 
 check its further advancement. It is the opinion of 
 Mr. Eickards, who so ably advocated the interests of 
 the natives of India in the discussion In the British 
 Parliament on the renewal of the Company's charter 
 (1814), that latterly this form of society, with all Its 
 dependencies, habits, and restraints, has been held to- 
 gether chiefiy by the oppression of the fiscal exactions, 
 the want of a free trade, and the consequent universal 
 poverty of the people. In support of this opinion, he 
 refers to what the Hindoo population of Calcutta and 
 Bombay have achieved in the pursuits of commerce. 
 We trust, however, that we may now look forward to 
 the speedy abolition of this system, so much opposed 
 to all development of talent ; and which, by reducing 
 man to the condition of a machine, has paralyzed the 
 exertions and arrested the improvement of the people 
 of India. 
 
COT 
 
 462 
 
 COT 
 
 To the same cause, however, which thus prevented 
 improvement in India is to be attributed that dexter- 
 ity in his particular employment which the Indian ar- 
 tisan possesses. From the earliest age he learns to spin 
 and weave under the direction of his father ; and hav- 
 ing no hope or desire of advancement in any other 
 line, he gains, through constant practice, that wonder- 
 ful skill, which may thus be considered almost as a 
 family inheritance. To be able to manage his ill-con- 
 structed loom, even in the production of ordinarj' fab- 
 rics, he is obliged to acquire such a sleight of hand, 
 that it is not surprising if, out of the multitude trained 
 in this manner, a few should be found capable of pro- 
 ducing those muslins which are said, when spread upon 
 the grass, to appear like the gossamer web. From 
 the superiority of these goods, and from their retaining 
 the beauty of their appearance longer than European 
 muslins, it has been supposed that the cotton of which 
 they are made is of better quality than any known to 
 the European manufactui'ers. This, however, is a 
 mistake : there is no cotton in India of a quality supe- 
 rior to the best sea islands. The excellence which these 
 muslins possess is to be ascribed wholly to the skill- 
 ful tact of the workman in the processes of spinning and 
 weaving. The long cloths and fine pullicats are made 
 chiefly within the presidency of Madras, the coarse 
 piece goods and pullicats in Surat, the finest calicoes 
 at Musulipatam, and table-cloths of a superior quality 
 at Patna. Each district varies from the others in the 
 nature of its productions, as may be seen from the dif-> 
 ferent denominations of cotton goods to be found in 
 every consignment coming from India. 
 
 An apprehension has sometimes been expressed that 
 the inhabitants of India, in possession of the raw ma^ 
 terial, may obtain a knowledge of machinery, and by 
 combining with its peculiar advantages their cheaper 
 labor and superior manual dexterity, may be enabled 
 to undersell to such a degree as to ruin and put an end 
 to British manufacture ; but in the state of the people 
 of India there are circumstances which render this im- 
 possible, without a change being first produced upon 
 
 COMPAEATIVE STATEMENT OF THE C08T OF ENGLISH AND 
 
 NisHED BY Mb. Kennedy of Manohestee to the 
 
 OONTINTIED TO 1864. 
 
 their moral condition, their institutions, and their hab- 
 its. The training which makes the Indian, with such 
 imperfect tools, able to perform his work so well, dis- 
 qualifies him from doing it in any other way, or with 
 any other implements than those to which he has been 
 familiarized from his infancy. The attempt to intro- 
 duce machinery into India is, however, now being 
 made. A spinning-mill has been built at Calcutta; 
 and although the private company which commenced 
 the undertaking has failed, the work continues to be 
 carried on. There are at present nearly 700 persons 
 employed in the mill, engaged at the rate of about 
 seven shillings each per month ; but these people, it is 
 found, can not continue to work beyond a few hours at 
 a time, and a succession of hands to carry on the opera- 
 tions through the day is required. To train them, in 
 such circumstances, to dexterity and skill is impossi- 
 ble ; and, accordingly, the yarn spun is not only of 
 inferior quality, but even with the low nominal wages, 
 costs so much as to disqualify it for competition with 
 the yarn of Great Britain. An attempt is now being 
 made to establish a cotton-spinning mill at Bombay. 
 
 The extensive introduction of machinery into Great 
 Britain has, meanwhile, by reducing the price of man- 
 ufactures, enabled them to maintain a successful com- 
 petition with the Indian goods at home, by sending 
 cotton manufactures to a large amount to India itself. 
 A complete revolution has in consequence taken place 
 in the nature of the exports from that country to 
 Europe, and, indeed, to all the markets on this side of 
 the Cape of Good Hope. When England first got pos- 
 session of India, her investments at home were princi- 
 pally (in point of value almost entirely) composed of 
 manufactured produce. They are now, in a great 
 measure, made up of the produce of the soil, indigo, 
 cotton, wool, raw silk, saltpetre, etc., etc. 
 
 The following table shows the difference of the cost 
 of cotton yarn produced in India and in Great Britain, 
 and indicates the changeless nature of unaided himian 
 labor in the former, whilst by mechanical appliances in 
 the latter, cheapness and plenty result : 
 Indian Cotton Yarn in the Tears 1812 and 1830, ftte- 
 
 COMMITTEE of PARLIAMENT ON EaST InDIA AfFAIES, AND 
 
 No. 
 
 ENGLISH COTTON YAKN. 
 
 INDIAN COTTON TARN. | 
 
 Hants per day per 
 
 Price of Cotton and Waste 
 per lb. 
 
 Lalior per lb. 
 
 Cost per lb. 
 
 Price of 
 
 Cotton and 
 
 Waste 
 
 per lb. 
 
 Labor 
 per lb. 
 
 COBt 
 
 per lb. 
 
 1812. 
 
 1830. 
 
 1884. 
 
 1819. 
 
 1830. 
 
 1854. 
 
 1812. 
 
 1830. 
 
 1854. 
 
 1812. 
 
 1830. 
 
 1854. 
 
 1812, 1880. 
 and 1864. 
 
 1819, 1880, 
 and 1854. 
 
 1812, 1880, 
 and 1854. 
 
 40 
 60 
 SO 
 100 
 120 
 150 
 200 
 250 
 
 2- 
 
 115 
 
 1-5 
 
 1-4 
 
 1-25 
 
 1- 
 
 •75 
 •05 
 
 2^T5 
 
 2^5 
 
 2- 
 
 1^65 
 
 1^38 
 
 ■9 
 
 •6 
 
 2^76 
 
 2^5 
 
 2 
 
 l^S 
 
 1^65 
 
 1^B3 
 •9 
 •6 
 
 s. d. 
 
 1 6 
 
 2 
 2 2 
 2 4 
 2 6 
 2 10 
 8 4 
 4 
 
 B. d. 
 T 
 
 10 
 Dili 
 
 1 li 
 1 4 
 1 8 
 8 
 8 8 
 
 «. d. 
 6 
 7i 
 
 9 
 Oil 
 
 1 8 
 
 1 9 
 
 2 6 
 8 6 
 
 B. d. 
 1 
 
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 85 
 
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 8 4: 
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 14 6 
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 8. i. 
 
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 8. d. 
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 84 
 
 It might hare been expected that this change would 
 have produced most distressing effects upon the crowd- 
 ed population of a country such as India, which in all 
 ages has been a, great manufacturing and exporting 
 community; but no materially unfavorable conse- 
 quences have resulted from it. In India, every man- 
 ufacturer is, at the same time, a husbandman. When 
 not employed in making a web, he supports his family 
 by agricultural labor. It thus happened, that in pro- 
 portion as the demand for goods for export declined, 
 the natives, without difficulty, and without that dis- 
 tress which generally attends a change of employment 
 in other countries, were able to direct their attention 
 more and more to agriculture ; and the result has hith- 
 erto been rather an improvement in their condition 
 than otherwise. 
 
 The cotton manufacture of China is of immense 
 amount, and is carried on almost entirely for home 
 consumption ; but its origin is not of the same remote 
 
 date as that of India. Indeed, the lateness of its rise, 
 and the slowness of its progress, in a situation so fa- 
 vorable, appear extraordinary. In the accounts of the 
 revenues and of the arts in China during the period 
 of the celebrated dynasty, which commenced about 
 1100 years before the Christian era, and lasted for 
 some centuries, no mention is made of the cotton 
 plant ; nor, indeed, is there any notice of cotton in 
 these records until about 200 years before the Chris- 
 tian era ; from which period to the sixth century, the 
 cotton cloth, which was either paid in tribute, or of- 
 fered in presents to the emperors, is always mentioned 
 as a thing rare and precious. 
 
 The cotton-tree was introduced into China at the 
 time of the conquest of that country by th« Mogul 
 Tartars, in the year 1280 ; after which period every 
 encouragement was given by government to the cul- 
 ture and manufacture of cotton. But there were con- 
 siderable difficulties to be encountered, in the preju- 
 
COT 
 
 463 
 
 COT 
 
 dices of the people, and in the opposition of those 
 engaged in the manufacture of woolen and linen ; and 
 it was not until the year 1368 that these obstacles were 
 altogether surmounted. After that date the progress 
 of cotton lAanufacture was rapid, and now nine tenths 
 of the population are clothed in its fabrics. 
 
 Almost the only cotton goods exported from China 
 are nanlseens. Barrow states the production of all the 
 fabrics of the Chinese manufacture at the time he vis- 
 ited the country (in 1792), to be stationary, attributing 
 this to the want of proper encouragement from the 
 government, and to the rigid adherence of the people 
 to ancient usages. To keep a manufacture in a pro- 
 gressive state, there must be a progressive demand 
 for its products ; and the Chinese manufacturers hav- 
 ing no means of disposing of any surplus quantity, 
 must accommodate the supply to the wants of their 
 own consumption. It is said by travelers who have 
 obtained access to that country, that the people show 
 a great desire "for articles of foreign manufacture. 
 How valuable, then, to that country, as well as to 
 others, must be the establishment of a free intercourse, 
 and how conducive, probably, to the increase of the 
 productions of all ! The Chinese, over and above the 
 cotton wool which they raise at home, import largely 
 from British India, and from the Burmese territories. 
 This intercourse commenced toward the close of the 
 eighteenth century. A famine, which happened in 
 China about that period, induced the government to 
 direct, by an imperial edict, that a greater proportion 
 of the land should be thrown into the cultivation of 
 grain. Since then, the importation of cotton from 
 India has been considerable, although constituting but 
 a small part of what is consumed in their manufac- 
 ture. The amotmt of their importations is stated at 
 40,000 bales. 
 
 Introduction into Europe. — The manufacture of cot- 
 ton goods in Europe is said to have been first at- 
 tempted by the commercial states of Italy, before the 
 discovery of the passage to India by the Cape of Good 
 Hope. These enterprising communities were the 
 entrepots through which the cotton fabrics of India 
 passed to the different markets of the West ; and be- 
 ing situated in the neighborhood of countries where 
 the cotton wool was grown, and familiar with manu- 
 facturing processes, it is supposed that they were led 
 to attempt the imitation of articles so much valued, 
 and bringing so high a price. Another account as- 
 signs the introduction of the cotton manufacture into 
 Europe to a later date, and gives to the people of the 
 Low Countries the honor of having been the first man- 
 ufacturers of these articles, in imitation of the cotton 
 fabrics which the Dutch, about the beginning of the 
 seventeenth century, began to import from India. But 
 this last account can not be correct ; for Gaicciardini, 
 in 1560, in a very full list which he gives of the dif- 
 ferent articles annually imported into and exported 
 from Antwerp,* then the greatest commercial mart in 
 Europe, specifies fustians and dimities of many fine 
 sorts among the manufactured articles imported from 
 Milan, and mentions cottons generally among those 
 brought from Venice. But in the articles exported 
 from Antwerp, although we find linens sent to almost 
 every country, cotton cloth is not once mentioned. 
 Ital}', therefore, at that time had a cotton manufac- 
 ture, which, it is probable, soon after made its way to 
 the Netherlands ; for we know it was brought from 
 the latter country to Britain by Protestant refugees 
 about the close of the sixteenth or early in the seven- 
 teenth century. 
 
 For the introduction and after improvement of many 
 of these articles, Great Britain is indebted to the late 
 Mr. John Wilson, of Ainsworth. Tliis gentleman 
 was originally a manufacturer of fustians at Manches- 
 ter, but had early engaged in the manufacture of cot- 
 
 ' See Macpherson's Anvals of Commerca, 
 
 ton velvets, which by persevering efforts he succeeded 
 in bringing to the utmost degree of perfection. His 
 improvement of the mode of dressing, of finishing, 
 and particularly of dyeing these goods, acquired for 
 them BO high a character, that both in the home and 
 foreign market his articles sold in preference to those 
 of every other manufacturer. His plan for cleaning 
 off the loose and uneven fibres, was by the use of ra- 
 zors. He afterward successively employed for this 
 end, singeing by spirits of wine and the application of 
 a hot iron resembling a weaver's drying iron, which 
 last instrument had been introduced for the same pur- 
 pose in the manufacture carried on in the Manchester 
 House of Correction by Mr. Whitlow, governor of that 
 institution. At a later period, Mr. Wilson effected 
 his object by drawing the goods rapidly over a cylin- 
 der of cast iron heated to redness, by which they were in 
 a superior manner cleared of the down or pfie which 
 had been raised upon them in the various operations of 
 weaving, washing, bleaching, or dyeing. These suc- 
 cessive inventions of Mr. Wilson, for performing this 
 process, give us some idea of the manner in which 
 improvements are introduced into the manufactures, 
 when, fortunately, the efforts of self-interest are di- 
 rected by intelligence and talent. Mr. Wilson, having 
 a turn for chemical inquiries, investigated the differ- 
 ent known processes of dyeing ; and, by the improve- 
 ments he introduced in the application of them to his 
 own manufacture, materially advanced that art. Hav- 
 ing succeeded to his satisfaction in dyeing the other 
 rich colors, he procured from the Greeks of Smyrna, 
 the secret of dyeing Turkey red. An account of this 
 process was given by him in two essays, read to the 
 Philosophical and Literary Society of Manchester, and 
 which, on his retiring from business, he printed and 
 distributed among his friends. The many valuable 
 improvements introduced by Mr. Wilson into the dif- 
 ferent processes connected with the cotton manufac- 
 ture had the effect not only to establish it more firmly, 
 but rapidly to enlarge its extent. 
 
 II. Inventions and Impbovements in Cotton 
 Manufacture. — It has been said that the yam pro- 
 duced a century ago in England,by the one-thread wheel, 
 the only spinning machine known, did not exceed in 
 quantity what 50,000 spindles of the present machinery 
 can yield. To have reared and trained hands suffi- 
 cient to have doubled this quantity, had it been possi- 
 ble, must have been the work of a length of time, and 
 the amount of manufacture would still have been in- 
 significant. A change in the system, therefore, had 
 become indispensable ; and we find that different inge- 
 nious individuals had already begun to employ them- 
 selves in contriving a better mode of spinning. When 
 we contrast the splendid inventions connected with the 
 cotton manufacture, which from this period burst forth 
 in rapid succession, with the passive acquiescence in 
 the use of imperfect machinery during the long period 
 which preceded, we are apt to ascribe these improve- 
 ments to the circumstance alone of a number of men 
 of genius having at that moment arisen, and to forget 
 that the ultimate cause exists in the times which 
 called their energies into action. About the year 1750, 
 the fiy-shuttle had been invented by Kaye of Bury — 
 one of the most important steps in the progress of the 
 art of weaving ; and in the year 1760 improvements 
 had begun to be made in the carding process. 
 
 James Hargreaves, a weaver at Stanhill, near 
 Church, in Lancashire, England, an illiterate man, 
 possesed of no great mechanical knowledge, had adapt- 
 ed the stock cards, used in the woolen manufacture, 
 to the carding of cotton, and had besides greatly im- 
 proved them. By his invention a person was able to 
 do double the work, and with more ease than by hand- 
 carding. In the stock cards, one of the cards is fixed, 
 while the other, being suspended by a cord over a 
 pulley, is worked by the carder ; and in this way, two 
 or three cards can be applied to the same stock. Tliis 
 
COT 
 
 464 
 
 COT 
 
 contrivance was soon succeeded by the cylinder cards, 
 or carding engine. It is not ascertained wlio was the 
 inventor of this valuable machine, but it is known 
 that the father of the late Sir Eobert Peel was among 
 the persons who first used it ; and that, so early as 
 1762, he, with the assistance of Hargreaves, erected a 
 carding engine with cylinders, at Blackburn. This 
 machine did not differ materially from that now in 
 use, except that it had no contrivance for detaching 
 the cotton from the cards, an operation which was per- 
 formed by women with hand-cards. 
 
 These successful advantages show that the minds of 
 the manufacturing class had been awakened to discov- 
 ery, and must have encouraged and stimulated the 
 efforts that were then making to effect corresponding 
 improvements in spinning. 
 
 There had been several unsuccessful attempts to im- 
 prove the mode of spinning before the year 1767, when 
 James Hargreaves, whom we have already mentioned, 
 invented the "spinning-jenny." The idea of this ma- 
 chine is said to have been suggested to him by seeing 
 a common spinning-wheel, which had been accidentally 
 overturned, continue its motion while it \a.y on the 
 ground. If such was the cause, it marks a mind of no 
 common description, which from so casual an occur- 
 rence could elicit an invention of so much importance. 
 After several unsuccessful attempts to carry into exe- 
 cution the conception he had formed, he succeeded in 
 producing a rudely-constructed ^osmy of eight spindles, 
 turned by bands from a horizontal wheel. In it the 
 eight rovings were passed between two pieces of weed 
 laid horizontally the breadth , of the machiue ; and 
 these being grasped in the spinner's hand, and drawn 
 out by him, formed the rovings into threads. The 
 structure of this jenny was soon afterward greatly im- 
 proved, and it was at last brought to work as many as 
 eighty spindles. This machine, although of limited 
 powers when compared with the beautiful inventions 
 which succeeded it, must be considered as the first and 
 leading step in that progress of discovery which car- 
 ried improvement to every branch of the manufacture 
 — which, as it proceeded, changed the nature and char- 
 acter of the means of production, by substituting me- 
 chanical operations for human labor — which caused the 
 manufactured article to become more and more a prod- 
 uct of capital. The progress of invention after this 
 was rapid ; for when it was seen that, with the aid of 
 the few mechanical combinations we have mentioned, 
 the spinner had been enabled to increase his power of 
 production eightyfold, the attention of those engaged 
 in other branches of manufacture, was awakened to 
 the possibility of introducing changes equally benefi- 
 cial into their peculiar employments. 
 
 Hargreaves' invention occasioned great alarm among 
 those who earned their subsistence by the old mode of 
 spinning, and even produced popular commotion. A 
 mob broke into his house and destroyed his machine ; 
 and some time after, when a better knowledge of the 
 advantage of his invention had begun to bring his 
 spinning-jenny into general use, the people rose a sec- 
 ond time, and scouring the country, broke to pieces 
 every carding and spinning-machine they could find. 
 Hargreaves himself had by this time removed to Not- 
 tingham, where he was engaged in erecting a small 
 spinning-work, about the same period that Mr. Ark- 
 wright came to settle there, who had also been driven 
 from Lancashire by the fear of similar violence. 
 
 The jenny in a short time put an end to the spin- 
 ning of cotton by the common wheel ; and the whole 
 wefts used in the manufacture continued to be spun 
 upon that machine, until the invention of the " mule- 
 jenny," by which it was in its turn superseded. Har- 
 greaves died, in great poverty, a few years after his 
 removal to Nottingham. 
 
 While Hargreaves was producing the common 
 jenny, Mr. Arkwright (afterward Sir Richard Ark- 
 wright) was employed in contriving that wonderful 
 
 piece of mechanism, the spinning-frame, called first the 
 water-frame, and afterward the throstle, which, when 
 put into motion, performs of itself the whole process 
 of spinning, leaving to the workman only the office of 
 supplying the roving or prepared material, and of 
 joining or piecing the thread when it happens to break. 
 In the year 1769, Mr. Arkwright obtained his patent 
 for spinning with rollers, and Mr. Need and Mr. 
 Strutt became his partners in the concerns to be car- 
 ried on under it. He erected a mill at Nottingham, 
 which he worked by horse-power. But this mode of 
 giving motion to the machinery being expensive, he, 
 in the year 1771, built another mill at Cromford, in 
 Derbyshire, to which motion was given by water. We 
 shall now proceed to give an account of the different 
 machines used in cotton-spinning, invented by Sir 
 Kichard Arkwright, and of those afterward invented 
 \>y others, describing them in the order in which they 
 are employed. In this manner we shall be able to ex- 
 hibit a view of the present state of the art. The in- 
 struments used in the preparation and spinning of 
 cotton- wool, are the following : 
 
 The opener ; the scutcher, and spreading-machine ; 
 the carding-engine ; the lap-machine ; the drawing- 
 frame ; the slabbing fly-frame ; the intermediate fly- 
 frame ; the finishing fly-frame ; the throstle-frame for 
 coarse warps ;' the self-acting jenny for numbers below 
 50 ; and the hand-mule jenny for higher numbers. 
 The first three of these instruments are employed in 
 the rude process of cleansing the raw cotton, and sepr 
 arating its matted flocks. In the carding-machine it 
 is carded and further purified ; in the lap-machine it is 
 fashioned in flat folds ; and in the drawing-frame it is 
 formed into a loose rope, the fibres of which have a 
 parallel arrangement. In the slabbing-frame it is 
 slightly twisted ; and in the intermediate and finishing- 
 frame it is still further twisted, particularly in the 
 higher numbers ; but it is not yet yam. The throstle- 
 frame is chiefly used for coarse warps 5 while upon 
 the self-acting and hand-mule jennies, both coarse and 
 fine yams are spun. 
 
 This description of the carding-machine is still ap- 
 plicable for numbers of yam above 100, which are 
 made from sea-island cotton. For numbers above 50, 
 a system of twice carding it is still employed. The 
 engines are generally 36 inches wide. The cotton is 
 partially carded in the breaker or first card ; it is then 
 re-formed into a lap ; and is lastly passed through the 
 finisher or second card ; for the finest yams, however, 
 combing is substituted. 
 
 To make the operations of the various machines just 
 enumerated more plain, we will give the metamor- 
 phoses of a bale of cotton, from the time it is brought 
 to the manufacturers until it becomes yarn ready to 
 be made into cloth. Women and girls in the mill take 
 the cotton from the bale by handfuls, and feed with it 
 the opening-machine. The cotton, laid upon an end- 
 less apron, is caught between the teeth of revolving 
 rollers, which effectually tear and separate the locks 
 asunder ; the cotton is opened into a light and flocu- 
 lent mass, and the few remaining seeds and the dirt 
 are expelled. Then the scutching-machine comes into 
 requisition ; again is the cotton placed upon an endless 
 apron, and again exposed to the action of revolving 
 rollers ; the impurities are yet further separated, and 
 the beautiful downy cotton becomes lapped in a con- 
 tinuous sheet upon a cylinder. These sheets of down 
 — ^these softest of all soft layers — how do we convert 
 them into delicate yam ? The broad, soft sheets go to 
 the carding-machine, where a number of wire combs, 
 or rather wire brushes, comb the cotton out into 
 straight fibres ; and these fibres are dexterously whip- 
 ped off by a " doffing" apparatus, to assume the form 
 of delicate, narrow ribbons, or slivers. Next we see 
 all these slivers joined by another machine, so as to 
 form a continuous lap ; and this lap is again carded 
 and doffed, by which the substance becomes equalized 
 
COT 
 
 465 
 
 COT 
 
 as much as possible. The cotton is thus again brought 
 to the state of a ribbon or aliver ; and then are brought 
 into use the machines which convert this ribbon into a 
 yam or thread. The drawing, the slubbing, and the 
 roving-machines, all have relation to this conversion ; 
 we see numerous pairs of rollers, between which the 
 cotton is drawn ; the drawing rounds it, equalizes it, 
 and gives it a slight twist ; until at length we see the 
 delicate yam — fine, perchance, as a spider's web — 
 elaborated from the thick but soft ropes of cotton. 
 
 More correctly, however, we should say that the 
 cotton does not become yarn till after the spinning. 
 Nothing excites more astonishment in cotton factories 
 than the self-acting mule. The complex carriage, 20 
 or 30 feet long, with its army of spindles (sometimes as 
 many as 800 in number), travels slowly to and fro, and 
 draws out delicate threads to a state of still greater deli- 
 cacy and tenuity ; the drawing out thins the cotton, the 
 rapid revolution twists it ; and thus by drawing and 
 spinning do the Houldsworths and the Bazleys of the 
 nineteenth century produce cotton-yam whose fineness 
 almost exceeds belief. And while the mule-machine 
 is thus making fine yam for weft-threads, the throstle- 
 machine, by a different mode of action, produces the 
 stronger yam for warp-threads ; then again, if it be 
 sewing-cotton, or hosiery-cotton that is required, we 
 trace the yam to the doubling-machine, where two or 
 more are twisted, one around another, whereby a much 
 denser thread is produced. The amount of machinery 
 in the spinning-rooms of some of the mills ia astonish- 
 ing ; in some cases 75,000 spindles whirling away at 
 once in one room, each one requiring the co-operation 
 of a number of other delicate little pieces of mechan- 
 ism. 
 
 We have noticed, in speaking of the carding-engine, 
 which Mr. Peel erected in 1762, that at that time the 
 cotton was taken off the finishing-cylinder by means of 
 hand-cards. But by the time Mr. Arkwright began 
 his spinning, this operation was performed by the ap- 
 plication of a roller with tin plates upon it like the 
 floats of a water-wheel, which, revolving witli a quick 
 motion, scraped off the cotton from the card. This was 
 a rude contrivance, and in its operation injured both 
 the cotton and the cards. Mr. Arkwright substituted 
 for it a plate of metal, toothed at the edge like a comb, 
 which, in place of being made to revolve like the other, 
 was moved rapidly in a perpendicular direction by a 
 crank, and with slight but reiterated strokes on the 
 teeth of the cards, detached the cotton from them in a 
 uniform fleece. He employed narrow fillet-cards, 
 wound round the doffing-cylinder in a spiral form, by 
 which contrivance a continuity of fleece was produced, 
 which, as it left the card, was gradually contracted in 
 its size by being passed through a kind of funnel, and 
 then flattened or compressed between two rollers ; after 
 which it was received into a tin can in the state of a 
 uniform, continued carding. The taking off the cot- 
 ton from the cards in this manner, is one of the most 
 beautiful and curious operations in the process of cot- 
 ton-spinning ; and although the crank, which forms a 
 part of the apparatus, had perhaps been used in some 
 way or other prior to the date of Mr. Arkwright's sec- 
 ond patent (as was urged in the action for having it 
 set aside), the comb for taking off the fleece, and the 
 spiral card which produces its continuity, were inven- 
 tions indisputabl}' his own. 
 
 Description of the Mule-jenny. — The mule, in its 
 structure and operation, is a compound oif the spinning- 
 frame and of Hargreaves' jenny, from which circum- 
 stances it has probably received its name. It contains 
 a system of rollers like that belonging to the twist- 
 frame ; but in place of having every four or six of them 
 in separate hands, as is the case in that machine, the 
 whole are coupled together ; and the rove being drawn 
 through them, ia, in its conversion into thread, re- 
 ceived on spindles revolving like those of the jenny. 
 The carriage on which these spindles are placed is 
 Go 
 
 movable, and is made to recede from the rollers a de- 
 gree faster than the thread is given out. After a cer- 
 tain quantity of the roving has been thus delivered by 
 the rollers, they are stopped ; but the carriage contin- 
 ues to recede somewhat further ; and the spindles con- 
 tinuing also to revolve, the thread is drawn out to the 
 fineness required, and then receives its proper portion 
 of twist. This last operation resembles that performed 
 by the common jenny, and produces a similar effect. 
 
 In an account of the means which contributed to 
 that fall in the price of spinning which we have men- 
 tioned, we must not omit the progressive improvement 
 in the cultivation of the raw material, and in the ap- 
 plication of its different qualities to their most profita- 
 ble uses. Previous to the year 1793, the cotton used 
 in the coarser articles of the manufacture, with the 
 exception of a small quantity imported from India and 
 from the Levant for the fustian-trade, was wholly the 
 growth of the English and of the French West India 
 Islands. That for the better kind of goods was raised 
 in Demerara, Surinam, and Berbice. The wool for 
 fine goods was grown in the Brazils ; and that for the 
 few very fine muslins then manufactured, in the Isle 
 of Bourbon. 
 
 In 1787 the descriptions of cotton imported into 
 Britain appear to have been as follows : 
 
 FMinds. 
 
 From the British West Indies 6,800,000 
 
 From the French and Spanish colonies. . . C,OOO,O0O 
 
 From the Dutch 1,TOO,000 
 
 From the Portuguese Si,50D,000 
 
 From the Isle of Bourbon, by Ostend 100,000 
 
 From Smyrna and Turkey. 5,700,000 
 
 Total 82,800,000 
 
 Had Britain continued to derive her sole supply of 
 cotton from these countries, the progress of the manu- 
 facture would have been greatly retarded, not only 
 from the difliculty of making the production of the 
 raw material keep pace with the increasing consump^ 
 tion, but from the impossibility of obtaining the quali- 
 ties of wool suited to the finer descriptions of goods, 
 which the improved machinery enabled ns to under- 
 take. 
 
 The year 1770 has always been stated as the period 
 at which the planters of the southern States began to 
 turn their attention to the raising of cotton-wool. But 
 we happen to know that in 1764, William Bathbone, 
 an extensive American merchant in Liverpool, re^ 
 ceived from one of his correspondents in the southerD 
 States a consignment of eight bags of cotton. This 
 cotton, on its arrival at Liverpool, was seized by the 
 custom-house ofiJcers, on the allegation that it could 
 not have been grown in the United States, and that it 
 was liable to seizure under the shipping-act, as not 
 being imported in a vessel belonging to the countrj' of 
 its growth. When afterward released, it lay for many 
 months unsold, in consequence of the spinners doubt- 
 ing whether it could be profitably worked up. But 
 fortunately, about the year 1770, the planters in the 
 southern States began to turn their attention to rais- 
 ing cotton-wool ; and besides carrying the cultivation 
 of the article to a great extent, they produced quali- 
 ties of cotton before unknown. In 1792 the quantity 
 of cotton exported from the United States was only 
 138,328 lbs., no manufacture of cotton goods having 
 been attempted in America for many years after that 
 period. In 1831 they exported 619,000 bales to Great 
 Britain, 127,000 to France, and 27,000 to other parts. 
 In 1845 the quantity grown in the United States was 
 2,100,537 bales, and it is estimated that 3,500,000 bales 
 will be shipped in 1857. 
 
 The American cotton-wool first taken to Great 
 Britain was very ill-cleaned, and, in consequence, was 
 indiscriminately applied to the manufacture of the 
 coarser species of goods. It was soon, however, per- 
 ceived that the cotton raised upon the coast, termed 
 sea island cotton, had a finer and longer staple than 
 that grown further back in the countrj-, and known by 
 
COT 
 
 466 
 
 COT 
 
 the name of upland cotton. But it was not for several 
 years, and until after a succession of trials, that this 
 ■wool was ascertained to be of a quality in every re- 
 spect superior to the cotton of the Isle of Bourbon. 
 Indeed, it was only in the year 1796 that the iinest de- 
 scription of it was applied to the purposes for which 
 Bourbon wool had till then been used, and which it 
 soon entirely supplanted. The second quality of it 
 about the same time supplanted the Brazil wool in 
 many kinds of goods. 
 
 The cotton received from Egypt is found to be among 
 the most useful that is grown, and that raised from 
 sea island seed ranks in quality next to American 
 sea island. 
 
 III. Cotton MANUFAcrnRE of Fokeign Coun- 
 TEIES. — Having succeeded in the production of cotton, 
 the Pasha of Egypt thought he might advance another 
 step, and have it spun into yam and woven into cloth. 
 He accordingly formed establishments for spinning and 
 weaving in Cairo, Bosaco, Eosetta, and other places ; 
 and so early as 1826 he had at work 61 mills, moved 
 by the power of buffaloes. The machinery was sup- 
 plied from France and England, orders in council hav- 
 ing been obtained in the latter country to authorize its 
 export. Power-looms were also sent out, but did not 
 succeed. A few years later, the pasha shipped 1,000 
 bales of yam to Calcutta for sale ; but it was not of a 
 quality to enter into competition with English yarn, 
 and it was found to be unsalable, except at a most dis- 
 advantageous price. He ordered it, therefore, to be 
 woven into cloth, in Calcutta, on his own account, and 
 to be re-shipped to Egypt, in a manufactured state. 
 Clapperton and Landers, on their expedition to trace 
 the courses of the Niger, found the inhabitants every- 
 where clothed in cotton. They mention that cotton- 
 wool is produced in the different districts in the inte- 
 rior, and is spun into cloth on the spot. There exists, 
 therefore, in the heart of Africa, an extensive manu- 
 facture of cotton cloth. It is to be regretted that they 
 give no information of the waj' in which the yam is 
 spun, and no description of the loom employed to 
 weave it. It would be interesting to know the nature 
 of the instruments used by the natives in these pro- 
 cesses, as such knowledge might enable us to trace 
 whence the Africans derive their acquaintance with 
 the art of weaving, and thus perhaps throw some 
 light on African history. It appears that the people 
 of Eboe, and' of the countries near the coast, are 
 chiefly clothed in Manchester cotton goods \ a circum- 
 stance which would lead us to expect, should we silc- 
 ceed in obtaining a commercial intercourse with the 
 interior of Africa, that a valuable market for the man- 
 ufactures may be found in that country. 
 
 Within the last 20 years (1854), tiie American set- 
 tlers of Liberia have established a communication 
 across the country to Timbuctoo, and have found there 
 a considerable market for cotton cloths. For more 
 extended information of this trade, see Liberia. 
 
 In France, cotton yam is often made in a different 
 place from cotton cloth. Paris and the northern de- 
 partments are the chief quarters for the supply of the 
 former article, which is sent in quantities to Eouen, 
 St. Quentin, and other places. In former years, cot- 
 ton yarn used to be smuggled in great quantities from 
 England ; but this is now limited to the finer qualities. 
 The cotton manufactures of the more substantial kind, 
 called honneterie, such as stockings and caps, are car- 
 ried on in the Ardennes, in Normandy, and the de- 
 partment of the Gard, in Languedoc, is also noted for 
 this manufacture. The exportation of cotton goods 
 from France in 1840. reached 5,000,000 kilogrammes, 
 valued at 105,753,743 francs. The importation of cot- 
 ton thread from England in 1853, was 90,002 kilo- 
 grammes, in value, 1,559,311 francs. That of raw 
 cotton in 1839 was 40,634,278 kilogrammes, in value, 
 71,204,784 francs ; in 1840, 52,941,581 kilogrammes, 
 in value, 94,005,975 francs. The cotton manufactures 
 
 of France consume between 50 and 60 m ill i ons of kilo- 
 grammes, annually imported. 
 
 Francs. 
 
 Cotton wool consuTned in France 94,005,975 
 
 Cotton wool In transit 5T,t91,9T0 
 
 Cotton thread used at home 1,218,084 
 
 Cotton thread in transit 888,85ft 
 
 Cotton cloth consumed in France 805,256 
 
 Cotton cloth in transit 84,418,978 
 
 Total 187,618,569 
 
 We shall now resume our account of the progress 
 of the manufacture in Great Britain. From Sir Richard 
 Arkwright having commenced his operations at Not- 
 tingham, the seat of the stocking manufacture, and 
 from his connection with Mr. Need, who was largely 
 engaged in it, the whole produce of his spinning was 
 at first devoted to that trade. The cotton yam for this 
 manufacture requires to be particularly smooth and 
 equal ; and to secure these qualities, it is spun by a 
 process differing a little from that employed for ordi- 
 narj- twist. Being from two roves in place of one, it 
 is called double spun twist. The introduction of this 
 article produced a great change upon the stocking 
 manufacture. Hand-spun cotton was entirely laid 
 aside ; and stockings made of twist were of so superior 
 a quality, that in a short time they wholly supplanted 
 thread stockings. 
 
 The manufacture of cotton stockings in Notting- 
 hamshire, Derbyshire, and Leicestershire, is now of 
 great extent. 
 
 About the year 1773, Mr. Need and Mr. Stmtt 
 made the important discover^', that the yarn produced 
 by the spinning-frame had sufiicient strength to fit it 
 for warp, although its firmness and hardness rendered 
 it less suitable for weft. The weft, therefore, contin- 
 ued to be spun by Hargreaves' jenny ; and from this 
 time the calicoes, and other articles in imitation of 
 India goods, which had hitherto been manufactured 
 with linen warp, came to be made wholly of cotton ; 
 and the progressive increase of these manufactures, 
 particularly of calicoes, after this time, was unexam- 
 pled. 
 
 After having made a considerable quantity of those 
 goods, Mr. Need and Mr. Strutt discovered that, when 
 printed, they were subject to double the duty charged 
 upon calicoes woven with linen warp, and that their 
 sale was even prohibited in the home market. After 
 a long and expensive application to the legislature, 
 they succeeded in procuring the repeal of those im- 
 politic laws. Nearly about the same period, calicoes 
 entirely of cotton were begun to be made at Black- 
 bum, and also at Preston ; which places soon became 
 the seat of their manufacture, and for a long time the 
 great market to which the printers from all parts of 
 the kingdom resorted for their supplies. This branch 
 went on increasing for manj' years in a most extra- 
 ordinary degree. About the year 1805, it was calcu- 
 lated that the number of pieces sold annually in the 
 Blackburn market was not less than a million ; and by 
 that time the manufacture of this article was not con- 
 fined to the country around Blackburn, but had spread 
 into the north-west district of Yorkshire, principally 
 about Colne and Bradford, from which part of the 
 country 20,000 pieces weekly are said to have been 
 sent to Manchester. 
 
 The 7iomenclature of Coiion Goods^ and the admis- 
 sion of new names, are among the oddities of the cotton 
 manufacture. 'WTiat these names mean, it would, 
 perhaps, not be very easy to say ; sometimes they in- 
 dicate a degree of fineness in the goods • sometimes 
 the mode of weaving ; sometimes a color, a pattern, a 
 garment for which they are suitable, or a distinguished 
 personage who first wore them ; sometimes a foreign 
 product which they imitate ; sometimes a country for 
 whose market they are intended, or a town which is 
 the chief seat of their manufacture, or a firm which 
 takes a lead in their production — it matters little what 
 the meaning may be ; a new name has a commercial 
 
COT 
 
 467 
 
 COT 
 
 value ; and the Shakesperian dictum concerning '' a 
 rose by any other name," etc., is not always assented 
 to in shopkeeping pMosophy. Let us run hastily 
 over a bundle of these names. We have dress ging- 
 hams and fancy ginghams, and umbrella ginghams, 
 checked and striped ginghams, and ginghams known 
 by the high-sounding names of Cflmperdowns, Coro- 
 mandels, matallas, vicunas, and briolas. We have 
 book muslins, jaconet muslins, bishop lawn muslins, 
 saohariUa muslins, tarlatan muslins, Scotch lawn mus- 
 lins, Victoria muslins, India and Swiss mull muslins, 
 leno muslins, striped miMins, lappet muslins, spot 
 muslins, sprig muslins, and a number of other members 
 of the muslin family. We have table-cloths, diapers, 
 huckabacks, jean-stripes, clan tartans, galas, Hunga- 
 rians, and Derries — all made of cotton. There are 
 surongg, crossovers, selampores, Granvilles, denims, 
 panes da costsr-^all, we believe, of the cotton shawl 
 family. There are counterpanes, quiltings, vestings, 
 dimities, swansdowns, moleskins, doeskins, lambskins, 
 velveteens, beaverteensj fustians, long-cloths, shirt- 
 ings, calicoes, everlastings, nankeens, coutils, and 
 other cotton goods, the enumeration of which would 
 be almost Wearisome. A few groupings will show the 
 relations between thes^. goods. Bor instance, the 
 gingliam family consists of stout cotton, in which 
 threads of two or more colors are woven together into 
 stripes, etc. } fustians, beaverteens, velveteens, rrwleshins, 
 and several others, are woven on the same principle as 
 velvet, with a nap or pile, which is either cut pr left 
 uncut ; damasks, kuckdbachs, diap&rs, ticks, and cam- 
 tries, are cotton limitations of the similarly-named 
 iiaxen goods ; qvilts and counterpanes have downy tufts 
 to increase the thickness and softness ;' shirting cali- 
 coes, sheeting calicoes, jjrmftw^ calicoes, long-cliO&, and 
 dtuik, are varieties of plain, serviceable cotton goods, 
 varying in stoutness ; chintz is a stout calico, after- 
 ward printed in several colors ; corduroys, jeans, quilt- 
 ings, and many other varieties, are very strong cotton 
 goods, mostly twilled. As for muslins, their variety 
 is almost interminable. 
 
 The first attempts to make muslins in Great Britain 
 commenced simultaneously in Lancashire and at Glas- 
 gow about the year 1780, but without success. There 
 was no yam fitted for the weft of these goods, except 
 that spun upon Hargreaves' jenny ; and when made 
 of this, it was found they were not of a marketable 
 quality. Recourse was then had to wefts brought 
 from India; and although a better article than the 
 former was by this means produced, it was still not of 
 a quality to compete successfully with,Indian muslin. 
 As soon, however, as the invention of the mule jenny 
 enabled the spinner to produce yarns suited to such 
 fabrics, the manufacture of the finest cotton articles 
 became an important branch of trade in Great Britain. 
 That machine, as- has been mentioned, came into use 
 at the end of the year 1785, upon Sir Richard Ark- 
 wright's patent being cancelled ; and it is from that 
 period we ought to date the commencement of this 
 part of the manufacture. So rapid was its progress, 
 that in 1787 it was computed that 500,000 pieces of 
 muslin were in that year manufactured in Great 
 Britain. 
 
 Muslin began to be made nearly at the same time at 
 Bolton, at Glasgow, and at Paisley, each place adopt- 
 . ing the peculiar description of fabric which resembled 
 most those goods it had been accustomed to manufac- 
 ture ; and in consequence of this judicious distribution 
 at first, each place has continued to maintain a superi- 
 ority in the production of its own article. 
 
 Jaconet, both coarse and fine, but of a stout fabric, 
 checked and striped muslins, and other articles of the 
 heavier description of this branch, are manufactured 
 in Bolton and in its neighborhood. 
 
 Book, mull, and lino muslins, and jaconets of a 
 lighter fabric than those made in Lancashire, are man- 
 ufactured in Glasgow. Sewed and tamboured muslins 
 2G 
 
 are almost exclusively made there and in Paisley. A 
 machine of most ingenious contrivance for performing 
 the Operation of tambouring, was, in the year 1807, in- 
 vented by Mr. John Duncan of Glasgow, and a patent 
 taken out for the discovery. Each machine contains 
 about 40 tambouring needles, and is superintended by 
 a girl, who pieces the thread when it breaks. This 
 beautiful and, at first, promising piece of mechanism 
 has never come into general use. At , present there 
 are only three or four machines kept at work by the 
 Messrs. Mitchells of Glasgow, who at an early period 
 became proprietors of the patent. What are called 
 fancy goods, woven in the loom, were first made at 
 Paisley, which had been the chief seat of the silk 
 gauze manufacture of this country. In the silk trade, 
 which was then beginning to fall into decay, a body 
 of most ingenious workmen had been bred; Bj' em- 
 ploying them, the taste and invention which had pro- 
 duced the varieties displayed in that beautiful article 
 were immediately transferred to the production of sim- 
 ilar fabrics of muslin. From this circumstance, Paisley 
 for a long time retained the exclusive possession of 
 this branch ; but being only seven miles distant from 
 Glasgow, the general seat of the cotton manufacture of 
 Scotland, and the mart to which most purchasers of 
 muslin resort, many of its principal manufacturers have 
 been induced to move their establishments to that city, 
 although the weaving of these muslins continues to be 
 executed in Paisley and its neighborhood. 
 
 There is a curious circumstance to be noticed with 
 regard to the manufacture of the very fine fabrics of 
 muslins in Scotland — ^that a great part of the yarn used 
 for them is brought from Manchester, in consequence 
 of the Scotch spinners not having yet been able to pro- 
 duce the very fine numbers of yam of the best quality. 
 This inferiority does not proceed from a less perfect 
 construction of the machinery employed in Scotland, 
 the mechanics and the machine-makers of Glasgow be- 
 ing admitted to be excellent workmen ; neither does it 
 arise from the want of skill in those who conduct the 
 business, or from any difference in the processes em- 
 ployed in the two countries ; but it is to be attributed 
 to the same cause which produces the superior yam of 
 India, namely, an adroitness and mechanical sleight of 
 hand in the operative spinners of Manchester, acquired 
 by a few out of the great multitudes bred there. The 
 manufacture of the thicker cotton fabrics was, at the 
 same time, rapidly rising in importance. The manu- 
 facture of dimities has bee^ exclusively confined to the 
 north of England, all attempts to make them in Scotland 
 having proved unsuccessful. Balason handkerchiefs 
 were first manufactured about Preston and Chorley, 
 where they still continue to be made. The manufacture 
 of ginghams was for a long time confined to Lancashire, 
 but for many years it has been extensively introduced 
 at Glasgow, although Lancashire continues to be the 
 chief seat of this branch. 
 
 PuUicat handkerchiefs were first made about the 
 year 1785, at Glasgow, where the manufacture of them 
 has been carried on to a great extent. They were 
 not made in Lancashire till some time afterward, and 
 the manufacture of them there has never been to the 
 same amount ; Glasgow, therefore, continues to be the 
 principal mart for this article. 
 
 Blue and white checks and stripes for exportation 
 were at first of a linen fabric, but were afterward 
 woven with linen warp and cotton weft ; and when 
 Sir Eichard Arkwright's discovery enabled the spinner 
 to produce cotton yams of sufficient strength to be 
 used for warps, a great proportion of these goods came 
 to be made wholly of cotton. This manufacture is 
 carried on in Lancashire, and in the county of Fife, 
 and to a small extent at Aberdeen ; its chief seat, how- 
 ever, is Carlisle. 
 
 The manufacture of cotton cambric was begun 
 about the same period, and was separated into two 
 branches ; into cambric to be used in garments in a 
 
COT 
 
 468 
 
 COT 
 
 white ov printed state, and into cambric made in imi- 
 tation of French linen camhric, to be used for the same 
 purpose as that article. The first is made nearly alto- 
 gether in Lancashire, where the manufacture of it is 
 carried on to a great extent ; and the second, of much 
 less amount, wholly at Glasgow. The Scotch manu- 
 facturers have never been able to rival the Lancashire 
 in the first, nor the Lancashire manufacturers to rival 
 the Scotch in the last. 
 
 Bandina handkerchiefs, and Bandana cloths for gar- 
 ■ments, -wore first made by Mr. Henry Monteith, at 
 *31asgow, about the year 1802, and are now manufac- 
 ';ured there to a considerable amount. The cloth is 
 lyed a bright Turkey red, and the color is discharged 
 irom those parts which form the pattern or figure, by 
 passing a chemical mixture through them. Glasgow 
 itill continues to be the chief seat of this manufacture, 
 md there are in that city several large works for car- 
 'ying it on. The demand for Bandanas, however, has 
 atterly fallen off, while, in consequence of the repeal 
 jf the impolitic duty on printed cloths, the consump- 
 aon of these has greatlj' increased ; and most of the 
 proprietors of the Turkey-red dyeing establishments 
 aave therefore been induced to add calico-printing to 
 .heir former business. 
 
 The value of the present annual production of the 
 cotton manufacture of Great Britain is estimated at 
 £54,000,000 sterling, of which nearly £33,000,000 is 
 the value of goods and yarn made for exportation. 
 The capital invested in buildings and machinery may 
 be calculated at nearly the same as the annual amount 
 of the manufacture, and more than double what it 
 was 30 j'ears ago, while the quantity of goods annually 
 produced is much more than triple ; yet, from the im- 
 provement of the processes, and consequent diminution 
 of the expense of production, with the reduction which 
 has taken place at the same time in the price of the 
 raw material, this more than tripled quantity of the 
 manufactured article does not represent more capital 
 than was represented by, and requii-ed for the bringing 
 to market the lesser amount during the preceding 
 period. In the year 1812, when Mr. Cromptou applied 
 to Parliament for a remuneration for his invention, he 
 found by as accurate an investigation as he could 
 make, that the number of mule spindles in the country 
 was between four and five millions ; and Mr. Kennedy, 
 in his memoir of Mr. Crompton, has stated, that the 
 number in 1829 had increased to 7,000,000. In 1817, 
 he estimated the number oY persons employed in the 
 spinning of cotton in Great Britain at 110,763, and the 
 number of spindles in motion at 6,645,833, and the 
 quantity of yarn produced at 99,687,500 pounds. The 
 quantity of cotton yarn spun in 1832 was 222,000,000 
 pounds, of which 132,000,000 pounds have been man- 
 ufactured into cloth, giving employment to 203,373 
 looms; but in 1853 the j'arn spun was 685,440,000 
 pounds. 
 
 IV. Statistics of the Cotton Manufactdbe. — 
 It is obvious that the home consumption in the United 
 States has always borne a most disproportioned ratio to 
 the entire growth, and that even in the last four years, 
 when it had attained to the highest point which it has yet 
 reached, the quantity reserved for domestic use never 
 exceeded a seventh part of the whole, and generally 
 fell considerably below it. It is deserving of notice, 
 however, that in the period of time which this table 
 comprehends, the internal consumption of the United 
 States has been trebled ; but large as this increase may 
 seem in the eye of a native economist, the conclusion 
 from it will Uot be eatisfactorj' if the collateral circum- 
 stances are not considered ; and the chief of these is, 
 that it is an increase on small quantities, and indicates 
 no more than the gradual growth of an infant trade, 
 which the cotton manufacture was in North America in 
 1829. We believe that in this manufacture Great 
 Britain has as yet little to fear from competition ; but 
 we are not equally confident that its prosperity may 
 
 not be exposed to risk from her ill-judged anxiety to 
 secure a monopoly of its advantages. The practice of 
 excluding from her markets the manufactures of other 
 countries is not only contrary to sound political princi- 
 ples, but gives rise to a spirit of hostility unfavorable 
 to her interests, and places her in such a state that 
 when other nations in retaliation, exclude her manu- 
 factures from their markets, she has no right to com- 
 plain. 
 
 That we may not decide this question rashly, let us 
 examine what is the danger to which she would be ex- 
 posed if she were to take the opposite system, and open 
 her ports to the manufactures of other countries. If 
 they can now export annually to the value of about 
 £32,000,000 sterling of cotton goods, which, burdened 
 with freight, charges, and the exporter's profit, they 
 are able to sell in competition with foreign manufacture, 
 can they have any thing to fear from a competition 
 with that manufacture in her home market, where the 
 circumstances of the competing parties would be re- 
 versed ? So far from the introduction of foreign man- 
 ufacture into her market being an evil, we are inclined 
 to think that it would be advantageous to her interests ; 
 and that, in the interchange of various fabrics which 
 would be the result, the sale of her own manufactures 
 would be increased. Commerce being altogether a 
 matter of barter, it is necessary for every country to 
 purchase in order that she may sell ; and, fortunately, 
 even in the same branch of manufacture, there is 
 always room for such exchanges. There are shades 
 of difference in the fabric of every article, upon which 
 taste or fashion, or caprice, never fails to fix an arbi- 
 trary value, thereby constituting them into separate 
 commodities capable of being exchanged. But the 
 view we are taking of this important question does not 
 rest altogether upon theory. Happily we have ex- 
 perience in support of it. No one disputes the advan- 
 tage resulting from the interchange of commodities 
 between Maine and Louisiana, or alleges that it would 
 be for the benefit of either to have the manufacture of 
 the other excluded from its market. Yet these two 
 districts have their dependence upon manufactures 
 which in their general features are the same. 
 
 It is well known regarding the commercial treaty 
 with France, in which some approach was made to a 
 free trade between the two countries, that while it 
 lasted, the sale warehouses of London and Manchester 
 were resorted to by purchasers from the difi'erent 
 towns of France, with the same freedom, and in nearly 
 an equal proportion of numbers, as from the towns in 
 England. And although in these warehouses French 
 and English commodities of a similar description were 
 to be found, and British shopkeepers were at the same 
 time daily resorting to France to make purchases, in 
 no period were her manufactures in a state of greater 
 progressive prosperity than during the eight years 
 (from 1786 to 1793) that this treaty existed. There is 
 no one, we believe, who has taken the trouble to in- 
 vestigate the matter, that will not say that both were 
 benefited by this treaty, and probably exactly in the 
 degree that the exclusive system in both had been de- 
 parted from. 
 
 In addition to this, it may be proper to notice, that 
 Switzerland and Saxony have always been open to the 
 reception of cotton goods free of duty ; and that in no 
 other countries on the Continent is the cotton manu- 
 facture in a more thriving state. Might it not, there- 
 fore, be a wise measure to withdraw their restrictions 
 against the importation of foreign manufactures, since 
 the interference of these with her own products in the 
 home market, supposing no interchange of the two to 
 take place, never could counterbalance the amount of 
 the sale she may be deprived of by following the op- 
 posite policy, and thus inducing the exclusion of her 
 own goods from the foreign market ? 
 
 Fears have been expressed that the lower wages for 
 which the laborers of other countries that compete 
 
COT 
 
 469 
 
 COT 
 
 ■with Great Britain in the manufacture can work, and 
 upon which, from the cheapness of their provisions, 
 they can afford to live, may ultimately enable them to 
 take the manufacture out of her hands. In reply to 
 this, it may, perhaps, be sufficient to recall to our read- 
 ers the small part of the cost of the commodity which 
 now belongs to the labor of the hand, and the daily 
 diminution which is taking place even of that part, by 
 the introduction of new mechanical substitutes. Thus, 
 for example, in 1767, each spindle required a person to 
 work it ; but now one man, with the aid of a few 
 piecers to take up and join his broken ends, can work a 
 thousand spindles. In Lancashire, in 1818, there were 
 not more than 2000 power-looms, and of these not a 
 half in employment ; while in 1832, so extensive had 
 been the change from hand-weaving to weaving by 
 power, the number had increased to 80,000. 
 
 TABVLAB OOMPAKATIVE StATEMINT 8H0WINS THE SEOLABED 
 
 Value of Cotton Manupaotuees op all Kinds, and 
 Cotton Tarns exported fkom Gkeat Bbitain from 
 
 1840 TO 1850, BOTH INOHrSIVE. 
 
 Yesra. 
 
 Manufactures. 
 
 1840 
 
 J87,886,650 
 81,162,550 
 69,589,420 
 
 1841 
 
 1842 
 
 1848 
 
 81,270,000 
 
 1844 
 
 94,088,820 
 
 1846 
 
 95,780,480 
 88,688,890 
 86,876,225 
 88,766,845 
 100,855,280 
 
 1846 „ 
 
 1847 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 
 
 1860 
 
 109,868.485 
 
 Yams. 
 
 $85,606,540 
 86,834,840 
 88,857,820 
 35,969,856 
 84,942,920 
 84,816,176 
 89,410,240 
 29,789,900 
 29,639,156 
 83,520,445 
 81,918,520 
 
 The following table gives the extreme prices of cot- 
 ton wool at Liverpool on the 31st December, from 1818 
 to 1853, showing the progressive reduction of the raw 
 material during that time : 
 
 Sea Island 
 
 Orleans 
 
 Upland 
 
 Egyptian 
 
 Pernambuco . 
 Maranham . . . 
 
 Demerara 
 
 ■West India... 
 Surat 
 
 88 —48 
 161—21 
 17 — 19J 
 
 22 —Wi 
 20 — 20J 
 19 —24 
 
 17 — 18i 
 8 — 14i 
 
 1822. 
 
 d. d. 
 141—24 
 7 —11 
 6}- 81 
 
 101— Hi 
 9J-10i 
 8i— Hi 
 7i— 8i 
 5i-7i 
 
 isse. 
 
 d. d. 
 
 10 —20 
 7-9 
 63-71 
 7i-81 
 
 10—11 
 8i-9f 
 8 —11 
 61—71 
 5 — 61 
 
 d. d. 
 
 12 —20 
 
 6 — 9 
 
 6J— 7- 
 
 7 — 8} 
 71- 8{ 
 
 71— 7i 
 
 6}— » 
 6 — 7 
 81—6 
 
 d. d. 
 111—20 
 6^ 8 
 55- 7J 
 8 — 91 
 71-8} 
 7-7| 
 61— 9 
 6 — 7 
 41-51 
 
 1839. 
 
 d. d, 
 —18 
 
 8 — 9 
 7-8 
 
 9 — 91 
 81—101 
 7|-9- 
 91—10 
 
 41-51 
 
 181—26 
 71-121 
 71—11 
 
 12—161 
 9f-141 
 83—18} 
 8—15} 
 
 5 -88 
 
 14—86 
 7 —14 
 7;— 12 
 11 —18 
 10 —15} 
 93—14 
 9 —15 
 
 8}— 9 
 
 d. d. 
 14 —33 
 5 —10 
 5—9} 
 81—161 
 81—11 
 
 7 —10 
 
 8 —18 
 
 8;— 6} 
 
 1840. 
 
 d. d. 
 10 —88 
 41— 9 
 4}- 7} 
 8 —14 
 81—10} 
 71—10 
 7 —18 
 
 8}— 6 
 
 184S. 
 
 1844. 
 
 1846. 
 
 184T. 
 
 1848. 
 
 1853. 
 
 Sea Island... 
 
 Orleans 
 
 Upland 
 
 Egyptian 
 
 Pernambuco. 
 Maranham.. . 
 Demerara.... 
 Barat 
 
 d. d. 
 71-T-24 
 8}— 9 
 81—7 
 6 -10} 
 61-8, 
 5 -7i 
 61—101 
 2}- 6 
 
 d. d. 
 9 —80 
 21-8} 
 8 — 6} 
 
 51— " 
 
 4|- 
 
 41—10 
 2t— 5 
 
 d. d. 
 9 —80 
 8 —10 
 35-71 
 61—11 
 51—8} 
 4 — " 
 
 8 —80 
 
 41—10 
 
 4i-8} 
 
 Sf^ll 
 
 6 — 9} 
 
 41—8} 
 
 4}— 9 
 
 6 —25 
 21— 8 
 8 — 6 
 
 43— 8 
 4}— 8 
 8}— 7 
 4 — 7 
 21-4} 
 
 6}— 20 
 81—8} 
 39-7} 
 43— 9 
 4|-7} 
 31— 6i 
 8}- 7} 
 2}^ 5} 
 
 d. d. 
 
 9 —20 
 51—10 
 Sj- 8i 
 6 —11 
 6}- 8} 
 6}-7S 
 5 — 9 
 81— 6J 
 
 8}- 9} 
 
 8|— 8| 
 
 5-11 
 
 55-9 
 
 4}-8J 
 
 4}— 8 
 
 21-6} 
 
 10 —28 
 8}— 8} 
 8§-7 
 6 —12 
 51-8} 
 4}— 8 
 4}— 9 
 21—5} 
 
 18 —36 
 4J-8} 
 4}-7J 
 6 —15 
 6S-8, 
 63—8 
 41—8} 
 21-5} 
 
 The subjoined table contains comparative estimates I 
 of the quantities of raw cotton consumed in the -chief 
 
 manufacturing countries during 1840 to 1853, inclu- 
 sive (in millions of pounds' weight). 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1840. 
 
 1841. 
 
 1842. 
 
 1843. 
 
 1844. 
 
 1845. 
 
 1846. 
 
 1841. 
 
 1848. 
 
 I84S. 
 
 1850. 
 
 1851. 
 
 185S. 
 
 1853. 
 
 Spindles required in 
 
 1850 to produce the 
 
 quantities into 40*8 
 
 Mule Yam. 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 473 
 72 
 157 
 
 28 
 111 
 
 422 
 65 
 154 
 
 29 
 116 
 
 462 
 
 78 
 163 
 
 83 
 105 
 
 531 
 
 82 
 152 
 
 44 
 181 
 
 643 
 86 
 446 
 
 26 
 148 
 
 597 
 96 
 
 158 
 
 38 
 158 
 
 604 
 
 97 
 
 169 
 
 89 
 175 
 
 426 
 105 
 126 
 
 81 
 
 176 
 
 591 
 
 112 
 127 
 
 29 
 209 
 
 627 
 160 
 18G 
 
 47 
 205 
 
 6Ea 
 
 138 
 
 142 
 29 
 
 45 
 
 18S 
 
 648, 746 
 
 734 
 
 185 
 
 194 
 42 
 
 45 
 
 265 
 
 88 
 
 17,975,384 
 
 4,092,808 
 
 4,369,230 
 892,808 
 
 338,461 
 
 1,884,615 
 
 5,784,615 
 
 Russia, Germany, Hoi- } 
 land, and Belgium. . . 
 
 118 
 
 149 
 84 
 45 
 
 163 
 23 
 
 172 
 
 199 
 44 
 
 55 
 
 287 
 
 29 
 
 
 Countries bordering on 1 
 
 the Adriatic f 
 
 United States of America 
 Sundries, Meditorra- ) 
 
 nean, etc. f 
 
 Total 
 
 841 
 
 786 
 
 846 
 
 940 
 
 944 
 
 1,047 
 
 1,074 
 
 862 
 
 1,068 
 
 1.225 
 
 1,182 
 
 1,175 
 
 1,481 
 
 1,503 
 
 34,836,921 
 
 
 
 
 
 Looking at the production of the past and the de- 
 mands for the future, it is not strange that the cotton 
 manufactures should show uneasiness lest their spin- 
 dles should be idle for want of the raw material. The 
 consumption of raw cotton has rapidly increased dur- 
 ing the last few years, and the unusually large crop of 
 last year has been fully used up, leaving no residue, 
 
 though with the prospect of better prices. As an illus- 
 tratbn of the increased consumption for the past j'ear, 
 we give the quantities of raw cotton consumed ir. 
 Great Britain since 1847. It will be seen, that of the 
 increase for the last year — equal to 15 per cent. — over 
 three fourths, or 11 per cent., came from the United 
 States. 
 
 Quantities of Eaw Cotton imported into the United Kingdom from various Countries. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Thd United States, 
 
 Brazil. 
 
 The 
 Mediterranean. 
 
 Britisli Possessions 
 
 In tlie 
 ' East Indies. 
 
 Eritisll West 
 
 Indies and 
 
 British GuUna. 
 
 Other Countries. 
 
 Tola]. 
 
 1847 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 864,699,291 
 600,247,488 
 , 684,604,050 
 498,153,112 
 696,638,962 
 766,630,644 
 668,461,796 
 722,151,846 
 681,629,424 
 780,040,000 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 19,966,922 
 19,971,878 
 80,788,138 
 80,299,982 
 19,889,104 
 26,606,144 
 24,190,628 
 19,703,600 
 24,677,952 
 21,830,000 
 
 Pounds. 
 4,814,268 
 
 7,231,861 
 17,369,843 
 . 48,931,414 
 16,950,525 
 18,058,640 
 28,853,575 
 23,508,008 
 82,904,153 
 84,616,000 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 83,984,614 
 
 84,101,961- 
 
 70,838,615 
 
 118,872,742 
 
 123,626,976 
 
 84,922,482 
 
 181,849,160 
 
 119,a36,009 
 
 146,179,216 
 
 180,490,000 
 
 Pounds. 
 799,933 
 640,437 
 944,807 
 228,931 
 446,629 
 708,696 
 850,428 
 409,110 
 468,452 
 462,824 
 
 Pounds. 
 , 698,687 
 ■ 827,086 
 1,074,164 
 2,090,698 
 1,377.653 
 8,960,992 
 2,084,162 
 1,730,081 
 6,992,805 
 6,439,000 
 
 Founds. 
 
 474,707,615 
 713,020,161 
 755,469,012 
 663,576,861 
 757,879,749 
 929,782,448 
 895,278,749 
 887,833,149 
 891,752,002 
 1,023,886,528 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 
 
 1850 
 
 1861 
 
 1862 
 
 1868 
 
 1854 
 
 1855 
 
 1856 
 
 According to official tables, the cotton industry of 
 Great Britain and Ireland yielded last year about fifty- 
 four millions sterling, and which may be regarded as 
 half the cotton industry of the whole world ; but foreign 
 cotmtries, besides taking half of the raw cotton sent 
 to market, receive large supplies of cotton yams from 
 
 Great Britain ; and in Asia and Africa cotton is still 
 largely spun by hand ; hence the world's cotton indus- 
 try may be valued at 120,000,000, which would afford 
 to every man, woman, and child, on the face of the earth, 
 2s. 9Jd. worth of cotton manufactures, or about fourteen 
 yards per head per annum of excellent calico. 
 
COT 
 
 470 
 
 COT 
 
 Deolaeed TALtTB Off Bbixish AND Ibish Cotton Manutaotukes and Twist and Yarn expokted to the ttnder- 
 
 MBNTIONED COUNTEIES IN THE YeAE 1653. 
 
 Population of 
 
 Countriea 
 exported to. 
 
 Value per head of 
 
 Exports to eacli 
 
 Country. 
 
 Counttiea to which exported. 
 
 Cotton m&nufoc 
 
 tures entered hy 
 
 the yard 
 
 DBCLABSn VALUB. 
 
 Hosiery, Lace, 
 
 and 
 Small Wares. 
 
 Cotton Twist, 
 and Yam. 
 
 Total. 
 
 67,000,000 
 8,000,000 
 
 1,060,182 
 
 2,900,000 
 
 15,726,820 
 
 20,000 
 
 2,003,200 
 
 241,000 
 
 884,000 
 
 2,000 
 
 2,444,560 
 
 8,638.538 
 
 148;i26 
 
 86,897,152 
 
 4,680,000 
 
 271,416 
 
 90,000 
 
 14,857,210 
 
 200,000 
 
 17,024 
 
 4,890,000 
 
 1,275,000 
 
 2,500,000 
 
 7,500,000 
 
 7,835,000 
 
 120,000 
 
 208,100 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 26,100,000 
 
 100,000 
 2,000,000 
 16.000,000 
 
 10,000,000 
 
 101,469 
 
 40,000 
 
 13,750,000 
 
 150,000,000 
 
 5,000,000 
 
 2,500,000 
 
 860,000,000 
 
 20,000 
 
 25,000 
 
 2,695,000 
 
 600,000 
 
 2,456,046 
 
 944,800 
 
 14,600 
 
 600,000 
 
 461,200 
 
 120,839 
 
 185,000 
 
 81,000 
 
 8,000 
 
 286,000 
 
 860,000 
 
 27,000,000 
 
 8,000,000 
 
 28,000 
 
 1,267,692 
 
 500,000 
 
 6,000.000 
 
 860,000 
 
 100,000 
 
 1,600,000 
 
 1,500,000 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 12,000 
 
 20,000 
 
 0-625 
 
 1-25 
 
 4.60 
 
 0-25 
 
 8-25 
 
 £ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0-375 
 
 0-76 
 
 1 6-50 
 
 7 19"7 
 
 17'ii-50 
 
 1 8-25 
 
 6-75 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 8 7-75 
 
 4 
 
 1-25 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 28 14 2-75 
 18 
 5 9-25 
 1 8-25 
 11-50 
 0, 10-46 
 18 6 
 8 8 
 2 2 
 
 1 10-50 
 
 1 2.T5 - 
 
 1 5 7-25 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 18 18 
 
 0-75 
 7-50 
 
 T 8-50 
 
 0-75 
 
 6 1-25 
 
 8 4-25 
 
 8 17 10-80 
 
 12 9-75 
 
 2-50 
 
 7 8-75 
 
 86 19 "8-25 
 
 6"l 
 
 1 9-25 
 
 3 1 
 
 1 10-50 
 
 10 9 9-50 
 
 2 6 
 
 9-25 
 
 6 11-50 
 
 6 1-75 
 
 2 11 1-75 
 
 7 4-75 
 
 6"6-75 
 
 4 
 
 Russia— Northern ports. 
 
 " Ports -within the Black Sea 
 
 Sweden '. 
 
 Norway 
 
 Denmai-12 (including Iceland) 
 
 Prussia ; 
 
 Mecklenburg-Schweriu 
 
 Hanover 
 
 Oldenburg and Kniphausen 
 
 Hanseatic Towns 
 
 Heligoland , 
 
 Holland 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Channel Islands 
 
 France 
 
 Portugal Proper 
 
 " Azores 
 
 " Madeira 
 
 Spain, Continental, and the Balearic Isls. 
 
 " Canary Islands 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 Italy, etc. — Tiz. Sardinian Territories, . . 
 
 Duchy .of Tuscany 
 
 Papal Territories 
 
 Naples and Sicily 
 
 Austrian Territories 
 
 Malta and Gozo 
 
 Ionian Islands 
 
 Kingdom of Greece 
 
 Turkish Dominions, exclusive of Wal- 1 
 lachia, Moldavia, V 
 Syria, and Egypt ) 
 
 Wallachia and Moldavia 
 
 Syria and Palestine 
 
 Egypt — Ports on the Mediterranean . . . 
 
 Tunis 
 
 Algeria 
 
 Morocco, etc 
 
 Western coast of Africa 
 
 British possessions in South Africa 
 
 Eastern coast of Africa 
 
 African Ports on the Bed Sea 
 
 Cape Verde Islands 
 
 Ascension and St. Helena 
 
 Mauritius 
 
 Aden 
 
 Persia _ 
 
 Continental India, with the contiguous [ 
 
 Islands : — ^viz. British Territories j 
 
 " " The Birman Empire. 
 
 Islands of the Indian Seas : — Java 
 
 " '' Philippine Isls. 
 
 China 
 
 Hong Kong 
 
 Japanese Islands 
 
 British Settlements in Australia. 
 
 South Sea Islands 
 
 British North America 
 
 British "W. India Isls. and Brit. Guiana. 
 
 Honduras (British Settlements) 
 
 Foreign West India Isls. :— Cuba 
 
 " " Porto Eico. . 
 
 " " Guadaloupe. 
 
 " " Martinique.. 
 
 " " Curacoa 
 
 St. Oi-oix . . . 
 
 " " St. Thomas.. 
 
 French Guiana 
 
 Dutch Guiana 
 
 Hayti. 
 
 United States of America 
 
 California 
 
 JMexico 
 
 Central America 
 
 New Grenada 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Ecuador ; 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Oriental Kepublic of the Uruguay 
 
 Buenos Ayres, or Argentine Kepublic. . 
 
 Chili 
 
 Bolivia 
 
 Peru' 
 
 Falkland Islands 
 
 Greenland and Davis' Straits 
 
 826,690,745 
 
 27,612,687 
 
 35-3,203.482 
 
 15 5 
 
 84,838 
 9,462 I 
 7,166 
 . 27,808 
 
 612 
 
 785',395 
 
 478,700 
 
 62,170 
 
 46,665 
 
 65,652 
 
 611,195 
 
 47,609 
 
 16,946 
 
 78,288 
 
 61,839 
 
 874,289 
 
 242,218 
 
 236,676 
 
 80,428 
 
 148,621 
 
 200,804 
 
 108,445 
 
 67,026 
 
 96,590 
 
 1,.510,622 
 
 77,460 
 242,689 
 818,148 
 
 63,582 
 
 884,719 
 
 207,785 
 
 1,580 
 
 2,787 
 
 979 
 
 124,257 
 
 585 
 
 4,447,418 
 
 412Ji94 
 
 888,160 
 
 1,028,074 
 
 177,921 
 
 806,715 
 18,704 
 
 666,635 
 
 870,016 
 52,400 
 
 841,294 
 4,773 
 
 11,816 
 275J646 
 
 i,6io 
 
 73,441 
 8,524,629 
 
 82,979 
 478,216 
 116,787 
 280,994 
 152,466 
 
 18,922 
 
 1,727,637 
 
 258,072 
 
 238,481 
 
 548,418 
 
 628,054 
 108 
 
 102 
 2,176 
 1,723 
 2,027 
 
 200 
 
 '"is 
 
 2 
 
 81,485 
 
 57,890 
 
 1,253 
 
 46,574 
 
 10,858 
 
 808 
 
 721 
 
 6,897 
 
 8,085 
 
 21,926 
 
 17,795 
 
 26,696 
 
 613 
 
 18,272 
 
 6,052 
 
 807 
 
 18,529 
 
 588 
 
 651 
 
 7,601 
 
 218 
 
 1,167 
 
 12,714 
 
 486 
 6,782 
 
 64,892 
 
 5,727 
 
 8,855 
 
 829 
 
 8,624 
 
 225^688 
 
 176 
 
 60,161 
 
 24,828 
 
 8,114 
 
 48,092 
 
 144 
 
 16,879 
 
 '"'21 
 
 2,953 
 648,601 
 
 6,914 
 47,720 
 
 6,801 
 12,489 
 
 6,886 
 622 
 60,009 
 10,988 
 17,164 
 45,699 
 
 88',780 
 100 
 
 137,824 
 
 4,186 
 
 46,295 
 
 25,899 
 
 64,142 
 
 26,508 
 
 60 
 
 146,796 
 
 2,076,717 
 
 1,692,643 
 
 179,676 
 
 474 
 
 48,584 
 
 42,810 
 
 1,140 
 
 18 
 
 5,958 
 
 401 
 
 7,455 
 
 46,775 
 
 104,742 
 
 78,740 
 
 199,6.30 
 
 136,113 
 
 80,447 
 
 18,411 ■ 
 
 12,161 
 
 158,868 
 
 75,832 
 88,480 
 27,795 
 
 60 
 617 
 541 
 
 1,168,264 
 
 80,844 
 
 2,140 
 
 101,396 
 
 97,089 
 
 28,456 
 
 182 
 
 1,861 
 
 78 
 
 4,283 
 
 80 
 
 ^,671 
 
 670 
 
 11,719 
 
 7,741 
 
 248 
 
 82 
 
 25 
 
 218 
 4,073 
 
 1,481 
 
 Total ' £23,901,940 £1,916,809 £6,895,658 
 
 Estimated consumption of Cotton Manufactures in Great Britain and Ireland. 
 1 8-172 fTheamountofBritishCottonMannfactaressuppliodforthe whole world 
 
 .E 
 
 180,249 
 
 13,750 
 
 64,687 
 
 64,480 
 
 101,158 
 
 27,245 
 
 60 
 
 147,420 
 
 2,247,178 
 
 299,236 
 
 48,292 
 
 156,710 
 
 664,868 
 
 49,562 
 
 17,684 
 
 86,138 
 
 66,275 
 
 408,670 
 
 306,788 
 
 868,113 
 
 169,776 
 
 861,628 
 
 841,469 
 
 140,991 
 
 86,060 
 
 108,058 
 
 1,682,519 
 
 158,880 
 276,720 
 868,639 
 
 63,810 
 
 886,603 
 
 221,040 
 
 1,880 
 
 2,737 
 
 1,465 
 
 129,992 
 
 536 
 
 5,680,069 
 
 44S',265 
 
 844,155 
 
 1,129,799 
 
 278,684 
 
 1,040,521 
 
 18,880 
 
 749,262 
 
 895,026 
 
 56,865 
 
 884,464 
 
 4,917 
 
 11,978 
 
 , 298,768 
 
 1,631 
 
 76,474 
 
 4,182,901 
 
 90,668 
 
 632,685 
 
 181,829 
 
 293,781 
 
 168,923 
 
 19,669 
 
 1,788,366 
 
 264,442 
 
 265,808 
 
 593,085 
 
 658,816 
 210 
 
 £82,712,?02 
 
 21,224,494 
 
 58,937,896 
 
COT 
 
 471 
 
 COT 
 
 V. Okigin and Eaelt History of Cotton Man- 
 ufactures OF Akerica. — Cotton is of indigenous 
 American growth. On the first landing of the Span- 
 iards in Mexico, they found it in considerable per- 
 fection. The Mexicans are said to have been solely 
 dependent upon this product, the •wool of rabbits and 
 hares, feathers, and a fibrous plant called maguet, for 
 their clothing materials. They had neither wool, 
 hemp, nor silk, and their flax was not used for these 
 purposes. Out of cotton they fabricated webs of ex- 
 ceeding tenuity, and their cloths were woven into 
 beautiful fignires. Mantles, bed-curtains, and carpets, 
 they finished elegantly with mingled cotton and feath^ 
 ers. Cortez sent to Charles V. of Spain, "cotton 
 mantles, some all white, others mixed with white and 
 black, or red, green, yellow, and blue, waistcoats, 
 handkerchiefs, counterpanes, tapestries, and carpets of 
 cotton." A peculiar cotton paper was made in Mex- 
 ico, small cloths of the same material constituted a 
 part of their currency, and their warriors are said to 
 have had cotton cuirasses. , The modern Mexicans 
 have lost the perfection of their ancient art of manu- 
 facture. The American plant was not confined to 
 Mejdco alone ; Columbus found it wild in Hispaniola 
 and on the continent of South America, where it had 
 already grown into an article of use for clothing and 
 other purposes. The Brazilians made their beds of it. 
 The Abbe Clavigero says, that of 'f cotton, the Meid- 
 cans made large webs, and as delicate and fine as those 
 of Holland, which were so highly esteemed in Europe. 
 They wove their cloths of different figures and colors, 
 representing different animals and flowers. Of feath- 
 ers, interwoven with cotton, they made mantles, bed- 
 curtains, carpets, gowns, and other things, not less soft 
 than beautiful. With cotton, also, they interwove the 
 finest hair of the belly of rabbits and hares, after hav- 
 ing spun it into thread ; of this they made most beau- 
 tiful cloths, and in particular, winter waistcoats for 
 their lords." Cochineal and indigo being native prod- 
 ucts of Mexico, they were well supplied with dyeing 
 materials ; but the fact of their having carried the arts 
 of manufacturing and dyeing cotton to such a high 
 stage of perfection, is proof that they must have re- 
 ceived their knowledge from India, by way of the 
 west. 
 
 Magellan, Drake, Cavendish, Dampier, Van Koort, 
 all agree that cotton was one of the articles of dress 
 among the American savages, on the discovery of the 
 country. At St. Salvador the women are described 
 as dressed in cotton coats. Even as far north, says 
 Mr. Seabrook, as the Mes-chacebe, or Mississippi, the 
 earliest explorers of that river, and its tributarj' 
 streams, sa\w cotton growing wild in the pod, and in 
 great plenty. These facts, and they might almost he 
 indefinitely multiplied, are introduced to rebut the 
 opinion founded on the negative testimony of Captain 
 Cook, that the gossypum is not a native of the western 
 hemisphere. That celebrated voyager found no cotton 
 between New Zealand, 36° S., and the Sandwich 
 Islands, 20° N. In addition to flax, and the bark of 
 the mulberry-tree, in which Captain Cook says that 
 the inhabitants of those regions were habited, the na- 
 tions all over the continent nearly, used as articles of 
 dress, besides cotton, feathers, the wool of rabbits, the 
 maguei, and silk-grass. In 1726, cotton was a staple 
 product of Hispaniola. In 1753, Jamaica exported 
 2,000 bags. On an average of eight years, from 1740 
 to 1748, the export of cotton from Barbadoes was 600 
 bags annually. In 1787, St. Domingo, St. Christo- 
 pher, Grenada, Dominica, Antigua, Montserrat, and 
 Nevis, and the Virgin Islands, exported the same com- 
 modity. In 1803, there were grown five varieties of 
 cotton in Jamaica, the common, the brown-bearded, 
 the Nankin, the French, and the Brazilian. From 
 these facts, Mr. Baines draws the conclusion that the 
 manufacture of cotton must therefore be supposed to be 
 coeval with the original settlement of America ; but 
 
 learned men are much divided as to the date of this 
 event, some carrying it nearly as high as the deluge, 
 and others contending for a much later period. The 
 American manufacture may at all events claim a high 
 degree of antiquity. 
 
 VI. Cotton Manufactures in the United 
 States. — Bialoripcd Sketch of the Rise and Progress 
 of the Cotton Manufactories in the United States. — ^As 
 earlj- as the year 1787, a society was formed in Phila- 
 delphia, under the name of the " Pennsylvania So- 
 ciety for the Encouragement of Manufactures and the 
 Useful Arts," which made some progress in the manu- 
 facturing of various kinds of goods, such as jeans, cor- 
 duroys, fustians, plain and flowered cottons, flax lin- 
 ens, tow linens, etc. But the machinery employed in 
 this manufacture seems to have been of the very rudest 
 kind. A short time before the formation of this society, 
 an attempt to spin cotton-yam by machinery had been 
 made at Bridgewater and Beverly, in the State of 
 Massachusetts. Two mechanics from Scotland, Alex- 
 ander and Robert Barr, brothers, were employed by a 
 Mr. Orr, of East Bridgewater, to make carding, spin- 
 ning, and roving-machines, which they completed; 
 and on the 16th of November, 1786, the General Court 
 of Massachusetts made them a grant of £200, lawful 
 money, for their encouragement, and afterward added 
 to the bounty, by giving them six tickets in the State 
 land lottery, in which there were no blanks, 
 i In March, 1787, Thomas Somers, an English mid- 
 shipman, constructed a machine, or model, under the 
 direction of Mr. Orr ; and, by a resolution of the Gene- 
 ral Court, £20 were placed in the hands of the latter, 
 tp encourage him in the enterprise. 
 
 The above remained in the possession of Mr. Orr for 
 the inspection of all disposed to see them, and he was 
 requested by the General Court, to exhibit and give 
 all information or explanation regarding them. It is 
 believed that the above were the first machines made 
 in the United States for the manufacture of cotton. 
 
 The Beverly Company commenced operations in 
 1787, and are supposed to be the. first company that 
 made any progress in the manufa,eture of cotton goods 
 (that at Bridgewater had been on a very limited scale), 
 yet the difficulties under which they labored — ^the ex- 
 traordinary loss of materials in the instruction of their 
 servants and workmen — -the high prices of machines, 
 unknown to their mechanics, and both intricate and 
 difficult in their construction, together with other in- 
 cidents which usually attend a new business — were 
 such that the company were put to the necessity of 
 applying to the State legislature for assistance, to 
 save them from being compelled to abandon the enter- 
 prise altogether. 
 
 In their petition to the Senate and House of Eepre- 
 sentatives of Massachusetts, presented June 2d, 1790, 
 only three years after they had commenced operations, 
 they state : " That their expenditure had already 
 amounted to nearly £4,000, while the value of their 
 remaining stock was not equal to £2,000, and a further 
 very considerable advance was absolutely necessary to 
 obtain that degree of perfection in the manufacture, 
 which alone could ensure success." 
 
 Accordingly a grant of £1,000 was presented them, 
 to be appropriated in such a way as would effectually 
 promote the manufacturing of cotton piece-goods in 
 the commonwealth. 
 
 The petition above referred to, and other collateral 
 facts, sufficiently prove that cotton-spinning in this 
 country, further than the hand-card and one thread- 
 wheel, was carried through its first struggles by the 
 Beverly Company in Massachusetts. And from this 
 State the manufacture was carried to Khode Island — 
 though it must be acknowledged that both States were 
 indebted to foreign emigrants for instruction and assist- 
 ance in spinntng and weaving, as well as in preparing 
 the cotton. 
 
 Cotton-spinning commenced in Ehode Island in 1788^ 
 
COT 
 
 4Y2 
 
 COT 
 
 in which year Daniel Anthony, Andrew Dexter, and 
 Lewis Peclc, all of Providence, entered into an agree- 
 ment to make what was then called " home-spun cloth." 
 The idea at first was to make jeans of linen warp spun 
 by hand ; but hearing that Mr. Oit, of Bridgewater, 
 and the Beverlj' Company, had imported some models 
 or di'aughts of machinery from England, they sent 
 thither and obtained drawings of them, according to 
 which they constructed machinery of their own. The 
 first they made was a carding-machine, which was 
 something similar to those now used for carding wool, 
 the cotton being taken off the machine in rolls, and 
 afterward roped by hand. The next was a spinning- 
 frame, something similar to the water-frame, or rather 
 the common jenny, but a very imperfect machine. It 
 consisted of eight heads of four spindles each, being 
 32 spindles in all, and was wrought by means of a 
 crank turned by the hand ; this, after being tried for 
 some time in Providence, was taken to Pawtucket and 
 attached to a wheel propelled by water ; the work of 
 turning the machine was too laborious to be done by 
 hand, and the machine itself was too imperfect to be 
 turned by water. Soon after, these machines were 
 sold to Moses Brown, of Providence ; but as all the 
 carding and roving was done by hand, it was very im- 
 perfect, and but verj' little could be done in this way. 
 Such were the rude machines used for spinning cotton 
 previous to 1790 ; and the wonder is, not that the man- 
 ufacturers failed in their undertakings, but rather that 
 they were able to persevere. And we can now per- 
 ceive that from these small beginnings, the present 
 brightened prospects received their foundation. 
 
 The first cotton-mill of the United States was erected 
 in Pawtucket, Rhode Island, by the late Mr. Samuel 
 Slater, a native of Belper, Derbyshire, England, in 
 1790. The machinery was that of the Arkwright 
 patent. There is evidence that Hargreave's jennies 
 were in use in this country previous to 1790, but by 
 whom, and when introduced, is not known. They 
 were worked principally by Scotch and Irish weavers, 
 who produced mixed goods of linen and cotton. Great 
 Britain, at that time, used every means to prevent the 
 introduction of her spinning machinery into other 
 countries. Her law expressly forbid its exportation ; 
 and every attempt to import the machinery into Amer- 
 ica had failed. The Hon. Tench Coxe, of Philadel- 
 phia, entered into a bond with a person, who engaged 
 to send him from London complete brass models of 
 Arkwright's patents. The machinery was completed 
 and packed, but was detected by the examining ofiicer, 
 and forfeited, according to the existing laws of Great 
 Britain. No way remained to obtain the benefit of the 
 British inventions but to manufacture them on our 
 own soil. For this purpose Mr. Slater came to Amer- 
 ica. He had been a pupil of Arkwright, and was per- 
 fectl}' familiar' with all his patents. He .brought with 
 him neither patterns nor memoranda to assist him in 
 his work, but depended entirely on his memory, a 
 thing which the statutes of Great Britain could not 
 reach. The King of England had frequently made 
 proclamations against any tradesman leaving the king- 
 dom, and had called on his oflScers for their most vigil- 
 ant watch against it ; but tlie professions of men 
 leaving the kingdom could not be always detected. 
 
 Some of the first yarn made by Mr. Slater in Amer- 
 ica, and some of the first cotton cloth made from it, 
 was sent to the Secretary of the Treasury, on the 15th 
 of October, 1791 ; and it is probably in existence now. 
 It is stated that Mr. Clay had some of the first yarn 
 in his possession in 1836. It was as fine as a No. 40. 
 
 Mr. Slater was induced to leave his emplojTiient un- 
 der Mr. Arkwright, in England, to come to America, 
 by seeing a premium offered by the Pennsylvania So- 
 ciety for a certain machine to spin cotton. 
 
 Mr. Slater labored under the greatest disadvantages 
 for the want of suitable materials, and mechanics of 
 6ufficlent ingenuity to assist him. The history of his 
 
 first labors is deeply interesting, for the detaUg of 
 which we must refer the reader to his biographer. His 
 first machine was what is called a water-frame, of only 
 24 spindles. Such was the humble origin of cotton 
 manufacturing in America. From that first machine 
 the advancement of the cotton manufacture has been 
 truly astonishing. It has caused hundreds of populous 
 villages, towns, and' even cities, to spring up as if by 
 magic, where only a few years ago nothing was seen 
 but a barren wilderness. Astonishing as has been the in- 
 crease of the various manufacturing towns and villages 
 in the United States, Lowell, in Massachusetts, sur- 
 passes every thing of the kind that has been witnessed 
 within the memory of man. In 1819 its site was a 
 wilderness, whither sportsmen went to shoot game. 
 The entire population of the territory around it did not 
 exceed 200 souls. It was a poor, barren district, with 
 but a few houses on the spot where the city now 
 stands ; and the inhabitants supported themselves 
 principally by fishing in the Concord and Merrimac 
 rivers, at the junction of which Lowell is situated. A 
 company of wealthy men in Boston, seeing the valu- 
 able water-privileges of the spot, purchased it for manu- 
 facturing purposes. The first cotton mill was erected 
 there in 1822 ; and in 1830 the population of the place 
 had increased to 6477 persons. In 1840 the population 
 had increased to 20,796 ; and the value of property 
 there was $12,400,000. In 1856 the number of cotton- 
 mills was 35, spindles 350,348. Thus, what only 30 
 years ago was a wUd pasture-ground has become a 
 large and flourishing city ; a proof of what a water- 
 power, seconded by capital and enterprise, can do for 
 a place. Lowell is a splendid example of an American 
 manufacturing city, and excites the attention, and in 
 some measure the jealousy, sa3's Mr. McCulloch, of 
 Manchester and Glasgow, We need no better proof 
 of what manufactures can accomplish than the history 
 of Lowell. The Lowell cotton-mills, owned by twelve 
 manufacturing companies, extend in a continuous line 
 of about a mile, from the Merimac to the Pawtucket 
 Falls. 
 
 The rapid growth of the cotton manufacture in this 
 country is unparalleled in the historj- of industrj'. 
 The second cotton-mill in America was erected in 1795, 
 at the same place as the first. No more were built 
 until 1803, when a third was erected in Massachusetts, 
 followed 1)3' a fourth in 1804. During tlie three follow- 
 ing years ten more mills were erected in Rhode Island, 
 and one in Connecticut, making in all fifteen mills, 
 with 8000 spindles, producing 300,000 pounds of yarn 
 annually. By a report made to the government in 
 1810, it appears that 87 additional mills had been 
 erected by the end of 1809, of which 62 were then in 
 operation b)' horse and water-power, running 31,000 
 spindles. The cotton manufacture continued to spread, 
 and received a considerable impulse from the war of 
 1812. In that year there were in Rhode Island 33 
 cotton factories, with 30,663 spindles. In Massachu- 
 setts there were 20 mills, with 17,371 spindles. 
 
 A report made to Congress in 1816 gives the follow- 
 ing statement of the consumption of cotton by our 
 mills, showing how rapidlj- the cotton manufacture had 
 advanced. The consumption of cotton was, in 
 
 1800. 
 1805. 
 
 500 
 1,000 
 
 1810...; 10,000 
 
 1815 90,000 
 
 The following statement is also officially made in 
 the same report, showing the state of the cotton man- 
 ufacture at that time : . 
 
 Capital employed in 1816 $40,000,000 
 
 Males employed over 17 years old 10,000 
 
 Women and female children 66,000 
 
 Boys under IT years 24,000 
 
 Cotton cloth manufactured yards 81,000,000 
 
 Cost of same $24,000,000 
 
 Eaw cotton, 90,000 bales,.. or lbs. 27,000,000 
 
 The subject of protection was then extensively agi- 
 tated. The importations of cotton goods in 1815 and 
 1816 were immense, and created great alarm among 
 
COT 
 
 473 
 
 COT 
 
 manufactarers. Tlie amount of importations of those 
 two years was about $180,000,000. During the years 
 1817, 1818, 1819, and 1820, great distress prevailed 
 among the manufacturers, but Congress was not dis- 
 posed to grant their petitions in full. 
 
 Tariff laws were passed in 1824, 1828, and 1832, in 
 each of which the duty upon foreign cotton goods im- 
 ported was 25 per cent, ad vcUoreih. These duties, 
 though they did not prevent our markets from being 
 glutted with foreign goods, caused our manufactures to 
 gradually increase. 
 
 TnE Cotton MASOPAornBES in 
 
 In 1820, the first cotton mill in Pennsylvania was 
 erected at Manayunk by Captain John Towers. There 
 were then only two small cottages on the spot. It 
 now contains 500 dwellings, 6 churches, 15 stores, and 
 about 30 mills. 
 
 Among the numerous towns that have sprung into 
 existence, owing to the influence of manufactures, 
 may be mentioned — ^Waltham, Paterson, Ware, Fall 
 Elver, Taunton, Pawtucket, Lowell, Lawrence, Prov- 
 idence, Rhode Island, Saco, Lewiston Falls, Maine, 
 etc. 
 
 TWELVE OF TUB STATES, IN 1831. 
 
 States. 
 
 Mills. 
 
 Looms. 
 
 Capital. 
 
 Number of 
 spindles. 
 
 Yards of 
 
 clotli produced 
 
 yearly. 
 
 Founds of 
 
 doth produced 
 
 yearly. 
 
 Pounds of 
 
 cotton consumed 
 
 yearly. 
 
 Maine 
 
 8 
 
 40 
 
 17 
 
 256 
 
 116 
 
 94 
 
 112 
 
 51 
 
 67 
 
 10 
 
 28 
 
 7 
 
 91 
 8,580 
 
 852 
 8,981 
 6,778 
 2,609 
 8,653 
 
 815 
 6,801 
 
 285 
 
 1,002 
 
 91 
 
 $765,000 
 5,800,000 
 
 295,500 
 12,891,000 
 6,262,840 
 2,826,000 
 8,669,500 
 2,027,644 
 8,758,500 
 
 884,600 
 2,144,000 
 
 290,000 
 
 6,600 
 118,776 
 
 12,392 
 389,777 
 235,753 
 116,628 
 157,816 
 
 62,979 
 120,810 
 
 24,806 
 
 47,222 
 9,844 
 
 1,760,000 
 29,060,500 
 
 2.288,400 
 79,281,000 
 37,121,681 
 20,055,500 
 21,010,920 
 
 6,188,776 
 21,832,467 
 
 5,208,746 
 
 7,649,000 
 675,000 
 
 525,000 
 7,255,060 
 
 574,500 
 21,801,062 
 9,271,481 
 5,612,000 
 6,297,718 
 1,877,418 
 4,207,192 
 1,201,500 
 2,224,000 
 
 168,000 
 
 588,500 
 
 7,846,000 
 
 760,000 
 
 24,871,981 
 
 10,414,578 
 
 6,777,209 
 
 7,661,670 
 
 5,882,204 
 
 7,111,174 
 
 1,436,000 
 
 8,008,000 
 
 1,162,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 New York 
 
 
 
 
 
 Virginia 
 
 Total 
 
 801 
 
 88,488 
 
 $40,612,984 
 
 1,246,708 
 
 280,461,990 
 
 59,514,926 
 
 77,457,316 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cotton Manufaotubeb in 
 
 1850. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Slates. 
 
 1'^ 
 
 Capital 
 invested. 
 
 Bales of 
 cotton. 
 
 Tons of 
 coal. 
 
 Value ofaU 
 raw matei-ial. 
 
 Number of hands 
 employed. 
 
 Entire wages per 
 
 Value of en- 
 tire products. 
 
 Tai;d8 of 
 
 sheeting, 
 
 etc. 
 
 Males. 
 
 Females. 
 
 Males. 
 
 Females, 
 
 
 12 
 44 
 9 
 213 
 168 
 128 
 86 
 21 
 208 
 12 
 24 
 27 
 28 
 18 
 85 
 
 '12 
 2 
 
 "a 
 
 ■ 83 
 8 
 8 
 
 "2 
 
 "2 
 
 1 
 
 $8,829,700 
 
 10,960,600 
 
 202,600 
 
 28,465,680 
 
 6,675,000 
 
 4,219,100 
 
 4,176,920 
 
 1,488,500 
 
 4,528,925 
 
 460,100 
 
 2,286,000 
 
 1,908,900 
 
 1,058,800 
 
 867,200 
 
 1,736,166 
 
 80,000 
 
 661,900 
 
 38,000 
 
 16,600 
 669,600 
 239,000 
 297,000 
 
 4ii',66o 
 
 102,660 
 85',66o 
 
 81,531 
 83,026 
 
 2,248 
 228,607 
 50,713 
 89,488 
 37,778 
 14,487 
 44,162 
 
 4,780 
 28,326 
 17,785 
 13,617 
 
 9,929 
 
 20,230 
 
 600 
 
 5,208 
 480 
 
 'iio 
 
 6,411 
 3,760 
 4,270 
 
 "675 
 
 2,160 
 
 "960 
 
 2,921 
 7,679 
 
 46'645 
 18,116 
 2,866 
 1,889 
 4,467 
 24,189 
 1,920 
 2,212 
 4,805 
 
 1,666 
 
 8,6io 
 
 720 
 2,152 
 
 "soo 
 
 1,658 
 
 $1,573,110 
 
 4,889,429 
 
 ■ 114;415 
 
 11,289,309 
 
 8,484,579 
 
 2,500,062 
 
 1,985,973 
 
 666,645 
 
 8,152,580 
 
 812,068 
 
 1,165,679 
 
 828,875 
 
 681,903 
 
 296,971 
 
 900,419 
 
 80,000 
 
 237,081 
 
 21,500 
 
 8,975 
 297,500 
 180,907 
 237,060 
 
 28',220 
 
 86,446 
 
 67J66o 
 
 780 
 2,911 
 94 
 9,293 
 4,959 
 2,708 
 2,632 
 
 616 
 3,664 
 
 413 
 1,008 
 1,275 
 
 442 
 
 899 
 
 873 
 28 
 
 846 
 19 
 
 "'is 
 
 310 
 181 
 182 
 
 "'88 
 
 ■"75 
 
 '"41 
 
 2,959 
 9,211 
 
 147 
 19,437 
 5,916 
 3,478 
 8,688 
 1,096 
 4,099 
 
 425 
 2,014 
 1,688 
 1,777 
 
 620 
 
 1,809 
 
 67 
 
 869 
 17 
 
 '"18 
 681 
 221 
 269 
 
 ■"57 
 
 '"so 
 
 "168 
 
 $22,895 
 
 75,718 
 
 • 1,460 
 
 212,892 
 
 92,282 
 
 61,679 
 
 48,244 
 
 11,078 
 
 63,642 
 
 6,326 
 
 16,546 
 
 12,988 
 
 5,153 
 
 5,665 
 
 12,725 
 
 900 
 
 4,058 
 
 270 
 
 "190 
 3,891 
 2,707 
 2,191 
 
 , "495 
 
 "820 
 
 "575 
 
 $36,978 
 
 124,131 
 
 1,861 
 
 264,614 
 
 76,666 
 
 41,060 
 
 86,699 
 
 10,487 
 
 40,656 
 
 4,926 
 
 19,108 
 
 11,791 
 
 7,216 
 
 5,161 
 
 10,862 
 
 835 
 
 2,946 
 
 101 
 
 "106 
 8,730 
 2,070 
 2,684 
 
 "8S6 
 
 "soo 
 
 "825 
 
 $2,596,856 
 
 8,830,619 
 
 196,100 
 
 19,712,461 
 
 6,447,120 
 
 4,257,522 
 
 8,591,989 
 
 1,109,524 
 
 5,322,262 
 
 688,4-39 
 
 2,120,604 
 
 1,486,384 
 
 881,842 
 
 748,888 
 
 2,185,044 
 
 49,920 
 
 882,260 
 
 80,500 
 
 l'6',687 
 610,624 
 278,439 
 894,700 
 
 44260 
 100,660 
 
 82,852,556 
 113,106,247 
 
 1,651,000 
 298,751,892 
 96,726,612 
 61,780,700 
 44,901,475 
 
 8,122,680 
 46,746,790 
 
 3,521,686 
 27,883,928 
 18,640,107 
 
 2,470,110 
 
 6,663,787 
 
 7,209,292 
 624,000 
 
 8,081,000 
 
 86'8',250 
 
 1,008.000 
 
 280,000 
 
 1,400,660 
 
 New Hampshire . 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Massachusetts.... 
 Bliode Island:... 
 
 ConnebticUt' 
 
 New York 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Virginia 
 
 North Carolina. . . 
 South Carolina... 
 
 Florida 
 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Texas 
 
 Arkaasas 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Missouri 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 California 
 
 Dist. of Columbia. 
 Total 
 
 1,094 
 
 74,601i081 
 
 641,240 
 
 121,099 
 
 $84,835,056 
 
 38,150 
 
 59,186 «663.778 
 
 $703,414 
 
 $61,869,184 
 
 763,678,407 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tabulab compaeatite Statement showing tue QgAWTiriBS and deolaeed Yalues of Cotton MANtrFACTUEES and 
 Yauns Exported peom G-rbat Britain and from tub United States, respectively, to all Countries, for a 
 PEiiiOD OF Five Years, from 1851 to 1855, both inclusive.* 
 
 Years. 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 UNITED STATES. | 
 
 MANUFACTURBS. 
 
 VARMa, 
 
 MANCFACTURK9. 
 
 YARNS. 
 
 Quantities. 
 
 Vnlnos.t 
 
 Quantities. 
 
 Values, 
 
 Quantities. 
 
 Values. 
 
 Quantities. 
 
 Values. 
 
 1851 
 
 1832 
 
 1863 
 
 1854 
 
 1865 
 
 Aggregate , 
 Average. . . 
 
 Yard., 
 
 1,543,161,789 
 1,624,256,914 
 1,594,692,659 
 1,692,977,476 
 1,986,846,987 
 
 $110,246,010. 
 108,242,290 
 119,509,700 
 116,884,800 
 180,623,376 
 
 foirnds. 
 
 143,966,106 
 145,478,302 
 147,539,802 
 147,128,498 
 165,499,647 
 
 $38,246,010 
 83,273,275 
 34,478,265 
 88,466,936 
 86,152,140 
 
 No data. 
 
 $7,203,946 
 7,637,4.33 
 8,746,800 
 5,486,201 
 5,867,181 
 
 No data. 
 
 $37,260 
 84,718 
 22,594 
 49,815 
 
 None. 
 
 8,290,886,775 
 1,668,167,155 
 
 686,506,676 
 117,101,115 
 
 749,611,755 
 149,922,851 
 
 170,606,625 
 34,121,825 
 
 
 $34,931,060 
 6,986,212 
 
 
 $143,887 
 29,777 
 
 * Made up from British and United States' official documents, respectively ; the oommerciol year of the former ending 
 December 81, and of the latter June f " 
 
 t The pound sterling is computed at five dollars. 
 
 The articles Cotton and Cotton Manufactures have 
 
 been compiled principally from the official report of 
 
 the Statistical Office to Congress in 1856, United 
 
 States' Patent Office Eeports, tables prepared by Mr. 
 
 "W. P. Wright, cotton broker. New York city, Encyclo- 
 pedia Britannica, eighth edition, and De Bow's In- 
 dustrial Kesources of the United States, the latter now 
 published at Washington, D. C. 
 
COT 
 
 474 
 
 COT 
 
 Statement ExmniTiNO the poueign Importations anp Ke-expobtations, domestic. Expobxationb and home Con- 
 suMPTioN OF foeeiqn Cotton Goods, togetube with tub Conbumption of foreign Cotton Goods ovke domestic 
 L-xpoetations ; the Ntjmbee of Pounds of* Sea-island and other CctTON ANNUALLYEXPofiTED from the it. s.' 
 
 yenre. 
 
 COTTO.V, M,\N01'A 
 
 CTUKES OF. 
 
 
 COTTON, UNMANUFACTUEED, HXPOKTED. ' | 
 
 imported. 
 
 Foreign 
 'exported.' 
 
 Domestic 
 exported. 
 
 HoTiie con- 
 Bunip.tion ' 
 oS foreign 
 
 Cotton 
 
 Goods. 
 
 Home consump- 
 tion of foreign 
 , Cotton Goods 
 over domestic 
 Exporttttions. 
 
 Sea-islAQd. 
 
 Other. 
 
 Tolol. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Aver- 
 age 
 . Cost 
 per 
 Poijnd, 
 
 1840 
 
 1841 
 
 184-i :.... 
 
 1843 
 
 1844 
 
 1845 
 
 1846 
 
 1847 ..... 
 
 1818 
 
 1849 
 
 1860 
 
 1881 
 
 1852 ...1., 
 1883 ..... 
 
 1884...... 
 
 18.58 ..... 
 
 1886 
 
 Yearly av. 
 
 6,504,484 
 ll,757,'n^6 
 9,878,516 
 2,158,798 
 13,641,478 
 13,863,282 
 13,530,826 
 15,192^875 
 18,421,68J 
 16,754,841 
 ^0,108,71'.! 
 22,164,442 
 16,689,496 
 27,731,313 
 33,949,503 
 17,767,112 
 26,917,999 
 
 1,108,4S9 
 
 929,050 
 
 836,892 
 
 314,040 
 
 404,648 
 
 502,883 
 
 673,208 
 
 488,138 
 
 1,216,172 
 
 671,082 
 
 427,107 
 
 677,940 
 
 997,030 
 
 1,264,363 
 
 1,408,179 
 
 2,012,684 
 
 1,880,495 
 
 3,549,607 
 3,122,540 
 2,970,690 
 3,223,580 
 2,898,780 
 4,327,928 
 3,845,481 
 4,082,523 
 6,718,205 
 4,933,129 
 4,734,424 
 7,241,206 
 7,072,151 
 8,768,894 
 5,586,616 
 5,857,181 
 6,967,309 
 
 5,400,995 
 10,827,980 
 8,741,628 
 2,644,756 
 13,236,830 
 13,360,729 
 12,857,422 
 14,700,740 
 17,i:05,417 
 15,183,759 
 19,681,612 
 21,480,502 
 15,092,466 
 28,478,950 
 32,481,824 
 15,744,558 
 24,387,504 
 
 1,851,388 
 
 7,705,434 
 
 6,770,033 , 
 
 578,794" 
 
 10,388,060 
 
 8',882.151 
 
 9,311,941 
 
 10,624,217 
 
 11,487,212 
 
 10,250,63,0 
 
 14,947,188 
 
 14,246,297 
 
 8,020,315 
 
 17,708,086 
 
 26,948,808 
 
 9,887,377 
 
 17,370,188 
 
 Founds. 
 8,779,069 
 6,287,424 
 7,254,099 
 7,815,070 
 6,099,076 
 9,383,025 
 9,883,583 
 6,298,973 
 7,724,148 
 11,969,259 
 8,236,463 
 8,299,656 
 11,788,075 
 11,105,165 
 10,486,423 
 13,0!)8,l>90 
 12,797,226 
 
 Pounds. 
 735,101.392 
 653,960,676 
 577,462,91J 
 784,782,027 
 657,534,879 
 803,516,371 
 638,169.5'i'.' 
 620,925,985 
 806.550,28. 
 
 1,014,638,010 
 627,145,141 
 918,937,483 
 
 1,081,492,864 
 
 1,100,405,206 
 977,046,683 
 995,366,011 
 
 1,338,634,476 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 743,941,061 
 
 530,204,100 
 
 584,717,017 
 
 792,297,106 
 
 663,633,456 
 
 872,906,9!:6 
 
 647,653,065 
 
 627,219,958 
 
 814,274,431 
 
 1,026,602,269 
 
 635,881,604 
 
 927,237,089 
 
 1,093,230,639 
 
 1,11,1,670,370 
 
 987,883,106 
 
 1,008,424,601 
 
 1.351,431,701 
 
 63,870,307 
 54,330,341 
 47,598,464 
 49,119,808 
 54,003,501 
 51.789,643 
 42,707.841 
 53,416,848 
 61,998,294 
 66,896,967 
 71,984,?16 
 
 112,315.317 
 87,965,78^ 
 
 109,456,404 
 93.596,22(1 
 88,143,844 
 
 128,382,351 
 
 . Ots. 
 
 8-5 
 10-2 
 8-1' 
 ■6-2 , 
 8-1 
 5-92 
 7-81 
 10-34 
 7-61 
 6-4 
 }l-3 
 12-11 
 ,S-05 
 9-8^ 
 9-47 
 8,-74 
 ,9-5 
 
 16,795,418 
 
 909,114 
 
 5,008,772 
 
 15,886,304 
 
 11,58A8.S7 
 
 i),201,911 
 
 S27,17S,23! 
 
 836,380,1501 72.772,04) 
 
 8 7-17 
 
 * Domestic exportations over home consumption of foreign cotton goods. 
 
 Statement exhibiting the Population, total Peodttot op Manupactuees of Cotton and Expoets of ea-iv Cotton, 
 Manufaotuees of (Cotton in tub United States, noJiE Consumption of domestic Goods, home Consumption op 
 foreign Goods, and the total home Consumption of foeeign and domestic Cotton Goods, and the Allotment 
 PEE Capita, for the Years 1840, 1850, and 1855. 
 
 Population 
 
 Total product of manufactures of cotton and exports of raw cotton 
 
 Allotment per capita of manufactures of cotton and exports of raw cotton 
 
 Mapufactures of cotton in tlie United States 
 
 Allotment per capita of tlie manufaciiures of cotton in the United States 
 
 Hpme consumption of domestic goods 
 
 Allotment per capita of the home consumption of domestic cotton goods 
 
 Home consumption of foreign cotton goods 
 
 Allotment per capita of the home consumption of foreign cotton goods 
 
 Total home consumption of foreign and domestic goods 
 
 Allotment per capita of total home consumption of foreign and domestic goods. 
 
 1840. 
 
 17. 
 $110, 
 
 46, 
 
 42. 
 
 ■ 8, 
 
 48, 
 
 ,069,453 
 ,220,760 
 
 6 45-72 
 ,850,463 
 
 2 71-54 
 ,80,0,846 
 
 2 50-74 
 ,400,9I'5 
 
 81-64 
 1,201,841 
 
 2 82-88 
 
 1850. 
 
 23,191,876 
 $133,853,800 
 
 5 17-15 
 61,869,1S4 
 
 2 06-77 
 57,184,760 
 
 2 46-36 
 19,681,612 
 
 84-86 
 76,816,372 
 
 8 31-22 
 
 27,185,1517 
 $159,108,656 
 
 6f6 27 
 70,904,712 
 
 2 61-04 
 65,107,631 
 
 2 39-49 
 16,7+4,663 
 
 67-91 
 80,852,089 
 
 2 97-40 
 
 Statement of the Imports into the United States or foeeign Cottons and Cotton Manufagtueeb during the 
 
 fiscal Yeaes 1854, 1855, and 1850. 
 
 18.55. 
 
 Raw cotton 
 
 Printed and colored cottons 
 
 "White cottons 
 
 Cottons, tamboured or embroidered . . . 
 
 Velvets of cotton 
 
 ■^'elvets of cotton and silk 
 
 Cords, gimps, and galloons 
 
 Hosiery and articles made on frames. 
 
 Cotton, yarn and thread 
 
 Hatters' plush, part silk .'. 
 
 Cotton inserting, laces, etc 
 
 All other cottons 
 
 Total imports of cotton 
 
 $31,318 ■ 
 ,423,249) 
 ,101,212/ 
 ,045,476 ' 
 496,442-) 
 95,343/ 
 189,639 
 ,018,664 
 ,076,987 
 102,824 
 853,652 
 314,622 
 
 $34,834,033 
 
 $131,457 
 
 12,663,622 
 
 8,000,000 
 
 432,715 
 
 128,.50O 
 2,056,595 
 
 997,673 
 45,081 
 
 767,055 
 1,534,026 
 
 $21,656,624 
 
 $71,336 
 
 19,110,752 
 
 3,000,000 
 
 565,883 
 
 194.005 
 2,516848 
 1,276,700 
 26,408 
 1,191,019 
 2,227,283 
 
 $30,180,368 
 
 Summary showing the exports of domestic and for- 
 eign unmanufactured and manufactured cotton from, 
 and the imports of manufactured cotton into the United 
 
 ExpOETS OF the foeeign Manufactueeb of Cotton fkom the United States foe the Year ending June 80, 1887. 
 
 States for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1857. This 
 summary also specifies the countries -with which this 
 trade was conducted. 
 
 ■W)iit)iBr exported. 
 
 Cords, 
 Gimps, nnd 
 Golioons. 
 
 Hosiery and 
 
 Articles mode 
 
 on Frnines. 
 
 Twist 
 Ynrri and 
 Thread. 
 
 Mnmifactiires 
 of, not 
 
 specific^. 
 
 Asiatic Russia 
 
 Russian Possessions in North America 
 
 Danish West Indies 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Bremen 
 
 England 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Canada 
 
 Other British North American Possessions.. 
 
 British Hond nras 
 
 British East Indies 
 
 Azores 
 
 Ports in Africa 
 
 Mexico ■ 
 
 Central Kepuhlic 
 
 New Granada 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Chili 
 
 Sandwich Islands 
 
 Whale-fisheries 
 
 Total 
 
 From warehouse 
 
 Not from warehouse 
 
 36, 
 171, 
 
 49, 
 
 ,344 
 ,1,54 
 486 
 ,527 
 410 
 ,796 
 ,310 
 ,449 
 ,979 
 230 
 ,056 
 72 
 ,115 
 ,240 
 ,391 
 ,638 
 440 
 
 3,'l89 
 
 2,866 
 
 211 
 
 $306,392 
 
 $185,905 
 119,397 
 
 $50 
 
 $140 
 
 2853 
 
 4,215 
 763 
 
 2,315 
 
 4,>.21 
 
 $375 
 
 $2493 
 
 $11,819 
 
 $376 
 
 $2481 
 12 
 
 $6,147 
 5,672 
 
 22,568 
 
 185,533 
 3,398 
 
 19,287 
 6,187 
 
 116 
 13,3io 
 
 $-2,618 
 
 $228,107 
 
 $15 361 
 7,255 
 
 $155,244 
 72,863 
 
COT 
 
 475 
 
 COT 
 
 EXT>0RTB Off THE DOMESTIC ManTTFAOTITREB OP COTTON FROM THE UNITED STATES FOB THE YEAE ENDma JtTNE 30, 185T. 
 
 Whither exported. 
 
 Printed 
 
 and 
 colored. 
 
 White 
 
 other than 
 
 Duok. 
 
 Other 
 tnatiunMi- 
 turea of. 
 
 Whither exported. 
 
 Printed 
 
 and 
 colored. 
 
 White 
 
 other than 
 
 Ducli. 
 
 Other 
 manufoC' 
 tures of. 
 
 Russian Pogs. in N. A. , . 
 Swedisii West Indies. . , . 
 
 Denniartc 
 
 Danisli West Indies 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Dutcli West Indies 
 
 Dutcli East Indies 
 
 Belgium 
 
 England 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 Malta 
 
 Canada 
 
 Other Brit. N. A. Poss. . . 
 
 Bri'tish West Indifjs 
 
 Brinish Honduras 
 
 British Guiana. .<....,.,, 
 British Poss. in Africa. . . 
 
 British Australia. .' 
 
 British East Indies .'. 
 
 France on the Atlantic . . 
 France on the Medlterr'n 
 French N. A. Possessions 
 Spain on the Atlantic 
 
 Canary Islands 
 
 Philippine Islands . . . 
 
 41 
 605 
 
 i'in 
 ^&^ 
 
 1,02T 
 22,679 
 
 1,947 
 9,600 
 119,245 
 173,619 
 6,350 
 3,167 
 
 6,105 
 27,866 
 274.524 
 
 5,616 
 
 S,100 
 
 ' 1,164 
 • i BSD 
 
 . ,1,127 
 16,334 
 
 13;838 
 
 40,416 
 
 100 
 
 8,251 
 
 T20 
 
 1,000 
 
 18.626 
 
 102,319 
 
 158,818 
 
 4,618 
 
 19,225 
 
 23,330 
 
 93,400 
 
 116,886 
 
 1,606 
 
 'i,m 
 
 34,535 
 
 13,000 
 1,530 
 3,320 
 
 8,473 
 
 80,894 
 
 8,842 
 
 1,529 
 
 1,852 
 
 92 
 
 (i4,831 
 
 7,864 
 
 991 
 
 2,097 
 
 3,8-20 
 
 9,646 
 
 755 
 
 1,000 
 
 3,303 
 
 ' 301 
 i,313 
 
 368,738 
 
 27,708 
 
 547 
 
 4,183 
 
 '356 
 
 2,205 
 
 690 
 
 2,465 
 
 "ib 
 
 Cuba .\ ; 
 
 Porto Kico . . . i . . i ■ . V . . . . 
 
 Portugal ,.. 
 
 Madeira 
 
 Cape de Verd Islahds 
 
 Azores ^.;. .- 
 
 Turkey in. Europe,. 
 
 Turkey in Asia,,,.. 
 
 Ports in Africa 
 
 Hayti ; 
 
 San Domingo 
 
 Mexico > 
 
 Central Kepublic 
 
 New Granada 
 
 Venezuela- 
 
 Brazil :^. 
 
 Uruguay,, or Cispl^t. Kep. 
 
 Argentine Eepuhlic 
 
 Chili 
 
 Peru 
 
 Sandwich Islands 
 
 Other islaiids in the Pacific 
 
 China . . .' ' 
 
 Whale-fisheries 
 
 646 
 3,063 
 
 2,9^8 
 ■ ■ 803 
 
 : 2,400 
 90,612 
 
 121,43i 
 87,072 
 
 45,819 
 
 4,773 
 
 6,748 
 
 2,372 
 
 197,692 
 
 10,289 
 
 19,470 
 
 272,484 
 
 7T,632 
 
 40,002 
 
 4,646 
 
 131,816 
 
 680 
 
 17,346 
 
 2,960' 
 
 . 2^0 
 
 1,930 
 
 93t 
 
 3,748 
 
 2,824 
 
 45,515 
 
 667,280 
 
 96,236 
 
 ' • 1,249 
 
 171,188 
 
 .,J1,T96 
 
 61,114 
 
 21,773 
 
 266,961 
 
 18,091 
 
 35,392 
 
 871,023 
 
 8,258 
 
 83,984 
 
 5,549 
 
 9£5,7fi8 
 
 635 
 
 21,257 
 -667 
 
 5,939 
 3,973 
 
 3^937 
 
 K760 
 3,268 
 2,977 
 24,830 
 6,007 
 4,713 
 1,607 
 5,481 
 
 310 
 6,436 
 
 914 
 
 10,385 
 62U 
 
 1,396 
 
 "360 
 
 126,43? 
 
 46 
 
 27,816 
 ,,24 
 
 i,902 
 
 23.857 
 
 . 2,093 
 
 426 
 
 1,664 
 
 8,'O09 
 
 146 
 
 Total ,value |l,785,CS6 3,463,230 252,109|614,i53 
 
 ESPOETS Off iTNMANUFAOTnRBD COTTOlf, OF HOME PRODUCTION, FROM THE UbITED STATES FOB THE YEAB ENDINO 
 
 JlTNE 30, 1867:, 
 
 Whither oxpoited. 
 
 BnloB. 
 
 Other. 
 
 Kussia on the Baltic and North Seas 
 
 PrnsBia 
 
 Sweden and Norway , 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Hamburg , . . . 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Holland 
 
 Belgium 
 
 England 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Ireland 
 
 Canada 
 
 France on the Atlantic ,. . . . 
 
 France on the Mediterranean 
 
 Spain on the Atlantic 
 
 Spain on tlie Mediterranean 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Azores 
 
 Sardinia 
 
 Two Sicilies 
 
 Austria 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Total 
 
 Number. 
 
 69,832 
 
 89 
 
 21,333 
 
 2,423 
 
 22,720 
 
 71,105 
 
 21,862 
 
 24,218 
 
 1,410,627 
 
 16,408 
 
 46,217 
 
 1,947 
 
 376,870 
 
 3,187 
 
 8,350 
 
 96,704 
 
 4 
 
 132 
 
 4 
 
 36,794 
 
 1,275 
 
 16,137 
 
 20,269 
 
 100,000 
 
 9,064,993 
 
 278,914 
 
 3,486,678 
 
 335 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 31,933,634 
 
 30,000 
 
 10,038,005 
 
 1,176,300 
 
 10,524,075 
 
 34,359,660 
 
 10,434,227 
 
 12,147,423' 
 
 047,039,434 
 
 7,070,835 
 
 20,553,796 
 
 860,810 
 
 109,282,353 
 
 1,485,643 
 
 3,805,136 
 
 41,751,931 
 
 2,000 
 
 56,439 
 
 1,000 
 
 16,658,272 
 
 581,587 
 
 7,014,692 
 
 7,953.638 
 
 $4,267,234 
 
 3,674 
 
 1,249,043 
 
 154,636 
 
 1,311,936 
 
 4,866,418 
 
 1,283,3:8 
 
 1,420,035 
 
 81,526,013 
 
 950,282 
 
 2,612,334 
 
 12,688 
 
 22,082,187 
 
 180,983 
 
 474,043 
 
 5,691,118 
 
 200, 
 
 6,992 
 
 220 
 
 1,967,622 
 
 71,806 
 
 952,924 
 
 999,747 
 
 2,285,588 
 
 12,940,726 
 
 1,035,341,750 
 
 $131,575,859 
 
 Imports op the Manuf-votuees op Cotton into tue United States foe the Yeae ending June 30, 1857. 
 
 whence toiported. 
 
 Cords, 
 Gimps, and 
 Galloons. 
 
 Hosiery, and 
 
 Articles made 
 
 on Frames. 
 
 Twist Yam 
 and Thread. 
 
 Hatters' 
 Plush of 
 SUkimd 
 Cotton. 
 
 Manufactures 
 
 of, not 
 
 epecilied. 
 
 Russia on the Baltic and Nortli Seas 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Other German ports 
 
 Holland 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Englaiid 
 
 Scotland 
 
 lireland. 
 
 Canada. 
 
 Other British N. A. Possessions. . . . 
 
 British West Indies 
 
 British Possessions in Africa 
 
 British Australia 
 
 Bvitish East Indies 
 
 France on the Atlantic 
 
 France on tlie Mediterranean 
 
 Spain on the Mediterranean 
 
 Philippine Islands 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Azores 
 
 Sardinia : 
 
 Tuscany 
 
 Forts in Africa 
 
 New Granada 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Chili : 
 
 Sandwich Islands 
 
 China 
 
 Total value 
 
 $1,080 
 129,7-26 
 318,100 
 
 "361 
 
 64,818 
 
 16,439,037 
 
 2,522,296 
 
 3,427 
 
 60S 
 
 27 
 
 274 
 
 184 
 
 228 
 
 1,914,187 
 
 1,021 
 
 4 
 
 "334 
 
 "121 
 
 ""'3 
 
 41,770 
 
 19 
 
 333 
 
 898 
 
 2,277 
 
 $991 
 19,379 
 
 1,497 
 
 65-2,376 
 
 1,653 
 
 42 
 
 $2,618 
 2,4-8 
 
 "'83 
 
 973 
 
 200,830 
 
 81 
 
 6,661 
 
 $364,091 
 
 1,637,384 
 
 2 
 
 189 
 
 20,966 
 
 1,112,385 
 
 14,196 
 
 " "2 
 
 ""2 
 
 59,969 
 
 161 
 192 
 
 $181 
 178 
 
 214 
 994,026 
 397,313 
 
 T70 
 
 7,729 
 
 737 
 
 $3,341 
 
 6,194 
 
 601 
 
 53,990 
 263,450 
 
 slois 
 
 19,283 
 
 1,107,115 
 
 06,9C4 
 
 848 
 
 2,769 
 
 4 
 
 187 
 
 442 
 221,701 
 
 $21,441,083 
 
 $678,294 
 
 $218,8-'4 
 
 $3,210,287 
 
 :l,4'll,163 1 $11,473 
 
 $1,729,613 
 
cou 
 
 476 
 
 COU 
 
 Cotton Dyeing. (Teiniure de Coton, Fr. ; Saum- 
 woUen/a/rherei, Germ.) Cotton and linen yarns and 
 cloths have nearlj^ the same affinity for dyes, and may 
 therefore with propriety be treated, in this respect, 
 together. After they have acquired the proper de- 
 gree of whiteness, they are still unfit to receive and 
 retain the dyes in a permanent manner. It is neces- 
 sary, before dipping them into the dye-bath, to give 
 them a tendency to condense the coloring particles 
 within their cavities or pores, and to communicate 
 such chemical properties as will fix these particles so 
 that they will not separate, to whatever ordinary trial 
 they may be subjected. All the colors which it would 
 be desirable to transfer to these stuffs, unfortunately 
 do not possess this permanence. Men of science en- 
 gaged in this important art, have constantlj' aimed at 
 the discovery of some new processes which may trans- 
 fer into the class of fast colors those dyes which are 
 at present more or less fugitive. Almost all the 
 goods manufactured of cotton, flax or hemp, are in- 
 tended to be washed, and ought, therefore, to be so 
 dyed as to resist the alkaline and soapy solutions 
 commonly used in the laundry. Vitalis distinguished 
 dyed cottons into three classes : 1. the fuffitke, or 
 fancy-colored {petit teini)^ which change their hue or 
 are destroyed by one or two boils with soap ; 2. those 
 which resist five or six careful washings with soap, 
 are good dyes (hon teirtC) ; and those which were still 
 more durable, such as Turkey reds, maj- be called fast 
 colors {grand teint). The colors of Brazil-wood, log- 
 wood, annotto, safflower, etc., are fugitive ; those made 
 with madder without an oily base, are good; and those 
 of madder with an oily mordant, are fast. 
 
 Cotton-'wood. (Populus argentea.') This spe- 
 cies is scattered over a great extent of country, com- 
 prising the middle, southern and western States. It 
 is, however, quite rare in the middle States. New 
 York city may be considered as the most northern 
 point at which it grows. It is quite common along 
 the Mississippi river. The cotton-tree grows some- 
 times to the height of 70 or 80 feet, and 2 or 3 feet in 
 diameter. The leaves, while very young, are covered 
 with a thick, white down, which gradually disappears, 
 leaving them smooth above, and slightly downy be- 
 neath. The wood of the cotton-tree is soft, light, and 
 unfit for use, and inferior to that of most of the other 
 poplars. It is appropriated to no particular use in the 
 arts or for fuel. — Browne, Sylva Americana. 
 
 Counterfeiting. Large sums of money have 
 been expended with a view to devise plans for the 
 prevention of counterfeiting bank notes, bank checks, 
 etc., but thus far no successful plan has been devised. 
 The New England Societ}'' for the Prevention of 
 Counterfeiting, has for some years been in operation 
 at Boston, and is aided by the treasury of Massachu- 
 setts to the extent of ^2,500 per year. This society 
 has been the means of detecting and punishing nu- 
 merous counterfeiters. Forging of government cer- 
 tificates of United States stock, land warrants, etc., 
 is, by act of Congress, punishable by imprisonment 
 not over 10 years. For counterfeiting a post-office 
 frank, a fine of $10 will be imposed. The counter- 
 feiting of coins of the United States, or of foreign 
 coins, shall be punished by imprisonment between 3 
 and 10 years, or imprisonment of 5 years and a fine 
 of $1,000.— See Dunlap's Digest Laws U. S., pp. 76, 
 403, 404, 726, 728, 1002. 
 
 Countermark. In Numismatics, a stamp fre- 
 quently seen on ancient coins, often obliterating a 
 large part of the impression. The countermark is 
 generally a figure or inscription, and some antiquaries 
 have considered that their use was to augment the 
 value of the money ; others, that it was only struck on 
 money taken from an enemy. 
 
 Coupons, from the French, is a term employed 
 in England and elsewhere, to denote the warrants for 
 the payment of the periodical dividends or interest on 
 
 public stocks, a number of which being appended to 
 the bonds, are severally cut off for presentation as the 
 dividends fall due, generally semi-annually — some- 
 times quarterly. The practice of appending coupons 
 to bonds is now generally adopted by States and cor- 
 porations, as they facilitate the collection of the semi- 
 annual or quarterly interest thereon. 
 
 Courier (Fr., courir, to run), a messenger sent 
 post or express with dispatches. The couriers em- 
 ployed by the ancients were of two kinds ; first, those 
 who ran on foot, called by the Greeks kemerodromij or 
 da3^-runners, regarding whom Pliny, Cornelius Nepos, 
 and Cassar mention that some of them would run 
 twenty, thirty, thirty-six, and in the circus even forty 
 leagues a day ; second, riding couriers (cursores equi- 
 tantes\ who changed horses as modern couriers do. 
 Xenophon attributes the first couriers to Cyrus. He- 
 rodotus says they were very common among the Per- 
 sians, and that there was nothing in the world more 
 swift than such messengers. That prince, says Xen- 
 ophon, proved how far a horse could run in a day, and 
 built stables at corresponding distances ; and at each 
 station a courier was always ready with a fresh horse 
 to forward the package to the next stage, and so on 
 throughout the empire. But it does not appear that 
 either the Greeks or Romans had any regular system 
 of couriers till the time of Augustus. Under that 
 prince they traveled in cars, about 24 B.C., though it 
 would appear that the}' afterward went on horseback. 
 Under the Western Empire they were called viatores; 
 and under that of Constantinople cursores. Couriers 
 or posts are said to have been instituted in France by 
 Charlemagne, about a.d. 800. The couriers or posts 
 for letters were established in the early part of the 
 reign of Louis XI. of France, owing to this monarch's 
 extraordinary eagerness for news. They were the 
 first institution of the kind in Europe, a.d. 1463. 
 
 Court-plaster is a considerable object of manu- 
 facture. It is made as follows : Black silk is strained 
 and brushed over ten or twelve times with the follow- 
 ing preparation : Dissolve ^ an ounce of balsam of 
 benzoin in 6 ounces of rectified spirits of wine ; and in 
 a separate vessel dissolve 1 ounce of isinglass in as 
 little water as may be. Strain each solution, mix 
 them, and let the mixture rest, so that any undis- 
 solved parts may subside, "When the clear liquid is 
 cold it will form a jelly, which must be warmed before 
 it is applied to the silk. When the silk coated with 
 it is quite dry, it must be finished ofl" with a coat of a 
 solution of 4 ounces of China turpentine in 6 ounces 
 of tincture of benzoin, to prevent its cracking. 
 
 Court of Claims. This is a new court, estab- 
 lished by act of Congress of the United States, Feb- 
 ruary 24, 1854, having jurisdiction of claims by 
 individuals against the United States, arising from 
 disputed cases at the Treasury. This obviates the 
 necessity of petitioning Congress for indemnity for 
 losses sustaiued under government contracts, etc. 
 See DuNLAP's Digest Laws U. S., pp. 1457 — 1459. 
 
 Coutts, Thomas. This distinguished London 
 banker, whose death caused much excitement in the 
 metropolis, was at one time, in wealth and import- 
 ance, at the head of the banking and moneyed interest 
 in England. He was at first a partner in the house 
 at St. Mary Axe, London, and afterward admitted 
 into his brother's banking-house, in the Strand, Lon- 
 don. His own bank stands on nearly the centre of 
 the site where stood, many years ago, an exchange, 
 similar to Exeter Exchange. It was then considered 
 one of the best-constructed places of safety in Great 
 Britain, except the Bank of England. 
 
 Mr. Coutts died on the 24th of February, 1822, hav- 
 ing attained the age of ninety-one. His will was read 
 the Sundaj' evening after his death, in the presence of 
 his family. To the surprise of many, he bequeathed 
 his whole property, to the amount of £900,000, to Mrs. 
 Coutts, formerly Miss Mellon, an actress, at her own 
 
CRA 
 
 411 
 
 ORE 
 
 disposal, withont mentioning any other person, or 
 leaving a single legacy. This was, probably, to es- 
 cape the legacy duty, which, if his fortune lyere left 
 to others, would have amounted to £60,000. The firm 
 of Coutts and Co., said to be controlled by Mias Bur- 
 dett Coutts, is still among the banking-houses of Lou- 
 don.— See £mkers' Mag., N. Y., U. p. 525 (1848). 
 
 Cove. An inlet on a rocky coast. It is a term 
 nearly synonymous with harbor : the word cove be- 
 ing geperally, though not always, used when the in- 
 dentation on the coast is too shallow or narrow to 
 admit first-class vessels. 
 
 Cowes, West, a seaport-town of the Isle of Wight, 
 at the mouth of the Medina, 4 miles N. of Newport, 
 and 78 miles from London. It occupies a rising 
 ground on the W. bank of the river, presenting a 
 striking appearance from the sea. The streets are 
 narrow and irregular; but many of the modern build- 
 ings are handsome, and in the vicinity are nume- 
 rous elegant villas. It is much resorted to for sea- 
 bathing, and has numerous hotels and lodging-houses 
 for the accommodation of visitors. The harbor is 
 safe and convenient, and its entrance is defended by 
 a battery. It forms the rendezvous of the Koyal 
 Yacht Club, who hold their annual regatta here. It 
 has a very considerable coasting trade. Exports, 
 chiefly agricultural produce and malt ; imports, coal, 
 colonial produce, manufactured goods, etc. Ship- 
 building is extensively carried on. On the opposite 
 side of the river, which is here about half a mile broad, 
 is East Cowes, where is the custom-house of the port, 
 and near which is Osborne House, the marine resi- 
 dence of her Majesty. Pop. (1851), 4,786.— E.B. 
 
 Covrhage, or CoTvitcli (Hind. Kiwach), the 
 fruit or bean of a perennial climbing plant (JDoHchos 
 pruriens, Lin.) It is a native of India, as well as of 
 several other Eastern countries, and of America. The 
 pod is about 4 or 5 inches long, a little curved, and 
 contains from 3 to 5 oval and fiattish seeds ; the out- 
 side is thickly covered with short, bristly, brown 
 hairs, which, if incautiously touched, stick to the 
 skin, and occasion intolerable itching. — Ainslie's 
 Materia Indica. 
 
 Cowries (Ger. Kauris ; Du. Kauris ; Fr. Coris, 
 Cauris, Bouges ; It. Cori, Porcellane ; Sp. Bucios Zim- 
 hos) are small shells brought from the Maldives, which 
 pass current as coin in smaller payments in Hindostan, 
 and throughout extensive districts, in Africa. They 
 used to be imported into England previously to the abo- 
 lition of the slave trade, in which they were subse- 
 quently employed. They are an article of trade at 
 Bombay. The best are small, clean, and white, hav- 
 ing a beautiful gloss ; those that are yellow, large, and 
 without lustre, should be rejected. The freight is cal- 
 culated at 20 cwt. to the ton. — Milbubn's Ori&nt. Com, 
 Cozening, tricking, defrauding. In law it denotes 
 an offense where any thing is done deceitfully, either 
 with regard to contracts or otherwise, and which can 
 not properly be defined by any special name. In the 
 civil law it is called stellionatus. 
 
 Cranberries, or Red Whortleberries, the 
 fruit of a moss plant, the Vaccinium oxycoccus of Lin- 
 niEus. The berries are globular, about the size of 
 currants ; are found in mossy bogs. Cranberries 
 have a peculiar flavor, and a sharp, acid, agreeable 
 taste ; they are easily preserved, and are extensively 
 used in making tarts. They are very abundant in 
 North America, and in the northern parts of Russia ; 
 the latter being of a superior quality. It is said that 
 some very fine ones have recently been brought from 
 New South Wales. Considerable quantities are pro- 
 duced in New England on the marshy lands near the 
 coast. 
 
 Crank, in sea language, is applied to a vessel 
 when, from too much top weight, or the want of suf- 
 ficient ballast, or cargo, or from any other cause, she 
 can not bear much sail without danger of oversetting. 
 
 It also denotes an iron brace for supporting the lan- 
 terns on the poop-quarters of the ship. 
 
 Crape (Fr. Cripe; Ger. Flohr, Kraiiafltyr ; It. Es- 
 pumilla, Soptillo ; Eus, Flior ; Sp. Crespon), a light, 
 transparent stuff, in manner of gauze, made of raw 
 silk, gummed and twisted on the mill, and woven 
 without crossing. When dyed black it is much worn 
 by ladies as a mourning dress. Crapes are crisped 
 (crepis') or smooth ; the former being double, are used 
 in close mourning, the latter in less deep. White 
 crape is appropriate to young unmarried females, and 
 to virgins on taking the vail in nunneries. The silk 
 destined for the first is spun harder than for the 
 second ; since the degree of twist, particularly for the 
 warp, determines the degree of crisping which it as- 
 sumes after being taken from the loom. It is for this 
 purpose steeped in clear water, and rubbed with pre- 
 pared wax. Crapes are all woven and dyed with the 
 silk in the raw state. They are finished with a stif- 
 fening of gum-water. Crape is a Bolognese invention, 
 but has been long manufactured with superior excel- 
 lence at Lj'ons, in France, and Norwich, ia England. 
 There is now a magnificent fabric of it at Yarmouth, 
 by power-loom machinery. There is another kind of 
 stuff, called crdpon, made either of fine wool, or of 
 wool and silk, of which the warp is twisted much 
 harder than the weft. The croons of Naples consist 
 altogether of silk. 
 
 Crayons. Colored cylinders used for drawing 
 upon paper j they are usually made of a fine pipe-clay, 
 colored with metallic pigments or carmine. Crayons 
 containing plumbago are styled solid lead pencils. 
 
 Cream. (Fr. Crime'). A semi-fluid yellowish 
 substance which collects on the surface of milk, and 
 which is made into butter by the process of churning. 
 When the milk of any animal is allowed to stand for 
 some time, it spontaneously undergoes certain changes 
 — this substance rises to the surface and forms a thin 
 stratum, which is called cream, and which consists 
 chiefly of oily particles ; while the milk below, which 
 of course is thinner than it was before the cream sep- 
 arated from it, is of a pale bluish color, and consists 
 of curd, coaeulum, or the matter of which cheese is 
 made. When cream is kept for some days it gradually 
 becomes thicker, and partially coagulated ; and if put 
 into a linen bag and suspended from the ceiling of a cool 
 room, it will acquire the consistence of cheese ; and 
 this is one among othermodes of making cream cheeses. 
 When cream is shaken by churning, it is resolved into 
 its component parts, and hence we have butter and 
 buttermilk. In order to make butter it is not always 
 necessary tha* the cream should be separated from the 
 milk ; but whether separated or not, the process is 
 facilitated by allowing the liquid to stand for some 
 time, during which a part of the sugar contained in 
 the serum is changed into an acid, which shortens the 
 process of churning by facilitating the separation of 
 the butter from the milk. When either cream or 
 milk is churned without having previously become 
 sour, the process is much more tedious ; and some- 
 times, from causes not easily accounted for by the 
 dairy-maid, it is unsuccessful, and the milk is said to 
 be bewitched. The true cause, however, is the want 
 of acidity ; because it has been found that the addi- 
 tion of a small portion of vinegar will dissolve the 
 charm, and cause the almost immediate appearance 
 of butter. Cream, when separated from milk and 
 kept till it has become acid, is frequently mixed with 
 mUk newly drawn from the cow ; and this eaten with 
 sugar is one of the most delicious preparations of the 
 dairy. Costorphin cream, so called from a village of 
 that name in the neighborhood of Edinburg, is made 
 by putting the milk of three or four days together 
 with the cream into a vessel, and allowing it to re- 
 main there till it has become sour and coagulated. 
 The wtey is then drawn off and fresh cream added; 
 and when it is brought to table it is eaten with sugar, 
 
CRE 
 
 478 
 
 GRE 
 
 • and in the strawberry season, with that fruit. Dev- 
 onshire cream is simply sour curd, or sour cream eat- 
 en with fresh milk, or fresh cream, with or without 
 the addition of sugar. Devonshire scalded or clouted 
 cream is milk and cream heated to the boiling point, 
 and suffered to cool, when the cream will be found to 
 have separated from the milk, and when skimmed off 
 may either be made into butter or eaten with fresh 
 cream and sugar. Common clotted cream is simply 
 milk and cream in a coagulated state, and sour. 
 "When the clotted cream is broken and stirred, and the 
 whey drawn off, the mass may be turned into cheese 
 by artificial pressure, by which the whey is separated 
 instantaneously ; or by suspending it in a porous bag, 
 in a cool, airy situation, when it wUl be separated by 
 degrees. See Butter, Cheese. — Beande's Em. 
 of Art. See Buttbk Diaey. 
 
 Credentials, Letters of. The instrument; in 
 the form of a letter, from one government to anothel, 
 which constitutes the evidence of the title of a min- 
 ister at a foreign court to the power which he exer- 
 cises. There are two sorts of credentials : the one 
 sealed, drawn up and countersigned by the minister 
 of foreign affairs ; the other open, signed only by the 
 government. Unless the minister be mentioned ex- 
 pressly in his credentials as an embassador, he has 
 only a right to the observances due to foreign minis- 
 ters of inferior rank. 
 
 Credit, in the sense in which we generally treat 
 of it, is the trust which is given to a person when he 
 obtains a loan of money, or purchases any article, the 
 payment of which is to be made at an after period. 
 Every sum of credit, therefore, must be founded on 
 a transfer of a corresponding sum of capital ; and the 
 whole amount of credit existing at any time can 
 never exceed that of the lent capital. Credit is, in 
 reference to the person who gives it, the power of 
 lending, and to him who receives it, the power of 
 borrowing. The basis of credit is confidence, and 
 this is found to exist extensively only where good 
 faith and punctuality have been allowed to grow into 
 habit, and where laws afford to creditors the easy and 
 certain means of recovering their debts. , 
 
 In young countries, before dealings have become 
 multiplied, we find people inattentive to their money 
 engagements, when there is no want of property with 
 the debtor, and even when the payment of the debt 
 has been fixed by document to a positive term. But 
 as transactions increase, and population presses more 
 closely together, a knowledge of the circumstances 
 of individuals is rendered difficult; and a necessit}^ 
 for punctuality arises, to prevent doubts being enter- 
 tained of the ability to pay. And this apprehension 
 of discredit entertained by the debtor, and of its con- 
 sequences to his future transactions, has more effect 
 to establish and maintain good faith and exactness 
 than the operation of the laws is able to produce. 
 When capital is abundant, relatively to the means of 
 employing it, the competition of capitalists produces 
 it facility of obtaining credit; and parties become 
 enabled to borrow and purchase upon credit who could 
 not do so before. Credit is then said to be high, but 
 it is the value of the capital which, from the over- 
 stock, has become low. The capitalist, in these cir- 
 cumstances, grows less scrupulous about his security, 
 that he may bring within the range of his dealings a 
 greater body of borrowers or purchasers, and thereby 
 be enabled to keep up his price. 
 
 When the supply of capital continues in this state 
 for any length of time, it gives rise to an imprudence 
 of conduct which lays the foundation of much after 
 evil. Sales and loans are made at credits far beyond 
 the ordinar)^ periods ; and those into whose hands the 
 extra capital by this means passes, considering it as 
 a fund witb which they may trade, go on also extend- 
 ing their dealings and credits, until the whole system 
 is put upon the stretch. In this situation any inter- 
 
 ruption to the sale of commodities occasions instant 
 confusion and distress. Tbe confidence which had 
 prevailed gives place to alarm and distrust, and the 
 same effect is produced for the time by the, retard- 
 ment of the circulation that would have been expe- 
 rienced had the capital itself been withdrawn. 
 
 By the operation of credit, not only is the circula- 
 tion of capital facilitated, and its employment in- 
 creased ; but by its means alone certain descriptions 
 of capital can be brought into action. When an arti- 
 cle is sold upon credit, the seller places, for the time, 
 a portion of his capital at the command of a party 
 who may have no capital of his own. This person, 
 nevertheless, by another operation of credit, is ena- 
 bled to sell upon credit also, and still keep his engage- 
 ment with the party from whom he bought. This he 
 accomplishes by calling in the assistance of the money 
 capitalist, the banker, who advances to him the 
 amount of the sale upon his and his purchaser's joint 
 security, and receives in consideration a rent for the 
 sum advanced. By this process facility and exten- 
 sion are given to circulation, beyond what could take 
 place if the commodity could be exchanged only for 
 immediate value ; while an opportunity is, at the same 
 time, afforded of employing a branch of capital which 
 would otherwise remain inactive and without use. It 
 is almost unnecessary to remark, that it is by the 
 operation of credit that a return is got from the capi- 
 tal of persons who are incapable of employing it 
 themselves, and which can be put into a state of use- 
 ful activity only by lending it to others. 
 
 In Scotland, after the disposition to commercial 
 pursuits began to manifest itself, the progress was 
 retarded, by the total want of commercial capital in 
 the country. To get the better of this difficulty, and 
 draw to these employments any little capital that 
 otherwise existed, it became the practice, when a 
 commercial undertaking was to be entered upon, to 
 associate in the adventure some persons of known 
 substance, and upon the joint credit of the parties 
 fonning the company, to borrow the capital necessary 
 for carrj-ingit on. The credit which was thus estab- 
 lished is called company credit, and is effectual to its 
 proposed end of borrowing or purchasing with advan- 
 tage, according to the supposed responsibility of the 
 parties of whom the company is composed. Up to 
 the year 1793 a considerable proportion of the manu- 
 facturing and mercantile concerns of Scotland were 
 carried on upon this plan ; and to give strength to 
 their credit, and encourage those who had money to 
 lend to place it with them, a rule was established, and 
 confirmed by decisions of the courts of law, that, in 
 case of bankruptcy, a creditor of a company should 
 be entitled to claim upon each of the partners' sepa- 
 rate estates, in competition with the party's individual 
 creditors, for the balance of his debt unpaid from the 
 company's effects. 
 
 When a party purchasing or borrowing capital 
 gives a written obligation for the amount, payable to 
 the order of his creditor at a certain fixed period, he 
 embodies a sum of credit capable of being exchanged 
 again for capital ; and the transference of these docu- 
 ments to new parties, who replace to the former cred- 
 itor the capital he had lent upon them, is what is 
 called a circulation of credit. Indeed, without the 
 use of bUls, or of some instrument of similar powers, 
 credit must have been confined to a single operation 
 between first contracting parties, and the circulation 
 of capital limited to what could have been effected in 
 this way. But a transferable document of the sum 
 to be received becomes itself a negotiable or marketa- 
 ble article ; and the collective credit of the parties 
 through whose hands it may successively pass con- 
 tinuing to be engrafted upon it, a new facility is 
 gained to circulation hy every movement which it 
 makes. The whole of the credit embodied by bills, 
 however, is not brought into circulation ; a part only 
 
CRE 
 
 479 
 
 CRE 
 
 of the sellers or lenders reqinring to have their capi- 
 tal replaced to them by anticipation. But it is ac- 
 cording to the expected facility with which payment 
 may be thus anticipated, that credit is at first freely 
 and readily given f and whenever any thing occurs to 
 impede the circulation of credit, there is an immediate 
 disposition in the merchant to withhold or limit it. 
 
 Every transfer of capital made upon a buyer or 
 borrower's own obligation of payment creates a new 
 sum of transferable credit; and this is the case, al- 
 though it should be the same capital that is again 
 and again transferred. But a sale of goods, or an 
 advance of money upon the obligation of a third 
 party, indorsed to the seller or lender, forms no addi- 
 tion to the sum of circulating credit, the transaction 
 being the circulation) not the creatbn, of a sum of 
 credit. Neither does a succession i of purchases or 
 borrowings, effected by means of the same document 
 indorsed from the one party to the other, add to the 
 sum of credit in circulation. For although each of 
 these transactions is the groimd of a separate obliga- 
 tion between the parties contracting, tliere is, with 
 the whole but one absolute creditor; the holder of the 
 bill, and one absolute debtor, the acceptoii of tlie bill, 
 the others being merely contingent- debtors, to. the 
 one, and contingent creditors of the other. 
 
 Circulated credit is to be-classed into that circulated 
 by loan, and that which is- circulated by means of sale.. 
 The first is the circulation of the credit .founded upon 
 the obligation of individuals or private companies, 
 and called private credit ; the second, of that founded 
 upon the obligations of the state, or the transfers of 
 the stock of corporate bodies, and called public, credit. 
 The documents of these two descriptions, of credit 
 possess diiferent and distinct qualities, and are differ- 
 ently negotiable. It may be proper, therefore, to 
 examine how they are employed as means of borrow- 
 ing or purchasing, what are their separate powers, 
 and what is the probable extent of the circulation of 
 each. We shall begin with those belonging to pri- 
 vate credit, which are as follows : , 
 
 First, Obligations payable to the bearer on demand, 
 and which, being passed without recourse, are em- 
 ployed as money. Secondly, Transferable obligations 
 payable at an ajfter date, as notes of hand and bills of 
 exchange, which, being negotiated with recourse 
 upon the preceding obligantSj-are taken as guarantied 
 pledges of a sum to be received when they become due. 
 
 The circulation of obligations, payable to the 
 bearer on demand, or notes employed as money, is 
 the circulation of a credit borrowed by the issuer of 
 the note from the public ; the holder of the note at 
 the tinie is the creditor ; and the property he gave in 
 exchange for it is a loan from him to the banker. As 
 it is in the power of the party giving this credit at 
 any time to put an end to, it by calling for his money, 
 these notes circulate upon the credit of the issuer 
 alone. No assurance of payment is required from 
 the person from whom they are received, as is .the 
 case with bills ; the payment of which being at a fu- 
 ture date, it is thought necessary to reserve recourse 
 against the parties through whose hands they have 
 passed. The circulation of notes payable on demand 
 is therefore a circulation of what may be termed sin- 
 gle credit, and bills a circulation of' collective credit. 
 
 When bank-notes ai-e issued by a banker in dis- 
 count of a bill, it may be supposed that a twofold 
 credit is put into circ;dation : a credit to the party to 
 whom the bill has been discounted, and a counter 
 credit from him to the issuer of the notes. But in 
 this stage of the transaction, no circulation of credit 
 has taken place. Credit is circulated only when ex- 
 changed for capital, and in this case it has been but 
 the exchange of one credit for another. The banker, 
 indeed, in giving his notes payable on demand in ex- 
 change for a bill payable at a future date, gives what 
 is of a quality different from that which he receives ; 
 
 for what he gives is jimmediately exchaii^eable for 
 capital, and to the person receiving it is the same as 
 capital. 
 
 But still it is only credit he has parted with, which 
 will not be in a state of circulation untU it comes to 
 be exchanged for capital. In as far as i;elateB to 
 circulation,, the transaction is the same with that of a , 
 person lending; his credit to another, by acceptmg a 
 bill tp him without value. , A sum of credit is there- 
 by, created, but is jiot circulated until the bill comes 
 to fee, exchanged for v.a),ue). The credit tJiat is in cir- 
 culation from the exchange of bankTiiptes for a bill, 
 is a credit from the party who at the time has given 
 capita, or value for the notes, When the ban'ker 
 " cashes", thew, be becomes the creditor, but while 
 they remain in circulatip^i the public is the creditor. 
 
 The amount of credit frpm the circulation of cash 
 notes never can be pushed bej'ond wh,at would have 
 been the y!|lu,e of the specie (;hat would ,have been in 
 cixpulatipn had the currency been of ike precious iijet- 
 als, which the no|:e4 only serve to represent. Should 
 the notes cease to be ,cpnyertible into specie, their 
 amount, in,deed,, may be augme^nted at the pleasure 
 of the issuer ; but their value, and t^e cr^^it in circu- 
 ,latior^ froipL theffl,,will still be regulated by this limit. 
 Tl^ increased sum.wjU represent the value which the 
 smaller did beforif, and eacli note will be reduced 
 in its value, in the, proportion of the increase that 
 may hfvve ,taj;eji , place of the whole. This descrip- 
 tion of circidating credit is of a quality different from 
 the others. From suppljiing the place of capital, in 
 its charact;^,r of currenp y, it is lent out as capital ; 
 but loans f):o,m this, f^d, are precarious, its amount 
 depending upon the , state, pf public confidence, and 
 b^ing liable to be dimiiiishedr,by every cajl upon the 
 .banH^ to replace ,th^ ,;iotes with specie. 
 
 Circulating notes,'j^pt convertible into specie, issued 
 under tlje authority of the state, h^ve been calle^ a 
 fabric of up^e^l , credit. .But jjhis currency, however 
 unsuitEible to its .prpper ends, affords a circulation of 
 real credit. It.is indeed exposed tp constant fluctua- 
 tion of value, according |to the jimoun,t of it in the 
 circle ; and the party taking it is obliged, for his own 
 safety,, tp, include, in the price of V^at he gives f'or it, 
 sufiicient to coyer the difference between it and specie, 
 and the, risk, of further depreciation while it may re- 
 main in his hand^.. , Still, however, an amount of 
 credit, to the value ^pf ,Tvhat has been given for the 
 notes, in the, iirst instance, is put into circulation, 
 and an amount continuecL }n circulation, to the value 
 alw;ays of what they a^e , exchangeable for at the 
 tiniej the, liol^ers^ of thpin always remaining credit- 
 ors of the issuer, to the extent of the whole sum 
 wh,ich the notes profess to paj', A currency of this 
 descriptiori,. however, is .inapplicable as a measure of 
 value, and therefore unfit to be employed as a circu- 
 lating medium. Ai^d as to the other object, intended 
 by its isspers to supply an amount of funds to the 
 state J the depreciation lyith which it must be issued 
 at first, and the loss tp be sustained from taking it 
 back again at par, render it an expensive means of 
 borrowing. 
 
 With regard tp obligations payable at a future 
 date, which,, constitutes, the second branch of private 
 credit, and which we are next to cpnsider, the credit 
 founded on them is circulated, either in the transfers 
 of the ordinary capital in sales, as when the credit of 
 indorsed bills is employed to purchase goods, or in the 
 transfers of the banking capital in loans, as when the 
 credit of indorsed bills is employed to borrow monej' ; 
 the transfer under the latter, when the bill is ex- 
 changed for money, being often a further circulation 
 of a credit previously circulated under the former, 
 when the bill was exchanged for goods. 
 
 A fictitious bill, that is, an acceptance given with- 
 out value, vests in the person in whose favor it is 
 drawn a sum of transferable credit not less than 
 
ORE 
 
 480 
 
 ORE 
 
 would have teen the case if it had been the document 
 of a sale, or loan of property. Mr. Thornton, in his 
 treatise on Paper Credit, established the doctrine, tiU 
 then disputed, that the credit of a bill does not rest 
 upon the nature of the transaction in which it has 
 originated, but upon the conceived ability of the obli- 
 gants to discharge the debt. The being able to em- 
 body in bills everj' sum of credit, has furnished the 
 means of employing, with incalculable advantage to 
 commerce, a portion of the capital of the countrj-, 
 which otherwise, it is probable, would have remained 
 inactive. The security they afford for the repayment, 
 at a stipulated period, of the sums lent upon them, 
 furnishes the means of an interim employment of 
 money held for after occasions, which the party would 
 not otherwise venture to lend out ; of money which 
 formerly lay idle in the hands of parties unacquainted 
 with any safe means of using it ; and of the money 
 which traders are daily receiving in the course of 
 their business, but which they do not immediately 
 require. These different sums collected in the hands 
 of a banker, form what is called the banking capital 
 of the country ; and which, lent out upon such secur- 
 ities, produces not only a profit to him, but interest 
 to the parties who have placed them at his disposal. 
 The importance of this internlediary fund in the 
 transactions of the country is such, that when, from 
 distrust, at any time, these deposits are withheld or 
 withdrawn from the bankers, the mercantile bodj' is 
 convulsed throughout. 
 
 We now come to the second division of credit, that 
 circulated by sale ; the documents of the first branch 
 of which are, the negotiable obligations of govern- 
 ment, as exchequer bills, navy bills, etc., and the 
 whole of the public funds, constituting what is termed 
 the credit of state. AVhen capital is to be competed 
 for, this credit has an advantage in the inarket over 
 the former. Its price rises according to the demand ; 
 and by that means it is enabled to secure whatever 
 share it may require of the supply. This is not the 
 case with the credit circulated by transfers of capital 
 upon loan, the price or stipulated rent of which can 
 not, whatever may be the demand, rise beyond a pre- 
 scribed limit. It has the effect, in these circum- 
 stances, to force the capital applicable to this part of 
 the circulation to seek the employment of the other ; 
 so that the inconvenience produced by an interrup- 
 tion of circulation from a diminution of the general 
 capital, falls entirely upon the circulation of bill 
 credit, the supply for the circulation of the credit 
 transferable by sale being kept full, at the expense 
 of that applicable to the circulation of credit transfer- 
 able by loan. 
 
 The transferable shares of public stock companies, 
 from being occasionally a means of temporary invest- 
 ment of capital, have by some been considered as 
 forming a part of the circulating credit of the coun- 
 try. But this is not tlie case. The stocks of these 
 companies form a part of the ordinary circulating cap- 
 ital ; and of consequence, the transfers of their shares 
 are not operations of credit, but exchanges of capital 
 between the buying and selling parties. The trans- 
 fers of the premiums, however, paid in the purchase 
 of this description of stock, which, although no part 
 of the capital, form an immediate part of the price, 
 may be fairly considered as a circulation of credit, to 
 be added to the amount of the circulating credit of 
 the country. The mode of circiilating this credit 
 being the same with that of the public funds, and its 
 market value rising or falling with the general abund- 
 ance , or scarcity of capital, its circulation, when 
 capital is scarce, immediately interferes with the cir- 
 culation of credit by simple borrowing. — E. B. See 
 also " HooPEK on Currency, Boston, 1856. Bankers' 
 Magazine, N. Y., 1855-1856. See Hunt's Mer. Mag. 
 (C. F. Adams), ii. p. 185. Democratic Rev., ii. p. 167 ; 
 lii. p. 195 ; V. p. 147. Encyclopedia Amer. 
 
 Credit Mobilier. The Credit Mobilier Bank, 
 according to the provisions of its charter, is a joint- 
 stock company, organized at Paris, for the purpose of 
 developing works of public improvement by consolidat- 
 ing the securities of various enterprises into one com- 
 mon fund. Its capital stock is fixed at 60,000,000 
 francs, divided into shares of 500 francs each, payable 
 to bearer. It is authorized to subscribe for or ac- 
 quire public funds, the shares or bonds of any joint- 
 stock company, and more particularly of railways, 
 canals, mining, and other public works, now existing, 
 or hereafter to exist ; also to bid for any loan, or for 
 the stock of any kind of public works, and to dis- 
 pose of and realize the same. It is also authorized 
 to issue its own bonds for an amount equal to its sub- 
 scriptions and purchases ; such bonds may be issued 
 to the extent of ten times its capital (that is, 600,000,- 
 000), but they shall not have less than forty-five days 
 to run. This privilege has not yet been availed of, 
 the Government having requested them to postpone 
 the proposed issue of 240,000 bonds (120,000,000francs) 
 in 1855, in order not to interfere with the forthcoming 
 State loans, as well as to guard against increased em- 
 barrassment in the money market. The aggregate 
 amount of money received in account current, and of 
 bonds issued having less than a year to run, can not 
 exceed twice the amount of capital paid in (that is, 
 not over 120,000,000 francs). The company has au- 
 thority to sell or hypothecate its securities, and to 
 exchange the same for others. It can loan on public 
 funds, shares and bonds, and open credit in account 
 current on the various securities ; it can take charge 
 of all collections for account of joint-stock companies, 
 pay their coupons and dividends, and make other dis- 
 bursements for them. It is, however, expressly un- 
 derstood (so runs the statute) thai it shall not sell 
 *' short" or buy on time. (Jl est expressknent entendu 
 que la societe ne fera jamais de ventes a decouvert, ni 
 d' achats aprime^ 
 
 The company, which was created in November, 
 1852, has, thus far, issued but three very condensed 
 and incomplete reports, and extensive as are its oper- 
 ations thus far, it states that from its inabilit}^ to issue 
 bonds at present, it has not yet been able to show the 
 world the full merits of its working. The reports re- 
 fer to the operations of the calendar years of 1853, 
 1854, and 1855, and bear date April, 1854, 1855, 1856. 
 
 Capital paid in, 
 
 1)60.81 
 
 Accounts current. 
 Total 
 
 56,500,000 
 65,800,000 
 
 122,300,000 
 
 60,000,000 
 64,900,000 
 
 124,900,000 
 
 60,000,000 
 103,180,000 
 
 168,180,000 
 
 Invested (together with profits) ; 
 
 Stocks and Bonds 
 on hand, Dec. 81. 
 
 Less Installments 
 not due 
 
 Treasury, City of 
 Paris, and other 
 notes 
 
 Eaih'oad and oth- 
 er Bonds 
 
 Stock contracts... 
 Total 
 
 Total purchases 
 through the year 
 
 Total sales through 
 the year 
 
 87,260,000 
 
 20,700,000 
 
 17,100,000 
 28,000,000 
 
 108,060,000 
 
 146,000,000 
 111,000,000 
 
 67,460,000 
 
 29,100,000 
 
 17,200,000 
 21,000,000 
 
 12^,760,000 
 
 164,000,000 
 110,000,000 
 
 182,000,000 
 81.000,000 
 
 101,000,000 
 
 14,000,000 
 
 82,500,000 
 87,800,000 
 
 185,800,000 
 
 823,000,000 I 
 217,000,000 j 
 
 The particular nature of the purchases and sales is 
 not made public. We do not find in the papers before 
 us any reference to the dividends or total profits, ex- 
 cept for the j-ear 1855. But the profits or investments 
 and stock transactions at the Bourse alone, amounted 
 to 3,618,000 francs in 1853, and to 6,207,000 francs in 
 1854 ; and the profits of all lands to 26,000,000 francs 
 in 1855. The profits on the " quick terms" at the 
 Bourse are set down at 2,000,000 francs in 1853, and 
 
CKE 
 
 4S1 
 
 CRI 
 
 3,400,600 in 1854 ; there is no meana of ascertaining 
 tliose of 1865, the report being silent oil the subject. 
 Full parbictilars are wanting as to the various trans- 
 actions of the conlpany relating to subscriptions to the 
 capital stock of hew companies, to loans to companies 
 already established, and to the negotiations in which 
 the coinpany, without engaging its fund, acts simply 
 as sponsor and intermediarj-. But the following com- 
 prise the chief transactions which have contributed to 
 give eclat to this active corporation : In 1853 it con- 
 fined' itself to previously existing corporations. In 
 1854 it created the company of the Grand Hotel du 
 Louvre, in the Rue de Eivolij with a capital of 
 24,000; 000 francs ; the Maritime Company (of clip- 
 pers), with 80,000,000 francs oapifial ; and the Aus- 
 trian Railway Company, with a capital of 200,000,- 
 000 francs, the shares of which were issued in the 
 beginning of 1855. iln 1855 it subscribed for a large 
 portion of the- new stock of the Saint Rambert Kail- 
 way, the Western Railroad of France (Quest), and the 
 Central Railroad of Switzerland, and' the Elro Ganil 
 Company — amounts hot mentioned. 
 
 In 1853 it took a large amount of the Credit Foncier 
 bonds, and 30,000,000 francs of the Grand Central 
 Railroad' bonds, and '6,000,000 francs of the Vi^ille 
 Montague (Zinc) Company's bonds. In the same 
 year it sold out all the Credit Foncier bonds, and most 
 of the Vi^ille Montague; the Grand Central bonds 
 were, most of them, still unsold - at the beginning 
 of 1865. In 1854 it took about 5,300,000 francs of 
 the Eastern Railroad (Egt') bonds, and purchased six- 
 teen thousand bonds of the Dole and Salins Railroad 
 bonds ; the amount of these bonds is not mentioned, 
 probably 500 francs each. In 1855 it guarantied the 
 sales of 18,000,000 francs of the Western Railroad 
 stock {Quest), and of 100,000 bonds of the Southern 
 railroads (Midi), representing 28i000,000 francs ; and 
 it took charge of the loan of 82,000,000 francs for the 
 Austrian Railway Co., which passed rapidly and 
 almost wholly into the hands of German capitalists. 
 
 The company acted as sponsor or agent in 1854, for 
 the re-formation of the mines of the Loire, and for the 
 fusion of the several omnibus companies in Paris into 
 one joint concern ; and in 1855 for the consolidation 
 of the various Parisian gas companies. It has, more- 
 over, been preparing for two years past the consolida^ 
 tion of the Eastern and Southern Salt Works. It put 
 in a bid for the last government loan of 780,000,000 in 
 behalf of itself and its correspondents, for no less a 
 sum than 625,000,000 ; but its share was reduced 
 when the bids were adjudicated to 1,281,000 francs of 
 the 3 per cent, rentes. At the close of last year it em- 
 barked in grand speculations, which remained unset- 
 tled at the date of the last halance-sheet, but they 
 appear there as yielding an estimated loss of 500,000 
 francs. The amounts received in account current are 
 mostly from large companies, and can only be with- 
 drawn, according to express stipulation, to be ex- 
 pended on their respective works. Individuals are 
 also allowed to make deposits, the company agreeing 
 to talce charge of their investment and stock specula- 
 tion. 
 
 In order to fully appreciate the power of this vast 
 machine as a speculative agent, it must be boi-ne in 
 mind that the managers and leading depositors are 
 men in the enjoyment of extraordinary resources of 
 wealth and position, and that in their speculative op- 
 erations at the Bourse, they and the company all act 
 in concert, thus acquiring a power over the market 
 which nothing, in the absence of extraordinary cir- 
 cumstances, can hope to resist. This power is made 
 the greater from the large amounts employed by the 
 company in carrying stoclcs for brokers and outside 
 speculators, in the shape of stock contracts, or as the 
 French call them, reports, which contracts mostly ma- 
 ture on the same day in each month. The company 
 are thus enabled to depress the Bourse when they 
 H H 
 
 wish to buy, by refusing to make new contracts when 
 settlement-day comes,' thereby forcing, sales on a tight 
 money market ; and to promote a rise when they wish 
 to sell, by granting a great increase of facilities to 
 other dealers in atocksi — iV. F. Times, See Bankers' 
 Magazine, N. Y; : July 1855, July 1856. 
 I Creek (Saxon crecca, said to be derived from the 
 Latin cripido) is a shore or bank on which the water 
 beats, Tunmng in a. small channel from any part of 
 the sea. It is also applied to any part of a large river 
 which is resorted to as a harbor or landing-place by 
 small craft. In the United States, the term creek is 
 u^d. as synonymous with the English words brook 
 and rivulet. 
 
 Creole. (In Spanish Cnollo.) A name given to 
 the descendants of whites born in Mexico, South 
 America, and the West Indies ; in whom the Euro- 
 pean blood has been unmixed with that of other races. 
 The various jargons spoken in the West India islands 
 by slaves, etc., are called Creole dialects. 
 
 Creosote, or the :JlesTi-j>reserver, from xpea; and 
 au^o, ij the most important of the iive new chemical 
 products obtained from wood tar by Dr. Reichehbach. 
 ThejQther foxa, -para^ne, eupione, picamar, and piita- 
 cal,'ha,ve hitherto been applied to no use in the arts, 
 and may be regarded at present as mere analytical 
 curiosities. Creosote may be prepared either from 
 tar or from crude pyroligneous acid. The tar must 
 be distilled till it acquires the consistence of pitch, 
 and at the utmost till it begins to exhale the white 
 vapors of paraffine. The liquor which passes into the 
 receiver divides itself into three strata, a watery one 
 in the middle, placed between a heavy and a light 
 oil. The lower stratum alone is adapted to the prep- 
 aration of creosote. Creosote exists in the tar of 
 beech-word, to the amount of from 20 to 25 per cent., 
 and in crude pyroligneous acid, to that of Ij^. It 
 ought to be kept in well-stoppered bottles, because 
 when left open it becomes progressively yellow, 
 brown, and thick. Creosote has considerable power 
 upon the nervous system, and has been applied to the 
 teeth with advantage in odontalgia, as well as to the 
 skin in recent scalds. But its medicinal and surgical 
 virtues have been much exaggerated. Its flesh-pre- 
 serving quality is rendered of little use, from the diffi- 
 culty of removing the rank flavor which it imparts. 
 
 Cresset, a great light set on a beacon, lighthouse, 
 or watch tower._ It also signifies a lamp or torch ; a 
 large light or lantern iixed on a pole. Minshen de- 
 rives the word from the Dutch keerse, handela ; but it 
 is more probably from the French croisset, a little 
 cross — that symbol having been usually placed upon 
 beacons. 
 
 Creiv, the company of sailors belonging to any 
 ship or vessel. Ready obedience to the lawful orders 
 of their superiors, ability to discharge their duties, 
 and alacrity in their performance, at all times and 
 under the most perilous circumstances, are the dis- 
 tinguishing characteristics of good seamen. — See Sea- 
 men. See Kent's Com. Manual for Consuls. Par- 
 sons' Mercantile Law. 
 
 Crimea, a peninsula in the Black Sea, forming 
 part of the Russian government of Taurida, with the 
 mainland of which it is connected by the isthmus of 
 Perekop. It is situate between 44° and 46° N. lat., 
 and 32° and 37° E. long. - It is of an irregular square, 
 or rhomboid form, measuring diagonally about 190 
 miles from east to west, and 123 from north to south, 
 and containing an area of about 8,000 square miles. 
 Its south-eastern, western, and north-western coasts, 
 are washed by the Black Sea, and the eastern by a 
 shallow lagoon, called the Sivash, or Putrid Sea, 
 which is connected with the Sea of Azoff by a very 
 narrow strait, and separated from it by a tongue of 
 land, consisting of sand and broken shells, about 70 
 miles in length, and 1 to 1^ in breadth. The east- 
 em part of the Crimea forms s. minor peninsula. 
 
CRO 
 
 482 
 
 CRO 
 
 stretching eastward to the strait of Kertsh or Caffa, 
 or Jenikaleh, the ancient Cimmerian Bosphorus, "which 
 forms the communication between the Black Sea and 
 the Sea of Azoff, but it is not navigable by large or 
 deeply-laden vessels. The most valuable commer- 
 cial production is salt, which, as already mentioned, 
 is obtained in very large quantities from tuzlas, or 
 salt lakes, near Perekop, Kozlov, Kaffa, and Kertsh. 
 It is a government monopoly, and yields a considera- 
 ble revenue. The other principle articles of com- 
 merce and exports are wine, honey, wax, leather, 
 hides, wool, and lambskins ; of the last of which, 
 called shumskij great quantities are exported yearly 
 to Poland and other neighboring countries. The 
 only manufacture worth notice is what is called mo- 
 rocco leather, which is produced of good quality. 
 The mountains contain masses of red and white mar- 
 bles, full of cracks and fissures, which make them 
 well adapted for quarrying, if there were a demand. 
 
 Criminals. By the laws of the United States, 
 consular officers are required, in cases of the intended 
 shipment of paupers, or pardoned criminals, to the 
 United States, to give timely notice of the fact, both 
 to the Department of State and to the collector , of 
 customs of the port to which the vessel having them 
 on board may be bound ; furnishing the names of the 
 parties, a description of their persons, the name of the 
 vessel, and the date of sailing, in order that proper 
 steps may be taken for the enforcement of such police 
 regulations as may have been adopted by the several 
 States upon the subject. — Manual for Consuls. 
 
 Crockery. In use, and made mention of as pro- 
 duced by the Egyptians and Greeks, so early as 1390 
 B.C. The Romans excelled in this kind of ware, 
 many of their domestic articles being of earthen man- 
 ufacture. Crockery, of a fine kind, in various house- 
 hold utensils, was made at Faenza, in Italy, about 
 A.D. 1310 ; and is still called fayence in French. 
 Earthenware vessels were in use among the most an- 
 cient nations. Various domestic articles were made 
 by the Komans, 715 B. c. The art was revived and 
 improved in Italy, A.D. 1310. Wedgewood's patent 
 ware was first made in 1762. His pottery in Stafford- 
 shire was extended to a variety of curious composi- 
 tions, subservient not only to the ordinary purposes 
 of life, but to the arts, antiquity, historj', etc., and 
 thereby rendered a very important branch of com- 
 merce, both foreign and domestic. 
 
 Cronstadt, or Kronstadt, a strongly-fortified 
 seaport town of Russia, and the great naval station of 
 the Russian fleet in the northern seas, is situated on 
 the island of Kotline (frequently also called Cronstadt, 
 from the town), at the head of the Gulf of Finland, 20 
 miles west of St. Petersburg, in N. lat. 59° 59' 26" ; 
 E. long. 29° 46' 30". The population in 1849 was 
 25,120; but it varies considerably at different times 
 of the year, and in summer generally amounts to 
 about 50,000. The island of Kotline is in general out- 
 line an acute triangle, 7 miles in length by about 1 in 
 breadth, with its base toward St. Petersburg, and its 
 apex extending obliquely seaward. The eastern or 
 broad end is occupied by the town of Cronstadt ; and 
 1-J miles from the western point of the island is the 
 lighthouse of Tolboochin or Tolbeacon. The streets 
 are regular, and in general well paved; but the 
 houses, with the exception of those belonging to gov- 
 ernment, are chiefly of one story. The town was 
 originally built of wood, and wooden structures are 
 still numerous ; but such buildings are now forbidden 
 by law, and the majority of the houses are now built 
 of brick, and plastered. Cronstadt is divided into 
 two parts — the Morshaia chast^ sea district, and the 
 Koopadieskaia chast, or commercial district— and into 
 four subdivisions. Of the two canals which traverse 
 the town, that of St. Peter, constructed of granite, is 
 2,160 feet long, by about 30 yards wide. It com- 
 mences between the Merchant and Middle Harbors, 
 
 and is in the form of a cross, of which one arm com- 
 municates with a dock, where ten ships of the line can 
 be repaired at once. The Catherine canal, 1,880 
 fathoms in length, communicates with the Merchant 
 Harbor, and thus enables vessels to take their stores, 
 munitions, etc., directly from the store-houses. Be- 
 tween the two canals stood the old Italian palace of 
 Prince Menschikoff, the site of which is now occupied 
 by a large building used as a school for pilots, and 
 educating above 300 pupils. On the northern side of 
 the island the passage is impracticable, except for 
 very small craft, being obstructed by rows of piles and 
 large masses of stone, extending from the island to 
 Lisi Noss, on the mainland. The southern channel is 
 the only practicable passage from the Gulf of Finland 
 to St. Petersburg, and it is strongly defended on both 
 sides by forts and batteries. The principal of these 
 are Forts Alexander, Kisbank, Peter, Cronslott, and 
 that of Menschikoff, already mentioned. The Great 
 Road is commanded by Forts Alexander and Risbank, 
 about 1,600 yards apart. The former, on the left side 
 of the passage, consists of a front with 4 tiers of em- 
 brasures, and two flanks of 3 tiers each, and a rear 
 wall mounted with guns en barbette. It is built of 
 blocks of granite on a foundation of piles in 18 feet of 
 water, and commands the road by 116 8 and 10-inch 
 guns, all in casemates. Fort Risbank, which was 
 not finished last year (1853), on the opposite side, is 
 also of granite, resting on a foundation of piles, in 16 
 feet of water, and is armed with tiers of guns of the 
 heaviest calibre. Further eastward, on the left, is 
 Fort Peter, or Citadel Fort, with 3 towers or bas- 
 tions joined by 2 curtains ; the first commanding 
 the approach to the rear of Fort Alexander; while 
 the second and third sweep the main channel. 
 These bastions have 28 guns in casemates, and 
 28 guns above en barbette : the curtains have no 
 casemates, but mount 20 guns en barbette. To the 
 right of the Little Road is Cronslott, an irregular 
 pentagon, originally built by Peter the Great. It 
 presents to the sea a low line of timber casemates, 
 forming a battery of 40 guns placed a Jleur d'eaUy 
 and disposed in the half of each of two bastions with a 
 connecting curtain. All this work, however, has 
 been destroyed, and last year (1853) the piles had 
 been driven on which a granite fort was to be built, 
 which by this time (October, 1854) is probably com- 
 plete. The mole forming the western flank of the 
 Merchant Harbor mounts 70 guns, besides 12 mortars ; 
 and the channel, between Cronslott and the mole, is 
 only 250 yards wide. Almost all vessels bound for 
 St. Petersburg touch at Cronstadt, and those drawing 
 more than 7 feet of water load and unload here— the 
 goods being conveyed to and from the city in lighters. 
 Vessels of 10 feet draught have, however, been known 
 to go up with high water. The port is ice-bound 
 during the winter, from November to April. Cron- 
 stadt was founded by Peter the Great, 1703. — E. B. 
 
 Cronstadt is the port through which the foreign 
 commerce of St. Petersburg is principally conducted. 
 The number of vessels cleared in 1848^9, was as 
 follows : 
 
 yem.. 
 
 Entered. 
 
 Cleiired. 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 
 
 l.-'ilO 
 
 1,570 
 
 1,470 
 1,5S0 
 
 In these figures Great Britain held the first rank. 
 The number of British vessels entered and cleared 
 was 920, measuring an aggregate of 209,318 tons. 
 Under the French flag there entered and cleared 58 
 vessels, of 8,598 tons. The total value of French car- 
 goes imported in 1849, reached about $5,000,000, 
 against $1,000,000 of exports durect to France. Of- 
 ficial returns for 1853 exhibit a total of 1,898 vessels, 
 under all flags, having entered during that year ; and 
 the following table gives the nationality and number 
 of these arrivals from each nation : 
 
CRU 
 
 483 
 
 CUB 
 
 Countries. 
 
 England 
 
 Holland 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Prussia 
 
 Norway 
 
 Lubec 
 
 Russia 
 
 Mecklonburg. 
 
 No, of TeseelB, 
 
 684 
 234 
 199 
 186 
 116 
 9T 
 
 Countrlea. 
 
 Hanover 
 
 Oldenburg.... 
 United States.. 
 
 France 
 
 Naples 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Greece 
 
 45 
 
 42 
 
 41 
 
 41 
 
 22 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 I > 
 
 Cross-trees, in a ship, pieces of oak timber, sup- 
 ported by the cheeks and trestle-trees, at the upper 
 ends of the lower and top-masts to sustain the frame 
 of the tops in the one, and to extend the top-gallant 
 shrouds on the other. 
 
 Croton Oil is expressed from the seeds of an eu- 
 phorbiaceous shrub, the Croton tiglium, a native of 
 Hindostan and of the warmer parts of Asia. The 
 fruit is about the size of a hazel-nut, of an ovate tri- 
 angular shape, and containing three ovate seeds, 
 about the size of a pea. The kernels of these yield, 
 on pressure, about 50 per cent, of oil, which is of a pale 
 amber color, and a thickish consistence, like castor oil. 
 It has no odor, but has a peculiar acrid taste, which is 
 felt most strongly in the back of the palate and throat. 
 Croton oil is a speedy, powerful, and sure cathartic, 
 in small doses, of one to three drops ; and it possesses 
 two valuable properties : 1st, that however active 
 and powerful the purgative action may be, it soon 
 ceases, and leaves no debility ; and, 2d, that it excites 
 the biliary secretion, more powerfully than any 
 known medicine. In consequence of one or two drops 
 being a dose, and its action commencing very shortly 
 after its administration, it is invaluable in impending 
 apoplexy, and in almost all diseases in which torpor 
 or paralysis exists. In hydrocephalus, even when 
 effusion of water on the brain appears to have taken 
 place, the late Dr. Abercrombie stated liiat it would 
 often bring about the recovery of the patient. It is a 
 medicine which deserves far more attention than it 
 has yet received. — E. B. 
 
 Crown, in Commerce^ a common name for coins 
 of several nations, which are about the value of a 
 dollar. See Coins, Table of. 
 
 CroTwn Grlass, the best kind of window-glass. 
 The hardest and most colorless, is made almost en- 
 tirely of sand and alkali, and a little lime, without 
 lead or any metallic oxyd, except a very small quan- 
 tity of manganese, and sometimes cobalt. Crown glass 
 is used in connection with flint glass for dioptric in- 
 struments, in order to destroy the disagreeable effect 
 of the aberration of colors. Both kinds of glass are 
 now made in the highest perfection, in Benedictebura, 
 where Riechenbach's famous manufactory of optical 
 instruments is situated. 
 
 Crucibles (Creusefa, Fr. ; Schmelztkgel, Germ.) 
 are small conical vessels, narrower at the bottom than 
 the mouth, for reducing ores in docimasy by the dry 
 analysis ; for fusing mixtures of earthy and other sub- 
 stances ; for melting metals, and compounding me- 
 tallic alloys. Thej- ought to be refractory in the 
 strongest heats, not readily acted upon by the sub- 
 stances ignited in them, not porous to liquids, and capa- 
 ble of bearing considerable alterations of temperature 
 without cracking ; on which account they should not 
 be made too thick. The best crucibles are formed 
 from a pure fire-clay, mixed with finely-ground cement 
 of old crucibles, and a portion of black-lead or gra^ 
 phite. Some pounded coke may be mixed with the 
 plumbago. The clay should be prepared in a similar 
 way as for making. pottery ware; the vessels after 
 being formed must be slowlj- dried, and then properly 
 baked in the kiln. Platina crucibles are not fusible, 
 but are too costly for general use. 
 
 Cruise. (Germ., krevlzen, to cross.') A voyage 
 within certain limits, for the purpose of meeting with 
 enemy's ships, pirates, etc., or for mere exercise, or 
 for the relief of vessels in distress. 
 
 Cruisers, in naval affairs, vessels, as the name 
 imports, employed on a cruise. The name is Com- 
 monly given to small men of war, made use of to 
 secure merchant ships and vessels from the enemy's 
 small frigates and privateers. They are generally 
 formed for fast sailing, and well-manned. 
 
 Cuba, the largest and richest of the West India 
 islands, and the most important colony of Spain, was 
 discovered by Columbus on the 28th October, 1492, 
 during his first voyage. It was first called Juana in 
 honor of Prince John, son of Ferdinand and Isabella ; 
 but after Ferdinand's death it received the name otFer- 
 rumdina. It was subsequently designated Santiago, 
 from the patron saint of Spain ; and still later Are 
 Maria, in honor of the Virgin. Its present name is 
 that by which it was known among the natives at the 
 time of its discovery. It was then divided into nine 
 independent principalities, under as many cacipieii. 
 
 The island of Cuba is long and narrow, somewhat 
 in the form of an irregular crescent, with its convex 
 side toward the north. It divides the entrance to the 
 Gulf of Mexico into two passages : that to the N.W. 
 being 32^ leagues wide at the narrowest part, between 
 the points of Hicacos in Cuba, and Tancba on the 
 Florida coast ; and the 8.W. passage 38 leagues wide 
 between the Cabo de San Antonio of Cuba, and the 
 Cabo de Catoche, the most salient extremity of the 
 peninsula of Yucatan. Cuba lies between 74° and 
 85° W. long., and 19° and 23° N. lat. Its length, 
 following a curved line through its centre, is 790 
 miles, and its greatest breadth (from Cape Matemil- 
 los to Mota Cove) is 107 miles. The area is estimated 
 at 31,468 square miles, or, including the other small 
 islands attached to it, 32,807 square miles. The coast 
 of Cuba is generally low and flat, and is surrounded 
 by numerous islands and reefs, which render the ap- 
 proach both difiicult and dangerous to those not ac- 
 quainted with the proper channels. The low nature 
 of the coast subjects it to frequent floods and inunda- 
 tions ; and especially on the north side of the island, 
 there are many large lagoons from which a consider- 
 able quantity of salt is obtained. No island, how- 
 ever, in proportion to its size, has a greater number 
 of excellent harbors, many of them accessible even to 
 ships of the line. A range of mountains extends from 
 one end of the island to the other, dividing it into two 
 unequal portions, of which the northern is generally 
 the narrower. The highest are those at the S.E. ex- 
 tremity of the island, to the N.W. of Santiago de 
 Cuba, and Iiave, according to -Humboldt, an elevation 
 of 1,200 toises, or 7,673 English feet. This Cordillera 
 IS one great calcareous mass, resting on a schistose 
 formation. The summits are for the most part rocky 
 and naked, occasionally interrupted by more gentle; 
 undulations. The central and western parts of the 
 island contain two formations of compact limestone, 
 one of clayey sandstone, and another of gj'psum. 
 The limestone formations abound in caverns. The 
 secondary formations, east of Havana, are pierced by 
 syenitic and euphotide rocks united in groups. The 
 syenite strata are intercalated with serpentine, and 
 inclined to the N.W. In some places petroleum runs 
 out of rents in the serpentine ; and abundant springs 
 of this fluid are also found in the eastern part of the 
 island. The rivers in general are necessarily short, 
 and flow toward the north and south. The largest is 
 the Cauto, rising in the Sierra del Cobre, and falling 
 into the bay of Buena Esperanza on the southern 
 coast, after a course of 50 leagues, for 20 of which it 
 is navigable, though at low water obstructed by bars. 
 The Sagua le Grande rises in the Sierra del Escam- 
 bray, passes Santo Domingo, and falls into the sea in 
 front of the Boca de Maravillas, being navigable for 
 five leagues. The principal of the other rivers are 
 the Sagua la Chica, the North and South latibonica, 
 the Ciiyaguateje, Sasa, Agobama, and the Hanabana. 
 On some of the rivers are beautiful cascades, while 
 
CTJB 
 
 484 
 
 CUB 
 
 several of them flow, during part of their courses, 
 under ground. 
 
 The mineral riches of the island have not yet been 
 explored to anj' considerable extent. Though gold 
 and silver have undoubtedly been found on the island, 
 the quantity has never been sufficient to repay the 
 labor of search. Gold was sent to Spain from this 
 island bj- the early settlers, but it was more probably 
 the accumulated wealth of the aborigines in previous 
 centuries, wrested from them by tyranny and rapine 
 at the period of the conquest, than the product of hon- 
 est labor on the part of the colonists. Traces' of 
 auriferous sand are found in the rivers Holguin, Es- 
 cawbray, etc. Some specimens Of the finest gold 
 have been obtained in recent times from the workings 
 of Agabama and Sagua'la Grande, but at an expense 
 of time and labor that could not remunerate the par- 
 ties engaged in it. In 1827, silver and copper were 
 discovered in the jurisdiction of Villa Clara, and the 
 first ores gave no Ifess than 7 oz, of pure silver to the 
 quintal ( ■=■ 107f lbs.) of ore ; but they have become 
 less productive, probably from not being properly 
 worked. The copper mines near Santiago, in the 
 eastern part of the island, are of great extent, and 
 very rich, employing nearly 900 persons, and yielding 
 an ordinary average of about 27 per cent, of pure 
 metal. They were wrought with some success during 
 the 17th centurj', but had been abandoned for more 
 than 100 years. About the year 1830, Mr. Hardy, a 
 landed proprietor in the island, happened, when on a 
 visit to that part, to carrj' oif some of the refuse of the 
 old workings in order to subject them to analysis, the 
 result of which was, that the metal was found so rich 
 as amply to repay the expense of sending it to En- 
 gland for smelting. Several other mining companies 
 have since been established ; and the amount of cop- 
 per ore exported in 1850 was 652,288 quintals, or 
 nearly 25,100 tons. Of the 35,683 tons of copper ore 
 imported in 1851 into the United Kingdom, 20,825 
 tons came from Cuba. Coal of a highly bituminous 
 character, affording a strong heat, and leaving very 
 little solid residue in the form of ashes or cinders, is 
 ver}' abundant. In some places it degenerates into a 
 form resembling asphaltum, and near the coast it is 
 often found in a semi-liquid state like petroleum or 
 naphtha. In the quarries near Havana a thick slate 
 is found, fit for floors and pavements. Marbles and 
 jaspers of various colors, and susceptible of a high 
 polish, are found in many parts of the island, and 
 particularly in the Isle of Pines. It is generally be- 
 lieved that iron exists in various parts of Cuba ; and 
 many parts of the great Cordillera undoubtedly con- 
 tain rocks of a ferruginous nature ; but from the diffi- 
 culty of access, the scarcity of fuel, and the want of 
 capital, no extensive mining operations have been en- 
 gaged in. Native loadstone, however, has been found 
 in various parts, and chalybeate springs are numerous. 
 
 The circulating medium of Cuba, was until latelj' 
 composed entirely of the precious metals ; paper 
 money is now issued by the bank which has just gone 
 into operation. The coins in use are the Spanish 
 dooblon, or onza de oro, which is a legal tender for 17 
 hard dollars, and at the ordinary rate of exchange of 
 8 4-37 per cent., is worth £B 10s. lOd. sterling; and 
 the subdivisions of the doblon, the half, the quarter, 
 the eighth, and the sixteenth — the last being equiv- 
 alent to a dollar and half a real. The Mexican, Co- 
 lombian, and other South American doblons are a 
 legal tender for 16 hard dollars, equal to £3 6s. 8d. 
 sterling, and are sometimes in demand for exportation 
 at a premium : their divisions are worth, 8, i, 2, and 
 1 dollar respectively. Of silver coins, the Spanish 
 dollar and its divisions, and also Mexican, United 
 States, and South American dollars, are legal tenders 
 at their nominal value. 
 
 The principal port is Havana, or Havannah, on the 
 north coast of the island of Cuba, of which it is the 
 
 capital, the Moro castle being, according to Hum- 
 boldt, in lat. 23° 8' 15" Ni, long; 82° 22' 45" W. The 
 population of the city and suburbs was said to be, in 
 1851, about 20.0,000. , In 1827, the resident pqpulation 
 amounted to. 94,023; viz., 46,621 whites, 8,215 free 
 colored, 15,347 free blacks, 1,010 colored slaves, and 
 22,830 black slaves. The port of Havana is the iihest in 
 the West Indies, or perhaps in the world. The entrance 
 is narrow, but the water" is deep, without bar or ob- 
 struction of any sort, and within it expands into a 
 magnificent bay, capable of accommodating' 1,000 
 large ships — vessels of the greatest draught of water 
 coming close to the quij'S. The city lies along the 
 entrance to, and on the west side of, the bay. From 
 its position; which commands both inlets to the gulf 
 of Mexico, its great strength and excellent harbor, 
 Havana is, in a political point of view, by far thfe 
 most important maritime station in the West Indiesl 
 As a commercial city it also ranks in the first class. 
 The ports of the island licensed for foreign trade are 
 Havana, Santiago, Puerto Prince, Matanzas, Trin- 
 idad; Baracoa, Gibara, Cienfuegos, and Manzanilla. 
 A bank has been recently established in Cuba, under 
 a royal charter. \ 
 
 It is impossible, from the conflicting accounts of the 
 different writers upon the subject, to arrive at any 
 thing like certainty as to the number of inhabitants on 
 the island at the time of its conquest ; but it may be 
 estimated at probably from 300,000 to 400;000: There 
 is little doubt, however, that before 1560 the whole of 
 this population had disappeared from the island. The 
 first census of Cuba was taken in 1775, when the pop- 
 ulation was 170,862. In 1791 it was 272,140. The 
 following table gives the population since that period : 
 
 ,ye«r. 
 
 VFlile.. 
 
 Free Blacks. 
 
 SIftves. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1811 
 
 274,000 . 
 290,021 . 
 
 114,000 
 
 23S,O00 , 
 
 600,000 
 
 1817 
 
 115,691 
 
 225,263 
 
 680,980 
 
 182T 
 
 81i;051 
 
 106,494 
 
 236,^42 
 
 704,487 
 
 1841 
 
 ,418,291 
 
 •152,888 
 
 486,495 
 
 1,007,624 
 
 1846 
 
 420,769 
 
 149,226 
 
 823,759 
 
 898,752 
 
 1849 
 
 457,188 
 
 164,410 
 
 828,897 
 
 945,440 
 
 1850 
 
 605,560 
 
 205,670 
 
 486,100 
 
 1,247,280 
 
 Neither of the last two censuses include the gar- 
 rison, crews of vessels, or the floating population. 
 
 The following is a more minute classification of the 
 people of the island, according to the census of 1850 ! 
 
 520,000 
 30,000 
 28,000 
 10.660 
 17,000 
 
 Creole whites 
 
 Spaniards 
 
 Troops and marines 
 
 Foreigners 
 
 Floating population 
 
 Total whites, 606,660 
 
 Free raulattoes 118,200 
 
 Free blacks 87,370 
 
 Total free colored population, 205,570 
 
 Slaves, mulattoes 11,100 
 
 Slaves, blacks 425,000 
 
 Total slaves, 486,100. 
 
 Grand total 1,247,230 
 
 The present population, adding garrison and floating 
 population, is nearly 1,400,000. The census of 1846 
 gives the population of the principal towns as foUows ; 
 Havana, 106,968 ; Puerto Prince, 19,168 ; Santiago de 
 Cuba, 24,005 ; Matanzas, 10,986 ; Trinidad, 13,222. The 
 population of Havana, in 1849, is giveji at 142,002, and 
 in 1850, at 150,561. 
 
 The chief agricultural products of Cuba are sugar, 
 coffee, and tobacco. The cultivation of these has ad- 
 vanced with great rapidity since 1809, when the ports 
 of the island were more freely opened to foreigners. 
 The cultivation of coffee advanced for a time with 
 equal or even greater rapidity than that of sugar ; but 
 latterly, from the low prices of coffee, the cultivation 
 of sugar has become the more profitable, and in a great 
 measure supplanted coffee. Among the other produc- 
 tions are Indian corn, rice, beans, plantains, cotton, 
 cocoa, pine-apples, lemons, oranges, limes, figs, mel- 
 ons, etc. Of the manufactures, the principal are the 
 
GUB 
 
 485 
 
 CUB 
 
 maldrig of sugar, molasses, rum, and segars, and the 
 preparation of coffee and wax. 
 
 The • latest and most reliable statistics of the island 
 present the' following divisions of agricultural indiis- 
 tr;', viz. r sugar estates, 1,442 j'fcoff^fe estates^ 1,618; 
 tobacco estates, 9,102 ; and grazing farms, 9,d30, on 
 which are reared about 898,199 head of cattle. Be- 
 sides these,! large herds of cattle are also reared on the 
 extensive and fertile prairies of the uncultivated por- 
 tion of the island. — E. B. 
 
 Politicallj', the island of Cuba is divided into three 
 departments ; the Oriental, the Central, and the Occi- 
 dental J and these are again subdivided into a number 
 of governments, sub-governments, and colonies. The 
 Central and Occidental departments form the civil 
 province of Havana, and the Oriental the civil prov- 
 ince of Cuba. 
 
 In 1809,1 the restrictions imposed upon Cuba, of 
 trading to no foreign country whatever, were re- 
 moved ; and from that period to the present, official 
 returns of the population, agriculture, commerce, and 
 revenue of the island have been annually prepared, 
 and, apparently; with great care. These reports, or 
 "Balanzas Generales," exhibit a regular and marked 
 progress in the industrial and commercial movements 
 of Cuba, from the. period above specified — its trade 
 with foreign nations steadily advancing, and the sup- 
 plies of its more prominent staples regularly keeping 
 pace ^ith the increased! demands of an enlarged and 
 comparatively emancipated commerce. In 1775, the 
 entire population of the island was 170,370. In 1850, 
 it had risen to 1,247,230, showinfe an increase during 
 the intervening 75 years of 1,076,860, or about 700 per 
 cent. 
 
 Cownerce imth Qylfa, — 'The increase of the trade of the 
 United States with the port of Havana over that of all 
 other nations, notwithstanding the bad- feeling that haS 
 existed between the two countries, is truly wonderful. 
 The Havana Merdaniile Report of the 7th of August, 
 1855, gives a statement Of the number of vessels, their 
 tonnage, and the nations to which they belong, which 
 entered the port of Havana during the first 6 months of 
 the lOyears last past. The increase in the total tonnage 
 for the first 6 months of the year, from 1846 to 1855, is 
 a trifle more thani 100 pea; cent. While the American 
 tonnage has increased more than 200 per cent., the 
 Spanish and British are nearly stationary. For the: first 
 6 months in 1846, the American tonnage employed in 
 this trade was 71,722 ; the Spanish, 55,528 j and the 
 British, 32,969. The total number of vessels which 
 entered that poii; 'during the 6 months ending July 1st, 
 1855, was 1,080, of a tonnage of 364,933 ; and of tibese, 
 570, of a tonnage of 231,484, were American ; 58,338 
 Spanish; 32,165 British. The French tonnage has 
 increased from 1,761, in the first 6 months of 1846, to 
 8,269, for the same period of 1854, and 23,283, more 
 than two thirds of the British, in 1855. In the ton- 
 nage of other nations; Belgian, Dutch, Danish, Brem- 
 en, Hamburg, and others, there has been no material 
 increase. Prior to the removal of the restrictions on 
 foreign commerce, there was some trade carried on be- 
 tween the United States and Cuba, by virtue of Span- 
 ish grants and occasional relaxations of the laW' ; but 
 it was generallylimited to the importation of articles 
 necessary to supply the people of the island with the 
 means of subsistence. 
 
 The wars between the mother country and the 
 Spanish American republics having driven the Span- 
 ish flag from the ocean, the laws of differential duties 
 remained in abeyance, and the commerce of Cuba, ex- 
 isting chiefly with the United States, was carried on 
 in American bottoms, which even extended their serv- 
 ices to Spain, bringing the oil and wine of the Penin- 
 sula to the colonists. The gradual settlement of the 
 difficulties with the revolted provinces enabled the flag 
 of Spain again to come upon the sea, and her mercan- 
 tile marine received a now impulse. Diuing the pe- 
 
 riod tljat had elapsed: since the opening of the ports,, 
 the natural increase of the wants of the colonists, at- 
 tendant upon an excliange of their products with those 
 of foreign; countries, opened fi market in Cuba for many 
 of the products of mechanical industry, which found 
 their way there through the ports pf the, United States ; 
 sp that, at the close _ of this era, in the year 1830, the 
 foreign commerce of the island was confined almost 
 exclusively to our marts, to which sh? looked even for 
 those artides which were not producedin this country. 
 Tliis was the season of the n^ost prosperous commerce 
 between 'Cuba and the United States. The re-birth 
 of the Spanish merchant-marine brought with it clam- 
 ors for protection, and tlie tariflf of Cuba was altered, 
 imposing a differential duty upon gqods imported in 
 foreign bottoms. The object of this duty was to en- 
 courage the employment of national vessels in the 
 trade of the island with this country. Spanish ships 
 verj' soon made their appearance in American ports, 
 and were rapidly obtaining a large share of the carry- 
 ing trade, which had, before tliat period, been enjoyed 
 exclusively by American vessels. 
 
 About this time, repeated but unavailing represent- 
 ations had been made to the Spanish government of 
 the injustice of its course in , imposing such discrinir 
 inating duties both on the navigation and commerce of 
 foreign countries, and in favor of Spanish bottoms. 
 Negotiations having proved abortive, a system of de- 
 fensive or retaliatory measures was recommended, as 
 the only means of self-protection, in an elaborate re- 
 port made by the Committee on Commerce of th^ 
 House of Representatives,, in May, 1834, which con- 
 cludes- thus : " Your cpmmittee, therefore, from a 
 view of all the circumstances, have dee:(aed,it their 
 duty to report a bill, authorizing the Secretary, of the 
 Treasury to collect such additional tonnage duties 
 upon Spanish vessels entering the; ports of the United 
 States from Cuba and' Porto Eico as shall be eqnivaA 
 lent to the disoriminating duty tha,t would have been 
 imposed upon the cargoes of such vessels, respectively, 
 if the same had been exported from Havana in Amer- 
 ican bottoms ; and also upon Spanish vessels clearing 
 out from the ports of the United States, such ad- 
 ditional tonnage duty as would be equivalent to the 
 discriminating ' duty payable upon their cargoes, re- 
 spectively, if imported into Havana in American bot- 
 toms." 
 
 The bill reported became a law in Jime, 1834, and 
 conformably to its provisions, the Secretary of the 
 Treasijry, in February, 1835, issued to the collectors 
 of the customs his circular, in the- following words : 
 " I have to call the attention of the officers of the cus- 
 toms to the accompanying copy of the act of Congress 
 concerning tonnage duty on Spanish vessels, approved 
 the 30th June last, and which goes into operation on 
 the 1st day of March next. Tabular statements are 
 annexed, showing the rate of duty to be levied, in the 
 nature of tonnage duty, on the arrival of Spanish ves- 
 sels at any port-in the United States, coming from the 
 islands of Cuba or Porto Kico, either directly or after 
 touching at any port or place, laden with merchandise 
 subject to discriminating duty when exported from the 
 port of Havana in American bottoms, together with 
 the. rate of duty to be exacted from the aforesaid ves- 
 sels departing from a port of the United States, with 
 a cargo destined, directly or indirectly, to either of 
 the islands before described." 
 
 The above extract from the circular contains, in 
 substance, the ' first 3 sections of the act of 1834. 
 The 5th section* shows the purport and scope of the 
 act, and that it was designed by the committee from 
 which it emanated, as well as by Congress in its adop- 
 tion, to force the government of Spain into a more lib- 
 eral and just course of legislation in regard to the 
 commerce between the United States and this island, 
 by placing Spanish vessels, with their cargoes, coming 
 into or departing from the United States, in the same 
 
CUB 
 
 486 
 
 CUB 
 
 condition, as to imposts of all kinds, that American 
 vessels are subjected to in the colonies of Spain. This 
 equality was demanded as imperatively in behalf of 
 the interests of Cuba and Porto Eico, as in vindication 
 of our commercial rights ; and the 5th section ex- 
 pressly limits its continuance and restricts its applica- 
 tion to the accomplishment of that end. This section 
 is in these words : 
 
 '^And be it further enacted, That whenever the 
 President of the United States shall be satisfied that 
 the discriminating duties in favor of Spanish bottoms 
 levied upon the cargoes of American vessels in the 
 ports of Cuba and Porto Rico have been abolished, or 
 whenever, in his opinion, a satisfactory arrangement 
 upon the subject of the said duties shall have been 
 made between the United States and Spain, the Pres- 
 ident is hereby authorized to declare the same by proc- 
 lamation, and thereupon this act shall cease to have 
 any further force or effect." 
 
 In 1849 the Treasurj- Department ascertained that 
 certain privileges had been accorded on the part of the 
 Spanish government to vessels of the United States 
 entering and departing from ports in the island of 
 Cuba. A circular was immediately issued from that 
 department, which, after citing the provisions of the 
 acts of 1832 and 1834, and specifying the privileges 
 alluded to, says : " It consequently follows, that where 
 no tonnage duty or discriminating dnty on the cargoes 
 of American vessels entering or departing from ports 
 or places in the island of Cuba is imposed and collected 
 thereat, Spanish vessels coming from such ports or 
 places are to be similarly treated, as regards tonnage 
 duty, in the ports of the United States. The collect- 
 ors of the customs are, therefore, instructed to abstain 
 from the exaction of any tonnage duty on Sanish ves- 
 sels coming from ports or places in the island of Cuba, 
 in ballast, or when laden with cargoes of molasses 
 taken in at either of said ports." 
 
 In 1862 a similar circular was issued to collectors, 
 instructing them to admit Spanish vessels arriving 
 from Spanish or any other foreign ports, those of Cuba 
 and Porto Rico excepted [the royal decree of 3d Jan- 
 uary, 1852, excepted Cuba and Porto Rico from the 
 privileges thus reciprocated], to entry on the same 
 footing as American vessels, as regarded tonnage duty, 
 light-money, and all other dues to the United States, 
 so far as respects vessels. These acts (of 1832-34) 
 have been in force now during a period of 22 years, 
 and, with the exception of the slight privileges which 
 called for the circulars already referred to, have 
 failed to produce the effect contemplated by their en- 
 actment. The commerce between the United States 
 and these islands, in the aggregate, has not fallen 
 off; but the increase has not been such as should be 
 expected from the great expansion of our general com- 
 merce, and the increased development of the agricul- 
 tural and industrial resources of Cuba, since that 
 period. The most obvious effect has been to exclude 
 Spanish ships from our ports, and to destroy, in a 
 measure, all that portion of the carrying trade hence 
 to Cuba which comprised articles of foreign product ; 
 for the Spanish vessels, no longer permitted to engage 
 in the carrj-ing trade between the United States and 
 Cuba, on more favorable terms than American vessels, 
 were soon driven from our ports, and supplied the 
 wants of the island from the countries where the arti- 
 cles were produced ; and thus the hardware, glass, 
 delf, and drygoods of England, that had been previ- 
 ously brought to the United States in American packet- 
 ships, principally, from London and Liverpool to New 
 York, were now directly imported into Cuba ; and the 
 same result has attended the carrying trade from 
 France in her silks and fancy wares, and Germany in 
 her cottons, linens, and hosiery. 
 
 The following table exhibits the number jind na- 
 tionality of vessels employed in the trade of Cuba 
 during the three years 1826, 1829, and 1834 : 
 
 Entkbed. I 
 
 
 1826. 
 
 1829. 
 
 18U. 
 
 
 188 
 
 1,106 
 
 865 
 
 896 
 969 
 837 
 
 797 
 945 
 294 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 1,659 
 
 1,702 
 
 2,036 
 
 
 Cleared. | 
 
 I 1836. 
 
 18-J9. 
 
 1834. 
 
 Spanisli 
 
 United States 
 
 127 
 914 
 247 
 
 1,288 
 
 866 
 890 
 814 
 
 717 
 910 
 290 
 
 All other 
 
 Total 
 
 1,570 
 
 1,917 
 
 An analysis of the preceding figures will show an 
 aggregate increase in the number of vessels entered 
 from 1826 to 1829, of 43 ; and to 1834, of 377 ; and in 
 vessels cleared, an increase, for the first period, of 282, 
 and for the second, of 629. The increase in Spanish 
 vessels entered from 1826 to 1829 was 208, and to 1834, 
 609 vessels. The decrease from 1826 to 1829 in the 
 United States vessels was 137, and to 1834, 161 ; and 
 the decrease in vessels from all other nations, for the 
 first period, was 28, and to 1834, 71 vessels. 
 Table exhibiting the Yalue of Imports into Cuba 
 
 DUEINO THE THREE YEAKS 1826, 1829, 1834. 
 
 
 1826. 
 
 1829. 
 
 1834. 
 
 NATIONAL COMUEBCE. 
 
 National vessels. .. 
 
 Foreign vessels 
 
 Deposit 
 
 $409,852 
 2,449,440 
 1,769,621 
 
 814,688 
 5,682,808 
 1,169,451 
 1,828,627 
 1,293,989 
 
 57^,783 
 
 $1,460,041 
 8,501,002 
 2,521,443 
 
 844,826 
 5,784,765 
 1,245,947 
 1,887,775 
 1,005,749 
 
 544,809 
 
 I $3,412,487 
 1,184,407 
 
 4,970,013 
 3,690,101 
 
 906,414 
 1,676,918 
 
 562,690 
 
 2,210,270 
 
 FOBBION OOMMEBCg. 
 
 National vessels . . . 
 From United States 
 
 From France 
 
 From England 
 
 From Hanse Towns 
 From Italy, Hol- 
 land, Portugal. 
 Denmark, and 
 East Indies 
 
 Total 
 
 $14,925,764 
 
 $18,695,856 
 
 $18,568,800 
 
 The preceding tables show an increase in the aggre- 
 gate value of imports into the island in 1829 over 1826 
 of $3,770,102 ; while, during the second period, from 
 1829 to 1834, this trade remained stationary. A mi- 
 nute analysis of the figures, however, will show the 
 significant fact that, while the carrying trade in Span- 
 ish bottoms has risen from $844,826 in 1829 to $4,970,- 
 013 in 1884, the imports from the United States, during 
 the same period, fell from $5,734,765 to $3,690,101. 
 During the three years compared, the imports into the 
 United States from Cuba remained stationarj'', being 
 in 1826 $3,894,597 ; in 1829, $3,191,535 ; and in 1834, 
 $3,824,724. 
 
 Imports of Flour. — During the periods under review 
 — indeed, at all times — ^provisions form the largest 
 item in the imports from the United States. The 
 enormous discrimination in favor of the national flag 
 on flour has always had the effect of restricting almost 
 exclusively to national vessels the trade in this article. 
 Thus, in 1829 the value of flour imported into Cuba, 
 in Spanish vessels, was $1,582,768, while from the 
 United States it amounted only to $345,335, and from 
 all other places to $13,662 ; and in 1849, or twenty 
 years after, the value of flour imported in Spanish bot- 
 toms was $2,675,262 ; from the United States, $9,334 ; 
 and from all other places, $1,725. The acts of 1832 
 and 1834 can, unquestionably, be traced in this great 
 falling off in the article of flour ; but, that other causes 
 also contributed in securing for the Spanish flag so 
 complete a monopoly of the trade in this article is 
 demonstrated by the fact that, while the value of flour 
 imported from all other places (than the United States) 
 in 1829 amounted to $13,662, representing 1,093 bar- 
 rels, we find this figure in 1849 dwindled down to 
 $1,725, representing only 138 barrels. That the re- 
 peal of these acts would largely augment the export 
 as well as the import trade of the United States with 
 Cuba, there can be no question ; but, until the dis- 
 criminations in favor of the national flag are modified 
 or removed, the carrying trade between the United 
 
CUB 
 
 i8l 
 
 CUB 
 
 States and that island would, under their unequal and 
 unjust operation, be almost exclusively monopolized 
 by Spanish bottoms. 
 
 Commercial Policy of Spain. — The restrictive policy 
 of Spain, especially as regards the trade of her colonies, 
 is adhered to to-day, in Cuba and Porto Kico, almost 
 as rigorouslj' as when she was mistress of nearly the 
 entire southern portion of this continent ; and the sta^ 
 tionarj- condition of the trade between the United 
 States and these islands since 1834 would seem to in- 
 dicate the fruitlessness of any efforts to force her from 
 this line of policy by measures of retaliation or coun- 
 tervailing acts. So long as the system itself shall 
 continue to be the colonial policy of Spain but little 
 modification in its details need be looked for, whether 
 the influence to that end be countervailing acts or 
 diplomacy. " Be careful," says the instructions of 
 the king and Council of the Indies to Luis de Velasco, 
 viceroy of New Spain, early in the sixteenth century, 
 *' Be careful not to foster manufactures, nor to allow 
 the cultivation of vines, inasmuch as there was always 
 ample provision of these things, and the commerce of 
 the kingdom should not be impaired by such colonial 
 products ;" and in the year 1610 these royal instruc- 
 tions were repeated, with the addition of the following 
 emphatic language : " Inasmuch as you understand 
 perfectly how much the observance of these rules is 
 necessary for the dependence of the colonies, we 
 charge and command you to see to their faithful exe- 
 cution." The same spirit that dictated this protection 
 for the wine and oil of Spain, and for the exclusive 
 trade in these articles to her American colonies, in 
 1610, remains unchanged in any degree (because there 
 is no practical distinction between prohibitive discrim- 
 inations and positive prohibitions) in the commercial 
 policy, which, in 1856, two centuries and a half later, 
 virtually excludes American flour, and many other 
 staples, for which the inhabitants of Cuba must neces- 
 sarily look to a foreign market. 
 
 Until the system itself is abolished, and Spain 
 adopts the more liberal commercial policy which char- 
 acterizes the present enlightened age ; until she fol- 
 lows the example of Great Britain, Belgium, Holland, 
 and other neighboring countries, in removing all un- 
 necessary shackles from commercial enterprise, the 
 commerce of Cuba, not only with the mother countiy, 
 but with the United States, and all foreign nations, 
 must remain as it has during the past quarter of a 
 century — crippled, restricted, and struggling ; incom- 
 petent as a source of revenue to the home government 
 — inadequate to meet the expenses of the colonial, and 
 almost powerless, from the restrictions with which it 
 is burdened, in developing the exhaustless resources of 
 the island, or even in supplying the necessary means of 
 comfortable subsistence to the great bulk of its inhab- 
 itants, unless at prices far above their scanty means. 
 
 If the government of Spain could be induced to pro- 
 pose, or to agree, to a similar commercial reciprocity 
 with the United States to that now existing between 
 the latter country and the British North American 
 provinces, it would not only supersede countervailing 
 acts and retaliatory measures, by establishing the com- 
 mercial relations between them on a basis of just and 
 liberal reciprocity ; but, it is believed that, while in a 
 very short period it would make the island of Cuba 
 the richest in wealth, as it is in natural resources, of 
 any island of the same size in the world, it would also 
 eminently contribute to cement more strongly, if not 
 render indissoluble, the bonds of union between it and 
 the mother country. 
 
 Imports of Tobacco into tub United States from Cuba, 
 FOR THE Tears ending June 80th, 1853, 1854, 1855. 
 
 
 Uomanafactured. 
 
 Ser«r.. 1 
 
 Founds. 
 
 Volue. 
 
 M. 
 
 Valm. 
 
 1858 
 1864 
 1865 
 
 4,295,530 
 4,552,187 
 8,718,986 
 
 J764,629 
 700,871 
 628,112 
 
 177,944 
 171,823 
 157,807 
 
 $2,896,620 
 2,760,229 
 2,681,468 
 
 The following table exhibits the value of exports 
 from the United States to Cuba during two periods, 
 embracing three years each : 
 
 Yearfl. 
 
 1834 
 1885 
 1836 
 1353 
 1864 
 1855 
 
 Quantity of Flour. Value 
 
 $8,690,101 
 6,406,919 
 6,658,281 
 6,287,959 
 8,551,762 
 8,0 
 
 1,587 bblB. 
 11,698 
 3,428 
 
 $7,780 
 82,489 
 88,176 
 
 It will be seen from this table that the export trade 
 of the United States to Cuba in 1853 is less than it 
 was in 1836, while the increase in 1854 and 1855 is by 
 no means proportionate to the rapid increase of our 
 general commerce, and of the agricultural products of 
 Cuba. Were the discriminations removed, flour would 
 unquestionably become our leading staple export to 
 Cuba. The importations of this article into Cuba in 
 1847, were 235,243 barrels, of which 175,870 barrels 
 were from Spain, and 59,373 barrels from the United 
 States. In 1848 the number of barrels imported fell 
 to 231,119, of which only 18,175 barrels were from the 
 United States. The most moderate estimate puts the 
 consumption of flour in Cuba, were it admitted at 
 reasonable duties, at from 800,000 to 900,000 barrels. 
 That this trade would be enjoyed almost exclusively 
 by the United States is evident from the fact that flour 
 is among our heaviest articles of export, and European 
 competition with a country within a few days' sail of 
 the island would be out of the question. , 
 
 The balance of trade between the United States 
 and Cuba is enormously against the former. In 1853, 
 this balance amounted to $12,297,796 ; in 1855 it was 
 $10,620,757. The vafue of 500,000 barrels of flour, 
 fixing the price at $5 per barrel, would be $2,500,000 ; 
 or one fifth of the balance against the United States 
 would be realized on the single article of flour alone. 
 The increased quantities of bacon, pork, lard, and pro- 
 visions generally, of domestic manufactures, etc., would 
 render the commerce between this country and Cuba 
 more equal, as well as more just ; while, the exports 
 from Cuba to the United States would be proportiona- 
 bly augmented. One year's trade, if conducted on 
 principles of reciprocity, would be suiiicient to demon- 
 strate the advantages which would result to both coun- 
 tries from the adoption of a policy commended alike by 
 the products and wants of each, respectively, and by 
 every principle of commercial economy. 
 
 Great as is the productiveness of Cuba at present, 
 some writers assert that under a good government 
 it would be increared fivefold ; its mineral resources 
 would then be fully developed, and it would be able 
 fully to take advantage of its admirable position to 
 develop its trade. The continuance of the present line 
 of policy in reference to Cuba must in time lead to a 
 revolution which Spain will be unable to quell. 
 
 Since the adoption of the Spanish tariff of the year 
 1830, in Cuba, several revisions have been made, and 
 the rates of duty from time to time have been mate- 
 rially diminished, to the eminent advantage of the rev- 
 enue ; but there has still been retained, and in many 
 instances increased, the differential duties in favor of 
 Spanish products and national bottoms. The follow- 
 ing instances of the operation of these differential du- 
 ties will sufficiently exhibit their general character. 
 
 Lard. — An article of great consumption in Cuba, 
 imported almost exclusively from the United States, is 
 subject to a duty of 4J cents per pound when brought 
 from this country in American bottoms ; the coarser 
 qualities of oil (olive), which are imported for the same 
 purposes, are delivered with a duty of 2 4-5 cents per 
 pound; and the result is, that 10,000,000 pounds of 
 lard, being a vastly superior article, are imported, 
 while 8,500,000 pounds of oil from other countries, far 
 inferior to lard, are enabled to compete with it in the 
 markets of Cuba, because of the difference in price, in 
 its favor, produced by the duty. 
 
CUB 
 
 488 
 
 CUB 
 
 Productions.-^Agna.Tiienle (tafia, or rum) is distilled 
 from molasses and the refuse of sugar-works. It is sold 
 per pipe of 125 gallons, with or without cask, accord- 
 ing to agreement ; good tafia is of not less than 20 de- 
 grees, clear and transparent, slightly brown in color, 
 and smooth taste. The exports of this article for the 
 j'ear 1856 were about 15,473 pipes, of which 7635 went 
 to Spain ; 150 to the United States ; 294 to Great Brit- 
 ain; 2091 to dowes, or Falmouth and a market; 640, 
 to Hamburg and Bremen ; 2637 to France ; 583 to 
 Trieste and Venice ; 1379 to South America and Mexi- 
 co ; and the balance to Italy, Gibraltar, and a market. 
 The exports of 1855 very considerably exceed any pre- 
 vious year, and from the number of extensive distil- 
 leries recently established, the article is likely to form 
 a considerable item of exportation in future. It has 
 commanded the last year as high as $45 and $48 per 
 pipe during a portion of it; at the termination of the 
 year it was quoted at $40 to $42, brisk. The number 
 of pip6s shipped were 21,102, of which 840 went to the 
 United States; 3499 to Great Britain; 798 to Ger- 
 many; 2114 to France ; 12,787 to Spain; 809 to South 
 America and Mexico ; and the balance to Italy and 
 Other oouiitries. 
 
 Leaf Tobacco. — Tobacco is one of the most important 
 articles of production in the island of Cuba. The 
 planters commence to plant in August or September, 
 after the heavy rains are ovei*, and when the northers 
 may be looked for, which generally come accompanied 
 b}^ a drizzKng rain that is favorable to the plant. In 
 February or March, and as late as April, the tobacco 
 is cut and taken to a house or shed, erected for the 
 purpose of affording shade, and at the same time a free 
 circulation of air; it is placed on ciijes (poles), laid 
 horizontalh- at some distance from the ground, where 
 it is allowed to become parfectly dry until the spring 
 rains commence, when the humidity seizes the leaf, 
 causes it to swell, and to take the silky appearance pe- 
 culiar to it. It is then taken from the poles and laid 
 in a heap on the grouhd, the leaves being slightly 
 sprinkled with water; in this state it undergoes a 
 species of fermentation. After this operation is gone 
 through, the leaves are placed in manojos (hands) ; 
 afterward it is a very common practice to take a quan- 
 tity of refuse leaves and infuse them in a certain quan- 
 tity of water, and, in some instances, wine, and even 
 alcohol, or, rather, tafia is used when the tobacco is 
 light colored and weak, and it is desired to give it in- 
 creased strength. This infusion undergoes a state of 
 fermentation, after which the refuse leaves deposit 
 themselves at the bottom. The tobacco is dipped into 
 this preparation before being hung up in a room almost 
 air-tight, *here it undergoes the sweating, to which 
 the name of calenium (fever) is given ; the process of 
 dipping is performed as many times as the tobacco may 
 require. I am under the impression that this process 
 njight be used to great advantage with the Connecticut 
 tobacco. The qualities of Cuba tobacco vary accord- 
 ing to the section or district in which it is produced : 
 that grown on the western end of the island is the 
 celebrated Vuelta Abajo tobacco ; that raised in other 
 parts of the island, which is very inferior in quality, is 
 known under the name of Vuelta Arriba. There is 
 another class, called Yara, from which Puerto Principe 
 cigars are made. 
 
 The best Vuelta Abajo tobacco is grown on the mar- 
 gins of certain rivers, which are periodically overflown, 
 and is called tobacco de rio, distinguished from other 
 tobacco by a fine sand found in the creases of the 
 leaves. Good tobacco is aromatic, of a rich brown 
 color (this color is preferred by those who are fond of 
 a strong cigar, but there is many a light-colored leaf 
 that is quite as strong), without stains, and the leaf 
 thin and elastic, burns well without bitter or biting 
 taste. There is probably no production of the earth 
 that offers so many disappointments ; the raising of it 
 is subjected to many contretemps. If I am not mis- 
 
 taken, only one good crop is made in three years on an 
 average. Tobacco is usually divided into five classes, 
 to wit : 
 
 Calidad or Libra : this is the best tobacco ; the bales 
 always contain 60 hands or manojos, of 4 gavillas'or 
 fingers, of about 25 leaves each; and marked £60. The 
 strongest cigar is made with this leaf. Infuriado Prin- 
 cipal or Priniera (firsts) ; has less flavor than Libra, 
 and is generally of lighter color. The' leaves should 
 be whole and elastic; 80 hands, of 4 gavillas (of 30 
 leaves), are in each bale, which is marked B 80. Se- 
 gundas (seconds) : many good wrappers in these ; but 
 the majority of the leaves are stained, have a' bad col- 
 or, or have been slightly touched by the wdmi. This 
 Wrapper is weaker than the firsts. This class is put 
 up in bales of 80 manojos, of 4 gavillas, each of these 
 of 36 to 40 leaves, and marked Y 2 a 80. Terceras, or 
 thirds, constitute the best fillers, and some wrappers 
 are found among them, especially if the' tobacco is nevF, 
 The bales have 80 manojos, of 4 gavillas, having up- 
 ward of 40 leaves each ; the bales are marked 3 a 80. 
 Cuartas, or fourths ; the most inferior class, fit only 
 for fillers. The bales contain 80 manojos, of 4 gavillas; 
 no determined number of leaves in the gavillas ; marked 
 4 a 80. Vuelta Arriba tobacco is put up in the same, 
 or a similar, manner. i 
 
 It would be difHcult, indeed, for any one to attempt 
 to fix prices for tobacco ; they vary from, say $10 to 
 $170 generally', but occasionallj- fabulous prices are 
 paid for that which is very good in quality, and which 
 offers a fair prospect of yielding a large number of 
 cigars. I have it from a very reliable source, that a 
 little over a month since, the celebrated factory of ia 
 Hija de Cabanas y Cariajal' ^siA the sum of $10,000 
 cash for a lot of only 46 bales, none of which exceeded 
 100 lbs. in weight. By the following quotations, given 
 by our latest price-current, it will be perceived how 
 varied the prices are for tobacco : 
 
 $130 to $140 for firsts, seconds, and thirds. 
 
 60 to SO for fourths. 1 According to qual- 
 
 40 to 50 for fifths. lity, selection, and 
 
 20 to 30 for sixths. f renown ; all is Vu- 
 
 IT to 20 for eevenths and Capadura. J elta Abajo. 
 
 When tobacco is shipped, it is generally covered 
 witli crash. 
 ■ Cigars are made of all classes of tobacco, and of va- 
 rious sizes and shapes, and therefore of various values. 
 There is probably no manufactured article so difficult 
 to estimate the true value of as cigars; there are cer- 
 tain well-known brands that can, command almost any 
 price ; they have a fixed value ; such, for instance, ras 
 those of La iHja de Cabanas y Carbajal, Cabargas, Pa- 
 targets, La Higuera,eta., and even among those of high 
 reputation, and having apparently fixed prices, cigars 
 are delivered at lower rates than those appearing in 
 the bill of rates to persons that advance them large 
 sums of money for the purchase of tobacco, and receive 
 in payment large quantities of these cigars per month. 
 These celebrated ^rajids are known to be the pur- 
 chasers of the best and highest, priced tobacco ; at the 
 same time, it is well known that they purchase cigafs 
 from smaller factories, make selections with great care, 
 pack them in their own boxes with their own brands, 
 and obtain for these the same prices as for the cigars 
 made at their own manufactories ; and just as good an 
 article may be procured elsewhere for half the price. 
 But very few of the cigars proceeding from those cele- 
 brated factories are consumed on the island; and there 
 are even some, but comparatively few of whose cigars 
 are sent to the United States, and there are many 
 whose works all go to the States. I mean, in the 
 above remarks, in the way of trade. It would be quite 
 impossible to give any positive figures in regard to the 
 extent of manufacture of cigars in this island; not- 
 withstanding all my diligence in procuring informa- 
 tion, and the various modes employed for the purpose, 
 my efforts have failed. The onlv mode I could find to 
 
GliB 
 
 489 
 
 CUB 
 
 make an approximating estimate 6{ the quantity manu- 
 factured ia hy estimating firat tlie number of smokers 
 in the island. And here I met one great stumbling- 
 block — " What is Ijhe population of Cuba ?" It is cal- 
 ciilated as low as under, one millioA and as high as one 
 million and a half. r 
 
 It must be bbrne in inind that 1 almost 'everj' man, 
 and a very large portion of women j in the, island smok(i 
 cigars ; and although it is very true that a, large num- 
 ber use the cigarritos or paper cigars, still, it is known 
 that a vety large portion of these, also consume the 
 other kind, or puros. My object haa been to ascer- 
 tain, in the first place, the home consumption. In my 
 efforts to estimate the number of smokers by inquiries 
 from both Spaniards and Germans, I find the estimate 
 varying .between 300,000 and 1,000,OOQ., Ten cigars 
 per day is considered about the average, quantity con- 
 sumed by each person. As my basis of calculation, I 
 h^ve put down the niunber at 400,000. This would 
 give for the consumption of the island the almost in- 
 credible amount of 1460 millions of cigars per annum, 
 equal to 1,460,000 boxes of 1000 each. Calculating 
 each thousand to weigh 12 lbs., each smoker Consumes 
 44 lbs. per annum. This, taken in connection with 
 the amount of exports from all parts of the island, that 
 can iiot be less than the cbnsumption, swells the figures 
 to an extent that is startling, and makes moidoubt the 
 ^asis of my calculation, And yet I am told by many 
 that I am rather under, than over the number of smok- 
 ers, and the quantity they consume per day.— rConmlar 
 Report to^ the Department of State, United States. 
 
 Sugar. — This is considered the greatest staple of the 
 island of Cuba. The grinding of the cane generally 
 commences in the month of December,, and the sugars 
 are brought to market from January, and sometimes 
 as early as' the middle of December, imtil July; the 
 greatest quantities come in March, April, and May. 
 There are two kinds made, known as "clayed" and 
 " Muscovado ;" the greatest quantity by far is clayed. 
 Of this, the principal division is:' Florete, white, yel- 
 low, brown, and Cogucbo. It is packed on the plan- 
 tations. The clayed is put in boxes, weighing from 
 450 to 500 pounds gross ; the tare usually is 47 pounds. 
 A merchantable box of sugar must weigh 16 arrobas 
 (of 25 lbs.) net; if a little unijer, a deduction of 60 
 cents per box is made ; and if much under, the sugar is 
 rejected, as the export duty ia upon the box, and it 
 would not be for the interest of the shipper or export- 
 er to accept any box weighing less than 16 arrobas. 
 Muscovado is put in casks, weighing from 1200 to 1500 
 pounds gross; tare, 10 per cent. Clayed sugar is 
 usually sold in lots, assorted half whites and half yel- 
 low or browns, per sample, by licensed brokers ; it is 
 examined before received, and that which is not equal 
 to sample rejected. When sugar remains long in store 
 it becomes moist and loses its grain. 
 
 The export of sugar from Havana', according to 
 Hiimboldt, amounted, in the four tears, 1760-'63, every 
 year only to about 13,000 boxes. Nine years, 1770-78, 
 every year only to about 50,000 boxes. 
 
 The great increase in the production of sugar in this 
 island commenced about the year 1820, when steam 
 was substituted upon plantations for ox or mule power. 
 Nearly two-thirds of the quantity exported is from 
 Havana, and the largest portion on America,!! bottoms. 
 The official returns of exports can not be considered as 
 correct; for many a vessel has been cleared as laden 
 with a full cargo of molasses when she carried a'fuU 
 Ciirgo of sugars, and thereby not only defrauded the 
 royal revenue of the export duty upon the sugar, but 
 had her topnage duty not levied or returned to her, 
 and in former years many vessels having a full load 
 of sugars cleared in ballast ; but even supposing that 
 they gave the true quantity exported, they certainly 
 give no idea of the extent of the crop. The consump- 
 tion on the island it is impossible to estimate; the 
 quantity is almost incredible. No country in the 
 
 world consumes so much sugar as the people of this 
 island in proportion to the population. Rich and poor, 
 every table — almost withbut exception, exclusive pf 
 the negroes upbn plantations — is furnished, more or 
 less, with the preserved fruits of the country, and the 
 quantity of preserved fruits sent to all parts of the 
 world 'is very great. And then is tb he considered the 
 sugar that is consumed in. a country where every white 
 inhabitant, and a large portion of the colored popula- 
 tion also, take coffee three or four times a day, The 
 prbspects of the preseUt crop; from all parts of the inl- 
 and, were never more flattering. It is probable that 
 there will be a large increase over the last year's crop. 
 Contracts have already been entered into, paying as 
 high as $22 per box. The boxes and casks are paid 
 for; separately, as will be exhibited in the pro forma 
 invoices given in continuation. The brokerage upon 
 sugar is 1 per cent., of which the purchaser pays a half 
 per cent, and the seller the other half per cent. — Consu- 
 lar Returm, United States, 1854-'55. i 
 
 Coffee. — ^The production of this article has rapidly 
 diminished during the last 14 or 15 years on the north 
 part of Cuba, owing to the lo.w prices, scarcity of 
 laborers, and consequent high rates of wages, and the 
 larger profits in the cultivation of the sugaivcane. 
 The berry begins to ripen sibout August, when the 
 picking is commenced, "and continued until December 
 or January next. It 'begins to flower in February, 
 March, April, or May ; the third flower gives the best 
 coffee ; the article' is brought to market throughout the 
 year ; but in December, January, and February, aiid 
 even as late as March, it cornea i(i greatest quantities. 
 The packing in sacks of from 6 to 8 arrobas of 25 pounds 
 is effected on the plantations ; the tare of a sack is' 2' 
 pounds. Coffee is sold by regular licensed brokers by. 
 satnple, and before being received is examined, and if 
 not equal to the Sample is rejected. It is usually 
 classed into five grades : Superior, First, Second, Third, 
 and Triacbe. There is a class called CaracoliUo,n 
 round bean, the produce of the first bearing.year, when 
 the pods have only one kernel ; after the first year the 
 pods have two kernels. Coffee, when a long time in 
 store, loses 'its aroma, and fades in color; when good, 
 the berries are' smooth, equal, and unbroken, free from 
 stones or unpleasant smell, and of afresh green color. 
 The cultivation bf coffee was introduced in the island 
 of Cuba in 1797-'98 by the French emigrants from 
 Hayti. In 1804 the exports were 50,000 arrobas ; in 
 1809, 320,000 arrobas. '' ' ' 
 
 It will be observed how sadly the production bf 
 coffee has decreased ■within the last few years. The 
 time is now fast approaching when none will be raised 
 on this side of Cuba, and then the inhabitants will 
 have to depend upon tlie coffee raised in the district of 
 St. Jago de Cuba, which is still quite large in quantity; 
 and were it not for the immense quantity of beans, 
 corn, and other grain that are roasted and mixed with 
 the real coffee, the quantity of the latter would scarce- 
 ly suffice for the consumption of a country where it is 
 used in such great quaiitities^ It is believed by many 
 that the time will arrive when the island of Cuba will 
 havei to import coffee for the consumption of her inhab- 
 itants. — Consular Returns, United Stales. 
 
 Custom-house. — Business transacted at the custom- 
 house in Havana is all done in writing, and pretty much 
 all upon stamped paper, moatlj' at 50 cents a sheet, ex- 
 cepting that for outward register, called jjopeZ de ilus- 
 tres, costing $8 the sheet. Vessels that go to outports 
 to load have to pay anchorage and other small fees, 
 averaging some $15 or $16 each. At Cienfuegos every 
 vessel pays the health commissioner $2, and as much 
 more if ordered to quarantine. At Matanzas, besides 
 the charges:recovered as here, the government exacts 
 $i, and the royal exchequer $4. At Sagua an extra 
 fee is exacted of $4 if she enters in ballast and leaves 
 with cargo, and $8 if she brings cargo and carries away 
 cargo. 
 
CUB 
 
 490 
 
 CIJB 
 
 
 COMMEROE 
 
 OF THE United States with Cuba, feom Octobek 1, 
 
 1820, TO July 1, 
 
 1866. 
 
 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Imports, 
 
 Whereof there was in Bullion and Specie. 
 
 Tonnage Cleared. ] 
 
 September 30. 
 
 Domestic. 
 
 Fore!^. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Slxported. 
 
 Imported. 
 
 American. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 1821 
 
 $2,960,055 
 
 $1,690,635 
 
 $4,540,680 
 
 $6,584,849 
 
 $365,162 
 
 *1'B^ 
 
 108,823 
 
 8,632 
 
 1822 
 
 8,201,045 
 
 1,069,573 
 
 4,270,618 
 
 6,967,064 
 
 221,661 
 
 590,169 
 
 99,838 
 
 6,986 
 
 1828 
 
 8,271,270 
 
 3,184,095 
 
 5,405,865 
 
 6,963,381 
 
 863,406 
 
 271,764 
 
 105,886 
 
 4,766 
 
 1824 
 
 8,611,693 
 
 2,195,840 
 
 6,807,633 
 
 7,899,326 
 
 262.098 
 
 1,102,746 
 
 124,888 
 
 4,845 
 
 1825 
 
 3,276,556 
 
 1,844,146 
 
 6,120,702 
 
 7,556,412 
 
 147.S-15 
 
 545,164 
 
 111,308 
 
 1,213 
 
 1826 
 
 8,749,658 
 
 2,882,774 
 
 6,182,432 
 
 7,658,759 
 
 408.923 
 
 410,506 
 
 131,764 
 
 3,134 
 
 1827 
 
 4,160,747 
 
 2,655,841 
 
 6,816,088 
 
 7,241,849 
 
 876.168 
 
 478,590 
 
 139,881 
 
 8,548 
 
 1828 
 
 8,912,997 
 
 3,490,994 
 
 6,408,991 
 
 6,128,135 
 
 T87.010 
 
 579,228 
 
 180,618 
 
 8,909 
 
 1829 
 
 8,719,268 
 
 1,859,626 
 
 5,578,889 
 
 4,866,524 
 
 682,144 
 
 863,930 
 
 114,599 
 
 8,120 
 
 1830 
 
 Total... 
 
 8,439,060 
 J36,292,844 
 
 1,477,675 
 
 4,916,786 
 
 5,577,230 
 
 376,687 
 
 863,084 
 
 114,064 
 
 11,356 
 
 $19,700,689 
 
 $54,998,083 
 
 $67,437,519 
 
 $4,129,969 
 
 $5,867,424 
 
 1,165,493 
 
 60,498 
 
 1881 
 
 $3,634,144 
 
 $1,359,698 
 
 $4,898,843 
 
 $8,871,797 
 
 $800,500 
 
 $181,774 
 
 183,222 
 
 17,816 
 
 1882 
 
 8,681,897 
 
 1,680,764 
 
 6,813,161 
 
 7,068,857 
 
 189,152 
 
 91,065 
 
 133,688 
 
 25,682 
 
 1838 
 
 8,966,113 
 
 ,1,706,587 
 
 5,673,700 
 
 9,764,787 
 
 458,228 
 
 99,858 
 
 188,698 
 
 31,081 
 
 1834 
 
 8,692,980 
 
 1,659,456 
 
 6,363,485 
 
 9,098,002 
 
 148,469 
 
 606,665 
 
 129,634 
 
 29,954 
 
 1885 
 
 8,917,486 
 
 1,589,872 
 
 5,506,808 
 
 11,846,616 
 
 345,175 
 
 266,356 
 
 161,313 
 
 26,788 
 
 1886 
 
 4,601,717 
 
 1,803,773 
 
 6,405,489 
 
 12,784,875 
 
 516,142 
 
 133,518 
 
 166,460 
 
 8,,'!39 
 
 1837 
 
 4,308,788 
 
 2,068,820 
 
 6,867,603 
 
 12,447,922 
 
 507,147 
 
 1,643,110 
 
 176,796 
 
 18,194 
 
 1883 
 
 4,721,483 
 
 1,454,835 
 
 6,175,758 
 
 11,694,812 
 
 336,380 
 
 410,794 
 
 193,746 
 
 10,618 
 
 1889 
 
 5,026,626 
 
 1,091,305 
 
 6,116,831 
 
 12,699,843 
 
 178,497 
 
 321,814 
 
 194,678 
 
 12,805 
 
 1840 
 
 Total . . . 
 
 6,831,471 
 
 979,044 
 
 6,310,615 
 
 9,835,477 
 
 149,670 
 
 548,163 
 
 192,648 
 
 16,679 
 
 $43,876,100 
 
 $15,338,082 
 
 $68,114,182 
 
 $104,950,987 
 
 $3,033,160 
 
 $4,296,617 
 
 1,593,473 
 
 191,891 
 
 1841 
 
 $5,107,011 
 
 $632,071 
 
 $6,789,082 
 
 $11,587,027 
 
 $156,481 
 
 $134,909 
 
 194,001 
 
 14,168 
 
 1842 
 
 4,197,468 
 
 573,981 
 
 4,770,449 
 
 7,660,429 
 
 100,103 
 
 285,940 
 
 182,456 
 
 9,719 
 
 1848* 
 
 2,926,922 
 
 399,876 
 
 8,826,797 
 
 5,015,983 
 
 138,495 
 
 656,205 
 
 136,338 
 
 4,897 
 
 1844 
 
 4,304,062 
 
 934,633 
 
 5,338,595 
 
 9,980,421 
 
 678,910 
 
 170,927 
 
 234,618 
 
 7,688 
 
 1845 
 
 6,203,808 
 
 860,946 
 
 6,.564,754 
 
 6,804,414 
 
 13,699 
 
 528,168 
 
 171,892 
 
 16,193 
 
 1846 
 
 4,718,966 
 
 778.170 
 
 5,487,136 
 
 8,169,683 
 
 829,801 
 
 609,991 
 
 177,530 
 
 12,338 
 
 1847 
 
 6,005,617 
 
 973,089 
 
 6,977,706 
 
 12,394,867 
 
 616,774 
 
 881,767 
 
 248,615 
 
 18,493 
 
 1848 
 
 6,483,380 
 
 464,338 
 
 6,896,718 
 
 13,863,472 
 
 110,049 
 
 768,289 
 
 381,251 
 
 13,486 
 
 1849 
 
 4,641,145 
 
 668,068 
 
 5,309,213 
 
 10,669,956 
 
 818,800 
 
 443,593 
 
 384,668 
 
 19,564 
 
 1850 
 
 Total... 
 
 4,580,266 
 
 460,041 
 
 4,990,297 
 
 10,292,898 
 
 177,855 
 
 236,011 
 
 354,018 
 
 29,708 
 
 $49,062,686 
 
 $6,238,107 
 
 $65,300,742 
 
 $95,323,649 
 
 $2,524,446 
 
 $4,113,790 
 
 3,150,337 
 
 146,098 
 
 1851 
 
 $5,239,376 
 
 $1,284,847 
 
 $6,634,128 
 
 ,$17,046,981 
 
 $1,084,064 
 
 $839,018 
 
 361,733 
 
 29,942 
 
 1852 
 
 5,803,196 
 
 714,855 
 
 6,517,651 
 
 17,861,728 
 
 371,6.57 
 
 376,113 
 
 370,603 
 
 22,780, 
 
 1858 
 
 5,773,419 
 
 514,540 
 
 6,287,959 
 
 18,686,755 
 
 128,880 
 
 38,093 
 
 866,392 
 
 22,780 
 
 1854 
 
 8,338,116 
 
 32.3,636 
 
 8,661,752 
 
 17,124,8.39 
 
 61,736 
 
 136,658 
 
 898,049 
 
 25,188' 
 
 1855 
 
 7,607,119 
 
 897,463 
 
 8,004,682 
 
 18,636,339 
 
 49,872 
 
 183,487 
 
 481,645 
 
 81,1901, 
 
 1866 
 
 7,199,085 
 
 610,238 
 
 7,809,268 
 
 24,435,693 
 
 384,062 
 
 23,945 
 
 438,796 
 
 18,386. 
 
 * 9 months to June 80, and fiscal year begins July 1. 
 
 The following table will aliow the values of lard and 
 oil imported into Cuba, in 1851, 1852, and 1853 : 
 
 1851 Lard $891,743 Olive oil $477,259 
 
 1852 " 888,775 " 485,li64 
 
 1853 " 861,036 " 472,783 
 
 Meats. — The existence of a difFerential duty on 
 
 meats imported in Spanish bottoms, draws the supply 
 of this article in the markets of Cuba from Buenos 
 Ayres to the extent of 30,000,000 pounds annually; 
 while from the United States it comes to a very limited 
 extent, notwithstanding the quality of the article im- 
 ported from the United States is far superior to that 
 from South America. 
 
 The following table exhibits the quantity of jerked 
 beef imported into Cuba during the years, 1850, 1851, 
 1852, and 1853, and the countries whence exported. 
 The arroba equals about 25i lbs. 
 
 Years. 
 
 From the United States. 
 
 From Spiiia, Central and 
 South America. 
 
 Arrobas. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Arrobaa. Duilj'ira. 
 
 1850 
 1851 
 1852 
 1853 
 
 5,344 
 
 5,377 
 
 4,419 
 
 674 
 
 8,860 
 7,862 
 6,286 
 1,053 
 
 1,208,016 
 1,876,553 
 1,168,331 
 1,016,695 
 
 1,683,101 
 1,678,910 
 1,607,832 
 1,367,140 
 
 The following table shows the exports of sugar from 
 Havana and Matanzas, for the years 1853, 1854, and 
 1855: 
 
 EXPOET OF SUGAK IN BoXES FEOM HAVANA AND MatANZAS. 
 
 To 
 
 1853. 
 
 1854. 
 
 1855. 
 
 
 149,574 
 
 14,358 
 
 225,613 
 
 39,835 
 
 15,171 
 
 8,826 
 
 11,626 
 
 81,760 
 
 50,680 
 
 29,682 
 
 7,507 
 
 5,839 
 
 154,886 
 
 67,410 
 
 274,872 
 
 15,486 
 
 44,277 
 
 7,980 
 
 24,908 
 
 81,380 
 
 67,580 
 
 41,866 
 
 8,428 
 
 4,737 
 
 197,179 
 42,053 
 
 213,280 
 28,968 
 83,688 
 10,993 
 25,317 
 
 196,848 
 
 118,803 
 
 19,785 
 
 5,563 
 
 15,256 
 
 Oreat Britain 
 
 Cowes, and a market 
 
 Baltic 
 
 Hamburg and Bremen . . . 
 
 
 
 
 Trieste and Venice 
 
 Leghorn and Genoa 
 
 Total boxes 
 
 686,861 
 
 787,756 
 
 908,177 
 
 
 Table exhibiting the value of Flour imported into 
 Cuba from 1847 to 1853, digested from the " Balanzas 
 
 GeNERALES" OF TIT.VT ISLAND. 
 
 Year.. 
 
 From Spain. 
 
 From the 
 United Stales. 
 
 From 
 England. 
 
 From otiier 
 countries. 
 
 1847 
 
 $3,137,976 
 
 $628,655 
 
 $63,684 
 
 $14,547 
 
 1848 
 
 3,650,623 
 
 174,405 
 
 9,711 
 
 25,650 
 
 1849 
 
 2,672,600 
 
 9,383 
 
 6,862 
 
 125 
 
 1850 
 
 8,204,923 
 
 6,665 
 
 1,260 
 
 
 1851 
 
 3,081.625 
 
 26,281 
 
 650 
 
 
 1853 
 
 3,971,909 
 
 91,664 
 
 2,725 
 
 
 1853 
 
 2,677,791 
 
 29,830 
 
 80,149 
 
 26 
 
 The duty in Cuba on flour imported from Spain is 
 $'i 60 ; on' that imported from the United States, in 
 American or other foreign bottoms, is $10 81 ; the ef- 
 fect of which is to drive the American article entirely 
 from the Cuban market, except at such times as when 
 scarcity may have carried it up to famine point. The 
 tonnage duty that exists on Spanish bottoms is 62-i 
 cents per ton, and on foreign shipping $1 50 per ton, 
 contributing, in combination with other difl'erential 
 duties and restrictions, to the Spanish flag, advantages 
 in the carrying trade of the products of that island to 
 the northern European ports. 
 
 The imports of flour into Cuba from the United 
 States, from 1853 to 1856 inclusive, are shown in the 
 following table : 
 
 Year ending June 30. 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 Valne. 
 
 1853 
 1854 
 1853 
 1856 
 
 1,587 
 
 11,693 
 
 8,438 
 
 3,806 
 
 $7,730 
 82,489 
 88,176 
 30,066 
 
 Board of Trade. — The annual report of the. Board 
 of Trade of the island, to the superintendent of the 
 royal treasury, of the general navigation and commer- 
 cial movements of the island, in the year 1850, sets 
 forth these facts in a manner worthy attention. It 
 shows that in 1860 there had been an increase over the 
 last year of $2,088,226 in the value of goods imported 
 in national vessels, but that the importation in foreign 
 vessels had only increased $574,540 ; a result to be as- 
 cribed to the protective and differential system which 
 
CUB 
 
 491 
 
 CUB 
 
 favora Spanish over foreign shipping, and on which the 
 present tariff is based. In regard to exportation, ex- 
 actly the contrary state of facts will appear. In 1860 
 the exports in foreign vessels increased $2,748,287, 
 while the increase in national bottoms was only 
 $447,104. These different results are traceable to two 
 causes, namely : as to imports, to the discriminations, 
 both in respect of tonnage and tariff duties, in favor of 
 the national flag ; and as to exports, to the advantages 
 which foreign vessels, exporting the products of the 
 island, enjoy as national vessels in the countries to 
 which they respectively belong — advantages which, in 
 general, more than countervail the discriminating ex- 
 port duty in Cuba in favor of the national flag. 
 
 In the year 1849 the value of importation was 
 $26,320,460, an increase over the previous year of 
 $885,892 — an amount much less, however, tlian had 
 been expected from the steady progress of the island ; 
 and in the same time the importation diminished, as it 
 appears, in many articles of provision. Foreign flour, 
 , preserved meats, cod-fish, bacon, jerked beef, lard, 
 butter, and foreign wine (although the national wine 
 increased to an amount, in value, $200,000), fell in the 
 scale of quantity, and the article of rice increased more 
 than 8,000 arrobas over the importation of the last 
 year, in consequence of the cargoes of that article from 
 Manilla ; so that had it not been for this, and the in- 
 creased amount of some other provisions imported, 
 articles of manufacture and coin, the yearly account 
 would have exhibited a still more considerable dim- 
 inution. This state of things was considered by the 
 Board* to be the result of some evident causes, such 
 as the extreme drought, which affected the crops of the 
 season, and the prevalence of cholera in the ports of 
 Europe and the United States, rendering sanitary 
 measures necessary, which interfered with the natural 
 flow of commerce. But, be these causes what they 
 may, a result of the year was an amount of carrying 
 trade under the Spanish flag to the island, of more than 
 $1,000,000 in the value of effects imported ; and if the 
 produce of the Peninsula, brought in national vessels, 
 be taken into account, tlie increase of this branch of 
 business reached, in twelve months, near $700,000, 
 which was considered to be the result of the differen- 
 tial duties existing. 
 Valtte op tub importation of Bioe into Cuba, in tub 
 
 YBAES 1848 AND 1849. 
 
 From 
 
 1848. 
 
 1849. 
 
 Spain and hor colonies 
 
 Spanish American republics. . . 
 United States '. 
 
 $228,943 
 101,664 
 701,118 
 15,531 
 
 $146,925 
 61,418 
 799,499 
 41,234 
 
 Other countries 
 
 Total 
 
 $1,047,246 
 
 $1,039,076 
 
 From earlier tables, it appears that in the year 1826 
 the value of Spanish produce, arriving at Cuba in 
 Spanish ships, amounted to only $409,352 ; in the year 
 1830 it reached $3,000,000 ; it exceeded $5,000,000 in 
 1840, and at the close of 1848 had risen to more than 
 $7,000,000. Foreign produce brought in national 
 vessels in 1825 amounted to $2,449,440, exceeded 
 $5,000,000 in 1840, and reached near $8,000,000 in 
 
 1848, when the Spanish flag, in both commercial move- 
 ments, came to float a value of $14,936,811. The 
 duties arising on importations in the year 1849, were 
 $5,844,783 ; on exportations, $584,477 ; making a total 
 of $6,429,260, diminishing, when compared with the 
 preceding year, in the one instance $436,621, and in 
 the other, $124,836 ; making a total of $561,457. For- 
 eign flours fell off 16,654 barrels, although the Spanish 
 increased 1,121 barrels ; and a general increase of im- 
 portations of national produce had ensued, and a lessen- 
 ing of foreign, which tended greatly to decrease the 
 amount of duties. The commercial action of 1848 and 
 
 1849, and of succeeding years, is illustrated by the fol- 
 lowing tables, made up from the official exhibits com- 
 piled, annually, for the government : 
 
 * Balan;sa General del Comerclo de la Isla de Cuba, 1849. 
 
 
 2. 5 " 
 
 ja* g.s' 
 
 I" 
 
 |g 
 SB 
 So 
 
 E SS 
 
 .£11 
 
 
 P o 
 9 
 
 N p 
 
 
 oP' 
 ++ S » 
 
 B 8 
 
 sKa4as °S^ S.3SS aS 
 
 *--^l|igfl3.|.iil-g^l 
 
 3*® » 5 Oao m a B S 5 &• 
 
 pip 0*3 a 
 
 W2. 
 
 3S 
 
 S o. 
 P-oa 
 
 ■ S 
 
 rfh M. i-i'm 't^'ep cow o 
 
 O&i-HQ0V*W00iUI00O 
 
 cjt M o co'm'^'m oi at 
 i o«Ofcei^r->'Coocoocri 
 
 M MU 00 Ot CO )-i O fcD O 
 
 CO. ts -q o ffi CO en o (-^ 09 g> 00 bo 
 
 OS; j5o»JOJ&.H*J3iCOJ»_jF»-^C«jS 
 
 bS COQOI- 
 
 0-4 0(00 CI. ^ 
 
 W )F^ ca O M 00 
 
 Oft 09 • • • H* M qp oa M A 1^ o bs -1 
 
 Sr" • • wrf^*- wcoao5»-jco w 
 
 ODCO ^•SCOOWl-'OjOOl-l 
 
 * AtSCO 0Qa>-4tO i-t"CO i-i 
 
 . «J l-A 00 05 2o O M ^ iq h-i I-* fcO O I-* 
 
 ; jy j3» j3i j» o J-* iPfc J* CO j!3 jjo j^ I-* ao 
 ■^ I'eo't-*'^ — *'(lo'^ O Oi o'co'I^.'aa O 
 )03CnooiC3tog9o>oao^vi-l 
 3il^Ob&)|^0lOWIfi-1C0O-4O 
 
 -a. M.S'HOi. -^ OS -q OS OS or -1 
 
 j_t »-i -^ 00 M 
 CJT so 00 co^'co"' 
 
 DMOi wo »0 O 
 
 Oi <z> t-^ <o tons o 
 
 ■^hJ-' CO- OQDCO-1 
 kSOO (D OOt«t*H 
 
 3 0I WeoO ti 
 
 3O100QD-H0 
 
 J-* to M. •^ZO bi 
 
 Ilk. "^ fco ci -1 oi'VB''t^">-i"'K) g 
 
 ^ M. CO 0» C;t CO . Ifk 1-1 »& A Cl bS o 
 
 i-i CD rfi.^^ o ; CD CO JO aa^ts^p 
 
 "t-i-'caOS »U 03"® • O'co boVi 00 op o 
 
 Cia>oa<x>ooo> oooboAcoi^b' 
 
 MocobscoM' 00 bO o a> cs 4^ o 
 
 bO l-i fcO en Oi O 
 1-1 rik."'>-.-w gj ci ig 
 
 1^ CO O ^^ ^^ ^" ^ 
 KwbO 
 
 ACOOO 
 
 MO O C 
 OOOO tOlP 
 
 Mjjjyijo_po 
 
 S5 ^ , !fc 00 '<' S2 CO o»'w"[fe"Q CO 
 
 OoiSMbsOiCO, ObOeoMGO^OD 
 
 O M Cfl 03 it-jS ; Mh-i O CO o> o»_bo 
 
 "CJl'V VbO'CO M • *M to MCOOl iCk oa 
 
 00 en 00 i-i oi ci ■ o>a>gj©-»OM 
 
 CI GO CO 05 OS bO OOWQO-IOO^ 
 
 00 !^ "0» Co'h-lK-l'f-l'^"^ 
 
 MA. 1^. 0900. -4 CD 1-1 -4 CD CO en 
 
 -^ JO ; -4 ; i^i** • — 1 oo en "H w cd o* 
 
 OO. ■^. If^-O)' ■rfs^WObO'ec'^'cO 
 
 i-ibo. eji> fco-a* -4 >-i ifi. to bo CO o 
 
 Hifco a Kooi O) )-* o t^ 1-1 to en 
 
 w. w— w.wrr-. l-10S-»COtOCOCO 
 
 _M-jn_pi »jo_pi ; jl^jn^-cojoj-iaD 
 too CO os'o'bs ■ qd'co'o"oo"co O 00 
 
 00O< 
 
 SiOO. 
 tbS 
 
 ffi ii^ o en en o oo_p j-*j-* 
 
 00 00 bOCOOOOs'Meo c; *; 
 
 ^o5ioo»cDOoe0003 
 
 00 bO OsOOGOcOMn 
 
 s a rf^ •-• Mje >-*jo^ M 
 
 ■cofffc"''-* 00 99 <=>^ en 00 » 
 rf».c5cooo^--iesbOt;cp 
 
 C0b00»00l^-40s00bi 
 
 
CUB 
 
 492 
 
 CUB 
 
 Statement of the Quantities oe Values op teie PEiNoiPAi Aeticlbs 
 
 DU-EiNG tile Teaes 1848 to 1854 
 
 OP Subsistence impoeted into Cuba,', 
 
 Yt«. 
 
 Rico. 
 
 Codfish. 
 
 Spanish 
 Flour. 
 
 Foreign 
 Flour. 
 
 Beof. 
 
 Port.' 
 
 - Ham. 
 Pounds. 
 
 L4rd, f Butter. 
 
 ; Cheese. 
 
 Jerked 
 Beef. 
 
 Bacon, 
 
 "^fi 
 
 Foreign 
 Wines. 
 
 
 Arrobns. 
 
 Arrobas. 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Arrobas. Pounds. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Arrobas. 
 
 Pounds^ 
 
 ■Dollars. 
 
 Dollatsj 
 
 1848 
 
 864,278 
 
 883,069 
 
 212,944 
 
 13,176 
 
 819,200 
 
 1,113,100 
 
 2,629,626 
 
 878,706 698,478 
 
 1,667,270 
 
 1,270,677 
 
 668,680 
 
 1,248,492 
 
 ioa,8«. 
 
 1849 
 
 872,806 
 
 677,466 
 
 214,240 
 
 1,697 
 
 826,225 
 
 768,400 
 
 1,776,088 
 
 865,024 763,941 
 
 1,306,11*, 
 
 1,184,096 
 
 528,209 
 
 1,474,106 
 
 mm 
 
 1850 
 
 917,863 
 
 445,695 
 
 256,606 
 
 846 
 
 368,040 
 
 910,908 
 
 1,887,382 
 
 294.891 598,683 
 
 1,426,406 
 
 1,213,260 
 
 8S3,801 
 
 1,700,165! 
 
 ■^75,871 
 
 1881 
 
 29,069 
 
 524,924 
 
 246,697 
 
 2,826 
 
 439,042 
 
 624,200 
 
 1,655,500 
 
 298,401 694,194 
 
 1,422,511 
 
 1,381,980 
 
 349,228 
 
 1,580,330 
 
 99,260 
 
 1852 
 
 837,687 
 
 541,742 
 
 320,922 
 
 7,028 
 
 775,360 
 
 486,787 
 
 776,968 
 
 294,509 460,419 
 
 1,695,670 
 
 1,263,618 
 
 487,!M6 
 
 1,681,994 
 
 178,408 
 
 WM 
 
 1,168,672 
 
 538,686 
 
 214,460 
 
 6,100 
 
 616,080 
 
 623,226 
 
 1,122,660 
 
 286,680 609,140 
 
 794,931 
 
 1,017,369 
 
 497,105 
 
 1,542,795 
 
 164,692, 
 818;866 
 
 1864 
 
 1,070,240 
 
 621,801 
 
 281,397 
 
 7,237 
 
 769,100 
 
 687,498 
 
 1,562,652 
 
 874,817 462,265 
 
 1,250,634 
 
 1,376,875 
 
 636925 
 
 1,268,068 
 
 Statement of the Quantities oa Valttbs of the principal Articles 
 
 BITRING THE TEARS 1848 TO 1854. 
 
 OF Subsistence exported from Cuba 
 
 Years. 
 
 Aguardiente. 
 (Rum.) 
 
 Cotton. 
 
 Sugar. 
 
 Coffee. 
 
 Beeswax. 
 
 Woods. 
 
 Honey. 
 
 Molasses. 
 
 .Copper , 
 ore. 
 
 Leaf 
 tobacco. 
 
 Segm. 
 
 1313 
 1849 
 1850 
 1851 
 1852 
 1868 
 1854 
 
 Pipes. 
 16,339 
 11,640 
 4,825 
 9,221 
 11,859 
 14,294 
 25,272 
 
 Pounds. 
 28,590 
 73,655 
 88,475 
 18,045 
 12,009 
 
 133,626 
 37,262 
 
 Boicos. 
 1,228,718 
 1,099,884 
 1,249,618 
 1,639,994 
 1,409,012 
 1,667,192 
 1,685,751 
 
 Arrobas. 
 
 694,187 
 877,636 
 620,134 
 576,119 
 739,326 
 442,730 
 611,498 
 
 An'o'bas. 
 60,110 
 85,691 
 68,194 
 67,458 
 68,691 
 46,946 
 71,834 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 360,205 
 817,894 
 859,128 
 898,811 
 458,945 
 
 Dollars. 
 66(523 
 
 48,108 
 55,182 
 69,625 
 78,683 
 86,959,- 
 104,812 
 
 HMb. 
 228,726 
 246,670 
 269,044 
 818,428 
 262,698 
 808,381 
 261,815 
 
 Quintals. 
 686,191 
 683,310 
 552,288 
 432,882 
 881,470 
 
 649,553 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 6,275,630 
 
 4,019,138 
 
 7,978,148 
 
 9,436,691 
 
 9,787,448 ■ 
 
 8,089,797 
 
 9,809,160 
 
 M,' 
 161,480 
 123,720 
 212,640 
 270,818 
 142,567 
 287,850 
 251,318 
 
 state.ment of the quantities or "values op the principal articles exported from cuba, 1848—1854. 
 [Made up from the "Balanzas Generales."] 
 
 Coffee arrobas 
 
 Cotton . , do. 
 
 Cacao do. 
 
 Ma.iaqiie (cut) dollars 
 
 Beeswax (brown)... arrobas 
 Beeswax (white) ... do. 
 
 Tobacco, leaf pounds 
 
 Turtle-shell do. 
 
 Sugar boxes 
 
 Molasses hhds. 
 
 Copper ore quintals 
 
 Guano (palm leaf).- seroons 
 
 Aguardiente pipes 
 
 8egar.s thousands 
 
 Cigarillos & picado. dollars 
 
 Honey do. 
 
 Fruits, etc do. 
 
 Woods.. do. 
 
 Metals (old) do. 
 
 Mats do. 
 
 Manufactures do. 
 
 Liquids & provisions . do. 
 
 Hides do. 
 
 All other articles. . . do. 
 Total value of all expoi-ts 
 
 1848. 
 
 694,137 
 
 1,143 
 
 8,485 
 
 7,867 
 
 16,666 
 
 84,644 
 
 6,278,680 
 
 2,396 
 
 1,228,718 
 
 228,726 
 
 686,491 
 
 26,044 
 
 16,386 
 
 161,480 
 
 110,096 
 
 66,623 
 
 87,267 
 
 850,205 
 
 102,638 
 
 48,483 
 
 70,148 
 
 96,284 
 
 7,988 
 
 174,872 
 
 $26,077,067 
 
 1649. ■ 
 
 877,636 
 
 2,946 
 
 2,170 
 
 ^ 8,868 
 
 16,682 
 
 19,158 
 
 4,019,188' 
 
 8,678 
 
 1,099,884 
 
 246,670 
 
 583,810 
 
 86,038 
 
 11,640 
 
 128,720 
 
 39,110 
 
 4Sil08 
 
 24,61,9 
 
 817(894 
 
 861692 
 
 7,692' 
 
 ,47,882 
 
 106(618 
 
 8,160 
 
 849492 
 
 $22,486,656 
 
 1850. 
 
 620,134 
 
 8,889 
 
 7,768 
 
 11,076 
 
 18,234 
 
 89,960 
 
 7,978,148 
 
 4,884 
 
 1,249,618 
 
 269,044 
 
 652,288 
 
 63,SSl 
 
 ' 11,825 
 
 208,212 
 
 77,299 
 
 66,132 
 
 64,547 
 
 859,128 
 
 84,889 
 
 , 6,774 
 
 41,087 
 
 181,098 
 
 9,658 
 
 231,772 
 
 826,631,948 
 
 1851. 
 
 576,119 
 
 521 
 
 7,089 
 
 28,179 
 
 18,449 
 
 44,004 
 
 9,486,691 
 
 80,140 
 
 1,539,994 
 
 818,428 
 
 482,882 
 
 47,861 
 
 9,221 
 
 '270,818 
 
 106,445 
 
 69,625 
 
 82,044 
 
 898,811 
 
 . 62,264 
 
 , 7,188 
 
 49,887 
 
 142,058- 
 
 5,849 
 
 260,388 
 
 12,009 
 
 1,468 
 
 27,810 
 
 81,281 
 
 9,787,448 
 
 8,848 
 
 l,409,0i2 
 
 - 262,693 
 
 881,470 
 
 42,861 
 
 ■ 11,859 
 
 180,610 
 
 64,796 
 
 83,476 
 468,945 
 
 80,126 
 
 8,008 
 
 2.36,630 
 
 107,610 
 
 25,548 
 484,876, 
 
 $31,341,688 I $27,468,936 
 
 1S53. 
 
 442,730 
 
 8,645 
 
 87,887 
 
 1,021 
 
 26,406 
 
 19,840 
 
 8,089,797 
 
 4,863 
 
 1,6^7,192 
 
 303,831' 
 
 , 346,080 
 
 4,283 
 
 14,2'94 
 
 287,380 
 
 84,696 
 
 86,959 
 
 63,106 
 
 448,438 
 
 198,100 
 
 50,624 
 
 151,522 
 
 88,456 
 
 21,162 
 
 895,028 
 
 $31,210,406 
 
 18M. 
 
 611,498 
 
 1,490 
 
 ,18,650 
 
 69 
 
 29,042 
 
 42,292 
 
 9,809,150 
 
 2,730 
 
 1,685,761 
 
 261,815 
 
 849,658 
 
 10,411, 
 
 25,272 
 
 251,318 
 
 178,825 
 
 104,812 
 
 82,628 
 
 547,818 
 
 99,138 
 
 12,693 
 
 99,136 
 
 124,277 
 
 21,186 
 
 130,724 
 
 $32,688,731 
 
 Statement of the Values of the principal Articles imported into 
 [From the "Balanzas. G-enerales."] 
 
 Cuba, from 1848 to 1864 
 
 Articles. 
 
 Articles of subsistence, 
 
 Olive oil 
 
 Liquids. 
 
 Meats 
 
 Fruits, nuts, preserves 
 
 iEice 
 
 Cereals, flour, pulse, cacao. . 
 
 Lard and butter 
 
 Cheese 
 
 Fish 
 
 Ice d 
 
 Dry goo^. 
 
 Cottons 
 
 -Woolens 
 
 Linens 
 
 Silks 
 
 Other mamufactures. 
 
 Skins and peltries 
 
 "Wood 
 
 Metal 
 
 Glass 
 
 Iron-ware 
 
 Soap 
 
 Medicines ; . 
 
 Furniture 
 
 Perfumery 
 
 Candles, sperm, lard 
 
 Tobacco of all kinds 
 
 Ooin. 
 Gold and silver 
 
 Total value oiaU imports 
 
 1848. 
 
 $56.3,717 
 
 2,042,042 
 
 2,076,129 
 
 68,434 
 
 240,304 
 
 1,076,636 
 
 8,220,682 
 
 1,176,084 
 
 100,888 
 
 723,602 
 
 2,177,716 
 405,851 
 
 2,028,350 
 486,672 
 
 476,152 
 
 2,812,738 
 
 188,084 
 
 72,284 
 
 1,061,898 
 
 420,482 
 
 99,441 
 
 120,091 
 
 22,729 
 759,191 
 
 $667,440 
 
 2,164,920 
 
 1,971,262 
 
 62,934 
 
 271,017 
 
 1,092,597 
 
 3,067,644 
 
 1,200,756 
 
 149,761 
 
 658,680 
 
 189,753 
 
 2,487,205 
 497,888 
 
 2,840,982 
 ,330,948 
 
 433,710 
 
 1,721,299 
 
 213,266 
 
 64,460 
 
 993,044 
 
 618,316 
 
 96,480 
 
 ; 94,106 
 
 43,219 
 
 134,672 
 
 '22,676 
 
 $707,974 
 
 2,448,661 
 
 1,978,011 
 
 66,668 
 
 259,445 
 
 1,188,744 
 
 8,410,988 
 
 968,072 
 
 167,924 
 
 521,848 
 
 201,837 
 
 2,595,909 
 622,422 
 
 8,151,798 
 427,967 
 
 476,801 
 
 1,835,875 
 
 280,749 
 
 95,583 
 
 1,098,813 
 
 479,626 
 
 144,007 
 
 107,932 
 
 60,478 
 178,826 
 
 13,228 
 
 1,861,058 
 
 $25,488,565 I $26,820,460 | $28,988,227 
 
 $477,269 
 
 2,847,786 
 
 1,986,428 
 
 86,442 
 
 287,686 
 
 1,159,656 
 
 8,644,154 
 
 974,781 
 
 171,662 
 
 619,206 
 
 199,842 
 
 8,021,009 
 431,702 
 
 8,628,084 
 629,812 
 
 689,457 
 
 2,211,229 
 
 280,209 
 
 104,604 
 
 1,186,579 
 
 616,139 
 
 168,926 
 
 187,628 
 
 66,141 
 
 188,901 
 
 20,769 
 
 2,611,408 
 
 $32,311,430 
 
 1852. 
 
 $488 264 
 
 2,663,803 
 
 1,909,898 
 
 92,066 
 
 805,374 
 
 1,046,604 
 
 4,404,497 
 
 948148 
 
 186,248 
 
 668,424 
 
 72,717 
 
 2,661,667 
 869,060 
 
 2,431,364 
 698,747 
 
 636,874 
 2,042,186 
 156,986 
 176,797 
 1,329,695 
 631,067 
 187,186 
 181,200 
 103,944 
 140,844 
 27,672 
 
 989,424 
 
 $29,780,243 
 
 $472,788 
 
 2,359,068 
 
 1,626,657 
 
 81,146 
 
 275,840 
 
 1,072,685 
 
 8,127,298 
 
 941,408 
 
 89,416 
 
 599,285 
 
 97,942 
 
 8,080,874 
 487,187 
 
 2,198,692 
 683,105 
 
 708,802 
 
 1,868,960 
 
 106,460 
 
 217,288 
 
 1,634,535 
 
 518,220 
 
 150,423 
 
 162,963 
 
 171,646 
 
 171,247 
 
 17,852 
 
 479,560 
 
 $27,789,800 
 
 1864. 
 
 .$488,162 
 
 2,736,874 
 
 2,216,029 
 
 97,814 
 
 278,742 
 
 1,000,221 
 
 4,888,846 
 
 1,197,643 
 
 168,185- 
 
 878,823' 
 
 119,985 
 
 2,895,098 
 424,673 
 
 2,426,196 
 654,837 
 
 2,402,807 
 167,172 
 141,510 
 
 1,678,945 
 529,130 
 142,960 
 164,984 
 116,333- 
 127,871 
 
 238,987 
 
 $31,394,578 
 
 In 1851 Cuba imported to the amount of $3-2,311,- 
 430, being an increase over the year 1850 of $3,328,- 
 203, -which exceeded the importations of 1849 nearly 
 two millions of dollars. The only articles that had 
 
 suffered diminution were liquids, woolens, and ma- 
 terials for railroad cars. 
 
 TJnder the national flag $19,899,17* , 
 
 Under foreign flags ; .. 12,412 254 • 
 
 Total importations in 1851, .$82,811,430' ' 
 
GUB 
 
 493 
 
 GUB 
 
 Number of Yesbelb enterikg ^thf- Poets of Cuba fkoh 
 , , , , 1848 TO 1854. 
 
 NsUoi. 
 
 1B48. 
 
 1849. 
 
 1850. 
 
 1661. 
 
 KSi. 
 
 1853. { 1854. 1 
 
 
 875 
 1,T83 
 r 6T0 
 
 -i 
 
 ■1? 
 
 28 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 T 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 a 
 • 1 
 
 877 
 1,689 
 
 461 
 67 
 68 
 11 
 24 
 24 
 9 
 12 
 
 i 
 
 878 
 
 1,696 
 
 498 
 
 126 
 
 70 
 
 24 
 
 20 
 
 49 
 
 7 
 
 26 
 
 22 
 
 9 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 18 
 
 2 
 
 888 
 
 2,014 
 
 670 
 
 116 
 
 74 
 
 35 
 
 25 
 
 61 
 
 13 
 
 27 
 
 14 
 
 7 
 
 ■"s 
 
 28 
 
 4 
 
 947 
 
 1,886 
 
 476 
 
 82 
 
 60 
 
 82 
 
 86 
 
 27 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 8 
 
 27 
 
 "'2 
 
 • 2 
 
 5 
 
 901 
 2,807 
 868 
 126 
 67 
 20 
 24 
 45 
 18 
 17 
 7 
 17 
 
 '"i 
 
 8 
 6 
 
 928 
 
 2,180 
 
 467 
 
 100 
 
 67 
 
 29 
 
 25 
 
 24 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 '"i 
 
 United States.... 
 Englishv,, ....,.„. 
 Frenpi... 
 
 Danish. 
 
 Dutch'.;,.. ;...'.' 
 
 Belgian....;....' 
 Span. American.. 
 Swed. & Norweg. 
 
 Prussian 
 
 Sffi.-.-.v:::: 
 
 
 Italian.. 
 
 "Total 
 
 8,548 
 
 8,213 
 
 8,356 
 
 8,869 
 
 8,612 
 
 8,918 
 
 8,811 
 
 I Tlie imports under th,e Spanish flag exceeded those 
 *f 1850 by $1,444,104 — a result that Tyaa considered 
 chiefly attributable to the system of duties ini force ; 
 under foreign flags, the importation3,''which for sev- 
 eral years had rarely ejfceeded'eleven niiUlons of dol- 
 lar»,Minoreased in 1851 to the lamonnt, of ,$1,884,098 
 over the previons^ yeat, The merchandise brought 
 from Spanish ports amounted to more' than eight and 
 a half millions of dollars, being $852,181 more than 
 the total imports from the United States ; $1,225,300 
 more than t)iose, from Great iBtitain ; $5,740,461 n)ipre 
 than those from the former Spanish possessions, and 
 nearly 25 per cent.; on ithe total amount of ; Jpjports, 
 from all countries.. /,,,, 
 
 The exports . of - 1851 exceeded those of , 1850, by 
 $5,7108,735, which was an increase over 1849 of more 
 thaA three millions of dollars. ,The. following will 
 sho^r the relative proportion of the exports! in Spanish 
 and foreign, bottoms in 1851 : 
 
 Imports. ' Exports, 
 
 Iniiational vessels $19,899,176 $6,204,663 ' 
 
 In ftjrelgn vessels 12,il2,264 25il37,029 
 
 Total in 1861 . 
 
 2,811,480 $81,841,e 
 
 Of thfi exports this w^^ an increase fiyer , 1850 of 
 $184,013 in national ships, and $5,52.S,7^1 in foreign 
 ships J which was nearly equal to tl^e value of the 
 increased production and export^ of the island over 
 the preceding year. The quantity of sugar exported 
 from the island in 1851 was 281,381 boxes over 1850, 
 which exceeded the previous year nearly 150,000 
 boxes'. The increase of the important staples of mo- 
 lasses^ coffee, and tobacco (raw and .manufactured), 
 though not so great, was highly important. These 
 facts are significant of the force of foreign reciprocal 
 duties, and forcibly demonstrate that any discrimi- 
 nating export or tonnage duty on foreign ves3els, suf- 
 ficiently effective to give this outward movement to 
 the Spanish flag, must fatally injure the productive- 
 ness, national commerce, and industry of the islands 
 
 The amount of shipping which entered the ports 
 of Cuba during 1850 and 1851, was as follows : ' 
 
 I860. 1851. 
 
 ■ Under the national flag..... 24,112 270,176 tons. 
 Under foreign flags 99,864 727,814 " 
 
 Total 128,976 997,990 " 
 
 A comparison of the returns for the year 1845 with 
 those for the year under review gives to the Spanish 
 flag an increase, during that period, of nearly one 
 hundred per cent. 
 
 The value of the importations diminished in the 
 year 1852 $2,531,188, and the exportatious $3,887,746, 
 below those of the previous year. The falling ofif in 
 imports was on the articles rice, 91,382 arrobas ; pork, 
 187,413 pounds; hams, 878,632 pounds; lard, 3,891 
 arrobas ; butter, 133,775 pounds ; jerked beef, 118,317 
 arrobas ; and in exports, on cotton, 1,036 pounds ; su- 
 gar, 130,982 boxes ; molasses, 65,834 hogsheads ; cop- 
 per, 61,412 quintals ; segars, 127,746,000. The great 
 falling off in the item of sugar could not have failed 
 to act in a corresponding manner on the amount of 
 tonnage, and measurably, on the value of imports. 
 
 The importations in 1853 reached an aggregate value 
 of $47,789,800 — an amount exceeded, the preceding 
 year, by $1,990,441. The articles which suffered the 
 greatest diminution were codfish, flour, beef, lard, 
 cheese, jerked ]beef, bacon, Spanish and foreign wines. , 
 WhUe thus the value of imports 4™iiiished, that of 
 exports considerably increased. , The total increase 
 over 1862 amounted to $3,756;468. 
 
 The United States exported to Cuba in 1856 gbdda 
 to the value of $7,809,263, being a decrease on the 
 exportatious of the preceding year of $195,319 ; and 
 impo^rt^d' to the Ta,lue of |!24i435,693," showing an 
 increase of $5,810,254. The total trade between Cuba 
 and the United States is usually 'about, the third, part, 
 or 33J per cent., of the total iinports and exports of 
 the island. The total number of vessels entering the 
 ports of Cuba in 1863 was 3,918 ; total number cleared, 
 3,8?7. The following table exhibits the nationality 
 of these vessels : ' ' '' 
 
 Nationality. 
 
 Spanish :., 
 
 United States. 
 
 British 
 
 French , — 
 
 Belgian 
 
 Dutch 
 
 germai} 
 anish 
 
 Swedish 
 
 Russian 
 
 Prussian 
 
 Spanish American. 
 
 Italian 
 
 Brazilian 
 
 ^strian 
 
 Total.. 
 
 Entered. 
 
 901 
 2,807 
 
 126 
 45 
 
 17 
 
 , T, 
 17 
 l'» 
 
 8,913 
 
 2,173 
 461 
 121 
 26 
 18 
 67 
 
 1] 
 7 
 
 11 
 5 
 
 8,827 
 
 In 1854 the total trade of Ciha ascended to $64,- 
 078,309, viz. :' imports to $31,394, 578, and exports to 
 $32,683,731. This movement exhibited the following' 
 result, when, compared with the trade of the preceding 
 year: " " 
 
 Imports. Exports. 
 
 1854. ....... $81,894,578- $82,688,781 
 
 185S., ?7,780,800: 31,210,406 
 
 An analysis of the returns from which the pre- 
 ceding figures' are derived exhibits the following 
 details': Of iniports, - the increase is perceived espe^ 
 daily oil the articles codfish, flour (national and for- 
 eign),, pork, beef, hams, lard, cheese, jerked . beef, 
 bacon, and foregn wine ; while there was a slight de- 
 crease on the articles rice, butter, and Spanish -wine. 
 Of exports, the increase fell, chiefly, on rum, sugar, 
 coffee, wax, woods, honey, copper ore, leaf tobacco, 
 and segars ; while the articles raw cotton and molas- 
 ses show a slight falling off. Under the national ' 
 flag, the increase of importations over those of 1853, 
 was,, in value, $2,254,524 ; in foreign bottoms there 
 was a similar increase of $1,350,453. The increase 
 in exports, under the Spanish flag, was $1,232,759 ; 
 under foreign flags, $240,566. The exports from 
 Cuba to the United States, during this year, amounted 
 in value to $11,641,813, or more than one third of the 
 exports of the island to all countries ; the imports into 
 Cuba from the United States, during the same period, 
 reached, in value, $7,867,680, or over one fourth of 
 the total imports from all countries. Of the imports 
 into Cuba from the United States, only $19,756, in 
 value, was carried in Spanish vessels ; while the value 
 of .such imports, under foreign flags, reached as high 
 as $7,847,926. The exports from Cuba to the United 
 States were exclusively borne in foreign bottoms — 
 two arrivals, one from Havana, carrying a value of 
 $219 ; the other from Gibara, with freight amounting 
 to $640 : in all, $759 — ^being too insignificant to con- 
 stitute a noticeable exception. 
 
 The following " statements" of revenue collected 
 by' the maritime and terrestrial custom-houses of that 
 island in the year 1855, compared with the preceding 
 year, published in the government Gazette, by order 
 
CUB 
 
 494 
 
 CUB 
 
 of the superintendent-general of the royal exchequer, 
 indicate increased activity of trade ; the excess of 
 reyenue collected in December, 1855, over the same 
 
 month in 1854, being nearlj' $254,000, and the excess 
 for the whole of 1855 over the whole of 1854 amount- 
 ing to $350,428 434. 
 
 
 Statement op Ketenue collected in Ccba 
 
 IN 1855 AND 
 
 1854, COMPAEED. 
 
 
 AdminiBtraUons. 
 
 In the year 1856. 
 
 In the year 1654. 
 
 Increase in 1855. 
 
 Decreaee in 1855. | 
 
 MariUme. 
 
 Ten-Mlrlal. 
 
 MariiiniB. 
 
 Terreatnal. 
 
 
 
 
 lerrestriai. 
 
 
 $6,456,859 
 869,011 
 815,660 
 260,561 
 
 182,611 
 354,272 
 58,715 
 626,699 
 62,148 
 42,710 
 
 8,498 
 74,451 
 10,600 
 16,961 
 
 $2,094,971 
 
 280,900 
 
 86,782 
 
 78,719 
 
 68,584 
 
 83,584 
 
 81,865 
 
 84,429 
 
 87,269 
 
 864,620 
 
 34,709 
 
 7,578 
 
 50,092 
 
 80,876 
 
 11,043 
 
 9,921 
 
 630 
 
 14,529 
 
 188,950 
 
 1,096,429 
 
 $6,416,416 
 918,609 
 829,954 
 216,283 
 
 80,114 
 115,878 
 359,891 
 
 48,322 
 674,362 
 
 75,586 
 
 40,170 
 
 22,910 
 95,664 
 17,950 
 12,986 
 
 $2,088,226 
 
 205,651 
 
 58,948 
 
 68,903 
 
 63,608 
 
 69,010 
 
 29,010 
 
 59,650 
 
 41,801 
 
 296,878 
 
 80,884 
 
 8,111 
 
 87,589 
 
 24,712 
 
 T,267 
 
 9,818 
 
 685 
 
 8,525 
 
 177,159 
 
 939,492 
 
 $89,948 
 
 44828 
 
 16^633 
 10,392 
 
 2,840 
 4,025 
 
 $61,745 
 25,248 
 27,889 
 14,815 
 
 4,925 
 14,578 
 
 2,854 
 24,779 
 
 68,142 
 8,874 
 
 12'562 
 
 6,168 
 
 8,776 
 
 102 
 
 6,668 
 
 6,791 
 
 156,987 
 
 $49,498 
 14,893 
 
 80,ii4 
 
 47,668 
 18,437 
 
 u,ai 
 
 21.508 
 T;850 
 
 $4,681 
 
 "532 
 .... 
 
 "■"5 
 
 
 Cardenas 
 
 Trinidad 
 
 Tilla-Olai-a 
 
 Sto. Espiritu 
 
 Sagaa la Grande.. 
 
 Cionfuegos 
 
 Kemedios 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Manzanillo 
 
 
 
 Baracoa 
 
 Sta. Cruz 
 
 Guantanamo 
 
 Pto. Principe 
 
 Lottery departm. . 
 Total 
 
 $9,288,761* 
 
 ,$4,601,338 
 
 $9,374,891 
 
 $4,164,779 
 
 $117,868 
 
 $441,127 
 
 $208,992t 
 
 $4,569 
 
 
 Eev< 
 
 nue coUectec 
 
 I in 1855, $18 
 
 890,100,t and 
 
 in 1854, $18,589,671, an increase in 1855 of $350,428. 
 
 
 * Error in original : the figures should be 9,284,061. t Error of $5,618 
 
 It may be proper to remark in this place, that the 
 Balanzas Generates^ from which the preceding and 
 subsequent tables are derived, are not to be considered 
 as giving the precise quantities and values of the 
 commercial exchanges of the island of Cuba with 
 foreign nations. They, doubtless, present the mini- 
 mum amounts of each, as it would seem to be the 
 policy of the custom-house officials, by whom these 
 annual reports are prepared, to undervalue the foreign 
 trade of the island. As far back as the year 1825, 
 the unreliability of these Balanzas, as authority in 
 statistical compilations, reqxdring precise accuracy, 
 was noticed by Baron Humboldt, in that portion of 
 his *' Personal Narrative" which relates to the island 
 of Cuba. Alluding to them, he observes : " I have 
 examined, in another work, fifteen years since, the 
 basis upon which are founded the tables published 
 under the fallacious title of ' Balanzas de Comerico.' " 
 Since that period, it would seem that but little im- 
 provement has been made in the preparation of these 
 Commerce of Cuba with foeeign Nations from 1S26 to 1840. 
 
 IMPORTS. 
 
 53. % Error of $4,700— excess, 
 
 annual exhibits of trade ; for the Department is offi- 
 cially advised, as late as 1853, that, in respect of val- 
 ues, the amounts stated in the Balanzas are fully 
 one fourth less than the real market value both of 
 imports and exports. However this may be, the 
 statements and tables given are all which are accessi- 
 ble ; none other being published or prepared ; and for 
 all useful purposes, they will serve the statistician as 
 well as if the greatest accuracy had been attained. 
 
 The commerce of Cuba with foreign nations for the 
 year 1854, is fully set forth in the annexed statements, 
 taken from the " Balanzas Generales" for that year. 
 It is followed by two other tables, made up from the 
 Balanzas, designed to illustrate the commercial move- 
 ments of Cuba during a period of twenty-nine years, 
 from 1826 to 1854, both inclusive ; while a third table 
 exhibits a comparative view of the foreign commerce 
 of Cuba and Porto Kico, with the duties received, and 
 the number of vessels entered and cleared, during a 
 period of seven years, from 1848 to 1854. 
 
 [Made up feom tile " Balanzas Generales."] 
 
 Yeaia. 
 
 National 
 commerce. 
 
 In national 
 
 Teasels. 
 
 United 
 States. 
 
 England. 
 
 Spanish 
 
 American 
 
 ports. 
 
 France. 
 
 Hanse Towns 
 
 and 
 Netberlands. 
 
 Ports of the 
 Baltic. 
 
 Italy and 
 Portugal. 
 
 Deposit. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Pesos. 
 
 Pesos. 
 
 Pesos. 
 
 Pesos. 
 
 Pesos. 
 
 Pesos. 
 
 Pesos. 
 
 Pesos. 
 
 Pesos. 
 
 Pesos. 
 
 Pesos. 
 
 1826 
 
 2,858,793 
 
 814,683 
 
 5.682,808 
 
 1,823,627 
 
 
 1,169,451 
 
 1,631,125 
 
 15,849 
 
 218,794 
 
 1,759,621 
 
 14,925,764 
 
 1827 
 
 2,541,822 
 
 849,728 
 
 7,162,695 
 
 1,618,871 
 
 
 1,472,204 
 
 1,640,011 
 
 192,826 
 
 309,047 
 
 2,066,646 
 
 17,852,854 
 
 1828 
 
 4,52.3,802 
 
 431,568 
 
 6,599,096 
 
 1,770,085 
 
 
 1,686,856 
 
 2,082,906 
 
 176,027 
 
 282,584 
 
 2,083,508 
 
 19,634,922 
 
 1829 
 
 4,961,043 
 
 844,826 
 
 5,784,765 
 
 1,837,775 
 
 
 1,245,947 
 
 1,.346,875 
 
 87,836 
 
 116,298 
 
 2,521,442 
 
 18,695,856 
 
 1830 
 
 4,739,776 
 
 1,051,688 
 
 4,791,544 
 
 1,745,888 
 
 
 721,648 
 
 1,701,868 
 
 81,958 
 
 102,116 
 
 1,236,283 
 
 16,171,562 
 
 1831 
 
 4,121,829 
 
 1,825,890 
 
 4,690,308 
 
 1,465,988 
 
 
 669,604 
 
 1,808,899 
 
 20,682 
 
 60,582 
 
 895,061 
 
 15,548,791 
 
 1882 
 
 8,576,707 
 
 8,178,596 
 
 8,542,986 
 
 1,257,964 
 
 805,824 
 
 1,918,197 
 
 83,848 
 
 87,884 
 
 796,612 
 
 16,198,405 
 
 1833 
 
 8,185,781 
 
 4,777,580 
 
 4,461,472 
 
 1,62,5,178 
 
 1,871,786 
 
 927,491 
 
 1,145,967 
 
 90,931 
 
 96,764 
 
 828,198 
 
 18,511,182 
 
 1884 
 
 3,412,487 
 
 4,970,013 
 
 8,690,101 
 
 1,676,918 
 
 1,747,224 
 
 906,414 
 
 855,863 
 
 19,215 
 
 161,151 
 
 1,184,407 
 
 18,663,800 
 
 1835 
 
 3,508,349 
 
 5,200,955 
 
 5,406,919 
 
 1,689,465 
 
 2,084,652 
 
 904,140 
 
 619,211 
 
 55,687 
 
 145,448 
 
 1,107,345 
 
 20,722,072 
 
 1836 
 
 4,470,725 
 
 6,680,070 
 
 6,658,281 
 
 1,522,429 
 
 1,579,686 
 
 817,445 
 
 766,059 
 
 59,068 
 
 92,628 
 
 1,009,771 
 
 22,651,969 
 
 1837 
 
 4,659,163 
 
 4,966,191 
 
 6,548,967 
 
 1,373,964 
 
 1,099,867 
 
 861,860 
 
 666,048 
 
 28,841 
 
 95,460 
 
 2,689,521 
 
 22,940,357 
 
 1838 
 
 4,460,987 
 
 6,168,162 
 
 6,202,002 
 
 1,489,300 
 
 1,718,660 
 
 816,954 
 
 916,498 
 
 79,198 
 
 64,598 
 
 2,878,545 
 
 24.729,878 
 
 1839 
 
 5,320,615 
 
 7,108,704 
 
 6,182,794 
 
 1,770,499 
 
 1,467,125 
 
 714,664 
 
 552,078 
 
 124,405 
 
 86,099 
 
 2,087,911 
 
 25,217,796 
 
 1840 
 
 5,295,261 
 
 6,684,718 6,654,126; 1,487,199 
 
 915,541 
 
 618,461 
 
 1,010,291 
 
 47,914 
 
 29,492 
 
 8,857,172 
 
 24,700,189 
 
 
 EX 
 
 POETS. 
 
 
 
 1826 
 
 1,992,689 
 
 186,878 
 
 8,894,597 
 
 1,533,474 
 
 
 1,162,218 
 
 2,998,154 
 
 478,223 
 
 200,761 
 
 1,812,839 
 
 18,809,888 
 
 1827 
 
 2,284,250 
 
 184,0,59 
 
 4,107,449 
 
 1,605,078 
 
 
 1,043,618 
 
 2,651,083 
 
 487,288 
 
 489,402 
 
 1,48.3,966 
 
 14,286,192 
 
 1828 
 
 1,556,224 
 
 711,479 
 
 8,176,964 
 
 1,611,820 
 
 
 764,812 
 
 2,809,229 
 
 788,521 
 
 237,289 
 
 1,478,020 
 
 13,114,862 
 
 .1829 
 
 2,292,680 
 
 662,658 
 
 8,191,685 
 
 1,729,404 
 
 
 907,808 
 
 2,406,813 
 
 904,920 
 
 803,540 
 
 1,658,247 
 
 18,952,405 
 
 1830 
 
 8,740,747 
 
 543,267 
 
 4,266,782 
 
 1,228,594 
 
 
 767,786 
 
 2,448,290 
 
 1,085,268 
 
 384,137 
 
 1,521,144 
 
 16,870,968 
 
 1881 
 
 2,193,761 
 
 727,338 
 
 8,921,692 
 
 1,567,720 
 
 
 441,058 
 
 2,188,299 
 
 544,889 
 
 44.3,466 
 
 890,644 
 
 12,918,711 
 
 1832 
 
 2,178,637 
 
 99.3,404 
 
 8,108,466 
 
 2,101,686 
 
 
 860,999 
 
 2,590,818 
 
 1,135,525 
 
 893,674 
 
 787,008 
 
 13,595,017 
 
 1838 
 
 1,854,714 
 
 1,274,040 
 
 4,886,885 
 
 910,981 
 
 19,678 
 
 581,821 
 
 1,771,881 
 
 1,187,774 
 
 250,511 
 
 858,81£ 
 
 18,996,100 
 
 1834 
 
 2,074,592 
 
 1,401,668 
 
 8,824,724 
 
 2,080,881 
 
 16,214 
 
 667,481 
 
 2,289,782 
 
 1,081,284 
 
 101,443 
 
 954,615 
 
 14,487,955 
 
 1835 
 
 1,801,092 
 
 1,114,696 
 
 4,365,569 
 
 1,754,676 
 
 10,275 
 
 608,985 
 
 2,076,001 
 
 994,771 
 
 168,926 
 
 1,179,252 
 
 14,059,246 
 
 1836 
 
 2,848,458 
 
 917,788 
 
 5,518,924 
 
 1,700,116 
 
 86,185 
 
 489,654 
 
 1,984,935 
 
 1,029,670 
 
 264,780 
 
 1,132,942 
 
 16,398,245 
 
 1837 
 
 2,919,474 
 
 1,294,282 
 
 8,792,628 
 
 2,990,466 
 
 248,823 
 
 1,844,608 
 
 2,718,586 
 
 644,018 
 
 528,106 
 
 1,875,918 
 
 20,346,407 
 
 1888 
 
 2,692,159 
 
 1,682,840 
 
 5,574,591 
 
 3,088,328 
 
 80,662 
 
 771,572 
 
 2,698,168 
 
 1,646,968 
 
 866,643 
 
 1,674,287 
 
 20,471,102 
 
 1889 
 
 2,719,792 
 
 1,951,785 
 
 5,528,045 
 
 5,141,098 
 
 70,985 
 
 845,906 
 
 2,054,088 
 
 266,401 
 
 424,905 
 
 2,478,848! 21,481,848 
 
 1840 
 
 3,478,630 
 
 2,044,441 
 
 5,660,739 
 
 6,749,438 
 
 87,219 
 
 908,605 
 
 2,835,620 
 
 924,898 
 
 819,941 
 
 2,987,745 25,941,783 
 
CUB 
 
 496 
 
 CUB 
 
 I 
 
 s i^ 
 
 SI 
 
 iz; 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 M 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 Qcoca ocoeoi-t 
 
 I'S'S'^S'^ :f53S§ 
 
 ©I t-^oi ^^■^o->,'^»fl^co •>v''i^'^i'~i■ 
 
 .3 
 
 ■©1 •»« 
 
 ■?1 '^ 
 
 
 
 OffoT ^ I 1 t I Ol C^ ȣ3 O 
 
 g"Tf ^W"*" 
 
 :8 :5 
 
 ^ CO eo r-l 0_0s_ - — - - 
 
 •^Hoitoeofoa 
 
 Z lftOst-(MCQ(M .CO ',1-1 
 
 
 oiQ4Q0r-t 
 
 
 
 ; :£223gte2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -4'" ■ 
 
 
 
 
 QOS • ■« • • 
 
 Ofl CO O O r-l OS t-^CO t- ^ CO Ol O 
 
 wrT-J"-^c?-^cO"*"oococ|?"T-rco'od" 
 
 00 -^ Oi tH O tH <0 t- CO O (N 55 
 ©CSt-(COCO 1-1 '~'C0_ 
 
 c-ftyT r-T 
 
 b (N o c- >o_o t-^o c5 o b- 
 
 (Nt-T-IOt-T-HOJCOGOoot-THOJOOCQ 
 OOiHOSOt-iMOCO CO 
 
 V CO O t~> 
 
 hO>iOCO 
 
 ■,«o'C0"tH 
 
 
 OaCO 1 
 
 cDOseO ' 
 ®t-co ■ 
 
 Ph(MCO < 
 
 
 
 
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 Ss'Sa a o E"^ S c S 
 
 ss 
 
 « b ^"^ 
 
 
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 s ailgs^l^llsll^^ 
 
 a o 
 
CUB 
 
 496 
 
 CUB 
 
 COMPAKATIVE SuM.MAET ,OF THB 
 
 CoMMEECB OP Cuba 
 
 , FKOM 
 
 1841 TO 
 
 854. 
 
 07 
 
 Teom the " Balanzas- G-enerai^."] ■ 
 
 Years. 
 
 VALUE OF IMPORTATION. | VALUE OP BXFORTATION. 
 
 BXPOBTATION 
 
 THE PBDiCIPAL PHODtJCTIONB OF THE ISl'akd. | 
 
 la national 
 vessels. 
 
 In foreigrn 
 
 vessels. 
 
 Total.* MSf' 
 
 In foreign 
 vessels. 
 
 
 Total, 
 
 Sugar. 
 
 Molasses 
 
 Brandy.I Coffije. 
 
 Copper . 
 
 TobMioo, 
 
 Tobacco 
 iManuf'd 
 
 
 
 
 Pesos, i Pesos. 
 
 Pesos. 
 
 Pesos. 
 
 Boxes. 
 
 Hhds.t 
 
 Pipes. 
 
 Arrobaa.S 
 
 Quintals. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 SegarsM 
 
 1841 
 
 14,113,78310,967,626 
 
 25,081,403'7,148,674 
 
 79,625,940 
 
 26,774,614 
 
 829,432 
 
 181,890 
 
 11,802 
 
 1,235,006 
 
 698,060 
 
 5,757,677 
 
 170,171 
 
 1842 
 
 14,387,73610,249,790 
 
 24,637,527 6,976,584 
 
 :9,708417 
 
 26,684,701 
 
 • 817,643 
 
 119,188 
 
 10,227 
 
 1,998,846 
 
 ,783,971 
 
 5,942,838 
 
 150,289 
 
 134.3 
 
 18,368,74lll0,058,85< 
 
 23,422,096 6,950,888 
 
 .8,078,908 
 
 25,029,712 
 
 889,103 
 
 191,093 
 
 18,810 
 
 1,681,782 
 
 :768,650 
 
 7,208,236 
 
 257,997 
 
 1844 
 
 13,218,85! 
 
 11,887,871 
 
 25,056,231 ^..^Sa, 746 
 
 .9,873,846 
 
 25,426,591 
 
 1,009,665 
 
 172,481 
 
 6,826 
 
 1,240,082 
 
 2,008,58V 
 
 4,638>6S 
 
 128,606 
 
 1845* 
 
 16,969,796 
 
 11,037,764 
 
 28,007,560!6,708,501 
 
 2,084,810 
 
 18,792,872 
 
 475,286 
 
 121,322 
 
 4,120 
 
 669,322 
 
 869,92'2 
 
 6,67*878 
 
 158,581 
 
 1846 
 
 13,651,82! 
 
 8,974,06! 
 
 22,62.'J,89i)!5,81S,S81 
 
 .6,181,707 
 
 22,000,568 
 
 987,742 
 
 208,597 
 
 9,082 
 
 817,662 
 
 636,654 
 
 3,826,047 
 
 168,366 
 
 1847 
 
 16,648,87( 
 
 16,740,248 
 
 32,889,119 
 
 6,549,857 
 
 21,449,413 
 
 27,998,770 
 
 1,274,811 
 
 252,840 
 
 19,732 
 
 982,154 
 
 865,496 
 
 9,809,606 
 6,275,680 
 4,015133 
 
 244,812 
 
 1843 
 
 15,222,81s 
 
 10,218,247 
 
 26,485,566 
 
 5,046,098 
 
 20,031,974 
 
 26,077,098 1,228,718 
 
 228,726 
 
 :16,389 
 
 694,137 
 
 656,491 
 
 161,480 
 
 1849 
 
 16,366,84i 
 
 9,968,616 
 
 26,320,460 
 
 5,673,586 
 
 16,863,021 
 
 22,436,666 l,09i>,884 
 
 246,570 
 
 ■11,640 
 
 677,137 
 
 •583,810 
 
 128,720 
 
 1850 
 
 18,466,071 
 
 10,628,155 
 
 28,988,227 
 
 6,020,639 
 
 .9,611,308 
 
 25,681,948 
 
 1,249,618 
 
 269,044 
 
 4,826 
 
 620,134 
 
 552,288 
 
 7,978,148 
 
 212,640 
 
 1861 
 
 19,899,176 
 
 12,41^,264 
 
 32,811,43C 
 
 6,204,658 
 
 26,187,029 
 
 31,841,688 
 
 1,639,994 
 
 818,428 
 
 - 9,221 
 
 675,119 
 
 -^432,882 
 
 9,436,691 
 
 270,813 
 
 1862 
 
 20,825,761 
 
 9,464,49( 
 
 29,780,242 
 
 7,018,017 
 
 20,485,918 
 
 27,453,986 
 
 1,409,012 
 
 262,698 
 
 11,859 
 
 789,326 
 
 381,470 
 
 9,737,443 
 
 180,610 
 
 1858 
 
 18,421,624 
 
 9,368,175 
 
 27,789,800 
 
 7,278,847 
 
 28,986,667 
 
 31,210,406 
 
 1,667,192 
 
 803,881 
 
 14,294 
 
 ■ 442,730 
 
 : 345,080 
 
 8,089,797 
 
 287,360 
 
 1864 
 
 20,676,948 
 
 10,718,629 
 
 31,394,578 
 
 8,606,607 
 
 24,177,123 
 
 31,683,781 
 
 1,685,751 
 
 261,815:26,272 
 
 511,493 
 
 : 649,553 
 
 9,809,15C(261,818| 
 
 
 
 CE 
 
 1 
 
 
 NUMBBE 
 
 OF VESSELS WHICH ENTEBHD THE 
 
 AMOUNT OF DUTIES R 
 
 VED IN THE . 
 
 
 Years. 
 
 
 FOBTS OF THE ISLAND. 
 
 COMMEKCIAL MOVEMENT. 
 
 * From 1841 to 1846, those totals include 
 the value ^of ^oods placed on deposit, as 
 
 
 Foreign 
 veaaelfl. 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 Duties oh 
 
 
 
 vessels. 
 
 
 
 importntlon. 
 
 exportation. 
 
 
 well as of those actually Imported or ex- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pesos. 
 
 Pesos. 
 
 Pesos. 
 
 ported, and are thus considerably aug- 
 
 1841 
 
 1,063 
 
 1,981 
 
 8,084 
 
 467,839 
 
 6,943,819 
 
 1,322,644 
 
 7,266,464 
 
 mented. Prior to 1846, no distinct column 
 
 1842 
 
 884 
 
 1,778 
 
 2,667 
 
 472,106 
 
 6,006,682 , 1,877,714 
 
 7,388,346 
 
 was devoted to deposit in the ^alanza 
 
 1843 
 
 816 
 
 1,770 
 
 2,686 
 
 477,792 
 
 5,896,889 
 
 1,590,677 
 
 6,987,017 
 
 General ; but since that year such distinc- 
 
 1844 
 
 855 
 
 2,380 
 
 8,285 
 
 697,920 
 
 6,020,403 
 
 1,140,228 
 
 7,160,631 
 
 tion, has' been observed, and the rbsult is 
 
 1845* 
 
 917 
 
 1,715 
 
 2,682 
 
 478,015 
 
 5,896,416 
 
 574,881 
 
 5,970,748 
 
 perceived in the ditoinution of the amounts 
 
 1846 
 
 847 
 
 2,244 
 
 8,091 
 
 560,168 
 
 6,413,422 
 
 739,379 
 
 6,162,802 
 
 of values. ! 
 
 1847 
 
 819 
 
 2,922 
 
 8,741 
 
 689,770 
 
 6,601,233 
 
 898,097 
 
 7,494,381 
 
 t Prior to 1845, but one column was de- 
 
 1848 
 
 875 
 
 2,673 
 
 8,548 
 
 728,285. 
 
 6,174,588 
 
 . 709,326 
 
 0,883,869 
 
 voted to tonnage, no distinctiori being 
 made between the tonnage of national and 
 
 1849 
 
 877 
 
 2,336 
 
 3,218 
 
 712572: 
 
 6,844,788 
 
 . 684,477 
 
 6,429,260 
 
 1850 
 
 878 
 
 2,478 
 
 8,356 
 
 874,014 
 
 6,964,147 
 
 757,108 
 
 6,721,260 
 
 foreign vessels in the Balanza; but since 
 
 1861 
 
 - 888 
 
 2,986 
 
 3,869 
 
 997,990 
 
 6,668,842 
 
 1,793,992 
 
 8,462,884 
 
 that year such distinction has been made, 
 
 1852 
 
 947 
 
 2,666 
 
 3,612 
 
 622,016 
 
 7,226,784 
 
 1,647,802 
 
 8,878,086 
 
 though it is not regarded in this statement. 
 
 1868 
 
 902 
 
 3,014 . 
 
 8,916 
 
 718,840 
 
 7,018,634 
 
 1,816,784 
 
 8,830,817 
 
 t Of 36 gallons. i, 
 
 1854 
 
 928 
 
 2,884 
 
 3,812 
 
 742,794 
 
 7,796,653 
 
 1,947,048 
 
 9,743,696 
 
 ■ § Arroba=25^ pounds. . •' ^ , 
 
 General comparativk Statement of the Amount and Cuaeaotee of the Commeecb of Cuba and Poeto Eico 
 
 FEOM ISiS to 1854, "WITH THE AmOTTNTS OF DlTTIES KEOEITED, AND THE NuMBEKS OP VESSELS ENTERED AND 
 
 clbabed, and the respective Tonnage of the same. 
 
 [Fkom the"Balanza6 Generales."] ■ 
 CUBA. 
 
 1 
 Yearsi 
 
 IMPORTATION INTO CUBA. 
 
 EXPORTATION FROM'OnBA. ! 
 
 DUTIES 
 ftECEIVED. 
 
 NO. OF VESSELS & TONNAGE.] 
 
 NATIONAL 
 PRODUCTS. 
 
 FOREIGN PBODUCTS. 
 
 TOTAL 
 IMPORTS. 
 
 FOR THE 
 NATIONAL 
 TRADE. . 
 
 FOR THE FOREIGN 
 TRADE. 
 
 TOTAL - 
 
 ENTERED. 
 
 CLEARED. 
 
 la Spanist 
 
 vessels 
 generally. 
 
 In Spanisll 
 vessels. 
 
 In foreign 
 vessels. 
 
 Id Spanisli 
 
 generally. 
 
 In Spanish 
 vessels. 
 
 In foreign 
 vessels. 
 
 (EXPORTS. 
 
 No. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 No. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 184^ 
 1849 
 1860 
 1851 
 1862 
 186S 
 1854 
 
 Dollars. 
 7,088,760 
 7,6,82,757 
 8,640,625 
 8,500,268 
 10,200,429 
 7,756,906 
 9,057,428 
 
 Dollars. 
 8,1.33,667 
 8,691,714 
 9,824,259 
 11,418,927 
 10,199.781 
 10,791,648 
 11,631,862 
 
 Dollars. 
 10,213,247 
 
 9,945,988 
 10,618,341 
 12,397,246 
 
 9,380,082 
 
 9,241,247 
 10,705,293 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 25,435,565 
 26,320,460 
 28,98.3,227 
 82,311,4.30 
 29,780,242 
 27,789,800 
 31,894,.678 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 3,927,007 
 8,118,070 
 8,071,084 
 2,836,328 
 8,882,6.34 
 8,298,871 
 3,615,698 
 
 Dollars. 
 2,118,086 
 2,460,464 
 2,967,783 
 •3,382,787 
 3,186,888 
 3,974.976 
 4,890;914 
 
 Collars. 1 , Dollars. 
 
 20,031,97426,077,068 
 16,868,02122,436,566 
 19,«08,080 25,681,948 
 25,122,567 131,841,683 
 20,435,918 27,453,986 
 28,936,.567 81,210,405 
 24,177,123 32,688731 
 
 DoUors. 
 
 ,6,883,853 
 6,429,260 
 6,721,260 
 8,462,884 
 8,873,086 
 8,830,317 
 9,743,096 
 
 3,548 
 3,213 
 8,856 
 3,865 
 3,617 
 3,916 
 8,812 
 
 723,286 
 712,572 
 874,014 
 997,990 
 622,016 
 713,840 
 742,794 
 
 2,949 
 2,899 
 3,161 
 3,783 
 
 3,274 
 3,827 
 3,667 
 
 No data. 
 Do. 
 Do. 
 Do. 
 Do. 
 Do. 
 Do. 
 
 POETO EICO. ' ' 
 
 1848 
 1349 
 I860 
 1861 
 1852 
 1863 
 
 1,148,079 
 1,011,000 
 1,356,961 
 1„642,717 
 2,030,947 
 1,411,004 
 
 ' 1,798,370 
 2,819,032 
 1,879,488 
 
 . 2,210,062 
 2,122,784 
 2,194,875 
 
 1,628,801 
 1,661,650 
 1,986,679 
 2,821,089 
 2,144,668 
 1,780,630 
 
 4,469,761 
 4,981,688 
 5,222,029 
 6,078,870 
 6,298,395 
 5,835,910 
 
 660,820 
 464,128 
 2.33,916 
 662,451 
 409,618 
 440,406 
 
 288,816 
 237,823 
 271,860 
 230,840 
 349,718 
 885,090 
 
 4,695,500 5,695,136 
 4,700,419 5,402,371 
 5,«21,542 5,877,319 
 4,918,682 6,761,974 
 3,893,002 4,652,339 
 4,523,831 6,299,.327 
 
 1,034,2.39 
 1,082,307 
 1,189,001 
 1,069,418 
 1,259,173 
 1,061,887 
 
 1,056! 118,910 
 1,095, 124,851 
 1,206! 182,040 
 1,324, 160,586 
 1,462 17,5,886 
 1,338 161,663 
 
 1,129 
 1,120 
 1,179 
 1,209 
 1,862 
 1,225 
 
 128,250 
 129,673 
 181,767 
 154,042 
 168,766 
 154,867 
 
 General Port RegulatioTis. 1. Ships leaving Tvitli a full 
 cargo of molasses are free of tonnage duties. 
 
 2. Ships arriving in ballast, and leaving in the same state, 
 pay no tonnage duty ; but if they should take return cargoes 
 of the fruits, or other articles of the island (entire cargoes of 
 luolasBes only excepted), they pay the regular duty. 
 
 3. Ships arriving in distress for water, or other necessaries, 
 are free from tonnage duty ; hnt when they discharge the 
 whole or part of their cargo (unless every part is again taken 
 in, and tio more), or load with produce, foreign or native (mo- 
 lasses excepted), they are subjected to the entire tonnage duty- 
 
 4. Vessels, foreign or nation.il, which have left a port of 
 the island, having paid the proper tonnage duty, and which 
 enter any port of the island to repair damages they may have 
 sustained at sea, by reason of storm or other casualty, are 
 exempt from further tonnage duty. 
 
 5. Vessels entering the ports of the island with mineral 
 coal in equal or greater quantity than the number of tons 
 per their register, pay only 50 cents per ton for tonnage duty, 
 even if they bring other merchandise besides. They are also 
 exempt from all other local charges (excepting captain of the 
 port's fees'), such as ponton and health dues, custom-house 
 ■visits, entry and clearance fees, wharfage, stage-hire, etc. 
 Such as bring coal, solely, in less quantity than their tonnage 
 
 measure, pay 50 cents per ton upon the portion oceupied hy 
 coal ; and the difference between this portion and the num- 
 ber of tons that the vessel may prove to have, by Spanish 
 measurement, will be subjected to the payment of the full 
 tonnage duty ; but these vessels are allowed the exemption 
 from all other charges ex<;ept captain of the port' s fees. 
 
 Vessels having on board, besides coal in less quantity than 
 their measurement, other cargo, are in the same case re- 
 specting the tonnage dues, but are subject to the ponton, 
 health visits, registering and other usual dues. Mail steam- 
 ers, recognized as such, are permitted to bring and carry 3 
 tons of cargo without paying tonnage dues. If the cargo 
 discharged exceeds 3 tons, they pay duty on such excess 
 over and above the 3 tons. Vessels going from one port to 
 another of the island, carry a sea-letter of introduction to 
 the custom-house of the other port, stating that the regular 
 charges have been paid. This letter costs $4 By order of 
 November 4, 1854, all vessels having to perform quarantine 
 must go either to Havana or to St. Jago de Cuba for that 
 purpose. Quarantine fee, $1 per day. Besides the forego- 
 ing general regulations, which are in force at all the ports of 
 the island, there are others of a more local character, appli- 
 cable to some, and not to others. These relate more especi- 
 ally to tonnage and port duties, and other charges. 
 
CUB 
 
 497 
 
 CUB 
 
 The tdilnage duties and other charges at the princi- 
 pal porta are stibidinBd : 
 
 AT HAVANA. 
 
 Nature of charges. 
 
 Health visit, per ton*. 
 
 Government Interpreter 
 
 Captain of the p(irt'fi fees : on entering. . 
 . .' ou.cl.earing... 
 
 Translation of .manifest 
 
 Tonnage duty, per tont 
 
 Lighfc'dues; per ton 
 
 Ponton dues, .per ton 
 
 "Whaifage dues, per ton 
 
 Oustom-house fees : Inward visit 
 
 Outvardvislt .. 
 
 Annotation fee ...... : 
 
 Extract of Manifest, from 
 
 Eogister dues (for each daily return of 
 cargo discharged, ■v/hether one or one 
 
 ■ thousand packages) •. 
 
 Eor outvard register and stamp paper. . . 
 
 Bill of health, over 150 tons 
 
 under 150 tons. 
 
 Foreign 
 
 $0 03 
 2 00 
 8 00 
 8 00 
 
 4 00 
 
 1 60 
 06i 
 211 
 OIJ 
 
 5 50 
 
 6 50 
 
 2 00 
 4r-6 00 
 
 6 60 
 
 6 00 
 4 00 
 
 SpanlBh 
 ,vaaHol» 
 
 $0 08 
 
 8,00 
 8 QO 
 
 62t 
 08i 
 2l| 
 Oli 
 6 60 
 5 60 
 a 00 
 4— 8 00 
 
 6 50 
 8 25 
 00 
 4 00 
 
 * This fcp is received by, the boarding physician, and is 
 appTled to the general board 6t health.' Ho receives' the bill 
 or health, which' niust be authenticated by the Spanish con- 
 sul at the port «f departure, under a penalty of being sent to 
 quarantine for seven days, and a lino of fifty dollars. 
 
 t Per Spanish measurement; in addition to this duty, one 
 per cent, bdlanza upon the result of the tons^ multiplied by 
 lij'is charged. . . . - 
 
 It is optional for a vessel to taie a 
 pilot, unless slie goes into the inner harbor beyond 
 the shoals ; in which case, whetlier she takes one^r 
 not, she has to pay $10 coming in as far as the inner 
 harbor, $10 going out, and $10 from any part of the 
 outer harbor into the inner. Foreign men-of-war pay 
 no port charges. If a pilot is taken, the rate charged 
 
 is the same as paid by Spanish men-of-war. — $7 in, 
 and the same out. 
 
 AT BAEACOA. 
 
 Nature of Cha^'E^^^* 
 
 Tonnage duty « 
 
 Anchorage 
 
 Free pa^at the fort : 
 
 Health omcors' fee for boarding vessels 
 
 Custom-house interpreter's fee 
 
 Custom-house , officer's fee to visit on board, to 
 seal and unseal, so long as the vessel is dis 
 charging 
 
 Opening vessel's register. 
 
 Eegister of despatch 
 
 AT SAINT JAGO. 
 
 Nature of eliarges. 
 
 Health visit, per ton 
 
 Government mtprpreter 
 
 Custom-house interpreter 
 
 I •' inward visit. 
 
 " outward visit 
 
 Extract of manifest 
 
 Custom-house offlcerj per diem, while ves- 
 sel is discharging 
 
 On aggregate amount of tonnage duty, 
 per ceijt 
 
 Light-house dues, per ton 
 
 Captain of port's fee .■ 
 
 Fort pass 
 
 Pilot^e , 
 
 Wharfige per diem, on 100 tons 
 
 Wharflhger. .' 
 
 Stamped papen. 
 
 Clearance 
 
 Telegraph 
 
 Duty per ton '. 
 
 Forelm 
 vesBela 
 
 pay 
 
 $0 OSi 
 2 00 
 
 4 00 
 
 5 60 
 
 5 50 
 
 60 
 
 6 50 
 
 1 00 
 06i 
 
 12 50 
 
 60 
 4 00 
 
 1 60 
 1 SO 
 
 10 00 
 8 60 
 4 00 
 1 50 
 
 Spaniali 
 TesOlBB' 
 
 pay 
 
 $0 OH 
 
 5 60 
 
 6 60 
 50 
 
 6 50 
 
 1 00 
 
 081 
 
 12 60 
 
 60 
 
 4 00 
 
 T6' 
 
 160 
 
 10 00 
 
 860 
 
 4 00 
 
 62| 
 
 AT TEINIDAD, MATANZAS, AND CARDENAS. 
 
 Nature of eliarges. 
 
 FORSIGN VESSELS PAY 
 
 At Trinidad. 
 
 On. aggregate amount of tpnnage duty 
 
 Light dlies, per ton 
 
 Pilotage for'schooner, in and out 
 
 ■ '* brig, " 
 
 " bars or ship, " 
 
 Entering in ballast, per day , 
 
 " with cargo, while discharging; per day. 
 Clearing in ballast 
 
 " with cargo 
 
 Governor's fee , 
 
 Health visit, per ton ' 
 
 Captain of the port. 
 
 Fort pass . : 
 
 Mud-machine duty, per ton 
 
 Look-out man , 
 
 One per cent. 
 
 $0 06^ 
 
 22 00 
 
 29 00 
 
 84 00 
 
 8 26 
 
 5 60 
 
 2 76 
 21 50 
 
 8 00 
 
 03 
 ,10 00 
 
 1 00 
 
 215 
 
 1 DO 
 
 $0 06i 
 1 Entering aud leav- 
 Y Ing. with or with- 
 ) out pilot, »12 00. 
 
 Whole expense; $28 
 ) Opening register and 
 
 ) clearing, $2T 
 
 $1 00 
 
 OS 
 
 6 00 
 
 $2 50 (and stamps) . 
 
 [ When drawing 7 to 
 
 10 feet, $12. Each 
 
 I additional foot, $2 
 
 Anchorage, $6 00. 
 
 Mode of Collecting Duties. The collection of the 
 duties is made in a very simple manner. The 
 island of Cuba is divided into customs intendenoies, 
 of which Havana is the principal. The intendency 
 is organized into seven branches, viz. : the intendant, 
 the supeHor counsel of the hacienda, the tribunal of 
 accounts, the accountant-general, the treasurer-gene- 
 ral, the administration of the customs, and the admin- 
 istration of the internal revenue. The administration 
 of the customs is comprised of the administrator or 
 collector, the accountant, and the treasurer. When 
 a vessel arrives at the Havana, she is first boarded by 
 the health officer, after whom comes the revenue offi- 
 cer and the smuggling-preventive service. A copy 
 of the custom-house regulations, in Spanish, French, 
 and English, is handed to the captain, and a manifest 
 required of Iiim of all the particulars of his vessel and 
 cargo. Every article on board the vessel, omitted in 
 the manifest, is subject to confiscation. Within forty- 
 eight hours after the entry of the vessel, every con- 
 I signee must deliver detailed statements of the articles 
 coming to him, with their quantities, weights, and 
 measures, all reduced to the legal standard. 
 
 All the documents and papers relating to a vessel, 
 
 are stitched together in a book, with the signatures 
 
 and seals of all tlje government officers, through whose 
 
 hands the -overal documents pass. A copy of this 
 
 Ii 
 
 book is made for the use of the inspectors and apprais- 
 ers ; the latter function being restrained within very 
 narrow limits, by a printed tariff of all. articles of im- 
 port, with a valuation to each, which valuation, in a 
 great degree, defines the duties of the ad valorem char- 
 acter. As fast as the inspection and appraisement take 
 place, the consignee is permitted to remove the goods, 
 by procuring the signature of some responsible per- 
 son to the words inscribed in the book, " I make my- 
 self answerable for the duties." The inspection and 
 appraisement being concluded, the book is returned 
 to the accountant's office, where the liquidation of the 
 duties is forthwith made. The payment is then pro- 
 ceeded with. These payments are mostly cash ; that 
 is to say, on some articles, whatever may be the 
 amount, cash is required ; upon other articles, the 
 duties are cash under $1,000. 
 
 If the amount is greater, a credit of one fourth is 
 given for sixty daj'S, and one fourth payable at the 
 end of each succeeding month — making five months' 
 credit in all. The securitj' for this credit consists 
 simply in the promissory note of the consignee; -with- 
 out indorsement, vrith the power, in case of a failure, 
 to convert every other note of the same individual into 
 a cash debt ; the individual to be forever after inca- 
 pacitated to enter goods, except for cash. 
 
 This system has been in force many years, and un- 
 
cue 
 
 498 
 
 CUM 
 
 der it no loss -whatever has been sustained by the gov- 
 ernment. 
 
 Formerly, the same credits required the endorse- 
 ment of a holder of real estate ; but this was aban- 
 doned on account of its insecurity. — Macgregor'3 
 Statistics ; U. S. Com. Dig. For further information, 
 refer to Am. Quar. Rev., vii. xi., 230; Hunt's Mag., 
 vi., vii., xvii.-xxi., 519 ; North. Am. Rev., xxix. ; 
 De Bow's Rev., viii., p. 313, ix., 164; ; CR. Examr., 
 vi., 259, xxiii., 82 ; Fkaser's Mag., xii. ; Littell's 
 Living Age, xxii. ; Foreign Quar., iii., p. 400 ; Black- 
 wood, xl. ; Southern Quarterly, iv,, xxi. 
 
 Cllbebs (German Kubehen ; l?rench, Cubebes ; 
 Italian, Cubebi; Spanish, Cubebas ; Russian, Kubebii; 
 Latin, Piper Cubeba ; Arab, Kebaheh ; Javanese, Ku- 
 munhis ; Hindostan, Cubdb-elunie), the produce of a 
 vine or climber extensively grown in Java. It is a 
 small dried fruit, like a pepper-corn, but somewhat 
 longer. Cubebs have a hot, pungent, aromatic, slightly 
 bitter taste ; and a fragrant, agreeable odor. ■ They 
 should be chosen large, fresh, sound, and the heaviest 
 that can be procured. 
 
 Cubit. This was a measure of the ancients, and 
 is the first measure we read of ; the ark of Noah was 
 made and measured by cubits. — Holdbn. The He- 
 brew sacred cubit was two English feet, and the great 
 cubit eleven English feet. Originally it was the dis- 
 tance from the elbow, bending inwards to the extrem- 
 ity of the middle finger. — Calmet. 
 
 Cucumber, a tropical plant, of which there are 
 many varieties, largely cultivated in hot-houses in 
 England. 
 
 Cucumber-tree. Magnolia acuminata. In all 
 parts of the United States where this tree is found, it 
 is known only b3' the name of cucumber-tree. It is a 
 beautiful vegetable, equal in height and diameter to 
 the big laurel. The most northern point at which this 
 tree grows, is near the falls of Niagara, in latitude 43°. 
 It abounds along the whole tract of the AUeghanies, 
 to their termination, in Georgia, over a distance of 
 900 miles. It is also found on the Cumberland Mount- 
 ains. The situations peculiarly adapted to its growth 
 are the declivities of mountains, narrow valleys, and 
 the banks of torrents, where the air is constantl}' 
 moist, and where the soil is deep and fertile. At the 
 distance of forty or fifty miles from the mountains, 
 either way, this tree is met with only accidentally 
 upon the steep banks of rivers, where the atmosphere 
 is constantly refreshed by the evaporation from their 
 surface. We may conclude, then, that this tree is a 
 stranger to all parts north of the river Hudson, and to 
 all the Atlantic parts of the United States, to the dis- 
 tance of 100, 150, and 200 miles from the sea ; the na- 
 ture of the soil, and the extreme heat of the climate in 
 summer, being utterly uncongenial to its growth. It 
 is also rare in the parts of Kentuc]t3' and West Ten- 
 nessee which are most remote from the mountains, 
 where the face of the country is less uneven. The 
 cucumber-tree sometimes exceeds 80 feet in height, 
 with a diameter of 3 or 4 feet. The trunk is perfectly 
 straight, of a iiniform size, and often destitute of 
 branches for two thirds of its length. The summit is 
 ample and regularly shaped, and the tree is one of the 
 finest in the American forests. The leaves are 6 or 7 
 inches long, and three or four inches broad, upon old 
 trees ; upon saplings growing in moist places, they 
 are sometimes twice as large. 
 
 On old stocks the bark of this tree is grayish, and 
 deeply furrowed. The perfect wood is soft, and of a 
 yellowish brown. It is fine-grained, and susceptible 
 of a brilliant polish. 
 
 Being a rare tree, it is only accidentally employed 
 in the arts. Sawn into boards, it serves in joinery for 
 the interior of wooden houses, and for its size and 
 lightness, it is selected for large canoes. Most of the 
 inhabitants of the country bordering on the AUegha- 
 nies, gather the cones of this tree about midsummer, 
 
 when they are half ripe, and steep them in whisky ; 
 a glags or two of tliis liquor, which is extremely bit- 
 ter, they habitually take in the morning, as a preserva- 
 tive against autumnal fevers. — Browne's Sylva 
 Americana. 
 
 Cudbear, a purple or violet-colored powder, used 
 in dyeing violet, purple, and crimson, prepared from 
 a species of lichen (^Lichen tartareus Lin.), or crusta- 
 ceous moss, growing commonly on limestone rocks in 
 Sweden, Scotland, the north of England, etc. About 
 130 tons of this lichen are annually exported from 
 Sweden. It commonl3' sells in the port of London 
 for about 201. per ton ; but to prepare it for use it must 
 be washed and dried ; and by these operations the 
 weight is commonly diminished a half, and the price, 
 in effect, doubled. Though possessing great beauty 
 and lustre at first, the colors obtained from cudbear 
 are so very fugaceous, that they ought never to be 
 employed but in aid of some more permanent dye, to 
 which they may give body and vivacity. In this 
 country it is chiefly used to give strength and bril- 
 liancy to the blues dj'ed with indigo, and to produce 
 a saving in that article ; it is also used as a ground for 
 madder reds, which commonly incline too much to 
 yellow, and are made rosg by this addition. The 
 name cudbear was given to this powder by Dr. Cuth- 
 bert Gordon, who, having obtained a patent for the 
 preparation, chose in this way to connect it with his 
 own name. — Bancroft, Philosophy of Colors. 
 
 • Culeus, in Roman Antiquity, the largest measure 
 of capacity for things liquid, containing twenty am- 
 phorae or 40 urnae ; equivalent to 115 gallons, 1"6 pints 
 English. Culeus also denoted a sack or bag. Parri- 
 cides were punished at Rome by being thrown into the 
 Tiber in a sack, along with a cock, an ape, and a ^■ipe^. 
 
 Culm (Welsh cwlm'), a variety of coal. It is dif- 
 ficult of ignition, but bums for a long time, without 
 flame or smoke, but emitting a disagreeable smell. It 
 does not cake, and it leaves but few ashes. Culm is 
 the bitumen oxygenatum of Linnaeus, and the glanz 
 Icohle of Werner. It is otherwise known as anthracite. 
 — See Coal. 
 
 Culna, in Hindostan, a town in the British dis- 
 trict of Burdwan, presidency of Bengal, on the right 
 bank of the river Hooghly, on the route from Cutwa 
 to the town of Hooghly, 26 miles east of the city of 
 Burdwan. It is the port of the district, and has long 
 been noted for its trade in rice, grain, silk, and cot- 
 ton. Of late 3'ears the trafiic of the place has greatly 
 increased, in consequence of its being found a con- 
 venient station for steamers plj^ing between Calcutta 
 and the upper provinces. The bazaar consists of 
 1000 shops, and the population of the town has been 
 stated at 60,000. Lat. 23° 14' j long. 88° 20'. 
 
 Culpee, a town of Bengal, district of Hooghly, on 
 the eastern bank of the river Hooghly. It stands 33 
 miles below Calcutta, at the mouth of a creek that 
 gives shelter to boats from the impetuosity of the 
 tide, which runs there with great violence. Opposite 
 the town is the place of anchorage for large ships 
 which can not get higher up the river. The shores 
 here are a bed of mud, and the banks of the river are 
 covered with thick jungle. Culpee is considered ex- 
 tremely unhealthy, on account of the swamps and 
 woods by which it is surrounded. E. long. 88° 18' ; 
 N. lat. 22° 6'. 
 
 Cumberland river, a large river of Kentucky 
 and Tennessee, which flows through Kentucky and 
 falls into the Ohio. Its entire length is about 600 
 miles, and navigable for large steamboats to Nash- 
 ville, 203 miles, and for boats of 15 tons, 300 miles. , 
 Large quantities of cotton, com, and tobacco, are 
 transported by flat-boats and steamboats from numer- 
 rous counties on this river, to New Orleans. 
 
 Cummin-seed (Ger. Kumin; Fr. Cumin; It. 
 Comino, Cumino ; Sp. Comino; Arab. Kemun), the 
 seeds of an annual plant (Cuminium cyminum, Lin,), » 
 
CUE 
 
 499 
 
 CUR 
 
 native of Egypt, bnt extensively cultivated in Sicily 
 and Malta. They hare a strong, peculiar, heavy 
 odor, and a warm, bitterish, disagreeable taste. They 
 are long and slender. 
 
 Cumnock, or Old Cumnock, a village of Ayr- 
 shire, in Scotland, on the Lugar Water, 12 miles east of 
 Ayr. It is noted for the manufacture of snuff-boxes, 
 similar to those of Laurencekirk, the peculiarity of 
 vrhich is the "invisible wooden hinge." See article 
 Snuff-boxes. 
 
 Cupel, a shallow earthen vessel, somewhat of a 
 cup shape, generally made of bone earth. It is used 
 in the assays of the precious metals, which are fused 
 upon a cupel with lead. Cupellation means the refin- 
 ing of gold or silver upon a cupel. 
 
 Cupellation is a mode of analyzing gold, silver, 
 palladium, and platinum, by adding to small portions 
 of alloys, containing these metals, a bit of lead, fusing 
 the mixture in a little cup of bone earth called a cupelf 
 then by the joint action of heat and air, oxydizing the 
 
 copper, tin, etc., present in the precious metals. The 
 pxyds thus produced are dissolved and carried down 
 into the porous cupel in a liquid state, by the vitrified 
 oxyd of lead. See Assay, Gold, and Silver. 
 
 Curacoa. This island is situated in the Caribbe- 
 an Sea, near the coast of Venezuela, and is about 42 
 miles long, and from 10 to 15 miles broad. The chief 
 staples are tobacco, sugar, indigo, and maize. There 
 are numerous harbors, but that of Santa Anna is con- 
 sidered the best and safest. The principal merchan- 
 dise exchanged in the coasting-trade of Gura9oa 
 consists of hides, goat-skins, dj'e-woods, com, cochi- 
 neal, sugar, indigo, and hats. The chief article of 
 internal trade is salt, this being the only article man- 
 ufactured for export. The following table exhibits, 
 in one view, the general commerce of the island with 
 the United States during three years, ending with 
 1853. It will be seen that the export trade to the 
 United States is yearly increasing, and that in 1853 
 the increase over 1851 is nearly 100 per cent. 
 
 Tabular Statement of Shipments peom tub Island of Cueacoa to the 
 
 ENDINO JnNE 80TU, 1888. [MADE UF FEOM CONSULAE BeTVENS TO THE 
 
 United States dueinq the theeb Teaes 
 Depaetment of State, Washington.] 
 
 Denomination of merchandise. 
 
 Kumber, weight, or 
 measure. 
 
 Number, weight, or 
 measure. 
 
 Number, weight, o 
 measure. 
 
 Aloes 
 
 ArrOw-root... 
 
 Balsam 
 
 Bay water 
 
 Barilla 
 
 Cochineal 
 
 Copper 
 
 Cotton. 
 
 DiviDivi 
 
 Goat-Bkins 
 
 Guano 
 
 Hats 
 
 Hides 
 
 Iron 
 
 Ivory HUtB 
 
 Linseed 
 
 Mahogany. 
 
 Old copper, . . . 
 Orange peel.. 
 
 Ox horns 
 
 Palm leaf 
 
 Peanuts 
 
 Pimento 
 
 Bum 
 
 Salt 
 
 Segais 
 
 Sugar 
 
 Sirup 
 
 Tobacco...,.., 
 Tortoise-shell 
 
 "Wood 
 
 Wool 
 
 pounds 20,208 
 
 dozen 6 
 
 barrels 400 
 
 pounds 4,852 
 
 9,725 
 
 bags liii 
 
 number 287,000 
 
 dozen 1,723 
 
 number 22,631 
 
 number 9,006 
 packages 150 
 barrels 11 
 
 barrels 
 boxes 
 
 pounds 8,127 
 
 tons 608 
 
 pounds 7,429 
 
 $1,429 
 
 8,293, 
 1,495 
 
 1,645 
 89,984 
 
 11,461 
 89,164 
 
 11 
 14 
 
 5,872 
 1,286 
 
 11,861 
 2,081 
 
 9,746 
 
 pounds 
 
 u 
 
 pounds 
 
 pounds 8,740 
 bags 2,281 
 
 number 242,887 
 
 dozen '6,287 
 
 number 20,762 
 
 logs 161 
 
 pounds 52,012 
 
 number 1,292 
 
 bags 104 
 
 puncheons 120 
 barrels 11,011 
 M. 140 
 
 pounds 24.3,866 
 
 $T42 
 197 
 
 8,801 
 
 1,706 
 96,169 
 
 pounds 13,845 
 
 pounds 1,710 
 puncheon 1 
 
 pounds 1,286 
 
 pounds 108 
 
 bi^s 921 
 
 number 247,685 
 
 barrels 27 
 
 dozen 15,912 
 
 'number 17,521 
 
 pounds 9,200 
 62,815 
 
 pounds 34,110 
 " 1,600 
 
 tons 
 pounds 
 
 669 
 2,647 
 8,105 
 
 9,046 
 1,784 
 
 bunches 
 bags 
 
 200 
 89 
 
 $168,668 
 
 barrels 48,484 
 
 M. aso 
 
 pounds 294,247 
 
 gallons 973 
 
 pounds 24,494 
 114 
 
 tons 618 
 
 pounds 12,745 
 
 $887 
 
 "820 
 28 
 
 1,824 
 
 '"io 
 
 764 
 
 101,599 
 
 101 
 
 107,378 
 
 39,600 
 
 28 
 
 1,181 
 
 6,060 
 160 
 
 "in 
 "Hi 
 
 18,i85 
 996 
 
 7,656 
 860 
 
 1,892 
 51S 
 
 9,846 
 
 1,084 
 
 $300,136 
 
 Curacoa, a liqueur which derives its name from 
 the island of Cura9oa. It is prepared in great per- 
 fection by the Dutch. It derives its flavor from Se- 
 ville orange peel, with a small quantity of cinnamon 
 and mace. 
 
 Curmi ^xovp/ii), in Antiquity, a sort of malt liquor 
 or ale, made of barley, and which, according to Dios- 
 corides, was used by many nations instead of wine. 
 That writer also relates that in the western part of 
 Iberia, and in Britain, a similar beverage was in his 
 time prepared from wheat. 
 
 Currants (Fr. Raisins de Corinthe ; Ger. Korinth- 
 en ; It. Uve passe di Corinto ; hat. Passulcs Corinthi- 
 ac€B; Rus; Korinha, Opoek; Sp. Pasas de Corinto), a 
 small species of grape, largely ciiltivated in Zante, 
 Cephalonia, and Ithica, of which islands they form 
 the staple produce ; and in the Morf a, in the vicinity 
 of Patras. The plant is delicate ; and as 6 or 7 years 
 must elapse, after a plantation has been formed, be- 
 fore it begins to produce, its cultivation requires a 
 considerable outlay of capital. The crop is particu- 
 larly liable to injury from rains in harvest, and is 
 altogether of " very precarious description. After 
 being dried in the sun, the currahts are exported 
 packed in large butts. They are in extensive demand 
 
 in Europe and the United States, and, when mixed 
 with flour and suet, make a dish that is peculiarly ac- 
 ceptable to the lower classes. 
 
 Current (Lat. currens, from curro, to run, to 
 flow), literally signifies running, flowing, passing. 
 Hence, passing from person to person, or from hand 
 to hand; circulating, as current opinions, current 
 coin. In commerce it is applied in an analogous 
 sense to the price of any commodity : as current 
 value — that is, the ordinary or present value. As 
 applied to time, it is equivalent to now present or 
 passing : as the current month or year. It is applied 
 chiefly to the progressive movement of fluids, es- 
 pecially of air, electricity, and water. 
 
 Currents in the ocean arise from various causes, 
 either occasional or constant. They may be occa- 
 sioned by an external impulsion, for example, a gale 
 of wind j from a difference in the teluperature of dif- 
 ferent parts of the sea ; from the inequality of evap- 
 oration, the melting of the polar ice, or in short any 
 cause tending to disturb the hydrostatic equilibrium. 
 It is difficult in many cases to trace their causes, or to 
 give any satisfactory theory of their existence ; but 
 on account of their importance to navigation they 
 have been observed, especially of late years, with 
 
CUR 
 
 500 
 
 GUK 
 
 great care. Among those which, have a permanent 
 or general character, there are two which are very 
 remarkable. The first is that of the tropical waters 
 westward round the globe, and the second that which 
 Constantly flows from each pole toward the equator. 
 The tropical or westerly current is chiefly confined 
 within the zone, extending to about 30° on each side 
 of the equator, and its velocity is estimated by Hum- 
 boldt at about 9 or 10 miles a day. In the Atlantic 
 it separates into two branches, one of which forms 
 the Gulf Stream ; and the other flows along the coast 
 of Brazil, and passes through the Straits of Magellan. 
 The Gulf Stream flows northward through the middle 
 of the Atlantic, till it reaches the Cape Verd Islands ; 
 it then passes through the Caribbean Sea, between 
 Cuba and the peninsula, of Yucatan, sweeps round the 
 Gulf of Mexico, and rushes out by the Bahama Chan- 
 nel ; then, spreading out to a greater breadth, it con- 
 tinues its course along the shores of the United States 
 to Newfoundland, where it is deflected eastward by a 
 current setting in from Baffin's Bay ; and, passing the 
 Azores and Canary Islands, returns in a great meas- 
 ure into itself. Its breadth is 51 leagues in the Ba^ 
 hama Channel, and velocity from 3 to 5 miles an hour. 
 (Murray's Geography^ p. 186.) The polar currents 
 flow constantly from the, poles toward the equator, 
 though it is evident that their sources must be sup- 
 plied by currents in a contrary direction. Their ex- 
 istence is proved by the great masses of ice which are 
 carried every year from the polar seas to tropical lat- 
 itudes. Oceanic currents, by carrying with them the 
 temperature of the regions whence they flow, con- 
 tribute in no small degree to modify the temperature 
 of the atmosphere, and give a character to the climate 
 of the countries to which they are contiguous. On 
 the parallel of New York, Humboldt found the tem- 
 perature of the Gulf Stream 72° of Fahrenheit, while 
 out of the current, the heat of the ocean at the sur- 
 face was only 63°. The current which flows along 
 the eastern coast of Africa, and doubles the Cape of 
 Good Hope in a stream 130 miles broad, is from 7° to 
 8° wanner than the contiguous sea. See Gulf 
 
 Currents of water, like currents of air, meeting 
 from various directions, create gyrations, which in 
 some parts of the sea, as on the coast of Norway, 
 assume the appearance of whirlpools, as though the 
 water were drawn into a. chasm below. The cel- 
 ebrated Maelstrom is caused by such a conflict of tidal 
 or other streams. Admiral Beechey, K.N., has given 
 diagrams illustrative of manj' "rotatory streams in 
 the English Channel, a number of which occur be- 
 tween the outer extremities of the Channel tide and 
 the stream of the oceanic or parent wave." " They 
 are clearly to be accounted for," says he, "by the 
 streams acting obliquely upon each other." It is not 
 necessary to associate with oceanic currents the idea 
 that they must of necessity, as on land, run from a 
 higher to a lower level. So far from this being the 
 case, some currents of the sea actually'' run up hill, 
 while others run on a level. The Gulf Stream is of 
 this class. The currents which run from the Atlantic 
 into the Mediterranean, and from the Indian Ocean 
 into the Red Sea, are the reverse of this. Here the 
 bottom of the current is probably a water level, and 
 the top an inclined plane, running down hill. Take 
 the Red Sea current as an illustration. That Sea lies, 
 for the most part, within u. rainless and riverless dis- 
 trict. It may be compared to a long and narrow 
 trough. Being in a rainless district, the evaporation 
 from it is immense ; none of the water thus taken up 
 is returned to it either by rivers or rains. It is about 
 1,000 miles long; it lies nearly north and south, and 
 extends from latitude 13° to the parallel of 30° north. 
 
 Mediterranean Currents. -^iVa. regard to an under 
 current from the Mediterranean, we maj^ remark that 
 there is a current always setting in at the surface 
 
 froni the Atlantic, and that .this is a salt-water cur- 
 rent, which carries, an immense amount of salt into 
 that- sea. We know, moreover, that that sea js not 
 salting up ; we might infer the existence of an under- 
 current, through which this Bait finds its way out into 
 the broad ocean again. 
 
 The Currents of the Indian Ocean. — By carefully 
 examining the physical features of this sea, and 
 studj'-ing its conditions, we are led to look for warm 
 currents that have their genesis in this ocean, and that 
 carry from it volumes of overheated water, probably 
 exceeding in quantity many .times that which is disr 
 charged by the Gulf Stream from its, fountains. The 
 Atlantic Ocean is open at the north, but tropical coun- 
 tries bound the Indian Ocean in that direction. The 
 waters of this ocean are hotter than thos^ of the Ca- 
 ribbean Sea, and the evaporating force there is much 
 greater. That it is greater,- we might, without ob- 
 servation, infer from the fact of a higher temperature 
 and a. greater amount of precipitation on the neigh- 
 boring shores. These two facts, taken together, tend, 
 it .would seem, to show that large currents of warm 
 water have their genesis in the Indian Ocean. One 
 of them is the well-known Mozambique current, 
 called at the Cape of Good Hope the Lagullas cur- 
 rent. Another of these currents makes its escape 
 through the Straits of Malacca, and, being joined by 
 other warm streams from the Java and China Seas, 
 flows out into the Pacific, like another Gulf Stream, 
 between the Philippines and the shores of Asia. 
 Thence it attempts the great circle route for the , 
 Aleutian Islands, tempering climates, and losing 
 itself in the sea on its route toward the north-west 
 coast of America. Between the physical features of 
 this current and the Gulf Stream of the Atlantic, 
 there are several points of resemblance. Sumatra 
 and Malacca correspond to Florida and Cuba ; Bonieo 
 to the Bahamas, with the Old Providence Channel to 
 the south, and the Florida Pass to the west. The 
 coasts of China answer to those of the United States, 
 the Philippines to the Bermudas, the Japan Islands 
 to Newfoundland. As with the Gulf Stream, so also 
 here with this China Current, there is a counter cur- 
 rent of cold water between it and the shore. The ! 
 climates of the Asiatic coast correspond with those of 
 America along the Atlantic, and those of Columbia, 
 Washington, and Vancouver are duplicates , of those 
 of Western Europe and the British Islands ; the cli- 
 mate of California (State) resembling that of Spain ; 
 the sandy plains and rainless regions of Lower Cali- 
 fornia reminding one of Africa, with its deserts be- 
 tween the same parallels, etc. Moreover, the North 
 Pacific, like the North Atlantic, is enveloped, where 
 these warm waters go, with mists and fogs, and 
 streaked with lightning. The Aleutian Islands are 
 almost as renowned for fogs and mists as are the 
 Grand Banks of Newfoundland. A surface current 
 flows north through Behring's Straits into the Arctic 
 Sea ; but in the Atlantic the current is from, not into 
 the Arctic Sea : it flows south on the surface, north 
 below ; Behring's Straits being too shallow to admit 
 of mighty under currents, or to permit the introduc- 
 tion from the polar basin of any large icebergs into 
 the Pacific. 
 
 The Currents of the Pacific. — The contrast has been 
 drawn between the China or " Gulf Stream" of the 
 North Pacific, and the Gulf Stream of the North At- 
 lantic. The course of the China Stream has never 
 been satisfactorily traced out. There is along the 
 coast of California and Mexico, a southwardly move- 
 ment of waters, as there is along the west coast of 
 Africa toward the Cape de Verd Islands. In the 
 open space west of this, southwardly set along the 
 African coast, there is the famous Sargasso Sea, which 
 is the general receptacle of the drift-wood and seo^ 
 weed of the Atlantic. So, in like manner, to the west 
 from California of this other southwardly set, lies the 
 
CUR 
 
 501 
 
 CUR 
 
 pool into' which the drift-wood and sea-weed of the 
 North Pacific are generally gathered, but in small 
 quantities. The natives of the Aleutian Islands, 
 where no trees grow, depend upon the drlft-Wood cast 
 ashore there for all the timber used in the construc- 
 tion of their boats, flshing-taclcle, and household gear. 
 Among this timber, the camphor-tree; and other 
 woods of China and Japan, are said to be often recog- 
 nized. In this fact we have additional evidence 
 touching this China Stream, as to which, but little, 
 at best, is Icnown. "Tlie Japanese," says Lieuten- 
 ant Bent, in a paper read before the American Geo- 
 graphical Society, Janaarj-, 1856, " are well aware of 
 its existence, and have given It the name of ' Kuro- 
 Siwo,' or Black Stream,,whioh is undoubtedly derived 
 from the deep blue color of its water, when compared 
 with'that of the adjacent ocean." From this we may 
 infer that the blue waters b« this China Stream also 
 contain more salt than the neighboring waters of the 
 sea. 
 
 The Cold Current of Okotsli. — Inshore of, but codn- 
 ter to the China Current, along the eastern shores of 
 Asia, is found a streak or layer, or current of cold 
 water answering to that between the Gulf Stream 
 and the American coast. This current, like its fellow 
 in the Atlantic, is not strong' enough at all times 
 sensibly to aifect the course of navigation ; but, like 
 that in the Atlantic, it is the nursery of most valua- 
 ble fisheries. The fisheries of Japan are quite as 
 extensive as those of Newfoundland, and the people 
 of each country are indebted for their valuable sup- 
 plies of excellent fish to the cold waters which the 
 currents of the sea bring down to their shores. 
 
 Humboldt's Current.— Ihe currents of the Pacific 
 are but little understood. Among those about which 
 most is thought to be known, is the Humboldt Cur- 
 rent of Peru, which the great and' good man whose 
 name it bears, was the first to discover. This cur- 
 rent is ifelt as far as the equator, mitigating the rain- 
 less climate of Peru as it goes, and making it delight- 
 ful. The Andes, with their snow-caps, on one side 
 of the narrow Pacific slopes of this inter-tropical re- 
 public, and the current from the Antarctic regions on 
 the other, malce its climate one of the most remarka- 
 ble in the world ; for, though torrid as to latitude, it 
 is such as to temperature that cloth clothes are seldom 
 felt as oppressive during anj' time of the year, espe- 
 cially after nightfall. ' 
 
 Currents of the Atlantic. — The principal currents 
 of the Atlantic will be described in the article on 
 the Gulf Stream. Besides tliese, its ofi'sets are the 
 Equatorial Current and the St. Roque or Brazil Cur- 
 rent. Their fountain-head is the same. It is in the 
 warm waters about the equator, between Africa and 
 America. The former, receiving the Amazon and the 
 Oronoco as tributaries by the way, flows into the Ca- 
 ribbean Sea, and becomes, with the waters in which 
 the vapors of the trade-winds leave their salts, the 
 feeder of the Gulf Stream. The ifirazil Current, 
 coming from the same fountain, is supposed to be di- 
 vided by Cape St. Roque, one branch going to the 
 south under this name, the other to the westward. 
 This last has been a great bugbear to na"vigators, 
 principally on account of the difiiculties which a few 
 dull vessels falling to leeward of St. Roque have found 
 in beating up against it. It was said to have caused the 
 loss of some English transports in the last century, 
 which fell to leeward of the Cape on a voyage to the 
 other hemisphere 5 and na^vigators, accordingly, were 
 advised to shun it as a danger. This current has been 
 an object of special investigation during my researches 
 connected with the Wind and Cnrrent Charts, and the 
 result has satisfied me that it is neither a dangerous 
 nor a constant current, not'withstanding older writers. 
 Horsburgh, in his East India Director^'', cautions nav- 
 igators against it ; and Keith Johnston, in his grand 
 physical Atlas, published in 1846, thus speaks of it : 
 
 " This current greatly Impedes the progress of those 
 vessels which cross the equator west of 23° west lon- 
 gitude, impelling them beyond Cape St. Boque, when 
 they are drawn toward the northern coast of Brazil, 
 and can not regain their course till after weeks or 
 months of delay and exertion." So far from this be- 
 ing the case, my researches abundantly prove that 
 vessels which cross the equator five hundred miles to 
 the west of longitude 23° have no difiicnlty on ac- 
 count of this current in clearing that Cape. I receive 
 almost daily the abstract logs of vessels that cross the 
 equator west of 30° west, and in three days from that 
 crossing they are generally clear of that Cape. A few 
 of them report the current in their favor; most of 
 them experience no current at all ; but, now and theny 
 some do find a current setting to the northward and 
 the westward, and operating against them at the rate 
 of twenty miles a day. The inter-tropical regions of 
 the Atlantic, like those of the other oceans, abound 
 with confiicting currents, which no researches yet 
 have enabled the mariner to unravel so that he may 
 at all, times know where they are and tell how they 
 run, in order that he may be certain of their help 
 when favorable, or sure of a'voiding them if adverse.- 
 
 Under Currents. — Lieutenant J.-C. Walsh, in the 
 Uk S. schooner Taney,, and Lieutenant 8. P. Lee, in 
 the' U. S. brig Dolphin, both, while they were 
 carrying on a system of observations in connection 
 with the Wind and Current Charts, had their atten- 
 tion directed to the subject of submarine currents. 
 They made some interesting experiments upon the 
 subject. A block of wood was loaded to sinking, and, 
 by means of a fishing-line or a bit of twine, let down 
 to the depth of one hundred or five hundred fathoms, 
 at the will of the experimenter. A small barrel as a 
 float, just sufficient to keep the block from sinking 
 further, was then tied to the line, and the whole let 
 go from the boat. To use their own expressions,! 
 " It was wonderful, indeed, to see this harrega move 
 ofl", against wind, and sea, and surface current, at the 
 rate of over one knot an hour, as was generally the 
 case, and on one occasion as much as If knots. The 
 men in the boat could not repress exclamations of sur- 
 prise, for it really appeared as if some monster of the 
 deep had hold of the weiglit below, and was walking 
 off with it." Both officers and men were amazed at 
 the sight. The experiments in deep-sea soundings 
 have also thrcwn much light upon the subject of un- 
 der currents. There is reason to believe that they 
 exist in all, or almost all parts of the deep sea, for 
 never in any instance yet has the deep-sea line ceased 
 to run out, even after the plummet had reached the 
 bottom. If the line be held fast in the boat, it invaria- 
 bly parts, showing, when two or three miles of it are 
 out, that the under currents are sweeping against the 
 bight of it with what seamen call a swiggijng force, 
 that nosounding twine has yet proved strong enougli 
 to withstand. Lieutenant J. P. Parker, of the UnU 
 ted States' frigate Congress, attempted, in 1862; a 
 deep-sea sounding off the coast of South America. 
 He was engaged with the experiment eight or nine 
 hours, during which time a line nearly ten miles long 
 was paid out. Night coming on, he had to part the 
 line (which he did simply by attempting to haul it 
 in) and return on board. Examination proved that 
 the ocean there, instead of being over ten miles in 
 depth was not over three, and that the line was swept 
 out by the force of one or more under currents. — 
 Maury's Physical Geography. 
 
 Currency. (Lat. curro, I run.) In Political 
 Economy, a term sometimes used to express the cot 
 lective amount of the money, and of the bills, 
 checks, and other substitutes for money, employed 
 in selling or buying, or in the distribution of the com- 
 modities and ser'vices among the different ranks and 
 orders of the community. — See Articles Banes, Coin- 
 AQE, Cbedit, and Gold. 
 
I 
 
 CUR 
 
 502 
 
 CUR 
 
 Currencies in United States. The Treas- 
 ury Department of the United States issued, on the 
 19th of September, 1851, the following instructions to 
 collectors and officers of the customs : "In view of 
 the embarrassments existing at some of the principal 
 ports, and the want of uniformity in the practice of 
 assessing duties upon merchandise invoiced in depre- 
 ciated foreign currencies, it is deemed proper to estab- 
 lish some uniform regulations on the subject, for the 
 future government of officers of the customs. The 
 law requires invoices of all imported merchandise 
 subject to an ad valorem duty to be made out in the 
 currency of the country or place where the importa- 
 tion is made. The basis of value upon which the du- 
 ties are to be assessed is the true market value in the 
 principal markets of the country at the period of ex- 
 portation to the United States, exhibited in such for- 
 eign currency at its intrinsic value, and converted 
 into money of the United States according to the 
 rates of value at which said currency may have been 
 determined agreeably to law. Congress has fixed the 
 value of some of the foreign currencies at specific 
 rates ; but where the invoice cost of goods, wares, or 
 merchandise is exiiibited in a depreciated currency 
 issued and circulated under the authority of any for- 
 eign government, the President of the United States 
 is duly authorized by law to cause to be established 
 * fit and proper regulations' for estimating the duties 
 on any such goods, wares, and merchandise. In all 
 cases, therefore, where the foreign currency is depre- 
 ciated, its value in money of the United States is to be 
 ascertained in the mode prescribed by the circular in- 
 structions issued by the Department, by direction of 
 the President, under the dates of the 14th of May and 
 the 16th of August, 1831, and the 36th of October, 
 1832. Although the consular certificate, required by 
 said instructions, of the value in United States' money 
 of any foreign depreciated currency is ordinarily to be 
 received and taken as evidence of such value, yet it 
 is not to be deemed conclusive in cases where facts 
 or circumstances may exist, producing a rational be- 
 lief that manifest error attaches to such certificate. 
 Where Congress has fixed the value in American 
 money of any foreign currency, it is to be understood 
 that the value is to attach in all cases in estimating 
 that duty ; and, should any of the said currencies be- 
 come depreciated, either by the issue of government 
 paper money or otherwise, the collectors nevertheless 
 will make no alteration in the value in estimating 
 duties, without the previous authority of the Depart- 
 ment, which authority will be promptly given in all 
 cases, so soon as th« fact of such depreciation is au- 
 thentically brought to his knowledge. Such informa- 
 tion has been received as regards the Austrian florin, 
 which, until further instructions on the subject, the 
 collectors will consider as depreciated currency, and 
 levy the duty accordingly on invoices stated in it. 
 The foreign currencies alluded to above, the value of 
 which is fixed by various acts of Congress, are noted 
 at foot, for your information and government. 
 
 " It frequently happens that invoices stated in the 
 currency of the country of shipment have expressed 
 on the face of them, in the currency of another coun- 
 try, the amount for which bills of exchange may have 
 been drawn in payment of the goods, or for other 
 causes. In cases where both currencies have a spe- 
 cie basis, any difference which may exist between the 
 two amounts thus exhibited is presumed to arise from 
 the interest on the sight of the bill, or a regular dif- 
 ference of exchange between the two points \ and 
 where the currency of the country of shipment is de- 
 preciated, a similar difference may exist between the 
 specie value of the foreign currency thus expressed on 
 the face of the invoice, and the consular certified spe- 
 cie value of the local depreciated currency in which 
 the invoice is stated. As the law provides that the 
 duties shall be estimated on the specie value of the 
 
 currency of the country whence the shipment is made, 
 that mode, as a general rule, will therefore be 
 adopted ; yet where the difference between the value 
 of two currencies, expressed upon the face of the in- 
 voice, is so great as to excite a well-founded belief 
 that either deception or error exists, the appraisers 
 are required to investigate the facts, and if they as- 
 certain that there has been error, either in the con- 
 sular certificate in giving the specie value of a depre- 
 ciated currrency, or that otherwise the true specie 
 value in currency of the United States has not been 
 correctly set forth, it will become their duty to cor- 
 rect said error by advancing the cost or value given 
 in the invoice or on the entry, either in the price of 
 the goods or the estimated specie value of the depre- 
 ciated currency." 
 
 Curricle (Lat. curriculum^ a chariot), a carriage 
 with two wheels, drawn by two horses abreast, and 
 supported by a pole connected with a bar across the 
 horses' backs. 
 
 Currying of Leather (Corroyer, French ; Zu~ 
 richten^ German) is the art of dressing skins after they 
 are tanned, for the purposes of the shoemaker, coach, 
 and hamessraaker, etc., or of giving them the neces- 
 sary- smoothness, lustre, color, and suppleness. Tlio 
 currier's shop has no resemblance to the tanner's prem- 
 ises, having a quite different set of tools and manipu- 
 lations. Every kind of tanned leather not intended 
 for soles or such coarse purposes, is generally curried 
 before being delivered to the workmen who fashion it, 
 such as shoemakers, coachmakers, saddlers, etc. The 
 chief operations of the currier are four : 1. Dipping 
 the leather, which consists in moistening it with water, 
 and beating it with the mace^ or a mallet, upon the 
 hurdle. He next applies the cleaners^ both blunt and 
 sharp, as well as the head-knife, to remove or thin 
 down all inequalities. After the leather is shaved, it 
 is thrown once more into water, and well scoured bj' 
 rubbing the grain side with pumice-stone, or a piece 
 of slaty grit, whereby it parts with the bloom, a whit- 
 ish matter, derived from the oak bark in the tan-pit. 
 2. Applying the pommel to give the leather a granu- 
 lar appearance, and correspondent flexibility. The 
 leather is first folded with its grain side in contact, 
 and rubbed strongly with the pommel, then rubbed 
 simply upon its grain side ; whereby it becomes ex- 
 tremely flexible. 3. Scraping the leather. This makes 
 it of uniform thickness. The workman holds the tool 
 nearly perpendicular Upon the leather, and forcibly 
 scrapes the thick places with both his hands. 4. 
 Dressing it by the round-knife. For this purpose he 
 stretches the leather upon the wooden cylinder, lays 
 hold of the pendent under edge, with the pincers at- 
 tached to his girdle, and then with both hands applies 
 the edge of the knife to the surface of the leather, 
 slantingly from above downward, and thus pares ofi" 
 the coarser fleshy parts of the skin. This operation 
 requires great experience and dexterity ; and when 
 well performed, improves greatly the look of the 
 leather. 
 
 The hide or skin, being rendered flexible and uni- 
 form, is conveyed to the shed or drying-house, where 
 the greasy substances are applied, which is called dub- 
 bing (daubing) or stuffing. The oil used for this purpose 
 is prepared by boiling sheepskins or doeskins in cod 
 oil. This application of grease is often made before 
 the graining-board or pommel is employed. Before 
 waxing, the leather is commonly colored by rubbing it 
 with a brush dipped into a composition of oil and lamp- 
 black on the flesh side, till it be thoroughly black ; it 
 is then black-sized with a brush or sponge, dried, tal- 
 lowed with the proper cloth, and slicked upon the flesh 
 with a broad, smooth lump of glass ; sized again with 
 a sponge ; and when dry, again curried as above de- 
 scribed. Currying leather on the hair or grain side, 
 termed black on the grain, is the same in the first op- 
 eration with that dressed on the flesh, till it is scoured. 
 
cus 
 
 603 
 
 CUS 
 
 Then the first black is applied to it while wet, hy a 
 solution of copperas put upon the grain, after this has 
 been rubbed with a stone ; a brush dipped in stale 
 urine is next rubbed on, then an iron slicker is used 
 to make the grain come out as fine as possible. It is 
 now stuffed with oil. When drj', it is seasoned ; that 
 is, nibbed over with a brush dipped in copperas-water, 
 on the grain, till it be perfectly black. It is next 
 slicked with a good grit-stone, to take out the wrin- 
 kles, and smooth the coarse grain. The grain is finally 
 raised with the pommel or graining-board, by apply- 
 ing it to the leather in different directions. When 
 thoroughly dry, it is grained again in two or three 
 ways. Hides intended for covering coaches are shaved 
 nearly as thin as shoe hides, and blacked upon the 
 grain. 
 
 Curtains. Window-curtains are now made in 
 great variety, both of materials and manufacture, the 
 principal difference being as to the former, which con- 
 sist chiefly of 3 — silk, wool, and cotton. Silk is em- 
 ployed in dama^Jcs and tabarefs, mixed with wool, the 
 former being a flowery pattern of silk on a woolen 
 foundation, whilst the latter is a satin stripe arranged 
 in the same way as regards the composing materials. 
 A species of terry-velvet is also now used in which the 
 two materials are blended, and which makes a rich 
 and elegant curtain ; this is made also in wool without 
 silk, and then called repp. When wool is used by 
 itself, it then forms a broad-cloth suited to dining-rooms, 
 or a damask, which is not so beautiful to the eye as 
 the silk damask, but still sufficiently so for common 
 purposes, or else a moreen, either plain or watered, or a 
 challi, which is a thin trill material, printed with chintz 
 patterns. Cotton is made into a plain article, without 
 any thing but a mere web and woof, which, when 
 printed and glazed, is called chintz. 
 
 Customs are duties charged upon commodities on 
 their being imported into or exported from a country. 
 They were bollected upon merchandise in England, 
 under Ethelred II., in 979. The king's claim to them 
 by grant of Parliament was established 3 Edward I., 
 1274. [This is questionable.] The customs were 
 farmed to Mr. Thomas Smith, for £20,000 for several 
 years, in the reign of Elizabeth. — Stowe. They were 
 farmed by Charles II. for £390,000 in the year 1666. 
 — Davenant. The duties collected in England were. 
 
 In 1808 £9,973,000 
 
 In 1828 11,498,000 
 
 In 18S0 17,640,000 
 
 In 1836 18,612,000 
 
 In 1S40 19,916,000 
 
 In 1855 20,000,000 
 
 In 1680 £14,000 
 
 In 1592 60,000 
 
 In 1614-.... 148,000 
 
 In 1622 168,000 
 
 In 1642 600,000 
 
 In 1T20 1,566,600 
 
 In 1748 2,000,000 
 
 The customs in Ireland were, in the year 1224, viz., 
 on everj' sack of wool, 3d. ; on every last of hides, 
 6d. ; and 2d. on ever}' barrel of wine. — Annals of Dub- 
 lin. Custom-house ofiicers, and officers of excise, 
 were disqualified from voting for the election of mem- 
 bers of Parliament, by statute 22 George III., 1782. 
 
 Customs duties seem to have existed in every com- 
 mercial country. The Athenians laid a tax of a fifth 
 on the corn and other merchandise imported from for- 
 eign countries, and also on several of the commodities 
 exported from Attica. The porU)ria, or customs pay- 
 able on the commodities imported into, and exported 
 from, the different ports in the Roman empire, formed 
 a very ancient and important part of the public reve- 
 nue. The rates at which they were charged were 
 fluctuating and various, and little is now known re- 
 specting them. Cicero informs us, that the duties on 
 corn exported from the ports of Sicily were, in his 
 time, 5 per cent. Under the imperial government, 
 the amount of the portoria depended as much on the 
 caprice of the prince as on the real exigences of the 
 state. Though sometimes diminished, they were never 
 entjrely remitted, and were much more frequently in- 
 creased. Under the Byzantine emperors, they were 
 as high as 12^ per cent. 
 
 Customs duties existed in England previous to the 
 Conquest. They appear to have derived their name 
 from having been immemorially or customarily charged 
 on certain articles when conveyed across the princi- 
 pal ferries, bridges, etc., within the kingdom, and on 
 these and other articles of native and foreign produce, 
 when exported from or imported into the kingdom. In 
 1206 the entire customs revenue of England, including 
 that derived from tolls and fairs, amounted to only 
 £4,958 78. 3^. ! It is not, therefore, true, as has 
 sometimes been stated, that the king's first claim to 
 the customs was established in the reign of Edward I. 
 But that able and politic prince, by rendering the levy 
 of the old duties more effectual, and procuring the 
 sanction of Parliament to the imposition of new duties, 
 was the first who made the customs revenue of any 
 material importance. The duties were at first princi- 
 pally laid on wool, woolfels (sheepskins), and leather 
 when exported. There were also extraordinary duties 
 paid by aliens, which were denominated^aruo cusfumOf 
 to distinguish them from the former, or magna custuma. 
 The duties of tonnage and poundage, of which men- 
 tion is so frequently made in English history, were 
 customs duties ; the first being paid on wine by the 
 tun, and the latter being an ad valorem duty of so 
 much a pound on all other merchandise. When these 
 duties were granted to the crown, they were denomin- 
 ated subsidies ; and as the duty of poundage had con- 
 tinued for a lengthened period at the rate of Is. a 
 pound, or 6 per cent., a subsidy came, in the language 
 of the customs, to denote an ad valorem duty of 5 per 
 cent. The new subsidy granted in the reign of Wil- 
 liam III. was an addition of 5 per cent, to the duties 
 on most imported commodities.' — Treatise on Taxation, 
 by J. E. McCnLLOCH, 2d ed., p. 234. 
 
 The various customs duties were collected, for the 
 first time, in a book of rates published in the reign of 
 Charles I. ; a new book of rates being again published 
 in the reign of George I. But, exclusive of the duties 
 entered in these two books, many more had been im- 
 posed at different times ; so' that the accumulation of 
 the duties, and the complicated regulations to which 
 they gave rise, were productive of the greatest em- 
 barrassment. The evil was increased by the care- 
 less manner in which new duties were added to the old, 
 a per centage being" sometimes added to the original 
 tax ; while at other times the commodity was esti- 
 mated by a new standard of bulk, weight, number, or 
 value, and charged with an additional impost, without 
 any reference to the duties formerly imposed. The 
 confusion arising from these sources was still further 
 augmented by the special appropriation of each of the 
 duties, and the consequent necessitj' of a separate cal- 
 culation for each. The intricacy and confusion insep- 
 arable from such a state of things proved a serious 
 injury to commerce, and led to many frauds and 
 abuses. 
 
 Customs duties, like all duties on particular com- 
 modities, though advanced in the first instance by the 
 merchant, are ultimately paid by those by whom they 
 are consumed. When a government lays a duty on 
 the foreign commodities which enter its ports, the duty 
 falls entirely on such of its own subjects as purchase 
 these <!ommodities ; for the foreigners would cease sup- 
 plying its market with them, if they did not get the 
 full price of the commodities, exclusive of the tax ; 
 and, for the same reason, when a government lays a 
 duty on the commodities which its subjects are about 
 to export, the duty does not fall on them, but on the 
 foreigners by whom they are bought. If, therefore, 
 it were possible for a countrj- to raise a sufficient reve- 
 nue by laying duties on exported commodities, such 
 revenue would be wholly derived from others, and it 
 would be totally relieved from the burden of taxation, 
 except in so far as duties might be imposed by foreign- 
 ers on the goods it imports from them. Care, however, 
 must be taken, in Imposing duties on exportation, net 
 
C¥S 
 
 504 
 
 ■cus 
 
 to lay them on commodities that may be produced at 
 the same, or nearly the same, cost by foreigners ; for 
 the effect of the duty would then be to make the mar- 
 ket be supplied by others, and to put an entire stop to 
 their exportation. But in the event of a country pos- 
 sessing anj- decided natural or acquired advantage in 
 the production of any sort of commodities, a duty on 
 their exportation would seem to be the most unexcep- 
 tionable of all taxes. If the Chinese chose to act on 
 this principle, and had the power, they might derive a 
 considerable revenue from a duty on exported ,teas, 
 which would fall entirely on the English and other 
 foreigners who buj' them. The coal and tui, and per- 
 haps, also, some of the manufactured goods produced 
 in this country, seem to be in this predicament. The 
 revenue derived from the customs duties in 1590, in 
 the reign of Elizabeth, amounted to no more than 
 £50,000. In 1613, it had increased to £148,075 ; of 
 which no less than £109,672 were collected in London. 
 In 16G0, at the Restoration, the customs produced 
 £421,582 ; and at the Revolution, in 1688, they pro- 
 duced £781,987. During the reigns of William III. 
 and Anne, the customs revenue was considerably aug- 
 mented, the nett payments into the exchequer in 1712, 
 being £1,315,423. , During the war terminated by the 
 peace of IParis in 1763, the nett produce of the customs 
 revenue of Great Britain amounted to nearly £2,000,- 
 000. In 1792, it amounted to £4,407,000. In 1815, 
 at the close of the war, it amounted to £11,360,000. 
 See Great JBriiain. See Tariffs United Siaies. 
 
 Consular officers are instructed that the following 
 values have been, established by the laws of 
 the United States for certain foreign ctirrencies, 
 viz. : dollars of Mexico, Peru, ChUi, and Central 
 America, $1 ; dollar, specie, of Denmark, $1 05 ; dol- 
 lar, rix, or thaler, of Prussia, and the Northern States 
 of Germany, 69 cts. ; dollar, rix, of Bremen, 78f cts. ; 
 dollar, specie, of Sweden and Norway, $1 06; ducat 
 of Naples, 80 cts. ; franc of France and Belgium, 
 18 6-10 cts. ; florin of Netherlands, 40 cts. ; florin of 
 Austria, 48^ cts. ; florin of Southern States of Ger- 
 many, 40 cts. ; guilder of Netherlands, 40 cts. ; lira of 
 the Lombardo-Venetian Kingdom, 16 cents; lira of 
 Tuscany, 16 cents ; lira of Sardinia, 18 6-10 cts. ; livre 
 toumoise of France, 18-^ cts. ; livre of Leghorn, 16 
 cts. ; milrea of Portugal, $1 12 ; milrea of Azores, 831- 
 cts. ; marc banco of Hamburg, 35 cts. ;, ounce of Sicily, 
 $2 40 ; pound sterling of Great Britain, $4 84 ; pound 
 sterling of British provinces of Nova Scotia, New 
 Brunswick, Newfoundland, and Canada, $4; pagoda 
 of India, $1 84; real vellon of Spain, 6 cts.; real 
 plate of Spain, 10 cts. ; ruble, silver, of Russia, 75 
 cts. ; rupee, company, 44^ cts. ; rupee of British In- 
 dia, 44J cts. ; tael of China, ISI 48. 
 
 . Invoices of merchandise made out in the depreciated 
 currencies of Austria, Chile, Bolivia, Peru, Porto Rico, 
 and Nova Scotia, with certificates of United States' 
 consuls annexed, will be received by the collectors of 
 the United States. 
 
 The depreciated pound sterling of Nova Scotia will 
 be taken, in computation at .the custom-house of du- 
 ties, in the case of invoices of merchandise from that 
 province made out in that depreciated currency, at 
 $3 84, as compared with the silver currency of the 
 United States, provided such depreciation, at the date 
 of exportation, is certified bj' the United States' con- 
 sul at the port of shipment. 
 
 The value of the Austrian silver florin is fixed by 
 the laws of the United States, and the Austrian paper 
 florin is usually depreciated in comparison with it. 
 Assuming it to be, for example, depreciated 38 per 
 cent., the computation will be made by collectors by 
 proportion, to wit : as 138 : 100, so is the amount of 
 paper florins stated in the invoice to the value in silver 
 florins. Of course the consular certificate, showing 
 the rate of depreciation, must be produced in such 
 cases.— See co7itra. Act, Feb. 1857, 
 
 A Table showikg the Eevenfe collected from tjie 
 beginning of the government to june 30, 1855, 
 unher the head op customs, and tub particitlae 
 Tariff, under which the Revenue from those 
 
 SOURCES WAS collected. 
 
 Yenrs, ■ 
 
 From Customa. 
 
 Dflte of tariff. 
 
 Tofftl receipts. 
 
 Froml 
 
 
 July 4, 1789— gen- 
 
 
 March 4, 
 
 
 eral; August 10, 
 
 
 1T69, to - 
 
 $4,899,478 
 
 1790 — general ; 
 
 - $10,210,025 
 
 Doc. 81, 
 
 
 March 3, 1791— 
 
 
 1T91 J 
 
 
 general 
 
 , ; 
 
 1792 
 
 8,443,070 
 
 day 2~general 
 
 8,740,766 
 
 1798 
 
 4,266,806 
 
 
 6,720,624 
 
 1794 
 
 4,801,066 
 
 Tnne 6 — special; 
 
 
 
 
 June 7 — general... 
 
 10,041,101 
 
 1795 
 
 6,688,461 
 
 Tan. 29 — general . . , 
 
 9,419,802 
 
 1796 
 
 6,567,987 
 
 
 8,740,329 
 
 1797 
 
 7,649,649 
 
 Jarch ' 3 — general ; 
 
 
 
 
 Julys — special 
 
 8,753,916 
 
 1798 
 
 7,106,061 
 
 
 8.209,070 
 
 1799 
 
 6,610,449 
 
 
 . 12;621,469 
 
 1800 
 
 9,080,932 
 
 tfay 18 — special 
 
 12,4.51,184 
 
 1801 
 
 10,750,778 
 
 
 12,945,458 
 
 1802 
 
 12,488,285 
 
 
 16,001,391 
 
 1803 
 
 10,479,417 
 
 
 11,064,097 
 
 1804 
 
 11,098,566 
 
 tfarch 26 — special; 
 
 
 
 
 March 27— special. 
 
 11,853,840 
 
 1805 
 
 12,986,487 
 
 
 18,689,508 
 
 1806 
 
 14,667,696 
 
 
 15,608,828 
 
 1807 
 
 15,846,621 
 
 
 16,393,019 
 
 1808 
 
 16,363,560 
 
 
 17,062,544 
 
 1809 
 
 7,296,020 
 
 
 7,778,478 
 
 1810 
 
 8,583,809 
 
 
 12,144,206 
 
 1811 
 
 18,318,222 
 
 
 14,431,838 
 
 1812 
 
 8,968,777 
 
 July 1 — special 
 
 22,(i39,082 
 
 1818 
 
 18,224,628 
 
 July 29— special 
 
 40,524,844 
 
 1 1814 
 
 5,998,772 
 
 ' ■• ■ ■ .... 
 
 84,559,686 
 
 1815 
 
 7,282,942 
 
 
 50,961,287 
 
 1816 
 
 86,306,874 
 
 February 5— special ; 
 
 
 
 
 April 27— general . 
 
 67,171,421 
 
 1817 
 
 26,288,848 
 
 
 88,888,592 
 
 1818 
 
 17,176,886 
 
 April 20-^pccial 
 
 March 3 — special 
 
 21,598,986 
 
 1819 
 
 20,288,608 
 
 24,606,666 
 
 1820 
 
 16,006,612 
 
 
 20,881,493 
 
 1821 
 
 18,004,447 
 
 
 19,578,708 
 
 18-i2 
 
 17,889,761 
 
 
 20,232,427 
 
 1823 
 
 19,088,483 
 
 
 20,640,666 
 
 1824 
 
 17,878,326 
 
 May 2'2 — general — 
 
 24,881,512 
 
 1825 
 
 20,098,718 
 
 
 26,840,858 
 
 1826 
 
 28,841,881 
 
 
 26,260,«« 
 
 1827 
 
 19,712,283 
 
 
 22,966,8.6^ 
 
 1828 
 
 28,206,623 
 
 May 19 — general; 
 
 
 
 
 May 24 — special. . . 
 
 24,768,629 
 
 1829 
 
 22,681,966 
 
 
 24,827,827 
 
 1880 
 
 21,922,891 
 
 May 20 — special ; 
 
 ■ jil 
 
 
 
 May 29— special. . . 
 
 24,844,116 
 
 1881 
 
 24,224,441 
 
 
 28,626,820 
 
 1882 
 
 28,466,287 
 
 July 18 — special ; 
 July 14 — general . . 
 
 
 
 
 81,866,661 
 
 1888 
 
 29,082,608 
 
 Mar. 2 — special; Mar. 
 
 
 
 
 2 — compromise . . . 
 
 88,948,426 
 
 1884 
 
 16,214,967 
 
 
 21,791,936 
 
 1885 
 
 19,891,810 
 
 
 86.480,087 
 
 1886 
 
 28,409,940 
 
 
 50,826,796 
 
 1887 
 
 11,169,290 
 
 
 27,883,868 
 
 1838 
 
 16,158,800 
 
 
 89,019,882 
 
 1889 
 
 23,187,924 
 
 
 88,881,242 
 
 1840 
 
 13,499,802 
 
 
 26,032,198 
 
 1841 
 
 14,487,216 
 
 Sept. 11 — general .... 
 
 80,619,477 
 
 1842 
 
 18,187,908 
 
 Aug. 30— general 
 
 84,778,744 
 
 June 80,4; 
 
 7,046,848 
 
 
 20,782,410 
 
 1843—44 
 
 26,188,570 
 
 .... 
 
 81,198,668 
 
 1844-Hl£ 
 
 27,528,112 
 
 
 29,941,858 
 
 184S-^C 
 
 26,712,667 
 
 
 29,699,967 
 
 1846-^7 
 
 28,747,864 
 
 July 80,1846— general 
 
 56,888,168 
 
 1847-46 
 
 81,757,070 
 
 Mar.29,1848-special 
 
 66,992,479 
 
 1848— 4S 
 
 28,846,738 
 
 Aug.12,1848— special 
 Jan. 26, 1849— spec 
 
 
 
 
 69,796,892 
 
 1849— 5C 
 
 89,668,686 
 
 
 47,649,883 
 
 1860-51 
 
 49,017,667 
 
 
 52,762,704 
 
 1861— BS 
 
 47,339,326 
 
 
 49,898,116 
 
 1852—6! 
 
 58,981,865 
 
 
 61,500,102 
 
 1858—5^ 
 
 64,224,190 
 
 .... 
 
 78,802,291 
 
 1864—6! 
 
 88,025,794 
 
 .... 
 
 65,351,374 
 
 1865—6 
 Total 
 
 64,022,868 
 
 .... 
 
 78,918,141 
 
 11,827,151,691 
 
 $l,SS6,997,2.'i6 
 
 The value of the specie dollar of Sweden and Nor- 
 way having been fixed by an act of Congress of the 
 22d May, 1846, at 106 cents United States' currency, 
 and the rix dollar banco of Sweden and Norway, being 
 a component part of their specie dollar, and in the in- 
 variable proportion of 2^ to 1, and consequently eqml 
 to 39f cents United States' currency ; the rix dfillar 
 banco of Sweden and Norway is therefore taken,.in 
 computations at the custom-houses, at the rate of 3!|J 
 
eu9 
 
 505 
 
 CUT 
 
 cents, "United States' currency, and no consular cer- 
 tificate will be required, unless the currency should be 
 depreciated. All former acts authorizing the currency 
 of foreign gold or silver coins, and declaring the same 
 a legal tender in payment of debts, are hereby re- 
 pealed ; but it shall be the duty of the director of the 
 mint to cause assays to be made, from time to timfe-, of 
 such foreign coins as may be known to our commercB, 
 to determine their averag« weight, fineness, and value, 
 and to embrace in his annual report a statement of-the 
 results therefor. i 
 
 The certificate of the United States' consul, showing 
 the value of the currency of the country from which 
 the merchandise is imported,' and in which the invoice 
 is made out, in United States' or Spanish silver dollars, 
 must be required in every case in which the value of 
 such foreign currency is not fixed by the laws of the 
 United States. And in case tlie foreign currency in 
 which the invoice is made out, whether its T4lue is 
 fixed by the laws of the United States or not, is de- 
 preciated, the certificate of the United States' consul, 
 stating the rate of depreciation, must be produced on 
 the entry, and the officers of the customs are governed 
 by such certificate in computing the foreign market 
 value of the merchandise. 
 
 Customs Duties consist for the most -piirt 'of' 
 taxes levied upon goods, and produce brought for con- 
 sumption from foreign countries ; such duties are some- 
 times collected upon exports made to foreign countries, 
 and upon goods and produce passing from one port to 
 another in the same country. 
 
 The earliest statute passed' in England, whereby 
 the crown was autliorized to levy customs duties, was 
 the 3d of Edward I. The mode long employed in the 
 collection of these duties, was to affix a certain rate or 
 value upon each kind or article of merchandise, and to 
 grant -Vvhat was called a subsidy upon these rates. This 
 subsidy was generally 1 shilling of duty for every 20 
 shillings of value assigned in the book of rates, The 
 etaly acts which grant these duties speak of them as 
 subsidies of tonnage andpoundage. The word tonnage 
 was applied to a specific duty charged on the exporta- 
 tion of each ton of beer ; and the word poundage was 
 applied to other articles valued as already explained. 
 
 The first " book of rates agreed upon by the House 
 I of Commons" is believed to be that compiled by a 
 committee in 1642, during the reign of Charles I., and 
 published jmder the-authoritj' of the House by Law- 
 rence Blacklock. The next book of rates of wliich we 
 have any record, was published by order of the House 
 of Commons, in 1660, the year of the restoration of 
 Charles II. — Nat. Cyclo. See Hunt's M. M., v. 145 
 (J. Bowkisg), vi. 9 (C. Eaguet), ix. 448 (C. C. 
 Whittlesey), iv. (G. Tuckee), xiv. 456 (by C. C. 
 Jewett). See also Encyc. Am., Art. Taxes. 
 
 Custom-house, an office established by law in 
 maritime cities or seaports, for the receipt and man- 
 agement of the customs and duties imposed on goods 
 imported or exported. 
 
 Customs of Merchants. The law merchant 
 is a peculiar system which prevailed throughout the 
 whole of the Anglo-Saxon times ; it was especially 
 recognized in the time of Edward III. ; when the sta- 
 ple was ordained, a mayor was to be chosen in each 
 town, skilled in the law merchant to do right to every 
 man according to that law. The modem law mer- 
 chant is composed of three distinct elements, viz., the 
 customs of merchants, the ordinances of foreign states, 
 and the statute law — as art precedes science, so cus- 
 toms precede law. Long are these customs practiced 
 before they are committed to writing. But though 
 not written or declared by the legislative power, they 
 acquire all the authority of law, and are gradually en- 
 grafted upon the common law of the country. The 
 customs of merchants are part of the law. Judicial de- 
 terminations settle what is the custom of merchants, 
 and thev become the lex mercatoria as to the different 
 
 questions. In order that a custom be binding, it must 
 be either the usage of the whole mercantile world, or of 
 a ■ particular trade universally known as such, A 
 usage of a particular place; or of a particular class of per- 
 sons,' would not be binding on other persons unless these 
 were acquainted with those usages and adopted them. 
 In all cases, however, no custom can be set against an 
 express statute law. Among the most important cus- 
 toms among merchants are the establishment of boards 
 of trade, the settlement of disputes by arbitrations, 
 and the binding force of the decision of a referee. See 
 hnvVS'Manual of Merctrntil^' Law. 
 
 Cutlass, a short sword used by seamen. The art 
 of fencing with it is different from that with the small 
 sword or broad sword. . A guard over the hand is an 
 advantage. It is, if well understood, a verj' efiFectuaJ 
 weapon in close contest ^ on account of its shortness, 
 it can be handled easily, and yet it is long enough to 
 protect a skillful swordsman. 
 
 Cutlery "(Er. couteUeri&; Lat. ctdteVf a knife), 
 generally speaking, includes' all cutting tools made of 
 steel. Various countries' and cities have at different 
 periods excelled in the manufacture of some particular 
 article, as Damascus for a beautiful sword blade, which 
 has hitherto baffled all attempts at imitation. If this 
 blade is made, as is commonly supposed, by welding 
 together extremely fine wires of iron, steel, and gold, 
 laid alternately on each other, the dexterity required 
 is such as must astonish the itiost active and expe- 
 rienced workmen of other countries. The peculiar 
 wave, usually called the water, so universally ad- 
 mired, is effected by the application of a weak acid to 
 the polislied surface of iron and steel. At Damascus, 
 sulphate of alumine is used ; but any dilute acid seems 
 to answer the purpose. The cutlery of England is de- 
 servedlj' held in high estimation in every part of the 
 civilized world. The finer articles, as razors, pen- 
 knives, scissors, and surgical instruments, are made of 
 cast steel, that is, steel purified and equalized by 
 fusion. Dexterity and nice attention on the part of 
 the workman to a variety of circumstances, as the 
 quality of the steel, nature of the fuel, accuracy in the 
 process of hardening and tempering, and many other 
 minor considerations, are essential to the production 
 of a good cutting instrument. For table-knives, and 
 all cutlery of that description, .shear-steel is generally 
 used J' the tang and shoulder of the table knife and 
 fork are iron, united to the blade by welding. The 
 celebrated Indian steel called wootz is not used in the 
 manufacture of British cutlery. 
 
 The principal seat of the cutlery trade of England 
 is at Sheffield, where all kinds of table cutlery, razors, 
 penknives, scissors, surgeons' instruments, and every 
 variety of cutting instruments, are manufactured. 
 There are also some small manufactures of similar ar- 
 ticles in London ; but much the greater proportion of 
 the cutlery sold as London-made, is actually manufac- 
 tured in Sheffield, although bearing the name of Lon- 
 don manufacturers. Sheffield cutlery has deservedly 
 obtained a high degree of reputation in almost every 
 part of the civilized world ; and it is of the greatest im- 
 portance to the commercial interests of the country 
 that tliis high character should be maintained. But 
 here it must not be omitted to be mentioned, that there 
 is also an extensive manufacture of an inferior descrip- 
 tion of cutlery, principally consisting of table knives 
 and forks, scissors, and pocket-knives, which are pro- 
 fessedly made for export to the less civilized portions 
 of the globe, W also retailed in large quantities in 
 this country. It is manufactured by casting from a 
 species of pig-iron. This iron is, from the superabun- 
 dance of its carbon, highly susceptible of liquidity, 
 and readily casts into the required form. In this 
 state the oast-iron cutlery is extremely hard, and as 
 brittle as glass ; but it is reduced from this hardness 
 by decomposition — being subjected to a strong and 
 long-continued fire in close vessels, in contact with 
 
CUT 
 
 506 
 
 CUT 
 
 iron ore, oxj'd of iron, or any substance containing 
 oxj'gen, with which, the superabundant carbon com- 
 bines, and flies off in the state of carbonic acid gas. 
 This cast-iron cutlery is, when finished, not alwa3's 
 distinguishable in appearance from that made at the 
 forge, and can, of course, be afforded at a much lower 
 price. This very fusible iron may be applied to many 
 purposes. It is hardly necessary to add, that it is 
 quite unfit for any description of edge instrument. 
 
 These observations applj' generally to every descrip- 
 tion of knife used in surgery ; but the nature of each 
 particular operation should not be considered, in judg- 
 ing of the requisite degree of strength or delicacy of 
 edge. Next in importance to the knives are the saws 
 used in surgery. All of these must be of the best 
 spring temper, which, for the cast-steel blade, is about 
 570° of Fahrenheit, and for one of Indian steel 600°, 
 or quite the boiling point of mercurj''. Of another 
 class of instruments, namely, those denominated blunt, 
 it will be sufficient to observe, that what is known by 
 the name of shear-steel is best adapted for the purpose. 
 Case-hardened iron has been most improperly used, 
 this hardening being very superficial. It is, in fact, 
 converting the surface only into steel, by heating it to 
 redness, in a close vessel, in contact with animal char- 
 coal, such as charred bone, leather, or horn, and quench- 
 ing it when red-hot in a cold fluid. Iron thus treated, 
 will take «, beautiful polish ; but, except for orna- 
 mental purposes, it diight never to be employed. 
 Some instruments are necessarily made of gold or sil- 
 ver ; as catheters, and other tubes and probes. When 
 for these ductilit}'" is required, the metals should be 
 unalloyed ; the extra expense of which, will be more 
 than compensated by the convenience of giving to the 
 instruments, in all cases, the desired curve and form. 
 
 The handles of instruments, together with all orna- 
 mental parts, must in a great measure depend on the 
 taste and choice of the purchaser. It would be well, 
 however, to avoid such materials as are known to pro- 
 duce chemical action when in contact with polished 
 steel. Ivory, mother-of-pearl, and ebony are much 
 used ; but the fine walnut-tree, such as the London 
 gunmakers employ, is perhaps of all the woods the best 
 for the purpose. Sandal-wood answers very well, al- 
 though it by no means deserves all the credit which 
 has been given to it as a preservative of steel from rust. 
 The instrument-maker who wishes to excel will do well 
 to avail himself of every opportunity of witnessing the 
 operative part of surgery ; that he may observe how 
 far the instrument is mechanically and physically 
 adapted to its purpose, and, if necessaiy, be the better 
 able to make the requisite alteration, — E. B. 
 
 The value of hardwares and cutlery exported from 
 Great -Britain in 1855, was £2,960,391. In the New 
 England States the manufacture of cutlery is rapidly 
 increasing. In Massachusetts about $400,000 is in- 
 vested in this branch, with an annual product of about 
 $600,000. 
 
 Quietly, but rapidly, we are day by day gaining on 
 the old world, and the time is not far distant when it 
 will be discovered that the majority of our manufac- 
 tures are actuallj' superior to those of Europe. As an 
 illustration of this, we will venture to assert that there 
 are very few persons, not concerned in the business, 
 who are aware of the degree of excellence which the 
 manufacture of cutlery has attained in the United 
 States, or that, if it were generally known and en- 
 couraged, we should in all probability be entirely self- 
 dependent as regards its production. On this subject, 
 Fleischmann, whose work on the " Branches of Indus- 
 try in the United States" has contributed more than 
 any other book to enlighten Germany as to our country, 
 remarks as follows : 
 
 ** The manufacturers of cutlery in the United States 
 have far surpassed those of the old world in the manu- 
 facture of tools, and that not merely in the excellence 
 of the metal used, but especially in the practical utility 
 
 of their patterns, and in the remarkable degree of finish 
 of their work." 
 
 It is a, somewhat remarkable fact that American 
 hardware is every year developing in its shapes a prac- 
 tical economy of material and a straight-forward adapt- 
 ation to the end in view which are unknown to the 
 greater part of Europe. The American laborer or me- 
 chanic, it is weU known, even where not gifted with a 
 greater degree of physical ability, will still, as a rule, 
 turn out more work in a day than a foreigner under 
 the same circumstances. "With such men, who go 
 directly at their work and stick to it, there is no play 
 and no trifling with labor. A result of this is shown 
 in the fact that the American ax, which, in its well- 
 known form, is entirely a native American pattern, is 
 far more practically useful than the miserable Euro- 
 pean ax which it has supplanted. And not in axes 
 aldne, but in many other implements there has been a 
 marked- progress, and a gradual, though unnoticed, 
 communication of practical patterns to English manu- 
 factories. In our factories, which are themselves very 
 generally proofs of the same principle of economy and 
 of keeping directly at the object proposed, there is ac- 
 tually more of the first quality English steel used, 
 than in England itself. Of Hoop L, the best quality 
 of English steel, there is annually ten times as much 
 used as in England, though that country manufactures 
 about fifty times as much cutlerj' as we do. 
 
 Could our American mechanics receive the credit so 
 justly their due, for the improvements which they 
 have gradually introduced into the shape of carpenters' 
 tools, and could the world be made aware of the degree 
 to which of late years the English trade has been in- 
 debted to them for these improvements, we will ven- 
 ture to state that there are few who would not be 
 amazed. The European — especially the continental — 
 suffers in this respect under a tyranny of " old cus- 
 toms," which no Yankee mechanic would believe. If 
 we look through Paris, if we examine the pattern- 
 plates published, we are amazed at the luxuriance of 
 beautiful and practical forms annually produced, which 
 glitter in shop windows, or sire displaj'ed at exhibi- 
 tions. But go into the country, and we find the same 
 clumsy, unpractical old implements which were used 
 three centuries ago. The seed falls on stony ground. 
 
 At the present day, American cutlery is extensively , 
 imitated in Germany, even to the marks and names of 
 our manufacturers. This is also done by English 
 goods, but the complimentary fraud has been of late 
 years greatly on the increase as regards our own. We 
 will not assert that there is not, especially in England, 
 a vast amount of inventiveness, nor that a correspond- 
 ing degree of improvements has not been made. But 
 a practical invention is less likely to die in the birth in 
 America, and we confidently assert, without fear of 
 refutation, that if any one will study the history of 
 cutlery patterns adopted for the last 50 years, including 
 all the allied branches of manufacture, he will find 
 that by far the greater proportion of practical improve- 
 ments have been of American origin. — Hunt's Mer- 
 chants^ Magazine, 
 
 Cutter. A vessel with one mast and a bowsprit, of 
 considerable breadth in proportion to her length. The 
 distinction between a cutter and other vessels of one 
 mast, -which are called sloops, is, that in the cutter the 
 jib has no stay to support it. 
 
 Cutters, Revenue. These vessels are usually 
 about 100 or 160 tons, built as fast sailers, to aid the 
 revenue officers. The captains and lieutenants of reve- 
 nue cutters of the United States, are appointed by the 
 President. Their reports are made to the Treasury 
 Department ; the vessels subject to the direction of the 
 collector of the port. Their oflBcers and seamen are 
 placed upon the nsLvy pension list, when disabled. Con- 
 gress has recently authorized the construction or pur- 
 chase of steam revenue cutters, which will furnish 
 material aid to the government officers in extraordi- 
 nary cases. 
 
CYP 
 
 507 
 
 CYP 
 
 Cyclopaedia. (More commonly Encycloptsdia, 
 from the Greek words iv kvkXo irdiSeia ; instructions 
 in a circle,.') A. work containing definitions or accounts 
 of the principal subjects in one or all departments of 
 learning, art, or science. Its arrangement may be 
 either according to divisions into the various sciences, 
 etc., or the subjects may be arranged and treated in 
 alphabetical order. The Encyclopedie Frampaise, or 
 Dtctiormaire Encyclopidique, and the Encyelopmdia Brit- 
 annica, have been the most celebrated works of this 
 species ; but the earliest appears to be the Lexicon 
 Technicum. of Harris, published in 1706. The great 
 French work, the Encyclopedie Methodique, consists, not 
 of one, but of a series of encyclopedias or dictionaries. 
 
 Cypress, a forest tree, of which there are many 
 varieties, the species denominated the evergreen cy- 
 press (Cupressus sempervirens') and the white cedar 
 {Cupressus Thyoides) being the most celebrated. The 
 cypress is indigenous to the southern parts of Europe, 
 to several pai-ts of Asia, and to America. It grows to 
 a great size, and is a most valuable species of timber. 
 It is never attacked by worms ; and exceeds all other 
 trees, even the cedar, in durability. Hence the Athe- 
 nians, when desirous to preserve the remains of their 
 heroes and other great men, had them inclosed in. cy- 
 press coi&ns ; and hence, also, the external covering 
 of the Egyptian mummies is made of the same endur- 
 ing material. The cypress is said to live to a great 
 age ; and this circumstance, combined with its thick, 
 dark, green foliage, has made it be regarded as the 
 emblem of death and the grave. In his Geography 
 and History of the Western States, Mr. Timothy Flint 
 has given the following account of the cypress-trees 
 found in the southern parts of the valley of the Missis- 
 sippi : " These noble trees rear their straight columns 
 from a large cone-shaped buttress, whose circumfer- 
 ence at the ground is perhaps 3 times that of the regu- 
 lar shaft of the tree. This cone rises from 6 to 10 feet, 
 with a regular and sharp taper, and from the apex of 
 the cone towers the perpendicular column, with little 
 taper after it has left the cone, from 60 to 80 feet, clear 
 shaft. Ver}'' near the top it begins to throw out mul- 
 titudes of horizontal branches, which interlace with 
 those of the adjoining trees, and, when bare of leaves, 
 have an air of desolation and death, more easily felt 
 than described. In the season of vegetation the leaves 
 are short, fine, and of a verdure so deep as almost to 
 seem brown, giving an indescribable air of funereal so- 
 lemnity to this singular tree. A cypress forest, when 
 viewed from the adjacent hills, with its numberless in- 
 terlaced arms covered with this dark-brown foliage, 
 has the aspect of a scafiblding of verdure in the air. 
 It grows, too, in deep and sickly swamps, the haunts 
 of fever, musquitoes, moccasin snakes, alligators, and 
 all loathsome and ferocious animals, that congre- 
 gate far from the abodes of man, and seem to make 
 common cause with natui'e against him. The cy- 
 press loves the deepest, most gloomy, inaccessible 
 swamps ; and south of 33° is generally found covered 
 with sable festoons of long moss, hanging, like shrouds 
 of mourning wreaths, almost to the ground. It seems 
 to flourish best when water covers its roots for half the 
 year. Unpromising as are the places and circum- 
 stances of its growth, no tree of the country where it 
 is found is so extensively useful. It is free from 
 knots, it is easily wrought, and makes excellent planks, 
 shingles, and timber of all sorts. It is very durable, 
 and incomparably the most valuable tree in the south- 
 em country of this valley." Of whatever materials 
 the building is constructed, the roof is universally cov- 
 ered with cypress shingles, which, if made of trees 
 felled in the winter, last forty years. Cypress boards 
 arc preferred to those of pine for the inside of brick 
 houses, and for window-sashes, and the panels of doors 
 exposed to the weather ; cabmet-makers also choose it 
 
 for the inside of mahogany furniture. It Is highly 
 proper for the masts and sides of vessels, and wherever 
 it grows it is chosen for canoes, which are fashioned 
 from a single trunk, and are often 30 feet long and 5 
 feet wide, light, solid, and more durable than those of 
 anj' other tree. It makes the best pipes to convey 
 water under the ground ; especially the black variety, 
 which is more resinous and solid. — Browne's Trees 
 of America. 
 
 Cyprus (Kybris'), an island in the N. E. corner of 
 the Levant, lying at about eqiml distances from the 
 shores of Cilicia and Phoenicia. Its extreme length 
 from the promontory of Dinaretum to that of Acamas 
 is about 140 miles ; its extreine breadth, from the 
 promontory of Crommyon to that of Curias, about 70 
 miles. The area is roughly estimated at about 4,500 
 English square miles. The greater part of the island 
 is occupied by the central ridge and spurs of the 
 StavTo-Vuno and Santo Croce mountains (the ancient 
 Olympus). The loftiest peaks of this range attain a 
 height of from 8,000 to 10,000 feet above the sea. The 
 northern slopes are rockj' and bare, but on the side of 
 the south they are well wooded and highly picturesque, 
 and inclose, in various parts of their course, valleys 
 of imrivaled fertility. Considerable part of the wealth 
 of ancient Cyprus arose from its copper mines, the 
 most important of which were those of Tamasus in the 
 centre of the island, Soli on the north coast, and Ama- 
 thus and Cyrium on the south coast. In these mines 
 gold and silver were also found. The precious stones 
 of Cyprus were also highly valued. The chief of 
 these were the emerald, agate, malachite, jasper, opal, 
 and the minerals asbestos and rock crystal. 
 
 The first settlers in Cyprus appear to have been 
 of Phoenician origin. Under Augustus it became an 
 imperial province, and was governed by a proconsul, 
 with a staff of inferior ofiicers. Before the close of the 
 Ist century of the Christian era, the Jewish population 
 of the Island had greatly increased, and in the reign of 
 Hadrian, is said to have risen in rebellion, and slain 
 200,000 of the other inhabitants. In the 7th century, 
 Cyprus fell into the hands of the Saracens ; and in the 
 9th, it owned the supremacy of the " good" Haroun 
 Al Easchid. At the close of the 12th century, it was 
 conquered by Bichard Coeur de Lion, who made it over 
 first to the Knights of the Temple, and ultimately to 
 Guy of Lusignan, titular king of Jerusalem. For thvee 
 centuries the island remained in the family of Lusig- 
 nan, till, in 1473, it became an appendage of the Vene- 
 tian republic. Cyprus was retained by the Venetians 
 till in 1571 it was overrun by an army of Turkish in- 
 vaders, who stormed Lefkosia and Famagosta, ai»d 
 made a general massacre of the inhabitants. Since 
 that date the island has remained in possession of 
 the Turks, and now forms a pashalic in the Eyalet of 
 Djizairs. Under the Turkish rule the material pros- 
 perity of Cj'prus has greatly declined. In the times 
 of the Venetian supremacy, the island maintained a 
 population of 1,000,000 ; its present population is only 
 about 150,000, of whom the great majority are Greeks. 
 Many parts of the island, formerly healthy and fertile, 
 are now, from malaria and other causes, barren and 
 uninhabitable. Its trade was at one time valuable 
 and important ; now the value of its annual imports 
 does not exceed X26,000 ; of its exports, about £60,- 
 000. Besides corn, of which it produces about 120,000 
 quarters annually, Cyprus yields in considerable quan- 
 tities cotton, wine, various kinds of fruit, opium, and 
 madder; while the mountain districts furnish olives, 
 pines, and many species of valuable timber. On 
 the island are found great quantities of the Ferula 
 grceca, which the Cypriote applies to a great variety 
 of domestic purposes. This is the plant whose uses 
 are feigned by the poets to have been taught to mor- 
 tals of old by Prometheus. 
 
DAG 
 
 508 
 
 DAI 
 
 D. 
 
 Dacca, the capital of an extensive and rich district 
 in the eastern quarter of the province of Bengal, a 
 large city, and for 80 years the capital of Bengal, of 
 which it is still the third city in point of extent and pop- 
 ulation. It is situated be3''ond th^ principal stream of 
 the Ganges, on the northern bank of a verj-- large 
 branch of that river, called the Boor Gunga, or old 
 Ganges, at the distance of a hundred miles from thte 
 mouth of the Ganges. Its position is admirably well 
 adapted for inland trade,' as the river which flows past 
 it communicates with all the other inland navigations 
 by a direct course. The present town covers a great 
 deal of ground, extending four miles along the bank 
 of the river, though it is not of proportional breadth. 
 The houses of the wealthy are built of brick, but there 
 are many thatched houses, with very narrow and 
 crooked streets ; the bazaars are only tiled or thatched ; 
 and as everj' vacant spot is covered with trees, the 
 town looks from a distance like a grove. Owing to 
 the effects of British competition, the manufactures of 
 Dacca are at this time scarcely deserving of notice; 
 but here were formerly manufactured the most beau- 
 tiful muslins, which were exported to all quarters of 
 the world, and which had long been famed for their 
 delicacy and beauty. The spinning of the thread was 
 carried on with wonderful nicety. The operation was 
 performed with the fingers on a fine steel spindle by 
 young women, who could only work during the early 
 part of the morning while the dew was on the ground ; 
 for such was the extreme tenuity of the fibre that it 
 would not bear manipulation after the sun had risen. 
 Such was the skill of the darners that they could re- 
 move an entire thread from a piece of muslin, and 
 replace it by one of a finer texture. From their won- 
 derful fineness these muslins were called Abrawan, or 
 "flowing water," and Shabnam, "evening dew." — 
 E. B. 
 
 Daguerreotype. The name given to a process in- 
 vented by M. Daguerre of Paris, in 1839, by which per- 
 fect fac-similes of objects are transferred upon thin cop- 
 per plates with plated silver. The images are produced 
 bythe action of light upon the iodine, through the focus 
 of the camera obscura. An apparatus somewhat kin- 
 dred in design, was in contemplation about the same 
 time by M. Niepc6, and about five years previously by 
 Henry Fox Talbot of London ; the original idea, how- 
 ever, is traceable as far back as the days of Roger Ba- 
 con. By means of the Talbotype, a recent improve- 
 ment upon the above process, pictures in colors are 
 produced both on paper and plates. So important a 
 discovery in the fine arts was the daguerreotype 
 deemed by the French government, that it awarded to 
 its inventor a life pension of GOOO francs. — Haydx. 
 See Silliman's Journal of Science, xxxvii., p. 69; 
 xl., p. 137; xliii., p. 185; Foreign Quarterly Rev., 
 xxiii., p. 213 ; Westminster Rev., xxxiv.,' p. 434. 
 
 In 1802 Mr. Thomas Wedgcwood and Sir Humphrey 
 Davy succeeded in forming pictures of objects laid on 
 paper prepared with nitrate of silver, and in taking 
 profiles (silhouettes) by means of shadows. They pro- 
 posed to obtain similar effects by means of the camera 
 obscura, but their paper was not sufficiently sensitive. 
 The effectual bar to their proceedings was, however, 
 this: that they could discover no means of Jtxing the 
 shadows which they had obtained, or preventing the 
 whole surface of the paper from being gradually black, 
 ened by exposure to light. 
 
 In 1814 J. KiCEPiiORE NiEPCB, a retired proprietor 
 at Chalons sur Saone, entered into a similar inquiry, 
 but by methods quite different. He employed the 
 solar effect upon resinous bodies, and some, at least, 
 of his pictures were executed upon plates of pe-wter or 
 
 of rotted silver. They were mostly copies of engrav-' 
 ings, and the light parts corresponded to the lights of 
 the originals. He, however, at length succeeded in 
 fixing impressions df views in the camera obscura, 
 though in an imperfect manner, and after very lon'g 
 exposure. The pictures thus obtained had this in 
 common with more perfect processes, that the lumin* 
 ous impression was first brought into view by a chemi- 
 cal process subsequeiit'to exposure in the camera. In 
 1825 Nicephore Niepce became associated with Da- 
 guerre, who had previously been engaged in the same 
 research ; they agreed to communicate the results of 
 their several experiments. The result, as is well 
 known, was the invention of the Daguehkeotype,' 
 not improperly called after Daguerre, who seems 
 really to have worked it out almost entirely for him- 
 self after the death of Niepce iil 1833 ; while so pa* 
 tient and determined was Daguerre in keeping his 
 secret till brought to perfection,' that he did not even 
 show his results until early in 1839, when the numer- 
 ous specimens he had to exhibit rivaled in delicacy 
 any thing that the art has since produced. — Ency, Brit, 
 Pre. Dissertation, by Forbes. 
 
 Dahlia. This beautiful flower was imported from 
 China, of which it is a native, early in the present 
 centur}'', and amateurs in flowers have annually laid 
 out hundreds of pounds in England, and thousands of 
 francs in- France, in the purchase of it. The Swedish 
 botanist. Professor Dahl, first cultivated and made it 
 known. It soon attracted notice in England, where, 
 from the beauty of its form and variety of color, if be- 
 came at once an especial favorite. In 1815, about 2 
 months after the battle of Waterloo, it was introduced 
 into France, and the celebrated florist, Andre Thouine, 
 suggested various practical improvements in its man- 
 agement. The botanist, Georgi, had shortly before 
 this introduced it at St. Petersburg ; and hence it is, 
 that to this da}' the dahlia is known throughout Ger- 
 many under the name of Georgina. — Haydw. ' 
 
 Dairy. Milk, either in its natural state, or in the 
 form of butter and cheese, is an article of diet so 
 wholesome and so palatable, that the health and com- 
 fort of people, especially such of them as dwell in 
 cities, depend much upon their having a pure and plen- 
 tiful supply of it at all seasons. Dairy Manage- 
 MEXT, which includes everything about the production 
 and treatment of milk, is consequently a very import- 
 ant branch of husbandrj', and one in which every 
 body feels interested. The physical conditions of the 
 different countries of the world have determined in 
 each case the particular milk-yielding animal most 
 suitable to be there used for dairy purposes. The 
 Laplander obtains his supplies of milk from his rein- 
 deer, the roving Tartar from his mares, and the Be- 
 douin of the desert from his camels. In the temperate 
 fegions of the earth many pastoral tribes subsist 
 mainly upon the milk of their sheep. In some rocky 
 regions the goat is invaluable for this purpose ; and 
 the buffalo is equally so amid the swamps and jungles 
 of tropical climates. The milking of ewes was once a 
 common practice in Great Britain ; but it has fallen 
 into disuse because of its hurtful effects upon the flock. 
 A few milch asses and goats are kept for the benefit 
 of infants or invalids ; but with these exceptions the 
 cow is the only animal now used for dairy purposes in 
 this country and Europe. 
 
 Butter is made either from cream only, or by churn- 
 ing the whole milk and cream together. The best but- 
 ter is obtained from the cream which rises during the 
 first 12 hours after milking, and the next best by 
 churning the whole milk. In the former case the new 
 milk, after being carefully strained, is poured into 
 
DAM 
 
 609 
 
 DAM 
 
 tballow vessels of glazed eartheu%aref glass, tinned 
 iron, wood, lead, or zinc, of which the 3 first-ttanled 
 sorts are the best. ' The wood6n>Tc6sfels are oBjeetibn- 
 able from the difficulty of cleaning theitt thoroughly ; 
 and the last two firom the noxious salt which is produced 
 by the action of the acid of 'the milk on tlie metal. 
 When it is intended to extract as nearly the whole of 
 the butter fronl the milk as is" practicable, the 1st 
 skimming takes place at the Ond of 24 hours, and is 
 followed up by one or more skimmings' at further in- 
 tervals. The cream is stored in jars, which should be 
 kept in a place separate from the milk-room, that the 
 milk in the coolers may not be prematurely acidulated 
 by the proximity ■ of the sour cream. The latter is 
 either stirred repeatedly, or poured from one vessel to 
 another, to prevent the formation of a tough^ coat 
 upon it before enough is accumulated for churning. 
 In large' dairies it is usual to chum daily. Thi'ee days 
 is as long as the cream can ordinarily be kept with 
 safety to the quality of the butter. When' k cow has 
 recentlj' calved, her' milk is comparatively rich in but- 
 ter and poor in curd ; but soon the relative proportions 
 of these constituents ohange places, the cream dimin- 
 ishing and the milk becoming thicker. A very sensi- 
 ble change in the quality also usually takes place 
 when a cow again becomes pregnant. In not a 'few 
 cases the cream is so affected by this circumstance, 
 that double or treble the length of time is required to 
 churn it that sufficed before, and the butter is at the 
 same time of inferior quality. If cows are flurried and 
 heated, either bj' gadding in the pasture, or by being 
 overdi'iven in bririging them home for milking, their 
 milk becomes peculiarly liable' to corrupt j th6 yield of 
 butter is sensibly lessened, and its quality is impaired. 
 The success of the process of churning depends much 
 on the temperature of the cream being nicely regu- 
 lated. A mean tehiperature of 60°: Fahrenheit seems 
 to be the best. The temperature of the cream usually 
 rises about 10° during the prOcess of churning. About 
 65° is therefore the desirable starting-point. Advan- 
 tage is derived from rinsing the churn with cold water 
 in summer and with warm water in winter. The ad- 
 dition to the cream of small quantities of cold or hot 
 water, as the case requires, is also found benefifcial. 
 Box or barrel chums are preferred when the cream 
 only is churned, the former being best adapted for 
 small 'dairies, and the latter for large ones.< — E. B. 
 See Sutter and Cheese. 
 
 Damaged Goods, in the language of the customs, 
 are goods, subject to duties, that have received some 
 injury either in the voyage home or in the bonded 
 warehouses. 
 
 Damar, a kind of indurated pitch or turpentine, 
 exuding spontaneously from various trees indigenous 
 to most of the Indian islands. Different trees produce 
 different species of resin, which are designated accord- 
 ing to their color and consistence. " One is called 
 liamar-butu in Malay, or Damar-selo in Javanese, 
 which means hard or stoney rosin ; and another in 
 common use, Damer-Puieh^ or white rosin, which is 
 softer. The trees which produce the damar yield it in 
 amazing quantity, and generally without the neces- 
 sity of making incisions. It exudes through the bark ; 
 and is either found adhering to the trunk or branches 
 in large lumps, or in masses on the ground under the 
 trees. As these often grow near the seaside, or on the 
 banks of rivers, the damar is frequently floated away, 
 and collected in distant places as drift. It is exported 
 in large quantities to Bengal and China ; and is used 
 for all the purposes to which we apply pitch, but prin- 
 cipally in pa3'ing the bottoms of ships. By a previous 
 arrangement, almost any quantity may be procured at 
 Borneo, at the low rate of ^ dollar per picul." — ^Ceaw- 
 FORD, East. Archip., v. i., p. 455, v. ill., p. 420. 
 
 Damascus. This city was in being in the time 
 of Abraham. — Gen. xiv. It is, consequently, one of 
 the most ancient in the world. From the Assyrians, 
 
 Damascus passed to the Persians, and from them to 
 the Greeks under Alexander'; and afterward to the 
 Romans, about 70 B.C. It was taken by the Saracens 
 A.D. C33; by the 'Turks in 1006; and was destroyed 
 by Tamerlane in 1400. ' It' was in a journey to this 
 place that tho apostle Paul was Wil'aculously con-i 
 verted to the Christian faith, and here he began to 
 preach the'goSpel, about a.d. 50. Damascus is now 
 the capital of a Turkish pachalic— Hatdn. Damas- 
 cus is the seat' of an extensive trade both with India 
 and with Europe. The productions of India, consist- 
 ing chiefly of spices, cotton manufactures, coarse and 
 fine muslin^'i'and gold stuffs, are in great demand, and 
 bring high prices. They are brought from India by 
 the Persian Gulf, Bassora, Bagdad, and Aleppo. The 
 manufactures of England are much sought after, and 
 held in very high esteem, particularly light woolen 
 cloths of gay colors, printed cottons and Chintzes,' and 
 silk and cotton shawls made in imitation of those of 
 Cashmere ; - also needles, piils, knives,' scissors, and 
 fine hardw^are,' as well' as china and ' earthenware, 
 whether English or Indian. These goods being gene- 
 rally imported' through Saida, BeirAt, and Tripoli, are 
 sold at very 'high prices. Iron, lead, tin, cochineal, 
 sugar, and other European articles, are also ' imported 
 through the same channel. "Wearing apparel 'for fash- 
 ionable persons of both sexes at Damascus, and clothes 
 that have been worn, are brought from Constantino- 
 ple ; and being distributed all over the country, are 
 frequently the means of spreading the contagion of 
 the plague, Among the various manufactures to be 
 foimd in the bazaars are supirb caparisons for horses; 
 of which the Turks, as wOU as all the other easterii 
 nations, are extremely fond. These are made in Eu- 
 ropean Turkey ; and a number' of fine bridles, martin- 
 gales, and silver and embossed breast-pieces, come 
 also from Persia. • The firearms are chiefly of- French 
 and German manufacture, being prepared in an orna- 
 mental style expressly for this market. ' The sabre 
 blades are almost all of the old Persian' or Damascus 
 manufacture. The art of making them, however, is 
 no longer known 'or practiced in this city; so that 
 they grow daily more valuable, as no modem sword 
 can compare with them in temper and quality. The 
 silk seen in the bazaars of Damascus is principally of 
 Chinese and Indian manufacture ; the furs come from 
 Russia, Georgia, Circassia; ' and Armenia ; the velvet 
 from Italy ; copper from Asia Minor ; the manufac- 
 tures of Britain through Smyrna ; and various other 
 articles of an inferior kind from Germany and France. 
 There are few manufactures in Damascus ; and these 
 consist chiefly of silk stuffs, plain, colored, and em- 
 broidered with gold ; fabrics of plain cotton, and cot- 
 ton and silk mixed, all for home consimiption, and 
 mostly of broad, striped, or wavy patterns, for the 
 caftans of the Turkish dress. 
 
 Commerce, as in all other places in the East, is car- 
 ried on by meJms of caravans, of which the principal 
 is that which goes with the annual pilgrimage to 
 Mecca. It is conducted by the pasha, who Teceives 
 the standard of the Prophet from the governor of the 
 castle, and gives a solemn pledge for its restoration. 
 This expedition unites commercial with religious ob- 
 jects. A caravan accompanied by a numerous train 
 of armed men goes thrice a year to Bagdad, the jour- 
 ney occupying 30 days ; that to Aleppo travels twice 
 or thrice a, month. Besides these, many other cara- 
 vans go to different ports of Syria, Damascus being a 
 great rendezvous and emporium of trade. Provisions 
 and fruits of all kinds are abundant ; also ice and 
 snow, which may always be obtained from the neigh- 
 boring mountains. Damascus is generally regarded 
 as the oldest city in the world, its history remounting 
 beyond the time of Abraham, whose steward Eliezer 
 was a native of this place. A great era in its his- 
 torj- is its conquest by the Saracens. — E. B. See Am. 
 Whig Rev., vol. viii. 
 
DAM 
 
 510 
 
 DAN 
 
 Damascus Blades are swords or cimeters, pre- 
 senting upon their surface a variegated appearance of 
 watering, as white, silvery, or black veins, in fine 
 lines, or fillets; fibrous, crossed, interlaced, or paral- 
 lel, etc. They are brought from the East, being fab- 
 ricated chieflj^ at Damascus, whence their name. Their 
 excellent quality has become proverbial ; for which 
 reason these blades are much sought after by military 
 men, and are hi^h-priced. The oriental processes 
 have never been satisfactorily described ; but of late 
 years methods have been devised in Europe to imitate 
 the fabric very well. 
 
 Damask (from Damascus, whence first brought), 
 a variegated textile fabric of silk, richly ornamented 
 with raised patterns representing fiowers, fruits, etc., 
 woven in the loom. It is also fabricated in woolen 
 stuffs. Woolen damasks and moreens are sold in 
 England at 9d. to Is. 6d. per yard. 
 
 Damask likewise denotes a kind of wrought linen, 
 used chiefly for table-cloths and napkins, and so called 
 because its patterns resemble those of real damask. It 
 was first made in Flanders, but it is now wrought ex- 
 tensivelj' in Britain, particularly at Dunfermline in 
 Scotland, and also at Lisbum and ArdojTie in Ireland. 
 An inferior description has latterly been made of cotton. 
 See Linen. 
 
 Irish DamasTcs. — As early as the beginning of the 
 last century, the manufacture of linen damasks was 
 introduced into Ireland from Germany ; and there still 
 exist specimens^ woven in Ireland 130 years ago. 
 The manufacture has gone on increasing in excellence, 
 and it is now considered that the high-class Irish dam- 
 asks equal any from any other country. Almost all 
 are used in Great Britain, and the better kinds are so 
 costly that none but the wealthy can purchase them. 
 Hand-loom weaving is invariably adopted for the best 
 damasks ; but the power-loom is now beginning to be 
 employed for the cheaper damasks and diapers ; and 
 it is hoped that this will create a foreign market for 
 them. The Jacquard loom is extensively used for the 
 richer damasks, for which its wonderful action espe- 
 cially adapts it. What a Jacquard loom is, a long and 
 wearisome description would scarcely make intelligible; 
 what it appears like, the thousands who watched the' 
 working of the several Jacquard looms at the great ex- 
 hibition may perhaps remember ; what it does is exem- 
 plified by specimens of pattern, or damask, or figure 
 weaving, for which it is especially adapted. In de- 
 signing table-cloths, table napkins, and d'oyleys, for 
 royal personages, city companies, club houses, and 
 regimental messes, the damask manufacturers of Ire- 
 land sometimes display considerable taste ; and this 
 taste afterward reflects some of its light upon the 
 cheaper and ordinary commercial products. It is yet 
 a disputed point among persons artistically inclined, 
 what kind of ornamentation is best fitted for colorless 
 damasks ; human forms and features are seldom dam- 
 asked satisfactorily, and buildings are very tame aflfairs 
 when so depicted ; at present, heraldic emblems seem 
 to take the lead. 
 
 Damask is also applied to a very fine steel, prepared 
 in some parts of the Levant, but particularly in former 
 times at Damascus, whence its name. It is used for 
 sword and cutlass blades, and is verj' finely tempered. 
 
 Damaskeening, or Damasking, the art of 
 ornamenting iron or steel, by maldng incisions on its 
 surface, and filling them up with some other metal, 
 generally gold or silver. It is chiefly used for enrich- 
 ing sword blades, guards, locks of pistols, etc. There 
 are two ways of damasking ; the one, which is the 
 finest, is when the metal is cut deep with proper in- 
 struments, and inlaid with gold and silver wire ; the 
 other is superficial only. This art is of great antiquity, 
 and its invention is attributed by Herodutus (i. 25) to 
 Glaucus of Chios, who lived B.C. 490. It would ap- 
 pear to have flourished at some period in Damascus, 
 whence the name is generally derived. — E. B. 
 
 Damassin. A species of woven damask with 
 gold and silver flowers. 
 
 Dampier, William, an English navigator, was 
 bom at East Coker, Somersetshire, about 1652. Hav- 
 ing early become an orphan, he was removed from the 
 Latin school, and placed with the master of a ship at 
 Weymouth. In this ship he made a voyage to New- 
 foundland ; but, disgusted at the cold of that north- 
 em climate, on his return he engaged himself as a 
 common sailor in a voyage to the East Indies. He 
 next served in the Dutch war under Sir Edward 
 Sprague, and was present at two engagements ; but 
 the declining state of his health induced him to come 
 on shore, and remove to the country, where he re- 
 mained some time. In the year following he became 
 an under-manager of a Jamaica estate ; but only con- 
 tinued a short time in this situation. He afterward 
 engaged in the coasting-trade, and thus acquired an 
 accurate knowledge of all the ports and bays of that 
 island. Having entered on board a vessel bound for 
 the bay of Campeachy, and returning a second time to 
 the same coast, he remained with the logwood-cutters, 
 and engaged himself as a common workman. During 
 his stay in that countrj' he collected the materials for 
 the minute and interesting account which he has given 
 of the laborious life of these people, as well as of the 
 geographical description and the natural history of the 
 country. It appears that he was preparing in 1703 for 
 another voyage. It is mentioned in Woodes Eog- 
 ERs' Voyage Round the VVorM, that Dampier had the 
 command of a ship in the South Seas about the year 
 1705, and along with Captain Stradling, whose vessel 
 foundered at sea. Dampier accompanied Woodes 
 Rogers in his voyage round the world in the years 
 1708, 1709, 1710, and 1711, but only in the capacity of 
 pilot, which is supposed to be a circumstance due to 
 some remissness in his conduct. During this expedi- 
 tion Guayaquil was taken, and Dampier had the com- 
 mand of the artillery. Nothing further is known of 
 the life of Dampier ; and we are equally ignorant of 
 the place and time of his death. — E. B. See Retro- 
 spective Review, vol. ix., p. 73, for an account of the 
 voyages of Dampier. 
 
 Dantzic (in German, Danzig), the principal port 
 and commercial city of Prussia proper, and capital of 
 a cognominal government, lies on the left bank of the 
 Vistula, about 4 miles from its mouth. N. lat. 54° 
 20' ; E. long. 18° 38'. Population in 1849, including 
 military, 63,917 ; of whom 2,369 were Jews, 13,339 
 Catholics, and 47,723 Protestants. Ramparts, bas- 
 tions, and wet ditches, which have been vastly 
 strengthened since the war, and gigantic works for 
 laying the country under water, have done what forti- 
 fications can to make Dantzic impregnable. The road 
 or bay of Dantzic is covered on the west side by a 
 long, narrow, low, sandy tongue of land, extending 
 from Reserhoft Point (on which is a light-house), in lat. 
 54° 50-I-' ; long. 8° 23' 15", upward of 20 miles in an 
 E. by S. direction, having the small town of Heela or 
 Heel, near its termination. A light-house, elevated 
 123 feet (English) above the level of the sea, has been 
 erected within about -^ mile of the extremity of this 
 point. The flashes of the light, which is a revolving 
 one, succeed each other every -^ minute. Dantzic lies 
 about S. -^ W. from the Heel ; its port being distant 
 about four leagues. There is good anchorage in the roads 
 for ships of any burden ; but they are exposed, except 
 immediately under the Heel, to the north and north- 
 easterly winds. There are harbor-lights at the en- 
 trance to the port. All ships entering the Vistula 
 must heave-to about a mile off the port, and take a 
 pilot on board ; and pilots must always be employed in 
 moving ships in the harbor, or in going up and down 
 the river. The usual depth of water at the mouth of 
 the river is from 12 to 13 feet (English) ; in the harbor, 
 from 13 to 14 feet deep ; at the confluence of the 
 Motlau with the Vistula, from 9 to 9^ feet ; and in 
 
DAN 
 
 511 
 
 DAN 
 
 town, from 8 to 9 feet. Moles have been erected on 
 both Bides the entrance to the harbor; that on the 
 eastern side, which is most exposed, is constructed of 
 granite, but is not yet completed ; the other is partly 
 of stone and partly of timber. 
 
 Trade. — Next to Petersburg, Dantzic is the most 
 important commercial city in the north of Europe. It 
 owes its distinction in this respect to its situation ; the 
 Vistula, with its important tributaries the Bug, Na- 
 rew, etc., giving it the command of a great internal 
 navigationj and tendering it the erUrepSt where the'sur- 
 plus products of West Prussia, Poland as far as Hun- 
 gary, and part of Lithuania, are exchanged for those 
 imported from the foreigner. The exports of wheat 
 from Dantzic are greater than from any other port, 
 Odessa excepted. There are four sorts of wheat dis- 
 tinguished here ; viz., white, high-mixed, mixed, and 
 red, according as the white or red predominates. The 
 quality of Dantzic wheat is for the most part excel- 
 lent ; jfor, though small in the berry, and not so heavy 
 as many other sorts, it is remarkably thin-skinned, 
 and jields the finest flour. The white Polish wheat 
 exported here is the best in the Baltic. Kye is also 
 very superior, being both clean and heavy ; the ex- 
 ports of barley and oats are comparatively inconsidei^- 
 able, and the qualities but indifferent. Very fine 
 white peas are exported.. Next to grain, timber is the 
 most important article of export from Dant2ic, but 
 latterly the supply has been diminishing, and the 
 quality is said not to be so good as formerly. — Meek. 
 The principal supply of fir timber, masts, etc., is 
 brought by the river Narew, which, with its branches, 
 rises in old Prussia and Lithuania, and falls into the 
 Bug near the confluence of the latter with the Vistula. 
 Oak planks, staves, etc., are brought down from the 
 higher parts of the Vistula, and the tributary streams 
 of Duiiajetz, Wieprez, etc. Salted pork, weed ashes, 
 linseed and rapeseed, mats, bones, zinc, spruce beer, 
 feathers, etc., are also exported. 
 
 Imports. — These consist principally of iron and steel, 
 herrings, wine, sugar, coffee, cotton and cotton yarns, 
 spices, salt, coal, tobacco, dyewoods, spirits, rice, etc. ; 
 but their value is seldom more than half that of the 
 exports. 
 Duties on Pilotage and Police Passports at Dantzio. 
 
 DuHe«. 
 
 PrUBBjan And 
 
 privlloged 
 foreign nags. 
 
 Foreign flags 
 
 not 
 
 privLiegGd. 
 
 Pilotage Datles, 
 Vessel drawing aft. wntor and under. 
 
 111. .i). pf. 
 115 
 2 15 
 8 
 8 15 
 4 9 
 
 1 10 
 1 IT 6 
 
 1 25 
 
 2 7 6 
 8 6 
 
 th. >il. pf. 
 
 2 
 8 
 
 3 15 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 1 25 
 
 2 
 
 2 5 
 
 3 5 
 
 4 15 
 
 a 4( g u (( 
 
 " 9 " " 
 
 " " 10 " " 
 
 Police passport taxes. 
 Vessel of 25 lasts, oO tons, and under. 
 " 50 " 100 " 
 
 " 100 " 200 " 
 
 " 200 " 400 " 
 
 " above 400 lasts 
 
 
 Money. — Accounts used formerly to be wholly kept 
 in guldens, guilders, or florins of 30 groschen. The 
 rixdoUar^S florins=90 groschen=270 schillings= 
 1,620 pfennings. The florin or guilder=9d. sterling, 
 and the rixdollar=2s. 3d. A new system was, how- 
 ever, introduced into all parts of the Prussian do- 
 minions, conformably to the decrees of the 30th of 
 September, 1821, and of the 22d of June, 1823. The 
 Cologne mark (containing 3,609 English grains) is the 
 weight at present used in the Prussian mint in weigh- 
 ing the precious metals. The fineness of the coins is 
 not determined, as previously, by carats or loths, but 
 the mark is divided for this purpose into 288 grains. 
 Accounts are now kept in the public ofJces in thalers 
 or dollars (R.), silver groschen, and pfennings ; 1 dol, 
 =30 sil. gr.=12 pf. The only silver moneys now 
 coined are dollars and i dollar pieces; but smaller 
 coins are in circulation, of former coinages. The 
 Prussian silver coins have f of alloy ; and as the 
 
 mark is coined into 14 dollars, each should contain 
 2o7"68 English grains pure silver, and be worth about 
 2s. ll^d. sterling ; but the assays do not always 
 strictly coincide with the mint valuation. The gold 
 coins are Frederic d'ors, double, single, and half 
 pieces. The mark of 288 graiaa, having 260 grains 
 of fine gold, is coined in 35 Fred, d'ors. The Fred, 
 d'or is worth from 6 dol. 18 sil. gr. to 5 dol. 22 sU. gr., 
 according to the demand. 
 Weights ami Measures. — The commercial weights are, 
 
 82 loths = 1 ounce. 
 16 ounces = 1 pound. 
 16i pounds = 1 Ilspoand. 
 20 pounds = 1 small stone. 
 
 83 pounds = 1 large stone. 
 
 110 lbs.=l centner ; 3 centners=l shippound (330 
 lbs.) ; 100 lbs. of Dantzic=103-3 lbs. avoird.=46-83 
 kilog.=94'7 lbs. of Amsterdam^96'6 lbs. of Hamburg. 
 The liquid measures are, for beer, 
 
 5 quarts = 1 anker, 
 
 4 ankers = 1 ahm. 
 
 IJ ahms = 1 hbd. 
 
 2 hhds. = Iboth. 
 
 2 boths , = Ifttdor. 
 
 2 fadeis = 1 last=620'4 Eng. wino gals. 
 
 In wine measure, which is less than beer measure, the 
 ahm=39f Eng. gallons. The pipe=2 ahms. 
 
 The last of corn=5f malters=60 schefi'els=240 vier- 
 tels^960 metzen ; and weighs 4,680 lbs. Dantzic 
 weight in rye. The scheflFel^'547 of a bectolitre= 
 1"552 Winchester bushels. Hence the last of 60 schef- 
 fel3=ll quarters 3 bushels ; the last of 55|- scheffels= 
 10 quarters 7 bushels. 
 
 The Dantzic foot=ll'3 Eng. inches, or 100 Dantzic 
 feet=94'16 Eng. feet. The ell is 2 feet Dantzic meas- 
 ure. The Rhineland or Prussian foot='3138 French 
 metres, or 12'356 Eng. inches ; hence 100 Prussian= 
 102-8 English feet. The Prussian or Berlin ell has 
 25J Prussian inohes=26-256 Eng. ditto. 100 Berlin 
 eUs=72-93 Eng. yards ; and 137-142 Berlin ells=100 
 Eng. yards. 14J Prussian miles are equal to 15 geo- 
 graphical miles. 
 
 Oak planks,, deals, and pipe staves are sold by the 
 shock of 60 pieces ; wheat, rj-e, etc., are sold by the 
 last of 56J- schefi^els. — Kelly's Cambist ,- NelhenTireeker, 
 Manual Universd. 
 
 Covn Trade of Dantzic. — Grain is almost wholly 
 brought to Dantzic by water, in flat-bottomed boats 
 suited to the navigation of the Vistula, Bug, etc. The 
 English consul estimated the expense of the convey- 
 ance of wheat and rye, including the duty at Thorn 
 and the charges of turning on the river, till put into 
 the granary, as follows : 
 
 Per Imp. quarter. 
 8. d. e. d. 
 
 From the upper provinces on the -Bug, a dis- 
 tance of from TOO to 500 miles 9 2 to T 10 
 
 From the provinces of Cracow, Sendomlr, and 
 
 LuMin, 560 to 850 6 6 " 6 4 
 
 From Warsaw and its neighborhood, about 240 
 
 miles i 9 " 8 11 
 
 From Wlaclaweck and its neighborhood, about 
 
 140 miles 4 2 "8 6 
 
 From Grandentz, a distance of about TO miles, 
 
 no duty at Thorn, and when not turned on 
 
 the river 10 " 9 
 
 The Bug has many winiiings, and its navigation, 
 which is tedious and uncertain, can ovly be attempted 
 in the spring, when the water is high. It is the same, 
 though in a less degree, with some of the rivers that 
 fall into the Vistula before it reaches Warsaw ; and 
 toward Cracow the Vistula itself is frequently un- 
 navigable, especially in dry seasons, except in spring, 
 and after the midsummer rains, when the snow melts 
 on the Carpathian mountains. The navigation of the 
 Polish rivers in some seasons is more than usually bad. 
 The com from the upper provinces does not reach 
 Dantzic till from 2 to 4 months later than usual, and 
 is burdened with ~ verj' heavy additional expense. 
 In fact, the supplies of grain at Dantzic depend quite 
 as much on the abundance of water in the rivers, or 
 on their easy navigation in summer, as on the good- 
 
DAN 
 
 512 
 
 DAN 
 
 ness of the harvests. " There are," says Mr. Jaboh, 
 "two modes of conVeyihg wheat to Dantzic by the 
 Vistula. That which grows near the lower parts of the 
 river, comprehending Polish Russia, and part of the 
 province of Plock, and of Masovia, iri the kingdom of 
 Poland, which is generally of an inferior quality, is 
 conveyed in covered boats, with shifting-boards that 
 pirotect the cargo from tlie rain, but not from pilfering. 
 These vessels are long, and draw about 15 inches 
 water, and bring about 150 quarters of wheat. They 
 are not, however, so well calculated for the upper 
 , parts of the river.. From Cracow, where the Vistula 
 first becomes navigable, to below the junction of the Bug 
 with that stream, the wheat is mostly conveyed to 
 Dantzic in open flats. These are constructed on the 
 banks, in seasons of leisure, on spots far from the 
 ordinary reach of the water, but which, when the rains 
 of autumn, or the melted snow of the Carpathian 
 mountains in the spring, fill and overflow the river, 
 are easily floated. Barges of this description are 
 about 75 feet long, and 20 broad, with a depth of 2^ 
 feet. They are made of fir, rudely, put together, fast- 
 ened with wooden treenails, the comers dovetailed and 
 secured with slight iron clamps-^the only iron em- 
 ploj'ed in their construction. 
 
 " A large tree, the length of the vessel, runs felong 
 the bottom, to which the timbers are secured. This 
 roughly-cut keelson rises 9 or 10 inches from the floor, 
 and hurdles are laid on it, which extend to the sides. 
 They are covered with mats made of rye straw, and 
 serve the purpose of dunnage ; leaving below a space 
 in which the water that leaks through the sides and 
 bottom is received. The bulk is kept from the sides 
 and ends of the barge by a similar plan. The water 
 which these ill-constructed and imperfectly-calked 
 vessels receive, is dipped out at the end and sides of 
 the bulk of wheat. Vessels of this description draw 
 from 10 to 12 inches water, and yet they frequently 
 get aground in descending the river. The cargoes 
 usually consist of from 180 to 200 quarters of wheat. 
 The wheat is thrown on the mats, piled as high as 
 the gunwale, and left uncovered, exposed to all the 
 inclemencies of the weather, aild to the pilfering of the 
 crew. During the passage, the barge is carried along 
 by the force of the stream,' oars being merely used at 
 the head and stern, to steer clear of the sand-banks, 
 which are numerous and shifting, and to direct the 
 vessel in passing under the several bridges. These 
 vessels are conducted by 6 or 7 men. A small boat 
 precedes, with a man in it, who is employed sounding, 
 in order to avoid the shifting shoals. This mode of 
 navigating is necessarily very slow ; and during the 
 progress of it, which lasts several weeks, and even 
 months, the rain, if any fall, soon causes the wheat to 
 grow, and the vessel assumes the appearance of a 
 floating meadow. The shooting of the fibres soon 
 forms a thick mat, and prevents the rain from pene- 
 trating more than an inch or two. The main bulk is 
 protected by this kind of covering, and, when that is 
 thrown aside, is found in tolerable condition. The 
 vessels are broken up at Dantzic, and usually sell for 
 about f of their original cost. The men who conduct 
 them return on foot. When the cargo arrives at 
 Dantzic or Elbing, all but the grown surface is thrown 
 on the land, spread abroad, exposed to the sun, and 
 frequently turned over, till any slight moisture it may 
 have imbibed is dried. If a shower of rain falls, as 
 well as during the night, the heaps of wheat on the 
 shore are thrown together in the form of a steep roof 
 of a house, that the rain may run off, and are covered 
 with a linen cloth. It is thus frequently a long time 
 after the wheat has reached Dantzic, before it is fit to 
 be placed in the warehouses. 
 
 " The warehouses (speichers) are very well adapted 
 for storing corn. They consist generally of 7 stories, 
 3 of which are in the roof. The floors are about 9 feet 
 aannder. Each of them Is divided by perpendicular 
 
 partitions, the 'whole len^h, about i feet high, by 
 which different parcels are kept distinct from each 
 other. Thus the floors have two divisions, each of 
 them ctfpable of storing from 150 to 200 quarters of 
 wheat, and leaving sufficient space for turning and 
 screening it. There are abundance of windows on 
 each floor, which are always thrown open in dry 
 weather to ventilate the com. It is usually turned 
 over three times a week. The men who perform the ope- 
 ration throw it with their shovels as high as they can, 
 and thus the grains are seps,rated from each other, 
 and exposed to the drying influence of the air. The 
 whole of the com warehouses now left (for many 
 were burnt during the siege of 1814) are capable 
 of storing 500,000 quarters of wheat, supposing the 
 quarters to be large enough to fill each of the 2 divis- 
 ions of the tloors with a separate heap ; but as of late 
 years it has come down from Poland in smaller parcels 
 than formerly, and of' more various qualities, which 
 must of necessity be kept distinct, the present, stock 
 of about 280,000 quariiers is found to occiipy nearly the 
 whole of those warehouses which are in repair, or are 
 advantageously* situated for loading the ships; - Ships 
 are loaded by gangs of porters, with great despatch j 
 who will complete a cargo of 500 quarters in about 3 
 or 4 hours." — First Report. 
 
 BanMngEstaUishments. — There is none such here, 
 excepting a branch of the Royal or Government bank 
 of Berlin. This was founded partly in the view of re- 
 ceiving deposits of money tmder litigation in the courts 
 of the province ; moneys the property of minors and 
 charitable institutions, the former until disposable or 
 placed on good security ; and moneys belonging to in- 
 dividuals not merchants, and at times, also, those of 
 the latter. Interest is paid on such deposits as fol- 
 lows, viz. : 3 per cent, on sums belonging to minors ; 
 2-J- per cent, on sums belonging to charitable institu- 
 tions, churches, and sums depositad by the courts of 
 justice, and 2 per cent, on all other deposits. 
 
 The principal is demandable at pleasure, unless other- 
 wise stipulated. The bank makes advances on grain 
 and some other kinds of goods at 5 per cent, interest ; 
 discounts bills with 3 signatures, not having more than 
 2 months to run, at 6 per cent., and sometimes, when 
 money is plenty, at a lower rate. It also makes ad- 
 vances at 4 per cent, on deposits of Fred, d'ors and cer- 
 tain foreign moneys ; and it occasionally buys bills for 
 account of, and sells bills on, the Berlin Bank. It 
 does not issue notes. The amount of its capital is not 
 fixed ; but government guaranties its transactions. 
 It is relieved from the payment of postage on money, 
 and it is not required to use the stamps fixed by law, 
 on bills for its deposit transactions, but only those of 
 10 s. gr. (about 11-Jd.) ; whUe individuals must use 
 stamps for such bills of 5 s. gr. for every 400 r. of not 
 longer date than 3 mouths, and for every 200 r. of 
 longer date. On negotiable bills, however, the bank 
 must use the stamps fixed by law, say of 5 s. gr. 
 (about 5f d.) for sums of 50 dol. to 400 dol., and at the 
 same rate for every additional sum between 100 dol. 
 and 400 dol. Bills from and on foreign places, nego- 
 tiated at Dantzic, are not subject to the stamp duty. 
 The affairs of the bank are not madO public. Being a 
 government concern, there are no dividends. It is 
 not supposed to be very profitable, at least in the pres- 
 ent circumscribed state of trade, although enjoying 
 the advantages of exemption from postage of moneys, 
 and paying less stamp duty. It is true, however, that 
 the direct advantage of the lower stamp duty is en- 
 joyed by the borrower. 
 
 Credit^ Brokerage, etc. — Very few goods are con- 
 signed from abroad for sale, for such consignments 
 rarely turn to good account. Imports are seldom sold 
 for cash, but generally at 1, 2, and 3 mouths' credit, or 
 longer. The discount allowed for cash payments, 
 when sold on time, is usually G per cent., but it varies 
 according as money is plentiful or otherwise. Any 
 
DAN 
 
 613 
 
 BAR 
 
 person, being a burgher of the town (which any one 
 of good character may become), may transact business 
 as a commission merchant or factor ; but brokers must 
 be chosen by the elders of the corporations of mer- 
 chants, approved by the regency of the province, and 
 sworn in by the magistracy of the town, 
 
 Danube (German, Donau ; anc. Danuhiua and 
 Ister), an important river, and, next to the Volga, the 
 largest in Europe, originates in the Berge, a mountain 
 torrent which rises in the E. declivity of the Schwarz- 
 wald, in Baden, at an elevation of 2,850 feet above the 
 level of the sea. The stream, when joined by the 
 Brigach, and by the waters of a spring from the castle 
 garden of Donauescbingen, takes the name of the 
 Donau, It flows first generally E. N. E., through an 
 alpine country to Ulm, thence E. N. E. and S. E., to 
 Passau, it traverses the plain of Bavaria, From Pas- 
 sau to Vienna, E, S, E,, it intersects a hilly region, 
 and the remainder of its course, E. S. E, to Waitz6n, 
 S, to Bazc, and E. to the Black Sea, is through a coun- 
 try generally flat, except at the defile of the " iron 
 gate," E, of Orsova. Length (direct), 1,000 miles ; or, 
 including windings, 1,725 miles. It drains a surface 
 of about 250,000 square miles ; its average fall is 18 
 inches per mile, but below Pesth it is only 3 inches ; 
 at Ulm it is 1,400, at Regensburg 1,000, at Passau 800, 
 at Vienna 450, and at Pesth 300 feet above the level of 
 the sea. Its breadth at Ulm is 108 feet, and in its lower 
 course 6,000 feet ; depth at Ulm, 6 feet ; at Passau, 16 
 feet ; and lower down, average 20 feet. It passes Sigma^ 
 ringen and Ulm in Wtirtemberg, Dillingen, Hochstadt, 
 Donauworth, Ingolstadt, Begensburg, and Passau, in 
 Bavaria ; Linz, Diernstein, Komeuborg, and Vienna, 
 in Austria ; Presburg, Komorn, Gran, Waitzen, Buda, 
 Pesth, Peterwardein, and Carlowitz, in Hungary ; 
 Belgrade, Semendria, and Orsova, in Servia ; Widin, 
 Nicopoli, Butschuk, Silistria, and Hirschova, in Bul- 
 garia; Giurgevo and Brahilov in Wallachia, The 
 chief afiluents of the Danube are, on the right, the 
 lUer, Lech, Isar, Inn, Ens, Raab, Drave, Save, Mo- 
 rava, Timok, Isker, Vid, and Jantra ; and on the left, 
 the Altmilhl, Nab, Eegen, March, Waag, Gran, Theiss, 
 Temes, Chyl, Aluta, Jalomnitza, Sereth, and Pruth, 
 Near its mouth in the Black Sea, it separates into 
 several branches, the southernmost of which, called 
 the branch of St, George, forms, by the treaty of Adri- 
 anople, the boundary between the Ottoman empire 
 and Russia. It communicates by canals with the Elbe, 
 by means of the Moldau, and with the Rhine by the 
 Altmuhl. It is navigable for vessels of 100 tons from 
 Ulm. Steam packets were established on the Danube 
 in 1830, and there are 10 steam vessels employed be- 
 tween Presburg, Pesth, and Constantinople, and 2 
 between Regensburg and Linz. — See Fbaser's Mag., 
 xxii., 560, 684 ; Qitin's Steam Voyage down the Danube. 
 
 The ports of Baila and Galatz are appointed as ports 
 on the Danube for the commerce of neutral powers, 
 both as regards exportation and importation. The 
 vessels of neutral powers coming from the Black Sea 
 can return freely into that sea after having received 
 their cargoes in the ports above mentioned, on condi- 
 tion always that they abstain, before entering the 
 Black Sea, from touching at any port on the Danube. 
 Consequently these vessels, before quitting the ports 
 of Braila and Galatz, must present their documents to 
 the Russian consular agent, who will furnish them 
 gratis with a certificate showing the destination of the 
 ship, and bearing the formal declaration, that if before 
 entering the sea they should disembark com or pro- 
 visions upon any point of the right bank of the 
 Danube, they will, by this contravention, incur se- 
 questration. Neutral vessels which wish to ascend 
 the Danube in order to proceed at once into the Aus- 
 trian States, and which carry down cargoes destined 
 either for Brila or Galatz, or for exportation by the 
 Black Sea, will be liable to the same formality of a 
 Russian certificate indicating their destination, and 
 Kk 
 
 prohibiting them, under similar penalties, from enter- 
 ing into any traffic on the right bank of the Danube. 
 Neutral vessels wishing to descend the Danube will 
 not meet with any hinderance, provided that on their 
 passage by Orsova they furnish themselves at the Rus- 
 sian consulate with a certificate, stating that they be- 
 long, bondjide, to a neutral power, and that their cargo 
 is not destined for one of the Turkish ports of the 
 Danube.— P. J. of T, 1856. 
 
 Dardanelles (Straits of the), form the commimi- 
 cation between the Sea of Marmora and the Archipel- 
 ago. This channel, through which there flows a 
 constant current out of the Sea of Marmora into the 
 Archipelago, is upward of 50 m^es long, and varies 
 in breadth from 1 mile toward its western, to 10 miles 
 at its eastern extremity. It derives its name from two 
 ancient fortresses on either side of the river, of which 
 one is built on the site of the ancient Sestos, and the 
 other on the site of the ancient Abydos. About 20 
 miles to the west of these are two modem fortresses 
 called the New Castles, and between the old and the 
 new forts are militarj'' works of various descriptions. 
 The total number of guns mounted. on these fortresses 
 is 689, some of which discharge stone shot, and require 
 a charge of more than B cwts. of powder. It derived 
 its ancient name of the Hellespont from the tradition 
 of Phryxus and Helle, and is celebrated in ancient 
 times for the bridge of boats built over it by Xerxes. 
 It is memorable also as the scene of the death of Le- 
 ander, — E, B, 
 
 The gallant exploit of forcing the passage of the 
 Dardanelles was achieved by the British squadron 
 under Admiral Sir John Duckworth, Feb. 19th, 1807 ; 
 but the admiral was obliged to repass them, which he 
 did with great loss, and immense damage to the fleet, 
 March 2, following ; the castles of Sestos and Abydos 
 hurling down rocks of stone, each of many tons' weight, 
 upon the decks of the British ships. — Haydn. So 
 long as the shores of the Black Sea were exclusively 
 possessed by Turkey, that sea might with propriety 
 be considered a mare clausum ; and there seems no 
 reason to question the right of the Ottoman Porte to 
 exclude other nations from navigating the passage 
 which connects it with the Mediterranean, both shores 
 of this passage being at the same time portions of the 
 Turkish territory ; but since the territorial acquisitions 
 made by Russia, and the commercial establishments 
 formed by her on the shores of the Euxine, both that 
 empire and the other maritime powers have become 
 entitled to participate in the commerce of the Black 
 Sea, and consequently to the free navigation of the 
 Dardanelles and the Bosphorus, This right was ex- 
 pressly recognized by the 7th article of the treaty of 
 Adrianople, concluded in 1829 between Russia and 
 the Porte, both as to Russian vessels and those of 
 other European States in unity with Turkey, The 
 7th article of the treatj' of 1830, between the United 
 States and the Ottoman Porte, provides that merchant 
 vessels of the United States, in like manner as vessels 
 of the most favored nations, shall have liberty to pass 
 the canal of the Imperial Residence, and go and come 
 in the Black Sea, either laden or in ballast ; and they 
 may be laden with the produce, manufactures and 
 eifects of the Ottoman empire, except such as are pro. 
 hibited, as well as of their own countrj', — ^Wheaton's 
 International Law, p, 241, 
 
 Daric, A Persian gold coin (so called by the 
 Greeks, from Darius, the name of several Persian 
 sovereigns), having upon the obverse an archer, 
 crowned and kneeling upon one knee, and on the re- 
 verse a quadrata incusa, or deep cleft. The weight 
 of the daric is about 130 grains, 
 
 Darien (Isthmus of). " The Isthmus of Darien, 
 or, as it is more commonly styled, the Isthmus of 
 Panama, connects North and South America, and is 
 principally comprised in the republic of Granada, On 
 the northern side is the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf 
 
DAT 
 
 514 
 
 DAT 
 
 of Darien ; on the south the Giilf of Panama. In 
 length the isthmus proper is about 200 miles, with an 
 average breadth of 40 miles ; but in long. 79° it nar- 
 rows down to less than 30 miles. At this point it is 
 proposed to establish the ship canal. The country is 
 undulating, with chains of small mountains, but 
 very fertile and well timbered. The expense of a 
 commodious ship canal, say 30 miles long and 200 
 feet wide, would not be less than $50,000,000. "When 
 it is considered that one half the world's commerce 
 would in aU probability pass through this canal, the 
 expense is trifling. All the India and China trade, 
 instead of doubling Cape Horn, would find passage 
 through the canal. It should be free to all nations 
 who assist in the construction by money or credit." 
 
 An appropriation was embraced in the naval appro- 
 priation bill of 1856, giving a sum not to exceed $25,- 
 000, to be paid to officers selected by the Secretaries of 
 War and Navy " for the purpose of making explorations 
 and verification of the surveys already made of a ship 
 canal near the Isthmus of Darien, to connect the wa- 
 ters of the Pacific and the Atlantic by the Atrato and 
 Trnando rivers." 
 
 Dates (German, i)aWeZ7i; French, i>a(^es ; Italian, 
 Datteri ; Spanish, Dailies)^ the fruit of the palm-tree 
 {PluBnix dactylifcra Lin.). This tree is abundant in 
 Egypt, Barbaiy, Arabia, Persia, and the adjacent 
 countries, particularly on the confines of the desert, 
 and wherever there is sufiicient moisture. It is a tall, 
 majestic tree ; and repeated references are made to it 
 in the sacred writings (Ecclus. xiv. 14), and in the 
 Koran. Mohammed, in one of his sayings, beauti- 
 fully compares the upright and generous man to the 
 palm-tree : " He stands erect before his Lord ; in his 
 every action he follows the impulse received from 
 above, and his whole life is devoted to the welfare of 
 his fellow-creatures." But the veneration in which 
 the palm-tree is held in the East is to be ascribed more 
 to its utility than to its beauty. Dates form the prin- 
 cipal part of the subsistence of the inhabitants of many 
 parts of Arabia and Barbary, and they are held in the 
 highest estimation wherever they are met with. ' ' They 
 are," says Burckhardt, " by far the most essential arti- 
 cle of food for the lower classes of Medina ; their har- 
 vest is expected with as much anxiety, and attended 
 with as much general rejoicing, as the vintage in the 
 south of Europe ; and if the crop faUs, which often 
 happens, as those trees are seldom known to produce 
 abundantly for 3 or 4 successive years, or is eaten up 
 by the locusts, universal gloom overspreads the popu- 
 lation, as if a famine were apprehended." — Travels in 
 Arabia^ vol. iv., p. 214. 
 
 There is an endless variety of dates. Generally, 
 however, they may be described as being somewhat in 
 the shape of an acorn, but usually larger, consisting 
 of a thick, fleshy substance, including and freely sep- 
 arating from an oblong stone or kemal, having a fur- 
 row on the one side. Their taste is agreeably sweet, 
 accompanied with a slight astringency. The new 
 fruit is called by the Arabs ruteb. When the dates 
 are allowed to remain on the tree till they are quite 
 ripe, and have become soft and of a high red color, 
 they are formed into a hard, solid paste or cake, called 
 adjoue. This is formed by pressing the ripe dates forc- 
 ibly into large baskets, each containing about 2 cwt. 
 " In this state," says Burckhardt, " the Bedouins ex- 
 port the adjoue ; in the market it is cut out of the bas- 
 ket, and^sold by the pound. It forms part of the daily 
 food of all classes of people ; in traveling it is dissolved 
 in water, and thus affords a sweet and refreshing drink. 
 During the monsoon, the ships from the Persian Gulf 
 bring adjoue from Bussorah to Djidda, for sale, in small 
 baskets, weighing about 10 pounds each ; this kind is 
 preferred to everj' other. Ships bound from Arabia to 
 India take with them a considerable quantity of adjoue, 
 which is readily disposed of among the Mohammed- 
 ans of Hindostan." — Travels in Arabia, vol. i., p. 57. 
 
 The Arabians and Egyptians use the leaves of the trees 
 in the preparation of bags and baskets ; the boughs, 
 the outer and inner bark of the trunk, and the fleshy 
 substance at the root of the leaves, where they spring 
 from the trunk, have all their respective uses ; and 
 besides this, the kernels of the fruit, notwithstanding 
 their hardness, are used as food for cattle ; they are 
 soaked for 2 days in water, when they become softened, 
 and are given to camels, cows, and sheep, instead of 
 barley ; they are said to be much more nutritive 
 than that grain. There are shops at Medina in which 
 nothing else is sold but date kernels ; and the beggars 
 are continually employed in all the main streets in 
 picking up those that are thrown away. — Burckhardt, 
 vol. ii., p. 212. AU the refinements of Arabian cook- 
 erj- are exhausted in the preparation of dates ; and the 
 Arabs say that a good housewife will daily supply her 
 lord for a month with a dish of dates differently dressed. 
 Palm-trees are raised by shoots ; and Dr. Shaw men- 
 tions that they arrive at their vigor in about 30 years, 
 and continue so 70 years afterward, bearing yearly 15 
 or 20 clusters of dates, each of them weighing 15 or 20 
 pounds ; after this period they begin to decline.— 2Va»- 
 els in the Levant, p. 142, 4to ed. 
 
 The best dates imported are said to come from Tu- 
 nis, but they are most commonly brought from Smyrna 
 and Alexandria. They should be chosen large, soft- 
 ish, not much wrinkled, of a reddish yellow color on the 
 outside, with a whitish membrane betwixt the flesh 
 and the stone. Those that are dry and hard are of 
 little value. 
 
 The date-tree is indigenous to Syria, Arabia, and 
 the lower parts of Persia, Egypt, and northern Africa, 
 whence it was introduced into the south of Europe ; 
 and it is also more or less cultivated in British India, 
 South Africa, and in some parts of America. Though 
 belonging to the extensive family of palms, which 
 abound and flourish in most tropical regions, it attains 
 perfection only in comparatively high latitudes, and 
 doubtless would be adapted to the soil and climate of 
 the more arid regions of California and of our southern 
 States. 
 
 The date is a lofty tree, growing to a height of 60 
 feet, with a rugged trunk, crowned with leaves 6 or 8 
 feet long, with pinnse 3 feet long, and a little more than 
 an inch broad. The flowers of both sexes, which 
 grow on separate trees, come out in very long bimches, 
 from the trunk, between the leaves, and are covered 
 with a spatha, which opens and withers. Those of the 
 male tree have 6 short stamens, with narrow, four- 
 cornered anthers, filled with pollen. The female flow- 
 ers have a roundish germ, which afterward becomes an 
 oval berrj^, with a thick pulp, inclosing a hard, oblong 
 stone. This berry is the fruit known as the date of 
 commerce, upon which a considerable portion of the 
 people of Egypt, Arabia, and Persia, almost entirely 
 subsist. A single tree will produce from 100 to 300 
 pounds of this fruit in the season. They come into 
 bearing at from 6 to 10 years of age, and are fruitful 
 for upward of 200 years. 
 
 The extensive importance of the date-tree, in the 
 countries where it occurs, is perhaps one of the most 
 curious subjects to which a traveler can direct his at- 
 tention. Independent of the use of the fruit as food, 
 the inhabitants make a conserve of it with sugar, and 
 even grind the hard stones, to feed to their camels. 
 In Barbary they form handsome beads of these stones. 
 From the leaves they make couches, baskets, bags, 
 mats, brushes, and fly-traps ; the trunk is split, and 
 employed in erecting small buildings, also for fences 
 to gardens ; and the stems of the leaves are used for 
 making cages for their poultry. The threads of the 
 web-like integument at the base of the leaves are 
 twisted into ropes, which are employed in rigging 
 small vessels. The amylaceous central part of the 
 trunk is also good to eat, and the buds are esteemed a 
 delicate vegetable ; and even the young shoots are said 
 
DEA 
 
 515 
 
 DEA 
 
 to resemble asparagus. The sap, ■which is sweetish 
 when first collected, and may be drunls: as a mild bev- 
 erage, is distilled into a kind of spirit, known in east- 
 em countries by the name of " arrack." It is obtained 
 by cutting off the head of the tree, and scooping out a 
 hollow in the top of the stem, where, in ascending, it 
 lodges. 3 or 4 quarts may be obtained daily from a 
 single palm, for 10 or 15 days. — U. S, Patent Office 
 Report, 1855, p. 56. 
 
 Datrits, beams of wood or iron, with sheaves or 
 blocks at their ends, projecting over a vessel's side or 
 stem, to hoist in the boats. 
 
 Days of Grace. These vary in almost all mer- 
 cantile towns and countries, but the tendency of mod- 
 em legislation is to abolish them altogether. In 
 France, Belgium, Lombardy, Tuscany, the Two Sici- 
 lies, and other States where the French code has been 
 introduced, there are no days of grace. So throughout 
 the German States they are altogether done away. In 
 Great Britain, and Ireland, and the United States of 
 America, there are 3 days ; in Denmark there are 8 
 days ; in Sweden, 6 days ; in Russia, 3 days for bills 
 at sight, 10 days for bills at a fixed time ; in the Can- 
 ton of Berne, Switzerland, 6 days ; in Spain and Por- 
 tugal, none ; and in the Netherlands, none. 
 
 The law merchant respects the religion of different 
 peoples. A Jew would not be bound to pay a bill on 
 a day sacred to him. So if the first day of grace should 
 be on Saturday, and Monday Christmas-day, and the 
 maker a Jew, the note would be payable on Friday. 
 The word month means generally a calendar month. 
 A note dated on the 30th of August would end with 
 the corresponding day of the month. In calculating 
 the day when the bill falls due, the day of the date is 
 always excluded ; so a bill drawn on the 1st of Janu- 
 arj' at 10 days after date would become due on the 11th, 
 and not on the 10th. — Manual of Mercantile Law, by 
 Leone Levi. In New York and other States statutes 
 have been adopted by the Legislature, providing that 
 when a bill falls due on a public holiday (Christmas, 
 ith of July, Thanksgiving Day, New-Year's Day, and, 
 in New Orleans, January 8th, for instance) the bill 
 shall be payable the day preceding. 
 
 Dead-lights, ports or shutters to close in the 
 cabin-windows of a ship in bad weather. 
 
 Dead-reckoning, in Navigation, the estimation 
 that is made of the place where a ship is situated, with- 
 out having recourse to observation of the celestial bod- 
 ies. It is made by observing the distance she has run 
 by the log, and the course on which she has been 
 steered, making allowance for drift, lee-way, etc. 
 
 Dead Sea or Lake Asphaltites (Arabian, 
 Jiahr-d-Lout, '* Sea of Lot"), a lake of Palestine, cele- 
 brated in Scripture as the site of Sodom and Gomor- 
 rah, between lat. 31° 6' and 31° 52' N., and long. 35° 
 26' and 35° 43' E., its N. extremity nearly 20 miles E. 
 Jerusalem. Mean length N. to S. about 35 miles ; 
 average breadth from 10 to 12 miles ; but its size varies 
 greatly in different seasons and years. — Robinson. 
 It is inclosed in a valley, bounded by bare limestone 
 mountains, and according to recent researches, its depth 
 is about 350 fathoms, and its surface 1,312 feet below 
 that of the Mediterranean Sea ; it being thus by far 
 the deepest known fissure on the earth's surface. The 
 river Jordan enters it on its north side. Its waters 
 are thoroughly impregnated with salt ; and it has not 
 been proved that any animal exists in this sea. A 
 mountain of rock salt on its S. W. side, called Hajr 
 Usdum, " Stone of Sodom," preserves the name of that 
 city, ruined with others, as described in Genesis xix., 
 24-28 ; and traces of towns or buildings are reported, 
 on doubtful authority, to have been seen at certain 
 times in its bed. Asphaltum was thrown to the sur- 
 face at its southern extremity in large quantities after 
 the earthquakes of 1834 and 1837. Messrs. Robinson 
 and Smith have found the ^^Asclepias giga/ntea," grow- 
 ing at Engedi, on its western coast, the fruits of which 
 
 (the famed " apples of Sodom") though inviting in ap- 
 pearance, crumble in the hand into powder. — See N. 
 A. Rev., L, p. 203 (by B. B. Edwards) ; Bib. iSac., v. 
 397, vii. (by Dr. Robinson) ; Silliman's Jour., xlviii 
 viii., 317 ; North Brit. Rev., ii., p. 261 ; Living Age, xxiii. 
 (same article) ; so Lit. Mess., xiv. (M. F. Madey) ; 
 Methodist Quar. Rev., ix., 633 ; Living Age, xxxi., 307. 
 
 " In undertaldng to explore the physical geography 
 of the sea, I have found myself standing side by side 
 with the geologist on the land, and with him, far away 
 from the sea-shore, engaged in considering some of the 
 phenomena which the inland basins of the earth— those 
 immense indentations on its surface that have no 
 sea-drainage — present for contemplation and study. 
 Among the most interesting of these is that of the 
 Dead Sea. Lieutenant Lynch, of the United States' 
 Navy, has run a level from that sea to the Mediter- 
 ranean, and finds the former to be about 1,300 feet be- 
 low the general sea-level of the earth. In seeking to 
 account for this great difference of water-level, the 
 geologist examines the neighboring region, and calls 
 to his aid the forces of elevation and depression which 
 are supposed to have resided in the neighborhood ; he 
 then points to them as the agents which did the work. 
 Truly, they are mighty agents, and they have diversi- 
 fied the surface of the earth with the most towering 
 monuments of their power. But is it necessary to 
 suppose that they resided in the vicinity of this re- 
 gion ? May they not have come from the sea, and 
 been, if not in this case, at least in the case of other 
 inland basins, as far removed as the other hemisphere ? 
 This is a question which I do not pretend to answer 
 definitely. But the inquiry as to the geological agency 
 of the winds in such cases is a question which my in- 
 vestigations have suggested. It has its seat in the 
 sea, and therefore I propound it as one which, in ac- 
 counting for the formation of this or that inland basin, 
 is worthy, at least, of consideration. 
 
 '* Is there any evidence that the annual amount of 
 precipitation upon the water-shed of the Dead Sea, at 
 some former period, was greater than the annual 
 amount of evaporation from it now is ? If yea, from 
 what part of the sea did the vapor that supplied the 
 excess of that precipitation come, and what has cut 
 off that supply? The mere elevation of the rim 
 and depression of the lake basin would not cut it 
 off. If we establish the fact that the Dead Sea at a 
 former period did send a river to the ocean, we carry 
 along with this fact the admission that when that sea 
 overflowed into that river, then the water that fe'' 
 from the clouds over the Dead Sea basin was more 
 than the winds could convert into vapor and cany 
 away again j the river carried off the excess to the 
 ocean whence it came. 
 
 " In the basin of the Dead Sea, in the bafin of the 
 Caspian, of the Sea of Aral, and in the other inland 
 basins of Asia^ we are entitled to infer that the precip- 
 itation and evaporation are at this time exactly equal. 
 Were it not so, the level of these seas would be rising 
 or sinking. If the precipitation were in excess, these 
 seas would be gradually becoming fuller ; and if the 
 evaporation were in excess, they would be gradually 
 drying up ; but observation does not show, nor history 
 tell us, that either is the case. As far as we know, 
 the level of these seas is as permanent as that of the 
 ocean, and it is difficult to realize the existence of 
 subterranean channels between them and the great 
 ocean. Were there such a channel, the Dead Sea be- 
 ing the lower, it would be the recipient of ocean waters, 
 and we can not conceive how it should be such a re- 
 cipient without ultimately rising to the level of its 
 feeder. It may be that the question suggested by my 
 researches has no bearing upon the Dead Sea ; that 
 local elevations and subsidences alone were concerned 
 in placing the level of its waters where it is. But is 
 it pro'iable that, throughout all the geological periods, 
 during all the changes that have taken place in th' 
 
DEC 
 
 516 
 
 DEC 
 
 distribution of land and water surface over the earth, 
 the winds, which in the general channels of circulation 
 pass over the Dead Sea, have alone been unchanged ? 
 Throughout all ages, periods, and formations, is it 
 probable that the winds have brought us just as much 
 moisture to that sea as they now bring, and have just 
 taken up as much water from it as they now carrj' off? 
 Obviously and clearly not. The salt-beds, the water- 
 marks, the geological formations, and other facts 
 traced by Nature's own hand upon the tablets of the 
 rock, all indicate plainly enough that not only the 
 Dead Sea, but the Caspian also, had upon them, in 
 former periods, more abundant rains than they now 
 have. Where did the vapor for those rains come 
 from ? and what has stopped the supply ? Surely not 
 the elevation or depression of the Dead Sea basin." — 
 Mauby's Phys. Geog. of the Sea, p. 222. 
 
 Dead-water. The water that closes in with a 
 ship's stem. 
 
 Deals, or Deal-boards (German, Dielen ; Dutch, 
 Deelen ; Danish, Dmler ; Swiss, Tiljor ; French, Plan- 
 ches minces; Italian, Tavole, Plane ; Russian, iJorsH; 
 Polish, Tarcice), a thin kind of fir planks, much used in 
 carpentry. They are formed by sawing the trunk of a 
 tree into longitudinal divisions, of greater or less thick- 
 ness, according to the purposes they are intended to 
 serve. They are imported from Dantzic, Petersburg, 
 Narva, and many other ports in the Baltic, and from 
 North America ; but those from Christiana, the capi- 
 tal of Norway, are the best, and bring the highest 
 price. They are distinguishable from those produced 
 in the contiguous provinces of Norway ; their superi- 
 ority has been said to depend principally on their being 
 more perfectly sawed ; but it really depends on the 
 greater care with which the sap-wood and other defect- 
 ive portions of the timber are cut away, and on the 
 quality of the timber. A Russian standard deal is 12 
 feet long, 11 inches wide, and li inch thick j 400 feet 
 of li inch plank make a load. A Christiana standard 
 deal is 11 feet long, 9 inches wide, and li inch thick. 
 There is another standard of Norway deals at Dram, 
 10 feet long, 9 inches wide, and li inch thick. 
 
 Debenture, a term used at the custom-house to 
 signify the certificate subscribed by the customs officers, 
 and given to the exporter ofgoodson which a drawback 
 is allowed, bearing that the exporter has complied with 
 the required regulations, and that he is entitled to such 
 drawback. 
 
 Debt, in law, is a species of contract, whereby a 
 chose in action, or right to a certain sum of money, is 
 mutually acquired and lost ; nsuallj' divided into debts 
 of record, debts by special contract, and debts by sim- 
 ple contract. A debt of record is a sum which appears 
 to be due by the evidence of a court of record ; such as 
 debt on judgment or recognizance. Debt by specialty 
 is where a sum is acknowledged to be due, or becomes 
 due, by instrument under seal ; such as a covenant, 
 bond, etc. Both these species of debts, being con- 
 tracted by a man for himself and his heirs, attach on 
 his lands and tenements, and bind them in the hands 
 of his heir or devisee. Debt by simple contract is either 
 hy parole or by written obligation unsealed ; within 
 which class fall bills of exchange and promissorj' notes. 
 Debt is also a personal action of contract, in which the 
 plaintiff seeks the recovery of debt ; i. e. a liqvidated 
 or certain sum of money alleged to be due to him. 
 
 Debt, Imprisonment for. See Hunt's M. Mag., iv. 
 pp. 72, 538 ;N.A. Review, xxxii. (by A. H. Everett) ; 
 Am. Almanac, 1848, 181 ; Westminst-er Review, ix., xix., 
 XX., xliv ; British and For. Rev., v. ; Bankers' Maga- 
 zine, iii. p. 88. 
 
 Decade (Latin, decas, from Greek 6eKa, ten"). 
 A word used by some old writers in a general sense for 
 the number ten, or an enumeration by tens ; but more 
 peculiarly appropriated to the number of books into 
 which the historj' of the Roman empire by Livy is di- 
 vided, each division consisting of ten books or decades. 
 
 It was also the name given to the space of 10 days, 
 which in the French republican calendar was substi- 
 tuted for the ordinarj- week. The 10th, or last day, 
 was termed decadi. Thus, except in bissextile years, 
 the whole number of decades was 36i : the days of the 
 half decades, falling at the close of the year, were at 
 one time called sansculotiides, and afterward cample' 
 mentary ; and dedicated respectively to Virtue, Ge- 
 nius, Labor, Opinion, and Recompence. 
 
 Decimal Coinage, a system of monetary calcu- 
 lation advancing to infinity from a fixed standard of 
 value, and performing its multiplications by any in- 
 creasing progression of tens, and its divisions by a 
 decreasing progression which is also decimal. 
 
 This system, whose superiority to all others now in 
 use is universally acknowledged, was first organized 
 and established by the Constituent Assembly of France 
 in 1790. It forms a part of that vast decimal metrical 
 system of weights and measures, which, since the close 
 of the last century, has obtained in France, and is 
 slowly spreading thence into the other countries of 
 Europe and America. The subject was so widely and 
 keenly agitated throughout Great Britain in the open- 
 ing months of 1853, that the House of Commons ap- 
 pointed a committee to investigate the whole matter. 
 The report of this committee was laid before the House 
 on the 1st of August of that year. This document 
 was introduced with a strong recommendation of the 
 decimal system of coinage, and proposed that the basis 
 of that system when introduced should be the present 
 pound sterling. By the retention of the pound, the 
 decimal system might be introduced with the least 
 possible change. Its 10th part already exists in the 
 shape of the florin or two-shilling piece, while an alter- 
 ation of 4 per cent, in the value of the present farthing 
 will serve to convert that coin into the lowest step of 
 the decimal scale, which it is necessary to represent by 
 means of an actual coin, viz., the one-thousandth part 
 of a pound. To this lowest denomination it was pro- 
 posed by the committee to give the name of mil, in 
 order to mark its relation to the unit of value. . The 
 addition of a coin to be called a cent, of the value of 
 10 mils, and equal to the 100th part of a pound, or the 
 10th part of the florin, would serve to complete the list 
 of coins necessary to represent the moneys of account, 
 which would accordingly be pounds, florins, cents, and 
 mils. As to the coins by means of which the decimal 
 system will be developed, it is proposed that some of 
 those now in use be retained, and that new coins be 
 substituted for others of them. The coins thus re- 
 tained would be the present sovereign (1000 mils), the 
 half-sovereign (500 mils), florin (100 mils), and shilling 
 (50 mils, or 5 cents). The present sixpence, under the 
 denomination of 25 mils, might be retained ; and the 
 crown-piece, or a piece of 250 mils, of which few are in 
 circulation, need not be withdrawn. On the other 
 hand, it would be desirable to withdraw the half-crown, 
 and the threepenny and fourpenny pieces, which are 
 inconsistent with the decimal scale. In the United 
 States the decimal system has been introduced into the 
 coinage with great advantage ; and an effort is now 
 being made to introduce it into weights and measures, 
 which it is hoped will succeed in a few years. 
 
 Decimal Fractions, are fractions which have 
 for their denominator 10, 100, 1000, etc., or in general 
 some power of 10. The use of decimal fractions is 
 merely an extension of the ordinary scale of arithmet- 
 ical notation. Setting out from the unit's place, the 
 1st figure to the left (in the expression of any whole 
 number) denotes so manj' tens, the 2d to the left so 
 many hundreds, the 3d so many thousands, and so on ; 
 so that in the number 765, for example, each unit of 
 the 6 is the 10th part of each unit of the 7, and each 
 unit of the 5 a 10th of each unit of the 6. In like 
 manner, in the expression of a decimal fraction, setting 
 out from the unit's place, the 1st figure to the right 
 expresses so many 10th parts, the 2d to the right so 
 
DEC 
 
 517 
 
 DEC 
 
 many 100th parts, the 3d so many lOOOths, and so on ; 
 so that each figure, as before, expresses parts, which 
 are each 10 times smaller than those expressed by the 
 figure immediately preceding. By expressing frac- 
 tions in this manner, the operations of addition, sub- 
 traction, multiplication, and division, are exactly the 
 same as in integer numbers. In order to distinguish 
 the integral from the fractional part of a numerical ex- 
 pression, a. point or comma is placed between them. 
 Various marks have been used for this purpose at dif- 
 ferent times ; but the point is now most commonly 
 employed, and, according to the practice of Sir Isaac 
 Newton, it should always be placed near the top of 
 the figure, thus 2'46, which prevents it from being 
 confounded with the ordinary marks of punctuation. 
 Decimal fractions appear to have been introduced by 
 Begiomontanus, about the year 1464; but Stevinus 
 was the first who wrote an express treatise on the sub- 
 ject in his Pratique d' Arithmetique, published in 1682. 
 They are now universally employed in all arithmetical 
 calculations ; and it is much to be regretted that a dec- 
 imal division of weights, measures, money, etc., has not 
 been adopted in all civUized countries, by which the 
 reduction of fractional parts from one scale to another, 
 would be obviated, and all the applications of arithme- 
 tic to the ordinary purposes of life greatly simplified, 
 A subdivision of weights and measures on this principle 
 was adopted in France at the time of the Revolution, 
 but has not been imitated b}' other countries. 
 
 Decimal Weights and Measures, I. Tntro- 
 duction of the Decimal System. — The introduction of the 
 decimal system is so important to all nations, and the 
 advantages so apparent, that any discussion on the sub- 
 ject will be of interest. The facility of transacting 
 every business, and the saving of labor, would be 
 much increased by having a general and convenient 
 system of weights and measures. The good result of 
 the introduction of the decimal system into our coin- 
 age is 80 universally admitted, that efi'orts should be 
 made to carr}' the system out in all our standards. 
 The importance of the clause in the Magna Charta, 
 and expressed in an old English law of older date, is 
 not fully felt, that there shall be only one measure and 
 one weight throughovi the land. This has never been 
 realized either in England or this countrj-, though 
 many efforts have been made to introduce a common 
 system. Commercial intercourse would be facilitated, 
 and many of the embarrassments and delays would be 
 obviated, could a system be made universal in all mar- 
 itime countries. There is no bar to the introduction 
 of such a system ; for whatever difference there may 
 be in the systems adopted or in the notation used, yet 
 they are all founded on the Arabian numbers. All 
 have the same numerical system for a foundation, 
 though the superstructures are varied. It would be 
 scarcely practicable to introduce into the whole world 
 a general system at once ; but it is practicable for the 
 principal maritime nations, who are so much interested, 
 to have a congress, and unite upon some complete sys- 
 tem that would take the place of the many disjointed 
 and empirical ones now in use. The rest of the world 
 would follow in time, from the fact that convenience 
 and advantage are more than equal to custom. How- 
 ever, the principal end would be attained in a short 
 time — commercial intercourse would be carried on 
 among nations with one stmidard ; having, if necessarj'', 
 the notation admitted into each country affected by 
 the language, but yet to be equivalent in values. It is 
 a very interesting question what shall be the standard ? 
 and one where rival claims can be brought forward, 
 each standard of measure, of weight, and of coinage 
 having some advantages ; and it may be difficult to 
 decide what are the best. It seems, however, to be 
 admitted that the decimal division is the only perfect 
 one. It being stated as a general principle, that for 
 convenience a standard varj'ing but little from some 
 old standard, should, if possible, be used. 
 
 II. The Natural Standard or Unit for the Base of 
 the System. — In respect to coinage, our standard of a 
 dollar for a unit seems to answer every purpose, and 
 is the most convenient of any in use in the world. So 
 it will, perhaps, be sufficient to examine with respect 
 to weights and measures. The standard or unit for 
 measurement that would seem to be given by nature, 
 is the circumference of the earth taken at a given lati- 
 tude. We have there an unvarying base, and one 
 always practicable to measure. For convenience, we 
 would naturally take a part of this circle, using any 
 natural division. This is given to us at once by the 
 rotation of the earth on its axis, and the aic a fixed 
 star traverses in a given time, and then dividing by a 
 decimal division this time of rotation, gives a standard 
 of convenient length. Having to call in the aid of as- 
 tronomy to determine this distance, the notation used 
 in that science, of degrees and minutes, etc., was natu- 
 rally adopted. It was found that one degree, or 360th 
 part of the earth's circumference divided into 60 parts, 
 was about equal to a mile of the old empirical system. 
 A very small change will be therefore necessary, tak- ' 
 ing this mile as a unit. From this unit a table is con- 
 structed that will give the most convenient measures, 
 with the least possible change from the old system, 
 and one that could be adopted at least by the United 
 States and Great Britain with advantage : 
 
 III. 1. General Table of New Lineal Measure proposed 
 10 tenths = 1 inch. 
 
 10 inches or 100 tenths, = 1 foot. 
 6 feet or 60 inches = 1 fathom. 
 1000 fathoms or 6000 feet = 1 mile. 
 60 miles = 1 degree on the meridian. 
 
 Measures of Temperature and Air.—T\iG centigrade 
 thermometer generally used in France and other coun- 
 tries, having its zero at the freezing point — ^the only 
 invariable point of temperature in nature — and its 
 100th degree determined by the temperature of boiling 
 water, when the barometer stands at 24^ inches of the 
 new lineal measure proposed to be adopted in' prefer- 
 ence to Fahrenheit's scale. The barometer to be marked 
 in inches and lOths of the new measure. The new 
 standard of lineal measure to be the fathom of 6 feet 
 marked on a rod of brass or other metal, and made 
 equal to 6 feet 0"91548 inch of our present measure 
 at the temperature of 62-6 degrees of Fahrenheit, or 17 
 degrees of the centigrade thermometer. This propor- 
 tion will make the proposed mile equal to 1012-715 
 fathoms of our present measure, being the mean length 
 of the minute of a degree of terrestrial meridian, ac- 
 cording to Mr. Airy's treatise on the figure of the 
 earth. — Ency. Metro. Should more extensive surveys 
 of meridianal areas, since made or in progress, lead to 
 a more accurate value of the said minute, it is pro- 
 posed that the necessary correction shall be effected, 
 not by changing the standard rod, but by altering the 
 legal temperature to a higher or lower point than 17 
 degrees centigrade. 
 
 For measuring works of architecture and engineer- 
 ing, the foot and its decimal subdivisions will be used, 
 and measurements by 10 feet and 100 feet, and not by 
 the yard or rod. 
 
 2. For Land Measure. — The fathom to be the unit, 
 and 10th and 100th for fractions, and all square-work 
 to be so measured ; 
 
 1000 square iJithoms = 1 acre. 
 1000 acres = 1 mile 
 
 3. For Solid Measure.^-The foot to be the unit : 
 
 1000 cubic Inches = 1 foot. 
 
 Liquids to be measured by solid measurements : 
 
 10 cubic inches = 1 pint 
 
 100 cubic inches = 1 gallon. 
 
 100 cubic gallons or 10 cubic feet = 1 barrel 
 
 i. Measures of Weight Proposed. 
 
 10 tenths = 1 ounce. 
 10 ounces = 1 pound. 
 100 pounds = 1 hundred-weight 
 1000 pounds = 1 thousand-weight, 
 2000 pounds = 1 ton. 
 
DEC 
 
 518 
 
 DEE 
 
 And 1 pound be the weight of l-60th of a cubic foot 
 of TTater at 17 degrees centigrade, and the barometer 
 standing at 24J- inches of the new lineal measure. By 
 this arrangement, 100 pounds will be equal to about 
 108 pounds of the present avoirdupois weight. All the 
 weights for coins, bullion, apothecaries' weights, etc., 
 be regulated by this system, and all customs and du- 
 ties collected by these tables. This would soon intro- 
 duce the system without any compulsory measures. 
 
 IV. Some of the Advantages of the New System of 
 Measures and Weights. — The mile proposed is the nau- 
 tical or geographical mile, and used exclusively for the 
 purposes of navigation by all the maritime nations, 
 and inserted in all the scales of charts and maps of the 
 world, is the only universal measure now recognized. 
 Also the weights, as well as the measures, are decimal 
 parts of the unit, as far as can be, without a total 
 change of our present systems. The French metrical 
 system has proved a failure practically. Theoretically 
 it is perfect ; taking the degree for a unit, and using 
 the decimal divisions throughout. But our whole no- 
 tation in astronomy and navigation is founded upon 
 the division of the degree into 60 parts, and we can not 
 have a complete change until we manufacture our 
 clocks and watches so as to mark time by decimal 
 divisions, and change our hours and minutes into cor- 
 responding lOths and lOOths ; in fact, abandon entirely 
 our present system. This is too great a change ever 
 to be practicable, especially where so many different 
 people have to conform. The system that has been 
 proposed, only introduces the decimal divisions into 
 the standards already adopted, and is not only practi- 
 cable, but the change can readily be made, as in the 
 case of our coinage. It will be sufficient to convince 
 the most skeptical of the necessity of a change, to 
 make an examination of the tables of weights, meas- 
 ures and coins in the world. And as no better time 
 to correct an evil can be bad than the present, it is 
 hoped that our government will lead the way in so use- 
 ful a change. The British government have already 
 taken measures to have an examination and researches 
 made for this object, as may be seen from the follow- 
 ing : 
 
 " Sir John Wrottesley brought the decimal system 
 of coinage, weights, etc., before Parliament, February 
 25th, 1824, but it was not till May, 1838, that a com- 
 mission of inquiry was appointed at the instance of the 
 then Chancellor of the Exchequer, Mr. Spring Rice, 
 since Lord Monteagle ; and in June 20, 1843, another 
 commission was appointed ; they both consisted of 
 eminent scientific men, and both reported strongly in 
 favor of the change. A committee of the House of 
 Commons reported to the same effect, August 1st, 
 1853. Mr. Gladstone, however, while admitting the 
 advantages of this system, thought its introduction 
 premature. In June, 1854, an association was formed 
 for the purpose of obtaining the adoption of the sys- 
 tem. In July, 1855, the commissioners for inquiry 
 were again appointed." See Weights and Measures, 
 See Bankers^ Magazine, N. Y., 1856 ; Bankers'' Regis- 
 ter, N. Y., 1857. 
 
 Declination of the Needle. Professor Chris- 
 topher Hansteen, of Christiana, in Norwaj', is the 
 person who has given, probably, the greatest impulse, 
 in recent times, to the efforts to methodize the facts 
 and laws of the earth's magnetism. M. Hansteen was 
 bom September 26, 1783, and is Professor of Astron- 
 omy in the University of Christiana, and Director of 
 the Observatory. His dissertation, entitled Magnaiis- 
 mus der JErdo, published in 1819, which received a 
 prize from the Eoyal Danish Academy, recapitulated 
 all the authenticated facts obtained by voyagers and 
 others, from the earliest times. It will be recollected 
 that Halley had represented the magnetic variation at 
 different parts of the globe by lines traced on Merca- 
 tor's chart, and passing through all the places where 
 the variation (or declination) of the needle from the 
 
 true north was equal ; and being well aware of the 
 progressive (or secular) changes in the course of these 
 lines, he proposed the hypothesis of 2 pairs of magnetic 
 poles interior to the globe, of which 1 pair revolves 
 slowly. 
 
 Professor Hansteen also constructed charts of the 
 lines of equal dip. In certain positions between the 
 tropics the dip is nothing, or the freely-suspended mag- 
 netic needle remains horizontal. The line connecting 
 these places is called the magnetic equator. It is an 
 undulating line, inclined somewhere near 12° or 13° 
 to the terrestrial equator, and cutting it in 2 points, not 
 exactly opposite, but in about 3° 20' and 174° 30' of 
 E. long, from Paris, according to Admiral Duperrey's 
 observations in 1826. The position of these nodes is, 
 however, variable. The north end of the needle (as is 
 well known) dips more and more in the northern hem- 
 isphere, untU in a certain place it becomes vertical, 
 when therefore the horizontal component of the mag- 
 netic force is nothing, and the common compass loses 
 altogether its directive power. Similar phenomena 
 occur in the southern hemisphere. Lines of dip of 
 10°, 20°, etc., may be drawn, and where the dip is 
 90° there is a true magnetic pole. The best observa- 
 tions serve to show that there is but one such true pole 
 in each hemisphere.— E. B. Preliminary Dissertation, 
 by J. D. Forbes, F.B.S. 
 
 Deed is a written contract, sealed and delivered. 
 It must be written before the sealing and delivery, 
 otherwise it is no deed ; and, after it is once formally 
 executed by the parties, nothing can be added or in- 
 terlined ; and therefore, if a deed be sealed and deliv- 
 ered, with a blank left for the sum, which the obligee 
 delivers up after sealing and delivery, this will make 
 the deed void. A deed must be made by parties ca- 
 pable of contracting, and upon a good consideration, 
 and the subject-matter must be legally and formally 
 set out. The formal parts of a deed are the premises 
 containing the number, names, additions, and titles of 
 the parties, the covenants, which are clauses of agree- 
 ment contained in the deed, whereby the contracting 
 parties stipulate for the truth of certain facts, or bind 
 themselves to the performance of some specific acts ; 
 the conclusion, which mentions the execution and date 
 of the deed, or the time of its being given or executed, 
 either expressly, or with reference to some day and 
 year before-mentioned. Every deed must be founded 
 upon good and sufficient consideration, not upon an 
 usurious contract, nor upon fraud, collusion, either to 
 deceive bona fide purchasers, or just and lawful credit- 
 ors ; any of which considerations will vacate the deed, 
 and subject the parties to forfeiture, and in sorne cases 
 to imprisonment. A deed, also, without any consid- 
 eration, is void. A deed must be executed by the 
 party himself, or by another for him in his presence, 
 or with his direction ; or, in his absence, by an agent 
 authorized so to do by another deed, also under seal ; 
 and in every such case, the deed must be made and 
 executed in the name of the principal. A deed takes 
 effect only from the day of delivery ; and therefore, if 
 it have no date, or a date impossible, the delivery will, 
 in all cases, ascertain the date of it ; and if another 
 party seal the deed, yet, if the party deliver it himself, 
 he thereby adopts the sealing and signing, and by 
 such delivery makes them both his own. The deliv- 
 ery of a deed may be alleged at any time after the 
 date ; but unless it be sealed and regularly delivered, 
 it is no deed. Another requisite of a deed is, that it 
 be properly witnessed or attested. The attestation is, 
 however, necessary rather for preserving the evidence 
 than as intrinsically essential to the validity of the 
 instrument. There are four principles adopted by the 
 courts of law for the exposition of deeds, viz. : 1. 
 That they be beneficial to the grantee, or person in 
 whose favor they are intended to operate. 2. That 
 where the words may be employed to some intent, 
 they shall not be void. 3. That the words be con- 
 
DEG 
 
 519 
 
 DEL 
 
 strued according to the meaning of the parties, and 
 the intent of the parties be carried into effect, provided 
 such intent can possibly stand on a law. 4. That they 
 are to be expounded consonantly to the rules of law, 
 and reasonably, without injury to the grantor, and to 
 the greatest advantage of the grantee. — E. A. 
 
 Degree of Latitude is the space or distance, on 
 the meridian, through which an observer must move 
 to vary his latitude by 1 degree, or to increase or 
 diminish the distance of a star from the zenith by 1 
 degree j and which, on the supposition of the perfect 
 sphericity of the earth,. is the 360th part of the merid- 
 ian. The length of a degree of a meridian, or other 
 great circle on the surface of the earth, is variously de- 
 termined by different observers, and the methods made 
 use of are various ; and, therefore, without entering 
 into the history of all attempts of this kind, we shall 
 present our readers with the following 
 Tables of the different Lenathb op a Degree, as meas- 
 
 UEED IN various PaKTS OF THE EARTH, THE TiMB OF ITS 
 
 Measurement, the Latitude of na middle point, etc. 
 
 1626 
 1630 
 1635 
 1644 
 1669.1 
 1718 f 
 1T3T 
 1740 \ 
 
 1T44 
 
 1752 
 1756 
 1764 
 1766 
 1768 
 1S02 
 1803 
 
 1S08 
 
 49° 
 
 20i' N. 
 4 N. 
 15 N. 
 
 49 22 N. 
 
 66 20 
 
 
 
 181 S. 
 
 N. 
 
 44 N. 
 
 40 N. 
 
 12 N. 
 
 51 29 54i N. 
 
 20i N. 
 
 82 N. 
 
 621. N. 
 
 I)xtent la 
 EngUeli 
 mites and 
 declomla. 
 
 68'768 
 66-091 
 69-545 
 75-066 
 68-946 
 69-119 
 69-403 
 69-121 
 
 i-121 I 
 i-092 f 
 
 68-751 ■ 
 
 6S-T82 
 
 68-718 
 
 69-076 
 
 68-998 
 
 69-061 
 
 69-142 
 
 68-393 
 
 69-146 
 
 69-292 
 
 68-743 
 
 68-769 
 
 I 
 
 M..F6rnel.. 
 Snellius . , . 
 Norwood.. 
 
 Kiccloii 
 
 Picard 
 
 Gossini 
 
 Manpertuls 
 
 Cassini&LaCaille 
 
 France. 
 Holland. 
 England. 
 Italy. 
 
 France. 
 
 I^apland. 
 
 France. 
 
 Juan d'Ulloa. .. I 
 
 BoQgaer v 
 
 Gondamiae ) 
 
 LaOaille 
 
 Boscorloh.,,..,. 1 
 
 Beccaria f 
 
 Liesganig 
 
 Mason and Dixon 
 
 Lieut Gol, Madge England. 
 
 Swanberg ^ ' ^ 
 
 Lambton 
 
 Biot, Arago, etc.. 
 
 Peru. 
 
 0. ofG.H. 
 
 Italy. 
 
 Germany, 
 n. States. 
 
 Lapland. 
 Mysore. 
 France. 
 
 Degree of Longitude is the space between 2 
 meridians that make an angle of 1° with each other at 
 the poles, the quantit}' or length of which is variable 
 according to the latitude. The following table ex- 
 presses the length of a degree of longitude in different 
 latitudes, supposing the earth to possess a perfect 
 sphericity : 
 
 Lai. 
 
 Mil... 
 
 Lot. 
 
 Miles. 
 
 Loi. 
 
 Miles. 
 
 1 Let. 
 
 Miles. 
 
 
 
 69-07 
 
 28 
 
 68-51 
 
 46 
 
 47-93 
 
 69 
 
 24-78 
 
 1 
 
 69^06 
 
 24 
 
 68-08 
 
 47 
 
 47-06 
 
 70 
 
 23-60 
 
 2 
 
 69-08 
 
 25 
 
 62-68 
 
 48 
 
 46-16 
 
 71 
 
 22-47 
 
 « 
 
 68-97 
 
 2B 
 
 62-02 
 
 49 
 
 45-26 
 
 72 
 
 21-32 
 
 4 
 
 68-90 
 
 27 
 
 61-48 
 
 SO 
 
 44-35 
 
 73 
 
 20-17 
 
 6 
 
 68-81 
 
 28 
 
 60-98 
 
 51 
 
 43-42 
 
 74 
 
 19-02 
 
 6 
 
 .68-62 
 
 29 
 
 60-85 
 
 62 
 
 42-43 
 
 75 
 
 17-86 
 
 7 
 
 68-48 
 
 m 
 
 69-76 
 
 63 
 
 41-58 
 
 76 
 
 16-70 
 
 8 
 
 68-31 
 
 31 
 
 69-18 
 
 (54 
 
 40-56 
 
 77 
 
 15-52 
 
 9 
 
 68-15 
 
 32 
 
 68'51 
 
 55 
 
 89-58 
 
 78 
 
 14-85 
 
 10 
 
 67-95 
 
 S3 
 
 67-87 
 
 56 
 
 88-58 
 
 79 
 
 13-17 
 
 11 
 
 67-73 
 
 34 
 
 67-20 
 
 57 
 
 87-58 
 
 8(1 
 
 11-98 
 
 12 
 
 67-48 
 
 35 
 
 66-51 
 
 58 
 
 86-57 
 
 HI 
 
 10-79 
 
 13 
 
 67-21 
 
 36 
 
 55.81 
 
 .59 
 
 85-54 
 
 82 
 
 9-69 
 
 14 
 
 66-95 
 
 37 
 
 56-10 
 
 60 
 
 84-60 
 
 S3 
 
 8^1 
 
 15 
 
 66-65 
 
 38 
 
 64-87 
 
 61 
 
 88-46 
 
 84 
 
 7-21 
 
 16 
 
 66-31 
 
 39 
 
 58-62 
 
 62 
 
 32-40 
 
 .S5 
 
 6-09 
 
 IT 
 
 65-98 
 
 40 
 
 62-85 
 
 63 
 
 31-88 
 
 86 
 
 4-81 
 
 18 
 
 65-63 
 
 41 
 
 62-07 
 
 64 
 
 30-24 
 
 87 
 
 8-61 
 
 19 
 
 65-24 
 
 42 
 
 61-27 
 
 65 
 
 29-16 
 
 88 
 
 2-41 
 
 20 
 
 64-84 
 
 43 
 
 60-46 
 
 66 
 
 28-06 
 
 89 
 
 1-21 
 
 21 
 
 64-42 
 
 44 
 
 49-63 
 
 67 
 
 26-96 
 
 90 
 
 0-00 
 
 22 
 
 63-97 
 
 46 
 
 48-74 
 
 68 
 
 26-85 
 
 
 
 A degree of the meridian on the surface of the globe 
 has been variously determined by different observers. 
 M. Picart measured a degree in the latitude of 49° 21', 
 and found it equal to 57,060 French toises. But the 
 French mathematicians who examined Heart's opera- 
 tions, found that the degree in that latitude is 57,183 
 toises. Mr. Norwood measured the distance between 
 London and York, and found it 905,751 English feet, and 
 finding the difference of latitudes 2° 28', determined 
 
 the quantity of 1 degree to be 367,196 English feet, oi 
 69 English miles and 288 yards. Maupertuis meas- 
 ured a degree in Lapland, in the latitude of 66° 20*, 
 and found it 57,488 toises. A degree was measured at 
 the equator by other French mathematicians, and 
 found to contain 56,767-8 toises. From these meas- 
 urements it appears that the earth is not a sphere, but 
 an oblate spheroid. — £, B. 
 
 Dela-ware, one of the middle United States, next 
 to Bhode Island the smallest in the Union, and in pop- 
 ulation the least, is bounded north by Pennsylvania, 
 east by Delaware River and Bay, south and west by 
 Maryland. It is between 38° 27' and 39° 50' N. lat., 
 and between 75° 04' 42" and 75° 56' W. long., and 
 between 1° 13' and 1° 57' E. long, from W. It is 92 
 miles long and 23 broad, and contains 2,120 square 
 miles, or 1,356,800 acres. The population in 1790 was 
 59,094 ; in 1800, 64,272 ; in 1810, 72,674 ; in 1820, 72,- 
 749 ; in 1830, 76,739 ; in 1840, 78,085 ; in 1850,91, 632. 
 
 jEarfy .History.— That Delaware Bay was already 
 known to the Spaniards a long time before Hudson, 
 there is no doubt. But the question is what they 
 called it. Benson, in his memoir on the names of the 
 State of New Yprk, says that they called it Tfie Say 
 of all Saints. He does not give his authority. In the 
 most ancient Spanish description of the east coast 
 which we have (that of Oviedo), this " Bay of all 
 Saints" is not mentioned all. But Oviedo mentions 
 a Bahia de S. Ckristoval on the east coast, and says 
 that it stands under 39° N. lat. This is nearly exactly 
 the latitude of Delaware Bay, which therefore probably 
 is designated by him under that name. If it is true 
 that the Spanish Caho de las Arenas is our Cape Hen- 
 lopen, then that large bay which the Spanish maps 
 invariably paint immediately to the north of this cape, 
 must be Delaware Bay. The figure which they give 
 to this bay, as well as to the river which they make 
 run into it, corresponns with the configuration of our 
 bay and river. Often we find on the maps the name 
 given by Oviedo — that of Bahia de S. Christoval or 
 Chripstoval (St. Christopherus Bay), written to it. So 
 for instance on a Spanish map of 1580, so on a French 
 map made after a Spanish original of 1587 ; but some- 
 times other names appear here ; for instance, that of 
 Bahia de la BueUa (Repulse Bay), or that of Rio de 8. 
 Antonio^ probably only because the map-makers con- 
 founded all those names in a most irregular way. As 
 to the Spanish ifavigator who brought home the sketch 
 of our bay, and gave it the name of St. Christopherus 
 Bay, there is yet some doubt. 
 
 The first navigator whom we can prove to have been 
 at the entrance of the bay, is Henry Hudson, when 
 (1609) he sailed along the coast from Chesapeake Bay 
 toward the north. He looked into the bay, found it 
 full 0|( shoals, did not explore it, gave to it no name, 
 and ''* suspected, from the currents which came out 
 from it, that there was a river leading into it." It is 
 pretty generally said that Lord Delaware, when (in 
 the year 1610) he sailed to Chesapeake Bay, was 
 thrown out of his way and touched at this bay, and 
 that it was therefore called by him, or by his compan- 
 ions, and the first English settlers in Virginia, Dela- 
 ware Bay. This was not only the first English, but 
 upon the whole the first name under which the bay be- 
 came more generally known in Europe. We see it for 
 the first time mentioned and written in the letter of 
 Captain Argall, of the year 1612, in Purchas' Pilgrims. 
 The old Virginian writers spelled or corrupted the 
 name in very different ways. Sometimes they -write 
 " My Lord Delaware's Bay," sometimes Delavar Bay, 
 and sometimes Delaware Bay. Later French map- 
 makers (for instance BeUin) made of this Bay Delaware 
 or Lavar. The first map on which we find this name, 
 is a little map of the greater part of the east coast by 
 Captain Smith, of the year 1624. For the first time, 
 prettj- well drawn, the bay is to be found on the first 
 map of Maryland, of the year 1635. 
 
DEL 
 
 520 
 
 DEL 
 
 After Hudson and Lord Dela-ware, Dutch skippers 
 and navigators were the first who entered this bay. 
 The Dutch Captain Hendricksen sailed (1616) up into 
 the bay and river as far as Schuylkill river. Captain 
 Cornelius May entered the bay 1623, explored it, sailed 
 up in the river as high at least as the present site of 
 the city of Philadelphia, and built there a fort called 
 " Fort Nassau." The bay was from him called " New 
 Port May." The river was called by the Dutch Zuydt 
 rivkr (the South river), with respect to the second 
 great river of the New Netherlands to the north (Hud- 
 son's river). It is not evident, but it is probable that 
 the Dutch commenced at once after Hudson's discovery 
 to designate the river under that name. The first book 
 in which the name Zuydt rivier is mentioned and 
 printed is the " New World" of Laet, 1624. From 
 the river also the baj- was generally called Zuydt 
 Bay, the South Bay, and this name became among 
 the Dutch so common that the other name, New Port 
 May, was soon forgotten. Another Dutch name for 
 the bay was that of Godyn's Bay, from the well-known 
 Amsterdam merchant, Samuel Godyn, who purchased 
 from the Indians Cape May, and a tract of country 
 from this cape along the shores of the bay. Other 
 Dutch names of this river sometimes used were Nas- 
 sau rivier. Prince Hendrich's rivier, and Charles rivier. 
 This latter name was in use as well among the En- 
 glish as among the Dutch. We find in an English 
 document of the year 1648, the name Delaware or 
 Charles river. And so we find on the Italian map by 
 Lucini, taken from a Dutch original in about the year 
 1631, the name Rio Carlo, We do not know in honor 
 of which Charles the river was so called. The English 
 claimed the bay and'^river in consequence of Cabot's 
 and Delaware's discover}*', and from different other 
 reasons. The Dutch claimed it from Hudson's discov- 
 ery, and took possession of it about 1623, through 
 Captain May. In the year 1629 they built another 
 fort there, called Swanandael, and 1633 the great navi- 
 gator, David Pietersz de Vries, entered the bay and 
 river, explored it, and made there also a temporary 
 little settlement. Fort Upland. 
 
 But all these Dutch settlements disappeared again, 
 and were partly destroyed by the Indians, and the 
 river and bay were without any habitation from 1633 
 to 1638, when at last the Swedes entered it under 
 Peter Minuit, Minuet, or Menewe. They changed the 
 whole geography of the bay and river. The river was 
 under them called The New Swedeland Stream, and the 
 bay New Swedeland Bay, and the Swedes erected also 
 new forts and gave Swedish names to the old Dutch 
 forts, which they partly rebuilt. The greater number 
 of the Swedish and Dutch settlements on Delaware 
 river and bay were made on the western shore, and 
 this first Dutch and Swedish population formed from 
 the beginning a peculiarly situated community. What 
 since 1638 was called New Swedeland, comprised prin- 
 cipally the territory of the present State of Delaware. 
 The Swedes remained 17 years in possession of the 
 river and bay, and one of their engineers, Lindstrom, 
 who accompanied the Swedish governor Rising, in the 
 year 1654, made a minute exploration and the first 
 special map of the whole. In the following year, 1635, 
 however, the Dutch governor of the New Netherlands, 
 Stuyvesandt, appeared with some men of war in the 
 bay, and subdued the whole little New Sweden to the 
 Dutch. They reintroduced the old and some new 
 Dutch names, but retained possession only for 9 years. 
 When the English (1664) conquered this land from the 
 Dutch, it was, until 1681, attached to the great prov- 
 ince of New York. But during the same time the 
 founders of Maryland considered it to be comprised 
 under this name and to be a part of their colony of Mary- 
 land. In this period were formed the 3 counties of which 
 the State still to-day consists, and the whole tract was 
 usually called the three lower counties an the Delaware. 
 In the year 1681 William Penu bought these 3 coun- 
 
 ties from the Duke of York, and they made now a 
 part of Pennsylvania, under the usual name of The 
 Territories of Pennsylvania, or the Three Lower Coun- 
 ties. They remained in connection with Pennsylvania 
 until 1776, when these territories separated from Penn- 
 sylvania and declared themselves independent, under 
 the name of the State of Delaware. — J. G. KoHi,. 
 
 A somewhat elevated table-land passes through a 
 portion of the State from north to south, dividing the 
 waters which fall into Chesapeake Bay from those 
 which flow into Delaware Bay. This table-land con- 
 tains a chain of swamps in the western part of this 
 State, from which its principal streams originate. 
 The soil in the north is a strong clay. Along Dela- 
 ware River, and for about 10 miles west of it, the soil 
 is generally a rich clay, well adapted to agriculture ; 
 but between this and the swamps the soil is light and 
 sandy. Proceeding toward the south, the soil be- 
 comes more sandy, and in Sussex county sand greatly 
 predominates. Kaoline, or porcelain clay, is found in 
 the northern portion, bog-iron ore in the southern, and 
 shell marl throughout the State. There were in 1850, 
 580,862 acres of land improved, and 375,282 of unim- 
 proved in farms. Cash value of farms, $18,880,031 ; 
 and the value of implements and machinery, $510,279. 
 
 Live Stoch, etc. — Horses, 13,852 j asses and mules, 
 791 ; milch cows, 19,248 ; working oxen, 9,797 ; other 
 cattle, 24,166; sheep, 27,503; swine, 56,261; value 
 of live stock, $1,849,281 ; of slaughtered animals, $373,- 
 665. 
 
 Agricultural Products, etc. — Wheat, 482,511 bushels ; 
 rye, 8,066 ; Indian corn, 3,145,542 ; oats, 604,518 ; 
 barley, 56 ; buckwheat, 8,615 ; peas and beans, 4,120 ; 
 potatoes, 240,542 ; sweet potatoes, 65,443 ; value of 
 products of the orchard, $46,574 ; produce of market 
 gardens, $12,714; pounds of butter made, 1,055,308; 
 of cheese, 3,187 ; molasses, 50 gallons ; beeswax and 
 honey, 41,248 pounds ; wool, pounds produced, 57,- 
 768 ; flax, 11,174 ; hops, 348 ; hay, tons of, 30,159 ; 
 clover-seed, 2,525 bushels ; other grass seeds, 1,403 ; 
 flax-seed, 904 bushels ; and were made 145 gallons of 
 wine ; value of home-made manufactures, $38,121. 
 
 Manufactures, etc. — There were in the State in 1850, 
 12 cotton factories, with a capital invested of $585,- 
 100, employing 413 males and 425 females, producing 
 5,205,000 yards of sheeting, etc., valued at $538,439 ; 
 5 woolen factories, with a capital invested of $136,500, 
 employing 113 males and 86 females, manufacturing 
 157,000 yards of cloth, valued at $244,510 ; 13 estab- 
 lishments making pig-iron, with a capital of $373,500, 
 emploj'ing 250 persons, and making 3,630 tons of cast^ 
 ings, etc., valued at $267,462 ; 2 establishments, with 
 a capital invested of $15,000, employing 50 persons, 
 manufacturing 550 tons of wrought iron, valued at 
 $55,000 ; 70 flouring-mills, 83 saw-mills, 16 tanneries, 
 with a capital of $99,350, employing 108 persons ; 
 value of products, $163,742 ; 8 printing-ofl[ices, issuing 
 2 semi-weekly, and 8 weekly newspapers. Capital in- 
 vested in manufactures, $2,978,945 ; value of manu- 
 factured articles, $4,649,206. 
 
 The principal port is Wilmington, a port of entry, 
 and the principal commercial town of the State, situ- 
 ated between Brandywine and Christiana Creeks, 1 
 mile above their junction. On Brandywine Creek are 
 some of the finest flouring-mills in the United States, 
 to which vessels drawing 8 feet water can come. 
 Christiana Creek is navigable for vessels drawing 14 
 feet of water, and gives to Wilmington considerable 
 commerce. The tonnage of the port in 1856, was 13,- 
 665 tons. The foreign trade of Delaware is eff'ected 
 chiefly through Baltimore, New York, and Philadel- 
 phia, especially the last ; so that its direct foreign 
 commerce is very inconsiderable. During 1850, 16 
 vessels were built, of an aggregate burden of 1,848 
 tons, viz., 12 scheoners, 3 sloops, and 1 steamer. The 
 Chesapeake and Delaware Canal connects these two 
 bays. 
 
DEL 
 
 521 
 
 DEL 
 
 FOBEION GOUHBBOB 
 
 5F THE State of Dela-waee. feom Octodee 1 
 
 , 1820, TO Jdxy 1, 1866. 
 
 
 years ending. 
 
 ElJKirta. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Tonnjige Cloarod. 
 
 ]>iatricfc Tonnage. 1 
 
 DomeBtie. 
 
 Foreign. Total. 
 
 Total. 
 
 American. 
 
 Forel^. 
 
 Registered. 
 
 ISnrollcd and 
 Licensed. 
 
 Sept. 80, 1821 
 
 1822 
 
 1828 
 
 1824 
 
 1825 
 
 1826 
 
 1827 
 
 1828 
 
 1829 
 
 1880 
 
 Total.... 
 
 Sept, 80, 1831 
 
 1882 
 
 1888 
 
 1884 
 
 1885 
 
 1886 
 
 1887 
 
 1888 
 
 1889 
 
 1840 
 
 Total.... 
 
 Sept. 80, 1841 
 
 1842 
 
 9mos., 1848* 
 
 Juno 80, 1844 
 
 1845 
 
 1846 
 
 1847 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 
 
 1850 : 
 
 Total.... 
 
 Juno 80, 1861 
 
 1852. 
 
 1858 
 
 1854 
 
 1855 
 
 1866 
 
 $75,915 
 
 168,950 
 
 86,724 
 
 18,964 
 
 29,361 
 
 88,818 
 
 9,406 
 
 27,028 
 
 7,195 
 
 62,258 
 
 $9,580 
 4,642 
 18,113 
 
 2,295 
 1,877 
 
 2,867 
 
 $85,445 
 168,592 
 
 58,887 
 
 18,964 
 ' 81,656 
 
 85,195 
 9,406 
 
 29,895 
 ' 7,195 
 
 52,258 
 
 $80,997 
 
 216,969 
 
 60,124 
 12,080 
 18,693 
 10,009 
 0,998 
 15,260 
 24,179 
 26,574 
 
 2,888 
 
 4,082 
 124 
 199 
 827 
 
 1,186 
 817 
 
 1,060 
 808 
 962 
 
 '146 
 '127 
 
 'Hi 
 
 667 
 
 9,721 
 
 «458,119 
 
 84,514 
 16,242 
 45,911 
 61,945 
 88,826 
 74,981 
 40,888 
 86,844 
 8,680 
 ST.OW 
 
 $38,824 
 
 $491,948 
 
 84,614 
 16,242 
 45,911 
 51,946 
 88,826 
 74,981 
 40,838 
 86,844 
 8,680 
 87,001 
 
 $471,878 
 
 21,656 
 28,668 
 9,048 
 185,948 
 10,611 
 107,068 
 66,841 
 1,848 
 
 "862 
 
 11,848 
 
 799 
 699 
 186 
 
 413 
 
 965 
 888 
 
 99' 
 
 18,453 
 
 $485,277 
 
 38,585 
 65,665 
 98,490 
 125,771 
 188,195 
 144,045 
 285,459 
 88,089 
 37,850 
 
 '192 
 406 
 
 2,177 
 
 "19 
 879 
 
 $486,277 
 
 88,585 
 
 55,665 
 
 98,682 
 
 126,177 
 
 188,195 
 
 146,222 
 
 236,459 
 
 88,068 
 
 38,229 
 
 $426,960 
 
 3,276 
 8,667 
 4,685 
 8,098 
 2,274 
 11,215 
 12,722 
 490 
 1,400 
 
 1,684 
 
 1,632 
 2,587 
 1,949 
 3,882 
 ■ 4,958 
 8,495 
 4,096 
 2,466 
 1,091 
 
 1,298 
 
 2.202 
 
 2,672 
 
 866 
 
 'ioo 
 
 '839 
 8,612 
 1,599 
 
 906 
 
 9,150 
 
 $957,099 
 
 86,920 
 68,087 
 76,880 
 
 8,178 
 
 $960,272 
 
 80,920 
 63,087 
 76,380 
 
 $47,712 
 
 5,821 
 8,053 
 
 26,101 
 
 2',653 
 2,444 
 1,674 
 
 11,890 
 
 668 
 
 11,217 
 
 * Nine months to June 80, and the fiscal year begins Jnly 1. 
 
 Dela^ware Bay, at the month of the Delaware 
 River, is a large arm of the sea, 75 miles long, 20 miles 
 wide between Cape May on the north, and Cape Henlo- 
 pen on the south, and 30 miles wide in the middle. The 
 navigation is liifficult and dangerous, being interrupted 
 by many shoals. Its low and sandy shores were with- 
 out' harbors until the construction of the Delaware 
 Breakwater within Cape Henlopen. 
 
 Delaware Breakwater. This tireakwater is 
 situated at the entrance into Dplaware Bay, • near 
 Cape Henlopen. The anchorage ground, or roadstead, 
 is formed by a cove in the southern shore, directly 
 west of the pitch of the cape, and the seaward end of 
 an extensive shoal called The Shears. The entrance 
 from the ocean is 1,950 feet in width, and is accessible 
 during all winds from the sea. The depth of water is 
 from 24 to 36 feet deep, at low tide, throughout the 
 harbor. There are two dykes, one of 1,500 feet, and 
 the other of 6,000 feet, giving a secure harbor of seven 
 tenths of a square mile. The objects of this artificial 
 harbor are to protect vessels from winds from east to 
 nortli-west, by way of north, and against the floating 
 ice of the bay. 
 
 Delaware River, a river of the United States, 
 which rises on the west side of the Catskill Mountains, 
 State of New York, and after separating Pennsylva- 
 nia from New York and New Jersey, falls into the 
 Delaware Bay 5 miles below Newcastle. It is formed 
 by the union df two streams. The Mohawk, or west- 
 em and main branch, rises from a small lake in lati- 
 tude 42° 45' N., at an elevation of 1886 feet above the 
 sea, and flows south-west for nearly 50 miles, when it 
 turns suddenly to the south-east, flowing in that di- 
 rection for 5 miles to the Pennsylvania boundary line 
 in latitude 42° N. Eight miles below this spot it is 
 joined by the Popaeton branch, which has a previous 
 south-west course of about 50 miles. After the union 
 of these two streams, the river pursues a winding south- 
 
 east course between New York and Pennsylvania for 
 60 miles to the north-west comer of New Jersey j 
 where it receives the Neversink River. It then turns 
 south-west, along the base of the Kittaning range, for 
 35 miles, in passing through which it forms what is 
 called the "Water Gap," a great natural curiosity. 
 The banks here rise precipitously from the water's 
 edge to the height of 1,600 feet, overhung by immense 
 masses of rock, and at the south-east entrance leaving 
 scarcely room for a road. The passage, however, 
 widens toward the north-west. Its entire length is 
 about 2 miles. From this point it pursues a south- 
 east and then a south-west course to Easton, where it 
 receives the Lehigh, a large tributary, from the west. 
 A little below this the river passes through South 
 Mountain, and has a south-east course to Trenton, 60 
 miles below Easton ; having in that distance 25 rapids, 
 with a total fall of 165 feet. These falls are navigable 
 at high water. The river below Trenton turns to the 
 south-west until near the bay, which it enters in a 
 south-east direction, after an entire course of 309 miles. 
 It is navigable for vessels of the largest class to Phil- 
 adelphia, 40 miles, and for sloops 35 miles further, to 
 Trenton. Above the falls at Trenton it is navigable 
 for boats of 8 or 9 tons for 100 miles. The Delaware 
 is connected with the Hudson River and the bays of 
 New York by the Delaware and Hudson Canal, the 
 Morris Canal, and the Delaware and Raritan Canal, 
 
 Del Credere Commission, All agents who 
 sell goods for their principals, and guaranty the price, 
 are said abroad to act under a del credere commission. 
 In the United States, this phrase is seldom used, nor 
 is such guaranty usually given, except by commission 
 merchants. And where such guaranty is given, the 
 factor is still but a surety, so far that his employers 
 must first have recourse to the principal debtor. But 
 his promise is not " a promise to pay the debt of an- 
 other." within the statute of frauds. Nor does he 
 
DEM 
 
 522 
 
 DEM 
 
 guaranty the safe arrival of the money received by 
 him in payment of the goods, and transmitted to his 
 eraploj^er, but must use proper caution in sending it. 
 If he take a note from the purchaser, this note is his 
 emploj^er's ; and if he take depreciated or bad paper, 
 he must make it good. — Parsons on Mercantile Law, 
 oh. X., p. 159. 
 
 In mercantile law, a term derived from the Italian 
 (credere, to trust), which denotes a commission granted 
 by a merchant to a factor to dispose of goods ; the fac- 
 tor, for the consideration of an additional percentage, 
 agreeing to guaranty the solvency of the purchaser, 
 
 . Delft or Delf (German, Fayence, Unachtes Porzel- 
 lan; Dutch, Delfsporcelyn; French, Faienhe), a coarse 
 species of porcelain, originally manufactured at Delft, 
 whence its name. It is a kind of pottery of baked 
 earth, covered with an enamel of white glazing, which 
 gives it the appearance and neatness of porcelain. 
 Some kinds of this enameled pottery differ from oth- 
 ers, either in their sustaining sudden heat without 
 breaking, or in the beautj'" and regularity of their 
 forms, enamel, and the painting with which they are 
 ornamented. In general, the fine and beautifully- 
 enameled potteries, which approach the nearest to 
 porcelain in external appearance, are, at the same 
 time, those which least resist a brisk fire ; while 
 those which sustain a sudden heat are coarse, and re- 
 semble common pottery. 
 
 Demand and Supply are terms used in polit- 
 ical economy to express the relations between con- 
 sumption and production — between the demand of 
 purchasers and the supply of commodities by those 
 who have them to sell. The relations between the 
 demand for an article and its supply, determine its 
 price or exchangeable value : the relations between 
 the demand for labor and its supply, determine the 
 amount of wages to be earned by the laborer. For 
 causes explained elsewhere, th^ price of an article wUl 
 rarely vary, for any length of time, very much above 
 or below its cost of production ; nor will the wages of 
 labor, for anj"^ length of time, much exceed or fall 
 below the amount necessary to maintain laborers and 
 their families in such comforts as their habits of life 
 have accustomed them to believe necessary for their 
 subsistence ; but bearing in mind that, in the prices 
 of commodities and labor, there is a certain point, de- 
 termined hy causes independent of demand or supply, 
 above or below which prices can not materially var}' 
 for any considerable time : all variations of price, if 
 the medium in which they are calculated remain un- 
 changed, may be referred to the proportion which 
 exists between the demand for commodities and the 
 supply of them — ^between the quantities which pur- 
 chasers are willing and able to buj', and the quantities 
 which producers are able and willing to sell. 
 
 To have any influence upon prices, a demand must 
 be accompanied by the means of purchasing. A de- 
 mand is not simply a want — a desire to obtain and 
 enjoj'' the products of other men's labor; for if this 
 were its meaning, there would never be the least pro- 
 portion between demand and supply : all men would 
 alwa3'^s want every thing, and production could not 
 keep pace with consiunption. But an " effective de- 
 mand," as it is termed by Adam Smith, exists wher- 
 ever one man is anxious to exchange the products of 
 his labor for that of other men. It is, therefore, of an 
 effective demand only that political economists are 
 speaking when they examine the circumstances of 
 demand and supply in connection with prices. 
 
 But although a demand, without the means of pur- 
 chase, can not affect prices, the universal desire of 
 mankind to possess articles of comfort and luxury 
 suggests other important considerations. As this 
 desire is natural to man, and too often is so strong as 
 to tempt him even to commit crime, it obviously needs 
 no encouragement ; men will always gratify it when- 
 ever they have the means, and these means consist in , 
 
 the products of their own labor. Hence all that is 
 required to convert this desire of acquisition into an 
 effective demand is ample employment for industry. 
 Increase the production of all commodities and an 
 increased consumption of them is the certain result ; 
 for men, having larger products of their own labor to 
 offer in exchange for the products of other men's labof, 
 are enabled to purchase what they are alwaya eager to 
 acquire. Production, therefore, is the great object to 
 be secured, not onl}"" as furnishing a supply of commod- 
 ities necessary and useful to mankind, but also as 
 creating an effective demand for them. When trade 
 is depressed by a languid demand, it is commonly said 
 that increased consumption is all that is required to 
 restore its prosperity. But how is this consumption 
 to be caused ? The desire to consume is invariable, 
 and thus any falling off in consumption must be at- 
 tributed to a diminished production in some depart- 
 ments of industry which causes an inability to con- 
 sume. When production is restored, an effective 
 demand for all articles will immediately follow; but 
 until the productive energies of the consumers are in 
 a state of activity, it is in vain to expect from them an 
 increased demand. 
 
 These considerations lead us to the conclusion that 
 a universal glut of all commodities is impossible. The 
 supply of particular commodities may easily exceed 
 the demand for them, and Y&ry often does exceed it ; 
 but as the constant desire to obtain commodities needs 
 nothing but the power of offering other commodities 
 in exchange, to become an effective demand, it is evi- 
 dent that a universal increase of production is neces- 
 sarily accompanied by a proportionate increase of 
 consumption. Men are stimulated by no love of pro- 
 duction for its own sake, but they produce in order to 
 consume directly, or because, by exchanging their 
 produce with others, they are able to enjoy the various 
 comforts and luxuries which they are all desirous of 
 obtaining. Active production, therefore, in all de- 
 partments of industry, causes a general and effective 
 demand for commodities, which will continue to be 
 equal to the supply unless it be checked by war, by 
 restrictions upon commerce, or by other circumstances 
 which prevent a free interchange of commodities. 
 
 A country is in the highest prosperitj' when there is 
 an active and steady demand for commodities and 
 labor, and a sufficient supply of them. Any disturb- 
 ance of the proportion between one and the other is 
 injurious to the community ; and the injury is greater 
 or less according to the extent and duration of such 
 disturbance. When the proportion is well adjusted, 
 the whole community derive benefit from the circum- 
 stance, both as producers and consumers ; when it is 
 disturbed, they are injured in both capacities. 
 
 Having described, thus generally, the nature and 
 causes of demand, and its intimate connection with 
 supply, it becomes necessary to examine the influence 
 of demand and supply upon one another, and upon 
 production, consumption, prices, and profits. This 
 influence varies according to the circumstances of the 
 market, and the nature of the commodities to which 
 its law may be applied. These may be best under- 
 stood by considering, 1st, the effects of a demand 
 exceeding the supply ; and 2dly, of a supply exceed- 
 ing the demand. 
 
 1. The first effect of a demand exceeding the supply 
 of a commodity, is to raise its price. As more persons 
 want to buy the commodity than the -producers are 
 able or willing to fiupply, they can not all obtain what 
 they desire ; but must share the supply between them 
 in some manner. But their wants are very much 
 regulated by the cost of gratifying them. One man 
 would purchase an article for a dollar for which he 
 may be unwilling or unable to pay two ; while others, 
 rather than forego the purchase, will consent to pay 
 that amount. Those who have commodities to sell, 
 finding that they have more customers than they can 
 
DEM 
 
 523 
 
 DEM 
 
 satisfy, immediately infer that they are selling them 
 too cheaply, and that they could dispose of all their 
 stock at a higher price. The price is accordingly 
 raised, -when the sale becomes limited to those who are 
 not restrained from buying by the increased price. In 
 principle, though not in outward form, the market is 
 in the nature of an auction. The sellers endeavor to 
 obtain the highest price for their goods; the price 
 rises with the eagerness of those who wish to buy, and 
 the highest bidders only secure the prizes. In the 
 market, howeven, the compeHtion of the buyers is not 
 perceptible among themselves, except through the 
 prices demanded. Their competition determines the 
 prices, but the sellers judge of its extent, and regulate 
 their demands so as to obtain the greatest possible 
 advantage from it. 
 
 Soiue commodities are positively necessary for the 
 support of the people, of which the supply may fall 
 very short of the demand and be incapable of increase. 
 This is the case when there is a bad harvest in a 
 country wliich is excluded from a foreign supply by 
 war or by fiscal restrictions. Here the price rises in 
 proportion to the deficiency of the crops. The compe- 
 tition for food is universal. Some, indeed, may be 
 driven to the consumption of inferior articles of food, 
 and others to a diminished consumption ; but all must 
 eat. The number of consumers is not diminished, 
 while the supply is reduced; and the price must, 
 therefore, rise and continue high until a fresh supply 
 can be obtained. In a siege the competition is still 
 greater. The prices of provisions become enormous ; 
 the rich alone can buy ; the poor must starve or plun- 
 der. 
 
 A similar effect is produced if the supply, without 
 being deficient, be confined to the possession of a small 
 number of persons, who limit it to the consumers in 
 order to secure higher prices. However abundant 
 corn might be in a besieged town, if one man were 
 exclusively authorized by law to sell it, it might rise 
 to a famine price, unless the people broke into the 
 granaries, or the government interfered with the mo- 
 nopoly. Less in degree, but similar in principle, is the 
 effect upon prices of every limitation of the market by 
 fiscal restrictions. When any sellers are excluded, 
 the others are enabled to raise their prices. 
 
 These are cases in which the supply can not be 
 increased to meet the demand, or in which the supply 
 is monopolized. But the greater number of commod- 
 ities may be increased in quantity, and the supply of 
 them is not artificially limited. The price of these 
 also rises when the demand exceeds the supply : but 
 the increased price raises the profit of the producer, 
 and attracts the Competition of others in the market. 
 Fresh capital and labor are applied to the production 
 of the profitable article, until the supply is accommO" 
 dated to the demand, or exceeds it. The prices grad- 
 ually fall, and at lejjgth the profits are reduced to the 
 same level as the profits in other undertakings, or even 
 lower. The encouragement to further production is 
 thus withdrawn, and prices are adjusted so as to secure 
 to the producer the ordinary rate of profits, and no 
 more. ' 
 
 But sometimes the demand for a commodity is di- 
 minished, if the supply fall short of it for any consider- 
 able time. There are various articles useful and 
 agreeable to mankind, but not essential to their exist- 
 ence, which they are eager to enjoy as far as they can, 
 but for which they are not prepared to make great 
 sacrifices. "When the price of an article of this descrip- 
 tion is raised by a deficient supply, continuing for some 
 length of time, it is placed beyond the reach of many 
 persons who learn to regard it with indifference. 
 They would buy it if it were cheap ; but as it is dear, 
 • they go without it, or are satisfied with a substitute. 
 In this manner the number of consumers is diminished. 
 Others again, who will not be deprived of an accus- 
 tomed luxury, enjoy it more sparingly, and consume it 
 
 in less quantities. But so long as the supply is not 
 increased, the price will continue high, because the 
 consumers who still purchase the article, notwithstand- 
 ing its price, keep up an effective demand equal to the 
 whole supply ; while there is still a dormant demand, 
 only awaiting a reduction of price to become effective. 
 
 For the same reasons, a demand for articles is di- 
 minished when their price is artificially raised by tax- 
 ation. The demand is gradually confined to a smaller 
 number of persons, and many consume more spar- 
 ingly. 
 
 In these various ways demand and supply become 
 adjusted through the medium of price, whenever the 
 one exceeds the other. This is the result of natural 
 laws, the operation of which is of the highest value to 
 mankind. If the supply be incapable of increase, it 
 economises consumption; if the supply can be in- 
 creased, it encourages production. In either case, it is 
 of great benefit to the consumer. To revert, for a 
 moment, to the example of a bad harvest, in a country 
 excluded from all foreign supply. Suppose that 
 prices did not rise, but remained precisely the same as 
 if the harvest had been abundant, what would be the 
 consequence ? The whole population would consume 
 as much bread as usual, and use flour in every way 
 that luxury points out, unconscious of any scarcity. 
 Farmers might even feed their cattle with wheat. By 
 reason of this improvidence, the whole of the com 
 would be consumed before the next harvest, and the 
 horrors of famine would burst, without any warning, 
 upon a people living as if they were in the midst of 
 plenty. This evil is prevented by a rise of prices, 
 which is a symptom of scarcity, just as pain is asymp- 
 tom of disease. By timely precaution the dangeir is 
 averted. A high price renders providence and econ- 
 omy compulsory, and thus limits consumption. The 
 supply, therefore, instead of being exhausted before 
 the next harvest, is spread over the whole year. In 
 the case of food, it is true that such economy is pain- 
 ful and presses heavilj- upon the poor : but this evil is 
 a mercy compared with famine. If no privation had 
 been endured before scarcity became alarming, none 
 but rich men could buy a loaf: for every one who had 
 a loaf to sell, would be risking his own life if he sold 
 it. 
 
 These observations are also applicable in some 
 measure to cases in which prices are raised by the sup- 
 ply being confined to one or to a few persons, who 
 have contrived to buy up the whole or nearly the 
 whole of any commodity. But such exclusive posses- 
 sion (sotaetimes improperly called a monopoly) can 
 not exist, fflr any length of time, in articles of which 
 the supply is capable of increase. The extreme ease 
 has been put of a besieged town, in which the whole 
 supply of com was monopolized by one man. Under 
 those circumstances of course he would demand a high 
 price ; but unless his exclusive supply were upheld by 
 law, it does not follow that the inhabitants would suf- 
 fer on that account. A most provident consumption 
 of food is absolutely necessarj'" for the defense of a 
 town, and no organization could distribute provisions 
 according to the wants of the people so well as a sys- 
 tem of purchase restrained by a high price. It must 
 also be recollected that, without any such exclusive 
 possession, the fact of the siege alone must raise 
 prices by cutting off fresh supplies. If the siege con- 
 tinue, provisions are more likely to last out by the in- 
 strumentality of prices than by any other means. At 
 the same time the sole possessor of the corn would be 
 restrained from keeping back the supply beyond the 
 actual necessity of the occasion by many considera- 
 tions. He would know that if a popular tumult arose 
 — if the town were relieved, the siege raised, a capitu- 
 lation agreed to, or the place suddenly carried by 
 assault — the value of his exclusive property would be 
 destroyed. His own interest, therefore, is coincident 
 with that of the people. It is better for both that the 
 
DEM 
 
 524 
 
 DEM 
 
 supply should be meted out with parsimony ; it is dan- 
 gerous to both that it should be immoderately stinted. 
 
 In circumstances less pecuUar than these, verj' little 
 evil can arise from an exclusive possession of any com- 
 modity not protected directly or indirectly by law. If 
 the supply be capable of increase, and the demand be 
 sufficient to enable the owner to secure a high price, 
 for reasons already explained, the market would rap- 
 idly be supplied from other quarters. If the supply 
 can not be increased, that fact alone would raise the 
 price ; and it is probable that the supply would not 
 have been so great without the extraordinary activity 
 of the capitalist who had been able to secure for his 
 coui;try the whole accessible supply to be collected 
 from the markets of the world. 
 
 A monopoly, properlj' so called, is of a totally dif- 
 ferent character: for, however abundant the supply 
 of an article may be, it may, nevertheless, be inacces- 
 sible to the consumer. 
 
 When prices are high by reason of the demand ex- 
 ceeding the supply, it is by no means necessary that 
 the profits of those who sell the dear commodities 
 should always be greater than the profits in other 
 branches of trade. It must always be recollected, that 
 where scarcity is the cause of the high price, the sell- 
 ers who demand it have the less to sell. Where 
 scarcity is not the cause, but the demand is great be- 
 cause the supplj', notwithstanding the exertions of 
 producers, can not keep pace with it, the profits are 
 undoubtedlj'' greater than usual, until the supply has 
 been increased. 
 
 II. It is now time to consider the effects of a supply 
 exceeding the demand, and this division of the inquiry 
 will require less elucidation, as the effects of such a 
 condition of the market may be stated to be the verj' 
 reverse of those which we have just been examining. 
 When there is more of a commodity than people are 
 prepared to buy, its price must fall. Its sellers must 
 offer it for sale at the price at which they can induce 
 people to purchase. All is now in favor of consumers. 
 They are no longer bidding against each other : but 
 the sellers are competing among themselves to get rid 
 of their goods. The price falls generally in proportion 
 to the excess of the quantity, but this result is verj'- 
 much qualified by the nature of the article. If there 
 be an excess of supply in perishable goods, there is 
 nothing to prevent the natural fall of prices. When 
 fish is unusually abundant, it must be cheap, or a great 
 part of it will be destroyed : it must be eaten at once, 
 or not at all ; and to induce people to eat it, it must be 
 offered to them at a low price. But with articles 
 which may be held back, in expectation of higher 
 prices, their value may be partially sustained. Pro- 
 duction may be reduced, and the stock gradually 
 brought into the market, until the supply has been 
 equalized with the demand ; and wherever the article 
 is such as to admit of voluntary increase or diminu- 
 tion, the natural result of an excessive supply is to re- 
 duce production, until the balance of supply and de- 
 mand has been restored. This mutual adjustment is 
 in perpetual operation, and is ordinarilj^ effected with 
 such precision, that it ma}'' be said, without exaggera^ 
 tion, that a large city is supplied exactly with every 
 thing its inhabitants require — even down to an egg or 
 a pint of milk. There is always enough of every 
 thing, and rarely too much. 
 
 Whenever there is an excessive production of any 
 commodity, it is an evil almost as great as scarcity. 
 It is true that the consumer derives benefit from it, 
 but the producing classes are most injuriously affected. 
 In order to raise the value of the produce of their labor, 
 they must cease to produce, or must produce in less 
 quantities. The workmen are thus either deprived of 
 employment altogether for a time, or are employed for 
 a portion of their time only, at reduced wages ; while 
 their employers are disposing of their goods at low 
 prices, which scarcely repay the outlay of their capital. 
 
 Nor does the penalty of over-production fall exclu- 
 sively upon those engaged in the trade in which sup- 
 ply has exceeded the demand. Their distresses extend 
 to other classes. It has been shown alreadj' that it is 
 to production we must look as the cause of sustained 
 consumption, and thus the pressure upon any consid- 
 erable branch of productive industry must be sensibly 
 felt by those who have the produce of their own labor 
 to sell. Production has failed, and consumption must 
 therefore be diminished. 
 
 The ruinous consequences of gluts, in particular 
 staples of tTside and manufacture, are too well known, 
 especially in this country, to require any further illus- 
 tration ; but their causes are not always agreed upon. 
 Such gluts are often attributed to the facility with 
 which manufactures are produced by machinery ; but 
 we have shown that over-production in all branches of 
 industry' is impossible ; and if that be true, it is evi- 
 dent that when partial gluts are produced by the aid 
 of machinery, that powerful agent must have been 
 misapplied. It is not contended that nothing can be 
 produced in too great abundance. Whether machinery 
 be used or not, production must be governed by the 
 same laws of demand and supply. Those things only 
 must be produced for which there is a demand, and 
 they must not be produced in greater abundance than 
 the demand warrants. But the more generally ma- 
 chinery is used, the more abundant will be the prod- 
 ucts which men will have to exchange with each 
 other, and therefore the better will be the market. It 
 follows that machinery can only cause a glut when ap- 
 plied excessively to particular objects, precisely in the 
 same manner as an excessive quantity of labor would 
 causa one if applied where it was not needed by the 
 demands of commerce. 
 
 The supply of markets is a very speculative busi- 
 ness, and is often conducted with more zeal than dis- 
 cretion. When a particular trade is supposed to be 
 more prosperous than others, capitalists rush into it in 
 order to secure high profits ; and in this country the 
 abundance of capital, the perfection of our machinery, 
 and the skill of our workmen, enable them to produce 
 with extraordinary facility. Over-production in that 
 particular trade is the consequence, and all engaged in 
 it suffer from the depreciation in the value of their 
 goods; but if, instead of rushing into the favorite 
 trade, they had distributed their enterprises more 
 widely, their own interest and that of the community 
 would have been promoted. When a ship is wrecked, 
 if all the crew precipitate themselves into one boat, 
 they swamp it ; but if they wait till all the boats are 
 lowered, and apportion their numbers to the size of 
 each, they may all reach the shore in safety. And so 
 it is in trade : one trade may easily be glutted, while 
 there is room in other trades for all the capital and 
 industry that need employment. 
 
 In proportion to the extent of the market and the 
 variety and abundance of commodities to be ex- 
 changed, will be the facility of disposing of the prod- 
 ucts of capital and labor ; and this consideration pomts 
 out as the most probable antidote to gluts, a universal 
 freedom of commerce. When the free interchange of 
 commodities is restricted, not only is a glut caused 
 more easily, but its causes are more uncertain, and de- 
 pendent upon unforeseen events. With the whole 
 world for a market, the operation of the laws of de- 
 mand and supply would be more equable, and the 
 universality of the objects of exchange would make 
 gluts of rare occurrence. The market would still be 
 liable to disturbance by bad harvests, by errors in the 
 monetary system, by shocks to public credit, and by 
 war ; but apart from these causes of derangement, de- 
 mand and supply would be adjusted, and the product- 
 ive energies of all nations called into full activity.— 
 Bohn's Ci/do. Pol. Econ. ; Adam Smith, Wealth of 
 Nations, book i. ; M'Culloch, Principles of Politicd 
 Ecofiamy^ part i., ch. 7, and part ii., ch. 1, 2; Mal- 
 
DEM 
 
 626 
 
 DEN 
 
 THUS, Principlet of Political Economy ; Kioakdo, ch. 
 30 ; MiLi/, Essays on Unsettled Questions of Political 
 Economy, Essaj' ii. 
 
 Demutrage, in commercial navigation, is an al- 
 lowance made to the master or owners of a ship by the 
 freighter, for detaining her in port longer than the pe- 
 riod agreed upon for her sailing. It is usually, stip- 
 ulated in charter-parties and bills of lading, that a 
 certain number of days, called running or working 
 daj-s, shall be allowed for receiving or discharging the 
 cargo, and that the freighter may detain the vessel for 
 a further speciiied time, or as long as he pleases, on 
 payment of so much per diem for such over-time. 
 When the contract of affreightment expressly stipu- 
 lates that so many days shall be allowed for discharg- 
 ing or receiving the cargo, and so many more for over- 
 time, such limitation is interpreted as an express 
 stipulation on the part of the freighter, that the vessel 
 shall in no event be detained longer, and that if de- 
 tained he will be liable for demurrage. This holds 
 even in cases where the delay is not occasioned by any 
 fault on the freighter's part, but is inevitable. If, for 
 example, a ship be detained, owing to the crowded 
 state of the port, for a longer time than is allowed by 
 the contract, demurrage is due ; and it is no defense to 
 an action for demurrage, that it arose from port regu- 
 lations, or even from the unlawful acts of the Custom- 
 house officers. Demurrage is not, however, claimable 
 for a delay occasioned by the hostile detention of the 
 ship, or the hostile occupation of the intended port ; 
 nor is it claimable for any delay wilfully occasioned by 
 the master, or owners, or crew of the vessel. The 
 claim for demurrage ceases as soon as the ship is 
 cleared out and ready for sailing, though she should 
 be detained Ijy adverse winds, or tempestuous weather. 
 — Chitty'8 Commercial Lav). 
 
 Professor Parsons in his admirable work on Mercan- 
 tile Law [Boston, 1856], says : 
 
 " As time has become of the utmost importance in 
 commercial transactions, both parties to this contract 
 should be punctual, and cause no unnecessary delay ; 
 and for such delay, the party injured would have his 
 remedy against the party in fault. The charter-party 
 usually provides for so many ' lay-days,' and for so much 
 ' demurrage.' Lay-daj-s, or working-days, are so many 
 days which the charterer is allowed for loading, or for 
 unloading the vessel. These lay-days are counted from 
 the arrival of the ship at the dock, wharf, or other place 
 of discharge, and not from her arrival at the port of 
 destination, unless otherwise agreed on by the parties. 
 In the absence of any custom or bargain to the con- 
 trary, Sundays are computed in the calculation of lay- 
 days at the port of discharge ; but if the contract 
 specifies " working lay-days," Sundays and holidays 
 are excluded. If more time than the agreed lay-days 
 is occupied, it must be paid for ; and ' demurrage' 
 means what is thus paid. Usually the charterer agrees 
 to pay so much demurrage a day. If he agrees only 
 to pay demurrage, without specifying the sum, or 
 if so many working days are agreed on, and nothing 
 more is said, it would, generally, at least, be con- 
 sidered that the number of lay-days determined what 
 was a reasonable and proper delaj-, and that for what- 
 soever was more than this, the party in fault must pay 
 a reasonable indemnity. If, after the lay-days al- 
 lowed for unloading, have commenced, and, of course, 
 after a safe arrival, but before the cargo is unladen, 
 ship and cargo, or cargo alone, is lost, without the 
 fault of the ship, of the owner, or of the master, the 
 freight or charter-money is due, because that was 
 earned by the arrival. 
 
 " If time be occupied in the repairs of the ship, 
 which are made necessary, without the fault of the 
 owner or master, or of the ship itself, that is, if they 
 do not arise from the original unseaworthiness, the 
 charterer pays during this time. Many cases have 
 arisen where the ship was delayed by different causes. 
 
 and the question occurred, which party should pay for 
 the time thus lost. On the whole, we should say, that 
 no delay arising from the elements, as from ice, or tide, 
 or tempest, or from any act of government, or from 
 any disability of the consignee, which could not be 
 imputed to his own act, or to liis own wrongful neg- 
 lect, would give rise to a claim on the charterer for 
 demurrage. 
 
 " Demurrage seems essentially due only for the 
 fault or voluntary act of the charterer ; but if he hires 
 at so much on time, that is, by the day, week, or 
 month ; then, if the vessel be delayed by seizure, em- 
 bargo, or capture, and the impediment is removed and 
 the ship completes her voyage, the charterer pays for 
 the whole time. If she be condemned, or otherwise 
 lost, this terminates the voyage and the contract. 
 
 " The contract may be dissolved by the parties, by 
 united consent, or against their consent, by any cir- 
 cumstances which make the fulfillment of the contract 
 illegal ; as, for example, by a declaration of war on 
 the part of the country to which the ship belongs, 
 against that to which she was to go. So either an 
 embargo, or an act of non-intercourse, or a blockade 
 of the port to which the ship T^as going, may either 
 annul or suspend the contract of charter-party. And 
 we should say they would be held to suspend only, if 
 they were temporarj^ in their terms, and did not re- 
 quire a delay, which would be destructive to the pur- 
 poses of the voyage. 
 
 " In reference to all these points, it ia to be under- 
 stood, that if the parties know the circumstance, 
 which they make their bargain, and provide for it, 
 any bargain they choose to make in relation to it 
 would be enforced, unless it required one or the other 
 of the parties to do. something prohibited by the law 
 of nations, or of the country in which the parties re- 
 sided, and to whose tribunals they must resort. — Par- 
 sons' Mercantile Law, p. 362-367. See Kemt's Com., 
 111., pp. 264, 265. 
 
 Denarius, in Soman Antiquity the chief silver coin 
 among the Romans, worth in sterling money, about 
 7f (?, or about 15 cents. It was originally of 62 grains 
 weight ; and was considered equivalent to the Attic 
 drachma, which, however, weighed 67 grains. It was 
 originally one-seventh, but afterward fell to one-eighth 
 ounce. (See Arbuthnot on Coins.') There was also a 
 golden denarius, of which there is a specimen in the 
 British Museum weighing 60 grains, besides others of 
 less weight. As a weight, it was equal to the seventh 
 part of a Koman ounce. Denarius was also used as 
 of the value of an English penny. 
 
 Denier, a small French coin — copper coin, of which 
 there were 12 to a sol. 
 
 Denmark, a kingdom in the north of Enrope, 
 small in extent and scanty in population, but known 
 in history from an early period of the Christian era. 
 There is no authentic account of the origin of the name 
 of Denmark, nor of the quarter from which the coun- 
 trj' received its early inhabitants. From the similarity 
 of the Danish and German languages, as well as from 
 the general course of migration in early ages, it seems 
 probable that Denmark was peopled by immigrants 
 from the south — from Holstein, Hanover, and Saxony. 
 There are no means of ascertaining whether natives 
 of Denmark formed part of the formidable hordes 
 which passed the Koman frontiers in the fifth and sixth 
 centuries ; but the attacks on this empire were proba- 
 bly made by tribes less remote, the expeditions of the 
 Danes being in general maritime. For such expedi- 
 tions they were remarkable as early as the eighth and 
 ninth centuries, as was proved by their repeated inva- 
 sions of England, their occasional descents on Scotland, 
 and their conquest, followed by permanent occupation, 
 of Normandy. To cross a sea of three or four hundred 
 miles in breadth was a bold undertaking for men unac- 
 quainted with the use of the compass ; but the num- 
 ber of islands in Denmark early accustomed the in- 
 
DEN 
 
 526 
 
 DEN 
 
 habitants to navigation, and gave them a practical 
 dexterity in it, similar to that acquired by the Dutch 
 from their vicinity to arms of the sea, and to the 
 mouths of great rivers. Both countries proved the 
 advantage of a maritime position, for in those days 
 neither France nor England were capable of sending 
 forth' a naval armament. 
 
 Denmark is a portion of the great European plain, 
 and may be described as almost uniformly level, with 
 partial inequalities of surface, particularly in Schles- 
 wig and Holstein, and the islands of Funen and Zeal- 
 and. The kingdom consists of two great divisions, the 
 one a long peninsula, extending from the Elbe to the 
 Scaggerrack, and the other a cluster of islands sepa- 
 rating the Cattegat from the East Sea. The western 
 coasts of the peninsula are a continuous level of 
 marsh-land ; the interior is dry and sandy ; and the 
 islands partake of the same characteristics. The soil 
 of the low-land is generally fertile, producing the 
 finest pasture, and excellent com crops. The climate 
 is milder than the northern situation of the country 
 would indicate ; but the sky is very frequently ob- 
 scured with vapors and moist fogs, and the summer 
 lasts only from June to the middle of August. The 
 climate, however, is not unwholesome. The mass of 
 the population consists of Danes, who occupy the 
 islands. North Jutland, and the northern part of 
 Schleswig. Germans occupy the southern part of 
 Schleswig, Holstein, and Lauenburg : Prisons and 
 Angles live on the islands and other parts of the W. 
 coasts. Agriculture and fisheries are their principal 
 occupations. From 1660 till 1848 the kingdom was an 
 Absolute Monarchy ; but in the latter year a constitu- 
 tion was granted by the king ; and the legislative 
 power is now vested in two parliamentary bodies, the 
 Volksthing and Landesihing^ both consisting of elective 
 members ; the former resembling the House of Eep- 
 resentatives, and the latter the Senate, of the Con- 
 gress of the United States of North America, rather 
 than the Lords and Commons of Great Britain. Den- 
 mark is a small and poor country, and her naval and 
 military power corresponds with her small resources. 
 She possesses in Europe the Faroe Islands, and the 
 large, volcanic, and poor island of Iceland, with a por- 
 tion of "West Greenland. 
 
 Lubec and Dantzic. — The chief mercantile inter- 
 course of Denmark in the fourteenth century was with 
 Lubec and the north-west of Germany. To the Baltic 
 Lubec was nearly what Venice was to the Mediterra- 
 nean, the earliest commercial town of consequence. 
 There was also some traffic from Denmark to the 
 mouths of the Vistula ; the name of Dantzic or Dans- 
 vik (Danish town or port) indicating that a Danish 
 colony, aware of the advantages of the situation, had 
 established itself there. The more remote provinces 
 of Courland and Esthonia were also objects of ambition 
 to the Danes ; but they did not find it practicable to 
 keep settlements there. Holstein was more within 
 their control, and much more advantageous, from the 
 comparative civilization of its inhabitants. 
 
 Hanse Towns. — During the fourteenth century, the 
 association of the Hanse Towns had acquired consider- 
 able strength, and asserted strenuously the freedom of 
 commerce in the north of Europe. Denmark com- 
 manding the great entrance into the Baltic bj' the 
 Sound, was the power most interested in laying mer- 
 chant vessels under a toll of regular contribution ; and 
 the result was repeated contentions, followed at times 
 by open war, between the Danish government and this 
 powerful confederacy. 
 
 Shipwrecked Vessels, — The rude habits of the age 
 were strongly marked by the difficulty which the Dan- 
 ish government found in putting a stop to the practice of 
 plundering merchantmen shipwrecked on the coast. 
 Vessels proceeding to and from the Baltic necessarily 
 approached the coast of Jutland, particularly in an age 
 when the ignorance of mariners led to their consider- 
 
 ing the vicinity of the land in the light of a protection. 
 Shipwreclts were constantly of frequent occurrence 
 there, and were generally turned to the profit of the 
 nobility, who were proprietors of the maritime dis- 
 tricts. We may here remark, that the nobles claimed 
 not only the soil, but even the persons of the peas- 
 antry ; for the principle of personal bondage was until 
 lately maintained in Denmark. The practice was to 
 collect in the vicinity of a wreck such a number of the 
 inhabitants, as to prevent the master or mariners from 
 opposing the seizure of the merchandise. Even bish- 
 ops residing on the coast, though humane in their 
 treatment of the crews, did not scruple to aid in taking 
 forcible possession of the cargo ; so crude were in 
 those days the notions of justice toward merchants. 
 It is a remarkable fact, that a law passed by the king 
 about the year 1521 for the prevention of these prac- 
 tices was abrogated and publicly burned at the instance 
 of the barons and clergy a few years after, when a 
 new sovereign had succeeded to the crown. 
 
 Navy. — ^The foUoiving was the state of the Danish 
 navy in 1854 : 
 
 5 Ships of the Line. 
 
 3 of 84 guns — 252 guns. 
 
 6 Frigates. 
 
 4 Corvettes. 
 
 1 Barque 
 
 4 Brigs 
 
 
 T2 ' 
 
 72 
 
 66 ' 
 
 66 
 
 60 ' 
 
 60 
 
 48 
 
 48 
 
 46 ' 
 
 188 
 
 44 ' 
 
 44 
 
 28 ' 
 
 28 
 
 20 ' 
 
 40 
 
 14 ' 
 
 14 
 
 14 ' 
 
 14 
 
 8 Schooners 
 
 90 Gun-boats 
 
 6 Steam-vessels, 
 1 Cutter 
 
 16 
 12 
 
 The financial state of the liingdom will best appear 
 from the foUowing'summarj- of revenue for the whole 
 monarchy, with the exception of Lauenburg, as con- 
 tained in the Budget for 1854-5 : 
 
 Domains £189,748 
 
 Surplus from Lauenburg 84,688 
 
 Lotteries 5,625 
 
 Posts and Telegraph ' .'.'.'.".".',*.' 2,601 
 
 Sound, Eiver, and Canal Dues 2S8J808 
 
 Customs, Stamps, etc 783,331 
 
 Sundries 31,217 
 
 Interest on State Capital 154,'boo 
 
 Floating Debt 146,230 
 
 Total revenue £1,686,068 
 
 EXPENDITUKE, 1854^1835. 
 
 Civil List £90,000 
 
 Appanage of the Eoyal Family 86,133 
 
 Privy Council 5,180 
 
 Foreign Department 26,942 
 
 War " 621,8-37 
 
 Marine " 186,480 
 
 Finance " 47,780 
 
 Pensions '. . '.'.'.'.' ' 17l|810 
 
 Interests, etc 834660 
 
 Extraordinary Expenses 16l761 
 
 Total expenditure £1,985,623 
 
 Besides these, there are special estimates for each of 
 the Duchies, and also for Denmark Proper. The total 
 amounts of each for the above year are as follows, 
 viz. : 
 
 General Eeceipta £1,586,000 
 
 Special Eeceipts of the Kingdom 672,719 
 
 " " of the Duchy of Schleswig.... 236,696 
 
 " " of the Duchy of Holstein 288,828 
 
 " " of the Duchy of Lauenburg. . . 34,226 
 
 Total £2,617,469 
 
 General Expenses £1,986,623 
 
 Special Expenses of the Kingdom , 822,096 
 
 of the Duchy of Schleswig. . . . 81,996 
 
 of the Duchy of Holstein 91,720 
 
 of the Duchy of Lauenburg... 21,720 
 
 Total £2,46.3,054 
 
 The national debt in 1853 amounted to £13,612,600. 
 
DEN 
 
 527 
 
 DEN 
 
 Sound Dues. — In 1490 the reigning king of Denmark 
 made a commercial treaty with Henrj' VII. of En- 
 gland, by which the English engaged to pay the Sound 
 dues on all vessels entering or returning from the 
 Baltic ; and in return they were allowed to have mer- 
 cantile consuls in the chief seaports of Denmark and 
 Norway. By this time the extension of trade had 
 given rise in Denmark, as in England, to a middle 
 cl^s, among whom the sovereign found in each coun- 
 try the means of balancing the political weight of the 
 nobility; hence a grant was made by the kings of 
 Denmark of various privileges to traders, and relief 
 from a number of local imposts on the transit of mer- 
 chandise. See Danish Sound Dues. 
 
 The Armed Neutralitt/. — One of the principal politi- 
 cal questions between England and Denmark occurred 
 in the year 1780, in the midst of a war between En- 
 gland, France, Spain, and the North American colonies. 
 During that arduous contest, England, superior at sea, 
 had no difficulty in obtaining, by her own merchant- 
 men, a supply of hemp, cordage, and other naval 
 stores, from the Baltic, while France and Spain trusted 
 to receiving such supplies by neutral vessels. But the 
 British government denied the right of neutrals to 
 carry warlike stores ; and the northern powers, headed 
 by the ambitious Catherine of Russia, entered into a 
 compact, called the Armed Neutrality, by which, with- 
 out resorting to actual hostility, they sought to over- 
 awe England, and to continue the questionable traffic. 
 Happily no bloodshed followed this diplomatic menace, 
 and the question fell to the ground in 1782, on the ne- 
 gotiation for a general peace. 
 
 The king of Denmark, subject all along to imbecility, 
 became after 1784 quite incapable of governing. His 
 son, the crown prince, was therefore appointed regent, 
 and soon passed several judicious enactments. The 
 peasants living on the crown lands were gradually 
 emancipated — an example followed by a number of the 
 nobility on their respective estates. In the abolition 
 of the African slave-trade Denmark had the honor of 
 taking the lead among the governments of Europe. 
 The crown prince, guided by the counsels of Count 
 Bernstorff, son of the minister already mentioned, long 
 remained neutral in the political convulsions engendered 
 by the French Revolution. He continued to adhere 
 steadfastly to this plan until in 1801 the Emperor Paul 
 of Russia having, as in the case of the armed neutrality, 
 formed a compact of the northern powers hostile to 
 England, a British fleet was sent into the Baltic under 
 the orders of Sir Hyde Parker, with Lord Nelson as 
 his second in command. 
 
 It was this fleet which taught the Danes that their 
 capital was not impregnable, and that the long line of 
 men-of-war moored in front of the harbor was an in- 
 sufficient defense against such enterprising opponents. 
 The attack took place on the 2d of April, 1801 ; and 
 the resistance of the Danes was spirited, but fruitless. 
 The loss of the English in killed and wounded ex- 
 ceeded 1000 men, but that of their opponents was 
 much greater, and most of their shipping was destroyed. 
 Happily little injury was done to the capital. A ces- 
 sation of hostilities took place forthwith, and was fol- 
 lowed by a treaty of peace. The death of the Emperor 
 Paul, which occurred soon afterward, dissolved the 
 compact between the northern courts. 
 
 But no treaty of peace could be regarded as perma- 
 nent daring the ascendancy of Bonaparte. After de- 
 feating first Austria, and then Prussia, that extraordi- 
 narj' man found means to obtain the confidence of the 
 Emperor Alexander of Russia, and in the autumn of 
 1807 threatened to make Denmark take part in the war 
 against England. Although the Danish government 
 discovered no intention to violate its neutrality, the. 
 English ministers, eager to please the public by acting 
 on a system of vigor, despatched to the Baltic both a 
 fleet and an army, in order to compel the surrender of 
 the Danish navy upon condition of its being restored 
 
 at a peace. To such a demand the crown prince 
 gave an immediate negative, declaring that he was 
 both able and willing to maintain his neutrality, and 
 that his fleet could not be given up on any such con- 
 dition. On this the English army landed near Copen- 
 hagen ; laid siege to that city ; and soon obliged the 
 government to purchase its safety by surrendering the 
 whole of its naval force. 
 
 This act, the most questionable in point of justice of 
 any committed by the British government during the 
 war, can hardly be defended on the score of policy. 
 The battle of Trafalgar had ere this been fought ; and 
 after that great victory her superiority at sea was so 
 decisive as to exempt her from the necessity of offend- 
 ing foreign powers by adopting extreme measures. 
 The resentment felt on that occasion by the Emperor 
 of Russia was so great as to deprive England during 
 four arduous years of the benefit of his alliance ; and 
 the seizure of the Danish fleet so exasperated the 
 crown prince and the nation at large, that they forth- 
 with declared war against England, throwing them- 
 selves completely into the arms of France, 
 
 The hostilities between England and Denmark were 
 carried on by sea, partly at the entrance of the Baltic, 
 and partly on the coast of Norway. These consisted 
 of a series of actions between single vessels or small 
 detachments, in which the Danes fought always with 
 spirit, and not infrequently with success. In regard 
 to trade, both nations suffered severely ; the British 
 merchantmen in the Baltic being much annoyed by 
 Danish cruisers, while the foreign trade of Denmark 
 was in a manner suspended by England's naval su- 
 periority. 
 
 Population. — The increase and distribution of the 
 population of Denmark will appear from the following 
 table : 
 
 
 1169. 
 
 (844-35. 
 
 1846. 
 
 Denmark Proper 
 
 Schleswig 
 
 Holstein 
 
 Lauenbnrff 
 
 814,288 
 249,104 
 278,963 
 
 1,223,797 
 887,878 
 486,696 
 
 
 1,850,327 
 862,900 
 479,864 
 46,486 
 
 The population of 
 1850, was as follows 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Proper, Is 
 
 t February, 
 
 
 TOWUB. 
 
 Rural Dista. 
 
 Toltil. 
 
 Zealand and Moen . . . 
 
 Bombolm , 
 
 Fnnen, etc 
 
 Laaland and Falster. . 
 
 North .Jutland 
 
 Total 
 
 170,892 
 9,451 
 81,824 
 11,164 
 68,284 
 
 888,068 ' 
 18,476 
 
 156,494 
 67,853 . 
 
 686,291 
 
 508,460 
 27,927 
 
 187,818 
 79,017 
 
 604.535 
 
 290,566 
 
 1,117,182 
 
 1,407,747 
 
 The population of the principal towns of Denmark 
 Proper (1st February, 1850) was as follows, viz. : 
 Copenhagen, 129,600 ; Odensee, 11,100 ; Helsingor, 
 8,100; Aarhuus, 7,800; Aalborg, 7,700; Rauders, 
 7,300 ; Horsens, 5,800 ; Ronne, 4,700 ; Svendborg, 
 4,500; Fredericia, 4,300; Viborg, 4,000; Slagelse, 
 4,000 ; and Roeskilde, 3,800. In the duchy of Schles- 
 wig, the principal towns with their populations on 1st 
 February, 1840, was as follows, viz. : Flensborg, 12,- 
 561 ; Schleswig, 11,204 ; Hadersleve, 6,165 ; Eckems, 
 forde, 4,058; and Apenrade, 4,021. In that of Hol- 
 stein as follows, viz: Altona, 28,095; Kiel, 12,344; 
 Eendsburg, 10,009 ; and Gluckstadt, 5,939. 
 
 The principal ports are Copenhagen and Elsinore. 
 Copenhagen, capital of Denmark, situated on the east 
 coast of the island of Zealand, in the channel of the 
 Baltic oaUed the Sound, in lat. 55° 41' N., long. 12° 35' 
 46" E. The water in the channel is from 25 to 35 
 feet deep ; but it is narrow, and the navigation difficult. 
 Vessels not intending to come into the harbor bring up 
 in the roads, at from one quarter to one half a mile 
 from shore, in about 25 feet water. In the harbor, 
 within the boom, the water is from 17 to 18 feet deep, 
 and vessels unload alongside of the quay. The an- 
 chorage in the roads is good and safe. 
 
 Elsinore, or Elsineur (Danish IMsingor), a seaport 
 town of Denmark Proper, on the east coast of the islr 
 
DEN 
 
 528 
 
 DEN 
 
 and of Seeland. It stands at the narrowest part of 
 the Sound, opposite the Swedish town of Helsingborg, 
 from which it is three miles distant. All merchant 
 Tessels are obliged, under certain reservations depend- 
 ing on the weather, to salute the castle by lowering 
 their top-sails in passing. In the vicinity is Marienlyst 
 (Mary's delight), till lately a royal chateau, now the 
 property of the corporation, and let to a private family. 
 The towns of Altona and Wansbeot are included un- 
 der the head of foreign commerce, as standing without 
 the toll-regulations of the Idngdom. 
 
 The navigation from the north of Germany to Den- 
 mark, around the northern point of Jutland, being 
 always tedious, and sometimes dangerous, gave rise to 
 the idea of uniting the two seas by means of a canal, 
 communicating with the river Eyder. The work was 
 commenced in 1777, and finished in the course of seven 
 years, at a great expense. This is the Canal of Kiel, 
 which begins near the town of that name, on the side 
 of the Baltic, and extends eastward about twenty-three 
 miles, when it comes in connection with the Eyder. 
 This canal is nearly 100 feet wide at the surface, and 
 54 at the bottom ; it has six locks, and its least depth 
 of water is 10 feet ; it admits vessels of 120 tons bur- 
 den ; and of such small shipping no less than from 
 2,000 to 3,000 pass in a year. Of no less importance is 
 the Stecknitz Canal, which, along with the railway be- 
 tween Altona, Glilckstadt, and Kiel, serves to promote 
 the commerce of the duchies. There are also railways 
 from Copenhagen to Elsinore, and from Copenhagen 
 to Roeskilde; and one has been recently opened from 
 Tonning to Flensburg, with a branch to Bendsburg. 
 Tonning is the port on the east coast, and the length of 
 navigation from there to the Baltic is about 105 mUes. 
 
 The passage to the Baltic by the Sound continues to 
 be followed by English, Dutch, and other vessels of 
 heavy burden, as well as by Swedes and Norwegians, 
 on account of the vicinity of their respective countries 
 to the Sound ; but coasting vessels and other traders 
 from Oldenburg, Hamburg, the mouth of the Elbe, as 
 well as from Tonning and the ports of Schleswig, and 
 still more small Danish barks belonging to the islands, 
 find it a great convenience to traverse the Canal of 
 Kiel. The hazard on the north coast of Jutland 
 arises from extensive sand-banks and a number of 
 currents. — E. B. 
 
 The customs regulations of Denmark did not assume 
 any fixed or permanent character until toward the 
 close of the last century. No regular system of com- 
 mercial policy was pursued ; and the regulations which, 
 from time to time, were enforced, were issued more 
 with the immediate view of recruiting the treasury of 
 the crown, than with any regard to the encouragement 
 of the industrial or commercial enterprise of the coun- 
 try. High and prohibitorj'' duties were imposed ; ex- 
 clusive privileges were granted by the crown to such 
 companies as were either rich or favored enough to se- 
 cure them ; competition, so essential to success in every 
 pursuit, was prevented ; and the industrial energies of 
 the nation, the only true basis of individual as well as 
 of national wealth, were crashed by the monopolizing 
 spirit and grasping cupidity of these privileged associ- 
 ations. They enjoyed the exclusive right of trading, 
 even with the colonists ; of supplying their wants ; 
 taking in exchange their surplus productions at sucli 
 valuations and prices as they thought proper to fix and 
 were willing to pay. About the period already referred 
 to, a better system was gradually introduced. Many of 
 the restrictions which had hitherto contributed to fetter 
 and depress the foreign trade of Denmark were taken 
 off; a new tariff was adopted ; and the whole system of 
 regulations was consolidated into the " ordinance 31, 
 Christian "VII., dated the 1st of February, 1797, re- 
 lating to the customs ;" which, with the various enact- 
 ments since adopted, constitutes the basis of the pres- 
 ent commercial policy of Denmark. 
 
 Under these regulations, a distinction is drawn be- 
 
 tween privileged and unprivileged nations. The former 
 are those with which, by treaty, convention, or other- 
 wise, a reciprocity and equality of commerce and navi- 
 gation have been established — such treaty, convention, 
 etc., prescribing the terms on which reciprocity is 
 granted ; the latter are subject to extra duties, amount- 
 ing to as high as 50 per cent, above the rates fixed in 
 the general tariff. To the former class the United 
 States belong, the treaty by which entire reciprocity 
 and equality of commerce and navigation are guaran- 
 tied, dating as far back as April, 1826. The following 
 abstract embraces the principal stipulations of this 
 treaty, so far as it relates to commerce and naviga- 
 tion: 
 
 No particular favors in respect of commerce or navi- 
 gation to be granted to other nations, which shall not 
 become common to the other party, on like or equiva^ 
 lent terms. Commerce and navigation between the 
 two countries to rest on the liberal basis of perfect 
 equality and reciprocity ; and the citizens and subjects 
 of each to enjoy all rights, privileges, and exemptions, 
 in the territories of the other, which native citizens or 
 subjects do or shall enjoy ; Iceland, the Faroe islands, 
 and Greenland, and the places situated beyond the 
 Cape of Good Hope, and the direct trade between Den- 
 mark and the Danish West India colonies, being ex- 
 cepted from the operation of the treaty. Duties to be 
 alike on all manufactures or merchandise of any coun- 
 try that can be lawfully imported into either country, 
 whether such importation be made in the vessels of one 
 nation or the otlier. Similar equality to exist in re- 
 spect to exportations or re-exportations from either 
 countrj-, and in the vessels of either. The produce 
 and manufactures of each countrj', when imported into 
 either, to be subject to no other or higher duties than 
 similar produce or manufactures of any other country ; 
 and this equality to extend to exports from either 
 country to the ports of the other. Article 5th stipu- 
 lates that neither the vessels of the United States nor 
 their cargoes shall, when they pass the Sound or the 
 Belts, pay higher or other duties than those which are 
 or may be paid by the most favored nation. 
 
 West India Colonies. — In the intercourse between the 
 United States and the Danish "West India colonies, it 
 is agreed that whatever can be lawfully imported into 
 or exported from the said colonies, in vessels of one 
 party, from or to the ports of the United States, or from 
 or to the ports of any other foreign country, may, in 
 like manner, and with the same duties and charges ap- 
 plicable to vessel and cargo, be imported into or ex- 
 ported from the said colonies in vessels of the other 
 party. The treaty to continue in force ten years, with 
 the usual stipulation for twelve months' notice if either 
 party should desire to terminate it after that period. 
 
 The general foreign navigation of Denmark, in 
 1844, employed 33,845 vessels, measuring 1,266,417 
 tons, and, as appears from official returns, floating 
 765,475 tons of merchandise. 
 
 It may be interesting to inquire to what extent the 
 national flag of Denmark participated in this general 
 movement. The total number of vessels which en- 
 tered and cleared on foreign voyages in 1844 was 33,- 
 845, with M. tonnage of 1,266,417 tons, and conveying 
 765,475 tons of freight. Of these vessels, there were 
 under the Danish flag 22,275, with a tonnage of 717,- 
 891 tons, and conveying 459,079 tons of freight. Thus, 
 Denmark had, 
 
 1st. In the number of vessels 65.8 per cent 
 
 2a. Inthetonuage 62.T " 
 
 8(1. In the cargoes 60 " 
 
 Leaving for all other nations, 
 
 1st. In the number of vessels JJ4.2 per cent 
 
 2d. In the tonnage 47.3 . " 
 
 8d, In the cargoes 40 " 
 
 The aggregate tonnage of vessels employed in the 
 trade between the United States and Denmark in 1844, 
 was 3,458 tons. In 1854, it had decreased to 2,608 ; 
 in 1856, it was 2,913. 
 
DEN 
 
 529 
 
 DEN 
 
 Mkrchant "Vessels ok Denmark, January, 1856. 
 
 .• 
 
 Dentnnrk. I Pchleawlsr. 
 
 HoliuM. 
 
 Teaacla 
 
 2,408 
 
 25 
 
 ,55,681 
 
 1,002 
 
 1,678 
 
 1,476 
 
 11 
 
 27,144 
 
 212 
 
 522 
 
 1,275 
 
 20,898 
 
 105 
 
 59 
 
 
 Tonnage of vessels ........ 
 
 '^ of steamers 
 
 
 Genebal Statement op Imports into Denmark and De- 
 pendrnoies in 1847, with amount op duties. 
 
 Tdtal 'number of vessels, 6,154; steamers, 87. Tonnage of 
 salUns: vessels, 108,171 ; steamers, 1,819. Horse-power, 2,059. 
 See OotlM Almanac, 1857. 
 
 From olHcial returns of the foreign trade of Den- 
 mark, it appears that in 1847 the imports and exports 
 tmited amonnted to $46,500,000 ; a sum nearly equally 
 divided between Denmark Proper and its dependencies. 
 In estimating the true relative valiie of this commercial 
 movement, we must bear in mind that the kingdom 
 proper contains a population of 1,350,000 inhabitants, 
 and comprises an area of 683 Danish superficial miles ; 
 while the duchies contain a population of 842,000 souls, 
 spread over an area of only 318 Danish miles; The 
 Danish miles are given as found in the authorities 
 from which these facts are condensed, and because 
 they will suffice for the purpose of comparison. Den- 
 mark and dependencies in Europe contain an area of 
 1,031,075 geographical miles, and a population of 
 2,296,587, exclusive of Greenland, Iceland, and the 
 Faroe islands. Thus, the latter, with a territory less 
 than one half, and a population more than one third 
 less, contributes more than its proportionate share to 
 the general commerce of the country. The importance 
 which Denmark attaches to the sovereignty of the 
 duchies is thus accounted for. Thej' aie not only the 
 granaries from which her cereal supplies are obtained, 
 but they also constitute the commercial conduits 
 through which her principal products — ^live cattle, 
 horses, etc. — ^pass to a market. The loss of the 
 duchies would, besides, inflict an irreparable injui:y 
 upon Denmark, by cutting off tie enormous revenue 
 which she has so long derived from the Sound dues ; 
 as, in the event of a separation, the Schleswig-Hol- 
 stein Canal would soon become the principal route to 
 the Baltic. 
 
 The description and quantities of merchandise which 
 constitute the chief basis of the exchanges between 
 Denmark and foreign countries, for any one year of 
 average commercial activity, will furnish the most ac- 
 curate standard by which to judge of the present or 
 prospective importance of the trade between that king- 
 dom and the United States. Data from which to 
 calculate, even approximately, the value of importa- 
 tions, are not at hand. A valuation based upon such 
 data as are possessed may, however, be attempted. 
 We find that the duties levied on importations for the 
 year 1847 reached as high as $2,685,654, or, in round 
 numbers, $2,500,000. Allowing 12 per cent, on the 
 imports as the amount of duties, we have as their 
 value for that year over $20,000,000. The value of 
 the exports, as registered in the Danish custom-houses, 
 is more accessible, and will be found under its proper 
 head in the following tables. 
 
 Of the $2,68o'654 which is found under the column 
 of duties on imports, the portion received in the cus- 
 tom-houses of Denmark Proper, amounted to $1,806,- 
 246, and that which was levied in the duchies reached 
 $879,408. While this latter sum is less than 50 per 
 cent, of that received in Denmark Proper, we must 
 not infer that importation into the duchies was in the 
 same proportion. On the contrarj', the table which 
 follows will show that, in general, they import more — 
 in some cases 100 per cent, more — than the kingdom 
 proper. The disproportion in the amount of duties 
 results from the oparation of different tariffs ; that of 
 Denmark Proper being much higher than the tariff ap- 
 plicable to the Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. 
 Altona, in the Duchy of Holstein, the most important 
 commercial city in Denmark next to Copenhagen, is a 
 free port ; and all goods may be landed and stored 
 without any other charges than port dues. 
 Li, 
 
 Deflcription of Merchnii' 
 diae. 
 
 Cottons 
 
 Sugar and syrups 
 
 Woolens 
 
 Wood 
 
 Coffee 
 
 Iron, nnmanfactured 
 and manufactured, , . 
 
 Wines 
 
 Salt 
 
 Brandy and other 
 
 spirits 
 
 Tobacco , 
 
 Glial 
 
 Cloths, linen 
 
 " silks. 
 
 Cotton, raw and spun . 
 
 Tea : 
 
 Glasswares 
 
 Pottery 
 
 Hemp and Sisx 
 
 Klce 
 
 Fruits 
 
 Paper 
 
 Skins and hides tanned 
 
 Tarn, cotton 
 
 " woolen 
 
 Other articles 
 
 Total duties collected. 
 
 Mensure or 
 qunntiLy. 
 
 Kllogfl.. 
 
 Cubic feet. 
 Kilogs 
 
 Hectolitres 
 
 Eilogs.. 
 Tons, . . 
 
 ToUl, 
 
 1,085,000 
 
 16,074,000 
 
 556,000 
 
 8,454,000 
 
 6,578,000 
 
 20,662,000 
 
 81,600 
 
 16,006,000 
 
 28,000 
 
 8,816,000 
 
 614,000 
 
 612,000 
 
 87,000 
 
 1,874,000 
 
 888,000 
 
 1,766,000 
 
 988,000 
 
 2,555,000 
 
 2,362,000 
 
 1,288,000 
 
 884,000 
 
 680,000 
 
 162,000 
 
 55,000 
 
 AmounU of 
 dutioB. 
 
 $82^,500 
 291,090 
 255,378 
 208,606 
 169,588 
 
 126,178 
 124,484 
 
 77,876 
 51,886 
 49,476 
 48,838 
 89,060 
 84,596 
 81,248 
 28,830 
 23,994 
 18,228 
 16,740 
 18,020 
 9,114 
 8,184 
 8,348 
 
 2,686,654 
 
 The hectolitre is equal to 26-4178 gallons. 
 
 The authorities from which the preceding table is 
 compiled omit the countries from which the diff^ent 
 articles were exported. The United States' Treasury 
 Keport for 1847, however, furnishes data to supply the 
 omission as respects the United States. From that 
 document the following statements are derived : 
 
 American tonnage, entered from Denmark none. 
 
 " " cleared from the U. S. for Den- 
 mark 216 tons. 
 
 Foreign tonnage, entered from Denmark 717 " 
 
 " " cleared from the IT. S. for Den- 
 mark 2,274 " 
 
 Total tonnage entered and cleared 1847.. 8,207 tons. 
 The trade of the United States with Denmark is 
 shown bj- the following exhibit of exports from and 
 imports into the United States. 
 
 Bxporta. Imports. To'al. 
 
 1826 $345,870 $49,264 $895,184 
 
 1886. 5a5,985 48,971 684,956 
 
 1846. 121,242 1,818 124,655 
 
 1856 227,715 1^30 228,845 
 
 The total exports of domestic produce to Denmark 
 from the United States for the fisfcal year ending June, 
 1856, were. 
 
 In American vessels $188,994 
 
 In foreign vessels 85,966 
 
 Total , $195,960 
 
 And foreign produce 81,753 
 
 Total for tlje year $227,718 
 
 Exports from the United States to Denmark for the 
 Years ending June SO, 1847 and 1856. 
 
 Descripllon of merchfindSse, 
 
 -, 184 
 
 QiiAiitlties, 
 
 T , 
 
 1856. 
 Vnhioi. 
 
 
 2419 
 
 7,756 
 
 5,629 
 
 660,782 
 
 ■■"17 
 
 155 
 
 33,830 
 
 $210 
 
 2,708 
 
 115,525 
 
 62,609 
 
 6,000 
 
 131 
 
 465 
 
 11,238 
 
 5,019 
 
 81,763 
 
 49,652 
 127,790 
 
 8,816 
 16,202 
 
 Tobacco lbs. 
 
 Spirits of turpentine . galls. 
 
 Eice tierces 
 
 Cotton (raw) lbs. 
 
 Eye and other grains 
 
 Flour bbls. 
 
 Rosin and turpentine " 
 Whale & other flsh oil, gls. 
 
 Drugs and medicines. 
 
 Total 
 
 203,895 
 
 227,713 
 
 
 
 
 It appears that the United States supplied Denmark 
 in 1847 with all the rice imported into that country, 
 and a large share of the raw cotton, spirits of turpen- 
 tine, fish-oil, grains, etc. Wines and spirits are chiefly 
 imported from France, either direct or by way of Ham- 
 burg, and cottons almost exclusively from England, 
 but in 1855-6, the exportation of tobacco, grain, flour, 
 oils, and turpentine, had ceased. 
 
DEN 
 
 530 
 
 DEN 
 
 The following table exhibits the value of exports 
 from Denmark and the duchies to all foreign countries 
 during the years designated. The values are given in 
 francs, each equal to 18-6 cents. 
 
 Deacriptlon of merchnndlse. 
 
 1S45. 
 
 1846. 
 
 1847. 
 
 
 41,886,000 
 
 12,498,000 
 
 8,800,000 
 
 i;522,000 
 
 2,710,000 
 
 1,168,000 
 
 779,000 
 
 693,000 
 
 850,000 
 
 46,818,000 
 
 11,730,000 
 
 11,708,000 
 
 1,802,000 
 
 1,720,000 
 
 1,096,000 
 
 686,000 
 
 461,000 
 
 268,000 
 
 56,714,000 
 
 11,656,000 
 
 9,956,000 
 
 1,670,000 
 
 1,815,000 
 
 1,226,000 
 
 1,672,000 
 
 730,000 
 
 807,000 
 
 
 Butter 
 
 
 Hides and skins 
 
 Wool (raw) 
 
 Salted provisions 
 
 Bones 
 
 Total Francs 
 
 70,406,000 
 
 76,178,000 
 
 84,746,000 
 
 The following suggestion is found in a commercial 
 report recently issued under the direction of the French 
 government, which may be found useful to others be- 
 sides the French merchants engaged in the trade with 
 the countries of northern Europe : 
 
 " In the northern nations, especiallj' Denmark, 
 Sweden, and Norway, there is an active demand for a 
 beverage extensively used in those countries, which 
 our merchants engaged in supplying them with liq- 
 ueurs^ might advantageousl}^ imitate. It is a mixture 
 known among the northern people as gammel Fransh 
 viin (old French wine), and composed of wliite wine, 
 rum, syrup, and spices. This kind of negus is highly 
 esteemed by a people who have no relish for liquors, 
 unless they are highly sweetened." 
 
 la 1850 there was published, by order of the Danish 
 government, a statistical report of the commerce and 
 navigation of Denmark Proper for the year 1848. 
 From this publication, it appears that though Denmark 
 was involved in difiSculties with the Germanic Con- 
 federation during the year 1848, the general commerce 
 of the kingdom suffered no sensible diminution. This 
 was mainly owing to the geographical position, as 
 well as to the military marine of Denmark, by means 
 of which she was enabled to blockade most of the 
 German ports, and thus ^ve free scope to her own 
 merchant flag.i Cut off from the German markets, 
 from which she usually draws her supplies of articles 
 of first necessity for her manufactures, she sought for 
 new channels through which to supply her wants ; 
 and at once found England already waiting to avail 
 herself of the difficulties in which she was embroiled. 
 Hence, the principal foreign trade of Denmark during 
 this year, was carried on with England. 
 
 The number of vessels employed in the foreign trade 
 of Denmark in 1848 was as follows : 
 
 Entered Vessels 7,003 Tonnage 8.33,747 
 
 Cleared " 7,816 " 358,83 2 
 
 Total Ufin " 692,579 
 
 The tonnage of merchandise was 480,240 tons. 
 
 From North and South Ameaica there entered, dur- 
 ing the same year, 61 vessels of 12,820 tons ; while 
 there cleared 67 vessels of 15,368 tons, of which there 
 were 18 vessels of 3,786 tons under a foreign flag. 
 
 The value of the imports and exports from all coun- 
 tries, in 1848, -as compared with 1847, was as follows : 
 
 1848.— Imports $18,021,860 
 
 E.\port3 8,076,678 
 
 Total trade in 1848 $21,098,638 
 
 1847.— Imports $18,597,716 
 
 Exports 7,016,862 
 
 Total trade in 1847 20,613,078 
 
 Increase in 1848 485,460 
 
 Of the above figures, the trade of Copenhagen alone 
 absorbed : 
 
 1848.— Imports $9,808,624 
 
 Exports 1,463,262 
 
 Total trade of Copenhagen in 1848. . $11,271,786 
 
 1847.— Imports $9,069,360 
 
 Exports 1,815,360 
 
 Total trade of Copenhagen in 1847. . 10,884,720 
 
 Increase in 1848 $387,060 
 
 See Commercial Relations of the U. S., 1857. 
 
 The following table exhibits the trade between the 
 United States and Denmark during the year 1848 
 
 Navigation and Commebce. 
 
 Entered the United States from Denmark 1,494 tons. 
 
 Cleared from the United States for Denmark 8,488 " 
 
 Imports fVom Denmark $19,617 
 
 Exports to Denmark 181,918 
 
 Of the general exports from Denmark during 1848, 
 England received 50 per cent. ;. and of grains, as high 
 as 65 per cent. ; while in 1847 the proportion exported 
 to Great Britain was only 36 per cent, of the whole. 
 The exports to the United States were, 
 
 Woolen and worsted yarns $866 
 
 Hosiery 662 
 
 Bristles, 8,188 lbs 1110 
 
 Hags, 68,290 lbs 1,614 
 
 Coal, 96 tons 410 
 
 Unenumerated, paying a duty of 5 per cent 9,457 
 
 20 " 2,694 
 
 " " " 30 " 241 
 
 Sundries 2,773 
 
 Total $19,617 
 
 Copenhagen, as already remarked, absorbs about 80 
 per cent, of the entire trade of Denmark. In 1861 
 there entered at this port 321 steam-vessels, propelled 
 by engines of 44,865 horse-power aggregate, and float- 
 ing 4,700 tons aggregate of merchandise, viz. ; 
 
 From Prussia 520 tons. 
 
 " England 978 " 
 
 " Lubeo 1,688 " 
 
 " Weimar 1,008 " 
 
 " Elsewhere 606 " 
 
 The chief imports into Copenhagen from foreign 
 countries in 1851, were iron, coal, cabinetmakers' and 
 other wood, fire-wood, and heavy merchandise . From 
 the United States and Cuba there entered 15 vessels, 
 of 3,158 tons' measurement, and with 2,884 tons of 
 merchandise ; and from the Danish "West Indies, 34 
 vessels, of 8,670 tons' measurement, and with 8,632 
 tons' merchandise. The imports of sugar were as fol- 
 lows : 
 
 From Danish West Indies kilogrammes, 5,500,000 
 
 " Brazil " 1,600,000 
 
 " Cuba " 2,760,000 
 
 " Java " 650,000 
 
 " Entrepots of Europe " 100,000 
 
 Total " 10,600,000 
 
 Imports of coffee were from Brazil, Haytiy and 
 European entrepots, 5,250,000 Idlogrammes ; of which 
 there were exported from Copenhagen 500,000 kilo- 
 grammes, leaving 4,750,000 kilogrammes for consump- 
 tion. 
 
 The value of the foreign commerce of Denmark for 
 1853 and 1854 is exhibited in the subjoined table ; 
 Commerce op Denmark and the DnciilES of Sciilebwiq 
 
 AND HOLSTEIN FOR TUK YeAES 1858 AND 1854. 
 
 Country. 
 
 1853. 1 1854. 1 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 ExporM. 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 15,936,878 
 
 9,019,762 
 
 18,869,066 
 
 9,648,775 
 
 Great Britain.. 
 
 7,664,040 
 
 10,662,224 
 
 10,882,863 
 
 12,194,060 
 
 
 4,141,248 
 2,179,625 
 
 8,821,698 
 3,058,727 
 
 4,481,490 
 2,246,696 
 
 6,268,919 
 2,568,518 
 
 Norway 
 
 Sweden 
 
 2,918,684 
 
 1,821,128 
 
 8,657,648 
 
 1,773,647 
 
 
 3,666,109 
 
 
 864,618 
 
 49,610 
 
 U. States, West 
 
 
 Indies, and S. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sta 
 
 8,467,458 
 
 350,248 
 
 2,997,888 
 
 142,175 
 
 
 2,169,566 
 1,914,682 
 
 1,016,844 
 886,006 
 
 2,661,947 
 2,860,736 
 
 1,170,229 
 349,600 
 
 Dan. Colonies.. 
 
 Prussia 
 
 1,203,808 
 
 912,129 
 
 2,001,649 
 
 950,001 
 
 Holland 
 
 713,090 
 
 1,199,444 
 
 844,830 
 
 2,278,108 
 
 Iceland 
 
 806,056 
 
 507,788 
 
 840,788 
 
 658,107 
 
 Bremen 
 
 1,012,164 
 
 46,926 
 
 1,232,626 
 
 74,864 
 
 France 
 
 563,407 
 
 825,905 
 
 619,713 
 
 178,969 
 
 Belgium 
 
 252,869 
 
 498,449 
 
 222,806 
 
 872,692 
 
 Meck.lenburg. .. 
 
 877,671 
 
 278,299 
 
 678,374 
 
 209,644 
 
 Hanover 
 
 165,277 
 
 325,012 
 
 261,092 
 
 815,680 
 
 Mediterranean. 
 
 441,781 
 
 14,451 
 
 148,365 
 
 88,086 
 
 E. Indies, Chioa 
 
 
 
 
 
 and Guinea.. 
 
 289,020 
 
 122,018 
 
 273,877 
 
 73,440 
 
 Greenland 
 
 275,362 
 
 106,845 
 
 43,188 
 
 76,748 
 
 Faroe Isles 
 
 145,163 
 
 63,806 
 
 105,293 
 
 69,411 
 
 All others 
 
 Total (thalei-s) 
 
 267,866 
 
 424,864 
 
 1,096,880 
 
 698,630 
 
 50,350,712 
 
 84,268,800 
 
 56,861,711 
 
 39,068,108 
 
 Danish vessels arriving in the United States from 
 the Danish islands of Santa Cruz and St. Thomas are 
 
DEN 
 
 531 
 
 DEN 
 
 not chargeable with tonnage duties in the ports of the 
 United States ; the vessels of Denmark and the United 
 States being placed on the same footing, in that re- 
 spect, under the provisions of the act of Congress of 
 the 31st May, 1830, and the treaty with Denmark of 
 
 the 26th April, 1826. The following table exhibits 
 the commerce of the United States with Denmark, 
 from the year 1820 to the year 1836, by which it will 
 i)e seen that this commerce does not assume any addi- 
 tional importance from year to year : 
 
 Years ending. 
 
 Exports to Denmarlc.' 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Whereof Uiere wm to Bullion 
 and Specie. 
 
 Tonnage Cleared. 
 
 Domestic, 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Totnl. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Exported. 
 
 Impar'e4. 
 
 American. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Sept. 80, 1821 
 
 $;65,663 
 
 $360,585 
 
 , $526,108 
 
 , ,$16,166 
 
 
 
 
 4,142 
 
 
 1822 
 
 82,023 
 
 160,757 
 
 192,780 
 
 • 21,282 
 
 
 
 1,248 
 
 
 1828 
 
 ■ - 89,783 ' 
 
 68,184 
 
 •92,917 
 
 24,028 
 
 .... 
 
 
 908 
 
 257 
 
 1824 
 
 85,487 
 
 299,822 
 
 835,309 
 
 • ••> 
 
 
 
 2,416 
 
 82 
 
 1825 
 
 214,517 
 
 687,146 
 
 881,663 
 
 ,46,827 
 
 
 
 6,693 
 
 200 
 
 1826 
 
 100,582 
 
 245,288 
 
 846,870 
 
 49,264 
 
 
 $342 
 
 2,681 
 
 • *.. 
 
 1827 
 
 148,958 
 
 258,983 
 
 402,941 
 
 40,822 
 
 
 
 2,928 
 
 
 1828 
 
 150,979 
 
 886,689 
 
 587,668 
 
 117,946 
 
 $600 
 
 
 4,289 
 
 202 
 
 1829 
 
 78,597 
 
 18,166 
 
 86,768 
 
 82,911 
 
 • • • • 
 
 
 1,048 
 
 1,070 1 
 
 1880 
 
 Total... 
 
 • 76,292 
 
 29,048 
 
 105,340 
 
 6,884 
 
 
 
 1,928 
 
 
 $1,087,786 
 
 $2,439,568 
 
 $8,477,854 
 
 $354,670 
 
 $500 
 
 $342 
 
 27,276 
 
 1,811 
 
 Sept. 80, 1881 
 
 $178,833 
 
 $176,888 
 
 $855,216 
 
 $575 
 
 $10,500 
 
 
 8,060 
 
 
 1882 
 
 181,605 
 
 850,115 
 
 631,720 
 
 68,842 
 
 18,600 
 
 
 4,2SS 
 
 723 
 
 1883 
 
 180,511 
 
 112,458 
 
 292,964 
 
 28,172 
 
 7,000 
 
 
 2,90r 
 
 791 
 
 1884 
 
 99,648 
 
 818,461 
 
 418,104 
 
 62,642 
 
 5,842 
 
 
 12,.528 
 
 2,280 
 
 1835 
 
 212,461 
 
 110,889 
 
 823,300 
 
 121,000 
 
 4,900 
 
 
 2,381 
 
 1,282 
 
 1»!6 
 
 814,268 
 
 271,717 
 
 865,985 
 
 48,971 
 
 
 
 8,718 
 
 1,190 
 
 1887 
 
 , 172,260 
 
 109,421 
 
 281,631 
 
 102,819 
 
 ; 
 
 
 . 1,092 
 
 4,797 
 
 1838 
 
 98,081 
 
 24,760 
 
 122,831 
 
 27,118 
 
 
 
 880 
 
 1,072 
 
 1889 
 
 50,6.34 
 
 88,177 
 
 88,811 
 
 80,997 
 
 
 
 703 
 
 961 
 
 1840 
 
 Total... 
 
 76,183 
 
 17,868 
 
 94,061 
 
 7,501 
 
 
 
 824 
 
 1,852 
 
 $1,568,979 
 
 $1,580,684 
 
 $8,094,663 
 
 $543,087 
 
 $46,342 
 
 
 21,811 
 
 14,448 
 
 Sept 30, 1841 
 
 $110,424 
 
 $24,364 
 
 $134,788 
 
 $8,791 
 
 
 
 889 
 
 1,965 
 
 1842 
 
 70,766 
 
 27.819 
 
 98,585 
 
 .... 
 
 
 
 796 
 
 917 
 
 9 mos. 1848 
 
 74,657 
 
 6,510 
 
 81,167 
 
 
 
 
 465 
 
 1,714 
 
 June 80, 1844 
 
 ■ 100,859 
 
 11,975 
 
 112,834 
 
 6,068 
 
 
 
 481 
 
 2,667 
 
 1845 
 
 124,666 
 
 20,501 
 
 145,167 
 
 22,429 
 
 
 
 1,040 
 
 2,116 
 
 1846 
 
 97,746 
 
 23,496 
 
 121,242 
 
 1,818 
 
 
 
 666 
 
 1,893 
 
 1847 
 
 198,952 
 
 4,948 
 
 203,895 
 
 475 
 
 
 
 2l6 
 
 2,274 
 
 1848 
 
 164,661 
 
 17,252 
 
 181,918 
 
 19,617 
 
 
 
 T63 
 
 2,675 
 
 1849 
 
 65,188 
 
 
 55,138 
 
 19,204 
 
 
 
 .... 
 
 1,681 
 
 1850 , 
 
 Total... 
 
 ,165,874 
 
 20,706 
 
 186,580 
 
 527 
 
 
 
 602 
 
 8,282 
 
 $1,163,743 
 
 $157,566 
 
 $1,321,809 
 
 $78,419 
 
 
 
 5,817 
 
 20,524 
 
 Juno 80, 1851 
 
 $92,267 
 
 $19,540 
 
 $111,797 
 
 $88,887 
 
 
 
 199 
 
 2,086 
 
 1852 
 
 98,009 
 
 22,643 
 
 115,652 
 
 16,611 
 
 
 
 874 
 
 8,916 
 
 1853 
 
 82,903 
 
 .... 
 
 82,903 
 
 
 
 
 882 
 
 2,174 
 
 1854 
 
 87,870 
 
 23,547 
 
 111,417 
 
 8,097 
 
 
 
 714 
 
 1,894 
 
 1856 
 
 70,996 
 
 8,675 
 
 79,671 
 
 1,701 
 
 
 
 1,216 
 
 1,027 
 
 1856 
 
 195,960 
 
 81,755 
 
 227,715 
 
 1,180 
 
 
 
 2,197 
 
 716 
 
 Statement exhibiting the Cuabaoteb, Quantities, and 
 Values of Domestio Products of tub United St.a.tes, 
 
 TOGETnER WITH THE TOTAL VALUES OF FORBIGN PbOD- 
 
 iroTS, Imported into Denmark, from tub United 
 States in 1854 and 1355. 
 
 Description of mercliandise. 
 
 1854. 
 
 1854. { 
 
 Vnliies. 
 
 Quantities. 
 
 Values. 
 
 Oil, Spermaceti 
 
 $485 
 1,416 
 
 Viol 
 
 ^,815 
 67 
 
 74^974 
 3,346 
 1,868 
 
 988 
 1,000 
 
 166 
 
 "604 
 
 galls. 1,920 
 
 lbs. 8,033 
 
 858 
 
 bbls. 4,m 
 
 bbls. ""s 
 tierces 770 
 lbs. 209,186 
 
 lbs. liiis 
 pairs 6,000 
 
 $8,616 
 
 1,213 
 
 104 
 
 297 
 
 18,845 
 
 ""so 
 
 19,263 
 20,971 
 
 1,741 
 
 4,519 
 
 897 
 
 Oandlos, spermaceti... 
 Manufactures of wood. 
 Bosin and turpentine. . 
 
 Biscuit 
 
 
 Cottbn, 
 
 
 Spirits from molasses. . 
 Spirits of turpentine. . . 
 Tobacco, manufactured 
 Shoes, India-rubber... 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 Tot domes, products 
 
 Tot foreign products 
 
 Total trade 
 
 $87,870 
 23,547 
 
 $70,996 
 8,675 
 
 $111,417 
 
 $79,671 
 
 value, $1,150 
 " 589 
 
 " 1,404 
 " 1,368 
 " 166 
 
 The Danish merchants no longer import tobacco 
 from the countries of its production. In 1848 there 
 were 2,032,387 kilogrammes imported, at a value of 
 about $469,966 20, principally from Holland, Bremen, 
 and Hamburg, where select cargoes can at all times be 
 purchased. These markets are supplied chiefly from 
 the United States. From Cuba Denmark imports an- 
 nually about 12,250 kilogrammes — say 27,000 lbs. of 
 segars. There are no restrictions of any kind on the 
 sale of tobacco in Denmark ; and under the moderate 
 duty [leaf or unmanufactured, 89|- cents per llOJ- lbs. ; 
 manufactured, $3 15 per llOJ lbs.], direct importations 
 from the United States could not fail to be profitable. 
 
 In the article of cigars, at least, there is no reason 
 why the United States could not successfully compete 
 with Cuba. The quantities of tobacco exported direct 
 from the United States to Denmark during the four 
 years speciiied, were as follows : 
 
 1852— Unmanufactured 15 hbds. ; 
 
 Manufactured 8,088 lbs. 
 
 1858 — Unmanufactured..... none 
 
 Manufactured 9,248 lbs. 
 
 1854— Unmanufactured 18 hhds. 
 
 Manufactured 800 lbs. 
 
 1866 — Unmanufactured none 
 
 Manufactured 11,728 lbs. '• 1,741 
 
 So long, however, as, any duty is imposed in Den- 
 mark higher than that levied on similar merchandise 
 in Hamburg and the other Hanseatic towns, viz., from 
 •J to |- of 1 per cent., they will continue, more espe- 
 cially Hamburg, to be the entrepots from which Den- 
 mark will have to draw her supplies of such colo- 
 nial produce as her own islands in the West Indies can 
 not furnish. Cereal produce constitutes the leading 
 staple of Danish exports, and forms the chief basis of 
 her exchanges with foreign countries. Indeed, Den- 
 mark may be considered an exclusively agricultural 
 and maritime country. Such, at least, is the predom- 
 inant feature of her national character. In 1851 the 
 entire exports of the kingdom amounted to upward of 
 $7,500,000. Of this sum, cereals appropriated $4,500,- 
 000. The commerce of the Idngdom and the duchies 
 for the year 1852, imports and exports, reached the 
 sum of $42,450,310 90 ; and the proportion of cereals 
 in the export trade was about equal to that of the pre- 
 ceding j-ear. During the past 10 or 12 years, however, 
 manufactures have made considerable progress in tlw 
 kingdom and the duchies ; and, were the obstacles re- 
 moved, with which this branch of national indnstiy 
 
DEN 
 
 532 
 
 DEN 
 
 has to contend, the most oppressive of which are royal 
 and privileged monopolies, and heavy consumption 
 duties, that progress would be still more encouraging, 
 and its influence more perceptibly felt in the aug- 
 mented wealth and increased commercial prosperity of 
 Denmark. The following brief summarj' of the pres- 
 ent state of manufactures in this kingdom is condensed 
 from recent Danish official publications, and is given 
 for the purpose of showing the extent to which Den- 
 mark must relj' on the workshops of other nations for 
 the necessary supplies for her 2,500,000 subjects. 
 
 Woolens. — The woolen manufactures of Denmark 
 are coarse, and of a very inferior quality. The chief 
 factories are those of Neumunster, in the duchy of 
 Holstein. The proportion which these manufactures 
 bear to the quantity annually consumed in the king- 
 dom may be seen from the following statement : 
 
 1846. 1841. 
 
 Foreign woolens consumed 9.5,900 lbs. 145,000 lbs. 
 
 Neumunster woolens consumed 86,700 " 88,000 " 
 
 Besides these woolen cloths, Denmark consumes 
 large quantities of other manufactures of wool, partic- 
 ularly such as are suitable for women's apparel. These 
 are all important. During the 2 years above-named, 
 this class of imports reached as high as 320,000 lbs. 
 each year, yielding a revenue to the government of 
 nearly $10,000. 
 
 Cottons. — The manufacture of cottons was intro- 
 duced into Denmark about 40 years back, but its prog- 
 ress was slow and inconsiderable until within the past 
 10 years. At Copenhagen there were manufactured 
 from 1835 to 1840 about 800,000 Danish ells (about 
 2*26 feet each) per annum from cotton twists supplied 
 from English markets. Since 1840, the custom-house 
 declarations indicate a large augmentation in the quan- 
 tity of spun cotton (twist) imported. In 1844 it 
 reached as high as 911,000 Danish livres. The Dan- 
 ish livre is a fraction over 1 lb. avoirdupois. The 
 manufacture of printed cottons has been attempted, 
 but the experiment has but indifferently succeeded ; 
 indeed, its present continuance is owing to high pro- 
 tective duties. The chief cotton manufactures may, 
 therefore, be said to consist of old-fashioned, heavy, 
 coarse pieces, brought through the loom by a process 
 at once slow^ and expensive. There is but one factor}"- 
 in the kingdom — that at Nyhavn — ^where modern im- 
 provements are introduced. The success which has so 
 far attended the operations at this factorj' may eventu- 
 sd\y create an extensive demand in Denmark for Amer- 
 ican cotton. 
 
 How far these factories fall short of the demands for 
 home consumption may be gathered from the following 
 figures : 
 
 Cotton Cloths imported into Den.mark proper, from 
 1846 TO 1850. 
 1846.... 1,120,000 lbs. I 1849.... 1,160,000 lbs. 
 
 184T.... 1,010,000" 1850.... 1,220,000" 
 
 1843.... T30,000 " | 
 
 These importations were destined for the kingdom 
 proper. The quantities imported for consumption in 
 the duchies can not be ascertained ; but their relative 
 consumption of such manufactures considerably ex- 
 ceeds that of the kingdom proper. 
 
 Paper. — At Strandmollen and Silkberg there are 
 several flourishing paper-mills ; but the prices rule so 
 high, that, despite the protective duties, paper figures 
 largely in the imports from foreign countries. In 1850 
 there were imported 217,563 kilogrammes, valued at 
 $58,139 88. 
 
 Sugar. — Sugar refineries have reached a high state 
 of prosperity in Denmark. Of upward of 12,000,000 
 lbs. of refined sugar consumed in the kingdom, or ex- 
 ported, but little is imported from foreign countries. 
 Raw sugars, however, constitute an important item in 
 the importations of the country ; indeed, it is known, 
 that if we except England, there is more sugar con- 
 sumed in Denmark, in proportion to its population, 
 than in any otiier country in the world. In 1850 raw 
 
 sugar imported reached 13,186,233 kilogrammes, val- 
 ued at $1,615,931 65. Of this, there were imported 
 direct from the United States only 77,253 lbs., valued 
 at $3,192. 
 
 Porcelain. — There is a factory at Copenhagen, under 
 government monopoly, for manufactures of this de- 
 scription. It contributes but little, however, either to 
 the revenues of the country or the wants of the people. 
 The manufactures are of beautiful fabrication and 
 brilliant colors, but they are not considered durable. 
 Notwithstanding a high protective duty, the markets 
 of Denmark are supplied with manufactures of porce- 
 lain from France. In 1850 there were about 40,000 lbs. 
 imported. 
 
 Distilleries. — This is the most flourishing branch of 
 manufactures, both in the kingdom and in the duchies. 
 Nearly all the spirits produced in these establishments 
 are from grain. The excise duty, or impost, derived 
 from the distilleries, forms a large item in the revenue 
 of Denmark. In 1850 they produced 21,262,678 Dan- 
 ish cans (over 1 quart each) of spirituous liquors. 
 During the same year, 2,492 gallons of spirits from 
 molasses were imported direct from the United States, 
 at a value in the home market of $1,009. 
 
 Breweries. — The number in Denmarlc is not known, 
 ofiicially ; but they can not add much to the internal 
 wealth of the kingdom, as their annual consumption 
 of malt does not exceed 700,000 lbs. In 1850 there 
 were imported direct from the United States 14,617 
 lbs. of hops, valued at $585. 
 
 Glass-works. — There are 4 establishments in the 
 kingdom, 4 in Schleswig, and 1 in Holstein. They 
 are chiefly devoted to the manufacture of bottles, of 
 which they produce, annually, upward of 3,000,000. 
 
 Ship-bvilding. — The principal ship-yards in the king- 
 dom are at Copenhagen and Elsinore, and are chiefly 
 used in the repair of vessels. At Apenrade, a capa- 
 cious port opening into the Little Belt, vessels of the 
 largest class are built. In 1846 12 vessels, and in 
 1847, 15 were built at this place. In the former year, 
 30 large class vessels, belonging to this port, entered 
 the harbors of Eio de Janeiro and Montevideo. 
 
 Founderies. — Prior to the separation of Norway, 
 Denmark drew all her supplies of iron from that coun- 
 try. Since that event, the efforts to obtain sufficient 
 supplies, even for maritime purposes, have not been 
 crowned with success. The geological formation of 
 the country is not such as to furnish minerals ; hence, 
 with the exception of building materials, but little is 
 left for the miner to develop. There are, however, 
 founderies at Garlsbytte, near Rendsburg, which em- 
 ploj' upward of 250 hands, and produce, annually, 
 200,000 lbs. of iron ; one at Copenhagen, of about 
 equal annual produce, from which considerable quan- 
 tities of anchors, chains, etc., are obtained; and seve- 
 ral others, distributed throughout the duchies, at 
 Altona, Kiel, Flensburg, and Ottensen. Near Elsinore 
 there is a foundery for the manufacture of fire-arms, 
 which produces, annually, about 2,000 muskets. Be- 
 sides the manufacturing establishments above enumer- 
 ated, there are in the kingdom 200 tan-yards, and 60 
 tan-mills, yielding annually, the latter 2,500,000 lbs. 
 of ground tan, and the former 3,080,000 tanned hides. 
 In addition to these, there are 88 currj-ing establish- 
 ments, in which 164,000 lbs. of skins are annually pre- 
 pared for hosiery and other uses. At Altona 600,000 
 lbs. of candles are manufactured each year ; 100,000 
 lbs. of refined wax are annually produced in the king- 
 dom and duchies ; soap, oils, chemicals, gunpowder, 
 etc., but the manufacture of these last-named articles 
 is so inconsiderable as scarcely to affect importations 
 from foreign countries. 
 
 The only manufactures in Denmark which yield a 
 supply equal, or nearly equal, to the home consump- 
 tion, are those of refined sugars and tobacco. The 
 former is fully adequate to meet the demands of the 
 home market ; and the latter, augmented to some ex- 
 
DEN 
 
 633 
 
 DEN 
 
 tent by imports from the United States and Cuba, 
 equally so. The quantities annually imported from 
 these countries have already been given. Altona 
 counts 28 tobacco factories, employing 488 hands, and 
 producing, annually, 1,062,068 lbs. of tobacco, 106,- 
 487 lbs. of snuff, and 12,000,000 segars. At Copenha. 
 gen 425 workmen are employed, and the annual 
 produce reaches 1,000,000 lbs. of tobacco, and 10,000,- 
 000 segars. Besides these, there are other tobacco 
 factories, at Flensburg in Schleswig, and Kiel in 
 Holsteih, which contribute largely toward the national 
 supply. It has been already shown whence Denmark 
 obtains her supplies of unmanufactured tobacco, and 
 why her manufacturers are forced to purchase it at sec- 
 ond handm the neighboring entrepots, instead of im- 
 porting direct from the countries of production. 
 
 It will be easily seen, from the preceding summarj'^, 
 how much Denmark still depends on foreign countries 
 for the supply of her most essential wants. Since she 
 has been induced to profit by the example of England, 
 and othel: neighboring countries, in abolishing the 
 duty on raw cotton, her spindles have multiplied, and 
 she is now learning to depend on her own capital and 
 industry for the spun cottons which she has heretofore 
 derived, and which, to a great extent, she still derives, 
 from the English spinning-factories. A similar modi- 
 
 fication in her tariff in respect to unmanufactured 
 tobacco, and other raw material not grown on her soil, 
 would tend not only to Augment the importations of 
 such produce from the producing countries, but would 
 eminently contribute to attract investments of her own 
 capitalists, multiply her manufactured productions, and 
 enable her to become an exporter of the same descrip- 
 tions of merchandise which have so long been an an- 
 nual drain upon the wealth of the kingdom, and a 
 heavy drawback upon the industry of the people. A 
 more apposite illustration of this truth can not be found 
 than that which the general returns of trade, for any 
 one year, will furnish. Her average annual imports 
 are about $16,000,000 in value, a large portion of 
 which sum is absorbed by manufactured articles, or 
 articles half-manufactured, such as cotton twists, etc. ; 
 while her annual exports scarcely cover half that sum 
 (say $7,000,000), two thirds of which are derived from 
 cereals and other agricultural produce. Until the 
 manufacturing industry of Denmark receives greater 
 encouragement from the governnlent, the heavy dis- 
 proportion between imports and exports which the 
 above figures exhibit, or, in other words, the ruinous 
 balance of trade against Denmark, in her commercial 
 relations with foreign countries, must continue to 
 exist. — Com. Rel. V. S. 
 
 Comparative Statement or the Commerce op the TTnited States with the Danish West Indies, exhibiting the 
 Value op Exports to and Imports prom each Country, and the Tonnage op American and Danish Vessels 
 
 ARRIVING prom AND DEPARTING TO EACH COUNTRY, DURING THE YEARS DESIGNATED. 
 
 YBilM. 
 
 COMMERCE. 
 
 NAVIGATION. | 
 
 VALUE OF BXFOSTS. 
 
 VALUE OP IMPORTS.. 
 
 AMERICAN 
 
 TONNAGE. 
 
 FOREIGN 
 
 TONNAGE. 
 
 Domoetlc 
 
 Forclgu 
 
 
 Entered the 
 
 Cir-ared from 
 
 Entered the 
 
 Cleared from 
 
 
 ' produce. 
 
 .produce. 
 
 
 
 United States. 
 
 the U StiiteB. 
 
 United States. 
 
 tho U. Stntoe. 
 
 18« 
 
 $883,608 
 
 $160,926 
 
 $994,429 
 
 $760,809 
 
 28,812 
 
 28,920 
 
 1,669 
 
 1,4B7 
 
 1846 
 
 969,462 
 
 , 166,464 
 
 1,126,916 
 
 752,614 
 
 29,018 
 
 27,964 
 
 969 
 
 1,875 
 
 1847 
 
 836,672 
 
 162,631 
 
 989,308 
 
 846,748 
 
 23,898 
 
 22,156 
 
 2,900 
 
 4,815 
 
 1848 
 
 876,969 
 
 76,874 
 
 '958,848 
 
 685,738 
 
 19,781 
 
 2.9,579 
 
 1,890 
 
 4,065 
 
 1849 
 
 727,197 
 
 64,149 
 
 781,346 
 
 839,141 
 
 12,466 
 
 26,897 
 
 8,614 
 
 6,426 
 
 ' 1850 , 
 
 867,140 
 
 114,818 
 
 981,953 
 
 267,459 
 
 12,940 
 
 19,875 
 
 966 
 
 2,690 
 
 1S51 
 
 902,687 
 
 126,602 
 
 1,028,289 
 
 286,894 
 
 10,386 
 
 18,233 
 
 5,052 
 
 4,175 
 
 1852 
 
 810,489 
 
 120,697 
 
 931,136 
 
 191,745 
 
 14.292 
 
 20,4W 
 
 9,062 
 
 6,.581 
 
 ' 1663 
 
 918,481 
 
 41,160 
 
 954,641 
 
 184,497 
 
 11,616 
 
 14,032 
 
 4,966 
 
 9,5T1 
 
 1864 
 
 928,924 
 
 34,026 
 
 962,950 
 
 286,044 
 
 12,749 
 
 22,846 
 
 6,992 
 
 7,984 
 
 1855 
 
 848,111 
 
 45,853 
 
 888,464 
 
 225,808 
 
 12,145 
 
 24,247 
 
 6,441 
 
 5,120 
 
 Danish West India Colonies, — Prior to the year 1833, 
 the trade between the United States and St. Croix 
 was not regulated by any law or act of the Danish 
 government. The inhabitants were at first allowed, 
 by the local authorities, a limited quantity of sugar or 
 molasses from their estates, to exchange for provisions. 
 Afterward they were permitted to purchase one half 
 of their supplies in this way ; and, finally, the privi- 
 lege was extended so as to enable them to purchase 
 from foreigners all they needed for the supplies of 
 their plantations. St. Thomas was at the same time 
 opened as a free port for the trade of all countries, 
 and, in consequence, became the emporium of an ex- 
 tensive commerce. The duties upon imports and 
 exports are moderate, not exceeding IJ per cent, ad 
 valorem ; and port charges do not exceed 19 cents per 
 ton. This does not applj' to vessels from European 
 ports, which pay 45 cents per ton. The distinction 
 is, probably, made to encourage the introduction of 
 provisions, rather than the fancy articles and liquors 
 introduced from Europe. At St. Croix, however, ves- 
 sels employed in the foreign trade, even if thej' do not 
 take a pilot on board, are compelled to pay half-pilot- 
 age. The full charge is $1 per foot of the vessel's 
 draught, in and out. In 1832 an ordinance of the 
 King of Denmark, dated at Copenhagen, prescribed 
 regulations for foreign navigation and commerce with 
 St. Croix. This was superseded by an ordinance of 
 June 30th, 1850, published at St. Croix 15th of August 
 of the same year, and which is now in force, 
 
 S^Uon 1 provides that all vesseis, native or foreign, both 
 from national and foreign ports, may trade to St. Croix, and 
 there discliarge and load at the two ports of entry, Chriatian- 
 sted and Frodericksted. Section 2. Vessels belonging to the 
 Danish Wesfc India Islands, trading between Denmark and 
 
 the colonies, shall ei^oy, in future, the same rights and priv- 
 ileges as vessels belonging to the mother country. Section 3. 
 Every vessel is to pay tonnage dues according to its tonnage, 
 both on entering and leaving, at the following rates : If the 
 vessel discharge or load to the amount of one half its tonnage, 
 and above, per commercial last 30 cents ; if it discharge or 
 load from one quarter to one half of its tonnage, per commer- 
 cial last 20 cents ; if It discharge or load less than one quarter 
 of its tonnage, per commercial last 10 cents. All vessels not 
 discharging or loading are exempt from tonnage dues, as well 
 as vessels belonging to the Danish West India Islands, when 
 trading between St. Croix and the other two islands. 
 
 If tonnage dues are paid at one of the custom-houses 
 of this island, or at St. Thomas, additional tonnage 
 dues are to be paid only in case the vessel should again 
 discharge or load, during the same voyage, goods to 
 such an amount that, together with the previous 
 amount discharged or loaded, it shall reach a quantity 
 on which a higher tonnage due is fixed. At Chris- 
 tiansted, vessels are further to pay one half the amount 
 of tonnage dues, at the above rate, for keeping the har- 
 bor, with wharves and other appurtenances, in repair. 
 The 5th section provides that, within 24 hours after the 
 vessel has been brought to anchor, the whole cargo, 
 whether intended to be discharged or not, shall he en- 
 tered at the custom-house, specified, and in writing. 
 If the whole cargo is not to be discharged, the remain- 
 der shall, on the vessel's clearing out, be entered for 
 export in the same manner. For duties on imports 
 and exports, articles free of duty, and regulations rel- 
 ative to the trade of St. Croix, reference is made to the 
 tariff, in its proper place. (Part II.) For the descrip- 
 tions of merchandise entering into the trade between 
 the United States and the Danish West India Islands, 
 see Consular Returns, " St. Croix, 14th June, 1854," 
 Part III. The vessels of the United States arriving 
 
DEN 
 
 534 
 
 DEN 
 
 at Fredericksted, St. Croix, from July the 1st to De- 
 cember 31st, 1853, "were 8 brigs, 3 barks, 2 schooners. 
 The aggregate value of their inward cargoes was $49,- 
 902, and that of the outward cargoes, $22,462. There 
 arrived daring the same period at Christiansted, 7 
 brigs and 2 schooners under the American flag. Value 
 of cargoes not stated. 
 
 For notice of Danish Exploring Expeditions Round 
 the World, see Hunt's Mag., xxiii., 406; Edinburg 
 Bev., xliv. (article by Sir James Mackintosh) ; 
 Hunt's Mag., x., pp. 218, 303 ; Edinb. Rev., vol. ii., p. 
 287 (by Sydney Smith) ; Westminster Rev., 1., p. 75, 
 viii., p. 469, xlviii., p. 195 ; North Am. Rev., xxvii., 
 p. 285 (by Henry Wheaton). 
 
 The Sound Dues. — rConnected with the commercial 
 relations which exist between the United States and 
 Denmark, is the question of Sound dues, to which sub- 
 ject the 6th article of the treaty of 1821 relates. This 
 has long been a vexaia questio between the two govern- 
 ments. It still continues to be a subject of diplomatic 
 discussion ; and is fully laid before Congress in a com- 
 munication from the Department of State, under date 
 of May 30, 1854. (Executive Document No. 108, 
 House of Representatives, 33d Congress, 1st session.) 
 
 In 1848, the Danish Minister of Foreign Affairs ad- 
 mitted to our representative near the court of Den- 
 mark " that the principle upon which those dues are 
 collected can not be defended ;" yet, the final set- 
 tlement of the question has been put off, from time to 
 time, under various pretexts, although the govern- 
 ment of Denmark has been more than once officially 
 notified that " the United States have thus long sub- 
 mitted to the exaction from deference and respect for 
 Denmark ; but it can not be expected, great as is our 
 regard for that ancient and respectable power, that we 
 shall submit to it much longer." 
 
 The 10th article of the treaty of 1826 stipulates as 
 follows : " The present convention shall be in force 
 for ten years from the date hereof ; and further, until 
 the end of one year after either of the contracting 
 parties shall have given notice to tho other of its in- 
 tention to terminate the same ; each of the contracting 
 parties reserving to itself the right of giving such no- 
 tice to the other, at the end of the said term of ten 
 years ; and it is hereby agreed between them, that, on 
 the expiration of one year after such notice stiall have 
 been received by either, from the other party, this con- 
 vention, and all the provisions thereof, shall altogether 
 cease and determine." 
 
 The notice required by the foregoing article has 
 been given by the government of the United States, 
 and it is believed that no new treaty will be entered 
 into with the government of Denmark, without a spe- 
 cial article stipulating that vessels of the United States, 
 in passing and repassing the Sound and the Belts, 
 shall be forever exempt from the payment of any 
 duties, either upon their tonnage or their cargoes. 
 By virtue of a resolution of the Senate, in executive 
 session, March 3, 1855, Mr. Bedinger was instructed 
 by the President of the United States to communicate, 
 and on the 14th April, 1855, did communicate, to the 
 Minister of Foreign Affairs, of Denmark, notice of the 
 desire of the government of the United States to ter- 
 minate the treaty of 1826, in accordance with the 10th 
 article of the same, and that at the expiration of 12 
 months from the date of said notice, said treaty " shall 
 cease and determine." In the communication to Con- 
 gress from the Department of State, already referred 
 to, the historj- of the Sound dues is thus given : 
 
 " The date of tlie origin of the Sound tolls has never 
 been, so far as is known to this government, authentic- 
 ally ascertained. They are presumed to be the relics 
 of exactions by the Norman pirates of the dark ages. 
 As civilization advanced, they were enforced upon the 
 plea of protecting the lucrative herring-fisherj' at 
 Schonen. The coasts of the three straits (Skaggerack, 
 Cattegat, and the Sound) were owned by Denmark 
 
 until 1658 (with the exception of 36 years in the 14th 
 century), when, by the treaty of peace of Rothschild, 
 the east coast of the Great Belt, including the fortifi- 
 cations of Helsinburg, was transferred to Sweden, and 
 is still owned by her. The right of sovereignty upon 
 which Denmark presumed, in consequence of her own- 
 ership on either side of this connecting link of ocean 
 water, necessarily ceased after this occurrence, even if 
 it had been before, in the slightest degree, in conform- 
 ity with national law. But, nevertheless, she persisted 
 at Cronberg, the key to the Sound, in extorting large 
 sums from every bottom that passed. Previous to the 
 treaty with Sweden in the 14th centuiy, the collec- 
 tion of the Sound tolls was resolutely and successfully 
 resisted by the Hanseatic League. Then, as now, 
 they came in direct conflict with the interests of all 
 the cities upon the Baltic ; and that powerful confede- 
 racy, at that time in the meridian of its greatness, ob- 
 tained a free passage for its ships and cargoes through 
 the Sound. In the year 1491, Denmark, perceiving 
 that the Hanseatic League held her authority over the 
 straits in utter contempt, deemed it judicious to invite 
 other nations to engage in the trade of the Baltic ; and 
 a convention was entered into with England, and sub- 
 sequently with Holland, by which their vessels were 
 permitted to pass through the Sound by the pa3'ment 
 of mere nominal tolls. In 1515, it appears that the 
 latter countiy paid no tolls whatever, but stipulated to 
 give a small sum instead thereof. This was, as in- 
 tended, a blow at the Hanseatic cities ; and in their 
 name Lubec demanded the immediate exclusion of 
 the Dutch from the Baltic — a demand, however, that 
 was not complied with. In 1544 a treaty of commerce 
 was concluded between Christian III. of Denmark and 
 Charles V., Regent of the Netherlands, by which the 
 subjects of the high contracting parties were permitted 
 to trade with each other, by paying the sound dues 
 which had been levied ' since days of old.' The 
 Dutch at this period were a great navigating and com- 
 mercial people, and the stipulations which they en- 
 tered into imparted dignity to the jurisdiction claimed 
 by the Danes over the Sound. The influence of the 
 Hanse towns began to decline about the beginning of 
 the 15th century, but they exercised a supremacy 
 over the North and Baltic seas until the middle of the 
 15th. From their unceasing quarrels with Denmark, 
 relative to the Sound tolls, recourse was had to nego- 
 tiation ; and, in 1560, ' the King of Denmark and his 
 subjects on the one part, and the right honorable Han- 
 seatic cities and the merchants thereof on the other 
 part,' concluded the treaty of the Odensee. In 1C63, 
 Denmark was involved in a war with Sweden, and she 
 made this circumstance a pretext to increase the Sound 
 tolls against the Hanse towns, notwithstanding her 
 covenant to the contrary three years before, which was 
 still in force ; but the Hanse towns, in their declining 
 power, were compelled to submit to this violation of 
 her obligation. In 1570 a treaty was contracted be- 
 tween Denmark and Sweden, at Stettin, by which it 
 was agreed that the latter nation should be exempted 
 from the Sound dues ; but this was evaded from time 
 to time by Denmark, in levying the toll upon the 
 wines intended for Queen Christiana's own private use, 
 and by the prohibition of ammunition when Sweden 
 was in absolute want of it for prosecuting the thirty 
 years' war. At length Denmark became so intolerant 
 as to search Swedish vessels, unnecessarily detain 
 them, and, in some instances, convey them to Copen- 
 hagen. The Netherlands experienced but little better 
 treatment. The Stadtholder complained, and he was 
 put off with promises. In 1640, the year after the dis- 
 solution of the Hanseatic League, the United Nether- 
 lands, which had secured their independence, formed 
 a compact with Sweden for the maintenance of their 
 respective rights ; and in 1645 a new treaty was con- 
 cluded between Denmark and Sweden, and on the 
 same day (August 13) one between Denmark and the 
 
DEN 
 
 535 
 
 DEN 
 
 Netherlands. In the negotiations which concluded 
 them, the Dutch and Swedish plenipotentiaries -de- 
 manded free navigation through the Sound for all 
 nations. The Danish plenipotentiaries contended that 
 the Sound was a ' Danish canal,' and that the tolls 
 collected were of a similar character to those exacted 
 at the mouths of certain rivers in Germany and Hol- 
 land. France, acting as a mediator, held the question 
 under consideration, to be decided at a more conve- 
 nient period ; and subsequently she sustained the inter- 
 ests of Denmark, for which she was rewarded by the 
 bestowal of the same advantages to her flag as had 
 been bestowed upon t^e Netherlands, and without any 
 limit as to duration. In 1654 Great Britain concluded 
 a treaty with Denmarli, which was renewed in 1670, 
 by which all the advantages were to be enjoyed by her 
 which had been conferred upon the Netherlands. Pre- 
 vious to 1720 (from 1647), Denmarlc fixed the toll, in 
 her treaties with other countries, ' in conformity to 
 the terms granted to the Netherlands ;' but after that 
 time she placed them upon the footing of ' the most 
 favored nations.' Sweden, in consideration of the 
 restoration of her provinces which had been conquered 
 by Denmark, stipulated to pay, in future, by the 
 treaty of Fredericksburg of June 3, 1720, the same rate 
 of Sound dues that were collected upon the ships and 
 cargoes of the most favored nations, reserving to her- 
 self the right to establish a commissaiy at Elsinore, to 
 prevent impositions upon her navigation and commerce. 
 These conditions and obligations (although several 
 treaties have been made between the two nations 
 since) continue to be observed. During the 18th 
 century, Sweden having been quieted, the Sound tolls 
 seem to liave been submitted to by other powers and 
 states without opposition. Denmark concluded seve- 
 ral new treaties, but none of them contained provi- 
 sions prohibitory of the .exaction of the dues demanded 
 at Elsinore. 
 
 " This was the condition in which Denmark was 
 found when the Congress of Vienna assembled. It 
 was quite naturally expected, at that time, tliat the 
 Danish Sound tolls would present a legitimate subject 
 for the deliberations of that body, and that, in the set- 
 tlement of the affairs of Europe, they would be entirely 
 abrogated. But Frederic VI. of Denmark was pre- 
 sent at Vienna, and the object of compassion with the 
 representatives of the sovereign most interested, on 
 account of tlie bombardment of Copenhagen and the 
 destruction of his fleet a few years before ; and out of 
 tenderness to him, as it is reasonable to suppose, this 
 question was permitted to remain in statu quo. Vague 
 intimations, it is stated, have occasionally been given 
 at Copenhagen, that the Sound tolls were guarantied 
 to Denmark by the Congress of Vienna, as an indem- 
 mty for the surrender of Norwa}^ to Sweden. Ad- 
 mitting the truth of this, and that every European 
 government was irrevooaljly bound by such proceed- 
 ings, the United States were not a party to it in any 
 way, and no obligation is imposed upon them to re- 
 spect the arrangement. Nothing has been more re- 
 mote from the purpose of our government, from the 
 day on which it was ushered into existence, than that 
 of surrendering to any power its right of using the 
 ocean as the highway of commerce. This right it 
 claims, and will use all proper means to secure to it- 
 self the full enjoyment of it in every quarter of the 
 globe. 
 
 " The fact is notorious, that the Sound dues affect 
 us more sensibly than any European nation. Under 
 their operation. Great Britain has a decided advantage 
 over us, as concerns our chief staple. Raw cotton, 
 according to the most reliable statements before the 
 Department, is charged with about three per cent, ad 
 valorem in its transit tlirough the Sound ; while cotton 
 twist, of which Great Britain ships from 30,000,000 to 
 50,000,000 lbs. to ports of the Baltic, pays only one 
 per cent, ad valorem ! If we quietly submit to such a 
 
 tax upon the raw material of our fields. Great Britain, 
 as a matter of profit, can well afford to consent to the 
 comparatively moderate one upon the article manufac- 
 tured from it, because she can not fail to perceive that, 
 were the dues abolished, we should as certainly gain 
 markets for the raw product, as she should lose them 
 for the manufactures of her spinneries. For the five 
 years terminating the 31st December, 1848, 264 Amer- 
 ican vessels entered the Baltic, upon the tonnage and 
 cargoes of which the Sound tolls amounted to 570,473 
 Danish bank rixdollars. Since then, no tabular state- 
 ments have been received of our vessels passing El- 
 sinore, nor the sums annually paid. The Sound toll 
 levied upon our chief products, which find a marltet in 
 the countries bordering upon the Baltic and beyond 
 them, according to the most reliable information on the 
 subject, is as follows : 
 
 Eaw cotton, per 100 lbs 20 cents. 
 
 Eice, perlOOlbs.. H " 
 
 Paddy (rice in husks), per 100 lbs Si " 
 
 Eaw tobacco, poi- 100 lbs 17i " 
 
 "Whale oil, per bbl 6i " 
 
 " Consequently a cargo of 2,000 bales of cotton pays 
 a tax of about $1,720 ; a cargo of 800 hhds. of tobacco, 
 |il,400 ; a cargo of 1,000 tierces of rice, $700. In ad- 
 dition to the toll on tonnage, the cost of pilotage for a 
 ship drawing 18 feet of water, from Dragon to El- 
 sinore, varies, according to the season of the year, 
 from $20 to $30." 
 
 The foUowmg statement exhibits the number of 
 American vessels that passed the Sound at. Elsinore, 
 to and from the Baltic Sea, from 1837 to 1843, inclu- 
 sive: 
 
 18ST 
 
 ... 104 
 
 1841 
 
 ... 122 
 
 1888 
 
 ... 158 
 
 1842 
 
 ... 118 
 
 1839 
 
 ... 114 
 
 1848 
 
 ... 162 
 
 1840 
 
 ... 148 
 
 
 
 Statement of the Number of Vessels of all Nations 
 
 THAT PASSED THE "BoUND AT ElBINORB, TO AND FROM 
 
 THE Baltic Sea, S-rom 1888 to 1843, inclusive. 
 
 N.tionality. 
 
 1838. 
 
 1839. 
 
 1840. 
 
 1841. 
 
 1848, 
 
 1843. 
 
 American — 
 
 158 
 
 114 
 
 148 
 
 122 
 
 118 
 
 162 
 
 Belgian 
 
 25 
 
 84 
 
 20 
 
 11 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 Brcfaen., 
 
 ■ 48 
 
 65 
 
 68 
 
 68 
 
 56 
 
 86 
 
 Danish 
 
 1,019 
 
 1,189 
 
 1,045 
 
 1,082 
 
 1,070 
 
 1,410 
 
 Dutch 
 
 955 
 
 1,192 
 
 950 
 
 970 
 
 917 
 
 1,286 
 
 English 
 
 4,009 
 
 4,498 
 
 8,9T2 
 
 3,77T 
 
 8,519 
 
 8,515 
 
 French '. 
 
 268 
 
 240 
 
 289 
 
 218 
 
 288 
 
 179 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Hanoverian.. . 
 
 29 
 
 18 
 
 23 
 
 20 
 
 14 
 
 27 
 
 528 
 
 819 
 
 768 
 
 828 
 
 765 
 
 887 
 
 
 107 
 
 108 
 
 96 
 
 88 
 
 77 
 
 ' .76 
 
 Mecklenburg. 
 
 842 
 
 970 
 
 958 
 
 958 
 
 826 
 
 840 
 
 Neapolitan , . . 
 
 28 
 
 44 
 
 48 
 
 15 
 
 51 
 
 67 
 
 Norwegian... 
 
 1,49T 
 
 ''% 
 
 2,082 
 
 1,666 
 
 1,848 
 
 1,685 
 
 Oldenburg.. . . 
 
 59 
 
 83 
 
 182 
 
 142 
 
 188 
 
 PortuguiiSe. . . 
 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 3- 
 
 a 
 
 2 
 
 Prussian 
 
 2,491 
 
 8,046 
 
 2,996 
 
 2,850 
 
 2,811 
 
 2,582 
 
 Eussian 
 
 759 
 
 m 
 
 ' R20 
 
 881 
 
 757 
 
 788 
 
 Spanish 
 
 IT 
 
 20 
 
 18 
 
 14 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 Swedish 
 
 1,152 
 
 1,262 
 
 1,884 
 
 1,182 
 
 1,278 
 
 1,461 
 
 Total 
 
 18,983 
 
 16,214 
 
 15,T02 
 
 14,780 
 
 18,994 
 
 14,980 
 
 Statement op Sound Dues paid on Goods shipped bt 
 American Vessels to and from the Baltic Sea, 
 FROM 1837 TO 1848 inclusive. 
 
 Ysor. 
 
 
 J» GOODS SHIPPBC 
 
 From the Balllc 
 
 From the Baltic 
 
 Tiwl 
 Specio 
 
 
 
 to Amer. porta. 
 
 to foreign porta.. 
 
 
 1687 
 
 75,827 
 
 14,280 
 
 6G6 
 
 90,224 
 
 1888 
 
 109,140 
 
 17,493 
 
 1,526 
 
 128,166 
 
 1839 
 
 7v!,762 
 
 11,233 
 
 119 
 
 84,119 
 
 1840 
 
 94,110 
 
 18,294 
 
 1,010 
 
 118,414 
 
 1841 
 
 72,328 
 
 16,967 
 
 2,218 
 
 90,514 
 
 1842 
 
 87,264 
 
 8,860 
 
 1,080 
 
 67,144 
 
 1848 
 
 71,762 
 
 7,838 
 
 1,916 
 
 81,518 
 
 The old specie dollar of Denmark is valued in the 
 United States at $1.05. (Jinked States' Com. Dig., 
 1856-7, p. 300, issued under the orders of Secretary 
 Marcy, of the State Department.) 
 
 We find, now and then, full official returns pub- 
 lished in the different commercial papers of Europe. 
 From some of these, and from other reliable sources, 
 we have compiled the following tabular statements 
 which will serve to show the amounts of revenue de- 
 rived by Denmark from the Sound dues, as well as the 
 
DEN 
 
 S36 
 
 DEN 
 
 proportion assigned to each of the leading commercial 
 countries in the same : 
 
 1880 $1,0T4,000 
 
 1881 1,022,000 
 
 1882 1,149,000 
 
 1888 1,086,000 
 
 1884 983,000 
 
 1835 998,000 
 
 1886 1,060,200 
 
 188T 1,074,708 
 
 1838 $1,144,644 
 
 1839 1,188,882 
 
 1840. 1,194,306 
 
 1S41 1,129,960 
 
 1842. 1,028,952 
 
 1848 1,162,500 
 
 1844. 1,186,122 
 
 1845 1,208,628 
 
 -„„.-„— $17,690,342 
 
 Annual average 1,106,646 
 
 1853 1,176,478 
 
 The following table, exhibiting the number of ves- 
 sels that passed the Sound from 1750 to 1846, is derived 
 from a statistical work recently published in France : 
 
 Years. 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Yenrs. 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 1750 
 
 . 4,500 
 
 1813 
 
 1,426 
 
 1768 
 
 6,026 
 
 1814 
 
 8,186 
 
 1770 
 
 7,736 
 
 1815 
 
 8,816 
 
 1777 
 
 9,068 
 
 1816 
 
 8,871 
 
 1778 
 
 8,476 
 
 1817 
 
 13,149 
 
 1779 
 
 8,272 
 
 1818 
 
 12,666 
 
 1780 
 
 8,291 > 
 
 1819 
 
 10,667 
 
 1781 
 
 8,281 
 
 1820 
 
 10,884 
 
 1782 
 
 8,875 
 
 1821 
 
 9,188 
 
 1788 
 
 11,223 
 
 1822 
 
 8,486 
 
 1T84 
 
 10,867 
 
 1828....... 
 
 9,655 
 
 1785 
 
 10,183 
 
 1824 
 
 10,494 
 
 1786 
 
 9,000 
 
 1826 
 
 18,142 
 
 1787 
 
 9,750 
 
 1826 
 
 11,068 
 
 1788 
 
 9,216 
 
 1827 
 
 12,099 
 
 1789 
 
 8,823 
 
 1828 
 
 18,263 
 
 1790 
 
 9,782 
 
 1829 
 
 13,666 
 
 1791 
 
 10,452 
 
 1830 
 
 18,210 
 
 1792 
 
 12,114 
 
 1881 
 
 12,942 
 
 1798 
 
 9,926 
 
 1882 
 
 12,202 
 
 1794 
 
 10,511 
 
 1883 
 
 10,986 
 
 1796 
 
 12,118 
 
 1884 
 
 10,605 
 
 1797 
 
 9,628 
 
 1835 
 
 10,256 
 
 1799 
 
 7,848 
 
 1886 
 
 11,926 
 
 1800 
 
 9,048 
 
 1887 
 
 13,100 
 
 1801 
 
 8,988 
 
 1888 
 
 18,959 
 
 1805 
 
 11,537 
 
 1889 
 
 16,176 
 
 1806 
 
 •7,140 
 
 1840 
 
 15,662 
 
 1807 
 
 6,240 
 
 1841 
 
 14,708 
 
 1808 
 
 121 
 
 1842 
 
 13,962 
 
 1809 
 
 879 
 
 1843 
 
 14,940 
 
 1810 
 
 2,898 
 
 1844 
 
 17,383 
 
 1811 
 
 2,893 
 
 1845 
 
 15,955 
 
 1812 
 
 2,475 
 
 1846 
 
 18,710 
 
 If we divide the preceding table into periods, we 
 have the following annual average number of vessels 
 for each period : 
 
 1760 4,500 
 
 1763—1770 6,880 
 
 1T77— 1780 8,625 
 
 1781—1790 9,645 
 
 1791—1800 10,204 
 
 1801—1810 5,267 
 
 From various authorities, the number of vessels that 
 passed the Sound down to 1853 is compiled, as follows : 
 
 Avernge annual 
 number, 
 
 1811-1820 7,948 
 
 1821—1880 11,502 
 
 1881—1840 12,781 
 
 1841—1848 14,.533 
 
 1844—1346 17,838 
 
 Y'ears. 
 
 From the Nftrth Sea. From the Baltic Sea. 
 
 1847 
 1848 
 1849 
 1850 
 1851 
 1862 
 1858 
 
 10,675 
 8,525 
 
 10,043 
 9,661 
 9,980 
 8,800 
 
 10,662 
 
 10,812 
 8,214 
 8,696 
 9,408 
 9,976 
 8,786 
 
 10,860 
 
 Total. 
 
 Annual average number from 1847 to 1863 
 
 21,487 
 16,739 
 18,789 
 19,069 
 19,906 
 17,545 
 21,612 
 .19,284 
 
 The official reports relative to the navigation of the 
 Sound, in possession of the Department of State, do 
 not come down to a later period than 1853. The an- 
 nual returns of the foreign commerce of the Hanse 
 towns for 1854, compared with the two preceding years, 
 are, however, at hand ; and from these it appears that 
 the number of Hanse vessels which passed the Sound 
 was as follows : 
 
 Hamburg. 
 Bremen . . 
 
 Lubec 
 
 Total. 
 
 1854. 
 
 65 
 
 T 
 
 109 
 
 181 
 
 83 
 87 
 136 
 
 185 
 
 The late war, of which the Baltic was one of the 
 chief theatres, will explain the diminution in 1854. 
 
 Francs. 
 
 1851 108,150 
 
 1S50 66,422 
 
 1849 26,608 
 
 The amount of Sound dues paid by the Hanse towns, 
 in the j'^ears specified, was as follows : 
 
 Franca. 
 
 184S 61,600 
 
 1847 98,884 
 
 1846 115,190 
 
 Total, 471,354 franca, equal to $89,557 26 ; an annual average 
 of 78,559 francs, or $14,926 21. 
 If we are correctly informed as to the assessment 
 and the bases on which Denmark proposes to raise lier 
 revenues under the scheme of capitalization, it would 
 seem quite evident that she has at least taken care of 
 "her own interests" as implicated in this question; 
 and our government, in rejecting the compromise thus 
 tendered, accompanied as it was with the entangle- 
 ments of the "balance of power in Europe," under 
 whose shield Denmark wishes to place these exactions, 
 pursued the true polic}-- of the country by avoiding any 
 such "dangerous complicity," as Mr. Marcj'' terms it. 
 The offer of the United States to share liberally in 
 compensating Denmark for her expenditures at Elsi- 
 nore in the interests of commerce ought, ad it seems to 
 us, to satisfy' any reasonable demand which sfce can 
 urge upon our own country or the countries of Europe ; 
 and, if all combine to pay a " fair equivalent" for the 
 advantages derived by their commerce from the out- 
 lays of Denmark, it should be accepted by her without 
 further delay or protest, and, instead of making the 
 antiquity of her exaction the plea for its continuance, 
 should rather acknowledge the equity of those govern- 
 ments which are willing to meet all her just claims in 
 the future without seeking anj'' indemnity for the past> 
 The following table exhibits the number of vessels 
 of all nations that have passed the Danish Sound 
 during the j-ears 1854-55 : 
 
 Nation. 
 
 From the 
 North 
 
 From the 
 Baltic. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Incr'se. 
 
 Decr'se. 
 
 
 Sea. 
 
 1855. 
 
 1854. 
 
 1865. 
 
 1855. 
 
 i*mssia 
 
 1,416 
 
 1,443 
 
 2,864 
 
 8,095 
 
 
 231 
 
 Denmark.,.. 
 
 900 
 
 721 
 
 1,621 
 
 1,898 
 
 
 277 
 
 Norway 
 
 1,426 
 
 1,414 
 
 2,840 
 
 8,828 
 
 
 488 
 
 Sweden 
 
 1,258 
 
 1,206 
 
 2,463 
 
 2,588 
 
 
 120 
 
 England . . . . 
 
 1,219 
 
 1,196 
 
 2,415 
 
 2,032 
 
 883 
 
 
 Russia 
 
 
 7 
 
 T 
 
 166 
 
 
 169 
 
 Mecklenburg 
 
 868 
 
 879 
 
 787 
 
 873 
 
 
 186 
 
 Lubec.. ■.... 
 
 84 
 
 86 
 
 70 
 
 111 
 
 
 41 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 16 
 
 26 
 
 48 
 
 61 
 
 
 19 
 
 Bremen . 
 
 16 
 
 18 
 
 29 
 
 11 
 
 18 
 
 
 Hanover — 
 
 .341 
 
 354 
 
 695 
 
 497 
 
 198 
 
 
 Holland 
 
 798 
 
 705 
 
 1,693 
 
 1,460 
 
 183 
 
 
 Oldenburg . . 
 
 74 
 
 76 
 
 150 
 
 79 
 
 71 
 
 
 France 
 
 62 
 
 63 
 
 125 
 
 81 
 
 44 
 
 
 Belgium 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 Italy 
 
 29 
 
 24 
 
 53 
 
 23 
 
 30 
 
 
 Spain 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Austria 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 Portugal 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 4 
 
 
 iPeru 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 United States 
 
 28 
 
 26 
 
 54 
 
 46 
 
 8 
 
 
 S. America.. 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 7,989 
 
 7,798 
 
 16,787 
 
 16,368 
 
 891 
 
 1,472 
 
 
 Ir 
 
 crease. 
 
 
 
 
 . 891 
 
 
 
 Deere 
 
 ase in If 
 
 56 
 
 
 . 581 
 
 It will be seen that the total number of vessels that 
 passed the Sound in 1853 exceeds that of the preceding 
 year by 3,967 vessels. Of the whole number, 18,166 
 were laden, and 3, .346 were in ballast. The countries 
 which contributed most to this augmentation are 
 Prussia, Great Britain, Denmarlt, Mecklenburg, and 
 Russia. The following table will show the nation, and 
 the number of vessels from each nation, in 1853 : 
 
 Nftlioi 
 
 England. . . 
 
 Prussia 
 
 Norway.. . 
 Denmark,. 
 Sweden... 
 Holland... 
 Kussia 
 
 4,668 
 8,472 
 3,411 
 2,094 
 1,996 
 1,874 
 1,202 
 
 Nations. 
 
 Mecklenburg. 
 
 Hanover 
 
 France 
 
 Oldenburg.. . . 
 
 Lubec 
 
 United States. 
 
 1,067 
 743 
 843 
 191 
 166 
 
 For a sketch of the Danish Exploring Expedition 
 around the World, see Hunt's Merchants' Magazine, 
 vol. xxiii., p. 406 ; viii., 469 ; Westm. Eev. 1., 75, xlviii., 
 195 ; N. A. Rev., xxvii., 285 (by H. Wheaton.) 
 
DEP 
 
 537 
 
 DES 
 
 Tabular Statembnt showing tiik Navigation of- the Sound, the pkinoipa.l Nathons pabtioipating therein, thb 
 Share AsaiGNEo to each, and the proportion op each per centum on tue whole, prom 1850 to 1854, both 
 
 INCLUSIVE. 
 
 Ydara. 
 
 England. 
 
 Sweden and 
 
 Norway. 
 
 Deanmrk. 
 
 Ru.sl«. 
 
 PrusBla. 
 
 Mecklenburg Hftnae Towns 
 
 Uulled 
 Stated. 
 
 France, 
 
 Holland. 
 
 1850 
 
 1851 
 
 1852 
 
 1883 
 
 18B4 
 
 Aggregate.- 
 Average . . . 
 Proportion 
 per cent.. 
 
 5,488 
 4,822 
 8,902 
 4,668 
 2,046 
 
 4,685 
 5,17T 
 6,120 
 6,40T 
 6,841 
 
 1,266 
 1,540 
 1,464 
 2,094 
 1,929 
 
 1,188 
 1,023 
 
 946 
 1,202 
 
 1T8 
 
 2,891 
 2,650 
 2,319 
 8,472 
 3,103 
 
 1,031 
 1,058 
 
 771 
 1,067 
 
 853 
 
 1T5 
 235 
 204 
 256 
 181 
 
 105 
 
 119 
 
 79 
 
 96 
 
 42 
 
 44 
 292 
 280 
 843 
 
 8T 
 
 1,906 
 2,081 
 1,691 
 1,874 
 1,898 
 
 20,926 
 
 2,6,030 
 
 8,393 
 
 4,687 
 
 13,985 : 4,780 
 
 1,051 
 
 441 
 
 1,046 
 
 8,900 
 
 4,135 
 
 6,216 
 
 1,659 
 
 907 
 
 2.787 1 966 
 
 210 
 
 88 
 
 209 
 
 1,780 
 
 28'08 
 
 28-9 
 
 9-2 
 
 6 
 
 15-6 
 
 6-8 
 
 1-2 
 
 0-8 
 
 1-2 
 
 9-9 
 
 Regulations olaened on passing through the Sound 
 into the Baltic. — If the vessel be laden -with cotton for 
 Russia, the captain must be provided with a certificate, 
 properly attested by the Danish consul at the port of 
 departure, verifjHng that the cotton does not come 
 from Egypt or the Levant. Every vessel not tlius 
 protected will be subject to quarantine, and may have 
 her entire cargo put ashore. 
 
 Every captain must be able to show legal evidence 
 of the nationality of his vessel ; must be provided with 
 a manifest and a clearance from the custom-house offi- 
 cers at his last port. Should the vessel come from 
 France, Holland, Belgium, Portugal, or Hamburg, the 
 captain must exhibit his passport. If from Holland 
 or Belgium, destined for Prussia, the certificate of the 
 Prussian consul at the port of departure will suffice. 
 
 If the vessel comes from the United States, laden 
 with cotton, the captain must be provided with a man- 
 ifest of his cargo, custom-house clearance, register of 
 nationality^ and the certificate of the Danish consul 
 attesting that the cotton was actually grown in the 
 United States ; or if it come from Brazil or any other 
 country, that it was iirst landed at a port, in the United 
 States, and not transhipped from a foreign vessel. 
 
 If the vessel comes from Cuba, the captain must be 
 provided with a register attesting the nationality of 
 his vessel, a manifest, passport, and custom-house re- 
 ceipt ; and it would be advisable for him to have, also, 
 a bill of health, attested by the Danish consul at the 
 port of departure. 
 
 The papers and certificates referred to in the pre- 
 ceding remarks must be in duplicate ; and, when the 
 vessel is destined for Russia, should there be any in- 
 terlineations, or marginal notes, or addenda, the cap- 
 tain's signature must be affixed to each, so as to give it 
 authenticity. — Com. Rel. U. S. 
 
 Since the preceding article was in type, a conven- 
 tion was held in reference to thefunding of the Sound 
 dues on the part of the several governments interested. 
 For the results of these deliberations, the reader is re- 
 ferred to article entitled " Sound Dues." 
 
 Deposit, This term is applied to the sura of 
 money which a man might deposit with the sheriff after 
 he was arrested, instead of putting in special bail. 
 The amount of the deposit was the sum sworn to on the 
 back of the writ. (Blackstone's Comm.') Deposit 
 is also used for any sum of money which a man puts 
 in the hands of another as a kind of security for the 
 fulfilment of some agreement, or as a part payment in 
 advance. The Eoman word, depositum, signified any 
 thing which a man put in the hands of another to keep 
 till it was asked back, without any thing being given 
 to the depositarius for his trouble. The depositor was 
 called deponens or depositor. The depositary was 
 bound to take care of the thing, and to make good any 
 damage that happened to it through fraudulent design 
 (dolus) or gross neglect (lata cvlpd). The depositor 
 could recover the thing by action ; but the depositary 
 was entitled to satisfaction for any loss that he sus- 
 tained in the matter of the deposit by any default 
 (culpa") on the part of the depositor. The depositary 
 could make no use of the deposit, except with the per- 
 mission of the depositor, either given in express words, 
 or arising from implication. If a man refused to re- 
 turn a deposit, and was condemned in an action of 
 
 deposit (actio depositi), infamy (infamia) was a conse- 
 quence of the condemnation. — Dis., 16, tit. 3 ; Ju- 
 VESAL, Sat. xiii,, 60. 
 
 Depot (Fr.), is used to designate aflace where all 
 sorfcs^f military stores and provisions are kept, or 
 where recruits are received and trained. It is also ap- 
 plied to that portion of a regiment which remains at 
 home when the rest is ordered upon foreign service. 
 And is used generally to denote any place intended as 
 a place of deposit for merchandise ; as the terminus of 
 a railroad. The term station is more proper for places 
 intended merely for passenger accommodation; 
 
 Depression of the Horizon, or Dip of the 
 Horizon, in Nautical Astronomy, denotes the depres- 
 sion or dipping of the visible horizon before the true 
 horizontal plane, and which arises from the circum- 
 stance that the ej'e of the observer is not placed on the 
 same level with the surface of the sea, but at some 
 distance above it. Hence in observing the altitude of 
 the sun or a star above the horizon with the sextant, 
 the altitude appears greater than it really is. Let 
 a = the radius of the earth, and x == the height of the 
 eye above the horizon ; then the cosine of the angle 
 
 of depression 
 
 At the height of 10 feet this 
 
 amounts to about three minutes of a degree. 
 
 Derrick, in nautical language, used in a variety 
 of meanings, but chiefly for a tackle used at the outer 
 quarters of a mizzen-yard, consisting of a double and 
 single block connected by a fall. 
 
 Desert (Lat. desertum, participle of deseroj td de- 
 sert, to leave), a large tract of barren country ; a 
 waste. — E. B, A term generally used to designate an 
 uninhabited place or solitude ; in which sense, as has 
 been judiciously remarked, it is equally applicable to 
 the fertile plains watered by the Maranon, and the 
 sandy wastes of Lybia, but applied more particularly 
 to the vast sandy and stony plains of Africa and Asia. 
 In every region of the globe plains are to be found of 
 greater or less extent, which, though marked by strong 
 features of resemblance in their grand outlines, exhibit 
 with the different latitudes in which they are placed a 
 coiTesponding ' variety of character, and accordingly 
 the distinguishing peculiarities of each are known by 
 different appellations. Thus we have the steppes of 
 Europe, the deserts of Asia and Africa, the savannahs 
 of the Mississippi and Missouri, and the pampas and 
 llanos of South America. 
 
 The most striking feature of Africa consists of its 
 immense deserts, which have in all ages presented to 
 the speculations of the geographer objects highly wor- 
 thy of attention. Of these the chief is the Saliara, or 
 the Desert, so called by way of eminence. This pro- 
 digious zone of sand stretches, with few interruptions, 
 from the shores of the Atlantic to the confines of 
 Egypt, and comprehends in its length and breadth a 
 superficies of about 2,200,000 square miles. The sand 
 raised by the burning wind called the simoom is fre- 
 quently in a state of motion, and as it sweeps along in 
 its career of desolation bears a strong resemblance to 
 the waves of a tempestuous sea. This Immense ex- 
 panse, however, is by no means a uniform surface of 
 loose sand. In many parts the drearj' wastes is broken 
 by low hills of naked sand-stone, or by tracts of arid 
 
DES 
 
 508 
 
 DES 
 
 clay, and occasionally it is enlivened by verdant isles 
 or oases^ which serve as resting-places for the caravans 
 that traverse these dismal regions. But for these o<xses^ 
 indeed, the Sahara would be wholly impassable. ■ It 
 presents, says Malte Brun, no traces of a beaten path, 
 and the caravans that traverse it, directing their way 
 by the polar star, describe a tortuous road in order to 
 profit by the oases, which are represented as brilliant 
 with vegetation, but which probably owe a great part 
 of their reputation to the contrast they form with the 
 absolute barrenness of the desert. 
 
 The great deserts of Africa are only separated from 
 those of Asia 'by the valley of the river Nile, and the 
 Bed Sea". But upon this subject we can not refrain 
 from transferring to our columns the remarks of Dr. 
 Traill, who has sketched with a masterly hand the 
 grand outlines of the Asiatic deserts. *' Soon after 
 quitting the Nile, the traveler by the route of Suez en- 
 counters sand, which is continued into the centre of 
 Arabia, where it forms the desert of Nedsjed, extend- 
 ing to the valley of the Euphrates. The sandy zone 
 then inclines northward, enters Persia, and forms the 
 saline deserts of Adjemi, Kerman, and Mekran ; it is 
 turned north-east by the valley of the Indus, passes 
 through Caubul and Little Bukharia, till it joins the 
 vast deserts of Gobi and Shamoo, which occupy so 
 large a portion of Central Asia between the Altaian 
 and Mustag chains, and reach to the confines of China. 
 The sand}' zone, thus traced throughout the breadth 
 of the ancient continent from western Africa to the 
 120° of east longitude, has been computed to cover an 
 area of 6,500,000 square miles ; but the Asiatic portion 
 of this tract includes many chains of mountains and 
 fertile valleys. It is characterized by the occurrence 
 of arid wastes of sand or clay, sometimes with saline 
 incrustations on the surface, and is remarkably deficient 
 in considerable rivers : except the Nile, the Euphrates, 
 the Indus, and the Oxus, there are no large rivers in a 
 region which embraces almost a fourth part of both 
 Africa and Asia. This portion of Central Asia forms 
 a series of elevated plains, 6,000 miles in length from 
 east to west. Some of these plains, says Humboldt, 
 are covered with herbage ; others produce only ever- 
 green saliferous plants, with fleshy and jointed stems ; 
 but a great number glitter from afar with a saline 
 efflorescence that crystallizes in the semblance of 
 lichens, and covers the clayey soil with scattered 
 patches like new-fallen snow." Under the head 
 Mirage will be found some account of the so-called 
 singular optical illusion so often seen in the desert. 
 
 In Scripture, the term desert bears a wholly different 
 interpretation from that usually attached to it in pro- 
 fane writings. It has been fully shown by Reland 
 (Palest. 1. i. p. 375) that the Hebrew ^::td (midbar), 
 the hpTjfiog of the Greeks, and the desertum or solltudo 
 of the Latins, bear no analogy to each other ; the first 
 being appropriated almost exclusively to those thinl}'- 
 peopled districts of the Holy Land which yielded pas- 
 turage for cattle, and were remarkable at once for their 
 beauty and the luxuriance of their vegetation. 
 
 " The arid plains and deserts, as well as high mount- 
 ain ranges, have, it may well be supposed, an influ- 
 ence upon the movements of the great aerial ocean, as 
 shoals and other obstructions have upon the channels 
 of circulation in the sea. The deserts of Asia, for in- 
 stance, produce a disturbance upon the grand system 
 of atmospherical circulation, which, in summer and 
 autumn, is felt in Europe, in Liberia, and awa}"- out 
 upon the Indian Ocean, as far to the south as the 
 equinoctial line. There is an indraught from all these 
 regions toward these deserts. These indraughts are 
 known as monsoons at sea ; on the land, as the prevail- 
 ing winds of the season. 
 
 " We perceive how a desert land spreads its influ- 
 ence through the distance upon the winds. The first 
 effects of heating up the plains are necessarily felt by 
 the air nearest at hand, and by that further off at a 
 
 later period, so that the south-west monsoon influence 
 is in this part of the ocean propagated from the land 
 out upon the sea at the rate before stated. Of course, 
 the vast plains of Asia are not brought up to monsoon 
 heat per saltern^ or in a day. They require time both 
 to be heated up to this point and to be cooled down 
 again. The monsoon season may be always known by 
 referring to the causes which prdduce these winds. 
 Thus, hy recollecting where the thirsty and overheated 
 plains are which cause the monsoons, we know at once 
 that these winds are rushing with greatest force toward 
 these plains at the time that it is the hottest season of the 
 year upon them. The influence of these heated plains 
 upon the winds at sea is felt for a thousand miles or 
 more. Thus, though the desert of Gobi and the sun- 
 burned plains of Asia are, for the most part, north of 
 latitude 30°, their influence in making monsoons is felt 
 south of the equator. So, too, with the great desert 
 of Sahara and the African monsoons of the Atlantic ; 
 also, with the Salt Lake country and the Mexican 
 monsoons on one side, and those of Central America 
 in the Pacific on the other. The influence of the des- 
 erts of Arabia upon the winds is felt in Austria and 
 other parts of Europe, as the observations of Kriel, 
 Lament, and others show." — IAamry's, Physic(d Geog. 
 of the Sea. 
 
 Desertion by a Seaman. " Desertion from the 
 ship without just cause, and ammo non revertendi, or 
 the justifiable discharge of a seaman by the master for 
 bad conduct, will work a forfeiture of the wages pre- 
 viously earned ; and this is a rule of justice and of 
 policy which generally pervades the ordinances of the 
 maritime nations. By the English statute law, and 
 by the act of Congress, desertion is accompanied 
 with a forfeiture of all the wages that are due, and an 
 absence of forty-eight hours without leave, is made 
 conclusive evidence of desertion ; and whatever un- 
 justifiable conduct will warrant the act of the master 
 in discharging a seaman during the voyage, will equally 
 deprive the seaman of his wages. But the forfeiture 
 is saved if the seaman repents, makes compensation or 
 offer of amends, and is restored to his duty. Public 
 policy and private justice here move together, and the 
 maritime ordinances unite in this conclusion. The 
 master has power to remit a forfeiture, and the penalty 
 of forfeiture is not applied to slight faults, either of 
 neglect or disobedience. There must be either an 
 habitual neglect, or disobedience, or drunkenness, or 
 else a single act of gross dishonesty, or some other act 
 of a heinous and aggravated nature, to justify the dis- 
 charging a seaman in a foreign port, or the forfeiture 
 of wages ; nor will the admiralty courts, except in 
 cases of great atrocity, visit the offenses of a seaman 
 with the cumulated load of forfeiture of wages and 
 compensation in damages. They stop at the forfeiture 
 of the wages antecedently' earned, and in the applica- 
 tion of the forfeiture, the advanced wages are made a 
 charge on the forfeited wages, but the hospital money 
 is apportioned ratabl}' on the wages for the whole voy- 
 age. In these regulations the moderation of the courts, 
 and the solicitude which the peculiar condition and 
 character of seamen excite, are equally manifest. So, 
 if the seaman quits the ship involuntarily, or is driven 
 ashore from necessity, from want of provisions, or by 
 reason of cruel usage and for personal safety, the wages 
 are not forfeited, and he will be entitled to receive them 
 in full to the prosperous termination of the voyage. 
 On the other hand, it is the duty of the seamen to 
 abide by the vessel as long as reasonable hope re- 
 mains ; and if they desert the ship under circum- 
 stances of danger or distress from the perils of the sea, 
 when their presence and exertions might have pre- 
 vented damage, or restored the ship to safety, they 
 forfeit their wages, and are answerable in damages. 
 And even when a seaman might well have been dis- 
 charged in the course of the voyage for gross misbe- 
 havior, if the master refuses to discharge him, and 
 
BES 
 
 539 
 
 DET 
 
 leaves him in imprisonment abroad, he will, in that 
 case, be entitled to his wages until his return to the 
 United States after deducting from the claim his time 
 of imprisonment." — Kent's Commentaries, Lect. xlvi. 
 There are, however, at tintes, extenuating circum- 
 stances, which will in part authorize a sailor to leave 
 his ship in a foreign port. This subject is discussed 
 with clearness in the worlc above-mentioned. Judge 
 Story holds that the voyage of a ship is ended when 
 she arrives at her port of destination, and is safely 
 moored, though her cargo be not delivered ; and deser- 
 tion afterward does not forfeit the wages entire, but 
 a partial forfeiture only as compensation for breach of 
 duty. — Ihid. See Discharge of Seamen. 
 
 Design (Fr. dessein, from Lat. dedgno), a scheme 
 or plan ; purpose, intention ; a representation of a 
 thing by an outline or sketch, etc. Design, in the 
 manufactories,' expresses the figures with which the 
 workman enriches his stuif or silk, and which he copies 
 after some pattern. Design in Painting, is the first idea 
 of a large work, drawn roughly, to be afterward care- 
 fully executed and finished. 
 
 Design, Schools of, are establishments for Instructing 
 pupils in the art of drawing. In some the instruction 
 is confined to what is subservient to the fine arts, but 
 in others, especially in the very admirable establish- 
 ment at Edinbnrg, under the Board of Trustees of 
 Arts and Manufactures, not only is attention paid to 
 the instruction of the painter and the sculptor, but de- 
 sign is taught, to perfect the mechanic in th*e principles 
 of his art, wherever ornamental pattern is required. 
 Such schools have been long opened in France and 
 various parts of Germany, from which important bene- 
 fit has been conferred on the manufacturing industry 
 of those countries. The Edinbnrg School of Design 
 appears to have been the first established in Britain 
 for the express improvement of manufacturing indus- 
 tr)'. It is most ably conducted, and has found its pu- 
 pils in demand for the chief seats of English manufac- 
 turing art. In England, besides the establishment at 
 Somerset House, London, there is a branch school of 
 design in Spitalfields that is well attended. Similar 
 schools are now established in Birmingham, Manches- 
 ter, Coventry, Nottingham, Leeds, York, Hudders- 
 field, Sheffield, Norwich, Stoke-on-Trent, Newoastle- 
 on-Tyne, Hanley, Glasgow, and Paisley. Several 
 have been established in the cities of New York and 
 Boston, and other portions of the United States, and 
 their utility is clearly demonstrated. — Beandb's Enc. 
 
 De-silvering Lead. Nearly all lead ore con- 
 tains a little silver ; and Mr. Pattinson of Newcastle, 
 England, has devised an ingenious and beautiful mode 
 of separating its His discovery has rendered many 
 lead mines workable which must otherwise -have been 
 abandoned. The chief ore whence lead is extracted is 
 galena, a sulphuret of the metal, containing on an 
 average about 80 per cent, of lead and a minute portion 
 of silver ; and this silver treasure often determines the 
 working or non- working of the mine. UntU recently, 
 20 ounces of silver to a ton of lead were the least that 
 would pay for the expense of separating ; but Mr. Pat- 
 tinson has enabled the lead smelter to realize a profit 
 from so small a ratio as 3 or 4 ounces to the ton. The 
 lead-smelting at the Allenhead mines, and at the Wan- 
 lock lead hills in Dumfriesshire, are both founded on 
 Pattinson's process. 
 
 This process is not only scientific in the principle on 
 which it is based, but it is really beautiful to witness. 
 After the ore has been smelted, and the lead run off 
 into the form of blocks or " pigs," these pigs are slowly 
 re-melted in large cast-iron open vessels. The molten 
 lead, while gradually cooling, is stirred uninterrupted- 
 ly with an iron rod, and crystals of lead gradually form. 
 These crystals, being denser and heavier than the rest 
 «f the lead, fall to the bottom, and are thence removed 
 hy the aid of a colander or perforated ladle. Now 
 these crystals contain less silver than an equal weight 
 
 of the uncrystallized lead ; and here we begin at once 
 to see the rationale of the process : since none of the 
 silver is actually gone, that which has left the crystals 
 has tended to enrich the remaining portion of the lead. 
 Again are the crystals melted, to get more and more 
 silver out of them ; again is the richer lead melted, to 
 increase its richness at the expense of the newly-formed 
 crystals ; and thus do the double processes advance until 
 almost every atom of silver is obtained from the lead. 
 But this requires another kind of operation. The 
 very rich lead is brought to an intense heat in a pecu- 
 liar furnace, and a blast of air is driven upon it ; the 
 lead combines with the oxygen of the air to form lith- 
 arge, while the silver sinks to the bottom in a pure 
 state, forming a slab of delicate silver. A very beau- 
 tiful appearance presents itself during the process : the 
 molten silver i absorbs much oxygen, which escapes 
 again as the metal solidifies; bursting through the 
 gradually hardening surface of the mass, the bubbles 
 of gas force along with them portions of the fluid metal 
 from below. It really affords a verj' close representa- 
 tion of a volcano ; for the same chemical laws are in 
 operation in both cases. This escape of oxygen leaves 
 the surface covered with beautiful and fantastical con- 
 cretions of pure and brilliant silver — silvery mountains 
 and valleys, formed by a process bearing much anal- 
 ogy with that by which our earth mountains were 
 probably formed. In the recent London Exhibition 
 there was a cake of silver weighing no less than 8000 
 ounces, obtained from lead in Mr. Beaumont's mines 
 in Northumberland.. — Novelties and Inveniions. 
 
 Detroit, a city and port of entrj' of the United 
 States, capital of the county of Wayne, Michigan, sit- 
 uated on the west bank of the Detroit Strait or Eiver, 
 which connects Lakes Huron, St. Clair, and Erie. Lat. 
 42° 2' N., long. 83° 2' W. The city extends along 
 the river for more than a mile and a half, its central 
 point being 7 miles from Lake St. Clair, and 18 from 
 Lake Erie. The river is here about five eighths of a 
 mile in width ; and its depth varies from 12 to 48 feet. 
 The descent from Lake St. Clair to Lake Erie is about 
 6 feet, or 3 inches per mile ; and the velocity of the 
 current at the deepest part, opposite the city, is 2J 
 miles per hour. Its shores on both sides are highly 
 cultivated ; and from its outlet into L&ke Erie to its 
 origin at Lake Huron resemble a continuous village, 
 with fine farms, pleasant villas, groves, gardens, and 
 excellent roads. The town is well and regularly 
 built, extending in the form of a rectangle for about 
 1200 feet from the river, and afterward terminating in 
 a triangle. Some of the principal streets are 200, 
 others 120, and others 60 feet wide. These generally 
 cross each other at right angles. The houses are 
 mostly of wood, but many of them are of brick. The 
 principal of the public buildings are — the old State 
 House, the United States' Buildings (of polished lime- 
 stone), the State buildings for the supreme court, public 
 offices, county court-house, county jail, city-hall, and 
 market, the new Catholic cathedral, and the cathedral of 
 St. Anne. Detroit is well supplied with water from 
 the river, by means of hydraulic machincrj'" in the up- 
 per part of the to^^Ti. SMp and boat building is a large 
 and important branch of business ; and there are sev- 
 eral large steam saw-mills, iron founderies, etc. Detroit 
 has a very extensive trade, for which it enjoj'S many 
 advantages. The harbor is capacious and secure. It 
 is coimected by the Michigan Central Kailroad with 
 Chicago via New Buffalo and Michigan City, a distance 
 of 258 miles, and by the Pontiac with the town of that 
 name, 20 miles distant. The Great Western Railroad, 
 constructed through Canada, brings it into direct com- 
 munication with the New York and other eastern 
 routes. The population in 1801 was only 770, and in 
 1830, 2222 ; in 1840 it amounted to 9193, and 1850 to 
 21,000, while in the summer of 1853 it was 84,400. 
 This, however, includes only those within the corpo- 
 rate limits, beyond which there is a numerous popija- 
 
DIA 
 
 540 
 
 DIA 
 
 tion, whose entire occupation and interests are in the 
 city. 
 
 Dials. Inrented by Anaximander, 550 e. c. — 
 Fliny. The first dial of the sun Been at Rome, was 
 placed on the temple of Quirinus by L. Papirius Cur- 
 sor when time was divided into hours, 293 b. c. — Blair. 
 In the times of the emperors, almost every palace and 
 public building had a sun-dial. They were first set up 
 in churches in A. D. 613. — Lenglet. 
 
 Diamond (Ger. Dn. Da. and Fr. Diamant; Sw. 
 Bemant, Diamante ; It. Sp. and Port. Diamante ; Rus. 
 Almas; Pol. Dyamant ; Lat. Adamas ; Hind. Hira), a 
 precious stone which has been Isnown from the remot- 
 est ages. Pliny has described it (Hist. Nat., lib. 37, 
 § 4) ; but his account is, in many respects, inaccurate. 
 It is found in different parts of India, and in Borneo ; 
 it is also found in Brazil, on which, indeed, Europe 
 may be said to be at present entirely dependent for 
 supplies of diamonds. Hitherto, however, it has not 
 been met with anywhere except within the tropics. 
 It is the most beautiful and most valuable of precious 
 stones. Its most common colors are white and gray, 
 of various shades. It occurs also red, blue, brown, 
 yellow, and green. The colors are commonly pale. 
 It is always crystallized, but sometimes so imperfectly 
 that it might pass for amorphous. It is the hardest 
 body in nature. External, lustre from splendid to 
 glimmering ; internal, always splendid. It is brittle ; 
 its specific gravit)' is 3'5. When rubbed it becomes 
 positively electric, even before it has been cut by the 
 lapidary, which is not the case with any other gem. — 
 Thomson's Chemistry. 
 
 Diamonds were first brought to Europe from the 
 East where the mine of Sumbulpour was the first 
 known ; and where the mines of Golconda were dis- 
 covered 1584. This district may be termed the realm 
 of diamonds. The mines of Brazil were discovered in 
 1728. From these last a diamond, weighing 1680 
 carats, or 14 ounces, was sent to the court of Portugal, 
 and was valued by M. Romeo de I'lsle at the extrava- 
 gant sum of 224,000,000 reals ; by others it was valued 
 at 56,000,000. Its value was next stated to be 3,500,000 ; 
 but its true value is £400,000. The diamond called 
 the " mountain of light," which belonged to the king of 
 Caubul, was the most superb gem ever seen. It was 
 of the , finest water, and the size of an egg, and was 
 also valued at 3,500,000. The great diamond of the 
 emperor of Russia weighs 193 carats, or 1 oz. 12 dwt. 4 
 gr., troy. The empress Catharine II. offered for it 
 £104,166, besides an annuity for life to the ownet, of 
 £1041, which was refused ; but it was afterward sold to 
 Catharine's favorite, count Orlofl^, for the first men- 
 tioned sum, without the annuitj', and was by him pre- 
 sented to the empress on her birth-day, 1772. It is 
 now in the sceptre of Russia. The Pitt diamond 
 weighed 136 carats, and, after cutting, 106 carats. It 
 was sold to the king of France for £100,000 in 1720. — 
 Haydn, 
 
 According to Mr. Milbum {Orient. Com.'), the color 
 should be perfectly crj'stalline, resembling a drop of 
 clear spring water, in the middle of which you will 
 perceive a strong light playing with a great deal of 
 spirit. If the coat be smooth and bright, with a little 
 tincture of green in it, it is not the worse, and seldom 
 proves bad ; but if there be a mixture of yellow with 
 the green, then beware of it — it is a soft greasy stone, 
 and will prove bad. 
 
 Test of Diamonds. Cutting, etc. — To ascertain whether 
 any specimen is a true diamond or not, a fine file may 
 be used ; and if the surface of the stone be the least 
 abraded or scratched by its action, it is not a diamond. 
 The difiference will also appear upon close examination 
 without this instrument : the rays of light easily pass 
 through other gems, but in the diamond they are re- 
 fracted to the surface, which occasions its superior 
 brilliancy. If the specimen under examination be 
 very minute, it may be placed between two half- 
 
 crowns, or other flat metallic surfaces, and pressed 
 with the thumb and finger : if a diamond, it will not 
 be injured; but if otherwise, it will brealc and fall to 
 powder. On account of the extreme hardness of the 
 diamond, the art of cutting and polishing it was for a long 
 time unknown in Europe. But, in 1456, a young man 
 of the name of Louis Berghen, a native of Bruges, is 
 said to have constructed a polishing wheel for the pur- 
 pose, which was fed with diamond powder instead of 
 corundum, which the Chinese and Hindoos had been 
 long accustomed to employ. Berghen was led to this 
 discovery by observing the action produced by rubbing 
 two rough diamonds together. Diamonds are cut into 
 brilliants and rose diamonds ; the former being, for the 
 most part, made out of the octahedral crystals, and the 
 latter from the spheroidal varieties. — Joyce's Practical 
 Mineralogy ; Rees' Cycldpcedia, etc. 
 
 Commercial Value of Diamonds. ^-Jn the great or 
 wholesale trade there is but little fluctuation in the 
 price of those diamonds which may be termed stones in 
 general demand. I will begin with brilliants from one 
 grain to 2\ grains each. Such brilliants double cut, 
 and what may be termed fine, are worth from £7 to £8 
 per carat. Need}^ sellers may take 10 per cent, less for 
 cash ; but this is the general average price for a lot of 
 10, 20, or 50 carats of well-made stones, if the quality 
 be good. Brilliants, from two grains to three, may be 
 bought in lots at from £7 7s. to £8 per carat. It 
 is to be understood that diamonds in a lot are never 
 all quite free from faults ; hence there may arise a dif- 
 ference of 10 per cent, in the price. Stones of 3 grains, 
 if fine and perfect, are always in demand at £8 to £9 
 per carat. Brilliants from 3 grains to 4, if very fine 
 and well proportioned, are worth from £8 to £9 per 
 carat. Those of a carat each, if very fine and well 
 selected, are worth £9 to £10. Three years ago I of- 
 fered £12 each for 8, and could not obtain them. Bril- 
 liants from 5 grains to 6, if pure, are worth," from £13 
 to £14 ; if perfectly fine, and of the full weight of 6 
 grains, they are worth from £17 to £18 each. I have for 
 such paid £20. Brilliants of 2 carats each, are worth 
 from £27 to £30. Stones of this weight, if well pro- 
 portioned, are considered of a fine size, and well calcu- 
 lated for pins, or the centre of clusters ; indeed, well 
 proportioned diamonds, from 6 grains to 2 carats each, 
 are always in demand, and are retailed at from £20 to 
 £35 each, according to their degree of perfection, or as 
 the retailer may think fit to charge them. For bril- 
 liants of 3 carats, if fine and well formed, from £70 to 
 £80 may be obtained. Stones of this size, and larger, 
 are more liable to capricious fluctuations of price than 
 the smaller ones before named, being chiefly required 
 for the centre stone of salable necklaces. Brilliants of 
 4 carats, i*fine, are worth from £100 to £130. I have 
 sold stones, single cut, a little off color, of this weight, 
 at 80 guineas. I possessed one of 17 grains, perfectly 
 white, having a surface large as that of a 7 carat stone 
 ought to be ; it was, consequently, verj' thin, but be- 
 ing much in request, on account of its great spread or 
 surface, it was sold for £160. Brilliants of 5 carats are 
 not frequently met with in general trade, and are val- 
 uable in price : as the dealers exact more if they know 
 that such stones are wanted than they would in the 
 regular course of business. The prices may be said to 
 vary from £180 to £200. 
 
 Brilliants of 6 carats, as before stated, are not com- 
 mon : they are suitable for centre stones of expensive 
 necldaces and single stone rings. If perfect and well 
 shaped, they sell for £230 to £250, or more. For esti- 
 mating the value of peculiarlj' fine diamonds there is 
 no fixed standard. Rough diamonds, selected as fine, 
 and well formed for cutting, may be estimated as fol- 
 lows : Square the weight of the stone, multiply the 
 product by 2, and the result will be the value in pounds 
 sterling. Brilliants, if fine, may be estimated by 
 squaring the weight in carats, and multiplying the pro- 
 duct by 8, which will give the amount in pounds ster- 
 
DIA 
 
 541 
 
 DIE 
 
 ling. Aa a verj' large property, both in Great Britain 
 and in otlier countries of Europe, is vested in diamonds, 
 it may be interesting to be informed, that not onlj- the 
 price of these gems has for several years been, upon the 
 whole, gradually rising, but thatit is likely to. continue 
 on the advance. At the present time, indeed, and for 
 the last few years, there has been a dull sale of dia- 
 monds in England, nor did the coronation occasion a 
 demand worth notice ; bjit oh the. Continent the trade 
 has been steady, and rough diamonds have been, con- 
 stantly rising in price. That this advance, will be pro- 
 gressive may be assumed from the fact, that the best 
 diamond grpund now known, the Serro do Frio in Bra- 
 zil,i has assuredly passed the zenith of it.a prosperity. 
 I went over the greater part , of what is yet reserved, 
 and still remains to be, worked, and I conceive that 
 there would be no difficulty in calculating the length 
 of time in which the present number of working may 
 reduce it , to a state of exhaustion, like that of the far- 
 famed Golconda. The average annual produce of fu- 
 ture years may be estimated by the amount obtained 
 from that portion which has been already worked. 
 Brazil may be said to furnish Europe with 25,0,00 or 
 30,000 carats per, annum of rough diamonds, which, if 
 reduced to briUiauts, may make an influx into the 
 market of 8,000 or 9000 carats annually.— Mawe's Trea- 
 tise on piammds, 2d ed. pp. 9-14, and p. 60. 
 
 The rule stated by Mr. Mawe,, and, adopted by the 
 jewelers, for estimating the value of diamonds (multi- 
 ply the square of the weight in carats by 2, and the 
 produfit is the value in pounds sterling), can only hold 
 in the case of those, that are of a small size, or do not 
 weigh more than 20 carats. The value, of the largest 
 diamonds, which are exceedingly rare (mok nisiregibus 
 et Us admodum paucis cognitm, Pliny), can, it is clear, 
 depend upon nothing but the fompetition of the pur- 
 chasers. The diamqnd belonging to the emperor of 
 Brazil is the, largest in the world. It is still uncut, 
 and weighs, 1680 carats ; so that, according to the jew- 
 elers' rule, it must be worth ,the enormous sum of 
 £5,644,800 1 It may, however, be doubted whether his 
 imperial majesty would have any disinclination to part 
 with it for the odd sum of £644,800. The famous 
 diamond belonging to the emperor of Eussia, which 
 the jewelers tell us is worth £4,804,000 did not cost 
 £150,000. 
 
 Diamonds are not used exclusively as articles of 
 ornament or luxury. They are frequently employed 
 with great advantage in the arts. "Bad, discolored 
 diamonds," says Mr. Mawe, " are sold to break into 
 powder, and may be said to have more extensive sale 
 than brilliants, with all their captivating beauty. In 
 many operations of art they are indispensable; the 
 fine cameo and intaglio owe their perfection to the 
 diamond, with which alone they can be engraved. 
 The beauty of the onyx would yet remain dormant, 
 had not the unrivaled power of the diamond been 
 called forth to the artist's assistance. The camelian, the 
 agate, or cairngorm, can not be engraved by any other 
 substance. Every crest or letter cut upon hard stone 
 is indebted to the diamond. This is not all ; for with- 
 out it blocks of crystal could not be cut into slices for 
 spectacles, agate for snuflF-boxes, etc." The carat grain 
 used in weighing diamonds is different from the troy 
 grain, 5 diamond grains being only equal to 4 troy 
 grains. See Westminster Rev., xxi., p. 297 ; Hust's 
 Magazine, xv., p. 600 ; Fkazbe, xv. (by Carlisle) ; 
 Bankers' Magazine, N. Y., vol. v., 270, 369. 
 
 Diaper. (Ger. Drell; Du. Drel; Fr. Imge- 
 ouvr& ; It. Tela tessuta a op&re ; Sp. Manteles aieman- 
 iscas ; Eus. Salfetotsschnoe), a sort of fine flowered 
 linen, commonly used for table-cloths, napkins, etc., 
 brought to the highest perfection in the manufactories 
 in the north of Ireland, in Germany, and Scotland. 
 It sometimes resembles an inferior kind of damask. 
 It is said to have been originally manufactured at 
 Ypres, in Flanders ; whence the term d'Ypres, cor- 
 rupted into diaper. 
 
 Dice (Ger. Wilr/el; Du. Taarlingen; Ft. Des (a 
 jouer) ; It. Dadi ; Sp. Dados ; Eus. Kosti), cubical 
 pieces of bone or ivory, marked with dots on each of 
 their sides from lto,6, according, to the number of the 
 face. , TJiey are used in various games of chance, by 
 being th^pwn frpnia box. > 
 
 Dicker (probably from deica, ten), in our old wri- 
 ters, is used to denote the number or quantity of ten, 
 particularly ten hides or skin?, of which twenty made 
 a last ; and is sometimes applied to other things, as a 
 dicker of gloves or ten pairs, ft, dicker of iron or ten 
 bars, etc. 
 
 Dictionary, in its original acceptation, is the 
 arranging of all the words .of a language according 
 to the order of the alphabet^ and annexing a defi- 
 nition or explanation to each word, . , "When arts and 
 sciences began to be improved, and.extendftd, the mul- 
 tiplicity of technical terms rendered , it necessary to 
 compile , dictionaries, either of science in general, or of 
 particular sciences, according to the.yiews of the com- 
 piler. Hence dictionaries may be said to be of two 
 sorts,, of words, and oi facts or tilings; in the former, 
 sense, the.tei^n dictionarg ,he'mg equivalent to lexicon, 
 in the la.tter, to encgclopcedia. , A standard dictionary' 
 of the Chinese language containing about 40,000 char- 
 acters, most of them hieroglyphic, or rude representa- 
 tions, somewhat like our signs of the zodiac, was per- 
 fected by Pa-out-she, . who lived about 1100 b. c. — 
 Morrison. Cyolopsedias were compiled in the fifteenth 
 and sixteenth centuries. The first dictionary of ce- 
 lebrity, perhaps the first, is by Ambrose Calepini, a, 
 .Venrtian friar, in Latin ; he wrote one in eight lan- 
 guages, about A. D. 1500. — Niceron. The Lexicon 
 Heptaglotton was published by Edmund Castell, in 
 1659. Bayle's dictionary was published in 1696, ".the 
 first work of the kind in which a man may learn to 
 think." — Voltaire., Chambers' . Cyclopisdia, the first 
 dictionary of the circle of the arts, sciences, etc., was 
 published in 1728. IThe great dictionary of the En- 
 glish language, by Samuel Johnson, appeared in 1755, 
 Francis Grose's Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue, was 
 compiled in 1768 ; and from this period numerous dic- 
 tionaries have been added to our store of literature. 
 Noah "Webster's great American Dictionary of the 
 English language, in two quarto volumes, was first 
 published at New Haven in 1828. It was reprinted 
 in London in 1832. Numerous abridgments and new 
 editions of the whole work have sinc^ been published in 
 London and New York. — Haydn. 
 
 Die (Fr. de), in coinage, is the instrument by 
 which the impressions are givsn upon the various de- 
 nominations of coin. The following is an outline of 
 the die manvfacture ; The engraver selects a forged 
 plug of tlie best cast steel of proper dimensions for his 
 intended work ; -and having carefully annealed it, and 
 tume4 its surfaces smooth in the lathe, proceeds to 
 engrave upon, it the intended device for the coin. 
 "When this is perfect the letters are put in, and the cir- 
 cularity and size duly adjusted ; it is then hardened, and 
 is termed a matrix. Another plug of soft steel is now 
 selected ; and the matrix being carefully adjusted upon 
 it, thej' are placed under a very powerful fly-press, 
 and two or three blows so directed as to commence an 
 impression of the matrix upon the plug ; this is then 
 annealed, and the operation repeated till the plug re- 
 ceives a perfect impression of the work upon the mat- 
 rix. This impression is of course in relief, the original 
 work upon the matrix being indented, and produces 
 what is termed the punch. This, being duly shaped 
 in the lathe, is hardened, and is employed in the pro- 
 duction of impressions in soft steel or dies, which, 
 being properly turned or hardened, are exact fac- 
 similes of the original matrix, and are used in the pro- 
 cess of coinage. When a pair of dies are made of good 
 steel, duly hardened and tempered, and are carefully 
 used, they will sometimes yield from two to three 
 hundred thousand impressions before they become so 
 
DIP 
 
 642 
 
 DIP 
 
 far ■worn or injured as to require to be removed from 
 the coining presses. 
 
 Dieppe, a commune and seaport town of France, 
 capital arrondissement, Department Seine Inferieure, at 
 the mouth of the Arques on the English Channel, and 
 38 miles north of Rouen, and by railroad 125 miles 
 from Paris. Lat. of light-house, 49° 55' 7'^ north, 
 long. 1° 5' 2'^ east. Population 17,000. It is divided 
 into the town proper, and the suburb le PoUet, which 
 communicate hy a flying bridge, both being well fur- 
 nished with water from an aqueduct supplying nearly 
 200 fountains. Principal edifices, an old castle on a 
 cliff west of the town, 2 churches, the town hall, com- 
 mune college, theatre, public librarj-, baths, and a 
 school of navigation. The port, inclosed by two jet- 
 ties, and bordered by quays, can accommodate from 
 60 to 80 vessels under 600 tons ; but it dries at low 
 water, and it is otherwise inconvenient. Dieppe has 
 an active general trade, ship-building docks, manufac- 
 tories of ivory wares, watches, lace, etc., and it is a 
 packet station, communicating daily, by steamboats 
 with Brighton ; the traffic having increased considera- 
 hly since the opening of the Paris and Rouen Railroad. 
 It is also resorted to by summer visitors ; but its in- 
 habitants depend chiefly on its fisheries of herrings, 
 mackerel, and oysters. 
 
 Digit, or Monade, in Arithmetic, any integer imder 
 10, as, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and by means of which 
 all numbers are expressed. Digit, in Astronomy/, the 
 twelfth part of the diamerer of the sun or moon ; a 
 term used to express the quantity of an eclipse. Thus, 
 an eclipse is said to be of svc digits' when one half of 
 the disk is hid. 
 
 Dike, or D^he, in its primary sense, denotes a ditch 
 or drain. The word seems to have been formed from 
 the verb to dig; though others derive it from the 
 Dutch dyk, a dam, sea-bank, or wall. It is generally 
 used to signify a work of stone, timber, or fascines, 
 raised to oppose the entrance or passage of the waters 
 of the sea, a river, lake or the like. Junius and Ma- 
 nage conceive the Flemish to have borrowed their 
 word from the Greek relxoc, wall; but Guichard de- 
 rives it from the Hebrew daghah. 
 
 Dimity (French, Basin ; Italian, DoUetto ; Span- 
 ish, Dimite), a species of cross-barred stuff' entirely 
 composed of cotton, similar in fabric to fustian. Dim- 
 ity was originally imported from India. Dr. Johnson 
 calls it dimmity, and describes it as a kind of fustian. 
 The distinction between fustian and dimity seems to 
 he, that the former designates a common tweeled cot- 
 ton cloth of a stout fabric, which receives no ornament 
 in the loom, but is most frequently dyed after being 
 woven. Dimity is also a stout cotton cloth, but not 
 usually of so thick a texture ; and is ornamented in 
 the loom, either with raised stripes or fancy figures, 
 is seldom dyed, but usually worn white, as for bed and 
 bedroom furniture. The striped dimities are the most 
 common, they require less labor in weaving, than the 
 others ; and the mounting of the loom being more sim- 
 ple, and consequently less expensive, they can be sold 
 at much lower rates. 
 
 Dime, a silver coin of the United States, weighing, 
 according to the act of Congress of 1853, 38 40-100 
 grains. The half-dime weighing one half, or 19 20-100 
 grains ; both legal tenders to the amount of five dol- 
 lars. See Bankers' Magazine, New York, 1853-1856. 
 
 Dipping-Nee die, a magnetic needle that dips or 
 inclines to the earth ; an instrument for ascertaining 
 the amount of the magnetic inclination at the diff'erent 
 points of the earth's surface. This fact was first ob- 
 served by one Robert Norman, an Englishman, and a 
 maker of compasses for mariners, about the year 1576, 
 who, finding that he was always obliged to counter- 
 balance that end which turns to the north by a bit of 
 wax or such other substance, though the balance had 
 been ever so exact before, published an account of his 
 discover)' as a matter of importance. The subject was 
 
 instantly attended to ; and instruments were not only 
 contrived for ascertaining the quantity of the dip, but 
 various speculations were formed concerning the cause 
 of so surprising a phenomenon. The general pheno- 
 mena of the dipping-needle are, that in the equatorial 
 regions it remains in a horizontal position, but as we 
 recede from the equator toward either pole, it dips ; 
 the north end, if we go northward, and the south end, 
 if we proceed southward'; and the further north or 
 south we go, the greater is the inclination. Its incli- 
 nation is likewise found to vaiy very considerably at 
 diff'erent times in diff'erent places of the earth. — E. B. 
 
 In the most improved form of construction of the 
 dipping-needle, the axis, instead of being a cylinder, 
 is a knife-edge, resting perpendicularly, like the sup- 
 ports of a pendulum, on two agate planes. A needle 
 thus supported, however, must necessarUj"- make small 
 oscillations ; consequently it must be so adjusted that 
 when it points in the direction of the magnetic force, 
 the knife edges may be perpendicular to the agate 
 planes. The mean value of the angle of the dip must 
 therefore be known previously to its construction ; but 
 it is the best adapted, on account of its delicacy, for 
 ascertaining the minute variations of the dip at the 
 same place. The angle of the dip, like that of the 
 variation, changes its value when at the same place, 
 following, of course, the motion of the magnetic poles, 
 which, from the observations made by Scoresby, 
 Parrj', Ross, and others, in high latitudes, appear to 
 have a motion westward, the annual amount of which 
 is about 11'' 4". In the summer of 1831, Commander 
 Ross, in an excursion from the vessel in which his 
 party were so long detained in the polar seas, reached 
 a spot on the continent of North America, which had 
 been calculated to be the position of the magnetic 
 pole. There he found^he dip of the needle to be 89° 
 59'', within one minute of the vertical ; and compass- 
 needles suspended in the most delicate manner possible 
 exhibited no polarity whatever. The latitude of this 
 spot is 70° 5' 17'' north, and its longitude 96° 46' 
 45" west. For a description of some other forms of 
 the dipping-needle, see Brewster's Treatise on Mag- 
 netism. 
 
 Diplomacy, in its most restricted sense, is used 
 to express the art of conducting negotiations or ar- 
 ranging treaties between nations by means of their 
 foreign ministers, or written correspondence ; but in 
 its most extended signification, it embraces the whole 
 science of negotiation with foreign states as founded 
 on public law, positive engagements, or an enlightened 
 view of the interests of each. But, upon this subject, 
 we can not do better than embody in our pages some 
 remarks from the Introduction of Marten's Manuel 
 Diplomatique, in which a distinct view is exhibited of 
 the importance and main objects of diplomacy. Di- 
 plomacy, says that able statesman, must be placed in 
 the foremost rank of the useful sciences. The fate of 
 nations, in the present state of the world, depends 
 greatly on their relations with others ; and these again 
 are materially influenced and determined by the na- 
 ture of their foreign policy, that is, by the success 
 with which they have cultivated and applied the prin- 
 ciples of this science. Diplomacy embraces — 1. The 
 law of nations, by which the relations of one state 
 with another are determined both in peace and war. 
 2. The political principles of individual states, as de- 
 duced from a regard to their peculiar interests ; and a 
 knowledge of the way in which these interests may 
 be reconciled with, and made subservient to, the law 
 of nations. 3. An acquaintance with the privileges 
 and duties of diplomatic agents. 4. The conduct of 
 negotiations, or the course to be pursued in treating 
 of the interests of different states. 5. The moral and 
 physical statistics of each power. 6. The political 
 and military history of the states having diplomatic 
 relations ; and the projects, tendency, and policy of 
 their respective governments. 7. The various sys- 
 
DIP 
 
 643 
 
 DIS 
 
 terns of government, supremacy, concession, retention, 
 equilibrium, centralization, confederacy, etc., that may 
 be brought into operation. 8. The art of composing 
 diplomatic despatches. To this multifarious informa- 
 tion the diplomatist should unite the powers of cal- 
 culation and application peculiar to strong minds — ^the 
 " tact des convenances," which may be felt, but can 
 not be expressed — circumspection, address, and perfect 
 integrity. The combination of these various qualities 
 will procure for the diplomatist such a character for 
 sagacity, rectitude, and straightforwardness, and will, 
 sooner or later, obtain for him an ascendency over the 
 minds of others, and give great weight to his opinions. 
 
 It must be remembered that the diplomacy of every 
 nation is more or less within the range of casualties ; 
 being subject to the versatility inseparable from human 
 affairs, the fickleness and passions of man, and the 
 uncertainty of events — an unlooked-for death, a change 
 of ministry, treacherous designs, undue influence from 
 any quarter, a false calculation, corruption — each of 
 these causes may change the policy or course of a gov- 
 ernment ; and this wiU more or less affect every 
 other government, in proportion to the extent of its 
 influence. In addition to these numerous causes of 
 variation, if ambitious projects be entertained by any 
 great power, diplomacy becomes still more intricate 
 and difficult. Every state desires to be protected 
 against the storm which its rulers imagine thej- can 
 progiiosticate, and of whose bursting they are appre- 
 hensive. Again, we must remark, that the schemes 
 of a government, how admirably soever contrived, 
 have often miscarried, either from subordinate persons 
 or those ■ intrusted with putting them in execution 
 having misapplied or misunderstood the instructions 
 of their superiors. 
 
 From what has been said, it will be easilj' under- 
 stood, that in diplomacy, false estimates are frequently 
 formed of the merits of original plans or designs from 
 looking at their results only. The diplomatist is, ' of 
 course, exempted from all, responsibility in regard to 
 operations mixed up with the events of war — he is an- 
 swerable only for the success of his projects under the 
 conditions on which he proposed them. 
 
 A diplomatist of moderate capacity, if favored by 
 circumstances, may accomplish much more than the 
 man of genius who has to contend with adverse for- 
 tune ; but this difference of success makes no change 
 in their relative ability, and those acquainted with the 
 circumstances readily discriminate between sagacity 
 and accident. 
 
 Diplomacy has been practiced in substance ever 
 since manldnd have been formed into independent 
 states, though it is difficult to ascertain the precise pe- 
 riod at which the term came into use. The system, 
 however, of the regular and uninterrupted residence 
 of foreign ministers during peace at the European 
 courts, as at present practiced, is said to have origi- 
 nated with the Cardinal de Eichelieu. Before that 
 ■ time embassies had been only sent on special occa- 
 sions, but attended with much greater show and reti- 
 nue than has been the. fashion in modern times ; while 
 the substantial business of states at the neighboring 
 courts was transacted by agents of a lower stamp and 
 character. Diplomatic agents are now ranked, in Eu- 
 rope, in the following order, according to the regula- 
 tions of the Congress of Vienna : — 1. Ambassadors ; 
 2. Envoys extraordinary and ministers plenipoten- 
 tiary ; 3. Ministers resident ; 4. Charges des affaires ; 
 5. Secretaries of legation and attaches ; the latter, 
 however, have no precise diplomatic character, and 
 are only considered by courtesy as attached to the 
 legation. 
 
 Among the best works on this important subject are 
 the Traite complei de Diplomatie^ ou Theorie generate 
 des Relations exierieures des Puissances de VEurope^ par 
 M. LE CoMTE DE Gakdest (Paris, 1833), 3 vols. 8vo. ; 
 and De Wicguefort's Ambassadeur et ces Fonciions (Ed. 
 
 Opt.) 1746, 12 vols., 4to. See also the Manuel Diplo- 
 matique, by Von Makten (Paris, 1826) ; Flassan's 
 ffist. Gen et Raisonn. de la Diplom. Frangaise, 7 vols. 
 (Paris, 1811), and Von Marten's (senior) Grundriss 
 elner Diplom. Geschichte der Europ, iStaatshandelj etc., 
 (Hamburg, 8vo.) Bkande'8 Enc. See If. A. Rev., 
 xxxix. 302 (by E. Everett); xxiv., p. 82 (by T. 
 Pitkin) ; U. S. Lit. Gaz., v., p. 1 (by C. Coshing) ; 
 Feaseb's Magazine, xli., p. 605 ; Foreign Quarterly, 
 xiii., p. 1. 
 
 Disoharge of Seamen. Whenever a ship or 
 vessel belonging to a citizen of the United States is 
 sold in a foreign country, and her company discharged, 
 or when a seaman or mariner, a citizen of the United 
 States, is with his own consent discharged in a foreign 
 country, it is the duty of the master or commander to 
 produce to the consular officer the certified list of his 
 ship's company, and pay to such consular officer for 
 every seaman or mariner so discharged, being desig- 
 nated on such list as a citizen of the United States, 
 three months'- pay, over and above the wages which 
 may then be due to such mariner or seaman, two thirds 
 thereof to be paid by such consular officer to each sea- 
 man or mariner so discharged, upon his engagement 
 on board of any vessel to return to the United States, 
 and the other remaining third to be retained for the 
 purpose of creating a fund for the payment of the 
 passages of seamen or mariners, citizens of the United 
 States, who may be desirous of returning to the United 
 States, and for the maintenance of American seamen 
 who may be destitute, and maj' be in such foreign 
 port. The-several sums retained for the seamen's fund 
 are to be accounted for to the Treasury Department by 
 the consular officers receiving the same.- — Statutes at 
 Large, U. S. See Hunt's Mag., xi., p. .344; Ibid., p. 
 230 ; Kent's Commentaries ; Parsons' Merca/niile Law, 
 
 According to the laws of the United States, consular 
 officers are not to discharge a seaman for slight or 
 venial offenses, and certainly not for a single oflense 
 unless of a very aggravated character. If the charge be 
 negligence, drunkenness, disobedience, or dishonesty, 
 the question should be, whether the misconduct was of 
 such a degree as to show a habitual inattention to or un- 
 fitness for duty, having always in view the particular 
 station of the party and the nature of his duty. If the 
 allegation be that the seaman is a dangerous person, 
 from a spirit of insubordination, or hostility to the 
 master, it has been held that the master must show 
 that the danger is such as would affect the mind of a 
 man of ordinary firmness. But even in cases of ag- 
 gravated offenses, or of a continued course of conduct 
 which would justify the discharge of a seaman, if he 
 repents and offers .amends, the principle which is 
 always operating; in his favor against all kinds of for- 
 feiture, with very rare exceptions, intervenes to restore 
 him to his rights, and- he is ordinarily entitled to be re- 
 ceived again on board. To deprive a mariner of the 
 benefit of this rule, it should appear that the miscon- 
 duct amounts to a radical disqualification, as dishon- 
 esty and habitual drunkenness in a steward ; or that 
 the party is really dangerous to the peace and safety 
 of the ship. These principles receive additional force 
 from the general policy of the laws of the United 
 States, which discountenances the discharge of seamen 
 in foreign ports. The various enactments in respect 
 to destitute seamen sufficiently show the paternal so- 
 licitude of the government for the preservation and 
 protection of the seamen of the country. — Manual for 
 Consuls. See Desertion by Seamen. 
 
 " The right of the seaman to be brought back to hia 
 own home, is very jealously guarded by our laws. 
 The master should always present his shipping arti- 
 cles to the consul, or commercial agent of the United 
 States, at every foreign port which he visits, but does 
 not seem to be required br law to do this, unless the 
 consul desires it. He must, however, present them to 
 the first boarding officer on his arrival at a home port. 
 
DIS 
 
 544 
 
 DIS 
 
 And if upon an arrival at a home port from a foreign 
 voyage, it appears that any of the seamen are missing, 
 the master must account for their absence. If he dis- 
 charges a seaman abroad without his consent, he must 
 pay to the American consul three months' wages, of 
 which the consul gives two to the seaman, and remits 
 one to the Treasury of the United States to form a 
 fund for bringing home seamen from abroad. This 
 obligation does not apply when the voyage is necessa- 
 rily broken up by a wreck, or similar misfortune. But 
 proper measures must be taken to repair the ship, if 
 possible, or to obtain the restoration, if captured. And 
 the seaman may hold on for a reasonable time for this 
 purpose, and if discharged before, may claim the extra 
 wages. Our consuls and commercial agents may au- 
 thorize the dicharge of a seaman abroad for gross mis- 
 conduct, and he then has no claim for the extra wages. 
 They may also send our seamen home in American 
 ships, which are bound to bring them for a compensa- 
 tion not exceeding ten dollars each, and the seamen so 
 sent must work and obey as if originally shipped. 
 Besides this, if a master discharges a seaman in a for- 
 eign port, he is liable to a fine of 500 dollars, or six 
 months' imprisonment. And a seaman may recover 
 full indemnity or compensation for his loss of time, or 
 expenses incurred by reason of such discharge." — 
 Parsons' Mercantile Law, p. 393. 
 
 Discount, J* sum of money deducted from a debt 
 in consideration of its being paid before the usual or 
 stipulated time. The circumstance on which its fair- 
 ness is founded is, that the creditor, by receiving his 
 money before it comes due, has the interest of the 
 money during the interval. Consequently he should 
 only receive so much as, put out to interest during the 
 period in question, will realize the amount of his debt 
 at the time when it would have become due. For in- 
 stance, ^100 is to be paid at the end of 3 years ; 
 what should be paid now, interest being 4 per 
 cent. ? Here it is evident, that if we divide the whole 
 debt into 112 (or 100-|-3X4) parts, 100 of these parts 
 will make the other 12 in three years (at simple in- 
 terest), whence the payment now due is the 112th part 
 of ^£10,000, or £89 5s. 9d. The rule is, n being the 
 number of years (a fraction, or number and fraction), r 
 the rate per cent, and D the sum due, 
 
 Present value=^^^,. 
 100+wr' 
 _ . Dnr 
 
 Discouut=— — ; — ■. 
 100-f-wr 
 
 In practice, it is usual not to find the real discount, 
 but to allow interest on the whole debt in the shape of 
 abatement. Thus it would be considered that, in the 
 preceding example, three years' discount upon £100, 
 at 4 per cent., is £12, or £88 would be considered as 
 the present value. 
 
 In transactions which usually proceed on compound 
 interest, as in valuing leases, annuities, etc., the prin- 
 ciple of discount is strictly preserved. The present^ 
 value in the preceding case is, in its most usual form, 
 
 D D 
 
 -z — ; — r— - and the discount D — -— ; — ;— ; 
 
 (i+p)" (i+p)" 
 
 where p is the rate per pound (not per cent. : thiis it is 
 •04 for 4 per cent.). But recourse is usually had to 
 the tables of present values "which accompany all works 
 on annuities or compound interest. 
 
 The name of discount is also applied to certain trade 
 allowances upon the nominal prices of goods. In some 
 branches of trade these allowances vary according to 
 the circumstances which affect the markets ; and what 
 is called discount is in fact occasioned by fluctuations 
 in prices which it is thought convenient to maintain 
 nominally at unvarying rates. This system is prac-' 
 ticed in some branches of wholesale haberdasherj- 
 business, and we have now before us a list of prices 
 furnished to his customers by a manufacturer of tools 
 at Sheffield, in which the nominal price of each article 
 
 is continued the same at which it has stood for many 
 years, while to every different species of tool there is 
 applied a different and a fluctuating rate of discount, 
 this fluctuation constituting in fact a difference of price 
 between one period and another. The rates of dis- 
 count in this list vary from 5 to 40 per cent, upon the 
 nominal prices of the different articles. 
 
 The term discount is also employed to signify other 
 mercantile allowances, such for example as the abate- 
 ment of 12 per cent, made upon the balances which 
 underwriters, or insurers of sea risks, receive at the 
 end of the year from the brokers by whom the insur- 
 ances have been effected. The word discount is fur- 
 ther used, in contradistinction to premium, to denote 
 the diminution in value of securities which are sold 
 according to a fixed nominal value, or according to the 
 price they may have originally cost. If, for example, 
 a share in a canal company, upon which ilOO has been 
 paid, is sold in the market for £98, the value of the 
 share is stated to be at 2 per cent, discount. — Bohn. 
 
 Discriminating Duties. The discriminating 
 duty of 10 per cent., under the 11th section of the U. 
 S. tariff law of 1842, is an additional duty of 10 per 
 'cent, on the rate of legal duties chargeable on the im- 
 ports, and not a duty of 10 per cent, on the value of 
 the goods 5 as, for example, an import chargeable with 
 a regular duty of 20 per cent., and also with the dis- 
 criminating duty of 10 per cent., under the 11th sec- 
 tion of tariff act of 1842, would become chargeable with 
 a duty of 22 per cent., and not 30 per cent. 
 
 It has been decided that a discriminating duty ex- 
 acted on a Spanish vessel clearing from a port of the 
 United States for Cuba or Porto Rico, under the 2d 
 section of the act of 30th June, 1834, " concerning ton- 
 nage duty on Spanish vessels," can not be refunded, 
 although the vessel may never arrive at her destination, 
 being wrecked on the V03''age. — Manual Jor Consuls. 
 
 Dispensary, a place where medicines arc made up 
 and distributed ; but used more generall}' for a char- 
 itable institution, where the poor are supplied with 
 medicines and advice. Institutions of this nature are 
 of comparatively recent origin ; though they are now 
 to be met with in every town of any importance, both 
 in this country and in Europe. To every dispensary 
 there are always attached one or more physicians, sur- 
 geons, and apothecaries, whose duty it is respectively 
 to prescribe and dispense medicines to the poor, and to 
 visit them in their own houses in the event of their 
 being too ill to attend personally at the institution. 
 In most cases dispensaries are supported by voluntary- 
 contributions. 
 
 DistaiT, the staff to which hemp, flax, wool, or 
 other substances to be spun, is fastened. The art of 
 spinning with it at the small wheel, first taught to 
 English women bj' Anthony Bonavisa, an Italian, 20 
 Hen. VII., 1505. — Stowe. The distaff is used as an 
 emblem of the female sex.. — Howell. The distaff 
 formerly occupied the place in the drawing-room or 
 boudoir of the English ladies that the harp or piano 
 does now. 
 
 District of Columbia occupies a space of 60 
 square miles, and is situated on tho left bank of the 
 Potomac River, 120 miles from its entrance into Chesa- 
 peake Bay, and at the head of navigation. The terri- 
 tory was formerly 10 miles square, and was ceded by 
 the States of Marj-land and Virginia for the purpose 
 of becoming the seat of government of the United 
 States. The portion west of the Potomac was retro- 
 ceded to Virginia in 184G. The District, whish is 
 under the immediate jurisdiction of Congress, contains 
 the cities of Washington and Georgetown, and is en- 
 tirely comprehended in the county of Washington. 
 Population in 1800, 14,093 ; 1810, 24,023 ; 1820, 33,039 ; 
 1830, 39,834; 1840, 43,712; and in 1850, 51,687: 
 whites, 38,027 ; free colored, 9,973 ; and 3,687 slaves. 
 
 In 1850, there were 16,267 acres of land improved, 
 and 11,187 of unimproved land, in farms. Cash value 
 
DIS 
 
 545 
 
 DIS 
 
 of farms, $1,780,4:60 ; and the value of implements and 
 machinery, $40,320. 
 
 Live Stock. — Horses, 82i; asses and mules, 57; 
 milch cows, 813 ; working oxen, 104 ; other cattle, 123 ; 
 sheep, 150 j swine, 1,635 ; value of live stock, $71,643. 
 
 Agricultural Products, etc. — ^Wheat, 17,370 bushels; 
 rye, 5,509 ; Indian corn, 65,230 ; oats, 8,134 ; barley, 
 75 ; buckwheat, 378 ; peas and beans, 7,754 ; pota- 
 toes, 28,292 ; sweet potatoes, 3,497. Products of the 
 orchard, $14,843. Produce of market gardens, 
 $67,222. Pounds of butter made, 14,872; of cheese, 
 1^500 pounds. Hay, 2,279 tons. Tobacco, 7,800 
 pounds; wool, 525. Clover seed, 3 bushels. Hops, 
 15 pounds ; beeswax and ioney, 550. Wine, 803 gal- 
 lons. Value of home-made manufactures,: $2 j075) and 
 the value of slaughtered animals, $9,038. 
 
 Georgetown is the principal 'port, and is a port of en- 
 try, situated at the head of the Potomac navigation, 120 
 miles from the sea, and is divided from Washington by 
 Kock Creek. It is built on a range of hills, and com- 
 
 manda a magnificent landscape. The city is one of 
 the handsomest in the country, and the seat of several 
 well-known educational establishments, and is the res- 
 idence of many persons of distinction. Its manufac- 
 tures are increasing, and perhaps no other place is so 
 celebrated for its fisheries of shad and herring, thou- 
 sands of barrels of which are packed in the fishing 
 season. The Alexandria branch of the Chesapeake and 
 Ohio Canal here crosses the Potomac on a magnificent 
 aqueduct, 1,446 feet long, and 36 feet above the ordi- 
 nary tide. The tonnage of Georgetown in 1856, was 
 20,966 tons. 
 
 Alexandria, formerly in the District of Columbia, is 
 situated 6 miles below Washington. It has a good 
 harbor, and considerable trade in flour and coal. Since 
 1850 the commerce has nearly doubled. The tonnage 
 in 1856 was 7,221 tons. 
 
 The foreign commerce of the District has been de- 
 creasing since 1831, and is now confined to the imports 
 of West India produce. 
 
 FOKEION tjOMMliltOE OF *HB DlSTBIOT OP COLUMBIA, TOOM OoTOBEK 1, 1820, TO JULY 1, 1866. INCLUDINO ALEXANDBIA 
 
 • ' '' ' 
 
 
 
 TO June 80, 1846. 
 
 
 
 Yenrs otidlng. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 ImportB. 
 
 Tonnngo 
 Amoricftn. 
 
 Cleorod. 
 Foreign. 
 
 DIatrict Tonnsge. | 
 
 Doi^estlc. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Totol. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Registered. 
 
 Enrolled and 
 LIcenied. 
 
 Sept. 80, 1821 
 
 .•*848,-609 
 
 $49,843 
 
 $898,452 
 
 $898,984 
 
 15,086 ' 
 
 
 8,492 
 
 10,263 
 
 1822 
 
 1,031,475, 
 
 11,955 
 
 1,048,480 
 
 470,618 
 
 15,025 
 
 178 
 
 
 
 1828 
 
 ,779,502 
 
 21,798 
 
 801,295 
 
 275,088 
 
 12,680 
 
 128 
 
 
 
 
 1824 '.. 
 
 696;858 
 
 * 26,552 
 
 722,405 
 
 379,958 
 
 12,167 
 
 231 
 
 
 
 
 1825 
 
 749;159 
 
 9,208 
 
 758,867 
 
 277,297 
 
 12,842 
 
 
 
 
 
 1826....... 
 
 ,620,391 
 
 8,840 
 
 6^4,231 
 
 269,680 
 
 11,664 
 
 69 
 
 
 
 
 182t 
 
 1,182.142 
 
 
 1,182,142 
 
 827,623 
 
 17,349 
 
 485 
 
 
 
 
 1828 
 
 706,681 
 
 ' 1,862 
 
 707,443 
 
 181,665 
 
 13,269 
 
 '990 
 
 
 
 
 1829 
 
 914,285 
 
 18,812 
 
 928,097 
 
 205,921 
 
 13,466 
 
 261 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 1880 
 
 Total.... 
 
 746,691 , 
 
 ;7,882 
 
 758,973 
 
 168,550 
 
 13,803 
 
 
 
 
 
 »8,274,588 
 
 $146,247 
 
 $3,419,835 
 
 $2,956,824 
 
 186,706 
 
 2,817 
 
 
 
 
 Sept. 30, mi 
 
 ' ■ 1882'..- 
 
 1,207,617 
 
 18,'468 
 
 1,220,975 
 
 198,555 
 
 19,362 
 
 878 
 
 6,072 
 
 8,749 
 
 ' 1,146,068 
 
 ■ 8,408 
 
 1,164,474 
 
 188,047 
 
 14,748 ' 
 
 8,089 
 
 
 
 . ' >1888. ..;... 
 
 981,866 
 
 -21,450 
 
 ' 1,002,816 
 
 150,046 
 
 12,962 
 
 2,140 
 
 
 
 
 . ,, 1884 
 
 806,902 
 
 . 18,492 
 
 820,394 
 
 196,264 
 
 10,792 
 
 2,269 
 
 
 
 
 1885....... 
 
 514,671 
 
 3,068 
 
 517,639 
 
 111,196 
 
 9,296 
 
 1,138 
 
 
 
 
 '1886 
 
 828,692 
 
 8,182 
 
 826,874 
 
 111,419 
 
 4,650 
 
 512 
 
 
 
 
 1887 
 
 467,766 
 
 1,443 
 
 469,209 
 
 102)225 
 
 8,894 
 
 8,600 
 
 
 
 
 1838 
 
 966,760 
 
 6,363 
 
 878,118 
 
 122,743 
 
 4,464 
 
 1,063 
 
 
 
 
 1839 
 
 497,965 
 
 5,752 
 
 , 503,717 
 
 182,.5H 
 
 6,693 
 
 1,547 
 
 
 
 
 1840 
 
 Total.... 
 
 751,429 
 
 2,494 
 
 758,928 
 
 119,852 
 
 12,815 
 
 2,689 
 
 
 
 
 $7,004,084 
 
 $79,100 
 
 $7,143,134 
 
 $1,427,852 
 
 99,681 
 
 18,920 
 
 
 
 
 Sept 80, 1841 
 
 ,764,836 
 
 4,496 
 
 769,831 
 
 77,268 
 
 11,472 
 
 3,861 
 
 8,433 
 
 7,916 
 
 1S42 
 
 498,820 
 
 '•^' 
 
 501,675 
 
 29,056 
 
 7,055 
 
 4,197 
 
 
 
 9mos., 1848* 
 
 284,763 
 
 284,948 
 
 95,442 
 
 5242 
 
 8,001 
 
 
 
 
 June 80, 1844 
 
 560,298 
 
 9,254 
 
 669,659 
 
 66,628 
 
 9,801 
 
 8,983 
 
 
 
 
 184S 
 
 609,429 
 
 7.S5 
 
 ,:, 610,164 
 
 70,529 
 
 10,772 
 
 2,529 
 
 
 
 
 1846 
 
 913,T01 
 
 1,213 
 
 . 914,914 
 
 79,770 
 
 15,390 
 
 3,602 
 
 
 
 
 184T 
 
 124,269 
 
 
 124,269 
 
 25,049 
 
 2,123 
 
 298 
 
 
 
 
 1848 
 
 88,666 
 
 
 88,666 
 
 25,988 
 
 1,552 
 
 
 
 
 
 1849 
 
 111,607 
 
 
 111,607 
 
 • 85,663 
 
 2,820 
 
 .... 
 
 
 
 
 1850 
 
 .Total.,,. 
 
 80,388 
 
 200 
 
 , 80,588 
 
 69,819 
 
 1,520 
 
 200 
 
 
 
 
 $8,921,776 
 
 . $18,988 
 
 $3,940,714 
 
 ., , $564,162 
 
 66,747 
 
 21,071 
 
 
 
 
 June 80, 1851 
 
 72,560 
 
 
 72,560 
 
 80,813 
 
 1,859 
 
 
 2,903 
 
 20,001 
 
 1862 
 
 79,005 
 
 
 79,005 
 
 54,142 
 
 2,014 
 
 
 
 
 1858 
 
 75,456 
 
 .... 
 
 75,466 
 
 71,494 
 
 1,681 
 
 
 
 
 
 1864 
 
 87,992 
 
 .... 
 
 37,992 
 
 48,108 
 
 841 
 
 
 
 
 
 1856 
 
 1856 
 
 86,143 
 
 
 
 36,143 
 
 24,699 
 
 912 
 
 
 
 
 
 20,001 
 
 
 20,001 
 
 55,017 
 
 840 
 
 
 
 .... 1 
 
 * Nine months to Juno 80, and the fiscal year fi-om this time begins July 1. 
 
 Distillation (Lat.), the evaporation and subse- 
 quent condensation of liquids by means of a still and 
 refrigeratory, or a retort and receiver. The discover}' 
 of the art of distillation is generally ascribed to the 
 alchemists ; but it was doubtless known in more 
 remote ages to the Arabians, and by them probably 
 derived from nations further east. The process of dis- 
 tillation, though in continual use in the chemical and 
 pharmaceutical laboratory, is carried on upon the most 
 extensive scale for the production of ardent spirits in 
 the distilleries. Under the words Alcohol, Brandy, 
 Fermentation, Wine, etc., will be found some de- 
 tails bearing upon the nature, sources, and production 
 of spirituous liquors ; in the present article, therefore, 
 we shall limit ourselves to an outline of the different 
 processes which are conducted in the distillery. There 
 are two distinct operations in the production of ardent 
 Mm 
 
 spirits : the one is the conversion of certain vegetable 
 principles into alcohol ; and the other, the separation 
 of the alcohol from the other substances with which it 
 is necessarily blended during its production. The 
 vegetable principle which is essential to the formation 
 of alcohol is sugar ; and this is sometimes used directly, 
 as where molasses and analogous saccharine products 
 are subjected to immediate fermentation ; or it is indi- 
 rectly obtained by subjecting amylaceous grains to cer- 
 tain processes, by which the starch they contain is first 
 converted into sugar, and then that sugar afterward 
 alcoholized. 
 
 In many distilleries the latter alternative is adopted ; 
 and various kinds of grain, but chiefly barley, wheat, 
 and rye, with more or less malt, are subjected to the 
 operation of mashing. For this purpose the ground 
 grain and the bruised malt are duly mixed, and Sifused 
 
DIV 
 
 546 
 
 DIV 
 
 under constant agitation in a proper quantity of hot 
 water in tte mash-tun ; tlie wort is then run off, and 
 fresh water added, till the soluble materials of the 
 grain are extracted. In this way the mixed worts or 
 wash is obtained, which is afterward to be subjected to 
 fermentation. When the wash is adjusted as to dens- 
 ity, it is run into the fermenting-vats, where, mixed 
 with a small quantity of yeast, it is subjected to the 
 process of fermentation, which continues from 6 to 10 
 or 12 days — ^the time required for its completion varj'- 
 ing. The proof spirit of commerce, and that of the 
 Pharmacoposia, is generally stated to be of the specific 
 gravity of 0-920 at 62° and is considered as a mixture 
 of equal weights of absolute alcolwl at the specific gravity 
 of 0*791 at 60° and of water. The rectified spirit of 
 commerce, or rather that of the Pharmacopoeia, is di- 
 rected to be of the specific gravity of 0-838 at 60°, and 
 ma}"" be regarded as a mixture of about 82 parts of ab- 
 solute alcohol and 18 of water. — Brande'3 Cyclo. See 
 also Ency. Brit.^ 8th edition. 
 
 Divan (Arabic diwan\ among the Arabs, Persians, 
 and Turks, is a word that bears very various significa- 
 tions. It primarily denoted a book of accounts, a mus- 
 ter-roll of troops, etc. ; and hence came to be applied to 
 a collection of lyric poems (called gazelles) arranged in 
 a kind of alphabetical order. Thus we have the Dl- 
 wan ofSadi, the Diwan of Eafiz^ etc. ; a practice which 
 has been imitated by Goethe in his Westostlicher Diwan, 
 a collection of poems in the Oriental style. The word 
 among the Orientals denotes also a council-chamber, a 
 tribunal of justice, and in like manner is applied to the 
 general council of state. Under the khaliffs of Bag- 
 dad, the diwan was a court of justice over which the 
 khaliff presided in person. At Constantinople in the 
 present day the term is used to denote the great coun- 
 cil of the empire. It is also a common application 
 among the Turks for a saloon or chamber of reception, 
 or in which business is transacted, or used as a place 
 of occasional repose. The divan more properly is a 
 kind of stage, raised about a foot above the floor of the 
 saloon, covered with rich tapestr}"-, and furnished with 
 a number of embroidered cushions leaning against the 
 wall ; and on this the master of the house is seated 
 when he receives visitors. Hence the word is frequently 
 applied by other nations to a kind of public cofi'ee-room, 
 furnished in a manner somewhat similar. — E. B. 
 
 Divi Divi, the commercial name of the pod of the 
 Ccesalpinia coriaria^ a leguminous plant, found in low 
 marshy situations on the north coast of South America, 
 and in some parts of the West Indies. It is used both 
 for dj'eing and tanning, but chiefly for the latter pur- 
 pose. The pod is from 2 to 3 inches in length by f 
 inch in breadth, and when in perfection is of a rich 
 brown color. It contains a few small seeds ; but the 
 only valuable portion is a resinous matter, of a bright 
 yellow color, easily pulverized, which lies betwixt the 
 outer skin and the husk that incloses the seed, and 
 contains a large quantity of tannin. About 9-lOths of 
 the imports into England come to Liverpool, where the 
 following quantities were received during the last four 
 years, viz. : In 1849, 3660 tons ; 1850, 2700 tons ; 1851, 
 2280 tons ; 1852, 2030 tons. It might be supposed 
 from this statement that the article was going out of 
 favor ; but such is not the case. When, however, the 
 price in England is under £10 per ton, the imports de- 
 crease ; and it has latterly been below this limit. Re- 
 cently, however, its price has risen considerably ; and 
 with this rise the imports may be expected to increase. 
 Maracaibo, Rio de la Hache, and Savanilla are almost 
 the only places whence this article is imported. That 
 brought from Maracaibo is the best, that from Sava- 
 nilla the most inferior. During the last 4 years prices 
 have ranged between £8 IO5. and £14 per ton for Rio 
 Hache and Maracaibo, and £7 and £10 15s. for Sava- 
 uill a, the highest quotations being now current (Septem- 
 ber, 1853). Divi Divi is used by dyers, not for the 
 coloring principle which it contains, but for its strong 
 
 astringent qualities as a mordant. For this purpose it 
 is at present used, to some extent, instead of sumach, 
 which is scarce and dear ; and hence the recent high 
 price of the article. In tanning, it accelerates the 
 process, and Imparts to the leather a clean and healthy 
 apearance. 
 
 Dividend, in commerce, is a word which has two 
 very distinct meanings. In its more general employ- 
 ment it is understood to express the money which is 
 divided, pro rata, among the creditors of a bankrupt's es- 
 tate, out of the amount realized from his assets. The 
 other meaning attached to the word dividend signifies 
 the periodical division of profits among shareholders of 
 insurance, railroad, bank, and other corporations. 
 
 Diving-bell. First mentioned, though obscurely, 
 by Aristotle, 325 b. c. The diving-bell was first used 
 in Europe A. d. 1509. It is said to have been used on 
 the coast of Mull, in searching for the wreck of part of 
 the Spanish Armada, before a. r>. 1669. Halley greatly 
 improved this machine, and was, it is said, the first 
 who, by means of a diving-bell, set his foot on dry 
 ground at the bottom of the sea, Smeaton applied the 
 condensing-pump to force down air. Mr. Spalding 
 and his assistants going down in a diving-bell in Ire- 
 land were drowned, June 1, 1783. The Royal George 
 man-of-war, which was sunk off' Portsmouth in 1782, 
 was first surveyed, by means of a diving-bell, in May, 
 1817. Lately, and particularly in 1840, it has been 
 employed in sub-marine surveys. The first diving- 
 helle was the wife of Captain Morris, at Plymouth, who 
 descended in one a few years ago. — Haydn. It is an 
 apparatus by means of which persons are let down and 
 enabled to remain under water, and execute various 
 operations ; such as leveling or clearing the bottom 
 of harbors, preparing a foundation for buildings, bring- 
 ing up sunken materi^s, etc. The principle of the 
 diving-bell depends on the impenetrability of atmo- 
 spheric air. and may be illustrated by a very familiar 
 experiment. Bring the edge of an inverted tumbler, 
 or any close vessel, to the surface of the water, and, 
 keeping the mouth horizontal, press it down in the 
 water. It will be seen that, though some portions of 
 water ascend into the tumbler, the greater part of the 
 space remains empty, or only filled with air ; and any 
 object placed in this space, though surrounded on all 
 sides with water, would remain perfectly' dr}"". In fact, 
 the quantity of air remains the same, but is compressed 
 into a smaller volume, in proportion to the depth to 
 which it is made to descend. Now, if we conceive a 
 vessel of wood or iron, sufficiently capacious to hold 
 several men, to be suspended by a chain, and lowered, 
 by means of weights attached to it, to any moderate 
 depth under water, it is evident that thej' may remain 
 there for a considerable time, and perform any opera- 
 tion that could be executed on land in the same con- 
 fined space. The machine, however, as thus described, 
 is liable to two great defects, which must be obviated 
 by other contrivances before any great advantages can 
 be derived from it. In the first place, as the air by its 
 compressibility allows the water to enter the lower 
 part of the bell, the dry space is not only diminished, 
 but the bottom on which the bell rests, and where the 
 operations are to be carried on, is also covered with 
 water to a proportional depth. In the second place, 
 the air within the bell, by the repeated respiration, 
 soon becomes mephitic, and unfit to support life ; so that 
 it is necessary to elevate the apparatus after short in- 
 tervals to admit a fresh supply. 
 
 It is not known at what period the diving-bell was 
 invented. Beckman, in his " History of Inventions," 
 mentions that at Toledo, in the 16th century, two Greeks, 
 in the presence of the emperor Charles V. and several 
 thousand spectators, let themselves down under water 
 in a large inverted kettle, with a burning light, and 
 rose again without being wet. George Sinclair, the 
 author of " Satan's Invisible World Displayed," in his 
 work entitled " Ars Nova et Magna Gravitatis et Le- 
 
DIV 
 
 547 
 
 DJI 
 
 vitatis," mentions some attempts that were made about 
 the year 1665 to raise, by means of a diving-bell, the 
 treasure from the ships of the Invincible Armada that 
 went to the bottom near the Isle of Mull, in the He- 
 brides, and describes the kind of bell that was em- 
 ployed. But on account of the defects to which we 
 have alluded, the diving-bell continued to be of very 
 little use till the time of Dr. Halley, who contrived a 
 means of introducing fresh air into the bell while un- 
 der water, and of allowing the mephitic or breathed 
 air to escape. The bell he made use of he describes 
 as having been of wood, containing about 60 cubic 
 feet in its cavity, and of the form of a truncated cone, 
 whose diameter at the top was 3 feet, and at the bot- 
 tom 5. This was coated with lead, so heavy that it 
 could sink empty, and the weight so distributed about 
 its bottom that it could only descend in a perpendicular 
 direction. In the top a clear glass was fixed, to let in 
 the light from above, and a cock to let out the air that 
 had been breathed. To supplj' the air to the bell, he 
 caused a couple of barrels, of about 36 gallons each, to 
 be cased with lead, so as to sink empty, each of them 
 having a bung-hole in its lower part, to let in the water 
 as the air in them condensed on their descent, and to 
 let it out again when they were drawn up full from be- 
 low. To a hole in the uppermost part of the barrels a 
 trunk or hose was fixed, long enough to fall below the 
 bung-hole, and kept down by a weight, so that no air 
 could escape by the hose till its end was raised up. 
 The barrels thus prepared were let down by the side of 
 the bell. A man stationed on a stage suspended from 
 the bell was ready to take up the hose ; and as soon 
 as their ends were brought to the surface of the water 
 in the barrels, all the air that was included in the up- 
 per parts of them, was blown with great violence into 
 the bell, while the water entered at the bung-holes be- 
 low and filled the barrels. By means of this contriv- 
 ance the air was not only kept fresh, but another great 
 advantage was gained, namely, that by admitting a 
 sufficient quantity of it the whole of the water was ex- 
 pelled from the inside of the bell, and the bottom of 
 the sea laid dry. 
 
 By means of this contrivance for the admission of 
 fresh air, it was now possible to remain for any length 
 of time under water ; but the use of the apparatus was 
 still found to be attended with some inconveniences, 
 and even considerable danger. The divers within the 
 bell having no power over it, its rising or sinking de- 
 pends entirely upon the people at the surface of the 
 water ; and as the bell, even when in the water, has 
 considerable weight, there is always a possibility of 
 the chain by which it is raised breaking, which would 
 inevitably be attended with the destruction of the 
 divers. Another danger, still more to be apprehended, 
 is, that if the mouth of the bell, in its descent, should 
 come upon a sunken ship, or a rock projecting abruptly 
 from the bottom, it might be overset before any signal 
 could be given to those above. These defects were ob- 
 viated by the verj' ingenious contrivances of Mr. 
 Spalding of Edinburg. In order to avoid the risk 
 of being upset when the bell descends on a rocky or 
 uneven bottom, he suspended a considerable weight, 
 which he called a baiance-weif/hf, below the bell, bj' a 
 rope passing over a pulley fixed in the inside ; and the 
 other weights attached to the bell being so adjusted 
 that they could not sink it without the balance-weight, 
 as soon as the latter rested on the ground the bell re- 
 mained suspended in the water. In case of the mouth 
 of the bell being caught by any obstacle, the balance- 
 weight is immediatel}' lowered, till it rests on the bot- 
 tom ; and as the bell, when thus relieved, is buoyant, 
 the divers, having disengaged it from the rook, have it 
 in their power either to descend, by pulling in the rope, 
 or, by allowing it to run, to ascend to the surface. 
 Another contrivance of Mr. Spalding deserves mention. 
 He divided the bell into two compartments, the one 
 above the other, and communicating by means of a 
 
 stop-cock. The divers are stationed in the lower one, 
 and the weights are so adjusted that when the cavity 
 above is empty, the bell is buoyant ; when it is filled 
 with water, the bell sinks. Immediately above the 
 partition are some slits in the sides of the bell ; and at 
 the top is an orifice, which can be opened or shut at 
 pleasure. Suppose, now, this orifice being open, the 
 bell is required to be lowered ; as it descends, the wa- 
 ter enters at the slits, and the air escapes by the ori- 
 fice. When the apparatus is entirely under water, and 
 the cavity consequently completely filled, let the ori- 
 fice be shut. The bell will now continue to descend ; 
 but if the stop-cock communicating with the upper com- 
 partment be opened, the air will rush from the under 
 to the upper, and displace a quantity of the water, and 
 the apparatus will be lightened by the whole of the 
 water so displaced. The divers have it thus in their 
 power to regulate the descent or rise as they please. 
 By admitting a certain quantity of air into the upper 
 cavity, the descent of the bell is arrested ; by admitting 
 a greater quantitj', it becomes buoyant, and rises to 
 the top. This method of constructing the diving-bell 
 has not, however, been adopted. 
 
 The greatest improvement on the diving-bell, since 
 that of Halley, was made by the celebrated Mr. Smea- 
 ton, and consists in forcing down a continued stream of 
 air, by means of an air-pump, through a flexible tube ; 
 and this plan is now always adopted. In the year 
 1788, Smeaton constructed a diving-bell, to be used in 
 the operations then contemplated at Bamsgate harbor, 
 on a new and improved plan. Instead of a bell-shaped 
 vessel sunk by weights, his apparatus consisted of a 
 square chest of cast-iron, ij feet long, 4J feet high, and 
 3 feet wide, aflfbrding sufficient room for 2 men under 
 it. It was cast of such a thickness that its own weight 
 was sufficient to sink it ; and its thickness was greater 
 near the mouth or lower part, to prevent it from being 
 easily overset. This construction of the diving-bell 
 gave the men within it no power of raising or sinldng 
 it ; but as the apparatus was made to be used at a place 
 where the nature of the bottom was known, this disad- 
 vantage was not considered of great consequence ; and, 
 in fact, it is found by experience that it is better to leavo 
 the bell to be entirely guided from above. On account 
 of the facility with which water conve3'S sound, the 
 strokes of a hammer on the inside of the bell can be 
 heard at a great distance ; and the sound coming 
 through the water has a peculiar character, which can 
 not be mistaken. By previous arrangement, any direc- 
 tions can be given in this manner. For instance, 1 
 blow may denote more air ; 2, stand fast ; 3, heave up ; 
 4, lower down, and so on. With these successive im- 
 provements, the diving-bell is found to be a. mott 
 Important machine in all the great operations to lo"" 
 performed under water. It was used with great ad- 
 vantage by Mr. Rennie in the construction of the va- 
 rious harbors he projected ; and it has recently been 
 successfully employed in deepening the Clyde between 
 Glasgow and Greenock, and improving the navigation 
 of the river. See the article Diving-bell, in the new 
 edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica. See Am. Jour. 
 Science^ xxii., p. 325 ; Slackwood, xvii,, 336 ; Lir- 
 tbll's Miiseum, vi., p. 515. 
 
 Djidda, a town of Arabia, on the Bed Sea, about 
 21 miles from Mecca, of which it is the seaport, in lat. 
 21° 29' N., long. 39° W E. It is well built. The 
 streets are unpaved, but spacious and airj' ; the houses 
 high, and constructed, for the most part, of madrepores 
 and other marine fossils. The supply of water is scanty, 
 and its quality indifferent. Small vessels approach 
 close to the quays ; but large vessels are obliged to 
 anchor in the roads, about 2 miles off, loading and un- 
 loading by means of lighters. The entrance to tho 
 roads is difficult, and should not be attempted without 
 a pilot. Djidda is a place of considerable commercial 
 importance. It is the entrepot in which is centered the 
 greater part of the commerce between India, Egypt, 
 
DOC 
 
 £48 
 
 Doa 
 
 and Arabia. Many of its merchants possess large cap- 
 itals : some of tliem as much as from £150,000 to 
 £200,000. The trade in coffee brought from Mocha 
 and other ports in Yemen, is the most considerable, but 
 it is said also to be the most hazardous. The returns 
 are principally made in cash. The trade with India 
 and the Gulf of Persia is safer than the coffee trade, 
 and is very considerable. Djidda has also a good deal 
 of intercourse with the ports of CosSeir, Souakin, and 
 Massouah, on the opposite coast of the Eed Sea. The 
 imports from the last two principally consist of slaves, 
 gold, tobacco, dhourra or barley, hides, butter (of 
 which immense quantities are made use of in Arabia), 
 mats, etc. ; in return for which the Africans receive 
 Indian goods suitable for their markets, dresses and 
 ornaments for their women, dates (which are not pro- 
 duced in any part of Nubia), iron, etc. The principal 
 article of import from Cosseir is wheat ; and not only 
 Djidda, but the whole Hedjaz, or Holy Land of Arabia, 
 is almost entirely dependent upon Egypt for com. 
 Coffee is the principal article sent in return. Business 
 is transacted at Djidda with ease and expedition. The 
 number of ships belonging to the port is estimated at 
 260. Owing to the scarcity of timber, none of them 
 are built at Djidda — those belonging to it being either 
 purchased at Bombay or Muscat, or at Mocha, Ho- 
 deida, or Suez. For a considerable period each year, 
 before and after the feast of Eamadhan, when pilgrims 
 come from all quarters to visit Mecca, the town is 
 thronged with strangers, and a great deal of mercantile 
 business is transacted. Djidda is at present, and has 
 been for a number of years, under the government of 
 the Pacha of Egypt. The moneys, weights, and meas- 
 ures of the latter country (for which see Alexandkia) 
 are now generally used in Djidda, the commerce of 
 which has been much improved and extended in con- 
 sequence of the comparative security and good order 
 enforced by the pacha. — Bdkckhakdt, Travels in 
 Arabia, vol. i., pp. I-IOO. 
 
 Dock, an inclosed place for the reception of ships, 
 either for their security or for the convenience of build- 
 ing or giving them repairs. This word has been de- 
 rived by some, absurdly enough, from the Greek 
 Sexo/iai, to receive. That we had it, along with al- 
 most the whole of our sea terms, from the northern 
 continental nations, is sufficiently obvious. Thus, in 
 Flemish, it is dole ; Teutonic, dock ; Swedish, docka ; 
 Suio-Gothic, docka ; perhaps originally from dekken, to 
 cover, protect, secure, inclose. The dock for inclosing 
 the prisoner in a court of justice is evidently from the 
 same origin. 
 
 Docks for the reception of ships are of two kinds, 
 wet and dry. A wet-dock may either have gates to re- 
 tain the water in it, so that ships shall constantly 
 remain afloat, or be left open for the tide to flow into 
 and ebb out of it at pleasure, either leaving it dry at 
 low water, or with a certain depth of water remaining 
 iri it, according to its construction and situation with 
 regard to the low- water mark, and to the ebbing of the 
 sea at spring or neap tides. A wet-dock without gates 
 is generally distinguished by the name of a iasin, which, 
 however, is sometimes indiscriminately applied to a 
 wet-dock, whether with or without gates. A dry-dock 
 either becomes dry by the ebbing of the tide when the 
 gates are left open, or by shutting the gates at low 
 water, and pumping out whatever water may remain 
 in it at that time, by the power of men, horses, wind, 
 or by the steam-engine. 
 
 Wet-doclcs. — A wet-dock may be defined to be *'a 
 basin of water, in which ships may be kept afloat at 
 all times of the tide;" a dry-dock, a "receptacle in 
 which every part of a ship can be examined, and its 
 defects repaired." Ships may also be conveniently 
 built in drj'-docks, and floated out by opening the 
 gates ; though in all dockyards there are places set 
 apart for this purpose, under the name of slips. A 
 wet-dock is called by the French vm iasin ; a dry-dock, 
 
 une forme; and a slip, une. calle. The digging out the. 
 earth, and building the surrounding walls of masonry 
 to prevent the sides falling in, and the preparation of 
 the mortar and puzzolana, in the construction of a 
 wet-dock, are attended with great labor and expense. 
 The two wet-docks or basins of Cherbourg (see Break- 
 water), which are among the finest specimens tliat 
 exist in the world, are estimated to have cost £3,000,.. 
 000 sterling. The labor of excavation ma3- sometimes 
 be spared, and a series of wet-docks or basins conve- 
 niently made, by turning the course of a tide-river 
 through an isthmus, and placing a pair of gates at each 
 end of the old channel. In this way, were the new 
 docks of Bristol constructed out of , the bed of the 
 Avon. Wet-docks are an improvement in pavigation 
 and commerce of the utmost importance, but of very 
 modern date in this country ; indeed, they owe their 
 introduction entirely to a spirit of individual enterprise 
 in commercial speculation. Liverpool might still have 
 remained a poor fishing-village but for its convenient 
 docks, which not only produce to the town and corpo- 
 ration a large revenue, but insure to the merchant 
 every possible facility in refitting, loading, and dis- 
 charging his ships, whatever their burden or their 
 cargo may be, without being exposed , to, tlie risk of 
 losing both ship and cargo in a rapid, tide-river ; and 
 at all events, to an unavoidable delay, occasioned by 
 distance, the weather, or the state of the tides, 
 
 London, though- unquestionably the first city in the 
 world for its opulence, its commerce, and public spirit, 
 and possessing within itself the powerful internal 
 means of supporting docks, and all other conveniences 
 that trade and shipping may require on the most ex- 
 tensive plans ; London was the last to try the experi- 
 ment of docks, except in the case of two spirited 
 individuals, Mr. Perrj', at Blackwall, and Mr. Wells, 
 at Greenland Dock, both private ship-builders. Not- 
 withstanding the total inadequacy of legal quays, 
 which subjected the merchants to incalculable losses 
 and delaj's, and in many cases proved absolutely ruin- 
 ous ; notwithstanding the effect of the heavy, expens- 
 ive, and fatal embarrassments experienced regularly 
 on the arrival of the West India fleets, and the annual 
 losses, b}- plunder in the river, on West India produce, 
 which alone were calculated to amount to £150,000 to 
 the proprietor, and £60,000 to tha- revenue, and more 
 than the double of those sums, including other branches 
 of commerce ; it was not till the year 1799 that preju- 
 dices and private interests were so far removed as to 
 enable the merchants concerned in the West India 
 trade to obtain an act of Parliament to carry into ex- 
 ecution a plan of docks, quays, and warehouses, for 
 the convenience of that trade on the Isle of Dogs. 
 Since that time the London Docks, St. Katharine 
 Docks, and various others, have been completed, to 
 the incalculable benefit of the shipping interest and 
 the commerce of the metropolis. 
 
 The docks of Liverpool were the first of the kind 
 that were constructed in this kingdom, by virtue of 
 an act of Parliament, passed in 1708 ; and from that 
 period the town of Liverpool has rapidly raised itself 
 from a poor fishing-village, and a port for coasting- 
 vessels, to be the second commercial town and port in 
 the empire ; and the improvements carried out for the 
 enlargement and better arrangement of the docks, 
 rendered it, for convenience and appearance, in this 
 respect the very first, not even London excepted. 
 
 It appears from a statement, apparently authentic, 
 that in the ten years ending with 1808 the number of 
 ships which entered these docks was 48,497, tonnage 
 4,954,204 ; and the dock duties received, £329,566 ; 
 and that in the following ten years, ending in 1818, the 
 number of ships was 60,200, the tonnage 6,875,560, 
 and the amount of duties, £666,438 ; while for a sin- 
 gle year, ending June, 1863, no less than 20,490 ves- 
 sels entered the docks, the tonnage of which was 
 3,889,981, and the amount of duties, £256,702— the 
 
DOC 
 
 549 
 
 DOC 
 
 largest amount yet received — the following being the 
 retnm for the last ten years : 
 
 Year. 
 
 Number of 
 ve»ee1s, 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Amount of 
 datioB received. 
 
 1848 . . 
 
 16,606 
 18,411 
 20,621 
 19,951 
 20,889 
 20,811 
 20,788 
 20,457 
 21,071 
 21,478 
 20,4^0 
 
 2,44fi,278 
 2,682,712 
 8,016,681 
 8,096,444 
 8,861,539 
 8,284,563 
 8,689,146 
 8,536,887 
 8,787,666 
 8,912,506 
 8,889,981 
 
 £188,286 
 185,164 
 228,247 
 213,428 
 244,435 
 197,617 
 224,224 
 211,743 
 285,527 
 246,686 
 256,702 
 
 1844 
 
 1845 
 
 1846 
 
 1847 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 
 
 1850 
 
 1851 
 
 1852 
 
 1853 ,.... 
 
 It may also be observed, that this extraordinary in- 
 crease has taken place since the abolition of the slave- 
 trade, •which, it was formerly asserted, would be the 
 ruin of Liverpool. 
 
 The Westlndia Docks, on the River Thames, were 
 commencfed'in February, 1800, and opened in August, 
 1802. They consist of an outward and a homeward- 
 bound dock, and communicate by means of locks with 
 a basin of five or six acres on the end next to Black- 
 wall, and with another of more than two acres at the 
 end next to Limehouse, both of which basins commu- 
 nicate with the Thames. The outward-bound dock is 
 about .870 yards in length, by 135 in width, containing 
 consequently an area of more than 24 acres ; the home- 
 ward-bound dock is of the same length, and 166 j'ards 
 in width, its area being little short of 30 acres ; and 
 the two together will contain with ease at least 500 
 vessels of from 250 tb 500 tons. The whole are sur- 
 rounded with a high wall, and, as a security against 
 fire, the moment that a ship enters the dock the crews 
 are discharged, and no person whatever is allowed to 
 remain on board, or within the premises, the gates of 
 which are closed at a certain hour. They are sur- 
 rounded by immense warehouses, which are estimated 
 to contain nearly 10,000 hogsheads of sugar, and an 
 immense quantity of rum. The sum authorized by 
 Parliament to be raised for completing these docks 
 and warehouses was .£1,200,000, and the total expense 
 was probably not far short of £1,500,000 ; yet on this 
 captital the subscribers have been receiving from a 
 very short period after their opening, 10 per cent., 
 which, by the terms of the act, is not to be exceeded, 
 and the term granted is limited to 21 years ; but, like 
 most other property, these docks have been greatly de- 
 preciated in value, and at present barely pay 8 per cent. 
 
 fbi next set of docks that were undertalteH for the 
 advantage of the trade of the capital were the London 
 Docks. These docks are situated in "Wapping, and 
 are appropriated for the reception of all ships arriving 
 in the port of London with wine, spirits, tobacco, and 
 rice on board, but not exclusivelj-, ships having on 
 board other cargoes being admitted on the payment of 
 certain fees. The act of Parliament for incorporating 
 the Dock Company was passed in 1800, authorizing 
 them to raise a capital of £1,200,000 ; but such was 
 the number of houses to be purchased (we believe not 
 less than 1200) occupying the site of the dock, that 
 this capital, by subsequent acts, was extended to £2,- 
 200,000, the dividends on which are limited, as in the 
 West India Docks, to 10 per cent. The great dock is 
 420 yards in length, and_ 230 yards in width, covering 
 an area of 20 acres. A basin of 3 acres nearly, con- 
 nects it with the river. The warehouses are very mag- 
 nificent ; and the tobacco warehouse is the grandest 
 and most spacious building of its kind in the world, 
 being capable of containing 25,000 hogsheads of to- 
 bacco, and the vaults underneath as many pipes of 
 wine. This single building, under one roof, is said to 
 occupy upward of 4 acres of ground. These docks 
 were opened in February, 1805. 
 
 The East India Docks, for the exclusive reception 
 and accommodation of the East India ships, were the 
 last in succession. The act for the incorporation of 
 the company was passed in July, 1803, authorizing 
 
 them to raise a capital of £200,000, which was after- 
 ward increased to £600,000, the dividend, as in the 
 case of the two others, to be limited to 10 per cent. 
 These docks are Situated at Blackwall. That for the 
 reception of homeward-bound ships is 470 yards in 
 length by 187 in width, containing a surface of rather 
 more than 18 acres ; the outward-bound dock is 260 by 
 173 yards, and is consequently something more than 9 
 acres. An entrance-basin of 3 acres nearly, and a 
 spacious lock, connect them with the Thames. 
 
 Besides these there are the London Docks, the St, 
 Katharine's Docks, and the Victoria Docks, in course 
 of construction ; of these, detailed accounts will be 
 foimd under the article; London. 
 
 In other portions of England and Scotland, there 
 have been costly docks constructed of late years, viz. : 
 Hull has 5 docks, occupying, with their basins, a wa- 
 ter area of 49 J acres. A timber-pond of 9 acres was 
 constructed in 1853. The tonnage of shipping in 1852 
 was 799,866 sailing-vessels, and 305,021 steam-vessels ; 
 the amount of dock dues, £433,755. Southampton, 
 the station for the West India mail and Lisbon and 
 Alexandria steamers, is now constructing extensive 
 docks and quays to accommodate their great and in- 
 creasing traffic: Grinshy Ha/rhor has lately been 
 greatly improved. Wet and drj' docks have been con- 
 structed, on the most approved principles, at the ex- 
 pense of £250,000, and a canal cut into the Humber 
 calculated to admit vessels of 1,000 tons' burden. 
 Hartlepool has also been of late years greatly enlarg- 
 ing its harbor 'and dock accommodation. Sunderland 
 has new doclcs of 18 acres' extent, which were opened 
 in 1850, and which can accommodate 300 sail. Dun- 
 dee has lately immensely improved her harbor and 
 docks i besides two smaller docks, the wet-dock now 
 constructing will occupy 14J acres, the lock of which 
 will be 60 feet broad. Aberdeen has a wet-dock, where 
 the largest vessels may float in safety ; it covers nearly 
 40 acres, with quay room of about 9,000 feet. Ldth, 
 the port of Edinburg, has 3 wet-docks, containing 
 about 15 acres of water room. Detailed accounts of 
 these docks will be given under the names of the respective 
 ports. 
 
 The naval dry-docks of the United States are among 
 the most stupendous mechanical enterprises of the 
 oountr3« ; they are constructed at the navy-yards of 
 New York, Charlestown, Norfolk, etc. By far the 
 most extensive and magnificent of these structures is 
 the granite dry-dock at Brooklyn ; 80,000 tons of 
 stone have been used in its construction ; the masonr}^ 
 foundations are 400 feet in length, and 120 in breadth. 
 The main chamber is 286 feet long, and 30 feet broad 
 on the bottom ; 307 feet long, and 98 feet broad at the 
 top within the folding-gates ; the height of the wall is 
 86 feet. The work was commenced in 1841, and took 
 10 years to complete it ; the aggregate expenditure 
 was above $2,100,000. 
 
 Dry-docks. — A dry-dock, requiring to be perfectly 
 water-tight, demands the greatest care in its construc- 
 tion. It is sometimes lined all around with wood, but 
 more generally with masonry, mostly of hewn granite. 
 The expense is very considerable, as the foundation, 
 by means of piles or otherwise, must be well secured, 
 all leakage prevented, and the culvers or drains prop- 
 erly constructed, to let in and carry off the water with- 
 out its undermining the quays or piers. The cost of a 
 complete dry-dock will vary probably from £20,000 to 
 £100,000, according to the size of the ships it is in- 
 tended to admit, and the nature of the ground on 
 which it is to be constructed. A dry-dock may be 
 single, or made to contain only one ship ; or double, to 
 contain two ships ; but the former is the most common, 
 because most convenient. As it is of the utmost im- 
 portance to preserve the water in a wet-dock, audi to 
 keep it out of a dry-dock, it may be proper to describe 
 the different kinds of gates which are in use for this 
 purpose. 
 
DOC 
 
 550 
 
 DOC 
 
 Dock Gates. — The most common, aud on the whole 
 perhaps the best and most convenient, are swinging- 
 gates, which open in the middle, and lie flat, one part 
 against each wharf or side-wall of the passage leading 
 into the dock or basin. This Itind of dock-gate re- 
 quires to be made of great strength, with sound timber 
 and good iron, and the gudgeons on which the hinges 
 turn to be well secured into the stone abutments. 
 Care also must be taken to make the bottom of the 
 passage and the bottom of the gates perfectly plane 
 and parallel, to prevent leakage, and give facility to 
 their opening and shutting, which is usually assisted 
 by rollers fixed in a groove, and performed by means 
 of a small capstan on each pier. Attached to tlie top 
 of the gates is usually a foot-bridge with railing, which, 
 separating in the middle, opens and shuts with the 
 gates. 
 
 The most simple but by no means the most effective 
 contrivance for keeping out the water, is the wicket- 
 gate. It consists of three parts, which when opened 
 are removed separately. This gate is rarely made use 
 of unless where the abutments are not sufficiently 
 strong, or their foundation sufficiently secure, to bear 
 the weight of a pair of swinging-gates. 
 
 A third kind of gate consists of a fioating-dam or 
 caissoon, first introduced into this country by General 
 Bentham, and first applied to the great new basin in 
 Portsmouth dockyard. They are built somewhat in 
 the shape of a Greenland fishing-boat, sharp at the two 
 ends, narrow, and deep in proportion to the depth of 
 w'&iQY at the entrance of the dock. The keel fits into 
 d groove at the bottom of the passage, and the two 
 slanting ends rise and fall in corresponding grooves 
 cut into the two abutments. By letting in the water, 
 the caissoon sinks in the grooves, and acts as a closed 
 gate ; and by pumping out the water, or letting it out 
 to a certain depth, the dam floats as the tide rises, and 
 the narrow part, rising to the top, is readily disengaged 
 from the grooves, and easily floated away as a boat. 
 The advantages of these floating-dams, as stated by 
 General Bentham, are, that they are cheaper of con- 
 struction than the gates heretofore in use for closing 
 docks or basins ; that they occupy less space, are more 
 easily repaired, and one and the same dam is capable 
 of being used, as need may require, in different places 
 at different times. These caissoons have also the ad- 
 vantage of serving as bridges of communication for 
 loaded carriages across the entrances they close, and 
 they require much less labor than gates in opening or 
 shutting up passages into docks or basins, since their 
 occasional buoyancy may be obtained without pump- 
 ing water or unloading ballast. 
 
 Docking a Ship. — When a ship is brought into a dry 
 or graving dock, she gradually subsides as the water 
 flows out, till her keel rests upon the line of square 
 blocks which are placed to receive it along the middle 
 for the whole length ; and on these blocks she is kept 
 steady and upright by a number of shores or poles on 
 each side, one of their ends being placed on the altars 
 or steps of the dock, the other under the ship's bends 
 and bottom. As a ship under repair generally requires 
 something to be done to the main or false keel, or at 
 any rate these parts require to be inspected, sometimes 
 to shift the main keel, or to add to the whole length of 
 the false keel, it was always found necessary in such 
 cases to remove the blocks, in order to get at the bot- 
 tom of the ship \ but this operation could not be per- 
 formed without the more serious one of first lifting 
 bodily the ship clear of all the blocks, and suspending 
 her as it were in the air. This process was performed 
 b}- driving wedges simultaneously under the ends of 
 ail the shores that supported the ship ; an operation 
 that required from four to five hundred men to enable 
 them to suspend a ship of the first rate. When the 
 San Josef, a large three-decker, required her bottom to 
 be examined in 1800, the assistance of almost every 
 artificer in the dockyard was found necessary to per- 
 
 form this process of lifting her ; nor was this the only 
 inconvenience ; the ship, thus suspended, suffered very 
 material injury by the pressure of her own enormous 
 weight against the ends of the shores that supported 
 her, such as forcing in her sides, straining the knees 
 and all her fastening, breaking the treenails, etc. 
 
 To remedy these glaring inconveniences and very 
 serious injuries Uiat ships thus placed were apt to sus- 
 tain, and to effect a saving of time and expense in the 
 operation, Mr. (afterward Sir Robert) Seppings, then 
 master shipwright, and afterward survej-or of the 
 navy, contrived, several years ago, an improvement, 
 as ingenious as it simple, \>j which twenty men will 
 suspend the largest ship in the navy, or rather, which 
 amounts to the same thing, will disengage any one 
 block that may be required, in the space of two or three 
 minutes, without the necessity of suspending her at all ; 
 and, as a first rate in dock sits upon about fifty blocks, 
 these twent}'^ men will clear her of the whole of these 
 blocks in about two hours ; and as the saving of a day 
 in completing the repairs of a ship is frequently the 
 saving of a whole spring-tide, the docking and undock- 
 ing of a ship may make, and frequently has made, by 
 this new method the difference of a fortnight in the 
 time of equipping her for sea. 
 
 The block of Mr. Seppings, instead of being one 
 solid piece, consisted of three wedges, or, more prop- 
 erly speaking, of one obtuse wedge and two inclined 
 planes, which, when put together and placed under the 
 ship's keel, appear as under, when viewed in the direc- 
 
 y^ 
 
 tion or line of the keel, where G is the wedge on which 
 the keel rests, having its obtuse angle equal to 170°, 
 and HH are the two inclined planes, each having an 
 acute angle of 5°. The wedge is of hard wood, having 
 its two sides lined with iron ; the two inclined planes 
 are of cast iron. When one of these blocks is to be 
 disengaged from under a ship's bottom, nothing more 
 is required than a few smart blows alternately on the 
 two sides of the two inclined planes, when they fly out, 
 and the middle part or wedge drops ; and the facility 
 of thus disengaging any of the blocks is in proportion 
 to the quantity of pressure upon that block. The 
 strokes are usuallj' given by a kind of catapulta or 
 battering-ram, being a thick spar or pole moving on a 
 pair of wheels, as KK. This simple contrivance to get 
 
 r 
 
 at any part of a ship's bottom by removing in succes- 
 sion all the blocks, Tvithout the necessity of lifting the 
 ship, -which the removal of any one block required to 
 be done by the old method, is now universally adopted 
 in all the dockyards ; and the lords of the admiralty 
 marked their sense of the great utility of the improve- 
 ment, by bestowing on Mr. Seppings a reward of 
 £1000 for the invention. 
 
 Roofing the Decks. — ^Another verj' material improve- 
 
DOC 
 
 551 
 
 DOC 
 
 ment introduced is that of covering the dry-docks and 
 building slips with roofs. The rapid decay of ships 
 of war by that species of disease known by the name 
 of the dry rot, attracted very general attention ; its 
 effects were well known, but a variety of opinions 
 were entertained as to its causes and its cure. It was 
 quite obvious, however, that exclusion of air and 
 moisture were the two great operating causes in giving 
 activity to the progress of the disease (see Dry Rot) ; 
 and that a ship in dock, stripped of her planking, and 
 open to the weather in everj- part, alternately exposed 
 to frost, rain, wind, and sunshine, must at least have 
 her timbers differently affected, some swelled and 
 water-soaked, others shrunk with heat, and others 
 rifted with the wind and frost ; and, if closed up with 
 planking in this state, might be expected, at no great 
 distance of time, t6 exhibit sjTnptoms of decay. The 
 workmen, too, in the open docks or slips, suffered from 
 the vicissitudes of the weather no less than the ships, 
 and their labor was frequently suspended, to the great 
 detriment of the naval service. The measure of 
 roofing over the docks and slips had long and repeat- 
 edly been suggested, but, either from prejudice or a 
 false economj', it was only of late years carried into 
 practice, but is now universal in all the yards. These 
 roofs are generally constructed so as to be capable of 
 having the sides and ends occasionally closed, according 
 to the quarter from which the wind may blow ; and 
 by this contrivance the timber is prevented from rift- 
 ing, as it is' liable to do, by the action of a thorough 
 draught of wind, and the health of the artificer is pre- 
 vented from injury. The light is admitted through 
 numerous windows placed in the roof. These roofs 
 are in general supported on a row of pillars, and cov- 
 ered with plates of Iron. The same roof, with little or 
 no repair, serves as a covering for eight or ten different 
 ships in succession. General Bentham, who, in his 
 statement of Services rendered in the Civil DepariTnent 
 of the Navy, seems to claim to himself all the inven- 
 tions and improvements which have been introduced 
 into the dockyards for the last forty years, carries his 
 invention beyond a mere covering, and proposes to 
 house over the docks and ships so completely as to 
 afford " means of heating, warming, ventilating, and 
 artificially lighting the interior at pleasure ; the intro- 
 duction of boilers or steam-kilns for bending the planks 
 within the inclosure ; the introduction of machinery 
 for assisting in various operations, particularly the 
 more laborious ones ; the providing room for carrying 
 on all the shipivright's work within the building ; be- 
 sides a variety of lesser works, such as it is found very 
 inconvenient during the building or repairing of a ship 
 to have executed, for example, in a smith's or carpen- 
 ter's shop at a distance." Such buildings would not 
 only be enormously expensive, but, in the present 
 crowded state of the dockyards, utterly impracticable. 
 With regard to the invention of covered docks and 
 slips, they have been used in Venice from time imme- 
 morial ; and it appeared from the evidence given by 
 Mr. Strange, the British consul at that port in the 
 year 1792, before the commissioners of land revenue, 
 that two-and-twenty large ships had been under cov- 
 ered slips, some of them for sixty years nearly. At 
 Carlscrona, also, there are several covered docks, and 
 both are strongly recommended for the building of 
 .ships under cover. 
 
 HavXing up Ships. — Among other experiments which 
 were made in the dockyards for facilitating and ex- 
 pediting the repairs of ships, one may be mentioned, 
 of which many persons were sanguine enough to think 
 that the successful result was likely to be attended 
 with most important benefits to the naval service. It 
 was that of hauling up ships of war, of any dimen- 
 sions, on building slips, instead of taking them into 
 docks. It is no uncommon practice, at various ports 
 of this kingdom, where there are neither artificial 
 basins, nor natural harbors, to haul vessels of the bur- 
 
 den of fifty to two hundred tons, or probably larger, 
 upon the beach, by means of capstans, to give them 
 repairs ; in like manner, most of the large fishing 
 smacks are hauled up for security in tempestuous 
 weather ; but the practicability of hauling up ships of 
 war, especially of the larger classes, was a matter of 
 some doubt. Several frigates had, at various times, 
 been hauled upon slips, when the docks were all occu- 
 pied ; and the ease with which the operation was per- 
 formed induced the officers of the dockyard to propose 
 the hauling up of a line-of-battle ship. The Kent of 
 74 guns was selected for this purpose. It was neces- 
 sary, in the first place, to take her into a dock, to have 
 proper bilgeways prepared, and to be stripped, so as to 
 be made as light as possible ; her weight being, accord- 
 ing to a calculation made from the water she displaced 
 when afloat, about fourteen hundred tons. To heave 
 up this weight fourteen capstans were employed, and 
 the number of men to work these were as under : 
 
 Nine men to each bar and swifter I,5f2 
 
 Eight men to liold on at each 112 
 
 Three men to each capstan, to attend tlie fall 42 
 
 Men on board the ship, and employed in other opera- 
 tions 450 
 
 Total of men employed 2,116 
 
 The time occupied in hauling her up, after all the pur- 
 chases were brought to bear, was forty minutes. : The 
 expense of preparing her, and the loss and wear and 
 tear of the materials, was estimated at somewhere 
 about £2,000. 
 
 The advantages which slips are supposed to possess 
 over drj'-docks are many and important. They can be 
 constructed at one twentieth part of the expense ; they 
 occupy less space ; they can be constructed on a steep 
 or a shelving shore ; and ships can be hauled upon 
 them either in spring or neap tides ; whereas a dry- 
 dock can only be made in particular situations, and, 
 when made, ships can only be docked and undocked 
 in certain states of the tides ; from which circumstance 
 a considerable delay and inconvenience are frequently 
 experienced. It should be recollected, however, that 
 a large ship must necessarily go into a dock prepara^ 
 tory to her being hauled up on a slip. 
 
 It has been considered as not at all impossible, as 
 was suggested some time ago by Mr. Perring, then the 
 ingenious clerk of the check in Plymouth dockyard, 
 that the whole ordinary might hereafter be laid up on 
 slips, which, if housed over, would unquestionably be 
 the ijest means of increasing their durability, and pre- 
 serving them from partial decay. Nor is it certain 
 that in the end it would not be the most economical 
 mode of preserving them. The expense, as appears 
 from the Estimates of the Ordinary of the Navy for the 
 year 1817, is £187,000 for harbor victuals, harbor 
 moorings and riggings, etc., besides £135,000~ for 
 wages ; the chief part of both which sums is on ac- 
 count of ships of war laid up in ordinary, none of 
 which would be required by placing them on slips. It 
 would indeed form a singular revolution in naval man- 
 agement, if ships hereafter should be laid up in ordi- 
 nary on dry land, while the timber of which they are 
 built was considered to be the best preserved under 
 salt water ; a process which, from some experiments 
 recently made, promises fair to be the most effectual 
 prevention of, and a probable cure for, the dry rot. 
 (See Dkv Rot.) This method of preserving timber 
 has long been practiced at Brest, Carthagena, and sev- 
 eral other places on the continent ; and the only ob- 
 jection to it in some of our ports appears to be the 
 attack of the worm known to naturalists by the name 
 of Teredo nuvalis, whose bite is almost as destructive 
 as the dry rot. 
 
 On the other hand, there are very many and serious 
 objections, even were the measure practicable, of haul- 
 ing up ships of the line in particular, to be laid in ordi- 
 nary on slips. In the first place, the length of sea- 
 beach which would be required is greater than probably 
 all the dockyards in the kingdom could furnish. Sec- 
 
DOC 
 
 552 
 
 DOC 
 
 ondly, the three warrant officers who are now employed 
 in each ship, and who are the best men in the service, 
 being no longer necessary, would be turned adrift, and, 
 in all probability, utterly lost to the navj'. Thirdly, 
 no large ship could be hauled on the slips without being 
 previously taken into a dock to have her bilgeways 
 fitted, and her bottom prepared for placing her on the 
 slip. The time taken for this purpose must necessa- 
 rily interfere with the other works of the yard ; and 
 after taking her out, the preparations for heaving her 
 up, the capstans, blocks, purchase-falls, chains, and a 
 variety of other articles, amount to a very large ex- 
 pense, not less, with the expense of the roof to cover 
 the ship, than £10,000 for each ship so hauled up. 
 
 Doclcyards. — Previously to the reign of Henry VIII. 
 the kings of England had neither navy arsenals ncr 
 dockyards, nor any regular establishment of civil or 
 naval officers to provide ships of war, or to fight them. 
 They had admirals, however, possessing a high juris- 
 diction and very great powerr And it would appear, 
 from a ver>' curious poem in HachluiVs Collection^ called 
 The Policie of Keeping the Sea, that Henry V. had both 
 ships, officers, and men exclusively appropriated to his 
 service, and independently of those which the Cinque 
 Ports were bound, and the other ports were occasion- 
 all}' called upon to furnish, on any emergenc}''. By 
 this poem it also appears that Little Hampton,^ unfit 
 as it now is, was the port at which Henry built 
 
 ^his great Dromions 
 
 Which passed other great shippes of the commons. 
 
 But what these dromions were no one can now tell ; 
 nor is it easy to conceive how the building and repair- 
 ing of the Great Harry, which in the reign of Henry 
 yil. was launched at Portsmouth, and, cost £15,000, 
 was managed, considering the very rapid strides made 
 at once from the small Cinique Port vessels, manned 
 with 21 men and a boy, to this enormous floating cas- 
 tle. At that time it is well known that they had no 
 docks, nor even substitutes for them. 
 
 The foundation of a regular navy, by the establish- 
 ment of dockyards, and the formation of a board, con- 
 sisting of certain commissioners for the management 
 of its affairs, was first laid by Henry VIII,, and the 
 first dockyard erected under his reign was that of 
 Woolwich. Those of Portsmouth, Deptford, Chatham, 
 and Sheerness, followed in succession ; and the last, 
 excepting the new and unfinished yard of Pembroke, 
 was Plymouth, which was founded by William III. 
 
 From the first establishment of the dockyards to the 
 present time, most of them have gradually been en- 
 larged and improved by a succession of expedients and 
 make-shifts, which answered the purposes of the mo- 
 ment ; but the best of them possess not those con- 
 veniences and advantages which might be obtained 
 from a dockyard systematically laid out on a uniform 
 and consistent plan, with its wharfs, basins, docks, 
 slips, magazines, and workshops, arranged according 
 to certain fixed principles, calculated to produce con- 
 venience, economy, and despatch. 
 
 Neither at the time when dockyards were first es- 
 tablished, nor any subsequent periods of their enlarge- 
 ment as the necessities of the service demanded, could 
 it have been foreseen what incalculable advantages 
 would one day be derived from the substitution of ma- 
 chinery for human labor ; and without a reference to 
 this vast improvement in all mechanical operations, it 
 could not be expected that any provision would be 
 made for its future introduction ; on the contrary, the 
 docks and slips, the workshops and storehouses, were 
 successively built at random, and placed wherever a 
 vacant space would most convenient!)'' admit them, 
 and in such manner as in most cases to render the sub- 
 sequent introduction of machinery and iron railways, 
 and those various contrivances found in the large man- 
 ufacturing establishments of private individuals, quite 
 impossible, even in the most commodious and roomy 
 dockyards. 
 
 The perfection of a dockyard, independently of the 
 advantages of machinery, T^hich are but contingent, 
 may be considered to depend upon one or more exten- 
 sive basins, surrounded by spacious wharfs or quays. 
 By means of these a prodigious saving of time, labor, 
 and expense may be saved, in every stage of the prog- 
 ress of fitting out a ship for sea, from the moment she 
 is launched from the slip, or taken out of a dock, as 
 well as in dismantling a ship on returning to port to be 
 paid off and repaired, or laid up in ordinary. For this 
 purpose the docks and slips should occupy one of the 
 sides of the , basin, with working-sheds for carpenters 
 and joiners, smiths' shops, saw-pits, and seasoning- 
 sheds between them. The ship, when completed on 
 the slip and launched into the basin, may then be 
 taken immediately into the adjoining dock to be cop- 
 pered. From this she proceeds to the second side of 
 the basin, in the corner of which is the ballast-wharf. 
 The remainder of the side will probably be occupied by 
 the victualing department, with appropriate stores in 
 the rear for various kinds of provisions, and behind 
 these the bakery, brewery, and slaughter-houses ; on 
 the wharf the iron t^nks for holding water, now uni- 
 versally used for the ground tier in lieu of wooden 
 casks. These are taken on board next after the bal- 
 last, and, together with the superincumbent casks, 
 would be filled in the ship's hold by means of flexible 
 pipes to convey the water into them. The provisions 
 would at the same time be taken on board at the same 
 wharf, in front of the victualing stores. The third 
 side might be appropriated to the ordnance department, 
 with the gun-wharf extending along the whole side, 
 and the gun-carriage storehouses, magazines, etc., in 
 the rear. The fourth side would be occupied as the 
 anchor wharf, with the cable storehouses, the sail-lofts 
 and stores, rigging-loft, and magazines for various 
 stores, in the rear. Behind these, again, on the first 
 side, containing, the drj'-docks, and building-slips, the 
 ground would be appropriated to the reception, berth- 
 ing and converting of timber, from whence iron rail- 
 wa3''s would lead to the saw-mills, saw-pits, and 
 workshops, all of wMch would be placed on that side. 
 On the second side a pond or basin for the victualing 
 lighters and craft, with wharfs communicating with 
 the manufactories and storehouses ; the same on the 
 ordnance or third side ; and on the fourth side might 
 be placed the roper}"-, hemp storehouses, tar-houses, 
 with a basin for hemp-vessels, lighters, and the like. 
 Communicating with the great basin on the , building 
 side, and also with the river or harbor on the shore of 
 which the dockyard is to be formed, should be a mast- 
 pond, with a lock for the storing of spars. In front 
 the mast-houses, top-houses, capstan-houses, and a slip 
 to launch the masts into the pond. Plere also might 
 be placed the boat-houses and boat-pond, 
 
 A Systematic JDochyard. — A peninsular situation, 
 having at least three fourths of its shore surrounded 
 with deep water, is peculiarly favorable for some such 
 aiTangement as is here mentioned, as any number of 
 locks and canals might be made to communicate with 
 the river, so that ships coming into the basin might hot 
 interfere with those going out, nor the lighters and 
 other craft bringing their several species of stores, with 
 either or with one another. By such an arrangement 
 a ship would be equipped for sea at half the present 
 expense, and within half the usual time. A ship fit- 
 ting out for an anchorage distant from the dockyard, 
 is liable to every inconvenience and delay, as all her 
 guns, stores, provisions, and water, must be carried to 
 her in dockyard lighters and other craft, into which 
 and out of which they must be hoisted and re-hoisted; 
 liable to delay from bad weather and contrary winds ; 
 to be stove alongside the ship, to the total loss or dam- 
 aging of their cargoes. Added to which is the loss of 
 time in going backward and forward, especially to the 
 artificers ; the desertion of the men ; the accidents from 
 the upsetting of boats; and many other evils, of a 
 
DOG 
 
 553 
 
 DOC 
 
 magnitude not easily to be calculated, and exceeded 
 only by the disappointment and vexation that unavoid- 
 ably occur when ships are preparing for some particu- 
 lar and pressing service ; all of which •when ships are 
 fitted out in a basin for sea, are avoided. Here ao 
 delay, no embezzlement, no desertion can. take place. 
 A ship in returning from sea may be docked and un- 
 decked into the basin with all her stores on board ; and 
 if to be paid off, instead of keeping the i crew on board 
 for weeks, till all the stores have been delivered into 
 the dockyard, the ship, by the proposed plan of basins, 
 would remain, securely in the basin, to be stripped at 
 Jcisure by the riggers and laborers of the yard, and the 
 crew become immediately available for other ships. 
 
 , Portsmouth Dockyard. — Portsmouth dockyard will 
 always be considered as the grand naval arsenal, of 
 K^gland^ and the headquarters or general rendezvous 
 of tj>e British fleet. Thp dockyard, accordingly, is by 
 far the imost capacious; and the safe ,and,, extensive 
 harbor, the noble anchorage at .Spithead, the central 
 situation with respect to the English Channel and the 
 opposite coast of .France, , and particularly with, regard 
 to the naval, arsenal. at Cherbourg, render Poj:tsmouth 
 of the very first importance as a naval station ; and in 
 this view of it, every passible attention appears to have 
 Ijeen paid to the extension and improvement of its dock- 
 yard. The noble steam-basin, whichwas opened by 
 the Queen, in May, 1848, with great ceremony, is one 
 of the most important of the recent improvements. The 
 £(ea wharf- wall pf this yard, extending in the direction 
 of north and south, along the western shore of the har- 
 bor, is about 3,900 feet in length, and the mean depth 
 may be 2,000 feet ; and it incloses an area of more than 
 100 acres. 
 
 . In the centre of the wharf-wall, facing the harbor, 
 is the entrance into, the great basin, whose dimensions 
 are 380 by 260 feet, and its area 2 j, acres. Into this 
 basin open 4 excellent dry-docks, and on each of its 
 sides is a drj'-dock opening i^to the harbor ; and all 
 of these 6 docks are capable of receiving, ships of the 
 largest class. Besides these, is a double dock for frig- 
 ates, the stern dock communicating, through a lock, 
 with the harbor, and the head dock .with another basin 
 about 250 feet , square. There is also' a chamber, ivith 
 a whaijf-wall on each side, 660 feet in length, and of 
 sufficient width to admit of transports and merchant- 
 Ships bringing stores to the dockj'ard. In the same 
 face of the yard are 3 buUding-slips, , capable of receiv- 
 ing the largest ships, and a small one for sloops, be- 
 sides 2 building-slips for frigates on the northern face 
 of the yard, and .a s^a|ler slip for sloops. The range 
 of storehouses on the north-east side, and the rigging- 
 house and sail-loft on the south-west side of the cham- 
 ber, are magnificent buildings, the former occupying 
 nearly 600 feet in length, exclusive of the two inter- 
 mediate spaces, and nearly 60 feet in width, and the 
 two latter 400 feet. The two hemp-houses and the two 
 sea-store houses occupy a line, of building wliich, with 
 the three narrow opejiings between them, pf 25 feet 
 each, extend 800 feet. . The rope-house, tarring-house, 
 and other appendages of the ropeiy, are on the same 
 scale, , The two sets .pf quadrangular storehouses, and 
 the two corresponding buildings, with the intervening 
 timber-berths and saw-pits, at the head ,of the iiy- 
 docks, issuing from the great basin, are all excellent, 
 and conveniently placed. The, smithery is on a large 
 scale, and contiguous to it is an iron-mill, a copper- 
 mill, and a copper-refinery, at which is re-melted and 
 rolled aU the old copper which is taken from sbips' 
 bottoms ; and here, also, are cast bolts, gudgeons, and 
 various articles of copper used in the navy. The; num- 
 ber of sheets manufactured in one year of the war, 
 amounted to about 300,000, weighing above 12,000 
 tons ; on which it has been calculated that a saving 
 of at least £20,000 was effected for the public,, besides 
 obtaining a good, pure article. Most of these were 
 constructed imder the direction of General Bentham. 
 
 (Bentham's Services.) At the head of the north dock 
 are the Tfpod-mills, at which everj'^ article of turnery, 
 rabetting, etc., is performed for the use of the navy, 
 from boring the chamber of a pump to the turning of a 
 button for a chest, of drawers. But the principal part 
 of these mills is the machinery for making blocks, con- 
 trived by that ingenious artist, Mr. Brunell (see 
 Tebdgold's C akpentyy), which can- not be regarded 
 without exciting the highest respect for the talents and 
 skill of the inventor. , 
 
 , The northern extfeniity of the dockyard is chiefly 
 occupied with seasoning-sheds, , saw-pits, and timber- 
 berths, the working boat-house, and boat storehouse. 
 On the eastern extremity are situated the houses and 
 ga,rdens of the superintendent and principal officers of 
 the yard, the chapel, and the royal naval college. ■ 
 
 Capacky of a Dockyard, — The capacity of a dock- 
 yard for building, repairing, and refitting ships of war, 
 depends upon so many circumstances that it scarcely 
 admits of calculation ; chiefly, however, on the facili- 
 ties afforded by a suitable arrangement of dry-docks, 
 ,building-spps, ,and basins, and on the number of ship- 
 wrights, i^ndoiiher. artificers borne. on the strength of 
 the yard.. In building new ships, where the materials 
 are at hand, and no interruptions occurj the capacity 
 may be ascertained to a tolerable degree of accuracy. 
 To complete the building of a 74-gun ship, it is calcu- 
 lated that the labor of one man would be required for 
 18,000 days, or of 18 men for 1,000 days, or about 54 
 men to finish her in. the space of one year. A dock- 
 yard, therefore, with 500 good shipwrights, might be 
 expected to .launch from 8 to, 10 74-gun ships every 
 year, if the conveniences of the yard admitted them all 
 to be employed on the building ; but this kind of ship 
 is now supplanted by ships of 120 and 130 guns, re- 
 quiring a relative increase of hands. With regard to 
 repairs, they are so various .and so uncertain, that it 
 would be next to impossible to form any calculation 
 that should at all approach to the truth. A writer 
 well versed in naval matters, in attempting to prove 
 the sufliciency of our dockyards, without having re- 
 course to private merchant-j'ards , during war, has 
 stated, that by a. uniform, system of management, 
 *'tfie annual regeneration of ships-of-the-line may be 
 safely reckoned at tuuelve, sail, and that of frigates, at 
 eiffht sail ; and that, besides, there might be docked 
 for casual repairs, in the course of one year, two kun' 
 dred and sixty-seven sail of ships and vessels of war." 
 — Letter to Lord Melville on the General State of the 
 British Navy. — K. B. 
 
 The Brooklj'n Navy Yard is the most extensive 
 naval d^pot in the United States, situated on the south 
 side of Wallabout Bay, at the north-eastern part of the 
 city, and contains 45 acres of land. It is inclosed by 
 a substantial brick wall on the land side, and on the 
 left hand, as you enter its gate, there is a flower-gar- 
 den most tastefluUy arranged. 
 
 This, spacious yard affords sufficient room for the 
 residence of the officers, machine-shops, storehouses, 
 etc. The most conspicuous buildings are two large 
 edifices, 250 feet long by 125 feet wide, and 120 feet 
 high, capable of containing the largest ships of war 
 while being built. In time of peace several national 
 vessels are usually to be seen here, either laid up or 
 undergoing. repairs. A vast amount of cannon, can- 
 non-balls, bombs, and all kinds of munitions of war, is 
 alwaj'S on hand at this d^pot. The Brooklyn dry- 
 dock is located at the Navy Yard, and is capable of 
 receiving the largest ships of war. This is a magnifi- 
 cent work, unequaled by any of the kind in America, 
 ajid scarcely surpassed by any in the world. The 
 fpundation is 406 feet long by 120 wide, and the main 
 chamber or basin is 286 feet long by 30 wide at the 
 bottom, and 307 feet long and 98 wide at the top. The 
 weight of the iron folding-gates is 150 tons j the pumps 
 4ischarge 40,000 gallons per minute. The-engine- 
 house is a fire-proof building, containing machinery of 
 
DOL 
 
 654 
 
 DOM 
 
 the most perfect kind. The whole occupied 16 years 
 in the course of construction. See Appleton's Dic- 
 tionary of Mechanics. 
 
 Dogwood (Comus Florida). The wood of this 
 tree is hard, compact, heavy, and fine-grained, and is 
 susceptible of a brilliant polish, from whicli circum- 
 stance it may be substituted for numerous purposes to 
 which boxwood is applied The sap-wood is perfectly 
 white, and the heart-wood is of the color of chocolate. 
 In the United States, it enters into the construction 
 of many articles, both for utility and ornament, such 
 as the handles of light tools, mallets, toys, etc. It is 
 sometimes used bj' farmers for harrow teeth, for the 
 hames of horse-collars, and also for shoeing the runners 
 of sleds j but to whatever purpose it is applied, being 
 liable to split, it should never be wrought till it is per- 
 fectly seasoned. The shoots, when three or four years 
 old, are found suitable for the light hoops of small 
 caslcs, and in the Middle States, the cogs of mill- 
 wheels are made of them, and the forked branches are 
 converted into the yokes which are put upon the necks 
 of swine, to prevent them from breaking into inclosed 
 fields. In the parts of the country where it abounds, 
 it serves for excellent fuel. The inner bark of this 
 tree is extremely bitter, and is used as a good substi- 
 tute for the Peruvian bark. The bark also may be sub- 
 stituted for galls in the manufacture of ink, and from 
 the barli of more fibrous roots, the American Indians 
 obtain » scarlet dye. An infusion of the flowers of 
 this tree is also used by them in the cure of intermit- 
 tents. The fruit is sometimes taken as a tonic, in the 
 form of a spirituous impregnation, and it likewise forms 
 a favorite repast for various species of birds. In En- 
 gland the sole use of this species is an ornamental 
 shrub, and from its large, white flowers, " emulous of 
 the purity of snow," which finely contrast with the 
 " forest green," it richly deserves a place in every 
 collection where it will thrive. — Beowne's Trees of 
 America. 
 
 Doldrums. Seafaring people have, as if by com- 
 mon consent, divided the ocean off into regions, and 
 characterized them according to the winds ; e. g., there 
 are the "trade-wind regions," the "variables," the 
 " horse latitudes," the " doldrums," etc. The '•' equa- 
 torial doldrums" is another of these calm places. Be- 
 sides being a region of calms and baffling winds, it is 
 a region noted for its rains and clouds, which make it 
 one of the most oppressive and disagreeable places at 
 sea. The emigrant ships from Europe for Australia, 
 have to cross it. They are often baffled in it for two 
 or three weeks ; then the children and the passengers 
 who are of delicate health suffer most. It is a fright- 
 ful grave-3'ard on the way-side to that golden land. 
 — ^MAnEY'a Fhys. Geog. nfthe Sea, p. 209. 
 
 Dollar, the name of a silver coin of Spain and of 
 the United States ; worth 100 cents. The dollar ap- 
 pears to have been originally a German coin ; and in 
 various parts of Germany there are coins of different 
 values so called. This word corresponds to the Ger- 
 man thaler, the Low-German dahler, the Danish daler, 
 the Italian tailero. All these words, together with our 
 dollar, are derived from the name of the Bohemian 
 town Joachims-Thai (Joachim's Valley), where, in 
 1518, the Count of Schlick coined silver pieces of an 
 ounce weight. These, Indeed, were not the first of the 
 kind coined ; yet, as they were numerous and very 
 good they became generally known by the name of 
 Joachim' s-ihcder, which is the German adjective of Jo- 
 achim's thai, and also Schlickenthaler from the name 
 of the Counts. As these coins were in good repute, 
 thalers were also coined in other countries, but of dif- 
 ferent value ; thus originated the laub-thaler (leaf- 
 dollar), Phillipps thaler, the Swedish copper dollar etc. 
 In Russia, a dollar is called jephimock, from Joachim. 
 — E. A. See Coins. 
 
 Dolphin, in nautical language, a rope or strap 
 fastened round the mast of a ship to give support to 
 
 the puddening (a mass of yarn or oakum used to pre- 
 vent chafing), where the lower yards rest on the 
 slings. Dolphin is also applied to a spar or buoy'fur- 
 nished with a' large ring, and anchored, to which a 
 vessel may bend its cable. 
 
 Domicil. In regard to the states not Christian, 
 not only the Mohammedan states, but all the rest, the 
 true rule appears to be, that contracts of citizens of 
 the United States in general, and especially the con- 
 tract of marriage, are not subject to the lex loci, but 
 must be governed by the law of the domicil ; and that, 
 therefore, in such countries, a valid contract of mar- 
 riage may be solemnized, and the contract authentica- 
 ted, not only by an ambassador, but by a consul of the 
 United States. "The English authorities come to sub- 
 stantially the same conclusion, for similar reasons. 
 "Nobody can suppose," says Lord Stowell, "that 
 while the Mogul empire existed, an Englishman (in 
 Hindostan) was bound to consult the Koran for the 
 celebration of his marriage." In most of the Asiatic 
 and African countries, indeed, law is personal, not 
 local, as it was in many parts of modern Europe in 
 the formative period of its present organization. 
 Hence, in British India, Hindoos, Parsees, Jews, lUo- 
 hammedans. Christians, all marry according to the 
 law of their religion. The ecclesiastical law of En- 
 gland goes further than this, for it recognizes the mar- 
 riage of Englishmen, celebrated according to the En- 
 glish law, that is, by a clergyman, in British factories 
 abroad, though situated in Christian countries, but 
 countries of the Roman Catholic or Greek religion.— 
 Manual for Consuls, U. S. 
 
 Merchants. — The national character of merchants 
 residing in Europe and America, is derived from that 
 of the countiy in which thej^ reside. In the eastern 
 parts of the world, European persons, trading under 
 the shelter and protection of the factories founded there, 
 take their national character from that association un- 
 der which they live and carry on their trade. This 
 distinction arises from the nature and habits of the 
 countries. In the western parts of the world, alien 
 merchants mix in the society of the natives ; access and 
 intermixture are permitted, and they become incor- 
 porated to nearly the full extent. But, in the East, 
 from almost the oldest times, an immiscible character 
 has been kept up : foreigners are not admitted into 
 the general body and mass of the nation ; they con- 
 tinue strangers and sojourners, as all their fathers 
 were. Thus, with respect to establishments in Tur- 
 key, the British courts of prize, during war mth Hol- 
 land, determined that a merchant carrying on trade 
 at Smyrna, under the protection of the Dutch consul, 
 was to be considered a Dutchman, and condemned his 
 property as belonging to an enemy. And thus in 
 China, and generally throughout the East, persons ad- 
 mitted into a factor)', are not known in their own pecu- 
 liar national character ; and not being permitted to 
 assume the character of the countrj', are considered 
 only in the character of that association or factoiy. 
 
 But these principles are considered not to be ap- 
 plicable to the vast territories occupied by the British 
 in Hindostan ; because, as Sir W. Scott observes, 
 " though the sovereignty of the Mogul is occasionally 
 brought forward for the purpose of policy, it hardly 
 exists otherwise than as a phantom ; it is not applied 
 in any way for the regulation of their establishments. 
 Great Britain exercises the power of declaring war and 
 peace, which is among the strongest marks of actual 
 sovereignty ; and if the high and empyrean sove- 
 reignty of the Mogul is sometimes brought down from 
 the clouds, as it were, for the purposes of policy, it by 
 no means interferes with the actual authority which 
 that country, and the East India Company— a crea- 
 ture of that country — exercise there with full effect. 
 Merchants residing there, are hence considered British 
 subjects." — "Whkaton's International Law, Part iv., 
 ch. 1, p. 408. 
 
DOR 
 
 555 
 
 DOW 
 
 Dominica, one of the Leeward group of islands in 
 the West Indies, belonging to Britain, and lying be- 
 tween the French islands of Martinique and Guada- 
 loupe, 24 miles north of the former, and about the same 
 distance south of the latter. Dominica was so named 
 \>y Columbus from his having discovered it on a Sun- 
 day (in 1493). It was ceded to England by the peace 
 of Paris, in 1763, but was taken by the French in 1778. 
 At the peace of 1783 it was restored to England, in 
 whose possession it has since remained. Dominica is 
 29 miles in length from north to south, and 16 in 
 breadth, and has an area of about 186,436 acres. The 
 principal town Roseau, situated on the S.W. side of 
 the island, is in lat. 15° 19' N., long. 61° 28' W. The 
 surface is generally rugged and mountainous, inter- 
 spersed witli fertile and well-watered valleys. The 
 highest point is 5,314 feet above the level of the sea. 
 The origin of this island is volcanic, and sulphur and 
 other volcanic products are abundant. The soil is 
 light and well adapted for the growth of coffee. The 
 hills are covered with valuable timber trees of the 
 kinds commonly found in the West Indies. Game is 
 abundant, and the fisheries on the coast are very pro- 
 ductive. The principal productions are sugar, molas- 
 ses, rum, coffee, cocoa, and oranges. The cultivation 
 of cotton has lately been introduced to a small extent, 
 and has been found to answer very well, particularly 
 on land near the sea-coast. The principal staple prod- 
 ucts exported in the years ending 5th January, 1852, 
 and 5th January, 1853, were as follows : 
 
 1652. 186S. 
 
 Sugar 62,1 68 owts. 6S,788 cwts. 
 
 Eilm 80,927 galls. 85,794 galls. 
 
 Molasses 95,600 " 81,016 " 
 
 Coffee 58,068 lbs. 67,594 lbs. 
 
 Cocoa 83,884 " 69,296 " 
 
 Lirae juice 4,280 galls. 5,062 galls. 
 
 Arrow root ,5,944 lbs. 3,525 lbs. 
 
 Oranges :. 1,019,800 1,854,020 
 
 Cottonwool 2,000 lbs. 3,250 lbs. 
 
 The value of exports and imports, and the revenue 
 for the years 1849, 1850, and 1851, were as follows : 
 
 1849. 1850. 1851. 
 
 Imports £50,616 £57,656 £T1,838 
 
 Einorts 48,070 58,265 62,527 
 
 Revenue 8,918 10,275 12,901 
 
 The population in 1844 was 22,200, of whom 11,604 
 were females. The principal harbors are Koseau and 
 Prince Kupert's Bay. — E.B. 
 
 Dornock is a species of figured linen of stout fabric, 
 wliich derives its name from a town in Scotland, where it 
 was first manufactured for table-cloths. It is the most 
 simple pattern of all the varieties of the diaper or dam- 
 ask style, and therefore the goods are usually of coarse 
 quality for common household wear. It receives the fig- 
 ure by reversing the flushing of the warp and woof at 
 certain intervals, so as to form squares or oblong rect- 
 angles upon the cloth. The most simple of these is a suc- 
 cession of alternate squares, forming an imitation of a 
 checker board or mosaic work. The coarsest kinds 
 are generally woven as tweels of three leaves, where 
 every thread floats over two, and is intersected by the 
 third in succession. Some of the finer are tweels of four 
 or five leaves, but few of more ; for the six or seven 
 leaf tweels are seldom or never used, and the eight 
 leaf tweel is confined almost exclusively to damask. 
 Dort, or Dordrecht, an important commercial 
 city of Holland, capital of a cognominal district in the 
 province of South Holland, 10 miles south-east of Rot- 
 terdam. It is situated on an island of the Mouse, said 
 to have been separated from the mainland in 1421, by 
 an inundation which swept away 72 villages, and about 
 100,000 inhabitants. Tliis is one of the oldest cities of 
 Holland, but the period of its rise is uncertain. It 
 was surrounded by walls in 1231 by Florent IV., Count 
 of Holland, who made it his residence, and granted it 
 many important privileges. In 1457, almost the entire 
 town, indttding the church of Notre Dame, founded in 
 1366, and other public buildings, was destroyed by 
 fire. It was one of the first towns to embrace the Re- 
 
 formed religion, and to throw off the yoke of the Span- 
 ish king. In 1572 a. meeting of deputies was held 
 here, when the independence of the United Provinces 
 was first declared ; and in 1618 and 1619 sat the cele- 
 brated Synod of Dort. The town-hall is a handsome 
 building; and the principal church is an old Gothic 
 structure 300 feet long by 125 feet wide, with a heavj- 
 square tower, and numerous monumental stones, some 
 of great antiquity. The hall in which the synod was 
 held is now a public house. The houses are generally 
 of an antique fashion, with the gables turned outward, 
 and many of them date from the period of the Spanish 
 occupation. Dort possesses a good harbor, from which 
 two canals lead to the centre of the town, and thus 
 facilitate the conveyance of goods to the warehouses. 
 It carries on an extensive trade in com,' flax, salt fish, 
 train oil, and timber, brought down the Rhine ; and 
 has ship-building docks, saw-mills, sugar and salt re- 
 fineries, tobacco factories, linen-bleaching and white- 
 lead works. Dort is the birthplace of the brothers 
 De Witt. Population (1850), 20,878. 
 
 Doubling, in navigation, the act of sailing round 
 or passing beyond a cape or promontorj-. 
 
 Doubloon, or Doblon, a Spanish and Portuguese 
 coin, being the double of a pistole. — E. B. See Coins. 
 
 Dover, Straits of, the narrow channel between 
 Dover and Calais, which separates Great Britain from 
 the Frencli coast. Britain is supposed by many to 
 have been once a peninsula — ^the present straits occu- 
 pying the site of the isthmus which joined it to Gaul. 
 " The correspondency of strata," says Mr. Pennant, in 
 his Arct. Zoologj/, "on part of the opposite shores of 
 Britain and France, leaves no room to doubt that they 
 were once united. The chalky cliffs of Blancuez, .be- 
 tween Calais and Boulogne, and those to the westward 
 of Dover, exactly tally. The last are vast and con- 
 tinued ; the former short, and the termination of the 
 immense bed. Between Boulogne and Folkestone 
 (about 6 miles from the latter) is another memorial of 
 the junction of the two countries : a narrow submarine 
 hill, called the Ripraps, about a quarter of a mile 
 broad, and 10 miles long, extending eastward toward 
 the Goodwin Sands. Its materials are boulder-stones, 
 adventitious to many strata. The depth of water on 
 it, in ver3' low spring-tides, is only 14 feet. The fish- 
 ermen from Folkestone have often touched it with a 
 15-feet oar, so that it is justly the dread of navigators. 
 Many a tall ship has struck on it, and sunk instantly 
 into 21 fathoms of water." In July, 1782, the BelleisU, of 
 of 64 guns, struck, and laj- on it during three hours, but 
 by starting her beer and water, got clear off. These 
 celebrated straits are only 21 miles wide in the narrow- 
 est part ; from the pier of Dover to that of Calais, 24 
 miles. It is said that their breadth is diminishing, and 
 that they are two miles narrower than they were in an- 
 cient times. An accurate observer for 50 years, remarks 
 that the increased height of water, from a decrease of 
 breadth, has been apparent, even in that space. The 
 depth of the channel, at a medium, in the highest spring- 
 tides, is about 25 fathoms ; the bottom is either coarse 
 sand or rugged sears, which have, for ages unknown, 
 resisted the attrition of the currents. — E. A. 
 
 Down (Ger. Dunen, Flaum/edem ; Du. Dons ; Fr. 
 Duvet ; It. Penna matta, Piumini ; Sp. Flojel, Plu- 
 mazo ; Rus. Puch ; Lat. Plumce), the fine feathers from 
 the breasts of several birds, particularly those of the 
 duck kind. That of the eider duck is the most valu- 
 able. These birds pluck it from their breasts, and line 
 their nests with it. Mr. Pennant says that it is so 
 very elastic, that a quantity of it weighing only f of 
 an ounce, more than fills the crown of the largest hat. 
 That found in the nest is most valued, and termed live 
 down ; it is much more elastic than that plucked from 
 the dead bird, which is comparatively little esteemed. 
 The eider duck is found on the western islands of Scot- 
 land, but the down is principally imported from Nor- 
 way and Ireland. 
 
DRA 
 
 656 
 
 DRI 
 
 Downs, a bank or elevation of sand, which the sea 
 gathers and forms along its shores, and which serves 
 it as a barrier. The word is formed from the French 
 dune, or the Celtic dun, a mountain. Charles de Visch 
 (Compend, Chronohg. Exord. et Progress. Abbot. 
 Clariss. B. Maria, de Bums') says, Vallem raperit 
 arenai^m collihus, quos ikcolce DujTien vocani, undique 
 Actam. ' It is also applied to a large open plain, pri- 
 marily on elevated land. 
 
 Downs is particularly applied to a famous roadstead 
 for ships along the eastern coast of the county of Kent, 
 from Dover to the North Foreland, where both out- 
 Svard and homeward-bound ships frequently make 
 some stay, and squadrons of men-of-war rendezvous in 
 time of war. It affords excellent anchorage, and is 
 defended by the castles of Deal, Dover, and Sandwich. 
 
 Dragoman, or Drogueman, an interpreter; a 
 term of general use in the Levant and throughout the 
 East. There are dragomans attached to the embassies 
 and consulates of Christian nations residing at the 
 Porte. The word is formed from the Ardbic tarrgeman 
 or targlman, of the verb taragem, * ' he has interpreted." 
 From dragoman the Italians formed dragomanno, and, 
 with a nearer relation to its Arabic etymology, iurci- 
 manno ; whence comes irucheman, as well as dragoman 
 and drogueman. See Turkey. 
 
 Dragon's Blood {Sang draeon, Fr. ; Drachenblut, 
 Germ.) ia a resinoxis substance, which comes to us 
 sometimes in small balls about the size of a pigeon's 
 egg, sometimes m rods like the finger, and sometimes 
 like irregular cakes. Its color, in lump, is dark 
 brown-red ; in powder, bright red ; friable ; of a shin- 
 ing fracture ; sp. grav., 1-196. It contains a little 
 benzoic acid, is insoluble in water, but dissolves readily 
 in alcohol, ether, and oils. It is brought from the 
 East Indies, Africa, South America, as the produce of 
 several trees, the Dract^na Draco, the Pterocarpus 
 santaZinus, Pterocarpus draco, and the Calamus rotang. 
 Dragon's blood is used chiefly for tinging spirit and 
 turpentine varnishes, for preparing gold lacquer, for 
 tootli tinctures and powders, for staining marble, etc. 
 According to Herbenger, it consists of 9'07 parts of red 
 resin, 2 of fat oil, 3 of benzoic acid, 1'6 of oxalate, and 
 3'7 of phosphate of lime. 
 
 Drake, Sir Francis, a celebrated English ad- 
 miral, was born near Tavistock, Devonshire, in 1545. 
 His father, who had been bred a sailor, obtained a 
 naval chaplaincy from Queen Elizabeth, and was after- 
 ward vicar of Upnor church, on the Medway. Young 
 Drake was educated at the expense and under the care 
 of Sir John Hawkins, who was his kinsman ; and, at 
 the age of eighteen, he had risen to be purser of a ship 
 trading to Biscay. At twenty he made a voyage to 
 Guinea ; and at twenty-two he was made captain of 
 the Judith. In that capacity he was in the harbor of 
 San Juan d'OUoa, in the Gulf of Mexico, where he 
 behaved most gallftntlj' in the actions under Sir John 
 Hawkins, and returned with him to England, having 
 acquired great reputation, though with the loss of all 
 the money which he had embarked in the expedition. 
 Having next projected an attack against the Spaniards 
 in the West Indies, to indemnify himself for his former 
 losses, he set sail in 1572, with two small ships named 
 the Pasha and the Swan. He was afterward joined by 
 another vessel ; and with this small squadron he took 
 and plundered the Spanish town of Nombre de Dios. 
 With his men he penetrated across the Isthmus of 
 Panama, and committed great havoc among the Span- 
 ish shipping. In these expeditions he was much as- 
 sisted \>y a nation of Indians, who were then engaged 
 in a desultoiy warfare with the Spaniards. Having 
 embarked his men and filled his ships'with plunder, he 
 bore away for England, where he arrived in August, 
 175S. 
 
 In 1589, Sir Francis Drake commanded the fleet sent 
 to restore Don Antonio, King of Portugal, the land 
 forces being under the orders of Sir John Norris ; but 
 
 they had hardly put to sea when the conlmanders dif- 
 fered, and thus the attempt proved abortive. But as 
 the war with Spain continued, a more formidable expe- 
 dition was fitted out, under Sir John Hawkins and Sir 
 Francis Drake, against their settlements in the West 
 Indies, than had hitherto been undertaken during the 
 whole course of it. Here, however, the commanders 
 again disagreed about the plan ;. and the result,/ in like 
 manner, disappointed public expectation, .These dis- 
 asters were keenly felt by Drake, and were the princi- 
 pal cause of his death, which took place on board his 
 own ship, near the town of Nombre de DioSj in the 
 West Indies, January 28th, 1595.— E. B. See Edinh. 
 Rev,, Ixxx., 197 ; Dublin Univ., xxiii., p. 551 ; N. 
 Am. Rev. [Peabody], lix., p. 70; Littell's Living 
 Age, iii., p. 289. 
 
 Drawback, » term used in commerce to signify 
 the remitting or paying back of the duties previously 
 paid on a commodity on its being exported. A drawback 
 is a device resorted to for enabling a commodity affected 
 by taxes to be exported and sold in the foreign market 
 on the same terms as if it had not been taxed at all. It 
 differs in this from a bounty, that the latter enables a 
 commodity to be sold abroad for less than its natural 
 cost, whereas a drawback enables it to be sold exactly at 
 its natural cost. Drawbacks, as Dr. Smith has obr 
 served, "do not occasion the exportation of a greater 
 quantity of goods than would have been exported had 
 no duty been imposed. They do not tend to turn 
 toward any particular employment a greater share of 
 the capital of the country' than would go to that em- 
 ployment of its own accord, but only to hinder the 
 duty from driving away any part of that share to 
 other employments. They tend not to overturn that 
 balance which naturally establishes itself among all 
 the various employments of the society, but to hinder 
 it from being overturned b)' the duty. They tend not 
 to destroy, but to preserve, what it iS in most cases 
 advantageous to preserve — the natural division and 
 distribution of labor in the society." Were it not for 
 the system of drawbacks, it would be impossible, un- 
 less when a countr}' enjo3''ed some very peculiar facil- 
 ities of production, to export any commodity that was 
 more heavily taxed at home ttian abroad., But the 
 drawback obviates this dii&culty, and enables mer- 
 chants to expoit commodities loaded at home with 
 heavj' duties, and to sell them in the foreign market 
 on the same terms as those fetched from countries 
 where they are not taxed. Most foreign artictles im- 
 ported into this countrj' may be warehoused for subse- 
 quent exportation. In this case they pay no duties on 
 being imported, and, of course, get no drawback on 
 their subsequent exportation. Sometimes a drawback 
 exceeds the duty or duties laid on the article ; and in 
 such cases the excess forms a real bounty of that 
 amount, and should be so considered. 
 
 Dredging Machine. A machine for clearing 
 out or deepening the beds of navigable rivers, harbors, 
 canals, etc., by the removal of deposited matter. 
 
 Dresden China. The fine porcelain ware known 
 as Dresden china was discovered by M. Boeticher, who 
 was at the time an apothecarj^'s boy, 1700. Services of 
 this ware have cost many thousands of pounds each. 
 A costly service, each piece exquisitely painted, and 
 the battles represented, and subjects all different, was 
 presented to the Duke of Wellington by the King of 
 Prussia, in 1816, and is the finest in England. 
 
 Dressing. A term applied to gum, starch, and 
 other articles used in stiffening or preparing silk, linen, 
 and other fabrics. 
 
 Drift, in navigation, the angle which the line of a 
 ship's motion makes with the nearest meridian, when 
 she drives with her side to the wind and waves, and is 
 not governed by the helm. It also implies the distance 
 which the ship drives on that line. Drift, in mining, a 
 passage cut between shaft and shaft, or a way wrought 
 under the earth, 
 
DRO 
 
 55Y' 
 
 DRIT 
 
 Drift of Bottles. It is a castom often practiced 
 ty seafaring people to throw a bottle overboard, with a 
 paper, stating the time and place at which it is done. 
 In the absence of other information as to currents, that 
 afforded by these mute little navigators is of great 
 value. They leave no traclts behind them, it is true, 
 and their route can not be ascertained. But knowing 
 where they were cast, and seeing where they are found, 
 some idea may be formed as to their course. Straight 
 lines may at least be drawn, showing the shortest dis- 
 tance from the beginning to the end of their voyage, 
 with the time elapsed. Admiral Beechey, R. N., has 
 prepared a chart, representing, in this way, the tracks 
 of more than 100 bottles. From it it appears that the 
 waters from every quarter of the Atlantio'tend toward 
 the Gulf of Mexico and its stream. Bottles cast into 
 the sea midway between' the Old and New Worlds, 
 near the coasts of Europe, Africa, and Ariierica ; M the 
 extreme north, or further south, have been found either 
 in the West Indies or the Bi:itjsh isles, or within the 
 well-known range of Gulf Stream waters. Of two cast 
 out together in south latitude on the coast of Africa, 
 one was found on the island of Trinidad, the other o^ 
 Guernsey, in the English Channel. In the absence 
 of positive information on the subject, the circumstan- 
 tial evidence that the latter jlerformed the tour of the 
 Gulf is all but conclusive. And there is reason to sup- 
 pose that some of the bottles of the admiral's chart 
 have also performed the tour of the Gulf Stream ; then, 
 without being cast ashoi:e, have returned with the 
 drift along the coast of Africa into the inter-tropical 
 region ; thence through ' the Caribbean Sea, and so on 
 with the Gulf Stream again. Another bottle thrown 
 over off Cape Horn by an American master in 1837, 
 has been recently picked up on the coast of Ireland. 
 An inspection of the chart, and of the drift of the other 
 bottles, seems to force the conclusion that this bottle 
 too went even from that remote region to the so-called 
 higher level of the Gulf Stream iieservoir. — Maury, 
 P%9i Oeog. of the Sea. 
 
 Drift-sail, a sail used under water, veered out 
 right a-head by sheets, as other sails are. It serves to 
 keep the ship's head right upon the sea in a storm, and 
 to prevent her driving too fast in a current. 
 
 Drift-wood, trees or timber carried out to sea by 
 rivers when in flood ; timber drifted or floated by water. 
 
 Driving, in sea language,' is said of a ship when 
 her anchor fails to hold her fast, and she floats away 
 with the wind or tide. A vessel is also said to drive 
 when she scuds before a gale. 
 
 Droits of Admiralty. The perquisites result- 
 ing cliiefly from the seizure of the property of an 
 enemy at the commencement of a war, and attached to 
 the ofiice of Lord-high-admiral, or to the crown when 
 that office is vacant. These perquisites were originally 
 vested in the sovereign, to enable him to provide for 
 the expense of defending the realm, and clearing the 
 seas of pirates ; and their value and importance will 
 be at once perceived from the following brief state- 
 ment. In 1798, one ship which had been captured 
 brought £55,000 ; in 1800, another brought £65,000 ; 
 in 1804, one captured ship was worth £105,000 ; and in 
 1806, several taken at once netted £155,000. During 
 the last war, also, the Dutch ships at one seizure 
 brought £1,030,000; the Spanish ships, £2,200,000; 
 and so Targe were the sums made at one and the same 
 moment in this rich fund, that the crown one year, 
 after paying many hundreds of thousands to captors, 
 and large sums to different branches of the roj'al fam- 
 ily, gave a million out of the residue to the public 
 service. (^Edinb. Rev., vol. xxxiii., p. 482.) By the 
 civil list, introduced on the accession of William IV., 
 it was arranged that all droits of admiralty which 
 might accrue during his reign should be paid into the 
 exchequer for the benefit of the public service ; and 
 the civil list of her present majesty has made no altera- 
 tion in that arrangement. — Bkande. 
 
 DroTrned Persons. Directions for Restoring 
 Persons Appa/rmithf Drowned. i.From R. B. Porbes, 
 Esq^, of Boston, an oflicer of the Massachusetts Hu- 
 mane Society. — Convey the Ijody to the nearest 
 house, with head raised.' Strip, and rub dry ; wrap 
 in blankets; inflate the lungs by closing the nostrils 
 with thumb and finger, and blowing into the mouth 
 forcibly, then pressing with hand on the chest.. Again 
 blow in the mouth and press on the chest, and so on 
 for TEN MINUTES, or Until he breathes. Keep the 
 body warm, extremities also. Continue rubbing. Do 
 not give up as long as there is any chance of success. 
 
 Drugs, Inspection of. By an act of Congress, 
 passed June 26^ 1848, to prevent the importation of 
 adulterated and spuriouS' drugs and medicines,' it was 
 provided, that all drugs and medicines, medicinal 
 preparations, including medicinal essential oils and 
 chemical preparations used wholly or in part as medi- 
 cine, imported into the United States from abroad, 
 shall, before passing the custom-house, be examined 
 and approved, as well in reference to their quality, 
 purity, and fitness for medicinal purposes as to their 
 value and identity specified in the invoice. 
 
 Also, that all medicinal preparations, whether chem- 
 ical or otherwise, usuallj' imported with the name of 
 the manufacturer, dhall have the true name of the 
 manufacturer, and the place where they are prepared, 
 permanently and legibly affixed to each parcel, by 
 stamp, label, or otherwise ; and all such medicinal pre- 
 parations imported witliout such . names, affixed ' as 
 aforesaid, shall be adjudged to be forfeited. 
 
 ■ That if, on examination, anj' drugs, medicines, med- 
 icinal preparations, whether chemical or otherwise, 
 including medicinal essential oils, are found, in the 
 opinion- of the. examiner^' to be so far adulterated, or in 
 any- manner deteriorated, as to render them in strength 
 and purity inferior to the standard established b}' the 
 United States, Edinburg, London, France, and German 
 pharmacopoeias and dispensaries, and thereby improper, 
 unsafe, or dangerous to be used for medicinal purposes, 
 a return to that effect shall be made upon the invoice ; 
 and the articles so noted shall not pass the custom- 
 house, unless, on re-examination of a strictly analytical 
 character, called for by the owner or consignee, the re- 
 turn of the examiner shall he found erroneous ; and' it 
 shall be declared as the result of such analysis, that the 
 said articles may properly, safely, and without danger, 
 be used for medicinal purposes. 
 
 That the owner or consignee shall at all times, when 
 dissatisfied with the examiner's return, have the privi- 
 lege of calling, at his own expense^ for a re-examina- 
 tion ; and depositing with the collector such sum as 
 the latter may deem sufficient to defray such expense, 
 it shall be the duty of that officer to procure some com- 
 petent analytical chemist possessing the confidence of 
 the medical pirofession, as well as of the colleges of 
 medicine and pharmacy, if any such institutions exist 
 in the State in which the collection district is situated, a 
 careful analysis of the articles included in said return, 
 and a report upon the same, under oath ; and in case 
 the report, which shall be final, shall declare the return 
 of the examiner to be erroneous, and the said articles 
 to be of the requisite strength and purity, accordiJig to 
 the standards referred to in the next preceding section 
 of this act, the entire invoice shall be passed without 
 reservation, on payment of the customary duties ; but 
 in case the examiner's return shall be sustained by the 
 analysis and report, the said articles shall remain in 
 charge of the collector, and the owner or consignee, on 
 payment of the charges of storage and other expenses 
 necessarily incurred by the United States, and on giv- 
 ing of bond, with sureties satisfactory to the collector, 
 to land said articles out of the limits of the United States, 
 shall have the privilege of re-exporting them at any 
 time within the period of six months after the report 
 of the analysis ; but if the said articles shall not be sent 
 out of the United States TSithin the time specified, it 
 
DRY 
 
 658 
 
 DRY 
 
 shall be the duty of the collector, at the expiration of 
 the said time, to cause the same to be destroyed, hold- 
 ing the owner or consignee responsible to the United 
 States for payment of all charges, in the same manner 
 as if said articles had been re-exported. 
 
 Drugget, a coarse and flimsy woolen texture, 
 chiefly used for covering carpets. It was formerly 
 extensivel}'- employed as an article of clothing among 
 the poorer classes, more especiallj'" of females ; but 
 this and similar fabrics are now almost wholly super- 
 seded by cotton goods, which induce greater cleanli- 
 ness. 
 
 Drummond Light. The three angles of the 
 enormous triangles by which a topographical survey is 
 primarily conducted, sometimes 80 or 100 miles asun- 
 der, must be visible one from another ; but how to 
 produce the visibility ? In the earlier surveys, where 
 such daring distances were not attempted, a signal 
 light was in some cases obtained by reflecting the light 
 of the sun from a well-adjusted surface of polished tin, 
 or by Bengal lights being fired at night, or by a pow- 
 erful Argand lamp being placed behind a lens or before 
 a parabolic reflector ; but Lieutenant Drummond, dur- 
 ing the progress of the Irish survey, made a happy 
 suggestion whicn eclipsed in efficiency all others. In 
 what is called the Drummond or Lime Liffkt, a small 
 ball of lime is exposed to the action of a spirit-flame 
 fed by pure oxygen gas ; the flame, in a highly-vivid 
 state, heats the lime to an intense degree, and in this 
 heated state, it emits a light of surprising brilliancy, 
 far exceeding that of any flame yet seen. So beauti- 
 fully was Drummond's apparatus constructed, that the 
 lamp fed itself with spirit and with oxygen, supplied 
 itself with balls of lime as each one slowly wasted, 
 and reflected its surpassing light from an exquisitely- 
 polished parabolic surface of silvered copper. It was 
 not merely figuratively but literally true, that a piece 
 of lime, not bigger than a boy's marble, emitted a light 
 at Londonderry which was visible at Belfast — a dis- 
 tance in a direct line of nearly seventy miles. On a 
 later occasion Colonel Colby made a lime-light Signal 
 visible from Antrim in Ireland to Ben Lomond in 
 Scotland, a straight-line distance of 95 miles. See 
 Light-houses. 
 
 Dry Distillation. This term is applied to the 
 distillation of substances per se^ or without the ad- 
 dition of water : thus if we put wood into a retort or 
 other distillatory apparatus, and subject it to heat, it 
 yields tar, vinegar, water, and various gaseous and 
 other matters. See Distillation. 
 
 Drying Machines. The drying process, by cen- 
 trifugal agency, is of very wide application. Bleach- 
 ers, dj^ers, and calico-printers use it. The wet mass of 
 cloth or yarn is put into a hollow C3'-linder ; this cyl- 
 inder is made to revolve from 1 to 2 thousand times in 
 a minute ; the moisture is driven from the cloth with 
 great violence ; openings are left to afford an exit for 
 this water into an outer vessel, and in a few seconds 
 the cloth is nearly dry. Nothing but actually wit- 
 nessing the process, can convey an adequate idea of 
 the rapiditj'- of this drying process. In some of the 
 baths and laundries now established, machines of this 
 kind are employed to supersede the hard necessity of 
 "wringing" the wet linen — a great boon to the poor 
 women who avail themselves of these advantages. 
 
 Dry Rot. A most destructive, and apparently 
 infectious disease in timber, which, by decomposing 
 the fibres, deprives it of all strength, and in no great 
 length of time, reduces it to a. mass of dry dust ; a 
 circumstance from which it seems to have derived its 
 name, which, perhaps, would be better expressed by 
 that of sap rot. 
 
 Though this disease must from its nature have 
 been co-existent with the timber-trees, it would not 
 seem to have excited much attention, and perhaps was 
 not known, certainly not by its present name, before 
 the middle of the last century ; at some period, we 
 
 rather think, of Sir John Pringle*s presidency of the 
 Eoyal Society of London. But for a long time after 
 this little notice appears to have been taken of it ,■ ita 
 ravages being, in all probability, inconsiderable, in 
 comparison with what they have been of late years. 
 Even now, the disease is, in fact, chiefly confined to 
 modern-built houses and modem-built ships, and more 
 particularly to the ships of the navy. The proximate 
 cause of it has, therefore, rightly enough, as it would 
 seem, been ascribed to the unseasonable state of the 
 timber, when placed in certain situations, and under 
 particular circumstances. It could not fail, in the 
 course of the late long-protracted war, to become a 
 matter of general observation, that a more rapid decay 
 than usual had become almost universal throughout 
 the fleet, and especially among the newest and most 
 recently repaired ships. Many anxious inquiries were 
 instituted, and experiments made, with the view of 
 ascertaining the real cause of a decay, the further pre- 
 vention of which was so highly important to the na- 
 tional welfare and security. The alarm was greatly 
 increased when, in 1810, the Queen Charlotte, a first 
 rate ship of war, shortly afterward launched at Dept- 
 ford, was discovered, after a close examination, to 
 have all her upper works infected with the dry rot ; 
 or, in other words, the ends of most of the beams, car- 
 lings, and ledges, the joinings of the planks, etc., were 
 observed to be covered with a mouldy, fibrous, and re- 
 ticulated crust, and the parts of the timber so covered 
 to be perfectly rotten. All the newspapers and jour- 
 nals of the day were filled with this alarming fact, and, 
 in consequence thereof, a multitude of dr?/ rot doctors 
 proffered their assistance : one having a nostrum for 
 eradicating the disease where it had made its appear- 
 ance, and another for preventing its further approach. 
 Some of these specifics were expensive and incon- 
 venient, many of them impracticable of application, 
 and most of them futile and objectionable in one way 
 or another. These doctors, in fact, like the physicians 
 for the human body, when the seat of the disease is 
 unknown, were laboring altogether in the dark, having 
 no other guide to direct them than their own whims 
 and fancies, each being ignorant of the effect of the 
 respective experiments which they wished to try on 
 this diseased machine. 
 
 Process of the Common Rot. — Authors are at variance 
 among themselves, whether the common rot in timber, 
 or the dry rot, be not one and the same disease. A 
 little reflection, however, will, we conceive, lead us to 
 consider them as essentially different, both in the 
 symptoms, the progress, and the causes, though the 
 effect of destrojdng the fibre of the wood is pretty 
 nearly the same. If a post of wood, for instance, be 
 driven into the ground, seasoned, or unseasoned, it will 
 speedily begin to decay just at the surface of the 
 ground, or, as it were, between the earth and the air; 
 if driven into the earth through water, as in a pond, 
 the decay will commence at the surface of the water, 
 or, as it is technically'" expressed, between xdnd and 
 water, while all above water, and all that is constantly 
 immerged in the water, as well as the part in the earth, 
 will remain soimd. Thus, also, a beam of wood let 
 into a damp wall, will begin to rot just where it enters 
 the wall ; so will wooden bannisters when they are let 
 through the top and foot-rails. In these, and similar 
 cases, the rot begins externally, and its progress is in- 
 ward, and is more or less accelerated by the alternate 
 action of wind, heat, and moisture, being greatest when 
 the alternatives of exposure to wet and drought are 
 most frequent, and least when constantly immersed in 
 water, or constantly preserved in a dry atmosphere. 
 Such we believe to be the usual process of the com- 
 mon rot in wood, and it is evidently occasioned by al- 
 ternate exposure to the vicissitudes of the weather, to 
 moisture and drj'ness, to heat and cold. 
 
 Process of the Dry Rot. — If the same post be well 
 charred, or covered over with a thick coating of paint, 
 
DRY 
 
 559 
 
 DRY 
 
 or vamish, or tar, no such effect will be produced ex- 
 ternally^ the coating being sufficient to protect it 
 against the action of the weather ; but if it should 
 happen to be a green, or unseasoned piece of wood so 
 tarred or painted, in no great length of time the wood 
 will be found to have begun to decay internally, while 
 the outer surface appears uninjured, but at length it will 
 also yield to the disease. If this piece of wood had 
 been placed in a warm cellar or close room, where there is 
 little or no circulation of air, and more particularly if 
 the room or cellar were damp, there would be per- 
 ceived, in no great length of time, a fine mouldy coat- 
 ing spread over its surface, of a brownish yellow or 
 dirty white ; and shortly afterward it would be found, 
 on examination, to resemble in its form and structure 
 some of the beautifully ramified algm, or sea weeds ; 
 which, in process of time would become more compact, 
 the interstices being so completely filled up as to give 
 the whole mass the appearance and consistence of 
 leather. "At first," says one writer, "its appearance 
 is that of fine fibres running on the surface in endless 
 ramifications, resembling the nervous fibres of leaves ; 
 presently the interstices are filled up with a spongy or 
 leather-like substance, assuming the character of cryp- 
 togamous plants distinguished by the name of fun- 
 gus." 
 
 By Mr. Wade, the general symptoms of dry rot are 
 thus described : " The wood at first swells ; after 
 some time it changes its color, then emits gases which 
 have a mouldy or musty smell. In the more advanced 
 stages of it the mass arises, and craclts in transverse 
 directions. Lastly, it becomes pulverulent, and forms 
 vegetable earth ; and, generally, in some of these 
 stages of decay, the different species of fungus are 
 found to vegetate, on the mass." — Treatise on the Dry 
 Eat in Timber, by Thomas Wade. 
 
 These appearances do not invariably take place, the 
 surface of the diseased timber sometimes remaining 
 unchanged, while the process of rotting is going on 
 within ; they are, however, pretty constant. But 
 however sound the surface may be, it will appear, on 
 examining the piece of wood, placed in a situation 
 similar to those above mentioned, that the whole of 
 the interior fibres are decomposed, and become a mass 
 of dust inclosed within » thin external shell. No 
 charring of the surface, no paint, tar, or varnish, will 
 prevent this process from taking place, when the seeds 
 of the dry rot exist, and are placed in a situation favor- 
 able for their growth, though they may prevent the 
 external character of mouldiness from taking place on 
 the surface. 
 
 Characteristic Difference of the two Rots. — The 
 symptomatic difference, then, between the common rot 
 and the dry rot may perhaps be thus defined : Com- 
 mon rot is a disease in timber, occasioned by the alter- 
 nations of the weather acting on its surface, and de- 
 stroying its fibres exteraally inward. Dry rot is a 
 disease in timber, occasioned by being shut up in 
 warm, close, and moist situations, the effect of which 
 is to destroy its fibres by a process acting internally 
 outward. 
 
 Causes of the Dry Rot. — ^Without stopping to inquire 
 in what manner, and by what agency, chemical or me- 
 chanical, or both, the common rot acts on the external 
 fibres of the wood, the effect of alternate exposure to 
 the weather is too well Ivnown to require any further 
 proof as to its being the immediate cause. The immedi- 
 ate cause of the dry rot is equally obvious ; but the 
 predisposing state of the timber to contract the disease 
 is not so clear a problem. Accordingly, theories with- 
 out end have been hatched to explain the phenomenon. 
 A writer in a public journal, who has slightly touched 
 on the subject, thus explains it: " It is well known," 
 he observes, "that if a piece of green wood be laid 
 across a fire, the air within, expanded by the heat, will 
 drive oat at each extremity a viscous fluid, possessing 
 the property of disposing itself on the surface in retic- 
 
 ulated filaments. The same appearance of nervous 
 foliation is not uncommon in the intermediate spaces 
 of the concentric layers of the alburnum of wood ; and 
 the core or heart of trees, and particularly of the pitch- 
 pine, after its passage in the heated hold of a ship, is 
 often enveloped with a membranous corfcicle, like that 
 which lies immediately beneath the bark. All these 
 appearances are certain indications of the dry rot ; and 
 they point out, with sufficient clearness, that the sap, 
 or principle of vegetation, brought into activity, is tho 
 cause of the disease ; the effect, though infinitely more 
 rapid, is the same as that of the common rot. It is 
 still a problem, in what manner this sap circulates ; 
 but there is no doubt that the tubes and cells of the 
 alburnum, or sap-wood, are filled with it in the spring 
 of the year, and that tliey are empty in the winter ; 
 that it is organized matter, developing itself by heat 
 in all the various forms of new bark, leaves, and 
 branches. The stem of a tree cut down, will, on the 
 return of summer, make an effort to push out leaves ; 
 a more feeble effort of this organized sap ends in the 
 production oi fungus only." — Quarterly Review, No. xv. 
 The real efficient cause of the dry rot, is that of the 
 juices of the timber being brought into a state of 
 putrefaction, occasioned generally by exposure to a 
 moderate degree of heat and moisture in a stagnant 
 atmosphere. " To favor this process," says Mr. Wade, 
 " as much as possible, the air and water should-not be 
 renewed, as they undergo a decomposition, which takes 
 place very slowly." From the structure of timber be- 
 ing composed longitudinally of an assemblage of pipes 
 or tubes, it is only necessaiy that one end of a log of 
 wood^hould be placed in a damp or wet situation, to 
 occasion the moisture to be conveyed to the opposite 
 end by capillary attraction ; and hence arises the in- 
 fectious nature of the disease, which will alwaj'-s spread 
 wherever the moisture finds its way ; and even where 
 there is no moisture, it will be created b}' the filaments 
 of the fungi working their way through the tubes of 
 the dry wood and carrying it with them. Hence, also, 
 the rapid decay in ships of war, from the great inter- 
 nal heat occasioned by the number of men, the moist- 
 ure, and the close air. Hence, also, in houses, the 
 dry rot alwaj's first appears in the lower apartments, 
 where the floors, partitions, skirting-boards, etc., are 
 supplied with moisture from the wet walls on the 
 ground. In the London houses there is generally a 
 room on the basement story, called the house-keeper's 
 room, which is boarded, and carefully covered over 
 with an oiled floor-cloth. In such a room the dry rot 
 is sure to make its appearance. The wood absorbs the 
 aqueous vapor which the oil-cloth will not allow to es- 
 cape, and being assisted by the heat of the air in such 
 apartments, the decay goes on most rapidlj' ; and, as 
 Mr. Wade observes, " if the seed of fungus be present, 
 the plant is developed in all the superfluitj' of vigor 
 exhibited in a hot-house, where the same means are 
 resorted to, namely, an atmosphere scientifically and 
 artificially heated, and highly charged with aqueous 
 vapor." Timber may, in fact, have the seeds of dry 
 rot within it, and yet by proper treatment be kept 
 sound for a great length of time. Thus, ships laden 
 with particular cargoes, afford remarkable instances of 
 the effects of such cargoes on their duration. The 
 warm moisture created by a cargo of hemp is commu- 
 nicated to the timber, and promotes a rapid putrefac- 
 tion. Mr. Chapman says, that the ship Brothers, built 
 at Whitby, of green timber, proceeded to Petersburg 
 for a cargo of hemp. The next year it was found, on 
 examination, that her timbers were rotten, and all the 
 planking, excepting a thin external skin. A lading 
 of cotton is always injurious to the ship, and even teak 
 is affected by a cargo of pepper. The timber which is 
 brought from America in the heated hold of a ship, is 
 invariably covered over, on being landed, with a com- 
 plete coating of fungus. It was the too general use of 
 this timber in ships of the royal navy that at one time 
 
DRY 
 
 660 
 
 DRY 
 
 increased the disease to such an alarming degree. 
 Those ships, on the contrary, which are employed con- 
 stantly in the coal and lime-trade, are very durable, 
 and have been known to last for a century. These 
 eflfects are obviously to be ascribed to the exclusion' of 
 air in the one case from, and the free admission of it 
 in the other to, the interior surface of the ship, assisted 
 in the latter instance by the absorption of moisture by 
 the coals and' lime from the timber and planking. 
 
 Prevention of Dry' Rot, — If we arrive at the right 
 conclusion as to the cause of dry-rot in timber, we can 
 be at no loss with regard to the mode of treatment for 
 the prevention of the disease. The experiments for 
 this purpose have been very numerous, but may be 
 classed under three general heads ; desiccation or sea- 
 soning ; immersion in earth, sand, or water ; and im- 
 pregnation with some foreign matter, which will resist 
 putrefaction. 
 
 The most simple and common mode of preventing 
 the decomposition of vegetable matter, is by depriving 
 it of moisture. Various schemes have been put in 
 practice for drying the juices in large logs of timber. 
 Time alone will do it when the wood is placed in fa- 
 vorable situations, that is to say, in a dry atmosphere, 
 and constantly exposed to a free circulation of air ; 
 but time will also produce the rot in timber when piled 
 up in stacks in the open air, imbibing moisture from 
 the earth, and exposed to the vicissitudes of the sea- 
 sons, and the alternatives of weather ; scorched at one 
 time by the heat of the sun, at another drenched with 
 rain, and rent and split in everj' possible way by the 
 freezing of the water which has insinuated itself into 
 the pores and crevices of the wood. It was fornjerly, 
 and, indeed, till very latelj', the practice to let ships 
 of war remain on the stocks in frame for two, three, or 
 four years, to season, as it was called ; but there never 
 was so mistaken a notion. " When a ship," says Mr. 
 Wade, " is built, exposed to the weather, the lower 
 part forms a grand reservoir for all the rain that falls ; 
 and as the timbers in that part are placed as close- 
 together as possible, the wet escapes very slowly. 
 Those timbers are always soaked with moisture, and, 
 to some distance from the keel, exhibit a green appear- 
 ance ; their green matter, when viewed through a mi- 
 croscope, is found to be a beautiful and completely 
 formed moss, which vegetates at the expense of the 
 timber. If to season timber be only to dry it, the 
 sooner it is dried the better ; and when completely dry, 
 it can not too soon be employed in ship-building, when 
 it should be kept dry. It can not answer any end to 
 have seven years' wear out of a ship on the stocks." 
 At length our shipwrights are convinced of this truth, 
 and the plan now generally adopted in ship-building is 
 to protect the vessel by a roofed structure, with tfhe 
 sides open to admit a free current of air, but to exclude 
 all moisture, as well as the rays of the sun (see Dock- 
 yards) ; a practice which we have tardilj' adopted 
 from the Swedes and the Venetians. A new system 
 seems also to have been adopted in the piling of the 
 timber stacks. Instead of their being placed on old, use- 
 less, and often rotten logs of timber resting on the 
 ground, they are now insulated from the earth on stone 
 or iron pillars ; and in place of their surfaces coming 
 in contact with each other, pieces of wood are placed 
 between them so as to admit of a circulation of air. 
 Nothing further appears to be wanting but to protect 
 the tops and the ends of the stocks or piles from the 
 effects of the weather. 
 
 Of the various modes of artificial and rapid desicca- 
 tion, that of charring is perhaps the best ; but it is 
 liable to two objections ; the first is, that if the surface 
 be completely charred, it diminishes very much the 
 strengtli of the timber ; and, secondly, it the more 
 readily attracts moisture. The juices of timber may 
 be drawn off or hardened by kiln-drying ; but this also 
 disturbs the arrangement of the fibres, and deprives 
 the wood of a great part of its strength. 
 
 Experiments — Seasoning Timber. — The experiments 
 made by Mr. Lukin for the rapid seasoning of green 
 oak timber, promised at one time much success, but 
 ended in disappointment. He conceived, that if the 
 acid and the waterj' particles were driven out of a 
 piece of oak timber by some process which should prcr- 
 vent the surface from splitting, the fibres would be 
 brought closer into contact, and whilst the log lost in 
 weight it would gain in strength. With this view he 
 buried a piece of wood in pulverized charcoal, in a 
 heated oven. The log wore a promising appearance ; 
 the surface was close . and compact ; it had lost in its 
 weight and dimensions ; but when -divided with the 
 saw,' the fibres were discovered to have started from 
 each other, exhibiting a piece of fine net-work,. resem- 
 bling the inner bark of a tree. 
 
 The bad efi^ects of applying artificial heat to the sea- 
 soning of green timber, were strongly exemplified by 
 a practice introduced very generally into our ships of 
 war which had exhibited indications of' the drj' rot, 
 particularly in the Queen Charlotte. Enormous fires 
 were made in stoves placed in various parts of the 
 ship, and the heat led in tubes to the cavities between 
 the timbers, etc. The consequence of which was, as 
 might be expected, an increase of the mischief they 
 were intended to prevent. Ever}' part of the ship was 
 converted into a hot-house, and every part where the 
 seeds of fungi had been deposited began to throw out a 
 luxuriant crop of mushrooms ; and where these did not 
 appear, the juices of the wood were thrown into a state 
 of fermentation, and, in the course of a twelve-month, 
 a great part of her upper worlds became a mass of rot- 
 tenness. After staving the powder magazines of some 
 of the ships, there appeared under their floors, which 
 are contiguous to much moisture, numbers of large 
 excrescences of a leathery consistence, of the size and 
 shape of a quart glass-decanter; and in all such parts 
 where two surfaces of the wood were imperfeotl}' 
 brought into contact, were whole masses of fungi. 
 
 Winter-felled Timber. — Another mode, of very an- 
 cient standing, was practiced for getting rid of the 
 juices of timber. This was supposed to be efTected by 
 felling the tree in the winter season, when the sap had 
 descended and the vessels were empty. By this prac- 
 tice the baric of the oak, so valuable in the process of 
 tanning, was lost, as it will strip only from the wood 
 in the spring of the year, when the sap js said to be 
 rising. The supposed superior quality of the wood, 
 when winter-felled, and tlie general practice of felling 
 oak timber at that season, may be inferred from a stat^ 
 ute of James I., by which it is enacted, that no person 
 or persons shall fell, or cause to be felled, any oaken 
 trees meet to be barked, when bark is worth 2s. a cart- 
 load (timber for the needful building and reparation of 
 houses, ships, or mills, only excepted), but between 
 the first day of April and the last day of June, not even 
 for the king's use, out of barking-time, except for 
 building or repairing his majesty's houses or ships. 
 
 The old Sovereign of the Seas is the standing exam- 
 ple generally quoted to prove the beneficial effects of 
 winter-felled timber. We are informed by one writer 
 that, when taken in pieces, after 47 years' service, the 
 old timber was still so hard that it was no easy matter 
 to drive a nail into it, and all future writers have taken 
 it for granted that this was owing to its being winter- 
 felled. Mr. Pett, however, who built her, takes LC 
 notice of any such circumstance. He merely says he 
 was commanded by the king, on the 14th of May, 1635, 
 to hasten into the north to procure the frame-timbers, 
 plank, and treenails, for the great new ship at Wool- 
 wich. But he left his son behind to ship the moulds, 
 provisions, and workmen, in a hired ship, to transport 
 them to Newcastle ; tliat the frame, as it was got 
 read}-, was sent in colliers from Newcastle and Sun- 
 derland ; and that, on the 21st December, in the same 
 year, the keel was laid in the dock ; and in less than 
 two years after this she was launched. Now, as it was 
 
DRY 
 
 561 
 
 DRY 
 
 the middle of May before Mr. Pett received hia maj- 
 esty's commands to procure timber for this ship, and 
 as she ■was on the stocks the same year, it is not very 
 probable that the timber procured and sent in colliers 
 from Newcastle to Wicrolwich, was felled in the winter ; 
 much less could it hare been " stripped of its bark in 
 the spring, and ^lled the second snoceeding autumn," 
 as Mr. Wade has it. 
 
 Neither is there the least proof of the old lioyal 
 William, recently broken Up, when a century old, be- 
 ing built of winter-felled timber. The fact is, that she 
 was rebuilt half a dozen times, and the only old and 
 original timber remaining in her was in the lowest 
 part of her hull, always immersed in the salt-water 
 externally; and washed with the bilge-water inter- 
 nally; and the wood from this part of her, when 
 broken' up, was perfectly sound, but quite black, hav- 
 ing the appearance of being charred. 
 
 ' As far as experiments have been made, there is no 
 reason to conclude that timber felled in the winter is 
 at all more durable than tliat which is felled at the 
 usual time. In the year 1793, the Hawke, sloop-of- 
 war, was ordered to be built, one side being of timber 
 that had been barked in the spring and felled in the 
 mnter, and the other side with timber felled at the 
 usual time. In 1803 she was reported to be in so bad 
 a state of rottenness, that she was ordered to be taken 
 in pieces, when no difference whatever could be dis- 
 covered in the state of the timbers of the two sides. It 
 is said, however, in Derrak's Memoirs of the Navy, 
 " that the timber had been stripped in the spring of 
 1787, and not felled until the autumn of 1790," and this 
 is given as an explanation of the failure. Why the 
 barldng in the spring should add to the durabilitj' of 
 timber, is not easily conceived, if the object be to fell 
 the timber when all the sap-vessels are empty, as, if 
 the sap descends at all, which is doubtful, it might be 
 expected to descend more freely when the bark is on 
 than off the tree. This subject has not escaped the 
 attention of the commissioners of the royal woods and 
 forests, and various experiments have been made with 
 a view to throw more light on a subject so vitally im- 
 portant to the British Navy. In France, so long ago 
 as 1669, a royal ordinance limited the felling of timber 
 from the 1st October to the 15th April ; and the con- 
 servators of the forests directed that tlie trees should 
 be felled when the " wind was at north," and " in the 
 wane of the moon ;" and we iind an instruction of Bo- 
 naparte, that " as ships built of timber felled at the 
 moment of vegetation must be liable to rapid decay, 
 and require immediate repairs, from the effect of the 
 fermeTitatlon of the sap in those pieces which had not 
 been felled at the proper season ;" the agents of the 
 forests should abridge the time for felling naval tim- 
 ber, which should take place " in the decrease of the 
 moon, from the 1st November to the 15th March." 
 
 Immersion in Earth, Sand, or Water. — The facts are 
 so numerous and so strong in favor of the durability 
 of timber when steeped in water, or buried in earth or 
 sand, that no doubt whatever can be entertained of the 
 efficacy of such a practice. At Brest, all the timber 
 used in ship-building is deposited in the narrow creek of 
 the harbor which runs through the middle of the dock- 
 yard, and it is said that the Brest-built ships never had 
 the drj' rot. The same practice prevailed at Cadiz and 
 Carthagena. Indeed there is reason to think that 
 steeping in fresh water is a preventive of dry rot, prob- 
 ably by dissolving the juices of the timber. It was 
 an ancient practice, and we believe it is still followed in 
 some parts of England, to place the timber intended 
 for threshing-floors in the midst of a stream of water 
 to harden it ; and all the oak planks intended for the 
 wainscoating of the old mansions were previously 
 steeped in running water. 
 
 It is said, and there seems to be no reason for doubt- 
 ing the fact, that the planks of ships near the bows, 
 which are obliged to be boiled in water or steam in 
 Nn 
 
 order to bend them, are never infected with tlie dry- 
 rot : if the water in which they are boiled be strongly 
 impregnated with salt, the effects would probably be 
 more durable and decisive. 
 
 In a lecture read by Mr. Ogg, a salt-refiner, to the 
 Plymouth Institution, on the prevention and cure of 
 dry rot in ships of war, common salt is strongly re- 
 commended, for its cheapness, its wholesomeness, and 
 its easy application ; but he proposes a saturated solu- 
 tion of salt, in which he would steep not only single 
 logs or planks, but the whole frame of a ship, or even 
 the ship itself. *' Let every ship in the navy," says 
 the salt-refiner, " be immersed a sufScient time in this 
 fluid, and let every new ship be prepared in the same 
 way, and dry rot would be heard of no more. But 
 how is this to be accomplished ? I answer, provide a 
 dock or docks sufficiently' capacious to receive five, 
 ten or twenty ships, and the work is done." As com- 
 mon sea-water will answer the purpose equally well, 
 the apparatus of extensive docks and water saturated 
 with salt are wholly unnecessary. But Mr. Ogg, like 
 Mr. Bowden, appears to mistake the real cause of dry 
 rot. " I affirm," says he, *' that dry rot is occasioned 
 hy the vegetative principle ; brine will destroy this 
 principle ; then sink the ship in brine." The experi- 
 ments in the case of the Resistance and the Eden show 
 that brine is not necessary. 
 
 The Dutch having observed that their busses, in 
 which the herrings were caught and stowed away in 
 pickle, lasted longer than any other craft, adopted the 
 practice of filling up the vacancies between the tim- 
 bers and planks of ships with salt, and of boring holes 
 in the large timbers and cramming them full of salt. 
 The Americans also found, that the ships employed in 
 carrying out salt for their fisheries and domestic pur- 
 poses, were the most durable ; and both they and the 
 Dutch are glad to get a cargo of salt into a new ship, 
 as the surest means of preserving her. The carpenter 
 of the Franhlin, an American 74 gun ship^ when at 
 Spithead, told some of her visitors, that at the junc» 
 tion of the beams, and at the butt end of the timbers, 
 pieces were cut, and the hollow part filled with salt, 
 and covered with felt, for the purpose of preserving 
 those parts where two surfaces are imperfectly brought 
 together, from the dry rot, where it is always most 
 prevalent. 
 
 There are, however, very serious objections to the 
 immersion of ships in a strong solution of salt, and the 
 practice of inserting salt in the vacant space betweea 
 the timbers, which may not, perhaps, apply with equal 
 force to their immersion in sea-water. It is observed 
 by a writer in the Quarterly Review for October, 1814, 
 that ^' the attraction for moisture which salts and acid& 
 possess, would keep the whole interior of the ship 
 dripping wet ; which would not only destroy the ship 
 with the wet rot, but the ship's company also, whose 
 health, experience has proved, is best preserved by 
 keeping the ship as dry as possible ; and thus the rem.- 
 edy would be worse than the disease." These bad 
 effects have unquestionably been experienced, the 
 muriate of magnesia, which exists in sea-water, being 
 one of the most deliquescent salts ; but whether the 
 abstraction of moisture from the atmosphere be of long 
 duration, is a fact which remains to be proved. In cor- 
 roboration of the injurious effects above described, Mr. 
 Strange in his Evidences, observes, '* that the practice 
 at Venice of the fresh cut timber being thrown into 
 salt water prevents its ever becoming dry in the ships, 
 and that the salt water rusted and corroded the Iron 
 bolts." Mr. Chapman also observes that "the Flor- 
 ida, a 20 gun ship, taken from the Americans, and sub- 
 sequently commissioned in the British service, had 
 been salt^seasoned ; and the result was, that in damp 
 weather ev«ry tiling became moist, the iron-work was 
 rusted, and the health of the crew was impaired;; in. 
 fine," he adds, " vessels so circumstanced are perfect 
 hygrometers ; being as sensible to changes, of tbe 
 
DRY 
 
 562 
 
 DEY 
 
 moisture in tlie atmosphere as lumps of rocli; salt, or 
 slips of fuci, or the plaster of inside -walls where sea- 
 sand has been used." 
 
 Mr. Chapman, however, is of opinion, that vessels 
 impregnated with bay-salt, or the large grained salt of 
 Limington or of Liverpool, (being pure muriate of 
 soda, without admixture with the bitter deliquescent 
 salts), will possess decided advantages, as would also 
 vessels laden with saltpetre, if it has been dispersed 
 among their timbers ; and Mr. Ogg sees no difficulty 
 in refining salt so as to deprive it of its deliquescent 
 quality. But if a very weak solution of salt, or even 
 n-esh water, shall be found to answer the purpose, the 
 objection against immersing timber in sea-water seems 
 to be got rid of. That it will immediately destroy all 
 vegetable life in the delicate fibres of the fungus, and 
 also prevent its future growth, is quite clear ; and if it 
 shall be found to prevent also the putrefactive process, 
 it may be considered the most advisable way to pre- 
 pare timber for all purposes of house carpentry, and 
 ship-building. 
 
 Impregnation of Timber with Foreign Substances. — 
 A great variet}' of substances besides common salt, 
 indeed almost any salt or acid, will destroy and pre- 
 vent the growth of fungus. Sir . Humphrey Davy 
 recommends -"■ weak solution of the corrosive subli- 
 mate as the most eflScient. A solution of sulphate of 
 iron or copperas, is much used in Sweden for hardening 
 and preserving wood for wheel-carriages, etc. It is 
 boiled in this solution for three or four hours, and then 
 kept in a warm place to dry, by which process it is 
 said to become so hard and compact that moisture can 
 not penetrate it. " The wooden vessels," says Mr. 
 Chapman, " in which the sulpho-ferruginous solution 
 is finally placed for the copperas to crystallize, become 
 exceedingly hard and not subject to deca)'." A solu- 
 tion of alum has been recommended ; but Mr. Chap- 
 man seems to think that its earthy basis would become 
 a nidus of putrefaction. The wood, however, which 
 is used about alum works, becomes hard and durable, 
 and resists fire in an extraordinary manner. All tim- 
 ber, in fact, when completely saturated with saline 
 matter, is more or less indestructible, and absolutely 
 incombustible. A solution of arsenic has not been 
 found to prevent the dry rot. With regard to the im- 
 pregnation of oils, there are various opinions, some 
 thinking them beneficial, and others injurious to the 
 durability of timber. It is known, however, that 
 ships in the Greenland trade have their timbers and 
 planks preserved as high up as ther are impregnated 
 with whale oil from the blubber ; and Mr. Chapman 
 says, that one of the masters of a Greenland ship 
 having payed her upper works with twelve or more 
 successive coats of whale oil in hot weather, thej' 
 became covered with a thin varnish, much harder and 
 more compact than if filled with successive coats of 
 turpentine. Resinous substances, however, are prob- 
 ably better than oil. 
 
 After a variety of experiments and sensible obser- 
 vations, Mr. Chapman sums up the three great opera- 
 tions by which timber may be brought to resist the 
 tendency to dry rot. 1. To deprive the timber of its 
 mucilage, which is very liable to fermentation. 2. To 
 impregnate timber with any strongly antiseptic and 
 non-deliquescent matter. 3. To dry timber progres- 
 sively by the sun and wind, or by the latter alone ; 
 and then to close its pores completely with any sub- 
 stance impervious to air and moisture, and at the same 
 time highly repellant to putrescency. 
 
 Mr. Wade recommends the impregnation of timber 
 with sulphates of copper, zinc, or iron, rejecting deli- 
 quescent salts, as they corrode metals, and would de- 
 stroy the bolts and metal fastenmgs of a ship. He 
 observes, that timber impregnated with saline matter 
 is no longer capable of fermentation, and that, of 
 course, the gases necessary for the nutriment of fungi 
 are not evolved, Selenite is recommended as being 
 
 insoluble, or nearly so, and not liable to any alteration 
 in the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere ; but 
 all salts, he observes, composed of barytes, should be 
 rejected, because, though they are plentiful, cheap, 
 and have some qualities eminently fitting them to be 
 employed for this purpose, yet they are, without any 
 exception, verj' poisonous. 
 
 From all experiments that have been made, it ap- 
 pears that the most eflFectual method of preventing the 
 dry rot, and of giving durability to timber, is that of 
 depriving the sap of its mucilage, more especially in 
 the alburnum, where it most abounds ; for though sea- 
 soning in the dry way will coagulate and harden the 
 extractive matter of timber, yet when exposed to 
 heat, moisture, and a stagnant air, the process of pu- 
 trefaction will commence, and all the symptoms of 
 dry rot will speedily make their appearance. It will 
 be preferable, therefore, that such timber as is likely 
 to be exposed to the vicissitudes of weather, should he 
 seasoned by immersion or impregnation, rather than 
 by the dry way. 
 
 Ci/re of the Dry Eot. — In this disease, as in those in- 
 cident to animal life, prevention is much easier than 
 cure. In fact, there is no other cure for the part af- 
 fected than excision, and the sooner it is done the bet- 
 ter, as the disease spreads most rapidly when fungi are 
 propagated, throwing their minute fibres into the tubes 
 of the contiguous sound wood, and producing that 
 moisture which is a condition absolutely necessar}- to 
 the putrefactive process. If, however, the fibre of the 
 wood is still sound, and the roots of the fungi extend 
 not beyond the alburnum near to the surface, immer- 
 sion in sea-water, as in cases of the Resistance and 
 Eden, or impregnation with some of the solutions 
 above mentioned, may stop the progress of the dis- 
 ease ; but the only safe cure, we apprehend, is that of 
 cutting out the infected part. The sinking of the 
 Royal George at her moorings has not been the means 
 of preserving her timbers. On being visited in the 
 diving-bell, her oaken sides were broken down into a 
 confused mass of timber and black mud ; having, no 
 doubt, been too far gone in decay, when the fatal ac- 
 cident happened ; but her fir deck appeared as sound 
 as the day when she sunk. 
 
 Miscellaneous Observations. — It is a great mistake to 
 suppose that the ancients were unacquainted with the 
 dry rot or premature decay of timber. Pliny has a 
 number of valuable observations on the preservation of 
 timber, and on its decay occasioned bj' the juices ; and, 
 among other things, recommends that a tree should 
 be cut to the heart all round, in order to let the juices 
 escape, and that it should not be felled until the whole 
 had run out. He knew that the sappy part of oak 
 was more subject to rot, and advised that it should be 
 cut awaj^ in squaring. He knew, too, that resinous 
 and oleaginous matter in wood preserved it ; observ- 
 ing, that the more odoriferous a piece of timber is, the 
 more durable. He knew that much depended on the 
 close texture of timber, and that box, ebony, cypress, 
 and cedar might almost be considered as indestruct- 
 ible.' We also know that cedar, teak, and mahogany, 
 are very durable woods. 
 
 The felling of timber while young and full of vigor, 
 making use of the sap-wood or alburnum, and apply- 
 ing it to ships and buildinge in an unseasoned state, 
 have, no doubt, contributed to make the disease of 
 dry rot infinitely more common and extensive than it 
 was in former times, when our ships were " hearts of 
 oak," and when in our large mansions the wind was 
 suffered to blow freely through them, and a current of 
 air to circulate through the wide space left between 
 the panneled wainscoat and the wall. In those old 
 mansions which yet remain, and in the ancient cathe- 
 drals, we find nothing like the dry rot, though perhaps 
 
 perforated sore 
 
 And drill'd in holes, the solid oak is found 
 
 By worms voracious eaten through and througb- 
 
DRY 
 
 563 
 
 DUB 
 
 Numerous examples of the extraordinary duration 
 of timber may be produced, botli from complete desic- 
 cation and exposure to tlie air, and from the complete 
 exclusion of air and immersion in earth or water. 
 Without adducing the surturbrandt of Iceland, covered 
 ■with several strata of solid roclt, or the logs of wood 
 dug out of peat-moss, the antiquity of which is mere 
 conjecture, we may instance the mummy-casea of Egypt 
 as being in all probability the most ancient timber in 
 existence that has been worked by the hand of man. 
 When Belzoni entered the splendid tomb of the kings 
 of Thebes, in which was the transparent sarcophagus 
 of gj'psum, he found two human figures larger than 
 life sculptured in wood, in as good preservation as if it 
 had been worked in his own time ; but the sockets of 
 the eye, which had been copper, were entirely wasted 
 away. We are told by Pliny, that the image of Diana 
 at Ephesus, supposed to be of ebony, remained entire 
 and unchanged, though the temple itself was ruined 
 and rebuilt seven times. He adds that, in his own 
 time, the image of Jupiter in the capitol, made of cy- 
 press wood, was still fresh and beautiful, though set up 
 in the year after the foundation of Rome 661, nearly 
 three hundred years before. He further says that there 
 was a temple of Apollo at Utica, the timbers of which, 
 being of Numidian cedar, are said to have stood 1188 
 years. The roof of Westminster Hall, which is con- 
 structed of oak, has stood for more than three hundred 
 years, and is probably better now than when newlj' 
 erected. Similar instances of the long duration of 
 timber have occurred in situations wliere the atmos- 
 pheric air has been excluded. In the Leverian Mu- 
 setun was a post said to be dug out of Fleet Ditch, 
 charred at the lower end, having the name of Julius 
 Ctesar cut into it. The foundation on which the stone 
 piers of London Bridge are laid consist of huge piles of 
 timber "driven close to one another, on the top of which 
 is a floor of planks ten inches thick, strongly bolted 
 together ; on these the stone piers rest, at above nine 
 feet above the bed of the river, and, at low water, may 
 be seen or felt at a very few inches below the surface. 
 These piles have been driven upward of six hundred 
 years, and, from the solidity of the superincumbent 
 weight, it may be concluded that they are perfectly 
 sound. In the old city wall of London, timber is fre- 
 quently dug out as sound and perfect as when first de- 
 posited there. As the last instance of the extraordinary 
 preservation of timber, we may mention that in digging 
 awaj'" the foundation of the Old Savoy Palace, which 
 was buUt about six hundred and fifty years ago, the 
 whole of the piles, consisting of oak, elm, beech, and 
 chestnut, were found in a state of perfect soundness, 
 without the least appearance of rottenness in any pai-t 
 of them, and the plank which covered the pile-heads 
 was equally sound. Some of the beech, however, after 
 being exposed a few weeks to the air, but under cover, 
 had a coating of fungus spread over the surface ; 
 which affords a striking proof of the immense length 
 of time that the seeds of this parasite will remain dor- 
 mant, without parting with the principle of vegetable 
 life, which is called into activity from the moment that 
 they are deposited in a situation favorable to their 
 growth. In this instance we have only to suppose 
 that the indurated juices of the wood became dissolved 
 by its exposure to the moist atmosphere, and the phe- 
 nomenon of fungous vegetation is capable of receiving 
 a satisfactory explanation.* Communicated to the 
 
 • The process termed kyanizing is similar to that already 
 noticed, as proposed by Sir Humphrey Davy — namely, steep- 
 ing the timber in a solution of corrosive sublimate. This 
 appears to be one of the best preservatives of wood in so far 
 as dry rot is produced by a fungus. Mr. BethelVs method of 
 preparing wood for fences, railway sleepers, piles, and other 
 wood-work submerged in water, and for various similar 
 purposes, is said to render timber of any description much 
 tougher, and greatly to promote its durability. The process 
 Is as follows : The timber is placed in a strong close iron tank, 
 which is filled with oil of tar and other bituminous matters 
 
 Encyclopedia Britarmica, by SiK John Barrow, Bart. 
 See Am. Jour. Sc, ii., p. 114, xxxiv., p. 1G9 ; West- 
 minster Sev., X., p. 414; London Quar., xii., p. 227, 
 XXX., 216 ; Monthly Sev., Ixxxvi, 361, xc, 387 ; Ure's 
 Diet. Arts. 
 
 Dubber, or Dupper, a leathern vessel, bottle, or 
 jar, used in India to hold oil, ghee, etc. Barrels, as 
 already observed, are entirely a European invention. 
 Liquids, in eastern countries, are for the most part 
 packed for exportation in leathern vessels. Dubbers 
 are made of thin untanned goat skins ; and are of all 
 sizes, from a quart up to nearly a barrel. 
 
 Dublin, the metropolis of Ireland, in the county 
 to which it gives name, and province of Leinster, 
 ranking in importance as the second city in the United 
 Kingdom. It is distant 292 miles W.N.W. from Lon- 
 don, 138 miles west from Liverpool, and 60 miles west 
 from Holyhead, in lat. 58° 30' 38" N., and long 6° 7' 
 13" W,, agreeably situate in the great central limestone 
 district which-reaches across the island from the Irish 
 Sea to the Atlantic Ocean on the River Liffej-, and ex- 
 tending to the junction of that river with the Bay of 
 Dublin, the waters of""*hich wash its suburban shores. 
 
 The population of the citj- of Dubliu was estimated 
 by Butter, in 1753, at 16i;088 ; in 1798, by Whitelaw, 
 at 182,037, and was ascertained by the census of 1821 to 
 amount at that period to 185,881, and by the census of 
 1831 to 204,155. The population of the city, according 
 to the most recent enumerations, in 1841 was 232,726, 
 and in 1861 it was 258,301. 
 
 In order still further to promote the commercial in- 
 terests of Dublin, an association was formed about 
 thirty years ago, under the name of the Chamber of 
 Commerce, which soon decayed ; but the idea was re- 
 vived in 1820, when a number of merchants formed 
 themselves into a society under the same name, which 
 still exists. Its objects are the protection and promo- 
 tion of the manufacturing and commercial interests of 
 Dublin, and of the country in general. The business 
 is transacted by a president, vice-presidents, and com- 
 mittee, instructed to communicate with the officers of 
 government on the subjects of the association. Their 
 office is held in the Commercial Buildings. The Ouzel 
 Galley is another voluntary association of merchants 
 for determining commercial differences by arbitration. 
 It takes its name from that of a vessel, which was the 
 occasion of a complicated and protracted suit, that was 
 ultimately adjusted in an amicable manner by the in- 
 terference of some of the most respectable merchants 
 in Dublin. The effect of steam navigation on the 
 cross-channel trade has produced a great alteration in 
 the state of commerce in Dublin. 
 
 The Bank of Ireland was formed in 1783 in order to 
 give security to commerce. It was opened at first in 
 some old houses in Mary's Abbey, with a capital of 
 £600,000, which i^as afterward increased to £3,000,000. 
 In the year 1802 the parliament house was purchased 
 by the directors, and adapted to its present destination. 
 This edifice was erected in 1729 ; and notwithstanding 
 the changes made in it since it was diverted from its 
 original purpose, the exterior has been but little alter- 
 ed. It consists of three fronts. The principal, toward 
 College Green, a colonnade of the Ionic order, formed 
 of a fa9ade and two projecting wings, is much admired 
 for the noble simplicity of its elevation. The western 
 front, a portico of fom' Ionic columns, was connected 
 with the other by a colonnade of the same order, form- 
 
 containing creasote, and with pyrolignite of iron ; the air is 
 then exhausted by powerful air-pumps ; after which more of 
 the saturating fluid is forced in by hydrostatic pumps. When 
 the wood has been subjected for six or seven hours to a press- 
 ure of from 100 to 150 pounds on the square Inch, the process 
 is complete, and the wood is found to weigh from 8 to 12 
 pounds per cubic foot heavier than before. It also preserves 
 iron bolts driven into it from corrosion. Wood thus prepared 
 has been nsed for sleepers on several of the great English 
 railroads, and is said to have proved extremely durable. (See 
 Ube's ZHct. of Arts, etc., voL ii, p. 963,) 
 
DUB 
 
 564 
 
 DUN 
 
 ing the quadrant of a circle. The eastern front, n-hich 
 was the entrance of the House of Lords, was, by their 
 special order, a colonnade of the Corinthian order, which 
 the architect found great diflSculty in uniting with the 
 other parts. The apartment for the lords, a iine room, 
 was hung with tapestry. That of the commons having 
 been burned in 1792 (whether by accident or design has 
 never been fully ascertained), was reconstructed after 
 a more elegant design, in the form of a circle surround- 
 ed by pillars, between which was a gallery for hearers. 
 This fine hall was taken down by the bank directors, 
 and converted into a square room, now the cash-office. 
 
 The commerce of the port of Dublin had increased 
 so much toward the close of the last centurj'' that the 
 accommodation aff'orded in the river for shipping was 
 found insufficient, and the Irish parliament granted 
 ^£15,000 for forming docks on both sides of it. The 
 floating and graving docks, communicating with the 
 grand canal on the south side, including a basin cover- 
 ing 40 statute acres, with a fine quaj^ and store frontage 
 of 7,500 feet, were opened in 1796 ; and St. George's, 
 the latest of the custom-house docks, in 1821. These 
 latter cover an area of 8 acres, having 16 feet depth of 
 water, and 1200 yards of quay ; they are capable of 
 accommodating 40,000 tons of shipping, and the stores 
 hare space for 8000 casks of sugar and tobacco, and 
 20,000 chests of tea, with cellarage for 12,000 pipes of 
 wine. The docks on the south side afford commodious 
 wharfage for 100 sail of merchantmen and colliers, ex- 
 clusive of that supplied by the river quays. The for- 
 mation of the asylum-harbor at Kingstown, then Dun- 
 leary, which was commenced in 1817, gave additional 
 aid to the commerce of the port, by the increased pro- 
 tection it afforded to shipping. The improvements 
 made on the bar, in the erection of the great northern 
 wall or breakwater, and the steam dredging of the bed 
 of the Liffey by the ballast board, by rendering the 
 channel sufficiently deep for the navigation of vessels 
 of 1400 tons, has also contributed greatly to the same 
 effect. 
 
 There were in 1852 belonging to the port, including 
 steamers, 454 vessels, of eveiy size, from 15 to 1200 
 tons ; the registered burden amounting to 39,814 tons. 
 Most of those vessels were emplo3'ed in the coasting or 
 cross-channel trade, there having been but 6 or 8 in that 
 of the We§t Indies, the same number in that of France 
 and the Spanish Peninsula, and 20 or 30 in the North 
 American timber trade. The amount of customs col- 
 lected averages about i:950,000, and has not varied 
 much during the last twelve 3'ears, the reduction of 
 duties having more than balanced the increase in the 
 quantity of articles imported. 
 
 " First impressions of Dublin," saj's Inglis, " are 
 decidedly favorable. Dublin, for its size, is a hand- 
 somer city than London. Sackville-street will com- 
 pare with any street in Europe ; Merrion Square and 
 St. Stephen's Green surpass in extent any of the 
 squares in the British metropolis. There are points 
 of view in Dublin, the quays, and some of the finest 
 public edifices, more striking, I think, than any that 
 are to be found in London ; and although the Irish 
 capital can boast of no St. Paul's, yet, in the archi- 
 tectural beaiity of some of her public buildings, she 
 has just reason for pride. I need but name the Custom 
 House, and the Bank of Ireland with its magnificent 
 yet classically chaste colonnades, in proof this asser- 
 tion." There is much truth in this description, yet the 
 chief advantage which Dublin has in picturesque 
 beauty lies in the concentration of the objects of in- 
 terest within a small compass, and further examination 
 does not confirm the first favorable impression. Sir 
 John Forbes, who visited Ireland in 1852, says : " I own 
 myself to have been a good deal disappointed with Dub- 
 lin as a city. To say nothing of its extent, it is greatly 
 inferior in many other respects, not only to London, 
 but to several towns in England, and some in Scotland. 
 Its site is fiat and monotonous, and its streets and 
 
 squares possess no architectural beauty. The former, 
 to be sure, are often very wide, and some of the latter, 
 as Merrion Square and Stephen's Green, are of im- 
 mense extent, but there is throughout a general want 
 of elegance and grandeur. Most of the streets seem 
 to want dignity, and the majority of the houses are 
 common-looking, and even mean and dingy. WhUo 
 denying both beauty and grandeur to Dublin as a 
 cifc}', I must join in the universal judgment as to the 
 splendor of many of its public buildings, as the Bank 
 of Ireland — ^formerly the Parliament House, the Cus-' 
 torn House, the Post Office, the Eoyal Exchange," etc. 
 
 Few cities present a more striking picture of the 
 extremes of splendor and destitution than Dublin. A 
 line drawn from the King's Inns in the north of Dub- 
 lin, directly south, through Capel-street, the castle, 
 and Aungier-street, will, together with the line of the 
 Liffe}'', divide the whole area into four districts, mate- 
 rially different from each other in appearance and char- 
 acter. The south-eastern district, which comprehends 
 three of the great squares, and the north-eastern, which 
 includes the two remaining squares, are chiefly inhab- 
 ited by the nobility, the landed gentry, and the liberal 
 professions. These two districts present many symp, 
 toms of affluence and luxury. But on proceeding west- 
 ward the scene suddenly changes. A considerable por- 
 tion of the south-western district, which included the 
 liberties of St. Sepulchre's and Thomas Court, and was 
 formerly the seat of the silk and woolen manufactures, 
 and also of the north-western portion of the city, are in 
 a state of almost hopeless decay. The squalid misery 
 visible in the ruinous portions of the city is relieved to 
 the eye by the beauty of the environs of the city ; ^nd 
 in its immediate vicinity is the Phoenix Park, of which 
 the citizens are justly proud. It comprises an area of 
 1753 acres, within which are contained the Viceregal 
 Lodge, the usual residence of the lord-lieutenant, with 
 160 acres of demesne and gardens, the chief and under 
 secretary's lodges, and the lodges of the park rangers 
 and their assistants, with their respective inclosed 
 grounds, the Hibernian school for soldiers' children, 
 the military magazine, the military infirmary, the 
 zoological gardens, the constabulary barracks, etc. 
 Inglis, a good authority on such subjects, pronounced 
 this park as superior, both in extent and diversity of 
 surface, to any public park, promenade, prater, or 
 prado, belonging to any other European city. (White- 
 law and Walsii'3 History of Dublin ; Thom's Irish 
 Almanac; Gilbert's History oj" the City of Dublin, 
 1854.) — E. B. Dublin Univ. Mac/., viii., xvi., iii., iv,, 
 v., vii. 
 
 Ducat, a foreign coin, either of gold or silver, 
 struck in the dominions of a duke. The ducat was first 
 coined by Longinius, governor of Italy, who revolted 
 against the Emperor Justin the Younger, and made 
 himself duke of Eavenna, calling himself Exarcha, 
 that is, without lord or iniler ; and he struck pieces of 
 money, of very pure gold, witli his own stamp, which, 
 as Procopius relates, were called ducati, ducats. Ac- 
 cording to Du Gauge, ducats were coined by Roger, 
 King of Sicily, in the year 1240. The Venetian ducat 
 was first struck by John Dandolo, in 1280, and in- 
 scribed with this legend : 
 
 " Si Tibi, Christe, datue, quem Tu regis iste Ducatufi." 
 
 DucatO (Cape), the modern name of the ancient 
 Leucate, a promontory at the south end of Santa 
 Maura, one of the Ionian Islands ; celebrated as the 
 rock from which Sappho precipitated herself into the sea. 
 
 Ducatoon, a silver coin, struck chiefly in Italy, 
 particularly at Milan, Venice, Florence, Genoa, Lucca, 
 Mantua, and Parma ; though there are, also, Dutch 
 and Flemish ducatoons, 
 
 Dundee, a seaport town of Scotland, county of 
 Forfar, 42 miles N.N.E. from Edinburg ; N. lat. 66° 
 2' ; W. long. 3° 2'. It is situated on the north side 
 of the Elver Tay, about 12 miles from its mouth. 
 Population (1855) 78,931 ; and as a considerable increase 
 
DUN 
 
 565 
 
 DUN 
 
 has since taken place, it may now be estimated at 
 90,000 to 100,000. Dundee is thus the third town in 
 Scotland in respect of jjppulation. The name applied 
 to it by the earliest writers is Alectum or Taodunum. 
 It was subsequently designated Deidonum, of which 
 the present name is supposed to be a corruption. The 
 early history of the town is involved in obscurity, but 
 it appears to have been a place of importance as early 
 as the 12th century. Frequent mention is made of it 
 in connection with the disputes regarding the succes- 
 sion to the crown of Scotland ; and it was the scene of 
 severe conflicts between the English forces, who in- 
 vaded the country in the reign of Edward I., and the 
 Scotts, under the patriotic Wallace, and the other sup- 
 porters of Scottish independence. 
 
 Dundee was at one time surrounded by strong walls, 
 and portions of them are yet to be seen. The Cow- 
 gate port still stands, and is regarded with veneration 
 as a memorial of George Wishart, the Reformer, who 
 is said to have preached from it in the year 1544, when 
 the plague prevailed, the sick being placed on one side 
 of the wall, and the healthy on the other. 
 
 The ground on which the town is built slopes gently 
 toward the river, and is bounded on the north by the 
 Law of Dundee and the Hill of Balgay. The former 
 rises to the height of 535 feet, and must in warlike 
 times have been a strong position. The walls of a 
 fortification are still to be traced on its summit. The 
 town in general is irregularly built ; but within the 
 last 20 or 30 years several' new and spacious streets 
 have been opened up. The principal public buildings 
 are the Exchange Eeadihg-Eoom ; the Eoyal Arch, 
 erected by public subscription to commemorate the 
 landing of Queen Victoria in 1844, at a cost of nearly 
 £8,000 ; the Public Seminaries ; and the New Baltic 
 Exchange Coffee-Eoom, a splendid specimen of the 
 Flemish-Gothic style. 
 
 Within a comparatively recent period a, number of 
 important public undertakings have been completed. 
 The Dundee and Newtyle Railway was opened for 
 traffic in 1826 ; the Dundee and Arbroath Railway in 
 1838 ; and the Dundee and Perth Railway in 1847. By 
 means of these railways, and of the Edinburg,' Perth, 
 and Dundee Railway, which joins the Dundee and 
 Arbroath Railway by means of a ferry and branch line 
 at Broughty Castle, four miles east from the town, Dun- 
 dee has direct communication with all parts of the 
 kingdom. There are two gas-light companies, each 
 of them with a capital of about £50,000 invested in 
 their worlcs and apparatus. The Dundee Water Com- 
 pany was formed in 1846. Its capital is about £130,- 
 000. Its reservoirs are situated in the parish of Mo- 
 nikie, about 10 miles distant from the town ; and from 
 these an abundant supply of water has been procured. 
 The most important of the public works are the har- 
 bor and docks. Previously to 1815 the harbor was of 
 very limited extent. In that year an act of Parlia- 
 ment was obtained for enlarging it, and erecting a wet- 
 dock of 6J acres (King William's), a tide-harbor of 4f 
 acres, graving-dock, and other accommodation suitable 
 for the increasing trade of the port. The plan was 
 afterward greatly enlarged, embracing new docks 
 (Earl Grey's of 5J acres, and Victoria Dock of 14J 
 acres), patent slip, careening-beach, and additional 
 tide-harbors. The Victoria Dock, though for some 
 years open to vessels, is not quite completed. The 
 quays are wide, and afford convenient berthage for 
 about 70 vessels. On the south quay of Earl Grey's 
 Dock, is erected a large crane, capable of raising 30 
 tons. It is used chiefly for lifting the boilers and heavy 
 machinerj' of steam-vessels. Besides the ordinary 
 branches of ship-building, the building of iron vessels 
 is carried on at the port. Owing to the increased bur- 
 den of the vessels now employed in the trade of the 
 place, and the greater depth of water required by 
 them, additional works at the harbor are projected. 
 The cost of the docks and harbor was about £600,000. 
 
 The number and tonnage of vessels entered at the 
 harbor for the year ending 31st May, 1854, was as fol- 
 lows : 
 Vessels in foreign trade, 682 Eogistored tonnage, 110,687 
 
 " coasting do., 1,T65 " , " 158,384 
 
 " river do., 683 
 
 u / 
 
 Total, 8,070 
 
 297,238 
 
 The following statement shows the progressive in- 
 crease in the harbor and shipping dues. It was. 
 
 In 1780 £305 
 
 1795 965 
 
 1805 1,272 
 
 In 1815 £4,400 
 
 1885 11,908 
 
 1884 23,402 
 
 The staple trade of Dundee is the manufacture of 
 linen and hemp fabrics, chiefly of the coarser descrip- 
 tions. The manufacture of linens appears to have 
 been introduced from Germany in the beginning of the 
 last centurj'. Insignificant in extent at first, it grad- 
 ually increased till the close of that century, when, 
 machinery having been applied to the spinning of flax, 
 a great impulse was given to it. Spinning-mills were 
 erected, and of these there are now about 60 in Dundee 
 and its immediate neighborhood. Hand-spinning has 
 been entirely superseded by mill-spinning. The coarser 
 fabrics are still woven in hand-looms ; but there are 
 now six or seven large power-loom factories, and some 
 smaller ones. The chief articles of manufacture are 
 sheetings, sail-cloth, drills, dowlas, sacking, and bag- 
 ging. Nearly one half of the quantity made is sent to 
 London, Manchester, Glasgow, and Leeds, for home 
 consumption. The remainder is exported, either di- 
 rectly or indirectly, to foreign countries. The manu- 
 facture of jute carpeting is also now carried on to a 
 large extent. The number of persons employed in 
 the linen trade of the place is estimated to be from 
 20,000 to 25,000. 
 
 The quantity of flax, hemp, codUla, and jute, im- 
 ported for the year ending 31st May, 1854, was as fol- 
 lows : At the harbor, 54,341 tons ; by railway, 11,406 
 tons ; total, 65,747 tons. 
 
 The quantity of linen goods sent away for exporta- 
 tion and home-consumption for the same period, was as 
 follows : Linens of all descriptions shipped at the har- 
 bor, 421,432 pieces ; by railway, 686,110 pieces ; total, 
 1,107,542 pieces. 
 
 Assuming the value of the material at £30 per ton, 
 its total value used in manufactures will be £1,872,410. 
 Assuming the value of the goods manufactured to be 
 60s. per piece, their gross value will be £3,322,626 ; and 
 on this assumption, the balance of £1,450,216 repre- 
 sents the cost of the manufacture, including wages, 
 the rents of premises, and machinery employed in it, 
 and the profits of the manufacturers. From the fore- 
 going statements, some idea may be formed of the 
 rapid increase of the town in commerce, wealth, and 
 population. Dundee is now the principal seat of the 
 linen-trade of the United Kingdom, and its fabrics are 
 to be met with in all quarters of the world. In proof 
 of the prudential habits of the people, it may be men- 
 tioned that a national security savings-bank, opened 
 in 1838, now contains upward of £70,000, lodged by 
 4,632 depositors. 
 
 The country surrounding the town is fertile, and 
 well cultivated ; and has shared largely in its prosper- 
 ity, the rents having increased much, and the value of 
 the land being augmented in proportion. With the 
 natural advantages which it enjoys, and the energy 
 and enterprise for which its inhabitants are distin- 
 guished, Dundee may be expected to maintain the po- 
 sition which it now holds among the commercial towns 
 of the British Empire. — E. B. 
 
 Dunnage, in commercial navigation, loose wood, 
 consisting of pieces of timber, boughs of trees, faggots, 
 etc., laid in the bottom and against the side of the ship's 
 hold, either, 1st, by raising the cargo when she is 
 loaded with heavy goods, to prevent her from becom- 
 ing too stiff (see Ballast) ; or, 2d, to prevent the 
 cargo, should it be susceptible of damage by water, 
 
DYE 
 
 566 
 
 DYE 
 
 from being injured in the event of her becoming leaky. 
 A ship is not reckoned seaworthy unless she be pro- 
 vided -with proper and sufficient dunnage.— Falcoit- 
 er's Marine Dictionary; Abbott (Lord Tenterden) on 
 the Law of Shipping^ Part iii., c. 3. 
 
 Duplicate, a copy or transcript of any thing ; as 
 of a deed, letter, bill of exchange, etc. Duplication, 
 the act of doubling ; the multiplication of a number by 
 2. Also a folding ; a fold. 
 
 Dupondius, in antiquity, a -weight of 2 pounds, 
 or money of the value of 2 asses. 
 
 Dust, or Dustee, a river of Persia, flowing from 
 the interior through the province of IVIekran, from the 
 southern shore of which it falls into the Indian Ocean. 
 Its course is supposed to extend, under different appel- 
 lations, about 1,000 miles. 
 
 Dutch Gold, the commercial name of a coarse im- 
 itation of gold leaf, made of copper, of brass, or of 
 bronze. It is chiefly used for ornamenting toys. 
 
 Dyeing (Teinture, Fr. ; Fdrhereij Germ.) is the art 
 of impregnating wool, silk, cotton, hair, and skins, 
 "with colors not removable by washing, or the ordinarj' 
 usage to which these fibrous bodies are exposed, when 
 worlced up into articles of furniture or raiment. We 
 shall here consider the general principles of the art, 
 referring for the particular dyes, and peculiar treat- 
 ment of the stuffs to be dyed, to the different tinctorial 
 substances in their alphabetical places ; such as coch- 
 ineal, indigo, madder, etc. Dyeing is altogether a 
 chemical process, and requires for its due explanation 
 and practice an acquaintance with the properties of the 
 elementary bodies, and the laws which regulate their 
 combinations. It is true that many operations of this, 
 as of other chemical arts, have been practiced from the 
 most ancient times, long before any just views were 
 entertained of the nature of the changes that took 
 place. Mankind, equally in the rudest and most re- 
 fined state, have always sought to gratify the love of 
 distinction by staining their dress, sometimes even 
 their skin with gaudy colors. Moses speaks of rai- 
 ment dyed blue, and purple, and scarlet, and of sheep- 
 skins dyed red — circumstances which indicate no small 
 degree of tinctorial skill. He enjoins purple stuffs for 
 the works of the tabernacle and the vestments of the 
 high priest. The ancient Egyptians cultivated this 
 art with some degree of scientific precision, since they 
 knew the use of mordants, or those substances which, 
 though they impart no color themselves, yet enable 
 white robes (candlda vela) to absorb coloring drugs 
 (colorem sorhendibus medicamentif). Tyre, however, 
 was the nation of antiquity which made dyeing its . 
 chief occupation and the staple of - its commerce. 
 There is little doubt that purple, the sacred symbol of 
 royal and sacerdotal dignit}', was a color discovered in 
 that citj-, and that it contributed to its opulence and 
 grandeur. Homer marks no less the value than the 
 antiquity of this dye, by describing his heroes as 
 arrayed in purple robes. Purple habits are mentioned 
 among the presents made to Gideon by the Israelites 
 from the spoils of the kings of Midian. 
 
 The juice emploj'ed for communicating this dye was 
 obtained from two different kinds of shell-fish, de- 
 scribed by Pliny under the names of purpi/ra and buc- 
 cinum ; and was extracted from a small vessel, or sac, 
 in their throats, to the amount 'of only one drop from 
 each animal. A darker and inferior color was also 
 procured by crushing the whole substance of the buc- 
 cinura. A certain quantity of the juice, collected from 
 a vast number of shells, being treated with sea-salt, 
 was allowed to ripen for three days ; after which it 
 was diluted with 5 times its bulk of water, kept at a 
 moderate heat for 6 days more, occasionally skimmed 
 to separate the animal membranes, and when thus 
 clarified, was applied directly as a dye to white wool, 
 previously prepared for this purpose by the action of 
 lime-water, or of a species of lichen called fucus. Two 
 operations were requisite to communicate the finest 
 
 Tyrian purple : the 1st consisted in plunging the wool 
 into the juice of the purpura ; the 2d, into that of the 
 buccinum. 60 drachms of wool required 100 of the 
 former liquor, and 200 of the latter. Sometimes a pre- 
 liminarj' tint was given with coccus — ^the kermes of 
 the present day — and the cloth received merely a finish 
 from the precious animal juice. The colors, though 
 probably' not nearly so brilliant as those producible by 
 our cochineal, seem to have been very durable, for 
 Plutarch says, in his Life of Alexander (chap. 36), that 
 the Greeks found in the treasury of the King of 
 Persia a large quantity of purple cloth, which was as 
 beautiful as at first, though it was 190 years old. The 
 diflEicultj' of collecting the purple juice, and the tedious 
 complication of the dyeing process, made the purple 
 wool of Tyre so expensive at Rome, that in the time 
 of Augustus a pound of it cost nearly £30 of English 
 money. Notwithstanding this enormous price, such 
 was the wealth accumulated in that capital, that many 
 of the leading citizens decorated themselves in purple 
 attire, till the emperors arrogated to themselves the 
 privilege of wearing purble, and prohibited its use to 
 every other person. This prohibition operated so 
 much to discourage this curious art as eventually to 
 occasion its extinction, first in the western, and then 
 in the eastern empire, where, however, it existed in 
 certain imperial manufactories till the eleventh cen- 
 tury. 
 
 Dyeing was little cultivated in ancient Greece ; the 
 people of Athens wore generally woolen dresses of the 
 natural color. But the Romans must have bestowed 
 some pains upon this art. In the games of the circus, 
 parties were distinguished by colors. Four of these 
 are described by Pliny — the green, the orange, the 
 gray, and the white. The following ingredients were 
 used by their dyers. A crude native alum mixed with 
 copperas, copperas itself, blue vitriol, alkanet, lichen 
 rocellus, or archil, broom, madder, woad, nut-galls, 
 the seed of pomegranate, and of an Egj'-ptian acacia. 
 
 But the vast superiority of our dyes over those of 
 former times must be ascribed principally to the use of 
 pure alum and solution of tin as mordants, either alone 
 or mixed with other bases ; substances which give to 
 our common dye-stuffs remarkable depth, durability, 
 and lustre. Another improvement in dyeing, of more 
 recent date, is the application to textile substances of 
 metallic compounds, such as Prussian blue, chrome 
 yellow, manganese brown, etc. 
 
 The compound or mixed colors, are such as result 
 from the combination of two different colored dye-stuffs, 
 or from dyeing stuffs with one color and then with 
 another. The simple colors of the dyer are red, yel- 
 low, blue, and black, with which, when skillfully 
 blended, he can produce every variety of tint. Per- 
 haps the dun or fawn color might be added to the 
 above, as it is directly obtained from a great many 
 vegetable substances. 
 
 1. Ked with yellow, produces orange; a color which, upon 
 wool, is given usually with the spent scarlet hath. To tins 
 shade may be referred flame color, pomegranate, capuchin, 
 prawn, jonquil, cassis, chamois, ca/e ate lait, aurora, mari- 
 gold, orange peel, mordores, cinnamon, gold, etc. Snuff, 
 chestnut, musk, and other shades are produceed by substi- 
 tuting walnut peels or sumach for bright yellow. If a little 
 blue be added to orange, an olive is obtained. The only di- 
 rect orange dyes are anotto and subchromate of lead. 
 
 2. Red with blue produces purple, violet, lilac, pigeon's 
 neck, mallow, peach blossom, bleu de roi, lint-blossom, ama- 
 ranth. 
 
 3. Red with black; brown, chocolate, marone, etc. 
 
 4. Yellow with blue ; green of a great variety of shades, such 
 as nascent green, gay green, grass green, spring green, laurel 
 green, sea green, celadon green, parrot green, cabbage gi'een, 
 apple green, duck green. 
 
 6. Mixtures of colors, 3 and 3, and 4 and 4, produce an 
 indefinite diversity of tints ; thus red, yellow, and blue, form 
 brown olives and greenish grays ; in which the blue dye 
 ought always to be first given, lest the indigo vat should be 
 soiled by other colors. Red, yellow, and gray (which is a 
 gradation of black) give the dead-leaf tint, as well as dark 
 
EAR 
 
 567 
 
 EAR 
 
 orange, snuff color, etc. Red, blue, and gray, giye a vast 
 variety of shades ; as lead gray, slate gray, wood-pigeon gray, 
 and other colors, too numerous to specify. 
 
 The following list of dyes, and the coloring substances 
 which produce them, may prove useful : 
 
 Red. Cochiueal, kermes, lac, madder, archil, carthamus or 
 safflower, brazil wood, logwood, periodido of mercury, alka- 
 net. 
 
 Yellow, Quercitron, weld, fustic (yellow wood), annotto, 
 sawwort, dyer's broom, turmeric, fustet iyhus cotinuB), Per- 
 sian and Avignon berries (rhamnus infectorius)^ willow, per- 
 oxyd of iron ; chromate of lead (chrome yellow), sulphuret 
 of arsenic, hydrosulphuret of antimony ; nitric acid on silk. 
 
 Blue. Indigo, woad or pastel, Prussian blue, turnsole or 
 litmus, logwood with a salt of copper. 
 
 Black. Galls, sumach, logwood, walnut peels, and other 
 vegetables which contain tannin and gallic acid, along with 
 ferruginous mordants ; the anacardium of India. 
 
 Green. These are produced by the blue and yellow dyes 
 skillfully combined ; with the exception of the chrome green, 
 and perhaps the copper green of Schweinfurt. 
 
 Orange. Annotto, and mixtures of red and yellow dyes ; 
 subchromate of lead. 
 
 Fawn, Du/n, or Root. Walnut peels, sumach, birch-tree, 
 henna, sandal wood. — Uke'b Diet, of Arta. 
 
 Indigo and Cochineal. — In 1548 neither of these im- 
 portant dyo-stuffs had made their way into Europe. 
 Pliny mentions indigo under the name of indicum ; but 
 it appears to have been used by the Greeljs and Bomans 
 only as a paint ; yet there can be little doubt that in 
 India it had been employed from time immemorial as a 
 dyestuSF. Cochineal could not be known till after the 
 discoveiy of America. It was used by the Mexicans as 
 a dyestuff. In 1623 Cortez received orders from the 
 court of Spain to multiply this precious insect, to collect 
 it and send it to Spain. Cochineal by itself gives only a 
 crimson color ; it dyes scarlet when mixed with a solution 
 of tin. This fact was discovered accidentally by Corne- 
 lius Drebbel about the year 1630. He communicated 
 his observation to his son-in-law Kuffelar, who was a 
 dyer at Leyden. He soon brought the process to per- 
 fection, kept it a secret, and brought the scarlet color 
 into fashion. Soon after, the same process was dis- 
 covered by a German chemist called KefHer, who car- 
 ried his secret to London in 1643. A Flemish dyer 
 called John Kloeck got information of the process in 
 1647, and it gradually made its way through every 
 country of Europe. Indigo, though a much more 
 important dye-stuff than cochineal, did not make its 
 way into general use without the greatest difficulty. 
 The use of it was prohibited in England during the 
 reign of Elizabeth ; and the prohibition was not taken 
 
 off till the time of Charles II. It was equally prohib- 
 ited in Saxonj-, where it was styled in the prohibition 
 a corrosive substance, and called food for the devil. 
 Eestrictions on the use of indigo in dyeing were im- 
 posed also in France, though it was not altogether 
 prohibited, as it had been in England and Saxonj'. See 
 Berthollet, on Dyeing ; Bancroft, on Colors. 
 
 There has been much speculation among philosoph- 
 ical dj'ers respecting the nature of the coloring matters, 
 and the way in which the different colors are induced 
 by dyeing ; but these speculations have not led to an}- 
 information of much value. There is reason for be- 
 lieving that the coloring matters employed as dye- 
 stuffs are all transparent, and that the color is pro- 
 duced by their action on the light transmitted through 
 them from the white fibres of the cloth. Those color- 
 ing matters that transmit all the rays equally leave 
 the cloth white ; if the blue ray be transmitted and 
 the rest absorbed, the color of the cloth will be Utie, 
 and so on. This is all that we know about the me- 
 chanical nature of the dj'estuffs. 
 
 With respect to the aptitude of being dyed, and the 
 brilliancy of the colors thus communicated, there is 
 found to be very great difference in different tissues. 
 Animal substances are much more easily dyed than 
 vegetable substances. Of animal substances, silk 
 receives color, and the shades given are brighter and 
 more beautiful than those which can be imbibed by any 
 other tissue. Woolen cloth is also very fit for being 
 dyed, and receives very brilliant colors with avidity ; 
 tliough in this respect it is inferior to silk. Cotton 
 and linen are much more difficult to dye, and can not 
 be made to imbibe such brilliant colors as silk or 
 woolen. Thus the rich scarlet given to cloth by the 
 combined action of cochineal and the oxyd of tin, has 
 never been communicated to cotton cloth or linen. 
 The Turkey-red dye, which is by far the finest and 
 most permanent red that has ever been communicated 
 to cotton cloth, is a crimson, or rather a crimson with 
 a shade of brown. It has not the least approach to a 
 scarlet. — E. B. 
 
 Dyke, or Dike. When a mass of unstratified or 
 igneous rocli, such as granite, trap, or lava, appears as 
 if injected into rents and fissures in the stratified rock, 
 so as to intersect the strata, it is called a dyke. Dylce 
 is also the name given to a mound of earth, stones, or 
 other materials, intended to prevent low land from 
 being inundated by the sea, etc. ; as the dykes of Hol- 
 land. 
 
 E. 
 
 Sagle, in numismatics, a sort of base money which 
 was cujrent in Ireland in the early part of the reign of 
 Edward I., that is, about the year 1272. There were 
 also lionines, rosades, and many other coins of the 
 same sort, named according to the figures with which 
 they were impressed. The current coin of the king- 
 dom at that time was a composition of copper and sil- 
 ver, in determinate proportions ; but these were so 
 much inferior to the standard of that time, that they 
 were not worth, intrinsically, half so much as the 
 others. They were imported from France and other 
 foreign countries. When Edward had been a few 
 years established on the throne, he set up mints in 
 Ireland for coining good money, and then prohibited 
 the use of eagles, and other kinds of base coin — ^making 
 it death, with confiscation of effects, to import any 
 more of them into the kingdom. Eagle is the designa- 
 tion of the principal gold coin of the United States — 
 value equal to 10 dollars. 
 
 Saring, in nautical language, a rope attached to 
 the cringle of a sail, by means of which it ia bent or 
 reefed. 
 
 Earnest, in commercial law, is the sum advanced 
 by the buj'er of goods in order to bind the seller to the 
 
 terms of the agreement. It is enacted by the 17th 
 section of the famous Statute of Frauds, 29 Charles II., 
 c. 3, that "no contract for the sale of any goods, 
 wares, and merchandises, for the prices of iElO sterling, 
 or upward, shall be allowed to be good, except the 
 buyer shall accept part of the goods so sold, and actu- 
 ally receive the same, or give something in earnest to 
 bind the bargain, or in part payment, or that some 
 note or memorandum in writing of the said bargain be 
 made and signed by the parties to be charged by such 
 contract, or their agents thereunto lawfully author- 
 ized." As to what amounts to sufficient earnest. Black- 
 stone lays it down, that, " if any part of the price is paid 
 down, if it is but a penny, or any portion of the goods 
 is delivered by way of earnest, it is binding." To con- 
 stitute earnest, the thing must be given as a token of 
 ratification of the contract, and it should be expressly 
 stated so by the giver. — Chitty's Commercial Law, 
 vol. iii., p. 289. 
 
 Ear-ring, an ornament worn at the ear ; a pendant 
 or jewel suspended by means of a ring or a hook passing 
 through the pendulous lobe of the ear. The use of 
 this kind of ornament dates from the remotest anti- 
 quity, since the first mention of ear-rings occurs in the 
 
EAE 
 
 668 
 
 EAR 
 
 book of Genesis. Ear-rings of certain kinds were 
 anciently, and still are, in the East, instruments or 
 appendages of idolatrj^ and superstition — ^being re- 
 garded as talismans and amulets. Such, probably, 
 were the ear-rings of Jacob's family, which he buried 
 with the strange gods at Bethel. This somewhat 
 barbarous species of adornment was used (as it still ia 
 in some countries) by both sexes among many Oriental 
 nations ; especially by the Lydians, Persians, Baby- 
 lonians, Libyans, and Carthaginians, as may be gath- 
 ered from various ancient authors. Among the 
 Hebrews and the Egyptians, their use appears to have 
 been confined to women : but that they were exten- 
 sively used by the men of various other nations is 
 sufficiently proved by the Egyptian monuments. 
 Among the Greeks and Romans ear-rings were worn 
 only by females, and were sometimes of enormous 
 value. It is a curious fact that the ears of the Venus 
 de Medici, and of some other female statues, are 
 pierced, as if for the purpose of, bearing these append- 
 ages. 
 
 Sarth, Figure of the. The determination of 
 the figure and dimensions of the earth is a problem of 
 very great importance in astronomy, inasmuch as it is 
 in reference to the earth's diameter that the distances 
 of the planets from the sun and from each other are 
 estimated. It is also a problem of very great interest 
 and curiosity ; and has accordingly attracted the atten- 
 tion of mankind since the earliest dawn of civilization. 
 There are two points of view under which this great 
 question may be considered. The figure of the earth 
 may be regarded as a fact to be determined by investi- 
 gation and experience, like any other phenomena or 
 law of nature ; in which case it is necessar}' to iind, by 
 the actual measurement and comparison of different 
 portions of the terrestrial surface, the nature of its 
 curvature, and the magnitude of its diameters. Under 
 the second point of view, the question is one of pure 
 theory. The earth may be regarded as a congeries of 
 material particles, attracting each other with forces 
 reciprocally proportional to their mutual distances, 
 and endowed with a rotatory motion about a. fixed 
 axis ; and the problem is to determine the form the 
 whole mass would assume in virtue of the attractive 
 and centrifugal forces by which the particles are im- 
 pelled. Viewed in this light, the actual figure of the 
 earth becomes one of the series of consequences result- 
 ing from the universal gravitation of matter, and de- 
 pending on the same laws which regulate its motion in 
 its orbit about the sun. 
 
 It would be a waste of time to inquire what were 
 the notions of the figure of the earth, which were or 
 might have been entertained by its earliest and most 
 ignorant inhabitants. A very slight attention to the 
 most common phenomena renders the fact of its gen- 
 eral roundness almost palpable to the senses. The 
 uniform level appearance of the sensible horizon in 
 everj'' situation in which a, spectator can be placed — 
 the depression of the circum-polar stars as he advances 
 toward the south, and their elevation as he proceeds in 
 a contrary direction — the disappearance of a ship 
 standing out to sea — the projection of the earth as seen 
 in a lunar eclipse, and a number of other familiar ap- 
 pearances — put the globular figure of our planet beyond 
 all manner of doubt. Reasoning from such appear- 
 anceSj the earliest astronomers universally regarded 
 the earth as a sphere ; and their attention was solely 
 directed, in their various measurements and computa- 
 tions, to ascertain its dimensions. Modern science 
 has discovered that its figure deviates slightly from 
 that of a sphere, being compressed or flattened at the 
 extremities of its axis of rotation ; and the object of 
 the astronomer, at the present time, is to determine 
 not only its dimensions, but also the exact amount of 
 its compression. 
 
 Attempts to estimate the magnitude of the earth 
 were made at a very early date ; for Aristotle relates 
 
 that the mathematicians prior to his time had found 
 the circumference to be 400,000 stadia. But Eratos- 
 thenes appears to have been the first who entertained 
 an accurate idea of the principles on which the deter- 
 mination of the figure of the earth really depends, and 
 attempted to reduce these principles to practice. His 
 results, in consequence of the imperfect data from 
 which they were deduced, were very inaccurate ; but 
 his method is the same as that which is followed at the 
 present day, depending, in fact, on the comparison of a 
 line actually measured on the surface of the earth with 
 the corresponding celestial arc. He had remarked, or 
 been informed, that at Sj'ene in Upper Egypt, on the 
 day of the summer solstice, at noon, objects cast no 
 shadows ; whence he concluded that the sun was ex- 
 actly in the zenith at mid-day. On the same day, at 
 Alexandria, he observed the sun's meridional distance 
 from the zenith to be 7° 12', or a 50th part of the 
 circumference. Then, assuming Syene to be exactly 
 under the meridian of Alexandria (the error in this 
 assumption was about 3°), and the distance between 
 the two places, measured in a straight line, to be 5,000 
 stadia, he had 5,000X50=250,000 stadia for the whole 
 circumference of the earth. , It is easy to see how 
 very imperfect this operation must have been. With- 
 out mentioning smaller errors, the neglect of the solar 
 diameter would alone occasion an uncertainty as to 
 the sun's declination, and consequently as to the length 
 of the celestial arc, amounting to half a degree on the 
 observation at Syene ; and there is no reason to sup- 
 pose that that at Alexandria was more exact. The 
 terrestrial distance between the two places was as- 
 sumed on equally, or probably still more loose and 
 inaccurate determinations. 
 
 The next attempt to ascertain the dimensions of the 
 earth was made by Epsidonius. This astronomer 
 adopted a method which differed from that of Eratos- 
 thenes only in determining the celestial arc by means 
 of the altitude of a star, instead of the sun's zenith 
 distance. At Rhodes, the bright star Canopus, when 
 on the meridian, barely appears above the horizon. 
 At Alexandria the same star was observed to have a 
 meridional altitude of a ^ of a sign, or 7-^ degrees, 
 which, therefore, was the celestial arc intercepted be- 
 tween the zenith of Alexandria and Rhodes. The 
 terrestrial distance between the two places was esti- 
 mated, like that between Alexandria and Syene, at 5,000 
 stadia, and they were both supposed to be under the 
 same meridian. Hence, since 7-J- degrees is the 48tli 
 of the circumference, we have 5000X48=240,000 
 stadia, for the whole circumference of the globe. 
 
 It is impossible to form any correct opinion of the 
 degree of approximation attained in these ancient 
 measures, as the length of the stadium is not known 
 with any certainty. That it varied in different places, 
 and at different times, is sufficiently obvious from the 
 statement of Ptolemj'', who, in his work on geography, 
 assigns the length of the degree at 500 stadia, and con- 
 sequentlj'' the whole circumference at 180,000, differ- 
 ing from the determination of Posidonius i^ the pro- 
 portion of 3 to 4, and still more from that of Era- 
 tosthenes, Ptolemy remarked that it was not neces- 
 sary that the line measured should lie exactly in the 
 meridian: it was sufficient to know, its inclination to 
 the meridian, or the azimuthal angle, together with 
 the latitudes of its extreme points, in order to compare 
 it with the meridional arc. The determination of the 
 azimuth is, however, an operation of considerable dif- 
 ficulty ; and Ptolemy has given no details of . the 
 method by which he proposed to estimate it. He hg^ 
 been equally silent in respect of the means by which 
 the mean length of a degree was ascertained to he 500 
 stadia, so that the result which he has recorded is still' 
 less satisfactory than those of the two more ancient 
 astronomers. 
 
 The active curiosity of the Arabians, which t^^s 
 exerted so successfully in promoting practical astron- 
 
EAE 
 
 569 
 
 EAR 
 
 omy, did not overlook the measure of the earth. The 
 Caliph Almamoun, who bi6gan his reign in the year 
 814, ordered a company of astronomers to measure a 
 degree on the level plain of' Mesopotamia. Dividing 
 themselves into two parties, the one proceeded north- 
 ward, and the other southward, in the direction of the 
 meridian, through a degree of latitude, and measured 
 with rods the itinerary distance as they proceeded. 
 The perfect agreement of their conclusion with that of 
 Ptoleraj", throws it open to great suspicion ; and when 
 it is considered that their operation was repeated at a 
 different place, with exactly the same result, there can 
 be no doubt that they blindly adopted the statement 
 of the Greek astronomer, either from inability to exe- 
 cute the task assigned to them; or because they had 
 no confidence in their own determination. 
 
 From the time of Alamamoun, the problem of deter- 
 mining the dimensions of the earth was neglected, till 
 the revival of astronomy with general learning in 
 Europe. The first attempt to solve it was made by 
 Femel, who, about the middle of the 16th century, 
 measured the distance from Paris to Amiensj along the 
 high road, by observing the number of revolutions 
 made by his coach-wheel in the journey between these 
 two cities. Supposing them to be under the same me- 
 ridian, which is nearly true, and having ascertained 
 the difference of their latitudes, Femel found by this 
 means the length of the degree to be 57,070 French 
 toises, or about 364,960 English feet. A degree was 
 measured' long afterward at the same place by La- 
 caille, in a, far more adequate and scientific manner, 
 and he found it to be 57,074 toises. This agreement is 
 rendered the less -extraordinary by the circumstance 
 that the toise of Femel was not exactlj' of the same 
 length of that of Laoaille. After all, it must be 
 allowed that Femel made a fortunate guess. (De- 
 LAMBEE, Astronomie, tom. iii., chap, xxxv.) 
 
 But the first who had the merit of attempting to 
 execute the geodetic operations that are indispensably 
 necessarj' to effect the accurate measurement of a long 
 line on the surface of the earth, was Willebrord Snell, 
 a native of Holland, and a teacher of mathematics. 
 Having established a chain of triangles between Alk- 
 maer and Berg«n-op-Zoom, and observed the angles 
 of each triangle, by means of a quadrant of f>^ feet 
 radius, he measured a base on the frozen surface of the 
 meadows between Leyden and the village of Soeter- 
 woud, and determined the distance between the two 
 places by trigonbmetrical computation. The length 
 of the degree which he found was 28,500 Eynland 
 perches, or about 55,020 toises, which is about 2050 
 toises too small. This result was published by Must 
 ohenbroek, who in fact revised or calculated the ob- 
 servations^from the original papers a century after the 
 death of Snell. 
 
 Norwood, in the year 1635, attempted to measure a 
 degree in England nearly in the same manner as Fer- 
 nal. He measured the distance between London and 
 York along the public road, taking the bearings and 
 reducing the direction to the meridian in a rough way. 
 The difference of latitudes h* found by observations of 
 the solstice to be 2° 28', and thence concluded the 
 length of the degree to be 367,176 English feet. Lilce 
 the measurement of Femel, this has been found to be 
 a much nearer approximation than the method em- 
 ployed would have led us to expect. 
 
 The application of the telescope to circular instru- 
 ments gave a far higher degree of precision to geodetic 
 operations. Picard, to whom practical astronomy is 
 indebted for this capital improvement, was the first 
 who measured the arc of the meridian with such pre- 
 cautions and care as the delicate nature of the opera- 
 tion requires. He twice measured with wooden 
 perches a base of nearly seven English miles in 
 length ; and observed the angles of his triangles with 
 a quadrant, having a telescope adapted to it with cross 
 \rires in its focus. He even calculated the error pro- 
 
 duced by the instrument being placed out of the centre 
 of the station, and determined the zenith distance of 
 a star in the constellation Cassiopeia with a sector, for 
 the purpose of obtaining the differences of latitude. 
 The distance between Amiens and Malvoisine was 
 found to be 78j860 toises, and the difference of latitude 
 1° 22' 55", whence the result gave for the degree at 
 Amiens 67,060 toises ; but as the aberration and muta- 
 tion were unknown at that time, and the refraction 
 was not taken into account — causes of error to which 
 it is indispensably necessary to have regard — a deter- 
 mination which agrees so nearly with the results of 
 recent measures could only have arisen from a fortu- 
 nate compensation, of errors. In fact, his toise was 
 somewhat shorter than that which has since b^eu 
 adopted as the standard ; and the error occasioned by 
 this circumstance nearly compensated that which was 
 committed in determining the celestial arc ; so that in 
 recalculating all the observations, the degree is found 
 to be v«ry nearly the same as was found by Picard. 
 
 French Experiments. — Hitherto geodetic operations 
 had been confined to the determination of the magni- 
 tude of thei earth ; but a discovery, made by Richer 
 turned the attention of mathematicians to its deviation 
 from the spherical form. This astronomer having 
 been sent, by the Academy of Sciences of Paris, to the, 
 island of Cayenne in South America, for the purpose 
 of determining the amount of terrestrial refraction and 
 other astronomical objects, observed that his clock, 
 which had been regulated, at Paris to beat seconds, 
 lost about 2.J- minutes daily at Cayenne, and that, in 
 order to bring it to measure mean solar time, it was 
 necessary to shorten the pendulum by more than a 
 line. This fact, which appeared exceedingly curious,^ 
 and was scarcely credited till it had been confirmed by 
 the subsequent observations of Varin and Deshaves, 
 was first explained' in the third book of the Prindpia,, 
 by Newton, who showed that it could only be refen'ed, 
 to a. diminution of gravity arising from one of two 
 causes — a protuberance of the . equatorial parts of the 
 earth, and consequent increase of the distance from 
 the centre, or from the counteracting effect of the cen- 
 trifugal force, occasioned by the rotation of the earth. 
 The' former could not, on any reasonable supposition 
 regarding the figure of the earth, be regarded as ade- 
 quate to produce the effect ; but the latter, which 
 would produce a retardation of the pendulum at Cay- 
 enne in the ratio of the square of the sine of 6° to that 
 of 49° (the respective latitudes of Cayenne and Paris), 
 might amount to 1'46 seconds. This was the first 
 direct proof of the diurnal rotation of the earth. 
 
 From this time the exact determination of the figure 
 of the earth began to assume a degree of importance 
 which had not formerly attached to it. The centrifu- 
 gal force arising from the diurnal rotation completely 
 set aside the idea of perfect sphericity. Newton, as- 
 suming that the earth had been originally fluid, and 
 supposing its density to be the same throughout the 
 whole mass, and supposing, moreover, that its consti- 
 tuent molecules attract one another in proportion to 
 the inverse square of the distance, demonstrated that 
 it would assume, in consequence of the rotation, the 
 form of a spheroid flattened at the poles ; and that the 
 proportion of its equatorial to its polar axis would be 
 230 to 231. But the supposition of the equal density 
 of the earth is obviously very improbable, and conse- 
 quently the ratio of the equatorial and polar diameters 
 must be different from that now mentioned. Newton 
 erroneously concluded that if the density is greater in 
 the interior of the earth than at the centre, the com- 
 pression would be greater than in the case of a spheroid 
 of equal density. This mistake was pointed out by 
 Huygens, who, in order to determine the amount of 
 the compression from theory, reasoned in this way. 
 Suppose two tubes to be united at the centre of the 
 earth; forming a right angle -with each other at that 
 point, and exteniding to the surface, one in the plane 
 
EAR 
 
 670 
 
 EAR 
 
 of the equator, and the other along the polar axis, and 
 filled with a homogeneous fluid. Now the fluid con- 
 tained in the polar branch exerts a pressure on the 
 centre equal to the whole of its weight, while the 
 pressure of that in the other tube will be diminished by 
 the centrifugal force. The second column, therefore, 
 if of the same length, will be less heavy than the first ; 
 and in order to restore the equilibrium, it is necessary 
 that the equatorial tube shall have gained as much in 
 length as it has lost in weight through the effect of 
 rotation. Hence the sea in the equatorial regions 
 must be higher, or at a greater distance from the 
 centre, than the polar sea, and consequently the earth 
 must have a flattened form. Calculating from the 
 supposition that the densitj'' increases regularly from 
 the surface to the centre, where it is infinite, Huygens 
 found the ratio of the diameters to be that of 578 to 
 579. This investigation is given in his work De Causa 
 Gravitatis, published in 1690. 
 
 French Tlieory. — The theoretical determinations of 
 the form of the earth by Newton and Huygens 
 were at variance with the results of geodetic opera- 
 tions that had been carried on in France under the 
 superintendence of the first Cassini, from 1680 till 
 1716, for the purpose of making a geometrical survej^ 
 of that country. Cassini found the degree of the me- 
 ridian to the south of Paris to be 57,092 toises, while 
 on the north of that city it was only 56,960 toises. 
 This result led to the conclusion that the earth is a 
 protracted spheroid, or elongated at the poles ; a con- 
 clusion entirely inconsistent with the principles of hy- 
 drostatic equilibrium, and the deductions of Newton 
 and Pluygens. The question, however, was of too 
 great importance to astronomy to be allowed to remain 
 undecided. Accordingly, the Academj^ of Sciences of 
 Paris deteimined to apply a decisive test, by the 
 measurement of arcs at a great distance from each 
 other. For this purpose, some of the most distin- 
 guished members of their body undertook the meas- 
 urement of two meridional arcs, one in the neighbor- 
 hood of the equator, and tlie other in a high latitude. 
 In 1735, Godin, Bouguer, and La Condamine, pro- 
 ceeded to Peru, where they were joined by two Span- 
 ish officers, Don Georges Juan, and Antonio d'Ulloa, 
 and, after ten years of laborious exertion, they meas- 
 ured an arc of above 3 degrees, between the parallels 
 of 2' 31" north, and 3° 4' 32" south latitude. The 
 other party, consisting of Maupertuis, Clairaut, Ca- 
 mus, Lemonnier, Outhier, and Celsius, were in some 
 respects mere fortunate, inasmuch as they completed 
 the measurement of an arc near the polar circle, of 57 
 minutes, and returned to Europe within 16 months from 
 the period of their departure. The measurement of 
 Bouguer was executed with great care ; and, on ac- 
 count of the locality (the extremities being on different 
 sides of the equator), as well as the excellent manner 
 in wliich all the details were conducted, it has always 
 been regarded as a most valuable determination. The 
 original base was determined twice, and the difference 
 between the two measures was scarcely 2-i- inches. 
 
 About the middle of the last century several arcs 
 of meridian were measured in various countries, which, 
 though of inferior importance in comparison of the 
 more extensive surve3's which have since been under- 
 taken, are nevertheless deserving of enumeration. In 
 1751 Lacaille measured an arc at the Cape of Good 
 Hope, whither he had gone for the purpose of deter- 
 termining the lunar parallax, and making other astro- 
 nomical observations. At the latitude of 33° 18J' he 
 found the degree of the meridian to be 57,037 toises. 
 This result was nearly the same as had been obtained 
 in France, 10° further from the equator ; and clearly 
 proved either the existence of great local irregularities 
 in the form of the earth, or the dissimilarity of the two 
 terrestrial hemispheres. As theory recognized no such 
 abnormal condition of figure, and on the other hand, 
 Lacaille's observations, all the details of which had 
 
 been preserved, appeared to have been carefully made 
 and correctlj- computed, the result which they gave 
 was for some generations a very vexata qucBsiio among 
 all geodesists. After the lapse, however, of nearly a 
 centurj', the arc has been lately remeasured under the 
 auspices of the British government, with all the mod- 
 ern improved means and appliances ; and an approx- 
 imate calculation of the observations shows, that the 
 greater part of Lacaille's anomaly was produced by 
 mountain attraction on his plumb-line. (1855). 
 
 In 17S1 the measurement of a terrestrial arc was 
 undertaken in the Koman states, by the Jesuits Maire 
 and Boscovich. It extended nearly two degrees be- 
 tween Rome and Rimini, and it was found that the 
 degree of meridian between these parallels, namely, 
 42° and 44°, contained 56,973 toises. The details are 
 given at length hy Boscovich, in a work of great ele- 
 gance, and entitled De Litteraria Expeditkme per Poji- 
 tificiam dttionem, etc. Romaa, 1755. 
 
 Liesganig, a Jesuit in 1762 also executed two meas- 
 ures of a meridional degree, one in Hungary and the 
 other in the Austrian states ; but it has been shown by 
 Baron Zach, in his Correspondence Asironomique^ vol. 
 vii., that the results merit no confidence, and, in fact, 
 would lead to certain error if employed as elements in 
 determining the figure of the earth. 
 
 About the same time, in 1764, an arc of meridian 
 was measured in North America, on the peninsula be- 
 tween the Chesapeake and Delaware bays, by two En- 
 glishmen, Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon. They 
 employed no triangulation but measured the line with 
 deal-rods along the whole extent of the arc, the mean 
 latitude of which was 39° 12'. Their rods were af- 
 terwards compared with the five-feet brass rods made 
 by Bird. The latitudes were determined with a zenith 
 sector. The length of the degree, after the necessary 
 corrections and reductions were made, was found to be 
 60,625 English fathoms, or 56,888 toises. There is no 
 doubt that great care was bestowed on this operation ; 
 it is, however, easy to see that the measurement of so 
 long a line by means of rods is liable to many causes 
 of error from which the method of triangulation is 
 exemj^t. 
 
 In 1762 Beccaria undertook to measure a degree in 
 the plains of Piedmont. He found the degree of the 
 meridian at the latitude of 44° 44' to contain 57,468 
 toises ; but great uncertainty remained respecting the 
 correctness of the latitudes, the extreme points of the 
 arc being in the near neighborhood of immense ranges 
 of mountains, which could not fail to produce a very 
 considerable deviation of the plumb-line. It was sup- 
 posed that as both ends of the arc were terminated by 
 mountain ranges, whereas Boscovich's arc had been 
 carried across the Apennines and terminated at the 
 sea coast, the errors of the two measures occasioned 
 by the local attraction, being of opposite kinds, would 
 neutralize each other, and give a correct mean result. 
 
 Amid the rapid advances of mathematical science 
 toward the end of the last centurj', the determination 
 of the figure of the earth was not overlooked. In the 
 year 1783 a memorial wBs presented to the British 
 government by Cassini de Thurj', stating the import- 
 ant advantages that would result to astronomy and 
 navigation, from having the difference of longitude of 
 the Greenwich and Paris observatories determined by 
 a geodetic measurement. Fortunately this proposal 
 was agreed to. The English operations were placed 
 under the superintendence of General Key, who to 
 active and indefatigable zeal united great sltill and 
 experience in practical astronomy and surveying. In 
 the summer of 1784 a base of rather more than five 
 miles was measured on Hounslow Heath.. In the 
 measurement of this base, deal-rods were first em- 
 ployed ; but as these were found to warp, and be af- 
 fected with the variations of the hygrometrical state 
 of the atmosphere, glass tubes were sijbstituted ; and, 
 in 1791, the same base was measured with a steel chain 
 
EAR 
 
 571 
 
 EAR 
 
 carefully made by Eamsden, yet the difference from 
 the former measure was found to be only three inches. 
 The mean result was 27,404-2 feet reduced to the level 
 of the sea, and the scale being taken at the tempera- 
 ture of 62° of Fahrenheit. A chain of 32 triangles, 
 in connection with this base, extended over the coun- 
 try to Dover and Hastings ; and two more, stretching 
 across the Channel, connected them with the French 
 signals on the opposite side. The instruments em- 
 ployed in this survey were of the most excellent 
 description, and far superior to any that had ever been 
 employed in similar operations. The angles of each 
 triangle were measured by a large theodolite con- 
 structed by Eamsden ; and it was this splendid instru- 
 ment that first exhibited the spherical excess, or the 
 minute quantity by which, on account of the sphericity 
 of the earth, the sum of the three angles of a triangle 
 on the earth's surface exceeds 180°. 
 
 The French part of this great operation was con- 
 ducted with equal ability by Cassini (the fourth of 
 that name), Jlechain, and Delambre. The angles 
 were measured with the repeating circle of Borda ; an 
 instrument of a very different description from the the- 
 odolite, but which in geodetic operations may fairly be 
 allowed to give, if not equally, at least sufficiently 
 correct results, while in practice it is much more com- 
 modious. The result of the combined measures showed 
 the meridian of Paris to be 2° 19' 61" east of Green- 
 wich, or 9" less than had been determined by Dr. 
 Maskelyne. 
 
 Soon after this time, a series of geodetic measure- 
 ments both in France and England, [and also in the 
 United States, in 1805, for an account of which, see 
 Coast Survey,] whicli, in point of extent, as well as 
 minute accuracy, far surpassed all the operations which 
 had yet been undertaken with a view to determine the 
 figure of the earth. In 1791 the National Convention 
 of France having agreed to remodel the system of 
 weights and measures, determined to adopt a standard 
 taken from nature, which might be universally appli- 
 cable in all countries, and capable of being restored at 
 anj' future age, if by accident it should happen to be 
 lost. Two such standards were proposed, namely, the 
 length of the pendulum, which makes a given number 
 of vibrations in a given latitude ; and the quadrant of 
 the terrestrial meridian. Of these, the pendulum is 
 by far the most easy to be determined ; but it was ob- 
 jected, that as the length of the pendulum varies at 
 different latitudes, and also depends in some degree on 
 the geological character of the country where it is 
 measured, its length, if it should happen to be lost, 
 could not be recovered, without knowing the precise 
 place at which it had formerly been determined. The 
 length of the quadrant of the meridian is, however, 
 invariable, and, if the earth is a regular spheroid of 
 revolution, must be the same at all places. Accordingly 
 the Convention chose the ten millionth part of the meri- 
 dian from the equator to the pole as the unit of their new 
 scale ; and in order that this unit might be determined 
 with the greatest possible precision, it was resolved to 
 remeasure the meridian of the arc of Paris, and to ex- 
 tend it from Dunkirk to Barcelona, a distance compre- 
 hending altogether an arc of about nine degrees. The 
 practical execution of this undertaking was confided 
 to two astronomers of distinguished ability, Delambre 
 and Mechain, by whom the requisite operations were 
 carried on during the years 1792, 1793, and 1794, amid 
 all the dangers and difficulties arising from the disor- 
 ganized state of the qountrj', with a resolution and 
 courage of which the annals of science afford few ex- 
 amples. The triangles amounted to 115 in number. 
 Each of the three angles of every triangle was sepa- 
 rately observed with the repeating circle. The dif- 
 ferent observations, with the original registers and 
 remarks of the observers, were compared by commis- 
 sioners, among whom were some of the ablest men in 
 France. A form was draiTn up, after which all the 
 
 calculations were made. The calculations of the tri- 
 angles, as well as of the azimuths, were examined by 
 Tralles, Van Swinden, Legendre, and Delambre him- 
 self. The triangles were connected in the neighbor- 
 hood of Paris with a base of upward of seven miles 
 in length, being 6075'9 toises, at the temperature l&J 
 centrigrade, or 61J of Fahrenheit. A base of veriflca 
 tion of 6006.25 toises was measured by Mechain, near 
 Perpignan, at the southern extremity of the arc ; and 
 the measured length was found to differ by less than a 
 foot from the length deduced by calculation from the 
 first base, though the distance was more than 436 
 miles. A line of this length, measured with extreme 
 precision, is obviousl}' quite sufficient to enable us to 
 infer, with all the requisite exactness, the length of 
 the quadrantal arc ; but the French astronomers re- 
 solved to extend the triangulation still further. Ac- 
 cordingly, Mechain repaired again to Spain, and in the 
 year 1805 continued the chain of triangles from Bar- 
 celona to Tortosa, on the coast of the Mediterranean. 
 At this place his labors were prematurely terminated 
 by an epidemic fever. The prolongation of the arc 
 was, however, committed to two philosophers of dis- 
 tinguished reputation, Biot and Arago. An immense 
 triangle, one of the sides of which exceeded 100 miles, 
 connected the coast of Valentia with the island of 
 I«za, which was joined by another triangle with For- 
 mentera, distant no less than 12° 22' 13"-39 from 
 Dunkirk, the northern extremity of the arc. The re- 
 sult of tlie whole gave a value of the quadrantal arc, 
 differing somewhat from that determined by Delambre 
 and Mechain, but so little that the length of the metre 
 would be scarcely affected hy four times the millionth 
 part of itself. The details of this magnificent opera- 
 tion are given at length in the four volumes of the 
 Base Metrique, 
 
 The English survey,, which had been interrupted by 
 the death of General Poy, in 1790, was resumed in 
 1793 under the direction of Colonel Mudge. The origi- 
 nal triangles between Greenwich and Dover were ex- 
 tended along the coast to Dunnose in the Isle of Wight, 
 and thence through Devonshire and Wiltshire, and 
 connected with a base of verification measured on 
 Salisbury plain. The length of this base was found, 
 after the proper reductions, to be 36574-4 feet, differ- 
 ing scarcely one inch from the length deduced hy cal- 
 culation from the base on Hounslow Heath. So near 
 a coincidence, though probably owing in some degree 
 to a compensation of errors, affords a convincing proof 
 of the extreme accuracy with which every part of the 
 operation had been conducted. In 1802 the triangula- 
 tion was carried into Yorkshire, and a meridian arc 
 measured from Dunnose to Clifton. The latitudes at 
 the terminal points were determined with Kamsden's 
 zenith sector. The arc was afterward extended to 
 Burleigh Moor, and has since been carried to the Shet- 
 lands. It may be remarked that both the French and 
 English arcs present this singular anomaly, that when 
 portions of them at particular places, are considered 
 separately, the length of the degree appears to increase 
 on going southward. 
 
 The survey has been continued, up to the present 
 time, and the triangulation has been carried to the 
 remotest parts of Scotland, and a considerable part of 
 Ireland. In the course of the operations, several im- 
 portant improvements, both in respect of the instru- 
 ments employed, and in the method of conducting 
 geodetic measurements in general, have been intro- 
 duced into practice. A base of upward of seven miles 
 has been measured near Londonderrj- ; and it now only 
 remains to determine the latitudes of some stations, to 
 give us the elements of a new and greatly prolonged 
 arc. 
 
 In the years 1801, 1802, and 1803, Maupertuis' Swe- 
 dish arc was remeasured by Svanberg, and extended 
 nearly 40' in amplitude. The methods were the same 
 as had been employed by Delambre. The extremities 
 
EAR 
 
 512 
 
 EAR 
 
 of the new arc were at Mallorn and Pahtawara. The 
 distance was found to be 92,778 toises, and the differ- 
 ence of the latitudes 1° 37' 20"-3; whence 1°=57,- 
 196 toises. This agrees much better than the result 
 of Maupertuis (67,422 toises) with other measures ; 
 but the difference, which implies an error of 12" in 
 the latitude of Kittis as determined by the French 
 academicians, has not been satisfactorily accounted 
 for ; so that there is still some doubt about the length 
 of a degree in that latitude. See Svanberg's Expo- 
 sition des Operations Jaites en Lapponie, etc. Stock- 
 holm, 1805. 
 
 Since the beginning of the present century, two arcs 
 of meridian have been surveyed in India. The first 
 was in the neighborhood of Madras, and comprehended 
 only 1° 35'. The second, however, is the longest 
 which has yet been measured. The first, and a large 
 part of the second, was accomplished under the direction 
 of Colonel Lambton ; and the instruments and meth- 
 ods of observation and calculation were exactly the 
 Same as those that had been employed by Colonel 
 Mudge in the English survey. The south extremity 
 of the second arc was at Punmte, near Cape Comorin, 
 latitude 8° 9' 32"-51 ; and the northern at Daumer- 
 gidda, latitude 18° 3' 16"-07. The amplitude is con- 
 sequently 9° 63' 43"'56, and the distance between the 
 extremities was found to be 598,629'98 fathoms (about 
 680 miles), giving 60,495 fathoms, or 862,970 feet, for 
 the length of the degree. Several bases were meas- 
 ured, and the whole of the operations appear to have 
 been conducted with great sltill and accuracy. This 
 arc has since been extended by Captain Everest to 
 Kaliana, latitude 29° 30' 48"-8 ; so that the whole 
 length now includes more than 21°. The details of 
 Colonel Lambton's operations are given in the differ- 
 ent volumes of the Asiatic Researches (see vols, viii., 
 X., xii.), and those of Captain Everest, in his '^Ac- 
 count of the Measuremervt of an Arc of the Meridian be- 
 tween the Parallels of 18° 3' and 24° 7'," printed at 
 the expense of the East India Company. 
 
 Various geodetic operations on a less extensive scale 
 have been recently executed, which are better adapted, 
 perhaps, to give information respecting the local curv- 
 ature than the general form of the earth. Beccaria's 
 arc has been remeasured by Plana and Carlini ; the 
 results clearl}'' demonstrate the existence of some 
 errors in the original measurement, but they are not 
 yet altogether satisfactory, and the country is very 
 unfavorable. The distance between Gottingen and 
 Altona has been measured by Gauss ; and the ampli- 
 tude of the corresponding celestial arc is known with 
 the utmost precision, from observations of the latitude 
 made at the respective observatories of the two places. 
 The amplitude, however, is only about two degrees, 
 and there is some doubt about the exact length of the 
 iron bars with which the base was measured. A more 
 extensive arc has been measured in Russia by Struve. 
 It extends at present to three and a half degrees, and 
 it is understood that it is in contemplation to prolong 
 it still further. Many new methods have been em- 
 ployed in this measurement ; and it acquires additional 
 value from its high latitude, and the acknowledged 
 skill and accuracy of the observer. 
 
 The above are the principal arcs of meridian, but 
 some arcs of parallel have also been measured. The- 
 oretically speaking, the figure of the earth may be de- 
 termined from the measurement of arcs of parallel, as 
 readily as from meridional arcs ; and the geodetical op- 
 orations in the one case differ in no respect from those in 
 the other. But the great, and, we fear, insurmountable 
 difficulty, is to determine with sufiicient precision the 
 difference of astronomical longitudes. In a subse- 
 quent part of this article we shall have again occasion 
 to mention Cassini's measurement of an arc of parallel 
 across. the mouth of the Rhone; of the English arc 
 between Beachy Head and Dunnose ; and that recently 
 made from Marennes to Padua. 
 
 TABtE SHOWIKG THE LeNOTH OP A DeGEEE OP LoNGITITDE 
 FOE EVERY DEGREE OP LATITUDE, IN GEOQRArHIOAL 
 
 AND IN English Miles. , , 
 
 Ut. 
 
 Geo. 
 milsB. 
 
 S. 
 
 Uf. 
 
 Geo. 
 miles. 
 
 S;. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Goo. 
 miles. 
 
 Eng. 
 mills. 
 
 1 
 
 69-99 
 
 69-05 
 
 31 
 
 51-43 
 
 69-20 
 
 61 
 
 29-09 
 
 83-48 
 
 2 
 
 69-96 
 
 69-02 
 
 82 
 
 60-83 
 
 58-57 
 
 62 
 
 28-17 
 
 82-42 
 
 3 
 
 59-92 
 
 68-96 
 
 S3 
 
 60-82 
 
 57-92 
 
 68 
 
 27-24 
 
 31-85 
 
 4 
 
 69-85 
 
 68-89 
 
 84 
 
 49-74 
 
 67-26 
 
 64 
 
 26-30 
 
 80-27 
 
 6 
 
 69-77 
 
 68-80 
 
 86 
 
 49-15 
 
 66-67 
 
 66 
 
 25-86 
 
 2919 
 
 6 
 
 69-67 
 
 68-68 
 
 86 
 
 48-64 
 
 66-87 
 
 66 
 
 24-40 
 
 28-09 
 
 7 
 
 69.65 
 
 63.65 
 
 87 
 
 47.92 
 
 56.16 
 
 67 
 
 23.44 
 
 26.98 
 
 8 
 
 69.42 
 
 68.39 
 
 88 
 
 47.28 
 
 64.42 
 
 68 
 
 22.48 
 
 25-87 , 
 
 9 
 
 69-26 
 
 68-ftl 
 
 89 
 
 46-63 
 
 58-67 
 
 69 
 
 21-60 
 
 24-75 
 
 10 
 
 69-09 
 
 63-01 
 
 40 
 
 46-96 
 
 62-90 
 
 70 
 
 20-52 
 
 23-62 
 
 11 
 
 68-90 
 
 67-79 
 
 41 
 
 45-28 
 
 52-12 
 
 71 
 
 19-63 
 
 22-48 
 
 12 
 
 58-69 
 
 67-66 
 
 42 
 
 44-59 
 
 51-32 
 
 72 
 
 18-54 
 
 21-34 
 
 13 
 
 68-46 
 
 67-29 
 
 48 
 
 43-88 
 
 60-61 
 
 78 
 
 17:54 
 
 2019 
 
 14 
 
 68-22 
 
 67-01 
 
 44 
 
 4816 
 
 49-68 
 
 74 16-64 
 
 19-04 
 
 15 
 
 57-96. 
 
 66-71 
 
 45 
 
 42-48 
 
 48-SS 
 
 75 16-58 
 
 17-87 
 
 16 
 
 67-68 
 
 66-88 
 
 46 
 
 41-68 
 
 47-97 
 
 76 14-62 
 
 16-71 
 
 IT 
 
 67-.88 
 
 66-04 
 
 47 
 
 40.92 
 
 47-10 
 
 77 18-60 
 
 16-54 
 
 18 
 
 57-06 
 
 65.68 
 
 48 
 
 40-15 
 
 46-21 
 
 78 
 
 12-47 
 
 14-36 
 
 19 
 
 66-78 
 
 66-80 
 
 49 
 
 89-36 
 
 45-81 
 
 79 
 
 11-45 
 
 18-18 
 
 20 
 
 56.88 
 
 64-90 
 
 60 
 
 88-67 
 
 44-39 
 
 80 
 
 10-42 
 
 11-99 
 
 21 
 
 66-01 
 
 64-47 
 
 61 
 
 37-76 
 
 48-46 
 
 81 
 
 9-89 
 
 10-80 
 
 22 
 
 66-68 
 
 6403 
 
 52 
 
 86-94 
 
 42-52 
 
 82 
 
 8.86 
 
 9-61 
 
 23 
 
 65-28 
 
 63-60 
 
 68 
 
 86-11 
 
 41-56 
 
 ■S3 
 
 7-31 
 
 8-42 
 
 24 
 
 64-31 
 
 62-09. 
 
 54 
 
 86-27 
 
 40-89 
 
 84 6-27 
 
 7-22 
 
 25 
 
 64-88 
 
 62-69 
 
 65 
 
 84-41 
 
 39-61 
 
 86 
 
 6.23 
 
 6-02 
 
 26 
 
 58-93 
 
 62-07 
 
 56 
 
 .33-65 
 
 88-62 
 
 86 
 
 4-19 
 
 4-83 
 
 21 
 
 63-46 
 
 61-63 
 
 57 
 
 82-68 
 
 .87-61 
 
 87 
 
 8.14 
 
 8-61 
 
 23 
 
 62-98 
 
 60-93 
 
 68 
 
 81 '79 
 
 86-60 
 
 83 
 
 2-09 
 
 2-41 
 
 20 
 
 52-48 
 
 60-10 
 
 .59 
 
 30-90 
 
 35-57 
 
 89 
 
 1-05 
 
 1-21 
 
 80 
 
 61-96 
 
 69-81 
 
 60 
 
 30-00 
 
 3453 
 
 90 
 
 0.00 
 
 0-00 
 
 Our limits do not permit us to enter into details re- 
 specting the numerous experiments that have been 
 made of late years to determine the figure of the earth 
 by measuring the variations of gravity at different 
 places hy means of the pendulum. The most valuable 
 series of observations of this kind we yet possess, are 
 those of Captain Foster, reduced under the direction 
 of Mr. Baily, and published in the Memoirs of the 
 Royal Astronomical Society, vol. vii. But a discovery 
 recently made by Bessel proves that less accuracy has 
 been obtained by this method than was supposed. It 
 has been found, that a pendulum, when vibrating, 
 drags along with it a portion of air, the precise effect 
 of which can be ascertained in no other way than by 
 actual experiment in vacuo with each individual pen- 
 dulum. The probable correction which it would be 
 necessary to applj- to the results that have already 
 been found, can not be satisfactorily determined. 
 
 The m.ean of the pendulum experiments gives rather 
 a higher value of the ellipticity than the results of 
 geodetic measures ; but there are many elements, par-r 
 ticularly the irregular constitution of the exterior 
 crust of the eartli, and the density of the strata sur- 
 rounding the station, which can scarcely be deter- 
 mined, and which yet affect materially the results of 
 the experiments. 
 
 Besides the methods which have now been alluded 
 to, physical astronomy furnishes other means of arri- 
 ving at a knowledge of the figure of the earth. The 
 precession of the equinoxes, the nutation of the earth's 
 axis, are phenomena depending on the compression of 
 the earth ; and as their amount is now ascertained, 
 from astronomical observations, with the utmost accu- 
 racy, we can reciprocally deduce from them a knowl- 
 edge of the compression. They do not, however, give 
 us an absolute value of the amount of compression, 
 but they make known the limits within which it must 
 necessarily be confined. These limits are 1-279 and 
 1-578. But a more delicate measure of the same 
 element is furnished by some irregularities in the 
 moon's motion to which it gives rise ; and as the lunar 
 theory has now attained a very high state of perfection, 
 and as the small irregularities which cause so much 
 perplexity in geodetical measures here entire!}' disap- 
 pear, this is perhaps, the most satisfactory method of 
 all of determining the ellipticitj'- of the earth. The equa- 
 tions into which the irregularity question enters, were 
 discovered by Laplace ; and the ellipticity necessary 
 to produce the observed effect was found, on calcular 
 
EAE 
 
 573 
 
 EAR 
 
 tion, to be 1-304; confirming, in a most remarkable 
 manner, tlie deductions from the measurement of arcs 
 and the observations of the pendulum. 
 
 The Surface of the Earth, and its General Divisions. 
 —The surface of the earth contains about 196,663,400 
 square miles. By much the larger portion of this space 
 is water, which is, indeed,more than twice the extent 
 of the land. The surface of the land is exceedingly 
 diversified, almost everywhere rising into hills and 
 mountains, or sinking into valleys, and sometimes 
 stretching out into plains of great extent. Among 
 the most extensive plains, are the sandy deserts of 
 Arabia and Africa, the Internal part of European Rus- 
 sia, and a tract of considerable extent in Prussian Po- 
 land. But the most remarkable extent of level ground 
 is the vast table^plain of Thibet, in Asia, which is the 
 most elevated tract of level ground on the globe. The 
 principal mountain ridges are the Alps and Pj'renees, 
 in Europe, the Altai and Himalaya Mountains, in 
 ' Asia, the mountains of , Atlas, in Africa, and the 
 Andes or Cordilleras, in South America. The great- 
 est concavities of the globe are those which are occu- 
 pied by the waters of the ocean ; and of those, by far 
 the largest forms the bed of the Pacific Ocean, which, 
 stretching from the eastern shore of Asia and of New 
 Holland to the western coast of America, covers nearly 
 half the globe. The concavity next in extent is that 
 which forms the bed of the Atlantic Ocean, extending 
 between the new and the old worlds ; and a third con- 
 cavity is occupied by the Indian Ocean. The Arctic 
 and Antarctic Oceana fill up the remaining concavities. 
 
 Smaller collections of water which communicate 
 freely with the oceans, are called seas ; and of these, 
 the principal are the Mediterranean, the Baltic, the 
 Euxine or Black Sea, and the White Sea. Seas some- 
 times take their names from the countries near which 
 they flow ; as tha Irish Sea, the German Ocean. Some 
 large collections of water, though they have no imme- 
 diate connection with the great body of waters, being 
 on all sides surrounded by land, are yet called seas ; as 
 the Caspian Sea. A part of the sea running up into 
 the land, so as to form a large hollow, is called a bay 
 or gulf, as the Bay of Biscay, the Gulf of Mexico ; but 
 if the hollow be small, it is called a oreek, a road, a ha- 
 ven. When two large bodies of water communicate 
 by a narrow pass between two adjacent lands, the pass 
 is called a strait or straits, as the Straits of Gibraltar, 
 the Straits of Dover, the Straits of Babelmandel. A 
 channel is a wider kind of strait. The water usually 
 flows through a strait with considerable force and ve- 
 locitj-, forming what is called a current ; and frequently 
 this current, as in the case of the Straits of Gibraltar, 
 flows continually in the same direction. 
 
 A body of fresh water entirely surrounded bj^ land, 
 is called a lalce ; as the Lake of Geneva, Lake Cham- 
 plain. A considerable stream of water rising inland, 
 and draining a portion of country more or less extens- 
 ive, disscharging its waters into the sea, is called a 
 river ; a smaller stream of the same kind is called a 
 rivulet or brook. 
 
 Of the land, which forms the rest of the surface of 
 the globe, two portions, of vast extent, are called con- 
 tinents ; the one the eastern continent, or the old world, 
 comprehending Europe, Asia, and Africa ; the other, 
 the western continent, or new world, comprehending 
 North and South America. New Holland is a third 
 portion of land, however, which has by some been also 
 reckoned a continent on account of its great extent. 
 
 A portion of land of comparatively small dimensions 
 entirely surrounded by water, is called an island ; as 
 Britain, Ireland, Jamaica, Madagascar. New Hoi- ^ 
 land is the largest portion of land which is called an 
 island. "When a number of small islands lie near each 
 other, they are said to form a group of islands. A 
 portion of land which is almost entirely surrounded bj- 
 water, is called a peninsula ; as the Peninsula of Ma- 
 lacca, the Morea or Grecian Peloponnesus, etc. The 
 
 term peninsula is often applied to a large extent of 
 country. Thus we speak of Spain as a peninsula. 
 The narrow neck of land which joins a peninsula to the 
 mainland, or which connects two tracts of country 
 together, Is called an isthmus. The most remarkable 
 isthmuses in the world are the Isthmus of Suez, which 
 joins Africa and Asia, and the Isthmus of Darien, 
 which connects the continent of North and South 
 America. A narrow tract of land stretching out into 
 the sea, and appearing to terminate in a point, is called 
 a cape. The most remarkable capes are, the Cape of 
 Good Hope, at the southern extremity, of Africa ; Cape 
 Horn, at the southern extremity of South America ; 
 and the North Cape, at the northern extremity of Eu- 
 rope. A large portion of land jutting out into the sea 
 is called & promontory. , 
 
 Until of fate, in systems of geography,' the earth 
 used to be consi4ered as divided into four quarters ; 
 Europe, Asia, Africa, and America. A classification 
 in which the whole world is arranged under seven di- 
 visions has now, however, been verj'' generally adopted. 
 These divisions are, Europe, Asia, Africa, North Amer- 
 ica, South America, Australasia, and Polynesia. With 
 regard to the last two, the one, Australasia, or South 
 Asia, comprehends certain of the great islands, partic- 
 ularly New Holland, which are usually considered as 
 belonging to Asia ; and the other, Polynesia, signify- 
 ing many islands, comprehends all the smaller islands 
 which are scattered over the great expanse of the Pa- 
 cific Ocean. This classification of the parts of the 
 earth's surface is founded on the most obvious points 
 of distinction. We shall now explain two divisions 
 employed by the ancients, which are founded upon 
 diff'erent principles ; that into zones, and that into 
 climates. 
 
 The divisions into zones is suggested by the dififer- 
 ent degrees of temperature which prevail in different 
 regions of the earth. The temperature of a country 
 depends on a variety of circumstances ; but of these, 
 one of the most obvious is the position of the sun with 
 regard to the zenith. The more nearly bis rays are 
 received vertically, the higher will be the temperature ; 
 and, on the contrary, the more obliquely they fall, the 
 less efl'ect will they produce in raising the temper- 
 ature. Now to every point of the earth's surface be- 
 tween the tropics the sun is Vertical twice in the year. 
 It is in this region, then, that the highest temperature 
 will prevail. Again, within the polar circles the sun's 
 rays at all times fall very obliquely ; and for a length 
 of time they do not reach these two regions of the globe 
 at all. Here, then, the temperature must be lower 
 than anywhere else, as all other places enjoy more of 
 the sun's genial influence. In the two regions be- 
 tween the tropics and the polar circles, a medium tem- 
 perature is found, increasing as we approach the former, 
 and diminishing as we approach the latter. Thus is 
 the earth's surface divided, by the two tropics and two 
 polar circles, into five soTtes, distinguished from one 
 another by the prevailing temperature in each. That 
 between the tropics is called the torrid zone, because 
 there the heat is understood to be extreme. This 
 region, which has the equator passing through the 
 middle of it, the ancients, indeed, considered as unin- 
 habitable. The two regions comprehended within the 
 arctic and antarctic polar circles, are called the north- 
 ern and &o\kthsni frigid zones, on account of the sever- 
 ity of the cold which there prevails. The two regions 
 situated between the tropics and the polar circles, the 
 one in the northern hemisphere, bounded by the tropic 
 of cancer and the arctic circle, the other in the south- 
 em hemisphere, boimded by the tropic of Capricorn 
 and the antarctic circle, are called the northern and 
 southern temperate zon£s, because there neither the 
 heat nor cold is excessive ; but the heat reaches the 
 highest temperature of summer, and the cold sinks to 
 the lowest temperature of winter, without either be- 
 coming extreme. 
 
EAE 
 
 514: 
 
 EAS 
 
 The division of the earth's surface into climates was 
 employed by the ancients for ascertaining the situa- 
 tion of places. They supposed the northern and south- 
 ern hemispheres to be each divided into small zones, 
 to which they gave the name of climates, the breadth 
 of each zone being such as to make half an hour of dif- 
 ference in the length of the longest day at the two par- 
 allels of latitude by which the climate was bounded. 
 Proceeding from the eqiiator, where the length of the 
 day is always 12 hours, they thus divided the space 
 between it and each polar circle into 24 climates. Hav- 
 ing reached the polar circles northward and southward, 
 where the longest day is 24 hours, thej' divided the 
 space between each polar circle in such a manner as to 
 make the difference in the length of the longest day at 
 the beginning and termination of each climate, one 
 month. Hence, as the poles are alteniMely illumi- 
 nated for six months, there were just six climates 
 within each polar circle. 
 
 Table op Climates. 
 
 
 Climates. 
 
 Latitude of 
 tlie Higlier 
 Parallel. 
 
 Breadth of 
 the Climate. 
 
 Loiigeat Day 
 Tinder the 
 Higher 
 Parallel. 
 
 
 De^. Mln. 
 
 Deg. Min. 
 
 Hours. Mfn. 
 
 
 I. 
 
 8 84 
 
 8 34 
 
 12 80 
 
 
 II. 
 
 16 43 
 
 8 9 
 
 13 
 
 
 III. 
 
 24 10 
 
 T 27 
 
 13 80 
 
 
 IT. 
 
 so 46 
 
 6 86 
 
 14 
 
 A 
 
 V. 
 
 36 28 
 
 5 42 
 
 14 80 
 
 1 
 
 VI. 
 
 41 21 
 
 4 63 
 
 15 
 
 1- 
 
 TIL 
 
 45 29 
 
 4 8 
 
 15 30 
 
 .s 
 
 Till. 
 
 48 59 
 
 3 80 
 
 16 
 
 ? 
 
 IX. 
 
 51 5T 
 
 2 58 
 
 16 30 
 
 ^ 
 
 X. 
 
 54 28 
 
 2 81 
 
 17 
 
 "3 
 
 XI. 
 
 56 86 
 
 2 8 
 
 17 30 
 
 
 XII. 
 
 58 25 
 
 1 49 
 
 18 
 
 XIII. 
 
 69 5T 
 
 1 82 
 
 18 30 
 
 ■? 
 
 XIV. 
 
 61 16 
 
 1 19 
 
 19 
 
 g- 
 
 XT. 
 
 62 24 
 
 1 8 
 
 19 80 
 
 u 
 
 XTI. 
 
 63 20 
 
 66 
 
 20 
 
 ^ 
 
 XVII. 
 
 64 8 
 
 43 
 
 20 30 
 
 a 
 
 XVIII. 
 
 64 48 
 
 40 
 
 21 
 
 fc 
 
 XIX. 
 
 65 20 
 
 82 
 
 21 30 
 
 ^ 
 
 XX. 
 
 65 46 
 
 26 
 
 22 
 
 W 
 
 XXI. 
 
 66 6 
 
 20 
 
 22 80 
 
 
 XXII. 
 
 66 20 
 
 14 
 
 23 
 
 
 XXIII. 
 
 66 28 
 
 8 
 
 28 80 
 
 U 
 
 XXIV. 
 
 66 32 
 
 4 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 Months. 
 
 p.^ 
 
 I. 
 
 67 23 
 
 51 
 
 1 
 
 •jii 
 
 II. 
 
 69 50 
 
 2 27 
 
 2 
 
 s = 
 
 III. 
 
 78 89 
 
 3 49 
 
 3 
 
 s « 
 
 IT. 
 
 78 81 
 
 4 52 
 
 4 
 
 II 
 
 T. 
 
 84 5 
 
 5 84 
 
 5 
 
 B-0 
 
 TI. 
 
 90 
 
 5 55 
 
 6 
 
 E. B. (See Geogkaphy.). 
 Earthenware (Ger. Trdene Waaren; Dn. Aar- 
 deffoed; Fr. Vaisselh de terre Poterie ; It. Stoviglie, 
 Terraglie ; Sp.. Loza de harro ; Eus. Gorscketschnile 
 possodil ; Pol. Gllnianm naczynia), or crockery, as it 
 is sometimes termed, comprises everj- sort of household 
 utensils made of clay hardened in the fire. Its manu- 
 facture is, in England, of very considerable importance, 
 and the improvements that have been made in it since 
 the middle of the last centurj' have contributed pow- 
 erfully to its extension, and have added greatly to the 
 comfort and convenience of all classes. " There is 
 scarcely any manufacture which is so interesting to 
 contemplate in its gradual improvement and extension 
 as that of earthenware, presenting, as it does, so beau- 
 tiful a union of science and art, in furnishing us with 
 the comforts and ornaments of civilized life. Chemis- 
 try administers her part, by investigating the several 
 species of earths, and ascertaining, as well their most 
 appropriate combinations as the respective degrees of 
 heat which the several compositions require. Art has 
 studied the designs of antiquity, and produced from 
 them vessels even more exquisite in form than the 
 models by which they have been suggested. The ware 
 has been provided in such gradations of quality as to 
 suit everj' station, from the highest to the lowest. It 
 is to be seen in every country, and almost in every 
 house, through the whole extent of America, in many 
 
 parts of Asia, and in most of the countries of Europe. 
 At home it has superseded the less cleanly vessels of 
 pewter and of wood, and, by its cheapness, has been 
 brought within the means of our poorest house-keep- 
 ers. Formed from substances originally of no value, 
 the fabrication has induced labor of such various classes, 
 and created skill of such various degrees, that nearly 
 the whole value of the annual produce may be consid- 
 ered as an addition made to the mass of national 
 wealth. The abundance of the ware exhibted in 
 every dwelling-house is sufficient evidence of the 
 vast augmentation of the manufacture, which is also 
 demonstrated by the rapid increase of the popula- 
 tion in the districts where the potteries have been es- 
 tablished." — London Quar. Rev. 
 
 For the great and rapid extension of the manufac- 
 ture, the English are chiefly indebted to the late Mr. 
 Josiah Wedgwood, whose original and inventive genius 
 enabled him to make many most important discoveries 
 in the art ; and who was equally successful in bring- 
 ing his inventions into use. The principal seat of the 
 manufacture is in Staffordshire, where there is a dis- 
 trict denominated the Potteries, comprising a number 
 of villages, and a population which is supposed to 
 amount, at this moment, to above 85,000, by far the 
 greater portion of which is engaged in the manufac- 
 ture. There are no authentic accounts of the popula- 
 tion of this district in 1760, when Mr. Wedgwood 
 began his discoveries ; -but the general opinion is, that 
 it did not at that time exceed 20,000. The village of 
 Etruria, in the Potteries, was built by Mr. Wedgwood. 
 The manufacture has been carried on at Burslem, in 
 the same district, for several centuries. 
 East Indies (British). See Isdia. 
 East Indies (Dutch). See Holland. 
 East Indies (French). See Feancb. 
 East India Company, a famous association, 
 originally established for prosecuting the trade be- 
 tween England and India, which they acquired a right 
 to carrj' on exclusively. Since the middle of last cen- 
 tury, however, the Company's political have become 
 of more importance than their commercial concerns. 
 East Indies, a popular geographical term not very well 
 defined, but generally understood to signify the conti- 
 nents and islands to the east and south of the Eiver 
 Indus, as far as the borders of China, including Timor 
 and the Moluccas, but excluding the Philippine Islands, 
 New Guinea, and New Holland. China and the Philip- 
 pine Islands were, however, included within the limits 
 of the East India Company's peculiar privileges. See 
 India. 
 
 I. East India Compasy (Historical Sketch 
 of). — The persevering efforts of the Portuguese to dis- 
 cover a route to India, by sailing round Africa, were 
 crowned with success in 1497. And it may appear sin- 
 gular, that, notwithstanding the exaggerated accounts 
 that had been prevalent in Europe, from the remotest 
 antiquity, with respect to the wealth of India, and the > 
 importance to which the commerce with it had raised ^ 
 the Phoenicians and Egyptians in antiquity, the Vene- 
 tians in the middle ages, and which it was then seen to 
 confer on the Portuguese, the latter should have been 
 allowed to monopolize it for nearly a centurj' after it 
 had been turned into a channel accessible to ever)' na- 
 tion. But the prejudices by which the people of most 
 European states were actuated in the sixteenth cen- 
 tury, and the peculiar circumstances under which they 
 were placed, hindered them from embarking with that 
 alacrity and ardor that might have been expected in 
 this new commercial career. Soon after the Portu- 
 guese began to prosecute their discoveries along the 
 coast of Africa, they applied to the pope for a hull, se- 
 curing to them the exclusive right to and possession 
 of all countries occupied by infidels, they either had 
 discovered, or might discover, to the south of Cape 
 Non, on the west coast of Africa, in 27° 54' north lat- 
 itude : and the pontiff, desirous to display, and at the 
 
EA8 
 
 Sl5 
 
 EAS 
 
 same time to extend, his power, immediately issued a 
 bull to this effect. Nor, preposterous as a proceeding 
 of this sort would now appear, did any one then doubt 
 that the pope had a right to issue such a bull, and that 
 all states and empires were bound to obey it. In con- 
 sequence, the Portuguese were, for a lengthened pe- 
 riod, allowed to prosecute their conquests in India 
 without the interference of any other European power. 
 And it was not till a considerable period after the be- 
 ginning of the war, which the blind and brutal bigotry 
 of Philip II. kindled in the Low Countries, that the 
 Dutch navigators began to display their flag on the 
 Eastern Ocean, and laid the foundations of their Indian 
 empire. 
 
 The desire to comply with the injunctions in the 
 pope's bull, and to avoid coming into collision,, first 
 with the Portuguese, and subsequently with the Span- 
 iards, who had conquered Portugal in 1580, seems to 
 have been the principal cause that led the English to 
 make repeated attempts, in the reigns of Henry VIII. 
 and Edward VI., and the early part of the reign of 
 Elizabeth, to discover a route to India by a north-west 
 or north-east passage ; channels from which the Portu- 
 guese would have had no pretense for excluding them. 
 But these attempts having proved unsuccessful, and 
 the pope's bull having ceased to be of any effect in this 
 country, the English merchants and navigators re- 
 solved to be no longer deterred by the imaginary rights 
 of the Portuguese from directly entering upon what 
 was then reckoned by far the most lucrative and ad- 
 vantageous branch of commerce. Captain Stephens, 
 who performed the voyage in 1582, was the first En- 
 glishman who sailed to India by the Cape of Good 
 Hope. The voyage of the famous Sir Francis Drake 
 contributed greatly to diffuse a spirit of naval enter- 
 prise, and to render the English better acquainted with 
 the newly-opened route to India. But the voyage of 
 the celebrated Mr. Thomas Cavendish was, in the lat- 
 ter respect, the most important. Cavendish sailed 
 from England in a little squadron, fitted out at his 
 own expense, in July, 1586 ; and having explored the 
 greater part of the Indian Ocean, as far as the Philip- 
 pine Islands, and carefully observed the most import- 
 ant and characteristic features of the people and coun- 
 tries which he visited, returned to England after a 
 prosperous navigation, in September, 1588. Perhaps, 
 however, nothing contributed so much to inspire the 
 English with a desire to embark in the Indian trade, 
 as the captures that were' made about this period from 
 the Spaniards. A Portuguese East India ship, or 
 can-ack, captured by Sir Francis Drake, during his ex- 
 pedition to the coast of Spain, inflamed the cupidity of 
 the merchants by the richness of her cargo, at the 
 same time that the papers found on board gave specific 
 Information respecting the traffic in which she had 
 been engaged. A still more important capture, of the 
 same sort, was made in 1593. An armament, fitted 
 out for the East Indies by Sir Walter Ealeigh, and 
 commanded by Sir John Burroughs, fell in, near the 
 Azores, with the largest of all the Portuguese car- 
 racks, a ship of 1600 tons' burden, carrj-ing 700 men 
 and 36 brass cannon ; and, after an obstinate conflict, 
 carried her into Dartmouth. She was the largest 
 vessel that had been seen in England ; and her cargo, 
 consisting of gold, spices, calicoes, silks, pearls, drugs, 
 porOelain, ivorj', etc., excited the ardor of the English 
 to engage in so opulent a commerce. 
 
 In consequence of these and other concurring causes, 
 an association was formed in London, in 1599, for pros- 
 ecuting the trade to India. The adventurers applied 
 to the queen for a charter of incorporation, and also for 
 power to exclude all other English subjects, who had 
 not obtained a license from them, from carrying on 
 any species of traffic beyond the Cape of Good Hope or 
 the Straits of Magellan. As exclusive companies were 
 then very generally looked upon as the best instru- 
 ments for prosecuting most branches of commerce and 
 
 industry, the adventurers seem to have had little diffi- 
 culty in obtaining their charter, which was dated the 
 31st of December, laiO. The corporation was entitled 
 " The Governor and Companj' of Merchants of Lon- 
 don trading to the East Indies ;" the first governor 
 (Thomas Smythe, Esq.) and 24 directors were nomi- 
 nated in the charter; but power was given to the 
 Company to elect a deputy governor, and, in future, 
 to elect their governor and directors, and such other 
 office-bearers as they might think fit to appoint. They 
 were empowered to make by-laws ; to inflict punish- 
 ments, either corporal or pecuniary, provided such 
 punishments were in accordance with the laws of 
 England ; to export all sorts of goods free of duty for 
 4 3'ears ; and to export foreign coin, or bullion, to the 
 amount of £30,000 a j'ear, £6,000 of the same being 
 previously coined at the mint ; but they were obliged 
 to import, within 6 months after the completion of 
 every voj'age, except the first, the same quantity of 
 silver, gold, and foreign coin that they had exported. 
 The duration of the charter was limited to a period of 
 15 years ; but with and under the condition that, if it 
 were not found for the public advantage, it might be 
 canceled at any time upon 2 years' notice being given. 
 Such was the origin of the British East India Com- 
 pany—the most celebrated commercial association of 
 ancient or modem times, and which has now extended 
 its sway over the whole of the Mogul empire. 
 
 It might have been expected that, after the charter 
 was obtained, considerable eagerness would have been 
 manifested to engage in the trade. But such was not 
 the case. Notwithstanding the earnest calls and threats 
 of the directors, many of the adventurers could not be 
 induced to come forward to pay their proportion of the 
 charges incident to the fitting out of the first expedi- 
 tion. And as the directors seem either to have wanted 
 power to enforce their resolutions, or thought it better 
 not to exercise it, they formed a subordinate associa- 
 tion, consisting of such members of the Companj' as 
 were really willing to defray the cost of the voyage, 
 and to bear all the risks and losses attending it, on 
 condition of their having the exclusive right to what- 
 ever profits might arise from it. And it was by such 
 subordinate associations that the trade was conducted 
 during the first 13 years of the Company's existence. 
 The first expedition to India, the cost of which 
 amounted, ships and cargoes included, to £69,091, con- 
 sisted of five ships, the largest being 600 and the 
 smaller 130 tons' burden. The goods put on board 
 were principally bullion, iron, tin, broad-cloths, cut- 
 lery, glass, etc. The chief command was entrusted to 
 Captain James Lancaster, who had already been in 
 India. They set sail from Torbay on the 15th of Feb- 
 ruary, 1601. Being very imperfectly acquainted with 
 the seas and countries they were to visit, they did not 
 arrive at their destination, Acheen, in Sumatra, till the 
 5th of June, 1602. But though tedious, the voyage 
 was, on the whole, uncommonl}' prosperous. Lancas- 
 ter entered into commercial treaties with the kings of 
 Acheen and Bantam ; and having taken on board a 
 valuable cargo of pepper and other produce, he was 
 fortunate enough, hi his way home, to fall in with and 
 capture, in concert with a Dutch vessel, a Portuguese 
 carrack of 980 tons' burden, richly laden. Lancaster 
 returned to the Downs on the 11th of September, 1603. 
 — Modem Universal History, vol. x., p. 16 ; Macpher- 
 son's Commerce of the European Powers with India, p. 
 81. But notwithstanding the favorable result of this 
 voyage, the expeditions fitted out in the years imme- 
 diately following, though sometimes consisting of 
 larger ships, were not, on an average, materially in- 
 creased. In 1612, Captain Best obtained from the 
 court at Delhi several considerable privileges ; and, 
 among others, that of establishing a factory at Surat ; 
 which city was, henceforth, looked upon as the princi- 
 pal British station in the west of India, till the acqui- 
 sition of Bombay. 
 
EAS 
 
 676 
 
 EAS 
 
 In establishing factories in India, tile English only 
 followed the examples of the Portuguese and Dutch. 
 It was contended that they were necessary to serve as 
 depots for the goods collected in the country for expor- 
 tation to Europe, as well as for those imported into 
 India, in the event of their not meeting with a ready 
 market on the arrival of the ships. Such establish- 
 ments, it was admitted, are not required in civilized 
 countries ; but the peculiar and unsettled state of India 
 was said to render them indispensable there. What- 
 ever weight may be attached to this statement, it is 
 obvious that factories formed for such purposes could 
 hardly fail of speedily degenerating into a species of 
 forts. The security of the valuable property deposited 
 in them, furnished a specious pretext for putting them 
 in condition to withstand an attack ; while the agents, 
 clerks, warehousemen, etc., formed a sort of garrison. 
 Possessing such strong-holds, the Europeans were early 
 emboldened to act in a manner quite inconsistent with 
 their character as merchants, and but a verj^ short 
 time elapsed before they began to form schemes for 
 monopolizing the commerce of particular districts, and 
 acquiring territorial dominion. 
 
 Though the Company met with several heavy losses 
 during the early part of their traffic with India, from 
 shipwrecks and other unforseen accidents, and still 
 more from the hostility of the Dutch, yet, on the 
 whole, the trade was decidedly profitable. There can, 
 however, be little doubt, that their gains, at this early 
 period, have been very much exaggerated. During 
 the first 13 j'ears, they are said to have amounted to 
 132 per cent. But then it should be borne in mind, as 
 Mr. Grant has justly stated, that the voyages were 
 seldom accomplished in less than 30 months, and 
 sometimes extended to 3 or 4 years : and it should 
 further be remarked that, on the arrival of the ships 
 at home, the cargoes were disposed of at long credits 
 of 18 months or 2 years ; and that it was frequently 
 even 6 or 7 years before the concerns of a single voy- 
 age were finally adjusted.— r-^ie^cA of the History of the 
 Company^ p. 13. When these circumstances are taken 
 into view, it will be immediately seen that the Com- 
 pany's profits were not, really, by any means so great 
 as has been represented. It may not, however, be 
 uninstructive to remark, that the principal complaint 
 that was then made against the Company, did not pro- 
 ceed so much on the circumstance of its charter ex- 
 cluding the public from any share in an advantageous 
 trafiic, as in its authorizing the Company to export 
 gold and silver of the value of £30,000. It is true that 
 the charter stipulated that the Company should import 
 an equal quantity of gold and silver within 6 months 
 of the termination of every voyage ; but the enemies 
 of the Company contended that this condition was not 
 complied with ; and that it was, besides, highly in- 
 jurious to the public interest, and contrary to all jyrin- 
 ciphy to allow gold and silver to be sent out of the 
 Idngdom. The merchants and others interested in the 
 support of the Company, could not controvert the 
 reasoning of their opponents without openly impugn- 
 ing the ancient policy of absolutely preventing the ex- 
 portation of the precious metals. They did not, how- 
 ever, venture to contend, if the idea reall}'' occurred to 
 them, that the exportation of bullion to the East was 
 advantageous, on the broad ground of the commodities 
 purchased by it being of greater value in England. 
 But they contended that the exportation of bullion to 
 India was advantageous, because the commodities 
 thence imported were chiefly re-exported to other 
 countries from which a much greater quantity of 
 bullion was obtained than had been required to pay for 
 them in India. Mr. Thomas Mun, a director of the 
 East India Company, and the ablest of its early advo- 
 cates, ingeniously compares the operations of the 
 merchant in conducting a trade carried on by the 
 exportation of gold and silver to the seed-time and 
 harvest of agriculture. " If we only behold," says 
 
 he, " the actions of the husbandman In the seed- 
 time, when he casteth away much good com into 
 the ground, we shall account him rather a mad- 
 man than a husbandman. But when we consider his 
 labors in the harvest, which is the end of his endeav- 
 ors, we find the worth and plentiful increase of his ac- 
 tions." — Treasure by Foreign, Trade, p. 50, edition of 
 1664. 
 
 We may here remark, that what has been called the 
 mercantile system of political economy, or that system 
 which measures the progress of a country in the career 
 of wealth by the supposed balance of payments in its 
 favor, or by the estimated excess of the value of its 
 exports over that of its imports, appears to have 
 originated in the excuses now set up for the exporta- 
 tion of bullion. Previously to this epoch, the policy 
 of prohibiting the exportation of bulllion had been 
 universally admitted ; but it now began to be pretty 
 generallj' allowed, that its exportation might be pro- 
 ductive of advantage, provided it occasioned the sub- 
 sequent exportation of a greater amount of raw or 
 manufactured products to countries whence bullion 
 was obtained for them. This, when compared with 
 the previously existing prejudice — for it hardly de- 
 serves the name of system — which wholly interdicted 
 the exportation of gold and silver, must be allowed to 
 be a considerable step in the progress to sounder opin- 
 ions. The maxim, ce n^est que le premier pas qui coute, 
 was strikingly verified on this occasion. The advo- 
 cates of the East India Company began gradually to 
 assume a higher tone, and, at length, boldly contended 
 that bullion was nothing but a commodity, and that its 
 exportation should be rendered as free as that of any 
 thing else. Nor were these opinions confined to the 
 partners of the East India Company. They were 
 gradually communicated to others ; and many eminent 
 merchants were taught to look with suspicion on sev- 
 eral of the previously received dogmas with respect to 
 commerce, and were, in consequence, led to acquire 
 more correct and comprehensive views. The new 
 ideas ultimately made their way into the House of 
 Commons ; and, in 1663, the statutes prohibiting the 
 exportation of foreign «oin and bullion were repealed, 
 and full liberty given to the East India Company and 
 to private traders to export them in unlimited quanti- 
 ties. 
 
 But the objection to the East India Company, or 
 rather the East India trade, on the ground of its caus- 
 ing the exportation of gold and silver, admitted of a 
 more direct and conclusive, if not a more ingenious 
 reply. How compendious soever the ancient inter- 
 course with India by the Red Sea and the Mediter- 
 ranean, it was unavoidably attended with a good deal 
 of expense. The productions of the remote parts of 
 Asia, brought to Ceylon, or the ports on the Ma:labar 
 coast, by the natives, were there put on board the ships 
 which arrived from the Arabic gulf. At Berenice they 
 were landed, and carried by camels 250 miles to the 
 banks of the Nile. They were there again embarked, 
 and conveyed down the river to Alexandria, whence 
 they were despatched to different markets. The addi- 
 tion to the price of goods by such a multiplicity of 
 operations must have been considerable ; more espe- 
 cially as the price cliarged on each operation was fixed 
 by monopolists, subject to no competition or control. 
 Pliny says, that the cost of the Arabian and Indian 
 products brought to Eome when he flourished (a.d. 
 70), was increased a hundredfold by the expenses of 
 transit— (ifis^. Nat., lib. vi,, c. 23) ; but there can be 
 little or no doubt that this is to be regarded as a rhe- 
 torical exaggeration. There are good grounds for 
 thinking that the less bulky sorts of Eastern products, 
 such as silks, spices, balsams, precious stones, etc., 
 which were those principally made use of at Eome, 
 might, supposing there were no political obstacles in 
 the way, be conveyed from most parts of India to the 
 ports on the Mediterranean by way of Egypt, at a de- 
 
EA8 
 
 511 
 
 EA8 
 
 cidedly cheaper rate than they could be conveyed to 
 them by the Cape of Good Hope. 
 
 But at the period when the latter route to India 
 began to be frequented, Syria, Egypt, etc., were occu- 
 pied by Turks and Mamelulces ; barbarians who de- 
 spised commerce and navigation, and were, at the 
 same time, extremely jealous of strangers, especially 
 of Christians or infidels. The price of the commodi- 
 ties obtained through the intervention of such persons 
 was necessarily very much enhanced ; and the discov- 
 ery of the route by the Cape of Good Hope was, con- 
 sequently, of the utmost importance ; for, by putting 
 an end to the monopoly enjoyed by the Turks and 
 Mamelukes, it introduced, for the first time, something 
 like competition into the Indian trade, and enabled the 
 western parts of Europe to obtain supplies of Indian 
 products for about a third part of what they had pre- 
 viously cost. Mr. Mun, in a tract published in 1621, 
 estimates the quantitj' of Indian commodities imported 
 into Europe, and their cost when bought in .Aleppo, 
 and in India, as follows : 
 
 Cost of Inihan Commodities oonsttmed in Europe wiiEjf 
 
 Bought in Aleppo (or -Alexandria). 
 
 6,000,000 lbs. popper cost, with charges, X >. d. 
 
 etc., at .iloppo 28. per lb 600,000 
 
 450,000 lbs. cloves, at 4s- 9d 106,875 10 
 
 150,000 lbs. moce, at 4s. 9d 86,626 
 
 400,000 lbs. nutmegs, at 2. 4d 46,666 2 4 
 
 850,000 lbs. indigo, at 4s. 4d T6,888 6 8 
 
 1,000,000 lbs. Porslau'raw silk, at 2s 600,000 
 
 Total £1,466,000 19 
 
 But the same quantities of the same commodities 
 cost, when bought in the East Indies, according to Mr. 
 Mun, as follows : 
 
 £ ■ >. 6. 
 
 6,000,000 lbs. pepper, at 2id. per lb 62,600 
 
 460,000 lbs. cloves, at 9d 16,8T5 
 
 150,000 lbs. mace, at 8d 6,000 
 
 400,000 lbs. nutmegs, at 4(1 6,666 18 4 
 
 860,000 lbs. indigo, at 1b. 2d 20,416 12 4 
 
 1,000,000 lbs. raw silk, at 8s 400,000 
 
 Total £811,468 5 8 
 
 Which, being deducted from the former, leaves a bal- 
 ance of £953,542 13«. 4d. .And supposing that the 
 statements made by Mr. Mun are correct, and that 
 allowance is made for the difference between the 
 freight from Aleppo and India, the result would indi- 
 cate the saving which the discoverj- of the route by 
 the Cape of Good Hope occasioned in the purchase of 
 the above-mentioned articles. — A Discourse of Trade 
 from England to the East Indies, by T. M., original ed. 
 p. 10. (This tract, which is very scarce, is reprinted in 
 Purchas's Pilgrims). 
 
 In the same publication (p. 37), Mr. Mun informs us 
 that from the beginning of the Company's trade, to 
 July, 1620, they had sent 79 ships to India; of which 
 34 had come home safely, and richly laden ; 4 had 
 been worn out by long service in India ; 2 had been 
 lost in careening ; 6 had been lost by the perils of the 
 sea, and 12 had been captured by the Dutch. Mr. 
 Mun further states, that the exports to India since the 
 formation of the Company had amounted to £840,376 ; 
 that the produce brought from India had cost £356,288, 
 and had produced here the enormous sum of £1,914,- 
 600 ; that the quarrels with the Dutch had occasioned 
 a loss of £84,088 ; and that the stock of the Company, 
 in ships, goods in India, etc., amounted to £400,0Q0. 
 
 The hostility of the Dutch, to which Mr. Mun has 
 here alluded, was long a verj' formidable obstacle to 
 the Company's success. The Dutch early endeavored 
 to obtain the exclusive possession of the spice trade, 
 and were not at all scrupulous about the means by 
 which they attempted to bring about this their favor- 
 ite object ; the English, on their part, naturallj' exerted 
 themselves to obtain a share of so valuable a com- 
 merce ; and as neither party w.as disposed to abandon 
 its views and pretensions, the most violent animosi- 
 ties grew up between them. In this state of things, it 
 would be ridiculous to suppose that unjustifiable acts 
 Oo 
 
 were not committed by the one party as well as the 
 other ; though the worst act of the English appears 
 venial, when compared with the conduct of the Dutch 
 in the massacre of Amboyna, in 1622. While, how- 
 ever, the Dutch Company was vigorously supported 
 by the government at home, the English Company 
 met with no efficient assistance from the feeble and 
 vacillating policy of James and Charles. The Dutch 
 either despised their remonstrances, or defeated them 
 by an apparent compliance ; so that no real reparation 
 was obtained for the outrages they had committed. 
 During the civil war, Indian affairs were necessarily 
 lost sight of ; and the Dutch continued, until the as- 
 cendancy of the republican party had been established, 
 to reign triumphant in the East, where the English 
 commerce was nearly annihilated. 
 
 But notwithstanding their depressed condition, the 
 Company's servants in India laid the foundation, dur- 
 ing the period in question, of the settlements at Madras 
 and in Bengal. Permission to build Fort St. George 
 was obtained from the native authorities in 1640. In 
 1658, Madras was raised to the station of a presidency. 
 In 1645, the Company began to establish factories in 
 Bengal ; the principal of which was at Hooghly. These 
 were, for a lengthened period, subordinate to the presi- 
 dency of Madras. 
 
 No sooner, however, had the civil wars terminated 
 than the armies and councils of Cromwell retrieved 
 the situation of our affairs in India. The war which 
 broke out between the long Parliament and the Dutch 
 in 1652 was eminently injurious to the latter. In the 
 treaty of peace, concluded in 1654, it was stipulated 
 that indemnification should be made by the Dutch for 
 the losses and injuries sustained by the English mer- 
 chants and factors in India. The 27th article bears, 
 " that the lords, the states-general of the United Prov- 
 inces, shall take care that justice be done upon those 
 who were partakers or accomplices in the massacre of 
 the English at Amboyna, as the republic of England 
 is pleased to term the fact, provided any of them be 
 living." A commission was at the same time ap- 
 pointed, conformably to another article of the treaty, 
 to inquire into the reciprocal claims which the sub- 
 jects of the contracting parties had upon each other for 
 losses sustained in India, Brazil, etc. ; and upon their 
 decision, the Dutch paid the sum of £85,000 to the 
 East India Company, and £3615 to the heirs or execu- 
 tors of the sufferers at Amboyna. — Sruce's Armals, 
 vol. i. p. 489. 
 
 The charter under which the East India Company 
 prosecuted their exclusive trade to India being merely 
 a grant from the crown, and not ratified by any act of 
 Parliament, was understood by the merchants to be at 
 an end when Charles I. was deposed. "They were 
 confirmed in this view of the matter,' from the circum- 
 stance of Charles having himself granted, in 1635, a 
 charter to Sir William Courten and others, authorizing 
 them to trade with those parts of India with which the 
 Company had not established any regular intercourse. 
 The reasons alleged in justification of this measure, by 
 the crown, were, that " the East India Company had 
 neglected to establish forified factories, or seats of 
 trade, to which the king's subjects could resort with 
 safety : that they had consulted their own interests 
 only, without an}' regard to the king's revenue ; and 
 in general, that they had broken the condition on 
 which their charter and exclusive privileges had been 
 granted to them." — Rim. Fadera, vol. xx., p. 146. 
 
 Courten's association, for the foundation of which 
 such satisfactorj' reasons has been assigned, continued 
 to trade with India during the remainder of Charles's 
 reign ; and no sooner had the arms of the Common- 
 wealth forced the Dutch to desist from their depreda- 
 tions, and to make reparation for the injuries they had 
 inflicted on the English in India, than private adven- 
 turers engaged in great niunbers in the India trade, 
 and carried it on with a zeal, economy, and success, 
 
EAS 
 
 578 
 
 EAS 
 
 ttat monopoly can never expect to rival. It is stated 
 in a little work, entitled " Britannia Languens," pub- 
 lished in 1680, the author of which has evidentlj'- been 
 a well-informed and intelligent person, that during 
 the years 1653, 1654, 1655, and 1656, when the trade 
 to India was open, the private traders imported East 
 India commodities in such large quantities, and sold 
 them at such reduced prices, that they not only fully 
 supplied the Britisli markets, but had even come into 
 successful competition with the Dutch in the market 
 of Amsterdam, "and very much sunk the actions 
 (shares) of the Dutch East India Company." — (p. 122.) 
 This circumstance naturally excited the greatest ap- 
 prehensions on the part of the Dutch Company ; for 
 besides the danger that they now ran of being depriv- 
 ed, by the active competition of the English merchants, 
 of a considerable part of the trade which they had pre- 
 viously enjoyed, they could hardly expect that, if the 
 trade were thrown open in England, the monopoly 
 would be allowed to continue in Holland. A striking 
 proof of what is now stated is to be found in a letter 
 in the third volume of " Thurlow's State Papers," 
 dated at the Hague, the 16th of January, 1654, where 
 it is said, that "the merchants of Amsterdam have ad- 
 vice that the Lord Protector intends to dissolve the 
 East India Company at London, and to declare the 
 navigation and commerce of the East Indies free and 
 open : which doth cause great jealousy at Aipsterdam, 
 as a thing that will very much prejudice the East India 
 Company in Holland" 
 
 Feeling that it was impossible to contend with the 
 private adventurers under a system of fair competition, 
 the moment the treaty with the Dutch had been con- 
 cluded, the Company began to solicit a renewal of 
 their charter ; but in this they were not only opposed 
 by the free traders, but by a part of themselves. To 
 understand how this happened, it may be proper to 
 mention that Coui-ten'a association, the origin of which 
 has been alread}"^ noticed, had begun, in 1648, to found 
 a colony in Assuda, an island near Madagascar. The 
 Company, alarmed at this project, applied to the Coun- 
 cil of State to prevent its being carried into effect \ 
 and the council, without entering on the question of 
 either party's rights, recommended them to form a 
 union; which was accordingly effected in 1649. But 
 the union was, for a considerable time, rather nominal 
 than real ; and when the Dutch war had been put an 
 end to, most of those holders of the Company's stock 
 who had belonged to Courten's association joined in 
 petitioning the Council of State that the trade might 
 in future be carried on, not by a joint-stock, but by a 
 regulated company ; so that each individual engaging 
 in it might be allowed to employ his own stock, serv- 
 ants, and shipping, in whatever way he might conceive 
 most for his own advantage. — Petition of Adventurers, 
 17th of Nov., lGo6i Bruce's Annals^ vol. i., p. 618. 
 
 This proposal was obviously most reasonable. The 
 Company had always founded their claim to a monop- 
 oly of the trade on the alleged ground of its being 
 necessary to maintain forts, factories, and ships of 
 war in India ; and that as this was not done by gov- 
 ernment, it could only be done by a company. But, 
 by forming the traders with India into a regular com- 
 pany, they might have been subjected to whatever 
 rules were considered most advisable ; and such special 
 duties might have been laid on the commodities they 
 exported and imported as would have sufficed to de- 
 fray the public expenses required for carrying on the 
 trade, at the same time that the inestimable advan- 
 tages of free competition would have been secured ; 
 each individual trader being left at liberty to conduct 
 his enterprises, subject only to a few general regula- 
 tions, in his own way and for his own advantage. See 
 Companies. 
 
 But notwitstanding the efforts of the petitioners, and 
 the success that was clearly proved to have attended 
 the operations of the private traders, the Company 
 
 succeeded in obtaining a renewal of their charter from 
 Cromwell in 1657. Charles II. confirmed this charter 
 in 1661 ; and at the same time conferred on them the 
 power of making peace or war with any power or 
 people not of the Christian religion; of establishing 
 fortifications, garrisons, and colonies ; of exporting 
 ammunition and stores to their settlements duty free j 
 of seizing and sending to England such British sub- 
 jects as should be found trading to India without 
 their leave ; and of exercising civil and criminal juris- 
 diction in their settlements, according to the laws of 
 England. Still, however, as this charter was not 
 fully confirmed by any act of Parliament, it did not 
 prevent traders, or interlopers as they were termed, 
 from appearing within the limits of the Company's ter- 
 ritories. The energy of private commerce, which, to 
 use the words of Mr. Orme, " sees its drift with eagles' 
 eyes," formed associations at the risk of trj'ing the 
 consequence at law, being safe at the outset, and 
 during the vo3''age, since the Company were not 
 authorized to stop or seize the ships of those who thus 
 attempted to come into competition with them. Hence 
 their monopoly was by no means complete ; and it was 
 not till after the Revolution, and when a free system, 
 of government had been established at home, that, by 
 a singular contradiction, the authority of Parliament 
 was interposed to enable the Company whollj' to en- 
 gross the trade with the East. 
 
 In addition to the losses arising from this source, 
 the Company's trade suffered severely, during the 
 reign of Charles II., from the hostilities that were 
 then waged with the Dutch, and from the confusion 
 and disorders caused by contests among the native 
 princes ; but in 1668 the Company obtained a very 
 valuable acquisition in the island of Bombay. Charles 
 II. acquired this island as a part of the marriage por- 
 tion of his wife, Catharine of Portugal ; and it was now 
 made over to the Company, on condition of their not 
 selling or alienating it to any persons whatever, except 
 such as were subjects of the British crown. They 
 were allowed to legislate for their new possession ; but 
 it was enjoined that their laws should be consonant 
 with reason, and, " as near as might be," agreeable to 
 the practice of England. They were authorized to 
 maintain their dominion by force of arms ; and the 
 natives of Bombay were declared to have the same 
 liberties as natural-born subjects. The Company's 
 western presidency was soon after transferred from 
 Surat to Bombay. 
 
 In 1664, the French East India Company was 
 formed; and 10 years afterward they laid the founda- 
 tion of their settlement at Pondicherry. 
 
 But the reign of Charles IT. is chiefly memorable in 
 the Company's annals, from its being the era of the 
 commencement of the tea trade. The first notice of 
 tea in the Company's records is found in a despatch, 
 addressed to their agent at Bantam, dated 24th of 
 January, 1667-8, in which he is desired to send home 
 100 lbs. of tea— "the best he can get." (Bruce's 
 Annals^ vol. ii., p. 210.) Such was the late and feeble 
 beginning of the tea trade, a branch of commerce that 
 has long been of vast importance to the British nation, 
 and without which it is more than probable that the 
 East India Company would long since have ceased to 
 exist, at least as a mercantile body. 
 
 In 1677 the Company obtained a fresh renewal of 
 their charter ; receiving at the same time an indemnity 
 for all past misuse of their privileges, and authorit)^ to 
 establish a mint at Bombay. 
 
 During the greater part of the reigns of Charles II. 
 and James II., the Company's affairs at home were 
 principallj^ managed by the celebrated Sir Josiah 
 Child, the ablest commercial writer of the time ; and 
 in India, by his brother. Sir John Child. In 1681, 
 Sir Josiah published an apology for the company, 
 under the signature of <I>fAo7rarpiC — " A Treatise 
 whererein is Demonstrated that the East India Trade 
 
EAS 
 
 579 
 
 EAS 
 
 is the most National of all Foreign Trades"— in which, 
 besides endeavoring to viudioate the Company from 
 the objections that had been made against it, he gives 
 an account of its state at the time. From this account 
 it appears that the Company consisted of 656 partners ; 
 that they had from 35 to 36 ships, of from 775 to 100 
 tons, employed in the trade between England and 
 India, and from port to port in India (p. 23) ; that the 
 customs duties upon the trade amounted to about 
 £60,000 a year; and that the value of the exports, 
 "in lead, tin, cloth, and stuffs, and other commodities 
 of the production and manufacture of England," 
 amounted to about £60,000 or £70,000 a year. Sir 
 Josiah seems to have been struck, as he well might, by 
 the inconsiderable amount of the trade ; and he there- 
 fore dwells on the advantages of which it was indi- 
 rectly productive, in enabling us to obtain supplies of 
 raw silk, pepper, etc., at a much lower price than they 
 would otherwise have fetched. But this, though true, 
 proved nothing in favor of the Company— it being an 
 admitted fact, that those articles were furnished at 
 a still lower price by the interlopers or private traders. 
 Sir Josiah Child was one. of the first who projected 
 the formation of a territorial empire in India. But 
 the expedition fitted out in 1686, in the view of accom- 
 plishing this purpose, proved unsuccessful; and the 
 Company were glad to accept peace on the terms of- 
 fered by the Mogul. Sir John Child, having died 
 during the course of these transactions, was succeeded 
 in the principal management of the Company's affairs 
 in India by Mr. Vaux. On the appointment of the 
 latter. Sir Josiah Child, to whom he owed his advance- 
 ment, exhorted him to act with vigor, and to carrj' 
 whatever instructions he might receive from home 
 into immediate effect. Mr. Vaux returned for answer, 
 that he should endeavor to acquit himself with integ- 
 rity and justice, and that he would make the laws of 
 his country the rule of his conduct. Sir Josiah 
 Child's answer to this letter is curious : " He told Mr. 
 Vaux roundly tliat he expected his orders were to be 
 his rules, and not the laws of England, which were a 
 heap of nonsense, compiled b}' a few ignorant country 
 gentlemen, who hardly knew how to make laws for 
 the good government of their own private families, 
 much less for the regulating of companies and foreign 
 commerce." (Hamilton's iVcw Account of the East 
 Indies, vol. i., p. 232.) 
 
 During the latter part of the reign of Charles II. 
 and that of his successor, the number of private adven- 
 turers, or interlopers, in the Indian trade, increased in 
 an unusual degree. The Companj- vigorously exerted 
 themselves in defense of what they conceived to be 
 their rights ; and the question with respect to the 
 .validity of the powers conferred on them by their 
 charter was at length brought to issue, by a prosecu- 
 tion cari'ied on at their instance against Mr. Thomas 
 Sandys, for trading to the East Indies without their 
 license. Judgment was given in favor of the Company 
 in 1685. But this decision was ascribed to corrupt 
 influence; and instead of allaying, onlj- served to 
 increase the clamor against them. The meeting of 
 the Convention Parliament gave the Company's oppo- 
 nents hopes of a successful issue to their efforts ; and 
 had they been united, they might probably have suc- 
 ceeded. Their opinions were, however, divided — part 
 being for throwing the trade open, and part for the 
 fonnation of a new company on a more liberal footing. 
 The latter being formed into a body, and acting in 
 unison, the struggle against the Company was chiefly 
 carried on by them. The proceedings that took place 
 on this occasion are among the most disgraceful in the 
 history of the countrj'. The most open and unblush- 
 ing corruption was practiced by all parties, "/i was, 
 in fact, a trial which should bribe the highest ; public 
 authority inclining to one or other as the irresistible force 
 of gold directed." (^Modern Universal History, vol. x., 
 p. 127.) Government appears, on the whole, to have 
 
 been favorable to the Company; and they obtained a 
 fresh charter from the crown in 1693. But in the 
 following year the trade was virtually laid open by a 
 vote of the House of Commons, " that all the subjects 
 of England had an equal right to trade to the East 
 Indies, unless prohibited by act of Parliament." Mat- 
 ters continued on this footing till 1698. The pecuniary 
 difficulties in which government was then involved, 
 induced them to apply to the Company for a loan of 
 £2,000,000, for which they offered 8 per cent, interest. 
 The Company ofi'ered to advance £700,000 at 4 per 
 cent. ; but the credit of government was at the time 
 so low, that they preferred accepting an offer from the 
 associated merchants, who had previously opposed the 
 Company, of the £2,000,000, at 8 per cent., on con- 
 dition of their being formed into a new and exclusive 
 company. While this project was in agitation, the ad- 
 vocates of free trade were not idle, but exerted them- 
 selves to show that, instead of establishing a new 
 company, the old one ought to be abolished. But, 
 however conclusive, their arguments, having no ad- 
 ventitious recommendations in their favor, failed of 
 making any impression. The new company was es-. 
 tablisfaed by authority of the legislature ; and as the 
 charter of the old company was not yet expired, the 
 novel spectacle was exhibited of two legallj' consti- 
 tuted bodies, each claiming an exclusive right to the 
 trade of the same possessions ! 
 
 Notwithstanding all the pretensions set up by those 
 who had obtained the new charter, during their 
 struggle with the old companj^, it was immediately 
 seen that they were as anxious as the latter to sup- 
 press every thing like free trade. They had not, it 
 was obvious, been actuated by any enlarged views, 
 but merely by a wish to grasp at the monopoly, 
 which they believed would redound to their own indi- 
 vidual interest. The public, in consequence, became 
 equally disgusted with both parties ; or, if there were 
 any difference, it is probable that the new company 
 was looked upon with the greatest aversion, inasmuch 
 as we are naturally more exasperated by what we con- 
 ceive to be duplicity and bad faith, than by fair undis- 
 guised hostility. 
 
 At first the mutual hatred of the rival associations 
 knew no bounds. But they were not long in perceiv- 
 ing that such conduct would infallibly end in their 
 ruin ; and that while one was laboring to destroy the 
 other, the friends of free trade might step in and pro- 
 cure the dissolution of both. In consequence, they 
 became gradually reconciled ; and in 1702, having 
 adjusted their differences, the}'' resolved to form them- 
 seves into one company, entitled The United Company 
 of Merchants of England trading to the East Indies. 
 
 The authority of Parliament was soon after inter- 
 posed to give effect to this agreement. 
 
 The United Company engaged to advance £1,200,- 
 000 to government without interest, which, as a previ- 
 ous advance had been made of £2,000,000 at 8 per 
 cent., made the total sum due to them by the public 
 £3,200,000, bearing interest at 5 per cent. ; and gov- 
 ernment agreed to ratify the terms of their agreement, 
 and extend the charter to the 25th of March, 1726, 
 with 3 years' notice. 
 
 While these important matters were transacting at 
 home, the Company had acquired some additional pos- 
 sessions in India. Jn 1692, the Bengal agency was 
 transferred from Hooghly to Calcutta. In 1698, the 
 Company acquired a grant from one of the grandsons 
 of Aurengzebe, of Calcutta and 2 adjoining villages ; 
 with leave to exercise judiciary powers over the inttab- 
 itants, and to erect fortifications. These were soon 
 after constructed, and received, in compliment to 
 William III., then king of England, the name of Fort 
 William. The agency at Bengal, which had hitherto 
 been subsidiary only, was now raised to the rank of a 
 presidency. 
 
 The vigorous competition that had been carried on 
 
EAS 
 
 580 
 
 EAS 
 
 for some years before the coalition of the old and new 
 Companies, between them and the private traders, had 
 occasioned a great additional importation of Indian 
 silks, piece goods, and other products, and a great re- 
 duction of their price. These circumstances occa- 
 sioned the most vehement complaints among the home 
 manufacturers, who resorted to the arguments invaria- 
 made use of on such occasions by those who wish to 
 exclude foreign competition ; affirming that manu- 
 factured India goods had been largely substituted for 
 those of England ; that the English manufacturers had 
 been reduced to the cruel necessity either of selling 
 nothing, or of selling their commodities at such a price 
 as left them no profit ; that great numbers of their 
 workmen had been thrown out of employment ; and, 
 last of all, that Indian goods were not bought by 
 British goods, but by gold and silver, the exportation 
 of which had caused the general impoverishment of 
 the kingdom ! The merchants and others interested 
 in the India trade could not, as had previoxisly hap- 
 pened to them in the controversy with respect to the 
 exportation of bullion, meet these statements without 
 attacking the principles on which they rested, and 
 maintaining, in opposition to them, that it was for the 
 advantage of every people to buy the products they 
 wanted in the cheapest market. This just and sound 
 principle was, in consequence, enforced in several pe- 
 titions presented to Parliament bj'- the importers of 
 Indian goods ; and it was also enforced in several able 
 publications that appeared at the time. But these ar- 
 guments, how unanswerable soever they may now ap- 
 pear, had then but little influence ; and, in 1701, an 
 act was passed, prohibiting the importation of Indian 
 manufactured goods for home consumption. 
 
 For some years after the re-establishment of the 
 Company, it continued to prosecute its efforts to con- 
 solidate and extend its commerce. But the unsettled 
 state of the Mogul empire, coupled "with the determi- 
 nation of the Company to establish factories in every 
 convenient situation, exposed their affairs to perpetual 
 vicissitudes. In 1715, it was resolved to send an em- 
 bassy to Delhi, to solicit from Furucksur, an unworthy 
 descendant of Aurengzebe, an extension and confirma- 
 tion of the Company's territory' and privileges. Ad- 
 dress, accident, and the proper application of presents^ 
 conspired to insure the success of the embassy. The 
 grants or patents solicited by the Company, were is- 
 sued in 1717. They were in all 34. The substance 
 of the privileges they conferred was, that English 
 vessels wrecked on the coasts of the empire should 
 be exempt from plunder ; that the annual payment 
 of a stipulated sum to the government of Surat 
 should free the English trade at that port from all 
 duties and exactions ; that those villages contiguous 
 to Madras formerly granted anij afterward refused 
 by the government of Arcot, should be restored to the 
 Company; that the island of Diu, near the port of 
 Masulipatam, should belong to the Company, paying 
 for it a fixed rent ; that in Bengal, all persons, whether 
 European or native, indebted or accountable to the 
 Company, should be delivered up to the presidency on 
 demand ; that goods of export or import, belonging to 
 the English, might, under a dustuck or passport from 
 the president of Calcutta, be conveyed duty free 
 through the Bengal provinces ; and that the English 
 should be at liberty to purchase the lordship of 37 
 towns contiguous to Calcutta, and, in fact, command- 
 ing both banks of the river for 10 miles south of that 
 city. — Grant's Sketch of ike History of the East India 
 Company^ p. 128. 
 
 The important privileges thus granted were long 
 regarded as constituting the great charter of the En- 
 glish in India. Some of them, however, were not 
 fully conceded ; but were withheld or modified by the 
 influence of the Emperor's lieutenants, or soubahdars. 
 
 In 1717, the Company found themselves in danger 
 from a, new competitor. In the course of that year 
 
 some ships appeared in India, fitted out by private 
 adventurers from Ostend. Their success encouraged 
 others to engage in the same line ; and in 1722, the 
 adventurers were formed into a company under a 
 charter from his Imperial Majesty. The Dutch and 
 English Companies, who had so long been hostUe to 
 each other, at once laid aside their animosities, and 
 joined heartily in an attempt to crush their new com- 
 petitors. Remonstrances being found ineffectual, 
 force was resorted to ; and the vessels of the Ostend 
 Company were captured, under the most frivolous pre- 
 tenses, in the open seas and on the coasts of Brazil. 
 The British and Dutch governments abetted the self- 
 ish spirit of hostility displayed by their respective 
 Companies. And the emperor was, in the end, glad 
 to purchase the support of Great Britain and Holland 
 to the pragmatic sanction, by the sacrifice of the Com- 
 pany at Ostend. 
 
 Though the Company's trade had increased, it was 
 still inconsiderable, and it is very diflScult, indeed, 
 when one examines the accounts that have from time 
 to time been published of the Company's mercantile 
 affairs, to imagine how the idea ever came to be enter- 
 tained that their commerce was of any considerable, 
 much less paramount, importance. At an average of 
 the 1.0 years ending with 1724, the total value of the 
 British manufactures and other jfroducts annually ex- 
 ported to India, amounted to only ^92,410 12s. Gd. 
 The average value of the bullion annually exported, 
 during the same period, amounted to £518,102 Us. 
 Od., making the total annual average export £617,513 
 3s. lOd. ; a truly pitiful sxim, when we consider the 
 wealth, population, and industry of the countries be- 
 tween which the Company's commerce was carried 
 on ; and affording, by its smallness, a strong presump- 
 tive proof of the effect of the monopoly in preventing 
 the growth of the trade. 
 
 At this period (1773) the total number of proprietors 
 
 of East India stock, with their qualifications as they 
 
 stood in the Company's book, were as follows : 
 
 Pro] ■ " ' 
 
 Englishmen, possessing £1,000 ) 
 stock and upward f 
 
 Foreigners, possessing £1,000 |_ 
 stock and upward J 
 
 Englishmen, possessing £500 j 
 stock and upward | 
 
 Foreigners, possessing £500 j 
 stock and upward 
 
 Total 2,153 £2,694,029 
 
 Notwithstanding the vast extension of the Company's 
 territories, their trade continued to be apparently in- 
 significant. During the 3 years ending with 1773, the 
 value of the entire exports of British produce and 
 manufactures, including military stores, exported by 
 the Company to India and China, amounted to £1,469,- 
 411, being at the rate of £489,803 a year ; the annual 
 exports of bullion during the same period being only 
 £84,933. During the same 3 years, 23 ships sailed 
 annually for India. The truth, indeed, seems to he, 
 that, but for the increased consimiption of tea in 
 Great Britain, the Company would have entirely 
 ceased to carry on any branch of trade with the East; 
 and that the monopoly would have excluded us as 
 effectually from the markets of India and China as if 
 the trade had reverted to its ancient channels, and the 
 route by the Cape of Good Hope been relinquished. 
 
 In 1781, the exclusive privileges of the Company 
 were extended to 1791, with three years' notice; tho 
 dividend on the Company's stock was fixed at 8 per 
 cent. ; three fourths of their surplus revenues, after 
 paying the dividend, and the sum of £400,000 payable 
 to government, was to be applied to the public service, 
 and the remaining fourth to the Company's own use. 
 In 1780, the value of British produce and manufactures 
 exported by the Company to India and China amounted 
 to only £386,152 ; the bullion exported during the same 
 year was £15,014. The total value of the exports 
 during the same year was £12,648,616 ; showing that 
 
 }prietorB. 
 
 Stoel. 
 
 48T 
 
 £1,018,898 
 
 826 
 
 890,940 
 
 1,246 
 
 684,464 
 
 95 
 
 60,22lS 
 
EAS 
 
 581 
 
 EAS 
 
 the East India trade formed only one thirty-second part 
 of the entire foreign trade of the empire ! 
 
 The administration of Mr. Hastings was one contin- 
 ued scene of war, negotiation, and intrigue. The state 
 of the country, instead of being improved, became 
 worse ; so much so, that in a council minute by Mar- 
 quis Comwallis, dated the 18th of September, 1789, it 
 is distinctly stated, " that one third part of the Com- 
 pany's territory is now a jungle for mid beasts." Some 
 abuses in the conduct of their servants were, indeed, 
 rectified; but, notwithstanding, the nett revenue of 
 Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa, which, in 1772, had amount- 
 ed to f 2,126,766, declined, in 1785, to £2,072,963. This 
 exhaustion of the country, and the expenses incurred 
 in the war with Hyder Ali and France, involved the 
 Company in fresh diiBculties; and being unable to 
 meet them, they were obliged, in 1783, to present a 
 petition to Parliament, setting forth their inability to 
 pay the stipulated sum of £400,000 a year to the pub- 
 lic, and praying to be excused from that payment and 
 to be supported by a loan of £900,000. 
 
 During the administration of Marquis Comwallis, 
 who succeeded Mr. Hastings, Tippoo Saib, the son of 
 Hyder Ali, was stripped of nearly half his dominions ; 
 the Company's territorial revenue was, in consequence, 
 greatly increased ; at the same time that the perma- 
 nent settlement was carried into effect in Bengal, and 
 other important changes accomplished. Opinion has 
 been long divided as to the influence of these changes. 
 On the whole, however, we are inclined to think that 
 they have been decidedly advantageous. Lord Com- 
 wallis was, beyond all question, a sincere friend to the 
 people of India ; and labored earnestly, if not always 
 successfully, to promote their interests, which he well 
 knew were ^identified with those of the British nation. 
 During the 3 years ending with 1793, the value of the 
 Company's exports of British produce and manufac- 
 tures fluctuated from £928,788 to £1,031,262. But this 
 increase is wholly to be ascribed to the reduction of the 
 dutj'' on tea in 1784, and the vast increase that, conse- 
 quently, took place in its consumption. (See article 
 Tea.) Had the consumption of tea continued sta- 
 tionary, there appear no grounds for thinking that the 
 Company's exports in 1793 would have been greater 
 than in 1780, unless an increase had taken place in the 
 quantity of military stores exported. 
 
 In 1793, the Company's charter was prolonged till 
 the 1st of March, 1814. In the act for this purpose, a 
 species of provision was made for opening the trade to 
 India to private individuals. All his majesty's sub- 
 jects, residing in any part of his European dominions, 
 were allowed to export to India any article of the pro- 
 duce or manufacture of the British dominions, except 
 military stores, ammunition, masts, spars, cordage, 
 pitch, tar, and copper ; and the Company'? civil serv- 
 ants in India, and the free merchants resident there, 
 were allowed to ship, on their own account and risk, 
 all kinds of Indian goods, except calicoes, dimities, 
 muslins, and other piece goods. But neither the mer- 
 chants in England, nor the Company's servants or 
 merchants in India, were allowed to export or import 
 except in Company's ships. And in order to insure 
 such conveyance, it was enacted that the Company 
 should annually appropriate 3,000 tons of shipping for 
 the use of private traders ; it being stipulated that they 
 were to pay, in time of peace, £5 outward, and £15 
 homeward, for every ton occupied by them in the Com- 
 pany's ships ; and that this freight might be raised in 
 time of war, with the approbation of the Board of 
 Control. 
 
 It might have been, and, indeed, most probably was, 
 foreseen that very few British merchants or manufac- 
 turers would be inclined to avail themselves of the 
 privilege of sending out goods in Company's ships ; or 
 of engaging in a trade fettered on all sides by the jeal- 
 ousy of powerful monopolists, and where, consequently, 
 their superior judgment and economy would have 
 
 availed almost nothing. As far, therefore, as they were 
 concerned, the relaxation was more apparent than real, 
 and did not produce any useful results. It was, how- 
 ever, made use of to a considerable extent by private 
 merchants in India ; and also by the Company's serv- 
 ants returning from India, many of whom invested a 
 part, and some the whole, of their fortune, in produce 
 iit for the European markets. 
 
 Notwithstanding the vast additions made to their 
 territories, the Company's commerce with them con- 
 tinued to be verj' inconsiderable. During the 6 years 
 ending with 1811, the exports to India by the Com- 
 pany, exclusive of those made on account of individ- 
 uals in their ships, were as under : 
 
 1807 £952,416 
 
 1808 919,544 
 
 1809 866,158 
 
 1810 £1,010,815 
 
 1811 1,088,816 
 
 The exports by the private trade, and the privilege 
 trade, that is, the commanders and officers of the 
 Company's ships, during the above-mentioned years, 
 were about as large. During the 5 years ending with 
 1807-8, the annual average imports into India by 
 British private traders onlj', amounted to £305,496. — 
 Papers published by the East India Company in 1813, 
 4to. p. 56. 
 
 The Company's exports include the value of the 
 military stores sent from Great Britain to India. The 
 ships employed in the trade to India and China, during 
 the same 5 j'ears, varied from 44 to 53, and their bur- 
 den from 36,671 to 45,342 tons. 
 
 For some years previously to the termination of the 
 Company's chartey in 1813, the conviction had been 
 gaining ground among all classes, that the trade to the 
 East was capable of being very greatly extended ; and 
 that it was solely owing to the want of enterprise and 
 competition, occasioned by its being subjected to a mo- 
 nopoly, that it was confined within such narrow limits. 
 Very great efforts were, consequently, made by the 
 manufacturing and commercial interests to have the 
 monopolj' set aside, and the trade to the East thrown 
 open. The Companj"" vigorously resisted these preten- 
 sions ; and had interest enough to procure a prolonga- 
 tion of the privilege of carrying on an exclusive trade 
 to China to the 10th of April, 1831, with 3 years' no- 
 tice ; the government of India being contuiued in their 
 hands for the same period. Fortunately, however, the 
 trade to India was opened under certain conditions to 
 the public. The principal of these conditions were, 
 that private individuals should trade, directly only, 
 with the presidencies of Calcutta, Madras, and Bom- 
 bay, and the port of Penang ; that the vessels fitted 
 out by them should not be under 350 tons' burden ; and 
 that they should abstain, unless permitted by the 
 Company, or the Board of Control, from engaging in 
 the carrying trade of India, or in the trade between 
 India and China. And yet, despite these disadvan- 
 tages, such is the energy of individual enterprise as 
 compared with monopoly, that the private traders 
 gained an almost immediate ascendancy over the East 
 India Company, and in a very short time more than 
 trebled our trade with India ! 
 
 But besides being injurious to the private trader, 
 and to the public generally, both in India and England, 
 this trade was of no advantage to the East India Com- 
 pany. How, indeed, could it be otherwise ? A Com- 
 pany that maintained armies and retailed tea, that 
 earned a sword in the one hand and a ledger in the 
 other, was a contradiction ; and, had she traded with 
 success, would have been a prodigy. It was im- 
 possible for her to pay that attention to details that 
 is indispensable to the carrying on of commerce with 
 advantage. She may have gained something by the 
 monopoly of the tea trade, though even that is ques- 
 tionable ; but it is admitted on all hands that she lost 
 heavily by her trade to India. When, therefore, the 
 Question as to the renewal of the charter came to he 
 disctissed in 1832, the Company had no reasonable 
 
EATJ 
 
 582 
 
 EAU 
 
 objection to iirge against their being deprived of tbe 
 privilege of trading. And the act 3 and 4 Will. 4. c. 
 85., for continuing the charter till 1854, terminated the 
 Company's commercial character; by enacting, that the 
 Company's trade to China -was to cease on the 22d of 
 April, 1834, and that the Company -was as soon as pos- 
 sible after that date to dispose of their stocks on hand, 
 and close their commercial business. And the wonder- 
 ful increase that has since taken place in the trade 
 with the East is the best proof of the sagacity and 
 soundness of the opinions of those by whose efforts 
 the incubus of monopoly was removed. 
 
 II. East India Company (Constitution of). — At 
 present the functions of the East India Company are 
 wholly political. She is said to govern India, with the 
 concurrence and under the supervision of the Board of 
 Control, nearly on the plan laid down in Mr. Pitt's 
 act. But, in point of fact, the government is substan- 
 tially vested in the latter; the Company's directors 
 acting, except on some rare occasions, rather as a 
 council to the President of the Board of Control, than 
 as exercising an independent, or co-equal authority. 
 All the real and personal property belonging to the 
 Company on the 22d of April, 1834, was vested in the 
 crown, and is held or managed by the Company in 
 trust for the same, subject of course to all claims, debts, 
 contracts, etc., already in existence, or that may here- 
 after be brought into existence by competent authority. 
 The Company's debts and liabilities are all charged on 
 India. The dividend, which is 10^ per cent., is paid 
 in England out of the revenues of India ; and provi- 
 sion is made for the establishment of a security fund 
 for its discharge. The dividend may be redeemed by 
 Parliament, on payment of £200 for £100 stock, any 
 time after April, 1874; but it was provided, in the 
 event of the Company being deprived of the govern- 
 ment of India in 1854, that they might claim re- 
 demption of the dividend any time thereafter, upon 
 three years' notice.— (3 & 4 Will. 4. u. 85.)— J. R. Mc- 
 
 CULLOCH. 
 
 East, (Germ. Ost.^ The point of the horizon at 
 which the sun rises at the time of the equinoxes ; or the 
 point determined by a perpendicular to the meridian 
 drawn toward the quarter of sunrise. The east is one 
 of the four cardinal points of the compas. 
 
 East India. See India. 
 
 East River communicates with the Hudson in 
 the Bay of New York, and is formed by the narrowing 
 of Long Island Sound, which opens with a broad 
 mouth at the eastern end into, and receives n strong 
 impulse from the tides in the Atlantic. This channel 
 is so called in contradistinction to the North River (the 
 Hudson). As the Sound contracts, to the west of the 
 broad expanse in front of New Haven, and forms 
 what is called East River^ the oceanic currents act with 
 a force that increases with the diminishing width of 
 the stream ; and this causes higher tides here than at 
 any other place around the island, amving at New 
 York about three quarters of an hour earlier than 
 those by the Narrows. This cuiTent drives upward 
 along the east shore of the Hudson many miles in ad- 
 vance of the other, on the west ; and thus the Hudson 
 has two tides, which hardly unite their action till 
 they have passed Tappan and Haverstraw bays. 
 Horll-Gate, Hell-Gate, or Hurl-Gate, a dangerous 
 and very crooked strait in East River, eight miles 
 N. E. of New York, was called by the Dutch JJorlt- 
 Gatt, signifying whirlpool. The strait is formed by 
 projecting rocks that confine the water to a narrow 
 and crooked channel, occasioning strong eddy cur- 
 rents. There is a sufficient depth of water for any 
 vessels, but the passage of large ships should only be 
 attempted with skillful pilots. — ^E. A. 
 
 Eau de Cologne. This well-known perfume is 
 a solution of different volatile oils in pure strong 
 spirit. The principal condition for the preparation of a 
 fine water is the employment of a spirit quite devoid 
 
 of fusil-oil (oil of grain), and of all foreign odor. In 
 respect to the proportion and kind of oils employed, 
 we have numerous formulae. It is of importance that 
 these oils, which are usually purchased of the druggists 
 of the south of France, should be of the finest quality, 
 and that no oil should be used in sufficient quantity to 
 allow of its peculiar odor being recognizable in the 
 mixture. The oils are to be dissolved in spirit, and 
 the mixture allowed to stand for some weeks (or stiU 
 better for some months), to improve its odor. Distil- 
 lation does not affect this ; on the contrary a fresh dis- 
 tilled water requires to be kept a much longer time. 
 Distillation is indeed objectionable ; for on account of 
 the great volatility of the spirit, the oils in part remain 
 behind in the still. Distillation can improve the 
 odor only when the less volatile oil has been used in 
 too great a quantity, and we wish to obtain a better 
 proportion. Before all things, we should employ a 
 pure, old, strong spirit, and not too much of, nor too 
 strongly smelling oil. The different sorts of volatile 
 oil which are obtained from varieties of citrons, 
 oranges, and lemons, in different states of maturity, 
 are the most important ; and, therefore, it is most im- 
 portant to ascertain their purity and goodness. Fors- 
 ter gives the following formula for the preparation of 
 fine eau de Cologne : Take of rectified spirit 82 per 
 cent., of Tralles (=sp. gr. 0*855), 6 (wine) quarts; es- 
 sence of oranges, essence of bergamot, essence of cit- 
 ron, essence of limette, and essence of petits grains, of 
 each, § j ; essence of cedro, essence of sedrat essence 
 de Portugal, and essence de neroli, of each § ss ; oil 
 of rosemary, 3 ij ; and oil of thyme, 3 j. 
 
 Otto gives the following formula for a good eau de 
 Cologne : Rectified sjnrit of 86 per cent. ; of Tralles 
 (=0*846 sp. gr.), 200 (wine) quarts ; oil of citrons, &. 
 iv ; oil of bergamot, B> . ij ; oil of neroli ^Tb- ; oil of 
 lavender, lb-, ss ; oil of rosemary, i %.; and spirit of 
 ammonia, ^ ss. Mix : don't distill. 
 
 This preparation has long possessed great celebrity, 
 in consequence chiefly of the numerous virtues as- 
 cribed to it by its venders ; and is resorted to by many 
 votaries of fashion as a panacea against ailments of 
 every kind. It is, however, nothing more than aro- 
 matized alcohol, and as such an agreeable companion 
 for the toilet. Numerous fictitious recipes have been 
 offered for preparing eau de Cologne ; the following 
 may be reckoned authentic, having been imparted by 
 Farina himself to a friend. 
 
 Take 60 gallons of silent brandy ; sage, and thyme, 
 each 3 vi ; balm-mint and spearmint, each § xij ; cal- 
 amus aromaticus, 3 iv ; root of angelica, 3 ij j cam- 
 phor, 3 j ; petals of roses and violets, each ^ iv ; flowers 
 of lavender, § ij ; flowers of orange, 3 iv ; worm- 
 wood, § j ; nutmegs, cloves, cassia, lignea, and mace, 
 each 3 iv ; 2 oranges and 2 lemons, cut in pieces. 
 Allow the whole to macerate in the spirit during 24 
 hours, then distill off 40 gallons by the heat of a water 
 bath. Add to the product ; essence of lemons, of 
 cedrat, of balm-mint, and of lavender, each 3 xij ; 
 neroli and the essence of the seed of anthos, each 3 iv; 
 essence of jasmin, ^JJ *^^ bergamot, 5 ^y* Filter, 
 and preserve for use. 
 
 Cadet de Gassincourt has proposed to prepare eau 
 de Cologne by the following recipe : Take alcohol at 32° 
 B., 2 quarts; neroli, essence of cedrat, of orange, of 
 lemon, of bergamot, of rosemary, each 24 drops ; add 
 3 ij of the seeds of lesser cardamoms ; distill by the 
 heat of a water bath a pint and a half. "When pre- 
 pared as thus by simple mixture of essences, without 
 distillation, it is never so good. There is a curious 
 contest in Germany concerning the veritable Farina, 
 who makes the celebrated eau de Cologne. The con- 
 test was carried even into the Crystal Palace, where 
 there were four John Maria Farinas, all claiming to 
 be the original! It appears that speculation is carried 
 to so high a pitch in Cologne, that any child entitled 
 to the surname of Farina is bargained for as soon as 
 
EGY 
 
 683 
 
 EGY 
 
 bom, and christened Jean Maria. At times this event 
 is even anticipated. 
 
 Eau de Iiuce. A strong solution of ammonia, 
 scented, and rendered millcy by the addition of a little 
 mastic and oil of amber. It is considered an effective 
 remedy in India against the bite of poisonous snal^es. 
 
 Ebony (Ger. Ebenholz; Du. Ebbenout; Fr. Ebme; 
 It. Ebano ; Rus. Ebenowoedereivo ; Lat. Ebenus)^ a 
 species of wood brought principally from the East. It 
 is exceedingly hard and heavy, of great durability, 
 susceptible of a very fine polish, and on that account 
 used in mosaic and other inlaid worlc. There are 
 many species of ebony. The best is that which is jet 
 blaclc, free from veins and rind, very compact, astringent, 
 and of an acrid pungent taste. This species (denomi- 
 nated by botanists Diospyrus Ebenus) is found princi- 
 pally in Madagascar, the Mauritius, and Ceylon. The 
 centre only of the tree is said to, be valuable. In 
 1837, 2160 cwt. of ebony, of the estimated value of 
 £1275 were exported from the Mauritius. Besides the 
 blacls:, there are red, green, and yellow ebony; but 
 the latter are not so much esteemed as the former. 
 Cabinet-malcers are in the habit of substituting pear- 
 tree and other woods dyed blaclc, in the place of genu- 
 ine ebony ; these however, want its polish and lustre, 
 though they hold glue better. The price of ebony 
 varies in the London marlcet from £5 to £20 a ton. 
 The quantities imported are but inconsiderable. 
 
 Ecuador. See Equadok. 
 
 Eddy (Sax. ed, water, and ea, bachward), is the 
 water of a stream or tide which, in consequence of 
 striking against some obstacle, is thrown bacltward, 
 and runs in a direction opposite to that of the general 
 current. More frequently, however, the term is used 
 to denote the whirling or circular motion caused by 
 the meeting of two opposite currents ; and in this 
 sense it is also applied to a similar motion of atmos- 
 phere. 
 
 Eel (AnguUla murcsna of Linmeus), a fish, the ap- 
 pearance of which is too well known to require any 
 description. It is a native of almost all the waters of 
 Europe, frequenting not only rivers but stagnant 
 pools. Eels are, in many places, extremely abundant, 
 particularly in Holland and Jutland. Several ponds 
 are appropriated in England to the raising of eels ; and 
 considerable numbers are taken in the Thames and 
 other rivers. But a large portion of the eels used in 
 England are furnislied by Holland. Indeed, very 
 few except Dutch eels are ever seen in London ; and 
 even Hampton and Richmond are principally supplied 
 by them. The trade is carried on by Dutch traders, 
 who employ in it several small vessels, by means of 
 which the market is regularly and amply provided 
 for. 
 
 Effervescence (Lat. effemesco). The escape of 
 gaseous matter from liquids, as in the act of ferment- 
 ation. All liquids from which bubbles of gas rapidly 
 escape, so as to resemble boiling, are said to effer- 
 vesce. 
 
 Efilorescence (Lat. effloresco, I flower). The 
 spontaneous crumbling down of transparent crystals, 
 in consequence of the loss of water. 
 
 Eggs (Fr. CEufs ; Lat. Ova), are too well known to 
 require to be described. They differ in size, color, 
 taste, etc., according to the different species of birds 
 that lay them. The eggs of poultrj' are those most 
 commonly used as food ; and form an article of very 
 considerable importance in a commercial point of view. 
 The eggs of plovers are esteemed a great delicacy, 
 and make, indeed, a perpetually recurring dish at 
 fashionable dinners. 
 
 Egypt, a country situated at the north-eastern ex- 
 tremity of Africa, between N. lat. 31° 37' and 24° 1', 
 and E. long. 27° 13' and 34° 12' ; bounded on the 
 north by the Mediterranean Sea, on the south by 
 Nubia, on the east by Palestine, Arabia, and the Red 
 Sea, and on the west by the Great Desert. The chief 
 
 field-produce is wheat (which is more grown than any 
 other kind of com), liarley, several sorts of millet, 
 maize, rice, oats, clover, peas, the sugar-cane, roses, 
 two species of the tobacco-plant, and cotton. The 
 sugar-cane is extensively cultivated, and excellent 
 sugar is manufactured from it. There are fields of 
 roses in the Feiyoom, which supply the market with 
 rose-water. The tobacco produced in Egypt is coarse 
 and strong compared with that which is used by the 
 middle and upper classes, and imported from Syria 
 and Turkey. That of Syria is considered the best. Of 
 textile plants, the principal are hemp, cotton, and 
 fiax ; and of plants used for dyeing, bastard, saillron, 
 madder, woad, and the indigo-plant. The intoxicat- 
 ing hasheesh, which some smoke in a kind of water- 
 ■pipe, formed of a cocoa-nut, two tubes, and a bowl, 
 seldom used for any other narcotic, is not, as has been 
 erroneously supposed, opium, but hemp. The effect 
 is most baneful. The leaves of the hinn^plant, 
 grown in abundance, are used to tinge, of a bright-red 
 color, the palms of tlie hands, the soles of the feet, and 
 the nails of both hande and feet, of women and chil- 
 dren, the hair of old ladies, and the tails of horses. 
 Indigo is very extensively employed to dye the shirts 
 of the natives, of the poorer classes, and is, when very 
 dark, the color of mourning ; therefore women, at fu- 
 nerals, and generally after a death, smear themselves 
 with it. Oil is extracted from the seeds of the cotton- 
 plant, hemp, colewort, the poppy, the castor-oil plant, 
 sesame, and flax. The high, coarse grass, called 
 halfeh (Poa si/nosuroides) grows in great quantity in 
 waste places and among ancient ruins. 
 
 Mr. Lane (1834) estimates the population of Egypt 
 at less than 2,000,000, and gives the following num- 
 bers as nearly those of the several classes of which it 
 is mainly composed : 
 
 Moslem Egyptians (fellaheen or peasants, ) -, «.p.« non ' 
 
 and townspeople) j ^i""'."'"' 
 
 Christian Egyptians (Copts) 150,000 
 
 Osmdulees, or Turks 10,000 
 
 Syrians 5,000 
 
 Greeks 5,000 
 
 Armenians 2,000 
 
 Jews 6,000 
 
 and the remainder, exclusive of the Arabs of the des- 
 ert, about 70,000. 
 
 Sir Gardner Wilkinson (1843) computes the total at 
 about 1,800,000 ; but Clot-Bey (1840), not always an 
 impartial writer, places it much higher, upward of 
 3,000,000. The following result of the government 
 census, taken in 1847-8, is remarkable as showing the 
 system of falsifying statistics for state purposes. It is 
 copied from an official return : 
 
 Middle Egypt... 591,294 
 
 El-Gharbeeyeh. . 529,980 
 
 EI-Kalyoobeeych 184,240 
 
 Upper Egypt. . . . 1,190,118 
 
 Esh-Sharkeeyoh. 842,609 
 
 El-Geezeh 223,654 
 
 El-Boheyreh 215,810 
 
 El-Meneofesyeh. 440,619 
 
 El-Dakahleeyeh.. 847,847 
 
 Shubra 10,116 
 
 El-Kuseyr 8,485 
 
 Eosetta 18,405 
 
 Damifetta ....... 28,922 
 
 Suez 17,.399 
 
 El-'Arcesb 2,847 
 
 Alexandria 148,134 
 
 Cairo 268,541 
 
 Total 4,542,620 
 
 Since the conclusion of the Syrian war, until the 
 present struggle, the navy has been totally inactive. 
 At the former period, it numbered 11 ships of the line, 
 6 frigates (one moved by steam-power), 5 corvettes, 9 
 brigs (3 being steamers), and 2 cutters. Some of these 
 were constructed in the naval yard at Alexandria, but 
 the larger number were contracted for in Europe. 
 Great care was bestowed on the formation of the navy, 
 and the establishments connected with it at Alexan- 
 dria, but the Egyptians do not seem to be a maritime 
 people, or, at any rate, their men-of-war have none of 
 the tautness and neatness of European ships of the 
 class. — E B. 
 
 The trade with Europe is carried on through Alex- 
 andria. The trafBc with the interior of Africa is car- 
 ried on hy means of caravans, which bring, in exchange 
 for European and Egyptian products, ivory, gold-dust, 
 
EGY 
 
 584 
 
 EGY 
 
 skins, wool, gum, ostrich-feathers, and metals. The 
 chief commercial relations with Arabia and India are 
 carried on by Cosseir and Suez. Since the establish- 
 ment of regular steam-packets in the Mediterranean 
 and the Indian Ocean, Egypt has become the route to 
 India for all the correspondence of Europe, as well as 
 for the greater portion of travelers. The principal 
 means of communication at present are the Nile, which 
 is traversed by steam-packets, and the canals, many of 
 which have been repaired by Mehemet Ali ; but even 
 the best of them are often unnavigable during a great 
 part of the year. The route from Cairo to Suez (180 
 miles) is traversed by horses and vans, and the mail is 
 conveyed in 18 hours. The project of uniting the 
 Mediterranean with the Bed Sea, by re-opening the 
 ancient canal, has been recently revived, but it is sur- 
 rounded with difficulties, and not likely to be carried 
 into effect. The more practicable and safe plan of a 
 railroad communication between Cairo and Suez has 
 been resolved on, and a portion of it built. This may 
 again render Egypt the principal entrepot of commerce 
 between the eastern and the western worlds. 
 
 Commerce.' — The general commerce of Egypt in 
 1851, reached a total of 144,509,000 francs, or, in round 
 numbers, $28,902,000 ; which shows an increase, when 
 compared with 1841, of 44,000,000 francs, or nearly 
 $9,000,000. 
 
 It is difficult to obtain any accurate returns of the 
 commercial movements of Egypt, except such as are 
 prepared by the foreign consuls residing at the differ- 
 ent ports of that countrj', and transmitted to their 
 respective governments. From such sources the fol- 
 lowing table is compiled, showing the export trade of 
 Egj'pt, and vessels employed, during a period of 11 
 years, ending with 1851 : 
 
 T.ar.. 
 
 Plflsfres. 
 
 Dollnrs. 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 1841 
 
 198,270,160 
 180,446,600 
 191,588,400 
 167,868,480 
 186,782,200 
 187,841,080 
 801,348,500 
 157,286,546 
 203,0.56,232 
 315,367,800 
 325,804,696 
 
 9,918,507 
 
 9,022,380 
 
 9,576,920 
 
 8,393,421 
 
 9,289,110 
 
 9,367,054 
 
 15,067,175 
 
 7.861,827 
 
 10452,811 
 
 16,767,890 
 
 16,290,234 
 
 1,230 
 1,850 
 1,370 
 1,207 
 1,097 
 1,221 
 1,816 
 1,608 
 1,609 
 1,650 
 1,793 
 
 1842 
 
 1843 
 
 1844 . .. 
 
 1846 : 
 
 1846 
 
 1847 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 
 
 I860 
 
 1851 
 
 
 The value of the piastre varies. That of Alexandria is 
 reckoned at 5 cents United States' currency ; that of Turkey 
 generally is equivalent to 4 cents. 
 
 The import trade in 1841, the first year given in the 
 table, reached 187,000,000 piastres=$9,350,000, and 
 ascended in 1851, the last year, to 230,000,000 piastres, 
 or about $11,500,000. The articles which diminished 
 in the import returns during the period, were sugar, 
 linens, certain kinds of silks, and rum ; and the di- 
 minution was about equal to the increased production 
 of those articles in Egypt. The importation increased 
 in woolens, cottons, French silks, and articles of fashion. 
 Commerce in 1865 (Value in Pounds Sterling). 
 
 Exportation 4,600,000. 
 To England... 2,600,000 
 
 " France 511,000 
 
 " Austria.... 444,000 
 
 Importation, 2,141,000, 
 From England.. 905,000 I 
 
 " France... 177,000 | 
 
 " Austi-la. .. 200,000 I 
 
 Navigation in 1854 and 1855. • 
 
 Entered nnd cleared. Vessels. TonnnKe. 
 
 1854 8,962 788,457 
 
 1856 4,449 918,216 
 
 The English flag occupies the first rank in the re- 
 turns from which the preceding figures are taken, 
 though, since the repeal of the navigation laws of 
 Great Britain in 1850, the importations under the flags 
 of other countries of northern Europe have largely in- 
 creased. 
 
 Alexandria. — The trade of this port has increased 
 rapidly since the opening of the canal which commu- 
 nicates between Alexandria and the Nile at Atfeh. 
 This communication has taken away from the ports of 
 Damietta and Rosetta the extensive commerce for- 
 merly enjoyed by them, and for which, from their po- 
 
 sition on the two mouths of the Nile, they possessed 
 great advantages. The total trade of Alexandria in 
 1840, amounted in value to $11,997,145, of which there 
 were for imports $6,636,980, and for exports $5,860,- 
 165. This trade in 1842 reached in value $21,000,000, 
 an increase over 1840 of over $9,000,000. The treaty 
 of 1838, placing foreign commerce on a more secure 
 basis than had previously existed, and the tranquillity 
 which followed the settlement of the difficulties of 
 1840, were the causes of this great augmentation in 
 the trade of 1842. Among the exports of this year, 
 raw cotton reached in value $1,800,000, of which 
 Austria received upward of $1,000,000 in value. The 
 trade of 1843 exhibits a falling off from that of the 
 preceding year, aggregating only (imports and exports 
 united) about $19,000,000, of which raw cotton reached 
 in value about $2,000,000. In 1844 the total trade of 
 this port fell again to about $13,000,000 ; and m 1846 
 the totals reached nearly $18,000,000, of which, for 
 cotton, there were $2,000,000. In 1849 the foreign 
 trade of Alexandria reached $16,000,000, of which for 
 imports, there were $7,500,000, and for exports, $8,- 
 500,000. The raw cotton exported this year reached 
 in quantity 258,000 quintals (the quintal, or cantar, is 
 estimated at 100 lbs.), or 25,800,000 lbs., valued at 
 $2,775,000. The tranquillity which prevailed in 
 Egypt during the ten years anterior to 1850, was 
 highly favorable to the development of its foreign 
 commerce. The treaty of 1838, guarantying the un- 
 restricted circulation through Egypt of European 
 merchandise, and its freedom from the vexatious 
 taxes to which it was subjected before that period, 
 contributed in like manner to the prosperity of this 
 port in 1850. The total trade exceeded in value $19,- 
 000,000, a figure which it had never before reached, 
 excepting in the year 1842, when the large augmenta- 
 tion was brought about by causes purely accidental. 
 Of this sum, imports reached nearly $8,000,000, and 
 exports about 11,000,000. Of the latter, raw cotton 
 amounted in quantity to 82,084,500 lbs., and in value 
 to $4,200,000. 
 
 The establishment of a national bank in Alexandria, 
 under the title of Bank of Egypt, has already, though 
 not in operation, commenced a revolution in the ideas 
 of the fellahs, or cultivators of the soil, with respect to 
 monej' matters. It is well known tliat the fellahs 
 have hitherto hoarded or buried the cash they have re- 
 ceived for their produce. Since they have been paid 
 by drafts on the Bank of Egypt, and they find the 
 mode in which those drafts are cashed is so satis- 
 factory, some of the more wealthy have opened ac- 
 counts with the bank, and deposited their savings 
 there for safe keeping. Should this practice become 
 general, and the many millions which are known to be 
 hoarded by the fellahs be brought into circulation and 
 laid out in profitable investments, it must produce an 
 enormous effect on the prosperity of the country in 
 general. 
 
 It is worthy of notice, that, in the voluminous re- 
 ports from which the preceding statements of the 
 trade, both of Egypt and its principal port, Alexan- 
 dria, are extra-cted, the United States does not once 
 appear. A despatch to the State Department, dated 
 Alexandria, May 1, 1856, states that " the increase in 
 foreign traders is very perceptible, but there are few 
 branches of American houses among them." England, 
 France, and Austria, seem to have been the principal 
 foreign countries which participated in this trade. 
 The total trade of 1851 reached $29,000,000, and that 
 of 1852 ascended to upward of $31,000,000, of which a 
 large share is assigned to Turkey and Syria. The 
 quantity of raw cotton exported the latter year was 
 718,655 quintals, valued at $6,960,249. The whole of 
 this cotton was sent to England, France, and Austria, 
 in the following proportions : to England, 426,118 
 quintals ; to Austria, 169,300 quintals ; and to France, 
 128,030 quintals. These figures, as well as those em- 
 
EGY 
 
 585 
 
 EID 
 
 ployed throughout this digest, generally, are derived 
 Prom French official sources, which purport to be based 
 on those of Egyptian authorities. The latter, how- 
 ever, are deemed by no means reliable. The foUow- 
 
 ing statement exhibiting the export trade of Alex- 
 andria for 1855, transmitted from the United States' 
 Consulate-general at that place, is stated to have been 
 drawn from private sources : 
 
 1 Countries. 
 
 Cotton. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Beans. 
 
 Flax. 
 
 Indian corn. 
 
 Wool. 
 
 Linseed. 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 Cfintars.* 
 270,615 
 108,248 ' 
 140,412 
 1,611 
 
 Ai-dobs.t 
 
 1,114,614 
 
 180,441 
 
 27,580 
 
 402,217 
 
 Ardebs. 
 
 892,840 
 
 700 
 
 10,952 
 
 40,T64 
 
 Cantars. 
 
 56,425 
 1,250 
 8,416 
 
 14,258 
 
 Ardebs.' 
 
 • 108,787 
 
 , 18,635 
 8,851 
 
 Cantars. 
 
 19,275 
 
 1,680 
 
 689 
 
 1,900 
 
 Ardeba. 
 
 46,994 
 
 1,090 
 
 724 
 
 8,180 
 
 
 
 Other countries 
 
 Total 
 
 520,886 
 
 1,674,862 
 
 445.246 
 
 76,849 
 
 120,628 
 
 28,494 
 
 51,988 
 
 
 
 
 * Tlie cantar of Egypt is estimated at 100 pounds. 
 
 During the same year, an English house at Alexan- 
 dria sent two vessels to New York, and an Austrian 
 house two more to the same destination, loaded 
 chiefly with gums, rags, etc. There is no doubt that 
 a profitable trade miglit be established between the 
 United States and the port of Alexandria, by sending 
 out such merchandise as usually finds a market in 
 Egypt, and receiving in return the rich and varied ex- 
 ports of that, extensive emporium. 
 
 Cotton. — The cotton culture of Egypt commenced 
 in 1818, and exportation to England in 1823. The seed 
 is said to have been imported by the pacha "from 
 America, the Mediterranean, and Brazil ;" and these 
 different kinds of cotton may, therefore, be met in cul- 
 tivation. The attempt to cultivate the sea island cot- 
 ton is pronounced a, failure — the quality deteriorating 
 rapidly after the first crop — although the best Egypt- 
 ian cotton, called Maho (so called from Maho-Bey, in 
 whose garden, at Cairo, the plant was first discovered, 
 having, probably, been introduced from the Isle of 
 BourlMn during the French invasion), is ranked next 
 to sea island in length of staple. The comparative 
 tabular statement subjoined, made up from consular re- 
 turns (the bale being estimated at 300 lbs.), shows the 
 quantities of cotton exported at the port of Alexandria, 
 and the countries to which exported, respectively, dur- 
 ing a period of three years. The quantity exported 
 in 1852 is stated to have been as follows : to Great 
 Britain, 57,623,400 lbs. ; to France, 12,350,100 lbs. ; to 
 Austria, 11,429,700 lbs. ; elsewhere, 359,100 lbs. ; pre- 
 senting an aggregate of 81,762,300 lbs,, and far ex- 
 ceeding that of either of the three ensuing years, as 
 given in the following table : 
 
 Pounds op Cotton exported from Alexandria, 
 1853—1856. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1653, 
 
 1854, 
 
 1855. 
 
 Oreat Britain,, 
 
 France 
 
 Austria,, 
 
 Elsewhere 
 
 Total 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 26,489,900 
 
 10,726,500 
 
 6,821,000 
 
 897,800 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 24,938,700 
 
 7,454,100 
 
 10,166,200 
 
 988,500 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 88,980,100 
 
 9,451,200 
 
 12,774,900 
 
 668,100 
 
 48,885,200 
 
 48,646,500 
 
 56,874,300 
 
 If to the aggregate exported, be added from five to 
 six millions pounds consumed in the country, a liberal 
 estimate of the annual amount of cotton produced in 
 Egypt — ^between fifty and sixty million pounds — will 
 have been made. The factories established by Mehe- 
 met All are, it is stated, going rapidly to ruin. The 
 cotton goods manufactured are coarse " captas," or 
 soldiers' " nizam" uniform. Much cotton is used also 
 in making up divans, the usual furniture in Egypt, — 
 Com. SelcUions U. S. See article Alexandria. 
 
 The Egyptian measures are, the " fitr," or space 
 measured by the extension of the thumb and first fin- 
 ger; the " shibr," or span; the common cubitt=22|- 
 inches, the cubit of about 25 inches, used principally 
 for Indian goods, and the cubit of about 26J inches, 
 used for European cloth. Of the measures of laud, 
 the feddan was equal to about one English acre and 
 one tenth ; it is now less than an acre. It is divided 
 into " keer4ts," or 24ths, and consists of 333J- kasabehs 
 or rods. The kasabeh is 22 " kabdahs," and the kab- 
 dah, about 6^ inches, or the measure of a man's fist 
 with the thumb erect. The Egyptian league varies in 
 Upper and Lower Egypt, and is stated to be, in the 
 
 t The ardeb equals 5 bushels, 
 former, equal to a journey of an hour and a half, and 
 in the latter, to one hour's journey. The " ardeb" 
 is equal to very nearly five bushels, and consists of 
 six " weybehs," and each weybeh of four " rubas." 
 
 Weights. — The weights are the " kamhah'' (or grain 
 of wheat), the 64th of a " dirhem," and 4th of a " kee- 
 rat," It is equal to about f of an English grain. The 
 " habbeh" (or grain of barley) is the 48th of a dirhem 
 and 3d of a keerAt, and=127-128th English grain. The 
 keerit, or carat, is the 24th of a " mitkdl ;" and= 
 from 2 125-128ths to 3. English grains. The dirhem 
 =47 5-8ths to 48 English grains. The mitkal= 
 weight of a deenar=from 71 7-16ths to 72 English 
 grains. The " wukeeyeh," or ounce=from 571^ to 
 676 English grains. The " rati," or pound=from 1 
 lb. 2 oz. 5f dwt. to about 1 lb. 2 oz. 8 dwt. troy. The 
 " wuklcah," or oke=from 3 lb. 3 oz. ISf dwt. to 3 lb. 
 4 oz. troy. The " cantdr," or 100 weight^from 98 
 lbs., less 200 grs., to about 98 lb, avoirdupois. 
 
 Money. — European sovereigns and dollars are cur- 
 rent in Egj'pt, the former being now equivalent to 
 about 100 piastres, the latter, if French, to about 20 
 piastres, and if Spanish (pillar-dollars), to about 22 
 piastres ; but the value of these coins is constantly 
 changing. The Spanish doubloon, and Venetian se- 
 quin are also current, and so are Constantinople coins. 
 Of native coin, the " faddah," or para, is equal to 
 6-2Sths of a farthing, and there are pieces of 6, 10, and 
 20 faddahs. The " kirsh," or Egyptian piastre, con- 
 tains 40 faddahs, and is equal to 2 and 2-5ths pence. 
 These coins are of silver and copper. Of gold coins, 
 there are the " kheyreeyeh," of 4 piastres, and the 
 kheyreej'eh of 9 piastres (but the value of these coins 
 has recentlj' depreciated), and pieces of 5, 10, 20, and 
 100 piastres. The " riyal beledee," or native dollar, 
 is equal to 90 paras, but is only a nominal money, as 
 is the "kees," or purse, which contains 500 piastres, 
 and the " khazneh," or treasury of 1,000 purses. For 
 the weights, measures, and money, we are indebted to 
 the Modem Egyptians. — E. B. See Alexandkia. 
 
 Eider-duck. The species of duck so-called is one 
 of the largest and most valuable of the Anatidce^ and, 
 from certain modifications of the beak and sternum, 
 constitutes the type of a subgenus, called Somateria. 
 The common eider (jSomateria mollissivia) frequents, in 
 great numbers, the Orknej^s, Hebrides, and Shetland 
 isles. It is defended from the cold of the dreary 
 northern coasts by the development of an unusual 
 quantity of the finest down beneath its dense exterior 
 plumage, which is equally well adapted to form an 
 impenetrable barrier to the wet. The down of the 
 eider constitutes its chief value, as it combines with 
 its peculiar softness, fineness, and lightness, so great 
 a degree of elasticity that the quantity of this mate- 
 rial which might be compressed and concealed be- 
 tween two hands will serve to stuff a coverlet. As 
 the female plucks from her own body a quantity of 
 her finest down to line her nest, the Orcadians avail 
 themselves of this instinct, and take an early opportu- 
 nity to rob the nest of both eggs and down. She then 
 begins to lay afresh, and envelopes her eggs with 
 another layer of down ; and if this be removed, the 
 male is said to contribute his own down, when the 
 female can afford no more. Lastly, when the brood 
 of ducklings is hatched, the nest is again visited and 
 
ELB 
 
 586 
 
 ELB 
 
 the down removed. Thus a considerable quantity of 
 the valuable material furnished by the eider-duck is 
 obtained independently of that which is plucked from 
 the slaughtered birds. Besides the down and eggs, 
 the islanders turn the skins and ilesh of the eiders to 
 proiit ; while these birds cost them no expense, as 
 they feed entirely on sea-weed and other natural pro- 
 ductions of the ocean. 
 
 iEjlastic Bands. (^Tissus Elastiques, Fr. ; Feder- 
 harz-zeige^ Germ.) The manufacture of braces and 
 garters, with threads of caoutchouc, either naked or 
 covered, seems to have originated, some time ago, in 
 "Vienna, whence it was a few years since imported into 
 Paris, and thence into this country. At first, the 
 pear-shaped bottle of the Indian rubber was cut into 
 long narrow strips by the scissors ; a single operative 
 turning off only about 100 yards in a day, by cutting 
 the pear in a spiral direction. He succeeded next in 
 separating with a pair of pincers the several layers of 
 which the bottle was composed. Another mode of 
 obtaining fine threads was to cut them out of a bottle 
 which had been rendered thin by inflation with a 
 forcing pump. All these operations are facilitated by 
 previously steeping the caoutchouc in boiling water, 
 in its moderately Inflated state. More recently, ma- 
 chines have been successfully employed for cutting 
 out these filaments, but for this purpose the bottle of 
 caoutchouc is transformed into a disc of equal thick- 
 ness in all its parts, and perfectly circular. This pre- 
 liminary operation is executed as follows : 1. The bot- 
 tle, softened in hot water, is squeezed between the 
 two plates of a press, the neck having been removed 
 beforehand, as useless in this point of view ; 2. The 
 bottle is then cut into two equal parts, and is allowed 
 to consolidate by cooling, before subjecting it to the 
 cutting instrument. When the Ijottle is strong 
 enough, and of variable thickness in its different 
 points, each half is submitted to powerful pressure in 
 a verj' strong cylindrical mold of metal, into which 
 a metallic plunger descends, which forces the caout- 
 chouc to take the form of a flat cylinder with a circu- 
 lar base. The mold is plunged into hot water during 
 the compression. A stem or rod of iron, which goes 
 across the hollow mold and piston, retains the latter 
 in its place, notwithstanding the resilience of the 
 caoutchouc, when the mold is taken from the press. 
 The mold being then cooled in water, the caoutchouc 
 is withdrawn. 
 
 The transformation of the disc of caoutchouc into 
 fine threads is performed by two machines ; the first 
 of which cuts it into a ribbon of equal thickness 
 in its whole extent, running in a spiral direction 
 from the circumference to the centre ; the second 
 subdivides this ribbon lengthwise into several paral- 
 lel filaments much narrower but equally thick. — Uee's 
 Diet. 
 
 Elba, called Iha by the Eomaus, and JEihalia by 
 the Greeks, an island in the Mediterranean Sea lying 
 off the promontory of Populonium, at equal distances 
 from Corsica and the Italian mainland, though some- 
 what nearer the latter. Its outline is extremely irreg- 
 ular, and its sides are indented by numerous inlets and 
 arms of the sea, reducing its breadth in some places to 
 about 3 miles. The extreme length of the island is 
 about 18 miles ; its extreme breadth about 12 miles ; 
 and its area aboiit 150 miles. The whole length of the 
 island is occupied by a mountain range, one peak of 
 which (that of Capanna) rises to the height of about 
 3500 feet above the sea. The mountains of this range, 
 though themselves barren, inclose valleys of consider- 
 able fertility. Tines, olives, and mulberries, grow in 
 large quantities in this island, which also produces 
 wheat, Indian com, and vegetables in abundance. 
 Some of the wine produced in Elba is of excellent 
 quality, and a considerable quantitj^ of it is annuallj' 
 exported. The smaller domestic animals thrive well 
 and are very numerous in the island ; but the larger 
 
 kinds, such as oxen and horses, are somewhat scarce 
 The fisheries off the coast are important. 
 
 The iron mines of Elba, in modern, as in ancient 
 times, are extremely valuable. The great facility 
 with which the metal is worked, and the abundance in 
 which it is found, render these mines among the most 
 valuable of their kind in the world. The ore is dug 
 from a hill, 500 feet high and nearly 2 miles in circum- 
 ference, which is itself almost entirely one mass of ore. 
 When smelted, it is found to contain on an average 
 about 60 per cent, of pure iron. Fuel on the island is 
 ver}' scarce ; and the ore is consequently conveyed on 
 shipboard to the adjoining mainland to be smelted. 
 The total quantity of iron ore annually extracted 
 amounts to nearly 20,000 tons, giving employment to 
 130 miners. The salt mines of Elba are hardly infe- 
 rior in celebrity to the iron ones. About 4,000,000 
 pounds are annually produced, giving employment to 
 about 100 workmen. Besides Porto Ferrajo, the capi- 
 tal, and the town of Porto Longone, Elba contains no 
 town of any size or importance. Campo, Capo Liveri, 
 Marciana, and Eio are mere villages or fishing sta- 
 tions. In ancient history, the name of Elba verj- 
 rarely occurs ; and in modem times it is chiefly memo- 
 rable as having been the residence of the Emperor 
 Napoleon, after his first abdication, from May 1814 till 
 February 1815. From that time till the present, Elba 
 has been an appanage of the Grand Duchy of Tus- 
 cany. Pop. (1854) 21,.559. 
 
 Elbe (the AWis of the ancients), a large river of 
 Germany, which rises in the Riesen Gebirge, or Giant's 
 Mountains, between Silesia and Bohemia, and is 
 known at its source by the Sclavonic name of Labhe. 
 Its principal sources are the White Fountain, at the 
 base of the Schnee-Kuppe, and the 11 fountains of the 
 Elbe in the Navarian meadow. To the number of 
 streams which descend into Bohemia from the neigh- 
 boring mountains it owes its early increase. After its 
 junction with the river Eger, it becomes navigable ; 
 and, entering Saxony, it passes successively Dresden, 
 Meissen, Torgau, and Wittenberg. In its course, 
 which is northerly, it receives as tributaries the Mul- 
 dau and the Saale ; and running through the territor)- 
 of Magdeburg and the duchies of Mecklenburg and 
 Lauenburg, it discharges itself at last into the German 
 Ocean, about 70 miles below Hamburg, after a course 
 of 500 miles. The Elbe has always been an important 
 river in a military point of view. With respect to 
 commerce, it is of inestimable value to the countries 
 of north-west and central Germany, being the channel 
 by which they export their surplus products, and re- 
 ceive their imports from abroad. It gives to Ham- 
 burg its command of the navigation far into the inte- 
 rior, although the voyage is difficult on account of the 
 numerous sand-banks with which the estuary and the 
 rivers are encumbered. It communicates with the 
 Havel by the canal of Plauen, in the territory of 
 Magdeburg ; and at Hamburg it is connected in like 
 manner with the Trave at Lubec. It is also joined 
 to the Weser by a canal running between Vegesak 
 and Stade. Bj' the railway from Leitmeritz to Vienna 
 it communicates with the Danube ; and the other rail- 
 ways that touch upon other quarters of the river sup- 
 ply channels for distributing merchandise through the 
 various districts which they traverse. About 40 miles 
 from its source, the elevation of the river above the 
 level of the sea, is only 658 feet ; at Schandau it is 
 341 feet ; at Dresden, 279 feet ; and at Ameburg in 
 Brandenburg, only 176 feet. 
 
 Formerly 3 entrepots (Pirna, Dresden, and Magde- 
 burg), and 35 tolls, and numerous corporations of 
 privileged watermen, opposed almost insurmountable 
 difiSculties to the navigation : the Austrians and the 
 Saxons could alone navigate the Upper Elbe, that is, 
 from Magdeburg to where it ceases to be navigable, 
 and the Prussians and Hamburgers had the sole privi- 
 lege of navigating the Lower Elbe. But the naviga- 
 
ELE 
 
 587 
 
 ELM 
 
 tion of the river was definitely regnlated by a conven- 
 tion concluded on the 13th June, 1821, between all the 
 bordering states, viz., Austria, Saxony, Prussia, Han- 
 over, Denmark (for Holstein and Lauenburg), the 
 grand duchy of Mecklenburg-Sohwerin, and the three 
 principalities of Anhalt. This convention established 
 the principle of free navigation, allowing everj' mer- 
 chant, to whatever bordering state he might belong, 
 with his own vessel and crew to navigate the whole 
 course of the river without interruption ; the 35 tolls 
 were reduced to 14 ; the heavy dues which were levied 
 upon goods of the first necessity were reduced to those 
 which are paid, one for the cargo (Elle Toll), and the 
 other for the ship (Recogniti<msgebuhr) ; and each state 
 was bound to watch over the portion of river which 
 passed through their territories, and to preserve it from 
 every thing injurious to the commerce or navigation. 
 But notwithstanding these regulations, merchants are 
 still exposed to vexatious burdens and interruptions. 
 "Wood, stones, fruits, and earthenware, are the prin- 
 cipal articles that are brought down the Elbe. Com, 
 salt, and colonial produce are the principal articles 
 which are carried up, and on these the greater part of 
 the duties are levied. For a later ordinance relating 
 to the abolishment of all tolls on the Elbe except the 
 ordinaiy port charges, see article Hamburg. 
 
 El Dorado (Span, the golden region). The 
 name given by the Spaniards to an imaginary conn- 
 try, supposed in the 16th century to be situated in the 
 interior of South America, between the Rivers Orinoco 
 and Amazon, and, as the name' implied, abounding in 
 gold and all manner of precious stones. After the 
 Spanish conquest of Mexico and Peru, the most ex- 
 aggerated accounts of the wealth and riches of the 
 newly acquired territory were circulated and believed. 
 A new region was fabled to exist far surpassing the 
 wealth and splendor of Peru ; expeditions were fitted 
 out for the purpose of discovering it ; and though all 
 such attempts proved abortive, the rumors of its ex- 
 istence continued to be believed down to the beginning 
 of last century. The term has now passed into the 
 language of poetry, in which it is used to express a 
 land of boundless wealth and felicity, like the ancient 
 Elysium or the Mohammedan Paradise. See a learned 
 article on " Sir "Walter Raleigh," in vol. Ixxii., of 
 the Edln. Review, which contains a resuTtU of all the 
 speculations that have been entertained upon this 
 subject. 
 
 Electrography. The copying of an exquisite 
 line engraving, from a copper or steel plate to an 
 electro-copper deposit, although now become a very 
 familiar process, is really a wonderful one ; for, let the 
 lines of the engraving be as fine and minute as they 
 may, the deposited atoms of copper mark them all 
 distinctly. — so infinitely small is each atom or particle 
 compared with any magnitude which human hands 
 can produce. Like many other wonderful and beau- 
 tiful processes, this is a very simple one. Let us sap- 
 pose that a large steel or copper engraving is to be so 
 copied. The plate is immersed in a chemical solution 
 of copper, and a thick film is precipitated on it by 
 electro deposit. This film may be easily loosened 
 from the plate, and its surface then presents a reverse 
 to the plate, protuberances instead of engraved lines, 
 and cavities instead of plain or raised portions. The 
 film is employed as a sort of mold ; for it is in its 
 turn, immersed in the solution, and made the basis for 
 a second deposition- This second deposition is allowed 
 to continue until a plate as thick as the original is pro- 
 duced ; and this plate, when separated from its parent 
 film, is seen to be an exact counterpart of the en- 
 graved plate first operated upon. So perfect is the re- 
 semblance, that, if the electro-plate be made with care, 
 an inked impression printed from it can be detected 
 from one printed from the original plate only by an 
 experienced judge : to ordinary eyes they are equal in 
 all respects. 
 
 To M. Jacobi — almost simultaneously with Mr. 
 Spencer — ^we are indebted for one of the simplest and 
 most elegant applications of electricity — the galvano- 
 plastic art, or Volatype. In this, advantage is taken 
 of the perfectly metallic state in which the base of a 
 metallic salt is deposited at the negative pole of a vol- 
 atile combination. In the case, for example, of the 
 decomposition of sulphate of copper, the sulphuric 
 acid unites with the positive wire, or remains sus- 
 pended, whUe the metallic copper is slowly and homo- 
 geneously deposited on the surface of any object (ren- 
 dered conducting by the application of black lead or 
 otherwise), of which it forms a perfect mold, from 
 which a fresh cast or facsimile in metal of the original 
 object may be obtained by a repetition of the process. 
 To see the veins of a leaf, or the delicate wing of an 
 insect thus metallized, is certainl}' an astonishing 
 thing ; and the applications to the useful arts are far 
 too numerous to be noticed here. Daniel's invention 
 of the Constant Battery evidently suggested the Vol- 
 atype. 
 
 Elemi, a resin obtained from the Amyria elemifera, 
 a tree growing in different parts of America, Turkey, 
 etc. It is obtained by wounding the bark in drj- 
 weather, the juice being left to thicken in the sun. It 
 is of a pale yellow color, semi-transparent — at first 
 softish, but it hardens by keeping. Its taste is 
 slightly bitter and warm. Its smell, which is, at first, 
 strong and fragrant, gradually diminishes. It used 
 to be imported in long roundish cakes, wrapped in 
 fiag-leaves, but it is now usually imported in mats and 
 chests. — -Thomson's Chemistry. 
 
 Elixir (Arab), a term applied in old pharmacy to 
 certain essences or tinctures ; a mixture of an aromatic 
 tincture with sulphuric acid was called elixir of vitriol. 
 The alchemists applied the term elixir to various solu- 
 tions employed in the art of transmutation. 
 
 Ell (Lat. Ulna), a measure used chiefly for cloth, 
 and varying in length in different countries. The 
 English and Flemish ells were those most in use in 
 Great Britain. The English ell is 45 inches, while the 
 Flemish ell is only 27 inches or f of a yard. In Soot- 
 land the ell is 37 1-5 English inches. 
 
 Elm (Ulmus), a forest tree of which there are sev- 
 eral varieties. It attains to a great size, and lives to 
 a great age. Its trunk is often rugged and crooked, 
 and it is of slow growth. The color of the heart-wood 
 of elm is generally darker than that of oak, and of a 
 redder brown. "The sap-wood is of a yellowish or 
 brownish white, with pores inclined to red. It is in 
 general porous and cross-grained, sometimes coarse- 
 grained, and has no large septa. It .has a peculiar 
 odor. It twists and warps much in drying, and 
 shrinks very much both in length and breadth. It is 
 difficult to work, but is not liable to split, and bears 
 the driving of bolts and nails better than any other 
 timber. In Scotland, chairs and other articles o£ 
 household furniture are frequently made of elm wood ; 
 but in England, where the wood is inferior, it is chiefly 
 used in the manufacture of coffins, casks, pumps, 
 pipes, etc. It is appropriated to these purposes be- 
 cause of its great durability in water, which also occa- 
 sions its extensive use as piles, and planking for wet 
 foundations. The naves of wheels are frequently 
 made of elm ; those of the heavy wagons and drays 
 are made of oak, which supports a heavier weight, but 
 does not hold the spokes so firmly. Elm is said to 
 bear transplanting better than any other large tree. — 
 Tkedsold's Principles of Carpentry. 
 
 The wood of the Ulmus Americana, like that of the 
 European elm, is of a dark brown color, and is liable 
 to decay when exposed to the alternations of moisture 
 and dryness ; and when cut transversely or obliquely 
 to the longitudinal fibres. It exhibits the same numer- 
 ous and fine undulations ; but it splits more easily 
 and has less compactness, hardness, and strength — 
 weighing, when perfectly dry, only 33 pounds to a 
 
ELS 
 
 588 
 
 ELS 
 
 cubic foot. The principal uses to which this timber 
 is applied, are for making naves or hubs to wheels, for 
 piles and foundation-pieces to mills, canal-locks, and 
 for many other purposes where strength is required, 
 and the work is constantly buried in water or mud. 
 In the State of Maine it is occasionally employed for 
 the keels to vessels, for which purpose it is well adapted 
 on account of its size. It is also employed for the 
 swingle-trees of the carriages of great-guns ; and in 
 some parts of the country, where more appropriate 
 wood is not to be found, it is used for making ox-yokes, 
 sleds, and other implemeuts of husbandry. The bark, 
 which is easily detached from the tree during 8 
 months of the year, is sometimes used for making 
 bast-mats, ropes or withes, and for the bottoms of 
 chairs. The wood, when dry, makes excellent fuel, 
 and, when burned, yields a large proportion of ashes, 
 which abound in alkaline salts. In Canada, and in 
 the northern parts of the States of Maine, New Hamp- 
 shire, Vermont, and New York, a profitable business 
 is followed, especially in connection with clearing the 
 forests, in preparing the salts of ley, for the manufac- 
 ture of potash. — Browne's Trees of America. 
 
 Elsineur, or Helsiugor, a town of Zealand, on 
 the Sound, about 22 miles north of Copenhagen, lat. 56° 
 2' 17" N., long. 12° 38' 2" E. Population about 8,000. 
 Adjacent to Elsineur is the castle of Cronborg, which 
 
 commands the entrance to the Baltic by the Sound. 
 All merchant ships passing to and from the Baltic were 
 obliged, until 1857, to salute Cronborg castle by hoist- 
 ing their colors when abreast of the same ; and no 
 merchant ship was allowed to pass the Sound without 
 clearing out at Elsineur, and paying toll, according to 
 the provisions in the treaties to that effect negotiated 
 with Denmark by the different European powers. 
 The iirst treaty with England having reference to this 
 subject, is dated in 1450. The Sound duties had their 
 origin in an agreement between the King of Denmark 
 on the one part, and the Hanse Towns on the other, 
 by which the former undertook to construct light- 
 houses, landmarks, etc., along the Cattegat, and the 
 latter to pay duty for the same. The duties have 
 since been varied at different periods. (See article, 
 Danish Sodnd Dues.) Ships of war are exempted 
 from the payment of duties. Most maritime nations 
 have consuls resident at Elsineur. The following 
 plan of the Sound is taken from the admiralty cliart, 
 compiled from Danish authorities. (See opposite 
 
 Navigation of the Baltic. — This is exhibited in the 
 following account of the number of ships that have 
 passed (going and returning) the Sound at different 
 periods, from the j'car 1777 to the year 1852, specifying 
 the countries to which they belonged. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 rm. 
 
 nso. 
 
 1185. 
 
 1190. 1 1814. 
 
 1816. 
 
 isao. 
 
 1885. 
 
 1830. 
 
 1835. 
 
 1840. 
 
 1851. 
 
 I86S. 
 
 British Islands... 
 Holland 
 
 2,652 
 2,667 
 1,773 
 
 i,no 
 
 472 
 47 
 
 "21 
 10 
 
 '"5 
 
 231 
 
 "is 
 
 82 
 22 
 79 
 12 
 2 
 
 1,701 
 2,068 
 1,880 
 1,841 
 671 
 43 
 
 "so 
 
 174 
 
 "82 
 146 
 81 
 104 
 21 
 7 
 2 
 
 2,537 . 
 
 1,671 
 
 2,136 
 
 1,787 
 
 1,858 
 
 114 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 "66 
 161 
 
 "79 
 
 176 
 
 61 
 
 101 
 
 28 
 
 25 
 
 4 
 
 8,771 
 
 2,009 
 
 430 
 
 1,686 
 
 699 
 
 6 
 
 44 
 
 128 
 
 82 
 
 "'e 
 
 248 
 
 "24 
 
 89 
 
 177 
 
 104 
 
 889 
 
 28 
 
 22 
 
 (It) 6 
 
 "99 
 
 2,819 
 651 
 
 2,759 
 476 
 
 1,038 
 495 
 
 "12 
 22 
 55 
 
 "is 
 
 28 
 248 
 86 
 
 '"d 
 
 "'9 
 
 88 
 
 1,848 
 876 
 
 2,042 
 7S7 
 
 1,014 
 899 
 168 
 16 
 9 
 263 
 
 '886 
 
 9 
 
 45 
 
 111 
 
 86 
 
 "48 
 ■794 
 
 3,697 
 863 
 
 1,519 
 792 
 
 1,.654 
 
 242 
 
 169 
 
 63 
 
 ■468 
 
 'sii 
 
 47 
 64 
 59 
 15 
 
 "2 
 '946 
 
 6,186 
 630 
 
 1,319 
 803 
 
 2,891 
 335 
 280 
 72 
 
 ■4i3 
 
 '602 
 34 
 
 121 
 84 
 
 ..'! 
 "9 
 
 4,274 
 
 1,227 
 
 1,188 
 
 744 
 
 2,253 
 
 405 
 
 152 
 
 199 
 
 8 
 
 646 
 
 '664 
 56 
 80 
 79 
 25 
 
 ""r 
 
 2,472 
 654 
 991 
 762 
 
 1,938 
 625 
 126 
 146 
 7 
 886 
 
 '683 
 46 
 71 
 43 
 21 
 
 l'857 
 87 
 
 4,071 
 947 
 
 1,364 
 974 
 
 2,996 
 814 
 143 
 239 
 18 
 768 
 
 '962 
 86 
 96 
 69 
 23 
 
 "5 
 
 2,025 
 78 
 
 4,311 
 2,060 
 2,265 
 1,518 
 2,664 
 1,047 
 134 
 288 
 
 'eei 
 2 
 
 1^077 
 
 222 
 
 126 
 83 
 77 
 
 2,894 
 61 
 
 8,902 
 1,691 
 2,100 
 1,464 
 2,819 
 
 946 
 76 
 
 283 
 6 
 
 545 
 
 ■771 
 183 
 136 
 22 
 46 
 
 "'2 
 
 8,020 
 
 61 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Denmark 
 
 
 United States.... 
 
 
 Hanover 
 
 Imperial (Austria) 
 
 Mecklenburg 
 
 Oldenburg 
 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 
 Gourland 
 
 Norway 
 
 Other places 
 
 Totals 
 
 
 951 1,202 
 
 9,053 
 
 8,291 
 
 10,268 
 
 9,742 
 
 8,186 
 
 8,ST1 j 10,926 
 
 13,160 13,212 
 
 10,255 
 
 16,662 
 
 19,919 
 
 17,668 
 
 The statements in this table for the years 1777 and 
 1780 are taken from the valuable work entitled Voyage 
 de Deuai Francois au Nord de V Europe (i. 360) ; the 
 other years are taken from the returns sent by the 
 British consul at Elsineur, printed in various Parlia- 
 mentary papers. We have seen no two returns of the 
 shipping that pass the Sound quite agree, though the 
 differences are not very material. The British consul 
 first began to send returns of the tonnage in 1831. 
 
 The Oder, Vistula, and other great rivers which 
 flow into the Baltic, and the many large cities that are 
 built on or near its shores, have made it the theatre of 
 a verj^ extensive commerce. In this respect its im- 
 portance was much increased by the foundation of 
 Petersburg, the trade of which is now of great extent 
 and value. Raw products, including com, timber, 
 hemp and flax, tallow, hides, linseed, bristles, wool, 
 etc., constitute the principal articles of export from 
 the Baltic ports ; colonial products, manufactured 
 goods, dry stuffs, wine, salt, coal, etc., being among 
 the principal articles of import. The leading ports, 
 setting out from the Sound, are Copenhagen, Lubec, 
 Wismar, Kostock, Swinemunde, Dantzic (which next 
 to Odessa, is the principal European port for the ship- 
 ment of wheat), Konigsberg, Memel, Riga, Petersburg, 
 and Stockholm. The United Kingdom has by far the 
 largest portion of the foreign trade of the Baltic. This 
 is evident from the fact of the British ships passing 
 
 the Sound exceeded those of any other country. In 
 1852 England imported from the Baltic about 818,000 
 qrs. wheat, 344,000 do. barley, and 628,000 do. oats, 
 exclusive of very large quantities of tallow, hemp 
 and flax, timber, linseed, bristles, etc. 
 
 Pilotage, etc. — When ships come into Elsineur roads, 
 or lie wind-bound near the Lappen, watermen come on 
 board to inquire if the master will be carried ashore to 
 clear ; and in rough weather it is always best to make 
 use of their services, their boats being generally very 
 safe. The Danish authorities have published a table 
 of rates, being the highest charge that can be made by 
 any boatmen upon such occasions ; but captains may 
 bargain with them for as much less as they please. 
 Most ships passing the Sound take on board pilots, the 
 signal for one being a flag at the fore-topmast-head. 
 Those bound for the Baltic take a pilot at Elsineur, 
 who either carries the ship to Copenhagen, or Dragoe, 
 a small town on the south-east extremity of the island 
 of Amack, where she is clear of the grounds. Those 
 leaving the Baltic take a pilot from Dragoe, who car- 
 ries the ship to Elsineur. Sometimes, when the wind 
 is fresh from the east and south-east, it is impossible 
 for a ship bound for Copenhagen or the Baltic to double 
 the point of Cronborg ; and in that case an Elsineur 
 pilot is sometimes employed to moor the ship in the 
 channel toward Kull Point on the Swedish shore, in 
 in lat. 56° 18' 3" N., long. 12° 26' E. But this does 
 
ELS 
 
 589 
 
 ELS 
 
 
 References to Plan. — A, GaBUe and light of Cronborg ; B, Elsineur ; C, Helsingborg in Sweden ; D, the bank called the 
 Lappen ; E, the bank called the Disken. The soundings are in fathoms. 
 
 not often happen, as the Danish government employ 
 steam tugs for the special purpose of bringing ships, in 
 adverse weather, round Cronborg Point. The pilots 
 are regularly licensed, so that, by employing them, 
 the captain's responsibility is at an end. Their charges 
 
 are fixed by authority, and depend on the ship's 
 draught of water. We subjoin a copy of the tari6F ap- 
 plicable to pilots taken on board at Elsineur to carrj' 
 ships to Dragoe, Copenhagen, or KuU Point, with the 
 sums both in silver and in Eigsbank paper dollars. 
 
 Pilotage feom the 1st of Apeil to the 80tii of Beptembee. 
 
 ships drawing water. 
 
 Drngoo. 
 
 CepeubageD. 
 
 Kul] Poinl. 1 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Paper. 
 
 SUver. 
 
 Paper. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Pap 
 
 ■r. 
 
 Under 
 
 Between 8 
 
 " 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 " 12 
 
 " 18 
 
 t' 14 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 , " 18 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 ' » 21 
 
 22 
 
 8 feet 
 
 R.b. dr. Sch. 
 11 78 
 
 13 16 
 
 14 50 
 
 15 84 
 
 17 22 
 
 18 56 
 
 19 90 
 
 21 ■ 28 
 
 22 62 
 24 65 
 26 68 
 28 71 
 30 74 
 82 77 
 84 80 
 36 83 
 
 R.b. dr. Sch. 
 ■ 12 18 
 
 13 56 
 
 14 94 
 
 16 86 
 
 17 74 
 
 19 16 
 
 20 64 
 
 21 92 
 23 34 
 25 43 
 27 52 
 29 61 
 81 72 
 88 80 
 85 89 
 38 1 
 
 R. b. dr. Sch. 
 9 10 
 
 10 6 
 
 11 2 
 
 11 94 
 
 12 91 
 IS 87 
 
 14 S3 
 
 15 78 
 
 16 75 
 18 66 
 20 37 
 22 19 
 
 24 ,0 
 
 25 77 
 27 59 
 29 40 
 
 R.b. dr. Sch. 
 9 88 
 
 10 , 86 
 
 11 85 
 
 12 ■ 84 ' 
 
 18 88 i 
 14 32 
 16 ■ 81 
 
 16 80 
 
 17 29 
 
 19 16 
 
 21 2 
 
 22 86 
 24 72 
 26 58 
 28 46 
 80 82 
 
 R. b. dr. 
 :t 6 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 1 8 
 
 10 
 11 
 12 
 12 
 1-8 
 16 
 17 
 18 
 20 
 21 
 23 
 
 Sch. 
 
 72 
 
 63 
 
 53 
 
 44 
 
 85 
 
 25 
 
 16 
 
 7 
 93 
 84 
 44 
 
 3 
 59 
 19 
 74 
 34 
 
 R. b. dr. 
 6 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 10 
 11 
 12 
 13 
 14 
 16 
 IZ 
 19, 
 20 
 22 
 24 
 
 Sch. 
 
 89 
 
 88 
 
 76 
 
 69 
 
 68 
 
 56 
 
 60 
 
 43 
 
 36 
 
 30 
 
 90 
 
 64 
 
 19 
 
 80 
 
 28 
 
 and 9 " 
 
 " 10 " 
 
 " 11 " 
 
 " 12 " 
 
 " 18 " 
 
 " 14 " 
 
 " 15 " 
 
 " 16 " 
 
 " 17 " 
 
 " 18 " 
 
 " 19 " 
 
 •' 20 " 
 
 " 21 " 
 
 « 22 " 
 
 " 23 " 
 
 
 
 Pilotage fkom 
 
 THE 1st of 
 
 OCTOBEE TO 
 
 THE SOth op Maech. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Shlpa drawing water. 
 
 Dragoe. 
 
 Copenhagen. 
 
 Kull Point. 1 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Paper. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Paper. 
 
 Sliver. 
 
 Paper. | 
 
 Under 
 Betwee 
 
 u 
 
 (( 
 
 (( 
 
 . ti 
 
 a 
 
 8 feet 
 
 R. b. dr. Sch. 
 14 92 
 16 75 
 18 66 
 20 87 
 22 19 
 24 
 
 25 77 
 27 59 
 29 40 
 82 12 
 34 .80 
 87 52 
 '40-24 
 42 92. 
 45 64 
 .48 8'6 
 
 R. b. dr. Sch. 
 15 40 
 17 80 
 
 19 16 
 
 21 2 
 
 22 86 
 21 72 
 26 68 
 28 46 
 80 32 
 83 12 
 85 88 
 88 m 
 41 48 
 44- 28 
 47 , 9 
 49 85 
 
 R. b. dr. Sch. 
 
 11 86- 
 
 12 61 
 
 18 88 
 
 15 19 
 
 16 47 
 
 17 78 
 
 19 4 
 
 20 29 
 
 21 57 
 24 
 
 26 89 
 23 79 
 81 21 
 83 60 
 36 4 
 33 43 
 
 R.b. dr. Sch. 
 11 70 
 18 2 
 
 14 64 
 
 15 64 
 
 17 
 
 18 80 
 
 19 62 
 
 20 90 
 22 26 
 24 72 
 27 22 
 29 70 
 82 19 
 34 65 
 87 16 
 39 62 
 
 R. b. dr 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 11 
 12 
 13 
 14 
 16 
 17 
 18 
 20 
 22 
 24 
 26 
 28 
 81 
 
 Bch. 
 53 
 
 78 
 92 
 16 
 36 
 65 
 75 
 95 
 17 
 3T 
 48 
 67 
 68 
 79 
 88 
 8 
 
 R. b. dr. 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 11 
 12 
 14 
 15 
 16 
 17 
 18 
 21 
 23 
 25 
 27 
 29 
 82 
 
 Sch. 
 76 
 3 
 26 
 50 
 78 
 
 24 
 48 
 68 
 92. 
 14 
 28 
 46 
 64 
 78 
 
 
 
 9 » 10 " 
 
 10 « 11 " 
 
 11 " 12 " 
 
 
 IS " 14 " 
 
 14 " 15 " 
 
 16 " 16 " 
 
 16 " 17 " 
 
 17 " 18 " 
 
 Ig « 19 « 
 
 
 
 21 " 22 " 
 
 
 
EMB 
 
 590 
 
 EMB 
 
 When a pilot is taken on board at Dragoe to carry a 
 ship to Elsineur, the charge is the same as that given 
 under the first head of the above column. (Archives 
 du Cotnmerce, tome iii., p. 145.) The 3fonet/s, Weights^ 
 and Measures of Elsineur are the same as those of Co- 
 penhagen (which see), except that the rixdollar is 
 divided into 4 orts instead of 6 marcs : thus 24 skiUings 
 make 1 ort ; and 4 orts 1 rixdollar. The Sound duties 
 are, however, levied and paid in specie rixdoUars of 
 48 stivers, 9-J- such specie rixdoUars constituting 1 
 marc fine silver, Cologne weight. Taking silver at 
 5s. 2d. an ounce, the value of the specie rixdollar is 
 4s. 6^d., and taking it at 63. an ounce, it is worth 
 52'7d,, or 4s. 4|-d. nearly. In either case the value of 
 the stiver may be taken at l-ld. -See Sound Ddes. 
 
 Email Ombrant. This name, which seems to 
 mean "shaded enamel," has been given by the Baron 
 du Tremblay to a manufacture by which articles are 
 produced, remarkable alike for cheapness, for novel 
 and agreeable effect, and for the ingenuit}'' of the 
 process whereby they are produced. It consists in 
 fl.ooding colored but transparent glazes over designs 
 stamped upon the surfaces of porcelain vessels. A 
 plain surface is thus produced, in which the cavities 
 of the stamped design appear as shadows of various 
 depths— the parts in highest relief coming nearest to 
 the surface of the glaze, and thus having the effect of 
 the lights of n. picture. It has been said that "per- 
 haps there is no other process in the ceraunic art by 
 which, at so cheap a rate, designs of high artistic 
 merit can be reproduced in the most harmonious tint- 
 ing, for dessert or table services, and for other useful 
 domestic purposes." 
 
 iBmbalming (Lat. balsamum, balm), a process 
 adopted by the ancient Egyptians, chiefly for the 
 preservation of dead bodies from putrefaction. The 
 term is derived from the use of balsamic substances in 
 the operation ; in addition to these, saline substances 
 and tanning materials seem also to have been used. 
 
 Embargo, a restraint or prohibition imposed by 
 the public authorities of a country on merchant ves- 
 sels or other ships, to prevent their leaving its ports. 
 Embargoes are usualh"^ imposed only in time of war, 
 or in apprehension of an invasion ; in which cases the 
 government employs the ships under embargo in arma- 
 ments, expeditions, and transportation of troops, etc. 
 When it is found necessary to stop the communication 
 of intelligence between any two places, an embargo is 
 laid upon all ships, both foreign and under the national 
 flag. In England, this power is invested in the crown, 
 but it is rarely exercised except in extreme cases, and 
 sometimes as a prelude to war. The rijost memorable 
 instances of embargo were those for the prevention of 
 corn going out of the kingdom in 1766 ; and for the 
 detention of all Eussian, Danish, and Swedish ships 
 in the several ports of the kingdom, owing to the 
 Armed IS'eutrality, January 14, 1801. See Armed 
 Neutrality. 
 
 Embargo in the United States. — Embargo on all 
 vessels in the ports of the United States, passed by 
 Congress with reference to the quarrel with Great 
 Britain after the attack on the United States' frigate 
 Chesapeake^ 1807. Repealed, and non-intercourse act 
 passed, 1809. Embargo again laid for 90 days, April, 
 1812. War declared June 19, 1812. An insurance 
 against loss by reason of the acts of one's own gov- 
 ernment, as an arrest or embargo, is valid. There is 
 no distinction on this point between a foreign and do- 
 mestic embargo ; and if the embargo intervene after 
 the commencement of the risk, it suspends, but does 
 not dissolve, the contract of insurance, and the insured 
 may abandon and claim a total loss. The same prin- 
 ciple is incorporated into the new French commercial 
 code, and it pervades universally the law of insurance. 
 It is no objection to the right of recovery b}' the in- 
 sured, that the loss happened by the act of the gov- 
 ernment of his own country, though he and the 
 
 insurer are subjects of different states. — Kent's Com. 
 See also Parsons on Mercantile Contracts^ p. 366. 
 
 Embassador, or Ambassador, a word of dis- 
 puted origin, but probably adopted into the English 
 language from the French, means, in its general sense, 
 a minister authorized by any state to represent it in 
 some other. In its distinctive sense, as indicating a 
 particular kind of minister so appointed, it means the 
 highest class ; and by authority as well as practice, 
 there are states which may be represented at others, 
 yet are understood not to be entitled to appoint so 
 high a, representative as an embassador. Messages 
 require to be interchanged by all moderately civilized 
 nations, unless those which, like the Chinese or the 
 Japanese, peculiarly isolate themselves. Hence such 
 messages, and the manner in which they were sent 
 and received, are familiar occurrences in all histories. 
 Some understanding that the persons who undertook 
 such a function should enjoy freedom and safety in the 
 state to which thej' were sent was absolutely neces- 
 sary for its performance. The Eomans adopted strict 
 rules for the safety of embassadors ; but the less def- 
 inite provisions of other nations were liable to be 
 affected by momentary impulses, and many incidents 
 of ancient warfare arose out of insults or injuries com- 
 mitted on embassadors. It was on the ground of an 
 insult offered to his embassadors that Alexander de- 
 stroyed Tyre. The Persian invasions of Greece were 
 stimulated by the slaughter of the embassadors of 
 Darius — who, however, demanding earth and water as 
 tokens of dependence, were rather messengers of hos- 
 tility than embassadors, in any thing like the modern 
 sense of the term. Embassadors now communicate 
 privately with sovereigns or official persons, not with 
 legislative bodies. In Greece, however, embassadors 
 sometimes pleaded the cause of their state in the pub- 
 lic assemblies, and in Rome they were formally re- 
 ceived by the senate. The legatus of the Romans 
 answered pretty nearly to our embassador extraordi- 
 nary' ; but the term was also used to mean another 
 and totally different officer who accompanied the pro- 
 consul or governor of a province, and was more like a 
 colonial secretary. It became the practice to give 
 honorarj'- legations of this land on account of the priv- 
 ileges which they conferred on the holder in the 
 province to which he was accredited. There is, how- 
 ever, a distinction of a generic and very characteristic 
 kind between the embassador of modern diplomacy 
 and any ancient representatives of states. The em- 
 bassador of old was chosen for a particular message or 
 negotiation, and a permanent resident representative 
 of one state within another was unknown, at least as 
 a system. It is not j-^et intelligible to nations beyond 
 the circle of European diplomacy. The Turks had the 
 inveterate practice, on going to war with a state, of 
 committing its representative to the seven towers; 
 and though the reason assigned for the practice was 
 the safety of the person of the embassador from out- 
 rage, even this, if it were sincere, showed that the feel- 
 ings of hatred indulged against a member of a hostile 
 state would break out too stronglj' to be controlled 
 even by that despotic government. The Chinese, and 
 their neighbors nearer Hindostan, can look on an em- 
 bassador or diplomatic agent as merel}' a dignified spy, 
 to whose presence nothing but necessity compels them 
 to submit. Nor are they entirely wrong, since the 
 European embassies may be counted a mutually tol- 
 erated system of espionage. Even Wickefort calls the 
 embassador an honorable spy, protected by the law of 
 nations ; and La Bruyere says epi grammatically, that 
 the embassador's function is to cheat without being 
 cheated. The understanding that an embassador was 
 a person ever read)' to do whatever he could with safety 
 to the advantage of his own country, and the injury 
 of that to which he was accredited, became a standing 
 object of sarcasm with the wits of the seventeenth 
 centur}'. Sir Henry Wotton, himself an embassador. 
 
EMB 
 
 591 
 
 EMB 
 
 when asked to write something in an album at Augs- 
 burg, could not resist a sarcasm on the same subject, 
 and spoke of an embassador as a person sent abroad to 
 lie for the good of his country. In its English form, 
 his apophthegm generally involves a pun or equivoke 
 in the words " lie abroad," of which the original Latm 
 is, however, not susceptible. Scioppius published it 
 as a declaration of the morality of English diplomacy, 
 and brought Wotton under temporary disgrace with 
 King James ; to whom the jest seemed the more dan- 
 gerous that it announced that false and treacherous 
 system of diplomacy on which he, with most of the 
 sovereigns of the age, acted when it was safe to do so. 
 
 Permanent embassies, with the eminent personal 
 privileges conceded to embassadors, have existed in 
 feudal Europe from an early time. To find the origin 
 of an institution seemingly so much at variance with 
 the selfish and ravenous national habits amid which 
 it arose, we must look to the peculiar sacredness 
 claimed for their persons by the great community of 
 European monarchs. The privileges of the embassa- 
 dor did not arise from principles of jurisprudence 
 founded on general public utility, but from the prac- 
 tice of the sovereign investing his representative with 
 liis own sacredness, and the acknowledgment on the 
 part of the brother sovereign of the sufficiency of the 
 investiture. Thus in ages when international law was 
 rude and little respected, embassadors claimed privi- 
 leges which would in the present day be deemed pre- 
 posterous ; such as total exemption from liability to the 
 laws, civil or criminal, of the country to which they 
 were accredited, and the right to have their official 
 places of residence respected, as sanctuaries for crim- 
 inals fleeuig from justice. Embassadors of old, in 
 fact, thus received concessions which, though claimed 
 by them as belonging properly to their masters as sov- 
 ereign princes, and descending to themselves only as 
 substitutes, would not practically have been enjoyed 
 by sovereign princes though theoretically conceded to 
 them. The advantage obtained over a state by seizing 
 the person of the sovereign, would have rendered it 
 unsafe for the principal to trust to privileges which, in 
 the less available person of his representative, were 
 scrupulously respected. 
 
 It has always been difficult in countries not despotic 
 to preserve the sacredness of embassies when circum- 
 stances have made them offensive to the people. Thus 
 it was difficult to keep Gundomar the celebrated Span- 
 ish embassador in James the First's reign from vio- 
 lence by the London mob for introducing sedan-chairs, 
 which they called a device for enslaving Englishmen 
 and making them do the work of beasts. In the anti- 
 Popery riots of 1780 the chapels of the Bavarian and 
 Sardinian embassies were burned. It has ever been 
 usual to exact high satisfaction for injuries ofl'ered to 
 embassadors, and despotic courts have had no difficulty 
 in conceding the demand where this was rendered pru- 
 dent by the power of the offended party. Diplomatic 
 difficulties of a serious kind have often occurred, how- 
 ever, in constitutional countries where the asserted 
 privileges of the foreign embassador were found to 
 clash with the undoubted rights of the home citizen. 
 In 1668 the Portuguese minister was imprisoned for 
 debt in Holland, and in 1708 a similar event produced 
 a serious diplomatic difficulty in England. The Rus- 
 sian embassador, having had his audience of leave, 
 was arrested for debt by some tradesmen in the open 
 streets of London. Deeming that he was attacked by 
 bravos, he defended himself, and was not secured 
 without suffering much violence and indignity. The 
 Czar immediately demanded the infliction of capital 
 punishment on those who had been guilty of the out- 
 rage. Much parade was made about instituting pros- 
 ecutions against all the parties concerned in the affair ; 
 but it was impossible for the government ultimately to 
 treat it otherwise than as a matter for which unfortu- 
 nately the law made no provision. All that could he 
 
 done was to pass an act to remedy the defect ; and to 
 soothe the Czar its preamble denounced in yerj' angry 
 terms the unparalleled wickedness of those turbulent 
 and disorderly persons who had outrageously insulted 
 the person of his excellency the embassador extraordi- 
 nary of his Czarish majesty, emperor of Great Eussia, 
 to whom a copy of the act was sent with distinguished 
 pomp. The diplomatic body in general, discontented 
 with the haughty tone of the English court, took up 
 the question. When the bill was passing they ob- 
 jected to some parts of it, and particularly to a condi- 
 tion of the protection of embassadors' retinues, that 
 their names should be recorded with the Secretary of 
 State and the sheriffs of London; but Parliament, 
 then exulting in the continental triumphs of Marl- 
 borough, received their demands with haughty silence. 
 
 It has been usual since the Congress of Vienna to 
 divide representatives into three great classes — embas- 
 sadors, envoys, and residents or charges des affaires. 
 The first and second are accredited from the head of 
 the government, and communicate with the head ; the 
 third class have instructions from the foreign depart- 
 ment of their own government, and communicate with 
 that of the state they are sent to. The term embas- 
 sador extraordinarj' having been applied to those sent . 
 on temporary missions of high importance, the term 
 extraordinary came to be extended to the permanent 
 embassadors at the courts of the great powers, as it 
 was deemed desirable that no diplomatic rank should 
 be deemed higher than theirs. 
 
 The custom of admitting resident ministers at 
 each sovereign's court, was an important improve- 
 ment in the security and facility of national inter- 
 course ; and this led to the settlertient of a great 
 question, which was very frequently discussed in the 
 loth and 16th centuries, concerning the inviolability 
 of embassadors. It became at last a definite principle 
 of public law, that embassadors were exempted from 
 all local jurisdiction, civil and criminal ; though Lord 
 Coke considered the law in his day to be, that if an 
 embassador committed any crime which was not 
 merely mc^umprohihitum, he lost his privileged dignity 
 as an embassador, and might be punished as any other 
 private alien, and that he was even bound to answer 
 civilly for his contracts that were good, jure gentium. — 
 Kent's Com., vol. i., p. 15. 
 
 It sometimes becomes a grave question, in national 
 discussions, how far the sovereign is bound b}'' the act 
 of liis minister. This will depend upon the nature 
 and terms 'of his authority. It is now the usual course 
 for every government to reserve to itself the right to 
 ratify or dissent from the treaty agreed to by its em- 
 bassador. A general letter of credence is the ordinary 
 letter of attorney, or credential of the minister ; and it 
 is not understood to confer a power upon the minister 
 to bind his sovereign conclusively. To do so import- 
 ant an act would require, at least, a distinct and 
 special power, containing an express authority to 
 bind the principal definitely, without the right of 
 review, or the necessity of ratification on his part. 
 This is not the ordinary or prudent course of business. 
 Ministers always act under instructions which are 
 confidential, and which, it is admitted, they are not 
 bound to disclose j and it is a well-grounded custom, 
 as Vattel observes, that any engagement which the 
 minister shall enter into, is of no force among sover- 
 eigns, unless ratified by his principal. This is now the 
 usage, although the treaty may have been signed by 
 plenipotentiaries. — Kent's Com., vol. i., p. 48. 
 
 A safe conduct or passport contains a pledge of the 
 public faith, that it shall be duly respected, and the 
 observance of this dutj' is essential to the character of 
 the government which grants it. The statute law of 
 the United States has provided, in furtherance of the 
 general sanction of public law, that if any person shall 
 violate any safe conduct or passport, granted under 
 the authority of the United States, he shall, on con- 
 
EMB 
 
 592 
 
 EMB 
 
 viction, be imprisoned not exceeding 3 years, and 
 fined at the discretion of the court. 
 
 The same punishment is inflicted upon those per- 
 sona who infringe the law of nations, by offering vio- 
 lence to the persons of embassadors and other public 
 ministers, or by being concerned in prosecuting or 
 arresting them or their domestic servants. This is an 
 offense highly injurious to a free and liberal communi- 
 cation between different governments, and mischievous 
 in its consequences to the dignity and well-being of 
 the nation. It tends to provoke the resentment of the 
 sovereign whom the embassador represents, and to 
 bring upon the state the calamities of war. The 
 English Parliament, under an impression of the danger 
 to the community from violation of the rights of em- 
 bassy, and urged by the spur of a particular occasion, 
 carried the provisions of the statute of 7 Anne, c. 12, 
 to a dangerous extent. That statute prostrated all 
 the safeguards to life, liberty, and property, which 
 the wisdom of the English common law had estab- 
 lished. It declared that any person convicted of suing 
 out or executing civil process, upon an embassador or 
 his domestic servants, by the oath of the party, or of 
 one witness, before the lord chancellor and the two 
 'chief justices, or any two of them, might have such 
 penalties and corporeal punishments inflicted upon 
 him as the judges should think fit. The preamble to 
 the statute contains a special and inflamed recital of 
 the breach of the law of nations which produced it, by 
 the arrest of the Russian minister. 
 
 The Congress of the United States, during the 
 American war, discovered great solicitude to maintain 
 inviolate the obligations of the law of nations, and to 
 have infractions of it punished in the only way that 
 was then lawful — by the exercise of the authority of 
 the legislatures of the several States. They recom- 
 mended to the States to provide expeditious, exem- 
 plary, and adequate punishment for the violation of 
 safe conducts or passports, granted under the authority 
 of Congress, to the subjects of a foreign power in time 
 of war ; and for the commission of acts of hostility 
 against persons in amity or league with the United 
 States ; and for the infractions of treaties and conven- 
 tions to which the United States were a party ; and 
 for infractions of immunites of embassadors and other 
 public ministers. — Kent's Com., vol. i., p. 186. 
 
 A marriage, celebrated in any given place, must be 
 celebrated according to the law of the place, and by a 
 person whom the laws designate, unless the person by 
 whom, or the premises in which, it is celebrated, pos- 
 sess the privileges of exterritoriality. Therefore it 
 ma}"" be, according to the opinion of Lord Stowell, that 
 the presence of a foreign sovereign sojourning in a 
 friendly countrj'', or that of his minister plenipotentiary^ 
 or the act of a clergyman in the chapel or hotel of such 
 sovereign or his embassador, may give legality to 
 marriage between subjects of his, or members of his 
 suite. According to the American view, the courtesy 
 between the United States and foreign nations, in mu- 
 tually exempting from duty articles imported by cer- 
 tain of their public officers resident abroad, does not 
 extend beyond ministers or charges des affaires^ repre- 
 senting their respective governments, and clothed 
 with diplomatic powers and privileges, and does not 
 comprehend attaches or persons belonging to the min- 
 ister's suite, nor consular officers. — Manual for Consults 
 U. S., pp. 238, 276. 
 
 From the moment a public minister enters the terri- 
 tory of the state to which he is sent, during the time 
 of his residence, and until he leaves the country, he is 
 entitled to an entire exemption from the local juris- 
 diction, both civil and criminal. Representing the 
 rights, interests, and dignity of the sovereign or state 
 by whom he is delegated, his person is sacred and 
 inviolable. To give a more lively idea of this com- 
 plete exemption from the local jurisdiction, the fiction 
 of extraterritoriality has been invented, by which the 
 
 minister, though actually in a foreign country, is sup- 
 posed stUl to remain within the territorj'- of his own 
 sovereign. He continues still subject to the laws of 
 his own country, which govern his personal stains and 
 rights of property, whether derived from contract, in- 
 heritance, or testament. His children bom abroad 
 are considered as natives. This exemption from the 
 local laws and jurisdiction is founded upon mutual 
 utility, growing out of the necessity that public minis- 
 ters should be entirely independent of the local author- 
 ity, in order to fulfill the duties of their mission. The 
 act of sending the minister, on the one hand, and of 
 receiving him, on the other, amounts to a tacit compact 
 between the two States, that he shall be subject only 
 to the authority of his own nation. The passports or 
 safe conducts granted by his own government, in time 
 of peace, or by the government to which he is sent, in 
 time of war, are sufficient evidence of his public char- 
 acter for this purpose. — Wheaton's International Law, 
 p. 283. 
 
 Embezzlement, in law, is a felony, consisting of 
 the same class of acts which would in any other case 
 amount to larceny, when committed by one employed 
 as a clerk or servant, and by virtue of his office, on the 
 goods and chattels of his employer. 
 
 Emhezzlement hy Seamen. — Mariners are bound to 
 contribute out of their wages for embezzlements of the 
 cargo, or injuries produced by the misconduct of any 
 of the crew. But the circumstances must be such as 
 to fix the wrong upon some of the crew ; and then, if 
 the individual be unknown, those of the crew upon 
 whom the presumption of guilt rests, stand as sureties 
 for each other, and thej' must contribute ratably to the 
 loss. Somie of the cases in the books have established 
 a general contribution from all the crew for such em- 
 bezzlement, even when some of them were in a situa- 
 tion to repel ever}'- presumption of guilt ; but neither 
 public policy nor principles of justice extend the con- 
 tribution or forfeiture of wages for such embezzle- 
 ments, beyond the parties immediately in delicto. — 
 Kent's Com., vol, iii., sect. 252. 
 
 As carriers by water were liable at common law to 
 the same extent as land carriers, and as their respon- 
 sibility was more extensive, and their risk greater, 
 from the facilities for the commission of acts of fraud 
 and violence upon the water, it was deemed in En- 
 gland a proper case for legislative interference, to a 
 guarded and limited extent. The statute of 7 George 
 II., ch. 15, and 26 George III., ch. 86, and 53 George 
 III., ch. 159, exempted owners of vessels from respon- 
 sibility, as common carriers, for losses by fire, and 
 provided further that the owner should not be liable 
 for the loss of gold, silver, diamonds, watches, jewels, 
 or i^recious stones, by robbery or embezzlement, unless 
 the shipper inserted in the bill of lading, or otherwise 
 declared in writing to the master or owner of the ves- 
 sel, the nature, quality and value of the articles ; nor 
 shoxild he be liable for embezzlements, or loss or dam- 
 age to the goods arising from any act or neglect, 
 without his fault or privity, beyond the value of the 
 ship and freight; nor should part owners in those 
 cases be liable beyond their respective shares in the 
 ship and freight. — Kent's Com.^ vol. ii., p. 789. 
 
 Embossing, the forming of works in relief upon 
 any substance, whether by cutting, stamping, casting, 
 or any other method. In sculpture particularly, ac- 
 cording as the figures are more or less prominent, they 
 are said to be in alto, mezzo, or basso-relievo ; or 
 high, intermediate, or low relief. 
 
 Embossing of Leather. Beautiful ornaments 
 in basso-relievo for decorating the exteriors or interiors 
 of buildings, medallions, picture-frames, cabinet work, 
 etc., have been recently made by the pressure of me- 
 tallic blocks and dies, for which invention a patent 
 was obtained in June, 1839, by M. Claude Schroth. 
 The dies are made of type-metal, or of the fusible alloy 
 with bismuth, called d'Arcet's. The leather is beaten 
 
EMB 
 
 693 
 
 EMB 
 
 soft in water, then ■v?Tnng, pressed, rolled and fulled as 
 it "were, by working it with the hands till it becomes 
 thicker, and quite supply. In this state it is laid on 
 the mold, and forced into all its cavities by means 
 of a wooden, bone, or copper tool. In other cases the 
 embossing is performed by the force of a press. The 
 leather, when it has become dry, is easily taken off 
 of the mold, however deeply it may be inserted into 
 its crevices, bj"^ virtue of its elasticity. A full detail of 
 all the processes is given in Newton's Journal, vol. 
 xi., p. 122. 
 
 Embossing "Wood (Bosiage, Fr. ; Erkabenes, 
 Arbeit, Ger.), raised figures upon wood, such as are 
 employed in picture-frames and other articles of orna- 
 mental cabinet work, are usually produced by means 
 of carving, or by casting the pattern in plaster of 
 Paris or other composition, and cementing or other- 
 wise fixing it on the surface of the wood. The former 
 mode is expensive ; the latter is inapplicable on many 
 occasions. The invention of Mr. Streaker may be 
 used either by itself, or in aid of carving ; and de- 
 pends on the fact, that if a depression be made by a 
 blunt instrument on the surface of the wood, such de- 
 pressed part will again rise to its original level by sub- 
 sequent immersion in the water. The wood to be 
 ornamented having been first worked out to its pro- 
 posed shape, is in a state to receive the drawing of the 
 pattern ; this being put on, a blunt steel tool, or bur- 
 nisher, or die, is to be applied successively to all those 
 parts of the pattern intended to be in relief, and, at 
 the same time, Is to be driven very cautiously, with- 
 out breaking the grain of the wood, till the depth of 
 the depression is equal to the intended prominence of 
 the figure. Thfe ground is then to be reduced by 
 planing or filing to the level of the depressed part ; 
 after which, the piece of wood being placed in water, 
 either hot or cold, the part previously depressed will 
 rise to its former height, and will then form an em- 
 bossed pattern, which may be finished by the usual 
 operations of carving. 
 
 Embouchure (Fr.), signifies the mouth of a river: 
 it is used also for the mouth-piece of a musical instru- 
 ment. 
 
 Embroidering Machine. {Machine a hroder, 
 Fr. ; Steckmaschine, Ger.) This art has been till of 
 late merely a handicraft employment, cultivated on 
 account of its elegance by ladies of rank. But a few 
 years ago M. Heilmann, of Mulhause, invented a ma- 
 chine of a most ingenious kind, which enables a fe- 
 male to embroider any design with 80 or 100 needles 
 as accurately and expeditiously as she. formerly could 
 do with one. A brief account of this remarltable in- 
 vention will, therefore, be acceptable to many readers. 
 It was displaj-ed at the national exposition of the prod- 
 ucts of industry in Paris for 1834, and was unques- 
 tionably the object which stood highest in public 
 esteem ; for whether at rest or in motion, it was always 
 surrounded with a crowd of curious visitors, admiring 
 the figures which it had formed, or inspecting its move- 
 ments and investigating its mechanism. 130 needles 
 were occupied in copying the same pattern with perfect 
 regularity, all set in motion by one person. — TJke's 
 Dictionary of Arts. 
 
 Embroidery is the name given to the art of 
 working figures on stuffs or muslins with a needle and 
 thread. All embroidery may be divided into two 
 sorts, embroiderj- on stuffs and on muslin : the former 
 is used chiefly in church vestments, housings, stand- 
 ards, articles of furniture, etc., and is executed with 
 silk, cotton, wool, gold and silver threads, and some- 
 times ornamented with spangles, real or mock pearls, 
 precious or imitation stones, etc. The latter is em- 
 ployed mostly in articles of female apparel, as caps, 
 collars, etc., and is performed only with cotton. In 
 Germany this division is indicated by the expression 
 toeisse (white or muslin), and bunie Stickerei {colored or 
 cloth) embroidery. The embroidery of st;uffs is per- 
 Pp 
 
 formed on a kind of loom or frame ; that of muslin 
 by stretching it on a pattern already designed. The 
 modes of embroidering stuffs or muslins with the com- 
 mon needle are extremely various ; but; a minute 
 description of these processes would be as diflfioult as 
 it would be uninteresting to the general reader. They 
 consist for the most part of a combination of ordinary 
 stitches ; but no limit can be assigned to their number 
 or variety. The art of embroidery was well known to 
 the ancients. As early as the time of Moses we find 
 it practiced successfully by the Hebrews ; and long 
 before tlie Trojan war the women of Sidon had ac- 
 quired celebrity for their sldll in embroidery. At a 
 later period, this art was introduced into Greece, prob- 
 ably by the Phrygians (by some considered as the in- 
 ventors) ; and to such a degree of skill did the Grecian 
 women attain in it, that their performances were said 
 to rival the finest paintings. In our own times, the 
 art of embroiderj' has been cultivated with great suc- 
 cess, more especially in Germany and France ; and 
 though for a long period it was practiced only by the 
 ladies of these countries as an elegant accomplishment, 
 it is now regarded as a staple of traffic, and furnishes 
 employment for a large portion of the population. In 
 England also it appears to have taken deep root, as it 
 now forms an accomplishment of which almost every 
 lady is in possession. About seven years ago a great 
 impetus was given to the cultivation of this art, both 
 on the Continent and in England, by the invention of 
 a machine which enables a female to execute the most 
 complex patterns with 130 needles, all in motion at 
 once, as accurately as she could formerly do with one. 
 But as no account of this remarkable invention which 
 we might give could be intelligible without the aid of 
 illustrations, which would be out of place in this work, 
 we must refer the reader to Dr. Ure's Dictionary of 
 Arts, etc., for full information respecting it. One such 
 machine, with 130 needles, is estimated to perform 
 daily the work of 15 hand embroiderers employed 
 in the ordinary way. Many of them are now mount- 
 ed in Germany, France, and Switzerland ; and in 
 Manchester there is one factory where they do beau- 
 tiful worlc. See the Art of Needlework, edited bj 
 the Countess of Wilton. London, 18i0. — Bkande, 
 Enci/. 
 
 There is one branch of manufacture connected 
 with cotton embroideries to which it would be wrong 
 not to particularly^ allude, and that is the embroid- 
 ering of jnuslins, better known under the common 
 designation of *' sewed muslins." This is compara- 
 tively a new manufacture, having only being first 
 started in Scotland about the year 1825. At that 
 period there were only two or three persons engaged 
 in the manufacture ; now there are fifty or sixty. 
 The importance of this branch may in some measure 
 be estimated from the fact that it gives employment to 
 a vast number of females in the rural districts, for 
 whom no other useful work is provided in the inter- 
 vals of field labor. In Ireland alone, where it is 
 practiced from the Giant's Causeway to Cape Clear, 
 and from St. George's Channel to the Achill and 
 other remote islands, it is a source of great comfort to 
 the female population, as it enables them to add to 
 the food and clothing of their families without entail- 
 ing on them any of the evils of the factorj' system, 
 the work being supplied to them by agents of the 
 large manufacturers scattered over all the countrj', 
 and executed entirely at their own firesides. As the 
 workers are only engaged a portion of their time at this 
 species of industry, it is impossible to estimate their 
 numbers ; but it is computed that the amount paid in 
 the western counties of Scotland and in Ireland, 
 reaches no less a sum than three quarters of a million 
 sterling annually. Like all other fancj' trades, it has 
 been subject to its periods of depression, but its prog- 
 ress has been regular, from a total produce of a few 
 thousand pounds a year paid for labor in 1825 to the 
 
EME 
 
 594 
 
 EMI 
 
 amount above stated, the greatest increase having, 
 however, taken place since 1845. 
 
 Emerald (Fr. Emeraude; Germ. Smaragd; It. 
 Smeraldo ; Lat. Smaragdus ; Sp. Esmeralda) ^ a precious 
 stone in high estimation. It is distinguished from all 
 other gems by its peculiar emerald green lustre, varjang 
 in intensity from the palest possible tinge to a full and 
 deep color, than which, as Pliny has truly stated, 
 nothing can be more beautiful and pleasing ; nullius 
 coloris aspectus jucundior est. *' It emulates," he con- 
 tinues, '*if it does not surpass, the verdure of the 
 spring ; and the eye satiated by the dazzling glare of 
 the more brilliant gems, or wearied by intense appli- 
 cation, is refreshed and strengthened by the quiet en- 
 livening green of the emerald." In Pliny's time the 
 best came from Scythia. Those met with in modem 
 times do not often exceed the size of a walnut. Some 
 of a much larger size, and perfect, have been found, 
 but they are extremly rare, Nero used one as an 
 ej'^e-glass in surveying the combats of the gladiators. 
 Hitherto it has always been found crystallized. Spe- 
 cific gravity from 2*6 to 2*77.— Pliny's Hist. Nat.j 
 lib. sxxvii., chap. 5 ; Thomson's Chemistry., 
 
 For the last two centuries and more, the only coun- 
 try known to yield emeralds is Peru, where they oc- 
 cur in Santa F6, and in the valley of Tunca. Several 
 large stones have appeared in Europe. About two 
 years ago I cut one, exceeding two ounces in weight, 
 for the Emperor of Morocco, but it was full of imper- 
 fections- The largest specimen known is a hexagonal 
 crystal, nearly six inches long, and about two in diam- 
 eter. This gem, however small, is so rarely seen 
 perfect that " an emerald without a flaw" has passed 
 into a proverb. A fine stone of four carats may be 
 valued at £40 or £50, or even more, if very pure. In- 
 ferior stones of one or two carats are sold at from 405. 
 to 70s. per carat j and if smaller, and defective, at lOs. 
 or 15*. per carat. Fine emeralds are rare, and in such 
 demand, that a particular suit has been known to have 
 passed into the possession of a series of purchasers, 
 and to have made the tour of Europe in the course of 
 half a century. — Mawb on Diamonds, 2d ed., p. 104. 
 
 Emery (Fr. JEmeril, Emeri; Germ. Smirgel ; It. 
 Smerglio, 8meregio; Sjt. Esmeril ^ 'Rus. Nashdak ; ha.t. 
 S}niris'). This mineral was long regarded as an ore of 
 iron ; and was called by Hauyfer oxide quartzifere. It 
 is very abundant in the island of Naxos, at Cape Em- 
 eri, whence it is imported in large quantities. It oc- 
 curs also in the islands of Jersey and Guernsey, at 
 Almaden, in Poland, Saxony, Sweden, Persia, etc. 
 Its color varies from red 'brown to dark brown; its 
 specific gravity is about 4* 000. It is so hard as to 
 scratch quartz and many precious stones. By Mr. 
 Tenant's analysis, it consists of alumina, 80 ; silica, 3 ; 
 iron, 4. Another inferior kind yields i32 of iron, and 
 only 50 of alumina. We have recent accounts of 
 emery discoveries in Minnesota ; but nearly all that is 
 used at present in the arts comes from Turkey, near 
 ancient Smyrna. Dr. Lawrence Smith, the American 
 geologist, made a discover)'' of a deposit of emery 
 while residing in Smyrna, and he made an examina- 
 tion of the locality in 1847. Dr. Smith having re- 
 ported his discoveries to the Turkish government, a 
 commission of inquiry was instituted, and the business 
 soon assumed a mercantile form. The monopoly of 
 the emery of Turkey was sold to a mercantile house in 
 Smyrna, and since then the price has diminished in 
 the market. The mining of the emery is of the sim- 
 plest character. The natural decomposition of the 
 rock in which it occurs facilitates its extraction. The 
 rock decomposes into an earth, in which the emery is 
 found embedded. The quantity procured under these 
 circumstances is so great that it is rarely necessary to 
 explore the rock. The earth in the neighborhood of 
 the block is almost always of a red color, and serves 
 as an indication to those who are in search of the min- 
 eral. Sometimes, before beginning to excavate, the 
 
 spots are sounded by an iron rod with a steel point,. 
 and when any resistance is met with, the rod is rubbed 
 in contact with the resisting body, and the effect pro- 
 duced on the point enables a practiced eye to decide 
 whether it has been done by emery or not. The blocks 
 which are of a convenient size are transported in their 
 natural state, but are frequentl}"" broken by large ham- 
 mers. When they resist the action of the hammer, 
 they are subjected to the action of fire for several 
 hours, and on cooling they most commonly yield to 
 blows. It sometimes happens that large masses are 
 abandoned from the impossibility of breaking them 
 into pieces of a convenient size. 
 
 Emery paper \% prepared by brushing the paper over 
 with thin glue, and dusting the emery-powder over it 
 from a sieve. There are about six degrees of coarse- 
 ness. Sieves with 30 and 90 meshes per linear inch, 
 are in general the coarsest and finest sizes employed. 
 When used by artizans, the emery-paper is commonly 
 wrapped around a file or slip of wood, and applied just 
 like a file, with or without oil, according to cu'cum- 
 stances. The emery-paper cuts more smoothly with 
 oil, but leaves the work dull. 
 
 Emery-cloth only diflfers from emery-paper in the 
 use of thin cotton cloth instead of paper, as the ma- 
 terial upon which the emery is fixed by means of glue. 
 The eraerj'-cloth, when folded around a file, does not 
 ply so readily to it as emerj'-paper, and is apt to unroll. 
 Hence smiths, engineers, and others prefer emery- 
 paper and emery-sticks ; but for household and other 
 purposes, where the hand alone is used, the greater 
 durability of the cloth is advantageous. 
 
 Emery-sticks are rods of board, about 8 or 12 inches 
 long, planed up square ; or with one side rounded like 
 a half-rounded file. Nails are driven into each end of 
 the stick as temporary handles ; they are then brushed 
 over, one at a time, with thin glue, and dabbed at all 
 parts in a heap of emery-powder, and knocked at one 
 end to shake off the excess. Two coats of glue and 
 emery are generally used. The emery-sticks are 
 much more economical than emeiy-paper wrapped on 
 a file, which is liable to be torn. 
 
 Emery-cake consists of emery mixed with a little 
 beeswax, so as to constitute a solid lump, with which 
 to dress the edges of buff and glaze wheels. The in- 
 gredients should be thoroughly incorporated by stir- 
 ring the mixture while fluid, after which it is frequently 
 poured into water, and thoroughly kneaded with the 
 hands, and rolled into lumps before it has time to 
 cool. The emery-cake is sometimes applied to the 
 wheels while they are revolving ; but the more usual 
 course is, to stop the wheel, and rub in the emery-cake 
 by the hand. It is afterward smoothed down by the 
 thumb. 
 
 Emerj'-paper, or patent razor-strop paper, an arti- 
 cle in which fine emery and glass are mixed with 
 paper pulp, and made into sheets, as in making ordi- 
 nary paper ; the emery and glass are said to constitute 
 together 60 per cent, of the weight of the paper, which 
 resembles drawing-paper, except that it has a delicate 
 fawn color. The emery-paper is directed to be pasted 
 or glued upon a piece of wood, and when rubbed with 
 a little oil, to be used as razor-strop. See Ure's Dic- 
 tionary of AHs. 
 
 Emigration is the act of leaving the countr)- or 
 place in which one has previously resided, in the view 
 of residing in some other country or place. Persons 
 so leaving the place of their residence are called emi- 
 grants ; and latterly the term immigrants has been 
 employed to designate persons arriving from a distance 
 in some place or country with the intention of settling 
 in it. Persons leaving a country for awhile, to which 
 they intend to return, are not reckoned emigrants. This 
 term is appropriated to those who leave their present 
 habitations to establith themselves permanently else- 
 where. The motives which lead to emigration are vari- 
 ous in the extreme ; but, whatever its immediate cause 
 
EMI 
 
 595 
 
 EMI 
 
 may be, all emigrants expect either to avoid some con- 
 siderable evil, or to improve or amend tlieir situation. 
 The natural multiplication of man and of the animals 
 which he domesticates, and the tendency of both to 
 increase beyond such means of subsistence as may be 
 easily made available for their support, have been in 
 all ages the great cause of emigrations. When the 
 flocks and herds of the occupiers of particular districts 
 began to be so numerous that pasture became deficient, 
 it was an obvious resource, in the event of any unoc- 
 cupied lands being in their vicinity, for a portion of 
 the tribe to emigrate to them. The Book of Genesis 
 affords a striking illustration of what is now stated. 
 The herds of Abraham and Lot, it is there stated, had 
 so greatly increased, that, there not being room for 
 them both, contests took place between their servants. 
 Whereupon Abraham said to Lot, " Is not the whole 
 land before thee ? Separate thyself, I pray thee, from 
 me. If thou wilt take the left hand, then I will go 
 to the right ; or if thou depart to the right hand, then 
 I will go to the left. Then Lot chose him all the plain 
 of Jordan, and Lot journeyed east ; and they sepa- 
 rated themselves, the one from the other." (Chap, 
 xiii. 8-11.) 
 
 Female Emigrants. — Owing to causes which are too 
 obvious to need being pointed out, the greater number 
 of emigrants, especially of those who go to new settle- 
 ments, consist of males ; and the want of a proper 
 proportion of fsmales is often productive of the worst 
 consequences. Inasmuch, too, as the female portion 
 of the population in old settled countries. is generally 
 that which is most in excess, it is plain that every. 
 facility and encouragement should be given to the em- 
 igration of women. Nothing, therefore, can be more 
 consistent with sound policy than the efforts which 
 have recently been made by government, and by pri- 
 vate individuals, to send out well-conducted females 
 to Australia ; and it is to be hoped that they will not 
 relax in their benevolent labors till the wide dispropor- 
 tion which now (1857) exists between the sexes in that 
 continent be materially reduced. 
 
 The application of steam to the propulsion of ves- 
 sels and the other improvements that have been made 
 iu the art of navigation, have greatly diminished the 
 cost, risk, and time spent in distant voyages, and have 
 given a proportional extension to emigration. Not- 
 withstanding their great distance, the emigration from 
 Europe to America and Australia, but especially the 
 former, has latterly attained to a magnitude which, 
 previously to the employment of steam in navigation, 
 would not have been conceived possible. For a length- 
 ened period the United Kingdom has furnished the 
 largest supply of transatlantic emigrants ; but of late 
 years the emigration from Germany has become verj' 
 extensive, and promises at no distant period to equal, 
 if it do not surpass, that which is carried on from Great 
 Britain. The vast majority of the German emigrants 
 are destined for the United States, where they occupy 
 extensive districts, and have established themselves in 
 great numbers. The States have also become, since 
 1835, the principal resort of the emigrants from the 
 United Kingdom, more particularly of those from Ire- 
 land ; though large numbers of the English and Scotch 
 emigrants, with a smaller number of Irish, continue to 
 resort in preference to Canada. Since the discovery 
 of the gold fields of Australia, great numbers of emi- 
 grants have gone to that continent. But its much 
 greater distance, and the consequent length and cost 
 of the voyage, make it difficult for the poorer classes 
 to find, without assistance, their way to this new El 
 Dorado. And we may add, that to the natural diffi- 
 culties in the way of emigration to Australia have 
 been superadded those which arise from an extrava- 
 gant minimum, price of five dollars an acres having 
 been set on all waste land in that continent, even 
 though it should require three, four, or five acres to 
 pasture a single sheep. 
 
 Next to the United Kingdom and Germany, China 
 furnishes the greater number of over-sea emigrants. 
 A Chinese population has long been settled in large 
 numbers iu many parts of the Eastern Archipelago, 
 where they are distinguished by their industry and 
 good order; and recently many thousands of them 
 have found their way to California and Australia. We 
 subjoin an account of the number of emigrants from 
 the United Kingdom in each year from 1815 to 1853, 
 both inclusive, specifying the countries for which they 
 sailed, and the numbers that sailed for each : 
 
 
 
 
 AiiBtrnlian 
 
 
 
 Year. 
 
 North 
 American 
 coloniofl. 
 
 United 
 states. 
 
 colonlia 
 and New 
 Zealnnd. 
 
 All other 
 placofl. 
 
 Tolal. 
 
 1815 
 
 680 
 
 1,209 
 
 
 192 
 
 2,081 
 
 1816 
 
 8,870 
 
 9,022 
 
 
 118 
 
 12,510 
 
 181T 
 
 9,797 
 
 10,280 
 
 .... 
 
 667 
 
 20,684 
 
 1818 
 
 15,186 
 
 12,429 
 
 .... 
 
 222 
 
 27,787 
 
 1819 
 
 28,684 
 
 10,674 
 
 
 679 
 
 84,787 
 
 1820 
 
 17,921 
 
 6,745 
 
 
 1,063 
 
 25,729 
 
 1821 
 
 12,965 
 
 4,968 
 
 
 BS4 
 
 18,297 
 
 1822 
 
 16,018 
 
 4,187 
 
 
 279 
 
 20.429 
 
 1828 
 
 11,855 
 
 5,082 
 
 
 168 
 
 16,550 
 
 1824 
 
 8,774 
 
 6,152 
 
 
 99 
 
 14,025 
 
 1825 
 
 8,741 
 
 6,651 
 
 "485 
 
 114 
 
 14,891 
 
 1826 
 
 12,818 
 
 7,063 
 
 908 
 
 116 
 
 20,900 
 
 182T 
 
 12,648 
 
 14,626 
 
 715 
 
 114 
 
 28,003 
 
 1828 
 
 12,084 
 
 12,817 
 
 1,056 
 
 185 
 
 26,092 
 
 1829 
 
 18,807 
 
 15,678 
 
 2,016 
 
 197 
 
 81,198 
 
 1880 
 
 80,574 
 
 24,887 
 
 1,242 
 
 204 
 
 66,907 
 
 1881 
 
 58,067 
 
 28,418 
 
 1,561 
 
 114 
 
 88,160 
 
 1882 
 
 66,889 
 
 82,872 
 
 8,788 
 
 196 
 
 108,140 
 
 1888 
 
 28,808 
 
 29,109 
 
 4,098 
 
 617 
 
 62,527 
 
 1884 
 
 40,060 
 
 88,074 
 
 2,800 
 
 288 
 
 76,222 
 
 1885 
 
 15,578 
 
 26,720 
 
 1,860 
 
 826 
 
 44,478 
 
 1886 
 
 84,226 
 
 87,774 
 
 8,124 
 
 298 
 
 75,417 
 
 1887 
 
 29,884- 
 
 86,770 
 
 5,054 
 
 826 
 
 72,084 
 
 lass 
 
 4,577 
 
 14,882 
 
 14,021 
 
 292 
 
 88,222 
 
 1839 
 
 12,668 
 
 83,586 
 
 16,786 
 
 227 
 
 62,207 
 
 1840 
 
 82,298 
 
 40,642 
 
 15,850 
 
 1,958 
 
 90,748 
 
 1841 
 
 88,164 
 
 45,017 
 
 82,625 
 
 2,786 
 
 118,692 
 
 1842 
 
 54,128 
 
 68,852 
 
 8,684 
 
 1,885 
 
 128,344 
 
 1848 
 
 23,518 
 
 28,385 
 
 . 8,478 
 
 1,881 
 
 57,212 
 
 1844 
 
 22,924 
 
 43,660 
 
 2,229 
 
 1,878 
 
 70,686 
 
 1845 
 
 81,808 
 
 58,538 
 
 830 
 
 2,830 
 
 93,501 
 
 1846 
 
 43,489 
 
 82,239 
 
 2,347 
 
 1.826 
 
 129,851 
 
 1847 
 
 109,680 
 
 142,164 
 
 4,949 
 
 i;487 
 
 258,270 
 
 1848 
 
 81,065 
 
 188,283 
 
 28,904 
 
 4,887 
 
 248,089 
 
 1849 
 
 41,867 
 
 219,450 
 
 32,091 
 
 6,590 
 
 299,498 
 
 1850 
 
 82,961 
 
 223,078 
 
 16,087 
 
 8,778 
 
 280,849 
 
 1851 
 
 42,605 
 
 261,867 
 
 21,682 
 
 4,472 
 
 335,966 
 
 1862 
 
 82,876 
 
 244,261 
 
 87,424 
 
 4,208 
 
 868,764 
 
 1853 
 Total 
 
 84,622 
 
 230,885 
 
 61,401 
 
 8,120 
 
 829,937 
 
 1,071,289 
 
 -2,295,466 
 
 871,680 
 
 . 55,144 
 
 8,798,629 
 
 Aver 
 
 age annual 
 
 emigratioi 
 
 from the I 
 
 Jnlted Kli 
 
 gdom: 
 
 
 JTrom 1 
 Jor.thc 
 
 815 to 1858 
 five years 
 
 ending 186 
 
 . 97,269 
 3. 823,002 
 
 
 Emigration to America. Report from the State De- 
 partment. Department of State, 1856.- — Incompliance 
 with the act of Congress of March 2d, 1819, regulating 
 passenger ships and vessels, I have the honor to com- 
 municate herewith the annual statement of the num- 
 ber and designation of passengers arriving in the United 
 States by sea from foreign countries, during the year 
 ending December 31, 1855, compiled from returns made 
 to this Department by collectors of customs pursuant 
 to provisions of said act. 
 
 The measures adopted by the Department in 1853 
 with a view to obviate the previous absence of uni- 
 formity, and to secure accuracj' in the returns of col- 
 lectors, on which the statement is based, and which 
 were referred to in the letter that accompanied the last 
 annual statement, and in that which accompanied the 
 preceding one, have conduced most favorably to the 
 desired end. 
 
 Previously to the statement of 1854 but two reca 
 pitulations were appended to the returns, namely, ono 
 embracing tlie "arrivals" in each State during the 
 year ; the other the number of passengers belonging 
 to each " country." The statement now submitted 
 will be found to embrace recapitulations exhibiting the 
 follo^ving facts : 
 
 1. Arrival of passengers in 1855. 
 
 2. Country where bom. 
 
 3. Countrj' where they mean to reside. 
 
EMI 
 
 596 
 
 EMI 
 
 4. Age and sex. 
 
 5. Occupation. 
 
 6. Died on the voyage. 
 
 7. ComparatiYe statement showing the countries in 
 which were bom passengers arriving in the United 
 States from foreign countries, from December 31, 1852, 
 to December 31, 1855. 
 
 8. Comparative statement showing the age and sex 
 of passengers arriving in the United States from for- 
 eign countries, from December 31, 1852, to December 
 31, 1856. 
 
 9. Comparative statement showing the occupation 
 of passengers arriving in the United States from for- 
 eign countries, from December 31, 1852, to December 
 31, 1855. 
 
 10. Comparative statement of the number of pas- 
 sengers arriving in the United States, by sea, from 
 foreign countries, from September 30, 1843, to Decem- 
 ber 31, 1855. 
 
 Attention is once more invited to the fact, that by 
 the act of Congress of 1819, requiring immigration 
 returns, passengers " arriving by sea" seem alone con- 
 
 templated, and that an amendment of that act, so as 
 to embrace also those arriving by land, seems to te 
 demanded. The attention of collectors at frontier 
 custom-houses, especially on the northern border, has 
 been directed to such immigration hj this Department, 
 and the result has been returns from the collector at 
 Oswego, embracing the arrivals of 5,072 passengers 
 during the last three quarters of the year. 
 
 Although the returns of collectors of customs of the 
 passengers arriving within their districts have been 
 characterized by greater precision during the past year 
 than heretofore, there is still room for improvement ; 
 and the present statement will, like its predecessors for 
 the last two years, be transmitted to them with a view 
 to aid them in causing their returns to conform to the 
 requirements , of law. 
 
 I have the honor to be sir, your obedient servant, 
 W. L. Maeot. 
 
 Hon. N. P. Banlcs, Jr., Speaker of the Houso of Eepreseut- 
 atlves. 
 
 Subjoined are the more important tables accompa- 
 nying the Secretary's letter : 
 
 No. 1. — Abbival of 
 
 Pabsenseks in the 
 
 TJhictd States in 1855. 
 
 
 
 states. 
 
 First 
 Quftrtor. 
 
 Second 
 Quarter. 
 
 Third 
 Quarter. 
 
 Fourth 
 Quarter. 
 
 Males. 
 
 Fenuiles. 
 
 Sex not 
 stated. 
 
 ' Total. 
 
 
 278 
 
 1,362 
 
 1 
 
 19,517 
 
 574 
 
 1,218 
 
 "203 
 80 
 
 137 
 7,178 
 
 211 
 1,151 
 
 1,082 
 
 4 
 
 6,888 
 
 18 
 
 69,616 
 
 4,119 
 
 1,911 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 244 
 
 27 
 
 14 
 
 6,264 
 
 699 
 
 2,200 
 
 1,134 
 
 14 
 
 6,985 
 
 61 
 
 46,774 
 
 1,448 
 
 1,914 
 
 8 
 
 "'82 
 
 81 
 
 2 
 
 868 
 
 185 
 
 1,064 
 
 602 
 
 3 
 
 4,292 
 
 18 
 
 40,765 
 
 1,440 
 
 1,792 
 
 ""s 
 
 248 
 81 
 13 
 6,598 
 1,07T 
 335 
 
 2,147 
 
 17 
 
 10,484 
 
 52 
 
 101,765 
 
 8,909 
 
 3,682 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 565 
 
 142 
 
 97 
 
 11,741 
 
 1,167 
 
 4,467 
 
 349 
 4 
 
 7,539 
 
 31 
 
 64,797 
 
 8,672 
 
 3,138 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 206 
 
 77 
 
 69 
 
 7,647 
 
 955 
 
 293 
 
 12 
 
 2,996 
 
 21 . 
 
 17,978 
 
 88 
 
 166,562 
 
 7,681 
 
 6,880 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 772 
 
 219 
 
 166 
 
 20,888 
 
 2,122 
 
 4,760 
 
 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 
 
 
 Virginia 
 
 
 
 Florida 
 
 
 
 Texas . . .... 
 
 California 
 
 Total 
 
 81,850 
 
 81.478 
 
 60,005 
 
 57,143 
 
 140,181 
 
 90,283 
 
 12 1 280-476 1 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 No. II. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 England , 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Wales '. 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 Britieh America. . . 
 
 France 
 
 Spain 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Switzerland , 
 
 Italy 
 
 Sicily. , 
 
 Sardinia 
 
 Turkey , 
 
 Holland 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Prussia 
 
 Belgium , 
 
 Enssia 
 
 Germany 
 
 Poland 
 
 — OOTJNTEY 
 
 Totfll. 
 
 , 88,8T1 
 49,62T 
 , 5,275 
 , 1,176 
 , 2,251 
 , 7,761 
 . 6,044 
 . 951 
 205 
 , 4,488 
 , 1,024 
 
 2,588 
 528 
 5,609 
 1,506 
 13 
 66,219 
 
 "WUERE BOEIT. 
 CoiuitricB, 
 
 Norway & Sweden. 
 
 South America 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Central America.. 
 
 China 
 
 "West Indies 
 
 Society Islands. . .. 
 Sandwich Islands., 
 
 East Indies 
 
 Australia 
 
 Asia 
 
 Madeira Islands. . . 
 
 Africa 
 
 United States 
 
 Not stated 
 
 Total. 
 
 821 
 
 191 
 
 420 
 
 1 
 
 526 
 
 887 
 
 175 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 14 
 
 29,599 
 
 145 
 
 Total 230,476 
 
 Citizens of the U.S. 29,599 
 
 Aliens 200,877 
 
 No. III. — COTJHTKY WHERE TUEY MEAN TO EeSIDE. 
 
 United States 205,217 
 
 In other countries 6,285 
 
 Country of proposed residence not stated 18,974 
 
 Total 230,476 
 
 No. IV.— Age and Sek. 
 
 Age. 
 
 JJalos. 
 
 Femalei. 
 
 Sex not 
 stated. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Under 5 years 
 
 Between 5&10.. 
 
 " 10 "16.. 
 
 " 15 "20.. 
 
 " 20 " 25. . 
 
 " 25 "30.. 
 SO "35.. 
 
 " 85 "40.. 
 
 40 and upward. . . 
 
 Age not stated.... 
 
 Total 
 
 10,117 
 
 9,200 
 
 8,006 
 
 20,008 
 
 24,164 
 
 24,030 
 
 15,609 
 
 12,777 
 
 16,074 
 
 407 
 
 9,819 
 
 8,883 
 
 T,071 
 
 17,802 
 
 16,413 
 
 10,798 
 
 6,099 
 
 5,260 
 
 9,281 
 
 417 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 19,986 
 18,088 
 15,076 
 87,810 
 39,667 
 84,828 
 21,708 
 18,827 
 25,155 
 836 
 
 140,181- 
 
 90,288 
 
 12 
 
 230,476 
 
 
 English writers say that the late extraordinary emi- 
 gration from Ireland (1846 — 1854) has done much to 
 improve its condition. 
 
 No. V. — Occupation. 
 
 Occupations. 
 
 Males. 
 
 Females. 
 
 Sex hot ■ 
 stated. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Merchants 
 
 Mechanics 
 
 Farmers 
 
 14,759 
 
 14,997 
 
 34,693 
 
 1,166 
 
 232 
 
 42,580 
 
 224 
 
 247 
 
 149 
 
 62 
 
 1,496 
 
 29,586 
 
 2)586 
 
 846 
 
 87,402 
 
 "12 
 
 14,759 
 
 14,997 
 
 84,698 
 
 1,166 
 
 232 
 
 42,680 
 
 224 
 
 247 
 
 149 
 
 2,698 
 
 1,841 
 
 117,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 Physicians 
 
 Clergymen 
 
 Other occupations 
 
 Not stated 
 
 Total 
 
 140,181 
 
 90,268 
 
 12 
 
 280,476 
 
 
 No. YI. — Died on the Yoyage. 
 
 To ports of Mass 
 
 " New York . . 
 " Penn 
 
 " Maryland... 
 " Louisiana. ,. 
 " Texas 
 
 Total. 
 
 Males. Females. 
 
 182 
 
 T 
 22 
 
 5 
 150 
 8 
 2 
 20 
 1 
 
 216 I 181 
 
 403 
 
 No. X. — Statement of the Number of Passengehs Ak- 
 
 EIVING IN TUB UNITED STATES BY SeA FROM FOREIGN 
 
 Countries, Fao,vi Sept. 30, 1864, to Deo. 81, 1855. 
 
 Years ending 
 
 Males. 
 
 Females. 
 
 Sex not 
 stated. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Sept. 30, 1844.. 
 
 1846.. 
 
 1846.. 
 
 1847.. 
 
 184S.. 
 
 1849.. 
 
 1850.. 
 Dec. 81, 1860.. 
 
 1861.. 
 
 1852.. 
 
 1853.. 
 
 1864.. 
 
 1865.. 
 Total 
 
 48,897 
 69,188 
 90,978 
 134,750 
 186,128 
 179,263 
 200,903 
 38,282 
 246,017 
 
 236,696 
 
 234,887 
 140,181 
 
 86,867 
 
 49,290 
 
 66,778 
 
 96,747 
 
 92,888 
 
 119,915 
 
 118,892 
 
 27,107 
 
 163,746 
 
 lei^isi 
 
 176,587 
 90,287 
 
 1,406 
 897 
 
 1,067 
 
 472 
 
 442 
 
 1,038 
 
 181 
 
 66 
 
 898,470 
 
 "'12 
 
 84,T64 
 119,884 
 168,648 
 282,534 
 229,483 
 299,610 
 316,838 
 
 66,570 
 408,828 
 898,470 
 400,777 
 460,474 
 230,476 
 
 1,805,066 
 
 1,196,775 
 
 404,041 
 
 8,402,371 
 
EMI 
 
 597 
 
 EMI 
 
 In addition to this government table here— which 
 begins at September, 1843, and does not give the 
 means of comparison between calendar years till 18501 
 we insert one prepared from the original authorities in 
 a form somewhat more available : 
 
 United States' Ebtcen of Aerivals prom Abroad. 
 
 
 Americans and 
 
 or whom were 
 
 
 . Foreigners. 
 
 Foreigners. 
 
 1820—1880 
 
 208,979 
 
 
 1880—1840 
 
 762,369 
 
 
 July, 1840— July, 1'841 
 
 ' 83,504 
 
 " 1842 
 
 101,107 
 
 
 i 1848 
 
 75,107 
 
 
 Jan. 1— Dee. 81, 1844,.. 
 
 98,867 
 
 
 1845 
 
 180,759 
 
 .... 
 
 1846 
 
 178,685 
 
 
 184T 
 
 288,976 
 
 
 1848 
 
 242,180 
 
 
 1849 
 
 298,543 
 
 
 1850 
 
 825,461 
 
 284,504 
 
 ' 1851 
 
 406,828 
 
 879,461 
 
 1852 
 
 .898,470 
 
 872,725 
 
 1858 
 
 400,777 
 
 868,643 
 
 1854 
 
 460,474 
 
 427,888 
 
 1855 
 
 280,476 
 
 200,877 
 
 We also add the following table, which shows the 
 rapid advance of the German emigration to the United 
 States. Up to 1851, it is from a paper by Dr. Gaebler 
 in Hubnen's Statistik ; and includes only those who 
 sailed from German ports. The- years 1852 and 1853 
 ; are firom our government . returns, and include all 
 arrivals. There is a considerable business done in 
 
 bringpmg German emigrants to England for them to 
 t^ke passage thence to America ; others sail from Ant- 
 werp and Havre. Gaebler's Statistics after 1845 are 
 made up from the returns of different sea-ports ; 
 
 Euiqeahts to the United 
 
 1819 4,700 
 
 1820 2,200 
 
 1821 :....,.... 2,400 
 
 1822............... 2,600 
 
 1828 ;.... 2,700 
 
 1824..., 4,300 
 
 1826 ^800 
 
 1826........ „..'... 11,000 
 
 1827 9,600 
 
 1828 8,000 
 
 1829 15,000 
 
 1830 no return. 
 
 1881 15,100 
 
 1882 24,200 
 
 1888 20,000 
 
 1834 24,000 
 
 1886 ■ 17,000 
 
 1836 .....24,000 
 
 1887 .....88000 
 
 States from Germany. 
 
 1838. 20,000 
 
 1839 28,000 
 
 1840 28,000 
 
 1841 22,000 
 
 1842 20,000 
 
 1843 28,000 
 
 1844 48,701 
 
 1845 67,209 
 
 1846 106,662 
 
 1847 110,434 
 
 1848 83,611 
 
 1849 85,127 
 
 1850 89,888 
 
 1851 118,199 
 
 From U. 8. EoporW; 
 
 1852 ■. 144,894 
 
 1858 141,928 
 
 1854 215,000 
 
 1856 71,828 
 
 The aiTivals from Germany and Prussia in the 
 government tables are here added together. 
 
 Ages of Emigrmds. — The following ■ table, which 
 was among those sent to Congress by the State De- 
 partment a few days since, has not till now been pub- 
 lished. It gives the details of a matter which has 
 been a good deal discussed, the age and chance of life 
 of the foreigners who arrive here : 
 
 : Comparative Statement snownjo the Age and Sex of Passengeks arriving in the United States from Foreign 
 Oounteies, from Dec. 81, 1852, to Dec 81, 1855. 
 
 Ago. 
 
 1868. i ' 1854. 
 
 1855. 1 
 
 Males. 
 
 Females. 1 Total. 
 
 Males. 1 Females. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Males. 
 
 Females. Total. j 
 
 
 15,470 
 
 15,320 
 14,506 
 29,112 
 61,022 
 38,058 
 26,867 
 14,675 
 26,685 
 
 14,888 
 
 14,752 
 18,877 
 25,105 
 87,641 
 20,656 
 14,031 
 7,015 
 17,866 
 
 29,858 
 ■ -80,072 
 -27,888 
 54,217 
 ■98,668 
 68,609 
 40,448 
 21,690 
 , 44,051 
 
 18,789 
 
 17,920 
 16,689 
 48,841 
 56,441 
 61,940 
 80,028 
 20,655 
 29,476 
 
 1?,692 
 16,406 
 18,617 
 82,083 • 
 32,807 
 22,824 
 12,876 
 9,456 
 17,901 
 
 86,481 
 34,826 
 29,206 
 75,874 
 89,248 
 74,764 
 42,404 
 80.011 
 47,377 
 
 10,117 
 9,200 
 8,006 
 20,008 
 24,164 
 24,030 ■ 
 16,609 
 12,777 
 15,874- 
 
 9,819 
 8,883 
 
 - - 7,071 
 17,302- 
 15,418 
 
 - 10,798 
 
 6,099 
 5,260 
 
 - 9,981 
 
 19,986 
 18,038 
 15,076 
 87,810 
 89,567 
 84,828 
 21,708 
 18,027 
 ■ 25jl55 
 
 Between 6 and 10 
 
 " 10 " 16 
 
 " 15 " 20 
 
 " 20 " 25. 
 
 " 25 " 80...... 
 
 " 80 " 35 
 
 " 85 " 40 
 
 
 The following table shows the immigration at New 
 York for the last four years, with monthly compari- 
 
 Months, 
 
 January 
 
 February. . . 
 
 March 
 
 April 
 
 May 
 
 Juno 
 
 July 
 
 August 
 
 September. . 
 
 October 
 
 November . . 
 
 December . . 
 
 Total.... 
 
 4,901 
 11,968 
 
 9,686 
 23,283 
 S0,212 
 46,578 
 22,898 
 
 23,201 
 81,486 
 17,824 
 
 284,945 - 1 - 319,228 
 
 15,614 
 4,445 
 8,768 
 81,148 
 54,078 
 25,807 
 86,247 
 89,416 
 25,759 
 88,378 
 20,276 
 25,396 
 
 7,485 
 6,123 
 2,069 
 10195 
 24,177 
 19,428 
 15,716 
 9,160 
 11,706 
 13,843 
 7,458 
 
 186,233 
 
 1856. 
 
 2,344 
 
 2,224 
 4,634 
 8,295 
 19,006 
 20,024 
 16,846 
 17,268 
 14,078 
 16,986 
 16,746 
 4,287 
 
 141,673 
 
 ,,, The proportion of Irish and Germans arrived during 
 the year 1856 appears from the following table : 
 
 January 
 
 February.. . 
 
 March 
 
 April 
 
 May 
 
 June 
 
 July 
 
 August 
 
 September.. 
 
 October 
 
 November.. 
 December . . 
 
 Total. 
 
 584 
 220 
 1,040 
 8,237 
 6,616 
 6,016 
 6,068 
 5,090 
 4,286 
 5,691 
 5,201 
 1,388 
 
 48,996 
 
 444 
 1,206 
 2,220 
 6,803 
 6,046 
 5,006 
 7,789 
 5,247 
 7,515 
 7,844 
 2,241 
 
 56,846 
 
 2,844 
 
 2,224 
 
 4,584 
 
 8,296 
 
 19,006 
 
 20,024 
 
 16,846 
 
 17,253 
 
 14,078 
 
 16,986 
 
 16,745 
 
 4,287 
 
 141,672 
 
 Last year there was an unusually small amount of 
 ; emigration, owing to the war, the drafts for -the army 
 and navy, increased employment at home, and the 
 check given to emigration to the United States by the 
 stringent American regulations and the political objec- 
 tions to Catliolics and the Irish, and to naturalization. 
 
 which had before been freely granted. The employ- 
 ment of many large steamers now .disengaged from the 
 transport service and reduced fares, coupled with the 
 prosperous state of Canada and Australia, wUl lead to 
 an increased emigration in 1857. 
 
 Statistics of Emigration to iJie United States. — The 
 emigration of the past year shows an increase as com- 
 pared with that of the year 1855, but is much less 
 than any other year since 1848. The following aro 
 the figures : 
 
 1851 289,601 
 
 1862..... 800,992 
 
 1868...... 284,946 
 
 1864 819,223 
 
 1855 186,283 . 
 
 1866 141,915 
 
 The tide of emigration during the year 1856 did not 
 
 set in steadily until June and July. 
 
 The following shows the number of arrivals and the 
 
 proportion of emigrants : 
 
 From 1800—1810 70,081 
 " 1810—1820 114,006 
 " 1820—1880 , 185,086 
 " 1880—1840 570,000 
 " 1840—18601,678,888 
 
 Conntiles. Arrivft'a. 
 
 Ireland 44,090 
 
 Germany 66,855 
 
 England 23,681 
 
 -Scotland........ 4,678 
 
 -Wales... 1,876 
 
 France 2,981 
 
 Spain 824 
 
 Switzerland. . . , . 2,753 
 
 Holland 3,187 
 
 Norway 438 
 
 Sweden '... 918 
 
 Denmark 471 
 
 Italy 690 
 
 From the want of coal, Ireland is iU-fitted for manu- 
 facturing industry ; and from the nature of its soil and 
 climate, it is much better suited to pasturage than to 
 tillage. In 1854 the further reduction of its popiila- 
 tionby one or two millions, by emigration, was con- 
 sidered favorable to its well-being. 
 
 Countries. Arrivals. 
 
 Portugal 20 
 
 Belgium 885 
 
 West Indies 225 
 
 Nova Scotia, 80 
 
 Sardinia 420 
 
 South America 161 
 
 Canada 67 
 
 China S 
 
 Sicily., 10 
 
 Mexico 18 
 
 Russia. 57 
 
 Turkey 4 
 
 Greece 3 
 
EMI 
 
 698 
 
 EMI 
 
 January . . . 
 February... 
 
 Marcb 
 
 April 
 
 May 
 
 June 
 
 July 
 
 Augnst — 
 September 
 
 October 
 
 November. 
 
 December. 
 
 Total.. 
 
 Citizens , 
 
 a,oo2 
 
 2,003 
 2,576 
 4,184 
 6,551 
 6,119 
 4,281 
 3,930 
 8,489 
 3,973 
 8,618 
 1,800 
 
 Emigrants. 
 
 89,819 
 
 141,916 
 
 2,844 
 
 4,348 
 
 2,244 
 
 4,307 
 
 4,584 
 
 T,164 
 
 8,285 
 
 12,479 
 
 19,006 
 
 26,567 
 
 25,024 
 
 26,148 
 
 15,848 
 
 20,076 
 
 17,268 
 
 21,183 
 
 14,068 
 
 17,497 
 
 16,986 
 
 20,959 
 
 16,746 
 
 20,263 
 
 4,550 
 
 6,360 
 
 185,234 
 
 The following tables, in connection with the above 
 figures, will be found interesting : 
 
 The per cent. Incebasb op Population in the United 
 States. 
 
 1800—1810 7,389,884 Increase about 40 per cent. 
 
 1810— lt20 9,638,181 '' " SO " 
 
 1820—1830 12,868,020 » " 83 J » 
 
 1880—1840 17,669,458 " " S3| '^ 
 
 1840—1850 28,191,870 " " 84 « 
 
 The pee cent. Inckease of Immigeation in the United 
 States. 
 
 1800—1810 70,801 Increase about 1 per cent. 
 
 1810—1820 114,006 » " 14 " 
 
 1820—1830 185,086 " " 1 k " 
 
 1880—1840 570,000 " " 3 J " 
 
 1840—1850 1,678,838 " " 7 " 
 
 The Emigration of 1866. — The following table, show- 
 ing the destination of emigrants who landed at Castle 
 Garden, New York, during the year 1856, and the 
 amount of cash means they possessed at the time of ar- 
 rival, is made up from the official table prepared by the 
 Superintendent of the Commissioners of Emigration : 
 
 DestLnation. 
 
 Maine 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Ehode Island 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 New York 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 Iowa 
 
 California 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Virginia 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Florida 
 
 Alabama. 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Texas 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 Missouri 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 District of Columbia. 
 
 Kansas 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 New Mexico 
 
 Utah 
 
 Oregon 
 
 Washington 
 
 Canada 
 
 New Brunswick 
 
 Nova Scotia 
 
 West Indies 
 
 South America 
 
 Mexico.. 
 
 Ccnti'al America 
 
 Australia 
 
 Uncertain 
 
 Unknown 
 
 Total 
 
 Passengers, 
 
 148 
 
 177 
 
 260 
 
 6,494 
 
 1,861 
 
 2,262 
 
 65,065 
 
 3,243 
 
 11,749 
 
 7,085 
 
 1,838 
 
 11,664 
 
 8,296 
 
 18,827 
 
 2,380 
 
 778 
 
 81 
 
 1,164 
 
 567 
 
 66 
 
 173 
 
 47 
 
 12 
 
 30 
 
 171 
 
 76 
 
 30 
 
 1,064 
 
 14 
 
 178 
 
 460 
 
 407 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 427 
 
 1,574 
 
 8,526 
 
 11 
 80 
 
 12 
 
 ""'l 
 2,118 
 
 141,625 
 
 Cosh means. 
 
 $3,986 50 
 
 2,772 81 
 
 5,357 50 
 
 162,986 23 
 
 29,921 60 
 
 99,681 39 
 
 2,101,666 80 
 
 295,480 66 
 
 694,786 48 
 
 681,687 81 
 
 160,184 72 
 
 1,400,482 43 
 
 381,087 38 
 
 1,9.84,125 10 
 
 842,588 75 
 
 167,608 25 
 
 4,102 60 
 
 60,704 28 
 
 26,192 48 
 
 3,829 60 
 
 8,945 50 
 
 8,207 00 
 
 668 00 
 
 1,707 50 
 
 10,058 22 
 
 8,825 75 
 
 4,709 00 
 
 109,122 19 
 
 1,880 00 
 
 11,806 60 
 
 25,817 75 
 
 34,691 69 
 
 8,288 00 
 
 300 00 
 
 56,048 00 
 
 82,036 38 
 
 662,328 35 
 
 15' 00 
 1,107 00 
 1,722 50 
 1,827 66 
 
 26' 00 
 120,979 98 
 
 Average 
 per head. 
 
 15 66 
 
 21 48 
 26 68 
 
 22 09 
 48 44 
 38 17 
 91 12 
 
 59 13 
 96 20 
 
 108 20 
 126 62 
 100 44 
 148 88 
 143 94 
 215 48 
 
 40 64 
 
 62 15 
 44 43 
 58 02 
 
 60 26 
 174 61 
 
 56 58 
 56 91 
 53 80 
 
 109 54 
 156 66 
 102 65 
 
 98 67 
 
 63 51 
 55 03 
 85 23 
 
 298 82 
 160 00 
 131 00 
 
 22 '82 
 
 76 51 
 
 'i'so 
 
 100 68 
 
 57 41 
 
 110 68 
 
 26 '60 
 67 25 
 
 $9,642,104 00 I $63 08 
 
 The total number of arrivals daring the year is 
 about six thousand more than the previous year, and 
 the proportion of cash means to each passenger is con- 
 
 siderable larger than during the last five months of 
 1855. The account of cash means was not kept until 
 after the first seven months of 1855. The number of 
 vessels bringing emigrants last year was 679, from 21 
 different ports of Europe, and not one serious accident 
 has occurred during the disembarkation. Some emi- 
 grants, ill-advised by interested parties, have declined 
 to avail themselves of the facilities afforded by the 
 Commissioners of Emigration, and have consequently 
 been plundered in various ways, sometimes Irremedla- 
 bljr. The governments of Hamburg and Bremen have 
 made it a penal offense to solicit or book emigrants for 
 Inland travel In foreign countries, and it is to be hoped 
 that other European governments will follow their ex- 
 ample. 
 
 Since the 22d of August last a system of aiding 
 destitute emigrants has been established, which has 
 proved highly beneficial. Since that date in 18S5, 210 
 families were assisted to the amount of $2,309 26 ; in 
 158 the advances have already been repaid, amounting 
 to $1,456 26. 
 
 The following is a list of arrivals during two weeks 
 of Januarj-, 1857, only : 
 
 Jan. 
 
 " 13. 
 
 " 14. 
 
 Veesol. 
 
 Henry Clay... 
 
 Columbia 
 
 Victoria 
 
 Fidelia 
 
 Palestine 
 
 Calhoun 
 
 Eed Rover 
 
 "Wm. Neilson. . 
 Wm. V. Moses 
 St. Nicholas... 
 
 Orpheus 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Northampton . . 
 
 Union 
 
 Germania 
 
 Gauntlet 
 
 Where from. 
 
 Namber of 
 pasBetiRerB. 
 
 Liverpool 
 
 London 
 
 Liverpool 
 
 London 
 
 Liverpool 
 
 219 
 
 418 
 123 
 
 250 
 119 
 280 
 158 
 303 
 280 
 165 
 320 
 808 
 115 
 49 
 77 
 67 
 
 (t 
 
 (I 
 
 u 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Liverpool 
 
 London 
 
 Bremen 
 
 
 
 
 8,250 
 
 The Destination of Emigrants.— The following table 
 shows the destination and amount of money possessed 
 by all the emigrants who arrived at New York during 
 the eleven months previous to July 30, 1856 : 
 
 Destination. 
 
 Six New England States 
 
 Fifteen Slave States and D. 0. . 
 
 New Yorlt 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Michigan 
 
 "Wisconsin 
 
 Iowa 
 
 California 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 Kansas 
 
 Utah 
 
 Oregon 
 
 Total 
 
 Total of the Free States and 
 Territories 
 
 Nnmber of 
 EmJErnnts. 
 
 8,148 
 8,266 
 
 89,948 
 2,272 
 9,421 
 6,117 
 1,309 
 7,718 
 2,887 
 
 10,000 
 
 1,865 
 
 806 
 
 805 
 
 8 
 
 1,829 
 
 Amonnt of their 
 Cash Capital. 
 
 106,707 
 
 102,451 
 
 *12l,628 01 
 
 194,888 73 
 
 1,291,628 09 
 
 214,965 79 
 
 646,088 78 
 
 479,638 90 
 
 101,861 63 
 
 698,466 81 
 
 199,860 86 
 
 1,045,«61 88 
 
 248,885 40 
 
 165,125 18 
 
 85,166 00 
 
 128 00 
 
 65,670 93 
 
 10 00 
 
 $5,398,869 54 
 
 15,208,480 81 
 
 Of late years (1863—1857) there has been more 
 immigration to the State of Texas than formerly, 
 especially by Germans, who have formed large settle- 
 ments in several counties in the western portions of 
 the State, where land can be had at 50 cents to $1 per 
 acre, and where the climate and soil are favorable. 
 
 Emigration and Ijimigration.— The following 
 from Hhbnek's " Jdhvhicher" for 1854, gives the des- 
 tinations of natives of Germany embarking from the 
 ports of Hamburg and Bremen : 
 
 Deatiiltition. 
 
 1847. 
 
 1848. 
 
 1849. 1 1850. 
 
 1861. 
 
 18M. 
 
 United States 
 
 British America.. 
 All other places. . . 
 
 82,287 
 7,862 
 1,671 
 
 88,659 
 1,822 
 1,651 
 
 82,120 
 
 315 
 
 1,814 
 
 81,431 
 
 598 
 
 1,244 
 
 44,681 
 
 647 
 
 4,594 
 
 70,984 
 4,948 
 4,685 
 
 Total 
 
 41,810 
 
 86,682 
 
 84,249 33,268 
 
 49,772 
 
 80,467 
 
EMI 
 
 599 
 
 EMI 
 
 
 Emigbation feom 
 
 Gebat Bkitain. 
 
 
 
 Yenr.. 
 
 To Norlh 
 American colonies. 
 
 To the United Stiitou. 
 
 To Auattnlion 
 
 Colonies and New 
 
 Zealand. 
 
 To all other 
 places. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Rate per cent, to 
 whole emigration. 
 
 1825 
 
 8,741 
 12,818 
 12,648 
 12,084 
 13,307 
 80,574 
 58,067 
 66,889 
 28,808 
 40,060 
 16,578 
 84,226 
 29,884 
 
 4,677 
 12,658 
 82,298 
 88,164 
 64,123 
 28,618 
 22,924 
 81,808 
 48,489 
 109,680 
 31,065 
 41,867 
 82,961 
 
 1,107 
 
 6,651 
 7,068 
 14,526 
 12,817 
 16,678 
 24,887 
 28,418 
 82,872 
 29,109 
 88.074 
 26,720 
 87,774 
 86,770 
 14,882 
 88,686 
 40,642 
 46,017 
 68,862 
 28,836 
 43,660 
 58,538 
 82,289 
 • 142,164 
 188,288 
 219,450 
 228,078 
 63,142 
 
 87-28 
 88-79 
 61-87 
 49-12 
 60-25 
 48-78 
 2816 
 81-87 
 46-55 
 48-89 
 60-07 
 50-09 
 61-06 
 48-14 
 68-91 
 44-79 
 87-96 
 49-76 
 49-58 
 61-77 
 62-61 
 63-88 
 65-04 
 75-87 
 73-27 
 79-43 
 91-67 
 
 486 
 
 908 
 
 715 
 
 1,056 
 
 2,016 
 
 1,242 
 
 1,661 
 
 8,733 
 
 4,098 
 
 2,800 
 
 1,860 
 
 8,124 
 
 5,064 
 
 14.021 
 
 16,786 
 
 16,850 
 
 82,626 
 
 8,684 
 
 8,478 
 
 2,229 
 
 830 
 
 2,847 
 
 4,949 
 
 28,904 
 
 82,191 
 
 16,087 
 
 2,962 
 
 114 
 
 116 
 
 114 
 
 185 
 
 197 
 
 204 
 
 114 
 
 196 
 
 617 
 
 288 
 
 826 
 
 298 
 
 826 
 
 292 
 
 227 
 
 1,963 
 
 2,786 
 
 1,886 
 
 1,881 
 
 1,878 
 
 2,380 
 
 1,826 
 
 1,487 
 
 4,887 
 
 6,490 
 
 8,773 
 
 786 
 
 14,891 
 
 20,900 
 
 28,008 
 
 26,092 
 
 81,198 
 
 66,907 
 
 63,160 
 
 108,140 
 
 62,527 
 
 76,222 
 
 44,478 
 
 75,417 
 
 72,084 
 
 83,222 
 
 62,207 
 
 90,743 
 
 118,592 
 
 128,344 
 
 67,212 
 
 70,686 
 
 93,501 
 
 129,861 
 
 268,270 
 
 248,089 
 
 299,498 
 
 280,849 
 
 58,086 
 
 1826 
 
 1827 
 
 1828 
 
 1829 
 
 1830 
 
 1881 
 
 1882 
 
 1833 
 
 1834 
 
 1885 
 
 1886 
 
 1837 
 
 
 1889 
 
 
 1841 
 
 1842 
 
 1848 
 
 
 1845 
 
 
 1847 
 
 1843 
 
 
 1861, to March Slat 
 
 Total 
 
 842,898 
 
 1,636,467 
 
 58-66 
 
 204,386 
 
 40,320 
 
 2,624,070 
 
 
 Whether the foreign Immigration can be kept up 
 very long at its present high figure must he doubted. 
 The wars in Europe, which it was thought would check 
 the tide, have, however, had no effect as yet. The 
 number arrived in New York for the quarter ending 
 March 31st, 1854, was 29,023, against 29,657 in tlie 
 corresponding quarter of 1853. 
 
 The following table shows the occupations of the 
 emigrants from Kngland in 1854 and ',55 : 
 
 1854. 
 
 Blacksmiths and farriers 1,674 
 
 Braziers, tinsmiths, and whitesmiths 818 
 
 Brick and tile makers, potters, etc HI 
 
 Bricklayers, masons, plasterers and slaters 8,984 
 
 Builders 69 
 
 Cabinet-makers and upholsterers 182 
 
 Carpenters and joiners 6,185 
 
 Carvers and gilders 65 
 
 Coach-makers, etc 50 
 
 Coal miners 177 
 
 Coopers 269 
 
 Engineers 817 
 
 Millwrights 86 
 
 Miners and quarrymen 4,112 
 
 Painters, plumbers, paper-hangers and 1 gg^ 
 
 glaziers f 
 
 Sawyers 218 
 
 Shipwrights 61 
 
 Smiths (generaD 216 
 
 Surveyors. 27 
 
 Turners 46 
 
 Wheelwrights 196 
 
 Mechanics not before specified 8,398 
 
 Total 21,347 11,155 
 
 To this statement the following remarks are sub- 
 jpined: The total number of such adults who emi- 
 
 185S. 
 
 381 
 
 148 
 
 82 
 
 1,814 
 
 36 
 
 81 
 
 2,641 
 
 64 
 
 25 
 
 62 
 
 171 
 
 286 
 
 10 
 
 1,678 
 
 661 
 
 141 
 16 
 
 106 
 2,545 
 
 grated in the two years having been respectively 134,- 
 789 and 65,363, it follows that the mechanics and 
 skilled worltmen connected with the building and con- 
 structive trades, who leave the country, form the pro- 
 portion of about one sixth of the whole number. 
 Farmers, agricultural and general laborers, and those 
 identified with land, constitute one half of the bulk of 
 emigrants. 
 
 The number of foreigners who arrived in the United 
 States, since 1790, may be stated as follows ; the ar- 
 rivals from 1790 to 1820 are given on the authority of 
 Professor Tucker; those subsequent to that period, 
 are obtained from the custom-house reports. 
 
 AbEIVALS of FOEEIGNEES IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Arrivals. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Arrivals. 
 
 1790—1800 
 
 1800—1810 
 1810—1820 
 1820—1821 
 
 60,000 
 
 70,000 
 
 114,000 
 
 5,998 
 
 1836-1887. 
 
 78,083 
 59,.868 
 62,168 
 84,146 
 
 1837—1838 
 
 1838—1839 
 
 1889-1840 
 
 1821—1822 
 1822—1823 
 
 7,829 
 6,749 
 
 1840—1841 
 
 83,604 
 101,107 
 
 1841—1842 
 
 1823—1824 
 
 7,088 
 
 1842—1843 
 
 76,159 
 
 1824-1825 
 
 8,632 
 
 1848—1844 
 
 74,607 
 
 1826—1826 
 
 10,151 
 
 1844—1845 
 
 102,415 
 
 1826—1827 
 1827—1828 
 
 12,418 
 26,114 
 
 1845—1846. 
 
 147,051 
 220,182 
 
 1846-1847 
 
 1828—1829 
 
 24,459 
 
 1848 (15 mo8.) to Sept. 80. 
 
 296,387 
 
 1829—1830 
 
 27,168 
 
 1849, 1 year to 
 
 296,988 
 
 1830—1831 
 
 23,074 
 
 1850, " " . 
 
 279,980 
 
 1831—1832 
 
 46,287 
 
 1852, (15 mos) to Jan. 1.. . 
 
 439,487 
 
 1882—1888 
 
 66.547 
 
 1863, to 1st January 
 
 872,726 
 
 1833—1834 
 
 65,385 
 
 1664, " " 
 
 868,648 
 
 1884—1835 
 
 62,899 
 
 1866, " " 
 
 186,288 
 
 188.'!- 1886 
 
 62,478 
 
 1866, " " 
 
 141,960 
 
 Nativities of Passengers akeiving in the United States. 
 
 Year ending Sept. 80, 1846. 
 
 Male. 
 
 Female. 
 
 Sex not 
 stated. 
 
 Year ending Sept. 30, 1847. 
 
 Male. 
 
 Female. 
 
 Sex not 
 stated. 
 
 Year ending Dec. 81, 1862. 
 
 Male. 
 
 Female. 
 
 Sex not 
 stated. 
 
 United states 
 
 Ireland 
 
 Great Britain and Ireland .- 
 
 Germany 
 
 Prussia, Austria, Germany and Holland. . 
 All others 
 
 4,221 
 8,858 
 82,781 
 19,718 
 21,148 
 11,038 
 
 1,126 
 8,961 
 80,188 
 18,074 
 14,010 
 8,971 
 
 166 
 822 
 
 887 
 
 '4i9 
 
 8,081 
 16,966 
 72,429 
 43,850 
 45.921 
 17,785 
 
 1,408 
 18,869 
 56,087 
 29,306 
 80,706 
 11,126 
 
 26 
 215 
 222 
 286 
 286 
 466 
 
 23,058 
 86,716 
 109,268 
 84,206 
 86,696 
 16,484 
 
 2,474 
 
 71,808 
 
 56,624 
 58,842 
 8,704 
 
 2,600 
 2,600 
 2,953 
 
 Law in Regard to Emigrants. — By the law of the 
 State of New York, passed April, 1857, it is pro-rided 
 that, 
 
 No person shall, in any city of this State, solicit emigrant 
 passengers or their luggage for emigrant boarding-houses, pas- 
 Bcnger-ofBces, forwarding transportation lines, or for steam- 
 ers, sliips or vessels hound or about to proceed to any port 
 not within this State ; or for any person or for any company 
 selling, or offering for sale, passage-tickets, or contracting or 
 offering to contract for passage in any such steamer, ship or 
 
 vessel without a license for that purpose, which shall expire 
 at the end of one year from its date ; such license may he is- 
 sued and revoked in the discretion of the Mayor of the city 
 where such license may have been granted, except in the city 
 of New York, in which such license may be issued or revoked 
 only by and in the discretion of the CommiSBioners of Emigra- 
 tion, Such persons receiving such license shall pay the sum 
 of $20, and give a bond, with two sufficient sureties, in the 
 penalty of $500, conditioned for the good behavior and the 
 observance to him of the provisions this act, to the Mayor of 
 the city issuing the same, or to the Commissioners of Emi- 
 
EMI 
 
 600 
 
 ENA 
 
 gration, as the case may be. The money thus received or 
 collected on said bonds shall be for the benefit of said city, or 
 of the emigrant fund. Every person so licensed shall wear 
 in a conspicuous place about his person a badge or plate, of 
 such character and in such time and manner as said Mayor, 
 in the city of New 't'ork, as such Commissioners shall pre- 
 scribe, with the words, " Licensed Emigrant Runner" in- 
 scribed thereon, with his name and the number of his license. 
 No person who is not of approved good moral character shall 
 be licensed as such runner. Every person who shall solicit 
 alien emigrant passengers or others, for the benefit of board- 
 ing-houses, passenger-offices, or forwarding or transportation 
 lines, or for any steamer, ship or vessel bound or about to 
 proceed to any port not within the State of New York, or for 
 any person or company selling or ofiering for sale passage- 
 tickets, or contracting or offering to contract for passage in 
 any such steam-ship or vessel, upon any street, lane, alley, or 
 upon any dock, pier or public highway, or in any other place 
 within the corporate bounds of any city in this State, or upon 
 any waters adjacent thereto, over which any of said cities 
 may have jurisdiction, without such license, shall be deemed 
 guilty of a misdemeanor, and shall be punished by imprison- 
 ment in the county prison or jail not less than three months, 
 nor exceeding one year. 
 
 The bonds mentioned in the foregoing sections may he sued 
 by and in the name of the Mayor of the city in which such 
 license may have been issued, and in the city of New York 
 by and in the name of the Commissioners of Emigration in 
 any court having cognizance thereof ; and in case of a breach, 
 the Mayor, or the said Commissioners, shall recover the fuU 
 penalty of said bond. 
 
 All personal baggage of emigrant passengers arriving at 
 the port of and destined for the city of New York, shall be 
 landed at the place or pier designated as the landing-place in 
 said city for emigrant passengers ; and the captain, owners, 
 and consignees of every ship or vessel arriving at said port 
 with emigrant passengers destined for said city, shall be 
 jointly and severally subject and liable to a penalty of $50 for 
 each and every emigrant passenger, or his personal baggage, 
 landed at any place or pier other than the place or pier afore- 
 said ; which penalty shall be a lien upon such ship or vessel, 
 and may be enforced and recovered by and in the name of 
 the Commissioners of Emigration, either by an action or by 
 warrant of attachment, under and pursuant to article first of 
 title eighth of chapter eighth of the first part of the Revised 
 Statutes. 
 
 The Health Of&cer shall give notice in writing to the owner 
 or owners, consignee or consignees, master, commander or 
 person having charge of every vessel having emigrant pas- 
 sengers on board of such vessel, destined for the city of New 
 York, to land such passengers and their personal baggage, at 
 such pier or place in the said city of New York as has been 
 or may at any time he designated specially by the Commis- 
 sioners of Emigration for the landing of emigrant passengers 
 and their personal baggage ; and it shall not be lawful to 
 land such passengers or their personal baggage at any other 
 pier or place ; and the owner and master of any vessel, from 
 which passengers or their personal baggage shall be landed, 
 in violation of the provisions of this section, shall be subject 
 to a penalty of $50 for each and every person or his baggage 
 so landed in violation thereof; which penalty shall be forth- 
 with a lien on such ship or vessel, and may be immediately, 
 upon such violation, sued for, enforced and recovered, with 
 costs of suit, in the name of and by the Commissioners of 
 Emigration, either by an action in any court having cogni- 
 zance thereof, or by an attachment under and pursuant to 
 article first of title eighth, chapter eighth, of the first part of 
 the Revised Statutes, for which purpose the said Commis- 
 sioners of Emigration shall forthwith he creditors of such 
 ship or vessel, and having a direct lien on such ship or 
 vessel, for said penalty ; the said penalty, when recovered, 
 to he applied and used by the said Commissioners for the pur- 
 poses for which said Commissioners are constituted. 
 
 Eminent Domain. The right of the State to 
 its public property or domain is absolute, and excludes 
 that of its own subjects as well as other nations. The 
 national proprietary right in respect to those things 
 belonging to private individuals, or bodies corporate, 
 within its territorial limits, is absolute, so far as it ex- 
 cludes that of other nations ; but in respect to the 
 numbers of the State, it is paramount only, and forms 
 what is called the eminent domain ; that is, the right, 
 in case of necessity or for the public safety, of dispos- 
 ing of all the property of every kind within the limits 
 of the State. — ^Wheat. Inter. Law. See Corres. be- 
 tween Mr, Webstek and Lord Ashburton, Dec. 1837. 
 
 Empire (Lat. Imperiunb). Originally the terri- 
 tory or extent of land under the command and jurisr 
 diction of an emperor. The dominions under the sway 
 of ancient Rome were the first to which the term em- 
 pire was applied ; they consisted of two grand divisions 
 — the Empire of the East, or, as it was afterward 
 called, the Lower Empire ; and the Empire of the 
 West. The former admitted of various subdivisions 
 in reference to the different dj'nasties to which it was 
 subject ; and the latter became, about the end of the 
 9th centurj'-, the German or Holy Koman Empire. In 
 all these cases, the sovereign, or chief person in the 
 empire, was named the emperor. But the terra empire 
 has in several instances been employed to desif^nate a 
 large extent of dominion, without reference to the title 
 of the ruler or sovereign of a country ; thus we hear 
 of the empire of Persia, Hindostan, etc. The domin- 
 ions of the Queen of England are invariably designated 
 the British Empire; and the epithet "imperial" is 
 officially prefixed to the Parliament of the United 
 Kingdom. The term empire was applied from 1804 to 
 1814 to the dominions of France, including all the 
 countries then incorporated with it by the conqLUests 
 of Napoleon. 
 
 Em,porium, in a general sense, signifies a citj'^ or 
 a place where extensive commercial transactions are 
 carried on ; but it is more particularly applied to the 
 commercial centre of a country, or the place to which 
 buyers and sellers, from various coimtries, resort. 
 
 Bmpyreuma (Gr. efinvpevQ, I kindle'). A burned 
 odor ; hence, the oils obtained by distilling various 
 organic substances at high temperatures, are called 
 empyreumatic oils. 
 
 Enamel (Fr. emaU) a semi-transparent or opaque 
 vitrified substance, of the nature of glass, but differ- 
 ing from it by possessing a greater degree of fasibiUty 
 and opacity. The compound which serves as a basis 
 to most kinds of enamel is formed by the fusion of a 
 pure cr}^stal glass or frit, ground up with a fine calyx 
 of lead and tin, in certain proportions ; to which is 
 usually added white salt of tartar. The different 
 kinds of enamel are made by the addition of coloring 
 substances, and melting or incorporating the whole by 
 fusion. For white enamel, Neri {De Arte Vitriar.) di- 
 rects only manganese to be added to the matter which 
 constitutes the basis ; for azure, zaffer mixed with 
 calx of brass ; for green, calx of brass with scales 
 of iron, or with crocus martis ; for black, zaffer with 
 manganese or with crocus martis, or manganese with 
 tartar; for red, manganese, or calx of copper and 
 crude tartar; for purple, manganese with calx of 
 brass ; for j^ellow, tartar and manganese ; and for vio- 
 let-colored enamel, manganese with thrice-calcined 
 brass ; In making these enamels great nicety is requi- 
 site. Tlie general way of making the colored enamel 
 is this: Powder, sift, and grind all the colors verj' 
 nicely, and first mix them with one another, and then 
 witli the common matter of enamels ; next set them in 
 pots in a furnace, and when they are well mixed and 
 incorporated, cast them into water ; when dry, set 
 them in a furnace again to melt ; and when melted, 
 take a proof of the enamel. If too deep-colored, add 
 more of the common matter of enamels ; and if too 
 pale, add more of the colors. 
 
 Enameling, the art of laying enamel upon metals, 
 as gold, silver, copper, etc. Enamel ornaments for 
 trinkets, in almost endless variety, may be produced 
 by the aid of the blowpipe. The enamel is usually 
 first drawn out into threads, or reduced to thin 1am- 
 inse, to facilitate the process of fusion ; and by the 
 same means the enamel may be laid upon metals. 
 Very elegant ornamental work may be thus produced. 
 Enameling also signifies to paint in enamel. 
 
 Enamel Painting is performed on plates of gold or 
 of copper, but seldom on silver, as this metal is apt to 
 occasion imperfections in the surface of the enamel. 
 Copper is the metal most generally used for this pur- 
 
ENG 
 
 601 
 
 ENG 
 
 pose, enameled with the white enamel, on which paint- 
 ing ia executed with colors which are melted in the 
 fire, where they take a brightness and luster like that 
 of glass. This kind of painting is particularly prized 
 for its peculiar brightness and vivacity, which is per- 
 manent, the force of its colors not being liable to: be 
 effaced or sullied with time, as in other painting, and 
 continuing always as fresh as when it came out of the 
 workman's hands. This method of painting is almost 
 entirely confined to miniature ; larger works being 
 liable to certain accidents in the operation. The most 
 perfect Idnd of enameling is practiced on plates of 
 gold, the other metals being less pure. Copper, for 
 instance, sometimes scales with the application ; and 
 silver turns the yellow white. To obviate the crack- 
 ing of the enamel, the plates are generally made a lit- 
 tle round or oval and rather thin. The operation is 
 usually commenced by laying on a couch of white 
 enamel on both sides of the plate) which prevents' the 
 metal from swelling- and blistering; and this first layer 
 serves for the ground of all the otherioolors. The next 
 step is to draw out exactly the subject to be painted 
 with red vitriol, mixed with oil of spike, marking aU 
 parts of the design very lightly with a pencil. After 
 this, the colors (very finely ground, and mixed with 
 oil of spike somewhat tliick), are to be laid on, atten- 
 tion being given to the mixtures and colors which agree 
 to the different parts of the subject ; for which pur- 
 pose it ia necessary to understand painting in minia^ 
 tui'e. When the colors are all laid, the painting is to be 
 gently dried over a slow fire to evaporate the oil, and 
 the colors are afterward melted to incorporate them 
 with the enamel,,making the plate red-hotin a flre such 
 as enamelers use. i 
 
 Xincliasiug, or Chasing, the art of embossing or 
 makings figm-es in low relief upon^ gold, silver, and 
 other metals. It is practiced only, on hollow thin 
 works, such as watch-cases, tankards, cups, etc. The 
 design having been traced on the exterior surface of 
 the metal, the work ia hammered upon steel blocks or 
 punchepns introduced within ; and thus the workman 
 proceeds to indent the metal by the successive appli- 
 cation of the block and hammer to the several parts 
 of the design ; after which the work is cleared with 
 small chisels and gravers. In this simple manner a 
 skillful artist is able to represent foliages, figures, etc., 
 with admirable precision. 
 
 Siicyclop0@dia (ev, in, kvkXoc, <i circle, TTatdeia, 
 instruction), a term nearly synonymous with CrcLOPiE- 
 DIA, but sometimes adopted in preference to it, as 
 being etymologically more definite and complete. For, 
 as it has been justly remarked — Cyclopmia may denote 
 •* the instruction of a, circle," as Ct/ropaidia is " the in- 
 struction of Cyrus ;" whereas in ETSci/chpeedia, the 
 preposition determines the meaning to be " instruction 
 in a circle." Vossius, in his book Be Vitiis Sermbnis, 
 observes, "that Cydopcedia is used by some authors, 
 but Encyclopedia by the best." See Cyclopaedia. 
 
 England, the southern, and bj'far the most fertile 
 division of Britain, corresponds in latitude with Hol- 
 land and the north of Germany, extending from 50° 
 to 55° 45' N. Its figure is nearly triangular, and its 
 extent of coast is very great, both from being much 
 indented, and from the sea bounding it on all sides ex- 
 cept along a width of 70 miles on the Scottish border. 
 Tlie adjacent seas are the German Ocean on the east, 
 St. George's Channel on the west, and the English 
 Channel on the south. No country can be more for- 
 tunatelj' situated ; its climate is temperate ; its extent 
 is sufficient for its political security ; while its insular 
 position not only presents the greatest capabilities of 
 aggrandizement in a commercial sense, but has, bj' ren- 
 dering a great military force unnecessary, in all prob- 
 ability been the chief cause of preventing the execu- 
 tive branch from usurping absolute power, as in the 
 countries of the Continent, 
 
 Its superficial extent had long been a question of 
 
 considerable doubt, and the different estimates varied 
 no less than 10,000,000 of acres. Mr, Pitt, on the 
 authority of Arthur Young, assumed, in 1708, the 
 super&cial extent of England and Wales to be nearly 
 47,000,000 of acres ; a later calculation by Dr. Beeke, 
 approaching more to accuracy than any preceding one, 
 fixed it ati 38,500,000 acres. But according to the 
 census of 1851, the area of the great territorial subdi- 
 visions of Great Britian is as follows, viz, : England, 
 50,922 square miles; Scotland, 31,324; Wales, 7398; 
 and tlie Islands in the British Seas, 394 square miles ; 
 making the area of England and Wales 58,320 square 
 nnlea, or 87,324,915 imperial acres. The forms of the 
 islands are irregular, and do not approach simple 
 geometrical figures, if we except England, which was 
 not inaptly compared by the ancients to a triangle. 
 The area of Great Britain is equal to a square of 299 
 miles to the side ; England to a square of 226 miles to 
 the> side,; Scotland to a square of 177 miles, to, the 
 side:; Wales to a square of 86 miles to the side ; the 
 Islands in the British Seas to a square of 20 miles to 
 the side. While the area is in the ratio of these 
 squares, or as 51, 31, 7, and 4H0, the population is 
 nearly as 17, 3, 1, and 1-7 ; England has, on an aver- 
 age, to a square mile 322 persons, Wales 136, Scotland 
 only 92, the Islands in the British Seas 363 persons. 
 While about 21,200,000 acres of territory lie north, 
 and 36,400,000 acres south of 55° of north lati- 
 tude ; the populations on the north and south side of 
 the line are respectively about 3,173,000 and 17,787,000. 
 
 Harbors. — Portsmouth, Milford Haven, and Ply- 
 mouth, are the finest harbors in England, and are sur- 
 passed by few, if any, in the world. Of these, Ports- 
 mouth is entitled to the pre-eminence. This noble 
 harbor is about as wide at its mouth as the Tharo.Gs is 
 at Westminster Bridge, expanding, within into a capa- 
 cious basin, almost sufficient to contain the whole navy 
 of Great Britain. Its entrance is unobstructed bj' 
 any bar or shallow ; and it has throughout water ade- 
 quate to float the largest man-of-war at the lowest 
 tides. The anchorage-ground is excellent, and it is 
 entirely free from sunlj:en roclie, sand-banks, or any 
 similar obstructions. The western side of the harbor 
 is formed by the island'Of Portsea ; and on its south- 
 western extremity, at the entrance to the harbor, is 
 situated the town of Portsmouth, and. its large and 
 important suburb of Portsea. Here are docks and 
 other establishments for the building, repair, and out- 
 fit of ships , of war, constructed upon a very large 
 scale, and furnished with every convenience. II. 
 Portsmouth harbor has the additional and important 
 advantage of opening into the celebrated road of Spit- 
 head, lying between the Hampshire coast and the Isle 
 of Wight, and forming a safe and convenient retreat 
 for the largest fleets. III. Milford Haven deeply 
 indents the southern part of Pembrokesliire, It is oi 
 great extent, and has within it many bays, creeks, auJ 
 roads. The water is deep, and the anchorage-ground 
 excellent ; and being completely land-locked, ships lie 
 as safely in it as if they were in dock. . IV. Ply* 
 mouth, which, after Portsmouth, is the principal naval 
 d6pdt of England, has an admirable double harbor. 
 The roadstead in Plj'mouth Sound has been much im- 
 proved by the construction, at a vast expense, of a 
 stupendous breakwater more than 1,700 yards in length. 
 This bulwark protects the ships lying inside from the 
 effects of the heavy swell thrown into the Sound by 
 southerlj' and south-easterlj' winds, 
 
 London stands at the head of the river ports of 
 Great Britain. Considering the limited course of the 
 Thames, there is probably no river that is navigable 
 for large ships to so great a distance from the sea, 
 or whose mouth is less obstructed by banks. Lon- 
 don is mainly indebted for the unrivaled magnitude of 
 her commerce to her favorable situation on this noble 
 river ; which not only gives her aU the advantages of 
 an excellent port, accessible at all times to the largest 
 
ENG 
 
 602 
 
 ENG 
 
 ships, but renders her the emporium of the extensive, 
 rich, and populous country comprised in the basin of 
 the Thames. The port of London extends from Lon- 
 don Bridge to a little below Blackwall, and is divided 
 into the Pool, Limehouse Reach, Greenwich Reach, 
 Blackwall Reach, and Bugsby's Reach. The coast- 
 ing trade of London is greater than that of any 
 port in the world, and gives it superiority over 
 Liverpool. 
 
 Liverpool, the principal seaport of England, lat. 53° 
 25' N., long. 2° 69' W., is situated on the eastern 
 bank of the Mersey river, while on the west side are 
 the docks, warehouses, and other commercial build- 
 ings. The area of the wet docks is about 185 acres, 
 and of the dry docks 20 acres. The entrance of the 
 Mersey is impeded by shoals, but at high water may 
 be entered by the largest ships. The docks are the 
 finest in the world, and in connection with its situa- 
 tion and inland communication, give it the position it 
 holds, of the first port in England, and having, next 
 to New York, the largest commercial marine. The 
 Mersey, now the second commercial river in the em- 
 pire, is more incommoded with banks than the Thames, 
 and is in all respects inferior, as a channel of naviga- 
 tion, to the latter. Still, however, it gives to Liver- 
 pool very great advantages ; and the new channel 
 which has recently been discovered in the banks prom- 
 ises to be of much importance in facilitating the access 
 to and from the port. 
 
 Bristol and Hull are both river ports. Owing to 
 the extraordinary rise in the Bristol channel, the for- 
 mer is accessible even to the largest ships. The Hum- 
 ber is a good deal impeded by banks ; but it also is 
 navigable as far as Hull by very large vessels. The 
 Tyne admits vessels of very considerable burden as 
 far as Newcastle, which is one of the most important 
 shipping ports in the empire. 
 
 Statistics, — The total length of railways in England 
 and Wales open for traffic at 31st December, 1853, was 
 5,811 miles. The number of passengers conveyed in 
 that year was 84,222,961, of whom considerably more 
 than one half were first and second class passengers. 
 The receipts from the goods traffic somewhat exceed 
 those from the passenger traffic. The length of lines 
 in course of construction at 30th June, 1853, was 491, 
 while the length authorized was 2,969 miles, nearly 
 2,500 miles being neither open nor in course of con- 
 struction. The total amount of capital and loans au- 
 thorized to be raised by railway companies in the 
 United Kingdom previous to 3ist December, 1852 
 (after deducting amounts proposed for lines subse- 
 quently abandoned), was £356,610,456, of which 
 X264,165,680 had been raised : the amount raised in 
 1852 was £16,398,993. The number of passengers that 
 traveled by railway in the half year ended 30th June, 
 1854, was 45,080,316 ; the amount of receipts from 
 passengers was £4,092,661 ; from horses, carriages, 
 luggage, and mails, £505,116 ; from general merchan- 
 dise, cattle, minerals, etc., £4,826,825 ; total for six 
 months, £9,424,602. See Railroads. 
 
 Electric Telegraph. — Connected with the railways is 
 the electric telegraph, which is now stretched along 
 thousands of miles across the length and breadth of the 
 land, or sunk in the depths of the ocean, conveying 
 intelligence between distant points with the rapid- 
 ity of lightning. In 1846, an association under the 
 title of the Electric Telegraph Company, obtained an 
 act of incorporation, and having bought up the various 
 patents for electric telegraphs, they secured the exclu- 
 sive right of sending intelligence through the kingdom 
 by this means. Since then they have been extending 
 their operations in all directions ; but great as are the 
 advantages conferred on the country by this inven- 
 tion, there is reason to expect that they will be vastly 
 increased and extended, as the instrument is capable 
 of still greater improvements ; and when the charges 
 for the conveyance of intelligence are reduced to their 
 
 proper level, the electric telegraph will be much more 
 generally iised. 
 
 Canals. — The canals of England are extremely nu- 
 merous ; in fact no country except Holland can enter 
 into competition with her in this respect. The En- 
 glish canals are of moderate size, being from 25 to 30, 
 35, and 40 feet in width, and, in general, from 5 to 6 
 feet in depth ; the barges navigating them are very 
 long, frequently 70 or 80 feet, on a width of 10, 12, or 
 14 feet ; but in many cases their dimensions, at least 
 their width, are necessarily smaller, the less frequented 
 canals being narrower than those we have mentioned. 
 Could the application of steam to navigation have been 
 foreseen, the canals of England would probably have 
 been made wider. For full details with respect to the 
 canals of England, and the recent improvements in 
 their construction, and in traveling by them, the 
 reader is referred to the article Canals. 
 
 Bridges. ~-Th.Q principal bridges in the kingdom are 
 the railway bridges across the Tweed and the Tyne, 
 and the seven erected across the Thames at London, 
 four of which have been opened since 1817. Of these, 
 two, the Southwark and Vauxhall, are of cast-iron, 
 the one being of three very large arches, and the other 
 of nine arches, each of 78 feet span. The first exam- 
 ple of an iron bridge on a large scale, either in En- 
 gland or any other country, was that erected in 1796, 
 at Wearmouth in Durham, the span of which was 240 
 feet. The chain bridge over the Menai Straits, and the 
 tubular bridge over the same place, are wonderful 
 examples of engineering skill. See article Bridges, 
 etc. 
 
 The principal crops cultivated in England and Wales 
 are wheat, oats and beans, barley and rj'c, turnips and 
 potatoes, with clover, hops, flax, etc. It is to be 
 regretted that no estimate, derived from authentic 
 returns, has been formed on which much reliance can 
 be placed, either of the extent of land under different 
 crops, or of the average product per acre. Mr. Caird, 
 in his work on English Agriculture^ p. 522, gives the 
 following estimate as the result of his survey of En- 
 gland in 1850-51 of the extent of land under the dif- 
 ferent species of crops, and in fallow, in England : 
 
 Acres. 
 
 "Wheat 3,416,750 
 
 Barley and rye 1,416,750 
 
 Oats and rye 2,000,000 
 
 Beans and peas 1,139,000 
 
 Clover 2,277,750 
 
 Hoots (turnips, mangold, potatoes, etc.).. 2,116,750 
 
 Hops, gardens of all sorts, etc 150,000 
 
 Fnllow and rape 1,300,000 
 
 13,817,000 
 
 Mines — Quarries — Iron^ Copper^ Tin^ and Salt Works, 
 — In regard to minerals, England does not yield to any 
 country in Europe in natural abundance, and takes the 
 lead of all in the extent to which these rude treasures 
 have been converted to purposes of utility. En- 
 gland's great superiority lies in her coal mines, which 
 are not only more productive, but more advan- 
 tageously situated, than those of the Continent. To 
 the mines along the coast a ready conveyance is 
 aff'orded by her insular position, and to those in the 
 interior by her inland navigation. The consumption 
 of coal in England for domestic use has been estimated 
 at 20,000,000 tons annually. Large as this quantity 
 is, and larger as it must be when we add to it the vast 
 consumption of manufactories, such as iron-works, cop- 
 per-works, salt-works, glass-houses, and the like, there 
 is no reason to apprehend the exhaustion of this precious 
 mineral ; the depth of the coal-beds being very great, 
 and the extent of ground containing them amounting 
 to many hundred thousand acres. The principal coal- 
 beds lie in Northumberland, Durham, Derbyshire, 
 Staffordshire, and Glamorganshire. The ports for 
 shipping coal in large quantities are Newcastle, Sun- 
 derland, and Hartlepool. The motive of the tax on 
 coal exported to foreign countries was thus neither an 
 
ENG 
 
 603 
 
 ENG 
 
 apprehension of eventual scarcity, nor even a calcula- 
 tion of revenue, so mucli as a. dread of giving lier 
 Continental neiglibors tlie means of rivaling her man- 
 ufactures. Coal is not wanting in France and Ger- 
 many, but the mines are at a distance from water- 
 carriage, and as yet very imperfectly wrought ; while 
 for the purpose of domestic fuel the inhabitants give 
 a preference to wood. After various changes, the ex- 
 port duty on coal was totally abolished in 1850. 
 
 According to the census of 1851 the total number of 
 persons engaged in the coal trade is 239,469. 
 
 In 1853 the exports of coal to foreign countries, ac- 
 cording to the real or declared value, amounted to 
 £1,602,762. See article Coal. 
 
 In quaiTies, whether of stone or slate, England is 
 not rich, particularly the eastern half of the Itingdom ; 
 and hence the almost universal use of brick in ordi- 
 nary buildings. It is not till the traveler reaches 
 Durham that he finds stone commonly used. In the 
 northern counties quarries occur frequently ; in the 
 southern, those of Portland and Bath are the most 
 considerable. Still the annual profits of the whole 
 are small. 
 
 No branch of industry has increased more rap- 
 idly in the present age than iron-works. A cen- 
 tury ago it was computed that England required an 
 annual importation of 20,000 tons of foreign iron ; an 
 importation, which, for many years seems to have 
 been on the increase, so as, after the middle of last 
 century, to carry the quantity required to 80,000, 40,- 
 000, and even to 50,000 tons. This supply was brought 
 from Sweden and Russia, and, though burdened with 
 duty, it was in quantity more than double the native 
 produce. But fortunately, after the year 1780, dis- 
 coveries were made which increased greatly the supply 
 at home. Bar iron had been manufactured in England 
 as on the Continent, with charcoal fuel only, coal be- 
 ing deemed inapplicable to that purpose. Under that 
 impression, the rapid consumption of the wood in the 
 neighborhood of the different iron-works had necessi- 
 tated a removal, at a great expense, of materials from 
 one spot to another, and was on tile point of causing 
 an alarming decay in the business, when the iron- 
 masters, after long perseverence, succeeded in apply- 
 ing coal to their manufacture. They had to contend 
 with various prejudices, particularly the supposed in- 
 feriority of iron so made ; but, in the course of years, 
 the manufacture acquired such an extent that there 
 were, in 1805, 220 blast-furnaces, making 250,000 tons 
 of pig iron. 
 
 The transition from war to peace did a good deal of 
 injur)' to some branches of the iron trade ; but the 
 effect of the change was not of long duration, and the 
 production of iron in England has since been astonish- 
 ingly increased. In 1820 the produce was calculated 
 at 400,000 tons. The excitement and speculation of 
 1824 and 1825 had a wonderful influence on this de- 
 partment. According to careful inquiries made at the 
 time, the furnaces at work in England and Wales in 
 1827, with their produce, were as under : 
 
 Furnaces Tons. 
 
 Staffordshire 95 216,000 
 
 Shropshire 81 78,000 
 
 South Wales 90 272,000 
 
 North Wales 12 24,000 
 
 Yorkshire 24 48,000 
 
 Derbyshire 14 20,500 
 
 Total 266 658,600 
 
 Owing to the failure of various railroad and other 
 projects set on foot in 1825 and 1826, the supply of iron 
 seems to have greatly exceeded the demand ; and there 
 was a verj' heavy fall of prices in 1828, 1829, and 
 1830, and again in 1850 and 1851. But within the 
 last two years prices have again risen ; and the iron 
 trade is, at this moment, in a state of great activity. 
 The produce of the various furnaces of England and 
 "Wales, may be estimated at nearly 2,000,000 tons. 
 
 Ao'COITNT OIF THE NUMDER OF FcTKNAOES AND OF TUl! 
 QCTAHTITIES OF IkON PKODITOED IN GeBAT BbITAIN IN 
 
 1825 AND 1848. 
 
 
 18S6. 1 1848. 1 
 
 Total 
 Fumflces. 
 
 . Produce of 
 Iron. 
 
 Total 
 FurnncoB. 
 
 Proilnce of 
 Iron. 
 
 South Wales.... 
 North Wales.... 
 Northumberland 
 
 Yorkshire 
 
 Derbyshire 
 
 Staffordshire 
 
 Shropshire 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Totals 
 
 107 
 14 
 
 84 
 19 
 107 
 
 43 
 26 
 
 Tons. 
 280,412 
 
 17,756 
 
 '39,164 
 
 22,672 
 
 182,156 
 
 89,596 
 
 88,540 
 
 196 
 11 
 86 
 28 
 80 
 
 158 
 34 
 
 180 
 
 Tons. 
 706,630 
 
 16,120 
 100,000 
 
 66,560 
 
 96,000 
 835,840 
 
 86,000 
 550,000 
 
 854 
 
 615,286 
 
 628 
 
 2,008,200 1 
 
 The quantity of iron of all kinds manufactured and 
 unmanufactured, exported in 1852, amounted to 1,035,- 
 884 tons, besides 25,289 tons of cutlery of the declared 
 value of £2,691,697. Now that the railways are nearly 
 completed, it might have been expected that this would 
 have caused a stagnation in its manufacture ; hut iron 
 is now so extensively used in the construction of 
 steam-vessels, that the demand has been maintained. 
 For more ample details, the reader is referred to the 
 article Irok. 
 
 Copper-mines have long been known in England, 
 but they were wrought with very little skill or effect 
 until toward the year 1700. Even at that time the 
 annual produce, after smelting the metal from the ore, 
 was only a few hundred tons of copper ; and it hardly 
 exceeded 1000 tons annually, down to the middle of 
 last century. From that time forward, the increase 
 became considerable, as well in Cornwall as in Devon, 
 North Wales, and Derbyshire ; in all of which, cop- 
 per-mines were discovered and wrought. In North 
 Wales, there were two mines, Parys and Mona, which, 
 for some time after the year 1780, yielded annuallj- a 
 large quantity of ore, but they are no longer so pro- 
 ductive ; the mines of Devon and Derbyshire continue 
 to be wrought, but the great product is from Corn- 
 wall ; the mines of Cornwall and Devon in 1853 
 yielded 181,969 tons of copper ore, the metal obtained 
 from which, at the rate of 6J per 100, produced 11,823 
 tons of standard copper, which, at the average rate of 
 £140 per ton, amounted to £1,655,220. It, is the 
 Welsh collieries which afford to Cornwall, as to De- 
 vonshire, the means of smelting ; and as the ore is less 
 heavy than the coal required for this operation (1 ton 
 of ore requiring from 2 to 2J tons of coal), the prac- 
 tice is to convey the ore in vast quantities to Wales, 
 particularly to Swansea. In this, as in other minerals, 
 France is greatly behind England. She has various 
 copper-mines, but her coal-mines, at least those hith- 
 erto wrought, are at too great a distance to make such 
 undertakings profitable ; and she consequently re- 
 quires an annual importation from England. 
 
 In 1854 there were exported of brass and copper 
 manufactures 1,851,689 cwt., of the value of £1,761,- 
 878. 
 
 Cornwall is also the great seat of the tin-mines of 
 England. A century ago, the average produce of the 
 tin-mines hardly exceeded 1500 tons ; it may now be 
 estimated at 5000 tons a-year. From abroad England 
 receives tin principally from her Indian possessions, 
 Holland, and the United States. Of this, was im- 
 ported in 1853, 49,740 cwt. The value of tin un- 
 wrought, and in plates, exported in 1854, was £1,- 
 307,246. 
 
 The lead-mines of England are principally in Cum- 
 berland, Northumberland, Derbyshire, Flintshire, and 
 Salop. In 1852 England and Wales produced 80,790 
 tons of lead ore, and 57,621 tons of lead. Black lead 
 is found in Cumberland, in the romantic district of 
 Borrowdale. The mine was formerly opened only pe- 
 riodically, in order that the market might not be over- 
 stocked, but for a considerable number of years past, 
 it has been constantly open. 
 
 There is no country better supplied than England, 
 
ENG 
 
 604 
 
 ENG 
 
 T)ofh with brine-springs and beds of fossil, or rock- 
 salt. The brine-springs are found in Cheshire, in the 
 southern part of the county, in places contiguous to 
 ■the river Weaver, and at Droitwich, in Worcester- 
 shire. The beds of rock-salt; which are of great thick- 
 ness, were discovered in the vicinity of Northwich and 
 Lawton. The greater part of the salt produced is ob- 
 tained from the brine-springs. Formerly considerable 
 quantities were produced by the evaporation of sea- 
 water, but since the abolition of the duties most of the 
 works appropriated to this manufacture have been 
 abandoned. From the brine-springs it is obtained at 
 the rate of one gallon of solid salt from four gallons of 
 liquid, while common sea-water does not yield above 
 one in twenty-eight. The consumption of salt is im- 
 mense. Necker estimated its consumption in those 
 provinces of France which had puschased an exemp- 
 tion from the gabelle {^pa/ys francs redimees) at about 
 19J lbs. (Eng.) for each individual. — Administration 
 des Finances, tome ii., p. 12. From all that wo have 
 been able to learn on the subject, we believe that the 
 consumption of the people of Great Britain may be 
 estimated a little higher, or at 22 lbs. ; the difference 
 in food and habits, as compared with those of the 
 French, fuUy accounting for this increased allowance. 
 On this Supposition, and taking the population of 
 Great Britain at 21,000,000, the entire consumption 
 will amount to 462,000,000 lbs., or 206,250 tons. 
 
 Exclusive of this immense home-consumption, Eng- 
 land annually exports about 18,000,000 bushels, which, 
 at 56 lbs. a bushel, are equivalent to 357,143 tons. The 
 Americans are the largest consumers of British salt. 
 
 The cheapness of this important necessary of life is 
 not less remarkable than its diffusion. Its present, 
 cost may be estimated, at a medium, at from 14s. to 
 16s. a ton. 
 
 Salt has been at all times a favorite subject of taxa- 
 tion. It was first taxed m the reign of William III. 
 In 1798 the duties amounted to 5s. a bushel, but they 
 were subsequently increased to 15s. a bushel, or about 
 forty times the cost of the salt. So exorbitant a duty 
 was productive of the worst effects, and, in particular, 
 occasioned a great deal of smuggling. The duty hav- 
 ing, in consequence, become exceedingly unpopular, 
 was finally repealed in 1828. 
 
 Fisheries. — At present our space allows no more 
 than a brief notice of the principal branches of the 
 fisheries. 
 
 The mackerel fishery is caraied on with great vigor 
 on the coast of Kent and Sussex, in May, June, and 
 July. Large as the supply is, it would still admit of 
 augmentation ; and herrings also might be caught in 
 vast quantities on the coast of Kent in October and 
 November. The desideratum with the fishermen is 
 not so much a high price as a certain marlcet ; and the 
 most effectual way to procui-e that is, to quicken, by 
 every possible means, the conveyance to London, 
 which has been accomplished by the emploj^ment of 
 steamboats and railways. 
 
 The pilchard fisherj^ takes place chiefly on the coast 
 of Devonshire and Cornwall, and, though subject to 
 great fluctuations, as well from the seasons as from 
 England's political situation relative to the continent, 
 forms on the whole an important branch, employing a 
 number of seamen both in catcliing the fish and in car- 
 rying it to foreign markets. Its season is generally 
 from June to September. 
 
 The herring, the most important of all the fisheries, 
 is happily now in a state of rapid extension. It 
 formed, during the 17th century, the great employ- 
 ment of the Dutch seamen, and was contemplated by 
 their neighbors with very jealous eyes. Accordingly, 
 in the reign of Charles II., particularly after the rup- 
 ture with Holland in 1672, several acts were passed for 
 the encouragement of the fishermen, and in a spirit of 
 hostility to the Dutch. The subsequent accession of 
 William to the throne, and the long friendship between 
 
 the two countries, relaxed the exertions of the gov 
 ernment j and it was not tUl after the peace of 1748, 
 that a large bountj- was given on the tonnage of the 
 busses, or masted vessels, so employed. Still English 
 fishermen were unable to compete with the experience 
 and patient perseverance of the Dutch, and it was 
 found necessary to raise the bounty from 30s. to 50s. 
 per ton. This had the desired effect, and the number 
 of busses increased ; but the additional 20s. being 
 withdrawn in 1771, the fishery again declined. The 
 American war, and, subsequently, the wars of the 
 French revolution, proved extremely adverse to its ex- 
 tension. At last, in 1808, an act was passed caiTying 
 the bounty to £3 a ton on the busses, witli a further 
 grant of 2s. per barrel on all herrings caught, whether 
 in busses or boats. This act was further confirmed in 
 1815, and the bounty per barrel raised to 4s., with the 
 qualification that the herrings should be gutted before 
 curing. 
 
 In consequence of the encouragement thus afforded, 
 the fishery was materially extended ; but this was 
 effected at a great expense, and had, besides, several 
 bad consequences. The bounties given by govern- 
 ment tempted persons without capital or skill to enter 
 into the business, to the great injury of the regular 
 fishermen ;, so that notwithstanding the extension of 
 the business, it was found, as is invariably the case 
 with all departments carried on by means of a bounty, 
 to be in a very unhealthy state. In consequence 
 partly of the circumstances now stated, and partly in 
 consideration of the real and substantial relief given to 
 the fishery by the abolition of the duties on salt, it was 
 resolved gradually to withdraw the bounty, which 
 totally ceased in 1830. And it may be stated, that 
 though the fishery fell off while the bountj^ was in the 
 course of being withdrawn, it has since been materially 
 increased, and is now in a better situation than at any 
 former period. From the year 1811 to 1830, the year 
 when the bounty ceased, the greatest number of bar- 
 rels cured in Great Britain was 442,195 ; and in the 
 3'ear ending December, 1853, they amounted to 778,- 
 039, the largest number cured in any previous year. 
 The quantities cured in each year vary considerably, 
 according to the abundance of the shoals that appear 
 upon the coasts in different seasons ; but since 1838, 
 the annual quantity cured has never fallen below 
 500,000 barrels, while for the 25 previous years they 
 would scarcely average 300,000. In 1851 there were 
 exported 239,330 barrels, of the declared value of 
 ^228,835. 
 
 The cod fishery is next in importance to that of the 
 herring. It is carried on in a great variety of places 
 contiguous to the British shores. The finest fish is 
 caught round the edges of the Dogger Bank, but 
 within these few years London has been principally 
 supplied with cod taken between Yarmouth and the 
 Nore. The fisheries in the neighborhood of the Shet- 
 land and Orkney Islands, are productive and valuable, 
 but the great bank of Newfoundland is the principal 
 station of the distant cod fishery. About 2,000 men 
 are employed in the sole fisher}^. 
 
 Salmon are rarely caught except in estuaries or riv- 
 ers, which in most instances are private property. It 
 is found in most English rivers, but in such small 
 quantities as to make the fishing an object of little 
 consequence. 
 
 England is chiefly supplied from the fisheries in the 
 Scotch and Irish rivers, but from some cause or other 
 there is a growing scarcity in tliis fish, probably from 
 the weirs or salmon-traps placed in the rivers and 
 estuaries in the way of the fish when ascending the 
 rivers to spawn. 
 
 Greenland ivas first discovered by the English ; biit 
 in this, as in other branches of navigation she long 
 allowed the Dutch to take a lead. It was not tUl 
 after 1760 that, the government having granted a 
 bounty of 40s. a ton on every vessel employed in the 
 
ENG 
 
 605 
 
 ENG 
 
 whale fishery, a considerable increase took place in 
 this branch. 
 
 In 1750, the vessels employed were only 19 ; in 
 1766, they had increased to 67. The war soon caused 
 a decrease of one half ; but ■ at the return of peace in 
 1763 this fishery revived, and in 1770 the vessels em- 
 ployed amounted to 50 ; in 1773, to 55 j in 1775, to 
 96. The American war again caused a decrease, and 
 in 1782 the vessels so' employed were only 38. In 
 1784 they increased to 89, and in 1785 to 140. After 
 this, they exceeded 200 annually till 1793 ; but the 
 long continuance of the late wars reduced them below 
 half the number employed previously. In 1852, the 
 whale fishery employed ships, of the aggregate burden 
 of 16,113 tons. ■ . 
 
 The Newfoundland fishery has been considerable 
 for fully a Century past. As a nursery for seamen, it 
 is accounted of such consequence as to have formed 
 the object of a specific article in most of the treaties 
 of peace. The fish caught, particularly in time of 
 peace, is sent less to Britain than to the Catholic 
 countries in the south of Europe j a marlcet subject to 
 all the interruptions attendant on a change of political 
 relations.- The number' of vessels employed in this 
 fishery at different times was as follows : 
 
 In 1781 70 
 
 1764 140 
 
 17T4 254 
 
 The American war caused a diminution'; but 
 
 In 1784 the number was '.. 286 • 
 
 1785 , " " 292 
 
 At this rate the fishery continued until the war of 
 1793, after which, particularly after the rupture with 
 Spain in 1797, it fell off greatly; the fishing-vessels in 
 1798 being only 140. 
 
 The continuance of war, and the aggrandizement of 
 the French in Italy, occasioned additional depression ; 
 so that in 1810 the number of English vessels em- 
 pleyed at Newfoundland did not exceed 92. The 
 peace seemed to promise a revival of this important 
 nursery of seamen ; and in the year 1816 the number 
 of vessels which arrived in Newfoundland was 795, 
 manned by 6,000 seamen ; but the trade, both then and 
 in 1817 and 1818, proved unprofitable, in consequence 
 of indifferent seasons, of the high dutj'- imposed on 
 fish imported in British vessels into Naples, and of the 
 competition of the French fishermen, supported by a 
 high bounty from theirgo'vemmeht. ' The total value 
 of fish exported from the British colonies in North 
 America in 1851, was £827,738. 
 
 It is a matter of surprise to foreigners that a mari- 
 time nation should not have more effectuall}' cultivated 
 this great means of facilitating the support of the peo- 
 ple. The ample supply which might have been 
 afforded by the Nymph Bank, on the south-east coast 
 of Ireland, has been avowedly neglected ; and it was 
 only in 1818 that the discovery of a bank of almost equal 
 prSductiveness in the vicinity of Orkney, was made. 
 
 Fish is little known to the mass of the people in the 
 inland counties, though the facilities of transport 
 afforded by the railwaj-s is gradually distributing it in 
 larger quantities. London has always been amply 
 supplied. Mr. Mayhew, in his pamphlet on " London 
 Labor and the London Poor," estimates the weight of 
 fish annually consumed in London at above 450,000,- 
 000 pounds, besides an enormous quantity of shell- 
 fish. Calculating the fish of all kinds' at 3d. per lb. 
 on an average, the amount would exceed £5,000,000 
 sterling. See the article Fisheries. 
 
 Manufactures. — In this great department of English 
 productive industry, we begin with woolens, which, 
 although no longer the largest of these manufactures in 
 point of exportation, nor even in the value annually 
 made, is entitled to the first place from the priority of 
 its establishment, as well as from the substantial basis 
 on which it rests. England, from the extent of her 
 pastures, aboimded in wool from a very remote age, 
 
 and the inhabitants were doubtless capable of manu- 
 facturing it into rude clothing ; each weaver working 
 in his separate cottage, and with very little aid from 
 machinery. In the 12th and 13th centuries she ap- 
 pears to have had only the most humble fabrics, and 
 to have imported all doth of finer texture ; sending 
 abroad her wool in quantities to Flanders, a country 
 the inhabitants of which were at that period much 
 further advanced than the rest of Europe, with the 
 exception of Italy. It was in the middle of the 14th 
 century that a better system- was introduced. Flem- 
 ish manufacturers were invited over to England, and 
 improved greatly the quality of her home-made wool- 
 ens. The seats of this branch of industry appear at 
 that time to have been Kent and Essex ; afterward 
 Gloucestershire, and subsequently the West Biding of 
 Yorkshire. It occupied at first the southern and more 
 improved districts, and spread afterward to the north- 
 ward, on account of the cheapness of labor, the abund- 
 ance of coal, and the convenience of water-falls for 
 the machinery. The general. character of the woolen 
 manufacture of England has been that of slow progress, 
 but of little fiuctuation ; the latter evidently a conse- 
 quence of its depending more on home-consumption 
 than on exportation. In the long period from 1700 to 
 1780, the exports experienced a regular, but not rapid 
 rise, amounting in t&eilatter years to about £3,500,000, 
 while the home-consumption increased in proportion to 
 her augmenting numbers. More recently the manu- 
 facture has beeni materially improved by the adoption 
 of various important mechanical ' inventions in the 
 spinning, weaving, and dressing departments. On the 
 whole,/ however, improvement has been much less 
 rapid in it tlian in the cotton manufacture ; so that 
 while her exports of cotton stuffs and yam have in- 
 creased beyond all precedent, , those of woolens have 
 been comparatively stationary. 
 
 As we shall enter fullj', in the article Wooi-ex 
 Manupactdbb, into the details connected with its 
 history, progress, and present state, it would be use- 
 less, even If our; limits permitted, to anticipate these 
 here. "We shall only observe, therefore, that the en- 
 tire i value of the manufacture is estimated at about 
 £25,000,000. . According to the census of 1851, there 
 were employed in the various branches of the woolen 
 manufactures 176,131 males, and 118,642 females. 
 By far the largest proportion of the raw material of 
 the manufacture is the produce of her own flocks ; but 
 for many years past, she has imported large quantities. 
 Previously to 1800 the average imports did not ex- 
 ceed 3,000,000 lbs., mostly brought from Spain, the 
 wool of which long maintained a high character. In 
 1800 the .imports increased to 9,000,000 lbs. SLuce then 
 they have gone on increasing, till, in 1852, they 
 reached 93,761,458 lbs., of which 43,197,301 lbs. came 
 from her own dependencies in Australia. In 1831 the 
 exports of woolen manufactures amounted to £6,232,- 
 013. Since then they have annually increased, till, 
 in 1852, they reached £8,730,934. For an account of 
 the prices and qualities of wool, etc., the reader is re- 
 ferred to article "Wool. 
 
 The cotton manufacture of England is entitled to the 
 greatest attention on different accounts. Of all her 
 manufactures, it affords the largest export, and ex- 
 hibits the most rapid improvements in machinery. 
 Its introduction, though not remote, is less recent than 
 is commonly supposed. It appears to have taken 
 place early in the 17th century, when it was estab- 
 lished at Manchester ; but it was long conducted upon 
 a very limited scale. The raw material, imported at 
 first only from the Levant, in particular from Smyrna, 
 began, after 1660, to be supplied bj' her West India 
 colonies. The quantity imported amounted, about 
 the year 1700, to 3,500 bales ; but, increasing with the 
 extended cultivation of her colonies, it averaged, about 
 the year 1720, something more than 7,000 bales. From 
 the colonial conquests of the war of 1756 her import of 
 
ENG 
 
 606 
 
 ENG 
 
 cotton received farther augmentation ; but the manu- 
 facture increased very slowly, a great part of her cot- 
 ton being re-exported to Holland, for the supply of 
 Dutch and G«rman weavers. It was not till after the 
 peace of 1763, and the invention first of the carding 
 machine, and next of the spinning-jenny, that this 
 manufacture became considerably extended. In 1775, 
 the average import of cotton approached 18,000 bales. 
 A variety of inventions, unequaled in the histoiy of 
 manufacturing industry, were now made (see article on 
 the Cotton MANUFAOTnEB), which gave an astonish- 
 ing stimulus to the business. Fine calicoes and muslins 
 were introduced ; the workmen were withdrawn from 
 their detached dwellings, and collected into large fac- 
 tories ; and the price of the finished article experienced 
 a reduction, notwithstanding a rise in the raw material, 
 and in the wages of labor. The period which followed 
 the peace of 1783 is perhaps unexampled for the reduc- 
 tion of price, and the consequent extension of sale that 
 took place in regard to cotton goods. The commence- 
 ment of hostilities in 1793 gave a pretty severe shock 
 to the business ; but the improvements in machinery 
 continuing, the manufacture soon recovered, and has 
 gone on increasing, under many vicissitudes, with a 
 rapiditj' unparalleled by any other business, either in 
 that or any other country. Neither does there seem 
 to be any ground for fearing that this progress will be 
 speedily checked. On the contrary, her superiority 
 in the majority of what contributes to the advancement 
 of the manufacture is so very decided, that, provided 
 the public tranquillity be preserved unimpaired, she 
 need not fear from the competition of others. 
 
 The reader is referred to the article " Cotton Manu- 
 facture" in this work for an account of the rise and 
 progress of this great branch of national industry, and 
 for tabular statements, exhibiting the present magni- 
 tude and importance of the trade, the sources whence 
 the raw cotton is derived, and the foreign markets for 
 the raw material and manufactured articles. 
 
 Hardware.—We have already noticed the surprising 
 increase in the produce of the iron mines of England 
 since 1780. This increase of the raw material, joined 
 in some cases to the command of coal in the vicinity, 
 and in all to a facility of conveyance of coal and iron 
 b}' canals and railroads, has, in the last 50 years, given 
 a great extension to her hardware manufacture. In 
 no department has the subdivision of employment been 
 carried to so great a length; in none are its effects 
 in cheapening production so conspicuous. Birming- 
 ham and Sheifleld are the two great workshops for En- 
 glish hardware ; the latter is confined to iron and 
 steel, while in the former not only iron and steel, but 
 copper and brass, constitute the materials of labor. 
 Sheffield fabricates articles which are less for ornament 
 than utility, and which possess in general a certain 
 bulk, such as grates, spades, sickles, files, knives, fen- 
 ders, fire-irons ; while in Birmingham there is, in ad- 
 dition to articles of solidit}', a surprising variety of toys, 
 fancy goods, and petty manufactures ; each trifling, 
 when considered separately, but the whole forming an 
 aggregate of great value. The most insignificant of 
 these, such as a brass cock or a button shank, passes 
 through a number of hands, and each artizan performs 
 only a single operation. He thus acquires an extra- 
 ordinary' dexterity in his limited department, and in 
 the course of a day despatches several hundred, per- 
 haps even a thousand articles, through his particular 
 stage ; the result of all which is, that the price, when 
 sold in quantities, is incredibly low. Another and 
 very interesting feature in the situation of Birming- 
 ham, is the populousness of its neighborhood. Yet in 
 none of the large towns of England is living less ex- 
 pensive ; an advantage owing partly to the abund- 
 ance of coal, partly to the ready supply of milk and 
 vegetables from the wide space occupied by the popu- 
 lation. 
 
 Nails. — The nail trade is carried on, not in the 
 
 town of of Birmingham, but in a part of the surround- 
 ing district. It is computed, by the census of 1851, to 
 employ, in England and Wales, 16,965 males, and 
 9976 females, of whom 7625 are under 20 j'ears of age ; 
 for even this heavj' article admits of subdivision of 
 employment, which lightens the labor, and enables 
 the workman to avail himself of the aid of his family. 
 Of the two towns, Sheffield is by much the more 
 ancient ; the command of coal and iron in the same 
 neighborhood having rendered it, so far back as the 13th 
 or 14th century, a place for the fabrication of the home- 
 ly articles used in those days by our ancestors. It ia 
 about a century since its razors, knives, and files be- 
 gan to take a more delicate shape. Birmingham, how- 
 ever, embraced a wider range, and advanced with 
 much greater rapidity ; but Sheffield also has its adja- 
 cent district, inhabited by manufacturers, though to a 
 much less extent than the vicinity of Birmingham. 
 This district, called Hallamshire, extends six or seven 
 miles to the west of Sheffield. 
 
 Hardware is made in several other places, such 
 as Bilston, Wolverhampton, Dudley, and Walsall. 
 Each of these towns is situated in Staffordshire, 
 and, in point of manufacture, is small only in compar- 
 ison with Birmingham or Sheffield, Articles appa- 
 rently very trifling are manufactured to a surprising 
 extent in difi'erent places, such as pins at Gloucester, 
 needles at Ked-ditch in Worcestershire, watch-move- 
 ments and main-springs at Prescott in Lancashire. 
 The total value of articles of iron, steel, brass, and 
 copper, including the manufacture from its earliest 
 to its most finished stage, is necessarily fluctuating, 
 but may be computed at £30,000,000 annually ; two 
 thirds of which appear to be consumed at home, while 
 the other third is exported to two great markets — ^the 
 Continent of Europe and the United States of America. 
 The number of persons employed in the hardware 
 manufacture jn England in 1851 was about 465,000. 
 In the United States, iron and coal are found, where 
 laud and provisions are certainly much cheaper than 
 in Britain ; but the scattered state of American popu- 
 lation must, during several ages, oppose serious obsta- 
 cles to the division of employment necessary in all the 
 nicer branches of the hardware manufacture ; particu- 
 larly as the ease with which the Mississippi and Ohio 
 are navigated by steam opens even the Western States 
 to tlie importation of British goods. Upon the whole, 
 therefore, we look on English hardware manufactures as 
 resting on a solid basis, because in them are combined 
 several advantages : — the raw material, the command 
 of cheap fuel, and the use of machinery, which the 
 more it is adopted, will bring a greater proportion of 
 the worif within the compass of women and boys, and 
 thus lessen the proportion borne by wages in the cost 
 of the finished article. 
 
 Linen Trade. — Linen has never formed one of the 
 staple manufactures of England, flax having been less 
 cultivated there than on the opposite shore of the 
 Netherlands ; a country which, in the 14th and 15th 
 centuries, supplied the rest of Europe with the finest 
 linens and woolens. AVhen England subsequentlj' ad- 
 vanced in manufacturing arts, the abundant supply of 
 wool pointed out the most suitable branch ; and she 
 was contented to continue her imports of linen from 
 the Netherlands, from France, and from Germany, or 
 to favor the manufacture of the sister island in a de- 
 partment which did not excited her jealousy. In Ire- 
 land, the linen manufacture dates aliout two centuries 
 ago, and is said to have owed much of its extension to 
 the measures of the unfortunate Wentworth, in the 
 reign of Charles I. The annual consumption of linen 
 in England a century ago was probably not far below 
 that of her double population at present, owing to the 
 very general substitution in our time of cotton articles. 
 At that time the linen manufacture of England was 
 established chiefly in Lancashire and Cumberland, and 
 in a county very remote from these, namely, Dorset- 
 
ENG 
 
 607 
 
 ENG 
 
 shire. In 1745, government, apprised of the extension 
 of the manufacture of coarse linen in Silesia and other 
 parts of Germany, and actuated by the fallacious no- 
 tion of malting a monopoly of all kinds of productive 
 industry, granted a bounty of 1-Jd. per yard on the 
 exportation of all British linen of a value from 6d. to 
 18d. per yard ; in other words, a premium of 20 or 25 
 per cent, on the prime cost of all inferior qualities ex- 
 ported. So large a grant soon augmented the manu- 
 facture of osnaburgs and other coarse cloths, particu- 
 larly in Scotland, although the ratio of increase was 
 infinitely smaller than in the case of cotton, where 
 there was no premium, but a rapid improvement of 
 machinery. The demand for bounty in the ten years 
 ending in 1785, was about £33,000 annually. More re- 
 centlj' these impolitic issues were greatly increased ; 
 but at length the impolicy of forcing a manufacture in 
 this way having become obvious to every one, the 
 bounties, after being gradually reduced, ceased finally 
 in 1830. 
 
 The manufacture is principally carried on in the 
 West Riding of Yorkshire, its chief seat being in Leeds 
 and its neighborhood, and in Lancashire, Dorset, Dur- 
 ham, and Salop. 
 
 Ireland and Scotland, particularly Dundee, are both 
 superior to England in the manufacture of linen. But 
 some of the flax mills established at Hull are on a 
 more extensive scale than any other in the empire. 
 
 Ellice) affirmed in his place in the House of Commons 
 that the improved silk looms in use in various parts of 
 the Continent enabled the workman to execute five 
 times as much work as he could do in England ; while 
 in every business not protected by a monopoly the 
 result was precisely opposite. At length, after a great 
 deal of discussion, it was resolved to adopt a more lib- 
 eral system. In 1825, a bill was in consequence 
 passed, allowing the importation of foreign silks on 
 payment of an ad valorem duty of 30 per cent., accom- 
 panied, however, by the effectual reduction of the sin- 
 gularly oppressive duties which had previously been 
 imposed on the imports of raw and thrown silk. This 
 measure, though vehemently opposed at the time, has 
 proved most successful. "We think that the silk trade 
 has made more progress since 1826, when the new sys- 
 tem was introduced, than it did during the whole of 
 the preceding century. The following quantities of 
 the raw and thrown silk were imported into the United 
 Kingdom in 
 
 Years. 
 
 lb.. " 
 .. 2,680,608 
 
 1883 4,224,897 
 
 1849 5,006,242 
 
 The exports of linen manufactures 
 from Great Britain and Ireland 
 in 1851 and 1852 were of the de- 
 clared value of £8,822,9-35 £8,872,491 
 
 Thread and small wares 284,461 859,295 
 
 Linenyarn 961,426 1,140,565 
 
 £5,058,822 £5,872,851 
 Silh Manufacture. — In the silk manufacture, as in the 
 linen, England has had to contend with a formidable 
 opposition in other countries, particularly in France 
 and Italj'' ; and she has also had to import the whole of 
 the raw material. It would therefore hardly have been 
 attempted by her countrymen, but for the great profits 
 expected from an article of general use among the 
 higher classes. Its introduction goes back to the 15th 
 century. About the beginning of the 17th it seems 
 to have been carried to a considerable extent, owing 
 certainly not to the luxury of the age, nor to any great 
 proportion of aifiuent persons in the community, but to 
 silk being almost the only article of apparel in which 
 the vanity of dress could display itself. Toward the 
 end of the reign of Charles II., about the year 1680, 
 raw silk began to be imported in quantities from India 
 and the English manufacture received a sul^stantial 
 addition by the numbers and ingenuity of the French- 
 men who settled in that country after the revocation 
 of the edict of Nantes in 1683. Various circumstances 
 thus contributed to preserve and extend the manufac- 
 ture, which continued rather upon the increase till the 
 general substitution of cottons for silks about 1790. 
 This gave a serious shock to the manufacture, from 
 which it recovered only by slow degrees. Its situation 
 had not indeed been at any time prosperous ; and the 
 continued complaints of the manufacturers occasioned 
 within these few years a fundamental change in the 
 policy under which it had previously been conducted. 
 From the first introduction of the manufacture into 
 England down to 1825, foreign sillts were either posi- 
 tively or virtually excluded. But the monopoly which 
 was thus secured to the manufacturers produced, what 
 all monopolies invariably do, an indifference to im- 
 provement. Instead of trusting to the ingenuity or to 
 the superior skill wliich they might have called to 
 their aid for preserving their ascendency in the market, 
 the manufacturers depended upon the custom-house 
 regulations, and additional penalties on smuggling. 
 In consequence, invention was quite at a stand. Such, 
 indeed, was the influence of the system in this respect, 
 that in 1826 the member for Coventry (Mr. Edward 
 
 Years. ]bg, 
 
 1860 5,411,984 
 
 1851 5,020,972 
 
 1868...- 7,809,217 
 
 This table shows conclusively that the manufacture 
 has increased nearly 200 per cent, since the adoption 
 of those sound and liberal measures which have been 
 the theme of so much ignorant invective. It is of 
 importance, too, to observe, that not only the imports 
 of raw silk, but also the exports of manufactured silk 
 goods, are rapidly increasing. The following table 
 shows this : 
 
 1822 £881,703 11 1861 £1,826,778 
 
 1832 529,990 1852 1,551,866 
 
 1860 1,225,641 II 1868 2,044,912 
 
 It is plain, therefore, that the manufacture is not 
 increasing merely by reason of an increased demand in 
 the home market, but because England is rapidly gain- 
 ing on her rivals in the marluis of foreign countries. 
 This affords unquestionable evidence of the improve- 
 ment as well as the extension of the manufacture. In 
 1852 her exports of wrought silks to France amounted 
 to $257,565, and to the United States to £464,590. 
 
 Leather, however little it may figure as an article of 
 export, is necessarily one of extensive home consump- 
 tion in everj' civilized countrj', particularly in such a 
 climate as that of England, and where there are so 
 many rich and simiptuous equipages. It is matter of 
 regret that there are so verj' few data, official or other- 
 wise, on which to form an estimate of the export or 
 import of hides in former ages. Such an estimate 
 would possess interest, as indicating the extent of her 
 pasturage and the number of her cattle in comparison 
 with her population. Whatever may have been the 
 case at a remote date, the custom-house returns, for 
 many years past, show, by the annual imports, that 
 the demand for leather has greatly exceeded the home 
 supply of hides. For a long time this importation 
 tools place from the Continent of Europe, and from the 
 least civilized quarters ; from countries such as Lithu- 
 ania and Poland, where the quantity of hides fur- 
 nished by the cattle materially exceeds that of the 
 leather required hj the inhabitants. But since the 
 opening of the trade to South America, it has been 
 found more advantageous to import hides from that 
 continent, where the herds of wild cattle are so nu- 
 merous as to meet the eye of the traveler in almost 
 every point of the horizon. 
 
 On an average, there are imported annually about 
 2,000,000 hides, tanned and untanned. The quan- 
 tity of leather annually made in England and Wales 
 may be estimated at about 50,000,000 lbs. The larg- 
 est tanneries are at Bermondse^', in Southwark ; but 
 there are also very extensive establishments of the kind 
 in the country, as in Cheshire, Lancashire, Westmore- 
 land, Cumberland, and also in Lincolnshire. The late 
 war, bj- its long continuance, and the magnitude of 
 her army and navy, produced great orders from gov- 
 
ENG 
 
 608 
 
 ENG 
 
 eminent foi* her leather manxtfacture. Shoes were 
 and still are made wholesale in several towns of Staf- 
 fordshire, Cheshire, and Northamptonshire ; but those 
 made in London, by the principal dealers, are, though 
 expensive, by far the best. 
 
 Of the annual value of the leather manufactured 
 into shoesj boots, harness, saddlery, etc., there are no 
 means of forming a correct estimate ; but we have 
 merely to consider the population of England, and the 
 unavoidable extent of their wants, to be satisfied that 
 from £10,000,000 to £12,000,000 are rather below than 
 above the mark. But while her home consumption is. 
 so considerable, her export is comparatively small — in 
 ordinary years not exceeding £800,000; but in 1853 
 the exports of manufactured leather rose to £1,678,596. 
 This large increase was probably occasioned by the reck- 
 less consignments to Australia. The leather shipped 
 to Ireland is merely tanned : to other countries the 
 exports are in a manufactured shape. The duty on 
 leather was wholly abolished in 1830. 
 
 Connected with the general manufacture of leather 
 is the glove trade, a branch of no inconsiderable ex- 
 tent, being carried on in several of the midland and 
 western counties, viz., at Woodstock, Worcester, 
 Ludlow, Hereford, Yeovil in Somersetshire, etc. This 
 branch of industry enjoyed for a lengthened period the 
 protection of monopol}', which, however, was abolished 
 in 1825. Many contradictory statements have been 
 made as to the effects of this measure. We believe, 
 however, that the depression so much complained of 
 has not been produced by it, but by the substitution 
 
 of cotton gloves for those of leather ; and we have no 
 doubt that, had it not been for the greater cheapness 
 and improved quality of leather gloves, caused hy the 
 abolition of the monopoly, this substitution would have 
 been carried much farther than it has been. The in- 
 creased imports of the lamb and kid skins, used in the 
 manufacture, show conclusively that it is not de- 
 clining. 
 
 The manufacture of paper, and the trades connected 
 with it, such as printing, bookselling, bookbinding, etc., 
 give occupation to between 60,000 and 70,000 persons. 
 From the excise returns, it appears that the quantity 
 of paper of all kinds manufactured in, England in 1852 
 was 114,521,304 lbs.; and the duty, which is at the 
 rate of l-|d. per lb., plus 5 per cent., amounted to 
 £751,546. It is difficult to say what portion of this 
 was used in printing books, and how much was con- 
 sumed by the newspapers ; but the quantitj' used by 
 some of the latter is so great, that a single newspaper. 
 The Times, is said to consume about 50 tons' a week. 
 
 We come next to a branch of industry of a very 
 different description, nfimely, the brewery, the amount 
 of capital and labor invested in brewing establishments 
 in England is verj'' large, and particularly striking to 
 those who have lived on the Continent, and have con- 
 trasted the situation of England with that of the wine 
 countries of the south of Em'ope. It is only in Flan- 
 ders and Germany that breweries are numerous ; and 
 in the latter, from the limited capital, and the scattered 
 state of their population, there are hardly any of those 
 large establishments which exist in London. 
 
 An Account op the total Number of Quabtees of Malt made between the 5th day of January, 1852 and the 
 Stu day of January, 1S53, in the United Kingdom ; DiSTiNOUisniNO the Quantity made in eaoh codntry, 
 AND THE Quantity used by Brewers and Victualers, and by Retail Brewers ; and similar Account fob 
 THE Year ending- the 5th day op January, 1354. 
 
 England 
 
 YEAR ENDING 6TH JANUARY, 1863. | YEAR ENDING 6TH JANUARY, 1854. | 
 
 Qiiartet:a of 
 Mult moae. 
 
 qUARTERB Off MALT USED | 
 
 QUARTERS OF MALT USED 
 
 By trowBrs 
 and victunlsrs. 
 
 By retail 
 brewers. 
 
 Total. 1 Mal'tmiile: 
 
 . By brewers 
 and vict\ialer8. 
 
 By retail 
 brevr-era. 
 
 Total. 
 
 4,485,463 
 491,474 
 20T.184 
 
 8,446,246 
 160,886 
 100,698 ' 
 
 481,007 
 
 8,926,252 4,530,780 
 160,386 520,479 
 160,693 208,769 
 
 8,676,166 
 164,677 
 160,929 
 
 487,128 
 
 4,068,294 
 164,677 
 160,929 
 
 Ireland 
 
 United Kingdom 
 
 5,184,061 
 
 8,766,324 
 
 431,007 
 
 4,237,881 1 6,264,963 
 
 8,901,772 487,128 | 4,888,900 | 
 
 Quantities of spirits charged with excise duties in 
 the United Kingdom in 
 
 GalloDB, 
 
 1S60 28,901,482 
 
 1S51 24,080,938 
 
 1862 25,270,262 
 
 The quantity of beer brewed in England in 1830 
 was 4,678,428 barrels. The duty on beer having 
 ceased on the 10th of October, 1830, there are no sub- 
 sequent accounts of the quantities brewed. There 
 can be no doubt, however, from the increased quantitjr 
 of malt, that the production of beer has likewise 
 greatly increased. 
 
 Spirituous liquors. — Spirituous liquors form one of 
 the branches of manufacture in which England is de- 
 pendent on her neighbors, as she imports an annual 
 supply of corn spirit from Scotland and Ireland, rum 
 from the West Indies, and brandy from France. It 
 has been generally supposed that the consumption of 
 gin ias increased materially in England since 1825, 
 when the duties were reduced. We are, however, 
 inclined to doubt whether such be really the case, and 
 are disposed to believe that the effect is more apparent 
 than real ; in fact, that it has resulted rather from a 
 diminution of smuggling than from a positive increase 
 of consumption. That such has been the case in 
 Scotland and Ireland is beyond all question ; and there 
 seems no reason to conclude that it is otherwise in 
 England. For tables of the quantity of malt used in 
 1853, and of the quantities of spirit charged with ex- 
 cise duties in 1850, 1851, 1852, see article Brewing. 
 
 To the remainmg manufactures the limits allow of 
 little space, though several of them would be accounted 
 of great importance in any other country than England. 
 The extent to which such articles as soap and paper 
 
 are made in England is amply shown by the excise 
 returns ; but the list of her exports is of more conse- 
 quence to the political economist, not from the vulgar 
 notion that it is by export only that national profit 
 is realized, but as indicative of those commodities for 
 which she possesses, in her soil, her climate, or her 
 colonial possessions — advantages that give them a 
 superiority over their neighbors. Thus, in the case 
 of glass, the abundance and cheapness of her coal 
 enables her to make an annual export of above 
 £500,000. In the manufacture of hats, likemse, her 
 command of wool for the coarser kind, and of furs from 
 her North American colonies for beaver hats, enables 
 her to ship to an extent of nearly 45,000 dozen, or 
 £44,000^ year. In earthenware England has the ad- 
 vantage of clay, of fuel, and of ready communication 
 by canals. These, joined to the taste and ingenuity 
 of individuals engaged in the manufacture, carried it, 
 in the course of the 18th century, to an extent which 
 has rendered it a national object — a tract of 7 or 8 
 miles in Staffordshire, called the Pottery District, being 
 almost entirely appropriated to it. The population of 
 this tract is about 60,000. The great outlet is Liver- 
 pool, and the shipments take place * partly to the 
 United States — partly to the continent of Europe, 
 Exports (comprising porcelain) in 1853 reached 
 £1,337,911 in real value. 
 
 The stocking manufacture is carried on chieflj'in 
 the counties of Nottingham, Derby, and Leicester. 
 It formerly employed great numbers of women in 
 knitting ; but in this, as in most other branches, ma- 
 ohinerj' has greatly superseded manual labor. Lace is 
 made in vast quantities in the midland counties j and 
 here also machinery is extensivelj' applied. And so 
 
ENG 
 
 609 
 
 ENG 
 
 extraordinary has been the progress of invention in 
 this department, that British lace at present commands 
 a ready sale in all foreign markets, and is largely 
 smuggled even into France. 
 
 Commerce and Shipping. — ^With Ireland the inter- 
 course of England is very great — ^that country sending 
 them grain, salted and fresh provisions, live cattle, 
 butter, etc., to the amount of £6,000,000 or £7,000,000 
 annually, and taking largely in return her manufac- 
 tures, particularly cotton, woolen, and hardware. 
 
 North of Europe. — From Russia- her chief imports 
 are tallow, hemp, flax, com, linen, timber, pitch, etc. ; 
 from the Swedish dominions, iron and timber j from 
 Poland, wheat, timber, and potash; from Prussia, 
 wheat, timber, and flax. All these countries take her 
 cottons, hardware, and colonial produce. 
 
 ' Central pari of Burope, — From Holland her imports 
 are not foreign merchandise, as in the 17th century, 
 when the Dutch were the carriers of Europe, but agri- 
 cultural produce, as oats, wheat, seeds, hemp, cheese, 
 butter; also gin; the whole to a large amount; in 
 return for which the Dutch take her hardware, cottons, 
 and woolens. From France -her imports have long 
 been burdened with heavy duties, but' still they are 
 large and increasing, consisting chiefly of wine and 
 brandy, silk, lace, gloves, etc. With Germany, her 
 chief intercourse is through the medium of Holland 
 and Hamburg. With these countries her exports are 
 large, particularly in cottons, hardware, and colonial 
 produce. Her imports are also very various and 
 
 large, consisting of wool, com, flax, timber, linen, 
 and wine, from the vicinity of the Ehine. 
 
 Sovih of Ewrope. — Here we enter on coimtries of 
 much less industry. From Portugal England talces 
 wine in very large, and fruit in smaller quantities, in 
 return for her cottons, her woolens, and her hardware. 
 From Spain she receives wool, wine, brandy, oil, 
 fruits, barilla, etc. Italy, without any commercial 
 treatj', takes a large quantity of her manufactures, 
 and gives in return silk, oil, and fruit. With the 
 Levant her traffic is similar — consisting of an export 
 of manufactures, particularly printed cottons and hard- 
 ware, and of an import of sUk, fruit, and drugs. 
 
 The United States are, notwithstanding their tariS', 
 her best customers, receiving from England manufac- 
 tures of almost every kind to a great amount, and send- 
 ing her in return vast quantities of cotton, tobacco, 
 rice, and flour ; but the merchandise received from the 
 United States being far inferior to the value of English 
 exports, the difference is paid by remittances in 
 money from the continent of Europe, arising from 
 American merchandise sold there. With South Amer- 
 ica a wide field of commercial intercourse has been 
 opened ; at present, however, the chief articles re- 
 ceived from that vast region are bullion, hides, sidns, 
 indigo, and cochineal. The trade is, and will long be 
 subject to the various disadvantages of a newly-settled 
 country, bare of capital, deficient in industry, and pos- 
 sessing but a small number of consumers of European 
 commodities in propoition to its extent and fertility. 
 
 OOIUMBBCE OF TUE UNITED STATES 
 
 WITH Bnoland, Feom October 1, 1820, to Jolt 1, 1856. 
 
 
 Yeflra endlDgr. 
 
 Expopta. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 whereof there woe is Bullion 
 and Specie. 
 
 Tonnage Cleared. 
 
 Domestic. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Total: 
 
 Exported. 
 
 Imported. 
 
 - American. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Sept. SO, 1821 
 
 $16;339,109 
 
 $2,125,694 
 
 $18,464,708 
 
 $28,180,862 
 
 $1,983,666 
 
 $645,529 
 
 138,729 
 
 19,546 
 
 1822 
 
 21,072,895 
 
 1,029,224 
 
 22,101,619 
 
 82,108,947 
 
 796,218 
 
 99,930 
 
 151,080 
 
 80,288 
 
 1828 
 
 18,968,185 
 
 978,474 
 
 19,946,659 
 
 26,80l;270 
 
 866,682 
 
 282,822 
 
 182,042 
 
 50,784 
 
 1824 
 
 18,218,841 
 
 1,268,282 
 
 19,487,123 
 
 26,647,922 
 
 812,112 
 
 149,164 
 
 140,125 
 
 42,810 
 
 1325 
 
 82,096,890 
 
 2,081,186 
 
 84,127,576 
 
 84,271,610 
 
 803,266 
 
 82,888 
 
 172,409 
 
 39,242 
 
 1826 
 
 19,065,185 
 
 1,569,028 
 
 20,684,208 
 
 24,862,303 
 
 698,077 
 
 122,216 
 
 147,455 
 
 41,801 
 
 1827 
 
 28,514,421 
 
 904,596 
 
 24,419,017 
 
 28,653,888 
 
 200,101 
 
 .84,111 
 
 202,976 
 
 68,706 
 
 1828 
 
 18,787,661 
 
 2,960,261 
 
 21,697,922 
 
 80,476,189 
 
 2,853,209 
 
 20,972 
 
 183 853 
 
 75.583 
 
 1829 
 
 21,281,884 
 
 1,767,467 
 
 28,043,791 
 
 28,892,763 
 
 678,838 
 
 89,826 
 
 179,848 
 
 60,722 
 
 1880 
 
 Total... 
 
 23,778,020 
 
 826,946 
 
 24,599,966 
 
 22,765,040 
 
 112,229 
 
 144,281 
 
 192,714 
 
 68,689 
 
 $218,066,641 
 
 $15,461,043 
 
 $228,527,684 
 
 $272,660,589 
 
 $83,47,842 
 
 $1,631,679 
 
 1,580,676 
 
 482,521 
 
 Sept. SO, 1881 
 
 $28,841,430 
 
 $2,867,439 
 
 $81,208,869 
 
 $41,854,823 
 
 $1,615;648 
 
 $180,830 
 
 285,345 
 
 83,461 
 
 1832 
 
 26,635,768 
 
 2,875,187 
 
 29,510,905 
 
 84,849,096 
 
 1,112,293 
 
 88,689 
 
 189,679 
 
 96,615 
 
 1883 
 
 29,582,678 
 
 1,452,768 
 
 81,085,441 
 
 86,668,818 
 
 244 
 
 81,908 
 
 183,938 
 
 87,602 
 
 1834 
 
 38,67-3,694 
 
 ,2,974,726 
 
 41,648,420 
 
 45,866,065 
 
 . . ,270 
 
 6,806,618 
 
 216,366 
 
 89,886 
 
 1885 
 
 47,990,582 
 
 946,809 
 
 48,986,841 
 
 69,066,989 
 
 ?9,087 
 
 1,803,488 
 
 316,810 
 
 69,683 
 
 188G 
 
 53,802,488 
 
 1,874,787 
 
 55,177,220 
 
 75,761,718 
 
 ' 2,509 
 
 2,822,920 
 
 288,817 
 
 78,450 
 
 18-37.... '.. 
 
 46,286,102 
 
 4,884,768 
 
 51,119,870 
 
 48,546,757 
 
 1,888,070 
 
 116,299 
 
 268,068 
 
 67,125 
 
 1888...:.. 
 
 ■ 48,899,888 
 
 1,545,188 
 
 60,445,076 
 
 44,191,851 
 
 10,185 
 
 9,009,846 
 
 844,616. 
 
 76,668 
 
 1839 
 
 54,615,827 
 
 8,953,108 
 
 58,568,485 
 
 64,868,716 
 
 8,163,490 
 
 1,420,093 
 
 269,466 
 
 92,685 
 
 1840 
 
 Total..., 
 
 51,951,778 
 
 6,096,882 
 
 57,048,660 
 
 88,114,188 
 
 4,888,786 
 
 808,806 
 
 888,612 
 
 129,313 
 
 $420,728,675 
 
 $27,970,562 
 
 $454,699,287 
 
 $479,482,958 
 
 $12,160,627 
 
 $21,027,886 
 
 2,648,897 
 
 871,287 
 
 Sept. 80, 1841 
 
 $44,184,857 
 
 $8,871,220 
 
 $47,555,577 
 
 $45,780,007 
 
 $8,018,187 
 
 $680,680 
 
 272,681 
 
 130,768 
 
 1842 
 
 86,681,808 
 
 , ,2,932,140 
 
 89,618,948 
 
 88,446,499 
 
 1,703,748 
 
 1 206,919 
 
 385,479 
 
 139,064 
 
 9 m03. 1848 
 
 87,149,095 
 
 1,106,064 
 
 88,255,159 
 
 26,141,118 
 
 400 
 
 14,806,714 
 
 839,985 
 
 163,174 
 
 Juno 80, 1844 
 
 45,814,942 
 
 ' 1,125,214 
 
 46,940,156 
 
 41,476,081 
 
 85,706 
 
 1,131,959 
 
 811,741 
 
 193,688 
 
 1845 
 
 41.518,984 
 
 4,767,244 
 
 46,286,178 
 
 44,687,859 
 
 8,678,187 
 
 180,828 
 
 874,846 
 
 198,931 
 
 1846 
 
 42,781,619 
 
 1,758,489 
 
 44,540,108 
 
 48,844,160 
 
 973,110 
 
 482,711 
 
 864,149 
 
 183,942 
 
 1847 
 
 T0,228,TT7 
 
 834,921 
 
 71,058,698 
 
 65,170,874 
 
 8,056 
 
 19,812,980 
 
 467,698 
 
 300,566 
 
 1848 
 
 62,928,024 
 
 8,924,291 
 
 71,853,315 
 
 59,768,602 
 
 9,818,688 
 
 1,916,962 
 
 476,548- 
 
 258,210 
 
 1849 
 
 69,161,992 
 
 1,880,878 
 
 71,043,870 
 
 58,818,435 
 
 764,097 
 
 2,671,792 
 
 576,018 
 
 849,900 
 
 1850 
 
 Total . . . 
 
 64,686,959 
 
 4,210,271 
 
 68,897,280 
 
 73,118,971 
 
 2,534,185 
 
 637,266 
 
 440,582 
 
 269,078 
 
 $515,181,607 
 
 $30,910,782 
 
 $546,042,289 
 
 $491,196,996- 
 
 $32,078,208 
 
 $41,816,601 
 
 8,889,527 
 
 2,186,185 
 
 June 80, 1851 
 
 $105,121,921 
 
 18,151,266 
 
 $118,278,187 
 
 $90,613,288 
 
 $17,099,081 
 
 $1,098,667 
 
 621,566 
 
 374,888 
 
 1862 
 
 107,788,657 
 
 4,586,185 
 
 112,824,842 
 
 88,119,859 
 
 • 84,802,384 
 
 1,487,484 
 
 672,488 
 
 806,017 
 
 1858 
 
 112,778,859 
 
 8,209,264 
 
 116,987,623 
 
 125,774,232 
 
 18,631,900 
 
 284,799 
 
 664,892 
 
 429,174 
 
 1SB4 
 
 135,111,708 
 
 .■ 5,568,681 
 
 140,675,889 
 
 140,888,783 
 
 27,926,268 
 
 86,166 
 
 8.58,970 
 
 488,346 
 
 1865 
 
 129,475,967 
 
 6,158,178 
 
 185,629,145 
 
 102,486,298 
 
 47,858,016 
 
 107,464 
 
 831,464 
 
 358,946 
 
 1856 
 
 152,561,975 
 
 1,617,560 
 
 164,079,585 
 
 118,045,544 
 
 84,161,063 
 
 421,971 
 
 928,617 
 
 889,103 
 
 For a more extended account of the commerce of 
 England, as well as of Great Britain, see Great 
 Bkitaist. 
 
 From Asia England imports tea, indigo, cotton, 
 cofl'ee, sugar, piece goods, ivory, drugs, etc. Her 
 principal article of export is cotton goods, for which, 
 how singular soever it may appear, India has, since 
 the opening of the trade in 1814, become one of the 
 very best markets. Besides cotton stuffs and varn, 
 
 Qq 
 
 she sends to Asia woolen goods, copper, and a great 
 variety of other articles. 
 
 From Africa England imports drugs, ivory, teak 
 wood, hides, etc. Her exports are but inconsiderable, 
 consisting principally of cotton and linen manufac- 
 tures. The hopes so frequently entertained, of open- 
 ing an advantageous trade with the interior of Africa, 
 have hitherto been altogether disappointed, and it is 
 not supposed they will be more successful in future. 
 
ENG 
 
 610 
 
 ENG 
 
 The recent discovery of the gold fields in Australia, 
 and the consequent influx of immigrants into that 
 country, have made it an important market for En- 
 gland's produce and manufactures. The declared 
 value of her home produce and manufactures exported 
 to the Australian colonies, including Van Dieman's 
 Land and New Zealand, in 1850, was £1,574,145, 
 "while in 1851, 1852, and 1853 it respectively amounted 
 to £2,807,356, £4,222,205, and £14,506,532. The 
 number of ships that cleared from the United Kingdom 
 for the various Australian colonies was 272 in 1851, 
 568 in 1852, and 1201 in 1853. A return of the ex- 
 ports and imports to the Australian colonies for 1851, 
 1852, and 1853, shows some curious results. The ex- 
 ports for 1853 exhibit in some instances an extinction, 
 and in almost every article a decline, except wool, and 
 of course gold, which is not noticed in the return; 
 thus tanners' bark, of which 35,894 cwts. were 
 exported in 1852, was reduced to 4776 cwts. in 
 1853 ; and tanned hides, of which 642,198 lbs. were 
 exported in 1852, only amounted to 9842 lbs. in 
 1853; while untanned hides rose from 20,243 cwts. 
 in 1852, to 41,987 in 1853. Flax and hemp, guano, 
 wine, timber, tortoise-shell, whale-fins, etc., all de- 
 clined or disappeared from the return. So did cop- 
 per and lead ore ; but copper, partly wrought, that 
 is, in bars, rods, or ingots, increased from 373 tons 
 in 1852, to 686 tons in 1853. Quicksilver fell from 
 14,631 lbs. in 1852, to 6933 lbs. in 1853; and wool 
 rose from 43,197,801 lbs. in 1852, to 47,075,963 lbs. in 
 1853. 
 
 The amount of exports in 1851 being doubled in 
 1852, and quintupled in 1853, and probably increased 
 still more in 1854, could not fail to cause a glut in the 
 market, which has produced great embarrassment in 
 the colony, and entailed heavy losses on the specula- 
 tors. — E. B. For complete statistics of Great Brit- 
 ain, see article Geeat Britain. 
 
 English Channel (called by the French la 
 manche), is that part of the Atlantic Ocean which lies 
 between the north-west coast of France and the south- 
 em coast of England. Its eastern extremit}' is con- 
 nected with the German Ocean by the Strait of Calais, 
 and on the west it is imperceptiblj' confounded with 
 the Atlantic Ocean. It lies between lat. 38° 48' and 
 51° north, and long. 1° 20' east and 5° 43' west. At 
 its termination — on a line drawn from Land's End to 
 the extreme easterly point of the department of Finis- 
 terre, in France, it is about 40 leagues wide. On the 
 French coast it forms three considerable bays ; the 
 most easterlj' receives the Seveme ; the second receives 
 the Seine and several smaller rivers ; the third and 
 largest lies on the south-west of the peninsula of 
 Coteulin. On the English coast is Mount Bay, be- 
 tween Lizard Point and Land's End. Between Lizard 
 Point and Start Point is a large gulf, on which are sit- 
 uated Talmouth and Plymouth ; the Gulf of Exeter 
 lies to the east of Start Point. The principal islands 
 in the English Channel are, the Isle of Wight, on the 
 English coast, and the Norman Islands, lying on the 
 French coast, the principal of which are Guernsey and 
 Jersej-. The prevailing winds are from the west. The 
 Channel, being shallow and confined, is subject, from 
 its communication with the Atlantic, to high and im- 
 petuous tides. Its waters contain many fish, of which 
 the most important are the mackerel and the herring. 
 The oysters of Concal are also famous. 
 
 Engraving (Sax. grafan, to dig). The art of pro- 
 ducing by incision or corrosion designs upon blocks of 
 wood, plates of metal, or other materials, from which 
 impressions or prints upon paper or other soft sub- 
 stances are obtained bj- pressure. Engraving, as an 
 art, seems to have nearly the same relation to design 
 and painting as typography bears to written language ; 
 and its utility and great importance must be obvious 
 to every one from its capability of giving a boundless 
 circulation to representations of the most valuable 
 
 examples of the arts and of objects connected with 
 science. By some authors it is placed among the 
 representations called monochromes (^/j.ovoxp6fiaToi). 
 Xylography, or wood engraving, was the earliest 
 method practiced ; but its origin is involved in ob- 
 scurity. If we might rely on Du Halde (Description, 
 etc., de VEmpire de la Chine, 4to. 1735), it is possible 
 that it was known in China 1120 years before Christ ; 
 though we think its invention is of a much later pe- 
 riod, as the Chinese were not acquainted with the art 
 of making paper till 95 e.g. It has been stated that 
 this art was introduced into Europe from China through 
 the intercourse of the Venetian merchants with its in- 
 habitants ; for it is proved that engraving on wood had 
 been practiced in that part of Italy which borders on 
 the Adriatic as early as the 13th century. The first 
 wood engravings in Europe of which any thing is 
 known with certainty were executed in 1285^ by a 
 brother and sister of a noble family of the name of 
 Cunio. They represent the actions of Alexander; 
 and though doubts of their' authenticity are expressed 
 by Heinecken, Mr. William Young Outley, the author 
 of the elegant and learned; .^isior^ of Engraving, to 
 which we are much indebted,- thinks otherwise. But 
 for the accidental discover}'' by a Venetian architect of 
 the name of Temanza of a decree of the magistracy 
 of Venice, in 1441, we might have been without posi- 
 tive proof of the practice of the art in Italy previous 
 to 1467, and the Germans might still have continued 
 to claim the honor of its introduction into Europe. 
 This decree, dated 11th October, 1441, states in sub- 
 stance that the art and mystery of making cards and 
 pointed figures had fallen to decay owing to their 
 extensive importation ; and in order that the native 
 artists might find encouragement rather than foreign- 
 ers, it was ordered that no work of the said art, 
 printed and painted on cloth or paper — viz., altar 
 pieces, or images, and playing-cards, and whatever 
 other work of the said art is done with a brush and 
 printed — should be allowed to be brought into the city, 
 on pain of forfeiting the works, besides a pecuniary 
 penalty. This decree plainly indicates that wood en- 
 graving was practiced in Venice as early as the com- 
 mencement of the fifteenth centuiy. In Germany and' 
 the Low Countries, the early block boolts seem to have 
 existed as early as 1420, and to have given Guttemburg 
 the hint for using movable types. At Eome, in 1467, 
 a work entitled Meditationes Johaimis de Turrecremata, 
 issued from the press of Ulric Han, embellished witli 
 wood engravings, in which the design and execution 
 of an Italian artist are evident. The decorations of 
 the work of Valturius by Matteo Pasti, of Verona, 
 published five j^ears afterward, exhibit considerable 
 spirit and accuracy ; and before the end of the fifteenth 
 centurj'" the art had been carried to great perfection, 
 as may be proved by the delicacy and purity witli 
 which the designs are engraved in the celebrated 
 Hypnerotomachia of Colonna. At this period, liow- 
 ever, the discovery of copper-plate engraving had 
 been made, and to this the more ancient art yielded 
 place. Maso Finiguerra, a goldsmith and sculptor of 
 Florence, and pupil of Masaccio, about the middle of 
 the fifteenth century, seems from the most authentic 
 accounts to liave been the person to whom the world 
 is indebted for the discovery. In his time, and for a 
 considerable period previously, it was the practice to 
 decorate church and other plate with works in niello, 
 which were designs hatched with a steel point upon 
 gold or silver, then engraved with the burin, and run 
 in, while hot, with a composition called niello — a com- 
 pound of silver, lead, copper, sulphur, and borax, 
 which was more easily fusible than silver, and of a 
 black color. The superfluous part of this niello which 
 remained above the surface of the plate was then 
 rubbed oflF with scrapers, and cleaned away with 
 pumice-stone, leaving the engraved design on the 
 plate with all the effect of a print. In order to pre- 
 
ENG 
 
 611 
 
 ENG 
 
 serve copies of their designs, the artists were in the 
 habit before filling the design with the niello to take 
 impressions of the plates with earth, over which liquid 
 sulphur was poured, and from which, when cold, the 
 earth was removed. But Mniguerra carried his prac- 
 tice beyond this ; for with a mixture of soot and oil he 
 filled the cavities of the engraving, and by pressing 
 damp paper upon it with a roller, obtained impressions 
 on the paper, having, as Vasari says, all the appear- 
 ance of drawings done with a pen, " venivano come 
 designate di penna." 
 
 Engraving on Wood, or Xylography. — In this branch 
 of the art the material used is a block of box or pear- 
 tree wood, cut at right angles to the direction of the 
 fibres, its thickness being regulated by the size of the 
 print to be executed. The subject is drawn on the 
 block with a black-lead pencil, or with a pen and In- 
 dian ink, taking care that the whole effect is repre- 
 sented in the lines so drawn.' The whole of the wood 
 is then cut away, except where the lines are drawn, 
 which are left as raised parts ; in which point it is 
 that this mode of engraving differs essentially from 
 copper-plate engraving, wherein the lines are cut out 
 or sunk in the metal, instead of being raised from it. 
 The impressions from wood blocks are taken in the 
 some manner as from printing types. 
 
 Engraving on Copper is performed by cutting lines 
 representing the subject on a copper-plate by means 
 of a steel instrument ending in an unequal-sided 
 pyramidal point, such instrument being called a 
 graver or burin, without the use of aquafortis ; which 
 mode will be seen below under the art. Etching. 
 Besides the graver there are other instruments used in 
 the process ; viz., a scraper, a burnisher, an oil-stone, 
 and a cushion for supporting the plate. In cutting the 
 lines op the copper the graver is pushed forward in the 
 direction required, being held in the hand at a small 
 inclination to the plane of the copper, f he use of the 
 burnisher is to soften down lines that are cut too deep, 
 and for burnishing out scratches in the copper : it is 
 about three inches long. The scraper, like the last, is 
 of steel, with three sharp edges to it, and about six 
 inches long, tapering toward the end. Its use is to 
 scrape off the burr, raised by the action of the graver. 
 To show the appearance of the work during its prog- 
 ress, and to polish off the burr, engravers use a roll of 
 woolen or felt called a rubber, which is put in action 
 with a little olive oil. The cushion, which is a leather 
 bag about nine inches diameter filled with sand for 
 laying the plate on, is now rarely used except bj- writ- 
 ing engravers. For architectural subjects, or in skies, 
 where a series of parallel lines are wanted, an in- 
 genious machine was invented by the late Mr. Wilson 
 Lowr}'', called a ruling machine, the accuracy of whose 
 operation is exceedingly perfect. This is made to act 
 on an etching ground by a point or knife, connected 
 with the apparatus, and bit in with aquafortis in the 
 ordinary way. 
 
 Etching is a species of engraving on copper or other 
 metals with a sharp-pointed instrument called ah etch- 
 ing-needle. The plate is covered with a ground or 
 varnish capable of resisting the action of aquafortis. 
 The usual method is to draw the design on paper ivith 
 a black-lead pencil ; the paper being damped and laid 
 upon the plate, prepared as above, with the drawing 
 next the etching ground, is passed through the rolling 
 press, and thus the design is transferred from the paper 
 to the ground. The needle then scratches out the lines 
 of the design ; and aquafortis being poured over the 
 plate, which is bordered round with wax, it is allowed 
 to remain on it long enough to corrode or bite in the 
 lines which the etching needle has made. Etching 
 with a dry point, as it is called, is performed entirely 
 with the point without anj' groimd, the burr raised 
 being taken off by the scraper. Etching with a soft 
 ground is used to imitate chalk or black-lead drawings. 
 For this purpose the ground is mixed with a portion of 
 
 tallow or lard, according to the temperature of the air. 
 A piece of thin paper being attached to the plate at the 
 four comers by some turner's pitch and lying over the 
 ground, the drawing is made on the paper and shad- 
 dowed with the black-lead pencil. The action of the 
 pencil thus detaches the ground which adheres to the 
 paper, according to the degree to which the finishing 
 is carried : the paper being then removed, the work is 
 bit in the ordinarj' way. Stippling is also executed on 
 the etching ground by dots instead of lines made with 
 the etching-needle, which, according to the intensity 
 of the shadow to be represented are made thicker and 
 closer. The work is. then bit in. Etching on Steel is 
 executed much in the same way as in the process on 
 copper. The plate is bedded on common glazier's 
 putty, and a ground of Brunswick black is laid in the 
 usual way, through which the needle scratches. It is 
 then bit in, in the way above described. 
 
 Mezzotinto Engraving. — In this species of engraving 
 the artist, with a knife or instrument made for the pur- 
 pose, roughs over the whole surface of the copper in 
 everj' direction, so as to make it susceptible of deliv- 
 ering a uniform black, smooth, or flat tint. After this 
 process the outline is traced with an etching-needle, 
 and the lightest parts are scraped out, then the middle 
 tints so as to leave a greater portion of the ground, and 
 so on according to the depth required in the several 
 parts of the work. 
 
 A quatinta Engraving, whose effect somewhat resem- 
 bles that of an Indian-ink drawing. The, mode of 
 effecting this (the design being already etched) to 
 cover the plate with a ground made of resin and Bur- 
 gundy pitch or mastic dissolved in rectified spirit of 
 wine, which is poured over the plate lying in an in- 
 clined position. The spirit of wine, from its rapid 
 evaporation, leaves the rest of the composition with a 
 granulated texture over the whole of the plate, by 
 which means a grain is produced by the aquafortis on 
 the parts left open by the evaporation of the spirit of 
 wine. The margin of the plate is of course pro- 
 tected in the usual way. After the aquafortis has 
 bitten the lighter parts they are stopt out, and the 
 aquafortis is again applied, and so on as often as any 
 parts continue to require more depth. Formerly the 
 grain used to be produced by covering the copper with 
 a powder or some substance which took a granulated 
 form, instead of using the compound above mentioned ; 
 but this process was found to be both uncertain and 
 imperfect. In the compound the grain is rendered 
 finer or coarser, in proportion to the quantity of resin 
 introduced. This mode of engraving was invented by 
 a Frenchman of the name of St. Non, about 1662. He 
 communicated it to Jean Baptiste le Prince, who died 
 in 1781, from whom it was acquired by Paul Sandby, 
 who introduced it through the medium of Mr. Jukes 
 into England. It has been practiced in this country 
 with much greater success than elsewhere. 
 
 Etching on Glass. — ^The glass is covered with a thin 
 ground of bees-wax : and the design being drawn with 
 the etching-needle, it is subjected to the action of sul- 
 phuric acid sprinkled over with pounded flour or Der- 
 byshire spar. After four or five hours this is removed, 
 and the glass cleaned off with oil of turpentine, leav- 
 ing the parts covered with the bees-wax untouched. 
 This operation may be inverted by drawing the design 
 on the glass with a solution of bees-wax and turpen- 
 tine, and subjecting the ground to the action of the 
 acid. 
 
 Engraving on Stone, or Lithography (Xi6o(, a stone. 
 and ypaipEiv, to write or draw). — A modem invention, 
 by means whereof impressions may be taken from 
 drawings made on stone. The merit of this discovery 
 belongs to Aloys Senefelder, a musical performer of 
 the theatre at Munich about the year 1800. The fol- 
 lowing are the principles on which the art of lithogra- 
 phy depends : First, the facility with which calcareous 
 stones imbibe water ; second, the great disposition the>- 
 
ENG 
 
 612 
 
 EQTJ 
 
 have to adhere to resinous and oily substances ; third, 
 the affinity between each other of oily and resinous 
 substances, and the power they possess of repelling 
 water or a body moistened with water. Hence, when 
 drawings are made on a polished surface of calcareous 
 stone with a resinous or oily medium, they are so ad- 
 hesive that nothing short of mechanical' means can 
 effect their separation from it, and while the other 
 parts of the stone take in the water poured upon them, 
 the resinous or oily parts repel it. Lastly, when over 
 a stone prepared in this manner a colored oily or resi- 
 nous substance is passed, it will adhere to the draw- 
 ings made as above, and not to the watery parts of the 
 stone. It was formerly thought that England did 
 not possess a sort of stone like that of Germany suit- 
 able to the purposes of lithography ; this, however, is 
 now known to be erroneous, as the neighborhood of 
 Bath abounds with it, being the white lias, which lies 
 immediately under the blue. It is also found in Scot- 
 land. The ink and chalk used in lithography are of a 
 saponaceous quality : the former is prepared in Ger- 
 man}' from a compound of tallow soap, pure white 
 wax, a small quantity of tallow, and a portion of 
 lamp-black, all boiled together, and when cool dis- 
 solved in distilled water. The chalk for the crayons 
 used in drawing on the stone is a composition consist- 
 ing of the ingredients above mentioned, but to it is 
 added when boiling a small quantity of potash. After 
 the drawing on the stone has been executed, and is 
 perfectly dry, a very weak solution of vitriolic acid is 
 poured upon the stone, which not only takes up the 
 alkali from the chalk or ink, as the case may be, leav- 
 ing an insoluble substance behind it, but it lowers in a 
 very small degree that part of the surface of the stone 
 not drawn upon, and prepares it for absorbing water 
 with greater freedom. Weak gum water is then ap- 
 plied to the stone, to close its pores and keep it moist. 
 The stone is now washed with water, and the daubing 
 ink applied with balls as in printing ; after which it is 
 passed in the usual way through the press, the process 
 of watering and daubing being applied for everj' im- 
 pression. 
 
 There is a mode of transferring drawings made with 
 the chemical ink on paper prepared with a solution of 
 size or gum tragacanth, which being laid on the stone 
 and passed through thepress leaves the drawing on the 
 stone, and the process above described for preparing 
 the stone and taking the impressions is earned into 
 effect. In Germany many engravings are made on 
 stone with the burin, in the same way as on copper ; 
 but the very great inferioritj' of these to copper en- 
 gravings makes it improbable that this method will 
 ever come into general use. Perhaps one of the great- 
 est advantages of the art of lithography is the extra- 
 ordinary number of copies that may be taken from a 
 block. As many as 70,000 copies or prints have been 
 taken from one block, and the last of them nearly 
 as good as the first. Expedition is also gained, inas- 
 much as a fifth more copies can be taken in the same 
 time than from a copper-plate : and as regards econ- 
 omy the advantage over every other, species of en- 
 graving is very great. 
 
 Zincography. — This art, which is of very recent in- 
 troduction in this country (so much so, indeed, that 
 but few specimens are as yet to be seen), is similar in 
 principle to lithography, the surface of the plates of 
 zinc on which it is executed being bit away, leaving 
 the design prominent, or in relief. We have seen some 
 beautiful examples of this art, but varying little in 
 their appearance from those of stone engraving.— 
 Bkande's Diet, of Science. 
 
 Engrossing, is " the buying up of corn and other 
 dead victuals, with intent to sell them again."— 5faci- 
 stone, book iv. cap. 42. It has been shown hoW ab- 
 surd it is to suppose that this practice should have any 
 injurious influence. But, for a long time, most scarci- 
 ties that occurred were either entirely ascribed to the 
 
 influence of engrossers and forestallers, or, at least, 
 were supposed to be materially aggravated by their 
 proceedings. In consequence, however, of the prev- 
 alence of more just and enlarged views upon such 
 subjects, the statutes that had been made for the sup- 
 pression and punishment of engrossing, forestalling, 
 etc., were repealed in 1772, in Great ]3ritain. But 
 notwithstanding this repeal, engrossing continues to 
 be an indictable offense, punishable at common law, 
 by fine and imprisonment ; though it is not at all likely, 
 were an attempt made, that any jury would now be 
 found ignorant or prejudiced enough to convict any 
 one on such a charge. 
 
 Entrepot (French), in Coinfnerce;n warehouse or 
 magazine for goods ; and hence lised- to designate a 
 seaport or commercial town which exports the produc- 
 tions of a considerable adjacent territory, and imports 
 foreign goods for its supply. 
 
 Envoy (Fr. envoyer, to send), a person deputed to 
 negotiate a treaty, .©r to transact other business with 
 a foreign prince or government. Envoys belong to 
 the second order of diplomatic ministers ; ranking be- 
 low embassadors properly so called. 
 
 Epaulette (Fr. epaide, a shoulder), a kind of 
 shoulder-knot or ornamental badge worn on the 
 shoulder by military men. Ofiicers, both naval and 
 military, wear epaulettes on one shoulder or on both, 
 according to their rank in the service. 
 
 Equador, or Ecuador, an independent state of 
 South America, lying under the equator, from which 
 it takes its name. It corresponds, with a trifling dif- 
 ference, to the old Spanish province or intendancy, of 
 Quito ; but formed anciently the northern portion of 
 the empu-e of the Incas of Peru, and latterly the south- 
 western province of the now dissolved republic of Co- 
 lumbia. It is situate between S. lat. 6° and N. lat. 
 2°, and W. long, from Greenwich 70° and 82°— being 
 about 830 miles in length from east to west, and 560 
 in breadth from north to south — and only contains an 
 area of about 320,000 English square miles. It is 
 bounded on the south by the state of Peru, on the 
 north by New Granada, on the east by Brazil, and on 
 the west by the Pacific Ocean ; but the boundaries of 
 the eastern portion of the state are not yet very well 
 defined. 
 
 Vegetable Productions. — In the low countries that 
 flank the base of the Andes, the banana, cycas, plan- 
 tain, cacao, jatropha which produces cassava and ma- 
 nioc, the cotton-tree, indigo, coffee, and the sugar-cane 
 abound ; beneath the elevation of 4000 feet, the plants 
 chiefly cultivated for food are the sweet potato, man- 
 dioc, yam, and banana, with rice, maize, and some 
 legumes ; but above 3100 feet most of these become 
 rare, and thrive only in particular situations. The 
 sugar-cane, however, has been grown so far up as 7500 
 feet. In some of the valleys are extensive planta- 
 tions of sugar-cane, cotton, tobacco, and cocoa. The 
 valley of Guayaquil is particularly fertile ; the soil is 
 alluvial, and there are few spots even between the 
 tropics which can vie with it in richness and variety 
 of vegetation. It is covered with groves of every 
 kind of tropical fruit, either wild or cultivated, as 
 the pineapple, pomegranate, shaddock, orange, lime, 
 lemon, peach, apricot, cherimoyer, pulta, grandilla, 
 tuna, and pacay. In the same region are found the 
 olive, pepper plant, tomatas, and sweet potatoes, gum 
 copal, copaiba balsam, carana, dragon's blood, sarsa- 
 parilla, and vanilla. To these succeed, in the humid 
 and shaded clefts on the slopes of the mountains, tree- 
 ferns and cinchona or Peruvian bark, the finest kind 
 of which is obtained about 8 to 12 miles south of Loja 
 among the mountains of Uritusinga, Villanaco, and 
 Eumusitana, where the trees that yield it grow in a 
 soil resting on mica-slate and gneiss, at the moderate 
 elevation of 5756 to 7673 feet above the level of the 
 sea. Between the elevations of 6000 to 9000 feet is 
 the region best suited for the European cereals. Wheat 
 
EQU 
 
 618 
 
 EQU 
 
 will not form the ear lower than at 4600 feet, or ripen 
 higher than at 10,000 feetj but harley and rye grow 
 at an eleyatlon 2500 feet still higher. To these may 
 be added the guinoa, a most usefi production for do- 
 mestic purposes. In this region alsoj and a little 
 above it, grow the potato and its congeners, all of 
 which are extensively used as food; the chick-pea, 
 broad-bean, cabbage, and other European vegetables, 
 are lilcewise abundant. Within the cereal limits are 
 found the oak, elm, ash, and beech, which never 
 descend lower than 5500 feet, and are seldom found 
 higher than 9200 feet above the level of the sea. 
 Higher up, the larger forest trees, except the pine, be- 
 gin to disappear i and on the mountains of Quito the 
 escallonia mark the highest limit of trees at an elevation 
 11,600 feet. The bejarias, the highest of shrubs, ter- 
 minate at 13,400 feet, above which, in rich and beau- 
 teous verdure, rises the zone of the grasses. Above 
 these,'among the trachyte rocks, onlyliohensj lecideas, 
 and the brightly-colored dust-like leprariaare met with; 
 and to these, succeed the region of perpetual snow. 
 
 Animals. — In some parts of the low country the air 
 swarms with musqnetoes and other flies stiU more tor- 
 menting, while the ground teems with snakes, centi- 
 pedes, and other reptiles. The banks of the great 
 rivers are crowded with caimans or alligators. Bats 
 are exceedingly numerous, and of great size ; the for- 
 ests of the warmer regions abound with armadilloes, 
 monkeys, and cavys ; and everj'where are found the 
 jaguar, the puma, the oimce, the ocelot, and several 
 varieties of the wild cat. The pecari and deer are 
 likewise common, as well as that singular animal the 
 ant-eater. The characteristic animals of the Andes 
 are the llama, the guanaco, the vicufla, andthepaco 
 or alpaca, some of which are trained as beasts of bur- 
 den, while others, particularly the vicufias, run wild 
 among the mountains, where thej' are hunted by the 
 Indians. Sheep and cattle are reared in great num- 
 bers, especially the former, in the valleys of the An- 
 des, and on ,the declivities of the mountains. Horses, 
 asses, and mules, are reared in sufficient numbers to 
 be articles of export. The chief of the birds is the 
 condor, which is found all along the Andes southward 
 as far as the Strait of Magellan, but nowhere to the 
 north of the equator. The turkey, vulture, and gal- 
 linago, are frequently met with, together with many 
 kinds of smaller birds. In some districts, particularly 
 along the coasts, considerable quantities of beeswax 
 are collected ; and higher up there are spots in which 
 the cochineal insect is reared. Along the rivers of the 
 great plain turtles are numerous ; and their fat, called 
 manieca butter, forms a considerable article of trade. 
 Fishing is carried on to some extent along the coasts, 
 and a good deal of salt-fish is prepared. A murex 
 is also found which yields a juice used in dyeing 
 purple. 
 
 Mineral Productions. — Equador is less rich in min- 
 erals, especially in the precious metals, than any other 
 of the South American states. There are, indeed, 
 several mines of gold and silver, but the yearly pro- 
 duce is inconsiderable. In some places are found lead 
 and quicksilver, but the latter is found, as usual, in 
 combination with Sulphur, in the form of cinnabar. 
 Near Azogue, 15 miles north-east by east of Cuen9a, 
 the ore is found in an immensely thick bed of quartz- 
 ose sandstone, containing foSsil wood and asphalt. 
 Sulphur is prepared in considerable quantities ;: gold 
 has been washed from the sands of some of the riv- 
 ers ; and salt is obtained from sea-water along the 
 coasts. 
 
 jRopidation.—The settled population is composed of 
 Spanish Creoles of pure descent, meztisos, mulattoes, 
 and negroes, the greater part of them being agricul- 
 turists, graziers, and growers of cocoa. These form 
 about a half of the population. The other half are 
 native Indians, of whom those that live among the 
 mountains are mostly agriculturists, cultivating their 
 
 lands with much care, and making for themselves 
 coarse stuffs of wool and cotton. The Indians Who 
 inhabit the eastern plains are in a much lower degree 
 of civilization. They cultivate only small patches of 
 ground, and apply themselves chiefly to hunting and 
 fishing. Three fourths of the population dwell in the 
 western or mountainous part of the state ; and the 
 total number is now estimated at about 800,000. 
 
 Manufactures. — The manufactures are unimportant, 
 consisting chiefly of coarse woolen and cotton cloths 
 and other necessarj' articles. The foreign trade is al- 
 most confined to Guayaquil, and is so trifling as 
 scarcely to deserve notice. 
 
 Political Condition. — Till 1812, Equador remained a 
 portion of the Spanish Empire of the Indies. It then 
 threw ofi" the yoke of Spain, and in 1821 became a 
 part of the newly constituted republic of Columbia. 
 This union, however, lasted only till 1831, when 
 Equador became an independent state. It has gone 
 through several revolutions ; and by the last (1852-3) 
 the democratic party has gained the ascendency, and 
 shown a tendency to adopt the United States of North 
 America as their political model. The state has, in 
 consequence, received a new and more liberal consti- 
 tution ; the Jesuits have been expelled ; and laws 
 have been made for the abolition of slavery. The 
 government is vested in a president, with a vice-presi- 
 dent and two chambers, all elective ; but the constitu- 
 tion is still notably complicated by what has always 
 been its principal characteristic, a predominating mix- 
 ture of military despotism, the president being always 
 the master of the state. - More,, perhaps, than any 
 other country of South America, Equador has been 
 slow in the development of her resources and national 
 industry. Frequent revolutions have paralyzed its 
 trade, and prevented the regulation of its finances. 
 No interest has been paid on its public debt since 1826. 
 It is emphatically the country of natural convulsions 
 and political revolutions. 
 
 For administrative purposes, the state is divided into 
 the three departments of Equador, Guayaquil, and As- 
 suay ; and these are subdivided into the seven provin- 
 ces, of Quito, Eiobamba, Ibarra, Guayaquil, Babahoyo, 
 Cueh^a, Loja, or Loxa (Loh-ha), and Jaen de Bracamor. 
 The state likewise claims the sovereignty of the Islas 
 de los Galapagos, or islands of land turtles, lying un- 
 der the equator at a distance of 700 to 900 miles from 
 the mainland. The chief towns are Quito, with from 
 50,000 to 80,000 inhabitants ; Guayaquil, 25,000 ; Cu- 
 en9a, 20,000 ; Eiobamba, 15,000 ; Loja, Babahoyo, and 
 Ibarra, about 10,000 each. Quito Is beautifully situ- 
 ated in the elevated plain to which it gives its name ; 
 and Guayaquil on the banks of a navigable river, 
 opening into the spacious bay, to which it gives its 
 name. 
 
 The foreign commerce of Equador is chiefly carried 
 on at the port of Guayaquil, which, with the ports of 
 Manta and San Lorenzo, is open for general importa- 
 tion and the exportation of national produce. The 
 ports open for exportation only are Santa Elena, Cal- 
 lao, Bahia de Caraccas, Loja, and Ibarra. Guayaquil 
 is the only port of general deposit for re-exportation 
 to foreign ports. The principal articles of export of 
 this republic are cocoa, hides, cattle, tobacco, wool, 
 straw-hats, cofi^ee, orchilla, bark. India-rubber, and an 
 inferior description of cotton. Cocoa is the leading 
 staple, the quantity annually exported reacliing over 
 15,000,000 pounds. The total value of the foreign 
 trade of Eqnador maybe stated at $4,000,000. .Thp 
 countries which participate in this trade are the United 
 States, Mexico, Guatemala, Chili, and Peru, in Amer- 
 ica ; and England, Spain, France, and Hamburg, in 
 Europe. 
 
 The commercial relations of the United States with 
 Equador are regulated by treaty and the local legisla- 
 lation of that republic. The treaty with the United 
 I States was ratified April 9, 1842, and stipulates for 
 
EQU 
 
 614 
 
 EQU 
 
 perfect equality and entire reciprocity of navigation 
 and commerce, both in the direct and indirect trade. 
 The third article has this stipulation : " That whereas, 
 by a law of Equailor, March 21, 1837, vessels built in 
 the dock-yard of Guayaquil shall be exempted from 
 various charges ; therefore, vessels of the United States 
 can not claim this privilege, but shall enjoy it if it 
 should be granted to vessels belonging to Spain or 
 Mexico and to the other Hispano-American republics." 
 The following translation of the decree conferring spe- 
 cial privileges on vessels constructed at Guayaquil, 
 bearing date August 23, 1845, is made from El Comer- 
 cio de Lima, October 6, 1846 : 
 
 " The provisional government considering that the 
 ship-yards of Guayaquil, by reason of its favorable 
 position, and in view of the interests of commerce and 
 of the republic, merit special attention ; therefore, in 
 order to advance these interests, and to encourage the 
 construction of ships, it is decreed : Art. 1. Vessels 
 constructed at Guayaquil, and retaining the national 
 flag, shall be exempt from tonnage, anchorage, and 
 other port dues. Art. 2. Such vessels shall be en- 
 titled to a reduction of three per cent, on all produce, 
 merchandise, etc., imported into any of the ports of 
 the republic for consumption." 
 
 The commerce between the United States and Equa- 
 dor is very limited, owing mainly to the fact that the 
 two great staples of the latter country, cocoa and 
 
 straw-hats, find but little demand in the United States 
 — the former being of limited consumption, and the 
 latter subject to a duty of 30 per cent. Before the 
 treaty between Spain and Equador, in 1843, United 
 States' vessels carried flour and domestic manufactures 
 direct to the port of Guayaquil, and were generally 
 chartered to transport cargoes of cocoa to Spain. Since 
 that period, however, the high duties on cocoa in Spain, 
 when imported in foreign vessels, have been equiva- 
 lent to a prohibition. This, together with the annu- 
 ally increasing importation of flour from Chili, has 
 produced a depressing efi^ect on American trade with 
 that republic. The following table will exhibit the 
 condition of this trade during a period of eleven suc- 
 cessive years. But little improvement can be ex- 
 pected, it Is thought, so long as the present tariff 
 regulations of the United States continue in force. 
 The duties on navigation in the ports of Equador are 
 • — tonnage duties, 25 cents per ton ; light dues, 6J 
 cents per ton. When pilots are employed, the fees are 
 $2 50 per foot of the vessel's depth. See Com. dela- 
 tions U. S., 1856-7. 
 
 Ecuador, which once formed part of the empire of 
 the Inoas, was discovered by Pizarro in 1526, and 
 was held under the Spanish crown until the year 1812, 
 when a revolution occurred, which ended in the estab- 
 lishment of a separate republic. In 1821 Ecuador 
 disconnected itself with New Grenada. 
 
 COMPABATIVE StATE.MENT OF THE COMMERCE OP THE UNITED StATEH WITH EQHADOR, EXHIBITING THE TaLUE OF EX- 
 PORTS TO AND Imports from bach Oohntby, and the Tonnage op American and foreign Vessels arriving 
 
 FROM AND departing TO EACH COUNTRY, DURING THE TEARS DESIGNATED. 
 
 YEARS. 
 
 
 OOMMEROiS. 
 
 
 NAVIGATION. | 
 
 VALUE OF EXPORTS. 
 
 VALUE OP 
 IMPORTS. 
 
 AMERICAN 
 
 TONNAGE. 
 
 FOREISN TONNAGE. | 
 
 Domestic 
 produce. 
 
 Foreign 
 produce. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Entered the 
 United States. 
 
 Clenred from 
 the U. States. 
 
 Entered the 
 United States. 
 
 Cleared from 
 
 the U. Slates. 
 
 1346 
 
 $27,258 
 24,414 
 
 .... 
 66,692 
 
 $1,130 
 
 571 
 
 10,611 
 
 $1,130 
 27,824 
 84,925 
 
 66,692 
 
 $4,618 
 76,692 
 70,536 
 12,600 
 57,584 
 12,663 
 
 "831 
 686 
 685 
 503 
 
 1,981 
 277 
 
 "299 
 219 
 
 "226 
 
 l,6il 
 
 .... 
 
 "828 
 410 
 
 614 
 168 
 1,185 
 668 
 760 
 249 
 192 
 
 1347 
 
 1860 
 
 1351 
 
 1852 
 
 1853 
 
 1854 
 
 1856 
 
 
 
 
 
 The following summary statements of the commerce 
 of Guyaquil, condensed from the of&cial reports for 
 the years designated, will convey a general idea of the 
 foreign commerce of Equador, the port of Guyaquil 
 being the principal port of that republic : 
 Trade of Guayaquil for 1S45. 
 
 Coimtries. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 1 Total. 
 
 Peru 
 
 $605,140 
 148,930 
 37,620 
 
 24^820 
 6,180 
 
 $110,770 
 
 170,810 
 
 190,000 
 
 177,270 
 
 99,760 
 
 76,620 
 
 85,910 
 
 14,680 
 
 6,270 
 
 $716,910 
 
 314,740 
 
 227,620 
 
 177,270 
 
 124,070 
 
 76,620 
 
 85,910 
 
 19,760 
 
 6,270 
 
 Chili 
 
 
 
 
 
 Central America.. 
 
 New Granada 
 
 England 
 
 Total 
 
 816,140 831.080 
 
 1,697,170 
 
 
 
 
 The United States does not appear in the list of 
 countries for 1845. Indeed, the foreign trade of Equa- 
 dor is conducted chiefly with the ports of Lima and 
 Valparaiso, the two principal entrepots for the trade 
 of South America. The following statement affords a 
 description of the merchandise, with its values, im- 
 ported in 1845, and the countries of origin : 
 
 Description of merchandise. 
 
 Values. 
 
 Countries of origin. 
 
 Textiles of cotton . . . 
 
 " wool 
 
 flax 
 
 " Bilk 
 
 T;Yine 
 
 $146,300 
 94,430 
 83,120 
 81,540 
 79,420 
 76,760 
 42,180 
 81,710 
 81,710 
 88,760 
 21,280 
 
 I 18,050 
 ■ 16,720 
 
 Peru. 
 
 Peru, Spain, Eranco. 
 Peru, Chili, France. 
 Peru, Chill. 
 
 Peru, Chili, Spain, France 
 Peru, Chill. 
 
 1.1 « 
 
 Chili, Pern, France. 
 
 
 Flour 
 
 Haberdashery 
 
 
 
 Musical instruments 
 and l^rniture 
 
 Pottery and glass- 
 wares 
 
 EXPORTS. 
 
 Description of merchandise. 
 
 Values. 
 
 Whither. 
 
 
 $666,580 
 79,990 
 22,280 
 19,380 
 
 Spain, Hamburg, Fi-ance. 
 
 Chili, Peru. 
 
 Peru. 
 
 Chili. 
 
 
 
 
 
 The following tabular statement exhibits the de- 
 scription of merchandise exported from the port of 
 Guayaquil in the year 1855, with the quantity of each 
 article, respectivelj'^ : 
 
 Exports of mercliniidige. 
 
 Cocoa. pounds 
 
 Straw hats dozen 
 
 Tanned hides sides 
 
 Tobacco quintals 
 
 Sarsaparilla " 
 
 Tamarinds, " 
 
 Coflfee '» 
 
 Orchilla " 
 
 Bark " 
 
 Timber logs 
 
 Canes pieces 
 
 Manyles " 
 
 India-rubber quintals 
 
 The countries to which the cocoa specified in the 
 above statement was sent, together with the quantity 
 to each, is exhibited as follows. Each carga equals 
 81 lbs. : 
 
 Carpas. lbs. 
 
 Spain 80,851 23 
 
 Hamburg 86,182 26 
 
 Franco 17,214 
 
 Peru 14,696 
 
 Chill 14,507 
 
 United States 7,644 
 
 Central America 5,463 
 
 Mexico 6,410 
 
 Panama. 4,922 
 
 Quantities. 
 15,089,763 
 33,773 
 26,246 
 8,659 
 657 
 699 
 776 
 4,000 
 7,789 
 9,868 
 73,651 
 6,660 
 765 
 
 62 
 18 
 
 Total 186,293 20 
 
 The following table exhibits the quantities, in 
 pounds, of cocoa, exported from Guayaquil during a 
 
EQU 
 
 615 
 
 ERI 
 
 period of ten years, from 1846 to 1855, both years in- 
 clusive : 
 
 Potmds. 
 
 1846 11,202,008 
 
 1847 12,078,615 
 
 1848 21,007,895 
 
 1849 14,284,734 
 
 1850 11,066,056 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 1851 9,567,680 
 
 1852 13,956,648 
 
 1853 18,248,024 
 
 1864 10,992,151 
 
 1855 15,089,753 
 
 The navigation returns of Guayaquil for 1849, the 
 latest period for wliich they are at hand, complete, ex- 
 hibit a total of 169 vessels entered and cleared, with 
 an aggregate tonnage of 46,838 tons, distributed as 
 follows : 
 
 Oountrlos. 
 
 ENTCaBD. 
 
 CLBAItBD. ) 
 
 VeaaelB. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 VaueU. 
 
 TOO!. 
 
 
 26 
 5 
 4 
 5 
 9 
 85 
 84 
 
 14,310 
 935 
 1,054 
 1,648 
 1,097 
 5,266 
 
 28 
 5 
 4 
 6 
 8 
 
 89 
 
 12,805 
 988 
 1,054 
 1,903 
 1,667 
 4,269 
 
 Umtcd States 
 
 
 
 Italy and Germany — 
 
 S, American republics. 
 
 Total 
 
 24,805 
 
 85 
 
 22,088 
 
 The only commercial legislation in this republic, of 
 recent date, is embodied in a decree given at the capi- 
 tal, Quito, August 15, 1855, by the President, 3os& 
 Mayia Urbina, imposing an export duty on bark and 
 India-rubber. The United States' consul at Guayaquil, 
 in communicating this decree, under date of Septem- 
 ber 30, 1855, says : "Against this injudicious measure 
 of the executive, strong representations will be made 
 to the present Congress by the commercial and indus- 
 trial classes, as unlawful, and injurious to the present 
 increasing commercial prosperity; of the country ; and 
 it is probable that it will be modified into renting or 
 selling the lands, or done away with altogether. " 
 
 A translation of this decree is subjoined : " Consid- 
 bring that the natural productions met with in the 
 uncultivated lands of the republic malce part of the 
 national riches, and that that the India-rubber and 
 bark discovered and extracted from said lands are be- 
 coming objects of speculation to many persons, and 
 should be made to yield a revenue to the country; 
 therefore, be it decreed : Art. 1. In the ports of the 
 republic where custom-houses are established, there 
 shall be exacted a duty of two dollars on ordinary, 
 and three dollars on refined India-rubber, on every 
 100 lbs. exported to foreign markets. Art. 2. The 
 bark taken from government lands, and exported to 
 foreign countries, shall pay a duty of two dollars for 
 every 100 lbs. on yellow, three on Callessaya, and 
 eight on red. Art. 3. Those persons who export In- 
 dia-rubber and bark withot presenting the same at the 
 custom-house, or place appointed for the collection of 
 the duties specified in the previous articles, with the 
 intent of avoiding the payment of said duties, shall 
 be judged according to the process detailed in the law 
 of the 21st November, 1853. Art. 4. Every citizen 
 who proposes extracting India-rubber or bark from 
 national lands, shall present himself to the respective 
 governor, who, after hearing his proposal, and satisfy- 
 ing himself that the land is actually government prop- 
 erty, shall give to the parties applying the required 
 permission in writing. Art. 5. Those engaged in the 
 collection of India-rubber must not cut down the tree ; 
 but, to obtain their object, should bore a small hole in 
 the trunk, at the height of about half a yard from the 
 ground, penetrating the greater part of the thickness 
 of the tree, taking care not to bore through it. Art. 6. 
 Tliose who are found taking India-rubber or bark from 
 national lands without having complied with the con- 
 ditions prescribed in articles 4 and 5, shall be treated 
 as smugglers, and the substances collected taken from 
 them and confiscated. Art. 7. The governors of prov- 
 inces in the lands under their jurisdiction will take all 
 possible measures to discover and apprehend all parties 
 who endeavor to infringe the preceding dispositions. 
 Art. 8. Article 6 applies, also, to those individuals who 
 do not comply with the dispositions of articles 4 and 5, 
 under the pretext that they are collecting the aforesaid 
 
 substances from their own lands, should it be discov- 
 ered that the said lands are national property. Art. 9. 
 Those persons who collect India-rubber and bark from 
 their own property, are not subject to any of the du- 
 ties imposed in the present decree. Art, 10. The Sec- 
 retarj' of the Treasury is charged with the due execu- 
 tion of this present decree, of which it is his duty to 
 inform the Congress next ensuing.", — Com. Relations, 
 
 U. S. See GUAYAQDIL, 
 
 Equator (mquare, to make equal), in astronomy 
 and geography, a great circle of the sphere, equally 
 distant from tlie two poles of the world, or having the 
 same poles as the world. It is called equator because 
 when the sun is ih it the days and nights are equal ; 
 whence also it is denominated the eguinoctial ; and' 
 when drawn on maps, planispheres, or globes, it is 
 called the equinoctial line, or simply the line. Every 
 point in the equator is 90 degrees, or a quadrant's dis- 
 tance from the poles of the world ; and hence the 
 equator divides the sphere into two equal hemispheres, 
 in one of which is the northern, and in the other the 
 southern pole. Terrestrial longitudes are measured 
 on the equator, or some one of its parallel circles ; 
 commencing from some arbitrary point, which differ- 
 ent nations assume variously, most of them adopting 
 the meridian which passes through their capital city 
 or principal observatorj'. X.atitudes are counted from 
 the equator along the meridian. 
 
 Equinox (Lat. cequus and nox, night), in astron- 
 omy, is the time at which the sun passes through the 
 equator in one of the equinoctial points. When the 
 sun is in the equator, the days and nights are of equal 
 length all over the world, whence the derivation of 
 the term. This happens twice every year, namely, 
 about the 21st of March, and the 22d of Septeinber ; 
 the former is called the vernal, and the latter the au- 
 tummal equinox. The equinoxes do not divide the 
 year into portions of equal length ; for in consequence 
 of the sun being at his greatest distance from the earth 
 during the summer months, and his angular motion in 
 his orbit being consequently slower, the interval from 
 the vernal to the autumnal equinox is greater than 
 that from the autumal to the vernal. In other words, 
 the sun continues longer on the northern than on the 
 southern side of the equator. At the beginning of the 
 present century, the difference amounted to 7 days 16 
 hours and 51 minutes. The summer in the northern 
 hemisphere is constantly longer than in the southern 
 by this quantity ; and to this circumstance some 
 meteorologists ■ ascribe, in part at least, the higher 
 temperature that is found to prevail in the northern 
 hemisphere under the same parallel of latitude. 
 
 Erie (lake), situated north of New York, Pennsyl- 
 vania, and Ohio, and constitutes a part of the bound- 
 ary between the United States and Canada. It is 240 " 
 miles long, and 60 broad, in its widest part. It re- 
 ceives the waters of Superior, Michigan, and Huron 
 lakes, through Detroit Eiver, and discharges its wa- 
 ters through Niagara Eiver into Lake Ontario, Its 
 surface is elevated 565 feet above tide-water in the 
 Hudson Eiver at Albany. The soundings bj' the U. 
 S. Engineers show the lake to be divided into three 
 sections of unequal depth, viz., one extends from the 
 head down to Point Pellee Island, and the bottom 
 presents a general level, with a depth of 30 feet in the 
 average. The second is of much larger extent, and 
 stretches to Long Point ; is also a level, with a depth 
 of 60 to 70 feet. The third section extends to Niagara 
 Eiver, and is an uneven bottom, with various depths 
 of water, ranging from 60 to 240 feet. The business 
 done on this lake is immense, and increasing. The 
 licensed tonnage of the lake is 138,852 tons, of which a 
 large and increasing proportion is of steam-vessels. 
 The estimated value of the commerce amounts to 
 $220,000,000 annually. There are 26 light-houses and 
 beacons on the American side, and 10 on the Canadian 
 side, A battle was fought near its west end Septem- 
 
ESS 
 
 616 
 
 EUP 
 
 ber lOth, 1813, between the American fleet, under 
 Commodore Perry, and the English fleet, in which the 
 latter was captured. See Lake3, Commerce of. 
 
 Ermine (Ger. Hermelin; Fr. Bermine, Ermine; Eus. 
 Goriiostai), a species of weasel (musteJa Candida, Lin.), 
 abundant in all cold countries, particularly Russia, 
 Norway, Lapland, etc., and producing a most valua- 
 ble species of fur. In summer the ermine is of a 
 brown color, and is called the stoat. It is in winter 
 only that the fur has that beautiful snowy whiteness 
 and consistence so much admired. See Furs. 
 
 Esparto, a species of rush, the siipa tenacissima of 
 botanists. It is found in the southern provinces of 
 Spain ; and is particularly abundant on all the sterile, 
 uncultivated, and mountainous districts of Valencia. 
 Beckmann (Hist, of Invent., vol. ii., p. 288, Eng. ed.) 
 supposes, apparently with good reason, that the stipa 
 tenacissima is the plant described bj' Pliny under the 
 name of Sparta, who ascribes its application to useful 
 purposes to the Carthaginians. — Hist. Nat., lib. xis., 
 c. 2. It is still used for the same purposes as in 
 antiquity, being manufactured into cordage, shoes, 
 matting, baskets, nets, matresses, sacks, etc. Cables 
 made of esparto are said to be excellent ; being light, 
 they float on the surface of the water, and are not, 
 therefore, so liable as hempen cables to be cut or in- 
 jured by a foul bottom. They are exclusively made 
 use of in the Spanish navy. Esparto is largely con- 
 sumed in the manufacture of alpergaies. These are 
 light shoes worn by the Valencian peasantrj^, having 
 platted soles made either of esparto or hemp, but prin- 
 cipally of the former. They are extremely cheap and 
 commodious in hot climates ; and besides being in 
 extensive demand at home, used to be exported in 
 immense quantities to both Indies ; but since the 
 emancipation of Spanish America, this trade has 
 greatly fallen off. The Spanish peasantry have at- 
 tained to wonderful dexterity in the manufacture of 
 esparto. " After having soaked the rush in water, the 
 women and children, without either wheel or spindle, 
 contrive to twist two threads at the same time. This 
 they do by rubbing them between the palms of their 
 hands, in the same manner as a shoemaker forms a 
 thread upon his knees, with this difference, that one 
 motion gives the twist to each thread, and, at the 
 same time, unites them. To keep the threads asun- 
 der, the thumb of the right hand is interposed between 
 them ; and when that is wanted for other purposes, 
 the left thumb supplies its place. Two threads being 
 thus twisted into one of the bigness of a large crow- 
 quill, 46 yards are sold for little more than Jd., the 
 materials being worth about a fifth part of the price." 
 — Towssend's Travels in Spain, vol. iii., p. 177 ; see 
 also p. 129; Fischee's Picture of Valencia, Eng. ed., 
 p. 92, and p. 57, etc. 
 
 Essence D'Orient, the name of a pearly-looking 
 matter procured from the May or bleak, a fish of the 
 genus cyprinus. This substance, which is found prin- 
 cipally at the base of the scales, is used in the manu- 
 facture of artificial pearls. A large quantity of the 
 scales being scraped into water in a tub, are there 
 rubbed between the hands to separate the shining stuff 
 which subsides on repose. The first water being de- 
 canted, more is added with agitation till the essence is 
 thoroughly washed from all impurities ; when the 
 whole is thrown upon a sieve ; the substance passes 
 through, but the scales are retained. The water be- 
 ing decanted ofi', the essence is procured in a viscid 
 state, of a bluish-white color, and a pearly aspect. 
 The intestines of the same fish are also covered mth 
 this beautiful, glistening matter. Several other fish 
 yield it, but in smaller proportion. When well pre- 
 pared, it presents exactly the appearance and reflec- 
 tions of the real pearls, or the finest mother of pearl ; 
 properties which are probably owing to the interposi- 
 tion of some portions of this same substance, between 
 the lamlniE of these shelly concretions. Its chemical 
 
 nature has not been investigated ; it putrefies readily 
 when kept moist, an accident which may, however, 
 be counteracted by water of ammonia. See Pearls. 
 
 Essential Oils, or Volatile Oils. Under this 
 term are included all those peculiar compounds ob- 
 tained by distilling vegetable substances with water, 
 and which pass over along with the steam, and are 
 afterward condensed in the liquid or solid form. They 
 appear to constitute the odorous principles of vegeta- 
 bles. Their specific gravity fluctuates on either side 
 that of water ; they are very sparingly soluble in wa- 
 ter, and these solutions constitute the medicated waters ; 
 rose, peppermint, and other waters being such solu- 
 tions of the respective essential oils. They dissolve in 
 alcohol and form essences, many of which are used as 
 perfumes. When these oils are pure, they evaporate 
 from paper when held before the fire ; but if adulte- 
 rated with fixed oils, they leave a greasy stain, and 
 seldom dissolve perfectly in alcohol. The more ex- 
 pensive of these oils are frequently adulterated mth the 
 cheaper ones, and this fraud can only be detected by 
 an experienced nose. Their chief use is in perfumer}', 
 on account of their odor, and in medicine they form 
 valuable stimulants". They are inflammable, and are, 
 with few exceptions, compounds of hydrogen, oxygen, 
 and carbon. The essence of turpentine, of lemons, 
 and a few others, are hydrocarbons. 
 
 Establishment of the Port, a term used by 
 writers on the tides, to denote the interval between 
 the time of high water at any given port and the time 
 of the moon's transit immediately preceding the time 
 of high water, when the moon is in sj'zygy ; that is, at 
 the new or full moon. This interval is influenced by 
 local circumstances, and consequently different at dif- 
 ferent places. See Tides. 
 
 Estrioh, or Estridge (Fr. Duvet d'autruche; It. 
 Penna matta di strozzo ; Sp. Plumazo de avestrux ; Lat. 
 Struthionum plumce molliores), is the fine, soft down 
 which lies immediately under the feathers of the os- 
 trich. The finest isusedasas nbstitute for beaver in the 
 manufacture of hats, and the coarser or stronger sort 
 is employed in the fabrication of a stuff which resem- 
 bles fine woolen cloth. Estridge is brought from the 
 Levant, Italy, and other parts of the Mediterranean. 
 
 Ether (Gr. atdyp). In chemistry this term is ap- 
 plied to a highly volatile, fragrant, inflammable, and 
 intoxicating liquid, produced by distilling a mixture 
 of equal weights of sulphuric acid and alcohol. When 
 these liquids mutually act on each other, a series of 
 complicated changes ensue, which terminate in the 
 conversion of alcohol into ether. 
 
 Euphorbium (Ger. Euphorlimgummi ; Lat. Eu- 
 phorbium ; Fr. Euphorbe ; Arab. Akcd-nafzaK), the 
 produce of a perennial plant, a native of Africa, and of 
 many parts of India, etc. It is a concrete gum resin ; 
 is inodorous ; when first chewed has little taste, but 
 it soon gives a very acrid, burning impression to the 
 tongue, palate, and throat, which is very permanent, 
 and almost insupportable. It is imported in serons, 
 containing from 100 to 150 lbs. It is in small, hollow, 
 forked pieces, often mixed with seeds and other im- 
 purities.^— Thomson's Dispensatory. 
 
 Euphrates, the most considerable river of west- 
 ern Asia, is formed by the junction of two great 
 streams rising in the mountains of Armenia, pashalic 
 of Erzeroum, and uniting in about N. lat. 39°, E. long. 
 39°. The Frat or northern branch has its principal 
 sources about 20 miles north-east of the town of Erze- 
 roum ; and the Murad, on the north declivity of the 
 Arghi-dagh mountains, 45 miles north-east from the 
 nearest point of Lake Van. The Euphrates flows first 
 to the south, but, being driven westward by the Anti- 
 Taurus and Taurus mountains, it works its circuitous 
 way through narrow passes and over cataracts, until, 
 breaking through a defile formed by the eastern ex- 
 tremity of Mens Amauus (Alma-dagh) and the north- 
 western extremity of Mens Taurus, it reaches the 
 
EUP 
 
 61T 
 
 EUE 
 
 plain country not far from Samosata (Sumeisat). It 
 then winds soutli and south-east, passing the north of 
 Syria, and the north-east of Arabia Deserta, and at 
 length, after many windings, unites with the Tigris, 
 and thus united, finds its termination in the Persian 
 Gulf. In conjonction with the Tigris, it forms the 
 rich, alluvial lands of Mesopotamia, over which it 
 flows or is carried by canals, and thus diffuses abroad 
 fertility and beauty. At Baghdad and Hillah (Baby- 
 lon) the Euphrates and Tigris approach compara,tivel3^ 
 near to eacli other, but separate again, forming a kind 
 of ample basin, till they finally become one at Kurnah. 
 Although occasionally much more, the breadth of the 
 Euphrates varies between 200 and 400 j'ards, but for a 
 distance of 60 miles through the Lemlun marshes, the 
 main stream narrows to about 80 yards. The general 
 depth of the Upper Ejjplirates exceeds 8 feet. In 
 point of current it is for the most part a sluggish 
 stream ; for, except in the height of the flooded sea^ 
 son, when its flow approaches 5 miles an hour, it varies 
 from 2J to 3-J^, with a much larger portion of its course 
 under 3 than above. Its general description for some 
 distance below Erzingan, is that Of a river of the first 
 order, struggling through high hills, or rather low 
 mountains, making an exceedingly tortuous course, 
 as it forces its way over a pebbly bed, from one natu- 
 ral barrier to another. As it winds round its numerous 
 barriers, it carries occasionally toward each of the car- 
 dinal points a considerable body of water ; and is shal- 
 low enough in some places for loaded camels to pass 
 in autumn, the water rising to < about 4J- feet. The 
 upper portion of the river is inclosed between two par- 
 allel ranges of hills, covered for the most part with 
 high brushwood and timber of moderate size, having a 
 succession of loSg, narrow islands. The principal 
 towns on its banks are Samsat, Haoroum, Romkala, 
 Bir, Giaber, Deir, Eava, Anah, Hadisa, El Oos, Jibba, 
 Hit, Hillah, Lemlun, Kurnah, and Basrah. The 
 scenery above Hit, in itself very picturesque, is 
 greatlj' heightened by the frequent recurrence of an- 
 cient tn'igating aqueducts, beautiful specimens of art, 
 which are attributed by the Arabs to the Persians 
 when fire-worshipers ; they literally cover both banks, 
 and prove that the borders of the Euphrates were once 
 thickly inhabited by a highly civilized people. From 
 Hit to Babylon the black tent of the Bedouin is almost 
 the only Icind of habitation to be seen. This distance 
 is cultivated only in part ; the rest is desert, occasion- 
 allj' interspersed with clusters of date-trees. In de- 
 scending, the irrigating cuts and canals become more 
 frequent. Babylon is encircled by two streams, one 
 above, the other below tlie principal ruins ; beyond 
 which they unite and produce abundance. For about 
 30 miles below Hillah both banks have numerous mud 
 villages, shaded by date-trees : to these succeed huts 
 formed of bundles of reeds. The country lower down 
 toward Lemlun, is level and little elevated above the 
 river ; irrigation is therefore easy ; in consequence, 
 both banks are covered with productive cultivation, 
 and fringed with a double and nearlj' continuous belt 
 of luxuriant date-trees, extending down to the Persian 
 Gulf. At one mile and a half above the town of De- 
 wania is the first considerable offshoot from this hith- 
 erto majestic river ; another talies place 22 miles 
 lower ; and 9 miles further, at Lemlun, it again sep- 
 arates into two branches, forming a delta not unlike 
 that of Damietta, and when the river is swollen, inun- 
 dating the country for a space of about 60 miles in 
 width, with a shallow sheet of water, forming the 
 Lemlun marshes, nearly the whole of which is covered 
 with rice and other grain, when the river recedes in 
 June. Below Lemlun the Tigris sends a branch to 
 the Euphrates, which is thus increased in its volume ; 
 and turning to the east, receives the chief branch of the 
 Tigris, thence running in u single stream, under the 
 name of the Shat-el-Arab, as far as the Persian Gulf. 
 In this last part the river has a depth of from 3 to 5 
 
 fathoms ; varies' in breadth from BOO to 900 yards, and 
 presents banks covered with villages and cultivation, 
 having ah appearance at once imposing and majestic. 
 The length of the entire stream is 1,400 miles. It is 
 very abundant in fish. , The water is somewhat turbid,* 
 but when purified, is pleasant and salubrious. The 
 Arabians set a high value on it, and name it Morad 
 Sou ; that is. Water of Desire or Longing. The river 
 begins to rise in March, and continues rising till the 
 latter end of May. The consequent increase of its 
 volume and rapidity is attributable to the early rains, 
 which, falling in the Armenian mountains, swell its 
 mountain tributaries ; and also to the melting of the 
 winter snows in these lofty regions. About the mid- 
 dle of October the Euphrates has reached its lower 
 ebb, and ceasing to decrease, becomes tranquil and 
 sluggish. 
 
 The expedition sent out by the British government 
 under the direction of Colonel Chesney, navigated the 
 Euphrates in 1836 from Bireh-jifc to its estuary, a dis- 
 tance of 1,117 miles jand besides throwing much light 
 on a countrj' then very imperfectly known to Euro- 
 peans, proved that there exist no serious obstacles to 
 the navigation of that river by moderatc'-sized steam- 
 ers thus far ; and even for 88 miles above Bireh-jik to 
 Beles, an important station in a commercial point of 
 view. — E. B. 
 
 lEiUrope, one of the great divisions of the globe. 
 On a first view Europe appears to be less favored by 
 nature than the other quarters of the globe over which 
 it has obtained so great an ascendency. It is much 
 smaller in extent ; its rocky and mountainous surface 
 does not admit of those noble rivers, like inland seas, 
 which lay open the remotest regions of Asia and of 
 America to the commerce of the world. Its vegetable 
 productions are neither so various nor so exuberant ; 
 and it is poorly supplied with the precious metals, and 
 mth manj- of those, commodities on which mankind set 
 the greatest value. On the other hand, the climate of 
 Europe, if it nourishes a less luxuriant vegetation, is. 
 of an equal and temperate kind, well adapted to pre- 
 serve the human frame in that state of health and 
 vigor which fits it for labor, and promotes the develop- 
 ment of the intellectual and moral powers. The 
 mountains that intersect its surface are barriers which 
 enabled infant communities to protect themselves from 
 violence, and to lay the foundation of arts, knowledge, 
 and civilization. If it has few large navigable riv- 
 ers, its inland seas and bays are, from their position 
 and extent, the finest in the world, and have been the 
 means of creating and nourishing that commercial 
 spirit which has been one great source of its improve- 
 ment. Though comparatively deficient in gold and 
 silver, it is abundantly supplied with those useful met- 
 als and minerals which minister still more essentially 
 to the wants of civilized life. Its apparent defects 
 have become the source of real benefits, and the found- 
 ation of its grandeur. The disadvantages of its soil 
 and climate have excited the industry of its inhabit- 
 ants, given them clearer ideas of property, kindled a 
 resolute spirit to defend their rights, and called into 
 existence that skill and enterprise, and those innumer- 
 able arts and inventions, which have enabled the in- 
 habitants of this apparently barren and rocky promon- 
 tory to command the riches and luxuries of all the 
 most favored regions of the globe. It is onlj' in Eu- 
 rope that knowledge and the arts seem to be indige- 
 nous. Though they have appeared at times among 
 some of the nations of Asia, they have either stopped 
 short after advancing a few steps, or they have speed- 
 ily retrograded and perished, like something foreign to 
 the genius of the people. In Europe, on the contrarj', 
 they have sprung up at distant periods, and in a va- 
 riety of situations ; they have risen spontaneously and 
 rapidly, and declined slowly; and when they disap, 
 peared, it was evident they were but crushed for the 
 time bv external violence, to rise again when the 
 
EUR 
 
 618 
 
 pressure had subsided. It is only in Europe, and 
 among colonies of Europeans, that the powers of the 
 human mind, breaking through the slavish attachment 
 to ancient usages and institutions, have developed 
 that principle of progressive improvement of which it 
 is impossible to calculate the final results. The rudest 
 tribe in Europe, in which this principle has taken root, 
 has a certain source of superiority over the most im- 
 proved nations of Asia and Africa, where society re- 
 mains perfectly stationary. If these nations are ever 
 destined to advance in civilization, they must borrow 
 from Europe those arts which she has invented, and 
 which belong to civilized life in every climate. But 
 the tenacious adherence of rude nations to the customs 
 and superstitions of their ancestors, will not allow us 
 to hope that the benefits of civilization will be rapidly 
 diffused in this way. It is more probable that colo- 
 nies from the older states of Europe will multiply as 
 the population becomes more and more redundant ; and 
 that these colonies will carry the arts and knowledge, 
 the language and manners, of Europe with them, to 
 the other quarters of the world. From prejudices on 
 both sides, it is found that two races, in very different 
 stages of civilization, do not readily amalgamate ; and 
 it is therefore probable that the feebler inhabitants of 
 these countries, like the American Indians, wUl be 
 gradually displaced by the continual encroachments of 
 the more energetic races of Europe. 
 
 Europe is bounded on the N. and W. by the Arctic 
 and Atlantic Oceans ; ou the S. by the Mediterranean, 
 the Black Sea, and Mount Caucasus ; on the E. by the 
 Caspian Sea, the river Ural, and the Uralian Mount- 
 ains. The greatest length of the continent is from 
 Cape St. Vincent to the Sea of Kara, in the direction 
 of N. E. and S.W., and is 3490 English miles. Its 
 greatest extent from N. to S. is from Cape Matapan to 
 Cape North, 2420 mUes. The superficies of Europe, 
 including the Azores, Iceland, Nova Zembla, and all 
 its other islands, is 3,700,000 English, or 2,800,000 
 geographical square miles ; and the length of its coast 
 line is about 16,000 miles. 
 
 Climate. — The climate of Europe is distinguished by 
 two peculiarites. It enjoys a higher mean temperature 
 than anj' of the other great divisions of the world in 
 the corresponding latitudes ; and it is not subject to 
 such violent extremes of heat and cold. These ad- 
 vantages it owes chiefly to its numerous seas, inland 
 bays, and lakes, which render its temperature similar to 
 that of islands ; and partly also, according to Humboldt, 
 to its situation at the western extremity of the great- 
 est range of iry land on the surface of the globe ; the 
 western sides of all continents being warmer than the 
 eastern. Europe lies almost entirely within the tem- 
 perate zone, not more than one fourteenth part of its 
 surface being within the arctic circle. Only a very 
 small part of it is uninhabitable from cold, and it no- 
 where suffers from excessive heat. The mean tem- 
 perature at its southern extremity, in the latitude of 
 36°, is about G6° of Fahrenheit ; and at Cape North, 
 in the latitude of 71°, where the mean temperature is 
 32°, the cold is not greater than in the latitudes of 55° 
 or 56° on the east coasts of Asia and America. Hence 
 Europe is habitable at a higher latitude by 12° or 14° 
 than either of these continents. 
 
 Temperature. — ^There is a difference of the same 
 kind between the temperature of the sea-coasts of Eu- 
 rope and the interior. In islands, and on the sea-coast, 
 the mean temperature of the year is higher, and the 
 heat is more equally distributed through the different 
 seasons. As we advance from the coast eastward the 
 mean annual temperature diminishes, but the heat of 
 summer and the cold of winter increase. Thus Lon- 
 don has the same mean annual temperature as Vienna, 
 but it has the summer of St. Petersburg, and the win- 
 ter is warmer than at Milan. The Mediterranean, the 
 Baltic, and inland lakes, produce the same effect as the 
 ocean, in an inferior degree. The following table 
 
 EUR 
 
 I. The temperature of the year, and the va- 
 rious seasons, in places having the same latitude ; II. 
 The diflfereut distribution of heat through the various 
 seasons in places having the same'mean annual tem- 
 perature. 
 
 PLACH9. 
 
 
 
 H£AN 
 
 TKMPBBATUKB 
 
 
 
 Of the 
 Year. 
 
 Winter. 
 
 Spring. 
 
 Sum- 
 mer. 
 
 Au- 
 tumn. 
 
 Worm- 
 
 est 
 Month. 
 
 CoIde.t 
 Montli. 
 
 I. Lat. 56. 
 Edinburg.... 
 Copenhagen 
 Moscow 
 
 Lat. 48. 
 
 St Malo 
 
 Vienna 
 
 II. Lat. 
 Dublin 53-21 
 Prague 50-2 
 
 47-8 
 45-6 
 40'2 
 
 54-4 
 60.6 
 
 49-2 
 49-4 
 
 88-6 
 
 so-s 
 
 10-8 
 
 44-2 
 82-8 
 
 89-2 
 81-4 
 
 46-4 
 41-2 
 44-0 
 
 52-2 
 51-2 
 
 47-8 
 47-6 
 
 58-2 
 62-6 
 67-1 
 
 66'0 
 69-2 
 
 69-6 
 68 '9 
 
 48-4 
 48-4 
 38-S 
 
 56-8 
 50-6 
 
 50-0 
 50-2 
 
 59-4 
 65-0 
 70-6 
 
 67-0 
 70-6 
 
 .. 
 .-. 
 
 88-3 
 
 27-2 
 
 6-0 
 
 41 '8 
 26-6 
 
 The mountains of Europe are more numerous in 
 proportion to its extent than those of the other great 
 continents, but they are of less elevation than the 
 mountains of America and Asia. The highest and 
 the most extensive chains in Europe run generally in 
 the direction of east and west, and are placed near its 
 southern shores. The central mass of the Alps, with 
 which all the other mountains in the south of Europe 
 are connected, forms the summit of the continent, and 
 determines the position of the surface and the courses 
 of most of the rivers. 
 
 Hivers. — Europe is well watered with rivers, but they 
 are mere brooks compared with the mightj^ streams of 
 Asia and America, and, from the unevenness of the sur- 
 face, afford in general no great extent of inland navi- 
 gation. The Danube, the largest river that is entirely 
 in Europe, is about 1500 miles in length, and drains 
 an area of 370,000 square miles. But the Amazon, 
 though only twice the length of the Danube, drains a 
 surface seven times as large, and equal to four fifths of 
 the continent of Europe ; and, as the quantity of rain 
 that falls in tropical countries is much greater than in 
 northern latitudes, it is probable, notwitstanding the 
 increased evaporation there, that the Amazon conveys 
 more water than all the rivers of Europe put together. 
 If we divide the length of the Danube into a hundred 
 parts, the length of the principal rivers of Europe, ex- 
 pressed in these parts, will be as follows : Danube 100 ; 
 Volga, 130 ; Dnieper, 72 ; Don, 69 ; Rhine, 49 ; Elbe, 
 42 ; Vistula, 41 ; Loire, 37 ; Tagus, 32 ; Oder, 31 ; 
 Rhone, 30 ; Seine, 23 ; Po, 21 ; Tiber, 10 ; Thames, 9. 
 
 The courses of the great rivers show the fall of the 
 country through which they flow, but it would be ab- 
 surd to take the average of the fall per mile from the 
 measurements of their whole lengths, for, with the ex- 
 ception of the Volga, and other rivers of Russia, the 
 early parts of their respective courses are among 
 mountains, or in elevated valleys, where, and from 
 which, the fall is very rapid ; and it is only when 
 taken from the points where they leave their mount- 
 ain cradles and reach the plains, that such an average 
 will truly indicate the extent and degree of the gen- 
 eral slope of the continent. The source of the Volga 
 is only about 560 feet above the level of the Caspian 
 Sea, into which it flows, and the length of its course 
 being at least 2000 miles, without any serious rapids, 
 the average of its fall is consequently very regular, 
 and little more than three inches a mile ; but, the di- 
 rect distance being only 900 miles, the slope of the 
 country exceeds seven inches a mile. The source of 
 the Danube, in Suabia, is about 2176 feet above the 
 level of the Black Sea ; but its fall is in several places 
 very rapid, particularly between Passau and Vienna, 
 and at the Irongale, through which it passes from the 
 plains of Hungary to the low level of Wallachia. The 
 average fall, therefore, of such a river would be a 
 most fallacious index of the configuration of the whole 
 length of country through which it flows. Its course 
 is indeed through a series of terraces, separated by 
 deep falls. The sources of the Rhine, in the heart of 
 Switzerland, have an elevation of more than 7000 feet, 
 
EUR 
 
 619 
 
 EUR 
 
 but -when it reaches the Lake of Constance it has al- 
 ready fallen to 1300. From that lake to Basle, -where 
 it leaves the mountains, it falls more than 500 feet, 
 and even further down it still flows with great impet- 
 uosity, falling 400 feet ;more before it reaches Stras- 
 burg, a distance of only 70 miles. The average, how- 
 ever, of its fall from the latter city to the sea is only 
 about one foot a mile. The elevation of the Elhbrun^ 
 nen, or sources of the Elbe, in Bohemia, is 4260 feet, 
 but the river falls so rapidly, within a short distance, 
 that, after passing the northern mountain border of 
 Bohemia, its elevation is found to be, at Dresden, only 
 280 feet. The average fall from that point to tlie sea 
 is less than a foot a mile, The elevation of the source 
 of the Oder is 1705 feet, but at Breslau it has already 
 fallen to 370, and the average fall of the remainder of 
 its course is likewise about a foot a mile. The eleva^ 
 tion of the source of the Vistula we have not been able 
 to learn, but as it is navigable from Podgorze, near 
 Cracow, to the sea, its average fall is probably much 
 the same as that of the Elbe or the Oder. 
 
 Few of the rivers of Europe are of much import- 
 ance as means of communication and transit. The 
 Volga becomes navigable at Eief, about 70 miles from 
 its source, and so continues to the Caspian Sea, a dis- 
 tance of more than 2000 miles, following the course of 
 the river. It is the great highway of Central Kussia, 
 so many as 5000 loaded boats annually descending its 
 stream ; but as it ends unfortunately in an inland lake, 
 it is of no use for the transport of other foreign wares 
 than the produce of the sandy and barren regions that 
 surround the Caspian. 
 
 The Volga is so connected with the other great 
 rivers and lakes of Russia by canals, that there is un- 
 interrupted navigation from the Baltic to the White 
 Sea, the Black Sea, and tlie Caspian. The Don has a 
 course of 900 miles, but has so manj' shallows as to be 
 nowhere navigable for large or sharp-bottomed vessels. 
 The Dnieper, the next largest river of Bussia, has a 
 course of 1000 miles, and is navigable from Smolensk 
 to Kief ; but, further doivn, its channel is so obstructed 
 with roclcs and falls, for a space of 150 miles, that 
 navigable communication between the sea and the 
 inland provinces through which it flows is completely 
 cut oflf. The Danube becomes navigable at Ulm, 
 1500 miles from its mouth ; but between Passau and 
 Vienna, it flows among mountains, and navigation is 
 rendered difiicult by the rapidity of the stream, and 
 the frequent occurrence of rocks, shoals, eddies, and 
 whirlpools ; and, in leaving Hungary, through a nar- 
 row gorge of 60 miles in length, which it has cut for 
 itself across the mountains that inclose that country, 
 it falls in a series of rapids, the lowest of which is the 
 famous Irongate, through which the stream rushes 
 with great rapidit}' in a narrow channel, between stu- 
 pendous roclts, ending in a series of whirlpools, eddies, 
 and smaller falls. Here navigation was considered to 
 be effectually stopped ; but vre have just learned 
 (January, 1855) that steamboats have at last been 
 constructed so as to be considered capable of passing 
 these rapids in safety, and that they will be imme- 
 diately put upon the river. It is also proposed to cut 
 a channel through the rocks 1200 yards long, 40 feet 
 wide, and 6 feet deep, which will give plenty of ad- 
 ditional depth for the steamers and other loaded ves- 
 sels. The number of workmen to be employed in this 
 gigantic undertaking is 2000, and the work will extend 
 over a period of 6 years, at a cost of 2,000,000 of flor- 
 ins. So numerous, besides, are the windings of the 
 Danube through the comparativelj' level plains of 
 Hungary, that between Presburg and the Black Sea, 
 a direct distance of 650 miles, the course of the river 
 actually measures 1200. The Rhine is navigable 
 above the lake of Constance, but the navigation is 
 stopped by the Rheinfall near Schaffhausen. From 
 that point to Basle it is not very easy or always prac- 
 ticable; to Strasburg it is not free from danger ; but 
 
 further down the river becomes a fine navigable 
 stream, not quite free indeed from diificulty and risk, 
 particularly in the deep and narrow gorge which it 
 passes through between Bingen and Coblentz ; but 
 below Coblentz the channel is uninterrupted and free 
 from danger. Between the Rhine and the Danube there 
 is a navigable communication by means of the rivers 
 Meyn and Altmuhl, which are connected by the Lud- 
 wig's canal in Bavaria. The Elbe, and its tributary, 
 the Moldau, are both navigable even in Bohemia, and 
 from their confluence to the sea there is no serious inter- 
 ruption. The Oder is navigable downward from Silesia, 
 and is of the utmost importance as the channel of con- 
 veyance for the productions of that counti-j' to the sea. 
 Breslau, FranMurt, and Stettin, three of the principal 
 commercial to-wns of Prussia, stand on its banks, and it 
 is connected by canals with the Vistula, the Havel, and- 
 the Spree. The Vistula is, like the Oder, the principal 
 channel of transit between the Baltic Sea and the 
 Polish pro-vinces of Austria, Russia, and Prussia, and 
 begins to be navigable at Podgorze, near Cracow. . 
 
 These are the only rivers that seem to require 
 notice as navigable streams in a general survey of 
 Europe, although there are many others of great im- 
 portance to the several countries in which they are 
 found, as the Thames, the Tyne, the Clyde, the 
 Rhone, the Po, etc. 
 
 The islands of Europe, including Nova Zembla and 
 Iceland, occupy a space equal to 280,000 square miles, 
 or 1-llth part of the surface of the continent ; and of 
 this space the area of the British isles amounts to 
 rather less than ^. The Black Sea is the only large 
 sea connected with Europe in which there are no 
 islands worthy of notice. 
 
 Seas. — The Mediten'anean, the noblest inland sea in 
 the world, forms the southern boundary of Europe, 
 separating it from Africa, and partly also from Asia. 
 It may be considered as the bottom of a vast basin 
 formed by the Pyrenees, Alps, Balkans, Taurus, Liba- 
 nus, and Atlas. These mountains are everj'where 
 near its shores, which are consequently narrow and 
 much inclined. Hence there are no such extensive 
 plains as Hungary or Poland near the coast of this 
 sea, and hence, also, no very large rivers fall into it 
 except the Nile ; and altogether it receives a smaller 
 quantity of water from rivers than the Black Sea or , 
 the Baltic, though six times larger than either. Its 
 length is about 2350 miles, its breadth is extremely 
 various, and its surface (exclusive of the Black Sea) is 
 nearly equal to 1,000,000 of square English miles, or 
 something less than J- part of the continent of Europe. 
 It is generally of great depth; and its numerous 
 islands, which have uniformly a rocky surface, appear 
 to be the summits of marine mountains. 
 
 Baltic. — The Baltic, the greatest inland sea that is 
 entirely in Europe, is about 120O miles long, of very 
 unequal breadth, and presents a surface of 175,000 
 square miles, exclusive of islands. It occupies the 
 bottom of another large basin, 850 miles in breadth, 
 and 1400 in length, extending from the Norwegian 
 mountains on the north and west, to the Carpathians 
 on the south, and to the high lands on which the 
 Dnieper, the Don, and the Volga rise, on the east. 
 This basin, equal to \ of the surface of Europe, has 
 a very diff'erent character from that of the Mediterra- 
 nean. The mountains are not very elevated, and are 
 so placed as to leave a large tract of land, verp- little 
 inclined, between them and the Baltic, over which, 
 especially on the south side, many considerable rivers 
 flow with a gentle current. Hence the country round 
 the Baltic is much more level than round the Medi- 
 terranean; lakes are numerous in the low grounds, 
 from the want of declivity ; the sea itself is compar- 
 atively shallow, and receiving a much greater quan- 
 tity of river water, it is much less salti The commerce 
 of the Baltic is annually interrupted by the ice, which 
 endures 4 months in the gulfs of Bothnia and Finland 
 
EUE 
 
 620 
 
 EUR 
 
 The whole of this inland sea has sometimes been frozen 
 over for a short time, but this is of rare occurrence. 
 See Baltic. 
 
 Black /Sea.— The Black Sea, which belongs only 
 partly to' Europe, is 700 miles long and 380 miles 
 broad, and, including the Sea of Azof, presents a sur- 
 face of 170,000 square miles, being almost of the same 
 magnitude as the Baltic. It derives 4-5ths of its 
 water from Europe, and is curiously distinguished from 
 the other seas of this quarter of the globe, by its being 
 almost totally destitute of islands. 
 
 White Sea. — The White Sea is 450 miles in length, 
 of a very irregular figure, and occupies a space equal 
 to 35,000 square miles. It receives some considerable 
 rivers, but is frozen during six months of the year. 
 
 Lakes. — The lakes of Europe are numerous, and are 
 ■ of two kinds : those which lie in cavities at the foot of 
 high mountains, and which are generally deep, such as 
 the lakes in the Alps, on the east side of the Norwe- 
 gian mountains, and among the mountains of England 
 and Scotland; and those which are formed in level 
 countries from the want of a sufficient declivity to 
 carry off the water, such as the lakes in Finland, 
 Poland, and Brandenburg. 4-5ths of the lakes of 
 Europe are in the country round the Baltic. 
 
 Vegetable Productions. — The soil of Europe has not 
 the extremes of luxuriance or sterility which belong 
 to the soil of the other great continents. If it does 
 not yield the rich fruits of tropical climates, it is not 
 deformed by burning sands like Africa, or by pestilent 
 swamps like America. It does not pour forth its 
 riches spontaneously, but, soliciting the care and the 
 labor of man, it requites his industry with what is 
 necessary to supply his wants ; and, by exercising and 
 sharpening his powers of mind, has given birth to 
 those arts which place the productions of the most 
 favored climates at his disposal. Many of the plants 
 which have been domesticated in Europe are natives 
 of distant countries. The vine, the olive, and the 
 mulberr}' are said to have been brought from Syria by 
 the Greeks ; the Arabians introduced cotton ; maize 
 was received from the Indian tribes of America ; the 
 walnut and the peach come from Persia ; the apricot 
 from Armenia, and the sugar-cane and orange from 
 China. There are not very many plants belonging to 
 the tropical regions that absolutely refuse to grow in 
 'Europe, but an enlightened economy finds other pro- 
 ductions more profitable. Besides sugar and cotton, 
 the banana, the orange, citron, fig, pomegranate, and 
 date, grow in the south of Europe. But the more 
 delicate fruits are confined to southern latitudes, and 
 disappear one by one as we advance northward. And 
 it.is worthy of remark, that the zones in which they 
 grow generally follow the lines of equal summer heat, 
 and run obliquely across the continent in the direction 
 of south-west and north-east. If a line be d^a■^^^l on 
 the map from Brest to Konigsberg, skirting the south- 
 em shores of the English Channel and the Baltic, the 
 zones that limit the growth of different plants will run 
 nearly parallel with this line. This holds generally 
 in the south and middle of Europe ; but in the extreme 
 northern parts, and especially with regard to plants 
 that require a moderate heat continued for a consider- 
 able time, the lines that limit the growth of certain 
 vegetables seem to follow a different course, and de- 
 cline toward the south as we advance eastward, in 
 consequence of the increasing severity and length of 
 the winter. It is scarcely necessary to say that the 
 zones traced as proper for different plants, only mark 
 the limits within which their cultivation is foimd ad- 
 vantageous. Most of them will grow beyond these 
 limits ; but they either require some peculiar advan- 
 tages of soil and situation, or they are less profitable 
 than other kinds of produce. 
 
 The sugar cane, one of the most desirable tropical 
 plants, grows in Sicily and the south of Spain, in 
 the latitude of 37° and 38°, The culture of it. 
 
 which was once extensive in the latter country, has 
 not yet been enirely abandoned, even since sugar was 
 procured from the West Indies. Cotton is cultivated 
 in the south of Spain on a small scale ; to a greater 
 extent in Sicily, the south-east angle of Italy, and in 
 Greece and its isles, as high as the latitude of 41-J-°-; 
 we find it again at Astracan, in the latitude of 46°. 
 The orange and the lemon come to perfection in the 
 west of Europe, only in the countries to the south of 
 the Pyrenees and Apennines, within the latitude 43° 
 in Spain, and 44° in Italy. The olive does not suc- 
 ceed on the west coast of France in the latitude of 43°, 
 but grows as far north as 44° or 45° on the east of 
 France, and in Italy. Attempts to raise it at Astra^ 
 can, in latitude 46°, have not succeeded, on account 
 of the rigor of the winter. The fig and the pome- 
 granate, which accompany the olive in the west of 
 Europe, are found in the Crimea in the east, at the 
 latitude of 46°, where the olive will not grow, a proof 
 that these trees bear the winter cold better. The 
 climate proper for maize is , found to terminate on the 
 west coast of France at 45J° ; on the Rhine at 49° ; 
 on the Elbe at 50° or 51°. Kice has nearly the same 
 geographical range, but requires a peculiar soil and 
 situation. The culture of the vine extends as far 
 north as the latitude of 47^° on the Atlantic coast j 
 on the Rhine to 50J° ; and on the Oder to 62°. In 
 Russia it grows as far north nearl)' a^ 52°, but is not 
 cultivated beyond 50°. The mulberrj' generally ac- 
 companies the vine. The limits of the culture of the 
 common cerealia are not so well defined, as the neces- 
 sities of man oblige him to raise corn under the most 
 unfavorable circumstances. In a general point of 
 view, however, the parallel of 57° or 68° may be 
 regarded as the northern limit of the cultivation of 
 wheat in Europe. It is raised as far north as 60° or 
 61° in Finland, but only in some favored spots. In 
 Russia, generally, it is chiefly confined to the provinces 
 under the latitude of 57°. The hardier cerealia, rye, 
 oats, and barley, are cultivated in some sheltered 
 situations on the coast of Norway, as high as the lati- 
 tude 69° 55'. But on the east side of the Norwegian 
 mountains these grains scarcely ripen in the latitude 
 of 67° or 68° ; and farther east, in Russia, it has been 
 found impossible to cany cultivation of any kind 
 beyond the latitude of 60° or 62°. Barley, which ac- 
 commodates itself better than any other grain to these 
 high latitudes, by shortening the period of its growth, 
 is sown and reaped within the space of seven or eight 
 weeks. But the introduction of potatoes promises to 
 be of vast advantage in these cold regions, as this 
 plant thrives and yields a produce of 30 or 60 fold in 
 places where grain often will not ripen. Peaches and 
 apricots succeed with much care as far north only as 
 the latitude of 50° in Russia : melons as far as 62°. 
 The plum and the cherry grow wild as far north as 
 55°, but are carried farther by cultivation. Fruit trees 
 and the oak terminate in Sweden, at Gefle, in the 
 latitude of 61° ; but the pine and the birch advance 
 within the arctic circle ; and the former grows to the 
 height of 60 feet in the latitude of 70°. The black- 
 berry and the whortleberry grow in Lapland, and the 
 gooseberry even in Greenland. Tobacco is exten- 
 sively cultivated over the greater part of the continent 
 of Europe, from Sicily to Sweden. Flax and hemp 
 have as extensive a range as com, but they are raised 
 in the greatest perfection between the latitudes of 45 
 and 60°. 
 
 We have stated that the superficial extent of Eu- 
 rope is about 3,700,000 square miles. If we draw a 
 curved line from a point in the Uralian mountains, 
 about the latitude of 60° or 61°, to the west coast of 
 Norway, in the latitude of 69°, passing through the 
 Lake Onega, and a little to the northward of the Gulf 
 of Bothnia, this line will mark the extreme limits of 
 cultivation, and will out off a space equal to 650,000 
 square miles, or nearly l-7th of Europe. The space 
 
EUR 
 
 621 
 
 EUR 
 
 cut off, ho-werer, is not entirdy useless, as a part of it 
 produces pasturage and wood. The cultivation of 
 rye, oats, and barley, is confined to the regions south 
 of this line, and includes more than 5-6tha of Europe ; 
 but in the northern parts of this zone only a very 
 small plroportion of the land will bear com. The 
 region adapted to the cultivation of wheat compre- 
 hends about 4-7th8 of Europe, and includes all the 
 densely-peopled parts. The region of the vine extends 
 over 3-7ths of Europe. 
 
 Minerals. — ^Europe, in propartion to its extent, is 
 probably richer in mineral wealth than the other 
 quarters of the globe. It contains all the metals 
 except platina J and though it affords gold and silver 
 only in limited quantities, iron, copper, lead, with coal 
 and salt, commodities of greater value to societyj are 
 abundantly and widely distributed. The mountains, 
 consisting of primary and transition roclts, are the 
 .great depositaries of these mineral treasures. Iron is 
 found in all the chains of mountains in Europe. The 
 richest mines are in the Dovrefleld,'or Scandinavian 
 Alps. But rich mines are also found in the Alps of 
 Styria, Carinthia, and Bavaria ; in the Pyrenees, the 
 Vosges, the Cevennes, the coal districts of Britain, 
 the Urals, the Carpathians, the Hartz, and many 
 other places. Copper is also widely distributed, 
 though less abundant than iron. The richest mines 
 are in Hungary, in the Carpathian mountains. It 
 abounds also in the Saxon and Bohemian mountains, 
 in the Dovrefield, the Urals, the north of England, and 
 the Alps ; and it is found in the Vosges, the Pyreneesj 
 and other mountains of Spain, in the north of Germany, 
 and in Tuscany. 
 . Load exists in the' Alps, Carpathians, Pyrenees, 
 Cevennes, Vosges, the British mountains, and the 
 Uralian chain. Tin is found only in a few places in Eu- 
 rope. The richest mines are in Cornwall ; next to these 
 are the mines in the Erzgebirge. It is also found in 
 Hungary and Spanish Galicia. Mercury, like tin, is 
 confined to a few places. The mines of Idria, in Aus- 
 tria, which yield 8000 or 10,000 quintals per annum, 
 are the most 'productive in Europe. There are also 
 considerable mines at Deux Pouts, in the Palatinate, 
 in the Spanish province of La Mancha, and in Transj'l- 
 vania. Gold is widely diffused through Europe, but 
 generally in such quantities as not to repay the ex- 
 pense of working. It is wrought, however, in the 
 Carpathians, the Urals, the Dovrefield, and the Alps. 
 Anciently there were rich mines of gold in Spain and 
 Greece. Silver is more abundant than gold, though 
 less widely distributed. There are productive mines 
 of this metal in the Erzgebirge, the Carpathians, the 
 Urals, the Norwegian Dovrefield, and in Sardinia. It 
 is found also in the Alps, the Vosges, and the Sierra 
 Moreua. 
 
 Of coal, the richest mines are found in the north 
 and west of England. It abounds also on both sides 
 of the middle region of Scotland ; in Ireland ; in the 
 Netherlands ; in one fourth part of the French terri- 
 torj' ; and occurs more sparingly in Saxony, Hanover, 
 Denmark, Sweden, Russia, Hungarj'', Bohemia, Mora- 
 via, Silesia, Bavaria, Austria, Franconia, Westphalia, 
 Swabia, Catalonia, and some other parts of Spain, in 
 Portugal, and in Sardinia. After Britain, France and 
 Belgium are the countries in Europe best supplied 
 with this mineral. 
 
 Salt is procured from the waters of the ocean, and, 
 in the interior of Europe, from numerous salt mines 
 and salt springs. The most productive salt mines in 
 Europe are those in Poland, on the north side of the 
 Carpathians, and those in Salzburg, on the north side 
 of the Alps, both of which belong to Austria. There 
 are also extensive depositories of mineral salt in Tran- 
 sylvania and Hungarj' ; in Valencia, Navarre, and 
 Catalonia, in Spain ; in Cheshire, in England ; and in 
 Bavaria, in Switzerland. Salt springs are numerous 
 along the sides of primitive mountains in most coun- 
 
 tries of Europe. The most extensive salt mines of 
 Russia are in Asia ; but very large quantities of salt 
 are collected from the tuzlas,' or salt lakes in the 
 Crimea. 
 
 Antimony, cobalt, zinc, manganese, sulphur, alum, 
 and a great variety of other mineral productions, are 
 found in Europe ; but it is unnecessary to specify 
 their localities. It is observed that the Alps, Pyrenees, 
 Carpathians, and other mountain chains which run 
 east and west, are richest in metals on the so;ith side ; 
 while the Dofrines, Urals, and others whiph run north 
 and south, are richest on the east side. Of the mount- 
 ain chains of Europe, the Apennines are the poorest 
 in metals, the Carpathians probably the richest. 
 
 The progress of improvement tends to level all 
 distinctions among states, but those founded on the 
 extent of their natural resources. Capital, skill, in- . 
 telligenoe, and all acquired advantages, tend to, an 
 equilibrium. When Europe was overrun with barba- 
 rism, the city of Venice, by its commercial wealth, 
 was a counterpoise to two or three of the great mon- 
 archies of the Continent. The discovery of America, 
 and of a passage by sea to the East Indies, gave a new 
 direction to commerce, and undermined the greatness 
 of that city. The Dutch Republic rose by its freedom 
 and industry, and was able, in the time of Charles II., 
 to dispute' the empire of !the sea with the combined 
 powers of England and France. But England increas- 
 ed her commerce, and improved her constitution ; and 
 having a larger and more fertile territory, as well as a 
 greater population, she obtained at length the ascend- 
 ency over Holland, deprived her of the empire of the 
 sea, and stripped her of most of her colonies. At the be- 
 ginning of the 17tli century, Spain and Turkey were 
 the first powers in the west and east of Europe, and 
 inspired their neighbors with the dread of, conquest. 
 Sweden ruled with undisputed sway in the north ; and 
 Russia, now so formidable, was scarcely known. Spain, 
 under a better government, might recover a part of her 
 influence ; but the Turkish empire seems near its dis- 
 solution ; and the importance of Sweden and Holland 
 is gone irretrievably, in consequence of the growing 
 strength of the neighboring powers. The extent of 
 territory and the immense natural resources of Russia 
 must, in the end, render her highly dangerous to all 
 the. otter powers of Europe, if the empire do not fall 
 to pieces from its own weight, or get into discord from 
 the .vices of its government, or the. barbarism, igno- 
 rance, and corruption of its people. — E. B. 
 
 By means of steam-vessels, communication between 
 all the maritime regions of Europe has been rendered 
 easy and certain, while the seaboard has been connected 
 with the inland regions by railways running in all di- 
 rections. Puring the latter half of the last century, 
 and the earlier part of the present, England was cov- 
 ered with a net- work of canals, forming navigable com- 
 munication between all her principal towns and rivers. 
 Belgium and Holland have long been famous for their 
 canals. In France,' likewise, the great rivers were 
 connected in the same way ; and the great canal of 
 Languedoc formed a navigable communication be- 
 tween the Bay of Biscay and the Mediterrenean Sea. 
 In Prussia, likewise, and in Russia, the great rivers . 
 have been connected by canals ; and in Sweden, the 
 Gotha Canal extends from the Cattegat, at Gotten- 
 burg, to the Baltic, near Stockholm, through the 
 lakes Wener and Wetter. These very useful means 
 of transport have now, however, been very much, if 
 not entirely superseded by railways. Of these. En-! 
 gland is covered with a net-worli, as she was with 
 canals ; and uninterrupted lines of communication ex- 
 tend from near the Land's End, through Scotland, to 
 the Moray Firth. In Scotland, Ireland, France, and 
 Germany, the principal cities and towns are connected 
 by railways ; and in Russia, we understand that one is 
 forming to connect St. Petersburg with Moscow and 
 the Black Sea. In Italy, Milan and Venice are con- 
 
EUR 
 
 622 
 
 EUR 
 
 nected, and railways are projected at least in other 
 parts of the countrj-. The later invention of the elec- 
 tric telegraph is likewise extending everj'where across 
 seas and continents; but the whole system of tele- 
 graphs and railways wiU be understood more readily 
 at once by a glance at a map. 
 
 Area and Population of Europbait States. 
 
 Names. 
 
 I. Empires : 
 
 French 
 
 Austrian 
 
 Russian 
 
 Ottoman 
 
 H. Kingdoms: 
 
 Great Britain and Ireland . . 
 
 Pnissia 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 Spain 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Norway. 
 
 *Bavaria 
 
 *Hanover 
 
 *Saxon7 
 
 *Wirtemberg 
 
 Sardinia 
 
 T\TO Sicilies 
 
 Hellas or Greece 
 
 III. 
 *ElectOTal Hesse 
 
 States of the Church 
 
 IV. Grand Duchies: 
 
 *Badon 
 
 *Hesse-Darmstadt 
 
 *Mecklenburg-Scbwerin 
 
 * " Strelitz 
 
 ♦Oldenburg 
 
 *Saxer"Weimar 
 
 Tuscany 
 
 V. DuoniE-s AND PEiNCEDOias: 
 
 ♦Nassau, D 
 
 ♦Brunswick, D 
 
 ♦Saxe-Oohurg-Gotha, D 
 
 * " Mciningen, D 
 
 * " Altenburg, D 
 
 ♦Anhalt-Dessau-Coethen, D. . 
 
 * " Bernburg, D 
 
 ♦Eeuss-Griez, P 
 
 * " Schleiz, P 
 
 ♦Waldeck, P 
 
 ♦Hesse-Homhuvg, P 
 
 ♦Lichtenstein, P 
 
 ♦Kmphausen 
 
 Parma, D..., 
 
 Modena, D 
 
 Monaco, P 
 
 Moldavia, P 
 
 "Wallaohia, P 
 
 Servia, P 
 
 Montenegro 
 
 VI. Eepublios: 
 
 ♦Frankfort 
 
 ♦Lubec 
 
 ♦Bremen 
 
 ♦Hamburg 
 
 Swiss Confederation : 
 
 Zurich 
 
 Bern 
 
 Lucerne , . „ 
 
 Schweiz 
 
 Uri 
 
 Unterwalden-Upper 
 
 " Lower 
 
 Glarus 
 
 Zug 
 
 Friburg. 
 
 Soleure 
 
 Basel-Oity. 
 
 " Country 
 
 Scbaffhausen 
 
 Appenzell-Outer 
 
 " Inner 
 
 St. Gall 
 
 Grisons 
 
 Aargau 
 
 Thurgau 
 
 Tcssin 
 
 Vaud 
 
 Valais. 
 
 Neufchatel 
 
 Geneva 
 
 Ionian Islands 
 
 Saint Maiino 
 
 Area in 
 
 English 
 
 Sq. Milea. 
 
 204,000 
 
 2.57,T60 
 
 3,000,000 
 
 123,743 
 
 121,779 
 
 106,802 
 
 12,669 
 
 1.3,890 
 
 176,480 
 
 34,500 
 
 22,680 
 
 170,240 
 
 122,460 
 
 29,000 
 
 14,600 
 
 5,705 
 
 7,568 
 
 28,880 
 
 41,521 
 
 10,206 
 
 17,048 
 
 6,850 
 8,761 
 4,845 
 767 
 2,400 
 1,419 
 8,802 
 
 1,757 
 
 1,507 
 
 T99 
 
 833 
 
 510 
 
 665 
 
 840 
 
 145 
 
 448 
 
 461 
 
 168 
 
 53 
 
 17 
 
 2,184 
 
 2,073 
 
 50 
 
 16,000 
 
 30,000 
 
 12,000 
 
 1,400 
 
 91 
 142 
 106 
 161 
 
 647 
 2,588 
 600 
 8.50 
 420 
 
 260 
 
 2S1 
 186 
 496 
 256 
 
 185 
 
 116 
 
 160 
 
 700 
 2,540 
 
 499 
 
 267 
 1,041 
 1,190 
 1,675 
 
 281 
 
 91 
 
 1,200 
 
 27 
 
 Population. Date. 
 
 35,781,628 
 86,614,466 
 54,092,800 
 10,500,000 
 
 27,621,862 
 16,985,420 
 4359,090 
 8,897,851 
 14,216,219 
 8,487,025 
 2,296,697 
 3,482,541 
 1,828,471 
 4,659,462 
 1,819,258 
 1,987,832 
 1,738,268 
 4,916,084 
 8,704,472 
 1,002,112 
 
 766,228 1862 
 3,006,771 1850 
 
 1851 
 
 1846 
 1844 
 
 1861 
 1852 
 1849 
 1858 
 1849 
 1861 
 1850 
 
 1846 
 1862 
 
 1848 
 1851 
 1852 
 
 854,314 
 541,449 
 99,628 
 282,114 
 262 524 
 1,816,686 
 
 429,341 
 
 271,943 
 
 160,412 
 
 166,864 
 
 132,788 
 
 171,769 
 
 52,641 
 
 86,169 
 
 79,824 
 
 69,697 
 
 24,921 
 
 6,.361 
 
 8,086 
 
 607,881 
 
 586,468 
 
 6,500 
 
 1,400,000? 
 
 2,000,000! 
 
 1,000,000? 
 
 100,000? 
 
 77,971 
 
 54,166 
 
 79,047 
 
 200,690 
 
 250,698 
 
 458,801 
 
 182,848 
 
 44,168 
 
 14,506 
 
 l.%799 
 
 11,339 
 
 30,213 
 
 17,461 
 
 99,891 
 
 69,674 
 
 29,698 
 
 47,885 
 
 86,800 
 
 48,621 
 
 11,272 
 
 169,625 
 
 89,895 
 
 199,852 
 
 88,908 
 
 117,759 
 
 199,576 
 
 81,659 
 
 70,763 
 
 64,146 
 
 289,297 
 
 7,600 
 
 1852 
 
 1853 
 1861 
 1862 
 1853 
 1864 
 
 1862 
 1858 
 1862 
 1853 
 1850 
 1852 
 
 1S63 
 
 1862 
 
 1842 
 1852 
 1853 I 
 1860 
 
 1844 
 
 1852 
 1851 
 1849 
 1852 
 
 1860 
 
 1862 
 1851 
 
 Considered in respect to political constitution and 
 civil government, the states of Europe may be arranged 
 in six classes. The first class comprises .4 empires, 
 the sovereigns of which are absolute monarchs ; the 
 second, 16 kingdoms, partly absolute and partly con- 
 stitutional; the fourth, 7 grand-duchies, all monar- 
 chies ; the fifth, 24 duchies and principalities, likewise 
 all monarchies, partly constitutional and partly abso- 
 lute ; and the sixth, 32 republics. The third class com- 
 prises 2 nondescripts, both monarchies indeed ; but In 
 the one case the sovereign retains the subject title of 
 Elector of the head of an empire that no longer exists, 
 and the sovereign of the other is at once the spiritual 
 sovereign of the Eoman Catholic world and the tem- 
 poral sovereign of that portion of Italy called the 
 States of the Church. The preceding table contains 
 the names, territorial extent or area, and the population 
 of these several states at the dates attached to them 
 respectively. The grand total of the population, as it 
 is not all of the same year, can only be considered as 
 an approximation to tlie truth. 
 
 In financial importance, Britain stands at the head 
 of all these states. ; for not only is her annual revenue 
 the largest, excepting that of France, but she enjoys 
 besides the unenviable pre-eminence of being' burdened 
 with the largest debt. The bad practice of anticipat- 
 ing revenue by borrowing money Is common to them 
 all ; and, as will be seen in the table, only some of the 
 less important have escaped the ever-growing evil. 
 Within the last twenty j-ears the debt of Austria has 
 increased more than threefold, and the French emperor 
 has been borrowing largely to pay the current ex- 
 penses of the war in which he and the British govern- 
 ment were engaged with Kussia. The governments of 
 Spain and Greece are virtually bankrupt, being neither 
 able nor willing to pay either principal or interest of 
 their large debts. Norway, on the contrary, the poor- 
 est country in Europe, has set the bright example of 
 paying off that portion of the Danish debt with which 
 she was burdened when separated from that monarchy 
 in 1814, while the Danish portion has gone on increas- 
 ing. The Ottoman sultan has escaped, until lately, 
 only by virtue of his want of credit. 
 
 Eevenue AND Debt of European States. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Great Britain aud Ireland. . . 
 
 France 
 
 Austria 
 
 Eussia 
 
 Prussia 
 
 Spain 
 
 Turkey 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Bavaria, 
 
 The Two Sicilies 
 
 Sardinia 
 
 Hanover 
 
 Baden 
 
 States of the Church 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Kingdom of Saxony 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Norway. 
 
 Tuscany 
 
 Greece 
 
 Modena 
 
 Parma 
 
 Wirtemberg 
 
 Smaller German States together 
 The Swiss Cantons all together 
 
 Annual 
 Revenue. 
 
 £56,000,000 
 
 62,000,000 
 
 25,900,000 
 
 86,000,000 
 
 15,000,000 
 
 15,000,000 
 
 6,600,000 
 
 6,000,000 
 
 6,000,000 
 
 1,.500,000 
 
 8,000,000 
 
 4,500,000 
 
 5,000,000 
 
 1,300,000 
 
 1,680,000 
 
 2,881,000 
 
 2,850,000 
 
 1,6.50,000 
 
 1,040,000 
 
 650,000 
 
 1,250,470 
 
 860,000 
 
 840,000 
 
 76,000 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 5,500,000 
 
 650,000 
 
 Debt. 
 
 £760,000,000 
 
 275,000,000 
 
 180,000,000 
 
 170,000,000 
 
 82,000,000 
 
 120,000,000 
 
 8,000,000 
 
 100,000,000 
 
 29,000,000 
 
 18,750,000 
 
 16,146,000 
 
 16,800,000 
 
 24,000,000 
 
 6,474,000 
 
 6,485,000 
 
 20,000,000 
 
 18,000,000 
 
 6,500,000 
 
 None 
 
 4,176^000 
 
 880,000 
 
 4,842,000 
 
 17,000,000 
 
 Their annual revenues and the amount of their 
 debts as stated in the above table, in the nearest 
 round numbers, and in sterling money, will give a suf- 
 ficiently near approximation to sums that are con- 
 stantly varying, and, in many instances, not certainly 
 known. Though there has been a general peace in 
 Europe for the long period of forty years, yet their 
 mutual jealousies have made it seem necessar}^, to the 
 Continental gevemments at least, to maintain large 
 
EXC 
 
 623 
 
 EXC 
 
 standing armies. Bussia, safe ftom foreign invasion, 
 has long been preparing large armaments for purposes 
 of aggression on her weaker neighbors, and of domina^ 
 tion over all the rest ; and at last her overt acts of ag- 
 gression on Turkey have provoked a war with Great 
 Britain and France, who [1854] armed in defense of 
 their ancient ally, the Sultan, and with the view of 
 not only maintaining the balance of power in Europe, 
 but of effectually checking the undisguised attempts 
 of the czars of Bussia at universal dominion. In 
 these circumstances, with all Europe arming, or begin- 
 ning to arm, any numerical statements of their military 
 forces, however approximately correct when written, 
 may have become quite erroneous by the time they 
 are published. The following table, therefore, con- 
 tains only the declared numbers respectively of the 
 peace and war establishments of the Continental ar- 
 mies, with the exception of that of France, which 
 gives the actual number of men on foot, as stated in 
 the emperor's address to his Legislative Council in 
 December, 1854. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Austria 
 
 Russia 
 
 Prussia 
 
 France 
 
 Britain 
 
 Spain 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Two Sicilies 
 
 Sardinia 
 
 llelgium 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Norway 
 
 Tuscany. 
 
 Parma. 
 
 Modena 
 
 States of the Church 
 
 Smaller States of the Germ. Conf . 
 
 Swiss Confederation 
 
 Turkey 
 
 Greece 
 
 129,000 
 
 128',66o 
 70,000 
 29,000 
 66,048 
 47,524 
 78,998 
 57,959 
 87,048 
 7,692 
 
 15,189 
 2,778 
 8,500 
 
 17,365 
 142,686 
 
 9,848 
 
 War. 
 
 670,000 
 
 1,500,000 
 
 625,000 
 
 681,000 
 
 58,826 
 102,932 
 
 100,660 
 
 144,000 
 23,484 
 
 4,688 
 14,656 
 
 224^660 
 108,000 
 450,000 
 
 The maritime powers that maintain efficient navies 
 worth notice are, Britain, France, Bussia, Austria, 
 Turkey, Sardinia, Netherlands, Denmark, Sweden, 
 and Norway. In December, 1854, the British fleet in 
 commission and actual service, consisted of 142 steam- 
 ers, and 104 sailing ships, with 63,000 men ; that of 
 France, of nearly the same number of vessels alto- 
 gether, though not so many steamers, with 62,000 
 men. The Eussian fleet, in the spring of 1854 con- 
 sisted of 52 line-of-battle ships, 48 frigates, and 84 
 smaller vessels (besides gun-boats), with 9000 guns, 
 and 62,000 men. Austria possessed 104 vessels cariy- 
 ing 742 guns ; Turkey, 70 vessels, with 34,000 seamen 
 and 4000 marines ; Sardinia, 19 vessels, with 359 guns ; 
 the Netherlands, 88 vessels, with 2000 guns and 6180 
 men ; Denmark, 120 vessels, with 883 guns, and 2000 
 men ; Sweden, 74 vessels besides gun-boats ; Nonyay, 
 19 ships besides gun-boats, with 500 men. 
 
 In Europe there are two great national confedera- 
 cies, the Germanic and the Swiss ; but in neither of 
 them is there so close a union of the sovereignties that 
 compose it as there is in the United States of North 
 America. In Germany, indeed, there is no principle 
 or feeling of unity among either princes or people, and 
 their confederation, as such, enjoys neither Influence 
 nor respect at home or abroad. In Switzerland, on 
 the contrarj', recent circumstances 'seem to have pro- 
 duced a closer and more intimate union, and given to 
 the federative assembly the authority indispensable to 
 the efficient working of a central government. — E. B. 
 
 Exchange, Principles of, by John Eamsay 
 M'CuLLOCH, Esq. 
 
 In commercial economy, the term " Exchange" 
 is commonly employed to designate that description 
 of mercantile transactions by which the debts of 
 individuals residing at a distance from each other 
 are liquidated without the intervention of money. 
 
 The object of this article is to explain the nature 
 of these transactions, and the principles on which 
 they depend. This will be best effected by treating, 
 first, of the exchange between different parts of the 
 same country ; and, secondly, of that between different 
 and independent countries. 
 
 I. Inland Exchange. — Suppose a merchant of 
 London orders his agent in Glasgow to send him a 
 thousand pounds' worth of cottons, and that it does 
 not suit the agent to commission goods of equal value 
 from his London correspondent, the latter may, not- 
 withstanding, be under no necessity of remitting cash 
 to Glasgow in discharge of his debt. Among coun- 
 tries or cities having a considerable intercourse to- 
 gether, the debts mutually due by each other are found, 
 in ordinary cases, to be nearly equal. The Glasgow 
 agent, who has shipped the cottons for London, does 
 not, therefore, transmit the bill drawn by him on his 
 correspondent for their price to London to be cashed, 
 as that would subject Um to the expense of conveying 
 the money home to Glasgow ; but he gets its value 
 from some other party in Glasgow, who has a pay- 
 ment to make in London on account of tea or some 
 other article bought in that city, and who, unless he 
 could procure such a bill, would lie obliged to remit its 
 price in money. The bill on account of the cotton is, 
 therefore, either drawn in favor of the party in Lon- 
 don who furnished the tea, or it is drawn in favor of 
 the tea-dealer in Glasgow, and indorsed by him to the 
 former, who, on presenting it to the purchaser of the 
 cottons, receives its value and consequently the price 
 of the cottons, and the price (or part of the price) of 
 his tea, at the same moment. 'This simple contrivance 
 obviates the expense and risk attending the transmis- 
 sion, first, of monej- from London to Glasgow, to pay 
 the cottons ; and, second, of money from Glasgow to 
 London to pay the tea. The debtor in one is changed 
 for the debtor in the other ; and both accounts are set- 
 tled without the intervention of a single farthing. 
 
 The bill drawn and negotiated in such a transaction 
 as this, is termed an inland bill of exchange. If the 
 transaction had taken place between London or Glas- 
 gow and a foreign city, it would have been termed a 
 foreign bill of exchange. A bill of exchange may, 
 therefore, be defined to be, " an order addressed to 
 some person residing at a distance, directing him to 
 pay a certain specified sum to the person in whose 
 favor the bill is drawn, or his order."* 
 
 The price of bills fluctuates according to their abund- 
 ance or scarcity compared with the demand. If the 
 debts reciprocally due by London and Glasgow be 
 equal, whether they amount to £100,000, £500,000, or 
 any other sum, they may be discharged without the 
 intervention of money, and the price of bills of ex- 
 change will be at pae ; that is, a sum of £100 or £1000 
 in Glasgow will purchase a bill for £100 or £1000 pay- 
 able in London, and vice versa. But if these cities he 
 not mutually indebted in equal sums, then the price of 
 bills will be increased in the city which has the great- 
 est number of payments to make, and reduced in that 
 which has the fewest. If Glasgow owe London £100,- 
 000, while the latter only owes the former £90,000, it 
 is clear, inasmuch as Glasgow has a larger sum to re- 
 mit to London than London has to remit to Glasgow, 
 that the price of bills on London will rise in Glasgow 
 because of the increased demand, and that the price 
 of bills on Glasgow will fall in London, because of the 
 diminished demand. A larger sum would, conse- 
 quentlj', be required to discharge a debt due by Glas- 
 
 • In mercantile phraseology, the person who draws a bill is 
 termed the drawer ; the person in whose favor it is drawn, 
 the remiUer ; the person on whom it is drawn, the drawee, 
 and after he has accepted, the acceptor. Those persons into 
 whose hands the bill may pass previously to its being paid, 
 are, from their writing their names on the back, termed in- 
 dorsers ; and the person in whose possession the bill is at any 
 given period, is termed the fioldar 01 possessor. 
 
EXC 
 
 624 
 
 Exe 
 
 gow to liOndon, and a less sum to discharge an equal 
 dfebt due by the latter to the former ; or, which is the 
 same thing, the exchange would be in fmor of Lon- 
 don, and against Glasgow. Bills on London would 
 sell in Glasgow at a premium^ and bills on Glasgow 
 would sell in London at a discount ; the premium in 
 the one case being equal to the discount in the other. 
 
 On the supposition that the balance of £10,000, due 
 by Glasgow, depresses the exchange on London <me 
 per cent., it appears at first sight that it will cost Glas- 
 gow £101,000 to discharge her debt of £100,000 due 
 to London ; and that, on the other hand, £89,100 would 
 be suiEcieut to discharge the debt of London to Glas- 
 gow. But a Yery little consideration will serve to 
 show that this would not be the case. Exchange 
 transactions can not take place between different cities 
 until debtors and creditors of the one reside in the 
 other. And hence, when the exchange became unfa- 
 vorable to Glasgow, the premium paid b}' its merchants 
 for bills on London would not go into the pockets of 
 their creditors in the latter, but into those of their 
 neighbors in Glasgow to ivhom London was indebted, 
 and from whom the bills were purchased. The loss 
 to Glasgow would, therefore, be limited to the pre- 
 mium paid on the balance of £10,000. Thus, suppos- 
 ing that A, of Glasgow, owes D, of London £100,000 
 and that C, of London, owes B, of Glasgow £90,000, 
 A wUl pay to B £91,000 for a bill or order on C to pay 
 D £90,000. In this way the £90,000 of London debt 
 at Glasgow wUl be cleared off; the premium, which 
 is lost lay the debtor to London in Glasgow, being 
 gained by its creditor in the same place. If the busi- 
 ness had been transacted in London, C, with £89,100, 
 would have purchased of D a bill for £90,000, paya- 
 ble by A ; so that, in this case, the gain would have 
 fallen to the share of the debtor C, and the loss to that 
 of the creditor D, both of London. The complexity of 
 real transactions does not affect the principles on which 
 thej"" are founded. And whatever may be the amount 
 of the debts reciprocally due by different places, the 
 only disadvantage under which any of them could be 
 placed b}^ a fall of the exchange would be the unavoid- 
 able one of paj'ing the expense of remitting the bal- 
 ance of debt. 
 
 The expense of transmitting money from one place 
 to another limits the fluctuations in the exchange be- 
 tween them. If 20s. sufficed to cover the expense and 
 risk attending the transmission of £100 from Glasgow 
 to London, it would be indifferent to a merchant, in 
 the event of the exchange becoming unfavorable to 
 the former, whether he paid one per cent, premium for 
 a bill on London, or remitted money direct to the lat- 
 ter. If the premium were less than one per cent., it 
 would be clearlj' his interest to make his payments by 
 means of bills rather than by remittances ; and that 
 it could not exceed one per cent, is obvious, for everj' 
 individual would rather directly remit money than in- 
 cur an unnecessary expense by purchasing bills on 
 London at a greater premium than would suffice to 
 cover the expense of a money remittance. If, owing 
 to the badness of roads, disturbances in the coun- 
 try, or any other cause, the expense of remitting 
 money from Glasgow to London were increased, the 
 difference in the rate of exchange between them might 
 also be proportionally increased. But in every case the 
 extent to which this difference could attain would be 
 limited by, and could not for any considerable period 
 exceed, the cost of remitting cash. 
 
 Exchange transactions become more complex when 
 one place, as is often the case, discharges its debts 
 to another by means of bills drawn on a third place. 
 Thus, though London should owe nothing to Glasgow, 
 yet if Glasgow be indebted to London, London to 
 Manchester, and Manchester to Glasgow, the latter 
 may wholly or partially discharge her debt to London 
 by remitting bills on Mancliester. She may wholly 
 discharge it, provided the debt due to her by Man- 
 
 chester exceed or is equal to the debt due by her to 
 London. If, however, it be not equal to the latter, 
 Glasgow will either have to remit money to London to 
 pay the balance of debt, or bills on some other place 
 indebted to her. 
 
 Transactions in inland bills of exchange are almost 
 entirely conducted by bankers, who charge a certain 
 rate per cent, for their trouble, and who, by means of 
 their credit and connections, are able on all occasions 
 to supply the demands of their customers. London, 
 because of its extensive correspondence with other 
 parts of the country, occasioned partly by its immense 
 commerce, partly by its being the seat of government 
 and the place to which the, revenue is remitted, and 
 partly by its currency consisting of. Bank of England 
 paper, for which the notes of the country banks are 
 rendered exchangeable, has become the grand focus 
 in which the money transactions of the United King- 
 dom centre, and in which they are all ultimately 
 adjusted. These circumstances, but especially , the 
 demand for bills on London to remit revenue, and the 
 far superior value of Bank of England paper, render 
 the exchange between London and other parts of the 
 country invariably in her favor. Bills on London 
 drawn in Edinburg and Glasgow were formerly made 
 paj'able at 40 days' date, which was equivalent to a 
 premium of about \ per cent. 5 but, owing to the 
 greater facility of communication, this premium is 
 now reduced to 20 days' interest, or to about ^ per 
 cent. Bills for remitting the revenue from Scotland 
 are now drawn at thirty days ; previously to 1819, 
 they were drawn at 60 days. 
 
 These statements are sufficient to show that, how 
 well soever bills of exchange may be fitted for facili- 
 tating the operations of commerce, and saving the 
 trouble and expense attending- the transportation of 
 mone3% mercantile transactions can not be adjusted by 
 their means except in so far as they mutually balance 
 each other. A real bill of exchange is merely an order 
 entitling the holder to receive payment of a debt due 
 by the person on whom it is drawn. It is essential to 
 the existence of such bill that an equivalent amount of 
 debt should be contracted. And hence, as the amount 
 of the real bills of exchange drawn on any number of 
 merchants can not exceed the amount of their debts, 
 if a greater sum be owing to them than they owe to 
 others, the balance must either be paid in money or by 
 the delivery of some sort of commodities. If, as in 
 the case referred to, Glasgow owe London £100,000, 
 while London only owes Glasgow £90,000, a reciprocal 
 transfer of debts may be made to the extent of £90,000. 
 But the Glasgow merchants can not discharge the ad- 
 tional £10,000 by means of bills on London ; for, by 
 the supposition, London only owned them £90,000, and 
 they have drawn for its amount. This balance must 
 therefore be discharged by an actual money payment, 
 or by the deliverj' of some species of produce, or by 
 bills on some third party indebted to Glasgow. 
 
 It is not meant by this to insinuate that fictitious 
 bills of exchange, or bills drawn on persons who are 
 not really indebted to the drawer, are either unlcnown 
 or very rare. In commercial countries bills of this 
 description are always to be met with ; but they are a 
 device for obtaining loans, and can not transfer real 
 debts. A of London may form a connection with B 
 of Glasgow, and draw bills upon him payable a certain 
 number of days after date, which the latter may rethe 
 by selling biUs upon A. The merchants who purchase, 
 or the bankers who discount these bills, advance their 
 value to the drawers, who, by means of this system 
 of drawing and redrawing, command a borrowed capi- 
 tal equal to the amount of the fictitious paper in circu- 
 lation. It is clear, however, that the negotiation of 
 such bills can not assist in transferring and settling 
 the lona fide debts of two or more places. Fictitious 
 bills mutually balance each other. Those drawn by 
 London on Glasgow equal those drawn by Glasgow on 
 
EXC 
 
 625 
 
 EXO 
 
 London, for the one Bet is drawn to pay the other — 
 the second destroj's the first, and the result is nothing. 
 
 The raising of money by means of fictitious bills 
 has been severely censured by Adam Smith, who says 
 it entails a ruinous expense on those engaged in it, 
 and is resorted to only by projectors, or persons of sus- 
 picious credit. When fictitious bills are drawn at two 
 months' date, it is, common to charge, in addition to 
 the ordinarj' interest, a commission of half or quarter 
 per cent., which must be paid every time the bill is 
 discounted, or, at least, six times a year. The total 
 expense of money raised in this way could not, there- 
 fore, supposing the transaction to be always on ac- 
 count of the same individual, and interest 4 per cent., 
 be estimated at less than &J or 7 per cent, per annum, 
 ex stamps ; and the payment of so high an interest on 
 borrowed capital, in a country where the ordinary rate 
 of mercantile profit is not supposed to average more 
 than from six to eight per cent., could not fail to be 
 frequently productive of ruin to the borrower. But it 
 seldom happens that, in the negotiation of fictitious 
 bills, the charge for commission falls on one individual 
 only. Loans obtained in this way are usually on ac- 
 count of two or more parties. At one time a fictitious 
 bill is drawn by A of London on B of Glasgow ; and, 
 in this case, the latter will, before the bill becomes 
 due, draw upon A for its amount, including interest 
 and commission. At another time, the transaction 
 will be on account of B, who in that case has to pay 
 commission to his friend in London ; so that each party 
 may, on the whole, as Mr. Thornton has observed, 
 gain about as much as he pays in the shape of com- 
 mission. 
 
 It is often extremely difiicult to distinguish fictitious 
 bills from those which have arisen out of real trans- 
 actions. Neither does it seem to be of any very ma- 
 terial importance. The character and credit of the 
 parties whose names are attached to bills, are the only 
 criteria by which merchants or bankers can judge 
 whether they ought to negotiate them. The circum- 
 stances of an individual offering accornmodation paper 
 for discount, ought unquestionablj-, if it be known, to 
 excite suspicions of his credit. But unless in so far 
 as the drawing of fictitious bills may be held to be in- 
 dicative of overtrading, or of a deficiency of capital 
 to carrj- on the business in which the party is engaged, 
 there does not appear to be any very good reason for 
 refusing to discount them. 
 
 Within the last few years, it has been the practice 
 to grant money orders, payable on presentation at the 
 different postoffices, for sums of £b and under. These 
 orders cost 3d. for sums of £2 and under, and 6d. for 
 sums between £1 and £5 inclusive ; and as they are 
 not paid unless the parties in whose favor they are 
 drawn, or other parties well known to the postmasters 
 by whom they are payable, appear to receive payment, 
 there is no risk of the money getting into improper 
 hands. This system has been found to be a very great 
 accommodation to the public, especially to those having 
 small sums to remit, and has been very extensively re- 
 sorted to. In 1850 4,439,713 money orders were issued 
 in the United Kingdom ; the aggregate sum trans- 
 ferred by their agency being £8,494,498. 
 
 These observations will, perhaps, suffice to explain 
 the manner in which transactions between different 
 parts of the same country are settled' by means of bills 
 of exchange. They are, in general, extremelj' simple. 
 The uniform value of the currency of a single country 
 renders unnecessarj^ any comparison betweeA the value 
 of money at the place .where the bill is drawn and 
 negotiated, with its value where it is to be paid ; while 
 the constant intercourse maintained among difierent 
 parts of the same kingdom, and the usual absence of 
 those occurrences bj' which the intercourse between 
 distant and independent countries is always subject 
 to be interrupted, prevent those sudden fluctuations 
 which frequently arise in the prices of foreign bills of 
 Rb 
 
 exchange. We shall, therefore, leave this part of our 
 subject, and proceed to investigate the circumstances 
 which influence the course of exchange between differ- 
 ent and independent countries. 
 
 II. FoKEiGN ExoHANQB. — The price of foreign bills 
 of exchange depends on two circumstances : jirst^ On 
 the value of the currency of the place where they are 
 made payable, compared with the value, of the cur- 
 rency of the place where they are drawn ; and, sec- 
 ondly, On the relation which the supply of bills in the 
 market bears to the demand. 
 
 If the value of the different coins and moneys which 
 circulate in nations having dealings with each other 
 were invariable, the exchange would be exclusively 
 influeijiced by circumstances a£Cecting the supply and 
 demand for bills. But, in addition to variations in 
 its cost in particular countries, the weight and fineness 
 of the bullion contained in their coins are liable to all 
 sorts of variations. And it is almost needless to say 
 that the price of bills,, as of every thing, else, necessa- 
 rily varies with these variations, increasing, when the 
 value of the money in which the}'' are estimated falls, 
 and falling when it. increases. But these, it is plain, 
 are merely nominal or numerical variations. They grow 
 out of changes in the standard employed to measure 
 values, and not in the values themselves. It is other- 
 wise, however, with variations of price occasioned by 
 changes in the supply of bills, or in the demand for 
 them ; that is, by changes in the payments. a country? 
 has to make compared with those it has to receive. 
 These are real, not. nominal variations, for they affect 
 the values in bills, and not, the money in which these 
 values are expressed.. And hence thedistinctions of. 
 nominal, real, and commuted exchange. The^rs^ dcr 
 pends on. alterations in the value of the currencies 
 compared together ; the second depends on the. supply 
 of bills in the market compared "with the demand ;, and 
 the third, or computed exchange,. depends on the. com- 
 bined effects of the other two. For the sake of per- 
 spicuity we shall treat of these separately.* 
 
 III. Nominal. Exchange. — Bullion being everj'- 
 where recognized as the standard, currency of the 
 commercial worldj the comparative value of the curr 
 rencies of particular countries depends— ^r»i. On the 
 value of bullion in those countries ; and, secondly, On 
 the guantltyoi bullion contained in. their coins, or on 
 the quantity of bullion for which their paper money, 
 or other circulating media, will exchange. 
 
 The value of freely produced commodities being 
 commonly proportioned tothe cost of their production, 
 including therein the cost of their conveyance from 
 where they have been produced to where they are to 
 be made use of, it follows, were the trade in the pre- 
 cious metals perfectly open, and the conunodities pro- 
 duced in different countries about equally well fitted 
 for exportation, that the value of bullion in one, com- 
 pared with its value in another, would" be chiefly de- 
 termined by their respective distances. from the mines. 
 Thus, on the supposition that neither England nor 
 Poland had any article except corn to exchange with 
 the Americans or Australians for bullion, it is evident 
 that, the precious metals would be more valuable in 
 Poland than in England, because of the greater ex- 
 pense of sending so bulky a commodity as com the 
 more distant voyage, and also of the somewhat greater 
 expense of conveying the gold to Poland. Had Poland 
 succeeded in carrying her manufactures to a higher 
 pitch of improvement than England, her merchants 
 might be able, notwithstanding the disadvantage of 
 distance,, by exporting commodities possessed of great 
 value in small bulk, the freight of which would be 
 comparatively trifling, to buy bullion on cheaper terms 
 
 * Supposing every country to be in possession of its proper 
 supply of bullion,.the exchange may be said to be nomirmlly 
 affected by the amount of the difference between the market 
 and mint price of bullion, and to be really affected by any de- 
 viation from par exceeding or falling short of ttiat difference. 
 
EXC 
 
 626 
 
 EXC 
 
 than those of England. But when, as is actually the 
 case, the advantages of skill and machinery are on the 
 side of England, another reason is added to that de- 
 rived from our less distance from the mines, why gold 
 and silver should be less valuable here than m Poland, 
 and why the money price of commodities should be 
 higher.* 
 
 Hence, among nations which have attained to differ- 
 ent degrees of excellence in manufacturing industry, 
 the value of bullion does not wholly depend on their 
 distance from the mines. But, whatever variations a 
 different progress in the arts may occasion in its value 
 in different countries, it is always less valuable in those 
 into which it is imported than in those in which it is 
 produced. Like every thing else, it is exported to 
 find, not to destroy, its level. And unless its value in 
 Europe exceeded its value in America and Australia 
 by a sum suflicient to cover the expense of its importa- 
 tion, including ordinary profits to the importers, we 
 should not, though the mines in these quarters were 
 infinitely more productive, import from them a single 
 ounce of bullion in the ordinary course of trade. It is 
 obviously incorrect, therefore, to lay it down as a gen- 
 eral proposition, "that the par of exchange between 
 two countries is that sum of the currency of either of 
 the two, which, in point of intrinsic worth, is precisely 
 equal to a given sum of the other ; that is, contains 
 precisely an equal weight of gold and silver of the same 
 fineness."\ For a given quantity of gold and silver 
 is not always, as is here assumed, of the same intrinsic 
 value in different countries. It may differ but little 
 among nations bordering upon or near each other, and 
 which are all destitute of mines. But though, to use 
 a familiar illustration, the value of sugar approaches 
 nearly to a level in the great trading cities of Europe, 
 it can not surely be maintained that its value in the 
 West Indies is as great as in Bordeaux or Liverpool, or 
 that the exchange would be really at par, if a bill, 
 which cost a hundred hogsheads of sugar in London, 
 onlj' brought a hundred in Jamaica. Now, in respect 
 of principle, this is precisely the case with bullion. 
 Though the values of gold and silver, compared with 
 com, labor, etc., may, and indeed must, vary very 
 considerably among different nations, these variations 
 are only the necessary result of their different progress 
 in industry, and of the different quality of their culti- 
 vated lands, etc. Such differences of price are in the 
 natural order of things ; and bullion has not found its 
 proper level tUl a quantity has been introduced into 
 those countries which excel in manufactories, suflicient 
 to raise the price of their corn and labor. These vari- 
 ations have, therefore, no influence over the exchange. 
 Notwithstanding this difference of price, an ounce of 
 bullion in one country, owing to the facility of inter- 
 course, is very nearly equivalent to an ounce of bullion 
 in another ; and supposing the trade in the precious 
 metals to be perfectly free, the exchange will be at 
 true par when bills are negotiated on this footing. But 
 when we compare the values of these metals in distant 
 countries, especially in those where they are produced, 
 with those into which they are imported, there are very 
 considerable differences. Gold and silver, like iron, 
 coal, tin, etc., are necessarily cheaper in countries pos- 
 sessed only of extraordinarily productive mines, than 
 in those possessed only of mines of a secondary degree 
 of fertility, or where they have to be entirely brought 
 from abroad. And the exchange between such places 
 is not a true par, unless adequate allowance be made 
 for this difference of value. Thus if, because of the 
 expense of carriage, the value of bullion in Great 
 Britain be 5 per cent, greater than in San Francisco, 
 100 ounces of pure gold in the latter would not be 
 worth 100 ounces of pure gold in London, but 5 per 
 
 * Elcardo, Principles of Political Economy, etc., first ed., 
 f. ITS. 
 t BulUon Reports, London, p. 22, 8vo. ed. 
 
 cent, less; and the exchange would be at true par 
 when bills for 105 ounces standard bullion, payable in 
 San Francisco, sold in London for 100 ounces. 
 
 The different values of the precious metals in differ- 
 ent countries do not depend alone on their respective 
 distances from the mines, or on their greater or less 
 progress in the arts. Tlie opinion formerly so very 
 prevalent, that gold and silver were the only real 
 wealth, led most nations to fetter and restrain their 
 exportation, and to adopt a variety of measures in- 
 tended to facilitate their importation. But these, even, 
 when most vigorously enforced, were singularlj' inef- 
 fectual. The great Value and small bulk of the precious 
 metals rendered it not only advaiitageous, but com- 
 paratively easy, clandestinely to export them, when- 
 ever their relative value declined. 
 
 " When," saj's Adam Smith, " the quantity of gold 
 and silver imported into any country exceeds the 
 effectual demand, no vigilance of government can 
 prevent their exportation. All the sanguinary laws 
 of Spain and Portugal are not able to keep their gold 
 and silver at home. The continual importations from 
 Peru and Brazil exceed the effectual demand of those 
 countries, and sink the price of those metals there be- 
 low that in the neighboring countries. If, on the 
 contrary, in any particular country, their quantity fell 
 short of the effectual demand, so as to raise their price 
 above that of the neighboring countries the govern- 
 ment would have no occasion to take any pains to im- 
 port them. If it were even to take the pains to prevent 
 their importation, it would not be able to effectuate it. 
 Those metals, when the Spartans had got wherewithal 
 to purchase them, broke through all the barriers which 
 the laws of Lycurgus opposed to their entrance into 
 Lacediemon. All the sanguinary laws of the customs 
 are not able to prevent the importation of the teas of 
 the Dutch and Gottehburg East India Companies, be- 
 cause somewhat cheaper than those of the British 
 Company. A pound of tea, however, is about a hun- 
 dred times the -bulk of one of the highest prices, 16s., 
 that is commonly paid for it in silver, and more than 
 two thousand times the bulk of the same price in gold, 
 and, consequently, just so many times more difficult to 
 smuggle."— IFeaftA of Nations, p. 190. 
 
 But though ineffectual to prevent their egress, the 
 restrictions on the exportation of the precious metals 
 have, nevertheless, contributed to occasion some slight 
 variations in their value on different countries. The 
 risk formerly incurred by the clandestine exporters of 
 bullion from Spain, is supposed to have been equiva- 
 lent to about two per cent. ; or, which is the same 
 thing, it is supposed that the restrictions maintained 
 such an excess of gold and silver in that countr}' as to 
 sink them two per cent, below their value in countries 
 having a free trade in bullion. In calculating the true 
 par of exchange between different countries, circum- 
 stances of this kind must be taken into account. For, 
 to whatever extent bullion in one country maybe 
 sunk below its value in those with which it maintains 
 an intercourse, the nominal exchange will necessarily 
 be unfavorable to that extent. All restraints on the 
 exportation of the precious metals was abolished m 
 Great Britain in 1819. Their effect for many years 
 previously could not be estimated at above one fourth 
 per cent. 
 
 It consequently results, that whatever occasions a 
 rise or fall in the value of the precious metals in one 
 country affects to the same extent its nominal ex- 
 change with other countries. If more coin, or con- 
 vertible paper, circulated in Great Britain, compared 
 with the business it has to perform, than in other 
 countries, its relative value would be proportionally 
 less. Foreign bills would sell for a premium, the 
 amount of which would measure the excess of the value 
 of the precious metals in the foreign market, caused 
 by their redundancy in the home market. And, on 
 the other hand, in the event of our currency becoming 
 
EXO 
 
 627 
 
 EXC 
 
 relatively deficient, its value ■vrould be proportionally 
 increased ; bills drawn on foreign countries would sell 
 at a discount, the amount of which would equal the 
 excess of the value of our currency over that of other 
 countries. 
 
 IV. Par ofExchAnqb. — In estimating the quan- 
 tities of bullion cbntained in the coins of different coun- 
 tries, a particular coin of bne is selected for a standard 
 by which to compare the others, and the proportion be- 
 tween it and them, supposing them to be all of their 
 standard weight and fineness, is ascertained by experi- 
 ment. A par of exchailge is thus established, or 
 rather it is ascertained that a certain amount of the 
 standard currency of one country contains as much 
 gold or silver of the same fineness, as is contained in 
 the coin or integer with Whicih it has been compared. 
 This relation, or par, as it is technically termed, is 
 considered invariable ; and allowance is made for sub- 
 sequent variations in the coins Of countries trading 
 together, by rating the exchange at so much above or 
 below pa;r. In mercantile language, that country, by 
 a comparison with one or other of whose coins the par 
 of exchange has been established, is said to give the 
 certain for the uncertain, and conversely. Thus in the 
 elxchaiijge between Londofi and Paris, London and 
 Hainburg, etc., London gives the certain, or the pound 
 sterling, for an uncertain or variable numberof francs, 
 florins, etc. Hence, the higher the exchange between 
 any two Countries, the more is it in favor of that which 
 gives it the certain';' and the lower, the more is it in 
 favor of that which gives the uncertain. 
 
 On the supposition that 25 francs contain the saine 
 quantity of standard bullion as a pound sterling (25 
 fr. 57 cent, is about the exact par), and Supposing, also, 
 that the value of bullion is the same in both countries, 
 the exchange between London and Paris will be at 
 par when a bill drawTi in the one on the other sells at 
 that rate ; that is, when a bill of exchange for 2500, 
 or ^5,000 francs, payable in Paris, sells in London for 
 £1D0 or £1000, and vice versa. It is but seldom, liow- 
 ever, that the coins of any country correspond ex- 
 actly with their mint standard. Unless when newlj' 
 issued, they are either more or less worn ; and when- 
 ever this d,efSct becomes sensible, an allowance cor- 
 responding to the difference between their actual value 
 and their mint value is made in estimating "the 
 sum of the existing currency of either of two coun- 
 tries which contains precisely the same quantity of 
 bullion as is contained in a given sum of the other." 
 Thus, if our pound sterling were so worn, clipped, or 
 rubbed, as not to contain, so much bullion as 25 fr., 
 but 10 per cent, less, the exchange between London 
 and Paris would be at real par when it was nominally 
 10 per cent, against London ;* and if, on the other 
 hand, the pound sterling were equal to its mint stand- 
 ard, while the franc was 10 per cent, less, it would be 
 at par when it was nominally 10 per cent, against Paris 
 and in favor of London. If the currencies of both 
 countries were equally reduced below'the standard of 
 their respective mints, there would obviously be no 
 variation of the par ; but whenever the currency of 
 countries trading together is unequally depreciated, the 
 exchange is nominally in favor of that country whose 
 currency is least, and nominally against that whose 
 currency is most depreciated. 
 
 It is almost unnecessary to refer to examples to 
 ^ow the practical operation of this principle ; and we 
 shall content ourselves with selecting the following, 
 
 * It is necessary to observe, that it is here supposed that 
 the clipped or degraded money exists in such a degree of 
 abundance as only to pass current at its bullion value. If 
 the quantity of clipped money were au^iently limited, it 
 might, notwithstanding the diminution of weight, pass current 
 at its mint value ; and then the par would have to be esti- 
 mated, not by its relative weight to foreign money, but by 
 the mint price of bullion. This principle must be constantly 
 kept in view. 
 
 from an infinite numlier of equally conclusive in- 
 stances. 
 
 Previously to the great recoinage in the reign of 
 William III., silver being at the time legal tender, the 
 exchange between England and Holland, calculated 
 by the standard of their respective mints, was nom- 
 inally 25 per cent, against England. Inasmwih, 
 however, as English silver coins were then, owing 
 to rubbing and clipping, depreciated more than 25 per 
 cent, below their mint value, the real exchange was 
 probably at the time in our favor. And the circum- 
 stance of the nominal exchange having become favor- 
 able to us as soon as the new coin was issued, tends 
 to confirm this conjecture.* 
 
 The guinea was so much worn and degraded, pre- 
 viously to the gold recoinage in 1774, as to be from two 
 to three per cent, under its standard weight. Inasmuch, 
 however, as the coins then circulating in France were 
 nearly of their standard weight and purity, the ex- 
 change between London and Paris was nominally from 
 two to three per cent, against the former. We say 
 nominally, for as soon as guineas of full weight were 
 issued, the exchange rose to par. 
 
 The Turkish government, during the past century, 
 has made successive reductions in the value of its coin. 
 Before the first df these in 1770, the piastre contained 
 nearly as much silver as the English half-crown ; and, 
 in exchange, the par was estimated at eigM piastres 
 to the pound sterling. But, in the interval, the degra- 
 dation in the value of the piastre has been such that 
 it is now worth only about 2Jd. ; and the exchange is 
 said to be at par when Constantinople gives about 109 
 piastres for £1 sterling. It is needless, almost, to say, 
 that the nominal exchange, estimated by the old par 
 of eight piastres to £1, became more and more unfa- 
 vorable to Turlcey with every successive enfeeblement 
 of the coih,'though it is doubtful whether the real ex- 
 change, or that depending on the balance of payments, 
 was not all the While in hier faVor. 
 
 When one country uses gold as the standardof its 
 currency, and another silver, the par of exchange be- 
 tween them is effected by variations in the_ relative 
 values of these metals. When gold rises as compared 
 with silver, the exchange becomes nominally favorable 
 to the country which has the gold standard, and vice 
 verrsSb. And hence, in estimating the par of exchange 
 between countries using different standards, it is al- 
 ways necessary to inquire into the comparative values 
 of the metal selected as standards. 
 
 "For example," to use the words of Mr. Mushet, 
 "if 34 schillings llj- grotes of Hamburg currency 
 be equal in value to a pound sterling, or 20-21 of a 
 guinea, when silver is at 5s. 2d. per oz., they can no 
 longer be so when silver falls to 5s. Id. or 6s. an oz., 
 or when it rises to 5s. 3d. or 5s. 4d, ; because a pound 
 sterling in gold being then worth more or less silver, 
 is also worth more or less Hamburg currency. To 
 find the real par, therefore, we must ascertain what 
 was the relative value of gold and silver when the par 
 was fixed at 34s. lljg. Hamburg currenoy, and what is 
 their relative value at the time we wish to calculate it. 
 For example, if the price of standard gold was £3 17s. 
 lO^d. per oz., and silver 5s. 2d., an ounce of gold would 
 then be worth 15-07 ounces of silver, and 20 of our 
 standard shillings would then contain as much pure 
 silver as 35s. llj^ grotes of Hamburg currency. But 
 if the ounce of gold were £3 17s. 10^., and silver 
 6s. (which it was on 2d January, 1798), the ounce of 
 gold would then be worth 15"67 ounces of silver. If 
 £1 sterling at par, therefore, be worth 15-07 ounces of 
 silver, then at 15-67 it would be at three per cent, pre- 
 mium ; and three per cent, premium on 34s. lljd. is 1 
 schilling 1 grote and 9-10, so that the par, when gold 
 is to silver as 15-57 to 1, will be 36 schillings 1 grote 
 and 1-10. The above calculation will be more easilj- 
 
 * TTeuK/i of Nations, p. 210. 
 
EXC 
 
 628 
 
 EXC 
 
 made by stating, as 15-07 : 54-12^ : : 15-67 : 36-1 
 1-10."* 
 
 As it is their intrinsic worth in bnllion which de- 
 termines the value of coins in exchange transactions, 
 those of equal weight and purity are reckoned equiva- 
 lent to each other, though some of them may have 
 been coined at the expense of the state, and others 
 charged with a duty or seigniorage on their coinage. 
 The latter may, if not issued in excess, pass current in 
 the country in which they are coined for their value in 
 bullion plits the duty ; but they will not pass any- 
 where else, except at their bullion value, f 
 
 But the principal source of fluctuations in the nom- 
 inal price of bills of exchange. Is to be found in the 
 varying value of the paper currency of commercial 
 countries. The disorders which arose in remoter ages 
 from diminishing the bullion contained in coins of the 
 same denomination have since been reproduced in an- 
 other form, and often to a still more ruinous extent, 
 in the depreciation of paper currency. 
 
 v. Infldence of Depreciated Paper Cur- 
 rency ON THE Exchange.— The impossibility of 
 retaining a comparatively large quantity of coin or 
 bullion, or of paper convertible into coin, in a particu- 
 lar countrj', limited the issues of the Bank of England 
 previously to the Restriction Act of 1797 ; and it has 
 equally limited them since the resumption of specie 
 payments in 1821, and sustained the value of the cur- 
 rency on a level with gold. When the bank starves 
 the circulation, or issues less paper than is necessary, 
 bullion is imported, sent to the mint to be coined, and 
 thrown upon the market. And when, on the other 
 hand, the bank issues too much paper, and thereby de- 
 presses its value relatively to gold, it becomes profita- 
 ble to demand pajTnent of its notes, and to export the 
 specie thus obtained either as coin or as bullion. In 
 this way the vacuum is filled up when bank-notes are 
 deficient, the excess removed when they are redun- 
 dant, and the value of the currency preserved nearly 
 equal. But, from 1797 down to 1821, this principle 
 was suspended. During that period, the bank was re- 
 lieved from the obligation to pay her notes in gold ; 
 while, owing to their being made legal tender, their 
 circulation was insured. Hence, their value exclu- 
 sively depended on the extent to which they were 
 issued compared with the demand. There is no dif- 
 ference, in its influence over the exchange, between a 
 degraded metallic and a depreciated paper currency. 
 And when a country with either the one or the other, 
 has any dealings with another whose currency is of its 
 full value, the exchange is nominally against her to 
 the extent of the degradation or depreciation. The 
 nominal exchange between any two or more places is, 
 in fact, always adjusted according to the values of their 
 currencies, being most favorable to that whose cur- 
 rency approaches nearest to its standard, and most un- 
 favorable to that whose currency is most degraded or 
 depreciated. The intercourse between Great Britain 
 and Ireland subsequently to the restriction on cash 
 payment in 1797, furnishes some striking proofs of the 
 efiect which inordinate issues of paper have in depress- 
 ing the exchange. The nominal value of the Irish 
 shilling being raised in 1689 from 12d. to 13d., J: £108 
 
 * An Inquiry into the effects produced on the National 
 Currenoij by the Bank Restriction Bill, etc., 2d ed., p. 94. 
 
 t Previously to 1817, no seigniorage had for a very long pe- 
 riod been deducted from either the gold or silver coins of Great 
 Britain ; hut in the great recoinage of that year, the value of 
 silver was raised from os. 2d. to 5s, 6d. an ounce, or nearly in 
 the proportion of 6\ percent. The gold coins, however, are still 
 coined free of e:icpense, and no variation has been made in their 
 standard. The proportion of silver to gold in the coins is now 
 as 14 28T-1000 to 1 ; but their proportion to each other, ac- 
 cording to their mint valuation, is as 15 209-1000 to 1. 
 
 I By a proclamation of James II, The arrangement was 
 continued by the revolutionary government, and, was con- 
 firmed by proclamation, 29th September, 1737. But in 1825 
 the currencies of Great Britain and Ireland were assimilated. 
 
 6s. 8d. Irish money became equal to only £100 of 
 British money, so that the exchange between Great 
 Britain and Ireland was said to be at par when it was 
 nominally 8J- per cent, against the latter. In the 
 eight years previous to 1797, when the paper currency 
 of both countries was convertible into gold, the ex- 
 change between London and Dublin fluctuated from 
 7i to 9 per cent., that is from 5-6 per cent, in favor of 
 Dublin to f per cent, against it. In September, 1797, 
 it was at 6 per cent., or 2J per cent, in favor of Dub- 
 lin. The amount of Bank of Ireland notes in circula- 
 tion in January, 1797, was only £621,917 ; whereas in 
 April, 1801, they had increased to £2,286,471, and the 
 exchange was then at 14 per cent., or 5f per cent, 
 against Dublin. In 1803, the Bank of Ireland notes 
 in circulation averaged £2,707,956, and in October of 
 that year the exchange was quoted at 17 per cent., 
 that is, 8^ per cent, against Dublin ! 
 
 The fact of the exchange between London and Dub- 
 lin having fluctuated so little from par for the eight 
 years previously to the restriction, shows that the cir- 
 culating medium of Great Britain and Ireland had 
 then been adjusted nearly according to the wants of 
 the two countries. But, in these circumstances, it 
 was evidently impracticable, supposing the value of 
 British currency to remain nearly stationary, that the 
 amount of Irish bank-paper could be more than quad- 
 rupled in the short space of six years, without render- 
 ing the currency of Ireland redundant, and sinking its 
 value below that of England. Had the Bank of En- 
 gland increased its notes in something like the same 
 ratio as the Bank of Ireland, then, as the currency of 
 both countries would have been equallj' depreciated, 
 the exchange between London and Dublin would have 
 continued at par. While, however, the notes of the 
 Bank of Ireland were increased from £621,9^7 to £2,- 
 707,956, or in the proportion of 1 to 4-3, those of the 
 Bank of England were only increased from £9,181,843 
 (their number on the 7th January, 1797), to £16,505,- 
 272, or in the proportion of 1 to 1-8. But for this.ad- 
 dition to its issues by the Bank of England, the 
 exchange, it is plain, would have been still more un- 
 favorable to Dublin. 
 
 In the debates on the Bullion Report, it was con- 
 tended that the increase of Bank of Ireland paper 
 could not have been the cause of the unfavorable ex- 
 change upon Dublin, seeing that it had again become 
 favorable after the issues of the Bank of Ireland had 
 been still further increased. But to give this reason- 
 ing the least weight, it should have been shown that 
 the currency of Great Britain retained its value in the 
 interum, or that it had not been depreciated to the 
 same extent as that of Ireland. For it is obvious that 
 the depreciation of Irish bank-paper might go on sub- 
 sequentlj- to 1804, and yet if English bank-paper were 
 depreciated still more rapidly, the exchange would be- 
 come more in favor of Dublin. This is merely sup- 
 posing the circumstances which took place in the first 
 six years of the restriction to be reversed in the second 
 six. Let ns inquire how the fact stands. 
 
 We have seen that, in 1803, when the exchange was 
 nominally 10 per cent, against Dublin, the issues of 
 the Bank of England amounted to £16,505,272, and 
 those of the Bank of Ireland to £2,707,956. And by 
 referring to the accounts of the issues of the latter 
 from 1797 to 1819, published by authority, it is seen 
 that in 1805-1808 they were rather diminished; and 
 that in 1810 they amounted to only £3,251,750, being 
 an increase of not more than £543,794 in the space of 
 seven years, or at the rate of 2 and 6-7 per cent, per 
 annum ; but in the same period (from 1803 to 1810) 
 the issues of the Bank of England were increased from 
 £16,505,272 to £22,541,523, or at the rate of 5 per 
 cent, per annum. And this is not aU. According to 
 Mr. Wakefield, there were 50 registered bankers in 
 Ireland in 1804, and only 33 in 1810, of which 14 were 
 new houses, 31 of the old establishments having dis- 
 
EXC 
 
 629 
 
 EXC 
 
 appeared ; and " I believe," says Mr. 'Wakefield " for 
 the most part failed." This extraordinary diminntion 
 of the country paper of Ireland, for the reduction of 
 the issues was at least proportional to the reduction in 
 the number of banks, could not fail greatly to raise its 
 value, and to countervail a corresponding increase in 
 the issues of the national bank. Now, the reverse of 
 all this took place in Britain. In 1800 there were 386 
 country banks in this countrj' ; and in 1810, this num- 
 ber, instead of being diminished as in Ireland, had in- 
 creased to 721, having at least three times the number 
 of notes in circulation in the latter as in the former 
 period! It appears, therefore, that when, in the 
 period between 1797 and 1804, the amount of paper in 
 circulation in Ireland was increased, and its value de- 
 pressed, faster than in England, the exchange between 
 London and Dublin became proportionally nnfavor- 
 able to the latter ; and, on the other hand, it appears, 
 that when, in the six years subsequent to 1804, the 
 paper currency of England was increased more rapidly 
 than that of Ireland, its relative value was diminished, 
 and the nominal exchange became more favorable to 
 Dublin. 
 
 This is sufficiently conclusive. But there is still 
 better evidence to show that the unfavorable exchange 
 of Dublin upon London, 1802, 1803, 1804, etc., was 
 entirely owing to the comparative redundancy or de- 
 preciation of Irish bank-paper. The linen manufac- 
 turers and weavers, witli the majpritj- of the other 
 inhabitants of a few counties in Ulster, being at the 
 period of the restriction strongly disaffected toward 
 government, very generally refused to receive bank- 
 notes in payment either of commodities or wages. 
 The landlords having also stipulated for the payment 
 of their rents in specie, a gold currency was maintained 
 in the northern long after it had been banished from 
 the southern parts of Ireland. If, therefore, the de- 
 pression of the exchange between London and Dublin 
 had been occasioned, as many contended, by an unfa^ 
 vorable balance of trade between Ireland and Great 
 Britain, or by remittances from the former on account 
 of absentees, it would have been equally depressed be- 
 tween London and the commercial towns in the north- 
 ern counties. But so far was this from being the case, 
 that in December, 1803, when the exchange of Dublin 
 on London was at 16 J per cent., that of Belfast on 
 London was at 5J ; or, in other words, at the very 
 time that the exchange between Dublin, which had a 
 paper currency, and London, was about 8 per. cent, 
 against Ireland, the exchange between Belfast, which 
 had a gold currency, and London, was about 3 per 
 cent, in its favor. And this is not all ; for while there 
 was a difference of 11 per cent, in the rate of exchange 
 between Dublin and London, and Belfast and London, 
 the inland exchange between Dublin and Belfast was 
 about 10 per cent, in favor of the latter; that is, bills 
 drawn in Dublin, and payable in the gold currency of 
 Belfast, brought a premium of 10 per cent., while bills 
 drawn in Belfast, and paj^able in the paper currency 
 of Dublin, sold at 10 per cent, discount !* 
 
 It is unnecessary to refer to the history of the 
 French assignats', or of the paper currency of the con- 
 tinental powers generaU3', and df the United States, 
 to corroborate what has been advanced. Such of our 
 readers as wish for further information upon these 
 points may have recourse to the fourth volume of the 
 " Cours d'Enconomie Politique" of M. Storch, f where 
 they will find an instructive account of the influence 
 of inordinate issues of paper on the price of bullion and 
 the exchange, in almost eVery country of Europe. 
 
 * Further information on this subject may be obtained 
 from the Report, 1S04, of the Committee of the House of 
 Commons upon the state of the circulating paper in Ireland, 
 its specie, etc,, from Sir Henry Farnell^s pamphlet on the 
 same subject ; and from the pamphlets of Lord King, Hqskis- 
 Bon, etc 
 
 t Paris, 1828, 4 vols. 870, 
 
 They are, in every case, similar to those now stated. 
 It only remains to determine the influence of fluctua- 
 tions in the nominal exchange over exports and im- 
 ports. ^^ 
 
 VI. Influence of Floctpations opTExchangb 
 OVEB Imports and ExpoRTS.^When the exchange 
 is at par, the operations of the merchant are regulated 
 entirely by the difference between foreign prices and 
 home prices. He imports such commodities as sell at 
 home for so much more than they cost abroad as will 
 indemnify him for freight, insurance, etc., and yields, 
 besides, an adequate remuneration for his trouble, and 
 for the capital employed in the business ; and he ex- 
 ports those whose price aliroad is sufficient "to cover all 
 expenses, and to afford a similar profit. But when 
 the nominal exchange becomes unfavorable to a coun- 
 try', the premium which its merchants receive on for- 
 eign bills has been said to enable them to export with 
 profit, in cases where the difference between the price 
 of the exported commodities at home and abroad might 
 not be such as to permit their exportation with the 
 exchange at par. Thus, if the nominal exchange 
 were 10 per cent against this country, a merchant who 
 had consigned goods to his agent abroad, would re- 
 ceive a premium of 10 per cent, on the- sale of the 
 bill ; and if we suppose freight, insurance, mercantile 
 profit, etc., to amount to 6 or 7 per cent., it would at 
 first sight appear as if we might, in such circumstances, 
 export conimodities, although their price at home were 
 3 or 4 per cent, higher than in other countries. If, on 
 the other hand, the nominal exchange were in our fa- 
 vor, or if bills on this country sold at a premium, it 
 would appear as if foreigners would then be able to 
 consign goods to our merchants, or the latter to order 
 goods from abroad, when the difference of real prices 
 would not of itself lead to an importation. 
 
 But a very little consideration will suifice to show 
 that the fluctuations in the nominal exchange have no 
 such effects. That fall in the value of the currency 
 which renders the exchange unfavorable, and causes 
 foreign bills to sell at a premium, equally increases 
 the price of commodities. And hence, however great, 
 the premium which exporters gain by selling bills on 
 their correspondents abroad, merely indemnifies them 
 for the enhanced price of the goods exported. In such 
 cases, mercantile operations are conducted precisely as 
 they would be were the exchange really at par ; that 
 is, by a comparison of real prices at home and abroad, 
 meaning by real prices, the prices at which commodi- 
 ties would be sold provided there were no depreciation 
 of the currency. If these admit of exportation or im- 
 portation with a profit, the circumstance of the nominal 
 exchange being favorable or unfavorable will make no 
 difference whatever on the transaction. 
 
 " Suppose," says Mr. Blake, who has verj' success- 
 fully illustrated this part of the theory of exchange, 
 "the currencies of Hamburg and London being in 
 their due proportions, and therefore, the nominal ex- 
 change at par, that sugar, which, from its abundance, 
 in London sold at £50 per hogshead, from its scarcity 
 at Hamburg would sell at £100. The merchant in 
 this case would immediately export. Upon the sale 
 of his sugar, he would draw a bill upon his cor- 
 respondent abroad for £100, which he could at once 
 convert into cash by selling it in the bill market at 
 home, deriving from this transaction a profit of £50, 
 under deduction of the expenses of freight, insurance, 
 commission, etc. Now, suppose no alteration in the 
 scarcity or abundance of sugar in London or Ham- 
 burg, and that the same transaction were to take place 
 after the currency in England had been so much in- 
 creased that the prices were doubled, and, conse- 
 quently, tlie nominal exchange 100 per cent, in favor 
 of Hamburg, the hogshead of sugar would then cost 
 £100, leaving apparently no profit whatever to the ex- 
 porter. He would, however, as before, draw his bill 
 on his correspondent for £100 ; and, as foreign bills 
 
EXC 
 
 630 
 
 EXC 
 
 would bear a premium of 100 per cent., he would sell 
 this bill in the English market for i200, ana thus de- 
 rive a profit from the transaction of £100 depreciated, 
 or £50, estimated in undepreciated currency — deduct- 
 ing, as in tfte former instance, the expense of freight, 
 insurance, commission, etc. 
 
 " The case would be precisel3'^ similar, mutatis mu- 
 tandis, with the importing merchant. The unfavora- 
 ble nominal exchange would appear to occasion a loss 
 amounting to the premium on the foreign bill which 
 he must give in order to pay his correspondent abroad. 
 But if the difference of real prices in the home and 
 foreign markets were such as to admit of a profit upon 
 the importation of produce, the merchant would con- 
 tinue to import, notwithstanding the premium ; for 
 that would be repaid to him in the advanced nominal 
 price at which the imported produce would be sold in 
 the home market. 
 
 '* Suppose, for instance, the currencies of Hamburg 
 and London, being in their due proportions, and there- 
 fore the nominal exchange at par, that linen which 
 can be bought at Hamburg for .£50 will sell here at 
 £100. The importer immediately orders his corre- 
 spondent abroad to send the linen for the pajinent of 
 which he purchases at £50 a foreign bill in the En- 
 glish market ; and on the sale of the consignment for 
 £100, he will derive a profit amounting to the differ- 
 ence between £50 and the expense attending the 
 import. 
 
 " Now, suppose the same transaction to take place 
 without any alteration in the scarcity or abundance of 
 linen at Hamburg' and London, but that the currency 
 of England has been so augmented as to be depre- 
 ciated to half its value, the nominal exchange will 
 then be 100 per cent, against England, and the im- 
 porter will not be able to purchase a £50 foreign bill 
 for less than £100. But as the prices of commodities 
 here will have risen in the same proportion as the 
 money has been depreciated, he will sell linen to the 
 English customer for £200, and will, as before, derive 
 a profit amounting to the difference between £100 de- 
 preciated, and £50 estimated in undepreciated money, 
 and the expenses attending the import. 
 
 " The same instances might be put in the case of a 
 favorable exchange ; and it would be seen, in the 
 same manner, that nominal prices and the nominal 
 exchange being alike dependent on the depreciation of 
 currency, whatever apparent advantage might be de- 
 rived from the former, would be counterbalanced by 
 a loss on the latter, and vice versa."* 
 
 It appears, therefore, that fluctuations in the nomi- 
 nal exchange have no effect on trade. A fall in the 
 exchange obliges the countrj' to which it is unfavor- 
 able to expend a greater nominal sum in discharging a 
 foreign debt than would otherwise be necessary ; but 
 it does not oblige it to expend a greater real value. 
 The depression of the nominal exchange can neither 
 exceed nor fall short of the comparative depreciation 
 of the currency. If British currency were depre- 
 ciated 10 or 15 per cent., the nominal exchange 
 would be 10 or 15 per cent, against us ; and we should 
 be compelled, in aU transactions with foreigners, to 
 give them 22Si or 23s. for what might otherwise have 
 been procured for 20s. But as neither 22s. nor 238. 
 of such depreciated paper is more valuable than 20s. 
 of paper undepreciated, pajnnent of a foreign debt 
 would, it js evident, be as easily made in the one cur- 
 rency as in the other ; and mercantile transactions 
 would, in such circumstances, be conducted exactly as 
 they would have been had there been no depreciation, 
 and the nominal exchange at par. 
 
 VII. Real Exchange. — Having thus endeavored 
 to trace the influence which variations in the value of 
 currencies have over the exchange, we proceed to con- 
 sider how far it is influenced bi/ fluctuations in the sup- 
 
 * Paris, 1823, 4 vols. 8to. 
 
 ply and demand for hills. To facilitate this inquiry, 
 we shall exclude all consideration of changes in the 
 value of money, and suppose the currencies of the 
 different countries having an intercourse together to 
 be equal in weight and purity to their mint standards, 
 and that each has its proper supply of bullion. When 
 two nations trade together, and each purchases of the 
 other commodities of the same value, their debts and 
 credits are equal, and the real exchange is, of course, 
 at- par. But it rarely happens that the debts recipro- 
 cally due by any two countries are equal. There is 
 almost always a balance owing on one side or other, 
 which affects the exchange. If, for example, the 
 debts due by London to Paris exceed those due by the 
 former to the latter, the demand in London for bills 
 on Paris will be greater than the demand in Paris for 
 bills on London ; and the real exchange will, conse- 
 quently, be in favor of Paris, and against London. 
 
 The expense of transferring bullion from one coun- 
 try to another, limits the range within which the rise 
 and fall of the real exchange between them is con- 
 fined. In this respect, as in most others, transactions 
 between foreign countries depend on the same princi- 
 ples which govern those between difl'erent parts of the 
 same country. We have already seen that the fluctua- 
 tions in the real exchange between London and Glas- 
 gow can not exceed the expense of transmitting money 
 between those cities. And this principle holds uni- 
 versally. Whatever may he the expense of trans- 
 mitting bullion, which is the money of the commercial 
 world, between London and Paris, London and Ham- 
 burg, New York, etc., the real exchange of the one on 
 the other, cau not for any considerable period, be de- 
 pressed to a greater extent. No merchant will pay a 
 higher premium for a bill to discharge a debt abroad, 
 than wlU suffice to cover the expense of transmitting 
 bullion to his creditor. 
 
 Hence it appears that whatever obstructs or fetters 
 the intercourse among different countries, proportion- 
 ally widens the limits within which fluctuations in the 
 real exchange may extend. And hence the reason 
 why it varies so much more in war than in peace. 
 The amount of the bills drawn on a country engaged 
 in hostilities is liable, from various causes, to, be 
 suddenly increased ; though, whatever may be the 
 amounts thus thrown upon the market, the depression 
 of the exchange can not, for anj- length of time, ex- 
 ceed the expense of conveying bullion from the debtor 
 to the creditor country. But during war this expense, 
 which consists of freight, insurance, etc., is sometimes 
 much augmented. The evidence annexed to the Re- 
 port of the Bullion Committee shows that the cost of 
 conveying gold from London to Hamburg, which, 
 prior to the Revolutionary war, amounted to 2 or 2|-, 
 had increased, in the latter part of 1809, to about 7 
 per cent. ; so that the limits within which fluctuations 
 in the real exchange might range in 1809 were about 
 three times as great as those within which they were con- 
 fined in 1793. Owing to our having the complete com- 
 mand of the sea, and our commerce not being sub- 
 jected even to the depredations of privateers, the cost 
 of freight and the conveyance of bullion between this 
 country and others, has not been affected by the war 
 in which we are now (1855) unluckily engaged. The 
 real exchange between neighboring countries is gen» 
 erally, on the principle now explained, less likely tQ 
 fluctuate than that between distant countries. It 
 costs considerably less to transmit bullion from Lon- 
 don to Dublin or Paris, than to New York or Canton. 
 And, as fluctuations in the real exchange are limited 
 by its cost, thej' may evidently extend proportionally 
 further between distant places than between such as 
 arc contiguous. We have next to investigate the cir- 
 cumstances which give rise to a favorable or an 
 unfavorable balance of payments, and to appreciate 
 their effects on the real exchange, and on trade in gen- 
 eral. 
 
EXG 
 
 631 
 
 EXG 
 
 VIII. Bai^auob of Payments. — A very great, if 
 not the principal, source of the errors into which mer- 
 chants, and the majority of writers on exchange, have 
 been betrayed in regard to the balance of payments; 
 appears to have originated in their confounding the 
 sum which imported commodities fetch in the home 
 marlset, with their cost abroad. It is obviously, how- 
 ever, bj- the amount of the latter only, that the bal- 
 ance of payments, and consequently the real exchange, 
 is influenced. A cargo of com, for example, which 
 cost £3000 free on board at Odessa, may be worth 
 ^64500 when imported into England ; but the foreign 
 merchant would not, unless he sent hither the com, 
 be entitled to draw on London for more than its origi- 
 nal cost, or £3000. It is clear, therefore, on the 
 slighest consideration, that the fact of the imports 
 being more valuable than the exports, does not au- 
 thorize the conclusion that the balance of payments is 
 against us. A favorable or an unfavorable balance 
 depends entirely on the sum due to foreigners for com- 
 modities bought from them being less or more than the 
 sum due &!/ them for commodities bought from us. It 
 has, nothing to do with the prices eventually obtained 
 for the imported or exported commodities. 
 
 The mereomtfe system of commercial policy, which 
 continues to preserve a powerful influence in most 
 countries, had for its grand object the creation of a 
 favorable balance of payments, by facilitating export- 
 ation and restricting importation. It is foreign to our 
 purpose to make any inquiry in regard-to the princi- 
 ples of this system, except in so far as they are^ con- 
 nected with exchanges. But it may be easily shown, 
 in opposition to the commonly received opinions, that 
 under ordinary circumstances the value of the imports 
 into commercial countries aliYays exceeds the value of 
 their exports ; and that this excess or balance has not, 
 speaking generally, any tendency to render the real 
 exchange unfavorable. 
 
 It is the business of the merchant to carry the puo- 
 ducts of different countries from those places where 
 their value is least, to those places where it is great- 
 est ; or, which is the same thing, , to distribute 'them 
 according to the effective demand. There could, how- 
 ever, be no motive to export any article, unless that 
 which was to be imported in its stead were more val- 
 uable. "When an English mCTchant orders a quantity 
 of Polish wheat, he supposes it will sell for so much 
 more than its price in Poland as will suffice to pay the 
 cost of freight, insurance, etc., and to yield, besides, 
 the ordinary, rate of proflt on the capital employed in 
 the transfer. If the wheat did not sell for this much, 
 its .importation would be productive of loss. Mer- 
 chants never export but in the view of importing ar- 
 ticles of greater value. Instead of an excess of ex- 
 ports over imports being any criterion of an advanta- 
 geous commerce, it is quite the reverse. And the 
 truth is, notwithstanding all that has been said and 
 written to th^ contrary', that unless the value of the 
 imports exceeded that of the' exports, fbreign trade 
 could not be carried on. Were this not the case — ^were 
 the value of the exports always greater than that of 
 the imports,: there would be a loss on every transaction 
 with foreigners, and the trade with them would either 
 not be undertaken, or, if begun, would be speedily 
 relinquished. 
 
 In England, the rates at which exports and imports 
 are officially valued were fixed so far back as 1696. 
 The very great alteration which has since taken place 
 in the value of monej', and in tlie cost of the greater 
 number of the commodities of this and other countries, 
 has rendered this official valuation, though valuable 
 as a means of determining their quantity, of no use 
 whatever as a criterion of the true value of the im- 
 ports and exports. To obviate this defect, accounts 
 of the real or declared value of the exports, prepared 
 from the declarations of the merchants,' are annusdly 
 laid before parliament. There is, however, no such 
 
 account of "the imports ; and it is, perhaps, impossible 
 to frame one yi'ith any thing like accuracy. It has also 
 been alleged, and apparently with some foundation, 
 that merchants have frequently exaggerated the value 
 of articles entitled to drawbacks. But the extension 
 and improvement of the warehousing system, and the 
 decrease in the nunrbei of drawbacks, has very mate- 
 rially, lessened whatever fraud or inaccuracy may have 
 arisen from that score. The declared value of the ex- 
 ports may now be considered as pretty near the truth, 
 at least sufficiently so for all practical purposes. 
 
 If perfectly accurate accounts could be obtained of 
 the value of the exports and imports, there can be no 
 manner of doubt that in all ordinary years the latter 
 would considerably, exceed the former. The value of 
 an exported commodity is estimated when it is shipped, 
 before its value is increased by the expense incurred 
 in transporting it to the place of destination ; whereas 
 the value of the commodity imported in its stead is 
 estimated after it has arrived at its destination, and 
 been enhanced by , the charges on account of freight, 
 insurance, importer's profits, etc. 
 
 It is of little importance, in so far at least as the 
 interests of commerce are concerned, whether a nation 
 carries its own imports and exports, or employs other. 
 A carrying nation appears to derive a comparatively, 
 large profit from its commercial transactions. But 
 this excess of, profit is seldom more than a fair remu- 
 neration for the capital it employs, and the risk it inr 
 curs, in transporting commodities. : TY^ere the trade 
 between this country and France wholly carried on in 
 British bottoms, our merchants, in addition to the 
 value of the exports, would also, receive the cost of 
 their carriage to France. : This,, however, would be 
 no loss to the French. They must pay the freight of 
 the commodities they import. And if English ships 
 sail on cheaper terms than those of their own country, 
 there is no ,good commercial reason, though there may 
 be others of a different kind, why they should not em- 
 ploy them in preference. 
 
 In the United-States, the value of the imports, de- 
 duced from the custom-houge; returns, almost always 
 exceeds the value of the exports. And though we 
 have been accustomed to consider the ' excess of ex- 
 ports over imports as the only sure criterion of an 
 advantageous commerce, the practical politicians of 
 America early discovered " that the real gain of the 
 United States has been nearly in proportion as their 
 imports have exceeded their exports."* The great 
 excess of imports in the Union is in part occasioned by 
 the Americans generally exporting their own stilus 
 produce, and receiving from foreigners not only an 
 equivalent for the exports, but also for the cost of 
 their conveyance to their markets. " In 1811," says 
 the author just quoted, " flour sold in America for $9 50 
 per barrel, and in Spain for $15. The value of the 
 cargo of a vessel carrj-ing 5000 barrels of flour would, 
 therefore, be estimated, at the period of its exportation, 
 at $47,500 ; but as this flour would, because of freight, 
 insurance, exporter's profits, etc., sell in Spain for 
 $75,000, the American merchant would be entitled to 
 draw on bis agent in Spain for $27,500 more than the 
 flour cost in America, or than the sum for which he 
 could have drawn had the flour been exported on ac- 
 count of a Spanish merchant. But the transaction 
 would not end here; the $75,000 would, be vested in 
 some species of Spanish or other European goods fit 
 for the American market ; and the freight, insurance, 
 etc., on account of the return cargo would, perhaps, in- 
 crease its value to $100,000 ; so that, in all, the Amer- 
 ican merchant might have imported commodities worth 
 $52,600 more than the flour originally sent to Spain." 
 It is as impossible to doubt that this transaction is ad- 
 vantageous, as it is to doubt that its advantage con- 
 sists in the value of the imports exceeding that of the 
 
 ' Pitkin on the Cmmneroe of the United States, 2d ed., p. 280. 
 
EXC 
 
 632 
 
 EXC 
 
 exports. And it is clear that America might have the 
 balance of the payments in her favor, though such 
 transactions as the above were multiplied to any con- 
 ceivable extent. 
 
 Instead, therefore, of endeavoring to limit the trade 
 with countries from which the Imports exceed the ex- 
 ports, we should give it every possible facility. Every 
 man considers that market as the best in which he ob- 
 tains the highest price for his goods. Why then ex- 
 clude him from it ? Why compel a merchant to sell 
 a cargo of muslins, iron, etc., for $10,500, rather than 
 $11,000 or $12,000 1 The wealth of a state is made 
 up of the wealth of individuals. And what more effec- 
 tual method of increasing individual wealth can be 
 devised than to permit buying in the cheapest and 
 selling in the dearest markets ? 
 
 It would be difficult to estimate the mischief which 
 absurd notions relative to the balance of trade have 
 occasioned in most commercial countries. ' They have 
 been particularly injurious to Great Britain. The re- 
 strictions imposed on the trade in France originated in 
 the prevalence of prejudices to which they gave rise. 
 The great, or rather the only, argument insisted on by 
 those who prevailed on the legislature to declare the 
 French trade a nuisance,* was founded on the alleged 
 fact, that the value of the imports from France consid- 
 erably exceed the value of the exports to her. The 
 balance was termed a tribute paid bj- England ; and it 
 was sagaciously asked, what had we done that we 
 should be obliged to pay so much money to our nat- 
 ural enemy ? Those considerate and patriotic persons 
 seem to have supposed that our merchants brought 
 commodities from France for no better reason than that 
 they were French, or to oblige that ingenious people. 
 But they were not quite so disinterested. They im- 
 ported French wines, sillcs, and so forth, for the same 
 reasons that they imported the sugar of the West Indies, 
 the teas and spices of the East, and the timber of the 
 Baltic ; that is, because there was a demand for them, 
 and because they were worth more in our markets 
 than the native products exported in their stead. The 
 reason assigned for prohibiting the trade affords a con- 
 clusive proof of its having been advantageous. There 
 can not, indeed, be a doubt, that an unlimited freedom 
 of intercourse between the two countries would be of 
 great service to both. Supposing it to be so arranged, 
 does any one imagine that we should export or import 
 any commodity to or from France, provided we could 
 either sell or buy it on better terms anywhere else ? 
 If restrictions on the trade with any particular country 
 be not injurious, that is, if it be either a losing or a 
 less advantageous trade tlian that with other countries, 
 we may be assured that the throwing it completely 
 open would not malte a single individual engage in it. 
 
 Every body knows that these conclusions are not 
 only theoretically true, but have been practically ver- 
 iHed. The abolition of the discriminating duty on 
 French wines, the reduction of the exorbitant duty on 
 brandy, the repeal of the prohibition against importing 
 silks, and the opening of our ports to French corn and 
 flour, have all been advantageous. And though it be 
 true that the prejudices of the Frencli, and the high 
 duties which they continue to impose on most articles 
 of British produce, confine the trade within compara- 
 tively narrow limits, they have not made it unprofitable, 
 and are more injurious to themselves than to us. It 
 is a curious fact, that notwithstanding the great 
 amount of our imports from France, and our expendi- 
 ture in that country on account of absentees, the state 
 of the exchanges shows that the balance of payments is 
 usually in our favor. But the partisans of the exclu- 
 sive or mercantile system may perhaps say, that they 
 do not mean to contend that it is profitable to export 
 more than is imported ; but that, by exporting an ac- 
 cess of raw and manufactured produce, the balance 
 
 * Prohibition Act, Ist WUliam and Mary. 
 
 of payment is rendered favorable, and this balance 
 (which they regard as representing the entire net 
 profit made by the country on its transactions with 
 foreigners) is alway paid in bullion. It may, how- 
 ever, be easily shown that this Statement is altogether 
 erroneous ; that a balance, whether on the one side or 
 the other, is seldom or never cancelled by means of 
 bullion : and that it is not a measure, and has, indeed, 
 nothing to do with the profit or loss attending foreign 
 commercial transactions. 
 
 If the premium on foreign bills, in a country with 
 an unfavorable real exchange, be less than the cost of 
 sending bullion abroad, it would be contradictory to 
 suppose that it should be exported. And though the 
 premium on such bills were to increase, till it became 
 equal to, for it can not exceed, the cost of exporting 
 the precious metals, it does not follow that they will 
 then be exported. That would depend on whether 
 bullion were, at the time, the cheapest exportable 
 commodity ; or, in other words, whether a remittance 
 of bullion was the most advantageous way in which a 
 debt might be discharged. If a London merchant owe 
 £1000, or other sum, in Paris, he endeavors to find out 
 the cheapest method of paying it. On the supposition 
 that the real exchange is 2 per cent, below par, and 
 that the expense of remitting bullion is also 2 per cent., 
 it will be indifferent to him whether he pays £20 of 
 premium for a bill of £1000, payable in Paris, or incur 
 an expense of £20 in remitting a £1000 worth of bul- 
 lion direct to that city. If the price of cloth in Paris 
 and London be such that it would require £1030 to 
 purchase and send as much cloth to Paris as would sell 
 for £1000, he would no doubt prefer buying a bill or 
 exporting bullion. But if, by incurring an expense of 
 £1010 the debtor may send as much hardware or cot- 
 ton to Paris as would sell for £1000, he would as cer- 
 tainly prefer paying his debt by exporting the one or 
 the other. It would save him 1 per cent, more than 
 if he had bought a foreign bill or remitted bullion, and 
 2 per cent more than if he exported cloth. Had there 
 been any other commodity which might have been ex- 
 ported with more advantage, he would have used it in 
 preference. 
 
 It is obvious, therefore, that the trade in bullion is 
 governed by the same principles which govern the 
 trade in other things. It is exported when its expor- 
 tation is advantageous ; that is, when it is less valu- 
 able at home, and more valuable abroad, than any 
 thing else ; and it wUl not otherwise be exported. 
 The balance of payments might be twenty or thirty 
 millions against a countrj', without depriving it of a 
 single ounce of bullion. No merchant would remit a 
 £1000 worth of gold or silver from England to dis- 
 charge a debt in Paris, if he could invest £970, £980, 
 £990, or any sum under £1000, in any other species of 
 merchandise which, exclusive of expense, would sell 
 in France for that amount. Those who deal in the 
 precious metals are as much alive to their interests as 
 those who deal in coffee, or sugar, or indigo. But 
 who would attempt to discharge a foreign debt by ex- 
 porting coffee which cost £100, if he could effect the 
 same object by exporting indigo which cost only £95 ? 
 No bullion will ever be exported unless its value be 
 less in the exporting country than in that to which it 
 is sent ; and unless it be, at the same time, the moat 
 advantageous article of export. 
 
 2. It is in vain to contend that an unrestricted free- 
 dom of trade might render some unfortunate country 
 indebted to another so happily situated that it had no 
 demand for any sort of ordinary merchandise, and 
 would only accept of cash or bullion in exchange for 
 its exports. A case of this sort never did, and never 
 will, occur. It is not even possible. A nation which 
 is in want of money must he in want of other things ; 
 for men desire money onlv because it is the readiest 
 means of increasing their command over necessaries 
 and enjoyments. The extreme variety, too, in the 
 
EXC 
 
 633 
 
 EXC 
 
 soils and climates — ^In the machinery, skill, and indus- 
 try of the people of different countries — occasion extra- 
 ordinary differences in their products and prices. Some 
 articles of the highest utility are peculiar to certain 
 districts. And there will ever he a demand, not only 
 for such articles, but also for those which, though they 
 may be produced at home, may be imported of a better 
 quality, or at a lower price. Nor, till the passion of 
 accumulation be banislied from the human breast, will 
 there cease to be a desire to send commodities from 
 places where their exchangeable value is least, to those 
 where it is greatest. 
 
 3. In treating of the nominal exchange, we endeav- 
 ored to show that no single country can continue for 
 any length of tiine to import or export a greater amount 
 of bullion than may be necessary to preserve the 
 precious metals in it in their proper relation to those 
 Of othSr countries ; or, which is the same thing, to 
 have the real exchange either permanently favorable 
 or unfavorable. But though this principle be strictly 
 true in reference to its aggregate exchange, it may be 
 incorrect if its exchange WitH one country only be con- 
 sidered. Great Britain, for example, may generally 
 have the exchange in her favor with America, provid- 
 ed she have it generally, and to a nearly equal extent, 
 against her with the East Indies, or some other coun- 
 trj'. " She may," to use the words of Mr. Eicardo, 
 " be importing from the north the bullion which she is 
 exporting to the south. She may be collecting it 
 from countries where it is relatively abundant, for 
 others where it is relatively scarce, or where, from some 
 particular causes, it is in great demand. Spain, who 
 is the great importer of bullion from America, can 
 never have an unfavorable exchange with her colonies ; 
 and as she must distribute the bullion she receives 
 among the different nations of the world, she can sel- 
 dom have a favorable exchange with the countries with 
 which she trades." See Eeply to Mr. Bosquet's Obser- 
 vations on the Report of the Bullion Committee, p. 17. 
 
 On this principle'. Lord King successful!}' accounted 
 for the favorable exchange between this country and 
 Hamburg from 1770 to 1799. He showed that the im- 
 portation of bullion from Hamburg and other parts 
 was not more than equivalent to the' exports to the 
 East Indies and the home consumption ; that the de- 
 mand corresponded to the supply ; and that its value 
 remained pretty stationarj-. The extraordinary influx 
 of bullion into this countrj- from the Continent at the 
 era of the bank restriction in 1797, and the favorable 
 state of the exchange, were undoubtedly owing to the 
 reduction in the issues of bank paper, and to the dim- 
 inution of the gold currency, caused by the hoarding 
 of guineas. ' In 1797 and 1798, above 5,000,000 of 
 guineas were coined at the mint ; and this extraordin- 
 ary demand for gold is of itself abundantly sufficient 
 to account for the very favorable exchange of that 
 period, and for the length of time during which it con- 
 tinued. But, at the same time that the demand for 
 gold bullion for the mint was thus increased, the de- 
 mand for silver bullion, for exports to India, was pro- 
 portionally augmented. 
 
 OoQces, 
 
 In 1795, the quantity exported by the Eaat In; 
 dia Company and private parties amount- 
 ed to 161,795 
 
 In 1796 to 290,777 
 
 1797 962,880 
 
 1798 , .... 8 665 691 
 
 1799. 7,287,827 
 
 From this period the exportation rapidly declined ; 
 and in the years in which the exchange was most un- 
 favorable, little or no silver was sent to India. 
 
 Instead, therefore, of the extraordinary importation 
 of bullion from Hamburg in 1797 and 1798 affording, 
 as Mr. Bosanquet and others supposed, a practical 
 proof of the fallacy of the opinion of those who contend 
 that it is impossible, for any length of time, to subvert 
 the natural equality in the value of bullion in different 
 countries, it is a striking example of its truth. With- 
 
 out this influx, bullion in this country could not have 
 maintained its proper comparative value. We im- 
 ported it, because the reduction of the paper currency, 
 and the increased exports of the East India Company, 
 rendered its value higher here than on the Continent, 
 and made it advantageous for the Continental mer- 
 chants to send it to us', in the same manner as they 
 would have sent com, or any thing else for which we 
 had an unusual demand. For, however favorable the 
 real exchange between Hamburg and London might 
 have been to the latter, we should not have imported 
 an ounce of bullion, had it not been, at the time, the 
 article with which Hamburg could most advantage- 
 ously discharge her debt to London. 
 
 4. In the absence of other arguments, it would be 
 sufficient to state, that it is physically Impossible that 
 the excess of exports over imports, as indicated by the 
 custom-house returns, should be paid in bullion. 
 Everj' countrj', with the exception of the United 
 States, has its apparentlj' favorable balance ; and, of 
 course, if they really existed, they would have to be 
 paid hy an influx of bullion ftom the mines correspond- 
 ent to their aggregate amount. It is certain, however, 
 that, previously to the discoveries in California and 
 Australia, the entire produce of the mines, though it 
 had been increased in a ten fold proportion, would have 
 been insufficient for this pui-pose I This fact is decis- 
 ive of the degree of credit which onght to be attached 
 to the commonly-received opinions on this subject. 
 
 5. In the last place, the profit on transactions with 
 foreigners does not consist in the quantity of bullion 
 imported from abroad, but in " the excess of the value 
 of the imports Over the value of the exports." If, in 
 return for exported commodities worth 10 or 20 mil- 
 lions, we import such as are worth 15 or 30, we shall 
 gain 60 per cent, by the transaction, though the 
 exports should consist entirely of bullion, and the 
 imports of corn, sugar, coffee, etc. It is a ridiculous 
 prejudice that would make bullion be imported rather 
 than any other article. But whatever the partisans 
 of the exclusive system may say about its being a 
 preferable product, a merchandise par excellence, we 
 may be assured that it will seldom appear in the list 
 of exports or imports, while there is any other thing 
 with which to carry on trade that will yield a larger 
 profit. Thus it appears that the excess of exports 
 over imports, instead of being any proof of an advan- 
 tageous commerce, is distinctly and completely the 
 reverse ; that the value of the imports into commercial 
 countries may, and almost always does, exceed the 
 value of their exports, without rendering them in- 
 debted to foreigners ; and that when a balance of 
 debt has been contracted, that is, when the sum pai/- 
 able to foreigners for imports is greater than the sum 
 receivable from them for exports, bullion will not be 
 sent from the debtor to the creditor countrj', unless it 
 be at the time the most profitable article of export. 
 
 IX. Effects op Real Exchange dpon Imports 
 AND Exports. — We have shown that fluctuations in 
 the nominal exchange do not influence foreign trade. 
 When the currency is depreciated, the premium which 
 an, exporter derives from the sale of bills on his corres- 
 pondent abroad, is barely equivalent to the increase in 
 the price of the exports, occasioned by the deprecia- 
 tion. But when the premium on foreign bills is not 
 caused by a fall in the value of money, bnt by a 
 deficient supply of bills, there is no rise of prices, and 
 then the unfavorable exchange undoubtedly operates 
 as a stimulus to exportation. As soon as the real 
 exchange diverges from par, the mere inspection of 
 price currents is no longer enough to guide the opera- 
 tions of the merchant. If it be unfavorable, the pre- 
 mium which the exporters receive on the sale of bills 
 must be included in the estimate of the profit they are 
 likely to derive from the transaction. The greater 
 that premium, the less will be the difference of prices 
 necessary to make them export. An unfavorable real 
 
EXC 
 
 634 
 
 EXC 
 
 exchange has, in truth, exactly the same effect on ex- 
 portation as a bounty eqnal to the premium on foreign 
 biUs. 
 
 But for the same reason that an unfavorable real 
 exchange increases exportation, it diminishes importa- 
 tion. When it is unfavorable, the prices of foreign 
 products brought to our markets must be so much 
 under their prices here, as not merely to afford, ex- 
 clusive of expenses, the ordinary profit on their sale, 
 but also to pay the premium which the importer must 
 give for a foreign bill, if he remit one to his corre- 
 spondent, or for the discount added to the invoice price, 
 if the latter draw upon him. A less quantity of for- 
 eign goods will therefore suit our markets when the 
 exchange is really unfavorable ; and fewer payments 
 having to be made abroad, the competition for foreign 
 bills is diminished, and the exchange rendered pro- 
 portionally favorable. A favorable real exchange, 
 consequentlj', operates as a duty on exportation and a 
 bounty on importation. 
 
 Hence it is obvious that fluctuations in the real ex- 
 change have a necessary tendency to correct them- 
 selves. They can never, for any considerable period, 
 exceed the expense of transmitting bullion from the 
 debtor to the creditor country. And the exchange 
 can not continue permanently favorable or unfavorable 
 even to this extent. When favorable, it corrects 
 itself by restricting exportation and facilitating im- 
 portation ; and when unfavorable, it produces the 
 same effect by stimulating exportation and obstruct- 
 ing importation. The true par forms the centre of 
 these oscillations. And though the thousand circum- 
 stances which daily and hourly affect the state of debt 
 and credit, prevent the ordinary course of exchange 
 from being almost ever precisely at par, its fluctua- 
 tions, whether on the one side or the other, are con- 
 fined within certain limits, and have a constant tend- 
 ency to disappear. The natural tendency which the 
 exchange has to correct itself is powerfully assisted by 
 the operations of the bill merchants. 
 
 England, for example, may owe an excess of debt to 
 Amsterdam, yet, as the aggregate amount of the debts 
 due by a commercial country, is generally balanced hy 
 the amount of those which it has to receive, the de- 
 ficiency of bills on Amsterdam in London will most 
 probably be countervailed by their redundancy in some 
 other quarter. And, it is the business of the mer- 
 chants who deal in bills, as of those who deal in bul- 
 lion or any thing else, to buy them where they are 
 cheap, that they may sell them where they are dear. 
 Thej^, therefore, buy up the bills drawn by other 
 countries on Amsterdam, and dispose of them in Lon- 
 don ; and, by so doing, prevent any great fall in the 
 price of bills on the former in the countries in which 
 their supply exceeds the demand, and any great rise 
 in Great Britain and the country in which their supply 
 happens to be deficient. In our trade with Italy, the 
 bills drawn on England generally amount to a greater 
 sum than those drawn on Italy. The bill merchants, 
 however, by buying up the excess of Italian bills on 
 London, and selling them in France, Holland, and 
 other countries indebted to England, prevent the real 
 exchange from being much depressed. 
 
 An unusual deficiency in the supply of com, or of 
 any article of prime necessity, by causing a sudden 
 SjUgmentation of imports, materially affects foreign 
 debts and credits, and depresses the exchange. In 
 time of war, the balance of payments is liable to be 
 still further disturbed ; the amount of the bills drawn 
 on a country carrying on foreign hostilities, being in- 
 creased by the whole expense of its armaments abroad, 
 and of subsidies to foreign powers. But neither the 
 conjoined nor separate influence of both or either of 
 these causes has any permanent influence over the 
 exchange. A sudden increase in the accustomed sup- 
 ply of bills must, in the first instance, bj' glutting the 
 market, occasion their selling at a discount ; but this 
 
 effect will only be temporary. The unusual faeilities 
 which are then afforded for exportation, and the diffi- 
 culties which are thrown in the way of importation, 
 never fail speedily to bring the real exchange to par. 
 
 During a period of peace we may, in the too great 
 ardor of speculative enterprisei export an excess of 
 produce, overload the foreign market, and occasion 
 such a decline in the price of pur goods abroad, as to 
 make the imports less valuable than the exports with 
 which they have been purchased. But such a state of 
 things can only be of limited duration. The distress- 
 of which it is productive, assisted bj' the fall of the 
 exchange, occasions a diminution of exports. The 
 supply of our commodities in the foreign markets is 
 rendered more nearly commensurate with the demand ;; 
 till in no long time the value of the imports again ex- 
 ceeds, as it always ought to do, the value of the ex- 
 ports. But when a country has a large foreign 
 expenditure to sustain, its exports are proportionally 
 augmented. Whatever may have been the foreign 
 expenditure of Great Britain during the, late war, 
 it is evident that it could not be defraj-ed otherwise 
 than by our annually exporting an equal, amount of 
 the produce of our land, capital, and labor, for which 
 payment was not received, .as in ordinary cases, by a 
 corresponding importation of foreign commodities, but 
 from the treasury at home. This is strictly true, 
 even though the expenditure should have happened to 
 be, in the first instance, discharged by remittances of 
 bullion ; for the increased supply of bullion which was 
 thus required, could be obtained only by an equally 
 increased exportation of other products to the countries 
 possessed of mines, or from which it was imported. 
 Foreign expenditure, by increasing exports in propor- 
 tion to its own amount, has no permanent influence 
 over the exchange. 
 
 Thus it appears that an excess of exports, instead of 
 being any criterion of increasing wealth at home, is 
 only a certain indication of commercial losses, or of 
 expenditure , abroad. "When," says Mr. Wheatley, 
 " the exports exceed the imports, as they must do 
 when there is a large foreign expenditure, the equiv- 
 alents for the excess are received abroad in as full and 
 ample a manner as if the produce which they pur- 
 chased were actually imported and entered in the cus- 
 tom-house books, and afterward sent to the seat of 
 war for consumption. But from the circumstance of 
 its not being inserted in the custom-house entries as 
 value received against the produce exported for its 
 payment, the latter is deemed to constitute a favorable 
 balance, when it is in reality exported to liquidate a 
 balance against us." * 
 
 But how conclusive soever this reasoning may ap- 
 pear, it has been said to be at variance with the fapt-j 
 and the rise of the exchange at the end of the late war, 
 during the suspension of cash payments, has been 
 appealed to as showing that its previous low rate 
 had not been occasioned by any depreciation of the 
 paper currencj-, but by the excessive amount of the 
 bills drawn upon this country to defray war ex- 
 penditure. The question, however, is not whether 
 the exchange recovered from its depression during the 
 suspension of cash payments, for the influence of that 
 measure depended entirely on the use made of it, but 
 whether its recovery took place without the amount 
 of bank paper of all sorts, or of the currency, being 
 diminished? The statements made in the article 
 Money are decisive upon this point. They show that 
 the currency was very greatly diminished in 1814, 
 1815, and 1816 ; and that this diminution occasioned 
 the rise in its value, and in the nominal exchange. 
 
 Mr. Francis Horner, the well-informed chairman of 
 the Committee on the High Price of Bullion, made the 
 following statement in regard to this very question in 
 his place in the House of Commons : " From inquiries 
 
 " WniiiTLEY, <m the Thmry of Money, p. 219. 
 
EXC 
 
 635 
 
 EXC 
 
 he had made, and from the accounts on the table, he 
 was convinced that a greater and more sudden reduc- 
 tion of the circulating medium had never taken place 
 in any country than had occurred since the peace of 
 this country, with the exception of those reductions 
 that had taken place in France after the Mississippi 
 SBheme, and after the destruction of the asslgnats. 
 The reduction of the currency had originated in the 
 previous fall of the prices of, agricultural produce. 
 That fall had produced a destruction of oountry-bank 
 paper to an extent which would not have been thought 
 possible, without more ruin than had actually ensued. 
 The Bank of England had also restricted its issues. 
 As appears by the accounts recently presented, the 
 average amount of its currency was not, during the 
 last year, more than between £25,000,000 and £26,- 
 000,000; while two years ago it had been nearer 
 £29,000,000, and at one time even amounted to £31,- 
 000,000. But, without looking to the diminution of 
 Bank of England paper, the reduction of the coun- 
 trj' paper was enough to account for the rise which had 
 taken place in the exchange." Hence it appears that 
 the rise of the exchange in 1815 and 1816 had nothing, 
 or but little, to do with the cessation of hostilities,iand 
 was entirely, or mainly, a consequence of the increased 
 value of the currency, caused by the reductiouiof its 
 quantity. Instead of being at variance with the prin- 
 ciples we have been endeavoring to elucidate, this fact 
 affords a strong confirmation of their correctness. And 
 having been sanctioned by the fullest experience, may 
 be considered as beyond the reach of cavil and dispute. 
 An objection of a different sort has been made, to an- 
 other part of the theory maintalaed in this section, 
 which it may be proper toinotice. 
 
 When the exchange becomes unfavorable, the pre- 
 mium, procured by the sale of the bill drawn on a for- 
 eign merchant to whom bullion has been consigned, is 
 no greater than would be obtained by consigning to 
 him an equivalent amount of coffee, tea, sugar, indigo, 
 etc. An unfavorable real exchange permits a mer- 
 chant to export commodities which could not be ex- 
 ported were it at par, orfavorable. But the advantage 
 still remains of exporting those commodities in prefer- 
 ence, whose price in the country from which they are 
 sent, compared with their price in that to which they 
 are exported, is lowest. Suppose, for example, that 
 the expense of transmitting bullion from. this country 
 to France is 3 per cent., that the real exchange is 
 4 per cent, against us, that the price of bullion is the 
 same in both conntries, and that coffee exclusive of the 
 expenses of carriage, is really worth 4 per cent, more 
 in France than in England. In such a case, it is obvi- 
 ous that the exporters of bullion would realize a profit 
 of only 1 per cent., while the exporters of coffee would 
 realize, inclusive of the premium on the sale of the 
 foreign bill, a profit of 7 per cent. And hence the 
 opinion maintained by Colonel Torrens,* that when 
 the exchange becomes unfavorable, those commodities 
 which contain the greatest value in the smallest bulk, 
 or on which the expense of carriage is least, are ex- 
 ported in preference, appears to have no good founda^ 
 tion. The prices of the commodities which nations 
 trading together are in the habit of exporting and im- 
 porting, are regulated not merely by the cost of their 
 production, but also by the expense of their carriage 
 from where they are produced to where they are con- 
 sumed. If Great Britain were in the habit of supply- 
 ing France with cottons and bullion, the average price 
 of cottons in France, because of the expense required 
 to convey them there, would probably be from 5 to 6 
 per cent, higher than in Britain ; while, because of the 
 comparative facility with which bullion may be trans- 
 ported from the one to the other, its value in Paris 
 would not, perhaps, exceed its value here more than 1 
 per cent. Now, suppose that when the prices of cot- 
 
 * ComparaHve Estimate, etc 
 
 tons and bullion in England and France are adjusted 
 according to their natural proportions, the real ex- 
 change, becomes unfavorable to us, it is clear that its 
 fall gives no greater advantage to the exporters of 
 bullion than to those of cottons. This rise in the price 
 of foreign bills does not increase the expense of ex;- 
 porting the one or the other. It leaves the cost of 
 their reduction and transportation exactly where it 
 fotmd it. During the depression of the exchange, the 
 exporters of both articles get the premium on the bills 
 drawn on their correspondents. But there is no in- 
 ducement to export bullion in preference to cottons, 
 unless the price of bullion increase more rapidly in 
 France, or decline more rapidly in Great Britain, than 
 that of cottons. 
 
 Whatever, therefore, may be the depression of the 
 exchange, the merchant selects those commodities for 
 exportation which, exclusive of the premium, yield 
 the greatest profit on their sale. If bullion be one of 
 these, it will of course be exported ; if not, not. But 
 of all commodities, bullion is that of which the value 
 approaches: nearest to an equality in different coun- 
 tries, so that it is the least likely to be exported 
 during an unfavorable exchange. The demand for it 
 is comparatively steady, and no great surplus quantity 
 could be imported into one country without reducing,, 
 or exported from another, without raising its value so 
 as to unfit it either for exportation or importation. In 
 most cases a small part only of an unfavorable balance 
 is paid in bullion. The operations of the bullion mer- 
 chants are confined chiefly to the distribution of the 
 fresh supplies obtained from the mines, in proportion 
 to the wants of different countries, 
 
 X. Computed Exchange. — Having thus endeav- 
 ored to point out the manner in which variations in 
 the values of, the currencies of nations trading to- 
 gether, and in the supply and demand for bills, sepa- 
 rately affect the exchange, it now only remains to 
 ascertain their combined effect, or the computed or 
 actual course of exchange. From what has been 
 alreadj' stated, it is obvious, that when the nominal 
 and real exchange are both favorable or both unfavora- 
 ble, the computed exchange will express their giwi ; and 
 that when one is favorable and the other unfavorable, 
 it will express their difference. When, for example, 
 the currency of Great Britain is of the mint standard 
 and purity, while that of France is 5 per cent, de- 
 graded, the nominal exchange will be 5 per cent, in our 
 favor. But the real exchange ma}", at the same time, 
 be either favorable or unfavorable. If it be, also, favor- 
 able to the extent of 1, 2, 3, etc., per cent., the com- 
 puted exchange will be 6, 7, 8, etc., per cent, in our 
 favor. And, on the other hand, if it l>e unfavorable to 
 the extent of 1, 2, 3, etc., per cent., the computed ex- 
 change will be only 4, 3, 2, etc., per cent, in our favor. 
 When the reof, exchange is iu favor of one country, 
 and the nominal exchange equally against it, the com- 
 puted exchange is at par, and vice versh. 
 
 A comparison of the market with the mint price of 
 bullion affords the best and readiest means by which 
 to ascertain the state of the exchange. When there 
 are no restrictions on the trade in the precious metals, 
 the excess of the market over the mint price of bullion 
 affords an accurate measure of the depreciation of the 
 currency. , If the market and mint price of bullion at 
 Paris and Iiondon exactly , corresponded, then, inas- 
 much as the real value of bullion must be very nearly 
 the same in both countries, the nominal exchange 
 would be at par ; and whatever fluctuations the com- 
 puted exchange might exhibit, must, in such cases, be 
 traced to fluctuations in the real exchange, or in the 
 supply and demand for biUs. If, when the market, 
 price of bullion in Paris is equal to its mint price, it 
 exceeds it 2 per cent, in London, it is a proof that our 
 currency is 2 per cent, depreciated, and consequently 
 the nominal exchange between Paris and London mtist 
 be 2 per cent, against the latter. Instead, however, 
 
EXC 
 
 636 
 
 EXC 
 
 of the computed or actual course of exchange being 2 
 per cent, against London, it may be against it to a 
 greater or less extent, or in its favor. It -will be more 
 against it provided the real exchange be also unfavor- 
 able ; it will be less against it provided the real ex- 
 change be in favor of London, though to a less extent 
 thafl the adverse nominal exchange ; and it will be in 
 favor of London, should the favorable real exceed the 
 unfavorable nominal exchange. Thus, if, while British 
 currency is 5 per cent, depreciated, and French cur- 
 rency at par, the computed or actual course of ex- 
 change between Paris and London were 10 or 12 per 
 cent, against the latter, it would show that the real 
 exchange was also against this country to the extent 
 of 5 or 7 per cent. And if, on the other hand, the 
 computed exchange were only 2 or 3 per cent, against 
 London, it would show that the real exchange was 3 
 or i per cent, in its favor, and so on. 
 
 It has been already shown, that in so far at least as 
 the question of exchange is involved, the differences in 
 the valde of bullion in different countries are limited 
 by the expense of its transit from one to another. And 
 hence, by ascertaining whether a particular country 
 exports or imports bullion to or from other countries, 
 we may determine its comparative value in these 
 countries. Suppose, for example, that the expense of 
 conveying bullion from this country to France, in- 
 cluding the profits of the bullion dealer, is 1 per cent. ; 
 it is clear, inasmuch as bullion is exported only to find 
 its level, that whenever our merchants begin to export 
 it to France, its value there must be at least 1 per cent, 
 greater than in England ; and, on the contrary, when 
 they import bullion from France, its value here must 
 be, at least 1 per cent, greater than in France. In 
 judging of the exchange between any two countries, 
 this circumstance should always be attended to. If no 
 bullion be passing from the one to the other, we may 
 conclude that its value is nearly the same in both ; or, 
 at all events, that the difference of its value is not 
 more than the expense of transit. On the supposition 
 that the entire expense, including profit, of conveying 
 bullion from San Francisco to London is 5 per cent., 
 and that London is importing bullion, it is clear, pro- 
 vided the real exchange be at par, and the currency 
 of both cities at their mint standards, that the nominal^ 
 or, which in this case is the same thing, the computed 
 exchange, will be 5 per cent, in favor of London, but 
 if the currency of London be 5 per cent, depreciated, 
 or, in other words, if the market price of bullion at 
 London be 5 per cent, above its mint price, the com- 
 puted exchange between it and San Francisco, sup- 
 posing the real exchange to continue at par, will ob- 
 viously be at par. It may therefore be laid down as a 
 general rule, that when bullion begins to pass from 
 one country to another, the expense of transit, pro- 
 vided the mint and market price of bullion in the ex- 
 porting country correspond, will indicate how much 
 the value of bullion in it is below its value in the 
 country into which it is imported, and will be identical 
 with its unfavorable nominal exchange ^ and that when 
 the market exceeds the mint price of bullion in the ex- 
 porting country, the expense of transit added to this 
 excess will give the total comparative reduction of the 
 value of the precious metals in that countrj'. The 
 converse of this takes place in the country importing 
 bullion. When its currency is of the mint standard, 
 the expense of transit is the measure of its favorable 
 nominal exchange ; but when its currency is relativelj- 
 redundant or degraded, the difference between the ex- 
 pense of transit and the excess of the market above 
 the mint price of bullion, will measure the extent of 
 the favorable or unfavorable nominal exchange. It will 
 be favorable when the depreciation is less than the ex- 
 pense of transit, and unfavorable when it is greater. 
 
 From 1809 to 1815 inclusive. Great Britain continued 
 to export gold and silver to the Continent. During 
 this period, therefore, we must add the expense of its 
 
 export to the excess of the market over the mint price 
 of bullion, to get at the true relative value of British 
 currency, and the state of the real exchange. Mr. 
 Goldsmid stated to the bullion committee that, during 
 the last five or six months of 1809, the expense of 
 transporting gold to Holland and Hamburg, includ- 
 ing freight, insurance, exporter's profits, etc., varied 
 from 4 to 7 per cent. But at the time that the relative 
 value of bullion in Britain was at 5J (medium of 4 
 and 7) per cent, below its value in Hamburg, the mar- 
 ket price of gold bullion exceeded its mint price 16 or 
 
 20 per cent., or 18 per cent, at an average ; so that the 
 currency of this country, as compared with that of 
 Hamburg, which differed very little from its mint 
 standard, was depreciated to the extent of about 23J 
 per cent. Now, as the computed or actual course of 
 exchange varied, during the same period, from 19 to 
 
 21 per cent, against London, it is plain the real ex- 
 change could not be far from par. Had the computed 
 exchange been less unfavorable, it would have shown 
 that the real exchange was in favor of London ; had 
 it been more unfavorable, it would, on the contrary, 
 have shown that the real exchange was against 
 London. 
 
 Provided an accurate account could be obtained of 
 the expense attending the transit of bullion from this 
 country to the Continent during the subsequent years 
 of the war, it would most likely be found, notwith- 
 standing the extraordinary depression of the nominal, 
 that the real exchange varied but little from par ; and 
 that the exportation of gold and silver was not a con- 
 sequence of the balance of payments being against us, 
 but of its being advantageous to export bullion, be- 
 cause of its being more valuable on the Continent. 
 None will contend that, in 1809, 1810, etc., gold and 
 silver were so redundant in this conntrj' as to sink 
 their relative value. Any such supposition is out of 
 the question. During the period referred to, they 
 were sent abroad, because the depreciation of paper 
 exceeded the cost of the transit of bullion ; and it was 
 every body's interest to pay their debts in the depre- 
 ciated currency, and to export that which was unde- 
 preciated to countries where it passed at its full value 
 as coin, or in which bullion was in greater demand. 
 Had our paper cui*rency been sufdciently reduced, the 
 supply of gold in the kingdom in 1809, 1810, etc., com- 
 pared with the demand which must, under such cir- 
 cumstances, have been experienced, was so very small, 
 that instead of exporting, we should have imported 
 the precious metals from all parts of the world. 
 
 The extraordinary exportation of British goods to 
 the Continent during the latter years of the war, has 
 been very generally supposed to have been in great 
 measure owing to the depression of the exchange. 
 But, in so far as this depression was occasioned by the 
 redundancy or depreciation of the currency, it could 
 have no such effect. It is impossible, indeed, to form 
 any opinion as to the influence of fluctuations in the 
 computed exchange on export and import trade, with- 
 out previouslj'' ascertaining whether they are a conse- 
 quence of fluctuations in the real or nominal exchange. 
 It is only by an unfavorable real exchange that ex- 
 portation is facilitated ; and it may be favorable when 
 the computed exchange is unfavorable. " Suppose," 
 to use an example given by Mr. Blake, "the com- 
 puted exchange between Hamburg and London to be 1 
 per cent, against this countrj^, and that this arises from 
 the real exchange which is favorable to the amount of 
 4 per cent., and a nominal exchange unfavorable to the 
 extent of 5 per cent. ; let the real price of bullion at 
 Hamburg and London be precisely the same, and, con- 
 sequently, the nominal prices different by the amount 
 of the nominal exchange, or 5 per cent. ; now, if the 
 expenses of freight, insurance, etc., on the transit of 
 bullion from Hamburg are 3 per cent., it is evident 
 that a profit would be derived from the import of that 
 article, notwithstanding the computed exchange was 1 
 
EXC 
 
 637 
 
 EXC 
 
 per cent, against U9. In this case, the merchant mast 
 give a premium of 1 per cent, for the foreign hill, to 
 pay for the bullion ; £100 worth of bullion at Ham- 
 burg would therefore cost him jElOl, and the charges 
 of importation would increase the sum to £104. Upon 
 the subsequent sale, then, for £105 of depreciated 
 currency in the home market, he would derive from 
 the transaction a profit of £1. This sum is precisely 
 the difference between the real exchange and the ex- 
 penses of transit, that part of the computed exchange 
 which depends on the nomiiuU producing no effect ; 
 since whatever is lost bj' its unfavorable state is coun- 
 terbalanced by a corresponding inequality of nominal 
 prices."* In the same manner it may be shown that, 
 though the computed be favorable, the real exchange 
 may be unfavorable ; and that, consequentlj', it may 
 be really advantageous to export when it is apparently 
 advantageous to import. But it would be tedious to 
 multiply instances, which, as the intelligent reader 
 will readily conceive, may be infinitely varied, and 
 which have been sufficiently explained in the fore- 
 going sections. 
 
 The real cause of the extraordinarj' importation of 
 British produce into the Continent, in 1809, 1810, 1811, 
 etc., notwithstanding the anti-commercial system of 
 Napoleon, is to be found in the annihilation of the 
 neutral tradd, and our monopoly of the commerce of 
 the world. The entire produce of the East and West 
 was at our disposal. The Continental nations could 
 neither procure colonial products, nor raw cotton for the 
 purpose of manufacturing, except from England. Brit- 
 ish merchandise was thus almost indispensable ; and 
 to this our immense exportation, in spite' of all prohibi- 
 tions to the contrary', is to be ascribed. 
 
 XI. History and Inflhence of Bills of Ex- 
 change. — It is not easy to discover the era when bills 
 of exchange were first employed to transfer and ad- 
 just the mutual claims and obligations of merchants, 
 ''^heir invention has been ascribed to the Arabians and 
 jews of the Middle Ages. But it seems certain that 
 they were in use in remote antiquity. Isocrates states 
 that a stranger who brought some cargoes of corn to 
 Athens, furnished a merchant of the name of Strat- 
 ocles with an order or bill of exchange on a town on 
 the Euxine, where money was owing to him ; and, 
 because the person who had drawn the bill had no 
 fixed domicile, Stratoeles was to have recourse on a 
 merchant in Athens, in the event of its being pro- 
 tested. The merchant, says Isocrates, who procured 
 this order found it extremely advantageous, inasmuch 
 as it enabled him to avoid risking his fortune on seas 
 covered with pirates, and the hostile squadrons of the 
 Lacedemonians. — De Pauw Jiecherches sur Us Grkcs, 
 i., 258. 
 
 There is also good evidence to show that the method 
 of transferring and canceling the debts of parties re- 
 siding at a distance by means of letters of credit, 
 which are in efiect the same as bills of exchange, was 
 not unknown to the Romans. Cicero, in one of his 
 epistles to Atticus,f inquires whether his son must 
 carry cash to defray the expense of his studies with 
 him to Athens, or whether he might not save 
 this trouble and risk by obtaining an assignment for 
 an equivalent sum from n creditor in Bome on his 
 debtor in Athens. It is evident, from a subsequent 
 epistle of Cicero, that the latter method had been pre- 
 ferred, and that the transference of the money had, 
 in consequence, been rendered unnecessary.}: 
 
 Macpherson state5§ that the first mention of bills of 
 
 ♦ Observations, etc., p. 91. 
 
 t Epist. ad Attieum^ xii. 2. 
 
 t JEpist. ad Atticum, xii. 27. " De Cicerone, ut scribis, ita 
 faciam: ipsi permittam de tempore; nummorum quantnm 
 opus erit utpcrmutetur tu videbis." In his notes on a paral- 
 lel passage, Grffivius remarks, " Permutatio est quod nunc 
 barbare cambium dicitur." — Epiat. ad Atticvm, xL 24. 
 
 S Annals of Commerce, i. 406. 
 
 exchange in modem history occurs in 1266. The 
 pope, having quarreled with Manfred, King of Sicily, 
 engaged, on Henry III. of England agreeing to indem- 
 nify him for the expense, to depose Manfred, and raise 
 Henry's second son, Edmund, to the Sicilian throne. 
 The enterprise misgave. But the merchants of Sienna 
 and Florence, who originally advanced the money to 
 carry it into effect, or rather to gratify the pope's ra- 
 pacity, were paid by bills drawn on the prelates of 
 England, who, although they protested that they knew 
 nothing at all about the transaction, were nevertheless 
 compelled, under pain of excommunication, to pay the 
 bills and interest !* 
 
 Capmany, in his " Memoirs" respecting the com- 
 merce, etc., of Barcelona, gives a copy of an ordon- 
 nance of the magistracy, dated in 1394, enacting that 
 bills should be accepted within twenty-rfour hours after 
 their presentation ; a sufficient proof that they were 
 in general use in the end of the fourteenth century. 
 
 But whatever be the era of the introduction of bills 
 of exchange, few inventions have redounded more to 
 the public advantage. Without this simple and inge- 
 nious contrivance, commerce could have made no great 
 progress. Had there been no means of adjusting the 
 mutual claims of debtors and creditors otherwise than 
 by the intervention of metallic money (for bank paper 
 is only another species of bills of exchange), a very 
 large portion of that capital which is setting productive 
 labor in motion in every quarter of the globe, and 
 ministering to the wants and enjoyments of mankind, 
 must have been employed in effecting those exchanges 
 which are much better effected by the agency of a few 
 quires of paper. Instead of a perpetual importation 
 and exportation of gold and silver, necessarily at- 
 tended with an immensity of trouble and expense, 
 bills, possessing little or no intrinsic worth, and which 
 are transferred with the utmost facility^ suffice to ad- 
 just the most extensive and complicated transactions. 
 But the mere setting free of an immense productive 
 power, engaged in a comparatively unprofitable em- 
 ployment, is only one of the many benefits we owe to 
 the use of bills. , By cheapening the instruments by 
 which commerce is carried on, they have materially 
 reduced the prices of most articles ; and have, in con- 
 sequence, increased the command of all classes over 
 necessaries and luxuries, and accelerated the progress 
 of civilization, by occasioning a more extensive inter- 
 course and intimate connection between different and 
 independent countries than would otherwise have 
 taken place. 
 
 In a political point of view their effects have been 
 equally salutary. They enable individuals impercepti- 
 bly to transfer their fortune to other countries, and to 
 preserve it safe alike from the rapacity of their own 
 governments and the hostile attacks of others. The 
 security of property has, in consequence, been vastly 
 augmented. And though we should concede to the 
 satirist that paper credit has " lent corruption lighter 
 wings," it has, at the same time, powerfully contributed 
 to render subjects less dependent on the policy, and 
 less liable to be injuriously affected by the injudicious 
 measures of their rulers. In countries in a low stage 
 of civilization the inhabitants endeavor, by burj'ing 
 all the gold and silver they can collect, to preserve a 
 part of their property from the despots by whom they 
 are alternately plundered and oppressed. This was 
 universally the case in the Middle Ages ; and in Tur- 
 key, India, Persia, and other eastern, and also in 
 some European countries, the practice is still carried 
 on to a greater or less extent. Some economists have 
 endeavored to account for the long-continued importa- 
 tion and high value of the precious metals in India, 
 by the loss which necessarily attends the practice of 
 hoarding ; and undoubtedly this locking-up of capital, 
 while it evinces an extreme degree of insecurity, is a 
 
 * Hume's England, cap. 12. 
 
EXC 
 
 638 
 
 EXC 
 
 main cause of the poverty of these countries. But 
 .the security afforded by bills of exchange is infinitely 
 greater than any which can be derived from the bar- 
 barous expedient of trusting property to the bosom of 
 the earth. " Pregnant with thousands flits the scrap 
 unseen," and in a moment places the largest fortune 
 beyond the reach of danger. Mr. Harris was there- 
 fore right in saying, " that the introduction of bills of 
 exchange was the greatest security to merchants, both 
 as to their persons and effects, and consequently the 
 greatest encouragement to commerce, and the greatest 
 blow to despotism, of any thing that ever was in- 
 vented." 
 
 Its extensive commerce, the wealth and punctuality 
 of its merchants, and their intimate connection with 
 all the other great trading cities of the world, made 
 Amsterdam, previously to the peace of 1763, the chief 
 place where the accounts of commercial countries 
 were balanced and adjusted. But the loss of foreign 
 trade, and the other vexations to which Holland was 
 subjected during the ascendency of the French, nearly 
 divested Amsterdam of all share in this business ; and 
 it has not since recovered its former superiority. Lon- 
 don is now the trading metropolis of Europe and the 
 world, universi orhis terrarum emporium. The vast 
 extent of its commercial dealings necessarily renders 
 it the great mart for bills of exchange. Its bill-mer- 
 chants, a class of men remarkable for their shrewdness 
 and generally ■ possessed of large capitals, assist in 
 trimming and adjusting the balance of debt and credit 
 between the most remote countries. Thej' buy up 
 bills where they are cheap, and sell them where they 
 are dear, and, by the extent of their correspondence 
 and the magnitude of their transactions, give a steadi- 
 ness to the exchange to which it could not otherwise 
 attain. 
 
 The following is a statement of the usance and days 
 of grace for bills drawn at London upon some of the 
 principal commercial cities ; 
 
 London on 
 
 Usance. 
 
 Days ofp-aee. 
 
 Amsterdam 
 
 1 m. d.* 
 
 1 m. d. 
 
 1 m. d. 
 
 1 m. d. 
 
 1 m. d. 
 14 d. a. 
 30 d. d. 
 14 d. e. 
 
 1 m. d. 
 60 d. d. 
 30 d. d. 
 
 2 m. s. 
 60 d. d. 
 
 2 m. d. 
 
 2 m. 8. 
 8 m. d. 
 
 14 d. a. 
 
 8 m. d. 
 
 8 m. d. 
 14 d. a. 
 30 d. d. 
 
 3 m. d. 
 8 m. d. 
 
 SO d. s. 
 30 d. 8. 
 30 d. d. 
 21 d. s. 
 60 d. s. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 14 
 
 6 
 
 14 
 
 5 
 
 14 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 
 
 80 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 18 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Altona 
 
 Dantzic 
 
 Paris 
 
 
 
 Barcelona 
 
 
 Maddd 
 
 Cadiz . 
 
 Bilboa 
 
 Gibraltar. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dublin 
 
 New York 
 
 
 * m. d., m. 8., d. d., d, s,, d. a., respectively denote 'montlis 
 after date, months after sight, days after date, days after 
 sight, da/ys after acceptanoe. 
 
 In France, days of grace were suppressed by the 
 Code de Commerce, article 135. In Austria, bills pay- 
 able at sight, or on demand, or at less than 7 days 
 after sight or date, are not allowed any days of grace. 
 In Petersburg, bills after date are allowed 10 days' 
 grace, but after sight only 3 days' do. 
 
 In the dating of bills, the new style is used in every 
 country of Europe, with the exception of Russia. A 
 proposition is now before the Eussian govemment for 
 the adoption of the Gregorian calendar. 
 
 In London, bills of exchange are bought and sold 
 by brokers, who, go round to the principal merchants 
 
 and discover whether they are buyers or sellers of 
 bills. A^'ew of the brokers, of most influence, after 
 ascertaining ithe state of the relative supply and de- 
 mand for hills, SjUggest a price at which the greater 
 part of the ti'ansactidns of the day are settled, with 
 such deviations as particular bills, from their being in 
 a very high or low credit, may be subject to. The 
 price fixed by the brokers is that which is published 
 in Wittenhall's List ; but the first houses generally 
 negotiate their bills on i, 1, 4, and 2 per cent, better 
 terms than those quoted. In London and other great 
 commercial cities, a class of middlemen speculate 
 largely on the rise and fall of the exchange ;< buying 
 bills when thej' expect a rise, and selling them when 
 a fall is anticipated. 
 
 It is usual, in drawing foreign bills of exchange, to 
 draw them in sets, or duplicates, lest the first should 
 be lost or miscarry. When bills are drawn in sets, 
 each must contain a condition that it shall be payable 
 only while the others remain unpaid ; thus, the first is 
 payable only, " second and third unpaid ;" the second, 
 "first and third unpaid;" and the third, "first and 
 second unpaid." 
 
 Bills of exchange purporting to he drawn at any 
 place out of the United Kingdom are to be deemed to 
 be liable to the stamp-duty on such bills, though they 
 may, in fact, have been drawn in the United King- 
 dom. (§ 4.) The holders of foreign bills, or bills 
 drawn out of the United Kingdom, are to affix proper 
 adhesive stamps to the same before negotiating them^ 
 under a penaltj' of £50. (§ 5.) 
 
 No one acquainted with the fundamental rules of 
 arithmetic can have any difliculty whatever in esti- 
 mating how much a sum of money in one country is 
 worth in another, according to the state of exchange 
 at the time. The common arithmetical hooks abound 
 in examples of such computations. But, in conduct- 
 ing the business of exchange, a direct remittance is 
 not always preferred. When a merchant in London, 
 for example, means to discharge a debt due by him in 
 Paris, it is his business to ascertain not only the state 
 of the direct exchange between London and Paris, 
 and, consequently, the sum which he must pay in 
 London for a bill on Paris equivalent to his debt, but 
 also the state of the exchange between London and 
 Hamburg, Hamburg and Paris, etc. ; for it frequently 
 happens that it may be more advantageous for him to 
 buy a hill on Hamburg, Amsterdam, or Lisbon, and 
 to direct his agent to invest the proceeds in a bill on 
 Paris, rather than remit directly to the latter. This 
 is termed the Akbitkation of exchange. An exam- 
 ple or two will suflice to show the principle on which 
 it is conducted. 
 
 Thus, if the exchange between London and Amster- 
 dam be 35s. Flemish (old coinage) per pound sterling, 
 and between Paris and Amsterdam Is. 6d. Flemish 
 per franc, then, in order to ascertain whether a dhect 
 or indirect remittance to Paris would be most advan- 
 tageous, we must calculate what would be the value 
 of the franc in English money if the remittance were 
 made through Holland; for it be less than that re- 
 sulting from the direct exchange, it will obviously be 
 the preferable mode of remitting. This is determined 
 by stating, as 35s. I'lemish (the Amsterdam currency 
 in a pound sterling) : Is. 6d. Flemish (Amsterdam 
 currency in a franc) :■. £1: lOd. the proportion or 
 arbitrated value of the franc. Hence, if the English 
 money, or bill of exchange, to pay a debt in Paris, 
 were remitted by Amsterdam, it would require lOd. to 
 discharge a debt of a franc, or £1 to discharge a deit 
 of 24 francs ; and, therefore, if the exchange between 
 London and Paris were at 24, it would be indifferent 
 to the English merchant whether he remitted directly 
 to Paris, or indirectly via Amsterdam ; but if the ex- 
 change hetween London and Paris were above 24, then 
 a direct remittance would be preferable ; while, if on 
 the other hand, the direct exchange were less than 24, 
 
EX6 
 
 639 
 
 EXC 
 
 the indirect remittance' ought as plainly to be prefer- 
 red. 
 
 " Suppose," to borrow an example from Kelly 
 {Universal Cambist, vol. ii., p. 137), " the exchange of 
 London and Lisbon to be at 68d. per milree, and that 
 of Lisbon on Madrid 500 rees per dollar, the arbitrated 
 price between London and Madrid is 34d. sterling per 
 dollar; for, as 1000 rees : 68d. :: 500 rees : 34d. tiut, 
 if the direct exchange of London on Madrid be 8od. 
 sterling per dollar, then London, by remitting di- 
 rectly to Madrid, must ' pay 35d; for every dollar ; 
 whereas, by remitting through Lisbon, he will pay 
 only 34d. ; it is, therefore, the interest of London to 
 remit indirectljf to Madrid through Lisbon. On the 
 other hand, if London draws directly on Madrid, he 
 will receive 35d. sterling per doUar; whereas, by 
 drawing indirectly through Lisbon, he would receive 
 only 34d. ; it is, therefore, the interest of London to 
 draw directly on Madrid. Hence,, the follcwing rules : 
 " 1. Where the certain price is given, draw thr9Ugh 
 the place which' produces the lowest arbitrated price, 
 and reniit through that which produces the highest. 
 
 " 2. Where the uncertain price is given, draw 
 through that place which produces the highest, arbi- 
 trated price, and remit through that which produces 
 the lowest." In compound arbitration; or when more 
 than three places are concerned, then, in order to find 
 how much a renfittance passing through tl;em all wUl 
 amount to in the last place, or, which is the same 
 thing, to find the arbitrated price between the first 
 and the last, we have" only to repeat the different 
 statements in the same manner as in the foregoing ex- 
 amples. Thus, if the exchange between London and 
 Amsterdam be 35s. Flemish for £1 sterling. ; between 
 Amsterdam and Lisbon 42d. Flemish for 1 old crusade ; 
 and between Lisbon and Paris 480 rees for 3 francs ; 
 what is the arbitrated price between London and 
 Paris ? In the first place, as 35s. Fleri^ish : £1 : : 42d. 
 Flemish : 2s. sterling = 1 old crusade. 
 
 Second, as 1 old crusade, or 400 rees : 2s. sterling : : 
 480 rees : 2s. 4"8d. sterling = 3 francs. 
 
 Third, as 2s. 4-8d. sterling : 3 francs : : £1 sterling : 
 25 francs, the arbitrated jipce' of the pound sterling 
 between London and Paris, 
 
 This operation may be abridged as follows : 
 £1 sterling. 
 £ 1 sterling = 853. Flemish. 
 8^9. Flem. . = 1 old crusade. 
 1 old crusade = 400 rees. 
 480 rees = 8 francs. 
 
 85x400x8 4200 
 
 Honco — ^ ^ =' =25 francs. 
 
 480x8i . 168 
 This abpdged operation evidently consists in arrang- 
 ing the term;, so that those which would form the di- 
 visors in conijinued statements in the Rule of Three, 
 
 are multiplied together for a common divisor, and the 
 other terms for a common dividend. The ordinary 
 arithmetical books abouiid with examples of such ope- 
 rations. 
 
 The following account of the manner in which a 
 very large transaction was actually conducted by indi- 
 rect remittances, will sufficiently iUiistrate the princi- 
 ples we have been endeavoring to explain. In 1804, 
 Spain was bound to pay to France a large subsidy j 
 and, in order to do this, three distSnct methods pre- 
 sented themselves : 1. To send dollars to Paris by 
 land. 2. To remit bills of exchange directly to Paris. 
 8. To authorize Paris to draw directly on Spain. The 
 first of these methods was tried, but it was found too 
 slow and expensive ; and the Second and third plans 
 were considered likely to turn the exchange against 
 Spain. The following method by the indirect or cir- 
 cular exchange was therefore adopted. 
 
 A merchant or ianquier at Paris was appointed to 
 manage the operation, which he thus conducted : He 
 chose London, Amsterdam, Hamburg, Cadiz, Madrid, 
 and Paris, as the principal hinges On which the opera- 
 tion was to turn ; and he engaged correspondents in 
 each of these cities to support the circulation. Madrid 
 and Cadiz were the places in Spain from whence re- 
 ifiittaUces were to be made ; and dollars were, of 
 course, to be sent tO Where they bore the highest 
 price, for Vhich bills were to be procured on Paris, or 
 on any other places that miglit ' be deemed more ad- 
 vantageous. ' The principle being thus established, it 
 only reniained to regulate the extent of the operation, 
 so as not to issue too much papet on Spain, and to 
 give the circulation as much support as possible from 
 real business. With this view, London was chosen 
 as a place to which the operation might be chiefly di- 
 rected, as the price of dollars was then high in En- 
 gland ; a circumstance which rendered the proportional 
 exchange advantageous to Spain. 
 
 This business was commenced at Paris, where the 
 negotiation of drafts issued on Hamburg and Amster- 
 dam served to answer the immediate demands of the 
 state ; and orders were transmitted to these places to 
 draw for the reimbursements on London, Madrid, or 
 Cadiz, according as the course of exchange was most 
 favorable. The proceedings were all conducted with 
 judgment, and attended with complete success. At 
 the coinmencenlent of the operation, the course of ex- 
 change of Cadiz on London was 36d. ; but by the plan 
 adopted, Spain got SOJd., or above 8 per cent, by the 
 remittance of dollars to London, and considerable ad- 
 vantages were also gained by the circulation of bills 
 through the several places on the continent. — Kelly's 
 Cambist, vol. ii., p. 168 ; DnBosT's Elements of Com- 
 merce, 2d ed., p. 228. See Bills of Excliange. 
 
 Tablk speciftino tub Value of tub 
 
 EXOHANOE TkAKSAOTIONS, TAKING 
 
 sucn Places on this uvpothesis.* 
 
 Moneys op Aoooont of the principal Places with which England has 
 Silver at 5s. an oitnob, and speoifyino also the Par of Exchange with 
 
 P]^tersburg . . . 
 
 Berlin 
 
 Copenhagen . . 
 Hambarg. . . . . 
 
 . . 100 copecks 
 
 . . 80 sil. groschen 
 ..96 skimngs.... 
 .. 16 schillings... 
 . . 100 centimes, . . . 
 .. 100 centimes.... 
 
 .. 100 centimes 
 
 . . 24 1-2 guld. or flor. 
 
 60 kreusers 
 
 .. 100 centisimi... 
 . . 100 centisimi . . . 
 . . 100 centisimi . . . 
 
 8 reals. 
 
 . . 1000 rp.is 
 
 ■= 
 
 1 roublp 
 
 1 Pruss. dollar... 
 
 1 Eig. dollar 
 
 1 mark :. ... 
 
 = 
 
 8 
 2 
 2 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 4 
 2 
 4 
 
 d. 
 
 11-2.... 
 10 8-4.... 
 2 1-8.... 
 6 1-2.... 
 8 
 
 Par 
 
 . giving 6 roub. 
 . " 6 doll. 
 . " 9 doll. 
 . " 18 mks. 
 . " 11 fl. 
 . " 11 fl. 
 . " 25 fr. 
 . " 12 8-40 i 
 . " 9 fl. 
 . " 29 Ii. 
 . " 25 IL 
 . " 80 ii. 
 . " 6 doll. 
 . " 4 mil. 
 . " 4 doll. 
 . " 7 mil. 
 . " 4 doll. 
 
 of Excliniige. 
 
 40 cop 
 
 27 8. g 
 
 10 sk 
 
 ■— 
 
 £1 
 
 10 l-25ch.... 
 
 97 cents 
 
 97 cents 
 
 57 cents 
 
 'nldens. 
 
 
 Antwerp 
 
 1 florin 
 
 8 
 
 9 1-2. . . . 
 TT-8.... 
 
 4-10... 
 
 8-13 
 
 9 1-2.... 
 T'82..... 
 
 1 8-4.... 
 8 
 
 
 Pai-is 
 
 
 
 Fraukfort, . 
 
 
 
 
 
 50 kr 
 
 
 Venice 
 
 Genoa 
 
 Leghorn. 
 
 Madrid 
 
 1 lira Austriaca.. 
 
 1 liraNuova 
 
 1 liraToscana.... 
 1 dollar of Plate.. 
 1 miireis 
 
 62 cent 
 
 57 cent 
 
 69 cent 
 
 2 3-4 reals.. 
 285 reis 
 
 80 cents 
 
 777 reis 
 
 44 cents 
 
 
 New York... 
 
 .. 100 
 ..1000 
 .. 100 
 
 cents 
 
 1 dollar. 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 T 
 
 6 13-232. 
 
 
 Havana 
 
 cents 
 
 1 dollar 
 
 
 * Abstracted from Totems Jifodem Cotmbist, to which the reader is referred for farther explanations. 
 
 It is easy from this table to calculate the value of 
 any of the above coins, taking silver at 5s. 2d., 5s. 6d. 
 an oz., or any other price, and thence to deduce the 
 par of exchange at such rates. The preceding article 
 on Principles of Exchange, is from the pen oif J. E. 
 
 See Bills 
 
 McCuLLOCH, in the last edition Ency. Brit. 
 of Exchange. 
 
 Exchange signifies a place in most considerable 
 trading cities where merchants, agents, bankers, bro- 
 kers, interpreters, and other persons concerned in com- 
 
EXC 
 
 640 
 
 EXC 
 
 merce, assemble on certain days, at a fixed hour, to 
 confer together in regard to matters relating to ex- 
 changes, remittances, payments, assurances, freights, 
 etc. In Flanders, Holland, and France, these places 
 are called Bourses, or- Places de Change; and in the 
 Hanse towns, Borsenhalle. The most considerable ex- 
 changes in Europe are those of London, Paris, and 
 Amsterdam. The ancient Romans had places for mer- 
 chants to meet in most of the considerable cities of 
 their empire. That -which is said to have been built 
 at Rome in the year B.C. 493, was called Collegium 
 Mercatorum, of which it is alleged there are still some 
 remains, called by the modern Romans Loggia, the 
 Lodge or place of St. George. 
 
 Exchequer Bills are bills of credit issued by 
 authority of Parliament. They are for various sums, 
 and bear interest (generally from l^d. to Z-Jd. per 
 diem, per £100) according to the usual rate at the 
 time. The advances of the banlc to government are 
 made upon exchequer bills ; and the daily transac- 
 tions between the bank and government are princi- 
 pally carried on through their intervention. Notice 
 of the time at which outstanding exchequer bills are 
 to be paid off is given by public advertisement. 
 Bankers prefer vesting in exchequer bills to any other 
 species of stock, even though the interest be for the 
 most part comparatively low; because the capital 
 may be received at the treasury at the rate originally 
 paid for it, the holders being exempted from any risk 
 of fluctuation, except in the amount of the premium 
 or discount at which they may have bought the bills. 
 Exchequer bills were first issued in 1696, and have 
 been annually issued ever since. The subjoined is an 
 account of the unfunded debt in exchequer bills, and 
 of the annual charge thereon, on the 5th of January, 
 1817, and the 5th of January' every subsequent year 
 down to 1855. 
 
 In 1853, exchequer bonds were issued bearing inter- 
 est at 2f per cent, for ten years, and thereafter 2^ per 
 cent, for thirty years, or till 1894, to such holders of 
 South Sea, and three per cent, stock as chose to accept 
 the same, a bond for £100 being given for every £100 
 stock subscribed (16th and 17th Vict., cap. 23). But 
 only a very small sum (£5000) has been invested in 
 such bonds. 
 
 Tliis description of temporary loan is unknown in 
 this country, but is a favorite investment by British 
 capitalists. The treasury has the power, by act of 
 Parliament, to issue ways and means bills, or in other 
 words, exchequer bills, to the aid of the ways and 
 means of the year, by issuing them in any one quarter, 
 payable out of the revenues of the following quarter. 
 Independent of these bills of supply, issues are made 
 in exchequer bills to the paymaster-general for the 
 ordinarj^ service, to be sold in the market to meet the 
 public demand. The bills are signed either by the 
 comptroller or by the assistant-comptroller, and every 
 means have been suggested to prevent forgery. Some- 
 times the bills are issued to the paymaster-general, and 
 sometimes to the bank ; and the bank either carries 
 the amount of money for which it has contracted with 
 the government, to the paymaster's account, or to the 
 exchequer account. Then the credit is issued from the 
 exchequer account for the public accountant. About 
 1500 bills are prepared in one day, and they are signed 
 in even quantities. There are constitutional reasons 
 against the treasury having the issue of exchequer 
 bills. The Constitution of England is founded on a 
 jealousy of the executive government, and therefore 
 checks are required in dealing with the action of the 
 government, which a commercial company like the 
 Bank of England may not in any respect require. 
 
 From the 1st of January, 1842, to 15th June, 1847, 
 there were signed by the comptrollar-general, and by 
 the assistant-comptroller, 186,707 exchequer bills, for 
 the amount of £197,983,423. From the 1st January, 
 1815, to 15th June, 1847, there were examined and 
 
 controlled by the comptroller-general and assistant- 
 comptroller, 288 roj-al orders of the amount of £92,- 
 865,730, and 900 treasurj"- warrants of the value of 
 £^83,681,258. From the first of January, 1845, to 
 10th June, 1847, there were issued and supplied to the 
 paj'master, 90,109 bills of the amount of £54,604,300. 
 The preparation of exchequer bills costs the public for 
 paper-making, £4000 ; superintendence of ditto, £30 ; 
 engraving and printing, £180 ; superintendent, £30 ; 
 and counterfeits, £10 — total, £650, During 1855, 
 there were signed 1455 credits, 1228 acquittances, 427 
 Irish transfers, 3842 Irish acquittances, 32,444 ex- 
 chequer bills of £31,827,117 ; and controlled 214 royal 
 orders of £91,811,111, and 369 treasnr)- warrants of 
 £178,981,985. In 1854, there were signed 22,654 ex- 
 chequer bonds of £6,009,400. 
 
 Yeara 
 ending 
 Jan, 6. 
 
 181 T 
 
 1818 
 1819 
 1820 
 1821 
 1822 
 1823 
 1824 
 1825 
 1826 
 182T 
 1828 
 
 1831 
 1832 
 1838 
 1884 
 1835 
 1886 
 1837 
 1838 
 1839 
 1840 
 1841 
 1842 
 
 1848 
 
 1844 
 1846 
 1846 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 
 1860 
 1851 
 1852 
 
 1858 
 
 1854 
 1855 
 
 Amount of Ex- 
 chequer Bills. 
 
 £44,650,800 
 56,729,400 
 48,208,400 
 
 ' 86,303,200 
 80,965,900 
 81,666,560 
 86,281,150 
 84,741,750 
 82,398,460 
 2r,994;200 
 24,566,350 
 27,646,850 
 27,657,000 
 25,490,650 
 27,271,650 
 27,138,860 
 27,278,000 
 27,906.900 
 28,521,550 
 28,976,600 
 26,976,000 
 24,044,650 
 24,026,050 
 19,965,050 
 21,076,360 
 18,843(860 
 
 18,182,100 
 
 18,407,800 
 18,404,.500 
 18,880,200 
 
 18,310,700 
 
 17,946,500 
 
 17,786,700 
 17,768,700 
 17,756,600 
 17,742,800 
 
 17,742,500 
 
 16,029,600 
 17,188,000 
 
 Rate of Intereflt per Diem. 
 
 8d. Nov. 22, J816 
 2i<i. Feb. 24, 1817 
 2d. Oct. 11, 1817 
 
 Ija. June, 24, 
 2d. Dec." 19, 
 
 IJd. Sept. SO, 
 lid. Dec. 18, 
 
 2d. Sept 29, 1886 
 
 2id. Nov. 21, 1836 
 
 2d. Dec. 14, 1837 
 
 IJd. March 18, 1839 
 
 2id. March 16, 1840 
 
 2d. June "16, 1842 
 
 IJd. March 17, 1843 
 
 lid. June 16, 1843 
 
 ; 2d. March 16, I 
 8d. June 16, j 
 2id. March 16, j 
 2d. June 16, j 
 lid. March 16, 
 
 1848 
 1849 
 
 IJd. June 10, 1852 
 Id. March 10, 1 1S58 
 2d. Oct. 11, f 1863 
 2id. June 12, 1854 
 
 Cliarge of 
 
 Interest per I 
 
 Anniun. 
 
 £2,173,927 
 
 1,891,815 
 
 2,026,460 
 
 847,091 
 
 1,529,181 
 
 2,1)09,311 
 
 1,809,409 
 
 1,111,220 
 
 1,086,015 
 
 820,000 
 
 770,000 
 
 802,186 
 
 860,475 
 
 806,076 
 
 726,465 
 
 604,365 
 
 677,820 
 
 728,696 
 
 686,417 
 
 688,701 
 
 692,095 
 
 871,809 
 
 641,370 
 
 783,707 
 
 669,130 
 
 797,046 
 
 j. 681,601 
 
 694,051 
 462,363 
 422,654 
 
 419,898 
 
 438,348 
 
 787,881 
 605,124 
 402,790 
 403,476 
 
 402,862 
 
 868,414 
 848,513 
 
 The interest paid within each year is given in the col- 
 umn of charge, which interest has accrued upon thOj capi- 
 tal stated In the preceding year. 
 
 The interest paid upon the £16,029,600, and upon £1,750,- 
 000 of bills Issued in April 1864, will be paid in 1856. 
 
 The interest upon the £17,183,00, will not l)e payable 
 till 1856, i. 6 f year ending January 5, 1857. 
 
 Sxcise, the name given to the duties or taxes laid 
 on certain articles produced and consumed at home ; 
 but, exclusive of these, the duties on licenses and 
 post-horses are also placed under the management of 
 the excise, and are consequently included in the excise 
 duties. The excise system was established in England 
 by the Long Parliament ; was continued under Crom- 
 well and Charles II. ; and was organized as at present 
 in the "Walpole administration. It was first collected 
 and an office opened in 1643, and was arbitrarily levied 
 upon liquors and provisions to support the parliament- 
 ary forces against Charles I. The excise-office was 
 built on the site of Gresham College, in 1774. The 
 officers of excise and customs were deprived of their 
 votes for members of Parliament in n82.^Haydn. 
 
 Excise duties had been from an earl}^ period estab- 
 lished in Holland, and the large revenue which they 
 afforded pointed them out to the leaders of the popu- 
 lar party in the great civil war, as the most likely 
 
EXH 
 
 641 
 
 EXH 
 
 means by which they could raise funds to carry on the 
 great contest in which they had embarked. They 
 were consequently introduced by a parliamentary' or- 
 dinance in 1643 ; being then laid on the makers and 
 venders of ale, beer, cider, and perry. The royalists 
 soon after followed the example of the republicans ; 
 both sides declaring that the excise shoidd be con- 
 tinued no longer than the termination of the war. 
 But it was found too productive a source of revenue to 
 be again relinquished ; and when the nation had been 
 accustomed to It for a few years, the Parliament de- 
 clared, in 1649, that the " impost of excise was the 
 most easy and indifferent levy that could be laid upon 
 the people." It was placed on a new footing at the 
 Restoration ; and, notwithstanding Mr. Justice Black- 
 stone says that " from its first original to the present 
 time its very name has been odious to the people of 
 England" (flom. book i. c. 3), it has continued pro- 
 gressively to gain ground ; and is at this moment im- 
 posed on various important articles, and furnishes a 
 large share of the public revenue of the kingdom. 
 Amohht of the EroisB Ebvende of Great Bsitain in 
 
 THE FOLLOWING TeAES : 
 
 1744 Great Britain £8,754,072 
 
 1786 " " 5,640,114 
 
 1808 " " 19,867,914 
 
 1820 " " 26.364,702 
 
 1827 United Kingdom 20,996,824 
 
 1830 " " 18,644,895 
 
 1884 " " 16,877,292 
 
 1887 " " 14)518,142 
 
 1840 " " 12,607,766 
 
 1845 " " 13,586,688 
 
 Exhibition (exhilere, to exhibit, furnish, main- 
 tain, etc.), a showing or presenting to view ; a display. 
 In law, delivery of writings in proof of facts ; a bill of 
 discover}'. In our old writers it is also used for an 
 allowance of meat and drink, a pension or salary ; and 
 it is now applied to a benefaction settled for the main- 
 tenance of scholars in English universities, not de- 
 pending on the foundation. In this sense the term is 
 analogous to the Scottish bursary. Among physicians, 
 exhibition is a standard and convenient term to ex- 
 press the administering a medicine. 
 
 Exhibitions of Works of Fine Art. — ^A collection of 
 works of fine art, arranged in some suitable place for 
 public inspection, is styled an exhibition. It is organ- 
 ized on a different principle from that of a national 
 gallery or museum ; for the works are not permanently 
 conserved, but contributed for a limited period annu- 
 ally, new examples being provided for every successive 
 exhibition. 
 
 Exhibitions are comparatively of modem institution. 
 In former times artists were chiefiy patronized by the 
 church or the government ; and the edifices in which 
 their productions were placed were patent to the pub- 
 lic ; but now artists rely mainly on private patronage, 
 and generally obtain the sanction of those for whom 
 they execute works to exhibit them publicly for a limit- 
 ed period as specimens of their skill ; or if executed for 
 sale, these exhibitions afford an opportunity of dispos- 
 ing of their works, while they themselves are improved 
 in their art by the opportunity of comparing their own 
 efforts with those of other artists. 
 
 The members of the Academy of the Fine Arts, 
 founded at Rome in 1593, probably on particular occa- 
 sions exhibited their works collectively to the public ; 
 but it was in France, in 1737, that the members of the 
 Royal Academy of ]?ainting and Sculpture (founded 
 in 1648) first regularly instituted annual exhibitions. 
 These were made biennial in 1745, and were from 
 their commencement confined to works- executed by 
 members of (die academy ; but daring the Revolution 
 (by a decree in 1791) all artists, French or foreign, 
 were allowed to participate in the exhibition, which 
 in 1796 was again made annual. 
 
 The earliest attempt at an exhibition in England was 
 in 1760 ; and the efforts of the artists were at length 
 united in the Royal Academ3''s exhibitions, the first 
 Ss 
 
 of which was opened in 1769. Since then theyhavo 
 been continued with increasing energy. In 1760, the 
 number of works exhibited was 130, contributed by 69 
 artists ; in 1855 there were 1558 works, contributed by 
 918 exhibitors. The annual revenue of the academy 
 arises from a fee of one shilling from each visitor, and 
 now exceeds jE8000. 
 
 The Royal Scottish Academy's exhibition is the sec- 
 ond in importance in the United Kingdom. Though, 
 according to its present constitution, it only dates 
 from 1826, those who instituted it had previously or- 
 ganized exhibitions in Edinburg, which had been an- 
 nually continued, with some few interruptions, since 
 1808. At the first exhibition, 178 works were sent in 
 by 27 contributors ; at the exhibition in 1855, 789 
 works were contributed by 287 exhibitors. The an- 
 nual revenue exceeds £2000. Exhibitions are annually 
 opened in Dublin by the Royal Hibernian Academy. 
 These are the only fine-art corporations in Great Brit- 
 ain aided by government, the two first mentioned 
 being accommodated in public galleries, and the last 
 receiving an annual money grant. Besides the above 
 mentioned, the following societies in London have also 
 exhibitions, namely, the British Institution, founded 
 in 1806 i the Society of British Artists, in 1824 ; the 
 National Institution, in 1850; the Society ol^ Painters 
 in Water Colors, in 1805 ; and the New Society of 
 Painters in Water Colors, in 1835. There are also 
 annual exhibitions in Manchester,. Liverpool, Glasgow, 
 Birmingham, Cork, Newcastle, etc. But with the 
 exception of those in London and the Royal Scottish and 
 Hibernian Academies^ they are mainly composed of 
 works collected all over the kingdom, but principally 
 in London. 
 
 Exhibition of 1851. — The great Exhibition of Works 
 of Industry of all Nations, held in the British metrop- 
 olis, was publicly announced im October, 1849. Prince 
 Albert, as president of the Society of Arts,, offered him- 
 self to the public as their leader in the undertaking ; 
 and her Majesty's proclamation appointing a commis- 
 sion to promote the project was issued January 3, 1850. 
 The amount of public subscriptions to the Crystal 
 Palace was £67,399 3s. lOd. After much discussion 
 relative to the site proposed,, a vast structure was 
 erected on the south side of Hyde Park, from a design 
 of Mr. (afterward Sir Joseph) Paxton. This building 
 (usually called the Crystal Palace from the material 
 of which it was chieflj"- composed) resembled, upon a 
 great scale, the Victoria Regia plant-house, erected at 
 Chatsworth, after Mr. Paxton's own design. The 
 contract with Messrs. Fox and Henderson was for 
 £79,800 — a sum afterward somewhat increased by ad- 
 ditions to the plan ; or for £150,000, if the building 
 was permanently retained. The exhibition was opened 
 by her Majesty in. state. May 1, 1851 ; and it remained 
 open to the public till 11th October, shortly after 
 which time the Crj-stal Palace was taken down. 
 
 This gigantic structure occupied an area of 21 acres, 
 and was composed entirely of large sheets of glass set 
 in frame-work of iron, except near the ground, where 
 it was boarded. Its length was 1851 feet (a number 
 corresponding to the year of the exhibition) ; and its 
 width, in the broadest part, 456 feet ; the transept 
 intersecting, the building at right angles in the mid- 
 dle, was 408 feet long, 108 high, and 72 wide. The 
 entire structure consisted of three tiers of elevation, 
 the central portion being 64 feet high, the adjacent 
 side portions 44 feet, and the outer sides 24 feet high. 
 The materials employed were as follows : 896,000 su- 
 perficial feet of glass, weighing 400 tons; wrought- 
 iron, 550 tons ; cast-iron, 3500 tons ; wood, including 
 flooring, 600,000 cubic feet ; nearly 2300 cast-iron 
 girders, and 358 wrought-iron trasses for supporting 
 the roof and the galleries (which extended nearly a 
 mile in length) ; 30 miles of gutters ; 202 miles of sash- 
 bars, and 3380 cast-iron columns. The number of 
 exhibitors was about 17,000 ; of prize medals awarded, 
 
EXH 
 
 642 
 
 EXH 
 
 2918'; of council medals, 170. The greatest number 
 of visitors in one week was in that ending 11th Octo- 
 ber, when the number of persons paying at the doors 
 was 478,773. The total amount of entrance fees dur- 
 ing the season was £424,418 15s. 
 
 The Great Exhibition of 1851 was altogether novel 
 in principle, and unparalleled in magnitude and mag- 
 nificence; comprehending under one roof, in almost 
 endless varietj', specimens of the industrial produc- 
 tions, not only of Great Britain, but of the European 
 states generally, together with those of nearly every 
 part of the habitable globe. An account of these, as 
 well as of the peculiar mode of construction of the 
 Crystal Palace, may be found in the official descrip- 
 tive and illustrated catalogues and reports of the 
 juries. 
 
 Our limits preclude our entering into the history of 
 national industrial exhibitions, or to malse more than a 
 passing reference to the various local exhibitions of 
 works of industry which have taken place from time to 
 time in the United Kingdom ; such as those at Cork, 
 ShefEeld, Plymouth, and Salisbury in 1862, Dublin in 
 1853, and in Birmingham in 1849. Similar exhibitions 
 were organized in Belgium in 1830, in the United 
 States in 1853, at Munich in 1854, and especially in 
 France in 1798, 1801, 1802, 1806, 1819, 1844, and on a 
 large scale in 1855. This last is constituted on an 
 entirely different basis from the English Exhibition of 
 1851 ; being set on foot by the capital of a commercial 
 company formed for the purpose, and on the prospect 
 of remunerative profits ; but the State also takes a dis- 
 tinct and positive share in the risks of the enterprise, 
 as it does with railways and other works of public util- 
 ity. A certain percentage to the holders of stock is 
 guarantied by the government ; and in right thereof 
 an imperial commission is appointed which exercises 
 supreme control. By this arrangement the proprietors 
 are to receive whatever surplus may remain after all 
 expenses are paid ; whereas the £170,000 derived from 
 the prices of admission to the London Exhibition 
 stands over as a public trust fund, under royal charter, 
 to be applied to objects in harmony with those for 
 which the exhibition was held. 
 
 The French Exhibition is not contained under one 
 roof, nor of the several buildings are all intended to be 
 of a temporary character. The buildings, in the ag- 
 gregate, will probably include a greater area than the 
 Crystal Palace at Hyde Park. The main building is 
 the Palais de I'lndustrie, a permanent edifice of rec- 
 tangular form, and with considerable pretensions to 
 architectural effect. In this will be exhibited all the 
 higher productions of manufacturing industrj'. There 
 is also the " Annexe," a shed 4000 feet long, parallel 
 to the Seine, for the exhibition of machinery and raw 
 produce. According to the plan, these two structures 
 are connected by a gallery running across the Champs 
 Elysees, and having in its centre a fine circular space, 
 which is appropriated to the productions of Sfevres, and 
 the other national establishments; and, in addition, 
 there is an extra shed for the exhibition of carriages 
 and other articles of great bulk. — E. B. 
 
 The British government, in order to secure an ade- 
 quate representation of British art and industry in 
 Paris, corresponding to the efforts which the French 
 government had made in 1851, granted £50,000 by a 
 parliamentary vote. The assistance of public associa- 
 tions and local committees was also obtained for the 
 purpose, and special reports were by them published. 
 The number of exhibitors from the United Kingdom 
 was 1555, and from the British colonies 1070. The 
 total number of exhibitors was 20,339, viz. : 10,691 
 .from the French empire, and 10,148 from foreign 
 States, viz. : France, 9790 ; Algeria, 724 ; French col- 
 onies, 177 ; the Duchy of Anhalt, 15 ; the Argentine 
 Confederation, 6 ; Austria, 1296 ; Grand Duchy_ of 
 Baden, 88 ; Bavaria, 172 ; Belgium, 686 ; Brazil,' 4 ; 
 Duchy of Brunswick, 16 ; Republic of Costa Eica, 4 ; 
 
 Denmark, 90 ; St. Domingo, 1 ; Egypt, 6 ; Frankfort- 
 on-the-Maine, 24 ; Great Britain and Ireland, 1589 ; 
 British colonies, 985 ; Greece, 131 ; Republic of Gua- 
 temala, 7 ; Kingdom of Hanover, 18 ; Hanse Towns, 
 89 ; Grand Duchy of Hesse, 74 ; Electorate of Hesse, 
 14 ; Principality of Lippe-Detmold, 2 ; Grand Duchy 
 of Luxemburg, 23 ; Mexico, 107 ; Duchy of Nassau, 
 59 ; Netherlands, 411 ; New Granada, 13 ; Grand 
 Duchy of Oldenburg, 13 ; Ottoman Empire, 2 ; Sand- 
 wich Islands, 5 ; Papal States, 71 ; Portugal (includ- 
 ing colonies), 443 ; Prussia, 1313 ; Principalities of 
 Beuss (Elder and Younger Branches), 2; Sardinia, 
 198; Saxony, 96; Duchy of Saxe-Altenburg, 2 ; Duchy 
 of Saxe-Coburg, 6 ; Duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, 11 ; 
 Duchj' of Saxe-Meiningen, 3 ; Grand Duchy of Saxe- 
 Weimar, 1 ; Principality of Schaumburg-Lippe, 2 ; 
 Principality of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, 1 ; Spain, 
 568 ; Sweden and Norway, 538 ; Switzerland, 408 ; 
 Grand Duchy of Tuscany, 197 ; Tunis, 1 ; United 
 States, 130; Wurtemburg, 207. Total, 10,148. 
 
 New York Exhibition of the Industry of all Nations. — 
 Although America achieved some of the most signal 
 and permanently valuable results which were brought 
 to the knowledge of mankind by the Exhibition in 
 Hyde Park; still there was probably no American 
 who saw our contributions in London that did not feel 
 some regret that they were not a more just and equally 
 sustained exponent of our resources, industry, and 
 arts. But stronger and more controlling than this 
 sentiment was the desire excited to afford the masses 
 in America an opportunity to see the grand total of 
 the world's industry, and the manifold productions 
 and applications of the arts of design brought in one 
 comparative view. It was seen, that while no motive 
 but a proper regard for our own position in the great 
 family of nations could have induced us, as a people, 
 to send our industrial products to Europe,- where we 
 find a market only for our-great staple raw materials, 
 that the fact of our becoming more and more every 
 day the great purchasers of the products of European 
 skill and labor, expended, perhaps, upon our own 
 products, would induce all the manufacturing states 
 of the old world to embrace, eagerly, an opportunity 
 to expose their products in the New York Crystal 
 Palace. This conviction, strengthened by the senti- 
 ments before alluded to, led a few public-spirited citi- 
 zens of the United States, early in 1852, to contem- 
 plate the organization of the effort whose results we 
 see. It was not designed or desired to reproduce the 
 London Exhibition, Which, from the very nature of 
 the case, must ever'rimain unexampled ; but to draw 
 forth such a representation of the world's industry and 
 resources as would enable us to measure the strength 
 and value of our o'^vn, while it indicated new aims for 
 our enterprise and skill. 
 
 There is no humiliation in the acknowledgment, that 
 America has more to gain from such a comparison than 
 any other nation in Christendom — and we believe she 
 is also more willing to avail herself of the suggestions 
 it offers. It was obvious in the outset, that numerous 
 difficulties would embarrass the successful organiza- 
 tion of an exhibition of industry in the United States, 
 which should at once be universal in its scope, and de- 
 void of the imputation of local or sectional influence. 
 These difficulties were inherent in the nature of our 
 political institutions. In England, the suggestion of 
 Prince Albert to the Society of Arts was received with 
 enthusiasm, and enlisted not only the cordial support 
 of the queen, but every member of a numerous and 
 wealthy aristocracy joined his hand in setting forivard 
 the royal project. The government, however back- 
 ward and lukewarm they might Eave been at first, 
 could not resist an influence with whidi, as men, they 
 were identified. Then the almost supreme power of 
 the Loudon journals came in to swell and direct the 
 popular sentiment, and to make everj' Englishman feel 
 that lie had an immediate personal stake in the sue- 
 
EXH 
 
 643 
 
 EXT 
 
 cess — the triumphant and overwhelming success — of 
 an enterprise to which the honor of his sovereign, and 
 of the nation, stood pledged^efore all mankind. 
 
 Under the stimulus of such powerful motives, the 
 universal intellect of the United Kingdom organized 
 itself in councils, committees, and juries. Men whose 
 names are identified with the halls of science, of liter- 
 ature, and of art, left their tripods, and were found 
 heading the various corps of hard-working volunteers 
 in considering or perfecting the several details of the 
 colossal scheme. The rooms of the Royal, the Geo- 
 logical, the Geographical, the Ethnological, and the 
 Statistical Societies, of the Institutions of Civil En- 
 gineers and Architects, of the Museum of Economic 
 Geology — and even of the staid and conservative Uni- 
 versities, were for a time deserted to furnish men and 
 mind for the emergency. In looking over the long 
 catalogue of councilmen and chairmen, of commission- 
 ers, associates, and jurymen, whose names are con- 
 nected with the administration of the London Exhibi- 
 tion, it is astonishing to see what an array of talent 
 and learning was gathered to secure its success. Nor 
 was this peculiar to Great Britain ; but from all parts 
 of the world, we find in its published lists men whose 
 names are the guaranty of eminent success, not only 
 in their own departments, but in whatever they may 
 undertake. Such was the animus of the London Ex- 
 hibition. Compared with this royal espousal, and 
 enormous personal influence brought to sustain and 
 carry forward the exhibition of 1851, the simple ma- 
 chinery and resources of an association of private 
 gentlemen, however enterprising, might seem utterly 
 inadequate. Let the results decide. Such an asso- 
 ciation was formed, and stands committed to the suc- 
 cessful prosecution of the plan. All the world has 
 been invited to co-operate in sustaining the effort, and 
 the appeal has met a response as cordial as the design 
 is liberal and catholic. 
 
 New York was selected as the locality of the exhi- 
 bition, because of Its great advantages as a commer- 
 cial centre, and as the chief entrepot of European 
 goods. Had it been proposed to limit the exhibition 
 to the products of American industry, some place 
 more central, as Washington, Philadelphia, or Cincin- 
 nati, might have been justly preferred, but in view of 
 the foreign department of the scheme, New York 
 seemed the only place at all suited for the purpose. 
 The municipal authorities of the city of New York, on 
 the 3d of January, 1852, moved by an enlightened re- 
 gard for the prosperity of the citj', and the interests 
 of its inhabitants, granted a lease for five years of 
 Reservoir-square for this purpose upon two condi- 
 tions : one, that the building should be constructed of 
 glass and iron, and the other, that no single entrance 
 fee should exceed 50 cents. The Legislature of the 
 State of New York, upon application, granted, on the 
 11th of March, 1852, the charter under which the As- 
 sociation for the Exhibition of the Industry of all Na- 
 tions has been organized and carried forward. The 
 act clothed the directors with all the powers needed to 
 carry out its plans, and the Legislature have since that 
 time extended its privileges, so that it can issue stock 
 to the amount of $500,000, in place of the original 
 limitation to $300,000. The Board of Directors first 
 met on the 17th of March, 1852, and organized by the 
 election of Theodore Sedgwick, Esq., President, and 
 William Whetten, Esq., as Secretary. No time was 
 lost in publishing and circulating a general statement 
 of the objects of the enterprise. A call for subscrip- 
 tions to the stock was met in due time by about 150 
 persons and firms coming forward to take up the first 
 $200,000. This wide distribution of the interest in a 
 large number of hands completely avoided the obnox- 
 ious charge, that the undertaking was a speculation 
 designed for the benefit of a few. 
 
 The countenance and co-operation of the general 
 government was sought with a view to the introduc- 
 
 tion of foreign goods into the Exhibition duty free. 
 And official assurances were given by Mr. Maxwell, 
 the collector of the port of New York, that the build- 
 ing of the association would be made'a bonded ware- 
 house, thus entitling the association to receive the 
 goods free of duty while on exhibition. The influence 
 of the general government was also most cheerfully 
 extended on behalf of the association through the 
 Itind offices of Mr. Webster, then Secretary' of State, 
 who wrote to the representatives of the United States 
 at the principal courts of Europe, stating to them his 
 sense of the importance of the enterprise, and the nu- 
 merous reasons why in his view they should give to 
 the association all the aid and support in their power. 
 The ministers of foreign powers resident in the United 
 States had previously responded, in terms of entire 
 cordiality, to the general circular of the association 
 which had been addressed to them, stating its plans, 
 and soliciting the co-operation of European nations. 
 They all expressed their convictions that their respect- 
 ive governments would look with favor upon the pro- 
 posed exposition, and unite in sending to New York 
 their most valued and characteristic objects of industry. 
 The leading foreign newspapers also manifested a most 
 friendly desire to sustain the success of the undertak- 
 ing, and the records of the office contain: the most 
 abundant evidence of their zealous support ; while 
 the daily journals in foreign languages in the United 
 States were prominent in lending their services to the 
 cause. 
 
 The organization of the foreign relations of the 
 association was effected by the appointment of Mr. 
 Charles Buschek, of London, as its general agent, 
 through whom details were arranged. This delicate 
 and important trust, involving the greatest responsi- 
 bility, required talents, knowledge, and experience. 
 The association was truly fortunate in finding these 
 qualities combined in one person. Mr. Buschek was 
 the Austrian commissioner at the London Exhibition 
 of 1851, and through him the co-operation of the Euro- 
 pean manufacturers has been secured to an unexpected 
 extent. At a later period in the history of the enter- 
 prise, it was thought to be expedient to send out to 
 Europe Colonel G. W. Hughes, of Maryland, to co- 
 operate with Mr. Buschek in carrying out the plans of 
 the association. This gdntleman added to the weight 
 of his official commission the influence of personal 
 qualities, fitting him, in a remarkable manner, for his 
 delicate task of soliciting or directing the countenance 
 and support of European governments in favor of the 
 objects of the New York Exhibition. The result of 
 his labors was the securing from various governments 
 important contributions, which would otherwise have 
 remained unknown in the United States. 
 
 Although the " New York Exhibition of the Indus- 
 try of all Nations" was, as a financial scheme, unsuc- 
 cessful, yet its eflfects upon the industry and inventive 
 powers of the country were unquestionably important. 
 These effects will be felt for a century to come, and 
 should confer honor upon those enterprising citizens 
 of the metropolis and State who conceived and carried 
 into efiect the plan now described. The exhibition 
 was closed in the 3'ear 1855. 
 
 Exotic. (Gr. e^anxbc, foreign.) Any thing in- 
 troduced to one country from some other country. In 
 gardening it is sometimes applied to plants which re- 
 quire protection in winter, or to plants in general 
 which are not natives. 
 
 Expectation of lifs. See Instjbance. 
 
 Exploring Expedition (U. S.) consisting of 
 the Vincennes, sloop of war ; Peacock, do. ; Porpoise, 
 Belief, Flying Fish, and Sea Gull, smaller vessels, un- 
 der Lieutenant WUlies, U. S. N., sailed from Hampton 
 Roads, Va., August 19th, 1838. Antarctic continent 
 discovered, July 19, 1839. Attack on the Fejees for 
 murdrving two of the officers, July 25, 1840. The 
 Peacock lost on the bar of Columbia River, July 184] 
 
EXP 
 
 644 
 
 EXP 
 
 The Viiicennes (flag-ship) returned to New York, after 
 aa absence of nearly four years, June 11, 1842. Cap- 
 tain Wilkes's Narrative of the Expedition, in 6 vols, 
 imp. 8vo. and quarto, was published in 1845. The 
 scientific reports of the expedition form about 20 quarto 
 or folio volumes. 
 
 Exportation, in Commerce, the act of sending or 
 carrying commodities from one country to another. — 
 See Importation and Expoetation. 
 
 Express. There is no branch of business in this 
 country more extensive and important than the ex- 
 press service. The ever-busy handmaid of trade, ag- 
 riculture, and the useful arts, there is no community so 
 small as not to be susceptible to its usefulness. Yet, 
 while agriculture, art, and trade are world-old, the ex- 
 press is comparatively only a thing of to-day. En- 
 gland had no part in creating it. Europe has done 
 nothing to establish it ; and twenty years ago it was 
 not dreamed of even in America, where it is now so in- 
 dispensable. Peculiarly American in its origin and 
 characteristics, it has become so thoroughly interwoven 
 with the daily business of the country, that it seems 
 to constitute an inseparable portion of its muscle and 
 sinew. 
 
 The inquiry naturally arises, " If the express service 
 is so indispensable an institution now, how did the 
 American people do without it prior to its creation ?" 
 The fact is, that the " expressman" is only an improve- 
 ment (a great improvement, it is true) upon the " com- 
 mon carrier" of olden times. It was not a very rare 
 thing, at an earlier period, to hear of a special express 
 run for a temporary purpose, such as the transit of 
 news of intense public interest, or intelligence of great 
 private moment. In those cases the enterprise em- 
 ployed one or more riders, with the necessary relays 
 of iieet horses at intervals upon the road. Browning's 
 fine poem, *' How they brought the good news from 
 Ghent to Aix," vividly describes an express of this 
 kind, bearing news of peace and safety to that belea- 
 guered city. 
 
 But the express service, properly so called, does not 
 date back beyond the origin of American railroads. 
 Prior to that epoch, stage-drivers had performed duties 
 similar to those now discharged by expressmen; and 
 " baggage-wagons'^ (so called, though they carried mer- 
 chandise as well) served instead of freight-trains. 
 With the innovation of railways, the stage-drivers and 
 wagoners found, like Othello, their " occupation gone." 
 The loss of their services seriously incommoded the 
 public; but the railroad offered no remedy. Years 
 passed ; trade and intercommunication between town 
 and country suffering, in the mean while, from this 
 cause. At length, hardly realizing what an improve- 
 ment he was about to effect, William F. Harnden, then 
 a conductor upon the Boston and Worcester Railroad, 
 started the express business. It was in the spring of 
 1839. The idea was not original with him ; but to 
 him is due the honor of having been the first to put it 
 into execution. 
 
 The only through route from Boston to New York 
 at that time (March, 1839) was by railroad to Provi- 
 dence, and thence to this city, by the steamboat J. W. 
 Richmond. The Old Line of steamboats ran from 
 Stonington to New York. Harnden had no paid agent 
 in this city at the outset. The messengers (called, 
 during the first year or two, conductors) attended to all 
 the business. Harnden himself acted in that capaci- 
 ty, usually making the trip in the J. W. Richmond, 
 and carrying his entire express in an ordinary valise. 
 Upon his arrival in New York 07 Boston he would 
 hasten to deliver the parcels intrusted to him by his 
 customers, who were mostly booksellers and brokers. 
 
 The express was run by Harnden some time before 
 he made a contract with the Old Line of boats from 
 Stonington to New York. His messenger paid regu- 
 lar fare, and carried all the packages in a carpet-bag 
 and trunk. After the lapse of six months or a year, he 
 
 made a contract with the Old Company and the Ston- 
 ington and Providence Railroad Company to run a car 
 through. Each messenger then carried a season tick- 
 et — obtained by holding a few shares of the company's 
 stock. According to the terms of that contract, the 
 Boston and Providence Eailroad Company were enti- 
 tled to one third of the gross receipts of the express for 
 freight; and the Providence and Stonington Railroad 
 Company (including, we presume, the boats) were to 
 receive one third ; the residue to be Harnden's. His 
 first contract with the owners of the J. W. Richmond 
 was to convey a car or crate for him between Provi- 
 dence and New York. He took five or six shares of 
 the stock, which entitled him or his messenger to a free 
 
 The first opposition express was run on the 4th of 
 May, 1840. AJvin Adams made an effort to contract, 
 in its behalf, for privileges on the Norwich and Worces- 
 ter route from Boston to New York ; but Harfiden be- 
 ing at that time better known, the directors gave his 
 "well-established express" the preference; stl that he 
 was like to have the monopoly of the facilities on both 
 routes. As Adams was not to be defeated in that 
 way, he went to Major Handy, agent for the Stoning- 
 ton line, and purchased two season tickets for himself 
 and partner, to run as often as they pleased between 
 Boton and New York, until January, 1841 ; with no 
 other privilege, however, than to carry a trunk and 
 valise. 
 
 In the spring of 1841, the only express routes in the 
 world were those between New York and Boston ; hut, 
 with a successful rival competing for the business of 
 those cities, Harnden & Co. thought it due to their 
 own credit, as pioneers, to take another stride or two, 
 and extend their line south to Philadelphia, and west 
 to Albany, in this State. 
 
 An express was established 23d April, 1841, between 
 Boston and Albany, and another between Albany and 
 New York, by Harnden t& Co. 
 
 About that time, Adams »& Co. experienced not a 
 little annoyance from their want of regular express 
 facilities from New York to Philadelphia, and they 
 used an infinity of " shifts" to put their parcels through. 
 In the mean time, the Camden and Amboy Railroad 
 directors had quarreled with Harnden & Co. for non- 
 payment of compensation alleged to be due them, 
 and had stopped their express over that road. Nor 
 were they more favorably disposed to make a similar 
 contract with any one else. Still, at his partner's so- 
 licitation, Adams went to Philadelphia to apply for a 
 contract. Stevens, who represented the Board upon 
 that occasion, gave him a very decided refusal at once. 
 Adams then made another proposition ; viz., to do the 
 express business over that railroad in connection with 
 the company ; the latter to allow Adams & Co. a por- 
 tion of the avails. This impressed Stevens more fa- 
 vorably, and the immediate result was a contract that 
 Adams & Co. should fill a certain number of crates dai- 
 ly, and deliver the goods, receiving for their trouble a 
 certain portion of the freight money; the railroad com- 
 pany to have the rest. 
 
 In 1842 Harnden & Co.'s Boston and Albany Ex- 
 press was bought out by its Springfield agent, the en- 
 terprising Colonel Thompson, and called Thompson & 
 Co.'s Express. Messrs. Melcher and Johnson are his 
 partners. Gay & Co. (Gay and Littlefield) started an 
 express between Boston and New York, via Stoning- 
 ton, in 1842. They carried only a trunk of parcels, 
 and had no contract. Gay would run one way, and 
 Littlefield the other ; and each had the profits which 
 he happened to make upon each day's work, and pock- 
 eted the same, without being expected to render an 
 account to his nominal partner. This arrangement, 
 apparently so primitive and simple, did not work well 
 in the long run, and Littlefield retired from it. Kins- 
 ley next joined Gay, and the firm was styled Gay & 
 Kinsley. The latter, for some years past president of 
 
EXP 
 
 645 
 
 EXT 
 
 a bank at Newport, Rhode Island, has become eminent 
 as an expressman. 
 
 In 1844 there were expresses between Boston and 
 Lowell, Boston and Salem, and on one or two other 
 short routes in Massachusetts, and they were increas- 
 ing. The first express west of Buffalo was established 
 April 1, 1845, under the name of Wells & Co. The 
 raembors of that firm were Henry Wells, W. G. Fargo, 
 and D. Dunning. For the want of railroad facilities 
 (and when the steamers were laid up), it was a wagon 
 express between Buffalo and Detroit. In February, 
 1847, W. G. Fargo and William A. Livingston became 
 sole proprietors of the express west of Buffalo, under 
 the style of " Livingston & Fargo." The latter is de- 
 serving of honorable mention for his industry, perse- 
 verance, and sound sense. Wells & Co.'s line extend, 
 ed from New York to Buffalo, via Albany. 
 
 W. F. Harnden & Co.'s Fpreign Express elicited the 
 applause of the community, and gave an eclat, at home 
 and abroad, to their already well-known name. Still, 
 it by no means contributed to the advantage of their 
 express in the United States. It only served to divide 
 and weaken their energies. The result was, that the 
 more concentrated efforts of their rivals here met with 
 a larger share of success, and in 1846 Adams & Co.'s 
 business between Boston, New York, and Philadelphia 
 was more valuable than Harnden & Co.'s. 
 
 Canada was without an express until Virgil & Eice 
 started one from Troy to Montreal, via Lake Cham- 
 plain, in the summer, and by wagons and stages in the 
 winter. This, we think, was in 1847 or 1848. Subse- 
 quently Eice retired, and Messrs. Virgil & Co. con- 
 tracted with the Saratoga Eailroad for a car. The ex- 
 press from New York to Troy was owned by Pullen & 
 Co., who in the year 1849 united with Virgil & Co., 
 under the style of Pullen, Virgil, & Co. Under the 
 management of these experienced and able men, the 
 business was nursed and tended with most praisewor- 
 thy perseverance, until it grew to considerable import- 
 ance. 
 
 In 1849 a new order of express service was destined to 
 spring up. The " California gold fever" had broken 
 out, and thousands of young men were thronging to 
 the newly-acquired Golconda, when Daniel Hale Has- 
 kell, a highly-esteemed clerk in Adams & Co.'s Bos- 
 ton ofiice, suggested to his employers the expediency 
 of establishing a California express. With character- 
 istic prudence, Adams & Dinsniore at first opposed the 
 proposition ; foreseeing that the most important point 
 of operations must necessarily be in San Francisco, 
 many thousands of miles beyond their supervision, and 
 they preferred to have all their business where they 
 could give it their frequent personal inspection. How- 
 ever, they at length yielded to Haskell's solicitations, 
 and he went out to San Francisco in the steamer of 
 September, 1849, to act as their partner in the proposed 
 business. The building which he took for an express- 
 office was a little shanty, of which I. C. Woods was ei- 
 ther the owner or the owner's agent. As the business 
 increased rapidly, this building had to be pieced out, 
 or extended in depth every few weeks, to hold the mul- 
 titudes which thronged to it to hear the news, obtain 
 or send letters, and remit their gold dust. The enter- 
 prise compensated beyond the most sanguine dreams 
 of its sanguine projector. Let us give some idea of the 
 prices. 
 
 The charge made by Adams & Co. for freight, from 
 New York to San Francisco, was seventy-five cents per 
 pound for packages not exceeding fifteen pounds each ; 
 and for parcels of less weight, not bulky, such price 
 was made as could be agreed upon. Three dollars was 
 their price for conveying an ordinarj'-sized daguerreo- 
 type; twelve dollars for a parcel not larger than a 
 common size novel ; and this was always exacted in 
 advance. It was paid cheerfully and without any hag- 
 gling. Since then the prices have fallen about 60 per 
 cent. 
 
 Upon the arrival of the steamer at Chagres with the 
 express, the freight would be sent ashore in boats — a 
 tedious and perilous job, for the sea usually ran high, 
 and the boats were frequently swamped. At Chagres 
 it was transferred to river-canoes, and propelled by na- 
 tives to Cruces, where it was again transferred and 
 placed upon the backs of mules, which bore it (by a 
 road that would have defied the locomotion of any oth- 
 er kind of beast) to Panama, where the Pacific steam- 
 ship awaited to convey it to San Francisco. Being 
 liable to be saturated with water in being carried ashore 
 at Chagres, and in crossing the Isthmus, by reason of 
 rains and streams, it was required of shippers to put 
 up their merchandise in water-proof packages. The 
 load of a mule rarely exceeded 300 lbs. Usually he 
 bore two oblong boxes or trunks weighing not over 125 
 lbs. each. 
 
 Another class of messengers to which Adams & Co.'s 
 express in California gave rise were wont to perform 
 their service on horseback between San Francisco (and 
 other towns) and the numerous " diggins." Sometimes 
 they made use of mules ; but in either case the beasts 
 must be sure and swift of foot and easy under the sad- 
 dle, or they were discarded and better procured in 
 their stead. To be able and willing to run fleetly at 
 a word from its rider, was a sine qua non in the steed 
 of an express messenger ; and there are heard wonder- 
 ful stories of the time made, under the saddle, in this 
 service. 
 
 The express companies may be said to influence 
 the domestic exchanges of the country, inasmuch as 
 they transport nearly all the specie and bullion, as 
 well as considerable portions of the bank-notes, bills 
 of exchange, drafts, bonds, and other securities ; and 
 the price of exchange between one city and another 
 depends in some measure upon the express charges for 
 conveyance. The rates paid for the transportation of 
 bank-notes is usually fixed by contract in writing, and 
 are low. For instance, between New York and Cin- 
 cinnati, 900 miles, one dollar per thousand. The total 
 value of the capital employed in the express business 
 was valued in 1856 at ten millions of dollars. Four 
 years ago, the entire number of miles of express routes 
 in America was estimated at 25,000. As facilities have 
 been increased, and express routes extended, the whole 
 distance traveled by express daily is probably not less 
 than 28,000. The multifarious lines stretch in every 
 direction, crossing each other like the threads of the 
 spider's web. And now we find the principal express- 
 men undertaking the enterprise of conveying the Unit- 
 ed States mail overland to California. September 15, 
 1857, Messrs. Butterfield, Dinsmore, Fargo, and others, 
 executed an agreement to that effect. The contract, 
 which is to run six years, is to go into effect twelve 
 months from that date. Six hundred thousand dollars 
 per annum is the price to be paid the contractors. The 
 extraordinary character of the labor thus confidently 
 assumed can hardly be appreciated until the work shall 
 have been accomplished. Certainly the establish- 
 ment of such a route is an appropriate reward for 
 express enterprise. — For a full history of the express 
 business, see Bankers' Magazine, New York, September, 
 1857. 
 
 Extract, or Extractive Matter. The term 
 extract is applied in pharmacy to the brown substance 
 which remains after the evaporation of certain decoc- 
 tions or infusions of vegetables ; thus we have extract 
 qfbarlc, extract of rhubarb, and so on. These extracts 
 are usually mixtures of gum, starch, sugar, or other 
 soluble matters, along with a certain portion of a pe- 
 culiar vegetable principle of a brown color, or which 
 becomes so by exposure to air, and which is soluble in 
 water and in alcohol, but scarcely soluble in ether. It 
 combines with alumina, and is often the basis of brown 
 dyes ; it is this principle which chemists call ertractive, 
 and which is frequently closely allied to various forms 
 of coloring matter. 
 
FAC 
 
 646 
 
 FAO 
 
 Fac-simile (Lat. facere, to make, and simile^ 
 like), expressed in French \>y fais-semhlabh, signifies 
 an exact and faithful copy of any writing, engraving, 
 or other work of art. 
 
 Factor, an agent employed by some one individ- 
 ual or individuals, to transact business on his or their 
 account. He is not generally resident in the same 
 place as his principal, but usually in a foreign coun- 
 try. He is authorized, either by letter of attorney 
 or otherwise, to receive, buy, and sell goods and 
 merchandise ; and, generally, to transact all sorts of 
 business on account of his employers, under such lim- 
 itations and conditions as the latter may choose to im- 
 pose. A very large proportion of the foreign trade of 
 this and most other countries, is now carried on by 
 means of factors or agents. Factors and brokers are, 
 in some respects, nearly identical, but in others they 
 are radically different. " A factor," said Mr. Justice 
 Holroyd, " differs materially from a broker. The 
 former is a person to whom goods are sent or con- 
 signed 5 and he has not only the possession, but, in 
 consequence of its being usual to advance money upon 
 them, has also a special property in them, and a gene- 
 ral lien upon them. When, therefore, he sells in his 
 own name, it is within the scope of his authority ; and 
 it may be right, therefore, that the principal should be 
 bound by the consequences of such sale. But the case 
 of a broker is different ; he has not the possession of 
 the goods, and so the vendor can not be deceived by 
 the circumstance ; and, besides, the employing a per- 
 son to sell goods as a broker does not authorize him to 
 sell in his own name. If, therefore, he sells in his 
 own name, he acts beyond the scope of his authority ; 
 and his principal is not bound." 
 
 A factor is usually paid by a percentage or commis- 
 sion on the goods he sells or buys. If he act under what 
 is called a del credere commission, that is, if he guar- 
 anty the price of the goods sold on account of his prlnci- 
 paly he receives an additional percentage to indemnify 
 him for this additional responsibility. In cases of this 
 sort the factor stands in the vendee's place, and must 
 answer to the principal for the value of the goods sold. 
 But where the factor undertakes no responsibility, and 
 intimates that he acts only on account of another, it is 
 clearly established that he is not liable in the event of 
 the vendee's failing. The sound maxim, that the 
 principal is responsible for the acts of his agent, pre- 
 vails universally in courts of law and equitj'. In 
 order to bind the principal, it is necessar}' only that 
 third parties should deal bondjide with the agent, and 
 that the conduct of the latter should he conformable to 
 the common usage and mode of dealing . Thus, a factor 
 may sell goods upon credit, that being in the ordinary 
 course of conducting mercantile affairs ; but a stock 
 broker, though acting bond fde, and with a view to 
 the benefit of his principal, can not sell stock upon 
 credit, unless he have special instructions to that effect ; 
 that being contrary to the usual course of business. 
 
 A sale by a factor creates a contract between the 
 owner and buyer ; and this rule holds even in cases 
 where the factor acts upon a del credere commission. 
 Hence, if a factor sell goods, and the owner give notice 
 to the buyer to pay the price to him, and not to the fac- 
 tor, the buyer will not be justified in afterward paying 
 the factoi*, and the owner may bring his action against 
 the buyer for the price, unless the factor has a lien 
 thereon. But if no such notice be given, a payment 
 to the individual selling is quite sufficient. If a fac- 
 tor buy goods on account of his principal, where he is 
 accustomed so to do, the contract of the factor binds 
 the principal to a performance of the bargain ; and the 
 principal is the person to be sued for non-performance. 
 
 But it is ruled, that if a factor enter into a charter- 
 party of affreightment with the master of a ship, the 
 contract obliges kirn only, unless he lade the vessel 
 with his principal's goods, in which case the principal 
 and lading become liable, and not the factor. Where 
 a factor, who is authorized to sell goods in his own 
 name, makes the buyer debtor to himself ; then, 
 "though he be not answerable to the principal for the 
 debt, if the money be not paid, yet he has a right to 
 receive it, if it be paid, and his receipt is a sufficient 
 discharge ; the factor may, in such a case, enforce the 
 payment by action, and the buyer can not defend him- 
 self by alleging that the principal was indebted to him 
 in more than the, amount. 
 
 "Where a factor," said Lord Mansfield, "dealing 
 for a principal, but concealing that principal, delivers 
 goods in his own name, the person contracting with 
 him has a right to consider him, to all intents and pur- 
 poses, as the principal ; and though the real principal 
 may appear, and bring an action on that contract 
 against the purchaser of the goods, yet that purchaser 
 may set off any claim he may have against the factor, 
 in answer to the demand of the principal." 
 
 Merchants employing the same factor run the joint 
 risk of his actions, although they are strangers to each 
 other ; thus, if different merchants remit to a factor 
 different bales of goods, and the factor sell them as a 
 single lot to an individual who is to pay one moiety of 
 the price down and the other at six months' end ; if 
 the buyer fail before the second pajTuent, each mer- 
 chant must bear a proportional share of the loss, and 
 be content to accept his dividend of the money ad- 
 vanced.— Be awes, Lex. Merc. 
 
 A factor employed, without his knowledge, in ne- 
 gotiating an illegal or fraudulent transaction, has an 
 action against his principal. On this ground it was 
 decided, that a merchant who had consigned counter- 
 feit jewels to his factor, representing them to be genu- 
 ine, should make full compensation to the factor for 
 the injury done to him by being concerned in such a 
 transaction, as well as to the persons to whom the 
 jewels had been sold. 
 
 The office of a factor or agent being one of verj' 
 great trust and responsibility, those who undertake it 
 are bound, both legally and morally, to conduct them- 
 selves with the utmost fidelity and circumspection. A 
 factor should take the greatest care of his principal's 
 goods in his hands ; he should be punctual in advising 
 him as to his transactions on his behalf, in sales pur- 
 chases, freights, and, more particularly, bills of ex- 
 change ; he should deviate as seldom as possible from 
 the terms, and never from the spirit and tenor, of the 
 orders he receives as to the sale of commodities ; in 
 the execution of a commission for purchasing goods, 
 he should endeavor to conform as closely as practica- 
 ble to his instructions as to the quality or kind of 
 goods ; if he give more for them than he is authorized, 
 the}'- may be thrown on his hands ; but he is bound to 
 buy them for as much less as he possibly can. After 
 the goods are bought, he must dispose of them accord- 
 ing to order. If he send them to a different place 
 from that to which he was directed, they will be at his 
 risk, unless the principal, on getting advice of the 
 transaction, consent to acknowledge it. 
 
 A factor who sells a commodity under the price he 
 is ordered, maybe obliged to make good the difference, 
 unless the commodity he of a perishc^le nature and not 
 in a condition longer to be kept. And if he purchase 
 goods for another at a fixed rate, and, their price hav- 
 ing afterward risen, he fraudulently takes them to 
 himself, and sends them somewhere else, in order to 
 secure an advantage, he will be found, by the custom 
 
FAC 
 
 647 
 
 FAC 
 
 of merchants, liable in damages to his principal. If a 
 factor, in conformity witli a merchant's orders, buy 
 with his money, or on his credit, a commodity he is 
 directed to purchase, and, without giving advice of the 
 transaction, sells it again at a profit, appropriating that 
 profit to himself, the merchant may recover it from him, 
 and have him amerced for fraud. If a factor buy, con- 
 formably to his instructions, goods of which he is rot- 
 ied, or which suffer some unavoidable injury, he is dis- 
 charged, and the loss falls on the principal. But if the 
 goods be stolen from the factor, he will not be so easily 
 discharged ; for the fact of their having been abstracted 
 by stealth, and not by violence, raises a strong presump- 
 tion that he had not taken that reasonable care of them 
 which was incumbent upon him. If, however, he can 
 prove that the goods were lodged in a place of security, 
 and that he had not been guilty of positive negligence, 
 nor exercised less care toward them than toward his 
 own property, he will not be held responsible even for 
 a theft committed by his servants. — Jokes on Bail- 
 ments, 2d ed., p. 76 ; Chitty on Commercial Law, vol. 
 iii., p. 368. 
 
 If a factor, having money in his hands belonging to 
 his principal, neglect to insure a ship and goods, ac- 
 cording to order, he must, in the event of the ship mis- 
 carrying, make good the damage ; and if he malce any 
 composition with the insurers after insurance, without 
 orders to that effect, he is answerable for the whole 
 insurance. A principal at the end of a very long let- 
 ter, directed his agent thus : " Observe, the premium 
 on this value is also to be insured." But the agent, 
 not noticing this sentence, neglected to insure the 
 premium; and being sued, was held liable for the 
 omission. If goods are remitted to a factor, and he 
 malie a false entry of them at the custom-house, or 
 land them without entrj', and they are, in conse- 
 quence, seized or forfeited, he is bound to mal^e good 
 the damage to his principal ; but if the factor malce 
 his entry according to invoice or letters of advice, and 
 these proving erroneous, the goods are seized, he is 
 discharged. It is now a settled point, that a factor 
 has a lien on goods consigned to him, not onlj- for in- 
 cidental charges, but as an item of mutual account for 
 the balance due to him so long as he remains in pos- 
 session. If he be surety in a bond for his principal, 
 he has a lien on the goods sold by him on account of 
 such principal, to the amount of the sum he is bound 
 for. 
 
 It being the general rule of law " that property does 
 not change while in transitu," or in the hands of a car- 
 rier, a consignment made before the baulcruptcy of a 
 consignor, but not arriving till after, remains the 
 property of the consignor, except, indeed, where the 
 delivery is made by the order and upon the account of 
 the consignee, and is a complete alienaticm from the 
 consignor. In the case, therefore, of a consignment 
 to a factor, the property remains the consignor's, and 
 passes into the hands'of his assignees. When a factor 
 has a lien on goods, he has a right to the price, though 
 received after the banlsruptcy. Where general or un- 
 limited, orders are given to a factor, he is left to buy 
 and sell on the best conditions he can. And if detri- 
 ment arise to a principal from the proceedings of a fac- 
 tor acting under such authority, he has no redress, 
 unless he can show that he acted fraudulently or with 
 gross negligence. A factor or broker acting against the 
 interest of his principal, can not even receive his com- 
 mission. If he pay money on account of his principal, 
 without being authorized, he can not recover it back. 
 An agent can not delegate his rights to another so as 
 to bind the principal, unless expressly authorized to 
 nominate a sub-agent. 
 
 For further information as to the general powers 
 and liabilities of factors and agents, see Kent's Com- 
 mentaries ; Parsons on Mercantile Contracts ; Story on 
 Contracts ; Bbawe's Lex Mercatoria, arts. Factors, Su- 
 percargoes, etc. ; CiiiTiY'a Commercial Law, vol. iii.. 
 
 c. 3. ; WooLRYOH on Com/merdai . Lav) ; see also the 
 article Broker. 
 
 Under the law with respect to the transactions of 
 factors or agents on third parties that prevailed down 
 to the act 6 Geo. 4, c. 94, it was held, that a factor, as 
 such, had no authority to pledge, but onlj- to sell the 
 goods of his principal ; and it was repeatedly decided 
 that a principal might recover back goods on which a 
 bona fide advance of money had been made by a third 
 party, without his being bound to repay such advance ; 
 and notwithstanding this third party was wholly igno- 
 rant that the individual pledging the goods held them 
 as a mere factor or agent. It used also to be held, 
 that bona, fide purchasers of goods from factors or 
 agents not vested with the power of sale, might be 
 made liable to pay the price of the goods a second time 
 to the real owner; The extreme hardship and injuri- 
 ous influence of such regulations is obvious. It is the 
 business of a principal to satisfy himself as to the con- 
 duct and character of the factor or agent he employs j 
 and if he make a false estimate of them, it is more 
 equitable, surely, that he should be the sufferer, than 
 those who have no means of knowing any thing of the 
 matter. 
 
 " All agents who sell goods for their principals, and 
 guaranty the price, are said abroad to act u^der a del 
 credere commission. In this country, this phrase is 
 seldom used, nor is such guaranty usual. See Del 
 Credere Commission. 
 
 * * Generally, neither factor nor broker can claim their 
 commissions until their whole service be performed, 
 and in good faith, and with proper skill, care, and in- 
 dustry. But if tlie service begins, and is interrupted 
 wholly without their fault, they may claim a propor- 
 tionate compensation. If either bargains to give his 
 whole time to his employer, h« will not be permitted 
 to derive any compensation for services rendered to 
 other persons. Nor can either have any valid claim 
 against «ny one for illegal services, or those wliich 
 violate morality or public policy. 
 
 " A principal can not revoke an authority given to a 
 factor, after advances made by the factor, without re- 
 paying or securing the factor. 
 
 " The distinction between a foreign and a domestic 
 factor is quite important. A domestic factor is one 
 who is employed and acts in the same country with 
 his principal. A foreign factor is one employed by a 
 principal who lives in a different country. And a 
 foreign factor is as to third parties, for most purposes, 
 and under most circumstances, a principal. Thus 
 they can not sue the principal, because they are sup- 
 posed to contract with the factor alone, and on his 
 credit, although the prinMpal may sue them ; and a 
 foreign factor is personally liable, although he fully 
 disclose his agency, and his principal is known. But 
 this doctrine is not extended to cases where a contract 
 for personal services is made in the country where the 
 factor is doing business, by a person resident there ; 
 but the contract is to be performed or executed in the 
 country where the principal resides. For, if such a 
 contract be made in the name of the principal, he alone 
 is responsible. One who deals with a domestic factor 
 may sue the principal, unless it is shown that credit 
 was given exclusively to the factor. And for the pur- 
 pose of this distinction, and the rules founded upon it, 
 we hold, on the weight of authority, that our states are 
 foreign to each other. 
 
 " Every factor is bound to reasonable care ; and he 
 is liable for a loss by fire, or robbery, or other accident 
 occurring without his defaiilt, if he had previously done 
 some wrongful act, without which the property might 
 have been safe. And this rule would apply even to 
 a gratuitous agent." — Parsons' Mercantile Law, pp. 
 158-162. 
 
 Factorage, or Commission, the allowance given 
 to factors by the merchants, manufacturers, etc., who 
 employ them : it is a percentage on the goods they 
 
FAI 
 
 648 
 
 FAI 
 
 purchase or sell on account of their principals, and 
 varies in different countries, and as it refers to differ- 
 ent articles. It is customarj' for factors, as observed 
 in the previous article, to insure the debts due to those 
 for whom they sell for an additional, or del credere 
 commission, generally averaging from 1-J- to 2 per cent. 
 Factorage or commission is also frequently charged at 
 a certain rate per cask, or other package, measure, or 
 weight, especially when the factor is only employed 
 to receive or deliver : this commission is usually 
 fixed by special agreement between the merchant and 
 factor. 
 
 Factory, in commerce, a place where merchants 
 and factors reside, to negotiate business for themselves 
 and their correspondents on commission. 
 
 Fairs and Markets. These institutions are very 
 closely allied. A fair, as the term is now generally 
 understood, is onl}^ a greater species of market recur- 
 ring at more distant intervals. Both are appropriated 
 to the sale of one or more species of goods, the hiring 
 of servants or laborers, etc. ; but fairs are, in most 
 cases, attended by a, great concourse of people, for 
 whose amusement various exhibitions are got up. 
 Fairs and wakes are of Saxon origin, and were first 
 instituted in England hj Alfred, A. d. 886. — Spelman. 
 They were established by order of Gregorj' VII. in 
 1708, and termed Ferice^ at which the monks celebrated 
 the festival of their patron saint ; the vast resort of 
 people occasioned a great demand for goods, wares, 
 etc. They were called wakes from the people making 
 merry during the vigil or eve. Fairs were established 
 in France and England by Charlemagne and William 
 the Conqueror, about A. d. 800 in the first, and 1071 
 in the latter kingdom. The fairs of Baucaire, Falaise, 
 andLeipsic, are the most famous in Europe. See E. B. 
 — Haydn, 
 
 1. Origin of Fairs. — Institutions of this sort are pe- 
 culiarly servicable in the earlier stages of society, and 
 in rude and inland countries. The number 9f shops, 
 and the commodities in them, are then either compar- 
 atively limited, or they are but little frequented by 
 dealers ; so that it is for the advantage of all, that 
 fairs should be established, and merchants induced to 
 attend them. For this purpose various privileges 
 have been annexed to fairs, and numerous facilities af- 
 forded to the disposal of property in them. To give 
 them a greater degree of solemnitj'', they were origin- 
 ally, both in the ancient and modem world, associated 
 with religious festivals. In most places, indeed, they 
 are still held on the same day with the wake or feast 
 of the saint to whom the church is dedicated ; and, till 
 the practice was prohibited, it was customary in En- 
 gland to hold them in churchyards ! — (JaeoVs Law 
 Dict.^ art. Fair.') But since the growth of towns, and 
 the opportunities afforded for the disposal and purchase 
 of all sorts of produce at the weekly or monthly mark- 
 ets held in them, the utility of fairs, in this countrj- at 
 least, has very much diminished ; they have also lost 
 much of their ancient splendor ; and, though some of 
 them are still well attended, and of real use, a good 
 number might be advantageously suppressed. But it 
 is far otherwise in inland countries, where the facilities 
 for carrying on commercial transactions are compar- 
 atively circumscribed. There it is of the utmost im- 
 portance that certain convenient places and specified 
 periods should be appointed for the bringing together 
 of commodities and dealers. This is not only the 
 readiest and best means of promoting commerce, but 
 also of softening national antipathies, and diffusing a 
 knowledge of the products, arts, and customs of other 
 countries. 
 
 2. Establishment of English Fairs.— No fair can be 
 holden without grant from the crown, or a prescrip- 
 tion which supposes such grant. And before a patent 
 is granted, it is usual to have a writ of ad quod damnum 
 executed and returned, that it may not be issued to 
 the prejudice of a similar establishment already exist- 
 
 ing. The grant usually contains a clause that it shall 
 not be to the hurt of another fair or market ; but this 
 clause, if omitted, will be implied in law ; for if the 
 franchise occasion damage either to the king or a sub- 
 ject, in this or an}' other respect, it will be revoked ; 
 and a person whose ancient title is prejudiced is enti- 
 tled to have a scire facias in the king's name to repeal 
 the letters patent. If his Majesty grant power to hold 
 a fair or market in a particular place, the lieges can 
 resort to no other, even though it be inconvenient. 
 But if no place be appointed, the grantees may keep 
 the fair or market where they please, or rather where 
 they can most conveniently. 
 
 3. Time of holding Fairs and Marlcets. — These are 
 either determined by the letters patent appointing the 
 fair or market, or by usage. The statute 2 Edw. 3. 
 enacts, that the duration of the fair shall be declared 
 at its commencement, and that it shall not be contin- 
 ued beyond the specified time. By statute 5 Edw. 3, 
 any merchant selling goods after the stipulated time 
 is to forfeit double the value of the goods sold. 
 
 4. Effects of Sales in Fairs arid Markets.— A honafde 
 sale made in a fair or open market, in general, trans- 
 fers the complete property of the thing sold to the ven- 
 dee ; so that however vicious or illegal that title of the 
 vendor may be, the vendee's is good against every 
 one, except the king. But the sale, in order to come 
 within this rule, must take place on the market day^ and 
 at the place assigned for the market. The city of Lon- 
 don is said to be a market overt every day of the week, 
 except Sunday ; every shop being a market overt for 
 such things as the shopkeeper professes to deal in. 
 The property of goods may, however, be changed, and 
 effectuallj* transferred to the buyer, by a bonafde sale 
 in a shop out of London, whether the shopkeeper be the 
 vendor or vendee, if the goods are of the kind in 
 which he trades. A wharf in London is not within 
 the custqm, and is not a market overt for articles 
 brought there. But a sale in a market will not be 
 binding if it be such as carries with it a presumption 
 of fraud; aa, for example, if it take place in a back 
 room or secret place ; if the sale be covinous, and in- 
 tended to defraud the real owner, or if the buyer know 
 that the vendor is not the real owner of the goods, etc. 
 It is very difficult to transfer the property of horses, 
 even when they are sold in an open market, without 
 the consent of the real owner. 
 
 5. Court of Pie Poudre. — According to English usage, 
 at everj' fair or market there is incident, even without 
 any express words in the grant, a court of pie poud/re, 
 in allusion to the dusty feet of the suitors. The stew- 
 ard or mayor may preside. It has cognizance of all 
 questions as to contracts made in the market respecting 
 goods brought and delivered there, etc. Formerly pie 
 poudre courts were held at ever}' considerable fair, but 
 they are now entirely laid aside. 
 
 6. Principal British Fairs. — ^Araong these may be 
 specified Stourbridge, in Worcestershire. Bristol 
 has two considerable fairs, one in March and one in 
 September. Exeter December fair, for cattle, horses, 
 and most sorts of commodities. Weyhill fair, in 
 Hampshire (October 10), has, probably, the greatest 
 display of sheep of any fair in the kingdom. Bar- 
 tholomew fair, in London, used to be of considerable 
 importance, but latterly it was appropriated only to 
 shows of wild beasts, and such-like exhibitions, and 
 has, within these few years, been ver}' properly sup- 
 pressed. St. Faith's near Norwich (October 17), is 
 the principal English fair for Scotch cattle. They are 
 sold to the graziers and feeders of Norfolk, Suffolk, 
 Essex, etc., by whom they are fattened for the Lon- 
 don markets, where they are met with in great abund- 
 ance. But besides those sold at St. Faith's, large 
 numbers of Scotch cattle are disposed of at Market 
 Harborough, Carlisle, Ormskirk, and other places. 
 Ipswich has two considerable fairs : one in August, for 
 lambs ; and one in September, for butter and cheese: 
 
PAI 
 
 649 
 
 FAI 
 
 it is reckoned thaf above 100,000 lambs are annually- 
 sold at the former. Woodborongh-hill, in Dorset, for 
 west country manufactures, as kerseys, druggets, etc. 
 Woodstock October fair, for clieese. Nortliampton 
 and Nottingham have each several large fairs, for 
 horses, cattle, cheese, etc. The August fair of Horn- 
 castle, in Lincolnshire, is the largest horse-fair in the 
 kingdom, many thousand horses being exhibited for 
 sale during its continuance : it is resorted to by crowds 
 of dealers from all parts of Great Britain, by several 
 from the Continent, and sometimes even from North 
 America. Howden, in Yorkshire, has, also, a verj' 
 large horse-fair, particularly for Yorkshire hunters. 
 Devizes, in Wiltshire, has several large fairs for sheep 
 and cattle. There is usually a large display of cheese 
 at the Gloucester April fair. A guild, or jubilee, com- 
 mencing the last week of August, is held everj' twen- 
 tieth year at Preston, in Lancashire ; the last was held 
 in 1842, and was well attended. The October fair of 
 Market Harborough, Leicestershire, lasts 9 days, and 
 a great deal of business is usually done in cattle, 
 cheese, etc. Woodbridge Lady-day fair is celebrated 
 for the show of Suffolk horses. Falkirk fair, or tryst, 
 is one of the most important in Scotland, for the sale 
 of cattle and sheep. The October fair of Ballinasloe, 
 in the county Galway, is famous for the display of 
 cattle and sheep; by far the largest proportion of 
 these animals raised for sale in Connaught being dis- 
 posed of at it. The sheep are generally from three to 
 four, the heifers from three to four, and the bullocks 
 from four to five years of age. They are mostly 
 lean ; and are kept for a year in Leinster before they 
 are fit for the Dublin or Liverpool markets. 
 
 7. Principal French Fairs. — ^Among these may be 
 specified the fairs of St. Germain's, Lyons, Eheims, 
 Chartres, Eouen, Bordeaux, Troyes, and Bayonne ; 
 but they are much fallen off. The most important of 
 the modern French fairs, is that of Beaucaire, on the 
 right bank of the Rhone opposite to Tarrascon, 14 
 miles east of Nismes. It is very* favorably situated 
 for an enirepSt, being, exclusive of the command of 
 internal navigation afforded by the Rhone, connected 
 by canals with the sea and the Carud du Midi. The 
 fair, which commences on the 22d and finishes on the 
 28th July, was formerly the greatest in Europe, and, 
 though a good deal fallen off, it is still attended by a 
 vast concourse of people, not from France only, but 
 also from Switzerland, Germany, Italy, Spain, and 
 the Levant. Almost every sort of article, whether 
 of convenience or luxury, may then be met with in the 
 town. It is said that the number of visitors still 
 amounts to from 70,000 to 80,000, and the amount of 
 business done to 150,000,000 fr. ; but we have little 
 doubt that these estimates are ver)- greatly exag- 
 gerated ; and that the first would be nearer the mark 
 were it reduced to 50,000 or 60,000. All bills due at 
 this fair are presented on the 27th, and protested on 
 the,28th. A tribunal instituted for the purpose, takes 
 cognizance of, and immediately settles all disputes 
 growing out of transactions that take place at the 
 fair. A military force attends to preserve order, and 
 the prefect of the department, who is always present, 
 entertains the principal merchants and strangers. 
 
 8. German Fairs. — The principal German, or rather 
 European fairs, are those of Frankfort-on-the-Maine, 
 Frankfort-on-the-Oder, and Leipsio. The concourse 
 of merchants, and the business done at these fairs, are 
 generally very great. They are copiously supplied 
 with the cotton stuffs, twist, cloths, and hardware of 
 England ; the silks and jewelry of France ; the printed 
 cottons of Switzerland and Austria ; the raw, man- 
 ufactured, and literary products of Germany ; the furs 
 of the North ; Turkey carpets ; Cashmere shawls, 
 etc. ; and there, also, are to be found merchants of all 
 countries, those of Ispahan negotiating with those of 
 Montreal for the purchase of furs ; and Georgians and 
 Servians supplying themselves with the cottons of 
 
 Manchester and the jewelry of Paris. There, in fact, 
 are met the representatives, as it were, of every peo- 
 ple in the world, laboring, though without intending 
 it, to promote each other's interest, and to extend and 
 strengthen those ties that bind together the great fam- 
 ily of the human race. The fairs at Frankfort-on-the- 
 Maine should begin the first on Easter Tuesday, and 
 the second on the Monday nearest to the 8th of Sep- 
 tember. Their duration is limited to three weeks, but 
 they usually begin from eight to fifteen days before 
 their legal commencement. Accounts are kept in rix- 
 doUars , 1 rixdoUar of account = 1\ floriuj or 4^ cop- 
 sticks, or 22^ batzen. The rixdollar = 3s. l'8d. ; so 
 that the par of exchange is 141 batzen per £X sterling. 
 1001b. common Frankfort weight = 1031b. avoirdu- 
 pois. The foot = 11-27 English inches. The fairs 
 at Frankfort-on-the-Oder are thYee in number, viz. : 
 Reminisoere, in February or March ; St. Margaret, in 
 July ; and St. Martin, in November. They ought, 
 strictly speaking, to terminate in eight days, but they 
 usually extend to fifteen. The Prussian government 
 gives every facility to those who attend these fairs. 
 Accounts are kept in Prussian monej'', that is, in rix- 
 doUars of 2s. lljd. 1001b. Prussian = 1031b. avoirdu- 
 pois.. The foot = 12'B56 English inches. The fairs 
 of Leipsic are still more celebrated than those of either 
 Franlcfort. They are held thrice a-j'ear — on the 1st 
 of January, at Easter, and at Michaelmas. The first 
 is the least important. The Easter and Michaelmas 
 fairs are famous, particularly the former, for the vast 
 number of new publications usually offered for sale. 
 They are attended by all the principal booksellers of 
 Germany, and hy many from the adjoining countries, 
 who adjust their accounts, learn the state of trade in 
 all parts of the world, and endeavor to form new con- 
 nections. Most German publishers have agents in 
 Leipsic ; which is to the literature of Germany, what 
 London is to that of Great Britain. As many as 5000 
 new publications have been in a single Leipsic cata^ 
 logue ! They are also great markets for Saxon wool- 
 ens and other goods, British calicoes, French, silks, 
 and, in fact, for most descriptions of produce. The 
 fairs ought to close in eight days, but they usually 
 continue for about three weeks. No days of grace are 
 allowed. The holder of a bill must demand payment 
 on the day it becomes due ; and, if not paid, he must 
 have it protested on that very day, and returned by 
 the first opportunity. If he neglect any of these reg- 
 ulations, he loses all right of recourse upon the drawer 
 and indorsers. Money of account at Leipsic same as 
 Frankfort-on-the-Maine. 1001b. Leipsic = 1031b. av- 
 oirdupois. The foot = ll'll English inches. — Kel- 
 ly's Cambist; Manuel de Nellcenhrecher ; Boweikg's 
 Report on the Prussian Commercial Union, pp. 255, 269, 
 etc. Dr. Bright gives, in his Travels in Hungary (pp. 
 201-223), an interesting account of the fairs held at 
 Debretzin and Pesth. The latter has become the 
 grand centre of Hungarian commerce ; most part of 
 which is conducted at its fairs. 
 
 9. Italian Fairs. — Of these, the most celebrated is 
 that of Sinigaglia, a small, but handsome town of the 
 Papal dominions, on the Misa, near its confluence with 
 the Adriatic. The fair commences on the 20th of July, 
 and should terminate on the last day of that month, 
 but it usually continues eight or ten days longer. 
 The duties on goods brought to the fair are extremely 
 moderate, and every thing is done to promote the con- 
 venience of those frequenting it. All sorts of cotton, 
 woolen, and silk goods, colonial produce, iron and 
 steel, hardware, jewelry, brandy and liquors, timber, 
 drugs, spices, etc., are brought here by the English, 
 French, Austrians, Swiss, etc. These are exchanged 
 for the various raw and manufactured products of 
 Italy and the Levant; consisting, among others, of 
 raw, thrown, and wrought silks ; oil, fruits, cheese, 
 alum, soda, sumach, sulphur, etc. The value of the 
 imports for the fair of 1841, was estimated at about 
 
FAI 
 
 650 
 
 FAI 
 
 £1,700,000. Accounts are kept in scudi of 20 soldi 
 the scudo == 4s. 4d. verj- nearly. 1001b, Sinigaglia 
 = 73|- avoirdupois. The ell or braccio measures 
 25.33 English inches. — Manuel de Nelkenhrecher ; Mao 
 gkegor'8 Tariffs^ Italy^ p. 121. 
 
 10. Russian Fairs. — These are numerous, and many 
 of them are -well attended. The most important is 
 held at Nijnii-Novgorod, at the confluence of the Oka 
 with the Wolga, lat, 56° 19' 40'' north, long. 44° 28' 
 30" east. Previouslj^ to 1817 this fair was held in a 
 less convenient situation, at Makarieff, lower down the 
 Wolga. But the buildings for the accommodation of 
 the merchants at the latter having been accidentally 
 burnt down in 1816, government took advantage of 
 the circumstance to remove the fair to Nijnii. It is 
 principally carried on within the new bazaars con- 
 structed for that purpbse on the left bank of the Oka. 
 These, which are divided into parallel rows, or streets, 
 axe constructed of stone walls and roofed with iron, 
 having covered galleries in front supported by iron 
 pillars. They are built on piles, and, to guard against 
 inundations, the ground on which they stand has been 
 raised about 20 feet. Being inclosed on three sides 
 by canals, and on the fourth by a navigable inlet of 
 the Oka, there is every facility for the delivery and 
 shipment of goods. The establishment is of great ex- 
 tent, comprising 2524 booths, and is admitted on all 
 hands to be at once the largest and most perfect of its 
 kind that is anywhere to be met with. But, in addi- 
 tion to the above, no fewer than 2506 shops and booths 
 belonging to private parties, and constructed of wood, 
 were occupied during the fair of 1841. The fair be- 
 gins on the 1st of July, and continues for a month or 
 six weeks. 
 
 The total value of the various articles of Asiatic (in- 
 cluding Chinese) produce exposed for sale at Novgorod 
 in 1841 amounted to 9,146,719 silver roubles, being more 
 than double the value of the products of western Eu- 
 rope exposed in the same year. Of the latter, indigo, 
 wine, and cottons were the principal articles. — Journal 
 des Manufactures^ Petersburg^ 1842. The stationary 
 population of the town, which may amount to about 
 25,000, is, during the fair, said to amount to from 130,- 
 000 to 160,000, including Chinese, Persians, Armeni- 
 ans, Tartars, Bokharians, etc. Theatrical exhibitions, 
 shows of wild beasts, and other Bartholomew fair ex- 
 hibitions, add to the attractions of the scene. Another 
 celebrated Russian fair is held in the month of Decem- 
 ber, at Kiachta, in Mongolia, on the Chinese frontier, 
 lat. 50° 21' 5" north, long. 106° 28' 15" east. The 
 town is small, the population not exceeding 4000 or 
 5000 ; but by far the largest part of the commerce be- 
 tween the Russian and Chinese empires is transacted 
 at its fair, and it is also the centre of the political in- 
 tercourse between them. The commodities brought 
 hither by the Russians consist principally of Russian 
 and German broadcloths, furs, sheep and lamb skins, 
 leather, coarse linens, worsted stuffs, cattle, etc., with, 
 for the most part, bullion. These they change with 
 the Chinese for tea, raw and manufactured silk, nan- 
 keens, porcelain, sugar candy, rhubarb, tobacco, musk, 
 etc., the value of the articles, however, other than 
 tea, being comparatively inconsiderable. The quan- 
 tity of tea purchased at the Kiachta fairs by the Rus- 
 sians, which has latterly increased very considerably, 
 amounted, In 1850, according to the official returns, to 
 210,179 poods, or 7,566,444 pounds, of very superior 
 tea, worth about 2s. 6d. per pound, and 85,440 poods 
 (3,076,840 pounds) inferior or black tea. At an aver- 
 age of the six years ending with 1850, the total im- 
 ports of all sorts of tea into Russia through Kiachta 
 was estimated at 11,748,464 pounds, Eng., a year. 
 Accordi tg to the same accounts, the total value of the 
 exports to China through Kiachta, in 1850, amounted 
 to 6,910,071 silver roubles, and that of the imports to 
 about the same. The customs duty received at Ki- 
 achta in 1848 amounted to £923,554. The Russian 
 
 trade is in the hands of a comparatively small number 
 of merchants, some of whom are verj' rich ; that of 
 the Chinese is much more diffused. Commodities may 
 be conveyed from Kiachta to European Russia either 
 by land or by water. In the former case the journey 
 takes a year ; in the latter, it takes three years, or 
 rather tliree ver)"" short summers ; the rivers being 
 for the most part of the year frozen over. — SchnitZ' 
 ler, Statistique Generale de VEmpire de la Russie^ p. 
 143, etc. 
 
 11. Turkish Fair?. — Several important fairs, of which 
 little or nothing is known in this country, are held at 
 various places in European Turkey. Among others 
 may be specified those of Usundji, or Usundjova, in 
 Roumelia ; Joanima, in Albania ; Stronga on the Lake 
 of Ocrida; Novi-Bazar, in Upper Moesia; Islivni, in 
 Thrace ; Prelip and Nicopoli, in Macedonia ; Eski- 
 Djouma, in Bulgaria ; and Zeitoun and Pharsalia, in 
 Thessaly. The largest and most important of these 
 fairs is that of Usundji, held at the village of that 
 name, on the Usundji, a tributary of the Maritza, 
 about 44 miles W. by N. of Adrianople. It was visited 
 by M. Blanqui in 1841, and by Mr. Spencer in 1850. 
 The latter says (but statements of this sort are verj' 
 apt to be exaggerated), that it was attended by from 
 80,000 to 100,000 people, who had journeyed hither 
 from all parts of European Turkey for the purpose of 
 disposing of their wool, hides, raw cotton, leeches, and 
 other products of the country, and of purchasing in 
 return the manufactures of the "West. The show of 
 the latter is verj' extensive. Sheds are erected in the 
 village by government, which serve as warehouses for 
 the merchants, and every house is converted into a han 
 for the reception of strangers. But by far the greater 
 number of the latter have, notwithstanding, to encamp 
 with their camels, horses, etc., on the surrounding 
 plain. Blanqui speaks in high terms of commendation 
 of the good order that prevailed, in the absence of any 
 thing like police, among the motley population at the 
 fair.. — (Blanqui, Voyage en Bulgarie, p. 252; Spen- 
 cer's Travels in European Turkey, ii., 346, etc.) This 
 great fair, which lasts for 15 days (Blanqui) is held, 
 like the other fairs, in autumn, immediately after 
 harvest. But though it be largely frequented by 
 German, Swiss, Italian, and Greek merchants, who 
 transact a great amount of business, it is very little, if 
 at all, known in England. This is the more surpris- 
 ing, seeing that we have consuls at Adrianople and 
 other places not very distant from the seat of the fair. 
 And it might have been supposed that these function- 
 aries would have been anxious to send home the most 
 ample details with respect to this and other fairs in 
 their vicinity ; describing the products which might be 
 most advantageously bought and sold at these marts ; 
 the routes by which they might be most easUy reached, 
 and so forth. But if such reports anywhere exist, they 
 have not, at all events, been published. And hence, 
 probably, the fact of the business of these fairs being 
 mostly in the hands of foreigners. 
 
 12. Fastem Fairs. — The most important fair in the 
 Eastern world is that held at Mecca during the resort 
 of pilgrims in the month of Dhalhajja. It used to be 
 frequented by many thousands of individuals of all 
 ranks and orders, brought together from the remotest 
 corners of the Mohammedan world; and though the 
 numbers attending it have declined of late years, the 
 concourse is still very great. See Caravan. Hurd- 
 war, in Hindostan, in lat. 29° 57' N., long. 78° 2' E., 
 117 miles N.E. from Delhi, is famous from its being 
 one of the principal places of Hindoo pilgrimage, and 
 the greatest fair in India. The town, which is but in- 
 considerable, is situated on the Ganges, at the point 
 where that sacred stream issues from the mountains. 
 The pilgrimage and fair are held together at the vernal 
 equinox; and Europeans, nowise addicted to exaggera- 
 tion, who have been repeatedly present on these occ*- 
 sioas. estimate that from 200,000 to 300,000 strangers 
 
FAL 
 
 651 
 
 FAL 
 
 are then assembled in the town and its vicinity. But 
 every twelfth year is reckoned peculiarly holy ; and 
 then it is supposed that from 1,000,000 to 1,500,000, 
 and even 2,000,000 pilgrims and dealers are congre- 
 gated together from all parts of India and countries to 
 the north. In 1819, which happened to be a twelfth 
 year, when the auspicious moment for bathing in the 
 Ganges was announced to the impatient devotees, the 
 rush was so tremendous that no fewer than 430 persons 
 were either trampled to death under foot, or drowned 
 in the river I The foreigners resorting to Hurdwar 
 fair for commercial purposes only, consist principally 
 of natives of Nepaul, the Punjab, and Beshwaur, with 
 Afghans, Usbeck Tartars, etc. They import vast num- 
 bers of horses, cattle, and camels ; Persian dried fruits, 
 shawls, drugs, etc. : the returns are made in cotton 
 piece goods, indigo, sugar, spices, and other tropical 
 productions. The merchants never mention the price 
 of their goods, but conduct the bargain by touching 
 the different joints of their fingers, to hinder the by- 
 standers gaining any information. During the Mah- 
 ratta sway, a kind of poll-tax and duties on cattle 
 were levied ; but all is now free, without impost or 
 molestation of any sort. Owing, also, to the precau- 
 tions adopted by the British government, the most 
 perfect order is preserved ; much to the surprise and 
 satisfaction of the natives ; for, antecedent to our oc- 
 cupation of the country, the fairs usually ended in 
 
 disorder and bloodshed (Private Information, and the 
 
 excellent account of Hurdwar in Hamilton's Gazet- 
 teer.') 
 
 The fairs of Portobello, Vera Cruz, and Acapulco, 
 once so famous, are now totally deserted ; that of the 
 Havana is also much fallen off. 
 
 In the United States, fairs are principally confined 
 to exhibitions of agricultural and mechanical articles, 
 and also for the sale of fancy articles for charitable 
 purposes, under the control of private companies, and 
 not subject to especial restrictions or laws. In the 
 western States, especially in the stock-growing dis- 
 tricts of Kentucky, fairs are held in each county, at 
 the county towns, once every month, for the sale of 
 live stock, etc., subject only to local restrictions. 
 These fairs or sales are of great convenience to the 
 farmers or drovers, by bringing them together at 
 stated times. As an instance of their usefulness, in 
 Paris, Bourbon county, Kentucky, a town of 1500 in- 
 habitants, live stock to the amount of $100,000, on an 
 average, changes hands every court day. 
 
 Falkland Islands (Fr. Malouinea, Sp. Malvinaa), 
 a group of islands in the South Atlantic Ocean, be- 
 longing to Great Britain, and lying about 250 miles 
 east of the nearest mainland of South America, be- 
 tween 51° and 53° S. lat., and 57° and 62° W. long., 
 or in precisely the same latitudes south as London and 
 the midland counties are north. The group consists 
 of two principal islands. East and West Falkland, with 
 several hundred others of different sizes clustered 
 around and in the strait between them. East Falk- 
 land is about 85 miles in length by 40 in breadth, and 
 West Falkland 80 miles long by 25 to 30 miles wide. 
 They are separated from each other by Falkland 
 Sound. The other islands range in size from 16 miles 
 by 8 to mere islets of half a mile across. The whole 
 group is deeply indented by numerous harbors and 
 creeks, which, if they diminish the area, produce more 
 than counterbalancing advantages. Very little is 
 known of West Falkland. It is uninhabited, but at 
 certain seasons it is visited by whaling and other ves- 
 sels. East Falkland is nearly divided into two unequal 
 portions by the estuaries called Breton Sound and 
 Choiseul Sound, the two parts of the island being con- 
 nected by an isthmus not more than a mile and a half 
 across. The northern portion is crossed by a chain of' 
 rugged hills, called the Wickham Heights, extending 
 due east and west from Port William to Port Sussex, 
 and varying in height from 800 to 2000 feet. 
 
 There are few wild animals indigenous to the Falk- 
 lands. The only quadruped is the warrah or wolf- 
 fox (Cams Magdlanieus), rather taller, but not much 
 heavier, than our fox. The other animals which are 
 found in a wild state are those which have been left 
 there by Europeans, as homed cattle, horses, sheep, 
 wild hogs, and rabbits, all of which are very abundant. 
 There is a plentiful supply of excellent fish in all the 
 creeks, and of small trout in the lakes and rivulets. 
 Hair and fur seals abound, and the black whale is still 
 nimierous about these coasts. The wild fowl are also 
 numerous, as swans, geese, ducks, snipes, etc. There 
 are few land birds or insects, and no reptiles. A 
 gigantic sedgy grass, called tussac, of the genus Carex, 
 is very common on most of these islands. Its blade 
 averages seven feet in length by about three quarters 
 of an inch in width, is extremely nutritious, and ad- 
 mirably adapted for fattening cattle. Turnips, car- 
 rots, potatoes, and vegetables thrive well, and barley 
 and oats have been successfully cultivated. Furze 
 and other shrubs grow well, but there are as yet no 
 trees. Peet is abundant, and some of it is highly 
 bituminous. Coal has been discovered, but whether 
 it can be profitably worked has not yet been ascer- 
 tained. 
 
 The discovery of these islands has been by many 
 attributed to Amerigo Vespucci, in 1502 ; but it is 
 more probable that they were first discovered by Davis 
 in 1592. In 1594 Hawkins sailed along their north 
 shore ; and in 1690 Strong sailed through the channel 
 which separates East from West Falkland, and called 
 it Falkland Sound, whence the group afterward took 
 its name. During the earlier parts of the eighteenth 
 century these islands were frequently visited by French 
 vessels ; and in 1764 a French colony was established 
 at St. Louis, on East Falkland. Two years later the 
 English planted a colony at Port Egmonton, West 
 Falkland. In 1767, the Spaniards took possession of 
 the French settlement, and three years later of the 
 English. In consequence of this step, some negotia- 
 tions were entered into, the result of which was that 
 the sovereignty of these islands were ceded to the En- 
 glish, who, however, some time afterward abandoned 
 them. Though frequently visited by whaling vessels 
 and others, they continued without permanent inhab- 
 itants till 1820, when they were taken possession of 
 by the republic of Buenos Ayres. A settlement was 
 formed at Port Louis, which rapidly increased until 
 1831, when, in consequence of a dispute with the 
 United States, it was destroyed by the Americans. 
 In 1833 the English again assumed possession of the 
 Falklands, and stationed an officer and boat's crew at 
 Port Louis. In 1840 the government resolved to 
 colonize these islands, and sent out for that purpose a 
 governor and a small establishment, who settled at 
 Port Louis. A more advantageous situation for a set- 
 tlement was subsequently found on the south side of 
 Stanley Harbor, where, in 1844, a town was laid out. 
 Mr. Lafone, a wealthy merchant, obtained from gov- 
 ernment an extensive tract of land, and possession of 
 all the wild cattle and other wild stock for six j-ears, 
 from 1st January, 1848, in consideration of a payment 
 by installments of £60,000. Jlr. Lafone's interests 
 have recently been purchased by a chartered company, 
 which now possess, in East Falkland, all the southern 
 peninsula called Lafonia, consisting of about 600,000 
 acres, besides 138 islands and islets, with an aggregate 
 area of about 200,000 acres, until January, 1856. The 
 company possesses absolute right to all the wild cattle 
 or other wild stock which may be found upon any of 
 the islands, but after that period this right ceases ex- 
 cept as to stock, etc., then in actual possession of the 
 company. In 1847 the population of the colony was 
 270. The governor of these islands, in January, 1853, 
 reports the colony to be steadilj- progressing. In 1851, 
 the number of tons of shipping that entered the port 
 of Stanley was 17,538, and in 1852 it was 22,024, being 
 
FAL 
 
 652 
 
 FAN 
 
 an increase of 4,486 tons. This necessarily produces 
 a demand for produce and labor. Unskilled laborers 
 earn from 3s. to 5s. a day, and skilled from 63. to 10s. 
 Provisions are abundant, and at reasonable prices. 
 " The transference to the Falkland Islands Company 
 of the large interests held by Mr. Lafone, and the 
 commencement by that corporation of a more compre- 
 hensive system of operation, supported by a large cap- 
 ital, gives me very favorable hopes of benefit to the 
 colony, and, I trust, to the shareholders." {Report.") 
 In 1849, twelve allotments of one acre each, near the 
 town, were put up for sale, and were sold on an aver- 
 age at £6 per acre ; and eleven similar allotments, sold 
 in 1852, brought on an average £12 per acre, or six 
 times the usual government price. " The master of a 
 barque, the Record, lately in the harbor, publicly no- 
 tified that he would take passengers to the gold dig- 
 gings in Australia at £10 per head, and it gives me 
 much pleasure to add that not a person could be found 
 in the colony to accept his proposition." (Report.) Be- 
 ing chiefly dependent upon the ships that call here to 
 refit or for refreshments, the opening of a ship-canal 
 between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans would affect 
 this settlement very much, and might probably lead to 
 its abandonment. — E. B. 
 
 Except as commercial and military stations, these 
 islands possess no importance. There is no tonnage 
 duty levied on vessels entering the ports of these 
 islands ; nor, indeed, any charges, except for storage, 
 which is effected in bulk, and for which there is a 
 charge of from $3 to $10 per day. In a recent official 
 communicatitm addressed by the present governor of 
 the Falkland Islands, that functionary observes : *'I 
 beg to state that, as regards the precise limit to which 
 Great Britain will limit the right of fishing, I have no 
 instructions. I will, however, communicate with her 
 Majesty's government on the subject by the first op- 
 portunity." As American captains cruising about 
 these islands have, on one or two recent occasions, 
 been subjected to considerable inconvenience and ex- 
 pense by the executive authority of the Falkland 
 Islands^so much so, indeed, as in one instance to ren- 
 der the interposition of a United States' vessel of war 
 necessary' — ^it becomes a matter of some importance to 
 American whaling interests to have the question set- 
 tled as speedily as possible. — Com. Rel. U. S. 
 
 Fall, the name given in Scotland to a measure both 
 of length and superficies. As a measure of length, 
 the fall is equal to six Scots ells, or 6'1764 English 
 yards ; and as a measure of superficies, to 36 square 
 ells. 
 
 Fall, the sea term for the rope of any pulley or 
 system of pulleys. TofaM aboard signifies to run foul 
 of another vessel. 
 
 Falling Home. The term applied to the timbers 
 or upper parts of the sides of a ship when they curve 
 inwards. The old ships fell home, or tumbled in (as it 
 is called), much more than the modern ones, which 
 approach more nearly to being wall-sided. 
 
 Fall River, Massachusetts, 46 miles S. of Boston, 
 situated on the Fall Kiver, at its junction with the 
 Taunton, which falls into Mount Hope Bay, a branch 
 of Narraganset Bay. The harbor on Taunton River is 
 safe and easy of access, and has depth of water suffi- 
 cient for the largest ships. Fall River has a large 
 coasting trade, and is engaged in the whale and other 
 fisheries. It has extensive cotton and woolen fac- 
 tories, bleaching-works, founderies, etc., and commu- 
 nicates regularly with New York by steamers, and 
 with Boston by railway. Pop. (1855) 12,680. 
 
 Falmouth, a seaport town of England, on a branch 
 of the estuary of the Falmouth, 14 m. N.N.E. the 
 Lizard Point. Lat. 50° 8' 8" N., long. 5° 2' 7" W. 
 The harbor is formed by the estuary of the Falmouth, 
 has numerous creeks, and is about five miles in length j 
 and one mile in breadth. The entrance is defended by 
 Pendennis and St, Mawe's castles, both built in reign i 
 
 of Henry VIII., and the former containing large bar- 
 racks, magazines, etc. Its position at the entrance 
 of the English Channel, has rendered Falmouth for 
 the last 150 years a principal station for the foreign 
 mail-packets, and the great rendezvous for fleets pro- 
 ceeding to the south and west. 
 
 False Keel, the timber added below the main 
 keel, both to serve as a defense, and also, by deepen- 
 ing the plane surface, to enable the ship to h9ld a bet- 
 ter wind. 
 
 Fan, a simple and well-known implement employed 
 to produce coolness by agitating the air. Upward of 
 3000 years ago the artist of ancient Egypt painted the 
 fan on the walls of the tombs at Thebes, where the 
 Pharaoh sits surrounded by his fan-bearers. These 
 officers acted as generals or marshals, using their fans 
 as standards in war, and in peace they assisted the 
 Pharaoh in the temple, and waved their variegated 
 fans both to produce a cooling breeze, and to guard 
 the sacred offerings from the contamination of noxious 
 insects. The fan is mentioned by Euripides, and its 
 Grecian forms were far more beautiful than the Egypt- 
 ian. The wings of a bird joined laterally and at- 
 tached to a slender handle, formed the simple yet 
 graceful fan of the priest of Isis, when Isis became a 
 Grecian deity. It was sometimes formed of feathers 
 of diflferent lengths, spread out in the form of a semi- 
 circle, but pointed at the top. This fan, the precise 
 type of the state-fan of India and China of the present 
 day, was waved by a female slave. The fan is men- 
 tioned by Terence and Ovid ; and was termed indiffer- 
 ently "flabellum" or " muscarinm." When the Ro- 
 mans were at meals, it was the duty of certain slaves, 
 when the weather was warm, to cool the room with 
 fans and drive away the flies. The modern Greek 
 church places a fan in the hands of its deacons to 
 guard the officiating priest and the elements from dese- 
 cration. When the fan was brought to France by 
 Catherine de Medicis, it was so constructed that it 
 could be folded in the manner of those used in the 
 present day. Fans in the luxurious reigns of Louis 
 XIV. and XV., shone with gilding and gems, and 
 were ornamented with the pictures of Boucher and 
 Watteau. At that time no toilet was esteemed com- 
 plete without a fan, the cost of which was frequently 
 as high as from $60 to $70. 
 
 In fan-making, the Chinese and French are the great 
 rivals, and may be said to monopolize the supply of 
 the whole world. In the lacquered fans the superior- 
 ity of the natives of China is fully admitted. These 
 are unrivaled both in lowness of price and in origin- 
 ality of design, brilliancy of coloring, and in general 
 correctness of workmanship. In China the manufac- 
 ture of fans is almost entirely confined to Canton, 
 Soutchon, Hang-tchoo, and Nankin. The fans of 
 ivory and bone, and of feathers, are made exclusively 
 for exportation to Europe or America. Those used by 
 the Chinese are of bamboo, polished or japanned, and 
 covered with paper. They are sold at from 20 cents 
 to $3 per dozen, according to the quality of the frame 
 and the design of the leaf. — E. B. 
 
 In France, fan-making has arrived at a high degree 
 of perfection, and presents a remarkable instance of 
 the subdivision of labor. About twenty different 
 operations, performed by as many pairs of hands, are 
 necessary to the production of a fan which sells for 
 less than one halfpenny. The processes are not all 
 carried on in the same manufactory, but form four dis- 
 tinct branches of trade, directed by distinct masters ; 
 but the operatives usually work at home at their own 
 houses. The frame-work of fans is mostly made in 
 the department of Oise, where 2000 men, women, and 
 children are thus employed. The woods employed 
 are chiefly plum, ebonj', lime, and sandal-wood ; and 
 the piercings which form such a general decoration to 
 fans, are performed by minute saws, which the work- 
 man makes for himself out of pieces of watch-spring. 
 
FAR 
 
 653 
 
 PAS 
 
 In one fan there are in some specimens 1600 saw- 
 piercings in a square inch of mother-of-pearl. The 
 printing, the coloring, the mounting, and the finishing 
 of fans are mostly conducted at Paris, where the fan- 
 factories are on a considerable scale. 
 
 " The number of fan-makers, or eventailUstea (those 
 wh6 finish the fans which have been roughly made in 
 the provinces), in Paris, in 1827, was 15, who em- 
 ployed 1010 work-people (344 men, 500 women, and 
 166 children), and sold about 1,010,500 francs' worth 
 of fans. According to the Statistique sur VIndustrie a 
 Paris, it appears that in 1847 there were 122 fan- 
 makers, comprising chamber-masters, as mounters, 
 feuillistes, painters, and colorers. The value of the 
 fans made was 2,526,316 francs. These masters em- 
 ployed 575 work-people (262 men, 264 women, 29 
 youths, and 20 girls). The workmen on the average 
 earn 4 francs, and the women 2J- fi-ancs per day. The 
 men were for the most part copper-plate engravers 
 and printers, lithographic draughtsmen and printers, 
 painters, and colorers ; the women were mounters, 
 illuminators, painters, colorers and overlookers. Thus 
 in twenty years it appears that the produce in fans 
 had increased in value nearly threefold, while the 
 number of work-people had diminished one half This 
 change is attributed to the employment of machinery, 
 especially of the fly-press, in stamping out and em- 
 bossing the ribs, and the extensive employment of 
 chromo-lithography, an art not practiced at the former 
 period. By these means the French have been en- 
 abled greatly to increase their exports by the produc- 
 tion of cheap fans, to compete with those made by the 
 Chinese. 
 
 Farina. (Lat. far, com, of which it is made.) 
 Meal or flour, obtained by grinding and sifting wheat 
 and other seeds ; hence the term farinaceov^ food. 
 
 Faroe, or Feroe (Danish, Fa/roeme), a group of 
 islands belonging to Denmark, in the North Sea, be- 
 tween Iceland and the Shetland Islands, about 200 
 miles north-west of the latter, between N. lat. 61° 20' 
 and 62° 25', and between W. long. 6° 16' and 7° 40'. 
 The group consists of 17 inhabited and several unin- 
 habited islands, the former having an are* of 490 
 square miles, and (in 1850) 8150 inhabitants. The 
 principal islands, with their populations, in 1846, were 
 Stromo, 2162; Ostero, 1909; Sfldero, 1156; Vaago, 
 649 ; Sand6, 528 ; and Bord5, 304. They consist 
 throughout of rocks and hills, rising to a considerable 
 height, and separated from each other by narrow val- 
 leys, or rather ravines. Although, however, these 
 hills rise abruptly, there are often on their summits, 
 or at different stages of their ascent, plains of consid- 
 erable magnitude. They everywhere present to the 
 sea perpendicular cliffs, broken into a thousand fantas- 
 tic forms, presenting to those who sail along the coast, 
 at everj' turn, the most picturesque and varied scenery. 
 The highest peak is that of Skellingfell, in the island 
 of Stroma, which rises to about 3000 feet above the 
 sea. The rocks consist generally of trap, and exhibit 
 little variety of composition, though they present some 
 striking geological phenomena. The zeolites and 
 chalcedonies here collected have long supplied the best 
 specimens of these minerals to the cabinets of Europe. 
 Coal is found in Sudero and some of the other islands, 
 and turf is abundant. 
 
 The climate is moist and foggy, and violent storms 
 are frequent at all seasons. July and August are the 
 only summer months, but the winters are not very 
 severe. It seldom freezes for more than one month, 
 and the harbors are rarely ice-bound. The only 
 grain crop is barley ; and on account of the uncer- 
 tainty of the weather, it is frequently reaped in a half- 
 ripe condition. Agriculture is in a very backward 
 state, the infield, or cultivated land, being calculated 
 to be to the outfield, or uncultivated, in the proportion 
 1 to 60. The plow is seldom used, being in fact ill 
 suited to the rugged and uneven surface of the land. 
 
 The ground is therefore turned up with the spade, 
 care being taken not to destroy the roots of the grass. 
 Horses and cows are few in number, and the latter 
 give very little milk, in consequence, probably, of the 
 very coarse hay upon which they are fed. Sheep are 
 numerous, and form the chief riches of the islanders — 
 some individuals having flocks of from three to five 
 hundred. The sheep are never housed either in sum- 
 mer or winter, and in severe seasons they suffer con- 
 siderably. The wool is generally coarse, and is torn 
 off the animals in so rough a manner as often to lacer- 
 ate the skin. The catching of the numerous birds 
 which build their nests upon the face of the cliffs, 
 forms a great source of subsistence to the inhabitants. 
 The persons employed in this hazardous trade display 
 great: ingenuity and the most adventurous spirit. 
 Sometimes the fowler is let down from the top of the 
 cliff by a rope fastened to his waist ; at other times, 
 where there is any footing at all, he climbs the steep- 
 est rocks, or, where that is impossible, he is pushed 
 upward by poles made for the purpose. The puffin 
 (Alca arctica) is the most common of these birds, and 
 the eider-duck is here often shot for food. The fisher- 
 ies are important and valuable. 
 
 The monopoly of the trade of the Faroe Islands was 
 for some time in the hands of a mercantile house at 
 Copenhagen ; but it has now been assumed by gov- 
 ernment, and neither Dane nor foreigner is allowed to 
 interfere. The trade is carried on between Copen- 
 hagen and Thorshavn. The chief exports are hosiery, 
 tallow, dried and salt fish, train-oil, feathers, skins, 
 and butter. Thorshavn, the capital of these islands, 
 18 situated on the south-east side of the island of Stro- 
 mo, upon a narrow tongue of land, having creeks on 
 each side, where ships may be safely, moored. Popu- 
 lation about 1500. The houses are built of wood, and 
 roofed with birch bark covered with turf, the greenness 
 of which makes it impossible, at a very short distance, 
 to distinguish the place from the surrounding fields. 
 The character of the people is generally marked by 
 great simplicity of manners, kindness and hospitality. 
 They are well fed and clothed, and seem to be kindly 
 treated by the Danish government. The average 
 duration of life, as stated by Dr. Panum, is 44 2-5 
 years ; while in Denmark it is only 36. The language 
 of the people is a remnant of the old Norse, but that 
 of the courts, churches, and schools is the modem 
 Danish. See Ftsrocs and Faro(B Meserata, by Lucas 
 Jacobsen Debes, translated from the Danish into 
 English, 1675 ; Description oj" the Faroe Islands, by the 
 Eev. 6. Landt, London, 1810 ; an account of their 
 geology and mineralogy, in the Trans, of ike Hoyal 
 Soc, Edin., vol. vii., by Sir G. S. Mackenzie, Bart., 
 and Thomas Allen, Esq. ; Den, Danske Slats Statis- 
 tih, vol, iv,, 1853 ; J, Nichol's Account of Iceland, 
 Greenland, and the Feroe Isles; Dr, Pancm's Official 
 Report on the Diseases of Feroe, 1849, of which an ab- 
 stract in vol. vii. of the Medico-chirurgical Review. 
 The scenery of these islands is well illustrated in a 
 work entitled Cruises of the Tacht Maria, London, 
 1855.— E. B. 
 
 Farthing, a small English copper coin, amounting 
 to ^ of a penny. It was ancientlj' c^o&fourthing, as 
 being the fourth of the integer or penny. A farthing 
 of gold, equal in value to the fourth part of a noble, or 
 20d. in silver, is mentioned in statute 9th Henry Y., 
 cap. 7. 
 
 Fascines (fascis, a bundle), in fortification, fag- 
 gots, or bundles of rods, or small branches of trees, 
 bound together in several places. They are used for 
 various purposes, such as raising batteries, filling 
 ditches, forming parapets, etc., and vary in dimensions 
 according to the purposes to which they are to be 
 applied. Fascines dipped in pitch are sometimes em- 
 ployed to fire the enemy's lodgments or other works. 
 
 Fashion (Fr. fapon; originally from the Lat. 
 facere, to make or form), a term used to signify the 
 
FAY 
 
 654 
 
 FAY 
 
 prevailing mode or taste in any country, the only 
 recognized quality which it possesses being mutability. 
 It may safely be averred that, in proportion to the in- 
 fluence which fashion exercises in any country may its 
 claim to civilization be vindicated — nothing being so 
 characteristic of a rude and barbarous state of exist- 
 ence as a rigid adherence to the customs of antiquity. 
 The term fashion has generally been considered as 
 applicable chiefly to the adornment of the person, in 
 conformity with the prevailing taste as introduced by 
 some individual of consideration in society ; but it has 
 a much wider signification, being applied to the most 
 trivial kind of conventional usages, a disregard or 
 ignorance of which is sufficient, in the eyes of the vo- 
 taries of this tyrannical goddess, to banish the offender 
 beyond the pale of civUized society. 
 
 Fat, an oily concrete substance, contained in the 
 cells of the adipose or cellular membrane of animal 
 bodies. Fat also denotes a measure of capacity, but 
 indefinite. Thus a fat of isinglass contains from 3^ 
 cwt. to 4 cwt. ; of yam, from 220 to 221 bundles, etc. 
 Fat, or vat, a large wooden tub or vessel used in 
 breweries and tanneries ; also as a measure for malt, 
 containing eight bushels. 
 
 Fathom, a measure of length, six feet, chiefly used 
 for measuring the length of cordage, and the depth of 
 water and mines. 
 
 Fayal. The Azores, or Western Islands form a 
 range situate in the Atlantic Ocean, extending in an 
 oblique line from north-west to south-east, between 
 37° and 40° N. lat., and 25° and 32° W. long. It 
 has been a subject of some controversy among geog- 
 raphers, to what division of the globe they ought to be 
 referred ; but they are now generally considered as 
 pertaining to Europe. It does not appear that the 
 ancients had any knowledge of the Azores, or of any 
 group in this sea, except the Canaries, to which they 
 finally applied the celebrated appellation of the Fortun- 
 ate Islands. But the Arabian geographers, Edrisi and 
 Ibn al Vardi, describe, after the Canaries, nine other 
 islands in the Western Ocean. That these were the 
 Azores is highly probable, since their number is ex- 
 actly nine ; and because a species of hawk is specially 
 noticed by these writers as existing there in great 
 abundance — a circumstance that afterward appeared 
 to the Portuguese so remarkable, that thej- gave them 
 the name of Azores, or Hawk Islands. The climate 
 in which they are placed also makes them north of the 
 Canaries. Some other coincidences also might be 
 pointed out ; and, upon the whole, there appears no 
 reason to doubt that the Azores are really the nine 
 islands enumerated by the Arabians. The Arabian 
 writers represent them as having been populous, and 
 as haying contained cities of some magnitude ; but 
 they state that the inhabitants had been greatly 
 reduced by intestine warfare. At the time of their 
 discovery they were uninhabited, and covered with 
 forests and underwood, which have now entirely dis- 
 appeared. 
 
 The first European discovery of this group is claimed 
 by the Flemings. A Flemish merchant named Van 
 der Berg, is reported, in sailing from Lisbon, to have 
 been driven xipon these shores in the year 1439, The 
 intelligence soon reached the court of Lisbon, where it 
 excited considerable interest ; and the navigator Ca- 
 bral was sent to prosecute the discovery. In 1459 the 
 islands began to be planted and colonized, and in so 
 fertile a soU the inhabitants rapidly multiplied. In 
 1580 they fell, with the other Portuguese territories, 
 under the dominion of Spain. At this time the 
 Azores were the grand rendezvous in the voyage 
 homeward of the fleets, which came laden with the 
 wealth of both the Indies; Hence they became a 
 theatre of that maritime warfare which was carried on 
 with such spirit by the English under Queen Elizabeth 
 against the peninsular powers. In 1586 Sir Walter 
 Ealeigh equipped two pinnaces of 35 and 40 tons, the 
 
 command of which he gave to Captain Whiddon. 
 Having taken two or three prizes, they fell in, off St. 
 Michael, with the great fleet of Spanish galleons, con- 
 sisting of 24 sail, two of them carracks of 1000 or 1200 
 tons. They attacked them, however, without hesita- 
 tion, hoping to cut off some straggling member of this 
 great body, but were unable to make auj- impression 
 upon it. In 1587, Sir Francis Drake, after having 
 swept the harbor of Cadiz, sailed for the Azores, 
 where he took an East India carrack, richly laden, and 
 the first that had ever fallen into the hands of the 
 English. In 1589 the Earl of Cumberland fitted out a 
 squadron, sailed for the Azores, and made numerous 
 prizes. Under the active administration of Pombal, 
 considerable exertions were made for the improve- 
 ment of the Azores \ but the stupid and bigoted gov- 
 ernment which followed rather tended to destroy these 
 benefits, and to make the islands take a retrograde 
 course. 
 
 Physical Aspect, — The Azores within a recent period 
 attracted some attention as the theatre of contest be- 
 tween the parties contending for the crown of Portu- 
 gal. The adherents of the constitution, who supported 
 against Miguel the rights of Maria da Gloria, obtained 
 possession of Terceira, where they succeeded in mam- 
 taining themselves. After various struggles. Queen 
 Maria's authority was eventually established over all 
 these islands. 
 
 The aspect of all the islands is very similar in gen- 
 eral characteristics, presenting an elevated and undu- 
 lating outline, with little or no table-land, and rising 
 into peaks, of which the lowest (that of St. Marj-'s) is 
 1889 feet, and the highest (that of Pico) 7613 feet 
 above the level of the sea. Their lines of sea-coast 
 are, with few exceptions, high and precipitous, with 
 bases of accumulated masses of fallen rock, in which 
 open bays, or scarcely more inclosed inlets, form the 
 harbors of the trading towns. The climate is particu- 
 larly temperate, and equable, the extremes of sensible 
 heat and cold being, however, increased by the degree 
 of humidity present in the atmosphere. The range of 
 the thermometer is from 45° Fahr., the lowest known 
 extreme — or 48° the ordinary lowest extreme of Jan- 
 uary — to 82° the ordinary, or 86° the highest known 
 extreme of July, and near the level of the sea. Be- 
 tween these two points (both taken in the shade) there 
 is from month to month a pretty regular gradation of 
 increase or decrease, amounting to somewhat less than 
 four degrees. (Geographical Journal^ vol. xv.) They 
 have an aggregate area of 700 square miles, and in 1841 
 had a population of 214,300. St. Michael, the largest 
 and most populous of these islands, has an area of 224 
 'square miles and (1840) 80,809 inhabitants. Proceed- 
 ing from east to west, this island presents a consider- 
 able variety of surface. The east end rises from a 
 bluff sea-cliff of between 1200 and 1400 feet elevation, 
 to a lofty inland peak from which a central range, 
 varying in height from 2000 to 2500 feet, runs to the 
 westward, terminating in the Serra de Agoa de Pao, 
 3060 feet above the sea. The sea-coast gradually de- 
 clines in approaching the last point, where it is not 
 more than about 100 feet high. The part next seen is 
 lower, and its outline, as presented by the summits of 
 numerous volcanic monticules of about 1300 feet eleva- 
 tion, united in a central ridge more undulating ; the 
 western extremity being marked by the conspicuous 
 Serra Gorda, 1574 feet above the sea; audits shores on 
 both sides are low, broken, and rocky. Of the remain- 
 ing part the aspect is that of a vast truncated cone, ir- 
 regularly cut off at an elevation of about 800 feet, and 
 falling on the north, south, and west sides to a per- 
 pendicular coast of between 300 and 800 feet high. 
 The outline is varied by the intervention of peaks, 
 thrown up on the summit and flanks, and round the 
 foot of the mountain. In the higher parts, the surface 
 is generally covered with an undergrowth of heaths, 
 cedar, laurel, laurestinus, and other evergreen shrubs 
 
FAY 
 
 655 
 
 FAY 
 
 which give the mountains an exceedingly rich and 
 wooded appearance. Like all volcanic countries, the 
 face of the island is uneven and irregular, being deeply 
 excavated by numerous ravines and roughened by 
 streams of semi-vitrified and scoriaceous lava that 
 resist all atmospheric influences and repel vegetation. 
 Heavj' rains falling on the mountains afford a constant 
 supply of water to four lakes at the bottom of extinct 
 craters or subsidences, and a number of minor reser- 
 voirs; and through them to small streams running 
 rapidly Sown on all sides into the sea. — Geographical 
 Journal, vol. xv. See Hunt's Merch. Mag., 1855-6 ; 
 Com. Eel. U. S., pp. 233, 234 : pub. by Dep. of State. 
 
 In the year 1591 a most tremendous earthquake ap- 
 pears to have been felt aU over the Azores, and to 
 have shaken St. Michael for twelve days without 
 intermission. Since that period, there is no record of 
 any such great convulsion, except one in 1757, of 
 which we have no particulars, and it was probably 
 much less formidable ; nor are any of its volcanoes at 
 present in a state of action. Hot springs abound in 
 every part of the island, and from almost everj' crevice 
 vapor is seen issuing. But the most remarkable phe- 
 nomena are the Caldeiras or boiling fountains, which 
 rise ohie^j' from a valley called the Furnas, near the 
 western extremity of the island. The water ascends 
 in columns to the height of about 12 feet, after which 
 it dissolves in vapor, forming clouds of various shapes 
 and colors. The heat is such as to boil an egg in two 
 minutes, though the sulphureous impregnation unfits 
 it from being employed in culinary purposes. The 
 ground in the immediate vicinity is entirely covered 
 with native sulphur, like hoar frost. At a small dis- 
 tance is a remarkable phenomenon called the Muddy 
 Crater, the vertex of which, 45 feet in diameter, is on 
 a level with the plain. Its contents are in a state of 
 violent and continual ebullition, accompanied with a 
 sound resmbling the waves of a tempestuous ocean. 
 Yet they never rise above its level, .unless occasionally 
 to throw to a small distance a spray of the consistence 
 of melted lead. The Furnas abounds also in hot 
 springs, some of which it is impossible to touch with- 
 out being scalded. There is almost always, however, 
 ix cold spring near to the hot one, so that the water 
 can be brought to any temperature that may be 
 desired. These springs, after being long neglected, 
 have, within the last half century, been greatly re- 
 sorted to, and the cures performed in cases of palsy, 
 rheumatism, and similar maladies, are said to have 
 been ver}- wonderful. 
 
 The plains are fertile in wheat, barley, and Indian 
 com ; while vines and oranges grow luxuriantly on 
 the sides of the mountains. They are made to spring 
 even from the interstices of the volcanic rocks, which 
 are sometimes blasted in order that they may receive 
 the plants. Raised in this manner, these fruits are 
 said to be of superior quality ; but tlie great expense 
 originally required in such a mode of cultivation con- 
 fines it to persons of some capital. The western part 
 of the island yields hemp, which might be raised to a 
 considerable extent. The exports consist of wine, 
 fruit, and provisions. Foreign intercourse used to be 
 confined rigorously to Lisbon ; but since the emigra- 
 tion of the court, the inhabitants have assumed the 
 privilege of trading directly with England, America, 
 and other countries. The principal town on the island 
 is Fonta Delgada, which contains about 20,000 inhab- 
 itants. It is built with tolerable regularit}'', the streets 
 being straight and broad. The religious edifices are 
 numerous and elegant. When visited by Captain 
 Boid in 1831, it had six churches, eight monasteries, 
 and four convents ; but these last, which were noted 
 for the irregular lives of their vestals, have since been 
 suppressed. The harbor receives only small vessels ; 
 those of any magnitude must anchor in an open road, 
 which, though not dangerous, can not be occupied 
 during the prevalence of southerly gales. Its other 
 
 towns are Villa Franca, Kiheira, Grande, Alagoa, 
 Agoa de Pao, etc. 
 
 St. Mary. — St. Mary is a small island immediately 
 adjacent to St. Michael, through the medium of which 
 its trade is conducted, as it has no good harbors of its 
 own. It has an area of 36 square miles, producing 
 wheat in abundance, of which a considerable quantity 
 is exported. It is of trap formation, and contains 
 beds of marine shells. Population in 1840, 4666, 
 
 Terceira. — Terceira, though smaller than St. Mi- 
 chael, j-'et being placed in a more central position, with 
 respect to the other islands has been chosen as the 
 seat of government. The port of Angra is also supe- 
 rior to any of those in St. Michael, This island does 
 not exhibit nearly the same extensive traces of vol- 
 canic action ; and the summits of its mountains are 
 generally level. It is represented by Adanson, how- 
 ever, as entirely composed of> volcanic products. The 
 lava, he says, is of a thicker grain than that of Tcn- 
 eriffe. It abounds in grain and cattle ; but the wines 
 are inferior, and the fruits are raised merely for inter- 
 nal consumption. The residence of the government 
 renders the society somewhat superior to that which is 
 found in the other islands. The number of inhabitants 
 is estimated at 60,000. 
 
 Fayal. — Fayal is the most frequented ,of all the 
 islands after St. Michael, as it has one of the best har- 
 bors in the Azores, and lies directly in the track of 
 vessels tliat are crossing the Atlantic in any direction. 
 Its principal town is Villa de Horta. Captain Cook 
 found that all sorts of fresh provisions might be ob- 
 tained there : the bullocks and hogs are good, but the 
 sheep small and poor. The town is defended b}'' two 
 castles and a wall, both in decay, and serving father 
 for show than strength. The city contains two con- 
 vents for monks and three for nuns, with eight 
 churches. These are the only good buildings in it, no 
 other having glass windows. The bay is two miles 
 in length and three quarters of a mile in breadth, and 
 the depth of water from 6 to 20 fathoms. Though a 
 good road, it is not altogether free from danger in 
 S.S.W. and S.E. winds. Population 23,000. 
 
 Pico. — A considerable quantity of wine is shipped 
 from Fayal under the appellation of Fayal wine, but 
 really the produce of Pico, one of the most remarkable 
 of the Azores. This island is composed of an immense 
 conical mountain, rising to the height of 7613 feet, 
 and bearing every trace of volcanic formation. The 
 soil consists entirely of pulverized lava, and the 
 ground has even been said to sound hollow when 
 struck. All the lower parts of the mountain are in 
 the highest state of cultivation, and covered with vine 
 and orange plantations. The wine, which forms a 
 sort of inferior Madeira, is in considerable demand. 
 Pico produces also a valuable species of wood, resem- 
 bling and equal in quality to mahogany. Population 
 26,000. 
 
 Graciosa and St, George are two small islands, sit- 
 uated between Fayal and Terceira, Graciosa is chieflj- 
 noted for the extreme beauty of its aspect and scenery. 
 About fifty years ago St. George suffered from one of 
 those awful visitations to which the Azores are subject. 
 In 1808 a caldeira, situate in the centre of the island, 
 was observed to be in a state of violent fermentation. 
 It continued during several days to emit subterranean 
 noises, and to cause violent convulsions throughout 
 every part of the island. At length the great crisis 
 came ; vast streams of fire issued forth in every direc- 
 tion, with clouds of smoke, which, but for the volcanic 
 light, would have involved every thing in midnight 
 darkness. The principal stream took its direction 
 toward the beautiful town of Ursula, which it seemed 
 on the point of swallowing up ; but suddenly changing 
 its direction, it rushed into the sea by a different chan- 
 nel ; a happy event, which superstition ascribed to the 
 prayers of the Ursuline nuns. Many hundred acres 
 of fertile land, however, were covered with scoriae and 
 
FxiY 
 
 656 
 
 FAY 
 
 ashes ; some lives were lost, and general gloom and 
 consternation diffused throughout the island. The in- 
 habitants, however, soon applied themselves to repair 
 the injury which their land had sustained. Popula- 
 tion about 20,000. 
 
 The two small and most westerly islands of Corvo 
 and Floras seem but imperfectly to belong to the 
 group. They lie also out of the usual track of navi- 
 gators ; but to those who, missing their course, are 
 led hither, Flores affords good shelter in its numerous 
 bays. Its poultry is said to be the finest in the world ; 
 and the cattle are numerous, but small. The surplus 
 produce of these islands is not of much importance. 
 Population above 15,000. 
 
 Commerce of the Azores with the United States. — 
 A communication to the Department of State, dated 
 Fayal, April 3d, 1857, laments the inability to an- 
 nounce any improvement in the commerce between 
 the Azores and the United States. The vintages 
 of 1855 and 1856 were so much injured by the 
 " odium," both in regard to quantity and qualitj-, 
 that no wine has been shipped abroad, and the quan- 
 tity j-et remaining of former vintages is exceedingly 
 small. From the Island of St. Michaels there were 
 shipped last season, just ended, an amount equal to 
 300,000 Sicily boxes of oranges, about 40,000 from 
 Terceira, and about 5,500 from this island ; and of all 
 that quantity only about 1,500 boxes were shipped to 
 
 the United States. Shipments have been made on a 
 larger scale, but the results have been unfavorable ; 
 the vessels having to contend with almost constant 
 gales of contrarj' winds, and the fruit being of a more 
 perishable nature than that of Sicily, Spain and Portu- 
 gal. The importation of cereals will swell the amount 
 of imports, but it will be very ephemeral, and the ports 
 will be closed as soon as circumstances will permit. 
 
 The seat of government of the Azores is at Angra, 
 in Terceira. Ponta Delgada, in St. Michaels, is, 
 however, the chief commercial city. The exports of 
 corn from the Azores from 1835 to 1841, principally to 
 Portugal, are given in the following table : 
 
 Years. 
 
 Quantities. 
 
 Values. 
 
 1885 
 
 MoioB, Quarters. Bushels. 
 
 11,675 = 85,026 = 280,200 
 
 11,080 = 83,240 = 265,920 
 5,565 = 16,695 = 188,660 
 9,680 = 28,740 = 229,920 
 4,890 = 14,670 = 117,860 
 
 12,153 = 86,459 = 291,672 
 9,000 = 27,000 — 216,000 
 
 299,230 
 272,865 
 189,710 
 246,785 
 U2,625 
 311,025 
 285,000 
 
 1836 
 
 1837 
 
 1888 
 
 1889 
 
 1840 
 
 1841 
 
 The oranges exported in 1801 amounted in value to 
 $50,000 ; in 1820, to $125,000 ; and in 1840, to $450,- 
 000. For five years, ending with 1840, the average 
 annual value of exports to Portugal was $215,645 ; to 
 foreign countries, $260,815. Average annual value of 
 imports during the same period, from Portugal, $266,- 
 600 ; from foreign countries, $397,110. 
 
 Commerce op the United States with Fatal and other Azores, from October 1, 1820, to July 1, 1856w 
 
 Years ending. 
 
 Sept. SO, 1821. 
 1822. 
 1828., 
 1824.. 
 1826., 
 1826.. 
 182T.. 
 1828.. 
 1829.. 
 1830.. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Sept. 30, 1831. 
 1882. 
 1688. 
 1834. 
 1886. 
 1886. 
 1887. 
 1888. 
 
 1840.... 
 Total. 
 
 Sept. 80, 1^41..., 
 1842.... 
 
 9 mos. 1843 
 
 June 80, 1844 
 
 1845 
 
 1846 
 
 1847 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 
 
 1850 
 
 Total.. 
 
 June 80. 1851. 
 ■ 1862. 
 1858. 
 1864. 
 1855. 
 1856. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Domestic. 
 
 $26,887 
 88,160 
 27,841 
 17,463 
 88,421 
 16,976 
 13,487 
 19,559 
 7,949 
 6,649 
 
 $203,842 
 
 $10,649 
 23,402 
 18,887 
 
 9,658 
 12,083 
 
 7,181 
 18,408 
 
 7,556 
 
 9,180 
 10,475 
 
 $121,675 
 
 $18,187 
 
 49,188 
 
 8,569 
 
 19,246 
 
 2,881 
 
 4,226 
 
 9,466 
 
 8,660 
 
 14,204 
 
 14,431 
 
 $183,942 
 
 $20,240 
 17,766 
 21,807 
 10,030 
 1.8,972 
 16.959 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 "Fiioes" 
 
 10,454 
 15,704 
 4,023 
 4,695 
 2,495 
 4,861 
 4,719 
 78 
 1,624 
 
 $59,711 
 
 $6,049 
 11,863 
 8,528 
 3,911 
 6,400 
 450 
 8,581 
 1,681 
 4,789 
 6,623 
 
 $47,275 
 
 $5,785 
 
 19,600 
 
 621 
 
 2,162 
 
 Total. 
 
 $87,995 
 48,614 
 48,645 
 21,486 
 88,116 
 19,471 
 18,848 
 24,278 
 8,027 
 8,178 
 
 $263,068 
 
 $16,698 
 34,765 
 21,915 
 13,469 
 18,4.33 
 
 7,631 
 16,989 
 
 9,287 
 18,869 
 16,094 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Total. 
 
 whereof there was in Bullio 
 and Specie. 
 
 Exported. | loiported. 
 
 $187,982 
 202,445 
 41,429 
 45,103 
 61,763 
 86,261 
 84,208 
 70,828 
 21,802 
 82,912 
 
 $87,666 
 
 $1,045 
 
 1,386 
 
 4,440 
 
 440 
 
 598 
 
 490 
 
 $168,960 
 
 $18,922 
 
 68,783 
 
 9,190 
 
 26,229 
 
 2,882 
 
 4,226 
 
 9,991 
 
 8,660 
 
 16,048 
 
 16,573 
 
 $176,498 
 
 $21,285 
 19,162 
 25,747 
 10,470 
 14,660 
 16,449 
 
 $783,728 
 
 $32,093 
 45,424 
 26,281 
 18,481 
 26,678 
 17,874 
 29,028 
 82,746 
 15,223 
 38,188 
 
 $281,469 
 
 $16,098 
 41,049 
 12,783 
 29,570 
 28,573 
 41,297 
 84,664 
 11,438 
 17,052 
 16,828 
 
 $248,747 
 
 $82,862 
 29,846 
 10,893 
 21,684 
 
 199,in 
 
 $8,600 
 8,000 
 
 $16,500 
 
 $5,000 
 
 $6,000 
 $2,000 
 
 2,300 
 
 $4,200 
 
 $1,070 
 
 1,321 
 4,978 
 8,407 
 6,766 
 21,299 
 12,778 
 8,000 
 11,840 
 
 $64,854 
 
 7,884 
 8,350 
 3,707 
 4,786 
 432 
 2,864 
 
 $24,073 
 
 $V,66o 
 
 1,515 
 
 i",66o 
 
 10,600 
 
 Tonnage Cleared. 
 
 2,558 
 1,663 
 
 1,751 
 758 
 
 673 
 244 
 
 18,890 
 
 475 
 812 
 910 
 760 
 1,179 
 
 509 
 
 819 
 
 1,089 
 
 $17,515 
 
 $4,357 
 1,882 
 
 7,780 
 
 1,068 
 1,622 
 
 742 
 1,115 
 
 184 
 
 162 
 1,108 
 
 815 
 1,284 
 
 908 
 
 8,493 
 
 1,582 
 1,447 
 1,777 
 S60 
 1,553 
 1,713 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 134 
 261 
 806 
 
 187 
 187 
 
 1,780 
 
 819 
 
 'ioo 
 'isl 
 
 412 
 
 1,81 
 
 The harbor of Fayal is the best in the Azores, and 
 greater facilities are offered to ships in distress, by 
 affording refuge or supplies. American whalers fre- 
 quently visit Fayal, and deposit large quantities of 
 oil, to be transhipped to other ports, amounting annu- 
 ally to a value of upward of $300,000, most of which 
 is forwarded to the markets of the United States. 
 The direct imports from the United States to the 
 Azores consist chiefly of timber, staves, heads for 
 hogsheads, etc. The duties on lumber and staves are 
 moderate. On cut nails they exceed 100 per cent., 
 
 and on window-glass they rise over 300 per cent. 
 American cotton manufactures are in good demand, 
 and during the past few years have competed advan- 
 tageously with those of Great Britain. The commer- 
 cial regulations differ but little from those of the 
 mother country. Foreign vessels, bringing the pro- 
 ductions of the country to which they belong, and 
 coming from the ports of the same, are admitted on 
 the same footing as Portuguese vessels. When laden 
 with the produce of other countries, they are subject 
 to a differential duty of 15 per cent. There are no 
 
FEA 
 
 66Y 
 
 FEE 
 
 tonnage duties, light, or hospital dues, levied on ship- 
 ping at the Azores. The entire charges to which a 
 vessel is subject amount to $19 80, which is raised to 
 $23 40 if the vessel has crossed the equator. The 
 navigation of these islands employs about 3,000 tons 
 in foreign and coasting trade. The latter is carried 
 on with Lisbon, Madeira, and the different ports of the 
 islands, and is restricted to national vessels. In 1852, 
 77 vessels, with a tonnage of 8,780 tons, entered these 
 islands ; of which number 8 were American, with an 
 aggregate tonnage of 1,800 tons. 
 
 The chief inconvenience to which foreign tonnage is 
 subjected in these islands, arises from the inconsistent 
 and arbitrary sanitary regulations, which emanate 
 from the home government at Lisbon, and which pre- 
 clude all discretionary power on the part of the local 
 authorities. For instance, should the Portuguese con- 
 sul at New Orleans notify his government that the 
 yellow fever prevails in that city (saj' in the month of 
 September), orders are immediately forwarded by the 
 Board of Health at Lisbon to the authorities of the 
 islands to consider that city as infected. These or- 
 ders, by the ordinary mode of conveyance, will not 
 reach the islands until the following January; and 
 notwithstanding it may be notorious that the fever 
 ceased in October or November, a vessel that should 
 arrive at Fayal, having left New Orleans in January, 
 or later, would not be admitted, even should she be 
 provided with a clean bill of health, certified with all 
 formalitj', by the very same consul who had reported 
 to his government the existence of the sickness ! This 
 regulation frequently exposes American captains to 
 great inconvenience and considerable loss.^Com. Mel. 
 U.iS. 
 
 Feathers, Bed-feathers (Fr. Plumes, Plumes 
 k lit ; Ger. Fedem, Bettfedera ; Du. Beckebm, Pluimen ; 
 It. Piume ; Sp. Plumas\ malce a, considerable article 
 of commerce ; particularly those of the ostrich, goose, 
 heron, swan, peacock, and other poultry. The feathers 
 of the ostrich have been held in the highest estimation 
 from antiquity downward, and have furnished favorite 
 decorations for the fans and head-dresses of ladies, the 
 helmets of warriors, and the most splendid processions. 
 Many parts of Great Britain supplj' feathers for beds ; 
 and an inferior sort is. brought from Ireland. Eider- 
 down, the finest variety of its class, is imported from 
 the north of Europe ; the ducks that supply it being 
 inhabitants of Greenland, Iceland, and Norway. The 
 eider-duck breeds in the islands on the west of Scot- 
 land, but not in sufficient numbers to form a profitable 
 branch of trade to the inhabitants. Hudson's Bay fur- 
 nishes very fine feathers, especially for quills. The 
 down of the swan is brought from Dantzic, as well as 
 large quantities of superior feathers. 
 
 Ostrich and other Plumes. — The long feathers of the 
 wings and the tail constitute the ordinary ostrich 
 plume. The animal is captured and killed with much 
 care, to prevent any injury to the plumage. The 
 feathers are sorted into various qualities, scoured or 
 cleaned, bleached, dried, shaken, and opened, the ribs 
 scraped with a bit of glass, the filaments made to as- 
 sume a curly form by scraping, dyed or not, according 
 to circumstances, and adapted for the adjustment of 
 military hats or other garments. Those in England 
 who are versed in the heraldry of pomp and formality 
 would Itnow the ostrich plunies worn by the Knights 
 of the Garter or the Knights Grand Crosses of the 
 Bath from the court plumes adapted for ladies, and 
 the black plumes for officers of the Highland regi- 
 ments. In recent years, means have been devised for 
 imparting brilliant dyes to ostrich feathers, several 
 different colors to one feather, gradually shaded or 
 blended one into another. Then, besides the ostrich, 
 we have the feathers of the marabout, the ibis, the 
 bird of paradise, the vulture or rhea, the emu, the 
 heron, the plotus, the egret, the pheasant, the peacock, 
 the turkey, the swan, the eagle, and some other birds 
 Tt 
 
 — all applied as ornaments to dress. Some of these 
 are very costly : some are used almost exclusively for 
 one particular purpose, while others have their fash- 
 ionable and unfashionable periods in the public favor. 
 Some of the marabout feathers are knotted with gold, 
 to make a costly trimming for dresses. The emu 
 feathers are more worn on the Continent than in En- 
 gland. The heron feathers, worn by the Knights of 
 the Garter, frequently cost 60 guineas the plume, and 
 sometimes above 100 guineas, on account of their 
 scarcity. The large egret feathers are worn by the 
 Hussars. 
 
 Fecamp, a seaport town in France, department of 
 Seine-Inf^rieure, situated on the English Channel, at 
 the mouth of a small cognominal river 23 miles N.N.E. 
 of Havre. Population about 10,000. It occupies the 
 bottom and ^ides of a narrow valley opening out toward 
 the. sea, between two cliffs, on one of which stands a 
 light-house. Its port, though small, is one of the best 
 on the Channel, and has lately been greatly improved 
 by the construction of an inner port, with a fine quay, 
 etc. It carries on a considerable trade in Baltic and 
 colonial produce, brand}', salt, etc. ; and sends out ves- 
 sels to ithe whale, cod, mackerel, and herring fisheries. 
 The river affords abundant water-power for numerous 
 cotton, oil, and other mills. F6camp has also sugar re- 
 fineries, tanneries, building-docks, and manufactures 
 of hardware, candles, soda, etc. The town consists, 
 almost entirely of one street upward of two miles ifi 
 length. 
 
 Feejee Islands. These islands constitute a group 
 in the South Pacific Ocean, favorably situated for the 
 whaling interests of the United States, if the habits of 
 the natives did not render it unsafe for whale-ships to 
 enter any of their ports, unless under the protection 
 of a man-of-war. The group consists of 154 islands in 
 all, 65 of which are inhabited, and contains a popula- 
 tion estimated at 134,000 souls. The principal islands 
 are Viti Levu and Paou, or Sandal-wood Island; 
 others are Vuna, Kandaboo, Ovolau, Ban, Mathuatu, 
 and Goro ; each of the islands containing from 5,000 
 to 13,000 inhabitants. Sandal-wood was formerly a 
 leading production of this group, but it has now en- 
 tirely disappeared. The great fertility of the soil, 
 however, and the low price at which vessels could recruit 
 their stores, and obtain supplies of fresh provisions and 
 excellent water, taken in connection with the fact that 
 the whaling interests of citizens of the United States in 
 that quarter involve annually from seven to eight mil- 
 lions of dollars, show how important this group might 
 become to American whalers, if they were only strong 
 enough to prevent or resent acts of piracy and plunder. 
 
 An official communication to the State Department, 
 under date of January 1, 1854, says : " The chief and 
 inhabitants of Ban (at present the controlers of this 
 group), causing 'the destruction of property at Lavuka, 
 live by the fruits of begging, theft, and robbery — one 
 unbroken series of robberies and Ijutcheries. In de- 
 fault of justice, these men escape." When our whal- 
 ers are fortunate enough to escape from the atrocities 
 above described, they can obtain a full supply of all 
 descriptions of vegetables, pork, poultry, etc., for an 
 entire crew for about $66, in trade. The same com- 
 munication further informs the Department, that 
 American vessels are actually driven away from this 
 archipelago, the natives being emboldened in the per- 
 petration of these acts by the absence of American 
 vessels of war in any of their ports. During the past 
 year (1855) an American ship of war, the John Adams, 
 visited the Feejee Islands for the purpose of inquiring 
 into, and demanding reparation for, the cruelties and 
 acts of plunder and piracy committed by the natives 
 upon American ships trading and fishing in the Feejee- 
 an archipelago. The result of this visit, it is believed, 
 will put an end to the atrocities of these savages, and 
 secure a safe and commodious retreat for American 
 whalers in those distant seas. It is understood' that 
 
FEL 
 
 658 
 
 FER 
 
 this security is guarantied by a convention or treaty 
 agreed to by Tui Viti, the lung of the islands. There 
 are no quarantine regulations observed at an}' of these 
 islands, and consequently no bills of health are re- 
 quired. Passengers are subjected to no port or land- 
 ing requirements, and are at liberty to go ashore when 
 and as they please. 
 
 There are no custom duties, nor are there any light, 
 hospital, or other dues or taxes exacted. For pilots, 
 the charges are such as can be agreed upon. It has 
 been already stated that this group of islands affords a 
 convenient and excellent stopping-place for our whale- 
 ships engaged in their hazardous and laborious toil in 
 the South Pacific seas. It should be added, that our 
 trading ships generally, in that quarter of the globe, 
 could beneficially call at these islands, particularly if 
 freighted with miscellaneous cargoes of cotton goods, 
 weapons of war, cutlery, and other similar wares suit- 
 ed to the barbarous and semi-civilized natives, could 
 they but be taught to pay proper respect to the Ameri- 
 can flag. During the three years ending with 1863, 
 the exports from the United States to the Feejee Isl- 
 ands amounted, 'in -the aggregate, to $136,000, viz. : in 
 1851, to $32,000 ; in 1852, to $54,000 ; in 1853,'to $50,000. 
 The merchandise received in barter for American 
 imports consist of biche-de-mer, tortoise-shell, gums, 
 arrow-root, and cocoanut-oil. The exports from the 
 United States consist of assorted cargoes, and the an- 
 nual value may be estimated .from the preceding fig- 
 ures, as the trade is almost exclusively one of barter, 
 in which the American shippers usually realize 250 
 per cent, profit on their merchandise. During the 
 last six months of 1855, there arrived at the port of 
 Lanthala five American vessels, including two ships of 
 war (the John Adams and the St. Mary's), measuring, 
 exclusive of the two latter, an aggregate of 1124 tons. 
 Three whale-ships also touched at the islands during 
 the same period. The inward cargoes of ^wo of the 
 merchant vessels referred to, amounting in value to 
 $4000, consisted of general cargoes, of which was land- 
 ed, in value, $3000. The remaining vessel was laden 
 with outfits, stores, and whaling-lines, valued at 
 $30,000, none of which was landed at the islands. 
 The outward cargoes consisted of biche-de-mer, 1500 
 peculs, and shells, 1000 pouds, valued at $41,000. One 
 of these vessels made a voyage to Sydney with yams, 
 cocoanut-oil, and live stock, while the natives were 
 collecting her cargo of biche-de-mer. — C, D. — Com, 
 Bel. n. 8. 
 
 Felt, a kind of stuff resembling coarse cloth, made 
 of hair or wool, without weaving. The fur of the hare, 
 rabbit, seal, beaver, and the wool of the sheep, are the 
 materials chiefly used formaking elt. The hairs and 
 loose flocks of wool are thoroughly mixed together by 
 an operation called bowing, which depends on the vi- 
 brations of an elastic string; when, -in consequence 
 of their anatomical structure, they become matted to- 
 gether. 
 
 Felted Cloth. This woolen fabric is made with- 
 out spinning or weaving. Varnished or Japanned Felt 
 is made by imbuing the stuff of coarse hat bodies with 
 drj'ing oil, prepared by boiling 50 lbs. of linseed oil 
 with white lead, litharge, and umber, of each one 
 pound. The felt is to be dried in a stove, and then 
 polished by pumice-stone. Five or six coats of oil are 
 required. The surface is at last varnished. When 
 the object is intended to be stiff, like visors, the fabric 
 is to be impregnated first of all with flour-paste, then 
 stove-dried, cut into the desired shape, next imbued 
 with the drying-oil, and pumiced repeatedly; lastly, 
 placed, to the number of 20, in a hot iron mold, and 
 exposed to strong pressure. Japanned hats made in 
 this way are sold in France at Is. 3d. a piece ; and they 
 will stand several years' wear. 
 
 Felting (Fr. Feuirage ; Ger. Filzen), is the process 
 by which loose flocks of wool, and hairs of various an- 
 nimals, as the beaver, rabbit, hare, etc., are mutually 
 
 interlaced into a compact textile fabric. The first 
 step toward making felt is to mix, in the proper pro- 
 portions, the different kinds of fibres intended to form 
 the stuff; and then, by the vibratory strokes of the 
 bowstring, to toss them up in the air, and to cause 
 them to fall as irregularly as possible upon the table, 
 opened, spread, and scattered. The workman covers 
 this layer of loose flocks with a piece of thick blanket 
 stuff slightly moistened ; he presses it with his hands, 
 moving the hair backward and forward in all direc- 
 tions. Thus the different fibres get interlaced, by 
 their ends pursuing ever tortuous paths ; their ver- 
 micular motion being always, however, root foremost. 
 As the matting gets denser, the hand pressure should 
 be increased, in order to overcome the increasing re- 
 sistance to the decussation. A first thin sheet of soft, 
 spongy felt being now formed, a second is condensed 
 upon it in like manner, and then a third, till the requi- 
 site strength and thickness be obtained. These differ- 
 ent pieces are successively brought together, disposed 
 in a way suitable to the wished-for article, and united 
 by continued dextrous pressure. The stuff must be 
 next subjected to the fulling-mill. 
 
 Felling Timber. In arboriculture, when a full- 
 grown tree is cut down, it is said to be felled ; but this 
 term is never applied to young trees or bushes, under- 
 growth, or hedges, which are said to be rooted out or 
 cut over. Much has been written respecting the proper 
 season for felling trees ; some arguing in favor of mid- 
 winter, and others in favor of midsummer. The ques- 
 tion principally turns upon the quantity and the value 
 of the soft or outer- wood in the trunk of the tree to be 
 felled, known by foresters and carpenters as the sap. 
 As this sap or outer-wood is the only portion of the 
 trunk in which the sap or juices of the tree circulate, 
 it is evident that if no value be set upon it the tree 
 may be cut down at any season, because the truly val- 
 uable part of the trunk, the mature timber, is imper- 
 meable to the sap in its ascent through the soft wood, 
 and is, therefore, in the same state at every season of 
 the year. On the other hand, where much value is 
 attached to the soft or outer-wood, where this outer- 
 wood is wished to be made as valuable as possible, or 
 where, as in the case of comparatively young trees, 
 the greater part of the trunk consists of sap-wood, 
 felling ought to take place when there is least sap in 
 the course of circulation. This season is, without 
 doubt, midwinter, which, all other circumstances be- 
 ing equal, is unquestionablythe best season for felling 
 timber ; the next best being midsummer, when the 
 sap is chiefly confined to the young shoots, the circum- 
 ference of the soft wood, and the bark ; as the worst 
 is the spring, just before the development of the buds, 
 when the tree is fullest of sap, and receiving con- 
 stantly fresh supplies from the root ; and in autumn, 
 immediately before the fall of the leaf, when there is a 
 superabundance of sap, from its being as it were 
 thrown out of emploj'ment by the falling of the leaf. 
 In general, all the soft woods, such as the elm, lime, 
 poplar, willow, etc., should be felled during winter ; 
 hard woods, like the oak, beech, ash, etc., when the 
 trunks are of large size, and valued chiefly for their 
 heart-wood, may be -felled at any time. See articles 
 Dry Rot and Wood. 
 
 Felucca (Ital. feluca), a little vessel with oars 
 and lateen sales, comnton in the Mediterranean. It 
 has a rudder at the stem and another at the stem, to 
 be applied as occasion requires. 
 
 Ferment (Lat./erweo, I boil), the substance which 
 is essential to the process of fermentation. It is either 
 naturally present in the fermentable juice, as in the 
 grape, or it is added, as in the manufacture of beer, 
 where yeast constitutes the ferment. Ferments are of 
 an albuminous or glutinous character ; the presence of 
 nitrogen seems essential in their composition, hence 
 they are classed by chemists among azotized com- 
 pounds. Their modus operandi is still unexplained. 
 
FER 
 
 659 
 
 FEZ 
 
 Permentation (Lat.) When certain vegetable 
 substances are dissolved in water, and subjected to a 
 due temperature (between 65° and 85°), they undergo 
 a series of changes which terminate in the production 
 of alcohol or spirit ; these changes constitute the phe- 
 nomena of vinous fermentation. Sugar and some fer- 
 ment are essential to the process ; and during the 
 formation of the alcohol the sugar disappears, and 
 carbonic acid is more or less abundantly evolved. The 
 simplest case of fermentation is that of must, or of the 
 expressed juice of the grape, which, when exposed, 
 either in close or open vessels, to a temperature of 
 about 70°, soon begins to give off carbonic acid, and 
 to become turbid and frothy ; after a time a scum col- 
 lects upon the surface, and a sediment is deposited ; 
 the liquor which had grown warm gradually cools and 
 clears, loses its sweet taste, and is converted into 
 wine. The chief component parts of must are wafer, 
 sugar, mucilage, gluten, and tartar. During the fer- 
 mentation carbonic acid escapes, the sugar disappears, 
 and with it the greater part of the mucilage ; the 
 gluten chiefly forms the scum and » portion of the 
 sediment; and the tartar, originally in solution, is 
 thrown down in the form of a colored deposit. It ap- 
 pears, therefore, that the new products, which are 
 alcohol and cartonic add, are principally formed at the 
 expense of the sugar ; and Gay Lnssac's experiments 
 have shown that 45 pounds of sugar are resolved, in 
 the process of fermentation, into 23 of alcohol and 22 
 of carbonic acid. Sugar and water alone will not fer- 
 ment ; the ingredient requisite to the commencement 
 of the change is the gluten, which absorbs in the first 
 instance a little oxygen from the air, becomes insolu- 
 ble, and induces the subsequent changes. The reason 
 why grapes never ferment till the juice is expressed, 
 seems to depend upon the exclusion of air by the husk 
 or membranes ; and if grapes be bruised in a perfectly 
 close vessel, carefu% excluding oxygen, the juice 
 undergoes no change ; so that the mere breaking down 
 of the texture of the fruit is insufficient. But a very 
 short exposure of the pulp to air is sufficient to induce 
 that change in the juice which leads on to fermenta- 
 tion, and which is afterward independent of the further 
 contact of air, the evolution of carbonie acid being ex- 
 clusively referable to the decomposition of sugar. In 
 Jeer the alcohol is derived from the sugar, original and 
 produced, of the malt. When wine is exposed to air 
 and a due temperature, a second fermentation ensues, 
 which is called acetous fermentation, and which termi- 
 nates in the production of vinegar. During this pro- 
 cess oxygen is absorbed, and more or less carbonic 
 acid in most cases evolved ; but the apparent cause of 
 the formation of vinegar is the abstraction of hydro- 
 gen from the alcohol, so as to leave the remaining ele- 
 ments in such proportions as to constitute acetic acid. 
 Thus alcohol is theoretically constituted of charcoal, 
 water, and hydrogen, and acetic acid of charcoal and 
 water only ; the oxygen of the air, therefore, converts 
 the hydrogen of the alcohol into water, and so effects 
 the cbange into vinegar. 
 
 Fern, or Farn Islands, a group of small islets 
 or rocks, 17 in number, Ij-ing off the coast of Northum- 
 berland, but included in the countj' of Durham. There 
 are two light-houses on these islands. It was here, in 
 1838, that Grace Darling and her father, in stormy 
 weather, rescued the passengers of the Forfarshire 
 steamer. The Fern Islands are frequented by im- 
 mense numbers of sea-birds. 
 
 Fernando de Noronha, an island in the South 
 Atlantic, lying about 70 leagues from the coast of 
 Brazil. It is about 20 miles in circumference, and 
 the surface is rugged and mountainous. It has seve- 
 ral harbors defended by forts, and serves as a place of 
 banishment for criminals from Brazil. N. lat. 3° 56', 
 W. long. 32° 28'. 
 
 Fernando Po, or Fernao do Pao, an island on 
 the west coast of Africa, lying in the Bight of Benin, 
 
 about 20 miles from the mainland, in N. lat. 3° 25', 
 E. long. 8° 50'. It is about 44 miles in length from 
 N.N.E. to S.S.W., and about 20 in breadth. The 
 coasts are steep and rocky, and the interior is mount- 
 ainous. A ridge of mountains toward the centre of 
 the island rises to the height of 8000 feet, and Is termi- 
 nated at each extrernity by a peaked mountain, the 
 one at the northern extremity attaining a height of 
 10,700 feet. The southern extremity of the island is 
 also intersected by several steep mountains, varying 
 from 1,000 to 3,000 feet. These mountains are cov- 
 ered, most of them to their summits, together with the 
 intervening valleys, with dense forests of shrubs and 
 lofty trees of luxuriant growth. The roclcs are of 
 volcanic origin, and the scfll is rich and fertile, produc- 
 ing rice, sugar-cane, cotton, tobacco, yams, palms, etc. 
 Sheep, goats, fowls, turtle, and fisii, are abundant. 
 The climate is salubrious, though the rainy season 
 lasts from May to December, and is succeeded by a 
 season of dense fogs. The harbors are small, the 
 largest being Port Clarence on the northern shore. 
 This island was discovered in 1471 by a Portuguese 
 navigator, whose name it bears. It was taken posses- 
 sion of by Spain in 1778, but abandoned in 1782. The 
 English in 1827 formed a settlement here, but relin- 
 quished it in 1834 ; the Spaniards resumed possession 
 of it in 1844, and have given it tlie name of Puerto .de 
 Isabel. The native population is estimated at about 
 15,000. 
 
 Ferrol, a seaport town of Spain, province of Co- 
 runa, and one of the first naval arsenals in the king- 
 dom, is situated on the N. arm of the Bay of Betanzos, 
 12 miles north-west of the town of Coruna. The har- 
 bor, which is one of the best in Euro^'e, is deep, capa- 
 cious, and secure ; but the entrance, which is a strait 
 about two miles in length at the narrowest part, only 
 admits one ship at a time, and is commanded on either 
 side by strong forts. The town is protected on the 
 land-side by a wall, on which 200 cannon might be 
 mounted. The dockyard is divided into two parts, 
 the outer being the smaller, and the whole occupying 
 a space of more than 115,000 square yards. Behind 
 the inner dock are the dwellings of the operatives, and 
 in the north angle are the founderies, rope-walks, and 
 magazines. They are all, however, as well as the 
 arsenal, in a neglected and ruinous condition. 
 
 Ferry (Germ, and Sax. fahren, to pass over), in 
 law, a right arising from royal grant or prescription to 
 have a boat to carry men and horses across a river, 
 and to levy reasonable toll. The land on both sides 
 ought to belong to the owner of the ferry-boats. 
 
 Fescue grass, a valuable grass for meadows and 
 pastures. (Festuca pratensis, Lin.) In deep, rich 
 soils, somewhat moist, it is considered as the most 
 bulky and nutritive of all grasses ; but in poorer soils 
 it is equaled, if not surpassed, by the rye grass (io- 
 liumperenne), and the meadow foxtail grass (Aleopecu- 
 rus pratensis'). The meadow fescue grows to the height 
 of between 2 and 3 feet ; but the sheep fescue (F. 
 ovcena), and several other species, seldom grow above 
 6 inches or a foot in height, and are chieflj' sown on 
 sheep pastures, and used to lay down lawns and 
 grassy surfaces to be mown in pleasure grounds. All 
 the fescues are perennials, 
 
 Fez, an extensive country of Africa, and at one 
 time the most flourishing kingdom in the northern part 
 of that continent. It now, however, forms a province 
 of the empire of Morocco. Fez, or Fas, the capital of 
 this kingdom, was built in 793, A. D., by a prince 
 named Edris, and having soon risen to be a city of the 
 first magnitude, became the capital of the western Mo- 
 hammedan states. In the 12th century it is said to 
 have contained 700 temples and mosks, and other pub- 
 lic edifices, a number of which were erected upon a 
 magnificent scale, and adorned with a profusion of 
 marble pillars. The manufactures of Fez consist of 
 woolen hhalks, sashes, and silk handkerchiefs, slippers 
 
FIG 
 
 660 
 
 FIL 
 
 of good leather, which they tan remarkably well, red 
 felt caps, some coarse linen cloth, fine carpets, a curi- 
 ous kind of earthenware, weapons of several kinds, 
 saddlers' ware, jewelry, and copper utensils. The arts 
 here find little encouragement, and are, indeed, far in- 
 ferior to those of Europe, excepfin the preparation of 
 leather, and in the fabrication of carpets and of hhaiks, 
 whiqu the manufacturers know how to weave as fine 
 and as transparent as gauze. They are al-so expert 
 workers in wax, weapons, and harness. The heat 
 during the summer is very great ; but in other sea- 
 sons of the year, particularly winter, the climate is 
 agreeable. With regard to the number of inhabitants, 
 much difference of opinion prevails among travelers. 
 
 Fibre (Lat.^^ira), a fine thread or filament ; a fine 
 slender body, such as those of which flesh, nerves, 
 plants, roots, etc., are composed. In our manufac- 
 tures vegetable filaments and fibres are among the 
 most important of the whole series of raw produce ; 
 furnishing thread, cloth, cordage, and the like. For 
 these purposes the filamentous parts of the Gossypiwm 
 Cannabis^ and Linum, or cotton, hemp, and flax, are 
 used. The fibres of other plants have peen employed 
 in different countries for the same uses. Putrefaction 
 destroys the pulpy matter, and leaves the tough fila- 
 ments entire. Different kinds of cloth are prepared in 
 the East from the fibres of the bark of certaii^ trees 
 boiled in a strong lye. Some of these cloths are very 
 fine, and approach to the softness' of silk, but in dura- 
 bility fall short of cotton ; others, again, are coarser 
 and stronger, and much exceed cotton in durability. 
 See Flax. 
 
 Fid, a short bar of wood or iron put through the 
 heel or lower parft of a topmast, and resting by its ends 
 on the trestletrees, and on which the mast is tlierefore 
 supported. When the topmast is to be got down, it is 
 first lifted to take the pressure off the fid, which is then 
 withdrawn. 
 
 Fid, or Spliciug-fid, is also a sharp cone of wood 
 for opening the strands of rope. 
 
 Fiddles, or Violins (Ger. Violinen, Geigen ; Du. 
 Vioolen; Fr. Violons; It. VioUni; Sp. Violines ; Eus. 
 Shipizii)^ musical instruments, too well known to 
 need any particular description. The finest-toned vio- 
 lins are those made in Italy ; they are usually called 
 Cremonas, from the name of the town where they 
 were formerly manufactured in the highest perfection ; 
 ®500 and more have not unfrequentlj' been given for a 
 first-rate Cremona violin. 
 
 Figs (Ger. Feigen; Du. Yygen; Fr. Figues ; It. 
 Fichi ; Sp. Higos ; Lat. Fici, Caricce ; Arab. Teen), the 
 fruit of the fig-tree (Ficus carica), a native of Asia, 
 but early introduced into Europe. 
 
 It flourishes in Turkey, Greece, France, Spain, 
 Italy', and northern Africa, and even sometimes 
 ripens its fruit in the open air in this country. Figs, 
 when ripe, are, for the most part, dried in ovens to 
 preserve them ; and then packed very closely in the 
 small chests and baskets in which we import them. 
 The best come from Turkey ; those of Kalamata, in 
 the Morea, are said to be the most luscious. — Thom- 
 son's Dispensatory. ^ 
 
 Dried figs form a very considerable article of com- 
 merce in Provence, Italy, and Spain ; besides affording^ 
 as in the East, a principal article of sustenance for the 
 population. In Spain, figs are chiefly exported from 
 Andalusia and Valencia ; but they are more or less 
 abundant in every province. In the northern parts 
 of France there are many fig gardens, particularly at 
 Argenteuil. 
 
 Figure Head. The figure, statue, or bust, on the 
 projecting part of the head of a ship, called the cut- 
 water. 
 
 Figures, in Arithmetic, are the numeral charac- 
 ters, or ten digits, by which numbers are expressed. 
 They are supposed to be of Indian origin, and to have 
 been introduced into Europe by the Moors of Spain in 
 
 the 13th century ; but the date of their introduction, is 
 much disputed. 
 
 Filbert, or Filberd, the well-known fruit of the 
 cultivated hazel nut, or Corylus avellana, is a seed- 
 vessel inclosed "within an involucre or cupule, which is 
 the part commonly called the husk. This organ is of 
 the same nature as the cup of the oak, and the prickly 
 case in which the nuts of the sweet chestnut and the 
 mast of the beech are inclosed. In the 'filbert it is 
 much larger than in the common nut ; and it is this 
 character, together with the lengthened figure of the 
 nut, which distinguishes the two races of nuts and 
 filberts. The best known varieties of the filbert are 
 the red, the frizzled, and the white, the latter being 
 the kind most commonly grown. 
 
 File, Files (Da. /"tVe ; Du. Vylen; Vr. Limes; Ger. 
 Feilen; It. Lime'), an instrument of iron or forged 
 steel, cut in little furrows, used to polish or smooth 
 metals, timber, and other hard bodies. Files are of 
 .various forms, sizes, and cuts, according to the uses to 
 which they are to be applied. When the surface is cut 
 in transverse furrows by a Straight sharp-edged chisel 
 and mallet, the instrument" is properly called a file ; 
 but when it is raised by a triangular punch, it is termed 
 a rasp. This last kiniiiS chie'fly employed for rubbing 
 wood and horn. The' larger kind of flies are made of 
 blistered steel ; but the small and fine files of cast 
 steel. Various ingenious machines have been contrived 
 for cutting the teeth of files, but these have not hith- 
 erto succeeded so well as to supersede file-making by 
 the hand. After the file has been cut it must undergo 
 the process of tempering. This is said to be well 
 effected in the following manner : A saturated solution 
 of common salt, stiffened to the consistence of cream 
 with ale grounds, or with anj' cheap farinaceous mat- 
 ter, such as bean-flour (some use well-dried chimney- 
 soot), is to be spread over the file, in order to preserve 
 its surface from oxydation during the process ; it is 
 then uniformly heated in a coke or charcoal fire to a ' 
 cherry-red color 5 and on its removal from the fire it is 
 to be suddenly quenched in cold and pure spring water. 
 It is subsequently cleaned with charcoal and a rag ; 
 after which it is laid up in wheat bran to preserve it 
 from, fust. When the file is intended to cut iron or 
 steel, it is found preferable to substitute animal carbon 
 for the grounds or farinaceous matter mentioned above. 
 This will give even to iron a superficial hardness sufB- 
 cient for any Irind of file. 
 
 Filigree, or Fillagree (Ital. filigrano; Lat. 
 fium, a thread, and granum, a grain), a ver}' delicate 
 kind of ornamental work in gold or silver, -wrought in 
 the manner of little threads, or threads and grains in- 
 termixed. Filigree work is of eastern origin, and 
 was first introduced into Europe by the Italians. In 
 Sumatra, manufactures of this kind have been carried 
 to the highest degree of perfection, and 3'et the tools 
 employed are exceedingly coarse and clumsy. These 
 are generally rudely and inartificially formed from any 
 piece of old iron. A piece of iron hoop sufiices for 
 making the wire-drawing instrument; an old ham- 
 mer head, stuck in a block, serves as an anvil ; and' 
 two old nails, tied together at one end, will suiBce for 
 a' pair of compasses. The gold is melted in a piece of 
 preeoo or earthen rice-pot, or sometimes in a crucible 
 of ordinary clay. In general no bellows are used, but 
 the fire is blown with the mouth, through a joint of 
 bamboo ; and if the quantity of metal to be melted is 
 considerable, three or four persons sit round the fur- 
 nace, which is an old broken quallee or iron pot, and 
 blow together. At Padang, where the manufacture is 
 most considerable, they have adopted the Chinese bel- 
 lows. The method of drawing the wire differs but 
 little from that which is used by European workmen. 
 When drawn to a sufficient fineness, it is flattened by 
 beating it on the anvil ; and when flattened, a twist is 
 given to it by rubbing it on a block of wood with a flat 
 stick. After twisting they again beat it upon the 
 
FIL 
 
 661 
 
 FIN 
 
 anvil, and thus it becomes flattened wire with indented 
 edges. The end of the wire is folded down with a pair 
 of pincers, and thus is formed a leaf, or element of a 
 flower, which is cut off. The end is again folded and 
 cut off till they have a sufScient nilmber of leaves, 
 which are laid on singly. Patterns of the flowers or 
 foliage, in which there is seldom much variety, are 
 prepared on paper of the size of the gold plate on 
 which the filigree is to he laid. According to these, 
 they begin to dispose on the plate the larger compart- 
 ments of the foliage ; for which they use plain flattened 
 wire of a larger size, and, fill it up with the leaves be- 
 fore mentioned. In order to fix the work, they employ 
 a gelatinous substance made of the berry called ioca 
 sago, ground to a pulp on a rough stone. After the 
 leaves have been all placed in order, and stuck on bit 
 by bit, a solder is prepared of gold filings and borax 
 moistened with water, which is strewed over the plate, 
 when it is put in the fire for a short time, and the 
 whole becomes united. This kind of work on a gold 
 plate is called carrang papan ; but when the work is 
 open, it is called carrang trouse. In executing the 
 latter, the foliage is laid out upon a card, or soft kind 
 of wood, and stuck on, as before described, with tjie 
 sago berry ; and the work, when finished, being strewed 
 over with the solder, is put into the fire, when the card 
 or soft wood burning away, the gold remains con- 
 nected. If the piece be large it is soldered at several 
 times. In the manufacture of badjoo buttons, they 
 first make the lower part flat, and having a moH 
 formed of a piece of buffalo's horn, indented to several 
 sizes, each like one half of a bullet mold, they lay 
 their work over one of these holes, and with a horn 
 punch press it into the form of a button; after which 
 thej' complete the upper part. , When the filigree is 
 finished they cleanse it by boiling it in water with 
 common salt and alum, or sometimes lime juice ; and 
 in order to give it that fine purple color which fhey 
 called gapo, they boil it in water mixed with brim- 
 Stone. The manner of making the little balls with 
 which their works are sometimes ornamented, is sim- 
 ple. The}^ take a piece of charcoal, and having cut it 
 flat and smooth, make in it a small hole, which they 
 fill with gold dust, and this being melted in the fire 
 becomes a little ball. They are very inexpert at fin- 
 ishing and polishing the pl^in parts, hinges, screws, 
 and the like, being in this as much excelled by the 
 European artists as the latter fall short of them in the 
 fineness and minuteness of the foliage. The Chinese 
 also make filigree, mostly of silver, which looks ele- 
 gant, but wants the extraordinary delicacy of the 
 Malay work. The price of the workmanship depends 
 upon the difficulty or nncommonness of the pattern.' 
 In some articles of usual demand it does not exceed 
 one third of the value of the gold, but in matters of 
 fancy it is generally equal to that of the metal. 
 
 In India, the articles usually made in gold and 
 ^ver filigree are bracelets, ear-rings, brooches, chains, 
 groups of flowers, and small boxes and caskets. Mr. 
 Taylor, in his " Account of the Arts in India," says : 
 " The design best adapted for displaying the delicate 
 work of filigree is that of a leaf; it should be drawn 
 on stout paper, and of the exact size of the article in- 
 tended to be made. The apparatus used in the art is 
 exceedingly simple, consisting merely of a few small 
 crucibles, a piece of bamboo for u blow-pipe, small 
 hammers for flattening the wire, and sets of forceps 
 for interweaving it. The gold and silver wire made by 
 the Hindoos for this and other purposes is of varied 
 character, according to the purposes for which it is in- 
 tended; thus, the goolrtatoon is made at Dacca for the 
 embroidering of muslins and silks ; goehoo for caps and 
 for covering the handles of chowries ; salmah for tur- 
 bans, slippers, and hookah-snakes ; and booiun for gold 
 lace and brocades. For some of these purposes it is 
 not strictly wire, but gold thread, that is, silk covered 
 with silver and then with gold." — E. B. 
 
 Pill. The sea term for bracing a yard which had 
 been laid aback, so that the wind may act on the after 
 or proper side of the sail. 
 
 Finesse (Fr.) may be defined simply as a peculiar 
 aptitude of discovering, in any business, the best 
 means of attaining the object in view; or as the power 
 of embracing in one comprehensive glance the various 
 interests of any subject, together with ingenuity to 
 devise and tact to carry out the plan best calculated to 
 obtain success. 
 
 Finland, called by the natives' Sitomemna, the Ee- 
 gion of Lakes and Swamps, is a government of Rus. 
 sia, comprising, besides the old Swedish province of 
 Finland, the two Lapmarks of Kami and Torne&j and 
 the district of Wiborg. It lies between N. lat. 59° 
 50' and 70° 6', and E. long. 20° 30' and 32° 45' being 
 bounded on the N. by Norwegian Finmark, by Sweden 
 W. and the Gulf of Bothnia, S. by the Gulf of Fin- 
 land, and E. by the governments of St. Petersburg, 
 Olonetz, and Archangel. It is about 730 miles in length 
 from N. to S., with an average breadth of about 185 
 miles. The sea-coast of Finland throughout its entire 
 extent presents the same succession of fiords and rocky 
 headlands as characterize the whole seaward frontier 
 of Sweden and Norway. The fiords of Finland, how- 
 ever, are far more limited than those to the west of the 
 Gulf of Bothnia, and seldom exceed a few miles in 
 extent, although their mouths contain an equal num- 
 ber of islands, some of which, as the isles of Svea- 
 borg, have been converted into fortresses of great 
 strength. The coasts of the Bothnian and Finland 
 Gulfs are thickly strewn with rocks of granite and 
 limestone, presenting in soms places a labyrinthine 
 archipelago of little islands, rendering the navigation 
 extremely dangerous. The greater portion of the in- 
 terior is a vast table-land averaging in height froin 400 
 to 600 feet, and interspersed with, hills of no gre^t eleva- 
 tion. In the north, however, are the Manselka Mount- 
 ains, which attain a height of nearly 4000 feet, and 
 stretch southward, though with several interruptions, 
 until they terminate in lofty cliffs on the Gulf of 
 Bothnia. The great mass of mountains is composed 
 of red granite, and vast quantities of the same rock 
 lie in boulders on the lower grounds, and prove a very 
 serious obstacle to their cultivation. Many of the 
 heights are bare, but the greater part of them being 
 of moderate elevation are covered with forests cljiefly 
 of pine ; and in their combination with the vast num- 
 ber of lakes inclosed by their bases, often form Verj' 
 romantic scenery. The extensive forests are some- 
 times devastated by the tempests of winter, which 
 seem to find access to their very centres in tornadoes, 
 tearing up by the roots or bending and snapping the 
 largest pines. Frequently also ravages are committed 
 "n them by conflagration occasioned often through the 
 carelessness of the peasants. The interipr of Finland 
 is also intersected and broken lip by a vast number of 
 lakes, throwing out winding arms and branches in all 
 directions, which, while they offer the 'greatest facili- 
 ties for inland navigation, render land traveling circu- 
 itous and dangerous. Many of the high roads pass 
 over islands on these lakes, the natural strength of 
 whose situation has been taken advantage of, to cover 
 them with batteries ; and some of them, as at Wiborg 
 and Nyslot, are considered impregnable, save to fraud 
 or famine. The principal of these lakes are J.adoga, 
 the greater portion of which belongs to this govern- 
 ment ; Lake Saima, which is crowded with islands and 
 discharges its superfluous waters in a series of cata^ 
 racts into Lake Ladoga, but which is now connected by 
 means of a canal with the Gulf of Finland near Wi- 
 borg ; and Lake Enara in the extreme north, covering 
 above 1000 square miles, and having its outlet in the 
 Frozen Ocean. The chief rivers are the Ulea,. which 
 is navigated by trading-vessels, though its stream is 
 very rapid ; the Cano, which passes Biorneborg ; the 
 Aurajold, which at Abo is about 100 yards broad ; the 
 
FIN 
 
 662 
 
 FIN 
 
 Kymen, wMcli flows into the middle of the Gulf of 
 Finland ; and the Tomea, which discharges itself at the 
 northern extremity of the Gulf of Bothnia, and forms 
 the present boundary between Sweden and Russia. 
 The climate varies much according to the locality. In 
 Lapmark, in the north, it is polar somewhat modified, 
 and the sun disappears during December and Januarj-. 
 Further south at Uleaborg, winter begins in October 
 and continues to May, to which month spring is' lim- 
 ited. Summer commences in June and lasts three 
 months, which are generally so hot and dry that the 
 crops, particularly where the soil is of a sandy nature, 
 often suffer from drought. The autumn, like the 
 spring, is confined to one month, and may be said to 
 commence and terminate in September. Even in sum- 
 mer the nights are cold, particularly about the middle 
 of August. During summer, however, the progress 
 of vegetation is remarkably rapid; and there have 
 been instances of grain being sown and reaped in six 
 weeks. In the more southern parts the climate is less 
 severe ; the winter being of iive or six months' dura- 
 tion. Dense fogs are frequent, and heavy rains take 
 place in autumn. The soil is for the most part stony 
 or sandy ; but nothwithstanding this it is much more 
 productive than the opposite part of the Scandinavian 
 peninsula, and when in the possession of Sweden it 
 was termed the granary of that country. The princi- 
 pal crops are barley and rj'e, but owing to the nature 
 of the surface and climate a large portion of the land 
 is fit only for pasture. In the north, where vegetation 
 is almost confined to the growth of moss and lichen, 
 other domestic animals are superseded by the reindeer, 
 of which great herds are kept. In addition to timber 
 (chiefly fir), large quantities of potash, pitch, and rosin 
 are obtained, and form the principal articles of export. 
 The mineral productions are chiefly confined to iron, 
 lead, sulphur, slate, and granite. The first is only 
 wrought to a limited extent for the supply of a few 
 furnaces; wrought iron being now principally im- 
 ported from Sweden. A great number of excellent 
 granite quarries have been opened chiefly on the bor- 
 ders of the lakes or sea-coasts to secure the advantage 
 of water carriage. From these are obtained blocks of 
 extraordinary magnitude and beauty, which are em- 
 ployed for architectural and artistic purposes. One of 
 the finest specimens is the monolith obelisk recently 
 erected in St. Petersburg to the Emperor Alexander. 
 In its rough state it was 12 feet in diameter, and 80 
 feet in length. The manufactures of Finland are in- 
 significant. Agriculture, the rearing of cattle, and 
 fishing are the principal occupations of the inhabit- 
 ants. The coasts present many good harbors, but on 
 account of the long winter they can not be extensively 
 used. In winter sledges afford an easy and rapid 
 communication with different parts, and even with 
 Sweden across the Gulf of Bothnia. In March, 1809, 
 Barclay de Tolly crossed over with a division of the 
 Russian army from Vasa to Umea in Sweden. 
 
 From oflicial documents the returns of the trade of 
 Finland for the year 1848, were, in silver roubles of 
 the value of about 3s. 2d., as follows : 
 
 EXPOKTS, 
 
 To Sweden and Norway 197,942 
 
 To other countries 1,946,994 
 
 Export duty on the same 83,704 
 
 Total 2,183,640 
 
 Imports. 
 
 From Sweden and Norway 480,366 
 
 From other countries 8,128,590 
 
 8,658,956 
 Deduct import duty thereon 898,500 
 
 Total 2,660,456 
 
 Showing an excess in the imports over the exports of 
 
 476,816 roubles, which, however, was in part covered _, . ^ ^ 
 
 by the freight earned by the merchant shipping. The I Peter the Great in "^1721, and the remainder of the 
 
 above statements indicate a falling off as compared 
 with former years in the export trade to Norway and 
 Sweden. To these two countries the leading articles 
 of export and their value were — ^fish, 23,569 roubles ; 
 hides, 8616 ; beef, 24,578 ; grain, 15,083 ; tallow, 
 30,809 ; tar, 11,483 ; firewood, 11,483. The imports 
 were — ^books, 16,200 roubles ; fish, 25,228 ; iron and 
 steel, 250,870; sugar, 66,418; tobacco, 4677; dye- 
 woods and stuffs, 23,990. The exports to other coun- 
 tries were also less than in former years ; the chief 
 articles were — potash, 16,733 roubles ; butter, 183,409 ; 
 tar, 324,717 ; wood and timber, 921,360. The chief im- 
 ports from other countries were — ^medicines,. 20,914 
 roubles ; cotton, 138,318 ; arrack, rum, brandy, 169,794 ; 
 coffee, 597,708 ; fruits, 106,042 ; dye-stuffs, 134,550 ; 
 yarn, 349,993; iron and steel, 89,709 ; salt, 531,665 ; 
 sugar, 544,485 ; wine, 140,528 ; manufactures wove, 
 666,145. 
 
 In 1831 Finland was divided administratively into 
 eight circles or Icms, which are subdivided into fogde- 
 rier or districts, and herads or bailiwicks. There is a 
 distinct establishment at St. Petersburg for the gov- 
 ernment of this vast province. The governor-general, 
 who resides at Helsingfors, has the superintendence of 
 the militarj' affairs. Finland has a diet composed of 
 the four orders of the nobilitj-, clergy, citizens, and 
 peasantry, and a code of laws and judicial system sim- 
 ilar to that of Sweden, but the diet is rarely convoked, 
 except to consent to the imposition of fresh taxes, a 
 senate more recently established having replaced it in 
 the exercise of its functions. The regiments raised in 
 Finland are not promiscuously intermixed with the 
 general forces of the Russian empire ; and their fleet, 
 b}^ far the best manned portion of the Russian navy, 
 forms a distinct squadron under the Finnish flag. 
 None but a native Finlander can hold any ofiice of 
 trust in the country. Almost all the inhabitants are 
 Lutherans under the bishops of Abo and Borgo, ex- 
 cept in the circle of Wiborg, where they belong to the 
 Russian church. Public education is in a very back- 
 ward state. At Helsingfors is a university, trans- 
 ferred from Abo in 1828; and all the towns have 
 schools, but there is a great deficiency of country 
 schools. The majority of the inhabitants are Fins, 
 who call themselves Suomalans or Suomes, but they 
 are denominated Tschudes by the Russians. They 
 are of middle height, robust, flat-faced, with promin- 
 ent cheek-bones, light, reddish, or yellowish-brown 
 hair, gray ej'cs, little beard, and a dull sallow com- 
 plexion. They are courageoug, hospitable, and hon- 
 est, but obstinate in the extreme, indolent, dirty, and, 
 it is said, revengeful. Their customs and habits have 
 been handed down from time immemorial, and their 
 costume forcibly bears out the supposition of their 
 being of oriental origin. The peasants wear long 
 loose robes of a coarse manufacture, secured by a 
 silken cincture like the hummerhund of the Mussul- 
 mans. The eight lans with their areas and popula- 
 tions are as follows, commencing from the south and 
 east: 
 
 Aren. Population. 
 
 Wiborg 16,700 224,701 
 
 StMlohael 9,271 135,281 
 
 Nyland...; 5,8T6 149,714 
 
 Tavastehuus T,112 182,686 
 
 Abo 10,626 250,238 
 
 "Vasa 15,988 199,437 
 
 Kuopio 17,089 156,706 
 
 Uleaborg. 68,416 125,114 
 
 Total 145,477 1,313,727 
 
 The chief towns of Finland are Helsingfors, the 
 present capital, Abo, the former capital, Wiborg, 
 Tavestehuus, Vasa, Uleaborg, and Tomea. The Fins 
 were pagans living under their own independent kings 
 till the twelfth century, about the middle of which 
 Finland was conquered by the Swedes, who introduced 
 Christianity. The province of Wiborg was seized by 
 
FIR 
 
 663 
 
 FIS 
 
 country was annexed by conquest to the Bussian do 
 minions in 1809. — Athemmm, 18th March, 1854. 
 
 Fire-Aims. Under this designation is comprised 
 all sorts of guns, fowling-pieces, blunderbusses, pistols, 
 etc. The manufacture of these weapons is of consider- 
 able importance ; employing at all times, but especially 
 during war, a large number of persons. Small arms 
 were contrived by Schwartz, A. d. 1378 ; they were 
 brought to England about 1388. Fire-arms were a 
 prodigious rarity in Ireland in 1489, when six! muskets 
 were sent from Germany as a present to the earl of 
 Kildare, who was then chief-governor. Muskets were 
 first used at the siege of Rhegen, in 1425. The Span- 
 iards were the first nation who armed the foot soldier 
 with these weapons. — Ulloa. Voltaire states, that the 
 Venetians were the first to use guns, in an engagement 
 at sea against the Genoese, in 1377 ; but onr historians 
 affirm that the English had guns at the battle of 
 Cressey, in 1346 ; and' the year following at the siege 
 of Calais. 
 
 Fire-engine, a species of forcing-pump in which 
 the water is subjected to pressure sufficiently strong to 
 raise it to the required height. Those of the ordinary 
 construction consist of two forcing-pumps, wrought by 
 the reciprocating motions of two transverse levers. 
 The water is forced into an air-vessel, by which means 
 the inclosed air is condensed, and by its reaction it 
 forces the water through a movable pipe, which ter- 
 minates in a conical form, and is directed upon the 
 flame. Eraithwaite's steam fire-engine is an ingenious 
 application of the moving power of steam to the 
 working of fire-engines. The mechanical arrange- 
 ment of this machine consists of two cylinders of 
 about six inches in diameter, one of them being the 
 steam-cylinder, and the other the water-pump ; and 
 they are placed horizontally, so that a parallel motion 
 is easily obtained. An engine of this kind will de- 
 liver about 9000 gallons an hour to the height of 90 
 feet. The time of getting the engine into action from 
 the moment of igniting the fuel (the water being cold), 
 is less than ten minutes. Mr. Miles Greenwood, of 
 Cincinnati, made, in 1852, the first successful practical 
 application of the steam fire-engine ; and engines of 
 his construction are now in use in [Cincinnati, St. 
 Louis, and many other large cities. 
 
 Fire-damp, the explosive carburetted hydrogen 
 of coal mines. See Safety Lamp. 
 
 Firelock, or Fusil. A musket or small gun, 
 which is fired witli a flint and steel ; and thereby dis- 
 tinguished from the old musket, or maich-loch^ which 
 was fired with a match. The date of the invention of 
 firelocks is uncertain. 
 
 Fire-ships. They were first used in the sixteenth 
 century. Among the most formidable contrivances of 
 this kind ever used, was ap explosion vessel to destroy 
 a bridge of boats at the siege of Antwerp, in 1685. 
 The first use of them in the English navy was by 
 Charles, Lord Howard of Effinghami afterward earl 
 of Nottingham, lord high admiral of England, in the 
 engagement with the Spanish Armada, July, 1588. — 
 Eapin. 
 
 FireTVorks. {Feitx d'artifice, Fr. j Feuerwerke, 
 Germ.) The composition of luminous devices with 
 explosive combustibles is a modern art resulting from 
 the discovery of gunpowder. The finest inventions 
 of this kind are due to the celebrated Euggieri, father 
 and son, who executed in Rome and Paris, and the 
 principal capitals of Europe, the most brUUant and 
 beaut^ul fireworks that were ever seen. The follow- 
 ing description of their processes will probably prove 
 interesting to many of my readers : 
 
 The three prime materials of this art are, nitre, sul- 
 phur, and charcoal, along with filings of iron, steel, 
 copper, zinc, and resin, camphor, lycopodium, etc. 
 Gunpowder is used either in grain, half crushed, or 
 finely ground, for different purposes. The longer the 
 iron-fiUngs, the brighter red and white sparte they 
 
 give; those being preferred which are made with a, 
 very coarse file, and quite free from rust. Steel-filings 
 and cast-iron borings contain carbon, and afford a 
 more brilliant fire, with wavy radiations. Copper- 
 filings give a greenish tint to flame ; those of zinc a 
 fine blue color ; the sulphuret of antimony gives a less 
 greenish blue than zinc, but with much smoke ; amber 
 affords yellow fire, as well as colophony, and common 
 salt ; but the last must be very dry. Lampblack pro- 
 duces avery red color with gunpowder, and a pink 
 with nitre in excess. It serves for maldng golden 
 showers. The yellow sand or glistening mica, com- 
 municates to fireworks golden radiations. Verdigris 
 imparts a pale green ; sulphate of copper and sal-am- 
 moniac, a palm-tree green. Camphor yields a very 
 white flame and aromatic fumes, which mask the bad 
 smell of other substances. Benzoin, and storax are 
 used also on account of their agreeable odor. Lyco- 
 podium bums with a rose color and a magnificent 
 flame ; but it is principally employed in theatres to 
 represent lightning, or to charge the torch of a fury. 
 
 Firkin, a measure of capacity, equal to 9 ale gal- 
 lons, or 7^ imperial gallons, or 2538 cubic inches. See 
 Weights and Measuees. 
 
 Firlot, a dry measure used in Scotland. The Lin- 
 lithgow wheat firlot is to the imperial bushel as "998 
 to 1 ; and the Linlithgow barley firlot is to the impe- 
 rial bushel as 1 -456 to 1. See Weights and Mea- 
 
 SHEES. 
 
 Firman (more properly Fermdn), in the Persian 
 language, signifies a command, and is the name given 
 in Turkey, Persia, and India, to mandates or certifi- 
 cates of the sovereign, issued for various purposes. 
 Those best known, to Europeans are given to travelers, 
 and serve as passports. The Ferman has placed at its 
 head in Turkey the cipher of the reigning Sultan, 
 written in a complicated manner, affixed by the chief 
 secretary of the sign manual. In the East Indies, the 
 term firman is used for a written permission to trade. 
 
 Fisc (Lat. jiscus), in Civil Law, the treasury or 
 revenue of a state. Fisous, in its primary sense, de- 
 noted a basket or hanaper used by the Romans for 
 holding large sums of money, and hence was applied 
 to a money-chest or a purse. Under the emperors the 
 term fiscus came to be applied to the imperial revenue 
 or privy purse, in contradistinction to the wrarium or 
 public treasury. Ultimately, when the emperors had 
 concentrated in themselves the whole sovereign pow- 
 er, the word fiscus lost its distinctive character, and 
 was used in the same sense as serarium under the re- 
 public. Various officers were employed in the admin- 
 istration of the fiscus ; as procuratores, advocati, pa- 
 troni, and prsefecti. From fisc, is derived the word 
 confiscation, which signifies to take the goods of a 
 condemned person and appropriate them to the public 
 treasury. 
 
 Fiscal Year. The fiscal year of the United 
 States formerly ended on 31st December, and up to 
 the year 1843, on 30th September ; but Congress en- 
 acted, August 26, 1842, " That on and after the first 
 day of July, in the year of our Lord 1843, the fiscal 
 year of the treasury of the United States, in all mat- 
 ters of accounts, receipts, expenditures, estimates, and 
 appropriations, shall commence on the first day of 
 July in each j^ear ; and the reports and estimates 
 required to be prepared and laid before Congress at 
 the commencement of each session by the Secretary 
 of the Treasurj', in obedience to the acts of Congress, 
 of the 2d of September 1789, and of May 10th, 1800, 
 shall be a report and estimate for each fiscal year, 
 commencing as aforesaid, and terminating on the 30th 
 day of June, in the succeeding calendar year." 
 
 Fish (Ger. Fisehe; Du. Visschm; Da. and Sw. 
 Fisle; Fr. Poissons; It. Pesci; Sp. Peseados ; Port. 
 Peixes; Bus. Biil ; Pol. Rt/bi; Lat. Pisces), a term 
 used in natural history to denote every variety of an- 
 imal inhabiting seas, rivers, lakes, ponds, etc., that 
 
FIS 
 
 664 
 
 FIS 
 
 can not exist for any considerable time out of the 
 water. But in a commercial point of view, tliose 
 fishes only are referred to, that are caught by man, 
 and used either as food or for some other useful pur- 
 pose. Of these, herring, salmon, cod, pilchard, mack- 
 erel, turbot, lobster, oyster, whale, etc., are among the 
 most important. See the different articles under these 
 titles. 
 
 As the seeds of a plant are numerous enough to' in- 
 sure an immense progeny if even a small percentage 
 of them be properly managed, so do fishes produce 
 eggs in such number as might soon overstock the wa- 
 ters, were there not destructive agencies at hand. It 
 is not improbable that we are on the eve of valuable 
 improvements in the management of fish. It has 
 been found that trout and other valuable fish have de- 
 clined in some of the French rivers ; and on careful 
 investigation it has been made apparent that not one 
 egg in a hundred comes to maturity — -the rest being 
 devoured by other fish, washed away, or destroyed by 
 mud. Two French fishermen, observing these facts, 
 resolved on an attempt to collect some of the trout- 
 eggs, and to secure the young fish from the voracity 
 of the larger ones ; they did so, and placed the eggs 
 on a laj'er of gravel, which they deposited in a box 
 full of holes. This box they fixed in the bed of a 
 flowing stream, and covered it with pebbles, thus far 
 imitating the practice of the mother-fish. In due time 
 ■ the eggs excluded, and almost every one was found to 
 be good. Several hundred fish were thus obtained, 
 which were kept in water free of danger, and supplied 
 with food. Applying this operation the next year to 
 a great number of fish, thej- obtained several thousand 
 trout ; and in a year or two more the number had in- 
 creased to millions. The rivers in many departments 
 of France were supplied from this artificial source ; and 
 the French government are now encouraging the sys- 
 tem in every way. Not only trout, but salmon, carp, 
 pike, tench, and perch, are thus preserved ; and, more- 
 over, the system has enabled fish of different species to 
 be naturalized in strange waters, or removed from 
 river to river. 
 
 Fisheries. The fisheries may be divided into 
 deep-sea and shore fisheries. The latter are, of course, 
 under the control of the nation owning the shore along 
 whose line the fish are caught. But the deep-sea fish- 
 eries and the ownership of discovered shore-lines, haVe 
 always given rise to disputes and quarrels. It has, 
 however, been settled that a nation has exclusive con- 
 trol and right over the shore fisheries extending three 
 mUes from the coast ; giving, sometimes, under certain 
 restrictions, a right for other nations to use the shore 
 for the purpose of curing and packing the fish caught 
 beyond three mUes of the shore. 
 
 Although fishing is an ancient and honorable em- 
 ployment, fisheries were not of much importance 
 until after the discovery of Newfoundland. Holland 
 had fisheries of some note in the 15th century ; but 
 owing to the state of maritime knowledge they were 
 much confined ; when, however, Newfoundland was 
 discovered, an almost magical change took place. In 
 the library of Venice there is a map, which authorizes 
 the conjecture that land was found before 1436. But 
 little was known until 1497, when Cabot made his first 
 voyage. From this time voyages were made in pur- 
 suit of codfish at irregular periods, until thfe latter part 
 of the 16th century, when enterprise and capital be- 
 came plenty. Colonies were formed first at New- 
 foundland, and afterward at Acadia which comprised 
 Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, and part of Maine. 
 So much importance was given to the fisheries as a nur- 
 sery of seamen, even at that early age, that laws were 
 enacted in 1853 to prevent persons from eating meat 
 Wednesdays and Saturdays except under a license, so 
 that fisheries might be increased. 
 
 The great benefit from the fisheries was from the 
 early colonization of this country. It is questionable 
 
 whether we should not have been quite a century be- 
 hind in this, had it not been for colonies founded on 
 our coasts by the fishermen. The first direct voyage 
 made by the English was in 1602, and the vessel catch- 
 ing codfish near the southern cape of Massachusetts, 
 gave the name it yet bears. 
 
 The disputes in regard to fishing have disturbed 
 commerce since this, country was discovered. A full 
 account of the disputes and treaties settling them, can 
 be found in the able report of Lorenzo Sabine, Esq., 
 to Congress in 1852. 
 
 We can notice but one or two affecting our own 
 countrj'. In 1782, Adams, Franklin, Jay, and Lau- 
 rens were commissioners to negotiate a treaty with 
 Great Britain, which contained this article : 
 
 " It is agreed that the people of the United States 
 shall continue to enjoy, unmolested, the right to take 
 fish of every kind on the Grand Bank, and on all the 
 other banks of Newfoundland ; also, in the Gulf of 
 St. Lawrence, and at all other places in the sea where 
 the inhabitants of both countries used at any time 
 heretofore to fish ; and also, that the inhabitants of the 
 United States shall have liberty to take fish of every 
 kind on such part of the coast of Newfoundland as 
 British fishermen shall use (but not to dry or cure the 
 same on that island), and also on the coasts, bays, and 
 creeks, of all other of his Britannic majestj^'s domin- 
 ions in America ; and that the American fishermen 
 shall have liberty to dry and cure fish in any of the 
 unsettled bays, harbors, and creeks of Nova Scotia, 
 Magdalene Islands, and Labrador, so long as the same 
 shall remain unsettled ; but so soon as the same, or 
 either of them, shall be settled, it shall not be lawful 
 for the said fishermen to dry or cure fish at such set- 
 tlement, without a previous agreement for that pur- 
 pose with the inhabitants, proprietors, or possessors of 
 the ground." 
 
 Notwithstanding the position taken by Messrs. Ad- 
 ams, Clay, Bayard, and Gallatin, at Ghent, that our 
 treaty rights were not abrogated by the war, the Brit- 
 ish government revived their pretension to the contra- 
 ry immediately after the peace. An American vessel 
 was fallen in with by an armed ship, the Jaseur, 
 Locke, commander, in June, 1815, when about 45 
 miles from Cape Sable ; and her papers were endorsed, 
 " Warned off the coast, not to come within 60 miles." 
 So extraordinary a procedure was promptly disavowed 
 as unauthorized ; but discussions ensued, which were 
 terminated in 1818, by the conclusion of a treaty that 
 embodied a compromise of the adverse views of the two 
 cabinets, and which is still in force. The article is as 
 follows : 
 
 "Whereas, differences have arisen respecting the 
 liberty claimed by the United States, for the inhabit- 
 ants thereof, to talve, drj"-, and cure fish on certain 
 coasts, bays, harbors, and creeks, of his Britannic ma- 
 jesty's dominions in America, it is agreed between the 
 high contracting parties, that the inhabitants of the said 
 United States shall have forever, in common with the 
 subjects of his Britannic majesty, the liberty to take 
 fish of ever)' kind on that part of the southern coast 
 of Newfoundland, which extends from Cape Ray to 
 the Eameau Islands, on the western and northern 
 coast of Newfoundland ; from the said Cape Kay to 
 the Quirpon Islands, on the shores of the Magdalene 
 Islands and also, on the coasts, bays, harbors and 
 creeks, from Mount Joly, on the southern coast of La- 
 brador, to and through the Straits of Bellisle, and 
 thence northwardly indefinitely along the coast ; with- 
 out prejudice, however, to any of the exclusive rights 
 of the Hudson's Bay Company ; and that the Amer- 
 ican fishermen shall also have liberty, forever, to dry 
 and cure fish in any of the unsettled bays, harbors 
 and creeks of the southern part of the coast of New- 
 foundland, hereabove described, and of the coast of 
 Labrador ; but so soon as the same, or any portion 
 thereof, shall be settled, it shall not be lawful for the 
 
FI8 
 
 665 
 
 FIS 
 
 said fishermen to dry or cure fish at such portion so 
 settled, without previous agreement for such purpose, 
 ■with the inhabitants, proprietors, or possessors of the 
 ground. And the United States hereby renounce, 
 forever, the liberty heretofore enjoyed or claimed by 
 the inhabitants thereof, to talce; dry, or cure fish, on 
 or within three marine miles of any of the coasts, 
 bays, creeks, or harbors of his Britannic majesty's do- 
 minions in America, not included within the above- 
 mentiAied limits : provided, however, that the- Amer- 
 ican fishermen shall be permitted to enter such bay s or 
 harbors for the purpose of shelter, and of repairing 
 damages therein, of purchasing wood, , And of obtain- 
 ing water, and for no other purpose whatever. But 
 they shall be under such restrictions as may be neces- 
 sary to prevent their taking, drying, or curing, fish 
 therein, or in any other manner whatever, abusing the 
 privileges hereby reserved to them." 
 
 The distinguishing features of this article, as com- 
 pared with the stipulations of the treaty of 1783, are 
 obviously two : first, that we gave up the catching 
 along certain shores ; and, secondly, that our facilities 
 of drying and curing *ere increased.' The practical 
 construction of both, governments has been, until a 
 recent period, that our vessels could fish everywhere^ 
 as under the treaty of 1783, except withifi three miles 
 of certain coasts ; in other words, that our rights were 
 not impaired on the southern shore of Newfoundland, 
 between Cape Eay and the Eanveau Islands, on the 
 western and northern shores of Newfoundland, from 
 said Cape Ray to the Quirpou Islands, at the Magda- 
 lene Islands, between Mount Joly and the Straits of 
 Bellisle, and through these straits to an indefinite ex- 
 tent along the shores of Labrador ; while elsewhere in 
 British America we retained the sea-fisheries, hut sur- 
 rendered the inner, or shore fisheries. 
 
 During the discussions abroad, in consequence of 
 the outrage of the Jaseur and other British cruisers. 
 Congress was not unmindful of the fishing interest, 
 both to repair the wrongs of unauthorized captures 
 and to afford protection against foreign competition. 
 The tariff of 1816 imposed a duty of one dollar the 
 quintal on foreign dried or smoked fish imported into 
 the United States, two dollars the barrel on salmon, 
 one dollar and fifty cents the barrel on mackerel, and 
 one dollar the barrel on all other kinds of pickled 
 fish. 
 
 So, in 1817, an act was passed which required that 
 all officers, and three quarters of the crews of vessels 
 employed in the cod-fishery, and claiming the bounty 
 or allowance, should be American citizens, " or per- 
 sons not the subjects of any foreign prince or state ;" 
 while no such vessel, it was provided by further enact- 
 ments, should be deprived of bounty, if prevented 
 from fishing the full time prescribed by law, by reason 
 of detention or seizure by British ships-of-war. 
 
 In the revision of the tariff in 1824, there was no 
 change in the rates of duty imposed on foreign fish. 
 These rates were continued also in the tariffs of 1828 
 and 1832. Thus, in four revisions, the principle of 
 ample protection was preserved, except that the pro- 
 ducts of the sea, like all other commodities imported, 
 were subject to the provisions of the "compromise" 
 measure introduced by Mr. Clay, In the present tar- 
 iff, specific duties on fish are entirely abolished, and 
 the uniform rate of 20 per cent, ad valorem substituted, 
 which on some kinds is merely nominal, and on all 
 insufficient. The ad valorem system has proved ex- 
 tremely beneficial to British colonists. In fact, hav- 
 ing driven hs from the markets of Catholic Kurope, 
 they are in active competition with, us for our own. 
 
 A bounty or allowance has been commonly allowed 
 by governments in consideration of the fisheries being 
 nurseries for seamen, and u chief dependence in time 
 of war to supply the marine. 
 
 In 1852, the bounty laws in this country, gave to 
 vessels : 
 
 " If measuring more than five tons, and not exceed- 
 ing thirty tons, $S 50 per ton. 
 
 " If measuring more than thirty tons, $i per ton. 
 
 " If the above 30 tons, with crews not less than 10 
 persons, and having been exclusively employed at sea 
 in the cod-fisherj' &J- calendar months, $3 50 per ton. 
 
 " The allowance for one vessel during the season, 
 whatever may be her tonnage, can not exceed $360. 
 
 " Vessels exclusively employed at sea in the cod- 
 fishery the full time required to entitle them to bounty, 
 and afterward wrecked, may be allowed bounty under 
 the provisions of the act of 26th May, 1824, which re- 
 quires the evidence of the loss of the vessel to be 
 transmitted to the Comptroller for his decision thereon. 
 Under the act of March 3, 1849, this duty has been 
 transferred to the Commissioner of the Customs, to 
 whom the proof, certified by the collector of the dis- 
 trict to which the vessel belonged, should be sent for 
 his official direction thereon, 
 
 " Instructions will be given in due season in regard 
 to the mode of payment of bounty allowances, at and 
 after the close of the year. To obviate any respon- 
 sibility which might otherwise devolve on collectors, 
 should such payments be made upon proof regarded as 
 insufficient under the present instructions, it will be 
 advisable that probable claimants to fishing-bounty 
 allowances be apprized, before the sailing of vessels 
 on their first cod-fishing voyage, of the requirements 
 of these instructions, which are intended to supersede 
 and supply the place of all former instructions on 
 this subject. Thomas Oobwin, Secretary/ of the 
 Treasury" 
 
 We make the following extracts from Sabine's able 
 Report on the American fisheries : 
 
 Codrfishery of France. — The French were the first 
 European cod-fishers in the American seas. There is 
 a tradition among the fishermen of Biscay that their 
 countrymen visited Newfoundland before the time of 
 Columbus. It is said, indeed, that the great discov- 
 erer was informed of the fact by a pilot who had been 
 engaged in the enterprises. The story, improbable as 
 it is, seems to have been treated with respect by some 
 writers of the 16th century, but may be dismissed now 
 as one which rests upon no clear and authentic testi- 
 mony. 
 
 But that the Newfoundland fisheries were known to 
 the Biscayans and Normans as early as the year 1504, 
 is quite certain. When Cabot discovered our con- 
 tinent, Europe, inclijding England, was Catholic ; and 
 during the fasts of the church, the pickled herring of 
 Holland was the principal food. The consumption of 
 fish was immense ; and the Dutch, having enjoyed the 
 monopoly of the supply, had become immensely richi 
 The knowledge communicated by Cabot and the voy- 
 agers who followed him, that the waters of America 
 contained, not only an abundance, but many varieties 
 of fish, gave rise to an excitement on the subject of 
 fishing hardly less intense than is witnessed at the 
 present time relative to mining. Persons of the high- 
 est rank, and not engaged in commercial pursuits, be- 
 came shareholders in adventures to the new fishing- 
 grounds. And though the Dutch refused to abandon 
 the particular fishery by which they had obtained 
 both wealth and celebrity, vessels wearing the flags of 
 France, England, Spain, and Portugal came annually 
 in search of the cod for nearly a century before a single 
 European colony was founded in America ndrth of the 
 ancient limits of the United States. 
 
 We have seen that when, in 1778, France embarked 
 in our revolutionarj'' struggle, her fishermen, absent at 
 Newfoundland, were recalled- to enter her ships of war. 
 The same reliance is placed upon them now. War 
 was apprehended in 1841, and M, Thiers followed the 
 example of the statesman referred to ; and M. Rodet 
 affirmed that, " without the resources which were found 
 in the sailors engaged in the fisheries, the expedition to 
 Algiers could not have talcen place." 
 
FIS 
 
 667 
 
 FIS 
 
 Wyat, of Bristol, England, who made a voyage to 
 the St. Lawrence and Newfoundland in 1593, found 
 only eight Spanish ships in a fleet of upward of 80 sail 
 of French and English vessels. From the remarks of 
 Smith — who became the Father of Virginia — ^it would 
 seem that in the early part of the 17th century, the 
 Spanish iishery was pursued with greater vigor than 
 at the time last mentioned. But the greater wealth 
 to be acquired in the gold regions of South America 
 soon lured the Spaniards from an avocation of so gi-eat 
 toil, and of so uncertain rewards. No controversy 
 between Spain and England as to their respective 
 rights to the fishing-grounds ever arose. 
 
 Spain retired from our waters in peace, and at her 
 own pleasure. Little is heard of her in connexion 
 with our subject for quite a centur)-, and until the 
 peace of 1763. Her claim — resting on discovery-^ever 
 vague and uncertain at the north, had become almost 
 as obsolete as that of the King of England to the title 
 of King of France. Still, in the definitive treaty con- 
 cluded at Paris, she formally renounced "all preten- 
 sions which she has heretofore formed, or might form, 
 to Nova Scotia or Acadia, in all its parts, and guaran- 
 ties the whole of it, and with all its dependencies," 
 and ceded and guarantied to England, " in full right, 
 Canada, with all its dependencies, as well as the island 
 of Cape Breton, and all other islands and coasts in the 
 Gulf and River of St. Lawrence; and, in general, 
 every thing that depends on the said countries, lands, 
 islands, and coasts, with the sovereignty, property, 
 possession, and all rights acquired by treaty or other- 
 wise." With this treaty the history of the Spanish 
 fishery in America terminates. Spain relinquished 
 her rights at the peace of 1763, with reluctance, though 
 she had long ceased to exercise them. A letter of Sir 
 Joseph Yorke is quoted in the correspondence of Hor- 
 ace Walpole, in which it Is said: "By what I hear 
 from Paris, my old acquaintance, Grimaldi, is the 
 cause of the delay in signing the preliminaries, insist- 
 ing upon points neither France nor England would 
 ever consent to grant, such as the liberty of fishing at 
 Newfoundland — a point we should not dare to yield, as 
 Mr. Pitt told them, though they were masters of Jhe 
 Tower of London." 
 
 Cod-jishery of Portugal. — ^An account of this fisherj- 
 may be embraced in a single paragraph. If materials 
 exist by which to ascertain its progress and final 
 extent, I have not been able to find them. 
 
 Portuguese vessels were at Newfoundland as early 
 as those of Spain ; and in 1577, the number employed 
 there is estimated at 50. These two facts comprise 
 the substance of my information upon the subject, 
 except that Portugal, like Spain, soon abandoned all 
 attention to the claims derived from the voyages of 
 her navigators to the northern parts of our continent, 
 and devoted her energies and resources to colonization 
 in South America, and the acquisition of wealth in the. 
 mines of Brazil. The rivers and coasts of Portugal 
 abound in fish ; but the fisheries are neglected by the 
 government. The whole number of sailors and fisher- 
 men who belonged to the kingdom in 1826, was only 
 18,700. I find in an official document a statement 
 which shows that during the 24 years ending in 1825, 
 the quantity of dry codfish imported into Portugal 
 was 7,520,000 quintals, of the value of more than 
 $39,000,000 ! As late as the year 1839, certainly, the 
 government pursued the policy of levying a tax or 
 duty on the produce of the domestic or coast fishery — 
 a fact which enables us to account for the miserable 
 condition of the kingdom, as regards its maritime 
 strength and resources. 
 
 English Cod-jishery — Newfoundtcmd. — Newfound- 
 land is the oldest colony of England in America. It 
 is said that in the public library of Venice there is a 
 map, constructed by Andrea Bianco, in 1436, which 
 authorizes the conjecture that it was known to fisher- 
 men before the voyage of Cabot, in 1497. The story, 
 
 to state its substance in a word, is, that the island Sco- 
 raflxa, or Stoxafixa, on the map, and the island of 
 Newfoundland, are identical, because the codfish is 
 called atoehfish in the northern languages. The En- 
 glish resorted to Iceland for the cod, previous to the 
 year 1415, but there is no account of their fishing at 
 Newfoundland prior to 1517. Some writers suggest 
 that the French commenced at the same time. But 
 the fact, generally admitted, that the ships from En- 
 gland, France, Spain, and Portugal, to the number of 
 fifty, were employed in 1517, is alone sufficient to 
 show that the fishing-grounds had been visited for sev- 
 eral years. Indeed to consider that the French went 
 to Newfoundland for the first time in 1504, and that in 
 thirteen years, and in the infancy of distant and peril- 
 ous voyages, their adventures had attracted the atten- 
 tion of three other nations to the extent just stated; 
 is to allow an increase of flags and of vessels so rapid 
 as to still require explanation, without a knowledge 
 of the fishing enthusiasm of the period. Besides, 
 some forty or fifty houses for the accommodation of 
 fishermen were built at Newfoundland as early as 
 1522. 
 
 A few miles back from the coast, Newfoundland is 
 almost an unbroken wilderness. The inhabitants, as 
 a body, are as ignorant of the interior of the island as 
 are others. To them, and to all the world, the colony 
 is known for its fisheries, and for these alone. To 
 enumerate St. John's, Ferryland, Fngo, and Burin, and 
 the settlements on the baj'S of Conception, Trinity, 
 Bonavista, Fortune, Bull's, Placentia, and St. Mary's, 
 is to recall almost everj- place of note. There yins no 
 free port until 1828, and no bank until eight j-ears later. 
 From the discovery of Cabot to the arrival of a bishop 
 of the church, was 343 years. The population in 
 1806 — about two and a quarter centuries after the at- 
 tempt at colonization by Gilbert — was less than 26,000. 
 It was less than 74,000 in 1836 ; and but 96,606 in 1846. 
 
 It remains to speak of the fishing-grounds ; of the 
 manner of catching and curing, and of the habits of the 
 persons who are employed in the fisherj'. As the vessel 
 or " bank" fisherj' has been abandoned by the English, 
 an account of it is reserved for the third part of this 
 report. The boats used for the shore fishery require 
 from two to four men each. The number of boats in 
 1838, was 6159 ; and in 1845, 9989. The fishing is 
 performed ivithin the harbors, and earlj- in the season, 
 near the land. The men stand while at ther toil, and 
 each is able to tend more than one line. At times the 
 fish fasten to the hooks so rapidly, that the fishermen 
 display great activity. A boat is often filled in two 
 or three hours. On the shores are " stages," or build- 
 ings erected on posts, and projecting into the sea, to 
 allow boats to come to them as to wharves or piers. 
 The fish are carried to these " stages," where, in the 
 hands of the "cut-throat," the "header," the " split- 
 ter," and the " Salter," as four classes of the " shores- 
 men" are called, they are prepared for the "dryer." 
 When sufficiently salted, the}'" are washed, and trans- 
 ported on "hand-barrows" to the "flakes," where 
 they are spread and dried. Once cured, they are piled 
 in warehouses to await sale or orders for shipment. 
 The " Salter" and the " dryer" should be careful and 
 expert men ; the one to distribute the salt with a skill- 
 ful hand — the other, that damps and rains do not in- 
 jure the fish while exposed in the air. Three quali- 
 ties are usually sorted for exportation, and a fourth, 
 consisting principally of broken and discolored fish, is 
 retained for consumption. Women and children are 
 sometimes employed in the boats, and very frequently 
 assist the curers on shore. During the fishing season 
 there are no idlers of either sex. 
 
 The labors of the fishermen and shoresmen are al- 
 most incessant. The time devoted to sleep, under cir- 
 cimistances that often occur, is insufficient for the de- 
 mands of nature ; while long abstinence from food Is 
 not uncommon. 
 
FIS 
 
 666 
 
 FIS 
 
 These reasons are not only sufficient to justify, but 
 to demand, national encouragement. But it may be 
 urged, in addition, that the open or deep-sea cod-fishery 
 differs from almost every other emplojinent ; that in 
 war it is nearly or quite destroyed ; that in peace it 
 can not be pursued for more than four or five months 
 in a year ; that often skill and industry are insufficient 
 to insure good fares ; and that, when success attends 
 severe toil and exposure, the fishermen barely subsist. 
 The effects of a " bad catch" are, indeed, sad and ca- 
 lamitous. The disasters of 1847 afford a recent and a 
 forcible illustration. In that year the French cod- 
 fishery proved a failure. The quantity of fish caught 
 was scarcely a sixth part of that of former seasons ; 
 and the fishermen, discouraged, abandoned the busi- 
 ness as early as the middle of August. The labor of 
 the summer and the expenses of repairs and of outfits 
 lost, the actual want of food and clothing until another 
 year came round was alone prevented by the bountj" 
 allowed by the government. 
 
 The manner of fishing is now the only topic that 
 need claim attention. It is to be observed that the 
 principal fishing-grounds are three, and that on each 
 there is a difference in the mode qf operations and in 
 the size of the vessels. First, the fishery on the coasts 
 of Newfoundland, which has always been considered 
 the most important, as being more certain and employ- 
 ing the greatest number of men. The vessels are of 
 all sizes— from 30 to 200, and even 300 tons. The 
 latter size is, however, rare. When the vessel arrives 
 on the coast, which is generally early in June, she is 
 dismantled. Her boats, with two men and a boy in 
 each, are sent out every morning, when the weather 
 will permit, to fish until night. On the return in the 
 evening, the fish taken are split, salted, and put in 
 *'AeracAe5" or piles; remaining in piles a few days, 
 they are '* washed out" and dried nntil they are fit to 
 ship. These processes are repeated from day to da.y 
 nntil the fare is completed, or the season has passed 
 'dway. Toward the close of September, fishing is sus- 
 pended, and the vessels depart for France or the "West 
 Indies. 
 
 The Grand Bank fishery is pursued in vessels of be- 
 tween 100 and 200 tons' burden, with two strong cha^ 
 loupes, or boats, to each. From 16 to 20 men compose 
 a crew. The vessels proceed first to St. Pierre, land 
 the shore fishermen and " curers," and thence take 
 position on the banks, anchoring in 70 or 80 fathoms 
 of water. Every thing in readiness, the chaloupes 
 are launched and sent out at night to place the 
 " ground-lines," to which are attached some four or 
 five thousand hooks. When not too boisterous, these 
 lines are examined every day, and the fish attached to 
 the hooks split, salted, and placed in the hold of the 
 vessel. Meanwhile, the fish caught on board by the 
 men not assigned to the boats are treated in the same 
 way. The first fare is usually secured in June, and 
 carried to St. Pierre to be dried. The second fare is 
 cured at the same place ; but the third — if fortunately 
 there be another — is commonly carried to France 
 '* green." 
 
 This fishing is difficult and dangerous. It requires 
 expert and daiing men. It is prosecuted in an open, 
 rough, and often a stormy sea, and frequently involves 
 the loss of boats and their crews. 
 
 The third fishery, at St. Pierre and Miquelon, is 
 similar, in some respects, to that between Cape Ray 
 and Cape John, on the coast of Newfoundland. Boats, 
 instead of vessels, are, however, employed in it. The 
 boats of the two islands are between three and four 
 hundred in number,, and require two men to each. 
 They go out in the morning and return at night. 
 Thus, as in all shore fisheries, the fishermen always 
 sleep at their own homes. As this is the only business 
 of the islands, nearly all the men, women, and chil- 
 dren are engaged in catching or curing. The season 
 opens in April, and closes usually in October, 
 
 We have seen the importance attached by France to 
 her immense American domains, and with what per- 
 tinacity she maintained her pretensions to the monop- 
 oly of the fishing-grounds. It remains to speak more 
 particularly than has yet been done of the two lone, 
 bare, and rocky islands that remain to her as monur 
 ments of the vicissitudes of the himian condition and 
 of national humiliation. 
 
 The situation of St. Pierre and Miquelon commands 
 the entrance of the Gulf of St. Lawrence." The 
 growth of wood is insufficient even for fuel. They 
 produce no food, and the inhabitants are dependent on 
 France and other countries for supplies. The popula- 
 tion of St. Pierre in 1847 was 2030, of which about one 
 quarter was "floating," or non-resident. The popu- 
 lation of Miquelon at the same time was 625. 
 
 There are several Catholic churches and schools, 
 priests, monks, and nuns. In 1848 a hospital, suf- 
 ficiently commodious to receive upward of 100 sick 
 persons, was erected. The dwellings are of wood. 
 The government-house is of the same material, and 
 plain and old-fashioned. The streets are narrow, 
 short, and dirty. The official personages are a gover- 
 nor, a commissary or minister of marine, a harbor mas- 
 ter, and some inferior functionaries. The militarj'', 
 limited by treaty to 50 men, consists of about 30 ffens 
 cfarmes. Upon the station is a single anned ship, 
 though other armed vessels are occasional visitors. 
 The present light-house was erected in 1845, at a cost 
 of 80,000 francs, and, well built of brick, is a substan- 
 tial edifice. 
 
 Such are the two islands — two leagues in ex- 
 tent — which remain to the power that once possessed 
 the whole country bordering on the Mississippi, the 
 limitless regions penetrated by the St. Lawrence ; 
 Acadia, from Canseau, in Nova Scotia, to the Kenne- 
 bec river, in Maine ; the island of Cape Breton ; and 
 the hundred other isles of the bays of the northern and 
 eastern possessions. 
 
 The extent of the French cod-fishery may be esti- 
 mated from the following statistics : 
 
 rRENOn COD-FlSHEET. 
 
 Year.. 
 
 No. of 
 vessels. 
 
 Tonimge. 
 
 Number of 
 men. 
 
 Quintsls of 
 
 li.h. 
 
 Value. 
 
 1504 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 162T 
 
 "12 
 
 
 
 
 
 16TT 
 
 160 
 
 
 
 
 
 1518 
 
 160 
 
 
 
 
 
 1615 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 
 
 1721 
 
 400 
 
 
 
 
 
 1744 
 
 664 
 
 
 27,500 
 
 1,441^500 
 
 
 1745 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 
 
 1768 
 
 259 
 
 24^420 
 
 9,722 
 
 200^660 
 
 $86l',728 
 
 1778 
 
 264 
 
 24,996 
 
 10,128 
 
 
 
 1774 
 
 
 
 15,137 
 
 
 
 1786 
 
 
 
 7,000 
 
 426,400 
 
 
 1787 
 
 
 
 6,000 
 
 128,690 
 
 
 1S16 
 
 
 80,954 
 
 8,108 
 
 
 
 1828 
 
 184 
 
 16,258 
 
 3,655 
 
 
 
 1824 
 
 348 
 
 86,999 
 
 6,672 
 
 
 
 1825 
 
 886 
 
 85,172 
 
 6,811 
 
 
 
 1826 
 
 341 
 
 38,9.38 
 
 7,088 
 
 
 
 1827 
 
 887 
 
 44,863 
 
 8,238 
 
 
 
 1828 
 
 381 
 
 45,094 
 
 7,957 
 
 
 
 1829 
 
 414 
 
 60,574 
 
 9,428 
 
 
 
 1830 
 
 877 
 
 45,086 
 
 8,174 
 
 
 
 1831 
 
 802 
 
 35,180 
 
 6,243 
 
 300,060 
 
 
 1883 
 
 
 
 10,000 
 
 
 
 1834 
 
 
 
 10,000 
 
 
 
 1836 
 
 
 
 
 800,660 
 
 
 1889 
 
 
 m'996 
 
 ll',499 
 
 
 
 1841 
 
 '•ioo 
 
 . 
 
 11,900 
 
 
 
 1843 
 
 400 
 
 
 
 
 
 1847 
 
 
 .... 
 
 i'2,6oo 
 
 45b',66o 
 
 
 Cod~fishery of Spain. — Participating in tlie excite- 
 ment whicli prevailed in Europe on the discover;' in 
 tlie American seas of varieties of fish not previously 
 known or used in the fasts of the Eoman church, Spain 
 was an early competitor with France and England. 
 Vessels of her flag were certainly at Newfoundland as 
 soon as the year 1517. 60 years later, the number of 
 her vessels employed in the fishery there is estimated 
 at 100. The number rapidly diminished. Sylvester 
 
FIS 
 
 668 
 
 FIS 
 
 The fishermen formerly lived in the rudest of struct- 
 ures ; but they now occupy comfortable dwellings. 
 Their food is coarse, and their manners rough. Intoxi- 
 cating drinlis were once as common among them as 
 tea or w^ter. Of late years there has been a sensible 
 change for the better ; and a large class are moral and 
 temperate. Their habits of life are irregular, from the 
 necessities of their position ; but in hospitality and 
 acts of kindness they are not excelled by men of the 
 higher walks of society. They are to be judged in 
 mercy, for their opportunities to improve are few, and 
 their temptations to err are many, 
 
 Englibh CoD-FisnBKY, Newfoundland, 
 
 Year. 
 
 No.ot 
 vessels. 
 
 Tonnn;je. 
 
 No. of 
 men. 
 
 No.ol 
 boats. 
 
 Quintals of 
 fish exportec 
 
 Valne. 
 
 167T 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 1603 
 
 200 
 
 
 10,660 
 
 
 
 
 1615 
 
 250 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1622 
 
 400 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1626 
 
 160 
 
 i'5',66o 
 
 '5,660 
 
 
 
 
 16T0 
 
 80 
 
 
 
 
 .... 
 
 
 16T4 
 
 270 
 
 
 i'6,86o 
 
 
 
 
 ITOl 
 
 121 
 
 '7'991 
 
 2,727 
 
 
 
 
 1716 
 
 161 
 
 9,193 
 
 2,119 
 
 
 10'6',952 
 
 
 1T24 
 
 
 
 
 
 111,000 
 
 
 1732 
 
 
 
 
 
 210,000 
 
 
 1750 
 
 '283 
 
 83,512 
 
 '4408 
 
 
 
 
 1763 
 
 177 
 
 17,268 
 
 2,631 
 
 
 498,654 
 
 
 1769 
 
 354 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1770 
 
 868 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1771 
 
 869 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1772 
 
 806 
 
 
 .... 
 
 
 
 
 1774 
 
 254 
 
 
 2'8',662 
 
 
 75'9',877 
 
 
 1785 
 
 292 
 
 
 
 
 691,276 
 
 
 1786 
 
 230 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1787 
 
 806 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1788 
 
 889 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1789 
 
 804 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1790 
 
 259 
 
 3'l',644 
 
 
 
 684,421 
 
 
 1791 
 
 245 
 
 84,166 
 
 
 
 
 
 1792 
 
 276 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1798 
 
 
 l'5;838 
 
 1,268 
 
 
 
 
 1799 
 
 '336 
 
 38,503 
 
 2,410 
 
 
 46'3,83T 
 
 
 1800 
 
 
 
 
 
 882,000 
 
 
 1805 
 
 
 
 
 
 526,880 
 
 
 1814 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,200,000 
 
 $i2,o66,'o'oo 
 
 1815 
 
 
 
 
 .... 
 
 1,180,661 
 
 
 1820 
 
 
 
 
 
 899,729 
 
 
 1825 
 
 
 
 
 
 973,464 
 
 
 1830 
 
 
 
 
 
 760,177 
 
 
 1832 
 
 
 
 
 
 619,177 
 
 
 1833 
 
 
 
 
 
 688,636 
 
 
 1834 
 
 
 
 
 
 674,988 
 
 
 1835 
 
 
 
 
 
 712,588 
 
 
 1838 
 
 
 
 
 '6,169 
 
 724,615 
 
 2,42'o',66o 
 
 1840 
 
 
 
 
 
 915,795 
 
 2,880,000 
 
 1841 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,009,725 
 
 8,025,000 
 
 1842 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,007,980 
 
 2,805,000 
 
 1843 
 
 
 
 
 
 986,202 
 
 2,660,000 
 
 1844 
 
 
 
 
 
 852,162 
 
 2,410,000 
 
 1845 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,000,883 
 
 2,980,000 
 
 1847 
 
 
 
 
 
 837,978 
 
 2,450,000 
 
 1848 
 
 
 
 
 
 920,866 
 
 2,455,000 
 
 1849 
 
 
 
 
 '9,989 
 
 1,175,167 
 
 2,940,000 
 
 Engltsh Herring-Fishery, Newfoundland. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Barrels pickled exported, 
 
 Value. 
 
 1888 
 
 16,276 
 
 20,806 
 14,686 
 
 9,965 
 13,889 
 
 9,649 
 18,410 
 20,903 
 
 9,907 
 
 $53,615 
 69,200 
 46,180 
 81,805 
 85,695 
 22,850 
 88,825 
 56,170 
 25 655 
 
 1839 
 
 1840 
 
 1841 
 
 1842 
 
 1843 
 
 1844 
 
 1845 
 
 1847 
 
 The Newfoundland Seal-Fishery, so called. — This 
 business is of recent origin. The first account of it is 
 in 1795, but it was not prosecuted to any extent until 
 the general peace, in 1814. Seals frequent the coasts 
 of Newfoundland in the spring. They go upon the 
 ice in the polar seas to bring forth their young, and 
 are swept along by the currents to milder regions, 
 where, still upon the ice, hundreds of thousands of 
 them are knnuallj' killed. During the passage from 
 the remote north, they apparently live without much 
 food, but yet are quite fat when seen by those who ad- 
 venture in pursuit of them. The vessels engaged in 
 catching seals are from fifty to two hundred tons, and 
 
 carry from fifteen to forty men each. They leave 
 Newfoundland in March, and proceed to sea until they 
 meet the ice, and on falling in with it, are forced" into 
 it as far as possible, by implements which are arranged 
 for the purpose. Fast imbedded in the vast and seem- 
 ingly limitless fields of ice the crews disperse in every 
 direction in search of seals, which are inactive, and 
 are generally easily caught. They are killed with 
 fire-arms and with clubs, and often while asleef). Oc- 
 casionally the large ones resist. The moans of the 
 young during the slaughter are piteous. 
 
 The flesh of seals is unfit for food, and they are 
 only valuable for their fat and skins. The common 
 method is, to strip off the skins and fat together, and 
 to carry these parts to the vessels, leaving the re- 
 mainder upon the ice ; but when the weather or other 
 circumstances will not permit this, the carcass is 
 transported whole, and the valuable parts are stripped 
 off subsequently. Seal-catching closes toward the end 
 of April. The most fortunate vessels make two voj'- 
 ages in a season. After the arrival of the vessels in 
 port, the fat is separated from the skins, cut into 
 pieces and put into vats, where, by the warmth of the 
 sun, the oil oozes out. The skins are spread and salted 
 in piles, and when properly cured, are packed in bun- 
 dles of convenient size. In the whole circle of human 
 employments, few or none are more exciting and peril- 
 ous than the catching of seals. A storm of sleet and 
 snow in the night is terrible, and the stoutest hearts 
 quail. While the vessels are absent, the greatest anx- 
 iety prevails in the ports of departure, and the most 
 distressing rumors prevail : at times, a full month 
 elapses before the arrival of a single vessel, and every 
 imaginable cause is assigned by alarmed families and 
 friends for the delay of tidings from the sealing^ 
 ground. North-east gales drive th4 ice toward the 
 shore, and frequently produce fearful disasters to both 
 life and property In 1843 the loss of vessels was 
 verjr considerable, and several entire crews perished. 
 Some vessels were wrecked in 1849. 
 
 The year 1827 was uncommonly prosperous. Forty- 
 one vessels laden with seals arrived at St. John's in a 
 single week. They caught 69,814 of the objects of then- 
 search. One of these vessels took upward of 3000 
 in six days, and another, stiU more •successful, about 
 3500 in the same time. The intense excitement which 
 attended the slaughter of so large numbers, in so short 
 a space, can be readily imagined. 
 
 Statistics op the Newfoundland Sbal-Fishert.* 
 
 Year. 
 
 Employed. 
 
 Exports, 1 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tonnago. 
 
 Men. 
 
 Seal-skins. 
 
 Tuns of oil. 
 
 1795 
 
 
 
 
 4,900 
 
 
 1815 
 
 
 
 
 141,374 
 
 8,225 
 
 1820 
 
 
 
 
 221,384 
 
 8,224 
 
 1825 
 
 
 
 
 22],.510 
 
 7,806 
 
 1829 
 
 
 
 
 280,613 
 
 
 1330 
 
 92 
 
 6,198 
 
 1,985 
 
 569,842 
 
 12,871 
 
 18.31 
 
 118 
 
 ' 8,046 
 
 2,578 
 
 
 
 18.32 
 
 163 
 
 11,462 
 
 8,294 
 
 442,683 
 
 10,010 
 
 1883 
 
 106 
 
 8,665 
 
 2,964 
 
 501,486 
 
 
 1884 
 
 125 
 
 11,020 
 
 2,910 
 
 860,166 
 
 9,030 
 
 18-35 
 
 120 
 
 11,167 
 
 2,912 
 
 567,494 
 
 11,780 
 
 1836 
 
 126 
 
 11,426 
 
 2,855 
 
 881,041 
 
 
 ia37 
 
 121 
 
 10,648 
 
 2,940 
 
 252,910 
 
 
 1833 
 
 110 
 
 9,800 
 
 2,826 
 
 876,861 
 
 
 1889 
 
 76 
 
 6,447 
 
 2,029 
 
 437,501 
 
 
 1840 
 
 75 
 
 6,190 
 
 2,058 
 
 681,886 
 
 
 1841 
 
 72 
 
 5,965 
 
 2,078 
 
 417,115 
 
 
 1842 
 
 74 
 
 6,085 
 
 2,064 
 
 844,688 
 
 
 1848 
 
 106 
 
 9,625 
 
 3,177 
 
 651,370 
 
 
 1844 
 
 121 
 
 11,088 
 
 8,775 
 
 685,680 
 
 
 1845 
 
 128 
 
 11,972 
 
 8,988 
 
 862,202 
 
 
 1846 
 
 
 i . . 
 
 
 
 
 1847 
 
 324 
 
 80,819 
 
 9,886 
 
 486,831 
 
 
 1848 
 
 168 
 
 16,444 
 
 . 5,497 
 
 621,004 
 
 
 1849 
 
 278 
 
 26,123 
 
 9,388 
 
 806,072 
 
 
 1860 
 
 
 
 
 400,000t 
 
 .... 1 
 
 * Tho vessels were from the port of St John's, except in 
 1847, 1848, aud 1349. 
 
 t Estimatod from the several accounts of tho catch of that 
 year. 
 
 Reference to the table of statistics wiU afford infor- 
 mation as to the general state of this branch of indns 
 
PIS 
 
 669 
 
 FIS 
 
 try since the year 1830. It will be seen that the re- 
 turn of vessels fitted out, la from the port of St. John's 
 alone. The number from Cpncepcion, Trinity, and 
 Bonavista Bays, and from other parts of the island, is 
 known to be considerable, and in 1845 to have ex- 
 ceeded that of the capital, but I have been unable to 
 procure accurate accounts for any other year. 
 
 Fisheries of Nova Scotia. — The original grantee of 
 that half fabulous, never defined country, Acadi^, was 
 Pierre de Gast Sieure de Monts, a Pp)te?fa(nt, and a 
 gentleman of the bed-chamber of Henry the Fourth 
 of France. In 1603, his royal master, by letters pa- 
 tent, gave him the territory between the 40th and 46th 
 degrees of latitude, and in the following year De 
 Monts came in person to explore and take possession 
 of his domains. Sixteen years before the landing of 
 the pilgrims at Plymouth, he wintered upon an island 
 in the River St. Croix, which, since the adjustment of 
 the boundary-line between the United States and New 
 Brunswick,, has been considered within the limits of 
 Maine. . This island is claimed by the heirs of the 
 late General John Brewer, of Kobbinston. , Eelics of 
 De Monts' sojourn upon it continue to be found. An- 
 napolis—the Port Royal of the French— was founded 
 before his return, and is the oldest settlement in Npva 
 Scotia. The " lieutenant-general of Acadia, and the 
 circumjacent country," accomplished but little. His 
 patent allowed him to " carefully search after and to 
 distinguish all sorts of mines of gold and silver," and 
 gave him the monopoly of the trade in furs. He 
 seems to have confined iiis attention to measures to 
 secure the latter ; yet fish' were caught, cured, and 
 carried, to France. A permanent fishery was estab- 
 lished at Canseau. Acadia soon passed from De Monts 
 into Catholic hands, while the English grant to Sir 
 William Alexander, in 1621, embraced a large part of 
 it. As tlie events connected with our subject at this 
 time appear in the account of the French fisheries, 
 there Is nothing to demand our attention imtil after 
 Nova Scotia was permanently annexed to the British 
 crown, by the treaty of Utrecht, in 1713. 
 
 Down to the period of our Revolution, Nova Scotia 
 was hardly known except for its fisheries. The resi- 
 dent English population was so small in 1719, that 
 Phillips, the military governor, was compelled to se- 
 lect the council, required by his instructions, from his 
 garrison. Thirty-six years later, the whole number 
 of inhabitants was estimated at only 5000. In 1760, 
 the township of Liverpool was settled by persons from 
 Massachusetts, who designed to prosecute the salmon- 
 fishery, and who, successful in their labors, caught a 
 thousand barrels in a season. They were followed in 
 1763 by about one hundred and sixty families from 
 Cape Cod, who selected the spot called Barrington, 
 transported thither their stock and fishing vessels, 
 and founded one of the most considerable fishing towns 
 at present in the colony. The whole value of the im- 
 ports at this period was less than five thousand dol- 
 lars. In truth, the House of Assembly asserted in 
 1775, that the amount of money in Nova Scotia was 
 £1200 (or $4800), of which one fifth was in the hands 
 of farmers. Such was the general condition. The 
 settlement of Halifax, the capital, requires a more 
 particular notice. Thomas Coran, a famous projector 
 of the time, whose name occurs often in the history of 
 Maine, engaged in a scheme to commence a town on 
 the site of this city as early as the year 1718, and his 
 petition for a grant of land received a favorable report 
 from the Lords of Trade and Plantations ; but the 
 agents of Massachusetts opposed his plans, because 
 they interfered with the freedom of the fisheries, and 
 he was compelled to abandon Jiis purpose.* 
 
 * It is said, in Burke's Commoners of England, that Major 
 William Markham (of the family of Markham, of Becca 
 Hall) who was born in 1686, built the first house in Halifax, 
 Nova Scotia. 
 
 At the restoration of Cape Breton, in 1748, the 
 founding of a capital for Nova Scotia was undertaken 
 as a government measure. "As a substitute for 
 Louisbourg restored to France,'' said Mr. Hartley in 
 the House of Commons, " you settled Halifax for a 
 place d'armes, leaving the limits of the province as a 
 matter of contest with France, which could not fail to 
 prove, as it did, the cause of another war. Had yon kept 
 Louisbourg, instead of settling Halifax, the Americans 
 could not say, at least, that there would not have been 
 that pretext for imputing the late war to their ac- 
 count." "The new city was named in honor of the 
 Earl of Halifax, the president of the Lords of Trade 
 andPlantations. " The site," says Haliburton, " about 
 midway between Cape Canseau and Cape Sable, was 
 preferred to several others, where the soil was better, 
 for the sake of establishing in ifs neighborhood an ex- 
 tensive cod-fishery, and fortifying one of the best har- 
 bors in America." Thus, Halifax was designed as a 
 fishing capital, and " as a substitute for Louisbourg." 
 Liberal grants of land were made to officers and men 
 who were dismissed from the land and naval service at 
 the close of the war, and Edward Cornwallis was ap- 
 pointed military governor. Horatio Gates then an 
 officer in the British army, and subsequently the vic- 
 tor at Saratoga, was among the first who landed at 
 Halifax, in 1749. The project involved the govern- 
 ment in serious difficulties, and the expenditure of 
 enormous sums of money. The amount first appro- 
 priated was jE40,000. In a few years the cost to 
 the nation was nearly two millions of dollars ! The 
 fisheries were neglected, and the colonists, unable to 
 support themselves, petitioned Parliament for addi- 
 tional relief, even after so large an amount of money 
 had been disbursed for their benefit. Omitting de- 
 tails, we may state that five millions of dollars of pub- 
 lic money were expended finally in the colonization of 
 Nova Scotia, according to the plan devised by the 
 Board of Trade and Plantations. 
 
 United States. — Our continent was discovered in 
 1497, by Cabot ; and from the moment that the chron- 
 icler of his voyage made known to the people of En- 
 gland that our waters teemed with fish — that here 
 " were great seals, and those which we commonly call 
 salmons ; and also soles above a yard in length, but 
 especially there is a great abundance of that kind 
 which the savages call hacccdos or codfish" — down 
 to the year 1620, as we have seen in the first and 
 second parts of this report, the intercourse of the 
 French and English with the northerly seas of Amer- 
 ica was constant ; and of all this were not the Puri- 
 tans as well informed as others ? Were they ignorant 
 of what transpired in the New World in the ten years 
 immediatelj' preceding their flight from England, and 
 during the ten years of their residence in Holland ? 
 While among the Dutch they were neglected, if not 
 unkindly treated', and became poor and unhappy. 
 Many places to, which to emigrate were mentioned, 
 and the advantages and disadvantages of each were 
 amply discussed. As soon as the decision of the little 
 flock was made, some were dissatisfied and withdrew. 
 The question arises, why did they decide to come to 
 America ? 
 
 I have no space to argue a question which involves 
 so many inquiries, but can not forbear to state that, in 
 a few words, some of the principal incidents which 
 attended their coming to their "wilderness home." 
 Omitting to notice the accounts of Amidas and Barlow, 
 ■who explored the southern coast of the United States 
 in 1584, under the auspices of Sir Walter Raleigh, and 
 what' is said of Sir Richard Grenville's expedition to 
 the same region the year following, as well as the va- 
 rious other enterprises which, in several particulars, 
 are pertinent to the subject, we come at once to the 
 voyage of Gosnold, in the year 1602. He was the first 
 Englishman who sailed directly across the ocean, and 
 the first who attempted to make a settlement within 
 
FI8 
 
 610 
 
 FIS 
 
 the limits of New England. The stoiy of his adven- 
 tures was written by two of his associates, Archer and 
 Brereton, and published in London* immediately after 
 his return. Of Brereton little seems to be linown ; 
 but Gosnold and Archer were subsequently prominent 
 among the early settlers of Virginia, and between the 
 latter and the celebrated Smith there was a long and 
 a desperate quan'el. From Brereton's narrative, as 
 well as from the tracts appended thereto, it appears 
 that Ealeigh was the patron, perhaps the original 
 mover, of the enterprise. As containing the earliest 
 information of Massachusetts printed in England, 
 these papers are of great value. The attention of 
 merchants, of fishermen, and of those interested in 
 colonization hitherto, and for nearly a century, di- 
 rected exclusively to Newfoundland, was now to be 
 diverted, in some measure, to New England. The 
 results will appear as we progress. 
 
 Arrived on our coast, Gosnold anchored near land 
 which he called "Shoal Hope;" but, catching a 
 " great store of codfish," he changed the name to Cape 
 Cod.f While there, says Archer, "we saw sculls of 
 herring, mackerel, and other small fish, in great 
 abundance." Brereton, whose account is more exact 
 and definite, remarks with much earnestness upon 
 most matters connected with our inquiries. " Surely, 
 I am persuaded," he observes, " that, in the months 
 of March, April, and May, there is upon this coast 
 better fishing^ and in as great plenty as in Newfound^ 
 land; for the sculls of mackerel, herrings, cod, and 
 other fish, that we daily saw as we went and came 
 from the shore, were wonderful ; and, besides, the 
 places where we took these cods (and might in a few 
 days have laden our ship) were but seven fathoms 
 water, and within less than a league of the shore, 
 when in Newfoundland they fish in forty or fifty 
 fathoms water, and far off." 
 
 To pass the observations which were recorded as 
 they continued their explorations, we find in the 
 tracts appended to Brereton the prediction that, "for- 
 asmuch a^ merchants are diligent inquisitors after gainSj 
 they will soon remove their trade from Newfoundland^' 
 to New England, where there is a better climate, 
 greater securit}' against the depredations of pirates, 
 and less expense for outfits, shorter voyages, and safer 
 harbors. The writer, anticipating that a colony would 
 soon be founded, predicted further, that the ships of 
 all the nations that " have been accustomed to repair 
 unto the Newfoundland for the commodity of fish and 
 oils alone, will henceforth forsake" that island, "when 
 once we have planted people in these parts ; by whose 
 industry shall be provided, for all commerce," the 
 products of the sea, "and many commodities besides, 
 of good importance and value." Eighteen years 
 elapsed ; the Pilgrims anchored oflf the same " Shoal 
 Hope," and settled this very countrj'. 
 
 Bring followed Gosnold, and explored the waters of 
 Maine, in 1603. He saw and named the Fox islands, 
 in Penobscot Bay, and found good mooring and fish- 
 ing. Like Gosnold, he considered the fish which he 
 toolt superior to those of Newfoundland. He made a 
 second voyage three years later ; and Gorges remarks 
 that his discovery of the eastern part of New England 
 was perfect, and his account of it accurate. "Way- 
 mouth, under the patronage of several English noble- 
 men, and other persons of rank, came in 1605. " A 
 True Relation" of his adventures was written b}' 
 James Rosier, "a gentleman emploj'ed in the voy- 
 age," and printed in London in the same year. He 
 agrees with those who had preceded him in every es- 
 sential particular. As they departed for England, 
 they caught very large fish ; and he ssiys that those 
 
 * Republitshed in Collections of Massachusetts Historical 
 Society, vol. 8th of 3d aeries. 
 
 + Prince Charles changed the name to " Cape James," in 
 honor of his father; hut Gosnold' s appellation has been pre- 
 served to the present time. 
 
 on board of the ship, who were familiar with the busi- 
 ness, " would warrant (by the help of God), in a short 
 voyage, with a few goodfshers, to make a more profiahle 
 return from hence than from Newfoundland ; the fish 
 heing so much greater, better fed, and abundance with 
 train," etc.* 
 
 The Fisheries from the commencement of the Revolu- 
 tionary Controversy to the Declaration of Independence, 
 — In tracing the origin and progress of the fisheries of 
 New England, we have seen that they furnished our 
 first articles of export, and laid the foundation of our 
 navigation and commerce. It was so in Europe. Of 
 the present maritime powers of the Old World, there is 
 scarcely one that does not owe much of its commercial 
 prosperity to the same branch of industry. Some fugi- 
 tives from the wrath of the monster Attila fled to the isles 
 of the Adriatic, where, of necessity, they adopted the 
 avocation of fishermen. By this employment, steadily 
 continued, Venice in a few centuries became renowned 
 forher wealtli, commerce, and naval strength. The ori- 
 gin of the republic was celebrated for a long period, 
 and the omission or refusal of a Doge to provide the 
 customary banquet, and to submit to the fishermen's 
 embrace, allowed by his predecessors on this national 
 festival, made the name of Contarini hateful, and well- 
 nigh caused the subversion of all legal restraint, and 
 the overthrow of the reigning family. Genoa, too, 
 grew rich and powerful by the same means, and, not 
 content with her own limited fishing-grounds, under- 
 took the conquest of others. Usurping the fisheries 
 of the regions of the Bosphorus, she captured and for 
 a while awed into submission their rightful owners. 
 Amsterdam, from a village of herring-catchers, cabins, 
 and curing-sheds, rose, by the skill of the inmates of 
 these frail structures, by the fame of their commodi- 
 ties in foreign countries, and by the immense Con- 
 sumption of them at home, to unexampled affluence 
 and grandeur ; and the sayings everywhere current 
 two centuries ago, that "Amsterdam is founded oa 
 herring-bones," and that " Dutchmen's bodies are 
 built of pickled herrings," were hardly more than 
 quaint expressions of historic truth. 
 
 So steadily and successfully were the fisheries pur- 
 sued by the people of Plymouth, Massachusetts, New 
 Hampshire, and Maine, that only fifty years elapsed 
 from the landing of the Puritans, before an English 
 writer of high authority in matters of trade, expressed 
 his apprehension as to the events likely to result, in 
 the following remarkable words: "New England," 
 said he, "is the most prejudicial plantation to this 
 kingdom." And why? Because, " of all the American 
 plantations, his majesty has none so apt for building 
 of shipping as New England, nor any comparably so 
 qualified for the breeding of seamen, not only by rea- 
 son of the natural industrj' of that people, but princi- 
 pally by reason of their cod and mackerel fisheries ; 
 and, in my poor opinion, there is nothing more preju- 
 dicial, and in prospect more dangerous, to any mother 
 kingdom, than the increase of shipping in her colonies, 
 plantations, or provinces." Sir Josiah Child was 
 alarmed too much, probably, at what really was in his 
 own time, but still saw with a prophet's eye what was 
 to be. But the policj' of England, from the restora- 
 tion of the Stuarts down to the Revolution, was in 
 strict accordance with the apprehensions expressed by 
 him, and she not only neglected and declined all sup- 
 port to the navigation and commerce of New England, 
 but directly oppressed and restrained them. Omitting 
 notice of the acts of Parliament which do not relate 
 specially to the subject before us, the first law to 
 claim our attention was passed in 1733, after a discus- 
 sion of two years. This act, by imposing duties on 
 rum, molasses, and sugar, imported into the colonies 
 from any West India islands other than British, was 
 designed to break up an extensive and valuable trade 
 
 With larger livers — of course affording more oil 
 
FIS 
 
 en 
 
 FIS 
 
 ■with the French, Dutch, and Spanish islands, where 
 these products of the plantiitions were exchanged for 
 fish. It is said that, previous to the commencement 
 of the trade to these islands, molasses was thrown 
 away by the planters, and that this article, which is 
 now so extensively used in food, was first saved and 
 put into casks to be brought to New England, to be 
 distilled into rum. Certain it is, that on the passage 
 of the act of 1733, the people of the northern colonies 
 insisted that, unless they could continue to sell fish to 
 the planters of the foreign islands, and to import mo- 
 lasses from thence to be manufactured into spirit, for 
 domestic consumption and for trade with the Indians, 
 they could not prosecute the fisheries without ruinous 
 losses. The penalty for violating the act was the for- 
 feiture of vessel and cargo. Yet New England never 
 submitted, though a fleet was sent to enforce obedi- 
 ence ; and the interdicted trade with the French, 
 Dutch, and Spanish islands, did not cease until a late 
 period of the controversy which terminated in the 
 Eevolution. In fact, therefore, a measure which 
 threatened to ruin the cod-fisherj' of New England, 
 produced, as I incline to believe, no serious injury to 
 it, for quite thirty years. 
 
 But in 1764 the act was renewed, and the collection 
 of the duties it imposed on rum, molasses, and sugar, 
 was attempted by the officers of the crown, in a man- 
 ner to create the most anxious concern ; for, the juris- 
 diction of the admiralty courts was enlarged, and the 
 people were deprived of the trial by jury in all cases 
 arising between them and the government under this 
 law, and the trade and navigation laws generally. 
 
 The most alarming discontents followed the collis- 
 ions and quarrels which constantly occurred between 
 ship-masters and merchants, on the one hand, and the 
 officers of the customs on the other, in various parts of 
 New England, and especially in Boston, Salem, Glou- 
 cester, Falmouth, and elsewhere in Massachusetts ; 
 and tlie impression became general among commercial 
 men, that their business and property were both to be 
 sacrificed to appease the clamors of the planters of the 
 British islands, and to test the ability of. the mother 
 country to " raise a revenue in America" under the 
 "sugar and molasses act," as this odious law was 
 called in the politics of the day. , . 
 
 These incidents wiU serve to show the connection of 
 
 the fisheries with the questions which caused a dis- 
 memberment of the British empire. It remains to 
 speak of the act of Parliament passed in 1775, which, 
 by depriving the people of New England of the right 
 of fishing, was designed to " starve them into submis- 
 sion." The trade arising from the cod-fishery alone, 
 at that period, furnished the northern colonies with 
 nearly half of their remittances to the mother country, 
 in payment for articles of British manufacture, and 
 was thus the very life-blood of their commerce. The 
 fishing towns had become populous and rich. Marble- 
 head, for example, next to Boston, was the most im- 
 portant place in Massachusetts, and was second to the 
 capital only in population and taxable property. A 
 fearful change awaited all. The dispute was now to 
 be determined by an appeal to arms, and every mari- 
 time enterprise was to be interrupted and ruined. 
 
 We have already given in this article a short his- 
 torical account of the fishery of the United States, and 
 of the treaties now or hitherto in force respecting the 
 fisheries ; so the remainder of this article wUl be con- 
 fined to the statistics of our fisheries since our sep- 
 aration from Great Britain. 
 
 Statistics of 
 
 THE VEAE 
 
 THE CoD-FlSmET OF MASSACHUSETTS FKOK 
 
 1765 TO 1776, AHD moM 1786 to 1790. 
 
 Towns. 
 
 From 1165 to 1775. 
 
 From 1786 to 1790. j 
 
 Vosiola 
 iMin'Hy 
 empl'd. 
 
 Tonnnge. 
 
 No. of 
 
 men. 
 
 VesaeJs 
 ann'lly 
 ompl'd. 
 
 Tomiage. 
 
 No. of 
 men. 
 
 Marblehead. . . 
 
 Gloucester 
 
 Manchester...' 
 
 Beverly 
 
 Salem 
 
 Newburyport. 
 
 Ipswich 
 
 Plymouth 
 
 Cohasset 
 
 riinghara 
 
 Scituate 
 
 Duxbury 
 
 Kingston 
 
 Yarmouth 
 
 Wellfleet...... 
 
 Truro 
 
 Provinoetown. 
 
 Chatham 
 
 Nantucket 
 
 Weymouth . . . 
 
 In Maine 
 
 Total 
 
 180 
 
 146 
 
 26 
 
 16 
 
 30 
 
 10 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 80 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 SO 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 60 
 
 7,500 
 
 6,580 
 
 1,500 
 
 760 
 
 1,600 
 
 400 
 
 900 
 
 2,400 
 
 240 
 
 240 
 
 400 
 
 160 
 
 240 
 
 900 
 
 90 
 
 400 
 
 160 
 
 900 
 
 820 
 
 100 
 
 1,000 
 
 1,200 
 
 888 
 
 200 
 
 120 
 
 240 
 
 60 
 
 190 
 
 420 
 
 42 
 
 42 
 
 70 
 
 28 
 
 42 
 
 180 
 
 21 
 
 80 
 
 82 
 
 240, 
 
 64' 
 
 16 
 
 280 
 
 90 
 
 160 
 
 15' 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 10 
 
 86 
 
 86 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 30 
 
 "ii 
 
 80 
 5 
 8 
 
 80 
 
 8,400 
 8,600 
 
 900 
 
 1,286 
 
 1,800 
 
 460 
 
 860 
 
 1,440 
 
 200 
 
 180 
 
 90 
 
 360 
 
 160 
 
 900 
 
 '"650 
 900 
 200 
 160 
 300 
 
 720 
 680 
 120 
 157 
 160 
 80 
 248 
 252 
 35 
 82 
 16 
 72 
 28 
 180 
 
 "88 
 
 240 
 
 40 
 
 24 
 
 120 
 
 665 
 
 25,630 
 
 4,405 
 
 639 
 
 19,186 
 
 8,292 
 
 Statistics of the Fisuekies of the United States in 1840. General. Yiew showing the PaoDUCE, Men, and 
 Capital employed in each State and TBERiTOaY. 
 
 States and Territories. 
 
 Number of quin- 
 tals of smoked or 
 dry flsh. 
 
 Number of 
 
 bflrrela of 
 
 pickled (ieh. 
 
 Number of gallons 
 of spermaceti oil. 
 
 Number of gallons 
 
 of whole and other 
 
 fish oU. 
 
 Value of whale- 
 bone and other 
 productions of the 
 fisheries. 
 
 Number of men 
 employed. 
 
 Capital invested 
 
 
 279,156 
 
 28,257,, 
 889,715 
 4,084 
 1,884 
 
 ■■■■5 
 
 2^885 
 
 ""2 
 9 
 
 69,66o 
 
 54,071 
 1,714 
 
 124,755 
 2,908 
 6,598 
 
 22,224 
 1,134 
 2,012 
 28,000 
 71,292 
 30,815 
 73,850 
 425 
 14 
 
 1,044 
 
 8,630^972 
 487,268 
 183,207 
 
 400,251 
 12,000 
 
 49,704 
 
 "262 
 
 117,807 
 
 16,284 
 
 8,364,725 
 
 638,860 
 1,909,047 
 
 1,269,541 
 80,000 
 
 142,675 
 2,387 
 
 '""14 
 '"28 
 
 ■"60 
 1,500 
 
 $2,861 
 
 ■442'974 
 46,623 
 167,572 
 
 S4'665 
 74,000 
 15,240 
 
 7,987 
 12,167 
 
 4,180 
 28,800 
 
 1,160 
 
 155 
 16,560 
 
 3,610 
 
 399 
 
 16,000 
 
 1,160 
 
 2,216 
 
 1,228 
 
 179 
 
 58 
 
 166 
 
 7,S14 
 
 666 
 
 1,784 
 
 53 
 
 6 
 
 "166 
 
 "453 
 
 67 
 
 133 
 
 "527 
 
 $526,967 
 
 69,680 
 
 11,725,850 
 
 1,077,157 
 
 1,801,640 
 
 949,260 
 93,276 ■ 
 16,460 
 
 170,000 
 88,947 
 28,383 
 
 218,502 
 1,617 
 
 "242 
 12,210 
 
 28,640 
 0,000 
 61,300 
 
 64^560 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Ehode Island 
 
 
 New York 
 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 
 
 
 '97 
 
 8,666 
 14 
 
 1 
 
 16i6S5 
 
 78 
 
 9,021 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ohio 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 District of Columbia. . 
 Total 
 
 1 24,800 
 
 778,947 1 472.859 1 4784.708 1 7.686.778 
 
 1,168,234 
 
 36,584 
 
 16,429,620 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
FIS 
 
 672 
 
 FIS 
 
 Statistics of tiee Cod-]?ishert of the United States, 
 exuibiting the tonnage employed ; bounty paid to 
 Fishing Vessels ; Imports op Salt ; Exports of Dried 
 Fish, and the Value of the same. 
 
 Year, Tonnage. 
 
 1789 
 1790 
 1791 
 1792 
 1793 
 1794 
 1796 
 1796 
 1797 
 1798 
 1799 
 1800 
 1801 
 1802 
 1803 
 1804 
 1805 
 1806 
 1807 
 1808 
 1809 
 1810 
 1811 
 1812 
 1818 
 1814 
 1815 
 1816 
 1817 
 1813 
 1819 
 1820 
 1821 
 1822 
 1828 
 1824 
 1825 
 1826 
 1827 
 1828 
 1829 
 1880 
 1831 
 1832 
 1888 
 1834 
 1885 
 1886 
 1837 
 1838 
 1S39 
 1340 
 1841 
 1842 
 1348 
 1844 
 1845 
 1846 
 1847 
 1818 
 1849 
 1850 
 1851 
 
 19,185 
 28,348 
 82,542 
 82,060 
 50,163 
 28,671 
 80,934 
 34,968 
 40,629 
 42,746 
 29,978 
 29,427 
 89,881 
 41,621 
 61,813 
 52,014 
 57,466 
 59,183 
 69,306 
 51,998 
 84,486 
 84,828 
 43,238 
 80,459 
 20,878 
 17,355 
 36,938 
 48,126 
 64,807 
 69,107 
 76,076 
 72,040 
 
 'r8,258 
 77,446 
 81,462 
 
 94,756 
 101,797 
 
 93,529 
 106,188 
 102,464 
 111,446 
 117,436 
 
 80,552 
 70,064 
 72,248 
 76,086 
 66,551 
 54,808 
 61,223 
 85,224 
 76,990 
 79,818 
 78,280 
 89,866 
 81,696 
 93,806, 
 95,616* 
 
 $72,965 82 
 
 93,768 91 
 
 66,280 47 
 
 76,389 68 
 
 80,475 76 
 
 94,684 30 
 
 128,605 87 
 
 87,853 46 
 
 74,520 92 
 
 104,447 92 
 
 117,178 57 
 
 145,986 78 
 
 152,927 72 
 
 162,191 99 
 
 161,254 17 
 
 142,911 89 
 
 47,166 11 
 
 3,406 44 
 
 None. 
 
 1,811 74 
 84,736 26 
 119,919 61 
 148,916 65 
 161,623 85 
 197,834 63 
 170,052 91 
 149,897 88 
 176,706 04 
 208,924 08 
 198,724 97 
 216,859 01 
 206,185 56 
 289,146 20 
 261,069 94 
 197,642 28 
 200,428 39 
 219,746 27 
 245,182 40 
 218,218 76 
 228,7B4 93 
 218,091 03 
 260,181 03 
 814,149 00 
 
 Salt Dried flsli 
 
 imported. exported. 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 ], 260,265 
 2,856,760 
 1,860,479 
 1,779,610 
 2,027,832 
 2,953,411 
 2,2.38,186 
 8,975,922 
 2,674,261 
 2,391,468 
 2,471,969 
 8,095,307 
 3,282,064 
 8,564,605 
 8,862,804 
 8,479,878 
 3,652,277 
 8,941,616 
 4,671,628 
 1,300,177 
 No returns 
 
 838,344 
 2,020,181 
 6,854,821 
 2,884,604 
 8,678,626 
 3,874,852 
 4,711,329 
 8,943,727 
 4,037,881 
 6,127,657 
 4,401,899 
 4,574,202 
 4,564,720 
 4,320,489 
 8,962,957 
 5,945,.647 
 6,374,046 
 4,182,840 
 6,041,424 
 6,822,672 
 6,088,076 
 5,875,364 
 5,088,666 
 6,84.3,706 
 7,108,147 
 6,061,603 
 8,138,203 
 6,828,946 
 
 11,622,168 
 
 11,224,185 
 
 8,681,176 
 
 QuSntAls. 
 
 888,287 
 864,398 
 372,825 
 486,907 
 400,318 
 377,718 
 406,016 
 411,175 
 423,495 
 892,726 
 410,948 
 440,925 
 461,870 
 567,328 
 514,549 
 637,457 
 478,924 
 185,308 
 345,648 
 230,864 
 214,387 
 169,019 
 63,616 
 81,810 
 108,261 
 219,991 
 267,614 
 808,747 
 280,665 
 321,419 
 267,306 
 241,228 
 262,766 
 810,189 
 800,857 
 260,803 
 247,321 
 265,217 
 294,761 
 229,796 
 230,677 
 250,644 
 249,689 
 258,132 
 287,721 
 240,769 
 188,948 
 206,028 
 208,720 
 211,426 
 252,199 
 266,033 
 174,220 
 271,610 
 288,380 
 277,401 
 268,870 
 206,649 
 197,467 
 168.600 
 15i;088 
 
 Value of 
 exports. 
 
 1,620,000 
 2,400,000 
 2,058,000 
 2,160,000 
 1,396,000 
 623,000 
 1,128,000 
 913,000 
 767,000 
 592,000 
 210,000 
 128,000 
 494000 
 935,000 
 1,003,000 
 1,081,000 
 1,052,000 
 964,000 
 703,778 
 666,730 
 734,024 
 873,685 
 830,856 
 667,742 
 747,171 
 819,926 
 747,541 
 830,690 
 626,893 
 749,909 
 71.3,317 
 630,886 
 788,895 
 746,464 
 688,506 
 626,246 
 709,218 
 541,058 
 602,310 
 567,782 
 881,175 
 699,833 
 803,858 
 699,669 
 659,629 
 609,482 
 419,092 
 865,349 
 367,729 
 
 * Maine, 46,528; New Hampshire, 1,916; Massachusetts, 
 89,982 ; Rhode Island, 371 ; Connecticut, 6,785 ; New York, 
 1,034; Total, 93,616. 
 
 ' The Mackerel Fishery^ from the settlement of New 
 England to the year 1852. — It is frequently said tliat the 
 mackerel fishery is of very recent origin, or that, at 
 least, vessels were not employed in it until about the 
 close of the last or the beginning of the present century. 
 Both suppositions are entirely eiToneous. The Indians, 
 regardless of the beautiful form and color of the fish, 
 called it wawwunneJceseaff, on account of its fatness. 
 There is mention of it in the earliest records of the 
 country. Winthrop relates that in 1633, the ship 
 Griffin, two days before her arrival at Boston, lost a 
 passenger by drowning, as he was casting forth a line 
 to catch mackerel. The first settlers must have 
 commenced the fishery soon after, since, to omit sev- 
 eral minor incidents, we have the fact that Allerton, 
 one of the Pilgrims who came over in the Mayflower, 
 received mackerel for sale at New Haven, on " half 
 profits," in the year 1653. That the business was 
 prosecuted with success is evident from the additional 
 
 fact, that in 1660 the commissioners of the colonies of 
 Kew England recommended to the general courts of 
 the confederacy to regulate it, " considering" that 
 " the fish is the most staple commodity of this coun- 
 try." The mackerel fishery at Cape Cod was held by 
 the government of the colony of Plymouth as public 
 property, and its profits were appropriated to public 
 uses. The records show that it was rented from 
 time to time to individuals, who paid stipulated sums ; 
 and that a part of the fund to support the first free- 
 school established by our Pilgrim fathers was derived 
 from it. — Sabine's Report to Congress, 1853. 
 
 The proposition to found and endow a school of this 
 description seems to have been made in 1663, but not 
 to have been adopted until seven years later, when the 
 general court, " upon due and serious consideration, 
 did freely give and grant all such profits as might or 
 should annually accrue to the colony," from this and 
 the bass and herring fisheries, at the same place. In 
 1689, the " rent of the Cape fishery was added to the 
 appropriation for magistrates' salaries for that year." 
 Statistics op the Mackerel Fishery op tub United 
 States. 
 
 1804 
 1305 
 1306 
 1307 
 1808 
 1809 
 1810 
 1811 
 1812 
 1818 
 1314 
 1315 
 1816 
 1317 
 1818 
 1819 
 1820 
 1821 
 1322 
 1823 
 1324 
 1825 
 1826 
 1827 
 1323 
 1829 
 1830 
 1881 
 
 1384 
 1385 
 1386 
 1337 
 1383 
 1839 
 1340 
 1841 
 1842 
 1843 
 1344 
 1845 
 1346 
 1847 
 1848 
 1349 
 1850 
 1351 
 1852 
 
 Tononge 
 employed. 
 
 48,725 
 
 46,811 
 66,649 
 
 11,821 
 16,096 
 11,775 
 16,170 
 21,413 
 36,463 
 81,461 
 48,568 
 42,942 
 68,112 
 60,539* 
 
 Mackerel inspeeted. 
 
 In 
 
 In 
 
 MassachiiaettB. 
 
 N. Hampshire 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 8,079 
 
 
 3,936 
 
 
 8,473 
 
 
 10,904 
 
 
 7,788 
 
 
 8,365 
 
 
 18,068 
 
 
 19,682 
 
 
 6,018 
 
 
 8,882 
 
 
 1,349 
 
 
 16,894 
 
 
 80,021 
 
 
 37,932 
 
 
 47,210 
 
 
 105,438 
 
 
 236,243 
 
 
 111,009 
 
 
 160,294 
 
 
 145,006 
 
 
 191,660 
 
 
 264,381 
 
 
 168,740 
 
 
 190,810 
 
 
 2.37,.324 
 
 
 226,382 
 
 
 303,462 
 
 20,800 
 
 888,659 
 
 21,460 
 
 212,462 
 
 21,700 
 
 212,946 
 
 19,878 
 
 262,884 
 
 18,200 
 
 194,460 
 
 15,300 
 
 176,931 
 
 9,460 
 
 188,167 
 
 5,225 
 
 108,538 
 
 3,420 
 
 73,018 
 
 700 
 
 50,992 
 
 630 
 
 65,637 
 
 1,100 
 
 76,543 
 
 1,060 
 
 64,451 
 
 1,176 
 
 86,181 
 
 1,240 
 
 202,802 
 
 1,076 
 
 174,064 
 
 1,369 
 
 232,581 
 
 2,008 
 
 800,130 
 
 2,400 
 
 231,866 
 
 2,867 
 
 
 8,126 
 
 829,242 
 
 3,078 
 
 197,768 
 
 2,140 
 
 38,066 
 
 40,661 
 
 22,462 
 24,812 
 
 81,472 
 
 * Maine, 9,868 ; New Hampshire, 481 ; Massachusetts, 
 89,416; Rhode Island, 190; Connecticut, 694; Total, 50,639. 
 
 Exact statements as to the progress and extent of 
 the mackerel fishery previous to the Revolution, are 
 hardly to be found ; but it is still certain that the peo- 
 ple of Rhode Island and Connecticut, as well as those 
 of Massachusetts, were " largely concerned in it ;" and 
 that fleets of sloops employed in it were often seen 
 upon the coast and in the harbors. It is certain also 
 that about the year 1770 the town of Scituate alone 
 owned upward of 30 vessels that were annually fitted 
 out as " mackerel catchers ;" and that the whole num- 
 ber of vessels in Massachusetts was not less than 100. 
 
FIS 
 
 673 
 
 FIS 
 
 Soon after the peace of 1783, a writer in a Boston news- 
 paper, in a series of articles on American commerce, 
 said that the mackerel fishery " was of more value to 
 Massachusetts than would he the pearl fisheries of 
 Ceylon." 
 
 Annual Keturn op tdb NtrMBEK of Barrels, Halves, 
 Quarters, and Eiqiitiis of Babkels of Mackerel and 
 OTHER Pickled Fisu, estimated in Barrels, inspected 
 IN Mabbaouusetts, foe the Tear ending Becembes 
 81, 1852, AS PER THE Eeturns of the- Deputy Inspect- 
 ors, now in the Office of tub Inspector General. 
 
 Whera Inspected. • No. of Barrels. 
 
 Boston ; 89,89l| 
 
 Gloncoster. 48,012} 
 
 Beverly 866} ' 
 
 Eookport 6,845i 
 
 Nawbnryport 11,806 
 
 Provincetown 17,640 
 
 'Truro 2,640f 
 
 ■Wellfleet 11,8674 
 
 Chatham 67,649} 
 
 Harwich 9,Ut| 
 
 Dennis 10,29Di 
 
 Tarmouth 8,285 
 
 Barnstable 8,1988 
 
 Hlngham 18,188| 
 
 Cohasset 11,616* 
 
 Plymouth 67 
 
 8aiem 14 
 
 Total. ; 196,768i 
 
 The above includes all except two returns 
 from Provtncetown and onefrom Scituate, 
 estimated at 1,000 
 
 Total 1852 197,7681 
 
 Seinspected at Boston 19,77l| 
 
 Total ■ 817,5401 
 
 All other kinds of pickled fish 9,254 
 
 Total amount of mackerel inspected In 1852 197,768i 
 Total amount of mackerel inspected iu 1851 839,278 
 
 Decrease of 1852 from 1851 ' 181,SD9i 
 
 Statistics of foreign Mackerel imported into and ex- 
 ported PROM THE TJnitbd States, and op dried Cod- 
 
 fish imported into the same. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Mnckerel. 
 
 Codfish. 
 
 Imported into 
 
 Exported from 
 tbe United 
 
 
 
 the United 
 
 Imported. 
 
 
 Stntes. 
 
 Slates. 
 
 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 Quintals. 
 
 Value. 
 
 1821 
 
 7 
 
 None. 
 
 
 
 1822 
 
 887 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 
 1828 
 
 67 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 
 1824 
 
 790 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 
 1826 
 
 242 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 
 1826 
 
 87 
 
 tt 
 
 
 
 
 1827 
 
 89 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 
 1828 
 
 83 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 
 1829 
 
 95 
 
 (( 
 
 
 
 
 1880 
 
 891 
 
 « 
 
 
 
 
 1831 
 
 4,552 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 
 1883 
 
 82 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 
 18-38 
 
 20 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 
 1834 
 
 223 
 
 
 
 
 
 1885 
 
 8,158 
 
 850 
 
 
 
 
 1886 
 
 6,087 
 
 937 
 
 
 
 
 1837 
 
 1,256 
 
 850 
 
 
 
 
 1888 
 
 182 
 
 
 
 
 
 1839 
 
 7,046 
 
 
 4,295 
 
 $24^803 
 
 1840 
 
 11,828 
 
 
 4,061 
 
 19,355 
 
 1841 
 1842 
 1848 
 
 10,887 
 
 
 2,438 
 
 19,262 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1844 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1845 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1846 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1847 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 184S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1849 
 
 138,505 
 
 28,295 
 
 22,520 
 
 48,709 
 
 1850 
 
 76,491 
 
 18,577 
 
 25,115 
 
 45,961 
 
 1851 
 
 102,688 
 
 18,240 
 
 14.705 
 
 27,769 
 
 There is little of interest relating to this branch of 
 industry for several years after the period last men- 
 tioned. A highly respectable shipmaster, who is still 
 living, entertains the opinion that the fishery in vessels 
 was commenced within 60 years; and that "he was 
 personally engaged in the Jirst regular mackerel voyage 
 ever made in New England." His account, as related 
 to me by himself, would occupy too much room. Its 
 substance is, that he engaged in the coasting business for 
 
 some time between Massachusetts and Maine ; he com- 
 monly saw and caught mackerel during the summer 
 months in the vicinity of the island of Mount Desert ; 
 that believing that they might he taken in quantities, 
 he resolved finally to fit out a vessel for the express 
 purpose ; that his success was even greater than he 
 had expected, and that others were induced to follow 
 his example. The mistake of this gentleman probably 
 is, that what he considered the origin of the vessel 
 fishery was only a revival of it ; since we can easily 
 imagine that repeated losses and discouragements had 
 caused a suspension of it. 
 
 The Herring Fishery^ from its commencement to theyear 
 1852. — We hear of this fishery among the Pilgrims. 
 In 1641 they rented the herring wear at Plymouth for 
 three j'ears to three men, " who were to deliver the 
 shares of fish, and receive Is. 6d. per 1000 for their 
 trouble." We hear of it on the coast of Maine also a 
 few years afterward. Jesselyn says that the " herrin" 
 were " so numerous, they take of them all summer 
 long. In 1670," he continues, " they were driven into 
 Black Point harbor, by other great fish that prey upon 
 them, so near the shore that they threw themselves (it 
 being high water) upon dry land in such infinite num- 
 bers that we might have gone half way the leg among 
 them for near a quarter of a mile." He repeats the 
 account in his " Chronological Observations of Amer- 
 ica;" where he states, that so "wonderful" was the 
 quantity, that " they were half-leg deep for a mile to- 
 gether." Of the manner of cooking at that period he 
 remarks, that " we used to qualify a pickled herrin by 
 boiling of him in milk." These incidents are sufficient 
 to show the early origin. 
 
 From the fragmentary notices of the fishery which 
 are to be met with, it seems probable that, for a long 
 time, as the scools of herrings came to our coasts, the 
 inhabitants on the sea and rivers, from Maine to the 
 Carolinas, generally secured sufficient for consumption 
 fresh ; that the more careful provided themselves with 
 salt to cure quantities for future use ; and that some, 
 becoming regular fishermen, caught and cured the fish 
 for sale to their neighbors of the interior. And that 
 the practice was continued, substantially, without in- 
 terruption, until the waters resorted to by the herring 
 for the deposit of its spawn were obstructed by dams 
 and mills, is hardly to be doubted. It is certainly true 
 that on some of the rivers, where the ^shery is now 
 nearly extinct, the supply at the revolutionary era 
 was considered inexhaustible ; and that farmers and 
 fishermen were in the constant habit of filling wagons 
 and boats with scoop-nets and other simple implements. 
 
 The Halibut Fishery. — The halibut fishery on George's 
 Bank is a new enterprise. It was commenced witliin 
 a few years by the adventurous fishermen of Cape 
 Ann. Pursued in mid-winter, it is as hazardous an 
 employment as can well be imagined. 
 
 While the fishery was confined to the coast, the con- 
 sumption of the fish was very limited. In April, 1843, 
 the Norfolk Herald announced that " our market, yes- 
 terday morning, was enriched with a delicacy from the 
 northern waters, the halibut — a strange Jtsh in these 
 parts, kru)wn only to epicures and naturalists,^* 
 
 The New Orleans Picayune, in May of the same 
 year, contained a similar paragraph. At present, the 
 fish, packed in boxes with ice, is sent, sound and sweet, 
 by railroads and vessels, to the most distant sections 
 of the country. Vessels employed on the Bank are 
 absent from port from six to fourteen days. The av- 
 erage catch of halibut is perhaps 200 to a vessel, though 
 some obtain double that number. The weight of the 
 fish is from 50 to 200 pounds. [For nearly the whole 
 of this article we are indebted to Mr. Sabine's valuable 
 Report on Fisheries, 1853.] . 
 
 For some time, dealers in Boston purchased, packed, 
 and shipped the fish almost exclusively ; but a com- 
 pany was finally formed at Gloucester for the purpose 
 of transacting this part of the business as well aa the 
 
FIS 
 
 614: 
 
 FIS 
 
 other. The fishermen, however, resort again to Bos- 
 ton ; for this company, after losing a considerable part 
 of their capital, relinquished their design. 
 
 The growth of the fisherj' has been rapid. The 
 number of vessels employed in it, owned at Glouces- 
 ter, was 30 in 1844 ; 63 in 1848 ; and about 75 in April, 
 1852. The present fleet contains many new, well- 
 modeled, and fast^sailing vessels. The value of the 
 halibut caught in 1851 was upward of $60,000. 
 
 I can not forbear to add, that had our statesmen 
 stood by the doctrine which was asserted and main- 
 tained at Ghent by the American commissioners, one 
 source of calamity at least would have been spared to 
 our fishermen. The rights guarantied to us formed a 
 part of, and in their very nature were as perpetual as, 
 our independence as a nation. The first article of the 
 convention of 1818 should never have been agreed to 
 by our government. The third article of the treaty 
 of 1783 ought never to have been stricken from 
 that instrument. It is now too l&te to correct the 
 mistake. 
 
 The earnings of the vessels sent to the Bank are 
 generally ample ; but the fisherj' is not profitable, in 
 consequence of the extraordinarj- wear and tear of 
 sails and rigging, and the frequent loss of cables and 
 anchors. More than all, hardly a season passes with- 
 out appalling disasters. Whenever a vessel is lost on 
 George's, all on board perish. 
 
 An American citizen may contend, if he will, for the 
 repeal of our bounty laws ; he may favor a low duty, 
 or no duty whatever, on foreign fish ; but he is bound 
 to honor the courage and perseverance of the halibut 
 catchers of Cape Ann, who, mid the storms and gales 
 of a northern winter, procure for him the luscious napes 
 and Jins which garnish his board. 
 
 The statistics of the produce of the United States' 
 fisheries for 1855 and 1856 are shown by the following 
 table, taken from the Keport on Commerce and Navi- 
 gation : 
 
 Statement showing the Dombstio Exports op Pish from 
 THE United States for the Year ending June 30, 
 1866. 
 
 Whither exported. 
 
 Swedish West Indies. , 
 
 Banish "West Indies. . . 
 
 Dutch West Indies 
 
 Dutch Guiana 
 
 England 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 Canada. 
 
 Other Bntish N. Amer- 
 ican Possessions 
 
 British West Indies. . . 
 
 British Honduras. 
 
 British Guiana 
 
 Brit. Poss. in Africa. . . 
 
 British Australia 
 
 British East Indies 
 
 France on the Atlantic 
 
 French West Indies. , 
 
 French Guiana 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Porto Etco 
 
 Madeira. 
 
 Cape de Verd Islands. 
 
 Turkey in Asia 
 
 Other Ports in Africa. 
 
 Hayti 
 
 San Domingo 
 
 Mexico 
 
 'Central Kepubhc 
 
 New Grenada 
 
 Ten^zuela 
 
 BraziL 
 
 Uruguay, or Cisplatine 
 Republic 
 
 Buenos Ayres, or Ar- 
 gentine Eepublic 
 
 €hili 
 
 Peru 
 
 Equador... v 
 
 Sandwich Islands 
 
 China. 
 
 ^hale Fisheries 
 
 Total 
 
 Dried or Emoked. 
 
 2,186 
 
 1,185 
 
 26,249 
 
 .3,454 
 
 849 
 
 1, 
 
 1,031 
 
 804 
 
 94 
 
 8,88T 
 
 40 
 
 80 
 
 111 
 
 6,128 
 
 59,864 
 
 12,879 
 
 26 
 
 20 
 
 134 
 
 614 
 
 686 
 151 
 Tl 
 
 110 
 
 63 
 52T 
 
 2T4 
 50 
 
 163,971 
 
 4,805 
 69,455 
 
 "149 
 26,914 
 
 2,347 
 
 5,301 
 
 4,867 
 
 2,381 
 
 891 
 
 87,332 
 
 168 
 
 27' 
 
 4,171 
 
 15,884 
 
 174,828 
 
 89,106 
 
 120 
 
 64 
 
 460 
 
 2,273 
 
 146,121 
 
 1,973 
 
 724 
 
 810 
 
 4,253 
 
 4 960 
 
 16,651 
 
 450 
 
 2,.S84 
 
 435 
 
 72 
 
 222 
 
 1,470 
 201 
 
 Barrels, 
 
 1,208 
 61 
 
 2,192 
 14 
 50 
 
 1,969 
 
 678,011 
 
 695 
 
 169 
 
 75 
 
 300 
 
 4,296 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 820 
 
 962 
 
 1,109 
 
 1,937 
 
 18,61 
 
 17 
 180 
 
 4 
 
 "is 
 
 '177 
 15 
 64 
 
 30,801 
 
 Kegs. 
 
 "41 
 
 '295 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 600 
 
 156 
 
 Ifpliurs. 
 
 6,678 
 318 
 
 11,515 
 146 
 226 
 
 17,064 
 
 1,246 
 
 2,946 
 
 1,066 
 
 725 
 
 1,004 
 
 24,992 
 
 15 
 
 4 
 
 4,508 
 
 4,490 
 
 6,424 
 
 10,120 
 
 General Statement of Domestic Exports, abbanoed 
 BY Districts, prom the United States, for the Year 
 ENDING June 30, 1856. 
 
 Distriets. 
 
 I Dried or smoked. 
 
 Passamaquoddy. 
 
 Bath 
 
 Portland & Falmouth. 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Newburyport 
 
 Gloucester. 
 
 Salom 
 
 Boston & Charlestown, 
 
 FallEiver......; 
 
 Providence .' 
 
 Bristol and Warren 
 
 Newport 
 
 New London 
 
 New Haven 
 
 Genesee 
 
 Oswego 
 
 Niagara. 
 
 Buffalo Creek 
 
 Oswegatchie 
 
 New York 
 
 Champlain 
 
 Cape Vincent 
 
 Philadelphia 
 
 Presque Isle 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Baltimore 
 
 Alexandria 
 
 Richmond 
 
 Newbern 
 
 Beaufort 
 
 Charleston 
 
 Key West 6 
 
 New Orleans 
 
 Detroit 
 
 Oregon 
 
 Puget'8 Sound 
 
 San Francisco 
 
 Total. 
 
 Cwt. 
 
 368 
 
 630 
 
 10,276 
 
 172 
 
 6,473 
 
 11,721 
 
 3,72S 
 
 84,408 
 
 16 
 
 "'il 
 
 96 
 89 
 638 
 
 1,164 
 
 130 
 
 188 
 
 201 
 
 86,769 
 
 l',4i4 
 6,836 
 
 1,642 
 
 9 
 
 8,885 
 
 6 
 
 120 
 
 1,721 
 
 19,888 
 
 862 
 
 15,101 
 
 80,868 
 
 9,929 
 
 270,973 
 
 53 
 
 814 
 
 152 
 
 1,940 
 
 19,726 
 636 
 971 
 914 
 
 149,808 
 
 8,i94 
 18,768 
 
 525 
 
 34 
 23,042 
 
 27 
 
 no 
 
 114 1.079 
 
 Pickled. 
 
 25 
 
 170 
 
 1,181 
 
 1, 
 
 404 
 
 14,805 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 110 
 
 7 
 111 
 
 Kegs, 
 
 "600 
 
 "ik 
 "■40 
 
 471 
 
 295 
 
 142'. 
 
 5 . 
 
 10,156 . 
 
 65 
 
 2... 
 17 1 
 
 "'7"i84 
 160 
 
 15 
 
 2 2,458 
 
 DollBr^. 
 
 16S 
 
 SOO 
 
 1,L- 
 
 10,6S4 
 
 8,766 
 
 6,692 
 
 2,4T2 
 
 78,842 
 
 106 
 
 53 
 
 '"79 
 
 478 
 
 1,694 
 
 48 
 
 1,636 
 
 1975 
 
 89 
 
 63,407 
 
 2,192 
 
 1,888 
 
 360 
 10 
 120 
 
 "675 
 520 
 689 
 120 
 
 168,9711 578,0111 30,801i 4,0651 173,889 
 
 A comparative View of tub Tonnage op the United 
 States employed in tue Whale Fishery ; also the 
 Proportion of the enrolled and Licensed Tonnage 
 employed in the Coasting Trade, Cod Fishery, 
 Mackerel Fishery, and Whale Fishery, raoM 1816 
 to 1856, inclusive. ' '-" ''"'" 
 
 
 
 Regiat'd- 
 
 Tonnage 
 
 PROPOKTIOW OF THE HNEOLLED 
 
 Yenr 
 
 Total 
 tonnage. 
 
 tonnage 
 'in the 
 wha'e 
 
 employ'd 
 in steatn 
 naviga- 
 
 TONNAGE BMPLOybD IH THE 
 
 Coasting 
 
 Cod ^t\ 
 
 Vhale 
 
 
 
 fishery. 
 
 tioS. 
 
 trade. 
 
 
 fishery. 
 
 1,280 
 
 1816 
 
 1,868,127 
 
 
 
 485,067 
 
 26,510 
 
 1S16 
 
 1,872,219 
 
 
 
 479,979 
 
 87,879 
 
 
 ^'K 
 
 1817 
 
 1,899,911 
 
 4,871 
 
 
 481,458 
 
 58,990 
 
 
 860 
 
 1818 
 
 1,226,184 
 
 16,186 
 
 
 508,140 
 
 68,552 
 
 
 61b 
 
 1819 
 
 1,260,762 
 
 81,700 
 
 
 528,656 
 
 65,045 
 
 
 6S6 
 
 1820 
 
 1,280,166 
 
 8.5,391 
 
 
 689,030 
 
 60,848 
 
 
 1,064 
 
 1821 
 
 1,298,959 
 
 26,071 
 
 
 550,436 
 
 61,851 
 
 
 1,924 
 
 1822 
 
 1,824,699 
 
 45,449 
 
 
 578,080 
 
 53,400 
 
 
 8,134 
 
 1S28 
 
 1,336,566 
 
 89,918 
 
 24,879 
 
 666,409 
 
 67,621 
 
 
 686 
 
 1824 
 
 1,389,163 
 
 33,166 
 
 21,610 
 
 689,223 
 
 68,419 
 
 
 180 
 
 1825 
 
 1,423111 
 
 35,379 
 
 23,061 
 
 587,273 
 
 70,626 
 
 
 
 1826 
 
 1,584,191 
 
 41,757 
 
 67,059 
 
 666,420 
 
 6.3,761 
 
 
 227 
 
 1827 
 
 1,620,688 
 
 46,653 
 
 40,198 
 
 732,938 
 
 74,049 
 
 
 
 1828 
 
 1,741,392 
 
 54,621 
 
 89,418 
 
 768,922 
 
 74,943 
 
 
 180 
 
 1829 
 
 1,260,798 
 
 57,284 
 
 64,0Sr 
 
 508,856 
 
 101,797 
 
 
 
 18811 
 
 1,191,776 
 
 88,912 
 
 64,472 
 
 616,978 
 
 61,665 
 
 88,973 
 
 793 
 
 1831 
 
 1.267,816 
 
 82,316 
 
 84,436 
 
 689,724 
 
 60,978 
 
 46,211 
 
 
 1882 1,489,460 
 
 72,869 
 
 90,814 
 
 649,627 
 
 64,028 
 
 47,421 
 
 81/ 
 
 1«« 
 
 1,606,160 
 
 101,188 
 
 101,860 
 
 744,199 
 
 62,721 
 
 48,725 
 
 4/8 
 
 1884 
 
 1,758,907 
 
 108,060 
 
 122,815 
 
 783,619 
 
 64,404 
 
 61,082 
 
 864 
 
 1835 
 
 1,821,940 
 
 97,640 
 
 122,815 
 
 792,801 
 
 72,-374 
 
 64,448 
 
 
 1886 
 
 1,882,103 
 
 144,681 
 
 145,556 
 
 878.023 
 
 62,307 
 
 64,426 
 
 1,678 
 
 1887 
 
 1,896,686 
 
 127,243 
 
 164,765 
 
 956,981 
 
 80,652 
 
 46,811 
 
 1,894 
 
 1888 
 
 1,995,640 
 
 119,680 
 
 193,414 
 
 1,041,105 
 
 70,064 
 
 66,649 
 
 '"'uH 
 
 1889 
 
 2,096,479 
 
 181,845 
 
 204,988 
 
 1,153,652 
 
 72,269 
 
 .3j5,9S4 
 
 440 
 
 1840 2,180,764 
 
 186,927 
 
 201,339 
 
 1,176,694 
 
 76,086 
 
 2S,269 
 
 
 1841 2,130,744 
 
 157,406 
 
 176,088 
 
 1,107,068 
 
 66,552 
 
 11,821 
 
 
 1842 
 
 2,092,891 
 
 161,613 
 
 229,661 
 
 1,045,768 
 
 64,804 
 
 16,097 
 
 3/i 
 
 1843 
 
 2,158,603 
 
 152,376 
 
 236,868 
 
 1,076156 
 
 61,224 
 
 11,776 
 
 143 
 
 1844 
 
 2,280,096 
 
 168,294 
 
 278,179 
 
 1,109,614 
 
 85,225 
 
 16,1(1 
 
 
 1846 
 
 2,417,002 
 
 190,696 
 
 826,019 
 
 l,190,89f 
 
 69,826 
 
 21,418 
 
 20'f 
 
 1846 
 
 2,562,085 
 
 189,980 
 
 347,89a 
 
 1,289,871 
 
 72,616 
 
 86,468 
 
 440 
 
 1847 
 
 2,889,046 
 
 19.3,869 
 
 404,842 
 
 1,4.52,628 
 
 70,178 
 
 81,451 
 
 
 1848 
 
 3,1.54,042 
 
 192,180 
 
 427,891 
 
 1,620,988 
 
 82,652 
 
 4.3,659 
 
 
 1849 
 
 3,834,015 
 
 180,186 
 
 462,894 
 
 1,780,411 
 
 42,970 
 
 73,804 
 
 
 185(1 
 
 3.635,464 
 
 146,017 
 
 526,947 
 
 1,7.55,796 
 
 86,046 
 
 68,112 
 
 
 1851 
 
 8,772,439 
 
 181^646 
 
 683,607 
 
 1,854,311 
 
 87,476 
 
 60,639 
 
 
 1862 
 
 4,138,440 
 
 193,796 
 
 648,241 
 
 2,008,02] 
 
 102,659 
 
 72,641) 
 
 
 1858 
 
 4,407,010 
 
 193,202 
 
 514,09£ 
 
 2,184,256 
 
 109,221 
 
 '69,850 
 
 
 1854 
 
 4,802,903 
 
 181,901 
 
 676,607 
 
 2,278,900 
 
 102,194 
 
 36,041 
 
 
 1856 
 
 6,212,001 
 
 186,778 
 
 770,286 
 
 2,491,10S 
 
 102,928 
 
 21,626 
 
 
 1856 
 
 4,871,652 
 
 189,213 
 
 673,078 
 
 2,211,986 
 
 95,816 
 
 29,887 
 
 
FIS 
 
 615 
 
 FIS 
 
 
 i 
 
 ISIIERIEB OF 
 
 THE United States in 
 
 1860. 
 
 
 
 
 states. 
 
 Fisheries. 
 
 CnpSlal. 
 
 Value of raw 
 material. 
 
 Hands employed. | Entire wages per mo^th. 
 
 
 Male. 
 
 Female. 
 
 Male. 
 
 Female. 
 
 
 262 
 16 
 263 
 698 
 69 
 86 
 26 
 76 
 16 
 11 
 15 
 12 
 
 $1,986,800 
 
 18,975 
 
 496,910 
 
 6,662,650. 
 
 , 80,306 
 
 48,700 
 
 482,100 
 
 285,118 
 
 11,184 
 
 82,600 
 
 40,664' 
 
 10,240 
 
 $19,674 
 
 ' 1,280 
 19,187 
 
 '6,m 
 
 4,979 
 12,096 
 82,942 
 
 2,885 
 
 2,961 
 
 93 
 
 2,783 
 
 11,623 
 
 244 
 
 800 
 
 688 
 
 1,848 
 
 85 
 
 109 
 
 188 
 
 47 
 
 ""6 
 
 "424 
 
 $61,729 
 1,686 
 53,210 
 180,886 
 6,474 
 8,000 
 11,862 
 44,678 
 1,621 
 8,708 
 2,887 
 
 1,010 
 
 ■$42 
 4,998 
 
 $1,784,488 
 
 18,676 
 
 569,876 
 
 6,606,849 
 
 72,776 
 
 59,281 
 
 , 484,846 
 
 250,025 
 
 27,665 
 
 64,480 
 
 96,002 
 
 ,. ,16.876 
 
 Florida 
 
 Massachueetts, 
 
 
 
 New York 
 
 ' 'North Carolina. 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Khode Island 
 
 Virginia. 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 Total 
 
 1,884 
 
 $8,966,044 
 
 $99,681 
 
 20,704 
 
 429 
 
 $871,599 
 
 $5,085 
 
 $10,000,182 
 
 
 For a complete ■ account of the political history and 
 present state of the Fisheries, see Sabine's RepoH to 
 Congress, 1853. For more extended Information in 
 regard to the various branches of the fisheries, see 
 articles Cod Fishery, Heeeino Fishbky, and 
 ■Whale Fishery ; see also JV. A. Rev., Ivii. and Ixii. 
 (by L. Sabine); Quar. Rev., Ixix., 226, ix., 268, 
 xxxvii., 345; Edin. Rev,, Ixxviii., 46, xciii., 174; 
 Merch. Mag., xix., 14^ (Balfodk) ; Blackwood, 
 liiij 640; ^m. Whig Rev., vi., 490 (C. Lanman) ; 
 NiLBS's Register, xxix., 377 (Lloyd's Rep.) ; Ency. 
 Am., Ency. Brit., 1856-7. Census Rep. U. S., 1854. 
 
 Eeciprocitij Treaty ietween the United StqJtes. of America 
 , . and her Britannic Majesty : concluded Bth June, 1854 ; 
 
 raiijied hy the United States 9th August, 1854; ex- 
 y^^hanged Qih . iScptemb^, 1854; and proclaimed 11th 
 
 September, 1854.. 
 
 Aeticle 1. It is agreed by the high contracting 
 parties that, in addition to the liberty secured to the 
 United States' fishermen by the above-mentioned con- 
 vention of October 20, 1818, of talcing, curing, and 
 drying fish on certain coasts of the British North 
 American colonies therein defined, the inhabitants of 
 the United States shall have, in common with the sub- 
 jects of her Britannic majestj', the liberty to talce fish 
 of every kind, except shell-fish, on the sea-coasts and 
 shores, and in the bays, harbors, and creelcs of Canada, 
 New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward's Isl- 
 and, and of the several islands thereunto adjacent, 
 without being restricted to any distance from the 
 shore, with permission to land upon the coasts and 
 shores of those colonies, and the islands thereof, and 
 also upon the Magdalene Islands, for the purpose of 
 drying tlieir nets and curing their fish : provided that, 
 in so doing, they do not interfere with the rights of 
 private property, or with British fishermen, in the 
 peaceable use of any part of the said coast in their oc- 
 cupancy for the same purpose. ■ ■ 
 
 It is understood that the above-mentioned liberty 
 applies solely to the sea fishery ; and that the salmon 
 and shad fisheries, and all fisheries in rivers, and the 
 mouths of rivers, are hereby reserved, exclusively, for 
 British fishermen. 
 
 And it is further agreed, that in order to prevent or 
 settle any disputes as to tlie places to which the reser- 
 vation of exclusive right to British fishermen, con- 
 tained in this article, and that of fishermen of the 
 United States, contained in the next succeeding arti- 
 cle, apply, each of the high contracting parties, on the 
 application of either to the other, shall, within six 
 months thereafter, appoint a commissioner. The said 
 commissioners, before proceeding to any business, shall 
 malce and subscribe a solemn declaration that they 
 will impartially and carefully examine and decide, to 
 the best of their judgment, and according to justice 
 and equity, without fear, favor, or affection to their 
 own countrj', upon all such places as are Intended to 
 be reserved and excluded from the common liberty of 
 fishing under this and the next succeeding article, and 
 such declaration shall be entered on the record of their 
 proceedings. 
 
 The commissioners shall name some third person to 
 act as an arbitrator or umpire in any case or cases on 
 which they may themselves differ in opinion. If they 
 should not be able to agree upon the name of such 
 third person, they shall each name a person, and it 
 shall be determined by lot which of the two persons so 
 named shall be the arbitrator or umpire in cases of dif- 
 ference or disagreement between the two commission- 
 ers. The person so to be chosen to be arbitrator or 
 umpire shall, before proceeding to act as such in any 
 case, malie and subscribe a solemn declaration in a 
 form similar to that which shall already have been 
 made and subscribed by the commissioners, which 
 shall be entered on the record of their proceedings. 
 In the event of the death, absence, or incapacity of 
 either of the commissioners, or of the arbitrator or 
 umpire, or of their or his omitting, declining, or ceas- 
 ing to act as such commissioner, arbitrator, or umpire, 
 another and diflTerent person shall be appointed or 
 named as aforesaid to act as such commissioner, arbi- 
 trator, or umpire, in the place or stead of the person so 
 originally appointed or named as aforesaid, and shall 
 make or subscribe such declaration as aforesaid. 
 
 Such commissioners shall proceed to examine the 
 coasts of the North American provinces and of the 
 United States embraced within the provisions- of the 
 first and second articles of this treaty, and shall desig- 
 nate the places reserved by the said article from the 
 common right of fishing therein. 
 
 The decision of the commisioners and of the arbitra- 
 tor or umpire shall be given in writing in each case, 
 and shall be signed by them respectively. 
 
 The high contracting parties hereby solemnly engage 
 to consider the decision of the commissioners conjointly, 
 or of the arbitrator or umpire, as the case may be, as 
 absolutely final and conclusive in each case decided 
 upon by them or him respectively. 
 
 Article 2. It is agreed by the high contracting 
 parties that British subjects shall have, i^j common 
 with the citizens of the United States, the liberty to 
 take fish of everj^ kind, except shell-fish, on the east- 
 em sea-coasts and shores of the United States north of 
 the 36th parallel of north latitude, and on the shores 
 of the several islands thereunto adjacent, and in the 
 baj^s, harbors, and creeks of the said sea-coasts and 
 shores of the United States, and of the said islands, 
 without being restricted to any distance from the 
 shore, with permission to land upon the said coasts of 
 the United States and of the islands aforesaid, for the 
 purpose of drj-ing their nets and curing their fish: 
 provided that, in so doing, they do not interfere with 
 the rights of private property, or with the fishermen 
 of the United States in the peaceable use of any part of 
 the said coasts in their occupancy for the same purpose. 
 
 It is understood that the above-mentioned liberty 
 applies solely to the sea fishery ; and that salmon and 
 shad fisheries, and all fisheries in rivers and mouths of 
 rivers, are hereby reserved exclusively for fishermen of 
 the United States. 
 
 Article 3. It is agreed that the articles enumerated 
 in the schedule hereunto annexed, being the growth 
 and produce of the aforesaid British colonies or of th^ 
 
FIS 
 
 676 
 
 FLA 
 
 United States, shall be admitted into each country re- 
 spectively free of duty : 
 
 SCUBDTJXE OF ARTICLES FREE OF DUTY BY RbCIPBOCITY 
 
 Treaty "with the Bbitisu Provinces op N. A. and 
 THE United States. 
 
 Turpentine, 
 
 Coal. 
 Pitch, Tar. 
 
 Ashes. 
 Timber and Lumber of all 
 
 kin(ls, round, hewed, and 
 
 sawed, unmanufactured in 
 
 whole or in part. 
 
 FlEE-WOOD. 
 
 Plants, Shrubs, and Trees. 
 Pelt^, "VYool. 
 
 FlBH-OlL. 
 
 Rice, Broom-corn, and Bark. 
 
 Gypsum, ground or unground. 
 
 Hewn or wrought, or un- 
 wrought Burr or Grind- 
 stones, 
 
 Dye-stuffs. 
 
 Flax, Hemp, and Tow, un- 
 manufactured. 
 
 Unmanufactured Tobacco. 
 
 Rags. 
 
 Grain, Flour, and Bread- 
 stuffs, of all kinds. 
 Animals of all kinds. 
 Fresh, Smoked, and Salted 
 
 Meats. 
 Cotton-wool, Seeds, and 
 
 Yegetables. 
 Unduibd Fruits, Dried 
 
 Fruits. 
 Fish of all kinds. 
 Products of Fisn, and of all 
 
 other creatures living in the 
 
 water. 
 Poultry, Eggs. 
 Hides, Furs, Skins, or Tails, 
 
 undressed. 
 Stone or Marble, ia its crude 
 
 or unwrought state. 
 Slate. 
 
 Butter, Cheese, Tallow. 
 Lard, Horns, Manures. 
 Ores of Metals, of all kinds. 
 
 Article 4. It is agreed that the citizens and inhab- 
 itants of the United States shall have the right to nav- 
 igate the Kiver St. Lawrence, and the canals in Canada 
 used as the means of communicating between the great 
 lakes and the Atlantic Ocean, with their vessels, boats, 
 and crafts, as fully and freely as the subjects of her 
 Britannic majesty, subject only to the same tolls and 
 other assessments as now are, or may hereafter be, ex- 
 acted of her majestj'-'s said subjects ; it being under- 
 stood, however, that the British government retains 
 the right of suspending this privilege on giving due 
 notice thereof to the government of the United States. 
 
 It is further agreed, that if at any time the British 
 government should exercise the said reserved right, 
 the government of the United States shall have the 
 right of suspending, if it think fit, the operation of 
 Article 3 of the present treaty, in so far as the province 
 of Canada is aifected thereby, for so long as the sus- 
 pension of the free navigation of the River St. Law- 
 rence or the canals may continue. 
 
 It is further agreed that British subjects shall have 
 the right freely to navigate Lake Michigan with their 
 vessels, boats, and crafts, so long as the privilege of 
 navigating the River St. Lawrence, secured to Amer- 
 ican citizens by the above clause of the present article, 
 shall continue ; and the government of the United 
 States further engages to urge upon the State govern- 
 ments to secure to the subjects of her Britannic maj- 
 esty the use of the several State canals, on terms of 
 equality with the inhabitants of the United States. 
 
 And it is further agreed, that no export duty, or 
 other dutj^ shall be levied on lumber or timber of any 
 kind cut on that portion of the American territory in 
 the State of Maine watered by the River St. John and 
 its tributaries, and floated down that river to the sea, 
 when the same is shipped to the United States from 
 the province of New Brunswick. 
 
 Fish-hooks (Hamecons, Fr. ; Fishangeln, Ger.) 
 are constructed with simple tools, but require great 
 manual dexterity in the workmen. The iron wire of 
 which they are made should be of the best quality, 
 smooth and sound. A bundle of such wire is cut in 
 lengths, either b}' shears or by laying it down upon an 
 angular wedge of hard steel fixed horizontally in a 
 block or anvil, and striking off the proper lengths by 
 the blows of a hammer. In fashioning the harhs of 
 the hooks, the straight piece of wire is laid down in 
 the groove of an iron block made on purpose, and is 
 dexterously struck by the chisel in a slanting direc- 
 tion, across so much of the wire as may be deemed 
 necessary. A sharp-pointed little wedge is thus formed, 
 whose base graduates into the substance of the metal. 
 The end of the wire where the line is to be attached is 
 now flattened or screw-tapped ; the other end is sharp- 
 pointed, and the proper twisted curvature is given. 
 
 The soft iron hooks are next case-hardened, to give 
 them the steely stiffness and elasticity, by imbedding 
 them in animal charcoal contained in an earthen or 
 iron box ; after which they are brightened by heating 
 and agitating them with bran, and finallj^ tempered by 
 exposure to a regulated temperature upon a hot iron 
 plate. Hooks for salt-water fishing are freque:^tly 
 tinned to prevent them wearing rapidly away in rust. 
 
 Fish-ponds are ponds made by art, in which dif- 
 ferent kinds of fish are bred and fattened. In general 
 this is only attempted with fresh-water fish ; but in 
 some places ponds have been formed on the sea shore, 
 and so contrived as to have their waters renewed every 
 tide, and in these sea fish have been kept for use for a 
 considerable time. The fresh-water fish which is the 
 most successfully managed in ponds is the carp. 
 
 Fiume, a seaport town of Austria. The commer- 
 cial movements in the port of Fiume in 1850, including 
 coasting trade, were: imports, 16,604,000 francs; ex- 
 ports, 17,803,000 francs. The coasting trade of Fiume, 
 at all times more important in the general commerce 
 of that port than the foreign trade, amounted in the 
 year 1850 to 6,840,000 francs for imports, and 8,473,000 
 francs for exports; leaving' a total for foreign com- 
 merce of 19,094,000 francs. The latter trade was dis- 
 tributed between the Pontifical states, Naples, Ionian 
 Isles, Turkey, England, and France. Total tonnage 
 emploj'-ed, 342,493 tons; of which more than two 
 thirds under the Austrian flag. 
 
 Flag, an ensign or colors; a cloth on which are 
 usually displayed certain devices, and attached to a 
 staff. In the army, it signifies a small banner by 
 which one regiment is distinguished from another ; in 
 the marine, a certain banner by which an admiral is 
 distinguished from the other ships of his squadron, or 
 by which the ships of one nation are distinguished 
 from those of another. The flag acquired its present 
 form in the sixth century in Spain ; it was previously 
 small and square. — Ashe. The flag is said to have 
 been introduced there by the Saracens ; before which 
 time the ensigns of war were extended on cross pieces 
 of wood. — Pardon. The term flag is more parlicu- 
 larly used at sea to denote to what country a ship be- 
 longs, and the quality of its commander. The honor 
 of the flag salute at sea was exacted by England from 
 very early times ; but it was formally yielded by the 
 Dutch in a.d. 1673, at which period they had been 
 defeated in many actions. Louis XIV. obliged the 
 Spaniards to lower their flag to the French, 1680. — 
 Renault. After an engagement of three hours be- 
 tween Tourville and the Spanish Admiral Papachin, 
 the latter yielded by firing a salute of nine guns to the 
 French flag, June 2, 1688. — Idem. 
 
 To lower or strike the Flag, in the navy, is to pull it 
 down upon the cap, or to take it in, as a token of the 
 respect due from all ships or fleets to those which are 
 undeniably their superiors. To lower or strike the 
 flag in an engagement is a sign of submission or sur- 
 render. The method of leading a ship in triumph is 
 to attach the flags to the shrouds, or the gallery in the 
 hind part of the ship, letting them hang down toward 
 the water, and to tow the vessels by the stem. Livy 
 relates that this was the mode in which the Romans 
 used the ships of Carthage. 
 
 7'o heave out the Flag, is to display or put abroad the 
 flag. 
 
 To hang out the White Flag, is to ask quarter ; or, 
 when a vessel has arrived on a coast, it shows that it 
 has no hostile intention, but comes to trade, or the like. 
 The red flag is a sign of defiance and battle. 
 
 Flag Officers are those who command the several 
 squadrons of a fleet. 
 
 Flag of the United Siates.^-The act to establish 
 the flag of the United States was enacted by Congress, 
 April 4, 1818, viz. : " That from and after the 4th day 
 of July next the flag of the United States be thirteen 
 horizontal stripes, alternate red and white ; that the 
 
FLA 
 
 677 
 
 FLA. 
 
 nnion be twenty stars, white in a blue field. That on 
 the admission of every new State into the Union one 
 star be added to the union of the flag ; and that such 
 addition shall take effect on the 4th day of July then 
 next succeeding such admission." 
 
 Flail, an instrument for threshing com, consisting 
 of the hand-staff, or piece held in the thresher's hand ; 
 the swiple, or that part which strikes the corn ; the 
 caplins, strong leathern thongs which unite the hand- 
 staff and swiple; and the middle-band,', a leathern 
 thong or fish-sldn that lies the caplins together. 
 
 Flambeau, a kind of torch made of thick wicks, 
 covered with wax, and used in the streets at night, at 
 illuminations, and in processions. Flambeaux usually 
 consist of four wicks or branches, about an inch in 
 thickness, and three feet long, made of coarse half- 
 twisted hempen yam ; and these, being suspended by 
 one end, are coated with white or yellow wax, which 
 is poured over them from a ladle until the requisite 
 thickness be obtained. 
 
 Flannel, a woolen stuff, composed of a woof and 
 warp, and woven after the manner of baize. Dr. 
 Black assigns as a reason why flannel and other sub- 
 stances of the same kind keep the body warm, that 
 they compose a rare and spongy mass, the fibres of 
 which touch each other so lightly that the heat moves 
 slowly through the interstices, which being filled only 
 with air, and that too in a stagnate state, give little 
 assistance in conducting the heat. From the experi- 
 ments of Count Rumford, it appears that there is no 
 relation between the power which the substances usu- 
 ally worn as clothing have of absorbing moisture, and 
 that of keeping the body warm. Having provided a 
 quantity of several of these substances (as mentioned 
 below), he exposed them, spread out upon clean china 
 plates for the space of twenty-four hours to the warm 
 and dry air of a room which had been heated by a 
 German stove for several months, and during the pre- 
 ceding six hours he had raised the thermometer to 
 85° of Fahrenheit ; after which he weighed equal 
 quantities of the different substances with a verj- ac- 
 curate balance. They were then spread, out upon a 
 china plate, and removed into a very large uninhab- 
 ited room upon the second floor, where they were ex- 
 posed forty-eight hours upon a table placed in the puddle 
 of the room, the air of which was 45 ° of Fahrenheit. 
 At the end of this time they were weighed, and then 
 removed into a damp cellar, where they were placed 
 on a table in the middle of the vault, the air of which 
 was at the temperature of 45°, and, by the hydro- 
 meter, seemed to be fully saturated with moisture. In 
 this situation they were suffered to remain three days 
 and three nights, the vault being all the while hung 
 round with wet linen cloths, to render the air as com- 
 pletely damp as possible. At the end of three days 
 they were weighed, and the weights at the different 
 times were found as in the following table : 
 
 
 Weight aftei 
 
 being dried 
 
 In the hot 
 
 room. 
 
 Weight after 
 
 ooniing out 
 
 of the cold 
 
 room.. 
 
 Weight after 
 
 hours in the 
 vault. 
 
 
 Parts. 
 1,000 
 
 It 
 t( 
 
 ■ 1,084 
 1,0T2 
 1,065 
 1,06T 
 1,067 
 
 1,054 
 
 1,046 
 
 1,044 
 
 1,048 
 1,000 
 
 1,163 
 1,125 
 1,115 
 1,112 
 1,107 
 
 1,108 
 
 1,102 
 
 1,082 
 
 1,089 
 ■1,000 
 
 Beaver''8' fir 
 
 The fur of ft Russian hare.. 
 
 1 Haw single thread. . . 
 Silk ^Ravellngs of white \ 
 
 \ taffety 
 
 1 Fine Lint 
 
 Linen VRavellngsof fine ) 
 S linen f 
 
 Kavelings of silver lace.. ., 
 
 In regard to these experiments Count Rumford ob- 
 serves, that though linen, from the apparent ease with 
 which it receives dampness from the atmosphere, 
 seems to have a much greater attraction for water than 
 any other, yet it would appear, from what is related 
 above, that those bodies which receive water in its un- 
 
 elastic form with the greatest ease, or are most easily 
 wet, are not those which in all cases attract the hu- 
 midity of the atmosphere with the greatest avidity. 
 " Perhaps," says he, "the apparent dampness of linen 
 to the touch arises more from the ease with which that 
 substance parts with the water it contains than from 
 the quantity of water it actually holds ; in the same 
 manner as a body appears hot to the touch in conse- 
 quence of its parting freely with its heat ; while an- 
 other body which is really at the same temperature, 
 but which withholds its heat with great obstinacy, 
 affects the sense of feeling much less strongly. It is 
 well known that woolen cloths, such as flannels, etc., 
 worn next the skin, greatly promote insensible per- 
 spiration. May not this arise principally from the 
 strong attraction which subsists between wool and the 
 water}' vapor which is continually issuing from the 
 human body ? That it does not depend entirely on the 
 warmth of that covering, is clear ; for the same degree 
 of warmth produced by wearing more clothing of a 
 different land does not produce the same effect. The 
 perspiration of the human body being absorbed by a 
 covering of flannel, it is immediately distributed 
 through the whole thickness of that substance, and by 
 that means exposed, by a very large surface, to be 
 carried off by the atmosphere ; and the loss of this 
 watery vapor which the flannel sustains on the one 
 side by evaporation, being immediately restored from 
 the other, in consequence of the strong attraction be- 
 tween the flannel and this vapor, the pores of the skin 
 are disencumbered, and they are continually sur- 
 rounded by a dry and salubrious atmosphere." — Phi- 
 losophical Transactiom, No. 483. 
 
 Flannels are much more luxurious productions than 
 they were in years gone by. We knew them formerly 
 only as woolen or worsted goods ; but modem ingenu- 
 ity has devised flannel made of mingled wool and silk. 
 Its inventors claim for it a superiority over ordinary 
 flannels, in being less irritating to the skin ; it shrinks 
 less in washing ; the sUlt increases the strength and 
 durability of the texture, and renders it less liable to 
 tear. Such flannels have even been embroidered, 
 and used for ladies' opera cloaks. Then we have 
 choice " Thibet" flannels, made from the finest wool ; 
 and flax flannels, in which flax, prepared on Claussen's 
 process, is mixed with wool ; and fancy-colored flan- 
 nels — ^pink, rose-color, cherry, crimson, blue, orange, 
 and other dainty tints. The philosophy of cheapness 
 has also visited the flannel regions, for some of the 
 low-priced flannels contain a portion, more or less, of 
 cotton. There are striped flannels, and cricketers' 
 flannels, and " anti-rheumatic" flannels, and many 
 other special and oddly-named kinds. 
 
 Flaz (Ger. Flachs ; Du. Vlasch ; Fr. Lin ; It. and 
 Sp. Lino ; Rus. Xen, Lon ; Pol. Len ; Lat. Linurti), an 
 important plant {Linum usitatissimum) that has been 
 cultivated from the earliest ages in Great Britain and 
 many other countries ; its fibres being manufactured 
 into thread, and its seed crushed for oU. Russia -sup- 
 plies by far the largest portion of the flax imported 
 into England, the principal sorts being Petersburg, 
 Narva, Riga, Revel, Pema,u, Liebau, Memel, and 
 Oberland. Petersburg and Narva flax are nearly of 
 the' same qualitj', the latter being but little inferior to 
 the former. Both sorts come in bundles, of 12, 9, and 6 
 heads. The Riga flax seems to deserve the preference 
 of any imported from the Baltic. It is the growth of 
 the provinces of Marienburg, Druania, Thisenbhausen, 
 and Lithuania. The best Marienburg is called simply 
 Marienburg (M), or Marienburg clean ; the second 
 quality, cut (GM) ; and the third, risten drayband 
 (RD) ; of the three other provinces, the first quality 
 bears the name of mkitzer ; as, Druania raJdtzer (DR), 
 Thiesenhausen rakitzer (TR), and Lithuania rakilzer 
 (LR). The cut flax of these three provinces is the 
 second qualitj' ; and to the third quality belongs the 
 badstub and hadstub cut (B and BG) ; the paternoster 
 
FLA 
 
 6*78 
 
 FLA 
 
 (PN); and hafs three hand (HD), Badstub and pa- 
 iernoster are the refuse of the rakiizer flax, and the 
 three hand again the refus^ of the former sort, and con- 
 sequently very ordinary. The Revel and Penau con- 
 sists of Marienburg, cut, ritzen^ hafs three handj and 
 three band. The Liebau and Memel growths are dis- 
 tinguished by the denomination of Jour and three hand. 
 These two sorts, as well as the Oberland flax, come 
 from Konigsberg, Elbing, etc., and are little esteemed 
 in the British market. Flanders or Dutch flax is well 
 dressed, and of the finest quality. Flax is extensively 
 cultivated in Egypt. Of late years, some of the Italian 
 ports, which used to be supplied from Russia, have 
 been fully supplied, on lower terms, from Alexandria. 
 The Phormium tenax, or New Zealand flax, has been 
 said to exceed every other species in strength of fibre 
 and whiteness ; qualities which, if it reall}'" posesses 
 them in the degree stated, must make it peculiarly 
 well fitted for being made into canvas and cordage. 
 In point of fact, however, there is a great diversity of 
 opinion as to its real merits, and it fetches at present 
 but a low price. In 1831 and 1832 the imports of New 
 Zealand flax amounted respectively to 15,725 and 
 15,867 cwts. ; but they fell off in 1835 to 7812 cwts., 
 and since then only trifling quantities have been im- 
 ported. It is alleged that this is in consequence of the 
 imperfect preparation of the flax, which has hitherto 
 been entirely intrusted to the native women. But 
 without presuming to say whether the defects with 
 which it is charged be inherent in the flax itself, or de- 
 pend on its preparation, it is abundantly certain that 
 unless it be furnished of a superior quality, it will not 
 suit our markets. When flax is brought to the princi- 
 pal Russian ports whence it is shipped, it is classified 
 according to its qualities, and made up iu bundles by 
 sworn inspectors (brackers), appointed by government 
 for the assortment of that and all other merchandise. 
 These functionaries are said to perform their task with 
 laudable impartiality and exactness. A ticket is at- 
 tached to every bundle of assorted flax, containing the 
 name of the inspector and owner, the sort of flax, and 
 the period when it was selected or inspected. See 
 Hemp. Good flax should be of a. fine bright color, 
 well separated from the tow, codila, or coarser portion 
 of the plant ; and of a long, fine, and strong fibre. In 
 purchasing flax, it is usual to employ agents wholly 
 devoted to this peculiar business. 
 
 Account of the Qctantities of Flax and Tow imported 
 INTO England dtteing each of thk five Years end- 
 ing WITH 1851, DISTINGUISHING THE COUNTRIES WHENCE 
 THEY WERE IMPORTED, AND THE QUANTITIES BROUGHT 
 FROM EACH. 
 
 CountrieB. 
 
 1847. 
 
 1848. 
 
 1849. 
 
 1860. 
 
 1851. 
 
 Eussia 
 
 Prussia 
 
 Hanse Towns. 
 
 Holland 
 
 Belgium 
 
 France 
 
 Italy and the 
 
 Italian Isls.. 
 
 Egypt 
 
 Brit. Territ. in 
 
 theE. Ind.. 
 United States. 
 Other parts. . . 
 
 Total 
 
 ClVlB. 
 
 631,167 
 141,846 
 84,493 
 78,608 
 89,960 
 6,177 
 
 7,695 
 67,365 
 
 1,800 
 
 768 
 
 8,226 
 
 C»la. 
 1,085,732 
 119,777 
 24,500 
 101,969 
 54,149 
 801 
 
 4,376 
 62,094 
 
 10,273 
 
 OWIB. 
 
 1,862,.386 
 
 180,747 
 
 24,445 
 
 118,786 
 
 76,769 
 
 2,276 
 
 1,250 
 50,490 
 
 6;675 
 
 CwtB. 
 
 2,240,766 
 
 263,271 
 
 20,698 
 
 188,240 
 
 107,836 
 
 8,374 
 
 2,247 
 46,606 
 
 '"so 
 
 6,556 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 818,676 
 186,826 
 14,926 
 88,121 
 79,978 
 3,802 
 
 1,885 
 48,033 
 
 48 
 6 
 
 7,886 
 
 1,052.089 
 
 1,46-3,661 
 
 1,606,678 
 
 1,822,918 
 
 11,194,184 
 
 Flax has been but little cultivated in the United 
 States, and only for home consumption. Efforts are 
 now being made to increase the production. Linen 
 mills have been erected in Fall River and other places ; 
 and the demand will after this equal the supply. 
 
 During the last half century various attempts have 
 been made to effect the separation of the fibrous from 
 the woody portion of the flax stem by chemical and me- 
 chanical means. In several cases the results at first 
 appeared to be very promising, but in every instance 
 it was soon found that there were insuperable practical 
 objections. Among chemical agents, solutions of sul- 
 
 phuric acid, caustic potash, caustic soda, quicklime, 
 and soft soap, were all in turn tried and discarded; 
 and among mechanical processes, the ingenious con- 
 trivances of Mr. James Lee, and Messrs. Hill & Bundy, 
 shared the same fate. Whatever may have been the 
 comparative merits of the two processes of these rival 
 inventors, in the course of a few years both were re- 
 linquished and forgotten. Various other ingenious 
 mechanical arrangements have been devised, but hith- 
 erto they have had very little success. 
 
 Schenck's process, for which he obtained a patent in 
 1846, is undoubtedly a very important improvement. It 
 consists merely in steeping the flax stems in warm water, 
 heated artificially to the temperature best suited to 
 fermentation. In this simple way the operation is 
 rendered rapid and certain, all uncertainty from fluctu- 
 ation in temperature and weather is avoided, and the 
 whole process is entirely under the command of the 
 manufacturer. The temperature best suited for this 
 purpose is about 80°, or from 80° to nearly 90°. 
 Above this point the process proceeds too rapidly, and 
 the fibre is almost sure to be more or less injared. The 
 time required is from about 70 to 90 hours. It appears 
 to be generally admitted that the warm-water steep- 
 ing increases the percentage of fibre obtained from the 
 flax stem over that obtained by the old modes of ret- 
 ting by nearly one fifth ; and that, whUe the fineness 
 and spinning qualities of the fibre are increased, the 
 strength is in no way weakened or diminished, unless 
 the process be permitted to proceed too far — an acci- 
 dent that need never happen, from the complete con- 
 trol over it which the manufacturer has throughout. 
 Although there is no doubt as to the practical value of 
 the use of warm water in flax retting, yet the introduc- 
 tion of Schenck's process is far from removing all the 
 difficulties of the flax manufacturer; much still re- 
 mains to be effected ; and it is by no means improbable 
 that ere long a yet more perfect process may be de- 
 vised. 
 
 It is interesting to observe, that the use of warm 
 water in the preparation of vegetable fibre is not alto- 
 gether new, it having been employed by the Malays, 
 and by the natives ofEungpoor, in Bengal. The process 
 adopted at Bencoolen is stated by Dr. Campbell to 
 consist of steeping the stems of the hemp in warm wa- 
 ter, ill which it is allowed to remain for two days and 
 nights. The old German process, called " Molken- 
 rost," sometimes used in preparing the finer sorts of 
 flax, is also, to some extent, an application of the 
 same principle. In this mode of retting, the flax was 
 steeped for four or five days in a warm mixture of milk 
 and water, and thus the desired degree of fermentation 
 in the flax stems was produced. This operation must 
 be distinguished from the more modern one, in which 
 sour milk was used in order to^ive a good color to 
 linen — a process introduced by the Dutch toward the 
 middle of the last century. The linen was boiled in a 
 weak alkaline lye, and subsequently treated with sour 
 butter-milk, for the purpose of aiding in removing the 
 alkali, and dissolving the earthy impurities present in 
 the fibre. Occasionally, also, salt of sorrel was used 
 for the same purpose ; and in 1775 Keuss states that 
 sulphuric and muriatic acids might be used for the same 
 end ; but that being too costly, they had not as yet 
 come into general use. Of course all processes in 
 which boiling, or even hot, water is used, are quite 
 difierent in their mode of action from those in which 
 only warm water is employed. When boiling water 
 Is used, it is with a view of dissolving and removing 
 the useless matters which incrust the fibrous parts of 
 the plant ; while, on the other hand, warm water is 
 used to soften them, and to aid in their putrefaction or 
 decomposition, through the agency of fermentation. 
 In 1787, much interest was excited in Ireland by the 
 publication of a plan for improving the retting of flax 
 by the action of hot water. In this scheme it was 
 proposed to scald the flax-stems iu boiling water to 
 
FLA 
 
 619 
 
 FLA 
 
 soften them, and to remove a portion of the extraneous 
 vegetable matters whicli they contain; and it was 
 conceived that after this treatment the subsequent ret- 
 ting of the flax would be more rapid, certain, and man- 
 ageable ; so that time would be saved, the noisome 
 process of pond-retting be obviated, and the result be 
 to yield a stronger and whiter fibre. The minute and 
 careful experiments of Hermbstaedt on the chemical 
 principles involved in the retting of flax (made about 
 the beginning of the present century) threw much 
 light on the whole subject, and, to some extent, indi- 
 cated the influence of temperature on the success of 
 the operation. 
 
 Flax-cotton is a material prepared from flax, 
 hemp, and other vegetable fibres, and which very 
 nearly resembles the fibre of the Gossi/pium or cotton- 
 plant. M. Claussen's ingenious process for making 
 flax-cotton (patented August, 1850) consists essentially 
 in boiling the cut and crushed stems of the flax, hemp, 
 or other plant, in a dilute solution of caustic soda, 
 containing about l-2000th part of alkali. The fibrous 
 matter is then removed, and plunged into a bath of 
 dilute sulphuric acid, containing l-500th part of acid, 
 in which it is boiled for about an hour. It is next 
 transferred into a solution containing about 10 per cent, 
 of carbonate of soda; and, lastly, when it has remained 
 in the latter for an hour, it is plunged into a weak so- 
 lution of sulphuric acid, consisting of one part of acid 
 to 200 or 500 parts of water ; in this it is left for about 
 half an hour, and the process is completed. The ef- 
 fect of these several processes is " to divide and split 
 up" the fibre in a most remarkable manner, so as com- 
 pletely to alter its character. Flax thus treated is 
 converted into a substance very nearly resembling cot- 
 ton. It is probable that flax-cotton can be advantage- 
 ously used in the manufacture of mixed fabrics, as it 
 appears capable of being spun with wool, silk, and 
 other fibres ; it may, therefore, perhaps hereafter lead 
 to several new and important practical applications. 
 
 The idea of modifying the fibre of the flax and hemp, 
 so as to convert it into a kind of cotton, is by no means 
 new. In 1747, Lilljikreuzes and Palmquist described 
 a mode of converting flax into " cotton," b}' boiling it 
 for some time in a solution of caustic potash, and sub- 
 sequently washing it with soap. In 1775, consider- 
 able quantities of refuse flax and hemp were converted 
 into " flax-cotton" by Lady Moira, with the aid of T. 
 B, Bailey, of Hope, near Manchester. The full details 
 of the process employed do not appear to have been 
 published ; but from Lady Moira's letters in the 
 Transactions of the Society of Arts for 1775, it appears 
 that the fibre was boiled in an alkaline lye, or a solu- 
 tion of kelp, containing carbonate of soda, and subse- 
 quently scoured. The result of this was that " the 
 fibres seem to be set at liberty from each other," after 
 which it may be " carded on cotton cards." It appears 
 that at this time flax-cotton '* was made and sold 
 at 3d. per pound;" and Ladj' Moira states, that she 
 believes that it takes colors better than flax. It is 
 curious to observe the fate of Lady Moira's scheme ; 
 she says : " I have no reason to be vain of the samples 
 I have sent you : they merely show that the material 
 of flax-cotton, in able hands, will bear manufacturing, 
 though it is my ill fortune to have it discredited by 
 the artizans who work for me. I had, in Dublin, with 
 great difficulty, u gown wove, and three waistcoats ; 
 but had not the person who employed a weaver for me 
 particularly wished to oblige me, I could not have got 
 it accomplished." 
 
 Subsequently to this, several attempts were made in 
 Germany to convert flax into a fibre resembling cot- 
 ton. In 1777, Baron Meidinger proposed to convert 
 flax into a sort of cotton, by the action of alkaline so- 
 lutions, etc. In 1780, a factory was established at 
 Berchtoldsdorf, near Vienna, for the practical working 
 of this process ; and similar plans were subsequently 
 brought forward by Kreutzer in 1801, Stadler and 
 
 Haupfner in 1811, by Sokou in 1816, and by several 
 others. At the factory at Berchtoldsdorf, not only was 
 flax converted into cotton, but also a useful cotton- 
 like fibre was prepared from tow and refuse flax ; and 
 the same is said to have been done by Hagg, near Pres- 
 burg, in 1788, by Gobell in 1803, and Segalla in 1811. 
 Whether these various plans failed from the efiects of 
 jealousy and opposition, like that which prevented 
 Lady Moira from introducing her "flax-cotton," is 
 unknown ; but it does not appear that any of them 
 were long persevered in. It is probable that in most 
 cases the neighboring manufacturers set themselves 
 against the introduction of flax-cotton ; for Beckman, 
 who speaks of its manufacture near Brunswick, states 
 that the work-people determined not to use the new 
 material, though at the same time he observes, that 
 excellent fustians were made, which could not be dis- 
 tinguished from those manufactured with ordinary 
 cotton. The extreme similarity of flax-cotton to ordi- 
 nary cotton is also remarked by Des Charmes (1799), 
 who states, that if the staple be cut before it is carded, 
 it is not possible to distinguish it from cotton, either 
 in its raw state or when manufactured. The matter 
 was subsequently investigated by Berthollet, by Gay 
 Lussac, and by Giobert, who employed alternately 
 steepings in hot solutions of soap, alkali, and sulphuric 
 or muriatic acid. Berthollet observes, that equaljy 
 fine cotton is obtained from the coihmonest refuse tow 
 as from the best fiax. 
 
 For some valuable information on fibrous mate- 
 rials, the produce of India, which may be cheaply and 
 usefully substituted for Russian hemp and flax, see 
 " The Fibrous Plants of India fitted for Cordage, 
 Clothing, and Paper," by J. Forbes Eoyle, M. D., 
 F.E.S. : London, 1855 ; and also an article entitled 
 " Indian Substitutes for Bnsslan Produce," in the 
 Edinhurg Review for July, 1855. 
 
 In 1816, M. Girard found means to apply machinery 
 and to substitute the spindle in the spinning of flax. 
 To France, then, belongs the honor of the discovery, 
 but England was the first to profit by it and put it in 
 practice, and her example was followed, at the inter- 
 val of some years, by France, Belgium, and Germany, 
 in the order indicated. The progress of this industry 
 was rapid, and the following table presents its present 
 position (July, 1856) : 
 
 Spindles. 
 
 Great Britain and Ireland 1,480,000 
 
 France 540,000 
 
 Germany (including Austria) 171,000 
 
 Belgium 182,000 
 
 Bnssia 60,000 
 
 Other European States 46,000 , 
 
 TJalted States of America 81,000 
 
 Total 2,460,000 
 
 While the progress of machine-spinning in Great 
 Britain, Germany, and Switzerland, independent of 
 all kinds of protection, except in the case of Prussia, 
 certain premiums paid by the government to those 
 who have established factories, its extension in France 
 and Belgium, and more especially in the former, is due 
 to legislative interference. Let us, then, direct our 
 attention to France, where an extreme import duty 
 exists. Although the duty was made high in 1826, 
 the import of English yam was progressive, but slow, 
 until 1836, when the rate was considerably reduced. 
 Immediately afterward the quantity increased rapidly. 
 In 1830 France received but 7,500 lbs. of linen yam 
 from England. In 1835, in spite of a high tariff, the 
 import had increased to 11,700,000 lbs. Under the re- 
 duced duties it went on augmenting until, in 1842, it 
 reached 24,750,000 lbs. Then came the establishment 
 of the present excessively protective scale of duty ; 
 its consequences are manifest in the rapid extension of 
 flax-spinning in France. In 1840 there were 90,000 
 spindles ; in 1845, the number was 127,000 ; in 1850, 
 275,000 ; in 1855, 490,000. In the mean time the im- 
 port of yams from all countries fell from 24,750,000 
 
FLA 
 
 680 
 
 FLA 
 
 lbs. to 1,693,000 lbs. If we had only to do with the 
 establishment of a great spinning-trade in France, and 
 the monopoly of the supply of yam at home, these 
 figures would be triumphant. But unfortunately for 
 the consumer, as well as for the wealth and resources 
 of the nation, the operation of the tariff has been a 
 costly affair. While the capitalists who had placed 
 their money in the spinning-factories rejoiced at the 
 results detailed, and in the large profits which their 
 government had given them a legalized right to derive 
 from the mass of consumers, we may inquire whether 
 every one was ecLually satisfied with such a system of 
 political economy. — Report to the Reform Congress of 
 Brussels, by Mr. J. Macadam, of Belfast, 1856. 
 
 Mr. Macadam's conclusions were as follows : I. In 
 all cases I would advocate the free entry of the raw 
 materials, flax and tow. Where natural and social 
 facilities exist for the cultivation of flax, no protection 
 is required, as it onlj' readers the growers careless of 
 improvement. Where these elements of success are 
 wanting, it is evident that the culture should be 
 abandoned. A nation should never be subjected to a 
 tax simply to supplj"- itself with a material which it 
 can have better and cheaper from elsewhere. 
 
 II. I would urge a moderate fixed ad valorem duty 
 for the exorbitant ones now levied in many States, 
 and fix it for 10 per cent, on the present value of En- 
 glish yarns. If to this rate of duty be added the cost 
 of packing, transport, commission and other charges, 
 the rate of protection would really amount to 15 per 
 cent. French and Belgian spinners may, perhaps, say 
 that this duty would be inadequate to protect them, 
 but I can not admit this. It is true that the cost of 
 fuel is higher in France and Belgium than in the 
 United Kingdom. But, on the other hand, I can 
 prove that in Ireland we pay more in proportion, as 
 compared with Great Britain, than France or Belgium 
 does, as compared with us. For example, while at 
 Leeds coals cost 4s. 8d. per ton, and at Dundee 8s., 
 they cost in Belfast 10s. to lis. 6d. per ton, making a 
 difference in favor of the English spinners of 140 per 
 cent., and of the Scotch of 30 per cent. At Ghent, 
 coals cost at present 14s., and have been much cheaper. 
 At Lille they cost 15s. 6d. ; the difference, therefore, 
 in favor of the Irish spinners, as compared with the 
 French or Belgian, is 50 per cent. We might, conse- 
 quently, at Belfast, just as well demand protection 
 from the English and Scotch spinners, as the French 
 and Belgians ask it against us. As to the cost of la- 
 bor, the factories of Ghent and Lille are in a better 
 position than ours. On what, then, do the spinners 
 of France and Belgium base their claim to protection ? 
 On the superiority of English machinerj' ? But these 
 machines may enter Belgium free of duty ; and latelj-, 
 in France, great advantages have been accorded in 
 their import. Or is it on the great capital of England, 
 and the smaller rate of interest of money ? As well 
 might we, in poor Ireland, ask protection against 
 these, and yet in the face of them, we have progressed 
 more rapidly than either England or Scotland. Further, 
 how does it happen that Prussia and Austria have pro- 
 gressed to such an extent in their spinning without 
 this immediate protection ? The first named had, in 
 1846, but 47,000 spindles, and has now 96,000. The 
 second, which, in 1845, had but 21,000, now numbers 
 82,000. And 10 per cent, duty, I repeat, is abundantly 
 sufficient to protect the Belgian and French spinners, 
 while it would prove of great benefit to the manufac- 
 turers of linen in those countries. 
 
 III. A duty of 20 per cent, on unbleached linens 
 might be proposed. When it is remembered that, in 
 almost all parts of the Continent, weaving at present 
 costs less than in the United Kingdom, it will be rec- 
 ognized that the linen manufacturers of the Continent 
 have an advantage over ours. There was a time 
 when weaving cost as little in Ireland" as in any other 
 country, and less than in many. But the thinning of 
 
 the population by the disastrous years of famine which 
 followed the potato disease ; the large emigration 
 which subsequently took place; the recruitment of 
 able-bodied men for the army ; and other causes, have 
 led to different results. 
 
 In the United States of America, where the manu- 
 facture of linen is on an extremely small scale, and 
 the whole Union only contains 30,000 spindles, a duty 
 of 20 per cent, existed on yams and linens up to July 
 1857. The annual import reaches £1,600,000, so that 
 the nation pays a tax of .£320,000 on its yearly con- 
 sumption. Originally at 5 per cent., the duty wag 
 raised to 37J per cent, in 1812. In 1832 it was abol- 
 ished, but in 1842 was re-established- at 25 per cent., 
 and reduced, in 1846, to 20 per cent. In 1853, the 
 revenue of the United States had so much increased, 
 and the cash in the Treasury was of so great an 
 amount, that Mr. Guthrie, the Secretary of the Treas- 
 ury, issued a circular to merchants, in which he pro- 
 posed to reduce or abolish the duties on many articles, 
 and he requested their opinion as to those on which 
 such a change might most beneficially take place, 
 specifying that it should be on such articles as were 
 generally consumed by all classes of the populatioli, 
 and yet not leading items of native manufacture, and 
 the remission of the duty on which would tend to 
 lighten the labors of the custom-house. Now, there 
 could scarcely be an article more fully answering to 
 these requirements than linen ; largely consumed by 
 all classes, the native manufacture was quite insignifi- 
 cant, while the disputes as to value, in levying the 
 duties, between the custom-house and the importers, 
 gave endless trouble. 
 
 The following table shows the number of bushels of 
 flax-seeds, and the number of pounds of flax produced, 
 in the United States in the year 1850 : 
 
 states and Territories. 
 
 riajseed. 
 
 Flai. 
 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 69 
 
 321 
 
 708 
 
 904 
 
 622 
 
 10,787 
 
 36,888 
 
 1,969 
 
 75,801 
 
 680 
 
 2,446 
 
 72 
 
 619 
 
 26 
 
 13,696 
 
 189 
 
 16,625 
 
 57,963 
 
 88,196 
 
 188,880 
 
 41,728 
 
 65 
 
 18,904 
 
 26 
 
 939 
 
 52,318 
 
 1,191 
 
 Fonads, 
 
 3,900 
 
 ■ 12,200 
 
 17,900 
 
 11,100 
 
 6,300 
 
 160,000 
 
 584,400 
 
 62,600 
 
 2,100,100 
 
 17,000 
 
 35,600 
 
 1,100 
 
 7,100 
 
 600 
 
 627,100 
 
 7,600 
 
 182,900 
 
 940,600 
 
 693,700 
 
 446,900 
 
 680,300 
 
 300 
 
 368,100 
 
 1,000 
 
 20,800 
 
 1,000,400 
 
 68,800 
 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Iowa 
 
 
 Maine 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 
 
 Missouri 
 
 New Hampshire. . 
 
 
 Mew York 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 Ohio 
 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 
 Texas 
 
 
 Virginia 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 Total 
 
 662,807 
 
 7,806,809 
 
 
 We have also compiled the comparative imports of 
 flax and linen goods into the United States from for- 
 eign ports during the last three years : 
 
 Flax 
 
 Linens, blechd. & nnblechd. 
 
 Hosiery and articles made 
 on frames 
 
 Laces, thread & insertings. 
 
 Articles tamboured or em- 
 broidered 
 
 Linens not specified 
 
 Total 
 
 $250,891 
 9,437,846 
 
 2,' 
 868,309 
 
 59,624 
 1,363,80:) 
 
 $11,482,286 
 
 7,662,866 
 
 1,409 
 818,611 
 
 $182;461 
 9,849,600 
 
 4,921 
 410,691 
 
 92,749 164,868 
 1,062,891 1,834,942 
 
 $9,815,234*11,696,868 
 
 Flax-seed, or Linseed (Fr. Lin, Graine de Lin; 
 Ger. Leinsaat ; Du. Lynzaad ; It. Linseme ; Sp. Lincaa ; 
 Port. Linhaca ; Pol. Siemie, Iniane ; Kus. Semja len- 
 
FLI 
 
 681 
 
 FLO 
 
 Janoe; Lat. Lini semen), ilie seed of flax. It contains 
 a great deal of oil, which it yields by expression ; and 
 is cultivated either that it may be used in sowing, or 
 sent to the crushing-mills to be converted into oil. As 
 the quality of the crop depends much on the seed em- 
 ployed, a good deal of care is requisite in selecting the 
 best. Generally speaking, it should be chosen of a 
 bright, brownish color, oUy to the feel, heavy, and 
 quite fresh. Dutch seed is in the highest estimation 
 for sowing ; it not only ripens sooner than any other 
 that is imported, but produces larger crops, and of the 
 quality that best suits our principal manufactures. 
 American seed produces fine flax, but the produce is 
 not so large as from Dutch seed. British flax-seed is 
 sometimes used instead of Dutch ; but the risk of the 
 crop misgiving is so much greater, " that those only 
 who are ignorant of the consequences, or who are com- 
 pelled from necessity, are chargeable with this act of 
 ill-judged parsimony."— ioaalore'i Enc. of Agriculture. 
 Crushing-seed is principally imported from Russia, but 
 considerable quantities are also brought from India, 
 Italy, and Egypt. 
 
 Fleece, the covering of wool shorn from a sheep. 
 See Wool. 
 
 Fleet, a navy or a squadron of ships of war ; or a 
 number of ships in company, whether ships of war or 
 of commerce. 
 
 Flint, silicious mineral. It consists of 98 silica, 
 0-60 lime, 0-25 alumina, 0-26 oxyd of iron, and ' 1-0 
 loss. This mineral occurs of various colors, but gen- 
 erally yellowish or dark gray, and usually in » com- 
 pact amorphous body, of various shapes. It is widely 
 dispersed over the world, occurring chiefly in the chalk 
 formations, but especially in limestone. Its principal 
 use is for gun-flints, and for striking light with steel ; 
 and it also forms, when reduced to powder, an ingre- 
 dient in porcelain and glass. The manufacture of 
 gun-flints is very simple, and is performed with an 
 iron mallet and chisel. A dexterous workman will 
 make 1000 in a day. 
 
 Flint-Glass, or Crystal, a species of glass which 
 derives its name from flint, because that substance 
 was formerly employed in its manufacture. It is 
 very extensively used for domestic purposes ; but is 
 chieflj' interesting to the philosopher on account of the 
 property which it possesses of causing a greater dis- 
 persion of the rays of light which pass through a prism 
 or lens formed of it than any other of the vitreous 
 compounds. This property renders it invaluable in the 
 manufacture of the object-glasses of telescopes and 
 microscopes ; for, by combining a concave lens of flint- 
 glass with one or two convex lenses of croivn-glass, 
 which possesses a much less dispersive power, a com- 
 pound lens is formed, in which the prismatic colors 
 arising from a simple refraction are destroyed, and the 
 lens rendered achromatic. This construction of object- 
 glasses was first discovered bj' a Mr. Hall, a country 
 gentleman in Worcestershire, about 1729 ; but the dis- 
 covery was forgotten, and no further notice taken of it 
 for nearly 30 years, when it was again brought to 
 light by John Dollond, after a long-continued course 
 of experiments undertaken for the purpose of perfect- 
 ing the telescope. It is, however, very difficult to 
 prepare flint-glass fit for the purposes of achromatic 
 telescopes. This difiiculty arises not from the want of 
 sufiicient dispersive power in the substance, but from 
 the want of purity or homogeneity ; the slightest 
 impurity or inequality of composition of the glass 
 giving rise to a streaked or imperfect image by reason 
 of the unequal refraction of the rays. The compo- 
 sition of pure flint-glass long remained a secret in the 
 family of the DoUonds, and its manufacture formed a 
 very profitable article of exportation ; for, till about 
 the beginning of the present century, no flint-glass of 
 good quality was made on the Continent. Of late 
 years, however, a great change has taken place in this 
 respect, and glass of the best quality has been manu- 
 
 factured, both in France and Germany, in much larger 
 masses than English artists have yet succeeded in ob- 
 taining. This result has been mainly produced by the 
 experimental researches of D'Artigues, Fraunhofer, 
 Cauchoix, Guinand, and Korner. Formerly, an ob- 
 ject-glass exceeding five inches in diameter could 
 scarcelj' be produced. Fraunhofer succeeded in mak- 
 ing them of 9, and even 11 inches. The object-glass 
 of the large parallactic telescope belonging to Sir 
 James South, at Campden Hill, was manufactured by 
 Cauchoix ; it exceeds 12 inches, and is throughout of 
 the utmost puritrj'. The exact proportion of the ingre- 
 dients which enter into these choice specimens is not 
 known, and probably their excellence depends in part 
 on- some accidental circumstances in the preparation. 
 Korner produced some of his best specimens by cm- 
 ploj-ing the following ingredients ; 100 parts of quartz, 
 first treated with muriatic acid ; 80 parts of litharge, 
 or red lead ; and 30 parts of the bitartrate of potash. 
 Flint-glass for common purposes is usually made of 
 120 parts of fine white sand, 40 parts of well-purified 
 pearlash, 35 parts litharge or minium, 13 parts nitre, 
 and a small quantity of the black]|oxyd of manganese' — 
 the latter ingredient being used to correct the green 
 color occasioned by the presence of oxyd of iron in the 
 sand. The principal difl'erence between this and the 
 glass used for optical purposes consists in the much 
 greater quantity of lead in the latter, and which is in- 
 troduced for the purpose of increasing its dispersive 
 power. There is a valuable paper on the manufacture 
 of glass for optical purposes, containing the results of 
 an extensive series of experiments upon the subject, 
 made in the laboratory of the Royal Institution, by 
 Mr. Faraday, in the Philosophical Transactions for the 
 year 1830, vol. cxx. See Glass. 
 
 Floating Break'water. This marine contriv- 
 ance may consist of a series of square frames of tim^ 
 ber, connected by mooring-chains, or cables attached 
 to anchors or blocks of marble. The framework may 
 be made of logs of yellow pine, from 30 to 50 feet long, 
 and from 18 to 20 inches square, bolted together very 
 firmly, and increased in height as the situation may be 
 boisterous, in order to break the violence of violent 
 waves, and to allow the vessels riding within these 
 quadrangular basins more safety and protection. Such 
 Ireakwaiers are admirably adapted to bathing-places 
 and swimming-stations, since they will always produce 
 smooth water, and protect the machines. 
 
 Flogging. According to an act of Congress 
 passed September 28th, 1850, it is provided, "That 
 flogging in the navy, and on board vessels of com- 
 merce, is hereby abolished from and after the passage 
 of this act." 
 
 Floor Cloth. This useful and ornamental manu- 
 facture originated in Great Britain about the year 
 1740, when a manufactory of it was established at 
 Knightsbridge, near London, by Mr. Smith. It was 
 originally made of narrow canvas sewn together like 
 sail-cloth, to which successive coats of paint were 
 applied ; but the seams proving inconvenient, a can- 
 vas was wove for the purpose, about four yards wide ; 
 it was then extended to seven 3'ards in width, and 
 afterward to nine, which is the widest at present made. 
 The manufactorj' at Knightsbridge; now carried on by 
 Mr. Baher, is the largest establishment of the kind — 
 the common dimensions of the oil cloths produced 
 there being 20 yards by 8, and 30 yards by 7, giving 
 therefore entire pieces of 160 and 210 square yards 
 without seams. These canvases are stretched upon 
 frames, and accessible over their whole surface by 
 stages erected for the purpose : these are the circum- 
 stances which render the large dimensions of the manu- 
 factory requisite. The canvas being duly strained, 
 is rubbed over with pumice-stone, which renders its 
 surface smooth and even, and then brushed over with 
 a weak solution of size ; when this is dry, the first coat 
 of oil color is laid on, not with brushes, but with trow- 
 
FLO 
 
 682 
 
 FLO 
 
 els, something in tlie manner of plastering ; wlieu tliis 
 is dry a second coat follows it ; and in this way seven 
 coats of paint are usually applied in succession, three 
 on the back and four on the front. When the cloth in 
 this state, and of one color, is sufficiently dry, it is 
 removed from its frame upon a large roller, and car- 
 ried to the upper part of the building to be printed, 
 that is, to receive its pattern. This was originally ef- 
 fected by a process of penciling ; but in the year 1780, 
 Mr. Smith introduced the great improvement of hloch- 
 printing, by which the colors are more correctly laid 
 on, and in greater body and variety. The printing- 
 table, which is about 30 feet long, i wide, and 2 feet 
 6 inches high, is very firmly constructed of deal tim- 
 bers laid edgeways, and clamped together, the surface 
 being truly planed ; the roll of painted cloth is placed 
 underneath it, and as it is unrolled it gradually passes 
 over the table, where it is printed, and is then drawn 
 forward so as to hang perfectly free while drying, the 
 height of the building being such as conveniently to 
 admit of this, without rolling, doubling, or folding the 
 material, which in these stages would of course injure 
 it. The colors, which are the usual oil colors very 
 carefully prepared, are put on in succession with 
 wooden blocks, which are made of pear-tree, box, or 
 holly-wood, and on which the patterns are cut in 
 relief ; they are about 18 inches square, and are ap- 
 plied in succession over the whole of the surface of the 
 cloth lying upon the printing-table. Every color is 
 put on by u separate block, and much dexterity is 
 required in so placing them that the patterns may cor- 
 rectly interlace and join each other, without in any 
 case overlapping or interfering. To effect this, the 
 workman is aided bj' guide-pins, ot pitches, as they are 
 termed, which direct him in placing the block. The 
 colors are first brushed or tiered upon hard cushions, 
 from which they are transferred to the block and 
 thence to the cloth ; and, though many are often re- 
 quired, it is astonishing how much effect is sometimes 
 obtained by the judicious arrangement or mixture of 
 two only, upon a third, which forms the ground. It 
 will be obvious, from what has been stated, that the 
 weight of the finished oil-cloth, as compared with the 
 naked canvas, is no unimportant criterion of its good- 
 ness — each square yard, when finished, weighing from 
 3i pounds to i or 4:J : this distinguishes a good oil- 
 cloth from those which are vamped up and stiffened 
 with size and other perishable materials. 
 
 Independent of the common application of oil-cloth, 
 it is not unfrequently advantageously employed as a 
 roofing material, especially for covering verandas and 
 other light strud;ures. When used for this purpose, 
 the canvas should be made of picked long flax, and 
 thoroughly saturated with good oil paint ; it will then 
 stand our climate and last for 14 or 15 years. 
 
 Florida, one of Ihe southernmost States of the 
 United States of America, lies between 24° 32' and 
 31° N. lat., and between 81° 30' and 87° 35' W. long. 
 It is 385 miles long, and from 50 to 260 wide, contain- 
 ing 59,268 square miles. Population in 1830, was 
 34,723 ; in 1840, 54,447 ; and in 1850, 87,401. The 
 State was, in 1850, divided into 28 counties. 
 
 Early History of Florida. — The name which the 
 country to the nortji of Cuba had among the Indians 
 of the Lucayan Islands was " Cautio,''^ the signification 
 of which is, as Herrera gives it, rather obscure. The 
 Spaniards heard this countrj' " Cautio" already spoken 
 of before they saw it. They heard also of the famous 
 and fabulous fountain of j-outh of which the Indians 
 had a tradition, and which was called the fountain of 
 Bimini. From this fountain the country to the north 
 itself was sometimes called "Bimini." On some of 
 the first maps of the ICth century it is also called 
 " I'erra de Ouha" (the country of Cuba), as if there 
 were, 1st, an island of Cuba, and, 2d, a continent of 
 Cuba. When Ponce de Leon, in the spring of 1512, 
 discovered this coast, he gave to it the name of " Flor- 
 
 ida" (the florid), from two reasons, as Herrera says : 
 at first because the country presented a very flourish- 
 ing and pleasant aspect, and then because he saw the 
 coast at that festival-day which the Spaniards cajl 
 "Pascua Florida, which corresponds to our Palm Sun- 
 day. This name has since that time always remained . 
 to the large peninsula which we to this day call Flor- 
 ida, though the name was sometimes taken in different 
 senses, and though sometimes there have been at- 
 tempts made quite to do away with it. At first, so 
 long as Florida was supposed to be an island, the name 
 had only a very limited application. When the Span- 
 iards, after the year 1520, discovered, however, the 
 continuation of the coasts on both sides of Florida, 
 they applied this name to the whole western half of 
 North America, from the boundaries of Mexico and 
 from Cape of Florida, toward the north, in indefinitum. 
 The so-called " Government of Florida" was often 
 given to different Spanish governors within the said 
 limits. The " Sio de las Palmas" (Palm Eiver) in 
 Mexico was the south-western boundary of this govern- 
 ment. 
 
 We see the name of Florida on many maps, with 
 large letters, written through the whole Mississippi 
 valley, throughout the whole area of the United 
 States ; and even as late as the year 1723, the Spanish 
 historian Barcia treated, in the work which he calls 
 " The History of Florida," also of Canada, and even of 
 the English expeditions for a discovery of the north- 
 west passage. This latter passage the Spanish au- 
 thors very often style "a strait through Florida." 
 Herrera, however, already remarks that the name of 
 Floiida was taken in two senses : it had a more exten- 
 sive and a narrower meaning. In the latter sense the 
 peninsula was called "Florida par excellence." Some 
 authors looked upon this peninsula only as upon a 
 large tongue or promontoiy attached to the great Flo- 
 ridian continent, and named it the "Promontory of 
 Florida" {Promontorium Floridm), On many old 
 maps we see this name cover the whole peninsula. 
 Still other names for the whole peninsula grew out, as 
 it were, from its root or from its southern point. At 
 the time of the Spanish governor, Don Pedro Menen- 
 dez, in the year 1566, the Spaniards discovered near 
 the Cape of Florida an Indian village called Tequesta, 
 or Teguesta, also written Tegesta. This often-spoken- 
 of village the map-makers put down on their maps, 
 and changed it to a " Provincio de Tegesta" (a province 
 of Tegeste). Some authors applied this name to the 
 whole peninsula of Florida: thus, for instance, did 
 Laot, in his work as well as on his maps (a.d. 1633). 
 
 When the French discovered and settled the Missis- 
 sippi valley, and named it Louisiana, they extended 
 this name and their pretensions as far as possible ; and 
 on one French map by Nic. de Fer, of the year 1713, 
 we see the name " Peninsule de Louisiane" even given 
 to our peninsula of Florida. This was, however, only a 
 single and unfortunate attempt, which had no further 
 conseqnences, either in geography or politics. The 
 Spaniards, on their side, gave not up their pretensions 
 to claim, under the name of Florida, much more than 
 their neighbors, the British, to the north, and the 
 French, to the west, would allow them. But the 
 Spaniards extended, before 1763, their actual posses- 
 sion and government in Florida, toward the east, not 
 furthai- than Mobile Bay and Eiver, and to the north 
 not further than the St. Mary's Eiver. When, in the 
 year 1763, the Floridas were ceded to Great Britain, 
 and also all the French dominions east of the Missis- 
 sippi, then the boundaries of the name Florida were 
 extended again. Great Britain established two prov- 
 inces of Florida, " East and West Florida. " The first 
 extended as far north as the St. Mary's Eiver, or 
 about the 31st degree of north latitude, and the latter 
 as far west as the Mississippi Delta, to the Lakes 
 Pontchartrain and Maurepas. In the year 1783 Great 
 Britain retroceded the Floridas to Spain, and Spain at 
 
FLO 
 
 683 
 
 FLO 
 
 the same time received the possession of the whole of 
 Frendi Louisiana to the west of the Mississippi. 
 Now, for the first time, Spain held in actual possession 
 all the shores of the Mexican Gulf, and all the coun- 
 tries lying around it. Spain adopted the English di- 
 • vision in Eastern and Western Florida — Florida Qri- 
 ental and Occidental— a.i\6. retained also the extension 
 of this name as far as the Mississippi Delta. The Slst 
 degree of north latitude, which runs not much further 
 than 40 miles from the northern shores of the Mexican 
 Gulf, and is parallel to it, was agreed upon as the north- 
 ern boundary of " the Floridas" toward the United 
 States. So, since the year 1763, the name of Florida ex- 
 tended again over half the circuit of the shores of the 
 Mexican Gulf. But soon after the cession of Louisiana 
 to the United States Florida was curtailed again. The 
 United States claimed the western part of it as far 
 east as Perdido Eiver, received the possession of it in 
 the year 1811, and joined it to their " Territorj/ of Mis- 
 sissippi" and afterward of ^'■Alabama." Since this 
 time (1811) the dominion of the name of Florida has 
 not changed, though the so-called country changed, 
 till 1821, its masters, when Spain ceded it to the 
 United States. It was then at first called "tlie Terri- 
 tory of Florida" and since 1845, " the State of Florida." 
 But the limits remained (with some slight exceptions) 
 unchanged — Perdido Eiver in the west, and St. Marj-'s 
 Eiver and the 31st degree north latitude, in the north. 
 The division into East and West Florida disappeared 
 under the American government. — Kohl. 
 
 Physical Features, etc. — The face of the country is 
 uneven, but nowhere elevated over 300 feet above the 
 sea. The whole extent of the coast is indented with 
 bays and lagoons. A large portion of the country is 
 covered with pine forests, the trees of which standing 
 at a considerable distance from each other, without 
 brush or underwood, afford an opportunity for the 
 grass and flowers to spread with luxuriance over the 
 surface of the earth during the whole year. The 
 borders of the streams are usually slcirted by ham- 
 mocks of hard timber entangled with grape and other 
 vines. A large portion of Florida consists of what are 
 usually denominated " pine barrens," and much of it 
 is sterile, though there are extensive tracts of table 
 land, hammoclc, and swamp of the richest soil, and 
 well adapted to the cultivation of sugar, rice, cotton, 
 Indian com, tobacco, and fruits. A considerable por- 
 tion of the pine land is equally rich, and even the bar- 
 rens afford extensive ranges of growing land, usually 
 intersected with streams of pure water. Many parts 
 of the State abound in yellow pine and live oak tim- 
 ber. The sea coast is generally health}-, and in parts 
 remarkably so, and the interior is equally healthy, 
 unless it be in the neighborhood of extensive marshes. 
 The peninsula, which is the southern portion of the 
 State, presents a singular alternation of savannahs, 
 hammocks, and lagoons, called collectively the Ever- 
 glades, which extend into the heart of the country for 
 200 miles north of Cape Sable. They are drained on 
 the north by the St. John Eiver, and on the west by 
 Macao or Charlotte Eiver. 
 
 There were in this State in 1850, 349,049 acres of 
 land improved, and 1,246,240 unimproved in farms. 
 Cash value of farms $6,323,109, and the value of im- 
 plements and machinery $658,795. 
 
 Live stock, etc. — Horses, 10,848 ; asses and mules, 
 5002; milch cows, 72,876; working oxen, 5794; 
 other cattle, 182,415; sheep, 23,311 ; swine; 209,453. 
 Value of live stock, $2,«80,058 ; of slaughtered an- 
 imals, 514,685. 
 
 Agricultural Products, etc. — ^Wheat, 1027 bushels; 
 lye, 1152; Indian com, 1,996,809 ; oats, 66,586; buck- 
 wheat, 55 ; peas ajid beans, 135,359 ; potatoes, 7828 ; 
 sweet potatoes, 757,226; rice, 1,075,090 pounds. 
 Value of products of the orchard, $1280 ; produce of 
 market gardens, $8721. Pounds of butter made, 
 871,498 ; of cheese, 18,015 ; sugar, hhds., 2750 ; mo- 
 
 lasses, 352,893 gallons; beeswax and honey, 18,971 
 pounds; wool, pounds produced, 23,247; cotton, 
 45,131 ; flax, 50 ; silk cocoons, 6 ; hops, 14 pounds ; 
 tobacco, 998,614 ; hay, tons of, 2510 ; and were made 
 10 gallons of wine. Value of home-made manufac- 
 tures, $75,582. 
 
 Mivers, Bays, etc. — There are many bays on the 
 western side of the peninsula, some of which form 
 good harbors. They are Perdido, Pensacola, Choctaw- 
 hatchee, St. Andrew, St. Joseph, Apalachicola, Appa- 
 lachee, Tampa, Carlos, and Gallivains. On the east 
 coast of the peninsula, the inlets afford harbors for 
 coasting vessels. The St. John is the principal river 
 on the eastern coast; it often spreads from three to 
 five miles in width, and at other places it is not more 
 than one fourth of a mile wide. It is exceedingly 
 winding, and flows through a beautiful and healthy 
 country. St. Mary's Eiver rises in Okefinoke Swamp, 
 Georgia, and enters the Atlantic between Cumberland 
 and Amelia Islands. Of the rivers which enter the 
 Gulf of Mexico, the Apalachicola is the principal. It 
 is formed by the junction of Chattahoochee and Flint 
 Elvers, about 100 miles from the Gulf of Mexico. The 
 Chattahoochee branch of this river is navigable for 
 steamboats 280 miles to Columbus, Georgia. The other 
 principal rivers are Escambia, Suwanee, Withlaeoochee, 
 Oscilla, Oclockony, and Choctawhatchee. Perdido 
 Eiver forms the western boundary between Florida and 
 Alabama. It is navigable about seven miles above the 
 baj", is a fine mill stream, and its banks are covered with 
 superior yellow pine timber. There are in this State 
 several streams of limpid water which sink into the 
 earth and disappear, and several which rise suddenly 
 from the earth: one in particular (the Wakulla) is 
 navigable from its very source. The quantity of lumr- 
 ber shipped from the St. John Eiver annually is 
 estimated at 50,000,000 feet. Total tonnage of the 
 State in 1853 amounted to 12,124.26 tons. 
 
 The principal places in the State are Tallahassee, 
 the capital. Key West, St. Augustine, Jacksonville, 
 Pensacola, and Apalachicola. On the 1st of January, 
 1856, there were 26 miles of railroad in operation. 
 May, 1856, Congress granted to railroads lands 
 amounting to over 1,000,000 acres, which, if rightly 
 managed, will build all necessary railroads. 
 
 Mamifactures, etc. — There were in the State in 1850, 
 1 cotton factory, with a capital of $80,000, employing 
 28 males and 67 females, producing 624,000 yards of 
 sheeting, etc., valued at $49,920; 8 flouring and grist 
 mills, 48 saw-mills, 4 tanneries, 10 printing-ofiices, 1 
 semi-weelily, and 9 weekly newspapers published. 
 Capital invested in manufactures, $547,140 ; value of 
 manufactured articles, $668,435. 
 
 Principal Ports. — Key West is built on an island of 
 the same name, sixty miles south-west of Cape Sable, 
 lat. 24° 32', and long. 81° 52' W. It is a port of 
 entry, and one of the few populous towns in the State. 
 Its position commands the Florida Pass, and hence it 
 is important also as a naval station ; but the principal 
 occupation of the people at the present time is " wreck- 
 ing," and here is located a special court for the adjudi- 
 cation of salvages. From fifty to sixty vessels are 
 wrecked in the vicinity every year, and upward of 
 $250,000 are paid on salvages. Salt and sponges are 
 the principal exports, but there is a large import trade 
 for the supply of the military stationed here. Steam- 
 ers plying between tlie Atlantic ports and Havana 
 generally call here. The town contains about 4000 
 inhabitants. The tonnage of the port in 1856 was 
 3668 tons. 
 
 Pensacola is a town and port on the west side of 
 Pensacola Bay, ten miles from the Gulf, and has a fine 
 harbor. The United States' government has here a 
 , first-rate naval station and a marine hospital. The 
 I trade of Pensacola is principally in cotton. The ton- 
 j nage of the port in 1856 was 1960 tons. A railrood 
 I from Pensacola to Mobile is in course of construction. 
 
FLO 
 
 684 
 
 FLO 
 
 Foreign Commekoe 
 
 OF THE State op Flobida, from Ootobek 1, 1820 
 
 , TO July 1, 1856. 
 
 
 Years ending. 
 
 
 Exports. 
 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Tonnage Cleared. 
 
 District Tonnage. 1 
 
 DomoBtic. 
 
 Foreign, 
 
 ToUU. 
 
 Total. 
 
 American. 
 
 Fo/eign. 
 
 Registered. 
 
 Enrolled and 
 Liceasod. 
 
 Sept. 30, 1821 
 
 
 
 
 $13,270 
 
 190 
 
 .... 
 
 280 
 
 856 
 
 1822 
 
 $1,77T 
 
 
 $1,777 
 
 . 6,877 
 
 938 
 
 .... 
 
 
 
 1823 
 
 1,510 
 
 
 1,610 
 
 • 4,808 
 
 663 
 
 62 
 
 
 
 1824 
 
 216 
 
 
 216 
 
 6,986 
 
 177 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 1825 
 
 2,865 
 
 .... 
 
 2,865 
 
 8,218 
 
 323 
 
 
 
 
 1826 
 
 209 
 
 
 209 
 
 16,590 
 
 195 
 
 
 
 
 1827 
 
 24,115 
 
 $83,371 
 
 67,486 
 
 237,994 
 
 11,010 
 
 2,117 
 
 
 
 1828 
 
 60,321 
 
 
 60,821 
 
 168,292 
 
 7,357 
 
 1,248 
 
 
 
 1829 
 
 38,163 
 
 17,923 
 
 66,086 
 
 183,642 
 
 6,059 
 
 7,043 
 
 
 
 1880 
 
 Total.... 
 
 7,670 
 
 
 7,870 
 
 82,689 
 
 1,366 
 
 208 
 
 
 
 $136,746 
 
 $61,294 
 
 $188,040 
 
 $664,366 
 
 28,178 
 
 10,695 
 
 
 
 Sept. 30, 18S1 
 
 $28,493 
 
 $2,002 
 
 30,495 
 
 115.710 
 
 6,168 
 
 610 
 
 646 
 
 1,840 
 
 1882 
 
 62,636 
 
 3,080 
 
 65,716 
 
 107,787 
 
 6,344 
 
 901 
 
 
 
 1833 
 
 64,613 
 
 192 
 
 64,805 
 
 86,386 
 
 8,915 
 
 845 
 
 
 
 1884 
 
 190,185 
 
 38,640 
 
 228,826 
 
 185,798 
 
 7,988 
 
 1,289 
 
 
 
 1885 
 
 49,009 
 
 12,701 
 
 61,710 
 
 98,173 
 
 10,225 
 
 1,025 
 
 .... 
 
 
 1836 
 
 62,076 
 
 9,586 
 
 71,662 
 
 121,746 
 
 9,239 
 
 645 
 
 
 
 18ST 
 
 74,373 
 
 28,304 
 
 102,677 
 
 490,784 
 
 8,096 
 
 1,520 
 
 
 
 1838 
 
 71,983 
 
 80,549 
 
 122,632 
 
 163,690 
 
 6,.525 
 
 2,721 
 
 
 
 18.39 
 
 291,094 
 
 4.3,712 
 
 334,806 
 
 279,898 
 
 12,422 
 
 1,289 
 
 
 
 1840 
 
 Total.... 
 
 1,850,709 
 
 8,141 
 
 1,888,850 
 
 190,728 
 
 11,163 
 
 1,345 
 
 
 
 $2,746,171 
 
 $196,907 
 
 $2,942,078 
 
 $1,794,694 
 
 81,126 
 
 11,640 
 
 
 
 Sept. 30, 1841 
 
 $38,828 
 
 $2,801 
 
 $36,629 
 
 $146,181 
 
 8,829 
 
 2,781 
 
 2,661 
 
 8,.383 
 
 1842 
 
 32,606 
 
 778 
 
 88,384 
 
 176,980 
 
 6,266 
 
 1,063 
 
 
 
 9mos., 1843* 
 
 760,385 
 
 853 
 
 760,688 
 
 158,632 
 
 8,497 
 
 2,609 
 
 
 
 June 30, 1844 
 
 991,657 
 
 19,759 
 
 1,011,416 
 
 155,696 
 
 10,247 
 
 6,099 
 
 
 
 1845 
 
 1,502,867 
 
 11,878 
 
 1,614,746 
 
 107,868 
 
 19,885 
 
 6,722 
 
 
 
 1846 
 
 187,639 
 
 88,909 
 
 176,448 
 
 140,884 
 
 8,169 
 
 1,418 
 
 
 
 184T 
 
 1,808,177 
 
 2,361 
 
 1,810,538 
 
 148,298 
 
 10,960 
 
 9,604 
 
 
 
 1S48 
 
 1,896,688 
 
 
 1,896,683 
 
 64,267 
 
 18,206 
 
 7,548 
 
 
 
 1849 
 
 2,518,027 
 
 
 2,518,027 
 
 68,211 
 
 20,507 
 
 10,922 
 
 
 
 1850 
 
 Total.... 
 
 2,607,963 
 
 16,656 
 
 2,628,624 
 
 95,709 
 
 10,022 
 
 12,134 
 
 
 
 $12,289,687 
 
 $92,495 
 
 $12,882,182 
 
 $1,251,425 
 
 116,657 
 
 60,785 
 
 
 
 Jane 30, 1851 
 
 $3,939,910 
 
 $262 
 
 $3,940,172 
 
 $94,997 
 
 20,254 
 
 9,049 
 
 8,754 
 
 6,610 
 
 1852 
 
 2,511,976 
 
 
 2,611,976 
 
 80,713 
 
 24,170 
 
 11,608 
 
 
 
 ' 1853 
 
 1,698,206 
 
 
 1,698,206 
 
 65,434 
 
 15,347 
 
 10,311 
 
 
 
 1864 
 
 3,964,697 
 
 
 3,964,697 
 
 28,969 
 
 12,896 
 
 9,488 
 
 
 
 1855 
 
 1,403,594 
 
 
 1,403,894 
 
 45,998 
 
 41,938 
 
 7,385 
 
 
 
 1856 
 
 1,976,323 
 
 
 1,976,323 
 
 86,014 
 
 65,204 
 
 10,620 
 
 
 
 * Nine months to June 30, and the fiscal year from this time hegins July 1. 
 
 Florin, a coin first made by the Florentines. A 
 floren was issued by Edward III,, which was current 
 in England at the value of 6s. in 1337. — Camdem. 
 This English coin was called floren after tbe Floren- 
 tine coin, because the latter was of the best gold. — 
 Ashe. The florin of Germany is in value 2s. 4d. ; 
 that of Spain 4s. 4Jd. ; that of Palermo and Sicilj' 
 2s. 6d. ; that of Holland 2s. — Aylaffe. By mint 
 valuation the florin of the southern states of Germany 
 is worth 40 cents. The florin of Austria and the city 
 of Augsburg, 48|- cents. 
 
 A new English coin, by the name of florin, was 
 authorized by acts of Parliament, 1849-1851, of the 
 value of two shillings, or one tenth of the sovereign or 
 pound sterling. This is the first practical attempt at 
 a decimal currency in Great Britain. Up to this 
 time (1857) few of the coins have been issued or put in 
 circulation, and there seems some doubt of its becom- 
 ing one of general use. The obverse of the new florin 
 has an exquisitely graceful bust of Queen Victoria in 
 left profile — the favorite side in all the coins of the 
 present reign. Unlike all the previous coins of this 
 reign, however, the efiigy is crowned — the coronal 
 *' round and top of sovereignty" of the kingdom being 
 faithfully copied, with its borders of jewels, its rim of 
 fieurs-de-lis and Maltese crosses. The legend, in bold, 
 broad capitals, is "Victoria Eegina, 1849." 
 
 Floss-Silk (Filoselle, Bourre de soie, or Jleuret, 
 Fr.), is the name given to the portions of raveled silk 
 broken off in the filature of the cocoons, which is 
 carded like cotton or wool, and spun into a soft coarse 
 yarn or thread, for making bands, shawls, socks, and 
 other common silk fabrics. The fiosa or fleuret, as 
 flrst obtained, must be steeped in water, and then 
 subjected to pressure, in order to extract the gummy 
 matter, which renders it too harsh and short for the 
 spinning-wheel. After being dried it is made still 
 more pliant by working a little oil into it with the 
 
 hands. It is now ready to be submitted to the carding 
 engine. See Cotton Mancfactdee, It is spun 
 upon the flax-wheel. The female peasants of Lom- 
 bardy generally wear clothes of homespun floss-silk. 
 Of late years, by improved processes, pretty fine fab- 
 rics of this material have been produced, both in En- 
 gland and France. M. Ajac, of Lyons, presented at 
 one of the French national exhibitions of the objects 
 of industry, a great variety of scarfs and square 
 shawls of hourre de soie, closely resembling those of 
 cachemire. 
 
 Flota, a name given by the Spaniards to the ships 
 that formerly sailed together, or under convoy, from 
 Cadiz and the other ports of the Peninsula authorized 
 to trade directly with the transatlantic possessions of 
 Spain. 
 
 Flotilla (Sp.), literally a little fleet; in which 
 sense, however, it is seldom used, being applied almost 
 invariably to a fleet, how large soever, composed of 
 small vessels. Thus the term flotilla was given to the 
 immense naval force with which Napoleon meditated 
 the invasion of Great Britain, and which consisted of 
 2,365 vessels of everj' description, was manned by 
 about 17,000 sailors, and carried 160,000 soldiers, and 
 10,000 horses. In Spain the name flotilla is given to a 
 number of vessels appointed to announce to the home 
 government the departure and nature of the cargo of 
 the flota or mercantile ships from foreign ports on their 
 homeward voyage. 
 
 Flotsam, Jetsam, and Lagan. In order to con- 
 stitute a legal wreck, the goods must come to land. 
 If they continue at sea, the law distinguishes them by 
 the foregoing uncouth and barbarous appellations: 
 flotsam is when the goods continue swimming on the 
 surface of the waves ; jetsam is when they are sunk 
 under the surface of the water ; and lagan is when they 
 are sunk, but tied to a cork or buoy to be found again. 
 — (Blackstone, book i., c, viii,) 
 
FLO 
 
 685 
 
 FLO 
 
 . Flour (Ger. Feines mehl, Semmelmehl; Du. Sloem; 
 Ft. Fleur de Farine ; It. Fiore ; Sp. Flar), the meal of 
 wheat corn, finely ground and sifted. 
 
 The imports of breadstuffs into Great Britain, our 
 best customer, is fully shown by the following table. 
 It will be observed that three fourths of the flour im- 
 ported into England were obtained from the United 
 States, in addition to three fifths of the quantity of 
 Indian corn, and more than a fourth of the quantity 
 of wheat. 
 
 Imports of Beeadsiupfs into England fob the Teae 
 1856. 
 
 Comtries whence imported. Wheal. Flour. Indian 
 
 Russia, Northern 
 
 Eussia, Southern 
 
 Sweden .•. 
 
 Norway " 
 
 Benmark 
 
 Prussia ,[[[ 
 
 Mecblenburg-Schwerin. '. 
 
 Hanover. 
 
 Hanseatio Towns 
 
 IloUand 
 
 Belgium 
 
 France [[ 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Spain 
 
 Tuscany 
 
 Papal Territories 
 
 Naples and Sicily 
 
 Austrian Territories 
 
 Greece. 
 
 Turkey Proper 
 
 WftUachia and Moldavia. 
 Syria and Palestine 
 
 %ypt ,..'.... 
 
 Morocco 
 
 British East Indies 
 
 Bl-itish North America . . 
 
 United States 
 
 Chill 
 
 Other parts 
 
 Total..... ■.. 
 
 QnrtrterH.» 
 
 467,617 
 291,842 
 
 10,708 
 
 4,48a 
 
 177,216 
 
 222,681 
 
 62,625 
 
 8,917 
 
 187,826 
 
 28,179 
 
 10,007 
 
 14,809 
 
 49,719 
 
 2,16S 
 
 47,974 
 
 21,600 
 
 86,634 
 
 98,134 
 
 112,825 
 
 124,671 
 
 86,195 
 
 584,603 
 
 4,669 
 
 90,963 
 
 111,819 
 
 1,279,150 
 
 1,084 
 
 9,480 
 
 CwtB.t 
 
 24,850 
 
 8,014 
 
 256 
 
 190 
 
 2 
 
 138,014 
 
 2,913 
 
 2,470 
 
 69,872 
 
 6,758 
 
 460,828 
 
 12,860 
 
 ■"67 
 1,001 
 
 6,293 
 
 441 
 
 26 
 
 239 
 
 809,826 
 
 !,902,707 
 
 86,525 
 
 11,272 
 
 4,072,888 8,991,867 
 
 Quflrtore. 
 61,886 
 
 672 
 
 16 
 
 2,191 
 
 1,522 
 
 27,658 
 
 1,417 
 
 4^467 
 
 80,776 
 
 210,427 
 
 62,711 
 
 196,706 
 
 100 
 
 9,169 
 
 61,257 
 
 28',8i7 
 1,000,871 
 
 82^960 
 
 1,777,813 
 
 * Quarters=8 measured bushels, t Cwts.=112 lbs. 
 
 Breadsluffs. — The following oflicial statement ex- 
 hibits the aggregate value of breadstuffs and provisions 
 exported annually from the United States, for each fis- 
 cal year, from 1821 to 1866 : 
 
 Amount. 
 
 1821 J12,841,901 
 
 1822 18,886,866 
 
 1828 18,767,847 
 
 1824 16,059,484 
 
 1825 11,634,449 
 
 1826 11,803,496 
 
 1827 11,685,666 
 
 1828 11,461,144 
 
 1829 18,131,858 
 
 1880 12,075,480 
 
 1881 17,688,227 
 
 1832 12,424,708 
 
 1883 14,209,128 
 
 1834 11,624,024 
 
 1836 12,009,899 
 
 1836 10,614,130 
 
 1837 9,688,8.59 
 
 1888 9,686,660 
 
 1839 14,147,779 
 
 Amount. 
 
 1840 $19,067,685 
 
 1841 17,196,102 
 
 1842 16,902.876 
 
 1848 11,204,123 
 
 1844 17,970,186 
 
 1S45 16,T48 421 
 
 1846 ;. 27,701121 
 
 1847 68,701,921 
 
 1848 87,472,751 
 
 1849 38,155,507 
 
 1850 26,061,378 
 
 1851 21,948,651 
 
 1852 25,867,027 
 
 1868 32,9.«6,822 
 
 1854 65,941,823 
 
 1865 38,896,848 
 
 1856 77,187,801 
 
 Total.... $798,022,267 
 
 Expobts of Breadstuffs fecm the United States to 
 Great Britain and Ireland, from September 1, 
 1855 TO August 81, 1856. 
 
 New York 
 
 New Orleans. . 
 Philadelphia.. 
 
 Baltimore 
 
 Boston 
 
 Other ports... 
 Total 1866.... 
 
 " 1855.... 
 
 " 1854.... 
 
 " 1863.... 
 
 " 1862.... 
 
 " 1851 .-, .,. 
 
 '^ I860.... 
 
 " 1849.... 
 
 " 1848.... 
 
 " 1847.... 
 Total 10 years 
 
 Flour. 
 
 Bnrrela. 
 
 1,106,058 
 
 95,366 
 
 199,258 
 
 198,288 
 
 20,882 
 
 21,463 
 
 1,641,265 
 
 176,209 
 
 1,846,920 
 
 1,600,449 
 
 1,427,442 
 
 1,669,684 
 
 474,757 
 
 1,187,566 
 
 184,688 
 
 3,165,844 
 
 13,201,609 
 
 4,195 
 1,100 
 
 6,816 
 
 4,768 
 
 41,746 
 
 100 
 
 1,630 
 
 5,620 
 
 6,411 
 
 82,940 
 
 103,584 
 
 ' 844,187 
 
 1,102,742 
 
 Whe«t. 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 6,807.374 
 688,591 
 478,633 
 874,582 
 
 107,226 
 
 7,966,406 
 
 824,727 
 
 6,033,403 
 
 4,828,619 
 
 2,723,442 
 
 1,496,365 
 
 461,276 
 
 140,194 
 
 241,809 
 
 4,000,359' 
 
 29,210,290 
 
 Com. 
 
 Bushels. 
 8,189,899 
 2,429,512 
 
 698,478 
 
 428,841 
 20,469 
 
 116,862 
 
 6,781,161 
 6,679,138 
 6,049,371 
 1,462,378 
 1,487,898 
 2,206,601 
 4,763,853 
 
 12,685,260 
 4,899,228 
 
 17,157,659 
 
 63,664,450 
 
 Flour Exported from the United States to South American Ports, for the past nine Tears. 
 
 DestinaLlon. 
 
 1856. 
 
 1865. 
 
 1854. 
 
 1853. 
 
 1862. 
 
 1851. 
 
 1350. 
 
 1849. 
 
 1848. 
 
 
 288,104 
 82,028 
 26,369 
 44,836 
 
 113,620 
 
 211,278 
 46,562 
 26,431 
 31,466 
 22,716 
 
 155,660 
 43,024 
 25,415 
 36,823 
 22,855 
 
 251,276 
 72,207 
 27,887 
 46,378 
 66,465 
 
 218,674 
 68,212 
 23.452 
 28,882 
 40,784 
 
 249,280 
 68,442 
 18,188 
 82,316 
 25,699 
 
 146,806 
 56,137 
 23,095 
 81,526 
 8,490 
 
 166,683 
 68,265 
 28,159 
 28,054 
 8.948 
 
 216,872 
 65,277 
 26,118 
 37,814 
 25,909 
 
 
 Bahja ,.... 
 
 Eio Grande 
 
 Eivor Plate 
 
 Total 
 
 650,466 
 
 338,751 
 
 283,677 
 
 463,762 
 
 880,004 
 
 893,826 
 
 270,064 
 
 290,109 
 
 371,517 
 
 
 Statement showing 
 
 THE 
 
 ANNUAL AVERAGE 
 
 Export Price of 
 
 Floub from 
 
 the United 
 
 States, from 1340 till 
 
 
 June SOtii, 1856. 
 
 » 
 
 1840. 
 
 1841. 
 
 1842. 
 
 1843. 
 
 1841. 
 
 1846. 
 
 1846. 
 
 1847. 
 
 1S48. 
 
 1849. 1 isso. 
 
 1851. 
 
 1852. 
 
 1853. 
 
 1854. 1 IS65. 
 
 E.xport price.. 
 
 $6 87 
 
 $5 20 
 
 $6 00 
 
 $4 60 
 
 $4 75 
 
 $4 61 
 
 $5 18 
 
 $5 95 
 
 $6 22 
 
 $6 35] $5 00 
 
 $4 77 
 
 $4 24 
 
 $6 60 
 
 $7 f8;$10 10 
 
 Boston 
 
 5 51 
 
 5 77 
 
 5 67 
 
 4 87 
 
 6 18 
 
 6 32 
 
 5 68 
 
 7 17 
 
 648 
 
 6 00 6 OO 
 
 5 25 
 
 5 2(1 
 
 6 27 
 
 9 25 
 
 10 25 
 
 New York.... 
 
 5 17 
 
 5 8!) 
 
 5 67 
 
 hm 
 
 4 61 
 
 5 OO 
 
 5 19 
 
 6 80 
 
 5 71 
 
 4 96 
 
 4S6 
 
 4 19 
 
 4 96 
 
 B.ll 
 
 8 02 
 
 9 06 
 
 Philadelphia.. 
 
 e'23 
 
 5 34 
 
 5 47 
 
 4 60 
 
 iZi 
 
 4 69 
 
 4 79 
 
 6 02 
 
 5 67 
 
 484 
 
 4 97 
 
 4 38 
 
 4 23 
 
 5 47 
 
 a 14 
 
 9 62 
 
 Baltimore. 
 
 5 00 
 
 5 81 
 
 5 2C 
 
 4.S6 
 
 4 31 
 
 4 68 
 
 4 58 
 
 6 21 
 
 6 52 
 
 483 
 
 4H9 
 
 4 18 
 
 4 26 
 
 5 89 
 
 8 IS 
 
 9 67 
 
 New Orieans.. 
 
 4 93 
 
 5 38 
 
 454 
 
 4 13 
 
 4 44 
 
 4 83 
 
 4 38 
 
 5 b4 
 
 4 76 
 
 4 61 
 
 6 81 
 
 4 00 
 
 4 10 
 
 5 48 
 
 7 60 
 
 9 36 
 
 St Louis 
 
 4 93 
 
 4 75 
 
 4 56 
 
 S 76 
 
 4 50 
 
 4 98 
 
 4 60 
 
 4 93 
 
 6 25 
 
 5 43 
 
 6 26 
 
 4 83 
 
 6 28 
 
 5 08 
 
 6 09 
 
 7 38 
 
 The exports of flour from the United States, during 
 the year ending June 30th, 1856, were as follows : 
 
 New York 
 
 Baltimore 
 
 Philadelphia.. . . 
 
 New Orleans 
 
 Boston 
 
 Eichmond, Va. 
 San Francisco. . 
 
 Other ports 
 
 Total 
 
 Value. 
 
 1.649,471 
 637,993 
 814,846 
 261,601 
 175,503 
 160,821 
 114,672 
 266,318 
 
 $18,692,941 
 4,776,175 
 2,496,963 
 1,907,872 
 1,566,987 
 1,526,032 
 1,070,121 
 
 3,510,626 
 
 $29,275,148 
 
 Flour of Wheat, adulterations of, to detect. — The 
 first method is by specific gravity. If potato flour be 
 added, which is frequently done in France, since a 
 vessel which contains one pound of wheat flour will 
 contain one pound and a half of the fecula, the propor- 
 tion of this adulteration may be easily estimated. If 
 
 gypsum or ground bones be mixed with the flour, they 
 wUI not only increase its density still more, but they 
 will remain after burning away the meal. 
 
 The second method is by ascertaining the quantity 
 of gluten which the suspected sample will afl'ord, by 
 the process prescribed under the article Bread. The 
 two following chemical criteria may also be emplojred : 
 
 1st. Nitric acid has the property of coloring wheat 
 flour of a fine orange yellow, whereas it afiects the 
 color neither of fecula nor starch. 2d. Pure muriatic 
 acid colors good wheat flour of a deep violet, but dis- 
 solves fecula or starch, and forms with it a light, col- 
 orless, viscous fluid, decomposable by alkalies. It may 
 also be observed, that as fecula absorbs less water 
 than flour, this affords a ready means of detection. 
 The adulteration with bean or pea flour may be de- 
 tected by pouring boiling water upon it, which devel- 
 ops the peculiar smell of these two substances. 
 
FLO 
 
 FLO 
 
 Tablb showing the Pbicb ot Floue, Monthly, in Philadelphia, from 1785 to 1856, embeaoiho a Febiod'of 
 
 •Setentt-t^o Years. 
 
 Tear. 
 
 January. 
 
 February. 
 
 March. 
 
 April. 
 
 May. 
 
 June. 
 
 1785 
 
 B. d. 
 45 
 
 40 'O 
 
 36"o 
 
 44 6 
 
 45 
 87 6 
 45 
 
 $12 oo'" 
 
 10 00 
 
 8 60 
 
 9 50 
 
 11 50'" 
 7 00 
 
 6 50 
 
 7 60 
 11 00 
 
 7 60 
 7 50 
 
 6 00 
 
 5 50 
 
 7 75 
 11 00 
 
 11 oo'" 
 
 8 oo'" 
 
 9 00 
 18 60 
 
 9 26 —10 00 
 9 00 
 
 6 00 — 6 Sn 
 4 00 
 
 6 25 
 
 6 50 — 7 00 
 
 6 00 
 
 4 87i 
 
 4 75 
 
 5 25 — 6 00 
 
 5 00 -^ 4 75 
 8 25 
 
 4 62i— 4 50 
 
 6 25 — 6 00 
 6 60 
 
 5 75 
 
 5 25 
 
 4 9.3J 
 
 6 62i 
 
 11 00 —11 25 
 8 124— 8 62i 
 
 8 26 .- 8 60 
 
 5 75 
 
 4 65 — 5 25 
 
 6 06} 
 
 3 98 
 
 4 60 
 
 4 15 
 
 5 81} 
 
 4 88} 
 
 6 06t 
 
 5 21 
 5 00 
 4 66 
 
 4 25 
 
 5 37} 
 
 7 60 
 
 9 181 
 
 8 88 
 
 B. d. 
 45 
 42 
 40 
 
 84"0 
 
 ■45"0 
 37 6 
 
 45 
 
 46 
 
 $13 56'" 
 
 10 00 
 
 8 50 
 
 9 50 
 
 11 25'" 
 7 00 
 
 6 60 
 
 7 50 
 
 7 06'" 
 7 60 
 
 5 75 
 
 7 00 
 
 8 00 
 10 50 
 10 12 
 10 50 
 
 8 06'" 
 
 9 00 
 13 75 
 
 10 60 —10 75 
 • 8 75 
 
 6 60 — 6 12} 
 
 4 00 
 6 25 
 
 6 50 — 7 00 
 6 00 
 
 5 12 
 4 62 
 
 6 00 — 5 75 
 4 874— 4 75 
 8 25 — 8 00 
 
 4 50 
 6 00 
 
 5 50 
 
 5 00 — 5 19 
 
 4 87 
 
 5 00 
 
 6 75 
 
 10 60 —11 00 
 
 7 60 — 8 06} 
 
 8 50 
 6 50 
 
 4 59 _ 6 06} 
 
 5 90 — 6 124 
 
 3 75 — 3 92 
 
 4 80 
 4 31} 
 
 4 90 
 
 6 17 
 
 5 87} 
 5 00 
 4 78 
 
 4 26 — 4 561 
 
 4 60 
 
 5 20 
 8 12 
 8 94 
 
 7 81 
 
 «. d. 
 46 
 41 6 
 40 
 35 
 35 
 
 46" 
 87 6 
 
 48"2 
 
 $15 06*" 
 
 10 00 — 9 25 
 
 8 60 
 
 9 25 
 
 11 56'— 9 50 
 7 00 
 
 6 60 
 
 7 00 
 
 12 00 -18 00 
 7 00 — 6 75 
 7 25 
 
 5 76 
 
 7 00 
 
 8 26 
 10 50 
 
 9 75 — 9 26 
 9 50 
 
 7 75'" 
 
 3 00 
 
 14 00 —14 75 
 10 60 
 
 8 00 
 
 5 00 — 4 75 
 tS 62 — 3 75 
 
 6 26 
 
 roo 
 
 6 00 — 6 50 
 512 
 
 4 50 
 
 5 76 — 5 12 
 475 
 
 8 00 — 7 50 
 
 4 60 
 
 6 25 — 7 00 
 
 5 25 — 5 00 
 
 6 25 
 
 4 62 
 
 5 00 
 
 7 00 
 
 10 50 —10 76 
 7 50 — 8 00 
 7 50 — 7 62 
 
 5 00 
 
 4 60 — 4 93 
 
 6 62 — 5 81 
 
 3 79 — 8 91 
 
 4 75 
 4 81} 
 
 4 83 
 
 5 93J 
 
 6 06} 
 
 4 75 — 5 12 
 
 4 79 
 
 4 42 
 
 4 18f 
 
 4 981 
 
 746 
 
 9 06} 
 
 7 00 
 
 B. d. 
 43 
 40 6 
 40 
 
 86 
 85 
 
 38"0 
 
 87 6 
 
 75" 
 
 $14 00 
 9 00 — 8 50 
 
 8 50 — 7 60 
 
 9 25 
 9 50 
 
 11 00 
 7 00 
 6 00 
 700 
 
 12 00 
 
 6 50 — 7 00 
 
 7 25 
 
 5 18J^ 
 
 6 25 
 
 8 25 
 10 50 
 
 900 — 7 00 
 
 9 75 —10 00 
 
 7 75'" 
 
 7 75 
 
 14 00 —14 25 
 10 00 
 
 7 25 
 
 4 75 
 
 4 00 
 
 6 50 
 
 7 25 
 
 6 12 
 
 5 00 
 
 4 25 
 
 5 12 — 5 00 
 4 75 
 
 7 50 — 6 75 
 
 4 50 — 5 00 
 
 6 87 — 7 00 
 6 25 — 5 50 
 
 5 25 
 
 4 75 — 5 25 
 
 5 18} 
 
 6 81} 
 9 31^ 
 
 7 50 — 8 00 
 
 7 87 — 7 50 
 4 87 
 
 4 62 — 5 00 
 
 6 62 — 6 80 
 
 4 22 
 
 4 68 
 
 538 
 
 4 81 
 
 6 87 
 
 6 93f 
 
 4 60 
 
 6 00 
 
 4 60 
 
 4 06} 
 
 4 90 
 
 8 08 
 10 25 
 
 6 57} 
 
 I. d. 
 45 
 40 
 40 
 37 
 40 
 
 40 "0 
 87 6 
 
 50 "0 
 
 82 6 
 $14 00 
 9 00 
 7 00 
 9 50 
 9 75 
 11 50 
 7 00 
 6 00 
 
 6 50 
 11 75 
 
 7 00 — 8 00 
 7 25 
 
 5 00 
 7 00 
 9 00 
 
 10 25 
 
 7 25 — 8 50 
 
 8 50 — 7 25 
 
 7 50 — 7 00 
 
 8 60 
 7 87 
 
 14 50 —14 00 
 10 00 
 
 6 87 
 
 4 37 — 4 87 
 4 00 
 
 7 12 
 7 87 
 6 00 
 6 00 
 4 25 
 6 00 
 4 75 
 
 6 50 — 6 75 
 
 4 75 
 
 6 60 — 5 60 
 
 5 60 
 
 6 60 
 
 5 26 — 5 50 
 
 6 00 
 
 6 50 
 
 9 00 
 
 7 71 — 7 90 
 7 00 — 7 50 
 4 62 
 
 4 65 — 5 00 
 
 5 75 
 
 4 25 — 4 40 
 4 37 — 4 57 
 4 45 
 4 31 
 
 7 90 
 . 5 87 
 . 4 68 
 - 6 18 
 
 4 26 
 4 20 
 4 68 
 
 8 69 
 10 76 
 
 6 Oi\ 
 
 B. d. 
 45 
 43 
 42 6 
 87 
 42 6 
 
 46"o 
 
 87 6 
 45 
 60 n 
 86 3 
 $12 60 
 
 8 50 
 
 6 75 
 
 9 60 
 
 10 00 
 
 11 60 
 
 7 00 
 
 6 00 — 6 60 
 
 6 60 — 7 76 
 11 00 
 
 8 00 
 
 7 25 — 7 09 
 
 5 00 
 
 6 60 — 7 00 
 
 9 00 
 
 10 12 
 
 8 60 
 
 8 00 — 8 60 
 
 6 75 
 
 8 60 — 9 00 
 
 8 75 —10 60 
 
 11 60 —11 00 
 10 25 
 
 6 00 
 
 4 60 — 4 75 
 
 4 00 
 
 6 75 — 7 00 
 
 7 50 
 
 6 00 — 6 75 
 6 50 — 6 00 
 
 4 25 — 4 76 
 
 5 00 
 4 60 
 
 6 76 — 6 25 
 
 4 76 — 4 60 
 
 5 76 — 5 25 
 
 6 76 — 6 25 
 6 60 — 5 76 
 6 60 
 
 6 25 
 
 6 81} 
 
 9 00 — 9 87 
 
 7 60 - 7 75 
 6 12 - 6 82 
 
 4 75 
 6 00 
 
 6 60 — 6 62 
 
 5 00 — 5 12 
 4 10 — 4 30 , 
 4 25 — 4 40i' 
 
 8 91 
 
 8 26 — 8 40 
 
 6 44 
 4 66 
 6 27 
 4 26 
 4 20 
 
 4 62 
 
 8 72 — 8 90 
 
 10 52 
 
 5 94 
 
 1786..' 
 
 1787..;' 
 
 1788 
 
 1789.... 
 
 1790 
 
 1791 
 
 1792.... 
 
 1793 
 
 1794 
 
 1795 
 
 1796 
 
 1797 
 
 1798 
 
 1799 
 
 1800 
 
 1801 
 
 1802 
 
 1808....: 
 
 1804 
 
 1806 
 
 1806 
 
 1807 
 
 1808 
 
 1809 
 
 1810 
 
 1811 
 
 1312... 
 
 1818 
 
 1814 
 
 1816 
 
 1816... 
 
 1817 
 
 1813 
 
 1819 
 
 1820 
 
 1821 
 
 1822 . . . 
 
 1823 
 
 1824 
 
 1825 
 
 1826 
 
 1827 
 
 1828 
 
 1829 
 
 1880 
 
 1831 . . . . 
 
 18.32 
 
 18S3 
 
 
 1S35 
 
 lg.56 
 
 
 
 
 1840 
 
 1841 
 
 1843 
 
 
 1845 
 
 1846 
 
 
 
 1849 
 
 
 1851 
 
 1852 
 
 1854 
 
 1865 
 
 1856 
 
 * Highest price. 
 
 The grain of wheat has for a very long time consti- 
 tuted an important article of food, and has, for about 
 three centuries, been the staple grain. The kind usu- 
 ally' cultivated is the iriticum sativum. A bushel of it 
 should weigh, if very good, about 64 pounds. Wheat 
 in the form of flour is sometimes manufactured as mac- 
 aroni and vermicelli ; but its almost universal use is 
 as bread. (See Baking.) The following is the com- 
 position of first-class wheaten flour : Water, 14-0 ; 
 albuminous compounds, 14-6 ; oil, 1-2 ; saccharine 
 compounds, 66-9; cellulose, 1-7 ■ ash, 1-6. The 
 greater part of the ash is made up of phosphorus, po- 
 tassium, and magnesia. The bran contains much less 
 saccharine matter, but absolutely more oil and more 
 albuminous matter ; and " seconds" in this respect 
 
 + Lowest price- 2,000 barrels sold. 
 
 stand intermediate between fine flour and bran. The 
 cheaper price of seconds and bran, therefore, appears 
 to be somewhat arbitrary and improper, and brown 
 bread is probablj' more economical than that made 
 from fine flour. The objection to it is probably tliat 
 bran does not leaven particularly well. 2. 0ats(4BeBffl 
 saliva). In Scotland, the climate and soU of which 
 seem particularly adapted to its cultivation, this cereal 
 has long constituted the staple article of diet. This JS 
 also the case in the high-lying land in the West Kidmg 
 of Yorkshire and the adjacent parts of Lancashire. A 
 bushel of good oats weighs about 45 pounds. Oats 
 are made into flour or meal, and before being submit- 
 ted to the mill they are always kihi-dried, to facilitate 
 the separation of the husks. The proportion of huslt 
 
FLO 
 
 681 
 
 FLO 
 
 Table suowibo the Pkioe or Tlottb, IIonthit, in Philadelphia, eeom 1786 to 1856, EMBEACisa a Peeiod o? 
 
 Skventt-two Teaes.— Oi»t«tmMeA 
 
 Yeir. 
 
 July. 
 
 Auguit. 
 
 September. 
 
 Ootobor. 
 
 November. 
 
 December. 
 
 1786 
 
 >. d. 
 44 
 43 
 42 6 
 
 86 
 88 8 
 
 46"6 
 
 87 6 
 
 54"o 
 86 3 
 $11 75 
 8 60 
 
 6 76 
 
 10 00 — 9 60 
 
 10 26 
 
 11 50 —11 09 
 
 7 26 
 7 00 
 
 7 76 
 
 10 76 — 9 00 
 
 8 00 
 6 75 
 
 6 00 — 6 76 
 
 6 12 - 7 00 
 10 00 —11 00 
 
 10 00 — U 00 
 
 8 50 
 
 7 60 
 
 7 00 — 7 25 
 
 9 25 — 8 78 
 
 11 00 
 
 10 60 —11 60 
 10 25 
 
 6 00 
 
 4 60 — 4 75 
 4 00 — 4 50 
 G 76 — 6 25 
 
 7 00 
 6 25 
 
 6 60 — 4 60. 
 4 87 ■— 4 50 
 6 00 
 
 4 50 — 4 75 ■ 
 6 00 — 5 00 
 
 4 «0 — 6 25 
 
 5 87 - 4 76 
 
 6 00 
 
 6 00 — 6 50 
 6 25 — 5 50 
 
 6 81 
 
 7 00 
 
 9 50 — 9 95. 
 6 48 — 7 12 
 5 59 — 6 13 
 5 25 
 
 5 25 — 5 50 
 .6 60 — 6 87 
 
 5 25 — 5 87 
 4 00 — 4 87 
 4 21i— 4 62 
 884 
 
 6 91 
 6 26 
 4'66i 
 6 06i 
 4 25 
 
 4 12 
 
 5 00 
 
 8 06 — 8 29 
 
 9 81 
 
 6 56} 
 
 >. d. • 
 44 
 43 
 
 86 6 
 85 
 41 
 63 6 
 85 
 
 87 6 
 48 6 
 68 
 90 
 
 $11 00 
 8 60 
 
 8 00 — 8 60 
 
 9 60 
 
 10 75 
 
 11 00 
 7 25 
 
 7 00 - 7 75 
 
 9 OO — 8 00 
 
 7 50 — 6 75 
 6 75 
 
 6 25 
 
 6 75 
 
 11 00 —12 00 
 10 75 —10 00 
 
 8 25 — 9 00 
 
 7 OO — 8 OO 
 
 7 25 — 8 50 
 
 8 62 
 
 10 75 — 9 60 
 
 11 50 —10 00 
 10 60 —10 75 
 
 6 00 — 6 26 
 4 50 
 
 4 62 — 5 00 
 6 25 — 7 00 
 6 60 
 
 5 26 
 5 00 
 
 4 50 
 
 5 00 
 
 6 00 — 6 50 
 6 00 — 5 50 
 
 5 26 — 5 75 
 4 76 
 
 6 87 — 6 25 
 6 12 — 6 00 
 6 60 
 
 6 06i 
 8 87 
 : 9 00 — 8 68 
 6 12 — 7 12 
 6 76 — 6 12 
 6 00 
 
 6 06 — 6 84 
 6 25 — 5 46 
 4 75 — 5 06 
 8 91 — 4 19 
 4 18f 
 
 3 83 
 6 03 
 6 22 
 
 4 87 — 5 12 
 
 5 12 — 6 37 
 8 97 
 
 4 20 
 
 6 83 
 
 8 18 — 8 63 
 8 81 
 6 62i 
 
 B. d. 
 43 6 
 43 6 
 88 
 
 85 
 42 
 
 46 
 
 86 
 39 
 
 47 6 
 53 
 90 6 
 
 $12 00 
 8 50 
 
 8 60 
 ,9 50 
 
 10 60 — 9 75 
 
 10 00 — 9 60 
 7 00 — 6 50 
 
 7 75 —7 60 
 
 9 76 —10 00 
 
 8 00 
 
 7 00 
 
 -T 13 — 7 60 
 
 5 00 — 6 00 
 
 6 76 — r 25 
 
 11 00 —10 76 
 
 9 00 
 
 9 00 —10 00 
 
 8 25 — 8 76 
 8 60 
 
 8 76 
 
 9 76 
 950 
 9 75 
 6 60 
 
 4 60 
 
 6 25 — 6 50 
 
 7 00 
 6 60 
 
 5 13 — 6 60 
 
 6 00 
 
 4 60 — 5 00 
 
 5 00 — 5 26 
 
 6 50 — 7 00 
 5 60 — 6 76 
 
 5 50 — 5 25 
 
 6 25 — 6 60 
 6 87 — 6 60 
 6 00 
 
 6 60 — 5 35 
 6 12 
 9 87 
 
 8 00 — 8 60 
 6 90 — 8 45 
 5 87 — 6 12 
 
 5 00 
 
 6 62 — 6 87 
 4 56i 
 
 444 
 
 8 89 — 4 88 
 
 4 60 
 
 8 82 — 4 13 
 
 5 60 
 5 67 
 
 5 03 
 
 6 00 
 3 96 
 444 
 
 5 70 
 
 8 59 — 8 81 
 
 7 47 
 
 6 49 
 
 .. d. 
 48 6 
 42 6 
 88 
 84 6 
 42 6 
 48 8 
 86 
 38 6 
 47 6 
 66 
 $18 00 
 12 00 
 8 60 
 
 8 60 
 
 9 50 —10 00 
 9 50 
 
 9 25 
 
 6 60 
 
 7 60 
 9 00 
 
 8 00 
 
 6 75 
 
 7 25 — 6 75 
 
 6 00 
 
 7 26 
 
 10 75 —11 50 
 
 8 60 
 
 10 25 —10 00 
 
 9 25 — 8 25 
 
 8 76 
 
 9 00 
 
 10 00 —11 00 
 9 00 
 9 76 
 6 50 
 
 4 26 
 
 5 50 — 7 60 
 
 6 63 
 
 8 75 
 5 13 
 
 5 00 — 5 12 
 
 5 00 — 5 26 
 
 6 25 
 
 6 25 — 7 00 
 5 25 — 6 00 
 5 25 — 5 00 
 
 5 60 
 
 6 50 — 6 00 
 
 5 87 — 6 75 
 
 6 25 
 6 06i 
 
 9 31 
 
 8 36t7 9 00 
 8 26 — 8 40. 
 
 5 87 — 6 00 
 6>00 
 
 6 12 — 6 30 
 4 49 
 
 4 25 — 4 60 
 
 4 00 — 4 60 
 6 06i 
 
 Vi 
 
 6 42 
 
 5 10 
 4 83 
 4 12 
 448 
 
 6 61 
 
 8 83 — 8 68 
 8 37 
 6 69 
 
 s. d. 
 
 . 48 
 42 
 
 84"o 
 40 
 46 
 
 87 6 
 
 88 6 
 ' 47 ' 6 
 
 , 69 
 $13 00 
 12 00 -11 60 
 8 60 • 
 
 8 60 — 9 60 
 
 ■ 10 60 —11 00 
 10 60 
 
 9 00 
 
 6 50 
 
 7 60 
 
 10 00 —10 50 
 
 8 00 — 8 50 
 7 00 — 7 50 
 7 00 
 
 6 00 — 5 60 
 
 7 60 — 8 00 
 
 10 26 •' 
 
 9 60 
 
 11 50 —10 50 
 
 8 60 —10 00 
 
 8 76 
 
 9 60 
 
 ■ 11 50 —12 60 
 
 9 60—10 00 
 9 26 
 
 6 12 
 
 4 25 
 
 7 00 — 6 00 
 6 60 
 
 6 62 ■ 
 , 6 50 — 5 00 
 
 5 12 — 5 00 
 
 6 60 
 
 6 25 — 6 60 
 
 7 25 — 9 00 
 
 5 00 — 6 26 
 
 6 00 
 
 5 60 — 5 26 
 
 6 26 — 6 12 
 6 76 
 
 6 25 — 5 12 
 6 37 
 10 62 
 9 81 — 9 81 
 
 8 00 — 8 12 
 6 25 
 
 6 00 
 
 6 46|— 6 96 
 4 12 —.4 87 
 4 26 — 4 87 
 
 4 87 
 
 5 91 
 
 5 10 
 
 6 81 
 
 5 26 
 
 ■ 6 06i 
 4 86 
 
 3 91 
 
 4 90 
 
 6 90 — 7 45 
 
 8 68 — 8 90 
 
 9 81 
 6 63 
 
 s. d. 
 42 
 40 
 
 85"o 
 42 6 
 
 46 
 
 87 6 
 
 88 6 
 
 47 6 
 69 
 
 $18 75 
 11 60 —10 50 
 
 8 50 
 
 9 50 —10 00 
 
 10 .00 
 
 11 00 
 
 8 00 — 6 50 
 
 6 50 
 
 7 50 
 11 00 
 
 8 25 
 7 50 
 
 6 75 
 
 5 60 — 6 00 
 
 7 50 
 
 11 26 
 10 00 
 10 25 
 
 10 00 — 7 50 
 
 8 00 
 
 9 25 
 
 12 CO —18 60 
 9 75 — 9 00. 
 9 00 
 
 6 00 — 6 25 
 4 50 
 
 6 00 — 6 60 
 6 60 
 
 6 25 — 6 00 
 4 75 — 6 00 
 
 4 8r 
 6 27 
 
 6 00 
 
 7 76 — 8 25 
 
 5 26 — 4 03 
 
 6 00 — 6 63 
 6 25 
 
 5 75 — 5 50 
 5 60 — 6 25 
 
 5 00 — 4 80 
 
 6 75 
 1100 
 
 9 50 — 9 76 
 
 8 81 — 8 60 
 6 56J— 5 90 
 4 76 — 5 35 
 6 42 
 
 4 37 — 4 62 
 4 26 — 4 60 
 4 29 
 6 06i 
 
 4 76 
 6 49 
 
 5 14 
 4 87 
 4 71 
 
 4 15 
 
 5 16 
 
 6 712— 7 00 
 
 9 12i— 9 25 
 884 
 
 6 50 
 
 1786 
 
 1787 
 
 1788 
 
 1789 
 
 1790 
 
 1791 
 
 1792 
 
 1798 
 
 1794 
 
 1795 
 
 1796 
 
 1707 
 
 1798 
 
 1799....; 
 
 1800 
 
 1801 
 
 1802 
 
 1808 
 
 1804 
 
 1805,. 
 
 1806 
 
 1807 
 
 1808 
 
 1809 
 
 1810 
 
 1811 
 
 1812 
 
 1818 
 
 1814 '..'.:... 
 
 1816 ;.... 
 
 1816 
 
 1817 
 
 1818 
 
 1819 
 
 1820. 
 
 1821 
 
 1822 
 
 1828 
 
 1824 
 
 1825 
 
 1826 
 
 1827..; 
 
 1828 
 
 ,1829 
 
 1880 
 
 1881 
 
 1882... 
 
 1888 
 
 1884 
 
 1835 
 
 1886 
 
 1887 
 
 1888 
 
 1389 
 
 1840 
 
 1841 
 
 1842 
 
 1843 
 
 1844 
 
 1846 
 
 1846 
 
 1847 
 
 1848 
 
 
 1850 
 
 1861 
 
 1852 
 
 1858 
 
 1354 
 
 1865 
 
 1866 
 
 is perhaps about a quarter per cent. When the husk 
 is separated, hut before the grain is ground, the seeds 
 receive the name of groats. When ground, the dust 
 constitutes oatmeal, and it is found in practice that 
 oats afford about half their original weight of meal, 
 the loss being the water expelled by the Idln-drying, 
 the husk, and the chaff. The following is Norton's 
 analysis (the arrangement being altered) of oats that 
 had been dried to 212°. Perhaps in this drying the 
 loss of water would be about 20 per cent. Albumi- 
 nous compounds, 19-91 ; saccharine do., 68-68 ; oleagi- 
 nous do., 7-33 ; husk, 2-28 ; ash, 2-60. The proportion 
 of ash, principally phosphates and sulphates of lime, 
 potassa, and magnesia, is sometimes in much larger 
 quantity. Oatmeal, therefore, contains considerably 
 more nutritious matter than the same weight of wheat 
 
 flour. The husks consist mainly of cellulose, and are 
 almost never used as human food. 3. Eye (Secale 
 cereale) has been cultivated from time immemorial, 
 and was for a long time much used for bread-making 
 in this country, as it still is (constituting the staple) 
 in Russia, many parts of Germany, etc. A bushel of 
 rye weighs about 54 pounds. Eye grain is very 
 coarsely powdered, and the mixture of flour and bran 
 made into fermented bread, which is distinguished 
 from other bread by its black color. The following is 
 an analysis of rj'e flour, the water having been prev- 
 iously expelled: Albuminous compounds, 10-5; sac- 
 charine do., 78-0; oil, 3-5; salts, 6-0, principally 
 phosphates of potassa, soda, and magnesia ■; loss, 2-0= 
 lOO'O. These three cereal .grains constitute the basis 
 of the food of the modern European nations. 
 
FLU 
 
 688 
 
 FOG 
 
 Flovrers (Fleurs, Fr. ; Blurmn, Ger.) of benzoin, 
 of sulphur, of zinc, etc., is the appellation given by the 
 older chemists to such substances as "were obtained in 
 a pulverulent or rather minutely crystalline form by 
 the process of sublimation. 
 
 Plovrers, Artificial, Manufacture of. The 
 art of representing by flowers, leaves, plants, etc., veg- 
 etable nature in her ornamental productions, consti- 
 tutes the business of the artiiicial florist. The Italians 
 appear to have been the first people in Europe who ex- 
 celled in the art of making artificial fiowers ; but of 
 late years the French have been most ingenious in this 
 branch of industry. Ribbons folded in diff'erent forms, 
 and of different colors, were originally emploj'ed for 
 imitating flowers by being attached to wire stems. 
 This imitation soon gave way to that by feathers, 
 which are more delicate in texture, and more capable 
 of assuming a variety of flower-lite figures. But a 
 great difiiculty was encountered in dyeing them with 
 due vivacity. The savages of South America manu- 
 facture perfect feather flowers, derived from the bril- 
 liant plumage of their birds, which closely resemble 
 the products of vegetation. The blossoms and leaves 
 are admirable, while the colors never fade. The Ital- 
 ians employ frequently the cocoons of the silt-worm 
 for this purpose ; these tate a brilliant dye, preserve 
 their color, and possess a transparent velvety appear- 
 ance, suitable for petals. Of late years, the French 
 have adopted the finest cambric for making petals, and 
 the taff"eta of Florence for the leaves. M. de Bernar- 
 diere employs whalebone in very thin leaves for arti- 
 ficial flowers ; and by bleaching and dyeing them of 
 various hues, he has succeeded in mating his imita- 
 tions of nature to be very remarkable. 
 
 The coloring matters used in flower dyeing are the 
 following : For red ; carmine dissolved in a solution of 
 carbonate of potash. For blue ; indigo dissolved in 
 sulphuric acid, diluted and neutralized in part by 
 Spanish whitening. For bright yellow ; a solution of 
 turmeric in spirit of wine. Cream of tartar brightens 
 all these colors. For violet ; archil, and a blue bath. 
 For lilac; archil. Some petals are made of velvet, 
 and are colored merely by the application of the finger 
 dipped in the dye. 
 
 Flute, a wind-instrument of great antiquity, the 
 older varieties of which are described by Pfere Mer- 
 senne in his Harmonic Universelle, Paris, 1636. The 
 Flute-h-bec (disused for more than a century) was of 
 various dimensions. The largest was a bass-flute, 
 with a compass from F in the bass-clef, below the first 
 line, up to D below the first line of the treble clef. 
 The next, a tenor-flute, extended from B flat on the 
 second line of the bass clef up to G on the second line 
 of the treble clef ; and each of these large flutes was 
 sounded through a bent tube, like the S of a bassoon. 
 The alto-flute reached from F on the fourth line of the 
 bass clef up to D on the fourth line of the treble clef 
 The treble-flute extended from F in the first space of 
 the treble clef up to F two octaves above. These two 
 had heahsj like the bill of a cock. But all these flutes 
 gave way, early in the last century, to the German 
 flute, which, however, was then verj^ imperfect in its 
 intonation, having only one flnger-kej'. By the ad- 
 dition of various finger-keys, for semitones, the Ger- 
 man flute has been much improved in the present cen- 
 tury'. Like the fife, it is blown by an oval side-hole. 
 It consists of four separable tubes, and has a compass 
 of nearly three octaves, from the lowest C in the treble 
 clef upward. Smaller flutes of this kind are called 
 third, fourth, and octave flutes. The octave flute is 
 the peccoloj used in modem orchestras and in military 
 music. 
 
 Fluke is applied in navigation to the broad part 
 of the anchor which takes hold of the ground. 
 
 Flux (Eng. and Fr. ; Fluss, Ger.), signifies any 
 Eubstance capable of promoting the fusion of earths or 
 metallic ores by heat. White flux is the residuum of 
 
 the deflagration in a red hot crucible, of a mixture of 
 two parts of nitre, and one of cream of tartar. It is 
 in fact merely a carbonate of potash. Black flux is 
 obtained when equal parts of nitre and tartar are de- 
 flagratefl. It owes its color to the carbonaceous mat- 
 ter of the tartaric acid, which remains unconsumed ; 
 the quantity of nitre being too small for that purpose. 
 The presence of the charcoal renders this preparation 
 a convenient flux for reducing calcined or oxydized 
 ores to the metallic state. Limestone, fluor-spar, 
 borax, and several earthy or metallic oxyds are em- 
 ployed as fluxes in metallurgy. 
 
 Flying Fish, a name given to several speces of 
 fishes which, by means of long fins, can sustain them- 
 selves for some time in the air. The common flying 
 fish of the Mediterranean is thus able to raise itself so 
 far above the surface of the sea as frequently to throw 
 itself upon the deck of,a ship ; but the extreme limit 
 of its flight is confined to an arch extending about 
 120 feet, when the drying of its fins necessitates its 
 return to its proper element. See index to Ichthy- 
 ology, in JEnci/. Brit., 1856-7. 
 
 Fodder (Ger. fatter), in agriculture, the food 
 given to quadrupeds, which consists of the stems and 
 leaves of plants, such as the culmiferous stems of the 
 grasses, the haulm of legumes, potatoes, etc. ; or, in 
 short, whatever is given as the ordinar}' food is desig- 
 nated fodder; whereas corn, beans, and other articles, 
 which present nourishment in a more concentrated 
 form, are not included under the term fodder, but 
 rather known as solid food. 
 
 , Fodder is the name of a weight formerly used in 
 the weighing of lead : it was of various magnitudes, 
 but most commonly amounted to about 2400 lbs. 
 
 Fog (Dan. fog), in meteorology, a dense vapor 
 near the surface of the land or water. Fogs, in gen- 
 eral, are the consequence of the nocturnal cooling of 
 the atmosphere. The air, by its rapid cooling, be- 
 comes surcharged with moisture ; a part of which 
 being precipitated in the form of a cloud, gives rise to 
 the ordinary fog. During the day the heat of the sun 
 generally disperses the fog, because the quantity of 
 moisture which the air is capable of holding becomes 
 more considerable in proportion as its temperature is 
 increased. 
 
 In calm weather, the surfaces of rivers, lakes, etc., 
 are frequently in the morning covered with fog. The 
 reason is this. During the night the air is colder than 
 the water ; the strata of air in contact with the water 
 are consequently heated, and become saturated with 
 moisture. The mixture of the vapor with the air, to- 
 gether with its elevation of temperature, renders the 
 air specifically lighter. It rises in consequence, and 
 mixing with the cold air in the superior strata, is 
 cooled, and precipitates its moisture. The cloud or 
 fog resulting from this precipitation can only rise to a 
 small height, because the uniformity of temperature is 
 soon restored. Hence, it is easy to see how winds, or 
 a great agitation of the air, prevent the formation of 
 fogs over the surface of water. In the equinoctial 
 regions, fogs sometimes continue during a considerable 
 part of the year. Humboldt relates that Lima is often 
 covered with a fog half the year, especially in tlie 
 mornings and evenings ; and that along the whole of 
 that coast fogs supply the place of rain, which is ex- 
 tremely rare. In the polaiyseas thick fogs often pre- 
 vail, even during the warmest months ; and they are 
 so dense that objects frequently can not be distin- 
 guished at the distance of a few yards. 
 
 Sometimes, though rarely, fogs occur of which the 
 cause is not very well understood. In 1783, the whole 
 of Europe was covered with a dense fog during nearly 
 two months. On the 23d of May, 1822, about five 
 o'clock in the afternoon, a fog covered Paris and the 
 neighborhood, which had the odor of nitrous gas ; it 
 continued about an hour. Dry fogs, or those in which 
 no moisture is present, are supposed to be the vapors 
 
FOO 
 
 689 
 
 FOO 
 
 and ashes ejected by volcanoes, and diffused in the at- 
 mosphere by the winds. 
 
 Foil (Fr. fenille, or Lat. folium, a leaf). This term 
 is generally applied to varnished metal. Common foil 
 is manufactured as follows : a copper plate, covered 
 with a thin laj'er of silver, is rolled out into sheets under 
 the flatting mill ; the silver surface is then highly pol- 
 ished or covered with a colorless varnish. The colored 
 foils are similarly prepared with colored varnishes. 
 
 Fold (Sax.fealde), a temporary inclosure for Iseep- 
 ing cattle or other agricultural animals together, either 
 for the purpose of protection during night, or jointly 
 for protection and feeding. Sometimes, also, sheep 
 are folded for the purpose of manuring. The barrier 
 of which folds are constructed is commonly wooden 
 hurdles ; but sometimes, when the fold is only to con- 
 tain ewes and lambs, netting stretched between posts 
 is made use of, there being a strong rope fixed to the 
 lower parts of the posts close to the ground, to which 
 the under edge of the netting is attached, while its 
 upper edge is attached to a rope stretched along the 
 tops of the same posts. The practice of folding sheep 
 on naked fallows, with a view to manuring them, is 
 still common in several parts of England; but the 
 more improved sheep farmers consider that it deterio- 
 rates the wool, and impedes the fattening of the sheep, 
 by Iteeping them for the greater part of the night 
 wholly without food. 
 
 Folio (It. a leaf), in account-books, signifies page. 
 Thus folio 7 — written abridgedly fo. 7 — denotes the 
 seventh page ; Folio recto, or F° E°, signifies the first 
 page ; Folio verso, or F° V», the second page of a leaf. A 
 book in folio, or simply a folio, is that where the sheet 
 is only folded in two, each leaf making half a sheet. 
 
 Foo-Chow, Fou Tohow Fou, or Fuhchau 
 Fu, a city of China, capital of the province of Fo-kien, 
 and one of the five ports recently opened for commerce, 
 stands ou the north side of the Min Eiver, 34 miles 
 from its mouth, and 9 miles from Pagoda Island, where 
 ships anchor. North lat. 26° 5', east long. 119° 20'. 
 The walled city is about three miles from the river, 
 but extensive suburbs stretch along both its banks. 
 They are connected with each other, and with a small 
 islet in the river by a stone bridge 420 paces long, 
 lined with shops, and resting on solid stone piers, 40 
 on the northern, and 9 on the southern side. Several 
 lookout houses are placed over the streets, or upon the 
 roofs of buildings, one of which immediately attracts 
 the attention of the visitor from its height, and its 
 clock-dial with Roman characters. Few vacant spaces 
 occur within the walls of the city, which is every- 
 where equall}' well-built. Serpentine canals divide 
 the country around into plats of greater or less extent, 
 and help to drain the city, as well as provide channels 
 for boats to come up from the river. These parts of 
 the landscape are dotted with hamlets and cottages, 
 or, where the ground is higher, with graves and tomb- 
 stones. The maritime commerce of the city is very 
 considerable, and its manufactures of cotton goods and 
 porcelain ware are extensive. The population of Fou 
 Tchow Fou and suburbs, is estimated at about 600,000. 
 
 This port has no direct trade with foreign coun- 
 tries. Vessels enter at other ports, pay duties, and 
 receive a permit to land goods at Foo-Chow. Tlie ar- 
 rivals and departures of foreign vessels during the 
 year 1855 were over 100, showing a large increase 
 over the year immediately preceding — including, how- 
 ever, coasting vessels in the opium trade, all of which 
 were under the British flag. The trade of the port is 
 said to be rapidly increasing, bidding fair to render it 
 the second port in China as regards foreign trade, 
 Shanghai being the first. It already surpasses Canton 
 in commerce with the United States. The number of 
 American vessels arriving at Foo-Chow during the 
 last six months of 1855 was 13, with an aggregate 
 tonnage of 10,540 tons ; clearances 20, with a tonnage 
 of 18,026 tons, and with 15,106,070 lbs. of tea; of 
 Xx 
 
 which, 7,674,300 lbs. were for New York, 523,200 lbs. 
 for Boston, and 6,908,570 lbs. for London. 
 
 A correspondent residing at Foo-Chow writes to the 
 State Department, U. S., that the tea exported in 
 American ships visiting this port during the last quar- 
 ter, amounted to 4,824,198 lbs., valued at $715,000. 
 " The entire number of American ships which arrived 
 in 1856 was 34, and one ship-of-war, the United States' 
 ship Levant, To give an idea of the increase of for- 
 eign trade at this port, I would remark that in the 
 year 1853 (the year the port was opened for trade) 
 there were only 6 American ships ; in 1854, there were 
 12 American ships ; in 1855, 27 ; and in 1856, 34. The 
 whole number of foreign ships which entered this port 
 in 1853, was 14 ; in 1854 there were 60 ; in 1855, 117 ; 
 and in 1856, 175. There is very little done in the way 
 of imports, except in opium. In this article there is 
 an immense trade, a single firm selling in one month 
 more than $200,000 worth. Nearly every firm in the 
 port import opium with the full sanction of the Chi- 
 nese authorities. There is scarcely a day, and never 
 a week in the year, when opium is not landed in open 
 day, within 10 feet of the door of the custom-house, 
 and of course in full view of the oificers. There is, I 
 believe, an understanding between the importers of 
 this article and the officials, that the latter are to re- 
 ceive $10 on each chest landed, which amount goes to 
 the custom-house officers, and is divided among them 
 from the collector down to the custom-house boatmen, 
 each receiving according to his rank." 
 
 Food. All substances susceptible of digestion and 
 assimilation may come under the denomination of 
 food; but the proximate principles of organic bodies 
 on which their nutritive powers depend are compara- 
 tively few. Hence, although the articles employed 
 in different countries for the support of animal life are 
 almost infinitely various, tlieir sustaining powers may 
 be referred to certain substances capable of being sep- 
 arated and identified b}** chemical analyses and tests. 
 Among the proximate elements of vegetable food glu- 
 ten and its modifications, starch, gum, sugar, and lignin 
 or woody fibre, are by far the most important ; and 
 among those of animal food, albumen, gelatin, and 
 their modifications, together with fats and oils, which 
 are common to both kingdoms of nature. 
 
 To illustrate the actual simplicity of our food as 
 compared with its apparent multifariousness and com- 
 plexity, it may suffice to state, that wheat and almost 
 all the esculent grains consist principally of starch and 
 gluten ; that the same ingredients are found in many 
 fruits and roots; that sugar, gum, or a relation of 
 gum which is called vegetable jelly, together with 
 minute traces of aromatic principles which give flavor, 
 and more or less abundance of water, and of vegetable 
 acids, are the chief component parts of apples, pears, 
 peaches, currants, gooseberries, and all analogous 
 tribes of fruits ; a very few also, contain oil. Then, 
 as regards animal food, the muscular fibres of various 
 animals closely resemble each other in composition 
 and nutritive power ; in some cases texture merely, 
 and in others minute additions of foreign matters, con- 
 fer upon them their relative digestibilities, and their 
 different aspects and flavors : albumen or fibrin, and 
 gelatin, small proportions of saline bodies, and a large 
 quantity of water are found in them all. 
 
 It often happens that the truly nutritious part of 
 food is so combined with, or protected by indigestible 
 matters, as to escape the solvent powers of the stom- 
 ach, unless previouslj- prepared and modified by vari- 
 ous chemical and mechanical agents. Indurated 
 woody fibre, for instance, or lignin, as chemists call it, 
 will often resist the joint action of the stomach and 
 bowels, and pass through the alimentary canal with 
 scarcely any alteration. The husks of many seeds 
 and fruits are composed almost exclusively of this 
 material. This is the case with the kernels of the ap- 
 ple, pear, etc. ; thp seeds of the currant, gooseberry. 
 
FOO 
 
 690 
 
 FOO 
 
 melon, and so on ; the skin, or husk of peas, beans, 
 etc., and of- wheat, barley, and oats; so that unless 
 the -woody part is either broken do-wn by the teeth, or 
 previously removed, the food -which it envelops is 
 protected from the solvent action of the secretions of 
 the stomach. This is in some respects a -wise and cu- 
 rious provision in nature ; for birds in this -way become 
 the carriers of seeds, -which pass through them not 
 only Undigested, but even retaining their vegetative 
 po-wers ; and in this way, uninhabited and sterile por- 
 tions of the globe may gradually become clothed -with 
 verdure, and shrubs, and trees. Bones are highly nu- 
 tritive ; but unless broken into very small fragments 
 by the masticatory powers of the animals which eat 
 them, they too, would elude digestion. In reference, 
 hoVever, to the food of man, much of its digestibility 
 and nutritious power is referable to the important 
 chemical operations preparatory to its use which kre 
 carried on in the kitchen : in other words, cookery is 
 essentially a chemical art ; and substances totally un- 
 fit, in their raw state, for reception into the stomach, are 
 rendered palatable, digestible, and nutritious by the 
 skill of the cook. And here salt, and a variety of condi- 
 ments^ as they are called, and which are aromatic and 
 stimulant substances, chiefly of vegetable origin, play 
 an important part ; nor must the mere effect of heat be 
 overlooked, for it is most important. Meat, by boiling 
 and roasting, is not only softened in its fibre, but new 
 substances are generated in it. Among these a peculiar 
 extractive matter, and osmazome^ or the principle which 
 gives an agreeable flavor and odor to dressed meat, are 
 especially recognized. Nor are the changes which 
 vegetables suffer under the influence of heat less 
 obvious. 
 
 There is another important point in the history of our 
 food, namely, its ultimate composition. We have spoken 
 of starch, sugar, gum, albumen, and other substances 
 as the proximate principles upon which we live ; but 
 what is the ultimate constitution of these secondary 
 products, what are their true elements ? It is curious 
 that four elements only are principallj' concerned in the 
 production of our food. These are carbon, hj'drogen, 
 oxygen, and nitrogen. Among vegetable substances, 
 gluten (including vegetable albumen) is the only one 
 which abounds in nitrogen ; gum, sugar, starch, and 
 the rest are constituted of carbon, hydrogen, and oxy- 
 gen only ; and what is very remarkable is, that in all 
 these important principles, and also in lignin, the oxy- 
 gen and hydrogen bear to each other the same relative 
 proportions as in water, so that thej' may be figura- 
 tively described as compounds of charcoal and water. 
 Now there are two very curious points in reference to 
 that part of the chemical history of our food, which 
 has been adverted to : the one is, that no animal can 
 subsist for any length of time upon food which is des- 
 titute of nitrogen ; and the other, that a certain mix- 
 ture of different kinds of food is absolutely essential. 
 An animal fed exclusively on starch, or sugar, or albu- 
 men, or jelly, soon begins to suffer in health ; peculiar 
 diseases make their appearance, and his existence is 
 painful and brief; but mix these together, and occa- 
 sionally modify their proportions, and he then thrives 
 and fattens. Magendie's experiments on this subject, 
 together with those of Tiedemann and Gmelin, well 
 illustrate this fact. Thus, geese fed upon gum, died 
 on the 16th day, those fed upon starch on the 24th, and 
 those fed on boiled white of egg on the 46th ; in all 
 these cases they dwindled away and died as if of star- 
 vation. 
 
 Habit, as is well known, -will do much in accustom- 
 ing the stomach to particular descriptions of food ; 
 many persons live exclusively, or almost so, on veget- 
 able, others on animal matters, and particular kinds of 
 diet are forced on the inhabitants of many regions of 
 the globe ; but, as far as we are concerned, a due mix- 
 ture of vegetable and animal matter is not onl}^ most 
 palatable, but most conducive to health. N6thing is 
 
 fit for food which has not already undergone organiza- 
 tion, and water, though an essential part of the food of all 
 animals, is obviously not in itself nutritious, though it 
 performs the extremely important function of dissolv- 
 ing nutritive matter, so as to render it conveyable by 
 the lacteals and other absorbents into the blood. No 
 compound, then, of nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon, and 
 oxygen, which can be formed artificially, can consti- 
 tute food. Air, water, and charcoal, though involv- 
 ing the elements of our nutriment, are themselves unfit 
 for our support ; and it is only by passing through the 
 hidden processes which are carried on in the vessels of 
 living things, that they are so recombined and mod- 
 ified as to be rendered capable of supporting animal 
 life. It is the vegetable world which commences tliis 
 wonderful operation. Plants absorb their nutriment 
 from the air and from the soil ; they assimilate inor- 
 ganic as well as organic matter ; they become the food 
 of the graminivorous tribes, and from these man de- 
 rives the great bulk of his animal food. 
 
 In speaking of the composition of food, that of milk, 
 the most important of all food, must not be forgotten ; 
 in it nature has wonderfully provided a mixture which, 
 though secreted by an animal, partakes also of the 
 nature of vegetable food, and it presents a perfect 
 analogy to that combination of vegetable and animal 
 matter which has been mentioned as most congenial to 
 the palate and stomach. The albumen QTCurd of milk 
 is a highly elaborated animal principle, abounding in 
 nitrogen, yet, from its attenuated and soluble state, 
 easy of digestion. A second principle of milk is what 
 is termed sugar of milk ; in composition and properties 
 it resembles a vegetable product, and is intermediate 
 between gum and sugar. The third component of 
 milk is butter, partaking of the nature of vegetable 
 oil and animal fat ; there are certain Saline and acid 
 substances in small proportion : and all these raattets 
 are either dissolved or suspended in a large relative 
 proportion of water. 
 
 I. Taule showing the a-veeage Quantity of Nutkitivb 
 Matter in 1,000 Paets of beveeal Vaeieties of An- 
 imal and Vegetable Food. 
 
 Blood 
 
 ... 216 
 
 Beef 
 
 . .. 260 
 
 Teal 
 
 . .. 250 
 
 Mutton 
 
 Pork 
 
 .. 290 
 ...240 
 ... 200 
 
 Chicken 
 
 Cod. 
 
 ... 2T0 
 
 210 
 
 Haddock 
 
 Sole 
 
 ... 180 
 . . . 210 
 
 Bones 
 
 Milk 
 
 ... 510 
 . .. 72 
 
 White of egg. . . 
 "Wheat 
 
 ... 140 
 . .. 950 
 
 Eice 
 
 830, 
 
 Barley 
 
 ... 920 
 
 Eye. 
 
 792 
 
 Oats 
 
 .. 742 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 .. 260 
 
 Carrots 93 
 
 Turnips 42 
 
 Cabbage 78 
 
 Beet-root 143 
 
 Strawberries 100 
 
 Pears 160 
 
 Apples ITO 
 
 Gooseben-ies 190 
 
 Cherries 260 
 
 Plums 290 
 
 Apricots 260 
 
 Peaches 200 
 
 Grapes 2T0 
 
 Melon 30 
 
 Cucumber. 25 
 
 Tamarind 840 
 
 Almonds 650 
 
 Morels 896 
 
 The above table represents the relative propor- 
 tion of solid digestible matter contained in 1000 
 parts of the different articles of food which are enu- 
 merated. When blood, for instance, is evaporated to 
 drj-ness, at a temperature not exceeding 212°, the 
 residue amounts to 215 parts in 1000, and may be re- 
 garded as almost entirely composed of digestible mat- 
 ters ; it consists of albumen and coloring matter, -vrith 
 small proportions of saline substances. The different 
 kinds of meat were dried in the same way. The loss 
 of weight during their desiccation is almost wholly 
 referable to water ; and the dry residue composed of 
 albumen or fibrin, with some gelatin, and perhaps 
 traces of fat and saline matters, represents the true 
 nutritive value. Upon an average, therefore, the nu- 
 tritive matter in a pound of meat is not more than four 
 ounces. This, however, only applies to raw meat ; for 
 when dressed, a considerable portion of its constituent 
 water is often dissipated. The nutritive matter of 
 wheat is chiefly starch and gluten, and in this species 
 
FOO 
 
 691 
 
 FOO 
 
 of grain the gluten is in much greater relative propor- 
 tion to the starch, than in barley, oats, or rye. In" 
 rice there is little else than starch. There can be lit- 
 tle doubt that the groat value of wheat as an article of 
 food, depends upon this excess of gluten, which is a 
 nitrogenous substance, and has not inaptly been termed 
 the vegeto-animal principle. In the esculent roots, 
 such as carrots etc., but especially turnips, sugar is 
 the leading nutritive matter ; and the common fruits 
 contain sugar, gum, albuminous matter, and acids, to- 
 gether with a highly attenuated form of woody fibre, 
 or lignin, which, in that state, is probably digestible. 
 
 The following table shows the ultiihate composition 
 of thos? proximate principles which have been above 
 adverted to as constituting the nutritive part of food. 
 
 II. Table showing thb ttltimatb Elementaky Compo- 
 sition OF 1,000 Pahts op tue following proximate 
 Pkinciples op Animal and Vegetable Food. 
 
 ■ ■• 
 
 Carbon. 
 
 Hydrogen. 
 
 Oiyeen. 
 
 Niti:o(fen. 
 
 Albumen 
 
 Gelatin 
 
 Tat 
 
 516 
 483 
 T80 
 609 
 464 
 B.'ST 
 488 
 419 
 444 
 500 
 
 T6 
 80 
 122 
 78 
 61 
 T8 
 62 
 68 
 62 
 66 
 
 . 268 
 276 
 98 
 116 
 485 
 220 
 600 
 518 
 494 
 
 160 
 161 
 
 "208 ' 
 
 "143 
 
 Curd of Milk.. 
 Sugar of Milk-. 
 
 Starch 
 
 Gluten 
 
 
 Llgnln 
 
 Yearlt/ Food of One Man. — From the army and navy 
 diet scales of France and England, which, of course, 
 are based upon the recognized necessities of large 
 numbers of men in active life, it is inferred that about 
 2J pounds avoirdupois of dry food, per day, are re- 
 quired for each individual ; of tUs about three fourths 
 are vegetable, and the rest animal. At the close of an 
 entire year the amount is upward of 800 pounds. 
 Enumerating under the title of water all the various 
 drinks — coffee, tea, alcohol, wine, etc. — its estimated 
 quantity is about 1500 pounds per annum. That for 
 the air received bj- breathing may be taken at 800 
 pounds. With these figures before us, says the Meil- 
 ical World^ we are able to see how the case stands. 
 The food, water, and air, which a man receives, amount, 
 in the aggregate, to more than 3000 pounds a^year ; 
 that is, to about 1^^ tons, or more than 20 times his 
 weight. This enormous quantity may well attract our 
 attention to the expenditure of material required for 
 supporting life. A living being is the result and rep- 
 resentation of change on a prodigious scale. 
 
 Foodj Adulterations of. — It has long been known 
 that very fraudulent, and sometimes very unwhole- 
 some, adulterations of food are extensively practiced ; 
 but until lately it was not easy in all cases to pro- 
 nounce decidedly on the nature of the fraud that had 
 been committed. Now, however, by means of the 
 microscope and the chemist's test-tube, there is little 
 difficulty in so doing, and many important disclosures 
 have by their use been made. The proprietors of the 
 London Lancet employed Dr. Hassall (one of the most 
 accomplished of the microscopical observers of our 
 day) to thoroughly investigate the subject, and his re- 
 ports have appeared from time to time in that peri- 
 odical. As he published the names of the different 
 trades-people from whom he bought spurious or adul- 
 terated articles of food, and as none of them have suc- 
 ceeded in disproving (and, indeed, very few have 
 ventured to contradict) any of the statements, the 
 thorough accuracy of the report may be relied upon, 
 and the facts in this article are based upon it. Al- 
 though Dr. Hassall purchased the articles of food 
 that he examined from London shop-keepers, there 
 can be no doubt that the same adulterations will be 
 found in the provinces. Indeed, the great adultera- 
 tors are the wholesale houses, who supply indiscrimi- 
 nately London and country shop-keepers. 
 
 I. Adulterations op Articles of Food not 
 AVOWEDLY of a Mandfacturbd Natcke. — Milk, 
 
 usually supposed to be much adulterated, is compara- 
 tively little so. In towns, water is generally added to 
 it, and a portion of the cream is likewise abstracted ; 
 but chalk, gum, etc., are very rarely employed (ap has 
 often been alleged) to give the appearance of greater 
 strength. Salted buttir' is frequently melted, and 
 when in that state has water added to it. In this 
 manner 50 per cent of water may, it is said, be incor- 
 porated. Lard is mixed up with water, potato flour, 
 and refuse mutton fat, and the amount of the potato 
 starch has sometimes been known to amount to 20 per 
 cent. Oatmeal, in London, and perhaps elsewhere, is 
 extensively mixed with barley meal ; the latter, as it 
 contains so much more water, only selling for about 
 half the price of the former ; but wheat flour, unless it 
 contains alum, as it perhaps does, seems quite pure. 
 Arrowroot is adulterated to a large extent. Of 50 
 samples bought from London shops, Dr. Hassall 
 found 22 to be impure ; of these, 10 scarcely contained 
 any arrowroot at all, but were made up of sago, 
 tapioca, and potato starch ; while in the others there 
 was a considerable admixture of these cheaper articles. 
 Kaw sugar has many impurities, among which the 
 immense number of acari with which it swarms are 
 the most disgusting ; but it is also extensivel}' mixed 
 with flour, apparently to make impure dark sugar ap- 
 pear like purer and lighter-colored, and perhaps with 
 other foreign ingredients. ' Loaf-sugar seems sufii- 
 oiently pure. Tea is in a lamentable state, for it is 
 meddled with by both the Chinese and those through 
 whose hands it passes here. With regard to black 
 tea, Dickson maintains that the Chinese mix with 
 their exportations of tea to this countiy many mill- 
 ions of pounds of leaves of other plants, which they 
 mix with genuine tea plants. In other respects, how- 
 ever, and even perhaps in this, the Chinese do not 
 adulterate the common black teas, as Congou, Sou- 
 chong, and ordinary Pekoe; but other descriptions, 
 as scented Orange Pekoe and Caper, are, almost with- 
 out an exception, impure ; the former by being glazed 
 with black-lead, and the Caper by being extensivelj- 
 mixed with Paddy and Lie tea, i. e., an imitation of 
 tea leaves obtained from other plants ; or b}'' not con- 
 taining any tea leaves at all, but altogether other leaves 
 sprinkled with tea dust, and made up into little masses 
 by means of gum, and which masses a^e glazed with 
 plumbago, turmeric or Prussian-blue, and the whole 
 sprinkled over with mica, etc. But the imitation 
 black teas are also entirely made up of the leaves of 
 indigenous plants of this country, as those of sycamore 
 and horse-chestnut, broken down, sprinkled with cate- 
 chu, (to communicate tannin), dried, and coated with 
 gum. But a still more common imposition is to pur- 
 chase exhausted tea leaves, which are sold at about 
 3d. a lb., from hotel-keepers and the like, and attempt 
 to imitate fresh tea by admixture with catechu, gum, 
 sulphate of iron, to strike a dark color with the cate- 
 chu, Prussian-blue, logwood, black-lead, talc, etc. 
 Some of these adulterations, as the Prussian-blue, for 
 example, are calculated to have serious effects upon 
 the health. Green teas are more adulterated than 
 black ones, a really unadulterated specimen being veiy 
 rarely to be met with. Thej' are mixed in China 
 with leaves of other plants, and are subsequently 
 glazed with gum, Prussian-blue, turmeric, and vari- 
 ous other substances, some of which are verj- unwhole- 
 some. Imitation green teas of home manufacture are 
 also occasionally, perhaps even often, exposed for sale. 
 Coffee, until the government interfered to prohibit the 
 sale of a mixture of coffee and chicory as " coffee," 
 almost invariably contained a large, and sometimes an 
 amazingly large, admixture of chicory. Several con- 
 tained, in addition, roasted corn, beans, potatoes, 
 sometimes red ferruginous earths, and other impuri- 
 ties. Ground chicory itself, so much employed to se- 
 cretly mix with coffee, is itself an article extremely 
 adulterated. Nearly a half of the specimens examined 
 
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 were largely so, the substances employed for tide pur- 
 pose being roasted wheat, ground acoms, mangel-" 
 wurtzel, carrots, mahogany vsawdust, and ferruginous 
 earths, the two latter for' the |)urpose of communicat- 
 ing color. Cocoa and chocolate are no better, the 
 great majority of samples of them being largely mixed 
 with sugar, and with potato, and other starch ; but a 
 worse adulteration is, that they also contain coloring, 
 earthy matter, usually.'probably, of a ferruginous na- 
 ture, but which sometimes, perhaps, have for ingredi- 
 ents red lead and vermilion, two very dangerous 
 ingredients, and tallow and other fats seem to be 
 sometimes mixed with them. The acknowledged 
 substitutes for tea, coffee, and cocoa, as HevcUenta, 
 Semola^ Prince of Wales's Food, etc., etc., are very fa- 
 miliar substances. Du Barry's much vaunted " Eev- 
 alenta" is a mixture of pounded lentils and barley 
 meal, and the sjTup that accompanies it is treacle. 
 Bullock's " Semola" is the gluten of wheat with a 
 little starch ; and " the Prince of Wales's Food" is po- 
 tato flour. 
 
 Ground ginger is very commonly, and very largely 
 adulterated. Dr. Hassall found three fifths of his 
 samples to be so, the substances admixed being sago- 
 meal, potato flour, common flour, ground rice, cayenne 
 pepper, and mustard husks, and these generally con- 
 stituting the greater part of the bulk of the powder. 
 Mustard, i. e., ground, is almost invariably adulte- 
 rated, the articles employed for the purpose being 
 flour and turmeric, and these sometimes" constitute 
 nearly the whole of the article. Pepper is likewise 
 very frequently mixed with linseed meal, pea meal, 
 powdered mustard, and other substances cheaper than 
 itself. Cayenne pepper is scarcely ever sold pure ; 
 and as the adulterations employed are bisulphuret of 
 mercury, red lead, and other mineral coloring-matter, 
 cayenne pepper is often « pretty active poison. In 
 like manner, curry-powder, of which four samples out 
 of five were found to be adulterated, frequently con- 
 tains red lead, and is, therefore, very deleterious. Of 
 the other spices, cinnamon and mixed spices are often 
 impure ; but pimento, mace, cloves, and turmeric, are 
 almost always pure. Vinegar was found by Dr. Has- 
 sall to vary a good deal in strength, and also in the 
 quantity of sulphuric acid that most of it contains ; 
 many samples containing more of this than was for- 
 merly allowed when the vinegar-makers were under 
 the control of the excise ; but some specimens, and 
 these very good vinegars, were found to contain none 
 of it, and this is a satisfactory proof that the addition 
 of sulphuric acid is by no means necessary to vinegar. 
 
 II. Adulterations of Articles of Food avow- 
 edly OF A Manufactured Nature. — Although 
 some of the above adulterations communicate poison- 
 ous properties, yet most of them are frauds merely ; 
 some of which, however, must press very severely 
 upon the artisan, to whom a nominally cheap article 
 is almost irresistible. But the adulterations now to 
 be noticed are all of a deleterious nature, and probably 
 produce an immense amount of chronic disease, and 
 sometimes, indeed, speedy death. Every sample of 
 bread— 49 in number — examined by Dr. Hassall, con- 
 tained alum. Indeed, the sale of "stuff," which is a 
 mixture of alum and salt, to the bakers, is carried on 
 on a very large scale. The object of the baker in 
 using it is to take advantage of the affinity that it 
 has for water, and thereby make the bread retain 
 more water than it otherwise would, and thus give 
 his loaves an artificial weight, and also to whiten bad 
 and discolored flour, and make it pass for that of supe- 
 rior quality. Each four-pound loaf contains on an 
 average 82 grains, and a person consuming two such 
 loaves a week, introduces into his system in that 
 period 2 drachms and 44 grains of alum — a quantity 
 which, as alum is a powerful astringent, must be very 
 injurious, and which probably produces a, great deal 
 of the dj'spepsia of large towns. The unnecessary 
 
 quantity of salt employed by bakers is also for the 
 purpose of retaining water among the bread in unnec- 
 essary abundance. The pickles sold in bottles in the 
 shops are yer}' bad indeed. In the first place, few of 
 them, if we -take the definition of pickle as given in 
 the article Food, are pickles at all. The vegetables 
 are greened with copper, preserved with salt and wa- 
 ter, and packed into bottles, into which some very 
 weak vinegar and diluted sulphuric acid are poured. 
 Even the vegetables are not always genuine, and 
 white cabbage is dyed to pass for red, slices of turnips 
 made to look like cucumbers, etc. Of 20 specimens 
 examined by Dr. Hassall, the supposed vinegar never 
 contained the proper amount of acetic acid, and in 
 general only about half. All contained oil of vitriol, 
 and, which is still worse, all (16 were tested for this 
 purpose) salts of copper — two in small quantities only, 
 eight in much, one in considerable, three in very con- 
 siderable, one in highly deleterious, and two in imme- 
 diately poisonous amount. Of the extremely injurious 
 effects upon the health of those who daily eat these 
 pickles thus contaminated with copper, there can be 
 no doubt. Among the symptoms produced by the 
 continued use of cupreous preparations in small doses, 
 are paralysis, chronic inflammation of the respiratory 
 and digestive apparatus, slow fever, and wasting of 
 the body. The store sauces are extensively adultc;- 
 rated. Of 28 samples of anchovy sauce, 23 contained 
 Armenian bole, a ferruginous earth of a full red color. 
 All the samples of soy were found to consist of treacle 
 and salt, or at least nearly so. Six out of seven bol^ 
 ties of tomato sauce contained coloring matter, in aU 
 cases save one Armenian bole ; and a very extensively- 
 used fish-sauce contains acetate of lime and chips of 
 charred wood. None of the sauces, however, were 
 found to contain lead or copper. This, however, is 
 not the case with preserves and jams, and 33 of th^e 
 out of 35 that were tested, were found to be adulterated 
 with copper, and some of them in very large amount. 
 Fruits preserved in bottles, too, nearly all had copper, 
 and French olives in particular contained a large 
 amount. As in preparing bottled fruits no copper 
 utensils are employed, the poison must be deliberately 
 added. This, too, must often be the case with pre- 
 serves. Articles of sugar confectionery are perhaps 
 most deleterious of all. Besides often containing sul- 
 phate of lime, which is not wholesome, the greater 
 proportion of the colors employed are virulent poisons. 
 Among these may be mentioned red oxyd of lead, car- 
 bonate of lead, and the chromate of lead, carbonate of 
 copper, arsenite of copper, and bisulphuret of mercury. 
 Accordingly, from time to time, cases of virulent 
 poisoning follow the use of these colored articles of 
 sugar confectionery. — E. B. 
 
 It is probably generally understood that organic 
 substances, that is, those of vegetable or animal deri- 
 vation, can not be distinguished from each other by 
 chemical analysis, as mineral substances can be. 
 The}' are composed of few elements, carbon, hydrogen, 
 nitrogen, and oxygen ; but these combine together in 
 complicated forms among themselves, producing sub- 
 stances of very different properties, even when the 
 elements in the aggregate continue the same. More- 
 over, some subtle essence, that chemical skill can not 
 detect, often gives peculiar characters to organic sub- 
 stances. But Nature does not leave herself withont 
 witnesses in the organic, anymore than in the mineral 
 world ; and if these are not brought out by chem- 
 ical researches, they must be by some other. But 
 what these could be has been so little suspected, that 
 as, lately as the year 1850, when repeated remon- 
 strances were addressed to the British government to 
 prohibit the adulteration of coffee with chicory, the 
 chancellor of the exchequer urged in the House of 
 Commons non-interference with the matter, on the 
 ground that neither by chemistry, nor by any other 
 means, could the adulteration be detected. And this 
 
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 plea, sustained by the report of three of the most dis- 
 tinguished chemists of the day, was successful. But 
 Ur. Hassall finds, by the application of powerful mi- 
 croscopes, that the identity of organic substances can 
 be detected, and that even when these are ground up 
 and mixed together, as different Icinds of flour, for ex- 
 ample, each kind can be recognized with absolute cer- 
 tainty by the peculiar structure of the fine particles. 
 The principle was known before, and was applied in 
 fossil botany, especially to the determination of genera 
 ( ( ) ( and species of plants. Even when converted into 
 stone, the delicate organization still remains, and what 
 is more wonderful than all, when fossil organic sub- 
 stances, like anthracite, are consumed, the ashes re- 
 veal to the microscope the peculiar forms of the family 
 of plants which produced the coal. Thus faithfully 
 and indelibly does Nature record and preserve the evi- 
 dences of her operations in the remotest geological 
 epochs. Bj- the investigations of Dr. Hassall, the 
 microscope has become a most convenient and efficient 
 aid to organic analysis, and while greatly adding to its 
 precision, wonderfully simplifies and reduces the cost 
 and labor of the process. Illustrating the completeness 
 and accuracy of his investigation, we find throughout 
 the book numerous diagrams representing th« appear- 
 ance under the microscope of the various substances 
 submitted to his examination. We see the genuine 
 ground coffee and the genuine chicory root, and the 
 mixture of these and roasted wheat, beans, and pota- 
 toes, plainly exposed in samples, that had been pur- 
 chased with such high-sounding names as *' Delicious 
 Family Coffee" — really one fourth coffee and three 
 fourths chicory ; " Coffee as in France" — ^principally 
 chicory ; " Fine Ceylon Coffee" — verj' little coffee, a 
 great deal of chicorj' with some roasted com (wheat ?) 
 ^^ Celebrated Jamaica" — very little coffee; principally 
 chicory. " Fine Java Coffee" — much chicorj' and some 
 roasted potato ; verj' little coffee. And so through 
 the various articles of diet, as tea, cocoa, sugar, 
 milk, flour and bread, butter, arrowroot, condiments, 
 picldes, confectionery, bottled fruits, liquors, and 
 drugs. In many of them the results of chemical as 
 well ae microscopic examinations are given, each 
 serving to aid the other, and together leaving little to 
 be desired in the thoroughness and exactness of the 
 researches. 
 
 Coffee. — Thirty-four samples of this were examined 
 by Dr. Hassall, of which thirty-one were adulterated 
 — all of the thirty-one with chicory — twelve with 
 roasted wheat in addition ; one of them contained bean 
 and one potato flour. In many instances the coffee was 
 present in verj' small quantities ; in some it amounted 
 to one fifth, one third, and so on. But coffee is also 
 adulterated with other substances. In 1851 there were 
 offered for sale, at about two cents a pound, by a 
 Scotch house, eighty tons of '^coffina" a substance 
 imported expressly for the adulteration of coffee, and 
 described as the highly nutritious seed of a Turkish 
 plant. It proved on examination to consist of the 
 roasted seeds of some leguminous plant, probably a 
 lentil, and was no doubt prepared from an importa- 
 tion of 100 tons of Inpine seeds, which arrived a 
 little before at Glasgow from Egypt. The same firm, 
 it appears, was offered, about tlie same time, 500 tons 
 of foreign acorns, at about a cent per lb. for the same 
 purpose, no doubt, of adulterating coffee. Oak bark 
 tan and exhausted tan are also used, and the baked 
 livers of horses and cattle. Horse liver appears to be 
 preferred for coffee to ox liver, and brings a higher 
 price. In London, there are men whose business is to 
 bake and grind these articles. It is stated that these 
 animal mixtures make the coffee go further, and thus 
 increase its value. Chicory is a harmless sort of 
 mixture, unless it operates ti produce diarrhea ; it is 
 the root of a plant of the dandelion family, contains 
 no active element like that of coffee, and no doubt 
 greatly diminishes the evil effects attributed to the 
 
 free use of coffee. Perhaps for this reason its use 
 ought to be encouraged ; but as it is worth only one 
 fifth or a quarter as much as coffee, the purchaser 
 would naturally prefer to buy the articles separately, 
 and mix them to suit himself. Sir Charles Wood, the 
 chancellor already referred to, appears to have a high 
 opinion of its nutritive properties ; bnt the value of 
 his opinion is somewhat lessened from the question 
 having been raised, whether he was not largely inter- 
 ested in the great crops of chicory grown in York- 
 shire, as well as from his zealous efforts to sustain the 
 practice of this adulteration. But Professor Beer, an 
 eminent oculist of Vienna, is of opinion that the con- 
 tinual use of chicory seriously affects the nervous sys- 
 tem, and gives rise to blindness from amaurosis. In 
 this city there are many like Sir Charles Wood, who 
 rather prefer chicpry ; but it is not so extensively 
 used for adulterating coffee as a small variety of dried 
 pea. In the great coffee-roasting establishments this 
 may be seen in large quantities, openly exposed, just 
 as if the mixing a cheap and inferior article with one 
 of considerable value, to sell at nearly the cost of the 
 latter, was an honest business. It is a singular fact 
 that chiccory, used to adulterate coffee, is itself adul- 
 terated with still cheaper materials. It is sold in 
 powder, and this is found to consist in part of other 
 matters used for adulterating coffee, not excepting the 
 baked livers. Carrots, beets, parsnips, and mangel 
 wurtzel are roasted and ground for the same purpose. 
 One witness before the Parliamentary committee tes- 
 tified to having manufactured in one year 700 tons of 
 carrots into chicorj'. Burned sugar and Venetian 
 red are used to give the proper color of coffee. 
 
 Tea, — Tea is extensively adulterated in China, in- 
 ferior qualities being made to resemble closely the 
 most valuable, by mixtures of highly deleterious in- 
 gredients, and foreign substances introduced, as leaves 
 of trees of various kinds, to take the place of genuine 
 tea leaves. Some of these are candidly sold by the 
 Chinese with the name of " Lie Teas," or when mixed 
 with other teas, the proportion is stated of each. The 
 Souchongs and Congous imported into England are 
 said to be rarely adulterated ; but the black Gunpow- 
 ders, Capers or Chulons and scented Orange Pekoe, 
 are rarely otherwise than adulterated. In detecting the 
 strange leaves and determining ther names, the mi- 
 croscope is particularly useful. The green color of 
 the Twankay, Hyson-skih, Young Hyson, Hyson, Im- 
 perial, and Gunpowder imported into England, is 
 stated to be imparted without exception bj' artificial 
 coloring matters, such as ferrocyanide of iron, Prussian 
 blue, turmeric, and China clay. Indigo and sulphate 
 of lime are also used, the last for fixing the color. 
 The Chinese exhibit great skill in the mixture of the 
 coloring matters to produce the desired shade, and also 
 a remarkable readiness to execute the orders for any 
 tea required, though it amounts to many times the 
 quantity of all this tea grown. It must be admitted 
 also that they are not much more restrained by any 
 conscientious scruples as to the consequences that 
 may result from their poisonous coloring mixture, than 
 those " outside barbarians" who practice similar arts 
 in Christian countries. In England, besides the poi- 
 sonous prussiates, it appears, from some seizures that 
 have been made by the excise officers, that for the 
 facing of tea, or giving the outside gloss to the leaves, 
 the highlj'-poisonous substances, carbonate and arse- 
 nite of copper, and chromate of lead are used. Of 
 the teas purchased in London and examined, it is 
 found that some are made up of exhausted tea-leaves 
 by the use of gum, and these are artificially glazed 
 and colored; that the coloring matters are more in- 
 jurious than those used by the Chinese, and that it is 
 not uncommon for tea, both black and green, to be 
 fabricated from British leaves, which possess none of 
 the properties of tea leaves. The detection of the 
 adulterations of tea is not very difficult, some being 
 
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 made by the microscope, and some by chemical pro- 
 cesses. Sand, which is added to the Lie tea, is de- 
 tected by the increased weight of the ashes. These 
 should amount to only from five to six per cent, of the 
 whole weight of the tea, but they are found, in some 
 impure articles, to weigh nearly one half of the whole. 
 
 Sugar. — Sugars are very little adulterated, even 
 with sand, as is supposed to be the case. Tliis is easily 
 detected by dissolving the sugar in water, which will 
 also expose any other insoluble foreign substance. 
 But though not mixed with other matters, the brown 
 sugars of commerce are stated to be in general unfit 
 for human consumption, from the numerous acari, or 
 small mites, which infest them. The magnified repre- 
 sentations of these upon the pages of Dr. Hassall's 
 boolt, are pictures of an animal that can be called ex- 
 tremely hideous and disgustitig ; and our impressions 
 of it do not become a.Ti.y more favorable, when we 
 learn that this acarus sacchari is of the same family as 
 the acarus scabei, or itch insect, only larger and pos- 
 sessed of a more formidable organization than his 
 brother; and further, as those grocers, who are era- 
 ployed in "handling" sugars, are said to be subject to 
 a peculiar aflfection of the slcin, a disease that is conse- 
 quently called the " grocer's itch," it is to be feared 
 that the family traits run through all the members, 
 and the appearance of the sugar-loving acarus does 
 not belie his qualities. Sugar would seem to be 
 thickly populated with them, for it is stated that they 
 may " be seen of all sizes, that is, in all the stages of 
 their growth, and in every condition ; some alive, 
 others dead ; some entire and others brolten into frag- 
 ments ; bodies here, legs there." Happily, in the pro- 
 cess of refining these sugars and the more impure 
 molasses, such substances, if they do not all turn to 
 sugar, are removed with the scum, and not a trace of 
 their existence is detected in the pure white article. 
 
 Milk. — The adulterations of milk are of a more seri- 
 ous character than any of those we have noticed ; and 
 there are few, but those who profit by the sinful prac- 
 tice of contaminating the food given to infants and 
 invalids, that will not welcome any new method of de- 
 tecting and exposing the imposture. It is now some 
 years since public attention in this city was directed to 
 this subject, and a general hope was entertained, that 
 by the hydrometers and lactometers then introduced, 
 the adulterations miglit be exposed and prevented : 
 but from the difference in the composition and specific 
 gravity of natural milk in its different conditions, the 
 subject was found to be attended with serious difficul- 
 ties, and we believe the use of the instruments was 
 given up ; at least we have heard nothing of the sub- 
 ject for a long time, and the public appear to have re- 
 lapsed into a state of hopeless indifference and submis- 
 sion to the evil, which appears irremediable. And this 
 when, if we were to judge from the qualitj' of milk 
 served to us at some of the eating-houses of respecta- 
 ble reputation — stuff of thin, bluish consistency, that 
 sends a sickly scum over the surface of the tea or 
 coffee it is poured upon — we might well doubt whether 
 We are in any better condition than the inhabitants of 
 London, when it was estimated that all the cows sup- 
 plying it with milk were insufficient to give to each 
 person more tlian about a table-spoonful per day. For 
 if this is noticed in houses of respectable reputation, 
 how is it likely to be in those of the poorer class ? and 
 what sort of milk do the children of the poor probably 
 get, that is bought by their parents at those comer 
 groceries where it can be had the cheapest ? 
 
 The difficult}- of detecting the degrees of adul- 
 teration in milk is owing to its complex nature and 
 the different properties it possesses, as its ingredi- 
 ents change their condition or are removed, as the 
 cream, for instance, is taken off when it rises to the 
 surface, and the skim-milk is left proportionally heav- 
 ier than when this lighter substance was mixed with 
 it. If water, which is as heavy as or heavier than 
 
 the cream, be now made to replace it, the substitution 
 can not be detected by any difference of specific grav- 
 ity. Tills test must therefore be employed with an- 
 other to determine the quantity of cream. This is 
 effected by the use of a graduated tube called a lac- 
 tometer, in which the cream, by standing some time, 
 collects in the upper end, and its proportion is at once 
 seen to the milk at the lower end. Good milk should 
 show about 9-lOOths by measure of eream, and tested 
 by the hydrometer should indicate from 1026 to 1030 
 specific gravity, water being 1000, To these tests and 
 the more complicated ones of chemical analysis, are 
 now added those of the microscope, by which an idea 
 may be formed of the relative richness of different 
 samples by comparison. Cream is seen to be full of 
 globular fatty bodies, which are of large size and 
 closely collected together ; good milk has similar 
 globules, but smaller and not so closelj' united ; while 
 in adulterated milk they are scattered like the stars in 
 a clear night. Foreign substances, as sheep's brains, 
 are indicated by appearances like nebulai among the 
 stars, intermixed with a multitude of comets. But to 
 follow out this subject, one should turn to the book 
 itself, in which it is fully treated. The result of the 
 examination of twenty-six samples of London milk 
 was that twelve were genuine, but of these two showed 
 a deficiency of cream ; and that fourteen were adul- 
 terated, principally with water, which ranged from 10 
 to 50 per cent. It would be curious to have a series 
 of such examinations of New York milk to compare 
 with this of the London. We are Strongly inclined to 
 the opinion that Yankee ingenuity would be found as 
 far ahead of the British in this respect as the British 
 were ahead of the Chinese in adulterating tea. Cer- 
 tainly, we need such an investigation, and we hope it 
 will be had. 
 
 Flour.. — Flour is probably much more adulterated in 
 England than it is in this country. In this article we 
 are more likely to suffer by short weight than by sub- 
 stitutes of inferior ingredients. It is possible that 
 damaged flour may, however, be mixed -nith good, or 
 by adulterations with various matters be made to as- 
 sume the appearance of good flour. The unwise pref- 
 erence, so universal, for flour extremely white, leads to 
 the mixture of alum for the purpose of improving the 
 appearance ; and the baker frequently, ignorant that 
 the miller had anticipated his worthy object, adds a 
 second dose of alum to improve the appearance of the 
 loaf. The effect of alum is to make the bread indi- 
 gestible, causing acidity and dyspepsia — ^besides, it en- 
 ables the baker to add other articles, which are them- 
 selves cheap substitutes for flour, and cause the bread 
 to take up more water, thus adding to its weight. 
 Liebig remarks upon the indigestible quality of London 
 bread ; and he noticed, when in the alum works at 
 Glasgow, quantities of finely-ground alum prepared 
 for the London bakers. Aware of its injurious effects, 
 he recommended a substitute of lime water, which 
 would produce the useful without the injurious ef- 
 fects ; and his recommendation has been to some ex- 
 tent adopted. We know nothing of the practices of 
 our bakers in these matters, but the thing might be 
 easilj' investigated. In the country, particularly in 
 New England, where the bread is almost universally 
 bad, the greatest evil is probably in the free use of 
 carbonate of potash or saleratus. Fifty-three samples 
 of London bread were examined by Dr. Hassall, all 
 of which contained alum. Fraud was detected almost 
 as universally in the weight of the loaves. In Edin- 
 burg an excellent police act prevails, requiring the 
 bakers to stamp the weight upon all the loaves they 
 sell. The magnified representations in Dr. Hassall's 
 work of the different flours and their adulterated mix- 
 tures, as they appear under the microscope, are highly 
 interesting and instructive. 
 
 Various preparations of farinaceous articles for the 
 food of invalids have been largely introduced into the 
 
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 695 
 
 FOO 
 
 English market of late years, and many of them have 
 found their way to this country, with the high-sound- 
 ing nam*8. they were christened with there. The most 
 famous and highly esteemed of these are Wharton'a 
 Ervcdenta, and Du Barry' i.Reoalmta Arahica. They 
 sold in England at 2s. 9d. per pound, or about 67 cents. 
 These, examined under iha microscope, prove — the 
 former to be a mixture pf the French or German lentil, 
 which is almost precisely the same thing as the com- 
 mon pea, and the remainder a substance resembling 
 Indian-corn meal, but possibly the meal of the Sor- 
 ghum. The latter was composed of the red, or Ara- 
 bian lentil,, and barley-flour. Another sample of it 
 showed some sugar, and a third some salt, and also ap- 
 peared to be flavored with celery seed. Edwards 
 Brothers' Arabian Revakrda, at Is.. (24 cents) per 
 pound, was ascertained to consist of, lentil powder — 
 probably of the red and yellow lentil mixed. Lentils, 
 it seems, being somewhat cheaper than peas, are sup- 
 plied to the work-houses for the preparation of soup 
 for the paupers. It is certainly a much more profita- 
 ble operation to convert them into BevalEntaynni sell 
 them at 67 cents per pound, or export them in this 
 foi-m to this country, where, we believe, by our own 
 experience,- when acting, some time since, under med- 
 ical advice, they cost half a dollar for a small paper, 
 possibly weighing half a pound. In London, where 
 these valuable lentils can be easily procured at 8 cents 
 per quart, the preparation may be made by mixing to 
 a uniform powder red or Arabian lentil flour, 2 pounds ; 
 barley flour, 1 pound,; salt, 3 ounces. This prepara- 
 tion will contain all the valuable properties of the 
 Bevalmta, and cost four cents per pound. Unfortu- 
 nately, we have no Arabian lentils ; but, Dr. Hassall 
 has given another recipe, equally good, designed for 
 such contingences, and of which we can easily avail 
 ourselves, viz. ; Pea flour, 2 lbs. ; Indian-corn flour, 
 1 lb. ; salt, 3 oz. Mix as before. We do not know 
 whether such choice preparations as Prince Arthur's 
 Farinaceous Food and the Prince of Wales's Food, 
 would ever be allowed to come.to this countrj' to nour- 
 ish republican babies; but, by great good lijck, we 
 possess the materials of this royal diet, as Dr., Has- 
 sall's microscope proves the one to be composed en- 
 tirely of baked wheat flaur, and the other ot potato 
 flour, Maidman's Nutritious Farina consists entirely 
 of potato flour, artificially colored of a rosy tint. 
 
 Spices.- — Cayenne pepper is very generally adulterat- 
 ed, and frequently with red lead, in considerable quan- 
 tity. Vermilion, or the sulphuret of mercury, is some- 
 times used for the same purpose. As mineral poisons 
 are apt to accumulate in the system, and finally produce 
 very serious consequences, if taken frequently, even in 
 small quantities, this adulteration, as the similar treat- 
 ment of colored confectionery, is one of the most repre- 
 hensible forms of this vile system. Instances of 
 poisoning from these causes are known, and also from 
 cheese poisoned by red lead, which was introduced 
 into the annotto used to color the cheese. This color- 
 ing ingredient in cheese and butter is an entirel}' use- 
 less addition to these articles, possessing no good 
 properties of its own ; but being frequently made the 
 vehicle of introducing its different adulterating mix- 
 tures, its use ought to be abandoned. 
 
 Spices are to a considerable extent adulterated, 
 and probably as much so in this countiy as in En- 
 gland. Of 21 samples of ginger, 15 were thus im- 
 pure, the mixtures consisting of the meal of sago, 
 tapioca, potatoes, wheat, rice ; also, Cayenne pepper, 
 mustard busies, and turmeric powder, which, in the 
 majority of the cases, constituted the principal part of 
 the article. Every one has noticed in cinnamon the 
 hard, tasteless bark, thicker than that which has the 
 genuine flavor, but otherwise much resembling it. 
 This is the baric of the cassia, a tree of the same genus 
 as that which produces the cinnamon bark, but of 
 very inferior quality. It,is largely mixed with cinna- 
 
 mon, hut, even in the ground state, ia easily detected 
 by the microscope. Of 12 samples of whole cinna- 
 mon examined, seven proved genuine, and five were 
 nothing but cassia ; and of 19 sample? of the ground 
 article, only six were genuine — three consisted entirely 
 of cassia, tLree of c^s^ia adulterated, and seven of cin- 
 namon adulterated. The adulterating mixtures were 
 baked wheat flour, sago, meal, potato-flour, and arrow- 
 root. In his examination of the .nutmeg. Dr. Hassall 
 does not appear to have found any of the famous 
 wooden imitatie^ia ; but a, French author he quotes, 
 states, that ^' nutmegs are sometimes mixed with 
 riddled nuts, eaten by insects, and become brittle ; the 
 small apertures are then, closed with a kind of cement, 
 formed of flour, oil, and the powder of nutmegs. This 
 paste has even served to fabricate false nutmegs, ino- 
 dorous and insipid." These qualities without doubt, 
 characterize the Connecticut article also, and will en- 
 able any one to detect it. Dr. Hassall's advice to 
 soak them in water, when, of course, they would read- 
 ily break down, would not apply to these, 
 
 To present this subject in its most revolting features, 
 it would be necessary to carry out this description 
 through the long list of liquors and drugs j and the 
 data for this might easily be furnished to considerable 
 extent from materials already at hand of our own 
 operations, without drawing upon those so abundantly 
 provided in the book before us. But enough h^s al- 
 readj- been said to convince the most incredulous (if 
 there be anj^where incredulity on this subject), that 
 whatever we purchase, to eat or to drink, or to admin- 
 ister as medicine, we have no security that we obtain 
 the article we ask and pay for. The chance is decid- 
 edly against us in all articles, which skillful ingenuity 
 can imitate successfully, even if it be necessary to, re- 
 sort to dangerous poisonous substances. The laws 
 afford little protection, though they recognize the ex- 
 istence of the eyil. 
 
 But besides th^ repugnance we naturally feel to being 
 cheated and poisoned, there are evils of greater conse- 
 quence brought upon the community by the toleration 
 of these practices, that should rouse a higher indigna- 
 tion. These are, that loose state of morals the system 
 encourages, and; the lowering of the respect which 
 should attach to the mercantile profession. The en- 
 couragement, too, of the unscrupulous trader, by the 
 advantages of profit it gives him , over the honest ; 
 thus driving the latter out of a business in which com- 
 petition is not open to him. Then, again, its evil eflfects 
 upon the poor, who, ignorant of these frauds, fall help- 
 lesslj- into, the snares of those, who sell at the lowest 
 rates. Judging from the qualities of articles sold by 
 " respectable" traders, it is.probable we have, little idea 
 of what is palmed off upon the great bulk of the popu- 
 lation of a city like this, in the cheap, shops frequented 
 by the poorer classes. Our newspapers make frequent 
 mention of the more prominent frauds committed upon 
 unsuspicious, strangers b}'. the emigrant runners; but 
 of this under-current, which is filching without cessa- 
 tion the hard, earnings of the multitudes, poisoning 
 health and morals alike, reducing the standard of mer. 
 cantile integrity, and taking from the mouths of the 
 sick and of the infants those most nutritious foods na- 
 ture has kindly, provided for their benefit — of this we 
 hear little < mention. The disease lies too d,eep and 
 works too insidiously for its eradication to be hoped 
 for. But this is not so. There is a cure'for it ; and 
 tMs cure is the one adopted by Dr. Hassall. Let 
 those who have the skill, and the time, and the .taste 
 for such pursuits, adopt the course he followed. Let 
 purchases of articles likely to be adulterated be made 
 in various places, and the results of their examination 
 be exposed, together with the names of the tradesmsa 
 selling them. There is no fear but one would be sus- 
 tained in this. All honest dealers would encourage 
 it ; for it would restore them to their rightful position. 
 The dishonest could not help themselves. Such a 
 
FOR 
 
 696 
 
 FOE, 
 
 c(mr8e,steaday pursued by a few individuals, would, 
 we believe, soon produce as marked a change in this 
 city as it has done in London. If one would under- 
 take it, others would be likely to follow. The field is 
 large, and will accommodate many laborers. We 
 wish a commencement might soon be made upon milk. 
 —See Adulterations Detected ; or, Plain Instruc- 
 tions for the Discovery of Frauds in Food and Medicine, 
 By Arthur Hill Hassall, M. D. : London, 1857. 
 H. Bailliere, New York. 
 
 Foot, a measure of length derived from the length 
 of the human foot, and consisting of 12 linear inches. 
 For its length in different countries, see Weights and 
 Measures. 
 
 Pore. The sea term for the part of the ship near 
 the head. 
 
 Fore and Ait implies lying in the direction of 
 the head and stem ; also, the whole of the vessel gen- 
 erally. 
 
 Forecastle, that part of the upper deck of a ship 
 forward of the foremast ; also, in merchant vessels, 
 the forward part of the ship, under the deck, where 
 the sailors live. 
 
 Foreigner, the natural-bom subject of a foreign 
 state. 
 
 Forelock, in nautical language, a flat wedge of 
 iron, driven through the end of a bolt to prevent its 
 drawing. 
 
 Foremast, the forward mast of all vessels. 
 
 Forestalling, in law, is described to be the buying 
 or contracting for any mercliandise or victual coming 
 in the way to market ; or dissuading persons from 
 bringing their goods or provisions there ; or persuad- 
 ing them to enhance the price when there. This, as 
 well as engrossing, which is the buying up of large 
 quantities of corn, or other dead victuals, with intent 
 to sell them again, and regrating, the buj'ing up of 
 such commodities in any market, and selling them 
 again in the same market, or within four miles of it, 
 was looked upon as injurious to the public, by unneces- 
 sarily tending to raise the price of provisions ; and ac- 
 cordingly several statutes were passed in Great Britain 
 prohibiting forestalling undtr severe penalties. Statute 
 31st Edw. I. enacted that " no forestaller shall be suf- 
 fered to dwell in any town who manifestly is an op- 
 pressor of the poore, a publike enemie of the whole 
 cominaltie and countrie, who meeting grain, fish, her- 
 ring, and other things coming by land or by water to 
 bee solde, doeth make haste to buy them before other, 
 thirsting after wicked gaine, oppressing the poore, and 
 deceiving the rich." In Great Britain, by the statute 
 of Edw. VI., it was enacted that whoever should 
 buy any com or grain with intent to sell it again, 
 should, for the first offense, suffer two months' im- 
 prisonment, for the second, six months' imprison- 
 ment, and forfeit double its value, and for the third, 
 be set in the pillory, suffer imprisonment during the 
 king's pleasure, and forfeit all his goods and chattels. 
 This statute further enacted, that no one could trans- 
 port corn from one part to another without a license, 
 ascertaining his qualifications as a man of probity and 
 fair dealing. 
 
 The very imperfect knowledge of political economy 
 that then prevailed led to the belief that the interven- 
 tion of a third partj' between the producer and consumer 
 tended to raise the price of provisions ; and that com 
 would be bought from the farmer cheaper than from 
 the corn-merchant. It may seem somewhat strange 
 that though the law thus compelled the farmer to 
 deal directly with the consumer, yet it in many cases 
 prohibited the manufacturer from selling his own 
 wares by retail, in order that the shopkeepers might 
 not be undersold. The farmer was thus forced to carr;- 
 on two trades j and part of the capital which should 
 have been employed in the improvement and cultiva- 
 tion of the land, was obliged to be kept in his granaries 
 and stock-yard; whereas the com-merohant, by afford- 
 
 ing a ready market for the farmer's produce, enable! 
 him to employ his whole capital in cultivation ; and 
 the existence of a free competition obliges the corn- 
 merchant to sell his com as cheap as the farmer could 
 afford to do. The principle here is the same as in man- 
 ual labor. The workman who is wholly employed in 
 one operation accomplishes a greater quantity of work, 
 and can afford to do it at a cheaper rate, than one who 
 has to carry on several operations ; and, in the same 
 way, the dealer whose whole stock is employed in a. 
 single branch of business acquires so easy and ready a 
 method of transacting business that, with the same 
 capital, he can carry on a much larger business, and so 
 dispose of his goods cheaper than if his capital and at- 
 tention were employed in a greater variety of objects. 
 "If," says Adam Smith, "a merchant ever buys up 
 com, either going to a particular market, or in a par- 
 ticular market, in order to sell it again soon after in 
 the same market, it must be because he judges that 
 the market can not be so liberally supplied through 
 the whole season as upon that particular occasion, and 
 that the price must, therefore, soon rise." — E. B. 
 
 Fore-tackle ; tackle on the foremast, and also 
 tackle used for stowing the anchor. 
 
 Foretop-men ; men stationed in the foretop, in 
 readiness to set or take in the smaller sails, and to keep 
 the upper rigging in order. 
 
 Forge, a furnace where wrought iron or other metal 
 is hammered and fashioned with the aid of heat. This 
 is called a smith's forge. In ships a very convenient 
 kind is the portable truck forge. Forge is also ap- 
 plied to the blast furnace, in which iron ore is smelted ; 
 also, where the production of the blast furnace is fused, 
 and afterwards beaten with enormous hammers, or 
 drawn through cj'linders of different diameters, in order 
 to render the metal soft, pure, and more malleable and 
 ductile. Such great workshops are otherwise called 
 shingling mills. See lEON-MAKiifG. 
 
 An ordinarj' smith's forge consists of the hearth or 
 fireplace, which is merely a cavity in masonry or brick- 
 work, lined with fire-clay or brick, and containing igni- 
 ted fuel, upon which a powerful blast of air is driven 
 tiirough tile nozzle of a double-bellows, worked by a 
 hand-lever. There are also portable forges, of small 
 dimensions, but answering all the ordinary purposes of 
 a smith's forge. Such are the traveling forges of ar- 
 mies, those used on board ships, etc. 
 
 Forgery (from the French /(w^cr, signifying oeca- 
 derefatricare, to beat on an anvil, forge, or form) may 
 be defined at common law to be the fraudulent making 
 or alteration of a writing or seal, to the prejudice of 
 another man's right ; or it is the crime of imitating 
 the subscription of another, adhibiting it to a deed, 
 and putting that deed to use by acting under it, re- 
 ceiving property in virtue of it, founding on it as a 
 title to sue or to defend, or transferring it to another. 
 In considering forgery, it is necessary to attend, first, 
 to the mode of proof by which the crime is estab- 
 lished: and secondly, to the punishment which is 
 inflicted on the perpetrator thereof. 
 
 The proof of forgery is either direct or indirect. 
 The direct proof consists in the examination of the 
 writer of the deed, and of the witnesses who sign 
 the deed and attest the subscription. As the sub- 
 scription of witnesses is an attestation to which the 
 law gives effect to the extent of receiving it on their 
 death as evidence of the regularity of the deed, and 
 as weight is given to the subscription of a Avitness, 
 even where he does not recollect having adhibited it ; 
 so, to cut down a deed regularly attested, the instru- 
 mentary witnesses, as they are called in Scotland, 
 must be brought to swear to circumstances of sufficient 
 force to invalidate the evidence given by their sub- 
 scriptions ; a species of proof which the law does not 
 and indeed can not reject. The indirect mode of proof 
 consists in an investigation of all the circumstances 
 from which it may be inferre^that the person by whom 
 
FOR 
 
 697 
 
 FOR 
 
 a deed is said to be executed actually did not sub- 
 scribe ; as, for instance, an error in the date, an alibi, 
 the stamp, the contexture of, or date impressed upon 
 the paper, or a comparatio literarum. The comparison 
 of the handwriting is made with genuine subscriptions 
 of the same date as that alleged to have been forged ; 
 and where the real subscriptions diflfer materiallj- f rom 
 the one founded on, the forgerj' of the latter may be 
 pronounced on with a considerable degree of certainty. 
 It is an established rule, however, that the proof of 
 forgery by a mere comparison of handwriting is not 
 admissible. 
 
 Forgery in England.— The forging of, or giving in 
 evidence forged deeds, etc., made punishable by fine, 
 by standing in the pillory, having both ears cut off, 
 the nostrils slit up and seared, the forfeiture of land, 
 and perpetual imprisonment. — 5 Elizabeth, 1562. 
 Forgerj- was first punished by death in 1634. 
 
 Forgery, Eemarhahle Executions for.— The unfortu- 
 nate Daniel and Robert Perreau, brothers and wine- 
 merchants, were hanged at Tyburn, January 17, 1776. 
 The Rev. Dr. Dodd was found guilty of forging a 
 bond, in the name of Lord Chesterfield, for £4200 : the 
 greatest interest was made, and the highest influence 
 was exerted to save him, but when the case came be- 
 fore the council, the minister of the day said to George 
 III., " If your majesty pardon Dr. Dodd, you will 
 have murdered the Perreaus ;" and he was hanged 
 accordingly, June 27, 1777. Mr. Henrj' Fonntleroy, 
 a. London banker, was hanged November 30, 1824. 
 Joseph Hunton, a Quaker merchant, suffered death, 
 December 8, 1828. The last criminal hanged for for- 
 gery at the Old BaUey, was Thomas Maynard, De- 
 cember 31, 1829. 
 
 Forgery of Sea^Letters.— Congress enacted the fol- 
 lowing law, March 2, 1803 :— " That if any person 
 shall knowingly make, utter, or publish any false sea- 
 letter, Mediterranean passport, or certificate of regis- 
 try, or shall knowingly avail himself of any such 
 Mediterranean passport, sea-letter, or certificate of reg- 
 istry, he shall forfeit and pay a sum not exceeding 
 $5000 to be recovered by action of debt, in the name 
 of the United States, in any court of competent juris- 
 diction, and if an officer of the United States, he shall 
 ever thereafter be rendered incapable of holding any 
 oflice of trust or profit under the authority of the Uni- 
 ted States." 
 
 Fork, a well-known instrument, consisting of a 
 handle and a shaft terminating in two or more points 
 or prongs. The taile-fork did not come into use in 
 England till the reign of James I., as we learn from a 
 remarkable passage in Coryat, wlio thus solemnly re- 
 lates the history of its introduction: — "Here I wUl 
 mention a thing that might have been spoken of be- 
 fore in discourse of the first Italian townes. I ob- 
 served a custom in all those Italian cities and townes 
 through the which I passed, that is not used in any 
 other country that I saw in my travels, neither do I 
 think any other nation in Christendome doth use it, 
 but only Italy. The Italians, and also most strangers 
 that are commorant in Italy, doe always at their meals 
 use a little forke when thej' eat their meate ; for while 
 with their knife, which they hold in one liand, they 
 cut the meate out of the dish, they fasten the forke, 
 which thej- hold in the other hand, upon the same dish, 
 so that whatsoever he be that sitting in the company 
 of any others at meale shall unadvisedly touch the 
 dish of meate with his fingers from which all the table 
 doe cut, he will give occasion of offence unto the com- 
 pany as having transgressed the lawes of good man- 
 ners, insomuch that for his error he shall be at least 
 browbeaten, if not reprehended in wordes. This form 
 of feeding, I understand, is generally used in all parts 
 of Italy, their forks for the most part being made of 
 yronn, Steele, and some of silver, but those are used 
 only by gentlemen. The reason of this their curiosity 
 is, because the Italian can not by any means indure to 
 
 have his dish touched with fingers, seeing all men's 
 fingers are not alike cleane. Hereupon I myself 
 thought good to imitate the Italian fashion by this 
 forked cutting of meate, not only while I was in Italy, 
 but also in Germany, and often times in England since 
 I came home : being once quipped for that frequently 
 using mj' fork, by a certain learned gentleman, a fa- 
 miliar friend of mine, Mr. Lawrence Whitaker, who 
 in his merry humor doubted not to call me a table y«r- 
 cifer, only by using a forke at feeding, but for no 
 other cause." — E. B. 
 
 Formosa (Chinese, Taewan, i. e.. Terrace Beacli), 
 an island lying about 90 miles ofif the coast of China, 
 from which it is separated by the channel of Fo-kien. 
 It is about 250 miles in length from north to south, and 
 80 in breadth, lying between north lat. 22° and 25° 
 30' and east long. 120° 30' and 122°. A volcanic 
 mountain chain, rising to the height of upward of 
 12,000 feet, traverses the centre of the island from 
 north to south, and separates the Chinese portion of it 
 on the west from the independent portion on the east. 
 Some parts of the coast present bold headlands ; but 
 all the west shore is flat and surrounded with rocks 
 and quicksands, presenting no good harbors, with the 
 exception of K^lung at its northern extremity. The 
 Chinese portion of it is fertile and well watered, and 
 possesses a very salubrious climate. Almost all grains 
 and fruits may be produced on some part of the island, 
 which is familiarly known as the granary of the mar- 
 itime provinces of China. The rice-trade alone with 
 these provinces employs more than 300 vessels. Among 
 its other articles of trade, are maize, tobacco, sugar, 
 fruits, timber, salt, sulphur, camphor, cotton, hemp, 
 silk, etc. Of the eastern portion of the island little is 
 known ; the inhabitants bear no resemblance to the 
 Chinese, but are apparentlyalliedto the Malay or Poly- 
 nesian tribes. They are of a slender form, olive 
 complexion, wear long hair, and blacken their teeth. 
 They have no written language, and their religion 
 seems to be confined to a superstitious belief in demons 
 and sorcerers. Many of the aboriginal inhabitants 
 are still to be found on the western portion of the 
 island, living in independent villages ; others, how- 
 ever, have become incorporated with the Chinese set- 
 tlers, or live in villages of their own, under the gen- 
 eral supervision of Chinese of&cers. 
 
 Formosa was unknown to the Chinese till about 
 1403. About 1634 the Dutch established themselves 
 here, and built Fort Zealand on a small island com- 
 manding the harbor of the capital Taewan. After re- 
 taining possession of it for 28 years, they were ex- 
 pelled by the famous Chinese rebel Coxinga, whose 
 successors ruled in the island till 1683, when it was 
 taken by the Chinese. Taewan, the capital, stands 
 on the west coast in north lat. 23°, east long. 120° 32'; 
 but the entrance of its harbor is now choked up. The 
 population of Formosa is estimated at from 2,000,000 
 to 3,000,000. 
 
 Fort, a small fortified place, environed with a ditch, 
 rampart, and parapet. The use of forts is to secure 
 some high ground, or the passage of a river, to make 
 good an advantageous post ; to defend the lines and 
 quarters of a siege, and the like. Forts are built 
 of different figures and dimensions, according to the 
 exigences of the case. Some are provided with bas- 
 tions, others with demi-bastions ; some are of a square 
 form, others pentagonal, and others again are stellated, 
 having five or seven angles. 
 
 Forth, one of the largest rivers in Scotland. It is 
 first formed of several small streams rising on the 
 north of Ben Lomond, or flomng from Loch Katrine 
 and the other lakes in the adjacent country. It pro- 
 ceeds easterly in a direct course for above 100 mUes, 
 receiving in its progress the tributary waters of the 
 Goodie, the Teith, and the Allan above Stirling, and 
 below it the Devon, the Carron, the Avon, the Al- 
 mond, the Leith, the Esk, the Leven, the Tyne, and 
 
FOR 
 
 698 
 
 FOR 
 
 others ; and it discharges itself into the German 
 Ocean in about 56° 10' of north latitude. 
 
 The Forth, like other streams connected with the 
 ocean, ebbs and flows twice in 24 hours, but the flood 
 and ebb run about two hours longer in the middle 
 than at the Shore. The tide flows 4J miles above 
 Stirling shore. At this harbor spring-tides rise 7 feet 
 9 inches, and at Alloa, 191- feet. 
 
 It was high water, according to Captain Thomas's 
 observations in 1816, at 
 
 Spring Tides NeaiJ Tidea 
 H. M. rise rise 
 
 Elie Harbor 2 U p. m. 14 feet. 6 feet. 
 
 leith & Burntisland 2 15 " 16} " 7 " 
 
 Hopetounllouse... 2 30 " 17 " 6}" 
 
 The tides at Leith and Kinghom rise sometimes as 
 high as 19 feet above low-water mark, the average 
 being 17J feet. 
 
 There are in the Forth, as elsewhere in similar riv- 
 ers and arms of the sea, particular currents. Among 
 the most remarkable are those known by the name of 
 LeaHes above the Queensferry, which are particularly 
 observed from Culross to Alloa. These consist in 
 an intermission of the tide at certain places during the 
 flood, and before high water the sea ebbs. On the 
 contrary, while the sea ebbs, and before low water, 
 the ebb intermits, and a flow commencing, continues 
 some time ; after which the ebbing is resumed until 
 low water. This is seen during two hours, and the 
 irregularity occupies more or less of the river accord- 
 ing as it is spring or neap tide . 
 
 The principal obstructions to the navigation of the 
 Forth between Alloa and Stirling, have hitherto 
 arisen in a. great measure from the two fords of the 
 river, the one called the Town Ford and the other the 
 Abbey Ford, and from the channel being rendered 
 shallow partly by large boulders and partly by accu- 
 mulations of peat. The peat accumulations have 
 arisen chiefly from the proprietors above Stirling 
 clearing several thousand acres of their lands for cul- 
 tivation, by removing the peat which covers them, 
 and moving it into the river in order to be carried 
 away by the current to the sea. This practice has 
 been followed since 1732. The moss covering the soil 
 varies in depth from 14 to 4 or 5 feet, but the greater 
 proportion is 10 feet. Mr. Drummond, of Blair- 
 Drummoud, from 1783 to 1839, floated away upward 
 of 1,600 acres of this substance. 
 
 The principal sand-banks which obstruct the navi- 
 gation further down the firth are the Drum-sands, 
 near Cramond, and the Sand-end, on the east of 
 Burntisland harbor. The principal rocks which re- 
 quire to be avoided by the mariner are the South Carr 
 Reef, lying N.N.W. from Dunbar, the North Carr, 
 about a mile and a quarter east of Fifeness, the Blae 
 to the west of Kinghorn Ness, the Commons to the 
 west of Burntisland, Craig Waugh S. E. one half E. 
 of Inchkeith, and the Gunnet Rock, Pallas Rock, Long 
 Craig, Briggs, and Harwit in its neighborhood ; and 
 several miles further west, and nearer Inchcolm, the 
 Oxcares, Carcraig, and Mickry Stone. Many of these 
 rocks are seen at the lowest ebbs ; their position, 
 together with the different land-marks, which are nec- 
 essary to point them out to the mariner, are delineated 
 on the admiralty charts, and the sailing directions for 
 the Firth of Forth, contained in the Coaster's Assist- 
 ant, which is published in Leith. To show their posi- 
 tion still better, floating buoys have been placed upon 
 Craig Waugh, the Gunnet, the Harwit, and the Pallas 
 Rocks ; and beacons have been erected on the Ox- 
 cares, the North Carr, and on the Long Craig, and on 
 most of the other dangerous rocks, and on several 
 shoals and sand-banks. Besides the provisions for 
 aiding the navigation, there are two light-houses on 
 the isle of May, one on the island of Inchkeith, and 
 various other light-housee are now erected on all the 
 harbors and landing-places of importance in the firth. 
 
 The anchorage of the Firth of Forth is excellent. 
 
 Mr. Osborne, in a repott to the Lords of the Admi- 
 ralty on 2d May, 1853, says of it : " Between the Hum- 
 ber and the Frith of Cromarty there is no other harbor 
 or anchorage into which large ships of war can safely run 
 for shelter or rendezvous other than the Frith of Forth, 
 and more particularly in the reach above the Queens- 
 ferry, where the shelter is complete. But as the 
 Frith of Cromarty is away from all important inter- 
 ests, the Frith of Forth must be considered the only 
 war port north of the Humber, and therefore a most 
 fitting place for a naval arsenal." But besides the 
 great and important anchorage at St. Margaret's 
 Hope, in the reach above the Queensferry, which is 
 more particularly referred to in this Admiralty re- 
 port, Leith Eoads to the west of Inchkeith is another, 
 which is capable of holding a large fleet of ships of 
 war of any size. The minor anchorages in the firth, 
 which are also very good, are at Aberlady Bay, the 
 western part of Largo Bay, Burntisland, St. Davids, 
 Limekilns, etc. 
 
 The landing-places or harbors in the Forth are, on 
 the south side the harbors of Dunbar, North Berwick, 
 Port Seton, Morrison's Haven, Fisherrow, Leith, New- 
 haven, Trinity, Granton, South Queensferrj-, Bor- 
 rowstowness, Grangemouth, and Stirling Shore, and 
 on the north side, Crail, Anstruther, Elie, Pitten- 
 weem, Leven, Methel, West Wemyss, Dysart, Kirk- 
 caldy, Kinghorn, Pettycur, Burntisland, Starleybum, 
 Aberdour, St. Davids, Inverkeithing, North Queens- 
 ferry, Charleston, Crombie Point, Culross, Kincar- 
 dine, and Alloa. Great improvements and new 
 erections have lately been made at most of these 
 harbors which are of any note ; and in particular, the 
 Duke of Buccleuch's magnificent harbor in progress of 
 formation at Granton, and the extension of Leith Pier 
 into deep water, may be referred to. Of less magni- 
 tude is the deepening of the channel of the Forth be- 
 tween Alloa and Stirling by commissioners acting 
 under the act of Parliament 6th and 7th Victoria, cap. 
 47. Since the passing of this act in 1843, a channel of 
 about 500 yards in length has been formed through 
 the Abbey Ford, giving about 3 feet 6 inches greater 
 depth of water than formerly. A channel about 1,000 
 yards in length has also been formed through the 
 Town Ford, which is not yet fully completed as re- 
 gards its depth of water. In these operations many 
 thousands of large boulder-stones and the peat accu- 
 mulations which formed obstructions to the naviga- 
 tion have been removed, and no doubt is entertained 
 bj' the inspectors, who have reported to government 
 on this subject, but a depth of 16 or 17 feet at spring- 
 tides will be obtained up to Stirling when the works 
 in progress are completed. Upward of £9,000, includ- 
 ing the expense of the act and of erecting a quay at 
 Stirling, have alread}' been expended by the Harbor 
 Commissioners on these operations, and £7,000 more 
 is about to be expended upon them. This sum is to 
 be paid to the commissioners by the Town Council of 
 Glasgow for damage likely to arise to the improve- 
 ments in progress on the Forth, from the liberty ob- 
 tained by the city of Glasgow to draw a large quantity 
 of water from Loch Katrine. In addition \a these 
 sums, the revenue of the Forth Commissioners, which 
 is considerable, will enable them still further to ex- 
 tend their works. 
 
 Further, the low-water ferry landing-place at Burn- 
 tisland, belonging to the Edinburg, Perth, and Dun- 
 dee Railway Company, is a great improvement at that 
 port ; and at Kirkcaldy, Buckhaven, and other har- 
 bors, extensive works are in progress under Harbor 
 Commissioners. 
 
 The coasting and foreign trade of the Forth is car- 
 ried on in vessels varying in size from 18 to 500 tons. 
 The principal port to which they belong is Leith ; but 
 there are several whalers and large vessels engaged in 
 the Australian, American, Mediterranean, and Baltic 
 trades, which belong to other ports in the Forth. 
 
FOTJ 
 
 699 
 
 FOU 
 
 The traffic in goods and passengers between the ports 
 in the Forth and London, Greenock, Glasgow, I/iver- 
 pool, Hull, Newcastle, Dundee, Perth, Aberdeen, In- 
 vernessi Peterhead, and almost every considerable 
 sea-port in Scotland, is conducted chiefly by vessels of 
 joint-stock companies, which vessels sail periodically. 
 Joint-stock companies are also engaged in the Leith 
 trade with Hamburg and Rotterdam. The Glasgow, 
 Greenock, and Liverpool trade, is chiefly conducted 
 through the Forth and Clyde canal. 
 
 The number and tonnage of the vessels belonging 
 to the ports in the Forthin 1855 are as follows : ' 
 
 At Alloa, Including the creeks of Kincardine 
 
 and Stirling, 74 vessels, with a tonnnge of 12,402 
 At Borrowstownness, including the creeks of 
 Charleston and Limekilns, 47 vesselfl, with 
 
 a tonnage of '8;781 
 
 At Grangemonth, 54 vessels, with a tonnage of 9,288 
 At Inverkelthing, 23 vessels, with a tonnage of 2,861 
 At Kirkcaldy, including the creeks of Largo, 
 Leven, Wemyss, Dysart, Klnghorn, Burn- 
 tisland, and Aberdour, 60 vessels, with a 
 
 tonnage of. ., ^ 7,68T 
 
 At Lelth, including the creeks of Granton, 
 Fisherrow, Cockenzie, and Dunbar, 176 
 vessels, with a tonnage of . . ; 25,404 
 
 Total 484 vessels, with a total tonnage of 6p,868 
 
 E. B. 
 
 Portifled Island, an island in the India seas, 
 lying off the coast of Canara, about a mile from the 
 land, a little way north from the entrance to Lake 
 Onore. The island abounds in cocoa-nut,' palm, and 
 plantain-trees, and has plenty of fresh water. It pro- 
 duces the best kind of cari, which is used by the na- 
 tives in painting their houses. Its name is derived 
 from its fortifications, which were greatly strength- 
 ened by Tippoo Saib, from whom it was taken in 1792 
 by three British frigates. It is upward of a mile in 
 circuit. Long. 74° 27' E. ; lat. 14° 16' N. 
 
 Fothering, a peculiar method of endeavoring to 
 stop a leak in the bottom of a ship while she is afloat, 
 either at sea or at anchor, which is performed by fast- 
 ening a sail at the four corners, letting it down under 
 the ship's bottom, and then putting a quantity of 
 chopped rope-yarn, oakum, wool, cotton, etc., between 
 it and the ship's side. By repeating the latter part of 
 this operation several times, the leak generally sncks 
 in a portion of the loose stuff, and thereby becomes 
 partly and sometimes wholly stopped. Some persons 
 prefer thrumming the sail, instead of letting down the 
 loose stuff; but in this mode the sail is soon chafed 
 through by the hole if the leak is considerable, with- 
 out affording sufficient substance to stop it. 
 
 Foul, a sea phrase that is used in distinction from 
 dear, and implies entangled, embarrassed. Hence, 
 foul anchor, when the cable is twisted round the stock 
 and flukes ; foul bottom, when a bay is covered with 
 weeds, grass, shells, filth, and rocks. Foul hawse 
 means that the cables are turned round each other 
 by the ship having swung the wrong way when 
 moored. Foul rope, a .rope entangled and unfit for 
 immediate use. Foul water, is water troubled, and 
 rendered turbid by the ship's bottom rubbing on the 
 ground. Foul wind, is used to express that the wind 
 is unfavorable, or contrary to the ship's course, as op- 
 posed to large or fair. 
 
 Foundery, or Foundry, the art of melting and 
 casting metals. See Copper-, Iron. 
 
 Foundery of Small Works, or Casting m Sand, — The 
 sand commonly used for casting small works is at first 
 of a pretty soft, yellowish, and clammy nature ; but 
 it being necessary to strew charcoal dust in the mold, 
 it at length becomes of a quite black color. The sand 
 is worked over and over, on a board, with a roller and 
 a kind of knife ; and is placed over a trough to re- 
 ceive it, after it has by these means been sufficiently 
 prepared. 
 
 This being done, the workmen take a wooden board 
 of a length and breadth proportional to the things to 
 
 be cast, and putting a ledge .round it, they fill it with 
 sand a little moistened, to make it duly eohere. They 
 then take either wood or metal models of what they 
 intend to cast, and apply them.-to the mold, and press 
 them into the sand so as to leave their impression 
 there. Along the middle of the mold i» laid half a 
 small brass cylinder, as the chief canal for the metal 
 to run through, when melted, into the models or pat- 
 terns ; and from this chief canal are placed several 
 others, which extend collaterally to each model or 
 pattern placed in the frame. . After this fr^me is fin- 
 ished, they take out tlie patterns, by first loosening 
 them all round, that the sand maj' not give way ; then 
 they proceed to work the other half of the mold with 
 the same patterns in just such another frame, only that 
 it has pins, which entering into holes corresponding to 
 it in the other, make the two cavities of the pattern 
 fall exaotlj- on each other. The frame, thus molded, 
 'is carried to the melter, who, after extending the chief 
 canal of the counterpart,. and adding the cross canals 
 to the several models in both, and strewing mill-dust 
 over them, dries them in a kind of oven prepared for 
 the purpose. Both parts of the mold being dry, they 
 are joined. together by means of the pins ; and to pre- 
 vent them giving way, by reason of the melted metal 
 passing through .the chief cylindrical canal, they 
 are screwed or wedged up as in a press. While the 
 molds are thus preparing,, the metal is fusing in a cru- 
 cible of a size proportional to the quantity of metal 
 intended to be cast. When the molds have cooled, the 
 frames are unscrewed or unweclged, and the cast work 
 is; taken out of the sand, which sand is worked over 
 again for another casting. , , ; ' 
 
 ■ Foundery of Statues. — .The casting of statues de- 
 pends on the due preparation of the pit, the core, the 
 wa.x, the outer mold, the, inferior furnace to melt off 
 the wax, and the upper to fuse the metal. The pit is 
 a hole dug. in » drj- place, somewhat deeper than the 
 intended figure, and made according to the prominence 
 of certain parts of it. The inside of the pit is com- 
 monly lined. with stone or brick ; but when the figure 
 is very laj^e,,they sometimes work on the ground, 
 and raise a proper fence to resist the impulsion of the 
 melted metal. The inner mold, or core, j;s.a rude mass, 
 to which is given the intended attitude and coiitours. 
 It is raised on an iron grating strong enough to sustain 
 it, and is strengthened within by several bars of iron. 
 It is generally made either of potters' clay mixed with 
 cow-hair, or of plaster of Paris mixed with brick-dust. 
 The use of the core is to support the wax and the shell, 
 and lessen the weight of the metal. The iron bars and 
 the core are taken out of the brass figure through an 
 aperture left in it for that purpose, which is soldered 
 up afterward. It is necessary to leave some of the 
 iron bars of. the core, which contribute to the steadi- 
 ness of the projecting part, within the brass figure. 
 The wax is a representation of the intended statue. If 
 it be a piece of sculpture, the wax should be all from 
 the hand of the sculptor himself, who usually|forms 
 it on the core ; though it may be wrought separately 
 in cavities, molded on a model, and afterward ar- 
 ranged on the ribs of iron over the grating, filling the 
 vacant 'Space in the middle with liquid plaster and 
 brick-diust, by which means the inner core is propor- 
 tioned as the sculptor carries on the wax. When the 
 wax, which is of the intended thickness of the metal, 
 is finished, small waxen tubes, perpendicular to it from 
 top to bottom, are filled, to serve both as canals for 
 the conveyance of the metal to all parts of the work, 
 and as vent-holes to give passage to the air, which 
 would otherwise occasion great disorder when the hot 
 metal came to encompass it. 
 
 The work being brought thus far, must be covered 
 with its shell, which is a kind of crust laid over the 
 wax, and which being of a soft matter, easily receives 
 the impression of every part, which is afterward com- 
 municated to the metal upon its taking the place of 
 
FOU 
 
 700 
 
 FRA 
 
 the wax, between the shell and the mold. The mat- 
 ter of this outer mold, is varied according as different 
 layers are applied. The first is generally a composi- 
 tion of clay and old white crucibles well ground and 
 sifted, and mixed up with water to the consistence of 
 a color fit for painting ; and it is applied with a brush, 
 by means of which it is laid on seven or eight times 
 successively. For the second impression horse-dung 
 and natural earth are added to the former composition ; 
 but for the third impression only horse-dung and earth 
 are used. Lastly, the shell is finished by laying on 
 several more impressions of this last matter, made 
 very thick, with the hand. The shell, thus finished, is 
 secured by several iron girths bound round it, at about 
 half a foot distant from each other, and fastened at 
 the bottom to the grating under the statue, and at top 
 to a circle of iron where they all terminate. 
 
 If the statue be so large that it would not be easy 
 to move the molds with safety, these must be wrought 
 on the spot where it is to be cast. This is performed 
 in two ways. In the first place, a square hole is dug 
 in the ground, much larger than the mold to be made 
 therein, and its inside is lined with walls of freestone 
 or brick. At the bottom is made a hole of the same 
 materials, with a kind of furnace, having its aperture 
 outward ; and in this a fire is made, to dry the mold, 
 and afterward melt the wax. Over this furnace is 
 placed the grating, and upon this the mold, formed as 
 above. Lastly, at one of the edges of the square pit 
 is made another large fupiace, to melt the metal. In 
 the other way, it is sufficient to work the mold above 
 ground, but with the precaution of a furnace and 
 grating underneath. "When finished, four walls are 
 run around it, and by its side a melting furnace is pre- 
 pared. For the rest, the method is the same in both 
 cases. The mold being finished, and inclosed as de- 
 scribed, whether below ground or above it, a moderate 
 fire is lighted in the furnace under it, and the whole 
 covered with planks, that the wax may melt gently 
 down, and run out at pipes, contrived for that purpose, 
 at the foot of the mold, which are afterward exactly 
 closed with earth, as soon as the wax is all carried off. 
 When this is done, the whole is filled up with bricks 
 thrown in at random, and the fire in the furnace aug- 
 mented, until both bricks and mold become red-hot. 
 The fire is then extinguished, and every thing being 
 cold again, the bricks are taken out, and their place 
 filled up with earth, moistened, and beaten a little at 
 the top of the mold, in order to render it the firmer. 
 These preparatory measures being duly taken, there 
 remains nothing but to melt the metal, and run it into 
 the mold. This is done by means of the furnace above 
 described, which is commonly made in the form of an 
 oven, with three apertures, one to put in the wood, 
 another for a vent, and a third to run the metal out at. 
 From this last aperture, which is kept very close while 
 the metal is in fusion, a small tube is laid, by which 
 the molten metal is conveyed into a large earthen basin, 
 over the mold, into the bottom of which all the large 
 branches of the Jets or casts, which are to convey the 
 metal into the different parts of the mold are inserted. 
 
 Foundery of Bells.— Ths metal for casting bells, it 
 is to be observed, is different from that employed for 
 casting statues ; there being no tin in the statue metal, 
 whereas in the bell metal there is a fifth or more. 
 
 The dimensions of the core and the wax for bells, 
 especially a chime, are not left to chance, but must be 
 measured upon a scale, or diapason, which gives the 
 height, the aperture, and the thickness necessary for 
 the several tones required. It is on the wax that the 
 several moldings and other ornaments and inscriptions, 
 to be represented in relief on the outside of the bell, 
 are to be formed. The clapper or tongue is not prop- 
 erly part of the bell, but is furnished from other hands. 
 In Europe it is usually of iron, with a large knob 
 at the extremity ; and is suspended in the middle of 
 the bell. In China a wooden mallet is used, which is 
 
 struck by the hand against the bell ; and hence the 
 Chinese bells can have comparatively little resonance. 
 The Chinese have a method of increasing the sound of 
 their bells, by leaving a hole under the cannon \ but 
 this our bell-founders would reckon a defect. 
 
 The proportions of our bells differ very much from 
 those of the Chinese. In ours, the modern proportions 
 are, to make the diameter fifteen times the thickness 
 of the brim, and the height twelve times. The parts 
 of a bell are, first, the sounding bow, terminated by an 
 inferior circle, which grows thinner and thinner ; sec- 
 ondly, the brim, or that part of a bell whereon the 
 clapper strikes, and which is thicker than the rest; 
 thirdly, the outward sinking of the middle of the bell, 
 or the point under which it grows wider to the brim ; 
 fourthlj', the waist or furniture, and the part that 
 grows wider and thicker quite to the brim ; fifthly, the 
 upper vase, or that part which is above the waist ; 
 sixthly, the pallet, which supports the staple of the 
 clapper within ; and, seventhly, the bent and hol- 
 lowed branches of pietal uniting with the cannons, to 
 receive the iron keys, by which the bell is hung up to 
 the beam, and which forms its support and counter- 
 poise when rung out. 
 
 Fountain-tree, or Til-tree, a very extraordi- 
 narj' tree said to have existed formerly in the island of 
 Hierro, one of the Canaries, and to have distilled wa- 
 ter from its leaves in such abundance as to satisfy the 
 requirements of those who lived near it. Whether 
 such a tree ever existed is questionable ; 3'et various 
 writers have mentioned the fountain-tree of Hierro in 
 apparently good faith. Glasse, in his Hislary of tlie 
 Canary Islands, published at London in 1764, alludes 
 to it in the following terms : — " Many writers have 
 made mention of this famous tree, some in such a 
 manner as to make it appear miraculous ; others, 
 again, deny the existence of any such tree, among 
 whom is Father Feyjoo, a modern Spanish author, in 
 his Teatro Critico. But he, and those who agree with 
 him in this matter, are as much mistaken as those who 
 would make it appear to be miraculous. This is the 
 only island of all the Canaries which I have not been 
 in ; but I have sailed with natives of Hierro, who, 
 when questioned about the existence of this tree, an* 
 swered in the affirmative." 
 
 Frankincense, or Olibanum tree (Bomellia 
 serrala) is indigenous to the mountains of central In- 
 dia, where it is known under the name of Soli, and as 
 producing the olibanum of commerce, or the gum frank- 
 incense of the ancients. It is a lofty tree, with the 
 foliage crowded at the extremity of the branches, and 
 is frequent in the forests between the Sone and Nang- 
 pur, from which circumstance it may be inferred that 
 it would be adapted to the soil and climate, in favor- 
 able locations, in some of our southern States. 
 
 Olibanum distills from incisions made in the bark of 
 the tree during the summer months, occurring in the 
 form of semi-transparent masses, or tears, of a pale- 
 yellowish or pink color, solid, hard, and brittle. It 
 has a bitterish acrid taste, and, when chewed, sticks 
 to the teeth, and renders the saliva milky. When 
 heated, it burns brilliantly, and diffuses an agreeable 
 odor, in consequence of which, in the early ages, it 
 was much used as incense in the sacrifices, and, in 
 modern times, the Greek and Roman Catholic churches 
 still retain the use of frankincense, in some of their 
 ceremonies. It is seldom employed for other puposes, 
 except as a perfume in the rooms of the sick, although 
 other gums bearing that name are in more general use, 
 and are by many regarded as identical with it ; for in- 
 stance, Lamarck designates the gum of the Amyris 
 gileadensis by this name ; Forskal and Sprengel, that 
 of the Amyris kataf ; while Linnaeus erroneously thus 
 denominates the resin of the Juniperus lycia. — Patent 
 Office Report, 1855. 
 
 Franc, a French coin of the value of 18 cents and 
 six mUls, by mint valuation. 
 
FRA 
 
 701 
 
 FRA 
 
 France. This important part of continental Eu- 
 rope extends from the 43d to the Slst degree of north 
 lat., and from long. 8° 25' east, to long. 4° 43' west. 
 The greatest length of France, exceeding 665 miles, is 
 from east to west — from Alsace to Brittany, which pro- 
 jects into the Atlantic like a wedge, and without which 
 France would approach in form to a square. Its 
 hreadth from north to south is about 576 miles ; and 
 its superficial extent, as stated in the Statistique de la 
 France, is 52,768,618 hectares, equal to 204,355 square 
 miles, or 130,787,160 English acres— nearly twice the 
 total area of the British Isles. 
 
 Though in point of extent of coast and ready access 
 from the interior to the sea, France is far inferior to 
 Great Britain and Ireland, she is, on the other hand, 
 more fortunate in these respects than the vast inland 
 territories of Austria and Russia. She has the ad- 
 vantage over these countries likewise in strength of 
 natural barriers, the Pyrenees forming a great bul- 
 wark on the south-west, the Alps on the south-east, 
 and the Jura and the Vosges Mountains on the east. 
 The Belgian is the only open part of the frontier. 
 
 France enjoys, upon the whole, greater natural ad- 
 vantages than any other country in Europe. Her ter- 
 ritory is above a half larger than that of Great Britain 
 and Ireland, and both her soil and climate are better — 
 the climate being less equable indeed, but there being a 
 greater amount of summer heat to bring the fruits of the 
 earth to perfection. She has a greater proportion of ara- 
 ble land than any of her neighbors ; the natural means of 
 communication throughout her provinces are abundant 
 and easy ; she is well provided with all the useful 
 metals except tin ; and is better supplied with coal 
 than any other country of Europe, but Britain. Even 
 during the distractions of her great Eevolution, though 
 her foreign trade was annihilated, her agriculture and 
 manufactures were extended and improved, her popu- 
 lation was increased, and its condition ameliorated. 
 The surface of France contains about 130,000,000 of 
 acres. It is estimated that, of this quantity, the waste 
 land, including roads and rivers, amounts to an eighth 
 part ; the arable land to near a half ; the wood-land 
 and pasture-land and meadows, each, to about a 
 seventh; the vineyards to a 25th part; wild-land, 
 quarries, buildings, orchards gardens, olive, and other 
 plantations, making up the remainder. In addition 
 to the vegetable productions that grow in England, the 
 climate of France enables her to raise vines, olives, 
 mulberries, and chestnuts. Wine and olive oil are 
 two of her most valuable productions. The cotton 
 trade has been for some time rapidly extending over 
 the northern and eastern provinces ; and Lyons has 
 been long famous as the centre of the silk trade of 
 Europe, a branch of manufacture that has been brought 
 to great perfection in that city. The manufactures of 
 woolen cloth, flax, hemp, and iron, are also very ex- 
 tensive, and have been carefully fostered under the 
 protective system, which still prevails here, as else- 
 where on the Continent, notwithstanding the example 
 which has been set by Great Britain. Toward the 
 end of the 17th centurj', the territory of France, then 
 equal, or very nearly equal, to its present extent, ap- 
 pears to have contained about 20,000,000 of inhab- 
 itants. In 1791, it was found to be above 26,000,000, 
 and in 1851 nearly 36,000,000. The government al- 
 ways maintains a large standing army, amounting on 
 the peace establishment to about 350,000 men, but act- 
 ually in December, 1854, to 581,000. Her armed fleet 
 on service is about equal in number of ships to that of 
 Britain, with 62,000 men. 
 
 Surface. — The surface of France exhibits, in gen- 
 eral, an advantageous succession of high and low 
 ground. Less level than Poland, the north of Ger- 
 many, or the greater part of European Russia, it is, 
 on tile whole, less mountainous than Spain or Italy, 
 and maj- with great propriety be compared to England, 
 with this distinction, that while in the latter, the 
 
 mountainous tracts are in the north and west, in 
 France they are in the south and east. Passing over 
 lofty ridges which form the frontier line of France on 
 the side of the Pyrenees, the Alps, the Jura, and the 
 Vosges, and confining our attention to the interior, we 
 find throughout Flanders, Picardy, Normandy, and the 
 countries to the north and south of the Loire, a level 
 tract, diversified occasionally by hills, either insulated 
 or in succession, but by none of the massy elevations 
 entitled to the name of mountains. These we do not 
 meet until reaching the south of Champi<gne and north 
 of Burgundy, near the sources of the Meuse, the Mo- 
 selle, the. Saone, and the Seine. From this bleak 
 quarter (lat. 47° and 48°), a very long range of mount- 
 ains proceeds from north to south in a direction par- 
 allel to the course, first of the Saone, and subsequently 
 of the Rhone, until, on approaching the Mediterranean, 
 they branch off to the south-west and join the Pyre- 
 nees. Their greatest height is in Auvergne (about 
 lat. 45°), where this chain, or more properly a lateral 
 branch of it attains, at the mountains called Cantal 
 and Pny-de-D6me, an elevation of fully 6355 feet, and 
 has its highest ridge covered with snow during the 
 greater part of the year. Another, but a much less 
 lofty range, extends from Bordeaux to the south-east, 
 a distance of 150 miles, imtil it reaches the Pyrenees. 
 The smaller chains are numerous in the east and 
 south-east of the kingdom — in Lorraine, the Nivemois, 
 Dauphin^, Provence ; also in part of the interior, par- 
 ticularly the Limousin and Guienne. They are inter- 
 spersed with extensive plains, but, on the whole, the 
 south and east of France are rugged and elevated 
 tracts, and may be said to be to that counry what 
 Wales and Scotland are to Great Britain. 
 
 Sivers. — The course of the great rivers is easily con- 
 nected with this view of the surface of the territory of 
 France. The Moselle, the Meuse, the Marne, the Aube, 
 the Seine, the Yonne, taking their rise on the northern 
 side of the mountain chain, between lat. 47° and 48", 
 flow all to the north or north-west, until reaching the 
 sea or quitting the territoiy of France. From the 
 southern slope of the same range proceed the Saone, 
 the Doubs, and the Ain. These, along with many 
 smaller streams, are all received by the Rhone, which 
 flows almost due south, with a full and rapid current, 
 until it reaches the Slediterranean. The Loire has 
 much the longest course of any river in France. It 
 rises to the southward of lat. 45°, flows in a northerly 
 direction above 200 miles ; turns, near Orleans, to the 
 west; is joined by the Cher, Indre, and Vienne from 
 the south, and, after receiving the Sarthe from the 
 north, falls into the Atlantic below Nantes. The 
 Garonne, a river of less length of course, but of a 
 greater volume of water, descends from the French 
 side of the Pj'renees, flows northward, and after 
 receiving from these mountains a number of tributarj' 
 streams, of which the chief is the Arrifege, turns to the 
 westward near Montauban (lat. 44°), and falls into the 
 Atlantic after being augmented by the waters of the 
 Tarn, Aveyron, Lot, and finally the Dordogne — all 
 flowing from the western face of the mountains of 
 Auvergne. 
 
 France has very few lakes, either in the mountain- 
 ous districts of the south, or in the great levels of the 
 north and west. It contains, however a number of 
 maritime inlets, forming inland bays, and communi- 
 cating with the sea only by a channel of greater or 
 less width. These occur partly in the south-west coast, 
 in Gascony; hut more in the south and south-east, 
 in Languedoc and Provence. Their want of depth pre- 
 vents them from serving as roadsteads for shipping, and 
 thej' are useful chiefly for fishing, or for the manufac- 
 ture of bay-salt. 
 
 Forests, — France has much less of artificial or orna- 
 mental plantation than England, and much more of 
 natural forest, the total extent of ground covered by 
 wood being computed at 17,000,000 of acres, or one 
 
FRA 
 
 702 
 
 FRA 
 
 eighth of the territorial surface of the kingdom. For- 
 ests are found in almost every department. Lower 
 Normandy contains several of considerable extent. 
 There is a large one at Fontainebleau, only 45 miles 
 from Paris ; and a larger one to the north of the Loire, 
 in the vicinity of Orleans. Those situated in the 
 neighborhood of the sea, or of navigable rivers, or of 
 great works, such as glass-houses and iron-founderies, 
 have long been subjected to an improvident consump- 
 tion, which is likely to be increased by the still heavy 
 though reduced duties imposed on foreign coal, and by 
 the undue encouragements given to the smelting of 
 iron by the heavy duties which were, in 1814 and in 
 1822, laid on the importation of foreign iron ,• so that 
 at present the principal forests are at a distance inland, 
 particularly in the east, in' the department of Ar- 
 dennes, and in the long mountainous tract that forms 
 the boundary of France on the side of Switzerland. 
 
 Climate, — 'In a countrj" of so great extent, and of 
 such diversified surface as France, it is difficult to con- 
 dense a description of the climate under a few com- 
 prehensive heads. The most natural division is into 
 the north, south, and central regions. The north, 
 comprehending Flanders, Picardy, Normandy, Brit- 
 tan)^, and in general all that part of France which 
 would be botmded on the south by a diagonal line from 
 lat. 47° on the west to lat. 49° on the east frontier, 
 bears a great resemblance, both in temperature and 
 produce, to the south of England, rain occurring fre- 
 quently, and the coimtry being consequentlj'' fit for 
 pasture. There, as with us, tlie predominant culture 
 is wheat, barley, oats, rye, and such fruit as apples, 
 pears, cherries ; also, hemp, flax, and rapeseed. It is 
 here on\y in France, that the natural pastures are 
 rich and extensive ; here, also, the species of wood, 
 oak, ash, elm, bear a close resemblance to ours. The 
 central region may be said to comprehend the country 
 to the south of the Loire, or rather of the diagonal line 
 we have mentioned, until reaching a similar line in 
 lat. 45° on the west and 47° on the east frontier. 
 Here, with the exception of the mountainous parts, 
 the winter is sensibly shorter and milder. Wheat, 
 barley, oats, and rj^e, arc still cultivated, but maize 
 begins to appear, and vines become general. The 
 weather in this great inland tract is much more steady 
 than in the north. In the summer months there is 
 little rain, and storms, when they occur, are frequentl}' 
 accompanied witli hail ; but, on the whole, the tem- 
 perature is perhaps tlie most pleasant in France, being 
 exempt equally from the oppressive heat of the south 
 and the frequent humidity of the north. The third 
 region, comprehending the whole breadth of the 
 French territory from lat. 45° and 46' to lat. 43°, and 
 in some parts to 42° 30', approaches in climate to the 
 heat of Spain and Italy, rendering it necessary in 
 the summer to suspend all active exertion during the 
 middle of the day, and to reserve it for the morning 
 and evening. A shaded situation is here the desidera- 
 lium for a dwelling, and a supply of water for agricul- 
 ture. In this region the heat invariably' produces an 
 exuberant crop where an irrigation can lie supplied ; 
 hence the frequency of wells, which are generally 
 worked by a wheel and some rude machinery. "VVlieat 
 is partially cultivated ; barley, oats, and rye, only on 
 the high grounds ; maize is very general, and vines 
 supply not only the main article of export, but the 
 usual Arvak of the inhabitants. The common fruits 
 are olives and mulberries, and, in a few very warm 
 situations, oranges and lemons. Pasturage is good 
 only on mountainous or irrigated tracts. To pulmonic 
 invalids the climate may be advantageous, but in this 
 respect, also, material distinctions occur from locality, 
 the winter in the south-east of France being at inter- 
 vals vevy cold, from the vent de Use, a piercing wind 
 that blows from the Alps and the mountains of Au- 
 vergne. Here, notwithstanding the latitude, the cold 
 of winter is intense. Brittany, projecting into the 
 
 Atlantic, is as rainj- as Ireland or Cornwall. Nor- 
 mandy, with part of Picardy and French Flanders, 
 may be compared to our inland counties. In the in- 
 terior of France the rains are less frequent, but far 
 more heavj' ; so that there is much less difference in 
 the quantity of rain that falls in the course of the year 
 than in the number of rainy days. The atmosphere of 
 France is much less cloudy than that of Britain. The 
 most frequent wind in the north of France, as in 
 Great Britain and Ireland, is the south-west ; it pre- 
 vails, also, but to a less degree, in the central part of 
 the kingdom. In the south of France the more com- 
 mon winds are from the north. The difference of 
 temperature between London and Paris is, not consid- 
 erable, nor is the degree of heat found, to be intense 
 along the west coast of France, until reaching or 
 rather passing Poitou. In the interior it is much 
 more perceptible, being strongly felt at Lyons, Bor- 
 deaux, Toulouse, and still more in the latitude of 
 Nimes, Aix, Marseilles, and Toulon. On tlie whole, 
 the variations of climate between the north and south 
 of France are considerably greater than between the 
 north and south of Britain, where the effect of differ- 
 ence of latitude is so much modified by the vicinity of 
 the sea, and where no such variation is known as the 
 very material one indicated by the diagonal line from 
 east to west, the latter being two degrees colder in 
 consequence of the breezes and vapors of the Atlantic. 
 The harvest begins in the north of France between 
 the 20th and 25th July, in the central part about the 
 middle of that month, in the south about the end of 
 June. September and October are the months of 
 vintage. The great hazard to the corn of the central 
 part of the kingdom arises from violent storms of rain 
 and hail ; in the south, from the want of rain in the 
 spring. In the winter, the vent de hhe often proves 
 destructive to the olives. The great heats are in 
 July, August, and September ; a time of much annoy- 
 ance in the south of France, from musquitoes, gnats, 
 flies, and other insects ; while even scorpions are 
 found in that warm latitude. 
 
 Soil.- — To exhibit a classification of the different 
 kinds of soil is a task of difficulty, in any extensive 
 country, and in none more so than in France, where a 
 striking difference prevails, not only in contiguous de- 
 partments, but in adjacent districts of the same depart- 
 ment. In Flanders, Picard)', Artois, Normandy, and 
 the Pays de Beauce, a, fertile tract to the south of 
 Paris, the soil consists frequently of a loamy mold ; 
 in the central and southern parts of the kingdom it is 
 often lighter ; while the greater part of Brittany, and 
 of the departments along the western coast, have a 
 heathy soil, naturallj' unproductive, but capable of 
 considerable improvement. But these collective esti- 
 mates are liable to great deductions ; and the attempts 
 made by Arthur Young, and other statistical writers, 
 to calculate the proportion of the different descriptions 
 of soU, whether loam, heath, chalk, gravel, or the 
 like, are considered by the French as far from success- 
 ful ; even the more systematic effort made hy their 
 own government, in the beginning of this century, to 
 compute the value of land b)' masses de culture, that 
 is, by classing all kindred soils under one head, proved 
 altogether abortive. We shall forbear, therefore, all 
 such vague calculations, and proceed to state the 
 value of annual produce in the different departments, 
 endeavoring to cast the latter in lots, according to 
 their position and relative productiveness. 
 
 Harbors, Hirers, Canals, Uoads, Bridges.- — In this 
 important point France is considerably inferior 
 to England, her long tract of coast washed by the 
 Atlantic and the Bay of Biscay bemg indifferently 
 provided with sea-ports, and those on the southern 
 shore of the Channel foi-ming a striking contrast to the 
 spacious maritime inlets on the English side. To begin 
 from the north-east, Dunkirk has a small harbor, but 
 improved in the interior of the town, approached on 
 
FRA 
 
 703 
 
 FRA 
 
 the Dutch plan by a canal leading from the sea. 
 Boulogne has a roadstead — which, however, has been 
 much deepened and improved — indebted for its celeb- 
 rity under Bonaparte to the facility of giving protec- 
 tion, by land batteries near its entrance, to a numerous 
 assemblage of small craft. The port of Dieppe is ex- 
 posed, and of course unsuitable for winter; that of 
 St. Blalo is better; while Cherbourg, on which im- 
 mense sums have been expended, is now a port and 
 arsenal of great utility and importance to the imperial 
 navy. On doubling the projecting part of Brittany, 
 we fin?!, in the south- west of that province, L'Orient. 
 Brittany also possesses Brest, the great maritime port 
 of the Atlantic for the navj'. Proceeding further to 
 the south, we find Epchefbrt, at La Eochelle, a small 
 but secure harbor, and at Bordeaux a river nearly 
 equal in width to the Thames at London. From this 
 there is no sea^port until we reach Bayonne, a place of 
 no easy access. On the Mediterranean, France has 
 the ports of Cette and Marseilles, the latter spacious 
 and secure, and the great maritime port, arsenal,, and, 
 dockyard of Toulon, which, with Cherbourg, Brest,, 
 L'Orient, Eochefort, and Toulon, are called, in ordi. 
 nary parlance, ports militaires. 
 
 Nantes, though a large commercial town, adjoins a 
 shallow part of the Loire, and vessels of burden are 
 obliged to load and unload at Paimbceuf . The great 
 dockyards and naval stations of, the kingdom are at 
 Brest and Toulon, both excellent harbors, and at 
 Eochefort, which is situated on the Eiver Charente, 
 near its mouth. In all these the accommodation for 
 shipping is the gift of nature ; but at Cherbourg the 
 case is very different, that port containing works, of 
 which the labor and expense (see the article Break- 
 water, Enq/ch. Brit.') have been verj' great. Its 
 roadstead, extensive but open, has a sea-wall, afford- 
 ing protection from the swell of the sea ; and its spa- 
 cious dock, excavated since the beginning of this 
 century, at an expense of £3,000,000 sterling, is capa- 
 ble of containing fifty sail of the line. Le Havre de 
 Grace, the best mercantile harbor in the north of 
 France, has also been formed at a large expense. 
 
 Inland Navigation, — The square form of France, 
 favorable as it is for military defense, subjects the 
 greater part of the country to the want of those ready 
 and economical means of transport by sea which form 
 the great physical advantage of Great Britain and 
 Ireland. Unluckilj-, this want is very imperfectly 
 supplied by the inland waters, canals being very little 
 extended, and the navigation of the great rivers sub- 
 ject to many obstructions ; occurring in one part from 
 rapidity, in another from shallowness ; at one season 
 from drought, at another from overflow. The appli- 
 cation of steam to navigation has corrected in part 
 this most inconvenient tardiness ; but the accommoda- 
 tion which is afforded by the Loire in the interior, the 
 Ehfine in the south, the Seine in the north, and the 
 Garonne, with its Canal du Languedoc in the south- 
 west, is but a small portion of what is furnished by 
 our numerous intersections in England, or of what is 
 wanted for so extensive a territory as that of France. 
 The Canal of Languedoc, or the Canal du Midi, as it 
 is now generally called, begim in the reign of Louis 
 XIV. and completed in the year 1668, was the first 
 example in Europe of inland navigation on a great 
 scale. It is the most stupendous undertaking of the 
 sort that has been executed in France. Its general 
 breadth is sixtj' feet, its depth six and a half feet. ' It 
 has 114 locks and sluices, and in its highest part it is 
 600 feet above the level of the sea. As a scientific 
 work, it did honor to an age as yet little advanced in 
 engineering ; but in a pecuniarj' point of view it was 
 unproductive, the tolls never having paid the interest 
 of the very large sum (upward of £1,200,000 sterling) 
 expended upon it.* The canal begins at Toulouse on 
 
 the Garonne, remounts the valley of the Lhers, trS/- 
 verses the chain of the Monts Corbi^res, which joins 
 the Cevennes to the Pyrenees, descends the valley of 
 the Aude at Carcasonne, which it leaves at Ginestas 
 to pass by Bdziers, where it traverses the Rive d'Orb. 
 Passing through H^rault above and near Agdet, it 
 ends at I'Etang de Thau, at the place called le Port 
 des Onglousv The navigation isi however continued 
 to the port of Cette by the canal of Cette, and thus 
 the Atlantic and Mediterranean are united. , 
 
 The canal of Briare is of earlier date, and of much 
 less extent. The object here was to open a na,viga- 
 tion from the Loire on the south to the Seine on the 
 north, by a canal running almost due northj a distance 
 of forty miles. It then receives from the west the 
 canal of Orl6ans, commenced in 1675, and, proceeding 
 also from the Loire ;! after which the canal is contin- 
 ued to the noith, under the name of Canal de I'Oing, 
 till it reaches the Seine. Tliis canal was begun. in 
 1606, in the reign of Henri IV.,, and was completed in 
 1642, under Louis XIII. There are, besides this great 
 work, several other important and extensive canals in 
 France. The Canal du Centre unites the Saone and 
 the Loire in the upper part of the course of the latter. 
 It is 72 English miles in length, and was completed 
 in 1791, at an expense of £456,000. Its summit level 
 is about 240 feet above the level of the Loire at 
 Digoin. It has 81 locks, 5| feet of water, 48 of 
 breadth at the water's edge, and 30 feet at the bottom. 
 The Canal of St. Quentin, 28 English miles in length, 
 was completed in 1810, but the navigation was far 
 from perfect. In 1826 the necessary expenses to 
 render the canal perfect were estimated at 4,000,000 
 francs. ' A concession of the canal was made to a Sieur 
 Honorez in 1827, for a period of twenty years. On 
 the 11th of July, 1847, the state entered into full and 
 entire possession of the line which it had conceded. 
 It joins the Scheldt and the Somme. The. Canal of 
 Besanifon is extensive. It joins the Saone, and con- 
 sequently the Ehone, to the :Ehine. From the Saone 
 it stretches a little above St. Jean de Losne, by Dole, 
 Besanijon, and Mulhausen, to Strasbourg, a distance 
 of 200 miles, where it joins the Ehine. The canal of 
 Burgundy joins the Ehone. to the Seine, This canal 
 was opened along its whole line in December, 1832, hy 
 way of trial, and in the past year, 1854, it was com- 
 pletely opened. The canal of the Ourcq was dug, 
 not for a commercial purpose, but to convey thp water 
 of that little river to Paris for the consumption of the in- 
 habitants. At a village called La Villette, on the north 
 side of Paris, there was some j-ears ago excavated, at 
 the cost of a million sterling, a basin, approaching in 
 size to our London docks, and adapted, when the 
 necessary canals shall be completed, for the deposit of 
 merchandise brought from Havre and Eouen on the 
 one side, and Flanders and Champagne on the other. 
 In the south of France there is a short canal proceed- 
 ing from the Ehone, near Tarascon, in a south-west 
 direction, to the Mediterranean, called, from its vicin- 
 ity to a well-known annual fair. Canal du Beaucaire. 
 This canal traverses a great extent of marsh, which it 
 has had the effect of draining. This water-way was 
 opened to supply the imperfect navigation of the lesser 
 Ehone, and of the two canals by which the communi- 
 cation from the Garonne to the Ehone was formerly 
 carried on. These are among the chief canals of 
 France. In the j^ear 1836 there were seventy-four 
 canals, having a total length of 3,699,913 metres, 
 nearly equal to 2280 English miles. But since then 
 large sums have been allocated by the state for canal- 
 ization. In the fifteen years between the 12th Julj', 
 1837, and the 28th March, 1852, M. Ernest Grangez, 
 chief-de-bureau at the ministry of commerce and pub- 
 
 * The cost of the canal was 17,000,000 francs, representing. 
 
 according to M. Ernest Grangez (see Preda Hwtorigue et 
 Statisquc das votes tiamgabUs^ p. 404), according to the pres- 
 ent value of money, a sum of 30,000,000 francs. 
 
FRA 
 
 Y04 
 
 FRA 
 
 lio works, tells us that, for this purpose, extraordinary 
 credits have been taken for 241,936,361 francs. Of 
 this sum 227,695,500 francs had been expended on 31st 
 December, 1853. In 1854, a credit of 8,000,000 francs 
 had been granted. 
 
 The canalization of the Mayenne from Laval to 
 Mayenne, of the Vire from the Pont de Gourfaleur to 
 Vire, of Kheims to the Marne, of Bouc to Martigues, 
 from Caen to the sea, from the Charente to Marennes, 
 from La Eochelle to Marans, and from Saint Th6bault 
 to the lateral canal of the Loire, is in course of execu- 
 tion. But it is probable that this improved mode of 
 communication may be superseded by the still greater 
 improvement of the railroad, which had to a consider- 
 able degree engrossed the public attention in France. 
 There are, however, obstacles to the progress of these 
 improvements, arising partly from the mode of man- 
 agement adopted, and partly also from the high price 
 of the materials required. All great works for the 
 benefit of the community at large, such as canals, 
 railroads, docks, and the like, are carried on at the ex- 
 peifee, for the benefit, and under the control of the 
 government. Plans and estimates must be made out 
 and laid before the minister of the interior, who refers 
 them to other public functionaries, namely, the prefect 
 of the department, and afterward to the bureau des 
 ponts et des chauss&es ; and when all these persons are 
 satisfied, a public officer is then appointed to superin- 
 tend the work. The tedious official routine, through 
 which all public undertakings have to pass, tends to 
 discourage individual enterprise, and accounts perhaps 
 for the comparatively few works of this description 
 which have been undertaken in France. The high 
 price of iron, in consequence of the tax on foreign 
 iron, has likewise operated as a great discouragement 
 to the construction of railroads in France ; and thus we 
 have an additional illustration of the ruinous efi^ects 
 of this tax in obstructing the domestic improvements 
 of the country'. 
 
 Moods. — The great roads in France are managed, 
 not, as with us, by county commissioners, but by gov- 
 ernment bureaux, or boards, the chief of which are at 
 Paris. These boards are all under the direction of the 
 minister of public works. The extent of road under 
 their direction is about 30,000 miles ; and the annual 
 expenditure from £1,300,000 to £1,500,000, the whole 
 of which is defrayed without one toll or turnpike. An 
 attempt was made under Bonaparte to levy tolls ; but 
 this excited so much clamor in a country where com- 
 mercial intercourse is carried on almost wholly by 
 land-carriage, that it was found indispensable to seek 
 the necessary funds from another source — a tax on 
 salt. The great roads in France are in general in tol- 
 erable condition ; but no epithet can convey an idea 
 of the wretched state of the cross roads in almost every 
 department ; full of hollows, encumbered with stones, 
 or inundated with water, they receive hardly any re- 
 pair, but are abandoned, year after j^ear, to the effects 
 of the weather. Notwithstanding the little done by 
 government to favor locomotion, the traffic on roads 
 increased tenfold in the thirty years between 1811 
 and 1841. 
 
 The great roads in France are much wider than in 
 England, exhibiting frequentlj' a long straight avenue 
 lined on each side with chestnut or other large trees. 
 Roads in France are classed under three categories — 
 imperial roads 14 metres in breadth, departmental roads 
 about 11 metres broad, and the che-miTis vicinaux. 
 They are often paved like a street for many mUes in 
 succession ; the art of road-making being as yet too 
 little understood to prevent material injury from the 
 heavy wagons and ill-constructed wheels, without re- 
 sorting to this unpleasant alternative. Traveling is 
 thus much less agreeable than in England, particularly 
 as the villages want neatness and cheerfulness, while 
 most of the towns along the road are disfigured by 
 narrow crooked streets, in which new stone buildings 
 
 are often mixed with antiquated wooden stractnrei, 
 such as have disappeared from our provincial towns 
 for nearly a century past. The mails are now con- 
 veyed as with us hy the railroad, but where there is no 
 rail, in a kind of chariot called a malle-poste. The 
 diligences, though somewhat improved in structure, 
 are still clumsy and lumbering. 
 
 Eailroads. — During the twenty years between 1828 
 and the 24th February, 1848, the railroad conceded to 
 private companies in France amounted to 2237 miles. 
 The revolution of February put a sudden stop to all 
 enterprises of this kind. There was not a single con- 
 cession made in 1848, 1849, or 1850. Indeed, some 
 companies, unable to carry on the work confided to 
 them, were either sequestrated or taken possession of 
 by the state. The concession of the line from Paris to 
 liheims was made on the 16th July, 1851, of the line 
 round Paris on the 11th December, 1851, of the line 
 from Paris to Lyons, 5th January, 1852, of the line 
 from Lyons to Avignon, Sd Januarj', 1852. These and 
 other concessions in 1852 added 2050 miles to the ex- 
 tent of rail. In 1853 the progress continued, and 
 concessions to the extent of 1326 miles were granted. 
 The year 1854 has been consecrated to the execution 
 of the works, and more than 372 miles have been 
 opened between the 1st January and the 31st Decem- 
 ber, 1854. At the breaking out of the February rev- 
 olution, the concessions for railway's amounted to 
 2237 miles ; in 1854 they amounted to more than 6214 
 miles. At the end of 1855, 3728 miles additional were 
 opened to the public. The length of lines conceded 
 and executed have thus increased threefold in the 
 space of a few years. About £80,000,000 have been 
 expended on these enterprises. The credit required 
 in the budget of 1856 for railways is equal to that of 
 1855 — ^namely, 55,435,999 francs. At present (1855) 
 the branch rail from Strasbourg to Rheims, from Bee 
 d'Allier to Clermont, with a branch to Nevers, from 
 St. Germain des Fosses to Roanne, from Mens to 
 Laval, from Marseilles to Toulon, from Caen to Cher- 
 bourg, from Bordeaux to Bayonne, and from Narbonne 
 to Perpignan, are in course of construction. Some of 
 these lines are to be opened this year, some in 1857, 
 and some in 1868. 
 
 Eailwat Returns. 
 
 1853. .Value received, 32,6-34,856 fr. 
 1861. . " 40,145,682 
 
 Eng. Miles. 
 Length, 2,478 
 2,564 
 
 Bridges. — The French have few cast-iron bridges, 
 all their great structures of this description being of 
 stone. Of these, the chief are the bridges over the 
 Loire at Orleans, Tours, and Nantes ; those on a 
 smaller scale over the Seine at Paris ; and those over 
 the Saone and Rhone at Lyons. The Pont du St Es- 
 prit above Orange, over the Rhone, is a long structure 
 of 16 arches. At no great distance from it is the Pont 
 du Gard, one of the most entire, stupendous, and beau- 
 tiful monuments of Roman architecture, composed of 
 a triple tier of arches, erected for the purpose of con- 
 ducting an aqueduct over the river Garden. This 
 magnificent structure is 157 feet in height, 530 feet in 
 length at the bottom, and 872 at the top. Qf the 
 lately-erected bridges in France, the most remarkable 
 are those over the Seine at Neuilly near Paris, and 
 over the Oise at St. Maixent, with two of larger di- 
 mensions, viz., one over the Garonne at Bordeaux, the 
 other over the Seine at Rouen. Bridges, as well as 
 roads, and all other means of intercommunication 
 are under the direction of the minister of public 
 works ; a special school for the formation of engineers 
 of bridges and roads is established at Paris. The ter- 
 ritory of France is divided into 16 inspectorships of 
 ponts et chaussees. The telegraphic communications 
 are principally made by means of the electric tele- 
 graph, of which the government reserves to itself a 
 monopoly, but private persons are allowed to avail 
 themselves of it. 
 
FRA 
 
 705 
 
 FRA 
 
 Agriculture. — The agriculture of France is in a 
 very different state from that of England or Scot- 
 land, being marked by a degree of backwardness not 
 a little surprising in a country so far advanced in 
 many departments of art and science. The causes of 
 this, however, are not of difficult explanation. France 
 enjoyed for scarcely more than 38 years, i. e., from 
 1814 to 18-18, the advantage of a representative body ; 
 and the condition of the peasantry was long far infe- 
 rior to that of the same class in England. No ecclesi- 
 astical reformation had taken place to remove a valu- 
 able part of the national territory out of the hands of 
 indolent life occupants ; and the grands seigneurs, the 
 other great body of landholders, devoted their atten- 
 tion to Paris and Versailles, without bestowing a 
 thought on their lands or their tenantry, except to ex- 
 tract from them the means of defraj-ing their expenses 
 in the capital. To this was added a system of taxa- 
 tion, less heavy, indeed, than that to which we are 
 subjected in England, but extremely crude and im- 
 politic, as evinced in the gabelle, or tax on salt used in 
 private families, and in the corvie, or obligation on the 
 peasantry to labor on the high roads. To these were 
 joined the humiliating enactments of the game-laws, 
 and the more substantial injury of tithes ; for the cler- 
 ical body in France levied this pernicious assessment 
 as in England, though possessing in property, lands of 
 the computed rent of five millions sterling. 
 
 Another great drawback on French agriculture was 
 the insignificant size of the occupancies, whether held 
 as farms or as property. A French agriculturist on a 
 small scale has little idea of selling his paternal acres, 
 and converting the amount into a capital for a farm. 
 He -is much more likely to go on as the proprietor of 
 eight or ten acres of land, and the cultivator of as 
 many more. The mode of paying rent was equally 
 singular ; money rents were general only in the north 
 or most fertile parts of France ; they did not, on the 
 whole, exist in more than a fifth or sixth of the king- 
 dom before the Eevolution. A more frequent species 
 of tenure was by a grant made under the reservation 
 of a fine, of a quitrent, or of certain servitudes, of 
 which the least burdensome were sending corn to the 
 mill, or grapes to the press, of the proprietor. But of 
 all indications of poverty and backwardness, the most 
 strilcing was the system of metaire (rent in kind) ; a 
 practice by which a tenant, having little capital of his 
 own, receives from the proprietor the live stock and 
 implements necessary for cultivating his pettj^ tenure, 
 and divides with him its produce. This wretched 
 method was and still is common, not indeed in the 
 north and north-east of France, but in many of the 
 poorer districts of the centre and south. There are, 
 it is to be remarked, several distinctions in this sys- 
 tem ; the landholder, in some parts, providing only 
 half the cattle and seed, and in others the whole. 
 There is, of course, a corresponding difference in the 
 apportionment of the produce. 
 
 Effects of the Revolution. — La Sevolution a ki faite 
 pour le culiivateur is a common saying in France. In- 
 deed, that great convulsion improved so much the sit- 
 uation of the agriculturists, by canceling, at one de- 
 cisive blow, the tithes, the game-laws, the corvee, and 
 other relics of feudal servitude, that, after all the hor- 
 rors of Jacobinism, and all the tyranny of Bonaparte, 
 a strong attachment to the Revolution survives among 
 this pacific class. Further, the sale of the church 
 lands transferred a valuable mass of property from 
 indolent into active hands. But with this must ter- 
 minate the eulogy on the Revolution, the further prog- 
 ress made by agriculture, having been caused less by 
 any political change, than by the gradual effect of ex- 
 perience, and the diffusion of information. The de- 
 gree of agricultural improvement in France since the 
 first Eevolution has certainly been less than in En- 
 gland and Scotland, and in one very material point 
 that memorable convulsion has tended to retard it ; 
 Ty 
 
 we mean by the law suggested bj' a jealousy of the 
 ascendency of the noblesse, which obliges the owner of 
 property, whether in land or money, to make an al- 
 most equal division of it among his children. The 
 parent of two children has the free disposal of only 
 one third of his property, and the parent of three 
 children of only one fourth, the residue being shared 
 equally among all. The claim of primogeniture is 
 thus in a manner annulled ; and a law which is appa- 
 rently wise and equitable, proves the source of great 
 injury to agriculture, by multiplying the petty plots 
 of land throughout a country where they were pre- 
 viously far too numerous. 
 
 The following table, taken from official documents 
 published by M. Duchatel, exhibits in hectares the 
 physical and agricultural division of the French ter- 
 ritory, which has not materially changed within the 
 last 20 years. 
 
 • Hectares. 
 
 Qronnd occupied 
 by buildings.... 241,842 
 
 Bosds, paths, plac- 
 es, etc 1,215,115 
 
 Elvers, lakes, and 
 brooks 454,365 
 
 Forests and unpro- 
 ductive domains 1,209,482 
 
 Oemetorle'S, ' 
 churches, and 
 public establish- 
 monts 
 
 Heotnrofl, 
 Cultivable land... 25,559,152 
 
 Meadows 4,884,621 
 
 Vineyards 2,184,822 
 
 Woods 7,422,814 
 
 Orchards and gar- 
 dens 648,699 
 
 Willow and elm 
 
 plantations, etc. 64,439 
 Pools and water- 
 ing places 209,481 
 
 Downs, pastures, 
 
 and heaths 7,799,671 
 
 Navigable canals. 1,681 
 
 Diverse cultures.. 951,984 
 
 17,774 
 
 Total 62,762,6 
 
 (Acres, 130,772,476.) 
 Statement of the Area of France, distinguishing ap- 
 pkoximately the various xindb of soil of which 
 THE Surface is oomposbd. 
 
 Mountainous coun- 
 try. 4,268,750 
 
 Heathy ditto, or 
 landes 6,676,188 
 
 Soil of rich molds. . 7,276,368 
 
 Soil of chalk or 
 limestone 9,788,197 
 
 Soil of gravel 8,417,898 
 
 Stony soil 6,612,843 
 
 Bandy soil 5,961,877 
 
 Soil of clay 2,232,885 
 
 Marshy and 
 
 swarapy soil. . . . 234,445 
 Soil of various 
 
 kinds 7,21 
 
 Hectares, 52,762,693 
 (Acres, 130,772,475.) 
 
 The surprising proportion of land in France under 
 tillage is owing to the smallness of the occupancies, 
 the cheapness of labor, and the general use of bread 
 instead of animal food by the humbler orders. The 
 last is connected with another remarkable circum- 
 stance ; the very slender proportion of land under 
 pasture, of which the main cause is the dry climate 
 of the southern and central part of the kingdom. In 
 the proportion of poor and unproductive land France 
 and England are nearly on a par, but the French in- 
 cur a very heavy disadvantage by using wood instead 
 of coal for fuel, and covering with forests many tracts 
 which might be made available for either pasture or 
 tillage. All France in 1840 gave 13'14 hectolitres 
 per hectare. The total value of cereals in 1813 was 
 1,780,478,000 fr., or 9387 fr. per hectare, or 59 fr. per 
 head. In 1840 (which was the last account) it was cal- 
 culated at 2,565,238,000, at 18,900 fr. per hectare, or 
 77 per head. In 1840 there were 5,586,787 hectares in 
 wheat. In England 2,130,900 hectares. The wheat 
 product in 1840 was 6'07 for 1. In England it is 9 for 
 1. The total value in the United Kingdom, 978,500,- 
 000 fr. at 25 fr. ; in France, 1,400,000,000 fr. at 20 fr. 
 the hectolitre. The arable land of France in 1840 was 
 22,240,090 hectares. The value of the cereals, fal- 
 lows, and artificial meadows in France reaches 2,351,- 
 518,907 fr., and their mean value 106 fr. per hectare. 
 The vines in 1840 covered 1,972,340 hectares. The total 
 return of French cultivation in agriculture reaches : 
 
 Frimcfl. 
 
 Cultivated ground, to the value of. ... . 5,092,116,220 
 
 Pasturage, etc 646,794,905 
 
 Woods and forests 288,268,825 
 
 Total 6,022,169,450 
 
 In order to present this subject more fully, we add 
 the following condensed tables of primary and second- 
 ary crops throughout France in the year 1853 : 
 
FRA 
 
 Toe 
 
 FRA 
 
 Peihaet Crops in 1853. 
 
 
 Acres 
 cultivated. 
 
 Crop, Qra. 
 per aero. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Total production. 
 
 Potatoes... 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Spelt 
 
 Meslin 
 
 Buckwheat 
 
 Eye 
 
 Barley 
 
 Oats 
 
 Maize 
 
 Total.... 
 
 2,278.820 
 18,806,748 
 11,696 
 2.261,044 
 1,609,811 
 6,868,862 
 2,986,186 
 7,414,996 
 1,561,039 
 
 86-90 
 4-28 
 9-89 
 4-46 
 4-73 
 8-71 
 4-67 
 6-43 
 4-02 
 
 £3-462 
 3-126 
 2-709 
 2-505 
 1-492 
 1-823 
 1-888 
 1-593 
 1.T99 
 
 £7,995,888-8 
 48,858,333-3 
 81,948,760-0 
 
 6,783,388-3 
 
 2,414,583-8 
 11,716,666-6 
 
 5,462,600-0 
 11,9.54,166-6 
 
 2,860,000-0 
 
 88,237,252 
 
 
 
 £123,984,166-4 
 
 Skcondart Improted Crops in 1863. 
 
 Productions. 
 
 Vine land 
 
 Gardens 
 
 Pulse 
 
 Mangel-wurtzel 
 
 Hops 
 
 Rape 
 
 Hemp 
 
 Hemp-seed. . .. 
 
 Flax 
 
 Flax-seed 
 
 Madder 
 
 Tobacco 
 
 Olives 
 
 Chestnuts 
 
 Pasture Meads. 
 Total |"23"56i;77r 
 
 Acres. 
 
 4,873,934 
 891,882 
 738,745 
 142,493 
 2,048 
 468,751 
 436,288 
 
 242,768 
 
 86,262 
 
 19,658 
 
 812,699 
 
 1,126,326 
 
 14,277,564 
 
 Qra. 
 per acre. 
 
 2-56 
 
 i'-eo 
 
 36-13 
 -144 
 1-80 
 
 [l-85 
 
 I 1-05 
 
 87-60 
 94-84 
 24-76 
 4-08 
 18-95 
 
 Value 
 per acre 
 
 £8-363 
 6-975 
 2-773 
 7-957 
 
 18-861 
 4-706 
 
 7-766 
 
 10-080 
 10-918 
 
 Total 
 produetioi 
 
 £18,960,416 
 6,214,583 
 2,058,833 
 1,147,916 
 39,.583 
 2,018,750 
 1,425,000 
 
 2,256,260 
 
 856,250 
 197,916 
 870,838 
 654,166 
 25,729,166 
 
 £61,S29,162 
 
 NiiTT Eeturn of Land in France, reckoned by the 
 Englisu Acre, AND calcdlated from official Suetkys. 
 
 e. d. 
 
 Tillage (average of poor and fertile soils) 11 
 
 Vines 87 
 
 Meadow land 37 
 
 Natui-al pasturage, chiefly mountadnous 8 6 
 
 Woods 7 6 
 
 Chestnut plantations 7 6 
 
 Orchards .,., 15 
 
 Kitchen garden 46 
 
 Various kinds of culture, viz., nurseries, hop- 
 grounds, olive-irrounds, etc 18 6 
 
 General average of all France, per English acre 9 1 
 
 We proceed to add a few remarks on Trench agri- 
 culture, witli reference to articles less known or less 
 generally raised in England. Buckwheat is cultivated 
 extensively in Brittany, Normandy, and the north of 
 France, partlj' as green food for cattle, partlj- for the 
 diet of the peasantry' ; it is generally sown in June 
 and reaped in the end of September. Wheat and 
 meslin are principally cultivated in the north, but the 
 produce of the soutli, though less abundant, is gener- 
 ally preferred. Barley and oats are also more common 
 in the nortli. Rye is raised pretty equally in all parts 
 of France. Rape-seed is very general in French 
 Flanders and Normandy ; it supplies oil for the mar- 
 ket and food for cattle, either whea green or in cakes. 
 Colza (coleseed) is raised for the same purposes. To- 
 bacco would be generally cultivated in France, were 
 it not monopolized for the benefit of the State ; hence 
 its cultivation is confined to certain licensed districts, 
 which are chieily in Alsace and Picardy. The quality 
 of the article produced under the royal monopoly is 
 greatly inferior to that produced by private cultiva- 
 tors abroad, while the price bemg 400 per cent, higher, 
 the latter Is smuggled into France in great quantities, 
 notwithstanding all attempts to prevent it. Flax is 
 raised verj- generally, not merely in French Flanders, 
 Alsace, and Normandy, but in the provinces of the 
 west and south, -vvhere the family of almost every 
 peasant rears a little stock annually to be spun by his 
 wife and daughters. Hops are almost exclusively 
 grown in those parts of France bordering on Belgium. 
 Hemp also is raised in many parts of France, particu- 
 larly in the north. Maize is a plant of great import- 
 ance, whether for the food of man or of cattle ; when 
 intended to stand for harvest, it is planted in rows with 
 very little seed, and yields more than twice the quan- 
 tity of wheat thjt would be produced on the same 
 space. During its growth the leaves are stripped reg- 
 
 ularly for the food of cattle ; and in some districts it is 
 sown thick and mown merely for that purpose. Maize 
 and millet are chiefly grown in the south and south-east. 
 Such valuable substitutes have, as yet, prevented tur- 
 nips from being generally introduced into France. Even 
 potatoes were long very little known, and it is only 
 during the last half century that the dislike to this 
 tuber has disappeared. Potatoes are more cultivated 
 in the east than in an}' other district. Chestnuts are 
 most common in the central part of France, where they 
 supply no inconsiderable portion of the food of the 
 peasantry'. In the south the fruits are chiefly olives, 
 almonds, mulberries, figs, and prunes ; oranges are 
 partially cultivated in the south-eastern extremity of 
 the kingdom, on the verge of Italy, but with great un- 
 certainty, for a severe -vrinter is fatal to these trees, 
 and in some measure also to the olives. 
 
 Irrigation is little understood in the north of France, 
 but in the south the want of frequent rain renders it 
 a primary object of attention ; it in fact determines 
 the ratio of productiveness, since the warmth of the 
 sun seldom fails to ripen whatever has received an ad- 
 equate supply of moisture. According to M. Becque- 
 rel, there has been a progressive annual increase in 
 the number of hectolitres produced since 1813. There 
 has been a very decided progress in agricultural im- 
 provement in every part of France, but notably in the 
 west and south-west. The increase in productiveness in 
 all manner of grains is estimated at 2,141,217 hectolitres. 
 
 Tlie culture of the vine extends more or less over 
 fully the half of France, beginning as far north as 
 Champagne, and spreading over the country' to the 
 south and the west. This culture is, however, very 
 limited in Champagne, and even in Burgundy ; in 
 Provence, and the lower part of Languedoc, the cli- 
 mate is warmer, and the culture general, though not 
 managed with such skill as along the banks of the 
 Garonne, where the spirit of improvement is excited 
 by a demand for foreign markets. As vines succeed 
 in light and unproductive soils, their culture gives a 
 value to much ground which would otherwise be use- 
 less ; and the petty subdivisions of land are here less 
 injurious than in the case of com. From the great 
 variety of soil and climate, the quality of French 
 wines is very various. The amount produced has 
 been considerably increased since 1790, as well from 
 the division of many large estates, as from the quan- 
 tity of waste land which has been brought into culture. 
 It is, however, remarked by M. Moreau de Jounts 
 {Siatistique de VAgriculiure de Frajice, 1848) that the 
 consumption of wine in France has remained stationary 
 since 1791, and that the quantity consumed by each 
 individual is not more than it was half a century ago. 
 Considering the increase of wealth and population, 
 M. Jounfes calculates that the consumption should 
 have increased 50 per cent. It is computed that nearly 
 5,000,000 acres of land are planted with vines, and 
 that the value of the annual produce is from £28,000,- 
 000 to £30,000,000, of which about a tenth or twelfth 
 part only is exported. It is verj' difficult to say to 
 what extent the vine disease and the excision of vme 
 branches in consequence thereof, has affected the pro- 
 duction of -vrine either in quantity or quality. It has 
 unquestionably had the eff'ect of raising the price of 
 the finer wines from 25 to 35 per cent., and of raising 
 the price of brandy, during the last two years, nearly 
 300 per cent. 
 
 Quantity of Wine pkodijced in France ditrino the 
 
 FOLLOWING seven YeaES, IN IMPERIAL GALLONS. 
 
 Imp. Galli. 
 
 1848 1,186,687,344 
 
 1849 782,214,686 
 
 1850 988,786.166 
 
 1851 867,848,088 
 
 Imp. GsIIe. 
 
 1852 626,798,222 
 
 1863 498,567,774 
 
 1854. 287,377,118 
 
 Average annual produce before the oidium ap- 
 peared, 924,000,000 gallons, worth £22,516,220 ster- 
 ling. 
 
FRA 
 
 101' 
 
 FRA 
 
 WINS. 
 
 Imp. Galls. 
 
 1851 60,149,078 
 
 1852 68,991,190 
 
 1853 44,180,438 
 
 1854 28,808,912 
 
 Imp. Oalls, 
 
 1852 285,978 
 
 1863 280,802 
 
 1884. 1,888,458 
 
 NiTMBBB OF ImpEHIAL GALLONS OP WlNE DISTILLED DUOl- 
 IMO THE FOLLOWING SEVEN YeARB INTO Sl'IEIT OF "WlNE 
 
 AND Brandy, the Proportions being about two 
 TUIRD8 Spirit of Wine and one third Brandy. 
 
 WINE. BPIEIT. 
 
 Imp. Galls. Imp. Galls. 
 
 1848 151,800,000 19,800,000 
 
 1849 206,800,000 24,200,000 
 
 1850. 178,200,000 28,100,000 
 
 1861 215,600,000 28,600,000 
 
 1862 211,200,000 27,500,000 
 
 1858 110,000,000 18,420,000 
 
 1864 92,400,000 11,990,000 
 
 The exports of wine and brandy from France for 
 the following four years, are as follows : 
 
 BRANDY. 
 Imp. Galls. 
 
 1851 
 
 1852 7,488,448 
 
 1858 6,898,794 
 
 1854 8,412,442 
 
 It is u curious fact that the effect of the oidlum or 
 vine disease has for the last few years caused an im- 
 portation of foreign wine into France for home con- 
 sumption. The following is an account of the 
 imports of foreign wine and spirits into France for 
 the years 1852-4 : 
 
 WINS. 
 
 Imp. Galls. 
 
 1652 76,494 
 
 1858 98,494 
 
 1854 2,670,680 
 
 It will be observed, that the import immensely in- 
 creased during the last J'ear, owing to the large quan- 
 tities used for the supply of the French array in the 
 Crimea. 
 
 Of the spirits in tlie above table, 802,019 gallons 
 were rum imported from England. 
 
 A quantity equal to about a sixth of the wine is 
 made into brandy, for brandy is distilled wherever 
 vines are grown ; and of it also the best in quality is 
 in the vicinity of, the Garonne. This important and 
 staple branch of French industry has been very se- 
 riously injured by the prohibitory system of custom- 
 house laws, which were extended and increased in rigor 
 during the reigns of Louis XVIII. and Charles X., 
 and were not much mitigated during the 18 years' 
 reign of Louis Philippe. Many of the leading states- 
 men of France still evince a most mistalcen partialitj' 
 to tlie prohibitive system. France, by excluding the 
 produce of other nations, virtually deprives, or greatlj- 
 limits, by the same laws, the reception of her own 
 produce into foreign countries. It is clear that they 
 must pay for the wines of France with their own 
 produce, which, if France refuse to receive, they have 
 no other equivalent to give her in return ; they must 
 procure an equivalent from foreign countries, and the 
 "eiFect of this is to restrict the trade, by raising the 
 price of French wines. Accordingly, it appears that 
 while France exported to England from 16,000 to 20,- 
 000 tuns of wine when the population was only 5,000,- 
 000, this supply had fallen off, partly owing to the 
 heavy duties imposed in Great Britain, and partly to 
 the prohibitory duties imposed in France on British 
 produce, to 1,800 tuns, while the population of the 
 country had in the mean time greatly increased ; a 
 melancholy illustration of the effects of that illiberal 
 policy which pretends to improve commerce by prohiti- 
 iting the free intercourse of commercial countries. 
 
 France is the largest producer of beet sugar in the 
 world. The origin of the manufacture must be traced 
 from the year 1807, but 40 years elapsed before (he 
 manufacturer of this article was enabled to cope suc- 
 cessfully with colonial sugars. From France the 
 culture spread through the different countries of Eu- 
 rope, even into the interior of Kussia ; and it is calcu- 
 lated that there is now produced of this kind of sugar 
 on the Continent of Europe not less than 360,000,000 
 pounds, nearly one half of which is manufactured in 
 France. In the vicinity of Lille, the average yield of 
 the sugar is 16 tons per acre, and at Valenciennes, 19 
 tons ; in some localities 25 tons are produced. The 
 
 annual manufacture of sugar is about 40,000 tons, and 
 the non-crystallized matter extracted from the lees and 
 dregs, furnishes enormous quantities of sweetening 
 matter to breweries, and also to the wine-doctors and 
 wine-falsifiers of Cette and the Gironde. Nor is this 
 the only use to which beet is turned, as a large quan- 
 tity of spirit is distilled from it. 
 
 The minuteness of the Cadastral survey has led to 
 official calculations in France of products which have 
 not yet engaged the attention of other governments. 
 Madder is cultivated on a small scale, partly in the 
 north, partlj' in the south of France ; its chief use is 
 in dyeing woolens and cottons. Woad is used for j'el- 
 low and green colors ; saffron, cultivated formerly to 
 a great extent, is now confined to one district (the 
 Gatinois) in the south of France ; hops are raised only 
 in Picardy and French Flanders. 
 
 Subjoined are the values of the following articles 
 produced annually in France : 
 
 Wine £28i000,000 
 
 Eaw silk 600,000 
 
 Homp 1,200,000 
 
 Flax 800,000 
 
 Madder 200,000 
 
 Wood for faol, and timber of all kinds. . . 6,600,000 
 
 OlivQ-oll, rape-seed, and cole-seed 2,800,000 
 
 Tobacco 800,000 
 
 Chestnuts 800,000 
 
 Totals, 1854 £84,800,000 
 
 Of the pasturage ground of France, occupying one 
 eighth of its territorj^, the chief part is in Normandy, 
 Brittany, and other humid quarters of the north and 
 west. In the south, the natural pasture is confined to 
 particular districts, chiefly mountainous ; in the low 
 grounds, the grass, whether natural or sown, is brought 
 forward onlj'' by means of irrigation. Clover and sain- 
 foin are cultivated in France, but chiefly in the north 
 and north-east ; lucerne is much more general, being 
 raised not merely in the north, but in the central and 
 southern provinces, wherever irrigation is practicable 
 and the soil and climate are favorable. The art of 
 improving cattle by breeding is little understood in 
 France, nor is there much judgment shown in gradu- 
 ally fattening them by a removal to richer pastures. 
 Still the beef and mutton of the north and west are 
 very good, more especially what is called the prfes 
 salU mutton, i. e., sheep fed on the salt marshes. 
 Their price varies from province to province, but very 
 seldom from year to year ; the general rate was 30 
 per cent, less than in England, but within the last 
 four or five years the price of meat has risen much in 
 France, and closely approximates to the price in En- 
 gland. Butter is made and used throughout the chief 
 part of France, as in England, but cheese compara- 
 tively little. In the south, however, even butter is 
 little Icnown, and its place in cooking is supplied by 
 olive-oil, which is largely used throughout southern 
 Europe. One of the latest novelties in French pas- 
 turage is the introduction, in 1819, of a large flock of 
 Cashmere goats, which were sent to browse in the 
 eastern Pyrenees, and are said to experience but 
 little inconvenience from the change of climate. 
 
 Horses. — In the number of horses, as well as in 
 their size and beauty, France is greatly inferior to 
 this country. In the performance of labor, however, 
 the inferiority is much less conspicuous ; large, old- 
 fashioned carriages, drawn by four or six horses, are 
 seen proceeding along a paved road much more easily 
 than we should anticipate from the weight of the 
 vehicle, the knotted harness, and the diminutive size 
 of the animals. The same observation is applicable 
 to the plows, the carts, and the wagons of France, 
 which are awkwardly built, but all dragged on with 
 expedition, the strength of the horses surpassing the 
 promise of their appearance. A French diligence, in 
 the provinces in which such carriages still run, per- 
 forms only five miles an hour ; but this is owing less 
 to inferiority in the horses tlian to the state of the 
 
FRA 
 
 708 
 
 FEA 
 
 roads, and to the general want of dispatch at post- 
 houses. Of the aggregate of horses in France, more 
 than half belong to the northern provinces — Nor- 
 mandy, Brittanj', Picardj-, Alsace, and the Isle of 
 France. In the central and southern departments a 
 great proportion of the work is done by oxen, which are 
 more suitable to petty farms and mountainous districts. 
 
 Sheep, — Sheep are reared in almost ever)^ province 
 of France, the gentle elevations of the north and the 
 mountains of the south being alilce favorable to them. 
 The mutton is good ; but in the art of improving the 
 fleece, the French have as yet much to learn. Me- 
 rinoes were first brought from Spain in 1787, and 
 formed into a royal flock at Eambouillet. The con- 
 sumption of meat in the country then was small, and 
 consequently the first desire was to improve the wool. 
 The quality, originally good, has been progressively 
 improved, and distributions of Merinoes have been suc- 
 cessively made to proprietors of sheep pastures in all 
 parts of the Itingdom. The consequence has been, 
 that in many districts the weight of the fleece has been 
 nearly doubled. The sheep-farming of France ap- 
 pears just now to be in a transition state; its past 
 history ofifers many points of instructive deduction, 
 while from its future we may expect verj'' beneficial 
 results. These imported sheep were used for crossing 
 with the native breeds, to which but little attention 
 had been paid either as regarded the carcass or the 
 fleece. As time advanced, these crossed breeds in- 
 creased with varied success ; in some districts the 
 wool produce was permanently improved by continu- 
 ing to introduce pure blood ; in others it was found 
 more advantageous to develop the physical organiza- 
 tion of tlie animal. The result has been that, npt- 
 withstanding the laudable endeavors of the floclc-mas- 
 ters to obtain a breed associating both weight and 
 quality of wool with the production of meat, that end 
 has not been satisfactorily obtained ; the flocks still 
 remain in an intermediate condition, neither producing 
 the fine quality of wool of the Saxon, nor the weighty 
 fleece or carcass of the English sheep. To encourage 
 the rearing of sheep, a duty of 20 per cent, was in 
 1822 laid on foreign wool. 
 
 Mules. — Mules are almost as little l?nown in the 
 north of France as in England ; but in the central and 
 southern parts the}^ are verj' generally reared. Poul- 
 try, in France, are both larger in size and more 
 abundant than in England, more especially in Nor- 
 mandy and the department of La Sarthe. 
 Yaltje of Productions of the Soil at different Epochs- 
 
 Yeftrs. Inhabitants. Franps. Francs per head. 
 
 1700 19,700,000 
 
 1760 21,000,000 
 
 1788 24,000,000 
 
 1813 30,000,000 
 
 1840 85,640,000 
 
 1,600,000,000 
 1,626,000,000 
 2,081 ,233,000 
 8,886,971,000 
 6.022,169,000 
 
 77 
 
 73 
 
 85 
 
 118 
 
 180 
 
 with the domestic animals, 7,602,905,000 and 224. 
 Even in the north and north-east of France, the 
 farms are of small extent. To occupy 200 acres, or to 
 pay a rent of £200 a year, places one in the foremost 
 rank of farmers. Larger possessions are common in 
 pasture districts, that department of agriculture ad- 
 mitting, in France, as in England, of a greater con- 
 centration of capital and extension of business than in 
 the case of tillage. But such districts are rare ; and 
 in by far the greater part of France the farms under 
 tiUage are of fifty, forty, thirty, and often as small as 
 twenty, or even ten acres, there being, it is computed, 
 no fewer than three millions of such occupancies in the 
 kingdom. In the south of France the system of metairie 
 (paying rent in kind) is still prevalent, and nearlj' on 
 the same footing as in Lombardy and Tuscanj'. That 
 such insignificant occupancies are adverse to all en- 
 larged ideas of farming, is sufficiently obvious ; and 
 to their many disadvantages there can only be opposed 
 this single benefit, that no spot of tolerable soil is 
 neglected, even the space given by us to hedges being 
 reserved for culture. 
 
 "The beneficial efifect of long leases is as little- under- 
 stood in France as it still unfortunately is in a great 
 pait of England. The common method is to let land 
 for periods of three, six, or nine years. The peasantr)', 
 though illiterate, are not slow or phlegmatic. They 
 exhibit, as Frenchmen in general do, no small share 
 of intelligence, of sprightliness, and of activity in the 
 individual, with very little concert or combination in 
 the mass. They are content to hand down the family 
 occupancy from father to son, without any idea of 
 altering their mode of life. The dwellings of the farm- 
 ers, and still more of the cottagers, are like those of 
 our forefathers half a century ago ; the outside having 
 frequently' a pool of water in its vicinity, while the in- 
 side is miserably bare of furniture. In the compara- 
 tive trials that were made at the French Exhibition of 
 1855, the superior character of the English agricul- 
 tural implements over those of France was made very- 
 evident — in none, perhaps, more, than in the plowing 
 trials, when the dynometer showed that while it re- 
 quired onlj' a force equal to 17-01 to turn over a cer- 
 tain quantity of earth in a certain time with the best 
 English plow, it required a force of more than 27 to 
 do the same with the best French one. The diet of 
 the French peasantry is exceedingly simple. Bread 
 and cider, with soup, peas, cabbage, or other vegeta- 
 bles, form its chief ingredients in the northern prov- 
 inces ; while in the central and southern ones the same 
 aliments are in use, with the substitution of thin wine 
 {vin du pays) for cider, and of chestnuts for the pears 
 and apples of the north. Butcher-meat is reserved 
 for the tables of the middle and upper classes. 
 
 The landholders in France give little or no attention 
 to beautifying the country ; its aspect is consequently 
 monotonous, without plantations, seats, or cheerful 
 cottages. The peasantry live in villages, frequently 
 ill built and inconveniently situate^. The purchase 
 of land, however, is the favorite mode of investing 
 money in France. It sells, in general, for twenty-five 
 years* purchase ; while the public funds seldom fetch 
 above sixteen or eighteen. There is at Paris a society 
 similar to the Board of Agriculture in England, and, 
 forming, like it, a central point for corresponding with 
 the different agricultural societies in the kingdom. It 
 holds its sittings twice a month, and a public meeting 
 annually for the distribution of prizes. The French 
 have also (since 1819) a corn law, permitting imports 
 and exports only when the home market shall be above 
 or below a specific rate. The chief difiiculty the 
 French government have to contend with in regard to 
 the corn trade, is the popular prejudice that freedom 
 of export raises the home price. 
 
 Timier. — Of the 18,350,093 acres which are covered 
 ■with wood, in 183C, there belonged to government 
 2,547,800 acres, which were divided into 1473 for- 
 ests. A verj- small part of this is allowed to grow 
 into large timber. The rest is subject to an annual 
 cutting and sale, for fuel ; coal being verj' little used 
 in France, except for forges, glass-houses, and other 
 large works. In the government forests gross mis- 
 management took place during the disorders of the 
 first Revolution. Extensive tracts were sold for an in- 
 significant consideration, while in those that remained 
 timber was felled with a lavish hand, and without any 
 regard to the ultimate effect on these valuable proper- 
 ties. In 1801, however, a special board, appointed for 
 the care of the forests, introduced the most beneficial 
 regulations. In the years of financial pressure (1815, 
 1816, and 1817), it was proposed to effect sales of these 
 great domains; but a fair price being unattainable, 
 government continues to keep them. During the 
 monarch}' the revenue derived from the wood annually 
 cut and sold amounted to £700,000 or £800,000 ster- 
 ling. 
 
 The administration of the forests is (1855) placed un- 
 der the direction of the minister of finance. The 
 French territorj', comprising Algeria, is divided mto 30 
 
FRA 
 
 709 
 
 FEA 
 
 arrondissements forestiers, at the head of which ia 
 placed a conservateur who corresponds with the admin- 
 istration, and who has under his orders a number of 
 inspectors and sub.inspectors. Under these are the 
 ^gardes gkiiraux. Every one employed in the forests 
 must be twenty-five years of age, but this provision 
 may be dispensed with if the employe be a pupil of the 
 Ecole Forestiire. There are (1855) 32 conservateura, 
 200 inspecteurs, 100 sous inspecleurs, and 500 gardes 
 genhaux of forests in France. 
 
 Fuel being comparatively little wanted in the south 
 of France, the forests are confined to remote and rug- 
 ged situations. These, like most of the forests of the 
 kingdom, harbor a multitude of wolves, which are fre- 
 quently destructive to the sheep and lambs. Regular 
 officers, called lieutenants de huvetrie, are appointed 
 for wooded districts ; and on occasions of heavy loss, 
 recourse is had to a general battue, which seldom re- 
 sults in any sensible reduction of the number of 
 wolves. Bears also are found in the forests ; but they 
 are much more rare, being confined to the elevated 
 districts in the Alps and Pyrenees. 
 
 Mines and Quarries. — France yields in this essential 
 article of produce, not only to Britain, but to Ger- 
 many, to Russia, to Sweden, and to Hungary. Ac- 
 cording to the most approved works recentlj' pub- 
 lished, the mines of France may be classed into five 
 groups, namely, the mines of the Vosges and the 
 Black Forest ; those of the central provinces of 
 France ; those of Brittany ; those of the Pyrenees ; 
 and those of the Alps. It is not many years since the 
 mines of the Vosges yielded above 30,000 ewt. of lead, 
 and a small quantity of silver, besides copper mixed 
 with silver. The produce did not, it is probable, re- 
 pay the expense, as they have since been abandoned. 
 There are now a very few copper mines in the Vosges. 
 In the central part of France there are numerous 
 mines of lead, but they are not productive. They are 
 chiefly situated in the department of La Lozere ; and 
 they yield annually, along with the lead, 1600 marcs 
 of silver. The only metallic mines of any conse- 
 quence in Brittany now are the three great mines of 
 galere argeniij%re of PouUaouen and Huelgoet ; and 
 there is one mine of what is called in the divisional 
 nomenclature of the minister of commerce and public 
 works, plomh argenilf'ere. In the chain of the Pj're- 
 nees there is only one mine of copper, which has long 
 since been abandoned. There are, however, numerous 
 iron mines, which furnish materials for more than 100 
 forges. The chain of the Alps contains many mines 
 of iron, but is not rich in other metals ; it possesses 
 some unproductive mines of lead, and one of silver, 
 which has long been abandoned. There are some ap- 
 pearances of gold in the department of the Isfere, but 
 not such as to encourage any trial of their value. If 
 there are few other mines, those of iron are in great 
 abundance, being thirty-eight in number, scattered 
 throughout the country, and of these the produce is 
 every day improving. The whole value of the metallic 
 produce of France was estimated in 1828 to be equal 
 to .£3,199,595. The number of mines was estimated 
 in October, 1854, at 824, viz., 448 of coal, 177 of iron, 
 199 of other substances ; and the number of workmen 
 thej' employed in 1851, at 33,634. {Travaux Statis- 
 tiqves des Mines de 1847 a 1852. Imprim&rie Impe- 
 riale, Octobre, 1854.) The working of mines is im- 
 peded in France \)y the want of good roads and canals 
 by which to convey the ore and the coal for smelt- 
 ing it. The production of iron has been encour- 
 aged by the heavy duties on foreign iron. In 1814 a 
 duty was imposed of fifteen francs per fifty kilo- 
 grammes, or 12s. 6d. per 110 lbs. imperial, on all foreign 
 iron imported, which was, in 1822, including the decime 
 or the tenth added to all duties, raised to £1 2s. lid. on 
 all coal-worked foreign iron. Bat this prohibition did 
 not bring prosperity to the trade, though by these duties 
 the price of iron in France was £23 9s. 2d. per ton, 
 
 while English iron was sold at £9 6s. 8d. It is esti- 
 mated that these heavy duties on foreign iron cost the 
 agriculturists of France, in the additional expense of 
 plows and other implements of agriculture, a sum 
 varying from £1,500,000 to £2,000,000 a year. (See 
 First Report on the Commercial Relations between France 
 and Great Britain, p. 28.) Estimating the annual con- 
 sumption of iron in France to be 160,000 tons, and the 
 difference of price between French and English iron to 
 be £10 per ton, the law of 1814, which imposed a duty 
 on foreign iron, and the law of 1822 which increased 
 that duty, can not have cost the French people less 
 than £30,000,000 sterling of direct loss ; while it is 
 scarcely possible to calculate the indirect evil of this 
 monopoly or protecting duty in favor of the iron-mas- 
 ters. One reason of the high price of French iron is 
 the want of coal, an evil which is aggravated by the 
 heavy duty on foreign coal in consequence of which 
 the French are compelled to employ wood in their 
 forges ; and it is calculated that one fourth part of the 
 wood cut down in the forests is consumed in the man- 
 ufacture of iron. Coal has been discovered in more 
 than half the departmentSN)f the kingdom (in forty- 
 five departments), and would doubtless be traced in 
 others ; but the want of water communication limits 
 the consumption of this article almost to the place 
 where it is produced. In a report to the present Emp- 
 eror of the French In 1854, hy the minister of commerce 
 and public works, that functionarj- attributes the 
 high price of native coal in France not to the method 
 of wbrking the mines, or to the insufiiciency of the 
 machinerj', but to the want of better intercommunica- 
 tion both by land and water. (ResumS des Travaux Sta- 
 tistiques des Mines de 1847 jusqu'a 1852.) It is a fact that 
 more than half the departments that consume the coal 
 of the Loire pay for it a price four, five, and six times 
 higher than it costs at the mouth of the pit. ' (^Rapport 
 addresse a I'Empereur pair le Ministre ou department de 
 V Agriculture et du Commerce, 1854.) One fifth part of 
 the coal consumed in France is used in the department 
 Du Nord. At St. Etienne, near Lyons, are excellent 
 coal mines ; but there being no iron mines in the vicin- 
 ity, nor of course iron-works, there is no consumption 
 of fuel on a large scale. The coal is only used for 
 domestic fuel, and for the manufacture of hardware. 
 M. Costaz, in an estimate contained in his work on 
 the agriculture and commerce of France, makes the 
 coal produced in France to amount to 15,310,687 metri- 
 cal quintals ; the value of which he estimated at be- 
 tween £700,000 and £800,000. The quantity of coal 
 imported from Great Britain amounted in 1831 to 
 40,000 tons, though subject to a heavy duty of one 
 franc sixty-seven centimes per hundred kilogrammes, 
 or Is. 4^d. per 220 lbs. imperial ; and there were im- 
 ported from Belgium, the duty being thirty-three cen- 
 times per hundred kilogrammes, 440,000 tons. The 
 importation of coal in 1853 rose to 2,824,555 tons, of 
 iron (fonte hrute), to 73,689 tons. In December, 1853, 
 the importation of iron went on increasing. The 
 heavy duty on coal operates most injuriously on the 
 industry of France. It is a most serious impediment 
 to the working of the iron mines, for the encourage- 
 ment of which such heavy duties are imposed on for- 
 eign iron. But such is always the effect of the pro- 
 hibitory system. It pulls down with one hand what it 
 builds up with another. The iron-masters and the 
 coal-owners have each a monopoly of the home mar- 
 ket. But is it not clear that these two monopolies run 
 counter to each other, and that the iron trade is en- 
 couraged by the one, while it is most seriously dis- 
 couraged by the other, and the whole inhabitants of 
 France are taxed in a much higher price for fuel by the 
 heavy duty laid on the importation of this useful arti- 
 cle ? " Steamboat navigation is also discouraged, so that 
 no steamboats ply regularly between any of the Atlantic 
 ports of France. A steamboat which in England could 
 be navigable at an expense of £2280 for coal, would 
 
FRA 
 
 110 
 
 FRA 
 
 cost in France £6700, about 18 per cent, on the capital 
 employed. It is the owners of forest property who 
 are the most zealous supporters of this duty, an im- 
 post which benefits them at the expense of the whole 
 of France, and indirectly depresses the national com- 
 merce and industry in its most important branches. 
 For many years only a small portion of Paris was 
 lighted with gas, which is ascribed to the high price of 
 iron pipes ; and the supply of water is also impeded by 
 the same cause. (An imperial decree of the 22d No- 
 vember, 1863, materially reduces the customs duties 
 on the importation of coal and iron. Coal paid with 
 the decime 65 centimes per 100 kilogrammes upon the 
 greater part of the French frontier from the Sables d' 
 Olonne to Dunkirk ; upon the remaining portion of 
 the frontier it paid 33 centimes, by the land frontier, 
 except in certain places, by the Meuse, and in the de- 
 partment of the Moselle. Henceforth the great zone 
 from the Sables d' Olonne, and from that by land to 
 Helluin, is to have but one duty — amounting to 83 
 francs for French, and to 88 francs for foreign vessels. 
 The rest of the maritime 'frontier is assimilated to the 
 principal part of the land frontier. A double duty to 
 that levied on coal was charged on coke. Henceforth 
 coke is only to paj' a half beyond what is levied on 
 coal. As to iron, from the 1st of January, 1855, there 
 is no distinction between iron smelted by coal or wood. 
 The fonte brute is to pay 4 francs 40 centimes the 
 larger bars, 11 francs the smaller bars, and steel 33 
 francs. Eails for railroads are to pay 132 francs. 
 The greatest reduction is on steel.) The mines,' like 
 other large undertakings in France, are under the di- 
 rection of government, being superintended by a board 
 at Paris (Conseil General), and having an £cole Im- 
 periale with public teachers, the whole under the con- 
 trol of the minister of the home department." This, 
 however, does not prevent their machinery being in 
 general very clumsy and antiquated. 
 
 Turf fit for fuel, or peat, is found in various parts of 
 France, and will be more used as wood becomes pro- 
 gressively scarcer. This article is produced in the 
 departments of Gard, Isere, the Lower Rhine, the 
 Somme, Pas de Calais, Loire-Inferieure, Tlsere, Seine- 
 et-Oise, Oise, Aisne, Doubs, Marne. The cutting and 
 preparation of turf is computed to occupy the labor of 
 from 50,00^ to 55,000 workmen on an average of 40 
 days. The greatest turf-producing department in 
 Fran is La Somme. 
 
 Salt is made in various parts of the kingdom. The 
 works corresponding to the salt mines, or rather to the 
 brine springs of Cheshire, are called, from their position, 
 Salines de VEst, and are situated in the small town of 
 Salins in Franche Comte ; they are wrought by under- 
 takers on lease, yield about 20,000 tons a year, and 
 afford a considerable revenue to government. The 
 heat of the climate on the south and south-west coast 
 of France is favorable to the evaporation of salt water, 
 and consequently to the formation of bay salt, the 
 name given to salt made, not by the action of fire, but 
 by the heat of the sun, operating on sea water inclosed 
 in a shallow bay. The duty raised from salt in France 
 is nearly £2,000,000, a sum of great importance to the 
 treasury, but attended with fully as much injurj'- to 
 the productive powers of France as was formerly our 
 salt tax to those of England. Since 1818 the droits on 
 salt have been reduced two thirds. The first Revolu- 
 tion began by abolishing entirely the odious galelle ; 
 and salt being soon afterward made in great quanti- 
 ties, and sold very cheap, became the object of a most 
 extensive consumption, being given to cattle as food, 
 mixed with manure on the fields, or scattered as a 
 stimulant to vegetation at the foot of olive-trees. But 
 this extended use of salt was of short duration. No 
 sooner was the power of Bonaparte consolidated, than 
 he ventured to impose a tax on salt, less impolitic and 
 oppressive indeed than the gahelle, but which had the 
 effect of limiting the use of this article to such a degree. 
 
 that the value of bay salt consumed, instead of 
 amoitnting to £1,000,000, did not in 183G exceed 
 £100,000. It was thought that a considerable increase 
 in the consumption of salt would take place from the 
 year 1849. There has no doubt been a certain increase, 
 but it has in no degree corresponded with the diminu- 
 tion of the duty. 
 
 In 1847 the quantity of salt produced was 350,210,300 
 kilogrammes; in 1848, 465,435,700; in 1849, 479,- 
 438,400; in 1850, 495,183,900; in 1851, 599,175,200; 
 but in 1852 the quantity produced fell to 428,037,600 
 kilogrammes. The price of the metrical quintal of 
 salt in 3847 was 3 francs 47 cen. In 1851 it fell to 1 
 franc 66 cen. The amount of salt produced from all 
 the salt mines and saline sources in France in 1852 
 was 724,002 metrical quintals, valued at 2,865,556 
 francs. The consumption is confined to domestic 
 purposes, and to a trifling export ; yet the few cattle 
 which still receive salt as a part of their food are vis- 
 ibly in better condition than those that are deprived 
 of it. 
 
 France is in general much better supplied with 
 quarries than England. The vicinity of Paris abounds 
 in quarries of freestone. The case is similar in the 
 mountainous districts, and even in several, such as 
 Lower Normandy, that are comparatively level. The 
 houses are consequently built of stone in those cities 
 which, like Paris or Caen, are in the vicinity of quar- 
 ries. 
 
 Fine variegated marbles are quarried at Campan, in 
 the Upper Pyrenees. It appears from official docu- 
 ments published by the government that in the year 
 1846 there were 22,000 quarries in course of working, 
 which employed 75,396 workmen. The value of the 
 material sent into the market was 41,047,519 francs. 
 In 1849, 8C,379 persons were employed in quarrj'ing ; 
 and in 1850, 87,486. 
 
 Manufactures. — Our historical notices of French 
 manufactures are very imperfect until toward the year 
 1600, when the wars of religion were brought to a 
 close, and peaceful industry received encouragement 
 from Henri IV. and his minister Sully ; a minister, 
 however, who had a horror of luxury of all kinds, and 
 who was much more favorably disposed to agriculture 
 than to manufactures. It was under the " red vaiU 
 lant," however, that the patronage of government was 
 extended to the manufacture of silk, glass, jewelry, 
 gold and silver tissues ; also of the finer woolens and 
 linens, the coarser kinds having been established many 
 centuries before. But the great extension of the finer 
 manufactures of France toolc place after 1668, during 
 the reign of Louis XI'V., and the ministry of Colbert. 
 It was then that workmen were invited from Genoa, 
 "Venice, and Holland, and induced to settle at Sedan 
 and Abbeville, places still celebrated for their woolens. 
 In the south of France also establishments were 
 formed for making the light cloth suited to the Turkey 
 market ; so that toward the year 1700 the manufac- 
 tures of France, as well of woolens as of other articles, 
 had made considerable progress. Cloth serges were 
 improved under Colbert, and point de Genes and paint 
 de Venise introduced. In 1656, stocking-weaving, 
 which had been introduced into France from England 
 by two manufacturers of Nimes, was extended and 
 improved. The manual labor of the French workmen 
 was ingenious, the machinery extremely imperfect. 
 The linen, the paper, and in some measure the wool- 
 ens and hardware, found their way abroad, because in 
 the rest of Europe these manufactures were very 
 backward, and, in particular, because the exports of 
 England were then very limited. The repeal of the 
 Edict of Nantes was a very impolitic measure, but its 
 consequences have been overrated, for England has 
 profited very little by the extension of her silk fabrics; 
 and Brandenburg, the chief resort of the French emi- 
 grants, has never become an exporting manufacturing 
 country. Another and a more important error is the 
 
FRA 
 
 711 
 
 FRA 
 
 current notion that French manufactures were for- 
 merly (from 1650 to 1750) more extensive and flour- 
 ishing than at present, also that they underwent an 
 almost total extinction during the Revolution. These, 
 like many other impressions in regard to France, rest 
 on mere loose allegations. Official data, far from 
 sanctioning such fluctuations, are decidedly in favor of 
 a progressive though slow increase. 
 
 Woolens. — To begin with the oldest and most widely 
 diffused branch, woolens, we find that the relative 
 numbers of workmen at three distinct intervals, and in 
 very different parts of the countrj-, were as follows, 
 viz. : 
 
 
 1139. 
 
 1800. 
 
 1812. 
 
 1840. 
 
 
 
 8,000 
 4,500 
 
 8*500 
 
 9,000 
 6,200 
 
 io,66o 
 
 7,000 
 5,000 
 4,600 
 
 Limoux, Chalabre, etc 
 
 4,400 
 
 
 
 
 St Afrique, Avcyron, etc 
 
 6,T00 
 
 2,000 
 80,000 
 25,000 
 
 0,500 
 11,600 
 
 Eoubaix, Nord alternately 
 
 Elbceuf " 
 
 Louviers " 
 
 Sedan, Ardonnos " 
 
 In wo 
 
 (1 
 
 )] and 
 
 cotton, 
 
 Lisieu, also, in the north, had nearly the same num- 
 ber of workmen (5000) throughout. The finest quali- 
 ties of black woolens are made at Sedan, in Ardennes, 
 and at Louviers, in Normandy. In these the only 
 material is merino wool. At Elbceuf and Daiiietal, 
 and in Normandy, the qualities are very various, the 
 price being from 6s. to 28s. the English yard. Car- 
 cassone and Limoux owed the origin of their extensive 
 manufactures to the abundant supply of wool from the 
 pastures in the Pyrenees. Since the reduction of their 
 exports to the Levant, an alteration in the quality of 
 their cloths has opened to them a market in the inte- 
 rior of France. The mountainous districts in Langue- 
 doc contain great numbers of sheep, and are the seat 
 of the manufacture of serges, tricots, and other coarse 
 woolens, most of which are made, not by workmen 
 collected in a factory, but in the hamlets or villages of 
 the departments of the Tarn and Avej^ron. Almost 
 every house has its loom ; and during the evenings in 
 winter, or in the daytime when the weather is adverse 
 to country labor, the women emploj' themselves in 
 spinning, and the men in weaving. A highly finished 
 species of the woolen manufacture, viz., shawls, vails, 
 ladies' cloth, etc., has been introduced in the present 
 age into France. Rheims is tlie seat of this important 
 branch, and employs in the town and neighborhood no 
 less than 20,000 workmen. Similar articles are made 
 at Paris. The bounties granted on Jiis ef tissus de 
 laine in 1852 amounted to 7,500,000 francs. 
 
 Shawls. — Shawls became fashionable in France as an 
 indispensable article of female apparel after the expe- 
 dition of Bonaparte to Egypt. The first lady in France 
 who wore one (in 1801) was Madame Gaudin, the 
 beautiful Duchess of Gaeta, a Greek by birth, whose 
 husband was then a high functionary. Many of the 
 officers who were attached to the army brought bade 
 presents of shawls, and they were imported in great 
 quantities from Constantinople, Moscow, Vienna, and 
 London. These shawls, however, brought an enor- 
 mous price when imported into France, which neces- 
 sarily limited their consumption to the richer classes. 
 The great demand turned the attention of manufactur- 
 ers to this important article ; attempts were made to 
 imitate the Cashmeres, and specimens were exhibited 
 'at the JSsrposition of 1801. Ordinarj- shawls are now 
 made of merino and other wools. But this was only a 
 step in the progress of the manufacture ; and a finer 
 species of wool having been imported from the coun- 
 tries to the north of the Caspian Sea, the ingenious 
 manufacturers with these materials at last produced 
 shawls which rivaled in beauty those of the East, and 
 in which it required the most practiced and skillful 
 eye to discern any difference. In 1819 M. Jaubert 
 proceeded on the part of the shawl manufacturer, Ter- 
 
 naux, to the countries between the Black Sea and the 
 Caspian to buy a numerous flock of Astracan goats, 
 for the purpose of using the wool for shawl-making. 
 The speculation was a complete failure; and the 
 French government, which was interested in it, lost 
 300,000 francs. 
 
 Two towns very remote from each other, Lodfeve in 
 the south and Vire in the north-west of France, manu- 
 factured, under Bonaparte, very largely for the army. 
 French woolens are, in general, much thiclcer than 
 ours. In the fine qualities the raw material forms 
 (Chaptal, vol. ii., p. 131) somewhat more than half 
 the cost. . In ordinaiy qualities it is somewhat less ; 
 but it is only in the slight qualities that the price of 
 labor goes considerably beyond that of the materials. 
 The computation for the whole country is, that a value 
 of £4,000,000 sterling in wool becomes converted into 
 a manufactured value of £9,000,000, of which a tenth 
 only is exported. The cloth in France which corre- 
 sponds to our superfine, and which is worn in general 
 by the upper ranks, is very fine and durable, but 
 heavy, with the exception of the superfine black. 
 The price of the cloths produced at Sedan varies ac- 
 cording to'a graduated scale, from 15 to 60 francs the 
 yard, and of kerseymeres from 7 to 24 francs. The 
 duty on foreign wool.^as been very injurious to the 
 French woolen manufacturers ; because, by compel- 
 ling the French to pay a high price for the raw mate- 
 rial, it prevented them manufacturing woolen cloth as 
 cheaply as their English competitors, to whom the 
 foreign market, where the raw mateiial had now fallen 
 to a low price, was open. 
 
 "Wool and "Woolens Imported into France. 
 Kiloffrftmnies. Francs. 
 
 1820... 4,912,000 Consumption in value 8,851,000 
 1830... 7,214,000 " " 12,872,000 
 
 1835... 14,845,000 " " 34,219,000 
 
 1840... 18,456,000 " " 29,987,000 
 
 Belgium, Spain, Germany, Turkey, Barbaiy, Al- 
 giers, and England send wool to France. The export- 
 ation of woolen goods in 1839 reached 60,600,000 
 francs. In 1838 the exportation was 2,578,487 liilo- 
 grammes, valued at 65,823,346 francs. The wool pro- 
 duced in France amounts to 20,350,000 kilogrammes of 
 fine wool ; 20,000,000 of common ; total, 44,350,000— 
 about half that of England. 
 
 The wool imported from England in 1853 was 21,537 
 quintals, in value 9,481,836 francs, and the cloth 
 231,419 kilogrammes, valued at 5,795,332 francs. The 
 worsted or thread was 19,630 kilogrammes, valued at 
 385,844 francs. The importation of the Thibet fur or 
 hair was in value in 1839 3,576,480 francs, but has 
 since declined to 2,058,920 francs. This material is 
 spun in Paris, employing 500 or 600 persons. The 
 wool of France is of an inferior quality. Its an- 
 nual value averages about 120,000,000 francs, being 
 60,000,000 kilogrammes. There are 5,500,000 sheep of 
 a superior breed, Saxons, Merinoes, and those imported 
 from England; and 24,000,000 of indigenous race. 
 Since 1829 the French sheep have increased nine per 
 cent. The manufacture of merinoes and bombazines 
 employs 17,000 hands : 6000 are employed at Amiens 
 in the manufacture of alfepines, and about 36,000 pieces 
 are made there, about a third of which are exported. 
 The bonneterie in wool employs 15,000 workmen, 
 800,000 kilogrammes of colored wool, worth 8,000,000 
 francs, and returns 17,500,000 francs in manufactured 
 goods. Coverlets are made at Rheims, Rouen, Beau- 
 vais, Lille, Lyon, Orl6ans, and at Sommiferes (Gard). 
 This fabric is valued at 20,000,000 francs, and employs 
 10,000 hands, besides auxiliary assistance to the ex- 
 tent of 25,000 more. 
 
 Carpets. — Carpets are made to the annual value of 
 3,500,000 francs, tlie larger part at Aubusson and Fel- 
 letin, two towns in the department of the Creuse, em- 
 ploying 1800 hands, and producing goods to the value 
 of 1,500,000. Carpets are also made at Abbeville, at 
 Amiens, Tureoing, and Besan9on. The finest and 
 
FRA 
 
 712 
 
 FRA 
 
 richest velveted carpets, called " de Savonnerie," are 
 made at Beauvais, and at the Gobelins in Paris. 
 These are only made to order, and are not articles of 
 traiBc. The exports of woolen goods reach on an 
 average the sum of 65,600,000 or 66,000,000 francs, con- 
 suming 2,578,487 kilogrammes of wool. They consist 
 of coverlets, carpets, cloth, cassimeres, and merinoes, 
 varied stuffs, shawls woven or made by hand, bon- 
 neterie, ribbon of worsted, and similar light goods, and 
 stuffs of mingled materials. Machinery has been used 
 for spinning wool in place of the hand only since 1809. 
 Rheims is the great centre of French wool-spinning, it 
 being situated in that part of the country where sheep 
 are most numerous. There are at Rheims 275 estab- 
 lishments for spinning carded wool, and nearly 55,000 
 spindles, or 60 establishments for combed wool. The 
 number of workmen is 50,000. France annually ex- 
 ports woolen yam to the value of 2,000,000 francs and 
 upward. Neapolitan flannels, English flannels or 
 "bolivars," circassiens, lastings, cloths, cassimeres, 
 merinoes, mousseline-de-laine, cuir-de-laine, made at 
 Cartres first in 1819, and poplins, are noted manufac- 
 tures. 
 
 Cotton. — The cotton manufacture was introduced 
 into Amiens in 1773, the raw material being supplied, 
 not from America, but from the J^evant, with machines 
 procured from England. In 1784 a privilege was con- 
 ferred on an inhabitant of Seine and Oise for a manu- 
 factory' ; and soon afterward the manufacture passed to 
 Rouen, St. Quentin, Paris, Lille, and other parts in 
 the north, extending with a rapidity surpassed only b}' 
 that of England. At present, as for many years past, 
 the great import of cotton is from the United States. 
 In this great department of manufacture the French 
 have only followed in the footsteps of Great Britain, 
 whose machinery, after the lapse of a certain time, the 
 French manufacturers have imitated ; and though they 
 have equaled the British manufacture in durability, 
 they have generally' been inferior in cheapness. This 
 is, in a great measure, owing to the centre of the 
 manufacture being at Rouen and Paris, places where 
 the support of workmen, including the extra price of 
 fuel, is not less expensive than in Lancashire. The dis- 
 tricts most remarkable for the cotton manufacture are 
 Alsace and Normandy. The manufacture of cotton 
 velvet was begun at Amiens so early as 1765 ; and in 
 1784 M. Martin of Amiens obtained, under the title of 
 " the first importer from England of machines invented 
 there for spinning cotton," the authority to establish 
 a cotton factory, with special privileges. Nimes is 
 celebrated for its fine but not very durable cotton 
 stockings. There are also manufactories of bonneterie 
 de cotton at Besan9on, Vitry, Bar le Due, etc. 
 
 The cotton manufacture is prosecuted in many 
 parts of France, and presents a great variety of fab- 
 rics and an extensive division of labor. In one place 
 the weaving alone is followed ; in other places the 
 manufacture of threads, which are 'sold to those who 
 weave them into cloth. Such is the case in the de- 
 partment Du Nord, which exports a great quantity of 
 thread to the cloth manufacturers. In other places 
 they bleach the linens, which are afterward dressed' 
 and stamped. The workmen employed in the cotton 
 manufacture were estimated 20 years ago at 260,000, 
 and they now amount to 335,000. Still, however, 
 France is decidedly inferior to Great Britain in almost 
 every branch of the cotton manufacture ; and the con- 
 sequence is, that as the importation of English cotton 
 goods is prohibited, they are smuggled into the coun- 
 try in great quantities. Among these, the introduc- 
 tion of cotton twist is most extensive; and as the 
 French mills can not manufacture the higher num- 
 bers, from 170 to 200, which are required in the fabri- 
 cation of bobbinet, it has been found impossible to 
 repress the contraband importation of this article. 
 " It makes its way," say the writers of the Report on 
 the Commercial Relations between Great Britain and 
 
 France, " both by land and sea, in spite of all inter- 
 dictions, and to a continually increasing amount." 
 The English can be sold also at half the price of the 
 French article, which presents an additional induce- 
 ment to the smuggler. The annual value of the manu- 
 factures thus illicitly introduced was estimated in 
 1833 at j£600,000 sterling ; but smuggling has been re- 
 duced more than a fourth since that time. It is diffi- 
 cult to estimate the amount introduced, but very 
 experienced persons in the trade doubt if it much ex- 
 ceeds £250,000. English bobbinet was also smuggled 
 20 years ago into France to the estimated annual value 
 of £625,000 sterling ; but it is questionable whether 
 the amount of illicit traffic now amounts to £300,000, 
 though English bobbinet sells at from seven to eight 
 per cent, above the price of French goods of the same 
 nominal quality. Quiltings, cambrics, and muslins 
 are also largel}' introduced by the illicit traders ; and 
 the delivery of these goods is insured at a premium of 
 from 18 to 50 per cent., according as the risk is greater 
 or less in the case of heavy or of light goods. In 
 1852, 1,760,000 francs were paid in bounties on Jils et 
 tissus de c'oton. The average wages of men employed 
 in the cotton trade is 2 francs SO per centimes per day ; 
 of women 1 franc 20 centimes ; children are paid 60 
 centimes. The value of the cotton fabrics of Nor- 
 mandy is 105,000,000 francs, that of Alsace 80,000,000 
 francs. In the last district 70,000 hands are employed 
 in weaving ; from 12,000 to 15,000 in printing ; and 
 1000 in the bleaching grounds. In Normandy and 
 vicinity, including a part of the Somme, Pas de Calais, 
 Aisne, Euro, and Manche, 129,000 hands are em- 
 ploj'ed, namely, 60,000 weavers for the Rouennerie, 
 20,000 for the calicoes, and 49,000 in other divisions 
 of the labor. Alsace produces principally cotton 
 cloths for printing, and exports a part into Switzer- 
 land. The number of pieces of printed cotton and 
 muslins made is calculated at 1,100,000, valued at 40,- 
 000,000 francs. They are of three kinds and prices, 
 but are unable to cope in cheapness 'with the English. 
 Tulles, at first made only in Normandy, are now manu- 
 factured wherever cotton fabrics are made; to the 
 extent of 32,725,000 francs, of which 20,000,000 francs 
 is the cost of the embroidery. The most important of 
 this branch of the manufacture is carried on at and 
 near Calais, where from 600 to 700 looms, and 4800 
 men, women, and children, are in constant employ- 
 ment. The manufactures of muslins are most in 
 arrears of all, owing to the fineness of the thread re- 
 quired, which is not yet made in France, but imported 
 for the purpose. Tarare is the seat of this manufac- 
 ture, valued at 20,000,000 francs. These muslins are 
 generally embroidered. Blonds and lace are made at 
 Caen, Bayeux, and above all, at Chantilly (Oise) 
 where 70,000 persons are employed. Cotton bonnete- 
 rie is made at Troyes to the value of 7,000,000 francs, 
 employing 10,000 looms, and from 10,000 to 12,000 
 hands. 
 
 In 1803 the import of cotton wool had reached 10,- 
 711,666 kilogrammes, and in 1820 had doubled that 
 amount. The cost of the raw material in France, and 
 its manufacture, are enhanced by the expense of fuel 
 and carriage. The profits, deducting all outlay and 
 wear and tear of machinerj', and making allowance for 
 every expense, are considered to be about 30,000,000 
 francs. It appears, that prior to the legal permission to 
 import cotton thread free, when above No. 143, not less 
 than 5,000,000 kilogrammes were smuggled, when the 
 duty was from 70 to 80 francs the kilogramme. This 
 traffic has not yet ceased. The spinners number from 
 80,000 to 90,000, and the mean wages of adults and 
 children are 1 franc 50 centimes per head, who attend 
 to 3,500,000 spindles. No. 132 of the French thread 
 corresponds to 120 of the English, because of the dif- 
 ference between the English pound weight and the 
 French demi-kilogramme. In the year 1806 the ut- 
 most degree of fineness attained in cotton thread was 
 
FRA 
 
 713 
 
 FRA 
 
 No. 110. In the year 1809 it had reached No. 150. 
 In general the French thread remains much below the 
 English, but it continually improves. No. 180, which 
 in France sells at 39 francs or 40 francs, costs in En- 
 gland only 18 francs. In the Seine Inforieure, at 
 Rouen, and vicinity, there are about 1,000,000 of spin- 
 dles at work. In the arrondissement of Lisle 600,000 
 are worked by 82 steam-engines, of 860 horse-power 
 in all. St. Quentin works 210,000 spindles with 200 
 horse-power of steam, besides water-power. The spin- 
 ning in Alsace employs 18,000 persons of all ages. 
 The dyeing of cotton occupies 87 establishments at 
 Eouen and its vicinity alone. The principal part of the 
 weaving takes place in Normandy, Alsace, Amiens, 
 St. Quentin, and Troyes. The looms are above 
 270,000, and employ 386,000 handsj the mean of whose 
 wages is 75 centimes per day. IMany of the looms 
 there are worked by hand. The principal products 
 are calicoes for printing. 
 
 In the departments of the Seine Inffeieure, Somme, 
 Pas de Calais, Aisne, Euro, and La Manche, the spin- 
 ners, weavers, dyers, muslin fabricators, machinists, 
 cardmakers, amount to 107,000. The individuals con- 
 nected with the manufacture in other ways, the whole 
 comprising 160,000 families, carry the total number 
 concerned up to 400,000. Of the workmen immedi- 
 ately designated, the number is 107,000, employed 
 thus: — 
 
 Spinners 21,000 
 
 Machinists 6,000 
 
 Loom weavers 65,000 
 
 Dybrs 6,000 
 
 Muslin fabrlcants 9,000 
 
 Cardmakovs and others 2,000 
 
 Total 107,000 
 
 In Alsace, including the Haut and Bas Bhin, the 
 Vosges, the Meurthe, Haute Saoue, and Doubs, above 
 100,000 persons are employed : 
 
 Spinners 17,000—13,000 
 
 Loom weavers 70,000 
 
 Printers 12,000—16,000 
 
 Bleachers 1,000 
 
 Total 104,000 
 
 The principal places for the manufacture of yam in 
 Alsace are Mulhausen, Wesseiling, St. Mary aux 
 Mines, and Guebwiller. In the other parts of France 
 the principal are St. Quentin, Eouen, Caen, Amiens, 
 Bar le Due, Lille, Roubaix, Turcoing, Lyons, Paris, 
 Darnetal, Bolbec, Troyes, Gisors, etc. The yarn 
 made in the Seine Inforieure exceeds the whole made 
 in Alsace. In the departments of the Somme, Pas de 
 Calais, Aisne, Euro, and Manche, there are 60,000 
 weavers of Eouennerie,iO,000 of calico, and 49,000 in 
 the other branches of the manufacture. 
 
 Linens. — In the extent of her linen manufacture, 
 France is greatly superior to England ; not that her 
 soil is better adapted to the growth of hemp and flax, 
 but because England depends on importations of linen 
 from Ireland and Germany, and the spinning of flax 
 does not form the occupation of our female peasantry. 
 In France, particularly in the north, every farmer, 
 and almost every cottager, covers a little spot with 
 hemp or flax to employ his wife and daughters in spin- 
 ning throughout the year ; a stock of linen being the 
 usual dowry of these humble occupants of the soil. 
 The manufacture of this article is not exclusively con- 
 centrated in the towns, like that of the other fabrics : 
 many of the weavers reside in villages and hamlets ; 
 and the hemp and the flax are spun by the hand. 
 This is a most valuable branch of domestic industry, 
 which gives employment to females under the roof of 
 their parents ; but it is destined, in the progress of 
 capital and industry', to bo superseded by machinerj' 
 and great establishments. In Normandy, Lisieux, 
 Dieppe, the neighborhood of Havre, Yvetot, Bolbec, 
 and the more inlaid towns of Vimoirtiers and Dom- 
 front, are all remarkable for one or more branches of 
 
 the linen manufacture. The more backward province 
 of Brittany manufactures, at Eennes, St. Male, and 
 VitrO, quantities of coarse linen, canvas, and sacking ; 
 but Anjou affords a much superior article ; the toiles 
 de Laval have long been in repute, and gave employ- 
 ment, in Laval and the contiguous towns, to nearly 
 25,000 workmen. Lille and its populous district have 
 very extensive manufactures of hemp and flax; for 
 the number of workmen so employed, directlj' or indi- 
 rectly, in this part of French Flanders, is not short of 
 50,000. Since 1790, fine linen has, in France as in 
 England, been in a great measure replaced by fine 
 cotton ; and the two together employ, at St. Quentin 
 (in Picardy) and the neighborhood, more than 30,000 
 workmen. In another part of the kingdom, tlie prov- 
 ince of Dauphin<S, there are carried on linen manufac- 
 tures of various qualities, the prices being from 1 
 franc 10 centimes to 5 francs the yard. The value of 
 the linen manufacture of I'rance of everi' kind is no 
 less than 525,000,000 francs. The raw material grown 
 in France is valued at 30,941,840 francs for the hemp, 
 and 19,000,000 francs for the flax. The hemp im- 
 ported, and the thread together, give 35,699,003 francs 
 value. About 1,000,000 francs is the worth of the flax 
 imported. Total, 20,000,000 francs. The manufac- 
 ture gives : 
 
 Francs. 
 
 For the hemp 107,097,009 
 
 " flax 75,000,000 
 
 Atotalof 182,097,009 
 
 The manufactures of hemp and linen employ 600,- 
 000 workmen. The exports of linen, principally to 
 England, were, in 1840, nearly 6,167,731 kilogrammes. 
 The manufacture has doubled since the first Revolu- 
 tion. Lille, Dunkirk, Essonne, Pont Eemy, Bellais, 
 Vernon, and Alen<;on, are noted places for their linen 
 manufacture. Normandy sends to Paris annually 
 20,000 pieces of linen. The linens of Brittany are 
 raostlj"" consumed at home. The fine linen cloths 
 called toiles de mulquinerie are principally made in the 
 departments of tlie Aisne and Nord. St. Quentin was 
 once noted for them ; now that town, Cambray, Va- 
 lenciennes, and Solesmes, produce cloths so fine, called 
 batiste and litwn^ that 70,000 pieces are exported to 
 England. The loeautiful batist embroider}' employs 
 13,000 persons at Nancy. Coutils, a cotton cloth 
 crossed with thread of linen, are woven in the depart- 
 ment of Mayenne, where 4500 looms are employedv 
 upon this article. French linen differs in quality ac- 
 cording to the place of manufacture ; but in general 
 it is thicker and stifi^er than Irish linen, while in white- 
 ness it is inferior to the linen of Flanders and Holland. 
 It is, however, a substantial and durable article. 
 Cambrics, thread, gauze, and lawn, rank among the 
 leading manufactures of the north-east part of France. 
 They are made at St. Quentin, Valenciennes, Cam- 
 bray, and to a smaller extent at Douai, Chauney, and 
 Guise. Lace is still more general, being made in 
 quantities at Valenciennes, Dieppe, Alen9on, Caen, 
 Bayeux, and Argentau. Machinery had, up to 1820, 
 been verj' little applied to this manufacture in France, 
 and the number of women employed in it was very 
 great. There are considerable manufactures of printed 
 linens ; and the dyeing of linen thread gives rise to 
 an extensive commerce. At Rouen, and in the sur- 
 rounding districts, this branch of industry is carried 
 on ; and many stuffs of great variety, and for which 
 there is a brisk demand, are produced. In 1822 the 
 duties on foreign thread and linen were raised by the 
 French government till they were nearly prohibitory ; 
 and the annual importation from Germany and Bel- 
 gium, which formerly amounted to a million and a 
 half, almost entirely ceased. The price of home-made 
 linen rose 26 and 30 per cent. ; the consumers had 
 recourse to cotton as a substitute ; the French dyeing 
 trade fell off, and also the entrepot trade in foreign 
 linens, both of them sources of great business. 
 
FEA 
 
 "714 
 
 FRA 
 
 The value of tlie hemp annually grown in France 
 maybe computed at £1,200,000, the quantity imported 
 at £200,000; together £1,400,000; a value which is 
 doubled in the coarse manufactures, and tripled in the 
 finer. Of this quantity of hemp, the half is made 
 into canvas and thread, a third into cordage, and the 
 remainder into cloth for domestic use. Of the flax 
 annually employed, the value is about £800,000; a 
 sum which is tripled when it is made up into thread, 
 linen, and mixed stuffs, and much more than tripled 
 in the finer qualities. 
 
 Iron. — France had in 1855 about 569 furnaces, of 
 which more than 300 are said to be blast-furnaces. It 
 is, however, almost impossible to ascertain the exact 
 number of blast-furnaces, the position of which is reg- 
 ulated by that of the iron mines. They are chiefly in 
 the mountainous departments of the Dordogne in the 
 south-west, and of the Haute Marne, the Haute Sa- 
 one, and the Cote de'Or, in the east of the kingdom. 
 Of forges for malleable iron, called forges a la Cata- 
 lane, there are eighty-six scattered throughout different 
 departments, but chiefly in the hilly part of Langue- 
 doc. There are also a number of wire-works in 
 France, in which, as in the blast-furnaces, there has 
 been since 1790 a progressive but very slow increase, 
 altogether diff'erent from the rapid advance of the 
 iron-works of England previously to 1815. 
 
 The stationarj' character of these works has evi- 
 dently been owing to the deficiency of fuel and of wa- 
 ter communication ; disadvantages which^ prevent the 
 hardware manufactures from being concentrated in 
 cities or populous districts, and cause them to be 
 spread over the country in petty towns or villages, 
 with a very limited division of labor, and a consequent 
 inferiority of execution. The result is, that France 
 does not export hardware, and that in nothing is 
 the inferiority of domestic accommodation in that coun- 
 try more conspicuous than in articles which be- 
 long to the province of the locksmith and cutler. The 
 amount of pig-iron annually made in France appears 
 to be about 100,000 tons. The value of the hardware 
 of the kingdom, including cutlery, arms, and other 
 articles of nice workmanship, is computed at £8,000,- 
 000 or £9,000,000 sterling. Fine cutlery in former 
 times was largely smuggled into France, but now to a 
 much smaller extent. The annual import of iron and 
 steel is only from £2,000,000 to £3,000,000. The high 
 price of iron is a great obstruction to the progress of 
 the hardware manufactures ; and this circumstance 
 places in a strong light the impolicy of the heavy du- 
 ties on foreign iron, liy which, notwithstanding the 
 change in the scale of duty in 1838, all those import- 
 ant branches of industry in which iron is used are 
 stunted in their growth. In copper, the importations 
 greatly exceed the home produce. From Great Brit- 
 ain the quantity' imported for the last ten years has 
 increased from 200 to 20,000 hundred weight. Of 
 lead, also, the chief part is imported. The manufac- 
 ture of steel has only been lately introduced into 
 France. Prior to 1786 there was no manufactory of 
 this useful article ; and it was only after accounts had 
 been published by scientific persons of the composition 
 of that article, and after repeated experiments, that in 
 1809 manufactories of steel were established, which 
 have been since extended to several departments, es- 
 pecially to those of the Loire. 
 
 Silk. — As regards silk, France possesses, both from 
 physical causes and from the long-established manu- 
 facture, a decided superiority. Mulberry-trees were 
 introduced in the fifteenth century, and were first 
 planted, not in the south, but in the central part of the 
 kingdom, near Tours. That town was the seat of the 
 earliest silk manufactures, and it was not till 1600 that 
 the culture of the mulberry was carried southward. 
 
 The mulberry thrives in a variety of soils, and may 
 be planted with success in neglected borders or in 
 waste lands. 
 
 The manufacture of silk is considered as an import- 
 ant branch of French industry, not only on account of 
 the variety and beauty of the fabrics, but because the 
 raw material ia an Indigenous product of the country. 
 It was estimated* 20 years ago that the amount of the 
 annual sales to foreigners was 80,000,000 fr. ; that 
 the home consumption of the kingdom amounts to 
 £3,333,384; and that the whole annual value of the 
 silk manufacture was equal to £4,598,889. The manu- 
 facture of silk is not confined to any pai'ticular spot. 
 It is carried on in diff'erent parts of the countrj-, in all 
 of which it diff'uses prosperity. It has enriched the 
 poor of Nimes, of Avignon, and of Tours. St. Cham- 
 ond and St. Etienne owe a great part of their prosper- 
 ity to the manufacture of ribbons, and the town of 
 Ganges to bonneterie. Paris derives immense profits 
 from her manufacture of silk stockings, and other 
 fabrics, either of silk with a mixture of silk, or of 
 wool and cotton. Silk is also the great staple manu- 
 facture of Lj'ons, in which it is carried on in all its 
 branches withi astonishing success ; and since the Revo- 
 lution, in addition to fabrics of silk, all sorts of stuff's 
 mixed with silk, and with cotton and wool, have been 
 manufactured ; and to these manufactures Lyons is in- 
 debted for its riches, having risen not only to be the 
 second town in France, but one of the most oppulent 
 and flourishing cities in the world. It was 20 years 
 ago estimated that about 60,000 or 70,000 individuals, 
 young and old, were supported by the silk manufacture 
 in Lyons and the adjacent district ; but the number has 
 increased 25 per cent, since 1835. The dyeing of silk 
 being an important branch of the manufacture, many 
 experiments were made to bring it to perfection ; and, 
 in particular, a dye of perfect black that would retain 
 its color was a desideratum. This dye was invented by 
 a common dyer at Lyons, who received a pension, be- 
 side being made a member of the Legion of Honor. 
 Prior to this, the black dye which was used changed 
 in a few days to a brown, and came off the stuff" when 
 it was hard pressed by the hand. Another improve- 
 ment which was made consisted in producing a silk of 
 a permanent white color. The eggs of the worm which 
 produced this silk were brought from China, not how- 
 ever with the desired success. The worm was after- 
 ward purchased from a merchant of Alais, and dis- 
 tributed in the northern department of the country ; 
 and the produce of white silk is now very considerable, 
 and of gre'at importance in the manufacture of gauzes, 
 crapes, and tulles. Other inventions were devised 
 for saving labor n the various stages of the silk manu- 
 facture, by which, in this branch of industry, France 
 was long enabled to outstrip all her neighbors, though 
 of late 3'ears the silk manufacture has made immense 
 advances in Great Britain. 
 
 There were in 1820 no less than 9,631,624 mulberry 
 trees in France for the nourishment of the sUk-worm. 
 These supplied food for cocoons producing in 1819, ac- 
 cording to Chaptal, 5,147,609 kilogrammes of cocoons. 
 In 1835, the product had increased 9,000,000, yielding 
 278,000 kilogrammes of silk grige, and 161,000 kUo- 
 grammes organzine. At present (1855) the quantity 
 of silk furnished amounts to 1,600,000 kilogrammes ; 
 which, at 55 fr. per kilogramme, the average price, 
 gives a sum of 88,000,000 fr. as the value of the amount 
 produced. In 1810 the amount was only 4,073,198 
 kilogrammes of cocoons, at 3 fr. 45 cen. per kilo- 
 gramme. In 1830 it had risen to 9,007,967, at 3 fr. 
 82 cen. ; while the wound silk (griges filees), which 
 in 1810 only reached 850,629 kilogrammes, at 45 fr. 12 
 cen., in 1835 had increased to 876,016 kilogrammes, at 
 58 fr. 64 cen. per kilogramme. But the homo growth 
 not being enough to meet the demand, importations 
 took place to the extent of 1,154,956 kilogrammes, val- 
 ued at 53,731,538 fr., and they still increase. Italy, 
 
 •See Costaz, Sur V Agriculture et lea ,Marm/a<:turea de 
 France. 
 
PEA 
 
 715 
 
 FRA 
 
 Switzerland, Turkey, and Greece, supply the larger 
 part. A small quantity is obtained from Austria and 
 Sardinia. The exportation of silks, plain and flowered, 
 from 1787 to 1789, on a mean of 10 years, was 37| mil- 
 lions of francs in value. In 1829 it was 111,000,000, and 
 in 1836 206^ millions of francs, consisting of 2,720,914 
 kilogrammes, tinder 22 different denominations of 
 goods. The United States, England, Germany, then 
 Belgium, and, lastly, Spain, are the principal outlets 
 for the silks of France ; but South America, Russia, 
 and Switzerland, are also considerable purchasers. 
 France exports silks to a large amount in the way of 
 transit. Lyons, Avignon, Tours, and Nimes, are the 
 principal seats of the manufacture of silk stuffs ; and 
 St. Etienne, St. Chamond, and Paris, for that of rib- 
 bons. In the arrondissement of Lyons and Ville 
 Franche, there are 31,083 looms. The manufacture 
 of ribbons at St. Etienne employs 20,000 workmen and 
 30,000 looms, producing 27,473,000 fr. value annually. 
 The fabrication is divided into the manufactures unis 
 &-aA farmnh. Under the first head are those with the 
 prefix gros ; as, gros de Naples ; those called pou de sole, 
 fontard, crepes, which last are subdivided ; then satins 
 and the like. The ribbons are, in like manner, distin- 
 guished by different appellations, after the nature of 
 the fabric. St. Etienne emploj'S in all 279,000 spin- 
 dles (broches') ; of which 165,000 work organzines and 
 trames, and 114,000 work the silk intended for crapes 
 and gauze ribbons. The number of looms has been 
 estimated in all at 65,000 for weaving silks, and 80,000 
 for ribbons. 
 
 The raw silk or silk-wool consumed in France in 
 1840 was valued at 53,731,536 fr. ; while the value of 
 the silks in transit reached 40,134,301 fr. Plain and 
 flowered silk consumed at home, = 5,299,490 fr. ; that 
 which passed in transit = 37,204,483 fr. ; being a total 
 of 136,369,810 fr. A decree of the 18th August, 1852, 
 permits the free exportations of silk. 
 
 The silk-wool of French production exported in 1840 
 was valued at 3,738,103 fr. ; the foreign grown silk- 
 wool exported at 47,491,154 fr. The value of the ex- 
 port and import together was thus 380,256,696 fr. 
 The following arc the most important districts of the 
 mulbeny, with the growth respectively, and the co- 
 coons produced in 1840 : 
 
 DUtrlcts. 
 
 Hectares, 
 
 Cocoons. 
 
 
 14,941 
 6,212 
 5,603 
 8,986 
 2,592 
 2,0T8 
 1,546 
 1,295 
 836 
 787 
 
 S9,TT0 
 
 Klloerrnrnmea. 
 
 2,696,000 
 
 2,685,852 
 
 1,766,121 
 
 660,600 
 
 1,248,972 
 
 589,607 
 
 649,780 
 
 471,560 
 
 74,716 
 
 491,750 
 
 11,058,368 
 
 Drome 
 
 
 
 
 Is6i'o 
 
 
 Eh6ne 
 
 
 Var. 
 
 Total 
 
 
 About 500,000. kilogrammes of cocoons are produced 
 in the other departments. The importation of English 
 woven silk into France in 1853 was 52,703 kilogrammes, 
 in value 5,464,699 fr. 
 
 Articles of leather are in France much cheaper than 
 in England. 
 
 Jewelry, Porcelain, etc. — Jewelry is made in Paris to 
 the value of 60,000,000 fr. Lj'ons, Marseilles, Bor- 
 deaux, Clermont, and Strasbourg are also famous for 
 jewelrj'. Watch and clock-making are carried on to 
 a great extent in I'rance, particularlj- in Paris. A 
 time-piece is there » much more frequent article of 
 ornamental furniture than in England ; and the number 
 of clocks and watches made annually in the kingdom 
 is not less in value than 30,000,000 fr., employing 
 10,000 hands. The works in bronze are chiefly manu- 
 factured in the capital, and reach, in their different 
 branches and stages, of which gilding is the chief, a 
 further annual value of 37,000,000 fr. 
 
 Paris is remarkable for other fabrics of taste and 
 luxury ; in particular, the porcelain of Sfevres, near St. 
 
 Cloud, and the beautiful but very expensive tapestry 
 of the Gobelines. The materials of the latter are silk 
 and the finest woolen thread ; the subjects woven into 
 the work are taken from paintings executed on pur- 
 pose. Both the establishments have been long con- 
 ducted by government at a sacrifice, and both are now 
 on a reduced scale, the articles being far too costly for 
 ordinary fortunes. The articles more frequently pur- 
 chased are passementerie, by which is understood arti- 
 ficial flowers, fringes, gold and silver lace, with a va^ 
 riety of trifling but tasteful articles, all sufficiently 
 adapted to a city where so much more is thought of 
 display than of utility. 
 
 Soap. — The value of all the soap made in France is 
 computed at 30,000,000 fr. The main ingredient is 
 olive oil ; and Marseilles was formerly the seat of this 
 manufacture for almost all France — an advantage ow- 
 ing both to the extent of the olive-grounds in the 
 south-east of the kingdom, and the vicinity of Mar- 
 seilles to Italy, the Levant, and Spain, whence soda 
 and olive oil were imported in vast quantities. A mil- 
 lion of francs were paid for bounties on the export of 
 soap in 1852. The export of soap from France in 1838 
 was 2,911,631 kilogrammes, valued at 2,941,631 fr. 
 The disorders of the first Revolution, and the establish- 
 ment of similar manufactures in other parts of France, 
 have caused to Marseilles the loss of a third of its 
 soap works; they are still, however, very extensive. 
 Of the oil used iu France, whale oil forms a very small 
 proportion : the great supply is of vegetable oil, viz. , 
 that extracted from the rape and cole-seed of the 
 north, and the olive oil of the south. 
 
 Beer, forraerlj' little drunk in France, has become 
 of extended consumption since 1790 ; but even at 
 present, the quantity used does not exceed .£2,000,000 
 sterling, its place being supplied by cider in the north, 
 and by wine in the south. Within the last few years 
 there is ,a considerable consumption of English bottled 
 stout and porter, and a lesser, though increasing, con- 
 sumption of English ale. ' The breweries have increased, 
 and are increasing, in Paris, as well as in the northern 
 departments. . The consumption which corresponds 
 to that of English home-made spirits and rum, is in 
 brandy, of which the value annually made is between 
 £2,000,000 and £3,000,000 sterliug. The distillation 
 varies in amount with the season. The brandies of 
 Cognac, Jamac, and Angouleme, are most in esteem. 
 The best brandy is made in a district called Cham- 
 pagne, comprehending a part of Saintes Jonzac and 
 Cognac territory. In Franche-Compt6 and Alsace, a 
 brandy called Kirsch is made, but little of which is 
 exported. The H6rault, Aude, and Gard, supply the 
 largest quantity of spirit of wine. The best is called 
 that of trois-six. The amount varies from 40,000 to 
 80,000 pipes of 80 veltes, five of which form a quintal. 
 A velte is 7'61 litres = 1'675 gallon. Beer is brewed 
 in the northern and eastern departments, viz. : 
 
 Quantity. Value. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 41,419,482 
 9,429,261 
 6,447,719 
 
 Cider is made everywhere ; in largest quantity in the 
 Nord Occidental, and the best in La Mancha and Cal- 
 vados. Some is distilled for brandy. The quantity is 
 estimated at 11,000,000 hectolitres, at 7 fr. 75 cen. 
 Normandy furnishes half. The whole is worth 34,- 
 000,000 fr. There is also a considerable distillation 
 of spirit from potatoes, " which," says Chaptal (vol. ii., 
 p. 197), " has been generally approved, and has been 
 brought into competition with brandy. 
 
 Lesser Manufactures. — Of hats, the manufactures, 
 formerly concentrated at Lyons and Marseilles, are 
 now diffused throughout several towns ; and the value 
 annually made is about 24,000,000 fr. The ha^manu- 
 facture of Paris is estimated at an annual production 
 of 1,200,000, of the average value of five francs each, 
 and employing 2000 men and 2500 women. Superior 
 
 Nord Oriental 8,115,615 
 
 Nord Occidental 627,878 
 
 Midi Oriental 160,942 
 
FRA 
 
 716 
 
 FRA 
 
 qualities of silk hats are sold to the retail tradesmen at 
 from 9 fr. to 11 fr., for which- the latter obtain from 
 15 fr. to 18 fr. The hat manufacture in France em- 
 ploys 17,000 hands, and yields a value of 19,500,000 fr., 
 in 1159 workshops. The second order of hatters, who 
 finish the hats according to the different tastes re- 
 quired, elevate the value of the trade to 24,375,000 fr. 
 The manufacture of gloves— principally made at Greno- 
 ble, though called " Paris "gloves"— employs 25,000 
 persons. In 1839, the value of the gloves made in 
 France was 9,436,000 fr. ; in 1840, 5,556,000 fr. The 
 tanneries prepare 33,286,004 kilogrammes of leather, 
 valued at 82,864,706 fr., for boots, shoes saddlerj-, etc. 
 Perfumer;' is made extensively in Paris, and in the 
 south, chiefly at Montpellier, where, from the mildness 
 of the climate, aromatic plants are abundant. The 
 value of the manufacture is about 13,000,000 fr. Pa- 
 per being exempt from the heavy duties of England, is 
 sold in France upon verj- reasonable terms, while in 
 quality it is equal to our own. The value annually 
 used in printing and in writing is computed at 25,000,- 
 000 of francs ; and the paper employed in the hanging 
 of rooms is estimated at an equal value. Of glass, the 
 manufacture has been much improved and extended 
 during the present age. Whether for mirrors, for 
 windows, or for bottles, this article in France is good, 
 and of a moderate price. The number of glass- 
 houses in 1818 was 185, and is now over 220. Small 
 mirrors are manufactured much cheaper in France 
 than in England. Bohemia is, the country with which 
 the French manufacturers state they can not compete. 
 As to earthenware, it is only since 1790 that English 
 potter)' has been successf ullj- imitated in France. It is 
 now made to the value of 29,000,000 fr. ; while the 
 coarse earthenware, fabricated in almost every prov- 
 ince of the kingdom, is computed at 15,900,621 fr., em- 
 ploying 10,483 hands. French earthenware is very 
 inferior to English. Saltpetre, till lately a njonopo- 
 lized manufacture, is now unrestricted. Sulphuric 
 acid has, since the beginning of the present century, 
 been greatly lowered in price and increased in quantity. 
 
 Sugar. — The manufacture of sugar from beet-root 
 was introduced into France during the reign of Na- 
 poleon Bonaparte, when, the coasts of France being 
 blockaded by the fleets of Britain, the importation of 
 foreign articles, and among others that of sugar, was 
 rendered dangerous and difficult ; and its price was so 
 high as entirely to preclude its consumption by the 
 middle classes of society. Various articles were re- 
 sorted to as substitutes, such as honey, and juice of 
 raisins, etc., but thej' were not relished by the taste 
 of the people ; and in this case experiments were tried 
 by eminent chemists to extract from beet-root the 
 sugar which it contained. These experiments were 
 successful. There were in 1831 more than 200 es- 
 tablishments, from which were produced annually 
 7,480,000 pounds of raw sugar ; and there were in 
 1854 803, producing 62,205,600 pounds. The largest 
 sura paid by the administration of the customs has 
 been for refined sugar. It amounted in 1852 to 16,- 
 000,000 fr. 
 
 Machinery. — The manufacture of machinery' has 
 greatly increased. Steam-engines have been intro- 
 duced into France from Great Britain, where they are 
 now employed in every department of industrj-. It 
 was in the year 1779, at the village of Chaillot, near 
 Paris, that the first steam-engine was established in 
 France; but, owing to prejudices, and attachment to 
 old customs, it v/as long before these engines came 
 into very general use. Prejudice, however, gradually 
 faded away before the productive powers and manifest 
 utility of this extraordinary application of science to 
 the business of life, and there are now many establish- 
 ments (for the manufacture of these machines. The 
 scarcity of coal is a great obstruction to the extensive 
 nse of steam-engines ; and the tax on foreign coal is, 
 in this view, peculiarly impolitic, and injurious to the 
 
 general interests of the community. The tax, though 
 lately reduced by the imperial government, requires 
 still further reduction. 
 
 In 1836, of 1749 steam-engines in France, 1393 were 
 home made. In 1839 the import surpassed the export. 
 Since that year the reverse has been the case. The 
 metallic castings in France are still very inferior to 
 those of England. Paris is the principal seat of the 
 manufacture of French machinery, then Arras, Creu- 
 zot, Rouen, Mulhausen, and Nantes. Locomotive en- 
 gines are made at Bitschwiller, in the department of 
 the Haut-Ehin ; machinery for steam-vessels at In- 
 dret. The value of French industrj' has been esti- 
 mated in the mean product as follows : 
 
 , Francs. 
 
 Iron from the ore to the perfect state, 
 
 minerals, etc 1W,000,000 
 
 Copper, zinc, and lead 26,600,000 
 
 Glass, crystal, and looking-glasses 47,500,000 
 
 Tiles, bricks, lime, plaster 66,500,000 
 
 Porcelain, pottery, etc 27,500,000 
 
 Chemical manufactures, the products 22,000,000 
 
 Hemp and Flax (supposed to be no less 
 
 than 625 millions of francs) 360,000,000 
 
 Cotton 500,1100,000 
 
 Wool 400,000,000 
 
 Silk 280,000,ii00 
 
 ■Leather and skins 800,000,000 
 
 Sugar 45,000,000 
 
 Paper, colored and figured 25,000,000 
 
 Printed paper, books, etc 25,000,000 
 
 Machinery 10,000,000 
 
 Clocks and watches 80,000,000 
 
 Bronzes 26,000,000 
 
 " plated ware 6,000,000 
 
 " jewelry and goldsmith's work 50,000,000 
 
 Distilleries, breweries 206.00^,000 
 
 Different branches of industry : 185,000,000 
 
 Mechanic and domestic arls 250,000,000 
 
 £116,440,000=2,911,000,000 
 
 " Labor in Paris is as much dearer relatively to the 
 provincial towns of France, as labor in London is rela- 
 tively to those of England. It still remains for us to 
 remove from our capital some manufactures which 
 have been most injudiciously established there ; but 
 the French have carried this false calculation much 
 further, Paris being the centre not only of ornamental 
 fabrics, such as jewelry, bronze, sculpture, cabinet- 
 making, and the vast variety of elegant trifles com- 
 prised under the term " articles de Paris," but of a 
 number of coarser employments, which a very slight 
 change of plan might transfer to a cheaper quarter. 
 Periodical exhibitions of French manufactures are held 
 at Paris ever}' three or four j'ears, at which are pres- 
 ent the sovereign, the princes, the nobilitj', and all 
 eminent men of science. In 1855 was opened in 
 Paris an Exhibition of the Industry of all Nations, 
 similar to that which took place in London in 1851, 
 and in Dublin in 1853. The Parisian exhibition, like 
 the Dublin one, contained a branch dedicated to the 
 fine arts. This exposition continued open from May 
 till the middle of November. It was twice visited by 
 her majesty Queen Victoria between the 20th and 25th 
 August in her nine days' visit to France. There is 
 also in that capital a Conservatoire des Arts et des 
 Metiers ; a collection, on a large scale, of models of all 
 instruments or machines that relate to arts and manu- 
 factures. It is more the practice also in France than 
 in Britain to encourage ingenious inventions in the 
 mechanical arts, by premiums, orders of merit, and 
 other honorary marks of distinction. Yet, with all 
 these advantages, industry has not made the same 
 progress as in this country. 
 
 " To prescribe the mode of manufacture was formerly 
 a favorite course with government in England as in 
 France. From the time of Colbert (1660) the French 
 ordonnances prescribed peremptorily the length and 
 breadth of serges, of druggets, in short, of everj' kind 
 of cloth calculated for export, under the plausible idea 
 that all these precautions were necessary to establish 
 a reputation for quality. It is a curious fact, that 
 these rules were desired by the manufacturers them- 
 
FRA 
 
 717 
 
 FRA 
 
 selves, and were long considered as the safeguard of 
 French industrj'. A change was introduced in 1779, 
 and permission given to every manufacturer to follow 
 his own method, provided he distinguished the goods 
 thus made from those which were in conformity with 
 the regulations. But this was of verj' short duration. 
 The power of habit and prejudice prevailed. New 
 ordoniiances, issued the succeeding year, revived the 
 former limitations ; and the manufacturers of France 
 were not put on an unrestricted footing till the Revolu- 
 tion. Much inconvenience had also been sustained 
 from the absurd law which prevented a worlcman from 
 settling in business in any town excepting that in 
 which he had served an apprenticeship. This law was 
 abrogated in 1767. 
 
 " The manufacturing industry of France is confined, 
 far more than ours, to the home raarlcet, whether we 
 look to the supply of the raw material, or to the export 
 of the finished articles. Her imports are large only 
 in cotton and sillc ; in woolen and iron they are not 
 considerable ; while in flax, hemp, and leather, they 
 may be termed insignificant. In exports the limita- 
 tion is still more striking, her hardware, her linen, her 
 woolens, her cotton, her leather, and, in a great meas- 
 ure, her silk, being confined to the home market ; a 
 restriction owing partly to our manufacturing supe- 
 rioritj', but more to the capital of our merchants, their 
 ability to give long credit, and to deal with foreign 
 traders and merchants in a liberal and not in a petty 
 retail spirit. The productive industrj' of France is con- 
 sequently much less subject than ours to sudden fiuc- 
 tuation. It follows nearly the same routine year after 
 year. On the occurrence of a war, or other political 
 change, the- commerce and manufactures of our neigh- 
 bors, to borrow a phrase of Talleyrand (Letter to Mr. 
 Fox, Ist April, 1806), se replient sur euxm&mes" — E. B. 
 
 Commerce^ Colonies^ Fisheries^ Shipping, — In no 
 country in Europe has trade been laid under such 
 galling restrictions as in France ; and it is remarkable 
 that this system of restriction has in a great measure 
 been the creation of modern times. The ancient legis- 
 lation of the kingdom was rather friendly to foreign 
 trade. It encouraged importation in preference to ex- 
 portation. This latter privilege of export was in 1577 
 claimed by Henri III. as his royal and seignorial 
 right ; and he regulated by his ordonnances the export 
 duty on a variety of articles, while the produce of 
 foreign countries was admitted on paj-ment of an 
 ad valorem duty of 2 per cent. Louis XIV. intro- 
 duced a sort of navigation act, by which he levied a 
 tax of 50 sous on all foreign ships. In 1667 further 
 restrictions were introduced ; and in 1687 the exclu- 
 sive system was established in its ftdl rigor. The 
 statesmen of France seem to have imagined that a 
 flourishing commerce could be created by legal au- 
 thority, and that domestic industry could only be en- 
 couraged by the exclusion of all foreign competition ; 
 and hence all the vices and obsolete maxims of the 
 mercantile system will still be found in the commer- 
 ' cial policy of our neighbors. The extension of the 
 restrictive system was promoted by the authority of 
 Colbert, a minister who, though he introduced order 
 into the finances, and improved in many particulars 
 the system of taxation, and was indeed a great master 
 of detail, adopted the most erroneous maxims of com- 
 mercial legislation. It is justly observed, in the re- 
 port of Villiers and Bowring on the commercial rela- 
 tions between Great Britain and France, that the 
 "whole of the bounties by which he induced adven- 
 turers to enter into remote speculations, as well as the 
 excessive duties which he imposed on cheaper foreign 
 articles, were almost uncompensated sacrifices ; while, 
 on the other hand, of the manufactures which he 
 transplanted into France, and which he protected by 
 ihe exclusion of rival productions, scarcely one took 
 ponnanent root ;" and even those which he intended 
 to support by special encouragement would all of 
 
 them have been more prosperous, but for the regula- 
 tions with which his mistaken zeal retarded the prog- 
 ress of manufacturing industry. His whole system 
 was an attempt to regulate by law what would have 
 been better left to the sagacity of individuals, and to 
 give a forced and artificial direction to the national 
 capital. Thus he encouraged a trade to the West 
 Indies by granting a bounty of 25s. on every ton of 
 goods exported, and of 41s. 8d. on every ton imported. 
 He boasted of setting up 40,000 looms by virtue of 
 legal enactments, without considering that the capital 
 employed in these establishments would have taken a 
 more natural direction, and been more profitably em- 
 ployed, but for his interference. The restraints also 
 which were thus laid on domestic industry were often 
 enforced by the despotic authority of government. 
 Many of the absurd and pernicious regulations of Col- 
 bert were broken down by the first French Revolution ; 
 but others remained, and the tariff of 1791 was from 
 beginning to end a system of prohibition, the object 
 of which was to encourage the home manufacturer by 
 freeing him from all foreign competitors. It must be 
 confessed that England set the example of illiberality ; 
 and it was no wonder that the French of that day 
 should be jealous of a country which excluded her 
 silks and cambrics, and laid a discriminating duty of 
 33^ per cent, on French wines ; and whose Parliament, 
 under the reign of William III., declared the trade 
 with France to be a nuisance. The commercial treaty 
 concluded with France in 1786 by Mr. Pitt was the 
 earnest of a better system. Since this period the 
 legislature of this country have been impressed with 
 the injurious tendency of all commercial restrictions. 
 But in France the progress of improvement has been 
 slower, and it has besides been retarded \yy political 
 events. The long and sanguinary war waged between 
 Great Britain and France subjected the latter to the 
 maritime hostility of her powerful opponent, the con- 
 sequence of which was, that her trade with foreign 
 countries was interrupted, and the supplj' of many of 
 their staple articles of produce greatly diminished, and 
 raised enormously in price. It became a great object, 
 in this case, to produce these articles at home. In ad- 
 dition to the existing restraints upon the importation 
 of foreign manufactures, special encouragements were 
 given to the production of articles for which neither 
 the soil nor the climate of France was peculiarly 
 fitted. Thus when the maritime blockade of France 
 was raised by the peace of 1814, her industry, partly 
 from ancient and mistaken maxims, partly from the 
 pressure of war, received a very artificial direction, 
 and was oppressed by ruinous and complicated re- 
 strictions. At the restoration of the Bourbons in 1814, 
 the tariff of 1791 was the law of the land. It had 
 undergone a few modifications, but these were mostly 
 in the restrictive and prohibitory spirit, and were ac- 
 commodated to the hostile position which France occu- 
 pied in regard to surrounding nations. When the 
 barrier to a free intercourse with foreign nations was 
 at length thrown down by the peace of 1814, the ex- 
 clusive provisions of the tariff of 1791 were brought 
 into full operation ; and when the obstacles to the 
 commercial intercourse of France with foreign nations 
 raised up by the war were withdrawn, a no less effect- 
 ual line of circumvallation was drawn around her 
 commerce by the restrictions and prohibitions of her 
 own erroneous policy. It is remarkable, indeed, that 
 a committee of the Chamber of Deputies, in reporting 
 on the budget in 1832, enters into an exposition and 
 defense of the restrictive system, the principle of 
 which is to encourage domestic industry by the exclu- 
 sion of the cheaper and better manufactures of foreign 
 nations. 
 
 The tariff of 1791 either excluded from France, or 
 laid under heavy duties, almost all the great staple 
 manufactures of other countries. Manufactured iron 
 in every shape, manufactured steel, copper, tin, cut- 
 
FRA 
 
 718 
 
 FRA 
 
 lery, and all articles manufactured from any of the 
 metals ; all fabrics of wool, cotton, silk, or tissues of 
 hair, saddlery, spirituous liquors, grain, refined sugar, 
 tobacco, toys, and various other inconsiderable articles, 
 are included in this charta of domestic commerce. 
 The inconsistency, and the fallacies on which this sys- 
 tem is founded, are well exposed in the report of Vil- 
 liers and Bowring. The passage, thoilgh somewhat 
 long, is replete with instruction. 
 
 " It requires merely to state some of the objections to im- 
 portations in order to show their narrow and anti- commercial 
 sph'it. The introduction of manufactured tin, for example, 
 is opposed because it might benefit England, which is rich in 
 tin mines, as if the importation into France could take place 
 without equally benefiting her. The reasons, too, which are 
 grounded on the superiority of other countries ; as, for ex- 
 ample, ' dangerous rivalry' in the case of manufactured steel ; 
 ' cheapness^ of foreign articles in the case of shipping ; threat- 
 ened ' annihilation of the French manufacture' in that of cut- 
 lery ; ' extra advantages of the English' in plated ware ; ' ap- 
 prehension of the English' in articles of pottery ; ' imprudence 
 of admitting English saddlery,' as so many persons, regard- 
 less of price, prefer it ; ' advantages of machinery' in woi-ks 
 of iron ; all are modes of announcing the superiority of the 
 foreign articles, and the power which foreigners possess of 
 supplying them on cheaper terms than they can be produced 
 at home. 
 
 " There are other grounds of prohibition by which particu- 
 lar French manufactures are avowedly sacrificed to the inter- 
 est of other branches of French industry. The importation 
 of extracts of dye-woods is disallowed for the purpose of en- 
 couraging the importation of the dye-woods themselves ; the 
 interest of the dyer, the manufacturer, the consumer, being 
 wholly forgotten. The importation of iron of certain sizes is 
 prohibited, lest small manufacturers should establish fabrics, 
 and supply the markets at a less cost than the larger estab- 
 lishments. "Woolen yarn is not allowed to be imported because 
 it can be produced in France, though the high price must be 
 a great detriment to the woolen manufacture ; and cast iron 
 of a great variety of sorts is prohibited, on the ground that a 
 sufficiency may be obtained at home, though the cost is noto- 
 riously more than double that of many articles of foreign 
 cast iron. Molasses is not allowed to be introduced, because 
 the price in France is so low, and the exportation so large, on 
 the ground that importation will lower the prices still more, 
 though the lowness of price would obviously make importa- 
 tion unprofitable ; and the fact of considerable exportation is 
 the best evidence that the average prices are low in France. 
 Rock salt was prohibited in 1791, and the prohibition is now 
 justified on the ground that mines have lately been discov- 
 ered. The prohibition of refined sugar was supported on the 
 ground that its admission would not benefit the treasury ; 
 but it is clear, if the interest of the treasury were kept in 
 view, that all prohibitions would be suppressed, or super- 
 seded by a system of duties. While some articles are pro- 
 hibited because the production is small in France, and re- 
 quires protection, others are prohibited (dressed skins, for 
 example) because the production is great, and engages a large 
 number of hands." 
 
 There is another branch of the French legislation 
 regarding commerce, which is equally exceptionable 
 with the prohibition to import foreign manufactures ; 
 namely, the system of drawbacks and bounties on the 
 exportation of domestic produce. Having by special 
 encouragements created a surplus of certain articles at 
 home, and which the liigh price prevented from being 
 sold to foreigners, the public were called upon to pay 
 the difference between this high price and the price 
 abroad ; and thus they were taxed, by the exclusion 
 of the foreign article, in a higher price for what was 
 consumed at home, and also taxed for all that was 
 consumed abroad, in the bounty which was paid on 
 the exportation of the article. This is a double in- 
 iquity, which has gone on increasing in France. In 
 1817, the whole amount of what was conceded on this 
 account amounted to £3500 per annum, while in 1830 
 it amounted to £600,000, nearly one fifth of the nett 
 amount of the whole custom-house revenues of France ; 
 and as it was going on progressively, it might soon 
 have absorbed the whole custom-house income, without 
 in the least benefiting, but rather injuring, the gen- 
 eral interests of commerce. During the first nine 
 
 months of the year 1832 premiums or bounties were 
 paid to the amoimt of 24,448,375 francs, or £1,018,682. 
 The commerce of France, obstructed by these re- 
 strictive duties, has not made the same advances as her 
 agriculture and manufactures. The internal produce 
 of everj' country necessarily increases with its popu- 
 lation ; and the inhabitants of France having increased, 
 since 1780 to 1855, to full 36,000,000 (for the census of 
 1851 makes the population 35,781,628) from 24,800,000 
 must produce as well as consume more. But in the 
 mean time her commerce has not kept pace with this 
 increase in her population. The value of the imports 
 into France amounted in 1787 to 631,790,700 francs, or 
 about £25,000,000 sterling, and engaged 888,868 tons 
 of shipping ; and her whole imports only amounted in 
 1830 to £25,500,000 sterling, and employed 1,009,454 
 tons of shipping, which is far from being an increase 
 corresponding to her augmented population. Accord- 
 ing to the last accounts, the value of imports was in 
 1853 £65,240,000, of which to the value of £44,120,000 
 remained for home consumption, and engaged 4,605,000 
 tons of shipping. The whole trade of France with its 
 own colonies and foreign powers amounted for the 
 year 1853 to an official value of 3,443,000,000 of francs, 
 which was an increase of 12 per cent, on the year 1852, 
 and an increase of 32 per cent, on the average of the 
 years between 1844 and 1848. The foreign commerce 
 of England was, in the year 1787 about 7,000,000 less 
 than that of France, or about £18,000,000 sterling, 
 and employed 1,349,419 tons of shipping. Her popu- 
 lation was 9,000,000. In 1830 her foreign trade had 
 increased to £69,700,748, including £17,127,704 to the 
 colonies, which emploj^ed 2,866,615 tons of shipping. 
 Thus, while the official value of the commerce of En- 
 gland had nearly quadrupled, and her shipping nearly 
 doubled in forty-three years, not above one fiftieth part 
 was added to the foreign commerce of France ; a fact 
 which strongly illustrates the pernicious influence of 
 monopolies in damping the energies of individual en- 
 terprise, and thus obstructing the national prosperity. 
 Official Value of Importb a^d Exports, 
 
 Iinporte. 
 Yenrs. Fmncs. 
 
 1849 1,142,000,000 .. 
 
 1850 1,174,000,000 .. 
 
 1861 1,168,000,000 .. 
 
 1852 1,4-33,000,000 .. 
 
 185S 1,632,000,000 .. 
 
 Exporta, 
 Franca. 
 1,42.3,000,000 
 1,681,000,000 
 1,629,000,000 
 1,682,000,000 
 1,861,000,000 
 
 Total 6,644,000,000 .... 8,126,000,000 
 
 The intercour.se of France with its colonies and for- 
 eign States in 1853, exports and imports united, formed 
 a sum in official value equal to 3,498,000,000 francs, 
 being an augmentation of 373,000,000 francs over 
 1852. The actual value of the imports in 1853 was 
 1,217,000,000 francs against 1,006,000,000 francs in 
 1852, and of the exports the actual value was 1,572,- 
 000,000 francs against 1,278,000,000 francs in 1852. 
 The ocean imports were in actual value 1,070,000,000 
 francs, and those by land 626,000,000 francs. The 
 exports by sea were 1,633,000,000 francs actual value, 
 and those by land, 420,000,000 francs. * 
 
 Observations on Trade.— During the four years from 
 1850 to 1854 inclusive, the value of French commerce 
 has augmented 303,329 francs, and the number of sea- 
 men employed has increased 19,046. The exports to 
 Russia, owing to the war, were reduced in 1854 to 
 three onward-bound vessels. The commerce with 
 England has increased with great rapidity, having 
 nearly doubled the amount in 1850. With Sweden 
 and Norway the increase has also been considerable. 
 With Austria, on the other hand, there has been a di- 
 minution, and also with the Roman States. With 
 China there is an increasing trade, as well as with the 
 United States of America, but with Rio de la Plata 
 and Ecuador there has been a falling off. Most of the 
 other States with which l^rance carries on a commer- 
 cial intercourse, exhibited an increase which, if small, 
 augmented the general commerce so much as to show 
 
FRA 
 
 719 
 
 FRA 
 
 that the country was entering upon a more active 
 career of traffic. 
 
 The tables on the following page contain, from 
 official documents, a comprehensive view of the value 
 and extent of the commerce of France at different 
 periods. The trade between France and Switzerland 
 is carried on bj- land by Colmar, Strasbourg, St. Louis, 
 Belfort, Nantua, Seyssel, Mortean, Pontarlier, Les 
 Rousses, Montbeliard, etc. 
 
 Imports of France. 
 
 
 1861. 
 
 18S2. 
 
 18S3. 
 
 BreadstutTs 
 
 £80,000 
 1,480,000 
 4,160,000 
 8,680,000 
 1,860,000 
 
 200,000 
 
 £200,000 
 1,620,000 
 6,120,000 
 5,860,000 
 2,600,000 
 240.000 
 
 £3,840,000 
 1,680,000 
 5,820,000 
 5,200,000 
 1,720,000 
 440,000 
 
 Coal 
 
 Cotton 
 
 Raw silk 
 
 Wool 
 
 
 Total 
 
 £10,960,000 
 
 £15 040 000 £18 9,00 onol 
 
 
 
 ' ' 1 
 
 Exports op France. 
 
 
 1851. 
 
 1852. 
 
 1863. 
 
 Breadstuff's 
 
 £8,800,000 
 6,600,000 
 8,120,000 
 5,280,000 
 1,080,000 
 8i200,000 
 1,480,000 
 
 £2,860,000 
 6,000,000 
 9,040,000 
 6,120,000 
 1,200,000 
 8,400,000 
 1,480,000 
 
 £1,160,000 
 6,660,000 
 
 11,520,000 
 6,840,000 
 1,860,000 
 8,030,000 
 
 . 1,800,000 
 
 Cotton manufactures. . . 
 
 811k manufactures 
 
 Woolen manufactures. . 
 
 Linen manufactures 
 
 Gloves and hosiery. 
 
 Wines 
 
 Total 
 
 £29,560,000 
 
 £28,600,000 
 
 £31,270,000 
 
 Imports of Coal and Ikon in 1852. 
 
 
 From England. 
 
 From Eolgium. 
 
 Coals 
 
 Tons. 
 664,682 
 
 2,782 
 
 16,002 
 
 1,841 
 
 270 
 
 1,79'2,155 
 169,898 
 26,416 
 
 Coke 
 
 
 Iron, bar 
 
 Steel 
 
 
 
 
 
 Returns of the customs duties levied on the princi- 
 pal merchandise imported into France during the nine 
 months of 1855 ending on the 1st of October, give an 
 amount of £5,927,030. Compared with those of 1854, 
 they show an augmentation of £1,723,976. The re- 
 ceipts during the mouth of September were £465,688, 
 or £40,383 less than in the corresponding month of 
 last jrear. The salt-tax produced during the nine 
 months of 1855, £930,891. 
 
 The value of exports in 1853 reached £74,640,000, 
 of which £54,520,000 represented French produce, and 
 £20,520,000 was foreign produce re-exported. The 
 imports for home consumption showed an increase of 
 £4,680,000, and the exports of French produce an in- 
 crease of £5,200,000 above 1852. 
 
 The following is a brief sketch of the trade of France 
 with other countries : 
 
 The corn, the hemp, the flax, the tallow, which 
 form such important articles of export from the north 
 of Europe to England, are comparatively unnecessary 
 to France. Their timber and pitch are imported there, 
 bat the quantities required by a people where ship- 
 building is so limited, are necessarily of little conse- 
 quence. It would appear, however, that in the 
 progress of the recent war against Russia, many arti- 
 cles imported from the north of Europe have become 
 more necessary to France, and by a decree published 
 in the Moniteur on the 20th October, 1855, buUding- 
 timber, wood for cabinet-making, of a certain thick- 
 ness, rough castings, bar and sheet iron, hemp, etc., 
 may be imported for three years free from import 
 duty. Pitch, tar, and tallOw, when employed in ship- 
 building, may be imported at a duty of 10 per cent, if 
 it can be proved they have been used bonajide for the 
 purpose within a year. The further articles of im- 
 port are iron, copper, lead, salt fish, all likewise on a 
 small scale. The returns from France are no longer 
 in the sugar and coffee, which, before the loss of St. 
 Domingo, furnished an annual export to the north of 
 fully £2,000,000 sterling. They are limited to wine 
 and brandy, luxuries of which the consumption is con- 
 
 fined to a few large towns, such as Petersburg, Ham- 
 burg, Lubec, Stockholm, and Dantzic. 
 
 With Germany the exchanges of France are now 
 carried on by steam, canal, and land-carriage, and for 
 lighter articles and articles de Paris by railroad, and 
 river navigation. 
 
 From Holland are imported spirituous liquors, spices, 
 butter, cheese. The returns from France consist 
 chiefly of wine, silks, brandy, and dried fruit. When 
 the Netherlands were subject to France, this inter- 
 course was very active. 
 
 From Italy, France imports raw silk, corn, rice, 
 olive-oil, and fruit, chiefly lemons, oranges, figs, and 
 raisins. The returns, various in kind, but small in 
 quantity, consist of wine, brandy, cattle, woolens, 
 linen, leather, hats, stocldngs, jewelry, glass, hard- 
 ware. From the Levant, the imports, though less than 
 formerly, still consist of raw silk, cotton, wool, corn, 
 dried fruits ; the exports, manufactured silks, wool- 
 ens, stockings, and, in a small degree, hardware, pa- 
 per, liquors, linens, lace. With Spain the intercourse 
 if more extensive ; the exports from France consist of 
 com, flour, salt fish, wines, brandy, also woolens, cot- 
 tons, silks, leather, linen, lace, hats ; all articles 
 which have passed through some process of manufac- 
 ture, and bear testimony to the industry of the French. 
 The Spaniards, on the other hand, true to their char- 
 acter, make no returns except in produce and raw ma- 
 terials, viz. ; wool, silk, fruit, sweet wines, along with 
 some iron and copper. During the years 1854 and 
 1855 there have been considerable exportations of 
 Spanish wine into France for the use of the French 
 troops serving in the Crimea. With Portugal the 
 trade of France .is not considerable, the staple prod- 
 ucts, wine and brandy, being the same in both coun- 
 tries. 
 
 The intercourse between the French and Americans 
 should be great, but the Americans require long 
 credit, and to give credit exceeds the means of the 
 French. The cotton, tobacco, and rice of the United 
 States are paid partly by wine and brandy, but in a 
 slight degree bj' manufactures. This branch of trade 
 will increase with the population and wealth of the 
 United States. At present the intercourse with En- 
 gland is more considerable than with almost any other 
 country ; but a reduction of the custom-house duties 
 would extend greatly the mutual trade of the two 
 countries. Great Britain would suppty France in 
 greater quantities with imports, consisting of cottons, 
 hardware, earthenware, copper, tin, iron, coals, etc. ; 
 while a corresponding increase would take place in the 
 French exports, of which the staple articles are wine 
 and brandy, the smaller silks, olive-oil, fruit, butter, 
 poultry, corn, and butcher's meat. 
 
 The chief commercial business of Paris is necessa- 
 rilj' inland ; but it is the centre of exchange trans- 
 actions for France, foreign as well as inland 5 as 
 London is for England, and Amsterdam for Holland. 
 Havre de Grace is the channel for the maritime inter- 
 course of the capital, the outlet for its exports, and 
 the medium through which it receives colonial prod- 
 uce, raw materials, and foreign manufactures. Bor- 
 deaux is a sea-port of great activity, as well for the 
 exportation of wine and brandy, as for the importation 
 of sugar, coffee, and cotton. Marseilles, a larger but 
 a less bustling city, continues the emporium for the 
 trade with Italy and the Levant. Nantes has suf- 
 fered greatly by the loss of St. Domingo, as well as 
 by the abolition of the slave-trade, of which it was the 
 centre. It still exports to Martinique and Gaudaloupe, 
 linen, hardware, printed cottons ; and, like Bordeaux, 
 receives in return sugar, coffee, and raw cotton. 
 Rouen, though accessible to vessels of burden, is, 
 like Lyons and Lille, chiefly remarkable for manu- 
 factures. 
 
 The mercantile marine of France recently presented 
 the following results, which are remarkable while En- 
 
FRA 
 
 720 
 
 FRA 
 
 gland and America are building vessels of such supe- 
 rior tonnage : 
 
 Mekcantile Maetne— 1853. 
 
 Tonimge. 
 
 VesB-jls. 
 
 Total 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Vessel.. 
 
 Total 
 Tonnage. 
 
 700—800 
 600—700 
 .WO— 600 
 400—500 
 300—400 
 200—300 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 35 
 
 150 
 
 583 
 
 71T 
 
 1,881 
 2,091 
 14,699 
 50,866 
 130,829 
 
 100—200 
 
 60—100 
 
 80— 60 
 
 30 and below 
 
 - Total... 
 
 1,365 
 1,561 
 1,301 
 10,647 
 15,600 
 
 197,947 
 123,149 
 
 68,740 
 81,681 
 
 662,500 
 
 Manned, inclutlmg the men of the fisheries, by 83,000 
 men and boys. 
 
 The steam and sailing-vessels of France and the na- 
 tions trading with her from 1848 to 1853 were as follows : 
 
 Navigation fou 1848 to 1853 inclusive— Frencu and 
 Foreign. 
 
 steam and sniling vessels. 
 
 Sftilin? vessels only. 
 
 Years. |French. 
 
 Foreign 
 
 Total. 
 
 Years. [French. 
 
 Foreiffn 
 
 Total. 
 
 1848 
 
 18,194 
 
 13,320 
 
 26,614 
 
 1848 
 
 11,303 
 
 9,663 
 
 20,966 
 
 1849 
 
 14,36<l 
 
 14,76S 
 
 29,132 
 
 1849 
 
 12,618 
 
 10,9Tt 
 
 23,696 
 
 1850 
 
 15,034 
 
 16,892 
 
 31,926 
 
 1850 
 
 12,284 
 
 12,0,'J4 
 
 25,.338 
 
 1851 
 
 15,889 
 
 19,247 
 
 34,686 
 
 1861 
 
 13,421 
 
 13,66S 
 
 27,089 
 
 1862 
 
 15,295 
 
 19,803 
 
 35,09E 
 
 1852 
 
 13,176 
 
 14,995 
 
 28,17i; 
 
 1858 
 
 15,8.35 
 
 20,425 
 
 86,26C 
 
 1853 
 
 13,434 
 
 14,754 
 
 28,1881 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mean of 
 first five 
 
 
 
 
 first flvo 
 
 14,655 
 
 16,806 
 
 31,46l| 
 
 12,761 
 
 12,271 
 
 25,032 
 
 years. 
 
 1 1 
 
 years 
 
 
 
 . Navy. — The superiority of the English navy over the 
 French existed when her pecuniary means were far 
 inferior ; and though, during the middle of the reign 
 
 of Louis XIV. the French, by financial sacrifices, ob- 
 tained a numerical superiority, one great battle, that 
 of La Hogue, in 1692, was snflicient to change the as- 
 cendancy. The war of 1741, however successful on the 
 part of France by land, was, particularly toward its 
 close, unfortunate to her at sea. In the succeeding in- 
 terval of peace, great efforts were made to reinstate the 
 French navy ; but the war of 1766, though the French 
 admiral, De la Galissonier, boasted of a success over 
 Byng, proved doubly disastrous, and at last swept it 
 almost entirely from the ocean. A very different 
 scene opened in the war of 1778, when France, unem- 
 barrassed by a continental struggle, was enabled to 
 direct all her disposable resources to her marine, an 
 object of great care and solicitude to Louis XVI. She 
 was then enabled to keep in an effective state about 70 
 sail of the line, the crews of which, added to those of 
 the frigates and corvettes, formed a total of 60,000 sea- 
 men. Tlie injuries sustained by this force, toward the 
 end of the war were repaired with great diligence dur- 
 ing the peace ; and to prepare young officers for the 
 sea in preference to the land service became a favorite 
 object in several of the government schools. In 1791, 
 an official report stated the effective French navy at 
 74 sail of the line, 62 frigates, and 29 corvettes ; a state 
 of preparation which accounts for the resistance made 
 by the revolutionary government under all the dis- 
 advantages of an unparalleled continental struggle. 
 
 Trade and Navigation of Feancb with Fokeign Nations — Aotital Values. 
 
 Nations. 
 
 Eussia. 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Norway 
 
 Denmark 
 
 England 
 
 German Association 
 
 Hanse Towns 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Austria 
 
 Spain 
 
 Sardinia - — 
 
 Tuscany 
 
 Boman States 
 
 Two Sicilies 
 
 Greece 
 
 Turkey 
 
 Egypt 
 
 Barbary 
 
 Africa, West Coast 
 
 Mauritius 
 
 Africa, East Coast 
 
 Enrfish B. Indies, including Java, 
 Sumatra, and New South Wales 
 
 Dutch East Indies 
 
 Philippines 
 
 China and Cochin-China 
 
 I 
 
 1860 
 1854 
 1860 
 1854 
 1850 
 1854 
 1860 
 1864 
 1360 
 1854 
 1850 
 1864 
 1850 
 1854 
 1850 
 18,54 
 1850 
 1854 
 1860 
 1864 
 1850 
 1864 
 1850 
 1854 
 1850 
 1864 
 1850 
 1854 
 1850 
 1854 
 1860 
 1854 
 I860 
 1854 
 1860 
 1854 
 1860 
 1864 
 1860 
 1854 
 1860 
 1864 
 1850 
 1854 
 1860 
 1854 
 1850 
 1864 
 1850 
 
 1854 
 
 1850 
 1864 
 1850 
 1854 
 1860 
 1854 
 
 27,255,165 
 
 68,8.5.3,979 
 
 6,840,697 
 
 7,707,164 
 
 13,326,660 
 
 19,214,908 
 
 77,709 
 
 7,329,928 
 
 111,181,981 
 
 201,490,681 
 
 47,324,482 
 
 103,661,.586 
 
 6,664,524 
 
 7,022,584 
 
 22,801.018 
 
 83,984,969 
 
 156,620,184 
 
 267,630,168 
 
 123,777,710 
 
 221,620,534 
 
 2,414,166 
 
 4,808,237 
 
 6,932,209 
 
 6,745,678 
 
 48,861,389 
 
 88,211,169 
 
 91,246,671 
 
 117,643,989 
 
 12,281,181 
 
 15,981,113 
 
 8,350,214 
 
 2,601,095 
 
 22,581,482 
 
 24,262,648 
 
 1,081,081 
 
 3,825,131 
 
 84,266,664 
 
 60,189,968 
 
 9,686,161 
 
 17,435,288 
 
 21,808.651 
 
 8,579,124 
 
 4,502,614 
 
 9,232,228 
 
 72,247 
 
 632,962 
 
 287,008 
 
 2,154,867 
 
 88,274,310 
 
 62,469,742 
 
 6.343,007 
 10,664,620 
 1,706,667 
 1,168,517 
 1,585,970 
 2,723,684 
 
 Francs. 
 
 20,146,540 
 
 8,862,520 
 
 1,266,168 
 
 2,578,604 
 
 2,184,180 
 
 1,985,281 
 
 1,288,077 
 
 4,055,140 
 
 312,119,023 
 
 ■586,643,810 
 
 60.988,390 
 
 62,656,673 
 
 15,646,264 
 
 18,321,308 
 
 14,911,280 
 
 29,272,058 
 
 118,690,547 
 
 153,690,829 
 
 93,047,246 
 
 124,488,776 
 
 3,898,688 
 
 9,469,053 
 
 10,367,566 
 
 10,396,286 
 
 86,629,133 
 
 79,595,785 
 
 71,781,977 
 
 87,141,008 
 
 24,683,660 
 
 33,689,080 
 
 5,364,173 
 
 6,612,661 
 
 17,097,0.39 
 
 30,691,360 
 
 8,886,596 
 
 4,000,061 
 
 81,677,194 
 
 40,608,396 
 
 10,682,807 
 
 7,686,450 
 
 4,987,086 
 
 4,492,767 
 
 2,138,676 
 
 5,057,182 
 6,662,609 
 698,612 
 3,819,828 
 4,287,420 
 
 5,767,690 
 
 1,888,228 
 
 1,706,440 
 
 120,881 
 
 339,786 
 
 836,887 
 
 8,868,397 
 
 Ships. 
 
 186 
 
 48 
 
 29 
 
 29 
 
 15 
 
 42 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 2,878 
 
 3,083 
 
 16 
 
 6 
 
 96 
 
 64 
 
 SO 
 
 25 
 
 73 
 
 56 
 
 54 
 136 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 861 
 
 63 
 51 
 170 
 13S 
 4 
 
 '842 
 310 
 
 93 
 103 
 209 
 
 96 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Crews. 
 
 Entering. ] Outward. Inward. I Outward 
 
 71 19,274 
 
 2,986 
 
 2,796 
 
 1,620 
 
 4,147 
 
 412 
 
 325 
 
 223,213 
 
 801,690 
 
 1,616 
 
 691 
 
 9 
 
 3,211 
 
 1,646 
 
 19 
 
 3 
 
 137 
 
 76 
 
 98 
 
 83 
 
 143 
 
 90 
 
 18 
 43 
 20 
 11 
 125 
 269 
 689 
 645 
 218 
 226 
 27 
 33 
 
 15 
 
 7 
 
 300 
 
 260 
 
 54 
 
 68 
 
 121 
 
 62 
 
 49 
 
 43 
 
 "17 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 18 
 
 6,119 
 10,337 
 1,864 
 5,272 
 4,033 
 
 6,216 
 17,326 
 
 80,198 
 68,225 
 86,018 
 6.3,160 
 18,282 
 88,207 
 4,141 
 4,236 
 34,541 
 28,634 
 602 
 
 71,898 
 75,280 
 21,899 
 21,206 
 22,272 
 14,227 
 14,931 
 28,155 
 
 1,149 
 
 2,246 
 23,216 
 84,609 
 
 6,999 
 
 819 
 3,206 
 
 9,226 
 
 795 
 
 857 
 
 1,181 
 
 262 
 
 101 
 
 651 
 
 997 
 
 210,040 
 
 116,526 
 
 1,914 
 
 285 
 
 14,048 
 
 6,461 
 
 12,865 
 
 3,883 
 
 10,554 
 
 6,971 
 
 1,875 
 
 7,813 
 
 2,118 
 
 1,841 
 
 8,465 
 
 21,283 
 
 85,825 
 
 63,723 
 
 12,138 
 
 2,5.684 
 
 1,978 
 
 2,276 
 
 11,285 
 
 7,122 
 
 1,784 
 
 966 
 
 47,846 
 
 70,385 
 
 13,400 
 
 18.955 
 
 14,021 
 
 9,289 
 
 9,653 
 
 9,418 
 
 6,798 
 627 
 2,808 
 5,786 
 17,693 
 3,082 
 
 792 
 
 5,600 
 
 1,266 
 458 
 193 
 190 
 102 
 
 26 
 
 31,990 
 
 27,988 
 
 104 
 
 41 
 
 990 
 
 890 
 
 1,330 
 
 168 
 
 453 
 
 345 
 
 138 
 
 43 
 
 2,369 
 
 6,658 
 
 4,236 
 
 6,928 
 
 2,141 
 
 4,091 
 
 821 
 
 845 
 
 2,020 
 
 2,476 
 
 81 
 
 6,836 
 6,609 
 1,526 
 1,665 
 1,911 
 1,698 
 891 
 1,166 
 
 ■"46 
 
 891 
 819 
 
 42 
 
 758 
 
 62 
 
 42 
 
 81 
 
 19 
 
 7 
 
 60 
 
 64 
 
 23,880 
 
 15,806 
 
 128 
 
 20 
 
 1,207 
 
 474 
 
 1,6.52 
 
 243 
 
 819 
 
 616 
 
 170 
 676 
 141 
 
 1,829' 
 8,711 
 
 1,221 
 1,088 
 
 115 
 
 89 
 
 4,072 
 
 6,629 
 
 98T 
 1,112 
 1,369 
 1,111 
 
 661 
 
 101 
 
 284 
 
 (740 
 
 ^121 
 
FEA 
 
 721 
 
 FEA 
 
 Tbase ahd Navigation of Feance wirn Fobeisn Nations— Aoiuai. TALUEa — ConUnued, 
 
 Mexico 
 
 United States of America, East 
 
 TJnitocl States, Vest. 
 
 Guatemala 
 
 New Oranada 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Uruguay. 
 
 Eio de la Plata 
 
 Ecuador 
 
 Peru 
 
 Bofivia 
 
 Chill.. 
 
 Hayti 
 
 Span. Amor. Possessions, Isls., etc 
 Eng. Possess, in Amcr., Isls., etc.. 
 
 Dutch Possessions in America 
 
 Danish Possessions in Amoi-lca. .... 
 
 Isle 6f Bourbon 
 
 French Guiana. 
 
 Martinique 
 
 Guadaloupe 
 
 Algiers 
 
 Senegal 
 
 French India, 
 
 St. Pierre andMiquelon, etc. 
 Mayotte, etc., and Madagascar. 
 
 1850 
 
 1854 
 
 1850 
 
 1854 
 
 1850 
 
 1854 
 
 1850 
 
 1854 
 
 1850 
 
 1854 
 
 1850 
 
 1854 
 
 1850 
 
 1854 
 
 1850 
 
 1864 
 
 1850 
 
 1854 
 
 1850 
 
 1854 
 
 1850 
 
 1854 
 
 1850 
 
 1854 
 
 1850 
 
 1864 
 
 1850 
 
 1854 
 
 1850 
 
 1854 
 
 1850 
 
 1854 
 
 1850 
 
 1854 
 
 1850 
 
 1854 
 
 1850 
 
 1854 
 
 1850 
 
 1854 
 
 1850 
 
 1854 
 
 1850 
 
 1854 
 
 1860 
 
 1854 
 
 1850 
 
 1864 
 
 1860 
 
 1854 
 
 1860 
 
 1864 
 
 1850 
 
 1854 
 
 Imports. 
 Value. 
 
 FrancB. 
 
 8,616,758 
 
 4,015,878 
 
 182,180,826 
 
 190,771,842 
 
 44,908 
 
 714,288 
 
 808 
 
 1,166,788 
 
 931,188 
 
 1,147,741 
 
 2,987,081 
 
 6,492,216 
 
 17,087,782 
 
 27,970,169 
 
 ' 987,881 
 
 6,991,240 
 
 10,768,889 
 
 10,890,020 
 
 ■ 890,990 
 
 297,428 
 
 6,881,244 
 
 7,863,258 
 
 4,278,120 
 
 4,257,504 
 
 8,250,901 
 
 10,150,125 
 
 26,894,272 
 
 29,210,434 
 
 199,880 
 
 258,687 
 
 168,646 
 
 8,122 
 
 105,014 
 
 , 191,754 
 
 18,809,419 
 
 29,906,188 
 
 1,811,401 
 
 1,166,196 
 
 11,045,108 
 
 18,987,406 
 
 9,822,864 
 
 17,114,518 
 
 6,268,239 
 
 49,422,025 
 
 3,920,746 
 
 6,932,825 
 
 8,883,842 
 
 10,869,4.S7 
 
 19,931,116 
 
 18,902,278 
 
 404'74l 
 
 Exports. 
 Value, 
 
 Francs. 
 
 21,129,728 
 
 24,810,946 
 
 278,864,956 
 
 882,090,943 
 
 7,586,288 
 
 9,668,985 
 
 408,164 
 
 982,871 
 
 6,049,735 
 
 8,494,501 
 
 8,497,616 
 
 6,792,518 
 
 27,234,488 
 
 44,048,500 
 
 2,220,847 
 
 10,662,587 
 
 18,580,718 
 
 23,610,668 
 
 816,691 
 
 192,972 
 
 12,608,842 
 
 18,759,998 
 
 49,860 
 
 872,251 
 
 14,028,128 
 
 21,421,197 
 
 8,480,770 
 
 5,881,769 
 
 10,880,924 
 
 17,989,202 
 
 622,626 
 
 8,069,869 
 
 165,095 
 
 68,668 
 
 5,003,481 
 
 6,400,481 
 
 11,591,628 
 
 18,319,000 
 
 2,029,849 
 
 4,571,800 
 
 14,806,110 
 
 20,144,217 
 
 11,261,741 
 
 16,276,198 
 
 67,371,988 
 
 90,918,877 
 
 6.321,551 
 
 8,744,316 
 
 474,896 
 
 445,726 
 
 5,424,677 
 
 6,148,157 
 
 90,036 
 
 222,766 
 
 Slilps. 
 
 59 
 76 
 128 
 113 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 60 
 
 81 
 
 13 
 
 10 
 
 81 
 
 115 
 
 61 
 
 116 
 
 704 
 
 1,086 
 
 48 
 
 75 
 
 6 
 
 19 
 
 17 
 18 
 88 
 
 106 
 21 
 28 
 
 104 
 
 119 
 88 
 
 110 
 1,072 
 
 946 
 62 
 84 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Entering. Outward, j Inward. Outward. 
 
 9,780 
 18,179 
 9,662 
 
 1,148 
 1,684 
 1,262 
 2,848 
 4,882 
 18,878 
 22,644 
 1,662 
 8,656 
 11,380 
 
 6,820 
 16,118 
 
 1,662 
 2,911 
 11,806 
 14,455 
 29,274 
 28,641 
 
 2,612 
 
 168 
 
 890 
 
 15,422 
 
 26,918 
 
 2,802 
 
 2,017 
 
 18,482 
 
 28,314 
 
 11,246 
 
 22,189 
 
 74,769 
 
 133,165 
 
 6,270 
 
 11,769 
 
 1,637 
 
 5,820 
 
 I 
 
 CrewB. 
 
 8,646 
 7,210 
 8,161 
 12,906 
 6,657 
 
 "686 
 2,262 
 
 1,108 
 
 2.488 
 
 8,418 
 
 19,402 
 
 21,767 
 
 3,524 
 
 12,775 
 
 18,858 
 
 11,864 
 
 699 
 
 244 
 
 4,613 
 
 7,227 
 
 6,797 
 9,984 
 4,114 
 6,670 
 8,427 
 10,812 
 622 
 1,406 
 
 3,662 
 
 2,864 
 
 24,242 
 
 86,687 
 
 8,776 
 
 6,782 
 
 24,280 
 
 28,482 
 
 18,694 
 
 24,362 
 
 115,125 
 
 121,166 
 
 8,569 
 
 154,096 
 
 2,097 
 
 1,267 
 
 693 
 464 
 
 '"hi 
 
 "'66 
 96 
 
 78 
 
 194 
 
 272 
 
 1,084 
 
 1,261 
 
 96 
 216 
 628 
 836 
 
 17 
 
 78 
 
 141 
 
 640 
 
 807 
 
 1,502 
 
 1,428 
 
 "183 
 16 
 
 '"ii 
 
 48 
 
 767 
 
 1,887 
 
 161 
 
 120 
 
 994 
 
 1,481 
 
 589 
 
 1,226 
 
 6,940 
 
 12,262 
 
 487 
 
 734 
 
 84 
 
 13 
 
 571 
 488 
 888 
 866 
 571 
 804 
 
 164 
 
 67 
 
 161 
 
 222 
 
 1,122 
 
 1,147 
 
 208 
 
 638 
 
 729 
 
 683 
 
 32 
 
 12 
 
 215 
 
 244 
 327 
 440 
 657 
 
 166 
 
 1,251 
 
 1,677 
 
 251 
 
 317 
 
 1,289 
 
 1,483 
 
 974 
 
 1,378 
 
 9,680 
 
 11,868 
 
 669 
 
 879 
 
 101 
 
 59 
 
 Total for 1 Outward bound, 
 1850... j Inward " 
 
 Ships. 
 
 7,640 
 7,494 
 
 Tonnage. 
 787,560 
 887,626 
 
 Men. 
 76,246 
 74,2T7 
 
 Total 16,084 1,626,086 150,623 
 
 Ships. 
 
 Total for ) Outward bound, 5,726 
 1864... f Inward " 9,807 
 
 O'onnage. Men. 
 
 796,718 73,166 
 1,131,702 96,418 
 
 Total 15,088 1,928,415 169,569 
 
 The proud naval force, however, disappeared pro- 
 gressively at the capture of Toulon, the victory of 
 the 1st June, 1794, and still more in the victory of 
 Abouitir ; so that Bonaparte, on his accession to power, 
 found the French marine in a very reduced state. He 
 labored, however, to reinstate it. The years of conti- 
 nental peace, 1801, 1802, 1803, and 1804, were fevor- 
 able to his efforts ; and in 1805 he boasted of having 
 in equipment 60 sail of the line, a force destined to an 
 early diminution at Trafalgar and St. Domingo, The 
 Bourbons, on recovering their crown, found little 
 more than half the force which existed previously to 
 the Revolution. It has since been augmented, and in 
 1831 it amounted to 35 ships of the line, 40 frigates, 23 
 corvettes, 57 brigs, 29 galliots and cutters of eight and 
 four guns, 12 steamboats, 16 armed store-ships, 32 
 armed transports, and two yachts ; total, 284 ; and in 
 1854, according to the last authentic account, it con- 
 sisted of 
 
 Guns, 
 
 63 vessels— 9 carrying 120, 14=100, 19=90, 
 
 11=80 or 82 guns. Total 5,096 
 
 68 frigates— 42=50 to 60, and 16=40 to 46 3,965 
 
 89 corvettes 868 
 
 101 brigs, schooners, and cutters 1,066 
 
 89 corvettes de charge and gaberres 788 
 
 290 11,778 
 
 Zz 
 
 Amounting together to 28,750 
 guns. 
 
 steam Fleet. 
 
 3 vessels of the line,' 
 20 fl-igates, 
 30 corvettes, 
 64 other vessels, 
 
 407 a865) 
 
 In the present year (1855) 14 ships of iron (nine be- 
 ing vessels of the line) have been launched, and 32 
 new vessels are on the stocks. 
 
 On the 1st Januarj-, 1855, the oificers of the French 
 navy consisted of two aniirals, 17 vice-amirals, 37 
 contre-amirals, 108 capitaines, 238 capitaines de freg- 
 ate, 658 lieutenants, and 614 ensigns. 
 
 Fisheries, — The bounties paid for the cod-fisheries 
 in 1852 absorbed between 6,000,000 and 7,000,000 
 of francs, which was double the sum paid on the aver- 
 erage of the five years between 1820 and 1830, The 
 vessels equipped for the fisheries of Newfoundland, St, 
 Pierre, Miquelon, etc., proceed from the ports of St, 
 Malo, St. Brieuc, and Granville. The vessels proceed- 
 ing to Iceland sail from Dunkirk. The French fish 
 are of very inferior quality to those caught by the 
 Americans, the latter selling at 47 francs 35 centimes 
 per quintal, while the French cod-fish only brought 
 26 francs 95 centimes. With all this expense, how- 
 ever, the French fisheries are not adequate to the sup- 
 
ERA 
 
 722 
 
 FRA 
 
 ply of the colonies, whicli receive considerable quan- 
 tities of fisli from foreigners, as will be seen from the 
 following table : 
 
 Fishery and Export of Ood, from 1848 to 1863. 
 
 
 
 
 ExpBDBes of 1 Exportation 
 Snlpplag. ifroDi all ports 
 
 Total ex- 
 
 Years. 
 
 
 
 peneea. 
 
 1848 
 
 854 
 
 11,142 
 
 £18,^81 
 
 Civth, 
 
 311,783 
 
 £112,340 
 
 1849 
 
 824 
 
 10,606 
 
 20,000 
 
 888,783 
 
 123,204 
 
 1850 
 
 863 
 
 11,710 
 
 22,202 
 
 806,080 
 
 117,482 
 
 1851 
 
 396 
 
 12,649 
 
 24,140 
 
 408.861 
 
 154,982 
 
 1852 
 
 419 
 
 13,648 
 
 25,994 
 
 400,154 
 
 145,174 
 
 1858 
 
 421 
 
 18,688 
 
 '25,847 
 
 872,716 
 
 188,190 
 
 Statement of the whale-fishery from the French 
 ports— Havre, 5 vessels, of 2045 tons and 127 men ; 
 return of product, 22,142 cwt. of oil of the whale ; 30 
 owt. of the cachalot ; 1608 cwt. of whalebone. 
 French Cod-Fishery Importations and Exportatioks — 
 Fresh, Dried, Oil, etc : and Importations of 
 
 "WHALE-FlSnEKY. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Ood-Fiiheiy. 
 
 Whale-Fisheri-. 
 
 Imported. ) Exported. 
 
 Imported. 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 
 
 1860 
 
 1861 
 
 1852 
 
 1863 
 
 Ciyt&. 
 412,431 
 388,874 
 876,1-32 
 403,877 
 378,862 
 345,541 
 
 Cwta. 
 
 82,964 
 
 88,261 
 
 62,070 
 
 85,410 
 
 54,400 
 
 65,807 
 
 Cwte. 
 10,711 
 
 19,047 
 20,1.57 
 17,477 
 3,889 
 12,081 
 
 The mean of the first five years is above 391,915 
 quintals. Vessels of France employed in the fisher- 
 ies generally— 1848, 849 ; 1849, 685 ; 1850, 838 ; 1851, 
 925 ; 1852, 959 ; 1853, 943. The mean of five years is 
 851 vessels. The total amount of codfish exported 
 in 1853 from all the ports of France amounted to 
 1,537,971 kilogrammes, or 55,807 quintals. See arti- 
 cle FlSHERI"E9. 
 
 Whale-fishery. — The whale-fishery was established 
 in France in 1784, by means of encouragements held 
 out .by Louis XVI., who ordered that no duty should 
 be collected on the articles exported, and that the 
 produce of the fisheries should pay no import duty. 
 He guarantied the adventurers against loss, and ulti- 
 mately paid, in addition to £12,500, which he advanced 
 without interest, an additional sum of £6695, being 
 the balance of loss on 17 voyages. JTotwithstanding 
 these encouragements, the whole project was aban- 
 doned in 1787. In 1816 the ofifer of bounties attracted 
 new adventurers into this branch of trade. The pre- 
 mium offered by the government was 50 francs (£2) 
 per man, and two thirds of the crews were allowed to 
 be foreigners. In 1819 40 francs were allowed to for- 
 eign vessels having a crew half French, 50 francs when 
 the captain and one third of the crew were French ; 
 the premium to be doubled if the vessel passed Cape 
 Horn. In 1829 a new ordonnance granted 90 francs 
 per ton on vessels wholly equipped by Frenchmen, 40 
 francs when only two thirds were Frenchmen, and 30 
 if the captain was a foreigner. The premium was 
 doubled if the vessel passed Cape Horn. A supple- 
 mentary premium was allowed to vessels fishing to the 
 south-cast of the Cape of Good Hope, and the double 
 premium was given to all vessels fishing at a higher 
 northern latitude than 60° ; and as the fishing is sel- 
 dom or never prosecuted at a lower latitude, this pre- 
 mium of 180 francs per ton (£7 4s.) was invariablj^ 
 paid. The law of 1832, which regulates the whale- 
 fishery of France, established a bounty of 70 francs 
 per ton from March 1832 to March 1833, if the whole 
 crew were French ; the bounty to be diminished four 
 francs yearly till it reached 54 francs. If one third of 
 the crew be foreigners, the bounty to be 48 francs per 
 ton, to diminish two francs yearly till it reached 40 
 francs per ton. A supplementary bounty to be given 
 of 50 francs per ton if the crew be French, decreasing 
 three francs per annum per ton ; and 24 francs if one 
 third be foreigners, decreasing one franc per annum, 
 to be paid to vessels doubling Cape Horn, or reaching 
 62° of south latitude, if returning with less than half 
 
 a cargo, or after an absence of 16 months ; 500 tons to 
 be the minimum for a single whaler. 
 
 With these extraordinary encouragements, capital 
 was attracted to this new line of industry ; and in 1831 
 three vessels cleared out for the Greenland whale- 
 fishery, and 13 for the South Sep. fishery, which, em- 
 ployed 6412 tons of shipping, and were manned by 551 
 men. Notwithstanding all the bounties given to the 
 whale-fishery, France has very few vessels engaged in 
 it. There were only 17 ships in the trade in 1849, 
 and 7 only re-entered French ports. There were but 
 5 vessels left Havre in 1853, of a tonnage of 2045 tons, 
 and with a crew of 127 men. The return of the pro- 
 duct was 112,485 kilogrammes of the whale, 1589 of 
 the cjtchalot, and 81,710 kilogrammes of whalebone. 
 
 It was estimated by the minister of commerce, m 
 his report on this subject to the Chamber of Deputies 
 more than 20 years ago, that the 550 seamen employed 
 in the whale-fishery do not cost the State less than 
 1,000,000 francs, at the rate of £72 12s. per man, or £6 
 a month. The wages granted by the budget to sea- 
 men employed in ships of war amounted to £1 per 
 month ; so that the allowance to the seamen employed 
 in the Greenland fishery is six times the ordinary al- 
 lowance of seamen in the public service. It is re- 
 markable that France was granting these extravagant 
 allowances for the encouragement of the whale-flshery 
 exactly at the time that Great Britain was withdraw- 
 ing the bounties by which she had formerly endeav- 
 ored to promote this branch of trade as a nursery for 
 seamen. Yet, in 1830, the number of vessels that 
 cleared out for the fisherj' in England was 123, con- 
 sisting of 40,166 tons, navigated by 6044 seamen ; be- 
 ing thus about eight times the quantity of the tonnage 
 employed by France. The government of Louis Phil- 
 ippe, alarmed at the large outlay in bounty, endeav- 
 ored to lessen it, and to render it transitory and tem- 
 porary only. M. d'Argont, the minister of commerce, 
 insisted that these bounties exhausted the resources of 
 the State, and decreasing bounties were after a period 
 adopted, but M. Cunin Gridaine, who was minister of 
 commerce, relapsed into the old error by introducing 
 supplemental bounties. The provisional government 
 of 1848, by one decree augmented the bounties, and 
 by a second extended the term of the law to 31st De- 
 cember 1851. On the 22d of July, 1851, the National 
 Assembly voted for the continuance of the bounties to 
 1861. 
 
 Shipping. — France seems destined, by the natnral 
 advantages which she possesses, to become a maritime 
 power of the first rank. Her sea-coast exceeds in ex- 
 tent that of any other continental State. On the At- 
 lantic she has 130 leagues of coast, 150 on the Chan- 
 nel, and 90 on the Mediterranean ; while her position 
 between northern and southern Europe, and her numer- 
 ous ports and navigable rivers, are eminently favorable 
 to the extension of her navigation. But in this as m . 
 all other branches of the French trade, the prejudicial 
 effects of the restrictive system have been abundantly 
 manifest. France, in forcing a trade with her colo- 
 nies, containing less than half a million of inhabitants, 
 has sacrificed her trade with other tropical countries 
 and their numerous population, to the great injury of 
 her shipping interest. A great increase has taken 
 place in the tonnage employed in the coasting trade of 
 France, a fact which affords clear and convincing evi- 
 dence of the extending resources of the country, which 
 would have equally occasioned an increase in the ship- 
 ping employed in the foreign as well as the domestic 
 trade, if this important branch of industry had not 
 been stunted in its natural growth by the monopolizing 
 system. The navigation of France no doubt suffered 
 grievously during the last war, under the maritime 
 hostility of Great Britain. But in the course of nearly 
 20 years it would have recovered from this state of de- 
 pression, if the natural energies of the countrj' had 
 been allowed free scope in this line of industry. 
 
FRA 
 
 723 
 
 FRA 
 
 Butcher's Meat. — The Eevolution of 1830 did not 
 alter the system prevailing antecedently with respect 
 to the trade in hutcher's meat, but modified it. The 
 same may be said of the Revolution of 1848. It did 
 not change the system but modified under certain 
 heads the practice of the trade. The droits d'octroi et 
 de catsse de Poissy were at first suppressed, then re- 
 established, but with a radical change in this respect, 
 that the duty was levied by the weight of the cattle, 
 and not at so. much per head, as before. This altera- 
 tion had long been inefi'ectually demanded by the ag- 
 ricultural breeders. Butchers from the Interior of 
 France were also to provide stock and meat for the 
 Paris market as well as their brethren of the capital. 
 These regulations and modifications satisfied neither 
 agriculturists nor butchers. In the month of Januarj', 
 1851, the National Assembly directed an inquirj' into 
 the production and consumption of butcher's meat. 
 The commission charged with this inquiry seriously 
 engaged in it, but the events of the 2d December, 1851, 
 prevented it from finishing its task. From the portion 
 of the report, however, that has been printed, we know 
 that it was the opinion of the committee that there 
 should be liberty of commerce in meat, and that the 
 local authorities should, under no pretext whatsoever, 
 be allowed to interfere with this cardinal principle. 
 The committee considered meat, like spice, silk, or 
 cloth, a mercantile Commodity, and were of opinion 
 that the police should only interfere as to frauds in 
 reference to quantity or quality, or as to the whole- 
 someness of the victual as an article of food. This 
 was onl}' returning to the principle professed in the 
 laws of the 14th and 17th June, 1791, and the 1st Bru- 
 maire An. VII. On the question of the octroi they 
 were of opinion that it interfered with the price and 
 consumption of food, and that it should be abolished 
 from the 1st January, 1860. Since this report was 
 published the price of butcher's meat has increased, 
 and the supply has diminished at Poissy, the great 
 marlcet which supplies Paris. In consequence of this, 
 recourse was had to an expedient which sound politi- 
 cal science has proved to be utterly ineffectual. An 
 ordonnance appeared in the Moniteur of the 11th and 
 12th October, 1855, of which the following is the sub- 
 stance : 
 
 " On and after the 16th of the present month, 
 butcher's meat shall be sold at prices taxed by the au- 
 thorities. The prices shall be fixed every fortnight 
 for every kind of meat, according to the returns made 
 at the Caisse de Poiss}', and to the weight of meat as- 
 certained to have been sent from the public slaughter- 
 houses of Paris during the preceding fortnight. In 
 the shops established in the markets, meat shall be 
 sold at 10c. at least, per kilogramme (about a half- 
 penny per pound) below the fixed price." 
 
 This decree, which violates every sound principle of 
 political economy, appears to have been well received 
 by the poorer classes of the population, who had long 
 complained of the dearness of meat, and of the ex- 
 orbitant profits of the batchers. But the way to re- 
 diice the profits of the butcher is to destroy the monop- 
 oly, and to render trade in meat free. 
 
 Revenue and Expenditure. — In France, the ancient 
 system of taxation and finance was extremely un- 
 equal and oppressive. Her various provinces, though 
 they were united under one head, retained many of 
 their own peculiar laws and privileges, which were ab- 
 surd in themselves, and opposed to the general intei> 
 ests of the empire. Among these was an exemption 
 from certain imposts, to which some were subjected, 
 and consequently over-taxed ; and others, again, con- 
 tributed a certain quota of revenue to government, 
 which they raised by taxes imposed by their own local 
 autliorities. The consequence was, that no uniform 
 system of taxation could be established throughout 
 the country. The taxes on many commodities were 
 higher in one province than in another ; and custom- 
 
 houses were accordingly established on their respective 
 frontiers, to prevent the importation of goods until 
 they had paid the duties. In this manner, owing to 
 the inequality of taxation, commodities could not 
 freely pass from one district of the country to another ; 
 and the kingdom was thus broken into separate divis- 
 ions, to the great interruption of trade. The partial- 
 ity shown to the privileged orders was another serious 
 grievance to the ancient system of French taxation. 
 The taxes by which the public revenue was raised 
 were, first, the taille^ a tax on real property, or on in- 
 come derived from commerce and industrj'. From this 
 tax the lands of the noblesse and clergy were exempt. 
 " Tlie tax was called taille" says Borel, " because the 
 peasant .collectors, not knowing how to write, marked 
 down what they had received- on a wooden tally." 
 Secondly, the vingtieme was the tax of l-20th on prop- 
 erty, from which the clergy alone were exempted. 
 This tax was established in 1750, and was levied upon 
 all property of whatever description. In 1754, it was 
 taken off the amount of income arising from personal 
 industry. Thirdly, a poll tax was levied on all classes 
 indiscriminately. Many of the taxes were farmed by 
 rich capitalists, called farmers-general, or yermiers- 
 genei'aux, who paid annuallj' into the treasury a fixed 
 sum, and collected the taxes from the people. Those 
 farmers-general held the monopolj' of the manufacture 
 and sale of tobacco and salt ; and also the octroi, 
 which was a duty on all articles entering Paris and 
 other large towns. The power delegated to these 
 contractors, was the source of grievous oppression to 
 the people. The duties called aides were imposed on 
 spirituous liquors and other articles of consumption ; 
 they also include duties on all articles worked in gold 
 or silver, on wrought iron, playing-cards, leather, pa- 
 per, starch, etc. These duties levied by collectors for 
 the benefit of government were abolished by the Na- 
 tional Assembly in 1790. The corvee, which consisted 
 in so many days' labor annually, of men, horses, oxen, 
 carriages, etc., was nominally' applicable to the main- 
 tenance of roads. The tax was payable either in 
 money or in labor. The system of taxation, so pre- 
 judicial to internal commerce, was, to a certain extent, 
 reformed by Colbert, the minister of Louis XIV., who, 
 though his views in regard to the principles of com- 
 merce were narrow and illiberal, yet improved in 
 many particulars the system of taxation, by rendering 
 it more uniform, and thus breaking down the barriers 
 which obstructed the free intercourse between the dif- 
 ferent provinces. Under his administration the public 
 revenue of France amounted in 1682 to £5,000,000. 
 
 The long and expensive wars of Louis XIV. pro- 
 duced a great accumulation of debt (nearly .£100,- 
 000,000 sterling), which, after his death, was lessened 
 by an appeal to a singular privilege, of which advan- 
 tage has often been taken in France, viz., that a new 
 sovereign is not bound to pay the debts of his predeces- 
 sor in full. During the 18th century, the revenue of 
 France increased progressively, but more slowly than 
 that of England : the vicious sj^stem of farming the 
 taxes still continued. Necker, appointed to office in 
 1776, endeavored to teach the French court the value 
 of publicit}' in financial statements ; and exhibited 
 the rare example of a war conducted for several years 
 without new taxes, the supplies being found by loans, 
 the interest of which was provided for by successive 
 retrenchments in the public expenditure. His succes- 
 sor, M. de Calonne, pursued a very different course, 
 and was found altogether incapable of the measures 
 necessary to remedy an annual deficiency of £2,000,000. 
 The revenue of France was then about £22,000,000 
 sterling. The sum required for payment of the inter- 
 est of the public debt was nearly 10,000,000 (Report 
 of Camus to the National Assembly in September, 
 1790), leaving only £12,000,000 for the army, navy, 
 civil list, and other public expenses. 
 
 Such was the state of the French finances at the era 
 
FRA 
 
 of the Eevolntion of 1789, which was followed by inva- 
 sion on the frontier, and in the interior by all the con- 
 fasion consequent on the reign of terror. In this era 
 of confiscation and judicial murder, the national debt 
 could hardly be respected. It was not, however, 
 openly canceled, but the interest was issued in as- 
 signats of no value except for purchases of national 
 property. At last, in 1798, on an approximation to 
 regularity in the management of public business, there 
 was passed a law declaring that one third of the old 
 national debt should be sacred, and the interest on it 
 payable in ions, or paper receivable in discharge of 
 taxes. This third was called la tiers provisoire, but its 
 price in the marlcet continued very low until Bonaparte 
 succeeded to power, and placed Guadin, afterward 
 Duke of Gaeta, at the head of the treasury, when 
 means were found to redeem the public funds from 
 their depression, and to resume the payment of the 
 dividends in cash. The amount of the revenue was 
 greatly impaired by the general confusion of the Rev- 
 olution. In 1799 the expenditure exceeded the receipt 
 by £8,000,000 sterling. (Gaudin, Notice Hisiorique des 
 Finances de la France.) A partial reduction of expend- 
 iture, and improvements in the collection of the taxes, 
 brought, in 1803, the receipts to £19,500,000, while 
 the expenditure was £20,000,000. In subsequent 
 years both received a progressive augmentation \ and 
 in 1813 the revenue derived from France, exclusive of 
 conquered territory, was about 27,000,000. On the res- 
 toration of the Bourbons, in 1814, the public debt, fund- 
 ed and unfunded, did not exceed 123,000,000 (Bignon, 
 FxposS Comparati/ de la France) ; its interest £7,900,- 
 000. France had thus a fair prospect of financial 
 prosperity, when the return of Bonaparte, and a second 
 invasion by the allied troops, overthrew public credit, 
 and produced a national loss and a general derange- 
 ment of trade. It has been estimated that the return 
 of Napoleon from Elba, which led to the second inva- 
 sion of France by the allied troops occasioned a loss to 
 the country of 4,000,000,000 of francs. The direct 
 loss, which included the expenses paid to the allied 
 powers, and those incurred by the maintenance of 
 their armies, placed in- cantonments throughout 
 France, may be estimated ; but the indirect evils occa- 
 sioned by the ravages inseparable from the invasion of 
 a hostile army, by the confusion and derangement of 
 all commercial relations, and the impossibility of col- 
 lecting the revenue in such a time of trouble, can not 
 be summed up in money. At the same time there are 
 scarcely any national diificultles which may not be 
 overcome by the energies and industry of a free and 
 intelligent people such as the French. With an incon- 
 siderable addition to her debt, France has defrayed all 
 these heavy expenses, the contributions imposed on 
 her by the allied powers, the expenses of the tempor- 
 arj' maintenance of their armies, and her own warlike 
 expenses. For this purpose, however, it became 
 necessary in 1815 to impose additional taxes. In 1817 
 a loan was required of 392,989,000 francs j and in 
 1818, to defray the extraordinary contribution of 
 575,807,197 francs, paid in that year to the allies, the 
 minister had recourse to another loan of 220,610,718 
 francs ; while, by the taxes which had been imposed, 
 the revenue of that year was carried to £35,000,000. 
 
 Mean Eevenite of Feance in the Ten Tears between 
 1882 AND 1842. 
 
 124: FRA 
 
 The expenditure of 1853 was as follows : 
 
 Francs. 
 
 Interest on Public Debt, etc 872,814,577 
 
 Dotations— Civil List, etc 17,268,580 
 
 Expenses of various Ministries— Justice, 
 
 Foreign Affairs, etc 787,568,516 
 
 Expense of Collecting and Paying Taxes, 
 
 etc 151,095,885 
 
 Drawbacks, Discounts, Bounties, etc. . . 83,942,983 
 
 1 1832. I 1842. 1 
 
 
 341,886.167 
 181,108,061 
 27,080,175 
 162,&56,890 
 198,188,061 
 
 49,468,948 
 
 14,018,509 
 
 Frnncs. 
 
 401,900,385 
 
 280,896,780 
 
 84,700,000 
 
 181,107,286 
 
 240,568,821 
 
 47,025,500 
 
 4,349,082 
 
 19,127,972 
 
 2,890,000 
 
 12,519,749 
 
 Registration, Stamps, etc — 
 
 
 
 Post Office 1 
 
 Algerian Kovenne 1 
 
 Prod. Ilniversitaires ( 
 
 Prod. Eventnels, etc J 
 
 Divers Sources 
 
 Total 
 
 954,105,791 
 
 1,174,584,976 
 
 Total 1,412,274,991 
 
 Travaux Extrordinaires or Additional 
 
 "Works 72,788,884 
 
 Total 1,485,013,825 
 
 Besides the public revenue of the empire, the com- 
 munes raised a revenue for their own local expenses. 
 According to the latest published accounts, this rev- 
 enue arises partly from octrois, which amount through- 
 out France (there being 1436 octrois) to 95,176,602 
 francs, and partly from other sources, the whole of 
 which amounted to 230,633,209 francs in 1850. The 
 total of the ordinarj' waj-s and means of France in the 
 Budget Provisoire of 1855 amounted to 1,528,110,288 
 francs. During the administration of M. VilHe the 
 five per cents, in France were converted into a three per 
 cent, fund, at the rate of 133'33 cents, for every 100 of 
 the five per cent, stock ; so that the whole five per 
 cent, stock, bearing an annual interest of 30,574,116 
 francs, was converted into a three per cent, fund, of 
 which the capital was increased one third. The effect 
 of this transaction was, in reality, to reduce the inter- 
 est on the five per cent, stock to four per cent., by 
 which he saved annual interest to the amount of 
 6,000,000, though by a very useless complexity in his 
 operations. The interest on the public debt of France, 
 thus reduced, may be stated as follows : it amounted 
 in 1855 to 418,370,442 francs. The sinking fund, or 
 caisse d^ amort issement, ceased altogether its operations 
 on the 14th July, 1848. In the 32 years of its opera- 
 tion the caisse d'amortissement liberated the country 
 from liabilities to the amount ofl, 633,474,090 francs, and 
 placed at the disposition of the treasury, from 1833 to 
 1848, 1,016,693,856 francs. 
 
 Taxation. — The ancient system of taxation in France 
 was subverted by the National Assembly in 1791, and 
 new taxes were substituted in lieu of those formerly in 
 force. These consisted of direct and indirect taxes. 
 The direct taxes are, 1. Contribution fonciere, or land- 
 tax ; 2. Contribution pcrsonelle H mobiliere ; 3. A tax 
 on doors and windows ; 4. Droits depatente, or a license 
 dutj- on particular trades and professions, and a duty 
 on mines. 
 
 The contribution fon^iere is raised equally on all 
 lands and houses, in proportion to their nett revenue. 
 There are no longer any exemptions in favor of the 
 nobility since the first Kevolution, in 1789. The im- 
 perial domains and the property of the State are alone 
 exempted. The contribution pcrsonelle et mobiliereis 
 divided into two parts. The first is a species of poll 
 tax, rated at three days' labor, calculated in money 
 value to be from 10 to 30 sous per day, and levied on 
 all males above 18 years of age. The contribution mo- 
 biliere is a house-tax, levied on rents from 200 to 3600 
 francs. For the contribution pcrsonelle, the octroi, 
 which is a custom-duty on all goods entering a town, 
 is substituted in Paris and other large cities. The tax 
 on street-doors, gateways, and windows, varies in pro- 
 portion to the size of the town in which the house is 
 situated, and also in proportion to the size and value 
 of the house, and the number of windows. It is regu- 
 lated by a tariff, in which are two divisions. The 
 droits depatentes, or license duty, is levied on every per- 
 son following a profession, trade, or business ; and is 
 divided into two heads — the proportional tax or the 
 fixed tax, which depends on the extent and population 
 of tlie town where he exercises his profession. A 
 merchant pays from 40 to 5000 francs per annum, ac- 
 cording to the population of the place where he resides, 
 and an additional 10 per cent, on the rent of his dwell- 
 
FRA 
 
 "725 
 
 FRA 
 
 ing-house. Bankers in all cases pay 610 francs a^year ; 
 and there is in like manner a fixed rate for other in- 
 ferior trades and professions. The duty on mines 
 is in proportion to the extent of the surface, and also 
 to their nett produce. 
 
 The law which fixes the amount of the direct taxes 
 also determines the quota which each department is 
 required to pay. This is announced by the minister 
 of finance to the prefect of the department, who com- 
 municates it to his sous-prefect and to the mayors. 
 The sum thus assigned by the prefect to each arron- 
 dissement is subdivided by the councils of the arron- 
 dissement and by the communes ; and the amount 
 allotted to each is apportioned among the inhabitants by 
 persons appointed for that purpose, called repartiieurs 
 or assessors. These assessors regulate the amount of 
 taxable property, and they fix the ^cale. The land-tax 
 is, however, very unequally assessed, amounting in 
 some departments to six per cent., while in the depart- 
 ment of the Seine it is seventeen per cent. The equali- 
 zation of the land-tax has always been accounted a cap- 
 ital object in the financial policy of France ; and with 
 this view a very minute survey and measurement of all 
 the landed property in France (termed the cadastre) 
 was begun in 1808, and finished in 1847. The cadastre, 
 accurate as it generally is, can not, however, be 
 considered as the expression of actual facts. The 
 propriHis imposable, or taxable property, consists, ao^ 
 cording to the cadastre, of 25,581,658 hectares of cul- 
 tivable land ; 6,159,226 hectares of meadows ; 2,090,- 
 533 hectares of vines ; 628,235 hectares of orchards, 
 nurseries, and gardens ; 4,175 hectares of mines ; and 
 17,400 hectares of lakes, ponds, etc. The inequality 
 of the land-tax has long been a subject of loud and 
 just complaint j and various plans have been adopted 
 for a more accurate classification of the land. But 
 these have generally proved inefficient and unsatisfac- 
 torj'. 
 
 The indirect taxes consist chiefly of fourteen prin- 
 cipal kinds — of the droits reunis or excise duties on 
 articles of consumption, of stamp duties, registration 
 duties, duties on carriages, on canals and ferry-boats, 
 on gold and silver plate. A revenue is raised from 
 the monopoly of tobacco and gunpowder; from the 
 post office ; the octroi, or custom duty on all articles 
 entering large towns, one tenth of which goes to the 
 imperial treasury, the remainder being applied to local 
 expenses. The customs form an important branch of 
 the French revenues. The droits rhmis, or excise 
 duties, are laid on wine, brandy, etc., which pay 1\ 
 francs per hectolitre of 120 English' quarts, on being 
 removed from one place to another. Wine in bot- 
 tles pays 10 ^ncs per hectolitre on its removal; 
 cider, perry, and mead, pay 80 centimes per hectolitre. 
 Ten per cent, of the above duty is paid on their re- 
 moval from the wholesale warehouse. Prior to 1830 a 
 duty distinct from the octroi was levied on the entry 
 of all wine or spirituous liquors into communes the 
 population of which amounted to 1500 and upward. 
 All communes whose population does not amount to 
 4000 are exempted from this tax ; and a new tariff has 
 been established, rising progressively from 4000 to 
 5000 inhabitants, in proportion to the estimated wealth 
 of the departments, which are divided into four sepa- 
 rate classes — a very vague, as we should suppose, and 
 uncertain standard of taxation. There 'is a further 
 duty on wine and liquors sold by retail, which since 
 1830 has been reduced from 15 to 10 per cent. A 
 reduction of 3 per cent, on this duty is made to deal- 
 ers, and of 25 per cent, if the wine be grown by the 
 retailer liimself. Strong beer pays a duty of 2 francs 
 40 centimes, and small beer a duty of 12 sous, per 
 hectolitre. Retailers of liquors must take out a dis- 
 tinct license, which varies, in proportion to the size 
 of the town, from 6 to 20 francs. Proprietors of 
 public carriages pay one tenth of the price of each 
 place for passengers, a third being deducted for va- 
 
 cant places, and one tenth of the price received for 
 merchandise. Private carriages are subjected to a 
 moderate duty, according to their size, of 40 francs 
 per annum for a carriage with two wheels, and hold- 
 ing two persons ; and of 150 francs per annum for a 
 carriage with four wheels, and holding nine persons. 
 The enregistrement, or registration duties, embraces a 
 variety of transactions, where property is conveyed 
 or given away by marriage-settlement or otherwise. 
 There is a duty on gifts inter vivos, which increases 
 with the distance of the relation between the parties. 
 It was modified by an ordonnanoe of Louis Philippe in 
 1832. The duties payable on registrj' are either fixed 
 or ad valorem I the fixed or certain duties apply to 
 common certificates, those of life or residence, account- 
 books, bills of lading, appointments of arbitrations, 
 valuations of furniture, and the like. The ad valorem 
 duty applies to all bonds or obligations, discharges, 
 judgments, deposits or releases of sums of money, and 
 for every transfer of property, etc. The stamp duty 
 applies to receipts, bills of exchange, newspapers, 
 handbills, playbills, admission cards to public places, 
 and upon paper used for Civil and judicial actes. 
 
 The total received from the imp6t direct in 1854 was 
 411,273,000 francs. In 1853 the sum received was 
 420,064,000 francs, which shows » deficit of nearly 
 9,000,000 of francs in 1854. The total receipts of 
 the impSts indirects in 1854 were 847,260,000 francs. 
 The impot on salt produced in 1854 a sum of 33,270,- 
 131 francs. The total of "droits" received in 1854 
 amounted to 149,337,510 francs. 
 
 Francs. 
 
 Land carriage or roulage 81,000,000 of 
 tons, the mean transport at 1'5 leagufes, 
 at the mean price of 1 franc per ton . 465,000,000 
 The public voltures which travel 18 
 leagues per, day, in place of the, com- 
 mon carriages of 8 or 10 leagues, 
 
 yield, per annum. 60,000,000 
 
 The duty on the public conveyances re- 
 turns^6,000,000. francs; three fourths 
 are derived from the passengers, and 
 one fourth from the goods they con- 
 voy. 
 The share capital of the French railways in 1848 
 was £49,044,000 sterling. The total merchandise con- 
 veyed per transit in 1844, was in value 229,820,795 
 francs. In 1854=54,926,640 francs official value. 
 Value of wine, spirits, beer, and cider consumed in 
 France, reckoned at 500,000,000 francs, give 311,000,- 
 000 francs wine, 54,000,000 francs brandy, 59,000,000 
 francs beer, and 76,000,000 francs cider. 
 
 The duties levied on this branch of the French rev- 
 enues produced £5,483,765 in 1852 and £5,505,686 in 
 1853. In France these duties are laid on in many 
 cases more with a view to restriction and monopoly 
 than to revenue. France sacrifices a large revenue 
 for the encouragement of the colonial monopoly ; pay- 
 ing for the produce of the colonies an exorbitant price, 
 and afterward, as in the case of sugar, the staple arti- 
 cle that is imported from the colonies, giving a great 
 portion of the duty as a bount}' on its exportation to 
 foreign countries, to indemnify the exporter for the 
 loss that he would incur if he were selling the sugar 
 at its ordinary price in the markets of Europe. In 
 1830 the gross receipts from the sugar duty amounted 
 to £1,397,340, of which one third, namely, £420,903, 
 were paid back in bounties on the exportation of the 
 surplus. Thus the nett duty only amounted to £976,- 
 437, while in 1822, though the quantity of sugar con- 
 sumed was only 1,086,596 cwts., or 281,075 cwts. less 
 than in 1830, the nett amount of the duty was £1,234,- 
 653. The consumption of sugar in France in 1847 
 only reached to about 2,570,000 cwts. It is by means 
 of heavy custom-duties that the French legislators en- 
 deavor to preserve the monopoly of the home market 
 to their own manufacturers, by which policy they com- 
 pel the French community to buy at a high price the 
 inferior articles of their own manufacture, rather than 
 the better articles of the foreigner at a lower price. The 
 
FRA 
 
 726 
 
 FRA 
 
 increased numbers and superior vigilance of tlie cus- 
 tom-house officers liave been still counteracted by the 
 new expedients and persevering ingenuity of the 
 smuggler. 
 
 The frontier of France is the scene of this persecu- 
 tion against commerce, where all the illegal, daring, 
 and ingenious resources of the contraband traders are 
 called into activity. Among other expedients, they 
 trained packs of dogs, according to Messrs. Villiers and 
 Bourtry, to carry prohibited goods across the frontier. 
 These dogs being conducted to the frontier, are kept 
 without food for many hours ; they are then beaten 
 and laden with goods, and are started on their travels 
 when it begins to grow dark, and reach the abodes of 
 their masters as soon as they can, where they are well 
 treated, and receive a full meal. According to the 
 accounts of the French custom-house, 40,278 of these 
 dogs were destroyed in the year 1830, on which ac- 
 count premiums were paid to the custom-house officers 
 to the amount of 40,278 francs. That the trade, 
 though it may be obstructed, is not prevented, is evi- 
 dent from the circumstance that there are regular 
 rates of insurance on the convej'ance of contraband 
 goods into France, varj'ing from 10 to 70 per cent. A 
 revision, and if possible a reduction, of these heavy 
 duties would be the true policy of France. Monopoly 
 , was never yet the source of commercial greatness in 
 any country. 
 
 National Income and Capital.- — Population. — Of the 
 official surveys of the French territory, by far the most 
 minute and^accurate is the cadastre.^ a survey which be- 
 came indispensable from the time it was determined to 
 exchange the taxes on consumption for taxes on pro- 
 duce. A return of the rent of land, such as was made 
 under the property-tax act in England, would not have 
 been practicable in France, where so many thousands of 
 petty lots are cultivated by their proprietors. At first 
 the cadastre proceeded on the plan of an estimate par 
 masses de culture, or continuous valuation of extensive 
 tracts ; but this proving unsatisfactory, it has been con- 
 ducted since 1807 on a plan of such minute detail, as to 
 give the value of every separate^areeHe or patch of land. 
 The progress of this minute survey of the landed prop- 
 erty in France has been retarded by many causes ; and 
 in 1830 not above two thirds of the land had been sur- 
 veyed. It was estimated in the report of one of the 
 committees of the Chamber in 1832, that it would still 
 require from that period about eight years, and an ex- 
 pense of above £2,000,000 sterling, to complete it. 
 They had only surveyed 31,000,000 of hectares, or 68, 
 000,000 of acres. The annual expense of the survey 
 is £120,000. 
 
 The wages of mechanics are so fluctuating and vari- 
 ous, that a satisfactory statement of them can scarcely 
 be produced. It maj', however, be assumed that they 
 are generally 20 or 30 per cent, lower than in England. 
 The rate of wages of the agricultural population was 
 thus estimated in 1851 : 
 
 Fr. cents. Franca. 
 
 6 millions of men, at 1 50 per diem 1,800,000,000 
 6 " of women, " T6 " 900,000,000 
 
 6 " of children, " 25 " 3,000,000 
 
 18 " of agrioul. laborers paid yearly. 8,000,000,000 
 
 Expense of Living. — A quarter of a century ago the 
 difference in the expense of living in France and in 
 England was about a third less in favor of England. 
 As far as regards provisions, this difference was some- 
 what greater ; but it received a counterpoise in the 
 greater cost of fuel. Paris is now as expensive 
 compared to the rest of France, as London is compared 
 to the rest of England. In 1855 prices were generally 
 on a par with prices in London, and in house-rent and 
 the prices of lodgings and fuel, Paris exceeds London. 
 
 In the end of the seventeenth century, the territory 
 of France, when very nearly equal to its present ex- 
 tent, appears, from the report of the intendants or 
 provincial governors, to have contained about 20,000,- 
 
 000 of inhabitants. This number was found, by the 
 census made by order of the National Assembly, to 
 have increased nearly a third in the course of a centu- 
 ry; the amount, in 1791, being 26,363,600, a number 
 which, by computation, made in 1817, had further in- 
 creased to above 29,000,000. In the year 1820 the 
 population was 30,451,187 : and, according to the ordon- 
 nance of January 1832, it amounted to 32,661,678. By 
 the census of 1851 it appears that the population of 
 France was 35,781,628. The marriages in 1832 and 
 1833 were annually about 236,996, and the deaths 
 about 785,268, of which 395,250 were males, and 388,- 
 018 females. The births were 967,583, of which there 
 were 498,707 boys and 468,826 giris. The number of 
 illegitimate children was then 68,081. In 1852, twen- 
 ty years after the period here spoken of, the total num- 
 ber of births was 965,080, of which 895,236 were 
 legitimate, and 69,844 illegitimate. The number of 
 children still-bom in 1852 amounted to 37,901, the 
 number of deaths to 811,695, and the number of mar- 
 riages to 281,360. 
 
 The estimates of population in France, subsequently 
 to 1791, are formed, not by actual survey, but by 
 adding for the period which has intervened, the births, 
 and deducting the deaths, of which an accurate record 
 is kept in the public offices. 
 
 Population of Towns with 18,000 Inhabitants and 
 upwaed in 1882 and in 1851. 
 
 Towns. 
 
 Paris 
 
 Marseilles., . 
 
 Lyons 
 
 Bordeaux 
 
 Kouen 
 
 Nantes 
 
 Lille 
 
 Toulouse — 
 Strasbourg... 
 
 Amiens 
 
 Metz 
 
 Nimes 
 
 Caen 
 
 Eheims . . . . 
 Montpellier. . 
 
 Angers 
 
 Avignon 
 
 Brest. 
 
 Nancy 
 
 1832. I 1851. 
 
 7T4,8B8 1, 
 145,115 
 138,715 
 99,062 
 88,086 
 77,992 
 69,073 
 59,630 
 49,712 
 46,001 
 44,416 
 41,^-" 
 89,140 
 85,9T1 
 86,825 
 82,748 
 29,889 
 29,860 
 29,788 
 
 ,058,262 
 186,082 
 156,169 
 123,986 
 91,512 
 91,803 
 63,468 
 86,664 
 63,642 
 49,189 
 48,484 
 49,480 
 40,569 
 43,648 
 40,222 
 43,088 
 31,812 
 86,492 
 40,289 
 
 Towns. 
 
 Eenni3S 
 
 Besancoa 
 
 Versailles 
 
 Tonlon 
 
 Olermont-Fer- 
 
 rnnd 
 
 Limoges 
 
 Montauban... 
 
 Dunkirk 
 
 G-renoble 
 
 Havre de 
 
 Grace . . . 
 
 Troyes 
 
 Tours 
 
 Poitiers . . . 
 
 Aix 
 
 Boulogne. . 
 St. Omer.. 
 LOrient... 
 
 29,680 
 29,167 
 28,477 
 28,419 
 
 28,267 
 27,070 
 25,460 
 
 24,888 
 
 28,816 
 23,740 
 28,236 
 23,128 
 22,675 
 20,856 
 19..344 
 18.322 
 
 1B61. 
 33,066 
 35,345 
 29,976 
 46,610 
 
 37,010 
 23,314 
 
 26,886 
 26, 
 
 26,410 
 25,686 
 
 28,818 
 21,255 
 29,488 
 19,226 
 22,561 
 
 The ratio of the increase of population in France is 
 greatest in the lower classes ; the middling and upper 
 ranks have seldom large families. In that country 
 the population evidently increases faster since the 
 adoption of vaccine inoculation. 
 
 French Weights and Measures. — The weights and 
 measuires of France were reduced, as is well known, to 
 a very simple and uniform scale sogn after the first 
 Revolution ; but there has been much difficulty in ac- 
 customing the inhabitants, particularly in countrj' 
 districts, to the adoption of the new system, which 
 unluckily preserved none of the names with which 
 they were familiar. In 1812 a kind of compromise 
 took place — government sanctioning the retention of 
 the old names, such as pounds, ounces, ells, and bush- 
 els ; but requiring that their contents should be calcu- 
 lated by a reference to the new standard. It is 
 accordingly on this footing that business is now trans- 
 acted in France. The new weights and measures are 
 in general larger by a fraction than the old, and the 
 use of the latter is prohibited by law. 
 
 The fundamental standard adopted in France for the 
 metrical system of weights and measures, is a quadrant 
 of the meridian — that is to say, the distance from the 
 equator to the north pole. This quadrant is divided 
 into 10,000,000 of equal parts, and one of these parts or 
 divisions is called a metre, which is adopted as the unit 
 of length ; and from it, by decimal multiplication and 
 division, all the other measures are derived. 
 
 The length of this quadrant was ascertained by 
 MM. Delambre and Mecham, by measuring an arc of 
 the meridian between the parallels of Dunkirk and 
 
FRA 
 
 m 
 
 FRA 
 
 Barcelona, and has been fonnd to contain 5,180,740 
 French toises, or 32,808,992 English feet. This num- 
 ber divided by 10,000,000 gives 3-2808992 English feet, 
 or 89-37079 English inclies very nearly, for the true 
 length of the French metre. 
 
 In order to express the decimal proportions, the fol- 
 lowing vocabulary of names has been adopted : 
 
 For multipliers the prefix Beoa means 10 times. 
 
 " " Heoto " 100 " 
 
 " " Kilo " 1,000 " 
 
 " " Mybia " 10,000 " 
 
 For divisors the prefix Beci expresses -1 part 
 
 " " Oenti " -01 " 
 
 " « MiLi " -001 " 
 
 It may assist the memory to observe that the pre- 
 fixes for multiplying are Greek, and those for dividing 
 Latin; thus decametre means 10 metres, and deci- 
 metre 1-lOth of a metre; hectometre means 100 
 metres, and centimetre 1-lOOth of a metre ; kilometre 
 means 1000 metres, and millimetre 1-lOOOth of a metre. 
 The metre (as before stated) is the element or prime unit 
 of long measure, and is equal to 39-37079 English inches. 
 
 The are, which is a square decametre (or 100 square 
 metres), is the elemental unit of square or superficial 
 measure. It is equal to 119-6033 square yards, or 
 very nearly 2-81 parts of an acre. 
 
 The store, which is a cubic metre, is the elemental 
 unit of solid measure, and equal to 85-3166 cubic feet 
 English, or nearly 36J- cubic feet. 
 
 The litre, which is the cubic decimetre, is the ele- 
 mental unit of all liquid measures, and of all other 
 measures of capacity. It is equal to 61-02705 cubic 
 inches, or is verj' nearly ll-50thB or 22-lOOths of an 
 imperial gallon. 
 
 Lastly, the gramme. Which is the weight of a cubic 
 centimetre of distilled water at its temperature of 
 gi-eatest condensation, is the elemental unit of all 
 weights, and is equal to 15-4325 grains troy, or 13-23ds 
 of an avoirdupois dram nearly. 
 
 Tables op French 'Weights and Meashkes, with theib 
 Vautbs in the English Impeeial Standakds. 
 
 Millimotre = 
 
 Centimetre = 
 
 Decimetre = 
 
 Metre 
 
 Lineal Measure. 
 
 Inches. 
 •03987079 
 -898T079 
 8-98T0T9 
 
 Yords. 
 = 89-8T0T9 ,=„ 1-t 
 
 Decametre = 8280899 
 Hectometre = 828-0899 
 Kilometre = 8280-899 
 Miriametre =82808-99 
 
 ■= 10-98688 
 = 109-8683 = 5-80 mile. 
 = 1098-688 = 18-29 " 
 =10986-83 =6 8-14 miles. 
 
 Superficial Measure. 
 
 Centiare 
 Deciare 
 
 Are 
 Decare 
 
 Ilcctaro 
 Kiiliare 
 Mlriare 
 
 Sq. Yards. 
 1-196088= 
 11-96033 = 
 
 Sq. Feet, 
 
 10-7648 
 
 = 119-6083 f= 
 = 1196-083 % 
 = 11960-83 
 = 119608-9 
 =1916038- 
 
 Acre. 
 
 ■0247114= 
 
 •247114 = 
 
 2-47114 = 
 
 = 24-T114 
 
 =247-114 
 
 Sq. Inches. 
 
 1550-059 
 Acree, 
 
 1-40 n'rly. 
 
 1-4 " 
 = 2 1-2 " 
 = 24 7-10 " 
 =24T 1-9 " 
 
 Solid Measure. 
 
 Cnbic Incbes. Cable Feet. 
 
 Centislere = 610-2705 = 
 
 Decistere p 6102-705 = 8-63166 
 
 Store '= 61027-05 = 85-8166 
 
 Dooastere = 610270-5 =358-166 
 
 Measure of Capacity. 
 Cubic Tnchc!!. 
 
 Centilitre = -6182705= 
 Decilitre = 6-102705 
 Litre = 61-02705 
 Decalitre = 610-2705 
 Hectolitre = 6102-705 
 
 = 1-i 
 
 = 18-0802 
 
 11-50 gallons nearly, 
 1-5 " 
 
 Mirialltro =61027-05 
 
 =220 1-100 ". 
 
 Geptigramme 
 
 Decigramme 
 
 Gramme 
 
 Decagramme 
 
 Hectogramme 
 
 Kilogramme 
 
 Mlriagramme 
 
 Measure op Weight. 
 
 Grains Troy. 
 
 = -154826 
 
 = 1-54825 
 
 18-4825 
 164-825 
 = 154S-25 
 = 15432-5 
 = 154825- 
 
 •35275 0!. av. 
 8-5275 " 
 2-2047 lbs. av. 
 32-047 " 
 
 The following are some nearer approximations to 
 the values of the weights and measures of most fre- 
 quent occurrence : 
 
 Metre about 1 yard 3 Inches. 
 
 Decametre " 11 yards. 
 
 Hectometre " 1-16 mile. 
 
 K1L0.METRE " 6-8 or more nearly 18-29 mile. 
 One of the old measures frequently used, the toise, 
 is equal to 2 yards 5 inches. 
 
 Are about 1-40 acre. 
 
 Decare 1-4 acre or 1 rood. 
 
 Hectare 2 1-2 acres. 
 
 Decistere 8 1-2 cubic feet 
 
 Stere 12-8 cubic yariis. 
 
 Deoasterb 18 1-10 ■" " 
 
 Litre about.. .. 1-5 or 11-50 gallon. 
 
 Decalitre 2 1-5 gallons. 
 
 Hectolitre 22 gallons or 2 8-4 bushels. 
 
 Myrialitre ... 81-2 quarters. 
 
 Gramme 5-9 dram avoird. 
 
 Decagramme.. 1-8 oz. " 
 
 Hectogramme. 8 1-2 " " 
 
 Kilogramme . . 2 1-5 lbs. " 
 
 **KnJg^Simr V^ 8 1-^ 'O^- 1- *» 2 -'. 
 French Money. — The French monetary unit ofvalwi 
 is the franc, which, in the gold coinage of 20 and 40 
 franc pieces, is equal in value to 9'525 pence sterling, 
 and in the silver coinage of francs and five-franc 
 pieces, is equal to 9'705 pence ; but the common rate 
 of exchange is 25 francs for 1 sovereign, which gives 
 the value of a franc equal to 9 3-5 pence sterling. 
 
 s. d. d. fartll. iarth. 
 
 Centime = 0-096=0 0-384=0 2-5 nearly. 
 
 Pecime = 0-96 =0 8-S4 =8 21-25 
 
 Franc = 9 6 =9 3-6 
 
 ' Five-franc piece... = 4 
 
 Napoleon or 20-l_-,o n 
 
 franc piece j- -lb 
 
 In reducing French money to English, from any 
 number of francs subtract their fifth part, and the 
 remainder will be their value in shillings. Or mul- 
 tiply the francs by four, point off the two right hand 
 figures of the product for decimals, and the result will 
 be their value in pounds and decimals of a pound ster- 
 ling.— E. B. 
 
 ComTnercialllelaiionsqfiAe United States with France. 
 — Prior to the ratification of the treaty of the 6th of 
 February, 1778, we have no reliable account of the 
 value of our trade with France. The navigation acts 
 and other regulations imposed upon th? , colonies by 
 the mother country, strongly tended to fetter and em- 
 barrass their intercourse with other nations ; but, in 
 spite of them, irregular, illicit commerce was carried 
 on to a considerable extent. By the treaty alluded 
 to, the high contracting parties reciprocally bound 
 themselves to grant to each other, in respect to com- 
 merce, all the privileges and immunities which either 
 of them might thereafter grant to the most favored na^ 
 tions ; to charge no more in Imposts, port duties, or 
 other customary burdens of trade, to the subjects or 
 citizens of each, respectively, than should be charged 
 to the subjects or citizens of other powers ; and to 
 protect the vessels of each other when within their re- 
 spective jurisdictions. The subjects or citizens of 
 either were excluded from the fisheries of the other, 
 and the United States became bound not to disturb 
 the subjects of the King of France when fishing at the 
 Banks of Newfoundland. The citizens of the United 
 States were exempted from the droit d'aubaine, and 
 were empowered to devise real and personal property, 
 and their heirs were permitted to inherit without be- 
 coming naturalized in France ; and corresponding 
 privileges were secured to French subjects residing in 
 this country. The doctrine that " free ships make 
 free goods" was recognized, and the articles to be 
 deemed contraband of war were enumerated. The re- 
 maining stipulations refer exclusively to contingen- 
 cies of war, and need not be enumerated. On the 14th 
 of November, 1788, a convention was entered into and 
 ratified, defining the powers and duties of the consuls 
 of the high contracting parties. This convention iras 
 
PRA 
 
 '728 
 
 FKA 
 
 intended the more effectually to secure the faithful 
 observance of the treaty stipulations. 
 
 These arrangements were ratified while the Con- 
 tinental Congress had no authority to regulate for- 
 eign compaerce ; and the ratification, therefore, only 
 amounted to a pledge that the States would conform 
 to its provisions, they having the sole power to levy 
 imposts and port and tonnage duties. The arrange- 
 ments continued in force, however, and were observed 
 for more than 20 years, and until annulled by the act 
 of the 7th July, 1798, on the ground of repeated viola- 
 tions of treaty stipulations by the successive revolu- 
 tionary governments of France. Many of the fetters 
 of trade were removed by this treatj- ; and, although 
 importations and exportations were, for a time, ex- 
 posed to the depredations of British cruisers, the en- 
 terprise of our seamen opened a commerce of no 
 Inconsiderable value. It was estimated that, during 
 the three years immediately preceding the French 
 Eevolution, the average annual value of our exports 
 to France was 4il,520,000, and of our imports from 
 thence, $380,000 ; showing an excess of exports of 
 the value 6f $1,140,000. The imports and exports up 
 to the date of the annulment of the treaty of 1778, 
 were as follows : 
 
 Year.. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. Excess of exports. 
 
 1795 
 
 1796 
 
 1797 
 
 179S 
 
 $8,671,881 
 1,835,066 
 8,045,796 
 1,371,727 
 
 $7,698,688 $4,027,352 
 8,171.759 1,836,693 
 8,825,281 779,435 
 1,476,588 104,861 
 
 This statement indicates that, from 1795, there was 
 a rapid decrease of imports and exports, and a de- 
 crease of the excess of our exports, attributable, no 
 doubt, partly to the feebleness of federal authority, but 
 chiefly to the convulsed condition of the French na- 
 tion, the continuance of war in Europe, and the conse- 
 quent disregard of treaty obligations. 
 
 Previous to the annulment of the commercial 
 treaty. Congress passed an act " to suspend the com- 
 mercial intercourse between the United States and 
 France, and the dependencies thereof," approved June 
 13, 1798. It was provoked by repeated gross viola- 
 tions of the treaty by the French government and its 
 citizens. The act provided that no vessel should 
 clear from the ports of the United States for France or 
 its dependencies ; that no French vessel should enter 
 our ports without a passport from the President, unless 
 in distress ; that French vessels found in our ports, 
 and refusing to depart, should be seized and detained ; 
 and tliat the President might dissolve the prohibition 
 of the act whenever he became satisfied that the 
 French government and all under its authority were, 
 in good faith, endeavoring to prevent her citizens 
 from intermeddling with our commerce. This act 
 was continued in force until the end of the ensuing 
 session of Congress, when it expired by its own limit- 
 ation. Two days subsequent to the annulment of the 
 treaty, another act was approved, " further to protect 
 the commerce of the United States." The President 
 was thereby authorized to instruct the commanders of 
 the naval forces of the United States to capture 
 French armed vessels, which were, by the act, to be 
 forfeited, and to grant letters of marque and reprisal 
 to private citizens. These acts had the desired effect. 
 The French government was in no condition to assume 
 an attitude of open hostility. 
 
 On the 30th of September, 1800, a convention was 
 signed by the plenipotentiaries of the United States 
 and France, which was ratified in due time, for the 
 adjustment of all differences, and the regulation of 
 their future commercial intercourse. By its terms, it 
 was to continue ia force for eight years. In respect 
 to commerce, it provided that the citizens of each 
 country slj ould enjoy in the ports of the other all the 
 privileges and immunities of the most favored nations ; 
 that the citizens of either resident in the other should 
 
 have the right to devise their property without being 
 naturalized, and their heirs the right of inheritance ; 
 that six months should be allowed for the removal of 
 property in case of war ; that debts should not be se- 
 questered or confiscated in consequence of war ; that 
 consuls and other agents should be appointed ; that the 
 traders of each might buy and sell of the enemies of the 
 other, save in ports blockaded ; that certain specified 
 articles only were to be considered contraband ; that 
 free ships should make free goods, and the ships of 
 either might carry enemy's property, save only con- 
 traband articles ; that property of either found in ene- 
 my's vessels should be confiscated; that ships under 
 convoy should never be examined ; and that various 
 minor provisions enumerated in the treaty, as means 
 for the execution of its provisions, should be observed. 
 This was followed by the treaty of the 30th of April, 
 1803, for the cession of Louisiana, by which the right 
 of navigating the Mississippi and its tributaries was 
 reserved to France for 12 years ; and another conven- 
 tion of the same date, providing for the payment by 
 France of debts due our citizens. 
 
 The convention of 1800 regulated our commercial 
 intercourse with France until the 24th day of June, 
 1822. A few facts will show how our trade with that 
 nation progressed during that important period. It 
 must be borne in mind, that nearly all Europe was 
 combined for three fourths of that space of time in 
 waging war upon the French empire and its allies, 
 and that, for a considerable period, the whole of 
 France was declared by Great Britain to be in a state 
 of blockade. It must also be remembered, that in 
 1812 the Congress of the United States declared war 
 against Great Britain, and that this war was waged 
 with great vigor on both sides, until brought to a 
 triumphant close in 1815. The vast superiority of the 
 naval force of England rendered intercourse of Euro- 
 pean nations with their colonies very hazardous, if 
 hostile to her. These nations were hence compelled 
 to rely upon neutrals to carry on this branch of trade. 
 For a time, the productions of the French, Spanish, 
 and Dutch colonies could be carried to their mother 
 countries only under a neutral flag. Our vicinity to 
 the West India Islands enabled us to monopolize most 
 of this carrj'ing trade ; and, ere the war closed, such 
 was our increase of tonnage, that we obtained a con- 
 siderable portion of the carrying trade to and from the 
 East Indies. Some colonial productions were carried 
 in American bottoms directly to Europe. The greater 
 part, however, was brought into our ports ; whence, 
 after receiving a drawback, it was shipped to Europe 
 in our own vessels. The manufactures of Europe, as 
 well as those of China and the East Indies, were also 
 imported, and again exported, in large quantities, to 
 the West Indies and South America. From 1793 up 
 to 1807, the profits of these advantages were enor- 
 mous. The exigencies of the war, and the natural 
 jealousies engendered by such a condition of things, 
 involved us in disputes both with France and En- 
 gland. The latter, therefore, issued her celebrated 
 Orders in Council ; in retaliation of which, the for- 
 mer, or rather her emperor, issued his Berlin and Mi- 
 lan Decrees, which were so injurious to our trade as to 
 provoke the adoption of the embargo, which was fol- 
 lowed by the non-intercourse act, and ultimately by 
 the declaration of war against Great Britain. This 
 annihilated our carrying trade. On the return of 
 peace, we again enjoyed some of it, but to a much 
 more limited extent ttian formerly. 
 
 The tables Of exports and imports fully illustrate 
 the operation of the causes enumerated. In 1799 our 
 imports from France were of the value of $901,018. 
 The value of exports is not known. The following 
 table exhibits our exports to France from 1804 to 
 1820. We have no data on which to estimate the im- 
 ports for that period. The contrast between $5,461,000 
 in 1820, and $31,623,000, in the amount of our domes- 
 
FRA 
 
 '729 
 
 FRA 
 
 tic exports to France, ia flattering evidence of the rap- 
 Idly growing consumption of onr principal staples. 
 
 
 Domestic 
 
 Forfllffn 
 
 
 Domestic 
 
 Foreign 
 
 
 produce. 
 
 produce. 
 
 
 produce. 
 
 prodiice. 
 
 1804 
 
 «8,219,lt2 
 
 $6,604,942 
 
 1818 
 
 $1,780,291 
 
 $2,296,463 
 
 1805 
 
 8,079,862 
 
 9,886,602 
 
 1814 
 
 286,429 
 
 80,018 
 
 1806 
 
 8,226,698 
 
 8,197,694 
 
 1815 
 
 5,083,084 
 
 1,858,839 
 
 1807 
 
 2,715,141 
 
 10,816,678 
 
 1816 
 
 7,852,676 
 
 2,222,660 
 
 1808 
 
 708,607 
 
 2,126,896 
 
 1817 
 
 7,114,585 
 
 1,696,282 
 
 1809 
 
 No data. 
 
 
 1818 
 
 8,719,445 
 
 8,846,577 
 
 1810 
 
 16,782 
 
 1,672 
 
 1819 
 
 6,612,499 
 
 2,729,549 
 
 1811 
 
 678,708 
 
 1,119,802 
 
 1820 
 
 6,461,889 
 
 2,184,864 
 
 1812 
 
 402,808 
 
 2,486,218 
 
 
 
 
 For tlie remaining two years of the period of the 
 operation of the convention of 1800, the imports were, 
 in 1821, of the value of $4,989,940 ; and the exports of 
 domestic produce, $5,168,698, and foreign produce, 
 $359,861. In 1822, the imports were $6,089,940 in 
 value ; exports of domestic produce, $4,744,490, and 
 foreign produce, $1,280,870. 
 
 About the j'ear 1792, cotton became a staple prod- 
 uct of the southern States. The quantity exported to 
 France from 1790 to 1806, was 15,794,800 pounds. 
 The following table exhibits the exports of the staple 
 to that country for the years enumerated : 
 
 Yoare. Founds. 
 
 1801 844,728 
 
 1802 1,907,849 
 
 1808. 8,881,840 
 
 1804. 6,946,848 
 
 1806. 4,504,829 
 
 1806. 7,082,118 
 
 1807 6,114,868 
 
 1808. 2,087,450 
 
 Years. Pounds. 
 
 1809-10 None direct. 
 
 1811 do 
 
 1812 918,4.58 
 
 1818 10,200,848 
 
 1814 1,661,096 
 
 1816. 19,978,143 
 
 1816 18,024,667 
 
 1816—1820... Nodata.» 
 
 * The imports of cotton into France from all countries 
 during this period were : In 1817, 18,870,898 kilogrammes 
 (each 2-022 pounds); In 1818, 16,974,159 ; in 1819, 17,010,401. 
 
 In 1821 the exports of cotton were 495,733 pounds 
 of sea island, and 26,943,275 pounds of upland, the 
 value of the whole being $4,531,861. The fluctuations 
 in quantity during this period are plainly traceable to 
 the wars and confusion in Europe, and to our last war 
 with Great Britain. From 1822 to 1834, the exports 
 of cotton to France were as follows (the figures are 
 compiled from the United States' Treasury Eeports on 
 Commerce and Navigation) : 
 
 Yoftrs. 
 
 Yeitrs. Founds. 
 
 1829 66,680,800 
 
 1880....;.... 46,856,000 
 
 1831 60,111,600 
 
 1882. 69,242,600 
 
 1888 68,401,800 
 
 1884. 69,491,400 
 
 Founds. 
 
 20,900,000 
 26,881,200 
 84,647,800 
 
 1825 29,898,800 
 
 1826 48,226,200 
 
 1827 48,186,000 
 
 182& 47,667,000 
 
 Tobacco became an important export of this coun- 
 try at the close of the last century. The following 
 table exhibits our exportations of this article to France 
 during the period we are now considering. The regu- 
 lations of the two countries in respect to it will be 
 elucidated in another part of this digest. 
 
 Yenrs. 
 
 Hogshends. 
 
 Yonrs. 
 
 Hoirsheadi. 
 
 1800 
 
 148 
 
 1807 
 
 2,876 
 
 1801 
 
 . 6,006 
 
 1808 
 
 566 
 
 
 , 16,216 
 
 ; 9,815 
 
 1811 
 
 669 
 
 1808 
 
 1812 
 
 142 
 
 1804 
 
 14,628 
 
 1813 
 
 188 
 
 1808 
 
 12,186 
 
 1816 
 
 2,848 
 
 1806 
 
 9,182 
 
 1816 
 
 4,076 
 
 In 1809 and 1810 there was no exportation. The 
 same circumstance occurred in 1814. If any was ex- 
 ported, it was so inconsiderable as not to have been 
 noticed by statisticians. From 1817 to 1820 we have 
 no statistical data. In 1821, 3,478 hogsheads were ex- 
 ported to France. These cotton and tobacco tables, 
 like those of general imports and exports, are marked 
 in their character by the course of political and mili- 
 tary events. Another period of our trade with France 
 commences with the " Convention of Navigation and 
 Commerce," signed by the plenipotentiaries of the 
 two powers on the 24th of June, 1822, and ratified and 
 declared in operation by the United States on the 12th 
 February, 1823. That convention provides that arti- 
 cles, the growth, produce, or manufacture of the 
 United States, when exported to France in vessels of 
 
 the United States, shall pay an additional duty, not 
 exceeding 20 francs ($3 75) per ton of merchandise, 
 over and above the duties paid on the like articles 
 exported to France in French vessels ; that articles, 
 the growth, produce, or manufacture of France, im- 
 ported into the United States in French vessels, shall 
 pay an additional duty not exceeding $3 75 per ton of 
 merchandise, over and above the duties paid on lilce 
 articles imported in vessels of the United States ; that 
 no discriminating duties shall be levied upon the pro- 
 ductions of France imported in French bottoms into 
 our ports for re-exportation ; that a like advantage 
 shall be given, and is given, to the United States ; 
 that tlie following quantities shall be considered a ton 
 for the articles specified, viz. : 4 61-gallou hogsheads, 
 or 244 gallons of 231 cubic inches of wine, American 
 measure ; 244 gallons of brandies and all other liquors ; 
 50 cubic feet of silk, American measure, in the United 
 States J and 42 cubic feet, French measure, in France ; 
 804 pounds avoirdupois of cotton ; 1,600 pounds avoir- 
 dupois of tobacco ; 2,240 pounds avoirdupois of pot 
 and pearl-ashes ; 1,600 pounds avoirdupois of rice ; 
 and for all weighable articles not specified, 2,240 
 pounds avoirdupois ; that the duties of tonnage, light- 
 money, pilotage, port-charges, brokeragej and all 
 other duties on foreign shipping, over and above those 
 paid by the national Shipping in the two countries, 
 other than those above specified, shall not exceed, in 
 France, for vessels of the United States, 5 francs (94 
 cents) per ton of the vessel's American register, nor 
 for vessels of France in the United States 94 cents per 
 ton of the vessel's French passport ; that the conven- 
 tion shall remain in force two years from the 1st of 
 October, 1822, and after that time until the conclusion 
 of a definite treaty, or until one of the parties shall 
 have declared its intention to renounce it, which dec- 
 laration shall precede the renunciation six months ; 
 and, finally, that, in case this convention shall not be 
 discontinued by either party, the duties specified, ex- 
 clusive of tonnage, light-money, pilotage, port-charges, 
 etc., laid upon articles of the growth, produce, or manu- 
 facture of either country, shall, at the expiration of 
 two years, be reduced one fourth of the whole amount, 
 and afterward by one fourth of said amount, from year 
 to year, so long as it is not renounced byeither party. 
 
 Imports fhom, and Exporis to, France, by the IT. 8. 
 
 1822. 
 1828. 
 1824. 
 1826. 
 1826. 
 1827. 
 1828. 
 1829. 
 1830. 
 1881. 
 1882. 
 1888., 
 1834., 
 1833. , 
 1836., 
 1887., 
 
 1840. 
 1841. 
 1842. 
 1843. 
 1844., 
 1845. 
 1846.. 
 1847., 
 1848.. 
 1849.. 
 1850.. 
 1851.. 
 1852.. 
 1868.. 
 1854.. 
 1855.. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 $8,089,940 
 
 6,666,730 
 
 7,188,567 
 
 10.868,786 
 
 8,679,520 
 
 8,527,232 
 
 9,390,854 
 
 8,838,978 
 
 7,722,198 
 
 14,065,748 
 
 12,175,768 
 
 18,481,678 
 
 17,141,178 
 
 22,916,876 
 
 36,615,417 
 
 22;083,614 
 
 17,771,797. 
 
 32,681,821 
 
 17,672,876 
 
 28,933,812 
 
 16,974,058 
 
 7,657,686 
 
 17,549,484 
 
 21,695,425 
 
 23,911,832 
 
 24,900,841 
 
 28,096,081 
 
 24,86.3,788 
 
 27,688,025 
 
 31,716,663 
 
 23,890,266 
 
 33456,942 
 
 83,781,893 
 
 81,609,181 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Domestic produce. Foceigu produce. 
 
 $4,744,490 
 
 6,001,775 
 
 7,351,689 
 
 7,625,935 
 
 9,348,929 
 
 9,187,568 
 
 7,698,887 
 
 8,894,046 
 
 9,901,146 
 
 6,686,424 
 
 9,942,576 
 
 10,806,588 
 
 12,716,754 
 
 18,087,014 
 
 19,608,484 
 
 17,350.914 
 
 16,716,451 
 
 15,966,108 
 
 18,919,327 
 
 18,410,867 
 
 16,013,298 
 
 11,670,872 
 
 12,066,212 
 
 12,880,171 
 
 18,601,650 
 
 18,592,631 
 
 1.5,374,886 
 
 12,628,769 
 
 17,960,277 
 
 25,.302,n86 
 
 22,190,070 
 
 25,120,806 
 
 80,968,262 
 
 31,62.3,898 
 
 $1,280,870 
 8,699,564 
 1,846,048 
 3,852,467 
 1,799,865 
 3,886,946 
 3,876,238 
 2,864,860 
 1,092,813 
 3,629,878 
 2,677,147 
 2,966,688 
 2,798,220 
 1,714,230 
 1,330,666 
 . 2,339,664 
 1,200,102 
 2,264,841 
 2,922,227 
 8,366,388 
 1,150,552 
 
 625,279 
 2,872,188 
 3,170,233 
 1,628,926 
 
 606,087 
 4,444,425 
 2,986,824 
 1,883,070 
 2,950,061 
 1,800,575 
 ■1,460,978 
 1,179,729 
 -1,854,2.30 
 
 The convention with France of July 4th, 1831, only 
 slightly modifies the convention of 1822. The wuies 
 
FRA 
 
 130 
 
 FRA 
 
 of France, from the ratification of that convention 
 until the passage of the tariff act of 1846, were im- 
 ported at duties not exceeding the following rates by 
 the gallon, United States' measure, viz. : For red 
 wines, in casks, 6 cents ; for white wines, in casks, 
 10 cents ; and for all kinds of wines, in bottles, 22 
 cents. This stipulation was limited to 10 years, 
 and consequently expired on the 4th of July, 1841. 
 Our trade has, therefore, been since regulated by 
 the convention of 1822, and guarded by the powers 
 
 and privileges secured to the consuls of each nation by 
 the consular convention of the 28th February, 1863. 
 The results of the operation of the stipulations of these 
 conventions may be traced in the preceding and fol- 
 lowing tables of imports and exports. 
 
 The preceding table is made up from the annual 
 Treasurer Reports on Commerce and Navigation of 
 the United States. It will not prove uninteresting, 
 however, to subjoin, for comparison, a similar state- 
 ment put forth by the French government. 
 
 Yaltte of Commerce between the United States and France, for the Tears specified ; taken from tue 
 Official Bepoeis published bt tub French Ministry of Commerce. 
 
 YEAS3. 
 
 VALUE OF IMPOBTS FBOM THE 0«1TBD 
 
 STATES INTO FRANCE. 
 
 VALUE OF EXPORTS FROM »-EANCE 
 INTO THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 TOTAL. ' 1 
 
 Genera] commerce 
 
 Special cpmmerse. 
 
 General commerce 
 
 Spfiul commerce. 
 
 General commerce 
 
 Special commerce. 
 
 1831 
 
 Francs. 
 
 51,468,000 
 
 89,860,000 
 
 99,079,000 
 
 97,186,000 
 
 89,482,000 
 
 110,770,000 
 
 117,788,000 
 
 182,796,000 
 
 99,206,000 
 
 176,829,000 
 
 167,071,000 
 
 176,067,000 
 
 174,628,000 
 
 142,600,000 
 
 172,000,000 
 
 168,700,000 
 
 187,606,000 
 
 71,83.3,000 
 
 127,100,000 
 
 132,176,000 
 
 116,883,000 
 
 190,089,000 
 
 179,786,000 
 
 Francs. 
 
 47,623,000 
 
 64,027,000 
 
 78,886,000 
 
 76,564,000 
 
 71,645,000 
 
 81,464,000 
 
 86.720,000 
 
 101,248,000 
 
 85,888,000 
 
 117,970,000 
 
 121,491,000 
 
 185,046,000 
 
 144,259,000 
 
 188,600,000 
 
 140,700,000 
 
 141,200,000 
 
 110,484,000 
 
 56,986,000 
 
 105,779,000 
 
 122,105,000 
 
 109,863,000 
 
 167,721,000 
 
 157,921,000 
 
 Francs. 
 
 184,798,000 
 87,681,000 
 184,965,000 
 118,094,000 
 196,042,000 
 238,874,000 
 98,616,000 
 170,698,000 
 204,591,000 
 186,120,000 
 188,562,000 
 83,846,000 
 96,689,000 
 161,400,000 
 148,000,000 
 150,100,000 
 185,684,000 
 166,749,000 
 282,669,000 
 265.941,000 
 242,626,000 
 268,040,000 
 828,992,000 
 
 Franca. 
 110,180,000 
 
 68,559,000 
 107,984,000 
 
 78,136,000 
 148,251,000 
 158.738,000 
 
 58,611,000 
 119,724,000 
 120,946,000 
 
 80,760,000 
 121,284,000 
 
 48,106,000 
 
 65,808,000 
 102,000,000 
 
 96,500,000 
 100,400,000 
 112,414,000 
 
 99,480,000 
 148,564,000 
 193,611,000 
 144,584,000 
 154,618,000 
 209,195,000 
 
 Francs. 
 
 186,256,000 
 176,991,000 
 234,044,000 
 210,280,000 
 286,524,000 
 849,664,000 
 216,363,000 
 303,494,000 
 303,797,000 
 311,949,000 
 840,638,000 
 263,408,000 
 271,267,000 
 803,900,000 
 816,000,000 
 808,800,000 
 323,289,000 
 287,883,000 
 369,769,000 
 418,116,000 
 869,509,000 
 458,129,000 
 508,778,000 
 
 Francs, 
 
 167,708,000 
 
 128,486,000 
 
 181,870,000 
 
 154,700,000 
 
 216,796,000 
 
 240,202,000 
 
 146,881,000 
 
 220,972,000 
 
 206,829,000 1 
 
 198,780,000 
 
 242,726,000 
 
 188,162,000 
 
 210,067,000 
 
 285,600,000 
 
 287,200,000 
 
 241,600,000 
 
 222,848,000 
 
 166,416,000 
 
 254,843,000 
 
 315,616,000 
 
 254,437,000 
 
 322,834,000 
 
 877,116,000 
 
 1832 
 
 1833 
 
 1834 
 
 1836 
 
 1886 
 
 1837 
 
 1838 
 
 1839 
 
 1840 
 
 1841 
 
 1842 
 
 1843 
 
 1844 
 
 1846 
 
 1846 
 
 1 1847 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 
 
 ia50 
 
 1851 
 
 1852 
 
 1858 . . . . . ' . 
 
 
 In these tables it Is not difficult to trace the effects 
 of the controversy relative to the re-charter of the 
 Bank of the United States, the temporary expansion 
 of the paper currency, the necessary contraction fol- 
 lowing the restoration of the constitutional currency, 
 and the addition to the gold circulation of the world 
 made by the mines of California. All these historical 
 facts are of too recent occurrence to need comment in 
 a work such as this. In like manner may be traced 
 the effects of the French revolution of 1830, the 18 
 years' policy of Louis Philippe, the convulsions of 
 1848, the temporary ascendancy of republican princi- 
 ples, and the re-cstablishment of the empire. Causes 
 like these, which affect commerce without a change of 
 international obligations, would require more space for 
 their elucidation in detail, than can be accorded to 
 them in this digest. They are, however, alluded to 
 for the purpose of awakening suggestive trains of rea- 
 soning. From 1831 to 1841 the general commerce be- 
 tween the two countries increased 164,377,000 francs, 
 or about 83 per cent. This augmentation falls espe- 
 cially upon the products of the United States imported 
 into France, the amount of which has tripled in this 
 period. In the following years the effect of the high 
 tariff of 1842 will be perceived, especially on the value 
 of exports from France into the United States. The 
 article of cptton has, for a number of years, consti- 
 tuted in value, upon an average, three quarters of all 
 our domestic exports to France. The average annual 
 value of our exports of home products to France from 
 1830 to 1833, was $9,000,000 ; and the exports of cot- 
 ton for the same period, $7,000,000. The following 
 table exhibits the quantities of cotton exported to 
 France for the years enumerated, viz. ; 
 
 Yenrs. Pounds. 
 
 1885 71,110,600 
 
 1836 80,009,600 
 
 1837 80,231,800 
 
 1838 96,316,000 
 
 1889 76,680,400 
 
 1840 106,878,200 
 
 1841 110,700,000 
 
 1842 115,130,400 
 
 1843 123,497,000 
 
 1844 119,845,600 
 
 Years. Pounds. 
 
 1845 124,610,400 
 
 1846 121,518,000 
 
 1847 125,628,800 
 
 1848 167,457,400 
 
 1849 157,132,800 
 
 1850 109,479,806 
 
 1851 113,918,224 
 
 1862 167,429,900 
 
 1863 174,689,940 
 
 1854 144,423,360 
 
 The tables from which we extract do not give the 
 values of our cotton exports for the years stated above, 
 but, as in some preceding years, we learn from other 
 data, they have been equal to the value of three fourths 
 of our exports of home products. It may be added, 
 that, with the exception of 1854, the above figures 
 have been compiled from French custom-house returns. 
 They are considerably below those given in the annual 
 reports prepared by the United States' Treasury De- 
 partment, and are not so reliable. The following 
 table, compiled from these annual reports, will show 
 the exports of cotton to France for six years, ending 
 with June 30th, 1860, and the value ; as also the total 
 value of domestic exports to France during the said 
 years, respectively : 
 
 Years. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Total value 
 domestic eitporfct 
 
 1850 
 
 1861 
 
 1862 
 
 1853 
 
 1864 
 
 1866 
 
 125,834,091 
 189,164,671 
 186,214,270 
 189,226,913 
 144,428,860 
 210,113,809 
 
 $14,896,449 
 18,124,612 
 15,488,586 
 19,248,076 
 14,582,712 
 19,085,423 
 
 $17,960,277 
 25,802,088 
 22,190,070 
 26,120,806 
 
 • 80,968,262* 
 81,628,898 
 
 * The e-Tport of gold and silver coin and iuUion was 
 unusually large this year, amounting to $6,609,000. 
 
 Tobacco. — Our other chief export to France is to- 
 bacco. In that country, the trade in this article is 
 monopolized by the government. Information on this 
 subject is derived from a recent publication, from the 
 pen of a gentleman who has analyzed and studied 
 our European tobacco trade in the principal markets 
 of the eastern continent. The exclusive right to pur- 
 chase imported and indigenous tobacco is invested in 
 the re^ie, or commission — an association under the 
 supervision of the Minister of Finance. This regie 
 alone can authorize its manufacture, fix the prices at 
 which it is to be sold to retailers, and the prices at 
 which the latter shall sell for consumption. The cap- 
 ital of the regie, consisting of houses, offices, machin- 
 ery, and tobacco in store, is of the value of about 
 $45,000,000. There is usually kept on hand a supply 
 of tobacco sufficient to meet the demand for three 
 years. This enables the regk to manufacture it more 
 
FRA 
 
 T3.1 
 
 FEA 
 
 perfectly, and to provide against accidental failures of 
 the supply. No one can purchase at Trholesale of any 
 one but the regie; and no one can retail without a 
 license, which compels the purchaser to sell at prices 
 fixed \>y that commission. Of late years, howcTer, 
 the system has been so far relaxed as to allow an im- 
 portation, for personal use, of a certain quantity by 
 individuals, upon the payment, by the Importer, of 
 duties equal to the profits reaped by the regie upon its 
 sales. One fact is encouraging : while the consumption 
 is constantly increasing, the culture remains in France 
 at a stand. It remains ait a stand, because it is also 
 under the supervision of the regie, which prescribes 
 the methods of cultivation, and confines its produce to 
 certain departments, and even to certain individuals. 
 There is nothing to stimulate enterprise, or to secure 
 the concurring energy of individual interest. 
 
 Dp to 1817 purchases were made upon the ofiers of 
 merchants submitted to the director-general, and com- 
 municated by him to the Council of Administration. 
 The number of competitors created embarrassment, 
 and the present system was, after some years, adopted. 
 The system is this : Proposals are published by the 
 regie to malce contracts for the supply of certain qual- 
 ities and certain quantities of specified Mnis of to- 
 bacco. Samples of the kinds and qualities are sub- 
 mitted to the inspection of those who desire to contract, 
 and they thereupon submit their offers to supply at 
 certain prices within a time specified. The samples 
 submitted to the contractors are carefully preserved j 
 and when the cargoes arrive at the various ports, sam- 
 ples of them are forwarded to Paris and compared with 
 the model samples, and the acceptance or refusal de- 
 pends upon this comparison. 
 
 It requires but little reflection to perceive that this 
 system is seriously injurious to our trade. It is a 
 moderate estimate to malte, to suppose that, if tobacco 
 were admitted into France as other products are ad- 
 mitted, we should export ten times as much as we do 
 at the present time. The abolition of the system 
 would, therefore, seem to be an object constantly to be 
 kept in view by our government. It has stood so 
 many years, however, and under so many forms of 
 government, and is so productive to the revenues, and 
 so important to the government itself, in the number 
 of persons thus brought under its direct influence, that 
 we can not hope to see it soon materially changed. In 
 addition to the facts already detailed on the subject of 
 this important staple, the following extracts from offi- 
 cial dispatches, communicated to the Department of 
 State, are presented as pertinent : 
 
 " Tobacco is only permitted to be cultivated in six 
 departments as a staple, and this cultivation is under 
 the most rigid surveillance of the government. In the 
 other departments agriculturists are allowed to grow 
 four plants for each tenement for medical uses. On 
 the tobacco disposed of by the regie, whether imported 
 or produced, the profit realized amounts to 447 per 
 cent. The retail dealers in the article, numbering about 
 30,000, are under the control of the regie inspection, 
 and are allowed a commission on their sales of from 10 
 to 12 per cent. There are only ten manufactories. 
 They are located at Paris, Havre, Lille, Strasbourg, 
 Morlaix, Tanneins, Lyons, Marseilles, Toulouse, and 
 Bordeaux. Each has its circle of departments to sup- 
 ply, and is restricted to transactions therein. The 
 manufactured article is deposited in magazines, of 
 which there are 357. In the departments adjoining 
 Switzerland, Germany, and Belgium, the price estab- 
 lished is vastly below that which rules in the interior. 
 The object of this is to prevent smuggling. Where 
 frontier facilities are afforded for illicit importations, 
 the rate is comparatively moderate. Where none ex- 
 ist, it is enormous. Thus, at Strasbourg a pound is 
 worth only 15 sous (cents), while at Orleans it is worth 
 8 francs ($1 06). Last year (X848) the receipts from 
 the customs only nmounted to about 146,000,000 
 
 francs — 86,000,000 of which were derived from to- 
 bacco, nearly all grown in the United States — under 
 the workings of the regie. Were this regie abolished, 
 and a moderate import duty substituted, instead of a 
 market of 16,000 or 18,000 hogsheads of tobacco per 
 annum, France would take from us double that quan- 
 tity immediately thereafter." 
 
 At the present time, we export about two fifths of 
 all the tobacco consumed in Europe. Strict attention 
 to its proper culture will enable us to' furnish a much 
 greater proportion. From 1827 to 1836, our exports to 
 France amounted, annually, on an average, to 5,727,- 
 900 pounds. For many years we have exported from 
 three fourths to four fifths of the tobacco consumed in 
 France. From official reports of the French authori- 
 ties, we gather the following statistics of our exports 
 and sales to the regie in the years specified : 
 
 Years. Poiirds, 
 
 1846. 17,798,000 
 
 1847 15,562,907 
 
 1848.. 18,046,805 
 
 1849. 16,862,180 
 
 1850. 18,612,628 
 
 1861 12,088,876 
 
 1852 82,805,240 
 
 1868*. 9,741,600 
 
 Years. Fonnds, 
 
 1837 10,622,108 
 
 1838 11,643,710 
 
 1889 18,089,086 
 
 1840 17,846,618 
 
 1841 21,046,924 
 
 1842. 19,148,800 
 
 1848 27,771,788 
 
 1644 20,891,000 
 
 1845 24,818,800 
 
 * United States' Treasury reports give the quantities of 
 tobacco exported to France for the fiscal years ending June 
 30, 1854 and 1855, respeotivoly, as follows: 1864, 15,162,000 
 lbs. ; 1865, 40,866,(100 lbs , besides 2,905 eases, and 8T9 bales. 
 The excess of the latter year was probably for the ai-my in the 
 Crimea. The French fiscal year ends with that of the calendar. 
 
 No values are attached to these quantities, but they 
 may be estimated by the aid, of other data. The cost 
 of American tobaccoes, on delivery at the factories of 
 the regie, all expenses included, is given by a French 
 legislative report as follows, on an average for several 
 years : Maryland tobacco, 9.5 cents per lb. ; Virginia, 
 8.2 cents ; Kentucky, 7.7 cents ; Missouri, 7.5 cents. 
 The following statement, also derived from French 
 authorities, shows the nett profits of the regie, which, 
 after paying all expenses of purchase, transportation, 
 manufacture, and sale of tobacco, it has paid over to 
 the State treasury, annually, from the 1st of July, 1811 
 (commencement of the monopoly with the regie), to 
 the 1st of January, 1853 : 
 
 Years. Franes. 
 
 1811 6,000,000 
 
 1812 26,000,000 
 
 1813 29,855,642 
 
 1814. 32,000,000 
 
 1816 83,128,808 
 
 1816 82,855,821 
 
 1817 89,182,994 
 
 1818 41,705,861 
 
 1819 41,412,898 
 
 1820 42,21«,604 
 
 1821 42,279,004 
 
 1822 41,960,997 
 
 1828 41,684,489 
 
 1824 43,129,728 
 
 1826 44,030,468 
 
 1826 44,998,057 
 
 1827 46,728,988 
 
 1828 46,885,638 
 
 1829 45,632,490 
 
 1880 46,782,408 
 
 1881 46,920,980 
 
 1882 47,761,597 
 
 Years. Francs. 
 
 1888. 49,230,280 
 
 1834 60,848,714 
 
 1836 61,700,181 
 
 1836 65,629,640 
 
 1837 69,026,912 
 
 1838.; 61,682,426 
 
 1839 66,001,841 
 
 1840. 70,111,167 
 
 1841 71,989,095 
 
 1842 73.804,142 • 
 
 1818 77,868,786 
 
 1844 79,499,879 
 
 1846 82,534,494 
 
 1846 85,961,080 
 
 1847 86,891,198 
 
 1848 86,271,058 
 
 1849 85,186,106 
 
 1860 88,916,000 
 
 1851 92,288,729 
 
 1862 96,844,082 
 
 Total.... 2,828,201,725 
 French official documents furnish the following 
 
 facts relative to our cotton trade with that empire. 
 
 By the custom-house returns for 1855, it appears that 
 
 there were received for that year, from all countries, 
 
 167,200,000 lbs. ; against, for 1854, 157,520,000 lbs. ; 
 
 1853, 165,000,000 lbs. ; 1862, 158,400,00 lbs. 
 
 The following table shows the quantities of cotton 
 
 imported into Havre, from all countries for a period of 
 
 four years, ending with 1855 : 
 
 Years. 
 
 From the 
 United States. 
 
 .From Brazil. 
 
 From 
 elsewhere. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1865 
 
 /1854 
 
 1863 
 
 1852 
 
 Bales. 
 406,600 
 411,000 
 874,600 
 374,900 
 
 Bales. 
 2,600 
 
 2,000 
 2,800 
 6,000 
 
 Bales. 
 9,000 
 12,000 
 12,200 
 14,400 
 
 Bales. 
 418,100 
 425,000 
 889,500 
 895,800 
 
FRA 
 
 732 
 
 FRA 
 
 Table showing the Quantities of Cotton received at 
 THE other Poets of France during the same Years. 
 
 Yean. 
 
 From the 
 United State*. 
 
 From Brazil. 
 
 FromEsypl. ,,.^Xro. 
 
 1855 
 lSo4 
 1858 
 1852 
 
 Bales. 
 12,000 
 19,300 
 
 14,500 
 1T,800 
 
 None. 
 
 Bales, 
 80,T00 
 
 21,400 
 88,000 
 86,700 
 
 Bales. 
 2,800 
 4,800 
 17,000 
 12,500 
 
 The preceding tables exhibit a total importation of 
 cotton into Prance, viz. : 
 
 Bales. 
 
 In 1855 463,600 
 
 " 1854 470,000 
 
 " 1858 454,000 
 
 " 1862 462,800 
 
 The document from which the preceding tables are 
 translated and condensed, adds : " We may further 
 remaric, that, while England imports from the East 
 Indies annually 400,000 bales of cotton, and thus finds 
 profitable employment for her commercial marine, 
 France is deprived of the advantages of this trade. 
 The fault is found in the apathy of our cotton spinners 
 and in our custom-house regulations. Cotton from the 
 Indies, imported in the direct trade in French vessels, 
 ought to be admitted free of duty ; and the impost on 
 cotton introduced from the entrepots of Europe should 
 be extremely moderate." 
 
 The articles of domestic produce usually shipped 
 from the United States to France, besides cotton and 
 tobacco, are hops, iish, pot and pearl-ashes, whale-oil 
 and whalebone ; and those of foreign produce are 
 principally sugar, coffee, teas, cocoa, pepper, and other 
 spices. The principal articles imported into the United 
 States from France are wines, brandies, silks, olive-oil, 
 jewelry of all liinds, and, latterly, some cotton goods. 
 An examination of the details of the trade in these 
 articles could add nothing to the inferences which the 
 general tables, already presented, suggest. 
 
 In the year 1793 an act was passed by the National 
 Assembly, interdicting direct commercial intercourse 
 between foreign nations and the French republic. 
 This act, although never formally repealed, has been 
 practically abrogated by the introduction of numerous 
 modifications. Even foreign goods actually prohibited 
 are admitted to entrepot for re-exportation at the ports 
 of Marseilles, Bayonne, Bordeaux, Nantes, Havre, 
 and Dunkirlc, on payment of specified duties ; and 
 these goods may be transferred from one bonded ware- 
 house to another. Goods not prohibited may be thus 
 transferred by land, on the terms of the transfer, free 
 of duties. Aries, Port Vendue, and Strasbourg are 
 points where merchandise not prohibited is received in 
 bond, and from which it can be exported hy sea only. 
 There is also, at Lyons, a special depot to which all the 
 ports of bonding depots m^iy transmit merchandise for 
 consumption or exportation. 
 
 By the terms of the convention of the 24th of June, 
 1822, the time for levj'ing discriminating duties has 
 long since expired. The only charges upon com- 
 merce, in articles of home produce, which can be made 
 by either country, are duties upon tonnage ; and they 
 ai-e specificallj' limited to 5 francs (or 94 cents) per ton 
 on the vessel's measurement, which is to be calculated 
 according to the American vessel's register, and the 
 French vessel's passport. This tonnage duty exceeds 
 the amount levied by France on everj' other country, 
 and thus operates injuriously to American interests. 
 Vessels of all other countries, except Great Britain, 
 pay 77 cents. British vessels, going direct to France, 
 pay 20 cents ; going in ballast from any other country, 
 nothing. Other trivial port charges, such as light- 
 money, permits, certificates, etc., are charged equally 
 to all nations. The inequality in tonnage duties, 
 alluded to, gives great advantages to some other na- 
 tions over both France and the United States. This 
 is the case as regards Austria, the Hanseatic League, 
 and several other countries, which, by the terms of 
 
 their treaties with the United States, are permitted to 
 carry on an indirect trade. The vessels of these na- 
 tions, being subjected to a lower duty than ours in 
 France, and a lower duty than French vessels in our 
 ports, are thus enabled to carry merchandise to and 
 from the United States cheaper than the vessels of 
 either countrj' can do it. In this way they have mo- 
 nopolized no inconsiderable portion of the carrying 
 trade between the two countries. 
 
 The reciprocity stipulated in the convention of 1822 
 extends only to articles of the growth, produce, or 
 manufacture of the respective countries. To admit 
 a cargo from the United States to the advantages 
 secured by the treaty, it must be certified by the 
 French consul at the port of clearance to be of the 
 growth, produce, or manufacture of the United States. 
 The American ship-master is subjected, in a French 
 port, to many small charges for the authentication of 
 certificates, etc., from which the Fi'ench master is ex- 
 empt in our ports. Most of these are, probably, sheer 
 abuses, without authority of law. "They practically 
 operate as an increase of duties, not warranted by the 
 provisions of the treaty. There is a stipulation in the 
 convention of 1822, by which the products of the 
 United States, carried in American vessels, after a 
 certain period, are to become liable to no higher rate 
 of duty than if imported in French vessels. This 
 does not include tin, the products of the fisheries, or 
 spermaceti, simply pressed. Copper and lead''' are 
 also excepted ; but, in point of fact, are admitted to 
 the advantages of this provision, if it be shown that 
 they are of American production. 
 
 The prospects of future commerce with France de- 
 pend upon a variety of facts and contingencies. The 
 facts, of a permanent character, which operate upon 
 them, are the natural capabilities of the countries, the 
 populations, and the subdivisions of their labor ; the 
 contingencies chiefly arise from their relations to other 
 countries and their legislation. The facts bearing 
 upon the subject, in the United States, are to be found 
 in its history and its census, and are famUiar to all. 
 Those respecting the Frencli empire, may be briefly 
 summed up in a suggestive rather than an elaborate 
 form. France proper, to which alone reference is now 
 had, lies between 42° 49' and 51° 5' north latitude, 
 and embraces an area of 204,355 square miles, greatly 
 variegated by mountains, streams, and plains. The 
 soils and their proportions are as follows : 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Soli of stones 18 
 
 " sand 10 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Mountain country. 8 
 Lands, or plains. . . 10| 
 Soil of rich mold... 14 
 
 " chalk 18 
 
 " gravel 7 
 
 clay 5 
 
 " marsh Oi 
 
 Various soils 14 
 
 Making an aggregate of. 100 
 
 One half the area of France is cultivable ; and of 
 this, 9 parts are meadow ; 4rJ- parts vineyard ; 15 parts 
 woods and forests ; 15 downs, pastures, and heaths ; 
 all the remainder consisting of roads, cities, canals, 
 vegetable gardens, etc. It presents every variety of 
 geological formation, exhibited in almost every variety 
 of known relations. All the departments, 85 in num- 
 ber, contain mineral substances. There are 36 coal- 
 fields in 30 departments. The most important are 
 those of the Loire, embracing an area of 42,000 acres, 
 lying between the Loire and the Rhone, down which 
 their products reach markets. Next to these come 
 those of Nord, Saone, Avignon, Gard, Calvados. The 
 remainder are small. The annual produce of coal ex- 
 ceeds 3,000,000 tons. France is surpassed by England 
 only in the production of iron. There are twelve 
 iron mines in operation. Lead, silver, antimony, cop- 
 per, and magnesia are found, but do not assume com- 
 mercial importance. Salt is made in several localities, 
 and has become a considerable source of wealth. 300,- 
 
 * Circular letter of the Customs Administration, Septem- 
 ber, 1827. 
 
FRA 
 
 733 
 
 FRA 
 
 000 persons are engaged in mining, and their opeiations 
 show an annual value of $80,000,000. 
 
 The population of France, in 1851, was 35,781,628. 
 The increase in the preceding 10 years was nearly 
 2,000,000. A like increase would give in 1855 a popu- 
 lation of fully 37,000,000. A little less than one half 
 are males. Those of them who were old enough to 
 vote under the late republican constitution were em- 
 ployed as follows : 
 
 ■Working class, or paupers 6,585,000 
 
 Manufacturing, commercial, and agricul- 
 tural capitalists 927,000 
 
 Learned professions, and independent in- 
 comes...^ 425,000 
 
 Paid officials, army, navy, and pensions.... 879,000 
 About the same distribution of employments yet 
 prevails. Schools are provided for only about one six- 
 teenth of the children. The revenues of France are 
 direct and indirect. The average aggregate annual 
 revenue, from all sources, is about $300,000,000. The 
 national debt is over $1,100,000,000. 
 
 The number of acres under vine cultivation exceeds 
 6,000,000, giving employment, in the cultivation of the 
 vine and the manufacture of wine, to about 2,000,000 
 of persons (mostly females), and in its transportation 
 and sale, to 250,000. The average home value de- 
 pends, as does all other produce, on the supply and 
 demand; rarely, however, exceeding 20 cents, or fall- 
 ing below 10 cents per gallon. The vine disease, now 
 more or less prevailing in all wine-producing coun- 
 tries, has increased the average price of wine from 
 100 to 175 per cent. 
 
 The following statements, showing the produce of 
 wine In France, and the exports in 1845 and 1846, 
 were furnished to the Economist from which we have 
 taken them, by the authorities in Bordeaux. 
 
 Account of the Produce of "Wine in Fkance in each 
 Depabtment, in the Order of their Importance. 
 
 Qepartmonta, HecfolUres. 
 
 >api 
 
 Herault 2,616,000 
 
 Charento Inferienro 2,394,000 
 
 Gironde 2,020,000 
 
 Var 1,686,000 
 
 Charento 1,162,000 
 
 Gers 1,128,000 
 
 Gard 1,182,000 
 
 Aude 1,011,000 
 
 Meurtho 912,000 
 
 Tonne 866,000 
 
 Loiret. 800,000 
 
 DordOEno 770,000 
 
 Ehone 740,000 
 
 Saone and Loire. . . 644,000 
 
 Lot et Garonne.. . . 637,000 
 
 Indre et Loire 628,000 
 
 Bouches du Bhone 626,000 
 
 Haute Garonne .... 604,000 
 
 Aube 692,000 
 
 Loire Inferieuro. . . 668,000 
 
 Coted'Or 688,000 
 
 Loire and Cher ... . 627,000 
 
 Puy de Dome 686,000 
 
 Haute Marne 608,000 
 
 Maine and Loire. . . 610,000 
 
 Seine and Olse 604,000 
 
 Seine et Marne .... 616,000 
 
 BasKMn 689,000 
 
 Lot 445,000 
 
 Meuso 459,000 
 
 Vionne 459,000 
 
 Basses Pyrenees. . . 825,000 
 
 Landes 886,000 
 
 Marne 881,000 
 
 Haute Saone 848,000 
 
 Drome 805,000 
 
 PyreneosOrientftlos 801,000 
 
 Ain 888,000 Total proauctions.86,763,000 
 
 The following table gives a clear exhibit of the ex- 
 ports of wine from France, and shows what countries 
 are the principal consumers of French wine. These 
 statistics exhibit some curious facts, and opposite to 
 the belief of most persons. Algeria imports from 
 France over ten times as much wine as England, and, 
 what is more curious, wine of a higher price. The 
 United States imports from France not quite three 
 times as much as England, but in value more than 
 four times as great. 
 
 Departments. Hectolitres. 
 
 Aveyron 858,000 
 
 Jura 857,000 
 
 Vendee 819,000 
 
 Tarn and Garonne 807,000 
 
 Tarn 844,000 
 
 HautEhin 814,1100 
 
 Deux Sevres 270,000 
 
 Correze 258,000 
 
 Hautes Pyrenees. 268,000 
 
 Indre 218,000 
 
 Isere 242,000 
 
 Loire 228,000 
 
 Ardeche 282,000 
 
 Tauoluse 238,000 
 
 Yosges 212,000 
 
 Cher 260,000 
 
 Aisne 228,000 
 
 Moselle 274,000 
 
 Arriego 166,000 
 
 Allier 195,000 
 
 Doubs 172,000 
 
 Nievre 170,000 
 
 Basses Alpes 114,000 
 
 Seine 107,000 
 
 Enre and Loire ... 106,000 
 
 Sarthe 89,000 
 
 Hautes Alpes 86,000 
 
 Oiso 65,000 
 
 Haute Loire 62,000 
 
 Avdonnes 70,000 
 
 Haute Vienne ,22,000 
 
 Euro 21,000 
 
 Lozere 14,000 
 
 Morbihan 6,000 
 
 Ileand Vilaino.... 8,000 
 
 Cantal.. 2,000 
 
 Account of tue Export of French Wines to all 
 Countries in 1845 and 1846. 
 
 Bnssia 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Norway. 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Hanseatic Towns 
 
 Germanic ZoUverein .... 
 Hanover and Mecklenburg 
 
 Schwerin 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 Belgium 
 
 England 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Austria 
 
 Spain 
 
 Sardinia 
 
 Naples 
 
 Papal States 
 
 1'uscany 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Greece 
 
 Turkey 
 
 Egypt 
 
 Barbary States 
 
 Algeria 
 
 Western coast of Africa. . . 
 
 Mauritius 
 
 Other African countries.... 
 
 Indio 
 
 Dutch Indian Possessions.. 
 French Indian Possessions. 
 
 Philippine Islands 
 
 Gbina,Cochiu-Chiua, and Pacific 
 
 Islands 
 
 Haytl 
 
 United States 
 
 British Possessions in America. 
 Spanisli Possessions in America 
 Danish Possessions in America. 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Guatemala 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 New Granada 
 
 Peru and Bolivia 
 
 Chili 
 
 Bio de la Plata 
 
 Uruguay 
 
 Texas and Equador 
 
 Guodaloupo 
 
 Martinique 
 
 Bourbon 
 
 Senegal 
 
 Cayenne - 
 
 French Newfoundland Fishery. 
 
 Total 
 
 1845. 
 
 Litres. 
 
 8,965,700 
 608,900 
 621,000 
 
 1,619,600 
 13,689,900 
 
 6,210,600 
 
 746,000 
 
 9,689,800 
 
 10,689,800 
 
 3,825,600 
 
 256^66o 
 
 421,600 
 
 7,810,700 
 
 877^900- 
 
 694,600 
 
 18,828,100 
 
 172,800 
 286,100 
 
 84,679,56o 
 
 74,600 
 
 5,093,400 
 
 480,76o 
 
 469,800 
 
 82,000 
 
 147,200 
 
 813,600 
 8,889,600 
 100,800 
 628,700 
 624,100 
 8,062,200 
 804,500 
 
 228,400 
 26,600 
 
 809,400 
 1,470,800 
 8 666,600 
 1,028,600 
 96,200 
 2,575,300 
 8,864,800 
 8,025,600 
 1,181,700 
 
 589,400 
 
 578,600 
 
 147,188,100 
 
 1840. 
 
 Litres. 
 
 8,669,900 
 516,600 
 272,700 
 
 l,218i700 
 14,597,400 
 
 4,604,000 
 
 837,600 
 
 8,775,700, 
 
 • 6,168,900 
 
 2,633,000 
 
 186,800 
 •227,400 
 8,499,200 
 119,099 
 167,000 
 248,100 
 16,180,600 
 
 2.51,700 
 268,800 
 
 42,588^660 
 
 47,600 
 
 6,288,600 
 
 189,140 
 
 126,700 
 
 283,800 
 
 9,100 
 
 481,900 
 
 10,898,000 
 
 107,800 
 
 886,000 
 
 29^,400 
 
 1,478,800 
 
 318,400 
 
 9,500 
 
 113,800 
 
 57,000 
 
 207,200 
 
 1,423,900 
 
 355,900 
 
 667,900 
 
 2,883,o6o 
 2,403,700 
 8,478,800 
 1,107,800 
 864,900 
 858,.500 
 
 136,648,189 
 
 In 1849 there were produced in France, in round 
 numbers, 925,000,000 gallons of wine. This was an 
 increase over the quantity produced in 1839 of 115,- 
 000,000 gallons ; but there were half a million of acres 
 more under cultivation. •The quantity annually ex- 
 ported averages about 46,000,000 gallons. 
 
 Gallona. * 
 
 In 1849 there were exported 41,000,000 
 
 1850 " " 42,000,000 
 
 1851 " " 49,500,000. 
 
 1852 " " 58,200,000 
 
 1853 " " 43,600,000 
 
 The quantity exported in 1854 has not been ascer- 
 tained. About 90,000,000 gallons are annually dis- 
 tilled into brandy, the exportation of which is under 
 special government restrictions. 133,000,000 gallons 
 of wine, in its various forms, are annually exported to 
 foreign countries. The government derives a consid- 
 erable portion of its internal revenue from the manu- 
 facture of wine. The excise dutj' in 1853 amounted 
 to upward of $22,000. Besides the 90,000,000 gallons 
 converted into brandy, it is estimated that 220,000,000 
 gallons are manufactured into other kinds of spirits. 
 If this estimate be correct, there will be left for home 
 consumption over 700,000,000 gallons, or about 21 gal- 
 lons for each inhabitant. 
 
 The disease of the vine, during the past few years, 
 has been very destructive in France, Spain, Madeira, 
 and other old wine-producing countries. Should the- 
 disease unfortunately continue in those countries 
 which have hitherto supplied the markets of the world 
 
FRA 
 
 T34 
 
 FRA 
 
 Tvitli this beverage, the day may not be distant when 
 the United States shall become the exporter instead 
 of the importer of wine. The vine culture has already 
 attracted attention in the western and southern States. 
 The following table will exhibit the annual value of 
 each of the chief products of France, all which enter 
 into or influence its commerce : 
 
 imports and exports, for the years 1844 to 1853, esti- 
 mated in francs, were as follows ; 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Wheat. bushels 
 
 Kye and mixed corn, 
 
 Buckwheat 
 
 Barley 
 
 Peas and Beans 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 Oats 
 
 Indian corn 
 
 Wine gallons 
 
 Hemp . . . 
 Raw silk, 
 Flax.. 
 
 Madder 
 
 Fuel and timber. 
 
 01i7e-oil, rape-seed, etc 
 
 Tobacco 
 
 Chestnuts 
 
 Aggi'Qgate annUval. of products 
 
 150,000,000 
 85,000,000 
 26,000,000 
 38,000,000 
 8,9T0,000 
 56,000,000 
 90,000,000 
 12,000,000 
 
 800,000,000 
 
 $180,000,000 
 
 70,000,000 
 
 13,000,000 
 
 30,000,000 
 
 7,500,000 
 
 11,500,000 
 
 54,000,000 
 
 9,000,000 
 
 100,000,000 
 
 6,000,000 
 
 8,000,000 
 
 4,000,000 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 28,000,000 
 
 12,600,000 
 
 1,500,000 
 
 1,500,000 
 
 532,500,000 
 
 The wild animals are not numerous enough to have 
 an}' material influence upon trade. It is not so with 
 those domesticated. The annual value of the wool 
 grown from sheep is about $18,000,000. This branch 
 of industrj'' is very inadequately attended to. There 
 are 14 or 15 different species of beeves, and the total 
 number of all kinds is about 12,000,000. This branch 
 of husbandry is also much neglected. In the southern 
 departments olive-oil supersedes butter. The horse is 
 not as well managed as in England, nor are there as 
 many horses. Hogs are abundant, and so are domes- 
 tic fowls. The latter are well attended to. 
 
 Landed property is more minutely divided in France 
 than anywhere else in Europe, or even than in the 
 United States. In a few departments may be found 
 estates of 200 acres ; but they are rare, and daily be- 
 coming more so, as the law divides the realty equally 
 among the children. The greater portion of the farms 
 are now less than 20 acres. Improvements in the 
 methods of cultivation progress languidly, and the 
 methods of manuring and rotation of crops, and of em- 
 ploying machinerj', continue to be very defective. 
 
 Commerce and manufactures may be justly said to 
 have commenced with Charlemagne. They were re- 
 pressed during the feudal ages, when the barons en- 
 slaved the artisans and peasants. They were revived 
 by the return of the crusaders, who brought a taste for 
 the luxuries of the East. L^uis XIV. well understood 
 their importance. The death of Colbert and the revo- 
 cation of the Edict of Nantes again paralyzed them, 
 and the industry of France became subjected to monop- 
 olies. They continued enslaved, in a great measure, 
 until the Revolution of 1789 unfettered them. Since 
 that period, legislation has favored them by keeping 
 them free, and giving full scope to individual enter- 
 prise and genius. They have only been retarded or 
 disturbed by the intervention of wars. Their progress 
 has, of late years, been wonderfully accelerated by the 
 progress of science and its application to machinery 
 and the useful and ornamental arts. Of scientific 
 stimulants, the most important has been the applica- 
 tion of steam-power. To science are also attributable 
 metallurgy ; the process of dyeing ; the various prep- 
 arations of animal substances ; the weaving of cloths, 
 cashmeres, and damasks ; the making of paper, 
 watches, and clocks, and of fine and common pottery ; 
 the manufactures of silks and tissues ; and numberless 
 other useful and tasteful arts, which have spread wide 
 the wings of commerce. 
 
 The average annual value of the exports of France, 
 from 1825 to 1833, was about $84,168,160, and of its 
 imports $79,785,042. The official statement of the 
 
 Yco™. 
 
 ImporU. 
 
 Exp^ortB. 
 
 Frencli vesfieU.,Foreignves3olB. 
 
 French veasel8.,Foreign vesaola. 
 
 
 Franca. 
 
 Francs. 
 
 Francs. 
 
 
 1844 
 
 878,200,000 
 
 454,100,000 
 
 385,000,000 
 
 440,500,000 
 
 1.S45 
 
 899,500,000 
 
 474,1)00,000 
 
 408,500,000 
 
 454,700,000 
 
 1846 
 
 4'25,6U0,000 
 
 468,600,000 
 
 408,600,000 
 
 456,100,000 
 
 1847 
 
 448,000,000 
 
 526,000,000 
 
 438,000,000 
 
 681,000,000 
 
 1848 
 
 826,000,000 
 
 264,000,000 
 
 886,100,000 
 
 476,100,000 
 
 1849 
 
 401,000,000 
 
 849,200,000 
 
 540,000,000 
 
 6.38,600,000 
 
 1850 
 
 410,000,000 
 
 861,200,000 
 
 626,500,000 
 
 656,900,000 
 
 1851 
 
 892,100,000 
 
 841,800,000 
 
 560,900,000 
 
 708,700,000 
 
 1852 
 
 471,500,000 
 
 467,600,000 
 
 659,700,000 
 
 746,600,000 
 
 1868 
 
 507,000,000 
 
 622,100,000 
 
 619,700,000 
 
 869,000,000 
 
 The number and tonnage of tKe vessels employed in 
 the foreign trade of France during the same j-ears were 
 as follows ; 
 
 1844 
 1846 
 1846 
 
 6.392 
 6,920 
 
 8,188 
 
 679,066 
 746,810 
 
 879,808 
 
 10,070 
 10,775 
 12,113 
 
 Ton'ge. 
 
 1,869,789 
 1,489,320 
 
 1,680,290 
 
 No. I Ton'KS 
 
 6,369| 677,082 
 6,739: 661,6711 
 6,595 654,972 
 
 6,396 674,101 
 6,8131 734,822 
 6,623 709,806 
 
 The following table, made up from materials con- 
 tained in ^^ Annales du Commerce UxiSrieurj" brings 
 down this statement of the amount and character of 
 the foreign navigation statistics of France to the year 
 1853, the entrances and clearances being given in 
 
 Navigation Table oontihtted to 1858— tub Ekteahom 
 
 AND ClEARANOES UNITED. 
 
 Yeaw. 
 
 FRENCH VESSELS. 
 
 PORBIGN TESSBLS. 1 
 
 No. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 No. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 1847 
 
 9,701 
 10,010 
 
 11 200 
 
 ill 
 
 20,794 
 13,.320 
 14,768 
 16,892 
 19,247 
 19,803 
 20,425 
 
 2,708,000 
 1,626,000 
 1,721,000 
 2,110,000 
 2,889,000 
 2,546,000 
 2,748,000 
 
 184S 
 
 1849 
 
 l.'^oO 
 
 1851 
 
 11,808 1492;66o 
 11,668 1,202,000 
 11,216 1,199,000 
 12,182 1 s.<!9 nnn 
 
 1852 
 
 1853 
 
 
 
 
 In 1856 the arrivals and departures were thus dis- 
 tributed : 
 
 Veasela. Tons. 
 
 Entered 26,745 4,076,000 
 
 Cleared 14,475 2,321,000 
 
 Total 40,220 
 
 6,896,000 
 
 The great disparity between arrivals and departures 
 is explained by the fact that the larger portion of 
 imports consists of bulky and cumbrous merchandise, 
 destined for our workshops and manufactures, while 
 vessels leaving French ports are usually freighted with 
 manufactured products, the value of which consists in 
 their skillful workmanship rather than in their specific 
 weight or the space which they occupy. This year 
 (1856), especially, the importation of cereals was neces- 
 sarily heavy- 
 
 A comparison of the different flags engaged in this 
 general movement forces us to repeat the remark which 
 we are constrained to Jnake whenever we examine this 
 subject — namely, that the French flag is invariably 
 behind that of other nations in her own commerce. 
 How stands our flag in 1856 ? 
 
 Vessels. Tons. 
 
 French Flag. 16,820 2,521,000 
 
 Foreign Flags - 
 
 8,875,000 
 
 Total 40,218 6,396,000 
 
 These figures are of themselves sufiicient to show 
 how necessary and urgent it is that the French mer- 
 chant marine should be placed in a better condition to 
 compete with the flags of foreign countries in her own 
 ports. 
 
 The special * commerce of France with for- 
 eign countries in 1853, was distributed as exhib- 
 
 * By " special" is meant for Interior consumption. 
 
FRA 
 
 735 
 
 PRA 
 
 Ited in the following table, estimated from official 
 sources : 
 
 CouDtricB. 
 
 Imports into France. 
 
 Exports from France. 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 France. 
 
 92,000,000 
 
 158,000,000 
 
 140,000,000 
 
 104,000,000 
 
 44,000,000 
 
 58,000,000 
 
 87,000,000 
 
 68,000,000 
 
 51,000,000 
 
 France. 
 317,000,000 
 
 217,000,000 
 128,000,000 
 67,000,000 
 69,000,000 
 45,000,000 
 54,000,000 
 11,000,000 
 M.onooon 
 
 United States 
 
 
 Saroinla 
 
 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 
 
 Bimil. 
 
 14,000 ooo fl4 nno.noft 1 
 
 
 
 
 The following tables exhibits the values of the chief 
 articles imported and exported in 1853 : 
 
 Arliclea. 
 
 Official value 
 In francs. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 Actual value 
 in francs. 
 
 Cottou, raw 
 
 Silka, raw 
 
 Cereals 
 
 Slit tissues..... 
 
 Cotton cloth.... 
 
 ■WooI,raAV..... . 
 
 Wood, common. 
 
 Stone coal 
 
 Oilseeds 
 
 155,000,000 
 
 149,600,000 
 
 140,600,000 
 
 187,800,000 
 
 76,100,000 
 
 68,200,000 
 
 45,700,000 
 
 44,700,000 
 
 40,700,000 
 
 Silk clotli 
 
 550,900,000 
 114,400,000 
 175,400,000 
 146,500,000 
 
 76,800,000 
 55,700,000 
 65,800,000 
 63,100,000 
 21,800,000 
 
 Cotton cloth 
 
 AVoolen cloth 
 
 Toys & other manu- 
 factures of wood. . 
 Silks 
 
 Cereals 
 
 Skins, worked 
 
 
 Tlie manufacture of cotton was first introduced in 
 1770, and has increased at an enormous rate. The 
 total number of persons now employed in it is near 
 300,000. The total value of all the manufactures of 
 France, annually, is 1,600,000,000 francs, and they are 
 rapidly increasing. 
 
 The commercial legislation of France, which the tariff, 
 inserted under its appropriate head,* is more especially 
 designed to illustrate, has undergone, during the past 
 few years, several important modifications. The 
 latest, and not the least advantageous to the tonnage 
 interests of the United States, is a decree which al- 
 Ipws foreign-built vessels to be naturalized, and to 
 talte the French flag with all its privileges, on the 
 payment of 10 per cent, on their assessed value. 
 
 This will create a new marliet, and an active de- 
 mand for American vessels of 500 to 900 tons, and 
 especially for steamers of 1000 to 1200 tons. A decree 
 has also been promulgated admitting lumber, timber, 
 naval stores, etc., free of duty for three years. 
 Another extends to December 31, 1856, the decree of 
 October 9, 1854, exempting from tonnage duties all 
 vessels wholly laden with breadstuffs, flour, rice, etc. ; 
 and if only partially laden therewith, an exemption of 
 tonnage duties proportionate to the quantities of such 
 cargoes. A decree has also been published, reviving 
 an old decree of 1816, exempting from tonnage duties 
 all vessels entering French ports for the purpose of 
 exporting salt, on which article the export duty has 
 been suppressed. 
 
 Early in 1855 important movements were made in 
 France, indicating an evident disposition in favor of the 
 introduction and more general consumption of Amer- 
 ican salted provisions. From 1852 to 1854 the price of 
 salt meats advanced at the extraordinary rate of 40 to 
 45 per cent. This state of the provision market imme- 
 diatelj- arrested the attention of the government, and 
 various projects were adopted with a view, not only to 
 prevent a further increase in prices, but also to reduce 
 the rates already raised to so exorbitant a figure. The 
 import duty on foreign cattle was lowered, viz. : from 
 $10 23 to 74 cents per head, on beef ; and every means 
 was resorted to likely to encourage the use of salted 
 beef among the general mass of the French people. 
 To this end, tlie duty on salted meats has been succes- 
 sively reduced from $5 58 to $3 72, and again to 
 $1 86 ; and in the month of September, 1855, it was 
 further lowered to 9^^ cents per 100 kilogrammes (220 
 pounds). The effect of this reduction of duty has 
 
 • Part ii. 
 
 been to open the markets of France to American salted 
 provisions ; and the importation has increased, since 
 that period, to such an extent as to render it not at all 
 improbable that this article will, henceforth, become a 
 leading staple of export from the United States to 
 France. 
 
 England is now almost exclusively supplied with 
 salted meats by the United States and Ireland — the 
 latter countrj- exporting about an equal quantity with 
 the former. The supply from the United States could 
 be made always to equal the demand ; and if Frai^ce 
 should open her ports to American salted provisions, 
 the consumption in that country would be almost ex- 
 clusively supplied from the United States. The fol- 
 lowing brief summary of the trade in salted provisions 
 in France during the past 20 years will exhibit the 
 development which this article of American produce 
 has made in tliat country. 
 
 In 1834, the importation into France of salted meats 
 reached only 3527 quintaux, equal to about 777,844'58 
 pounds. After a lapse of 21 years — ^that is to say, in 
 January, 1855, and during that single month— the im- 
 portation reached as high as 3720 quintaux, exceeding 
 the importation of the whole year of 1852 by 203 
 quintaux, or 44,769 pounds. Prime pork is imported 
 into France in barrels of SSIJ pounds gross, in brine 
 of gray salt, and is usually sold at from $14 80 to $16 
 81 the barrel. For the English market such pork is 
 exported from the United States in tierces of 304, 320, 
 and 336 pounds, and in barrels of 200 pounds. 
 
 American mess pork is too fat for the French mar- 
 ket, and seldom finds a purchaser; American sugar- 
 cured hams, however, always find a ready market and 
 a' brisk competition among purchasers. Shoulders, 
 well cured, and put up in hogsheads of 994 pounds, are 
 equally in demand, and bring from $18 60 to $19 53 
 per 220 lbs. A similar feeling is manifested in France 
 in behalf of her colonies. Bj' decree of 10th March, 
 1855, the duty on salted meats has been reduced as 
 follows : into Martinique, Guadaloupe, Guiana, and 
 Reunion, salted meats of whatever origin, or under 
 whatever flag, pay 9J cents per 220 pounds. Tliis 
 measure has attracted the attention of pork merchants 
 of the United States, and already heavy freights of 
 this article have been forwarded to those islands. 
 Various other modifications have been decreed, but as 
 they relate mostly to the tariff regulations, they are 
 merely alluded to here for the purpose of noting the 
 tendency to a more liberal commercial policy, which 
 has, of late years been, observable in French legisla^ 
 tion. Recent custom-house returns, published in 
 France, show that the revenue to the State during the 
 first six months of 1855, upon 18 difierent articles, the 
 duties on which have- been lowered, was 34,181,574 
 francs, against 18,258,808 francs, derived from the 
 same description of merchandise during the correspond- 
 ing six months of 1854. 
 
 Such figures supply the best argument in favor of 
 free trade, especially in a country in which a prohib- 
 itive and protective system has so long prevailed. 
 The annexed table will also illustrate the wise policy 
 bj' which, it would appear, that the commercial legis- 
 lation of France is henceforth to be shaped. 
 
 According to the Journal des EconomisteSj during 
 the first six months of the year 1856, the commercial 
 transactions of France exhibit a satisfactory condition ; 
 although the receipts for customs, compared with 
 those for the corresponding six months of last year, 
 show a decided falling off, amounting, for the entire 
 period, to 4,364,836 francs. This indicated a decrease 
 in importations, which is to be regretted, but which, 
 all things being considered, should cause no disqui- 
 etude. The movements in 1855 exhibited, in point of 
 fact, results altogether exceptional : thus the first six 
 months, compared with the corresponding period in 
 1854, showed an increase in import duties of 21,000,000 
 francs, of which 5,000,000 were for June alone. 
 
FRA 
 
 136 
 
 FRA 
 
 Natmation between Pkanoe ani 
 
 FOEEIGN COITHTEIES— 1865, 1854, AND 
 
 1863, compakeh 
 
 
 
 PORTS OR PlACBa. 
 
 ENTRY OF VESSELS INTO TRANCE. 
 
 DEPARTURE OF VESSELS FROM FRANCS, 1 
 
 FRENCH. 
 
 FOREIGN. 
 
 TOTAL. 
 
 FRENCH. 
 
 FOREIGN. 
 
 TOTAL. 
 
 No. of 
 BhipB, 
 
 Tonnage, 
 
 N--f| Tonnage. 
 
 Sp°.'|^"™^'- 
 
 No. oJ 
 sliips. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 No. of 
 ■hipa. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 No. of 
 aUps. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 In the first 10 months of 1866; 
 
 2,214 
 616 
 866 
 786 
 390 
 325 
 9 
 410 
 309 
 
 2,185 
 
 409,564 
 187,889 
 99,058 
 87,688 
 28,682 
 85,880 
 1,107 
 45,445 
 88,031 
 169,570 
 
 2,441 
 1,889 
 462 
 178 
 588 
 710 
 949 
 871 
 816 
 3,486 
 
 481,262 
 
 883,228 
 
 108,876 
 
 27,061 
 
 61,175 
 
 67,678 
 
 362,807 
 
 114,704 
 
 21,261 
 
 867,967 
 
 4,6r)6 
 2,0(15 
 1,8;6 
 
 959 
 
 978 
 1,053 
 
 968 
 1,281 
 
 625 
 5,668 
 
 840,826 
 621,117 
 202,929 
 114,749 
 89,807 
 102,968 
 153,914 
 160,149 
 
 1,627 
 811 
 391 
 167 
 162 
 125 
 4 
 402 
 
 350,998 
 79,268 
 78,427 
 43,757 
 17,771 
 12,225 
 494 
 46,414 
 20,720 
 
 185,662 
 
 1,629 
 
 624 
 
 216,200 
 216,862 
 
 8,066 
 985 
 667 
 208 
 815 
 412 
 716 
 
 1,085 
 452 
 
 8,905 
 
 597,198 
 
 296,100 
 111,065 
 49,428 
 81,486 
 39,998 
 118,872 
 125,268 
 47,699 
 277,253 
 
 
 
 166 37,688 
 44 5,586 
 168 13,716 
 287 37,770 
 711 118.378 
 
 
 
 ^unkiik 
 
 
 Calais 
 
 638 
 
 73,889 
 
 
 54,282 206 
 627,527 1.606 
 
 246 
 2,298 
 
 26,879 
 141,641 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 10 months of 1866 
 
 8,099 
 8,285 
 7,689 
 
 1,047,869 
 992,827 
 880,293 
 
 11,884 
 9,548 
 9,6T4 
 
 1,720,899 
 1,878,269 
 1,886,356 
 
 19,479 2,768,263 
 17,828 2,378,626 
 17,218 2,266,648 
 
 4,890 
 4,918 
 5,846 
 
 780,711 
 681,189 
 600,049 
 
 6,701 
 6,896 
 
 7,678 
 
 833,608 
 911,818 
 902,001 
 
 11,.590 
 
 1,694,237 
 1,393,002 
 1,392,060 
 
 " 1858 
 
 13,526 
 
 The preceding statement exhibits the navigation 
 between France and foreign nations in 1855, as com- 
 pared with 1854 and 1853. The following statement 
 Table op Expoktations op tiie principal Aeticles op Meechandise prom France, in 1855 and 1854, oompabkd. 
 
 exhibits the exports of principal manufactured staples 
 in 1855 compared with 1854 : by which it may be seen 
 that there has been an increase in the 10 months of 1855: 
 
 Drinks ; 
 
 "Wine, ordinary 
 
 " de liqueur 
 
 Brandy, pure alcohol 
 
 Spirits of wine, puro alcohol. 
 
 Machines & mechanical apparatus 
 
 Modes, millinery, etc 
 
 Porcelain, fine and common 
 
 Soap (perfumed excepted) 
 
 Silk: 
 
 Eaw 
 
 Dyed 
 
 Floss of all sorts 
 
 Sugar, refined 
 
 Frcncli and for- 
 eign during tlie 
 first 10 montha 
 of 1855, 
 
 Gallons, 
 
 18,286,000 
 
 435,000 
 
 2,102,000 
 
 144,100 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 ,326,330,000 
 
 ,962,000,000 
 
 7,300,000 
 
 18,000,000 
 
 1,808,560 
 
 90,180 
 
 441,000 
 
 55.575,000 
 
 Frencli and for- | 
 
 eign during the 
 
 first, 10 nioutlis 
 
 of 1864. 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 27,286,500 
 
 844,100 
 
 8,042,920 
 
 158,000 
 
 Founds. 
 
 1,681,000,000 
 
 1,242,600,000 
 
 9,550,000 
 
 10,799,000 
 
 1,819,360 
 
 84,450 
 
 866,000 
 
 46,363,000 
 
 French and for- 
 
 eign during the 
 
 Srst 10 months 
 
 of 1856. 
 
 French and for- 
 eign dui-ing the 
 first 10 montlls 
 of 1854. 
 
 Cotton tissues: 
 
 Unbleached and white. . . . 
 
 Painted and dyed 
 
 Tnlle 
 
 Others 
 
 Flax and hemp tissues: 
 
 Linen 
 
 Cambric and lawn 
 
 Others 
 
 "Woolen tissues: 
 
 Cloths, cassimeres, & merinos 
 
 Others 
 
 Silk tissues 
 
 Glass and Crystal 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 . 9,893,800 
 
 6,902,900 
 
 123,040 
 
 4,776,900 
 
 4,887,700 
 106,180 
 20^400 
 
 5,700,820 
 
 6,676,600 
 
 6,672,880 
 
 43,117,800 
 
 Founds. 
 
 7,062,000 
 
 6,644,600 
 
 156,.340 
 
 4,685,600 
 
 2,920,800 
 96,840 
 178,360 
 
 4,991,700 
 6,280,900 
 6,186,240 
 41,542,000 
 
 In addition to the numerous tables already given, 1 general direct trade between the United States and 
 the following statement is submitted, exhibiting the j France during a period of 11 successive years. 
 
 Comparative Statement op the Com.meroe op the TTnited States with France, BxniBiTiNa the Value of Ex- 
 ports TO AND Imports from each Country, and the Tonnage op American and Foreign Vessels akrivino 
 
 FROM and departing TO EACH COUNTRY, DURING TUB YEARS DESIGNATED. 
 
 rSABa. 
 
 COMMERCE. 
 
 NAVIQATION. [ 
 
 V4LUE OF EXPORTS. 
 
 TALUB OP 
 IMPORTS. 
 
 AMERICAN TONNAGB. 
 
 FORKIQN ■T0^-NAGE. | 
 
 Bomeatic 
 produce. 
 
 Foreign 
 produce. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Entered the 
 
 United'Statss. 
 
 Cleared from 
 the U. States. 
 
 Entered the 
 United States. 
 
 Cleared from 
 the U. States. 
 
 1845 
 
 $12,880,171 
 13,601,660 
 18,592,581 
 15,874,836 
 12,528,759 
 17,950,277 
 25,802,036 
 22,190,070 
 2.5,120,806 
 30,968,262 
 81,623,398 
 
 $3,170,233 
 1,523,925 
 506,037 
 4,444,425 
 2,986,824 
 1,883,070 
 2,950,061 
 1,800,575 
 1,460,973 
 1,179,729 
 1,254,230 
 
 $15,.'j00,404 
 16,180,675 
 19,097,618 
 19,319.310 
 16,510,588 
 19,838,347 
 28,262,146 
 23,990,645 
 26,671,784 
 82,147,981 
 32,873,123 
 
 $21,595,425 
 23,911,.382 
 24.900,841 
 23,096,081 
 24,36.3,788 
 27,583,025 
 31,716,653 
 25,890,266 
 88,455,942 
 85,781,398 
 81,609,181 
 
 126,417 
 118,654 
 189,672 
 156,326 
 102,017 
 114,867 
 142,842 
 198,242 
 189,916 
 238,143 
 199,695 
 
 141,032 
 184,679 
 160,657 
 182,546 
 127,883 
 128,747 
 168,707 
 214,768 
 201,181 
 230,062 
 266,823 
 
 14,104 
 18,714 
 29,685 
 24,837 
 83,917 
 42,852 
 41,164 
 46,768 
 87,966 
 81,833 
 28,765 
 
 10,690 
 
 12,116 
 
 28,107 
 
 27,887 
 
 80,388 
 
 26,892 
 
 83,160 
 
 17,602 
 
 14,888 
 
 18,091 , 
 
 16,063 
 
 1846 
 
 1847 ..'. 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 
 
 I860 
 
 1861 
 
 1852 
 
 1853 
 
 1864 
 
 1865 
 
 
 This important branch of French commerce com- 
 prises all the foreign merchandise transported over the 
 French territories to other countries. Its vast increase 
 may be perceived from the following statement for 
 three years : 
 
 Years. 
 
 Metrical qaintala. 
 (220'4GS lbs.) 
 
 Reel Value, Francs, 
 (18-6 cants each.) 
 
 1858 
 
 618,808 
 782,525 
 760,484 
 
 863,000,000 
 377,000,000 
 888,000,000 
 
 1854 
 
 1855 
 
 The countries which supported this transit trade in 
 1855, were : 
 
 Whence. 
 
 Francs. 
 
 Whither. 
 
 Francs. 
 
 Switzerland. . 
 
 143,000,000 
 
 United States. 
 
 124,000,000 
 
 Belgium 
 
 102,000,000 
 
 England 
 
 99,000,000 
 
 Eneland 
 
 Zollverein.. . . 
 
 50,000,000 
 
 Switzerland. . . 
 
 74,000,000 
 
 45,000,000 
 
 Brazil 
 
 11,000,000 
 
 United States 
 
 16,000,000 
 
 Belgium 
 
 11,000,000 
 
 Sardinia. 
 
 6,000,000 
 
 Sardinia 
 
 11,000,000 
 
 
 
 Zollverein 
 
 10,000,000 
 
 
 
 Spain, etc 
 
 8,000,000 
 
 statement showing the amount of precious metals, 
 gold and silver (ingots and specie), imported and ex- 
 ported to and from France, during a period of 26 years, 
 from 1830 to 1865 : 
 
 Imported. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Francs. 
 
 1,870,000,000 
 
 Francs. 
 
 4,044,000,000 
 
 Francs. 
 5,914,000,000 
 
 Exported. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Sliver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Franca. 
 
 857,000,000 
 
 Franca. 
 2,229,000,000 
 
 Ftjincs. 
 
 8,086,000,000 
 
 See article Frajsce, Enci/. Brit., 1857; Hunt's 
 Merch. Mag., viii., 131, xiii., 2G, xvi., 476, 547, xviii., 
 497, xxii., 269, xxiv., 284, v., 105, vii., 301; Am. 
 Ann. Reg., v., vii., viii. (by John Q. Adaims and "W. 
 C. P.IVES); For.Quar.,m.,Zb^; i)em. ijet)., xxii., 545. 
 
FRA 
 
 131 
 
 FRA 
 
 COMMEKOI! 01' THE UhITED STATES WITH FbANOB ON THE 
 
 Meditebeaneak, feom Ootobeb 1, 1820, to Jult 1, 1866. 
 
 Yeai-B ending 
 
 ExportB. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Whereof there wea in Bulllou 
 and Specie. 
 
 Tonnage 
 
 Cleared. 
 
 Domestic, 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Exported. 
 
 Imported. 
 
 American. 
 
 Foreign: 
 
 Sept 80, 1821 
 
 $69,856 
 
 $10,851 
 
 $80,706 
 
 $496,028 
 
 
 $247,884 
 
 81B 
 
 698 
 
 1822 
 
 188,191 
 
 70,887 
 
 268,528 
 
 400,998 
 
 
 14,646 
 
 883 
 
 858 
 
 1828. ...'.... 
 
 823,861 
 
 1,171,898 
 
 1,496,769 
 
 601,457 
 
 $938 
 
 102,246 
 
 10,267 
 
 831 
 
 1824 
 
 265,815 
 
 750,481 
 
 1,016,246 
 
 460,4M 
 
 6,760 
 
 47,875 
 
 S'*^I 
 
 .■.. 
 
 1825 
 
 187,242 
 
 726,499 
 
 918,741 
 
 812,511 
 
 20,000 
 
 17,065 
 
 9,488 
 
 
 1826 
 
 278,675 
 
 483,677 
 
 757,852 
 
 892,152 
 
 1,600 
 
 86,088 
 
 10,960 
 
 .... 
 
 1827 
 
 475,647 
 
 781,076 
 
 1,256,628 
 
 648,374 
 
 1,600 
 
 60,179 , 
 
 12,064 
 
 889 
 
 1828 
 
 606,633 
 
 279,407 
 
 ,, 886,045 
 
 904,426 
 
 5,862 
 
 2M 
 
 10,498 
 
 
 1829 
 
 E86,122 
 
 748,777 
 
 1,634,899 
 
 590,057 
 
 8,880 
 
 1,482 ' 
 
 18,848 
 
 
 1880 
 
 Total.... 
 
 717,252 
 
 480,888 
 
 1,148,140 
 
 891,188 
 
 6,000 
 
 14,517 
 
 18,967 
 
 1,074 
 
 $3,989,198 
 
 $5,458,841 
 
 $9,448,039 
 
 $6,782,636 
 
 $45,125 
 
 $6^,866 
 
 100,693 
 
 3,245 
 
 Septan, 1881 
 
 '$6n,867 
 
 $800,926 
 
 $972,793 
 
 $1,188,766 
 
 $14,611 
 
 $6,155 
 
 15,469 
 
 1,47T 
 
 1882 
 
 914,091 
 
 1,140,876 
 
 2,064,467 
 
 1,248,776 
 
 12,000 
 
 14,888 
 
 16,486 
 
 8,688 
 
 1883 ■... 
 
 1,036,898 
 
 . 768,826 
 
 1,805,724 
 
 1,080,062 
 
 800 
 
 18,414 
 
 14,976 
 
 3,922 
 
 1884 
 
 1,082,898 , 
 
 1,362,889 
 
 2,886,287 
 
 1,827,400 
 
 
 4,534 
 
 17,846 
 
 8,775 
 
 1885 
 
 2,023,8'29 
 
 664,192 
 
 2,678,021 
 
 1,468,998 
 
 74,000 
 
 2,258 
 
 15,200 
 
 2,311 
 
 1836 
 
 1,961,742 
 
 725,991 
 
 2,677,788 
 
 1,967,136 
 
 1,541 
 
 
 15,614 
 
 4,676 
 
 1887 
 
 1,196,347 
 
 649,550 
 
 1,845,897 
 
 1,662,118 
 
 28,988 
 
 1,654 
 
 10,625 
 
 5,116 
 
 1888 ,.. 
 
 1,488,766 ■ 
 
 ■ 288,185 
 
 1,716,900 
 
 948,685 
 
 9,820 
 
 75,229 
 
 17,346 
 
 2,891 
 
 1889 
 
 1 1,046,260 
 
 176,186 
 
 1,222,446 
 
 1,612,871 
 
 
 6,506 
 
 9,266 
 
 8,651 
 
 1840 
 
 Total.... 
 
 1,178(638 
 
 224,202 
 
 1,403,086 
 
 879,587 
 
 
 178,268 
 
 10,306 
 
 
 $12,486,030 
 
 $6,176,278 
 
 $18,662,808 
 
 $18,279,388 
 
 $140,710 
 
 $297,245 
 
 148,012 
 
 81,466 
 
 Sept. 30, 1841 
 
 $1,512,460 
 
 $140,024 
 
 $1,662,484 
 
 $1,221,680 
 
 $1,500 
 
 $18,144 
 
 16,827 
 
 2,876 
 
 1842 
 
 1,674,670 
 
 78,868 
 
 1,748,488 
 
 968,678 
 
 
 8,021 
 
 21,944 
 
 2,147 
 
 9 mos. 1848 
 
 1,186,294 
 
 88,701 
 
 1,269,996 
 
 609,149 
 
 
 18,433 
 
 18,167 
 
 418 
 
 Jane 30, 1844 
 
 1,204,793 
 
 85,104 
 
 1,269,897 
 
 1,608,318 
 
 7,478 
 
 11,641 
 
 17,868 
 
 666 
 
 1846 
 
 979,739 
 
 197,980 
 
 1,177,719 
 
 1,414,175 
 
 1,176 
 
 2,400 
 
 19,217 
 
 660 
 
 1846 
 
 898,678 
 
 191,448 
 
 1,090,126 
 
 1,302,748 
 
 14,600 
 
 2,688 
 
 14,950 
 
 740 
 
 1847 
 
 1,172,146 
 
 66,041 
 
 1,228,187 
 
 .1,001,765 
 
 
 
 13,078 
 
 ^-SJi 
 
 1848 
 
 1,216,087 
 
 • 166,266 
 
 1,881,358 
 
 1,086,817 
 
 76,202 
 
 8,532 
 
 16,484 
 
 928 
 
 1849 
 
 877,147 
 
 168,521 
 
 1,046,668 
 
 1,158,905 
 
 
 
 18,868 
 
 8,227- 
 
 1850 
 
 Total.... 
 
 1,015,486 
 
 158,165 
 
 1,173,641 
 
 1,702,855 
 
 
 2,688 
 
 14,158 
 
 8,676 
 
 $11,786,400 
 
 $1,821,108 
 
 $18,067,608 
 
 $12,004,486 
 
 $99,965 
 
 $62,497 
 
 165,546 
 
 24,488 
 
 Juno 80, 1851.... 
 
 $785,018 
 
 $136,898 
 
 $870,411 
 
 $1,926,429 
 
 $8,921 
 
 
 16,614 
 
 10,627 
 
 1852 
 
 1,896,192 
 
 79,184 
 
 1,475,826 
 
 1,694,362 
 
 .... 
 
 
 26,798 
 
 6,517 
 6,761 
 
 1858 
 
 852,514 
 
 70,331 
 
 922,845 
 
 2,604,398 
 
 1,074 
 
 
 16,234 
 
 1854 
 
 1,218,786 
 
 201,374 
 
 1,420,160 
 
 2,889,372 
 
 
 
 17,728 
 
 3,166 
 
 1855 
 
 8,827,604 
 
 164,084 
 
 8,491,688 
 
 2,699,783 
 
 
 
 26,880 
 
 4,189 
 
 18156 
 
 8,096,482 
 
 186,164 
 
 8,281,696 
 
 8,615,664 
 
 
 
 S.3,152 
 
 8,469 
 
 COMMEBOB OP THE TJSITBD STATES -WITH FeANOE ON THE AtLAHTIO, EBOM OoTOEEE 1, 1820, TO JtTLT 1, 1856. 
 
 Years ending 
 
 Sept. 80, 1821.... 
 1822.... 
 1828.... 
 1824.... 
 1826.... 
 1826.... 
 1827.... 
 1828.... 
 1829.... 
 1830.... 
 Total 
 
 Sept. 80, 1831 
 
 1882 
 
 1883 
 
 1884 
 
 1886 
 
 ' 1886 
 
 1887 
 
 1888 
 
 1889 
 
 1840 
 
 Total. 
 
 Sept. 80, 1841 
 
 1842 
 
 9 mo3. 1848 
 
 June 30, 1844 
 
 1845 
 
 1846 
 
 1847 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 
 
 1850 
 
 Total. 
 
 June SO, 1851 
 
 1852 
 
 1868 
 
 1864 
 
 1855 
 
 1856 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Domestic. 
 
 $6,093,648 
 4,561,299 
 4,677,914 
 7,585,816 
 7,338,"" 
 9,076,254 
 8,712,011 
 7,091,699 
 8,008,923 
 9,188,894 
 
 $71,384,845 
 
 $4,968,657 
 9,028,486 
 9,769,685 
 11,688,356 
 16,018,186 
 17,656,692 
 16,164,567 
 18,089,619 
 14,919,848 
 17,733,743 
 
 $131,012,767 
 
 $16,897,907 
 15,840,728 
 10,884,578 
 11,861,419 
 11,860,482 
 12,702,072 
 17,420,886 
 14,169,798 
 11,646,612 
 16,984,791 
 
 $183,699,622 
 
 $24,567,067 
 20,793,878 
 24,268,292 
 29,749 466 
 28,296,294 
 38,782,08 3 
 
 AAA 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 $349,010 
 1,210,638 
 2,527,666 
 1,095,612 
 2,625,968 
 1,316,178 
 2,565,869 
 8,096,826 
 2,105,673 
 661,925 
 
 $17,644,160 
 
 $8,226, 
 1,536, 
 2,196, 
 1,440, 
 1,160, 
 
 604, 
 1,690, 
 
 976, 
 2,088, 
 " 198, 
 
 $17^6! 
 
 ,620,840 
 
 $3,216,864 
 1,076,684 
 
 441,578 
 2,267,084 
 2,972,253 
 1,837,477 
 
 449,046 
 4,278,159 
 2,818,803 
 1,724916 
 
 $20,601,868 
 
 $2,814,668 
 
 1,721,441 
 
 1,880,647 
 
 978,855 
 
 1,090,146 
 
 497,844 
 
 $5,447,858 
 
 5,771,832 
 
 7,205,570 
 
 8,681,427 
 
 9,964,661 
 
 10,391,482 
 
 11,267,880 
 
 10,187,525 
 
 10,114,496 
 
 9,845,819 
 
 $88,878,495 
 
 $8,192,009 
 10,565,266 
 11,966,497 
 13,123,637 
 17,173,228 
 18,261,367 
 17,844,681 
 14,066,616 
 17,008,603 
 20,481,768 
 
 $148,633,607 
 
 $20,114,271 
 16,417,412 
 10,826,166 
 14,148,508 
 14,.322,685 
 14,040,449 
 17,669,481 
 18,487,957 
 14,464,916 
 18,659,706 
 
 . , Whereof there was in Bnllioa I 
 
 Imports. and Specie. 
 
 Total. 
 
 $4,493,917 
 6,688,636 
 5,166,278 
 6,741,118 
 
 10,161,671 
 7,687,368 
 7,683,858 
 8,486,427 
 8,248,921 
 6,881,016 
 
 $71,178,898 
 
 $12,876,977 
 10,981,988 
 12,851,626 
 15,81.3,778 
 21,446,878 
 84,648,281 
 ■20,621,496 
 16,823,112 
 30,918,450 
 16,698,289 
 
 $159,801,486 
 
 $27,381,786 
 22,515,819 
 25,648,989 
 80,727,821 
 29,886,440 
 89,229,877 
 
 $193,025,865 
 
 $22,712,262 
 16,015,880 
 7,050,687 
 15,946,166 
 20,181,250 
 22,608,589 
 23,699,076 
 27,059,744 
 28,209,876 
 25,885,170 
 
 $204,618,072 $21,608,001 
 
 $29,769,124 $7,471,241 
 
 24,196,914 6,474,496 
 
 30,851,549 -- - 
 
 82,892,021 6;948;028 
 
 29,009,898 8,762,400 
 45,600,3961 7,172,892 
 
 Tonnage Cleared. 
 
 Exported. 
 
 $12,000 
 519,892 
 175,872 
 
 916J63n 
 
 202,563 
 
 1,568,093 
 
 2,396,699 
 
 1,620,820 
 
 135,111 
 
 $7,542,680 
 
 $2,960,669 
 
 450,779 
 
 66,006 
 
 70,274 
 
 556,622 
 
 111,092 
 
 1,020,609 
 
 467,446 
 
 2,017,796 
 
 2,196,603 
 
 $9,919,897 
 
 $4,067,199 
 1,113,698 
 186,008 
 2,029,195 
 8,179,278 
 1,160,836 
 
 4,726,676 
 2,963,124 
 2,162,992 
 
 Imported. { American. 
 
 $617,264 
 
 80,356 
 
 86,963 
 
 77,288 
 
 7,681 
 
 158,681 
 
 104,168 
 
 66,569 
 
 27,670 
 
 47,812 
 
 $1,214,212 
 
 $47,949 
 
 26,629 
 
 46,719 
 
 1,666,438 
 
 616,786 
 4,841,004 
 1,051,503 
 2,165,083 
 
 150,129 
 
 946,991 
 
 t}l,449,238 
 
 $267,649 
 232,447 
 
 2,641,057 
 683,192 
 184,855 
 108,708 
 
 1,358,472 
 277,222 
 241,154 
 72,251 
 
 $6,017,007 
 
 763,430 
 281,908 
 20,564 
 2,814 
 188,188 
 
 798 
 8,638 
 44,401 
 68,616 
 47,897 
 76,478 
 85,651 
 65,086 
 78,862 
 82,521 
 
 688,446 
 
 48,022 
 79,330 
 77,127 
 79,820 
 91,102 
 96,626 
 91,687 
 
 103,056 
 88,519 
 
 132,828 
 
 893,012 
 
 121,684 
 130,865 
 110, m 
 109,327 
 121,815 
 119,729 
 147,679 
 116,062 
 114,085 
 114,589 
 
 1,206,706 
 
 147,098 
 187,965 
 184,947 
 212,824 
 289,943 
 296,886 
 
 Foreign, 
 
 3,548 
 4,610 
 9,787 
 11,270 
 10,908 
 8,708 
 7,785 
 6,014 
 
 98,957 
 
 8,722 
 12,769 
 14,707 
 14,682 
 
 9,717 
 12,869 
 20,032 
 16,108 
 14,762 
 25,409 
 
 144,607 
 
 16,704 
 16,042 
 44,171 
 16,989 
 10,036 
 11,376 
 13,496 
 26,496 
 27,161 
 17,616 
 
 203,086 
 
 10,638 
 11,085 
 11,127 
 14,925 
 11,924 
 19,688 
 
FRA 
 
 738 
 
 FRA 
 
 Commercial Decrees—Bmndiea.—'By a decree of the 22i3 
 of September, 1854, all foreign brandies are admitted into 
 France, by paying a duty of 15 francs per each hectolitre of 
 pure alcohol. 
 
 Wines.— By a decree of the 5th of October, 1854, aU wines, 
 such as Madeira, Sherry, etc. (" Tins de liqueur"), in casks, 
 leather bottles, or bottles, are subject to the importation duty 
 of 25 centimes per 100 litres. 
 
 Salted Meats.— Bj a decree of the 6th of October, 1854, a 
 duty is fixed upon salted meats, of 50 centimes per 100 kilo- 
 grammes. 
 
 Medicirud Leaves, — By a decree of the 25th of October, 
 1854, the importation duty on medicinal leaves is fixed as 
 follows : Orange, ivy, (stems and branches included) ; be- 
 tel ; dove ; senna (leaves and follienas, whole or broken) ; 
 and others not enumerated : By French ships, from countries 
 out of Europe, free ; by French ships, from entrep6t8, 10 
 francs per 100 kilogrammes ; by foreign ships, 20 francs per 
 100 kilogrammes. 
 
 The delay fixed by the decree of the 24th of June, 1855, 
 concerning divers measures relative to alimentary products, 
 is put off till the 31st of July next (decree 21st of October, 
 1854). These measures are as follows, viz. : 1st. Suppression 
 of navigation dues (surtaxes) upon grain and flour imported 
 by foreign vessels. 2d. Lowering of the entry dues upon 
 those products to the minimum fixed by the law of the 15th 
 of April, 1832. 3d. Reduction to 25 centimes for every 100 
 kilogrammes of the duties upon rice, dry vegetables, and 
 oat-meal. 4th. Prohibition of the exportation of potatoes 
 and dry vegetables. 5th. Exemption of tonnage duties pn 
 foreign ships when they arrive laden with grain, flour, rice, 
 dry vegetables, oat-meal, and potatoes. 6th. Facility for the 
 same ships to effect the transport of the same alimentary 
 products by coasting from one French port to another. 7th. 
 Facilities for foreign ships to effect the transport of grains, 
 flour, rice, and dry vegetables, between Algeria and France. 
 Sth. Prohibition of the exportation of potatoes and dry vege- 
 tables from Algeria to foreign destinations, and facility of ex- 
 pediting these products from France into Algeria. 
 
 Foreign ships to bring grain. — By a decree of the 19th 
 September, the decree of the 23d June, allowing foreign ships 
 to bring grain, is extended to the 31st December, 1855, and 
 the same in reference to Algerine exportations. By the de- 
 cree of the 14th February, 1855, the importation duty upon 
 spermaceti from the whale and cachalot of foreign fisheries 
 is provisionally established, as follows: Eaw: by French 
 vessels, from countries, situated beyond Cape Horn and the 
 Cape of Good Hope, 5 francs per 100 kilogrammes. By 
 French vessels, from elsewhere out of Europe, 7. 50 francs 
 per 100 kilogrammes. By French vessels, from the entrep6ts, 
 10 francs per 100 kilogrammes. By foreign vessels, 15 francs 
 per 100 kilogrammes. Pressed, 20 francs per 100 kilo- 
 grammes. Kefined, 50 francs per 100 kilogrammes. 
 
 By a decree of February 17, 1S55, it is provisionally estab- 
 lished, that from the 1st of March next the rate of drawback 
 allowed on the exportation of soap shall he as follows : White 
 or mottled soap, composed of alkali and olive oil, or of oleag- 
 inous seeds, or mixed with animal fat; 1st. The oil entering 
 by one half, at least, in the mixture of greasy matter, 
 8.20 francs per 100 kilogrammes. 2d. The oil entering for 
 less than one half, 6 francs per 100 kilogrammes. Soap of 
 animal fat : 3d. Pure, 6 francs per 100 kilogrammes. 4th. 
 Mixed with rosin, 6 francs per 100 kilogrammes. Soap of 
 palm or cocoa oil mixed with animal fat or rosin, 4 francs 
 per 100 kilogrammes. 
 
 Cocoa tresses or Jilaments. — By a ministerial decision of 
 the 22d of February, 1855, filaments of cocoa in the shape of 
 tresses or twists are assimilated to the coarse tresses for mat- 
 -ting, and admitted as such at the duty of 2 francs, and 2 
 ifraucs 20 centimes, according to the mode of importation. 
 
 Duties on wines in the French colonies. — By a decree of 
 the 31st January, 1855, "until otherwise ordained," foreign 
 wines of all kinds imported from abroad into the colonies of 
 Martinique, Guadaloupe, Guiana, La It6union, and Senegal, 
 shall pay the following duti£s : by French vessels, 25 cen- 
 times per hectolitre. By foreign vessels, 5 francs per hecto- 
 litre. 
 
 Xcaco. By a ministerial decision of the 15th March, 1855, 
 
 the icaco or American prune will in future pay an entry duty 
 similar to the ground and Taulmouna nut, either 1, 2, 3 
 francs, or 3 francs 50 centimes the 100 kilogrammes, accord- 
 ing to the source from whence it comes and mode of importa- 
 tion. 
 
 Salted Meats to the French colonies.— By a decree of the 
 10th of March, 1855, "salted meats" of all sorts of foreign 
 origin, imported from any country whatsoever, or by any 
 flag, into our colonies of Martinique, Guadaloupe, Guiana, 
 and La EtSunion, will pay on entry a duty of 50 centimes per 100 
 
 kilogrammes. The importation of these same meats, on the 
 payment of a duty of 50 centimes per 100 kilogrammes, is 
 also permitted into St Louis (Senegal), but by French vessels 
 only, either direct from abroad or -by extraction from the 
 entrep6t at Goree. Those which arrive at Senegal under a 
 foreign flag will continue subject to the same regulations 
 that exist at present. 
 
 Liqueurs from French colonics. — By a decree of the 14th 
 of April, 1855, the duty on "liqueurs" imported from the 
 French colonies is fixed at 15 francs the hectolitre of liquid. 
 
 By a decree of the 14th of April, 1855, the importation du- 
 ties on raw wool are modified as follows, viz. : Imported di- 
 rect, by French ship, from countries situated beyond Cape 
 Horn and the Cape of Good Hope : From Australia and the 
 Colony of the Cape, including Cape Town, present duties. 
 From elsewhere, in the grease, 10 centimes per kilogramme. 
 Cold-washed, in whole fleeces, 20 centimes per kilogramme. 
 Offal or refuse, 10 centimes per kilogramme. Hot-washed, 
 in whole fleeces, 30 centimes per kilogramme. Offal or ref- 
 use, 15 centimes per kilogramme. From elsewhere, present 
 duties. 
 
 Nitrate of Soda and Potash.— By a decree of the 23d 
 of April, 1855, the importation duty on nitrate of soda and 
 of potash is ^established as follows: By French ships, from 
 countries situated beyond Cape Horn and the Cape of Good 
 Hope, 1 franc per 100 kilogrammes. From other countries 
 out of Europe, 6 francs per 100 kilograinmes. Prom eotre- 
 p6ts, 8 franCs per 100 kilogrammes. By foreign ships, 11 
 francs per 100 kilogrammes. 
 
 Drawback on Nitrate and Sulphuric Acids The pre- 
 miums allowed by the laws of 6Lh May, 1841^ and 11th June, 
 1845, on exportation of nitric and sulphuric acids, are — For 
 nitric acid, 5 francs the 100 kilogrammes net of acid. For 
 sulphuric acid, 20 centimes the 100 kilogrammes net of acid. 
 Citric Acid.— By a. decree of the 23d of April, 1855, all duty 
 is taken off citric acid of all sorts from the French colonies. 
 Foreign Vessels loading Salt exempt from Tonnage Duty. 
 — ^By a decree dated May 16, 1855, the dispositions of the 
 ordinances of 3l6t July, and 4th December, 1816, allowing 
 foreign vessels to load salt in French ports when coming 
 in ballast, free of tonnage duties, are extended to vessels 
 coming to France with cargoes. The exemption from ton- 
 nage duties shall be in proportion to the quantity of salt ex- 
 ported. — 
 
 Locust-trees. — By a decree of the 23d June, 1855, the im- 
 portation duty on locust-trees is fixed as follows: By French 
 ships, 25 centimes the 100 kilogrammes. ^By foreign ships, 1 
 franc the 100 kilogi-ammes. ; 
 
 Navigation Dues — JExemption to Sljsf December, 1855.— By 
 a decree of the 5th June, 1S55, the exemption of navigation 
 dues accorded up to the 31st July, 1855, on cargoes of grain, 
 flour, rice, potatoes, and dry vegetables, is extended to the 
 31st December, 1855. 
 
 By a decree of the 14th July, 1856, the regulation for the 
 admission of molasses intended for distillation is fixed as 
 follows, until it shall be otherwise ordained : By French ves- 
 sels, from French colonies, exempt. By French vessels, from 
 the East Indies, exempt. By French vessels, from South 
 America, exempt. By French vessels, from -the West Indies, 
 exempt. By French vessels, from elsewhere, 2 francs the 100 
 kilogrammes. By foreign vessels, 3 francs the 100 kilo- 
 grammes. 
 
 By a decree of the 3d October, 1854, the duty then existinff 
 on the exportation of leeches, of 50 centimes per 1000, was 
 abolished ; and on the 5th, a duty of 50 centimes per 100 
 kilogrammes was imposed on the importation of salted pro- 
 visions. On the 9th, a decree prolonged the free entry of 
 vessels laden with grain, flour, rice, potatoes, and dried 
 vegetables, from the 31fit July, 1854, to the Slst July, 1855. 
 Another decree dated the 25th, permitted the importation 
 of leaves of oranges, ivy, cloves, and senna, intended for 
 medicinal purposes, free of duty. On the 26th the distilla- 
 tion of grain, and all other farinaceous substances whatsoever, 
 was prohibited by an imperial decree, under that date ; and 
 on the 6th November, a similar decree allowed the free ad- 
 mission of quercitron bark, imported by French vessels from 
 countries out of Europe, and reduced the existing duty of 40 
 francs on that article, arriving by French vessels from the 
 entrepots of Europe, to 20 francs; and from 60 francs to oO 
 francs when imported by foreign vessels having no commer- 
 cial treaty with France. On the 16th November, notice was 
 communicated by circular, that, by a treaty concluded be- 
 tween France and Belgium, the former admitted geographi- 
 cal and marine charts, linen, printing-ink, types, thread and 
 hemp yam, straw plait, slate, stone, and other raw materials, 
 without a certificate of origin— Belgium conceding to France 
 a similar privilege on charts, types, printing-ink, clothes, 
 pasteboard in sheets, paper of all descriptions except colored 
 
FRA 
 
 739 
 
 FRA 
 
 or morocco, slates, prepared plaster, Bordeaux, Burgundy, 
 and Champagne ■wines, and also those of Tours and Bayonne, 
 in cask. 
 
 On the 5th December, a declaration was promulgated he- 
 tween the Emperor of the French and the Prince of Monaco, 
 by which the former reduced the then existing duty on olive 
 oil (not exceeding 180,000 kilogrammes in quantity, when im- 
 ported by French vessels, or those of the Prince of Monaco, 
 to a uniform duty of 15 francs per 100 kilogrammes — the 
 vessels of the principality being assimilated to those of Sar- 
 dinia for payment of tonnage dues— the duty on French 
 wines imported into the territory of the Prince of Monaco, 
 in cask, being fixed at 3 francs 80 centimes per hectolitre, 
 a,nd at 10 centimes in bottle not containing more than a litre. 
 By another decree, dated the 20th December, molasses from 
 the French colonies, arriving by French vessels, is admit- 
 ted free; when imported from countries out of Europe, at a 
 duty of 3 francs, and from the entrepots at a duty of 8 francs 
 per 100 kilogrammes. "When imported by foreign vessels, it 
 is fixed at 13 francs per 100 kilogrammes. 
 
 On the 6th January of the current year, three decrees were 
 published ; one permitting the temporary importation of 
 sheet copper into France by French vessels, or direct from 
 the country where it is produced, free of duty; when it is 
 intended for the manufacture of boilers or machinery. Its 
 origin must be certified by the French consul at the place of 
 its departure. Immediately on its arrival, the importer is 
 bound to make a declaration at the custom-house, of the num- 
 ber and weight of the sheets, as well as of their length, 
 breadth, and thickness. The custom-house, after having 
 ascertained the correctness of such declaration, is enjoined 
 to cause a stamp to be put on each sheet, in order to assure 
 the exportation of the same copper ; and a charge of' 5 cen- 
 times for stamping, including the cost of the stamp, is made 
 for every sheet so stamped. Bond must be ^ven that the 
 whole quantity of copper imported shall be used, and re-ex- 
 ported, or placed in the public stores (excepting such parts as 
 may remain from cuttings or corners of sheets, in which the 
 duty must be paid in the same proportion as if they were 
 whole sheets), within six months ; and the custom-house is 
 eiyoined to assure itself that the articles so manufactured are 
 equal in quantity, kind, and quality, so that, temporarily ad- 
 mitted, sheet copper can only be exported from ports or 
 places having public warehouses, or from places to which 
 such articles are allowed to be sent in transit. By another, 
 the temporary introduction of old cast iron belonging to for- 
 eign-built steamboats, which may put into France for re- 
 pairs, is also admitted free of duty — the importers giving 
 sufficient security for replacing in the entrepSts of France 
 within six months, an equal quantity of iron, proper for 
 ships' use, to that which may have been employed in such re- 
 pairs. Iron imported under this decree, and the article 
 manufactured therefrom, can only be exported from places 
 having government warehouses ; and the custom-house is 
 charged to see that the iron imported and not used be broken 
 up in such way as to render it impossible of being used, 
 otherwise. 
 
 The third decree subjects foreign vessels at the island of 
 Senegal to a simple tax of 50 .centimes per ton, without the 
 additional 10 per cent.,- but this is limited to the port of 
 Gor6e. A decree relative to French and foreign emigration 
 was promulgated on the 15th of January, a copy of which, in 
 extensOt with a translation into English, was forwarded by me 
 to the Department on the 31st of that month. A circular, 
 dated 15th January, exempts from the tax of atombage^ or 
 leading^ certain articles of French origin, or foreign goods on 
 which the duty imposed by law has been paid, when they are 
 sent by water from one part of the empire to another, pre- 
 cautions being taken to assure the identity of the goods on 
 their arrival at the port of destination. Bjr a circular, dated 
 IGth January, the decree of 20th December, prohibiting the 
 importation of foreign molasses, extends to such only as is 
 intended for distillation ; and the exemption from duty on 
 French molasses equally applies to such as is imported 
 solely for distillation. Molasses so imported is always un- 
 der the surveillance of the customs till after its completion 
 at the place of distillation. 
 
 By another circular of the 27th of the, same month, alco- 
 hol produced in Corsica, from the distillation of the bulbs of 
 daffodils, figs of the cactus (prickly pears ?), juniper and myr- 
 tle berries, and all other substances, with the exception of 
 farinaceous (the distillation from which substances the cir- 
 cular continues to prohibit), are added to the number of 
 articles admitted free of duty. A decree of the same date 
 modifies the duty on juniper and myrtle berries, and also on 
 table-fruits, and equalizes the duty on the bulbs of daffodils 
 and figs of cactus. By a decree of the 31st of January, for- 
 eign wines of every description are admitted into the islands 
 
 of Martinique, Guadaloupe, G-uiana, La R6union, and Senegal 
 subject to a duty, when imported by French ships, of 25 
 centimes per hectolitre, and to that of 5 francs when im- 
 ported by foreign vessels. A circular of the 1st of February 
 exempts from examination, at the custom-houses of France, 
 the baggage of foreigners arriving from foreign parts, to em- 
 bark for places abroad ; and a decree of the 10th allows the 
 free importation of salt (foreign) intended for the mackerel 
 fishery, which heretofore was confined to that of France, from 
 the 15th February of every year; and another decree of 
 the 14th extends the period for its introduction from the Ist 
 of March to the 15th of June; previously to the date of that 
 decree, it was only admitted between the 10th of March and 
 the 15th of June. A decree of the 14th of February imposes 
 a duty on sperm or whale oil, imported in French ships, from 
 countries beyond Capes Horn and Good Hope, of 5 francs per 
 100 kilogrammes on the gross weight ; from other countries 
 than Europe, 7.50 francs, and by foreign vessels, 15 francs 
 per 100 kilogrammes. By another decree of the same date, 
 flour from Algeria is admitted free of duty into all parts of 
 the empire. 
 
 On the 17th of February a decree was issued granting a 
 drawback of 8.30 francs per 100 kilogrammes on white or 
 mottled soap, composed of alkali and olive oil, or from vege- 
 table oil, entering for at least one half in such composition, or 
 for less than half if mixed with animal substances. On soap 
 made wholly from animal substances, a drawback of 6 francs 
 per 100 kilogrammes is allowed, and 4 francs per 100 kilo- 
 grammes on soap made from palm or cocoa oil, mixed with 
 animal substances or rosin. A circular of the 28th of Febru- 
 ary specifies the objects which shall be considered as coming 
 within the meaning of the treaty concluded with Spain on the 
 15th November, 1853, which are books, dramatic and musical 
 compositions, paintings, drawings, engratings, lithographs, 
 sculptures, geographical maps, and all other similar produc- 
 tions, with the exception of works of art applicable to agri- 
 culture and industrial manufactures ; prohibits the reproduc- 
 tion of the works of either in the country of the other, and 
 indicates the ports in France by which alone such works can 
 be introduced. A decree of the 10th of March authorizes the 
 Introduction into Martinique, Guadaloupe, Cayenne, and La 
 Reunion, of salted provisions of every kind, from whatever 
 country or under whatever ilag they may be imported, on the 
 payment of an. inward duty of 50 centimes per 100 kilo- 
 grammes. The same provisions are allowed to be introduced 
 into Senegal (St. Louis), at the same duty, if imported by 
 French vessels, whether' from foreign countries or from the 
 entrepot at Gor6e. No change is made in the law actually in 
 existence, with respect to provisions arriving at Senegal un- 
 dej- a foreign flag. 
 
 A decree of the 14th of April modifies the inward duty on 
 wools, arriving direct from countries situated beyond Cape 
 Horn and the Gape of Good Hope, when imported by French 
 vessels, but leaving the duty actually existing unchanged 
 when imported from other parts of the world. Another de- 
 cree of the same date repeals the export duty of 5 centimes 
 per 100 kilogrammes on lime ; and by another decree, under 
 the same date, the duty on liqueurs imported from the French 
 colonies is fixed at 15 francs per hectolitre of liquid. 
 
 On the 2Bd of April an allowance of five per cent, for loss 
 in weiglit, whether from water or decay, was authorized by 
 decree on refined salt, if imported by sea and shipped in 
 bulk at the place of production ; and a second decree of the 
 same date establishes the inward duty on nitrates of soda and 
 potashes arriving by French vessels from conntries situated 
 beyond Cape Horn and the Cape of Good Hope, at 1 franc 
 per 100 kilogrammes ; from places in Europe, 6 francs per 100 
 kilogrammes; from entrepots 8 francs per 100 kilogrammes. 
 
 Citric acids of all sorts imported from the colonies of 
 France, in French ships, are admitted free of duty ; by for- 
 eign vessels, at a duty of 11 francs per 100 kilogrammes. 
 
 A premium or bounty of 5 francs is allowed on the exporta- 
 tion of every 100 kilogrammes of net nitric acid, and one of 
 20 centimes on sulphuric acid. - On the 24th of April a circu- 
 lar was issued authorizing the temporary free admission into 
 France of machinery, glass (for resilvering), bronzes, and 
 other similar works, and books, when imported separately, 
 or in small quantities, for the purpose of being repaired or 
 finished, on condition of their being re-exported within six 
 months. By a decree of the 28th of April, iron work, in 
 bars or sheets (without distinction of origin) fit for the con- 
 struction of edifices or dwelling-houses, is allowed to be im- 
 ported into Senegal by French vessels, free of duty, whether 
 coming from the cnti'ep6ts of the metropolis or that of Go- 
 r6e. Another decree, of the same date, fixes the duty on old 
 woi-n-out type at 5 francs per 100 kilogrammes. An arrete ol 
 May 5th orders the withdrawal from circulation of all gold 
 pieces of the value of 10 francs, bearing the effigy of the 
 
FRA 
 
 '740 
 
 FRA 
 
 present emperor, to take place on the 15tli of October, 1855. 
 By ordonnance of the 31st July and 4th December, 1816, all 
 vessels arriving in France, in ballast, to take in salt, were ex- 
 empted from tonnage dues. By a decree of the 16th of May, 
 1855, foreign vessels arriving with cargo enjoy the same priv- 
 ilege, but only in proportion to the quantity of salt taken by 
 them ; and by a circular of the 2d of June the export duty 
 on salt is suppressed. 
 
 Alcohol distilled from daffodils in Algiera is admitted into 
 France free of duty, by decree of May 23d. By a decree of the 
 2d of Juno, the delay fixed for the introduction of provisions 
 into Franca is prolonged to the 31st of December, 1855 ; by 
 another of the 5th, the free admission of ships importing 
 grain, flour, rice, etc., is extended; and by a circular of the 
 lUb, the exportation of these ai-ticles is prohibited during 
 the same period. A decree of the 23d of June accords the 
 privilege of transporting grain and flour between Algeria and 
 France to foreign vessels, having left their port of loading on 
 or before the 31st December, 1855. By another decree of the 
 same date the exportation of corn and barley from Algeria, 
 to foreign countries is prohibited, and by a third decree, the 
 importation of carol beans by French vessels is admitted at 
 a duty of 25 centimes per 100 kilogrammes, and of 1 franc 
 per foreign vessels. A decree of the Tth July admits, free of 
 duty„ vanilla, imported by French vessels arriving direct 
 from the French colonies, Cayenne and Mayottel. A circu- 
 lar of 10th July imposes a double d6cime on the amount of 
 all government taxes, to remain in force till the 1st of Jan- 
 uary, 1858 ; increases the excise, consumption duty on bran- 
 dies, spirits, liquors, and brandy fruits, from 34 francs to 50 
 francs per hectolitre of alcohol, and from 50 francs to 66 
 francs, exclusive of the double d6cime, the tax on these ar- 
 ticles on their admission into Paris, and further imposes a 
 tax of 10 per cent, on the receipts of passenger money by 
 railroad, and also on the conveyance of goods by fast or ex- 
 press trains. By a decree of the 14th July, molasses imported 
 for distillation by French vessels from the colonies of France, 
 India, South America, and the "West Indies, is admitted 
 free of duty, and from other ports at a duty of 2 francs per 
 100 kilogrammes. When imported by foreign vessels, the 
 duty is 3 francs per 100 kilogrammes. 
 
 A decree of the 16th July makes many changes and modifi- 
 cations in the tariff of duties. They are too numerous to be 
 imbodied in this communication. They will no doubt be 
 published in one of the supplements to the general tariff-, 
 which shall be forwarded to the Department when published, 
 with any others which may have preceded it, or by which it 
 may have been followed. The avowed object of these modi- 
 fications is to give additional encouragement to its maritime 
 commerce by the total repeal of duty on the raw material of 
 certain articles — the produce of distant countries — when im- 
 ported direct by French vessels, for the purpose of contribut- 
 ing to the progress of their own manufactures, and by totally 
 repealing the duty on certain articles of small productive 
 revenue. Among the most important of these modifications 
 is the alteration of the duty on caoutchouc. The duty on 
 this article of 20 francs per 100 kilogrammes is continued when 
 it is melted solely for articles of manufacture. Until the 
 publication of this decree, when other substances were mixed 
 with caoutchouc, or gutta percha, either for the purpose of 
 giving color or adding stjength to the article manufactured, 
 the duty was 200 francs per 100 kilogrammes. This tax is 
 now reduced to 50 francs. The duty of 200 francs will in 
 future be payable only on articles composed of caoutchouc or 
 gutta percha, with which other substances are combined, 
 and when intended for other purposes than that of being 
 melted. A decree of the Slst August accords the free ad- 
 mission of game, poultry, and shell-fish (_tortue) ; and one of 
 the 23d September prolongs to the Slst December, 1856, the 
 exemption from tonnage duty of all vessels laden with grain, 
 flour, rice, potatoes and dried vegetables. 
 
 The increase in the price of meats in France has been 
 very gi*eat since 1848; so much so, that general complaint 
 exists on the sabject. From 1852 to 1854 there has been an 
 increase of price from 40 to 45 per cent. The attention of 
 the government of France having been called to this fact, its 
 efforts have been not only to prevent a further increase, but 
 to effect a diminution from present prices. To this end the 
 tariffs have been revised, and very great reductions have 
 been made upon the importation of foreign cattle, to wit : from 
 $10 23 to T4 cents a head on beef, etc. Kot only so, but the 
 direct attention of the people of France has been called to 
 the use of salt meat, and the experiment of opemng the mar- 
 ket is being made with much success. The duty "pon this ar- 
 ticle lias been successively reduced from $5 53 to *3 J2, to 
 $1 86 and in the month of October last, to H cents the 221 
 pounds, or 100 kUogrammes. Under these reductions there 
 has been an astonishing development in its importation. In 
 
 1854 the importation of meats, fresh and salt^ reached only 
 3537 quintaux, or 7TT,844 58-100 pounds ; while in the first 
 month of the present year, the importation has reached 
 3730 quintaux, being more than in tbe whole year of 1853 
 by 203 quintaux, or 44,769 62-100 pounds. I transmit here- 
 with an extract from the Echo d'Agrical, showing the usual 
 mode of importing salt meats, with the respective values of 
 the several qualities : " Prime pork is the most common kind 
 in brine of gray salt; barrels of 331ilbs. gross, or 198 90-100 
 lbs* net ; value from $14 80 t0x$15 81 the barrel. Mess pork 
 is little imported and does not find a sale, being too fat. 
 Prime mess, first quality, preserved in brine with white salt, 
 from lean hogs, is from $18 60 to $19 53 per barrel. Kama 
 salted, sugared, and smoked, sustain a comparison with the 
 best we have in Europe, and find a ready sale. Shoulders, 
 dry salted, find a good deal of favor in France. They come 
 in dry barrels, of 994 40-100 lbs., net ; vftlue from $13 60 to 
 $19 53 the 221 lbs., or 100 kilogrammes. Lard comes in bar- 
 rels of 265 20-100 lbs., or i^ firkins of 46 62-100 lbs. net; 
 value $13 the 110^ lbs., or 50 kilogrammes." The foregoing 
 extract will indicate the kinds, manner of importation, and 
 values, for the benefit of importers. By a decree of the 10th 
 of this month (March) the rates, of duties on salt meats into 
 the French colonies have been reduced as follows : Into Mar- 
 tinique, Gaudaloupe, Guiana, and La E6union, salt meats of 
 foreign make, from whatever country imported, and under 
 whatsoever flag, will pay a duty of 60 centimes (9^ cents) 
 per kilogramme, or 231 lbs. The same duty is required at 
 St. Louis, Senegal, but only when imported in French bot- 
 toms, either directly from abroad, or by extraction from the 
 entrepot of Gor6e. Those meats imported into Senegal, un- 
 der a foreign flag, are charged the duty in force before the 
 decree. 
 
 French Colonies. 
 
 French Colonies. 
 
 Sq. mile.. 
 
 PopulatioD. 
 
 Asia. — Pondicherry, in the Carnatic; 
 
 
 
 Karikal in Tanjore ; Mache 
 
 
 
 on the Malabar coast ; the fac- 
 
 
 
 tories of Yamaon and Chan- 
 
 
 
 dernagore, in Bengal; etc,.. 
 
 245 
 
 167,T90 
 
 Africa.— The establishments on the 
 
 
 
 Senegal, with the Islands of 
 
 
 
 St. Louis and Goree 
 
 
 19,678 
 
 The Island de la K6union 
 
 
 
 (Bourbon), 106,682 ; Ste. 
 
 
 
 Marie at Madagascar, 5,000 
 
 
 
 inhabitants, etc 
 
 64 
 
 111,682 
 
 Algerie, in 1853 — Euro- 
 
 
 
 peans, 184,115; natives, in 
 
 
 
 1343,82,423 
 
 6,000 
 
 216,588 
 
 Amebic A.— West Indies— The lesser 
 
 
 
 Antilles, Martinique, 131,146 
 Guadaloupe, St. Martin, Ma 
 
 
 
 
 
 rie, Galante, Besirade, and 
 
 
 
 the group called the Saintes 
 
 
 
 134,544 
 
 635 
 
 255,689 
 
 South America— A part o 
 
 
 
 Guiana, with the Island oi 
 
 
 
 Cayenne 
 
 618 
 
 22,010 
 
 North America— The Isls 
 
 
 
 of St. Pierre and Miquelon 
 
 
 
 near Newfoundland 
 
 T 
 
 1,388 
 
 Pacific Ocean. — 
 
 
 
 The Marquesas. V^^^J':^ 
 
 
 
 Tahiti j iSl. .!T 
 
 24 
 
 20,200 
 
 New Caledonia, .do. in 1858 
 Total 
 
 
 
 6,488 
 
 814,925 
 
 In Africa the French possess Goree and some facto- 
 ries near the mouth of the Senegal. In the East they 
 have the Isle of Bourbon, and Pondicherrj', Chander- 
 nagore, and some smaller factories on the mainland of 
 India ; and their vessels are, like the Americans, ad- 
 mitted to trade with Calcutta, Madras, and other Brit- 
 ish settlements, on payment of moderate dues. The 
 retention of the Mauritius by England, at the peace of 
 1814, deprived them of the great receptacle for their 
 privateers in the East ; and on the continent of North 
 America, they retain nothing since the cession of Lou- 
 isiana to the United States in 1803. Since 1841, when 
 the sovereign of the island of Mayotte placed himself 
 under the protection of France, this island, situated at 
 the extremity of the Mozambique Channel, is to aU 
 intents and purposes a French settlement. Mayotte 
 is capable of feeding a population of 20,000 souls, and 
 of regularly furnishing provisions to a squadron of 
 ships. France also possesses an estahlisliment m Ans- 
 
FRA 
 
 741 
 
 FRA 
 
 tralia, for since the 22d of March 1854, Captain Du- 
 bouzet has been commandant of the Marchesas and 
 imperial commissary at the Society Islands and New 
 Caledonia. There is also an unimportant French set- 
 tlement at Madagascar, and an attempt at a penal col- 
 ony has been made at Guiana, where, to the disgrace 
 of the French government, political prisoners have 
 been mixed with the refuse of the galleys. In the 
 seas of Europe, Corsica is almost the only insular pos- 
 session of the French. They have no great maritime 
 fortresses, like Gibraltar or Malta, and no dependen- 
 cies of the nature of the Ionian Islands. 
 
 Commerce, etc. — The commerce of France with her 
 colonies is regulated by the same narrow maxims as 
 the other branches of her foreign trade. The colonies 
 and the mother countrj' are mutually bound to trade 
 exclusively with each other. The staple produce of 
 the French West India colonies, as well as the Isle of 
 Bourbon in the East, is sugar ; and it appears that the 
 price of this article in the European markets will not 
 repay the expense of its cultivation in those countries. 
 The colonists, therefore, insist that all other sugars 
 shall be excluded by heavy duties from the markets of 
 France ; that they shall have the exclusive privilege 
 of supplying these markets ; and on a complaint that 
 the duties imposed on foreign sugars were not high 
 enough to give them the monopoly of the home market, 
 an additional duty was, in 1822, on the suggestion of 
 the director-general of the customs, imposed on all 
 foreign sugars. In return, France possesses the ex- 
 clusive privilege of supplying the colonies with all the 
 manufactures and other European goods which they 
 require. On this principle of mutual monopoly the 
 trade is now conducted. The effect of this system is 
 to levy a tax on the inhabitants of France, in order to 
 indemnify the colonists for the losses which they incur 
 in carrying on an unprofitable trade. They can not 
 furnish a supply of sugar to France at the ordinary 
 rate of the European market ; and the price must 
 therefore be artificially raised in that country, in or- 
 der to enable them to carrj' on the cultivation of their 
 estates ; while, on the other hand, they are not at lib- 
 erty to buj' the goods which they require in the cheap- 
 est market, but must take them at whatever price they 
 can be afforded by the mother country. 
 
 Another evil of this colonial monopoly is, that the 
 colonies supply more sugar than France can consume. 
 But it can not be sold in other countries at the price 
 which is paid to the colonies by the mother countrj' ; 
 and hence it becomes necessarj^ to find out the means 
 of forcing a sale of the surplus which can not be con- 
 sumed at home. A bounty is accordingly granted on 
 all sugar exported from France ; and in 1831, while 
 the duty on the importation of sugar produced £1,636,- 
 030, there was paid back for bounties £483,951, which 
 was more than one fourth of the gross receipts. The 
 loss which France has incurred since the peace of 1814 
 by this erroneous system is estimated in " Bowring 
 and Villiera' Report," at £40,000,000 sterling ; and in 
 return for these great sacrifices, the colonies afford but 
 a limited demand for the manufactures of the mother 
 country ; in 1852, it amounted to 23,482,000 kilogram- 
 mes ; in 1853, to 26,481,000 kilogrammes ; in 1854, to 
 33,297,000 kilogrammes. 
 
 Colonies. — The colonial possessions of France are 
 quite unsuited to her greatness in other respects. The 
 insurrection engendered by the first Revolution de- 
 prived her of the western half of St. Domingo, a rich 
 and beautiful territory, containing formerly more ne- 
 groes, and exporting more produce, than all the Brit- 
 ish West Indies together. The French government 
 seems to have relinquished the hope of regaining this 
 countr}-, at least b)' military means, and to limit its 
 ambition to the remaining colonies, Martinique, Guad- 
 aloupe, Cayenne, in the West Indies. The first two 
 are, like most of our West India islands, cultivated to I 
 a considerable extent, but capable of much improve- 1 
 
 ment. The petty island of Marie Galante is in a 
 similar state ; but Cayenne forms a part of a most ex- 
 tensive tract, of which one comer only is as yet ren- 
 dered productive, and which may eventually become 
 a great settlement ; though on the score of health it is 
 as unpromising as the adjacent colonies of Demerara 
 and Surinam. Before the loss of St. Domingo the 
 annual import into France amounted to 70,000 hhds. 
 of muscovado or brown sugar, 60,000 hhds. clayed, 
 and nearly 20,000 of fine clayed. Of this very large 
 supply there were exported nearly 40,000 hhds. of 
 brown, and above 60,000 hhds. of clayed, forming, 
 exclusively of any duty, an annual value of between 
 £2,000,000 and £3,000,000 sterling, and affording a 
 most acceptable exchange for a number of imported 
 commodities. The sugar thus imported from St. Do- 
 mingo has long been lost to France, no sugar being 
 now exported from that country. 
 
 Algiers. — Among the colonies of France is Algeria, 
 which the government has retained since its conquest 
 in 1830. Of this dependency Algiers is the capital, 
 the seat of government, of a prefecture, and of a bish- 
 op's see since 1838. Algiers also possesses a govern- 
 ment printing-ofiice, an academy of public instruction, 
 a court of appeal, a tribunal of first instance, a tribu- 
 nal, and a chamber of commerce. A hank has been 
 recently established. Several newspapers are pub- 
 lished at Algiers. The Moniteur of Algiers is the ofii- 
 cial paper. There is also the AlcKbar, the Mobacher, 
 the official journal in Arabic, the Atlas, etc. 
 
 The population of Algiers, according to the last re-< 
 turns, amounted to 55,682 Europeans, of whom 23,147 
 were French, and 24,996 natives, of whom 17,858 were 
 Mussulmans, 1380 negroes, and 5758 Jews. A Protes- 
 tant church was commenced in Algiers in 1843 and 
 finished in 1845. There are at Algiers four large 
 mosques and about thirty lesser ones, two great and 
 twelve lesser synagogues. There are few manufac- 
 tories in the capital unless of silks, carpetings, woolen 
 tissues, fire-arms, saddlery, jewelry, leather, etc. 
 From the last published ofiicial returns there entered 
 Algiers within the year 2279 ships, measuring 209,642 
 tons ; of these 255 were government vessels, 1184 
 French commercial bottoms, and 120 native ; the re- 
 maining vessels were under foreign fiags. There 
 sailed outward from Algiers, in the last year of which 
 we have any official records, 2297 ships measuring 
 208,319 tons. Of these 249 were government ships, 
 1148 French ships, and 117 native. By a decree of the 
 present Emperor of the French, a bourse was created 
 at Algiers on the 16th of April, 1852. For a more de- 
 tailed account, see Aloiebs. 
 
 Oknehai. Trade of Feance with its Colonies. 
 
 ColoDiee. 
 
 Martinique 
 
 Guadaldupe 
 
 Bourbon 
 
 Senegal 
 
 Cayenne ,.. . 
 
 India 
 
 Algiers - 
 
 St. Pierre &M!iquelon, &c 
 
 Isles Mayotte and Mad-' ) 
 
 agascar.- j 
 
 Year. 
 
 1868 
 1S58 
 1858 
 1863 
 18B8 
 1858 
 13SS 
 1863 
 
 1853 
 
 ImportatioDB. 
 
 Exportationa. 
 
 £662,441 
 
 £765,877 
 
 428,665 
 
 670,484 
 
 851,647 
 
 684,946 
 
 287,206 
 
 892,369 
 
 56,833 
 
 184,044 
 
 669,728 
 
 21,384 
 
 ], 132,804 
 
 8,695,966 
 
 317,081 
 
 278,637 
 
 86,584 
 
 The trade to Bourbon island, Guiana, Martinique, 
 and Guadaloupe, out and home, employed in 1848, 492 
 ships; in 1849, 541; 1850, 486; 1851, 602; 1852, 677; 
 1853, 583. The mean of the first five years, 560 ves- 
 sels. 
 
 The trade to Algiers, Senegal, India, Madagascar, 
 out and home, in 1848, 1843 vessels ; 1849, 1938 ; 1850, 
 1902; 1851, 2194; 1852, 2443; 1853, 2177; mean of 
 the first five years, 2064. 
 
 All along the north coast of France, the fisheries 
 consist of cod, mackerel, herrings, and pilchards. , On 
 the Atlantic, and stiE more on that of the Mediter- 
 ranean, are caught great quantities of sardines, a fish 
 
FRA 
 
 '74.2 
 
 FRA 
 
 of passage, •wMcli appears periodically in shoals, like 
 the herring. The fishery of sardines is said to give 
 employment to 3000 seamen, and the sales resulting 
 from the produce amount to between 3,000,000 and 
 4,000,000 of francs. The tunny, a fish not known in 
 northern latitudes, is found in the Mediterranean in 
 the early part of summer. It varies in weight from 
 10 to 25 pounds, and is in like manner caught in shoals. 
 These home fisheries, little calculated for forming 
 seamen, have been left to their natural progress, while 
 repeated attempts have been made by government to 
 extend the fishery in America ; a design favored by 
 the early possession by France of Newfoundland and 
 Canada, as well as by the long peace that followed the 
 treaty of Utrecht. Toward the middle of last centurj' 
 the French fisheries in America employed annually 
 about 5000 seamen ; but the unsuccessful contest with 
 England in 1756 reduced them greatly, and deprived 
 them of their principal station. Cape Breton. The 
 peace of 1783 was concluded under better auspices. 
 The islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon were ceded to 
 France by the treat}^ of Versailles, and the rights of 
 fishing and of drying fish from the Cape St. John to 
 Cape Eay. In the Gulf of St. Lawrence her rights 
 were subsequently recognized, by the treaties of 1802 
 and 1814, at 3 leagues' distance from the coasts belong- 
 ing to Great Britain ; but within the gulf, at a distance 
 of 15 leagues from Isle Eoyale, and 30 leagues from 
 New Brunswick, 
 
 Foreign Co,MiiEHCE of France with her Colonies and 
 THE Fishing Banks. 
 
 Yean. 
 
 ENTERED. | 
 
 FRENCH. 
 
 FOREIGN. 
 
 TOTAL. 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tounago. 
 
 Vessels. Tonnage. 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 1853 
 1864 
 1855 
 
 186.3 
 1864 
 1865 
 
 9,210 
 9,80T 
 9,574 
 
 6,626 
 5,726 
 6,756 
 
 1,066,688 
 1,131,702 
 1,247,452 
 
 796,350 
 796,713 
 984,598 
 
 11,569 1,685,011 
 10,982 1,606,837 
 13,442 2,057,313 
 
 CLEARED. 
 &,856 1,068,816 
 7,919 1,059,592 
 8,054 1,100,057 
 
 20,779 
 20,289 
 23,016 
 
 16,481 
 18,645 
 18,810 
 
 2,760,699 
 2,738,639 
 8,304,765 
 
 1,854,665 
 1,866,305 
 2,084,655 
 
 For the encouragement of the French fisheries, 
 enormous pecuniary sacrifices have been made. By 
 the law of the 22d of July 1851, bounties are granted 
 to the fisheries till 1861, at the rate of 120 francs the 
 ton. A ship of 600 tons thus receives 72,000 francs 
 bounty, which would be 2000 to 3000 francs per man. 
 The only time they were ever in a prosperous state 
 was, not when they were protected by the artificial 
 encouragement of the mother country, but when the 
 French colonists, being in possession of a large tract 
 of the American sea-coast, were in consequence com- 
 pelled to trust to prudence and economy alone for the 
 success of their adventures. During the session 1833 
 of the Chamber of Deputies, a committee, appointed 
 to inquire into this subject, made their report". 
 
 French Fisheries. — High bounties have, since the 
 year 1767, been paid to those owning ships, and to men 
 employed in the French fisheries. In pursuance of 
 ordinances dated the 24th of June, and 9th and 12th 
 of July, 1851, the following bounties were granted for 
 the encouragement of the French fisheries. They 
 came into operation on the 1st January, 1852, and are 
 to remain in force until the 30th June, 1861 : 
 
 " Cod-Jishery. — Premiums for Chartering and Equip- 
 ping Vessels. — For every man engaged in the fisheries, 
 having drying or curing grounds, whether on the 
 coasts of Newfoundland, Saint Pierre or Miquelon, or 
 upon the great Newfoundland Bank, 50 francs. For 
 every man engaged in the fisheries, not having drying 
 or curing grounds, in the Icelandic Seas, 50 francs. 
 For every man engaged in the fisheries, not having 
 drying or curing grounds, on the great Newfoundland 
 Bank, 30 francs. For every man engaged in the fish- 
 eries on the Dogger Bank, 15 francs. 
 
 '^Bounties on the Produce of Fisheries. — On the im- 
 
 portation into the French colonies, whether in America 
 or on the other side of the Cape of Good Hope, of everj' 
 quintal of dried codfish, the produce of French fisher- 
 ies on the coasts of Newfoundland, Saint Pierre, or 
 Miquelon, or which may be taken from entrepdts in 
 France, 20 francs. On the importation into the above 
 colonies, of every quintal of dried codfish, the pro- 
 duce of French fisheries, if the fish shall he exported 
 from the French ports without having been there 
 warehoused, 16 francs. On every quintal of dried 
 codfish, the produce of the Franch fisheries, and im- 
 ported direct from the same or from French entrepots, 
 into such foreign Mediterranean ports (except those of 
 Sardinia and Algeria) in which a French consul may 
 reside, 16 francs. On every quintal of dried codfish, 
 the produce of the French fisheries, forwarded direct 
 either from those fisheries or from French ports, and im- 
 ported into Sardinian and Algerian ports, 12 francs. 
 For every quintal of cod-sounds that the fishing-vessels 
 may bring into France, the produce of their fishery, 
 20 francs." 
 
 Vessels departing for the fisheries with drjing 
 grounds, whether on the coasts of Newfoundland, 
 Saint Pierre, Miquelon, or the great Bank of New- 
 foundland, shall have a crew whose minimum is to be 
 fixed by a royal ordinance. 
 
 Whale-fishery. — The bounties granted in pursuance 
 of the laws of 24th June, and 9th and 12th July, 1851, 
 for the encouragement of the whale-fisheries, shall be 
 fixed as follows, to date from the 1st January, 1852, 
 and to continue in force until the 30th June, 1861 : 
 
 " Bounties on iJie Departure of Vessels. — For every 
 ton of shipping outward bound, with crews composed 
 entirely of French sailors, 70 francs ; and for vessels 
 with crews composed partly of French and foreign 
 sailors, agreeably to the provision that the foreigners 
 exceed not one third either of the ofiicers or crew, 48 
 francs. 
 
 " Bounties on the Return of Vessels. — On each ton of 
 shipping where the crew is composed entirely of 
 French sailors, 50 francs. On each ton of shipping 
 with a mixed crew, 24*5 francs." 
 
 Under the conditions that the vessels shall have 
 fished either beyond Cape Horn, or to the east of the 
 Cape of Good Hope, as far as 62° of latitude, and shall 
 have been out at least 16 months. In addition to the 
 above, there shall be allowed to vessels especially 
 manned for the sperm-whale {cachalot) fisher}-, in the 
 Pacific Ocean, after they have been at sea for the space of 
 at least 30 months, and during which time they may have 
 reached as far as 28 ° of north latitude, an additional 
 bounty of 15 francs upon the sperm oil, etc., which 
 they shall bring home. The bounty on the produce 
 will only be accorded for an amount not exceeding 
 600 tons. 
 
 Colonial Tariffs. — The navigation between France 
 and her colonies is confined to French vessels measur- 
 ing not less than 40 tons, in which the ofiicers, and at 
 least three fourths of the crew are French. 
 
 French Guiana (Cayenne). — The tariff of this colony 
 is established by decrees of the local authority, sanc- 
 tioned bj' the metropolitan government. 
 
 Duties on Imports. — French merchandise (with the 
 exception of that admitted free), imported direct from 
 ports of France or her colonies, in French bottoms, 
 pays 2 per cent, ad valorem. Foreign merchandise 
 (with the exception of that admitted free) permitted 
 to be imported, both under French and foreign flags, 
 viz. : 
 
 "Beef, salted;* butter; codfish, green, dried, and 
 salted ; fish-oil ; wheat flour, rye flour, and com meal ; 
 lard ; vegetables, fresh and dry ; lime, slacked ; salt 
 pork ; rice ; salt ; staves ; stone coal ; taUow, and tal- 
 low candles ; tobacco, in leaves ; whalebone and whale- 
 
 ' By a late decree, salted proTisions under aU 0ags and 
 from all countries pay 50 centimes per 100 kaogrammes. 
 
FRA 
 
 T43 
 
 FEA 
 
 oil ; wood, and pitch-pine, pay 6 per cent, ad valorem. 
 All articles not enumerated above, 10 per cent, ad 
 valorem." 
 
 The following articles are prohibited importation 
 for consumption, and are only admitted in entrepot 
 (entrepot Jtctif).* 
 
 " From French Colonies in French Vessels. — Ooooa,i 
 cinnamon, cloves, coffee ; cotton, raw ; indigo, and 
 prepared roucou ; all spirituous liquors, with the ex- 
 ception of brandy, French and Martinique cordials ; 
 Kirschenwasser and gin ; nutmegs, pepper ; sugar, 
 raw and whitened, and wool. 
 
 " From Foreign Countries qnd in Foreign Vessels. — 
 Clothes, ready made, comprising hats and all articles for 
 the feet ; cotton, spun ; gunpowder ; sugar, refined ; 
 tissues of cotton, ailk, wool, and, hemp." 
 
 The following articles are admitted free of duty, 
 without reference to their source, under all flags : 
 
 "Animals, living ; agricultural instruments im- 
 ported for trial ; machines, and similar articles 
 necessary for colonial industry ; specimens of nat- 
 ural histoiy ; precious metals in bullion and coin ; 
 quick-lime." 
 
 By French V^sds Arriving Direct from France. — 
 Utensils and implemants of husbandry, especially 
 shovels, hoes, hatchets, plows, pruning-hooks, and 
 harrows ; salt betf ; boilers for sugar factories ; cod- 
 fish and other salted fish ; flour and all other farina- 
 ceous provisions ; vegetables, fresh and dry ; salt pork, 
 red herrings. 
 
 Duties on Exports. — All products of the colony (ex- 
 cept those which are free) exported to France or to 
 French colonies, in French vessels, J per cent, ad va- 
 lorem. The same exported to foreign countries in 
 French vessels, 2 per cent, ad valorem. 
 
 The following products of the colony are subject, on 
 exportation, to the following additional duty, called 
 (contribution foncikre) *' ground-tax :" 
 
 l" Denominntion of 
 morcbilndiao. , 
 
 Annatto or roucou. 
 
 Cocoa 
 
 Olovea, flowers. 
 " stalks. . . 
 
 Coffee 
 
 CottoQ 
 
 Molasses 
 
 Ox-hides 
 
 Taffla(vum).... 
 3ug ar,raw or white' 
 
 100 kilos, or 220 lbs, 
 
 Number, wclgtit, ( 
 inettsnra. 
 
 Each 
 
 1,000 litrea=264 gal 
 220 pounds 
 
 In Datioual 
 vesHels. 
 
 $0 65-8 
 8-38 
 
 48-5 
 2 
 
 46-8 
 
 87 2 
 9-8 
 1 
 93 
 
 12-9 
 
 Jn foreigo 
 
 $0 65-8 
 88-88 
 
 90-r 
 
 7-5 
 1 02 
 64 8 
 9-8 
 4 
 9-3 
 
 " Foreign prohibited goods having been seized and 
 re-exported, 2 per cent, ad valorem. Foreign prohib- 
 ited merchandise on leaving the " entrepot fictif," J of 
 1 per cent, ad valorem." 
 
 The following articles are exempt from all exporta- 
 tion duties, whether for France or foreign countries : 
 
 " Cinnamon ; eggs, fresh ; ginger-root, indigo, nut- 
 megs, pepper, pimento, simarouba, specimens of natu- 
 ral history, turmeric, turtles, vanilla, and wood." 
 
 Charges for Nationalizing Foreign Vessels.- — For a ves- 
 sel of 100 tons and under, $11 23-5 ; 101 to 200 tons, 
 
 $13 88-8 ; 201 to 300 tons, $16 66-6 ; over 300 for each 
 additional 100 tons, $2 80-8. 
 
 Clearance Duties. — For the long course (foreign voy- 
 age) per vessel, $3 70'33 j for the great and small 
 coasting trade, $2 80-8 ; inscription duty (registration 
 free) for changing the proprietorship, $J 11-6. 
 
 Pilot Dues. — If the vessel anchors in the roads or in 
 the harbor ; — For a vessel under 60 tons, great and 
 small coasting trade, $5 55 ; 50 to 99 tons, $7 40-7 ; 
 100 to 149 tons, $9 30 ; 150 to 199 tons, $11 23-5 ; 200 
 to 299 tons, 13 88 ; 300 to 399 tons, $16 66-6 ; 400 tons 
 and upward, for each additional 100 tons, $0 80-8. If 
 the vessel casts anchor in the roads : — Pilots' services 
 in the roads, on demand of the captain, when not re^' 
 tained for conducting the vessel into port, for one tide, 
 $1 86 ; charges of anchorage in the harbor of Cay- 
 enne, $1 11'6 ; delay of pilot on board of a vessel, 
 either on demand of the captain, or because of quar- 
 antine, independent of board, which is to be fnmirfied 
 to him at the expense of the ship, for 24 hours, $1 
 11'6 ; pilotage from the harbor of Cayenne to the Point 
 of Moncouria, without respect to the tonnage of the 
 vessel, $5 55'5. 
 
 The pilot dues are the same for clearing as for enter- 
 ing the port. 
 
 Mayotte and Dependencies. — There are only pilot 
 dues to be paid at Mayotte. 
 
 Senegal and Dependencies. — Foreign vessels pay in 
 Senegal 4 francs, or 74-4 cents, and in Gor^e only 50 
 centimes per ton. They can, however, neither export 
 nor import (except through Gorfie), as the whole trade 
 is open onlj' to French shipping and French manufac- 
 tures, and is prohibited to all other nations. 
 
 French Settlements in the Fast Indies. — The ports of 
 these dependencies are free, and therefore open to all 
 nations. — Naieigation Act of September 21, 1793. 
 
 Tariff. — ^Pondicherry, Karikal, and Mah6, tonnage 
 duty, without distinction of flag, 4 cents per ton. (1847.) 
 Pondicherry alone, light-house dues, without distinc- 
 tion of. flag, 3 cents per ton. Pondicherry alone, fer- 
 riage dues, without distinction of flag, 88'8 cents for 
 one vessel. 
 
 Si. Pierre and Miquelon. — Before 1846, American 
 vessels were allowed to import into these islands only 
 such goods as the French 'trade could not supply, and 
 which were required by the necessities of the popula- 
 tion. ' These restrictions were abolished by a decree 
 of the governor, of May 7th, 1846. American ships 
 sailing direct from the United States for Miquelon and 
 St. Pierre, either in ballast or loaded, enjoy the same 
 privileges as French vessels coming from the United 
 States, and pay no more duty than the said French 
 vessels, with the exception only of a compensation for 
 the interpreter — which, however, by another decree of 
 June 26, 1847, has become entirely optional : that is, 
 if the captain or any one else on board understands the 
 French language, he is not obliged to take an inter- 
 preter. The duties for American vessels are, there- 
 fore, as follows : 
 
 Designation of vesae]. 
 
 bUTIES. i 
 
 NAVIGATION. 
 
 HoBfitftl dues, per 
 
 vesaej. 
 
 Ciistom-liouse dues 
 
 on the valuiiUon 
 
 of cai'Co. 
 
 Tommge, por ton. 
 
 Pilotage, per vesBol. 
 
 Light-houae, per 
 vesaol. 
 
 
 Exempt, 
 i $0 7i 
 
 Exempt. 
 $2 80-8 
 J. 4 63 
 6 48 
 
 Exempt, 
 i $186 
 
 Exempt. 
 $1 86 
 
 Ipercentadval- 
 1 per cent adval. 
 
 30 to 49 " .... 
 
 50 to 79 " 
 
 
 
 
 
 Oceanic. — The ports of the French dependencies in 
 the Pacific Ocean are free ports. 
 
 Tonnage Duties. — For vessels over 10 tons, 28-0 
 cents per ton ; for vessels under 10 tons, 13'8 cents 
 per ton. 
 
 Ditties for Nationalizing. — For vessels under 100 
 tons, $1 67 ; from 100 to 200 tons, $3 33-3 ; from 200 
 
 * " Entrepot flclif" a private atorehoase where goods are 
 under the sole supervision of the depositor. 
 
 to 300 tons, $4 44 ; for each 100 tons additional, $1 
 11-6. 
 
 Duties for Clearance. — Decked vessels, $1 11'6 ; 
 without deck, $0 18-6. 
 
 These are duties both for American and French ves- 
 sels coming or going direct from or to the United 
 States, in virtue of the above-mentioned decree. If, 
 however, trading indirectly, they are subjected to the 
 same duties as all other ships, for which, both French 
 and foreign, the duty is as follows : 
 
FEA 
 
 744 
 
 Tahipp op 1S4T, 
 
 FRA 
 
 DESIGNATIOW OF VESSBM. 
 
 DUTIES. 
 
 OBBKRVATIONS, 
 
 PilotaBB, 
 pervessoi. 
 
 Tonnage, 
 per ton. 
 
 Light-house, 
 per vessel. 
 
 Hospital, 
 per TesBoi. 
 
 Cu8tom-houB6 
 dues. 
 
 FrenGh vessels. 
 
 From 30-^19 tons 
 
 From 60—149 tons 
 
 150 and upward 
 
 Foreign vessels. 
 
 80 tons and less J 
 
 31-49 1 
 
 50—79 
 
 $1 25 
 2 03 
 
 2 50 
 
 $8T0J 
 
 5 55i 
 7 40 
 
 . $0 04i 
 [ $0 Hi 
 
 $1 86 
 $1 86 
 
 $186 
 $1 86 j 
 
 1 per cent, on 
 the Taluation 
 of the cargo. 
 
 French vessels arriv- 
 ing ft-om the poi-ts of 
 the Xr. S. are sub- 
 jected to the same 
 duties as American. 
 
 80 and upward 
 
 Taeiff Duties on Impoetation of Spirits in Fokeign 
 Vessels, by a Decree of November 14, 1847. 
 
 Denomination of merclinndlse. 
 
 Wumberiwoight 
 
 Rate of duty. 
 
 
 Per barrel . . 
 Per dozen. . . 
 1 litre, or If 
 
 pint 
 
 Per dozen. . . 
 
 $1 86 
 87-2 
 
 11*25 
 74-4 
 1 48 
 87-2 
 
 
 Liquors, cordials, and all alcoholic 
 
 
 
 
 
 The same articles paj^, in French or Tahitian ves- 
 sels, only one half of these duties. (1853.) — Com. 
 Ed. U. S. 
 
 French West Indies. — The French colonial posses- 
 sions in the West Indies formerly comprised a domain 
 of great extent and value, agriculturally and commer- 
 cially. The war consequent upon the great Revolution 
 in France terminated in an almost total destruction of 
 her power in the New World. Hayti was then wrest- 
 ed from her. Her necessities compelled her to dispose 
 of Louisiana. At the close of the war in 1815, the 
 naval power of Great Britain had enabled her to seize 
 everj' one of the French islands, and drive the ileet of 
 France from the seas. By the treaty of peace consum- 
 mated in 1814, and confirmed in 1816, England 
 released to her some of the captured islands. Her 
 possessions in that quarter now consist of Martinique, 
 Guadaloupe and adjacent islands, and the north side 
 of St. Martin. 
 
 The intercourse between the United States and the 
 French islands (San Domingo being then included) 
 was originally regulated by an arretS of the French 
 government, dated the 30th of August, 1784. Amer- 
 ican vessels of at least 60 tons were admitted into cer- 
 tain ports in these islands, laden with lumber of all 
 kinds, dye-woods, live stock, salt beef, salt fish, rice, 
 raw hides, peltry, rosin, pitch, and tar, which they 
 exchanged for rum and molasses, and goods of French 
 manufacture, paying thereon the local duties, and one 
 per cent, ad valorem on all imports and exports. A 
 further duty of three livres was imposed on ever hun- 
 dred weight of salt beef and fish, to form a fund for 
 premiums to be given for fish from the French fisheries. 
 The colonial legislatures were authorized, in times of 
 scarcity, to suspend this law. Prior to the French 
 Eevolution, the policy of France was in contrast with 
 that of England. That of England was to monopolize 
 the carriage of the articles exchanged ; that of France, 
 to monopolize the articles themselves. The former 
 was willing that the United States should have sugar 
 and coffee, provided they were carried in British bot- 
 toms ; the latter was willing that the United States 
 should supply her sugar and coffee plantations with 
 certain articles she was unable to furnish herself, but 
 would not allow them to receive in return, the most 
 valuable productions of the colonies. They were re- 
 served for consumption in the mother country, and to 
 augment the national wealth. Under these regula- 
 tions, the United States were prompt in availing them- 
 selves of the advantages of the carrying trade to and 
 from the French islands. 
 
 In 1786, our exports, domestic and foreign, to the 
 French West Indies, were of the value of 13,263,000 
 livres ; and our imports from thence of the value of 
 
 7,263,000 livres ;* and the American vessels engaged 
 in the trade had an aggregate of 5095 tons' burden. 
 Upon the declaration of war against Great Britain, in 
 1793, France opened a free trade with all her colonies. 
 She offered the United States the monopoly of this 
 trade, on condition of a guaranty of her possessions, 
 which was wisely declined. Our trade with the islands 
 during the war was nevertheless much augmented. 
 Our proximity enabled us to seize the advantages in 
 advance of other countries. The following table ex- 
 hibits the imports from and exports to the French 
 West Indies for the years designated f 
 
 yeere. Imports. Exports. 
 
 1795 $15,751,768 $4,964,952 
 
 1796 15,743,774 8,408,946 
 
 1797 14030,837 8,566,053 
 
 1798 16,880,091 6,844,690 
 
 1799 2,022,929 2,776,694 
 
 1800 9,886,111 6,123,483 
 
 1801 18,698,266 7,147,972 
 
 The exports of our domestic produce duing the years 
 1804, 1805, 1806, and 1807, were of the average value 
 of $2,800,000, and of foreign produce between $8,000,- 
 000 and $4,000,000. Our imports during the same 
 period were of much greater value ; but the principal 
 part of them were re-shipped to France and other 
 countries. About the latter part of the year 1807 the 
 English had become possessed of nearly all the French 
 islands ; and they were not restored to France until 
 1814, and then with the loss of the most important 
 one-— San Domingo. Its loss greatly reduced the 
 amount of commerce of those islands with the United 
 States, as is exhibited by the subjoined statement of 
 imports and exports from 1821 to 1833 ; 
 
 Year.. 
 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Imports. 
 $896,651 
 
 Exports. 
 
 1821. 
 
 $900,619 
 
 $396,486 
 
 1828. 
 
 $1,024,771 
 
 1822. 
 
 969,609 
 
 961,002 
 
 1829. 
 
 777,992 
 
 1,072,407 
 
 1823. 
 
 988,618 
 
 867,695 
 
 ia30. 
 
 618,687 
 
 805,769 
 
 1824. 
 
 834,084 
 
 811,782 
 
 1831. 
 
 671,842 
 
 717,877 
 
 1826. 
 
 843,968 
 
 1,011,956 
 
 1882. 
 
 678,867 
 
 624,976 
 
 1826. 
 
 973,270 
 
 936,174 
 
 1883. 
 
 61},242 
 
 618,719 
 
 1827. 
 
 921,880 
 
 1,040,853 
 
 
 
 
 The conditions of our commercial intercourse with the 
 French V/est Indies were again changed by a royal or- 
 dinance bearing date the 6th February, 1826, and an 
 act of Congress bearing date the 9th May, 1828. By 
 the former, it is ordained that, after the 1st July fol- 
 lowing, all vessels, either foreign or national, may im- 
 port into Guadaloupe and Martinique certain articles 
 of merchandise, specified in the table accompanying 
 the ordinance, on paying the duties therein required, 
 without regard to their flags. This ordinance also an- 
 nuls all then existing tariffs. The act of Congress ad- . 
 mits all French vessels " coming directly from the is. 
 lands of Martinique and Guadaloupe, and laden with arti- 
 cles the growth and manufacture of either of said islands, 
 and which are permitted to be exported therefrom in 
 American vessels," into the ports of the United States, 
 on payment of no higher duty on tonnage or on cargoes 
 than are imposed on American vessels, and on cargoes 
 imported in American vessels. The French ordinance 
 exempts foreign vessels also, importing the articles 
 thus authorized, from any other duties or tonnage, or 
 any port charges, but those to which the vessels of 
 France are subjected. The importation of other ar- 
 
 * The livre was a coin of France prior to 1797 : 81 UvrcB ie- 
 ing equal to 80 francs. 
 
FRA 
 
 lis 
 
 FRA 
 
 tides than those specified by the ordinance, by foreign 
 vessels, is prohibited ; and articles allowed to be im- 
 ported can only be re-exported from one colony to an- 
 other by French vessels. The imports and exports 
 under the seregulations have already been given, up to 
 the year 1833. The following table exhibits them 
 from the year 1844 up to the close of the year 1865, 
 inclusive, embracing a period of 12 years : 
 
 Veart. 
 
 Imports from French 
 Weat Indies. 
 
 Erporta to French 
 West Indies. 
 
 1844 
 
 J874,696 
 
 415,032 
 
 848,236 
 
 151,866 
 
 127,089 
 
 71,469 
 
 75,684 
 
 22,909 
 
 46,287 
 
 62,304 
 
 161,085 
 
 44,484 
 
 $617,546 
 664,108 
 636,621 
 608,164 
 489,924 
 194,998 
 287,668 
 810,281 
 465,444 
 898,259 
 612,027 
 409,701 
 
 1846 
 
 1846 , 
 
 1847 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 
 
 1850 
 
 1851 
 
 1852 
 
 1858 
 
 1854 
 
 1855 
 
 
 On the 8th of December, 1849, the tariff of 1826 was 
 somewhat modified by slightly enlarging the imports ; 
 ' but the equal conditions upon which national and for- 
 eign vessels were placed in respect to tonnage and 
 port charges were not disturbed. The. prospects of an 
 increase of our trade with the French West India pos- 
 sessions, and the motives to impel us to strive to ob- 
 tain it, will be found in a brief summary of their 
 natural resources and the conditon of their population. 
 
 The island of Guadaloupe lies between 16° 58' and 
 16° 13' north latitude, 20 miles north of Dominica. 
 Its dependencies are Marie Galante, La Desirade, Les 
 Saintes, and a portion of St. Martin. The aggregate 
 area of the whole of them is 809 square miles, and the 
 populations of all 135,000. The central ridge of Gua- 
 daloupe is a chain of volcanic mountains 3000 feet 
 high. From its base a multitude of rivulets descend, 
 watering the low lands to the sea. The Saintes are 
 three small islands situated between Guadaloupe and 
 Marie Galante; Desirade is 10 miles long and five 
 miles broad. Marie Galante approximates to a circle, 
 and is 14 miles in diameter. The soil of Guadaloupe 
 is light, and easy of tillage. The climate is excessively 
 hot, but much tempered by the sea-breeze. About 86 
 inches of rain falls during the year. About one half 
 its surface is planted in sugar-cane. The improve- 
 ment in machinery has added much to its productive 
 powers. The live stock consists of black cattle, sheep, 
 and mules. Guinea-grass is the only forage grown. 
 The annual value of all the produce exported aver- 
 ages 26,000,000 francs, and consists chiefly of raw 
 sugars, rum, and molasses, with some coffee, iye- 
 woods, cotton, copper, etc. Nearly all these exports 
 go to France. The imports consist of salt meats and 
 fish ; flour, olive oU, cotton, linen, and silk fabrics ; 
 wine, perfumery, etc. ; the annual value of which 
 equals that of the exports. About 500 vessels, meas- 
 uring an aggregate of 50,000 tons, enter and depart 
 during the year. 
 
 Martinique is situated between latitude 14° 23' and 
 14° 52' north. It is about 28 miles long, and 10 in 
 average breadth, with an area of 290 square mUes, and 
 a population of 15,000. Mountains occupy its centre, 
 sloping into plains toward the sea^shore. About one 
 third of the island is level land, and cultivation as- 
 cends 1500 feet along the mountain-sides. The staple 
 product is sugar ; its other products are like those of 
 Guadaloupe. The annual value of its exports is a lit- 
 tle under 20,000,000 francs, and the imports are of a 
 like value. About 760 vessels, French and foreign, 
 are engaged in the trade. Both these islands are di- 
 vided into arrondissements, and have a governor and 
 legislative council, and judicial tribunes. Slavery 
 was abolished in all the French colonies some years 
 since. The larger portion of their population is black. — 
 Com. Rd. U. S. 
 
 French vessels from the French islands of Martin- 
 ique, Guadaloupe, St. Pierre, Miquelon, and Cayenne 
 in French Guiana, were exempted from tonnage duty 
 under the special act of Congress of the 9th May, 
 1828, and, as to St. Pierre and Miquelon, by the proc- 
 lamation of the President of the United States, dated 
 the 20th of April, 1847, consequent on the removal by 
 France of the restrictions on vessels of the United 
 States in said islands. 
 
 A French vessel bringing fish from the banks of the 
 British colony of Newfoundland, being the product of 
 the waters of that colony, is not exempt from tonnage 
 duties ; the act of the 3d of March, 1845, exempts 
 from such duties only French vessels coming directly 
 from the islands of Miquelon and St. Pierre, either in 
 ballast or laden with articles the growth or manufac- 
 ture of either of said islands, and there is no other pro- 
 vision of law or treaty authorizing an exemption. 
 
 French Colonies. — Decree of Septemher 29th, 1856. — 
 The Emperor Napoleon, has decreed as follows : 
 
 Abticlb 1. The extension fixed by the decree of 
 September 19th, 1856, for the operation of the modifi- 
 cations in the tariff of customs in the colonies of Mar- 
 tinique, Guadaloupe, the island of Eeunion, and of 
 Senegal, in all that relates to grains, breadstuifs, and 
 dried pulse, is continued to December 31st, 1857. 
 
 Article 2. Our ministers, secretaries of state, etc., 
 will see to the execution of this decree which will also 
 be published in the " B.ulletin des Lois." The United 
 States' consul at Paris communicates to the State De- 
 partment, under date November 10th, 1866, as fol- 
 lows: "I beg to point out to your notice a modifica- 
 tion in the duties on wool, as published in the Moidteur 
 of the 8th instant (which I herewith inclose), and of 
 which the following is a translation: 'Viewing the 
 law of the 27th July, 1856, which has modified the 
 importation tariff on wool in bulk.' " Considering that 
 it is necessary to place the duties established on the 
 importation of combed and dyed wool in unison with 
 the existing duties on wool in bulk, it is decreed : 
 
 Article 1. The custom-house duties on the importa^ 
 tion of combed wool and dyed wool are fixed as follows : 
 
 Fr, 
 
 Combed wool ... , By French vessels, per 100 kilo's 70 
 
 " By foreign vessels, " " 80 
 
 Dyed wool of all eorta.. By French vessels, " " 100 
 " " ..By foreign vessels, " " 115 
 
 " St. Pibeek, January 22d, 1857. 
 
 " Since my last report there has been a considerable 
 change in the duty on tobacco imported from the 
 United States. It has been raised from 20 francs, or 
 about $3 75 per 220 lbs., to the enormous figure of 60 
 francs, or about $11 25 per 220 lbs., making an aug- 
 mentation of 200 per cent. 
 
 " Some slight ameliorations have been made with 
 respect to the importation of pork and hams, which 
 heretofore had to pass through a French port before 
 admission, but which can now be imported direct 
 from the United States under a duty merely nominal. 
 
 " It is much to be desired that the French govern- 
 ment should extend this privilege to all articles indis- 
 criminately that could be imported here from the 
 United States. 
 
 " The importation of flour from the United States 
 into this island has been much greater this year than 
 during previous years. From the 30th June to the 
 31st December, 1856, upward of 10,000 barrels have 
 been imported direct from the United States, and 
 about an equal quantity of United States' flour has 
 been imported by way of French ports. This may be 
 accounted for by the dutj' having been temporarily 
 reduced, and it is much to be regretted the measure is 
 not a permanent one. The new duty (which expires 
 to give place to the old one on the 31st December, 
 1857) is, on every 220 lbs. of flour, 2 francs, or about 
 37J cents. The old one is, on every 220 lbs. of flour, 
 20 francs, or about $3 75, a duty that of course ren- 
 dered the importation of flour impossible so long as it 
 
FRA 
 
 746 
 
 FRA 
 
 existed. You will observe from the returns, that this 
 Island exports almost nothing to the United States. 
 The staple products are sugar, rum, coffee, and these 
 are not allowed to be exported except to France. 
 Some years ago there was a considerable exportation 
 of molasses to the United States ; but this branch of 
 commerce has completely died out, owing to the great 
 extension of distilleries in the island and the conse- 
 quent scarcity of molasses. — Consular Returns, 
 
 In order to present an English view of the com- 
 merce and finances of Prance of late j'ears, we add 
 from Tooke's " History of Prices" (vol. vi., London, 
 1857) the following " Conclusions arising out of the 
 Inquiry as to the Finances and Credit Institutions of 
 France," contributed by "William Newmakch, Esq., 
 to the new volumes of that work. 
 
 " That the revolution of Februar;', 1848, occurred at 
 a period when, by the operation of numerous causes, 
 the finances of the French government were already' 
 seriousl}^ embarrassed ; that among the most important 
 of these causes were the laws of 1841 and 1842, under 
 which the State had taken upon itself the responsibili- 
 ties and the expenditure entailed by the construction 
 throughout France of an extensive net-work of trunk 
 lines of railway ; the improductive expenditure for a 
 long series of years of large annual sums in Algeria ; 
 the unproductive expenditure of considerable sums on 
 public works, jielding no adequate return either direct 
 or indirect ; and the maintenance for a long period 
 of an excessive annual outlay on the army and ma- 
 rine ; and that in immediate aggravation of all these 
 causes of financial disorder, there had occurred in 
 France, in the closing months of 1846, and throughout 
 the greater part of 1847, a commercial crisis (taking 
 its origin in the serious failure of the harvest of 1856) 
 more severe and disastrous than had been experienced 
 in France for 20 or 30 years. 
 
 That the suspension of cash payments by the Bank 
 of France, adopted in March, 1848, and maintained for 
 two years and a half, till August, 1850, was a measure 
 wholly unavoidable, in consequence of the prevalence 
 in March, 1848, of extreme internal discredit, which 
 admitted of being met in no other form ; that the 
 prevalence, during these two and a half years, of a 
 very low price of com in France ; of a state of the ex- 
 ternal trade of France which established a large yearly 
 balance in favor of that country ; and of the absence 
 of any political causes which rendered it necessary for 
 the government to require excessive advances from 
 the Bank of France, rendered the suspension practi- 
 cally unproductive of any depreciation or inconve- 
 nience ; and led to its removal in August, 1850, by 
 the spontaneous accumulation in the Bank of France 
 of an amount of treasure quite equal to the amount of 
 notes in circulation. 
 
 That among the important circumstances which 
 have contributed to strengthen the position of the 
 Bank of France since 1848, and to aid the government 
 in its plans for fostering credit, has been the extension 
 by £12,000,000 or £14,000,000 sterling of the disposable 
 means of the Bank of France in consequence of the 
 addition of that amount in the form of small notes to 
 the former average circulation of the establishment. 
 
 That under the autocratic government, established 
 in December, 1851, there have been introduced into 
 France a set of financial principles ; and there have 
 been placed in course of trial a series of financial ex- 
 periments, distinguished by a novelty which finds no 
 sanction in any successful precedent ; by a hardihood 
 which set at naught almost ever}' established canon 
 of finance ; and by a disregard of the future, which 
 purchases present popularity at any cost. 
 
 That the earliest purposes to which the new finan- 
 cial policy was devoted were the reduction, in March, 
 1862, of the interest on the French 5 per cent, debt ; 
 the imposition on the Bank of France of a new char- 
 ter which compelled it at once to lower the rate of dis- 
 
 count to 3 per cent, and to make large advances on 
 stock-exchange securities ; the concessions, on condi- 
 tions more or less onerous to the State, of a large num- 
 ber of lines of railway ; and the introduction of seve- 
 ral joint-stock companies, encouraged by every State 
 appliance to foster the application of credit to purposes 
 of speculation. 
 
 That between the early part of 1852 and the autumn 
 of 1853, the prosperity and progress which seemed to 
 prevail in France were chiefly the results of the artifi- 
 cial measures. 
 
 That the difSculties of various kinds which have oc- 
 curred in France since the close of 1853 ; and more 
 especially the difficulties experienced by the Bank of 
 France in the autumns of 1855 and 1856, have arisen 
 in a principal degree — allowing, of course, for the war 
 and the scarcity — from the embarrassments and disor- 
 ders entailed by the policy which has forced upon 
 France enterprises and speculations disproportionate 
 to its resources of available capital. 
 
 That these embarrassments and disorders would 
 have become altogether overwhelming if it had not 
 been for the springing up, since 1849, chiefly in the 
 gold countries, and in consequence of the gold influx, 
 of a demand for French manufactures and produce, so 
 large and continuous that, during the 9 years 1848-'56, 
 the balance of trade in favor of France has amounted 
 to not much less than'£80,000,000 sterling. 
 
 That neither the apparent success of the reduction 
 of the French 5 per cents, in March, 1852, nor the ap- 
 parent success for some time of the enforced mainten- 
 ance of a low rate of discount ; nor the setting up of 
 popular discount and loan banks ; nor the apparent 
 alacrity with which the subscription lists of the war 
 loans of 60,000,000 were filled up ; nor the mainten- 
 ance for a long period of the schemes of selling bread 
 at an artificiallj^ cheap price ; nor the multiplication 
 of railway companies by means of guarantied divi- 
 dends 5 nor the apparent prosperity created by public 
 works and credit institutions, afford the smallest sup- 
 port, when examined minutely and fully, to the finan- 
 cial principles and the financial practices which have 
 held the supreme place in France since December, 
 1861. 
 
 That of the two great credit institutions called the 
 Credit Fonder and the Credit MobUier, the former is 
 directed to a useful and laudable object, but is de- 
 graded and disfigured by the introduction of elements 
 of gambling, empirical and pernicious ; and the latter, 
 the Credit Mobilier, seeking to obtain large profits by 
 exciting violent fits of stock-jobbing, and to obtain 
 large funds by the issue of obligations practically not 
 payable in specie, approaches, in design and machin- 
 er)^, nearer than any institution of recent times, to the 
 model afforded by Law's Bank of 1716, and the Com- 
 pagnie des Indes of the three following years. 
 
 That as the result of the whole investigation con- 
 cerning the financial policy' of France since 1847, there 
 have been made apparent three principal facts, namely : 
 1st. That between 1847 and 1851, it was the abundant 
 harvests and low price of food in France, which con- 
 tributed in the largest degree to preserve order, to re- 
 store cash pajTnents, and to re-establish an equilibrium 
 between the income and expenditure. 2d. That be- 
 tween 1851 and 1857, it has been the £100,000,000 
 sterling, made available to France by the economy of 
 its metallic circulation, and by the demand for its silks 
 and wines in the gold countries, which has so far car- 
 ried it through the perils of war, scarcity, and extrav- 
 agance ; and, 3d. That the reckless and socialistic 
 financial policy introduced since December, 1851, has 
 already exposed France to failures and perils quite as 
 formidable as any that were threatened by the revolu- 
 tion of 1848, and unless subjected to early and severe 
 restraints, will assuredly produce the most disastrous 
 consequences." See Tooiis's History of Prices, ro\. 
 vi., London, 1857, pp. 130-134. 
 
FRA 
 
 14.1 
 
 FRA 
 
 Frank, the name by which the Turks, Greeks, 
 Aralis, etc., designate a Christian. It probahly origi- 
 nated during the crusades, in which the French (de- 
 scendants of the German Franks) particularly distin- 
 guished themselves. Europe itself, too, was named 
 ■ FranJdstan, or the country of the Franks. 
 
 The Frank language, lAnffua Franca, is a jargon 
 which is spoken in the Levant, as the common medium 
 of communication between Europeans and the inhab- 
 itants of the East. Its chief ingredient is Italian, and 
 it probably originated during the crusades, which 
 brought 80 many different nations together. 
 
 Frankfort-on-the-Maine (Ger. Frankfurt Am 
 Maine), one of the four free cities of Germany, and so 
 called to distinguish it from the Prussian town of 
 Frankfort-on-the-Oder. It took its name (Franken 
 Furl) from the river being fordable at this point ; and 
 is supposed to have been founded by the Franks in the 
 fifth century. 
 
 From the earliest times Frankfort has been closely 
 connected with the other free cities of Germany. 
 Daring the ancient empire the cities formed together 
 one corporation at the Imperial Diet, and enjoyed one 
 vote in the public affairs. Up to the dissolution of 
 the German empire, in the year 1804, there existed a 
 great number of free towns, which had preserved their 
 sovereignty and independence against the surrounding 
 princes, depending only on the empire, and enjoying 
 various privileges granted to them by the emperors. 
 These disappeared, forthe greater part, with the events 
 of the Kevolution. Of those which had survived the 
 German empire the towns of Hamburg, Bremen, and 
 Lubec were incorporated with the French empire; 
 while Frankfort became the seat of the Grand Duchy 
 of the same, created by Napoleon, and placed under 
 the rule of the Prince Primat Archbishop of Eatisbon. 
 The overthrow of the French conqueror in 1813 re- 
 stored these towns to their former independence, and 
 they were received as sovereign members of the con- 
 federation. The towns of Hamburg, Bremen, and 
 Lubec once belonged to the Hansa, that celebrated 
 league Which was formed in the thirteenth century. 
 Its real object was the protection and extension of 
 commerce ; but its power and influence increased in 
 such a way that it at length included eighty-five 
 towns ; it equipped i3eets, and declared war on neigh- 
 boring States. England and other powers concluded 
 treaties with the Hansa, and were glad to enjoy its 
 friendship. This league, however, was dissolved in 
 1630, when the last of its diets was held at Lubec ; 
 and from that time the three cities of Hamburg, Bre- 
 men, and Lubec remained alone, as the properly-called 
 Hanse Towns. These, with Frankfort-on-the-Maine, 
 form the four free cities of the German Confederation. 
 These four free cities are represented in the German 
 Diet by one minister, and have together one common 
 voice. Notwithstanding this joint representation, each 
 one of the four cities has its own particular representa- 
 tive at the seat of the Diet. Hamburg is represented 
 by Mr. Kirchenfrauer, Bremen by Burgomaster Smidt, 
 Lubec by Senator Elder, and l?rankfort by DeHar- 
 nier, senator and eldest burgomaster. The joint vote 
 of the four cities is alternately intrusted to each of 
 the towns for the period of a year. The free cities 
 likewise have in common a supreme court of appeal 
 for law cases, and political questions, too, sitting at 
 Lubec ; and the control over which is alternately ex- 
 ercised by one of the four cities. Besides that, there 
 exists between them a similitude of political institu- 
 tions. Their form of government is that of a repub- 
 lic, the basis of which (excepting the short period of 
 1848-'50) has, nevertheless, always been rather more 
 of an aristocratioal than of a democratical character. 
 Their interests are closely united ; they have the same 
 political friends and opponents. 
 
 The chief manufactures are carpets, table-covers, 
 oil-cloth, cotton, woolen, and silk fabrics, jewelry, to- 
 
 bacco, playing-cards, etc. Frankfort was made a free 
 port in 1831, and is also one of the four great empo- 
 riums for supplying Germany with merchandise. The 
 river Maine, which is navigable to Bamberg in Bava- 
 ria, where commences the Donau-Maine Canal leading 
 to Kelheim on the Danube, and the numerous railways 
 which centre in Frankfort, render it the indiistrial and 
 commercial centre of the south-west and west parts of 
 Germany. No German city, with the exception of 
 Berlin, is the centre of so great a number of railways. 
 Four great lines, and seven others of a more local 
 character, meet in the city. The Maine-Neoker rail- 
 way leads southward to the Grand Duchy of Baden, 
 whence railways proceed to Switzerland, Wurtemberg, 
 and Bavaria. The Taunus railwaj' leads west and 
 north-west to Mayence, and to "Wiesbaden. From 
 Mayence a railway goes to Ludwigshafen, the harbor 
 of the Bavarian Palatinate opposite Manheim, thence 
 to Strasbourg, and therefrom to Paris as well as to 
 Switzerland, Another branch from Ludwigshafen 
 meets the Strasbourg and Paris railway at Nancy. 
 From Wiesbaden a line is now (1855) in course of con- 
 struction to Coblentz. The Main-Weser railway passes 
 through the greater part of the two Hesses to Cassel, 
 and communicates with Hanover, Bremen, Hamburg, 
 etc. On the right its branches lead to Berlin and 
 Saxony, and on the left a line will soon be opened to 
 Cologne. The Hanau railway connects Frankfort 
 with Hanau and the chief places on the Maine to 
 Bamberg, from which southward with Nuremberg, 
 Augsburg, Munich and Austria, and in another direc- 
 tion with Leipsic, Dresden, and Bohemi'a. There are 
 also local lines to Offenbach, the chief manufacturing 
 town of Hesse Darmstadt, to Soden, a much-fre- 
 quented bathing-place, and to near Romburg, one of 
 the famous spas of Germany, Frankfort, however, is 
 chiefly indebted for its great wealth to being the seat 
 of extensive banking; commission, and funding trans- 
 actions. In proportion to its size, it is probably the 
 richest city in the wmld. There are about twenty 
 first-class banking houses ; among these are the Roths- 
 childs, Grunelius, Metzter, and others, well known in 
 the commercial world. The number of those in the 
 stock and exchange business amounts to at least 200. 
 A city bank, with a capital of 10,000,000 florins, was 
 established last summer, and has just (1855) com- 
 menced business operations. The two fairs of Easter 
 and Michaelmas are still much frequented. Goethe 
 was bom here in 1749. Civil population (1852) 62,361, 
 being 47,100 Protestants, 10,661 Catholics, and 4600 
 Jews ; militarj", 5650 — 1717 being Austrians, 1713 
 Prussians, 1391 Bavarians, and 829 natives. The 
 population of Frankfort is but slowly increasing, on 
 account of the old illiberal laws still in force as to 
 admission to citizenship. Only such are admitted as 
 can prove their ability to maintain a family ; so no 
 merchant can be admitted unless he prove that he 
 possesses at least 5000 florins, and generallj' persons 
 possessing that sum, or even more, are not admitted 
 unless they marry a citizen's daughter, in which case 
 the law is more favorable. The ancient law is also 
 still in force, that none shall mend a shoe or drive a 
 nail unless he be a master and member of one of the 
 corporations, and he can not become a member unless 
 he be the son of a citizen, or marry a citizen's daugh- 
 ter. The restrictions to which the Jews were long 
 subject have now mostly been removed. They are en- 
 titled to vote at the elections of members to the legis- 
 lative assembly, and may return four of their own 
 number; they are also admissible to all offices not 
 connected with the senate, the permanent assembly of 
 the citizens, law, religion, or education. The inhab- 
 itants of Sachsenhausen are mostly of Saxon descent, 
 and distinguished from their fellow-citizens in man- 
 ners, dress, and language, as well as occupations, 
 being mostly employed in gardening, fishing, etc. 
 The city, with a small territory of thirty-eight 
 
FEE 
 
 '748 
 
 FEE 
 
 square miles lying immediately around it, constitutes 
 the free state of Frankfort. The government is vested 
 in a senate, a legislative assembly, and a permanent 
 committee of citizens. The senate, which exercises 
 the executive power, is composed of 44 members, 
 divided into three branches— justices, senators, and 
 counselors, and having two presidents, one chosen 
 from each of the two first-mentioned benches. The 
 legislative assembly is composed of 94 members, of 
 whom 20 are senators, 20 members of the permanent 
 committee of citizens, 45 chosen annually by the citi- 
 zens collectively, and 9 deputies from the rural dis- 
 tricts. The permanent committee consist of 60 mem- 
 bers chosen from among the citizens of all ranks. The 
 legislative assembly meets annually in the month of 
 November, and sits for six weeks ; and its sanction is 
 requisite to all new laws, the budget, etc. With the 
 free cities of Lubec, Bremen, and Hamburg, Frank- 
 fort occupies the seventeenth place in the Germanic 
 Confederation. It enjoys one vote in the general as- 
 sembly (Plenum), and furnishes a contingent of 683 
 men to the federal army. Population of the State 
 (1852) 77,971. 
 
 Frankfort-on-the-Oder, a town of Prussia, 
 province of Brandenburg, and capital of the govern- 
 ment of Franldbrt, stands on the left bank of the 
 Oder, fifty miles east by south of Berlin, with which, 
 since 1842, it has been connected by railway. The 
 town is regularly built, and surrounded by old walls 
 with towers aiid ditches. It has three suburbs, one 
 of which stands on the opposite bank of the river, and 
 communicates with it by means of a wooden bridge. 
 The university founded here in 1506 was removed to 
 Breslau in 1810. Frankfort has a Roman Catholic and 
 six Protestant churches, a synagogue, gymnasium, 
 obstetric school, orphan asylum, work-house, theatre, 
 etc. Being the capital of a government, it is the seat 
 of a superior and other judicial tribunals, of boards 
 of taxation, agriculture, etc. Though inferior to its 
 namesake on the Maine, it is a place of considerable 
 commercial activity, being situated on the high road 
 from Berlin to Silesia, and on a navigable river com- 
 municating by canals with the Vistula and the Elbe. 
 It has three annual fairs in the months of February, 
 July, and November, attended bj' merchants not only 
 from Germany, but also from other parts of Europe. 
 It has manufactures of woolen and silk goods, stock- 
 ings, gloves, leather, tobacco, sugar, brandy, mustard, 
 etc. Immediately beyond the bridge is a monument 
 to Prince Leopold of Brunswick, who was droivned 
 here in 1785 while attempting to rescue an unfortunate 
 family from an inundation of the Oder. At Kunuers- 
 dorf, in the vicinity, Frederic the Great was defeated 
 with great loss by the Austritas and Russians on 12th 
 August, 1759. Population (1849) 29,969. 
 
 Freebooters (Fr. jlibusliers), a name given to a 
 class of piratical adventurers of all nations, but espe- 
 cially of France and England, who have obtained a 
 place in historj' by the courage and intrepiditj' they 
 displayed in executing the most difficult enterprises. 
 The origin of their history is involved in obscurity, 
 nor iias tlie derivation of their name been precisely 
 determined ; but fhejlibustiers of the French historians 
 correspond to the bucaneers of our own writers. (See 
 Btjcaneeks.) The South American islands formed 
 the chief theatre of their exploits ; and such was the 
 relentless hostility they exercised against the Span- 
 iards, that during the latter half of the seventeenth 
 century their commerce in those seas was almost 
 utterly ruined. At the commencement of the follow- 
 ing century these daring adventurers sustained a 
 series of disasters which sensibly diminished their num- 
 bers ; and their name, which during a period of 50 
 years had been so redoubtable and dreaded, ceased to 
 be formidable from that time. The term freebooter 
 has been applied in a general sense to robbers and 
 other plunderers. See Bucaneeks. 
 
 Free Imperial Cities.— This appellation was 
 bestowed, under the German empire, on certain cities 
 which acknowledged no head but the emperor, and 
 were governed by their own magistrates. Some of 
 these cities, as Worms and Cologne, acquired various 
 privileges and immunities at an early period, in con- ■ 
 sequence of the assistance they rendered the emperors 
 in repressing the arrogance of the nobles ; and com- 
 merce and manufactures gradually contributed to 
 their importance. In this manner the imperial cities 
 originated in the middle of the twelfth century. It 
 would appear, however, that there were free cities in 
 Germany which had existed from the time of the Ro- 
 mans, though possessing little in common with those 
 of later times, and which in the beginning of the six- 
 teenth century lost their most valuable privileges, 
 and even the name of free cities, through the io-nor- 
 ance and carelessness of their magistrates. As to the 
 nature of these privileges it will be sufficient to re- 
 mark that they were such as to constitute them noth- 
 ing less than independent republics. The cities of 
 Lombard}-, enriched by commerce and encouraged by 
 the popes, often ventured to resist their masters the 
 emperors ; and their example was followed by those of 
 Germany. In the middle of the thirteenth century 
 two important confederacies were established for com- 
 mon objects — the Hauseatic League in 1241, and that 
 of the Rhenish cities in 1246. The powerful Hause- 
 atic League lasted nearly 400 years, and its dissolu- 
 tion was effected by several causes in 1630. The 
 remnants of this league, with the former confederacy 
 of cities which had its representatives in the German 
 Diet, as well as the free cities of Hamburg, Bremen, 
 and Lubec, were incorporated with the French em- 
 pire in 1810. As these cities co-operated vigorously 
 in the recovery of German independence, they were 
 acknowledged, together with Frankfort, as free cities 
 by the congress of Vienna ; and as such they joined 
 the German confederacy, June 8th, 1815, and obtained 
 the right of a vote in the Diet. See also Hanse Towns. 
 
 Free Trade. A nation, possessing all necessary 
 physical resources, but imperfectly developed, like 
 England a century ago, like the United States now, 
 may do one of two things. It may resolve to produce 
 for itself, or resolve to let others produce for it. If it 
 resolve to use its own products, it must resolve not to 
 use the products of other, nations. Now, what is a 
 protective tarif}', which prevents the sale of foreign 
 products, but this resolution expressed by legislation ? 
 Two things are necessary : 1st. Not to use the pro- 
 ducts of others. 2d. To produce for one's self. The 
 first is protection. Now it is true, that without indus- 
 try at home, protection from abroad will avail nothing, 
 for there is nothing to protect. And without resources, 
 neither protection nor industry will avail any thing. 
 We admit the necessity, first, of natural resources ; 
 second, of industry ; we claim, third, the necessity of 
 protection. 
 
 Protection, then, is the resolution of a nation not to 
 use foreign products ; this is the negative side of tlie 
 policy of home industry. A resolution to produce for 
 itself is the affirmative side, and is necessary to com- 
 plete it. Such a resolution in a nation is like self-con- 
 trol in an individual, and protection is no more un- 
 natural in the one than self-control in the other. 
 
 It is a domestic policy, designed to keep foreign 
 goods out of the home market. Now, a nation may 
 say it will not buy of others. This is protection. It 
 can not say others shall buy of itself. This is beyond 
 the power of protection ; and England reached this 
 point years ago, we think as early as the beginning of 
 the century. During the European war she enjoyed 
 the most effectual protection, for we admit the fling of 
 the free-traders, that protection is a sort of war, thus 
 far, that it involves mutual exclusion. England's 
 fleets swept the seas, conveying around the world her 
 merchantmen that carried the raw materials to her fac- 
 
FEE 
 
 ■749 
 
 FEE 
 
 tories, and carried it back manufactured to the ends 
 of the earth. No other nation but the United States 
 pretended to share the carrj'ing trade, and we then, 
 favored by like protection, first began to manufac- 
 ture. 
 
 England commanded the markets of the world. 
 What had she to fear for the market at home ? Pro- 
 tection had done its perfect work — it was functus cffi- 
 do ; and yet, when England, thirty-five years after, 
 when they had become useless, ventures to tlirow off 
 some of the restrictions that swathed her industry, we 
 are told she had abandoned the principle, convinced it 
 was a mistake. 
 
 Guess Revenue from Oitstoms op Great Beitain, AFlcEit 
 Dkdtjotion of Drawbacks, with Statements of 
 CUST0.VI8 Duties bfj^aled, keduoed, on expired each 
 Year, and those imposed, from 1815 to 1855, 
 
 
 
 SSIIMATSD ANNUAL PKODUOK OF | 
 
 
 
 CUSTOMS 
 
 DUTIES 
 
 YBAR, 
 
 CUSTOMg. 
 
 
 
 Uopealed. 
 
 Imposed, 
 
 1815 
 
 £28,488,000 
 
 £228,000 
 
 £424,000 
 
 1816 
 
 19,846,000 
 
 53,000 
 
 90,000 
 
 1817 
 
 22,111,000 
 
 1,000 
 
 T,000 
 
 1818 
 
 23,869,000 
 
 
 
 1819 
 
 21,952,000 
 
 472,660 
 
 1,260^660 
 
 1820 
 
 22,104,000 
 
 
 5,000 
 
 1821 
 
 22,572,000 
 
 20,660 
 
 
 1822 
 
 23,600,000 
 
 158,000 
 
 • ■•■ 
 
 1828 
 
 ,24,841,000 
 
 211,000 
 
 
 1824 
 
 24,711,000 
 
 1,418,000 
 
 46,66o 
 
 1825 
 
 24,660,000 
 
 2,768,000 
 
 
 1826 
 
 22,855,000 
 
 773,000 
 
 189,660 
 
 1827 
 
 28,202,000 
 
 2,000 
 
 21,000 
 
 1828 
 
 22,866,000 
 
 86,000 
 
 2,000 
 
 1829 
 
 22,620,000 
 
 126,000 
 
 
 1830 
 
 22,914,000 
 
 576,000 
 
 85,660 
 
 1881 
 
 21,613,000 
 
 1,066,000 
 
 626,000 
 
 1883 
 
 21,978,000 
 
 248,000 
 
 23,000 
 
 1883 
 
 21,258,000 
 
 847,000 
 
 
 1834 
 
 21,664,000 
 
 806,000 
 
 17^660 
 
 1885 
 
 22,146,000 
 
 38,000 
 
 
 1836 
 
 28,046,000 
 
 148,000 
 
 1,660 
 
 1837 
 
 22,068,000 
 
 
 
 1888 
 
 23,865,000 
 
 
 ,. .. 
 
 1889 
 
 28,184,000 
 
 6,660 
 
 
 1840 
 
 28,842,000 
 
 ,,.. 
 
 i,06o,66o 
 
 1841 
 
 28,515,000 
 
 27,000 
 
 
 1842 
 
 22,528,000 
 
 1,499,000 
 
 i6i',66o 
 
 1843 
 
 22,647,000 
 
 .171,000 
 
 
 1844 
 
 24,107,000 
 
 286,000 
 
 . .. 
 
 1845 
 
 31,706,000 
 
 8,608,000 
 
 
 1846 
 
 22,278,000 
 
 786,000 
 
 2,660 
 
 1847 
 
 21,666,000 
 
 846,000 
 
 
 1843 
 
 22,594,000 
 
 586,000 
 
 
 1849 
 
 22,269,000 
 
 889,000 
 
 
 18i50 
 
 ■ 22,020,000 
 
 834,000 
 
 
 1851 
 
 22,197,000 
 
 801,000 
 
 
 1853 
 
 21,791,000 
 
 96,000 
 
 
 1863 
 
 22,163,000 
 
 1,600,000 
 
 16^660 
 
 1854 
 
 22,017,000 
 
 988,000 
 
 440,000 
 
 1865 
 
 22,227,000 
 
 ..,. 
 
 2,226,000 
 
 "We have seen that, apart from foreign trade, the 
 population of every countrj- supply their own wants 
 to the extent of from 90 to 99 per cent, of their whole 
 consumption ; that the business of furnishing this sup- 
 ply is bj' extreme division of labor, apportioned among 
 four fifths of a people ; that their internal trade con- 
 aists in distributing these products of industry ; tliat 
 this distribution is substantially an exchange among 
 the whole individuals of a population, of products for 
 products, or products for services, or, in the last analy- 
 sis, of labor for labor ; that this exchange is made by 
 the agency of merchants, and takes the shape of sales 
 and purchases, that is, leaving out of view the medi- 
 um of exchange, men pay with their own labor for 
 what they need of the labor of others ; that all the 
 agency of merchants, brokers, banks, and credit, is 
 merely a means of effecting tliis exchange, that the 
 commodities or labor thus exchanged, are estimated at 
 prices expressed in money of account, which prices are 
 mainly governed by the price of labor ; that upon the 
 regular movement of this exchange, mainly depends 
 the well-being and comfort, the energy and product- 
 iveness of labor ; that if this movement proceeds rap- 
 idly and undisturbed, production and consumption wUl 
 
 go hand in hand, until individuals reach the full power 
 of both, and a. greater degree of general comfort and 
 competency be enjoyed than has yet been known. We 
 have seen that one of the great disturbing causes of 
 this system of domestic distribution, of the comforts 
 and necessaries of life, was found in the occasional de- 
 rangement of the commercial agencies by which it is 
 effected ; and we have remarked upon the necessity of 
 reforming that agency with a view to the interests of 
 humanity. 
 
 "We now proceed to consider another disturbing 
 cause. We remark first, however, that neither the 
 labor nor the products of labor, nor the distribution, 
 nor the means by which it is effected are the pri- 
 mary objects of consideration. The first considera- 
 tion is the people, then, in their order, their labor, their 
 products, and the distribution of them. The whole 
 object of their industry is their well-being. As they 
 can only purchase by their own labor what they need of 
 the labor of others, it is absolutely necessary for all to 
 work ; whatever deprives men of the opportunity of 
 labor, deprives them of bread, and of every other com- 
 fort and necessary of life. Men consume freely and 
 largely when they are fully paid for tlieir labor ; that 
 is, when thej' can purchase for their labor an equal quan- 
 tity of the labor of others ; in this case, the nominal 
 rate is of little account, because it is labor for labor. 
 If the 25,000,000 of people in the United States, are 
 consuming $10 worth each of domestic woolen goods 
 annually, upon the manufacture of which 250,000 of 
 the people are dependent for their entire living, and if 
 it be found that these same goods, which cost at home 
 $3, can be purchased at $2 per yard in Europe, then, 
 at first sight, it would seem but reasonable,' that the 
 cheaper article should be imported from Europe. To 
 import $250,000,000 worth is impossible, because we 
 can not pay for them, as we are constantly importing 
 more than we can paj' for, and that sum is the figure 
 of our whole imports. We import, then, say 10 per 
 cent., or $25,000,000 worth of woolen goods, and sell 
 them in our great commercial marts, where prices are 
 chiefly made, 33 per cent, cheaper than the domestic 
 article. Consumers fly to the cheaper article, and the 
 domestic goods must come down to the same price. The 
 annual domestic product must fall in price 33 per cent., 
 and instead of bringing its manufacturers $250,000,000, 
 it will only bring them $166,000,000 ; their consump- 
 tion of the products of others must be reduced one third. 
 The effects of this reduction will extend until they are 
 felt throughout a whole nation. The importation of 
 25,000,000 of cheaper woolens, would thus inflict a di- 
 rect loss by reduction of price upon the woolen manu- 
 facturers of $83,000,000, and this loss is multiplied 
 many times by indirect results in the reduction of con- 
 sumption. The average consumption of cotton goods 
 is about the same as that of woolens, and the same il- 
 lustration is applicable. The introduction of cheaper 
 goods, of a kind which our country must, after all, 
 chiefly manufacture for itself, is introducing against 
 our own labor, the price of which is $1 per day, the la- 
 bor of other countries, the price of which is less than 
 50 cents per day. This can not but inflict a serious 
 blow upon the whole system of our internal industry, 
 and if continued, must lead to the utter prostration of 
 the domestic manufacture thus attacked, and the utter 
 poverty and ruin of the hundreds of thousands depend- 
 ing on it for a living. The effect of this in the case of 
 woolen goods, would be a reduction in the average con- 
 sumption of woolens, of from $10 to $5, for the whole 
 population, and a rise in the prices above the original 
 domestic rates. While, therefore, it may at first sight 
 appear to be very plainly better to import certain goods 
 which can be offered to consumers at lower prices than 
 the corresponding domestic article, several questions 
 must be asked before such a policy is adopted. As, 
 Will the importation seriously injure any home manu- 
 facture ? Will it throw many people out of employ- 
 
FRE 
 
 130 
 
 FRE 
 
 ment ? It is a great mistake to suppose that such meas- 
 ures affect only employers : in woolen and cotton man- 
 ufactories, there are hundreds of men, women, and 
 children, depending upon ever;' employer. If we les- 
 sen our domestic production, will not our increased de- 
 mand produces peculation, and a higher foreign price for 
 the article imported ? If we resolve upon importing 
 our whole supply of a necessary article, are we sure 
 that we can increase our exports to a sufficient extent 
 to pay for the additional importation ? Are we sure 
 that we shall not, by this policy, deprive the poor of 
 their supply of a needful domestic product, and con- 
 vert it into a foreign product, chiefly supplied for the 
 consumption of the rich ? What mode can he adopted 
 to secure a supplj'' of these needful articles in time of 
 war, or iuterrnpted commercial intercourse ? All these, 
 and many more inquiries, should be made and faith- 
 fully studied, before any branch of domestic industry 
 is brolten up, under the temptation of buying cheaper 
 goods abroad. On the contrary, it should be well 
 understood in every country, that many sacrifices may, 
 with advantage, be endured, to introduce the manufac- 
 ture of any article of general consumption, even though 
 it can not be made as cheap as elsewhere. A manufac- 
 ture can onlj"- grow and flourish in a country where the 
 people are willing to consume its products, and they can 
 only consume them where their labor will purchase 
 them. A people can consume largely of a domestic 
 product even at a high price, but may not be able to 
 consume even a small proportion of a corresponding 
 foreign article at a low price. Let any one think of 
 the innumerable articles which flgure in our internal 
 trade, and which go to pay for, as well as to make up 
 our consumption of home commodities, and he will 
 see the difference betwen purchasing abroad and at 
 home."^ — List's Pol. JSc, by S. Colweli,. 
 
 Those who wish to examine the literature of ^/Vee- 
 trade, will find the principles fully discussed in the 
 following works: Hunt's Mag., vol. iv., 227 (S. G. 
 Arnold), 425 (H. Gbeelet), v., 166 (H. Gkeeley), 
 vi., 220 (C. C. Haven), viii., 407 (L. Woodbhey), 
 ix., 161 (J. B. Fisiiek), x., 399, 622, xi., 227, xxiv., 53 
 (S. Beman), S69, xxiii., 79, 110, xxii., 635 (Bacon), 
 406 (SuLLEY), XXV., 322 ; .V. Am. Rev., xl., 122 (A. H. 
 Everett); Am. Quar., x. 444; Dem. Rev., vii., 341, 
 ix., 329, xiv., 391, 447, xxxiii., 97; Dublin Univ., 
 xxix., 785, XXXV., 270 ; Edinl. Rev. xxxiii., 331, 
 Ixxviii., 1, xc, 70 ; Am. Whig Rev., v., 201, xiii., 233, 
 329, 443, xii., 518, 633; N:les' Reg., xxviii., 186, 
 xxix., 289, xli., 135, 156; Fkasee's Mag., v., 577, 
 viii., 103, 222, 604, ix., 356, vi., 593 (Galt), vii., 106 
 (Galt), xliii., 716 ; Quar. ije»., Ixxxvi., 80 ; For. Quar., 
 ix., 261, X., 68; xi., 140; Westminster Rev., xii., 138, 
 xviii., 366, xix., 269, xxii., 226, xl., 1; Blackwood, 
 xvii., 551, xix., 474, xxi., 1, xxiv., 370, xxvii., 553, 
 xliv., 317, Iv., 259, 385, Ixvii., 94, 222, 447, Ixx., 106, 
 123, 448, 629, Ixviii., 123. 
 
 Freight, the sum paid by the merchant or other 
 person hiring a ship, or part of a ship, for the use of 
 such ship or part, during a specified voyage or for a 
 specified time. 'The freight is most commonly fixed 
 by the charter-party, or bill of lading ; but in the ab- 
 sence of any formal stipulations on the subject, it 
 would be due according to the custom or usage of 
 trade. In the case of a chai-ter-party, if the stipu- 
 lated payment be a gross sum for an entire ship, or 
 an entire part of a ship, for the whole voyage, the 
 gross sum will be payable although the merchant has 
 not fully laden the ship. And if a certain sum be 
 stipulated for every ton, or other portion of the sliip's 
 capacity, for the whole voyage, the payment must be 
 according to the number of tons, etc., which the ship 
 is proved capable of containing, without regard to 
 the quantity actually put on board by the merchant. 
 On the other hand, if the merchant have stipulated to 
 pay a certain sum per cask or bale of goods, the pay- 
 ment must be, in the first place, according to the num- 
 
 ber of casks and bales shipped and delivered ; and if 
 he have further covenanted to furnish a complete lad- 
 ing, or a specific number of casks or bales, and failed 
 to do so, he must make good the loss which the own- 
 ers have sustained by his failure. If an entire ship 
 be hired, and the burden thereof be expressed in the 
 charter-party, and the merchant bind himself to pay 
 a certain sum for every ton, etc., of goods which he 
 shall lade on board, but does not bind himself to fur- 
 nish a complete lading, the owners can only demand 
 payment for the quantity of goods actually shipped. 
 But if the merchant agree to load a full and complete 
 cargo, though the ship be described as of less burden 
 than she really is, the merchant must load a full car- 
 go, according to the real burden of the ship, and he 
 will be liable for freight according to what ought to 
 be loaded. 
 
 The delivery of goods at the place of destination is in 
 general necessary to entitle the owner to freight ; but 
 with respect to living animals, whether men or cattle, 
 which may frequently die during the voyage, without 
 any fault or neglect of the persons belonging to the 
 ship, it is ruled, that if there be no express agreement 
 whether the freight is to be paid for the lading, or for 
 the transporting them, freight shall be paid as well 
 for the dead as for the living : if the agreement be to 
 pay freight for the lading, then death certainly can 
 not deprive the owners of the freight; but if the 
 agreement be to pay freight for transporting them, 
 then no freght is due for those that die on the voyage, 
 because as to them the contract is not performed. 
 These distinctions have been made in the civil law, 
 and have been adopted into the modern systems of 
 maritime law. Freight is most frequently contracted 
 to be paid either by the whole voyage, or by the 
 month, or other time. In the former case the owners 
 take upon themselves the chance of the voj'age being 
 long or short : but in the latter the risk of the dura- 
 tion falls upon the merchant ; and if no time be fixed 
 for the commencement of the computation, it will be- 
 gin from the day on which the ship breaks ground 
 and commences her voyage, and will continue duiing 
 the whole course of the voyage, and during all una- 
 voidable delays not occasioned by the act or neglect of 
 the owners or master, or by such circumstances as oc- 
 casion a suspension of the contract for a particular 
 period. Thus, the freight will be payable for the time 
 consumed in necessary repairs during a voyage, pro- 
 vided it do not appear that the ship was insuflicient at 
 the outset, or that there was any improper delay in 
 repairing her. 
 
 In the absence of an express contract to the con- 
 trary, the entire freight is not earned until the whole 
 cargo be ready for delivery, or has been delivered to 
 the consignee according to the contract for its convey- 
 ance. If a consignee receive goods in pursuance of 
 the usual bill of lading, by which it is expressed that 
 he is to pay the freight, he, by such receipt, makes 
 himself debtor for the freight, and may be sued for it. 
 But a person who is only an agent for the consignor, 
 and who is known to the master to be acting in that 
 character, does not make himself personally answer- 
 able for the freight by receiving the goods, although 
 he also enters them in his own name at the custom- 
 house. In some cases freight is to be paid, or rather 
 an equivalent recompense made to the owners, al- 
 though the goods have not been delivered at the place 
 of destination, and though the contract for convey- 
 ance be not strictly performed. Thus, if part of the 
 cargo be thrown overboard for the necessary preserva- 
 tion of the ship and the remainder of the goods, and 
 the ship afterward reach the place of destination, the 
 value of this part is to be answered to the merchant 
 by way of general average, and the value of the 
 freight thereof allowed to the owner. So, if the mas- 
 ter be compelled by necessity to sell a part of the 
 cargo for victuals or repairs, the owners must pay to 
 
FRE 
 
 751 
 
 FRE 
 
 the merchant the price which the goods -would have 
 fetched at the plate of deatmation ; and, therefore, are 
 allowed to charge the merchant with the money that 
 would have been due if they had been conveyed 
 thither. 
 
 When goods are deteriorated during a voj'age, the 
 merchant is entitled to a compensation, provided the 
 deterioration has proceeded from the faiUt or neglect 
 of the master or mariners ; and of course he is not 
 answerable for the freight, unless he accept the goods, 
 except by way of deduction from the amount of the 
 compensation. On the otlier hand, if the deteriora^ 
 tion has proceeded from a principle of decay naturally 
 inherent in the commodity itself, whether active in 
 every situation, or in the confinement and closeness 
 of a ship, or from the pei-ils of the sea, or the act of 
 God, the merchant must bear the loss and pay the 
 freight ; for the master and owners are in no fault, 
 nor does their contract contain any insurance or war- 
 ranty against such an event. In our West India 
 trade, the freight of sugar and molasses is usually 
 regulated by the weight of the caslts at the port of 
 delivery here, which, in fact, is in every instance 
 less than the weight at the time of the shipment : 
 and, therefore, the loss of freight occasioned by the 
 leakage necessarilj* falls upon the owners of the ship 
 by the nature of the contract. 
 
 Different opinions have been entertained by Valin, 
 Pothier, and other great authorities as to maritime law, 
 with respect to the expediency of allowing the mer- 
 chant to abandon his goods for freight in the event of 
 their being damaged. This question has not been 
 judicially decided in this country. " The only 
 point," says Lord Tenterden, " intended to be proposed 
 by me as doubtful, is the right to abandon for freight 
 alone at the port of destination ; and in point of prac- 
 tice, I have been informed that this right is never 
 claimed in this country." — Law of Shipping^ part iii., 
 u. 7. Freight being the return made for the, convey- 
 ance of goods or passengers to a particular destination, 
 no claim arises for its payment in the event of a total 
 loss ; and it is laid down by Lord Mansfield, that " in 
 case of a total loss with salvage, the merchant may 
 either take the part saved, or abandon." — Abbott, part 
 iii., c. 7. But after the merchant has made his elec- 
 tion, he must abide by it. 
 
 It often happens that a ship is hired by a charter- 
 party to sail from one port to another, and thence back 
 to the first ; as, for example, from London to Leghorn, 
 and from Leghorn back to London, at a certain sum 
 to be paid for every month or other period of the dura- 
 tion of the employment. Upon such a contract, if the 
 whole be OTie entire voyage, and the ship sail in safety to 
 Leghorn, and there deliver the goods of the merchant 
 and take others on board to be brought to London, but 
 happen to be lost in her return thither, nothing is due 
 for freight, although the merchant has had the benefit 
 of the voyage to Leghorn ; but, if the outward and 
 homeward voyages he distinct, freight will be due for 
 the proportion of the time employed in the outward 
 voyage. " If," said Lord Mansfield, in a case of this 
 sort, "there be one entire voyage out and in, and the 
 ship be cast away on the homeward voyage, no freight 
 is due, no wages are due, because the whole profit is 
 lost ; and by express agreement the parties may make 
 the outward and homeward voyage one. Nothing is 
 more common than two voyages : wherever there are 
 two voyages and one is performed, and the sliip is lost on 
 the homeward voyage, freight is due for the first." — 
 K. B., Trin. Term. 16 Geo. 3. 
 
 It frequently happens that the master or owner fails 
 to complete his contract, either by not delivering the 
 whole goods to the consignee or owner, or by deliver- 
 ing them at a place short of their original destination ; 
 in these cases, if the owner or consignee of the goods 
 derive any benefit from their conveyance, he is liable to 
 the payment of freight according to the proportion of 
 
 the voyage performed, or pro rata itineris peracti : and 
 though contracts of this nature be frequently entire 
 and indivisible, and the master or owner of the ship 
 can not, from their nature, sue thereon, and recover a 
 rat^e freight, or pro rata itineris ; yet he may do so 
 upon a fresh implied contract, for as much as he de- 
 serves to have unless there be an express clause in the 
 original charter-party or contract to the contrary. A 
 fresh implied contract is inferred from the owner's or 
 consignee's acceptance of the goods. Many difficul- 
 ties have, indeed, arisen in deciding as to what shall 
 amount to an acceptance : it is not, however, necessary 
 actually to receive the goods ; acceptance may be 
 made by the express or implied directions, and with 
 the consent, of the owner or consignee of the goods, 
 but not othenvise. 
 
 It sometimes happens that the owner of the ship, 
 who is originally entitled to the freight, sells or other- 
 wise disposes of his interest in the ship : where a char- 
 tered ship is sold before the voyage, the vendee, and 
 not the vendor or party to whom he afterward assigns 
 the charter-party, is entitled to the freight. But 
 where a ship has been sold dwring the voyage, the 
 owner, with whom a covenant to pay freight has been 
 made, is entitled to the freight, and not the vendee. 
 A mortgagee who does not take possession, is not en- 
 titled to the freight. 
 
 The time and manner of paying freight are fre- 
 quently regulated by express stipulations in a charter- 
 party, or other written contract ; and when that is the 
 case, they must be respected ; but if there be no ex- 
 press stipulation contrary to or inconsistent with the 
 right of lien, the goods remain as security till the 
 freight is paid ; for the master is not bound to deliver 
 them, or any part of them, without payment of the 
 freight and other charges in respect thereof. But the 
 master can not detain the cargo on board the vessel 
 till these payments be made, as the merchant would, in 
 that case, have no opportunity of examining the con- 
 dition of the goods. In England, the practice is, when 
 the master is doubtful of payment, to send such goods 
 as are not required to be landed at any particular 
 wharf, to a public wharf, ordering the wharfinger not 
 to part with them till the freight and other charges are 
 paid. No right of lieu for freight can exist, unless 
 the freight be earned. If the freighter, or a stranger, 
 prevent the freight from becoming due, the ship owner 
 or master's remedj' is by action of damages. 
 
 For further information and details with respect to 
 this subject see the article Chakter-pakty ; Abbott 
 (Lord Tenterden) on the Imw of Shipping, part iii., 
 c. 7 ; Chitty's Commercial Law, vol. iii. c. 9, etc. 
 
 Freight is a common subject of insurance. In com- 
 mon conversation, this word means sometimes the 
 cargo carried, and sometimes the earnings of the ship 
 by carrying the cargo. The latter is the meaning in 
 mercantile law, and especially in the law of insurance. 
 It includes the money to be paid to the owner of a ship 
 by the shipper of goods, and the earnings of an owner 
 by carrying his own goods, and the amount to be paid 
 to him by the hirer of his ship, and the profits of such 
 hirer, either by carrying his own goods or by carrying 
 for paj' the goods of others. 
 
 An interest in freight begins as soon as the voyage 
 is determined upon and the ship is actually ready for 
 sea, and goods are on board or ready to be put on 
 board, or are promised to be on board by a contract 
 binding on the owner of the goods. 
 
 If a ship is insured on a voyage which is to consist 
 of many passages, and sail without cargo, but a cargo 
 is ready for her at the first port she is to reach and sail 
 from, the owner has an insurable interest in the freight 
 from the daj- in which he sails from his home port. 
 
 If one makes advances toward the freight, he is to 
 pay, and this is to be re-paid to him by the ship- 
 owner ; if the freight is not earned, the advancer has 
 no insurable interest in what he advances ; but if he 
 
FRE 
 
 152 
 
 FRE 
 
 IS to lose without repayment, if the ship be lost, or the 
 fteight not earned, he has an insurable interest. — Par- 
 SONs's Mercantile Law ; Boston : p. 418. 
 
 If the hirer takes the whole vessel, he may put the 
 goods of other ship-owners on board (unless prevented 
 by express stipulation) ; but whether he fills the whole 
 ship or not, he pays for the whole ; and what he pays 
 for so much of the ship as is empty is said to be paid 
 for dead freight. This is calculated on the actual ca- 
 pacity of the ship, unless she is agreed to be of speci- 
 fied tonnage. If either party is deceived or defrauded 
 by any statement in the charter-party, he has, of 
 course, his remedy against the other party. — Page 358. 
 
 The freight is totally lost when the ship is totally 
 lost or made unnavigable, or is subjected to a detention 
 of such a character as to brealc up the voyage. If 
 there be a construtive total loss of the ship, the owner 
 may abandon the freight with the ship ; but if the ship 
 be actually lost, the freight may not be ; for the mas- 
 ter has the right, and is under the duty, of transmit- 
 ting the goods, if he can ; and if he does, the owner of 
 the ship is entitled to the whole of his freight, and the 
 expense of the transmission is all his loss. If the mas- 
 ter might have done this, and fails to do it, the esti- 
 mated expense of transmission is still all the loss for 
 which the insurers are responsible. 
 
 So, if the ship can be repaired, and go on again and 
 finish her voyage, the owner would have the right to 
 hold on to the goods, and finally carrj' them, and earn 
 his freight. And he has this right although the delay 
 would be yevy long, and even if the goods are injured, 
 and it would cost time and money to put them in a 
 condition of safety for the residue of the voyge. Still, 
 the ship-owner, by his agent, may do all this, and 
 then earn his freight ; and, therefore, if it can be done, 
 whether it is done or not, all the claim which the in- 
 sured on freight can make on the insurers is for the 
 expense of doing it. The rule of 50 per cent, ap- 
 plies to freight also. If, therefore, freight pro raid be 
 paid, it will be a total loss by construction if less than 
 half be paid. So if the ship be injured, and part of 
 the cargo be lost, but the ship may be repaired and 
 cany the remaining goods on, if that part would pay 
 more than half of the whole freight, it has been held 
 not to be total ; and otherwise, it is. 
 
 Freight is fully earned if the goods remain substan- 
 tially in specie, and are so delivered to the consignee, 
 although there be a very great deterioration; but 
 freight is lost, and the insurers are responsible, if 
 nothing is left of the goods but the mere products of 
 decomposition, so that they are lost in fact. 
 
 If, after some freight is earned, there is an abandon- 
 ment of the ship, and, after the abandonment, more 
 freight is earned, the American cases hold that the 
 freight earned before the abandonment goes to the 
 insurers on freight, while that earned after the aban- 
 donment goes to the insurers of the ship. But the 
 French law is the reverse, and pursues the rule in En- 
 gland. 
 
 By the French law, an abandonment of the ship 
 gave to the underwriters the benefits of the freight 
 pending at the.time of the loss. In the United States 
 it seems now to be well settled that the freight earned 
 prior to the loss goes to the underwriter on freight, 
 and that earned subsequent, to the underwriter on 
 the ship. Thus it has been decided in the Massachu- 
 setts Supreme Court (15 Mass., 346) : " Until the loss 
 happens, the property remains in the assured, and the 
 freight, or her earnings, belong to him till that time, if 
 he stands his own insurer for the freight ; othenvise, to 
 the insurer on the freight ; but after the loss has hap- 
 pened, the insurers, in virtue of the abandonment, be- 
 come the owners, and are liable for the repairs and 
 expenses, and entitled to the earnings of the ship." — 
 Ibid, 478. 
 
 Charter. — There are two kinds of contract for the 
 carriage of goods. First, The contract of affreight- 
 
 ment by charter-party. Secondly, The contract for 
 the carriage of goods in a general ship. The first ia 
 where the whole or the chief part of a ship is let out 
 to hire. There is nothing to prevent this contract 
 from being verbal, but in practice it is always reduced 
 to writing, and the written instrument containing the 
 terms of it is called a charter-party. It may be un- 
 der seal or not. If so, it takes effect from the day 
 when it was sealed and delivered, unless it appear on 
 the face of it to take effect from the day of date, 
 when that is a different time. The construction of it 
 is to be reasonable and so as to give effect to the inten- 
 tion of the parties and also the usage of trade, both 
 in general and of the particular department in ques- 
 tion ; and where terms are introduced relating to a 
 usage, evidence of course may be given to prove what 
 that usage is. But this will not admit of a construc- 
 tion being introduced which is not consistent with the 
 plain and obvious meaning of the words. The parties 
 to it are the owners if present where the contract is 
 made, and generally also the master, or the master 
 alone if the owners are absent ; and the merchant who 
 hires the ship, or his agent. If the charter-party is 
 by deed and executed by an agent, he should be au- 
 thorized by deed, or letter of attorney, to sign for his 
 principal, and must sign in his name. If the agent 
 signs in his own name, actions on the charter-party 
 will have to be brought by or against the agent. 
 The merchant hiring is called the charterer or freighter. 
 The letting is for one or more voyages or some period 
 of time : the money to be paid for the hire is called 
 freight. This may consist of one sum for the whole 
 ship or part let, or so much for each ton or each piece 
 of merchandise, etc., the freighter undertaking to find 
 a full cargo. 
 
 If the payment is to be made by the ton there 
 should be provision for payment at the same rate for a 
 less quantity. Again, the paj'meut may be by a sum 
 in gross for the whole time of the ship's employment, 
 or at a certain rate per month or other period of time. 
 A month Is understood to mean a calendar month. 
 The charter-party expresses the register tonnage of 
 the ship more frequently by both the old and the new 
 modes of measurement ; and when the ship is char- 
 tered by the month the hire is paid for the number of 
 tons, commonly old measurement, at which she is reg- 
 istered. When the freighter is to pay by the ton, 
 freight is to be paid only for the actual tonnage of the 
 goods without any reference to the register tonnage ; 
 but the goods must be in suitable packages, or otherwise 
 the owner can claim for the lost room as dead freight. 
 The words, or thereabouts, are generally understood 
 to mean about 5 tons ; but in one case where a ship 
 was described as of the burden of 261 tons or there- 
 abouts, and the freighter undertook to find a full car- 
 go, and no fraud was imputable to the owner, the 
 freighter was held bound to find an actual full cargo, 
 though the ship carried 400 tons. Goods, however, 
 may be packed according to the custom of the loading 
 port, and so may form a full cargo although it may be 
 possible to pack them in less compass. Thus sugar 
 may be packed in hogsheads if such is the custom, 
 though it would take less room in tierces. 
 
 A charter-party being an agreement drawn up at 
 the discretion of the parties, they may of course in- 
 troduce any terms they agree upon. The usual un- 
 dertakings, however, as said by Lord Tenterden, are 
 on the part of the owners that the ship shall be tight, 
 and strong, furnished with all necessaries for the voy- 
 age, ready by a day appointed to receive the cargo, 
 and wait a certain number of days to take it on board. 
 But the obligation to remain the whole of the running 
 days may be dispensed with by a distinct intimation 
 from the merchant that no cargo will be provided, and 
 that it is useless to wait. That after lading_ she shall 
 set sail with the first fair wind and opportunity, to the 
 destined port (the dangers of the sea excepted), and 
 
FRE 
 
 753 
 
 FRE 
 
 there deliver the goods to the merchant or his assigns 
 in the same dondition as they were received on board ; 
 and further, that during the course of the voyage the 
 ship shall be kept tight, and staunch, and furnished with 
 sufficient men and other necessaries, to the best of the 
 owner's endeavors. If the ship prove not to be tight, 
 staunch, and sufficient, the owners will, nevertheless, 
 be liable although they themselves believed her to be 
 BO. The merchant undertakes to load or unload with- 
 in the time appointed, or within a reasonable time, and 
 to pay the freight. Provisions are also often' intro- 
 duced relative to demurrage, which will be explained 
 hereafter. The ship, and freight, and cargo, are also 
 often boixnd in a penalty by the owners or master, and 
 the freighter respectively, for the performance of their 
 undertakings. But these clauses seem in this coun- 
 trj', at least, to be of no utility, for in an action for 
 the failure of the undertaking the plaintiif would re- 
 cover to the amount of the injuries he had suffered, 
 and in no case, whatever penalty might be introduced, 
 could he recover more. Neither could these clauses 
 give any direct remedy as against the ship, or freight, 
 or cargo. 
 
 If either party be not ready by the time agreed on, 
 the other may seek a ship or cargo elsewhere, and also 
 bring an action for the insufficiency ; or if the mer- 
 chant appears to be insolvent he may safely make up 
 a cargo from, other quarters. When the goods have 
 been put on board, bills of lading are signed by the 
 master. These are evidence that the particular goods 
 are shipped as the charter-party is of the contract for 
 conveyance. The ship owner has a lien upon goods 
 In respect of which a payment is due to him, and may 
 therefore detain them till the payment is made. But 
 he can not by virtue either of the general law of lien, 
 or of the clauses above alluded to, detain the goods 
 because of the merchant's failure to perform his under- 
 takings generally, as for instance his undertakings to 
 pay demurrage or port dues, etc. Moreover, a party 
 caii have no lien unless he has possession of the prop- 
 erty over which he claims to exercise it. An absolute 
 owner, therefore, of a ship who has so completely 
 parted with the possession and control of her as to 
 cause the hirer to become the temporary owner, will 
 not have the right of lien over the goods conveyed on 
 board his ship. Owners ought carefully to consider 
 ' ihis consequence, because if they part with the pos- 
 session of their ship, and the hirer of it be not a re- 
 sponsible person, they will cease to have in their hands 
 one very convenient and direct means of securing 
 remuneration. Special terms of course maj' be intro- 
 duced in the contract by which the right of lien may 
 either be entirely released, or it maj' be extended be- 
 yond what is conferred by the general rule of law. 
 By the following agreement the owner was held to 
 have created for himself a right of lien for the bal- 
 ance due to him under the charter-party as to all the 
 lading; though part had been transferred by endorse- 
 ment of a bill of lading independently of tlie general 
 rule of law, or the question whether he remained in 
 possession of the ship. The agreement between the 
 parties was that ownership of the ship " should re- 
 main firmly and be fully vested in the owner, and 
 that he should at all times during the said intended 
 voyage and service, have a full and complete lien 
 upon the lading of the ship as well as for all losses and 
 damage which the said owner might sustain or be put 
 to in consequence of non-payment of unj of the bills 
 to be given for freight, etc., and should have full 
 power and authority to hold and retain the said goods 
 until full payment of all such losses, charges, dam- 
 ages, and arrears of freight paid for on account of the 
 charterer, and which he of right ought to pay agreea- 
 bly to the true intent of the charter-party." 
 
 The freighter may either fiU the ship with his own 
 goods or relet the whole or part to others. Where a 
 ship has been let to hire at so much a month and the i 
 Bbb 
 
 freighter lets at so much a ton, the owner has no right 
 to detain the cargo for the amount the freighter has 
 agreed to give him. The actual shippers are only 
 liable for what they have agreed to give the freighter. 
 The owner, therefore, may have no right to detain the 
 goods of the actual shippers for the freight stated in 
 the charter-party, but he may for that which is men- 
 tioned in the bill of lading. And he has a right to 
 that in preference to the freighter. The bankruptcy 
 of the charterer or any pledge or assignment made by 
 him will not affect the owner's right of lien. 
 
 Sailing with the first wind, is held to mean sailing 
 without unnecessary delay. " Leave Amsterdam," 
 does not necessarily mean to sail thence on the voy- 
 age. But " final sailing" means the final departure 
 from port and being at sea, ready in all respects to 
 proceed on the voyage. (See chapter on Marine In- 
 surance.) If either party be not ready bj' the time 
 agreed on, the other may seek another ship or cargo 
 and bring action for the damages caused by the delay. 
 A deviation on the voyage will not deprive the owner 
 of his right to freight, though it may subject him to 
 action if it causes a loss of the insurance to the freight- 
 er. — Mercantile and Maritime Guide, London, 1856, 
 
 Freight, in the common acceptation of the term (ac- 
 cording to Kent's Commentaries-^see vol. iii., chap, 
 xlvii.), means the price for the actual transportation 
 of goods by sea from one place to another, but in its 
 more extensive sense, it is applied to all rewards or 
 compensation paid for the use of ships, including the 
 transportation of passengers. The personal obliga- 
 tion to pay freights rests either on the' charter-party 
 or on the bill of lading, by which the payment of 
 freights is made a condition of delivery ; and the gen- 
 eral rule is, that the delivery of the goodg at the place 
 of destinaition, according to the charter-party, is neces- 
 sary to entitle the owner of the vessel to freight. The 
 conveyance and delivery of the cargo form a condition 
 precedent, and must be fulfilled. A partial perform- 
 ance is not sufficient ; nor can a partial payment or 
 ratable freight be allowed, except in special cases ; and 
 those cases are exceptions to the general rule, and 
 called for by the principles of equitj'. 
 
 The amount of freight is usuallj' fixed by agree- 
 ment between the parties ; and if there be no agree- 
 ment, the amount is ascertained by the usage of the 
 trade, and the reason of the case. If the hiring be of 
 the whole ship, or for an entire part of her, for the 
 voyage, the merchant must pay the freight, thortgh he 
 does not fuUj- load the ship ; but if he agrees to pay in 
 proportion to the amount of goods put on board, and 
 does not agree to provide a full cargo, the Owner can 
 demand payment only for the cargo actually shipped. 
 If the merchant agrees to furnish a return cargo, and 
 he furnishes none, and lets the ship return in ballast, 
 he must make compensation to the amount of the 
 freight ; and this is sometimes termed dead freight, in 
 contradistinction to freight due' for the actual carriage 
 of goods. 
 
 It is supposed to be the doctrine of the case of Bell 
 V. PuUen, that the master would be entitled to freight 
 for bringing back the outward cargo, if it could not be 
 disposed of, though the charter-party was silent as to 
 the return cargo; It would stand upon the equity of 
 the claim to dead freight. The French law, in such a 
 case, allows freight for bringing back the cargo be- 
 cause it could not be sold, or was not permitted to be 
 landed. Mr. Justice Story, in the case of the ship 
 Hooper, United States' Circuit Court, Massachusetts, 
 May, 1839, 3 Sumner, 542, laid down the general rule 
 that freight for the entire voyage could only be earned 
 by a due performance of the voyage ; and that the 
 only acknowledged exception is when there is no de- 
 fault of the carrier-ship to perform the voyage, and 
 the ship-o'wner is ready to forward them, but there is 
 a default on the part of the owner of the cargo, or he 
 waives a further prosecution of the voyage. 
 
FEE 
 
 V54 
 
 FEE 
 
 If part of the cargo be sold on the voyage from ne- 
 cessity, the owner, as we have seen, pays the value at 
 the port of delivery, deducting the freight equally as 
 if the goods had arrived. But if the goods he prohib- 
 ited on entry by the government of the countr}^, and 
 such prohibition talces place after the commencement 
 of the voyage, and the cargo be brought back, the 
 freight for the outward voj'age has been held to have 
 been earned ; and the case was distinguished (though 
 I think the distinction not very obvious) from that of a 
 blockade of the port of destination, and decided on the 
 authority of the French ordinance of marine. " Noth- 
 ing can be more just," observes Valin, " than that the 
 outward freight should be allowed in such a case, since 
 the interruption proceeds from an extraordinarj'' cause, 
 independent of the ordinary marine perils. The case 
 of a blockade of, or interdiction of, commerce with the 
 port of discharge, after the commencement of the 
 voyage, is held to be different ; for, in that case, the 
 voyage is held to be broken up, and the charter-party 
 dissolved : .and if the cargo, by reason of that obsta^ 
 cle, be brought back, no freight is due. The same 
 principle applies if the voyage be broken up and lost 
 by capture upon the passage, so as to cause a complete 
 defeasance of the undertaking, notwithstanding there 
 was a subsequent recapture, as in the case of the 
 Hiram. On the other hand, an embargo detaining the 
 vessel at the port of departure, or in the course of the 
 voyage, does not, of itself, work a dissolution of the 
 contract. It is only a temporary restraint, which sus- 
 pends for a time its performance, and leaves the rights 
 of the parties in relation to each other untouched. If 
 the ship be laden, and be captured before she breaks 
 ground, and afterward recaptured, but the voyage be 
 broken up, the ship-owners are not entitled to any 
 freight, though, by the usages of the trade, the ship 
 was laden at their expense. 
 
 It is requisite that the ship break ground to give 
 an inception to freight. It is the same thing with a 
 blockade or hostile investment of the port of departure. 
 Such an obstacle does not discharge the contract of 
 freightment, because it is merely a temporary suspen- 
 sion of its performance ; and the ship-owner may de- 
 tain the goods until he can prosecute the voyage with 
 safety, or until the freighter tenders him the full 
 freight. This was the decision in the case of Palmer 
 V. Lorillard^ in which the doctrhie was extensively 
 examined ; and it was shown, by a reference to the 
 foreign ordinances, and the soundest classical writers 
 on maritime law, that the master, in the case of such 
 an invincible obstacle, of a temporary nature, to the 
 prosecution of the voyage, is entitled to wait for the 
 removal of it, so that he may earn his freight, unless 
 the cargo consists of perishable articles which can not 
 endure the delay. He stands upon a principle of equity 
 which pervades the maritime law of Europe, if he re- 
 fuses to surrender the cargo to the shipper without 
 some equitable allowance in the shape of freight for 
 his intermediate services. 
 
 When the goods become greatly deteriorated on the 
 voyage, it has been a ver}'' litigated question, whether 
 the consignee was bound to take the goods, and pay 
 the freight, or whether he might not abandon the 
 goods to the master in discharge of the freight. Valin 
 and Pothier entertain diflferent opinions upon this ques- 
 tion. The former insists that the regulation of the 
 ordina:nce holding the merchant liable for freight on 
 deteriorated goods, without the right to abandon them 
 in discharge of the freight, is too rigorous to be com- 
 patible with equity. He says the cargo is the only 
 proper fund and pledge for the freight, and that Casa- 
 regis was of the same opinion. Pothier, on the other 
 hand, was against the right of the owner to abandon 
 the deteriorated goods in discharge of the freight ; and 
 this is the better opinion, and the one adopted in the 
 case of Griswold v. tlie New York Insurance Ccmpany. 
 It is in accordance with the ordinances of the marine. 
 
 and of Kotterdam, and with the new commercial code 
 of France; and the latter puts an end to all further 
 doubts and discussion on the subject in France. The 
 ship-owner performs his engagement when he carries 
 and delivers the goods. The right to his freight then 
 becomes absolute , and the carrier is no more an in- 
 surer of the soundness of the cargo, as against the 
 perils of the sea, or its own intrinsic decay, than he is 
 of the price in the market to which it is carried. If 
 he has conducted himself with fidelity and vigilance in 
 the course of the voyage, he has no concern with the 
 diminution of the value of the cargo. It may impair 
 the remedy which his lien affords, but it does not affect 
 his personal demand against the shipper. 
 
 If casks contain wine, rum, or other liquids, or 
 sugar, and the contents be washed out, and wasted, 
 and lost, by the perils of the sea, so that the casks ar- 
 rive empty, no freight is due for them ; but the ship- 
 owner would still be entitled to his freight, if the casks 
 were well stowed, and their contents were essentially 
 gone by leakage, or inherent waste, or imperfection of 
 the casks. 
 
 Should the cargo consist of live-stock, as is frequent- 
 ly' the case in voj'agee from this country to the "West 
 Indies, and some of the horses or cattle, for instance, 
 should die in the course of the voyage, without anj' 
 fault or negligence of the master or crew, and there be 
 no express agreement respecting the payment of 
 freight, tlie general rule is, that the freight is to be 
 paid for all that were put on hoard. But if the agree- 
 ment was to pay for the transportation of them, then 
 no freight is due for those that die on the voyage, as 
 the contract is not, in that case, performed. The for- 
 eign marine law allows freight paid in advance to he 
 recovered back, if the goods be not carried, nor the 
 voyage performed, hy reason of any event not imput- 
 able to the shipper. The reason is, that the consider- 
 ation for payment, which was the carriage of the 
 goods, has failed. But the marine ordinances admit 
 that the parties may stipulate that the freight so pre- 
 viously advanced shall, at all events, be retained. In 
 Watson V. Duykinck, the rule of the marine law was 
 recognized, though it was not applied to that case, be- 
 cause the contract there appeared to be, that the 
 freight was paid for receiving the passenger and his 
 goods on board ; and, in such a case, the payment is to 
 be retained, though the vessel and cargo be lost on the 
 voyage. The general principle of the marine law was 
 admitted in the fullest latitude in Griggs v. Austin; 
 and whether the price previously advanced is to be 
 retained or returned becomes a question of intention 
 in the construction of the contract. The French ordi- 
 nances require a special agreement to enable the ship- 
 owner to retain the freight paid in advance ; and Va- 
 lin says that many authors on maritime jurisprudence, 
 as Kuricke, Loccenius, and Straccha, will not allow 
 even such a special agreement to be valid. The En- 
 glish law is not so scrupulous, and does not require 
 any such express stipulation, and allows the intention 
 of the parties to retain the previously advanced freight 
 to be more easily inferred. In Be Silvak v, KenMl, 
 the Court of King's Bench adopted a du-ectly opposite 
 principle, and observed, that if the charter-party was 
 silent, the law would require a performance of the 
 voyage before freight was due ; but the parties might 
 stipulate that part of the freight be paid in anticipa- 
 tion, and be made free from subsequent contingency 
 of loss by reason of loss of the subsequent voyage. If 
 freight be paid in advance, and there be no express 
 stipulation that it shall be retured in the event of 
 freight not being earned, the inference is that the par- 
 ties did not intend that the payment of the part in ad- 
 vance should be subject to the risk of the remainder of 
 the voyage ; and without some provision of that kino, 
 a new implied contract to that effect could not he 
 raised. See Kent's Com., vol. iii. ; Paesons on Cm- 
 tracts, Boston ; Merc, and Marit. Guide, London, 185(. 
 
FRE 
 
 755 
 
 FRO 
 
 Fresco Fainting, a method of painting witli 
 water-colors on fresh plaster while it is still in a soft 
 state, by which means the colors are incorporated with 
 the plaster, and become as permanent as the material on 
 which they are spread. The Italians, from whom we 
 borrow the term, call it fresco (literally fresh), either 
 because it is executed upon fresh plaster, or because it 
 is used on walls, alcoves, and other buildings in the 
 open air. Vitruvius (vii. 4) calls it painting udo tec- 
 torio. Painting in fresco is a very ancient art. It 
 was practiced by the early Greeks, and may he traced 
 even to Egj-pt. It is generally executed on walls and 
 vaults, the plaster being laid on in successive portions, 
 or so much only at one time as the painter can dispatch 
 before it dries. The design is usually drawn previously 
 on paper, to be chalked and transferred to the wall about 
 half an hour after the plaster has been laid. From 
 the diiflculty of making alterations on the work when 
 the colors are once absorbed, the design should be pre- 
 viously prepared with the greatest accuracy. When 
 an alteration must be made, the part is usually cut 
 entirely away,, and relaid with fresh plaster. The an- 
 cients painted on stucco ; and we may remark in Vi- 
 truvius what infinite care they took in making the 
 incrustation or plastering of their buildings, to render 
 them beautiful and lasting ; though the modems find 
 a plaster of lime and sand preferable for fresco paint- 
 ing, both because it does not dry so hastily, and on ac- 
 count of its subdued and agreeable tint. The pig- 
 ments chiefly employed in this kind of painting are 
 earths, because their colors are not liable to be affected 
 by the burning qualities of the lime. White is made 
 of lime slacked some time previously, or of white mar- 
 ble dust 4 and the other substances used are red and 
 yellow ochre, verditer, lapis-lazuli, black chalk, etc. 
 These only require to be ground and mixed up with 
 water. The brushes and pencils should be long and 
 soft, otherwise they are apt to rake and raise the sur- 
 face. In order that the work may come out in all its 
 beauty, the colors must be laid on quickly, while the 
 plaster is still moist ; nor should they ever be retouched 
 drj- with colors mixed up with white of egg, size, or 
 gum, as is sometimes done ; because such colors grow 
 blackish, and soon tarnish. 
 
 Freshes, in sea language, the increased current of 
 an ebb tide by means of a flood of fresh water flowing 
 out into the sea, by which its waters are often discol- 
 ored for a great distance from the coast. 
 
 Fresnel, Augustin Jean. The inventor of 
 the light now generally used throughout Europe and 
 in various parts of the United States, for light-houses. 
 He was distinguished for his practical application of 
 optics to the useful arts with which his name will ever 
 be honorably associated. At least as earlj' as 1819 it 
 occurred to him that lenses might be substituted for 
 mirrors, for the purpose of directing parallel rays of 
 light from light-houses, and thus preventing in a great 
 measure the natural weakness, in consequence of its 
 divergence, of light seen at a distance. It further oc- 
 curred to him that lenses of large size, and of moder- 
 ate thickness, might be luilt up of segments of lenses. 
 This last idea was not indeed new, for Buffon had pro- 
 posed to diminish the weight and thickness of lenses 
 by grinding them into zones which should have a com- 
 mon focus ; and Condorcet proposed to construct these 
 zones of separate segments. Sir David Brewster sug- 
 gested, in 1811, a similar construction, unaware, it 
 appears, of what Condorcet had written. But all of 
 these writers described their contrivances as applicable 
 to burning instruments for concentrating the solar 
 raj's. Fresnel appears to have been unaware of what 
 his predecessors suggested, but he has the far greater 
 merit of actually applying the suggestion to the im- 
 portant purpose of light-house illumination. It was 
 first carried into efl'ect in France, where polyzonal lenses 
 were made by M. Soleil, and have gradually been in- 
 troduced into other countries, first into Holland, and 
 
 then into Scotland. See article Light-houses. Not 
 content with this great improvement, Fresnel exerted 
 remarkable ingenuity in contriving further improve- 
 ments in the mode of distributing light for the pur- 
 poses of navigation under almost every conceivable 
 circumstance ; and he made copious use of the princi- 
 ple of the total reflection of light in glass, which had 
 never before been applied to such purposes. In 1819 
 he was nominated upon the light-house commission ; 
 and in July, 1823, the Corduau Light-honse, at the 
 mouth of the Garonne, was completed upon the new 
 plan.— E. B. 
 
 He was the author of various works on the Diffrac- 
 tion of Light, on the Influence ofHeaion Colors, on the 
 Influence of the Earth's Motion, on the Mutual Action of 
 Polarized Light, etc. Through the instrumentality of 
 Messrs. E. and G. W. Blunt, of New York, the Fres- 
 nel light was adopted in the United States in the year 
 1838, and is now in use generally in the light-houses 
 of this countrj- and of Europe. 
 
 Fresnel was born May 10, 1788, at Broglie, in the 
 department Ure, Normandy, and died at Ville d'Av- 
 ray, France, on the 14th Juty, 1827, aged 39 years. 
 
 Frigate (Fr. frigate (?) ; Lat. aphractus, a long 
 undecked vessel) ; a ship of war, usually of two decks, 
 designed for swift sailing. Frigates mount from 20 to 
 44 guns, and sometimes more. The name was origi- 
 nally applied to a long land of vessel navigated in the 
 Mediterranean with sails and oars. Frigatooon, a Ve- 
 nitian vessel with a square stern and without a fore- 
 mast, having only a main-mast, mizzen-mast, and 
 bow-sprit. 
 
 Frith, or Firth (Lat. fretum, a narrow sea), is a 
 term chiefly applied to a narrow and deep inlet of the 
 sea upon a river, as the Firth of Forth, in Scotland. 
 This term corresponds to the flord of the Danes and 
 Norwegians, who, in all probability, borrowed it from 
 the English. Both Latin and Teutonic are derived 
 not improbably from the same root, fahren, to pass 
 over ; whence ferrj', ford, furt (Germ.), as in Frank- 
 furt, Erfurt, etc. 
 
 Frobisher, Sir Martin, a celebrated English 
 navigator of the sixteenth century, was bom (in what 
 year is not known), at Doncaster, in Yorkshire. He 
 was the first Englisliman that sailed in quest of the 
 north-west passage to China and the Indies. " Being 
 thoroughly furnished of the knowledge of the sphere 
 and all other skills pertaining to the art of navigation, 
 and being persuaded of a new and nearer passage to 
 Cataya than by Capo de Buona Speramja, which the Por- 
 tugals yearly use, and knowing this to be the only 
 thing of the world that was yet left undone, whereby 
 a notable mind might be made famous and fortunate," 
 he applied to various English merchants to assist him 
 in his projected enterprise, but for 15 years without 
 success. At the end of that period he was enabled, 
 through the assistance of Dudley, Earl of Warwiclc, 
 and others, persons of rank and fortune, to set out on 
 the expedition. He sailed from Deptford, June 15th, 
 1576, with three small vessels, two of them, the Ga- 
 briel and the Michael, barks of 25 tons each, and the 
 third a small pinnace of 10 tons. As they passed 
 Greenwich, the Queen, who happened to be there with 
 her court, " commended them, and bade them farewell 
 with shaking her hand at them out of the window." 
 After passing the Shetland Islands they came in sight 
 of " Freeseland" (July 11th), where thej' were unable 
 to land on account of the ice, and on the 28tli of the 
 same month they reached that part of Greenland which 
 Frobisher named " Meta Incognita." On the 11th 
 August they sailed through a strait which Frobisher 
 called by his own name. Pursuing their way they 
 passed several islands, to which they gave names, and 
 came on the 18th to Butcher's Island, where they lost 
 a boat and part of their crew through the treach- 
 ery of the natives. After this they turned their prows 
 homeward, and reached England September 7th. Fro- 
 
FRTJ 
 
 756 
 
 FUC 
 
 bisher had taken possession of the various places he 
 touched at in the name of the Queen ; and in token 
 of this he ordered his men to put on board ship "what- 
 ever they first laid hands on. Among other things 
 thus secured "was a lump of black stone, which when 
 Frobisher returned home, was accidental!}'' discovered 
 to contain gold. This discover}'' was soon noised 
 abroad and in the following spring Frobisher readil}- 
 found the means to fit out another expedition, partly- 
 scientific and partly Avith a, view to proseciiting the 
 search for gold. The Queen lent him from the royal 
 navy a ship of 200 tons, with which, and two smaller 
 barks, he sailed from Harwich, May 31, 1577. On ar- 
 riving at the scene of their former discoveries they 
 found that little of the gold ore remained, but they 
 opened forthwith communications with the natives for 
 the purposes of traffic. One of these, "a man of 
 large corporature and good proportion," they carried 
 away with them neither in a verj"- just nor handsome 
 manner. They also caught an old woman, "whom 
 they took for a devil or a witch," and stripped off her 
 buskins " to see if she were cloven-footed." After 
 discovering and naming a good many places, and pro- 
 curing a good deal of ore, he turned his prow south- 
 ward, August 23d, and reached home in the end of 
 September. The ore when smelted was found to pay 
 the expenses of the voyage and more ; a third expedi- 
 tion was fitted out in 1578, which, however, through 
 stress of weather and other circumstances, had no 
 sooner reached the gold country than he was obliged 
 to return from the lateness of the season. This was 
 the last of Frobisher's polar voyages. It is not known 
 how he was occupied during the next seven years, but 
 in 1585 he accompanied Sir Francis Drake on his ex- 
 pedition to the West Indies, and three years later did 
 such good service against the Spanish armada as to be 
 rewarded with the honor of knighthood on board his 
 own ship by the lord high admiral. In 1594, after 
 various exploits against the Spaniards, he was sent to 
 assist Henri IV. of France against the Spaniards, and 
 the members of the league. The enemy had fortified 
 themselves strongly in Croyzon, near Brest ; and in 
 an attack on their position Frobisher was mortally 
 wounded. He lived to take his fleet safely home, and 
 shortly after died at Plymouth. — £lo(;. Brit. ; Haic- 
 luyt's Collect, of Voyages; Stow's Annates, etc., etc. 
 
 Frobisher Strait, an arm of the sea in British 
 North America, between Hudson Strait and Northum- 
 berland Inlet. It extends in a westerly direction from 
 the entrance to Davis' Strait. 
 
 Txuit(GQT.Ohst.Fruchte; Du. Ooft;'Fx.Fru!t;lt. 
 Frutta^ Frutte; Sp. Frvta; Rus. Ozvoscktsch; Lat. 
 FruciUTn), This appellation is bestowed by commer- 
 cial men upon those species of fruit, such as oranges, 
 lemons, almonds, raisins, currants, apples, etc., which 
 constitute articles of importation from foreign coun- 
 tries. Gardening was undoubtedly among the first of 
 the arts to which the attention of man was directed. If 
 we would ascend into remote antiquit}'', we can have 
 recourse onl}'" to conjecture ; for although, in the sacred 
 writings, and in the earliest profane autliors, allusions 
 to gardens occur, little is told iis either of their pro- 
 ductions or their culture. Judging, though, from the 
 literature of the present day, we shall scared}' find any 
 art which receives more attention. 
 
 Several varieties of fruit are mentioned as having 
 been introduced into Italy,. 70 b. u., et seq. Exotic 
 fruits and flowers of various kinds, previously unknown 
 in England, were brought thither in the reigns of 
 Henry VII. and VIII. and of Mavy and Elizabeth, 
 between the years 1500 and 1578. See Gardening, 
 Ency. Brit. Among others of less note, were musk- 
 melons, plum-trees, and currant-plants of sundry 
 sorts, the musk and damask roses, tulips, etc. ; also 
 saffron, woad, and other drugs for dyeing, but these 
 last were attempted to be cultivated without success. 
 Hakluyt ; Lord Kames, The following are among 
 
 the fruits whose introduction into England has been 
 traced (Haydn) : 
 
 Feitits, ktc. 
 
 From A. D. 
 
 Almond-tree Barhary 1545 
 
 Apples Syria 1522 
 
 Apple, the custard North America 1T36 
 
 Apple, the Osage " " isiS 
 
 Apricots Epirus 1540 
 
 Cherry-trees Pontus loo 
 
 Cornelian cherry Austria 1596 
 
 Currants Zaute 3538 
 
 Currant, the hawthorn . Canada 1705 
 
 Fig-tree South of Europe, before 1548 
 
 Fig, the Botany-bay. . .New South "Wales 1789 
 
 Gooseberries Flanders before 1540 
 
 Grapes Portugal ,. 1528 
 
 Lemons Spain 1554 
 
 Limes Portugal 1554 
 
 Lime, the American before 1752 
 
 Melons " 1540 
 
 Mock orange South of Europe, " 1596 
 
 Mulberry Italy 1520 
 
 Mulberry, white China, about 1096 
 
 Mulberry, red North America, before. 1629 
 
 Mulberry, paper Japan, before 1754 
 
 Nectarine Persia lfJ62 
 
 Olive, the Cape Cape 1730 
 
 01ive,the sweet-see ntedChin a 1771 
 
 Oranges \ 1595 
 
 Peaches Persia 1562 
 
 Pears Various climes 
 
 Pine-apple Brazil 1569 
 
 Pippins Netherlands ir>25 
 
 Plums Italy 1522 
 
 Plum, the date Barbary 1596 
 
 Pomegranate Spain before 1548 
 
 Quince Austria 1573 
 
 Quince Japan 1T95 
 
 Itaspberry, flowering . .North America 1700 
 
 Easpberry, Yirginian.. " " ..before 1696 
 
 Strawberry. Flanders 1530 
 
 Strawberry. Oriental Levant 1724 
 
 "Walnut, the black North America, before. 1629 
 
 The art of gardening became well understood in 
 England about a. d. 1500 ; before which time many 
 of our vegetables were imported from Brabant. The 
 era of the art was the reign of Elizabeth ; but the 
 modem mode of gardening was introduced about 1700. 
 The following came from the countries respectively 
 named : 
 
 KooTS AND Yegetables. 
 
 From 
 
 Lentils France " 
 
 Chervil Italy 
 
 Celery Flanders 
 
 Potatoes Brazil 
 
 Tobacco America 
 
 Cabbage Holland 
 
 Anise ' Egypt 
 
 Parsley Egypt 
 
 Carrots Flanders 
 
 From 
 
 Eice Ethiopia 
 
 Buckwheat Asia 
 
 Borage Syria 
 
 Cresses Crete 
 
 Cauliflower Cyprus 
 
 Asparagus Asia 
 
 Lettuce. . . .■ Brabant 
 
 Artichokes Holland 
 
 Garlic The East 
 
 Shallots , . Siberia 
 
 Horse Eadish China 
 
 Kidney Beans E. Indies 
 
 Gourds Astracan 
 
 From 
 
 Jasmin Circassia 
 
 Elder-tree Persia 
 
 Tulip Cappadocia 
 
 Daffodil Italy 
 
 Lily Syria 
 
 Tuberrose .... Java, etc. 
 
 Carn ation Italy, etc. 
 
 Eanunculus . . . Alps 
 Damask rose.. .Damascus 
 
 Hops Artois 
 
 Gooseberries. . . Flanders 
 Gillyflowers. . .Toulouse 
 Musk rose Damascus 
 
 Brocoli Cyprus 
 
 Beans Greece 
 
 Peas Spain 
 
 ■EES. 
 
 From. 
 
 Piuk Italy 
 
 Povence rose. ..Marseilles 
 
 Convolvulus Canaries 
 
 Arctopus Cape 
 
 Bell-flower Canaries 
 
 Passion-flower . .Brazil 
 
 Eosemary Italy 
 
 Laburnum Hungary 
 
 Laurel Levant 
 
 Lavender Italy 
 
 Weeping ■WillowLevant 
 Fennel Canaries 
 
 Tlie damask rose was brought hither by Dr. Linacre, 
 physician to Henry VIII. , about 1540. The musk 
 rose was brought from Italy by Lord Cromwell. The 
 tamarisk plant was brought from Germany by Arch- 
 bishop Grindal, about 1570 ; and about Norwich, the 
 Flemings planted flo-wers unknown in England, as 
 gillj-fiowers, carnations, the Provence rose, etc., 156/. 
 "Woad came originally from Toulouse, in France ; tulip - 
 roots from Vienna, 1578. 
 
 Fuca, Juan de, Strait of, "Washington Territorj-, 
 including the waters of Admiralty Inlet, Hood Canal, 
 
FUE 
 
 151 
 
 FUE 
 
 and Paget Sound, with the Archipelago of Arro up to 
 the 49th parallel, were all surveyed by the United 
 States' Exploring Expedition. The whole is unsur- 
 passed by any estuary in the world. They comprise 
 many fine harbors and safe anchorages, are entirely 
 free from dangers, and cover an area of about 2000 
 square miles. The country by which these waters 
 are surrounded is remarkably salubrious, and oflFers 
 every advantage for the accommodations of a vast 
 commercial and military marine, with conveniences 
 for docks, and many sites for towns and cities, at all 
 times well supplied with water, and capable of being 
 provided with all needful supplies from the surrounding 
 country, which is well adapted for agriculture. This 
 strait is 95 miles in length ; average width 11 miles 
 (entrance 8 miles in widtli). No dangers exist, and it 
 may be safely navigated throughout. The winds blow 
 for the greater part of the year from the westward, 
 and at times strongly. The shores are bold, and an- 
 chorage is to be found in but few places; at some 
 parts no bottom Is to be obtained, even within a boat's 
 length of the shore, with 60 fathoms of line. The 
 north shore (Vancouver Island), is rocky, and com- 
 posed of conglomerate and a reddish granite. On this 
 side there are several inlets, in which are anchorages ; 
 among them Port San Juan and Victoria. Victoria is 
 a snug harbor and a most important position. There 
 is an inner and an outer basin, sufficiently commodi- 
 ous for large ships of war. Vancouver Island rises 
 abruptly, and is very much broken by mountain 
 ranges, but well covered with timber. It is 240 miles 
 long, and 30 miles wide. 
 
 Tlie Gulf of Georgia and Johnson Strait are not 
 well adapted for navigation, in consequence of the 
 rapidity of the tides, and the many sunlten rocks at 
 the northern outlet. The harbors within them, both 
 on the main land and Vancouver Island, are useless on 
 account of the great depth of water and the perpen- 
 dicular banks. Not a shoal exists within the Strait of 
 Juan de Fuca, Admiralty Inlet, Puget Sound, or Hood 
 Canal, that can in any way interrupt their navigation 
 by a 74 gun ship. The shores of all the inlets and 
 baj's are remarkably bold — so much so, that in many 
 places a ship's side would strike the sliore before the 
 keel would touch the ground. Some few of them have 
 creeks emptying into them, with water sufficient to 
 turn mills. These creelts all have extensive mud- 
 flats at their entrances, with fertile prairies at their 
 heads and along their banks. The spring tides rise 
 18 feet, those of the neap 12 feet, affording every facil- 
 ity for the construction of dry-docks, etc. The country 
 on all these salt water inlets is said to be remarkahly 
 healthy. The winter is represented to be mild and 
 but of short duration, and the channels and harbors 
 are never obstructed by ice. 
 
 Fuel (from the French feu, fire, akin to the Latin 
 Jbcus, a hearth or fire-place), a word applied to certain 
 substances which are used in the generation of heat, 
 such as wood, peat, coal, etc., and also sometimes ap- 
 plied to the substances employed in generating light, 
 such as oil, spirits of wine, naphtha, etc. In the pres- 
 ent article the former application will alone be consid- 
 ered ; for information respecting the latter, see Gas, 
 Lamp, etc. 
 
 The abumdance and consequent cheapness of fuel 
 has a great influence on the prosperity, habits, and 
 manners of a nation. Where fuel is scarce, factories 
 languish, and commerce declines. In cold climates 
 scarcity of fuel is individually a great calamity, for it 
 abridges the hours of labor, causing persons to spend 
 those hours in sleep which under other circumstances 
 would have been turned to profitable account ; it also 
 causes persons to crowd together for the sake 'of 
 warmth in a way that is injurious to health and morals. 
 Abundance of fuel, on the contrarj-, with good roads 
 and a system of inland navigation for its distribution, 
 forms the basis of national prosperity, not only minis- 
 
 tering to the useful arts, but enabling the occupier of 
 everj' house to create an artificial climate suited to his 
 wants and wishes. 
 
 The most common and widely-distributed description 
 of fuel is wood, a term applied to the trunk, roots, and 
 larger branches of trees. Recently-felled wood con- 
 sists chiefly of woody fibre, sap, and water. The 
 woody fibre is a compound of carbon, hydrogen, and 
 oxygen, and forms the chief bulk of plants ; both it 
 and the sap are combustible — that is, are capable, at a 
 high temperature, of combining rapidly with the oxy- 
 gen of the atmosphere and forming gaseous com- 
 pounds. It is in the act of this formation that heat is 
 generated. The sap, which forms only a small pro- 
 portion of the built of wood, varies in different kinds 
 of trees ; the sap of the pine tribe contains resin ; that 
 of the oak, tannin j that of the beech and birch, ex- 
 tractive. The quantity of water in wood varies greatly 
 with the kind of tree, and with the time of year when 
 it is felled, it being least in winter. As the water is 
 not combustible, but must be got rid of at the expense 
 of the heat generated bj' the parts which are so, it is 
 obviously desirable to store the wood in a dry and airj- 
 situation before using it as fuel. By this means 100 
 pounds' weight of wood have been known to lose 20 
 pounds' weight in 10 or 12 months. Wood, as com- 
 monly used for fuel, contaiiis about one third of its 
 weight of water. Wood also contains earthy and 
 alkaline salts in the proportion of l-30th to l-70th, and 
 these remain as an incombustible ash. 
 
 Wood is distinguished from all other fuel by the 
 valuable property of reproduction, and also by the 
 fact that it often passes through the various stages of 
 beauty and utility to man before it becomes converted 
 into fuel. The heating power of wood is considerable, 
 in consequence of its excess of hydrogen, which, in 
 burning and forming water, requires for equal weights 
 three times as much oxygen as the carbon does in 
 forming carbonic acid ; and it gives out in burning 
 nearlj' four times more heat than the carbon. The 
 lighter woods contain more hydi'ogen than the heavier, 
 so that they bum with flame longer than they incan- 
 desce as charcoal ; thej' also bum more easily and 
 give out their heat more quickly than the hard woods. 
 During the combustion of wood its volatile parts un- 
 dergo some complicated chemical changes. (When 
 wood is burnt out of contact with the air, the carbon is 
 preserved in the form of charcoal (see Charcoal), 
 which is a very useful fuel when an incandescent heat 
 free from flame and smoke is required ; but when 
 some of the volatile products are to be collected, the 
 wood is placed in iron retorts, which are gradually 
 raised to a red heat. The volatile products form car- 
 buretted hydrogen, carbonic acid, carbonic oxyd, and 
 other gases, and also certain vapors which condense 
 into liquid or solid products. Some of the liquids are 
 soluble in water, such as pyroxylic spirit, pyroligneous 
 acid, etc. ; the insoluble products form tar and certain 
 oily substances. 
 
 In most countries deposits of peat occurof greater or 
 less extent. In Holland, the north of Germany, Ire- 
 land, etc., peat deposits are of immense extent. The 
 origin of peat has been accounted for in those districts 
 where clay occurs near the surface by supposing 
 muddy pools to have formed, round the edges of which 
 aquatic plants have talien root and gradually extended 
 themselves into the centre, thus forming a bed where 
 mosses accumulate, and new plants take growth, while 
 the old are decaying and becoming compressed into a 
 solid mass below. This process goes on until the 
 pools are filled up with vegetable matter, and the sur- 
 plus water is discharged over the neighboring lands, 
 where the process is repeated until a peat bog is 
 formed. Even in mountain districts, where the soil is 
 impervious, clouds and mists may supply moisture, 
 and a bog be formed by the growth of one generation 
 of vegetable matter on the ruins of its predecessor. As 
 
FUE 
 
 158 
 
 FUE 
 
 the plants which form the peat are in different stages 
 of decomposition at various depths, tlie character of 
 the peat varies greatly. Near the surface it is light- 
 colored, spongy, and the vegetable character but little 
 changed ; lower down it is brown and dense ; while at 
 the base of some bogs, which may be as much as 40 
 feet in depth, the peat is black, almost as dense as 
 coal, and resembling coal in chemical composition. 
 
 On the banks of the Rhine, peat is cut by means of 
 a spade into blocks, and exposed to the air to drj^, the 
 upper layer being first separated from the lower and 
 denser portion. In Holland the peat is scooped out by 
 means of spades ; or if a considerable quantity of water 
 be present, an instrument is used consisting of a sharp 
 iron ring attached to a handle, a net or cloth being 
 fastened to the ring for draining off the water. The 
 muddy peat thus collected is trodden out by the feet of 
 men, raked, and the stones picked out ; it is then 
 thrown into shallow wooden boxes, strewed with hay 
 to prevent the peat from adhering, and the remaining 
 water is allowed to drain off. In the course of a few 
 days, when the mass has attained a certain consist- 
 ence, women, with flat boards strapped to their feet, 
 stamp down the peat until it has attained such a con- 
 sistency as not to take an impression from a common 
 tread. It is next stamped with beaters, and the cake, 
 which is eight or nine Inches thick, is divided by 
 means of long laths into squares of about four inches, 
 which are removed a few at a time froin each box. 
 The cakes are then dried by placing the first taken out 
 transversely on the second, the third upon the fourth, 
 reversing the order when the pieces are piled up in 
 store. 
 
 The value of peat depends greatly upon its dryness, 
 density and firmness ; if porous and brittle, it crumbles 
 during carriage or after it is stacked, and thus becomes 
 nearly' worthless. In many cases the value of peat 
 depends on its capability of being alternated with the 
 substances to be heated. Porous and almost valueless 
 peat has been rendered valuable by being passed 
 through a press, in which case a lump of peat may 
 lose as much as one fourth of its weight of water. 
 Peat may be nearly valueless as a fuel from the 
 quantity of ash which it affords, consisting of vege- 
 table salts and the earthy matter of peat, and amount- 
 ing in some cases to one third of the weight of the 
 peat. When this large quantity of ash occurs in 
 peat it renders the fuel verj- dusty, and in smelting 
 processes it is objectionable on account of its chemical 
 action. It is remarkable that the carbonates of the 
 alkalies are not found in this ash, but phosphates, sul- 
 phates, etc. In some large towns, peat, or turf, as it 
 is also called, is imitated by employing the refuse bark 
 of the tan-yard, which is made into flat cakes, and 
 chiefly used as fuel by the poor. 
 
 In the sandy plains of the East, camels' dung is 
 dried and used as fuel ; it was from the use of such 
 fuel in Egj'pt that sal ammoniac originated, the salt 
 subliming during combustion. Hakluyt, in his Voi/- 
 ages, vol. i., p. 348, says, " We were forced to use for 
 fewell the dung of horses and camels, which we bought 
 deare of the pasturing people." A substance in the 
 form of long sticks, said to be made of camels' dung, 
 is sometimes imported from the East under the name 
 of chutnee, and is occasionally used instead of the 
 ordinary match for lighting pipes and segars. It 
 burns slowW without flame, and gives out an odor not 
 unlike that of the burning cuttings of trees and shrubs. 
 Other descriptions of excrement are also used as fuel. 
 The Chinese have long been accustomed to mix cow 
 dung and other refuse vegetable matter with soft clay 
 and the dust of coal to form balls which when dried in 
 the sun become a cheap and useful fuel, burning with 
 very little smoke. These balls are largely manufac- 
 tured in the coal districts of China, and are distributed 
 over the empire by means of the canals. It is a curi- 
 ous fact that Sir Hugh Piatt, in 1594, indicated a 
 
 method of making coal balls with loam, and that Eay, 
 in 1663, observed this kind of fuel at Lifege (Journey 
 through the Low Countries, etc., 1673, p. 58), where they 
 were called hot shots, serving to slake the heat of a fire 
 and keep the coals from burning out too fast. We are 
 informed that in soipe parts of Wales stone coal culm 
 is made into balls with clay, and is a common form of 
 fuel in Pembrokeshire. The combustion is slow, and 
 a long steady heat is kept up, well adapted for lime 
 burning. In 1853 a patent was taken out in England 
 by M. Ducayla of Bordeaux for the manufacture qf 
 fire-balls of such materials as cinders or ashes, wood or 
 lignite, anthracite coal, pit coal, animal black, calca- 
 reous earth or clay, mold, etc. 
 
 The fuel, in every respect the most interesting, and 
 one of the chief sources of wealth and prosperity, is 
 coal. The very abundance of this article causes it to 
 be used in so lavish and extravagant a manner, that 
 any general attempts to economize it, and to fix its 
 value as a fuel, scarcely interest the public. There 
 are, however, particular cases in which it is desirable 
 to economize coal as far &s possible, as in the case of 
 a steamship of a thousand horse-power, a single jour- 
 ney of which may require upward of 2000 tons of coal, 
 or more than 80,000 cubic feet. Hence it is obvious 
 from the details given of the various descriptions of 
 coal in the article Coal, that some varieties of coal 
 are better fitted for the purposes of steam navigation 
 than others. A few years ago, when the British gov- 
 ernment was establishing a steam navj^, Sir H. de la 
 Beche and Dr. Lyon Playfair were requested to ex- 
 amine and report on the coal suited to the steam navy. 
 The inquiry was conducted with great ability, and 
 has resulted in two reports published in 1848 and 
 1849, which the reader interested m the subject will 
 do well to consult. We will, however, state a few of 
 the chief points elicited by this inquiry. 
 
 Bearing in mind the object of the inquiry, the com- 
 missioners considered that the chief test of the value 
 of any coal submitted to their exammation was its 
 power of converting water into steam, so that if a 
 given weight of coal in a certain time converted a 
 larger proportion of water into steam than the same 
 weight of another coal in the same time, the evapora- 
 tive power of the one would be greater than that of 
 the other. It was found, however, that the coal best 
 adapted to steamships of war, should also combine 
 other qualities ; for example, the fuel should bum 
 quickly, so that steam may be raised in a short time ; 
 it should not be bituminous, lest its smoke should be- 
 tray the position of the ship when it might be desira- 
 ble to conceal it ; it should have such a cohesive 
 power as not to be broken into fragments by the roll- 
 ing motion of the vessel ; it should have such a density 
 and structure as to bear stowing away in a compar- 
 atively small space (a condition which in coals of equal 
 evaporative value was found to involve a difference of 
 more than 20 per cent.) ; lastly, the coal should not 
 contain a large proportion of sulphur, nor be subject 
 to rapid decay, or it might in either case lead to spon- 
 taneous combustion. But it was not found possible to 
 unite all these conditions in the same coal. Anthra- 
 cite, for example, has high evaporative power, but not 
 igniting easily its action is not quick ; it is not easily 
 broken by the motion of the ship, but not being a 
 caking coal, it would not cohere in the furnace, and 
 would escape through the grate-bars during the roll- 
 ing of the ship in a gale; it gives off no smoke, but 
 from the intensity of its combustion, it causes the iron 
 of the grate-bars and of the boiler to oxydize rapidly ; 
 hence, with many advantages, anthracite has a few 
 defects sufficiently prominent to preclude its use under 
 ordinary circumstances. It was thought that apatcnt 
 fuel might be formed with some of the anthracites of 
 Wales, which should combine the advantages and 
 elude the defects above referred to ; but it was found 
 that the cementing tar of the patent fuel burnt so 
 
FUE 
 
 759 
 
 FUE 
 
 much more .rapidly in the furnace than the anthracite, 
 that the latter accumulated on the bars and obstructed 
 the draft, or escaped through th« grate unbumt. 
 
 The commissioners found that the qualities which 
 distinguish particular kinds of fuel are very varied, so 
 that it is difficult to deduce general results. But the 
 data furnished by their experiments enables us to con- 
 trast the actual value of a particular coal with its the- 
 oretical value, supposing its combustion to be attended 
 with no loss of heat. The actual duty obtained by 
 one pound of coal from the boiler employed, may be 
 expressed by the number of pounds raised to the 
 height of one foot, a result which may be obtained by 
 the formula ■yV)?+965-7X782=a:, in which W repre- 
 sents water, of which 1} pounds are evaporated by one 
 pound of coal. This formula is deduced from the fact 
 that rj pounds of coal multiplied by 965-7, or the co- 
 eificient for the latent heat of steam at 212°, indicates 
 the number of pounds of water which would be raised 
 1° Fahr. ; and the number 782 arises from experiment 
 on the mechanical force denoted by the elevation of 
 one pound of water 1° Fahr. ; that force being equal 
 to 782 pounds raised to the height of one foot, accord- 
 ing to the experiments of Mr. Joule. The best Corn- 
 ish engines are said to be capable of raising 1,000,000 
 pounds to the height of one foot for every pound of 
 coal consumed, but this is only about one eighth of the 
 actual force generated, and only one eleventh or one 
 twelfth of the theoretical force. Experiments on the 
 evaporative power of coal made by different observers 
 give very dissimilar results. Smeaton, in 1772, evapo- 
 rated 7-88 pounds of water from 212° with one pound 
 of Newcastle coal ; Wall, in 1788, evaporated 8-62 
 pounds ; Wicksteed, in 1840, evaporated 9;493 pounds 
 of water from 80° with one pound of Merthyr coal, 
 which is equal to 10'746 pounds from 212°. In some 
 experiments made at the United Mines in Cornwall, it 
 was found, after a trial of six months, that everj' 
 pound of coal evaporated 10-29 pounds of water from 
 212° ; and according to some experiments made in 
 Cornwall, at the request of the commissioners, it was 
 found that 11"42 pounds of water were evaporated by 
 every pound of Welsh coal of similar chemical compo- 
 sition to that of Mynydd Newydd. 
 
 At ordinarj' temperatures coal undergoes a slow 
 combustion under the action of the oxygen of the at- 
 mosphere, evolving carbonic acid, nitrogen, and inflam- 
 mable gases, and in some cases leading to dangerous 
 explosions. This slow combustion is facilitated by 
 the higher temperature of hot climates, and by the 
 presence of moisture. If the coal contain much sul- 
 phur or iron pyrites the chemical action may become 
 so intense as to ignite the coals. In stowing coals it 
 is therefore important that they should be as dry as 
 possible, and such a variety should be selected as is 
 least liable to this progressive decomposition. When 
 coal is kept in iron bunkers, and is liable to be wetted 
 with sea-water, the iron rapidly corrodes from the car- 
 bon or coal forming a voltaic circuit with the iron, and 
 thus promoting oxydation. 
 
 In the great exhibition of 1851, Messrs. Berard & 
 Co., in the French department. No. 51, exhibited 
 " small purified coals, and residue of the same, the 
 produce of a system for purifying coals, patented in 
 France, England, Belgium, and Germany." This 
 plan appears to be well adapted to the purification of 
 sulphurous coal, or coal containing much iron pyrites ; 
 also where the coal deposits are in numerous small 
 seams, and can not be got out without being mixed 
 with slaty and stony matter. The coal used on the 
 Chemin de Fer du Nord was so sulphurous as to injure 
 the locomotives ; but by using the purified coal, the 
 evil was for the most part remedied ; the quantity of 
 ash was also greatly reduced. The apparatus em- 
 ployed for purifying the' coal is similar in principle to 
 the jigging-machine used in dressing ores, which, 
 after being stamped, in order to separate stony mat- 
 
 ter, arc agitated in water and allowed to rest, when 
 the various portions become arranged in layers, ac- 
 cording to their specific gravities. This purified coal 
 yields if. very pure coke. 
 
 Mr. Grace Calvert, of Manchester, has taken out a 
 patent for purifying coke from sulphur. It consists 
 in mixing the coal, before coaking, with from IJ to SJ 
 per cent, of common salt, the proportion varying with 
 the quantity of sulphur. The coking is then conducted 
 as usual. By this contrivance, coal, which was for- 
 merly unserviceable in smelting operations, can now 
 be used with effect. 
 
 The following table, by Dr. Ure, shows the quantity 
 of water raised from 32° to 212° by one pound weight 
 of the different combustibles enumerated in the first 
 column ; it also shows the number of pounds of boil- 
 ing water, which the same weight of fuel will evapo- 
 rate, and the quantity of atmospheric air absolutely 
 consumed during combustion. The quantity of air, 
 however, as given in the last column, is much less 
 than would be necessary in practice, where much of 
 the air passes the fuel without coming into contact 
 with it so as to have its oxygen consumed. The heat- 
 ing power also, as represented by this table, can seldom 
 be practicaBy attained. 
 
 CombilBtible. 
 
 Pounds of water 
 which a pound 
 can raJBB iVom 
 
 il" to 212°. 
 
 Pounds of boil- 
 ing water evap- 
 orated by one 
 pound. 
 
 Weight of an- 
 mosphoric air at 
 
 82*" required to 
 bum one pound. 
 
 Dry wood 
 
 Common wood 
 
 85-00 
 26-00 
 T3-00 
 60-00 
 65-00 
 80-00 
 76-00 
 7S-00 
 82-00 
 
 ' 6-86 
 4-72 
 13-27 
 10-90 
 11-81 
 6-45 
 18-81 
 14-18 
 5-56 
 
 5-96 
 
 4-47 
 11-46 
 
 9-26 
 11-46 
 
 4-60 
 14-61 
 15-00 
 11-60 
 
 Pit coal 
 
 
 Turf 
 
 
 Oil, wax, or tallow.. 
 Alcohol ^.. 
 
 As various kinds of fuel afford different amounts of 
 heat, and as heat can not be measured or weighed, 
 and its quantity ascertained by direct experiment, the 
 relative values of fuels are ascertained by comparing 
 them with each other under similar circumstances. 
 The heating power of a fuel is the quantity of effect 
 produced by it in a certain time, and this in conjunc- 
 tion with its market price gives its value as a fuel. 
 One fuel may produce a certain greater or less effect 
 than another fuel, and thus its relative superiority or 
 inferiority may be accurately ascertained, although 
 the actual amount of heat furnished by it may be en- 
 tirely unknown. Lavoisier and Laplace fixed these 
 values by making the substance under examination 
 act on ice, and the quantity of ice melted gave the 
 value in each case. Count Eumford measured the 
 value of fuel by the increased temperature which it 
 produced in a given quantity of water. Now, as the 
 same quantity of heat which melts one pound of ice at 
 0° Cent, is suflicient to raise the temperature of as 
 much water 79° Cent., or 0-79 lb. of water 100° Cent., 
 so' also an equal weight of aqueous vapor of any given 
 temperature and elasticity is always formed from the 
 same amount of heat, and always contains the same 
 quantity of heat, and the quantity of heat which water 
 at 100° Cent, renders latent in order to become steam 
 is 5-5 times sufficient to heat the same weight of water 
 from 0° to 100° Cent., hence the water converted into 
 vapor bj' the heat required to melt one pound of ice 
 is the 5-5th part of the same pound, that is, it can 
 convert into vapor 0-154 lb. of water. 
 
 It was found by Despretz and Welter that the 
 quantities of fuel which require equal amounts of 
 oxygen for combustion, give out equal quantities of 
 heat; thus, 1 lb. of oxygen in combining respectively 
 with hydrogen, cliarcoal, alcohol, etc., raised 29 lbs. 
 of water from 32° to 212°. A given weight of the 
 different combustibles has its heating power repre- 
 sented by the number of pounds of water raised in 
 temperature, as in the following table. (See Journal 
 
FUE 
 
 760 
 
 FUE 
 
 TS from B2°— 212° 
 T6 " " 
 
 o/iie Franklin: Institute, PhUad., 1855-7; also Silli- 
 man's Journal of Science, New Haven, Conn., 1854^6.] 
 
 lbs. of water. 
 1 lb. of pure charcoal raised.. . 
 " common wood charcoal 
 
 '* baked wood 36 " " 
 
 " wood holding 20 per 
 
 '• cent of water 2T " " 
 
 " bituminous coal 60 " " 
 
 " turf 25—80 
 
 " . alcohol 68 " 
 
 " oil, wax 90 " " 
 
 " ether 80 " " 
 
 " hydrogen 286 " " 
 
 More recent researches have, however, cast consid- 
 erable doubt upon the law that any given quantity of 
 oxygen evolves the same quantity of heat with what- 
 ever combustible body it maj'" combine. From a series 
 of tabulated results given in Gmelin's Hand-Book of 
 Chemistry, vol. i., p. 292 (Cavendish Society's transla- 
 tion), it would rather appear that oxygen develops a 
 larger quantity of heat the stronger its affinitj^ for the 
 combustible substance. 
 
 Such experiments as the above tend to confirm the 
 modern view of combustion which regards oxygen as 
 a combustible as much as the fuel with which it com- 
 bines (see Chemistry, vol. v., En. Br) ; so that when 
 oxygen bums by means of any fuel, the heat evolved 
 increases with the quantity of oxygen consumed. It 
 was on this view that Berthier based his process for 
 detecting the quantity of oxj^gen required for com- 
 bustion, and the heating power of the combustible in 
 one experiment. His plan is to heat to redness a 
 known quantity of the combustible with a considerable 
 excess of pure litharge until the combustible is en- 
 tirely consumed by the oxygen of the oxj^d of lead. 
 On weighing the lead reduced by this process the 
 amount of oxygen consumed is ascertained, and also 
 the heating power of the fuel under examination. In 
 calculations of this kind, it will be remembered that 6 
 parts, or 1 equivalent of carbon, require 16 parts, or 2 
 equivalents of oxygen, for combustion ; that 1 part of 
 hj-drogen requires 8 parts of oxygen ; that by sub- 
 tracting from the hydrogen a quantity corresponding 
 to the oxygen in the coal, the calculation can be made 
 for the carbon only. Now, 1 part of pure carbon re- 
 quires for combustion 2'666 of oxygen, and is capable, 
 according to Despretz, of heating 78'15 parts of water 
 from freezing to boiling. By multiplying each part 
 of lead obtained by 2'265, the weight of water is ob- 
 tained which is capable of being heated between these 
 temperatures by a unit of the coal used in reducing the 
 litharge. 
 
 The heating power of a particular fuel is the same, 
 however that fuel may be burnt. It is true, that the 
 power may be more or less economically applied ; the 
 power may be expended with greater or less rapidity, 
 greater, for example, in a furnace than in an open 
 grate, but as the fuel during combustion combines 
 with equivalent portions of oxygen, the same amount 
 of heat i& liberated whether the combination be rapid 
 or slow. The rapidity of combustion depends not 
 only upon the mode of arranging the draught or sup- 
 ply of air to the fuel, but also on the state of division 
 of the fuel itself. A given weight of wood in the state 
 of shavings will, from the large extent of surface ex- 
 posed, bum rapidly, and produce its full heating effect 
 in a few minutes, while the same weight of wood, in 
 the form of a log, may keep up a moderate tempera- 
 tare for some hours. The division of a fuel may, how- 
 ever, be carried so far that the air necessary for its 
 combustion can not penetrate it. Such is the case 
 with saw-dust, powdered charcoal, or peat, slack coal, 
 etc. If the powdered coal be of caking quality, it 
 may be burnt into compact coke, and thus be more 
 useful than a fuel which in its first form is compact, 
 but wliich falls to powder on being heated in the fur- 
 nace. Small fuel may sometimes be advantageously 
 applied by covering the furnace-bars with pieces of 
 
 sand-stone or lime-stone for the purpose of preventing 
 the fuel from falling through, and for distributing the 
 supply of air among it. In the roasting of copper 
 ores in South Wales a flaming coal is necessary in the 
 reverberatory furnace where the operation is carried 
 on. But as the flamelcss anthracite is much more 
 abundant in this district than the bituminous coal, it 
 is turned to account in an ingenious maimer. When 
 burnt under ordinary circumstances it crumbles to 
 powder, as already noticed, and either slips through 
 the bars of the grate, or chokes them up. But when 
 anthracite is raised to a very high temperature it fonns 
 a vitreous scoria or clinker, which in the ordinary 
 furnace combines with the iron of the bars and chokes 
 up the grate. In the Welsh furnaces, the clinkers 
 themselves are ingeniously arranged so as to perform 
 the office of grate-bars, namely, to support the fuel, 
 and to limit the supply of air from below. The 
 clinkers are supported on iron bars placed at a con- 
 siderable distance apart, and are arranged in a layer 
 12 or 16 inches in depth. Above this layer the fuel 
 of the furnace is in full combustion ; this fuel consists 
 of anthracite mixed with about one fourth of its 
 weight of small bituminous coal, and also forms a 
 laj'er of a depth about equal to that of the clinkers ; 
 it is in this the hottest part of the fire that fresh 
 clinkers are being continually formed, and while 
 forming they cake with the numerous fragments of 
 bituminous coal heaped up above them. As fresh 
 portions of the fuel come into operation the clinkers 
 descend toward the bottom of the grate, where, meet- 
 ing with the numerous jets of air which stream up 
 through the bottom,the vitrified mass splits and cracks 
 in all directions, forming new channels for the ascent 
 of the draught, but not large enough to allow the 
 small coal to escape. As the calciner-man heaps up 
 fresh fuel above, he hooks out a few clinkers from the 
 bottom to make way for tl)e descent of others. Under 
 this arrangement the oxygen of the air traversing the 
 multitude of channels formed by the cracks in the 
 clinlcers, combines with a portion of the fuel and forms 
 carbonic acid, which is uninflammable, but before 
 reaching the vault of the furnace it is deprived of a 
 portion of its oxygen, and becomes converted into 
 carbonic oxyd which is inflammable. But in order 
 that this gas may undergo combustion, air is admitted 
 through apertures in the sides of the farnace just above 
 the ore, and in this way the whole surface of the ore, 
 occupying an area of nearly 23 feet square, is played 
 upon by a thin sheet of flame, produced from fuel 
 which gives scarcely any flame at all. 
 
 Common coal gas is sometimes used as fuel, in 
 which case it is calculated that 1 lb, or 24 cubic feet 
 thereof, in burning, will raise 76 lbs. of water from the 
 temperature of freezing to that of boiling. Extending 
 this comparison to the other forms of fuel, it is stated 
 that 1 lb. of drj- wood will similarly heat 35 lbs. of 
 water, but only 26 lbs. if the wood be not drj', or con- 
 tain moisture to the extent of from 20 to 25 per cent. 
 One 11). of good dry charcoal will similarly heat 73 lbs. 
 of water, but if exposed to the air it absorbs at least 
 10 per cent, of moisture, and in burning gives a flame 
 of carburetted hj'drogen (or rather, probably, a mix- 
 ture of carbonic oxyd and hydrogen), arising from 
 the decomposition of the moisture. One lb. of good 
 pit coal is said to raise 60 lbs. of water from freezing 
 to boiling, 1 lb. of coke 65 lbs., and 1 lb. of turf or 
 peat from 25 to 30 lbs.— B. E. See Coal. 
 
 Fuels, Artlfcial. — It is curious to note how many 
 new " patent artificial fuels" there now are. As ex- 
 perimenters tell us that different kmds of coal and 
 other natural fuel possess different qualities, an in- 
 ducement is offered for the exercise of ingentuty in 
 devising various imitative compositions. The hydrau- 
 lic press is brought into singular requisition m this 
 art. Thus, Azalay's hard shining blocks of artificial 
 fuel are simply formed of coal-dust, subjected to in- 
 
FUL 
 
 761 
 
 FUL 
 
 tense compression. Warlich's patent fuel, in largo- 
 sized bricks weighing about 12 pounds each, is made 
 bj' mixing together the dust of various kinds of coal ; 
 the bricks are dense and -well made ; the fuel kindles 
 slowly, but gives oif very little smoke while burning. 
 Warlich's series comprises Welsh steam fuel, north- 
 country fuel, household fuel, and locomotive coke-fuel 
 — differing in the kind of coal-dust used, and in the 
 amount of tar with which the dust is agglutinated, 
 Warlich's patents are worked by a company, who have 
 establishments at Deptford, Swansea, and Middles- 
 borough. The Bideford Anthracite Company makes 
 artificial fuel, in brick-form pieces, by a particular 
 mode of treating anthracite. Oram's patent fuel is a 
 condensed mixture of small coal, bitumen, and sand. 
 Williams's fuel is a mixture of dried peat and bitumen. 
 So of numerous other kmds ; small coal, bitumen, or 
 peat, or two out of the three, are mixed with various 
 other substances to form a compost fuel. It must be 
 owned, however, that such fuel is not yet much used, 
 even in places where natural fael is scarce. — Inven- 
 tions in Arts. 
 
 Puhohau, or Pou-tchow-foo. See Fon 
 Chow. 
 
 Fullers' Earth (Ger. Wallcererde; Du. VolOarde, 
 Fr. Terre afoulon; It. Terra dapurgatmi; Sp. Tierra 
 de batan ; Rus. iSchiffemaia ; Lat. Terra fullonuTn)^ a 
 species of clay, of a greenish white, greenish gray, 
 olive and oil green, and sometimes spotted color. It 
 is usually opaque, very soft, and feels greasj-. It is 
 used by fullers to take grease out of cloth before they 
 applj' the soap. The best is found in Buckingham- 
 shire and Surrey. When good, it has a, greenish 
 white, or greenish gray color, falls into powder in 
 water, appears to melt on the tongue like butter, com- 
 municates a milky hue to water, and deposits very 
 little sand when mixed with boiling water. The 
 remarkable detersive property on woolen cloth de- 
 pends on the alumina, which should be at least one 
 iifth of the whole, but not much more than one fourth, 
 lest it become too tenacious. — Thomson's Chemistry ; 
 Jameson's Mineralogy. 
 
 Fulling, the art of cleansing, scouring, and press- 
 ing cloths, stuffs, and stockings, to render them 
 stronger, closer, and firmer. It is otherwise called 
 milling. Plinj' (vii. 56) relates that one Nicias, the 
 son of Hermias, was the first inventor of the art of 
 falling ; and it appears by an inscription, quoted by 
 Sir G. Wheeler in his Travels through Greece, that this 
 same Nicias was a governor in Greece in the time of 
 the Romans. The asperities upon the surface of wool 
 render the spinning of it and the making it into cloth 
 difBcult operations. In order to spin wool, and after- 
 ward convert it into cloth, its fibres must be covered 
 with a coating of oil, which, filling the cavities, ren- 
 ders the asperities less sensible ; in the same way that 
 oil rubbed on the surface of a very fine file renders it 
 less rough. When the piece of cloth is finished, it is 
 carried to the fuUing-mill, where it is beaten with 
 heavy stampers in a trough full of water in which 
 some fuller's earth -has been mixed, for the purpose 
 of cleansing it from the oil. The clay combines with 
 the oil, which it separates from the cloth, and both 
 are washed away together by the fresh water which is 
 brought to it by the machine. But the scouring of 
 the cloth is not the only object in view in fulling it. 
 The alternate pressure given by the stampers to the 
 piece of cloth occasions (especially when the scouring 
 is pretty far advanced), an effect analogous to that 
 which is produced upon felt by the hands of the hat- 
 ter. The fibers of wool which compose one of the 
 threads, whether of the warp or the woof, assume a 
 progressive movement, introduce themtelves among 
 those of the threads nearest to them, then into those 
 which follow ; and thus, by degrees, all the threads, 
 both of the warp and the woof, become felted together. 
 The cloth, after having by tliis means become short- 
 
 ened in all its dimensions, partakes both of the nature 
 of cloth and of that of felt, and may be cut without 
 being subject to ravel. Lastly, the cloth has acquired 
 a greater degree of thickness, and forms a wanner 
 clothing. Knit worsted also may thus be rendered 
 less apt to run in case a stitch happen to drop. 
 
 The fulling of cloths and other stuffs is performed 
 by a kind of water-mill, thence called a fulling or 
 scouring mill. These mills, excepting in what relates 
 to the mill-stones and hopper, are much the same with 
 corn-mills ; and there are even some which serve in- 
 differently for both purposes. The principal parts of 
 the fulling-mill are the wheel, with its trundle, which 
 gives motion to the tree or spindle, whose teeth com- 
 municate it to the stampers, which are thereby raised 
 and made to fall alternately, as its teeth catch or quit 
 a kind of latch in the middle of each stamper. The 
 stampers and troughs are commonly of wood ; but 
 sometimes the stampers are made of polished iron, 
 and the cloth is exposed during the process to the ac- 
 tion of steam ; by which means the appearance of the 
 cloth, when finished, is said to be greatly improved. 
 These improvements formed the subject of a patent in 
 1825. In the course of the operation tlie fuller some- 
 times makes use of urine, sometimes of fuller's earth, 
 and sometimes of soap. To prepare the stuffs to re- 
 ceive the first impressions of the stamper, they are 
 usually laid in urine, then in fuller's earth and water, 
 and lastly in soap dissolved in hot water. Soap alone 
 would do very well, but it is expensive, and fuller's 
 earth is scarcely inferior to it ; but then it must be 
 well cleared of all gritty particles, else it is apt to 
 make holes in the stuff. 
 
 Method of fulling cloths and woolen stuffs with soap. 
 —A colored cloth of about 45 ells is to be laid in the 
 usual manner in the trough of a fulling-mill, without 
 first soaking it in water, as is commonly practiced in 
 many places. To full this trough of cloth, 15 pounds 
 of soap are required, one half of which is to be melted 
 in two pails of river or spring water made as hot as 
 the hand can well bear it. This solution is to be 
 poured by degrees upon the cloth, as it is laid in the 
 trough ; and thus it is to be fulled for at least two 
 hours, after which it is to be taken out and stretched. 
 This done, the cloth is immediately returned into 
 the same trough, without any new soap, and there 
 fulled two hours more. It is then taken out and 
 well wrung, to express all the grease and dirt. Af- 
 ter the second fulling, the remainder of the soap is 
 dissolved as in the former, and cast four different 
 times on the cloth, which is taken out everj- two hours 
 to stretch it, and undo the plaits and wrinkles it has 
 acquired in the trough. When it is perceived to be 
 sufficiently fulled, it is well scoured in hot water. 
 With regard to white cloths, these full more easily 
 and in less time than colored ones, and thus require 
 only a third part of the soap. 
 
 Fulminating Compounds. — Fulminates are 
 of several kinds, being detonating compounds of the 
 fulminic acid with various bases. Such are the fulmi- 
 nates of gold, mercury, silver, etc. The old fulminat- 
 ing powder is a mixture of nitre, sulphur, and potash. 
 The fulminate of mercurj' is largely used as a prim- 
 ing to the percussion-caps for guns. See Chemistry, 
 vi., p. 474. 
 
 Fulta, a large village of Hindoostan, province of 
 Bengal, on the east bank of the Hooglily, 20 miles 
 S.S.W. in a straight line from Calcutta, but much 
 more by the windings of the river. It has safe an- 
 chorage for ships, where thej' are protected from the 
 swell of the sea, and where tlie anchors hold fast, the 
 bottom being stiff clay. Lat° 22' 18., long. 88° 10'. 
 
 Fulton, Robert, a distinguished American engi- 
 neer and mechanician, among the first who success- 
 fully applied steam to the propulsion of vessels, was 
 a native of the State of Pennsylvania. At a very early 
 age he gave decided indications of mechanical genius. 
 
FUL 
 
 762 
 
 FUL 
 
 While still a mere youth he began life in the city 
 of Philadelphia as a portrait and landscape painter ; 
 and in his 22d year, with a view to improving him- 
 self in art, he visited England, where he remained 
 for several years under the roof of his countrjnnan 
 West. He states that in 1793 he had conceived the 
 design of propelling vessels by steam, but his numer- 
 ous engagements prevented him from carrying it into 
 effect at that time. His time was completely en- 
 grossed in devising a plane of double incline that 
 should supersede the locks on canals, for which he ob- 
 tained a patent from the British government in 1794. 
 In the same year he obtained patents for flax-spin- 
 ning and rope-twisting machines, and various other 
 mechanical inventions, bearing chiefly upon the con- 
 struction of canals, on which latter subject he pub- 
 lished a treatise. In 1797 he removed to Paris, and 
 remained for seven years in the house of Joel Barlow, 
 the American minister at the court of Napoleon I., 
 prosecuting his scientific studies. During that period 
 he projected the first panorama ever exhibited in 
 ^Paris, and made important experiments on submarine 
 explosives. It was also at this time that he first suc- 
 ceeded, after repeated trials, in propelling a boat 
 through the water by the aid of steam. In 1806 he 
 returned to America, and repeated the experiment on 
 a larger scale and with more decided success. In 
 1809 he toolc out his first patent, and seemed to be on 
 the high way to wealth and prosperity, when his rights 
 were disputed, and he became involved in legal pro- 
 ceedings, which embittered the remainder of his exist- 
 ence, and prevented him from reaping the rich harvest 
 to which his industry and genius fairly entitled him. 
 Fulton died February 24, 1815. A minute account of 
 his life and inventions is given in his biography by 
 Cadwallader D. Golden. See Steam Navigation. 
 
 Fulton has, perhaps, contributed more than any 
 other man of the present century, to the progress 
 of commerce throughont the world. The impetus 
 given by his genius to the adoption of steam naviga- 
 tion, has been equally extended (if not more so), to 
 the increase of sailing vessels. At the present day 
 the stock of mechanical and practical knowledge, 
 handed down by tradition, or preserved by means of 
 the press, has become so enormous, that the most bril- 
 liant discovery in the useful arts bears but a small 
 proportion to the whole extent of human knowledge. 
 In remote times, the aids, which modern inventors de- 
 rive from the records of the reasonings, and combina- 
 tions, and even the abortive attempts of others, were 
 wholly wanting ; and if no one of the inventions of 
 antiquity, when taken by itself, can rank in apparent 
 importance with some of modern date, the former were 
 in many instances far more conspicuous as steps in the 
 progress of human improvement. In the dawn of civil- 
 ization, inventions were usually unexpected, and though 
 often calculated to supplj'' the most pressing wants, 
 excited surprise, because the wants themselves had 
 not been perceived. At the present day discoveries 
 often appear as the almost inevitable result of pre- 
 vious improvement. The highest degree of merit is 
 to be awarded, in the present age, to those who, aware 
 of the wants of the community, or of the world at 
 large, set to themselves as a task the discover}^ of the 
 means of supplying these wants. If we consider Ful- 
 ton as an inventor, it may be diificult to say in what 
 exact particular his merits consist ; but if we contem- 
 plate him in the light of a civil engineer, confidently 
 building a iinished and solid structure upon the in- 
 complete foundation left by others, we must rank him, 
 in the extent of his usefulness to mankind, as second 
 to Watt alone. See Life of Fulton, by J. Eenwiok. 
 
 Robert Fulton was born at Littie Britain, in Lan- 
 caster county, Pennsylvania, in the year 1765. His 
 parents were respectable, though far from affluent ; his 
 father a native of Ireland, his mother descended from 
 an Irish family. Fulton himself attached no import- 
 
 ance to circumstances of birth, and took pride in 
 being the maker of his own fortune. Except so far as 
 elementar}' education was concerned, he was under 
 little obligation to his progenitors ; being left without 
 patrimony at the death of his father, when three years 
 old. Aware that he was to trust to his own exertions, 
 even for means of subsistence, he cultivated from an 
 early age a taste for drawing, in the hope of qualify- 
 ing himself for the profession of a painter. From a 
 familiar acquaintance with his performances as an art- 
 ist at a later date, when he applied to the easel merely 
 as a relaxation, it may be stated that there is little 
 doubt that had he devoted himself to the profession of 
 painting, he must have become highly distinguished 
 as a professor . of that art. At the early age of 17 
 he went to Philadelphia, for the purpose of prac- 
 ticing as a painter of landscapes, and was so successful 
 as not only to support himself, but to lay up sufficient 
 funds to purchase a small farm in Washington county, 
 Pennsylvania, and to aid his widowed mother. His 
 patrons in Philadelphia were at first among the hum- 
 bler classes, but afterward he formed acquaintances who 
 were both able to appreciate his promise as an artist, 
 and to facilitate his plans of improving himself as a 
 painter. By their advice he went to England, and 
 through a favorable introduction to West, he was 
 treated by that great artist with even more than his 
 usual liberality, and became an inmate of his house, 
 and remained his guest and pupil for several years. 
 After leaving the family of West, Fulton proceeded to 
 Exeter, where he lived two years, during which time 
 his intelligence and ability gained him many useful 
 acquaintances. Among these, the most important 
 were the Duke of Bridgewater and Earl Stanhope. It 
 appears to have been at the instance of the former that 
 he abandoned painting as a profession, and entered 
 that of a civil engineer. We find him next residing 
 in Birmingham, engaged in the construction of canals, 
 though probably in a subordinate station. Fulton's 
 residence in Birmingham brought him into communi- 
 cation with Watt, who had just succeeded in givmg to 
 his steam-engine that perfect form which fits it for 
 universal application as a prime mover. While in 
 Birmingham, Fulton issued a number of patented in- 
 ventions and several published works. In 1793 he 
 took out a patent for the introduction of the inclmed 
 plane in inland navigation, and three years later em- 
 bodied it, with other projects of a similar nature, m a 
 work on Inland Navigation. This work can he quoted 
 as exhibiting a high degree of originality, ingenuity, 
 and talent, but as inapplicable to any useful purpose. 
 To his instrument for destroying vessels of war, he 
 gave the name of the Torpedo. It consisted of an 
 oval copper case, charged with gunpowder. To this 
 he proposed to attach a lock, regulated by clock-work, 
 which, after any required time, might cause the lock 
 to spring and thus communicate fire to the charge. 
 But Fulton met with so much opposition in bringing 
 this into practice during the war with Great Britain, 
 that the only proofs of its value we can cite, were tlie 
 sleepless nights and anxious days of many British 
 commanders, who felt that the vicinity of Fulton's 
 operations was attended with danger which could only 
 be prevented by unremitting diligence and attention. 
 Before proceeding to the more important subjects 
 which attracted the attention of Fulton, we have to 
 mention some other fruits of his ingenuity. In 1794 
 he took out patents for a mill for sawing marble ; a 
 method of spinning flax and making ropes ; and of ex- 
 cavators for digging canals. The latter object may 
 still remain a desideratum in practical mechanics ; the 
 two former at least served as steps in the career of im- 
 provement, and have been guides and landmarks to 
 subsequent inventors. Fulton undertooli the con- 
 struction of a vessel which might move either at or 
 beneath the surface of the water, and made the passage 
 over the estuary of the Linn with ease and safety. 
 
FUL 
 
 163 
 
 FUN 
 
 The art with which Fulton's name is inseparabl}- 
 connected as the principal agent in its creation, is that 
 of navigation by steam. His application of steam was 
 founded on the properties of Watt's double-acting 
 engine, and could not be used until that instrument 
 had received the last finishing-touch of the inventor. 
 When the properties of this engine became known to 
 the public, many hastened to apply it to navigation. 
 Among others, were Miller, of Dalswinton, aided by 
 Sj'mington, who put a boat in motion on the Forth 
 and Clyde, in 1801. In the United States, experiments 
 were made by Fitch and Kumsey ; and in 1791, John 
 Stevens, of Hoboken, commenced his researches, 
 which he engaged in for nine years, when he became 
 the associate of Chancelor Livingston and Nicholas 
 Roosevelt ; to this association was added Brunei, the 
 inventor of block machinery, and engineer of the 
 Thames tunnel. The efforts of this association were 
 unsuccessful, and were broken up by the appointment 
 of Livingston as embassador to France, where he be- 
 came intimate with Fulton, and offered to provide him 
 with funds necessary for an experiment, and to aid in 
 introducing the method in the United States, if the 
 experiment were successful. Fulton had confirmed his 
 original impression of the superiority of the paddle- 
 wheel over any other means of propulsion, and, late 
 in the year 1803, commenced building a vessel 66 feet 
 in length and 8 in breadth. To this an engine was 
 adapted, and the experiment so satisfactory, as to leave 
 little doubt of final success. Measures were imme- 
 diately taken to construct a steamboat on a larger 
 scale in the United States. An engine was ordered 
 from England, from Watt & Bolton, in 1803 ; its form 
 varied from their usual models in conformity to 
 sketches furnished by Fulton. At the same time, an 
 application made to the Legislature of New York for 
 an exclusive privilege of navigating the waters of that 
 State by steam was granted. Before the engine or- 
 dered from Watt was completed, Fulton visited En- 
 gland, and directed the construction of it in person. It 
 was completed at last, and reached New York in 1806 ; 
 the vessel was finished and fitted with her machinery 
 in August, 1807. An experimental excursion was 
 made, and a few minutes served to convince the 
 most skeptical and doubtful that the long-desired ob- 
 ject was obtained. Within a few days of the first ex- 
 periment, a voyage was undertaken in it to Albany. 
 This city is distant from New York, by the channel of 
 the river, nearly' 150 miles. In a few remarkable in- 
 stances the sloops which navigated the Hudson had 
 performed the passage in 16 hours ; but the average 
 time was four days. Fulton's steamboat went up 
 in 36 hours, and returned in 30. Fulton, comply- 
 ing with the wishes of the public, made regular voy- 
 ages until the end of the season. Manj'' of the mi- 
 nor arrangements for the convenience of passengers, 
 the facility of working, and safety from accident of 
 the ntachinery, were yet wanting ; some of the diffi- 
 culties were removed at the time, and others remained 
 until the boat should be laid aside for the winter. The 
 next winter of 1807-8 was occupied in remodeling and 
 rebuilding the vessel, to which the name of Clermont 
 was given. Fulton provided such accommodations for 
 passengers, as, in regard to convenience and splen- 
 dor, had never been approached in other vessels of 
 transportation; This was almost improvident liber- 
 ality ; for a debt was contracted which new demands 
 never permitted him to discharge. The Clennont, thus 
 converted into a floating palace, commenced her course 
 of passages for the month of April. The first voyage 
 was a complete failure ; the boiler, provided by AVatt, 
 was not suitable, and Fulton had been persuaded to 
 replace it by one planned by Livingston, composed of 
 wood and copper, which emitted steam from the joints 
 soon after leaving New York, and gave way com- 
 pletely, on the return passage, near that city, after 
 a voyage prolonged for 66 hours. But a few weeks 
 
 sufficed to build a new boiler, and in June, the Cler- 
 mont was again under way. In the hour of depart- 
 ure from New York or Albany the utmost regular- 
 ity was observed, which required no little persever- 
 ance and resolution at first ; but the benefit of this 
 punctuality was soon perceptible, and the same system 
 was copied by other steamboat lines. At the end of 
 the second summer the boat became far too small for 
 the passengers, who crowded to avail themselves of 
 this new mode of transport, and Fulton begun a sec- 
 ond boat, called The Car of Neptune. 
 
 The most formidable opposition made to the priv- 
 ilege of Fulton, for the exclusive navigation of the 
 waters of New York, was founded upon the discoveries 
 of Fitch, who had constructed a boat which traveled 
 between Trenton and Philadelphia. Fulton, assailed 
 in his exclusive privileges, took, for further protection, 
 a patent from the general government in 1809, and 
 another in 1811. Grants were made to Fitch by the 
 State of New Jersey, and as a compromise could not 
 be agreed upon by the two contending parties, the 
 controversy, which often interrupted the communica- 
 tion by steam between Philadelphia and New York, 
 was not adjusted until the grant, made to Fulton by 
 the State of New York, was declared unconstitutional. 
 A form of ferrj'-boats was soon after invented by Ful- 
 ton, which, with the substitution of a single hull for 
 the twin boat, has in its arrangement and distribution 
 undergone little or no change. The steamboats on the 
 Hudson were increased in number, before Fulton's 
 death, to five. A sixth was buUt, under his direction, 
 for the Sound, which plied for some time on the Hud- 
 son. In the construction of this boat he had, in his 
 opinion, exhausted the power of steam in navigation — 
 having given it a speed of nine miles an hour. 
 
 When death arrested Fulton in his great career, he 
 was engaged in constructing an improved form of sub- 
 marine vessel, but as he had made no one a confidant 
 in his plans, at his death no person was found willing 
 or able to undertake the completion of the vessel. By 
 exposure in his visits to the Navy Yard, in Brookl}Ti, 
 he took a severe cold, which his constitution, enfeebled 
 by constant labors and anxieties, could not resist. He 
 died on the 24th of February, 1815. Rarely has it 
 happened that the natural death of any citizen excited 
 so general mourning as that of Fulton. Cut off in the 
 verj' height of his usefulness, and in the zenith of his 
 reputation, his countrymen felt it as a loss almost irre- 
 parable. See Life of Fulton, bj* James Renwick, 
 LL.D. ; Anal. Mag., v. 394, x. 177; Spaeks's Am. 
 Biog., X. 3 ; Quar. Rev., xix. 847 ; Littell's Mus., 
 xxxiii. 340 ; Niles's Reg., xiii. 51, xxxiii. 15 ; Hunt's 
 Mer. Mag., xv. 468. A suitable monument to the 
 memory of Fulton has not yet been erected either by 
 the United States, by any one State, or by any asso- 
 ciation. It yet remains for his native State (Pennsyl- 
 vania), or for the State which fostered his' early 
 efforts (New York), to place in some great thorough- 
 fare, an appropriate column in memory of one who has 
 so largely contributed to the growth of commerce 
 throughout the civilized world. 
 
 Fumigation is the employment of fumes or va- 
 pors to purify articles of apparel, and goods or apart- 
 ments supposed to be imbued with some infectious or 
 contagious poison or fumes. The vapors of vinegar, 
 the fumes of burning sulphur, and explosion of gun- 
 powder, have long been prescribed and practiced ; but 
 they have, in all probability, little or no efficacy. 
 The diffusion of such powerful agents as chlorin gas, 
 muriatic acid gas, or nitric acid vapor, should alone be 
 trusted to for the destruction of morbific effluvia. 
 
 Funds. To the Venetians is ascribed the orign of 
 the funding system, in A. d. 1171. Public fiinds were 
 raised by the Medici family, at Florence, in 1340. The 
 English funding system, or the method of raising the 
 supplies for the public service in England, by anticipa- 
 tion of the public revenues (the origin of the national 
 
FUN 
 
 764 
 
 FUR 
 
 debt), was introduced at tte Revolution, 1689. — Morti- 
 mer's Broker. The funding system is coeval with the 
 commencement of the Bank of England. — Anderson. 
 The three per cent, annuities were created in 1726. 
 The three per cent, consols were created in 1731 ; the 
 three per cent, reduced, 1746 ; three per cent, annui- 
 ties, payable at the South Sea House, 1751 ; three and 
 a half per cent, annuities created 1758 ; long annui- 
 ties, 1761 ; four per cent, consols, 1762 ; five per cent, 
 annuities, 1797 and 1802 ; five per cents, reduced to 
 four, 1822. See National Debt. 
 
 The following table has been calculated in order to 
 show in which of the public funds money may be in- 
 vested so as to yield the greatest interest. It gives 
 the prices, differing by one per cent, from 50 to 93 for 
 three per cents., etc., at which they all must be to 
 yield the same interest ; so that supposing the three 
 per cents, to be at 80, a sum invested in them, or in the 
 3^ per cents., will yield the same interest, provided 
 the latter be at O&J- ; if the 3^ per cent, be below this 
 sum, it will, of course, be more advantageous in so far 
 at least as interest is concerned, to invest in them than 
 in the three per cents, ; while, if they be above 93J-, it 
 will be less advantageous. 
 
 To get the true value of the different funds at any 
 particular period, in order to compare them accurately 
 together, it is necessary to deduct from each the 
 amount of interest accruing upon it from the payment 
 of the last dividend. 
 Table showing the Prices the different Funds must 
 
 BE AT TO PHODUCE AS EQUAL InTEUEST ; AND ALSO THE 
 
 Annual Interest produced by £100 sterling in- 
 vested AT any of those Prices. 
 
 3 per cent 
 
 3 1-2 per 
 
 cent. 
 
 4 per cent. 
 
 6 per cent. 
 
 Interest. 
 
 price. 
 
 price 
 
 
 price. 
 
 price 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 £ s. 
 
 d. 
 
 £ «. d. . 
 
 £ t. 
 
 d. 
 
 £ a. d. 
 
 50 
 
 68 6 
 
 8 
 
 66 13 4 
 
 88 6 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 61 
 
 69 10 
 
 
 
 68 
 
 85 
 
 
 
 6 17 7 
 
 52 
 
 60 18 
 
 4 
 
 69 6 8 
 
 86 18 
 
 4 
 
 6 16 4 
 
 63 
 
 61 16 
 
 8 
 
 70 13 4 
 
 88 6 
 
 8 
 
 5 18 2 
 
 54 
 
 68 
 
 
 
 72 
 
 90 
 
 
 
 5 11 1 
 
 65 
 
 64 8 
 
 4 
 
 T8 6 8 
 
 91 13 
 
 4 
 
 5 9 
 
 66 
 
 65 6 
 
 8 
 
 74 18 4 
 
 93 6 
 
 8 
 
 5 7 1 
 
 67 
 
 66 10 
 
 
 
 76 
 
 96 
 
 
 
 8 5 3 
 
 58 
 
 07 13 
 
 4 
 
 77 6 8 
 
 96 18 
 
 4 
 
 5 8 8 
 
 69 
 
 6S 16 
 
 8 
 
 78 18 4 
 
 98 6 
 
 8 
 
 6 18 
 
 60 
 
 70 
 
 
 
 80 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 BOO 
 
 61 
 
 71 8 
 
 4 
 
 81 6 8 
 
 101 18 
 
 4 
 
 4 18 4 
 
 62 
 
 72 6 
 
 8 
 
 82 13 4 
 
 108 6 
 
 8 
 
 4 16 9 
 
 63 
 
 73 10 
 
 
 
 84 
 
 105 
 
 
 
 4 15 2 
 
 64 
 
 74 13 
 
 4 
 
 85 6 8 
 
 106 13 
 
 4 
 
 4 18 8 
 
 65 
 
 75 16 
 
 8 
 
 86 13 4 
 
 108 6 
 
 8 
 
 4 12 8 
 
 66 
 
 77 
 
 
 
 88 
 
 110 
 
 
 
 4 10 10 
 
 6T 
 
 78 8 
 
 4 
 
 89 6 9 
 
 HI 18 
 
 4 
 
 4 9 6 
 
 68 
 
 79 6 
 
 8 
 
 ao 13 4 
 
 118 6 
 
 8 
 
 4 8 2 
 
 69 
 
 80 10 
 
 
 
 92 
 
 116 
 
 
 
 4 6 11 
 
 TO 
 
 81 18 
 
 4 
 
 98 6 8 
 
 116 18 
 
 4 
 
 4 5 8 
 
 Tl 
 
 82 16 
 
 8 
 
 94 13 4 
 
 118 6 
 
 8 
 
 4 4 6 
 
 T2 
 
 84 
 
 
 
 98 
 
 120 
 
 
 
 4 8 8 
 
 T8 
 
 86 8 
 
 4 
 
 97 6 8 
 
 121 18 
 
 4 
 
 4 2 2 
 
 T4 
 
 86 6 
 
 8 
 
 93 18 4 
 
 123 6 
 
 8 
 
 4 10 
 
 76 
 
 87 10 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 126 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 T6 
 
 8S 18 
 
 4 
 
 101 6 8 
 
 126 13 
 
 4 
 
 3 18 11 
 
 77 
 
 89 16 
 
 8 
 
 102 18 4 
 
 128 6 
 
 8 
 
 3 17 11 
 
 78 
 
 91 
 
 
 
 104 
 
 130 
 
 
 
 8 16 11 
 
 79 
 
 92 8 
 
 4 
 
 105 6 8 
 
 131 13 
 
 4 
 
 8 15 11 
 
 80 
 
 98 6 
 
 8 
 
 106 18 4 
 
 138 6 
 
 8 
 
 3 15 
 
 81 
 
 94 10 
 
 
 
 108 
 
 135 
 
 
 
 8 14 
 
 82 
 
 95 18 
 
 4 
 
 109 6 8 
 
 136 18 
 
 4 
 
 8 13 2 
 
 83 
 
 96 16 
 
 8 
 
 110 18 4 
 
 133 6 
 
 8 
 
 8 12 8 
 
 84 
 
 98 
 
 
 
 112 
 
 140 
 
 
 
 8 11 5 
 
 85 
 
 99 8 
 
 4 
 
 118 6 8 
 
 141 13 
 
 4 
 
 8 10 7 
 
 86 
 
 100 6 
 
 8 
 
 114 18 4 
 
 148 6 
 
 8 
 
 8 9 9 
 
 87 
 
 101 10 
 
 
 
 116 
 
 145 
 
 
 
 8 8 11 
 
 88 
 
 102 18 
 
 4 
 
 117 8 
 
 146 13 
 
 4 
 
 3 8 2 
 
 89 
 
 103 16 
 
 8 
 
 118 13 4 
 
 148 6 
 
 8 
 
 8 7 4 
 
 90 
 
 105 
 
 
 
 120 
 
 160 
 
 
 
 3 6 8 
 
 91 
 
 106 8 
 
 4 
 
 121 6 8 
 
 151 13 
 
 4 
 
 8 5 11 
 
 92 
 
 107 6 
 
 8 
 
 122 13 4 
 
 158 6 
 
 8 
 
 8 5 2 
 
 98 
 
 108 10 
 
 
 
 124 
 
 155 
 
 
 
 8 4 6 
 
 The public debt of the United States, which amount- 
 ed, at the close of the last war with Great Britain, to 
 $158,713,049, was entirety paid off in 1835. This 
 proceeding, so honorable to the United States, nat- 
 iirally tended to raise the character of American 
 securities in the English market, and enabled the gov- 
 ernment to contract the loans required to carry on the 
 late war with Mexico on very favorable terms. The 
 
 debt of the Union, existing on the 20th November 
 1851, amounted to $62,660,395, and is at present (1856) 
 about $45,000,000. 
 
 But in addition to the debt of the Union, most part 
 of the States, and several, also, of the principal cities, 
 have contracted peculiar debts of a less or greater 
 amount. In most cases these were incurred to pro- 
 mote the execution of some public undertaking, such 
 as the construction of canals or railways, the excava- 
 tion of docks, the erection of buildings, the establish- 
 ment of banks or insurance companies, and so forth. 
 Some of the debts so contracted have been advan- 
 tageouslj' laid out ; but a large portion borrowed in 
 1835, and other periods of wild excitement, were con- 
 tracted on very disadvantageous terms, and expended 
 on projects some of which have turned out extremely 
 ill. This, however, was the affair of the States them- 
 selves, and did not afford so much as the shadow of 
 an excuse for the conduct of those States which have 
 declined to provide for the payment of their debts. It 
 was not, indeed, to be wondered at that in the distress 
 into which the Union was thrown by the crash of 1837, 
 and the depression following thereon, some of the 
 States should have been compelled to suspend pay- 
 ment of their debts ; but a necessity of this sort could 
 be temporary only. The indebted States are all rich, 
 and eminentljr flourishing and prosperous communities, 
 and it might have been expected that they would have 
 made every effort to resume payment in full of their 
 debts at the earliest possible moment. But this, we are 
 sorry to say, has not been the case with some of tliem. 
 
 Fundy, Bay of, an inlet of the Atlantic, sets up 
 between Cape Sable, the south point of Nova Scotia, 
 and Mount Desert Island, in Maine, a distance of 150 
 miles. From Eastport to St. John, N. B., is 60 miles. 
 The bay is divided, in its north-east part, into two 
 branches, the north called Chignecto Bay, the head 
 of which is 170 miles from Eastport. The south-east 
 part is called the Basin of Mines, 150 miles from East- 
 port. Passamaquoddy Bay opens into it on the north- 
 west, near its mouth. Gypsum is obtained on the 
 Basin of Mines, and grindstones on Chignecto Bay. 
 This bay is verj' peculiar ; its shores, on both sides, are 
 rocky and abrupt, while near its head, the tide, pressed 
 and confined within diminished limits, rushes with 
 much violence over extensive and wide-spread mud- 
 flats, and rises generally 60 feet or more. Its fisheries 
 are valuable and extensive. (See Pbkley's valuable 
 report on its fisheries.) There are 16 light-houses on the 
 coasts of the Bay of Fundy, viz., eight on the New 
 Brunswick side, and eight on the Nova Scotia side. 
 
 Furl, in navigation, to roll the sail up, and con- 
 fine it closely to the yard : the sail being gathered up 
 by the men on the yard, the leech or edge is passed 
 along the yard to the middle or lunt, where the body 
 of the sail, the foot and clews, are collected. In this 
 way the sails of a man-of-war are removed nearly out 
 of I'iew in an almost incredible short space of time. ^ 
 
 Furlong, an English measure of length, contam- 
 ing the eighth part of a mile. 
 
 Furs, in commerce, the skins of different animals, 
 covered, for the most part, with thick, fine hair, the 
 inner side being converted, by a peculiar process, into 
 a sort of leather. Furs, previously to their undergo- 
 ing this process, are denominated ^e^i?^. 
 
 Beaver fur, from its extensive use in the hat manu- 
 facture, is a very important commercial article. That 
 made use of in this countrj- is almost entirely brought 
 from North America. It is gradually becoming scarcer 
 and dearer, being now obtainable only in considerable 
 quantities from the most northerly and inaccessible 
 districts. The fur of the middle-aged or young am- 
 mal, called cub-beaver, is most esteemed. It is the 
 finest, most glossy, and takes the best dye. Fitch, or 
 the fur of the fitchet or polecat, is prmcipally imported 
 from Germany ; it is soft and warm, but the unpleas- 
 ant smell which adheres to it depresses its value. 
 
FUR 
 
 ^65 
 
 FUR 
 
 Marten and mink, a diminutive species of otter, are 
 principally imported from the United States and Can- 
 ada. The fur of the musquash, or muskrat, a diminu- 
 tive species of beaver, is imported in vast quantities 
 from our possessions in North America, which also 
 supply us with considerable quantities of otter-skins. 
 Nutra-skins are principally brought from Buenos 
 Ayres. The more valuable furs, as ermine, sable, 
 etc., coma principally from Russia. 
 
 l''ur Trade.— There is, perhaps, no branch of com- 
 merce that has drawn forth a more daring and adven- 
 turous spirit, or given rise to a more patient and cour- 
 ageous endurance of personal dangers, privations, and 
 hardships, than the fur trade, as is manifest through- 
 out its whole history. By its means w^e have become 
 accurately acquainted with nearly three fourths of the 
 continent of North America. The indefatigable exer- 
 tions of the fur merchant, stimulated by the prospect 
 of large gains from his hazardous pursuits, have made 
 known numerous tribes of men and nations partially 
 acquainted with the arts and refinements of civilized 
 life, who otherwise might have remained many ages, 
 or forever, immersed in heathen darkness, and sunk 
 in barbarity. Nor are the general advantages derived 
 from the fur trade confined to a more accurate geo- 
 graphical knowledge of a vast range of country, and 
 the extension of the arts of peace and social happi- 
 ness. The adventurous fur trader has often been the 
 precursor of the gospel missionarj', and has enabled 
 him to pursue his important labors with comparative 
 security and success. 
 
 Whence Furs were Introduced. — The use of furs 
 seems to have been introduced into Europe by the 
 northern invaders of the Roman empire. In the sixth 
 century the skins of sables were brought to Rome 
 from the shores of the Arctic Ocean through the inter- 
 vention of numerous parties, so that the cost to the 
 consumer was verj' high. During several centuries 
 after that time, furs were not at all common in west- 
 ern Europe. In 1252, a.d., Marco Polo mentions, as a 
 ■ subject of curiosity, that he found the tents of the 
 khan of Tartary lined with the skins of sables and 
 ermines, which had been brought from countries far 
 north, " from the land of darkness." In less than a 
 century, however, from that time, the wearing of furs 
 as a part of fashionable dress, had become rather prev- 
 alent in England, since, in 1337, Edward III. com- 
 manded that all persons among his subjects should be 
 prohibited the use of furs unless they could spend ilOO 
 per annum. 
 
 Arctic Regions. — Early in the 17th century the 
 shores of the Arctic seas were found tenanted by furred 
 animals of great value ; and the idea of forming a 
 settlement was suggested by Groseliez, a Frencliman. 
 The suggestion was made first to his own government, 
 but as it was coolly received, he obtained, through the 
 English embassador, an interview with Prince Rupert, 
 before: whom he laid his plans. The prince warmlj- 
 entered into the project, and assisted in fitting out a 
 vessel, which reached, in September, 1668, the river 
 then called Nemisco, to which the adventurers gave 
 the name Rupert, in honor of the prince. After win- 
 tering there, with less difiiculty and suffering than 
 they had anticipated, they returned, and gave so fa- 
 vorable a report that Prince Rupert, the Duke of Al- 
 bemarle, the Earl "of Craven, Lord Ashley, and others, 
 formed themselves into u, Company, and subscribed 
 X10,500 for the purpose of commencing a trafiic in 
 furs. A charter of incorporation was granted by 
 Charles II. in 1670, giving to the Hudson's Bay Com- 
 panj' full possession of " all the lands and territories 
 upon the countries, coasts, and confines of the seas, 
 bays, lakes, rivers, creeks, and sounds, in whatsoever 
 latitude they shall be, that lie within the entrance of 
 the straits, commonly called Hudson's Straits, that 
 are not already actually possessed by or granted to 
 any of our subjects, or possessed by the subjects of 
 
 any other Christian prince or state." And the charter 
 proceeds to grant further, that " the whole and entire 
 trade and traffic to and from all havens, bays, creeks, 
 rivers, lakes, and seas into which they shall find en- 
 trance by water or land out of the territories, limits, 
 or places aforesaid.; and to and with all the natives 
 and people inhabiting, or which shall inhabit within 
 the territories, limits, and places aforesaid ; and to and 
 with all other nations inhabiting any of the coasts adja- 
 ' cent to the said territories, limits, and places which are 
 not already possessed as aforesaid, or whereof the sole 
 liberty or privilege of trade and traffic is not granted 
 to any other of our subjects." On Rupert's River 
 the Company immediately formed a settlement ; and 
 in 1674 stations were settled on Moose River, and a 
 few years later on the Albanj"-, and soon after two 
 more on the Nelson and the Severn. 
 
 French SettlemeMs and Seizures.— 'Ry these \'igorous 
 measures the French court was awakened to a sense of 
 its neglect, and Grosseliez, alread)^ detached from the 
 English service, was sent out, in the year 1682, to 
 found a factory on the River Hayes, which he accom- 
 plished, and also surprised the 13ritish factory on the 
 Nelson, After this time hostilities became frequent 
 between the French and the English settlers ; yet not- 
 withstanding immense losses sustained bj- the Com- 
 pany from 1682 to 1688 (amounting to £118,014), they 
 were able, in 1684, to pay to the shareholders a dividend 
 Qf 60 per. cent. Again, in 1688, an equal dividend 
 was made, and in 1689, one of 25 per cent. In 1690, 
 without any call being made, the stock was trebled, 
 while at the same time a dividend of 25 per cent, was 
 paid on the increased or newly-created stock. Bj' 
 other captures of their factories \>j the French in the 
 years 1692, 1694, 1696, and 1697, the Company suf- 
 fered further loss to the amount of $97,500. At the 
 peace of Utrecht, in 1713, however, these captured 
 factories were restored to the Company, who, by 1720, 
 had again trebled their capital, with a call of only 10 
 per cent, on the shareholders. Now they strength- 
 ened the old forts and formed several new ones in the 
 interior ; but in 1749 a question arose in Parliament 
 concerning the rights of the Company, which was de- 
 cided in their favor. Again, in 1782, several of their 
 factories were .taken by the French under La Perouse ; 
 still their traffic seems to have continued very lucra- 
 tive until the invasion of their rights and territories 
 hy a strong rival association, designated the North- 
 west Company, whose fierce competition caused much 
 animosity and bloodshed. This was not only very 
 destructive to the fur trade, but most injurious to the 
 Indians. 
 
 Management. — The North-west Company consisted 
 of 23 partners, comprising some of the most wealthy 
 and enterprising settlers in "Canada, and employed 
 about 2,000 persons as clerks, interpreters, guides, and 
 boatmen (voyageurs), who were stationed over the 
 vast regions of Canada ceded in 1763 by the French to 
 the English. Shareholders who engaged actively in 
 the trade were called agents, some of whom resided at 
 the different ports' established by the Company in the 
 Indian territory, and others at Quebec and Montreal, 
 each attending to the affairs of the Company in his ap- 
 pointed district. These active partners met annually 
 at Fort William, one of their stations on Luke Supe- 
 rior, where they discussed matters connected with 
 the affairs of the association, and arranged future 
 plans. The clerks of the North-west Company were 
 mostly young Scotchmen, of respectable families, who 
 were willing to undergo the hardships attendant upon 
 a residence of some years in these inhospitable re- 
 gions, in order that they might thus secure the advan- 
 tage of succeeding in turn to a share of the profits of 
 the undertaking, the custom being to take from among 
 the clerks as partners those who had acquired the ex- 
 perience necessary for the management of the busi- 
 ness. The hunters of this Company crossed the Rocky 
 
FUE 
 
 766 
 
 FUR 
 
 Mountains about the year 1805, and established sta- 
 tions on the northern head-waters of the Columbia. 
 In 1813 they purchased Astoria on this river, which 
 was relinquished by Mr. Astor,* of New Yorlt, and his 
 partners, in consequence of the war between the 
 United States and Great Britain. At\ length the 
 Hudson's Bay Company, being roused by the activity 
 of the North-west Association, exercised for the first 
 time its chartered right to colonize, and sold, in 1812, 
 a tract of land on Lake Winnipeg and the Red River, 
 to Lord Selltirk, who introduced a considerable num- 
 ber of persons from Scotland. The consequence was 
 an open war between the partizans of the rival Compa- 
 nies. After a war of two years, the Red River settle- 
 ment was destroj'ed by the massacre of the governor, 
 Mr. Semble, and many of his associates, while the sur- 
 vivors were driven away. But this melancholy and 
 barbarous state of matters was put an end to by the 
 union of the rival Companies in 1821, since which the 
 trade has been peacefully and successfully prosecuted. 
 When the partnership of the Worth-west Company 
 was about to expire in 1821, the three London repre- 
 sentatives of the iirm offered to merge their interests 
 in those of the Hudson's Bay Companj'. This was 
 agreed to, and an act of Parliament was passed (1st 
 and 2d Geo. IV., cap. 66), under which the crown 
 grants to the Hudson's Bay Company and to the three 
 representative partners of the North-west Company in 
 London and Montreal a license of exclusive trade for 
 21 years in the " Indian territories ;" that is, over all 
 those tracts that might not be included in the charter 
 given by Charles II., and also over those tracts which 
 by mutual consent were open to the subjects of En- 
 gland and to those of the United States. The three 
 North-west Company agents merged into the Hud- 
 son's Bay Company ; the exclusive trading license 
 was surrendered in 1838 ; and, after careful investiga- 
 tion on the part of the government, the crown granted 
 on the 30th of May, 1838, another license for 21 j'ears 
 of exclusive trade over the Indian and neutral territo- 
 ries. 
 
 The affairs of the Hudson's Bay Company are at pres- 
 ent conducted by a governor, deputy-governor, and a 
 committee of seven, elected by 239 proprietors, repre- 
 senting a capital of £400,000. Of the 239 proprietors, 
 55 have more than two votes. £900 of stock must be 
 •held for six months by each voter previous to voting, 
 except such stock be acquired by bequest or man-iage, 
 and each member of the committee must hold not less 
 than £1,800 stock. The mode of election, oaths to be 
 administered, government, etc., are prescribed by the 
 charter of Charles II. already referred to. Accord- 
 ingly, the Company has established at the Red River 
 settlement a governor, council, recorder, sheriff, coro- 
 ner, etc., for the proper government of the affairs of 
 the Assiniboia, or Red River Territory, and for the 
 careful and legal administration of justice throughout 
 Rupert's Land. Though not enjoined by the charter 
 of 1670, trial by jury was introduced by Sir George 
 Simpson under the direction of the Hudson's Bay au- 
 thorities in England. Crime is comparative^ rare in 
 Rupert's Land ; and justice is administered under the 
 same safeguards that exist in England. 
 
 Traffic— Thei traffic of the Company in furs and 
 peltrj- is regulated by a Deed Poll, dated March 26th, 
 1821, when the North-west Company and it united ; 
 and by another Deed Poll, dated June 6th, 1834, " for 
 ascertaining the rights and prescribing the duties of 
 the chief factors and tlie chief traders, and for con- 
 ducting the trade." The business of tlie Company is 
 superintended b}' the 25 chief factors at the respective 
 stations ; and under them the 28 chief traders carry on 
 the traffic with the Indians. The clerics serve under 
 both the factors and the traders ; and the very hum- 
 
 * A most interesting account of the North-west Fur Com- 
 pany is given by Washington Irving in liis Abtoeia. 
 
 blest clerk, by good conduct, may rise to the chief 
 positions in the service of the Company. The salaries 
 of the clerks range from £20 to £100 per annum. 
 Three chief factors and two chief traders are allowed 
 to leave the countrj' annually for one year. 
 
 Free Tratk in Furs. — The Hudson's Bay Company 
 have no monopoly, as some suppose, of the importation 
 of furs into England ; they have to compete with the 
 furs of the United States, of Russia, of Norway, etc.; 
 and if other traders can undersell the Company the 
 public have, of course, the benefit. Beaver and other 
 skins are now much lower in price than formerly, 
 when so much used in the manufacture of hats ; and 
 the gradual reduction in price of foreign furs has been 
 chiefly brought about by the steady supply froin Hud- 
 son's Bay territories. Hence London is the most ex- 
 tensive fur market in the world. The fall in the pri- 
 ces of all furs has been very great ; but as beaver 
 constitutes the largest item in value, the reduction of 
 profit to the Company will be seen by comparison with 
 the prices and amount of sales. In 1839 a beaver 
 skin was worth 27s. 6d. ; in 1846, 3s. 5d. The num- 
 ber of skins sold in 1839 was 55,486 for £76,312 ; those 
 sold in 1846 45,389 for £7856. There is also great va- 
 riety in the prices of articles of similar denomination ; 
 but the Company are obliged to pay the same price to 
 the Indians for all skins according to tariff; whether 
 the skins are good or bad, the Company must buy 
 them. Hence the profits of the shareholders are not 
 to be estimated by the difference in price between the 
 cost of a skin at one of the Company's forts in the 
 interior, and its sale price in London. The annual 
 dividend is (1855) about 6 per cent. 
 
 The Hudson's Bay Company have now about 140 
 establishments, besides hunting expeditions and ship- 
 ping, emplojdng 25 chief factors, 28 chief traders, 162 
 clerks, 1200 regular servants, besides employing in 
 occasional labor, the services of a large number of the 
 natives ; a steam vessel and five sailing vessels of 
 from 100 to 300 tons, all armed. Their forts or stock- 
 aded positions extend from the coast of Labrador to 
 the Pacific, and from the northern boundaries of Can- 
 ada to the shores of the Arctic Ocean. At every large 
 trading establishment there is an *' Indian Hospital," 
 from which the natives derive the greatest benefit ; 
 and several medical men are maintained by the Com- 
 pany at different forts. Ministers of the gospel of 
 every demomination are encouraged and protected by 
 the Company, and a bishop of the Church of England 
 now presides over the diocese of Rupert's Land. 
 
 The fur trade is prosecuted in the north-western 
 territories of the United States by an association 
 called the North American Fur Companj', of which 
 the chief managers reside at New York. Its princi- 
 pal station is MichUimacldnac, to which are brought 
 all the peltries collected at the other ports of the Mis- 
 sissippi, Missouri, and Yellowstone Rivers, and all 
 over the vast range of country extending thence to 
 the Rocky Mountains. This Company is admirably 
 organized and managed : it emploj'S steamboats for 
 ascending the rivers, which also penetrate with ease to 
 regions which could formerly be explored only through 
 the most painful efforts in barges and keel-boats, or 
 by small parties on foot or on horseback. A great 
 many packages of furs are now brought from that sec- 
 tion of the countr}', and from what is called the Red 
 River of the north, by way of St. Paul in Minnesota, 
 and thence by way of river to St. Louis and other 
 cities. It has been proposed to build a railroad from 
 St. Paul up the valley of the Saint Croix to the valley 
 of the Red River ; and for this purpose large grants 
 of land have been set aside sufficient to build this 
 railroad. A road once buUt to this region would 
 make a wonderful and complete revolution in the fur 
 trade. 
 
 Fur Skins Imported.— khaat 5,000,000 skins of an- 
 imals applicable as furs, are annually imported into 
 
FUR 
 
 767 
 
 FUR 
 
 Britain. The subjoined table gives tlie imports and 
 exports of fur-skins in the year 1851 : 
 
 
 Total Imported 
 Into Eo^land. 
 
 Exported. 
 
 Conflomed In 
 England, 
 
 Eaooon 
 
 Beaver 
 
 Ohlnchills. 
 
 Bear 
 
 526,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 88,000 
 
 9,500 
 
 11,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 4,600 
 
 1,000 
 
 1,500 
 
 20,000 
 
 56,000 
 
 120,000 
 
 245,000 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 17,600 
 
 15,000 
 
 15,000 
 
 120,000 
 
 8,000,000 
 
 65,091 
 
 68,410 
 
 187,104 
 
 120,000 
 
 . 1,200 
 
 1,200 
 
 100 
 
 525,000 
 
 12,000 
 
 80,000 
 
 8,000 
 
 11,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 4,500 
 
 1,000 
 
 600 
 
 18,000 
 
 50,000 
 
 15,000 
 
 75,000 
 
 150,000 
 
 17,600 
 
 12,600 
 
 15,000 
 
 5,000 
 
 100,000 
 
 28,276 
 
 200 
 
 None. 
 
 1,200 
 
 1,200 
 
 100 
 
 None, 
 48,000 
 65,000 
 1,600 
 
 None. 
 
 u 
 
 1,000 
 2,000 
 5,000 
 106,000 
 170,000 
 880,000 
 None, . 
 
 2,500 
 None, 
 
 116,000 
 
 2,900,000 
 
 86,818 
 
 53,210 
 
 187,104 
 
 120,000 
 
 None. 
 
 4t 
 
 Fisher 
 
 
 " Cross 
 
 " SUver 
 
 " "Whito 
 
 " Gray 
 
 Lynx ........ 
 
 Marten 
 
 Minx 
 
 
 Otter 
 
 Seal, Pur 
 
 Wolf 
 
 Marten, Stone and 
 
 
 Ktch 
 
 Kolinkski 
 
 
 Eabhtt, 
 
 ■Wolverine 
 
 Skunk 
 
 Sed-Ottor 
 
 Fur-Skinned Animals. — The northern and arctic re- 
 gions abound with races of animals, which are thickly 
 covered with fine hair or fur, and whose sltins are very 
 beautiful and valuable as articles of clothing. The 
 animals that are captured for their fur, are : — The 
 Russian Sable, Mustela zihellina. This rich and beau- 
 tiful skin has long been esteemed one of the most val- 
 uable and useful furs that have been brought to our 
 country. About 25,000 are annually collected in the 
 Kussiau territories, of which only a small number is 
 imported into England. The fur is brown, with some 
 gray spots on the head. The darker varieties are the 
 most highly valued, a single skin being frequently 
 sold for £9, though the average value does not exceed 
 £2 or £3. Naturalists are not agreed whether to con- 
 sider the animal from which the skin is procured as a 
 distinct species. Some are of opinion that the Rus- 
 sian Sable, the Stone and Pine Martens, as well as the 
 Hudson's 13ay Sable, are but one species, on which the 
 differences of food and climate have produced some 
 slight variations in form and color. To the furrier, 
 however, the Russian Sable is easily distinguishable, 
 from the length and fullness, as well as the darker 
 color of the fur. The use of this choice variety is 
 necessarily limited to the wealthy, on account of its 
 scarcity. In the reign of Henry VIII., by a law 
 which sought to regulate the expenses of the different 
 classes, and to distinguish them by peculiarity of cos- 
 tume, the use of the Sablo was confined to the nobility 
 above the rank of viscount. 
 
 Marten. — The Hudson's Bay &ab\e{MustelaCanaden~ 
 sis). — The sable skins next in repute to the Russian are 
 those imported by the Hudson's Bay Company, of which 
 no less than 120,000 are annually brought into Great 
 Britain. As the natural color of the skins is much 
 lighter than the prevailing taste, it is the practice to dye 
 many of them a darker color, and the furs thus treated 
 are scarcely inferior to the natural sable. The Baum, 
 or Pine Marten (Mustela ahietum). — The Sables im- 
 ported under this name are the produce of Europe. 
 The animal is found in extensive forests remote from 
 the habitations of man, and preying on birds and 
 smaller animals. They are distinguished from the 
 Stone Marten by the yellow color of the throat ; other 
 parts of the skin are brown. When dyed, they have 
 a similar appearance to the best sable. The Stone 
 Marten {Mustela saxorum). — This Marten is generally 
 found in mountainous and stony places, though a fre- 
 quent visitor to farm-yards and homesteads. It is 
 generally distributed through most European coun- 
 tries. The under fur is a bluish-white, with the top 
 
 hairs a dark brown. The throat of this variety is 
 usually of a pure white, by which character it is gen- 
 erally distinguished, 'The French manufacturers ex- 
 cel in dyeing this fur, from which circumstance it is 
 frequentiy called French Sable, It is also dyed in 
 this country, the excellent qualities of the skin adapt- 
 ing it to a great variety of purposes to which furs are 
 applied, 'The Fisher, — There are about 11,000 of these 
 skins annually brought to this country from North 
 America ; they are larger than the sables, and the fur 
 is longer and fuller. The tail is long, round, and full, 
 gradually tapering to a point, and quite black ; u few 
 years since it formed the common ornament to a na- 
 tional cap worn by the Jew merchants of Poland, and 
 at that time was worth from 6s, to 9s., but its present 
 value does not exceed 6d, to 9d, 
 
 Minx. — The Minx (Mustela vison). — There were 
 245,000 skins of this little animal brought to this 
 country in 1850 from the possessions of Hudson's Bay 
 Company and North America, The fur resembles 
 the sable in color, but is considerably shorter and 
 more glossy. It is a verj- durable and useful fur, and 
 is exported in large quantities to the Continent. The 
 Ermine (Mustela erminea). — This animal is similar in 
 form and habit to the common weasel of this country ; 
 but in Siberia, Russia, and Norway, from whence the 
 skins are imported, the little animal, during winter, 
 becomes as white as the snowy regions it inhabits, 
 and is esteemed as the whitest fur known, though 
 its summer dress is a dingy brown. The tail of the 
 skin, of which the lower half is jet black, is generally 
 introduced as an ornament to the purely white fur. It 
 is worn on state occasions, and in the reign of Edward 
 III. its use was restricted to the royal family. The Fitch 
 or Polecat (Mustela putorius). — These skins are pro- 
 duced throughout Europe, and in no place of better 
 quality than in Great Britain, The ground of the fur 
 is a rich yellow, while the top hair is a jet black. This 
 fur is at present very little used in Great Britain, but is 
 much worn in America. It is very durable, but the 
 natural smell of the fur, which is rather unpleasant, 
 is diificult to counteract. The North American Skunk 
 (Mephitis Americana). — The skins known under this 
 name are imported by the Hudson's Bay Company, The 
 animal from which th&y are taken is allied to the pole- 
 cat of Europe, and, from the fetor it emits when at- 
 tacked, which has been known to affect persons with 
 sickness at 100 yards' distance, has received the sou- 
 briquet of " I'Enfan du Diable," It has a soft black 
 fur, with two white stripes running from the head to 
 the tail, which is short and bushy. The skins, though 
 imported into England in small numbers, are usually 
 re-exported to the continent of Europe, The Kolink- 
 ski (Mustela Siberica). — The Kolmkski or Tartar sable 
 is of a bright yellow color, and is sometimes used for 
 ladies' dress in its natural state, but it is more fre- 
 quently dyed brown to imitate other sable, to which it 
 bears a strong resemblance. It is remarkable for the 
 uniformity of its color, having no spot or difference of 
 shade in any part of the body. The tail, which is of 
 the same color, is exclusively used for the best artists' 
 pencils, 
 
 Muskrat. — The Musquash or Muskrat (Fiber zibeth- 
 icus). — The animal known under this name is found in 
 great numbers in North America, frequenting swamps 
 and rivers, and, like the beaver, building its habita- 
 tions of mud with great ingenuity. Dr, Richardson 
 states, that it has three litters of young in the course 
 of the summer, producing from three to seven at a lit- 
 ter. The animal has a peculiar smell, similar to that 
 of musk ; but it must not be mistaken for the animal 
 from which the musk of commerce is procured, which 
 is o native of Thibet, About 1,000,000 skins are 
 brought into England annually; the fur resembles 
 that of the beaver, and is used by hat manufacturers. 
 The skins are also dyed by the furrier, and manufac- 
 tured into many cheap and useful articles. 
 
FTJR 
 
 768 
 
 FUR 
 
 Nutria.— The Nutria, or Coj-pou (Mt/opotamus coy- 
 pus).— This rodent quadruped is an expert swimmer, 
 and frequents the neighborhood of water, where it 
 lives in hurrows ; it is smaller than the beaver, and 
 considerably larger than the musquash, but has a re- 
 semblance to both these animals in its natural habits, 
 and in the qualities of its fur. Until lately this fur 
 was very much used by hat manufacturers, and as 
 many as 600,000 skins have been annually imported 
 from Buenos Ayres and Chili, in which countries the 
 animal abounds. Owing to the wars that continue to 
 be earned on between the different States of Buenos 
 Ayres, and the consequent withdrawal of the trappers 
 from their accustomed occupations, the importations 
 have fallen to 3000 skins, which are dressed and dyed 
 as a substitute for the costly fur seal. The Hamster 
 (Cricetus vulgaris).— About 100,000 of the skins of the 
 hamster are annually collected in central Germany, 
 where the animijl abounds ; it has a poor, short, and 
 coarse fur, and is almost exclusively used for cloak lin- 
 ings by the Greeks ; the color of the back is a reddish 
 brown, the belly black, with a few light spots The 
 animal is about nine inches in length, and lives under 
 ground, forming several apartments for stormg grain 
 separate from its own hybemaculum. It is so in- 
 dustrious and provident, that when the peasants go 
 " hamster nesting" in the winter, they possess them- 
 selves not only of the skin, but of the valuable store 
 of good grain, which is said frequently to exceed two 
 bushels. The Perwitzky.— The skin of this animal is 
 beautifully marked like tortoise-shell, and is brought 
 from the south-eastern territories of* Asiatic Russia ; 
 the fur is short, giving little warmth, and is chiefly 
 made into cloak linings and used by the Russians. 
 The Beaver (Castor Americanus). — Beaver skins are im- 
 ported by the Hudson's Bay Company in less quanti- 
 ties than formerly ; the use of the fur in our hat 
 manufactories has greatly diminished since the intro- 
 duction of silk hats, and a considerable depreciation 
 has taken place in their value. This beautiful fur is 
 sometimes used for articles of dress. In order to pre- 
 pare the skin for this appropriation the coarse hairs are 
 removed, and the surface is very evenly cut by an in- 
 genious machine, somewhat similar to that used in 
 dressing cloth. The fur thus prepared has a beautiful 
 appearance, not unlike the costly South Sea otter, and 
 has the advantage of lightness, with durabilitj' and 
 cheapness. The white wool from the under part of 
 the beaver still obtains a high price, and is largely ex- 
 ported to France, where it is manufactured into ladies' 
 bonnets. There is no doubt that the beaver was for- 
 merly an inhabitant of the British Isles, and Pennant 
 remarks that two or three waters in the principality of 
 Wales still bear the name of Llyn yr afangc, or the 
 Beavers' Lake. 
 
 Otter. — The Otter (Lutra vulgaris^ Lutra Cmiadensis). 
 —The large supply of otter skins used by the Russians 
 and Chinese is derived principally from North America. 
 The quality of the fur is, in most respects, similar to 
 the otter of the British Isles, of which there are about 
 500 skins collected annually. This animal has fre- 
 quently been tamed, and from its extreme agility in 
 the water, has been rendered serviceable in catching 
 fish for the use of its owner. The American otter is 
 much larger in size than the European, being about 
 five feet from the nose to the tip of the tail ; a smaller 
 variety abounds in the East Indies, the fur of which 
 is very short. The Sea Otter (Endhydra marina). — 
 The sea otter has a very thick, soft, woolly fur, and is 
 most highly prized by the Russians and Chinese, to 
 whom most of the skins are exported. In its habits 
 it is allied to the seal, but has never been met with in 
 large numbers. It is found in the North Pacific, from 
 Kamschatka to the Yellow Sea on the Asiatic coasts, 
 and from Alaska to California on the American coast. 
 The annual production is about 1000 skins, of which 100 
 are imported into Great Britain by the Hudson's Bay 
 Company. 
 
 Seal (Phoea). — There are numerous varieties of 
 these animals, some of which are found on the western 
 coasts of Scotland, Ireland, and Wales. They fre- 
 quent, in immense numbers, the coasts of Newfound- 
 land, Greenland, and Labrador, and the importations 
 into this country frequently exceed 500,000 in one 
 season. The young seals of some species increase in 
 size with great rapidity, and it is asserted by the seal 
 fishers that they double their bulk in eight days. The 
 greater portion are tanned and enameled with black 
 varnish for ladies' shoes ; other descriptions are well 
 adapted for fur, especially the seal of the South Seas 
 and the north-west coast of America. Before they 
 can be used as a fur, it is necessary to remove the 
 very coarse hairs which cover a beautifully fine and 
 silky fur. The roots of these hairs are deeply seated 
 in the substance of the thick pelt, while the fur is 
 strongly attached to the upper surface of the skin. 
 By shaving the pelt to half its natural substance the 
 roots of the coarse hairs are cut through, and they 
 easily fall out ; but the same eff"ect is produced by a 
 natural process of fermentation, which ensues when 
 the skins are properly prepared and allowed to remain 
 together. The soft curly fur of the seal is now rarely 
 used in its natural state, but is dyed a deep Van- 
 dyke brown, and has the appearance of the richest 
 velvet. 
 
 The Fox. — Of foxes' skins brought into England 
 there are many varieties ; the black and silver foxes 
 (Vulpes fulvus., var. argentatus) from the arctic regions 
 are the most valuable. Many of the skins when 
 highly dressed are worth from 10 to 40 guineas. They 
 are purchased for the Russian market, being highly 
 prized in that countrj'. The cross and red foxes 
 ( Vulpes fulvus) are used by the Russians, Turks, and 
 Greeks for cloak-linings and collars. The blue and 
 white foxes are used in this and other countries for 
 ladies' dresses. The white foxes {Vulpes lagopus) are 
 represented by arctic voyagers as exceedingly numer- 
 ous, and migrating in troops over the frozen seas at 
 the approach of the rigorous season. They are eas- 
 ily caught, fifteen having been taken from one trap 
 in four hours. The Wolverine (Gulo luscus). — This 
 animal, which is only met with in North America, 
 Norway, and Sweden, is now generally considered by 
 zoologists as identical with the glutton of old writers. 
 It is extremely mischievous to the fur trader, and will 
 follow the marten-hunter's path round a line of traps 
 extending 40 or 50 miles, merely to come at the baits. 
 The fur is generally dark nut-brown, passing, in the 
 depth of winter, almost into black, and is chiefly used 
 in Germany and other northern countries, for cloak- 
 lining. 
 
 TAe Bear {Ursus).—Th&Te are several descriptions 
 of bear-skins used by the furrier. The skin of the 
 black bear of North America (Ursus Americanus) is 
 used in this country for military purposes, forrngs, and 
 carnage hammercloths. In Russia it is frequently 
 manufactured for sleigh coverings, and the skin of the 
 cub bear is highly valued for trimmings and coat- 
 linings. That of the grizzly hear (Ursus ferox) is ap- 
 plied to similar uses. That of the white polar bear, 
 of which the supply is very limited, is frequently 
 made into rugs, bordered with the black and grizzly 
 bear skins. The fur of the brown or Isabella bear 
 (Ursus Isahellinus) has frequently been very fashiona- 
 ble in this country, when its value has been tenfold 
 tlie present price. It is still considerably used for 
 various articles of ladies' dress. 
 
 The ifar-e.— The wool or under fur gf the European 
 gray hare (Lepus timidus) is extensively used for man- 
 ufacturing felt hats, both in Europe and America. A 
 few of these are dressed for the purpose of being worn 
 as a protection to the chest. The white hare of Rus- 
 sia and the polar regions (Lepus glacialis) was formerly 
 much worn in its pure white state as a lining .or 
 ladies' cloaks, and as a substitute for the white fox, 
 
FUR 
 
 769 
 
 FUR 
 
 but the skin being exceedingly tender, its use for this 
 purpose has been discontinued. The white hare is also 
 frequently dyed ; it looks exceedingly rich, but is not 
 very durable. 
 
 The Rabbit (Lepus cuniculus). — The English rabbit, 
 both iu its wild and domestic state, affords a very 
 plentiful supply of useful fur. When dressed and 
 dyed in imitation of other skins, it is manufactured 
 into a great variety of cheap and useful articles for the 
 middle classes. The wool has recently been manufac- 
 tured into a peculiar cloth adapted for ladies' use, but 
 by far the greater number of skins are still used for 
 hatters' purposes. The English silver-gray rabbit was 
 originally a breed peculiar to Lincolnshire, where great 
 attention was paid to it ; but warrens have since been 
 formed in various parts of the country. Skins of this 
 variety are continually exported to China and Russia, 
 where they are much esteemed and command a com- 
 paratively high price. The Hudson's Bay rabbit is 
 beautiful in the length and texture of its fur, but the 
 skin is so fragile, and the fur so liable to fall off with 
 slight wear, that it has little value as an article of 
 dress. The white Polish rabbit is a breed peculiar to 
 that countrj- ; its skin is often made into linings for 
 ladies' cloaks, and being the cheapest and most useful 
 fur for that purpose, the animal is exported in great 
 numbers. The Squirrel {Sdurus vulgaris). — This at- 
 tractive little animal abounds in most countries, espe- 
 cially in Siberia and the north of Europe. It is from 
 the Eussian dominions that we derive our principal 
 supply of the skins of this agile creature, which ex- 
 ceeds in number that of any of the fur-producing ani- 
 mals. It is said that 15,000,000 are everj' year cap- 
 tured in Russia, our supply from thence exceeding 
 3,000,000 annnally. The fur of the Squirrel, of which 
 there are several varieties, is light, warm, and durable ; 
 some of the lighter colors are dyed in imitation of 
 sable. The color of the Siberian squirrels varies from 
 a pearl-gray to a dark blue-gray; the under parts, 
 which are white, are frequently cut out and made into 
 cloak-linings, remarkable for their lightness ; the tails 
 are manufactured into boas for foreign markets ; they 
 are also extensively used in the manufacture of artists' 
 pencils. 
 
 The Chinchilla {Chinchilla lanigera). — There are two 
 chief varieties of chinchilla, the produce of South Amer- 
 ica : those from Lima are short in the fur, and inferior 
 in quality to those from Buenos Ayres and Arica ; the 
 color is a silvery graj', Arica producing the darkest 
 and best-colored skins. The general appearance of the 
 animal places it between the squirrel and the rabbit : 
 in its natural abodes it has the agility of the former, 
 and resembles the rabbit in living in holes and bur- 
 rows. The extreme softness and delicacy of the fur 
 adapt it only for ladies' use. Though much admired 
 and frequently worn in this country, it is more exten- 
 sively consumed in France, Germany, and Russia. 
 
 The Racoon (Procyon lotor). — The racoon is an in- 
 habitant of North America: the skins are imported 
 into tliis country in immense numbers ; but meeting 
 with no demand for our home trade, are exported by 
 merchants who purchase them at the periodical sales. 
 They are used throughout Germany and Russia for 
 lining shubes and coats, and, being of a durable nature 
 and moderate in price, are esteemed among the most 
 useful furs. The Common Badger (J/eles vulgaris) ; 
 American "BaAger^MelesLabradoria), — The skin of the 
 European badger, from the wiry nature of its hair, is 
 generally used for the manufacture of superior kinds 
 of shaving brushes ; but the. skins exported from 
 North America have a soft, fine fur, which renders 
 them suitable for many purposes for which the larger 
 furs are used. 
 
 The Cat. — In Holland, the cat (Fdis domesticus) is 
 
 bred for its fur : it is fed on fish, and carefully tended 
 
 until the fur arrives at its greatest perfection ; large 
 
 numbers are also collected in England and many other 
 
 Ccc 
 
 countries. The wild oat {Felis catus) is much larger 
 and longer in its fur, and is met with in extensive for- 
 ests, particularly in Hungary ; the color is brownish- 
 gray, mottled, and spotted with black. The softness 
 and durability of the fur render it *very suitable for 
 cloak-linings, and it is also made into wrappers for 
 open carriages and railway traveling. The Canada 
 Ljmx (Felis Canadensis); Lynx Cat (Felis rufd). — 
 The fur of the lynx is long, soft, of a grayish color, 
 and sometimes, as in the Norway lynx, covered with 
 brown spots ; the belly is white, silky, and not unfre- 
 quently spotted with black. The change of fashion 
 has for some time discarded it from this country ; but 
 it is dyed, prepared, and exported in considerable 
 quantities for the American market, where it is much 
 valued and admired. It is generally used for cloaks, 
 linings, and facings, for which purposes it is very ap- 
 propriate, being exceedingly soft and light. 
 
 Preservation of Furs. — The fur of most animals is in 
 its greatest perfection at the approach of winter, and 
 before the animal has attained its greatest age. It is 
 the object of the furrier, by dyeing the inferior skins, 
 to imitate the more perfect specimens. Some difficulty 
 has attended this process, as the nature of the skin 
 will admit of dyes being used only in a cold state ; but 
 the method which has been practiced in Paris and 
 London has been so far successful that the permanence 
 of the color in the dyed sable is frequently found of 
 equal darability to that of skins of the natural color. 
 Considerable excellence has been attained also in dye- 
 ing rabbit and inferior furs of those colors which are 
 more suitable to the prevailing taste. 
 
 The first process of the fur-dresser is to prepare the 
 skins from the raw state, and render them fit for orna- 
 mental dress. In this country, the usual practice is to 
 trample them in closed tubs with a little salt butter, 
 turning them over and over for several hours. By 
 this means the skins are made into soft and pliable 
 leather. The next process is to rub them on the flesh ' 
 side over a blunt iron in order to remove loose pieces 
 of integuments, and to reduce the substance, after 
 which it is necessary to cleanse the fur and skin com- 
 pletely from the grease. For this purpose it is again 
 trampled with saw-dust — usually that from mahogany, 
 which being beaten out and repeated several times, 
 conduces to render the fur glossy and clean, and to fit 
 it for the cutter to fashion into any shape that may be 
 necessary. 
 
 Furs are subject to injury by several species of 
 moths, whose instincts lead them to deposit their eggs 
 at the roots of the fine hairs of animals. Linnaeus 
 mentions five species that prey upon cloth and furs, of 
 which Tinea pellionella, T. vestionella, and T. topetzella 
 are the most destructive. No sooner is the worm 
 hatched than it eats its way through the fur, and con- 
 tinues increasinglj' destructive until it aiTives at its 
 full growth, and forms itself a silken covering, from 
 which in a short time it again emerges a perfect moth. 
 Another cause of the decay of furs is the moisture to 
 which they are frequently exposed ; the delicate struct- 
 ure of the fine under-fur can not be preserved when 
 any dampness is allowed to remain in the skin. This 
 fact is well known to the leather manufacturer, who, 
 having wetted his skins, allows them to remain in a 
 damp cellar for a few days for the purpose of removing 
 the hair, which is pulled out with the greatest facility 
 after remaining only one week in a moist condition. It 
 follows from these observations, that to preserve furs 
 it is necessarj' to keep them drj', and to protect them 
 from moths j if exposed to damp or rain, they must be 
 dried at a moderate distance from the fire ; and when 
 put by for the summer should be combed and beaten 
 with a small cane, and verj' carefully secured in a dry 
 brown paper or box into which moths can not enter. 
 During tne summer thej' should be examined once a 
 month, to be again beaten and aired, if the situation 
 in which they have been placed be at all damp. With 
 
FUR 
 
 110 
 
 FUR 
 
 these precautions, the most valuable furs may be pre- 
 served uninjured for many years. 
 
 Manufacture of Furs for Felting Purposes. — In the 
 manufacturing of furs for the making of hats, the 
 principal liinds %f skins used are the hare, rabbit, 
 beaver, and nutria. All these kinds of skins, in the 
 northern parts of Europe, as well as in America, are divid- 
 ed by furriers into two distinct sorts, viz., the seasoned 
 and unseasoned skins. The former are those which 
 are taken off the animal in winter, when the fur is at 
 its full growth, and in the highest state of perfection 
 as to fineness ; the latter are those obtained in spring, 
 summer, and autumn. The fur in the unseasoned 
 sldns is short, coarse, and hairy, and is generally not 
 worth more than a third of the value of furs cut off 
 the best-seasoned skins. The mode of manufacturing 
 both descriptions is, however, the same ; of which we 
 shall now endeavor to give a brief account. 
 
 Hare-skins. — The first mechanical operation per- 
 formed on the hare-skin, is to open it with a knife down 
 between the middle of the forelegs, taking great care 
 that the skin be not torn ; for there is a considerable 
 waste of the fur if this precaution be not attended to. 
 The skin must now be rubbed with what is called a 
 rake, which resembles a common dinner-knife, with 
 teeth like a saw. This is used for the purpose clearing 
 away all impurities and dried blood which may happen 
 to be upon the skin. This clearing is of very great 
 importance ; for the smallest particle of dirt or blood 
 will greatlj' injure the fur for felting purposes. The 
 operation requires to be carefullj' and judiciously per- 
 formed for another reason. If the workman be not 
 attentive, he will tear up, along with the bloody and 
 dirtj' parts, a considerable part of the good clean fur, 
 and thus great loss will be incurred. 
 
 Hare-skins, after being thus opened and cleaned, 
 must be damped on the pelt side with a little water, 
 and placed under a heavy weight, pelt to pelt, to press 
 them, so that all ridges and inequalities in the pelt 
 may be removed. The skins are now fit for what is 
 called shearing. Their outsides are all covered over 
 with a kind of hair, which possesses no felting proper- 
 ties whatever ; and this must be taken off with hand 
 shears. These are of two kinds ; the one the common 
 shears used for clipping the wool off sheep ; the other 
 kind resembles the cutting shears of tailors, only the 
 bowl is made equally large on both sides for the ad- 
 mission of all the fingers. Some furriers prefer one 
 kind of shears, and some another. Those like tailors' 
 shears make the neate.st work when skillfully used ; 
 but the others require less time for their management. 
 The shearing of the skins forms a very important part 
 of their manufacture ; for if one cuts too far down, he 
 will seriously destroy both quality and quantity of tlie 
 fur, as well as disfigure its appearance. On this ac- 
 count many furriers confine a part of their work-people 
 to this branch of the business alone ; for the greater 
 part of the profits of a master depends upon the man- 
 ner in which the shearing process is performed. 
 
 After a hare-skin has been submitted to the process 
 of shearing, it presents an appearance altogether differ- 
 ent from what it did before. A novice would not 
 know it to be the same skin. Previously, it was of a 
 uniform brown color ; now, it is down the whole of the 
 back of a most beautiful jet black, which gradually be- 
 comes fainter as it approaches the sides of the skin. 
 After it undergoes the process of rounding, which con- 
 sists in taking off' all the iiTegular or angular pieces 
 of skin, and making the pelt smooth and even, it is 
 then fit for the cutting-board. 
 
 The cutting-boards of furriers are made of the wil- 
 low-tree, and are commonly about twenty inches wide, 
 and from two to three feet broad. They ought to be 
 moistened with water at short intervals, when used, to 
 make the wood soft, and prevent the edge of the cut- 
 ting-knife from being taken off too soon. These 
 knives are sometimes made of common sheet-iron, but 
 
 more frequently of steel, which are to be preferred to 
 the former, on account of keeping their edge longer, 
 and being much .lighter for the hand. ■ A fine edge will 
 not cut the fur off^the skins ; it must be a rough, edgCj 
 which is obtained from rubbing the knife about every 
 two or three minutes upon a piece of common free- 
 stone, of not too .fine a grain. These knives are from 
 five to six inches in length and three in breadth, 
 and resemble in some measure those knives used by 
 grocers for the cutting up of cheeses. The skins are 
 all, before cutting, split down the middle of the back 
 into halves. The cutting then commences at the head 
 or cheeks of the skin, and always in the line of direc- 
 tion in which the fur lies. The cutting-knife is run 
 quickly backward and forward against the first joint 
 of the finger across the skin : while at ever)' two or 
 three strokes the hand must be lifted up, to gather in 
 the fur that has been cut, and preserve it in as fleecy 
 a form as possible. Care must be taken against chop- 
 ping the fur; because, when this takes place, the 
 felting principle in all furs is considerably weakened, 
 and in some entirely destroyed. 
 
 An important point in the getting up of furs for 
 sale is, to keep them in as unbroken or fleecy consist- 
 ency as possible. This, abstractly considered, is of 
 no consequence to their felting power ; but the prac- 
 tice of the trade as to this matter has arisen from a 
 desire to keep the different kinds of fur from being 
 mixed with one another, and thereby in some degree 
 to prevent adulteration. From this cause the above 
 mode of cutting the hare-skin has been long since 
 much improved by the use of instruments made of 
 tin, against which the cutting-knives run, and which 
 are so contrived as to gather in the whole fur off the 
 largest skin with as much ease as the fur of a calf 
 skin could be gathered by the hand when the knife 
 runs against the fingers. This simple invention pre- 
 sences all the most valuable parts of the skin in one 
 lump or fleece, and enables the workman to sort the 
 fur with more ease and readiness than before. 
 
 Rabbit-skins. — The rabbit-skin is cut in precisely 
 the same manner as that of the hare, only there is a 
 considerable difference in the mode of dressing or pre- 
 paring the former. The rabbit-skin is covered over 
 on the pelt side with large quantities of grease or fat, 
 from which the hare-skin is comparatively free. This 
 must be removed when the rabbit-skin is first opened. 
 The knife used in opening the skin must be pressed 
 down upon that part of the pelt where the fatty sub- 
 stance is, till it gets beneath the cuticle on which it 
 rests, when the whole of the greasy matter may be 
 removed, and a little whitening rubbed on the spot. 
 If this operation be not well attended to, the grease 
 will get mixed with the fur, and damage it considera- 
 bly. The rabbit, like the hare skin, is covered over 
 with hair upon the top of the fur ; but this hair can 
 not be taken off by shearing, as in the case of tlie 
 former, but must be removed by pulling it out. This 
 is done with a short Icnife about three inches long, 
 which is held so as to grasp the hair between the 
 thumb and it, which is secured from injury by having 
 a piece of buckskin leather placed over it. The hand 
 of the workman ought to fall lightly upon the skin, 
 othernise the hair will be cut and the fur pulled oat 
 also, which will deteriorate its quality and diminish 
 its quantity very considerably. 
 
 Beaver-skins. — The skin of the beaver is manufac- 
 tured in the same way as that of the rabbit. The fat, 
 however, in the former is much greater in quantity 
 and more firmly imbedded in the pelt than in the 
 latter ; and of course greater care and trouble are re- 
 quired to remove it. Fullers' earth mixed with whit- 
 ening is used to imbibe the fatty particles. The 
 pulling the outside hair off is of great importance. 
 The cutting of the beaver has been for some years 
 performed by machines; the thickness and regular- 
 ity in the pelt affording facilities for this mode of 
 
FUR 
 
 111 
 
 FUR 
 
 operation, -which the generality of other skins do 
 not. 
 
 The fur of the beaver is sorted into three or four 
 different kinds ; but that -which ia cut off the cheek of 
 the kikin bears the highest price. White beaver is 
 comparatively scarce, and is ■ much esteemed for fine 
 drab hats'. 
 
 Nulria-sJdns. — These are dressed like rabbit-skins, 
 only the hair on the outside of the sl^ins is much 
 stronger than in the rabbit, and requires a sharper 
 knife and greater strength to move it. Nutria-skins 
 are full of fat ; and before they are submitted to the 
 pulling process, they must be well -washed -with soap 
 and boiling -water. The skin is laid -with the pelt 
 do-wnward, and -well scrubbed on the fur side -with a 
 brush, till the grease is entirely removed. They 
 must then be -well Wshed in cold spring water, which 
 is extracted from kmong the fnr by a piece of wood 
 made for the purpose. After this thej"- are placed be- 
 fore a stove or hot fire to dry, and are then fit to go 
 through the other manufacturing processes. 
 
 Both the beaver and nutria furs, before they are 
 used for hat purposes, must go through the operation 
 of blmmng. This is 'done for the purpose of clearing 
 them of those short black hairs which remain among 
 the fur after it is separated from the pelt. . A blowing 
 machine consists principally of a cylinder, into which 
 the fur is placed ; and by means of a fly-wheel, situ- 
 ated within it, the stuff is thrown up, and the hairs, 
 by reason of their greater specific gravitj', fall to the 
 bottom, and leave all the fine fur upon the top. Hare 
 and rabbit furs are also partially used in a blown state 
 for the nap or outside covering of hats. 
 
 Though the hare, rabbit, beaver, and nutria furs 
 are the staple articles of hat manufacture, yet there 
 are other furs occasionally used in their stead, or in 
 conjunction with them. These are the furs of the 
 otter, the seal, musquash, and the mole. The otter 
 is fully as fine as the beaver itself ; but the principal 
 objection hatters have to its use is, that it does not 
 retain a good bladlc, but acquires a brown or coppery 
 shaije. The seal is not so fine as the otter. It fin- 
 ishes dull upon a hat, and, in consequence, is not 
 much used at present. Musquash is a useful fur. 
 The mole is the only skin known to furriers which for 
 felting purposes needs no preparatorj'- dressing before 
 cutting. Its fur is alike fine throughout. But not- 
 withstanding its fineness, it is so verj' short as to 
 prevent its being extensively used in the hat manu- 
 facture. 
 
 Within the last centurj' many attempts have been 
 made to apply machinery to the cutting of the vari- 
 ous kinds of fur, but, with the exception of the beaver 
 fur, these attempts have hitherto been but partially 
 successful. The great difficulties in the way of ma- 
 chinery for cutting purposes are, the unevenness on 
 the surface, and the inequalities in the thickness of 
 the pelt in different skins. The smallest particles of 
 the fleshj' part of the skin getting among the fur -will 
 injure it ; so much so, that a piece of pelt not larger 
 than a pin's head will destroy the finest hat. This 
 circumstance has greatly increased the difficulty of 
 bringing machinery to bear upon the fur trade. There 
 are, however, at this moment some machines employed 
 in the cutting of hare and rabbit-skins in England ; 
 but until they undergo numerous improvements, they 
 are not lil^ely, from the obstacles above adverted to, 
 to realize the expectations of gain at first entertained 
 by those employing them, either in the saving of 
 labor, or in the superior manner in which the fur is 
 manufactured. 
 
 Manj' experiments have also been made to dispense 
 with the usual processes of cutting the different kinds 
 of fur with knives, by applying chemical substances 
 to the pelts, so as to loosen the roots of the fur, and 
 make it leave the pelt upon a slight application of 
 force. Lime has often been tried for this purpose, by 
 
 using it in the same manner as skinners do in the 
 management of sheep-skins. Some farriers have also 
 tried a partial state of putrefaction ; but this, as well 
 as the lime preparation, has proved abortive. The 
 fur obtained off different kinds of skins bj' such means 
 looks in every respect as well to the eye as if it had 
 been manufactured in the' usual manner ; but the felt- 
 ing principle is by all such means entirely destroyed. 
 
 CarroM Fur. — Sulphuric acid has the property of 
 increasing the felting power of most kinds of fur. 
 When this is applied the fur is called carroted, from 
 the color which the acid gives it. The most common 
 kind of fur submitted to this process is that belofiging 
 to the rabbit-skin ; and it is generally employed in 
 small quantities for the manufacture of all fine stuff 
 hats, Carroted coney wool is made in the following 
 manner: — Mix one part of sulphuric acid with two 
 parts of pure spring water, in a dish of stone-ware ; 
 then take and wet the rabbit-skin with a brush aU 
 over, making the liquid penetrate as near to the bot- 
 tom of the fur as possible ; care being used, in this 
 process, not to touch the skin with the fingers, lest 
 they be burned, but with a piece of iron hoop doubled 
 so as to resemble a pair of tongs. When the sirins 
 are thus wet, they must be placed over a very hot fire 
 to dry ; but they must not be placed too near, lest 
 they take fire, which they are very apt to do from the 
 application of the acid. Instead of drying them be- 
 fore the fire in this manner, some run a hatter's finish- 
 ing iron, heated to a certain degree, over the skins, 
 and allow them to drj- gradually in the sun. This is 
 found to he a very good plan. When the skins are 
 dry thej- ought to be gently beaten with a rod, and 
 moistened on the pelt side with water, previous to 
 their being put under the pressing stoned They are 
 then cut in the usual manner. Skins prepared in this 
 way attract a great quantity of moisture from the 
 atmosphere ; and carroted fur always feels to the 
 hand as if partially wet. 
 
 The fur off the rabbit-skin improves in its felting 
 capabilities by being kept a moderate length of time 
 after being taken off the skin ; but hare fur does not. 
 Great attention ought to be paid by hat manufactur- 
 ers, who keep considerable stocks of fur on hand, as 
 to the place in which they are deposited. If it be too 
 /lamp, they will rot ; if too dry, they will diminish in 
 weight ; therefore a moderately dry and cool place 
 ought to be chosen. The great enemy to all furs is 
 the common moth. This destroys the felting princi- 
 ple. Whene-\;£r the slightest appearance in the fur 
 indicates the secure lodgment of this little creature, 
 it ought immediately to be used ; or, if this can not 
 be done, it should be taken out of the paper bags, and 
 brolten all over with a small switch rod, or, what will 
 answer the purpose still better, a hatter's bow. The 
 same rules apply to the keeping of skins in good con- 
 dition as to fur. The situation ought to be cool, dry, 
 and well aired. They will seldom keep longer than 
 twelve or eighteen months without running great risk 
 of suffering injury from the moth or black beetle. 
 Too many ought not to be heaped together, and par- 
 ticularly if they be rabbit-skins, because the fat or 
 grease about these skins will get heated, run among 
 the fur, and become of such an acrid nature as to cor- 
 rode the very pelt itself. It was formerlj' the prac- 
 tice to keep hare and rabbit skins a long time, under 
 the idea that the fur upon them will increase in length 
 from the moisture left in the pelt. This is an entirely 
 erroneous opinion. Any one who will make the ex- 
 periment will find that the amount of fur obtained off 
 any given quantity of skins is much greater in weight 
 when manufactured immediately after they are taken 
 off the animal, than after having been kept for six or 
 twelve months. 
 
 The qualities of all kinds of furs differ verj' con- 
 siderably, from climate and other local circumstances. 
 The best rabbit fur, used for the manufacture of the 
 
EUR 
 
 112 
 
 FUR 
 
 finest London hats, is commonly considered as the 
 produce of the east coast of England, particularly 
 from Lincolnshire to Berwick inclusively. The rab- 
 bit fur is always stronger in the felting principle when 
 got off rabbits bred on the sea-coast, than in those 
 found in inland places, however favorable in other 
 respects these places may be for the rearing of the 
 animals. The skins along the tract of coast already 
 mentioned seem all of the same size and quality. 
 North of Berwick the rabbit-skin becomes smaller, 
 and the fur weaker and shorter; and the further 
 north, along the coast, the more inferior it is found. 
 Hare fur in Great Britain is superior, for hat purposes, 
 to any in the world. 
 
 The skins and furs imported by or for our manufac- 
 turers are more varied and more numerous, perhaps, 
 than would generally be supposed. When we consider, 
 too, how many countries must be ransacked to produce 
 this variety — the beaver, the bear, the ermine, the ot- 
 ter, the racoon, the chinchilla, the wolf, the fox, the 
 musquash, the sable, the marten, the squirrel, the 
 fitch, the mink, the seal, and others — it will be plain 
 that the commerce in furs must be considerable. In 
 1850, the squirrel furs imported exceeded 2,000,000 ; 
 the musquash, 1,000,000 ; the racoon, 500,000 ; while 
 the rest made up the total number to nearly 5,000,000 — 
 not hides for tanning, be it remembered, but skins 
 imported for the sake of the fur. The beauty of a fur 
 does, most unquestionably, in the eyes of a purchaser, 
 depend largely on the price he pays for it ; and this 
 price depends on the scarcity in the supply. Why else 
 should a black-and-silver fox fur command a price of 
 30 or 40 guineas, or a sea-otter skin still more ? It is 
 true that fashion also tends to determine the price ; 
 and it seems that the different tastes of different coun- 
 tries curiously illustrate this. Thus, the black-and- 
 silver fox skins are mostly purchased for the Russians 
 and Chinese ; the red-fox skins are in demand in the 
 East for cloak linings and dress trimmings ; the otter 
 skin is used in the same regions for caps and collars ; 
 the beaver fur, now getting out of use for hats, is be- 
 ing made available as a beautiful kind of cloth for 
 dresses ; the lynx, now out of fashion in England, is a 
 favorite in America. The wolf yields a coarse fur, 
 which the Russians employ for cloaks and coats. The 
 sable has long been a favorite in England, and when 
 dark in color commands a high price ; the minx (the 
 choicest specimens) is said to be now in high favor in 
 Paris ; the musquash is largely used in England, it be- 
 ing made to do duty for more costlj' furs by a little 
 " doctoring ;" the fur of the black bear is chiefly appro- 
 priated by military men, for caps, holsters, rugs, ham- 
 mer-cloths, etc. ; the sea-otter fur is a royal fur in 
 China, and a noble fur in Russia, and hence commands 
 high prices in those countries. 
 
 Most of the furs named in the above paragraph are 
 procured from North America, through the medium 
 of the Hudson's Bay Company ; but there are some 
 European furs which command an extravagant price. 
 The Russian sable, for instance, will sometimes sell 
 for as much as 10 guineas a skin ; and so many of these 
 are employed to form a lining for a cloak, that such a 
 lining has not unfrequently involved a cost of 1000 
 guineas. The corporation of London display their 
 sable-furred gowns or robes on official occasions. The 
 fur called French sable is really that of the stone mar- 
 ten, which the French show much skill in dyeing. The 
 ermine or minever, from Russia and Sweden, is one of 
 the most remarkable of furs, naturally as well as so- 
 cially. Its beautiful and delicate white can only be 
 insured by killing the animal in winter, when all is 
 white except the tip of the tail. In social dignities, the 
 ermine, perhaps, takes the lead of all furs ; for, not 
 only in many countries of the Continent, but in less 
 despotic England, there is a sumptuary law or custom 
 respecting the ermine ; the sovereign, the royal fam- 
 ily, the Deers, the peeresses, and the judges, all wear 
 
 ermine on state occasions ; and this ermine is ' pow- 
 dered' (as the heralds term it) with small black spots 
 or stripes of some other fur ; the number and arrange- 
 ment of the spots and stripes being indicative of the 
 rank of the wearer, and no deviation therefrom being 
 permitted. For the squirrel fur, which is used in 
 larger quantities in England than any other, we are 
 chiefly indebted to Russia. It is cheaper than any 
 other equal to it in appearance ; and some of the 
 white portions are admired for their beauty. The 
 fitch, with its strong and durable fibres, has latterly 
 been passing out of favor. The lamb-skin, at a tender 
 age, has all the beauty of fur ; and some of the foreign 
 specimens command a high price. The cat-sldn is 
 now used largely in England as a fur, greatly to the 
 danger of the domestic " puss" in general. The rab- 
 bit is also an extensively used fur; and the white 
 varieties are made to do duty as substitutes for ermine. 
 The little chinchilla yields a soft and delicate fur, much 
 used in England and France. Angora goat-skin was 
 at one time worn extensively as a fur ; but it is now 
 more customary to remove the hair or wool, and manu- 
 facture it into cloth. Seal-skins, when to be worn as 
 furs, have the long coarse hair removed, and the rich 
 silky down which lies beneath it is dyed of a brownish 
 color. 
 
 When these various furs are gathered together from 
 every quarter of the globe, and consigned to the hands 
 of the furriers, they undergo certain processes, which 
 transform them from quadrupeds' attire into bipeds* 
 attire. The " pelt," or under surface, of each fur has 
 to be converted into a land of leather, by greasing, 
 and pressing, and scraping, and other processes ; and 
 the hairj' or downy surface has to be dyed and pre- 
 pared in various ways, to develop all the beauty 
 which naturally belongs to it, and sometimes to im- 
 part extraneous beauty to it. 
 
 When the light flocculent down from birds is em- 
 ployed as a fur, it requires much patient labor to ad- 
 just all the little fibres to their places, since there is no 
 natural " pelt" or skin attached to the down when re- 
 moved from the animal. As instances of this kind of 
 work, we may adduce the Persian muff and boa lately 
 made from the down of a bird called the egret : theur 
 value was 160 guineas. There had been only three 
 similar sets previously made — for the Empress of 
 Russia, the Princess Adelaide and the Duchess de 
 Berrie. 
 
 Actual Import into London op Fnns and Skins, fbom 
 September 1, 1850, to September 1, 1851— oompeibiko 
 THE entire Collection of tub Hudson's Bat Com- 
 pany, and the entire Collection from Canada amb 
 TUE United States (except Shipments made dieeot 
 from the United States to Germany, and small 
 Lots used for Home Consumption, wiiicu can sot 
 BE ascertained). Tuese entire Imports were sold 
 AT Auction in London, in January, Maeou, and 
 September, 1851. 
 
 Deacrlptlon of BklnB. 
 
 Beaver 
 
 Muskrat 
 
 Otter 
 
 Fisher. 
 
 Marten 
 
 Minx 
 
 Lynx 
 
 Silver Fox . . 
 Cross " . . 
 Red " .. 
 Gray " .. 
 Wbite •' .. 
 Kitt " .. 
 Black Bear. . 
 Brown " .. 
 
 Racoon 
 
 ■Wolf. 
 
 Wolverine.. 
 Wildcat...., 
 
 Hudaon'a Bay 
 Conipiin}>. 
 
 Ciuiada and 
 United States, 
 
 chiefly 
 United States. 
 
 49,685 
 
 194,503 
 
 8,916 
 
 6,297 
 
 64,857 
 
 21,140 
 
 20,388 
 
 527 
 
 1,980 
 
 5,661 
 
 none. 
 
 899 
 
 1,608 
 
 4,826 
 
 1,302 
 
 1,808 
 
 9,745 
 
 1,428 
 
 840 
 
 1,294 
 
 894,200 
 
 8,968 
 
 5,016 
 
 21,150 
 
 210,120 
 
 5,243 
 
 876 
 
 1,681 
 
 84,661 
 
 18,450 
 
 577 
 
 none. 
 
 8,532 
 
 15 
 
 651,246 
 
 10,007 
 
 Total. 
 
 60,929 
 
 1,088,702 
 
 12,884 
 
 11,818 
 
 85,607 
 
 281,260 
 
 26,581 
 
 908 
 
 8,641 
 
 40,222 
 
 18,460 
 
 1476 
 
 1,608 
 
 8,868 
 
 1,817 
 
 553,054 
 
 9,766 
 
 1,431 
 
 10,847 
 
 The North American Fur Company, the leadmg 
 directors of which reside in the city of New York, have 
 
FUR 
 
 113 
 
 FUR 
 
 long enjoyed the principal part of the Indian trade of 
 the great lakes and the upper Mississippi. But, with 
 the exception of the muskrat, most of the fur-clad 
 
 animals are exterminated i;i the vicinity of the lakes. 
 The skins of racoons are of little value ; and the beaver 
 is now scarce on this side of the Bocky Mountains. 
 
 An Account op the Quantities op the peinoipal Vaeibties op Pue imported into Geeat Britain in 1851, speci- 
 FYiNO TUE Countries whence they weub brought, and the Quantity furnished by each Country. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Marten & 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Bsnvcr. 
 
 Ennine. 
 
 Fitoh. 
 
 OosL 
 
 Ed. 
 
 Lnmb. 
 
 Marten 
 lallB. 
 
 Mint- 
 
 MuBquaBh. 
 
 Racoon- 
 
 Seal. 
 
 Sheep. 
 
 Squirrel. 
 
 
 No. 
 
 No. 
 
 No. 
 
 No. 
 
 No. 
 
 No. 
 
 No. 
 
 No. 
 
 No. 
 
 No. 
 
 No. 
 
 No. 
 
 No. 
 
 Russia. 
 
 
 188,216 
 
 11,670 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 10,610 
 
 
 
 
 12,769 
 
 114'2,848,628| 
 
 Norway .> 
 
 
 
 
 14,148 
 
 481 
 
 
 82 
 
 
 < . •• 
 
 
 6,888 
 
 806 
 
 
 Denmark 
 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 
 459 
 
 
 , 
 
 
 2,006 
 
 89,801 
 
 . 16 
 
 
 Hanseatic Towns. 
 
 48 
 
 91,480 
 
 85,234 
 
 16,787 
 
 176 
 
 58,696 
 
 96,616 
 
 6,866 
 
 40,598 
 
 2,902 
 
 67,992 
 
 1,718 
 
 1,729,664 
 
 Holland..; 
 
 
 
 S,Ki 
 
 161,378 
 
 606 
 
 600 
 
 
 
 
 
 7,228 
 
 8,890 
 
 
 Belgium 
 
 
 
 
 7,9St 
 
 7,268 
 
 16,019 
 
 
 1,205 
 
 .... 
 
 
 
 48 
 
 86 
 
 
 France 
 
 
 
 V,8V!: 
 
 86,478 
 
 617,762 
 
 54,888 
 
 15,806 
 
 141 
 
 18,365 
 
 
 
 20,280 
 
 48 
 
 [taly 
 
 
 
 
 200 
 
 88 
 
 27,194 
 2,197 
 
 1,272,868 
 168,214 
 
 2,040 
 
 
 ,... 
 
 
 
 2,824 
 16,642 
 
 
 TurkishDominious 
 
 1 
 
 Morocco 
 
 • . • • 
 
 
 
 7,860 
 
 .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 18,286 
 
 .... 1 
 
 British S.Africa.. 
 
 
 
 
 118,666 
 
 
 
 
 .... 
 
 
 
 4,488 
 
 226,577 
 
 : 
 
 Brit Tor. InE. I.. 
 
 
 
 
 834,031 
 
 62,480 
 
 961 
 
 
 .... 
 
 
 
 
 824,674 
 
 41 
 
 British N. Amer.. 
 
 69,692 
 
 819 
 
 
 23 
 
 
 2 
 
 86,249 
 
 25,822 
 
 828,821 
 
 2,754 
 
 198,669 
 
 
 4,141| 
 
 [Inlted States 
 
 Wi 
 
 18 
 
 
 69,759 
 
 
 
 7,496 
 
 160,408 
 
 1,168,979 
 
 467,671 
 
 1,928 
 
 
 
 Kiode la Plato.... 
 
 .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 55,474 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 12,008 
 
 76,226 
 
 
 Greenland and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Davis's Straits.. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 97,825 
 
 
 
 Other parts 
 
 Total 
 
 89 
 59,959 
 
 
 
 86,924 
 
 
 4,048 
 
 116 
 
 8 
 
 
 7 
 
 2,117 
 
 46,916 
 
 i44{ 
 
 280,480 
 
 65,8991 789,966 616,704 
 
 1,600,109 
 
 220,069' 191,72911,541,268 
 
 465,840! 769,766 
 
 786,204:4,682,6191 
 
 The Fur Trade in Minnesota. — Four or five years ago 
 the fur trade was the paramount commercial and 
 industrial interest of the Territory. Two or three 
 years further back, and it was not only the paramount 
 but the sole business interest. The population of the 
 Territory was composed almost entirely of its employ- 
 ers and attaches. St. Paul derived its whole import- 
 ance (a small importance then) from being the d6p6t 
 of the Winnebago and Chippewa outfits ; while Men- 
 dota, the seat of the Sioux outfit, gave laws to the im- 
 mense region occupied by the Dakotas and chains of 
 trading-posts as far as Lac qui Parle on the Minnesota ; 
 and Pembina, on the Bed Eiver, held the whole coun- 
 trj- like a dependent child at the feet of the magnates 
 of the principal agencies of Pierre Choteau, Jr., & Co. 
 The profits of the fur trade even then had begun to 
 decline. The influx of a white population consequent 
 upon the establishment of a Territorial government — 
 the increase of competition in the Indian trade, con- 
 curring with the gradual decrease of its products, and 
 causes that lay beyond these, and that have been 
 gradually but surely promoting the decline of the 
 western fur trade in general — all contributed to 
 weaken the efficiency of the Fur Company's organiza- 
 tion in our Territorj-, and to render it undesirable to 
 maintam its expensive establishments any longer than 
 was sufficient for settling its affairs. It has accord- 
 ingly had no practical existence since the consumma- 
 tion of the Sioux treaty in 1852, from which the 
 traders received a parting token of several hundred 
 thousand dollars in paj^ment of the accumulated back 
 debts of some thirty years. Since then the trade has 
 been carried on entirely by private individuals, fore- 
 most among whom, however, are some of the old 
 traders. Two houses alone, Messrs. Forbes & Kitt- 
 son, and Messrs. Culver & Farrington, are connected 
 at this time with the fur trade in this city. The dis- 
 organization of the Indian trade on the Minnesota 
 Eiver, and the diversion of the Indians from hunting, 
 by the pernicious system of annuities, has vastly 
 diminislied the productiveness of the fur trade on the 
 Minnesota River. 
 
 The trade is almost entirely limited at present to the 
 Pembina or Bed River regions, and around the head 
 waters of the Mississippi. The buffalo roljes come 
 almost entirely from this source, the buffalo ranges 
 being restricted to the region north of the Cheyenne, 
 and west of the James Biver. The Minnesota Biver 
 country has fallen off in buffaloes very considerably-^ 
 the whole receipts for export from that region not 
 amounting to more than 1200 robes. This does not 
 include, however, the large numbers reserved for home 
 consumption. The table given below, for which we 
 
 are indebted to N. W. Kittson, Esq., exhibits the 
 total exports of furs from St. Paul for the present 
 year : 64,292 rats, $11,672 66 ;• 8276 mmx, $18,621 
 1428 marten, $3,670 ; 1045 fishers, $4702 50 ; 876 red 
 foxes, $1095 ; 3400 coons, $2550 ; 10 wolverines, $26 
 364 badgers, $91; 2,032 wolves, $3048; 405 otters, 
 $1417 60 ; 686 beaver (pounds), $882 ; 2542 kit foxes, 
 $1271 ; 610 bear-skins, $6700 ; 20 cross fox, $100 ; 8 
 silver fox, $400; 50 lynx, $125; 7500 robes, $41,200. 
 Total, $96,750 50. A notable feature of the fur trade 
 for the several years past, is the gradual but sure de- 
 cline of its productiveness — corresponding with a grow- 
 ing demand in Europe and our own .country for furs. 
 Each of these causes has assisted the other to enhance 
 the price of furs — and they have grown expensive — 
 and all these causes concurred to advance prices last 
 year to a sum they never before reached in the American 
 market. Nevertheless it will not do to calculate too 
 surely on last year'? prices for the products of the 
 present year, as the consumption of furs is, after all, 
 entirely dependent on the evanescent caprices of 
 fashion. 
 
 Before closing this article, we will devote a few 
 lines to the character of the men engaged in the fur 
 trade. The character of the hunters and trappers en- 
 gaged in the fur trade throughout the extreme north- 
 west is peculiar and original. The trade is not carried 
 on now, as in former times, by means of batteaux and 
 canoes, which, under the old French and English sys- 
 tems, enlivened the rivers and lakes of our old North- 
 western Territory. The fur-bearing animals have been 
 driven from a great portion of their borders by the ad- 
 vance of emigration, and their shores have become, to 
 a great extent, the sites of substantial farm-houses 
 and prosperous settlements. The canoe has given 
 place to the steamboat, the trading-post to the city. 
 The great bulk of the trade has been transferred to the 
 region of the mountains, whose wild recesses contain 
 no lakes where they can disport their canoes, no streams 
 which can float their furs to market. These traders 
 and trappers transport their goods or furs upon pack- 
 horses, or carry them on their own backs to a naviga- 
 ble stream. They move from place to place on horse- 
 back, sometimes conveying their traps upon their 
 shoulders through deep ravines, up steep precipices, 
 inaccessible to the horse, in search of places which 
 contain their favorite game. The life of the trapper 
 becomes a scene of toil and privation, and yet of pas- 
 sionate excitement. His views are exaggerated, his 
 habits unsettled, his sentiments, generally, noble and 
 generous, like those of a sailor, for the causes which 
 act upon him are similar in their character ; and, like 
 the sailor, he is nowhere contented except when lead- 
 
FUS 
 
 11i 
 
 FUT 
 
 ing Ms life of danger and excitement. Sacli is the 
 life and character of the active agents of the fur trade, 
 tlie sturdy hunters and trappers of the north-west. 
 See Hunt's Mer. Mag., iii., 185 (J. H. Lanman), iii., 
 252 (H. Murray), xiv., 532 (W. Stukgis) ; Journal of 
 Science, xxv., 311 ; Edin. Rev., i., 142. 
 
 Fur-skin Dressing. Fur-skins are usually 
 dressed by placing them in their dried state in tubs, 
 where they undergo a treading operation with men's 
 feet, until they are sufficiently soft and bend easily. 
 The skins, if large, are sewn up, the fur being turned 
 inward; but if small skins, such as ermine, are being 
 dressed, they require no sewing. This sewing is pre- 
 paratory to the greasing with butter or lard, and is 
 intended to protect the far from the grease, and to pro- 
 mote the softening in the succeeding treading operation. 
 The skins are next wetted, and their flesh is removed ; 
 or they are fleshed and then hung up to dry. They are 
 again subjected to treading in tubs containing saw- 
 dust, and afterward in tubs containing plaster of Paris, 
 or whitening, sprinkled between the skins. They are 
 then beaten with a stick and combed : when the dress- 
 ing is completed. M. Pierre Thirion proposes, in his 
 patent of June, 1845, to soften the skins, not by tread- 
 ing, but by beating-stocks, of a construction like the 
 fulling-mill. They are next sewn up, and again fulled 
 in a strong vessel, where they are forced upward by 
 the beaters, turned over and over, and thus speedily 
 softened. They are now fleshed, and then returned 
 to the beating-stocks, and mahogany or other sawdust 
 is sprinkled upon the fur, before the beating is renewed. 
 They are next placed in a heated barrel, furnished 
 within with radial pins for turning the goods over and 
 over, in order that they may be acted upon by various 
 dry substances, which are thrown into the barrel, and 
 absorb the fat from the skins. Through the hollow 
 shaft of the barrel, steam is introduced, which heats 
 the skins, softening the fat, which is then absorbed by 
 sand, flour, or any other desiccative powder. It is 
 proper to take the skins out of the barrel fi*om time to 
 time to comb them. Such as have been sufficiently 
 acted upon may then be set aside. They are lastly 
 freed from the dust by being' subjected to a grated 
 cylinder in a state of rotation, and then combed bj' hand. 
 
 Fusel Oil is the German name of the offensive 
 smelling oil which exists in alcohol, as distilled from 
 the fermented infusions of malt, and com meal of all 
 kinds, as also from the fermented wash of potatoes, 
 and of beets, etc. A like oil occurs in the alcohol 
 distilled from the fermented must of grapes, and the 
 juices of many sweet fruits. This oil is not, however, 
 identical from these several sources ; as may indeed bie 
 inferred from the diversity in the flavors of the differ- 
 ent liquors. But they all agree in being somewhat 
 less volatile than water, and therefore make their ap- 
 pearance chiefly in the spirits toward the end of the 
 distillation process. It is to the presence of this oil 
 that the milkiness of the last, and also sometimes of 
 the first, portions of the spirit that come over, called 
 feints, owe their opalescence and their penetrating 
 odor. When the milky fluid is redistilled, alcohol and 
 water first pass over with very little oil, but if the 
 heat of the still be moderate, the oil may be made a 
 residuum, and obtained in a tolerably concentrated 
 state. 
 
 Fustian (Ger. Barchent ; Du. Fustein; Fr. Fu- 
 taine; It, Fustagno, Frustagno ; Sp. Fvstan; Bus. 
 Bumasea ; Pol. Barchan) is a species of coarse, thick 
 tweeled cotton, and is generally dyed of an olive, 
 leaden, or other dark color. Besides the common fus- 
 tian, which is known by the name of pillow (probably 
 pilaw), the cotton stuffs called corduroy, velverett, 
 velveteen, thicksett, used for men's wearing apparel, 
 belong to the same fabric. The commonest kind is 
 
 merely a tweel of four, or sometimes five leaves, of a 
 very close stout texture, and very narrow, seldom ex- 
 ceeding 17 or 18 inches in breadth. It is cut from the 
 loom in half pieces, or ends, as they are usually termed, 
 about 35 yards long, and after undergoing the subse- 
 quent operations of dyeing, dressing, and folding, is 
 ready for the market. 
 
 Of velvet, there are properly only two kinds, that 
 with a plain, and that with a tweeled, or, as it is here 
 called, a Genoa ground, or back. AVhen the material 
 is silk, it is called velvet ; when cotton, velveteen ; 
 and this is the sole difference. In the same wa}'' a 
 common tweeled cloth, when composed of silk is called 
 satin ; when of cotton, fustian or jean ; of woolen, 
 plaiding, serge, or kerseymere ; and in the linen trade 
 is distinguished by a variet}^ of names according to the 
 quality or fineness, or the place where the article is 
 manufactured. 
 
 Fustic (Ger. Gelbkolz, Fustic ; Du. Geelhout ; Fr. 
 Bois jaune de Bresil ; It. Legno giallo deBrasUio; Sp. 
 Palo del BrasUamarlUo'), the wood of a species of mul- 
 berry (^Morus tinctorid), growing in most parts of 
 South America, in the United States, and the West 
 India Islands. 
 
 It is a large and handsome tree ; and the timber, 
 though, like most other dye-woods, brittle, or, at least, 
 easily splintered, is hard and strong. It is very cxten- 
 sivelj' used as an ingredient in the dyeing of yellow, 
 and is largely imported for that purpose. Of 10,800 
 tons of fustic imported into Great Britain in 1850, 3895 
 tons were brought from New Granada, 2076 from the 
 British West Indies, 1639 from Cuba, 945 from the 
 United States, 750 from Mexico,' and 669 from Brazil. 
 Fustic from Cuba fetches full 30 per cent, more in the 
 London market than that of Jamaica or Colombia. 
 At present the price of the former varies from ^9 to 
 £^ 10s. a ton, while the latter varies from £6 5s. to £6 
 a ton. The consumption amounts to about 6,000 tons 
 a year. The duty on fustic was abolished in 1845. 
 
 Zante, or young fustic, is really a species of sumach 
 (Rhus cotinus, Lin.), and is quite distinct from the 
 Morus tinctoria, or old fustic ; the latter being a large 
 American tree, while the former is a small European 
 shrub. It grows in Italy and the south of France, 
 but is principally exported frOm the Ionian Islands 
 and Patras in the Morea. It imparts a beautiful bright 
 yellow dye to cottons, etc., which, when proper mor- 
 dants are used, is verj'' permanent. It is conveniently 
 stowed among a cargo of drj- goods, as it may be cut 
 into pieces of any length without injury. Only a 
 small quantity of this species of sumach is imported. 
 Its price fluctuates considerably. — Trees of America, 
 
 There are several kinds of fustic-trees which might 
 be formed into a peculiar grouprfrom their baccate 
 seeds. The tree fustic of dyers (Moras tinctoria) is a 
 large tree 60 feet in height, bearing sweet, edible 
 fruit about the size of a nutmeg, and is a native of 
 Central America, Yucatan, Cuba, Jamaica, etc. The 
 whole plant abounds in a slightly glutinous milk, of a 
 sulphureous color. The wood is j^ellow, and is much 
 nsed in dyeing, for which purpose it is chiefly imported 
 into Europe and the United States, under the name of 
 fustic^ood. There is a variety of this species, called 
 Bastard Fustic, a tree smaller in stature, and less val- 
 uable as a dye, and is found from Yucatan to the 
 southern parts of Florida and the Bahama Islands.— 
 Broavne's Trees of America, p. 460. 
 
 Futtocks, in a ship, the timbers raised over the 
 keel, or the encompassing timbers which form her 
 breadth and capacity. Futtoch plates are iron plates 
 crossing the sides of the top-rim perpendicularly. The 
 dead eyes of the topmast rigging are fitted to their 
 upper ends, and the futtock shrouds to their lower 
 ends. — Dana's Seanum's Manual. 
 
GAL 
 
 -775 
 
 GAL 
 
 a. 
 
 GaS, ill nantical language, a spar to wMch the 
 head of a fore-and-aft sail is bent. Gaff-topsail, a 
 small sail set over a gaff, which serves to spread. the 
 foot of the sail. 
 
 Gage, a pledge or pawn given by way of security. 
 II. Gage, a challenge to combat ; that is, a gauntlet, 
 glove, cap, or the like, cast on the ground by the 
 challenger, and taken up by the accepter of the chal- 
 lenge. III. Gage, in nautical language, the depth of 
 water a vessel draws, i. e., the number of feet she sinks 
 in the water. In a different sense, when a ship is to 
 windward of another, she is said to have the weather- 
 gage of such vessel. IV. Gage, among letter-found- 
 ers, a piece of hard wood variously notched, used to 
 adjust the dimensions, slopes, etc., of the different 
 sorts of letters. In joinery it denotes an instrument 
 to strike a line parallel to the straight side of a board. 
 Sliding-gagei among mathematical instrument^makers, 
 a tool for measuring and setting off distances. V. The 
 term gage, implying measure, as of depth, height, 
 force, 'quantity, etc., is frequently used in composition 
 to denote particular kinds of instruments ; as, sea- 
 gage, tide-gage, wind-gage, rain-gage, etc. 
 
 Galaoz, or Galatz, a town of Moldavia, on the 
 left bank of the Danube, between the confluence of 
 the Sereth and Pruth with that river. Lat. 45° 25' 
 N. ; long. 28° E. It is ill-buUt and dirty, though in 
 these respects it has latterly been much improved. 
 Population supposed to amount to 25,000. The trade 
 of the town is chiefly carried on by Greek merchants ; 
 but, within the last few years, various English and 
 other foreigners 'have formed establishments in it. 
 Though at a considerable distance inland, Galacz is in 
 the best position for becoming the port of the Danube. 
 At present, however, it is little more than the port of 
 Moldavia, Ibraila, or Brahilow, about 12 miles further 
 inland, being the port of Wallachia. The commercial 
 importance of these ports, and indeed of the Danube, 
 dates only from the treaty of Adrianople in 1829. 
 Previous to that epoch the trade of the principalities 
 labored under the most oppressive restrictions, and 
 was principally carried on by land. But all articles 
 of native produce may now be freely exported either 
 by sea or land, on paying moderate duties ; and the 
 duties on imports are also, for the most part, compara- 
 tively moderate. The probability, indeed, seems to 
 be that Galacz, " the Alexandria," as it has been 
 called, " of the Scythian Nile," will at no verj' distant 
 period become a first-rate emporium. The rescuing 
 of Moldavia and IVallachia from Tijrldsh misgovem- 
 mcnt has been of signal advantage ; and it is to be 
 hoped that they may never again be subjected to its 
 paralyzing influence. The establishment of a regular 
 intercourse by means of steam packets between Vienna 
 and Galacz, and thence by the Black Sea, with Con- 
 stantinople and Trebizond, has already done a great 
 deal, and will everj^ day do more, to iptroduce a spirit 
 of improvement into the vast and fertile, but long 
 neglected, countries traversed. by the Danube in the 
 lower part of its course. The capacities of this great 
 river as a commercial highway are certainly unequaled 
 by those of any other European stream ; and their full 
 development would be of immeasurable advantage, 
 not merely to the countries on its banks, but to all 
 commercial nations. 
 
 Exports and Imports. — Moldavia and Wallachia are 
 very productive provinces, being fruitful both pf corn 
 and cattle. The high prices of corn in France, Italy, 
 and England, in 1846 and 1847, gave , an extraordinary 
 stimulus to the export trade of Galacz and Ibraila. 
 The exports of wheat from both ports, in 1847, 
 amounted to no fewer than 570,978 quarters, worth on 
 
 board ship, £875,603 ; the exports of Indian corn dur- 
 ing the same years, were 937,720 quarters, worth 
 ill, 172, 160 ; and among the other exports were about 
 320,000 quarters of barley, and 42,000 cwt. of tallow, 
 with a variety of inferior articles. The total value of 
 the exports from the two ports during the above year, 
 amounted to the very large sum of £2,368,472, of 
 which about two thirds were from Ibraila. The qual- 
 ity of the wheat, which is partly hard and partly soft, 
 was, a few years ago, very inferior, being generally 
 damp, and having an earthy smell from its being kept 
 in pits dug in the ground. Latterly, however, it has 
 been much improved j and the finer samples now fetch, 
 in Marseilles, Genoa, and Leghorn, within from 3 to 4 
 per cent, of the price of Odessa wheat. In 1852, we 
 imported 86,140 quarters of Wallachian and Moldavian 
 wheat, with no fewer than 626,714 do. Indian com. 
 Both provinces fatten large herds of cattle, particu- 
 larly Moldavia, which annually sends gi*eat numbers 
 to the Austrian States. Tallow may be had in large 
 quantities, its annual produce, in Wallachia only, be- 
 ing estimated at about 3,000,000 okes, or 8,500,000 
 pounds. Until within these few years, the tallow 
 shipped at Galacz was burdened with a heavy export 
 duty, which checked its sale, and consequently, also, 
 its growth. Happily, however, that duty is now re- 
 duced to 3 per, cent., and the , exportation is rapidly 
 increasing. The quality of the Danubian tallow is 
 excellent. Among the other articles of exports are 
 wool, timber, hides, and skins, lard, butter, bristles, 
 bones, jerked beef, linseed,, barilla, yellow-berries, 
 coarse cheese, etc. Timber of the finest quality may 
 be had in any quantity ; but as it can only be advan- 
 tageously exported in large ships, which can not when 
 laden make their way over the bar, the trade in it has 
 hitherto been confined within comparatively narrow 
 limits. One, however, would be disposed to think 
 that this difficulty might be obviated by sending down 
 the timber in rafts and loading outside the bar. Not- 
 withstanding the recent period at which the naviga- 
 tion of the Danube has been opened, and the barbarous 
 state of the countries in the lower part of its, course, 
 the value of the exports from Galacz and Ibraila 
 probably in 1853 exceeded £1,800,000 a year, of which 
 from £750,000 to ' £800,000 may be from the former. 
 But, considerable as this is, it is nothing to what it 
 certainly would be were civilization to make any con- 
 siderable, progress in the countries traversed by the 
 Danube after it leaves the Austrian dominions, and 
 still more were the river to become, as it naturally is, 
 the principal channel for the conveyance of products 
 to and from Hungary and Transylvania. The great 
 articles of import are manufactured cotton goods, and 
 cotton twi^t, principally from England, the demand 
 for which is rapidly increasing ; with sugar, coffee, 
 and other colonial products ; olives and olive-oil, iron 
 and steel, hardware, etc. 
 
 Entrance to Galacz. — Of the three principal mouths 
 of the rjver, the Soulineh (middle) mouth, in latitude 
 ^5° 10' 30" N., l»ng. 29° 41' 20" E., is the only one 
 accessible by vessels of considerable burden. The 
 depth of water on the bar, at its entrance, half a mile 
 from the shore, varies from 10 to 13 and 14 feet, ac- 
 cording to the season of the year, and the direction of 
 the wind. When the latter blows from the east, it is 
 opposed by the current of water flowing from the 
 west, so that the bar is rapidly increased by the de- 
 posit thereon of the mud brought down bj' the river ; 
 and when, on the contrarj', the current and the wind 
 coincide, the mud is carried out into the sea, and the 
 depth of water on the bar is progressively augmented. 
 The assistance of a powerful dredging-machine, ' or 
 
GAL 
 
 116 
 
 GAL 
 
 machine fitted to stir up the mud, or other deposit 
 forming the bar during the prevalence of westerly 
 winds, would be of great importance ; and it is be- 
 lieved that with its agency the channel might be verj- 
 matferially deepened. Great complaints have been 
 made of the state of the navigation of the Danube 
 during the present j'ear (1853). It appears to have 
 been occasioned partly by difficulties arising out of the 
 disputes between Bussia and Turkey, and partly by 
 the prevalence of easterly winds. But it would be 
 easy, by erecting a light-house, to mark the entrance 
 to the river, and employing a dredging-machine and 
 steam-tugs, to obviate the physical obstructions to the 
 navigation. From the bar to Galacz and Ibraila, 
 there is nowhere less than 18 feet of water, and in 
 many places from 60 to 70. Vessels of 300 tons lie 
 jjlose to the quays at Galacz. The shores at the 
 mouth of the river being low and bordered with reeds 
 and shoals, vessels intending to enter the river gene- 
 rally make the small rocky islet of Phidonisi, or Ser- 
 pent's Isle, in lat. 45° 15' 15" N., long. 30° 10' 30" 
 E., whence the Soulineh mouth bears west by south, 
 distance 23 miles. According to Mr. Cunningham, 
 the first objects seen, on nearing the shore, are the 
 masts of vessels in the river and the houses in the 
 town of Soulineh, which, however, are verj' low. 
 Hagemeister says that there is a wooden tower on the 
 south shore at the entrance to the river ; but though 
 the contrary has been often affirmed, and its position 
 given in Arrowsmith's map, there is certainly no 
 light-house. When a ship approaches the entrance, a 
 boat from the Russian captain of the port goes ofi', and 
 by waving a red flag indicates the course to be kept. 
 Lighters are generally stationed without the bar, into 
 which .large ships discharge a part of their cargoes ; 
 and pilots may generally be obtained from them or 
 other vessels. As the current is sometimes very 
 strong, and difficult to stem, a proper establishment of 
 steam-tugs at the mouth of the river would be a great 
 advantage. An E.S.E. wind carries a vessel from 
 Soulineh to Galacz through all the different reaches 
 of the river ; but otherwise the navigation is difficult, 
 and towing is in parts necessary. 
 
 Frost usually sets in on the Danube in the month of 
 December, and continues till the month of March ; in 
 1833, however, there was no frost. Freights in the 
 ports of the Danube are always from 20 to 25 per cent, 
 higher than in Odessa ; premiums of insurance, on the 
 contrar}^, are not higher than at the latter, except on 
 such vessels as, on account of their size, are obliged to 
 discharge outside the bar. 
 
 Money, Weights, and Measures. — These are mostly 
 the same as at Constantinople, which see. Accounts 
 are kept in piastres and paras. 1 piastre=40 paras. 
 
 Galacz. — Ducat blanc=pia. 44. Silver ruble=15 
 pia. Spanish doUar^lO pia. 32 paras. Turkish yer- 
 melik, old coinage=19 pia. 32 paras ; Turkish yermelik, 
 new coinage=17 pia. 15 paras. Austrian swanzikers 
 ^3 pia. 6 paras. It is to be observed that when ex- 
 changes are so high that it is requisite to remit in 
 specie, any of these coins may go to a premium, ac- 
 cording as it suits better than others for the remit- 
 tance ; and just now, owing to the want of bills to 
 remit to Austria, the ducat blanc^44 pia. 20 paras. 
 
 Ibraila has two rates of currency; the one for 
 charges, which is the same as in Galacz, and the other 
 for the purchase of merchandise, as follows : — Ducat 
 blanc=32 pia. ; Spanish dollar=14J pia. ; Turkish 
 yermelik, old coinage=llJ pia. ; Turkish yermelik, 
 new coinage=12 pia. 28 paras ; swanziker=2 pia. 
 12 paras. Note. — The same as in Galacz, any of these 
 coins may go to a premium. 
 
 Galacz and Ibraila.— A\l duties are paid in both 
 places, in the course of the Treasury, as follows :— 
 Ducat blanc=31-J^ pia. ; silver ruble=10J pia. ; Span- 
 ish dollar=14 pia. ; Turkish yermelik, old=14 pia. ; 
 flwanziker=2J pia. 
 
 The ducat blanc weighs 1 Turkish drachm. 
 
 Exchanges. — Bills can generally be sold on the fol- 
 lowing places, and the present (1842) rates are as 
 noted : it must be observed, however, that these rates 
 are very high ; and when a. great deal of paper is 
 offering, they may go 4 per cent, lower. 
 
 Piafl. Paras. 
 
 Vienna 8m.f.date.. 
 
 Trieste " 
 
 Marseilles " 
 
 Genoa " 
 
 Leghorn " 
 
 London " 
 
 Odessa lOd.f.Bt 
 
 ConBtautinople.il " — 
 
 Weights. — Galacz and Ibraila. 
 44 okes^l cantar. 
 
 Measures. — Galacz and Ibraila. 20 banniza=l 
 kilo. 3 kilo of Galacz=2 kilo of Ibraila. 
 
 Correspondence of WEionTs and Measures of Gtalacz 
 WITH those of foreign Flaces. 
 
 9 
 
 16 per florin. 
 
 !» 
 
 18 " florin. 
 
 8 
 
 26 " franc. 
 
 8 
 
 26 " franc. 
 
 8 
 
 4 " lira. 
 
 9U 
 
 20 " pound sterl. 
 00 " loo roubles. 
 
 i'M 
 
 111) 
 
 00 " 100 of Galacz 
 
 a. 
 
 400 drams=l oke. 
 
 89^ okes 
 
 = 
 
 1 cwt. English. 
 
 78 " 
 
 = 
 
 100 kilogrammes. 
 
 44 
 
 = 
 
 100 fund of Vienna. 
 
 12| " 
 
 
 
 1 pud of Russia. 
 ISO Imperial quarters. 
 
 100 kilo of Galacz 
 
 = 
 
 100 
 
 = 
 
 485 hectolitres. 
 
 100 '• 
 
 = 
 
 425 stajo of Venice. 
 
 100 " 
 
 = 
 
 600 sacks of Leghorn. 
 
 100 
 
 = 
 
 280 cbetwerts of Odessa. 
 
 160 okes linseed 
 
 = 
 
 1 Imperial quarter. 
 
 55 " 
 
 = 
 
 1 hectolitre. 
 
 115 " 
 
 = 
 
 1 cbetwert. 
 
 1 kilo of Brahilow. . 
 
 = 
 
 21 Imperial quarters. 
 
 ^ote. — These measures generally measure out somewhat 
 
 less. 
 
 Note of Exports from Galacz by Sea in 1851, in En- 
 glish Weights and Measuees, and Value of thb 
 SAME IN Steeling Money, feee on Boakd, 
 
 Articles. Qimntity. Value. 
 
 Wheat quarters 184,474 £141,198 
 
 Indian corn "■ 350,682 280;j45 
 
 Eye " 71,024 49,716 
 
 Tallow and chervice cwt. 4,849 7,393 
 
 Ox hides. pieces. 1,547 778 
 
 Wine gallons. 86,400 2,880 
 
 Planks and deals pieces. 429,515 7,158 
 
 Masts and spars rafts. 5 8,500 
 
 Sundries 3,205 
 
 Total £496,868 
 
 Destination of Vessels depaeting- loaded feom Galacz, 
 AND Cargoes of same, in 1851. 
 
 Destination. 
 
 Constantinople. 
 Trieste* Van ice 
 Ionian Islands. 
 Leghorn, Genoa 
 and Marseilles 
 Eugland. . . . 
 North of Europe 
 
 Odessa 
 
 Total... 
 
 No. of 
 vessels 
 
 1T6 
 8T 
 S 
 
 85 
 296 
 14 
 
 619 
 
 44,984 
 23,281 
 
 14 
 
 80,427 
 85,868 
 
 Qra. 
 20,40r 
 26,077 
 
 4,832 
 
 3,316 
 
 295,200 
 
 1,850 
 
 840 
 15,664 
 10,638 
 
 184,074 I 850,6i!2 | 71,024 
 
 1,925 
 
 Note op Exports from Ireaila by Sea in 1851, in En- 
 glish "Weights akd Measures, and Value of tub 
 SAME IN Sterling Money, free on Board. 
 
 Merchandise. Quantity. Vnlue. 
 
 ■Wheat quarters 288,106 £254,795 
 
 Indian corn " 646,617 404,186 
 
 Bariey " 105,697 62,799 
 
 Wool lbs. 129,896 4,880 
 
 Tallow and chervice cwt. 80,088 46,057 
 
 Butter, or mantecca " 428 856 
 
 Cheese, or caskaval " 1,164 768 
 
 Staves pieces 550,039 9,167 
 
 Bone-ash i tons 705 2,291 
 
 Sundries '. 8,968 
 
 Total 778,167 
 
 Port Charges. — In Galacz anchorage is 30 pia., 
 and a guardian for 5 days' observation, 5 pia. per day. 
 In Ibraila anchorage is 17J pia., and guardian for 5 
 days' observation, 5 pia. per day. 
 
 Quarantine. — Vessels generally remain in quaran- 
 tine during their stay, as little or no advantage is 
 gained by taking pratique. _ . 
 
 Vessels wishing to take pratique may obtain it m 
 14 to 21 days according to the state of health in Tor- 
 
GAL 
 
 nil 
 
 GAL 
 
 key, by taking a Health Office guard on board ; or 
 
 the captain alone may take pratique, the same as any 
 
 passenger, by going into the lazzaret. During the 
 
 last year, as the health was good in Constantinople 
 
 and along the Danube, the quarantine was only seven 
 
 days. 
 
 Destination of Vebbkls dbpaeting loaded prom Ibbaila, 
 
 AND CabGOEB of THE SAME, IN 1851. 
 
 Destimttion, 
 
 No. of 
 Vesuln. 
 
 ■Wheat. 
 
 Indlnll 
 con). 
 
 Barley. 
 
 
 490 
 
 188 
 
 16 
 
 35 
 820 
 
 Qr». 
 
 108,144 
 84,103 
 18,278 
 
 26,998 
 100,593 
 
 181,880 
 
 172,105 
 
 1,897 
 
 4,908 
 
 286,882 
 
 (Jr.. 
 
 104,569 
 
 1,028 
 
 Trieste and Venice 
 
 Ionian Islands 
 
 Leghorn, Genoa, and \ 
 Marseilles f 
 
 Total 
 
 1,049 
 
 288,106 
 
 646,617 
 
 106,697 
 
 
 The total number of vessels departing from Galacz 
 and Ibraila in 1851 was, 1,668, with an aggregate 
 tonnage of 300,845. Of these, 534 were Greek, with 
 an aggregate tonnage of 112,438 j 352 were Turkish, 
 with an aggregate tonnage of 50,234 ; and 304 vessels 
 
 were English, with an aggregate tonnage of 55,625. 
 There was one vessel from Buenos Ayres. 
 
 The export of grain constitutes the leading com- 
 mercial movement of the port of Galacz. The follow 
 ing table exhibits the grain export trade of the porta 
 of Galacz and Ibraila, during three consecutive years : 
 
 Gralaa. 
 
 1849. 
 
 1850. 
 
 1881. 
 
 FEOM GAIATZ. 
 Wheat. 
 
 Quartere. 
 
 178,797 
 
 268,763 
 
 60,617 
 
 Quarten. 
 
 140,682 
 122,875 
 62,776 
 
 Quarters, 
 
 184,474 
 
 860,682 
 
 71,024 
 
 Indian com 
 
 Eve 
 
 Total 
 
 498,177 
 
 816,803 
 
 656,180 
 
 FEOM IBEAILA. 
 Wheat 
 
 117,486 
 885,682 
 72,936 
 
 283,290 
 149,782 
 44,694 
 
 283,106 
 646,617 
 105,597 
 
 Indian corn 
 
 Eye 
 
 Total 
 
 626,904 
 
 577,616 
 
 1,086,320 
 
 
 The ports to which these vast quantities of grain 
 are shipped, will be seen from the following return of 
 the export trade during the same years : 
 
 YBABB. 
 
 CONST AKTIKOPLE. 
 
 TKIK3TK 
 
 U«D VENICB. 
 
 MAK3EILLE8, GENOA, & LEGHOBN, 
 
 GBEAT 
 
 BRITAIN. 
 
 Xo, of vessels. 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 No.ofve..ols. 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 No. of vessels. 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 No. of yoasels. 
 
 Qusricrs. 
 
 1848.... 
 1849,... 
 1850.... 
 1851..,. 
 
 492 
 620 
 447 
 666 
 
 829,022 
 404,816 
 294,607 
 466,789 
 
 187 
 
 126 
 104 
 276 
 
 178,615 
 130,976 
 111,026 
 294,876 
 
 160 
 101 
 70 
 70 
 
 117,280 
 71,656 
 60,006 
 66,479 
 
 280 
 297 
 268 
 606 
 
 264,691 
 389,774 
 816,019 
 688,707 
 
 The port of Galacz is the outlet for the produce of 
 Wallachia and Moldavia. And its imports in 1850' 
 amounted to $2,175,000, its exports, consisting of 
 grain, tallow, preserved meat, wine, and linseed, 
 reach, annually, about $3,877,660. How far Amer- 
 ican interests might be promoted in the foreign trade 
 of the Dauubian and other ports of the Turkish do- 
 minions, may be gathered from the following table, 
 exhibiting the articles of foreign and colonial produce 
 exported to Turkey in the year 1851. The table in- 
 cludes, also,, the imports into Wallachia, Moldavia, 
 Syria, Palestine, and Egypt : 
 
 Description of mercliandlBe. Quantities. 
 
 Peruvian bark cwts. 60 
 
 Cassia Ugnea pounds 17,620 
 
 Cloves " 39,108 
 
 Cochineal owts. 1,946 
 
 Cocoa pounds 2,908 
 
 Coffee " 620,502 
 
 Ginger cwte. 97 
 
 Gum shellac " 15 
 
 Indigo " 5,927 
 
 Iron " 61 
 
 Cotton manufactures (value) $4,210 
 
 Logwood tons 76 
 
 Nutmegs pounds 8,621 
 
 Opium " 6,406 
 
 Pepper " 478,604 
 
 Pimento cwts 720 
 
 Quicksilver pounds 420 
 
 Ehnbarb " 1,286 
 
 Eioo. owts. 5,049 
 
 Silk , pounds 1,246 
 
 Taffoties pieces 6,978 
 
 Spirits. gallons 66,961 
 
 Sugar. cwts. 6,801 
 
 Tea pounds 197,485 
 
 Tobacco " 169,022 
 
 Wine gallons 6,786 
 
 Wool pounds 4,511 
 
 Duties. — An ad valorem, duty of 3 per cent, is levied 
 on all articles, except provisions, imported into, or 
 exported from, the principalities of Moldavia and 
 "Wallachia. Government reserves to itself the power 
 of prohibiting the exportation of any article, but it 
 has to give a month's previous notice of any such pro- 
 hibition. 
 
 Galacz is a free port ; that is, a port at which all 
 commodities may be landed, warehoused, re-exported, 
 and consumed in the town, free of duty. Quaran- 
 tine regulations are strictly enforced, unless performed 
 previously to entering the river. 
 
 Ismail and Reni, ports of the Russian province of 
 Bessarabia, are situated on the Danube, and are both, 
 but especially Ismail, a good deal nearer its month 
 
 than Galacz ; but they are much less considerable in 
 point of commercial importance. Having little im- 
 portation, their trade is confined almost entirely to the 
 exportation of com, and even in this respect they are 
 very inferior to Galacz and Brahilow. They are sub- 
 ject to the Russian duties and regulations. We have 
 gleaned these particulars from a variety of works, but 
 principally from the valuable iJcportbyMr. Cunning- 
 ham, now vice-consul at Brahilow, printed at Galacz 
 in 1841 ; the work of Hagemeister, On the Commerce of 
 the Black Sea, Eng. trans, pp. 83-95, etc. ; Purdai/s 
 Sailing Directions to the Black Sea, p. 193, etc. 
 Account of the Qitantities and Talues of the peinoi- 
 
 PAL AEIICLF.S IMPOKTED INTO AND EXPORTED FROM 
 
 Varna in 1847. 
 
 IMPORTS. 
 
 Almonds cwts 
 
 Carohs. " 
 
 Coffee " 
 
 Cotton twist packets 
 
 Cloths, woolen bales 
 
 Cloths, cotton J " 
 
 Figs i.cwts 
 
 Iron tons 
 
 Olive oil cwts 
 
 Olives 
 
 Pepper and other spices .pounds 
 
 Eaislns cwts 
 
 Sugar " 
 
 Soap " 
 
 Salt tons 
 
 Tin cin bars) bands 
 
 Spirits gallons 
 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 Total 
 
 Wheat quarter! 
 
 Barley " 
 
 Hides number 
 
 Tallow cwts 
 
 Butter , " 
 
 Cheese " 
 
 Walnuts bushels 
 
 Wool pounds 
 
 Dried beef or pasturma. , .cwts. 
 Miscellaneous, including poul- 
 try and eggs 
 
 Total 
 
 Quantities. 
 
 Value in 
 £ sterling. 
 
 24 
 
 60 
 
 10,803 
 
 6,000 
 
 14,268 
 
 30,000 
 
 180,000 
 
 32,000 
 
 200 
 
 10,000 
 
 200 
 
 7,000 
 
 8,000 
 
 2,400 
 
 500 
 
 7,000 
 
 2,107 
 
 6,067 
 
 3,000 
 
 2,400 
 
 14,500 
 
 1,612 
 
 10,535 
 
 6,822 
 
 5,266 
 
 11,585 
 
 1,875 
 
 4,126 
 
 928 
 
 1,800 
 
 727 
 
 2,000 
 
 500,000 
 
 76,000 
 
 
 10,000 
 
 
 £214,861 
 
 877,600 
 
 £471,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 6,000 
 
 100,000 
 
 84,456 
 
 92,714 
 
 176,800 
 
 9,482 
 
 21,816 
 
 24,000 
 
 63,686 
 
 10,000 
 
 1,000 
 
 112,600 
 
 2,000 
 
 56,817 
 
 25,000 
 
 
 25,000 
 £875,708 
 
 
 The port of Varna is situated on the W. coast of the 
 Black Sea, at the bottom of a rather small bay, about 
 3 miles N.W. Cape Galata, the latter being in lat. 43° 
 
GAL 
 
 118 
 
 GAL 
 
 10' N., long. 27° 58}' E. The ordinary anchorage 
 is to the S.E. of the town, in 7 or 8 fathoms, bottom 
 sand and oaze. It is open to all winds between E. 
 and S.S.E. Vessels load and unload by means of 
 lighters, it being dangerous to approach within less 
 than one 'quarter of a mile of the shore. Both hard 
 and soft wheat are shipped from Varna, the value of 
 tile former being from 30 to 40 per cent, greater than 
 that of the latter. An export duty is charged on 
 wheat when exported, and being a fixed duty of about 
 2s. 8d. a quarter, it is high when prices are low, and 
 low when the)' are high. 
 
 Steam to Galacz. — Steam navigation was first estab- 
 lished on the Danube in 1830, since which the under- 
 taliing has gone on prospering, so much so, that the 
 communication between Vienna and Constantinople is 
 now maintained by a line of 7 or 8 steam vessels. 
 The Austrian Steam Company, which was the first in 
 the field, have extended their scheme by starting ves- 
 sels between Vienna and Linz, and a Bavarian Com- 
 pany commenced in 1838 running vessels between 
 Katisbon and Linz. At present (or very recently) 
 steamboats ply on the Danube as long as the river is 
 free from ice (usually from Februarj' or March to No- 
 vember), from Eatisbon to Linz, once a week ; Linz 
 to Vienna, 10 hours, once a weelt ; Vienna to Presburg 
 and Pesth, twice ; Pesth to Drencova, once a week ; 
 Gladova to Galacz, once a week ; Galacz to Constan- 
 tinople, once a fortnight. The voyage from Vienna 
 to Constantinople, including stoppages, is seldom per- 
 formed in less than 14 days, and sometimes occupies 
 17 ; in returning against the stream it talces at least a 
 month, including 10 days' quarantine at Orsova. The 
 fare was lately, first place, 134 florins, about £1S ; 
 second place, 94 florins. 
 
 The navigation of the Danube by steamers is unfor- 
 tunately interrupted for about 50 miles, between Dren- 
 cova and Gladova, by rocks and rapids, the lowest and 
 most considerable of which is a sort of cataract, called 
 the "Irongate," about 3 miles below the Hungarian 
 frontier. It is worthy of remark that the most illus- 
 trious of the Roman emperors, Trajan, alive to all the 
 advantages to be derived from the easy navigation of 
 the Danube, had with equal industrj' and sagacity 
 formed a road, or towing path, along the river's edge, 
 for facilitating the operation of towing, of which the 
 remains are still extant, with an inscription commem- 
 orative of the completion of the works. It has been 
 proposed to overcome the diificulties in the way of the 
 navigation by renovating the old Roman road, and 
 deepening the channel contiguous to it. But it rarely 
 happens that attempts to improve the navigation in 
 the bed of a river, under any thing like similar cir- 
 cumstances, are even tolerably successful. The bet- 
 ter way undoubtedly would be, were it practicable, to 
 construct a lateral canal, or rather a canal from the 
 mouth of the Bereska to Palanka, which would not 
 only avoid the rapids, but also shorten the navigation 
 by getting rid of the bend of the river by Orsova. 
 But the difficulties in tlie way of such an undertak- 
 ing, from the nature of the ground, are said to be 
 insuperable ; and it is, therefore, probable that the 
 distance of 50 miles along the rapids will continue, if 
 not always, at least for some considerable time, a port- 
 age. The inconvenience, however, of this break in 
 the navigation has been diminished, as far as possible, 
 by the construction of an admirable carriage road, at 
 great expense, by the Hungarian diet, from Moldova 
 to Orsova. In the extent of excavations in the rock, 
 and terraces of masonrj', upon which it is carried, it 
 is not inferior as a specimen of engineering to the 
 finest roads over the Alps. Several steamers have 
 been transported down these rapids at the season of 
 floods, small barges pass them at all times, and little 
 boats, laden with wax and wool, are towed up by men 
 and oxen. The passengers and goods conveyed by 
 the steamers are transferred from Moldova in row- 
 
 boats, to Gladova, below the Irongate, where they 
 embark on another steamer. — Geog. Did. art. Damibe. 
 A railroad is completed from Brunn, the capital of 
 Moravia, to Vienna ; another railroad diverges, from 
 the Danube at Linz, north to Budweis in Bohemia, 
 where it reaches the banks of the Muldau, and through 
 it communicates with .the Elbe. 
 
 Junction of the Danube and the Rhine. — The long 
 projected canal to unite the Danube and Rhine, the 
 favorite scheme of Charlemagne, having been under- 
 taken by the Bavarian government, was completed 
 and opened in 1846. It extends from Bamberg, bv 
 Erlangen and Nuremberg, to Neumark, joining thei 
 Danube at Kellheim, a few miles above Ratisbon. 
 The distance between the Maine near Bamberg, and 
 the Danube, is about 112 miles ; but the actual extent 
 of canal is less, the communication being in part 
 eff'ected by the Regnitz, a tributarj' of the Maine, and 
 the Altmuhl, a tributary of the Danube. There is 
 now, consequently, an internal communication by 
 water throughout all the vast countrj', stretching from 
 the shores of the Netherlands to the Black Sea ; so 
 that produce shipped at Rotterdam or at Galacz may 
 be conveyed from the one to the other in the same 
 
 Galangal (Ger. Galgant; Du. and Fr. Galanga; 
 Rus. Kalgan ,■ Lat. Galanga ; Arab. Kussiiulh ; Chin. 
 Lavundon')^ the root of the galanga^ brought from China 
 and the East Indies in pieces about an inch long, and 
 hardly half an inch thick. A larger root of the same 
 kind (^greater galangal'), an inch or more in thickness, 
 is to be rejected. It has an aromatic smell, not very 
 grateful ; and an unpleasant, bitterish, extremely hot, 
 biting taste. It should be cliosen full and plump, of a 
 bright cclor, very firm and sound. 12 cwt. are allowed 
 to a ton. — Lewis's Mat. Med. ; Melbdkn's Orient. 
 Com. 
 
 Galapagos, a group of islands in the Pacific Ocean, 
 so called from the Spanish galdpago, a land tortoise, 
 from their abounding in that animal. They consist of 
 six principal and seven smaller islands, lying between 
 1° N. and 2° S. lat., and between 89° and 92° W. 
 long., about 700 miles from the continent of South 
 America. The largest, Albemarle Island, is GO miles 
 in length, by about 15 in breadth. The highest part 
 is 4000 feet above the sea. They are all of volcanic 
 origin ; and along their shores black dismal-looking 
 heaps of broken lava everj^where meet the eye. In 
 many places the lava clifi's are very high, while close 
 to them the water is so deep that a ship can not anchor 
 even in a calm. In the interior are some valleys and 
 plains of moderate extent and of great fertility. The 
 land tortoises, called the great elephant tortoises, 
 their feet being like those of a small elephant, are nu- 
 merous, and grow to a great size, frequently weighing 
 several hundred pounds. A small colony has been 
 established on Charles Island, in a plain about 1000 
 feet above the sea. They cultivate bananas, sugar- 
 canes, sweet potatoes, and Indian com, and supply 
 with these articles the whalers who resort to the isl- 
 and. The climate is healthy, and the heafmoderate, 
 considering the geographical position of these islands. 
 
 Galatz. See Galacz. 
 
 Galbanum (Fr. Galhanum; Ger. Muiterhtms; It. 
 Galbano ; Lat. Galbanum ; Arab. Banud), a, species of 
 gum resin obtained from a perennial plant (^gaVianum of- 
 fciiude) growing in Africa, near the Cape of Good Hope, 
 and in Syria and Persia. It is brought to this countiy 
 from the Levant in cases or chests containing from 100 
 to 300 lbs. each. The beet is in ductile masses, com- 
 posed of distinct whitish tears agglutinated together 
 by a pale brown or yellowish substance. It is gener- 
 ally much mixed with stalks, seeds, and other impuri- 
 ties. The separate tears are considered as tlie best. 
 When the color is dark brown or blackish, it is to "be 
 rejected. It has a strong peculiar odor, and bitterish, 
 warm, acrid taste. — Thomson's Dispensatory. 
 
GAL 
 
 779 
 
 GAL 
 
 ■ Gale, of Wind. The sea term for a continued 
 storm of wind : the lowest degree is the fresh gale, the 
 next a Strong gale, and the next a heavj* or hard 
 gale. 
 
 Galena, a city of Jo Daviess county, IlUnois, 230 
 miles north-west of Springfield, situated on Fever or 
 Bean River, and on the Galena and Chicagd Kailroad, 
 and the metropolis of the great Iftad regibn. It is 'six 
 miles abbve the mouth' of the river, which is navigable 
 to this plWe, at all stages of th'e water, for the largest 
 steamboats. It has an intercourse by steamboat with 
 St. Louis, New Orleans, Louisville, Cincinnaiti, and 
 other places on the Mississippi a-hd Ohio Eivers. The 
 amount of lead shipped from Galena and vicinity an- 
 nually is 42,000,000 Of pounds, valued at $1,780,000, 
 employing about 2000 persons. The niost prodnctive 
 otes of zinc and copper, sulphuret and carbonate of 
 zinc aiid sttlffliuret of coppet everywhere abotmd in this 
 region.' ■ Thousands of tons of zinc lie upon the sur- 
 fate, and are-tleglected, because, in the absence of coal, 
 it can nOt'be profitably smelted. It is popularly known 
 there as Dfy Bones and Black Jack. Sulphate of iron 
 is found itt' sheets of larger extent, ranging from a few 
 inches to several feet in thickness. 
 
 Galena (Fr. Plomb sulfuri ; Ger. Bleiglanz), is a 
 metallic-looking substance of a lead-gray color, which 
 crj'stallizes in the cubical systetn, and is susceptible 
 of cleavages parallel to the faces of the cube j specific 
 gravity, 7"7592 ; can not ' be cut ; fusible at the blow- 
 pipe with ■ exhalation of sulphurous vapors ; is easily 
 reduced to metallic lead. Nitric acid first dissolves it, 
 and then throws down sulphate of lead in a white pre- 
 cipitate; the solution affording, with plates of zinc, 
 brilliant laminae of lead (arbor Saturni). It consists 
 of sulphur, 13 ; lead, 85 ; with a little iron, and some- 
 times a minute quantity of Silver. This is the richest 
 ore of lead, and it occurs in almost every gebiogical 
 formation, in veins, in masses, or in beds. It is almost 
 alwaj^s accompanied by sulphuret of zinc, different 
 salts of lead, heavy spar, fluor spar, etc. Galena in 
 powder, called alquifoux, iS employed as a glaze for 
 coarse stonework. 
 
 Galipot is a name of a white semi-solid viscid resin 
 found on ' fir-trees ; or an inferior sort of tur{)entine, 
 poor in oil. 
 
 Galleons. Certain Spanish treasure-ships with 
 three or four decks, formerly employed in communi- 
 cating with Peru. ' • ^ ■ 
 
 Galley (Fr. gdlire), a low-built vessel propelled by 
 sails and oars, either on a single tier, or on tiers of 
 benches one above the other. The war vessels of an- 
 tiquity were all galleys. Among the Greeks, those 
 chiefly mentioned are the pentecontori, which appear 
 to have had 50 oars disposed in a single tier ; and the 
 trieres (Lat. triremes'),, vessels with three hanks of oars, 
 concerhing the disposition of which much controversy 
 has taken place. It is cOihmonly supposed that a 
 trireme had three bhnks of oars, one above the other ; 
 but this is rendered improbable 'by the circnmstance of 
 Pliny making mention of galleys having 30, 40, and 
 even 50 banks of oars ; for it seems hardly credible 
 that so many could have been arranged directly above 
 each other. Some have suggested that the rows of 
 oars in the trireme were disposed, not horizontally, 
 but obliquely; in which case an increase in the num- 
 ber of banks of oars would augment the length, and 
 probably the height would be increased' in proportion. 
 See MeiboTnius, Be Fahrica vetetnim Trieremmm, 
 
 Galleys were likewise chiefly ^employed by the mari- 
 time nations of the middle ages in the Mediterranean. 
 Their use in naval war hardly ceased until the end of 
 the 17th centurj' ; and the Venetian republic; down to 
 the period of its extinction, always maintained a num- 
 ber of war-galleys. The Venetian galleys had a single 
 tier only, and all modern galleys followed the same 
 construction. These were formidable vessels in a calm, 
 but unfit for sea, and accordingly found chiefly in the 
 
 Mediterranen, The Venetians had also a large high- 
 pooped 'sort of galley called geleazza, whence the word 
 galleass and galliott in old English writers. 
 
 The Deal galley is a long narrow boat used by the 
 Deal boatmen, and managed, on the most hazardous oc- 
 casions, in saving the crews of stranded vessels, with 
 consummate skill. It is also used by smugglers, on 
 account of its velocity. The galley is also the kitchen 
 of a ship. 
 
 The punishment of the galleys^ i. e., the employment 
 of condemned criminals in the toilsome employment of 
 rowing them, is said to have originated under the 
 Greek empire, as well as the name VaXeiipoL, or galle}''- 
 slaves — in French, gaUrlens. It was used ' by all the 
 nations bordering on the Mediterranean. In France, 
 under the old jurisprudence, the punishment of the gal- 
 leys was the severest after that of death. About the 
 end of the reign of Louis XIV., when galleys them- 
 selves began to he disused, the gallej'-slaves were em- 
 ployed in hospitals, public works, etc. ; and the' name 
 of the punishment was changed by the Constituent 
 Asseinbly (1789) ' to travaux f&rcis, compulsory labor, 
 whence the word forgat for a criminal so condemned. 
 Under the code of the empire, the 'punishment was ac- 
 companied with forfeiture of property, infamy, and 
 branding. By an alteration of the law, effected in 
 1832, the brand was abolished ; and the criminals, who 
 had hitherto been intermingled in the three penal fort- 
 resses (Toulon, Eochefort, and Brest), were classified. 
 Toulon is now appropriated to those condemned for 10 
 years and under, Brest to those from 10 to 20, Roche- 
 fort to the condemned for life. The ' name Bagne, 
 which is applied in France to prisons in which those 
 condemned to compulsory labor are confined, is derived 
 from the famous Bagnio prison, at Constantinople, so 
 called on account of some baths situated there. The 
 principal crimes now punished in this manner by the 
 French law are^-some acts of violence against the 
 government or public law, coining and forgery, as- 
 saults, followed by death, on legal officers, murder, un- 
 less imder such aggravated circumstances as are pun- 
 ished by death, cutting and maiming, rape, abduction, 
 burglary) highway robbery, burning of insulated 
 buildings, threatening letters, perjury, etc. 
 
 Gallipoli, a seaport town of ^outh Italy, king- 
 dom of Naples, province Terra di Otranto, on the east 
 shore of the Gulf of Taranto, on the rocky islet at the 
 west extremity of a narrow peninsula, to which it is 
 joined by a bridge; lat.- 40° 3' N., long. 17° 58' E. 
 It is fortified, has a castle, and is well built. Popula- 
 tion about 7000 (6709 in 1843). It is the principal 
 port of the Mediterranean for the shipment of olive 
 oil, and has, in Consequence, a considerable trade. It 
 is indebted for this distinction partly to its being situ- 
 ated in a country where oil is produced in the greatest 
 abundance, but more, perhaps, to the circumstance of 
 the cisterns cut in the limestone rock on which the 
 town is built, being peculiarly well fitted for the pres- 
 ervation of the oil. They do not differ much in ap- 
 pearance from a common water-tank. They are 
 usually under the houses of the inhabitants ; are 
 arched over, with the exception of a circular hole, into 
 which the oil is poured, and through which it is again 
 drawn up. It will keep in these cisterns for an indef- 
 inite period ; and is materiaUy improved/ not only in 
 clearness, but also in flavor. When the oil is to be 
 shipped, it is drawn ofi' from the cisterns into uteri, or 
 skins, which are carried on men's backs to the shore, 
 where the casks, being filled, are conveyed in lighters 
 to the ships. 
 
 Gallipoli has no harbor, but a bay or roadstead 
 north-east of the town. The latter has from 10 to 12 
 fathoms water ; but it shoals toward the shore ; and 
 vessels of considerable burden should not come within 
 less than a musket-shot of the land. Those that come 
 nearest to the shore, moor with their beads to the north- 
 west, with two cables out ahead and two astern, in 
 
GAL 
 
 780 
 
 GAL 
 
 from 16 to 20 feet of water. The only danger in en- 
 tering or leaving the roads is a blind rock at their en- 
 trance, about 500 yards N.N.E. from the fort. It has 
 only about from five to seven feet of water ; and as it is 
 not marked by any buoy, pilots should be employed by 
 foreigners. A tunny fishery is carried on inside the 
 bay ; but the nets are easily avoided. Winds from 
 the north and north-west throw in a heavy sea. About 
 1| miles west from the town is the low, flat island of 
 St. Andrea. It is said, in Nories^s Sailing Directions 
 for the Mediterranean, that there is a light-house on 
 this island. But, though a light-house on it would be 
 of great service to ships making the port, and though 
 it be laid down in some of the charts of this sea, the 
 truth is that none such really exists, nor is there even 
 a tower on the island ! There are some lesser islands 
 between St. Andrea and the main-land. There is deep 
 water between the former and the nearest islands, but 
 not between the latter and the town. A dangerous 
 shoal lies about half a mile south of St. Andrea. 
 
 Gallipoli Oil is a coarse olive oil, containing more 
 or less mucilage, imported from a sea-port, so named, 
 of the province of Otranto, in the kingdom of Naples. 
 
 Galls, or Gall-Nuts (Fr. Galles Noix de Galle; 
 Ger. Gallapfel^ Gallus ; It. Galic, Galluze; Lat. Galce; 
 Arab. Ajis ; Hind. Majouphal ; Per. Mazu), are ex- 
 crescences produced bj' the attacks of a small insect, 
 which deposits its eggs in the tender shoots of a spe- 
 cies of oak (Quercus infecioria Linn.), abundant in 
 Asia Minor, Syria, Persia, etc. Galls are inodorous, 
 and have a nauseously bitter and astringent taste. 
 They are nearly spherical, and vary in magnitude from 
 the size of a pea to that of a hazel-nut. When good, 
 they are of a black or deep olive color ; their surface 
 is tubercular, and almost prickly ; they are heavy, 
 brittle, and break with a flinty fracture. They are 
 known in commerce bj' the names of white, green, and 
 blue. The white galls are those which have not been 
 gathered till after the insect has eaten its wa)'- out of 
 the nidus and made its escape. They are not so heavy 
 as the others, and are of a lighter color, and do not 
 fetch so high a price. The green and blue galls are 
 gathered before the insect has escaped ; they are 
 heavier and darker than the former, and are said to 
 afford about one third more of coloring matter. 
 
 Galls are of great importance in the arts, being 
 very extensively used in dyeing, and in the manufac- 
 ture of ink, of which they form one of the principal 
 ingredients. They are the most powerful of all the 
 vegetable astringents ; and are frequently used with 
 great effect in medicine. Galls consist principally of 
 three substances ; tannin or tannic acid ; yellow ex- 
 tractive ; and gallic acid. The decoction has a very 
 astringent and unpleasant bitter taste. The ancients 
 reckoned the gall-nuts of Syria superior to every 
 other, and they still retain their pre-eminence. They 
 are principally exported from Aleppo, Tripoli, Smyrna, 
 and Said; those brought from the first come chiefly 
 from Mosul, on the western bank of the Tigris, about 
 ten days' journey from Aleppo. The real Mosul galls 
 are unquestionably the best of any ; but all that are 
 gathered in the surrounding country are sold under 
 this name. Those from Caramania are of a very infe- 
 rior quality. The galls met with in India are carried 
 thither from Persia by Arabian merchants. It is not 
 unusual to dye the whitish gall-nuts blue, in order to 
 increase their value. The fraud is, however, detected 
 by the deeper blue tinge that is thus imparted to 
 them ; and by their being perforated .and lighter than 
 the genuine blue galls. — Bancroft on Colors ; Ains- 
 lie's Mat. Indica, etc. 
 
 The Gall-nut Oak (Quercus infectoria), a native of 
 Persia, Asia Minor, Arabia, Egypt, Morocco, and Al- 
 geria, in its natural habitat, is an evergreen shrub, 
 with a crooked stem, and seldom attains six feet in 
 height. From the circumstance of its growing near 
 Paris, where it bears the winter quite well in the open 
 
 air, though losing its leaves in the autumn, it doubtless 
 would be adapted to the climate of our middle and 
 southern States. On this shrub, it may be unnecessary 
 to state, is found the well-known *' gall-nuts" of com- 
 merce, which are extensively used in the manufacture 
 of writing-ink, and in dyeing. These excrescences are 
 the product of the gall-fly (Cynips scriplorum), a small 
 insect of a pale-brown color, which may often be found 
 inclosed in the galls sold in the shops of the drug- 
 gists, collected before the fly had made its appearance. 
 Galvanized Iron, is the name given to iron 
 tinned by a peculiar patent process, whereby it resists 
 the rusting influence of damp air, and even moisture, 
 much longer than ordinary tin-plate. The following 
 is the prescribed process : Clean the surface of the 
 iron perfectly by the joint action of dilute acid and 
 friction, plunge it into a bath of melted zinc, covered 
 with sal-ammoniac, and stir it about till it be alloyed 
 superficially with this metal ; when the metal thus 
 prepared is exposed to humidity, the zinc is said to 
 oxydise slowly by a galvanic action, and to protect the 
 iron from rusting within it, whereby the outer surface 
 remains for a long period perfectly white, in circum- 
 stances under which iron tinned in the usual way 
 would have been superficially browned and corroded 
 with rust. 
 
 Galvanized Tinned Iron. — One of the most remark- 
 able advancements in the iron manufacture in re- 
 cent years has been the introduction of galvanized 
 tinned iron for an almost innumerable variety of pur- 
 poses. This material consists of iron plate coated 
 with tin, not by tt^e ordinary tin-plate process, but by 
 galvanic deposition. It serves as a substitute for plain 
 iron, for tin-plate, for zinc, and for lead, under certain 
 special circumstances. It is stronger and more dur- 
 able, for many purposes, than lead or zinc ; it is better 
 than plain iron where rust is to be avoided ; it is su- 
 perior to lead or zinc in warm climates, inasmuch as it 
 does not expand and contract to so great a degree. 
 Withinside a house and without, in vessels and in 
 utensils, in towns and in the countrj', in manufactures 
 and in domestic economy, we now find this substance 
 employed. We have galvanized tinned iron corru- 
 gated plates for roofing, and for the sides and doors of 
 houses ; in another form there are plain plates for the 
 same purpose ; roofs for sheds, roofs and sides for 
 store-houses, and many similar purposes. Then, be- 
 sides the sheet form, there are round and square bars, 
 hoop-iron, wire, tubes, and pipes, nails, rivets, bolts, 
 screws — all formed of iron thus protected by tlie gal- 
 vano-tin process. There is this advantage also, which 
 is unattainable by the ordinary tin-plate process, that 
 articles can be tinned after they are made in the 
 proper form of iron, provided they are of small dimen- 
 sions. The plates are really a combination of three 
 metals ; for, in the first place, a layer of tin is precip- 
 itated on the iron plates from a solution of chlorid of 
 tin by the galvanic process ; and then a layer of zinc 
 is obtained by dipping the sheets into molten zinc. 
 
 Galveston, city, port of entry, and capital, Gal- 
 veston county, Texas, 350 miles from the S. W. Passage 
 of the Mississippi River, Lat. 29° 18' 32" N., long. 
 6° 44' 38" W. It is situated on the east end of Gal- 
 veston island, and is the great commercial emporium of 
 Texas. It was settled in 1837. It coijtains a bank, 
 capital $300,000, a steam foundery, 4 printing-offices 
 issuing 2 tri-weekly, 1 semi-weekly, and 1 weekly 
 newspaper, 3 cotton-presses, 50 stores, and population, 
 in 1856, about 6000. Tonnage in 1853, 6173 tons. 
 
 The bar outside Galveston harbor and bay, beween 
 the north-east end of the island and Point Bolivar on 
 the mainland, has not more than l^ feet of water at 
 the highest springs, and but 10 feet at ebb ; hence the 
 smaller class of vessels, or those under 200 or 250 tons 
 are most suitable for the trade of the port, as wfiU 
 as for that of almost all the other ports on the north 
 and east sides of the gulf, the deficiency of water 
 
GAL 
 
 781 
 
 GAM 
 
 being all but universal. Though the land be low, the 
 houses of Galveston may be seen from the mast-head 
 at a distance of several miles. Vessels drawing eight 
 feet of water and upward should, however, not ap- 
 proach the bar nearer than six fathoms, without heav- 
 ing-to and making the signal for a pilot, which is 
 promptly attended to. Vessels drawing less than eight 
 feet of water may approach the bar till the water 
 shoals to four fathoms before heaving-to. Vessels 
 making the port in the night should invariably anchor 
 in five or six fathoms ; and the holding ground being 
 excellent, those who are well found in anchors and 
 cables have nothing to fear. Pilot-boats are constantly 
 on the look-out ; and ships should on no account at- 
 tempt crossing the bar till they have got a pilot on 
 board. In the harbor there is from 18 to 30 feet of 
 water. The bay, which stretches abour 35 miles from 
 north to south, and from 12 to 18 miles from east to 
 west, has not generally more than nine feet of water, 
 and is intersected by a bar, on which there is only 
 from five to six feet of water. — Kennedy^ s Texas, p. 29. 
 Several very considerable rivers have their embouch- 
 ures in the bay, so that the town has a considerable 
 command of internal navigation. 
 
 The present year (1856), closes an epoch in the 
 growth of sugar in Texas. The almost total destruc- 
 tion of the plant by the unprecedented cold of last 
 winter will reduce the product of the coming year to 
 almost nothing. Should all who have heretofore pro- 
 duced sugar determine to go on, it is doubtful whether 
 the growing crop of cane will afford much more than 
 seed sufficient'for a re-commencement. The receipts of 
 Texas sugar and molasses, at this port, for the calen- 
 dar years named below, were as follows : 
 
 Year. MoloaaeB, bblB. 
 
 1850 2,427 
 
 1851 1,909 
 
 1852 2,576 
 
 1853 6,086 
 
 1854 6,398 
 
 1855 6,728 
 
 For the commercial year ending August 31, 1855, 
 the receipts of sugar were 5375 hhds. against 7570 
 hhds. for the year just closed; and the receipts of 
 molasses were then 7504 bbls. against 8G68 bbls. for 
 the year last past. We apprehend that two years will 
 be required to bring the production again up to these 
 figures 
 
 The following is a comparative statement of ship- 
 ments of the leading articles of export from Galves- 
 ton for each calendar year since 1853 : 
 
 Sugar, hhda. 
 
 2,782 
 1,086 
 1,829 
 4,0T6 
 4,764 
 4,781 
 
 ArtlcUe. 
 
 18(3. 
 
 1864. 
 
 1856. 
 
 Cotton, bales 
 
 60,892 
 4,076 
 6,086 
 2,762 
 
 14,146 
 
 84,178 
 4,754 
 6,898 
 6,967 
 
 18,224 
 
 68,858 
 4,731 
 6,728 
 4,361 
 
 20,617 
 
 
 
 Beef Cattle 
 
 Hides 
 
 
 Statement op the Quantity and estimated Value of 
 abtroles of meronandisb or dombstio g-rowth and 
 Manufacture, exported prom Galveston, Texas, in 
 TUB Yeab ending Deoember 81, 1855. 
 
 ArticloB. 
 
 Cattle number 
 
 Cotton bales 
 
 Hides number 
 
 Molasses gallons 
 
 Sugar, cane pounds 
 
 Total 
 
 Total. 
 
 4,861 
 76,953 
 30,51T 
 84,945 
 1,9S4,T10 
 
 Average 
 pi-icee. 
 
 $16 00 
 35 00 
 
 4 00 
 25 
 7 
 
 Valuation. 
 
 $69,776 
 
 2,693,356 
 
 82,068 
 
 21,286 
 
 135,429 
 
 $8,001,864 
 
 The value of domestic produce exported from this 
 port during the past two years affords a highly favor- 
 able contrast in favor of the season just closed. The 
 amount of shipments was, August 31, as follows : 
 
 Yenrfl. Coastwise. Foreign. Total. 
 
 1866 $2,850,770 $1,492,845 $4,848,615 
 
 1865 2,012,604 684,816 2,647,240 
 
 Increase $888,166 $858,029 $1,696,195 
 
 the value of the exports, for the year just past, is 
 less than that of the year ending with August, 1854, 
 when the value of exports, coastwise, was $3,637,255, 
 
 and foreign, $776,243— total,$4,413,498- Texas has 
 not had a favorable season for crops since 1853 ; and 
 1856 will add another to the years of short crops, 
 though an improvement over the last two is antici- 
 pated. 
 
 The number of vessels which arrived at this port, 
 from beyond the district of Texas, during the year 
 1856, was 269, viz. : 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Coastwise. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Totol. 
 
 1856. 
 
 Steamships 
 
 Ships 
 
 97 
 11 
 46 
 28 
 60 
 
 
 7 
 18 
 1 
 1 
 
 97 
 18 
 64 
 29 
 61 
 
 90 
 14 
 69 
 22 
 48 
 
 Barks 
 
 Brigs 
 
 Schooners 
 
 Total 
 
 242 
 
 27 
 
 269 
 
 288 
 
 Increase — Steamships, 7 ; ships, 4 ; barks, 5 ; brigs, 
 7 ; schooners, 12. Total increase, 36. 
 
 Of vessels belonging to the port of Galveston the 
 custom-house books of the present year (1856), show 
 that there are : 
 
 Year ending Aug, 81. 1856. 
 
 Ships 1 
 
 Barks 8 
 
 Brigs 1 
 
 Schooners 68 
 
 Steamboats 16 
 
 Sloops 16 
 
 1865. 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 64 
 IT 
 11 
 
 Total. 
 
 The amount of tonnage of vessels cleared at this 
 port for the year just ended was 106,670 tons against 
 94,113 the year previous. The number of persons 
 employed on board was 3467 — of whom but two were 
 boys — being an increase of but two employed during 
 the year. 
 
 There is, we believe, no article grown, for human 
 consumption, in any State of the Union, which is not 
 already, or may not be produced in some portion of 
 Texas, such is the variety of soil, climate, and gen- 
 eral circumstances. In the production of the great 
 staples of wheat, com, beef, cotton, and sugar, no 
 State in the Union approaches it, so great is the ex- 
 tent and productiveness of the soil adapted to these 
 articles. It is estimated that the sugar region is capa- 
 ble of producing a crop of 3,000,000 of hogsheads, or 
 much more than is necessary to supply the inhabitants 
 of the whole Union. 60,000,000 of acres of the lands 
 of the State are situated within the cotton-producing 
 region, and one third of this number are believed to be 
 well adapted in point of soil to the growth of that 
 plant. There is no doubt of the capacity of the coun- 
 trj' to produce a much larger crop than is now yielded 
 by the whole South, while the expense of production 
 is much less than the general average in other States. 
 — Galveston Price Current and Census Reports. 
 
 Gal^way, the county town, formerly designated 
 the Liberties of Galway, and a county in itself, hav- 
 ing an exclusive local jurisdiction, extending two 
 miles on every side except the south. It stands on 
 the northern shore of the Bay of Galway, Ireland, on 
 the eastern bank of the river of the same name. It 
 is supposed by some to be the Nagnata of Ptolemy. 
 It certainly was considered a position of much import- 
 ance from the earliest period, as in the divisions of 
 the island into north and south, at first made by the 
 descendants of Heremen, and afterward repeated by 
 Conn and Kogan, it was fixed upon as the eastern ex- 
 tremity of the line of demarcation, which proceeded 
 eastward to" Dublin. Galway is likely to become a 
 place of some note, being the proposed eastern termi- 
 nus of the submarine telegraph communication be- 
 tween Europe and the United States. 
 
 Gama, Vasoo da, the first European who reached 
 India by doubling the Cape of Good Hope, was bom 
 at Sines, a small sea-port of Portugal. Of his early 
 history so little has been recorded, that even the date 
 of his birth ia unknown. On attaining manhood, he 
 found that the success of Columbus had given a pow- 
 erful impulse to the spirit of maritime adventure. 
 
GAM 
 
 782 
 
 GAN 
 
 On the 4th of July, 1497, Vasco da Gama sailed from 
 Lisbon with a squadron of three vessels manned ;by 
 sixty sailors, bent on making his way to India round 
 the Cape of Good Hope, then Icnown as the Cabo Tor- 
 mentoso, or Stormy Cape. The hardships and dani 
 gers to be encountered were appalling, and led to a 
 mutiny, which was with difficulty quelled by the firm- 
 ness and prudence of the commander. He doubled 
 the Cape at length, and reached in safety the small 
 town of Melinda, where he secured the services of an 
 Indian pilot. In 23 daj's they reached M&labar, and 
 on the 20th of M&y 1498 they came to anchor at Cali- 
 cut. Gama was well received by the zamarin ; whom, 
 though not without difficulty, he convinced of the 
 advantages that would accrue to his country by the 
 establishment of a commercial treaty with Portugal. 
 Gama tlisn turned his prows homeward ; and, having 
 touched at various points on the Asiatic and African 
 coasts, he once more cast anchor in the Tagus in the 
 September of 1199, after an absence of 2 years and 2 
 months. Emmanuel received him with great honors, 
 ennobled him, and gave him the title of admiral of 
 the Indian, Persian, and Arabian seas. The effect of 
 Gama's voyage was soon visible in the ruined trade of 
 the Italian commercial republics, which had hitherto 
 monopolized the traffic of the East. In prosecution 
 of Gama's discoveries, another fleet was sent out to 
 India, under Cabral, who accidentally discovered the 
 Brazils, and on reaching his destination established a 
 factorj' at Calicut. The natives, instigated by the 
 Moorish merchants, who were jealous of the Portu- 
 guese, rose up in arms, and murdered all whom Ca- 
 bral had left behind. To avenge this cruelty, the 
 Portuguese fitted out a powerful armament, of which 
 the command was given to Gama. The admiral set 
 sail, and devastated those pai*ts of Africa and India 
 where he had formerly been received in a hostile 
 spirit. He executed especial vengeance upon Calicut, 
 which he bombarded and reduced to ashes, at the same 
 time hanging the sailors of the vessels in the harbor 
 which had fallen into his hands. He then sailed 
 away to Cochin, where he established a factor}', from 
 which the power of Portugal radiated over India. In 
 1503 he returned home, and as before was welcomed 
 with honors and titles, but was not immediately re- 
 appointed to the command in India. He remained at 
 home in inaction during nearly 20 years ; but in 1524 
 (some years after the death of the great Albuquerque, 
 who had been consolidating the Portuguese power in 
 the East), Gama was appointed viceroy of Portuguese 
 India. Not long after arriving at Cochin, Gama died, 
 in 1525, and was buried there ; but 13 3'ears later his 
 bones were disinterred and conveyed to Portugal by 
 order of John III., king of that country. 
 
 Vasco da Gama was a man of great ability, cour- 
 age, and enterprise ; but he possessed none of these 
 qualities in a higher degree than many others of his 
 coteraporaries who have long since passed into ob- 
 livion. He owes no small portion of his fame to the 
 fact of his being the hero of the national epic of Por- 
 tugal. The moment of his doubling the Cape of 
 Good Hope, and seeing in the clouds the Spirit of that 
 stormy region, has been often seized by painters as a 
 strilung subject for pictorial delineation. One of the 
 most remarkable of these pictures is that bj' the late 
 David Scott, of Edinburg.— E. B. 
 
 Gamboge (Fr. Gommegutte; Ger. Gummiguit; It. 
 GS^ma gutta; Lat. Gummi guttcB, Camhogia ; Arab. 
 Ossararewund ; Siamese and Cambojan, Hong"), a con- 
 crete vegetable juice, or gum resin, the produce of the 
 Carcinia Cambogia, a forest-tree of the genus which 
 afibrds the mangostein, the most exquisite fruit of the 
 East. The districts which yield gamboge lie on the 
 east side of the Gulf of Siam, between the latitudes 
 of 10° and 12° north, comprising a portion of Siam 
 and the kingdom of Camboja, whence its English 
 name. It is obtained by making incisions in the bark 
 
 of the tree, from which.it exudes, and is collected in 
 vessels placed to, receive it. In, these it assumes a 
 firm consistence ; and being formed into orbicular 
 masses, or more frequently cylindijical rplls, it is at 
 once fit for the njarket. , Jt is pf a bright, yellow color, 
 opaque, , brittle, breaks vitreous, has no sm^ll, arid 
 very little taste. ,.,Specifip,grayity,lr22! 'V^hen talcen 
 internally, it operates as a mos); violent cathartic. Jt 
 forms a beautiful yellow pigment, fpr which purpose 
 it is principally used.,. The Dnt^h began tq. import it 
 about the middl^'Of the. .seventeenth century. The 
 greater part of the gamboge, of commerce first finds 
 its way to Bangkok, the Siamese capital,, or to Saigon, 
 the capital of lower Cochin China ; from thence it is 
 carried by junks to, Singapore, whence it i^ .shipped 
 for Europe. Its price at Singapore varies, according 
 to quality, from 30 to 80 dollars per picul. Dark^col- 
 ored pieces should be rejected. — Cbawfokd's Em- 
 bassy to Siam, p. 425 ; Thomson's Cliemistry. 
 
 Ganges, the principal river of Hindoostan, through 
 the north part of which it flows iiom west to> east, 
 traversing the centre of the British presidencies, Ben- 
 gal and ,Agra, almost in their entire length. It rises 
 by two principal heads, Bhagirathi and Alakananda, 
 in lat. 31° N., and long. 7° E., from an immense 
 mass of snow at an elevation of 13,000 feet ; flows at 
 first S.W. to Hurdwar and thenceforward mostly E. 
 S.E. to the Bay of Bengal, which it enters by numer- 
 ous mouths, its eastmost arm uniting with the Megna 
 or Brahmaputra, and its west branch being the Hoogh- 
 I3' River. Total course estimated at 1500 miles. In 
 its course it receives 11 affluents, some- of which are 
 equal to the Khine, and none smaller than the Thames ; 
 the principal are the Jumna, .Ramgunga, Goomty, 
 Goggra, Sone, Guuduck, Koose, Mahanuddy, and 
 Teesta, which have courses varying from 300 to 600 
 miles in length. On its banks are numerous citie^ 
 and towns. Between Hurdwar and Allahabad it is 
 usually from 1 mile to 1^ miles across ; below wiiich 
 its breadth increases frequently to 3 miles, and at 600 
 miles from the sea it is 30 feet in depth, and so con- 
 tinues to near its mouth, where, however, the quan- 
 tity of deposit it brings down often forms bars and 
 shoals. In the annual overflow of the river, when it 
 is at its lieight in July and August, the waters rise to 
 32 feet. The annual deposit of mud at its delta is es- 
 timated at 6,000,000,000 cubic feet. It is crossed by 
 no bridges after it leaves the mountains. The Ganges 
 is the sacred river of the Hindoos, and is so called as 
 flowing through Gang, the earth, to heaven. 
 
 GangTvay, a narrow platform or range of planks 
 laid horizontally along the upper part of a ship's side 
 from the quai-ter declt to the forecastle, peculiar to 
 ships that are waisted, for the convenience of walking 
 more expeditiouslj' fore and aft than by descending 
 into the waist. It is fenced on the outside by iron 
 stanchions and ropes or rails, and in vessels of war 
 with a netting in which part of the hammocks are 
 stowed. In merchant ships it is called the gangboard. 
 
 Gangway is also that part of a ship's side, both 
 within and without, by which persons enter and de- 
 part. It is provided with a sufiiciont number of steps 
 or cleats nailed upon the ship's side nearly as low as 
 the surface of the water, and sometimes furnished 
 with a railed accommodation ladder resembling a 
 flight of stairs projecting from the ship's side and 
 secured by iron braces. 
 
 Gangway is also used to signif}' a narrow passage 
 left in the hold when a ship is laden, in order to enter 
 any particular place as occasion may require, whether 
 to examine the situation of the provisions or cargo, to 
 discover and stop a leak, or to bring out any article 
 that is wanted. Finally, gangway implies a thorough- 
 fare or nan'ow passage of any kind. 
 
 To bring to the gangway ; a phrase signifying to 
 punish a seaman by seizing him up and flogging huo 
 with a cat-o'-ninetails.' 
 
GAS 
 
 Y83 
 
 GAS 
 
 G-antlet, or G-auntlet (Fr. gantekt, from, gam, a 
 glove), a kind of iron glove, iritli fingers covered with 
 small plates ; formerly worn by cavaliers when armed 
 at all points, and which used to be thrown down as 
 tolcen of challenge. Gauntlets were introduced aboiit 
 the 13th century. , , I 
 
 Garnet, Garnets (Fr. Grenats; Gerj GranaXm, 
 ■Granatstein ; It. Cfroniiti ; hat. Gramaii ; R<is. Grandt- 
 noi hamen ; Sp. Granadm). There are two. species of 
 garnet, the precious, and the common. The color of 
 the first is red ; and tence the name of the mineral, 
 from its supposed resemblance to the flower of the 
 pomegranate ; passes from Columbine red, to cherry 
 and brown red; commonly crj'stallized. External lustre 
 glistening, internal shining, vitreous; transparent, 
 sometimes only translucent; specific grafvity 4-08 to 
 4'86. The color of the common garnet is of various 
 shiides of brown and green. Different colors often 
 appear in the same mass : translucent ; black varieties 
 nearly opaque : specific gravity from 3-66 to 3'75. — 
 Thomson's Chemielry. The finest varieties come from 
 India, and some good specimens have been received 
 from Greenland. When large and free from flaws, 
 garnets are worth from £i to £S) or £6, and even more ; 
 but stones of this value are of rare occurrence, and 
 always in demand. — Mawb on Diamonds, etc., 2 ed., 
 p. 113. 
 
 Gas. This inflammable aeriform fluid was first 
 evolved from coal by Dr. Claj-ton, in 1736-1739.- 
 PliU. Trans. Its application to the purposes of illu- 
 mination was first tried by Mr. Murdoch, in Corn- 
 wall, in 1792. The first display of gas-lights was 
 made at Boulton and Watt's foundery, in Birmingham, 
 on the occasion of the rejoicings for peace in 1802. 
 Gas was permanently used to the exclusion of lamps 
 and candles at the cotton mills of' Phillips and Lee, 
 Manchester, where 1000 burners were lighted, 1805. 
 Gas-lights were first introduced in London, at Golden- 
 lane, August 16, 1807, They were used in lighting 
 Pall Mall, in 1809 ; and were general through London 
 in 1814. They were first used in Dublin in 1816, and 
 the streets' there generally lighted in -October, 1825. 
 The gas-pipes in and round London extend to 1100 
 miles. — Haydh. 
 
 Ever)' one must have remarked that most species 
 of coal, when ignited, give out large quantities of gas, 
 which bums with much brilliancy, yielding a great 
 quantity of light as well as of heat. Dr. Clayton 
 seems to have been the ' first who attempted, about 
 1736-1739, to apply this gas to the purposes of artificial 
 illumination ; but his experiments were upon a very 
 limited scale, and no further attention was paid to the 
 subject till more than half a centurj' afterward. At 
 length, however, Mr. Murdoch, of Sohoj instituted a 
 series of judicious experiments on the -extrication of 
 gas from coal ; and, by his ingenuity and sagacity 
 succeeded in establishing one of the most capital im- 
 provements ever made in the arts. Mr. Murdoch found 
 that the gas might be collected in reservoirs, purified, 
 conveyed by pipes to a great distance from tlie furnace 
 where it was generated ; and that it affords, by its 
 slow combustion, when allowed to escape through 
 small orifices, a beautiful and steady light. This great 
 discovery, which places Mr. Murdoch in the first rank 
 among the benefactors of mankind, was first brought 
 into practice at Redruth, in Cornwall. In 1802, it was 
 applied to light Mr. Murdoch's manufactory at Soho ; 
 in 1805, it was adopted by Messrs. Phillips and Lee, of 
 Manchester, in the lighting of their great cotton mill ; 
 and is now employed in the lighting of the streets, 
 theatres, and other public buildings, factories, etc. of 
 all the considerable towns of the empire, and also in 
 most considerable towns of Europe and America. 
 
 Gas light is indebted, for its rapid diffusion, not 
 more to its peculiar softness, clearness, and unvar3^ing 
 intensitj', than to its comparative cheapness. Accord- 
 ing to Dr. Thomson (Encyc. Brit., aft. Gas Lights), if 
 
 we value the quantity of light given hy 1 lb. of tallow 
 in candles at Is., an equal quantity of light from coal 
 gas will not cost more than Sjd.jbeiagless than a. fourth 
 part of the cost of the former. Oil and other sub- 
 stancea have been used in furnishing gas for the pur- 
 pose o^ illumination, but none of ;them has answered 
 so well as coal, i Most of the oil gas establishments' 
 have been abandoned. The construction pf gas works 
 on a large scale, and tlie carrj'ing of pipes through the 
 streets ^ and into houses, etc., is very extepsive, and 
 requires a large outlay of capital. Hence most of the 
 gas lights in the different towns are supplied by joint- 
 stock companies. '< Many of them have turned out to 
 be very profiable concerns. 
 
 The ifirst attempt to supply cities in the United 
 States with gas was made at Baltimore in 1821, and at 
 New York in 1823. Both of these attempts were un- 
 successful. The New York Gas-Light Company, with 
 a capital of $1,000,000, was incorporated March 26th, 
 1823. It was reorganized in 1827, and then com- 
 menced a successful business. The Manhattan Gas- 
 Light Company was incorporated with a capital of 
 $2,000,000, February 26th, 1830. Upon these two Com- 
 panies the city of New York is now entirely dependent 
 for gas. The former Company supplies all that portion 
 of the city which is below Grand-street, and the latter 
 Company all that portion which is between Grand- 
 street and Seventy-ninth street. The New York Gas- 
 Light Company has 130 miles of pipes laid through 
 the streets of the city, ranging from 4 to 18 inches in 
 diameter. In 1855 this Company made 300,000,000 
 cubic feet of gas, consuming about 45,000 tons of coal. 
 It furnished gas to 3,200 street lamps, and to 9,000 
 private consumers. 
 
 The Manhattan Gas-Light Company has 200 miles 
 of pipe laid through the streets of the city, ranging 
 from 3 to 20 inches in diameter. In 1855 this Company 
 made 470,000,000 cubic feet of gas. It lighted ■ 7,148 
 street lamps, and furnished gas to 17,300 private con- 
 sumers. These Companies jointly light and keep in 
 order for the city about 10,150 street lamps, for which 
 they are paid $25 per annum for each lamp. This pay- 
 ment nets the Companies, according to their, estimate, 
 only $1 50 per 1000 cubic feet of gas consumed in the 
 lamps, which is just one half the sum charged to ^heir 
 private customers for gas, but is doubtless profitable 
 even at that low rate. The gas is manufactured from 
 rich bituminous coals, such as Cannel coal, Newcastle 
 coal, and the Albert coal of Nova Scotia. A chaldron 
 of Newcastle coal, weighing 27 cwt., will j^ield : 
 
 Gas 8,650 ouiio feet. . 
 
 Coke 14 cwt. 
 
 Ammonlacal litiuor 124 gallons. 
 
 Thick tar ,. 12 " 
 
 ' A chaldron of Cannel coal will yield an average of 
 12,000 cubic feet of gas. The gas coal used in New 
 York costs about $10 per chaldron. The coke, or shell 
 of the coal after the gas is extracted, is worth about 
 $4 per chaldron, and makes a very pleasant fire in a 
 grate. The bituminous coal is thrown in a hot iron 
 cylinder, or retort, as it is called, whose mouth is closed 
 and sealed tight with soft claj'. The vapor of the 
 coal, distilling in the retort, passes through a tube, by 
 which it escapes into a series of vessels called the con- 
 denser, where it cools and deposits all its tar and other 
 condensible impurities. Thence it passes through an- 
 other series of vessels called the purifier, containing 
 quicklime, of the consistency of cream, which cleanses 
 the vapor of its sulphurous intermixtures. From the 
 lime tlie purified vapor of the coal, or, in other words, 
 the gas, now flows into the gasometer, and is ready 
 for use. From the gasometer it is driven, through 
 main and service pipes, into the consumers' burners. 
 
 The machinery of all gas manufactories is the same in 
 principle, and seems now to be almost perfect. The chief 
 improvements made lately in the machinerj' consist in 
 the manner of applying to the gasometer the pressure 
 which regulates the force of the gas. 
 
GAS 
 
 784 
 
 GAS 
 
 The following t^bitlar View presents the compaeatite Cost oe Peiob op Gab at beveeal leading Cities op 
 THE United States, showing also the Yeae op Incobpoeation op the Company, Date when Gas was fiest used 
 Cost of (.'oal, and oedinaey annual Consumption, etc. 
 
 Gnu 
 Company 
 incorpt'd. 
 
 Gas firet 
 used. 
 
 Capital of 
 Company. 
 
 Price of Gas 
 per 1000 cub. 
 
 Coat of 
 Coal used 
 per Ton. 
 
 Annual Con- 
 
 eumption of 
 
 Gas. 
 
 Miles of 
 Mains laid. 
 
 Description of Coal used. 
 
 Detroit, Mich 
 
 Wheeling, Va 
 
 Cincinaati, Oliio . . 
 
 Louisville, Ky. . . . . 
 
 Cleveland, Ohio... 
 Albany, N. Y. . . . . 
 
 Rocheoter, N. Y. . . . 
 
 St. Louis, Mo 
 
 Philadelphia, Penn, 
 
 Washington City. . 
 
 New York Gaa Co. 
 
 Manhattan Co., N. Y. 
 Boston, Mass 
 
 Year. 
 1849 
 
 1349 
 1S3T 
 
 184S 
 1840 
 
 1S4S 
 1839 
 1835 
 
 1815 
 
 1823 
 
 1830 
 1826 
 
 Year. 
 ISBl 
 
 1350 
 1843 
 
 1S49 
 
 1845 
 
 1848 
 184T 
 1836 
 
 1848 
 
 1824 
 
 1835 
 
 222,000 
 
 716,000 
 800,000 
 
 461,000 
 
 100,000 
 800,000 
 
 150,000 
 
 600,000 
 
 2,600,000 
 
 424,000 
 
 750,000 
 
 2,770,000 
 1,000,000 
 
 ¥Cts. 
 3 60 
 
 3 00 
 2 50 
 
 3 00 
 3 00 
 
 8 15 
 3 50 
 213 
 
 3 50 
 
 2 50 
 
 2 60 
 2 50 
 
 $Cta. 
 
 6 25 
 
 140 
 4 25 
 
 4 35 
 
 4 50 
 
 8 75<i 
 1120 
 
 5 83 
 
 7 60 
 
 6 50 
 
 6 00 
 
 8 00(5 
 10 00 
 
 8 00(3 
 10 00 
 6 00 to 
 9 00 ch. 
 
 Feet. 
 19,118,000 
 
 8,800,000 
 93,000,000 
 
 83,750,000 
 
 20,000,000 
 40,000,000 
 
 27,000,000 
 
 63,600,000 
 
 434,000,000 
 
 60,000,000 
 
 430,000,000 
 
 650,000,000 
 190,000,000 
 
 7-33 
 49 
 
 30 
 
 14-50 
 20 
 
 17-25 
 45 
 214 
 
 30 
 
 126 
 
 200 
 70 
 
 Mineral Ridge, Brier 
 Hill, etc 
 
 Soft bituminous coal, 
 
 Youghiogheny, or 
 Pittsburgh, coal. 
 
 Kanawha cnnnel and 
 Youghiogheny. 
 
 Pittsburgh coal. 
 
 Newcastle coal, $8 76. 
 Cannel, $11 20. 
 
 Anthracite coal. 
 
 Pittsburgh coal only. 
 
 Pittsburgh and -Vir- 
 ginia coals. 
 
 English cannel and 
 VirginiaCloverHill. 
 
 English cannel and 
 NewcaBtle principal- 
 ly, costing $8 to $10 
 per ton. 
 
 English cannel and 
 Newcastle. 
 
 Picton coal, $6. En- 
 glish cannel, $16 60 
 per chaldron of 2900 
 pounds. 
 
 A very careful and accurate analysis and photo- 
 metric examination of wood gas have been made by 
 two eminent analytical chemists (Dr. Wolcott Gibbs, 
 of New Yorlc, and Dr. F. A. Genth, of Philadelphia), 
 -whose report of their chemical results furnishes a higli- 
 ly satisfactory explanation of certain curious phenom- 
 ena that accompany the combustion of this gas. 
 
 They examined two varieties of gas, one made from 
 old field pine, the other from small second-growth oak, 
 -with the following results : 
 
 Gas from Pino. Gas from Oak. 
 
 Specific gravity 0-663 630 
 
 Co.-tf position. 
 
 Hydrogen 32-71 3044 
 
 Light carbonic hydrogen 21-50 83-12 
 
 Olef. gas and hydro carbon vapors . 10'57 645 
 
 Carbonic oxyd 27-11 26-11 
 
 Carbonic acid 4-90 048 
 
 Oxygen 0-66 None. 
 
 Nitrogen 2-55 3 39 
 
 100-00 100-00 
 
 These gases were collected at the Ninth Ward 
 Works, and taken to New York for analysis. Their 
 illuminating power was tested and found to be over 
 26 candles for a five-feet burner. 
 
 Mr. Murdoch in 1797 exhibited publicly the results 
 of his more matured plans for the preparation of coal 
 gas. The following year (being then connected with 
 Messrs. Boulton and Watt's engineering work-shop) he 
 constructed an apparatus at the Soho foundery for light- 
 ing that establishment, with suitable arrangements for 
 the purification of the gas ; and these experiments, Dr. 
 Henry states, " were continued with occasional inter- 
 ruptions until the epoch of the peace of 1802, when the 
 illumination of the Soho manufactory afforded an op- 
 portunity of making a public display of the new lights ; 
 and they were made to constitute a principal feature 
 in that exhibition." 
 
 In 1804-'5 Mr. Murdoch had an opportunity of car- 
 rying his plans into effect on a, still larger scale, by 
 means of the apparatus erected under his superintend- 
 ence in the extensive cotton mills of Messrs. Philips 
 and Son of Manchester. 
 
 It has been alleged that gas-lights were used in 
 France before they were known in England ; but as 
 the earliest exhibition of these lights, on which the 
 claim of priority of discovery is founded, took place at 
 Paris in 1802, it is evident, from the foregoing state- 
 ments, that the exhibition alluded to was ten years 
 subsequent to the first experiment of Mr. Murdoch on 
 the subject. 
 
 The practicability of lighting by means of coal gas 
 having been demonstrated ty Mr. Murdoch, a number 
 
 of scientific men applied their talents to the further 
 development of the art. Dr.. Henry, the celebrated 
 chemist, lectured on the subject in 1804 and 1805, and 
 furnished many hints for the improvement of the man- 
 ufacture. Mr. Clegg, an engineer in the employment 
 of Boulton and Watt, was a worthy successor of Mur- 
 doch, and for many years was the most eminent gas 
 engineer of England. A good deal of the machinery 
 of the gas-house in its present form was contrived by 
 Mr. Clegg, and to him, also, we are indebted for the in- 
 genious -wet gas-meter. In 1813 Westminster Bridge 
 was first lighted with gas, and in the following year 
 the streets of Westminster were thus lighted ; and in 
 1816 gas became common in London. So rapid was 
 the progress of this new mode of illumination, that in 
 the course of a few j'ears after it was first introduced, 
 it was adopted by all the principal towns in the king- 
 dom, for lighting streets as well as shops and public 
 edifices. In private houses it found its way more 
 slowly, partly from an apprehension, not entirely 
 groundless, of the danger attending the use of it, and 
 partly from the annoyance which was experienced in 
 many cases through the careless and imperfect manner 
 in which the service-pipes were at first fitted up. These 
 inconveniences have been in a great measure, if not 
 wholly, removed by a more enlarged knowledge of the 
 management of gas ; and at present there are few pri- 
 vate houses in large towns which are not either par- 
 tially or entirely lighted up by it. As the demand for 
 gas increased, various improvements were from time 
 to time introduced, both in the mechanical arrange- 
 ments and in the chemical operations of the manufac- 
 ture. The rapid increase in the population of the 
 metropolis, and of all large towns, has naturally led to 
 an increased consumption of gas ; and the application 
 of gas to the purposes of warming and cooking has also 
 further increased the demand for it. Hence it has been 
 not only necessary that new gas-works should be erect- 
 ed for the supply of new districts, but that the re- 
 sources of old works should be enlarged. It is only a 
 few years ago that a gas-holder capable of storing 
 250,000 cubic feet of gas was regarded as of enormous 
 size; at the present time gas-holders are made of 
 double that capacity, and we occasionally hear of them 
 of the capacity of upward of a million cubic feet. There 
 is one such at Philadelphia ; it is 140 feet in diameter 
 and 70 feet in height. Nor will such dimensions as 
 these be regarded as superfluous when it is stated that 
 some of the large metropolitan works send out each 
 from a million to a million and a half cubic feet of gas 
 in one night in mid-winter. 
 
GEE 
 
 T85 
 
 GEN 
 
 Gauging, the art of measuring the contents of 
 casks or vessels of any form. Ganging fonns a part 
 of mensuration, but is frequently practiced by persons 
 unacquainted with its theoretical principles, who work 
 by certain rules, with the aid of a gauging-rod, and bj' 
 the sliding rule. The ordinary gauging-rod consists 
 of four rules made of box-wood, each a foot long, and 
 united by braes joints, so that it may be folded to- 
 gether. The term gauge or gage is applied in various 
 ways, but alwaj'S with reference to measure or propor- 
 tion ; or, in the literal sense of the word, to that which 
 bounds or confines something else. Thus, in physics, 
 it is applied to several instruments or apparatus for 
 measuring the state of a phenomenon ; such as the 
 wind-gage, rain-gage, the barometer-gage for meas- 
 uring the degree of pressure of the air within the re- 
 ceiver of an air-pump, etc. ; in architecture, to the 
 length of a slate below the lap ; in railway engineer- 
 ing, to the space between the rails, and the like. See 
 Gaoe. 
 
 Gazette, a paper of public intelligence and news 
 of divers countries, first printed at Venice about the 
 year 1620, and so called (some say) because unagazetta, 
 a small piece of Venetian coin was given to buy or read 
 it. Others derive the name from gaza, Italian for mag- 
 pie, i. e, chatterer. — Trhslee. A gazette was printed 
 
 in France in 1631; and one in Germany in 1716 
 
 A'bMw. Diet. Hist. 
 
 Gauze. Brass wire-gauze or cloth is now made 
 of such exquisite fineness that the separate threads 
 can only be detected by close inspection. Messrs. 
 Estivant, who carry on the brass manufacture on a 
 scale of great magnitude in France, produce wire of 
 remarkable minuteness. There were in the French 
 department of the late exhibition several specimens of 
 brass gauze, each showingthe limit of fineness to which 
 the manufacturers had attained at the date of the sev- 
 eral industrial expositions in France. Each date dis- 
 played a. degree of fineness greater than that of any 
 previous date ; and the specimen for 1851 was the fin- 
 est of all. It almost exceeds belief that metal could 
 be wrought to such an exquisite degree of minuteness 
 as in this web. There were 67,600 meshes in one 
 square inch of this brass gauze, or 260 parallel threads 
 in one linear inch. The wire-drawing in the first iu.- 
 stance, and the weaving afterward, must have been 
 very carefully conducted, 
 
 Geelong, a township of Victoria colony, South 
 Australia, comprising five contiguous villages, at the 
 head of the west arm of Port Philip, 40 miles south- 
 west of Melbourne, with which it has constant com- 
 munication by steam. Population in 1846, 2,065. It 
 has an increasing trade in wool and grain, though 
 large vessels can not approach it within seven miles. 
 The River Barwon flows past its west border to the 
 Southern Ocean. 
 
 Consignees, Masters., and Lighters at Geelong. — ^We 
 find the. following declaration on the respective rights 
 and duties of consignees, masters, and lightermen, in 
 the proceedings of the Geelong Chamber of Com- 
 merce. The motion of which notice had been given 
 by Mr. McKellar, " that the committee consider the 
 subject of the delivery of goods by lighters," was 
 brought under discussion, and after careful examina- 
 tion of the law relating thereto, it was clearly ascer- 
 tained that it is the duty of the master of the vessel, 
 as soon as the arrival of the ship has been reported, to 
 give notice thereof to the owners or consignees of the 
 goods on board ; that he can not escape from his lia- 
 bility by immediately landing goods at a public wharf, 
 without giving such notice, because the delivery at 
 the wharf is not a delivery to the consignee ; that if 
 they are landed without such notice being given, and 
 are destroyed upon the wharf by an accidental fire be- 
 fore the consignee has had an opportunity of taking 
 them away, the ship-owners will be responsible for the 
 ^oss, but that the lighterman or master of the vessel is 
 Ddd 
 
 bound to keep the goods on board or on the wharf at 
 his own risk for a reasonable time, to enable the con- 
 signee or his assigns to come and fetch them ; and that 
 the lighterman is not released from his responsibility 
 until he has obtained a receipt for the goods upon their 
 delivery to the consignee. 
 
 Gelatine (Eng. and Fr. ; Gallert, Leim, Germ.) is 
 an animal product which is never foimd in the hu- 
 mors, but it may be obtained by boiling with water 
 the soft and solid parts ; as the muscles, the skin, the 
 cartilages, bones, ligaments, tendons, and membranes. 
 Isinglass consists almost entirely of gelatine. This 
 substance is very soluble in boiling water ; the solu- 
 tion forms a tremulous mass of jelly when it cools. 
 Cold water has little action upon gelatine. Alcohol 
 and tannin (tannic acid, see Gall-kuts) precipitate 
 gelatine from its solution ; the former by abstract- 
 ing the water, the latter by combining with the sub- 
 stance itself into an insoluble compound, of the nature 
 of leather. No other acid except the tannic, and no 
 alkali, possesses the property of precipitating gelatine. 
 But chlorine and certain salts render its solution more 
 or less turbid ; as the nitrate and bichloride of mercury, 
 the proto-chloride of tin, and a few others. Sulphu- 
 ric acid converts a solution of gelatine at a boiling heat 
 into sugar. Gelatine consists of carbon, 47'88 ; hydro- 
 gen, 7-91 ; oxygen, 27'21. 
 
 Gelatine Casts. — The beautiful may often be cre- 
 ated out of mere refuse ; an example of this is afforded 
 by the articles now made of gelatine. The French 
 show peculiar tact in procuring gelatine from the waste 
 remnants of the skins, bones, tendons, ligaments, and 
 other gelatinous tissues of animals. The well-ordered 
 abattoirs of Paris and other large towns, afford facili- 
 ties which we do not possess, for the economical ap- 
 plication of all the waste parts of the slaughtered 
 animals. M. Grenet has been the first to fabricate, 
 on a large scale, out of various residues of animal 
 bodies, beautiful and diversified products which have 
 hitherto been made of the more costly material isin- 
 glass. He produces different kinds of gelatine, in 
 thin sheets ; pure and white films cut into threads for 
 the use of the confectioner; very thin, white, and 
 transparent sheets, called " papier glac6," or ice-pa- 
 per, for copying drawings ; dyed, gilt, and silvered 
 gelatine sheets, adafpted to the fabrication of artificial 
 flowers and to the production of an almost endless va- 
 riety of ornamented articles ; and sheets embossed or 
 stamped with elegant patterns. The gelatine is used, 
 too, as a material in the dressing of stuff goods, and 
 also as a refining ingredient in the clarification of wine. 
 
 Gem (Lat. gemma), in sculpture, a precious stone, 
 used for the purpose of sculpture. The practice of 
 carving gems is of remote antiquity, though it is 
 doubtful whether they were able to cut the diamond 
 or use the emerald and topaz for sculptural purposes. 
 The stones usually selected are rock-crystal of differ- 
 ent colors, jasper, chalcedony, onyx, cornelian, and 
 blood-stone. Among the Greeks the art was carried 
 to great perfection ; but having fallen with the other 
 arts into disuse, its revival was effected in Italy in the 
 15th century, and modem masters have more than ri- 
 valed some of the ancient productions. 
 
 Geneva (Du. Genever; Fr. Genievre; Ger. Gaud, 
 Genever ; It. Acqua di Ginepro ; Lat, Junipera aqua ; 
 Sp. Agua de Enebro), a spirit obtained by distillation 
 from grain, rectified with the addition of juniper ber- 
 ries. The latter gives to the spirit that peculiar fla^ 
 vor by which it is distinguished, and are also said to 
 render it diuretic. Geneva is a corruption otgenieore, 
 the French term for the juniper berry. By far the 
 best geneva is made in Holland, where its manufacture 
 is carried on to a verj^ great extent. The distilleries 
 of Schiedam have long been famous, and are at pres- 
 ent in a very prosperous condition. Schiedam geneva 
 is made solely of spirit obtained from rye and barley, 
 flavored with juniper berries. It becomes milder, and 
 
GEN 
 
 786 
 
 GEN 
 
 acquires, as it gets old, an oily flavor disliked by Hol- 
 landers ; hence nearlj' the -whole of the " Schiedam" 
 is exported, principally to the East Indies. There 
 are no fewer than 100 distilleries in Schiedam, 
 200 in other parts of Holland, and not more than 
 40 in Belgium. The entire annual produce of the 
 distillery in Holland is estimated at 2,000,000 anliers, 
 or 20,500,000 wine gallons, of which about two thirds 
 are exported. — Clobt, Description Geographiqu& des 
 Pays Bas^ p. 32. 
 
 Grenoa, a maritime city of Italy, once the capital 
 of the famous republic of that name, now of a province 
 of the kingdom of Sardinia, at the bottom of the ex- 
 tensive gulf to which it gives its name ; the light- 
 house being in lat. 44° 24' 18" N., long. 8° 64' 24" 
 E. Population in 1848, 100,382. Genoa is one of the 
 finest cities of Europe, and noted as the birth-place of 
 Christopher Columbus, in the year 1441. In general, 
 the streets are inconveniently narrow ; but some of 
 the principal ones are moderately wide, and consist 
 almost entirely of public buildings and private palaces 
 erected during the period of her prosperity. Being 
 built on a rising ground, in the form of an amphithea- 
 tre, the appearance of the town from the sea is most 
 magnificent, and justifies the epithet given to her of 
 " la superha.^ 
 
 Its ancient inhabitants were the Ligueres, who sub- 
 mitted to the Romans, 115 B.C., and underwent the 
 revolutions of the Roman empire till a.d. 950. The 
 Genoese revolt against their count, choose a doge and 
 other magistrates from among their nobilitj', and be- 
 came an aristocratic republic, 1030 to 1034. Several 
 revolutions occurred up to 1528, when the celebrated 
 Andrew Doria rescued his country from the domin- 
 ion of foreign powers. Bombarded by the French 
 in 1684, and by the British in 1688 and 1745. 
 Genoa was taken by the Imperialists, December 8th, 
 1746 ; but their oppression of the people was such, 
 that the latter suddenly rose and expelled their con- 
 querors, who again besieged the city the next year, 
 August 17, without eifect. Genoa lost Corsica, 1730. 
 The celebrated bank failed 1760. The citj' sustained 
 a siege by a British fleet and Austrian army, until 
 literally starved, and was evacuated by capitulation, 
 Maj^, 1800 ; but it was surrendered to the French soon 
 after their victory at Marengo. The Ligurian repub- 
 lic was founded upon that of Genoa, in 1801, and the 
 doge solemnly invested, August 10, 1802. Genoa was 
 annexed to the French empire, May 26, 1805. It sur- 
 rendered to the combined English and Sicilian army, 
 April 18, 1814 ; and was transferred to the king of 
 Sardinia in 1816. Insurrection against Victor Em- 
 manuel, April 1st ; subdued, April 11, 1849. 
 
 Port. — The harbor is semicircular, the diameter 
 being about 1000 fathoms. It is artificial, being 
 formed by two gigantic moles having opposite direc- 
 tions. That on the east side, called the old mole (molo 
 vecchio), projects from tlie centre of the city west by 
 south. It is about 260 fathoms in length, and has a 
 battery near its middle. The new mole (molo nuovo), 
 on the opposite side of the port, adjoins the southern 
 extremity of the suburb of St. Pietro d' Arena, project- 
 ing about 210 fathoms from the shore in an E.S.E. 
 direction. The mole heads bear from each other N.E. 
 by E. and S.W. by "VV., the distance between them, 
 forming the entrance to the harbor, being about 350 
 fathoms. The light-house is without the port, on the 
 west side, near the extremity of a point of land, and 
 contiguous to the bottom of the new mole. It is a lofty 
 square tower ; and as it stands on a high rock, and is 
 painted white, it is visible in clear weather at a great 
 distance. There is also a harbor light at the extrem- 
 ity of the new mole. There is no difficulty in enter- 
 ing the harbor; the ground is clean, and there is 
 plenty of water, particularly on the side next the new 
 mole ; care, however, must he taken, in coming from 
 the west, to give the light-house point a good offing. 
 
 Moderate-sized merchantmen commonly anchor inside 
 the old mole contiguous to the portoJrancOj or bonded- 
 warehouses, having a hawser made fast to the mole, 
 and an anchor ahead. Men-of-war, and the largest 
 class of merchantmen may anchor inside the new 
 mole, but they must not come too near the shore. 
 Ships sometimes anchor without the harbor in from 
 10 to 26 fathoms, the light-house bearing N. J W. j 
 distant 2 or 3 miles. The south west-wind occasions 
 a heavy swell, but the bottom is claj', and holds well. 
 Within the town are two rather shallow basins de- 
 signed for galleys and small trading-vessels. There 
 is also an arsenal. 
 
 Money. — ^Accounts were formerly kept at Genoa in 
 lire or 20 soldi, each soldo containing 12 denari, and 
 money was divided into banco anifuori di banco. But 
 since the 1st of January, 1827, the ancient method of 
 reckoning has ceased, and accounts are now kept in 
 lire Italiane, divided into cents. The weight and fine- 
 ness of the new coins are precisely the same as those of 
 France ; so that the par of exchange=25'20 lire per£l, 
 if estimated in silver at 5s. 2d. an oz., and 25-54, if es- 
 timated in silver at 6s. an oz. 6 old lire di banco are 
 equal to 6 new lire very nearly. — Manuel de Nelken- 
 brecker. 
 
 Weights and Measures. — Those formerly in use in 
 Genoa are described in the old editions of M'Culloch's 
 Diet. In 1847 the French system of weights and 
 measures was introduced, the only difference being 
 the substitution of Italian for French names. Thus, 
 the chilogramma (kilog.)=2-2 lbs. avoird. (60|- chilog. 
 being verj' nearly equal to 112 lbs.) ; the libbra (livre) 
 or pound:=J chilog.=l'l lb. avoird. ; the quintale 
 centinajo, or cwt.=220 lbs. avoird. ; and the ettolitro 
 (hectolitre), liquid measure=22 imp. galls. ; ditto, 
 dry measure=2J imp. bush. ; the metro (metre)= 
 39-37 inches, etc. A barrel of oil=59J chilog.=14i 
 imp. galls. All tares of usage were abolished at the 
 same time that the French metrical system was intro- 
 duced. 
 
 The Sanh of Genoa, or of St. George, was one of the 
 most ancient and celebrated banks of circulation and 
 deposit in Europe. Until 1746, when the bank was 
 pillaged by the Austrians, it was customary to make 
 all bills of exchange drawn upon Genoa payable in 
 banco ; but since then they have generally been made 
 payable in money fuori di banco. In 1800, when the 
 French were besieged in Genoa by the Austrians, they 
 took the treasure of the bank to pay their troops. The 
 establishment has never recovered from this blow; 
 some warehouses, and a part of the town's revenue, 
 were assigned to it, but they yield a very pooidivi- 
 dend. It is no longer used as a place of deposit for 
 money. 
 
 Trade, etc.— Genoa is the entrepot of a large extent 
 of country; and her commerce, though inferior to 
 what it once was, is verj' considerable, and lias lat- 
 terly been increasing. She is a free port ; that is, a 
 port where goods may be warehoused and exported 
 free of duty. The exports consist partly of the raw 
 products of the adjacent country, such as olive od (an 
 article of great value and importance), rice, fruits, 
 cheese, rags, steel, argol, etc. ; partly of the products 
 of her manufacturing industry', such as silks, damasks, 
 and velvets (for the- production of which she has been 
 long famous), thrown silk, paper, soap, works in mar- 
 ble, alabaster, coral, etc. ; the printed cottons of Swit- 
 zeriand, and the other products of that countr)' and ol 
 the western parts of Lombardy, intended for the south 
 of Europe and the Levant ; and partly of the various 
 foreign products brought by sea, and placed m forto 
 franco. The imports principally consist of cotton 
 and woolen stuff's ; cotton wool, mostly from Egypt i 
 com from the Black Sea, Sicily, and Barbary ; sugar, 
 salted fish, spices, coffee, cochineal, indigo, hides, iron, 
 and naval stores from the Baltic ; hardware, and W 
 plates from England ; wool, tobacco, lead (prmcipauy 
 
GEN 
 
 181 
 
 GEO 
 
 from Spain), wax, etc. Corn, barilla, GallipoU oil, 
 cotton, valonia, sponge, gaUs, and other products of 
 the countries adjoining the Blaclc Sea, Sicily, the Le- 
 vant, etc., maj' in general be had here, though not in 
 90 great abundance as at Leghorn. The abolition of 
 the various duties and custom-house fees formerly 
 charged on the transit of goods through Genoa and the 
 Sardinian territories, has had a very beneficial influ- 
 ence on the trade of this port, particularly as regards 
 the importation of raw cotton for Switzerland and Mi- 
 lan, as well as of the different descriptions of colonial 
 produce. 
 
 Account op the pkinoipal Abtioles op Export from 
 Genoa, with-theie P1iioes,"pree on Board, in Ital- 
 ian AND English Money, 5Tn June, 1858.* 
 
 Prices In Italiau 
 money, 
 
 Cheese, Parmesan. .60 kil. 
 
 Citron, preserved. . . " 
 
 Cream of Tartar.... " 
 
 Essences : lemon ... .1 kil 
 
 borgamot " 
 
 orange " 
 
 Galls: Turkey, blue 
 & blue & green.. .50 kil. 
 
 Gum Arabic: picked. i kil. 
 in sorts 50 kil. 
 
 Hemp: Bologna. ..100 kil. 
 
 2dandl8t " 
 
 cordage, Ist " 
 
 2d " 
 
 Ferrara cordage. " 
 Piedmont, Ist... " 
 combed " 
 
 Linseed, Sicily and 
 
 Sardinia " 
 
 Black Sea " 
 
 Egyptian " 
 
 Liquorice paste, Ca- 
 labria 60 kil. 
 
 Sicilian " 
 
 Manna, in flakes J kil. 
 
 in sorts 
 
 Madder root.s, Levant 
 
 Opium, .Turkey 
 
 Oil, Genoa, super bar. 
 
 Gallipoli , 
 
 Tunis 
 
 Sicily 
 
 Sardinia 
 
 Papor,Floretta,141b8. p 10 
 reams 
 
 Paper — Al Masso, p. 10 
 17 lbs. reams 
 
 Quicksilver ^ kil 
 
 Kags, linen, 1st 50 kil. 
 
 " 2d " 
 
 " 8d " 
 
 Rice, Italian " 
 
 Silks, raw Genoa and 
 
 Piedmont i kil. 
 
 white and yellow " 
 
 Organzins 18—20 . . " 
 
 20—22.. " 
 
 22—26.. " 
 
 Trama, Ist " 
 
 " 2dand8d.. " 
 
 Sowing, black ^ 
 
 assorted " 
 
 Waste, 1st and 2d. " 
 
 Wools, viz; 
 Morocco, washed. 50 kil. 
 
 Tunis " 
 
 Tangarook&Odessa " 
 Bussla merinos 
 half washed.... " 
 
 Bengasi " 
 
 Morocco unwashed " 
 Tunis " 
 
 Grains, viz. : 
 Whoat,Polish soft..heot 
 Galaczand Bralia.. '' 
 
 Barletta " 
 
 Komel;a " 
 
 bard Tanffaroek... " 
 
 Marianople '* 
 
 Indian Corn. Galficz " 
 
 LivreB. 
 
 125 —ISO 
 
 75 — 80 
 
 80 
 6 60— 
 8 60— 
 8 60— 
 
 170 — 
 1 60— 
 76 
 
 106 
 104 
 96 
 91 
 76 
 66 
 180 
 
 — 88 
 
 — 
 —140 
 
 28 60— 29 
 25 —26 
 25 —26 
 
 62 — 58 
 
 7 50— 
 8 
 
 60 
 15 
 115 
 72 
 75 
 78 
 
 44 
 
 •47 
 
 8 15 7 
 
 2 5 6 
 
 5 9 
 
 2 4 
 
 2 2 
 
 11 6 
 
 18 8 
 
 55 3 
 
 58 4 
 
 4 25— 
 81 90— 
 26 25— 
 22 20— 
 18 — 
 
 — 84 
 
 — 41 
 
 86 — 88 
 
 — 84 
 
 — 82 
 26-0 
 27—0 
 
 8 60— 6 
 
 80 
 
 100 
 127 
 95 
 
 114 
 64 
 
 —110 
 —181 
 —102 
 
 —125 
 — 76 
 
 67 —61 
 
 16 50— 17 
 
 15 —15 
 18 50— 19 
 14 50— 15 
 
 17 —17 
 
 16 50— 
 12 —12 
 
 Prices in 
 English money 
 
 d. 
 
 ■ 
 
 6 66 
 7 44 
 5 8 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 7 5 6 
 
 8 11 
 8 4 
 
 40 12 7 
 45 19 8 
 
 41 19 4 
 89 16 10 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 69 19 
 
 2 4 2 
 
 1 19 8 
 
 1 19 8 
 
 English 
 weifjiita & 
 m.^ueures. 
 
 65 18 
 71 4 
 
 8 11 
 8 2 
 
 
 
 8 
 8 
 
 2 58 
 11 
 15 11 
 
 8 
 
 1 7 
 1 12 
 1 11 6 
 1 10 6 
 17 
 1 15 8 
 
 1 10 
 117 
 4 1 
 
 10 10 
 1 06 
 9 88 
 
 11 20 
 
 6 27 
 
 5 
 
 6 85 
 
 2 4 
 
 1 16 10 
 
 6 2 
 
 1 16 7 
 
 2 16 
 1 19 2 
 19 7 
 
 lb. 
 
 cwt 
 lb. 
 
 cwt. 
 ton. 
 
 imp. qr. 
 
 cwt 
 
 lb. 
 
 cwt. 
 
 lb. 
 
 252 gal. 
 
 475 shts. 
 
 imp. qr. 
 
 * From the Circular of Grants, Balfour & Co., Leghorn. 
 Gentian (Ger. Enzian ; Fr. Gentiane ; It. Gemiana; 
 Sp. Jenciana ; Rue. Knzian ; Lat. Gentiana), the roots 
 of two alpine plants, Gentiana lutea and Gentiana pur- 
 purea, found growing in Switzerland and Austria, the 
 
 Apennines, the Pyrenees, and in North America. Those 
 brought to this country come from Germany, They 
 are in pieces of various lengths and thickness, twisted, 
 and wrinkled on the outside, and covered with a 
 brownish-gray cuticle. They have no particular odor; 
 and the taste is intensely bitter, vrithout being nause- 
 ous. — Thomson's DispenacUory. 
 
 Geodesy (Gr. yj;, and Sqtu,! divide), literally sig- 
 nifies the division of the earth, in which sense it is 
 synonymous with land-surveying; but it is usually 
 employed in a more general sense to denote that part 
 of practical geometry which has for its object the de- 
 termination of the magnitude and figure either of the 
 whole earth, or of any given portion of its surface. 
 In this sense it comprehends all the geometrical or 
 trigonometrical operations that are necessary for con- 
 structing a map of a country, measuring the lengths 
 of degrees, etc. In order to construct an accurate 
 map, or determine the form and dimensions of a coun- 
 trj', it is necessarj-, in the first place, to determine the 
 absolute distances between the several stations or 
 points ; secondly, to determine the azimuths of the 
 lines thus measured, that is, their situation with re- 
 spect to the meridian ; and thirdly, the differences of 
 latitude and longitude of the stations. The opera- 
 tions necessary for determining the absolute distances, 
 comprehending the measurement of a base, the ob- 
 servation of angles, the computation of the sides of 
 the triangles, and their reduction to the same level, 
 are called the geodesical or geodetical operations ; while 
 those which are required for determining the azimuths 
 and latitudes are called the astroTwmical operations. 
 The determination of the figure and dimensions of the 
 earth is a problem of very great importance to astron- 
 omy and geography, and has accordinglj' at all times 
 been a subject of much interest to mathematicians ; 
 but it is only since toward the middle of the last cen- 
 turj^ that operations on an adequate scale for its solu- 
 tion have been undertaken in different parts of the 
 world. For the results of the more important of these 
 operations, see Degkee. 
 
 Geography. The first correct record we have of 
 geographical knowledge is from Homer. He describes 
 the shield of Achilles as representing the earth, sur- 
 rounded by the sea. — Iliad. He accurately describes 
 the countries of Greece, islands of the Archipelago, 
 and site of Troy. The priests taught that the temple 
 of Apollo at Delphos was the centre of the world. 
 Anaximander of Miletus was the inventer of geo- 
 graphical maps, about 568 b. c. Hipparchus attempt- 
 ed to reduce geography to mathematical bases about 
 135 B. c. It was first brought to Europe by the 
 Moors of Barbary and Spain, about A. D. 1201. — Leng- 
 LET. The invention of the mariner's compass is the 
 important connecting link between ancient and mod- 
 em geography. The modern maps and charts were 
 introduced into England by Bartholomew Columbus 
 to illustrate his brother's theory respecting a western 
 continent, A. D. 1489. — Haydn. The term Geography, 
 derived from two Greek words, yea, the earth, and ypa^w, 
 I write, signifies a description of the earth. 'The descrip- 
 tion to which this title is applied may be more or less 
 general ; either embracing such truths as only belong 
 to the earth considered as one whole, or extending to 
 particulars which belong to and distinguish the sev- 
 eral countries spread over its surface. In whichso- 
 ever of these two aspects the subject be regarded, it 
 vast field opens to the view of the observer. In order 
 to give a full and accurate description of the earth, it 
 would be requisite to consider it in reference to its 
 motion, figure, and magnitude ; in reference to its rela- 
 tion to the other bodies of the imiverse, and more es- 
 peciallj- to the planetary system of which it forms a 
 part ; in reference to its surface, as diversified by land 
 and sea, mountains and vallej's, lakes and rivers ; in 
 reference to the materials which compose its crust, and 
 to its internal structure ; in reference to the constitution 
 
GEO 
 
 788 
 
 GEO 
 
 of the atmosphere -with which it is surrounded, and the 
 effects arising from the variations in atmospherical 
 pressure, temperature, and humidity. Nor would it 
 be enough to consider the earth only as a mass of in- 
 ert and unorganized matter j it would he necessary 
 to regard it in its relations to vegetable and animal 
 life ; and to trace the phenomena which these, in their 
 endless variety, present in its various divisions and 
 provinces. It would still further be necessary to view 
 ' it as the abode of man himself, and as modified by his 
 existence j divided into states and kingdoms ; adorned 
 with cities, and all the noble monuments of civilized life. 
 
 Such is an outline of the picture which geographj-, 
 in the most unlimited meaning of the term, should 
 exhibit of the globe. To fill up this picture in all its 
 parts, it would evidently be necessary to call in the 
 aid of the whole circle of the sciences. But the de- 
 scription is usually of a less extended character, being 
 confined chiefly to the more obvious and strilcing 
 features of the various regions and countries of the 
 earth. 
 
 In the wide range which the subject presents, sev- 
 eral divisions and subdivisions are suggested by the 
 different views in which the earth may be considered. 
 The three following divisions are the most important : 
 
 1. Mathematical Geography^ which illustrates, on 
 astronomical principles, the figure, magnitude, and mo- 
 tion of the earth ; teaches how to determine the posi- 
 tions of places on its surface ; explains the construction 
 of globes, with their application to the solution of 
 problems ; and shows how the whole or any portion of 
 the earth's surface may, on the principles of projection, 
 be delineated on a map or chart. 
 
 2. Physical Geography, which treats of the mutual 
 relations of the diversified objects found on the surface 
 of the earth, including the atmosphere by which it is 
 surrounded ; and explains the causes, whether of a 
 chemical or mechanical description, tliat produce the 
 modifications and changes which are continually taking 
 place in them. 
 
 3. Political, or Historical Geography, which describes 
 the earth as divided into countries, occupied by vari- 
 ous nations, and unproved by human art and industry. 
 It traces the circumstances and character of the differ- 
 ent races and tribes of mankind, explaining their 
 social institutions, and ascertaining the place which 
 each occupies in the scale of civilization. 
 
 From this general arrangement of the subject, it is 
 evident that geography depends for its rank as a sci- 
 ence on its intimate connection with various branches 
 of knowledge, which, taking their rise from investiga- 
 tions instituted in reference to the nature and mutual 
 relations of the objects on the earth, or connected with 
 it, furnish those accurate views which must be obtained 
 before any thing like a precise description can be given 
 of the globe we inhabit, or of any portion of it. With 
 regard to what belongs to Physical Geography, we 
 must refer the reader to the articles Physical Geog- 
 EAPHY, Mineralogy, Meteorology, etc., in the 
 new edition of the Encyc. Brit, What belongs to 
 Political or Historical Geography will be found under 
 the names of the respective countries. The following 
 article will be limited to a view of the progress of Geo- 
 graphical Discovery. 
 
 Progress of Geographical Discovery. — There are 
 many circumstances in the condition of man which 
 connect him so closely with the globe which he inhab- 
 its, as to render absolutely necessary to his existence 
 a knowledge of at least the neighborhood of the spot 
 where his lot is cast. It is from the earth that he 
 must derive the means of subsistence and accommoda^ 
 tion, the materials on which his industry is to be ex- 
 erted, and those objects in the exchange of which 
 commerce consists. In every stage of his progress, 
 therefore, from barbarism to civilization, he must em- 
 ploy some attention and observation, in order to dis- 
 cover in what respects the objects with which he is 
 
 surrounded are qualified to contribute to the supply of 
 his wants, and to his comfort and convenience. Even 
 while he roams the forest in the savage state, he must 
 make himself acquainted with many circumstances, a 
 knowledge of which is necessary either to give him 
 success in the chase, or to direct him in retracing his 
 steps to the place where he has fixed his dwelling. 
 But it is not until men have united in society, and 
 that neighboring communities have begun to hold mu- 
 tual intercourse, that those feelings and passions are 
 effectually aroused which stimulate to the arduous 
 pursuits of geographical discovery. Commerce and 
 war, with the spirit of adventure which usually ac- 
 company them, have, without doubt, been among the 
 first causes of geographical research. In the train of 
 these have followed the workings of avarice and the 
 aims of ambition. As the human mind has advanced 
 in its career of improvement, curiosity, with an en- 
 largement of views and desires, has been called into 
 action ; and voyages have been undertaken for the ex- 
 press purpose of discovering new countries and explor- 
 ing Unknown seas. 
 
 In tracing the effects which these causes have pro- 
 duced in the gradual increase of geographical knowl- 
 edge, it will contribute to distinctness to keep in view 
 a threefold , division, which the subject naturally as- 
 sumes, namely, ancient geography, extending from the 
 earliest period of history down to the time when, the 
 Roman empire having been overrun by barbarous na- 
 tions from several quarters, .Europe was overwhelmed 
 in the darkness which preceded the revival of learn- 
 ing ; the geography of the middle ages, extending from 
 the revival of letters to the fifteenth century, when 
 the discoveries of the Portuguese began, to lay a wider 
 foundation for the science ; and modern geography, 
 which embraces the most recent discoveries, and is 
 progressively improving by the accessions which it is 
 receiving from the labors and science of modem travel- 
 ers and navigators. 
 
 The Phoenicians are the earliest commercial people 
 of whose discoveries we have any correct accounts. 
 This people seem first to have explored the coast of the 
 Mediterranean. Their navigators at length extended 
 their voyages through the Straits of Gades, now called 
 the Straits of Gibraltar, entered the Atlantic Ocean, 
 and visited the western coasts of Spain and Africa. 
 In many places to which they resorted they planted 
 colonies ; and sought, by instructing the inhabitants, 
 in some measure, in their arts and improvements, to 
 open a wider sphere for their commerce. The learned 
 Bochart, led by the analogy between the Phcenician 
 tongue and the oriental languages, has endeavored to 
 follow the tracks of the Phoenicians, both along the 
 shores of the Mediterranean and those of the Atlantic. 
 These analogies are not always sure guides ; but there 
 seems no reason to doubt that Cadiz was originally a 
 Phoenician colony, and it is not likely that this was 
 the only one formed by that enterprising people. 
 
 The Arabian Gulf, or Red Sea, offered to the Phce- 
 nicians another field of naval and commercial exer- 
 tion, to the improvement of which the distance of 
 Tyre, the emporium of their trade, was the only ob- 
 stacle. This induced them to make themselves mas- 
 ters of Ehinocrura or EhinocolUra, the port in the 
 Mediterranean nearest to the Red Sea. Commodities 
 purchased in Arabia, Ethiopia, and India, were landed 
 at Elah, the safest harbor in the Red Sea toward tlie 
 north ; thence they were conveyed overland to Khino- 
 colura ; and being there reshipped, they were carried 
 to Tyre, whence they were distributed over the world. 
 
 The wealth and power which accrued to the Phceni- 
 cians from their being in the sole possession of the 
 lucrative trade of the East, incited the Jews, their neigh- 
 bors, under the prosperous reigns of David and Solo- 
 mon, to desire a participation in its advantages. Their 
 conquest of Idumea, which stretches along the Ked 
 Sea, put it in the power of Solomon to fit out a fleet; 
 
GEO 
 
 789 
 
 GEO 
 
 while his alliance with Hiram, king of Tyre, enabled 
 liim to command the skill of the Phoenicians for the 
 conducting of the voyage. Passing through the Straits 
 of Babelmandel, they carried on commerce in the, In- 
 dian Ocean ; and so distant were the countries to which 
 they traded, that the voyage occupied no less than 
 three years. But though the Jews thus for a time en- 
 gaged in the pursuits of trade, yet the tendency of 
 their institutions, which were expressly designed to 
 preserve them a separate people, was unfavorable to 
 the development of the (Commercial spirit which their 
 monarchs wished to foster among them. This, joined 
 with the division of the kingdom on the death of Sol- 
 omon, proved fatal to their rising greatness as a com- 
 mercial people, and excluded them from ranking among 
 the nations who have contributed to the advancement 
 of geographical knowledge. It is perhaps impossible 
 to fix with certainty the limits which bounded the geo- 
 graphical researches of the Phcenioians, on accountof the 
 difficulty there is of assigning the precise places marked 
 out by; the names then given to the countries to which 
 they traded. The length of time occupied in, the voyr 
 ago^ and the nature of the cargoes brought home, with 
 a few other circumstances of the same vague kind, are 
 the only particulars afforded to direct us in the detep- 
 mination. Thus, the countjj' of Ophir, to which the 
 Phoenicians navigated the ships of Solomon, must be 
 ascertained by the facts that the voyage thither and 
 homeward occupied three years, and that the cargo 
 consisted of " gold, and silver, ivory, and apes, and 
 peacoclcs." Among the various, opinions which have 
 been entertained respecting the position of this distant 
 country, the most probable appears to be that it was 
 situated on the eastern coast of Africa, as far south as 
 Sofala. To this quarter ever}- indica,tion seems clearly 
 to point ; and whatever objections may appear to stand 
 in the way, in consideration of the jemoteness of the 
 region, and the difficulties to be encountered, these 
 admit of being answered by a reference to the length 
 of time required for the voyage, and to the wealth, 
 naval skill, and ample resources, at the command of 
 the monarchs engaged in the traffic. 
 
 The regions always spoken of in Scripture as the 
 most remote with which the Hebrews and Phoenicians 
 were acquainted, are Tarshish, Ophir, the Isles ■Sheba 
 and Dedan, the rivers Gog, Magog, and the North. 
 Without entering into any discussion, we may give 
 what appear to be the most probable conclusions with 
 regard to the positions of the countries to which these 
 names were applied. Tarshish is a country from 
 which two voyages are spoken of in Scripture as being 
 made ; one by the Mediterranean, bringing iron, sil- 
 ver, lead, and tin, the produce of Spain and Britain ; 
 the other bj- the Red Sea, bringing gold, ivory and 
 other productions of tropical Africa. These two voy- 
 ages, though at iirst they appear incongruous, if sup- 
 posed to be made to the same country, may be reconciled 
 by supposing that Tarshish is fundamentally Carthage, 
 whioli monopolized almost entirely the commerce of 
 Spain and Britain, and was the medium through which 
 the commodities of the West were distributed ; and 
 that the name of this great African metropolis was ex- 
 tended to the whole of the continent of Africa. The 
 Isles are the whole southern coasts of Europe, consist- 
 ing either of real islands or peninsular tracts. Sheba 
 is the southern portion of that part of the coast of 
 Arabia whicli borders on the Red Sea ; while Dedan 
 lies upon the opposite coast, that borders on the Persian 
 Gulf. These countries rose to commercial importance 
 in consequence of the valuable commodities which 
 were imported into the former from the African coast, 
 and into the latter from India. Thence arose the 
 traffic carried on by "the companies of Sheba," or 
 caravans, and by " the traveling companies of Deda- 
 nim." The River was the name always applied to the 
 Euphrates. Gog, Magog, and the North, appear to be 
 the high table-land in the interior and north of Asia 
 
 Minor, Phrygia, Galatia, Cappadocia, and Paphlago- 
 nia,, regions in which may be recognized the peculiarly 
 rude and formida1;>le aspect which belonged to the 
 countries to which in ancient times the names in ques- 
 tion were applied. See Encyclopaedia of Geography, by 
 H. Murray, Esq. 
 
 The Carthaginians, a Phoenician colony, retained in 
 full vigor the conuneroial spirit of the parent State. 
 Th?y did not, however, attempt to divide with Tyre 
 the wealth and power which she derived from the mo- 
 nopoly of the trade carried on in the Arabian Gulf. 
 They directed their efforts to the opposite quarter, and 
 sailing through the Straits of Gades, pushed their 
 researches far beyond the bounds which had been 
 reached by the mother country in this part of the 
 globe. They visited not only all the coast of Spain, but 
 likewise that of Gaul, and penetrated at length as far 
 as the south-western coast of Britain, where they ob- 
 tained tin from the mines of Cornwall or in traffic with 
 the natives. Nor was it only toward the northward 
 that they directed their efforts ; they explored also the 
 regions southward of the Straits, and sailing along the 
 western coast of Africa almost as far as the northern 
 tropic, they planted colonies, as the Phoenicians of 
 Tyre had formerly done, with a view to prepare the 
 natives for carrying, on commercial intercourse. The 
 Atlantic Ocean was destined to conceal for ages from 
 the inhabitants of the old world the immense regions 
 which lie beyond it. Bufi the Carthaginians extended 
 the boundary of navigation westward by the discovery 
 of the Fortimate Islands, now known by the name of 
 the Canaries. 
 
 The enlargement of views gradually generated by 
 this spirit of commercial enterprise led at length to 
 voyages of which discovery was the special object. 
 The circumnavigation of Africa was one of the earliest 
 attempts of this kind made by, the ancients. The di- 
 rection whiDh the coast takes beyond the Mediterranean 
 on the one hand, and the Bed Sea on the other, sug- 
 gested the idea of a peninsula which it might be pos- 
 sible to sail round. This voyage was first undertaken 
 by the Egyptians ; a people pxoeedingly averse to 
 engage in naval affairs, but who at this time were 
 ruled over by Necho, a monarch whose active spirit 
 prompted him to engage some Phoenicians to descend 
 the Arabian Gulf, and, coasting along Africa, to en- 
 deavor to return by the Straits of Gades. Herodotus 
 narrates in a few words the result of this enterpr^e, 
 which was undertaken about 604 years before the 
 Christian era. He saj-s, "the Phcenicians, setting 
 sail from the Red Sea, made their way into the south- 
 em sea ; and when autumn approached they drew 
 their vessels to land, sowed a crop, and waited until it 
 was grown ; when they reaped it, and again put to sea. 
 Having spent two j'ears in , this manner, in the third 
 year they reached the Pillars of Hercules, and returned 
 to EgyjJt, reporting what does not find belief with me, 
 but may perhaps with some other person ; for they 
 said that in passing Africa, they had the sun on their 
 right hand. In this manner Libya was first known." 
 This passage has given rise to much controversy among 
 the learned. But the voyage here so briefly described 
 does not seem to involve any impossibility, notwith- 
 standing the then infant state of navigation ; and the 
 circumstances which the historian objects to as incred- 
 ible, is the very point, which, from its coincidence 
 with what we know should have happened, renders the 
 story more worthy of belief. 
 
 Xerxes, king of Persia, according to Herodotus, 
 gave a similar commission, about 480 years before 
 the Christian era, to one of his satraps, named 
 Sataspes, who, for a heinous offense, had been 
 condemned to die. If successful in the accomplish- 
 ment of this voyage, Sataspes was to escape a cruel 
 death. But the difficulties were too great to be 
 surmounted by a navigator brought up amid the lux- 
 ury and indulgence of the Persian court. Having 
 
GEO 
 
 790 
 
 GEO 
 
 procured from Egypt a vessel and crew, he passed 
 through the Straits of Gades, entered the Atlantic 
 Ocean, and, bending his course toward the south, 
 coasted the continent of Africa, until, after several 
 months, he probably reached the coast of Sahara. 
 The frightful and desolate shores along -which he 
 sailed, and the tempestuous ocean which beat against 
 them, combined to fill his mind with alarm and to 
 shake his resolution. He retraced his course to the 
 Straits ; and hoping, perhaps, that the labors he had 
 undergone in the partial accomplishment of the task 
 imposed on him would be accepted by his royal master 
 as a sufHcient atonement for his offense, or that the 
 offense itself might in a great measure be forgotten, 
 he returned home and presented himself before Xerxes. 
 The cause which he assigned for the failure of the 
 ultimate object of his mission was, that he had encoun- 
 tered a sea so full of herbage that his passage was 
 completely obstructed. This reason (the grounds of 
 which have never been satisfactorily explained, though 
 it has been alleged that obstacles of this description occur 
 in that part of the sea which lies between the Cape 
 Verd Islands, the Canaries, and the coast of Africa) 
 appeared so ridiculous to Xerxes, that he ordered the 
 sentence of death by crucifixion, which had been pro- 
 nounced upon Sataspea, to be immediately executed. 
 
 But the most celebrated voyage of antiquity under- 
 taken for the purpose of discovery was the expedition 
 under Hanno, fitted out by the authority of the Senate 
 of Carthage, and at the public expense, and that with 
 a view of attempting a complete survey of the western 
 coast of Africa. Of all the voyages performed by the 
 Phoenicians and Carthaginians, this is the only one of 
 which we have an authentic narratiue. Mercantile 
 jealousy prevented these two great comlhercial states 
 from communicating to other nations the knowledge 
 which they acquired of the remote regions of the earth ; 
 and from this cause, when the maritime power of the 
 former was annihilated by Alexander's conquest of 
 Tyre, and the empire of the latter was overthrown by 
 the Koman arms, all monuments of their great skill in 
 naval affairs appear in a great measure to have per- 
 ished. Even the account of the voyage of Hanno 
 (Periplus Hannonis) has been considered by its learned 
 editor, Mr. Dodwell, as a spurious work. But the 
 arguments of M. de Montesquieu and of M. de Bou- 
 gainville appear fully to establish its authenticity, 
 which the learned world now generally admit. 
 
 Hanno set sail with a fleet of 60 vessels, so con- 
 structed that, according to the mode of ancient navi- 
 gation, he could keep close in with the coast. We are 
 told that, in twelve days after leaving the Straits of 
 Gades, he reached the island of Ceme ; that proceed- 
 ing thence, and following the direction of the coast, 
 he arrived, in 17 days, at a bay, which he called The 
 West Horn. Prom this he advanced to another bay, 
 which he named The South Horn. The objects which 
 are described as having been seen by Hanno in his 
 progress belong to tropical Africa. But in attempting 
 to ascertain the places which he visited, or the utmost 
 distance which he sailed southward, much difficulty 
 and uncertainty are experienced. Bougainville sup- 
 poses Hanno to have reached the Gulf of Benin, and 
 contends that this limit, distant as it is, can not be 
 regarded as beyond what may be conceived to have 
 been accomplished by the most skillful navigator of 
 antiquity. Major Eennell shortens the distance con- 
 siderably by conceiving the voyage to have been ex- 
 tended no Turther southward than Sherbro Sound, a 
 little beyond Sierra Leone. He thus obtains the ad- 
 vantage of avoiding a difficulty involved in the hy- 
 pothesis of M. de Bougainville, namelj', the supposition 
 of ancient ships having sailed upward of 70 geograph- 
 ical miles in a day. At the same time, the arguments 
 which support the one hypothesis are equally appli- 
 cable to the other. 
 
 According to the views of M. Gosselin, however, 
 
 the voyage must be confined to much narrower lim- 
 its southward than even those assigned hy Major 
 Rennell. He supposes it to have terminated about 
 the Eiver Nun — an opinion which he supports by al- 
 leging that, in such a voyage, the progress must neces- 
 sarily have been slow. The Carthaginian navigator 
 had to encounter all the obstacles and dangers incident 
 to a course held along a shore, and in a sea, which 
 were equally unknown. He must have found him- 
 self impeded by the requisite examination of ever)'' 
 part of the coast, as well as by the many precautions 
 which the safety of the fleet under his command must 
 have rendered constantly necessarj^. With regard to 
 the circumstances given in the narrative which appear 
 to point to tropical Africa, M. Gosselin supposes that 
 the same aspect of life and nature may, at that dis- 
 tant period, have belonged to Morocco, then thinly 
 peopled by the rude native tribes, which is now spe- 
 cially characteristic of the more southern regions. 
 
 Amid such diversity of opinion among the learned, 
 it is not easy to decide in reference to a subject beset 
 with so many difficulties. If we assume either of the 
 more remote distances assigned for the termination of 
 the voyage, Ceme must be identified with the isle of 
 Arguin ; and, on Major Rennell's hypothesis, the Gulfs 
 of Bissago and Sherbro present those numerous islands 
 described by Hanno, to which there are no islands cor- 
 responding on any other part of the coast. On the 
 whole, however, the most limited distance seems 
 preferable, if we admit that part of M. Gosselin 's hy- 
 pothesis which assigns to Morocco features of man and 
 of nature that are usually held to be characteristic of 
 tropical Africa. 
 
 The circumnavigation of Africa was an enterprise 
 which in ancient times not only called forth the naval 
 efforts of the most powerful maritime States, but which 
 also awakened the ambition of private adventurers. 
 Eudoxus, a native of Cyzicus, being sent on a mission 
 to Alexandria, at that time the seat of naval enterprise 
 and geographical knowledge, his ardent mind, natu- 
 rally biased to these pursuits, was aroused to action 
 \>y the spirit which prevailed in that city. He began 
 his career under the auspices of Ptolemy Euergetes, 
 the reigning Egyptian monarch, who fitted out a fleet, 
 and placed it under his command. According to the 
 destination assigned him, Eudoxus descended the 
 Arabian Gulf, and proceeded probably as far as the 
 southern shore of Arabia. Thence he appears to have 
 returned after a prosperous voyage, with a valuable 
 cargo of aromatics and precious stones. But of this 
 wealth he appears to have been deprived by Euergetes. 
 After the death of this monarch, which in a short time 
 took place, his widow Cleopatra sent Eudoxus on 
 another voyage, in the course of which he was driven 
 by unfavorable winds on the coast of Ethiopia, where 
 he was kindly received by the inhabitants, and carried 
 on with them an advantageous traflic. After other 
 vicissitudes of fortune, he was induced by circum- 
 stances which occurred in his adventurous life to lejve 
 the court Of Egypt, and repair to the commercial city 
 of Cadiz, in Spain, and there to fit out an expedition 
 for the purpose of African discovery. At Massilia 
 (Marseilles), and other maritime places which he 
 passed on his way to Cadiz, he took care to make 
 known his views and hopes of success, and to invite 
 all who were actuated by any spirit of enterprise to 
 accompany him. He succeeded in fitting out a ship 
 and two large boats, on board of which he carried not 
 only goods and provisions, but artisans, medical men, 
 and even players on musical instruments. This WM 
 no doubt proceeding on a magnificent scale ; but^ his 
 crew was ill calculated to second his bold undertaking. 
 To avoid the danger of stranding, Eudoxus was anxious 
 to keep the open sea. His companions, however, 
 alarmed at the swell, forced him to adopt the usual 
 mode then followed of sailing along the shore—a 
 measure which led to the disaster which he had antici- 
 
GEO 
 
 791 
 
 GEO 
 
 pated. With one vessel of a lighter construction, on 
 board of which was put the more valuable part of the 
 cargo, Eudoxus pursued his voyage until he reached a 
 part of the coast inhabited by a race of people that 
 appeared to him to speak the same language with 
 those whom he had found on the opposite side of the 
 continent. Judging from this circumstance that he had 
 ascertained the main object of his voyage, he returned 
 and endeavored to obtain the assistance of Bocchus, 
 king of Mauritania. Suspecting, however, treachery 
 on the part of that monarch, he again had recourse to 
 Spain. Here he was again successful in equipping 
 another expedition, consisting of one large veyel fitted 
 for the open sea, and another of smaller size for the 
 examination of the coast. This was a judicious prepa- 
 ration for the accomplishment of the object in view ; 
 but with regard to the issue of the voyage no accounts 
 of any authority have been preserved. 
 
 Such are the leading circumstances connected with 
 the voyages of Eudoxus, which are narrated by 
 Strabo ; and, notwithstanding the skepticism and 
 severe criticisms of that geographer, there is really 
 nothing to which the candid reader can reasonably 
 refuse his belief. Prejudices, founded, for the most 
 part, on his own want of information, led Strabo to 
 treat' likewise as fabulous the relation of the onlj' 
 ancient voyage having Europe, and more particularly 
 the British isles, for its object, of wliich we have any 
 detailed -account. 
 
 Pytheas, a Massilian navigator, undertook an expe- 
 dition about 320 years before the Christian era. He 
 steered northward ; and after examining the coasts of 
 Spain and Gaul, he sailed round the island of Albion ; 
 and, stretching still further to the north, he discovered 
 an island, the Ultima Thule of the ancients. What 
 island this was, the learned are not agreed. It has 
 been supposed to be the modern Iceland; but this 
 implies too great an extent of open sea for an ancient 
 navigator to traverse ; and besides, six days, the pe- 
 riod during which he is said to have navigated to the 
 northward of Albion before he made his discovery, is 
 too short a time to admit of his reaching Iceland. 
 Others, among whom is Malte-Brun, have considered 
 Jutland as Ultima Thule. But it should be kept in 
 view that Pytheas uniformly regarded Thule as Brit- 
 ish, a character which he could scarcely conceive to 
 belong to Jutland, seeing he could have reached that 
 peninsula only b}' a long course along the coasts of 
 Germany, which must have impressed on his mind the 
 idea that he had left far behind him ever;' thing be- 
 longing to Britain. On the whole, Shetland seems 
 best entitled to be considered as the ancient Thule, and 
 suits well with the appellation which Pjtheas gives it, 
 when he expressly calls it the " furthest of the Brit- 
 ains." 
 
 Strabo endeavors to throw discredit on the state- 
 ments of Pytheas, by starting objections long known 
 to be of the most groundless description ; and it is an 
 advantage which the traveler and navigator possess 
 who describe faithfully the grand features of nature, 
 that, however prejudice may dim their reputation for 
 a time, yet will their accuracy as well as veracity at 
 length, in the progress of knowledge, appear, and 
 secure for them the respect and applause of mankind. 
 At the same time, it must be admitted that, in describ- 
 ing what he saw beyond his Ultima Thule, the state- 
 ment given by Pytheas, as reported by Strabo, as- 
 sumes a somewhat fabulous character. He asserted, 
 it seems, that beyond Thule there commenced what 
 was neither earth, sea, nor air, but a confused blend- 
 ing of all the three. But even here some allowance 
 is to be made for the workings of imagination under 
 very peculiar circumstances, and a readiness, not un- 
 natural, to believe reports which represented him to 
 have reached the extremity of the habitable globe. If 
 his language is not too literally interpreted, it will be 
 found to convey a strongly figurative, but not alto- 
 
 gether imperfect, description of the state of the sea 
 and sky in those climes, which have been so little 
 favored by nature. 
 
 The conquests of Alexander the Great, by making 
 known the East, enlarged the bounds of geographical 
 knowledge. Though the course of his expedition was 
 for the most part by land, his mind was equally intent 
 on commerce and maritime discovery. Checked as he 
 had so long been in the career of his victories by the 
 opposition and efforts of the republic of Tyre, he had 
 an opportunity afforded him of observing the vast 
 resources of a maritime power, and at the same time 
 of forming a judgment respecting the immense wealth 
 to be derived from commerce, especially from that 
 carried on with India, which he found to be wholly in 
 the hands of the Tyrians. With a view to secure this 
 commerce, as soon as he had completed the conquest 
 of Egypt, he founded the city of Alexandria, and thus 
 established for it a station preferable in many respects 
 to Tyre. After his final victorj' over the Persians, 
 his march in pursuit of Bessus, who had carried off 
 Darius into Bactriana, often led him near to India, 
 and among people accustomed to much intercourse 
 with it, from whom he learned manj' things concerning 
 the state of the country, that served so to confirm and 
 iufiame a desire which he had long cherished, of ex- 
 tending his dominion over those regions, that he was 
 induced to conduct his army from Bactria, for the pur- 
 pose of invasion, across that ridge of mountains which 
 form the northern barrier of India. After passing the 
 Indus, Alexander directed his march to the Ganges, 
 which, from the accounts he heard of it, and of the 
 countries ■ through which it flows, he was eager to 
 reach. The route which he found it necessary to fol- 
 low, in consequence of being successivelj- engaged in 
 hostilities with various native princes, led him through 
 one of the richest and best-peopled countries in India, 
 now called Punjab. In his ultimate object, however, 
 he failed. His march being performed during the 
 rainy season, his troops had already suff^ered so much, 
 that, notwithstanding the high degree in which he 
 possessed all those qualities that secure an ascendancy 
 over the minds of soldiers, he was unable to persuade 
 them to advance beyond the banks of the Hyphasis, 
 the modern Beyah, which was accordingly the utmost 
 limit of Alexander's progress in India. 
 
 By this expedition, Alexander first opened the 
 knowledge of India to the people of Europe ; and as 
 he was accompanied, wherever he went, by skillful 
 surveyors, Diognetes and Baeton, who measured the 
 length and determined the direction of every route 
 taken by the armj', he furnished a survey of an exten- 
 sive district of it, more accurate than could have been 
 expected from the short time he remained in that 
 country. The memoirs drawn up by his officers like- 
 wise afforded to Europeans their first authentic in- 
 formation respecting the climate, the soil, the produc- 
 tions, and the inhabitants of India. 
 
 Though Alexander did not penetrate to the Ganges, 
 his expedition prepared the way to the knowledge of 
 that magnificent stream. For soon after, Seleucus, 
 one of his successors, sent Megasthenes as his embas- 
 sador to Palibothra, the capital of a powerful nation 
 on the banks of the Ganges. The site of Palibothra 
 was probably the same as that of the modem city of 
 Allahabad, at the junction of the River Jumna with 
 the Ganges. This embassy brought new and opulent 
 provinces of India into view, an acquaintance with 
 which served to raise still higher the idea generally 
 entertained of the value and importance of the 
 countrj'. 
 
 The island Taprohane, so celebrated among the an- 
 cients, which appears, notwithstanding some great mis- 
 takes with respect both to its extent and position, to be 
 the modern Ceylon, seems not to have been known in 
 Europe even by name before the age of Alexander. In 
 consequence, however, of the enlightened and active 
 
GEO 
 
 '792 
 
 GEO 
 
 curiosity with which he explored every country which 
 he subdued or visited, some Icnowledge of it was at 
 length obtained ; and, after his time, it is mentioned 
 by almost every ancient geograplier. While Alexan- 
 der was attempting to penetrate into India, a numerous 
 fleet was assembled by officers whom he had left on the 
 banks of the Hydaspes, the modem Behat or Chelum, 
 with orders to build and collect as many ships as they 
 could. The destination of this fleet was to saU down 
 the Indus to the ocean, and from its mouth to proceed 
 to the Persian Gulf, with a view of opening a com- 
 munication between India and the centre of his do- 
 minions. 
 
 When Alexander reached the banks of the HydaS- 
 pes on his return, he committed the conduct of this 
 expedition to Nearchus. The voyage down the Indus 
 derived splendor from the greatness and magnificence 
 of the armament, which consisted of an armj' of 120,000 
 men, and 200 elephants, and of a fleet of nearly 2000 
 vessels. Alexander himself accompanied Nearchus in 
 his navigation down the river, with one third of the 
 troops on board ; while the remainder, in two divisions, 
 one on the right and the other on the left of the river, 
 accompanied them in their progress. Having reached 
 the ocean after the lapse of nine months, Alexander 
 left Nearchus and his crew to pursue their voyage, and 
 conducted his army back by land to Persia. A coast- 
 ing voyage of seven months brought Nearchus, with 
 the fleet, in safety, up the Persian Gulf into the Eu- 
 phrates. It was at the mouth of the Indus that the 
 Greeks witnessed for the first time, and that with as- 
 tonishment and terror, the ebb and flow of the sea ; a 
 phenomenon scarcely perceptible in the Mediterranean, 
 to which their navigation liad formerly been confined. 
 In the progress of the voj^age they were also struck 
 with surprise on observing phenomena belonging to 
 the midsummer of the tropics. At noon objects were 
 observed to project no shadows, or to project small 
 shadows declining to the south. Their attention was 
 still furtlier attracted by the' new appearance of the 
 sky. Stars which they had been accustomed to see 
 high in the heavens were now seen near the horizon. 
 Some stars to the north disappeared, while other stars 
 formerly invisible were seen in the south. 
 
 The opening of a communication between the Red 
 Sea and the Persian Gulf was with Alexander another 
 great object of ambition. But though with this view 
 he seems to have sent expeditions down botli seas, 
 he failed in his attempts to accomplish this project. 
 Among the Romans, navigation and commerce, the 
 handmaids of geographical science, were never made 
 objects of pursuit, except in so far as they were found 
 to be necessary to forward their schemes of universal 
 dominion. Their conquests opened indeed the West, 
 as those of Alexander had made known the East ; and 
 it might be truly said of that 'great people, that as they 
 were the conquerors, so thej'were the surveyors of the 
 world. Every new war produced a new survey and itin- 
 erary of the countries which were the scenes of action ; 
 so that the materials of geography were accumulated by 
 &TeTy additional conquest. Some fragments of the itin- 
 eraries thus composed still remain. The most mem- 
 orable is that which bears the name of Antoninus, and 
 which may be described as a mere skeleton road-book, 
 exhibiting nothing more than the names of places, 
 and their distances from eacla other. The Jerusalem 
 itinerary, which details minutely the route from 
 Bordeaux to that holy city, is of the same descrip- 
 tion. 
 
 A more remarkable monument, however, is the 
 Peutingerian Table, which forms a map of the world, 
 constructed on the most singular principles. The map 
 is twenty feet long and only one foot broad, so that we 
 can easily conceive how incorrectly the proportion of 
 the different parts is exhibited. Along the high road 
 which traverses the Roman empire in the general 
 direction of east and west, objects are minutely and 
 
 accurately represented; but of those objects which lie 
 to the north and south of it, only some general notion 
 is convej-ed. The Peutingerian Table serves as a 
 specimen of what are called Itinera Picta, the "paint- 
 ed roads" of the ancients, intended for the clearer 
 direction of the march of their armies. 
 
 While the Romans by their surveys contributed 
 much to increase the mass of materials out of which 
 the structure of geographical science was to be reared, 
 they never attempted tliemselves to combine these 
 materials into one harmonious system. They imbibed 
 in no degree the commercial spirit of the great mari- 
 time StE^s of the ancient world, Carthage, Greece, 
 and Egypt, whicli their valor and discipline obliged to 
 submit to their dominion. But while the trade of the 
 conquered countries continued to be carried on through 
 nearly the former channels after they were reduced to 
 the form of Roman provinces, the wealth accumulated 
 in the capital of the world gave rise to a demand for 
 luxuries of ever)' description. This, combined with 
 the comparative peace and security which for a long 
 time prevailed after the complete establishment of the 
 Roman dominion, gave new vigor to commerdal enter- 
 prise. Alexandria continued the great centre of naval 
 affairs. Obstacles which in the time of Alexander 
 were deemed insurmountable, were completely over- 
 come. Trade with India through Egypt acquired new 
 energy, and was carried on to a greater extent. Con- 
 tinued intercourse with the shores of India at length 
 made known to navigators the periodical winds which 
 prevail in the Indian Ocean ; and taking advantage 
 of these, pilots were emboldened to abandon the slow 
 and dangerous course along the coasts, and to make 
 the open sea their highway. This course was from 
 Ocelis, at the mouth of the Arabian Gulf, to Nelkunda 
 (Nelisuram), on the western shores of the Indian conti- 
 nent (the coast of Malabar), which seems to have been 
 the utmost limit of the ancient navigation in that quarter 
 of the globe. The extensive regions which stretch be- 
 yond this to the east were very imperfectly Imown by 
 the reports obtained from a few adventurers who vis- 
 ited them by land. 
 
 If we now bring into one view the amount of in- 
 formation possessed by the ancients respecting the 
 habitable globe, we shall find that it was extremely 
 limited. It was at those places on the earth where the 
 human mind displayed greatest activity and enterprise 
 that this knowledge was naturally accumulated. Pro- 
 ceeding from these stations, the boundarj' which sepa- 
 rated the known from the unknown part of the world, 
 was gradually enlarged ; but the regions comprehended 
 within it constituted still but a small portion of the 
 whole. In Europe the extensive provinces in the east- 
 ern part of Germany were but little known, while the 
 whole of that vast territoiy which now forms the 
 countries of Denmark, Sweden, Prussia, Poland, and 
 Russia, was buried in the deepest obscurity. The in- 
 hospitable and dreary climes within the arctic circle 
 were yet unexplored. In Africa, little was known be- 
 yond the countries stretching along the Mediterranean 
 Sea, and those bordering on the western shoreof the 
 Arabian Gulf. In Asia, the rich and fertile countries 
 beyond the Ganges, whence the commerce of modern 
 times has drawn the most valuable commodities for the 
 comfort and embellishment of civilized society, were 
 known, if known at all, only by the most vague and 
 uncertain report. The immense regions on the north 
 occupied by the wandering tribes called in ancient 
 times by the general names of Sarmatians or Scy- 
 thians, and which are now inhabited by various tribes 
 of Tartars, and by the Asiatic subjects of Russia, seem 
 never to have been penetrated. Add. to this, that the 
 fertile and populous regions within the torrid zone 
 were imagined to be uninhabitable ; and we have am- 
 ple proof that the geography of the ancients was very 
 imperfect. 
 
 Having thus far given a succinct view of the pro- 
 
GEO 
 
 793 
 
 GEO 
 
 gressivo steps by which the earth's surface, considered 
 merely as tracts of territory inhabited by men, gradu- 
 ally became known, it will bo proper next to trace 
 briefly the advances made toward arratlging into a sys- 
 tematic form the materials accumulatedi Science re- 
 quired that the relative positions of places, with their 
 distances from each other, should be ascertained in 
 such a manner as to furnish fixed principles on which 
 the whole, or anj- portion, of the surface of the earth 
 might be represented or delineated with due regard to 
 its figure and dimensions. 
 
 The first rude attempt made by the early geogra- 
 phers to determine the position of places appears to 
 have depended on the division of the earth into cli- 
 mates, distinguished' by the species of animals and 
 plants produced in each. Thus the appearance of the 
 negro, the rhinoceros, and the elephant, suggested to 
 them the line of division where the torrid zone began 
 toward the north, and ended toward the south. But 
 instead of this very vague method, another was soon 
 adopted, which consisted in observing at places the 
 length of the longest and shortest day. This was de- 
 termined with some accuracy by means of a gnomon, a 
 method of observation much used by the ancients. An 
 upright pillar of a known height being erected on a 
 level pavement, by observing the lengths of the me- 
 ridian shadows, they were enabled to trace the progress 
 of the sun from tropic to tropic. The most ancient ob- 
 servation with the gnomon which we meet with is that 
 of Pytheas, in the days of Alexander the Great. Py- 
 theas observed at the summer solstice at Marseilles, 
 that the length of the meridian shadow was to the 
 height of the gnomon as 213i to 600 ; an observation 
 which makes the meridian altitude of the sun at 
 Marseilles on that day 70° ' 27'. The merit of the 
 invention of the gnomon in Greece is ascribed to the 
 astronomical school of' Miletus, and particularly to 
 Anaximander and Anaximenes. There is reason, 
 however, to believe that this method of observation 
 was originally invented by the Egj'ptians ; and that 
 Thales, who traveled into Egypt, carried thence the 
 knowledge of it into Greece. It has even been con- 
 jectured that the Egyptian pyramids and obelisks 
 were intended for the same purpose with the gnomon ; 
 and, though it would be ' extravagant to imagine that 
 this was their sole use, this opinion appears to be coun- 
 tenanced by the fact of their being placed in the direc- 
 tion of the four cardinal points. 
 
 The determination of the length of the meridian 
 shadow at the solstices for different parts of the earth, 
 b3' observations made with the gnomon, is important 
 as being the first step toward connecting geography 
 with astronomy ; and, when combined with just con- 
 ceptions of the globular figure of the earth, leads, by 
 a simple train of thought, to the motion of latitude by 
 which the position of a place is fixed relatively to 
 north and south. The position with regard to east and 
 west is the only other element necessary for fixing the 
 absolute situation of the place on the surface of the 
 earth. It might have been supposed not to be more 
 than a reflecting mind could easily accomplish, to reach 
 the conception of both these elements, and to apply 
 them to use. Yet so slow was the progress toward the 
 apprehension of the principles on which an accurate 
 system of geography might be founded, that from the 
 days of Thales and his immediate successors, who 
 flourished in the sixth century before the Christian 
 era, there appears to have been little done for the im- 
 provement of geography, as a science, until the estab- 
 lishment of the famous astronomical school of Alex- 
 andria. Pythagoras had indeed maintained the true 
 system of the world, by placing the sun in the centre, 
 and giving the earth both a diurnal and annual revo- 
 lution ; but this doctrine was so much in advance of 
 the age in which he promulgated it, that it was soon 
 lost sight of. 
 
 Eratosthenes was the first who reduced geography 
 
 to a regular system, and laid its foundations on clear 
 and solid principles. Under the patronage of the 
 Ptolemies, he had access to the materials collected by 
 Alexander, his generals and successors, as well as to 
 the immense mass of documents accumulated in the 
 Alexandrian library. At an early period of the his- 
 tory of astronomical science, the vulgar opinion that 
 the earth is a fiat surface, with the heavens resting 
 upon it as a canopy, was rejected-; but it was not at 
 once that distinct conceptions of its globular figure 
 were acquired. It was only as astronomical observa- 
 tions increased that the doctrine of its sphericity was 
 fully established. This point' had been gained when 
 Eratosthenes began his labors ; and what he endeavor- 
 ed to accomplish was to delineate, in strict conformity 
 with this principle, the known parts of the earth's 
 surface. 
 
 With this view, founding his system on the use of 
 the gnomon, he supposed a line to be traced through 
 certain places, in all of which the longest day was 
 known to be exactly of the same length. This line 
 would evidently be a parallel to the equator. But 
 though his method was correct in principle, the want 
 of accurate observations rendered it uncertain in prac- 
 tice. Tlie line was supposed to comprise all the lead- 
 ing positions which lay near it, though they did not 
 actually come within its range. Its western extremity 
 was the Sacred Promontory of Iberia (Cape St. Vin- 
 cent) ; thence it passed through the Straits of Gades. 
 Proceeding eastward, it passed through the Sicilian 
 Sea, and near the southern extremity of the Pelopon- 
 nesus, and was continued through the island of Rhodes, 
 and the Bay of Issus ; whence entering Cilicia, and 
 crossing the Euphrates and the Tigris, it was extended 
 to the mountains of India, and terminated at the re- 
 mote city of ThinsB, situated on the Eastern Ocean. 
 The parallel thus drawn was understood to pass 
 through all those places where the longest day was 
 14^ hours. It stretched the whole length of what was 
 supposed to be the habitable world, and measured 
 about 70,000 stadia; a distance corresponding, accord- 
 ing to the estimate of Eratosthenes, to about 140 de- 
 grees, which is rather more than one third of the 
 circuit of the globe. 
 
 This first parallel drawn through Rhodes was ever 
 afterward preferred as the basis of ancient maps ; inas- 
 much as it was traced through the middle of the Med- 
 iterranean, along the coasts of which were situated the 
 principal nations of antiquitj'. Following out the 
 same happy thought which he had thus successfully 
 made the groundwork of his system, Eratosthenes was 
 induced not only to trace other parallels at certain 
 intervals from the first, as one through Alexandria, 
 another through Sj'ene, and a third through Meroe ; 
 but also to trace, at right angles to these, a meridian, 
 passing through Rhodes and Alexandria southward to 
 Syene and Meroe. As the progress which he thus 
 made toward the completion of what he had so skill- 
 fully conceived, naturally tended to enlarge his ideas 
 concerning geographical science, he attempted what 
 seemed a still more difiicult undertaking, namely, to 
 determine the circumference of the globe by the actual 
 measurement of a segment of one of its great circles. 
 The method he pursued has been clearly pointed out in 
 the article Astronomy, JSnct/. Brit. There is a differ- 
 ence among ancient authors respecting the result ob- 
 tained by Eratosthenes. The great majority, however, 
 state it to be 252,000 stadia, which give exactly 700 
 stadia for a degree of the equator, and 556 stadia for the 
 degree of longitude upon the parallel drawn through 
 Rhodes. 
 
 The knowledge of the circumference of the earth is 
 a necessarj' element in the construction of maps ; and . 
 hence the most eminent of the ancient astronomical 
 geographers made repeated endeavors to determine it 
 with accuracy. Possidonius, by an astronomical ob- 
 servation, determined the arc of the meridian between 
 
GEO 
 
 794 
 
 GEO 
 
 Rhodes and Alexandria to be a forty-eighth part of the 
 whole circumference. With regard to the distance 
 between these two places, 5000 stadia were the reputed 
 distance; but Eratosthenes had made it only 3760 
 stadia upward of 170 years before, and betwixt these 
 two Possodonius had to malie choice. The former 
 number gives 240,000 stadia for the whole circumfer- 
 ence, the latter 180,000 stadia. Of this last result, 
 which gives SOO stadia for a degree of the equator, 
 Possidonius is reported by Strabo to have approved. 
 For want of the knowledge of the true length of the 
 stadium, it is now impossible to judge of the actual 
 quantity assigned either by Eratosthenes or Possido- 
 nius as the measure of the earth's circumference ; but 
 the great uncertainty about the distance between the 
 points of observation in the case of the determination 
 of the latter astronomer renders his conclusion of no 
 value. 
 
 Notwithstanding the soundness of the principles 
 which had now been laid down for the delineation of 
 the globe, much remained to be done, in the way of ob- 
 servation, before an accurate representation of the 
 whole, or a portion of the earth's surface, could be 
 given. Both the latitudes and longitudes of the an- 
 cients are erroneous ; more especially the latter. This 
 is what might be expected at that early period. But 
 in setting out from the Sacred Promontory of Iberia, 
 the meridian of which the ancients made their first 
 meridian, the hours in longitude accumulate, as we ad- 
 vance eastward, with a regularity, as well as rapiditj', 
 which is verj' surprising. The regularity of their in- 
 crease induced M. Gosselin to conclude that they were 
 to be attributed, not to the imperfection of independent 
 observations, but to some general cause, which he en- 
 deavored to assign by imagining that Eratosthenes 
 had access to some early map, found probably by 
 Alexander or his generals in some country in the East, 
 where astronomy had been successfully cultivated; 
 and that misapprehensions respecting the princijjle of 
 delineation employed, which M. Gosselin supposes to 
 have been that on which the plane chart is constructed, 
 had led him into a regular system of errors. In the 
 plane map the length of a degree of longitude is sup- 
 posed to be the same at all distances from the equator. 
 By taking for granted that Eratosthenes took his dis- 
 tances from a map of this kind, on which the parts of 
 the globe had been accurately laid down, but that he 
 divided the stadia expressing these distances, not by 
 700, the number of stadia in a degree at the equator, 
 as he ought to have done, but by 655, the number corre- 
 sponding to the parallel of Rhodes, M. Gosselin ob- 
 tains results which have a wonderful coincidence with 
 the positions actually given by Eratosthenes. These 
 results, however, ai'e deduced from a hypothesis which 
 is unsupported by any evidence, except what may be 
 supposed to arise from this coincidence. A more 
 probable solution seems to be that Eratosthenes deter- 
 mined his longitudes from the itinerar}' measures, 
 which he reduced to degrees at the rate of 700 stadia 
 to a degree at the equator, and of 555 to a degree at 
 the parallel of Rhodes ; and that the errors are the 
 consequences of the exaggerated accounts which mer- 
 chants and travelers of that age gave of the distan- 
 ces over which they passed ; their exaggerations, of 
 course, bearing' some proportion to the length and 
 hardships of the journeys undertaken. 
 
 The knowledge as yet possessed by geographers 
 with regard to the outline of the habitable globe was 
 far from being such as to enable them to delineate it 
 with any degree of precision. This circumstance, 
 combined with the unavoidable errors in latitude and 
 longitude, produced very great distortions in the repre- 
 sentations given of the countries on the surface of the 
 globe. Under the guidance of sound principles of 
 science, however, it was now certain that these inper- 
 fections would gradually disappear. 
 
 The improvements introduced into geography by 
 
 Eratosthenes were perfected in principle by Hippar- 
 chus. This celebrated astronomer, who flourished be- 
 tween 160 and 135 years before the Christian era, was 
 the first who undertook the arduous task of forming a 
 catalogue of the stars, and fixing their relative posi- 
 tions. His object was to transmit to posterity a 
 knowledge of the state of the heavens at the period of 
 his observations. The extremities of the imaginary 
 axis round which the heavens perform their diurnal 
 revolution suggest two fixed points by which the posi- 
 tion of the great circle of the celestial sphere called 
 the equator is determined. If a great circle be sup- 
 posed to pass through these points and any star, the 
 position of the star will be ascertained if we measure 
 in degrees and parts of a degree the arc of the merid- 
 ian circle intercepted between the star and the equa- 
 tor, and also the arc of the equator intercepted be- 
 tween a given point in it, and the meridian circle 
 passing through the star. Upon this principle did 
 Hipparchus arrange the stars according to their places 
 in the heavens, a work in which he appears, however, 
 to have been in some measure anticipated by Timo- 
 charis and Aristillus, who began to observe about 295 
 years before the Christian era. The great improve- 
 ment which he introduced into geography consisted in 
 this, that he applied to the determining of the position 
 of any point on the. surface of the earth the same arti- 
 fice which he had already so happily introduced in the 
 arrangement of the constellations ; and thus furnished 
 the means of ascertaining the relative situations of 
 places with a precision which no itinerary measure- 
 ments could possibly attain. If we suppose the earth 
 to be a globe concentric with the celestial sphere, and 
 intersected b)' the planes of the celestial equator and 
 meridian, the principle on which the application of 
 this artifice to the terrestrial sphere depends becomes at 
 once obvious. Hipparchus made a considerable num- 
 ber of observations of latitude, and pointed out how 
 longitudes might be determined by observing the 
 eclipses of the sun rnd moon. Great as this improve- 
 ment was, its importance seems not to have been duly 
 estimated until the days of Ptolemy ; for none of the 
 intermediate authors, such as Strabo, Vitruvius, and 
 Pliny, have given the least hint of the latitude and 
 longitude of any one place in degrees and minutes, 
 though all of them have given minutely the geographi- 
 cal positions of places according to the length and 
 shadows of the gnomon. Strabo, indeed, even justifies 
 his neglect of the astronomical principles introduced 
 by Hipparchus. " A geographer," says he, " is to pay 
 no attention to what is out of the earth ; nor will men 
 engaged in conducting the afl"airs of that part of the 
 earth which is inhabited, deem the distinction and di- 
 visions of Hipparchus worthy of notice." 
 
 The true principles of geography being pointed out 
 by the application of latitude and longitude to places 
 on the earth, the way was opened for the improvement 
 of maps, which, with the single exception of the map 
 drawn by Eratosthenes, had hitherto been little more 
 than rude outlines and topographical sketches of the 
 different countries. No maps more ancient than those 
 formed to illustrate Ptolemy's geography have reached 
 modern times ; but the earliest of which there is any 
 account are those of Sesostris, of whom it is said, tliat 
 having traversed great part of the earth, he caused his 
 marches to be recorded in maps ; and that he gave 
 copies of these maps not only to the Egyptians, but to 
 the Scythians, whose astonishment he thus greatly 
 excited. 
 
 Some have imagined that the Jews made a map of 
 the Holy Land when they gave the different portions 
 to the nine tribes at Shilob. For on that occasion, as 
 we are informed by the sacred historian, men wore sent 
 "to walk through the land, and to describe it;" and 
 when they had accomplished the object of their mis- 
 sion by describing " it by cities into seven parts, in a 
 book," they returned unto Joshua. What is here said, 
 
GEO 
 
 796 
 
 GEO 
 
 however, does not fully determine whether their men- 
 suration of the land was only recorded in numbers, or 
 regularly projected and digested into the form of a 
 map. The first Grecian map on record is that of 
 Anaximander, mentioned by Strabo, which some have 
 conjectured to have been a general map of the then 
 known world. It has further been imagined to be the 
 same with that referred to by Hipparchus under the 
 designation of The Ancient Map, and which in some 
 few particulars he preferred to that of Eratosthenes. 
 
 But some idea of the nature of the maps of those 
 early days will he best obtained from the map of Aris- 
 tagoras, liing of Miletus, which is minutely described 
 by Herodotus. The historian tells us that this map, 
 which was traced on brass or copper, Aristagoras 
 showed to Cleomenes, king of Sparta, in order to in- 
 duce him to attack the king of Persia, even in his pal- 
 ace at Susa, for the purpose of restoring the lonians to 
 their ancient freedom. It contained the intermediate 
 countries to be traversed in that march. We must 
 not interpret, however, the words of Herodotus too 
 literally, when he describes it as containing "the 
 whole circumference of the earth, the whole sea or 
 ocean, and all the rivers," Keeping in view the state 
 of geography at that period, it may justly be con- 
 cluded, that notwithstanding this pompous form of ex- 
 pression, the sea meant only the Mediterranean, and 
 therefore the earth or land the coasts of that sea, and 
 more particularly Asia Minor, extended toward the 
 middle of Persia; by the rivers must be meant the 
 Halys, the Euphrates, and the Tigris, which Herod- 
 otus mentions as necessary to be crossed in the expe- 
 dition in question. The map contained one straight 
 line, called the royal highway, embracing all the sta- 
 tions or places of encampment between Sardis and 
 Susa, so that it was properlj' an itinerarj'. 
 
 The principle on which Eratosthenes constructed his 
 map we have already considered. With regard to its 
 extent, it seems to have contained little more than the 
 States of Greece, and the dominions of the successors 
 of Alexander, digested from the surveys of the 
 marches of that great general. He had some faint 
 idea respecting the western parts of Europe, which he 
 had acquired from the voyage of Pytheas ; but not 
 such a conception as to enable him to delineate their 
 outline on a chart. According to the report of Strabo, 
 he was quite unacquainted with Spain, Gaul, Ger- 
 man}', and Britain ; he was equally ignorant of Italy, 
 the coasts of the Adriatic, Pontus, and of all the coun- 
 tries toward the north. His errors with regard to the 
 distances of places were in some instances enormous. 
 The distance of Carthage from Alexandria he repre- 
 sents at 15,000 stadia, instead of 9000. 
 
 It was not until Ptolemy commenced his labors that 
 the improvements pointed out by Hipparchus were 
 effectually applied to perfect the system which Eratos- 
 thenes had so happily begun. Ptolemy composed his 
 system of geography, which escaped amid the general 
 wreck that consumed so many other ancient books of 
 science, in the reign of Antoninus Pius, about 150 years 
 after the opening of the Christian era. At this period 
 the Roman empire had reached its utmost extent, and all 
 the provinces had been surveyed, and were well known. 
 The materials then in e.'cistence, and in tlie possession 
 of Ftolemj- for completing his great work, were the 
 proportions of the heiglit of the gnomon and its 
 shadow, at the time of the equinoxes and solstices, 
 taken by different astronomers ; calculations founded 
 on the length of the longest days ; the measures or 
 computed distances of the principal roads contained in 
 the surveys and itineraries ; and the various reports 
 of travelers and navigators, whose determinations of 
 the distances of places often rested, however, on no 
 better foundation than hearsay and conjecture. Among 
 these various particulars, there evidently existed con- 
 siderable differences in point of authority. But Pto- 
 lemy undertook the dilScult and laborious task of 
 
 comparing and reducing into one system, which should 
 possess the order and beauty of science, this appar- 
 ently incongruous mass. He converted and trans- 
 lated the whole into a new mathematical language, 
 expressing in degrees and minutes the latitude and 
 longitude of each place, according to the principles 
 laid down by Hipparchus, but which had been allowed 
 by geographers to lie useless for upward of 250 years. 
 It is in Ptolemy's work, which consists of eight books, 
 that we find for the first time the mathematical prin- 
 ciples of the construction of maps, both general and 
 particular, as well as of several projections of the 
 sphere. 
 
 Notwithstanding that the light of accurate science 
 thus directed the steps of the first geographer of an- 
 tiquity, he was far from reaching the precision at 
 which he aimed. This arose from the imperfection of 
 the original materials upon which his work is based in 
 reference to its details. With regard to the remoter 
 boundaries of the then known world, in all its quarters, 
 a wonderful advancement in knowledge had been made 
 since the days of Eratosthenes and of Strabo. But 
 still that additional information was not fitted to make 
 up for the want of astronomical observations, by 
 which alone accuracy could be secured. Besides, in 
 relation to places situated beyond the limits of the Ro- 
 man empire, and therefore out of the range alike of 
 astronomers and surveyors, it was almost impossible 
 for Ptolemy not to commit mistakes. Thus his errors 
 arose from the ignorance of the age ; and are of such 
 a character as to admit of being removed only as op- 
 portunities are afforded of obtaining the requisite data 
 by the strict application of the principles derived from 
 mathematical and astronomical science 
 
 Ptolemy adopted the measure of a degree at 500 
 stadia, according to the standard of Possidonius, in- 
 stead of following the measurement of Eratosthenes, 
 which gives 700 stadia to a degree. But M. Gosselin 
 has accused him of an error of a more serious kind ; 
 because, if really copimitted, it would have indicated 
 a strange neglect of what a geographer should make 
 his first care. This error consists in assuming one 
 measure for the degree of latitude (the measure of 
 Eratosthenes, 700 stadia) and another for the degree 
 of longitude at the equator. Such a hypothesis would 
 evidently be inconsistent with the globular figure of 
 the earth. It may reasonably be doubted, however, 
 whether M. Gosselin's accusation is well founded ; for, 
 though it seems supported by the fact, that while 
 Ptolemy has changed materially all the longitudes of 
 Eratosthenes, the latitudes along the great line remain 
 the same, and are in general con'ect, this circumstance 
 may be accounted for sufficiently from other causes. 
 Rhodes, and several other points of this great line, 
 were fixed with regard to latitude by observations ap- 
 proximating to the truth, while the elements for de- 
 termining the longitudes were derived entirely from 
 the itineraries. To the north and south of the great 
 central line, which alone was fixed upon sound data, 
 errors in latitude accumulate as rapidly as those in 
 longitude are found to do in proceeding eastward. 
 
 One of the most remarkable errors in the geograph- 
 ical work of Ptolemy is thelgreat length assigned to 
 the Mediterranean. Reckoning from the Straits of 
 Gades to the bottom of the Bay of Issus, where Alex- 
 andretta, or Scanderoon now stands, he makes the dif- 
 ference of longitude no less than 62 degrees, which is 
 upward of 20J degrees above the truth. This amazing 
 error, whidi affected all our maps more or less until 
 the beginning of the last century, was produced in 
 consequence of his having put too much confidence in 
 the supposed surveys of different persons of reputation 
 recorded by Strabo, and who appeared to confirm the 
 accuracy of each other's computation. According to 
 their united testimony, the whole length of the Medi- 
 terranean was about 26,500 stadia, which, being con- 
 verted into degrees of longitude according to the 
 
GEO 
 
 196 
 
 GEO 
 
 method of Ptolemy, of allowing 400 stadia to a degree 
 of khgitade on the parallel of Rhodes, give about 66° 
 15 . This is 4° 15' more than -what are given by Ma- 
 riuus, -whom in this particular Ptolemy strictly fol- 
 lows. 
 
 Pliny quotes from Agrippa a computation of the 
 length of the Mediterranean, which makes it 3,440 
 Roman miles ; but in quoting it he adds a suspicion 
 that there ia an error in the numbers. When con- 
 verted into degrees of longitude, the result of this 
 computation gives 58° 20'. As, however, the length 
 given by Strabo amounted, as we have seen, to 66° 
 15', Ptolemy seems to have chosen a middle path be- 
 tween these two erroneous computations, and to have 
 adopted 62° for the difference of longitude in question. 
 But there is another ancient computation quoted also 
 by Pliny from Polybius, according to which the 
 length of the Mediterranean is stated to be 2,440 Ro- 
 man miles. Had Ptolemy followed this estimate, he 
 would have obtained for a result 41° 4', which is not 
 far from the truth. Thus we see that the circum- 
 stances under which Ptolemy wrote, rendered it im- 
 possible for him to avoid mistakes, and that he might 
 be misled even when more accurate results were 
 within his reach. 
 
 The great obstacle with which the ancients had to 
 contend, was the finding of the longitude with accu- 
 racy, a problem for the solution of which it was long 
 before there was discovered any method sufficiently 
 exact. This accounts for the erroneous longitudes of 
 Ptolemy, and more especially for the length of time, 
 even many centuries, during which the remarkable 
 error, with regard to the length of the Mediterranean, 
 remained undiscovered and uncorrected. 
 
 We have now traced the history of geography from 
 the earliest period of which we have any information, 
 to the time when it assumes a scientific character. 
 We shall conclude our account of ancient geography 
 by shortly noticing the principal geographers of an- 
 tiquity, some of whom have not yet been mentioned, 
 while others have only been quoted in tracing the rise 
 and progress of the science. 
 
 The intimate connection between geography and 
 the science of geometry and astronomy, rendered the 
 former an object of attention to many who anciently 
 cultivated the latter. We have already mentioned 
 Anaximander and Anaximenes, of the school of Mi- 
 letus. Democritus, Eudoxus of Cnidus, and Parme- 
 nides, are also reported to have improved geography • 
 and to the last is attributed the division of the earth 
 into zones. These were followed by Eratosthenes, 
 who lived about 240 years before the Christian era ; 
 by Hipparchus, about 80 years afterward ; by Poly- 
 bius, Geminus, and Possidonius. Eratosthenes wrote 
 three books on geography, some passages of which 
 Strabo criticises, though he frequently defends him 
 against Hipparchus, who appears to oppose his opin- 
 ions with some degree of affectation. Polybius also 
 wrote on geography ; as did likewise Geminus and 
 Possidonius, who are frequently quoted bj- Strabo. 
 Polybius, according to Geminus, argued with consid- 
 erable acutenees for the possibility of the torrid zone 
 being inhabited ; and he ffven adduced plausible argu- 
 ments to prove that the countries under the equator 
 enjoy a more temperate climate than the countries do 
 that are situated near the tropics. 
 
 We must not here omit a geographer and geometer 
 who lived about the time of Alexander the Great. 
 This was Dicearchus of Messina, a disciple of Theo- 
 phrastus, who wrote a description of Greece in iambic 
 verses, of which some fragments yet remain. But 
 what chiefly renders him remarkable is, that he meas- 
 ured geometrically several mountains, to which an 
 excessive height had been before assigned. With 
 Dicearchus we may notice another geometer, Xena- 
 goras, a disciple of Aristotle, mentioned by Plutarch 
 in his life of Paulus jSmilius, who occupied himself in 
 
 I the measurement of mountains. He found the height 
 of Mount Olympus to be 15 stadia. In some of the 
 latter periods which preceded the Christian era, there 
 were several writers on geography, as Artemidorus of 
 Ephesus, who wrote a geographiccal work of eleven 
 books, of which nothing remains ; Scymnus of Chio, 
 author of a description of the earth in iambic verses, 
 which remain in a very mutilated state ; Isidorus of 
 Charax, who gave a description of the Partliian em- 
 pire ; and Scylax of Caryades, author of a voyage 
 Tound the Mediterranean, which is still extant. 
 
 The works of all these geographers are, however, 
 but small in comparison with the geography of Strabo ; 
 a work in 17 books, which has come down to us entire. 
 This is one of the most valuable works of antiquity, 
 both from the spirit of discussion which runs through 
 it, and the number of curious particulars which the 
 author has collected from different geographers, and 
 navigators who preceded him, and of, whose works 
 nothing remains except these extracts. Strabo lived 
 in the reigns of Augustus and Tiberius, and was nearly 
 cotemporary with Pomponius Mela. This latter geog- 
 rapher wrote a work -De Situ Orhis, which, though little 
 more than a bare summaiy, is valuable, as it gives us a 
 sketch of what was known in his time respecting the 
 state of the habitable globe. , Besides Mela, Rome 
 produced, in the most flourishing era of its literature, 
 another eminent geographer, Pliny. He devoted two 
 books of his extensive work on natural history, to a 
 system of geograph}'. His intimate connection with 
 the imperial family, and with many of the most emi- 
 nent commanders of the time, appears to have given 
 him access to all the military measurements, as well 
 as to the general survey of the Roman empire. Thus 
 furnished with » greater store of authentic materials 
 than any former writer, he has introduced a great 
 number of itinerary details, which are for the most 
 part accurate and valuable. Julius Solenus has also 
 treated of geographj- in his Polyhisior, a compilation 
 sufficiently valuable from the number of curious par- 
 ticulars which are there collected. Marinus of Tyre, 
 was another geographer who appears to have been dis- 
 tinguished, though his works have perished. Even 
 under the Roman empire Tyre continued to be the 
 seat of an extensive commerce ; indeed the commer- 
 cial relations of her citizens appear to have extended 
 over a wider portion of the earth's surface than ever. 
 The enlarged materials furnished by the lengthened 
 journeys of his countrymen, which brought them even 
 to the confines of China, Marinus collected, and sought 
 to apply to them the astronomical principles of Hip- 
 parchus, so that he might give to geography a new 
 and more accurate form. Ptolemy, whom Marinus 
 preceded by a short time, employs a great part of his 
 first book in discussing the means employed by the 
 Tyrian geographer for fixing the relative position of 
 places ; and from the references and extracts it ap- 
 pears that the system of Marinus partook largely of 
 the imperfections of a first effort. 
 
 The enlarged and scientific views of Ptolemy we 
 have already considered. Some time after Ptolemy 
 lived Dionysins, commonly called the Periegetic, from 
 the title of a work in verse composed by him, nataely, 
 his Perkgesis, or Survey of the World. This worl: 
 was translated into Latin verse by Priscianus, and 
 afterward by Avienus. There is, besides, a descrip- 
 tion by Avienus, of the maritime coasts, in iambic 
 verses, of which there remain about 700. The diffi- 
 culty of procuring the small and scattered pieces of 
 most of these authors, with those of a few others not 
 here enumerated, induced the learned Hudson to col- 
 lect them into one work, consisting of four volumes 
 octavo, which were published in the years 1698, 1702, 
 1712, under the title of Geographia veieris Scripioret 
 Grmd minores. The originals are accompanied with 
 Latin translations, and notes and dissertations on each 
 by Dodwell. This is a very valuable collection. 
 
GEO 
 
 797 
 
 GEO 
 
 We now proceed to consider the progress of geog- 
 raphy during the middle ages. From the days of Pto- 
 lemy until the revival of letters in Europe, little was 
 done for its solid improvement. The calamities that 
 ere long overwhelmed the Roman empire, were fol- 
 lowed by a general intellectual darkness which settled 
 down on the world and extinguished even the imper- 
 fect knowledge possessed by the ancient geographers. 
 While barbarous nations poured in from several quar- 
 ters, art and science ceased to be cultivated. The union 
 by which the Roman power had bound together man- 
 kind being now dissolved, Europe was divided into 
 small and Independent, and, for the most part, hostile 
 communities, which had but vague conceptions re- 
 specting the situation of each other, while no inter- 
 course subsisted between their members. With regard 
 to remote regions all knowledge was lost ; their situa- 
 tions, their commodilSeB,' and fJmost their names, were 
 unknown. 
 
 Amid this ignorance there were but few channels 
 open through which knowledge could be obtained 
 One circumstance, however, prevented commei-cial in- 
 tercourse with foreign nations from being altogether 
 suspeiided. The opulence and luxury of imperial 
 Rome had long given life and energy to commercial 
 enterprise ; that stimulus was now withdrawn ; but 
 Constantinople still remained, the last refuge' of an- 
 cient arts, and taste, and elegance, when the rest of 
 Europe i^as overspread with barbarism. Fortunately 
 that city had escaped the destructive rage of the fierce 
 invaders ; and there, under the cherishing influence 
 of a demand for foreign productions and luxuries, 
 commerce continued to flourish. Alexandria con- 
 tinued to be the emporiuni ■frhence were imported the 
 commodities of the East Indies, until Egypt, falling 
 under the power of the Arabians, ceased to be a prov- 
 ince of the Roman empire. After this event the in- 
 dustrj' of the Greeks succeeded in discovering a new 
 channel by which Constantinople Inight still be sup- 
 plied with the productionsvof India. These were first 
 conveyed Up the Indus as far as that river is naviga- 
 blei thence by land-carriage they were brought to the 
 Oxus, and were carried down the river to the Caspian 
 Sea. Entering there the Volga, they were conveyed 
 up it, and thence were again transported by land until 
 they reached the Tanais, down which they were con- 
 veyed to the Euxiile Sea, where vessels from Con- 
 stantinople awaited their arrival. By this circuitous 
 route was a channel of intercourse kept open with the 
 most distant countries of the East ; and an extensive 
 know'ledge of remote regions was still preserved in 
 the capital of the Greek empire, while the rest of 
 Europe was sunk in the grossest ignorance. 
 
 The missions sent for the conversion of the northern 
 pagans to Christianity, served somewhat to illustrate 
 the geography of Europe ; though there is suflicient 
 proof that the monks employed were, in many in- 
 stances, themselves grosslj- ignorant, some not even 
 knowing the capital of their own country, or the cities 
 nearest to their own. Something was also done by 
 the great sovereigns of Europe toward dispelling the 
 prevailing ignorance of the age on matters connected 
 with geography. Nor did the piratical exploits of the 
 Danes and Norwegians under their great sea-kings 
 fail to malce them acquainted with the seas and mari- 
 time coasts where they carried on their devastations. 
 But it was in the East that a gleam of light and 
 knowledge began now to appear, which was the har- 
 binger of the noon-day splendor of science that was 
 destined to succeed the darkness of ignorance which 
 had so long oppressed the human mind. Under the 
 influence of a fanaticism which prompted them to own 
 no law but the Koran and the sword, the followers of 
 Mohammed had rushed from the hcEurt of Arabia, and 
 had carried their conquests over half the world. At 
 length, however, under a race of humane and polished 
 princes, having contracted a relish for the sciences of 
 
 the people whose empire they had contributed to over- 
 turn, they stood for some time distinguished as the 
 most learned of nations. They translated into their 
 own language the books of several of the Greek phi- 
 losophers. The valuable work of Ptolemy was one of 
 the first ; and hence the study of geography became 
 an early object of their attention. But the advance- 
 ment which the science made in their hands toward 
 precision was slow ; for they copied and retailed all 
 Ptolemy's principal errors. Still, in aU the countries 
 that were under Mohammedan dominion numerous 
 observations were made, which, though not always 
 strictly correct, were entitled to be considered as a 
 step beyond the calculations made merely from the 
 itineraries by the Alexandrian geographers. In the be- 
 ginning of the ninth century, under their caliph Al- 
 mamon, who may rank among the most distinguished 
 patrons of science that ever filled a throne, they meas- 
 ured a degree of latitude on the plains of Sinjar, or 
 Shinjar, near Babylon, with a view to determine the 
 circumference of the earth. The tables of Abulfeda 
 and Ulug Beg, and of Nazir Eddin, edited by Groevius, 
 and republished by Hudson, furnish materials tliat are 
 still of use in the construction of the maps of the inte- 
 rior of Asia. 
 
 The progress and success of the Moslem arms re- 
 moved the obscurity in which many countries had until 
 then been concealed, as well as the barbarism in which 
 they had been sunk. And even beyond the limits of 
 the Mohammedan world they pushed their researches, 
 by sending missions both to the east and to the west, 
 which they explored to their remotest limits. At that 
 time Europe remained ignorant of the improvements 
 made by the Arabians, though she was destined in 
 subsequent ages to perfect their discoveries. 
 
 At length the long period of barbarism which ac- 
 companied and followed the fall of the Roman empire, 
 during which the traces of whatever had embellished 
 society, or contributed to the comfort and convenience 
 of life, were almost entirely eflTaced, drew to a close. 
 Industry began again to shed its lilessings on man- 
 kind ; and Italy was the country where its benign in- 
 fluences were first perceptible. Having from the 
 operation of various causes again obtained liberty and 
 independence, the Italians soon began to feel the im- 
 pulse of those passions which serve most powerfully 
 to arouse men to activity and enterprise. The reviv- 
 ing demand for the comforts and luxuries of life led to 
 the revival of foreign commerce. The valuable com- 
 modities of the East were at first obtained at Constan- 
 tinople. But the exorbitant price demanded at that 
 mart, in consequence of the circuitous route by which 
 they were conveyed thither, induced the Italians to 
 resort to other ports, as Aleppo and Tripoli, on the 
 Syrian coast, and at length to Egypt itself. After the 
 Soldans had revived the commerce with India in its 
 ancient channel by the Arabian Gulf, Venice, Genoa, 
 and Pisa, rose fr«m inconsiderable towns to wealthy 
 and populous cities. Their trade extended to all the 
 ports in the Mediterranean, and even beyond the 
 Straits to the towns on the coasts of Spain, France, 
 the Low Countries, and England 5 and from these 
 points they difl^used through Europe a taste for the 
 luxuries and enjoyments of civilized life, which they 
 at the same time furnished the means of gratifying. 
 
 It was not long ere an event occurred, the most ex- 
 traordinary, perhaps, in the history of human society, 
 which gave a new impulse to the European mind, and 
 forcibly directed its view eastward, to the regions of 
 Asia. Under the influence of a high-wrought enthu- 
 siasm, the martial spirit of the Europeans was aroused, 
 and vast armies, composed of all the nations of Chris- 
 tendom, marched toward Asia on the wild enterprise 
 of delivering the Holy Land from the dominion of In- 
 fidels. The crusades, however blind the zeal from 
 which they took their rise, had a very favorable influ- 
 ence on the intellectual state of Europe, and prepared 
 
GEO 
 
 798 
 
 GEO 
 
 it for receiving the light of science which was soon to 
 dawn upon it. Interesting regions, linown hitherto 
 only by the scanty reports of ignorant and credulous 
 pilgrims, were now made the object of attention and 
 research. Not only was the way opened for the Eu- 
 ropean nations acquiring a correct knowledge of the 
 Holy Land, with the kingdoms of Jerusalem and Edes- 
 sa, founded by the victorious crusaders, but the exten- 
 sive regions over which the Saracens and the Turks 
 had extended their empire began to be explored. 
 Search was now made in the writings of the ancient 
 geographers ; nor is it improbable that some light was 
 derived even from the Arabian writers. Religious 
 zeal, the hope of gain, combined with motives of mere 
 curiosity, induced several persons to travel by land 
 into remote regions of the East, far beyond the coun- 
 tries to which the operations of the crusaders extended. 
 Prompted by superstitious veneration for the law of 
 Moses, and by a desire of visiting his countrymen in 
 the East, whom he hoped to find possessed of wealth 
 and power, Benjamin, a Jew of Tudela, in the king- 
 dom of Navarre, set out from Spain in the year 1160, 
 and traveling by land to Constantinople, proceeded 
 through the countries to the north of the Euxine and 
 Caspian Seas. He then journeyed tovrard the south, 
 and traversed various provinces of the further India, 
 until, having reached the Indian Ocean, he embarked 
 and visited several of its islands ; and at length, after 
 13 years, returned by the way of Egypt to Europe. 
 In his progress he had acquired much information 
 respecting a large portion of the globe, until then al- 
 together unknown to Europeans. 
 
 Various missions were sent by the pope and by 
 Christian princes, for purposes which led them to tra- 
 verse the remote provinces of Asia. Father John de 
 Piano Carpini, at the head of a mission of Franciscan 
 monks, and Father Ascolino, at the head of another 
 mission of Dominicans, were, in the year 1246, sent 
 hy Innocent IV. to enjoin Kayuk Khan, the grandson 
 of Zengis, who was then at the head of the Tartar 
 empire, to embrace Christianitj'-, and to cease from 
 desolating the world by his arms. In fulfilling the 
 commands laid upon them by the head of the Christian 
 church, the mendicants had an opportunity of visiting 
 a great part of Asia. Carpini, having taken his route 
 through Poland and Russia, traveled through the 
 northern provinces as far as the extremities of Thibet, 
 while Ascolino, who appears to have landed some- 
 where in Syria, advanced through the southern prov- 
 inces into the interior parts of Persia. 
 
 Father William de Rubruquis, a Franciscan monk, 
 having been sent in the year 1253 on a mission by St. 
 Louis of France, in search of an imaginary personage, 
 a powerful Ithan of the Tartars, who was reported to 
 have embraced the Christian faith, made a circuit 
 through the interior parts of Asia more extensive than 
 that of any European who had hitherto explored them. 
 He had the merit of being the first modern traveler 
 that gave a true account of the Caspian, which had 
 been correctly described by the early Greeks as an in- 
 land separate sea ; but a notion afterward prevailed 
 that it was connected with the Northern Ocean. Ru- 
 bruquis ascertained that it had no connection with the 
 ocean or any other sea. The account of his journey 
 was so little read, however, that the old error was re- 
 peated in books of geographj' long after his time. 
 
 While the republics of Italy, and, above all, the 
 State of Venice, were engaged in distributing the jew- 
 els, the spices, and the fine cloths of India over the 
 western world, it was impossible that motives of curi- 
 osity, as well as a desire of commercial advantage, 
 should not be awakened to such a degree as to impel 
 some to brave all the obstacles and dangers to be 
 encountered in visiting those remote countries where 
 these precious and profitable commodities were pro- 
 duced. A considerable number of persons according- 
 ly are recorded as having penetrated a greater or less 
 
 depth into the interior of Asia. But the fame of all 
 the other old travelers is eclipsed by that of Marco 
 Polo, who has always ranked among the greatest dis- 
 coverers of any age. This extraordinary man was a 
 noble Venetian, whose family, according to the custom 
 of his countrj', engaged in extensive commerce. Noc- 
 olo Polo, and Mafteo Polo, the father and uncle of 
 Marco, were merchants, who, in partnership, traded 
 chiefly with the East ; and, in pursuit of their mercan- 
 tile speculations, had already visited Tartar}-. The 
 recital of their travels on their return fired the youth- 
 ful imagination of Marco, then between 17 and 18 years 
 old. Having, when in the East, gained the confidence 
 of Kublai Khan, the great conqueror of China, at 
 whose court they had resided for a long time, they 
 were sent back by him to Italy, accompanied by an 
 officer of his court, that they might repair to Rome as 
 his embassadors to the pope, of whom and the poten- 
 tates of the western world, they had given him an 
 ample account. After many delays, they were now, 
 about the year 1265, to set out on their return to the 
 court of Kublai, bearing the papal letters and benedic- 
 tion ; and it was resolved that young Marco should ac- 
 company them. After a journey that occupied no 
 less than three and a half years, and in the progress of 
 wliich they passed through the chief cities in the more 
 cultivated parts of Asia, they reached Yen-king near 
 the spot where Pekin now stands, where they were 
 honorably and graciously received by the grand khan. 
 Struck with the appearance of young Marco, the khan 
 condescended to take him under his protection, and 
 caused him immediately to be enrolled among his at- 
 tendants of honor. By prudence and fidelity Marco 
 gained so high a place in the esteem and confidence of 
 his protector, that for 17 years, during which he re- 
 mained in his service, he was employed in confidential 
 missions to every part of the empire and its dependen- 
 cies. He made more than one voyage on the Indian 
 Ocean, and traded with many of the islands. Besides 
 what he learned from his own observation, he collected 
 from others many things concerning countries which 
 he did not visit. Considering the very favorable cir- 
 cumstances in which he was placed for geographical 
 research, as well as his passion for traveling, which 
 seems to have increased with his opportunities of grati- 
 fying it, it is not surprising that, after the long period 
 of his wanderings in Asia, he should have returned to 
 Europe possessed of the knowledge of many particu- 
 lars, until his time unknown, respecting the eastern 
 parts of the world. Marco, being afterward made a 
 prisoner by the Genoese, was induced, with a view to 
 beguile the tediousness of his confinement, to dictate a 
 narrative of his travels. His information was so far 
 in advance of the age, that his veracity was exposed 
 to the most injurious suspicions. But, if we make al- 
 lowance for some tincture of credulitj', characteristic 
 of the times in which he lived, his narrative is sup- 
 ported in all its essential points by modem informa- 
 tion. 
 
 While great accessions were thus made to the stock 
 of knowledge possessed by the nations of Europe re- 
 specting the habitable globe, there ideas were, at the 
 same time, gradually enlarged ; and an adventurous 
 spirit was generated, which prepared them for at- 
 tempting further discoveries. Still their efi'orts were 
 limited by certain bounds, in consequence of the im- 
 perfect state of navigation. Whatever conceptions a 
 daring mind might venture to form respecting the 
 existence of unknown regions, separated from the 
 known continents by the mighty expanse of the Atlan- 
 tic Ocean, mankind had not yet so obtained the domin- 
 ion of the sea as to be able to bring such conceptions 
 to the test of experiment. It was not until the for- 
 tunate discovery of the polarity of the magnetic nee- 
 dle, and the consequent construction of the mariners 
 compass, that man was enabled to visit everj' part of 
 the globe which he inhabits. This important discov- 
 
GEO 
 
 799 
 
 GEO 
 
 erj* was made by Flavio Gioia, a citizen of Amalfi, a 
 town of considerable trade in the Idngdom of Naples, 
 about the year 1302. Encouraged by the possession of 
 this sure guide, by which, at all times and in all 
 places, he could with certainty steer his course, the 
 navigator gradually abandoned the timid and slow 
 method of sailing along the shore, and boldly com- 
 mitted his bark to the open sea. At the commencement 
 of the 15th centurj', however, navigation appears to 
 have advanced verj' little beyond the state which it 
 had reached before the downfall of the Roman empire. 
 But it was now destined to make rapid progress. The 
 growing spirit of enterprise, combined with the in- 
 creasing light of science, had prepared the States of 
 Europe for entering upon that great career of discov- 
 ery, of which the details constitute the materials for 
 the historj- of modern geography. 
 
 Portugal took the lead in this new and brilliant 
 path. Her first attempt was to discover the unknown 
 countries situated along the western coast of Africa. 
 Notwithstanding the vicinity of that great continent, 
 and the strong inducement afforded in the fertility of 
 tile countries already known in it, to its further explo- 
 ration. Cape Non had hitherto limited the researches 
 of the Portuguese, and had been regarded as an impass- 
 able barrier. In the year 1412, however, ships sent 
 out for discovery doubled this formidable promontory, 
 and reached Cape Bojador, 160 miles to the southward, 
 which became in its turn the boundary of Portuguese 
 navigation ; and it continued to be so for upward of 20 
 years. Under the coasting system, which still contin- 
 ued to be practiced, it was not likely that the obstacles 
 presented by its rocky clift's, which stretch a consid- 
 erable way into the Atlantic, would soon have been 
 overcome. But a sudden squall of wind having driven 
 out to sea the vessel next dispatched, this event for- 
 tunately led to the discovery of the small island Porto 
 Santo ; whence, in a little time, Madeira was discov- 
 ered, being lirst mistaken for a small black cloud in the 
 horizon ; and at length, when the Portuguese, by 
 their voyages thither, had gradually become accus- 
 tomed to a bolder navigation. Cape Bojador was 
 doubled. Thus, by repeated efforts, the Portuguese 
 navigators gradually approached the northern bound- 
 ary of the torrid zone. Here their progress was for 
 some time arrested, not by any physical difficulties, 
 but in consequence of the influence which the opinion 
 of the ancient mathematicians and geographers whom 
 they had liitherto followed as their guides, had upon 
 their minds, by leading them to believe that excessive 
 heat rendered the middle regions of the earth uninhab- 
 itable. Experience, however, at length enabled them 
 to triumph over ignorance and prejudice. A powerful 
 fleet, fitted out in 1484, after discovering the kingdoms 
 of Benin and Congo, advanced about 1500 miles beyond 
 the equator. Their intercourse with the natives en- 
 abled them to obtain information concerning those 
 parts of the country which they had not visited. Not 
 only had they detected the error of the ancients in 
 reference to the torrid zone, but they found also that 
 the direction of the coast was very different from what 
 the description given by Ptolemy had led them to ex- 
 pect. They saw reason to conclude that the continent 
 gradually became narrower as they proceeded south- 
 ward ; so that there was room to believe that the 
 ancient accounts respecting the circumnavigation of 
 Africa were really founded in truth. New and more 
 extensive prospects were thus opened to them ; and 
 the finding of a passage to India by sailing round the 
 southern extremity of Africa became a favorite pro- 
 ject. In the year 1488, the lofty promontory which | 
 terminates that continent was descried by Barthol- 
 omew Diaz ; but it was not until about 10 years after- 
 ward that it was doubled, and the coast of Malabar 
 reached, by Vasco de Gama. 
 
 Mean while the Cape de Verd Islands, which are said 
 to have been known to the ancients, but afterward lost 
 
 sight of, had been discovered in 1446 ; and soon after-i 
 ward the Azores Isles. "When we consider the dis- 
 tances at which these two groups of islands lie from 
 the land, the former being upward of 300 miles from 
 the coast of Africa, and the latter distant 900 miles 
 from any continent, it may be concluded that the Por- 
 tuguese, when they entered so boldly into the open 
 seas, had made no inconsiderable progress in the art 
 of navigation. 
 
 But brilliant as is the lustre which these discoveries 
 shed around the Portuguese name, their glory would 
 have been still more dazzling had they seconded the 
 profound views of Christopher Columbus, which led 
 him to the discovery of the New World. That illus- 
 trious man and skillful navigator, by revolving in his 
 mind the principles on which the Portiiguese had 
 founded their schemes'of discovery, and carried them 
 into execution, was led to conceive that he could im- 
 prove on their plan, and accomplish discoveries which 
 they had hitherto attempted in vain. From the time 
 that they had doubled Cape de Verd, the great object 
 at which the Portuguese aimed was to find a passage 
 by sea to the East Indies. The direction in which 
 their efforts were made implied necessarily a long and 
 hazardous voyage, should they even be successful 
 in accomplishing their design. But as the Atlantic 
 Ocean stretches westward to an unknown distance, was 
 it not possible that it might reach the shores of those 
 very countries to which it was thought so desirable to 
 find a naval route ? This supposition was perfectlj' 
 consistent with the known globular figure of the earth ; 
 and it was evident, on the same principle, that the 
 further India stretches to the east, the nearer it must 
 approach to the western shores of Europe and Africa. 
 Such was the idea suggested to the mind of Columbus, 
 by the knowledge which he possessed of navigation 
 and geography, both in theory and practice. While 
 he found his views confirmed by a careful comparison 
 of the observations of modern pilots with the hints and 
 conjectures of ancient authors, he became thoroughly 
 convinced that the navigator who should have the 
 boldness to cross the Atlantic Ocean would have his 
 toils rewarded by the most important discoveries. 
 
 These ideas had presented themselves to the mind 
 of Columbus as early as the year 1474 ; but it was not 
 until the year 1492, after several years of fruitless 
 solicitation, and of discouragements and disappoint- 
 ments of the most vexatious kind, that he obtained 
 the patronage of Ferdinand and Isabella, who then 
 governed the united kingdoms of Castile and Arragon, 
 and was by them put in possession of the means of 
 carrying his schemes of discover}' into execution. 
 With no more suitable an armament for his great en- 
 terprise than three small vessels, having 90 men, 
 mostly sailors, on board, and victualed for 12 months, 
 he sailed from the port of Palos in Andalusia on the 
 3d day of August, and steered for the Canaries. Tak- 
 ing then his departure from Gomera, one of the most 
 westerly of these islands, he stretched into unknown 
 seas ; and holding his course due west, reached Guan- 
 ahani, one of the Bahama Islands, on the 12th day of 
 October. After employing some time in making fur- 
 ther discoveries, he returned to Spain to announce the 
 success of his undertaking, the fame of which soon 
 spread over Europe, and excited general attention. 
 It was no easy matter to determine what relation the 
 newly-discovered countries bore to the regions former- 
 ly known. Columbus's own views on the subject 
 were in strict conformity with the idea which had 
 taken so firm a hold of his mind, namely, that India 
 might be reached by sailing toward the west. He 
 imagined that the islands he had visited were some of 
 those which were said to lie contiguous to the remote 
 shores of Asia. In this opinion he was confirmed by 
 the coincidence which he thought he could trace be- 
 tween certain names given to places by the natives 
 and the appellations known to belong to countries sit- 
 
GEO 
 
 800 
 
 GEO 
 
 uated in India. He thought he could recognize, in 
 the answer given to his inquiries after the situation of 
 the mines -which J-ielded gold, the name Cipango, bj 
 which Marco Polo and other travelers in the East des- 
 ignated the island Japan. Ignorant of their language, 
 and unaccustomed to their pronunciation, he even 
 supposed that they spoke of the great khan; and 
 hence concluded that the kingdom of Cathay or China, 
 described by Marco Polo, was not far off. The same 
 erroneous opinion was still further riveted in his mind, 
 by what hfe supposed an identity between the animal 
 and vegetable productions of the East Indies and 
 those of the countries which he had discovered. 
 
 His second voyage led to the discoverj- of several 
 more of the group of Islands now called the West In- 
 dies, a name given them in conformity with the orig- 
 inal notions of the discoverer. It was on his third 
 voyage that he discovered the vast continent of Amer- 
 ica. Having unexpectedly fonnd the island of Trini- 
 dad, with the neighboring land, he encountered, before 
 he was aware of danger, the adverse currents and 
 tumultuous waves occasioned by the resistance which 
 the waters of the Orinoco oppose to the tides in the 
 ocean. His attention was thus forcibly called to the 
 Immense body of water which is here poured into the 
 Atlantic. This he was convinced was vastly too 
 great to be supplied by any island ; and hence he con- 
 cluded that he had now reached the continent which 
 he had sought through so many dangers. 
 
 The American continent, in its northern portions, 
 had been discovered in or before the eleventh century.. 
 Toward the close of the ninth century a Norwegian 
 pirate, while attempting to reach the Faroe Islands, 
 which had already been visited by the Irish, was driv- 
 en by storms to the coast of Iceland. This led to the 
 first settlement of the Norwegians in Iceland in 875. 
 From that time the Faroe Islands and Iceland may be 
 regarded as intermediate stations and starting-points 
 for attempts to reach the northern shores of America. 
 Greenland was early seen ; but it was not until 983 
 that it was peopled from Iceland. Colonization was 
 carried through Greenland in a south-western direction 
 to the new continent, and for some length of time an 
 inconsiderable intercourse was maintained with the 
 newly colonized countries. But a strong line of sep- 
 aration must be drawn between this early discovery 
 of some parts of the high northern latitudes of Amer- 
 ica, and the discoverj' of its tropical regions by Co- 
 lumbus in the close of the fifteenth century. In 
 consequence of the uncivilized condition of the peo- 
 ple by whom the former discovery was made, as well 
 as the nature of the countries to which it was limited, 
 it produced no important or permanent results in rela- 
 tion either to commerce or science ; the latter, on the 
 other hand, has been attended with events of the 
 utmost importance to mankind, as it has proved the 
 opening of a new source of wealth, glorj^, and knowl- 
 edge. The discovery of the new continent in the 
 west, like the original discovery of its northern re- 
 gions, may be said to be accidental, inasmuch as the 
 object which Columbus had in view was to iind a 
 western passage to India. But the expedition unde'r 
 Columbus possessed this distinguishing feature, that 
 -it manifested the perfect character of being the fol- 
 lowing out of a plan sketched in accordance with the 
 principles of science, and intelligently conducted to a 
 successful issue. 
 
 The tenacity with which an ingenious and enter- 
 prising mind adheres to a scheme which it has once 
 proposed to itself as an object of pursuit, was strik- 
 ingly evinced by Columbus, whose thoughts still 
 dwelt with eagerness on his original and favorite plan 
 of opening a new passage to India. It was not enough 
 that he had astonished mankind by finding a new con- 
 tinent; he conceived the idea that beyond it there 
 might lie a sea extending to the coasts of Asia, and 
 that by diligent search some strait might be found 
 
 which would conduct him into this sea, or some nar- 
 row neck of land, by crossing which it might be 
 reached. To determine this important point, though 
 hitherto his services had met with the most unworthy 
 returns, though years crept upon him, though worn 
 out by fatigue and broken with infirmities, he still 
 undertook with alacrity another voyage. By a lucky 
 conjecture he directed his efforts toward the east of 
 the Gulf of Darien ; but he searched in vain for a 
 strait ; and though he frequently went on shore and 
 advanced into the countrj', he never penetrated so far 
 as to enable him to descry the great Southern Ocean. 
 
 After the first steps had been taken, the progress of 
 discover}' over the globe was astonishingly rapid. 
 No expense or danger deterred even private adven- 
 turers from fitting out fleets, crossing oceans, and en- 
 countering the rage of savage nations in the most 
 distant parts of the earth. Before Columbus had 
 reached the continent at the mouth of the Orinoco, 
 Newfoundland had been discovered by Cabot, a Vene- 
 tian by descent, but sailing under the auspices of En- 
 gland. He had also coasted along the present territory 
 of the United States, perhaps as far as Virginia. In 
 the next two or three years, the Cortereals, a daring 
 family of Portuguese navigators, began the long and 
 unavailing search of a passage round the northern ex- 
 tremity of America. They sailed along the coast of 
 Labrador, and entered the spacious inlet of Hudson's 
 Bay. Two of them unfortunately perished in this 
 enterprise. In the year 1501 Alvarez Cabral, a Por- 
 tuguese navigator, destined for India, having stood 
 out to sea in order to avoid the variable breezes and 
 frequent calms which he was sure to meet with on the 
 African coast, to his surprise, came upon the shores of 
 an unknown country, the coast of Brazil, which he 
 claimed for Portugal. Amerigo Vespucci, a Floren- 
 tine gentleman, who had already sailed along a great 
 part of Terra Firma and Guiana, now made two ex- 
 tensive voyages along the Brazilian coast. Soon after 
 his return he drew up and transmitted to one of his 
 countrymen an account of his adventures and discov- 
 eries, in which he insinuated that to him belonged the 
 honor of having first discovered the continent in the 
 New World. His performance, which was the first 
 description published of the new-discovered countries, 
 circulated rapidly, was read with admiration, and be- 
 came the means of procuring for its author the high 
 honor of giving his name to the whole continent. 
 Not many years elapsed before the conjecture of Co- 
 lumbus respecting the existence of an ocean beyond 
 the continent which he had discovered was found to 
 be true ; and his favorite project of opening a passage 
 to India by steering westward was actually accom- 
 plished. By crossing the narrow isthmus of Panama, 
 Nunez Balboa reached the Pacific Ocean in the year 
 1513; and in 1521 Magellan discovered and sailed 
 through the famous straits which bear his name. Af- 
 ter 20 days occupied in navigating this dangerous 
 channel, he beheld spread out before him the bound- 
 less expanse of the great Southern Ocean. Directing 
 his course to the N.W., he continued his voyage for 
 nearly 4 months without discovering land. From 
 want of provisions and from sickness, he and his crew 
 suffered di-eadful distress. But when about to sink 
 under their sufferings, thej' fell in with the Ladrone 
 Islands, where they found refreshments in abundance. 
 From these isles he proceeded on his voyage, and was 
 not long in discovering the Philippines. Here, in an 
 unfortunate quarrel with the natives, he was slain, 
 with several of his principal ofiicefs. But his surviv- 
 ing companions, pursuing their voyage, and returnmg 
 to Europe by the Cape of Good Hope, solved the great 
 problem of the circumnavigation of the earth. 
 
 After the discovery of the Pacific Ocean by Balboa, 
 the investigation of the western coasts of America 
 went speedily forward. Expeditions were soon sent 
 out both northward and southward ; so that nearly a 
 
GEO 
 
 801 
 
 GEO 
 
 full view was obtained of the immense range of coast 
 which the American continent presents to the Pacific 
 Ocean, and at the same time of its great interior 
 breadth. On the other hand, discovery in the East- 
 ern World was no less rapid. Within 20 j'ears from 
 the time that Gama reached India by the way of the 
 Cape of Good Hope, all the coasts of Hindoostan, 
 those of eastern Africa, of Arabia, and Persia, had 
 been explored. Navigators had penetrated to Ma- 
 lacca and the Spice Islands. They had learned the 
 existence of Siam and Pegu; and it was only the 
 characteristic jealousy of the rulers of the Celestial 
 Empire that prevented them from entering the ports 
 of China. 
 
 The scientific geographer had now abundance of 
 materials to arrange and digest into one systematic 
 whole. He was now called upon to give such a de- 
 lineation of the earth's surface as should connect 
 together the ranges of eastern and western discovery, 
 and should exhibit the true outline and relative posi- 
 tions of countries, as these had been demonstrated by 
 the astronomer and navigator. The ancient system 
 of geography, to which the Arabs seem closely to 
 have adhered, was founded on the idea of the whole 
 earth being surrounded by an ocean as by a great 
 zone. This the Arabians characterized as the " Sea 
 of Darkness," an appellation most usually given to 
 the Atlantic ; while the northern sea of Europe and 
 Asia, as inspiring still more gloomy and mysterious 
 ideas, was styled the "Sea of Pitchy Darkness." 
 Such notions could not now keep possession of the hu- 
 man mind, though it was only by degrees that man- 
 kind could be expected to be enlightened by doctrines 
 which were not only new, but seemed likewise to be 
 contradicted by the evidence of sense. The funda- 
 mental principles of a systematic arrangement had, 
 as we have already seen, been known from the time 
 of Hipparchus, and had been reduced to practice by 
 Ptolemy. But the want of astronomical observations, 
 or even of accurate surveys, which navigators sel- 
 dom furnished, and for which science had not indeed 
 yet provided suitable instruments, placed it still be- 
 yond the resources of modern geography to give anj' 
 thing like a just representation of the two hemi- 
 spheres. The Venetian geographers were the first who 
 attempted a systematic arrangement of the immense 
 regions recently discovered, adjusting them to each 
 other, and to the mass of information previously pos- 
 sessed. But a series of Venetiari maps, preserved in 
 the king's library*, show how much their skill was 
 counteracted by the difliculties with which they had 
 to contend. Instead of exhibiting the vast ocean 
 which separates the east coast of Asia from the west 
 coast of America, the two continents are represented 
 either as meeting, or as separated only by a narrow 
 strait. The voyage of Magellan across the Southern 
 Ocean had not shown with sufficient distinctness the 
 presentation of the opposite coasts, to enable the geo- 
 graphers of the time to avoid this error. When maps 
 of ditferent dates are compared, we find, as we descend 
 toward modern times, a gradual progress toward accu- 
 . racy in the representations given of the earth's sur- 
 face. This is what might be expected ; for all maps 
 should be Considered as unfinished works, in which 
 there will always be something to be corrected, or 
 something new to be inserted. 
 
 At the period of the revival of letters in Europe, 
 the latitudes and longitudes as given by Ptolemy were 
 universally received with implicit confidence. When 
 checked, however, by actual observation, they were 
 found to diff'er materially from the truth. The lati- 
 tudes in man}' instances were found very erroneous ; 
 that of Byzantium, for example, exceeded the truth 
 by two degrees. As nearly the same excess was 
 found to exist in some other cases, many geographers, 
 unwilling to renounce the authority of Ptolemy, con- 
 cluded that this difierence had arisen from a change 
 E Q E 
 
 having taken place in the position of the earth's axis, 
 in consequence of which the latitudes of all the places 
 in Europe were increased. The progress of observa- 
 tion showed that this opinion was untenable, and that 
 before geography could rest on a sure basis, a general 
 revision of ancient graduation was indispensably nec- 
 essary. The only observations employed by the an- 
 cients for determining longitudes were those of the 
 eclipses of the moon ; but it was found that the results 
 derived from this source could not be depended on. In 
 the year 1610, Galileo, having discovered three of Jupi- 
 ter's satellites, pointed out the use which might be made 
 of their eclipses for finding longitudes. But this meth- 
 od, which gives the greatest degree of accuracy, was 
 turned to little accoi^nt, until 1668, when Cassini pub- 
 lished his tables of the revolutions and eclipses of 
 these satellites. Three years afterward, by means of 
 simultaneous observations made by him and Picard at 
 Paris, and by Tycho-Brahe at Copenhagen, the differ- 
 ence of longitude of these two important points, 
 which had been long a matter of dispute, was finally 
 determined. Since that time, other accurate methods 
 of finding the longitude have been discovered ; and 
 the instruments employed in observation have been 
 brought to a high degree of perfection. The refine- 
 ments and improvements of modern science have been 
 brought to bear upon the great problem of determin- 
 ing the figure of the earth, which, though nearly, is 
 not exactly spherical. (See Fighee of the Earth.) 
 The labors of scientific men to obtain accurate results 
 on this subject, have contributed much to the improve- 
 ment of geography. The expeditions sent out under 
 Maupertuis to the arctic circle, and under Condamine 
 to tile equator, afforded an opportunity of making 
 various observations of latitude and longitude in re- 
 gions of which no delineation resting upon proper 
 data had hitherto been given. Within the last 50 
 years, trigonometrical surveys of France and England 
 have been executed, which have nearly completed the 
 delineation of these countries. 
 
 Much advantage has accrued to geographical science, 
 in point of accuracy and precision, from the application 
 in modern times of a sound and judicious criticism- to 
 the immense mass of materials which had been accu- 
 mulating for ages. The labors of M. d'Anville, in £he 
 18th century, were employed with great success in 
 this department. He undertook the revision of the 
 whole system on which the delineation of the world, 
 and of the countries into which it is divided, had hith- 
 erto been made ; and bj' unhesitatingly rejecting 
 every particular that did not rest on positive authority, 
 he removed many false or uncertain features, and 
 clearly distinguished the known from the unknown 
 parts of the globe. Major Eennell has skillfully ar- 
 ranged and illustrated the important materials collected 
 respecting India, Various authors have in modern 
 times cultivated another interesting field of inquirj', 
 the comparison between ancient and modem geog- 
 raphy, and the tracing of the rise and progress of 
 early discovery. These researches were diligentlj' 
 pursued bj' Vossius, Bochart, and other learned men of 
 the 17th century, and with still more success by Een- 
 nell, Vincent, and Mannert, who appear to have 
 pushed them as far as they admit, though much dark- 
 ness still rests on some parts of the inquiry. Gosselin, 
 notwithstanding that he has applied to the subject a 
 great extent of investigation, as well as much skill and 
 force of criticism, has failed, on account of the peculiar 
 views in which he indulged, to make any solid ad-. 
 dition to the science. 
 
 The discoveries made by the Spaniards and Portii. 
 guese had greatly increased the stock of geographiCaf 
 information. Still much remained to be done. TSo 
 desire of finding a short and convenient route to India 
 continued to supply a stimulus to exertion in the way 
 of discovery. The English and Dutch made extra- 
 ordinary efibrts, and encountered fearful dangers-and 
 
GEO 
 
 802 
 
 GEO 
 
 disasters, with the expectation of finding a passage bjf 
 the nortii-east, along the northern shores of Asia. A 
 coast beset with the ices of the polar seas presented, 
 however, obstacles too formidable to be overcome ; 
 though recent researches show that no barrier of land 
 intervenes. But there was still another quarter 
 where an attempt might be made ; and to this point 
 the commercial nations of Europe failed not to direct 
 their efforts. The jealousy of Spain long prevented 
 the other European States from visiting the north- 
 western coast of America, so that they remained igno- 
 rant of the vast breadth to which the continent spreads 
 out as it advances toward the north. They adopted, 
 indeed, the opinion that, like the southern extremity, 
 the northern terminated in a point or cape. This left 
 room to hope for a, north-western passage into the 
 Pacific Ocean, bj- sailing round the imaginary cape. 
 The English took the most decided lead in the explor- 
 atory voyages to which these views gave rise. In the 
 reign of Queen Elizabeth, Frobisher and Davis were 
 sent out on three successive voyages, which led to the 
 discovery of the entrance into Hudson's Bay by the 
 former navigator, and of the entrance into Bafiin's 
 Bay by the latter. These two capacious basins were 
 afterward discovered by the intrepid navigators whose 
 names they bear. In sailing round the great sea which 
 he had discovei'cd, Baffin mistook the great opening 
 into Lancaster Sound for a mere gulf — a misapprehen- 
 sion which checked for a time any further attempts in 
 that quarter, as navigators were led to expect success 
 only through the channel of Hudson's Bay. In 1631 
 Fox explored a part of that great opening on the north 
 of Hudson's Bay, called Sir Thomas Eoe's Welcome, 
 which seemed now to hold out almost the onl}' hope of 
 accomplishing the object sought.. The assertion of 
 Middleton, an officer in the service of the Hudson's Bay 
 Company, that he had discovered the head of the 
 Welcome to be completely closed, and the circumstance 
 of two other navigators, who were sent out the follow- 
 ing year, failing to effect any thing, produced an im- 
 pression on the public mind that the passage so long 
 sought had no existence. 
 
 fhe discoveries of Cook in the North Pacific Ocean, 
 where he found the American coast stretching away 
 in a north-westerly direction, joined to the circum- 
 stance that, when he penetrated through the strait 
 discovered early in the last century by Behring and 
 Tchirikof, which separates America from Asia, the 
 coast appeared there to extend indefinitely to the 
 north, seemed not only to confirm the conclusion that 
 no passage into the North Pacific Ocean was here to 
 be expected, but also that the American continent 
 extended northward in one unbroken mass, perhaps 
 even to the pole. The groundlessness of these views 
 became apparent when, in the year 1771, Mr. Hearne, 
 who had been dispatched by the Hudson's Bay Com- 
 pany to explore the limits of the coast in this direction, 
 sailed down the Copper-mine Eiver, and discovered its 
 entrance into the sea ; and again, when, in 1780, Sir Al- 
 exander Mackenzie traced also to the sea another river 
 about 20 degrees further to the west. Thus were there 
 furnished strong grounds to believe that the pole was 
 surrounded by an ocean which separated the northern 
 coasts of Asia and America, making these two conti- 
 nents altogether distinct from each other ; and that 
 through this ocean lay the long-sought course which 
 would certainly conduct the navigator who should suc- 
 ceed in forcing his way through the ice and storms of 
 the polar regions, from the Atlantic into the North 
 Pacific Ocean. 
 
 The determination of this great geographical ques- 
 tion, so long agitated, has recently called forth the 
 utmost efforts of the British government. In 1818 an 
 expedition was sent out to Baffin's Bay under the 
 command of Captain Boss, without leading to any 
 important result, as he was led to conclude that no 
 opening existed. Lancaster Sound had, however, 
 
 forcibly attracted the attention of the late Sir Edward 
 Parrj', at that time lieutenant and second in command ; 
 and on returning with a new expedition under his 
 immediate command, he succeeded in penetrating 
 through Lancaster Sound, which he found gradually 
 to widen till it opened into the Polar Sea. He found 
 a chain of large islands to lie parallel to the American 
 coast ; and among these he continued his navigation 
 until the accumulation of ice in the straits and chan- 
 nels through which he had to pass stopped his further 
 progress. This circumstance induced him to make his 
 next attempt through Hudson's Bay, by the channel 
 of the Welcome, which had as yet been but imper- 
 fectly explored. Here he succeeded in reaching a point 
 considerably beyond that at which Middleton had 
 represented the bay as terminating. He found at 
 length a narrow strait communicating with the Polar 
 Sea, but so incumbered with ice as to preclude the 
 hope of its ever affording an open passage. He was 
 therefore again sent out to renew his efforts in the first 
 direction, where he had already obtained partial suc- 
 cess. But the obstacles which he had formerly been 
 unable to overcome still continued, and prevented him 
 from making any material addition to his former dis- 
 coveries. While these skillfully-conducted voyages 
 were in progress. Sir John, then Captain Franklin, 
 was sent out at the head of two successive expeditions 
 bj' land, and, by aqtual survey, ascertained three 
 fourths of the boundary coast — his operations termin- 
 ating at a point beyond the 149th degree of west longi- 
 tude. On the other hand, an expedition under Cap- 
 tain Beechy, sent to meet Captain Franklin on his 
 second toilsome journey, passed the Icy Cape of Cook, 
 and penetrated nearly as far as the loBth degree of 
 west longitude, leaving only seven degrees, or 160 
 miles, between the farthest point thus reached and the 
 utmost limit reached by Captain Franklin. The 
 results of this investigation appeared to prove that 
 the whole of the northern coast of America extends in 
 a line not varying much from the parallel of the 70th 
 degree of north latitude. The problem of a passage 
 between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, to the north 
 of the American continent, has now been finally solved ; 
 but this discover)', so well fitted in itself to afford sat- 
 isfaction to the British nation, which has always taken 
 the lead in such enterprises, has been made under cir- 
 cumstances of a very saddening kind. In 1845 Sir 
 John Franklin and Captain Crozier were sent out on a 
 voyage of discovery to the Arctic Seas. No tidings 
 having been received of this expedition, it becam?, 
 after two or three years, a subject of painful anxiety 
 and suspense. Hence various expeditions were .fitted 
 out and sent in search of the missing voyagers, to suc- 
 cor them if still within reach of human aid, or, if oth- 
 erwise, to ascertain their fate. 
 
 In the course of these praiseworthy endeavors, Cap- 
 tain M'Clure was appointed to command the Investi- 
 gator, under Captain Collinson of the Enterprise, and 
 proceeded with that officer to Behring's Straits in tl^e 
 early part of 1850. When on the eve of sailmg, Cap- 
 tain M'Clure emphatically declared that he would find 
 Sir .John Franklin and Captain Crozier, or make the 
 north-west passage. The latter part of this pledge he 
 has, geographically speaking, redeemed ; but the im- 
 penetrable mystery which from the first enveloped the 
 fate of these gallant commanders, remains the same. 
 Captain Collinson failed in his attempts to penetrate 
 the pack ice that season, and so was separated from 
 Captain M'Clure, who, notwithstanding a signal of 
 recall from Captain Kell^tt of the Herald, the chief 
 officer on that station, dashed onward with a bold 
 determination to force a passage to the north-east- 
 taking on himself all the responsibility of disobeymg 
 orders. Fortunately his daring has been crowned 
 with success. He rounded Point Barrow on the 6th 
 August, 1850 ; continuing his course eastward along 
 the coast, he reached Cape Parry on the 6th Septem- 
 
GEO 
 
 803 
 
 GEO 
 
 ber, whence he Bteered through a channel called 
 Prince of Wales's Strait ; which, running north-east, 
 appeared a most promising course for reaching the 
 sea south of Melville Island. Near the northern ex- 
 tremitj' of this strait, the Investigator was frozen in 
 from the 8th of October, and remained stationary 
 daring the winter. Parties being sent out to explore, 
 it was soon ascertained that the channel opened into 
 Barrow's Strait; and thus was the existence of a 
 north-west passage established. On the 14th July, 
 1851, the Investigator was again fairly afloat, the ice 
 ha^-ing opened without any pressure. The great 
 object now to be gained was to pass through the strait ; 
 but notwithstanding their utmost exertions, the expe- 
 dition was completely arrested by strong north-east 
 winds, driving great masses of ice to the southward. 
 Thus baffled. Captain M'Clure resolved on running to 
 the southward of the island forming the western 
 boundary of Prince of "Wales's Strait, which he had 
 named Baring Island, and then to sail northward along 
 its western side. This navigation, in which he was 
 subjected to many delays and encountered many 
 formidable obstacles, he accomplished, and succeeded 
 in reaching the north side of tlie island on the 24th of 
 September. Had open water existed to the east the 
 rest of the passage might have been easily performed 
 in this way, for Barrow's Strait lay before them, the 
 navigation of which, from their jjosition to Lancaster 
 Sound, was luiown to be practicable. The hopes of 
 tliis intrepid navigator were destined again to be dis- 
 appointed. On the night of the above-mentioned day 
 the Investigator was frozen up, and at this point, in 
 latitude 74° 6' N., and longitude 117° 54' W., they 
 had their winter quarters in 1851, 1852, 1853. In 
 April, 1852, aparty crossed the ice to Melville Island, 
 and deposited there a document giving an account of 
 their proceedings, and of the position of the Investi- 
 gator. This document was happily discovered by the 
 oiEcers of Captain Kellett, who had been the last per- 
 son with whom Captain M'Clure held communication 
 when he entered the ice on the west, and was now, 
 singularly enough, the person to rescue him at the 
 expiration of three years on the side of Melville Island 
 on the east. Steps were immediately talcen to com- 
 municate with the party in their ice-prison. Lieutenant 
 Pim being appointed by Captain Kellett to the service. 
 Eventually it was found necessarj' that Captain 
 M'Clure and his gallant companions should abandon 
 their ship, however unwillingly ; so that the naviga- 
 tion of the north-west passage has not yet been accom- 
 plished. 
 
 The discovery of a new continent greatly enlarged, 
 as we have seen, the views of manlcind respecting the 
 constitution of the globe. But imagination, no longer 
 limited in its range by the notion of a circumambient 
 ocean that could not be passed, soon gave rise to the 
 belief of a southern continent, which was supposed 
 necessary to balance the land in the northern regions 
 of the earth. The immense body of water that was 
 found to occupy so large a portion of the known 
 regions of the southern hemisphere gave ample room 
 for supposing this unlcnown continent to be of vast 
 dimensions. It was imagined that it might equal in 
 extent, as well as in wealth, the American continent. 
 Nor was it considered necessary to exclude it from the 
 map Of the world till its existence should be proved. 
 It appears in all the early maps as an immense mass 
 of land surrounding the south pole, and presenting to 
 the ocean one unbroken coast. Tlie discovery of cer- 
 tain great insular tracts in the South Seas, which, 
 from ignorance or their true nature, navigators might 
 mistake for continental promontories or portions of 
 coast, no doubt at first gave some countenance to the 
 belief of the existence of antarctic land. But the de- 
 lusion was gradually dispelled before the light afforded 
 by further discovery. The Portuguese, in less than 
 20 years after their passage of the Cape of Good Hope, 
 
 pushed their researches to the most remote islands in 
 the Indian Ocean, including Java and the Moluccas. 
 They appear also to have observed some part of the 
 coast of New Guinea. The Spaniards, during their 
 early and adventurous career, put forth strenuous 
 exertions to explore the Southern Ocean, and several 
 of the groups of islands scattered over its surface were 
 discovered by their navigators. In 1607, the Dutch 
 having wrested Java and the Spice Islands from the 
 Portuguese, established in them the centre of their 
 Indian dominion. A great maritime power being thus 
 placed so near to the northern shores of the largest 
 portion of land on the globe that is regarded as an 
 island, it became almost impossible that New Holland 
 could long remain unknown. It was discovered early 
 in the 17th century, and was lling supposed to form a 
 part of the great southern continent. Van Diemen, 
 the Dutch governor of India, sent out several vessels 
 successively to explore its coasts. Hertog, Carpenter, 
 Nuytz, and Ulaming made very extensive observa- 
 tions on the northern and western shores, but found 
 them so. dreary and uninviting that no settlement was 
 attempted. In the year 1642 Abel Jansen Tasman 
 was commissioned to proceed on a voyage to ascertaiik 
 its extent. On the 14th August he sailed from Bata- 
 via, directing his course first toward the Isle of France. 
 He again set saU on the 3d October, and proceeding 
 southward and eastward, beyond the limits reached by 
 his predecessors, he discovered and doubled the south- 
 ern extremity of Van Diemen's Land, to which he 
 gave its name ; but he failed to discover that it is a 
 separate island. Pursuing afterward his course east- 
 ward, having reached about 42° 10' S. lat., and 170° 
 E. long., he found himself in view of a high and 
 mountainous country, which he named Staaten Land, 
 but which is now known as New Zealand. He sailed 
 along tlie coast toward the north-east, and after being 
 detained by the variableness of the weather, he re- 
 sumed his voyage and returned home by the Friendly 
 Islands, discovering many islands in his progress. He 
 arrived at Batavia on 15th June, 1643. Tasman's 
 voyage proved that New Holland was no part of the- 
 southed continent, even if such a continent should be 
 found to exist. Cook, who had been appointed in 
 1767 to conduct a voyage into the South Pacific Ocean 
 for astronomical and geographical purposes, sailed 
 southward in 1769 in quest of the unltnown continent. 
 Lofty mountains were seen on the 6th October, and it 
 was supposed that the object of their search was found. 
 But the land proved to be New Zealand. This land 
 he circumnavigated, and found that it consisted of two 
 large islands separated hy a narrow channel. After 
 six months employed in this manner, he directed his 
 course westward, and reached the eastern side of New 
 Holland early in 1770. By his extensive operations 
 in that quarter — having run down the coast from lat- 
 itude 38° to its northern extremity at Torres Strait — 
 he left little more to be done there in the way of dis- 
 covery. Passing down New Holland and New Guinea, 
 he continued his voyage by Timor and the south coast 
 of Java to Batavia ; whence, after repairing the ship, 
 he sailed for England, and reached the Downs on the 
 12th June, 1771, with his crew weakened and reduced 
 in number by the fatigue and hardships of their long 
 voyage. By this voyage it was proved there was no 
 such continent as that supposed to exist to the north- 
 ward of 40° south latitude. But as many ingenious 
 and well-informed men still adhered to the opinion 
 that there did exist a southern continent, govemmenl? 
 determined to send out a second expedition under 
 Cook, to make such an exploration of the Pacific Ocean 
 in the higher southern latitudes as should finally and 
 satisfactorily settle this much agitated question. 
 
 Cook was instructed to circumnavigate the globe in 
 high latitudes^ ptosecuting his researches as near to 
 the south pole as possible, and to traverse every part 
 of the Southern Ocean where the supposed continent 
 
GEO 
 
 804 
 
 GEO 
 
 could possibly lie. The expedition sailed from Ply- 
 mouth 13th July, 1772, and quitted the Cape of Good 
 Hope 22d November. Pursuing his course eastward. 
 Cook, during three years, employed the summer 
 months in those regions (corresponding to our "win- 
 ter months), in navigating high latitudes toward the 
 Sovith pole, and the winter months in adding to his 
 discoveries in the South Pacific Ocean. Notwithstand- 
 ing, however, that he varied his course, and tra- 
 versed in every direction which he thought aftbrded the 
 slightest likelihood of finding land, and actually got 
 so far south as 71° 10' of latitude, he was unsuccess- 
 ful. Having thus scrupulously and completely ac- 
 complished the object for which he was sent out, he 
 directed his course homeward. He had encompassed 
 the globe in high latittldes, and was led to conclude 
 that the southern pole is surrounded only by isles and 
 firm fields of ice, so that the h3'pothesis of an austral 
 continent had no foundation. He reached the Cape 
 of Good Hope 22d March, 1775, and anchored at Spit- 
 head on the 30th Juty, having, in the space of 3 j-ears 
 and 18 days, sailed 20,000 leagues, mostly in inhos- 
 pitable climates and unknown seas. In the course of 
 this and his former voyage the same great navigator 
 secured glory to his country and to himself by like- 
 wise completing the survey of the great Pacific Ocean. 
 Some of the interesting groups of islands scattered 
 over its vast surface had already been made known by 
 the previous voyages of Byron, Wallis, and Carteret. 
 Cook fully traced the great chain of Jhe Society Isl- 
 ands and the Friendly Islands. He determined also 
 the form and relations, not only of New Zealand, but 
 of New Caledonia and other lands and islands in that 
 region of the globe. 
 
 The extensive island of New Holland has recently 
 become doubly interesting from the important relations 
 which now subsist between it and Europe. In the 
 year 1788 the establishment of a British colony on the 
 east coast paved the waj' for a more complete survey. 
 By the different expeditions undertaken from 1795 to 
 1799, chiefly under the direction of Bass and Flinders, 
 the east coast, together with Van Diemen's Land 
 and Bass's Strait, which separates that island from 
 New Holland, were adequately explored. In 1801 an 
 expedition was sent out hy the British government 
 under the command of Captain Flinders, for the pur- 
 pose of surveying a large portion of the coast. These 
 surveys were prosecuted with unremitting ardor and 
 perseverance. At the same time that Captain Flin- 
 ders was carrj-ing on his survey, the French captain 
 Baudin was emploj^ed on the same service, and in some 
 parts the discoveries of these navigators intermingle. 
 Some additional observations have more recently been 
 made ; and by these various expeditions the whole 
 coast of New Holland and Van Diemen's Land has 
 been accurately survej'ed, the position of ever}' point 
 has been ascertained, and every inlet and bay has been 
 traced to its termination. 
 
 ■ The strong presumption which the researches of 
 Captain Cook in the Southern Ocean furnished of the 
 non-existence of an austral continent, seemed to leave 
 no room to expect that any further doubt would be 
 entertained on the subject. Lieutenant C. Wilkes, 
 commander of the expedition fitted out in 1838 by the 
 government of the United States, for the exploration 
 of the antarctic regions, has, however, claimed for his 
 country and for himself the honor of at length discov- 
 ering a continent within the antarctic circle. While 
 this claim is pertinaciously adhered to, no distinct 
 and unequivocal proof is produced that the continent 
 alleged to have been seen by the American expedition 
 has a substantial existence. No continent or island 
 was landed on ; and, on the other hand, it is sup- 
 posed that the British expedition, under the command 
 of Sir James C. Koss, sailed over the very spot in 
 south latitude 66°, and east longitude 163°-166°, 
 where Lieutenant Wilkes supposed he saw mountain- 
 
 ous land. This latter expedition was fitted out by the 
 British government, for scientific purposes, in 1839, 
 and arrived in Van Diemen's Land in August, 1840. 
 The French government had likewise sent an expedi- 
 tion into the southern seas, under the command of 
 Captain Dumont d'Urville, about the same time. To 
 avoid interferences with the French and American dis- 
 coveries, Sir James Koss determined on a more east- 
 erly meridian— that of 170° E. — in which to endeavor 
 to penetrate to the south. The expedition sailed from 
 Hobart Town on 13th November, 1840, and on 27th 
 December encountered a chain of icebergs. On the 
 5th January-, 1841, they entered the pack-ice, through 
 which having forced their way, the ice having at the 
 same time somewhat slackened, they found themselves 
 on the 7th January again in a clear sea. Soon after 
 2 o'clock, A. M., of the 11th January, thej' discovered 
 land, which, as they advanced southward, was found 
 to extend continuously from the 70th to the 79th degree, 
 with several adjacent islands. This land they called 
 Victoria Land. It presented to their view ranges of 
 mountains whose lofty peaks, covered with eternal 
 snow, rose to elevations from 7 to 10 or even 12 thou- 
 sand feet above the level of the ocean. The inter- 
 vening vallej'S were filled with glaciers, which, de- 
 scending from near the mountains' summits, projected 
 in many places several miles into the sea, and ter- 
 minated in perpendicular clifl's. The rocks breaking 
 through in a few places their covering, afforded the 
 only indication that land formed the nucleus of this, 
 to appearance, enormous iceberg. On the 28th Janu- 
 ary, when thej- had nearly reached their highest lati- 
 tude, about 78° S., they found that what appeared 
 when first seen at a distance to be a high island, was a 
 mountain 12,367 feet in height emitting flames and 
 smoke in great profusion. This volcano lies in lati- 
 tude about 77J° S., and in longitude about 167° Ei 
 From the most eastern point of land at a cape not far 
 from the foot of this mountain, an icy barrier was 
 found to extend eastward as far as the eye could dis- 
 cern. This barrier was a perpendicular wall of ice 
 from 150 to 200 feet in height, and stretched 250 miles 
 in one unbroken line, as was found on a second visit to 
 the same interesting locality in February 1842 ; nor 
 were they able to turn its extremity, so as to reach a 
 higher latitude. At o point where the height of the 
 barrier diminished to about 80 feet, they perceived 
 from the mast-heads that it gradually rose to the south- 
 ward, presenting the appearance of very lofty mount- 
 ains perfectly covered with snow, but with a varied 
 and undulating surface. And hence Sir James Eoss, 
 with nearly all his companions, felt assured that the 
 presence of land there amounts almost to a certainty. 
 Still, Sir James is of opinion that the recent discoveries 
 in the antarctic regions made by the French and Amer- 
 ican navigators, and by himself, do not prove the ex- 
 istence of a great southern continent, but rather of a 
 chain of islands. 
 
 In tracing the history of geographical discovery, it 
 can not fail to be observed that while discovery by sea 
 admits of being pursued with great advantage, on ac- 
 count of the rapidity of its progress and the extent 
 of its range, it does not supersede the slower and 
 more confined operations of the discoverer by land, 
 which are no less necessary to make known the inte- 
 rior features and circumstances of the different coun- 
 tries. 
 
 The British dominion in India has led to much addi- 
 tional information respecting the interior of Asia ; infor- 
 mation which is, however, in many respects, only the 
 revival of ancient knowledge. The great mountainous 
 chain which forms the northern boundary of India, has 
 been traced and found in many places to tower to snch 
 heights as to exceed the Andes, long supposed to be 
 the highest mountains in the worid. The source of 
 the Ganges, and that of the Indus, with the early 
 courses of these great rivers, have been found to be 
 
GEO 
 
 805 
 
 GEO 
 
 situated quite differently from wliat had been Bupposed 
 to be their position by modem geographers. The 
 mountainous territories of Cabul and Cashmere, the 
 high interior table-land of Thibet, and the vast sandy 
 plains of Meckran, have all been more or less explored. 
 Information of an authentic character has also been 
 recently obtained respecting the formerly celebrated 
 capitals, Bochara and Samarcand. But a wide field 
 still remains for future research. 
 
 The continent of Africa, however, is the quarter of 
 the globe which, more than any other, has baffled the 
 efforts of those who would explore its interior. The 
 vast sandy deserts, high mountains, and impenetrable 
 forests which occur on its surface, joined with the un- 
 remitting wars carried on between the petty tribes, as 
 well as the deeply-rooted antipathy of the African 
 Mohammedans toward the Franks, have presented ob- 
 stacles of the most formidable kind. The ancients, 
 whose knowledge of the African coasts was very im- 
 perfect, except where they border on the Mediterra- 
 nean and the Red Sea, were accustomed to penetrate 
 into the inland provinces, and are said to have been 
 acquainted with manj' parts of it which are now alto- 
 gether unknown. At an early period of modem his- 
 tory, reports that Prester John, the Christian Prince, 
 who had been sought for in vain in the East, was 
 to be found in the interior of Africa, induced the 
 Portuguese to explore Abyssinia; but the accounts 
 which they gave of the extent of that country were 
 greatly exaggerated. From the western coast they 
 dispatched embassies into the interior in quest of the 
 object of their search 5 and on one occasion they appear 
 to have reoiched the city of Timbuctoo, and to have ob- 
 tained at Benin some information concerning the great 
 interior kingdom of Ghana. The maritime nations of 
 south-western Europe early formed settlements on the 
 west coast of Africa, and, for commercial purposes, 
 were naturally prompted to seek a knowledge of the 
 neighboring nations. But it was not until the format 
 tion of the African Association in 1788 that any well- 
 sustained efforts were made in the prosecution of 
 discovery in the interior. There were two objects 
 connected with the interior of Africa which had for a 
 long time fixed the attention and awakened the curi- 
 osity of the nations of Europe. These were the citj'' 
 of Timbuctoo and the great central river, the Niger. 
 Timbuctoo has been for many centuries the grand em- 
 porium of the central trade of Africa, and hence there 
 has prevailed throughout Europe, ever since the rise 
 of discover)'' and commercial enterprise, a strong de- 
 sire to visit it, and to establish with it a friendly inter- 
 course. The discovery of the course and mouth of 
 the Niger has now opened up to commercial specula- 
 tion what it is hoped will give a ready access to Tim- 
 buctoo as well as other places of traffic. The in- 
 terest with which, in a geographical point of view, 
 however, the Niger has been regarded, has arisen from 
 the remarkable nature of the regions through which it 
 flows, and still more from our ignorance, combined 
 with the various and contradictory rumors which were 
 so long abroad, respecting its course and termination. 
 Herodotus is the earliest author who affords any ideas 
 applicable to this subject. He mentions an expedition 
 into the interior of Africa, undertaken by some Nassau 
 monian youths, who, being made prisoners, were car- 
 ried to a great city inhabited bj' negroes, and situated 
 on the banlcs of a river which flowed from west to 
 east. This stream he conjectures to be the remote 
 source of the Nile, but the particulars given appear to 
 leave little doubt that it was the Niger. A similar 
 hj'pothesis was adopted by Strabo, Mela, and Pliny, 
 identifying the waters of these two great rivers. But 
 Ptolemy, whose residence in Alexandria afforded him 
 ample means of information, rejects altogether the 
 idea of any communication between them. He de- 
 scribes the Niger as terminated on the west by Mount 
 Mandrus (ilandingo), and as giving rise to several ex- 
 
 tensive lakes as it proceeds in its course. His state- 
 ments do not, however, involve any thing positive as 
 to the direction in which it flows. The Saracens or 
 Arabians are the next great c ouree of information ; 
 for, in the course of the dissensions which took place 
 among their dynasties in northern Africa, large bodies 
 crossed the desert and founded kingdoms on the east- 
 ern part of the shore of the Niger, of which the Icing- 
 dom of Ghana was the most splendid. According to 
 their testimonj', the Niger flows from east to west, 
 and discharges itself into the sea, by which they un- 
 derstood the Atlantic, or great circumambient ocean. 
 With regard to its source, they generally regarded it 
 as the same with that of the Egyptian Nile, identifying 
 the two rivers in the early part of their course. Some' 
 were of opinion that the waters of the Niger did not 
 reach the sea ; so that they must have supposed them 
 to be discharged into a lake. The system adopted by 
 modern Europeans was derived from Leo Africanus, 
 who retained the delineations of the Niger as flowing 
 from east to west, and falling into the ocean ; but, in- 
 stead of deriving it from the Nile, supposed it to rise 
 from a lake lying deep in the interior of Africa. Fol- 
 lowing this hypothesis, all the learly European naviga^ 
 tors, when they saw the two broad estuaries of the 
 Senegal and Gambia, concluded that one or both gave 
 egress to the waters of the Niger. In the beginning of 
 the 17th century', the French and English, having each 
 formed a settlement, the one on the Senegal' and the 
 other on the Gambia, were induced by the hope of gain 
 to seeic a route up these rivers to the city of Timbuctoo ; 
 and in this enterprise they, proved the falsity of the 
 opinion which had been so long held. The streams 
 were traced so near to their source as to become little 
 more than rivulets ; while the explorers were still far 
 from the great central emporium of Africa, and from 
 the great plain through which the Niger was under- 
 stood to flow. This result led the two great French 
 geographers, Delisle and D'Anville, to construct maps 
 in which the Niger, after the lapse of so many ages,' 
 was again represented as flowing to the eastward. In- 
 stead of a single stream pursuing a course across the 
 whole breadth of Africa and falling into the Alantic, 
 D'An'ville distinguished three rivers — the Senegal, 
 flowing westward ; the Niger, flowing eastward into a 
 ' lake in Wangara ; and another river still further east, 
 and flowing in the opposite direction, i The data on 
 which this scheme rests were never fully made public. 
 Still new doubt was thrown around this subject by 
 the reports collected by Mr. Lucas, who traveled 
 under the auspices of the African Association, and who 
 was assured at Tripoli, by a native merchant, that the 
 river flowed with rapidity in a westerlj- direction. 
 The time, however, at last arrived, when these con- 
 flicting opinions were to be silenced, and when new 
 light was to be throvfn on the subject, by the labors of 
 our illustrious modern traveler, Mr. Mungo Park. In 
 his first expedition, in 1795-96, he proceeded from the 
 west coast in the direction of the Elver Gambia, until at 
 Medina he left it, and turned to the north. Having 
 passed through the kingdoms of Bondou, Kasson, 
 and Kaarta, he reached Sego, the capital of Bam- 
 barra, where he beheld " the long-sought majestic Ni- 
 ger glittering in the morning sun, as broad as the 
 Thames at Windsor, and flowing slowly to the east- 
 ward," directing his course into the depths of the in- 
 terior of Africa. This stream, he found, was called by 
 the natives the Joliba, or Great Water. Park ad- 
 vanced beyond this point to another to'wn called Silla 
 on the same river, and acquired also some valuable 
 information respecting the further course of the 
 stream which was the object of his research, as well as 
 respecting the position of Timbuctoo, which he was 
 told was not more than 200 miles from Silla. Follow- 
 ing upward the course of the Joliba until he reached 
 Bammakoo, which was stated to be about ten days' 
 journey from its source, he returned to the Gambia by 
 
GEO 
 
 806 
 
 GEO 
 
 a more southerly tract. In 1805 this adventurous 
 traveler was sent out at the public expense on his sec- 
 ond expedition. After reaching Silla, he embarked at 
 a place in its neighborhood on the Joliba or Niger, 
 "vvith the determination of sailing down the stream 
 until he should reach its mouth, whithersoever its 
 course might conduct him. He is ascertained to have 
 passed successively the cities of Jenn4, Timbuctoo, 
 Yaour or Yaouri, and to have reached Boussa, a short 
 distance further down, where he was killed. No part 
 of his journal, however, after he embarked on the 
 river, has been recovered. In the mean time, a strong 
 and general interest being now excited in reference to 
 African geography, information flowed in from vari- 
 ous sources respecting the regions in the interior, as 
 well as some parts nearer the coast. Many particulars 
 became known concerning the countries to the east of 
 Timbuctoo, especially the kingdom of Bornou, then 
 the most powerful State of central Africa. The 
 knowledge possessed of the people of the interior was 
 also considerably increased. These circumstances pre- 
 pared the' way for a more successful attempt than any 
 hitherto made to explore the interior of Africa, when 
 Major Denham and Lieutenant Clapperton were sent 
 out in 1822. Setting out from Tripoli with a caravan 
 of Arab merchants, these travelers crossed the desert, 
 and reached the great inland sea or lake called Tchad, 
 which is the receptacle of immense volumes of water 
 collected from the most distant recesses of inner Af- 
 rica. Major Denham examined the coasts of this lake 
 to the east and south ; while Lieutenant Clapperton 
 directed his researches westward, through the king- 
 dom of Bornou and the country of the Fellatahs, until 
 he arrived at Sackatoo, situated on a stream which 
 probably flows into the Joliba. In the course of this 
 joumej', Clapperton obtained a great mass of informa- 
 tion concerning those hitherto unvisited regions which 
 lie eastward of Timbuctoo ; but with regard to the 
 course of the unexplored part of the Kiver Niger (or 
 Quorra, as it was called at Sackatoo), he heard little 
 that could be depended upon. Having returned to En- 
 gland, he was again sent out by the government in 
 command of a new expedition, with instructions that 
 he should endeavor to penetrate to the scene of his 
 former adventures from the coast of Guinea. In the 
 execution of this plan of research he reached the Ni- 
 ger at Boussa, where Park perished ; and, after tra- 
 versing some of the adjoining regions on the further 
 side of the river, as far as the great commercial cit}- of 
 Kano, the capital of Houssa, where he had been in his 
 former journey, he turned again to the west, and hav- 
 ing reached Sackatoo, there died. His servant, 
 Richard Lauder, with a praiseworthy zeal, embarked 
 on one of the branches of the Niger for the purpose of 
 finally determining, if possible, its termination by 
 sailing down the stream ; but he was stopped by the na- 
 tives, and compelled to turn back. The city of Tim- 
 buctoo was in the mean while reached by Major Laing, 
 who succeeded, in August, 1826, in making his way 
 thither across the desert from Tripoli. In this famous 
 city he spent some weeks, but he was murdered in the 
 desert on his return ; nor did the results of his in- 
 quiries and observations ever reach Europe. Such 
 are the formidable difficulties and dangers which have 
 hitherto encompassed the path of discovery in the 
 Interior of Africa. Still, by renewed efforts, the ob- 
 ject of research has been gained. The grand ques- 
 tion of the termination of the Joliba, Quorra, or Niger, 
 has at length been fully resolved — a discovery which 
 is the result of the fortunate and well-conducted enter- 
 prise on which Kichard Lander and his brother were 
 sent out in 1830. Having followed nearly the same 
 route which had been taken by Clapperton in his sec- 
 ond journey, these two travelers reached Boussa on 
 the 17th June. They first ascended the river as far as 
 Yaouri, and then returned to Boussa. After remain- 
 ing there for some time, they embarked on the river to 
 
 follow the stream in its course downward, hoping that 
 it would conduct them to the sea. In this expectation 
 they were not disappointed ; for they reached the Bight 
 of Benin by the larger branch, which is there called 
 the River Nun. There is another great branch a little 
 further to the south ; and by these two outlets, with 
 several smaller channels, the river known in Europe 
 by the name of Niger discharges its water into the At- 
 lantic. 
 
 The zeal for discovery in Africa, which has been so 
 active during the last six j'cars, has sent forth a suc- 
 cession of travelers (missionaries and others) to ex- 
 plore the southern regions of that vast continent. We 
 can mention briefly only the most remarkable results 
 of their researches. 
 
 It is now (1856) about six years since intelligence 
 was received in Europe of the discovery of snowy 
 mountains in eastern Africa. The discovery was in 
 itself so rdmark^le, that the report was not at first 
 universally credited. It was, however, subsequently 
 confirmed. The mountains in question are Kiliman- 
 jaro, in about latitude 3J° S., and longitude 37° E. j 
 and Kenia, in about latitude 1° S., and longitude 88^° 
 E. They were discovered by the missionaries Rep- 
 mann and Krapf, stationed near Mombas. Kiliman- 
 jaro is an isolated and very conspicuous peak, probably 
 connected on its western side with the table-land of 
 inner Africa. The missionaries have become ac- 
 quainted with its eastern, southern, and northern 
 aspects ; but Mount Kenia has been seen only from 
 the south, at a distance of six daj's' journey, or about 
 80 geographical miles. 
 
 Another important discovery made in the interior of 
 Africa within the same time is that of Lake N'Gami, 
 by the missionarj^ the Rev. Dr. Livingston, accompa- 
 nied by Mr. Oswell and Mr. Murray. It seems to be 
 situated about 19° south latitude— about 560 miles 
 N.N.W. of Kolobeng, the scene of Dr. Livingston's 
 missionary labors, and the head-quarters of the Ba- 
 quain tribe. These and other explorers have made us 
 in some measure acquainted with an extensive system 
 of rivers, between 10° and 22° S. latitude, running 
 eastward, which, when further research shall have 
 made them fully known, may be found capable of be- 
 ing rendered subservient to commercial intercourse 
 with the surrounding countries, and to their conse- 
 quent civilization. Dr. Livingston has lately retmned 
 from his explorations to the north of Lake N'Gami. 
 
 An important expedition to central Africa, headed 
 by Mr. James Richardson, left Tripoli in March, 1850. 
 It was sent out under the orders and at the expense of 
 the British government. The object of this mission 
 was to survey Lake Tchad, and to explore the neigh- 
 boring countries. The scientific interests of the expe- 
 dition were intrusted to two German gentlemen. Dr. 
 Barth and Dr. Overweg. Instead of travehng from 
 Tripoli across the desert with the great caravan, the 
 mission formed a small caravan of its own, amounting 
 to about 100 persons, and as many camels. The jour- 
 ney from Tripoli to Murzuk and thence to Ghat is less 
 interesting than that from the latter place, where they 
 entered on entirely new ground. But even in the for- 
 mer part of the march many important discoveries 
 were made, as the travelers selected new routes not 
 before explored, and thus rendered every part of the 
 journey subservient to the purposes of the mission. 
 At Ghat their personal danger was increased to such 
 a degree that they found it necessary to trust for pro- 
 tection to the friendship of the sultan of the Kcloee, m 
 whose country they were detained about three months, 
 during which time Dr. Barth made an interesting 
 journey to Agadez, while much valuable information 
 was also collected by Mr. Richardson and by Dr. 
 Overweg, who had remained. At the close of 1850 the 
 party reached Zinder, where the three travelers sep- 
 arated, each proceeding with his followers by another 
 route. Mr. Richardson took the direct way to Kuka, 
 
GEO 
 
 807 
 
 GEO 
 
 not far from the shores of Lake Tchad, and the capital 
 of the empire of Bomou. At Kuka all the three hoped 
 again to meet very soon afterward, but this hope was 
 disappointed. Mr. Richardson was of a weak consti- 
 tution, yet his health appeared to suffer little from 
 the fatigue of crossing the desert ; but he sunk before 
 he reached Lake Tchad, which was the termination of 
 his raissiouj and from which he was to return by direct 
 road to Tripoli. He died in the country of Bomou at 
 Ungurutua, a place six days' journey from Kuka, dur- 
 ing the night intervening between the 3d and 4th of 
 March, 1851. Thus was added another name to the 
 large number of tliosc who have fallen a sacrifice to 
 the cause of African discovery. 
 
 The two surviving travelers, undaunted by the 
 prospect of danger, proposed as the plan of their ope- 
 rations to approach the Upper Nile, as soon as they 
 had explored the vicinity of Lake Tchad, provided 
 they were supported by the British and Prussian gov- 
 ernments ; and to be ready even to pursue their re- 
 searches from Kuka to the Indian Ocean. The route 
 in a straight line to Mombas lies nearly south-east ; 
 but from all they could learn, the route more to the 
 south, in the direction of Lake Nyassi, seemed more 
 practicable. The gigantic journey which they thus 
 contemplated, lay through many powerful kingdoms, 
 densely peopled, intersected by numerous rivers, very 
 fertile, and abounding in forests, but where the most 
 formidable obstacles were to be expected from the war- 
 like dispositions of the surrounding nations. 
 
 In the mean time they prosecuted with zeal the im- 
 mediate objects of the mission, embracing everj' op- 
 portunity of collecting information. On the 29th 
 May, 1851, Dr. Barth started from Kuka to visit the 
 kingdom of Adamana, which, from the accounts he 
 had received, he judged to be the most beautiful coun- 
 try of central Africa. He reached Yola, the capital, 
 on the 22d June, where he was permitted to reman only 
 three days. He was kindly received, however, both 
 by the sultan and by the inhabitants, and at his de- 
 parture was treated with consideration and honor. 
 Four days' journey before reaching Tola, he had to 
 cross at the point of their junction the two principal 
 rivers of Adamana, the Benueh and the Faro, the lat- 
 ter beiug a tributary of the former. The Benueh he 
 describes as the largest and most imposing stream 
 which he had seen since leaving Europe. He found 
 it half a mile broad and about 10 feet deep. The dis- 
 tance of the source from the point at which he crossed 
 it was said to be nine days' journej'. This magnifi- 
 cent river is in fact the upper course of the Tchadda, 
 which itself falls into the Quorra or Niger, not far 
 from its mouth. The discovery thus made of the 
 identity of the two streams, the Benueh and the 
 Tchadda, has opened up a way of access to the very 
 heart of inner Africa, which seems destined eventually 
 to become the line from the west along which the 
 blessings of commerce and civilization are to flow to 
 the surrounding nations. The consideration of the 
 immense importance of following up this discovery, 
 and of the advantages which might be expected to ac- 
 crue from it, suggested the idea of sending out a steam- 
 boat expedition from England to ascend the Tchadda. 
 Former attempts to reach central Africa by ascending 
 the Quorra had been attended with very disastrous 
 consequences. But the expedition which left the 
 British shores in May, 1854, to ascend the Tchadda 
 was eminently successful, while not a single life was 
 lost. It reached the mouth of the Quorra in the be- 
 ginning of July, and, entering the Tchadda, ascended 
 the stream to within about 50 miles of the confluence 
 of the Benueh and the Faro. Thus it has beeen fully 
 proved that this important river is navigable to Yola, 
 the capital of Adamana. 
 
 While Dr. Barth was prosecuting this journey his 
 fellow-traveler was employed in survej-ing Lake Tchad. 
 This lake is described as an immense marsh, the only 
 
 portion fit for navigation being a deep channel formed 
 by the River Sliary, which pours into the lake a vast 
 volume of water. What Major Denham has described 
 as small islands, were found to be extensive meadow- 
 lands of much greater surface than the lake itself. 
 The explorations of Dr. Overweg led to results con- 
 siderably at variance with what had been reported by 
 Denham ; but the discrepancies are perhaps more 
 apparent than real, and may find their explanation in 
 the fact that the lake is augmented during the rainy 
 season to an immense body of water ; but during the 
 season of drought is so much reduced by evaporation 
 as to appear at times to be almost dried up. 
 
 In the course of the summer of 1852, Dr. Barth, 
 setting out ft'om Kuka, made a journej' in a south- 
 easterly direction toward the Nile ; and so near did he 
 approach to the eastern boundary of the basin of that 
 great river, that he was able to collect information 
 likely to throw light on some intricate questions con- 
 nected with it. He succeeded also in exploring a por- 
 tion of Bagirrai, a powerful kingdom between Lake 
 Tchad and the Upper Nile, which had never before 
 been visited by any, European. In uniting, hy means 
 of his itineraries, Bagirmi with Dar For, he has com- 
 pleted a line of direct route across central Africa from 
 the Quorrra to the Nile ; and thus from the Gulf of 
 Guinea to the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean. 
 
 Dr. Overweg left Kuka at the same time with Dr. 
 Barth, but took a south-westerly direction toward the 
 Quorra. Between the end of March, the time of his 
 setting out, and the end of May when he returned, he 
 successfully performed an important journey, which 
 brought him within 150 English miles of Yacoba, the 
 great town of the Fellatahs. Dr. Barth's journey oc- 
 cupied a considerably longer time ; and it appears that 
 Dr. Overweg's anxiety to await the return of his com- 
 panion, which was not until the 20th August, induced 
 Mm to remain at Kuka, notwithstanding the danger to 
 be apprehended from too long exposure to the influ- 
 ence of the unhealthy season. The consequence was, 
 that his constitution became so seriously aflfected that, 
 though he set out immediately after Dr. Barth's ar- 
 rival, on an excursion to healthier regions, yet the 
 advantage derived proved only temporarj'. He died 
 on the 27th September, 1852, at Maduara, about ten 
 miles east of Kuka, and near Lake Tchad. 
 
 As it was known that the travelers had expected to 
 be ready to start from Kuka toward the Indian Ocean 
 in August or September, 1853, it was intended by 
 their friends in England, that before they left Kuka 
 they should be joined by an additional fellow-laborer 
 to take a part in their arduous undertaking. Dr. Vogel, 
 an astronomer and botanist, was accordingly sent out 
 accompanied by two chosen volunteers from the corps 
 of the Sappers and Miners. By a singular coincidence, 
 on the very morning on which Dr. Vogel and his com- 
 panions went on board the vessel which was to take 
 them to Malta on their way to Tripoli, letters from 
 Dr. Barth were received in London announcing the 
 death of Dr. Overweg. 
 
 Though now left alone, as being the only surviving 
 member of the mission. Dr. Barth continued to prose- 
 cute with zeal the work in which he was engaged. 
 Up to the 23d November, 1852, h^ was still at Kuka ; 
 but he had fixed on the 2oth of the same month to leave 
 that place, and to enter on his journey to Timbuctoo. 
 All his journals and papers, arranged and completed 
 up to that date, he intended to forward to Tripoli, 
 there to be deposited with the English consul. By 
 the beginning of March, 1853, he had performed more 
 than one third part of his journey, and had reached 
 the capital of the territories of the Fellatais, whose 
 friendship and assistance he had secured. After being 
 subjected to the disappointments and delays incident 
 to the traveler in that part of the world, he reached at 
 length the termination of his perilous journey. Du- 
 ring his stay at Timbuctoo his life was exposed to 
 
GEO 
 
 808 
 
 GEO 
 
 great danger, from the influence of unfavorable cli- 
 mate, and much more so from the hostile disposition 
 toward Christians of the most fanatical Mohammedan 
 population of northern Africa. He thus describes his 
 distressing situation during his sojourn in that magni- 
 ficent city — the " Queen of the Desert," as it is justly 
 called by the natives : — " Like a helpless vessel on the 
 ocean waves, am I thrown about on a sea of uncer- 
 tainty, between the power and passion of contending 
 parties. Every day brings something new — now of a 
 satisfactory kind, then again of the reverse. Death, 
 captivity, safe return home, are my visions by turns, 
 and it is yet impossible to say which sliall be my fate." 
 To have left Timbuctoo without sufficient protection, 
 would have been to expose himself to certain death. 
 Hence his stay in this place of danger was unavoid- 
 ably protracted to nearly a yeav, when he was at last 
 succored by Auab, the chief of a Tuarick tribe inhab- 
 iting the regions east of Timbuctoo, along the Quorra, 
 who came with an escort of a hundred horsemen, and 
 conducted him in safety through his dominions, on his 
 way back to Sackatoo. 
 
 The news of Dr. Vogel's having been dispatched from 
 Europe to join him had reached Timbuctoo before Dr. 
 Earth left that place. On the 1st December, 1854, 
 he had the inexpressible pleasure of meeting him at 
 Bundi, a small town situated at about 200 geographical 
 mUes due west of Kuka. Once more he looked upon 
 the face of a European — ^his countryman — and grasped 
 the hand of a friend in whom he could place implicit 
 confidence. Exactly six years had elapsed since he 
 left Europe, in company with Mr. Richardson and Dr. 
 Overweg. Since the decease of the latter he had been 
 isolated from civilized society, and had been left to 
 contend single-handed with manifold hardships and 
 dangers. To revisit Europe he now considered indis- 
 pensable for the preservation of life and health ; and 
 accordingly he moved on to Kuka, whence he intended 
 to proceed homeward without further delay. We are 
 happy to say that he arrived at Marseilles earlj' in 
 September, 1855. 
 
 The limits of the great unexplored region of Africa 
 may be roughly indicated as extending between the 
 parallels of 10° north and south of the equator, and 
 from Adamana in the west to the Somauli country' in 
 the east. This extensive region has just been touched 
 by the routes of recent travelers. But in all parts of 
 tlie habitable globe the spirit of research, which has 
 already done so much, is still active ; nor is it directed 
 only to the determining of the outlines of continents 
 and countries, or to the marking of the leading features 
 of mountains, rivers, and cities, with their relative po- 
 sitions and distances. These are regarded by the geo- 
 graphical inquirer merely as affording a proper basis 
 on which to rest the description of the earth considered 
 as the habitation of man, and as affording him amply 
 the means of improvement and happiness. The pic- 
 ture can be completed only by the continued labors of 
 the scientific observer, who maltes the earth, with its 
 various productions, whether natural or artificial, the 
 treasures hid in its bosom, the animals found upon its 
 surface, and, above all, the human beings who people 
 its different regions (and these in all their mutual 
 bearings and relations), the objects of attentive exam- 
 ination and study. — E. B. See Coast Sdkvey — Lat- 
 itude — ^LoNGiTODE — The Eahth. 
 
 Georgetown (formerly Stabrdeh), the capital of 
 British Guiana, is situated on the east bank of the De- 
 merara, at its mouth, which is there about three miles 
 wide, in north lat. 6° 49' 30", west long. 58° 11' 30". 
 The town itself is one of the prettiest in the West In- 
 dies ; and its streets are wide and straight, intersecting 
 each other at right angles. The houses are of wood, 
 with open verandahs in front, and neatly painted in 
 cool and quiet colors ; they are shaded and almost 
 hidden by trees and shrubs, and look more like a col- 
 lection of villas than a town. The street along the 
 
 river side — where all the stores and shops are situated, 
 and where business is chiefly transacted — forms, how- 
 ever, an exception ; there every thing is plain, bare, 
 and business-like. The ships lie alongside the wharfs 
 or at a short distance in the stream, which is also 
 crowded with numerous smaller vessels engaged in the 
 island trade, or in bringing produce from the more 
 distant estates. The hall of the legislative council, 
 courts of justice, custom-house, treasury, and all the 
 other public offices, are in one building of considerable 
 extent and architectural beaut}', with shady porticos, 
 and marble-paved galleries or verandahs supported on 
 cast-iron columns. The chief of the other public edi- 
 fices are the cathedral and churches, several liberally 
 maintained hospitals, barracks, market-place, and ice- 
 house. Below the town is the " Fort," as it is called, 
 but which looks more like a green field, with a few guns 
 pointing toward the sea, and a house or two for a 
 single officer and a dozen artillerymen. Population 
 (1851,) 25,608. 
 
 Georgia, lies between 30° 30' and 35° north lat., 
 and between 80° 50' and 86° 6' west long, from 
 Greenwich, and between 3° 52' and 8° 47' west 
 long, from Washington. It is 300 miles long from 
 north to south, and 240 broad, containing 58,000 
 square miles. Poptilation in 1790, was 82,684; in 
 1800, 162,686 ; in 1810, 252,433 ; in 1820, 348,989 ; in 
 1830, 516,567 ; in 1840, 691,392 ; and in 1860, 909,644. 
 The State in 1850 was divided into 95 counties. 
 
 Early History of Georgia.— Vntil the year 1732, the 
 territory of the State of Georgia was included in the 
 names of Carolana and Carolina. For promoting its 
 settlement. King George II. separated from Carolina 
 the territory' between the Rivers Savannah and Alta- 
 maha, and erected this territor}', by a charter of the 
 9th of June, 1732, into an independent and separate 
 government, which was called in honor of that king, 
 the province of *' Georgia,''^ It was probably from the 
 beginning, the intention that this colonj^ should go as 
 far down as the St. Mary's Kiver ; for the patent says 
 " it should go so far south as the southernmost branch 
 of the Altaraaha River." And on the maps of that 
 time We see that it was then believed that Altamaha 
 River had a southern branch which conducted into 
 St. Mary's River, and the mouth of this river was 
 therefore consideredalso to be the mouth of the Alta- 
 maha. The boundaries were, however, in later times 
 actually conducted so far south. With this exception 
 the limits of the province of Georgia suffered no 
 changes on the coast, though in the interior the 
 changes were great. These interior changes have, 
 however, no relation with our hydrographical re- 
 searches. — Kohl. 
 
 From the ocean, for a distance of seven miles, there 
 is a chain of islands intersected by river, creeks, and 
 inlets communicating with each other, and f«rming an 
 inland navigation for vessels of 100 tons' burden along 
 the whole coast. These islands consist of salt marsh 
 and land of a gray rich soil, which produces sea-island 
 cotton of a superior quality. The coast on the main 
 land for four or five miles is a salt marsh. Bacli of 
 this there is a narrow margin of land, nearly resem- 
 bling that of the islands ; these are partially or wholly 
 overflowed at the return of the tide, and constitute the 
 rice plantations. Then commence the pine barrens, 
 which reach from 60 to 90 miles from the coast. Beyond 
 this is the country of sand hills, 30 or 40 miles wide, 
 interspersed with fertile tracts, and extending to the 
 lower falls of the rivers. Black walnut and mulberry- 
 trees grow abundantly in this soil. The forests pro- 
 duce oak, pine, hickorj-, and cedar. Deposits of iron 
 ore are widely diffused throughout the State ; gold is 
 found in the northern part ; granite, marble, lime- 
 stone, are quarried in many places. 
 
 There were in this State in 1850, 6,878,479 acres of 
 land improved, and 16,442,900 of unimproved land ra 
 farms ; cash value of farms, $95,753,445, and the value 
 
GEO 
 
 809 
 
 GEO 
 
 of implements and machinery, $5,894,160, according 
 to tile official report of the Census, XT. S. 
 
 Live Stock, Horses, etc. — Horses, 151,331 ; asses and 
 mules, 57,379 ; milch cows, 334,223 ; working oxen, 
 73,286 ; other cattle, 690,019 ; sheep, 560,435 ; swine, 
 2,168,617 ; value of live stoclc, $25,728,416 ; of slaugh- 
 tered animals, $6,339,762. 
 
 Agricultural Products, e(c. — ^Wheat, 1,088,534 bush- 
 els ; rye, 53,750 ; Indian com, 30,080,099 ; oats, 3,820,- 
 044 ; barley, 11,501; buckwheat, 250 ; peas and beans, 
 1,142,011; potatoes, 227,379; sweet potatoes, 6,986,- 
 428 ; rice, 38,950,691 pounds ; value of the products of 
 the orchard, $92,776 ; produce of market gardens, 
 $76,500 ; pounds of bufter made, 4,640,559 ; of cheese, 
 46,976 ; sugar, hogsheads, 1642 ; maple sugar, 50 lbs. ; 
 molasses, 216,150 gallons ; beeswax and honey, 732,- 
 514 pounds ; wool, pounds produced, 990,019 ; cotton, 
 499,091 bales ; flax, 5,387 pounds ; sUk cocoons, 813 ; 
 hops, 261 pounds ; tobacco, 423,924 ; hay, tons of, 23,- 
 449 ; clover-seed, 132 bushels ; other grass seeds, 428 ; 
 flax-seed, 622 bushels ; and were made 796 gallons of 
 wine. Value of home-made manufactures, $1,838,968. 
 
 The rivers are the Savannah, 600 miles long, bound- 
 ing the State on the north-east, navigable for ships 17 
 miles to Savannah, and a part of the year for steam- 
 boats 250 miles to Augusta ; the Altamaha, which is 
 navigable for large vessels 12 miles to Darien, is 
 formed Ay the junction of the Oconee and the Ocmul- 
 gee, and is navigable for sloops of 30 tons by the 
 former to Dublin 300 miles from the ocean ; the Ogee- 
 chee 200 miles long, and navigable for sloops 40 miles. 
 
 Flint Eiver, which rises in the north-west part of the 
 State, and after a course of more than 200 miles, Joins 
 the Chattahoochee, forming the Apalachicola. The 
 Chatehoochee, on the west border of the State, which is 
 navigable 300 miles by steamboat to Columbus ; the 
 St. Mary's Eiver is in the south-west part of the State. 
 
 Georgia, in 1856, had 1013 miles of railroad built, 
 and about 300 in construction, being in advance of all 
 the southern States except Virginia. 
 
 Manufactures, etc. — There were in the State in 1850, 
 35 cotton factories, with a capital invested of $1,736,- 
 156, employing 878 males and 1,399 females, and 
 producing 7,209,292 yards of sheetings, and 4,198,351 
 pounds of yam, valued at $2,135,044 ; 3 woolen facto- 
 ries with a capital of $68,000, employing 40 males and 
 
 38 females, manufacturing 340,660 yards of cloth, val- 
 ued at $88,750 ; 3 establishments making pig iron, 
 with a. capital of $26,000, employing 138 persons, pro- 
 ducing 900 tons of pig iron, etc., valued at $57,300 ; 4 
 establishments, with a capital of $35,000, employing 
 
 39 persons, and making 415 tons of castings, valued at 
 $46,200 ; 3 establishments, with a capital of $9,200, 
 employing 27 persons, and manufacturing 90 tons of 
 wrought iron, valued at $15,384; 330 flouring and 
 grist-mills, 389 saw-mills, 49 printing-offices ; 5 daily, 
 3 tri and semi-weekly, 37 weekly newspapers, and 6 
 monthly publications. Capital invested in manufac- 
 tures, $6,373,490 ; value of manufactured articles, 
 $7,084,685. On the 1st of Januarj', 1854, there were 
 16 railroads, 884 miles of which were completed and 
 in operation, and 445 miles in course of construction. 
 
 FottEIGN Co-MMERCE 
 
 3F TUE State op Georgia, from October 1, 1820 
 
 to July 1, 1856. 
 
 
 Yem ending. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 ToDmige Cleared. 
 
 District Tonnage. 
 
 Domestic. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Totol. 
 
 Total. 
 
 American. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Registered. 
 
 Enrolled and 
 Licensed. 
 
 Sept. 80, 1821 
 
 1822 
 
 1823 
 
 1824 
 
 1835 
 
 1826 
 
 1827 
 
 1828 
 
 1829 
 
 1830 
 
 Total 
 
 Sept. 30, 1831 
 
 1832 
 
 1833 
 
 1884 
 
 1835 
 
 1836 
 
 18.37 
 
 18-38 
 
 1839 
 
 1840 
 
 Total 
 
 Sept. 30, 1841 
 
 1842 
 
 9mos., 184.3* 
 
 June 80, 1844 
 
 1846 
 
 1846 
 
 1847 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 
 
 1850 
 
 Total 
 
 June 80, 1851 
 
 1852 
 
 1858 
 
 1854 
 
 1855 
 
 1856 
 
 $5,979,995 
 5,488,219 
 4,279,885 
 4,619,763 
 4,220,939 
 4,866,630 
 4,360,864 
 8,104,425 
 4,980.642 
 5,836;626 
 
 $81,815 
 1,660 
 13,781 
 4,229 
 1,894 
 1,874 
 691 
 
 '"734 
 
 $6,011,810 
 6,484,869 
 4,298,666 
 4,628,982 
 4,222,883 
 4,868,504 
 4,261,655 
 8,104,425 
 4,981,876 
 6,836,626 
 
 $1,002,684 
 989,691 
 670,705 
 661,888 
 343,366 
 330,993 
 312,609 
 808,669 
 380,293 
 282,436 
 
 41,468 
 88,860 
 86,484 
 36,797 
 28,328 
 87,905 
 41,519 
 25,514 
 47,468 
 50,894 
 
 14,666 
 9,745 
 
 11,072 
 
 13,064 
 6,547 
 8,568 
 
 10,646 
 9,582 
 9,794 
 9,485 
 
 8,285 
 
 6,046 
 
 $46,632,978 
 
 $3,957,245 
 5,614,681 
 0,270,040 
 7,567,327 
 8,890,674 
 
 10,721,700 
 8,935,041 
 8,808,839 
 6,970,448 
 6,862,959 
 
 $56,168 
 
 $2,563 
 1,202 
 
 "600 
 .... 
 
 $46,689,146 
 
 $8,959,818 
 6,615,888 
 6,270,040 
 7,867,327 
 8,890,674 
 
 ,10,722,200 
 8,935,041 
 8,808,889 
 5,970,448 
 6,862,969 
 
 $6,173,324 
 
 $399,940 
 358,417 
 818,990 
 646,802 
 393,049 
 573,223 
 774,349 
 776,068 
 413,987 
 491,428 
 
 874,687 
 
 43,426 
 42,780 
 40,022 
 40,916 
 38,109 
 48,878 
 41,026 
 20,861 
 81,664 
 44,076 
 
 101,164 
 
 29,045 
 21,567 
 28,232 
 21,750 
 25,276 
 24,629 
 22,868 
 20,755 
 19,408 
 48,965 
 
 4,892 
 
 2,183 
 
 $78,498,949 
 
 $8,696,017 
 4,299,151 
 4,522,401 
 4,283,806 
 4,557,435 
 2,708,008 
 2,712,149 
 8,670,415 
 6,657,806 
 7,551.948 
 
 $4,270 
 
 $496 
 1,106 
 
 $78,498,319 
 
 $8,696,518 
 4,800,257 
 4,522,401 
 4.288,805 
 4,657,435 
 2,708,008 
 2,712,149 
 3,670,415 
 6,857,806 
 7,551,943 
 
 $4,941,252 
 
 $449,007 
 841,764 
 207,483 
 305,684 
 306,301 
 205,495 
 207,180 
 217,114 
 871,024 
 636,964 
 
 392,647 
 
 20,196 
 81,450 
 43,065 
 23,674 
 40,410 
 13,493 
 18,157 
 17,871 
 31,150 
 21,039 
 
 266,985 
 
 86,980 
 30,209 
 42,033 
 88,901 
 85,350 
 44,748 
 87,661 
 81,331 
 58,718 
 51,534 
 
 9,809 
 
 6,338 
 
 $44,859,125 
 
 $9,158,879 
 4,999,015 
 7,.371,88S 
 4,807,675 
 7,648,519 
 8,091,688 
 
 $1,603 
 
 $1,110 
 75 
 
 "too 
 
 $44,860,727 
 
 $9,1.99,989 
 4,999,090 
 7,371,883 
 4,808,875 
 7,548,619 
 8,091,638 
 
 $3,147,916 
 
 $721,547 
 474,935 
 508,261 
 886,951 
 278,716 
 574,340 
 
 260,895 
 
 84,968 
 22,838 
 88,084 
 25,326 
 65,145 
 63,421 
 
 403,840 
 
 84,748 
 40,042 
 48,443 
 46,454 
 89,223 
 88,810 
 
 
 
 12,362 
 
 11,828 
 
 * Nine months to June 80, and the fiscal year from this time begins July 1. 
 
 Principal Ports of Georgia. — Brunswick, city, and 
 port of entry, lat. 31° 10' north, long. 81° 35' west. 
 It has a spacious and commodious harbor, having 13 
 feet of water on the bar at the lowest tides. It is sit- 
 uated on Turtle Eiver, 14 mUes above the bar. The 
 commerce of the port is small, in 1856 being only 754 
 
 tons. It is proposed to make this a naval station, and 
 to construct a railroad from this city to Pensacola. 
 
 Savannah, city, and port of entry, situated on the 
 right bank of the Savannah Eiver, 17 miles from its 
 mouth, lat. 32° 4' 56" north, long. 81° 8' 18" west. 
 The harbor is good. Vessels drawing 14 feet water 
 
GER 
 
 810 
 
 GER 
 
 come up to the city, and larger vessels anchor at Five 
 Fatfiom Hole, four miles below the city. The com- 
 merce of the place ranks next to Mobile, and is the 
 most important port, except Charleston, from Bal- 
 timore to Mobile. The greater part of the trade of 
 Georgia centers at Savannali, the principal articles of 
 ■which are cotton, rice, and lumber. The Savannah 
 River affords great facilities for internal commerce ; 
 and this river is connected with the Ogeechee River by 
 a canal 16 miles long, which terminates at Savannah. 
 The tonnage of the port, in 1856, was 31,686 tons. 
 See Stevens's Hist. Geo. ; DeBovi''3 Rev., viii., 39, 
 X. 65, 248, 375 ; No. Am. Eev., xxiii. 211 (by An- 
 drew Noxton), xxiv. 466 (J. Spakks) ; Ixvii. 291 
 (by C. W. TTpham) ; So. Quar. Rev., xiii. 470, xviii. 
 24, iii. 40 ; Ch. Exam., xxix. 113. 
 
 Germany. — This name was given by the Romans 
 to a countiy inhabited by various tribes of different 
 names, but nearly alike in manners, customs, language, 
 and religion. But the3'- comprehended under it not only 
 the country now called Germany, but also Denmark, 
 Norway, Sweden, Finland, Livonia, and Prussia. The 
 modem inhabitants call themselves Deutsch, and their 
 country Deutschland; but, as to the origin, meaning, 
 and primarj' application of both names (German and 
 Deutsch), German antiquaries are far from being 
 agreed, though most of them seem to be of opinion 
 that German is a genuine Deutsch word, compounded 
 of ger, or gerra, a spear, and man, and consequently 
 meaning spearman, or warrior. Deutsch seems to have 
 been known to the Carlovingians, and it first occurs 
 in a document of the year 813 ; but it is only since 
 the time of the Emperor Otto I. (a.d. 936-73) that It 
 has been in use as the general name of the Gei-man 
 nation. 
 
 The Rhine on the west, and the Vistula on the east, 
 seem to have been generally considered as the bound- 
 aries of Germany ; while on the north it extended 
 along the ocean and the Baltic Sea, and on the south 
 was terminated by the River Danube. But such 
 boundaries were by no means definite ; for many Ger- 
 man tribes inhabited the southern banks of the Rhine 
 as far as the Scheldt. 
 
 Situation and boundaries. — Germany maj^ be con- 
 sidered in two points of view, either politically, as the 
 countr3' included within the limits of the Germanic 
 Confederation ; or ethnologically, as the country in- 
 habited bj' the people who speak the various branches 
 and dialects of the Deutsch or German language. In 
 the latter respect, the Deutsch or German nations are 
 found to extend in a compact mass along the shores of 
 the German Ocean and the Baltic or East Sea, from 
 a point between Calais and Gravelines, near the 
 Straits of Dover to the Gulf of Riga, and from that 
 long line of boundary southward, with dimensions 
 continuallj' narrowing to the Alps and the Adriatic 
 Sea. Politically considered, Germanj' is situate be- 
 tween 45° and 64' 60" N. lat. and 5° 43' and 20° 
 60' E. long., bounded north \>y the German Ocean, 
 Denmark, and the Baltic Sea ; east by West Prussia, 
 Posen, Poland, Gallicia, Hungary, and Croatia ; south 
 by the Gulf of Venice, Italy, and Switzerland ; west 
 bj' France, Belgium, and Holland. Its whole extent, 
 including rivers and lakes, is about 246,770 square 
 English miles, which is about the 16th part of Europe, 
 the 215th part of the whole drj' land, and the 800th 
 part of the whole surface of the globe. 
 
 Face of the country.— Tiia southern and the central 
 parts of German}' are occupied b}' numerous ranges 
 of hills and mountains, sometimes separated only by 
 narrow valleys, and elsewhere forming large elevated 
 plains or table-lands, while the northern portion of 
 the country sinks into a wide sandy moorish plain, 
 but little raised above the level of the sea. The 
 Tyrol and the south-eastern provinces of Austria are 
 occupied by branches of the Alps, which present long 
 narrow valleys, dismal precipices, cataracts, and gla- 
 
 ciers ; and the northern border of this alpine region 
 may be defined by the towns of Bregenz, Sonthofen, 
 Fuessen, Traunstein, Salzburg, Gmunden, Steier, St. 
 Polten, and Baden. Immediately to the northward 
 lies the valley of the Danube, which stretches almost 
 across the breadth of Germany, declining from an 
 elevation of about 2200 feet, near the source of the 
 river, to about 350, on the borders of Hungary. In 
 passing through Bavaria the valley expands into a 
 plain of considerable extent, which, at Ratisbon on its 
 eastern border, has an elevation of about 1000 feet, 
 and gradually rises as it approaches the mountains 
 that sirrround it. Further north the middle region of 
 Germany is occupied by various ranges of hills, ter- 
 minating northward in a line drawn through the 
 towns of Aachen, Duren, Krefeld, Dortmund, Soest, 
 Paderbom, Bielefeld, Teklenburg, Bentheim, Furste- 
 nau, Rehbnrg, Hanover, Braunschweig, Magdeburg, 
 Dessau, Halle, Weissenfels, Wurzen, Meissen, Baut- 
 zen, Goerlitz, Liegnitz, Breslau, Ramslau, and Ro- 
 senberg. These hills form a series of elevated valleys 
 and table-lands, the most remarkable of which is the 
 valley of Bohemia, which has all the appearance of 
 having been a lake before it was drained by the burst- 
 ing of its mountain barriers. This region is much 
 diversified by picturesque scenery, and abounds in 
 verdant and well-wooded valleys, watered by clear 
 streams. The banks of the Meyn, the Fulda, and the 
 Moselle, are remarkable for their varied scenery, and 
 the valley of the Rhine unites the grandeur of a fine 
 landscape with the appearance of a highly fertile 
 country. To the northward again of the hilly region, 
 the country sinks into plains, which fall very gradu- 
 ally from an elevation of about 300 feet at the foot of 
 the hills to the level of the sea. These plains extend 
 through Lower Silesia, Lusatia, Brandenburg, Po- 
 merania, Mecklenburg, Holstein, Hanover, and the 
 lower part of Westphalia. To the west of the Elbe 
 the flat country is almost entirely destitute of trees, 
 and presents only a succession of level tracts, covered 
 with heath and juniper, and of moors consisting chiefly 
 of deep beds of turf intersected by rivers which flow 
 in depressions from 100 to 200 feet below the general 
 level of the plains. To the east of the Elbe the 
 country is more sandy, but the sandy tracts are cov- 
 ered with pines, and interspersed with fertile spaces 
 of sometimes considerable extent. The beds of the 
 rivers also are generally wider and less deep than in 
 the western part of the plain. Through the northern 
 part of this plain a higher tract may be traced from 
 west to east, from Oldeslo in Holstein to Schwedt on 
 the Oder, about 70 miles from the sea. Eastward of 
 the Oder it continues for some distance due east, then 
 gradually approaches the sea, terminating on the 
 banks of the Niemen near Grodno. It seems to have 
 formed at one time the shore of the sea, and it is on 
 its northern sides that are found those numerous 
 erratic blocks or boulders that have attracted so much 
 of the attention of geologists. Though it does not 
 rise into hills, it forms the water-shed between a num- 
 ber of small streams that run direct to the Baltic, and 
 others that run southward to the Elbe, the Oder, and 
 the Vistula. To the Alpine region belong the terri- 
 tories of Liechtenstein, Tyrol,' southern Bavaria, Sty- 
 ria, Salzburg, Carinthia, and Illyria ; to the middle 
 region, Baden, Wurtemberg, HohenzoUem, the great- 
 er part of Bavaria, the northern portions of Austria, 
 including Bohemia and Moravia, Hessen, Nassau, 
 Luxemburg, Schwartzburg, Reuss, Saxony, and An- 
 halt ; to the low country, Hanover, Oldenburg, 
 Braunschweig, Lippe, Holstein, Mecklenburg, and 
 nearlj' the whole of Prussia. 
 
 The, coal measures are widely distributed in many 
 parts of Germany, as Bohemia, Saxony, Silesia, 
 Rhenish Bavaria, and Rhenish Prussia, from the last 
 of which Holland is supplied with coals. 
 
 No part of Europe yields a greater variety or abund- 
 
GER 
 
 811 
 
 GER 
 
 ance of mineral prodactionB, and in no part of the world 
 are the mines worked with so much slcill or so much 
 economy. Precious stones are discovered in manyparts ; 
 rock crystal, amethysts, topazes, ars found in Bavaria j 
 chalcedony, agate, petchstein, and porcelain-jasper, in 
 Bohemia ; barytes in many parts ;■ marbles, gypsum, 
 land alabaster, in Bohemia; alum, near Toplitz ; rook- 
 salt and Glauber salts in various parts ; and abundance 
 of the earths calculated for making earthenware, from 
 the coarsest description to the finest porcelain. Fossil 
 coal is found in many districts, and much of it is con- 
 sumed ; but the cheapness of wood, and ths prejudices 
 of the people against the use of it in their houses, 
 have operated to prevent the mines from being com- 
 pletely explored or wm-ked to any thing approaching 
 the extent of which they are capable. Gold is pro- 
 cured, though in very small quantities, by washing, 
 in Salzburg, in Bohemia, in the Bammelsberg, and in 
 Silesia. Silver and cinnaba;- 'are raised from the 
 mines of the Erzgebirge in Saxony. Iron, copper, 
 tin, lead, calamine, bismuth, cobalt, nickel, titanium, 
 arsenic, and almost every other. mineral, is more or 
 less raised from the mines. , The abundance of min- 
 eral substances everj'where scattered, and which it 
 would be difficult to enumerate, has promoted the 
 study of mineralogy, and given birth to the school of 
 Freyburg, whence the pupils 6f Werner carried the 
 science to every part of the world. 
 
 Soil. — The soil is generally productive. The plains 
 in the north have indeed much arid sandy land ; but 
 nature has provided some rich and fruitful soils along 
 the borders of the rivers, where the most abundant 
 harvests are gathered. The south has also on its 
 mountains much barren or slightly productive land ; 
 but the beautiful valleys and plains among the hills 
 rival in fertility the best alluvial lands on the banks 
 of the northern rivers. In general the soil in the 
 north is heavy, and in the south, light ; the former 
 most adapted for corn, and the latter for wines. The 
 best soil is in the middle, between the mountains and 
 the sandy plains. In Bohemia, Silesia, Franconia, 
 Saxony, and on the Rhine, the proportion of good soil 
 is much greater than in the north or the south. 
 
 Rivers. — Germany has seven large rivers which 
 pass through it to the sea, and in their course receive 
 about 500 smaller streams, about 60 of which are nav- 
 igable, either naturally or by means of artificial im- 
 provement. These are the Danube, Ehine, Weser, 
 Elbe, Oder, Etsch or Adige, and Ems, some of which 
 will be found described under their own names. 
 
 Lakes. — The chief of the German lakes is the Sodeii 
 See, or Lake of Constance, on the borders of Switzer- 
 land. (See Ency, Brit.') To the eastward, among 
 the valleys x)f the Alps, are several lakes of inconsid- 
 erable dimensions, as the Walchen, Kochel, Ammer, 
 Wurm or Starenberger, Tegern, ■ Schleier, Chiem, 
 Grundel, Hallstadter, Traun or Gmunden See, Mond, 
 and Kammer or Alter, lakes. Along the southern 
 shores of the Baltic or East Sea there is a number of 
 lakes, which form the western portion of an innum- 
 erable series, extending through Prussia into Kussia 
 and Finland, and occupying comparatively higher 
 ground than the adjoining plains and river channels. 
 Some of these are of considerable ,extenfe, as the lake 
 of Schwerin in Mecklenburg and the Spirding See in 
 East Prussia, the latter, however, bej'ond the politi- 
 cal limits of Germany. At the eastern base of the 
 Hartz are the salt and the sweet lakes (Sahige and 
 Siisse Seen), and to the north of Minden, to the east 
 of the Weser, is a considerable sheet of water called 
 the Steinhuder Meer; and to the west of the Weser is 
 a smaller lake called the /Summer See. 
 
 Climate. — The climate of Germany is very uniform 
 In respect of the degrees of cold or heat experienced 
 in its different regions ; for though there is a differ- 
 ence of 9° of latitude between its southern and north- 
 em borders, that difference is compensated by the 
 
 different elevations of the country, the northern part 
 being lowland on the sea, while the midland and 
 southern regions rise to a considerable elevation. 
 This is indicated by the following table of places from 
 north to south. 
 
 Places. 
 
 |LaUtudes. 
 
 Elevation 
 obove the 
 
 (Fnhrenheit.) 
 
 Mean'temporature of the 
 
 cliiqate. 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 Yoai-, 
 
 Winter. 
 
 Slimmer. 
 
 Stralsund. .. 
 
 .. 64n9' 
 
 51 
 
 47" 
 
 . 80° 
 
 , 68° 
 
 Berlin 
 
 . . 53 80' 
 
 ■ 140 ' 
 
 48 
 
 81 
 
 64 
 
 Gotha 
 
 . . BO 57 ' 
 
 1,010 
 
 46 
 
 29 
 
 60 
 
 Baireuth..,. 
 
 .. 49 57 
 
 1,119 
 
 46 
 
 29 
 
 61 
 
 Eatlsbqn. . . , 
 
 .. 49 1 
 
 ,1,260 
 
 48 ,, 
 
 81 
 
 64 
 
 Munich 
 
 .. 4S10 
 
 1,783 
 
 48 
 
 84 
 
 65 
 
 Innsbruck.': 
 
 .. 47 16' 
 
 1,905 
 
 '60 
 
 29 
 
 64 
 
 In the intelligent practice of agriculture some of 
 the Germans are not behind the most advanced of the 
 other coimtries of Europe. Mecklenburg, in partic- 
 ular, and Holstein are distinguished for their excellent 
 husbandr}' ; and in ■ Hanover, Brunswick, Bohemia, 
 Saxony, and some parts of Prussia and Austria, it is 
 scarcely inferior. Generally speaking, agriculture is 
 the principal occupation of the Germans, particularly 
 in Bavaria, Wurtemberg, Baden, Hesse, Nassau, 
 Hanover, Brunswick, OMenburg, Prussia, Anhalt, 
 Holstein, and Mecklenburg ; while in the Saxon 
 duchies, Sohwaxtzburg, and- Keuss, some districts of 
 Prussia, Bohemia, and the kingdom of Saxony, manu- 
 factures employ at least an equal, and in some cases 
 even a greater,' number of the people; The greatest 
 contrast in respect of agriculture is to be seen in 
 Mecklenburg and Wurtemberg. In the former, farm- 
 ing is condilcted on a, large scale ; in the latter, as 
 well as in other provinces, the land is divided into 
 small parcels, cultivated by small proprietors or ten- 
 ants, who follow ancestral usages, and are unprovided 
 with means to make any improvements, by draining 
 or otherwise. In the former the Schlagwirthscliaft 
 prevails, according to which one immense field is cov- 
 ered with wheat, while another is covered with oats, 
 a third with clover, a fourth is being plowed and 
 harrowed, and a fifth is feeding herds of cattle, the 
 common size of farms being so much as 500,000 square 
 ruthe, or almost 2000 acres ; in the latter, every thing 
 is grown checkerwise, in small patches, more like 
 gardening than farming, the usual size of Wurtem- 
 berg farms being only from 5 to 20 square ruthe, or 
 from l-40th to 1-lOth of an acre. 
 
 There are three systems of husbandry at present 
 practiced in Germany. In the first, called the three- 
 field husbandry, while one field is sown with winter 
 corn, and another with summer corn, a third lies fal- 
 low ; but sometimes, instead of a fallow the third field 
 is sown with green crops, peas, potatoes, etc. In the 
 second system, called the four-field husbandry, the 
 principle is that the same field shall not be occupied 
 two years together with corn, without at least one 
 fallow intervening ; as, for example, one year, rj'c ; 
 second, clover; third, oats, or barley; fourth, pota- 
 toes ; fifth, again winter corn. This is also called the 
 rotation system (Fruchiwechselwirtlischaft). The third 
 system, called the Schlag or Koppelwirthschaft, prac- 
 ticed in Holstein and Mecklenburg, divides a farm into 
 a number of large parcels of equal size (siucAe, koppeln, • 
 or schlige), which, after several years' continuous 
 bearing of grain or other produce, are allowed for sev- 
 eral years more (3 to 7) to lie fallow, or in grass for 
 summer pasture.- For these two countries this system 
 is found very suitable, for the population there is com- 
 paratively thin. 
 
 In the different provinces of Germany different kinds 
 of com obtain the preference, and are most cultivated, 
 as in the following list, where the different articles' 
 follow each other in the order in which they are 
 named. Bavaria — Kye, oats, barley, spelt, wheat. 
 Wurtemberg and Baden — Spelt, oats, barley, rye, 
 wheat, maize. Hesse — Rye, barley, oats, wheat, spelt, 
 
GEK 
 
 812 
 
 GER 
 
 maize. Mecklenburg — Wheat, barley, rye, oats. Bruns- 
 wick — Barley, rye, wheat, oats. 
 
 In Germany generally', and in Mecklenburg in par- 
 ticular, the production of grain is greater than the 
 consumption. Assuming the productiveness of the 
 kingdom of Saxony as a standard, Germany could 
 maintain about 54,000,000 of inhabitants, or 12,000,000 
 more than at present. The cultivation of the potato 
 is now largely extended, particularly in Prussia. In 
 the nortli-east of Germany, buclcwlieat is also culti- 
 vated ; but the cultivation of oil plants, peas, beans, 
 turnips, and other roots, flax, liemp, and hops, is not 
 large enough to dispense with the importation of these 
 articles. About three fourths of the Germans are em- 
 ployed in agriculture ; and many parts of the countrj' 
 are crowded with small proprietors or tenants, wlio 
 necessarily live in a state lower tlian that of hired 
 laborers. Of the great bullv of the people the food is 
 of the poorest kind — rye-bread or potatoes ; and it is 
 chiefly owing to this general misery that Germany can 
 export corn in most years. In bad seasons the dis- 
 tress is sometimes dreadful ; the agricultural popula- 
 tion having no means of procuring foreign supplies — 
 nothing to give in exchange for bread. 
 
 Naturally, in accordance with climate and other 
 physical circumstances, the production of wine and 
 fruits {Ohst-und- Welnhau) is greater in the south and 
 west than in the north and east. The districts on the 
 Rhine, the Lower Maine, and the Neckar, are the best ; 
 but, even in the south of Germany, there are districts, 
 as in Old Bavaria, between the Inn and the Leech, that 
 are less productive of fruit than even Mecklenburg 
 and Brandenburg. In both quantity and quality, 
 however, the south excels the north, where the best 
 kmds of fruit only ripen with difiiculty. The principal 
 places for the production of wine have been already 
 noticed. The quantity is estimated at about 3,000,000 
 of eimers, worth about 18,000,000 of thalers = about 
 £3,000,000 sterling yearly. The cultivation of forest 
 trees is now more scientifically practiced in Germany 
 than in any other country, and the care of the govern- 
 ment is now directed to the restoration of the forests, 
 which, till recently, were completely neglected and 
 left exposed to every kind of destructive agency. In 
 all the States likewise, institutions for the promotion 
 of agriculture, in all its branches, have been or are 
 being formed. The relative proportions of ground oc- 
 cupied in agriculture and other natural productions in 
 the different States is shown in the following table : 
 
 state. 
 
 Agricul- 
 ture. 
 
 Wino. 
 
 Gftrdon- 
 iug. 
 
 Mcu- 
 
 doWB. 
 
 PftstnroB 
 
 Wood 
 
 and 
 
 Forests. 
 
 Waste. 
 
 Austria 
 
 Prussia 
 
 Bavai-ia 
 
 Wurtomberg. 
 
 Baden 
 
 Hesse 
 
 Mecklenburg. 
 Brunswick. . . 
 Nassau 
 
 Saxony 
 
 Hanovor. 
 
 34-0 
 43'0 
 41-0 
 89-0 
 850 
 60-0 
 75-0 
 85'0 
 89-0 
 
 V'i 
 O-.i 
 0-4 
 1-2 
 1-6 
 1-2 
 
 2-6 
 
 17 
 1-0 
 I'O 
 8-0 
 2-6 
 0.2 
 0-2 
 2'0 
 1-4 
 
 0-1 
 
 6-6 
 
 14-0 
 
 12-S 
 
 9-7 
 
 11-0 
 
 9-0 
 
 6-0 
 
 9-0 
 
 15-5 
 11-0 
 5-0 
 6-2 
 6-4 
 1-2 
 2-8 
 8-0 
 5-0 
 
 260 
 24-0 
 80-6 
 80-8 
 82-0 
 83-0 
 8-0 
 82'0 
 40-0 
 
 26-0 
 15'0 
 
 IS-.j 
 9-0 
 7-0 
 8-0 
 
 U-T 
 8-0 
 6-0 
 2-0 
 2'0 
 
 4-0 
 
 70 
 40 
 
 Germany is suitable for tiie cultivation of all the 
 kinds of useful plants that belong to the temperate 
 zones ; and, owing to the equalit3r of the climate, they 
 are spread over all the country. The highlands of 
 the middle region, as well as the northern lowlands, 
 grow the different species of cereals ; and in the east- 
 ern part of the latter region there are tracts of land 
 which will bear comparison with those that are called 
 the granary of Europe. Wheat, rye, barley, and oats 
 are the cereals most generally cultivated ; but in some 
 districts to these are added spelt, buckwheat, millet, 
 emmer (Triticum dicoccuJii), einkom (Triticum mono- 
 coccum), and maize. The potato is largely cultivated, 
 not merely for food, but for the purpose of distillation 
 Into brandy. 
 
 The following table shows the absolute quantities 
 (in English acres) of the ground so occupied : 
 
 state. 
 
 Agriculture. 
 
 Meadows. 
 
 Garden- 
 laud. 
 
 Wlno- [Woods and 
 laud, j Forests. 
 
 Austria 
 
 15,.322.812 
 
 5,217,162 
 
 862,110 
 
 415,78216,850,887 
 
 Prussia 
 
 18,867,581 
 
 8,074,161 
 
 498,95E 
 
 88,421 8,806,652 
 
 Bavaria 
 
 8,826,641 
 
 2,689,024 
 
 218,869 
 
 79,4s7 
 
 6,622,170 
 
 Wurtomberg. 
 
 2,046,869 
 
 680,869 
 
 94,626 
 
 64,341 
 
 1,493,862 
 
 Baden 
 
 1,444,628 
 
 391,129 
 
 84,696 
 
 53,807 
 
 1,227,641 
 
 Elect. Hesse. 
 
 876,228 
 
 256,767 
 
 447,906 
 
 7SS 
 
 948,158 
 
 G. D. Ilesso. . 
 
 976,661 
 
 266,851 
 
 865,896 
 
 28,341 
 
 085,107 
 
 Nassau 
 
 488,896 
 
 121,123 
 
 4,415 
 
 9,402 
 
 493,827 
 
 Saxony 
 
 1,888,939 
 
 412,678 
 
 104,090 
 
 4,416 
 
 1,131,121 
 
 Weimar. 
 
 494,944 
 
 81,880 
 
 18,294 
 
 473 
 
 225,214 
 
 Coburg Gotha 
 
 278,887 
 
 84,696 
 
 7,570 
 
 
 140,04S 
 
 Alteuburg.. . . 
 
 212,697 
 
 28,972 
 
 10,724 
 
 
 66,289 
 
 Meiningen. . . 
 
 249,187 
 
 48,528 
 
 18,247 
 
 
 226,476 
 
 Hanover 
 
 2,762,418 
 
 1,600,154 
 
 168,483 
 
 
 1,802,082 
 
 Brunswick. . . 
 
 840,080 
 
 74,440 
 
 16,771 
 
 
 299,656 
 
 Oldenburg... 
 
 Mecklenb g ) 
 
 Schwerin ) 
 
 464,989 
 
 166,190 
 
 27,126 
 
 
 282,09S 
 
 2,242,261 
 
 287,038 
 
 40,874 
 
 
 872,8.34 
 
 Meek. Strelitz 
 
 425,826 
 
 \ 43,628 
 
 7,.670 
 
 
 136,633 
 
 Luxemburg. . 
 
 281,800 
 
 61,823 
 
 10,098 
 
 1,766 
 
 199,294 
 
 Limbuvg 
 
 ] 62,060 
 
 164,022 
 
 8,201 
 
 
 82,804 
 
 Holstein 
 
 1,408,793 
 
 816,088 
 
 25,2.34 
 
 
 167,807 
 
 Lauenbm-g. . . 
 
 173,484 
 
 29,650 
 
 4,418 
 
 
 29,660 
 
 Other States. 
 
 1,186,686 
 00,861,618 
 
 287,201 
 
 85,827 
 
 1,19S 
 
 692,727 
 
 Total .... 
 
 16,174,464 
 
 2,.61J1,944' 0112,787 
 
 40,841,4.33 
 
 Great attention has been paid for the last 30 or 40 
 years to the breeding and rearing of all sorts of useful 
 animals, and every encouragement and facility have 
 been given by the governments to the improvements 
 of the breeds. The following table, from Windeu- 
 hch's Deutschland, shows the number of the prin- 
 cipal kinds of stock in the German States, in or about 
 1848: 
 
 stales. 
 
 Horses. 
 
 Caulc. 
 
 Sheep. 
 
 Swlno. 
 
 Austria 
 
 Prussia 
 
 Other States.. 
 Total.... 
 
 672,800 
 
 909,700 
 1,242,500 
 
 8,981,200 
 8,.543,400 
 8.450,400 
 
 4,774,800 
 
 11,866,400 
 
 9,032,300 
 
 1,205,200 
 1,271,000 
 .8,044,800 
 
 2,726,000 
 
 15,970,000 
 
 25,163,000 
 
 ,5,601,000 
 
 Metals and Minerals. — The whole Austrian territory 
 produces yearly about 7000 marks of gold, whereof 
 five sixths in Hungary and Transylvania ; silver, 
 180,000 marks, whereof three fifths in Hungary and 
 Transylvania; copper, 15,000 centners, whereof four 
 fifths in Hungary and Transylvania ; iron, 2,000,000 
 centners, whereof only one seventh in Hungary and 
 Transylvania ; quicksilver, 6000 centners ; lead, 110,- 
 000; cinnabar, 1000; zinc, 12,000; tin, 950; coal, 
 7,500,000; salt, 5,500,000; cobalt and nickel, 20,000; 
 arsenic, 1800; sulphur, 18,000; alum and vitriol, 
 160,000; graphite, 35,000; and about as much sul- 
 phuric acid. Of the German provinces, Bohemia 
 produces silver, tin, iron, vitriol, and coal, the last 
 equal to three fiftlis of the products of the whole em- 
 pire ; Austria and Styria produce half of the whole 
 quantity of iron ; lUyria, the quicksilver and most of 
 the lead ; and Gallicia, most of the salt. 
 
 Prussia. — No gold; 23,000 marks silver; 40,000 
 centners of lead ; 36,000 of copper ; 230,000 of zinc ; 
 7000 of smalt; 3360 of arsenic; 35,000 of vitriol; 
 4,500,000 of iron ; 46,000,000 of stone-coal ; 11,000,000 
 of brown coal; 1,750,000 of salt; and stone quarries 
 to the value of 1,500,000 thalers, = £240,000. Silesia 
 produces zinc, iron, coal, arsenic, vitriol, and sulphur ; 
 Saxony, silver, copper, iron, etc. ; the Rhine provinces, 
 iron and coal ; Westphalia, coal, and some metal and 
 salt. Nearly 3,000,000 toils of coal are extracted 
 yearly from the coal-field oni the banks of the Ruhr ; • 
 and 4 miles above Bonn are the large brown coal 
 mines and alum works of Friesdorf. The produce of 
 the other States amounts to about 60 marks of gold, 
 and 125,350 marks of silver; 1,200,000 centners of 
 iron ; and the various other articles above mentioned 
 in comparativelj' small quantities. 
 
 Manufactures. — In manj- branches of manufacturing 
 industry the Germans have reached a high degree of 
 excellence. German linen is known to the whole 
 
GER 
 
 813 
 
 GER 
 
 world ; and the linens of Bielefield and Silesia in par- 
 ticular are equally valued in America as in Europe. 
 Of late years, however, tlie introduction of cotton, 
 and the high prices obtained for fcom, have tended 
 greatly to lessen the cultivation of flax, which was 
 formerly a principal staple of agricultural industry, 
 and the linen manufacture has suffered in consequence. 
 With the improvement of the breeds of sheep within 
 the last half century, the woolen manufacture has 
 made great progress, the German cloth being now not 
 merely equal but even superior in quality to the cloths 
 of England and Belgium. The chief seats of the cloth 
 manufacture are in Brandenburg, Saxony, Bohemia, 
 Moravia, and the Prussian Rhenish provinces, from 
 which it is exported to all parts of the world. The 
 cotton manufacture has been established and is rapidly 
 extending in Saxony, Austria, and along the Rhine ; 
 the sillc manufacture is carried on successfully in 
 Vienna, Roveredo, Gorz, Berlin, Elberfeld, Erefeld, 
 and other places. Works in metal, especially iron 
 and steel, are produced in great perfection, and large 
 quantities in Styria, Austria, Rhenish Prussia, West- 
 phalia, and the district of the Hartz ; brass work, in 
 Rhenish Prussia, Bavaria, and Brandenburg; gold 
 and silver work in Augsburg, Vienna, and Berlin. 
 Pottery and glass-making have reached a high degree 
 of perfection ; the porcelain of Vienna, Berlin, and 
 Meissen, is much in request, on account not only of 
 the fineness of its material, but also for the tasteful 
 elegance of its forms and ornaments. Bohemian glass 
 is to be met with in all parts of the world. The manu- 
 facture of leather is particularly extensive in Rhenish 
 Prussia; of soap, tallow wares, and wax, in many 
 places. Paper-making is carried on to a great extent, 
 and of late has been very much improved in quality. 
 Sugar-refining is carried on in Hamburg, Berlin, Pots- 
 dam, and other places ; brewing of beer, to a great ex- 
 tent in Bavaria ; and ardent spirits (Branntwein), to 
 a still greater extent in the north. Ship-building and 
 the connected trades are of little importance ; but 
 German industry is much distinguished in the making 
 of mathematical, physical, surgical, and musical in- 
 struments ; the chief seats of these branches of trade 
 being Munich, Vienna, Berlin, and Cassel. German 
 cloclcs and wooden articles, manufactured in the Tyrol 
 and other mountain provinces, are exported to all parts 
 of the world. The great progress which the Germans 
 have made in manufacturing industry since 1815 is 
 chiefly the result of extraordinary exertions on the 
 part of the German governments. In every district, ' 
 industrial schools have been established or extended ; 
 and in all the chief towns there are schools and insti- 
 tutions for instruction in the higher branches of art, 
 
 An Account showing the Peoportion of the Ebvenuks of tub German Customs Union eaised in the diffeeekt 
 States kespeotitely, in the Yeae 1851, and the Distribution thereof according to Population.* 
 
 where pupils are trained in both theory and practice 
 at the expense of the government. Numerous socie- 
 ties also have been formed for the promotion of art 
 and industrj-. 
 
 Commerce. — The commerce of Germany has alwa3's 
 been extensive ; but the abolition of the innumerable 
 State custom-houses and tolls, and the long-continued 
 peace, have given an immense impulse to its activity. 
 Germany exports com and timber to England and the 
 Netherlands ; linen to Spain, Portugal, Poland, Rus- 
 sia, America, and Africa; woolen cloth to western 
 Asia, and even to China ; iron wares to every part of 
 Europe ; and lead to France. The exportation of fat 
 cattle to England is also becoming a great trade. The 
 other principal articles of export are horses, glass- 
 wares of all kinds, cobalt, galmei (siliceo-carbonate of 
 zinc), potash, porcelain, hides and skins, honey, wax, 
 lime, gypsum, copper, horns, bones, rags, mill-stones, 
 turnip seed, swine's bristles, vitriol, tin, and spirits. 
 The chief articles of import are sugar, coflTee, tea, 
 cacao, rice, vanilla, rum, and other colonial produce, 
 spices, drugs, dried fish, cheese, tobacco, olive oil, and 
 southern fruits, French, Spanish, and Portuguese wines 
 and liquors, cotton, raw silk, cotton and silk stuffs, 
 leather, train oil, and many smaller articles. The in- 
 tercourse within Germany is much facilitated by ex- 
 cellent carriage roads; and all the chief towns are 
 now connected by railways. The principal rivers are 
 also made available for the transport of bulky com- 
 modities, and were connected by several canals before 
 the introduction of the far superior method of locomo- 
 tion by railways. 
 
 The principal seats of the inland trade are Vienna, 
 Prague, Reichenberg, Brunn, Olmiitz, Troppau, Linz, 
 Steyer, Salzburg, Gratz, Botzen, Roveredo, and others, 
 in the Austrian provinces ; Berlin, Breslau, Cologne, 
 Magdeburg, Frankfort-on-the-Oder, Naumburg, Posen, 
 Traustadt, Aachen, Coblentz, Elberfeld, Erfurt, Mun- 
 ster, Minden, and others, in the Prussian territory; 
 Leipzig, in Saxony; Munich, Augsburg, and Nam- 
 berg, in Bavaria; Frankfort-on-the-Maine, Cassel, 
 Brunswick, Hanover, Mentz, etc. But of all these 
 places four hold the first rank ; Vienna for the south- 
 east ; Augsburg for the south-west ; Frankfort-on-the- 
 Maine for the north-west ; and Leipzig for the north- 
 east. Large fairs are held twice or thrice a year in 
 Leipzig, the two Frankforts, Brunswick, and other 
 places ; but it is only in those named that these fairs 
 are of mufh importance. Those of Leipzig are cele- 
 brated for the sale and exchange of books. Great 
 wool-markets are likewise held in Berlin, Breslau, 
 Dresden, Magdeburg, Prague, Stettin, etc. See 
 Faiks. 
 
 Sloles. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Amount of 
 
 common grofls 
 
 receipts. 
 
 Import duties. 
 
 Amount of common 
 
 nett receipts for 
 
 dlBtribulion. 
 
 Amount pay- 
 able to eacli 
 State according 
 to ite population 
 
 Ei^ort and 
 transit duties 
 payabls to eacb 
 State according 
 to its popuifltioD 
 
 import, export, 
 and trnnsit 
 
 duties payable 
 to each State, 
 
 according to its 
 population. 
 
 Balance duo to or from the 
 
 common fund whicli each 
 
 Slatohosliad 
 
 To pay. 
 
 To receive. 
 
 Prussia 
 
 16,669,153 
 
 189,783 
 
 • 4,526,650 
 
 1,894,431 
 
 1,805,538 
 
 1,360,599 
 
 731,584 
 
 862,917 
 
 1.014,954 
 
 247,070 
 
 425,686 
 
 ThnlBH.t 
 
 15,572,929 
 
 77,114 
 
 1,210,589 
 
 2,119,847 
 
 848,527 
 
 662,625 
 
 438,046 
 
 412,803 
 
 391,793 
 
 890,143 
 
 74,829 
 
 861,492 
 
 Thaler., 
 
 14,847,476 
 
 10,4461 
 
 904,991 
 
 1,995,287 
 
 880,287 
 
 358,482 
 
 842,256 
 
 402,501 
 
 891,793 
 
 229,523 
 
 71,810 
 
 636,334 
 
 Tlialera. 
 
 11,211,383 
 
 127,645 
 
 3,044,546 
 
 1,274,161 
 
 1,214,387 
 
 915,116 
 
 492,051 
 
 580,383 
 
 682,640 
 
 166,175 
 
 286,309 
 
 Thalere. 
 244,203 
 
 2,241 
 58,463 
 29,736 
 21,325 
 16,070 
 
 8,641 
 10,192 
 15,931 
 
 8,684 
 
 6,028 
 
 Tbalors. 
 
 11,466,586 
 
 129,886 
 
 8,098,009 
 
 1,308,897 
 
 1,285,712 
 
 981,186 
 
 500,692 
 
 590,676 
 
 698,571 
 
 169,709 
 
 291,389 
 
 Thalera. 
 3,111,161 
 
 786,761 
 
 68,289 
 649,541 
 
 Tliaiers. 
 
 136,011 
 2,166,021 
 
 899,766 
 634,069 
 157,434 
 191,371 
 306,489 
 
 219,591 
 
 Luxemburg 
 
 Bavaria 
 
 Wm-temberg 
 
 Hesse-Cassel 
 
 Hesse- Darmstadt . 
 Thuringiian States. 
 Brunswick 
 
 Frankfort, t 
 
 Total 
 
 29,728,385 
 
 22,545,687 
 
 20,005,240 
 
 "Less 10,445§ 
 
 19,994,795 
 
 19,994,795 
 
 410,-364 
 
 20,405,159 
 
 4,610,752 
 
 4,610,762 
 
 
 * Compiled ft-om the official " Centi-alblatt der Abgaien," etc., Berlin, 1852. By J. G. Flu gel, U. 8. Consul, Leipzig. 
 + The thaler is very nearly, worth 70J cents of our money; more exactly, it is equal to 70*09 cents, 
 i Frankfort is regulated by a speoiflc arrangement, and not by population. 
 § A speelal payment by Prussia, on account of the Union. 
 
GER 
 
 814 
 
 GER 
 
 The principal commercial sea-ports are Hamburg, 
 Bremen, and Embden, on the North Sea; Lubec, 
 Rostock, Stettin, Dantzig, Konigsberg, and Memel, 
 on the East Sea ; and Trieste on the Adriatic. Ham- 
 burg is one of the principal commercial towns of Eu- 
 rope, and with its neighbors Altona (in Holstein), 
 Bremen, and Embden and the Baltic ports, connects 
 Germany with the countries of the north and west, 
 and with America, India, etc. Trieste foi-ms the 
 communication with the south of Europe and the 
 Levant. 
 
 Commerce was not a little impeded by the different 
 money systems of different parts of Germany ; but, on 
 the other hand, it was much facilitated by the estab- 
 lishment of banlcs and exchanges in the principal 
 towns. Of late years also the postal system has been 
 very greatly improved, but the German governments 
 have not yet seen their way to the adoption of the 
 British penny postage. They can .not indeed expect, 
 in the circumstances of their countrj"-, that enormous 
 increase of the number of letters that would com- 
 pensate the diminution of rates. 
 
 The internal trade of Germany has been greatly 
 facilitated by the formation of the customs unions and 
 commercial treaties, of which an account has been 
 given in the articles Europe and Hanseatic League. 
 
 The preceding table shows the proportions of rev- 
 enue drawn hy the different States. 
 
 Political State. — As settled bj' the treaty of Vienna, 
 in 1815, Germany was divided into 40 sovereign 
 States, or portions of States ; but the number is now 
 reduced to 35, as stated in the following table : 
 
 Table of the TniETT-FiVE Sovereign" States. 
 
 Austrian provinces 
 
 Prussian provinces 
 
 Bavaria 
 
 Hanover... 
 
 Wurtemberg 
 
 Saxony 
 
 Hesse-Cassel 
 
 Baflen 
 
 Mecklcnbuvg-Schwenn. . 
 
 '' Strelitz 
 
 Hesse-Darmstadt 
 
 Oldenbnrg 
 
 Luxemburg 
 
 Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach. . 
 
 " Coburg-Gotha 
 
 " Mciningen-Hildbur; 
 hausen 
 
 " Altenburg — 
 
 Holstein and Lauenburg. 
 
 Nassau 
 
 Brunswick 
 
 Anhault Dessau-Cotlien. . 
 
 " Bernburg 
 
 Wakleck 
 
 Lippe-Detmold 
 
 S ch warzb urg-Kudolstadt 
 " Sondershausen 
 
 Reuss, elder 
 
 younger 
 
 Scbaumburg-Lippo. . 
 
 Liechtenstein 
 
 Hesse-Homburg 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Lubec 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Frankfort 
 
 Total 
 
 Areft in 
 Eoglisli 
 aq. miles. 
 
 Population 
 ill 1852. 
 
 T5,979 
 
 12,919,800 
 
 Tl,98r 
 
 12,987,228 
 
 S1,S92 
 
 4,659,462 
 
 14,769 
 
 1,819,253 
 
 7,682 
 
 1,788,269 
 
 5,772- 
 
 1,987,882 
 
 4,489 
 
 766,860 
 
 5,918 
 
 1,856,948 
 
 4,815 
 
 642,768 
 
 767 
 
 99,760 
 
 8,761 
 
 864,814 
 
 2,421 
 
 285,226 
 
 2,808 
 
 894,262 
 
 1,419 
 
 262,624 
 
 T99 
 
 160,461 
 
 8S8 
 
 166,364 
 
 610 
 
 132,849 
 
 8,719 
 
 660,000 
 
 1,757 
 
 429,060 
 
 1,607 
 
 267,177 
 
 666 
 
 111,759 
 
 840 
 
 52,641 
 
 461 
 
 69,697 
 
 487 
 
 106,616 
 
 410 
 
 69,088 
 
 859 
 
 74,950 
 
 145 
 
 84,896 
 
 44S 
 
 79,824 
 
 206 
 
 29,000 
 
 63 
 
 7,000 
 
 166 
 
 24,941 
 
 161 
 
 211,260 
 
 142 
 
 48,425 
 
 106 
 
 88,000 
 
 91 
 
 73,160 
 
 246,740 
 
 48,286,116 1 
 
 Title of 
 Sovereign. 
 
 Kaiser. 
 King. 
 
 Elector. 
 Grand-Duke 
 
 Duke. 
 
 Prince. 
 
 Landgrave. 
 City. 
 
 The Saxon princedom of Gotha became extinct in 
 1820 by the decease of the last grand duke, and his 
 territories were divided by compact among tbe col- 
 ■ lateral relatives, the princes of Coburg, Meiningen, 
 and Hildburghausen, the last of whom ceded Hild- 
 burghausen to Meningen, and assumed instead the 
 additional title of Altenburg, from the chief town of 
 that portion of the Gotha territory that fell to his 
 share. The prince of Coburg-Saalfeld likewise ceded 
 Saalfeld to Meiningen, and received Gotha in its stead. 
 In 1846, the lordship of Kniphausen was aborbed in 
 
 Oldenburg ; in 1847, Anhalt-Cothen became annexed 
 to Anhalt-Dessau ; and in 1849, the two princes of 
 HohenzoUem abdicated the government of their States 
 in favor of their kinsman, the king of Prussia. 
 
 Confederation. — These States exhibit every form of 
 government from absolute autocracy to democracj'; 
 but even in those that are constitutional the authority 
 of the sovereign is but feebly limited by his States. 
 They are all united into a hund, or confederation, the 
 object of which is the maintenance of the external and 
 internal security of German}"-, and the independence 
 and inviolability of the several States. The Confed- 
 eration is represented by the Diet, which is composed 
 of the plenipotentiaries of all the States, and is the 
 constitutional organ of its will and action; but the 
 Diet has no power of self-action, the plenipotentiaries 
 that compose it acting only according to the special 
 instructions of their respective sovereigns ; and there 
 is no central executive government to carry its reso- 
 lutions into effect. In fact, it has been found that 
 there is no power of insuring the combined action of 
 the members for any object or purpose whatever, either 
 civil or military; though, having many interests in 
 common, and the territories of the smaller States, in 
 multifarious parcels, being so intermingled that with 
 most of them separate action would be impossible, they 
 naturally follow the same course of policy, modified 
 by the influence of the powerful neighbors at whose 
 mercy they would seem to lie. The management of 
 the ordinary business of the bund is intrusted to an 
 ordinary and permanent Diet, at which the plenipo- 
 tentiary of Austria presides; but there are only 17 
 votes to be divided among the 35 States, Austria, 
 Prussia, and the larger States ha-ving one each, and 
 only six being allotted to the smaller States and cities. 
 When fundamental laws are to be made or changed, 
 when measures are to be taken that relate to the fed- 
 eral act itself, when changes of organic institutions 
 or other arrangements of general interest are to be 
 adopted, when war or peace is to be made, or when a 
 new member is to be admitted, the Diet becomes a 
 general assembly, aplenum, in which 70 votes were 
 orginally distributed among the members in classes, 
 Austria, Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover, and 
 Wurtemberg, having each 4- ; fi-ve others having each 
 3 ; three having each 2 ; and the smaller States each 1 
 vote. The Diet holds its sittings at Franltfort-on-the- 
 Maine, and has ostensiblj^ at its disposal, in terms of 
 the federal act, a numerous arm}', of whose constitu- 
 tion and efficiency we have alreadj' given an account 
 in the article Eukope. 
 
 Das JEuropaische Staaten System., etc.. Von Dr. 
 Heinkich Bbeghads ; vol. iv. of his AUgemeine 
 Lander und Volkerkwnde ; Das Deutsche Land und 
 seine Bewoher, Von Carl Winuerlicii, Leipzig, 
 1852 ; DeutscJiland und das uhrige Europa^ Von Dr. 
 Fkeiheee Feiedrich Wilheim Von Keden, "Wies- 
 baden, 1854 ; Universal LeH/con, etc.. Von H. A. 
 PiEEER, ViEKTER BAND, Altenburg, 1850, articles 
 
 Deotschlasd, etc. — W. J. & J. L ie. See 
 
 Hunt's Mag., ix., 399, xi., 491, xiv., 159, 227, xv., 
 225; Wesfm.Bev., Iv., 277; Edinb. Rev., Ikkik., 54; 
 Living Age, xxx., 283; For. Quar., xxii., 300; Br. 
 and For. Rev., iv., 169 ; JV. Am. Rev., ii. (E. Everett), 
 1, viii., 55. 
 
 German Silver, sometimes called white copper, 
 or pakfong, is an alloy composed generally of copper, 
 zinc, and nickel, the proportion varying according to 
 circumstances. AVhen they are intended as a substi- 
 tute for silver, they are : copper, 50 parts ; nickel, 25 ; 
 and zinc, 26 in the 100. But the proportions in the 
 genuine German silver are as follows : copper, 40.4 ; 
 nickel, 31.6; zinc, 25.4; iron, 2.6. 
 
 G-eropiga, or Jerupiga, a factitious liquor im- 
 ported from Portugal, and used in the adulteration of 
 -wine. A pipe (about 105 gallons) of this compound is 
 said by Mr. Consul Johnston to contain about 85 gal- 
 
GHE 
 
 815 
 
 GIB 
 
 Ions of brandy at 25 degrees over proof, the other con- 
 stituents being coloring and sweetening matters and 
 unfermented grape-juice. But the proportion of spir- 
 its and the description of the other ingredients which 
 enter into its composition, and which are sometimes of 
 a very noxious character, vary very widely in differ- 
 ent samples. Generally, however, geropiga may be 
 said to be strong, sweet, and higli-colored. Besides 
 being mixed with port, sherry, and other wines, it is 
 substituted in various beverages, especially in the 
 United States, for spirits and sugar. This villainous 
 compound is allowed to be imported at the same duty 
 as wine, provided the proof spirits in it do not exceed 
 33 per cent, of its quantity. It is also permitted to 
 be mixed in the bonded warehouses in the docks with 
 wine in the same proportions relatively to its strength 
 as btandy ; that is, when it is only half the strength of 
 the latter, double the quantity may be used, and so on. 
 This license has been much, and, as we think, justly, 
 objected to. Tlaere can, of course, be no check, and,- 
 perhaps, no good objection, to the compounding of winfes 
 in Portugal ; but one should think that the facilities for 
 adulteration in the shops of the dealers are here quite 
 enough without legitimating the practice in the docks. 
 It is difficult, indeed, to see what purpose can be served 
 bj' this indulgence, unless it be to execute and facilitate 
 the commission of fraud. Geropiga being confounded 
 in Portugal with brandy and here with wine, the 
 quantity exported from the former and imported into 
 the latter is not easily ascertained. It appears, how- 
 ever, that in 1848, 481 pipes were shipped from Oporto 
 for England, and 1063 pipes for the United States. 
 See Parliamentary paper. No. 314, Session 1855, etc. 
 
 Grhee, a kind of butter much used by the natives of 
 India. It is prepared by boiling fresh-drawn milk 
 (generally that of buffaloes) in earthen pots for an 
 liour or more, and adding, after it has cooled, a little 
 curdled milk called if/re, in order to promote its coagu- 
 lation. When this process is completed, the curdled 
 mass is churned for half an hour, some hot water is 
 added, and the operation of churning continued for 
 half an hour longer, when the butter forms. Its tend- 
 ency to become rancid may be obviated bj- boiling it 
 until all the water that may be mixed with it is evap- 
 orated, and then adding some tyre and salt, or betel- 
 leaf, and excluding it from the air in closed jars. In 
 this way it may be preserved for many months. 
 Ghee is an article of considerable commercial import- 
 ance in many parts of India, though from its strong 
 smell and flavor it is considered unpalatable by Euro- 
 peans. See BnxTEB. 
 
 Ghent (Lat. Ganda ; Fr. Gand ; Flem. Gend ; Ger. 
 Gen(), a city of Belgium, standmg on the Rivers Scheldt 
 and Lys, whose numerous branches traversing the 
 town form canals in all directions, and so intersect each 
 other as to partition the town into 26 islands, which 
 are connected by 42 large and 46 small bridges. The 
 number of fine promenades forms another striking and 
 pleasing feature of Ghent. Of these the most re- 
 markable is the Coupure, formed by rows of trees 
 extending along the Bruges Canal. In general, the 
 town is well built, and occupies a larger area than 
 most European towns, in proportion to the number 
 of houses and the population. The general aspect 
 of the citj', without being highly picturesque, is very 
 agreeable. 
 
 The cotton manufacture is extensively carried on in 
 Ghent, employing about £1,800,000 of capital, engag- 
 ing upward of 20,000 persons, and annually producing 
 about 1,000,000 pieces of plain and printed calicoes. 
 Sugar-refining is also extensively carried on. The 
 other important manufactures are common and table 
 linens, flannels, serges, woolen cloths, silks, ribbons, 
 lace, thread, hosiery, wax-cloth, oil, chemicals, armor, 
 mathematical, physical, and surgical instrument, hard- 
 ware, bronze, and crj'stal, carriages, paper, tobacco, 
 blue starch, delft, etc. The important branches of 
 
 trade are in com, oil, seed, Flemish linens, and wine 
 About 20,000 pieces of linen are exposed for sale every 
 Friday ; and the annual fairs are very numerously fre- 
 quented, besides the horse-fairs held in mid-lent and 
 on 23d July. ThS great general fair is held in August. 
 The governor of the province resides in Ghent, which 
 is also the seat of a tribunal of first resort, as well as 
 of a court of appeal, which has jurisdiction over all 
 the province of Flanders. Ghent also gives title to a 
 bishop, and is the head-quarters of the first of the four 
 divisions of the army of Belgium. From 1792 to the 
 overthrow of the power of Napoleon, Ghent was the 
 capital of the department of the Scheldt. In 1814 
 Flanders became part of the kingdom of the Nether- 
 lands ; and the same year the treaty of peace was 
 signed hero between Groat Britain and the United 
 States, which put an end to the war of 1812-'15. In 
 1815, on the return of Napoleon from Elba, Louis 
 XVIII. took refuge in Ghent ; and in the revolution 
 of 1830, this citj', with the rest of Flanders was com- 
 prised in the new kingdom of Belgium. The city seems 
 now as prosperous as ever, and is increasing in popu- 
 lation as well as in. all the elements of wealth and 
 power. Ghent is in lat..51° 3' 12"N., long. 3° 43' 51" 
 E., at the intersection of the railways connecting Lille 
 with Antwerp, and Ostend with Malines, from which 
 towns it is respectively distant 42, 32, 38, and 33 miles. 
 The population in 1851 was 106,704. 
 
 Gibraltar, a famous fortress near the southern- 
 most extremity of Spain, and contiguous to the nar- 
 rowest part of the Strait, to which it gives its name, 
 joining the Atlantic and Mediterranean. Lat. 36° 
 6' 30" N., long. 5° 21' 12" W. It is situated on the 
 west side of a rocky mountain or promontorj', the 
 Mons Calpe of the ancients, projecting into the sea, in 
 a southerly direction, about three miles, being from one 
 half to three quarters of a mile in width. The south- 
 ernmost extremity of the rock is called Europa Point. 
 Its northern side, fronting th^ isthmus which connects 
 it with Spain, is almost perpendicular, and wholly in- 
 accessible ; the east and south sides are so rugged and 
 precipitous a& to render any attaclc upon them, even if 
 they were not fortified, next to impossible ; so that it 
 is only on the west side, fronting the bay, where the 
 rock declines to the sea, and the town is. built, that it 
 can be attacked with the least chance of success. Here, 
 however, the strength of the fortifications, and the 
 magnitude of the batteries, are such, that the fortress 
 seems to be impregnable, even though attacked by an 
 enemy having the command of the sea. It was taken 
 by the English in 1704, but the fortifications were then 
 very inferior to what they are at present. Toward 
 the end of the American war, it was attacked by a 
 most formidable armament, fitted out jointly by Spain 
 and France ; but the strength of the place, and the 
 bravery of the garrison, defeated all the efforts of the 
 combined powers. Population about 16,000, exclusive 
 of the troops, which usually amount, in time of peace, 
 to about 3,000. 
 
 Trade. — Gibraltar is of considerable consequence as 
 a commercial station. Being a free port, subject to no 
 duties, and few restrictions, she is a convenient entr,e- 
 pot for the Englisii and other foreign goods destined 
 for the supply, principallj' through illegitimate chan- 
 nels, of the cohtiguous Spanish provinces. Its im- 
 portance, in this respect, increased rapidly during the 
 10 years ending with 1840 ; so much so, that while the 
 declared value of the various articles of British produce 
 and manufacture exported to Gibraltar in 1833 amount- 
 ed to only £385,^60, they amounted to £1,111,176 in 
 1840, and to £1,053,367 in 1841. But since a more lib- 
 eral system began to be introduced into Spain, the ex- 
 ports of British products to Gibraltar have declined. 
 In 1851 they were valued at £481,286. England also 
 sends to Gibraltar considerable quantities of foreign 
 and colonial merchandise, most part of which are des 
 tined for the supplj' of Spain. 
 
GIB 
 
 816 
 
 GIB 
 
 B^erences to Plan.— A, point and light-house of Tariffa, lat. 36° 0' 30" N., long. 60° 35 15" W. The light-houBe was 
 erected in 1813, and the light revolves. B, Cabrita Point. C, Europa Point, the extremity of the rock of Gibraltar. D, 
 to\m and fortress of Ceuta, on the African coasts E, Little Centa Bay. F, Point Leona. G, Point Cires. The soundings 
 and the direction of the currents are marked in the chart. Variation in the Straits, 22° 31'. 
 
 The Bay of Gibraltar is spacious ; and, being pro- 
 tected from all the more dangerous winds, affords a 
 convenient station for ships. Two moles have been 
 constructed, at a vast expense, for the protection of 
 the shipping. The old mole projects from the north 
 end of the town, N.W. bj- N. 1100 feet into the sea ; 
 the new mole is IJ miles more to the south, extending 
 outward about 700 feet; it has an elbow formed by 
 the shore, and in winter large vessels anchor inside ; 
 the furthest out in from five to six fathoms. The plan 
 gives a better idea of the position of Gibraltar, as well 
 as' of the Straits, than could be derived from an}^ de- 
 scription. It is taken from Captain Smyth's chart of 
 the Mediterranean. 
 
 Gibraltar is of great importance to Great Britain in 
 a military and naval point of view, being, in fact, the 
 key of the Mediterranean, and affording a convenient 
 and secure station for the outfit, refreshment, repair, 
 and accommodation of many ships of war and merchant- 
 men. The revenue collected in the town amounts to 
 from £30,000 to £40,000, which is about suflBcient to 
 defray the public civil expenditure of the place. The 
 expense annually incurred in Great Britain on account 
 of the garrison, in time of peace, amounts to about 
 £200,000 — a small sum compared with the important 
 political and commercial advantages it is the means of 
 securing. 
 
 Money. — The eflTective or hard dollar =^ $1 05 ; the 
 current dollar being estimated at f hard dollars = 70 
 cents. Reals and quarters of both hard and current 
 dollars are the same, being, the former, ^^4^d., and 
 the latter 1 l-12d. 
 
 Accounts are kept in current dollars (pesos), divided 
 into 8 reals of 16 quartos each ; 12 reals currency 
 make a cob or hard dollar, by which goods are bought 
 and sold ; and 3 of these reals are considered equal to 
 Spanish reals vellon. 
 
 Gibraltar draws on London in effetive dollars of 12 
 reals, and London on Gibraltar in current dollars of 8 
 reals. The exchange of Gibraltar and Cadiz, and 
 other cities of Spain, is in hard dollars at a per centage, 
 which varies considerably, and mostly in favor of G ib- 
 raltar. 
 
 Weights and Measures are those of England, except- 
 ing the arroba, = 25 lbs. English. Grain is sold by the 
 fanega, 5 of which make 1 Winchester quarter. Wine 
 is sold by the gallon, 100 of which are equal to 109'4 
 English wine gallons. 
 
 Tlie commercial relations between the United States 
 and Gibraltar are regulated by enactment of the im- 
 perial Parliament, and are burdened with but few re- 
 strictions, beyond the usual port charges, harbor and 
 police regulations, quarantine laws, and a tariff of 
 duties which comprehend not more than five or six ar. 
 
GIB 
 
 817 
 
 GIB 
 
 ticlea of import. Of late years, the general navigation 
 and commerce of Gibraltar have gradually decreased, 
 owing mainly to the fact that the Mediterranean and 
 Levant markets, which heretofore chiefly supplied their 
 wants from Gibraltar importations of East and West 
 Indian and United States' produce, now import direct 
 from the places of growth ; thus diverting from that 
 port the large importations which, in former years, 
 constituted Gibraltar the great d^pot for all foreign 
 produce destined not only for these markets but also 
 for the markets of Spain and Portugal. Other causes 
 have also contributed to bring about this general de- 
 cline in the trade and commerce of Gibraltar. In 
 former years, the commercial prosperity of this fortress 
 depended largely on the success of smuggling into 
 Spain and Portugal- — a business which for many years 
 gave brisk and highly remunerative employment to a 
 great number of small vessels under 100 tons' burden, 
 and augmented the amount of foreign importation 
 largely beyond the ordinary demands for home con- 
 sumptions or legitimate commerce. This trade having 
 become too hazardous, is now altfjgether abandoned, so 
 that the commerce of Gibraltar may be said to be lim- 
 ited to the actual retail wants of the fortress, and the 
 demands of an unimportant trade with the adjacent 
 coast of Barbary. 'The ifoUowing table exhibits the 
 tonnage and number of vessels from the United States, 
 arriving at and clearing from Gibraltar during the 
 years 1852, 1853, and 1854 : 
 
 YEARS. 
 
 INWARD. 
 
 OUTWARD, DIRECT FOR [ 
 THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 
 VeaBols. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Vessels. TonnaRe. I 
 
 1862 
 
 1868 
 
 1854 . 
 
 80 
 25 
 56 
 
 7,321 
 6,242 
 12,189 
 
 67 1 19 767 
 None, j None. 
 1 1 197 i 
 
 Total 
 
 110 
 
 24,T52 
 
 63 1 19.964 1 
 
 The value of the exports and imports from and to 
 the United States and Gibraltar, during two years, 
 will be seen from the following table : 
 
 Yours. 
 1868. 
 1854. 
 
 Exports to Gibraltar. 
 $286,014 
 527,772 
 
 Total. 
 
 768,786 
 
 Imports from Gibraltar. 
 $61,784 
 69,678 
 
 121,457 
 
 It will be perceived from the above tables that our 
 exports in 1864 more than doubled those of the pre- 
 ceding j-ear. This is accounted for by the increasing 
 demand for articles of American produce and manufac- 
 ture, to keep up the supplies for the coasting trade of 
 Gibraltar, chiefly with the Barbary States and the 
 eastern and western coasts of Spain and Portugal. 
 The merchandise which constitutes the great bulk of 
 our exports to Gibraltar is of the growth and produce 
 of the United States, ajid, with the few exceptions al- 
 ready adverted to, is admitted free of duty. Yet, not- 
 withstanding this exemption from all import duties, 
 and the great increase of our exports in 1854 over 
 those of 1853, the United States' consul at Gibraltar, in 
 a recent dispatch, informed the Department of State 
 that " Gibraltar does not offer any greater advantages 
 to the merchants of the United States in the sending 
 out of produce, merchandise, or articles of any kind, 
 than other markets of Europe ; indeed it has been of 
 late years a very insignificant market, and offers very 
 little encouragement for any extensive operations." 
 
 Navigaiion and Commerce. — The number of sailing 
 vessels entered and cleared at the port of Gibraltar in 
 1854, either for commercial operations or for supplies, 
 was 3917, with an aggregate tonnage of 698,713 tons. 
 
 In 1853, this general movement comprised 4399 ves- 
 sels, with an aggtegate tonnage of 801,975 tons, show- 
 ing a decrease for 1854 of 482 vessels and 103,262 tons. 
 Compared with 1853, the increase was chiefly with 
 Spain, Morocco, Sardinia, the United States, and Tus- 
 cany ; and the diminution with all other countries, but 
 more notably with England, Russia, and Turkey. 
 The increase in the movements between Gibraltar, 
 Fff 
 
 Spain, and Portugal was omng to the fact that many 
 vessels being unable, by reason of political difliculties, 
 to prosecute their voyage to the Black Sea, entered 
 the ports of these two kingdoms freighted only with 
 salt. Besides, the exportation of grain from the ports 
 of Spain was larger than in former years. The in- 
 crease with Morocco was attributed to the privilege 
 then granted of exporting grain from that regency. 
 The decrease with England, Russia, and Turkey, is ex- 
 plained by the interruption which the war occasioned 
 to the general commerce of the Black Sea. Vessels of 
 the United States, as well as those of all other na- 
 tions, are exempt from tonnage duties or taxes in the 
 port of Gibraltar. They are subject only to a small 
 impost, called " light duties," of 50 cents each vessel, 
 for support of the light-house erected on Europa Point, 
 and also to the following rates of anchorage dues. 
 [Vessels of war of all nations are exempt from all port, 
 charges]. 
 
 Square-rigged vessel, with three masts ..each $10 00 
 
 Brig-rigged vessel " 8 00 
 
 Schooner, sloop, etc. " 5 00 
 
 Small coasting-vessel " 4 00 
 
 A particular description of the merchandise import- 
 ed from the United States, with a corresponding table 
 of duties, will be found annexed. . Rum, whisky, 
 spirits, etc., in casks, whether in bottles or otherwise, 
 if the full contents of the casks shall exceed 10 gal- 
 lons : 
 
 Cents. 
 
 Botassa .... . each 50 
 
 Pipe, or butt, or puncheon " 43 
 
 Hogshead " 21^ 
 
 Tierce " 14 
 
 Quarter-cask :..... " lOJ 
 
 Cask l^BS than a quarter-cask, beingllable to 
 
 the wharfage toll " 5J 
 
 Tobacco, in hogsheads or kegs, as commonly im- ; 
 ported from the United States of America, or in rolls, 
 as imported from Brazil, viz; : 
 
 Cents. 
 
 Hogshead each 48 
 
 ■ Keg or roll not exceeding IJ cwt " 8i 
 
 Koll or keg, from IJ— 2 cwt " 6i 
 
 EoU or keg, from 2-6 cwt .' " ISJ 
 
 Kegs exceeding 2 cwt., and roUs exceeding 5 cwt., 
 to pay wharfage each as half a hogshead ; and, in case 
 of disputes, the tobacco is to be weighed at the expense 
 of the merchant. 
 
 Gibraltar, Bay of, or as it is sometime called, Alge- 
 ciras Bay, is bounded by the rock of Gibraltar on the 
 one side, and the head-land of Cabrita on the other. 
 Its greatest length is about eight miles from north to 
 south, its greatest width about five miles from east to 
 west, and its circuit nearly 40 miles. Its depth in the 
 centre is about 110 fathoms. ' In spring tides the wa- 
 ter rises in the bay about four feet. Algeciras, from 
 whose name the bay is sometimes called, is a fortified 
 Spanish town on the west side of the bay, over against 
 Gibraltar. Near it is the beautiful little island called 
 Isla Verde, Green Isle. 
 
 Gibraltar, Straits of, the narrow channel which sep- 
 arates the south of Spain from the nprth of Africa. ' 
 The width at the narrowest part, between Cabrita 
 Point and the opposite shore, is 13 miles. We have an 
 excellent chart of the Straits by Don Vincente Tefino 
 de San Miguel, with the additional observations of 
 Captain H. W. Smyth, E. N., from which it appears 
 that there is a continual current flowing from the 
 ocean in the middle of the Straits, which has a velocity 
 varying from three to six miles per hour, and is 3J 
 miles in breadth. There are two lateral currents, 
 which have a mean breadth each of 2 J miles ; but they 
 change their direction with the changes of the tide. 
 At the time of ebb these lateral currents have a veloc- 
 ity equal to that of the central one. The depth of the 
 Strait, in the meridian of Cape St. Vincent, is 100 fath- 
 oms ; but, in passing upward, the channel regularly 
 and rapidly deepens, until, opposite to Europa Point at 
 Gibraltar, the depth of water is 1000 fathoms. It is 
 
GIL 
 
 818 
 
 GIL 
 
 remarkable, that though the oceamfi current at the 
 Straits, and that of the Bosphorus at the Dardanelles, 
 contmually pour their waters into the Mediterranean, 
 its level is not raised. But Dr. Halley, long ago, 
 showed that the evaporation from its surface was fully- 
 
 equal to maintain it at the same level, notwithstandr 
 ing those additions, and that of the rivers it received. 
 The current is sufficiently strong to be dangerous to 
 vessels sailing into the Atlantic, and can only be over- 
 come by a brisk wind from the Levant. 
 
 Commerce 
 
 OF THE United States 
 
 with Q-ibkaltah, from 
 
 October 1, 1820, to 
 
 ruLT 1, 1860. 
 
 
 Years endiDg 
 
 Exports. 
 
 , . 1 Whereof tliere was in Bullion 
 Imports. 1 „4 sp,„j,. 
 
 Tonnage Cleared. 
 
 Domestic. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Totni, 
 
 Total. 
 
 Exported, 
 
 Imported. 
 
 American. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Sept. 80, 1821 
 
 1822 
 
 1823 
 
 $956,111 
 525,708 
 875,604 
 934,402 
 861,788 
 692,896 
 
 1,040,999 
 899,411 
 801,132 
 513,248 
 
 $518,635 
 625,074 
 
 1,028,272 
 984,445 
 941,961 
 
 1,065,626 
 864,387 
 606,719 
 160,180 
 870,150 
 
 $1,469,746 
 1,160,782 
 1,908,876 
 1,868,847 
 1,803,714 
 1,747,921 
 1,906,886 
 1,406,130 
 461,262 
 888,398 ■ 
 
 $1,284,268 
 490,378 
 477,769 
 693,844 
 748,546 
 677,806 
 828,953 
 666,578 
 247,471 
 90,028 
 
 $32,190 
 5,000 
 3,804 
 2,110 
 146,287 
 10,.600 
 8,000 
 86,000 
 10,672 
 69,880 
 
 $603,360 
 63,661 
 181,696 
 811,871 
 101,704 
 94,688 
 89,278 
 87,891 
 58,798 
 7,860 
 
 20,964 
 15,847 
 22,986 
 27,285 
 20,368 
 24,148 
 26,790 
 26,446 
 8,701 
 13,460 
 
 1,102 
 
 584 
 
 921 
 
 68 
 
 91 
 
 1824 
 
 1825 
 
 1826 
 
 1327 
 
 1828 
 
 1829 
 
 1830 
 
 Total.... 
 
 Sept. 80, 1881 
 
 1832 
 
 1883 
 
 1884 
 
 1885 
 
 1836 
 
 1837 
 
 1888 
 
 1839 
 
 1840 
 
 Total.... 
 
 Sept. 80, 1841 
 
 1842 
 
 9 mos. 1843 
 
 June 80, 1844 
 
 1846 
 
 1846 
 
 1847 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 
 
 1850 
 
 Total.... 
 
 June 80, 1851 
 
 1852 
 
 1S63 
 
 1864 
 
 1855 
 
 18.56 
 
 $7,600,744 
 
 $429,087 
 428,838 
 578,076 
 506,703 
 558,582 
 635,198 
 861,031 
 609,818 
 802,247 
 643,344 
 
 $7,000,318 
 
 $166,786 
 186,074 
 164,570 
 288,785 
 266,000 
 226,177 
 208,870 
 152,871 
 148,887 
 257,110 
 
 $14,601,062 
 
 $594,878 
 618,907 
 787,646 
 790,488 
 818,582 
 860,375 
 664,901 
 762,189 
 
 1,060,684 
 900,454 
 
 $6,155,686 
 
 $160,517 
 279,858 
 182,508 
 200,691 
 160,200 
 245,978 
 207,178 
 25,624 
 99,178 
 32,667 
 
 $809,348 
 
 $20,000 
 8.5,616 
 800 ^ 
 
 74,988 
 
 17,034 
 9,693 
 9,366 
 
 $1,589,806 
 
 $8,600 
 
 8,820 
 
 2,300 
 
 '■ 24,947 
 
 4,460 
 
 "888 
 "460 
 
 206,469 
 
 11,708 
 14,989 
 18,311 
 12,993 
 16,194 
 14,522 
 10,887' 
 ll;4i96 
 18,864 
 11,312 
 
 2,766 ' 
 
 ' '431" 
 1,870 
 
 590 
 
 400 
 1,120 
 1,878 
 1,911 
 2,164 
 
 877 
 
 $6,642,919 
 
 $1,020,931 
 466,937 
 218,261 
 502,462 
 426,107 
 463,241 
 865,860 
 310,400 
 728,819 
 186,307 
 
 $2,051,180 
 
 $98,989 
 116,961 
 88,197 
 77,421 
 163,564 
 129,651 
 55,026 
 61,545 
 78,467 
 60,432 
 
 $7,694,049 
 
 $1,119,920 
 582,898 
 256,448 
 579,883 
 589,671 
 592,892 
 420,886 
 871,945 
 802,286 
 246,789 
 
 $1,584,294 
 
 $21,079 
 12,268 
 23,915 
 44,274 
 92,118 
 27,806 
 26,969 
 4,445 
 1,193 
 44,269 
 
 $171,434 
 
 ' $15,213 
 
 8,460 
 47,890 
 44,643 
 
 2,790 
 16,920 
 18,085 
 42,085 
 
 $49,875 ■ 
 
 $20,878 
 18,471 
 12,222 
 
 134,771 
 
 17,868 
 12,116 
 6,941 
 13,878 
 11,691 
 
 8,2i9 
 
 9,526 
 
 18,139 
 
 7,650 
 
 10,736 
 
 794 
 1,763 
 1,568 
 2,418 
 
 1,097 
 
 i'iis 
 
 772 
 
 1,640 
 
 806 
 
 $4,683,815 
 
 $177,904 
 229,302 
 169,444 
 446,446 
 226,866 
 872,528 
 
 $879,308 
 
 $52,529 
 49,16T 
 66,670 
 81,827 
 
 123,879 
 56,493 
 
 $6,568,118 
 
 $280,483 
 276,759 
 286,014 
 527,772 
 848,744 
 429,016 
 
 $298,336 
 
 $78,604 
 106,868 
 61,784 
 59,673 
 66,541 
 88,126 
 
 $196,036 
 
 $6,580 
 16,000 
 44,600 
 12,741 
 
 26,460 
 
 $46,5 
 1,8 
 
 n 
 
 76 
 
 101,022 
 
 3,900 
 T,578 
 6,242 
 
 12,189 
 8,063 
 
 10,640 
 
 12,461 
 
 1,962 
 1,802 
 1,830 
 
 624 
 1,802 
 
 118 
 
 Gild, or Guild, a company of merchants or man- 
 ufacturers, whence the halls of such companies are 
 denominated Gild or Guild Halls. See Guild. 
 
 Gilding. First practiced at Eome, about 145 b. c. 
 The Capitol was the first building on which this en- 
 richment was bestowed. ^PKmy. Of gold leaf for 
 gilding, the Eomans made but 760 leaves, 4 fingers 
 square, out of a whole ounce. — Pliny. It consequfent- 
 ly was more like our plating. — Truhler. A single 
 grain of gold may now be stretched out under the 
 hammer into a leaf that will cover a house. — Dr. Hal- 
 ley. Gilding with leaf gold on lole ammoniac was first 
 introduced by Margaritone, in 1273. The art of gild- 
 ing on wood, previously known, was improved in 
 imO.— Haydn. 
 
 Gilding is the application of a superficial coat of 
 gold on wood, metal, and other materials. The beau- 
 ty and durability of gold render it the most valuable 
 of all ornamental substances ; but, on account of its 
 weight and high price, its use in these respects would 
 be exceedingly limited, were it not the most extensi- 
 ble and divisible form of matter, so that it may be 
 made to cover a larger surface than an equal quantity 
 of any other body. Metals are usually covered with 
 gold by the process of water gilding. It consists in 
 perfectly cleaning their surface, and then, in the case 
 of silver, for instance, rubbing it over with a solu- 
 tion of gold in mercury, called amalgam of gold : the 
 vessel is then heated over a clear charcoal fire, by 
 which the mercury is driven off, and the gold left ad- 
 hering to the silver surface, upon which it is after- 
 ward burnished. The surface of copper or brass is 
 usually prepared b}' cleaning and rubbing it over with 
 a solution of nitrate of mercury, which amalgamates 
 
 the surface, and enables the gold amalgam, when sub- 
 sequently applied, to adhere ; heating and burnishing 
 are then resorted to as before. Brass and copper but- 
 tons are gilt in this way ; and the requisite quantity 
 of gold is so small that twelve dozen buttons of one 
 inch diameter may be completely gilt upon both sur- 
 faces by five grains of gold. Other kinds of gilding 
 are performed by gold leaf, which, if intended for out- 
 door work, is laid on by the help of gold size, which is 
 drying oil mixed with calcined red ochre ; or, if for 
 picture and looking-glass frames, they are prepared 
 by a size made by boiling parchment clippings to a 
 stiff' jelly, and mixed with fine Paris-plaster or yellow 
 ochre. The leaves of books are gilt upon the edges 
 by brushing them over, while in the binder's press, 
 with a composition of four parts of Armenian bole and 
 one of powdered sugar candy mixed up with White of 
 egg ; this coating, when nearly dry, is smoothed by 
 the burnisher, then slightly moistened, and the gold 
 leaf applied and burnished. To impress gilt figures 
 on book covers, the leather is dusted over with finely- 
 powdered mastic : the iron tool by which the figure is 
 made is then moderately heated and pressed upon a 
 piece of leaf-gold, which slightly adheres to it ; being 
 then immediately applied to the leather with a certain 
 force, the tool makes an impression, and, softening 
 the mastic, transfers and fixes the gold. In gilding 
 glass and porcelain, powdered gold is blended with 
 gum-water and a little borax, and applied by a camel- 
 hair pencil ; the article is then put into an oven or 
 furnace ; the gum bums ofi^, and the borax, by vitri- 
 fying, cements the gold to the surface, upon which it 
 may afterward be polished by the burnisher. Within 
 the last few years nearly all the gilt articles manufac- 
 
6IN 
 
 819 
 
 GIN 
 
 tared at Binninghani, such as buttons, neck-chains, 
 ear-rings, and bo forth, have been gilt by a process in 
 which, after the articles have been properly cleansed 
 by a weak acid, they are irnmersed in a hot solution 
 of nitro-muriate of gold, to which a considerable ex- 
 cess of bicarbonate of potash has been added ; in the 
 course of a few seconds they thus receive a beautiful 
 and permanent coat of gold. 
 
 Gilead-tree, the Balsam of (Amyris gilead- 
 ensis), is a native of Arabia, and grows spontaneously 
 in the mountains of Yemen. Although not indige- 
 nous to Judea, it was cultivated with great perfec- 
 tion many years before Christ, in the gardens of 
 Jericho, on the banks of the Jordan ; and it is from 
 Gilead, in that country, whence the merchants brought 
 the resinous product to Egypt, that is derived the ap- 
 pelhition of "Balsam of Gilead." This shrub, or 
 tree, which seldom exceeds 14 feet in height, has a 
 trunk 8 or 10 inches in diameter, with many spread- 
 ing, crooked; purplish branches, having protuber- 
 ant biids, loaded with aromatic resin. The great 
 value set upon this drug in the East is traced to the 
 earliest ages. When Alexander the Great was in 
 Judea, a spoonful of the balsam was all that could be 
 collected on a summer's day ; and, in the most plenti- 
 ful year, the great royal park for these trees yielded 
 only six gallons. It was consequently so dear that 
 it sold for double its weight in silver. That of the 
 best quality is said to exude naturally, but the infe- 
 rior kinds of the present day are extracted by boiling 
 the branches. It is at first turbid and white, of a 
 strong, pungent, agreeable, aromatic odor, and of a 
 slig(htly bitter, acid taste ; upon being kept, it becomes 
 thin, limpid, of a greenish hu<!, then of a golden yel- 
 low, and at length of the consistency of honey. This 
 balsam is highly prized among eastern nations, par- 
 ticularly lay the Turlcs and Arabs, both as a medicine 
 and an odoriferous unguent and cosmetic. It has 
 been highly extolled as a powerful anti-septic, vul- 
 nerarj-j and preventive of the plague. Its great 
 scarcity, however, has prevented it from coming into 
 use among European and American practitioners. It 
 is extremely liable to adulteration, and, from its high 
 price, and difficulty to be obtained, it is believed that 
 not a single ounce of the genuine article can be found 
 ibthis country, nor even in Europe. — D. J. Browne's 
 Report, U. S. Patent Qffke, 1855. 
 
 Grill, a measure of capacity. See Weights and 
 Measures. < 
 
 Gimbals (Lat. gemellus, twin), the two brass rings 
 or hoops within which a ship's compass is suspended 
 in its box, in order to counteract the effect of the 
 ship's motion and keep the card horizontal. These 
 rings move one within the other, each perpendicularly 
 to its plane, about two axes placed at right angles to 
 each other. "By this contrivance the compass, having 
 a free motion in two directions at right angles to each 
 other, maintains a vertical position, and consequently 
 the card is horizontal. Gimbals are also applied to 
 other instruments, such as the portable or mountain 
 barometer, etc. 
 
 Gimletiug the anchor. Turning it by the 
 stock round its shank as an axis, like a gimlet. 
 
 Gimp. Silk twist, interlaced with brass or other 
 wire. 
 
 Gin. (Fr. genievre, juniper^ Ardent spirit fla- 
 vored by the essential oil of juniper. It was origi- 
 nallj' made by the Dutch, and is hence distinguished 
 in this country hy the name of Hollands. The liquor 
 bearing the above name in this country is of British 
 manufacture, and is frequently flavored by oU of tur- 
 pentine, and rendered biting upon the palate by caus- 
 tic potash. In Holland, the finest gin bears the name 
 of Schiedam, the principal place of its manufacture, 
 and where there are many distilleries. 
 
 The English act for laying an excise upon gin 
 passed July, 14th, 1738 ; it had been found, in the 
 
 preceding year, that in Loudon only, 7,044 houses 
 sold gin by retail ; and it was so cheap that the poor 
 could intoxicate themselves, and be disabled from 
 labor for one penny. The heavy excise of 5 shillings 
 per gallon, and obliging all retailers to take out a 
 license, in a great measure put a stop to this depopu- 
 lating evil. — Salmon. About 1,700 of these houses 
 were suppressed in London in \15Q.— Clarice. 
 
 The Dutch have been long famous for their manu- 
 facture of an ardent spirit flavored with juniper, and 
 known by the names of Hollands,. Schiedam, Gin, and 
 Geneva; the last being derived from the word "ge- 
 nievre," the juniper berry, and the word gin being a 
 contraction thereof. The distillers at Schiedam seem 
 for the last 60 years at least to, have followed very 
 much the same practice in the manufacture. of this 
 spirit, most of the accounts published during that pe- 
 riod by individuals who have gone over to study tho 
 manufacture, agreeing in the details. Generally 112 
 Iba. of malt of big, weighing about 37 lbs. per bushel, 
 and 228 lbs. of best unmalted rye from Biga, weigh- 
 ing about 64 lbs. per bushel, are mashed in about 100 
 gallons of water of the temperature of 162°. The 
 tun is then carefulty covered and left undisturbed for 
 about 2 hours. The contents are then well stirred 
 up, when the clearest part of the spent wash of a pre- 
 vious distillation, and as much cold water as will 
 reduce the strength of the wort to about 33 of Dicas's 
 hydrometer, and lower the temperature to about 80° 
 are added. About half a gallon of good yeast is then 
 added ; active fermentation is thus excited, the tem- 
 perature rises to 90°, and the whole is over in two 
 days. The whole wprt (grains and all) is then trans- 
 ferred to the still, and the distillation is continued till 
 spirit ceases to come over. A very weak spirit is 
 thus obtained, as used to be the case in this country 
 with the old form of still. This, or the low wines as 
 it is termed, is subjected to a second distillation after 
 having mixed with it some juniper berries and hops; 
 Old juniper berries are preferred for this purpose, and 
 they are added in the proportion of 2 lbs. of berries to 
 the 100 gallons of low wines ; a quarter pound of 
 salt, and a handful of hops, are often also added. 
 These ingredients give the spirit that peculiar flavor 
 which has led it to be styled genifevxe-r-geneva — gin. 
 The quantity of spirit obtained varies from 18 to,21 
 gallons per quarter of grain, a quantity fully as great 
 as is yielded by the best conducted distilleries in this 
 country. 
 
 According to recent examinations and experiments 
 to detect the adulteration of liquors, gin appears to be 
 generally diluted for the purpose of lowering the price, 
 and various decoctions are subsequently introduced to 
 supply the peculiar properties supposed to belong to 
 the pure spirit. Many of these articles, however, 
 although "possessing very terrifying names, as oil of 
 vitriol, or sulphuric acid, can not in the proportions in 
 which thej- are used, be looked upon as poisons." It 
 is, for instance, believed that pure gin — that is, alco- 
 hol flavored with juniper-berry, is not to be met with, 
 inasmuch as all rectifiers appear to use " gin-flavor- 
 ings," made from various aromatic and carminative 
 substances, such as orange peel, coriander, etc., which 
 please the palate of the consumer better than pure 
 gin, of which, indeed, the public scarcely know the 
 taste. If a retailer "never sold any thing but abso- 
 lute alcohol, it could not be drank by the public 
 without then- being greatly injured. The publican 
 would then have to dilute it with such a quantity of 
 water as would render it suitable as a beverage." 
 The publican does not profess to sell absolute alco- 
 hol, and the public knowing nothing of the nature 
 of the manufacture of gin, are content with what 
 is usually sold under that denomination; the term 
 gin being merely conventional, and applying equalr 
 ly to the mixture sold by the publican as to the 
 spirit sent out by the distiller, and is, in fact, more 
 
GLA 
 
 820 
 
 GLA 
 
 generally understood to represent the mixture. For 
 the same reason the revenue does not sustain loss, be- 
 cause no man could drink proof spirits, and if the 
 publican did not dilute the spirit, he " must fall back 
 upon the wholesale dealer and have it made up to 
 the strength he requires, sweetened and all." — -Report 
 to Home of Commons, July, 1856. See Leone Levi's 
 Annals of British Legislation, Part ix., Dec, 1856. 
 
 Giny in Mechanics, a contrivance for raising heavy 
 weights, driving piles, etc., which consists of three 
 spars set up in a pyramidal form, and furnished, at top 
 with a tackle which is worked by a windlass beneath. 
 The name gin is also applied to a machine with which 
 the fibres of cotton are disentangled, by means of a 
 series of revolving spikes. This operation is termed 
 ginning. See Cotton MANnFACTUBE. 
 
 Ginger (Ger. Inwer ; Du. Gember; Fr. Gengembre; 
 It. Zenzero ; Sp. Jenjibre ; Agengibre ; Rus. Inbir ; Lat. 
 Zingiber; Pers. Zungeoeel; Arab. Zingibeel), the roots 
 of a plant • (Amomum Zingiber), a native of the East 
 Indies and China, but which was early carried to and 
 succeeds very well in the West Indies. After the 
 roots are dug, the best are selected, scraped, washed, 
 and dried in the sun with great care. This is called 
 white ginger ; while the inferior roots, which are scalded 
 in boiling water before being dried, are denominated 
 black ginger. Preserved ginger is made by scalding 
 the green roots, or the roots taken up when they are 
 young and full of sap, till they are tender ; then peel- 
 ing them in cold water, and putting them into a thin 
 syrup, from which thej' are shifted into the jars in 
 which they come to us, and a rich syrup poured over 
 them. Dried ginger has a pungent, aromatic odor, 
 and a hot, biting taste. It is imported in bagS, each 
 containing about a cwt. The white brings the highest 
 price, being more pungent and better flavored. The 
 external characters of goodness in both sorts of dried 
 ginger are, soundness, or the being free from worm 
 holes, heaviness, and firmness ; the pieces that are 
 small, light, and soft, or verj' friable and fibrous, 
 should be rejected. The best preserved ginger is 
 nearly translucent ; it should be chosen of a bright 
 yellow color; rejecting that which is dark-colored, 
 fibrous, or stringy; — Milburn's Orient. Commerce; 
 Thomson's Dispensatory. The ginger plant could 
 without doubt be grown to advantage in many of the 
 southern States. The amount of ginger annually 
 imported into the United States is valued at upward 
 of $60,000. 
 
 Ginseng (Du. Ginseng, Ginsem; Fr. Ginseng; 
 Ger. Kraftwerzel, Ginseng ; It. Ginseng ; Sp. Jinseng ; 
 Chin. Yansam ; Tart. ' Orhota), the root of a small 
 plant (Panax quinquefoUum Lin.), growing in China, 
 Tartary, and several parts of North America. The 
 latter is what we generally see in England, and is an 
 article of trade to China, which is its only market. 
 Large quantities were formerly exported from this 
 country ; but it is now carried direct to China by the 
 Americans. It is sometimes exported crude, and 
 sometimes cured or clarified. Within these few years, 
 is has been discovered in the Himalaya mountains, 
 and small quantities have been thence sent to Canton ; 
 but the speculation has not succeeded. It is only 
 about 40 years since it began to be sent from America 
 to China. Previously to the present centur}'', the 
 Chinese drew their supplies from the wilds of Tartarj', 
 and the root brought an exorbitant price. Crude gin- 
 seng now sells in the Canton market at from 60 to 70 
 dollars per picul, and prepared at from 70 to 80 dol- 
 lars. In 1852, there were sent from the United States 
 to China, 158,455 lbs. ginseng, valued at 102,073 dol- 
 lars. — Papers laid before Congress, January 1st, 1858. 
 
 Glacier, a name given to masses of ice which de- 
 scend from snowy mountains into, the adjacent valleys, 
 where they obtain a level often far below the upper 
 limit of the surrounding vegetation. The following 
 are the synonyms for a glacier in some different lan- 
 
 guages and dialects : in French, glacier ; German, 
 gleischer; Italian, ghiacciaja; Tyrolese, fern; in Ca- 
 rinthia, kdss ; in the Vallais, biegno ; in part of Italy, 
 vedretto ; in Piedmont, ruize ; in the Pyrenees, ser- 
 neille; in Norway, iisbrm or iisbrede ; in Lapland, 
 geihia or jegna; in Iceland, johill or fall-jotmll. 
 The characteristic appearance of a glacier can be 
 nowhere better studied than in Switzerland and 
 Savo3'. The icy mass of the glacier of Bossons at 
 Chamouni — which descends immediately from the 
 highest part of Mont Blanc, but lies, summer and 
 winter, in the valley at a height of no more than 3600 
 English feet (the height of perpetual snow being about 
 9000 feet), where it is embosomed among luxuriant 
 wood, and is almost in contact with corn-fields — exhib- 
 its a spectacle which none who have once seen it can 
 forget, and which attracts more interest and curiosity 
 the more carefully it is considered. The lower glacier 
 of Grindelwald, descending to 3400 feet, is another 
 familiar example of the same phenomenon. In the 
 arctic regions true glaciers also exist, which, descend- 
 ing the valleys (often of great width and little inclina- 
 tion), enter the sea, and, breaking off,' supply the 
 floating ice-islands or icebergs, which frequently drift 
 into comparatively low latitudes. These glaciers do 
 not essentially differ from those of Alpine countries. 
 
 The diminution of temperature as we ascend the 
 slopes of mountains, is indicated by successive tones of 
 vegetation, and finally by the occurrence of perpetual 
 snow. Thus in the high mountains of the Andes and 
 Himalaya, between the tropics, the commencement of 
 perpetual snow is found at from 15,000 to 18,000, or 
 even 19,000 feet, according to circumstances ; while in 
 southern Europe, the level is from 8000 to 9000 feet, 
 and in Norway from 5500 to 3000 feet, according to 
 the latitude and the distance from the sea. It was 
 first shown by Baron Humboldt and Von Buch that 
 the, limit of perpetual snow depends principally on the 
 temperature of the summer, and not upon that of the 
 whole year. It has been already explained that an 
 accumulation of snow, even frozen snow, does not 
 constitute properly a glacier. A glacier is a mass of 
 ice, having its origin in the hollows of mountains 
 where perpetual snow accumulates,, but which makes 
 its way down toward the lower valleys, where it 
 gradually melts, and it terminates exactly where the 
 melting, due to the contact of the warmer air, earth, 
 and rain of the valley, compensates for the bodily 
 descent of the ice from the snow reservoirs of the 
 higher mountains. From this it is evident, without 
 any formal measurements, that A glacier is ice in 
 
 MOTION. 
 
 Geographical Distribution of Glaciers. — Glaciers are 
 not peculiar to any country or region of the earth. It 
 may be that there are extensive snowy mountains 
 wholly devoid of them, as is supposed to be the case 
 in tropical South America ; but even this exception 
 requires confirmation. There are peculiarities in the 
 form of mountains, and still more in climate, which, as 
 we shall see, favor the formation of glaciers, or may 
 even totallj"- prevent it. 
 
 GlasgO'W, a great commercial and manufacturing 
 city of Lanarkshire, in Scotland, situated on the north- 
 ern bank of the River Clyde. According to the deter- 
 mination of Dr. Wilson, the latitude and longitude of 
 the Maofarlane Observatory, in the college garden of 
 Glasgow, are 55° 51' 82" N., and 4° 17' 54" W. 
 Glasgow is therefore nearlj- eight miles further south, 
 and 1° 1' further west. The difference between the 
 clocks in Edinburg and Glasgow is 4° 27' 4". 
 
 Glasgow owes its present greatness to its advan- 
 tageous situation on a fine river, in one of the richest 
 coal and mineral districts of the empire. Originally, 
 however, the Clyde was much incumbered by fords 
 and shallows, and for a lengthened period it served 
 rather to excite and disappoint expectation, than to 
 confer any real commercial advantage on the city. 
 
GLA 
 
 821 
 
 GLA 
 
 In 1662, after several other schemes had failed, the 
 magistrates of Glasgow purchased the ground on 
 which Port Glasgow (16 miles down the river) now 
 stands, where they formed a harbor and a graving 
 dock, the first worlc of its kind in Scotland. For a 
 considerable period the intercourse between Glasgow 
 and its newly-acquired port was principally carried on 
 by land carriage ; but from 1665 attempts were every 
 now and then made to deepen the river. In 1688 a 
 quay was formed at the Broomi^law ; but even so late 
 as 1775 no vessel drawing six feet of water could reach 
 Glasgow, except at spring tides. At length, however, 
 a plan, proposed in 1769 by Mr. Golbum, engineer of 
 Chester, for deepening the river to seven feet at neap 
 tides, was adopted, since which time,'by the continued 
 use of numerous dredging machines a depth of from 16 
 to 18 feet of water at high water neaps has been ob- 
 tained. In the year ending the 30th June, 1854, 25 
 ships drawing 18 feet of water, and 4 drawing 19 feet, 
 came safely to the Broomielaw, while the largest 
 steam vessel afloat, the Persia, of 8,600 tons' burden, 
 was launched in 1855 into the river, about one mile 
 below Glasgow, and came up to the harbor to receive 
 her machinery. The work of deepening and straight- 
 ening the river is still vigorously prosecuted. Six 
 dredging machines and two diving bells are inconstant 
 employment. The river, for seven miles below the 
 city, is Very much widened, and forms nearly a straight 
 line — ^the sloping banks, formed of whinstone, being 
 constructed in imitation of ashlar. The accommoda- 
 tion for shipping at the Broomielaw, or harbor, is now 
 also very greatly extended. It comprises about 48 
 acres of water. The quays extend about two miles 
 in length, are amply furnished with sheds for goods, 
 cranes, etc., and have the important advantage of 
 being directly connected, by means of the General 
 Terminus Lme, with the various railways that centre 
 in the city. The parliamentarj'' trustees forjnanag- 
 ing the river have, also, acquired ground on the north 
 side of the harbor, on which they have power to con- 
 struct extensive docks. They maj', also, construct a 
 basin on the south side. 
 
 The total expenditure on the river and harbor, in- 
 cluding works, purchases of ground, etc., down to 
 1854, was above £2,000,000, of which about £1,500,000 
 has been raised as revenue. The influence of these 
 improvements on the shipping and trade of Glasgow 
 has been most striking. At present, a greater num- 
 ber of sailing vessels and of steamers belong to Glas- 
 gow than to any other Scotch port, and the harbor is 
 constantly crowded with ships from foreign ports, 
 coasting vessels and steamers. The steam-packets 
 belonging to the Clyde that ply to Liverpool, Dublin, 
 and Belfast, are among the finest vessels of their class 
 in the empire. In all, there belonged to Glasgow, on 
 the 31st December, 1854, 601 vessels of the aggregate 
 burden of 192,896 tons. 
 
 The Clyde, upon which the city of Glasgow is situ- 
 ated; is one of the principal rivers in Scotland, and has 
 its rise among the mountains that separate the coun- 
 ties of Dumfries and Lanark. The length of this 
 stream, from its source to its junctioil with the western 
 sea, is about 100 miles. Along its whole course it is 
 beautified by magnificent natural scenery and embel- 
 lishments of art. Its banks are crowded with the 
 abodes of industry and a thriving population. The 
 site of Glasgow occupies both sides of the river ; and 
 though at the distance of- above 30 iniUs from' the 
 influx into the sea, the tide, which flows a consider- 
 able way atove the town, gives it a command of trade 
 and means of ready conveyance for commercial pur- 
 poses to every quarter of the globe. See articles 
 Clyde, Gkeat Britain, and Scotland. 
 
 The first steam-engine in Glasgow connected with 
 cotton-spinning was erected in 1792 ; but it was not 
 till the beginning of the present centurj- that any con- 
 siderable quantity of yarn was spun in Scotland. In 
 
 1850 the number of spindles employed in cdtton-spin- 
 ning, connected with or dependent on Glasgow, 
 amounted to 1,683,093, and the cotton consumed 
 amounted to about 45,000,000 pounds, or 120,000 bales. 
 At present (1856) the consumption does not appear to 
 have increased. The power-loom was first introduced 
 into Glasgow in 1793 by Mr. James Robertson, who 
 brought two from the Hulks in the Thames. In the 
 following year 40 looms were fitted up at Milton, and 
 in 1801 Mr. John Monteith had 200 looms at work at 
 PoUockshaws, near Glasgow. In 1831 the power- 
 looms in or dependent on Glasgow had increased to 
 16,137; in 1850 they amounted to 23,564, and produced 
 the daily average of 626,000 j'ards of cloth ; at present 
 (1856) there are about 26,000 or 27,000 power-looms, 
 and consequently the daily produce is not only greater 
 from this cause, but also from an increase in speed. 
 The number of persons employed in the cotton factories 
 throughout Scotland, and which may be said to be all 
 connected with or dependent on Glasgow, in 1850 was 
 8797 males, and 27,628 females, total 36,325 ; while 
 the motive power was, steam, 71,005 horse-power ^ 
 water, 2812. In addition to the cotton spun for weav- 
 ing, there are several very large manufactories of 
 sewing thread; and to that of power-loom weaving 
 there must be added all the beautiful fabrics that are 
 still made by the hand-loom, and which employ a vast 
 number of persons and a large capital. These consist 
 of muslins, plain and fancy harness-curtains, jaconets, 
 cambrics, ginghams, checks, and colored tissues of all 
 kinds ; while, of late years, mixed fabrics, consisting 
 of cotton and silk, cotton and linen, and cotton and 
 wool, have' all been manufactured to a great extent. 
 To the many thousand hand-loom weavers that still 
 reside in Glasgow, must be added those who reside in 
 all the villages for many miles round, and even in 
 some of the more distant towns in Scotland and north 
 of Ireland, to form any adequate idea of the extensive 
 and wide-spread textile manufacturing interests of 
 Glasgow. See articles Embroidery, Clyde, and 
 Steam Navigatios. 
 
 The next great branches of industry, of which Glas- 
 gow is the central mart, are its coal and iron trades. 
 Although coal, from a pretty remote period, has been 
 wrought round the city chiefly for domestic uses, it has 
 only been since the introduction of the steam-engine, 
 and still more since the discoverj' of the economical 
 mode of smelting iron by the hot blast, that the vast 
 and closely-packed mineral wealth of its neighboring 
 districts has been at all fully developed and turned to 
 profit. 
 
 Steaviship-huildmg.-^—Oi all the branches of indus- 
 try belonging to Glasgow andits harbor,- there is none 
 of modem date which has made such rapid progress as 
 that of steamboat-building, and marine engine-making-. 
 Erom the first start of the little Comet, in 1812, till 
 1820, there were at the most only one- or two riv6r 
 steamers launched yearly, and of a tonnage so small 
 as to be scarcely worth notice. About that period this 
 manufacture received a new impulse, and began at 
 once fairly to develop itself. From 1821 to 1830 there 
 were 38 steamers built, with a tonnage of 4,200 ; from 
 1831 to 1840 there were 94 steamers, with a tonnage of 
 17,623 ; from 1841 to 1850 there were 167 steamers, 
 with a tonnage of 81,447 ; while during the three years 
 from 1861 to 1853 there were 206 steamers, with a ton- 
 nage of 141,713. The present magnitude of this in- 
 dustry may, however, be best appreciated from the 
 fact that during the years 1863 and 1854, the then 
 32 ship-builders on the Clyde had constructed or 
 contracted for no fewer than 266 vessels, including 
 both steam and sailing; having an aggregate tonnage 
 of 168,000, for which also marine engines were con- 
 structed or in progress, of 29^000 horse-power ; the 
 average of these vessels being- 630 tons, and involving 
 the enormous cost of nearly £5,000,000 sterling. 
 
 The whole number and tonnage arri%'ing at the har- 
 
GLA 
 
 822 
 
 GLA 
 
 bor of Glasgow during the years 1828-1854, were as 
 follows : 
 
 Years. 
 
 SAILING VESSELS. 
 
 8TKAM VE9SEI.H. 
 
 No. [ Tonnape. 
 
 No. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 ' lS2Sv 
 1840 
 1850 
 1854 
 
 4,405 
 6,887 
 5,85T 
 6,832 
 
 214,815 
 271,942 
 891,088 
 604,008 
 
 7,100 
 
 11,149 
 9,195 
 11,880 
 
 481,946 
 
 894,387 
 
 878,169 
 
 1,090,804 
 
 The progress and present condition of the river and 
 harbor, ho-wever, are probably best exhibited by the 
 following abstract of the revenue of the trust at six 
 different periods : 
 
 1800 £3,819 
 
 1820 6,328 
 
 ISSO 20,29G 
 
 1840 £46,481 
 
 1850 64,248 
 
 1854 86,580 
 
 Abstract Account of Tnn total Nctmber op Arrivals 
 OF Sailing and Steam Vessels arrived at the 
 Harbor of Glasgow, Foreign and Coastwise, in 
 THE Tear ending June 80th, 1854. 
 
 VesBelfl' 
 
 Sailing 
 
 Steam 
 
 tonnage. 
 
 vessels. 
 
 vessels. 
 
 Under 40 
 
 2,844 
 
 2,726 
 
 40— 80 
 
 1,462 
 
 469 
 
 60—80 
 
 609 
 
 2,586 
 
 80—100 
 
 813 
 
 3,402 
 
 100—160 
 
 285 
 
 1,646 
 
 160—206 
 
 289 
 
 286 
 
 200-250 
 
 1S6 
 
 28 
 
 260—300 
 
 89 
 
 861 
 
 Vessels' 
 tonnage. 
 
 300—860 
 350-^00 
 400—450 
 460—500 
 500—600 
 600—700 
 700&npwd. 
 Total 
 
 Sailing 
 
 Steam 
 
 vesaels. 
 
 vessels. 
 
 61 
 
 66 
 
 56 
 
 375 
 
 83 
 
 76 
 
 86 
 
 5 
 
 48 
 
 1 
 
 24 
 
 6 
 
 84 
 
 9 
 
 6,822 
 
 11,880 
 
 Port Charges, Harbor^ or Quay Dues. — On all ves- 
 sels arriving at the harbor of Glasgow, 2d. per register 
 ton ; except on steam-vessels trading on the River 
 Clyde within the Cumbraes, or navigating the Crinan 
 Canal, which are charged Id. per register ton. On 
 all vessels remaining in the harbor for any period ex- 
 ceeding 24 lawful days, Id. per ton per week. 
 
 Weighing-dues. — Each cart, wagon, or other carriage- 
 load, or weight, not exceeding 12 cwt., Id. each; ex- 
 ceeding 12 cwt., 8d. each. N. B. "Weighing-dues, not 
 exigible when the correct weight of the goods is fur- 
 nished. 
 
 Crane Dues. — Each hoist not exceeding 12 cwt., 3d. ; 
 from 12 to 15 cwt., 4d. ; from 15 to 20 cwt., 6d. Each 
 ton of machinerj', and other articles exceeding 1 ton, 
 Is. ; hemp per ton, 6d. ; marble do.. Is. ; timber do., 
 6d. Taking out and putting in machinerj', etc., of 
 steamboats, from ^2 2s. to £8 8s., according to the 
 number of hoists and trouble. Cranesmen's time per 
 hour, or part of an hour, 6d. Charges for water sup- 
 plied by the Clyde Trustees to vessels in the harbor, 
 viz. : Vessels under 25 tons register, 6d. each ; 25 tons 
 and under 50, Is. each ; 50 tons and under 100, Is. 3d. 
 each ; 100 tons arid under 150, 3s. each ; 160 tons 
 and under 200, 5s each ; 200 tons and under 300, 8s. 
 each ; 300 tons and under 400, 9s. each ; 400 tons and 
 upward, IDs. 
 
 N. B. Steam-vessels regularly supplied oftener than 
 once a week, to be charged half the above rates. Mas- 
 ters of vessels requiring water, will obtain orders, on 
 application, at the weighing-boxes on the quays. 
 Planks and Stages. — 'For loading or discharging ves- 
 sels. Is. each plank or stage per week. Rhones. — One 
 penny for each wagon of coal loaded, with Is. extra on 
 each cargo for removing the rhone to and from the 
 vessel. Ballast. — The Clvde Trustees remove ballast 
 from vessels on either side the harbor, at a rate not ex- 
 ceeding Is. per ton, and supply clean stone ballast at 
 Is. per ton. The River Clyde is divided into three 
 stages, and the following are the tonnage dues exigible 
 upon each, viz. : The first stage extends from Stockwell- 
 atrect Bridge to the Old Ferry at Eenfrew, being about 
 600 yards to the east of the present ferrj', and the dues 
 on goods carried or conveyed thereon, are two thirds 
 of the tonnage dues exigible by the trustees. The 
 second stage extends from the Old Ferry at Renfrew 
 to the mouth of Dalmuir Bum ; and the dues exigible 
 thereon are one sixth of the tonnage dues ; and the 
 third stage extends from Dalmuir Burn to Newark 
 
 Castle ; and the dues exigible thereon are one sixth 
 part of the tonnage dues. 
 
 The above is the whole charge upon the ship for the 
 voyage in and out if a ship sail in ballast. If she 
 loads an outward cargo, the tonnage dues thereon will 
 be charged according to the rates specified above. The 
 charges for lights are as follows, viz. : northern lights, 
 8^d. per register ton ; Cambrae lights, Id. per registei 
 ton. The charge for unloading and taking in a cargo 
 is per agreement with licensed lumpers or porters who 
 ply on the quay for hire. There are no fixed rates. 
 but the following charges may be considered prettj- 
 near the mark ; unloading cotton, 15s. per 100 bales, 
 or about 9d. per ton, and for taking in iron, 9d. per 
 ton. The other items of charge of a public kind 
 affecting the ship are, towing up and down the river, 
 planks and stages for discharging and loading the car- 
 goes, supplying the ship with water and the removal 
 of ballast, if any on board, and ships loaded with cot- 
 ton usually have ballast. The following is a pro 
 forma account of the charges on a ship of 500 tons 
 arriving with cotton, remaining in the harbor for a 
 month, loading iron, and leaving : 
 
 Anchorage or harbor dues, 500 tons, at 2d. per ton £4 8 4 
 Kiyer or tonnage dues inward, say SOO tons cotton, 
 
 at Is. 4d. per ton 20 
 
 Shed dues on do. at l|d. per ton 2 8 9 
 
 Lumper's charge for unloading cargo, do. at 9d 11 5 
 
 Eiver or tonnage dues outward, say on 700 tons iron 
 
 at 7d 20 8 4 
 
 Shed dues on do., at l|d 8 12 11 
 
 Lumper's charge for loading, at 9d 26 5 
 
 Northern lights. In and out, on ship 500 tons, at a 
 
 fraction under 9d IT 19 2 
 
 Clyde lights, in and out, on do. at Id 2 1 8 
 
 Towing ship up and down river, 9d. each way, at 
 
 Is. 6d ST 10 
 
 Planks and stages, discharging and loading, say t 10 
 
 Supplying ship with water in harbor 10 
 
 Discharging and removing ballast 7 10 
 
 Total £154 19 2 
 
 On all ships arriving at the Broomielaw, either from 
 foreign ports or coastwise, 2d. per register ton is paya- 
 ble to the River Trustees in name of harbor or quay 
 duty, over and above the river or tdnnage rates on the 
 cargo. 
 
 Entrance to the River. — ^As a. guide to mariners, it 
 may be mentioned that vessels of 19 feet draft of wa- 
 ter can arrive at the harbor of Glasgow, and that ves- 
 sels drawing 17 feet are considered regular traders. 
 Vessels drawing 15 to 16 feet may always arrive and 
 depart without touching the bottom. At the entrance 
 to the river, vessels are placed under the charge of 
 pilots, who are well acquainted with the channel, 
 which is well marked with beacons and buoj's. It 
 may be ■ considered that the river is deepening at the 
 rate of one foot in every five years. A ship on reach- 
 ing the mouth of the river had best commence as- 
 cending at half-tide. There are no particular usages 
 connected with the harbor of Glasgow beyond those 
 adopted on most other rivers and harbors. Lights 
 are permitted in the harbor from 6 a.m. to 10 i^.m. 
 
 Glasgow maj' be said to be cosmopolitan in her com- 
 merce and manufactures, uniting within herself the bus- 
 nesses and trades of almost ever}' other town and city 
 in the United Kingdom. It hence follows that while one 
 branch of manufacture or trade may be dull, another 
 may be prosperous, and accordingly Glasgow does not 
 feel any of those depressions which so frequently oc- 
 cur in places which have only -one or two branches of 
 manufacture or commerce. The great industrial oc- 
 cupations of Glasgow are its cotton-spinning, and 
 weaving ; its collieries and iron manufactures ; its 
 iron ship-building and machines-making, and its chem- 
 ical manufactures. According to Dr. Strang, the con- 
 sumption of raw cotton in Glasgow in 1854 was above 
 1)900 bales per week, of from 430 to 440 pounds each, 
 and the number of power-looms dependent on Glas- 
 gow was from 26,000 to 27,000, .producing daily about 
 700,000 yards of cloth. In the west of Scotland,- of 
 
GLA 
 
 823 
 
 GLA 
 
 which Glasgow is the central mart, there were, in 
 1854, 6,448,000 tons of coal drawn from the pits, of 
 which 2,152,800 tons were consumed in the manufac- 
 ture of pig iron, 367,200 in the conversion of pig iron 
 into malleable iron, making in all, 2,520,000 tons used 
 in connection with the manufacture of iron, while 
 926,221 y;ons were shipped, and 148,312 tons sent be- 
 yond the boundaries by railways, leaving for the mann- 
 facturing consumption and domestic use of the Glasgow 
 district 2,853,427 tons. The produce of pig iron in the 
 counties of Lanark and Ayr, in 1854, amounted to 
 717,600 tons, 122,684 tons of which were shipped direct 
 to foreign countries, 294,194 tons were sent coastwise 
 from the Clyde, Port Dundas and the western ports of 
 the Clj'de estuarj-, while 22,865 tons were sent away 
 by railways, and 171,360 tons were converted into 
 malleable iron, leaving the remaining 106,497 tons for 
 foundery and other purposes of the district. Mallea- 
 ble iron during the same year was manufactured to the 
 extent of 122,4p0 tons. The value of the -whole coal 
 and iron business to the district m 1854 may be reck- 
 oned at about ^4,872,000, of which £1,973,000 was 
 paid in wages to 33,900 persons. 
 
 The chemical products of Glasgow are multifarious, 
 consisting of sulphuric, muriatic, nitric, and acetic 
 acids and their various salts ; bleaching-powder, 
 soda, soap, cudbear, bichromate of potash, sugar of 
 lead, iodine, salts of ammonia, alum, prussiate of 
 potash, naptha, pitcli, oil, animal charcoal, bone tar, 
 cream of tartar, etc., etc. The works of St. Rollox, 
 situate in the north-east quarter of Glasgow, constitute 
 perhaps the largest chemical establishment in the 
 world. They cover about 12 acres of ground, emploj' 
 above 1000 men, consuming annually about 20,000 
 tons of common salt, and 80,000 tons of coal, and pro- 
 ducing of soda, bleaching-powder, sulphuric acid, and 
 soap, etc., about 25,000 tons. The lofty chimneys of 
 St. EoUox are among the cariosities of the city, one 
 of them being 450 feet high, 50 feet diameter at the 
 base, and 14 feet at the top. While commerce and 
 manufactures had thus given the city a stimulating 
 and onward' progress, science and art had also added 
 their .inighty aid in effecting improvement. As a 
 proof of this it may be be mentioned that in 1759 the 
 first act for deepening the River Clyde was obtained ; 
 and that, in, 1764, James Watt made in Glasgow his 
 first model of a steam-engine. 
 
 Population^ — If the foregoing tables give some idea 
 of the advance of Glasgow as a commercial and manu- 
 facturing city, the following table of its progressive 
 population during the present century will render this 
 more apparent : 
 
 Yours. 
 
 Males. 
 
 Females. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1801 
 
 
 
 83,769 
 
 1811 
 
 
 
 110,460 
 
 1821 ; 
 
 68,ii9 
 
 78,984 
 
 147,043 
 
 1331 
 
 98,724 . 
 
 108,702 
 
 202,426 
 
 1841 
 
 188,818 
 
 147,369 
 
 280,682 
 
 1951 
 
 168,731 
 
 183,270 
 
 847,001 
 
 .In 1855 the estimated population of Glasgow and its 
 suburbs was about 400,000, having been nearly quintu- 
 pled in 50 years ! ' ■ 
 
 (jirSTOMS DtITIICS 00I.LECTED AT GLASGOW, AND THE NUM- 
 
 beb and- tonnage op tue sliips belongino to the 
 Port in tub undermentioned Years. 
 
 Years ending Jnii. 5. 
 
 Dulie.. 
 
 No. of .lips. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 1796.'...; 
 
 £125 
 
 1,828 
 
 .8,124 
 
 8,800 
 
 11,000 
 
 41,154 
 
 . 69,018 
 
 270,667 
 
 468,974 
 
 661,851 
 
 640,568 
 
 6^6,818 
 
 85 , 
 
 59 
 
 85 
 111 
 288 
 297 
 851 
 472 
 
 .507 • .•! 
 , 601, 
 
 2,620 
 
 4,839 
 
 6,604 
 
 14,084 
 
 . 40,978 
 
 , 84,835 
 
 71,878 
 
 111,620 
 
 1! 187,909 
 
 , ,192,895. 
 
 
 ,.1812 
 
 1815 
 
 ' 1820 
 
 . 1825 
 
 
 1885 
 
 
 1845 
 
 
 1855 
 
 the empire^ being in this respect surpassed onlj' by 
 Liverpool, London, and HulL 
 
 Account of the declared Valttes of tub Produce and 
 Manufactures of the United Kingdom exported 
 
 from trLASGOW, PORT GLASGOW, AND GrEENOCK, IN 
 
 1852, 1853, AND 1854, respectively; suowino also the 
 Amount of Customs Duties collected at each of 
 THESE Ports in the above Tears. 
 
 Forta on the 
 Clyde. 
 
 Aggregate value of exports of British and Irish produce 
 andmanufiietureB. 
 
 1852. 1 1863. 
 
 1864. 
 
 Glasgow 
 
 Port Glasgow. 
 
 Greenock 
 
 Total 
 
 £3,570,875 
 78,021 
 418,697 
 
 £4^968,680 
 107,295 
 487,fi22 
 
 £4,905,567 
 95,488 
 554,608 - 
 
 £4,062,093 
 
 £5,518,447 
 
 £5,556,498 
 
 
 
 Ports on the 
 Clyde. 
 
 Amonnt of customs duties collected on imported artioleB.J 
 
 185!. 1 1853. 
 
 1864. 
 
 Glasgow.. .... 
 
 Port Glasgow. 
 
 Greenocf 
 
 Total.:...' 
 
 £662,665 
 
 82,411 
 
 429,808 
 
 £687,974 
 104,954 
 426,160 
 
 £666,818 . 
 
 90,896 
 
 547,754 
 
 £1,164,884 
 
 £1,219,078 
 
 £1,805,468 
 
 Glasgow no-w ranks as the fourth exporting port in 
 
 Glass (Ger. and Du. Glas ; Fr. Vitre^ Verve; It. 
 Vetro ; Sp. Vid/rio ; Rus. SteHo ; Lat. Vitrwni)^ a. 
 transparent, brittle, factitious body. It is formed by 
 mixing together some 'sort of siliceous earth, as fine 
 sand, or pounded flint, with an alkali, such as soda, 
 pot-ash, or pearl-ash, and subjecting them to a strong 
 heat. By this means they are melted into a transpa- 
 rent, soft, tenacious mass, that may, when, hot, be 
 formed into thin plates, bent and shaped in every pos- 
 sible way. When cool it becomes brittle, and is de- 
 nominated glass,. Litharge, minium, borax, the black 
 oxyd of manganese, etc., are sometimes used in the 
 manufacture of glass, according to the purposes to 
 which it is to be applied. 
 
 The kinds of glass, and their ingredients, are stated 
 by Dr. Ure as follows : . 
 
 " There are five distinct kinds of glass at present manufae-t 
 tured : 1. Flint glass, or glass of lead ; 2. Plate glass, or gUss 
 of pure soda; 3. Crownglass, the best window glass; 4. Broad 
 glass, a coarse window glass ; 5. Bottle, or coarse green 
 glass. 
 
 " 1. Fliini Olaas^ so named because the siliceous ingfedlent 
 was originally employed in the form of ground flintfs. It is 
 now made of the following composition : ' • > 
 
 , PartB. 
 
 Purified Lynn sand '. 100 
 
 Litharge, or red lead 60 
 
 Purified Pearl-ash 80 
 
 " To coi-rect the green color derived from combustible mat- 
 ter, or oxyd of iron, a little black oxyd of manganese is 
 added, and sometimes nitre and arsenic. The fusion is ac? 
 compUshed usually in about 30 hours. 
 
 "3. Plate Glass. — Good carbonate of soda, procured by 
 decomposing common salt with pearl-ash, is employed as the 
 flux. The proportion of the materials is, " 
 
 Pure sand : 43*0 
 
 Dry subcarbonate of soda 25*5 
 
 Pure quicklime 4"0 
 
 Nitre 1'5 
 
 Broken plate glass 25-0— 100-0 
 
 About 70 parts of good plate glass may be run oft' from these 
 materials. 
 
 "3. Crown^ or fine Window G*tess.~This is made of sand 
 vitrified by the impure barilla manufactured by incineration 
 of sea-weed on the Scotch and Irish shores. The most ap- 
 proved composition is, 
 
 liy mensure. By weight. 
 
 Fine and purified 5 200 
 
 Best kelp ground; 11 350 
 
 "4. Broad Gtoa8.-r-ThiB is made of a mixture of soap- 
 boilers' waste, kelp, and sand., The first ingredient consists 
 of lime used for rendering the alkali of the soap-boiler caus- 
 tic, the insoluble matter of this kelp or barilla, and a quan- 
 tity of salt and water, all in a pasty state. The proportions 
 necessarily vary. Two of the waste, one of kelp, and one of 
 sand, form a pretty good broad glass. They are mixtid 
 together, dried, and fritted. 
 
 " 6. Bottle GI<188 is the coarsest kind. . , It is made of soap- 
 ers' waste and river sand, in propprtiona which practice pmst 
 determine according to the quantity of the wastp ; some 
 soap-boilers extra,cting more saline matter, and pthei^s fess, 
 from their kelps. Common sand and hlhe, with a'li'ttle com- 
 mon clay and sea salt, form a chekptoixture'for bottle glasB." 
 
GLA 
 
 824 
 
 GLA 
 
 Historical Notices with respect to Glass. — The manu- 
 facture of glass is one of the very highest beauty and 
 utility. It is most probable that we are indebted for this 
 wonderful art, as we are for the gift of letters, to the 
 Phoenicians. According to Pliny (His. Nat. , lib. xxxvi., 
 c. 26), glass had been made for many ages, of sand found 
 near the mouth of the small Kiver Belus in Phoenicia. 
 " The report," says he, " is, that the crew of a mer- 
 chant ship laden with nitre (fossil alkali) having used 
 some pieces of it to support the kettles placed oa the 
 fires they had made on the sand, were surprised to see 
 pieces formed of a translucent substance, or glass. 
 This was a suflScient hint for the manufacture. Inge- 
 nuitj' (astuta et ingeniose solertia) was immediately at 
 work, to improve the process thus happily suggested. 
 Hence the magnetical stone came to be added, from an 
 idea that it contained not only iron, but glass. Thej- 
 also used clear pebbles, shells, and fossil sand. Indian 
 glass is said to be formed of native crystal, and is on 
 that account superior to every other. Phcenician glass 
 is prepared with light drj' wood, to which copper and 
 nitre are added, the last being principally brought 
 from Ophir. It is occasionally tinged with different 
 colors. Sometimea it is brought to the desired shape 
 \)y being blown, sometimes by being ground on a 
 lathe, and sometimes it is embossed like silver." Si- 
 don, he adds, is famous for this manufacture. It was 
 there that mirrors were first invented. In Pliny's 
 time, glass was made in Italy of fine sand on the shore 
 between Cumje and the Lucrine Bay. If this be a 
 correct description of the glass of India in the age of 
 Pliny, it has since fallen off very much ; Indian glass 
 being now about the very worst that is made. At 
 present, the Hindoos manufacture it of fragments of 
 broken glass, quartz, and impure soda, an article 
 found native in many parts of India, particularly in 
 the south. The furnaces are so bad that they can not 
 melt our common bottle glass. — Hamilton's Mysore, 
 vol. iii.,' p. 370. The glass of China is much better 
 than that of India, though still very inferior to that of 
 Europe. 
 
 The general term glass is employed by chemists 
 to denote all mineral substances which, on the ap- 
 plication of heat, pass through a state of fusion into 
 hard and brittle masses, and which, though not al- 
 ways transparent, exhibit a lustrous fracture when 
 broken. The glass of commerce, however, to which 
 our remarks are restricted, or the transparent and arti- 
 ficial substance which is usually distinguished by Wie 
 generic name, is produced by the igneous fusion of 
 siliceous earth with certain alkaline earths or salts, or 
 with metallic oxyds. The etymology of the word has 
 been much disputed. It is derived b^^ some from the 
 Latin glacies, ice, its resemblance to which is thought to 
 have suggested the title. Others have remarked, that 
 the common Latin designation of this substance is 
 vitrum ; and as the Romans applied this term in com- 
 mon with the word glastum, to the plant which we call 
 woad, they have deduced it from the latter of these, 
 either because the ashes of this plant were used in the 
 manufacture of glass, or because it exhibited some- 
 thing of the bluish color which is procured from woad. 
 Glassnm, the name given to amber by the ancient 
 Gauls and Britons, has also been assigned as the origin 
 of the word. But none of these etymons appear very 
 satisfactory. The most plausible theory is that which 
 derives the term from the Saxon verb glis-iiian, or the 
 the German gUissen, splendere, which are probably con- 
 tractions of the Anglo-Saxon ge-lixan, to shine, to be 
 bright. This view is in a great degree confirmed by 
 the sense in which the term glass and its derivatives 
 are employed by our older writers, who frequently 
 apply it to shining or glittering substances, without 
 reference to color or transparency. 
 
 In the most remote ages the art of blowing glass 
 into bottles, making it into vases, coloring it to imi- 
 tate precious stones, melting it into enormous masses 
 
 to make pillars, rolling and polishing it into mirrors, 
 and tinting it into parts, were all perfectly well known. 
 For its origin we must look to Egypt, the parent of so 
 many collateral arts. The stoiy of the Israelites hav- 
 ing set fire to a forest, and the heat becoming so in- 
 tense that it made the nitre and sand melt and flow 
 along the mountain side, and that they afteryf ard did 
 artificially what had been the result of accident, may 
 be set down as equally fabulous with the storj' of the 
 pirates, who are said to have landed on the sea beach, 
 and wishing to make their cauldron boil, piled up some 
 vitreous stones and placed on them a quantity of sea- 
 weed and blocks of wood, causing so strong a heat 
 that the stones were softened and ran down on the 
 sand, which, melting and mixing with the alkali, 
 became a diaphanous and glassy mass. The fictitious 
 character of both these stories is proved by the simple 
 fact that it requires the most intense furnace heat to 
 insure the combination of the sand with the nitre. 
 
 Under these circumstances we are justified in be- 
 lieving that glass-making had its origin at the same 
 time with the baking of bricks and pottery. The 
 smelting of ores, too, required a furnace sufficiently 
 intense to fuse the silicates analogous to glass, and 
 hence it may be safely inferred, that in the age when 
 melting and working metal was known, the art of 
 making glass was also practiced. In the book of Job 
 the most precious things are compared to wisdom, but 
 still more precious are gold and glass. The Hebrews 
 must have become acquainted with glass whQe in 
 Egypt, and in consequence of their proximity to the 
 Phcenicians ; and it is now generally believed that 
 these two nations had the merit of originating and 
 establishing its manufacture. The Athenian embassa- 
 dors, in order to give an idea of the magnificence dis- 
 played at the court of the great king of Persia, said, 
 that they drank in cups of glass and gold. Some 
 writers affirm that the Egyptians in some instances 
 sealed up their dead in a coating of glass, and glass- 
 houses are said not to have been uncommon in that 
 wonderful countrj'. Some authors ascribe, with very 
 plausible reason, the discovery of glass-making to the 
 priests of Vulcan at Thebes and Memphis, the greatest 
 chemists in the ancient world. The Egyptians are 
 also known to have made enamels of divers colors 
 which they applied on pottery, magnificent specimens 
 of which are still extant, and are called Egyptian porce- 
 lain. These are chiefl}' covered with beautiful blue or 
 green, and groups of flowers or designs are traced in 
 black. Glass beads and other ornaments made of 
 that substance, skillfully manufactured and beautifully 
 colored, have been found adorning mummies, which 
 are known to be upward of 3000 years old. It is 
 certain that Tyre, Sidon, and Alexandria, were long 
 celebrated for their glass, and furnished the greater 
 proportion of that used at Rome. Under the Roman 
 empire the Egyptians still preserved their superiority 
 in the art of glass-making, and it is said that Aurelian 
 caused them to pay their tribute in that manufacture. 
 Adrian mentions that he had received drinking-glasses 
 of various colors from a priest of a famous temple in 
 Egypt, and gives' instructions that they are not to be 
 used but on the greatest occasions, and on the most 
 solemn feast days. To these places the art was ex- 
 clusively confined for some centuries, and was an article 
 of luxury, being chiefly in the form of urns or drink- 
 ing-cups of the most elaborate workmanship, and ex- 
 quisitely embellished with raised, chased, or ornamented 
 figures. The Barberini or Portland vase, composed 
 of deep blue glass, with figures of a delicate white 
 opaque substance raised in relief, is a splendid speci- 
 men, and was found in the tomb of Alexander Severus, 
 who died A. D. 285. 
 
 The art of glass-making seems to have been intro- 
 duced into Italy by the Romans after their conquests 
 in Asia in the time of Cicero, and the first glass-works 
 there were said to have been near the Flaminian Cir- 
 
GLA 
 
 825 
 
 GLA 
 
 COS. It is highly probable that these Tvorkmen were 
 imported from Egypt. The use of glass seems rapidly 
 to have increased, and to hjive become very common, 
 for we find an emperor in the third century of the 
 Christian era saying, that he was disgusted with so 
 low and vulgar an object as glass, and that he would 
 only drinlc from ve$sels of gold. By this time the 
 manufacture of glass was so considerable that an im- 
 post was laid on it, and it was extensively employed 
 in the decorations of buildings, while in glass mosaics 
 were combined the most brilliant colors. 
 
 Glass was manufactured at Rome into various arti- 
 cles of convenience and ornament. Pliny mentions 
 that Nero gave 6000 sesterces (£50,000 according to 
 the ordinary method of recltoning), for two glass cups, 
 each having two handles ! These, however, must 
 have been of an immense size and of exquisite work- 
 manship ; for glass was then in common use for drink- 
 ing vessels, and was used even in ^he form of bottles 
 in which to keep wine. — Mart., Epig., lib. ii., 22, 40, 
 and lib. iv., 86. 
 
 From the circumstance of colored glass beads and am- 
 ulets having been found among Druidical remains in this 
 countrj', it has been argued by Pennant and others that 
 the art of making glass was known in Britain before 
 its invasion by the Komans. It can hardlj', however, 
 be believed that a people who had made verj- trifling 
 advances in civilization, and who, it is known, were 
 entirely unacquainted with any other art, should be 
 found not only conversant with the manufacture of 
 glass, a complicated and highly ingenious process, but 
 should excel in it ; for the beads and amulets spoken 
 of are of exquisite workmanship, and beautifully col- 
 ored in imitation of the rarest and most precious stones. 
 There seems little doubt, therefore, that the ancient 
 Britons procured these in the course of traffic with the 
 Syrians, who visited the island as we do those in the 
 South Seas, to drive atrade with their savage inhabitants 
 in toys and trinkets, giving them these in exchange 
 for skins or other natural productions. Bj' whatever 
 means, however, these ornaments came into Britain, 
 it is certain that they were in extensive use, though 
 principally for religious purposes, long prior to the 
 Koman invasion, as they are found in barrows or tu- 
 muli of a much older date. One at Stonehenge, in 
 particular, on being opened was found to be filled with 
 them. 
 
 Glain Neidyr, or Druidical glass rings, generally 
 about half as wide as our finger-rings, but much 
 thicker, have frequently been found. The vulgar 
 superstition regarding these was, that they were pro- 
 duced by snakes joining their heads together and liiss- 
 ing, when a kind of bubble like a ring was formed 
 round the head of them, which the others, continuing 
 to hiss, blew on till it came off at the tail, when it im- 
 mediately hardened into a glass ring. Success was 
 thought to attend any one who was fortunate enough to 
 find one of those snake-stones. They were evidentlj' 
 beads of glass employed by the Druids, under the 
 name of charms, to deceive the vulgar. They are 
 usually of a green color, but some of them are blue, 
 and others variegated with wavy streaks of blue, red, 
 and white. 
 
 Glass utensils have been found in Herculaneum, 
 which city was destroyed by an eruption of Mount 
 "Vesuvius in the reign of Titus (a. d. 79). A plate of 
 glass also found there has occasioned much speculation 
 as to its uses. Similar plates, to which Pliny gave the 
 name of vitrece camer<e, seem to have been employed, 
 in a manner not very well understood by us, as panel- 
 ing for their rooms. It is disputed whether or not 
 ^ glass was used in Herculaneum for windows. 
 
 Dion Cassias and Petronius Arbiter concur in their 
 account of the discovery of malleable or ductile glass 
 by a celebrated Roman architect, whose saocess in the 
 restoration to its position of a portico which leaned to 
 one side, had roused the envy and jealousy of Ti- 
 
 berius, and occasioned his banishment from Rome. 
 Thinking that his discovery wpulft disarm the empe- 
 ror's wrath, the artist appeared before him bearing a 
 glass vessel, which he dashed upon the ground. Not- 
 withstanding the violence of the blow, it was merely 
 dimpled, as if it had been brass. Taking a hammer 
 from Us breast, he then beat it out into its original 
 shape ; but instead of giving him the reward which he 
 had expected, the emperor ordered the unfortunate 
 artisan to be beheaded, remarking, that if his discovery 
 were known, gold would soon be held of as little value 
 as common clay. This is.probablv another version of 
 the story told by Pliny, of an artificer who made the 
 same discovery, and whose workshop was demolished 
 by those who had an interest in preventing the intro- 
 duction of an article which would lower the value of 
 gold, silver, and brass. Although it might not be justi- 
 fiable to give unqualified disbelief to these stories, yet 
 the knowledge we at present possess would restrict the 
 possibility of such a discovery within the narrowest 
 limits. The union of the properties of malleability 
 and vitrification seems to be incompatible. Some me- 
 tallic substances, bj'' the application of intense lieat, 
 are reduced to the state of glass, but at the same time 
 lose their malleability ; which fact would seem to im- 
 ply that it is impossible to communicate the latter 
 property to glass. The extraordinarj' stories above 
 mentioned have, however, been rationally enough ex- 
 plained by modem chemists. It has been observed by 
 Kunckel, that a composition having a glassy appear- 
 ance, and sufliciently pliant to be wrought by the 
 hammer, may be formed ; and by Neumann, that, in 
 the fusion of muriate of silver, a kind of glass is 
 formed, which may be shaped or beaten into different 
 figures, and lasLy be pronounced in some degree duc- 
 tile. Blancourt in his VArt de la Verrerie, mentions 
 an artist who presented a bust of ductile glass to the 
 Cardinal Richelieu, minister of Louis XIII. But he 
 does not seem to have been more fortunate than his 
 predecessors ; for he was doomed to imprisonment for 
 life, for " the politic reasons," as Blancourt with much 
 simplicity observes (we quote from the translation 
 published in 1699), "which, it is believed, the cardinal 
 entertained fi'om the consideration of the consequences 
 of that secret," which no doubt led him to fear lest 
 the established interests of French glass manufacturers 
 might be injured by the discovery. From expressions 
 used by Blancourt in other parts of his work, we 
 tWnk, that by malleable glass, such as was produced 
 by this artist, he understood some composition similar 
 to those which Kunckel and Neumann discovered, and 
 was not very exact in limiting the term to that vit- 
 reous substance which we now generally understand 
 when we speak of glass. 
 
 Tlie precise period at which the making of window ■ 
 glass came into practice is not now certainly Imown. 
 The, Roman windows were filled with a semi-trans- 
 parent substance called lapis specularis, a fossil of the 
 cla^s of mica, which readily splits into thin smooth 
 lamina; or plates. This substance is found in masses 
 of 10 or 12 inches in breadth, and three in thickness ; 
 and, when sliced, very much resembles horn, instead 
 of which it is to this day often employed l)y lantern- 
 makers. The Romans were chieflj' supplied with this 
 article from the island of iCyprus, where it abounds. 
 So good a substitute for glass it is said to have been, 
 that, besides being employed for the admission of 
 light into the Roman bouses, it was also nsed in the 
 construction of hot-houses, for raising and protecting 
 delicate plants ; so that, by using it, the Emperor Ti- 
 berius had cucumbers at his table throughout the 
 whole year. It is still much employed in Russia in- 
 stead of glass for windows. 
 
 There is no positive mention of the use of glass for 
 windows before the time of Lactantius, at the close of 
 the third century. But the passage in that writer 
 which records the fact (De Opif. Dei, cap. 8), also 
 
GLA 
 
 826 
 
 GLA 
 
 shows that the lapis specularis still retained its place. 
 Glass windows are'distinctly mentioned by St. Je- 
 rome, as being used in his time {a. d. 422). After 
 this period we meet with frequent mention of them. 
 Joannes Philippinus (a. d. 630) states that glass was 
 fastened into the windws with plaster. 
 . The Venerable Bede asserts that glass windows 
 were first introduced into England in the year 674, 
 by the Abbot Benedict, who brought over artificers 
 skilled in the art of making window glass, to glaze 
 the church and monastery of Wearmouth. The use 
 of window glass, however, was then, and for many 
 centuries afterward, confined entirely to buildings ap- 
 propriated to religious purposes ; but in the 14th cen- 
 tury it was so much in demand, though still confined to 
 sacred edifices and ornamental purposes, that glazing 
 had become a regular trade. This appears from a con- 
 tract entered into by the church authorities of York 
 Cathedral, in 1338, with a glazier, to glaze the west 
 windows of that structure ; a piece of work which he 
 undertook to perform at the rate of sixpence per foot 
 for white glass, and one shilling per foot for colored. 
 Glass windows, however, did not become common in 
 England till the close of the 12th century. Until this 
 period they were rarely to be found in private houses, 
 and were deemed a great luxurj'', and a token of great 
 magnificence. The windows of the houses were till 
 then filled with oiled paper, or wooden lattices. In 
 cathedrals, these and sheets of linen supplied the place 
 of glass till the 8th centurj' ; in meaner edifices lat- 
 tices continued in use till the 18th. 
 
 The glass of the Venetians was superior to any made 
 elsewhere, and for many years commanded the market 
 of nearly all Europe. Their most extensive glass- 
 works were established at Murano, a small village in 
 the neighborhood of Venice ; but the produce was al- 
 ways recognized by the name of Venetian glass. Ba- 
 ron von Lowhen, in his Analysis of Nohility in its 
 Origin, states that, " so useful were the glass-makers at 
 one period in Venice, and so great the revenue accru- 
 ing to the republic from their manufacture, that, to 
 encourage the men engaged in it to remain in Murano, 
 the senate made them all burgesses of Venice, and 
 allowed nobles to marrj' their daughters ; whereas, if 
 a nobleman married the daughter of any other trades- 
 man, the issue were not reputed noble." 
 
 The skill of the Venetians in glass-making was 
 especially remarkable in the excellence of their mir- 
 rors. Beckman, who has minutely investigated the 
 subject, is of opinion that the manufacture of glass 
 mirrors certainly was attempted, but not with com- 
 plete success, in Sidon, at a very early period ; but 
 that the}' fell into disuse, and were almost forgotten 
 until the 13th century. Previously to this period, 
 plates of polished metal were used at the toilette ; 
 and in the rudeness of the first ideas which suggested 
 the substitution of glass, the plates were made of a 
 deep black color to imitate them. Black foil even, 
 was laid behind them to increase their opacity. The 
 metal mirrors, however, remained in use long after the 
 introduction of their fragile rivals, but at length they 
 wholly disappeared ; a result effected chiefly by the 
 skill of the Venetians, who improved their manufac- 
 ture to such a degree that they speedily acquired a 
 celebrity which secured an immense sale for them 
 throughout all Europe. 
 
 Italy.' — From Italy the art of glass-making found its 
 way into France, where an attempt was made, in the 
 year 1634, to rival the Venetians in the manufacture of 
 mirrors. The first essay was unsuccessful ; but an- 
 other, made in 1665, under the patronage of the cele- 
 brated Colbert, in which French workmen who had 
 acquired a knowledge of the art at Murano were em- 
 ployed, had better fortune. But a few years, after- 
 ward, this establishment,' which was situated in the 
 village of Tourlaville, near Cherbourg in' Lower Nor- 
 mandy, was also threatened with ruin by a discovery 
 
 or rather improvement in the art of glass-making, 
 effected by one Abraham Thievart. This improve- 
 ment consisted in casting glass of much larger dimen- 
 sions than it had hitherto been deemed possible to do. 
 Thevart's first plates were cast at Paris, and astonished 
 ever)' artist by their magnitude. They were 84 inches 
 long and 60 inches wide, whereas none previously 
 made exceeded 45 or 50 inches in length. Thevart 
 was bound by his patent to make all his plates at least 
 60 inches in length and 40 in breadth. In 1695 the two 
 companies, Thevart's and that at Tourlaville, united 
 their interest, but were so unsuccessful, that, in 1701, 
 they were unable to pay their debts, and were, in con- 
 sequence, compelled to discharge most of their work- 
 men, and abandon several of their furnaces. Next 
 year, however, a company was formed imder the man- 
 agement of Antoine d'Agincourt, who re-engaged the 
 discharged workmen ; and the works realized con- 
 siderable profits to the proprietors, a circumstance 
 which is attributed wholly to the prudent management 
 of D'Agincourt. 
 
 France. — Early in the 14th century, the French 
 government made a concession in favor of glass- 
 making, by decreeing that not only should no dero- 
 gation from nobility follow the practice of the art, 
 but that none save gentlemen, or the sons of noblemen 
 should venture to engage in any of its branches, even 
 as working artisans. This limitation was accompa- 
 nied by a grant of a royal charter of incorporation, 
 conveying important privileges, under which the occu- 
 pation became eventually a source of great wealth to 
 several families of distinction. 
 
 England. — It has been said that the manufacture of 
 window glass was first introduced into England in the 
 year 1557. But a contract, quoted by Horace Wal- 
 pole in his Anecdotes of Painting^ proves that this arti-- 
 cle was made in England upward of a century before 
 that period. This curious document is dated in 1439, 
 and bears to be a contract between the Countess of 
 Warwick and John Prudde of Westminster, glazier, 
 whom she employed with other tradesmen, to erect 
 and embellish a magnificent tomb for the earl, her hus-, 
 band. John Prudde is thereby bound to use "no 
 glass of England, but glass from beyond seas ;" a stipu- 
 lation which, besides showing that the art of making 
 window glass was Itnown and practiced in England in 
 the 15th century, seems also to indicate that it was 
 inferior to what could be obtained from abroad. The 
 finer sort of window glass was made at Crutched Friars, 
 London, in 1557. In the year 1635, Sir Eobei-t Mas;^ 
 well introduced the use of coal fuel instead of wood, 
 and procured workmen from Venice ; but manj"" years 
 elapsed before the English manufactories equaled the 
 Venetian and French in the quality of these articles* 
 The first flint glass made in England was manufac- 
 tured at the Savoy House, in the Strand ; and the first 
 plate glass, for looking-glasses, coach-windows, and 
 similar pui'poses, was made at Lambeth b}"- Venetian 
 workmen, brought over in 1670 by the Duke of Buck- 
 ingham. From that period the English glass manu- 
 factories, aided by the liberal bounties granted them 
 in cash upon glass sold for export, became powerfijl 
 and successful rivals of the Venetian and French manu- 
 factories. The bounty on glass exported, which the 
 government paid to the manufacturer, was not derived 
 from any tax by impost, or excise, previously laid j 
 for all such were returned to the manufacturer to- 
 gether with the bounty, thereby lessening the actual 
 cost of the article from 25. to 50 per cent., and enabling 
 the English exporter to compete successf uUyin foreign 
 markets. This bounty provision was annulled during 
 the premiership of Sir Robert Peel, together with all 
 the ex,cise duty on home consumption. , , ,, , ■ 
 
 Scotland.^-Thfi art of glass-making' w^s iptroduced 
 into Scotland in .the reiga of JamesVI. An ,exclu-t 
 sive right to manufacture it, within the kingdom, for 
 the space of 31 years, was granted by. jthat. monarch to 
 
GLA 
 
 827 
 
 GLA 
 
 Lord George Hay, in the year 1610. This right his 
 lordship transferred in 1627, for a considerable sum, to 
 Thi/mas Bobinsont merchant-tailor in London, who 
 again disposed of it for £250, to Sir Robert ManseU, 
 viee-admiral of England. The first manufactory of 
 glass in Scotland, an extremely rude one, was es- 
 tablished at Wemyss in Fife. Kegular worlds were 
 afterwards commenced at Prestonpans, Leith, and 
 Dumbarton. Crown glass is now manufactured at 
 Warrington, St. Helens, Eocleston, Old Swan, and 
 Newtown, Lancashire ; at Birmingham, Hunslet near 
 Leeds, and Bristol. It is also manufactured of ex- 
 cellent quality on the Tyne and Wear. Great im- 
 provements have recently been made in the manufac- 
 ture of erown glass ; and we believe this article, as 
 made in England, is superior in quality to that of any 
 other nation. — E, B. 
 
 Colored Glass. — It has already been stated that the 
 Romans combined the most brilliant colors in their 
 mosaics ; and there can be little doubt that these mo- 
 saics gave the first idea of painted or stained glass for 
 windows in the early Christian churches. In all the 
 early specimens of Norman glass, similar coloring and 
 design are to be traced. Starting from the fourth 
 century, there is frequent mention of colored glass 
 windows by Greek and Latin authors. St. John Chry- 
 sostom and St. Jerome talk of "windows of divers 
 colors ;'* and Lactantius says, " that the soul per- 
 ceives objects through our bodily eyes as through 
 windows garnished with transparent glaSs." The 
 early basilicas were all adorned with colored glass, 
 and the early Christian poets sung in ecstacies of the 
 eifect produced by the windows at sunrise. In the 
 sixth century, Prudentia, speaking of one of these 
 structures, says; — "The magnificence of this temple 
 is truly regal. The pious prince who consecrated it has 
 caused the vaults to be painted at great expense, and 
 has clothed it with golden walls, so that the light of 
 day may repeat the fire of the morning. In the win- 
 dows is placed glass of various colors, which shine like 
 meadows decked in the flowers of spring." An in- 
 scription on Sta. Agnese states, that that basilica, re- 
 built by the Emperor Honorius, was decorated with 
 glass, which produced the most magnificent effect. In 
 the sixth century, Santa Sophia, at Constantinople, 
 also received painted windows, which Paul the Silent 
 praises highlyj Procopius says, that day seemed to 
 be born under the vaults of the teihple ; and after such 
 glowing descriptions it can not be doubted tliat the 
 glass was stained, not colorless. The use of colored 
 ■ glass, however, was not confined to Greece and Italy. 
 It rapidly appeared in Gaul. Gregory of Tours, in the 
 sixth century, also tells us that the church of St. Ju- 
 lien de Brionde, in that town, had colored glass win- 
 dows; and the Bishop of Poictiers, describing Notre 
 Danle of Paris, admired the effect produced by the 
 light falling upon the vaults and walls after passing 
 through the painted glass, and compares it to the first 
 tints of the morning sun. There are many good reasons 
 for supposing that the art of coloring glass is coeval 
 with the art of glass-making itselfi' It is certain that 
 the art was known in Egypt at least 3000 years ago. 
 We have already mentioned the beautiful imitations 
 of precious stones, found adorning mummies which are 
 known to have existed for that time. We meet with 
 frequent mention' of specimens of eastern workman- 
 ship of consummate beaut}', upon which great value 
 was placed. The works of Caylus and Winkelmann 
 fiirhish some striking instances of ancient skill in the 
 formation of pictures by means of delicate glass fibrps 
 of various hues, which, after being fitted together 
 with the utmost nicety, were conglutinated by fusion 
 into a solid mass. The art of combining the various 
 colors so as to produce pictures, such as is now prac- 
 ticed, is comparatively of recent date. The earliest 
 specimens of this kind of work discover a fictitious 
 oining of different pieces of glass, differently tinged, 
 
 and arranged so as, by a species of mosaic work, to 
 produce the figure or figures wanted. The various 
 pieces are held together generally by a vein of lead, 
 run upon the back of the picture, precisely at their 
 junction. See article Glass, £n. Brit. ; Uke's Diet. 
 
 Painted Glass. — In England,, St. Wilfred, who lived 
 early in the 8th century, is said to have been the first 
 to introduce painted glass windows, and for that pur- 
 pose had workmen brought from France or Italy. The 
 first painted glass executed in England was in the time 
 of King John ; previously to this, all stained or paint- 
 ed glass was imported from Italy. The next notice of 
 it occurs in the reign of Henry III. The treasurer of 
 that monarch orders that there be painted on three 
 glass windows in the chapel of St. John, a little Vu'gin 
 Mary holding the child, and the Trinity, and St. John 
 the Apostle. Some time after, he issues another man- 
 date for two painted windows in the hall. Even at 
 this early period, however, England boasted of em- 
 inent native artists in glass painting, among the first 
 of whom was John Thornton, glazier, of Coventry'. 
 This person was employed in the time of Henry IV., 
 by the dean and chapter of York cathedral, to paint 
 the eastern window of that splendid edifice ; and for 
 the beautiful and masterly workmanship which he ex- 
 hibited in this specimen of his skill, he received four 
 shillings per week of regular wages. He was bound 
 to finish the work in less than three years, and to re- 
 ceive, over and above the weeklj' allowance, 100s. for 
 each year ; and if the work was done to the satisfaction 
 of his employers, he was to receive, on its completion, 
 a further sum of £10. From this period downward 
 there have been many skillful native artists, although 
 the Reformation greatly impeded the progress of the 
 art, by banishing the ungodly ostentation of orna- 
 mented windows from churches ; indeed, so serious 
 was this interruption, that the art had nearly alto- 
 gether disappeared in the time of Elizabeth. Among 
 the most eminent glass painters who first appeared 
 upon the revival of the art, were Isaac Oliver, born 
 in 1616, and William Price, who lived aboiit the 
 close of the seventeenth century. This artist was 
 succeeded by a person at Birmingham, who, in 1757, 
 fitted up a window for Lord Lyttleton, in the church 
 of Hagley. To him succeeded one Pecket of York,- 
 who attained Considerable notoriety, but who was en- 
 tirely ignorant of the true principles of the art. 
 
 During all this time, however, and indeed until a 
 comparatively recent date, painted glass was regarded 
 as too costly and too magnificent an article to be other-, 
 wise employed than in decorating religious edifices or 
 the palaces of nobles ; and even in the latter case it 
 was but sparingly used. Modem improvement has 
 placed this beautiful ornament within the reach of 
 very ordinary circumstances ; and the art of staining 
 glass is now. practiced with great success, and is ex- 
 tensivelj' used in decorating our domestic as well as 
 our palatial and ecclesiastical architecture. The col- 
 ors of modern artists, we venture to allege, notwith- 
 standing what is often urged to the contrary, equal in 
 variety and richness those of the ancients, and, with 
 the superior knowledge which we now possess of the 
 principles of drawingj and of bringing several colors 
 together on a single sheet, encouragement alone is 
 wanting to attract artists of talent and inventive ge- 
 nius to the pursuit of the art, and to carry it to a 
 greater height of excellence than it has ever reached 
 in the hands of their predecessors. 
 
 United States. — ^The manufacture of glass was intro- 
 duced into the American States in, 1790 by Robert 
 Hewes, & citizen of Boston, who erected a factoiy in 
 the then forest of New Hampshu'e. The chief aim of 
 Mr, Hewes was to supply window glass, but he did not 
 succeed. Another attempt was made in 1800, when a 
 factory was built in Boston for making crown window 
 glass ; but this was also unsuccessful, till a German 
 named Lint, in 1803, took,. charge «f the works, and 
 
GLO 
 
 828 
 
 GLTJ 
 
 the State of Massachusetts agreed to pay the proprie- 
 tors a bounty on everj' table of window glass they 
 made ; after which the manufacture was carried on 
 successfully, the glass steadilj' improving in quality, 
 and becoming famed through all the States as Boston 
 window glass. The same Company, in the j'ear 1822, 
 erected new and more extensive works at Boston. The 
 mystery attached to the art of glass-making, followed 
 it into America. The glass-blower was considered 
 a magician, and myriads visited the newly-erected 
 works, looking on the man who could transmute 
 earthy and opaque matter into a transparent and bril- 
 liant substance, as an alchemist who could transmute 
 base metal into gold. 
 
 Since the manufacture of flint glass was introduced 
 into the eastern States, there have been above 40 
 companies formed from time to time, nearly 30 of 
 which have proved failures. There are now 10 in 
 operation, two of which are at East Cambridge, three 
 at South Boston, one at Sandwich, three near New 
 York city, and one at Philadelphia. 48,000 tons of 
 coal, C500 tons of silex, 2500 tons ash, nitre, etc., and 
 3800 tons of lead are annually consumed in the manu- 
 facture of flint glass. In the vicinity of Pittsburg, 
 in the western States, are nine manufactories of 'flint 
 glass and 10 of window glass, and in the river towns 
 are 15 window glass factories. The following state- 
 ment of the imports of glass is from oiEcial sources. 
 
 Importations of 
 
 Glass 
 
 AND MANtJFAOTUfiES OF 
 
 Glass 
 
 INTO 
 
 THE United States for tue fiscal Year ending 30Tn 
 
 
 
 
 
 Jhnf,, 1866. 
 
 Whence imported. 
 
 Silvered. 
 
 Paintings 
 on glass, 
 porcelain, 
 
 and 
 colored. 
 
 Polished 
 plate. 
 
 IManufac- 
 turea of, 
 not speci- 
 fied. 
 
 Glass ware. 
 
 Watch crystals. 
 
 Bottles. 
 
 Demijohns. 
 
 Window glass. 
 
 Broad, crown, and 
 
 cylinder. 
 
 Cut. 
 
 Plain. 
 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 DoUni-s. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars, 
 
 Gross. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Gross. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 No. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Sq. kill. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Danish "W. Indies 
 
 
 
 
 56 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 28,667 
 
 16,1.30 
 
 ""8 
 
 8,298 
 
 17,917 
 
 12^6i7 
 
 
 
 "128 
 
 "588 
 
 ■'6,791 
 
 'l',547 
 
 139,284 
 
 '4,129 
 
 Bremen 
 
 260,940 
 
 3 620 
 
 40,616 
 
 87^871 
 130,316 
 
 80,110 
 
 888 
 
 1,044 
 
 83,746 
 
 9 347 
 
 9,007 
 
 "226 
 
 "720 
 
 4,237 
 
 11,294 
 
 45,910 
 
 10,382 
 
 61,819 
 
 2,860 
 
 40'6',861 
 55,012 
 
 Holland 
 
 25,96t 
 3,83T 
 
 200 
 468 
 
 178 
 
 38,487 
 
 4,181 
 
 68 
 
 773 
 
 22,799 
 
 11,496 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 806 
 19 
 
 1,692 
 125 
 
 
 
 18,2o'7',56o 
 1,408,882 
 
 Belginm 
 
 En^and 
 
 23,06T 
 
 1^042 
 
 26^939 
 
 1,331 
 
 6,778 
 
 
 
 Scotland 
 
 '321 
 
 
 
 651 
 
 2,442 
 
 
 
 Canada 
 
 
 
 
 
 499 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 120 
 
 ""1 
 
 ""1 
 
 
 
 British N. A. Poss 
 
 
 
 
 
 7T 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 British "W. Indies. 
 
 '"iB 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ""7 
 
 "'24 
 
 
 
 
 
 British Honduras. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 France on Atlantic 
 
 i6,292 
 
 1^198 
 
 214'9 
 
 15 
 
 29,i83 
 
 10^785 
 
 18,789 
 
 "827 
 
 2,360 
 
 11,682 
 
 69,393 
 
 82,927 
 
 '6,881 
 
 648',i26 
 
 2'o'674 
 
 FranceonMedit. . 
 
 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 
 
 518 
 
 1,976 
 
 
 
 
 
 Philippine Isls... 
 
 
 
 
 
 56 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cuba 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 '"is 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 l'2',63S 
 
 "561 
 
 Porto Etco 
 
 
 
 
 
 "ik 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .... 
 
 
 .•. . 
 
 
 Portugal 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "'60 
 
 "426 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tuscany 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 '"io 
 
 ""5 
 
 
 
 42 
 
 406 
 
 
 
 "sio 
 
 ■"io 
 
 Austria 
 
 
 
 
 
 4,296 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ..«.. 
 
 Turkey in Asia. . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 185 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hayti 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mexico 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ""s 
 
 "'12 
 
 
 
 
 
 New Granada 
 
 
 
 
 
 "■'78 
 
 
 "160 
 
 "'io 
 
 "'27 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ""2 
 
 " "7 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ohm 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■l',650 
 
 "646 
 
 
 
 Ecuador. 
 
 
 
 
 
 "n 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 China 
 
 '"si 
 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 380,720 
 
 43,678 
 
 473,206 
 
 108,416 
 
 80,978, 74,976 
 
 16,104 
 
 '80,036 18,902| 96,292 
 
 87,189 
 
 19,414 
 
 16,467,904 
 
 488,487 
 
 Grloves (Ger, Ilandschuhe ; Fr. Gantz ; It. Guantl; 
 Sp. Guantes ; Rus. Mukawizii, Pertschatki, GoUzii\ 
 well known articles of dress used for' covering the 
 hands, usually made of leather, but frequently also 
 of cotton, wool, silk, etc. The leather used in the 
 manufacture of gloves is not, properly speaking, tan- 
 ned, but prepared by a peculiar process that renders 
 it soft and pliable. Some sorts of leather gloves ad- 
 mit of being washed, and others not. It is, however, 
 impossible to obtain any trustworthy accounts of the 
 numbers produced. Gloves are sometimes sewed by 
 machiner}'^ ; but this is done only to improve the work 
 by rendering the stitches more correctly equidistant, 
 as it is not cheaper th.an manual labor. Limerick 
 used to be famous for the manufacture of a sort of 
 ladies' gloves, called chicken gloves. Large quanti- 
 ties of cotton gloves are made at Nottingham and 
 . Leicester. 
 
 The use of gloves is of high antiquity. There is 
 reason to believe the ancient Persians wore them, 
 since it is mentioned in the Cyropmdia of Xenophon 
 that on one occasion Cyrus went without his gloves ; 
 and we know they were used by the Greeks and Ro- 
 mans in certain kinds of tnanual labor. During the 
 middle ages, gloves were worn by ecclesiastical digni- 
 taries and others as a mark of distinction ; but as civ- 
 ilization advanced they gradually became common to 
 all classes of the community. The glove manufac- 
 ture has long been an important branch of industry. 
 The materials employed are very various, including 
 the skin of the chamois, kid, lamb, beaver, doe, elk, 
 and other animals, besides cotton, wool, silk, linen 
 thread, etc. Glove-leather is prepared by curing the 
 skins with alum, which renders them soft and pliable. 
 
 The kid gloves of France continue to maintain their 
 superiority over the kid gloves of British make, and 
 are very largely imported into this country. This 
 also holds true of the ordinary French leather, the 
 durability of which, combined with superiority of 
 style and fitting, has occasioned the French boots and 
 shoes to be preferred to those of British manufacture. 
 Machinery is sometimes employed in sewing and point- 
 ing leather gloves, though only on a very limited scale 
 in this country, almost the whole being made b}-- the 
 hand, and for the most part by females ; but in Paris 
 it is much used, and is said to have had the effect of 
 reducing the price of gloves 30 per cent, below theii 
 former wholesale prices. 
 
 Glue, inspissated animal jelly, much used as a ce- 
 ment, especially for wood. It is made from various 
 animal substances, according to the uses for which it 
 is designed. Common glue is prepared ifrom the par- 
 ings of hides, hoofs, and other offal, which are first 
 digested in limewater to free them from grease and all 
 extraneous matter, then washed in water, and after- 
 ward boiled. The viscid solution thus obtained is 
 first strained through a wicker basket, and then gent- 
 ly evaporated to a proper consistence. The heat is 
 generally so regulated as to keep the liquid near the 
 boiling point, without entering into ebullition. The 
 liquid glne is poured into flat molds ; and when it has 
 become firm, it is cut up into square pieces, and placed 
 on a coarse net to dr}'. Glue improves by age, and 
 that is considered as the best which, if steeped in cold 
 water for 3 or 4 days, swells without melting, and 
 resumes its former dimensions after being dried. The 
 clear pale brown glue is the best, though the darker 
 and less pure is often ignorantly preferred. A trans- 
 
GLY 
 
 829 
 
 GOL 
 
 parent and beautiful glue is made of the shreds and 
 parings of vellum, fine white leather, or of isinglass. 
 See also Gelatine. 
 
 A preparation of glue, convenient on account of the 
 facility with which it is rendered fit for immediate 
 use, is made by adding a small portion of any good 
 spirit, or of wood naphtha, to melted glue. It is to 
 be kept in a well-corlced bottle, and when required for 
 use maj' readily be liquefied by placing the bottle in 
 hot water. It answers all the purposes of ordinary 
 glue. 
 
 Indian Glue, as it is called, consists of common glue 
 melted with a little sugar, and molded for convenience 
 into small flat cakes. When used, the edge of the 
 calce is moistened, and rubbed upon the surfaces to be 
 united. It is a slight cement, Used only foj such pur- 
 poses as mending prints, etc. 
 
 Jeffery's Marine Glue. — This powerful cement has 
 been successfully used as a substitute for pitch in the 
 seams of declts, as well as for strengthening large 
 timbers for naval purposes,; It is said to consist of 
 caoutchouc dissolved in cs^ naphtha, to which shellac 
 (previously dissolved in wood naphtha ?) in proper pro- 
 portions is afterward added. The joinings of built 
 masts secured with this cement are said to have 
 resisted separation by the wedge after ten years' 
 service. 
 
 Liquid Glue, — Under this name is frequently sold a 
 cement consisting of shellac dissolved in wood naph- 
 tha.— E. B: 
 
 G-luten, a viscid, elastic, graj'ish-colored substance 
 which exists in greater or less quantity in most plants 
 that afford farina, as well as in the leaves of many 
 esculent vegetables (such as the cabbage for instance), 
 but more particularly in wheat, which of all the cere- 
 alia appears to contain, in proportion to its bulk, the 
 greatest amount of nutiiment, a property derived from 
 its abounding in this substance. Gluten may be read- 
 ily obtained from wheaten flour by making it into 
 a paste, and then worldng the mass with the hands 
 below a stream of water, when the starch and other 
 soluble matter are carried away, and the gluten re- 
 mains in a pure state. In its properties, gluten bears 
 a strong resemblance to animal substances ; and, in- 
 deed-, it is found by chemical analysis to contain a 
 large portion of nitrogen. Hence it may be consid- 
 ered as the most animalized of vegetable products. 
 
 Glycerin. Oils and fats, whether of animal or 
 vegetable origin, are compounds of certain acids, such 
 as the stearic, margaric, and oleic, with a base named 
 glycerin. (See Oil.) Fattj' substances may, in 
 fact, be represented as salts of glycerin, and as such 
 are capable of being resolved into their proximate 
 elements like other salts. Thus, in the process of 
 soap-making, a fat or an oil is saponified by means of 
 potash or soda ; that is, the caustic alkali unites with 
 the stearic, margaric, or oleic acid, and glycerin is 
 set free. If for example, the stearate of glycerin be 
 treated with caustic soda, the stearic acid unites with 
 the Soda, and forms stearate of soda, while the glycer- 
 in is liberated, A fatty body may also be decom- 
 posed by means of oxyd of lead, as in the process for 
 malting diachylon plaster (Emplastrum plumbi). By 
 boiling a mixture of finely pulverized or newly pre- 
 cipitated oxj'd of lead in Water with any ordinary fat 
 or oil, the lead unites with the fatty acids, and forms 
 a solid compound, while the glycerin dissolves in the 
 water. The solution contains a considerable portion 
 of lead, which maj' be separated by passing sulphur- 
 etted hydrogen through it, and filtering ; the solution 
 is then evaporated to the consistence of syrup, and 
 the evaporation is completed in vacuo, in the presence 
 of sulphuric acid, until it ceases to lose weight. 
 
 The uncrystallizable inodorous syrup thus obtained 
 has a sweet taste, and was hence termed by Scheele, 
 who discovered it in 1789, the sweet principle of oils, 
 or glycerin, from yXti/tUf, sweet ; but it was not until 
 
 Chevreul undertoolc the investigation of fatty sub- 
 stances in general that the'true chemical relations of 
 this body were understood.^ — E. B. 
 
 Gobelin Tapestry. Tapestry, so called from 
 a noted house in Paris, in the suburb of St. Marcel ; 
 formerly possessed by famous wool-dyers, whereof the 
 chief, called GUes Gobelin, who lived in the reign of 
 Francis I., is said to have found the secret of dyeing 
 scarlet, which was from him called the scarlet of the 
 GobelinS ; the house and river that runs by it also 
 took the same name. This house was purchased by 
 Louis XIV., for a manufactorj' of all manner of curi- 
 ous works for adorning the royal palaces, under the 
 direction of Monsieur Colbert, especially tapestry ; de- 
 signs for which were drawn by the celebrated Le 
 Brun, by appointment of the king, A. d. 1666. — Du 
 Fresnoy. 
 
 Gold (Ger. Gold ; Du. Goud; Da. and Sw. Guld; 
 Fr. Or; It. and-Sp. Oro; Port. Giro, Ouro; /Rva. 
 Soloio ; Pol. Zl(fto; Lat. Aurum; Arab. Tibr and 
 ZeheJ) ; Sans. Swarna ; Malay Mas), the most precious 
 of all the metals, seems to have been Imown from the 
 earliest antiquity. It is of an orange red, or reddish 
 yellow color, and has no perceptible taste or smell. Its 
 lustre is considerable, yielding only to that of platinum, 
 steel, silver, and mercury. It is rather softer than 
 silver. Its specific gravity is 19 '3. No other sub- 
 stance is equal to it in ductility and malleability. It 
 may be beaten out into leaves so thin that Sne grain 
 of gold will cover 56J- square inches. These leaves 
 are only 1-282000 of an inch thick. But the gold leaf 
 with which silver wire is covered has only l-12th 
 of that thickness. An ounce of gold upon silver is 
 capable of being extended more than 1300 miles in 
 length. Its tenacity is considerable, though in this 
 respect it yields to iron, copper, platinum, and silver. 
 From the experiments of Seckingen, it appears that a 
 gold wire 0'078 ■ inch in diameter is capable of sup- 
 porting a weight of 150-07 lbs. avoirdupois without 
 breaking. It melts at 32° of Wedgwood's pyrometer. 
 When melted, it assumes a bright bluish green color. 
 It expands in the act of fusion,, and consequently con- 
 tracts while becoming solid more than most metals ; a 
 circumstance which renders it less proper for casting \ 
 in molds. — Thomson's Chemistry. 
 
 Gold is, next to iron, the most widely-diffused metal 
 on the face of the earth. It occurs in granite, the 
 oldest rock known to us, and in all the rocks derived 
 from it ; it is also found in the vein-stones which tra- 
 verse other geological formations. From other metals 
 it is readily distinguished by its reddish-yellow color, 
 and from metallic compounds of a similar tint by its 
 high specific gravity, which varies from 19*2 when it is 
 fused, to 19"4 or 19.5 when it is hammered. Its chemical 
 equivalent on the hj'drogen scale is generally taken 
 as 98-5, but some prefer to double this and make its 
 atomic weight 197. Its symbol is Au, from the Latin 
 Aurum. Unlike the great majority of the mefails, it 
 does not rust, i. e., oxydize in the air, neither does it, 
 if pure, tarnish by exposure. In this respect, it con- 
 trasts strikingly with silver, which, though indifferent 
 to the rusting action of oxygen, is rapidly blackened 
 by the sulphuretted hydrogen of the atmosphere. Ex- 
 posed gilding tarnishes, but only because it is alloyed 
 with silver and copper, on which this prejudicial gas 
 can act. 
 
 Gold is readily crystallizable, and always assumes . 
 one or other of the symmetrical shapes, such as the 
 cube, or regular octahedron, which characterizes the 
 simplest crystallographic system. It is softer than 
 silver, and nearly as soft as lead, so that in tenacity it 
 is inferior to copper, silver, iron, and platinum, and a 
 wire 1-lOth of an inch in diameter will support, with- 
 out breaking, only 191 lbs. On the other hand, it is 
 the most ductile and malleable of the metals. One 
 grain can be hammered into leaves sufficient to cover 
 56f square inches, and the thickness of the gold-leaf 
 
GOL 
 
 830 
 
 GOL 
 
 will not then exceed' l-;282000 of an inch. When of 
 this temper it is transpiient, and transmits a faint but 
 beautiful bluish-green light." Gold melts at a high 
 white heat, and remains unchanged in the hottest fur- 
 naces. In the focus of a lens, however, it is vaporized 
 by the sun's rays ; and the oxyhydrogen blow-pipe or 
 a large voltaic battery can also develop heat sufficient 
 to volatilize it. It contracts in the act of solidifying 
 from a state of fusion, and can not, in consequence, be 
 made to receive sharp impressions by casting it in 
 molds. Coins, accordingly, and plate are stamped or 
 embossed, and afterward ebased and carved, if neces- 
 sary, by cutting tools. 
 
 Gold does not dissolve in any of the ordinary acids, 
 such as the nitric, sulphuric, hydrochloric, or acetic, 
 but a rare acid, the selenic, can dissolve it. Its best 
 solvent is a mixture of hydrochloric acid, with some 
 oxydizing agent like nitric acid or oxyd of manganese, 
 which causes the hydrochloric acid to part with its 
 chlorine. If the gold be in leaf, chlorine, at once 
 unites with it, and the resulting chlorid is readily 
 soluble in water. Bromine acts in the same way on 
 the metal ; and it may also be dissolved by boiling it 
 with sulphur, potash, and water. The older chemists 
 speculated on the possibility of Moses having dissolved 
 the golden calf of the Israelites in this way. Gold is 
 also soluble in mercury, and advantage is largely taken 
 of this property of quicksilver to dissolve the precious 
 metal from its ores. The gold-amalgam resulting from 
 the union of the metals is also extensively employed 
 in gilding. The most important chemical compounds 
 of gold are the following, in referring to which the 
 equivalent of gold is taken as 98'5. 
 
 The chlorids' are two in number. Tlie sesqui- 
 chlorid, AU.CI3, is prepared in the mode above men- 
 tioned. It forms orange-red crystals, but in aqueous 
 solution appears yellow. It is very easily decomposed 
 by heat, light, organic substances, and all deoxydizing 
 or reducing agents. A solution of this salt in sul- 
 phuric ether is sometimes used for gilding steel. The 
 aqueous solution is employed in photography, and 
 from it nearly all the other useful preparations of gold 
 are made. When this salt is heated cautiously to 
 about 392° Fahr., it loses two thirds of its chlorine, 
 and becomes the sub-chlorid AU2CI. 
 
 The oxyds con'espond to the chlorids, and are ob- 
 tained from them. The only important one is the 
 sesqnioxyd AujOs, prepared by precipitating the cor- 
 responding chlorid by magnesia, and washing the 
 precipitate with nitric acid and water. This oxj'd is 
 of a yellow or brown color, and by solution in potash, 
 in cyanide of potassium, or sulphite of soda, forms a 
 liquid which is used in gilding. A solution of the 
 oxyd in hyposulphite of soda is employed to pro- 
 tect and make more visible daguerreotype portraits 
 on silver. The sulphurets of gold are not important. 
 
 Gold is readily identified by chemical tests. Wlien 
 its color and specific gravity can not be appealed to as 
 means of identification, its behavior with the stronger 
 liquor re-agents is had recourse to. It resists the 
 solvent action of the most powerful acids or alkalies 
 taken singly, but at once dissolves in acfua regia (a 
 mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acids), or in any 
 similar liquid containing free chlorine. The resulting 
 solution is tested — 1. By adding to it a solution of 
 protosulphate of iron. This causes the gold to sepa- 
 rate in the condition of a very fiine powder, which re- 
 mains for hours suspended in the liquid, although it 
 is more than nineteen times heavier than watar. The 
 finely-divided metal appears brown by reflected, and 
 bluish-green by transmitted light, and if dried and 
 rubbed by any smooth solid, acquires the characteristic; 
 color and lustre of the metal in mass. 2. By neutral- 
 izing the solution with carbonate of potass or soda, and 
 boiling with excess of oxalic acid, when the gold sep- 
 arates in highly characteristic splendent flakes. 3. By 
 adding to the solution diluted, a few drops of solution 
 
 of protoohlorid of tin, when a rich purple precipitate 
 falls. Verj- minute traces of gold may be discovered 
 in this way. The precipitate, which has gone for cen- 
 turies by the name of Purple of Cassius, appears to be 
 a compound of oxyd of gold and oxyd of tin (AU2O, 
 SnsOj). It is used to stain glass ruby-red, and to give 
 to porcelain and enamel a rose-pink, crimson, and pur- 
 ple color. 
 
 Gold is found only in the metallic state, sometimes 
 crystallized in the cube, and its derivative forms. It 
 occurs also in threads of various sizes, twisted and in- 
 terlaced into a chain of minute octahedral crj^stals ; as 
 also in spangles or roundish grains, which, when of a 
 certain magnitude, are called pepitas. The small grains 
 are not fragments broken from a greater mass ; but 
 they show,- by their flattened ovoid shape and their 
 rounded outlines, that this is their original state. The 
 specific gravitj' of native gold varies from 13'3 to 17"7. 
 Humboldt states that the largest pepita known was 
 one found in Peru weighing about 12 kilogrammes 
 (26 J lbs. avoirdupois) ; but masses have been quoted 
 in the province of Quito which weighed nearlj' four 
 times as much. Another ore of gold is the alloy with 
 silver, or argental gold, the electrum of Pliny, so called 
 from its amber shade. It seems to be a definite com- 
 pound, containing in 100 parts, 64 of gold and 36 of 
 silver. The mineral formations in which this metal 
 occurs are the crystalline primitive rocks, the compact 
 transition rocks, the trachytic and trap rocks, and al- 
 luvial grounds. It never predominates >ito such a 
 degree as to constitute veins by itself. It is either dis- 
 seminated, and as it were impasted in stony masses, or 
 spread out in thin plates, or grains on the surface ; or, 
 lastl)', planted in their caviities,' under the shape of 
 filaments or crystallized twigs. The minerals- com- 
 posing the veins are either quartz, calc. spar, or sul- 
 phate of baryta. The ores that accompany the gold 
 in these veins are chiefly iron pj'rites, copper pyrites, 
 galena, blende, and mispickel (arsenical pyrites). 
 
 In the ores called auriferous pyrites, this metal oc- 
 curs either in a visible or invisible form ; and though 
 invisible in the fresh pyrites, becomes visible by its 
 decomposition ; as the hydrated oxyd of iron allows 
 the native gold particles to shine forth on their reddish- 
 brown ground, even when the precious metal may con- 
 stitute only the five millionth part of its weight, as 
 at Rammelsberg, in the Hartz. In that state it has 
 been extracted with profit ; most frequently by amal- 
 gamation with mercury, proving that the gold was in 
 the native state, and not in that of a sulphuret. 
 
 Gold exists among the primitive strata, disseminated 
 in small grains, spangles, and crystals. Brazil affords 
 a remarkable example of this species of gold mine. 
 Beds of granular quartz, or micaceous specular iron, 
 in the Sierra of Cocaes, 12 leagues beyond Villa Rica, 
 which form a portion of a mica^slate district, include a 
 great quantity of native gold in spangles, which in this 
 ferruginous rock replace mica. Gold has never been 
 observed in any secondary formation, but pretty abund- 
 antly in its true and primarj' locality among the trap- 
 rocks of igneous origin ; implanted on the sides of the 
 fissures, or disseminated in the veins. 
 
 The auriferous ores of Hungar}' and Transylvania, 
 composed of tellurium, silver pyrites, or sulphuret of 
 silver, and native gold, lie in masses or powerful veins 
 in a rock of trachyte, or in a decomposed feldspar sub- 
 ordinate to it. Such is the locality of the gold ore of 
 Konigsberg, of Telkebanya, 'between Eperies and To- 
 kay, in Hungary, and probably that of the gold ores 
 of Kapnick, Felsobanya, etc., in Transylvania; an ar- 
 rangement nearly the same with Avhat occurs in equa- 
 torial America. The auriferous veins of Guanaxuato, 
 of Real del Monte, and of Villalpando, are similar to 
 those of Schemnitz, in Hungarj', as to magnitude, rel- 
 ative position, the nature of the ores they include, and 
 of the rocks they traverse. These districts have im- 
 pressed all mineralogists with the evidence of the 
 
GOL 
 
 831 
 
 GOL 
 
 action of volcanic fire. Breislak and Hacqiiet have 
 described the gold minea of Transylvania as situated in 
 the crater of an ancient voleanOs It is certain that the 
 traehj'tes, which form the principal portions of the 
 rocks including gold, are now almost universally re- 
 garded as of igneous or volcanic origin. It would 
 seem, however, that the primary source of the gold is 
 not in these rocks, but rather in the sienites and 
 greenstone porphyries below them, which in Hungarj' 
 and Transylvania are' rich in great auriferous deposits ; 
 for gold has never been found in the trachyte of the 
 Euganean Mountains, of the mountains of the Vicen- 
 tin, of those Of Auvergne ; all of which are superposed 
 upon granite rooks, barren in metal. 
 
 Finally ; if it be true that the ancients worked mines 
 of gold in the island of Ischia, it would be another ex- 
 ample, and a very remarkable one, of the presence of 
 this metal in trachytes of an origin evidently volcanic. 
 ^ Gold is, however, much more common in the allu- 
 vial grounds than among the primitive and pyrogenous 
 rocks just described. It is found disseminated under 
 the form of spangles, in the silicious, argillaceous, S.nd 
 ferruginous sands of certain plains and rivers, especially 
 in their re-entering angles, at the season of low water, 
 and after storms and temporary floods. It has been 
 supposed that the gold found in the beds of rivers had 
 been torn out by the waters from the veins and primi- 
 tives rocks, which they traverse. Some have even 
 searched, but in vain, at the source of auriferous 
 streams, for the native bed of this precious metal. 
 The gold in them belongs, however, to the grounds 
 washed by the waters as they glide along. This opin- 
 ion, suggested at first by Delius, and supported by De- 
 born, Guettard, Eobitant, Balbo, etc., is founded upon 
 just observations. 1. The soil of these plains contains 
 frequentljr, at a certain depth, and in several spots, 
 spangles of gold separable by washing. 2. The beds 
 of the auriferous rivers and streamlets contain more 
 g-old after storms of rain upon the plains than in any 
 other circumstances. 3. It happens almost always 
 that gold is found among the sands of rivers only in a 
 very circumscribed space ; on ascending these rivers, 
 their sands cease to afford gold ; though, did this metal 
 come from the rocks above, it should be found more 
 abundantly near the source of the rivers. Thus it is 
 known that the Oreo contains no gold, except from 
 the Pont to its junction with the Po. The Ticino af- 
 fords gold only below the Lago Maggiore, and, con- 
 sequently, far from the primitive mountains, after 
 traversing a lake, where its course is slackened, and 
 into which whatsoever it carried down from these 
 mountains must have been deposited. The Ehine 
 gives more gold near Strasburg than near Basle, 
 though the latter be much closer to the mountains. 
 The sands of the Danube do not contain a grain of 
 gold, while this river runs in a mountainous region ; 
 that is, from the frontiers of the bishopric of Passau 
 to Efferding ; but its sands become auriferous in the 
 plains below. The same thing is true of the Ems ; 
 the sands of the upper portion of this river, as it flows 
 imtong tlie mountains of Styria, include no gold ; but 
 from its entrance into the plain at Stej'er till its em- 
 bouchure in the Danube its sands become auriferous, 
 and are even rich enough to be washed with profit. 
 
 The greater part of the auriferous sands in Europe, 
 Asia, Africa, and America, are black or red, and con- 
 sequently ferruginous ; a remarkable circumstance in 
 the geological position of alluvial gold. M. Napoine 
 supposes that the gold of these ferruginous grounds is 
 due to the decomposition of auriferous pyrites. The 
 auriferous sand occurring in Hungary almost always 
 In the neighborhood of the beds of lignites, and the pet< 
 rifled wood, covered with gold grains, found buried at a 
 depth of 55 yards in clay, in the mine of Vorospatak, 
 near Abrabanya, in Transylvania, might lead us to 
 presume that the epoch of the formation of the aurif- 
 erous alluvia is not remote from that of the lignites. 
 
 The same association of gold ore and fossil wood occurs 
 in South America, at Mooo. Near the village of 
 Lloro have been .discovered, at the depth of 20 feet, 
 large trunks of petrified, trees, surrounded with frag- 
 ments of trap-rocks, interspersed with spangles of 
 gold and platinum. But the alluvial soil afibrds like- 
 wise all the characters of the basaltic rocks ; thus, in 
 France, the Cfeze and the Garden, aui-iferous rivers, 
 where they afford most gold, flow over ground appar- 
 ently derived from the destruction of the trap roclcB, 
 which occur in situ higher up the countrj'. This fact 
 had struck Reaumur ; and this celebrated observer had 
 remarked that the sand which more immediately ac- 
 companies the gold spangles in most rivers, and par- 
 ticularly in the Rhone and the Rhine, is composed, 
 lilcB that of CeyloA: and Expailly, of black protoxyd 
 of iron and small grains of rubies, corindon, hyaci^ith, 
 etc. Titanium has been observed more recently. It 
 has, lastly, been remarked that the gold of alluvial 
 formations is purer than that extracted from rocks. 
 
 Principqtl Gold Mines, — Spain anciently possessed 
 mines of gold in regular veins, especially in the prov- 
 ince of Asturias; but the richness of the American 
 mines had made them to be neglected. The Tagus, 
 and some other streams of that country, were said to 
 roll over golden sands. France contains no workable 
 gold mines ; but it presents in several of its rivers au- 
 riferous sands. There are some gold mines in Pied- 
 mont ; particular!}' the veins of auriferous pyrites of 
 Macugnagna, at the foot of Monte Rosa, lying in a 
 mountain of gneiss ; and although they do not con- 
 tain 10 or 11 grains of gold in a cwt., they have 
 long defrayed, the expense of workiiig them. On the 
 southern slope of the Pennine Alps, from the Simplon 
 and Monte, Rogja to the Valley of Aoste, several aurife- 
 rous districts and rivers occur. Such are the torrent 
 Evenson, which has afforded much gold by washing ; 
 the Oreo, in its passage from the Pont to the Po ; tlie 
 reddish grounds over which this little river runs for 
 several miles, and the hUls in the neighborhood of 
 Chivasso, contain gold spangles in considerable quan- 
 tity. 
 
 Ireland.^ — In the county of "Wicklow, in Ireland, a 
 quartzose and ferruginous sand was discovered not 
 long ago, containing many particles of gpld, with pep' 
 itas or solid pieces, one of which weighed 22 ounces. 
 No less than 1000 ounces of gold were collected. 
 
 Switzerland. — There are auriferous sands in some 
 rivers of Switzerland, as the Reuss and the Aar. In 
 Germany no mine of gold is worked, except in the 
 territory of Salzburg, amid the chain of mountains 
 which separates the Tyrol and Carinthia. 
 
 Hunffary. — The mines of Hungary and Transylva- 
 nia are the only gold mines of any importance in Eu- 
 rope ; they are remarkable for their position, the 
 peculiar metals that, accompany them, and the prod- 
 uct, estimated at about 1,430 pounds avoirdupois 
 annually. The principal ones are in Hungary. 1. 
 Those of Konigsberg. The native gold is dissemi- 
 nated in ores of sulphuret of silver, which occur in 
 small masses and in veins in a decomposing feldspar 
 rock, amid conglomerate of pumice, constituting a 
 portion of the trachytic formation. 2. Those of Bor- 
 son, Schmeitz. And, 3. Of Felsobany ; ores also of 
 auriferous sulphuret of silver, occur in veins of sienitc 
 and greenstone porphjTy. 4 Those of Telkebanya, to 
 the south of Kaschau, are in a deposit of auriferous 
 p3-rites amid trap rocks of the most recent formation. 
 In Transylvania the gold mines occur in veins often of 
 great magnitude, six, eight, and sometimes forty yards 
 thick. These veins have no side plates or wall stones, 
 but abut without intermediate gangues at the primi- 
 tive rock. They consist of carious quartz, ferriferous 
 limestone, heavy spar, fluor spar, and sulphuret of 
 silver. The mine of Kapnik deserves notice, where 
 the gold is associated with orpiment, and that of 
 Vorospatak in granite rocks ; those of Offenbanj-a, 
 
GOi. 
 
 832 
 
 GOL 
 
 Zalatna, and Nagy-Ag, where it is associated -with 
 tellurium. The last is in a sienitic rock on the limits 
 of the trachj'te. 
 
 Northsrh Europe. — In Sweden, the mine of Edelfors 
 in Smoland, may be mentioned, where the gold occurs 
 native and in auriferous pyrites ; the veins are a 
 brown quartz, in a mountain of foliated homstone. 
 In Siberia, native gold occurs in a hornstone at 
 Schlangenberg or Zmeof, and at Zemeino-garsk in the 
 Altai Mountains, accompanied with many other ores. 
 
 Russia. — The gold mine of Berezof in the Oural 
 Mountains has been long known, consisting oi partially 
 decomposed auriferous pyrites, disseminated in a vein 
 of greasy quartz. About 1820, a very rich deposit 
 of native gold was discovered on the eastern side of 
 the Oural Mountains, disseminated at some yards' 
 depth in an argillaceous loam, and accompanied with 
 the debris of rocks which usually compose the aurife- 
 rous alluvial soils, as greenstone, serpentine, protoxj'd 
 of iron, corundum, etc. The rivers of this district 
 possess auriferous sands. The product of the gold 
 mines of the Oural, in 1845, was 11,808 pounds avoir- 
 dupois, and in 1846, 11,327 pounds ; that of Siberia, in 
 1845, 37,576 pounds, and in 1846, 48,868 pounds. In 
 these accounts the pood has been reckoned at 86 lbs. 
 It is believed that in 1847 and 1849 the yield was still 
 larger, but it must since have materially fallen off, as 
 it is stated in Erman's Archives that the yield in 1851 
 will not exceed 20,000 pounds troy. 
 
 In Asia, and especially in its southern districts, 
 there are many mines, streams, rivers, and wastes, 
 which contain this metal. The Pactolus, a srnall 
 river of Lydia, rolled over such golden sands that it, 
 was supposed to contain the origin of the wealth of 
 Croesus. But these deposits are now poor and for- 
 gotten. Japan, Formosa, Ceylon, Java, Sumatra, 
 Borneo, the Philippines, and some of the islands of the 
 Indian Archipelago, are rich in gold mines. Those of 
 Borneo are worked by the Chinese in an alluvial 
 soil on the western coast, at the foot of a chain of vol- 
 canic mountains. Little or no gold comes into Eu- 
 rope from Asia, because its servile inhabitants place 
 their fortune in treasure, and love to hoard up that 
 precious metal. Numerous gold mines occur on the 
 two slopes of the chain of the Cailas Mountains in the 
 Ound&s, a province of Little Thibet. The gold lies in 
 quartz veins which traverse a very crumbling, reddish 
 granite. 
 
 Africa was, with Spain, the source of the greater 
 portion of gold possessed by the ancients. The gold 
 which Africa still brings into the market is always in 
 dust, showing that the metal is obtained by washing 
 the alluvial soils. None of it is collected in the north 
 of that continent ; three or four districts only are re- 
 markable for the quantity of gold they produce. The 
 first mines are those of Kordofan, between Darfour 
 and Abyssinia. The negroes transport the gold in 
 quills of the ostrich or vulture. These mines seem to 
 have been known to the ancients, who considered 
 Ethiopia to abound in gold. Herodotus relates that 
 the king of that countrj' exhibited to the embassadors 
 of Cambyses all their prisoners bound with golden 
 chains. The second and chief exploitation of gold 
 dust is to the south of the great desert of Sahara, in the 
 western part of Africa, from the mouth of the Senegal 
 to the Cape of Palms. The gold occurs in spangles, 
 chiefly near the surface of the earth, in the bed of 
 rivulets, and always in a ferruginous earth. In some 
 places the negroes dig wells in the soil to a depth of 
 about 40 feet, unsupported by any props. They do 
 not follow any vein ; nor do they construct a gallerj'. 
 By repeated washings they separate the gold from the 
 earthy matters. The same district furnishes also the 
 greater part of what is can-led to Morocco, Fez, and 
 Algiers, by the caravans which go from Timbuctoo on 
 the Niger, across the great desert of Sahara. The gold 
 which arrives by Sennaar at Cairo and Alexandria 
 
 comes from the same quarter. From Mungo Park's 
 description, it appears that the gold spangles are 
 found usually in a ferruginous small gravel, buried 
 under rolled pebbles. The third spot in Africa where 
 gold is collected is on the south-east coast, between 
 the 25th and the 22d degree of south latitude, opposite 
 to Madagascar, in the coiintry of Sofala, Some per- 
 sons think that this was the Icingdom of Ophir whence 
 Solomon obtained his gold. 
 
 There is little gold in the northern part of America. 
 In 1810, a mass of alluvial gold, weighing 28 pounds, 
 was found in the gravel pits of the creeks of Eockhole, 
 district of Lebanon, in North Carolina. ' 
 
 South America. — Previously to the important dis- 
 coveries in California, Brazil, Choco, and Chili, were 
 the regions which furnished most gold. The only 
 contributor of Chilian objects to the great exhibition 
 was one who forwarded a lump of gold ore weighing 3 
 cwt., which was brought up from a deep mine on the 
 back of a miner, from a depth of 45 yards beneath the 
 surface. 
 
 The gold of Mexico is in a great measure contained 
 in the argentiferous veins, so numerous in that coun- 
 try, whose principal localities are mentioned under the 
 article Silver. The silver of the argentiferous ores 
 of Guanaxuato contains one 360th of its weight of 
 gold ; the annual product of the mines being valued at 
 from 2,640 to 3,300 lbs. avoirdupois. 
 
 Oaxaco contains the only auriferous veins exploited 
 as gold mines in Mexico ; they traverse the rocks of 
 gneiss and mica slate. 
 
 All the rivers of the province of Caracas, to ten de- 
 grees north of the line, flow over golden sands. 
 
 Peru is not rich in gold ores. In the provinces of 
 Huailas and Pataz, this metal is mined in veins of 
 greasy quartz, variegated with red, ferruginous spots, 
 which traverse primitive rocks. The mines called 
 pacos de oro, consist of ores of iron and copper oxyds, 
 containing a great quantity of gold. 
 
 All the gold furnished by New Grenada (New Co- 
 lumbia) is the product of washings established in alju- 
 vial grounds. The gold exists in spangles and in 
 grains, disseminated among fragments of greenstone 
 and porphyry. At Choco, along with the gold and 
 platinum, hyacinths, zircons, and titanium occur. 
 There has been found, as already stated, in the aurif- 
 erous localities, large trunks of petrified trees. The 
 gold of Antioquia is 20 carats fine, that of Choco, 21 ; 
 and the largest lump or pepita of gold weighed about 
 27J pounds avoirdupois. The gold of Chili also occurs 
 in alluvial formations. Brazil does not contain any gold 
 mine, properly so called ; for the veins containing the 
 metal are seldom worked. It is in the sands of the 
 Mandi, a branch of the Bio Dolce, at Catapreta, that 
 the auriferous ferruginous sands were first discov- 
 ered in 1682. Since then they have been found 
 almost everywhere at the foot of the immense chain 
 of mountains, which runs nearly parallel with the 
 coast, from the 5th degree south to the 30th, It is 
 particularly near Villa Rica, in the environs of the 
 village Cocaes, that the numerous washings for gold 
 are established. The pepitas occur in diff'erent forms, 
 often adhering to micaceous specular iron. But In 
 the province of Minas Geraes, the gold occurs also in 
 veins, in beds, and in grains, disseminated among the 
 alluvial loams. It has been estimated in annual prod- 
 uct, by several authors, at about 2800 pounds avoir- 
 dupois of fine metal. We thus see that almost all the 
 gold brought" into the market comes from alluvial 
 lands, and is extracted by washing. The gold coin 
 of the ancients was made chiefly out of alluvial gold, 
 for in those early times the metallurgie arts were not 
 sufficiently advanced to enable them to purify it. The 
 gold dust from Bambouk, in Africa, is of 22jt carats 
 fine, and some from Morocco is even 23. The gold of 
 Giron, in New Grenada, is of 23|- carats — being the 
 purest from America. " For those who trafiic in gold," 
 
GOL 
 
 833 
 
 GOL 
 
 says Humboldt, it is sufficient to know the place where 
 the metal has been collected, to know its title." 
 
 Importations op Manufaotukes of Gold and Sil'V'ek 
 INTO Tire CTnited States, foe the Teak Ezq-DiNa June 
 30TII, 1856. 
 
 WHBNCB mPORTED, 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Holland 
 
 Belgium 
 
 England ,. 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Canada 
 
 France on Atlan, 
 Franco on Medit. 
 
 Sardinia 
 
 Tuscany 
 
 Austria 
 
 Hayti.. 
 
 New Granada. .. 
 
 China 
 
 Total 
 
 Dolltvrs. 
 
 1,208 
 18,075 
 
 Epau- 
 
 lace, 
 wings, 
 tnsaels, 
 
 etc. 
 
 Dollarfl, 
 282 
 
 22,186 
 
 18,820 
 
 64,784 
 
 Gold 
 and 
 
 silver 
 leaf. 
 
 4,946 
 
 16,402 
 
 Jewelry, 
 real or 
 Imita- 
 tions of. 
 
 Dollars. 
 1,BT9 
 
 89,140 
 
 281,848 
 
 70 
 
 602 
 
 198,490 
 
 29 
 
 169 
 
 1,711 
 
 1,756 
 504 
 
 475,685 
 
 144 
 
 2,151 
 
 50 
 78 
 
 1,907 
 
 7,268 
 
 other- 
 wise. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 56 
 
 50,483 
 
 119,982 
 
 198,211 
 
 ""5 
 1,864 
 2,571 
 
 "438 
 877 
 
 868,958 
 
 Mann- 
 fiicturea 
 of, not 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 277 
 
 4,260 
 
 41 
 
 30 
 
 47,968 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 21,620 
 
 "204 
 .867 
 
 ■"14 
 
 729 
 
 2,188 
 
 77J4? 
 
 Nbw Gold — Nine Teahs 1849-1856. PRODncnoir 
 
 OaLUTORNIA, VlOTOKIA, AND NeW SoUTH "WaLES. 
 
 Production of Gold in Victoria. 
 
 Year,. 
 
 Ounces Troy. 
 
 Aseertalnod 
 Exports. 
 
 aiarginal 
 
 addition of 10 
 
 per cent. 
 
 Valua of 
 Total Produce. 
 
 1851 
 
 1852 
 1858 
 1854 
 1856 
 1856 
 Total 
 
 126,000 
 1,75(1,000 
 2,475,000 
 2,360,000 
 8,230,000 
 ,?,613,000 
 
 £440,000 
 6,185,000 
 8,664,000 
 8;255,000 
 11,808,000 
 12,643,000 
 
 £44,000 , 
 618,000 
 866,000 
 826,000 
 1,130,000 
 1,264,000 
 
 £484,000 
 6,748,000 
 9,530,000 
 9,080,000 
 12,433,000 
 18,907,000 
 
 18,554,000 
 
 47,440,000 
 
 4,742,000 
 
 62,182,000 
 
 Peoduotion of Gold in New Soittu Wales. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Ounces Troy. 
 
 Ascertained 
 Exports. 
 
 Mal-^Ital 
 
 addition of 10 
 
 per cent. 
 
 Value of 
 Total Produce. 
 
 1851 
 1852 
 1853 
 1854 
 1855 
 1856 
 Total 
 
 184,000 
 O28,O0O ' 
 1,509,000 ' 
 220,000 
 59,000 
 29,000 
 
 £468,000 
 
 8,600,000 
 
 1,781,000 
 
 773,000 
 
 210,000 
 
 100,000 
 
 £47,000 
 
 860,000 
 
 : 178,000 
 
 77,000 
 
 21,000 
 
 10,000 ■ 
 
 £615,000 
 
 8,960,000 
 
 1,959,000 . 
 
 850,000 
 
 231,000 
 
 110,000 
 
 1,979,000 
 
 £6,932,000 
 
 £693,000. 
 
 £7,625,000 1 
 
 Pboduction of Gold in California. 
 
 Yoare. 
 
 Ounces Troy. 
 
 Ascertained 
 Exports. 
 
 Marginal 
 
 addition of 10 
 
 per cent, 
 
 VniuB of 
 Total Produce. 
 
 1849 
 1850 
 1851 
 1852 
 1863 
 1854 
 1856 
 1856 
 
 460,000 
 1,4-80,000 
 2,357,000 
 8,343,000 
 3,571,000 
 4,029,000 
 8,830,000 
 4,000,000 
 
 £1,612,000 
 6,000,000 
 8,250,000 
 11,700,000 
 12,500,000 
 14,100,000 
 13,400,000 
 14,000,000 
 
 £161,000 
 600,000 
 825,000 
 1,170,000 
 1,250,000 
 1,410,000 
 1,340,000 
 1,400,000 
 
 £1,773,000 
 5,500,000 
 9,076,000 
 12,870,000 
 18,750,000 
 15,510,000 
 14,740,000 
 16,400,000 
 
 •Total 
 
 28,020,000 
 
 £80,562,000 
 
 £8,056,000 
 
 £88,618,000 1 
 
 Totals — California and Aitstralia combined. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Ounces Troy. 
 
 Ascertained 
 ' -' Exports. 
 
 Marffinnl 
 
 addition of 1-0 
 
 per cent. 
 
 Value of 
 TotalJ'roduce. 
 
 1848-9 
 
 1850 
 1851 
 1852 
 1833 
 1854 
 1855 
 1856 
 
 460,000 
 1,480,000 
 2,617,000 
 6,123,000 
 6,555,000 
 6,607,000 
 7,119,000 
 7,642,000 
 
 £1,612,000 
 
 5,000,000 
 9,158,000 
 21,435,000 
 22,945,000 
 28,128,000 
 24,918,000 
 26,748,000 
 
 £161,000 
 500,000 
 916,000 
 2,148,000 
 2,294,000 
 2,812,000 
 2,491,000 
 2,674,000 
 
 £1,778,000 
 5,500,000 
 10,074,000 
 28,578,000 
 25,2-39,000 
 25,440,000 
 27,404,000 
 29,417,000 
 
 Total 
 
 8M,568,000 (£184,934,000 
 
 £18,491,q00 l£148,425,000 I 
 
 Of the general results arising from the large increase 
 in the production of gold since 1849, Mr. Tooke, in his 
 History of Prices (1857), saj-s : 
 
 " (1.) That from first to last the whole of the mani- 
 fold and powerful effects produced by the new gold in 
 the countries of its production, resolve themselves into 
 economical changes springing in rapid succession, and 
 in an infinitude of forms, from the expenditure of 
 trebled or quadrupled incomes obtained by the labor- 
 Ggg 
 
 ers. And (2.) That hitherto the whole of the compli- 
 cated processes by which the new gold has become 
 distributed — ift the first instance, among the population 
 of the gold regions, and in the second instance, over 
 considerable portions of the commercial world — are to 
 be explained by the application of one simple principle, 
 viz. : That the distribution has taken place in the pre- 
 cise proportion in which the extended, demand for 
 commodities, originally proceeding from the earliest 
 laborers who picked up the gold, has gradually set in 
 motion increased numbers of laborers and increased 
 amounts of capital, to supply the requirements, not 
 merely of the population of the gold countries, but 
 also more or less of the population of all the countries 
 prodficing raw materials or manufactured goods upon 
 which incomes are at present expended. 
 
 "Springing up around these two general results, 
 there are a multitude of subsidiary, which, if we could 
 thoroughly pursue them to the end of their course, we 
 should discover to be tributaries and offshoots of the 
 two greater principles. 
 
 " Foremost in this second category are the proofs 
 and illustrations which meet us everywhere, that the 
 changes flowing from the gold discoveries ar^ princi- 
 pallj' indebted for the rapidity of their effects to the 
 single circumstance, that of all known substances 
 (silver in some respects excepted) gold is the only 
 commodity which admits of being extracted from the 
 soil in a perfectly marketable state ; in large quanti- 
 ties, and by the rudest labor ; and of being at once 
 employed as a universal instrument of purchase of in- 
 trinsic value. A suddenly-increased supply of no 
 other commodity would produce effects so decided and 
 rapid, for the simple reason that (say) a tenfold quan- 
 tity of no other commodity could find an Instantaneous 
 and impatient market. The Burra-Burra copper mine 
 in South Australia, for example, might have become 
 ten times as productive as it had been previously, 
 without producing any effects more violent or rapid 
 than, first, an increase of dividend to the shareholders ; 
 and, gradually, a fall in the price of the kinds of ma- 
 chinerj' and hardware in which copper is the principal 
 metal. 
 
 " In the next place the rise of two or three hundred 
 per cent., which occurred at once in the gold countries 
 in the prices of all kinds of foreign commodities, was 
 speedily corrected by the impulse imparted, almost in 
 a single day, to the resources available for increased 
 production in those foreign countries. And, after the 
 first excitement had abated, the increased production 
 has continued year by year, because the effective de- 
 mand, in the form of new gold, has continued in the 
 gold countries, year by year. But there has been this 
 most important collateral effect, viz., that, year by 
 year, the circle within which the demand for commod- 
 ities goes on increasing, is a circle of rapidly-expand- 
 ing area. Originally, but for a short time only, it 
 included merely the gold countries ; it then embraced 
 those particular districts — Lancashire and Birmingham 
 for example — best able to meet the most urgent de- 
 mands for special articles ; it then became extended 
 to the districts which supplied the raw materials of 
 those articles ; and pursuing the same order of pro- 
 gression, the area of the increased demand for com- 
 modities, or what is a better term, the area ivithin 
 which increased incomes are expended, is necessarily 
 wider in each succeeding month. The same general 
 reasoning applies to the process by which the wages of 
 labor have been reduced in the gold countries by 
 means of immigration. 
 
 " The discovery of the new gold was, in its imme- 
 diate region, the same thing, practically, as rendering 
 labor four times as effective as it had been in the pro- 
 duction of those commodities not merely possessing 
 intrinsic value, but instantly exchangeable all over 
 the world for all other commodities possessing intrin- 
 sic value. The immigrants drawn to the gold coun- 
 
tiOL 
 
 834 
 
 GOL 
 
 tries bj- the prospects of high wages and sudden 
 fortune, transferred, in some specific proportion, the 
 benefits of this increased efficacy of labor to the coun- 
 tries from "whence they started , and in two modes, 
 namely : in the first place, by establishing at once, as 
 was seen in this country in 1852-1853, a prodigiously- 
 increased price for emigrant vessels, and therefore for 
 the services of all persons connected with ship-build- 
 ing ; and, in the second place, by leaving behind them 
 vacancies which could only be supplied by the absorp- 
 tion of labor previously a burden in some form to the 
 community, as was also seen in 1852 and 1853 by the 
 diminution in the number of destitute persons relieved 
 under the Poor Law. 
 
 "We seem to arrive, then, at a further generaliza- 
 tion, namely: (1.) That within the gold countries 
 the efiects of the discoveries have been to create, rap- 
 idly and largely, accumulations of real wealth and real 
 resources. The adult population of those countries 
 has been increased three or four fold within as many 
 years. The erection of houses, the cultivation of the 
 soil, the reclamations of waste lands, the construction 
 of railways, the embellishment of towns, the provision 
 of harbors and docks, the foundation of schools and 
 universities, and, more conspicuous than all, the 
 establishment almost at a single stride of an enormous 
 foreign trade — ^in a few words, the vigorous prosecu- 
 tion of every enterprise, and the swift advancement 
 of every art which can render a country opulent and 
 powerful — are results which have been nearly all 
 accomplished in the gold countries, by the exportation 
 to other countries, year by year, of the supplies of new 
 gold. (2.) That within those other countries to which 
 the gold has been sent in exchange for commodities, 
 the continuous effective demand for commodities has 
 produced the same effects, but in a limited degree, 
 which have taken place in Australia and California. 
 In the United Kingdom, for example, the continuance, 
 year by year, of an effective demand for commodities, 
 has led to improvements and extensions in the means 
 of production ; has led to accumulations of capital as 
 savings out of the larger incomes of capitalists and 
 laborers ; and has diminished within the country the 
 pressure of unemploj'ed and destitute persons. 
 
 " tt is manifest, then, that the influx of the 
 £174,000,000 of gold since 1848, has accomplished some- 
 thing verj' different from, and something very much 
 beyond, the barren addition of a considerable percent- 
 age to the previously-existing amount of metallic cir- 
 culation in this and other countries, and has also 
 accomplished changes far more important than any 
 barren increase (merely by reason of enlarged quan- 
 tity) in the prices of commodities. It is, moreover, 
 manifest, unless all the previous facts and reasonings 
 are erroneous, that the real and vital changes which 
 have taken place, are additions to the real wealth of 
 the world, by means of greater production and more 
 active enterprise ; and that the elements of circulation 
 and price have so far not been ultimate results, but 
 inferior and intermediate agencies employed." See 
 Tooke's History of Prices (London, 1857) ; see, also, 
 Coras and Pkeciohs Metals, post; Bankers' Mag., 
 1851-1857. 
 
 Gold-beating. The art of gold-beating is of 
 great antiquity, being referred to by Homer; and 
 Pliny states that one ounce of gold was extended to 
 750 leaves, each leaf being four fingers square, which 
 is three times the thickness of the ordinary leaf gold 
 of the present time. The ancient Peruvians made 
 very thin sheets of gold, and nailed them together on 
 the walls of their temples of worship ; on the colons 
 of the Theban mummies, specimens of original leaf- 
 gilding are met with where the gold is in so thin a 
 state that it resembles modem gilding. The art seems 
 to have been practiced in India, judging from the rude 
 specimens of gilding at Tippo Saib's palace at Ban- 
 galore. In modem times it has been practiced in the 
 
 capitals of the principal commercial countries of Eu- 
 rope. In England it was confined to London until 
 within the present centur}-. It has been introduced 
 into Scotland and the United States of America within 
 that period. It is now practiced in several towns in 
 England, and to a small extent in Ireland, at Dublin 
 only. The manufacture being attendant upon an ad- 
 vanced state of the arts, it is only found in old estab- 
 lished countries, and is not yet practiced in any of the 
 British colonies'. From the existence here of some 
 now obsolete tools, similar to those at present in use at 
 Paris, it would appear to have traveled to England 
 from that quarter. The art has nowhere been so per- 
 fected as in London ; but of late years, from inter- 
 course with English gold-beaters, efforts have been 
 made on the continent, with the aid of English gold- 
 beaters' skin, to rival the extreme fineness of the En- 
 glish product. 
 
 The ordinary size of a leaf of gold is 3i inches, 
 for the production of 2000 leaves of which from 
 18 to 19 dwts. of gold were allowed to the workmen 
 fifty years since in London, but now, owing to the 
 improvement in the quality of the skin, and superior 
 skill on the part of the workmen, not more than an 
 average of 16 dwts. are required, and with very skill- 
 ful workmen it is sometimes accomplished with 14 
 dwts. This, however, is not to be taken as an}' test 
 of the extreme malleability of gold ; it is only the 
 point to which it is desirable to attain for commercial 
 purposes. 
 
 Experiments have been made to ascertain to what 
 degree of thinness gold and silver could he reduced : 
 it was found that one grain of gold was spread to the 
 extent of 75 square inches, and the same weight of 
 silver to the still more extraordinary dimensions of 98 
 square inches. Taking one cubic inch of gold at 4900 
 grains, it will be found that the gold was the 307,650th 
 part of an inch in thicltness, or about 1200 times thin- 
 ner than ordinary printing paper. Thus, if this num- 
 ber of leaves of gold were placed on one another, they 
 would constitute a pile an inch high ; the same number 
 of leaves of paper would form a pile half the height of, 
 the Monument of London. The silver, though spread 
 over a much larger suface, was thickest, owing to the 
 difference in its specific gravity ; but, calculated by 
 weight, silver is the most malleable metal with which 
 we are acquainted, considerably exceeding that of 
 gold. This experiment does not, however, determine 
 the extent of the malleability of either metal, as the 
 means employed to test it were found to fail before 
 there was any appearance of the malleability of the 
 metals being exhausted. 
 
 The gold used by the gold-beater is variously alloyed 
 according to the variety of color required. Pine gold 
 is commonly supposed to be incapable of being reduced 
 to thin leaves. This is an error. It is objectionable 
 for commercial purposes on account of its greater cost. 
 It also adheres on one part of a leaf touching another,' 
 thus causing a waste of labor by the leaves being 
 spoiled ; but for work exposed to the weather it is 
 much preferable, as it is more durable, and does not 
 tarnish or change color. The specimens of gold leaf 
 exhibited by Mr. E. S. Marshall, gold-beater of Lon- 
 don, at the great exhibition of 1851, and for which the 
 prize medal was awarded to him, were twelve in num- 
 ber, and embraced a regular gradation in color from 
 red down to nearly white, viz., red, pale red, extra 
 deep, deep, orange, lemon, deep pale, pale, pale-pale, 
 deep party, party, and fine gold. The deeper colors 
 were alloyed with from 12 to 16 grs. of copper per oz., 
 but without any silver, as any alloy of silver with this 
 quantity of copper would considerably impair the mal- 
 leability. The middle colors contained from 12 to 20 
 grs. of silver, and from 6 to 8 grs. of copper to the 
 ounce ; the paler golds contained from 2 to 20 dwts. of 
 silver to the ounce, but no copper, for the same reason 
 that the silver was omitted in the red golds. 
 
GOL 
 
 835 
 
 GOL 
 
 The process of gold-beating is tlius conducted. The 
 gold having been alloyed according to the color de- 
 sired, it is melted in a crucible, at a higher temperature 
 than is simply necessary to fuse it, as its malleability 
 is improved by exposure to a greater heat; sudden 
 cooling does not interfere with its malleable proper- 
 ties, differing in this property from some other metals. 
 It is then cast into an ingot, and flattened into a ribbon 
 of li inch wide and 10 feet in length to the ounce. 
 After being flattened it is annealed and cut into small 
 pieces of about 6 grs. each, and placed between the 
 leaves of a cutch, which is about half an inch thick 
 and SJ inches square, containing about 160 leaves of a 
 tough paper manufactured in France. Formerly fine 
 vellum was used for this purpose. The cutch is beaten 
 on for about 20 minutes with a 17-pound hammer, 
 which rebounds by the elasticity of the skin, and 
 saves the labor of lifting, by which the gold is spread 
 to the size of the cutch ; each leaf is then talcen out, 
 and cut into four pieces, and put between the skins of 
 a shoder 4J inches square and f ths of an inch thick, 
 containing about 700 skins, which have been worn out 
 in the finishing process. The shoder requires about 
 two hours' beating upon with a 9-pouod hammer. As 
 the gold will spread unequally, the shoder is beaten 
 upon after the larger leaves have reached the edges. 
 The effect of this is, that the larger leaves come out 
 of the edges in a state of dust. This allows time for 
 the smaller leaves to reach the full size of the shoder, 
 thus producing a general evenness of size in the 
 leaves. 
 
 Each leaf is again out into four pieces, and placed 
 between the leaves of a mold composed of about 900 
 of the finest skins, 5 inches square and f ths of an inch 
 thick ; this is the last and most difficult stage of the 
 process ; and on the fineness of the skin and judgment 
 of the workman the perfection and thinness of the leaf 
 of gold depend. During the first hour the hammer is 
 allowed to fall principally upon the centre of the mold. 
 This causes gaping cracks upon the edges of the 
 leaves, the sides of which readily coalesce and unite 
 without leaving any trace of the union after being 
 beaten upon. At the second hour, when the gold is 
 about the 150,000th of an inch in thickness, it for the 
 first time permits the transmission of the rays of light. 
 In pure gold, or gold but slightly alloyed, the green 
 rays are transmitted ; and in gold highly alloyed with 
 silver, the pale violet rays pass. The mold requires 
 in alt about four hours' beating with a 7-lb. hammer, 
 when the gold will have arrived at the ordinary' thin- 
 ness for the gold-leaf of commerce. It is then taken 
 out of the mold, and the rough edges are cut off by 
 slips of the rattan fixed in parallel grooves of an in- 
 strument called a wagon, the leaf being laid upon a 
 leathern cushion for that purpose. The leaves thus 
 prepared are placed into a book capable of holding 
 25 leaves each, which have been rubbed over with red 
 ochre to prevent the gold clinging to the paper, and is 
 used for gilding picture-frames, books, and for numer- 
 ous other ornamental purposes. 
 
 The drjmess of the cutch, shoder, and mold, is a 
 matter of extreme delicacy. They require to be hot- 
 pressed every time they are used, although they may 
 be used daily, to remove the moisture which they ac- 
 quire from the atmosphere, except in extremely frosty 
 weather, when they acquire so little moisture that then 
 a difficulty arises from their over-dryness ; the bril- 
 liancy of the gold is diminished, and it spreads very 
 slowly under the hammer^ On the contrar;', if the 
 cutch or shoder be damp, the gold will become that 
 which is technically termed hollow or sieve-like ; that 
 is, it is pierced with innumerable small microscopical 
 holes ; and in the molds in its more attenuated state it 
 will become reduced to a pulverulent state. This con- 
 dition is more easily produced in aUo3'ed golds than in 
 fine gold. It is necessary that each skin of the mold 
 should be rubbed over with calcined gypsum (the 
 
 fibrinated variety) each time the mold may be used, in 
 order to prevent the adhesion of the gold to the sur- 
 face of the skin in the process of beating. 
 
 Dentist Gold is gold leaf carried no further in the 
 process than that of the cutch, and should be perfectly 
 pure gold. By the above process silver is beaten, but 
 not so thin, the inferior value of the metal not render- 
 ing it commercially desirable to bestow so much labor 
 upon it. Copper, tin, zinc, palladium, lead, cadmium, 
 platinum, and aluminium can be beaten into thin 
 leaves, but not to the extent of gold or silver. 
 
 Shell Gold, used in painting and illuminating, is 
 made by grinding gold leaves with honey, and after- 
 ward separating the honey from the powdered gold by 
 means of water. When the honey is washed away, 
 the gold may be put on paper or kept in shells. When 
 used, it is commonly diluted with gum water. The 
 German gold powder, prepared in this manner from 
 the Dutch gold leaf, is generally used ; and when it 
 is well secured with varnish, it answers the end in 
 japanners' gilding tolerably well. 
 
 Gold Size, for burnished gilding, is prepared of 1^ 
 pounds of pipe clay, J an ounce of red chalk, ^ of 
 an ounce of black lead, 40 drops of sweet oil, and 3 
 drams of pure tallow. The clay, chalk, and black 
 lead are to be ground very fine, separately, in water, 
 then mixed together; the oil and tallow are next 
 added, and the mixture is ground to ^ due con- 
 sistence. 
 
 Gold Thread is formed of flattened gold wire wrap- 
 ped closely over a thread of j'ellow silk, by means of 
 a wheel and iron bobbins. 
 
 Gold Wire is made by taking a cylindrical ingot of 
 silver which has been superficially coated with gold, 
 and drawing it successively through a series of holes 
 in a hardened steel plate, each of which is a degree 
 smaller than the preceding hole, and proceeding thus 
 until the requisite degree of fineness is attained. It 
 may be observed that in this process, however fine be 
 the wire, its gilded surface exhibits no flaw even when 
 viewed by the microscope. Flattened gold mire is the 
 same wire after it has been passed between rollers of 
 polished steel. 
 
 Gold Coast, coast of Africa. The whole coast 
 has been arbitrarily divided into five parts : 1. The 
 Sierra Leone district, from Cape Verga to Cape Me- 
 surado. 2. Malagueta, Pepper or Grain Coast, from 
 Cape Mesurado to Cape Palmas. 3. The Ivory Coast, 
 from Cape Palmas to Cape Three Points, i. The 
 Gold Coast, from Cape Three Points to the Eiver 
 Volta. 5. The Slave Coast, or Benin district, from 
 the Eiver Volta to the Cameroons. 
 
 Gold Coast, a country of Guinea, west Africa, ex- 
 tending along the Atlantic Ocean, from the Eiver 
 Volta on the east, to Cape Lahu on the west, and 
 bounded north by Ashantee. It was discovered by the 
 Portuguese, who founded an establishment at Fort 
 Elmina in 1482. The English first settled here in 
 1664. The countrj' is fertile ; deer are plenty in the 
 interior, and fish along the coast. Legislature of the 
 British settlements composed of a governor and a 
 legislative council of four members. Salary of lieu- 
 tenant-governor, £800. The principal European es- 
 tablishments are Cape Coast Castle, Accra, Axim, 
 Dixcove, Elmina, and the establishments lateh' ceded 
 by Denmark to Great Britain. 
 
 The following returns to Parliament (as published 
 by the London Shipping and Mercantile Gazette), show 
 the increase of exports to the West Coast of Africa, 
 and of importations from the same coast : 
 
 Year.. ■ 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Totol. 
 
 1850 
 
 £639,429 
 654,543 
 533,725 
 901,402 
 958,809 
 
 £605,958 
 794,810 
 707,024 
 749,873 
 905,634 
 
 £1,246,887 
 1,449,858 
 1,240,749 
 1,660,776 
 1,864,443 
 
 1861 . , 
 
 1852 
 
 1S53 
 
 1854 . . - .. 
 
 
GOL 
 
 836 
 
 GOL 
 
 This is independent of the British colonies of Sierra 
 Leone, the trade of which amounted in 1854 to $1,421,- 
 865, and of the British possessions on the Gold Coast 
 and the River Gambia, amounting to $1,547,285 more ; 
 and of those at the Cape of Good Hope and in south 
 Africa, swelling the amount $8,383,090 more ; making 
 in all an aggregate of over $23,000,000 in 1854, for the 
 western coast of Africa entire. 
 
 It has of late been urged that a line of steamers 
 should be established between the United States and 
 the western coast of Africa, to afford greater facilities 
 for commercial intercourse ; and the planting of settle- 
 ments in the interior, as now proposed, remote from 
 the malarious influence of the coast, furnish additional 
 reasons for persevering in this laudable design. 
 
 Gold. Discovery in California. In September, 
 1847, one Captain Suter or Sutter was a bold, prosper- 
 ous, enterprising, intelligent settler in Upper Califor- 
 nia. He was a Swiss by birth ; he had served Charles 
 X. as one of the Swiss Guard at the Tuilleries ; he 
 emigrated to Missouri after the Bourbon revolution of 
 1830 5 he removed thence to the Oregon territory in 1836 ; 
 he made a further advance, in 1839, to California, 
 where he built a fort named New Helvetia on the 
 River Sacramento ; he gradually accumulated around 
 him 4000 oxen, 1500 horses and mules, 2000 sheep, a 
 vast acreage of land under grain crops, and two trad- 
 ing vessels in the river ; he had his fort supplied with 
 12 pieces of artillery, and defended by a garrison of 
 70 men ; and he was thus, in all probability, the 
 wealthiest and most influential man beyond the Rocky 
 Mountains. The month above named was an import- 
 ant one to this bold captain, and to the world at large. 
 He contracted with a Mr. Marshall to construct a saw- 
 mill near a pine forest. The supply of water to this 
 mill was so situated as to wash down much mud and 
 gravel from the higher course of the stream ; and Mr. 
 Marshall, watching the progress of his works one day, 
 saw some glittering particles in this mud. He formed 
 his own conclusions of the nature of these shining 
 morsels ; and having shown some of them to the- cap- 
 tain, it was agreed to keep the matter a secret for a 
 time. Such secrets, however, do not keep ; they will 
 not keep ; it was soon noised abroad that gold had 
 been discovered at the American fork of the Sacra- 
 mento, and a gold fever thereupon sprang up. A few 
 laborers collected some of the gold-dust, and took it 
 for sale to San Francisco, at which town the Sacra- 
 mento enters the Pacific \ hundreds flocked up the 
 river ; Indians were hired, soldiers and sailors de- 
 serted, shop-keepers closed their shops, and San Fran- 
 cisco became almost abandoned, 
 
 Golden Fleece, in Mytltology^ the fleece of the 
 ram upon which Phrixus and Helle crossed the sea to 
 Colchis, and which, being sacrificed to Jupiter, was 
 hung upon a tree in the grove qf Mars, guarded hy 
 two brazen-hoofed bulls, and a monstrous dragon that 
 never slept. The fleece was carried off' by Jason and 
 the Argonauts. Many authors have endeavored to 
 show that this fable is an allegorical representation of 
 some real history ; while others explain it by the 
 profit of the wool trade to Colchis, or the gold which 
 was gathered in the rivers of that country by means 
 of fleeces. 
 
 Gold-Lace. Gold-lace is a thin covering of gold 
 applied to a surface of silver, which again has a found- 
 ation of silk, The silken threads for making this 
 material are- wound round with gold wire, so thickly as 
 to conceal the silk ; and the making of this gold wire 
 is one of the most singular mechanical operations im- 
 aginable. In the first place, the refiner prepares a 
 solid rod of silver, about an inch in thickness ; he heats 
 this rod, applies upon the surface a coating of gold-leaf, 
 burnishes this down, applies another coating, burnishes 
 this down, and so on, until the gold is about one hun- 
 dredth part the thickness of the silver. ' Then the rod 
 is subjected to « train of processes which brings it 
 
 down to the state of a fine wire ; it is passed through 
 holes in a at«el plate, lessening step by step in diam- 
 eter. The gold never deserts the silver, but adheres 
 closely to it, and shares all its mutations ; it was one 
 hundredth part the thickness of the silver at the be- 
 ginning, and it maintains the sanie ratio to the end. 
 
 As to the thinness to which the gold-coated rod of 
 silver can be broughtj the limit depends on the delicacy, 
 of human sldll ; but the most wondrous example ever 
 known was brought forward by the late Dr. WoUaston, 
 a man of extraordinary'' tact in minute experiments. 
 This was an example of a solid gold wire, without any 
 silver. He procured a small rod of silver, bored a hole 
 through it from end to end, and inserted in this hole 
 the smallest gold wire he could procure ; he subjected 
 the silver to the nsual wire-drawing process, until he 
 had brought it to the finest attainable state ; it was, in 
 fact, a silver "vvire as fine as a hair, with a gold wire in 
 its centre. How to isolate this gold wire was the next 
 point : he subjected it to warm nitrous acid, by which 
 the silver was dissolved, leaving a gold wire one 
 thirty-thousandth of an inch in thickness — perhaps th^ 
 thinnest round wire that the hand of man has yet pro- 
 duced. But this wire, though beyond all comparison 
 finer than any emploj^ed in manufactures, does not ap-; 
 proach in thinness the film of gold on the surface of 
 the silver in gold-lace. It has been calculated that 
 the gold on the very finest silver wire for gold-laoe is 
 not more than one third of one millionth part of an inch 
 in thickness j that is, not above one tenth the thick- 
 ness of ordinary leaf-gold ! 
 
 Gold-Leaf is an extremely thin tissue of gold, 
 prepared by beating the gold metal until the requisite 
 degree of fineness has been obtained. It is found that 
 a minute percentage of silver and copper is necessarj' 
 to give the gold for gold-leaf a proper malleable qual- 
 ity — a percentage of perhaps one in 70 or 80. The re- 
 finer manages this alloy, and brings the costly product 
 to a certain stage of completion ; he melts the gold 
 and the cheaper alloys in a black-lead crucible; l.e 
 pours the molten metal into an ingot mold, six or 
 eight inches long ; he removes the solidified and cooled 
 ingot from its mold, and passes it repeatedly between 
 two steel, rollers until it assumes the thickness of a 
 ribbon ; and this ribbon, aboxit one eight hundredth of 
 an inch in thickness, and presenting a surface of about 
 500 square inches to an ounce, passes next into the 
 hands of the gold-beater. 
 
 The working-tools, the process, and the products of 
 a gold-beater, are all remarkable. That puzzling ma- 
 terial, "gold-beaters' skin," is an indispensable aid 
 to him ; it is a membrane of extreme thinness and 
 delicacy, but yet tough and strong, procured from the 
 intestines of the ox ; 800 pieces of this skin, four 
 inches square, constitute a packet with which the gold- 
 beater labors ; and thus he proceeds : 150 bits of rib- 
 bon-gold an inch square, are interleaved with as many 
 vellum leaves four inches square ; they are beaten for 
 a long time with a ponderous hammer on a. smooth 
 marble slab, until the gold has thinned and expanded 
 to the size of the vellum. How the workman manages 
 so as to beat all the pieces equally, and yet beat none 
 into holes, he alone can answer ; it is one of the mys- 
 teries of bis craft. The gold is liberated from its vel- 
 lum prison, and each piece cut i,nto four ; the 150 have 
 thus become 600, and these are interleaved with 600 
 pieces of gold-beaters' skin, which are then packed 
 into a compact mass. Another beating then takes place 
 — more careful, more delicate, more precise than the 
 former — until the gold, expanded like the silk-worm, 
 as far as its envelop will admit, requires to be again 
 released. The leaves are again divided into four, by 
 which the 600 become 2400; these are divided into 
 three parcels of 800 each, andeacl^ parcel is subjected to 
 a third beating. Heavy as the hammers are. there are 
 yet degrees of heaviness : first, a sixteen- pounder 
 gives its weighty thumps, then a twelve-poundjer, and 
 
GOM 
 
 837 
 
 GOO 
 
 in this last operation a hammer of ten pounds is em- 
 ployed. See Gold Beatino. 
 
 Gold-weighing Machine. Mr. Cotton's ma^ 
 chine seems, by general consent, to he deemed the 
 most delicate ever yet constructed for weighing gold 
 coin. Its precision is indeed most exquisite. In the 
 transactions between the Bank of England and the 
 public, the weighing of gold coin has been a most anx- 
 ious and tedious process. As between the bank and 
 the mint, the labor is not sb minute ; for 200 sover- 
 eigns being first accurately weighed, all the rest are 
 weighed in groups of 200. The mint officers are al- 
 lowed k deviation of 12 grains in about 50 feoVereigns ; 
 but they generally work to within half of this amount 
 of error ; and if the groups of sovereigns are correct 
 within the prescribed limits no closer weighing is 
 adopted. In the transactions between the bank and 
 the public, however, matters must be treated in more 
 detail. Each customer demands that his sovereign 
 should be of proper weight. Hence arises an import- 
 ant pkrt of the daily routine at the bank. Sover- 
 eigns which were issued from one counter at the bank 
 as being of full weight, were refused at another counter 
 as being light. The scales may not have been equally 
 delicate, or the liability to error on the part of the 
 weighers may not have been exactly equal. An ex- 
 pert Wei^er could weigh about 700 sovereigns in an 
 hour by the old balance ; but the agitation of the air 
 by the sudden opening of a door, the breathing of per- 
 sons near the apparatus, the fatigued state of the 
 hand and eye of the weigher — all led to minute errors. 
 
 The machine is a prettj^, delicate, light affair. 
 There is, in the first place, a small vertical tube, in 
 which a pile of 20 or 30 sovereigns is placed, in single 
 column; The lowermost sovereign rests upon a mov- 
 able plate ; when a handle is turned by the attendant, 
 the plate moves sideways, and the sovereign is brought 
 upon an exquisitely sensitive balance ; if the weight is 
 correct, a little lever, arm, or pusher, gives the edge 
 of the 30vei*eign a smart impulse and drives it off into 
 a box 5 but if the weight be deficient even in the most 
 minute degree, another pusher attiicks the sovereign 
 on a different side, and drives it into another bo*. 
 As the handle iS continued in motion, 2 or 3 sover- 
 eigns may be in different' stages of the weighing pro- 
 cess at one time. 
 
 As the Bank of England does not take cognizance 
 of gold coins which are too heavy, this machine' mere- 
 ly eeparUt'es sovereigns into two groups, the full and 
 the light j and it does not indicate byliow much the 
 liglit sovereigh is deficient. It is therefore only by 
 actual trial that the delicacy of the machine has been 
 tested ; if a difference of even a hundredth of a grain 
 existed between 2 sovereigns it is said that this ma- 
 chine would detect it.. On a rough average, 30,000 
 sovereigns pass over the ba'nk counter ' every day ; 
 each machine can weigh 10,000 sovereigns in 6 hours ; 
 and there are 6 machines ; so that the banlc can weigh 
 all its issues of gold by these meats, and have reserve 
 power to spare. One of the machines is adjusted for 
 half sovereigns. Betweeii 1844 and 1848- there were 
 48,000,000 gold coins weighed by these machines at 
 the bank ; and bankers and' private persons place un- 
 doubting- reliance on ' the correctness of the prbeess. 
 Eacli machine requires an hour's cleaning once a, 
 week ; the inachines cost about £200 each, and are 
 said to be peeuliarl}' free hbia liability to disarrange- 
 ment. Besides satisfying the bank, the bankers, and 
 the public, these tuachines save £1000 a year to the 
 bank In weighers' wages. 
 
 Ooinuti, or Ejoo, a species of palm (Bdrassus 
 Gomutus), growing in the Indian islands. ' A valua- 
 ble product is obtained from this palm, resembling 
 Udck horse hair ; it is found between the trunk and 
 branches, ftt the insertion of the latter, in a matted 
 form, interspersed with long, hard, woody twigs of 
 the same color. When freed from the latter, it is 
 
 manufactured by the natives into cordage. Its fibres 
 are stronger and more durable, but less pliant, than 
 those of the cocoa nut, or coir (see Coir) ; and is, 
 therefore, fitter for cables and standing rigging, but 
 less fit for running rigging. The- native- shipping of 
 the eastern islands of all kinds are chiefly equipped 
 with cordage of the gomuti ; and the largest Euro- 
 pean shipping in the Indies use cables of it. It 
 undergoes no preparation but that Of spinning and 
 twisting ; no material similar to our tar and pitch, in- 
 dispensable .to the preservation of hempen cordage, 
 being necessary with a substance that, in a remarka- 
 ble degree, possesses the quality of resisting alterna- 
 tions of heat and moisture. The goniuti of Amboyna, 
 and the other Spice islands, is the best. That of Java 
 has a coarse ligneous fibre. Gomuti is generally sold 
 in twisted shreds or yams, often as low as 1 dollar a 
 picul, and seldom more than 2. Were European inge- 
 nuity- applied to the improvement of this material, 
 there seems little doubt that it might be rendered more 
 extensively useful. — Crawfobd's East. Archip., vol. 
 iii., p. 425. 
 
 Gondola, a kind of barge used chiefly on the 
 canals of Venice,where gondolas supply the place of 
 carriages. The gondola is fiat-bottohied, very long 
 and narrow (averaging about 30 feet by 4), and'its 
 two sharply-pointed extremities are curved upward 
 to the full height of a man. It is also provided with 
 a small chamber placed near its- centre, and elevated 
 to a convenient height above the line of the gunwale. 
 It is propelled by oars or a pole, by the gondolier, who 
 stands at the stern. The word gondola is derived by 
 Du Cange from the modem Greek Komre'Xag, a hark 
 or little ship ; Lancelot again deduces it from yovdv. a 
 term- in Athenieus for a sort of vase. The gondoliers 
 of "Venice were formerly an interesting part of the 
 population, and were noted for the "practice of whiling 
 away time by singing alternately stanzas of poems, 
 p^-rticularly of Tasso's Jerusalem, Delivered,, though 
 with great changes from the- original; but this cus- 
 tom has become almost entirely obsolete. 
 
 Gong, a Chinese musical instrument of percussion, 
 formed entirely of metal, which yields a very loud 
 and peculiarly harsh sound when struck with force. 
 It is made of an alloy of tin and copper, and in form 
 it nearly resembles the common tambourine. Gongs 
 are much used in China for making lond sonorous sig- 
 nals, particularly on-the canals, as well- as for adding 
 to the clangor of martial instruments. ■ 
 
 Good Hope, Cape of. Strictly speaking, a 
 small promontory, nearly the most southern point of 
 Africa, but it gives its name to the large tract of 
 countrj'- which forms the most southern part of that 
 continent, and is now a colony of Great Britain. It 
 lies for- the most part between S. lat. 29° and 34f', 
 and E. long. 18° and 28'. It is bounded on the north 
 by the Orange and the Gariep -Elvers, on the east by 
 the Elver Keisk&mma and Kafraria, on the south by 
 the Southern Ocean, and on the west 'by the Atlantic. 
 Its extreme breadth Is from north to south about 450 
 miles, and Its length from east to west about 600 
 miles, Its area containing about 250,000 square miles. 
 The country rises from the sea by a series of teiTaces, 
 of which the supporting- walls are nearly parallel 
 chains of rugged and barren mountains intersected by 
 deep ravines, the beds of streams, feeble or dry In 
 the summer, but rushing down in torrents in the -win- 
 ter. The first of these mountain ranges of which 
 Draokensteln, Hottentots' Holland, and Lange Kloof 
 form a part, runs from the north-west round the colo- 
 ny toward the east, where it terminates in the pro- 
 montorj' of Cape St. Francis. Between it and 'the 
 sea, on the west coast, the country is sandy and ster- 
 ile, but on the south and east coast it possesses some 
 good -soil, and Is clothed -with vegetation. The sec- 
 ond great chain, containing the Karroo Berg, 011- 
 phant's Elver, Cold Bokkeveld, and Zuurbergen 
 
GOO 
 
 838 
 
 GOO 
 
 Mountains, runs parallel to the first and terminates 
 near the mouth of the Great Fish Kiver. Its average 
 height is about 4000 feet, and its greatest about 6500. 
 Between this chain and the first the surface is varied, 
 some parts consisting of arid plains and hills, others 
 of good arable soil with a large portion of excellent 
 grazing land. The third great range also runs nearl}^ 
 parallel to the others, and includes the Kammies Ber- 
 gen, Roggeveld Bergen, Nieuwveld, and Sneeuw- 
 Bergen Mountains. This is the highest part of the 
 colony, and from it the land gradually descends to the 
 Orange River. Between this range and the second is 
 the vast desolate plain called the Great Karroo, near- 
 ly 300 miles in length east and west, and about 90 in 
 breadth north and south. Its soil is a sand mixed 
 with clay, and particles of iron : all soil of a similar 
 character in other parts of the colony is called karroo 
 ground. These mountain chains are mostly composed 
 of sandstone resting upon a base of granite, which are 
 the prevailing rocks, the next in abundance being 
 claj- slate, grauwacke, quartz rock, and dolerite. In 
 some parts the ironstone is traversed by veins of red 
 iron ore. Deposits of coal are said to have been dis- 
 covered in Kaflrland and Victoria division, and copper 
 ore has been found in some abundance in Namaqua- 
 land. 
 
 The Rivers, with exception of the Orange River, are 
 small ; they all more or less partake of the character 
 of mountain streams, having numerous falls, and 
 being low and feeble in the drj' season, but swollen 
 and rapid in the rainy weather. They are of course 
 not navigable, and their mouths are mostly barred 
 with sand. The Knysna, the Cowe, and the Briede 
 are however accessible, for a short distance from their 
 entrance, to small vessels. The chief rivers are, on 
 the west coast, the Orange, the Elephant, and Great 
 Berg Rivers ; on the south coast, the Briede Knysna, 
 Sunday, Cantoos, Great Fish, and Keiskamma. The 
 only one of them deserving special notice is the 
 Orange River, which rises in Kathlaraba or Dracken- 
 berg Mountains, flows for nearly 1200 miles generally 
 in a westerly direction, and discharges itself into the 
 Atlantic, forming the northern boundary of the col- 
 on}'. It is on the whole a noble stream, and in some 
 parts its banks are shaded by huge willows. 
 
 The Soil. — It is considered that about two fifths of 
 the colony consist of arid mountain ridges and sandy 
 plains, unfit either for agriculture or pasture. The 
 remainder is not generally fit for agricultural pur- 
 poses, although it contains some very fertile spots ; a 
 large portion of it, however, especially in the eastern 
 part, affords excellent pasturage for cattle and sheep. 
 The coast is indented by various bays and inlets ; 
 few of them, however, afi'ord convenient harbors. 
 Saldanha Bay, on the west coast, is one of the most 
 extensive and secure havens in this part of the world, 
 but it is rendered comparatively useless bj' the want 
 of a sufiicient quantity of fresh water near it for the 
 supply of shipping. Simon's Bay, near the bottom 
 of False Ba}', is a good harbor, and is used as a sta- 
 tion for the royal navy. Table Bay, though some- 
 what protected by Robben Island, is little better than 
 an open roadstead. It affords shelter, however, to 
 ships during the summer months, but in the winter, 
 from May to September, it is verj- unsafe. Algoa Bay 
 is an open roadstead, but it is the chief port of the 
 eastern province, and is much frequented by ships, 
 which in certain winds can lie in it safely. Mossel 
 Bay and the Cowie are also resorted to by small ves- 
 sels, but they are little better than open roadsteads. 
 
 The climate is generally milder and drier than that 
 of England. December, January, and February are 
 the summer months; June, July, and August the 
 winter. In the western part the summer is dry and 
 clear, but in the east it is wet and stormy. In the 
 vicinity of Cape Town, the highest temperature is 
 about 84°, the lowest aliout 40°, and the mean of the 
 
 year about 65°. In the mountainous districts and 
 elevated plains, the heat of summer and the cold of 
 winter are greater. 
 
 The vegetation of the colony is remarkably rich 
 and varied. Some of the finest botanical specimens 
 that now adorn the gardens of Europe have been de- 
 rived from this region. In no other place do bulbous 
 plants and heaths exhibit so many beautiful varieties. 
 Besides a number of other ornamental trilses, there 
 are some plants which might be used in medicine and 
 dyeing. The aloe, however, is the only one which 
 has been made an article of export. The most re- 
 markable trees are, the silver-tree, which only grows 
 in the vicinity of Table Mountain ; the Protea ; and 
 in the eastern province, the Euphorbia. There is on 
 the whole a scarcity of indigenous timber, though 
 there are in some parts extensive forests. Some of 
 the native woods fm-nish materials for furniture and 
 the wood-work of houses. The oak, fir, and other 
 European forest trees, have, however, been long since 
 introduced, and thriven very well ; some of them have 
 attained a great size, and their wood is extensively 
 used. There are few indigenous fruits, but most of 
 the fruits both in the north and south of Europe, such 
 as grapes, figs, oranges, mulberries, apples, pears, 
 peaches, nectarines, and others, are grown in abund- 
 ance ; but strawberries rarely come to perfection, and 
 the gooseberry can not be raised. 
 
 In regard to the zoology of the Cape, there is little 
 to distinguish it from the rest of Africa, under the 
 head of which wUl be found sufficient information on 
 this subject ; we may, however, notice the domestic 
 animals of the colony. Sheep, cattle, and dogs, of 
 an inferior breed, were all possessed b}' the natives on 
 the discovery of the country. Horses, asses, mules, 
 goats, and inferior breeds of cattle and sheep, have 
 been introduced^ and thrive well. The Merino sheep, 
 in particular, has proved a valuable acquisition to the 
 colony. Among the game birds are the bustard, 
 called by the Dutch the pouw, and a smaller kind 
 called the coran, wild duck, teal, snipe, and partridge. 
 
 History. — This Cape was discovered by Bartholo- 
 mew Diaz, the Portuguese navigator, in 1493, who 
 first landed at Algoa Bay, having, after exploring the 
 west coast, been driven out to sea by a storm, and 
 thus accidentally doubling the Cape which he saw on 
 his way back, giving it the name of the Cape of 
 Storms (Cabo Tormentoso). The King of Portugal, 
 however, gave it the more auspicious name it still 
 bears, as its discovery afforded a hope of a new and 
 easier way of reaching India, the great object of all 
 the maritime expeditions of that age. 
 
 The great navigator Vasco de Gama doubled the 
 Cape in 1497, and carried the Portuguese flag into the 
 Indian seas. His countrymen, however, attracted bj- 
 the riches of the East, made no permanent settlement 
 at the Cape, although they frequently touched there 
 on the voyage to India. But the Dutch, who, on the 
 decline of the Portuguese power, established them- 
 selves in the East, early saw the importance of the place 
 as a station where their vessels might take in water 
 and provisions. They did not, however, colonize it 
 till 1650, when the Dutch East India Company directed 
 Jan Van Riebeeck, with a small party of colonists, to 
 form a settlement there. The country was at that 
 time inhabited by a people called Quaiquas, but to 
 whom the Dutch seem to have given the name of Hot- 
 tentots. The Riebeeck settlers had at first great difS- 
 culties and hardships to endure, and their territory did 
 not extend beyond a few miles round the site of the 
 present Cape Town, where they first fixed their 
 abode. They gradually, however, extended their 
 limits, by driving the natives back or reducing them 
 to serfdom. These colonists, although under Dutch 
 authority, were not wholly of that nation, but con- 
 sisted partly of persons of various nations, especially 
 Germans and Flemings, with a few Poles and Portu- 
 
GOO 
 
 839 
 
 GOO 
 
 guese. They were for the most part people of low 
 station or Indifferent character ; there was, however, 
 11 small number of a higher class, from whom was 
 selected a council to assist the governor. About the 
 year 1686 the European population was increased by a 
 number of the French refugees who left their country 
 on the revocation of the edict of Nantes. Our limits 
 forbid our attempting to trace the history of the Cape 
 Colony during the lengthened period it remained un- 
 der the Dutch government. We may, however, men- 
 tion some of its prominent incidents, the effects of 
 which are visible in the colony to this hour. 
 
 1st. The Dutch, partly by so-called contracts, partly 
 by force, gradually deprived the Hottentots of their 
 country. 2d. They reduced to slavery a large part of 
 that unfortunate people whom they did not destroy. 
 3d. They introduced a number of Malays and negroes 
 as slaves. 4th. They established that narrow and 
 tjTannical system of policy which they have adopted 
 in other colonies, prescribing to the farmers the nature 
 of the crops they were to grow, demanding from them 
 a large part of their produce, and harassing them with 
 other exactions tending to discourage industry and 
 enterprise. We are of opinion that to this mischiev- 
 ous policy is due the origin of those unsettled habits, 
 that dislike to orderly government, and that desire to 
 escape from its control, which characterize a consider- 
 able part of the so-called Dutch boers of the present 
 day, qualities so utterly at variance with the charac- 
 ter of the Dutch in their native country, but which 
 were strongly manifested at the Cape long before they 
 came under British rule, and under those influences to 
 which some exclusively attribute the insubordination 
 of those men. The attempts of the boers to escape 
 from the Dutch power, and so form an independent 
 government beyond the borders of the colony, espe- 
 cially in the district since called Grtfaff-Reinet, are 
 striliingly similar to their proceedings at a later date 
 under the British government. 5th. The Gamtoos 
 Eiver formed the boundary between the Hottentot 
 and Kaiir races, and was early adopted by the Dutch 
 as their eastern limit j but about the year 1740 they 
 began to pass this river, and came into collision with 
 the Kafirs, and in 1780 extended their frontier to the 
 Great Fish Eiver. 
 
 In 1795 the colonists, having imbibed the revolu- 
 tionary principles then prevailing in Europe, attempted 
 to throw oif the yoke of the Dutch, upon which the 
 British sent a fleet to support the authority of the 
 Prince of Orange, and took possession of the country 
 in his name. As, however, it was evident that Hol- 
 land would not be able to hold it, and that at a general 
 peace it would be made over to England, it was ruled 
 by British governors till the year 1802, when, at the 
 peace of Amiens, it was again restored to Holland. 
 In 1806, on renewal of the war, it was again taken by 
 the British under Sir David Baird, and has since re- 
 mained in their possession, having been finally ceded 
 by the King of the Netherlands at the peace of 1815. 
 
 Population. — The total population of the colony is 
 stated in the returns as 217,921, of which 118,088 are 
 persons of color. The latter consist of Hottentots (so 
 called) Malays, Negroes, and Kafirs. The white 
 population is chiefly composed of colonial Dutch and 
 British. 
 
 The aborigines of the country had originally the 
 generic name of Qusequaj, and received the name of 
 Hottentots from the Dutch. Owing to intermarriages 
 with Malays, negroes, and others, and illicit inter- 
 course with whites, the race has lost much of its dis- 
 tinctive character. Indeed, a pure Hottentot is 
 scarcely to be found in the colony, although the peo- 
 ple, in whom the blood of that race preponderates, are 
 still known by that name. There is no return of their 
 number, but we do not think it can exceed 25,000. 
 The Malays were introduced by the Dutch as slaves ; 
 their descendants still retain the Mohammedan relig- 
 
 ion, and moat of the distinctive habits and customs of 
 their race. We have no means of ascertaining their 
 number, but it can not be large. , They reside for the 
 most part in the Cape division. The negroes are mostly 
 from the eastern cOasts of Africa. The Kafirs resid- 
 ing within the colony are chiefly composed of the sec- 
 tion of them called Fingoes, who originally came from 
 Natal and its vicinity, whence they were driven by 
 Chaka, king of the Zulus, and took refuge with Kafirs 
 on the frontier of the Cape colony, by whom they were 
 reduced to serfdom, from which they were liberated by 
 Sir Benjamin D'Urban, and have, up to this time, re- 
 mained faithful allies of the British. Their number 
 may be about 25,000. 
 
 The exact proportion which the white population of 
 Dutch descent bears to the British is not known ; but 
 there is no doubt that it still greatly preponderates. 
 We have called the people Dutch for sake of conve- 
 nience, as they speak that language, but many of them 
 are descended from Europeans of other countries — a 
 considerable number from the French refugees. The 
 latter have lost the language, but still retain the 
 names of their forefathers, such as Du Plessis, De Vil- 
 liers, Marais, and others. The British and their de- 
 scendants require no special remark. 
 
 Trade. — The following table, giving the amount of 
 imports and exports in several years, taken at inter- 
 vals, exhibits the progress of the commerce of the 
 colony : 
 
 Yoorj. 
 
 IluportB. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 ShippiDg. i 
 
 1886 
 
 £641,038 
 
 782,494 
 
 944,585 
 
 1,277,101 
 
 1,651,597 
 
 986,266 
 
 £362,280 
 775,060 
 594,920 
 687,252 
 
 1,064,884 
 691,852 
 
 184°875 
 184,442 
 204,049 
 224,126 
 828,884 
 
 1840 
 
 1849 
 
 1850 
 
 1868 
 
 1864 
 
 
 These exports do not entirely consist of colonial 
 produce, but partly of goods re-exported. The value 
 of colonial produce alone exported during 1853 was 
 £732,245, of which £297,346 was from Cape Town, 
 and £435,899 from Port Elizabeth. The amount of 
 tonnage, however, of vessels entering Table Bay is 
 much greater than that entering Port Elizabeth, on 
 account of the larger number of Indiamen and other 
 vessels calling at the former for provisions ; but the 
 actual trade of the latter is much greater, as shown by 
 the exports. 
 
 The following is a table of the chief articles of coU 
 onial produce and manufactures exported during 
 1853, from Cape Town and Port Elizabeth respect- 
 ively : 
 
 Aloes 
 
 Argol 
 
 Beef and pork. 
 
 Butter. 
 
 Copper ore 
 
 Corn and meal 
 
 Barley... 
 
 Beans & peas 
 
 Bran 
 
 Flour 
 
 Oats 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Feathers 
 
 Fish (cured). 
 Fruits (dried) 
 
 p. Ellz. 
 nbotb. 
 
 £1,260 
 
 '2,309 
 1,860 
 
 1,519 
 398 
 
 £1,546 
 
 1,161 
 
 8,709 
 
 642 
 
 8,463 
 
 1,061 
 
 1,577 
 
 2,865 
 
 29,788 
 
 18,709 
 
 250 
 
 3,309 
 
 9,8T6 
 
 20,274 
 
 Port 
 Elizabeth 
 
 Hides 
 
 Horns 
 
 Horses 
 
 Ivory 
 
 Mules 
 
 Oil 
 
 Goat skins 
 
 Seal skins! 
 
 Sheep skins. . . 
 Spirits, brandy 
 
 Tallow 
 
 ■Wine,Oonstan- 
 
 tia 
 
 Ordinary 
 
 ■Wool 
 
 £9,186 
 1,022 
 
 12,148 
 
 8,426 
 
 2^827 
 
 " 1,887 
 
 890,637 
 
 Cape 
 Town. 
 
 £7,804 
 
 1,888 
 
 8,414 
 
 75 
 
 '894 
 
 666 
 
 12,626 
 
 69 
 
 11,969 
 
 8,852 
 
 26,799 
 110,498 
 
 The most important export is wool, and the follow- 
 ing table shows the progress of the export of this arti- 
 cle : 
 
 Poft Elizabeth. Cflpe Town. 
 
 1888 39,7631bs. 73,324 lbs. 
 
 1843 1,220,880 584,377 
 
 1853 6,160,916 1,703,692 
 
 There were imported into London from the Cape 
 territories 22,706 bales of wool m 1853 ; 22,602 in 
 1854 ; and 28,087 in 1855. 
 
 By the summary of an official table in the Cape 
 Government Gazette, the custom-house returns of goods 
 
GOO 
 
 840 
 
 GOO 
 
 imported for the first six montlis of 1854 and 1855 give 
 tlie following results : For the first six months of 
 
 1854, goods imported, £879,788 ; for the same months 
 of 1855, £622,218, making for those 12 months, £1,- 
 502,006. Goods entered for consumption for the first 
 six months of 1854, £827,702 ; for the same months of 
 
 1855, £643,485— for those 12 months, £1,471,187. The 
 exports of articles the produce of the colony for the 
 first six months of 1854 were valued at £315,579 ; for 
 the same months of 1865, at £440,816— for those 12 
 months, £756,395. The excess of imports for con- 
 sumption over the estimated value of colonial produce 
 exported during the 12 months referred to is thus 
 shown to be £714,792. 
 
 In these returns we have the amount of customs 
 duties collected only for the first six months of 1855. 
 They amounted to £31,770 for the first quarter ; and 
 to £35,106 for the second ; total for six months, £66,- 
 876. The two chief articles of export are wool and 
 wine. On both, the increase has been very great. 
 The wool exported during the first six months of 1854 
 was valued at £221,865. In the same months in 
 1855, at £297,885. The wine for the same months re- 
 spectively was valued at £13,425 and £33,169. Wine 
 was once the staple export, amounting in seven years 
 to betweeH £80,000 and £100,000. The quantity pro- 
 duced is supposed to be as great as ever it was, but it 
 has found a more profitable market within the colony. 
 
 The wool of the eastern and middle districts is indi- 
 rectly exchanged, for the wines^ dried fruits, and flour 
 of the western division. 
 
 Copper ore is a new article of export. For the first 
 six months of 1854 this export was valued at £4,720 ; 
 in 1855, at £14,179. 
 
 The revenue of the colony is derived chieflj' from 
 the customs duties, stamp and auction duties, and a 
 direct tax called transfer dUes, at the rate of 4 ' per 
 cent, on the purchase money of all landed property 
 sold, whether by auction or privately. The expendi- 
 ture is for payment of salaries of the officials and other 
 disbursements incidental to the support of the civil 
 government. The military expenditure is at present 
 borne by the imperial treasury. The subjoined table 
 shows the progress of the revenue and expenditure : 
 
 Revenue. Expenditure. 
 
 1882 £130,808 £126,889 
 
 1842 226,261 226,025 
 
 1862 289,482 252,496 
 
 1853 808,472 268,111 
 
 The construction 'of good roads of late years, by the 
 judicious employment of the convicts, the establish- 
 ment of road boards, and other measures for the same 
 object by the late able Colonial Secretary, Mr. Mon- 
 tagu, have tended greatly to develop the resources of 
 the colony, and to increase its commerce and revenue. 
 — E. B. 
 
 Commerce op the United States 
 
 with the cipe of gooi 
 October 1, 1820, 
 
 Hope ahd British Sooth American Possessions 
 ro Jolt 1, 1866. 
 
 , from 
 
 Years ending 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Importa. 
 
 Wliereof tliero wae in Bullion »„„„.„. n„.,.j ' 
 and Specie. Tonnage Cleared. | 
 
 Domeetic, 
 
 Foreign, 
 
 Total, 
 
 Total. 
 
 Exported. 
 
 Imported. 
 
 American. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Sept. 80, 1821 
 
 1822 
 
 1828 
 
 1824 
 
 1825 
 
 1826 
 
 1827 
 
 1828 
 
 1829 
 
 1830 
 
 Total. . . . 
 
 Sept. 80, 1831 
 
 1832 
 
 1888 
 
 1884 
 
 1885 
 
 1886 
 
 1837 
 
 1838 
 
 1889 
 
 1840 
 
 Total.... 
 
 Sept. 80, 1841 
 
 1842 
 
 9 mos. 1848 
 
 June 80, 1844 
 
 1846 
 
 1846 
 
 1847 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 
 
 1860 
 
 Total,,., 
 
 June 80, 1851 
 
 1852 
 
 1863 
 
 1854 
 
 1866 
 
 1856 
 
 $6,150 
 
 2l'i64 
 
 $6,433 
 
 $6,160 
 27,587 
 
 $68,8T5 
 
 46,559 
 5,186 
 
 
 
 $8,5( 
 
 
 
 "iss 
 
 800 
 
 "482 
 426 
 
 
 $27,804 
 
 $T,562 
 
 60,666 
 
 86,218 
 
 28,893 . 
 
 22,718 
 
 88,379 
 
 85,816 
 
 $6,433 
 
 $2'521 
 4,6i7 
 
 6;620 
 197 
 
 $83,7.37 
 
 $7,562 
 2,621 
 60,566 
 90,785 
 28,898 
 22,T18 
 98,.399 
 36,018 
 
 $116,620 
 
 $13,700 
 
 4V,760 
 28,785 
 98,799 
 12,084 
 48,059 
 82,824 
 
 $ 
 
 5,020 
 
 $8,6 
 $7 
 
 
 56 
 
 1,296 
 
 "267 
 1,600 
 
 T16 
 1.650 
 
 ■455 
 1,064 
 2,278 
 
 660 
 
 ■439 
 
 "ieo 
 
 $880,156 
 
 $61,824 
 
 30,666 
 
 32,988 
 
 88,748 
 
 28,713 
 
 106,172 
 
 100,838 
 
 94,422 
 
 148,219 
 
 $12,255 
 $19,989 
 
 $342,411 
 
 $51,324 
 
 
 80,065 
 , 82,988 
 
 88,743 
 
 23,713 
 106,172 
 120,277 
 
 94,422 
 148,219 
 
 $266,401 
 
 $17,165 
 28,815 
 81,192 
 29,166 
 26,489 
 81,636 
 86,041 
 60,481 
 71,298 
 72,206 
 
 $5,020 
 
 $4^660 
 16,639 
 
 $T66 
 '$919 
 
 8,420 
 
 968 
 
 "406 
 1,689 
 498 
 2,296 
 2,287 
 1,670 
 2,728 
 1,912 
 
 
 299 
 152 
 
 $665,924 
 
 $161,891 
 224,286 
 867,281 
 292,628 
 448,475 
 896,780 
 
 $19,989 
 
 $1,718 
 8,141 
 7,.330 
 8,837 
 
 21,471 
 
 $685,863 
 
 $161,891 
 225,964 
 870,872 
 299,968 
 
 , 452,312 
 418,261 
 
 $449,429 
 
 $128,228 
 190,790 
 802,803 
 448,903 
 418,638 
 4S3,.594 
 
 $1 
 
 9,689 
 
 $919 
 $1,800 
 37,109 
 
 11,631 
 
 14,444 
 
 2,501 
 4,348 
 4,706 
 8,869 
 6,666 
 T,078 
 
 162 
 
 827 
 612 
 988 
 881 
 664 
 202 
 
 The commercial relations of the United States with 
 the Cape of Good Hope colony are now dependent on 
 the regulations of a legislative council and a house of 
 assembly. Those bodies assembled, for the first time, 
 during the past year (1854), under the name of the 
 Colonial Parliament of the Cape of Good Hope. Ex- 
 ports from this colony consist principally of aloes, ar- 
 gol, hides, horns, whale oil, goat and sheep skins, 
 wine, and wool. Chief imports from the United 
 States are spirits, soap, stationery and books, sugar. 
 
 timber, wine, tobacco, hardware and ironmongery, 
 sundries. 
 
 Number of American vessels entered the ports of 
 the Cape of Good Hope in 1853 : Vessels, 45 ; tonnage, 
 16,278. Number of American vessels cleared from 
 the same ports in 1853 : Vessels, 22 ; tonnage, 2,186. 
 
 Port Regulations^ Duties^ etc. — Entrance or clearance 
 of a vessel, $1 44 ; landing or shipping cargo of a 
 vessel, $3 60 ; clearance of a coaster, $0 36 ; manifest 
 of export cargo, $0 36 ; permit to land or ship mer- 
 
GON 
 
 ,841 
 
 GOS 
 
 chandise under value of $36, $0 18 ; above $36, $0 36. 
 A wharfage duty is also charged on «U goods, wares, 
 or merchandise landed. 
 
 An export duty is charged on all staples dipped 
 from any of the ports of theCape ; but the exporter Of 
 any quantity of good Cape Wine shall be ieBtitled to 
 enter, duty free, one gallon imperial measure of spirits 
 of 'the strength' of Skye's hydrometer, in respect of 
 everj- ten gallons imperial measure of wine so ex- 
 ported. For the accommodation of shipping, tank- 
 boats are always in readiness with force-pumps and 
 hose, carrying from 20' to 40 tons of water. A pro- 
 tective duty in favor of British produce and manufac- 
 tures exists at the Oape ports ; and the ad valorem of 
 12 per cent, on all goods to which no specific duty is 
 assigned, is reduced to 5 per cent, in favor of Great 
 Britain.— Com. Digest U. S. See Cape of Good 
 Hope. . 
 
 Goodwin Sands, a range of sand-banks lying 
 about four or five miles off the east coast of Kent, be- 
 tween 'the North and South Forelands. They are 
 about ten miles in length from north to South, and 
 vary in breadth froni one and a half to three miles. 
 They are divided'into two portions by a narrow chan- 
 nel, navigable by small boats. They are in many 
 places dry at low' water, and from their shifting and 
 loose nature are very dangerous for shipping; Be- 
 teen them and the mainland is the roadstead termed 
 the Downs. These sands are said to have at one time 
 formed part of the Kentish land, and to have been sub- 
 merged about the end of the reign of William Eufus, 
 or the beginning of that of Henry I. Several light- 
 vessels are fixed here as beacons ; and during foggy 
 weather gongs are sounded every ten minutes. 
 
 Gonaives, a sea-port of Hayti. There entered 
 this port in 1849 and 1850, 182 vessels, measuring in 
 the aggregate 29,801 tons ; and there cleared 187, 
 with an aggregate of 30,196 tons. The former pros- 
 perity of this port resulted from the immense quanti- 
 tities of ebinisterre (cabinet-maker's wood) and dj-e- 
 woods, which accumulated at the mouth of the 
 Artibonite from every point of its course, prior to the 
 independence of Dominica; but such is the change 
 that has taken place, that, to-day, it exhibits scarcely 
 the shadow of its former commerce. Its exports, 
 with their average quantities and values, are classified 
 as follows : 
 
 QurintttJes. ' Vnlue. 
 ^ Exports. Kilos. Francs. 
 
 Coffee . . .: .•■5)400,009 640,000 
 
 Cotton I...' ,150,000 270,000 
 
 Acajou ,..,-.... 4,500,000 900,000 
 
 Gampeohe, Guyac (lignumrvitffi) 2,500,000 250,000 
 
 Formerly large quantities of wax, pitre, and cocoa, 
 were exported from Gonaives-; but this trade has of 
 late years greatly declined. The exports at present 
 consist of cereals and coffee, not only from the neigh- 
 boriffg QQmmunes^ but from the whole arrondissement 
 of St. Marc, which is a closed port. The coffee of this 
 port is of the very best qualitj'', and commands the high- 
 est price. Hence it is, that vessels which can not make 
 up their cargoes of coffee at Port-au-Prince, touch at 
 this port' for such quantities as they can obtain. The 
 imports in 1850 reached a value of about 3,000,000 
 francs. Of this, the United States supplied provisions, 
 lumber, and cotton goods to a value of nearly 1,500,000 
 francs ($279,000), or one half of the whole. England, 
 France, and the German States figure chiefly in the 
 other half — the trade of the two latter seeming rather 
 on the decline. Thete are at Gonaives 24 foreign 
 merchants ; and of the commercial houses, nine are 
 French and four English, while but one is American. 
 The following summary of the trade between the 
 United States and the port of Gonaives during the 
 first six months of 1855 is made up from official returns : 
 Number of vessels (American) entered and cleared, 66, 
 with an aggregate of 4,317 tons. Value of cargoes in- 
 word not given in official returns ; value of cargoes 
 
 outward, $2,033,429 95, Haytieh currency — about 16 
 Haytien dollars being equal to 1 American. Cargoes 
 inward consisted of provisions and lumber. Several 
 vessels touched at the port, laden in part, to complete 
 cargoes. ' Outward cargoes consisted of coffee, mahog- 
 any, and logwoodi' 
 
 Gordonia. (Gordonia Lasianthus). A tree known 
 in France as Qofdoma k feidlles glabnej in Germany 
 as Ltmgstielige Gorditnie^ and in the United States as 
 Loblolly Bay. The Gordonia Lasianthus, in'its native 
 country, is a beautiful sub-evergreen tree, growing to 
 the height of 60 or 60 feet, with a diameter of 18 of 20 
 inches. This tree appears to he confined to the mari- 
 time parts of the United States, from Virginia to lower 
 Louisiana. According to Michaux, tracts of 50 or 100 
 acres are met with in the pine-barrens, which, being 
 lower than the adjaeent ground, are kept constantly 
 moist by the waters collected in them' after great rains. 
 These spots are entirely coveredwith this species, and 
 are called &ay-5?i)amps. " 
 
 The wood of the Gordonia Lasianthus is extremely' 
 light, a cubic foot of which, when &ry, does not weigh 
 more than 20 pounds; , In trunks of these trees which' 
 exceed more than 15 inches in diameter, four fifths of 
 the wood is heart ; it is of a rosy, or mahogany hue, 
 and of a fine silky texture, which render it verj' pro- 
 per for the inside of furniture, though the cj-press is 
 generally preferred. When seasoned it is exceedingly 
 brittle, and rapidly decays when exposed to the alter- 
 nations of moisture and dryness. The bark maj' be 
 taken off this tree during three months of the year, 
 which shows that the sap' is in vigorous motion a much 
 longer period than it is in most other trees. The value 
 of the bark in tanning, compensates, in some measure,' 
 for the uselessness of the wood, for which purpose it 
 has been employed in times past, throughout the mar- 
 itime ports of the southern States and Florida. Al- 
 though this, branch of industry was never so exten- 
 sively practiced in the southern as in the northern 
 psurts of the United States — the regions where this 
 tree abounds do not afford a sufficient quantity of 
 bark proper for tanning, to supply the wants of the 
 inhabitants. Hence, nearly all the leather and arti- 
 cles manufactured therefrom, consumed in the southern 
 States, are earned from the north. A bark suitable for 
 the purpose of tanning, is more valuable in the United 
 States than at first sight might be supposed. Although 
 there are a great variety of oaks, and many of the 
 species profusely multiplied, yet there are but a verj' 
 few of 'them that are 'sufficiently rich in tannin to be 
 worth using. — Srowne^s Trees of Americu. 
 
 Gosp'Ort, a fbrtifled sea-port and market town of 
 England, county of Hants, on the western side of 
 Portsmouth harbor, near its mouth, directly opposite 
 and about a mile from Portsmouth, with which it is 
 connected by a floating bridge moved by a steam- 
 engine working on two fixed chains. It forms no 
 part of the borough of Portsmouth, but is governed by 
 trustees under' an old act of Parliament. It is forti- 
 fied on the land side by a line of bastions extending 
 from Weovil to Alverstoke, and having the appear- 
 ance of being a segment of the fortifications of Ports- 
 mouth. Within the fortifications is the Royal St. 
 Clarence Victualing-yard, with brewery, cooperage, 
 powder-magazines, biscuit-baking establishment, and 
 store-houses for various kinds of provisions for the 
 royal navy. To the south is the magnificent Haslar 
 Naval Hospital, capable of containing 2000 patients. 
 Gosport has also an extensive establishment for the 
 manufacture of anchors and chain cables. It communi- 
 cates with London by the South-western Railway. The 
 coasting-trade is considerable. Population (1851) 7,414. 
 
 Gossamer, a fine, filmy substance, like a cobweb, 
 observed floating in the air, especially in autumn. It 
 is often seen in stubble-fields, and upon furze and 
 other low 'bushes, and is probably produced by a 
 species of spider. 
 
GOT 
 
 842 
 
 GOT 
 
 Gotha Canal. The following information relative 
 to the Gotha Canal is extracted from Macgeegoe's 
 Commercial Tariffs and Regulations of Norway and 
 Sweden: — "The inlets, lakes, and rivers of Sweden 
 have always afforded great facilities for the transporta- 
 tion of the produce of her forests and mines. A canal, 
 to avoid the long and tortuous navigation of the Sound 
 and Sound dues, was projected at an early period by 
 Sweden. The Maeler, a deep inlet, enters Sweden at 
 Stockholm from the Baltic, and Ijranches north to Up- 
 sala, and west 70 miles among a multitude of islands, 
 to within a few miles of the Lake Hielmar. The Ar- 
 boga Canal, opened during the latter end of the last 
 century, is navigable between the Maeler and that 
 lake ; and it was then considered that it might be con- 
 tinued from the Hielmar to the Wettern Lake, but the 
 project was found impracticable ; the distance between 
 the Maeler and Sodree Barker, near the confines of 
 Dalecarlia and the mining districts, was opened at the 
 same period by means of the Stroemsholm Canal and 
 the Lake Fredra, and rivers. The Gotha River, which 
 runs from Lake Wenem (the largest in Europe except 
 the Ladoga) into tlie sea of Gothenburg, though in 
 many parts deep and navigable, was interrupted by 
 falls and islands. These were finally surmounted, 
 after extraordinary difiioulties (the whole of the gi- 
 gantic works having been once swept off by the 
 impetuosity of the water), by the execution of the 
 TroUhaetta Canal in 1800. It is three miles long, 
 and has eight sluices to ascend and descend 112 feet. 
 At one place it was cut 70 feet deep through the roclcs. 
 The whole expense was about £80,000. The Lake 
 Wenern was afterward joined by a canal to the Lake 
 Wettern, and finallj' the canalization of the whole 
 distance to Soderkoping and the Baltic was completed 
 in 1832." 
 
 Regulations for Ships passing through the Gotha Canal. 
 — Sec. 1. Ships and cargoes from all countries, and 
 coming from or going to whatever place or places, are 
 permitted, without obstruction, to pass through the 
 canal, unless the nation or nations to which the ships 
 or cargoes belong are known to be in open hostility 
 with Sweden ; and the canal transit dues, both on 
 vessels and cargoes, shall be equal for all nations. 2. 
 The canal dues on all shipping are to be paid according 
 to their tonnage, making no difference whatever 
 whether laden or empty. 3. The canal dues on ves- 
 sels are to be paid at the rate of 12 shillings Swedish 
 banco per last, equivalent to 10 shillings Swedish 
 banco per commercial last of 2 Englisli tons. In this 
 charge is not included pilotage on the lakes, nor pay- 
 ment for the trailing by oxen or horses on the Gotha 
 Canal, which charges are specially fixed by the direct- 
 ors. 
 
 4. In calculating the tonnage of vessels passing 
 through the canal, and also the quantity of merchan- 
 dise, it is to be observed, with regard to the first 
 named, that such vessels as are provided with Swedish 
 measure-bills will pay tlie dues according to the bur- 
 den stated in said bills ; but such as are without, will 
 be charged pursuant to a table reduced, conformably' 
 to usual practice, from the foreign lasts, tons, etc., to 
 Swedish lasts ; and, further, as relates to goods, that 
 the weights and measures stated in the tariff of pounds, 
 ship-pounds, barrels, etc., are meant Swedish pounds, 
 and ship-pounds commercial or victuals' weight (ex- 
 cepting iron, and other metals, by which are meant Swe- 
 dish staple weights), and Swedish barrels containing 
 32 kapps solid measure ; and further, that such foreign 
 pounds, ship-pounds, barrels, lasts, etc., as may be in- 
 serted into its bills of lading and ship's papers, are to be 
 reduced to Swedish weights and measures, in conform- 
 ity to a fixed table to be made out for that purpose. 
 
 5. With respect to tare, or the weight of the case 
 or outer covering, no charge will be made. The canal 
 dues are to be paid, according to the tariff, only on the 
 quantity in weight or measure as inserted in the bill 
 
 of lading or ship's papers, whether specified in gross 
 or net. A barrel of grain, salt, etc., shipped in bulk, 
 or barrels or bags, are charged alike ; pipe-clay, coals, 
 etc., in bulk or packed in casks, the same ; as also 
 wines and other liquids, whether in larger or smaller 
 casks ; and only in such cases where the last-named 
 are in bottles, then the additional duty must be paid 
 for the bottles, according to the tariff, the same as if 
 they were shipped empty, for themselves. 
 
 6. If any vessel, entered at the inward custom- 
 houses at Gothenburg or Soderkoping, only to pass 
 through the canal from sea to sea, should discharge 
 any part of her cargo without the most pressing ne- 
 cessity, either in the Eiver Gotha-Elf, or any of the 
 lakes, or on the canal, such vessel to be forfeited, and 
 the master subjected to the penalty of the law for the 
 unlawful importation of goods ; and further, to be 
 fined, according to the circumstances, in the sum of 
 100 rixdalers to 500 rixdalers banco. The same law 
 will be put into execution against all vessels receiving 
 other cargoes or more goods on board, during the pass- 
 age to and from one or other of the ports of Gothen- 
 burg and Soderkoping. Ships' husbands, or owners of 
 goods, convicted of Itnowing, abetting, and aiding in 
 the illegal loading or unloading of goods, as aforesaid, 
 will be subjected to the same penalties. The value of 
 the confiscated vessel, which shall be determined by 
 sale by public auction, will be responsible for the full 
 payment of all dues which the vessel and cargo would 
 have been subjected to, according to the tariff, for the 
 whole passage from sea to sea ; and the surplus of the 
 proceeds then remaining to be divided, two fifths in 
 equal shares to the informer and those who prove the 
 illegal fact, and three fifths to the canal pension fund 
 and the board of customs, also in equal shares. 
 
 There are other regulations, exemptions, and privi- 
 leges applicable to vessels passing through the Gotha 
 Canal, between the Baltic and the North Sea, which, 
 as they are given in full in the " Digest of the Existing 
 Commercial Regulations of Foreign Countries ^^^ trans- 
 mitted to Congress from the Treasury Department in 
 1833, and have been modified but slightly, if at all, 
 since, are not inserted in this volume. They may be 
 found in that work, under the caption " Sweden." 
 
 The whole length of this canal is thus estimated : 
 
 Swedish miles. 
 
 From GottcnbUTgr to the Lake ofWenern, 
 througfi the Eivor Gotha-Elf and the 
 
 Canal of TroUhaetta 8i i 
 
 Across the Lake of Wenern 11 
 
 Through the Gotha Canal SJ 
 
 Thi-oush the Lakes of Wikan, Bottensjon, 
 
 and Wettern 5^ J 
 
 From the Lake of Wettern to the Baltic, 
 and through the Lakes of Boren, Boxen, 
 and Asplangen 4^ 5 
 
 Total river and lakes 29i 
 
 Total canal lino 9i 
 
 Together SSJ 
 
 Gottenburg, or, more properly, Gothaborg, on 
 the south-west coast of Sweden, at the head of a fiord 
 near the Cattegat, which receives the River Gotha, 
 lat. .57° 42' 4" N., long. 11° 57' 45" E. Population 
 29,000, and increasing. Vessels do not come close to 
 the city, but lie in the river or harbor, at a short dis- 
 tance from the shore, goods being conveyed from and 
 to them by lighters that navigate the canals by which 
 the lower part of the town is intersected. The depth 
 of water in the port is 17 feet, and there is no tide, bar, 
 or shallow. A vessel entering the Gotha must take 
 a pilot on board, whose dutj' it is to meet her half a 
 league west of Wingo beacon. After Stockholm, 
 Gottenburg has the most extensive commerce of any 
 town in Sweden. Iron and steel, the foimer excellent, 
 but tlie latter inferior to that made in England, form 
 the principal articles of export. They are brought 
 from the rich mines of Werraeland, distant about 200 
 miles ; being conveyed partly by the Lake Wenem 
 
€0T 
 
 843 
 
 GRA 
 
 partly by the Trollhaetta Canal (see Canals), and 
 partly by the Elver Gotha. The exports of iron in 
 1847 amonnted in all to 27,447 tons. The original cost 
 of iron is supposed to be increased about five per cent, 
 by the expense of its conveyance to Gottenburg ; and 
 the shipping charges, inclusive of the export duty, are 
 about 10 per cent, additional. The next great article 
 of export is timber, particularly deals, which are also 
 furnished by Wermland. Of these, the exports in 
 1847 were 227,000 dozen, but this is above the average. 
 The other articles of export are, linen, sail-cloth, tar, 
 copper, alum, glass, cobalt, manganese, linseed, oak 
 bark, bones, juniper-berries, cranberries, rock-moss 
 for dyeing, etc. Grain is sometimes imported, and 
 sometimes exported. The principal articles of import 
 are sugar, coffee, tobacco, cotton yam and twist, salt, 
 indigo, and dye-woods, South Sea oU, rice, herrings, 
 wine, spices, etc. There belonged to the port in 1847, 
 exclusive of river craft, 126 vessels of the aggregate 
 burden of 13,254 Swedish lasts, or about 30,000 English 
 tons ; and ship-building has since been going on brisk- 
 ty. The opening of the Gotha Canal, by which Got- 
 tenburg communicates with a large portion of the 
 interior of Sweden, has exercised a powerful and bene- 
 ficial influence over her commerce. She carries on an 
 extensive trade with England, and English is gener- 
 ally understood. Steamers run once a week between 
 Gottenburg and Hull for eight months of the year ; 
 but in winter the intercourse with England is kept up 
 by the tedious route of Lubec and Hamburg. The 
 opening of the Gotha Canal has greatly benefited its 
 commerce, by bringing it into communication with a 
 large portion of the interior of Sweden. In 1849, 718 
 vessels entered, and 1462 cleared in the coasting trade ; 
 and 1018 vessels entered and 1011 left for foreign 
 ports, exclusive of steamers, of which the number that 
 entered and cleared out at the port were 88. See 
 Gotha Canal. 
 
 Herring i^/sAery.— Gottenburg used, at no distant 
 period, to be one of the principal seats of the herring 
 fishery ; but at present this branch of industry is quite 
 extinct, and it has always been verj' capricious. From 
 1556 to 1588 great quantities of herrings were taken ; 
 from 1588 to 1660, they left the coast ; during the 
 next 15 years they were again abundant; but from 
 1675 to 1747 they entirely disappeared. From 1747 
 to 1770 thev were abundant, 186,614 barrels being 
 taken in 1763, and 151,483 in 1768. From 1786 to 
 1799 the fishery was very good, from 110,000 to 190,- 
 000 barrels being annually exported. In 1804 the ex- 
 port was 79,512 barrels. In 1808 and 1809 fish were 
 verj' scarce ; and in 1812 thej' entirely disappeared, 
 and have not hitherto returned ; so that Gottenburg, 
 instead of exporting, at present imports considerable 
 supplies of herrings. 
 
 Both iron and timber pay duties on exportation, but 
 they are not heavy. 
 
 Custom-house Begulaiions and Port Charges. — On ar- 
 riving in port, no person is allowed to board or to 
 leave a vessel till she be in custody of the officers ; 
 who, having inspected the manifest and papers, send 
 them to the custom-house. An officer is appointed to 
 superintend the unloading, and also the loading. The 
 public charges of all sorts on a Swedish ship and on a 
 foreign ship not privileged, each of 300 tons' burden, 
 unloading and loading mixed cargoes at Gottenburg, 
 would be, on the former, jE24 5s. 7d. ; on the latter, 
 jE49 5s. 7d. On a privileged foreign ship the charges 
 are the same as on a Swedish ship. - 
 
 Warehousing System. — Goods may be bonded for anj- 
 length of time, on paying one half per cent, ad valorem 
 for the first two years, and one half per cent, annually 
 thereafter. 
 
 Commission, Credit, etc. — The usual rate of commis- 
 sion is 2 per cent. Goods are commonly sold on credit. 
 Eaw sugar at 9 months' with 3 months' interest to the 
 seller. Other goods at 3, 4, and 6 months. 
 
 Banking, etc. — There are no public or private bank- 
 ing establishments at Gottenburg for the issue of 
 notes ; but the national bank has two offices here 
 which advance limited sums of money, at five per 
 cent., on security of goods, and in discount of bills. 
 Some of the English insurance companies have agents 
 here, who do a good deal of business. 
 
 Sea Stores, Water, etc. — These may be had here of 
 excellent quality, and cheap. Beef, IJd. per lb., best 
 rye bread, 2Jd. per lb., and butter, 6d per lb. 
 
 Money, Weights, Measures, etc., same as at Stock- 
 holm, which see. 
 
 In compiUng-this article, we have made use of Con- 
 sular Returns, Coxe's Travels in the North of Europe, 
 vol. iv., pp. 267-275, and some valuable private com- 
 munications. 
 
 Grace, Days of, in commercial law are certain 
 days allowed by the custom of merchants to be added 
 to the time requisite for presentment of a bUl. Thus, 
 if an instrument drawn in this country be paj'able " a 
 certain time after date," three days of grace are added : 
 a bill drawn on the 27th of August, payable "two 
 months after date," is therefore due on the 30th of Oc- 
 tober. So if a foreign bill be drawn at one, two, or 
 more *' usances," the days of grace are added to the 
 usance. The usance between London and Paris is one 
 calendar month. A bill drawn in London on Paris 
 "at one usance," on the 2d January, is consequently 
 due on the 5th February. The numlier of days of 
 grace varies in different countries. In France none 
 are allowed. See Days of Gkacb. 
 
 Grain, the name of the smallest weight in com- 
 mon use It is the 24th part of a pennyweight 
 troy, and the 20th part of the scruple in apotliecaries' 
 weight 
 
 Grain Markets. There were received at Balti- 
 more during the past j'ear (1856) 3,440,000 bushels of 
 wheat, 4,081,000 bushels of corn, 847,300 bushels of 
 oats, 228,200 bushels of rye. 926,000 barrels of flour 
 were received. 
 
 At Buffalo, N. Y., the receipts of flour were 1,143,- 
 085 barrels ; of wheat, 8,843,117 bushels, and of com, 
 9,845,790 bushels. 
 
 At Oswego, N. Y., 114,143 barrels of flour, 8,437,927 
 bushels wheat; 3,543,521 bushels of corn. 
 
 At Chicago the receipts of grain of all kinds were 
 24,000,000 bushels, and the shipments about 20,000,000 
 bushels. 
 
 We give below a table showing the comparative 
 importance of the principal depots of the world ; from 
 which it will be seen that Chicago and Buffalo rank 
 nearly equal, allowing for the increase of one year in 
 the former place. Enough is shown to make evident 
 the greater importance of some of our new prairie 
 cities over the old established grain depots of Europe. 
 Chicago, in 1823, was described by Major Long, in his 
 "Jilxpedition to St. Peters," as a "village presenting 
 no cheering prospect," and one not promising much 
 in commercial importance. 
 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Indian Com, 
 
 Oats.rye, and 
 barley. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1854. 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 5,000,000 
 2,400,000 
 3,080,000 
 
 3,6ii,8S0 
 7,115,250 
 8,440,000 
 8,843,117 
 8,483,000 
 
 Bushels. 
 5,600,000 
 
 6,887^899 
 7,617,025 
 4,081,000 
 9,846,790 
 3,543,520 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 1,440,000 
 
 820,000 
 
 1,828,000 
 
 3,419,651 
 2,000,988 
 1,076,600 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 7,040,000 
 8,320,000 
 4,408,000 
 7.200,000 
 9,628,000 
 4,000,000 
 12,902,810 
 16,633,813 
 8,696,600 
 18,688,907 
 11,981,520 
 
 Galacz & Braila 
 
 Sr. Petei-sburg. 
 
 Archangel 
 
 Riga 
 
 
 Gbicago . . 
 iSaltimore. 
 Buffalo... 
 Oswego... 
 
 1855 
 .1856 
 
 Grains of Paradise, hot, acrid, aromatic seeds, 
 produced on the coast of Guinea, and supposed to be 
 derived from two distinct species of plants, viz., the 
 Amomum Grana-paradisi of Linna3US, and the jl. Mele- 
 gueita of Eoscoe ; perhaps, also, from others. They 
 
GRA 
 
 844 
 
 GRA 
 
 are of a, glossy dark-brown color, are longer and 
 rounder than the seeds of the true cardamom, and 
 have a slight flavor of camphor. These seeds are 
 much esteemed as a spice among the Africans, hut are 
 chiefly employed to give a fictitious strength to beer 
 and spirits. Archer's Economic Botany. 
 
 G-ranada, a town of Central America, State of 
 Nicaragua, on the north-west bank of the Lake of 
 iNicaragua. By means of the Lake and the River San 
 Juan, it communicates with the Caribbean Sea, and 
 thus carries on a considerable trade. Population 
 about 12,000. 
 
 Granary, a building to store com in. Granaries 
 are generally built of brick, with quarters of timber 
 wi'ought in the inside, to which the boards, with which 
 the inside of the granary must be lined, or nailed so 
 close to the bricks that there may be no space left for 
 vermin to harbor in. There Is an advantage in having 
 manj' stories, because the shallower the corn lies the 
 better and more easily it is turned. 
 
 The two great requisites in the erecting of granaries 
 are — to make them sufficiently strong, and to give 
 them an exposure to the most dryingwinds. In many 
 parts of England, particularly in Kent, corn is treated 
 in the following manner : To separate it from dust 
 and other impurities after it is threshed, it is tossed 
 with shovels from one end to the other of a long and 
 large room ; the lighter substances fall down in the 
 middle of the room, and the com ori\.j is carried from 
 side to side, or from end to end of it. After this, the 
 com is screened ; and being then brought into the gran- 
 ary, it is spread about half a foot thick, and turned from 
 time to time, about twice a week ; the screening of it 
 is also repeated once a week. This sort of manage- 
 ment is continued about two months, after which it is 
 laid a foot thick for two months more ; and during this 
 time it is turned once a week, or twice if the season be 
 damp, and now and then screened. After about five 
 or six months, it is raised to two feet thickness in the 
 heaps, and then turned once or twice in a month, and 
 screened from time time. After a year, it is laid two 
 and a half or three feet deep, and turned once in three 
 weeks or a month, and screened proportionally. When 
 it has lain two years or more, it is turned once in two 
 months, and screened once a quarter ; and however 
 long it be kept, the oftener the turning and screening 
 are repeated the better will the grain be preserved. It 
 is proper to leave an area of a yard wide on everj'' side 
 of the heap of com, and other empty spaces into 
 which the corn may be turned and tossed as often as re- 
 quired. In Kent, two square holes are made at each 
 end of the floor, and a round one in the middle, by 
 means of which the com is thrown out of the upper in- 
 to the lower rooms, and so up again, that it may be 
 the better turned and aired. The screens are made 
 with two partitions, to separate the dust from the corn, 
 which falls into a bag ; and when sufficiently full, this 
 is thrown away, while the pure and good corn remains 
 behind. Corn has b}' these means been kept 30 years ; 
 and it has been observed, that the longer it is kept the 
 more flour it yields, in proportion to the corn, and the 
 purer and whiter the bread is, the superfluous humid- 
 ity alone evaporating in the keeping. At Zurich, in 
 Switzerland, corn has been kept 80 years, or longer, 
 by methods of similar description. 
 
 The public granaries at Dantzlc are seven, eight, or 
 nine stories in height, and have a funnel in the midst 
 of each floor, to let- down the co^ji from one to another. 
 The}' are built so securelj^, that though every way 
 surrounded by water, the corn contracts no damp, and 
 the vessels have the convenience of coming up to the 
 walls to be loaded. The Russians and others preserve 
 their corn in subterranean granaries of the figure of a 
 sugar-loaf, wide below and harrow at top, the sides be- 
 ing well plastered, and the top covered with stones. 
 The}-- are careful to have the corn well dried before it is 
 laid into these store-houses, and often dry it by means 
 
 of ovens, especially where the summer dry weather is 
 too short to eff'ect this sufficiently.. This method of 
 storing grain has been practiced in- many countries 
 from remote antiquity ; and in Sicily, in particular, at 
 the present day, many of the granaries are simply ex- 
 cavations in the calcareous rock. 
 
 Some recommend that the roofs of granaries should 
 be composed of tiles, because in the. worst seasons, 
 when the regular apertures can not be opened with 
 safety^ there will always be a considerable inlet for 
 fresh air at their joinings, and also an issue for the ex- 
 halations given out by the grain ; while others prefer ■ 
 a very close roof, as of leaA or zinc, for the perfect ex- 
 clusion of insects and vermin. If there happen to be 
 any windows to the south, care must be taken to shut 
 them in moist weather, and ■ in the time of the hot 
 southern winds. There must be no cellar or other 
 damp place under a granarj'-, nor should it ever be 
 built over stables ; for in either of these cases the com 
 will certainly suffer by the exhalations — be rendered 
 damp in the one, and ill-tasted in the other. 
 
 M. Duhamel and Dr. Hailes have recommended 
 various contrivances for ventilating or blowing fresh 
 air through com laid up in granaries or ships, in order 
 to preserve it sweet and dry, and to prevent its being 
 attacked by weevils or other insects. This may be 
 done by nailing wooden bars or laths on the floor of 
 the granary, about an inch >{Hstant from each, other, 
 when they are covered with hair-cloth only ; or at the 
 distance of two or three inches, when coarse wire-work, 
 or basket-work of osiers, is laid under the hair-cloth, 
 or when an iron plate full of holes is laid upon them. 
 These laths may be laid across other laths, nailed at 
 the distance of 15 inches, and two or more inches deep, 
 that there ma}'^ be a free passage for the air under them. 
 The under laths must come about six inches short of 
 the wall of the granary at one end, on which a board 
 is to be set edgewise, sloping against the wall ; for by 
 this disposition a large air-pipe is formed, which hav- 
 ing an open communication with all the interstices bef 
 tween and under the bars, will admit the passage of 
 air below forcibly through a hole at the extremit}', 
 and consequently carry off the moist exhalations of 
 the corn. The ventilators for supplying fresh air 
 may be fixed against the wall, on the inside or outside 
 of the granary, or -under the floor, or in the ceiling:; 
 but wherever they are fixed, the handle of the, lever 
 that works them must be out of the granary, otherwise 
 the person who works them would be in danger of suf- 
 focation when the com is fumigated with buming brim- 
 stone, as is sometimes done for destroying weevils. 
 Small movable ventilators will answer the purpose for 
 ventilating .corn in large bins in granaries, and may 
 easily be moved from one bin to another. If the 
 granary or corn-ship be Yory long, the main air-pipe 
 may pass lengthwise along the middle of it, and con- 
 vey air on both sides under the com. In large gran- 
 aries, double ventilators, laid upon each other, may be 
 fixed at the middle, and near the top of the granary, 
 that they may be worked by a windmill fixed on the 
 roof of the buUding, or by a water-mill. The air is 
 conveyed from the ventilators through a large trunk 
 or trunlcs, reaching down through the several doors to 
 the bottom of the granary, with branching trunks to 
 each floor, by means of which it zn.s.j be made to pass 
 into a large trunk along the adjoining cross-walls ; and 
 from these trunks several lesser trunks, about four 
 inches wide, branch off at the distance of three or four 
 feet from one another, and reach through the. whole 
 length of the granary, their further ends being closed. 
 Seams of one tenth or one twelfth of an inch should 
 also be left open at the four joinings of the boards, 
 where they are nailed together, that the air may pass 
 through' them into the corn. In some of these lesser 
 trunks there may be sliding shutters, to stop the pas- 
 sage of the air through those trunks -which are not 
 covered with iron, or to ventilate one part of the gran- 
 
GRA 
 
 845 
 
 GRA 
 
 ary more briskly thatt others, as there may be occa- 
 sion. There should also be wooden shutters, hang on 
 hinges at their upper part, so as to shut close of them- 
 selves ; and these should be fixed to openings in the 
 walls of the granary on their outside ; by which means 
 they will readily open to give a free passage for the 
 ventilating air, which ascends through the com, but 
 will instantly shut when the ventilation ceases, and 
 thereby prevent the admission df damp from the exter- 
 nal air. The ventilation should be made only in the 
 middle of dry days, unless the corn, when first put in, 
 be cold and damp. 
 
 Granite, a compound rock, constituting the lowest 
 of the geolbgical formations, according to older geolo- 
 gists; but it has lately been fooud resting even on 
 secondary formations in the Alps. It (essentially) 
 consists of quartz, feldspar, and mica. Its great dura- 
 bility as a material forbuilding is attested by many of 
 the ancient Egyptian monuments, in which the stone 
 exhibits no appearance of decay even after a lapse of 
 3000 years. There are some granites, however, which 
 shake and crumble down in a very few years, particu- 
 larly those In which feldspar predominates. This rock 
 becomes refractory to work after it has been some time 
 quarried ; and it is usual to keep it for some time under 
 water before It is wrought into ornamental objects. 
 
 Granulation of metals,, an operation simply per- 
 formed by slowly pouring the melted mass through an 
 iron cullender into water, which is kept in agitation by 
 means of a bundle of twigs. By this method metals 
 may be reduced to minute grains. 
 
 'Granville, the ancient firaramoreMmj la fortified sea- 
 port town of France, department of La Manche, at the 
 fobt of a steep, rocky promontory projecting into the 
 English Channel, 30 miles south-west of St. L6. It 
 is surrounded by strong walls; and the streets are nar- 
 row and steep. The only remarkable building is the 
 parish church, a venerable Gothic edifice. The harbor 
 is spacious and secure, but dry at low water. Works, 
 however, are now in progress for the .improvement of 
 the harbor generally, and for the construction of wet 
 docks. The inhabitants are chiefly engaged in the 
 coasting trade, or in the cod and oyster fisheries. Ship- 
 building is also carried on. It has a tribunal of com- 
 merce, a hospital, public baths, and a naval school. 
 Granville was bonnbarded and burned by the English 
 in 1695, and partly destroyed by the Vendean troops 
 in 1793. Population, 8347. 
 
 Grape-shot, in Artillery, consists of a quantity of 
 shot piled round an iron spike which is placed i^ a 
 strong canvas bag, the whole being firmly corded to- 
 gether so as to form a cylinder adapted to the calibre 
 of the cannon. It differs from canister or case-shot 
 in that the latter kind is composed of balls packed into 
 a tin canister with a wooden bottom. 
 
 Grapes (Ger. TVaaSere ; 'St. Baisins; It. Grappoli, 
 Grappi ; Sp. Uias, Racinios ; Lat. Uvce), a well-known 
 fruit produced from the vine. France, Spain, Portu- 
 gal, and Italy, as well as some parts of Germany and 
 Hungary, produce grapes which yield wines of various 
 qualities and flavor, many of them excellent. We im- 
 port green grapes from Lisbon, and other parts of Por- 
 tugal, Malaga, etc. They are brought packed in jars, 
 and secured from damage \)y means of sawdust, plen- 
 tifully strewed between the layers of fruit. The 
 grapes grown in Great Britain in the open air are 
 much smaller, and by no means so luscious, as those 
 of foreign countries ; but those raised in hot-houses are 
 quite eqilal, if not superior, to the latter. Grapes are 
 imported not only in their natural state, but dried and 
 preserved, in which latter state they are denominated 
 raisins. [See Eaisins.] The most valuable grapes 
 grown in the United States are from the Catawba and 
 Isabella vines, which are natives of America. These 
 grapes are of a purple color, and have as luscious a 
 taste as the best grapes of Europe. A smaller grape 
 also abounds, called the fox grape, which, although 
 
 not as pleasant to tte taste, is very much used in a 
 dried state, and is, also preserved in large quantities. 
 See Wine. , i 
 
 Grapbite (jpd(j>(J, I write), otherwise called /iZum- 
 hagOj and often improperly black lead, is a mineral oar- 
 bou with a slight admixtijre of iron. It may be made 
 artificially by exposing iron with excess of carbon to 
 a violent heat for a considerable length of time, when 
 a real carburet of iron will be formed ; whereas in the 
 native specimens ithe iron and charcoal are only me- 
 chanically combined. The finest graphite occurs at 
 Borrodale in Cumberland, and is appropriated exclu- 
 sively to the manufacture of pencils. The coarser 
 varieties are used for making, crucibles and portable 
 furnaces, for which purposes, this substance is peculi- 
 arly fitted from its infusibility ; and it is also much 
 used for giving a gloss to the surface of cast-iron 
 goods, as well as to diminish friction between rubbing 
 surfaces of metal or wood in machinery. 
 
 Grapnel, or Grapling, o. kind of small anchor 
 with four or five flukes or claws, chiefly used to secure 
 small boats. 
 
 Grass Cloth. The following extract from the Ee- 
 port of Mr. Nathaniel Wilson, curator of the Botanical 
 Gardens at Bath, in Jamaica, describes the successful 
 introduction into that island of the China grass-cloth 
 plant Qhe Rhee of Assam), and the propriety of turn- 
 ing to profitable account their numerous indigenous 
 fibrous-yielding plants, which are at present quite negr 
 lected: " I have now the happiness of recording my 
 entire success in the cultivation of the China grass- 
 cloth plant {Boehmeria nivea)^ introduced in 1854, and 
 a more valuable introduction could not have been 
 made. I find the- plant thrives here with a Inxuriance 
 equal to any of our native plants, and probably with 
 more vigor than it does in its native clime. This plant 
 (as is now well known), produces the best fibre for tex- 
 tile' purposes with which we are acquainted, and, ac- 
 cording to undoubted authority, is worth in the Lon- 
 don market from £80 to £120 per ton ; whicli is surely 
 sufficient to render the plant worthy of all the atten- 
 tion we can bestow on it, if new staples for general 
 and profitable cultivation be desirable. I have no 
 hesitation in saying, that, by its spontaneous and lux- 
 uriant growth, a more desirable, and appropriate plant 
 for tropical culture has never before been submitted to 
 the notice of the public. I have 36 of these plants 
 ready for distribution, and could, by a small expendi- 
 ture, increase the number to any reasonable extent. 
 
 Gravesend, a municipal borough, river-port, 
 town, and parish of England, county of Kent, on the 
 right bank of the Thames, 20 miles E.S.E. of London. 
 Area of borough, including Milton parish, 1541 acres. 
 Population of Gravesend and Milton, 16,633. The 
 older part of the town, near the river, has narrow 
 streets, the upper town is more open, and has many 
 tasteful rows of houses and detached villas ; the sum- 
 mit of hUl, on which it is built, is crowned by prospect- 
 towers, commanding views of the Thames, and is a 
 favorite holiday resort. Former trade consisted in 
 supplying ships with stores, vessels from London being 
 obliged, until lately, to clear out here. Its more re- 
 cent, and still rapidly increasing prosperity dates from 
 the establishment of Steamboats, which run to London 
 in two hours, and during summer, especially on Sun- 
 days, bring immense crowds of visitors. Many also 
 of the wealthier class of tradespeople reside here. A 
 railroad, to unite with the London and Greenwich 
 line, is in course of formation, and will unite with 
 one which passes through a tunnel, upward of two 
 miles in length, and connects the town with Koches- 
 ter, distant about seven miles. There is a ferry across 
 the Thames to Tilbury Fort. Market, Wednesday and 
 Saturday. The borough is a polling-place for West 
 Kent. The town was burnt by the French in the 
 time of Kichard II. On its west side are the garden 
 and suburb of Eosherville. 
 
GRE 
 
 846 
 
 GRE 
 
 Great Britain, the most considerable of all the 
 European islands, is situated between 50 and 58^ de- 
 grees of north latitude. It is bounded on the north by 
 the North Sea, on the east by the German Ocean, on 
 the south by the English Channel, and on the west by 
 St. George's Channel and the Atlantic Ocean. From 
 north to south it extends about 680 miles in length ; 
 its greatest breadth, from the North Foreland in Kent, 
 to the Land's End in Cornwall, is about 370 miles ; 
 and its superficial area is computed at 87,500 square 
 miles. The figure of this island is irregular, some- 
 what resembling that of a -wedge, to which indeed it 
 was compared by the ancients, from its gradually nar- 
 rowing toward its northern extremity ; and its whole 
 line of coast is deeply indented by bays, creeks, and 
 estuaries, which, notwithstanding its boldness andrug- 
 gedness in many parts, afford safe and commodious 
 harbors. From its geographical position, therefore, 
 no less than from its natural advantages, this island 
 seems to have been destined by nature to become the 
 seat of a great and powerful nation. 
 
 Its eastern coast forms «. waving, continuous, and 
 rarely-broken line, but the western coast is extremely 
 irregular, and deeply indented with man}'- bays and 
 arms of the sea, interspersed with numerous islands. 
 The south-east part of Britain is a level, alluvial sur- 
 face; the centre, undulating and hilly; the western 
 and north-western, mountainous and irregular. In 
 the north and west, primary strata and granite rocks 
 prevail ; in the middle districts, coal, lime, salt, and 
 ironstone are abundant ; and these are succeeded in 
 England, on its east and south-east valleys, by oolite 
 chalk and the newer geological formations. A mount- 
 ain range, more or less elevated, extends from south 
 to north of the island, running through Cornwall, 
 Devonshire, Somersetshire, and thence through Wales, 
 var^^ing in elevation from 1500 to 3500 feet. Another 
 branch extends from the Cotswold hills, Gloucester- 
 shire, and runs through Derbyshire, Staffordshire, 
 Yorkshire, Cumberland, Westmoreland, and North- 
 umberland, with elevations from 2000 to 3000 feet. 
 Succeeding these are the Cheviots, the Lammermoors, 
 and the great Grampian range, which intersect Scot- 
 land, and whose extreme altitude is measured by Ben 
 Nevis on the west, and Ben Macdhui on the north- 
 east, both attaining an elevation of upward of 4300 
 feet. The most considerable rivers are the Severn, 
 Medway, Dee, Mersey, Clyde, on the west coast, and 
 the Thames, Trent, Humber, Tyne, Forth, Tay, and 
 
 Spey, on the east coast. The principal lakes are those 
 of Cumberland and Westmoreland in England, and 
 Lochs Lomond, Tay, Maree, etc., in Scotland. The 
 principal bays and estuaries are the Bristol Channel, 
 Cardigan Bay, Lancaster Bay, the Solway Firth, Firth 
 of Clyde on the west, and the Thames' mouth, the 
 Wash, the Humber, the Firths of Forth, Tay, Mur- 
 ray, and Cromarty on the east, while on the south 
 there are Falmouth, Pk'mouth, Portsmouth, and other 
 important bays and harbors. 
 
 The British Islands include Ireland, the Isles of 
 Wight, Anglesea, Man, the SciUy Islands, Bute, Ar- 
 ran, the Hebrides, Orkney, and Shetland Islands. 
 The climate of Britain is greatly modified by its insu- 
 lar situation, the extremes both of summer and winter 
 temperature being much less than that of correspond- 
 ing latitudes on a continental surface. The mean 
 annual temperature is about 49° Fahrenheit. The 
 extreme summer heat seldom exceeds 80° Fahr., and 
 the winter cold, with rare exceptions, does not extend 
 beyond 25° to 32°. The annual fall of rain averages 
 about 32 inches. Most rain falls on the west side of 
 the island (from 36 to 40 inches), the east coast being 
 comparatively dry (25 inches), but a cold north-east 
 and east wind prevails more on the east coast, while a 
 warm west and south-west blows on the west ; from 
 this reason, joined to the nature of the soil and eleva- 
 tion of the surface, the eastern half of the island is 
 more an agricultural, while the west is more a grazing 
 countiy. Though variable, the climate of Britain is 
 found, from tables of longevity, to be one of the most 
 salubrious in the world, while the very general culti- 
 vation and drainage of the soil have removed those 
 maladies that originate in marsh effluvia. Within the 
 last century the average longevity of the population 
 has been greatl)' increased. In 1800 the average mor- 
 tality in England was 1 in 32, in 1847 1 in 45. The 
 area of Britain is 90,038 square miles ; including Ire- 
 land, the total area is 122,550 square miles, or 
 78,432,648 acres.. In 1710 the population of England 
 and Scotland amounted to 6,116,337 ; in 1801 to 
 10,942,646; in 1821 the population of the United 
 Kingdom, including Ireland, was 21,202,966 ; in 1831, 
 24,410,429; in 1841, 27,019,558; and in 1851, 27,675,- 
 324. 
 
 The following table shows the population of Great 
 Britain and Ireland, the area in statute acres and 
 square miles, also the number of acres to a person, and 
 the number of persons to each square mile : 
 
 Males, 
 
 I 
 
 Total. 
 
 In Btotute ac. 
 
 In Eq. m. 
 
 Acres fo a 
 pcrsoD, 
 
 I Persons to a 
 I sq, mile. 
 
 England 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Wales 
 
 Islands in the British Seas 
 
 Armv, navy, and merchant seamen 
 
 total 
 
 Ireland 
 
 Total Great Britain and Ireland 
 
 8,281,784 
 
 1,875,479 
 
 499,491 
 
 66,854 
 
 16^,490 
 
 10,836,048 
 
 8,176,727 
 
 8,640, 
 
 1,613, 
 
 606, 
 
 76, 
 
 :0,785, 
 8,"" 
 
 164 
 ;268 
 
 ,919 
 ,067 
 
 16,921,888 
 2,888,742 
 1,005,721 
 148,126 
 162,490 
 21,121,967 
 6,558,857 
 
 32,590,429 
 
 20,047,462 
 
 4,734,486 
 
 252,000 
 
 57,624,877 
 20,208,271 
 
 60,922 
 
 81,324 
 
 7,898 
 
 894 
 
 90,038 
 
 82,612 
 
 1-9 
 6-9 
 4-7 
 1-8 
 
 2-7 
 
 135 
 863 
 
 283 
 
 13,562,775 [ 13,974,936 I 27,67.5,824 
 
 78,432,648-1 -.122,550 
 
 The Britisli population is spread over a great mul- 
 titude of islands which rise between the Atlantic Ocean 
 and the North Sea, the large Island of Great Britain 
 being the chief of the group. This Island is sur- 
 rounded by the Isle of Man, Anglesea, the Scilly 
 Islands, the Isle of Wight, the outlaying Channel 
 Islands, the Shetland Islands, the Orkneys, and the 
 Hebrides. 500 islands have been numbered, but inhab- 
 itants were only found on one hundred and seventy-Jive 
 islands on the day of the census in 1851. The British 
 Isles extend over 11 degrees of latitude and 10 degrees 
 of longitude ; consequently, in the most northerly of 
 the Shetlands, the night in the summer solstice is three 
 hours shorter than in Jersey ; and the sun rises and 
 sets on the east coast of England 47 minutes before it 
 rises and sets on the west coast of Ireland. 
 
 In the earliest period of our written historj', these 
 islands wore peopled by Celts ; Britain was their holy 
 
 island, and the seat of their schools and most sacred 
 groves. The isles of Anglesea and Man, both known 
 under the name of Mona to the Romans, were the 
 seats of the Draidic hierarchy and worship. lona, or 
 Icolmkill, a small island in the Hebrides, now contain- 
 ing 604 inhabitants, is celebrated as an earl}' seat of 
 Christianity. It was the station of St. Columba, who 
 founded an order of missionaries there, and thus con- 
 tributed to the diffusion of Christianity over Britain. 
 The celebrated ruins on the island consist of a cathe- 
 dral, a nunnery, and St. Oran's chapel, together with 
 many ancient tombs and crosses. This island is often 
 visited b}' tourists to the western Highlands, and is 
 only 10 miles from the far-famed Staffa. 
 
 The population of the Island of Great Britain in 
 1851, was 20,536,357 ; Ireland contained 6,553,357 in- 
 habitants ; Anglesea, the next most populous in the 
 group, had 57,318 inhabitants ; Jersey, 57,020 ; the 
 
GRE 
 
 847 
 
 GRE 
 
 Isle of Man, 52,344 ; the Isle of Wight, 50,324 
 Guernsey, 29,757; Lewis, 22,918; Skye, 21,528 
 Shetland, 20,936; Orkney, 16,668; May, 12,334, 
 Bute, 9351 ; Mull, 7485 ; and Arran, 5857 ; 17 islands 
 contained a population ranging from 4006 to 1064 ; 52 
 had a population ranging from 947 to 105; and the 
 remaining 92 inhabited islands ranged from a popula- 
 tion of 92 downward, until at last we come to an island 
 inhabited by one solitary man. 
 
 Divisions. — ^The shire is an important sub-division 
 of the kingdom ; each has o, lord-lieutenant, who is 
 also keeper of the archives ; a sheriff, an under-sheriff, 
 and justices of the peace, all appointed by the crown ; 
 each shire has also a county treasurer and a clerk of 
 the peace, each appointed by the lord-lieutenant ; and 
 a county coroner, elected by the freeholders. The 
 revenue of the shires is chiefly derived from rates 
 struck by the justices of the peace in counties at 
 quarter sessions, and is for the most part appropriated 
 in maintaining bridges, lunatic asylums, jails, pris- 
 oners, and police. The terms " hundreds" and 
 " tythings" had their origin in a system of numeration, 
 but whether they represented persons, families, or 
 holdings, is difficult to determine. In process of time, 
 "What was once a number became a name, and for a long 
 period the terms have ceased to measure either area 
 or population, as is evidenced by the fact that the 
 hundreds in the survey after the Conquest, and the 
 hundreds still remaining, differ widely in both ele- 
 ments, and, moreover, the present hundred is different 
 in extent in the various counties ; for instance, in 
 Gloucestershire, the hundred contains on an average 
 29,000 acres ; in Herefordshire, 49,000.; and in Shrop- 
 shire, 63,000. The hide was the lot or share of the 
 first settler. 
 
 The sessional divisions existing in all the counties 
 of England and Wales, for the purposes of special and 
 petty sessions, are in general based on the hundreds 
 and other ancient county sub-divisions. The justices 
 have power to alter these divisions for the convenience 
 of holding sessions, but they have no authority to alter 
 the ancient hundreds. There are 609 sessional divis- 
 ions in England and Wales, and for the purpose of 
 assize and jail delivery, eight circuits, beside the 
 jurisdiction of the central criminal court. A Saxon 
 hurgh, or borough, was a hundred, or an assemblage of 
 hundreds, surrounded by a moat or wall. As ancient 
 boroughs fell into decay, new ones sprung up, and 
 many towns not formerly boroughs, have been created 
 boroughs for purposes not very intelligible. The 
 affairs of municipal boroughs are administered by a 
 mayor, aldermen, and other functionaries. 
 
 The 196 reformed boroughs in England and Wales 
 contain a total population of 4,345,269 inhabitants; 
 the population of 64 range under 5000 ; 43 froja 5000 
 to 10,000 ; 68 from 10,000 to 50,000; 14 from 50,000 to 
 100,000, 4 from 100,000 to 200,000; and 3 above 
 200,000. The city of London is still unreformed, and 
 therefore not included in these. Scotland contains 83 
 roj-al and municipal burghs, having a total population 
 of 752,777 inhabitants ; 55 have a population under 
 5000; 16 from 6000 to 10,000; 11 from 10,000 to 
 70,000 ; and 1, 148,000. 
 
 The minor sub-divisions of townships, parishes, and 
 manors, were re-distributed by William the Conqueror, 
 after the battle of Hastings, and apportioned among 
 the chieftains in his army. The ecclesiastical districts 
 and dioceses were designed exclusively for spiritual 
 purposes ; their boundaries are quite ignored by the 
 general public, and rarely known by any secular 
 officers, while, in many cases, even the clergy them- 
 selves, unprovided with maps or plans, are uncertain 
 as to the limits of their respective cures. The division 
 of the country, ecclesiastically, in Dioceses, Archdea- 
 conries, and Deaneries, took place at a yerj^ early 
 period. Most of the present bishoprics were founded 
 in Saxon times. The dioceses, on their first formation. 
 
 ' had their limits co-extensive with the boundaries of 
 the kingdom of the sovereigns who formed them ; but 
 sub-divisions were soon discovered to be necessary, 
 and various princes subsequently made repeated alter- 
 ations, until at length the whole arrangement settled 
 into its existing shape. 
 
 The indigenous vegetation of Britain partakes of the 
 character of that of the contiguous parts of Europe. 
 AH the grains and grasses, and the common European 
 fruits, grow in almost all districts and situations, not 
 too elevated, and both agriculture and horticulture 
 have been brought to a great degree of perfection. 
 The breeds of horses, cattle, sheep, and other useful 
 animals, are also of the best description. Of wild 
 animals, the fox, badger, wild cat, stoat, martin, otter, 
 squirrel, liedgehog, dormouse, mole, mouse, hare, and 
 rabbit, are tlie principal. The wolf, bear, beaver, and 
 wild ox have become extinct for several centuries. 
 The stag and fallow deer are still abundant in several 
 localities. Tlie great bustard and capercailzie are the 
 only birds known to have become extinct in Britain. 
 The bittern, eagle, and other birds of prey are becom- 
 ing daily more rare. Great Britain is the most favored 
 country in the world for the development of mineral 
 industrj'. Fuel, the indispensable agent in the treat- 
 ment of metalliferous ores, and the most powerful ele- 
 ment in the production of motive force, is distributed 
 unequally throughout England, Scotland, and Ireland. 
 The coal formation in these three divisions of the Brit- 
 ish empire, occupies rich and widely-spread basins, 
 several of which, especially those of Newcastle-on- 
 Tyne, Scotland and Wales, being near the sea, are 
 enabled to export the coal to those places where the 
 metalliferous ores exist in abundance, but where, as 
 in Cornwall, the absence of fuel renders their being 
 worked both costly and difficult. The .ores of iron, 
 abundantly distributed in several of the coal basins, 
 add greatly to the value of these. Each one so cir- 
 cumstanced has become the centre of a metalliferous 
 district, where numerous works produce iron at a price 
 so moderate as almost to defy competition. The insu- 
 lar position of Great Britain, which facilitates the 
 shipment of coal to the places where it is required, is 
 equally important in transporting the iron by sea to 
 any of the sea-ports of the world. These highly-favor- 
 able causes have given great development to the 
 operations of coal-mining and the manufacture of iron, 
 and especially since the application of cast iron for the 
 purposes of constructing railroads. The quantity of 
 cast iron produced in 1850 was 2,250,000 tons. The 
 quantitj' of coal raised was estimated at 34,750,000 tons. 
 These sources of wealth in coal and iron, which are 
 alone sufficient to place a country at the head of min- 
 eral industrj', are not the onlj' ones possessed by Brit- 
 ain. Niiture has given it mines of copper, tin, and of 
 lead, of great richness. The annual production of 
 copper is 12,000 tons ; of tin ore, 11,000 tons ; and of 
 lead, 58,701 tons. The coal-beds of England, con- 
 tained in the carboniferous system, are found in North- 
 umberland and Durham, South Yorkshire, Nottingham 
 and Derby, South Lancashire, Staffordshire, Warwick- 
 shire, Anglesea', Flint, Salop, Worcestershire, Glouces- 
 tershire, and the northern part of Somerset, South 
 Wales, and near Whitehaven in Cumberland. Iron is 
 found in inexhaustible quantities in all the formations. 
 Lead is found chieflj- in the mountain limestone ; cop- 
 per in the granite and older primary stratified rocks ; 
 tin in Cornwall and Devon. Salt springs, yielding 
 large quantities of salt, are found in Cheshire and 
 Worcestershire. As to mineral treasures, the eastern 
 counties of England, to the south of Yorkshire, are 
 ramarkble for containing no mines, either of coal or 
 metal. These valuable deposits are found in the more 
 uneven districts of the north and west. 
 
 The following table presents at one view territory 
 belonging to Great Britain, its area in square miles, 
 and the last census in everj' portion attainable : 
 
GEE 
 
 Territory belonging to Great Britain. 
 
 848 
 
 Qm 
 
 states, provinces, or colonies. 
 
 l.^-Eiiropean Possessions, 
 
 England 
 
 Wales 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Islands in British seas 
 
 The army, navy, and British 
 ., seamen.. 
 ri'Mand.'^ . . 
 Heligoland. 
 Gibraltar . , 
 
 Malta 
 
 Gozo 
 
 Total European possessions 
 II. — African Possessions. 
 
 SieiTa Leone 
 
 Gold Coast settlement 
 
 Fernando Po 
 
 Settlements on the Gambia. . . 
 
 St. Helena ,..* 
 
 Ascension 
 
 Cape of Good Hope 
 
 Natal.' : 
 
 Mauritius , 
 
 The Seychelles 
 
 Total African possessions. . . 
 III. — Asiatic Possessions. 
 
 Ceylon 
 
 Hong-Kong (treaty in 1S42). . . 
 
 India. 
 
 Bengal and Agra presidencies. 
 Berar, ceded to Bengal, 1853. . 
 
 Madras presidency 
 
 Bombay presidency 
 
 Punjab 
 
 Settlements in Farther India, 
 
 Singapore, etc 
 
 States dependent on Bengal. . . 
 Madras... 
 Bombay. 
 
 Labuan 
 
 Aden 
 
 Total Asiatic possessions ). q-,. nm 
 and dependencies f ^.'^J".''-"' 
 
 Area in I 
 sq. m 
 
 60,932 
 
 T,893 
 
 81,824 
 
 894 
 
 82,445 
 6 
 
 952 
 27 
 
 122,6111 
 
 8T5 
 
 6,000 
 
 400 
 
 12 
 
 76 
 
 44 
 
 110,266 
 
 15,000 
 
 708 
 
 80 
 
 188,451 
 
 24,448 
 30 
 
 806,000 
 
 76,482 
 
 144,889 
 
 120,065 
 
 78,447 
 
 1,575 
 
 477,954 
 
 50,687 
 
 66,820 
 
 25 
 
 IV. — American Possessions. 
 
 Hudson's Bay Territory 
 
 Canada East 
 
 Canada West 
 
 New Brunswick 
 
 N. Scotia, includ. Cape Breton 
 
 Prince Edward's Island. . , 
 
 Newfoundland. . j 
 
 Labrador (attached to New 
 
 fouudland) 
 
 Vancouver's Island 
 
 West Indian Possessions. 
 
 Honduras 
 
 Bermudas . . . : 
 
 Jamaica 
 
 The Bahamas 
 
 Barbadoes 
 
 Grenada 
 
 St. Vincent 
 
 St. Lucia 
 
 Tobago 
 
 Antigua '. 
 
 Montserrat 
 
 Barbuda 
 
 Dominica 
 
 St. Christopher 
 
 Nevis 
 
 The Virgin Islands 
 
 Turk's Islands 
 
 Trinidad 
 
 Bay Islands 
 
 British Guiana 
 
 Falkland Islands .' 
 
 Total American possessions, 
 V. — Australian Possessions. 
 
 New South Wales 
 
 Victoria, 
 
 Western Australia 
 
 Southern Australia 
 
 Van Diemen Land 
 
 New Zealand 
 
 Auckland Islands 
 
 Norfolk " 
 
 Total Australian possessions 
 Grand Total 
 
 !,4S0,00e 
 291,989 
 147,882 
 27,700 
 18,746 
 2,184 
 85,918 
 
 6.000 
 8,000 
 
 62,700 
 
 47 
 
 6,400 
 
 5,500 
 
 166 
 
 109 
 
 181 
 
 225 
 
 140 
 
 108 
 
 47 
 
 10 
 
 275 
 
 70 
 
 20 
 
 90 
 
 484 
 
 2,020 
 
 200 
 
 96,500 
 
 600 
 
 2,998,056 
 
 84,600 
 
 100,0fl0 
 
 800,000 
 
 25,000 
 
 86,000 
 
 645,500 
 
 Date of Pop. by the 
 
 census. last census^ 
 
 1851 
 1851 
 
 1851 
 1881 
 
 1861 
 1851 
 
 1884 
 1847 
 
 4,181,888 
 
 16,921,888 
 
 1,005,721 
 
 2,888,742 
 
 148,126 
 
 162,490 
 
 6,686,357 
 
 2,230 
 
 15,008 
 
 108,140 
 
 16,180 
 
 27,798,822 
 
 46,472 
 275,000 
 
 4867 
 
 7,000 
 
 6,957 
 
 261,480 
 
 250,000 
 
 179,881 
 
 5,800 
 
 1861 
 1862 
 1860 
 1850 
 1850 
 1850 
 
 1,036,.391 
 
 1,421,^81 
 28,872 
 
 71,758,869 
 4,650,000, 
 16,889,426 
 10,485,017 
 4,100,988 
 
 202,540 
 89,685,476 
 4,691,230 
 4,613,029 
 
 4b',o6o 
 
 169,012,078 
 
 
 180,000 
 
 18.12 
 
 890,261 
 
 18.52 
 
 962,004 
 
 1H51 
 
 198,800 
 
 18.61 
 
 276,117 
 
 1H4H 
 
 62,678 
 
 1,S51 
 
 101,606 
 
 
 100,000 
 
 
 2,000 
 
 1,548 
 
 11,066 
 
 1861 
 
 11,092 
 
 1S49 
 
 879,690 
 
 1S.")1 
 
 26,892 
 
 1861 
 
 185,9.30 
 
 1844 
 
 28,927 
 
 1,S51 
 
 27,248 
 
 1H60 
 
 24,588 
 
 1844 
 
 18,027 
 
 186(1 
 
 86,190 
 
 185(1 
 
 7,800 
 
 
 1,600 
 
 1848 
 
 28,200 
 
 1860 
 
 23,138 
 
 1861 
 
 10,200 
 
 1814 
 
 56,689 
 
 IK61 
 
 , 6,122 
 
 1848 
 
 69,814 
 
 
 4b0 
 
 
 12T;696 
 
 
 2,000 
 
 8,488,877 
 
 197,168 
 
 200,000 
 
 7,000 
 
 T0,164 
 22,400 
 
 580,706 
 
 194,997,280 
 
 An Aoootjnt! of, tue, Deglabed Value of the Exports 
 TO EACH Colony and Dependency of tite BeittSu 
 Cbown in eaoh op the Thbee Years ended 5tu 
 
 Januabt, 1850, 1851, AND 1862. 
 
 Britisli colonies anil 
 dependencies. 
 
 Heligoland 
 
 Channel Islands. 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 Malta and Gozo . 
 
 Ionian Islands 
 
 Europe 
 
 Possessions on K. Gambia 
 
 Sierra Leone 
 
 Gold Coast 
 
 Fernando Po 
 
 Possessions in South Africa 
 
 Ascension 
 
 8t. Helena 
 
 Mauritius 
 
 Africa 
 
 Aden 
 
 Territories In the E. Indies 
 
 Singapore 
 
 Ceylon 
 
 Hong-Kong 
 
 Asia 
 
 West Australia 
 
 South Australia. .. . 
 New South Wales . . 
 
 Victoria 
 
 Van Diemen Land. 
 New Zealand 
 
 Declared Value of Exports. 
 
 1850. 
 
 857 
 
 634,198 
 683,481 
 
 887,744 
 166,805 
 
 1,721,680 
 
 86,770 
 
 60,290 
 
 134,591 
 
 8,197 
 
 5S0,9Si 
 
 4,997 
 
 18,315 
 
 284,022 
 
 1,012,14S 
 
 14,664 
 
 6,149,842 
 
 494,080 
 
 159,852 
 
 661,969 
 
 Australia . 
 
 Sett, of Hudson's Bay Co . 
 
 Newfoundland 
 
 Canada 
 
 New Brunswick 
 
 Prince Edward's Island . . . 
 
 Nova Scotia 
 
 Antigua 
 
 Barbadoes .., 
 
 Dominica 
 
 Grenada 
 
 Jamaica. 
 
 Montserrat 
 
 Nevis ,. 
 
 St. Christopher 
 
 St. Lucia 
 
 St. "N'jnceut 
 
 Tobago 
 
 Tortola 
 
 Trinidad 
 
 Bahamas 
 
 Bermudas 
 
 Demerara. 
 
 Berbice 
 
 Honduras, British , . . 
 
 Falkland Islands . .■ 
 
 America 
 
 Aggregate value of] 
 Brit and Irish prod-^j 
 uceand manufactures ! 
 exported to the Brit- [ 
 ish colonies and de- 
 pendencies J 
 
 7,469,80t 
 
 12,518 
 
 815,648 
 
 1,380,84? 
 
 316,621 
 106,484 
 
 1882. 
 
 250 
 506,416 
 888,141 
 814,886 
 185,912 
 
 288 
 613,724 
 481,286 
 801,448 
 
 1,345,104 1,619,787 
 
 48,700 
 
 70,280 
 
 87,871 
 
 8,668 
 
 796,600 
 
 3,868 
 
 26,695 
 
 368,726 
 
 1,400,868 
 
 18,711 
 7,242,194 
 562,189 
 218,382 
 598,191 
 
 2,060,468 
 
 61,796 
 
 297,860 
 
 1,824,981 
 
 279,280 
 
 41,421 
 276,106 
 
 70,194 
 819,658 
 
 22,484 
 
 28,848 
 626,085 
 
 1,093 
 
 45,448 
 
 16,672 
 
 68,268 
 
 14,887 
 
 46 
 
 248,218 
 
 24,709 
 
 47,138 
 
 279,002 
 
 17,819 
 
 206,244 
 
 6,178 
 
 16,597,714 
 
 8,634,567 
 
 417,809 
 1,006,452 
 689,279 
 440,866 
 112,166 I 
 
 47,197 
 
 94,466 
 107,663 
 
 81,605 
 
 762,893 
 
 7,307 
 
 28,248 
 282,965 
 
 17,184 
 
 7,022,296 
 
 608,886 
 
 176,414 
 
 8,456,179 
 
 ^4,726 
 376,085 
 1,201,261 
 604,408 
 420,922 
 171,009 
 
 2,602,263 : 2,807,856 
 
 ' 102,22S 
 
 848,120 
 
 1,993,611 
 
 411,161 
 
 56,867 
 
 828,177 
 
 ' '65,737 
 
 831,594 
 
 26,474 
 
 86,796 
 
 791,674 
 
 63 
 
 1,641 
 
 48,667 
 
 15,000 
 
 57,370 
 
 , 18,641 
 
 221 
 
 241,930 
 
 88,008 
 
 89,527 
 
 802,974 
 
 •21,012 
 
 188,852 
 
 1,146 
 
 5,449,777 
 
 19,4.32,559 
 
 72,827 
 
 884,730 
 2,461,634 
 
 442,198 
 67,109 
 
 456,809 
 99,708 
 
 419,479 
 83,696 
 45,163 
 
 700,290 
 173 
 2,208 
 68,664 
 32,974 
 78,201 
 16,820 
 
 275,185 
 82,088 
 82,435 
 
 864,718 
 24,886 
 
 282,6.38 
 2,841 
 
 20,430,369 
 
 The Public Funded Debt of Great Britain and Ire- 
 land ON THE 5tu Januaby, 1864, in Pounds steeling 
 and United States' currency. 
 
 Great JBritoAn. 
 
 New annuities 2^ per cent. 
 
 Old sea annuities 8 " " 
 
 DebtdneB'k ofEng.8 " " 
 Consolidatedannnits. .3 " " 
 Eeduced annuities. . .3 " '• 
 Total Great Britain.... 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 New annuities 2J per cent. 
 
 Consolidated annuits.3 " " 
 Reduced annuities.. .8 " " 
 
 Annuities 3i " " 
 
 Debt due B'k of Irel . Sj " " 
 
 New annuities 5 " " 
 
 Totallrcland 
 
 Total United Kingdom, 1854. 
 
 1,815,128 
 
 2,746,677 
 
 11,015,100 
 
 867,860,652 
 
 114,635,568 
 
 714,860,854 
 
 40,632,647 
 
 764,898,400 
 
 9,075,516 
 
 18,733,386 
 
 65,075,500 
 
 1,839,338,260 
 
 572,677,790 
 
 3,571,804,270 
 
 8,774,466,000 
 
GRE 
 
 849 
 
 GRE 
 
 The national dett at the Eevolution iii 1688 amount- 
 ed to £664,263 i Rt-the commencement of the American 
 war in 1775, it amounted to £128,000,000. In 1817 it 
 amounted to £840,000,000. 
 Nktt PuBiio Income and Expenditttkb of the tTsiraD 
 
 Kingdom fok tub Year ended 5th Janttart, 1858. 
 
 INCOME. 
 
 Customs £22,187,120, 
 
 Excise 15,791,785 
 
 Stamps. 6,921,298 
 
 Taxes..... 8,669,627 
 
 Property tax 6,652,770 ' 
 
 Post Office 2,442,827 
 
 Crown Lands. 
 
 Small branches of hereditary revenue. . . 
 
 Surplus fees of regulated oflices 
 
 Money received from the East India Com- 
 
 pany, and impress moneys, etc. 
 )the: 
 
 Other sources. . 
 
 858,266 
 14,851 
 110,097 
 
 153,776 
 618,704 
 
 Total £57,755,570 
 
 EXPENDITURE. 
 
 Pflblio debt '. £27,934,538 
 
 Civil Ust 398,688 
 
 Diplomatic service 151,656 
 
 Courts of justice 1,089,878 
 
 Navy 6,625,944 
 
 Army 7,018,163 
 
 Ordnance 2,491,798 
 
 Annuities and pensions 853,709 
 
 Salaries and pensions 279,408 
 
 Civil services 3,797,818 
 
 MisceilaaeouB 281,014 
 
 Kaffir War 870,000 
 
 Charges of Collections 4,486,860 
 
 Total £55,229,866 
 
 Excess of Income 2,526,204 
 
 Total £67,756,570 
 
 The revenue for the year ending 1854 amounted to 
 £51,784,118. 
 
 Great Britain is less fertile in grain than France, 
 but affords better pasturage, possesses an extensive 
 
 ACOOTTNT OF THE -ExTENT OF LAND IN THE UNITED KINGDOM UNDER THE PRINCIPAL DESCRIPTIONS OF CroPS IN 
 1852^53 ; THE AVERAGE RATE OP PRODUCE PER AcRB ; THE TOTAL PRODUCE ; THE AMOUNT OF SeeD ; THE PeoDUCF 
 
 UNDER Deduction of Seed ; and the total Value of suoh Produce. 
 
 line of sea-cost, with numerous harbors, a natural and 
 well-defined frontier, which no invading army can pass 
 on foot, a good commercial position, and the largest 
 iields of coal in Europe ; but all these advantages have 
 contributed less' to her aggrandizement than the- ex- 
 cellence of her laws and political constitution. The 
 progress of Britain within the last hundred years, and 
 especially within the last half century, has been won- 
 derfully great. The British isles contain about 76,- 
 000,000 of acres, of which about two thirds are in 
 cultivation, and more than one third waste or uncul- 
 tivated. About half of the waste land is in Scotland, 
 where the cultivated soil forms little more than a fourth 
 part of the total area of the country, while in England 
 it forms about 67 per cent., and in Ireland 70 per cent, 
 of the surface. So great, however, has been the prog- 
 ress of agricultural improvement, that, though thei 
 population has doubled itself within the last fifty 
 years, the production of food has fully kept pace with 
 it. The progress of Britain in manufacturing industry 
 has been still more rapid and more remarl^able than' 
 even in agriculture ; and in this respect her natural 
 advantages are more exclusive. She has a good sup- : 
 ply within herself of the raw material of her staple 
 manufactures of woolen cloths, iron, and linen ; and 
 her means of procuring silk and cotton are equal at 
 least to those of her neighbors. In enterprise and; 
 commercial activity, her merchants take the lead^ 
 among the nations of Europe ; and the removal of all < 
 restrictions, and the full Introdiiction of the principles I 
 of free trade have given such a stimulus to their ex- 1 
 ei-tions as tJanscends air former example. The uum-; 
 ber of ships employed in her foreign and colonial trade ' 
 in 1853 was 35,303, with a burden of 7,797,530 tons ; 
 and the number of registered British seamen was 
 253,896. 
 
 Crops. 
 
 Acrefl io crop. 
 
 Produce per 
 acre. 
 
 Total produce. 
 
 Seed l-lti of 
 produce. 
 
 Produce under 
 'deduction of 
 ' seed. 
 
 Price per 
 quarter. 
 
 Total value. 
 
 England. 
 "Wheat 
 
 3,000,000 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 500,000 
 
 2,500,000 ) , 
 1,800,000 f 
 
 800,000 
 60,000 
 
 250,000 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 1 
 
 8J 
 £7 per acre. 
 
 £15 per acre. 
 £15 per acre 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 r 
 
 5 
 3 
 
 £7 per acre. 
 
 £15 per acre 
 £15 per acre 
 
 Quarters. 
 8 
 Si 
 
 6 
 
 £8 per acre, 
 
 £15 per acre. 
 £12 per acre. 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 11,250,000 
 5,400,000 
 9,000,000 
 1,875,000 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 1,607,148 
 771,428 
 
 1,285,714 
 267,867 
 
 Seed l-6th. 
 189,583 
 800,000 
 
 1,000,000 
 25,000 
 
 Seed l-eti. 
 200,000 
 186,666 
 
 1,833,333 
 
 9,642,857 
 4,628,572 
 7,714,286 
 1,607,143 
 28,592,858 
 
 947,917 
 1,600,000 
 6,000,000 
 
 125,000 
 
 45s. 
 27s. 
 20s. 
 28s. 
 
 43s. 
 26s. 
 20s. 
 
 .23s. 
 
 40s. 
 24s. 
 20s. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 20,696,428 B 
 6,248,572 4 
 7,714,286 
 2,260,000 4 
 
 26,000,000 
 
 780,66o 
 3,750,000 
 
 Barley. , 
 
 Beans and peas 
 
 Potatoes, turnips, and rape 
 
 27,525,000 
 
 1,137,500 
 
 1,800,000 
 
 6,000,000 
 
 150,000 
 
 
 
 Gai'dens 
 
 Scotland. 
 "Wheat ' • 
 
 11,400,000 
 
 850,000 
 ■ 460,000 ^ 
 1,200,000 
 • 50,000 
 
 100,000 
 200,000 ) 
 450,000 V 
 450,000 
 6,000 
 85,000 
 
 67,489,286 18 
 
 2,088,021 11 
 
 1,950,000. 
 
 5,000,000. .0 
 
 175,000 
 
 7,7tl0,00D 
 
 75,000 
 525,000 
 
 
 
 Beans aild peas ' 
 
 JPallow ' 
 
 9,087,500 
 
 1,200,000 
 
 1,120,000 
 
 11,000,000 
 
 7,572,917 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 933,834 
 
 9,166,667 
 
 
 
 Clover 
 
 Flax 
 
 Gardens 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 8,290,000 
 
 400,000 
 
 320,000 
 
 2,200,000 
 
 1,400,000 
 
 300,000 
 
 140,000 
 
 25,000 
 
 4,785,000 
 
 17,463,021 11 
 
 2,000,000 
 1,119,999 12 
 9,166,667 
 
 11,200,000 
 
 2,100,660 
 
 300,000 
 
 
 Oats 
 
 
 18,820,000 
 
 11,100,001 
 
 
 pia^c 
 
 Gardens 
 
 "Potal 
 
 26,886,666 12 
 
 19,475,000 
 
 49,982,500 
 
 7,666,724 
 
 42,266,776 
 
 110,788,974 16 
 
 
 Manufactures. — In the order of their importance, we 
 
 beo-in with cotton. The history of this manufacture, 
 
 which now employs more hands than any other within 
 
 Britain, and furnishes above one third in value of the 
 
 H H H 
 
 whole exports, is remarkable. The raw material is of 
 vegetable origin, and is obtained from the internal coat- 
 ing of the pod or seed of the gossypium, of which there 
 are several varieties — some growing as a tree or shrub. 
 
GRE 
 
 850 
 
 GRE 
 
 and others as an annual herbaceous plant. It is from 
 the latter that the far greater part of the supplj' is ob- 
 tained ; and for this supply Britain is entirely dependent 
 on other countries. Cotton grows in India, and would 
 undoubtedly thrive well in many of the colonies ; but 
 the present supply is derived from the United States 
 of America. In so far, therefore, as regards the 
 raw material, Britain has no advantage in the market 
 
 over other competitors ; but her superiority heretofore 
 has been. in, the admirable perfection of the machinery 
 eraploj'ed. The inventions of Arkwright, Hargreaves,' 
 Comptoh, and Cartwright, have given advantages to 
 a country possessing, like Britain, exhaustless iields 
 of coal, vast accumulations of capital, and a dense and 
 indjistrious population. For extended information in 
 regard to these inventions see Cottok and Wool. 
 
 Account of thr real or declared Value op the various Articles of the Manufacture and Produce of the 
 United Kingdom exported to Foreign Countries durikg each of the six Years ending with 1852, bpecipy- 
 ING the Countries to which they were exported, and the Value op those annually shipped for each, 
 
 AND showing also THE AVERAGE AmOONT OP ExPORTS DURING THE SAID SIX TeARS TO EACH COUNTRY, AND TO 
 EACH OF THE FIVE GREAT DIVISIONS OF THE GlOBE. 
 
 Average nnnuiil 
 amount of 
 Exports. 
 1847-1862, 
 
 Europe. 
 
 Enssia 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Norway 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Prussia 
 
 Germany 
 
 Holland 
 
 Belgium .' 
 
 Ffance ■. 
 
 Portugal proper 
 
 Azores 
 
 Madeh'a. 
 
 Spain and the Balearic Islands. . . 
 
 Canary Islands 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 Italy aud the Italian Islands 
 
 Malta 
 
 Ionian Islands 
 
 Turkey, Greece and Greek Islands. . 
 
 Isles of Guernsey, Jersey, Alderney, 
 
 and Man 
 
 Total. 
 
 Syria and Palestine 
 
 Arabia and Persia 
 
 E. India Company's Territ & Ceylon 
 
 China 
 
 Sumatra and Java 
 
 Philippine Isles 
 
 Total 
 
 Aft ica. 
 
 Egypt 
 
 Tripoli, Barbary, and Morocco. 
 
 "Western Coast of Africa 
 
 Cape of Good Hope 
 
 Eastern Coast of Africa 
 
 African ports on the Red Sea. . 
 
 Cape de Verd Islands 
 
 St Helena and Ascension 
 
 Mauritius 
 
 ToUl 
 
 America. 
 British North American Colonies. 
 
 British West Indies 
 
 Hayti 
 
 Cuba and other foreign West Indies 
 
 United States of America 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Guatemala 
 
 Columbia..." 
 
 Brazil 
 
 States of La Plata and Uruguav 
 
 Chili 
 
 Peru 
 
 Falkland Islands 
 
 North West Coast of America 
 
 Total Pounds Sterling 
 
 Australia. 
 N. S. Wales, Van Diemen Land. 
 Swan River, and New Zealand ; 
 South Sea Islands 
 
 Total 
 
 1,844,548 
 
 179,.36T 
 
 169,149 
 
 268,701 
 
 568,963 
 
 6,286,217 
 
 8,017,423 
 
 1,069,456 
 
 2,654,288 
 
 8§9,916 
 
 42,980 
 
 83,853 
 
 770,729 
 
 80,680 
 
 466,845 
 
 2,848,707 
 
 195,836 
 
 148,426 
 
 2,810,902 
 
 642,191 
 
 24,194,172 
 
 415,292 
 
 12,417 
 
 6,470,105 
 
 1,-50.3,969 
 
 868,177 
 
 104,486 
 
 7,864,446 
 
 588,808 
 80,809 
 518,420 
 688,208 
 13,761 
 505 
 4,145 
 81,378 
 228.668 
 
 2,049,087 
 
 8,288,014 
 
 2,273,624 
 
 192,089 
 
 1,317,687 
 
 10,974.161 
 
 100,688 
 
 86,988 
 
 327,886 
 
 2,668,804 
 
 490,604 
 
 866,325 
 
 628,189 
 
 2,088 1 
 
 8,193 
 
 £ 
 
 1,925,226 
 162,819 
 160,117 
 296,466 
 404,144 
 
 4,859,776 
 
 1,024,521 
 
 1,175,748 
 
 55,360 
 
 40,822 
 
 616,878 
 
 46,822 
 
 760,257 
 
 2,706,882 
 
 879,467 
 
 178,831 
 
 3,143,018 
 
 1,566,175 
 
 185,027 
 
 182,836 
 
 868,699 
 
 428,748 
 
 6,649,964 
 
 3,499,987 
 
 1,467,584 
 
 1,951,269 
 
 979,697 
 
 58,406 
 
 35,009 
 
 623,186 
 
 68,378 
 
 538,481 
 
 8,494,849 
 
 387,744 
 
 166,806 
 
 2,881,098 
 
 684,126 
 
 1,464,771 
 
 161,030 
 
 211,917 
 
 454,304 
 
 424,480 
 
 7,038,116 
 
 8,.542,682 
 
 1,186,287 
 
 2,401,956 
 
 1,029,204 
 
 47,607 
 
 41,678 
 
 864,997 
 
 61,754 
 
 888,141 
 
 8,400,691 
 
 314,886 
 
 186,912 
 
 8,012,668 
 
 606,415 
 
 22,162,957 
 
 268,186 
 
 19,656 
 
 6,077,247 
 
 1,445,959 
 
 837,585 
 
 148,897 
 
 25,126,262 
 
 17,1.'<2 
 
 6,808,274 
 
 1,537,109 
 
 888,112 
 
 80,997 
 
 26,618,781 
 
 808,254 
 
 18,711 
 
 8,024,411 
 
 1,674,146 
 
 607,499 
 
 193,269 
 
 7,282,580 
 
 509,876 
 81,130 
 571,022 
 645,718 
 
 "590 
 
 3,324 
 
 81,728 
 
 169,308 
 
 9,169,990 
 
 638,411 
 
 80,880 
 
 620,871 
 
 620,896 
 
 5,489 
 
 1,290 
 
 1,774 
 
 28,812 
 
 284,022 
 
 1,962,696 
 
 1,990,.592 
 
 1,546,829 
 
 88.067 
 
 910,518 
 
 9,564,909 
 
 946,987 
 
 76,146 
 
 810,076 
 
 2,067,802 
 
 605,953 
 
 967,808 
 
 868,129 
 
 717 
 
 8,452 
 
 2,126,446 
 
 2,280,886 
 
 2,027,890 
 
 109,306 
 
 1,443,002 
 
 11,971,023 
 
 779,059 
 
 117,938 
 
 519,799 
 
 2,444,716 
 
 1,899,676 
 
 1,089,914 
 
 878,261 
 
 6,178 
 
 7,119 
 
 1,644,170 
 25,868 
 
 19,929,980 25,078,650 
 
 1,463,981 2,080,864 
 47,401 29,814 
 
 1,669,533 t 1,611,382 j 2,109,678 
 
 10,616,289 
 
 648,801 
 61,996 
 641,975 
 796,600 
 
 1,728 
 
 8,242 
 
 80,068 
 
 868,726 
 
 2,548,181 
 
 3,286,061 
 
 2,213,581 
 
 274,918 
 
 1,522,896 
 
 14,891,961 
 
 461,820 
 
 2.51,078 
 
 666,193 
 
 2,,544,837 
 
 909,280 
 
 1,166,266 
 
 846,689 
 
 1,145 
 
 10,628 
 
 £ 
 
 1,289,704 
 188,819 
 257,814 
 446,600 
 503,631 
 
 7,190,766 
 
 8,642,673 
 984,501 
 
 2,028,463 
 
 1,048,366 
 59,635 
 41,941 
 
 1,015,498 
 49,827 
 481,286 
 
 8,921,026 
 301,448 
 228,096 
 
 2,441,951 
 
 618,724 
 
 1,099,917 
 
 184,784 
 
 254,276 
 
 452,486 
 
 681,884 
 
 7,808,722 
 
 4,109,976 
 
 1,076,499 
 
 2,781,286 
 
 1,104,218 
 
 68,479 
 
 41,825 
 
 1,268,957 
 
 39,641 
 
 510,889 
 
 8,392,286 
 
 256,867 
 
 188,642 
 
 2,501,978 
 
 664,463 
 
 26,630,048 
 
 869,871 
 
 17,184 
 
 7,807,039 
 
 2,161,268 
 
 759,698 
 
 202,900 
 
 27,667,955 
 
 611,096 
 
 20,686 
 
 7,852,907 
 
 2,603,599 
 
 619,186 
 
 116.620 
 
 11,807,960 
 
 968,729 
 65,249 
 668,984 
 752,398 
 224 
 788 
 11,094 
 80,565 
 2.32,966 
 
 11,123,093 
 
 966,701 
 
 120,2Cf9 
 
 536,358 
 
 1,064,288 
 
 6,642 
 
 1.188 
 
 9,661 
 
 81,760 
 
 229,698 
 
 8,818,707 
 
 2,488,666 
 
 289,146 
 
 1,852,.340 
 
 14,862,976 
 
 677,902 
 
 319,814 
 
 723,689 
 
 3,618,684 
 
 676,407 
 
 1,201,987 
 
 1,208,253 
 
 2,841 
 
 281 
 
 2,954,215 
 
 8.066,864 
 
 2,081,.358 
 
 261,409 
 
 1,687,178 
 
 16,567,787 
 
 366,020 
 
 260,699 
 
 779,029 
 
 8,464,894 
 
 1,452,966 
 
 1,167,494 
 
 1,024,007 
 
 7,792 
 
 126 
 
 80,981,642 
 
 2,602,268 2,807,866 4,222,205 
 18,143 60,796 83,784 
 
 82,075,572 
 
 2,620,896 I 2,863,151 I 4,265,989 
 
 1,530,066 
 
 176,388 
 
 204,268 
 
 376,001 
 
 482,798 
 
 6,888,092 
 
 8,422,650 
 
 1,089,708 
 
 2,115,296 
 
 1,087,8.39 
 
 64,578 
 
 89,171 
 
 857,582 
 
 47,684 
 
 521,817 
 
 8,210,740 
 
 306,957 
 
 164,285 
 
 2,798,697 
 
 676,748 
 
 26,899,196 
 
 864,344 
 
 16,798 
 
 6,766,831 
 
 1,787,675 
 
 494,209 
 
 140,195 
 
 9,589,062 
 
 709,971 
 
 61,712 
 
 591,180 
 
 744,683 
 
 4,168 
 
 1,007 
 
 5,.523 
 
 29,799 
 
 248,045 
 
 2,391,083 
 
 2,936,862 
 
 2,087,725 
 
 192,489 
 
 1,447,270 
 
 13,065.462 
 
 636,904 
 
 18,5,275 
 
 6.54,278 
 
 2,768,128 
 
 922,448 
 
 1,074,878 
 
 905,412 
 
 8,459 
 
 4,966 
 
 26,675,086 
 
 2,470,046 
 35,801 
 
 2,605,847 
 
 Recapitulation. 
 
 Europe — 
 
 Asia 
 
 Africa 
 
 America.. 
 Australia.. 
 
 24,194,172 
 7,864,446 
 2,049,087 
 
 28,005,184 
 1,669,588 
 
 22,162,967 
 7,282,680 
 1.962,696 
 
 19,929,980 
 1,611,8.32 
 
 25,126,262 
 9,159,990 
 2,126,445 
 
 26,078,650 
 2,109,678 
 
 GrandTotal Pounds Sterling.! 68,842,377 52,849,445 68,596,025 
 
 26,613,781 
 
 10,616,289 
 
 2,543,181 
 
 28,974,288 
 
 71,867,886 
 
 26,680,048 
 11,807,960 
 
 2,710,921 
 80,981,642 
 
 2,868,151 
 
 74,448,722 
 
 27,667,955 
 11,128,093 
 
 2,964,215 
 82,076.672 
 
 4,255;989 
 
 26,.S99,196 
 9,669,062 
 2,891,088 
 
 26,676,086 
 2,605,847 
 
 78,076,884 I 66,580,218 
 
GEE 
 
 851 
 
 GRE 
 
 Woolens, — ^Tbis is the most ancient, and was for 
 centuries the great staple manufacture. The Socks of 
 Britain furnished wool of peculiar excellence, and in 
 abundance for home demand, and a large surplus for 
 exportation. Though the manufacture can not boast 
 of an extension like that of cotton, it holds the next 
 place to it ; and besides working up the greater part 
 of the wool grown in Britain, draws largely on other 
 countries for additional supplies. In the finer broad- 
 cloths, Britain has formidable competitors in the Bel- 
 gians, from whose forefathers the Britons may be said 
 to have learned this branch, and also in the Saxons ; 
 but in other branches of the woolen manufacture the 
 British superiority is decided. The chief seats of the 
 woolen manufacture in England are Yorkshire, Lan- 
 cashire, Gloucestershire, and Wiltshire, the latter 
 being the most distinguished for broadcloths; iloi:- 
 folk for worsted stuffs ; Leicestershire and Notting- 
 hamshire for woolen hosiery; blankets and flannels 
 have numerous localities; hut for the finer qualities 
 the west of England and several of the "Welsh counties 
 are most celebrated. Carpets of every quality and 
 pattern are extensively made at Kidderminster, Ciren- 
 cester, Worcester, etc., but those of Wilton and Ax- 
 minster are so superior as to suffer little by compar- 
 ison with the celebrated fabrics of Turkey and Persia, 
 and the matchless Gobelin Tapestry of France. A 
 particular species of woolen manufacture, in which the 
 resources of modem ingenuity are signally displayed, 
 is that of shoddy. Its raw material is woolen rags, 
 which, after various purifying processes, are reduced 
 to their original wool, then re-spun, re-dyed and re- 
 manufactured. Formerly the article produced was so 
 coarse as to be fit onlj' for padding and similar pur- 
 poses ; but now, either alone or with a partial mixture 
 of raw wool, shoddy is made into flushings, drugget, 
 pilot and other great coats, carpets and table covers — 
 some of the last of great beauty. The principal seat 
 of the shoddy trade is Dewsbury, about eight miles 
 from Leeds. The woolen manufacture of Ireland is 
 on a very limited scale, being confined to a few broad- 
 cloth factories near Dublin and Cork, and a few 
 blankets and flannels, the former in Kilkenny and the 
 latter at Wicklow. Scotland has made much more 
 progress. The chief seats of the Scotch woolens are, 
 Aberdeen for cloths, chiefly coarse, and the spinning 
 of worsted; Kilmarnock for carpets, bonnets, and- 
 shawls ; Stirling and its neighborhood for carpets and 
 tartans ; Galashiels, Jedburg, and also a number of 
 small towns along the foot of the Ochils, for narrow 
 cloths of several varieties, tartans, shawls, plaids, etc. ; 
 Inverness for Tartans ; and Hawick for hosiery. 
 
 Linen. — In England the spinning of flax is carried 
 on to a great extent, but its manufacture into cloth is 
 comparatively limited. A considerable quantity of 
 damask and diaper is made at Barnsley. Linen is 
 the great staple of Ireland, and was long, in regard to 
 textile fabrics, the staple also of Scotland. In the 
 former, extraordinary means were employed to foster 
 it. It early fixed its seat in the north, particularly 
 near Belfast, and there the great changes which have 
 taken place in the mode of manufacture, by the sub- 
 stitution of spinhing-mills and factories for the domes- 
 tic wheel and loom, appear only to have fixed it more 
 permanently. Almost the only form into which flax 
 is manufactured in Ireland is plain linen, chiefly shirt- 
 ings. In Scotland the manufacture assumes greater 
 variety. Besides plain linen, it has manufactures of 
 Osnaburghs, sheetings, sail-cloth, sacking, etc., prin- 
 cipally at Dundee ; and of diaper and damask at Dum- 
 fermline. The staples of both towns are by far the 
 most important of their kind in Britain. 
 
 Sillc. Here the raw material is, like cotton, entirely 
 
 of foreign production. This is a great branch of manu- 
 facture in which, at least in finer fabrics, Britain 
 must yield the palm of superiority to the French and 
 Belgians. The number of silk-mills is considerable. 
 
 and confined chiefly to England. Paisley is almost 
 the only town in Scotland where it is carried on to a 
 great extent, and even there the shawls of unrivaled 
 excellence are generally a mixed fabric of silk and 
 wool. The chief seats pf the silk trade in England 
 are, the district of Spitalsfield in London, Manchester, 
 and Coventry. 
 
 Besides the manufactures already mentioned, there 
 is a great number which, though separately of less im- 
 portance, absorb immense sums of capital, exhibit 
 many of the most wonderful specimens of human in- 
 genuity, and give subsistence to millions of the popu- 
 lation. We can do little more than name the most 
 prominent. Of iron, the first process is converting 
 ores into metals ; and thence the additional step of 
 converting it from its first smelted state into malleable 
 iron, whence, by undergoing a new process, steel is pro- 
 duced. Vast processes remain behind, and constitute 
 numerous branches of manufacture under the general 
 name of hardware. Several of the articles produced 
 are of great bulk and magnitude, and many of them 
 are so small as to be almost microscopic. To the for- 
 mer class belong iron bridges — no longer suspension 
 only, but tubular — one of the structures of this kind 
 now spans the Menai Strait ; immense steam engines, 
 and machinery of everj* kind, adapted to all the im- 
 provements of the age. Of the minor articles of hard- 
 ware, the artisans of Sheffield and Birmingham pro- 
 duce a great variety ; and of the precious metals, plate, 
 jewelry, and watches are made extensively, but no- 
 where more perfect, than in London. Porcelain, 
 classic in shapes, gorgeous in colors, and exquisite in 
 designs ; and the potteries of Stafford are far-famed. 
 The manufactures of glass, too, wrought into nume- 
 rous forms of beaut}^ and utilitj^ in the establishments 
 at Newcastle and South Shields, excite the admira- 
 tion. Another manufacture is that of paper, of vast 
 extent, and its processes exhibit some of the highest 
 triumphs which human ingenuity has yet attained. 
 In connection with it are various manufactures of 
 which it may be considered as directly or indirectly 
 the source — ^t3'pe-founding, printing books, etc. The 
 manufacture of leather, including its various subdi- 
 visions of tanning, currj-ing, shoe, glove, and harness- 
 making, with numerous minor branches in which 
 leather is employed. 
 
 The value of the produce and manufactures of 
 the United Kingdom exported from Great 
 Britain and Ireland to foroi^ parts, according 
 to the real or declared value, amounted in 
 
 1882 to £38,251,1502 
 
 In 1851 they had risen to 74,448,732 
 
 Of which were sent to the U. States . . £14,882,976 
 To the various Britisli dependencies. . 19,518.960 
 To Brazil and Soath American States. 8,229,628 
 
 £42,^)6,564 
 
 " From which it appears that the United States of 
 America consume nearly one fifth of our exported 
 produce and manufactures, and that the countries 
 colonized by Great Britain, and those dependent on 
 her, are her customers for nearly half of all the pro- 
 duce and mannfactuires which she sells to the world. 
 There is every reason to expect that, under the wise 
 and liberal constitution granted to the British colonies, 
 increasingly populous and prosperous nations will ex- 
 tend over the present unexplored wildernesses ; and as 
 the United States of America are rapidly enlarging 
 their boundaries to the west and the south, and as their 
 increasing population has been uniformlj' attended with 
 a proportionate increase of trade, it is obvious that the 
 prosperity of Britain is especially bound up with the 
 prosperitj' of her colonies and with that of the United 
 States. Britain is not less interested in the increasing 
 wealth and prosperity of the other countries of the 
 world ; for the richer and more prosperous they are, 
 the better customers will they be for our goods, and 
 the more will they be able to contribute to our comfort 
 and enjoyment by the produce which they will be able 
 to export to our shores." — Ency. Brit. 
 
GKE 
 
 852 
 
 GRE 
 
 Value of Impoets into Gkbat Britain and Ieeland from FoBEt&N Parts, oaloulatbb at the Official Eates 
 OF Valuation, for the Tears endino 6th Janua-bt,, 186a-1854, , 
 
 Species of Imports. 
 
 Almonds of all sorts 
 
 Animals living : viz. : 
 
 Oxen, bulls, cows, and calves 
 
 Sheep and lambs 
 
 Annatto 
 
 Ashes, pearl and pot 
 
 Bacon 
 
 Barilla and alkali 
 
 Bark, for tanning and dyeing 
 
 *' Peruvian 
 
 Beef, salted or fresh 
 
 Bones of animals and fish 
 
 Books, bonnd or unbound 
 
 Boots, shoes and galoches 
 
 Borax i 
 
 Brimstone 
 
 Bristles 
 
 Butter 
 
 Caoutchouc 
 
 Cassia lignea 
 
 Cheese 
 
 Cinnamon , . . 
 
 Clocks 
 
 Cloves 
 
 Cochineal, granilla. and dust 
 
 Cocoa and chocolate 
 
 Coffee 
 
 Copper ore and regulus 
 
 Copper, unwrought and part wrought. . 
 
 Cork 
 
 Corn, meal, and flour 
 
 Cotton manufactures of India and China 
 
 " " of Europe, etc 
 
 Cream of Tartar 
 
 Currents 
 
 Dye and hardwoods : Barwood 
 
 " " Brazil wood 
 
 " " Fustic 
 
 *' " Logwood 
 
 '^ " Mahogany 
 
 " " Eosewood 
 
 Embroidery 
 
 Figs 
 
 Flax and tow 
 
 Ginger. 
 
 Glass, except bottles 
 
 Guano 
 
 Gum, Animi and Copal 
 
 " Arabic 
 
 " Lac Dye 
 
 " Shellac 
 
 " Senegal 
 
 Hair, manufacture of 
 
 Hair, horse 
 
 Hams 
 
 Hemp 
 
 Hides, raw or tanned 
 
 Indigo 
 
 Iron in bars, unwrought 
 
 Isinglass 
 
 Lace 
 
 Lard 
 
 Lead, pig and sheet 
 
 Leather gloves 
 
 Linens 
 
 Liquorice juice and paste 
 
 Mace 
 
 Madder and garancine 
 
 Nutmegs 
 
 Oil, castor 
 
 " cocoa nut 
 
 " olive 
 
 " palm 
 
 " rape seed 
 
 " blubber 
 
 Oil seed cakes.- 
 
 Oranges and lemons 
 
 Pepper 
 
 Pimento 
 
 Pork, salted or fresh 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 Quicksilver 
 
 Eags, etc., for paper 
 
 Ealsins 
 
 Ehubarb 
 
 Eice 
 
 Eosin 
 
 Safilower. 
 
 Sago 
 
 Saltpetre and nitre 
 
 Seeds, clover 
 
 " flax and linseed 
 
 " Eape 
 
 Continued p. 868 
 
 OEHAT BBITilN. 
 1S63. ~, ISfr 
 
 UNITED KINQDOM. 
 
 ~£B9,216 
 
 188,880 
 50,838 
 40,101 
 199,082 
 166,408 
 2,664 
 82,461 
 
 114,710 
 
 231,907 
 
 41,787 
 
 90,668 
 
 171,091 
 
 878,047 
 
 36,628 
 
 410,177' 
 
 64,900 
 
 87,270 
 
 442,182 
 
 108,871 
 
 89,263 
 
 78,684 
 
 1,977,319 
 
 151.086 
 
 8,427,019 
 
 107,609 
 
 634,281 
 
 67,139 
 
 6,923,665 
 
 461,172. 
 
 8,56,185 
 
 95,200 
 
 868,623 
 
 69,777 
 
 8,850 
 
 48,045 
 
 224,166 
 
 408,438 
 
 82,475 
 
 74,817 
 
 24,772 
 
 2,813,469 
 
 26,372 
 
 166,887 
 
 1,296,200 
 
 70,336 
 
 104,034 
 
 T4.062 
 
 68,696 
 
 9,844 
 
 237,559 
 
 62,274 
 
 16,810 
 
 920,098 
 
 1,701,856 
 
 1,236,169 
 
 324,158 
 
 24,673 
 
 66,758 
 
 92,985 
 
 198,767 
 
 66,898 
 
 60,669 
 
 45,986 
 
 38,661 
 
 1,919,757 
 
 71,784 
 
 841,910 
 
 804,817 
 
 298,269 
 
 528,812 
 
 128,745 
 
 373,801 
 
 260,707 
 
 87,077 
 
 110,523 
 
 64,155 
 
 90,476 
 
 386,104 
 
 422,637 
 
 88,601 
 
 288,749 
 
 58,857 
 
 770,677 
 
 113,810 
 
 134,529 
 
 144,881 
 
 367,080 
 
 81,861 
 
 729,949 
 
 151,104 
 
 £65,805 
 
 £689 
 
 £476 
 
 £69,905 
 
 £66,781 
 
 192,608 
 
 
 
 188.880 
 
 192,608 
 
 67,621 
 
 
 ■ ■ 2 
 
 50,888 
 
 67,628 
 
 61,421 
 
 
 
 40,101 
 
 61,421 
 
 201,181 
 
 
 
 199,082 
 
 ■201,181 
 
 428,667 
 
 
 
 166,408 
 
 428,667 
 
 1,621 
 
 40,662 
 
 89,428 
 
 48,326 
 
 41,049 
 
 79,770 
 
 8,716 
 
 9,494 
 
 91,176' 
 
 89,264 
 
 192,784 
 
 
 89 
 
 264,896 
 
 192,823 
 
 167,626 
 
 8 
 
 893 
 
 114^718 
 
 168,024 
 
 179,304 
 
 290 
 
 185 
 
 232,197 
 
 179,489 
 
 44,710 
 
 11 
 
 90 
 
 41,798 
 
 44,800 
 
 136,610 
 
 10 
 
 82 
 
 90,678 
 
 185,692 
 
 287,761 
 
 
 
 171,091 
 
 287i761 
 
 462,712 
 
 11,137 
 
 9,425 
 
 889,184 
 
 472,187 
 
 60,695 
 
 
 
 36,628 
 
 60,695 
 
 690,980 
 
 1 
 
 
 410,178 
 
 690,980 
 
 48,485 
 
 .... 
 
 
 54,900 
 
 48,485 
 
 16,682 
 
 
 .... 
 
 37,270 
 
 ,16,632 
 
 603,887 
 
 15 
 
 4 
 
 442,197 
 
 608,891 
 
 144,856 
 
 
 
 108,871 
 
 144,856 
 
 126,690 
 
 93 
 
 628 
 
 89,856 
 
 127,818 
 
 120,989 
 
 1 
 
 
 78,685 
 
 120,989 
 
 910,936 
 
 2,274 
 
 
 1,979,593 
 
 910,986 
 
 191,406 
 
 4,419 
 
 4,438 
 
 155,606 
 
 195,889 
 
 8,469,787 
 
 148 
 
 1,785 
 
 8,427,167 
 
 8,471,472 
 
 126,983 
 
 
 .... 
 
 107,609 
 
 125,983 
 
 583,021 
 
 
 
 534,281 
 
 688,021 
 
 67,409 
 
 10,618 
 
 14,i95 
 
 67,757 
 
 81,604 
 
 10,669,120 
 
 4,348,477 
 
 4,276,234 
 
 11,272,042 
 
 14,83^854 
 
 888,097 
 
 
 
 461,172 
 
 688,097 
 
 il^'^ 
 
 26 
 
 25 
 
 355,161 
 
 478,479 
 
 181,296 
 
 724 
 
 53 
 
 95,924 
 
 131,348 
 
 279,869 
 
 1,292 
 
 1,469 
 
 364,915 
 
 281,838 
 
 . 10,089 
 
 
 ...L 
 
 59,777 
 
 10,089 
 
 146,193 
 
 
 .... 
 
 8,350 
 
 146493 
 
 49,293 
 
 
 
 48,045 
 
 49,293 
 
 286,701 
 
 6,662 
 
 8,864 
 
 280,818 
 
 240,065 
 
 241,109 
 
 2,686 
 
 1,146 
 
 406,024 
 
 242,255 
 
 118,000 
 
 
 
 82,476 
 
 118,000 
 
 108,678 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 74,819 
 
 108,688 
 
 81,392 
 
 66 
 
 B6 
 
 24,828 
 
 81,447 
 
 8,889,687 
 
 141,114 
 
 144,774 
 
 2,964,588 
 
 4,034,861 
 
 27,673 
 
 
 
 25,872 
 
 27,673 
 
 246,581 
 
 7 
 
 28 
 
 1-66,844 
 
 246,554 
 
 1,231,666 
 
 2,695 
 
 
 1,298,895 
 
 1,281,655 
 
 90,646 
 
 
 
 70,335 
 
 90,646 
 
 132,637 
 
 
 290 
 
 104,084 
 
 182,927 
 
 75,811 
 
 
 
 74,062 
 
 75,811 
 
 119,712 
 
 
 .... 
 
 68,695 
 
 119,712 
 
 15,008 
 
 
 
 9,844 
 
 15,008 
 
 245,245 
 
 
 
 237,659 
 
 245,246 
 
 86,113 
 
 
 
 62,274 
 
 86,113 
 
 84,906 
 
 70 
 
 200 
 
 16,880 
 
 35,106 
 
 1,158,706 
 
 20,288 
 
 18,968 
 
 940,386 
 
 1,172,674 
 
 2,461,209 
 
 9,256 
 
 18,348 
 
 1,711,112 
 
 2,474,652 
 
 972,752 
 
 
 
 1,286,169, 
 
 972,752 
 
 466,006 
 
 2,091 
 
 
 826,249 
 
 466,006 
 
 20,761 
 
 
 
 24,678 
 
 20,761 
 
 91,980 
 
 2 
 
 
 66,760 
 
 91,930 
 
 177,621 
 
 
 
 92,986 
 
 177,621 
 
 260,825 
 
 58 
 
 1,686 
 
 198,826 
 
 262,611 
 
 86,910 
 
 
 
 66,893 
 
 86,910 
 
 66,820 
 
 294 
 
 833 
 
 60,868 
 
 66,653 
 
 68,217 
 
 8T7 
 
 392 
 
 46,868 
 
 58,609 
 
 51,889 
 
 1 
 
 
 38,662 
 
 51,889 
 
 2,842,674 
 
 160 
 
 861 
 
 1,919,917 
 
 2,843,525 
 
 60,823 
 
 1 
 
 
 71,785 
 
 60,823 
 
 258,082 
 
 
 
 341,910 
 
 268,082 
 
 490,686 
 
 
 
 804,817 
 
 490,586 
 
 833,980 
 
 2,585 
 
 12,424 
 
 300,794 
 
 846,864 
 
 636,681 
 
 
 87 
 
 52.3,812 
 
 686,668 
 
 185,482 
 
 
 8,912 
 
 128,745 
 
 189,.394 
 
 883,071 
 
 849 
 
 80 
 
 874,150 
 
 888,151 
 
 850,692 
 
 40 
 
 61 
 
 260,747 
 
 850,768 
 
 99,712 
 
 8,169 
 
 2,642 
 
 90,246 
 
 102,254 
 
 91,606 
 
 16 
 
 87 
 
 110,589 
 
 91,642 
 
 88,879 
 
 
 
 64,166 
 
 38,379 
 
 144,657 
 
 78 
 
 
 90,648 
 
 144,567 
 
 666,077 
 
 7 
 
 150 
 
 886,111 
 
 665,227 
 
 878,624 
 
 
 
 422,637 
 
 873,624 
 
 62,845 
 
 664 
 
 1,005 
 
 89,265 
 
 68,360 
 
 804,979 
 
 4,761 
 
 6,628 
 
 248,610 
 
 810,607 
 
 88,778 
 
 
 
 58,857 
 
 88,773 
 
 1,161,685 
 
 6 
 
 2,851 
 
 770,682 
 
 1,153,986 
 
 186,987 
 
 1,696 
 
 622 
 
 114906 
 
 186,609 
 
 72,897 
 
 
 1 
 
 184.629 
 
 72,898 
 
 191,507 
 
 
 2,039 
 
 144,881 
 
 198,646 
 
 422,468 
 
 
 6 
 
 367,060 
 
 422,468 
 
 128,928 
 
 961 
 
 1,706 
 
 82,802 
 
 180,634 
 
 966,421 
 
 106,393 
 
 171,487 
 
 836,342 
 
 1,137,908 
 
 88,257 
 
 
 2,074 
 
 161,104 
 
 90,381 
 
 I 
 
GRE 
 
 853 
 
 GRE 
 
 Value op Iupobtb into Geeat Britain and Ireland feom !Fobei&h Pabts, oaloulaied at the Official Bates 
 OP Valuation, foe the Tears ending 5th January. — Omtin 
 
 Species of Imports. 
 
 Continued 
 
 Benna 
 
 Shumac 
 
 Sjlk, raw and waste 
 
 " thrown 
 
 " manufacture of India and China... 
 
 " " of Europe, etc 
 
 Bkins and furs 
 
 Bpolter 
 
 Spirits, brandy 
 
 " Geneva 
 
 " rum 
 
 Sugar, raw and refined 
 
 " molasses 
 
 Tallow 
 
 Tar. 
 
 Tea...; ..;;. 
 
 TeettI, elephants' ;'. 
 
 Terra Japonic^ and cutch . 
 Tin. 
 
 Tobacco and snuff 
 
 Turpentine 
 
 Valoriia 
 
 "Watches 
 
 "Wale, bees' 
 
 Whale-fins 
 
 "VfineS . ■. 
 
 Wood and timber, viz. : 
 
 Deals, etc, sawn 
 
 Timber, not sawn 
 
 ' Teak staves 
 
 ■Wool, cotton 
 
 ! " sheep's 
 
 "Woolen * manufactures .' 
 
 Tarn, woolen or silk * 
 
 j4|11 Other articles 
 
 ' Total official value of iniports from 1 
 foreign parts f 
 
 flRBAT BBITAIN. 
 
 UNITED KINGDOM. 
 
 24,9T1, 
 
 660(817 
 
 8^9,866 
 
 1,898.489 
 
 S84,005 
 18,914 
 
 4T0,241 
 9,789,221 
 
 868,872 
 1,070,668 
 
 129,404 
 
 6,560,188 
 
 64,896 
 
 115,069 
 
 287,215 
 
 450,089 
 
 240,788 
 66,646 
 
 146,970 
 68,694 
 64,205 
 
 702,502 
 
 246,612 
 
 900,115 
 
 '65,884 
 
 80,811,094 
 
 2,469,142 
 
 719,726 
 
 61,423 
 
 4,654,187 
 
 £108,408,896 
 
 14,650 
 
 69,624 
 
 8,208,717 
 
 1,054,880 
 
 825,122 
 
 1,902,941 
 
 860,099 
 
 1,170,928 
 
 666,251 
 
 24,619 
 
 866,908 
 
 10,822,872 
 
 618,419 
 
 1,286,216 
 
 144,216 
 
 7,118,482 
 
 69,709 
 
 90,857 
 
 248,702 
 
 638,816 
 
 196,324 
 
 98,122 
 
 199,729 
 
 55,561 
 
 72,507 
 
 1,178,589 
 
 806,708 
 
 1,142,296 
 
 94,920 
 
 28,881,818 
 
 8,111,708 
 
 1,210,673 
 
 128,386 
 
 6,840,466 
 
 £117,231,764 
 
 1,447 
 
 5,142 
 
 75 
 
 647 
 
 722,991 
 
 U 
 
 46,564 
 
 8,246 
 
 75,870 
 
 19,292 
 
 46,864 
 
 40,862 
 
 146,886 
 
 1,974 
 
 14,478 
 
 8,896 
 
 61 
 
 76,5,68 
 
 £6,937,014 
 
 1,584 
 6,444 
 
 14 
 80 
 
 ^741 
 
 .264 
 
 766 
 
 720,469 
 
 14,133 
 
 4,892 
 
 82 
 
 1,837 
 
 "196 
 
 160 
 
 13,787 
 
 169 
 
 67,814 
 
 47,620 
 155,185 
 1,702 
 1,004 
 2,889 
 85 
 
 iib^iw 
 
 £6,906,071 
 
 24,971 
 
 64,112 
 
 2,729,843 
 
 650,817 
 
 830,174 
 
 1,898,521 
 
 348,886 
 
 926,268 
 
 589,147 
 
 18,989 
 
 470,788 
 
 10,462,218 
 
 , 368,416 
 
 1,116,282 
 
 182,660 
 
 6,636,063 
 
 54,896 
 
 116,069 
 
 287,215 
 
 460,M8 
 
 240,783 
 
 86,988 
 
 146,970 
 
 68,694 
 
 64,206 
 
 749,866 
 
 287,374 
 
 1,046,500 
 
 67,308 
 
 80,326,572 
 
 2,468,088 
 
 719,777 
 
 61,428 
 
 4780,740 
 
 14,650 
 
 71,158 
 
 3,214,161 
 
 1,064,880 
 
 325,122 
 
 1,902,955 
 
 860,179 
 
 1,170,928 
 
 671,992 
 
 . 24,888 
 
 856,658 
 
 11,042,841 
 
 618,421 
 
 1,260,349 
 
 148,e08 
 
 7,118,614 
 
 59,709 
 
 92,164 
 
 248,702 
 
 689,012 
 
 196,484 
 
 111,909 
 
 199,898 
 
 56,661 
 
 72,607 
 
 1,246,908 
 
 868,223 
 ;1,207,481 
 96,622 
 28,882,817 
 3,114,567 
 1,210,768 
 128,836 
 6,450,923 
 
 £[09,345,409 £123,186,835 
 
 An Acgount op the YA^v& of the Imports into, and of tub Exports fkom. Great Britain and Ireland, 
 DtrniNG EACH of the three Years ending the 6th of January, 1863. 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN". 
 
 UNITED KINGDOM. 
 
 , Valuoof 
 
 Imports into 
 
 Great 
 
 Britain. 
 
 1861 95,252,084 
 1862108,679,682 
 1968103,408,395 
 
 Produce and| Foreig:n 
 
 manufactures and coioniai 
 
 of the Unitedl merclian- 
 
 Kingdom. dise. 
 
 Total ezportE 
 
 Value of 
 Imports 
 
 into 
 Ireland. 
 
 I £ £ 
 
 175,147,095 21,882,977 197,030,072 
 190,407.476 2.3,726,872|214,188,848 
 195,865,636«3,820,964|219,186,690 
 
 Produce 
 and mnnu. 
 factnres of 
 the United 
 
 Kingdom. 
 
 Ftireiea 
 
 ana 
 
 colonial 
 
 mercban- 
 
 dlie. 
 
 6,208,349 290,003 
 7,099,643' 260,888 
 5,987,014' 350,974 
 
 £ 
 
 10,190 
 
 6,881 
 
 8,185 
 
 Total 
 exporta. 
 
 . Value of 
 Imports into 
 the United 
 ' Kingdom. 
 
 Produce and 
 
 manufactures 
 
 oftlie United 
 
 Kingdom. 
 
 Foreign 
 and colonial 
 merchan- 
 dise. 
 
 Total exporta 
 
 £ £ £ . £ S. 
 
 800,193 100,460,438 175,487,098 21,8^,167 197,830.265 
 257,169 110,679,126 190,666,31423,7^2,703 214,391,017 
 369,109 109,845,409 196,216,61028,329,089 219,646,699 
 
 fixtparts, Imports, etc. — In 1800 the annual exports 
 of the British and Irish produce amounted to £35,903,- 
 OOd ; the exports of foreign and colonial produce to 
 £71271,000, being a total of £43,174,000. The imports 
 for! the same year amounted to £24,066,000. In 1852, 
 the British and Irish exports to foreign countries were 
 £7fe„049,367; to the colonies, £20,430,369 ; total, £92,- 
 47^,736.' The; imports for the same year amounted to 
 iip9,345,409. The total number of vessels, their 
 tonnage, and number of persons navigating the same, 
 were, in 1852, 34,402 vessels, 1,225 of which were pro- 
 pelled by steam; tonnage, 4,424,392; navigated by 
 24^,512 men and boys. The total length of railroads 
 authorized by Parliament up to the 31st December, 
 18^1, almounted to 11,962 miles ; capital, £368,428,000. 
 The total length of railroads completed in (jreat 
 Britain, and Ireland at the end of the year 1853 was 
 77^4 miles; cost of construction, up to July, 1853, 
 £263,636,320, equal to $1,315,000,000. An almost in- 
 stantaneous communication by electric telegraph has 
 also been established throughout great Britain and 
 Ireland. Of other associated industrial companies, 
 the investments are, in mining companies, £9,978,747 ; 
 gas cbmpanies, £6,415,295 ; insurance companies, 
 £6 000,000. The gross revenue of the post office for 
 the year ending Januarj' 6th, 1852, was £2,422,168 ; 
 the cost of management was £1,304,163 ; the net rev- 
 enue £1,118,004. The total number of letters in 
 185l'wa3 360,647,187, of which 36,612,649 were in 
 Scotland, and 35,982,782 in Ireland. The paj-ment 
 
 made to the various railroad companies for the convey- 
 ance of mails for work done within the year, was 
 £155,575, and £87,272 for work done in previous 
 years. The total number of money orders issued in 
 the year 1851 was 4,661,025 ; the amount, £8,880,420. 
 In 1851, the persons employed were, in England and 
 Wales, 13,912 ; in Ireland, 1927 ; in Scotland, 2190, 
 and in the colonies, 939. The total amount paid to 
 these persons was £727,120. 
 
 British Exports in 1855. — A return has just been is- 
 sued by the Board of Trade of the declared values of 
 British and Irish produce and manufactures exported 
 from the United Kingdom in the year 1856, speoifj'ing 
 the amount to each country and colonj'. From this 
 document the following list has been compiled, show- 
 ing the order in which the various communities of the 
 world rank as her customers. The total is £95,688,- 
 085, against £97,298,900 in 1854, and £98,933,781 in 
 1853. Owing to the revulsion from over-speculation 
 in the Australian and Canadian trades, the proportion 
 taken by her own possessions, amounting in the two 
 preceding years to about a third of the whole, presents 
 a falling off of £7,000,000, although India, which, 
 from the prosperity consequent on the demand for sub- 
 stitutes for Russian produce and the ; outlay for rail- 
 ways, exhibited in 1864 an increase of £1,800,000, 
 figures again for an increase of £900,000. With regard 
 to foreign countries, the effects of the chronic pressure 
 which has continued to prevail in the New York money 
 market have again been shown in a diminution of the 
 
GEE 
 
 854 
 
 GRE 
 
 V"altje op the Produce and Manufactures of the TTnited Kinqdom, Exported prom Great Britain and Ireland 
 TO Foreign Parts, according to the real or declared Value thereof, for the Tears ending 5tu January. 
 
 Species of Ezporta, 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 UNITED KINGDOM. 
 
 1863. I 1854. 
 
 Agricultural Ituplenieots 
 
 Alkali of all sorts 
 
 Alum 
 
 Apothecary wares 
 
 Apparel and slops j 
 
 Arms and ammunition i 
 
 Bacon and hams 
 
 Bags, empty 
 
 Beef and porlv, salted 
 
 Beer and alo 
 
 Bichromate of potash 
 
 Bleaching materials 
 
 Books, printed 
 
 Brass and copper manufactures 
 
 Bread and biscuit 
 
 Bricks 
 
 Butter and cheese 
 
 Cabihet and upholstery 
 
 Caoutchouc and gutta, manufactures of. . 
 
 Carriages of all sorts 
 
 Cement. 
 
 Coals and culm 
 
 Confectionery. 
 
 Cordage 
 
 Corn, meal, and flour 
 
 Cotton manufactures 
 
 " yarn 
 
 Earthenware of all sorts 
 
 Fish of all borts 
 
 Fishing tackle 
 
 Fuel, manufactured 
 
 Glass of all sorts 
 
 Haberdashery and millinery 
 
 Hardwjires and cutlery 
 
 Hats, beaver and felt 
 
 " of all other sorts 
 
 Hemp, dressed 
 
 Hops 
 
 Horses 
 
 Iron and steel, wrought and unwrought 
 
 Lard 
 
 Lead and shot 
 
 " red and white 
 
 Leather and saddlery 
 
 Linen manufactures 
 
 " yarn 
 
 Machinery and mill-work 
 
 Mathematical Instruments 
 
 Molasses 
 
 Musical instruments 
 
 Oil, hemp, linseed, and rape 
 
 " train and spermaceti 
 
 Painters' colors and materials 
 
 Perfumery. 
 
 Pickles and sauces 
 
 Plate ware, jewelry, etc 
 
 Platting for hats of straw, etc 
 
 Potatoes • 
 
 Provisions, not described 
 
 Salt -■■■■ 
 
 Saltpetre, refined in United Kingdom. . 
 
 Seeds of all sorts 
 
 Silk manufactures 
 
 Boap and candles 
 
 Spelter, wrought and nnwrought 
 
 Spirits 
 
 Stationery of all sorts 
 
 Sugar, refined 
 
 Tin, unwrought 
 
 Tin and pewter wares 
 
 Tobacco, manufactured 
 
 Toys 
 
 Turnery and turners' wares 
 
 Twine 
 
 TTmbrellas and parasols 
 
 Wool, sheep's, and other sorts 
 
 Woolen and worsted yarn 
 
 £59,225 
 
 399,236 
 
 27,648 
 
 880,308 
 
 1,246,160 
 
 398,458 
 
 47,805 
 
 149,771 
 
 88,578 
 
 748,596 
 
 25,624 
 
 107,609 
 
 289,388 
 
 1,704,064 
 
 20,110 
 
 45,894 
 
 294,845 
 
 181.719 
 
 46;014 
 
 70,133 
 
 49,833 
 
 1,369,626 
 
 46,476 
 
 144,588 
 
 148,407 
 
 23,221,086 
 
 6,654,655 
 
 1,1.M,790 
 
 849,466 
 
 46,566 
 
 89,741 
 
 873,418 
 
 2,074,117 
 
 2,691,242 
 
 48,055 
 
 92,460 
 
 81,672 
 
 29,726 
 
 98,495 
 
 6,656,148 
 
 6,258 
 
 868,165 
 
 65,079 
 
 843,322 
 
 4,280,126 
 
 1,140,155 
 
 1,248,860 
 
 44,222 
 
 52,409 
 
 122,918 
 
 484,899 
 
 49,716 
 
 249,099 
 
 44,029 
 
 146,880 
 
 426,706 
 
 67,970 
 
 6,849 
 
 56,488 
 
 221,101 
 
 61,895 
 
 19,898 
 
 1,661,846 
 
 816,649 
 
 88,866 
 
 63,618 
 
 411,590 
 
 800,184 
 
 88,604 
 
 1,080,726 
 
 12,661' 
 
 26,788 
 
 80,142 
 
 54,775 
 
 79,777 
 
 792,289 
 
 „.„ „„„ , - - - - 1,480,140 
 
 Woolen manufactures ?'oI?'kS? 
 
 AH other articles _1,861,68T 
 
 Total exports I £77.78n.5'l1 
 
 £77,309 
 
 478,532 
 
 25,039 
 
 638,587 
 
 2,766,094 
 
 648,927 
 
 137,021 
 
 187,118 
 
 60,287 
 
 1,286,628 
 
 28,867 
 
 94,280 
 
 461,711 
 
 1,868,641 
 
 41,961 
 
 67,350 
 
 446,844 
 
 849,560 
 
 72,687 
 
 159,626 
 
 64,212 
 
 1,602,762 
 
 97,424 
 
 221,626 
 
 875,740 
 
 26,807,986 
 
 6,895,658 
 
 1,837,911 
 
 466,008 
 
 50,016 
 
 48,664 
 
 617,842 
 
 4,166,139 
 
 8,668,746 
 
 87,888 
 
 174,788 
 
 17,361 
 
 89,591 
 
 86,887 
 
 10,802,690 
 
 6,682 
 
 372,940 
 
 66,703 
 
 1,576,263 
 
 4,766,889 
 
 1,154,939 
 
 1,986,317 
 
 59,441 
 
 48,088 
 
 176,870 
 
 516,811 
 
 60,606 
 
 69,627 
 
 832,448 
 
 727,861 
 
 54,677 
 
 1,812 
 
 139,999 
 
 271,129 
 
 48,966 
 
 28,746 
 
 2,044,289 
 
 412,266 
 
 97,328 
 
 204,141 
 
 ■ 618,498 
 
 801,627 
 
 140,669 
 
 1,213,612 
 
 19,669 
 
 46,826 
 
 40,094 
 
 57,087 
 
 119,905 
 
 483,812 
 
 1,466,786 
 
 10,170,788 
 
 2,342,467 
 
 £16 
 
 617 
 
 889 
 
 2,207 
 
 528 
 
 4,861 
 
 6,081 
 
 "'284 
 46 
 29 
 
 "iig 
 
 98,474 
 775 
 
 ' '782 
 
 1,886 
 
 12,038 
 
 2,347 
 
 "167 
 940 
 
 "146 
 409 
 
 372 
 
 28,128 
 
 2,466 
 
 15 
 
 "l',437 
 
 1,660 
 
 4:0 
 
 8,000 
 
 1 
 
 '"40 
 60 
 
 "31 
 26 
 
 50 
 
 415 
 
 40 
 
 2,875 
 
 2,980 
 
 58,480 
 
 ']',825 
 52,336 
 
 £98.709.686 ^2967263 
 
 79 
 1,602 
 1,647 
 1,470 
 218 
 1,688 
 5,734 
 
 "681 
 361 
 690 
 
 75,312 
 435 
 
 "165 
 6 
 1,829 
 66 
 4,776 
 15,925 
 
 459 
 10 
 
 366 
 
 1,805 
 
 161 
 
 80 
 42,782 
 1,171 
 
 219 
 
 14 
 36 
 
 "572 
 
 1 
 
 1,044 
 
 72 
 7,614 
 
 1,394 
 88,423 
 
 £59,241 
 
 899,286 
 
 27,648 
 
 380,308 
 
 1,246,677 
 
 398,847 
 
 49,612 
 
 160,294 
 
 87,929 
 
 764,627 
 
 26,624 
 
 107,898 
 
 289,483 
 
 1,704,088 
 
 20,110 
 
 46,613 
 
 893,319 
 
 182,494 
 
 46,014 
 
 70,865 
 
 49,862 
 
 1,872,114 
 
 46,478 
 
 146,924 
 
 166,445 
 
 23,223,482 
 
 6,654,665 
 
 1,151,897 
 
 850,896 
 
 46,666 
 
 39,887 
 
 378,827 
 
 2,074,180 
 
 2,691,697 
 
 48,066 
 
 92,460 
 
 81,872 
 
 29,726 
 
 98,867 
 
 6,684,276 
 
 8,718 
 
 868,180 
 
 66,079 
 
 844,769 
 
 4,281,786 
 
 1,140,565 
 
 1,261,360 
 
 44,628 
 
 62,409 
 
 122,968 
 
 484,959 
 
 49,716 
 
 249,180 
 
 44,066 
 
 146,380 
 
 425,705 
 
 67,970 
 
 6,764 
 
 56,628 
 
 223,976 
 
 51,396 
 
 20,670 
 
 1,651,866 
 
 324,444 
 
 83,866 
 
 66,548 
 
 411,718 
 
 800,134 
 
 83,604 
 
 1,080,725 
 
 12,661 
 
 26,788 
 
 80,142 
 
 54,775 
 
 79,777 
 
 845,769 
 
 1,480,140 
 
 8,730,984 
 
 1,418,922 
 
 £77,379 
 
 478,582 
 
 26,039 
 
 838,616 
 
 2,766,696 
 
 550,474 
 
 138,491 
 
 187,336 
 
 61,875 
 
 1,291.367 
 
 28,867 
 
 94,911 
 
 452,062 
 
 1,854,831 
 
 41,961 
 
 67,813 
 
 680,656 
 
 849,996 
 
 72,687 
 
 159,790 
 
 64,217 
 
 1,604,591 
 
 97,489 
 
 226,402 
 
 391,665 
 
 26,817,249 
 
 6,896,668 
 
 1,338,370 
 
 466,018 
 
 50,016 
 
 48,664 
 
 618,540 
 
 4,156,494 
 
 8,665,061 
 
 87,649 
 
 174,788 
 
 17,361 
 
 89,691 
 
 86,967 
 
 10,848,422 
 
 7,763 
 
 372,940 
 
 66,708 
 
 1,678,696 
 
 4,758,4.32 
 
 1,154,977 
 
 1,986,686 
 
 59,441 
 
 48,083 
 
 176,395 
 
 616,828 
 
 60,506 
 
 824.845 
 
 69,906 
 
 332,462 
 
 727,386 
 
 64,877 
 
 1,884 
 
 140,000 
 
 272,178 
 
 48,966 
 
 28,745 
 
 2,044,861 
 
 419,679 
 
 97,828 
 
 208,441 
 
 618,882 
 
 801,627 
 
 140,869 
 
 1,218,680 
 
 19,669 
 
 46,826 
 
 40,118 
 
 67,062 
 
 119,906 
 
 484,612 
 
 1,466,786 
 
 10,172,182 
 
 2,375,890 
 
 £224,098 ' £78,076,854 ' .£98,933.781 
 
 dxports to the United States. In 1854 there was a 
 decrease of £2,248,058, and a further falling off of 
 £i 092 283 is now observable. The amount to Ger- 
 many has been swollen by the overland trade to Kus- 
 sia, the augmentation being £1,222,776. France ex- 
 hibits the extraordinary increase of £2,8.')7,368— equal 
 to 90 per cent.— a result due partly to the purchase of 
 war materials in this- country, and partly to modifica- 
 tions in her tariff. To Turkey, as might have been 
 expected, the exports have more than doubled. Kus- 
 sia is of course entirely out of the list, but the con- 
 
 signments to Balaklavaand the other ports in her own 
 possession amounted to nearly £500,000. Among the 
 countries which show an improvement are Sweden and 
 Norway, Brazil, and New Granada, the difference in 
 each of these cases being large. The trade with 
 Syria and Palestine, in consequence of the war, has 
 experienced a great development. The exports direct 
 to the Danubian Principalities, which declined from 
 £179,510 in 1853 to £16,402 in 1854, stand in the.pres- 
 ent return at £45,337. Belgium, Greece, Italy, Mex- 
 ico, Peru, Venezuela, and China, are all on the favor- 
 
GRE 
 
 855 
 
 GRE 
 
 able side. Spain shows a falling off. The Eiver 
 Plata trade experienced a heavy reaction, Buenos 
 Ayres and Uruguay both presenting u, great de- 
 cline. Portugal and Denmark have been stationary : 
 
 1. British Possessions: 
 
 East Indies £10,927,694 
 
 Australia 6,278,966 
 
 British America 2,885,881 
 
 West Indies 1,979,956 
 
 Gibraltar 829,864 
 
 South Africa 791,818 
 
 Malta 625,823 
 
 Ports of occupation in Crimea 498,898 
 
 Channel Islands 468,078 
 
 Hong-KOn? 889,265 
 
 Sierra Leone, etc 3U6,004 
 
 Mauritius 803,178 
 
 Ionian Islands 211,886 
 
 Other possessions 62,544 
 
 -£26,552,875 
 
 2. United States, including California 17,818,086 
 
 8. Germany: 
 
 Hanseatic Towns £8,850,228 
 
 Prussia l,10D,fl21 
 
 Hanover 837,354 
 
 — 9,787,608 
 
 4. France 6,011i,658 
 
 5. Turkey 6,689,898 
 
 6. Holland 4,558,210 
 
 7. Brazil 8,812,728 
 
 8. Italy: 
 
 Naples and Sicily 921,220 
 
 Sardinia 868,916 
 
 Lombardy, etc 717,713 
 
 Tuscany 620,807 
 
 Papal Territories 147,013 
 
 8,260,169 
 
 9. Belgium 1,707,698 
 
 10. Portugal, including £124,922 to the Azores and 
 
 Madeira. 1,475,713 
 
 11. Egypt 1,454,871 
 
 12. Chili 1,830,885 
 
 18. Peru 1,285,160 
 
 14 Spain, including £110,015 to the Canary Isls. . 1,268,815 
 
 15. Onba 1,059,606 
 
 16. Sweden and Norway 1,082,784 
 
 17. Svria and Palestine 946,604 
 
 18. China 888,679 
 
 19. Western Coast of Africa 889,888 
 
 20. Denmark 759,651 
 
 21. Buenos Ayres, 742,442 
 
 22. New Granada 588,936 
 
 28. Mexico 685,893 
 
 24. St. Thomas 562,789 
 
 25. Java, 629,815 
 
 26. Philippine Islands 898,037 
 
 27. Venezuela 878,491 
 
 23. Uruguay 294,988 
 
 29 Greece 222,460 
 
 80. Hayti 160,128 
 
 81. Morocco 188,697 
 
 82. Wallachla and Moldavia 45,887 
 
 88. French Scnegambia 11,270 
 
 34. Other countries 642,822 
 
 Total £95,688,085 
 
 The commercial changes in Great Britain during 
 this year (1856) have not been very important. Among 
 the prominent changes are : I. "An act to amend the 
 laws of England and Ireland affecting trade and com- 
 merce." The object of this act is to assimilate the 
 laws of England and Ireland to those of Scotland, and 
 thereby remedy the inconvenience now felt by the 
 commercial community in matters of common occnr- 
 rence in the course of trade. II. " Treaty of com- 
 merce and navigation between the United Kingdom 
 and the republic of Chili." III. " Eetums of trade 
 and business to be made up to the 31st of March, the 
 terminus of the financial year, instead of, as hereto- 
 fore, to the 31st of December." " Treaty of commerce 
 between the United Kingdom and the Swiss Confed- 
 eration." *' Differential duties on the trade and ship- 
 ping of the Two Sicilies to be abolished." There is 
 an evident want of reciprocity between the two na- 
 tions, the United States and Great Britain, as relates 
 to shipwreclts, etc. The late navigation act of Great 
 Britain deprives consuls of all authority to protect the 
 property saved belonging to their respective countries, 
 except under treaty stipulations. Our treaty with 
 England does not define the duties and rights of con- 
 suls in such cases. 
 
 Progress of the British Mercantile Marine since 
 1842. — ^The statistical abstract of the United Kingdom 
 for the last iifteen years, which has just been issued by 
 the Board of Trade, contain a series of tables of con- 
 siderable interest to ship-owners, as showing the prog- 
 ress of the mercantile marine during a period in which 
 has occurred the adoption of free trade and the repeal 
 of the navigation laws. In 1842 the total tonnage of 
 vessels entered with cargoes and in ballast at British 
 ports was 4,600,028 tons, and with cargoes only 3,655,- 
 230 tons ; the former amount Comprised 3,294,726 tons 
 of British and 1,205,303 tons of foreign shipping, In 
 1856 the total entries with cargoes and in ballast rep- 
 resented 10,553,134 tons of shipping, and with cargoes 
 only 8,241,664 tons. In iifteen years, therefore, the 
 tonnage had more than doubled, but the increase in 
 British and foreign shipping was not at the same rate. 
 The entries with cargoes and in ballast comprised 
 6,390,715 tons of British and 4,162 tons of foreign 
 shipping. While, therefore, the British tonnage had 
 nearly doubled, the foreign had been multiplied by 
 almost 3J. Down to 1846 the rate of increase was 
 nearly equal, but slightly in favor of the British flag ; 
 in 1849, the British tonnage had increased one half, 
 while the foreign entries show an increase to two 
 thirds. In 1850, the foreign tonnage which entered 
 British ports had doubled, and the entries under the 
 national flag declined, continuing to do so, as com- 
 pared with 1847, down to 1853. Since the last named 
 date British tonnage has again advanced, though not 
 so rapidly as foreign, which tripled in fourteen years, the 
 entries in 1855 having been 3, 680,447 tons. The British 
 entries in the same year amounted to 5,270,795tons, 
 whereas, if the increase had been at the same rate as 
 foreign shipping, it would have been more than 9,880,- 
 000 tons. The return of the number and tonnage of 
 registered vessels, and the number of men employed 
 therein, prepared by the register-general of seamen, 
 commences with 1846, the statistics of previous years 
 not being procurable. The total increase of vessels 
 during the eight years was 1049, of tonnage 1,059,735 
 tons, and of men 21,307, exclusive of masters. Tliis 
 includes Channel Island vessels, but riot those belong- 
 ing to British possessions abroad. This table is so 
 classified as to show the proportionate increase in each 
 branch of the shipping trade, sailing vessels being dis- 
 tinguished from steamers, and the home trade from the 
 foreign. The whole trade includes the coasts of the 
 United Kingdom, and continental ports between Brest 
 and the Elbe; and" the foreign trade all ports beyond 
 those limits. There are many vessels, however, which 
 are engaged partlj' in the foreign trade, and these are 
 classed separatel}^ In 1849 the number of sailing 
 vessels was 17,807, and of steam vessels 414 ; in 1856 
 the former numbered 18,419, and the latter 851. 
 While sailing vessels, therefore, had increased little 
 more than a thirtieth, steam vessels had more than 
 doubled. In 1849 there were 9298 sailing vessels en- 
 gaged in the home trade, 6612 in the foreign trade, and 
 1897 partly in one trade and partly in the other. In 
 1856 the home trade employed 9390 sailing vessels, the 
 foreign trade 8059, while those engaged partly in one 
 trade and partly in the other numbered but 970. This 
 gives an increase of 92 in the first class, and of 1447 
 in the second, while in the mixed class there was a 
 decrease of 927, or nearly half. The statistics of the 
 steam trade give results very different. In 1849 the 
 home trade employed 312 steamers (exclusive of river 
 vessels), the foreign trade 82, and of those engaged in 
 part in both trades there were 20. In 1856 the num- 
 bers were respectively 317, 422, and 42, showing that 
 while tiro home steam trade had increased scarcely 2 
 per cent., the mixed class had doubled, and the for- 
 eign-going steamers had been multiplied by six. There 
 remains for notice the table giving the number and 
 tonnage of the sailing and steam vessels built and 
 registered in the United Kingdom during the fifteen 
 
GRE 
 
 856 
 
 GRE 
 
 A Ektukn op the Shipping employed in the Tkaj>e of the United Kingdom, exhibiting the Numbek and Ton- 
 nage OP Vessels that Entered Inward and Cleared Outwaed (including their kepeatkd Voyages), 
 
 SEPARATING BRITISH PROM FoREIGN VESSELS, ALSO SteAM FROM SAILING VESSELS, AND DISTINGUISHING THE 'fttADK 
 
 "WITH EACH Country, in the Year 1858 (in continuation op Parliamentary Paper No. ^S9, op Session 1852-3). 
 
 Enssia. . 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Norway 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Prussia 
 
 Germany 
 
 Holland 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Channel Islands 
 
 France 
 
 Portugal, Azores, and Madeira. 
 
 Spain and Canaries. 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 Italian States 
 
 Malta 
 
 Steam. 
 
 Ionian Islands., 
 Greece 
 
 Turkey 
 
 Wallachia and Moldavia. 
 Syria 
 
 AfHca 
 
 Asia 
 
 America ; 
 
 British Northern Colonies. 
 
 British West Indies. . 
 Foreign West Indies. 
 United States 
 
 Central and Southern States. 
 
 Falkland Islands. 
 
 Arctic Regions. . . 
 
 Whale Fisheries . 
 
 Total... 
 
 Steam. 
 
 Sailing. 
 
 Steam. 
 ■) Sailing. 
 ' Steam . 
 
 Sailing. 
 
 Steam . . 
 
 Sailing. 
 
 Steam . . 
 
 Sailing,, 
 
 Steam.. 
 
 Sailing. 
 
 Steam. , 
 
 Sailing. 
 
 Steam . , 
 
 Sailing. 
 
 Steam . , 
 
 Sailing. 
 
 Steam., 
 'i Sailing. 
 
 ! Steam . , 
 Sailing. 
 Steam., 
 Sailing. 
 Steam . 
 Sailing., 
 j Steam . , 
 I Sailing. 
 Sailing. 
 Sailing., 
 ( Steam., 
 "I Sailing. 
 ' Sailing. , 
 Steam.. 
 Sailing., 
 Steam., 
 Sailing. 
 Steam . , 
 ( Sailing. 
 
 Steam., 
 Sailing, 
 Steam . , 
 Sailing. 
 Steam . , 
 Sailing. , 
 Steam . . 
 Sailing,, 
 
 j Steam.. 
 
 ( Sailing. , 
 Sailing. , 
 Sailing. . 
 Sailing. . 
 
 Ships, 
 
 27 
 1,790 
 
 88 
 228 
 
 18 
 110 
 101 
 
 84 
 
 1,126 
 
 825 
 
 958 
 
 290 
 
 846 
 
 826 
 
 1,626 
 
 1,676 
 
 2,926 
 
 29 
 
 607 
 
 1 
 
 516 
 
 86 
 
 24 
 
 82 
 
 464 
 
 51 
 272 
 242 
 
 47 
 
 668 
 
 16 
 
 4 
 
 1,877 
 
 1 
 
 690 
 
 25 
 
 150 
 
 79 
 
 441 
 
 16 
 
 698 
 
 2 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 18,489 
 
 397,775 
 
 11,888 
 
 44,814 
 
 8,186 
 18,624 
 44,188 
 
 7,966 
 
 154',855 
 168,096 
 202,124 
 246,627 
 138,805 
 85,615 
 40,441 
 61,699 
 121,608 
 290,168 
 302,449 
 9,866 
 
 65,460 
 14,247 
 8,766 
 14,212 
 66,087 
 
 5,778 
 
 10,268 
 
 80,674 
 
 56,886 
 
 42,106 
 
 968 
 
 5,877 
 
 36,410 
 
 158,438 
 
 24,172 
 
 476,988 
 
 1,791 
 
 775,446 
 821 
 
 184,027 
 88,527 
 4.3,224 
 86,854 
 
 266,408 
 14,781 
 
 229,899 
 . 662 
 
 16,ii8 
 
 6,055,348 
 
 Ships. 
 
 1,881 
 
 2 
 
 1,089 
 
 1,765 
 
 19 
 
 2,120 
 
 11 
 
 2,573 
 
 124 
 1,783 
 
 184 
 1,146 
 
 126 
 
 15 
 4,867 
 
 "179 
 
 12 
 
 262 
 
 ""s 
 
 "257 
 
 ""16 
 5 
 
 277 
 315 
 
 14 
 '291 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 377,754 
 
 190 
 
 200,187 
 
 234,908 
 
 4,799 
 
 157,789 
 
 2,688 
 
 416,194 
 
 41,659 
 164,150 
 
 88,666 
 226,693 
 
 29,213 
 
 70,987 
 
 8,648 
 
 1,597 
 
 420,180 
 
 22^644 
 
 2,610 
 
 82,198 
 
 3,490 
 1,212 
 4,867 
 
 68,964 
 55,600 
 
 S,i46 
 
 8V,698 
 
 44^890 
 
 225,763 
 
 10,058 
 260 
 60,926 
 37,890 
 697,867 
 
 87^880 
 "ii8 
 
 21,248 I 3,887,763 
 
 Ships. 
 
 22 
 1,858 
 
 86 
 164 
 
 16 
 126 
 
 29 
 406 
 
 "8i7 
 419 
 
 1,146 
 605 
 918 
 
 820 
 1,166 
 1,491 
 2,651 
 
 1 
 
 1,014 
 
 87 
 
 174 
 
 28 
 
 708 
 
 2 
 
 170 
 
 40 
 
 21 
 
 50 
 
 246 
 
 78 
 
 6 
 
 86 
 
 44 
 
 681 
 
 41 
 
 1,515 
 
 1,829 
 
 204 
 86 
 
 860 
 16 
 
 Tonna^. 
 
 295,087 
 10,872 
 81,216 
 8,920 
 19,806 
 11,898 
 75,779 
 
 130^364 
 
 150,254 
 
 208,794 
 
 176,056 
 
 118,076 
 
 85,779 
 
 18,264 
 
 68,818 
 
 74,728 
 
 278,308 
 
 801,791 
 
 8,461 
 
 68,786 
 
 500 
 
 174,401 
 
 15,278 
 
 21,728' 
 
 14,877 
 
 130,583 
 
 766 
 
 41,600 
 
 8,188 
 
 8,740 
 
 80,408 
 
 58,468 
 
 12,489 
 
 1,756 
 
 7,244 
 
 37,465 
 
 178,109 
 
 26,658 
 
 789,492 
 
 1.281 
 
 587;767 
 
 821 
 
 168,748 
 
 44,864 
 
 66,949 
 
 88,428 
 
 470,848 
 
 17,838 
 
 189,282 
 
 1,862 
 
 574 
 
 16,982 
 
 Shipa. 
 
 88T 
 
 1,849 
 8 
 
 5,034 
 10 
 
 1,708 
 117 
 
 1,984 
 185 
 612 
 121 
 200 
 
 15 
 1,061 
 
 648 
 11 
 
 67 
 
 1 
 
 575 
 
 "172 
 31 
 65 
 
 '681 
 50 
 
 "io 
 
 '260 
 
 1,176 
 
 "266 
 1 
 
 21,478 I 6,212,980 | 28,801 4,284,124 
 
 1,800 
 200,010 
 
 146',8i7 
 
 m,ik 
 
 2,804 
 529,967 
 2,860 
 808,725 
 81,865 
 196,484 
 88,434 
 47,740 
 27,858 
 28,695 
 
 1,697 
 842,092 
 
 94,663 
 
 2,279 
 
 116,821 
 
 660 
 
 11,956 
 
 160 
 
 130,229 
 
 44,657 
 8,686 
 17,685 
 
 153,994 
 6,668 
 
 'l',997 
 
 6l',931 
 
 2l'4,487 
 
 29,648 
 
 l'l',286 
 
 90,229 
 49,897 
 982,605 
 
 62,910 
 116 
 
 years since 1842, In that 3'ear 914 Vessels, having an 
 aggregate tonnage of 129,929 tons, were built ; in 1856 
 the number was 1150, and the tonnage 244,578 tons. 
 In 1842 the sailing vessels numbered 956, and the 
 steamers 58 ; in 1856 the former were 921, and the 
 latter 229. Steamers, therefore, have been nearly 
 
 quadrupled, while the increase of sailing vessels was 
 only about 7 per cent. 
 
 The following returns embrace vessels belonging to 
 the Channel Islands, but not vessels registered in the 
 British plantations. The marked increase in steam 
 vessels should claim the attention of our shipbuilders. 
 
 1. — Return op the Number and Tonnage op British Registered Vessels employed solely as Home-trade 
 Ships, in the Tears 1849, 1860, 1851, 1862, and 1853, with the Number of Men employed ; distinguishing 
 Sailing Vesseis prom Steamers. 
 
 years. 
 
 Sailing Vessels. 
 
 Steam Vessels. | 
 
 Number of Vessels. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Number of Men 
 employed. 
 
 Number of Vessels. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Number of Men 
 employed. 
 
 1849 
 
 9,298 
 8,880 
 8,898 
 8,776 
 8,477 
 
 665,726 
 
 666,957 
 686,641 
 701,808 
 689,342 
 
 40,208 
 88,527 
 86,906 
 86,798 
 86,051 
 
 812 
 820 
 868 
 868 
 874 
 
 64,089 
 64,198 
 78,820 
 66,606 . 
 85,471 
 
 4,442 
 4,491 
 6,048 
 5,182 
 6,689 
 
 I860 
 
 1861 
 
 1952 
 
 1858 
 
 
 2.— Ketubn op the Number and Tonnage op British Registered Vessels employed partly as Home-trade Smps 
 AND partly as F0RBIGN-601NG S1HP8, IN THE Yeaeb 1849, 1850, 1351, 1852, and 1853, -with tub Number op Men 
 employed; distinguishing Sailing Vessels from Steamers. 
 
 Yeats. 
 
 Sailing Vessels. 
 
 Steam Vessels. { 
 
 Number of Vessels. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Number of Men 
 employed. 
 
 Number of Vessels, 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Number ofjtfen 
 employed. 
 
 1849 
 
 1,897 
 1,487 
 1,489 
 1,063 
 970 
 
 281,961 
 223,841 
 242,656 
 147,867 
 166,800 
 
 12,716 
 
 10,291 
 
 8,670 
 
 6,876 
 
 7,134 
 
 20 
 20 
 18 
 42 
 28 
 
 6,639 
 6,298- 
 4,926 
 
 15,244 - 
 7,250 
 
 262 
 
 896 
 
 282, 
 
 944 
 
 660 
 
 I860 
 
 1851 . .. 
 
 1852 
 
 1863 
 
 
 
GEE 
 
 85T 
 
 GRE 
 
 8. — Eetubn of thb Number and Toknagb oy BEirisn Eegisteeed Vessels employed solely as Foebign-goino Ships 
 IN THE Yeabs 1849, 1850, 1851, 1852, ahd 1858, "witu tub Numbek op Men employed ; distinguishing Sailing 
 Vessels from Steamers. 
 
 Yen™. 
 
 Sailing VesBsla, | Steam Vessels. { 
 
 Namher of Vessels. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Number of Men 
 employed. 
 
 Number of Vessels. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Number of Men 
 employed. 
 
 1849 : 
 
 6,612 
 7,149 
 7,277 
 7,481 
 8,120 
 
 2,040,844 
 2,148,284 
 2,287,897 
 2,865,995 
 2,665,685 
 
 91,242 
 
 98,912 
 
 85,801 
 
 108,618 
 
 111,821 
 
 82 
 
 86 
 
 134 
 
 149 
 
 237 
 
 48,693 
 48,186 
 60,995 
 88,869 
 125,539 
 
 8,742 
 8,818 
 4,880 
 7,151 
 10,270 
 
 1860 
 
 1881 , 
 
 18.52 
 
 1858 
 
 
 4. — Aggregate Returns, 1, 2, and 8, bhowing tue Total Number op British Eegisteeed Vessels employed in 
 Trading in,, from, and to Great Britain and' Ireland, in the Years 1849, 1850, 1851, 1852, and 1858, with 
 THEIR Tonnage and Number of Men. . < > 
 
 Tears. 
 
 galling Vessels. 
 
 Stenmers.* 
 
 Number of Vessels. 
 
 Tgnuage. . 
 
 Number of Men 
 employed. 
 
 Number of Vessels. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Number of Men 
 employed. 
 
 1849 
 
 17,807 
 
 17,466 
 17,664 . 
 17,270 
 17,867 
 
 2,988^021 
 8,083,682 
 8,216,194 
 8,215,665 
 8,611,827 
 
 1 144,165 , 
 142,780 
 181,277 
 146,286 
 165,006 
 
 414 
 426 
 
 S20 
 
 549 
 689 
 
 108,821 
 104,680 . 
 144,741 
 165,219 
 218,260 
 
 8,446 
 
 8,700 
 
 10,660 
 
 18,277 
 
 17,519 
 
 1860 
 
 1851 
 
 185? 
 
 1858 
 
 
 * Eiver steamers are not iQcluded in this return. 
 
 An Account op the Number of Vessels, with the Amount of their Tonnage, that were built and pegistbred 
 IN the several Ports of the British Empire, in the Years ending Sth Jandaey, 1851, 1853, and 1858, 
 jiespectively. ' ' 
 
 
 Year ending fith January, 1 B51. 
 
 Year ending 6lh January, 1862. 
 
 Year ending Bth January, 1853. 
 
 
 Vessels. 
 528 
 136 
 25 
 ,36 
 714 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 101,666 
 30,100 
 1,929 
 8,835 
 
 124,953 
 
 Vessels. 
 821 ■- 
 138 
 .18 
 80 
 680 
 
 Tonnage. 
 109,811 
 
 88,868 
 
 968 
 
 2,9^6 
 
 141,116 
 
 Vesiels. 
 566 
 181 
 28 
 80 
 838 
 
 £K.»eS| 
 
 
 Ireland , 
 
 Isles of Guernsey, Jersey, aad Man 
 
 British Plantotions : . . . . 
 
 Total 
 
 1,439 
 
 262,488 
 
 1,882 1 298,679 
 
 1,278 
 
 284,728 1 
 
 An Account of the Number of Vessels, with the Amount of their Tonsage (including thbii^ repeated VoYAGEa), 
 that Entered iNTff'ARD and Cleared Outward at the several' Poets of the United Kingdom, peom and to 
 EoREiGN Parts, during each of the three Years ending 5th January, 1853. ' ' ' ~ . , \ . 
 
 SHIPPING ENTERED INWARD IN THE UNITED KINGDOM, FROM FOREIGN PARTS. 
 
 Years.! 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 IRELAND. 
 
 UNITEO KENKnOM. 1 
 
 British and Irish vessels. 
 
 Foreign vessels. 
 
 British & Irish V essois 
 
 Foreign vessels. 
 
 Biitishnnd Irish vessels.!' Foreign vessels. ' | 
 
 1881 
 IS.W 
 1863 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 21,871 
 21,299 
 20,867 
 
 Tons. 
 
 4,464,007 
 4,632,878 
 4,648,188 
 
 Vosstis. 
 
 ,14,239 
 16,056 
 15,469 
 
 'Tons. 
 2,288,860 
 2,664,674 
 2,771,855 
 
 Vessels. 
 1,338 
 1,608 
 
 1,397 
 
 Tons. 
 246,192 
 306,018 
 286,708 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 866 
 
 1,230 
 
 828 
 
 Tons. 
 166,417 
 269,184 
 181,229 
 
 Vessels. 
 22,709 
 22,902 
 21,764 
 
 Tons. 
 
 4,700,199 
 4,938,386 
 4,934,868 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 15,145 
 16,286 
 16i287 
 
 Tons. 
 2,400,277 
 2,988,708 
 2,952,584 
 
 SHIPPING CLEARED OUTWARD FROM THE UNITED KINGDOM, TO FOREIGN PARTS. 
 
 
 ORBAT BRITAIN. 
 
 lEBLAND. 
 
 UNITED KINGDOM. ] 
 
 
 British and Irish vessels. 
 
 Foreign vessels. 
 
 British & IrUh vessels. 
 
 Foreign vbsskU. 
 
 I^rilish and Irish vessels. 
 
 Foreign vessels. | 
 
 1851 
 1852 
 lS5i) 
 
 Vessels. 
 21,308 
 20,985 
 20,880 
 
 Tons. 
 
 4,877,222 
 '4,669,608 
 4;822,161 
 
 Vossels. 
 16,139 
 16,682 
 
 , 17,184 
 
 Tons. 
 2,615,573 
 
 991,883 
 3,086!224 
 
 Vessels. 
 681 
 818 
 
 650 
 
 Tons. 
 
 165,128 
 212,982 
 168,985 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 761 
 
 1,025 
 
 677 
 
 146,670 
 233,731 
 155,372 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 21,989' 
 21i798 
 21,680. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 4,742,845 
 4,882,490 
 8,051,106, 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 16,900 
 17,707 
 17,831 
 
 Tons, , 
 2,662,248 
 8,226,614 
 8,191,596 
 
 An Account of the Value of the Imports into, and of the Exports from, the United Kingdom, during each 
 OP several Years ending 5th January. Showing the Official as Well as the Keal or Declared Valuis 
 OF these. 
 
 Years ending 
 Jan. 5. 
 
 Imports into the United 
 
 Klngdon^ calculated at 
 
 the olliclal rates. 
 
 Exports calculated at the official rates of valuation. 
 
 Produce and manufactures 
 
 of the United Klngdoin , 
 
 exported, at the real or 
 
 declared value. 
 
 Produce and manufactures 
 of the Uiiited Kingdom. 
 
 Foreign and Colonial 
 merchandise. ' 
 
 ,, Total eiporta.,,,. 
 
 1815......... 
 
 £32,620,771 
 109,845,409 
 128,186,835 
 
 £32,200,580 
 196,176,601 
 214,860,489 
 
 £19,157,818 
 ■2.3,329,089 
 27,767,788 
 
 £51,8.58,898 
 
 , ,219,506,690 
 
 242,128,222 
 
 £48,447,878 
 78,076,864 , 
 98,983,781 
 
 1853 
 
 1884 ... 
 
 
 Decline in the real value of the exports. — The gr^at in- 
 crease in the official, and the comparative decline in 
 the real or declared value of the exports, since 1815, 
 has given rise to a great deal of irrelevant discussion. 
 It has been looked upon as a proof that English com- 
 merce is daily becoming less prosperous, whereas, in 
 point of fact, a precisely opposite conclusion should 
 be drawn from it. The rates according to which the 
 official values of the exports are determined were 
 fixed as far back as 1696 ; so that they have long 
 ceased to be of importance as affording any criterion 
 of the actual value, their only use being to show the 
 fluctuations in the quantities exported. To remedy 
 this defect, a plan was formed during the early part 
 of Mr. Pitt's administration, for keeping an account 
 of the real value of the exports, as ascertained by the 
 declarations of the exporters. Those who contend 
 that her trade is getting into a bad condition, argue 
 that the great increase in the official value of the ex- 
 ports since 1815 shows that the quantity of the articles 
 exported has been proportionally augmented, while 
 
 the fall in their real value shows thiit she is selling 
 this larger quantity for a smaller P|rice,.a result which, 
 they aiRrm,, is most injurious. But the circumstance 
 of a manufacturer or a merchant selling a large or a 
 small quantity of produce a,t the same price, affijrds 
 no criterion by which to judge as to tlie advantage or 
 disadvantage of, the sale ; for, if, in consequence of 
 improvements in the arts or otherwise, a particular 
 article may now be produced for half the expense 
 that its production cost 10 or ,20 years ago, it is obvi- 
 ous that double the quantity of it may be afforded 
 at the same price without injury to the producers. 
 Now this is the case with some of the most important 
 articles which are exported from England. Cottons 
 and cotton-twist form a full third or more of her entire 
 exports ; and since 1814 there has been an extraordi- 
 nary fail in the price of these articles, occasioned 
 partly by cotton wool having fallen from about Is, 6d. 
 per lb. to about 5d. per lb., but more by improve- 
 ments in the manufacture. Hence, while the official 
 value of the exports of cotton goods and twist has in- 
 
GEE 
 
 858 
 
 GRE 
 
 creased from about £18,000,000 in 1814, to about £100,- 
 000,000 in 1853, thieir declared value has risen only 
 from about £20,000,000 at the former period to about 
 £33,000,000 at the latter. Surely, however, this is, 
 if any thing can be, a proof of increasing prosperity ; 
 it shows that she can now export and sell with a profit 
 (for unless such were the case, does any one imagine 
 the exportation would continue ?) nearly four times 
 the quantity of cotton goods and yarn which she ex- 
 ported in 1814 for about the same price. See Cotton 
 Manufacture. 
 
 The commercial interests of England long suffered 
 from the inextricable confusion of her maritime laws. 
 From the Revolution down to 1786 some hundreds of 
 acts were passed, each enacting some addition, dimin- 
 ution, or change of the duties, drawbacks, bounties, 
 and regulations previously existing in the customs. 
 Mr. Pitt has the merit of having first introduced some- 
 thing like order into this chaos. Under his auspices 
 all the separate custom-duties existing in 1787 were 
 repealed, and simple and intelligible ones substituted 
 in their stead. 
 
 In the report of the Lords' Committee on Foreign 
 Trade in 1820, it is stated that the laws under which 
 the commerce of the country was regulated amounted 
 to upward of 2000, of which 1600 were in force in 
 1815. After this report was printed, Mr. Huskeyson 
 introduced great reforms into the laws afl'ecting ship- 
 ping and navigation. And since his time the repeal 
 of a vast number of custom-duties and the many im- 
 portant and beneficial changes effected by Sir Eobert 
 Peel, have vastly simplified the commercial legisla- 
 tion of England. Various improvements have also 
 been introduced bj' the late chancellor of the excheq- 
 uer, Mr. Gladstone ; and the Customs Consolidation 
 Act of 1853 has brought the various laws relating to 
 the customs into a concise and simple form. It com- 
 prises the whole law respecting the importation, ex- 
 portation, warehousing, smuggling, etc., of goods, 
 with the regulations to be observed in the coasting 
 and colonial trades, etc., and is at once brief, compre- 
 hensive, and so clear as to be level to the comprehen- 
 sion of those least acquainted with such matters. 
 Besides condensing and simplifj'ing the various laws 
 respecting the customs, this act has also introduced 
 some most important changes. The merchant is 
 now no longer obliged, when successful in a suit, 
 to pay his. Own expenses, as was formerly the case; 
 nor are goods in dispute now detained till the point be 
 inquired into and decided, but are given up on the 
 amount claimed being deposited. If the claim is 
 found to have been unjust, the sum overcharged is 
 returned, with interest at the rate of 5 per cent., and 
 the expenses of the suit. The merchant may also, if 
 he consider himself aggrieved by the decision of the 
 board, have the case brought into open court before a 
 commissioner, wliere he may meet the officer, and 
 learn by examination the real facts of the case. The 
 evidence so taken is reported to the board, who may 
 thereupon confirm or modify their decision ; it being 
 optional with the merchant either to abide by it, or to 
 carrj' the case before a competent tribunal. If the 
 duty or penalty claimed be under £100, or the case be 
 of a simple kind, ii may be tried before magistrates, 
 county courts, or other inferior tribunals. 
 
 Shipping. — In order to promote the shipping inter- 
 est in Britain the navigation laws were passed, which 
 were long considered the safeguards of British com- 
 merce. By these laws certain enumerated articles, 
 which in fact comprehended every thing that was of 
 importance in commerce, could be brought to her shores 
 only in British ships, or in the ships of the country of 
 which the goods were the produce, or in ships of the 
 country from which the goods were to be brought. 
 Experience proved that these restrictions which were 
 intended for the benefit of British commerce, operated 
 only as fetters upon trade. By the act passed in 1849, 
 
 the restrictive provisions of the old acts were repealed 
 from and after the 1st of January, 1850. Great alarm 
 was created among the shipbuilders and others, by the 
 change, which, as they apprehended, was fraught with 
 ruin to the trade and commerce of the country ; but 
 instead of that, the trade increased more rapidly than 
 before. The amount of tonnage built in 1849 was 
 121,266, in 1851 it was 149,599, and in 1853 it was 
 203,171. 
 
 The increase has been more remarkable in steam 
 than in sailing vessels : in 1860 the number of steam- 
 vessels built was 36, and their tonnage 3835 ; in 1853 
 the number of steam vessels built was 153, and their 
 tonnage 45,215. Another circumstance which is re- 
 markable, is the recent extraordinary substitution of 
 iron for wood in the construction of steam vessels. 
 Of the 158 built in 1853, no less than 117 were iron. 
 Dr. Strang, in a communication made t9 the British 
 Association in 1852, states, that during the last 7 
 years there have been constructed, or were construct- 
 ing, in Glasgow and neighborhood, 123 vessels, 122 of 
 which were iron. At Greenock and Port Glasgow, 
 during the same period, there were constructed 66 
 steam vessels, 13 of which were of wood and 63 of 
 iron. 
 
 The "merchant shipping act, 1864," which came 
 into operation May 1st, 1855, contains some import- 
 ant changes in commercial regulations. Sections 
 20, 21, 22, 23, and 24, institute new modes of meas- 
 uring ships ; and as all American ships hereafter to 
 be measured in that country must be measured ac- 
 cording to one or other of its provisions, and pay 
 dues on the tonnage thus ascertained, it is a change 
 largely affecting our vessels. As far as the present 
 short experience of it denotes, the effect, as a gen- 
 eral rule, will be favorable to such as are sharp or 
 with fine lines, and unfavorable to such as are full 
 built ; but it may reasonably be supposed that most 
 new vessels will belong to the former class, and it will 
 be seen (section 27) that the measurement of ships 
 already measured is not compulsorj^, but may be 
 made on application therefor. By the 29th section, 
 the commissioner of customs, with the sanction of the 
 Treasury, may alter or modify the modes of measure- 
 ment. Section 102 requires from every master, clear- 
 ing outward, a declaration of the nation to which the 
 vessel claims to belong, and authorizes the detention 
 of the vessel until it is made. Section 329 contains 
 important provisions respecting the shipment and car- 
 riage of dangerous goods. Section 353 renders the 
 employment of dulj' qualified pilots compulsory; but, 
 under section 332, any pilotage authority, hy by-law, 
 made with tlie consent of her majesty in council, may 
 exempt the master of any ships, or classes of ships, 
 from being compelled to employ qualified pilots. Part 
 8 remodels the law relating to wrecks and salvage, 
 and contains some important provisions, particularly 
 as regards foreign vessels, and salvage services by 
 government vessels. The remainder of the act is 
 composed of laws, or parts of laws previously in force, 
 the object being " not so much a change of laws as 
 bringing existing laws into a consolidated shape." 
 The last of the series of acts which completely changed 
 the commercial system of this country was passed 
 March 23d, 1854, and opened the coasting trade to for- 
 eign vessels ; and England has obtained by treaty the 
 concession of the coasting trade of Tuscany and Sar- 
 dinia. By a minute of the Lords of the Treasury, in 
 September, 1856, it was announced that the transfer 
 should then take place of the control of the Commision- 
 ers of the Customs to that of the Lords of the Admi- 
 ralty. Since that period the control has vested in the 
 Admiralty. — U. 8. Consular Returne. 
 
 The subjoined tables give a complete view of the 
 shipping belonging to the different ports of the Brit- 
 ish empire, and of the navigation with foreign coun- 
 tries, in 1852 and 1853. 
 
GRE 
 
 859 
 
 GEE 
 
 A EETtTEtr or the Kombek ahd Tonnage or Sailinq Vessels Eeoisteeed at bach of the Colonies of the Ukiteb 
 
 KiNQDOM KliSPEOTITELY ; DISTINUtnSIIINO THOSE tINDEtt AND THOSE ABOVE FiFTT T0N8 EeGIBTEB, ON THE 8l8T 
 
 December, 1858:, A similab Keturn of Steam Vessels and tueir Tonnage. 
 
 Ports. 
 
 
 SAILINQ 
 
 VBSSBLS. 
 
 
 STEAM VESSELS. | 
 
 Under 60 tons. 
 
 Above 60 tons. 
 
 Under 50 tons. 
 
 . Above BO tons. | 
 
 Vcsols. 
 
 Tonnage, 
 
 VesseJs. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Afnoa. 
 
 49 
 
 11 
 
 7 
 
 60 
 
 160 
 65 
 
 106 
 82 
 
 117 
 
 458 
 257 
 428 
 1,167 
 218 
 
 80 
 26 
 16 
 46 
 75 
 
 1 
 11 
 18 
 12 
 85 
 
 8 
 34 
 61 
 185 
 14 
 32 
 17 
 
 923 
 
 2T0 
 
 228 
 
 1,747 
 
 8,805 
 1,584 
 2,778 
 834 
 2,400 
 
 18,774 
 
 8,628 
 
 10,568 
 
 52,998 
 
 6,002 
 
 1,191 
 626 
 888 
 484 
 
 1,798 
 18 
 127 
 245 
 882 
 628 
 228 
 205 
 886 
 
 2,900 
 421 
 868 
 278 
 
 14 
 
 8 
 
 46 
 
 49 
 
 141 
 55 
 
 221 
 82 
 29 
 
 490 
 487 
 876 
 1,778 
 182 
 
 4 
 9 
 4 
 
 ■■"9 
 
 1 
 
 ""2 
 7 
 1 
 2 
 4 
 81 
 80 
 9 
 2 
 
 1,2T0 
 
 746 
 
 6,889 
 
 7,844 
 
 26,821 
 7,827 
 
 21,088 
 6,844 
 1,918 
 
 49,720 
 78,181 
 102,029 
 185,989 
 19,881 
 
 411 
 788 
 248 
 
 1,054 
 59 
 
 "835 
 656 
 97 
 182 
 805 
 2,615 
 2,754 
 670 
 183 
 
 6 
 1 
 2 
 
 1 
 22 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 ""l 
 
 191 
 44 
 69 
 
 40 
 789 
 858 
 
 96 
 
 "'48 
 
 .... 
 ""2 
 
 9 
 6 
 1 
 
 1 
 69 
 14 
 
 "'l 
 
 ""1 
 
 "ill 
 
 1,487 
 
 460 
 
 52 
 
 96 
 8,564 
 1,633 
 
 ""57 
 ■'69 
 
 
 
 
 ATistraHa. 
 
 Melbourne 
 
 Hobart Town 
 
 
 
 ATnerica, 
 (.British Northern Colowles.'i 
 
 Canada 
 
 No^ Brunswick 
 
 Npya Scotia and Cape Brol»n 
 
 BritUh West InOies. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Nevis. 
 
 
 
 St Vincent 
 
 
 
 Tilnidad 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 An Accocnt of the Number op Vessels, with the Amount of their Tonnage, and the Number of Men and 
 
 B0V8 USUALLY employed IN NAVIGATING THE SAME, THAT BELONGED TO THE SEVEEAL POBTB OP I}HE BRITISH EM- 
 PIRE, ON THE 81ST December, 1861. 1862, and 1853, bespeotively. 
 
 On the 31st December, 1861. 
 
 Vessela. [ Tonnflga. 
 
 Men. 
 
 On.tbe alst De<;ember, 1852. 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tonnage. | IVten, , . Vessels. . Tonnage. 
 
 On the Slst December, 1B63. 
 
 Men. 
 
 England 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Ireland 
 
 Isles of Guernsey, Jersey, & Man 
 
 Bvltisli Plantations 
 
 Total 
 
 19^404 
 8,687 
 2,203 
 849 
 8,201 
 
 84,244 
 
 262,411 
 
 60,615 
 
 669,741 
 
 145,222 
 29,587 
 14,155 
 8,798 
 46,166 
 
 19,600 
 
 8,450 
 
 2,178 
 
 858 
 
 8,316 
 
 2,907,999 
 585,008 
 264,997 
 61,274 
 666,114 
 
 4,382,085 
 
 240,923 I 31,402 
 
 4,424,39:! 
 
 147,252 
 29,612 
 13,902 
 5,978 
 46,868 
 
 20,078 
 
 8,451 
 
 2,219 
 
 860 
 
 8,701 
 
 8,160,658 
 859,141 
 259,864 
 
 ei,846 
 ■784,218 
 
 152,184 
 29,563 
 14.083 
 5,701 
 52,865 
 
 248,512 I 35,809 | 4,764,422 
 
 A Return of the Numbeb of Vessels, with their Ton- 
 nage, distinguishing Steam from Sailing Vessels, 
 tuat were Built and Beoistered in the United 
 Kingdom, distinguishing Timber prom Iron Vessels, 
 in the Yeae 1863. 
 
 
 TrMBER. 1 IBON. | 
 
 VeaaelH, Tonnnge, 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tonnnge. 
 
 Sailing vessels 
 
 Steam vessels. 
 
 685 146,880 
 86 8,305 
 
 10 ' 
 
 117 
 
 8,576 
 
 44,910 
 
 Total 
 
 671 149,685 
 
 127 
 
 58,486 
 
 
 The following table is an abstract of the number of 
 vessels and tonnage entered inward and cleared out- 
 ward at each of the 12 principal ports of the United 
 Kingdom during the year 1854, and also a return of 
 the declared value of British and Irish produce and 
 manufactures exported from the respective ports to 
 foreign countries and British possessions during the 
 same year. 
 
 Ports. 
 
 London 
 
 Liverpool 
 
 Hull 
 
 Bristol 
 
 Newcastle — 
 Southampton . 
 
 Lelth 
 
 Glasgow 
 
 Greenock 
 
 Dublin 
 
 Cork 
 
 Belfast 
 
 Total.... 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 10,948 
 
 4,493 
 
 2,789 
 
 694 
 
 8,048 
 
 873 
 
 1,086 
 
 514 
 
 377 
 
 8.37 
 
 , 461 
 
 204 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 2,667,823 
 
 2,195,404 
 
 604,848 
 
 162,838 
 
 441,193 
 
 262,27* 
 
 180,586 
 
 128,482 
 
 144,162 
 
 71,602 
 
 87,828 
 
 83,887 
 
 Vessels. | Tonnage. 
 
 8,174 
 
 4,561 
 
 1,884 
 
 296 
 
 6,671 
 
 861 
 
 893 
 
 914 
 
 179 
 
 148 
 
 328 
 
 123 
 
 2,127,419 
 
 2,161,265 
 
 374,859 
 
 101,278 
 
 1,122,126 
 
 279,658 
 
 71,545 
 
 256,819 
 
 71,572 
 
 44,793 
 
 62,671 
 
 88,988 
 
 25,814 6,846,564 I 24,624 
 
 6,697,688 
 
 An analysis of the calculations tipon which these 
 tables are based would doubtless show that the real 
 diflFe»ence between Liverpool and London is much 
 less than it appears above, a large proportion of the 
 trade of London being carried on by coasting vessels 
 making short trips. The export returns are thus 
 stated ; 
 
 London £22,830,272 
 
 Liverpool... 46,719,177 
 
 Hull.. 10,008,122 
 
 Bristol ■ 761,718 
 
 Newcastle. . . 1,521,661 
 
 Southampton 2,334,141 
 
 Leith 527,697 
 
 Glasgow..... £4,905,567 
 
 Greenock.. . . 554,608 
 
 Dublin 41,478 
 
 Cork 148,096 
 
 Belfast 28,785 
 
 Total £89,866,072 
 
 Showing that considerablj' more than one half the 
 entire foreign trade of the 12 principal ports of Great 
 Britain goes from Liverpool. 
 
 From the statistics of Glasgow, puhJished by Dr. 
 Strang in 1855, we learn that the tonnage of steam- 
 boats built on the Clyde during 30 years, from 1820 to 
 1850, amounted to ]|03,270, while in the 3 years 1851, 
 1852, 1853, it amounted to 141,713 in 206 vessels, 
 which were almost entirely of iron. And to show the 
 magnitude of this great department of Scottish indus- 
 try, he adds that, during a ppriod of 12 months, em- 
 bracing the greater part of 1853, the tonnage of all 
 vessels built in the ports of the Clyde was 64,114 tons, 
 whereas the total tonnage of vessels built in London 
 in 1853 was only 62,746, and in Liverpool, 45,682. In 
 the years ft53-4, there were no les8 than 266 vessels 
 built at Glasgow, including both steam and sailing 
 vessels, with an aggregate of 168,000 tons. 
 
GRE 
 
 860 
 
 GRE 
 
 A EteTUKN or THE NtTMBEK AND ToNWAGE Off SAILING YeSSELB EeGISTEBBD AT BACH OF THE POKT^ OF GrE^T B^IITAIN 
 
 AND Ireland, includino the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands ; distinguishing those undeb. and those 
 ABOVE Fifty Tons Kegistee, on the SIst Bboember; 1853: ai^o, a similak Retuen of Steam Vessels and 
 THEIR Tonnage. 
 
 : Ports. 
 
 
 8A11.1NG 
 
 TESSELB. 
 
 
 8TKAM VESSELS, | 
 
 UDder ED tons. 
 
 Above 60 toDfl. 
 
 Under 50 tons. 
 
 Above 60 tons. { 
 
 Veaseh. 
 
 Tonnapre, 
 
 Veiioli. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tonnege. 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 I Tonnage. 
 
 '. ENGLAND. 
 
 121 
 
 60 
 
 61 
 139 
 
 80 
 
 60 
 112 
 
 55 
 
 8 
 
 165 
 
 114 
 
 23 
 128 
 
 12 
 
 42 
 
 69 
 191 
 126 
 166 
 
 19 
 
 48 
 
 41 
 
 50 
 225 
 
 16 
 
 38 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 275 
 
 116 
 
 74 
 8 
 
 72 
 228 
 
 61 
 
 36 
 282 
 
 40 
 749 
 
 40 
 7 
 
 65 
 111 
 
 19 
 
 78 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 19 
 
 69 
 
 27 
 260 
 
 83 
 170 
 
 79 
 
 95 
 824 
 
 81 
 
 63 • 
 
 62 
 
 15 
 
 17 
 
 54 
 136 
 
 22 
 
 93 
 
 78 
 2 
 
 12 
 120 
 
 29 
 
 48 
 
 14 
 
 25 
 
 80 
 
 3 
 828 
 
 4,084 
 1,372 
 1,724 
 4,286 
 1,015 
 1,891 
 4,176 
 1,966 
 
 124 
 4,974 
 8,788 
 
 614 
 8,819 
 
 898 
 1,155 
 2,219 
 8,981 
 8,269 
 4,691 
 
 846 
 1,369 
 1,197 
 1,398 
 4,986 
 
 480 
 1,365 
 
 18T 
 
 257 
 7,687 
 8,824 
 2,161 
 17 
 2,170 
 8,223 
 1,468 
 1,889 
 8,019 
 1,098 
 24,621 
 1,098 
 
 217 
 1,769 
 8,196 
 
 662 
 1,979 
 8,164 
 
 216 
 
 766 
 2,568 
 
 698 
 7,894 
 
 871 
 4,221 
 8,00f 
 2,664 
 10,091 
 1,848 
 1,880 
 1,767 
 
 403 
 
 546 
 1,027 
 8,688 
 
 578 
 
 2,776 
 
 2,116 
 
 60 
 
 481 
 2,614 
 
 823 
 1,649 
 
 402 
 
 980 
 
 1,008 
 
 88 
 
 9,382 
 
 123 
 44 
 
 29 
 
 118 
 
 29 
 
 77 
 
 49 
 
 69 
 
 14 
 
 229 
 
 298 
 
 36 
 
 92 
 
 20 
 
 13 
 
 69 
 
 69 
 
 47 
 
 263 
 
 ■"21 
 
 146 
 73 
 82 
 14 
 
 109 
 7 
 5 
 74 
 
 896 
 14 
 
 124 
 64 
 
 228 
 
 112 
 63 
 1,786 
 86 
 2,209 
 23 
 18 
 
 122 
 48 
 83 
 70 
 
 695 
 15 
 69 
 54 
 68 
 
 200 
 75 
 74 
 42 
 87 
 62 
 46 
 98 
 
 134 
 45 
 
 768 
 62 
 85 
 
 135 
 
 832 
 94 
 14 
 88 
 79 
 55 
 
 341 
 
 181 
 79 
 38 
 90 
 
 289 
 
 11,247 
 
 ,5,901 
 8,300 
 
 17,880 
 3,112 
 9,061 
 8,286 
 
 11,476 
 1,843 
 
 61,854 
 
 23,606 
 6,128 
 8,742 
 1,488 
 1,096 
 4,068 
 7,907 
 5,136 
 
 28,291 
 
 2^563 
 
 19,588 
 
 7,864 
 
 10,865 
 
 3,424 
 
 10,696 
 
 900 
 
 863 
 
 11,200 
 
 26,041 
 
 1,261 
 
 26,777 
 
 6,171 
 
 48,488 
 
 12,180 
 
 5,479 
 
 704,842 
 
 . 8,829 
 
 664,694 
 
 1,862 
 
 1^754 
 
 18,669 
 
 4,741 
 
 16,088 
 
 8,494 
 
 147,782 
 
 2,405 
 
 11,378 
 
 6,846 
 
 7,497 
 
 86,759 
 
 .18;429 . 
 
 8,885 
 
 8,929 
 
 3,485 
 
 7,746 
 
 4,667 
 
 11,088 
 
 82,079 
 
 6,216 
 
 201,104 
 
 11,277 
 
 10,744 
 
 27,880 
 
 208,891 
 
 14,801 
 
 2,638 
 
 3,381 
 
 7,226 
 
 6,487 
 
 59,274 
 
 31,859 
 
 10,796 
 
 2,718 
 
 18,394 
 
 82,991 
 
 ""l 
 2 
 
 ■"12 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 
 ""'1 
 1 
 
 ""1 
 2 
 2 
 4 
 6 
 
 '"k 
 5 
 
 ■"24 
 3 
 
 116 
 1 
 
 ■■"2 
 
 ■"l 
 
 1 
 89 
 
 ""2 
 
 • ""4 
 1 
 4 
 5 
 1 
 4 
 
 ■"82 
 
 25 
 
 88 . 
 6 
 1 
 
 ■■■'2 
 
 1 
 8 
 1 
 8 
 
 "■"1 
 6 
 
 ■"18 
 21 
 
 "808 
 49 
 179 
 
 "'88 
 17 
 246 
 23 
 22 
 19 
 
 '"u 
 
 9 
 
 "■49 
 54 
 27 
 71 
 124 
 
 "291 
 192 
 
 "878 
 62 
 
 8,759 
 17 
 
 "'26 
 
 "'34 
 
 48 
 
 1,624 
 
 "'67 
 
 "io6 
 
 22 
 142 
 146 
 
 10 
 154 
 
 1,646 
 
 "265 
 
 565 
 
 ., 671 
 
 141 
 
 19 
 
 "'so 
 
 81 
 85 
 87 
 70 
 
 "'is 
 
 87 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 "'l8 
 1 
 2 
 
 ""1 
 
 1 
 4 
 
 ""1 
 
 ""5 
 
 ""4 
 
 ""7 
 2 
 
 "'so 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 102 
 
 "291 
 5 
 
 ""1 
 ""9 
 ""1 
 
 ""2 
 
 ""s 
 
 4 
 ""1 
 ""4 
 
 "18 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 ""2 
 
 ""4 
 
 2 
 
 ""s 
 
 "2i9 
 74 
 
 8,728 
 
 88 
 
 187 
 
 ' '2.31 
 68 
 907 
 
 "'54 
 
 "964 
 "807 
 
 "eso 
 
 1,030 
 
 7,418 
 
 447 
 
 1,085 
 
 24,325 
 
 109,598 
 2,123 
 
 "i99 
 2,226 
 "■52 
 
 "266 
 
 "iso 
 
 768 
 
 62, 
 
 "726 
 
 V,864 
 63 
 
 "619 
 
 "122 
 
 "879 
 482 
 
 "282 
 
 
 Barnstable 
 
 ■ Beaumaris 
 
 
 Bideford 
 
 
 Bridgewater 
 
 Bridport 
 
 Bristol 
 
 
 Cardiff 
 
 Cardigan 
 
 Carlisle 
 
 
 Chester 
 
 Colchester ,... 
 
 
 
 Deal 
 
 Dover 
 
 Exeter 
 
 
 Faversham 
 
 
 
 Folkstone 
 
 Gainsborough 
 
 Gloucester ■. .. 
 
 
 
 Hartlepool 
 
 Harwich 
 
 Hull 
 
 
 
 
 
 London 
 
 
 
 
 Maldon 
 
 
 Milford 
 
 Newcastle 
 
 Newhaven 
 
 Newport 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Preston 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Shields 
 
 
 
 
 
 Swansea 
 
 
 "Vp-ells 
 
 
 "\Vhitby 
 
 
 
 
 
 Yarmouth 
 
 
 6,638 
 
 19 
 23 
 17 
 16 
 49 
 29 
 26 
 73 
 84 
 
 204,195 
 
 589 
 884 
 704 
 486 
 
 1,666 
 
 942 
 
 888 
 
 - 2,827 
 
 1,161 
 
 12,448 
 
 212 
 51 
 
 94 
 26 
 96 
 44 
 
 1 
 51 
 
 284 
 
 2,771,806 
 
 46,411 
 18,698 
 13,409 
 
 4,472 
 11,348 
 
 4,891 
 676 
 
 8,437 
 56,466 
 
 504 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 ""s 
 
 12,514 
 
 41 
 26 
 
 "94 
 
 543 
 
 T 
 4 
 
 "1 
 
 ""2 
 ""7 
 
 162,188 
 
 8,116 
 802 
 
 "■70 
 
 "269 
 '1,086 
 
 SCOTLAND. 
 
 Alloa 
 
 
 
 Banff . . , 
 
 
 
 
 Dundee 
 
 Carryforward 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
GRE 
 
 861 
 
 GEE 
 
 A Retubw of the Number ANi^TdifWAGB OT Sailing Vebsels Begxbterf^d at each op the Pobts of Geeai BRtTAnr 
 
 AND IbBLAHD, INOLITDINO TIIE I6Z.B OF' MAN AND THE CHANNEL ISLANDB ; DISTINGUI8IIIH0 THOSE VNDEB AND TUOBE 
 APOVE P^FTY T0N3 BeGISTER, QN THE SlST DEOEBIBEB, 1858: ALSO, A BIHILAB ReTUBN OF StBXH YE^SXXS AND 
 
 TUBiB Tonnage.— Oem(«n«^. ,- 
 
 ^orts. ' 
 
 
 SAILING 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 
 STEAM 
 
 PESSELS, 
 
 1 
 
 Undor 
 
 10 tons. 
 
 Above 6t} tdns. 
 
 Under 60 tons. 
 
 Above 60 tons. f 
 
 '■V«.«el«. 
 
 Tonnaee. 
 
 Voisols. 
 
 ToniMge,.. 
 
 t VesseU. , 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 VeoejK. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 ' Brought forward.'.' . . 
 
 78 
 
 8 
 220 
 169 
 41 
 63, 
 22 
 79 
 84 
 10 
 10 
 
 8' ' 
 '88. 
 42 
 
 5 
 '28 
 86 
 
 2j744 
 
 297 
 
 6,209 
 
 4,195 
 
 1,194 
 
 2,020 
 
 560 
 
 2,860 
 
 ■ 1,281 . 
 
 , 487 
 
 816 
 
 246! 
 
 ' . 1,442 ' 
 
 1,181 
 
 648 
 
 665 
 
 1,236 
 
 882 
 38 
 
 184 
 
 79 
 
 , 77 , 
 
 86 
 
 21 
 
 102 
 8 
 88 
 44 
 40 
 16,. 
 14 
 18 
 16 
 16 
 
 66,6f7 
 6,686 
 
 . 17,714,, 
 
 7,096 , 
 
 1,926 
 
 22,007 
 
 755 
 
 14,859 
 
 4,262 
 
 9,486 
 
 4,827 
 
 . 1,477 
 
 866; 
 
 ' 1,281' 
 
 1,643 
 
 IT 
 
 4 
 2 
 
 -. '"is 
 
 ""i 
 "i 
 
 610 
 
 81 
 ' 47 
 
 ■ '274 
 
 "'l9 
 
 '"14 
 
 91 
 8 
 
 12 
 2 
 S 
 1 
 
 '"'i5 
 ""l 
 
 2 
 
 ",',12 
 
 ""1 
 
 26,963 
 
 V47 
 
 1,965 
 
 .686 
 
 476 
 62 
 
 8^672 
 
 "■■76 
 116 
 
 '248I 
 "816 
 
 'Glasgow... 
 
 
 Greenoqk 
 
 
 
 Kirkcaldy ,,...,,,.., , . , . 
 
 Kirkwall 
 
 Leith '1 
 
 Lerwick 
 
 Montrose ,.,.*. 
 
 Perth 
 
 
 Port Glasgow 
 
 
 Stranraer 
 
 Wibk 
 
 Wigtown 
 
 Total, Scotland. . . 
 
 1,197 
 
 2 
 
 169 
 
 11 
 
 , 158 , 
 
 7 
 
 291 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 69 
 
 10 
 
 78 
 
 2 
 
 94 
 
 IS 
 
 '82' ' 
 
 ; 12 
 
 60 
 
 4 
 
 28' 
 
 86,413 
 
 36 
 
 6,428 
 
 ■ 272 
 
 , Si696 
 
 198 
 
 8,407 
 
 181 
 
 l,7Sl ' 
 '266 
 
 2,401 
 69 
 
 2,285 
 401 
 
 1,068 
 806 
 
 1,624 
 
 ■ 87 
 ■ 1,006 
 
 2,048 
 
 1 
 
 822 
 
 '228 
 41 
 127 
 18 
 
 4? 
 
 ' '14 
 
 89 
 
 16 
 
 3 
 19 
 21 
 
 4 
 94 
 
 1 
 70 
 
 478,981 
 
 218 
 75,686 
 
 41,626 
 
 5,166 
 
 21,688 
 
 1,431 
 
 502 
 
 10,315 
 
 - 4,171 
 
 6,298 
 
 5,756 
 
 202 
 
 ' 8,789 
 
 2,406 
 
 729 
 
 12,964 
 
 120 
 
 7,660 
 
 ■ ,43 
 
 " "2 
 ""7 
 
 ' "3 
 
 1 
 
 ""3 
 
 • ""1 
 
 1,205 
 
 '"2s 
 "214 
 
 "ii9 
 
 24 
 "i25 
 
 ■"44 
 
 .... 
 
 164 
 
 "'io, 
 
 "'16 ' 
 5 
 48 
 2 
 
 ""1 
 4 
 3 
 
 ""1 
 
 "19 
 
 42,542 
 '2,i8S 
 
 "ioo 
 
 1,839 
 
 878 
 
 "'67 
 
 b'm 
 
 Ballina 
 
 Belfast :;■ 
 
 Obleraine .'.■ 
 
 Cork 
 
 Drop:hcda 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Skibhereen 
 
 Sligo 
 
 
 
 "Waterford 
 
 
 "Wexford 
 
 Total, Ireland 
 
 1,037 
 
 818 
 207 
 
 29,721 
 
 7,422 
 6,445 
 
 1,061 
 286 
 
 199,419 
 
 2,947 
 43,743 
 
 17 
 ■■"1 
 
 564 
 ■"21 
 
 104 
 
 6 
 4 
 
 29,670 
 
 1,197 
 271 
 
 
 
 
 Commei'cial fhtercourse between' Great Britain and the 
 United States. — The definite treaty of peace bet-ween 
 the United States and Great Britain, in 1783, contains 
 only one stipulation in any manner relating to com- 
 mercial intercoarse. Article viii. provides that the 
 navigation of the Mississippi, from its Source to the 
 ocean, shall forever remain free and open to the sub- 
 jects of Great Britain and the citizens of the United 
 Stales. It -was not until 1794 that comttiercial inter- 
 course bet"ween the two nations "was defined by treatj' 
 stipnlations. The treaty of that year regalates trade 
 between the high contracting parties, on the continent 
 of America, in the East Indies, the territories of Great 
 Britain in Europe and in those of the United States. 
 It provides that no other or higher duties shall be paid 
 by the ships or merchandise of the one party in the 
 ports of the other, than such as are paid by the like 
 vessels or merchandise of all other nations ; that no 
 other or higher duty shall be imposed in one country 
 on the importation of any articles, the growth, prod- 
 uce, or manufacture of the other, than are or shall be 
 payable on the importation of the like articles being 
 of the growth, produce, or manufacture of any other 
 foreign country ; nor shall any prohibition be imposed 
 on the exportation or importation of any articles to or 
 from the territories of the two parties respectively, 
 which shall not equally extend to all other nations ; 
 the British government reserving to itself the right of. 
 imposing on American vessels entering into the Brit- 
 ish ports in Europe " a tonnage duty equal to that 
 which shall be payable by British vessels in the ports 
 of America, and also such duty as may be adequate to 
 countervail the difference of duty now payable on the 
 importation, of European and Asiatic goods when im- 
 ported into the United States in British or in American 
 ■ ■■ The other stipulations respecting commerce 
 
 relate chiefly to the trade with the West Indies. The 
 duration of this treaty, so far as it regulates the com- 
 merce between' the United States and the European 
 possessions of Great Britain,' is limited to 12 years. 
 During the interval which elapsed from the treaty of 
 peace in 1783 to the ratification of the treaty of amity, 
 commerce, and navigation, in ' 1794, the commercial 
 relations between Greait Britain and the United States 
 were regulated by the separate and distinct legislation 
 of the several States on the one side, and by general 
 orders in council on the other. See articles Colonies 
 and United States. 
 
 The navigation laws of Great Britain, immediately 
 after the proclamation of peace, were enforced against 
 the vessels and commerce of the United States. The 
 first in the series of these laws was the act of 1651. It 
 provided that no goods or commodities whatever, the 
 growth, production, or manufacture of Asia, Africa, or 
 America, should be imported either into England or 
 Ireland, or any of the plantations, except in English- 
 built ships, and belonging either to England or to En- 
 glish plantation subjects, and of which the master and 
 three fourths of the crew were also English ; and that 
 no goods of the gro-wth, production, or manufacture 
 of any country in Europe should be imported into 
 Great Britain, Ireland, or the plantations, except in 
 British ships, or in such ships as were the real property 
 of the people of the country or place in which the 
 goods were produced, and from which they could only 
 be, or were usually exported. This act was never en- 
 forced, nor intended to be enforced, in the British 
 !Sorth American colonies. It was especially aimed at 
 the Dutch, who were at this period the great carriers 
 of the world. Having but few staples of their own to 
 export to foreign countries, their merchant ships were 
 found in every port, and were even employed in bring- 
 
GRE 
 
 862 
 
 GRE 
 
 ing home the products of the British colonies to the 
 mother country. 
 
 After the Restoration, the navigation act was re- 
 enacted ^ with such amendments, however, as seemed 
 still necessary to give more effective protection to 
 British interests, and curb the Dutch yet further. 
 Among the provisions of the new act of 16C0, it was 
 declared that no " sugar, tobacco, cotton, wool, indigo, 
 ginger, fustic, or other dyeing woods of the growth or 
 manufacture of our Asian, African, or American colo- 
 nies, shall be shipped from the said colonies to any 
 place but England, or to some other of his majesty's 
 said plantations." Whatever relaxations were per- 
 mitted in the operation of these navigation laws in the 
 North American colonies, the United States became 
 subjected to them in all their rigor immediately on 
 assuming an independent existence. In the language 
 of Lord Liverpool, " The connection which had so long 
 subsisted between Great Britain and the countries now 
 forming the United States of America was finally dis- 
 solved by the acknowledgment of their independence 
 in the year 1783 ; the ancient commercial system aris- 
 ing out of that connection of course ended with it ; and 
 the laws b}*- which the trade of these countries, con- 
 siderd as colonies, had hitherto been regulated ceased 
 to have effect." The king, by and with the advice 
 and consent of his privy council, was, however, vested 
 with authorit}' to regulate the future commerce be- 
 tween Great Britain and the United States. The first 
 order in council issued after the independence of the 
 United States had been acknowledged by Great Brit- 
 ain, established the following regulations : 
 
 First. That any goods, the importation of which into 
 this kingdom is not prohibited by law, being the 
 growth or production of any of the territories of the 
 United States of America, may be imported directly 
 from thence into any of the ports of the kingdom, not 
 only in British ships, owned by British subjects, and 
 navigated according to law, but, also, in ships built in 
 the countries belonging to the United States of Amer- 
 ica, and owned by the subjects of the said States, 
 and whereof the master and three fourths of the 
 marines, at least, are subjects of the United States. 
 Secondly. That any goods, being unmanufactured 
 (except fish-oil, blubber, whale-fins, and spermaceti), 
 and also any pig-iron, bar-iron, pitch, tar, turpentine, 
 rosin, potash, pearl-ash, indigo, masts, yards, and bow- 
 sprits, being the growth or production of any of the 
 territories of the United States of America, may be 
 imported directly from thence into any of the ports of 
 Great Britain, upon payment of the same duties as the 
 like sort of goods are, or may be subjected to, if im- 
 ported from any British island or plantation in Amer- 
 ica ; and that the excepted articles, as well as all others 
 not enumerated, the growth, production, or manufac- 
 ture of the said United States, shall be admitted on 
 the paji'ment of the same duties as are levied on sim- 
 ilar articles when imported from the most favored na- 
 tion, except such nations only with which treaties of 
 reciprocitj'" have been established. Thirdly. It was 
 ordered that goods and merchandise, being the gi'owth, 
 production, or manufacture of the territories of the 
 United States, though imported in ships belonging to 
 the subjects of the 'said States, should be exempted 
 from the alien's duty. Fourthly. It was permitted to 
 be imported into the other American and West Indian 
 possessions, from the ports of the United States, in 
 British ships only, such articles of the growth, produc- 
 tion, or manufacture of any of the said States (ex- 
 cept salted provisions and the produce of the fisher- 
 ies), as might by law, before the independence of the 
 United States, have been imported from the said States ; 
 but prohibiting all intercourse between the United 
 States and the said American and West Indian posses- 
 sions in ships belonging to citizens of the United States. 
 The first three orders, it will be perceived, suspend, 
 in favor of the United States, that provision of the 
 
 navigation laws of Great Britain which enacts "that 
 no goods or commodities whatsoever, of the growth, 
 production, or manufacture of any part of America, 
 are to be imported into any of his majesty's European 
 dominions in any other ship or vessel than such as do 
 truly belong to hia majesty's subjects, and navigated 
 according to law, in the manner therein described, un- 
 der the penalty of forfeiting all such goods and the 
 ship or vessel in which they are brought." The com- 
 merce of the United States, with respect to certain 
 articles enumerated (and it is admitted that these 
 articles formed a principal portion of the American 
 export trade at that period), was also allowed the same 
 preference as was granted to the remaining American 
 possessions of Great Britain. The privileges conferred 
 on American commerce by this order are shown in the 
 following table ; 
 
 Duties, if impoi-ted from 
 
 Mei-chandise, 
 
 Potash per cwt. 
 
 Pearl-ash " 
 
 Iron, bar : " 
 
 Pitch, per last 
 
 other foreign 
 
 countries. 
 
 $0 54 
 
 54 
 
 13 48 
 
 the Unlled 
 
 StAtea. 
 
 Free. 
 Free. 
 Free. 
 $2 64 
 2 64 2 97 
 
 Skins, beaver each 02"*^ 16^ 
 
 Tobacco per pound 80 84 
 
 The last regulation operated to exclude United States' 
 vessels from the ports of British possessions in America, 
 including the West Indies, and to restrict the importa- 
 tion of the products or manufactures of the said States 
 in such possessions to British ships only, navigated ac- 
 cording to law. The order was dictated b}' a spirit of 
 illiberality and selfishness, universally condemned both 
 in England and the United States ; and furnished a pro- 
 lific subject of diplomatic discussion between the two 
 governments, until the question was definitely and sat- 
 isfactorily settled toward the close of the year 1830. 
 The following summary exhibits a brief abstract of 
 the separate acts of the different State legislatures, 
 affecting British commerce, passed between 1783 and 
 1789 : By laws passed in New Hampshire, Massachu- 
 setts, and Rhode Island, vessels owned, in whole or 
 in part, by the subjects of Great Britain, were prohib- 
 ited from taking on board, in these provinces, any 
 goods or merchandise of the growth or manufacture 
 of these States, or of any other of the United States ; 
 and such vessels, so loaded, were, together with their 
 cargoes, made subject to seizure and condemnation. 
 The legislature of Pennsj'lvania vested in Congress a 
 power to prohibit for 15 years the importation or ex- 
 portation of all merchandise in vessels belonging to or 
 navigated by the subjects of any nations with which 
 Congress shall not have formed treaties of commerce. 
 
 By laws passed in Massachusetts and Rhode Island, 
 Congress was empowered to prohibit the importation 
 of British West India produce in British vessels. 
 Another law was enacted, in Pennsylvania, imposing 
 a duty of 4s. 6d. (currency) per ton on the vessels of 
 every nation with which Congress had not made treaties 
 of commerce. In Marj'land, a duty of Is. per ton was 
 imposed on all foreign shipping except British, and on 
 British a duty of 5s. per ton. In 1788 Virginia passed 
 a law imposing a duty of 6s. per ton on British vessels, 
 and half that amount on all other foreign vessels. In 
 North Carolina the discrimination was still greater ; 
 the duties on British vessels entering the ports of that 
 State being 5a. per ton, while that on all other foreign 
 vessels was only Is. per ton. 
 
 The import duties of the different States on British 
 cargoes were equally characterized by a similar spirit 
 of retaliation. New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode 
 Island, Virginia, Maryland, South Carolina, and 
 Georgia imposed discriminating duties, varjang from 50 
 to 100 per cent, on British cargoes over those levied on 
 similar merchandise imported in other foreign vessels. 
 
 The effect of these countervailing and retaliatory 
 measures can be traced in the following tables : 
 
 Value of British exports into the United States, 
 
GRE 
 
 863 
 
 GKH 
 
 upon an average of si:^ years before the war of inde- 
 pendence, ending witli 1774, $13,113,773 ; of 8ix years 
 ending witli 1789, $11,201,486 ; annual decrease since 
 the war, $1,912,287. Annual value of exports from 
 the United States to Great Britain, upon an average 
 of six years before the war of independence, ending 
 with 1774, $8,410,281 ; of six years since the war of 
 independence, $4,361,432 ; annual decrease since the 
 war, $4,048,829. 
 
 A close analysis of the official returns of trade dur- 
 ing this period will show that tobacco and rice were 
 the articles upon which this decrease chiefly fell. The 
 quantity of tobacco exported to England decreased 
 annually, upon an average of six years, 44,774,458 
 pounds, valued at $2,798,390 ; and the annual decrease 
 in rice exported to England from the United States 
 was 259,035 cwt., valued at $943,326 ; making a total 
 decrease in tobacco and rice of $3,741,716. The ton- 
 nage employed in the trade during the two periods 
 above designated can not be ascertained with accuracy. 
 We are enabled, however, to supply from British au- 
 thorities the number and tonnage of vessels emploj'ed 
 in the trade between the two countries for two periods 
 — of three years before, and subsequent to, the war of 
 independence : 
 
 Number and tonnage of vessels annually clearing 
 from Great Britain for the United States, on an average 
 of the years 1770, 1771, and 1772, 628—81,951. Num- 
 ber and tonnage of vessels annually entering British 
 ports from the United States, on a like average, 699 — 
 91,540 ; total, 1327—173,491. Number and tonnage of 
 British vessels clearing from British ports, annually, 
 on an average of the years 1787, 1788, and 1789, 272 — 
 55,785. Number and tonnage of United States' ves- 
 sels clearing, annually, from British ports, on like 
 average, 157 — 25,725. Number and tonnage of British 
 vessels clearing from the United States for British 
 ports, annually, on an average of the years 1787, 1788, 
 and 1789, 261—52,595. Number and tonnage of 
 United States' vessels clearing from the United States 
 for British ports, annually, on a like average, 163 — 
 26,564 ; total, 853—160,669. Showing a decrease, dur- 
 ing the periods compared, of 474 — 12,822. 
 
 Thus^ in the very infancy of our commerce, the dis- 
 astrous effects of restrictions, and of the retaliatory 
 measures which thej' provoked, were exhibited as well 
 in the spirit of commercial Uliberality and antagonism 
 which they engendered between the two countries, as 
 in the general decrease of navigation and trade. That 
 the object as well as the effect of the various orders in 
 council relative to the trade between Great Britain 
 and this county, issued from 1788 to 1794, was to par- 
 alyze the efforts even then made in the United States 
 to compete for a portion of that trade which England 
 had, long anterior to this period, wrested from Hol- 
 land, and now seemed to regard as legitimately her 
 own, can not be doubted. A British statesman (Lord 
 Liverpool), in a work on this subject, published in 
 1792, remarks : — " That this increase in our shipping 
 is to be ascribed to our namyation system may be made 
 to appear from recent experience in the application of 
 it to the trade of the United States. When those 
 countries were part of our plantations, a great portion 
 of their produce was transhipped to Great Britain and 
 our West India Islands in American bottoms ; they had 
 a share in the freight of sugars from those island.i to 
 Great Britain. But since the independence of those 
 States, since their ships have been excluded from our 
 plantations, and that trade is wholly confined to, British- 
 iuilt ships, we have gained that share of our carrying 
 trade from which they are now excluded, and we more- 
 over enjoy a considerable proportion in the carriage of 
 the produce of the United States." 
 
 The commercial policy of the United States, from 
 the very infancy of the government, has been to en- 
 courage reciprocity, and freedom of commerce with all 
 nations willing to adopt a similar principle. In the 
 
 report from the Treasury Department on the subject 
 of commerce, submitted to Congress in 1791, the ba- 
 sis of a commercial system was suggested, in which 
 the Secretary argued that duties imposed upon im- 
 ports would be disadvantageous in building up trade. 
 " Instead," the report adds, " of embarrassing com- 
 merce under piles of regulating laws, duties, and pro- 
 hibitions, it should be relieved from all its shacldes, in 
 all parts of the world. Would even a single nation 
 begin with the United States this system of free com- 
 merce, it would be advisable to begin it with that na- 
 tion." In the spirit of this suggestion, the United 
 States, soon after the peace of 1783, propo.sed to enter 
 into treaties of commerce, not only with Great Britain, 
 but also with France, Spain, and Portugal. Everj' 
 overture, however, to that end, was, under various 
 pretexts, rejected ; and it was not until five years after 
 the adoption of our present Constitution that Great 
 Britain could be induced to listen to any propositions 
 on the part of the United States, having in view the 
 equalization or reciprocity of commercial relations be- 
 tween the two nations. — Se ybert's Statistical Armals, 
 page 58. Under the operation of their navigation 
 laws, the productions of Asia, Africa, and America, 
 could only be imported direct from the places of their 
 growth in British vessels. As respects the United 
 States, this restriction was suspended, as already ob- 
 served, bj' orders in council, and proclamations issued 
 in pursuance thereof, until the treaty already cited 
 was ratified. 
 
 The following tables exhibit the details of the im- 
 port and export trade between Great Britain and the 
 United States from 1795 to 1807, and from the latter 
 year to 1815, when a convention of reciprocity was 
 entered into and ratified between the two governments : 
 
 
 Exports from 
 
 Imports into 
 
 1 Exports from 
 
 Imports Into 
 
 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 Years. 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 Great Britait 
 
 
 to the U.. S. 
 
 fromtlieU.S. 
 
 
 to the U, S, 
 
 from theU.S. 
 
 1795 
 
 $26,270,590 
 
 $6,760,680 
 
 1801 
 
 $37,587,660 
 
 $13,682,690 
 
 1796 
 
 30,270,160 
 
 10,404,860 
 
 1802 
 
 28,647,450 
 
 9,617,620 
 
 1797 
 
 26,283,995 
 
 6,877,660 
 
 1808 
 
 26,864,055 
 
 9,5TO,490 
 
 1798 
 
 27,901,845 
 
 8,918,600 
 
 1804 
 
 81,992,180 
 
 8,257,835 
 
 1799 
 
 86,282,790 
 
 9,094,705 
 
 1805 
 
 85,788,825 
 
 8,882,780 
 
 1800 
 
 39,427,970 
 
 11,789,616 
 
 1806 
 
 48,oe5,6;o 
 
 9,999,420 
 
 The preceding table is derived from British author- 
 ities ; and though it exhibits a variance in almost 
 every instance, more or less, from the United States' 
 official reports, it is believed to approximate the actual 
 value of the imports and exports in the English mar- 
 ket. From 1803, when the stipulations of the treaty 
 of 1794, relative to commerce, expired, there was no 
 treaty regulating the commercial intercourse between 
 the two countries until 1815. It is true a treaty was 
 agreed to, December 31, 1806, between Messrs. Mon- 
 roe and Pinckney and the commissioners appointed bj- 
 Great Britain for that purpose ; but so restrictive 
 were some of its stipulations, especially as respecting 
 American commerce with the East Indies, that it was 
 rejected by the President, without having been sub- 
 mitted to the Senate, notwithstanding it contained 
 a stipulation for an equalization of tonnage and other 
 duties in the intercourse between the United States 
 and the dominions of Great Britain in Europe. This 
 principle was recognized and admitted in the commer- 
 cial convention of July 3d, 1815, entered into between 
 the two countries, with the limitation, however, on the 
 part of England, to her dominions in Europe. Prior 
 to the adoption of this ti-eaty, the United States passed 
 an act repealing all the discriminating duties of import 
 and tonnage in regard to the vessels of such nations 
 as should extend similar favors to the shipping and 
 produce of the United States ; thus carrj'ing into prac- 
 tical working, and recommending by legislative ex- 
 ample, the suggestion of Mr. Jefferson already quoted, 
 that if "' even a single nation would begin with the 
 United States the system of free commerce, it would 
 be advisable to begin it with that nation." We recur, 
 however, before proceeding to trace the operation of 
 
GEE 
 
 864 
 
 GRE 
 
 this convention in the subsequent returns of trade, to 
 tlie tables, resuming at tlie year 1806 : 
 
 1806 
 1807 
 1808 
 18p9. 
 
 isio 
 
 Exports fi-om 
 Great BritaiQ 
 to the U. S. 
 
 $48,065,610 
 89,605,600 
 19,960,295 
 25,938,065 
 89,066,585 
 
 Imports into 
 Great Britain 
 from theU.S. 
 
 14,237,610 
 
 4,181,710 
 
 11,026,655 
 
 18,072,025 
 
 1811 
 1812 
 1818 
 1814 
 1816 
 
 Exports from 
 Great Britain 
 to the U. S. 
 
 Imports into 
 Great Britain 
 fromtheU.S, 
 
 $7,159,145 
 20,677,960 
 Records destr 
 86,515 
 59,682,605 
 
 $11,547,075 
 6,470,760 
 
 oyed by Are, 
 
 118,105 
 11,811,440 
 
 In Seybert's Statistical Annals we find a minute 
 analysis of the trade between the United States and 
 Great Britain during the years designated in the pre- 
 vious tables. 
 
 In the year 1793, exports from the United States to 
 Great Britain were estimated, in a report of the Sec- 
 retary' of the Treasury, under date December 23, 1793, 
 at $9,363,416, and the imports into the United States 
 from Great Britain at $15,285,428, leaving a balance 
 in favor of Great Britain of $5,922,012. From 1793 
 to 1800, the amount of manufactures imported into the 
 United States from Great Britain exceeded in value 
 the amount of similar exports to all the nations in 
 Europe, as will be seen from the following table, taken 
 from British returns : 
 
 Years. 
 
 Amount of manufactures exported from Great 
 Britain to 
 
 Nations in Europe. 
 
 1793 $17,669,230 
 
 1794 22,291,915 
 
 1795 21,118,910 
 
 1T96 22,488,416 
 
 1797 18,664,150 
 
 1798 19,908,250 
 
 1799 22,763,040 
 
 1800 87,680,615 
 
 The United States. 
 
 . $16,368,626 
 17,944,445 
 24,462,860 
 29,178,200 
 24,866,680 
 26,665,840 
 33,481,106 
 82,947,385 
 
 The annual value of merchandise exported from the 
 United States to the European dominions of Great 
 Britain, on an average of the years 1802, 1803, and 
 1804, amounted to $18,665,777 ; and on a similar av- 
 erage, the annual value of the merchandise imported 
 into the United States from Great Britain amounted to 
 $35,737,030 ; showing an annual balance of $17,071,- 
 253 against the United States. The annual value of 
 British produce and manufactures, and of foreign and 
 colonial merchandise, distinguished in separate col- 
 umns, exported from Great Britain to the United 
 States, and to all parts of the world, during the years 
 designated, will be seen in the following tables : 
 Valite op the Exports from Great Britain. 
 
 Tears. 
 
 TO 'THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 To ALL PARTS OF THE WORLD, 
 INCLUDING THE UNITBD STATES. 
 
 Brilteh mauu- 
 produce. 
 
 Foreign and 
 
 colonial 
 merchandise. 
 
 British manu- 
 factures and 
 produce. 
 
 Foreign and 
 
 colonial 
 merchandise. 
 
 1805 
 1806 
 1807 
 1808 
 1S09 
 1810 
 1811 
 
 $56,067,045 
 61,987,440 
 
 . 59,232,566 
 26,208,695 
 86,292,600 
 54,608,760 
 9,206,265 
 
 $2,177,650 
 2,880,815 
 1,267,145 
 
 805,635 
 1,011,840 
 1,484,665 
 
 166,320 
 
 $206,844,710 
 216,210,880 
 202,899,826 
 204,408,855 
 251,213,805 
 249,878,170 
 174,586,405 
 
 $50,200,945 
 48,988,525 
 60,018,980 
 45,440,875 
 78,674,755 
 63,638,875 
 45,111,695 
 
 The aggregate value of British manufactures and 
 produce exported to the United States during the seven 
 years designated above, was $302,588,270, making an 
 annual average of $43,226,896 ; the aggregate value 
 of British produce and manufactures exported to all 
 parts of the world, including the United States, during 
 the same period, was $1,504,041,650, making an an- 
 nual average of $214,863,093. The aggregate value 
 of foreign and colonial merchandise exported from 
 Great Britain to the United States during the same 
 period was $8,782,070, making an annual average of 
 $1,254,582 ; the aggregate value of similar exports to 
 all parts of the world, including the United States, 
 was $382,209,150. The preceding figures exhibit 
 many interesting facts relative to the trade between 
 the two countries, during the period which intervened 
 between 1793 and 1816. The exports of foreign and 
 colonial merchandise from Great Britain to the United 
 States show that England enjoyed but a small share of 
 
 our carrying trade ; while a comparison between the 
 totals of domestic manufactures exported to the United 
 States, and to all other parts of the world, will ex- 
 hibit the importance to Great Britain of unrestricted 
 commercial intercourse with the United States. 
 
 The effect of the restrictive and retaliatory measures 
 which were, at this period, adopted by both countries, 
 is even more fully illustrated in the tonnage employed 
 in this trade by each, respectively, from 1790 to 1816. 
 The number of British vessels which entered and 
 cleared between the United States and Great Britain 
 amounted to 1715, with an aggregate tonnage of 382,- 
 652 tons. The number of American vessels which 
 entered and cleared in the same trade, during the same 
 period, was 3245 vessels, with an aggregate tonnage 
 of 516,702 tons. In 1790, 557 British vessels were 
 employed in the commerce between the two countries ; 
 in 1800 this number was reduced to 139. In 1790 the 
 American vessels employed in this trade amounted 
 only to 464 ; in 1800 this number reached as high as 
 1057. In 1789, 253 British vessels engaged in this 
 trade entered British ports from the United States, 
 while 358 vessels cleared in the same trade. In a pe- 
 riod of 10 years, up to 1799, the number that entered 
 from the United States was reduced to 42 vessels, 
 while the number that cleared fell to 67. In 1806, 661 
 vessels employed in the trade with the United States 
 entered British ports ; of these only 56 were under the 
 British flag ; and of the 576 vessels that cleared from 
 British ports in the same trade, only 39 were British. 
 
 These statistics, which are chiefly compiled from 
 Seybert., show an augmentation of tonnage in the 
 United States, and a diminution in the tonnage of 
 Great Britain engaged in the trade between the two 
 countries, well calculated to excite alarm -among the 
 ship-owners in England, and even to arrest the atten- 
 tion of the British government. And when it is con- 
 sidered that it was at that period— if it has not always 
 been — the policy of Great Britain to sacrifice, if neces- 
 sary, the interests even of commerce and trade to the 
 great object of strengthening her naval power, it will 
 not be a subject of sui-prise that orders in council and 
 acts of Parliament were issued, in quick succession, 
 avowedly designed to check this rapid progress of 
 American navigation, and drive American ships from 
 the carrj'ing trade, even as respected the exportation 
 of the products of the United States to other countries. 
 "Trade," said the report of the privy council, to 
 whom the subject was, at this time, referred by his 
 majest3''s orders, *' was considered principally as the 
 means of promoting the employment of ships, and 
 was encouraged chiefly as it conduced to the one great 
 national object — ^the naval strength of the country." 
 
 It was the universal prevalence throughout England 
 of this sentiment, exhibited upward of a century in 
 her navigation laws, in her prohibitions and restric- 
 tions, in her differential duties, and, above all, in her 
 colonial system, that emboldened the privy council to 
 recommend to his majesty ^' that, notwithstanding 
 their (the United States') extreme anxiety for an ar- 
 rangement on the principle of reciprocit)', if Congress 
 should propose (as they certainly will) that the princi- 
 ple of equality sliould be extended to the ports of our 
 colonies, and that the ships of the United States should 
 be there treated as British ships, it should be answered, 
 that this demand can not be admitted even as a sub- 
 ject of negotiation." Hence, but little could be ex- 
 pected from the treaty of 1794, in which this principle 
 was carried out to the fullest extent of rigorous re- 
 striction ; and hence, also, the series of regulating 
 orders, acts, and counter-acts, which were made the 
 instruments of commercial warfare between the two 
 countries for upward of a quarter of a century. It 
 would be a tedious task to present even a synopsis of 
 the different restrictive and retaliatorj' measures 
 adopted by the two governments during this long 
 period. Were it even otherwise, it would be super- 
 
GEE 
 
 865 
 
 GRE 
 
 flnous to go into minute detaila, as the legislation of 
 both governments during this period, as well as its 
 effects upon the commerce of the two countries, are 
 succinctly set forth in the former reports issued from 
 this Department. 
 
 It will, therefore, suffice to refer to the tables of 
 trade and tonnage already given, as the best illustra- 
 tion that can be offered of the operation of these meas- 
 ures, and of the total inadequacy of restrictions and 
 prohibitions as a necessary means of fostering commer- 
 cial industry, or of augmenting the naval power of a 
 nation. The ablest pens in England have been em- 
 ployed in demonstrating that it is to other causes than 
 the navigation laws that Great Britain owes her Vast 
 commercial greatness, and that naval ascendancy 
 which she has so- long maintained (McGkegoe, Part 
 15, vol. ii., p. 1370) and it is a question still unsettled 
 whether the adoption by the United States of the navi- 
 gation laws aiid the restrictive policy of Great Britain, 
 even as a means of protection or self-defense, was as 
 beneficial in its ultimate results upon the commercial 
 prosperity of the country, as would have been a strict 
 adherence to the maxim of Mr. Jefferson, already 
 cited, that " commerce should be relieved from all its 
 shackles in all parts of the world." Be this as it may, 
 the enlightened policy which now rules the councils of 
 Great Britain — a policy which, at this distant and 
 remote period in British historj-, received the co-opera- 
 tion and support of two of England's greatest states- 
 men, Mr. Pitt and Sir Robert Peel— has dissipated the 
 fallacies iipon which past legislation was based, and 
 has demonstrated already, in the brief period of five 
 years, that England can best compete with the mer- 
 chant-marine of the world by placing the trade of 
 every port in her vast dominions, European and colo- 
 nial, for the ships of all countries, upon the footing of 
 an unrestricted coasting-trade. 
 
 A liberal tariff of duties, especially upon articles of 
 prime necessity among the great masses of her people, 
 even should they be classed in the category of luxu- 
 ries, is all that seems now wanting to perfect the 
 present commercial code of this powerful kingdom. 
 The present duty on raw tobacco is, at least, 1000 per 
 cent, above prime cost. The commercial convention 
 of 1815, between Great Britain and the United States, 
 was limited to four years. The second article of this 
 treaty provides for an equality of duties on imports 
 and tonnage in the ports of the United States and the 
 ports of the British territories in Europe. With re- 
 spect to imports, this equality of duties applies only to 
 articles being the growth, produce, and manufacture 
 of the respective countries. The intercourse between 
 the United States and the British West Indies and 
 American colonies is not to be affected b}' any provis- 
 ions of the convention ; "but each party is to remain 
 in complete possession of its rights with respect to 
 such intercourse." Under the stipulations of this 
 convention, the vessels of Great Britain are exempted 
 from the payment of the extra tonnage and import 
 duties, only when they arrive from, and their cargoes 
 are of the growth, produce, or manufacture of,' the 
 British dominions in Europe ; and the vessels of the 
 United States, in like manner, are admitted into Brit- 
 ish ports on terms of equality as to tonnage and im- 
 port duties, with British vessels, only when their 
 cargoes consist of merchandise the growth, produce, 
 or manufacture of the United States. The effect of 
 this convention, especially of its restrictive clauses, 
 upon the shipping interests of Great Britain, formed 
 no exception to the general rule, that all shackles 
 upon commerce ultimately recoil upon those by whom 
 they are imposed. 
 
 In the practical consequences of this arrangement, 
 as was stated by the celebrated Huskisson, in a speech 
 delivered in Parliament, the adherence of Great Brit- 
 ian to another part of her navigation laws, instead of 
 serving, appeared to that statesman to have shackled 
 III 
 
 the shipping interests of that country. And he thus 
 illustrates his position : " An American vessel, on her 
 voyage to England, is freighted with a cargo wholly 
 produced in the United States. For her return to 
 America, she may load in British ports, with a cargo 
 partly the produce or manufacture of any other coun- 
 try. This a British ship can not do ; for if a British 
 ship were to bring to the United States a single cask 
 of brandy, or a pipe of wine, she would be liable to 
 seizure and forfeiture." And yet, at this very period, 
 and up to the year 1830, the representatives of the 
 American government were pressing upon the cabi- 
 net of England the justice as well as the policy of un- 
 restricted commercial intercourse between all the ports 
 of the two countries, but without success. 
 
 In 1818 another convention was ratified between 
 the two governments, by the 4th article of which that 
 of 1815 was continued in force for the term of 10 years 
 from that date ; and in 1827 it was indefinitely ex- 
 tended and continued, either party being at liberty, 
 on giving 12 months' notice to the other, to annul and 
 terminate the said convention. No terms, however, 
 would be acceded to by the British government re- 
 specting the trade witli her American colonies. A 
 recapitulation of the various acts of Parliament and 
 orders in council, as well as the general history of the 
 commercial antagonism and reciprocal exclusion which 
 marked this period, belongs more properly to the di- 
 gest of our commercial relations with the English 
 colonial possessions. It is true, it would not be diffi- 
 cult to trace the influence of this controversy in the 
 commercial legislation, more particularly in relation 
 to the tarrifF regulations of both countries, during the 
 entire period of its continuance. Still, the general 
 subject belongs to a review of our trade with the colo- 
 nies of Great Britain, and to that portion of tliis digest 
 reference is made. 
 
 It has been already stated that, in the convention 
 of 1827, it was agreed that the provisions of the con- 
 vention of 1815 should be indefinitely extended and 
 continued ; but that it should be competent, neverthe- 
 less, to either of the parties, on giving 12 months' no- 
 tice, to annul and abrogate the said convention. No 
 such notice has been given by either party, and, con- 
 sequently, the convention still remains in force. Since 
 that period, however, the commercial policy of Great 
 Britain has totally changed. The vast pile of naviga- 
 tion laws which contributed to build up her naval 
 power, and extend her commerce to every corner of 
 the globe, has been swept away by the reforming 
 hand of a more liberal legislation ; the whole frame- 
 work of her tariff policy has been demolished ; the 
 heavy duties on the various classes of raw material 
 have been removed; and, with the exception of a 
 few articles on which, for revenue purposes onlj', heavy 
 duties are still retained, the raw produce of the world 
 is brought to the store-houses of her manufacturers, 
 unincumbered with those custom-house charges which, 
 before this period, absorbed so large a share of the 
 profits of their industry and skill. 
 
 The act of 12 and 13 Victoria, chapter 29, passed on 
 the 26th June, 1849, introduced this new era in the 
 commercial history of Great Britain. The leading 
 provisions of this act, as well as of the various acts, 
 orders in council, proclamations, etc., which it super- 
 seded, will be found at length in a report from the De- 
 partment of State in 1853, entitled " Ex. Doc. No. 52, 
 Senate," pages 9-16. Section 21 of this act declares 
 that it shall come into operation on the 1st day of 
 January, 1850. Thus, at length, the limbs of British 
 commerce were freed from the pinions by which it 
 was fettered for upward of two centuries. The vis- 
 ions of Mr. Pitt were realized in the liberal policy of 
 Sir Robert Peel's enlarged and enlightened statesman- 
 ship. This act establishes the comprehensive princi- 
 ple of admitting into the ports of Great Britain, or into 
 any British possessions, goods of any sort, in a ship of 
 
GEE 
 
 866 
 
 GEE 
 
 any country, from any part of the world. Such pro- 
 hibitions and restrictions, however, as were, before 
 the passage of this act, deemed necessary either for 
 the safety or for the protection of revenue and mercan- 
 tile interests, still remain in force. The following is 
 a brief summary of such prohibitions and restrictions, 
 so far as they affect the commercial relations of the 
 United Statas with Great Britain : 
 
 Books, wherein the copyright shall be first subsist- 
 ing, first composed, or written or printed in the United 
 Kingdom, and printed or reprinted in any other coun- 
 try, as to which the proprietor of such copyright or 
 his agent shall have given to the commissioners of cus- 
 toms a notice in writing that such copyright subsists, 
 such notice also stating when copyright shall expire. 
 _ Coin, viz. : False money or counterfeit sterling ; 
 silver coin of the realm, or any money purporting to 
 be such, not being of the established standard in 
 weight or fineness ; extracts, essences, or other con- 
 centrations of coffee, chicorj^, tea, or tobacco, or any 
 admixtures of the same ; malt. Prints, indecent, or 
 obscene ; paintings, boolcs, cards, lithographic or other 
 engravings, or any other indecent or obscene articles. 
 Snuff-work: tobacco-stalks stripped from the leif, 
 whether manufactured or not ; tobacco-stalk flour. 
 
 The following goods prohibited to be imported ex- 
 cept in transit, and subject to such regulations and 
 restrictions as the Commissioners of the Treasurj^ may 
 direct, and duly reported as goods in transit : 1. Ar- 
 ticles of foreign manufacture, and any packages of such 
 articles bearing any names, brands, or marks, being, 
 or purporting to be, the names, brands, or marks of 
 manufacturers resident in the United Kingdom. II. 
 Parts of articles, viz. :, Any distinct or separate part of 
 any article not accompanied by the other part or all 
 the other parts of such articles so as to be complete 
 and perfect, if such articles be subject to duty accord- 
 ing to the value thereof. 
 
 The following goods prohibited to be imported, ex- 
 cept subject to restrictions on importation (arms, am- 
 munition, gunpowder, or any other goods, may be 
 prohibited by proclamation or order in council) : I. 
 Silk.- — Manufactures of silk, being the manufactures 
 of Europe, unless into London, Liverpool, Hull, South- 
 ampton, Leith, Dublin, or ports appointed by the com- 
 missioners, or into Dover or Folkestone, direct from 
 Calais or Boulogne, and unless in ships of 50 tons' bur- 
 den or upward. II. Spirits^ not being perfumed or 
 medicinal spirits, unless in ships of 50 tons' burden at 
 least, and in casks or other vessels, each of such casks 
 or other vessels being of the contents of 20 gallons at 
 least, and duly reported, or in glass bottles, or stone 
 bottles, not exceeding the size of three-pint bottles, 
 and being part of the cargo of the importing ship, and 
 duly reported. III. Tobacco, Snuff, Segars, CigariU 
 los or Cigarettos.- — Unless in ships of not less than 120 
 tons' burden, and into ports approved by the Commis- 
 sioners of the Customs. IV. Tobacco, segars, or 
 snuff, unless in packages each containing not less than 
 80 pounds' net weight. Tobacco and snuff for private 
 use, in packages under the legal size, may be admit- 
 ted by special leave of the Board, provided it be for 
 the use of the person to whom it is consigned, and be 
 inserted in the manifest and report, the application 
 and proof being made by such person. V. Cigarillos 
 or cigarettos, unless in packages each containing not 
 less than 75 pounds' net weight. VI. If any goods 
 be imported contrary to the foregoing prohibitions and 
 restrictions, the same to be forfeited. 
 
 The following are the only ports into which tobacco 
 and snuff can be imported, viz. : 
 
 England. — London, Liverpool, Southampton, Fal- 
 mouth, Lancaster, Whitehaven, Plj'mouth, Newcas- 
 tle, Swansea, Hull, Preston, Cowes, Bristol. 
 
 Scotland. — Glasgow, Port Glasgow, Aberdeen, 
 Leith, Greenock. 
 
 Ireland. — Dublin, Belfast, Cork, Galway, Limerick, 
 Londonderry, Newrj', Sligo, Waterford, Wexford, 
 Drogheda. 
 
 The 43d section of 16 and 17 Victoria provides that 
 no goods shall be deemed to be imported from any 
 particular place, unless imported direct from such 
 place, and shall have been there laden on board the 
 importing ship, either as the first shipment of such 
 goods, or after the same shall have been actually 
 landed at such place. 
 
 Section 41 (chapter 107) of 16 and 17 Victoria de- 
 clares that it shall be. lawful to import into the United 
 Kingdom any goods not prohibited, and to warehouse 
 such as are subject to duties of customs, in duly ap- 
 proved warehouses, without pajmient of duty on their 
 first entering ; but the duties on the following goods, 
 and such otiier goods as the Commissioners of the 
 Treasury may, from time to time, direct, shall be paid 
 on the first importation thereof, viz. : com, grain, 
 meal, and flour, and wood goods from British posses- 
 sions. No goods except diamonds, bullion, lobsters, 
 and fresh fish of British taking, and imported in Brit- 
 ish ships, which maj' be landed without report or en- 
 try, shall be unshipped or be landed on Sundays or 
 holidays, nor on anj' other days except between S 
 o'clock in the morning and 4 o'clock in the afternoon 
 from the 1st of March until the 1st of November ; and 
 between 9 o'clock in the morning and 4 o'clock in the 
 afternoon from the 1st of November until the 1st of 
 March, or during such other hours as may be appoint- 
 ed by the commissioners ; nor shall any goods be un- 
 shipped or landed, unless in the presence or with tlie 
 authority of a customs officer ; nor shall they be 
 landed, except at some legal quay, wharf, or other 
 duly-appointed place ; nor shall any goods, after hav- 
 ing been transhipped, be removed into any other 
 craft, without permission of such officer, under the 
 penalty of forfeiture ; and if any goods shall be un- 
 shipped for the purpose of being landed after due entry 
 thereof, they shall be forthwith removed to and landed 
 at the place at which the same are intended to be 
 landed ; and in default thereof, such goods shall be 
 forfeited, together with the barge or other vessel em- 
 ployed. 
 
 "The master of everj' ship, whether laden or in bal- 
 last, shall, within 24 hours after arrival from ports 
 beyond the seas, and before bulk be broken, make due 
 report of such ship in the form following,* or to the 
 same effect, embracing the several particulars indi- 
 cated therein ; and if the cargo of such ship shall have 
 been laden at several places, he shall state the names 
 of those places, in the order of time in which the same 
 were laden, opposite to the particulars of the goods so 
 laden ; and failing so to do, or if any of the particulars 
 contained in such report be false, the master shall for- 
 feit £100 ($500). The master of every ship arriving 
 from ports beyond the seas, at the time of malting re- 
 port, if required, shall deliver to the collector or 
 comptroller the bill of lading, or a copy thereof, for 
 any part of the cargo laden on board, and shall answer 
 all such questions relating to the ship, cargo, crew, 
 and voyage, as he shall put to him ; and in case of faU- 
 
 * FoKM ov Entry. 
 
 NAME OFBHIP. 
 
 BRITISH on PoaKIGN, 
 
 (If foreign, Cfluntry to which she bfilanga.) 
 
 kumdeh of crew. 
 
 PORT OE PI^CB WHENCE ABHIVED. 
 
 British seamen. 
 
 Foreign seamen. 
 
 Name of nifister. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
GRE 
 
 867 
 
 GRE 
 
 ure or refusal, or to answer truly, or to produce such 
 bill of lading or copy ; or if the same be false ; or if 
 any bill of lading be uttered or produced by any mas- 
 ter, and the goods specified therein shall not have been 
 harm fide shipped on board such ship ; or if any bill of 
 lading uttered or produced by any master shall not 
 have been signed by him, or any such copy shall not 
 have been received previously to his leaving the place 
 where the goods expressed therein were shipped ; or, 
 if after the arrival of any ship within four leagues of 
 the coast of the United Kingdom, bulk be broken, or 
 any alteration made in the stowage of the cargo so as 
 to facilitate the unlading of any part thereof ; or if 
 any part be staved, destroyed, or thrown overboard, 
 or any package be opened, in every such case the mas- 
 ter shall forfeit f 100 ($500). 
 
 A perfect entry shall be made before unshipment, 
 by the importer or his agent, of all goods liable to duty 
 iind intended for home use on the landing thereof, and 
 the particulars thereof shall agree with those of the 
 report, and any certificate of origin or other document 
 conferring a benefit by the distinction ; and whenever 
 the value of any goods is required to be stated in the 
 entry, the importer or his agent shall declare to the 
 same at the foot thereof. It is competent, under the 
 provisions of 16 and 17 Victoria, chapter 107, section 
 57, for the officers of the customs to detain goods 
 •Hhich appear to them to be undervalued ; in which 
 case, they shall forthwith give notice in writing to the 
 party entering the same, and stating the value thereof 
 as estimated by them ; either delivering such notice in 
 person, or transmitting it by post to the address stated 
 in the entry;* and the commissioners shall, ivithin 
 seven days after the detention of such goods, deter- 
 mine either to deliver them on the entrj'' or retain 
 them for the use of the crown ; in which latter case, 
 they shall cause the value, as stated in the entrj-, to- 
 gether with 5 per cent, additional, and the duty already' 
 paid, to be paid to the party entering them, in full sat- 
 isfaction for such goods ; or, on application, may per- 
 mit such person to amend his entrj' at such value. 
 
 Sections ^^ tO 73 of the act already cited require 
 that, with each entrj', two or more duplicates shall be 
 delivered, in which all sums or numbers may be ex- 
 pressed in figures, and the number of duplicates shall 
 be such as the collector or comptroller maj' require. 
 Importers or agents willfully failing to comply with 
 these regulations, so far as applicable to the goods en- 
 tered by them, shall pay £20 ($100). No entry shall 
 be valid unless the goods are properly described therein 
 by the denominations, and with the character and cir- 
 cumstances according to which such goods are charged 
 with duty, or may bei imported either for home use, or 
 to be warehoused for exportation only. If any goods 
 or other things shall be found concealed in any way, 
 or packed to deceive the officers, in any package landed 
 in pursuance of any entrj', such package and its entire 
 contents shall be forfeited ; and if any goods not duly 
 entered shall be taken or delivered from any ship or 
 warehouse, the same shall be forfeited. 
 
 It is provided, however, that no entry shall be re- 
 quired in respect of passengers' baggage, which may 
 be landed, examined, and delivered as the commission- 
 ers may direct ; but if prohibited or uncustomed goods 
 be found concealed therein, either before or after land- 
 ing, the same shall be forfeited, together with the other 
 articles of the package. Surplus stores, not being 
 merchandise, nor deemed excessive, may be entered 
 for private use, or warehoused for future use as ship 
 stores, although they can not be legally imported as 
 merchandise. At ports where agents for the clearance 
 
 * In cases in which articles shall have been undervalued, 
 or entered under a wrong denomination, and the difference 
 of duty shall not exceed £10 ($50), the collector and comp- 
 troller may permit the entry to be amended, on proof that no 
 fraud had been intended, taking a deposit not exceeding £2 
 ($10) to abide the Board's decision. 
 
 of ships, goods, or baggage shall be required to be 
 licensed, anj' person not so licensed, or duly appointed 
 a cl^rk to a person licensed, acting as such agent or 
 clerk, or, whether licensed or not, making entrj- of 
 any goods without the authority of the proprietor or 
 consignee, shall for such ofiense forfeit £20 ($100) ; 
 but no such penalty shall extend to persons acting for 
 dock companies, or otherwise authorized by law to pass 
 entries, or to any merchant, importer, or consignee of 
 goods, acting himself in respect thereof ; or any clerk 
 or servant exclusivelj' employed by him, or by any 
 such person in copartnership. Officers of customs 
 may require of persons applying to transact business 
 on account of others a written authority, and, in de- 
 fault of its production, refuse to transact such business. 
 Officers of customs may take samples of goods for ex- 
 amination, for ascertaining the duties payable thereon, 
 or for such other purpose as the commissioners may 
 deem necessary, and dispose of the same in the manner 
 they maj'' direct. 
 
 If within fourteen days after the arrival of the ship 
 (exclusive of Sundays and holidays), the importer shall 
 not make entry of his goods, or, having entered, shall 
 not within that time, or within such further period as 
 the commissioners shall direct, land the same, the offi- 
 cers maj' convey the same goods to the queen's ware- 
 house ; and whenever the cargo of any ship shall have 
 been discharged within fourteen days, excepting only 
 a small quantity, the officers of customs may forth- 
 with convey such remaining goods to the queen's 
 warehouse ; and, also, si any time after arrival, may 
 convey any small parcels or packages of goods to the 
 queen's warehouse, there to remain during the re- 
 mainder of such fourteen days, for due entrj- ; and if 
 the duties on goods so conveyed to the queen's ware- 
 house be not paid within three months afterward, or 
 within such further period as the commissioners maj- 
 direct, together with all charges of removal and ware- 
 house rent, such goods may be sold, and the proceeds 
 thereof be applied, first, to the paj'ment of freight and 
 charges, next, of duties, and the overplus, if anj', shall 
 be paid to the proprietor on his application for the same ; 
 but if such goods be of a perishable nature, the com- 
 missioners maj' forthwith direct their sale, and applj- 
 the proceeds thereof: provided, always, that, if, 48 
 hours, or any earlier period after the report, is specified 
 in the bills of lading for the discharge of cargo, the 
 importer, etc., neglect to enter and land the same 
 within such 48 hours, the master or owner of such 
 ship may then himself enter and land such goods. 
 Whenever goods shall remain on board ship bej'ond 
 the period of 14 daj^s after arrival, or bej^ond any fur- 
 ther period the commissioners may allow, such ship 
 shall be detained by the proper officer until all ex- 
 penses be paid for watching and guarding such goods 
 beyond the prescribed period, not exceeding 5s. ($1 20) 
 per diem, and for removal to the queen's warehouse, 
 provided they be removed. 
 
 If goods be removed from any ship, quay, wharf, or 
 other place, previous to the examination thereof bj- the 
 proper officer of the customs, unless under the care or 
 authoritj- of such officer; or if goods entered to be 
 warehoused, or re-warehoused, shall be carried into 
 the warehouse, unless with the authoritj- or under the 
 care of the proper officer, and in such manner, bj- such 
 persons, within such time, and bj- such roads or waj-s 
 as the officer shall direct, such goods shall be forfeited. 
 All goods warehoused shall be deposited in the pack- 
 ages in which they shall have been imported, except 
 such goods as are permitted to be shipped* on the 
 quay, or bulked, sorted, lotted, packed, or re-packed 
 in the warehouse after the landing thereof, in which 
 case they shall be deposited in the packages in which 
 they shall be when the account thereof is taken by the 
 
 * The temporary transfer of goods from one package tc 
 another. 
 
GRE 
 
 868 
 
 GRE 
 
 proper officer ; and if sucli goods are not so deposited, 
 or if any alteration shall afterward be made in them, 
 or in the packing thereof in the warehouse, or if they 
 shall be removed without the presence or sanction of 
 the proper officer, except for delivering under the 
 proper warrant, order, or authority for that purpose, 
 they shall be forfeited. 
 
 All goods deposited in warehouses shall be cleared, 
 either for home use or exportation, at the expiration 
 of five years from the date of warehousing, or within 
 such further period and in such cases as the Commis- 
 sioners of the Treasury shall direct, unless the owner 
 or proprietor of such goods be desirous of re-ware- 
 housing them ; in which case they shall be examined 
 by the proper officers, and the duties due on any defi- 
 ciencies or difference between the quantity ascertained 
 on landing and the quantity then found to exist, sub- 
 ject to such allowances as are by law permitted in re- 
 spect thereof, together with the necessary expense 
 attendant thereon, shall be paid down, and the quan- 
 tity so found shall be re-warehoused in the name of the 
 then owner or proprietor thereof, in the same manner 
 as on first importation. 
 
 If any warehoused goods shall not be duly cleared, 
 exported, or re-warehoused, and the duties due on the 
 deficiencies shall not be paid down at the expiration of 
 five years from the previous entry and warehousing, 
 or within such further period as shall be directed, the 
 same, if worth the duty, after one month's notice to 
 the warehouse-keeper, shall, with all convenient speed, 
 be sold either for home use or exportation, with or 
 without the consent of the warehouse-keeper, and the 
 proceeds thereof be applied to the payment of the du- 
 ties, warehouse rent, and charges, and the surplus, if 
 any, be paid to the owner or proprietor, if known ; but 
 if he can not be found, the surplus shall be carried to 
 the crown's account, to abide the claim of such party on 
 his appearing and making it good ; and if such goods be 
 not worth the duty, then, after one month's notice, the 
 same may be exported or destroyed, with or without 
 the concurrence of the owner thereof, or the proprietor 
 of the warehouse, as the commissioners shall see fit ; 
 and the duties due upon any deficiencies not allowed 
 by law shall be paid by the proprietor of the ware- 
 house. 
 
 The commissioners of customs maj' permit anj' 
 goods to he taken out of the warehouse without paj'- 
 ment of dutj', for such purpose or for such period as 
 to them shall appear expedient, and in such quanti- 
 I ties, and under such regulations and restrictions, and 
 with such security, by bond, for the due return there- 
 of or the payment of the duties, as they may direct. 
 No warehoused goods shall be taken or delivered from 
 the warehouse, except upon due entry for exportation, 
 under the care'of the proper officers, or upon due en- 
 try and payment of the full duties for home use, ex- 
 cept goods delivered into the charge of the searchers 
 to be shipped as stores, in such quantities as the col- 
 lector or comptroller shall allow, subject to the regu- 
 'lations of the commissioners. 
 
 Upon the entry of goods to be cleared from the 
 warehouse for home use, the person entering the same 
 shall deliver a bill of entry and duplicates thereof, in 
 like manner and form, and containing the same par- 
 ticulars, as are herein before required on the entrj' of 
 goods to be delivered for home use on the landing 
 thereof, as far as the same may be applicable, and 
 shall pay down to the proper officer of the customs 
 the full duties thereon, not being less in amount than 
 according to the account of the quantity taken by the 
 proper officer on the first entry, except as to the fol- 
 lowing goods, viz. ; tobacco, wine, spirits, figs, cur- 
 rants, raisins, and sugar ; the duties whereon, when 
 cleared from the warehouse for home use, shall be 
 charged upon the quantity ascertained by weight, 
 measure, or strength, at the time of actual delivery 
 thereof, uifless there is reasonable ground to suppose 
 
 that any portion of the deficiency between the weight 
 ascertained on landing and first examination, and tliat 
 ascertained at the time of actual delivery, has been 
 caused by illegal or improper means ; in which case, 
 the proper officer of customs shall make such allow- 
 ances only for loss as he may consider faij-ly to have 
 arisen from natural evaporation or other legitimate 
 cause. When-any deficiency occurs in goods charge- 
 able to pay duty according to value, the value thereof 
 shall be estimated, as nearly as conveniently may be, 
 by the officers of customs, according to the market 
 price of the like sort of goods. No duty shall be 
 charged in respect of any deficiency in goods entered 
 and cleared from the warehouse for exportation, un- 
 less the officers of customs have reasonable ground to 
 suppose that such deficiency or part thereof has arisen 
 from illegal abstraction. 
 
 No entry for home consumption, from and after the 
 passing of this act (customs consolidation act, 16 and 
 17 Vict., chap. 107), shall be received for any timber 
 or wood goods in bond, for a less quantity, at any one 
 time, than 5 loads, unless such wood goods shall be 
 delivered by tale, in which case the entry may be 
 passed for any quantity not less than 240 pieces ; and 
 no less quantity shall be delivered in virtue of any 
 siich entry, at any one time, than 1 load of such tim- 
 ber or wood goods, or than 90 pieces, if delivered by 
 tale. No pack or parcel of playing-cards imported 
 into the United Kingdont shall be sold or kept for sale, 
 without being separately inclosed in a wrapper pro- 
 vided by the Commissioners of Inland Revenue, with 
 such device thereon as they may direct, and securely 
 fastened, so that such wrapper can not be opened with- 
 out being destroyed ; and persons selling or offering 
 for sale any pack or parcel of plajing-cards not separ- 
 ately inclosed, etc., shall be liable to a penalty of £10 
 ($50), and the goods to seizure. 
 
 The first and immediate effect of these liberal re- 
 forms, introduced by the acts and regulations just 
 cited, and briefly condensed so far as they relate to 
 foreign commerce, is, that a large bulk of our trade 
 with France is now caaried on by means of tramit 
 through English ports. This branch of trade in 1851 
 increased the commerce and shipping of England to 
 the extent of $11,413,195 (£2,282,639), and in 1852 to 
 the extent of $12,822,145 (£2,564,429).* The in- 
 crease in British tonnage in 4 years after the passage 
 of the act (12 and 13 Victoria, chap. 29), was as high 
 as 700,000 tons, and the number of sailors was aug- 
 mented to the amount of at least 20,000. Thus Great 
 Britain herself derived the first fruits of a policy so 
 comprehensive and liberal. The onlj' restriction — if 
 we except her tariff duties which bear with special 
 rigor upon one of our leading staplesf — which'the act 
 of 1849 has left untouched, was that which related to 
 the coasting trade of Great Britain and her colonial 
 dominions. 
 
 In 1854 (March 16), Lord Stanley introduced in the 
 House of Lords his bill for the repeal of the regula- 
 tions which then governed the coasting trade of Great 
 Britain. He was of opinion that it would be a narrow 
 and foolish course of reasoning to make the commerce 
 of Great Britain in any way dependent on the fears or 
 inexperience of other nations. " We should," he re- 
 marked, "goon fearlessly and independently in our 
 course of improvement, and show our confidence in 
 the principles we advocated by the sinceritj' and ener- 
 gy with which we enforced them. By the repeal of 
 the laws of this country with reference to our coast- 
 ing trade, there was no doubt that America would, 
 in time, see that it was to her advantage to hold out 
 to us the same benefits we extended to her, and other 
 countries would do the same. With regard to the 
 
 * Speech delivered by Mr. CardweU in the House of Com- 
 mons, February 3d, 18.'54. 
 t See Comparative Tariffs, Great Britain, article Tobacco. 
 
GRE 
 
 869 
 
 GRE 
 
 bai, he had no doubt it would eventually be found to 
 contribute, in mo6t important respects, to the benefit 
 «nd advantage of all classes connected with, or de- 
 pendent in any way on, the shipping interests." 
 
 The prece(Ung> extract is given for the purpose of 
 exhibiting the motives and views of British statesmen 
 in admitting foreign vessels to the coasting trade of 
 European porta of Great Britain. The bill met with 
 but' little serious opposition ; and by the act entitled 
 17 Victoria, chapter 5, foreign ships are admitted to 
 the coasting trade, subject, as to stores for the use 
 of their crews, to the same laws and regulations as 
 British ships. The regulations for this trade are pre- 
 scribed in sections 1, 2, 3, and 4 of the act. The first 
 section empowers her majesty to exercise in respect 
 of ships and merchandise employed and conveyed in 
 the coasting trade, like powers as are conferred in re- 
 spect of foreign ships and merchandise employed and 
 conveyed in the over-sea trade. Section second sub- 
 jects foreign ships engaged in the coasting trade, in 
 respect of stores and as to other custom-house regula- 
 tions, to the same laws to which British ships, when 
 so employed, are now subject. Section third equalizes 
 foreign with British ships fis to all dues, duties, and 
 charges whatever, the employment of pilots, and as to 
 all restrictions or extra charges whatever of private 
 persons or bodies corporate. Section fourth subjects 
 ^foreign steam-vessels, carrying passengers in the 
 coasting trade, to the provisions of the steam-naviga- 
 tion act. The following is a summary of the rules 
 applicable to British vessels engaged in the coasting 
 trade, and, by virtue of the act above cited, also to 
 foreign vessels which may avail themselves of the 
 privileges granted by the act : 
 
 "All trade by sea from one part of the kingdom to 
 any other part thereof shall be deemed to be a coast- 
 ing trade and all ships employed therein shall be 
 deemed coasting ships ; and if doubt shall at any time 
 i arise as to what or to or from what parts of the coast 
 ! shall be deemed a passage by sea, the Commissioners of 
 the Treasury may determine in what cases the trade by 
 water from one place to another in the United King- 
 dom shall or shall not be deemed a trade by sea." 
 
 Coasting ships confined to coc^ting, voyage, — ^No goods 
 shall be laden on board any ship in the United King- 
 dom, to be carried coastwise until all goods brought 
 in such ship from parts beyond the seas shall have 
 ibeen unladen ; and if any goods shall be taken into 
 'or put out of any coasting ship at sea or over the sea, 
 or any such ship deviate from her voyage unless 
 1 forced by unavoidable circumstances, aad in either 
 [ case, if the master shall not declare the same in writ- 
 ing, under his hand, to the collector or comptroller at 
 'the port where such ship shall afterward first arrive, 
 he shall forfeit ilOO ($500). 
 
 Times and places for landing and shipping. — If goods 
 I shall be unshipped from anj' ship- arriving coastwise, 
 ' or be shipped or water-borne to be shipped on Sun- 
 ! days or holidays to be carried coastwise, or unless in 
 the presence or with the authority of the proper offi- 
 cer of the customs, or unless at the times and places 
 appointed, the same shall be forfeited, and the master 
 of the ship shall forfeit £60 ($250). 
 
 Master to keep a cargo-book, and penalties for false 
 entries. — The master of everj- coasting ship shall keep 
 a cargo-book, stating the names of the ship, the mas- 
 ter, the port to which she belongs, and, on each voy- 
 age, of the port to which she is bound; and at every 
 port of lading, an account of all goods taken on board, 
 stating the descriptions of the packages, the quanti- 
 ties and descriptions of the goods, whether packed or 
 stowed loose, the names of the shippers and con- 
 signees, so far as such particulars are luiown, and at 
 every port of discharge shall note the days on which 
 any are delivered, and the times of departure ; and 
 such master shall produce such book on demand of 
 any officer of customs, who may make any remark 
 
 therein; and if, upon examination, any package en- 
 tered in the cargo-book as containing foreign goods 
 shall be found not to contain such goods, that pack- 
 age, with its contents, shall be forfeited; or if any 
 package shall be found to contain foreign goods not 
 entered in such book, such goods shall be forfeited ; 
 and if the master shall fail to keep such cargo-book, 
 or to produce it, or if at any time there be found on 
 board goods not entered in such book as laden, or any 
 goods not noted as delivered, be not on board, the 
 master shall forfeit £20 ($100). 
 
 Accoujit previous to departure to ie delivered to col- 
 lector, and commissioners may grant general transires. — 
 Before any coasting ship shall depart from the port 
 of lading, an account, in duplicate, signed by the 
 master, shall be delivered to the collector or comp- 
 troller, and he shall retain the duplicate, and return 
 the original, dated and signed b3' him, and such ac- 
 count shall be the clearance of the ship for the voy- 
 age, and tbe Iransire (pass) for the goods expressed 
 therein ; and if any such account be fftlse, the master 
 shall forfeit £20 <$100). 
 
 Provided that the Commissioners of Customs, when- 
 ever it shall appear expedient, may permit general 
 tramsires to be 'given for the lading and clearance, and 
 for the entry and unlading of any coasting ship and 
 goods. 
 
 Notice of arrival, excise goods and forfeiture. — With- 
 in 24 hours after the arrival of any coasting ship at 
 the port of discharge, and before any goods be un- 
 laden, the transire, with the name of the place where 
 the lading is to be discharged noted thereon, shall be 
 delivered to the collector or comptroller, who shall 
 note thereon the date of delivery; and if any goods 
 on board be subject to any duty of excise, the same 
 shall not be unladen without the authority or permis- 
 sion of the proper officer of excise ; if any goods shall 
 be laden or unladen contrary to any act relating to 
 the customs, such goods shall be forfeited. 
 
 Officers may go on boa/rd and examine any coasting 
 ship. — ^Any officer of customs may go on board and 
 search any coasting ship, and examine all goods on 
 board, and all goods then lading or unlading, and de^ 
 mand all documents which .ought to be on board such 
 ship; and the collector or comptroller may require 
 that such documents shall be brought to him for in- 
 spection; and the master refusing to produce such 
 documents on demand, or to bring the same to the col- 
 lector or comptroller when required, shall forfeit £20 
 
 ($100). _ ■.,.,, 
 
 Exemptions from coasting regulations. — Steam ves- 
 sels and sailing vessels employed in the conveyance 
 of passengers and their baggage coastwise, are to be 
 placed precisely on the same footing, and in neither 
 case are the baggage and effects of passengers to be 
 subjected to coast regulations, or the vessels to ton- 
 nage duty ; and all articles of apparel and household 
 furniture, liquors, and provisions, taken by passen- 
 gers for their private use, or small quantities of shop 
 goods taken by tradesmen, passengers on board such 
 vessels, are to be considered as baggage, and exempt 
 from coast regulations ; as are also exempt packages, 
 live fish, chippings of granite, cobble stones, whin 
 stones, kelp, Kentish rag stones, flints picked off landj 
 pebbles, gravel, and chalk, faggots or bavins for bak- 
 ers' use, hay, straw, fresh meat, soap, ashes for ma^ 
 nure, coal-ashes, iron-stone, and all, stone quarried in 
 the country, bones for manure, bricks and British 
 tiles, slates, native timber, and wood for pit-props and 
 sleepers, also china clay. It is not known positively 
 how many nations have so far reciprocated the coast- 
 ing trade privileges thus granted by Great Britain to 
 foreign nations. On the 6th day of February, 1855, 
 Tuscany entered into a convention with Great Brit- 
 ain for that purpose. The first article of this treaty 
 stipulates that the subjects and ships of each of the 
 high contracting parties shall enjoy in the dominions 
 
GRE 
 
 870 
 
 GRE 
 
 and territories of the other the same rights with re- 
 spect to the coasting trade, and shall be treated in 
 every case with regard to that trade in the same man- 
 ner as native subjects and national vessels. A sim- 
 ilar treaty was negotiated with Sardinia, March 22d, 
 1855. So long, however, as the restrictions with 
 respect to the colonial coasting trade continue in force, 
 it is very doubtful whether any of the great commer- 
 cial nations of the world will be disposed to abolish or 
 relax their present coasting trade regulations. As 
 respects the United States, there would be no equiva- 
 lent whatever. 
 
 The effect of the act of 1854, opening the coasting 
 trade of G-reat Britain to foreign vessels. — During the 
 month ending July 5th, 1852, the tonnage entered 
 inward (in all British European ports), in the coasting 
 trade was 1,044,862 tons. For the same mouth in 
 1853, it reached 1,097,472 tons, and in the correspond- 
 ing month of 1854, it was 1,069,384 tons. The clear- 
 ances outward (in the same trade), for July, 1852, 
 were 1,131,561^ tons ; for July, 1853, 1,196,188; and 
 for the same month in 1854, 1,189,613. With but one 
 or two exceptions,, the whole of the tonnage given 
 above was British ; a fact which a comparison of the 
 figures representing this trade during the same month 
 in 3 consecutive years, as given in the British official 
 returns of trade, will at once exhibit. 
 
 The following condensed suinmary will explain the 
 regulations which must be complied with by ever)^ 
 vessel, from the period of arrival in port until her 
 discharge is completed ; and with respect to exporta- 
 tions, the necessary proceedings from the entry out- 
 ward until the vessel's final clearance, will also be 
 indicated. They are presented somewhat at length, 
 so that a comparison between them and the United 
 States' custom-house regulations and laws may be the 
 more easily made. 
 
 Importation, as legally defined, takes place imme- 
 diately the importiag ship comes within the limits 
 of the port, and the "time of a ship's arrival" is that 
 at which the report thereof shall or ought to have been 
 made. Exportation is, in like manner, determined to 
 be the time at which goods shall be shipped on board 
 an export vessel ; and final clearance, the time of her 
 departure. The master of every merchant vessel, 
 within 24 hours of entering the port of arrival, is 
 bound, under a penalty of £100 ($500), to report his 
 cargo to the chief officer of customs. "The chief officer 
 of any ship in commission from her majesty' or any 
 foreign State, having foreign goods on board, is re- 
 quired, in like manner, to deliver an account in writ- 
 ing under his hand, and to the best of his knowledge, 
 of the description and particulars of such goods. Be- 
 fore, however, the master is allowed to report, he must 
 declare before some person duly authorized by the 
 postmaster-general, that he has delivered at the post- 
 office all letters that were on board his ship. And, 
 likewise he must, under a penalty of £20 ($100), and 
 the further sura of £10 for each alien not included in 
 the declaration, trul}' declare to the number of aliens 
 on board, or landed from his ship. At the time of 
 making his report, the master is to deliver, if re- 
 quired, to the collector or comptroller, the bill of 
 lading, or a copy thereof, for every part of the cargo, 
 and to answer such questions as shall be put to him, 
 as to the ship, cargo, crew, and voyage. 'The master, 
 officer, crew, or passengers retaining letters after the 
 delivery of the ship's letters at the post-offlce, shall 
 forfeit £5 ($25) for each letter; and for detaining 
 letters after demand by the officer of customs or per- 
 son authorized by the postmaster-general, £10 ($50) 
 each. 
 
 So soon as a vessel' has reported, the importers, 
 agents, or consignees of the cargo, having been ad- 
 vised by receipt of bills of lading, or other intimation, 
 may each enter their several goods. A latitude of 14 
 days is allowed by law for this purpose ; but, in order 
 
 to clear the vessel more speedily, sight entries are per- 
 mitted to the master or owner oif any ship lying along- 
 side the legal quays, or sufferance wharves, south of 
 the Thames from London bridge eastward to Dock- 
 head — the regulations and legal provisions given in 
 the summary are those that are followed at the port of 
 London, but the general regulations are the same at 
 other ports: — under such general description as is con- 
 tained in the report, for any goods that shall not have 
 been entered by the owners thereof within forty-eight 
 hours from the day of the report (or earlier, if a briefer 
 limit of time be set forth in the bill of lading), upon 
 condition that perfect entry be made by the proprietor 
 within one month from the date of landing. Goods so 
 circumstanced are only liable to seizure from inaccu- 
 racj' of entrj' after the lapse of a month. When a 
 value is required to be stated, the importer or his agent 
 is to subscribe a declaration verifying such value ; 
 and false declarations render the party making them 
 liable to a penalty of £100 ($500). 
 
 The following tabular statement exhibits the port 
 charges at the principal ports of England, Scotland, 
 and Ireland, condensed from official authorities : 
 Light Bues. 
 
 Names nnd nuiuber of 
 lights. 
 
 Scllly 
 
 Eddystone 
 
 Milford 
 
 Portland ., 
 
 St. Bees 
 
 Foulness 
 
 Caskets 
 
 Nore 
 
 Well 
 
 Flatholm 
 
 Lizard 
 
 Needles & Hurst. 
 
 Owers 
 
 Haisbro' 
 
 Goodwin 
 
 Sunk 
 
 Flambro' 
 
 South Stack 
 
 Fern 
 
 Bui-nbam 
 
 British nnd foreign 
 privileged vosaeis 
 
 Lowestoft 4 
 
 Aii-1 i 
 
 Lundy 
 
 Spurn 
 
 Bideford Bar 
 
 Bardsey 
 
 Usk 
 
 LynnWell 
 
 Boachy Head 
 
 Caldy 
 
 Nash 
 
 Haisbi'o' 
 
 Noi-tli end 
 
 South Sand 
 
 Head 
 
 Forelands 
 
 Falmouth harbor. 
 
 $0 24 per vessel . . . 
 48 " 
 24 
 24 
 
 OOi per ton 
 
 12 per vessel. . 
 24 per 100 tons 
 
 OOiperton 
 
 24 per vessel. . 
 48 
 24 
 24 
 
 OOiperton 
 
 24 per vessel . . . 
 
 OOi per ton 
 
 OOi " 
 
 00# " 
 
 Oli " 
 
 72 per vessel, at 
 
 Biidgewaterif . . 
 
 OOi per ton 
 
 04 
 
 "y'rly-' 
 
 ■■] 
 
 OOj- 
 
 00+ 
 
 24 per voyage on 
 limestone vessels 
 OOi per ton . . 
 004 " 
 02 " 
 24 per vessel 
 02 per ton.. 
 OOi " 
 
 j-0 OOi " 
 
 jo OOi " 
 OOi " 
 OOi " 
 
 $0 OOi per ton. 
 
 01 
 
 01 " 
 
 01 
 
 04 
 
 OOi 
 
 01 
 to 24 per 100 tns 
 
 OOi per ton. 
 
 Oli '■ 
 
 01 " 
 
 01 
 
 01 
 
 OOi " 
 
 01 
 
 01 
 
 OOi " 
 
 OOi " 
 
 Oli " 
 
 1 00 per vessel, 
 at Bridgcwator.§ 
 
 OOi per ton. 
 08 on vessels 
 entering the port 
 of Chester. 
 OOi per ton. 
 OOi " 
 
 OCi 
 OOi 
 02 
 OOi 
 02 
 01 
 
 OOi 
 
 OOi 
 01 
 
 Since the 1st of January, 1854, a reduction of 2.o per cent, 
 in the light dues of the United Kingdom has been allowed. 
 
 * Vessels entering the harbors of "Whitehaven, Parton, and 
 Workington, and none other. 
 
 t But not chargeable on any excess above 500 tons. 
 
 j At Bristol, 12 cents per vessel, 
 
 § At Bristol, under 100 tons, T2 cents per vessel ; 100 tons 
 and under 350 tons, $1 20 per vessel ; 250 tons and upward, 
 $1 80 per vessel. ^ And buoys in the Eiver Dee. 
 
 Besides the preceding list of light-houses, all of 
 which are under the jurisdiction of the Trinity House, 
 there are others, under the control of private individu- 
 als, who have generally obtained a lease of the same 
 from the crown for a definite number of years, with 
 authority to charge certain fees on shipping. These 
 fees, however, are the same on American as on British 
 vessels. 
 
 The Scotch, or northern lights, are under the man- 
 agement of a board of parliamentary commissioners. 
 
GRE 
 
 871 
 
 GRE 
 
 The act of 6 and 7 William IV., chapter 79, enacts 
 that, from the first of Januarj', 1837, all British and 
 foreign privileged vessels, not wholly in ballast, which 
 shall pass any Scotch light-house, or derive any bene- 
 fit therefrom, shall pay one cent per ton for each time 
 ' of passing. 
 
 Irish Lights. — Foreign vessels, one cent per ton for 
 each light passed, except harbor lights, which are only 
 chargeable to vessels entering the ports within which 
 they are situated. British and Irish, and equalized 
 vessels, half a cent per ton (quarter cent if in ballast) 
 for each light, except as above, with a duty of 24 cents 
 on every " entry, cocket (a duplicate shipping bill), or 
 warrant," when from foreign ports, but not otherwise. 
 The charters of most of these private light-houses 
 authorized'the levying of higher fees from foreign than 
 from British shipping. Wlien England, therefore, 
 entered into reciprocal treaties with foreign powers, 
 the government had to make these light-houses com- 
 pensation for the diminution that consequently took 
 place in the charges on foreign ships. The Trinity 
 corporation, however, has long since surrendered its 
 right to such compensation, and the act 6 and 7 Wil- 
 liam IV. forbids such compensation being made there- 
 after. 
 
 Pilotage. — PUots are established, in various parts of 
 the kingdom, by ancient charters or by particular 
 statutes. The most important of these are those of 
 Trinity House of Deptford Strand ; the fellowship of 
 the pilots of Dover, Deal, and the Isle of Thanet, 
 commonly called the Cinque Ports pilots ; and the 
 Trinity House of Hull and Newcastle. A corporation 
 for the regulation and licensing of pilots in Liverpool 
 was established by 5 George IV., chapter 73. The 
 law provides, also, that no vessel in the coasting trade 
 is to pay for less than eight feet of water, nor any 
 vessel to pay for odd inches under half a foot. No 
 coasting vessel, inward or outward bound, of the bur- 
 den of 100 tons and upward (unless she be in ballast), 
 is to refuse a pilot, at option, as the master or owner is 
 to pay full pilotage if one be ofifered. 
 
 Harbor and Dock Dues — -Foreign Trade. (Per act 51 
 George III., chapter 5.) — All parts of Europe to the 
 northward of Cape Finisterre and to the westward of 
 the North Cape, and without the Cattegat and Baltic 
 Sea, and including the islands of Guernsey, Jersey, 
 Alderney, and Sark, the Faro Isles, and Iceland, 18 
 cents per ton. 
 
 All ports within the Cattegat and Baltic, including 
 the whole of Sweden, the White Sea, and all ports to 
 the eastward of the North Cape ; all pprts in Europe 
 to the southward of Cape Finisterre, without the Med- 
 iterranean, Newfoundland, Greenland, Davis's Straits, 
 Canaries, Western Islands, Madeira, and Azores, 24 
 cents per ton. 
 
 All ports on the east coast of North America, the 
 West Indies, the east coast of South America, to the 
 northward of Eio de la Plata, inclusive ; all parts of 
 the west coast of Africa, and islands to the northward 
 of the Cape of Good Hope ; and all ports within the 
 Mediterranean, including the Adriatic and Black Seas 
 and Archipelago, the islands of the Archipelago, the 
 islands of St. Helena, Ascension, and the Cape Verd 
 Islands, 36 cents per toil. 
 
 All ports in South America to the south of Eio de 
 la Plata, in the Pacific Ocean, in Africa and Asia, 
 to the eastward of the Cape of Good Hope, 36 cents 
 per ton. 
 
 For more complete information respecting the port 
 charges, etc. , of the various countries above mentioned, 
 see articles under the heads of those countries. 
 
 Anchorage — Municipal Corporation Grcmt hy Purchase 
 from King Charles the First. — On classes one, two, and 
 three 24 cents per vessel. Classes four to seven, 30 
 centa. Vessels wind-bound, exempt from dock-dues 
 only. The preceding table will be better comprehended 
 by giving a pro forma statement of port charges for a 
 
 vessel of 500 tons, entering at and clearing from the 
 port of Liverpool : 
 
 Inwabd, 
 
 Pilotage, 17 feet, at 9s £T 18s. 0<L $86 T2 
 
 Row-boat hire in the river and 
 
 warping into dock 15 6 00 
 
 Lights, 6jd. per toB 1110 T 57 60 
 
 Dock dues, Is. 4Jd. per ton 34 7 6 165 00 
 
 Discharging cargo, about 20 96 00 
 
 Total £75 53. Id. $36122 
 
 OtTTWARD. 
 
 Loading cargo, supposing ship to 
 
 carry 750 tons (ft-om lid. to Is. 
 
 per ton), say Is. per ton £37 10s. Sd. $180 00 
 
 Lighta, 6Jd. per ton 1119 7 57 50 
 
 Pilotage, IT feet, at 4s. per foot. ... 3 8 16 82 
 
 Clearance 110 6 04 
 
 Total £53 IBs. 7d. 
 
 $268 86 
 
 Port of London — Tonnage Bates. (Act 4 and 5 Wil- 
 liam IV., chapter 32.) First Class. — For every vessel 
 trading coastwise between the port of London and any 
 place in Great Britain, Ireland, the Orkneys, Shet- 
 land, or the Western Islands of Scotland, for every 
 voyage both in and out of the said port, one cent per 
 ton. 
 
 For every vessel entering inward, or clearing out- 
 ward, in the said port, from or to Denmark, Norway, 
 Lapland (on this side of the North Cape), or from 
 Holstein, Hamburg, Bremen, or any other port of 
 Germany bordering on or near the Germanic Ocean, 
 or from or to Holland, or any other of the United 
 Provinces, or Brabant, Flanders, Antwerp, or other 
 ports of the Netherlands, or from or to France (within 
 Ushant), Guernsey, Jersey, Alderney, Sark, or the 
 Isle of Man, for every voyage, both in and out of the 
 said port, one cent per ton. 
 
 For every vessel entering inward, or clearing out- 
 ward, in the said port, from or to France (between 
 Ushant and Spain), Portugal, Spain (without the 
 Mediterranean), or any of the Azores, Madeira, or 
 Canary Islands, or any of the United States of Amer- 
 ica, or of the British provinces or colonies in North 
 America, or Florida, there shall be paid for every voy- 
 age in and out of the said port one cent and a half per 
 ton. 
 
 For every vessel entering inward, or clearing out- 
 ward, in the said port, from or to Greenland, Gibraltar, 
 France, or Spain (within the Mediterranean), or any 
 country, island, port, or place witliin or bordering on 
 the Mediterranean or Adriatic Seas, or from the West 
 Indies, Louisiana, Mexico, South America, Africa, 
 East Indies, China, or any other countrj-, island, or 
 place within or bordering on or near the Pacific Ocean, 
 or from any other country, island, or place whatsoever, 
 to the southward of 25 degrees of north latitude, for 
 every voyage, both in and out of the said port, one 
 cent and a half per ton. 
 
 Among other exemptions, this charge does not apply 
 to vessels going in or out of the port of London when 
 in ballast. 
 
 Tonnage Dues charged hy the London Doch Company^ 
 First class. — Vessels from" any port in the United 
 Kingdom, Isle of Man, Jersey, Guernsey, Alderney, 
 Sark, or other European ports outside the Baltic, be- 
 tween the North Cape and Ushant (Hamburg, Bremen, 
 and Embden excepted — see second class), with liberty 
 to reload for any port, 12 cents. 
 
 Second class. — ^Vessels from Hamburg, Bremen, 
 and Embden, with liberty to reload for any port, 12 
 cents. 
 
 Third class«— Vessels from any port in the Mediter- 
 ranean, with liberty to reload for any port, 18 cents. 
 
 Fourth class. — ^Vessels from all other ports or places 
 whatsoever (with the exceptions after mentioned); 
 with liberty to reload for any port, 18 cents. 
 
 Vessels loading for any ports or places in the third 
 or fourth classes, not having discharged their cargoes 
 in the docks, IS cents. 
 
GRE 
 
 812 
 
 GRE 
 
 •a 
 
 tJO 
 
 wo 003 
 
 
 JCO 
 
 oqco • -cqio : ; : : ; : : : : 
 
 a = 
 
 4100 
 
 S§ S3 
 
 
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 <r^C:>1=> OTOlO toco O 
 
 i 
 
 "^ 
 
 cooiM .ccth<d -oco ; ; i"^ : ; : ; : : 
 
 " 
 
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 §3^^ ^S2 '^^ * 
 
 
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 OOOi OeOOTOO'Xi COOOO 
 
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 i^-iO 
 
 mo«o ■ t)< <N r-( CO « en - ■ -la-^-^-* • ■ ■ 
 
 c, 
 
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 T-ICO-rtH COO(NCO-*CO CO Cs CO OS 
 
 
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 (oocoweocooeowcioiowoscoooiooso 
 
 ^ 
 
 «:t- 
 
 tOiOi-l'iil-rHCOrHt-T-l'-'^OWQOt-iO'tiOi-'l'-* 
 
 s 
 
 =4j« 
 
 Or-lC^Wt-OSi-l'MMt-OOt-OOCOb-COCOCOCOOS 
 
 i-.cqca (M i-Hi-i 
 
 
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 ffl'^' 
 
 (»T-.r-'OC010-<i*OeO-#t-t-0«OCO(-10-*lO-f 
 
 " 
 
 
 eDcoCF»oeocoo>iHco«ot-t-t-ira«ot-coccooco 
 
 
 -n-O 
 
 eoooeoococftoomeooweoocoooieoo 
 
 '<2 
 
 «*- 
 
 
 '- 
 
 e^O 
 
 ■**<ift(0(-io«sGOoscooio«n-ioirat-t-'Mt-a) 
 
 FU,0IA6B. 
 From or to To or from per foot. 
 
 IEuLL.~The distance at sea where THawke Eoada or 
 
 the North Ness of Dimling- 
 ton bears west sonth-west 
 to the northward of Elilnsea 
 
 North CIlflF ^ 
 
 The distance at sea where"^ 
 
 Grimsby Beads. $0 60 
 ■White Booth R'ds. 84 
 TheportofKinga- 
 
 ton-npon-Hufl. . 1 80 
 
 ra'iO OCO(OOCOOcOOCDffl.cOOSOOtOOCOmco«> 
 
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 ■OOS OSOeOCOCOOCOtOOtOCOSOOOOOlOWOOO 
 
 j;-5j< OOCOCfl 00"*c;i COmi-IOiOO MG<I COCO OCOt- 
 rH rH tH T-l tH !-» THtIt-I 
 
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 OC0«0«00l0>Oe0C0C0O«0S0«C'0i«00iOCT)0J 
 
 e-«>-*C0fftC0=DC0C000«O0iC001O>C30<OC0 00 
 rHiH rHrHH rH r-l tH rH tH tH iH 
 
 OOi-((M'*M"oeo«CO-«l<OiOco-^tneO(Meo!0 
 
 COOO>0<00«OCOOSCl<31CO*OCOeoeO*DeDeOO 
 COOOOmt-a3-^COrHtMr-IO'*COOfflrHCiOO 
 
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 e^o oociooco'TH'tiiOTHcocoTfioc'leoiomrHmin 
 
 -oO OOiOCOCQ COCOOiOcOOCsO OCOOCOCOCOO 
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 rH rHrHrHrH-rH rH r-l rH rH rH 
 
 WO Ot-t-t-o;>(NCOTpT-(rHeqcOCOrHrHCOTj<rH"5lf'<i( 
 
 COOOOOCOOCOCOCOOOiOiOsOOiOCiOCO 
 COCOt-COt-lOGOl— OiNOrHO'^'^OO-^OCl 
 
 WtJI O O O t- eq (?» CO CO rH rH eq CO CO rH iH CO -1< rH '^ tJI 
 
 OSCOOOiCOOCaaiOjOOOOOCOOOOOCO o 
 t-'MrHCSCOOrHOTt^J: t<OiCO(MrHODb-(Mt-0 
 
 Hawke Roads or 
 Grimsby Roads. 
 
 White Booth RMs. 
 
 T^ieportofKings- 
 ■ton-upon-HuU. . 
 
 36 
 60 
 
 64 
 96 
 
 Kilnsea North Cliff bears 
 west north-west to the 
 northward of the new sand 
 buoy, or the floating light- 
 vessel at the entrance of the 
 River Humber 
 
 (?tt*MJar(^— British and privileged vessels in ballast 
 
 " " " with cargoes. 
 
 There are other inconsiderable charges levied at this port for 
 
 buoyag&and beaconage, which are so insignificant in amount, 
 
 and are eqnally levied upon British as upon foreign vessels, 
 
 that they are omitted. 
 
 SCOTLAND. 
 
 PILOT DUBS. 
 
 Glasgow and, Gbeenock.— From any place between 
 the Cambray light and the Clochet light, 6v from 
 anchorage at landie Roads, Rooth'esay Bay, or 
 Quarantine Station, Holy Lock or Greenock Roads 
 and moorings, and to the quay or berthing, pertou 
 
 From Greenock to Port Glasgow, per ton '. . . 
 
 Leith.— Vessels 7 feet and under, per foot 
 
 $0 03 
 2 
 20 
 24 
 
 ^■^ lomocowfN CO CO 
 
 HCOCOrH CO^ 
 
 OOOiOO»OCOOCOOOCOOCOOOOOOO» 
 
 eqtoiQOo50iOTfio>cot-io-+cot-Tfco<rcocq 
 
 Th -^ in lO rH oq CM CO ■H-'-tc^eo 
 
 HCOO? CO 7J< 
 
 
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 S'S : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 R-J 
 
 MS 
 
 cK . 
 
 ■S^h, 
 
 ^?„- 
 
 
 
 fMi 
 
 ^,"s: 
 
 
 
 03 
 
 03 
 
 
 
 
 1 ° lis s 
 
 " 9 " u 
 
 "10 " " 28 
 
 " 11 " " 80 
 
 "12 " " 82 
 
 " 13 foet and above . " 88 
 
 IRELAND. 
 
 TOWAGE. 
 
 BaBLin.— Tuff Steamer— Tbeve being no fixed rates, 
 the master makes the best terms he can, according 
 tp the state of the weather, etc., as follows : From 
 Kingston Harbor or the Bay of Dnblin to Cnstom 
 House Quay, $36 to $60 ; froin the ligHt-house at 
 the entrance of the river to quay, $15 to $25, and 
 in proportion for shorter distances. 
 
 PILOTAGE. 
 
 DuBLis.— British and foreign privilegocl vessels from 
 
 outside of the banks over bar per foot $0 66^ 
 
 From inside banks over bar " 44^ 
 
 From bay over bar. " 82| 
 
 From Poolbeg to basin " It 
 
 Outward " 441 
 
 Vessels In ballast, and vessels under 50 tons register, are 
 exempted. There are other charges and dues payable to the 
 corporation for preserving and improving the port ; but as 
 they are small in amount, and equally applicable to British 
 vessels, they are omitted. 
 
 PILOT DUES, 
 
 Cork.— From ApHll to October 1. — Vessels under 
 
 80 tons $2 88 
 
 Vessels from 80 to 120 tons 8 84 
 
 120 " 160 " 4 80 
 
 " 160 " 220 " 6 28 
 
 The largest vessels may get to Passage : vessels draw- 
 ing 11 feet may get up to Black Bock or Cork at spring tides ; 
 vessels drawing 11 to 12 feet get into Cross Haven, which is 
 within the entrance of Cork Haven. 
 
 Larger vessels must remain at Cork or Passage for pilotage, 
 to which points the same rates are levied on American as on 
 British vessels. 
 
 PILOT DUES. 
 
 Foreign trade. Coasters. 
 
 Belfast. — From Betfaet to Garmoyle or 
 WAiieltouse Soads^ or mce versa, — 
 Vessels under 100 tons $9 60 
 
 Vessels of 100 tons and under 125 10 80 
 
 125 
 150 
 200 
 250 
 800 
 850 
 400 
 450 
 BOO 
 
 150 12 00 
 
 200. 
 '250. 
 800. 
 850. 
 400. 
 460. 
 500. 
 650 81 20 
 
 14 40 
 16 80 
 19 20 
 21 60 
 
 24 00 
 
 25 20 
 28 80 
 
 650 tons and upward 83 60 
 
 $r 20 
 
 8 40 
 
 9 60 
 12 00 
 14 40 
 16 80 
 
 19 20 
 
 21 60 
 
 22 80 
 
 20 25 
 26 40 
 28 SO 
 
 QUAYAGE. 
 
 On vessels fi-om foreign ports, per ton . . .^ 10 
 
 Coastwise 6 
 
 Besides the foregoing, there arc sundry wharf and other 
 minor port charges, which are equally levied on British as on 
 foreign privileged vessels. 
 
 The preceding tables give the principal charges on 
 British and privileged vessels entering at or departing 
 from the ports designated. For minor details, reference 
 
GEE 
 
 SIS 
 
 GRE 
 
 is made to the consular returns from the different ports 
 respectively. The foreign trade of Great Britain, dar- 
 ing the year endmg January 5, 185i, employed 35,303 
 vessels, with an aggregate of 7,797,650 tons. The 
 gross amount of custom' duties received the same year 
 ■was £22,419,308 ($112,096,640). The ' exports of 
 British and Irish produce and manufactures during the 
 same period amounted in value to £87,367,806 ($436,- 
 786,530). The official returns for 1854 exhibit the fol- 
 lowing facts : ■ > 
 
 Imports to and from Great Biltain 
 
 and Ireland in 1854 ..'.:,..,... £152,591,518= $762,957,565 
 K"£ports to and ftom Groat Britain 
 
 and Ireland in 1854 , . : ' 115,833,704= 
 
 Imports to and from the U. 8. in 1864 and 1856. . 
 Exports IVom the United States of 
 
 foreign goods J26,168,368 
 
 Exports ft'om the United States of 
 
 domestic manufacture 80,427,187 
 
 Exports from the United States of 
 
 otlier produce '. 162,828,948 
 
 Exports from the United States of 
 
 specie and bullion 56,247,848 
 
 579,168,520 
 $261,468,520 
 
 Total $275,166,846 
 
 The largest amounts of British imports from foreign 
 countries were from the United States, viz.,. £29,795,- 
 B90 ($148,977,950) ; from France, £10,634,727 ($53,- 
 173,635) ; from China, £9,125,040 ($45,625,200); from 
 Russia, £9,055,503 ($45,277,515); from Holland, £6,- 
 733,172 ($33,665,860) ; and from Spain, £3,694,501 
 ($17,972,605). The largest amounts exported to for- 
 eign countries were to the United States, viz. : £21,- 
 127,631 ($105,638,155). In this amount are included 
 only such articles as are the produce of the United 
 Kingdom,* exclusive of colonial and foreign products. 
 The lilte exports to France amounted to £3,175,290 
 ($15,876,450) ; to Holland, £4,573,034 ($22,865,170) ; 
 to Hanse-towns, £7,413,715 ($37,068,575) ; to Brazil, 
 £2,891,840 ($14,459,200); to Victoria, £5,741,315 ($28,- 
 706,5/6) ; to New South Wales, £3,648,072 ($18,240,- 
 360) ; to South Australia, £1,146,113 ($6,730,665) ; and 
 to the East Indies, £9,127,556 ($45,637,780). The 
 principal imports were grain and flour, cotton, wool, 
 wood, timber, deals, and staves ; wine, butter, tea, and 
 tallow. The principal exports were cotton goods. 
 Cotton yarn, woolen goods, linen, sillc, woolen yarn, 
 millinery and haberdashery, apparel, hardware and 
 cutlery, iron, unwrought and wrought, earthenware 
 and pofterj', coals and coke, and tin. The number of 
 vessels entered at ports in England during the year 
 1853 was : British, 10,345, with an aggregate of 
 1(933,741 tons ; foreign, 16,509, with an aggregate of 
 2,953,048 tons. Of the above, there entered the port 
 of London 3033 British, measuring an aggregate of 
 561,342 tons ; and 5068 foreign, with an aggregate of 
 910,662 tons. The entries at Liverpool were : British, 
 1 1524 vessels, measuring 488,406 tons ; and foreign, 
 1682 vessels, with an aggregate of 787,003 tons. The 
 number of vessels engaged in the foreign trade entered 
 at ports in Scotland during the year 1853 was : British, 
 1863, with an aggregate of 402,372 tons; foreign, 
 2503 vessels, measuring in all 289,762 tons. The total 
 number of vessels that entered the ports of Ireland 
 during the year 1853 was : British, 1169, measuring 
 234,892 tons; and foreign, 1196, with an aggregate 
 tonnage of 237,499 tons. In the ports of the Isle of 
 Man and the Channel islands, there entered during the 
 same year : in the former, British vessels, 7 ; aggre- 
 gate tonnage, 992; foreign, 81; aggregate tonnage, 
 3494 ; in the latter, British vessels, 1072, with an ag- 
 gregate tonnage of 48,141 ; foreign vessels, 213, with 
 an aggregate tonnage of 14,852. The total number of 
 steam-vessels that entered the ports of the United 
 Kino-dom during the year 1863 was : British, 3968, with 
 an ^gregate of 1,171,911 tons ; foreign vessels, 621, 
 with an aggregate of 158,812 tons. The number of 
 steam-vessels that cleared from all the ports of the 
 United Kingdom in 1863 was : British, 3594, with an 
 aggregate of 1,067,381 tons; foreign vessels, 607, 
 
 measuring in all 158,184 tons. In 1854, the official 
 value of imports into the United Kingdom was £124,- 
 338,478 ($621,692,390) ; and of exports from the Unit- 
 ed Kingdom £29,821,656 ($149,108,280). 
 
 A new system has been introduced into Great Brit- 
 ain of giving in the annual returns of trade, the " real" 
 instead of the " official" value of imports and exports. 
 The standard Of the latter having obtained, without 
 anj' change or alteration, for a period of more than 
 200 years, could be of but little benefit in comptiting 
 the value of th? foreign trade of Great Britain, and 
 ias been adhered to so long SQiIely for;the purpose, of 
 supplying data for general comparison. The, le^ 
 value of ^he imports and exports above given is thus 
 stated : imports, £152,591,613 ($762,957,565) ; exports, 
 £115,833,704 ($579,168,520). 
 
 In the preceding pages, the laws, regulations, and 
 customs of a permanent character, which oonstitute.the 
 commercial legislation of Great Britain.a,s respects her 
 intercourse with the United States, have been suc- 
 cinctly stated. Various modifications in tariff duties, 
 navigation laws, etc., hiive necessarily resulted -from 
 such changes in commercial legislation as are in- 
 variably incident to a state of war. These have, in 
 substance, been noticed elsewhere, so far as they have 
 come to the knowledge of the Department. They are, 
 however, generally limited in their duration, and are 
 designed either for financial or protective purposes 
 during the continuance of the present difficulties with 
 Russia. It is not, deemed necessarj', therefore, to 
 lengthen this digest by any detailed enumeration ojf 
 such modifications, for the reason that it is to be an- 
 ticipated* that all such temporary modifications, de- 
 manded by the exigencies of war, will ere long have 
 been superseded by the permanent commercial legisla- 
 tion of the United Kingdom. 
 
 In 1787 there were imported into Great Britain 
 22,600,000 pounds of cotton, obtained from the follow- 
 ing sources : 
 
 British West Indies 6,600,000 , 
 
 French and Spanish ColonWs 6,000,000 , 
 
 Dutch and Portuguese Colonies 4,200,000 
 
 East India, procured from Ostend. . ; lOOiOOO 
 
 Smyrna and Turkey i..:..: 6,700,000; 
 
 From the United States 
 
 The following tables hare been compiled from the 
 official reports of the United States' Treasury Depart- 
 ment, and are submitted for the purpose of illustrating 
 the commerce between the United States and Great 
 Britain, especially with reference to onr leading sta- 
 ples, during a period of 26 years. 
 
 The first table exhibits the quantities and value of 
 cotton exported from the United States to Great Brit- 
 ain during the period indicated. Generally speaking, 
 the imports of cotton into Great Britain are concen- 
 trated at the port of Liverpool. This is shown by the 
 annexed table, exhibiting the imports of cotton into 
 Great Britain in 1852 : 
 
 Into 
 
 Bnlea. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 
 2,205,788 
 
 48,700 
 
 27,200 
 
 .,, 75,700 
 
 865,000 
 8,000 
 5,000 
 18,000 : 
 
 
 Hull and Bristol 
 
 Scotland 
 
 2,867,388 
 
 891,000. ; 
 
 
 The imports into Liverpool of raw cotton during a 
 pferiod of 10 years, ending with 1852, were as follows : 
 
 Yeara. 
 
 Bales. 
 
 Tobg. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Bales. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 1848 
 1844 
 1845 
 1846 
 1847 
 
 1,557,597 
 1,490,984 
 1,662,^81 
 1,184,194 
 1,087,058 
 
 260,000 
 248,000 
 276,000 
 189,000 
 182,000 
 
 1848 
 1849 
 1850 
 1851 
 1852 
 
 1,568,000 
 
 1,782,700 
 
 1,578,100 
 
 1,748,946, 
 
 2,205,738 
 
 262,000 
 288,000 
 268,000 
 291,000 
 865,000 
 
 The countries from which the cotton was imported 
 in 1852 are given in the following table, which wiU 
 also serve to show the relative importance of Liverpool 
 
 * This has heen realized since the above was written. 
 
GRE 
 
 814: 
 
 GRE 
 
 as compared with other British ports, as the great em- 
 porium of the cotton trade : 
 
 Imported from 
 
 BALKS OF COITON. 
 
 Into 
 Liverpool. 
 
 Into 
 London. 
 
 Into 
 Hull. 
 
 Into 
 Scotlnnd. 
 
 Total. 
 
 United States.. 
 East Indies.... 
 Mediterranean. 
 
 Brazil, etc 
 
 West Indies... 
 
 1,715,118 
 149,618 
 186,085 
 144,097 
 10,880 
 
 1,800 
 46,200 
 
 "'ioo 
 
 600 
 
 11,700 
 14,600 
 
 "900 
 
 60,600 
 11,000 
 8,900 
 
 "260 
 
 1,789,213 
 
 221,418 
 
 189,935 
 
 144,197 
 
 12,580 
 
 Total 
 
 2,205,788 
 
 48,700 
 
 27,200 
 
 75.700 
 
 2,857,888 
 
 Before giving the general table of exports of this 
 staple to Great Britain, the following summary, con- 
 densed from a treatise on the cotton crop of the United 
 States, etc., recently publised, will prove interesting. 
 Previous to 1791, Great Britain obtained her supplies 
 of cotton from the "West Indies, South America, and 
 the countries around the eastern parts of the Mediter- 
 ranean. In 1784, there were 71 bags shipped from 
 
 General Summary of the Total Import, Export, and 
 
 1853, 1852, 
 
 the United States to Great Britain, and there seized, on 
 the ground that America could not produce so much. 
 See Cotton. 
 
 In 1853, Great Britain exported upward of 147,000,- 
 000 pounds ; of this upward of 82,000,000 were derived 
 from the United States, and over 59,000,000 from 
 India. 
 
 The returns of trade for 1855 show that notwith- 
 standing the war, the consumption of cotton in Great 
 Britain from 1st January to 31st August was 1,449,980 
 bales, against 1,289,200 for the same period in 1854, 
 giving the large increase of 160,780 bales. The stoclc 
 in Liverpool on 31st August, 1855, was 269,320 bales 
 less than on the 31st August, 1854. 
 
 From the East Indies, Great Britain imported — 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 In 1860 123,200,000 
 
 " 1852 84,022,432 
 
 " 1863 180,481,496 
 
 Stock of Cotton in the United Kingdom, December 81, 
 AND 1851. 
 
 
 GREAT BRITAru. 
 
 
 HVEHPOOL. 
 
 Total. [ American. 1 Snrat. 
 
 Total. 
 
 American. 
 
 Surat. 
 
 Stock, Deo. 81, 1862 
 
 Import in 1853 
 
 Bales. 
 657,620 
 
 2,264,711 
 
 Bales. 
 
 860,770 
 
 1,688,542 
 
 Bales. 
 
 183,210 
 
 485,527 
 
 
 Bales. 
 
 577,810 
 
 2,028,824 
 
 Balea. 
 
 838,820 
 
 1,461,186 
 
 Bale«. 
 
 79,570 
 
 824,777 
 
 
 Export in 1858 
 
 2,922,281 
 849,600 
 
 1,894,812 
 176,000 
 
 818,737 
 151,500 
 
 
 2,606,684 
 259,600 
 
 1,799.956 
 172;i00 
 
 404..347 
 66;600 
 
 
 Stoek, Dec. 31, 1858 
 
 Showing the deliveries for' 
 home consumption from 
 the ports of Gt. Britain f 
 to have been, in 1853 ... J 
 
 Or, per week in 1853 
 
 1832 
 
 " " 1851 
 
 " 1860 
 
 " 1849 
 
 2,572,681 
 717,580 
 
 1,718,312 
 808,870 
 
 467,287 
 270,650 
 
 
 2,347,034 
 597,600 
 
 1,627,866 
 286,170 
 
 8.38,847 
 176,870 
 
 
 And from Liverpool 
 
 Or, per week in 1853 
 
 1853 
 
 " 185t 
 
 " 1860 
 
 " 1849 
 
 1,855,051 
 
 1,409,442 
 
 196,587 
 
 1,749,534 
 
 1,841,686 
 
 162,477 
 
 35,670 
 86,770 
 81,970 
 29,140 
 80,520 
 
 27,110 
 29,030 
 24,460 
 20,710 
 24,610 
 
 8,780 
 3,090 
 8,740 
 8,410 
 2,420 
 
 88,640 
 85,100 
 80,140 
 26,670 
 28,840 
 
 26,800 
 27,930 
 23,380 
 19,180 
 22,980 
 
 8,120 
 2,620 
 3,080 
 2,490 
 1,940 
 
 Table ExniBiTiNO the Quantities and Value of Kaw 
 Cotton exported from the United States to Great 
 Britain and Ireland, from 1830 to 1855, both 
 Tears inclusive. 
 
 i Years. 
 
 1830 
 1881 
 1832 
 1S38 
 1834 
 1835 
 1886 
 1887 
 1838 
 1889 
 1840 
 1841 
 1842 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Pounds. 
 309,880,421 
 220,816,846 
 229,007,272 
 238,241,746 
 284,728,808 
 270,084,400 
 292,61<!,707 
 821,579,368 
 441,867,948 
 310,763,980 
 494,915,090 
 848,806,248 
 878,647,649 
 
 Value. 
 
 Dollars 
 
 20,678.638 
 -20,117,866 
 22,429,050 
 26,254,970 
 36,007,.664 
 45,701,411 
 48,910,846 
 44,867,118 
 45,787,687 
 46,074,579 
 41,946,364 
 36,634,005 
 80,102,417 
 
 1848 
 1844 
 1845 
 1846 
 1847 
 1848 
 1849 
 1850 
 1861 
 1852 
 1868 
 1854 
 1865 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Pounds. 
 584,845,504 
 486,729,222 
 605,144,786 
 346,158,667 
 851,268,799 
 672,008,127 
 789,844,906 
 4.31,631,091 
 670,646,120 
 762,678,780 
 768,596,498 
 696,247,047 
 678,498,259 
 
 Value. 
 
 Dollars 
 36,781,117 
 39,591,851 
 86,676,859 
 27,707,717 
 85,841,266 
 41,295,258 
 47,444,899 
 48,884,468 
 49,720,864 
 50,666,209 
 74,623,210 
 64,736,401 
 57,616,749 
 
 Tobacco Trade between the United /States and Great 
 Britain. — It is ascertained, by British statisticians that 
 the yearly consumption of -tobacco in Great Britain 
 and Ireland amounts to 26,000 tons, about one half of 
 which it is supposed is smuggled, owing to the exces- 
 sive duties (upward of 1000 per cent.) levied on the 
 article under the tariff system of that kingdom. The 
 quantity of segars and snuff imported does not exceed 
 two or three hundred weight per annum. The follow- 
 ing table, compiled from parliameutarj- returns, shows 
 the imports of tobacco into the United Kingdom, and 
 the quantities entered at each port, during the year 
 1850: 
 
 Porta. 
 
 Leaf. 
 
 Manufnctr'd 
 and aegara. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 7,638 
 
 6,870 
 
 485 
 
 414 
 
 200 
 
 140 
 
 8 
 
 Tons. 
 482 
 146 
 
 "i 
 
 "65 
 
 4 
 
 Tona. 
 
 8,120 
 
 7,016 
 
 485 
 
 421 
 
 200 
 
 196 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Other places 
 
 Total 
 
 15,700 
 
 694 
 
 16,894 
 
 
 
 The following return, transmitted to the House of 
 Commons, for the year ending January 6, 1853, shows 
 
 the annual consumption of tobacco in the United 
 Kingdom, and duty levied on the same : 
 
 London 
 
 Liverpool 
 
 Bristol 
 
 Qlasgow 
 
 Dublin 
 
 Belfast 
 
 Newcastle. . . . 
 
 Cork 
 
 Limerick 
 
 Leith 
 
 Preston 
 
 Chester 
 
 Shields 
 
 Waterford 
 
 Londonderry. . 
 Southampton. . 
 Other places, less 
 than 100 tons each 
 Total.. .. 
 
 Leaf. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 4,762 
 2,766 
 780 
 631 
 604 
 377 
 341 
 270 
 263 
 288 
 179 
 168 
 147 
 182 
 116 
 8 
 
 !■ 904 
 
 Manufac- 
 tured and 
 sapars. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Tons, 
 
 4,a3i 
 
 2,763 
 780 
 682 
 607 
 877 
 841 
 270 
 258 
 239 
 179 
 168 
 147 
 132 
 116 
 13 
 
 907 
 
 12,660 90 12,750 4,560,741 22,308.705 ' 
 
 Founds. 
 
 1,762,988 
 
 980,632 
 
 275,485 
 
 228,761 
 
 216,667 
 
 183,111 
 
 120,444 
 
 96,862 
 
 91,004 
 
 84,514 
 
 63,.312 
 
 55,908 
 
 62,026 
 
 46,670 
 
 40,992 
 
 8,195 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 8,764,940 
 
 4,903,160 
 
 1,877,425 
 
 1,118,806 
 
 1,077,885 
 
 665,656 
 
 602,220 
 
 476,810 
 
 455,020 
 
 422,570 
 
 316,660 
 
 279,540 
 
 260,126 
 
 233,360 
 
 204,960- 
 
 40,975 
 
 320,771 1,603,865 
 
 The following table, exhibiting the exports of tobac- 
 co from Great Britain for 1852, will show the quanti- 
 ties and destination of J hat article supplied by England 
 to foreign countries, relatively to the quantities im- 
 ported. Total quantity imported, 15,700 tons, or 35,- 
 168,000 pounds. 
 
 Total Quantity Exported. 
 
 Hhds. Hhds. 
 
 ■W. coast of Africa. 1,725 Christiana 20 
 
 Holland 227 Drontheim 17 
 
 Malta 184 Senegal 15 
 
 San Sebastian 110 
 
 Alexandria. 68 
 
 Bahia 61 
 
 Antwerp 44 
 
 Eio de Janeiro ,S9 
 
 Gibraltar 36 
 
 Draaman sl 
 
 Guernsey 14 
 
 Liberia 10 
 
 Isle of Man 54 
 
 Sundry places 22 
 
 Total. 
 
 . 2,602 
 
 The foregoing table shows that in 1852 there were 
 exported from Great Britain about 2,602,000 lbs. (al- 
 lowing 1000 lbs. to the hhd.) out of the 35,168,000 lbs. 
 imported, showing the amount retained for consump- 
 tion to be 32,566,000 lbs. 
 
GRE 
 
 8Y6 
 
 GRE 
 
 Table 
 
 EXniBlTlNa THE QrANTITtES AND VALFB OF FLOTJE, BeEF, TAZLOW, HiDES, AND NaVAL STORES EXPORTED FROM 
 
 THE United States to Great Britain, prom 1880 to 1865, both Tears inclusive. 
 
 Yearii 
 
 Flour, 
 
 Value. 
 
 Hides. 
 
 VbIuo. 
 
 Tar, pitch, roMJc) 
 and turpentine. , 
 
 Value. 
 
 1880 
 1881 
 1832 
 1883 
 1884, 
 1836, 
 ,1886, 
 1887, 
 1888. 
 1889. 
 1840. 
 1841. 
 1842. 
 1848. 
 1844. 
 1846. 
 1846. 
 1847. 
 1848. 
 1849. 
 1860. 
 1861. 
 1852. 
 1868. 
 1864. 
 1865. 
 
 Barrels. 
 826,182 
 879,480 
 95,958 
 22,807 
 19,687 
 6,876 
 161 
 
 8,295 
 
 167,685 
 
 620,919 
 
 208,984 
 
 208,024 
 
 19,426 
 
 167,296 
 
 85,855 
 
 1,016,244 
 
 2,467,076 
 
 968,744 
 
 958,815 
 
 869,777 
 
 1,004,788 
 
 1,681,994 
 
 1,878,065 
 
 2,026,121 
 
 189,712 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 1,544,194 
 
 4,981,951 
 
 479,821 
 
 121,169 
 
 96,884 
 
 26,341 
 
 1,184 
 
 62,510 
 
 1,826,627 
 
 1,387,.34S 
 
 1,008,465 
 
 1,242,787 
 
 84,815 
 
 746,486 
 
 152,882 
 
 5,186,677 
 
 15,104,574 
 
 6,119,876 
 
 5,077.220 
 
 1,779,852 
 
 4,678,009 
 
 6,808,378 
 
 6,796,313 
 
 13,716,111 
 
 1,688,039 
 
 Barrels. 
 200 
 
 117 
 608 
 
 "24 
 
 8,610 
 2,001 
 6,886 
 43,717 
 41,188 
 80,820 
 66,478 
 47,061 
 72,860 
 60,520 
 54,760 
 81,828 
 80,670 
 78.687 
 8;787* 
 
 Pounds. 
 6,787 
 864 
 
 86,153 
 
 29,680 
 25,222 
 1,716,820 
 8,658,614 
 4,667,200 
 6,239,440 
 6,125,462 
 6,924,166 
 8,899,469 
 6,598,227 
 2,254,618 
 4,196,866 
 2,421,486 
 1,481,876 
 5,890,288 
 7,612,622 
 
 Number. 
 
 28,627 
 
 238,163 
 
 18,420 
 
 83,000 
 
 82,064 
 
 12,721 
 
 17,975 
 
 69,748 
 
 25,059 
 
 5,616 
 
 8,817 
 
 4,288 
 
 6,781 
 
 8,882 
 
 83,107 
 
 41,179 
 
 67,068 
 
 24,481 
 
 7,008 
 
 1,0-32 
 
 851 
 
 19,807 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 140,408 
 
 40,766 
 
 65,080 
 
 151,433 
 
 132,036 
 
 66,656 
 
 90,656 
 
 189,642 
 
 73,444 
 
 18,696 
 
 17,924 
 
 88,507 
 
 168,597 
 
 881,769 
 
 777,906 
 
 864,254 
 
 1,354,341 
 
 1,269,975 
 
 806,204 
 
 1,880,637 
 
 828,780 
 
 896,788 
 
 764,848 
 
 1,848,665 
 
 1,644,425 
 
 2,900,907 
 
 Barrels. 
 128,126 
 159,190 
 172,062 
 171,888 
 181,921 
 151,407 
 197,824 
 218,180 
 219,794 
 176,721 
 191,448 
 201,789 
 218,563 
 145,006 
 270,317 
 280,263 
 805,254 
 M6,779 
 282,026 
 317,417 
 866,980 
 285,786 
 846,417 
 841,618 
 461,528 
 421,118 
 
 Dollars. 
 251,726 
 815,964 
 400,054 
 403,250 
 454,659 
 489,811 
 781,288 
 788,881 
 679,076 
 506,216 
 470,460 
 482,870 
 575,574 
 871,526 
 648,124 
 669,864 
 958,275 
 682,810 
 686,789 
 724,680 
 911,281 
 761,408 
 945,224 
 1,099,582 
 1,665,683 
 1,188,666 
 
 * Also, in 1866, 67,149 tierces. 
 A View op the Trade between Great Britain and tuat Portion of her North American Colonies now in- 
 cluded IN THE United States, from 1697 to 1774; and between Great Britain and the United States, 
 from 1775 to 1820 — compiled from British Authoeitieb. [W. signifies war ; P. peace.] 
 
 Years. 
 
 Imports from 
 
 the United 
 
 States. 
 
 Exports to the 
 United Slates. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Imports from 
 
 the United 
 
 States. 
 
 Exports to the 
 United States. 
 
 Years. 
 
 ImDortJt from 
 
 the United 
 
 States. 
 
 Sxports to the 
 United States. 
 
 W. 1697.... 
 
 $1,408,720 
 
 ,$707,756 
 
 W. 1739.... 
 
 $3,757,890 
 
 $8,479,345 
 
 W. 1780.... 
 
 98,815 
 
 4,145,360 
 
 P. 1698.... 
 
 1,180,275 
 
 2,290,485 
 
 ■W. 1740.... 
 
 3,692,080 
 
 4.066,910 
 
 W. 1781.... 
 
 499,395 
 
 4,278,505 
 
 P. 1699.... 
 
 1,276,985 
 
 2,019,695 
 
 W. 1741.... 
 
 4,561,015 
 
 4,427,460 
 
 W. 1782.... 
 
 188,200 
 
 1,838,650 
 
 P. 1700.... 
 
 1,976,105 
 
 1,721,705 
 
 W. 1742.... 
 
 8,296,140 
 
 4,000,266 
 
 W. 1783.... 
 
 851,205 
 
 5,016,600 
 
 P. 1701,... 
 
 1,545,676 
 
 1,719,185 
 
 W. 1743.... 
 
 8,404,03f> 
 
 4,146,025 
 
 P. 1764.... 
 
 8,746,645 
 
 16,397,860 
 
 W. 1702.... 
 
 1,678,940 
 
 984,060 
 
 W. 1744.... 
 
 8,337,62,'i 
 
 8,204,410 
 
 P. 1785.... 
 
 4,467,960 
 
 11,641,115 
 
 ■W. 1708.... 
 
 1,021,480 
 
 1,481,050 
 
 ■W. 1746.... 
 
 2,772,166 
 
 2,676,266 
 
 P. 1766.... 
 
 4,215,595 
 
 6,017,880 
 
 W. 1704.... 
 
 1,609,870 
 
 880,446 
 
 W. 1746.... 
 
 2,797,505 
 
 3,774,836 
 
 P. 1787.... 
 
 4,468,190 
 
 10,070,660 
 
 W. 1705.... 
 
 764,820 
 
 1,458,615 
 
 .W. 1747.... 
 
 2,808,570 
 
 3,638,360 
 
 P. 1768.... 
 
 5,118,945 
 
 9,480,710 
 
 ■W. 1706.... 
 
 986,376 
 
 808,456 
 
 W. 174S.... 
 
 8,583,130 
 
 4,160,870 
 
 P. 1789.... 
 
 5,260,995 
 
 12,626,600 
 
 Wi 1707.... 
 
 1,428,995 
 
 2,066,235 
 
 P. 1749.... 
 
 8,317,620 
 
 6,152,930 
 
 P. 1790.... 
 
 5,955,860 
 
 17,168,690 
 
 Wl 1708.... 
 
 1,482,176 
 
 1,200,925 
 
 P. 1760.... 
 
 4,073,846 
 
 6,665,420 
 
 P. 1791.... 
 
 6,971,160 
 
 21,127,235 
 
 W. 1709.... 
 
 1,622,680 
 
 1,847,985 
 
 P. 1761.... 
 
 4,178,260 
 
 6,165,840 
 
 P. 1792.... 
 
 6,193,635 
 
 21,867,090 
 
 W. 1710.... 
 
 1,249,080 
 
 1,468,800 
 
 P. 1752.... 
 
 6,020,915 
 
 6,740,345 
 
 W. 1793.... 
 
 4,970,200 
 
 17,573,405 
 
 ■W. 1711.... 
 
 1,628,490 
 
 1,488,135 
 
 P. 1768.... 
 
 4,868,700 
 
 7,264,780 
 
 W. 1794.... 
 
 3,128,666 
 
 19,299,355 
 
 W. 1712.... 
 
 1,829,865 
 
 1,546,465 
 
 P. 1754.... 
 
 5,088,810 
 
 5,881,400 
 
 W. 1795.... 
 
 6,760,680 
 
 26,270,590 
 
 P. 1718.... 
 
 1,616,110 
 
 1,422,785 
 
 P. 1756.... 
 
 4,697,770 
 
 5,664.990 
 
 W. 1796.... 
 
 10,404,850 
 
 80,270.160 
 
 P. 1714.... 
 
 1,978,878 
 
 1,667,220 
 
 W. 1756.... 
 
 3,296,786 
 
 6,760,890 
 
 W. 1797.... 
 
 6,877,560 
 
 26.283,996 
 
 P. 1716.... 
 
 -1,486,235 
 
 2,256,840 
 
 W. 1767. . . . 
 
 3,053,420 
 
 8,141,750 
 
 W. 1798.... 
 
 8,918,600 
 
 27,901,645 
 
 P. 1716.... 
 
 2,121,945 
 
 2,010,225 
 
 W. 1768.... 
 
 3,353,600 
 
 8,683,445 
 
 W. 1799.... 
 
 9,094,705 
 
 86,282,790 
 
 P. 1717.... 
 
 2,130,460 
 
 2,698,335 
 
 W. 1759.... 
 
 3,199,545 
 
 11,727,270 
 
 ■W. 1800.... 
 
 11,789,615 
 
 89,427,970 
 
 W. 1718.... 
 
 2,287,356 
 
 2,126,675 
 
 W. 1760.... 
 
 4,1.59,726 
 
 18,664,785 
 
 W. 1801.... 
 
 13,582,590 
 
 87,587,660 
 
 "W. 1719.... 
 
 2,816,275 
 
 1,965,010 
 
 W. 1761.... 
 
 4,475,155 
 
 8,609,485 
 
 P. 1802.... 
 
 9,617,620 
 
 26,647,450 
 
 W. 1720.... 
 
 2,840,940 
 
 1,698,526 
 
 W. 1762.... 
 
 4,688,070 
 
 6,985,080 
 
 W. 1808.... 
 
 9,670,490 
 
 26,364,065 
 
 W. 1721.... 
 
 2,469,866 
 
 1,659,526 
 
 P. 1768.... 
 
 6,7a'),645 
 
 8,298,740 
 
 W. 1804.... 
 
 8,257,886 
 
 81,992,130 
 
 P. 1722.... 
 
 2,188,480 
 
 2,128,625 
 
 P. 1764.... 
 
 6,632,255 
 
 11,365,626 
 
 W. 1806.... 
 
 6,882,780 
 
 35,783,825 
 
 P. 1728.... 
 
 2,308,810 
 
 2,067,966 
 
 P. 1766.... 
 
 6,801,495 
 
 9,862,566 
 
 W. 1806.... 
 
 9,999,420 
 
 43,066,610 
 
 P. 1724.... 
 
 2,313,405 
 
 2,307,980 
 
 P. 1766.... 
 
 5,233,045 
 
 9,218,915 
 
 W. 1807.... 
 
 14,287,610 
 
 89,606,600 
 
 P. 1725.... 
 
 2,078,250 
 
 2,748,465 
 
 P. 1767.... 
 
 6,670,390 
 
 9,723,990 
 
 W. 1808.... 
 
 4,161,710 
 
 19,960,295 
 
 P. 1726.... 
 
 2,681,525 
 
 2,766,600 
 
 P. 1768.... 
 
 6,864,205 
 
 10,990,090 
 
 ■W. 1869.... 
 
 11,026,665 
 
 26,938,065 
 
 P. 1727.... 
 
 3,186,025 
 
 2,514,685 
 
 P, 1769.... 
 
 6,862,820 
 
 6,864,985 
 
 W. 1810.... 
 
 13,072,026 
 
 39,066,585 
 
 P. 1728.... 
 
 8,036,625 
 
 2,589,816 
 
 P. 1770 
 
 6,477,426 
 
 9,774,876 
 
 W. 1811.... 
 
 11,647,075 
 
 7,159,145 
 
 P. 1729.... 
 
 2,626,420 
 
 2,144,795 
 
 P. 1771.... 
 
 6,742,100 
 
 21,007,375 
 
 W. 1812.... 
 
 6,470,760 
 
 20,677,960 
 
 P. 1780.... 
 
 2,862,930 
 3,254,315 
 
 2,687,805 
 
 P. 1772.... 
 
 6,826,685 
 
 16,456,900 
 
 ■W. 1613.... 
 
 Records destr 
 
 oyed b,y tire. 
 
 P. 1781.... 
 
 2,684,346 
 
 P. 1778.... 
 
 6,871,605 
 
 9,987,295' 
 
 W. 1814.... 
 
 113,105 
 
 86,516 
 
 P. 1782.... 
 
 2,595,180 
 
 2,666,270 
 
 P. 1774.... 
 
 6,902,126 
 
 12,996,880 
 
 W. 1815.... 
 
 11,651,440 
 
 69,682,505 
 
 P. 1733.... 
 
 3,848,176 
 
 2,744,460 
 
 ■W. 1775.... 
 
 9,767,005 
 
 966,500 
 
 P 1816.... 
 
 11,981,120 
 
 38,999,585 
 
 P. 17.34.... 
 
 3,056,760 
 
 2,781,876 
 
 W. 1776.... 
 
 528,216 
 
 282,150 
 
 P. 1817.... 
 
 16,285,000 
 
 81,665,140 
 
 P. 1735.... 
 
 8,261,685 
 
 8,848,820 
 
 ■W. 1777.... 
 
 68,060 
 
 293,905 
 
 P. 1818.... 
 
 17,134,160 
 
 41,917,180 
 
 P. 17.36.... 
 
 3,499,330 
 
 2,794,210 
 
 W. 1778.... 
 
 89,970 
 
 187,820 
 
 P. 1819.... 
 
 18,440,880 
 
 21,608,476 
 
 P. 1737.... 
 
 ,8,876,915 
 
 8,412,180 
 
 W. 1779.... 
 
 117,986 
 
 1,753,600 
 
 P. 1830.... 
 
 18,366,710 
 
 19,601,810 
 
 P. 1733.... 
 
 3,101,200 
 
 8,766,350 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 COMPAKATIVE StATEMBNT OF THE COMMERCE OF TIIK UNITED STATES WITH GrEAT BeITAIN, EXHIBITING THE VaLTIE OF 
 
 Exports to and Imports from each Country, and the Tonnage of American and Foreign Vessels arriving 
 
 FROM and departing TO EACH COUNTRY, DURING THE TeARS DESIGNATED. 
 
 VBARS. 
 
 OOMIMEBCE. 
 
 navigation. I 
 
 VALOa OF HXPOKTS. 
 
 VALUK OP 
 IMPORTS. 
 
 AMERICAN TONNAGE. 
 
 FOREIGN TONNAGE. | 
 
 Domestic 1 Foreign 
 produce. | produce. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Entered the 
 United States. 
 
 Cleared from 
 the U. States. 
 
 Entered the 
 United States. 
 
 Cleared from 
 the U. States. 
 
 1845 
 
 $44,234,279 1 $4,833,180 
 
 $49,056,469 
 46,215,471 
 87,295,357 
 76,726,768 
 78,590,170 
 73,178,873 
 117,946,015 
 116,569,976 
 121,302,271 
 145,065,839 
 139,693,869 
 
 $46,600,903 
 
 48,957,740 
 
 67,697,628 
 
 61,846,119 
 
 61,154,586 
 
 76,159,424 
 
 93,847,886 
 
 90,628,339 
 
 130,267,340 
 
 146,438,687 
 
 106,543,180 
 
 890,060 
 883,827 
 487,278 
 460,808 
 600.769 
 518,766 
 648,299 
 776.971 
 856,081 
 660,996 
 906,708 
 
 890,990 
 891,120 
 607,513 
 508,168 
 660,981 
 468,355 
 643,216 
 651,460 
 695,108 
 890,108 
 868,065 
 
 242,761 
 336,653 
 444,890 
 876,286 
 565,639 
 664,068 
 581,847 
 564,164 
 568,967 
 696,054 
 876,006 
 
 220,718 
 191,361 
 417,261 
 310,086 
 421,006 
 809,826 
 808,888 
 427,765 
 476,748 
 478,681 
 293,610 
 
 
 44,821,868 
 
 86,266,936 
 
 67,762,741 
 
 76,648,294 
 
 68,783,780 
 
 109,631,612 
 
 110,803,055 
 
 117,878,996 
 
 189,216,887 
 
 132,992,851 
 
 1,698,603 
 1,028,422 
 8,964,012 
 1,961,876 
 4,486,643 
 8,414,408 
 4,766,920 
 3,495,275 
 5,840.462 
 6,600,518 
 
 1847 
 
 184S 
 
 1849 
 
 
 1851 
 
 
 
 1854 
 
 1885 
 
GRE 
 
 876 
 
 GRE 
 
 Table exhibiting the Quantities and YALini; of Tobacco (kaw), 
 EBOM the United States to Great Britain and Ireland, 
 
 Indian Gobn, Pork, Bacon and Lakd /exported 
 from 1880 to 1865, both years inclusive. 
 
 Years. 
 
 TOBACCO. 
 
 , INOJAK 
 
 COllN. 
 
 POKK. 
 
 HAMS * BACON. 
 
 LAHD. 
 
 'Value. 
 
 Quaniity. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 18S0 
 
 plopahends. 
 20,291 
 28,785 
 86,393 
 23,834 
 80,658 
 27^683 
 " 38,856 „ 
 21,78S , 
 25,782 
 80,830 
 27,186 
 48,181 , 
 86,99,&„, 
 21,050,' 
 89jl82 . 
 
 , 26,169, 
 
 ' 27,943, ■ 
 ' 29,745 
 , 28;801 
 
 . 21,867. 
 30j926 
 28;698, 
 
 . 17,696 
 32,286' 
 17,664 
 24,203 
 
 Dollars. , 
 1,683,971 • 
 1,882,886 
 2,846,460 
 2,259,197 
 2,937,020 
 8,400,689 
 4,598,442 
 1,879,868 
 2,857,208 
 6,404,967 
 8,227,880 
 6,114,836 
 3,212,207 
 1,262,616 1 
 2,900,126 
 1,986,637 
 , 2,428,228 
 2,688,775 
 2,260,987 
 1,771,128 
 8,025,585 
 8,458,885 
 2,612,226 
 8,488,428 
 2,146,942 
 3,607,760 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 31,416 
 
 190,988 
 
 822 
 
 8,240 
 
 "853 
 
 '"12 
 
 185 
 
 519 
 
 104,841 
 
 12,548 
 
 128,665 
 
 ,1 89,678; „' 
 
 ,, 186,688, , 
 1,192,686 
 
 15,626,626 , 
 5,062,220' 
 
 12,896,242 
 g,947,206 
 2,760,829 
 1,894,700 
 1,653,840 
 6,966,850 
 5,935,284 
 
 Dollar.. 
 
 29,425 
 
 138,447 
 
 180 
 
 2,174 ' 
 
 ' '230 
 
 '"15 
 110 
 467 
 61,669 
 7,186 
 76,901 
 
 48,893 
 , 67,882 
 
 797,176 
 18,760,810 
 8,867,418 
 7 496,676 
 8,604,806 
 1,864,879 
 1^110,622 
 
 ,988,690 
 4,879,187 
 5,492,420 
 
 Barrels. 
 2,200 
 
 180 
 2,705 
 
 921 
 
 "12 
 
 "io 
 
 '4,769: , 
 
 6)900 
 
 8,230 
 
 10,280 
 
 14,140 , 
 
 18i00l , 
 
 ■ 73,940 
 
 87,760 
 
 lll;38^ 
 
 44,681 
 
 9,268 
 
 1,632 
 
 17,166 
 
 48,664 
 
 64,663* 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 1,646 
 
 2,865 
 
 602 
 
 7,480 
 
 4,994 
 
 1,816 
 
 11,461 
 
 400 
 
 667 
 
 160 
 
 1,061 
 
 26,894 
 
 160,274 
 
 666,828 
 
 850,189 
 
 96,907 
 
 580,026 
 
 14,867,105 
 
 29,218,462 
 
 63,150,465 
 
 87,877,769 
 
 14,729,169 
 
 8,207,993 
 
 18,297,87£( 
 
 38,890,787 
 
 30,240,161 
 
 Pounds. 
 "600 
 
 444',865 
 
 8,480,782 
 
 4,569,434 
 
 8,976,806 
 
 5,687,675 
 
 8,211,889 
 
 17,798,770 
 
 27,783,841 
 
 21,888,266 
 
 81,692,691 
 
 6,628,783 
 
 8,976,124 
 
 ,9,726,186 
 
 26,716,141 
 
 15,849,922 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 20,882 ' 
 
 1,833 
 
 29,378 , 
 
 10,997 
 
 498 
 
 346 
 
 1,298 
 
 40 
 
 88 
 
 2^1 
 
 ,lfe 
 
 80,879 
 
 287,028 
 
 . 306,293 
 
 646,706 
 
 497,066 
 
 768,226 
 
 8,471,697 
 
 6,288,269 
 
 6,4b2,194 
 
 4,881,939 
 
 1,587,861 
 
 1,075,299 
 
 2,239,094 
 
 6,198,894 
 
 6,916,120 
 
 1831 
 
 1882 
 
 1883 . 
 
 1884 
 
 1835 
 
 1886 
 
 1837 
 
 1888 
 
 1889 
 
 1840 
 
 1841 
 
 1842 ,.. 
 
 1848 
 
 1844 
 
 1845 
 
 1846 
 
 1847 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 
 
 1850 
 
 1861 
 
 1862 
 
 1858 
 
 1864 
 
 - 1865 
 
 
 ' * 5,679 tierces ■\vere 
 
 Table ExinBiTiNG tiib Impokts into, and Exports pkom 
 
 THE United Kingdom of Geeat Britain and Ieb- 
 I " " LAND, from; 1801 TO 1853, inclubite, designed to snow 
 
 THE GENERAL FOREIGN TrADB OF THAT KINGDOM DUR- 
 ING THE Period designated. 
 
 
 Value of im- 
 
 
 1 
 
 Value of im- 
 
 
 Years. 
 
 ports into the 
 United Kin^d. 
 
 Total exports. 
 
 Years. 
 
 ports, into the 
 UnitedKingd. 
 
 Total exportE. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 . Dollars. 
 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 1801 
 
 158,981,800 
 
 176,228,260 
 
 I82e 
 
 226,887,215 
 
 333,678,175 
 
 1802 
 
 149,181,050 
 
 191,649,900 
 
 1829 
 
 219,976,48C 
 
 884,190,686 
 
 1803 
 
 183,118,486 
 
 142,500,850 
 
 188(: 
 
 281,602,366 
 
 848,608,740 
 
 1804 
 
 139,097,760 
 
 15^,180,250 
 
 1H,S1 
 
 243,639,140 
 
 867,162,460 
 
 1805 
 
 142,806,850 
 
 155,100,!?05 
 
 1832 
 
 223,052,73c 
 
 880,860,740 
 
 1806 
 
 184,498,290 
 
 167,897,170 
 
 I83fi 
 
 229,722,180 
 
 899,106,660 
 
 1807 
 
 188,672,125 
 
 165,077,680 
 
 1834 
 
 246,828,666 
 
 ,426,991,840 
 
 180S 
 
 138,977,700 
 
 151,989,960 
 
 1835 
 
 246,146,670 
 
 465,788,916 
 
 1809 
 
 168,762,785 
 
 231,818,160 
 
 1836 
 
 286,480,225 
 
 488,069,280 
 
 1810 
 
 195,508,060 
 
 217,096,680 
 
 1837 
 
 273,811,425 
 
 428,897,890 
 
 itni 
 
 182,660,980 
 
 183,995,600 
 
 1888 
 
 806,490,065 
 
 526,827,395 
 
 1812 
 
 180,817,165 
 
 196,207,816 
 
 1839 
 
 810,240,605 
 
 610,968,280 
 
 1818 
 
 Records destr 
 
 oyed by fire. 
 
 18411 
 
 887,468,550 
 
 682,405,076 
 
 1814 
 
 168,776,820 
 
 267,866,855 
 
 1841 
 
 822,221,840 
 
 584,514,436 
 
 1816 
 
 164,986,980 
 
 298,122,750 
 
 1842 
 
 826,266,480 
 
 569,209,010 
 
 1816 
 
 187,158,020 
 
 246,989,250 
 
 1848 
 
 851,074,660 
 
 ^89,164,73d 
 
 ISIV 
 
 154,171,495 
 
 251,620,655 
 
 1844 
 
 377,246,870 
 
 729,788,270 
 
 1818 
 
 184,42.'5,910 
 
 267,801,690 
 
 1846 
 
 426,487,540 
 
 754,889,510 
 
 1819 
 
 153,884,050 
 
 217,894,900 
 
 1846 
 
 879,670,110 
 
 723,045,280 
 
 1820 
 
 162,193,250 
 
 244,757,685 
 
 1847 
 
 464,609,880 
 
 780,860,040 
 
 1821 
 
 158,968,800 
 
 267,307,165 
 
 1848 
 
 467,785,670 
 
 764,980,200 
 
 1822 
 
 152,655,705 
 
 267,350,496 
 
 1849 
 
 629,878,036 
 
 950,606,970 
 
 1823 
 
 178,992,165 
 
 262,162,560 
 
 1850 
 
 602,802,165 
 
 985,548,880 
 
 1824 
 
 177,841,895 
 
 294,676,260 
 
 1851 
 
 663,896,626 
 
 1,071,924,566 
 
 1826 
 
 231,044,015 
 
 281,600,910 
 
 1852 
 
 646,727,045 
 
 1,097,728,496 
 
 1826 
 
 189,069,450 
 
 266,210,115 
 
 ,1858 
 
 616,496,565 
 
 1,110,861,120 
 
 1327 
 
 224,640,865 
 
 180,268,775 
 
 
 
 
 Table exiiibitino the AlaouN'r op GtOLD and Silver 
 Coin and Bullion exported prom tub United States 
 TO Great Britain, from 1830 to 1865, both Tears 
 inclusive. 
 
 Years. , Value. 
 
 1880 $2(1,154 
 
 1831 :, 625,718 
 
 1882 876,481 
 
 1883 
 
 1884 
 
 1835 1,000 
 
 1886 10,000 
 
 18.37 629,180 
 
 1889 846,790 
 
 1840 1,905,967 
 
 1841 1,226,719 
 
 1842 599,491 
 
 Val 
 
 $98,112 
 2,812 
 
 Years. 
 
 1848 
 
 1844 
 
 1845 
 
 1846 
 
 1847 
 
 1848 1,086,047 
 
 1849 226,565 
 
 1860 > 868,667 
 
 1861 11,672,608 
 
 1852 82,127,879 
 
 1853 18,006,.581 
 
 1864 26,365,.899 
 
 1866 46,800,788 
 
 Lav)s and Regulqiions Relative io Passengers^ Baggage 
 in England and the United States, Explained and Com-' 
 pared.— The laws and Treasury orders regulating the 
 admission of baggage, personal effects, etc., into the 
 ports ef Great Britain and of the United States, 
 respectivelj', are based upon principles so totally dis- 
 similar, that a comparative view of both can only be 
 presented by exhibiting a synopsis of each. The pol- 
 
 also exported in 1855. 
 icy of Great Britain would seem to be to restrict the 
 privilege of yVee entry to such articles of wearing ap- 
 parel as hav& been worn, and not made up for the pur- 
 pose of being introduced into the countrj-, free of 
 duty ; while the regulations in force at the different 
 ports of the United States ^exhibit a spirit of the ut- 
 most liberality in that regard, enabling passengers, 
 whose ," baggage and personal effects" have been hon- 
 estly made up, and faithfully manifested, to proceed to 
 their destination, without delay or cost, or being sub- 
 jected to the many thousand vexatious annoyances 
 which a less liberal policy, in regard to " passengers' 
 baggage,, personal effects," etc., must inevitably pro- 
 duce. .The American policy on this subject is, besides, 
 highly beneficent to the large classes of emigrants 
 who seek an asylum on our shores, literally carrying 
 with them their "bed and baggage," their weaving- 
 looms, spinning-wheels,' and other articles and imple- 
 ments of handicraft, all of which are admitted, under 
 the tariff act of 1846, free of duty. 
 
 In the United States, the admission of personal bag- 
 gage, etc., is regulated by schedule one, Tariff Act of 
 1846, anil of various, decisions of the Treasury Depart- 
 ment subseqeuntly issued. The several provisions of 
 the above-named schedule, and of the Treasury decis- 
 ions, may be classified as follows : 1. Household ef- 
 fects, old and in use, of persons or families arriving 
 from foreign countries, if used abroad by them, and 
 not intended for any other person or persons, or for 
 sale, free. 2. Wearing apparel, in actual use, and 
 other personal effects, not merchandise ; professional 
 bpoks, implements, instruments and tools of trade, oc- 
 cupation,, or employment of persons arriving in the 
 United States (provided that this exemption shall not 
 extend to or include machinery or other articles im- 
 ported for use in any manufacturing establishment, or 
 for sale), free. 3. Personal and household effects (not 
 merchandise) of citizens of the United States dying 
 abroad, free. The exemption from duty contemplated 
 by law in the first clause, above cited, must be con- 
 fined to such articles as are generally used in house- 
 keeping, and which had actually been in use by the indi- 
 vidual or family while living abroad, and not imported 
 for sale, barter, or trafSo. The exemption from duty 
 of wearing apparel, and other personal effects, provided 
 for in the second clause quoted, must be confined to 
 such articles as are geueralljr used on or about the 
 person, and not consiitered as merchandise ; the arti- 
 cles admitted under this clause to be limited to an ex- 
 tent not exceeding in number, quantitj', or value what 
 is usual for a traveler, or other person, to wear, keep, 
 
GRE 
 
 811 
 
 GRE 
 
 or carty -with him for his own use. The professional 
 books, Implements, instruments, and tools of trade, oc- 
 cupation, or employment, enumerated in the same 
 clause, are limited in number, quality, and value to 
 what the collector may consider reasonable and proper 
 for the person to whom they belong, in his profession, 
 occupation, trade, or employment ; but the term " im- 
 plements and tools of trade," under no circumstance 
 to be considered as comprehending any machine or ar- 
 ticle to be worlted by other than manual power. 
 
 RegulatioTis as to Passengers' Baggage, Personal Ef- 
 fects, etc., in Great Britain. — Hours of attendance at 
 the different baggage warehouses as follows : From Ist 
 March to 31st October, from 8 o'clock a. m., until 7 
 o'clock p. M. ; and from 1st November to 28th Febru- 
 ary, from 9 A. M. until 5 p. M. 
 
 After all baggage shall have been landed, those pas- 
 sengers having only single packages will be entitled to 
 have them first examined ; the remaining passengers 
 will then be called into the examination-room in 
 rotation, according to the list famished by the captain 
 [passengers themselves must see that their names are 
 properly inserted in the captain's list]. All wearing 
 apparel, after examination, will be immediately deliv- 
 ered, provided it appears that the apparel has been 
 worn, and not made up for the purpose of being intro- 
 duced into the United Kingdom without payment of 
 duty. All dutiable articles forming a part of passen- 
 gers' baggage will be delivered immediately after ex- 
 amination, on the amount of duties due thereon being 
 deposited with such accredited person as may be au- 
 thorized to receive the same, and also a small sum for 
 passing the entry. All merchandise brought with 
 baggage is liable to seizure. Such goods must be reg- 
 ularly reported and entered, and the regulations of the 
 law strictly complied with. If any passenger shall, 
 upon being questioned by the proper officer of customs, 
 deny that he or she has any goods liable to duty in his 
 or her possession, and such goods be subsequently dis- 
 covered, they will be liable to seizure, and the passen- 
 ger to a penalty of treble the value thereof. 
 
 Foreign newspapers found in the baggage of passen- 
 gers, if bound, are to be charged TiHth duty as "goods 
 manufactured," 10 per cent, ad valorem; if unbound, 
 they are duty free. Fowling-pieces, the property of 
 parties returning to England, may be delivered free, 
 upon declaration that they are of British manufacture. 
 A pair of pistols, a single rifle, or a single fowling- 
 piece, brought by a passenger with his baggagtf, may 
 be delivered dutj' free, upon a declaration that the 
 same is for private use only. 
 
 Duty Is not to be charged on any quantity less than 
 a pint of ordinary drinkable spirits, of whatever 
 strength ; or half a pint of eau de Cologne, or other 
 cordial water, or any medicated or perfumed spirits or 
 liqueurs, imported for private use. Passengers who 
 are not frequent visitors, may include with their bag- 
 gage, entitled to free entrj-, an amount of segars or 
 manufactured tobacco under the weight of half a 
 pound. On half a pound and upward the duty on 
 the whole weight is to be charged. Passengers, how- 
 ever, from the West Indies or other long voj-ages may 
 enter any quantity of segars or manufactured tobacco 
 not exceeding seven pounds' weight. Books and mu- 
 sical instruments, though for private use, are dutiable. 
 
 All packages of baggage landed by '* sufferance," 
 when not cleared from the examining iloor of the sta- 
 tion, at which they may have been landed, within six 
 working days, are to be forwarded to the queen's 
 warehouse for securitj' of duties. Passengers who 
 may be unwilling or unable to clear such articles of 
 baggage as may be liable to duty, can either abandon 
 the same, or they may be left in the queen's ware- 
 house for six months, in order to give their proprietors 
 an opportunity of taking them back without payment 
 of duty. — Beedell'3 British Tariff, 1854^'6, pp. 82 
 to 87. 
 
 Regulations relative to the Entry of Vessels into the 
 Ports of Great Britain and of the United States com~ 
 pared. — Vessels entering any ports la Great Britain 
 are subject to the following regulations, viz. : So soon 
 as a vessel has reported, the importers, agents, or con- 
 signees of the cargo, having been advised by receipt 
 of bills of lading, or other intimation, may each enter 
 their several goods. A latitude of 14 days is allowed 
 by law for this purpose ; but, in order to clear vessels 
 more speedily, sight entries are permitted to the master 
 or owner of any slrip lying alongside the legal quays, 
 or sufferance wharves, south of the Thames from Lon- 
 don Bridge eastward to Dockhead, under such general 
 description as is contained in the report, for any goods 
 that shall not have been entered by the owners thereof 
 wltliin 48 hours from the day of report, upon condition 
 that perfect entry be made by the proprietor within 
 one month from the date of landing. Goods so cir- 
 cumstanced are only liable to seizure for inaccuracy of 
 entry after the lapse of a month, or after the proprie- 
 tor's perfect entry has been passed. If perfect entry be 
 not made at the end of a month, or a delivery order 
 obtained, the goods may then be sent to the queen's 
 warehouse, and dealt with as if landed by " bill of 
 sight."— B. M., 1st June, 1830. 
 
 The master of everj' merchant-vessel, within 24 
 hours of entering the port of arrival, is bound, under 
 a penalty of $500, to report his cargo to the chief offi- 
 cer of customs. Before, however, the master is al- 
 lowed to report, he must declare, before some person 
 duly authorized by the postmaster-general, that he has 
 delivered at the post-office all letters that were on 
 board his ship. And likewise, he must, under a pen- 
 alty of $100, and the further sum of $50 for each alien 
 not included in the declaration, truly declare to the 
 number of aliens on board or landed from his ship. 
 Goods generally are liable to seizure for being landed 
 without entry; and packages uncleared from the 
 queen s warehouse are sold after the expiration of the 
 following periods, viz. : Merchandise, 3 months ; pas- 
 sengers' baggage, 6 months ; and ships' surplus stores, 
 12 months. ■ If, after the arrival of any ship wlthiri 
 four leagues of the coast of the United Kingdom, bulk 
 shall be broken, or any alteration made In the stowage 
 of the cargo of such ship so as to facilitate the unlad- 
 ing of any part of such cargo ; or if any part be 
 staved, destroyed, or thrown overboard, or any pack- 
 age be opened, unless accounted for to the satisfaction 
 of the commissioners of customs, in every such case 
 such master shall forfeit the sum of $500. For will- 
 fully making a false report, or if the particulars, or 
 any of them, of such report be false, the master shall 
 forfeit the sum of $500. (16 and 17 Victoria, chap. 107.) 
 
 By the act of Congress of March 2, 1799, masters 
 of vessels are required to produce a manifest of cargo 
 on board, on the arrival within four leagues of the 
 coast of the United States, to such officer- of a revenue- 
 cutter, or other officer of the customs, as shall first come 
 on board such vessel, for his inspection. The law re- 
 quires that the manifest shall be in writing, signed by 
 the master of such vessel, and shall contain the name, ' 
 description, build, and true tonnage of such vessel, 
 the place to which she belongs, with the names of the 
 owner or owners, the name of the master, the names' 
 of the places where the goods shall have been taken 
 on board, and the places within the United States to 
 which they are respectively consigned, particularly 
 noting the goods destined for each place respectively, 
 and a just and particular account of all the goods so 
 laden on board, whether in packages or stowed loose, 
 of any kind whatever. The names of the passengers 
 on board, specifying the number and description of 
 packages belonging to each, together with the remain- 
 ing sea-stores, if any, are to be truly stated. If any 
 goods be imported in any such vessel without hav- 
 ing a manifest on board, agreeable to the foregoing 
 directions, or which shall not be included therein, or 
 
GRE 
 
 878 
 
 GRE 
 
 shall not agree therewith, the master of such vessel 
 shall forfeit and pay a sum of money equal to the value 
 of the goods not included therein ^ and all such mer- 
 chandise not included in the manifest, belonging or 
 consigned to the master, mate, officers, or crew of such 
 vessel, shall be forfeited. No addition, erasure, sub- 
 stitution, or alteration whatsover, can be made in the 
 manifest of the cargo of any such vessel after her ar- 
 rival within four leagues of the coast of the United 
 States, without subjecting the master of such vessel 
 to the penalty of the law. On any vessel arriving 
 from a foreign port, the master is to report to the col- 
 lector within 24 hours after his arrival ; and within 24 
 hours thereafter further to report, in form, all the par- 
 ticulars required to be inserted in his manifest, and 
 shall declare to the truth of such manifest. No ves- 
 sels permitted to enter until the master shall have de- 
 livered all letters directed to persons within the 
 United States. Merchandise unladen without permit 
 from the proper officers of the customs to be forfeited ; 
 and the master and mate, each, forfeit ^1000. Before 
 departure for a foreign port, the master of every ves- 
 sel must deliver to the collector a manifest of the 
 whole cargo and the value thereof, and obtain a clear- 
 ance, under the penalty of $500. 
 
 Colonial Possessions of Great Britain. — As a neces- 
 sar}' preliminar}^ to a clear exposition of the laws and 
 regulations which govern the existing commercial re- 
 lations between the United States and the colonial 
 possessions of Great Britain, it will be necessary to take 
 a brief retrospective glance at the rise and progi'ess 
 of American commerce, from the earliest settlement 
 of the colonies down to the present period. Although 
 these preliminary remarks will be more especially 
 addressed to the commercial intercourse between the 
 United States and the colonial possessions of Great 
 Britain in North America, they will equally apply to 
 all the other possessions of that power throughout the 
 world, by reason of the general application of that 
 liberal and enlightened system of commercial policy 
 adopted by the British Parliament in 1849, and inau- 
 gurated as the future commercial law of that kingdom 
 on the 1st day of January, 1850. 
 
 From the earliest settlement of the different colonies 
 on the North American continent by the governments 
 of the Old World, a system of colonial legislation, 
 similar in effect, and oppressive in operation, was com- 
 menced by each, respectively, prohibiting all commer- 
 cial intercourse with any other than the mother coun- 
 try, and rendering the infant colonies dependent on 
 her alone for the supplies necessary for their subsist- 
 ence and comfort. The effects of such a policy were 
 soon exhibited in the anomalous and destitute condi- 
 tion to which the earlier colonists were reduced. Car- 
 rying with them, as thej'- did, into the newly dis- 
 covered wilderness of the western continent, that 
 adventurous and enterprising spirit which had led 
 them to forsake the homes of their childhood, and to 
 brave the perils of a voyage across the Atlantic, it 
 may easily be imagined, that they did not quietly sub- 
 mit to an illiberal and short-sighted policy, which re- 
 duced them to a condition of industrial and commercial 
 vassalage that had well-nigh crushed every effort to 
 develop the abundant treasures which nature had so 
 lavishl)^ spread before them, and which, under a differ- 
 ent system, would soon have brought within their 
 reach the rich exchanges of an extensive commerce. 
 They were, in the language of one well acquainted 
 with our earlier colonial historj', *' prevented from 
 manufacturing for themselves, or from engaging 
 largely in ship-building or commerce ; isolating them 
 from the rest of the world, leaving them no trade ex- 
 cept to the mother country." 
 
 The selfish and monopolizing spirit which governed 
 the British legislature in the enactment, as well as in 
 the rigorous enforcement, of these restrictions on the 
 colonies which she had planted in North America, may 
 
 be understood from a remark elicited from Lord Chat- 
 ham by a remonstrance against this oppressive policy, 
 to wit: that "the British American colonies had no 
 right to make even a nail for a horse-shoe." " In and 
 out of Parliament," saj's the Treasury report of 1832, 
 " as a political right and as a national privilege, an 
 absolute monopoly was demanded for supplying the 
 colonies with every article of consumpton, and of 
 transporting the whole of their produce to Europe." 
 
 In the charter of Virginia there was an express 
 stipulation empowering the colonists to carry on a di- 
 rect intercourse with foreign states. This privilege 
 naturally drew their attention to the cultivation of the 
 soU, and to the production of such articles as would be 
 most likely to find a foreign market, and yield them 
 such returns as were most suitable to their condi- 
 tion and their necessities. Accordingly we find them, 
 at a very early period, successfully engaged in the 
 cultivation of tobacco. This article found a ready 
 demand in the markets of Holland, and warehouses 
 were soon established for its reception at several of the 
 principal ports of that republic. This privilege, how- 
 ever, was not long permitted ; the British merchants, 
 stimulated by an unworth}' spirit of cupidity, soon per- 
 ceived the advantages which this direct trade between 
 the colonies and Holland conferred upon their com- 
 mercial rival, and at once adopted active measures to 
 suppress it. 
 
 The interests and power of the British government 
 were appealed to, until, with a total disregard to the 
 necessities and claims of the colonists, and in palpable 
 violation of the rights and privileges guarantied to 
 them by solemn compact, they were forbidden to carr}-- 
 their produce to Holland or to any other foreign coun- 
 try, and were compelled to ship direct to British ports, 
 and commit their commercial operations exclusively to 
 the management and control of British merchants. 
 
 Several acts of Parliament followed, prohibiting all 
 foreign trade with the colonies, and restricting them 
 to a direct intercourse with the mother country. The 
 first act which indicated the future policy of Great 
 Britain toward her colonies, and herewith much sever- 
 ity upon their industry'' and enterprise, was that of 
 1650, restricting their trade to British or colonial-built 
 ships. This was the commencement of the system 
 begun by Oliver Cromwell, and continued with un- 
 abated rigor down to the period of the Revolution. 
 
 The act of 1650 was followed by another passed 
 during the reign of Charles II. (1660), prohibiting the 
 exportation to any foreign country, of certain enumer- 
 ated articles, the produce of the colonies, and requir- 
 ing that vessels laden with such articles should proceed 
 direct from the colonies to a British port. Non-enu- 
 merated articles, including fish, salted provisions, 
 grain, flour, etc., could, for a period, be carried direct 
 to any port in the world — a privilege, however, which 
 was subsequently materially abridged; but, lest the 
 dependence of the colonies upon the mother countrj' 
 should be in any degree relaxed, the return cargoes 
 were, with the exception of salt, to be relanded in 
 England for reshipment to the colonies. 
 
 The policj' which dictated this restrictive measure 
 was rendered still more oppressive by an act passed in 
 1663, providing that " no commodity of the growth, 
 production, or manufacture of Europe shall be im- 
 ported into the British plantations, but such as are 
 laden and put on board in England, Wales, or Berwick- 
 upon-Tweed, and in English-built shipping, whereof 
 the master and three fourths of the crew are English." 
 Under the baneful influence of this system of un- 
 wise, unjust, and oppressive legislation, it may seem 
 almost incredible that the colonies should have been 
 able to maintain any advancement in commerce, popu- 
 lation, or wealth ; yet, if we follow them in their 
 struggles and privations from the commencement of 
 this illiberal and unjust policy, during the Common- 
 wealth under Cromwell, down to the period of tho 
 
GRE 
 
 8V9 
 
 GRE 
 
 Revolution, we shall find them steadily, though 
 slowly, increasing in all these elements of a nation's 
 prosperity. This was mainly attributable to the priv- 
 ileges of commercial intercourse between the colonies 
 themselves, continental and insular, which was permit- 
 ted to them as a part of the British dominions. To this 
 unfettered and profitable trade the American colonies 
 were chiefly indebted for whatever commercial progress 
 they had made prior to the Revolution. The follow- 
 ing table exhibits the extent and value of this trade in 
 1769: Imports, $13,000,000; exports, $12,000,000; 
 total, $25,000,000. Of this aggregate of trade, that 
 with the West Indies stood thus ; Exports, $3,700,000 ; 
 imports, $7,950,000 ; total, $11,650,000. 
 
 At the commencement of the revolutionary war, 
 the colonies enjoyed the privilege of trading with En- 
 gland, the British West Indies, and that part of Europe 
 south of Cape Finisterre ; and though oppressed by 
 unjust exactions, and burdened by illiberal restrictions, 
 they not only contributed to the wealth and material 
 prosperity of the mother country, but gave eveiy 
 promise of thriving, and achieving a name of their 
 own. — De Bow's Review. 
 
 During the revolutionarj- war, all commercial opera- 
 tions were suspended, and the peace of 1783 found the 
 trade of the new thirteen independent sovereignties in 
 a most feeble and languishing condition. Their inde- 
 pendence made them a foreign country to the North 
 American and West India colonies ; and by a rigorous 
 system of colonial non-intercourse, they were cut off 
 from all trade with those who were their natural com- 
 mercial neighbors, and, prior to the Revolution, their 
 most profitable customers. 
 
 The exhausted condition to which the several States 
 were now reduced rendered the first few years after 
 the close of the war a period of the most intense soli- 
 citude. The confederated States were fully sensible 
 of the absolute necessity of opening a foreign trade, 
 and especially of recovering their lost intercourse with 
 the British West Indies ; but everj' proposition to that 
 end, urged through their accredited ministers, was met 
 by a decided refusal. 
 
 As early as 1783, Mr. Pitt, then Chancellor of the 
 Exchequer, proposed a bill in the British Parliament 
 based upon the liberal principle of "admitting to all 
 the ports of the British dominions American vessels 
 loaded with goods, the growth or produce of these [the 
 United] States, on the same terms as British vessels 
 and goods," but the proposition at once startled the 
 fears of tlie British mercliants, who, with the aid of 
 Lord North, Mr. Fox, and Lord Shefiield, succeeded in 
 transferring tlie whole subject to the discretion of the 
 Ising and his council. The consequence was, that an 
 order was immediately issued, not only excluding 
 American vessels from all participation in the colonial 
 trade, but prohibiting the exportation from the United 
 States of provisions and fish, even in British bottoms. 
 
 Two years after Mr. Pitt's unsuccessful motion for 
 reciprocal trade between the dominions of Great Brit- 
 ain and the United States, John Adams, American 
 minister at the court of St. James, was instructed to 
 renew the proposition ; but it met with no more fa- 
 vorable reception than it did in 1783, Lord Liverpool 
 declaring "that^it could not be admitted even as a 
 subject of negotiation." 
 
 In 1789, another effort was made by the United 
 States to negotiate with Great Britain a commercial 
 treaty, particularly with reference to the colonial 
 trade, based upon principles of a more liberal reciproc- 
 ity. 
 
 Mr. Morris, then in London, was especially in- 
 structed to effect, if possible, a negotiation admitting 
 American productions, in American bottoms, into Brit- 
 ish North American possessions, and bringing, in 
 return the productions of those colonies to our own 
 ports and markets. The result of these renewed 
 eflForts was communicated to the government of the 
 
 United States by Mr. Morris, in his dispatch of Sep. 
 tember 18, 1790, and was, in effect, that no arrange- 
 ment by treaty could be made. 
 
 From this period down to the year 1822, the ports of 
 the British American colonies were virtually closed 
 against the commerce of the United States, some slight 
 relaxations having been granted, abating, however, to 
 no perceptible extent, the stringency of the measures 
 adopted by the British Parliament, with a view to 
 confine, within the very narrowest limits, the com- 
 mercial enterprise of a countrj' in which, even at that 
 early period, she descried a future rival for maritime 
 supremacy. These relaxations permitted a direct 
 trade with the British West India Islands in certain 
 specified articles, and under certain restrictions, but 
 were not accepted by the United States. 
 
 During the period which elapsed between the years 
 1790 and 1822, several efforts were made to place our 
 trade with the British American colonies upon a basis 
 of equalitj' ; these efforts proving fruitless, the Uni- 
 ted States determined to submit no longer to a policy 
 so detrimental to her commercial prosperity, so obsti- 
 nately persisted in, and hitherto resisted only by the 
 unavailing force of diplomatic remonstrance. 
 
 Before resorting, however, to any extreme measures 
 for the proper vindication of our commercial rights, 
 the government of the United States, still anxious to 
 avert, by means of conciliatory legislation, a total sus- 
 pension of trade and commerce with Great Britain and 
 her American colonies, announced, by act of March 3, 
 1815, the principles upon which she was desirous of 
 maintaining commercial relations with all foreign 
 nations. 
 
 This act repealed all discriminating duties of impost 
 and tonnage on foreign vessels in regard to all coun- 
 tries which should adopt a similar policy in favor of 
 the United States. This fair and liberal proposition 
 was followed by a convention between Great Britain 
 and the United States, in which the provisions of the act 
 referred to were adopted, so far as they were applicable 
 to the trade between the United States and the do- 
 minions of that power in Europe, but refusing to place 
 her colonial trade on the same basis. A more extended 
 notice of the provisions of this convention, more prop- 
 erly came under the preliminary remarks on the com- 
 mercial relations of the United States with Great 
 Britain. It will suffice to observe, in this place, that 
 the restriction respecting colonial trade was made the 
 subject of a special stipulation, in the foUowiiig words, 
 viz. : " The intercourse between the United States 
 and his Britannic majesty's possessions in the West 
 Indies, and on the continent of North America, shall 
 not be affected by any of the provisions of this article 
 [article 2], but each party shall remain in possession 
 of its rights with respect to that intercourse." 
 
 The act of April 18, 1818, was the commencement 
 of the measures of retaliation by which the govern- 
 ment of the United States had now determined to force 
 Great Britain into a more just and liberal system of 
 commercial legislation, by excluding from American 
 ports all ships belonging to that nation coming from 
 any colonies to which vessels of the United States 
 were not admitted. 
 
 The second section of this act required bonds to be 
 given in the case of all British vessels departing from 
 ports in the United States, conditioned that the car- 
 goes should not be landed in such colonies. This was 
 followed by a similar act, passed in 1820, prohibiting 
 the ports of the United States to British vessels 
 coming by sea, from any ports or places in all the 
 American possessions of Great Britian ; and providing 
 further, that no produce should be brought into the 
 United States from such colonies, unless imported 
 direct from the place of production. 
 
 The effect of these several retaliatory enactments 
 upon the commercial interests of Great Britain led 
 some of her most sagacious statesmen to bestow upon 
 
GEE 
 
 880 
 
 GEE 
 
 the whole subject their serious attention, and re- 
 peated efforts were made in the British Parliament to 
 remove the restrictions upon colonial trade, of which 
 the American government so justly complained ; and 
 so successful were these efforts, that the United States 
 government was informally advised that the plan pro- 
 posed by Lord Goderich, for a more liberal colonial 
 policj-, would be carried out by the British Parliament. 
 To remove all difficulty on the paii: of the government 
 of the United States, in giving effect to any plan 
 based upon principles of equality, and, at the same 
 time, to show that the retaliatory' measures adopted in 
 1818 and 1820 were purely defensive, and resorted to 
 only after every means of negotiation had failed, the 
 act of May 2, 1822, was passed, authorizing the Pres- 
 ident to declare the ports of the United States open to 
 British vessels trading to and from the colonies, " on 
 receiving satisfactory evidence that the ports of the 
 islands or colonies of Great Britain have been opened 
 to the vessels of the United States." 
 
 This was followed soon after by an act of Parlia- 
 ment fully meeting the contingency provided for in 
 the act of Congress above referred to ; and, in August 
 following, the President's proclamation was Issued, 
 declaring, in/ the language of the act of Congress, 
 **thc ports of the United States open to British ves- 
 sels trading to and from the colonies." This act of 
 Parliament, however, was in a great measure rendered 
 nugatory by the insertion of a clause restricting Amer. 
 lean vessels to a direct trade with the colonies, and by 
 the terms of the Treasurj' circular of 24th September 
 following, subjecting British vessels coming from the 
 colonies to heavy discriminating duties. This course 
 was justified by the government of the United States, 
 on the ground that it became necessary, as a means 
 of countervailing the discriminating duties to which 
 American produce was subjected when imported into 
 the colonies, or from the colonies to Great Britain, in 
 British bottoms. In a subsequent part of these re- 
 marks, it will be seen that, in effect, this equality, 
 with some few exceptions, has prevailed since the ab- 
 olition of imperial duties on colonial importations ; 
 but the principle which it involves, that of foreign in- 
 terference with the colonial tariffs of Great Britain, 
 was never admitted by that government, nor was it 
 ever pressed by the United States. Indeed, the cor- 
 rectness of the views expressed on this subject by the 
 Earl of Aberdeen, in a dispatch to Mr. Barbour, six 
 j-ears subsequently to this period, has never been 
 questioned by the government of the United States ; 
 and their application has been continued to this day, 
 in the discriminating duties just alluded to as excep- 
 tions, without any objection or remonstrance on the 
 part of the American government. As the policy of 
 these countervailing duties involves a fundamental 
 principle of commercial law, the language of the Earl 
 of Aberdeen in reference to it is not deemed inappro- 
 priate in this place : 
 
 " It never could be intended to agree that, under 
 no circumstances, should the vessels of the one [the 
 mother country] have no advantage over those of the 
 other; and the undersigned is not aware of any in- 
 stance in which one country has remonstrated with 
 another countrj', having colonies, upon the terms on 
 which it has regulated its own intercourse with those 
 colonies. * * * 
 
 " The intercourse between a country and her col- 
 onies is as absolutely out of the scope of stipulation, 
 negotiation, or remonstrance, as is the intercourse be- 
 tween one island or port of the mother country and 
 another." 
 
 The object of Great Britain, during this protracted 
 controversy with the government of the United States, 
 for commercial equality in colonial trade, was avow- 
 edly to secure to British navigation all the advan- 
 tages derivable from an exclusive trade with her col- 
 olonies, even in the productions and manufactures of 
 
 the United States — an object easily promoted, if not 
 virtually accomplished, by the naturalization of Amer- 
 ican productions imported into the colonies, .and their 
 exportation thence in British vessels, at the low duties 
 assignable to goods, wares, and merchandise, the pro- 
 duce of the colonies. 
 
 It was a part of a system chiefly designed to en- 
 courage British navigation, and, incidentally, to quote 
 again from the Earl of Aberdeen, " for extending the 
 commercial transactions of British colonists, giving 
 them the advantages of a trade of deposit, and facili- 
 ties for collecting a revenue." 
 
 Notwithstanding these restrictions, equally injuri- 
 ous to the commerce of both countries, the United 
 States still maintained an active and. profitable trade 
 in supplying the West India colonies with her staple 
 productions through the neutral and other colonies 
 with which she was permitted to carry on a direct in- 
 tercourse. The British interdict of 1826 closed the 
 ports of all the British American possessions, with the. 
 exception of the northern colonies, including the Ber- 
 muda Islands, to American vessels ; still, the statisti- 
 cal returns of that period exhibit a steady and vigorous 
 indirect trade carried on through the circuitous routes 
 just indicated. 
 
 The following tables, compiled from official returns, 
 show the value of our exports and imports to and from 
 the British American colonial possessions, fi'om 1821 to 
 1830, during which period the restrictive and counter- 
 vailing measures of both governments were, to some 
 extent, relaxed, and our trade with these possessions 
 was relieved from the onerous imposts of indirect and 
 circuitous channels. During a portion of this period, 
 as will be seen by glancing over the following tables, 
 and noting the disparity in the amounts during the 
 3'ears designated, American trade was barely able to 
 struggle through the restrictions and burdens which 
 pressed upon it. The remarks already submitted with 
 reference to the legislation of that period, both in 
 Great Britain and the United States, will sufficiently 
 explain the discrepancies. 
 
 Statement exhibiting the Value op Imports and Ex- 
 poets TO AND FROM THE UNITED StATES AND THE BlilTISH 
 
 American Possessions, durino the Years specified. 
 
 
 
 N. AMERICAN 
 
 POSSESSIONS. 
 
 YEARB. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 1821 
 
 $927,346 
 
 $265,102 
 
 $490,704 
 
 $2,009,791 
 
 1822 
 
 866,537 
 
 452,141 
 
 526,817 
 
 1,898,878 
 
 1823 
 
 1,844,981 
 
 1,627,967 
 
 468,779 
 
 1,827,208 
 
 1824 
 
 2,768,067 
 
 1,771,008 
 
 714,144 
 
 1,782,969 
 
 1825 
 
 2,437,122 
 
 1,647,046 
 
 619,884 
 
 2,556,082 
 
 1826 
 
 2,204,412 
 
 2,110,802 
 
 668,950 
 
 2,588,796 . 
 
 1827 .... 
 
 895,207 
 
 690,577 
 
 445,118 
 
 2,880,748 
 
 The foregoing tables will exhibit, at a glance, the 
 injurious effects consequent upon the different acts of 
 retaliatorj- legislation resorted to and enforced by both 
 nations during this prolonged and unyielding contest. 
 Other tables will be introduced in the proper place, 
 showing the value and extent of trade between the 
 United States and the British colonial possessions sub- 
 sequently to the year 1830, when a policy, based upon 
 the just principles of reciprocal benefit and generous 
 competition, succeeded the illiberal and unwise meas- 
 ures by which the commercial intercourse of both 
 countries had, for nearly half a century, been diverted 
 from its natural channels. 
 
 It will be recollected that by the act of Congress of 
 1823, passed as soon as could be after the Treasur}' cir- 
 cular of September 14, 1822, already referred to, had 
 been issued, the claim to an equality with Great 
 Britain as to duties on importations into the colonies 
 was reasserted, and the terms of the President's proc- 
 lamation of August of the same year were affirmed. 
 Great Britain could not be induced to yield this point : 
 her object being to enable her to "protect the staples 
 of her own subjects, by levying discriminating duties 
 on the like productions of foreign countries." With- 
 
GRE 
 
 881 
 
 GRE 
 
 out such imposts, the British government contended 
 " that the productions of her North American colonies 
 woiild be totally excluded from the markets of the 
 West India Islands, as they could not possibly com- 
 pete with similar productions of the United States." 
 
 This determination, and these discriminating duties, 
 led to the' refusal by Congress to accept the terms on 
 which the ports of the British colonies were opened to 
 American trade by the act of 1825. 
 
 The conditions on which this trade was offered were 
 not deemed admissible, inasmuch as they demanded 
 that the commerce and navigation of Great Britain, 
 and her possessions abroad, with the United States, 
 should be placed on the footing of the most favored 
 nation ; while discriminations existed in such colonial 
 possessions, not only unequal as respected Great Brit- 
 ain, but exclusively applicable to the commerce of the 
 United States. 
 
 These different acts are recurred to for the purpose 
 of elucidating more clearly the illiberal polic}' and 
 narrow jealousies which preceded the new era in the 
 commercial policj"- of both countries, upon which they 
 at length entered. 
 
 In 1829, Mr. McLane, the American minister at 
 London, in pursuance of instructions to that effect, 
 proposed to the British cabinet " a restoration of the 
 trade between the United States and Great Britain, 
 with special reference to her American possessions, 
 upon a basis of reciprocal concession, and announced 
 the willingness of his government to accede to the 
 terms prescribed by the act of Parliament of 1825." 
 
 In opening this negotiation, Mr. McLane introduced 
 the proposition which he was autliorized to submit, by 
 referring to "tlie misunderstandings and jealousies 
 which had hitherto characterized the commercial rela- 
 tions of both countries," observing, " that it was the 
 interest of both governments to extinguish these causes 
 of mutual bitterness ; to correct the errors which may 
 have interrupted the harmony of their past inter- 
 course ; to discard from their commercial regulations 
 measures of hostile monopoly ; and to adopt instead a 
 generous system of frank and amicable competition." 
 Such, in Mr. McLane's judgment, would be the happy 
 result of the proposition he was instructed by his gov- 
 ernment to submit, namely, " that the government of 
 the United States would now comply with the condi- 
 tions of the act of Parliament of July 5, 1825, by an 
 express law opening their ports for the admission of 
 British vessels, and by allowing their entrj' with the 
 same kind of British colonial produce as might be im- 
 ported in American bottoms, the vessels of both coun- 
 tries paying the same charges ; suspending the alien 
 duties on British vessels and cargoes, and abolishing 
 the restrictions defined in the act of Congress of 1823, 
 on the intercourse between the United States and the 
 British colonies ; and that such a law should be imme- 
 diately followed by a revocation of the British order in 
 council of the 27th July, 1826, the abolition or suspen- 
 sion of all discriminating duties on American vessels 
 in the British colonial ports, and the enjoyment by the 
 United States of the advantages of the act of Parlia- 
 ment of 5th July, 1825." 
 
 In subn^tting this proposition, Mr. McLane dis- 
 tinctly declared that, " whatever may be the disposi- 
 tion which his majesty's government may now be 
 pleased to make of this subject, it must necessarily be 
 final ;" a declaration which, doubtless, contributed 
 . somewhat to the satisfactory and liberal arrangement 
 which soon followed. 
 
 In anticipation of a final and satisfactory adjust- 
 ment of this question, and, at the same time, to mani- 
 fest the liberal spirit which animated the government 
 of the United States in its solicitude and willingness at 
 all times to terminate a contest equally detrimental to 
 the commerce of both nations, an act was passed in 
 Mar ISjl, clothing the President with power, on re- 
 ceiving satisfactoiy evidence cf the willingness of the 
 
 K K K 
 
 British government to accede to the proposition sub- 
 mitted by Mr. McLane, to issue his proclamation rati- 
 fying the terms of that proposition, and tendering to 
 British vessels engaged in the colonial trade the advan- 
 tages which it secured. 
 
 On the 17th of August following, Mr. McLane was 
 officially notified by the Earl of Aberdeen, that his 
 government was prepared to accept the terms on which 
 it was proposed to relax their colonial sj'stem, and per- 
 mit a direct trade between the United States and the 
 North American possessions, and only awaited the 
 necessary action on the part of that government to 
 promulge the requisite orders to that end. Accord- 
 ingly, on the 6th daj- of October following, the Presi- 
 dent, by virtue of the authority conferred on him by 
 the above-mentioned act, issued his proclamation, de- 
 claring that the act " concerning navigation," passed 
 on the 18th day of April, 1818, the act supplementary 
 thereto, passed on the 16th day of May, 1820, and the 
 act entitled " An act to regulate the commercial inter- 
 course between the United States and certain British 
 ports," passed on the 1st day of March, 1823, were ab- 
 solutely repealed ; ' and that the ports of the United 
 States were, from the date of the proclamation, open to 
 British vessels and their cargoes, from the islands, 
 provinces, and colonies of Great Britain, on or near the 
 North American continent, and north-east of the Unit- 
 ed States, 
 
 These several acts, it will be borne in mind, consti- 
 tuted the whole .sj'stem of retaliatorj' measures adopted 
 by the government of the United States, during the 
 continuance of the commercial controversy now brought 
 to a close. Corresponding orders in council were also 
 promalged by the British government, giving full 
 validity to the arrangement, and placing the United 
 States on an equal footing, with respect to colonial 
 trade, with the other nations that had complied with 
 the act of 1825. 
 
 The commercial intercourse between the United 
 States and the -American colonial possessions was now 
 established on a basis, in some respects, it is true, re- 
 strictive, but still sufficiently liberal and broad to in- 
 spire with renewed energy the commercial interests of 
 the nation, and direct them in the more equal compe- 
 tition on which they were permitted to enter. 
 
 Nearly 50 years before this period, the policy to 
 which Great Britain now gave her assent was suggest- 
 ed and urged with-great earnestness by Mr. Pitt, then 
 Chancellor of the British Exchequer. His proposition, 
 already noticed, was to the effect that American ves- 
 sels loaded with goods, the growth or produce of the 
 United States, should be admitted to all the ports of 
 the British dominions. Every administration, from 
 the formation of this government down to the year 
 1830, directed its best energies to effect a negotiation 
 with the British government, recognizing this princi- 
 ciple ; but whether from a real desire to protect and 
 foster its own navigation and commerce, as was 
 avowed, or to repress the spirit of commercial activity 
 which, from the very earliest period, had characterized 
 the United States, everj' obstacle that diplomacy could 
 create, and every sophisti'y that ingenuity could sup- 
 ply, seemed interposed whenever the question was 
 pressed upon the attention of tiie British cabinet. 
 
 How disastrous this restrictive policy proved to the 
 commercial interests of both countries, an^ especially 
 to those of the West India colonies, which naturallj' 
 looked to the United States for the necessary supplies of 
 subsistence, may be gathered from the tables already 
 given. The increase of the total trade of the United 
 States from this period may be shown as follows : 
 
 OOMMEUCE OF TOE TJsiTED STATES. 
 
 Exports. Importf). 
 
 1880 $78,849,508 $70,876,920 
 
 1885 121,698,577 149,895,743 
 
 1840 182,086,946 107,141,519 
 
 The progress and almost incredible augmenta- 
 tion of this trade under the new arrangement ma}^ 
 
GRE 
 
 882 
 
 GRE 
 
 6e seen from the following comparative statement of 
 imports and exports : 
 
 Official Value of Imports and Exports of the United 
 States to and prom the British North American 
 AND West India Possessions for 1830 and 1840, re- 
 spectively ; SHOWING, ALSO, THE INCREASE OP TONNAGE 
 DURING THAT PERIOD. 
 
 
 IMPORTS. 
 
 EXPORTS. 
 
 
 1830. 
 
 1840. 
 
 1830. 
 
 1840. 
 
 Brit. N. Amer. 
 
 possessions. . . 
 
 Brit. W. Indies. 
 
 ^$660,808 
 168,579 
 
 {2,007,767 
 1,048,165 
 
 $8,786,378 
 1,901 
 
 $6,093,350 
 2,965,584 
 
 From the foregoing table it will be seen that the ag- 
 gregate trade with the British American colonies in- 
 creased during the period designated from $4,436,676 
 to $8,601,017, or nearly 100 per cent. ; and the increase 
 in the trade with the British West Indies in the same 
 period was equal to 2400 per cent. 
 
 This vast increase in the value of the trade neces- 
 sarily supposes a. corresponding augmentation in the 
 amount of tonnage. As illustrative of the elastic 
 and enterprising spirit of American commerce when 
 freed from the shackles of illiberal restrictions, and 
 permitted a fair competition, on equal terms, in addi- 
 tion to the preceding table, the following statements, 
 exhibiting the augmentation in tonnage nnder the 
 new arrangement of 1830, will prove interesting. 
 
 The average tonnage which entered in the United 
 States from the British, Swedish, and Danish West 
 Indies during the years specified was as follows : 
 
 Tons- 
 
 In 1828, 1329, and 1830 88,683 
 
 In 1832 114,651 
 
 Increase. 26,018 
 
 The average tonnage which departed from the 
 United States for the British, Danish, and Swedish 
 West Indies, in the same years, was as follows : 
 
 Tons. 
 
 In 1828, 1829, and 1830 91,435 
 
 In 1882 134,936 
 
 Increase 43,551 
 
 During the first period, viz., 1828, '29, '30, the prin- 
 cipal trade to the British West Indies was indirect and 
 circuitous ; during the latter (1832), under the new 
 arrangement, it was direct. Similar results followed 
 the liberal policy of 1830, in the trade of the United 
 States with the North American colonies ; and, as we are 
 now approaching a new era in the commercial inter- 
 course between the United States and these colonies, 
 the advent of which was announced by the repeal of 
 the British navigation laws in 1849, the following tables 
 are introduced for the purpose not only of exhibiting 
 the augmentation in that trade during the two periods, 
 but also of indicating its probable future increase 
 under the beneficent effect of the late reciprocity 
 treaty. 
 
 The average tonnage entered into the United States 
 from the North American colonies during the years 
 specified, is as follows : 
 
 Tons. 
 
 In 1828, 1829, and 1830 96,304 
 
 In 1832 132,672 
 
 Increase 86,868 
 
 The average tonnage departing from the United 
 States to N6rth American possessions, the same years, 
 was as follows : 
 
 Tons. 
 
 In 1828, 1829, and 1S30 108,370 
 
 la 1832 211,348 
 
 Increase 107,978 
 
 The following is a summary of the foregoing tables : 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Increase of tonnage entered in 1882 from the W. Ind. 26,018 
 Increase of tonnage from North Ameiican possessions 86,863 
 
 Total 112,386 
 
 Increase of tonnage departed to the "West Indies 43,551 
 
 Increase of tonnage departed to the N. Ainer. pos . . . 107,978 
 
 Total 151,629 
 
 It will have already been perceived, from the fore- 
 going tables, that so soon as American commerce was 
 liberated from the thralldom of oppressive and prohib- 
 itory restrictions, it at once challenged a competition 
 with the flags of all nations in supplying the markets 
 of the British West India and North American posses- 
 sions, and in maintaining with them a profitable and 
 an extensive trade. 
 
 Indeed the benefits resulting from the measures 
 adopted in 1830, not only to the United States and 
 Great Britain, but to the West India and other Amer- 
 ican possessions, became so manifest, in the vast in- 
 crease of capital, tonnage, and the value ^f trade, and 
 the commercial relations between the two nations had 
 become, year by j'ear, so closely united in the bonds of 
 mutual interest and of a more enlightened policy, that 
 it is not surprising that the British nation received with 
 much favor the first advance, taken by Sir Robert 
 Peel, toward the system of free trade, which now con- 
 stitutes the basis of British commercial legislation, 
 and, in its results upon the general prosperity and 
 wealth of that nation, full}'- vindicates the wisdom and 
 foresight of its distinguished author. 
 
 Prior to 1847, American exports to the British colo- 
 nies were burdened with double duties — those imposed 
 by the British Parliament, st3'led imperial duties, and 
 those prescribed by the local legislatures of the differ- 
 ent colonies. The revenue derived from the former 
 was, at all times, inadequate to meet the expenses of 
 the colonial system ; and, in consequence, the British 
 civil list was annually increased by large appropria- 
 tions for colonial purposes. The embarrassed condi- 
 tion of the British finances at this period co-operated 
 very opportunely with Sir Robert Peel's predilections 
 in favor of free-trade policy, in inclining the British gov- 
 ernment to receive favorably his proposition to aban- 
 don all control over colonial tariff's, and throw their 
 foreign possessions on their own resources. This 
 measure was at once adopted ; and in the season next 
 succeeding, the Canadian Legislature abolished the 
 discriminating and prohibitory^ duties on imports in- 
 land, thus placing the mother countrj^ in the same 
 relative position as foreign nations. The abolition of 
 the British corn-laws next succeeded in this liberal 
 policy ; and, in 1849, the crowning act of Sir Robert 
 Peel's life — the repeal of the British navigation laws — 
 consummated the S3-stem of measures introduced by 
 that statesman, so far at least as that system aff"ected 
 the intercourse of foreign nations with British colonies 
 throughout the world. 
 
 By these several acts of imperial legislation, the 
 comprehensive principle was established of admitting 
 into Great Briain, or into any British possession, goods 
 of any sort, in a ship of any country, from any part of 
 the world, subject only to such prohibitions and re- 
 strictions as were deemed necessary, either for the 
 saioty of the State, or for the protection of revenue and 
 mercantile interests. 
 
 Under the class of absolute prohibitions, the follow- 
 ing articles are included, viz. : gunpowder, ammu- 
 nition, arms, or utensils of war, except from the. United 
 Kingdom or any British possession, and base or coun- 
 terfeit coin. These are prohibited to be imported into 
 the British possessions in America or the Mauritius. 
 Other prohibitions and restrictions will be found es- 
 pecially set forth in Part II., Com. Rel U, S., 1857. 
 
 The only imposts to which the commerce of the 
 United States with the colonies of Great Britain is now 
 subject, are the colonial duties imposed by the local leg- 
 islatures of the respective colonies ; and these apply, 
 with some few exceptions, which are noticed in their 
 proper place, equally to British importations and Brit- 
 ish bottoms. These duties are generally very moder- 
 
GRE 
 
 883 
 
 GRE 
 
 ate, designed solely to meet the necessary expenses of 
 thr colonies, and are at least one third less than the 
 duties levied in the United States, on similar descrip- 
 tions of merchandise, hy the tariff act of 1846. 
 
 We have noticed the wonderful progress and steady 
 increase in the value and tonnage of American com- 
 merce with her colonial neighbors which followed the 
 negotiation of 1830, and the subsequent acts and regu- 
 lations of the British government. Each successive 
 year brings its tribute of augmented returns and ex- 
 panding commerce to illustrate the wisdom and the 
 far-seeing sagacity of those statesmen, in both coun- 
 tries, who originated this liberal system. 
 
 The commercial intercourse of the United States 
 witli the West Indies and the eastern possessions of 
 Great Britain remains unchanged since 1850. Al- 
 though this intercourse is still dependent on the regu- 
 lations of the mother country, as a general rule, the 
 impost duties are equal on all bottoms, but slight dis- 
 criminations existing even in favor of British vessels. 
 With the North American provinces, however — that is, 
 with " Canada, Newfoundland, New Brunswiclc, Nova 
 Scotia, Prince Edward's Island, and the several isl- 
 ands thereunto adjacent".— a system of the most liberal 
 and unrestricted character has been adopted, which, 
 to a great extent, places commercial intercourse be- 
 tween the United States and those possessions, re- 
 spectivelj-, on the footing of an unfettered coasting 
 trade. The Reciprocity Treaty of 1854 established a 
 free trade between the colonies above named and the 
 United States, in the principal raw staples of both 
 countries, and concedes to the citizens of tlie latter 
 among other privileges, " the right to navigate the 
 Elver St. Lawrence, and the canals in Canada, used as 
 a means of communicating between the great lakes 
 and the Atlantic Ocean," as well as of " taking, cur- 
 ing, and drying fish of every kind on the sea-coast and 
 shoals, and in the bays, harbors, and creeks of Cana- 
 da, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward's 
 Island, and of the several islands thereunto adjacent, 
 without being restricted to any distance from the 
 shore, with permission to land upon the coasts and 
 shores of those colonies and the islands thereof, and 
 also upon the Magdalen Islands, far the purpose of 
 drying their nets and curing their fish." 
 
 The third article of this treaty provides that the ar- 
 ticles enumerated in the following schedule, being the 
 growth and produce of the aforesaid British colonies or 
 of the United States, shall be admitted into each coun- 
 try, respectively, free of duty : 
 
 Schedule. — Grain, flour, and breadstuffs of all kinds ; 
 animals of all kinds ; fresh, smoked, and salted meats ; 
 cotton, wool, seeds, and vegetables ; undriedfruits, dried 
 fruits ; fish of all kinds ; products of fish, and of all other 
 creatures living in the water ; poultry, eggs ; hides, 
 furs, skins, or tails, undressed ; stone or marble in its 
 crude or unwrought state ; slate ; butter, cheese, tal- 
 low ; lard, horns, manure ; ores of metals of all kinds ; 
 coal ; pitch, tar, turpentine, ashes ; timber and lumber 
 of ail kinds, round, hewed, and sawed, unmanufac- 
 tured, in whole, or in part ; fire-wood ; plants, shrubs, 
 and trees ; pelts, wool ; fish-oil ; rice, broom-corn, and 
 bark ; gypsum, ground or unground ; hewn or wrought 
 or unwrought burr or grindstones ; dye-stuffs ; flax, 
 hemp, and tow, unmanufactured ; unmanufactured to- 
 bacco ; rags. 
 
 Articles of manufacture, it will be perceived, are 
 not embraced in the above schedule ; indeed, these 
 possessions, being abandoned by the British Treasury, 
 by the act of 1847, already referred to, are now com- 
 pelled to support themselves ; and their tariff on 
 manufactured articles is the principal source of rev- 
 enue on which they must depend to meet their heavy 
 loans and support their respective governments. 
 
 The same tonnage duties are payable upon ships or 
 boats of the United States of America importing goods 
 into Upper or Lower Canada, as are or may be payable 
 
 at the same time In the United States of America on 
 British craft entering the harbors of the St^ite from 
 which such goods shall have been imported. (17 and 
 18 Vict., chap, cxxii., sec. 173.) 
 
 The following comparative tables exhibit the value 
 of trade between the United States and British North 
 American possessions during the years 1851, '52, '63, 
 '54, '55. A reference to tables already given wil! 
 show how largely the totals since 1850 exceed those 
 prior to that period. The figures are taken from the 
 United States' Treasury reports on "Commerce and 
 Navigation." 
 
 Exports from Canada in 1851 $7,929,140 
 
 Exports to other British American pos- 
 sessions 4,088,783 
 
 Total $12,014,923 
 
 Imports from Canada in 1851 $4,956,471 
 
 Imports from other BritiBh American 
 possessions 1,736,651 
 
 Total 6,693,122 
 
 Balance of trade in favor of the Uni- 
 ted States in 1851 $5,321,801 
 
 Total trade between the United States and Brit- 
 ish North American possessions in 1851 $18,708,045 
 
 Exports to Canada in 1 853 $6,717,060 
 
 Exports to other British North Amer- 
 ican colonies 3,791,956 
 
 Total 10,509,010 
 
 Imports from Canada in 1852 $4,589,969 
 
 Imports from other North American 
 possessions 1,520,330 
 
 Total 6,110,299 
 
 Balance of trade in favor of the Uni- 
 ted States in 1852 $4,398,717 
 
 Total trade between the United States and Brit- ' 
 ish North American possessions in 1852 $16,619,315 
 
 Exports to Canada in 1853 $7,829,099 
 
 Exports to other British North Amer- 
 ican colonies 5,311,543 
 
 Total ,. 13,140,642 
 
 Imports from Canada in 1853 $5,278,116 
 
 Imports from other British American 
 colonies . . . . ; 2,272,602 
 
 Total 7,550,718 
 
 Balance of trade in favor of the Uni- 
 ted States in 1853 $5,589,924 
 
 Total trade between the United States and Brit- 
 ish North American possessions in 1853 $20,691 360 
 
 Exports to Canada in 1854 $17,300,706 
 
 Exports to other British American 
 colonies 7,266,154 
 
 Total 24,566,860 
 
 Imports from Canada in 1854 $6,721,539 
 
 Imports from other British American 
 colonies 2,206,021 
 
 Total 8,937,560 i 
 
 Balance of trade in favor of the Uni- 
 ted States in 1854 $15,639,300 
 
 Total trade between the United States and Brit- 
 ish North American possessions in 1854 $33,494,420 
 
 Exports to Canada in 1855 $18,720,344 
 
 Exports to other British American 
 colonies 9,085,676 
 
 Total 27,806,020 
 
 Imports from Canada in 1855 $12,182,314 
 
 Imports from other British North 
 American possessions 2,954,420 
 
 Total 15,136,731 
 
 Balance of trade in favor of the Uni- 
 ted States in 1855 $12,669,286 
 
 Total trade between the United States and Brit- 
 ish North American possessions in 1855 $42,942,751 
 
 Total trade in 1851 18,708,045 
 
 " hi 1855 42,942,751 
 
 Increase in total trade from 1851 to 1855 $24,234,703 
 
GRE 
 
 884 
 
 GRE 
 
 General Remarks on the Commercial Relations of the 
 United States with the British Colonies. — Canada. — The 
 following statement exhibits the condition of trade 
 between the United States and Canada ; the descrip- 
 tion, amount, and value of the principal imports and 
 exports, the balance in favor of either countrj', etc., 
 during the years 1851, 1852, and 1853, together with 
 certain commercial regulations in force at the different 
 ports in the province of Canada. The figures are 
 taljen from the Canadian official reports on " Trade 
 and Navi.j;ation." The fact that the fiscal j-ear in 
 these reports ends in December, while that in the 
 United States' Treasury reports ends in June, will ac- 
 count for the apparent discrepanc}"" between this state- 
 ment and the general one which has immediately pre- 
 ceded. 
 
 Impoets rnOM Canada in 1851. 
 
 Produce of the mines $60,873 
 
 Produce of the seae 43,784 
 
 Produce of the forest 1,583,380 
 
 Animals, and produce of animals 565,884 
 
 Vegetable food (including $1,617,000 for wheat and 
 
 flour) 1,909,229 
 
 Other agricultural produce 35,788 
 
 Manufactures . 
 Other articles. 
 
 45,064 
 128,032 
 
 Total $4,071,534 
 
 ExpoETS TO Canada in 1851. 
 
 Principal Articles. — Coffee, sugar, molasses, tea, 
 tobacco (manufactured and unmanufactured), 
 
 whisky, wine, and salt 1,983,458 
 
 Fruits (green and dried), spices 102,865 
 
 Horses, grains, clieese, salt meat, pork 49,800 
 
 Tanned leather, oil, paper, mess-pork, rice, can- 
 dles, cotton and leather manufactures, manufac- 
 tures of India-rubber, iron and hardware, ma- 
 chinery, and wool 4,198,040 
 
 Broom-corn, burr-stones, coals, hides, tallow, other 
 
 articles. . ., 645,560 
 
 Books, cotton-wool, maize, philosophical appa- 
 ratus, settlers' goods, wheat (and including 
 $537,000 In bullion) 1,384,028 
 
 Total $8,363,751 
 
 Total exports $8,363,751 
 
 Total imports 7 4,071,534 
 
 Balance in favor of the United States $4,292,217 
 
 Total of imports ioto Canada from Great Britain 
 
 in 1851, in round numbers 12,000,000 
 
 The same from the United States 8,000,000 
 
 Difference against the United States. 
 
 $4,000,000 
 
 Imports into Canada fx'om all countries in 1851, in 
 
 round numbers 21,000,000 
 
 Of which from the United States 8,000,000 
 
 Difference between the value of imports into Can- 
 ada from the Untied States, and from ail other 
 countries $13,000,000 
 
 From the foregoing it will be perceived that the im- 
 ports into Canada from the United States, in 1851, 
 were only one third less than those from Great Britain, 
 and nearly two fifths of the whole imports from all 
 other countries. 
 
 Impoets in 1S52. 
 
 Produce of the mines $2,156 
 
 Produce of the seas 50,288 
 
 Produce of the forest 1,840,196 
 
 Animals, and their produce 966,200 
 
 Vegetable food 3,186,260 
 
 Flax, and other seed 94,836 
 
 Manufactures 60,376 
 
 Other articles 84,200 
 
 Total $6,284,512 
 
 ESTOETS IN 1852. 
 
 Pjincipal Articles. — Coffee, sugar, molasses, tea, 
 tobacco (manufactured and unmanufactured), 
 
 whisky, wine, and salt $2,22.5,112 
 
 Fruits and spices 91,372 
 
 Horses, grains, cheese, etc 49,732 
 
 Fish, fur, glass, tanned leather, oil, paper, mess- 
 pork, rice, candles, manufactures of cotton, 
 leather, iron, wood, silk. India-rubber, iron 
 and hardware, wood articles (uneuumerated), 
 and sundries ' 4,418,568 
 
 Broom-com, burr-stones, coals, cotton-yam, flax, 
 hides, tallow, nitre, wool, sundries $769,216 
 
 Books, cotton-wool, Indian corn, settlers' goods, 
 wheat, other articles 864,692 
 
 Total $8,413,692 
 
 Total exports. 8,413,692 
 
 Total imports 6,284,512 
 
 Balance in favor of the United States $2,129,180 
 
 Total value of imports into Canada from Great 
 
 Britain in 1852, in round numbers 10,500,000 
 
 The same from the United States 8,600,000 
 
 Difference between the value of imports from 
 Great Britain and from the United States 2,000,000 
 
 Imports into Canada from all nations in 1852, in 
 
 round numbers $20,000,000 
 
 Of which from the United States 8,500,000 
 
 Difference between the value of imports into Can- 
 ada, from the United States, and from all other 
 countries 11,500,000 
 
 The preceding tables will show, that in 1852 the 
 United States almost equaled Great Britain in her ex- 
 ports to Canada, and furnished more than two fifths of 
 the whole imports into that province. 
 Imports in 1853. 
 
 Produce of the mines $75,596 
 
 Produce of the seas 73,424 
 
 Produce of the forest 2,610,176 
 
 Animals, and produce of animals 1,046,852 
 
 Vesetable food .-. 4,879,444 
 
 Other agricultural produce 93,736 
 
 Manufactures 107,832 
 
 Other articles 49,820 
 
 Total $8,936,880 
 
 ExpOETB IN 1353. 
 
 Description of merchandise the same as for 1851 
 and 1852— total value , $11,782,148 ' 
 
 Total exports $11,782,148 
 
 Total imports 8,936,380 
 
 Balance in favor of the U. States, in 1853,, , $2,846,768 
 
 Total value of imports into Canada from Great 
 
 Britain, in 1853 18,489,120 
 
 game from the United States 11,782,148 
 
 Difference $6,706,972 
 
 Imports into Canada, from all nations, in 1853, in 
 
 round numbers 32,000,000 
 
 Of which, from the United States 11,782,143 
 
 Difference $20,217,862 
 
 Imports into Canada, in 1853, were unusually heavy, 
 exceeding those of the preceding year $12,000,000. 
 The tables will show that Great Britain supplied more 
 than one half of the whole ; whUe the exports from 
 the United States, though exceeding those of the pre- 
 ceding year upward of fjo, 000,000, did not maintain, 
 with respect to Great Britain, the ratio of 1852. 
 
 Imports from Canada up to 30th June, 1854 (ac- 
 cording to the United States' Treasury report). , $6,721,539 
 Exports to same date 17,800,706 
 
 Exhibiting a balance in favor of the U, States of. , $10,579,167 
 Before closing these remarlts, it is proper to observe 
 that the preceding tables and calculations have been 
 prepared with much care, with a view to furnish accu- 
 rate data in estimating the benefits secured to Amer- 
 ican commerce by the Keciprocity Treaty of 1854. 
 The statement exhibiting the value of imports from, 
 and exports to Canada, for 1855, when compared witli 
 these tables, wUl demonstrate the wisdom and policy 
 of that measure. — U. S. Com. Relations. 
 
 Summary of the Regulations in Force at the Different 
 Ports in Canada. — Merchandise shall not be unladen, 
 except after due entry, at places designated for that 
 purpose, under penalty of forfeiture. 
 
 Merchandise shall not be brought or imported into 
 the province, whether by sea, land, coastwise, or by 
 inland navigation, whether dutiable or not, except into 
 some port or place at which a custom-house is, or may 
 be established, under penalty of forfeiture of ves- 
 
GRE 
 
 885 
 
 GRE 
 
 sel and goods, if under the value of $1000 ; if above 
 that sum, then the vessel and goods shall be retained 
 as security for the paj'ment of that amount. This 
 applies, mutatis mutandis, to goods brought into the 
 province, by land, in carriages or other vehicles. 
 
 Other regulations have reference, principally, to 
 frontier smuggling, and to the duties and powers of 
 the officers charged with its prevention. They convey 
 no general commercial information, and are, therefore, 
 omitted. 
 
 Most of the articles on which a discrimination in 
 favor of importations from Great Britain exists, are 
 
 embraced in the third article (" schedule") of the Re- 
 ciprocity Treaty. 
 
 Foreign vessels are not permitted to carry goods or 
 passengers from one port of any British possession in 
 Asia, Africa, or America, to another port of the same 
 possession ; though by the act 17 Victoria, chap. 5, the 
 coasting trade of the United Kingdom is opened to the 
 vessels of all nations. 
 
 The foregoing regulations, etc., apply with some 
 slight modifications, to ' all the other colonial posses- 
 sions of Great Britain in North America. They will 
 not, therefore, be again referred to. 
 
 OOMMBROE OF THE UNITED STATES WITH THE BRITISH NoRTH AMERICAN COLONIES, FROM OCTOBER 1, 
 
 1856 ; INCLUDING Canada to June 80, 1848. 
 
 TO July 1, 
 
 Yeara ending 
 
 Exports. 
 
 ImportB, 
 
 Whereof there waa in Bullion 
 and Specie. 
 
 Tonnage 
 
 Cleared. 
 
 Domostic. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Tolnl. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Exported. 
 
 Imported. 
 
 American, 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Sept. 80, 1821 
 
 $2,021,449 
 
 $2,812 
 
 $2,024,361 
 
 $491,638 
 
 
 $89,417 
 
 118,097 
 
 
 1822 
 
 1,881,278 
 
 16,286 
 
 1,897,659 
 
 526,817 
 
 
 158,225 
 
 90,977 
 
 
 1823 
 
 1,818,113 
 
 3,847 
 
 1,821,460 
 
 463,874 
 
 
 319,749 
 
 52,776 
 
 12,023 
 
 1824 
 
 1,778,107 
 
 2,617 
 
 1,776,724 
 
 705,981 
 
 
 298,840 
 
 58,951 
 
 A\^ 
 
 1825 
 
 2,638,224 
 
 1,740 
 
 2,589,964 
 
 610,788 
 
 
 318,896 
 
 61,620 
 
 10,139 
 
 1826 
 
 2,564,165 
 
 24,884 
 
 2,588,549 
 
 650,315 
 
 $463,360 
 
 331,994 
 
 76,191 
 
 10,108 
 
 1827 
 
 2,797,014 
 
 88,660 
 
 2,8-30,674 
 
 446,118 
 
 1,031,291 
 
 164,507 
 
 60,878 
 
 11,146 
 
 1828 
 
 1,618,288 
 
 56,886 
 
 1,674,674 
 
 447,669 
 
 126,772 
 
 179,944 
 
 68,801 
 
 10,658 
 
 1829 
 
 2,724,104 
 
 40,805 
 
 2,764,909 
 
 577,542 
 
 626,263 
 
 241,287 
 
 98,645 
 
 10,569 
 
 1880 
 
 * Total.... 
 
 8,650.081 
 
 136,842 
 
 8,786,378 
 
 660,808 
 
 128,821 
 
 253.279 
 
 117,171 
 
 14,267 
 
 $23,885,768 
 
 $818,379 
 
 $23,704,147 
 
 $5,669,486 
 
 $2,364,887 
 
 $2,086,088 
 
 788,507 
 
 88,089 
 
 Sept. 80, 1831 
 
 $4,026,392 
 
 $35,446 
 
 $4,061,888 
 
 $864,909 
 
 $35,900 
 
 $277,197 
 
 79,364 
 
 94,776 
 
 1882 
 
 8,669,802 
 
 46,088' 
 
 8,614,.885 
 
 1,239,536 
 
 16,961 
 
 542,745 
 
 66,056 
 
 146,392 
 
 1883 
 
 4,390,081 
 
 81,008 
 
 4,471,084 
 
 1,793,393 
 
 14,704 
 
 817,880 
 
 319,408 
 
 245,779 
 
 1884 
 
 8,477,709 
 
 57,667 
 
 3,686,276 
 
 1,548,738 
 
 400,600 
 
 652,268 
 
 195,989 
 
 323,120 
 
 1885 
 
 8,900,545 
 
 147,348 
 
 4,047,888 
 
 1,4S6,108 
 
 688,783 
 
 197,400 
 
 863,632 
 
 415,406 
 
 18!)e 
 
 2,456,415 
 
 194,861 
 
 2,661,266 
 
 2,427,671 
 
 32,388 
 
 546,474 
 
 291,981 
 
 428,191 
 
 1887 
 
 2,922,474 
 
 . 296,512 
 
 8,318,986 
 
 2,859,263 
 
 160,000 
 
 448,602 
 
 883,284 
 
 440,002 
 
 1888 
 
 2,484,987 
 
 288,604 
 
 3,728,491 
 
 1,655,670 
 
 430,308 
 
 450,712 
 
 261,286 
 
 888,166 
 
 1839 
 
 8,418,770 
 
 144,684 
 
 8,563,454 
 
 2,165,146 
 
 16,800 
 
 481,782 
 
 385,506 
 
 873,772 
 
 1840 
 
 Total.... 
 
 5,889,215 
 
 204,085 
 
 6,098,360 
 
 2,007,767 
 
 11,500 
 
 780,171 
 
 857,073 
 
 401,805 
 
 $86,685,890 
 
 $1,445,028 
 
 $87,980,918 
 
 $17,377,016 
 
 $1,746,144 
 
 $6,145,216 
 
 2,601,874 
 
 8,262,299 
 
 Sept. 80, 1841 
 
 $6,292,290 
 
 $864,278 
 
 $6,666,563 
 
 $1,968,187 
 
 $198,100 
 
 $475,891 
 
 404,472 
 
 447,986 
 
 1842 
 
 6,960,143 
 
 240,166 
 
 , 6,190,809 
 
 1,763,001 
 
 59,076 
 
 763,069 
 
 838,315 
 
 417,409 
 
 9 mos. 1843 
 
 2,617,005 
 
 107,417 
 
 2,724,422 
 
 857,696 
 
 86,334 
 
 408,645 
 
 303,607 
 
 288,092 
 
 June 80, 1844„ 
 
 5,361,186 
 
 1,864,717 
 
 6,715,903 
 
 1,465.715 
 
 711,344 
 
 445,995 
 
 696,866 
 
 616,381 
 
 1845 
 
 4,844,966 
 
 1,209,260 
 
 6,054,226 
 
 2,020,066 
 
 489,095 
 
 914,461 
 
 677,935 
 
 612,004 
 
 1846 
 
 6,042,666 
 
 1,868,767 
 
 7,406,488 
 
 1,937,717 
 
 251,900 
 
 623,043 
 
 868,563 
 
 678,678 
 
 1847 
 
 5,819,667 
 
 2,165,876 
 
 7,985,648 
 
 2,348,927 
 
 480,276 
 
 863,451 
 
 667,595 
 
 528,516 
 
 1848 
 
 6,890,959 
 
 1,982,696 
 
 8,382,655 
 
 8,646,467 
 
 556,900 
 
 960,148 
 
 859,791 
 
 881,271 
 
 1849 
 
 8,611,763 
 
 267,760 
 
 3,869,548 
 
 1,846,798 
 
 
 47,580 
 
 122,641 
 
 409,877 
 
 1860 
 
 Total.... 
 
 8,116,840 
 
 501,874 
 
 8,618,214 
 
 1,858,992 - 
 
 33,044 
 
 88,698 
 
 76,293 
 
 621,113 
 
 $50,056,605 
 
 $9,547,806 
 
 $59,608,811 
 
 $18,706,666 
 
 $2,864,968 
 
 $5,540,726 
 
 4,884,077 
 
 4,990,620 
 
 June 80, 1851 
 
 $3,234,653 
 
 $861,230 
 
 $4,085,783 
 
 $1,786,651 
 
 $80 
 
 $44,677 
 
 108,285 
 
 593,507 
 
 1862 
 
 2,660,1M 
 
 1,181,822 
 
 3,791,956 
 
 1,530,8.30 
 
 112,6.58 
 
 56,895 
 
 122,809 
 
 644,618 
 
 1853v 
 
 3,398,675 
 
 1,912,968 
 
 5,S1I,.548 
 
 2,273,603 
 
 200,521 
 
 88,940 
 
 266,481 
 
 683,466 
 
 1854 
 
 4,693,771 
 
 3,573,883 
 
 7,266,154 
 
 2,206,021 
 
 48,975 
 
 68,148 
 
 296,781 
 
 687,809 
 
 1865 
 
 6,865,878 
 
 8,229,798 
 
 9,085,676 
 
 2,954,420 
 
 64,312 
 
 18,413 
 
 276,638 
 
 498,832 
 
 1866 
 
 7,519,909 
 
 636,199 
 
 8,146,108 
 
 8,822,224 
 
 4,000 
 
 83,807 
 
 326,647 
 
 471,871 
 
 British Provinces. — Under the impetus communi- 
 cated by the Treaty of Reciprocity, the trade of the 
 United States with the Canadas has greatly increased, 
 notwithstanding the formidable diminution of nearly 
 $6,000,000 in our exportation of foreign goods. The 
 aggregates for the last two years we have arranged as 
 follows, for purposes of comparison : 
 
 1 1855. 
 
 1856. 
 
 Domestic produce exported to ( 
 the Canadas f 
 
 $9,950,764 
 
 8,769,580 
 
 5,8;6,878 
 
 8,229,798 
 13,183,814 
 2,911,420 
 
 $15,194,788 
 
 5,688,453 
 
 7,619,909 
 
 636,199 
 
 17,488,197 
 
 3,823,324 
 
 Domestic produce exported to ) 
 the Lower Provinces J 
 
 Imports iVom the Canadas 
 
 Imports fi-om theLower Provinces 
 
 Total trade 
 
 $42,939,764 
 
 $50,889,770 
 
 Total trade with the Canadas 
 
 Total trade with the Lower 1 
 Provinces 
 
 $80,909,668 
 
 $38,371,488 
 
 $13,087,069 
 
 $11,968,882 
 
 The total aggregates of trade during the last five 
 years, are as follows : 
 
 1852 $16,519,305 
 
 1853 20,691,246 
 
 1854 83,494,820 
 
 1855 42,939,764 
 
 1866 50,389,770 
 
 The chief articles of export and their values were 
 for 1855 and 1856 : 
 
 
 1865. 
 
 1866. < 
 
 
 $317,000 
 
 20,000 
 
 800,000 
 
 100,000 
 
 867,000 
 
 48,000 
 1,568,000 
 
 46,000 
 438,000 
 187,000 
 
 87,000 
 182,000 
 100,000 
 283,000 
 
 65,000 
 
 94,000 
 153,000 
 470,000 
 960,000 
 820,000 
 
 $250,000 
 44,000 
 230,000 
 157,000 
 
 4,528,000 
 
 108,000 ; 
 1,769,000 1 
 53,000 
 616,000 
 296,000 
 140,000 
 328,000 
 116,000 
 504,000 
 114,000 
 148,000 
 808,000 
 914,000 
 1,517,000 
 . 402,000 
 
 Fish 
 
 Manufactures of wood 
 
 
 Beef, pork, bacon, lard, tallow ) 
 and hides .' J 
 
 
 Eice 
 
 Tobacco and snufF 
 
 Whisky 
 
 
 
 Hats 
 
 
 Glass 
 
 
 Salt. . 
 
 
 
 Coal 
 
 
 The most notable increase, it will be observed, has 
 taken place in animal products. For more extended 
 information about Great Britain, see England, Ire- 
 land, and Scotland. Also CoLONiKa, Cotton, 
 and Fisheries. ' 
 
GRE 
 
 886 
 
 GRE 
 
 Great Circle Sailing ; the manner of conduct- 
 . ig a ship in, or rather pretty near, the arc of a. great 
 circle that passes through the zenith of the two places, 
 viz. : from -whence she came, and to which she is 
 bound. 
 
 Greece. The continent of Greece, including Al- 
 bania and Macedonia, is nearly shut in on the north 
 by a chain of mountains known anciently by the names 
 of Rhodope, Scomius, and Orbelus ; it is bounded on 
 the west by the Adriatic and Ionian Seas, on the south 
 by the Mediterranean, and on the east by the jEgean 
 Sea, or Archipelago. It extends from 36° 10' to 42° 
 40' of north latitude ; and from 19° 45' to 24° 40' of 
 east longitude from London. Its length, from Cape 
 Matapan to Mount Orbelus, or Argentaro, is 450 
 English miles ; its greatest breadth from Durazzo to 
 Cavale, at the foot of Mount Pangoeus (a branch of 
 Rhodope), 235 miles ; and it embraces an area of 57,- 
 750 square miles, exclusive of all its islands except 
 Euboea. But, as our ideas of the extent of the coun- 
 try have always a reference to those ancient States 
 which comprised but very minute portions of its sur- 
 face, it is necessary that its dimensions should be de- 
 scribed more in detail. 
 
 The countrj' recognized as Greece before the rise of 
 the Macedonian power, comprehended the jMorea or 
 Peloponnesus, Attica, Euboea, Boeotia, Phocis, Doris, 
 jEtoIia, Acarnania, Thessaly, and Magnesia ; and 
 even several of the States included within these limits 
 had little or no share in those splendid actions which 
 have shed so much glory over the country. The sur- 
 face of Peloponnesus, which included seven different 
 States, is about 9000 English square miles ; that of 
 the countries just named, without the peninsula, in- 
 cluding Euboea, is 14,800 ; and both together amount 
 to 23,800 square miles — an extent of surface not ex- 
 ceeding two fifths of England, or one fifth of the Brit- 
 ish Isles, If to this we add 16,000 square miles for 
 Albania or Epiris (including the basin of the Drino), 
 18,000 for Macedonia, and 1000 for the Cyclades, 
 the whole surface of Greece and its islands will 
 be 58,800 square miles, which is almost exactly the 
 area of England. While Greece preserved its inde- 
 pendence, however, all these teri'itories were never 
 united into one body politic, nor was their confederated 
 force ever applied to the prosecution of any common 
 enterprise. The communities whose warlike achieve- 
 ments and brilliant career in arts and philosophy raised 
 the Grecian name so high, occupied but very minute 
 portions of the countr}-- ; as the following table de- 
 duced from measurements will show : 
 
 Ene:. sq. miles, 
 
 Attica, including Megaris and Salamis, but not Eubi^a. 1,190 
 
 Bosntia. 1,530 
 
 Laconia (witliout Messenia) 1,720 
 
 Achaia (the twelve cities with their territories) 1,140 
 
 Attica, besides possessing at one period Eubcea, had 
 many colonies in the Cyclades, Thrace, and other 
 parts ; and Sparta held Messema long in subjection ; 
 but, in great struggles, these colonies and depend- 
 encies often shook off their allegiance, and the parent 
 State was obliged to rely on its own resources. Such 
 was the energy of these small communities, that At- 
 tica, which scarcely supports, at present, a population 
 of 50,000 souls, sent out sometimes colonies of 10,000 
 men at once {Dlod. Sic.^ lib. ii.) ; and Sparta furnished 
 50,000 soldiers to fight the Persians at Plataea. The 
 territories of Corinth, when she formed a separate 
 State were much smaller than any of these ; her wealth 
 and power depending chiefly on commerce. 
 
 Greece forms a long and rather narrow peninsula, 
 singularly indented on three sides by arms of the sea, 
 and having a greater proportion of its surface occupied 
 by mountains than any other country in Europe of 
 equal extent, except Switzerland. It has been justly 
 observed, that those physical features which distin- 
 guish Europe from the other quarters of the world 
 belong, in a peculiar manner, to Greece, and distin- 
 
 guish it in the same proportion from the other parts of 
 Europe. Of these arms of the sea, the most consid- 
 erable are the Gulfs of Contessa, Salonlca, Volo, ^gi- 
 na, and Nauplia, on the east ; those of Kolokythia and 
 Coron on the South ; and those of Lepanto and Arta 
 on the west. Of the mountains, the first in order are 
 those which pass along the northern frontier. Mount 
 Argentaro, the ancient Orbelus, placed at the northern 
 extremity of Greece, near the 43d degree of latitude, 
 may be considered as the centre of the whole system 
 of mountains in European Turkey. 
 
 Money. — The drachm, which is the unit of the cur- 
 rency, is about 8^d. English money. It is divided into 
 100 equal parts called lepta. There are copper coins 
 of 10, 5, 2, and 1 lepta, the only Greek money that 
 circulates in the country. The silver coins of 50 and 
 25 lepta have been melted down or exported. Those 
 of 1 drachm are very rare. Those of 5 drachms are 
 now only to be found in Turkey. The gold pieces of 20 
 drachms, called othos, also have disappeared. 
 
 Weiffhts and Measures. — A very complete scale of 
 weights and measures was established by the govern- 
 ment in 1836 ; but the people adhere for measure of 
 length to the pique = 27 inches. Then for weight — 
 the principal one known, even in the capital, is the 
 oke, a Turkish weight equal to 2 lbs. 12 oz., which is 
 divided into 400 dramia = If Eng. drams. The 
 cantaar or quintal is generally 44 okes = 121 lbs. 
 The kilo or quilot of corn is 22 okes, or 60 lbs. The 
 land measure is the strema equal to about one fourth of 
 an English acre. 
 
 Cultivated Land. — It appears that not half the sur- 
 face is susceptible of cultivation ; and at least two thirds 
 of the cultivated, and four fifths of the uncultivated soil 
 belong to the State. One great disadvantage to agricul- 
 ture is the scanty supply of running water ; but the 
 peasants are very dexterous at taking advantage of the 
 smallest rill to irrigate their tillage. Money rent is little 
 known ; the lands being farmed on the metayer system, 
 according to which the landlord receives a certain pro- 
 portion of the net produce — usually a third. He has 
 frequently to furnish the seed, and sometimes the oxen 
 for tillage, the cost of which, with high interest, is 
 deducted from the profits before any division is made. 
 On this system, there is little inducement for the 
 proprietor to expend capital on improvements ; still 
 less is there for the metayer, who has no interest in 
 the land beyond the season. Consequently, inclosure 
 and drainage are scarcely thought of ; and the stones 
 having never been removed, lie so thick together that 
 in some places it is scarcely credible that they can have 
 accumulated naturally. The dwellings of the peas- 
 ants are extremely poor, consisting of stones and frag- 
 ments of tile and potterj' held together by mud. Glass 
 casements are rare even in provincial towns ; and in 
 the country cottages the light is most frequently ad- 
 mitted only by the door-way. 
 
 Productions. — The arable soil of Greece is devoted 
 chiefly to the cultivation of com, vines, mulberry- 
 trees, and fruit trees, A^''heat, rye, barley, and maize, 
 succeed pretty well in the stony districts where the 
 mold is but a few inches deep. Oats render but a 
 middling crop, and the potato is quite unsuitable. But 
 the legumiuie grow well, and rice might be raised on 
 the wet soils. In many parts of the country cakes of 
 maize flour form the staple article of food. (See Ency. 
 Brit.) At the head of all the agricultural productions 
 for exportation are the Corinth grapes, which we cor- 
 ruptly call currants, and which are cultivated from the 
 isthmus to Arcadia,along almost all the northern and 
 western shores of the Morea. This fruit is of a violet 
 color, and hangs in long loose bunches. They are 
 gathered at the same time as other grapes, dried in the 
 sun, and packed. Verj'- few of them are used in 
 Greece, few anywhere except in England, The con- 
 sequence of this is, that the effect of raising a large 
 crop is merely to lower the price in the London mar- 
 
GRE 
 
 88T 
 
 GRE 
 
 ket ; whereas, if France, America, and Russia, used 
 plum-puddings to the same extent as the English, 
 Greece would have had in this one article an inex- 
 haustible source of revenue. All kinds of grapes 
 succeed well, and the best vintage is that of the island 
 of Santorin, where above 60 varieties are reckoned. 
 The Russians are very fond of Santorin wine, and im- 
 port i:20,000 worth yearly. The art of expressing and 
 fermenting the juice of the grape is quite in its infancy ; 
 and unfortunately the Greeks have no wine-cellars, 
 and very few casks. The wine is kept in skins, and 
 rosin is put into it to keep it from spoiling. It is at 
 first exceedinglj' disagreeable to the taste ; but the 
 natives prefer it to the choicest beverages of France 
 and Spain ; and even foreigners become reconciled to 
 it with use. 
 
 Next to the vineyards as a source of revenue are the 
 mulberrj' plantations. There is a demand for silk in 
 every market in the world, and the climate of Greece 
 affords facilities for an unlimited extension of this 
 branch of industry. The south of the Morea gener- 
 ally, and all the islands of the jEgean Sea, are adapted 
 for it, and here the house of almost every peasant is 
 in part given up to the rearing of the worm. • The 
 spawn or eggs are nestled in the bosoms of the women ; 
 and the worms hatched in spring are abundantly sup- 
 plied with the young mulberr}' leaves then shooting. 
 The cocoons are placed in the sun, and the heat kills 
 the worms. In 1836 some Greek merchants, who had 
 resided in the silk districts of Italy, introduced Italian 
 workmen with their families into the MoTea, to improve 
 the mode of winding ; and a few years have greatly 
 advanced this branch of industry and placed it on a 
 firm and extensive basis, giving promise of a lucrative 
 and increasing trade. Two silk-throwing manufacto- 
 ries have been established at Athens with great suc- 
 cess. (For further particulars see Ency. Brit.) The 
 Monileur of Paris of 16th and 17th October, 1855, 
 pays a high compliment to the quality of the Greek 
 silk in the Paris Exhibition, which gained the first 
 prize. 
 
 The olive next claims attention. Being indigenous, 
 the trees are found in a wild state in every direction, 
 and seem only to require grafting to yield excellent 
 fruit. Grafted olive-trees are very numerous 5 and 
 many people live all the year round on little but 
 olives, indifferently pickled in brine. The oil is ex- 
 tracted in the rudest manner, after which. it is either 
 run into cisterns or jars. There is a large consumption 
 of it in the country, nothing else being used for light, 
 and a great deal being consumed in food and cookery ; 
 but still there remains a good quantity for exportation. 
 Cotton succeeds well wherever it is sown, especially, in 
 the plain of Argos, and in the islands. It does not form 
 an important item in the exports, owing to the large 
 ■ consumption of it in the country. Madder thrives 
 well in the northern districts. Greek tobacco is said 
 to be of good quality, and to have a delicious perfume. 
 It is cultivated at little expense. 
 
 The cultivation of fruit trees might be a profitable 
 branch of industrj'. The figs of Attica have not de- 
 generated since the olden time ; the apricots, the 
 pomegranates, oranges, and lemons are delicious. 
 
 First among its natural productions may be men- 
 tioned valonia, the cup of the acorn of the Qu^rcus 
 JEgilops^ an oak, of which considerable forests exist in 
 the neighborhood of Marathonisi, Cape Papa, Arcadia ; 
 also in Attica, the island of Zkn and other places. The 
 acorn is a powerful astringent, used in tanning and dye- 
 ing, and for this purpose is shipped for England and It- 
 aly*. Another species of oak — the Quercus coccifera^ com- 
 monly called galls — grows in great quantities on Mount 
 Taygetus, and breeds the insect known as kermes. In 
 the process of drying the insect assumes the appear- 
 ance of a small brittle berry partly filled with powder, 
 which, from time immemorial, has caused some to look 
 upon it as the berry of the plant, while others consid- 
 
 ered it to be a swelling caused by the puncture of a 
 particular kind of fly. It is used in dyeing the red 
 Tunis caps both of the Greeks and Turks, and a good 
 deal is exported to Tunis and Alexandria. The 
 dried leaves of the lentisk, also, under the name of 
 'Lx°i-'''<> ipvyyov, are used by the tanners in Greece,and 
 the Levant. Turpentine is obtained in large quanti- 
 ties from the pine forests of Mount Cithaeron and other 
 districts. 
 
 Notwithstanding the immense clearances made by 
 the ravages of war and other causes, Greece contains 
 2,800,000 acres of forest, filled with timber trees of the 
 best quality ; yet wood is bought abroad for house and 
 ship-building, as for want of roads these forests can 
 not be worked. The shepherds make a practice of 
 setting fire to the coppice woods, in order that their 
 fiocks may find some tender sprouts to crop m spring. 
 It is not unusual in the neighborhood of Athens to 
 find large black patches covering half a square league ; 
 and if an explanation be required, the answer is, 
 " Only a shepherd who has been making pasturage for 
 his sheep." 
 
 The principal places of trade are Sj'ra, Patras, Pi- 
 rgeus, Kalamata, and Nauplia. The trade of Patras 
 is chiefly import ; Hydra, Spezzia, and Galaxidi, come 
 more properly under the denomination of ship-owning 
 ports. The exports are chiefly the articles we have 
 enumerated, with others of minor importance ; the im- 
 ports are chiefly iron-ware and woven fabrics ; besides 
 coffee, sugar, an-d spices. 
 
 The carrying trade is very considerable, especially 
 among the islands. Some of the Greek vessels are 
 between 600 and 700 tons register, and a good many 
 from 300 to 400 tons ; but the great majority of them 
 are boats of six or seven tons, having a large hatch in 
 mid-ships. (See Eiicy. Brit.') It is customary for a 
 ship-owner to bargain with a captain and crew, taking 
 up a certain sum at interest, generallj'' secured on bot- 
 tomry bond ; with this money a carge is purchased on 
 the ship's account, and the profit is divided between 
 the vessel and the crew, the latter sharing among 
 themselves according to their special agreements. In 
 this way the Greeks carry on extensive speculations 
 in com whenever bad harvests or other circumstances 
 present openings in the ports of Turkey, Italy, Spain, 
 or France. Besides this, they export the various pro- 
 ductions of Turkey, Greece, Egypt, Persia, and south- 
 em Russia, to London, Marseilles, and Trieste. The 
 great advantage which the Greeks have over foreign- 
 ers in prosecuting this trade is that of having relations 
 and connections in the interior on whom they can rely 
 for the collection of small parcels ; and thus they a^void 
 the impositions of agents and the profits of middle- 
 men. The Greek trader de^^pises nothing, and will 
 gather a few bags of rags, or a ton or two of bones and 
 horns, while he is chartering 50 vessels to load with 
 corn and tallow. Then the same vessels supply Tur- 
 key, Persia, and Greece with the manufactures of En- 
 gland and Germany. The extensive Greek establish- 
 ments at Manchester for purchasing, examining, and 
 packing goods, attest the importance of this branch of 
 commerce. They have almost quite superseded the 
 English traders here, chiefly from their thorough 
 knowledge of the countries to be supplied, and their 
 readiness to execute the smallest as well as the largest 
 commissions for the shopkeepers of the East. The 
 Greek trader slips in everywhere, neglects no busi- 
 ness, disdains no expedient, and changes his flag as 
 often as he finds it his interest to do so. 
 
 The Greek government does nothing for maritime 
 trade. There is but one light-house on the coasts; 
 and, notwithstanding the shipwrecks that are recorded 
 every winter, the ministers turn a deaf ear to the ap- 
 peals of the mariners. A similar neglect is shown 
 concerning the means of internal communication. 
 There are only seven roads, amounting in all to a 
 length of 30 leagues, and this is in a country where 
 
GRE 
 
 888 
 
 GRE 
 
 the State owns more than half the land, where evic- 
 tions are easily effected, and where the peasants are 
 willing to lend their hands for works of public utilitj-. 
 There is no highway from Athens to Sparta, or to 
 Corinth, or to Patras, which, owing to the trade in 
 currants, is becoming the commercial capital. 
 
 The banking and exchange operations form perhaps 
 the most remarkable part of the commercial system. 
 The national bank was founded at Athens in 184:2, the 
 capital being in the first instance fixed at 5,000,000 
 drachms. Branches have since been opened at Syra 
 and Patras. The exchange operations throughout the 
 country are ruled chiefly b}' the transactions at Athens, 
 where bills on London, Paris, Marseilles, Trieste, etc., 
 are negotiated with facility. The inost serious hin- 
 derance to the progress of industiy in Greece is the 
 high rate of interest. The legal rate is 10 per cent, for 
 ordinary loans, and 12 per cent, in commercial busi- 
 ness. High as this is, most of the loans are eflfected 
 at still higher rates ; and the government can not sup- 
 press the usury. From a statement inserted in the 
 Spectateur de I'Orient of Athens, it appears that the 
 bank has paid interest to the .shareholders, from 
 1849-54, at 8^ to 9J per cent, per annum ; that its capi- 
 tal amounts now to 6,000,000 drachms, and a reserve 
 fund of 400,000 drachms to provide against emergen- 
 cies. — E. B. 
 
 The manufactures of Greece are few and simple, the 
 value of the raw material being little enhanced by the 
 labor ; yet the peasantrj'' are entirely clothed in cotton 
 and woolen fabrics of their own manufacture. The 
 capotes, not only of the Greeks, but of the whole mari- 
 time population of the Mediterranean, are made of a 
 woolen stuflf, the peculiar manufacture of the Wal- 
 lachs ; and Ealamata is famous for a silk gauze, highly 
 prized in the East for bed-curtains. Embroidery in gold, 
 silver, silk, and cotton, is brought to great perfection ; 
 and marble-cutting and sculpturing have made great 
 progress. At the great London Exhibition of 1851, 
 €he embroidered dresses in red and gold, and in blue 
 and silver, were highly praised. The samples of mar- 
 bles were not in a condition of manufacture to demand 
 much notice as specimens of industry. Commenda- 
 torj- mention is made, in the report, of lithographic 
 stones from Messina, samples of steatite (the French 
 chalk of commerce), of a fine natural cement of puz- 
 znolan, of varieties of flexible sponge, and some other 
 objects. In the London Exhibition of 1851, only four 
 medals were given for various productions of art and 
 manufacture from Greece. 
 
 The following statistics show that the progress 
 which the Greek nation has made is highlj^ credit- 
 able, though at the same time showing that the pro- 
 ductive powers of Greece are not fully developed. 
 
 Statistics op Greece. 
 1. — CiTLTivATED Land in 1854. 
 
 Stremivtfl. 
 
 Por Cereal 8,649,8T0 
 
 " Olive-trees.... 600,000 
 " Tines 1,000,000 
 
 Strenmln. 
 
 For Mulberry-trees 240,000 
 " Fig-trees 150,000 
 
 Total 6,659,370 
 
 Sheep and goats. 
 
 O.xen 
 
 Buffaloes 
 
 Horses 
 
 6,600,000 
 
 160,000 
 
 2,000 
 
 90,000 
 
 Cattle. 
 
 Mules. . 
 Asses . . 
 
 80,000 
 T.OOO 
 
 Total.. 
 
 19,000 
 
 PttODUOE. 
 
 Wheat 2,669,000 
 
 Barley 1,223,600 
 
 Indian corn 2,830,000 
 
 Maize 281,900 
 
 Oats & other kinds 
 of cereal 1,258,000 
 
 Okep. 
 
 Oil 1,600,000 
 
 "Wine 16,200,000 
 
 Silk T0,000 
 
 CuiTants 60,000,000 
 
 Talonla 14,000 
 
 Wool 1,500,000 
 
 Total 8,262,600 Total 79,884,000 
 
 Persons employed in Agkioultuke. 
 
 Proprietors 52,690 
 
 Field laborers 111,880 
 
 Shepherds 87,669 
 
 Other laborers and 
 serrants 85,089 
 
 2. — Statistics op Silk. 
 
 Okes. 
 
 1851 48,282 
 
 1852 60,771 
 
 1858 56,770 
 
 1864 
 
 1855 70,000 
 
 Average prlc» 
 per oke. 
 DrB. Drs. 
 
 991,947 = 20-64 
 1,999,970 = 82-91 
 1,774,063 = 81-25 
 1,853,018 
 
 This proves not only an increase of production, but 
 also an improvement in the quality ; for, though the 
 quantity has nearly doubled since 1851, instead of re- 
 ducing the price, Greek silks are 50 per cent, dearer. 
 8. — Commercial Navy of Greece. 
 
 
 Vesseli. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 
 Veasela. 
 
 Ton.. 
 
 1821. 
 
 440 
 
 61,449 
 
 1844. 
 
 .3,414 
 
 146.708 
 
 ma. 
 
 2,891 
 
 
 1816. 
 
 8,684 
 
 161,li:8 
 
 1K.S5. 
 
 8,370 
 
 
 1848. 
 
 8,988 
 
 . 256,233 
 
 ISiiS. 
 
 8,269 
 
 88,602 
 
 1860. 
 
 4,016 
 
 266,201 
 
 1889. 
 
 8,845 
 
 89.642 
 
 1851. 
 
 4,82T 
 
 26T,ll98 
 
 1840. 
 
 8,884 
 
 110,690 
 
 1862. 
 
 4,280 
 
 247,661 
 
 1848. 
 
 8,469 
 
 187,658 ; 
 
 1863. 
 
 4,148 
 
 247,991 
 
 We have no accounts of 1854 ; but there is no doubt 
 it will show an increase on 1853, in consequence of the 
 permission of the czar for the Greek flag to enter the 
 Danube. 
 
 4. — Population. 
 
 1821 675,000 I 
 
 1882 712,000 
 
 1848 863,000 \ 
 
 1862 1,002,000 
 
 1858 1,041,000 
 
 1854 1,142,000 
 
 5. — Lmpoets and Exports of Greece. 
 
 Exports. 
 Drs. 
 
 1861 18,995,195 
 
 1852 10,402,212 
 
 1853 8,988,890 
 
 1854 6,799,211 
 
 Imports. 
 Drs. 
 1851 
 
 1862 24,982,161 
 
 1853 20,209,960 
 
 1864 21,270,182 
 
 The minister of finance states that the great de- 
 crease in exports for the last three years is owing prin- 
 cipally to the failure in the currant crops, the result 
 of the disease in the vine. 
 
 Of the 1.3,995,195 drs. exported in 1851, 8,359,196 
 drs. were of Corinthian currants alone. In 1852 the 
 export of currants were 2,844,058 drs. only, or nearly 
 6,000,000 less than 1851 ; in 1853 there is no account 
 of the currants exported inserted ; and in 1854 only 
 the small amount of 9046 drs. are included in the 
 amount of 6,799,211 drs. 
 
 Countries Trading with Greece. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 
 Drs. 
 
 5,070,868 
 
 142,182 
 
 4,810,124 
 
 1,812,482 
 
 8,056,809 
 
 819,497 
 
 465,141 
 
 674,922 
 
 1,875,000 
 
 2,492,770 
 
 Dre. 
 
 7,020,174 
 186,478 
 
 2,960,285 
 447,360 
 
 1,266,960 
 800,936 
 866,638 
 119,781 
 940,284 
 804,567 
 
 
 
 
 Turkey 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ocber counti-ies 
 
 
 26,807,690 
 
 18,851,202 
 
 
 It will be seen from this exhibit, that England has 
 the largest commerce with Greece of the countries 
 enumerated. Turkey, however, ranking first in 
 amount of imports. 
 
 The commercial relations of the United States with 
 Greece are regulated by treaty of December 10, 1837. 
 This treaty is based upon principles of entire reciproc- 
 ity in navigation and commerce between the two 
 countries. Its principal stipulations are, that the ves- 
 sels of each nation, whether laden or in ballast, from 
 whatever place \ih.Qj come, shall be treated, in the 
 ports of the other, on their entrance, during their stay, 
 and at their departure, upon the same footing as na- 
 tional vessels coming from the same place, with re- 
 spect to the duties of tonnage, light-houses, pilotage, 
 and port charges, as well as to the perquisites of public 
 officers, and all other duties or charges levied in the 
 name or to the profit of the government, the local au- 
 thorities, or of any private establishment whatever. 
 Whatever merchandise may be lawfully imported into 
 either nation by its own vessels, may also be imported 
 in the vessels of the other, from whatever place they 
 
GRE 
 
 889 
 
 GRE 
 
 may come, without paj-ing other or higher duties or 
 charges, of whatever kind or denomination, levied in 
 the name or to the profit of the government, the local 
 authorities, etc., than when imported in national ves- 
 sels. Similar equality is stipulated with respect to 
 exports. No prohibitions to be established in either 
 nation upon the products of the soil or industry of the 
 other, unless such prohibitions shall also apply to similar 
 products, the growth of any other country. All priv- 
 ileges of transit, and all bounties and drawbacks 
 allowed in either nation, shall immediatelj' become 
 common to the other. 
 
 Duties in each country, on cargoes imported in ves- 
 sels of the other, shall be charged only on such por- 
 tions thereof as may be landed, and erased from the 
 manifest of the importing vessel ; but all duties, im- 
 posts, or charges whatsoever, which are or may be- 
 come chargeable upon the vessels themselves, must be 
 paid at the first port where they shall break bulk, or 
 unlade part of their cargoes. It is also stipulated that 
 the vessels of each nation arriving in the ports of the 
 other, provided with a bill of health, granted by an 
 officer having competent power to that efl'ect, at the 
 port whence such vessels shall have sailed, shall be 
 subjected to no other quarantine than such as maj' be 
 necessarj' for the visit of the health-officer of the port 
 where such vessels shall arrive ; after which, said ves- 
 sels shall be allowed immediately to enter and unload 
 their cargoes, subject onlj'' to such casualties as may 
 have occurred during the voyage. The other stipula- 
 tions relate to consular privileges, etc. The treaty to 
 continue in force 10 years, with the usual stipulation 
 respecting its duration after that period. 
 
 Notwithstanding the liberal stipulations of the 
 treaty, of which the preceding is a summary, the 
 trade between the United States and Greece is very 
 inconsiderable — few American vessels ever making the 
 direct voyage to any port in that country. At the 
 principal port of Greece (Piraius), no American vessel 
 entered from the commencement of 1851 to the close 
 of 1853. During the j'ear- first named, there entered 
 that port from all countries, 355 vessels, measuring 
 42,159 tons ; and there cleared 254 vessels, aggregating 
 30,148 tons; making a total of 609 vessels, with an 
 aggregate of 72,307 tons. These vessels were mostly 
 under the Greek, Turkish, English, or French flags — 
 the latter two numbering, together, only 32 vessels 
 entered and cleared. During the same year, 120 Aus- 
 trian steam-vessels measuring an aggregate tonnage 
 of 27,000 tons, entered the port of Pirosus, viz., 72 
 from Trieste, and 48 from Turkey. 
 
 The value of imports at the port of Pirseus in 1851 
 was $924,420 ; that of exports a little over $80,000. 
 In 1852 there entered 322 vessels, measuring 44,166 
 tons ; and cleared, 287 vessels, of 45,008 tons ; mak- 
 ing a total of 609 vessels, with an aggregate tonnage 
 of 89,174 tons. These vessels were under the Greek, 
 Turkish, English, or French flags, ranking in number 
 in the order, respectively, to which they are named. 
 
 The imports of all kinds into Pirseus in 1851 were 
 $924,420, and in the year 1852, $757,020 ; showing a 
 decrease in 1852 of $167,400. 
 
 The imports into Greece through this port, are, 
 grains, sugar, coffee, yam of cotton and wool, silks, 
 iron and other metals, timber, cod and other salted 
 fish, wines and spirits, paper, etc. 
 
 The countries usually participating in the foreign 
 trade of the port of Pirseus, are — 
 
 Turkey (imports ftom, in 1852) . 
 Austria " " 
 
 France " " 
 
 England " " 
 
 Tuscany " ' 
 
 Other places " . 
 
 , $268,956 
 . 170,748 
 . 106,904 
 . 89,094 
 . 19,716 
 , 101,602 
 
 Total imports as shown above $757,020 
 
 Though Austria holds but the second rank in the 
 above table, she usually enjoys the largest share of 
 
 the foreign commerce of this port. An average calcu- 
 lation for a series of 5 or 10 years would give the fol- 
 lowing result, without much variation : 
 
 Per cent, of 
 the whole. 
 
 England 146 
 
 Per cent, of 
 the whole. 
 
 Austria 24-74 
 
 Turkey 22-61 
 
 France •. 19-87 
 
 Tuscany 7-84 
 
 Other countries.. 10-33 
 
 The next port of importance in Greece, after the 
 port of Athens, is Syra. This port is situated among 
 the Cyclades, on the eastern shore of the Grecian 
 archipelago. Its commerce is rapidly increasing, 
 owing, in a great measure, to its being a principal 
 station of the Mediterranean steamers going to and 
 from Constantinople. The imports average annually 
 about $3,500,000, and the exports about $1,500,000. 
 The flags participating in the foreign trade of this 
 port are Greek, English, Austrian, Turkish, and 
 French, in the order, as to rank, in which they are 
 named. The chief articles of import are, cottons, 
 woolens, manufactures of iron, grains, cotton yarn, 
 coffee, timber, sugar, hides and skins, provisions. Ex- 
 ports of domestic produce are inconsiderable, though 
 an extensive trade is carried on in re-exporting to 
 other ports of the archipelago the imports of foreign 
 nations. The number of vessels entering and clearing 
 at this port annually, is about 6775 measuring 379,000 
 tons. The merchant marine of Greece in 1853, was 
 4320 vessels, measuring an aggregate of 247,610 tons. 
 Of these there were — 
 
 Vessels. Tons. 
 
 TJndei- 80 tons 2,855 19,696 
 
 80 tons and ovor, of which 550 1 , „•, ootoajs 
 
 were ft-om 200 to 600 tons . . f ^'"'^ ^^T,9bD 
 
 Total as above 4,280 247,661 
 
 PoH Charges. — In the ports of Syra, Nauplia, 
 Piraaus, Marathonensis, P^'^los, Calamatu, Navarino, 
 and Patras — 
 
 On vessels under 5 tons .'. Free. 
 
 " of 20 " 9 liptas=li cents. 
 
 " above 20 " . . 
 In the other ports : 
 
 on vessels under 5 tons.. 
 
 " of 20 " '. 61ipta3=l cents. 
 
 " above 20 " 9 " =li ■ 
 
 Permit of departure; ) f^n i.-r^foa 
 
 On vessels of 5— 20 tons f ™ "P*^"' 
 
 " 21— SO " . . 1 draobma=16| " 
 
 " 51—100 " .. 2 " =88i " 
 
 For all other charges, ■ port regulations, etc., see 
 Consular Return, "Athens, Greece, February 6th, 
 1855." — Com. Relations, U. S. 
 
 The average price at which currants are sold is 
 $122 50 per 1000 pounds ; and the average returns, or 
 rather gross receipts, are annually about $700,000. 
 The exportation of olive-oil is another leading source 
 of revenue to the Ionian Islands. The following sum- 
 mary gives a fair average exhibit, of exports annually ; 
 
 ...12 
 }■ Free. 
 
 8^ cents. 
 
 
 =|P°:;'-In.,.re.. 
 
 Local 
 
 con- 
 
 Bumpt'n 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 4,811 
 8,900 
 
 Uarrels. 
 
 62,189 
 188,100 
 
 Barrels. 
 8,500 
 8,000 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 70,000 
 
 200,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 
 Santa Maura, Ithaca, Ceplia- I 
 
 Ionia, and Paso ) 
 
 Total 
 
 18,211 
 
 250,289 6,500 
 
 880,000 
 
 The average annual price is 89 50 per barrel, which 
 would raise the amount derived from olive-oil, if the 
 whole amount were sold, to $3,135,000 per annum. 
 Great efforts have been made to promote the cultiva- 
 tion of tobacco in these islands, but with verj' doubt- 
 ful success, owing to the want of soil adapted to the 
 plant. Corfu, Cephalonia, and Santa Maura are the 
 only islands on which it can be raised ; but the quality 
 is inferior, and even the quantity is so inconsiderable 
 that cargoes of tobacco are regularly imported to supply 
 the consumption of the islands. Among the articles of 
 import, sugar and coffee are those in which American 
 bottoms could, were the navigation dues equal, suc- 
 cessfully compete -n ith the European flags. In 1856 
 
GRE 
 
 890 
 
 GRE 
 
 Holland alone imported 900 tons of sugar into the isl- 
 ands. The coffee is usually imported direct from Bra- 
 zil. In 1855 the quantity imported reached 1,200,000 
 pounds. 
 
 The usual exports of the United States, which 
 reach the Ionian republic, are coffee, rosin, segars, 
 tobacco, and manufactured articles, such as furniture, 
 cottons, etc., the annual value of which can not ■be 
 accurately ascertained. In 1852, the value of coffee, 
 rosin, segars, and furniture, exported from the United 
 States to one of the Ionian ports (Zante), was $5,499 32, 
 on which the Ionian treasury received, in duties, 
 $766 84. 
 
 The exports from the same port to the United States 
 were; 
 
 Lbs. Value. Export duty. 
 
 ISSl.. Currants 870,412 $22,196 $3,903 
 
 1862.. " 471,746 16,076 2,721 
 
 Under a system of commercial equality with privi- 
 leged nations, the United States' flag could successfully 
 compete with the flags of all other nations in the im- 
 portation of wheat, flour, Indian com, rice, sea-bread, 
 salted meat, and salted fish, tobacco, sugar, coffee, and 
 timber. As regards the quantities of these staples, 
 respectively, which might find a market in the Ionian 
 ports, there are no data accessible upon which to base 
 any calculation. These staples, however, are always 
 in demand in the different ports of the Ionian repub- 
 lic ; and an approximate estimate as to the quantities 
 which might, with safety, be annually exported from 
 the United States to these markets may be formed 
 from an official return from one port (Zante), in the 
 possession of the Department. This return gives the 
 aggregate value of these staples annuall}'" consumed in 
 that consular district at $1,539,528. Wheat, Indian 
 corn, cured fish, coffee, rice, and timber occupy the 
 first rank in these staples. 
 
 In 1853, there entered at the different ports of the 
 Ionian Isles 1380 vessels, measuring, in the aggregate, 
 153,552 tons; and cleared 1383 vessels, with an ag- 
 gregate of 152,768 tons ; making a total movement 
 of 2763 vessels, and 306,820 tons. An analysis of 
 the trade in 1853, as compared with that of the pre- 
 ceding year, will show a decrease of, entered, 160 ves- 
 sels, measuring an aggregate of 25,979 tons ; and of 
 cleared, 101 vessels, with an aggregate of 22,750 tons. 
 The number of vessels under the British, Austrian, 
 and Greek flags diminished ; the latter showing the 
 gi-eatest diminution. 
 
 The value of imports in 1853 was as follows ; 
 
 Fmncs, 
 
 For consumption 17,070,680 
 
 Warehoused 6,292,620 
 
 Total 28,368,200 
 
 Value of exports : 
 
 Francs, 
 
 Domestic products 8,316,.380 
 
 Foreiga " 7,865,970 
 
 Total 15,682,300 
 
 Compared with the trade of 1852, the imports of this 
 3'ear show an increase of 3,777,900 francs, and the ex- 
 ports an increase of 5,286,600 francs ; or a total in- 
 crease of 9,064,500 francs. Of this increase, cereals, 
 sugars, and tissues of cotton and wool, all from En- 
 gland, bore the principal part. In exports, the in- 
 crease fell almost exclusively on olive-oil and currants, 
 if we except 1,695,800 francs, the value of various 
 kinds of tissues re-exported from the different ports of 
 the islands. The value of soap and wine, also products 
 of the islands, show an increase of 356,000 francs. In 
 remarking upon the chief products of the Ionian Isl- 
 ands, it is stated, in reference to the soap manufactured 
 at Zante and Corfu, that, for some time past, they 
 have used in its preparation a kind of chalk imported 
 from England in the vessels of that kingdom. The 
 use of this earth in the manufacture of soap deteri- 
 orates its quality, and will result, unquestionably, 
 
 in throwing it altogether cut of the foreign market. 
 The trade of 1854 gives the total number of vessels 
 entered and cleared at 2,778, measuring an aggregate 
 of 809,387 tons. Compared with 1853, these figures 
 show an increase of, entered and cleared, 15 vessels, 
 with an aggregate increase of 8,067 tons. These all 
 entered, with the exception of 1 vessel of 1,781 tons. 
 In 1854, the value of trade was ; 
 
 FrfUlcB. 
 
 Imports.— For consumption 19,523,000 
 
 Warehoused 9,806,900 
 
 Total 23,834,900 
 
 Francs. 
 
 Exports. — Bomestic products 9,889,175 
 
 Foreign " 8,529,225 
 
 Total 17,808,400 
 
 The total trade of 1854 was thus 46,703,300 francs. 
 In comparing this with the figures for 1853, an increase 
 is shown in imports of 5,471,700 francs, and of ex- 
 ports, 2,186,100 francs ; makingatotal increase of 7,657,- 
 800 francs. In imports, about three fifths of the increase 
 in value fell upon grains, though in quantity there was 
 a decrease of 35,000 hectolitres* compared with 1853. 
 This was occasioned by the high price of grain of all 
 sorts. The remaining two fifths of the increase fell upon 
 cattle, coffee, sugar, tissues of cotton, and miscellaneous 
 articles. The nations that supplied the islands in 1854 
 were, chieflj', England, Germany, Greece, Turkey, and 
 Russia. France sent crystals, hides, sugar, tissues, 
 wines, and sundries, to an amount, in value, of about 
 2,000,000 francs. The sugars were shipped from the 
 refineries of Marseilles, and were borne under the 
 Greek flag to Corfu. In exports, olive-oil, soap, wine, 
 and some other secondary products of the soil and in- 
 dustry of the islands, were the chief articles which 
 exhibited an increase over the returns of 1853. Not- 
 withstanding the bad yield of currants in 1854, over 
 6,000 hectolitres of wine were exported to Trieste, 
 Venice, and Malta. See Ionian Islands. ' 
 
 The value of the commerce of Great Britain with 
 these islands is thus given : 
 
 Francs, Francs. 
 
 1863. 1854. 
 
 Imports 2,896,000 2,631,000 
 
 Exports, British 2.914,000 8,224,000 
 
 " foreign & colonial . 669,000 447,000 
 
 Total 6,479,000 6,202,000 
 
 The reader is refen'ed to the subject Tukkey for the 
 comparative statement of the commerce of the United 
 States with Turkey, Levant, etc., exhibiting the value 
 of exports to and imports from each countrj', and the 
 tonnage of American and foreign vessels arriving from 
 and departing to each country, during the period from 
 1821 to 1856 ; and embracing, in the aggregate, all re- 
 turns given in the Treasury reports for the years de- 
 signated under the various heads, in different years, of 
 Turkey ; Turkey, Levant, etc. ; Turkey, Levant, and 
 Egj-pt ; Turkey in Europe and Turkey in Asia ; and 
 also of Egypt, Greece, Ionian Islands, and Ionian re- 
 public. The reader is also referred to the article Tur- 
 key for an account of the consular relations of the 
 United States with countries on the Mediterranean. 
 See also Consols and United States. . 
 
 Green Bay, a large arm or bay on the west side 
 of Lake Michigan, forming a part of the boundary be- 
 tween Wisconsin and the upper peninsula of Michigan. 
 It is above 100 miles long, and from15 to 35 broad. 
 The epithet " Green" has been applied -to it on account 
 of the color of the water, which is said to exceed 500 
 feet in depth. At the head of the bay, on the right 
 bank of the Neenah, or Fox River, is a thriving town 
 of the same name. The bay and river afford a per- 
 fectly secure harbor, and the largest steamers of Lake 
 Michigan stop here, making it the principal place of 
 deposit and transit for the imports and exports of 
 northern Wisconsin. Population (1858) about 2500. 
 
 * Each about 2i bushels. 
 
GRE 
 
 891 
 
 GRE 
 
 G-reenland, or G-roenland, a very large island, 
 or, probably, assemblage of islands, lying to the north- 
 east of North America, and for the most part compre- 
 hended within the Arctic Circle. In early times it 
 was supposed to form a part of the American conti- 
 nent ; but the discoveries of modern navigators have 
 proved, what indeed the very idea of a north-west 
 passage from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean sup- 
 posed, its insularity. And the latest discoveries have, 
 moreover, shown, or all but proved, the entire separa- 
 tion of the lands on the west side of Baffin's Bay, or 
 rather, what we would now venture to designate Baf- 
 fin's Sea, from those of the opposite shores, so as to limit 
 Greenland to the countrj' on the eastern side of that 
 great channel. From Cape Farewell, in lat. 59° 49' 
 N., it stretches on the west side in a north-north- 
 westerly direction through Smith's Sound, and then 
 more easterly into a high northern latitude. On the 
 other side, the Greenland coast runs first north- 
 north-easterly, then north-easterly, and finally (so far 
 as yet traced), in a northerly direction, bending east- 
 ward in the 76th and 76th parallels of latitude. It 
 expands from Cape Farewell, the southern point, up 
 to latitude 70°, where it attains a width of about 600 
 miles, which is pretty evenly maintained to the north- 
 em extent of our researches on the eastern side. This 
 side of Greenland has been denominated East or Old 
 Greenland, the other West Greenland. 
 
 In general, the discoveries which have been effected 
 in this quarter of the globe have resulted from attempts 
 made to discover a north-west passage to India through 
 the Arctic Sea. The existence of such a communica- 
 tion is a subject which from time to time has occupied 
 the attention of the British goyernment for the last 
 three centuries ; and although much valuable infor- 
 mation had been obtained by means of these voyages, 
 the great problem remained unsolved until the verj' 
 recent researches after the fate of the lamented voy- 
 ager Sir John Franklin, when Captain M'Clure, in his 
 researches, via. Behring's Strait, eastward, determined 
 the fact of a sea communication between the Pacific 
 and Atlantic Oceans. This he effected by sailing 
 till within sight of Captain Parry's discoveries at 
 Melville Island, and thence completing the personal 
 transit by ice-traveling and voyaging to the shores 
 whence he had departed. But beyond the determina- 
 tion of the geographical fact, it was found, as had 
 been confidently predicted, that no practical use could 
 be made of a channel so thicltly encumbered with im- 
 penetrable, or all but impenetrable, ices. 
 
 Greenland was first discovered bj' an Icelander 
 named GunbiSrn, who was driven by storm upon this 
 coast, about th& beginning of the 10th centurj', and 
 carried back intelligence of its existence to Iceland. 
 Toward the end of the same century — -according to 
 some writers in 983 — an Icelandic chief named Eric 
 Kaude, or Eric the Red, having killed another power- 
 ful chief, and being obliged to quit the country, de- 
 termined to follow up Ganbiorn's discovery. After 
 having spent two or three years in exploring the 
 country, he returned to Iceland, giving an exaggerat- 
 ed account of the freshness and verdure of the country, 
 which he called Greenland. In consequence of this, 
 a fleet of 25 sail was equipped and sent out, laden 
 with persons of both sexes, cattle, and other necessa- 
 ries for forming a settlement. Only about the half of 
 the vessels reached their destination ; but other ad- 
 venturers setting out, not only from Iceland, but from 
 Norway, the Orkneys, and other islands, in a, few 
 years a considerable colony was formed, and a regular 
 trade established. The real position of these early ad- 
 ventures has been a subject of much learned investi- 
 gation and no little controversy. But it seems highly 
 probable that the original colony of Greenland began 
 about the southern promontory, near Cape Farewell, 
 and gradually extended itself along the coast in a 
 north-westerly direction. Beyond this first settlement 
 
 another proceeded further to the west. The former 
 was called (Esire Bygd, or the eastern settlement, and 
 the latter Vestre Bygd, or the western settlement. 
 Christianity having been introduced about the begin- 
 ning of the 11th centurj', numerous churches and con- 
 vents were built, and the country was divided into 
 regular parishes, to which monks and other spiritual 
 instructors were attached. The colonists, although 
 compelled to lead a life of severe privation and hard- 
 ship, continued to increase, and to extend to the north. 
 The zeal with which the early Scandinavians pushed 
 their settlements to the northernmost parts of Green- 
 land is strikingly attested by a curious monument 
 which was discovered in 1824. It consists of a stone 
 carved with Runic characters, which was found stand- 
 ing erect in the ground on the island of Kingiktorsoak, 
 under the parallel of 73°. 
 
 For some centuries the commercial intercourse be- 
 tween Greenland and Norway was kept up ; but 
 about the beginning of the 15th century all inter- 
 course ceased, and the unfortunate colonists were cut 
 off from the rest of mankind. The Esquimaux, the 
 natives of the country, whom in derision the Nor- 
 wegians called Screenings, or Dwarfs, on account of 
 their diminutive stature, attacked the western colony, 
 which was compelled to seek assistance from that 
 which lay to the south-east. There can be little 
 doubt that the scanty population was reduced b}' these 
 savage invaders ; "but it was more effectually thinned 
 by that dreadful pestilence called the hlach death, 
 which desolated Europe from the year 1402 to 1404, 
 and which extended its ravages even to Greenland. 
 Those who escaped the plague.probably soon fell vic- 
 tims to the Esquimaux ; at least, nothing is known of 
 them after the commencement of the 15th centurj"". 
 The terms eastern and western being used in reference 
 to the original settlements, naturally led to the belief 
 that the eastern as well as the western side of Green- 
 land had been colonized ; and a notion very generally 
 ■prevailed for a long time that the western settlement 
 only had perished, the eastern one having escaped the 
 calamity, but, from the vast accumulation of ice, had 
 been secluded from all communication with the rest of 
 the world. During the last century the court of Den- 
 mark repeatedly dispatched ships to ascertain if any 
 settlers still remained on that part of the coast which 
 is now called East or Old Greenland, but without suc- 
 cess. A more recent boating expedition in 1829-30, 
 under Captain W. A. Graah, of the Danish Royal 
 Navy, has, however, in extent of research on the east- 
 em side of Cape Farewell, yielded by far the most sat- 
 isfactory information. He examined the coast as far 
 north as 65° 45', but found nothing to indicate that 
 this coast had ever been colonized ; and we are thus 
 led to the conclusion that the notion of any of the Nor- 
 wegians having settled on the eastern shores must be 
 a mistake ; a mistake arising from a misapprehension 
 of the words east and west. In 1721 Hans Egede, a 
 clergyman from Vaagen, in Norway, accompanied by 
 his wife and family, left his native country to settle as a 
 missionary in Greenland. He landed at Baals River 
 in N. lat. 64°, and called the place Godthaab, or Good 
 Hope. Since that time the Danes have established 
 numerous settlements upon the western coast of Green- 
 land, lying between 60° and 73' N. lat. The whale 
 fisheries have greatly contributed to the advancement 
 of the colonies ; and from the intimate intercourse 
 which is now kept up with Europeans, their condition 
 is at present more flourishing than at any former 
 period. The seal fishery is also of great importance 
 to Greenland — ^the flesh of the seal forming their com- 
 mon food ; and from their skin is made their boats and 
 clothing. See articles Fisheries and Seals. 
 
 There are, at present, 13 Danish colonies in Green- 
 land, besides some smaller establishments termed fac- 
 tories. For administrative purposes, they are formed 
 into two inspectorships, called respectively North and 
 
GRE 
 
 892 
 
 GRE 
 
 South Greenland. South Greenland lies south of N. 
 lat, 67°, and comprises six colonies as follows : 
 
 Colonics. 
 
 Founded. 
 
 Pop. 1846. 
 
 Of whom 
 Danes. 
 
 Julianehaab, or Juliana's Hope 
 
 Fredericahaab, orFredoric's Hope 
 
 Fiskenmaet, or Fish Point 
 
 Godthaab, or Good Hope 
 
 Lukkertoppen 
 
 1T76 
 1743 
 1754 
 1721 
 1775 
 1769 
 
 2,386 
 650 
 485 
 801 
 640 
 744 
 
 41 
 10 
 20 
 25 
 18 
 10 
 
 Holstcinborg 
 
 Total 
 
 6,666 
 
 124 
 
 Julianehaab is the most southern as well as the 
 most important of these. Its district extends to the 
 most southern point of Greenland, Statenliuk, and be- 
 yond it for some distance along the east side. At 
 Piskenseset the Danes carry on an extensive seal fish- 
 ery by means of nets, etc. In its vicinity is the Mo- 
 ravian station of Lichtensels, founded in 1758. God- 
 thaab is the residence of the inspector of South 
 Greenland ; and in the vicinity is the Moravian set- 
 tlement of New Herrnhut. Lukkertoppen takes its 
 name from three pointed hills in the vicinity, resem- 
 bling sugar loaves, and has one of the best and safest 
 h.arbors in the country. North Greenland lies north 
 of N. lat. 67°, and comprises seven colonies as fol- 
 lows ; 
 
 Colonies. 
 
 Founded. 
 
 Pop. 1845. 
 
 Uf whom 
 Dniie^. 
 
 Egedesminde, or Egedo's Memory 
 Christlanshaab.orCliristian'sHope 
 Jacobshavn, or Jacob's Haven . . . 
 Eittenbenk 
 
 1759 
 17,34 
 1741 
 17i5 
 
 1758 
 
 767 
 420 
 275 
 435 
 249 
 628 
 405 
 
 15 
 14 
 14 
 11 
 17 
 21 
 18 
 
 Godhavn, or Good Haven 
 
 Upernivik 
 
 Total 
 
 8,079 
 
 110 
 
 
 Egedesminde, in Disco Bay, was founded by Cap- 
 tain Egede, and named in memory of his father, Hans 
 Egede. It comprises a number of large and small 
 islands, but the proper settlement is on the island of 
 Ausiet. Between this and Fox Island (Eaevoe) there 
 is a very secure harbor. A great many seals are 
 caught here, especially in nets ; but the collecting of 
 eider-down forms the most important branch of indus- 
 try. Godhaven, or Good Haven, in the southern ex- 
 tremity of the island of Disco, N. lat. 69° 12', is the 
 seat of the inspector of North Greenland, and has a 
 coal mine, which supplies the other settlements on 
 Disco Bay with that article. Omenak is noted for its 
 extensive seal fishery, which is carried on by the 
 Greenlanders in their kaijaks or small boats, and upon 
 the ice, and by the Danes with nets which are let 
 down tlie openings between the ice. There are here 
 coal mines which supply the colony. Upernivik is the 
 most northern of these colonies, being in about N. lat. 
 73°, and though of recent formation, it is already one 
 of the most important in North Greenland. The popu- 
 lation of Greenland on the 31st of December, 1845, 
 amounted to 8,735, being 8,501 natives, £(nd 234 
 Danes ; and in 1851, is given at 9,400, of whom 250 
 were Danes. This includes only those subject to the 
 Danish crown ; of those that may be scattered over 
 the country, no conjecture can be formed. 
 
 We shall now give a brief outline of the discoverj' 
 of the various sections of the coasts of Greenland, 
 with occasional references to researches about proxi- 
 mate lands with which those on Greenland were more 
 or less mixed up. This will lead us again to notice 
 the enterprises of the 16th century in search of a 
 passage by the north-west from the Atlantic into the 
 Pacific Ocean. 
 
 During the reign of Queen Elizabeth, Frobisher, a 
 distinguished English navigator, made several voyages 
 to this quarter of the globe. In 1577 he discovered 
 the straits which have been called after him. In the 
 year 1585, Davis, another able seaman, came in sight 
 of high land, which he called Mount Ealeigh, sup- 
 posed to lie somewhere on the west of the straits bear- 
 
 ing the discoverer's name. In 1610 Hudson discovered 
 the straits and the bay which are called after him, in 
 which he experienced a disastrous termination to his 
 useful career. To certain rocky islands lying about 
 the 64th parallel, he gave the name of Isles of God's 
 Mercy. He also discovered two capes, one of which 
 was called Digge's Cape, and the other WiUoughby 
 Cape. In 1616 Baffin, one of the most distinguished of 
 our English navigators, discovered the large expanse 
 northward of the Strait of Davis, now known as Baf- 
 fin's Bay. Sailing in a little vessel of only about 65 
 tons' burthen, he efi'ected one of the most extraordi- 
 nary voyages on record. Under the imperfect appli- 
 ances of the age for navigation, Baffin, with one small 
 vessel, circumnavigated to Smith's Sound, on the 
 north of that bay or sea which, northward of " Hope 
 Sanderson, the furthest land Master Davis reached, 
 lying between 72 and 73 degrees," was an utterly un- 
 known region ; thus adding some 1,100 miles of discov- 
 eries, reckoned by the mere coasting-line, to the 
 knowledge of these ice-encumbered shores. His ex- 
 ploration northward reached, it would appear from the 
 brief but graphically-told story of his voyage, as given 
 among the Pilgnmages of Purchas, as high as about 
 77 ° 47' of latitude, where he obtained a dear view into 
 Sir Thomas Smith's Sound, which he describes as run- 
 ning " to the north of 78°, and being the greatest and 
 largest in all the bay." 
 
 For 200 years from the time of Baffin, the knowledge 
 of this great inlet (excepting some limited and unpub- 
 lished information obtained by occasional enterprises 
 of the whalers) had not been advanced. In the year 
 1818, however, in consequence of information, we be- 
 lieve, communicated 'b}' Captain Scoresby to Sir Jo- 
 seph Banks, the admiralty'" fitted out two expeditions ; 
 one of which, under the command of Captain Eoss, 
 was destined for the discovery of the north-west 
 passage ; and tlie other, at the head of which was 
 Captain Buchan, had for its object to attempt a voyage 
 across th^pole. On the western side of Greenland, 
 the first-named navigator discovered a high mountain- 
 ous region to the north of Upernivik, to which, from 
 national predilections, he gave the name of the Arctic 
 Highlands. It is little else than a mass of rocks, in- 
 termingled with immense blocks of ice. He then pro- . 
 ceeded toward the northern extremity of Baffin's Bay, 
 which he explored as far as the ice would permit, 
 looking from a distance into Smith's Sound. He sur- 
 veyed tlie coast generally, ascertained the positions 
 and tlie appearance of the land, the situation of the 
 islands, and the general configuration of the great in- 
 let, from the 78th down to the 65tli parallel. The 
 discoveries of Baffin, wliich some had disputed, weri 
 thus signally confirmed ; for wiiUe the form of the bay 
 as given mainly from conjectural applications of Baf 
 fin's descriptions, was found to be tlioroughly errone- 
 ous, the several deep inlets and other remarkable 
 features of the coast-line, as noted by this admirable 
 voyager, were not only easily recognized, but the lati- 
 tudes and more striking particularities were found to 
 be characteristically correct. 
 
 But the limited period of a mere summer's voyage 
 having left several points in Boss's course defective 
 and inconclusive, especially as to the supposed closing 
 up of Lancaster Sound by continuous land, another 
 expedition was sent out the year following under Cap- 
 tain Parrj', who succeeded not only in passing through 
 this famous inlet of Baffin, but in discovering a navi- 
 gable channel among islands extending far westward, 
 which was successfully pursued for about 30 degrees 
 of longitude beyond Boss's furthest. But as these re- 
 searches, with the general body of the discoveries 
 since then made, fall beyond the limits of our present 
 article, we must refer, for an abstract of them, to the 
 general account of the Arctic Ocean. The chief 
 additions to our knowledge of western Greenland 
 which remain to be noticed, consist of certain correo- 
 
GEE 
 
 893 
 
 GRE 
 
 tiona of the coast-line incidentally made by the west- 
 erly exploring expeditions, and more accurate infor- 
 mation of Smith's Sound and the coasts immediately 
 beyond, resulting from Captain Inglefield's voyage in 
 the summer of 1852, and from the very successful and 
 interesting American exploration, still further north, 
 under Dr. Kane, in 1853-5. 
 
 Captain Inglefield, in the Isabel, fitted out by Lady 
 Franklin, having the advantage of an auxiliarj' steam 
 power, made an advance northward of Baffin's furthest 
 of about 50 miles, reaching within Smith's Sound to 
 78° 28' N. lat., and obtaining the view of a sea ex- 
 panding again considerably beyond. 
 
 The exploration of this new expanse .intb the main 
 Arctic Ocean (with which the Greenland Sea in the 
 east, and Behring's Strait in the west, communicated), 
 by the second American search-expedition under Dr. 
 Kane, completes our sketch of the progress of discov- 
 ery on the western side of Greenland. This hardy 
 and intelligent adventurer, in a little solitary vessel, 
 the brig Advance, pushed his way through Smith's 
 Sound in the month of August, 1853, and crawled 
 along shore within a cram of dangerous ices which all 
 but filled the passage, to a position higher in latitude 
 (about 78° 40') than had ever before been taken as a 
 wintering station in these western regions by Euro- 
 peans. In this position the brigwas frozen in, early 
 in September, and so remained throughout the succeed- 
 ing summer, and with so little prospect of release as to 
 occasion her abandonment, after a protracted adher- 
 ence to her of above 20 months. 
 
 From this high ^position in latitude, explorations 
 (furthered for a time by the effective aid of their Es- 
 quimaux dogs) were perseveringly made, and reward- 
 ed bj- results of the most interesting nature in 
 geography, hydrography, and glaciology. The coast 
 of Greenland, forming the eastern boundary of Smith's 
 Sound, was traced northerly and easterly, until the 
 exploration was diverted by a stupendous glacier of a 
 vast extent, with a precipitous face about 500 feet in 
 height abutting the sea. The geographical discov- 
 eries were pushed stillfurther toward the pole, and new 
 lands as high in latitude as 82° 30' added to our charts. 
 The lands on the two sides of this channel were found 
 to be connected by apparently perpetual ices, having, 
 at the time of the examination, an open sea beyond 
 entirely free from visible encumbrance, whose waves 
 were dashing with sublime action and force against 
 the face of the icy barrier. Here an area of about 
 3000 square miles was seen entirely free from ice, the 
 commencement and margin, as has been inferred, of 
 an open unfreezing polar sea. On this question, how- 
 ever, which comes in more fitly for discussion in our 
 article on the Polar Ebgions, we here only remark, 
 cautionarily, against a premature conclusion, that 
 Captain Scoresby, in his account of the arctic regions, 
 describes an open sea, which he himself once observed 
 and navigated, to the northward of Spitzbergen, run- 
 ning about E.N.E. and W. S.W. for 300 miles within 
 the latitudes of 80° and 81° 30', and having an area of 
 from 15,000 to 20,000 square miles, or from five to six 
 times the extent of that traced by Dr. Kane ; yet this 
 apparently open polar ocean was found to be but a mid- 
 glacial sea ! Besides, the extreme lowness of the tem- 
 perature in Dr. Kane's case — ^being the lowest, in the 
 mean, ever observed on the face of the globe — afforded 
 sufficient evidence that there could be no such sea re- 
 maining open to the pole, beyond an incidental lake. 
 
 It does not come within the scope of our present arti- 
 cle to dwell on the particular facts, and incidents, and 
 processes of this admirable research by Dr. Kane, ex- 
 cept to notice the falling in with Esquimaux living in 
 a region further north than any they had before met 
 with. Agreeing, as these natives in their general 
 characteristics do, with other Greenlanders, they were 
 found to have incidental peculiarities in their habits 
 and modes of living. They employ dog-sledges of 
 
 great efficiency and speed, but have no boats or kaijaks. 
 They surround themselves in winter with walls of moss, 
 and, at that season, live mainly upon raw walrus flesh 
 — ^habits of life which, for the season, Dr. Kane and 
 his party found it ejxpedient, and, after a little expe- 
 rience, not unpleasant, to imitate and adopt. Under 
 this new dietary education, raw walrus flesh soon be- 
 came palatable ; and even tallow candles, when they 
 could be spared for such a purpose, were pronounced 
 by the chief of the expedition tp be very good ! Use- 
 ful and friendly as these natives were in their inter- 
 course with Dr. Kane and his party, they unfortunately 
 possessed the infirmity (shall we call it ?) too charac- 
 teristic of the Esquimaux, of an insatiable habit of 
 self-appropriation — stealing unscrupulously whatever 
 they could manage to secrete, equally regardless of 
 the damage to the owners, or of any possible use of 
 the articles to themselves. 
 
 We may add that Dr. Kane, in the Advance, started 
 'on his expeflition from New York on the 31st May, 
 1853,'having ?Jong with him, in crew and associates, 
 seventeen men. Three of this number, the cook, the 
 carpenter, and a seaman, died in the arctic regions, 
 and the remainder returned safe to port on the 11th of 
 October, 1855. The party left their vessel still fast in 
 thedce on the 20th of May, and traveled over the ice 
 to the navigable watprs of Baffin's Sea, whence by 
 means of their boats they proceeded to the settlement 
 of Upernivik. They there took passage in a Danish 
 trader ; and when, in the progress southward, they 
 reached Lievel}', in Disco Island, they met with the 
 expedition of Lieutenat H. J. Hartstein, which had 
 been sent out by Congress in search of them. 
 
 As to the eastern side of Greenland, all our accurate 
 knowledge, except a few particulars referring to the 
 coast near Cape Farewell, is of recent attainment. A 
 coast-line, indeed, of the more southern parallels was to 
 be found in our charts of the arctic regions, and in maps 
 by Egede and Crantz, traced to a considerable extent, 
 with an elaborateness of flexure that would indicate real 
 and careful examination ; but subsequent researches 
 have by no means verified the supposed configurations. 
 
 Northward, of the 70th parallel of latitude, all the 
 geographical information we had of that coast previous 
 to the voyage of Captain Scoresby (now the Rev. Dr. 
 Scoresby) in 1822, cqnsisted of the not very definite 
 notification of certain points of land discovered by the 
 adventurous Hudson in 1607, with a few touches on 
 the coast, and notices of land being seen by whalers, 
 chiefiy Dutch, in 1654, 1665, and 1670. In 1822, how- 
 ever, Captain Scoresby, while engaged in the Green- 
 land whale fishery, and successfully pursuing the 
 commercial object of his voj-age, penetrated the ice 
 westward, as he had previously provided for attempt- 
 ing, to the coast of eastern Greenland. But the posi- 
 tion of the coast, and its line of direction, were found 
 to be widely different from those ascribed to them in 
 the charts, whether English or Dutch; for the real 
 place of the land in latitude 74° was found to be from 
 8° to 15° of longitude further west, and the line of 
 direction from 69° to 74° 30' N. by E., instead of 
 N.E., or E.N.E., as formerly laid down. 
 
 , The first land seen by Captain Scoresby, stretching 
 from N.W. by N. to N., extended to about 74° 30' N., 
 the nearest headland being estimated at 50 miles' dis 
 tance. This was on the 7th of June, and so early in 
 the season as to prevent any near approach to the 
 coast, from the intervention of a chain of heavy field 
 ice northward, of 73°. But after tracing a proximate 
 outline of the more northern part of the coast. Captain 
 Scoresby was gradually enabled to approach the shore 
 as, with the advance of the season, he proceeded south- 
 ward ; and, in the course of the exploration, succeed- 
 ed in landing on four or five different positions between 
 the 70th and 73d parallels. The coast from 74° 30' to 
 69° 10' was generally surveyed, and names were given 
 to the more particular headlands, islands, and inlets. 
 
GRE 
 
 894 
 
 GRE 
 
 Two very remarkable inlets were observed and par- 
 tially examined, one in latitude 72°, which was named 
 Davy's Sound, and the other in 70° 15', which received 
 the name of Scoresby's Sound, on account of the first 
 examination of it ever known to have been made 
 having just been accomplished by the navigator's 
 father. In this way, single-handed and without cost 
 to the countrj% some 600 miles of new coast line (reck- 
 oning its various flexures and inlets) were added to our 
 Greenland charts ; and Vnuch novel information on the 
 geography, hydrography, and natural history of those 
 regions was communicated to the public in the Journal 
 ofiht Voyage^ which appeared in the succeeding spring. 
 One circumstance of geographical interest it may be 
 proper more particularly to notice, viz., the conviction 
 conveyed to the mind of Captain Scoresby bj' his ob- 
 servations on the ctirrent setting into Davy's Sound 
 and Scoresby's Sound, that these fine expanses of 
 water, which, in certain westerly directions, were 
 clear of ice or land to the utmost extent of vision, 
 were actual channels of communication between the 
 Sea of Greenland on the east, and that of BaflSn's on 
 the west. Hence the great probability of the supposi- 
 tion already noticed, that Greenland consists of an 
 assemhlage of islands. 
 
 In the year 1823, Captain Clavering, in command 
 of the Griper sloop-of-war, under admiralty orders for 
 pendulum experiments, advanced on the same coast as 
 that first approached by Captain Scoresby ; and, being 
 about a month later in the season, was enabled to get 
 close in shore, and to enter a considerable bay in lat. 
 74°, supposed to be that originally discovered by Gael 
 Hamkes, a Dutch navigator, in 1654. The line of the 
 more northerly part of the coast, as laid down by 
 Scoresby, was now corrected, and new coa§t lines, in- 
 cluding Shannon Island, with dottings of headlands 
 reaching from 74° 30' to 76°, added to our charts. 
 Southward of Gael Ilamkes's Bay the coast was traced 
 pretty close along to Cape Parry of Scoresby, and then 
 finally left. The general configuration of the coast, 
 excepting some 10 or 15 leagues in,the furthest north, 
 seen by Captain Scoresby only in the distant horizon, 
 was singularly verified hy Captain Clavering's inshore 
 researches. For though the first explorer was not 
 able to approach the land between 73° 30' and 74° 30' 
 N., nearer than from 40 to 45 geographical miles, the 
 positions ascribed by the two navigators to the head- 
 lands of Gael Hamkes's Bay, and other leading points 
 (with Jackson's Island, which had been first laid down at 
 about 30 miles' distance), proved to be all but identical. 
 
 This coast presents many remarkable and interest- 
 ing features. On the Liverpool coast of Scoresby 
 there is a mountainous chain of 3000 to 4000 feet in 
 height, forming precipitous cliffs, which terminate in 
 numerous peaks, cones, pyramids, or series of perpen- 
 dicular serrated points. In the interior were seen 
 peaks supposed to be almost twice the elevation of the 
 lofty coast. The coal formation of Jameson's Island, 
 in Scoresb3''s Sound, was among the most interesting 
 of the geographical particulars observed. 
 
 The final researches, which terminate our descrip- 
 tion of the eastern coast of Greenland, were those 
 made by Captain Graah in the years 1829 and 1830, 
 by order of the king of Denmark. The leading object 
 was to search for the lost colonies, and trace the coast, 
 if practicable, in boats, from Cape Farewell up to lati- 
 tude 69° N., the southernmost point discovered by 
 Captain Scoresby. The expedition consisted of two 
 women's hoots of the country, rowed by women, carry- 
 ing the Danes of the party (Captain Graah and three 
 others), and attended by five men in their kaijaks. 
 From the southern island. Cape Farewell, up to lati- 
 tude 65°, the coast was found to trend about N.N.E. ; 
 and from thence, for 60 to 80 miles (as far as they 
 were able to trace it), the line was about N.E. The 
 highest point on Captain Graah's chart extends to 65° 
 45', leaving the interval of about 340 miles (in a north- 
 
 easterly direction) yet uncertified and unknown. The 
 pressing of the ice in close contact upon the land pre- 
 vented the further navigation of these eastern shores. 
 
 Greenock, a sea^port town of Renfrewshire, Scot- 
 land, on the south bank of the Firth of Clyde, 22 
 miles below Glasgow, in N. lat. 55° 57' 2", W. long, 
 4° 45' 30". In front of the town there is a fine and 
 extensive bay, formerly known by the name of the 
 Bay of St. Lawrence, from a religious house that an- 
 ciently stood there. Behind the town the land rises 
 into a picturesque ridge of hills, about 800 feet high, 
 between which and the bay Greenock stretches for up- 
 ward of 2-|- mUes along the shore, but its breadth is 
 inconsiderable. Its name is supposed to be derived 
 from the compound Gaelic word Grianaig — Grian sig- 
 nifying sun, and Aig port or bay — the bay being 
 directly opposite to the rising sun. 
 
 Various acts of Parliament having reference to suc- 
 cessive enlargements and alterations of the harbors 
 were from time to time procured as the increase of 
 trade rendered such necessarj', so that now of the 
 original erections scarcely a vestige remains. In 1785 
 a dry docic was built in the western division of the old 
 harbor, the expense of which was defrayed by sub- 
 scription; and in 1818 the magistrates and council 
 contracted for and built another, and greatlj' larger, 
 entering from what is now known as the East India 
 Harbor, and which was finished in 1824 at an expense 
 of £20,000. On the 29th day of May, 1805, was laid 
 the foundation-stone of the East India Harbor ; and 
 alpiost cotemporaneously with this large addition. to 
 the dock accommodation of Greenock, a general im- 
 provement and renovation of the quays and breasts of 
 the older portions of the harbor were undertaken. 
 These works, which were very extensive, and in- 
 volved an expenditure of upward of £120,000, were 
 not completed till September, 1819. 
 
 The steadily increasing trade of the port rendered a 
 further extension of dock accommodation absolutely 
 necessary ; and in 1840 an act was procured for the 
 construction of an entirely new harbor and dock. Six 
 years subsequently the work was commenced on a 
 site directly east of the East India Harbor, and on the 
 17th October, 1850, the new dock was formally opened 
 under the designation of Victoria Harbor. It consists 
 of a tidal basin, covering an area of about 6 acres, and 
 exceeding 30 feet in depth. The east and west walls 
 are each 563 feet long ; and the outer quay wall, 
 divided b}' the entranee, 150 feet wide, is 176 feet long 
 on the west, and 60 on the east side. The average 
 width of the quays on the east, west, and south, is up- 
 ward of 85 feet, and on the north, toward the river, it 
 is 70. The depth of water within the basin is 26 feet 
 at high tide, and 14 feet at low water. The whole 
 work, which is of the most substantial character, cost 
 upward of £120,000 ; and, as a tidal harbor, has not, 
 in respect of its size and depth, its equal in the world. 
 On the east side a massive crane, capable of lifting 
 fi'om 70 to 80 tons, has been erected; and here many 
 of those gigantic steam vessels, for which the Clyde 
 has become universally famous, are fitted with their 
 engines. A crane has also been erected at the East 
 India Harbor capable of lifting 40 tons. 
 
 The old graving docks having become altogether in- 
 adequate, the harbor trustees have recently purchased, 
 for upward of £30,000, several acres of ground adjoin- 
 ing Albert Quay, and here it is in contemplation to 
 construct a new harbor, with the requisite dock ac- 
 commodation for repairing the largest vessels. The 
 following measurements show the extent of the ex- 
 isting dock and quay accommodation : 
 
 Albert quay and slip 906 lineal feet 
 
 West harbor and quays 8,940 feet, girthed. 
 
 Entrance to harbor 180 " wide. 
 
 Custom-house quay 990 " " 
 
 East India harbor and quays 3.200 " girthed. 
 
 Entrance to harbor ITO " wide. 
 
 Victoria harbor and quays 2,200 " girthed. 
 
 Entrance to harbor 150 " wide. 
 
GRE 
 
 895 
 
 GEE 
 
 The earliest trade seems to have teen in herrings, 
 and it is still continued, the amount cured annually 
 averaging about 19,000 barrels. Trading in tobacco 
 was also carried on at a very early period. It was 
 first brought from the colonies, and then exported to 
 the continent. The Greenland whale-fishing com- 
 menced as far back as 1752, but it never rose to be 
 of any importance, and is now discontinued. The 
 American war greatly interrupted the progress of 
 Greenock, as the principal trade of the port was then 
 with that country; but after the peace in 1783 it 
 speedily revived, and within the seven following years 
 the shipping trade was tripled in amount. At present 
 the principal intercourse is with the East and West 
 Indies, Australia, and North America. Newfound- 
 land and South America have also employed a consid- 
 erable quantity of shipping. The gradual increase of 
 trade is shown by the following tables : 
 
 Account of the geoss Receipt op Customs at the Port 
 OF Greenock duuing 1728, and various subsequent 
 Years. 
 
 1839 £815,084 
 
 1728 £16,231 
 
 17T0 57,336 
 
 1802 211,087 
 
 1822 268,404 
 
 1831 592,008 
 
 1846 824,477 
 
 1848 407,083 
 
 1851 410,206 
 
 1852 429,535 
 
 Tlie stationary state of the duties of late years is 
 ascribed partly to their reduction, and partly to the 
 improvements effected in the navigation of the Clyde, 
 which enable vessels that formerly had to load and 
 unload here or Port Glasgow, to ascend to Glasgow. 
 Account of tub Number of Registered Vessels be- 
 longing TO THE Port op Greenock during the 
 Tears 1825, 1834, 1845, and 1868. 
 
 No. Tons. 
 
 1825 241 29,054 
 
 1884. 867 40,783 
 
 1845 428 82,744 
 
 1858 418 78,898 
 
 Of these last, 14 vessels, with an aggregate of 2012 
 tons, were steamers. 
 
 Account of the Number and Tonnage op Vessels that 
 entered and cleared from and to Foreign Ports 
 in various Years since 1784. 
 
 
 INWARD. 
 
 OUTWABD. 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 BriUeb. 
 
 Foreign, 
 
 British. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 
 No. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 No. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 No. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 No. Tons. 
 
 1784 
 
 ,52 
 
 6,569 
 
 4 
 
 680 
 
 63 
 
 7,297 
 
 8 
 
 520 
 
 1804 
 
 165 
 
 80,802 
 
 25 
 
 5,120 
 
 15b 
 
 81,896 
 
 20 
 
 5,965 
 
 1824 
 
 188 
 
 46,162 
 
 11 
 
 8,054 
 
 188 
 
 46,857 
 
 9 
 
 2,699 
 
 1834 
 
 2T7 
 
 69,848 
 
 10 
 
 2,078 
 
 284 
 
 71,698 
 
 8 
 
 2,140 
 
 1853 
 
 274 
 
 94,675 
 
 44 
 
 13,764 
 
 158 55,630 
 
 45 11,975 1 
 
 In 1830, 684 vessels, of 67,884 tons, entered, and 796 
 vessels, of 81,988 tons, cleared coastwise at the port. 
 In 1853, 574 sailing vessels, of 38,328 tons, and 214 
 steam vessels, of 39,511 tons, entered, and 162 sailing 
 vessels of 8662 tons, and 102 steam vessels of 10,752 
 tons cleared at the port. The opposition to the mo- 
 nopoly of the East India Company originated wtih the 
 merchants of Greenock in 1812. — E. B. 
 
 Greenvrich Hospital, Greenwich, England, 
 is a roj'al foundation, erected by the munificence of 
 William and Mary (originating, as is generally be- 
 lieved, with the queen), by letters patent of the 25th 
 of October, 1694. The hospital occupies the site of 
 the old palace, called Greenwich Hoiise^ which was 
 from very early times a residence of our sovereigns. 
 Edward III. had a palace there. Henry IV. resided 
 much at Greenwich, and his will is dated from his 
 manor of Greenwich. It was granted by Henry V. 
 to the youngest son of John of Gaunt, and reverted 
 again to the crown on his death (25th Henry VI.). 
 Edward IV. took great delight in the palace, and en- 
 larged it at much cost. He granted it to his queen, 
 Elizabeth. It afterward came into the possession of 
 Henry VII., who enlarged and beautified it, and re- 
 sided much there. Henrj' VIII. was at great expense 
 to render the palace worthy of his sumptuous court. 
 He called this his manor of pleasaunce, and held there 
 many great banquets and royal ceremonies. Queen 
 
 Elizabeth made many additions to the building, and 
 resided much there. James I. laid the foundation of 
 the House of Delight, which afterward became the res- 
 idence of the governor of the hospital. Charles I. 
 resided frequently at the palace ; and his queen fur- 
 nished, with extraordinary magnificence, the building 
 begun by his predecessor. At his death it was taken 
 possession of by the ofiicers of the Commonwealth, 
 who excepted it, for their own use, from the general 
 ordinance passed July 16th, 1649,. for the sale of the 
 crown lands; but upon their subsequent necessities 
 for the support of the navy, it was ordered by the 
 House of Commons, November 27th, 1652, to he im- 
 mediately sold for ready money. Preparations to 
 give effect to this order were made, and some small 
 part of the out-buildings was sold. The palace and 
 park were, however (with other of the royal palaces), 
 assigned by the House of Commons for the accommo- 
 dation of the Lord Protector, and happily reverted to 
 the crown on the restoration of Charles II., by whom 
 the west wing of the present hospital buildings was 
 added, as part of an extensive design. (Hasteij's 
 History of Kent.') The palace remained in tlie unfin- 
 ished state in which Charles II. left it, when it was 
 assigned by the patent of William and Mary to certain 
 of the great ofiicers of the state, as commissioners for 
 its conversion into a hospital for seamen. This was 
 followed in the succeeding year by a patent, dated 
 September 10th, 1695, which recited that the object of 
 the institution was to make some competent provision 
 that seamen who, by age, wounds, or other accidents, 
 should become disabled for further service at sea, and 
 should not be in a condition to maintain themselves 
 comfortably, might not fall under hardships and mis- 
 eries, but might be supported at the public charge ; 
 and that children of such disabled seamen, and the 
 widows and children of such seamen as should hap- 
 pen to be slain in the king's service, might, in some 
 reasonable manner, be provided for and educated. 
 The .patent appointed Prince George of Denmark, 
 several of the great ofiicers of state, nobility, bishops, 
 and others, to be commissioners for these purposes ; 
 and required tliem to consider how they might be best 
 carried out, and the palace best converted for the 
 charitable object to which it was assigned, and also to 
 frame for his majesty's approval a charter of foundation. 
 The government of the hospital has been continued 
 in similar commissions in subsequent reigns, and the 
 most distinguished persons have been appointed com- 
 missioners. George III., by his charter of December 
 5th, 1775, incorporated the commissioners, vesting the 
 goods and revenues of the hospital in them, and gave 
 to them and their successors a perpetual succession. 
 
 The revenues of the hospital have been derived from 
 several sources. William III., contributed by grant 
 £2000 a year toward perfecting the work, and author- 
 ized the commissioners to receive voluntary gifts and 
 subscriptions in aid. Above £50,000 had been ex- 
 pended, on Queen Anne's accession, upon the build- 
 ings, which though still very incomplete, were so far 
 in a state of readiness that, in December, 1705, 100 
 disabled seamen were taken into the hospital. On 
 the 1st of July, 170g," the number amounted to 350, 
 and the income was estimated at £12,000 a year; half 
 of which was applied to the maintenance of the sea^ 
 men, and the other half to the completion of the build- 
 ings. 
 
 The revenue of the hospital in 1849 (for which year 
 the latest accounts are printed), was — 
 
 Nett produce of the estates £-29,219 
 
 Rents in Greenwich 2,531 
 
 Interest on invested property 82,491 
 
 From consolidated fund, in lieu of merchant-sea- 
 men's sixpences 20,000 
 
 Freightage of treasure 10,406 
 
 Other small contingent receipts, including sale of 
 
 £3,000 stock to purchase river frontage 3,736 
 
 Total £1«',38.3 
 
GRE 
 
 896 
 
 GEI 
 
 And the expenditure for the same year was — 
 
 Household and contingent expenses, comprising the ■ 
 
 maintenance, clothing and allowance to 2,T10 
 
 pensioners and 97 nurses, with salaries and wages 
 
 to the subordinate oflBcers and servants, and ail 
 
 worlvS and repairs £112,375 
 
 Charge for the royal naval schools 18,684 
 
 Parochial aud assessed taxes 1,841 
 
 Annuity pursuant to 2Sth Goo. III., chap. 6S, to Lady 
 
 Newburg 1,000 
 
 Purchase of river frontage aud propertyfor improve- 
 ments 12,890 
 
 Other small charges 667 
 
 Total £146,957 
 
 It is stated that under the arrangements made pur- 
 suant to the acts of 1829 and 1834, the hospital sur- 
 rendered £42,000 a year of its revenues. — Pari. Return, 
 1850. 
 
 Greenwicll Observatory. Built at the solic- 
 itation of Sir Jonas Moore and Sir Cliristopher Wren, 
 by Charles II., on the siunmit of Flamstead-hill, so 
 called from the great astronomer of that name, who 
 was the first astonomer royal here. The English be- 
 gan to compute the longitude from the meridian of 
 this place, 1675 ; some malie the date 1679. This ob- 
 servatory contains « transept circle by Troughton ; 
 a transit instrument of 8 feet by Bird ; 2 mural quad- 
 rants of 8 feet, and Bradley's zenith sector. The 
 telescopes are 40 and 60 inch achromatics, and a 6 feet 
 reflector ; and among other fine instruments and ob- 
 jects is a famous camera obscura. 
 
 Grenade. A hoUoM ball of iron about 2J inches 
 in diameter, charged with gunpowder and furnish ;d 
 with a proper fuse ; it is often called a hand-grenade, 
 being thrown from the parapets of besieged places 
 upon the invaders beneath. 
 
 Gresham, Sir Thomas, the founder of the Eoyal 
 Exchange and of the college called by his name in 
 London, was born in 1519. His father had amassed 
 great wealth and attained great eminence as a mer- 
 chant and bill-broker in the reign of Henry VIII., 
 and resolved to train his son to succeed him in his 
 business. After a thorough education at Caius Col- 
 lege, Cambridge, young Gresham was apprenticed to 
 his uncle, a knight and a distinguished member of the 
 Merchants' Company. Under Edward VI., Gresham 
 was employed on the same services as his father had 
 performed for that king's father, and in the course of 
 Edward's short reign he made no fewer than 40 voy- 
 ages to Antwerp on the royal business. By his finan- 
 cial skill and foresight he rendered great service to 
 the revenues of the English crown, which he rescued 
 from the extortions of Dutch and Jewish capitalists, 
 and introduced with great effect the practice of rais- 
 ing mone}' from native money-lenders, in preference 
 to foreigners, who exacted a ruinous rate of interest. 
 Mary and Elizabeth continued him in his employ- 
 ment, and the latter knighted him in 1559. He had 
 now amassed an immense fortune, and built himself a 
 splendid house in Bishopsgate-street (which, after his 
 wife's death, was used as Gresham College, and the 
 site of which is now occupied by the excise office), 
 where he lived in great state, and where, by command 
 of Elizabeth, he often entertained the a,mbassadors 
 and visitors of rank that thronged her court. To 
 these circumstances Gresham owed his title of the 
 " Eoyal Merchant." 
 
 During his repeated visits to Antwerp, Gresham 
 had seen and fully appreciated the value of a general 
 place of rendezvous for the merchants of the city. 
 Anxious to introduce something of the kind into Lon- 
 don, he offered to build a suitable house if the citi- 
 zens would furnish u site. A piece of ground was 
 accordingly bought, and a building on the model of 
 the Bourse of Antwerp was erected and ready for use 
 in 1569. In the following year it was opened in state 
 by Elizabeth, who, by a trumpet and herald, pro- 
 claimed it " The Eoyal Exchange." This building 
 was burned down in the great fire of London, but 
 
 was afterward rebuilt on a larger scale and at a cost 
 of nearly £59,000. In 1838 this edifice was destroyed, 
 like its predecessor, by fire ; but on the same site a 
 new exchange, of far greater dimensions and more 
 splendid in style, was opened in 1844 bj' the Queen, in 
 state.— E. B. 
 
 Grindstones, flat circular stones of different 
 diameters and thickness, mounted on spindles or axles, 
 and made to revolve with different degrees of velocity, 
 employed to polish steel articles, to give an edge to 
 cutting instruments, etc. Grindstones not in con- 
 stant use are commonly turned by winch handles ; but 
 at SheiEeld and other places, where polished articles 
 and cutlerj' are extensively manufactured, large num- 
 bers of grindstones, being mounted in buildings ap- 
 propriated to that purpose, called grind or blade mills, 
 are turned by straps, acting on their axles, the mov- 
 ing power being either water or steam. The stone 
 best suited to form grindstones is what is called a 
 sharp-grit, it being chosen finer or coarser-grained ac- 
 cording to the purposes for which they are destined. 
 The principal grindstone quarry in England is at 
 Gateshead Fell, in the county of Durham, where they 
 are produced in vast numbers, noii only for home use. 
 but for exportation to all parts of the world. But 
 those principally in use at Sheffield are mostly quar- 
 ried at Wickersley, in Yorkshire. They are classed 
 in 8 different sizes called foots, according to their 
 dimensions, as in the following table : 
 
 Denominatious. 
 
 Diameter. 
 
 Thickness. 
 
 No. In a eiiaidron. 
 
 
 Inches. 
 
 IneLes. 
 
 
 1 foot. 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 86 
 
 2 foots. 
 
 14 
 
 2+ 
 
 27 
 
 8 " 
 
 20 
 
 4 
 
 18 
 
 4 " 
 
 28 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 .•5 " 
 
 85 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 6 " 
 
 42 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 7 " 
 
 50 
 
 6 
 
 H 
 
 8 " 
 
 56 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 A grindstone foot is 8 inches ; the size is found by 
 adding the diameter and thickness together. Thus, a 
 stone 56 inches diameter by 8 thick, making together 
 6-i inches, is an 8-foot stone, of 8 inclies each foot. 
 Besides the above sizes, grindstones are made, when 
 ordered, of any intermediate dimensions; many are 
 made much larger than any of the above sizes ; some 
 as large as 76 inches diameter, and 14 or 15 inches 
 thick, "which are a great "weight, a cubic foot ■weigh- 
 ing 1 c"wt. 1. qr. 14 lbs. — Rees's Cydopcedla ; Bai- 
 ley's Survey of Durham^ p. 43. Grinding is an 
 unhealthy and dangerous employment. For some 
 purposes, the stones are made to revolve with an ex- 
 treme degree of velocity, which makes them occasion- 
 ally fly in pieces. But the greatest annoyance to 
 which the grinder is exposed is from his inhaling the 
 minute particles of stone, and of iron and steel, that 
 are always flyinj^ about, particularly in the process 
 termed dry grinding. Contrivances have been sug- 
 gested for obviating this serious inconvenience ; hut 
 whether it be owing to their unsuitableness, or to the 
 carelessness of the workmen, none of them have suc- 
 ceeded in practice. — Treatise on Iron and Steel, Lard- 
 ner's Cydopcedia^ p. 293, 
 
 Grinnell Land, a tract of Terra Firma, in the 
 Arctic Ocean, the south coast of which trends in a 
 western, and finally a north-western direction, was 
 discovered by the American Expedition, in search of 
 Sir John Franklin, September 21st, 1850. Of this 
 interesting discovery (which the British explorers in 
 this region modestly claim, and call it " Albert 
 Land"), Dr. Kane, the journalist of the American Ex- 
 pedition, thus speaks : 
 
 September, 21, 1850. — ^We have di-ifted still more to 
 the northward and eastward. A reliable observation 
 gave U3 lat. 75° 20' 38''- Apparently we are not 
 more than 7 miles from the shore, which is still of the 
 characteristic limestone of the lower channel. Ter- 
 races of shingle are rising one above another in regu- 
 
GRI 
 
 89? 
 
 GUA 
 
 lar succession. They follow the curve-like sweep of 
 the indentations. Estimated by eye, the height of 
 the uppermost is about 40 feet above the water line ; 
 but I was of course unable at that distance to com- 
 pare the levels of the successive ledges with those 
 observed between Capes Spencer and Innes on the op- 
 posite side. About tea-time, we saw a set of hill-tops 
 to the north by west, apparently of the same config- 
 uration with the hills around us. The coast of Com- 
 wallis Island now receded to the westward, and an 
 intermediate space, either of water or of veiy low 
 beach, separates it from the new land to the north and 
 east of us. Whether this be a cape from a northern 
 Terra Incognita, or a new bend of the opposite shores 
 of North Devon, I am not prepared to say. We took 
 sextant bearings. From this date we may claim the 
 discover}' of that land, which we were able afterward 
 to define satisfactorily. " Grinnell Land," as it was 
 afterward named by our commander, was thus discov- 
 ered nearly 8 months before it was delineated and 
 named by Captain Penny in May, 1851. 
 
 Septemter 22. — This day of rest (Sunday), which 
 opened with clear, cold serenity, gave us an opportu- 
 nity of seeing the unvisited shores of Wellington 
 Channel. Our latitude by artificial horizon was 
 now 75° 25', or about 60 miles north of Cape Hoth- 
 am. Cape Bowden on the eastern side had disap- 
 peared, and on the west a dark projecting cape from 
 which we took our sextant angles, was seen bearing 
 to the west of south. To the northward and west- 
 ward low land was seen having the appearance of an 
 island, although it may have been connected with the 
 shore by an unseen strip. Its eastern termination 
 was more elevated. The bend of the western shore 
 was now clearly to the westward. It was rolling with 
 the terraced shingle beaches before observed, and 
 ended or apparentl}' ended, abruptly. After and be- 
 yond these to the north, without visible land interven- 
 ing, were the mountain tops which terminated our 
 view. These were two in number, one higher than the 
 other. A third summit, more distant than the others, 
 was seen by me from the mast-head, but the bases of 
 all these, as is often the case with distant mountains, 
 could not be traced to the horizon. Without the aid 
 of a known height, and in an atmosphere so decep- 
 tive, I could not venture to give their distance in 
 miles. Lieutenant De Haven estimated the middle 
 peak the nearest and most conspicuous, at 50 miles." 
 
 Here Dr. Kane is direct and positive. He is not 
 compelled to resort to "a division of opinions," nor 
 a ** first idea," nor an "if." He is plain and outright. 
 He says — " Geinnell Land, as it was afterward 
 named by our commander, was thus discovered nearly 
 8 months before it was delineated and named by Cap- 
 tain Penny in May, 1851." 
 
 Lieutenant Griffin, commander of the Rescue, in his 
 narrative of De Haven's voyage, is as clear and pos- 
 itive as De Haven and Kane, as to the discovery : A 
 succession of southerly gales occurring, we were 
 driven, with all the ice in sight, up Wellington Chan- 
 nel, until we reached the latitude 75° 25'. From that 
 position much new land was seen. A range of high 
 mountains veiy justly received the name of Grinnell. 
 A channel leading to the north-west was named after 
 the distinguished gentleman at the head of the Na- 
 tional Observatorj-, Mr. Maury. Capes and islets 
 never before seen, unless by the missing navigators, 
 were named. By gazing on that which was entirely 
 new to man, the spirit of enterprise became animated 
 — we felt disposed even then to load the sledge, and 
 toil slowly in the direction of the mountain range. 
 Captain Penny, the following spring, without knowl- 
 edge of our having been ahead of him, gave English 
 names to the above land, calling Grinnell Land, Al- 
 bert Land; Jlaurj' Channel, Victoria Channel, etc. 
 The mistake, as soon as it is explained, I suppose will 
 be corrected on the English charts. 
 Ll L 
 
 Lieutenant Griffin erred in his supposition. The 
 " mistake" was sufficiently explained before Penny's, 
 or Arrowsmith's, or any other chart of the Arctic Dig- 
 coveries in 1850, was published. The Lords of the 
 Admiralty received officially an explanation of the 
 " mistake," more than two months prior to the date of 
 the Admiralty chart, of April 8th, 1852. Their " mis- 
 take" has not yet been corrected. They still adhere 
 to the name of "Albert" land. — Colonel Fokce's 
 Pamphlet on Grinnell Land. 
 
 Gripe. The fore part of a ship. To gripe, the 
 tendency of a ship to bring her head up to the wind 
 when carrying sail on the wind. 
 
 Groat, an old English silver coin, equal to fourpence. 
 Other nations, as the Dutch, Poles, Saxons, Bohemi- 
 ans, and French, have likewise their groats, groots, 
 groschen, gros, and the like. In England in the 
 Saxon times, no silver coin larger than a pennj- was 
 struck, nor after the Conquest till the reign of Edward 
 III., who about the year 1351, coined grosses or great 
 pieces, which went for fourpence each ; and so the 
 matter stood till the reign of Henry VIII., who, in 
 1504, first coined shillings. 
 
 Groats, oats deprived of the husks 
 
 Gross, the number of 12 dozen. 
 
 Gross Weight, in commerce, the weight of mer- 
 chandise and goods with the dust and dross, as also of 
 the bag, cask, chest, etc., in which they are contained; 
 and out of this gross weight allowance is to be made 
 for tare and tret. 
 
 Guadaloupe, or Guadeloupe, one of the lee- 
 ward group of islands in the West Indies, and one of 
 the most important colonies of France, and situated 
 in north lat. 16° 20', west long. 62°. It consists 
 properly of two islands separated from each other by a 
 narrow channel, about five miles in length, hy from 30 
 to 100 yards wide, and with depth sufficient for vessels 
 of 60 tons. This channel, called La Riyiere Salee, or 
 Salt River, runs nearly north and south, and has a 
 large baj' at each end, that on the north being called 
 the Grand CuUde-Sac, that on the sout^ the Petit Cul- 
 de-Sac. The western or larger island, called Guada- 
 loupe proper, or £asse Terre, is 27 miles in length, by 
 15 in breadth ; the eastern, or Grande Terre is nearly 
 30 miles long, by from 10 to 12 broad. Guadaloupe 
 proper is of volcanic formation, and is traversed from 
 north to south by a ridge of hills having a medium 
 height of 2296 feet. Its principal peaks are La Souf- 
 friere, an active volcano 5108 feet high, and Grosse- 
 Montagne, Deux Mamdles, and Piton de Bouillante, ex- 
 tinct volcanoes. It is copiously watered by numerous 
 small streams, two of which, the Goyade and the Le- 
 ssarde, are navigable for small craft. The soil is fer- 
 tile, and the surface is agreeably diversified by hill 
 and dale, wood and garden. The products, natural 
 and cultivated, are those of the West Indies geu- 
 erall}'. The principal town, Basse Terre, stands on the 
 south-west coast. It is the residence of the governor, 
 and has some fine public buildings, fountains, and gar- 
 dens, and has about 6000 inhabitants. Grande Terre, 
 unlike Guadaloupe proper, is marshy, sterile, and flat, 
 nowhere rising more than 115 feet above the sea. Its 
 chief town, iSt. Louis, or Point a Piire, the former 
 capital of the island, is at the south entrance to the Salt 
 River, and has an excellent harbor. It formerly con- 
 tained about 15,000 inhabitants, but was almost en- 
 tirely destroyed by an earthquake on 8th February, 
 1843, on which occasion 4000 of its inhabitants per- 
 ished. The climate^ is humid, and hurricanes and 
 earthquakes are frequent. The rainy season lasts 
 from the middle of July to the middle of October. 
 The chief exports are sugar, molasses, rum, cotton, 
 coffee, dye-woods, and copper. The sugar crop 
 amounts to about 60,000 hogsheads annually. A 
 considerable quantity of fish is taken in the neigh- 
 boring seas. The government consists of a governor, 
 I with a privy council of 6, and a colonial council of 30 
 
GUA 
 
 898 
 
 GUA 
 
 members. The government of Guadaloupe comprises 
 besides that island, those of Marie-Gcdante, Desirade, 
 Les Saintes, and the northern portion of St. Martin. 
 Marie-Gdtante lies 14 miles south south-east of Gua- 
 daloupe, and is about 12 miles in length by 8 in breadth. 
 It is traversed from north to south by a range of hills 
 running parallel to the east coast, where it presents a 
 front of high and precipitous rocks. The west and north 
 sides of the island are level ; and parallel with the 
 former is a narrow lagoon, 7 or 8 miles in length, sep- 
 arated from the sea hy a low narrow tract of land. 
 The island abounds in woods, particularly the wild 
 cinnamon-tree. Its principal town, Grandbourg., or 
 Basse Terre, stands near the south-west point. Des- 
 sirade, or Deseada, lies about 4 miles east from the 
 south-east extremity of Grand Terre, and is about 8 
 miles long by 3 wide. It rises from the sea with a 
 steep ascent, and then extends in a table-land, which 
 consists of limestone rocks, in which many caverns 
 occur, but it is without water. The soil in some 
 places is of a deep black mold, and fertile ; in others 
 it is sandy and unproductive. The only anchorage is 
 at the Anse-Galet, on the east side of the island. Les 
 Saintes are a group of rocky islets 6 or 7 miles south 
 of Guadaloupe, and consist of lofty and steep peaks, 
 some of which are united by flat ground and ridges of 
 inferior elevation. The two largest are called Terre 
 d^eti Haut and Terre d\n Bos. St. Martin is a small 
 island immediately south of the British island of An- 
 guilla, in north lat. 18° 5', and west long. 63° 6'. 
 Its form is nearly that of an equilateral triangle, each 
 side being about 7 miles in length, and comprising an 
 area of about 33 square miles. It is deeply indented 
 with bays and lagoons, some of which afford good an- 
 chorage. The surface is generally hillj', the highest 
 point being 1361 feet above the sea. It was colonized 
 by the French and Dutch in 1638, but these were 
 expelled by the Spaniards, who themselves abandoned 
 the island in 1750, and the original settlers resumed 
 possession. The southern portion of the island be- 
 longed to the, Qutch. Guadaloupe was discovered by 
 Columbus in 1493. In 1635, the French established a 
 settlement upon the island, and retained possession of 
 it till 1759, when it was taken by the English. It was 
 subsequently, on several occasions, taken and retaken 
 bj' these nations, and was finally ceded to France in 
 1814. Population (1854) 132,810. Slaverj' was abol- 
 ished here by a decree of the French Republic in 
 1848, at which time about 100,000 persons were eman- 
 cipated. 
 
 Gualacum or Lignum Vitse (Fr. Ga<i/ac, Bois 
 Saint; Ger. Pochhaln; It. Guajaco ; Lat. Guaiacum, 
 Liffnum vitce ; Sp. Gvayaco), the w^ood of a tree, a na- 
 tive of Jamaica, Haj^ti, and the warmer parts of Amer- 
 ica. It is a dark-looking evergreen, growing to from 
 40 to 50 feet in height, and from 14 to IS inches in di- 
 ameter. The bark is hard, smooth, and brittle ; the 
 wood is externally yellowish, and internally of a 
 blackish-brown color. Lignum vitie is the weightiest 
 timber with which we are acquainted, its specific 
 gravity being 1-333. It is exceedingly hard and diffi- 
 cult to work. It can hardly be split, but breaks into 
 pieces like a stone, or crj'stallized metal. It is full of 
 a resinous juice {gvaiac), which prevents oil or water 
 ' from working into it, and renders it proof against de- 
 Qay. Its weight and hardness make it the very best 
 timber for stampers and mallets ; and it is admirably 
 adapted for the sheaves or pulleys of blocks, and 
 for friction rollers or castors. It is extensively 
 used by turners. The guaiac, or gum, sponta- 
 neously exudes from the tree, and concretes in verj' 
 pure tears. It is imported in casks or mats ; the 
 former containing from one to four hundred weight, the 
 latter generally less than one hundred weight each. 
 Its color differs considerably, being partly brownish, 
 partly reddish, and partly greenish; and it always 
 becomes green when left exposed to the light in the 
 
 open air. It has a certain degree of transparency, and 
 breaks with a vitreous fracture. When pounded, it 
 emits a pleasant balsamic smell, but has scarcely any 
 taste, although when swallowed it excites a burning 
 sensation in the throat. When heated, it melts, dif- 
 fusing, at the same time, a pretty strong fragrant 
 odor. Its specific gravity is 1-229. See Vegt. Sub., 
 Lib. ofEntert. Knowledge; Thojison's Chemistry, etc. 
 
 Guano or Huano (the Peruviaii term for ma- 
 nure), a substance used as a manure, found on certain 
 small islands off the coast of Peru and Bolivia, and on 
 parts of the shore of the main land. It is friable, and 
 easily reduced to powder. Its color varies from a 
 dull red to a dirty white, and it has a strong smell and 
 a fat, unctuous feel. At an average, it may weigh 
 from 60 to 60 lbs. a bushel. Humboldt was either the 
 first, or one of the first, by whom this important sub- 
 stance was brought to Europe ; but it was described at 
 a much earlier date by UUoa {Voyage av, Perou, i. 481) ; 
 and has been used as a manure by the Peruvians from 
 the age of the Incas downward. Very different opin- 
 ions have been entertained as to its nature and origin. 
 Many have supposed that is was a peculiar mineral or 
 earth. UUoa, however, was clearlj- of opinion that it 
 consisted of the excrements of the sea-birds which are 
 found in prodigious swarms all along the Peruvian and 
 Bolivian shores ; and there is no longer any doubt that 
 such is the case. The localities where the deposit is 
 principally met with being within a rainless region, it 
 is accumulated with a rapidity of which we have no 
 idea. Guano is of very different qualities : some au- 
 thorities give the preference to the whitish varieties, 
 which are believed to be more recent, while others 
 prefer the red. According to Klaproth, a quantity of 
 guano represented by 100 contained, urate of ammonia, 
 16 parts ; phosphate of lime, 1,0 do. ; oxalate of lime, 
 12| do. ; silica, 4 do. ; common salt, \ do. ; sand, 28 do., 
 and water, organic and combustible matter, 28|- do. ; 
 but its composition is found to differ very materially. 
 The best is that which contains the greatest propor- 
 tion of ammoniacal salts. 
 
 Guano has not been long introduced ; and there is 
 a good deal of discrepancj- in the statements that have 
 been put forth as to its operation. There can, how- 
 ever, be no doubt, that it is a most efficient manure, 
 and that about 2 to 2-J- cwt. per acre of average guano, 
 mixed with about two thirds the annual quantity of 
 farm-yard manure (which is required to keep the soil 
 loose), will produce, when applied to land that is well 
 drained, nearl}' double the ordinar}^ quantity of pota- 
 toes. In turnip husbandry, splendid crops are pro- 
 duced by the agenc}^ of guano only; hut in this case 
 from 4 to 5 cwt. per acre should be applied. It has also 
 a powerful influence in improving crops of corn and 
 the pasture following such crops. The effect of guano 
 is very materially increased by its being covered up to 
 some considerable depth as soon as it is laid on the 
 soil; and top-dressing is certainly the most wasteful 
 way in which it can be applied. — (Private information.^ 
 It is, in fact, the most valuable of manures ; and under 
 such circumstances it becomes of importance to learn 
 the probable supply of the deposit, and the price at 
 which it may be imported and sold in Europe. 
 
 LTnfortunately, however, our information on both 
 these points is less complete than might be desired. 
 Since it began to be largely exported to this and other 
 foreign countries, an apprehension began to gain 
 ground in Peru that the deposits would in no very 
 long time be wholly exhausted ; and as this would oc- 
 casion the ruin of those estates along the coast of Peru, 
 and the department of Arequipa, in which guano lias 
 long been extensively used as a manure, government 
 has been called upon to avert this catastrophe by pro- 
 hibiting its export. We are, however, well convinced 
 that this apprehension is entirely groundless, and that 
 the deposits are in fact all but inexhaustible. At 
 present, guano is principally obtained from the Chincha 
 
GUA 
 
 899 
 
 GUA 
 
 Islands, opposite to Pisco, in Lower Peru, in about 
 lat. 13° 55^ S., and long. 76° 30' W., and the Lobos 
 Islands, opposite to Larabayeqne, in Upper Peru, in 
 lat. 6° to 7° S., and long. 81° W. It has been stated 
 by Sir B. H. Wilson, late Kiiglish consul at Peru; that 
 though about 300 tons a year are supposed to have 
 been carried for centuries from Chincha, the principal 
 island of the group to which it gives its name, to the 
 opposite coast, there is still upon it the enormous 
 quantity of 17,000,000 tons ; and, supposing this esti- 
 mate' to be tolerably accurate, we may sifely reckon 
 the entire mass of guano in this group at from 20 to 25 
 millions of tons! The stock of guano on the Lobos 
 Islands, though not 6o extensive as that on the Chin- 
 cha Islands, is yet very large. And, exclusive of 
 these, there are other islands whence guano is shipped 
 for Arequipa, etc. Deposits have also been discovered 
 on the coast of the main land, especially near La Mar 
 or Cobija ; so that, making every allowance for exag- 
 geration, the supply of guano may, for all practical 
 purposes, be regarded as inexhaustible. 
 
 The islands where the guano is found being unin- 
 habited except by those employed in its shipment, it 
 would, but for the interference of government, cost 
 nothing save the expeilse of putting it on board and 
 the freight home. But the governments of Peru and 
 Bolivia were either so little aware of the value of the 
 ^ article, and of their duty to their constituents, or so 
 ■corrupt, that they sold, in 1839, to private parties 
 (Messrs. Quiros; AUier, & Co. of Lima), for a mere 
 trifle ($60,000), the sole right to ship guano for the 
 term of nine years ; so that these parties had it in 
 their power to exact any price they pleased for the 
 article. This contract was, however, too ruinous to 
 be allowed to continue, and was canceled by the Pe- 
 ruvian government in 1841, on the ground of enormous 
 public lesion, and of ignorance of the value of the 
 privilege that had been conceded. For some time af- 
 ter this the trade was comparatively free, and large 
 quantities of guano were imported in 1844 and 1845 ; 
 but the monopoly system has been again revived. 
 
 There can not be a doubt that the Peruvian govern- 
 ment would gain largely by throwing the trade in 
 guano open under the condition suggested above. And 
 we do not know that any thing could be devised that 
 would be more likely to prove advantageous to our 
 , agriculture and shipping than the carrying out of such 
 a plan. Perhaps the best way to effect an arrangement 
 of the sort would be to purchase one or more of the gu- 
 ano islands .from the Peruvian government. And if 
 the latter should perversely decline to agree to such a 
 sale, or to modify the present monopoly system, the 
 question of her right to appropriate such valuable de- 
 posits, and to deprive others of any equitable partici- 
 pation in their advantages, will force itself on the 
 public attention. Should such be the case, it will 
 probably be found that the claim of the Peruvians to 
 the exclusive possesion of the guano islands is of a 
 very questionable description ; and that in grasping 
 at all they may not improbably lose all. 
 
 Lobos de Afuera is fully 50 miles from the nearest 
 point of the main land. And it seems rather too much 
 for a government like that of Peru, without any thing 
 worth}- of the name either of a mercantile or warlike 
 fleet, to pretend to hinder others from carrying away 
 the dung of wild birds from an unoccupied rock at so 
 great a distance from its territories. 
 
 No guano has ever been imported equal to that from 
 Peru. And unless it come from a rainless region it is 
 worth comparatively little ; for otherwise the ammo- 
 niacal salts, which are a most valuable portion, are 
 either partially or wholly washed away by the rains. 
 
 Guano is found in the caves frequented by swallows, 
 pigeons, bats, etc., in Java, Sumatra, and other places 
 in the Eastern Archipelago. And not being exposed 
 to the rain, it may very probably be of good quality. 
 
 The reader will, perhaps, be surprised to learn that 
 
 large quantities of guano have, of late years, been im- 
 ported into Spain. It is principally employed in ma- 
 nuring the huertas, or low rich grounds of Murcia and 
 Valencia. Hitherto it has been mostly sent at second- 
 hand from England. But very recently the Peruvians 
 have begun to export it on their own account to Ali- 
 cant, Valencia, etc., and have established agents in 
 these towns for its sale. 
 
 Leqation of the United States, ) 
 Lima, April, 18, 1856. j 
 
 Sib: In reply to dispatch No. 45, dated the 18th 
 ultimo, I have the honor to inform you that neither 
 the governments of Spanish America nor their citizens 
 have the privilege of purchasing guano from the Chin- 
 chas, or any other islands belonging to Peru, at a cer- 
 tain stipulated price, by treaty, through municipal regu- 
 lations or sufferance. All the guano exported from Peru 
 is shipped for account of the government and sold in for- 
 eign markets, under special contracts, by agents, who 
 receive a commission for chartering vessels, and on the 
 sale of the article. No exception is made in favor of 
 any foreign nation, or its citizens. Peruvian citi- 
 zens are permitted to take from the Chincha Islands 
 and " Pabellon Pica" without charge a sufficient quan- 
 tity for the agriculture of the coimtry ; but the gov- 
 ernment is very careful to prevent any portion of it 
 being exported. The following is a translation of the 
 provisions of the " commercial regulations" of Peru in 
 relation to this subject. See Dispatch No. 98, April 
 18, 1852 : 
 
 Chapter 1, Article 14th. " It is not permitted to an- 
 chor in any of the anchorages at the islands, the prop- 
 ertj' of the Kepublic, without a written license from 
 the government." 
 
 Art. 15. *' Vessels which load with guano for abroad 
 will do so only at the Islands of Chincha. Those 
 loading it for the agriculture of the countrj' will take 
 it from ' Pabellon Pica' or from the said islands." 
 
 Chap. 14. " Exportation." 
 
 Art. 114. *'' Guano can only be exported in vessels 
 chartered by the government or its agents." 
 
 Chap. 23. " Confiscations, fines, and other penal- 
 ties." 
 
 Art. 213. " Vessels anchoring at the anchorages of 
 the islands the property of the Republic, shall be con- 
 fiscated ; and if besides guano should be found on 
 board, their captains and crew shall be delivered over 
 to justice, to be tried as guilty of robber}-." 
 
 See also the decree of Don Manuel Menendez, act- 
 ing President of Pern, of the 21st of March, 1842, for 
 the stringent formalities to be observed by Peruvian 
 vessels going to the Chinchas or " Pabellon Pica" to 
 load with guano for the agriculture of the countrj-. — 
 Documents to dispatch No. 114, dated October 25, 
 1852. A reference to. my dispatches, Nos. 159, 164, 
 172, 187, 218, 240, and 255, will show still further that 
 no favors are granted in the exportation of guano from 
 Peru to other nations not enjoyed b}' the United States. 
 You will perceive, therefore, that the representation 
 made to the Department mentioned in dispatch No. 45 
 is entirely erroneous, and roust have originated in 
 mere rumor. 
 
 I inclose a copy of a letter from a gentleman in Are- 
 quipa to a friend in Lima, showing the manner of using 
 guano in the agriculture of that district. 
 I have the honor to be, sir. 
 
 Your obedient servant, 
 
 J. Randolph Clay. 
 
 To Hon. Wm. L. Maecy, Secretary of State. 
 
 Arequipa, March 20, 1856. 
 
 Dear Sik : We here reply to your note of the 13th 
 instant, asking for information relative to the manner 
 of using guano in this district. 
 
 Guano brought from the Chincha Islands to Islay is 
 there sold to the chacreros (farmers) round Arequipa 
 at from four to six reals the fanega : the fanega 
 
GUA 
 
 900 
 
 GUA 
 
 weighs five arrobas, or about 125 lbs. The price 
 varies from four to six reals ; at present the latter 
 price is asked. This would make the English ton 
 wortli about $13, or say £2 10s. in Islay. 
 < It is applied to two crops only, maize (Indian corn) 
 and potatoes, carefully by the hand. The maize, 
 when the plant is about two months old and about 
 three fourths vara high, one half a handful is applied 
 near each root. A larger quantitj' is said to be preju- 
 dicial, by " burning the plant." The guano is then 
 covered with earth, and a small quantity of water (by 
 irrigation) is applied " to fix the guano." If the state 
 of the soil does not absolutely require it, no more water 
 is applied until after six or eight days. 
 
 The quantity required for each " topo" of 5000 varas 
 (about li acre) is four fanegas, or say 500 lbs. For 
 potatoes the quantity required is the same and is ap- 
 plied much in the same manner as regards the age of the 
 plant, and a small quantity of water " to fix the guano." 
 The stalk of the potato is then about one fourth vara in 
 height, and the earth heaped up in ridges the same as 
 in Britain. A person inserts a spade in the top of the 
 ridge beside each plant, while the woman follows pour- 
 ing about half a handful of guano into the hole thus 
 made, and covering it with earth, so that the ridge re- 
 mains the same as before the application of the guano. 
 
 To wheat the application of guano is not approved, 
 principally, ye believe, on account of the rankness it 
 produces in the stalk, thereby delaying the ripening of 
 the grain — a point of great importance in lands where 
 they count on obtaining two crops a year. 
 
 Thomas EEnscr. 
 
 The New Guano Islands.- — The following gives the 
 results of an analysis of guano from one of the islands 
 of the American Guano Company : 
 
 I have analyzed four samples of guano for the Amer- 
 ica^ Guano Company, taken by myself from four par- 
 cels in a box opened in the presence of the Company, 
 They yield as follows : 
 
 m. 1—Top Par 
 
 Sulphate of lime 
 
 Phosphate of lime... 
 
 Carbonate of lime 
 
 Organic matter yield- 
 ing ammonia 
 
 Chlorid of sodium — 
 
 -a. 
 
 69-51 
 8-00 
 100 
 
 8-16 
 2-80 
 
 1-22 
 14-81 
 
 100-00 
 
 ces. 
 81-34 
 4-84 
 2-06 
 
 ■71 
 
 610 
 8-60 
 1-45 
 
 100-00 
 
 No. S—Darle Samj 
 
 Phosphate of lime 
 
 Sulphate of lime 
 
 Chlorid of sodium 
 
 Carbonate of lime 
 
 Organic matter yield- 
 ing ammonia 
 
 Silica and alumina. .. 
 Water with loss 
 
 Total 
 
 2^0. 4 — Lowest Sam- 
 
 Sulphate of lime 
 
 Phosphate of lime 
 
 Carbonate of lime 
 
 Organic matter yield- 
 ing ammonia 
 
 Chlorid of sodium 
 
 Silica and alumina. . . 
 Water ivith loss 
 
 Total 
 
 ole. 
 
 46-10 
 
 19-42 
 
 2-12 
 
 2-62 
 
 11.44 
 1-14 
 
 Wttter witli loss 
 
 Total 
 
 JTo. 1— Large Pie 
 Phosphate of lime.. . 
 
 Sulphate of lime 
 
 Chlorid of sodium 
 
 17-16 
 100-00 
 
 pie. 
 64-95 
 5-20 
 2-14 
 
 Organic matter yield- 
 ing ammonia 
 
 Water 
 
 Silica and alumina. . . 
 
 Total 
 
 4-25 
 3-86 
 8-49 
 16-U 
 
 100-00 
 
 (Signed), James R. Chilton, Chemist. 
 
 New York, Saturday, June 7, 1856. 
 
 Birds Farming Guano. — M. A. Eaimonde, Professor 
 of Natural Historj- at Lima, was sent, in 1853, by the 
 Peruvian government, to the Chincha Islands, in order 
 to ascertain the quantity of guano existing in these 
 islands. During a sojourn of more than six weeks, he 
 made observations on the origin of the guano deposit, 
 and of the birds to which it owes its existence. In 
 some places the guano deposit is 30 metres in depth. 
 From the bodies of animals, as well as from various 
 manufactured articles found in it, he concludes that 
 the deposit belongs to the present epoch of the earth's 
 historj'. The birds observed during his visit were — 
 Pelecanus majus, Molin j Carbo Gaimardii, Lesson ; C. 
 Albiffula, Brandt; Sula mriegaia, Tschudi; Spheniscus 
 Humboldtii, Meyen ; Plotus anhing, Lin. ; Rhyncops 
 nigra, Lin. ; Lams modestus, Tschudi ; Puffinaria^ Gar- 
 nottii, Lesson ; Sterna inca. Lesson. These species do 
 not all live constantly on the islands : some of them 
 
 only appear at the breeding season. The pelicans 
 do not appear to produce much guano, as they al- 
 most always inhabit the cliffs, and their excrement falls 
 into the ocean. The same may be said of the species 
 of Carbo. The species of Sula contribute more to the 
 deposit, their numbers being greater, and their habita- 
 tions being more in the interior of the islands. The 
 species of Plotus and Rhj'ncops are ver}' rare : those 
 of Larns more numerous. The Stemas onlj' visit the 
 islands to lay their eggs ; but their numbers are so 
 very great that they must contribute in a great meas- 
 ure to the formation of guano. _The Spheniscus 
 abounds in the southern island, which is inhabited. 
 These birds, not being able to &y, hollow out habita- 
 tions for themselves in the guano. The birds which 
 produce the largest quantity of guano are the Puffi- 
 narias : their number is incalculable. — Year Booh of 
 Facts, 1857, p. Ill.—Edinb. Phil. Jour. 
 
 The vast deposits of guano (called huano — a term of 
 Indian origin^-by the Peruvians) on the Chincha Isl- 
 ands, alluded to in the commencement of this article, form 
 the chief basis of the foreign trade of Peru, especially 
 with the United States. It has been deemed not in- 
 appropriate, therefore, to append, in detail, such ofii- 
 cial and other reliable information on this subject as is 
 in the possession of the Government. According to a 
 report made by a commission especially deputed by the 
 Peruvian government in 1853 to survey the Chincha 
 Islands, the quantity of guano in the deposits at these - 
 islands was 12,376,100 Peruvian tons, equal to 11,- 
 050,068 tons English ; the northern island containing 
 4,189,477 tons, the middle island 2,505,948 tons, and 
 the southern island 5,680,675 tons. This estimate, if 
 correct, would, at the present rate of exportation. — say 
 about 300,000 tons per annum — afford to the markets 
 of the world a supply of guano from the Chinchas for 
 about forty years ; after which period recourse might 
 be had to the Lobos and other islands. In view of the 
 fact now generally conceded, that land which has been 
 once manured with Peruvian guano, will always re- 
 quire that stimulant, it may be interesting to ascertain 
 what prospect there would be of procuring a permanent 
 suppl}-", suificient to meet the agricultural wants of the 
 world, at other deposits, or in other countries, suppos- 
 ing that the efforts of science may not succeed in dis- 
 covering a substitute for that popular fertilizer. The 
 facts bearing upon this inquiry are copied or condensed 
 from official reports of the Peruvian government, or 
 from official communications to the Department of 
 State of the United States, and may, therefore, be 
 viewed as generally correct. 
 
 Guano has been found along the coasts of Peru, 
 Bolivia, and Chili ; but the principal deposits are upon 
 the three islands of Chincha, near Pisco, and the Lobos 
 Islands, between Lambayeque and Paita, in Peru. 
 The supply of guano at the Chincha Islands, alone, 
 from whence only the exportation is permitted, can 
 not be exhausted during the present century at least. 
 The quantity existing at the Lobos is estimated, from 
 a recent survey made by an American engineer, to be 
 not less than 2,000,000 of tons, and of a quality equal 
 to that of the Chincha Islands. Guano is also found 
 in many spots along the coast of Bolivia. Pacquica, 
 in the desert of Atacama, is the principal Bolivian port 
 for shipping it. The guano is, however, so mixed 
 with sand, or so buried and inaccessible, as to be 
 nearly valueless. It is lilce mining to get it from 
 under the sand, and costs from $11 to ^12 per ton to 
 put it on board. The first cargoes sent from there 
 cost about $7 per ton ; and only 24,794 tons have been 
 shipped during the last five years, of which 6,916 tons 
 was the quantity exported in 1847. It is becoming 
 daily more scarce and expensive, and may be set down 
 as of little importance, and not likely to interfere with 
 the guano of Peru. The present British contractors 
 with the Peruvian government have also an unexpired 
 contract with Bolivia, under which they hold an ex- 
 
GUA 
 
 901 
 
 GUA 
 
 elusive privilege for the further shipment of about 
 10,000 tons. They pretend that, if the contract were 
 completed, there would be none left. The late Boliv- 
 ian government, however, endeavored to obtain a small 
 loan on its guano, but no offer was made, upon any 
 terms; thus showing the little esteem in which the 
 article is held, and how little danger there is, for the 
 moment, of competition with that of Peru. Guano, 
 it may be said, does not exist in Chili; the small 
 quantity of inferior quality that was found there, on 
 the borders of the desert of Atacama, being ex- 
 hausted. 
 
 Concerning the situation and character of the de- 
 posits of guano (huaneras) in the republic of Peru : 
 nearly the whole coast of Peru, from the 6th to the 
 21st degree of south latitude — the point at which the 
 River Loa empties its waters into the Pacific — affords 
 deposits of guano of excellent quality, in prodigious 
 abundance, and promising immense revenue. The 
 formation of the islands and cliffs on which the guano 
 is accumulated is generally primitive rocks, composed 
 of granite, hornblende, gneiss, quartz, and feldspar. 
 The guano is found in layers or strata, more or less 
 thick, and in a horizontal direction, though sometimes 
 they are so inclined as to become nearly vertical — a 
 phenomenon which, as in the undulating laj-ers, in- 
 duces the belief that the foundation has undergone 
 subterranean changes subsequent to the formation of 
 the deposits. As it is observable in some of the de- 
 posits, that the guano lies under masses of alluvia 
 from 2 to 3 j^ards in depth, containing impressions of 
 marine shells, which, in their turn, are beneath super- 
 posed guano, also covered with sand, it is probable 
 that the3' are of a date anterior to the deluge, or to the 
 partial cataclysms and commotions that the globe has 
 since experienced. The deposits are, for the most 
 part, covered with a top-crust from 4 to 6 inches thick, 
 though, occasionally, it is even 3 or 4 feet deep — called 
 b}"" naturalists " caliche" composed of salt and sand. 
 No experiments have been made to try the effect of 
 this substance upon vegetation, but it probably con- 
 tains a great proportion of ammonia, and is so in- 
 timately connected with the guano, that, although this 
 manure is found, in the deposits without the crust, yet 
 the caliche is invariably an indication of the existence 
 of guano. The color of guano in the deposits varies 
 from white to bright red, passing through the inter- 
 mediate shades of light gray, dark gray, and brown ; 
 the last of which is mixed with excrement of the sea- 
 lion, and is of little use to the agriculturist. The spe- 
 cific gravifc}' of guano seems to be in direct proportion 
 with its color and quantity, as the dark gray and red- 
 dish are the heaviest. For this reason, it is difficult to 
 ascertain exactl}' the weight of a cubic vara of guano 
 of different colors. The variation in the experiments 
 having been from 1200 to 1600 pounds, it was deter- 
 mined to assign the weight of half a ton to the cubic 
 vara of guano. To facilitate the examination of the 
 guano deposits, it is proper to divide them into three 
 grand sections ; the southern^ embracing the coast from 
 the boundary of Bolivia to Arica ; the ceidral^ com- 
 prising those between Arica and Callao ; and, finally, 
 the northern, including the remainder between Callao 
 and Paita. 
 
 Southern Deposit. — Chipana. — The deposit bearing 
 this name is situated in 21° 22' S. lat., and con- 
 sists of a table rock between 25 and 30 varas above 
 the level of the sea. Its greatest length is 357 
 varas, by 131 varas in breadth, making a superficies 
 of 46,767 square varas. The vara equals 38.384 En- 
 glish inches. 
 
 Huanillas. — This deposit lies in 21° 18' S. lat. It 
 contains four valleys, or quehradas, in which the guano 
 is accumulated ; the superficies is 158,242 square varas, 
 or 3,825,010 cubic varas of guano. 
 
 Punla de Lobos. — A salient point in lat. 21° 6' S. is 
 called by this name. It is composed of mica and 
 
 granite. The guano lies in the valleys, or quehradas, 
 in layers, whose mean height is from 15 to 20 varas. 
 The length of the deposit is about 1500 feet. The 
 superficies is equal to 138,579 square varas, or 2,921,- 
 680 cubic varas of guano. 
 
 Pahellon de Pica. — The tent-shaped appearance and 
 proximity of this hUl to the village of Pica have given 
 it this name. It is situated in lat. 20° 57' S. The 
 guano of this deposit is found in crevices of different 
 depths, the superficies being 240,801 square varas, or 
 5,950,000 cubic varas. 
 
 Puerto Ingles (English Port) is at a little upward of 
 a quarter of a mile from the Pabellon, on a small pe- 
 ninsula, the form of which indicates that it was an 
 island in remote ages. The guano in this deposit 
 forms an eminence upward of 500 varas long, by 250 
 to 300 varas in breadth, giving a superficies of 159,251 
 varas. Taking these data together, with the mean 
 height of the bank, the quantity may be estimated at 
 2,585,020 cubic varas of guano. 
 
 Islands oflquique and Patillos. — To the north of the 
 Pabellon and Puerto Ingles, in lat. 20° 46' south, lie 
 the islands of Patillos and Iquique — the latter in the 
 bay of that name. Both were important deposits in 
 bygone ages, but they are now exhausted, and, as 
 they contain only the small quantity daily left \>y the 
 birds, nt is all new. Notwithstanding the scarcity of 
 the accumulation, the farmers of the neighborhood 
 take all the guano away periodically ; and, as the re- 
 generation of the deposits, which, for more than two 
 centuries, supplied the wants of a great part of the 
 country, is thus prevented, it would be well to pro-- 
 hibit all access to these islands, and other islets sim- 
 ilarly situated on the coast, so that the birds may 
 resort to them without disturbance, and reserves of 
 manure be created for time of need. 
 
 Punta Gramde. — The promontorj' situated in latitude 
 20° 23' south, at four leagues' distance from Iquique, 
 is called " Punta Grande," and the guano in this de- 
 posit is found in several valleys facing the sea. The 
 nucleus of the locality is composed of quartz, inter- 
 sected by veins of feldspar, more or less compact, 
 with a calcaerous superficies. Punta Grande, being in 
 proximity to the Morrq of Tarapaca, which is a kind of 
 sandy mountain, the guano in the deposit is covered 
 with heavy layers of sand, so that it would require 
 considerable excavations to obtain it. For this reason, 
 these are called "subterranean deposits;" and it is 
 diificult, on that account, to estimate the quantity they 
 contain. Nevertheless, in the opinion of experienced 
 persons, the amount must be immense. There are 
 many reasons, also, for believing that these deposits 
 were used in the time of the Inca^ ; and, notwithstand- 
 ing the extensive excavations made up to the present 
 time, there are many deposits still untouched. The 
 quality of this guano is veryjair, the dominant colors 
 Ijeing reddish and ashy. 
 
 Other Deposits.- — Besides those already described, 
 there are smaller deposits of white, fresh guano, upon 
 different rocks and points between Iquique and Punta 
 Grande ; and at Pisagua, a small landing-place to the 
 north of the Punta, from which the manure is taken 
 for the use of the coast. There are, also, localities 
 belonging to individuals ; but the quantity in them is 
 so inconsiderable as not to merit particular mention. 
 The total quantity of guano in the southern deposits, 
 or huaneras, mentioned above, ma^- be estimated at 
 15,842,814 cubic varas, or 7,921,407 tons of guano, as 
 exhibited in the following table : 
 
 DeporfU. 
 
 Cubic varns. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 
 661,204 
 3,825,010 
 2,921,580 
 5,950,000 
 2,5a'5,020 
 
 280,602 
 1,912,505 
 1,460,T90 
 2,976,000 
 1,292,510 
 
 Huanillas 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 16,842,814 
 
 T,922,407 
 
 
 Central Deposit. — The three magnificent deposits 
 
GUA 
 
 902 
 
 GUA 
 
 formed on the islands of Chincha, at 12° 32' south 
 latitude— that is to say, at the distance of 12 miles 
 from Pisco — constitute in themselves the middle hu- 
 aneras; for, although some manure is found on the 
 cliffs of Corredas and Viejos, and on the small island 
 of Ballesta, it is found upon points visibly inacces- 
 sible, and the entire quantity does not amount to 
 30,000 tons' -weight. As no one is ignorant that the 
 islands of Chincha form the riches of Peru, and that 
 the guano sent to foreign markets is extracted from 
 them, and that the quantity accumulated there is 
 greater than in all the huaneras collectively, it is 
 deemed admissible to enlarge somewhat upon the pro- 
 duce of these islands. 
 
 The Chincha Islands, when compared one with 
 another, differ very little in their general character. 
 They rise gradually from the sea to a point or ridge 
 which is about 100 varas (or 300 feet) above the level 
 of the ocean. Their geological structure consists of 
 well characterized granite, and the guano is found de- 
 posited in parallel layers or strata, varying at times to 
 undulating. The predominant colors are dark gray, 
 light gray, ash colored, dirty white, and reddish 
 brown. The color, however, does not appear to be 
 indicative of the quality of the guano, as the same 
 fecundating principle exists, whatever maj' be the 
 color of the coating. Nevertheless, the lighter-col- 
 ored guano contains the greater quantity of ammonia. 
 Pure ammonia has been found at the Chinchas, which 
 substance is nearly white. 
 
 Notwithstanding that nearly all the huaneras are 
 covered with a mechanical crust called " caliche" (cal- 
 culus), those at the Chinchas are an exception to the 
 general rule, as the guano is pure, even at the super- 
 fices ; and the thousands of birds which produced these 
 veins of wealth built their nests in excavations made 
 by them in the deposits. The deposits in question 
 were measured in 1842, by Don Jos6 Villa, and also 
 \>y Seflor Rivero four years later. The former calcu- 
 lated the quantity at 50,000,000 tons ; the latter re- 
 duced this estimate by two thirds ; and to explain the 
 cause of the enormous difference between their calcu- 
 lations, he says : " The mean height of the salient 
 points of the island is 10 varas, and of the parts at the 
 greatest distance ftom the shore, 20 varas ; and it is 
 only in the central parts that the depth of the guano 
 is 40 varas. Sefior Villa believed that the amount of 
 the successive cuttings, up to the principal one, was 40 
 varas, whereas it did not exceed 15 ; and to this he 
 added 40 more, for the principal cuttings. A grand 
 mistake ; for, admitting it as a probable term on which 
 to base a calculation, it were required that this central 
 cutting should extend in a uniform layer to the very 
 shore, presenting a depth of 80 varas. And, not con- 
 tent with this hyperbole, he added that there were 
 points still higher, where, according to his opinion, the 
 guano must be 100 varas deep, or more, when the 
 islands themselves are scarcely as high above the level 
 of the ocean I" 
 
 After making these observations, and adding that he 
 had excavated at the bottom of the deepest cutting only 
 three varas before coming to the rock, Mr. Eivero gives 
 the following as an approximate estimate of the quan- 
 tity of guano contained in the three islands of Chincha : 
 
 Cubic vftrnB. Tona. 
 
 Northern Island 15,200,000 or 7,600,000 
 
 Middle 12,900,000 •' 6,460,000 
 
 Southern 8,400,000 " 4,200,000 
 
 Total 86,500,000 " 18,260,000 
 
 This statement, therefore, shows that the islands of 
 Chincha contain, upon a reasonable admeasurement,^t 
 least 18,250,000 tons of guano. 
 
 Northern Deposits. — These are, without doubt, infe- 
 rior to those already described, as they are, for the 
 most part, upon small islands, very low, and con- 
 stantly beaten by the winds from every quarter; and 
 the layers of guano are usually not very deep, and are 
 
 frequently mixed with sand. In their present state, 
 the Northern Deposits would yield barely sufficient 
 guano to supply the foreign demand for a very few 
 years ; but the quality is good and they have become 
 the resort of the innumerable clouds of birds which, 
 frightened from the south and centre by the increased 
 commerce along the coast, have taken refuge in' those 
 solitary places. This part of the coast is destined to 
 renew the sources of public wealth, when the springs 
 which are used to-day shall be dried up and exhausted. 
 The islands to the north may be divided into four 
 heads, and the Lobos de Sierra are first in importance. 
 
 The Lobos de Siei-ra lie 25 miles south-west of Lam- 
 bayeque, in latitude 5° 6' 30" south. The group 
 consists of one large island, and three (rocky) small 
 islets adjacent to it. The principal island is an im- 
 mense oval, narrowing toward the centre and north. 
 The rocks are only partially and verj' unequally cov- 
 ered with guano; the deposits being interrupted by 
 points of rook and ravines. Estimating together all 
 the manure found in different parts of the island, on 
 the point called " Punta Corcobada," and the point 
 opposite the islet " Felix Gonzales," the quantity is 
 about 150,900 cubic varas, or 75,450 tons. A high 
 promontory upon the island is called the " Punta Cor- 
 cobada," from its peculiar shape. The superfices is 
 extremely irregular, and contains a large quantity of 
 whitish guano, apparentlj' of recent formation; the 
 stratum is not deep, but is of very line quality. The 
 structure of this locality is very favorable for the ac- 
 cumulation of guano ; and as, in addition to this, it is 
 protected from the winds, and as, moreover, the birds 
 congregate to it in greater numbers than to any other 
 place in the section now being described, there is every 
 reason to hope that it v^ill become, in time, a vein of 
 great importance. The superficial extent of the Punta 
 Corcobada is 118,940 square varas, or 224,760 cubic 
 varas, equal to about 112,380 tona of guano. 
 
 Island of Bermeja. — At the distance of 300 yards to 
 the west of the main island, and connected by reefs of 
 rocks which are under water at high tide, lies the islet 
 of Bermeja, in the form of a spatula. Its length is 
 495 varas ; breadth, 220 ; height, 30 to 35 varas. It 
 is covered with an abundant deposit of guano, of 
 excellent quality, and has the crust of Saltpetre, so 
 common in the southern huaneras. The area of the 
 Bermeja is 52,926 square varas ; its greatest depth, 36 ' 
 feet ; and the quantity of guano found therein is about 
 317,566 cubic varas ." equal to 158,778 tons. 
 
 The Islet of Felix Gonzales is one mile distant from 
 the Punta Corcobada, to the south-west. It is 90 
 varas long, 70 broad, and 16 varas above the level of 
 the ocean. The guano found on it is of the very best 
 quality, from 4 to 5 varas in depth. The area is 6550 
 square varas, or 26,200 cubic varas, equal to 13,000 
 tons of gu^no. 
 
 Colorado Islet. — This islet is situated to the south- 
 east of the main island, and is 336 varas long, 180 
 broad, and 25 to 30 varas above the level of the ocean. 
 The rock is entirely covered with guano, to the depth 
 of 39 feet. The color of the guano, as the name of the 
 island indicates, is reddish ; but toward the centre of it 
 the layers are gray and ash-colored, with a strong odor 
 of ammonia. Immense flocks of birds congregate at 
 the island, to build their nests in the guano and in the 
 caverns. The superficial measure of the guano is 
 31,510 square varas, or 236,300 cubic varas, equal to 
 118,115 tons. 
 
 The result of the admeasurement of the principal 
 island, and the rockj' islets lying near it, gives the fol- 
 lowing as the quantity of guano at the Lobos de Sierra : 
 
 Cubic varua. Tons. 
 
 Principal islands 150,900 or T5,4.50 
 
 Punta Corcobada 224,T60 " 112,380 
 
 IslaBormcia. 817,666 " 158,778 
 
 Felix Gonzales 26,200 " 18,100 
 
 Islet Colorado 236,800 " 118,150 
 
 Total 955,716 
 
 477,858 
 
GUA 
 
 903 
 
 GUA 
 
 Loboa de Fuera.->—Tyro islands, lying in 7° 3' south 
 latitude, are known by the name of Lobos de Fuera. 
 They are separated from each other by a channel not 
 more than 130 feet in breadth, running north-east and 
 south-west. The formation is slate ; superficies very 
 irregular. Tliere is an abundance of guano, to all 
 appearance mixed with the excrement of sea-lions, 
 (lobos)^, which are very numerous. Immense flocks of 
 birds (chiefly divers) frequent these islands. As the 
 northern is not easily accessible, the public engineer 
 could only survey the southern one. According to 
 his estimate, the latter has an area of 292,380 square 
 varas, and the body of guano it contains is 531,486 
 cubic varas, or 265,743 tons. 
 
 Idand» of Guanape. — These two islands are situated 
 in 8°. 86' south latitude, at about five miles from the 
 coast. They are of granite, and rise out of the ocean 
 to the height of 600 feet. The northern island con- 
 tains guano ; but being pyramidal in form, great 
 quantities are blown off by the winds: Notwithstanding 
 the periodical lossy there are still about 159,600 cubic 
 ' varas of -guano remaining, or an estimated quantity of 
 79,800 tons. 
 
 Island of Santa. — The island of Santa lies in 9° 11' 
 5" south, and contains only a few tons of guano of 
 recent formation. Although it may not be interesting 
 at present, it is probably destined to become of great 
 importance. According to the reports made by the 
 fishermen who visit this island, the superficies of the 
 island was a bare rock, unfrequented by birds some 15 
 or 20 years ago. The aspect is different at present. 
 The guano begins to accumulate ; clouds of birds 
 resort to the island ; and its vast area, not long since 
 silent and deserted, will, without doubt, become the 
 centre of new deposits, prepared by Providence for 
 future generations. 
 
 Island'.of Fmvol : situated in latitude 9° 7' south, of 
 a triangular form, and contains an area of 61,400 cubic 
 varas. 
 
 In addition to the deposits above enumerated, guano 
 is also found in small quantities on the island of MaW 
 brigo, in latitude 7° 49' south, San Martin, or Dona 
 Maria, 11° 4'; Mazroque, ll'' 25'; Pescadores, 11° 
 46'; Las Hormigas, 11° 56'; El Pelade, 11° 36'. 
 
 The quantities of guano contained in the northern 
 deposits is shown by iJie following table : 
 
 Deposits. 
 
 Cubic viir^. 1 Tons, 1 
 
 
 955,716 
 581,486 
 169,600 
 . 61,400 
 
 477,858 
 265,748 
 79,800 
 80,700 
 
 liobos fie Fuera, or de Afuera. . 
 
 Ferrol 
 
 Total 
 
 1,708,202 
 
 864,101 
 
 
 It may be added to the foregoing, that, according 
 to the report of a new commission appointed to exam- 
 ine, survey, and report upon the guano deposits, it 
 appears that there were not more than 8,000,000 tons 
 of guano remaining at the Cliinchas in 1864. [This 
 estimate, it has been stated, was underrated design- 
 edly.] The Peruvian government has not yet offi- 
 cially published this report, but the information has 
 been given in the Peruvian newspapers. If the state- 
 ment be correct, the quantitj' accumulated at those is- 
 lands would be only sufficient to supply the demands 
 
 of the markets of the United States and England for 
 about 20 years, at the present rate of exportation. 
 
 Genebai. Table or the Deposits of Guano. 
 
 Sections. 
 
 Deposits. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 
 
 280,602 
 
 
 Huanillos 
 
 1,912,506 
 
 Southern ■ 
 
 Puntade Loboa 
 
 1,460,790 
 
 
 Pabellon de Pica 
 
 2,975,000 
 
 
 Puerto Ingles 
 
 1,292,610 
 
 
 North Island 
 
 7,600,000 
 
 Central - 
 
 Middle " 
 
 6,460,000 
 
 South " 
 
 4,200,000 
 
 
 Lobos de Tierra 
 
 477,858 
 
 Northern ■ 
 
 Lobos de Fuera 
 
 266,743 
 79,800 
 
 Total 
 
 Ferrol 
 
 80,700 
 
 
 27,025,508 
 
 
 The following passage, translated from an article in 
 the " Mensagero," a newspaper published in Lima, 
 affords interesting information on the subject of guano 
 deposits, of later date : 
 
 " Mr. Kivero examined, scientifically, the principal 
 deposits of guano knowii on the coast at that time ; 
 and his statement in other researches In which he has 
 been engaged having proved correct, reliance may be 
 placed on his report. Since then, other deposits of 
 guano have been discovered, especially in ' Independ- 
 ence Bay,' beyond Pisco, where the quantity is said to 
 equal that of the Chincha Islands. No regular sur- 
 vey has been made of this deposit, and it is surprising 
 that the government should be so dilatory in obtain- 
 ing minute information in a matter of such vital im- 
 portance to its credit and — it may be said — to its verj- 
 existence. Making allowance for any exaggerations 
 in the reports, it can be safely asserted that the quan- 
 tity of guano existing in the deposits on the coasts of 
 Peru is sufficient to supply the demands of foreign 
 markets for a century to come, particularly as it is 
 probable that the day is not far distant when the re- 
 searches of science may discover in other substances a 
 fructifying principle, which will serve as a substitute 
 for this singular product." 
 
 The guano' from the islands of Lobos has been re- 
 cently analyzed by Mr. Kaymondi, an Italian chemist 
 employed by the Peruvian government for the pur- 
 pose. Annexed is a statement showing its composi- 
 tion as compared with that from the islands of Chin- 
 cha, from Patagonia,' and frOm Saldanha Bay. The 
 strength and value of guano are estimated by the pro- 
 portion of ammonia and phosphates it contains. That 
 from 'the Lobos Islands, therefore, according to the 
 analysis of the three samples, is more valuable for ag- 
 ricultural purposes than that of Patagonia or that 
 from Saldhana Bay. It is the policy of the Peruvian 
 government to discredit the Lobos guano, so that it 
 may be kept out of the market until the deposits on 
 the Chincha Islands shall have been exhausted. The 
 samples employed for the analysis were, consequently, 
 taken from near the top of the Lobos deposits, and are 
 not a fair specimen of the product of the islands. The 
 lower layers are, undoubtedlj', of better quality ; 
 and although, doubtless, inferior to the best from the 
 islands of Chincha, it is still more valuable than 
 any other manure that can be furnished at the same 
 price : 
 
 Analyses of Guano. 
 
 EUlUBms. 
 
 FROM TBB CHINCHAa, 
 
 By Anderson.* By Kensington 
 ^ Laboratories. 
 
 FKOM THE LOBOS. 
 
 By RaymondE.f 
 
 By Anderson. 
 
 By Kensington 
 Lnboratonee. 
 
 Water 
 
 Organic matter and ammon- 
 
 iacal salts , 
 
 Phosphates 
 
 Alkalioe salts 
 
 Sand 
 
 Lime 
 
 Sulphuric acid 
 
 Proportion of amtnonia 
 
 13-78 
 
 58-16 
 
 28-48 
 
 7-97 
 
 1-66 
 
 17-00 
 
 9-30 
 
 57-30 
 28-06 
 
 a-ixi 
 
 0-75 
 
 18-37 
 
 12-60 
 
 22-00 
 86-90 
 12 25 
 12-35 
 
 4-26 
 
 16-50 
 
 28-50 
 
 '41-23 
 
 16-27 
 
 2-60 
 
 13-85 
 
 86-65 
 
 11-76 
 
 36-74 
 
 1-50 
 
 6-42 
 
 24-36 
 
 18-86 
 41-37 
 2-70 
 7-56 
 2-94 
 2-21 
 
 14-47 
 
 T-85 
 29-54 
 88-67 
 14-4T 
 
 0-4T 
 
 ' Chemist of the Euyal Agricultural Society of Scotland. 
 
 t Chemist of Lima. 
 
GUA 
 
 904 
 
 GUA 
 
 The following table exhibits the number of tons of 
 Peruvian guano exported to and. sold in the United 
 States and Great Britain during the years 1851 and 
 1852, together with the expenses of agency, freight, 
 etc., and the net proceeds to the Peruvian treasury : 
 
 Sales of Peruvian G-uano during the Teaks 1851 and 
 1852. 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Gross 
 proceeds. 
 
 Expenses. 
 
 Nsl 
 proceeds. 
 
 In 1861. 
 United States.. 
 Great Britain.. 
 
 Total 
 
 In 1852. 
 United States.. 
 Great Britain.. 
 
 Total 
 
 22,023 
 88,868 
 
 $1,015,436 
 3,974,690 
 
 $472,019 
 2,126,686 
 
 $648,456 
 1,847,906 
 
 110,391 
 
 47,529 
 141,966 
 
 »4,990,075 
 
 $2,152,961 
 6,315,135 
 
 $2,598,704 
 
 $945,918 
 8,889,995 
 
 $2,891,871 
 
 $1,207,043 
 2,976,140 
 
 189,495 
 
 $8,463,096 
 
 $4,285,918 
 
 $4,182,188 
 
 The total importation of guano, into the United 
 States during the eight year's ending June 30, 1855, 
 was 495,047 tons. The largest importations were from 
 Peru, and the smallest from Africa. In 1854, the im- 
 portations of guano nearly quadrupled those of any 
 preceding year, and exceeded those of 1855 by 1888 
 tons. The number of American vessels and their ton- 
 nage dispatched from the Chincha Islands each month 
 in 1853, and each of the first six months of 1854, is 
 stated as follows : 
 
 Months. 
 
 January, 1853 
 
 February 
 
 March 
 
 April 
 
 May 
 
 June.- 
 
 Total in sis months. . 
 
 July,1853 
 
 August 
 
 September 
 
 October - . 
 
 November 
 
 December 
 
 Total in six- months. . 
 
 Total for the year. . . 
 
 January, 1854. 
 
 Pebruary 
 
 March 
 
 April 
 
 MTay 
 
 June 
 
 Total in six months. 
 
 5 
 4 
 
 8 
 18 
 16 
 18 
 
 19 
 17 
 19 
 30 
 
 208 
 
 11 
 11 
 10 
 
 2,268 
 2,005 
 4,040 
 10,878 
 11,144 
 10,850 
 
 41,182 
 
 14,424 
 10,696 
 12,825 
 22,681 
 16,474 
 19,958 
 
 187,185 
 
 16,967 
 16,166 
 66,471 
 10,004 
 7,668 
 4,552 
 
 120,713 
 
 The number and tonnage of foreign vessels from 
 the Chincha Islands to the United States during the 
 same periods, and the countries to which they be- 
 longed, is given as follows : 
 
 Countries. 
 
 No. of 
 vessels. 
 
 Tonnage, 
 
 Countries. 
 
 No. of 
 
 veMel.. 
 
 ronnngc. 
 
 1858. 
 
 British 
 
 Dutch 
 
 Chilian 
 
 Swedish — .. 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Total for year 
 
 25 
 4 
 2 
 1 
 1 
 
 88 
 
 12,984 
 
 1,018 
 
 1,003 
 
 245 
 
 400 
 
 15,595 
 
 1854 
 
 British 
 
 Swedish 
 
 Norwegian.... 
 
 Peruvian 
 
 Dutch 
 
 Total 6mo's. 
 
 6 
 1 
 1 
 2 
 1 
 
 8,416 
 262 
 379 
 840 
 545 
 
 11 
 
 6,442 
 
 Sale^ exportation^ etc., oy guano. — As the system of 
 exportation and sale of guano is complicated, and not 
 generally understood in the United States, it has been 
 thought prqper to condense, from reliable sources, 
 chiefly official, all the facts relating to the subject 
 which are in possession of the State Department. 
 
 The expense of loading guano at the Chincha Is- 
 lands is about 2 dollars per ton, including the cost of 
 bags for a ground tier in every vessel ; but this cost 
 may increase to a maximum of 3 dollars, perhaps, as 
 the distance from the place of deposit to the vessel 
 increases. The freights have been as high as 30 dol- 
 lars per ton ; but the increased navigation in the Pa- 
 cific, consequent upon the acquisition of California by 
 the United States, has reduced this sum to 20 and 15 
 dollars, and even to as low as 12 dollars. 
 
 The exportation of the article to England first com- 
 menced in 1826, but was tried merely as an experi- 
 ment. It was not until more than 13 years subse- 
 quently that guano was considered an article of 
 commerce ; indeed, it would seem, that even at that 
 period the great importance and value of this fertil- 
 izer were not well understood by the Peruvian gov- 
 ernment; for it appears that the Chincha Islands, 
 and all the guano found upon them, were then sold 
 for the sum of $60,000— a sale which, had it not been 
 subsequently annulled by judicial proceedings, would 
 have placed the agriculturists of the world at the 
 mercy of an irresponsible monopoly of individual 
 stock-jobbers. The first guano contract was then 
 made with the Peruvian government by the same par- 
 ties whose purchase of the islands had just been can- 
 celed; and in less than a year this contract was 
 merged in another made in Februarj', 1842, providing 
 for a loan of $525,000, in consideration of the exclu- 
 sive privilege of shipping 126,000 tons within 5 years. 
 In July, 1847 (after the expiration of the first con- 
 tract), another was made by the same parties, provid- 
 ing for a loan of $600,000 iu cash and $100,000 in 
 scrip (equal to $615,000 in cash)— in all, $700,000 
 good money — in consideration of the privilege of ex- 
 porting only to Europe 40,000 tons within six months. 
 In December, of the same year, a third contract 
 was entered into with the same parties who had nego- 
 tiated the two former, by which, in consideration of 
 the privilege of shipping 100,000 tons of guano, a new 
 loan was effected of $850,000. The principal stipu- 
 lations of this contract were as follows : The loan was 
 to be paid — $400,000 in cash, and the balance in 
 monthly payments of $50,000, the contractors were 
 to enjoy the exclusive privilege of exporting to any 
 or all parts of the world 100,000 tons, register meas- 
 urement — equal to nearly 140,000 actual measure- 
 ment. The time allowed for the shipment of the 
 100,000 tons was limited to 18 months from June, 
 1848, allowing an extension of the time (without 
 exclusive privilege), in case a sufficient number of 
 vessels could not be chartered to convey the whole 
 quantity within that period. The guano was to be 
 consigned directly to the contractors in England, or to 
 their agents elsewhere. The guano was to be sold for 
 account of the Peruvian government, the contractors 
 being authorized to charge the usual commission and 
 guaranty (about 4 per cent, on gross sales), and an 
 interest of 5 per cent, upon all expenses, including 
 freights advanced in England or elsewhere. The pay- 
 ment of the loan of $850,000 (the pound sterling 
 being computed at $5), with interest at the rate of 1 
 per cent, per month, is provided for : first, from the 
 balances of account existing in favor of the Peruvian 
 government on the books of the contractors (that is, 
 balances arising from the former contracts) ; and sec- 
 ond, from the net proceeds of the sales of guano ship- 
 ped under the contract ; one fourth part of the net 
 proceeds to be accounted for in the scrip of the gov- 
 ernment, at par value, with the interest added. This 
 scrip, with the accruing interest added, cost the con- 
 tractors, it is stated, about 10 cents to the dollar. 
 
 How much the contractors realized from this con- 
 tract of December, 1847, can not well be known. 
 The following estimate, however, has been made : 
 Gross sales of 180,000 tons of guano, at $50 per ton 
 ($6,600,000), on which the commission, at 4 per 
 
 cent., was $260,000 
 
 Estimated net proceeds, at $20 per ton, of which 
 one fourth part was accounted for to the gov- 
 ernment in its own scrip, costing the contract- 
 ors (with interest added) about 10 cents per 
 dollar, leaving a profit of 90 per cent, on the 
 
 whole amount— say $650,000 686,000 
 
 Probable gain in exchange (at $5 per pound ster- 
 ling) at least 10 per cent, on total net proceeds 
 —say on $2,600,000 260,000 
 
 Total estimated profit $1,105,000 
 
 It appears, then, that the total loans on guano, and 
 
GTJA 
 
 905 
 
 GTJA 
 
 the number of tons contracted for, up to the year 
 1848, were : 
 
 Tona. 
 
 Pebrnary, 1842 tS25,000, with privilege of 126,000 
 
 Ju!y,184T 700,000 " " 40,000 
 
 December, 184T.... 850,000 " " 100,000 
 
 Total loans $2,075,000 Total guano. . 266,000 
 
 Subsequently to the contract of December, 1847, 
 another was made, by which the consignment of all 
 guano shipped to England and the continent of 
 Europe from December 18, 1849, to December 18, 
 1851, was conceded to the same parties ; and a still 
 later contract was entered into by the Peruvian min- 
 ister in England, on behalf of his government, guar- 
 antying to the London house of Gibbs & Co. the 
 consignments of all guano shipped to Great Britain 
 and the continent of Europe, with the exception of 
 France and Spain, from December 18, 1851, to De- 
 cember 18, 1855. By these latter contracts, loans 
 were made, at different times, amounting, in the ag- 
 gregate, to about $2,000,000 ; the last loan of $1,200,- 
 000 being at a reduced interest of 5 per cent. In both 
 the last contracts, the London house of Gibbs and Co. 
 were made the agents for the payment of the Peru- 
 vian bonds held in England, amounting in 1850, baclt 
 interest, etc., to about $20,000,000. For the pay- 
 ment of this debt, one half the proceeds of the guano 
 sold there is now appropriated. The consumption of 
 guano in Great Britain and on the continent of Eu- 
 rope is estimated at about 90,000 tons annually. 
 
 The first shipment of guano to the United States 
 was made, it is stated, in 1845. In 1846, the Peru- 
 vian government contracted for the building of a war 
 steamer, and appropriated the proceeds of 5,000 tons 
 to the payment thereof. In the contract with Gibbs 
 & Co., of Deicember 22, 1847, it will be remembered 
 that the exclusive privilege of shipping guano to all 
 parts of the world was conceded to that firm. This 
 was the first contract by virtue of which guano was 
 shipped to the United States. Upon its expiration 
 (December 18, 1849), the Peruvian Congress, by an 
 act of January 25, 1850, authorized the Executive 
 to contract for a loan of $384,000, to be paid from 
 the sales made in the United States, and the Min- 
 ister of Finance advertised for proposals. Bids were 
 immediately sent in from five American houses' of 
 undoubted responsibility. One of these bids pro- 
 posed the purchase of 60,000 register tons of guano 
 at the Chincha Islands, at $20 per ton, to be ship- 
 ped within 5 years; advancing the loan of $384,- 
 000 at 6 per cent, interest, with the usual articles 
 regulating the commissions, exclusive privilege, char- 
 tering vessels, etc. This proposal, guarantying to 
 the Peruvian government $20 per ton (all previous 
 contracts not yielding to the government more than 
 $15 net), was the most advantageous that had been 
 made so far ; yet it was rejected, through the influ- 
 ence of European competitors, and the loan was ad- 
 vanced bj' the house of Gibbs & Co., at 6 per cent, 
 interest, to be repaid out of the proceeds of sales in 
 Great Britain. 
 
 There had been no formal cession, since the termi- 
 nation (December 18, 1849), of the contract of De- 
 cember 22, 1847, of the right of the market in the 
 United States, until the contraqt made with Barreda 
 and others. Special licenses have been, from time to 
 time, granted by the Executive to Gibbs & Co. ; and 
 this firm have therefore continued, tlirough their 
 agents, to control the consignments as much as ever. 
 The Peruvian government seems unwilling to enter 
 into any arrangements either to sell at a fixed price 
 at the islands, or that the article should be sold in the 
 United States at a fixed price, and that a sufiicient 
 supply should be always in the market. The coun- 
 tries to which guano is exported from the islands, by 
 virtue of these several contracts, are : the United 
 States, Great Britain, France, Spain, the Mauritius, 
 
 China, the West Indies, and Venezuela. In the Uni- 
 ted States, the agents are Barreda & Brother in Balti- 
 more, and J. W. Eiley in New York ; Great Britain, 
 Messrs. Gibbs & Co., who also have the agency in 
 Belgium and Sardinia ; for the Mauritius, Kendall & 
 Co. i for Spain, Murrieta & Co. of London ; for China, 
 Sevilla & Co., of Lima. The agency of the West 
 Indies is intrusted to Barreda & Brother ; and that of 
 Venezuela, under a recent contract, to Don Leocadio 
 Guzman, the envoy of that republic in Lima. All 
 these agents are paid commissions, varj'ing from 6 to 
 7^ per cent., for selling guano, freighting vessels, etc. 
 They are also allowed interest, at the rate of 6 per 
 cent., upon all sums of money advanced to the gov- 
 ernment. 
 
 These contracts claim a general interest in the Uni- 
 ted States, as throwing light upon the complicated 
 system which regulates the exportation and sale of 
 guano ; but the contract for supplying the United 
 States themselves, possesses more immediate interest 
 to the consumers in this country, and demands a brief 
 additional notice — the facts and statements being 
 copied or condensed from reliable sources. 
 
 The contract between the Peruvian government 
 and Messrs. Barreda & Brothers, for the exclusive 
 export and sale of guano in the United States during 
 
 5 years, was concluded on the 22d of August, 1851. 
 According to its stipulations, the agents are entitled 
 to charge 6J per cent, commission upon the gross 
 product of the sales, in full for all their services as 
 agents in selling the substance, chartering vessels, 
 guaranties, etc. They are allowed six months to 
 render an account of the difi'erent sales made by them ; 
 which term is absolute, unless good cause can be 
 shown for delaj'. They are also authorized to charge 
 
 6 per cent, upon all money advanced to the govern- 
 ment. 
 
 The consumers in the United States have com- 
 plained that the enormous profits which accrue to 
 those interested in the contracts with the Peruvian 
 government for the sale of guano, have combined 
 with other causes in keeping up the high price of the 
 article. The chief ground of these complaints seems 
 to be, that large profits beyond those legitimately in- 
 cident to these contracts are realized in the shape of 
 interest, premiums, etc., which are paid in the first 
 instance by the Peruvian government, but finally fall 
 upon the consumer of guano. These extra commis- 
 sions amount annuallj' to a heavj' charge upon Amer- 
 ican shipping, and must necessarily tend to keep up 
 the cost of guano to the consumer. In 1853, for in- 
 stance, the amount of Peruvian guano exported to 
 the United States, as stated from Peruvian returns* 
 was 137,135 tons register, or about 164,562 tons' weight. 
 The freight on this, at $17 per ton, amounted to $2,- 
 797,554. Five per cent, on this would be $139,877 70. 
 This added to about $16,000 commissions, or port 
 agency in Peru, would make a total of $155,887 70 
 levied as extra commissions, not authorized by the 
 contract, as is complained. 
 
 These facts bear materially upon the consumption 
 and sale of this useful fertilizer in the United States. 
 The interest felt upon the subject has been evinced, 
 as is well known, by large and respectable conven- 
 tions of citizens concerned in agriculture, which have 
 been held in various sections of the country, and by 
 propositions introduced into Congress, having for their 
 object such legislation as would lead to special nego- 
 tiations with the government of Peru respecting the 
 mode of exportation and sale of her great staple. -f 
 
 * ■ The TJnited States' Treasury Report on Commerce and 
 Navigation for 1853, gives only 25,853 tons ; but for 1854, 
 makes the number of tons 163,662. 
 
 t As one of the results of these movements, may be named 
 an act of Congress, approved August 18th, 1856, "to author- 
 ize protection to be given to citizens of the United States 
 who may discover deposits of guano." 
 
GTJA 
 
 906 
 
 GUA 
 
 No deposits of guano, which will at all compare 
 with those of Peru, seem as j'et to have been discov- 
 ered, although most extensive explorations have been 
 prosecuted ; nor does science seem yet to have suc- 
 ceeded, though inventive skill has been tasked to the 
 utmost, in manufacturing a substitute which would 
 supersede the use or lower the price of the Peruvian 
 fertilizer. Indeed, the very latest reports exhibit 
 rather an appreciation in its price, and a large increase 
 in its consumption. — Com. Ed.^ U. S. 
 
 Guaranty, in law, an obligation undertaken by- 
 one party that another shall pay or perform that for 
 which he is or may become liable to a third party. In 
 mercantile transactions in Scotland it may be consti- 
 tuted in any way by which the consent of the guaran- 
 ty obligant is truly and freely given ; but it can only 
 be proved by his oath or writing. The evidence' of 
 witnesses is inadmissible, unless the obligation was 
 undertaken as an integral part of a transaction relative 
 to moveables, provable by witnesses, or that some- 
 thing followed on the faith of it, with the knowledge 
 of the guaranty obligant, by which the rights of par- 
 ties were materially affected. In England it is enacted 
 by statute, that " No action shall be brought whereby 
 to charge the defendant upon any special promise to 
 answer for the debt, etc., of another person, unless the 
 agreement on which such action shall be brought, or 
 note thereof, shall be in writing, and signed by the 
 partj- to be charged therewith, or some other person 
 thereunto by him lawfully authorized." The con- 
 struction of all such obligations is never extended 
 beyond their obvious meaning, and they are only un- 
 derstood to appl)' to future, unless they expressly in- 
 clude past transactions. All their conditions and 
 limitations must be carefully regarded, otherwise they 
 become void. If so expressed or intended, however, 
 such obligations may be of the most unqualified char- 
 acter ; they may be unlimited in amount, and indefi- 
 nite as to time. AVhen the guaranty obligant is com- 
 pelled to pay, he has an action of relief against tlie 
 principal debtor ; but that party, being primarily lia- 
 ble, must first be sued by the creditor ; and whatever 
 he does toward the extinction of the claim of the 
 creditor, or whatever the qreditor recovers from him 
 or his estate, goes so far to relieve the guaranty obli- 
 gant, who can also plead against the creditor any de- 
 fense which could be competently^ pleaded by the 
 principal debtor. Where more persons than one are 
 bound together in a guaranty obligation, any of them 
 seeking relief from the others of a share of his loss 
 must communicate to them a share of any security 
 which he may hold over the estate of the principal 
 debtor, or of anj- abatement he may have obtained 
 from the creditor. A guaranty obligation may be 
 extinguished by the extreme neglect of the creditor ; 
 as,' for example, by his failing to take advantage of a 
 security in his power, omitting to negotiate a bill, in- 
 advertently giving up funds of the principal debtor 
 over whicli he had a right of lien or retention, or re- 
 nouncing any securit}' over his estate. In like man- 
 ner, if he compound with, or discharge the principal 
 debtor, without the concurrence of the guaranty obli- 
 gant, the guaranty is at an end ; excepting under a 
 commission of bankruptcy in England, or a sequestra- 
 tion in Scotland, where the creditor may, by acquies- 
 cence, allow the principal debtor to be discharged,- and 
 may accept a composition, without discharging the 
 guaranty, provided the guaranty obligant has previ- 
 ouslj" been duly warned and called on to satisfy the 
 debt. 
 
 Guatimala, or G-autemala, one of the republics 
 of Central America, occupies most of the table-land of 
 Gautimala, with the mountainous district between it 
 and- the Gulf of Honduras, besides a portion of the 
 table-land of Yucatan. Its extreme latitudes are 13° 
 29' and 18° 12' N., and longitudes 88° 10' and 93° 
 22' W. It is bounded on the north by the Mexican 
 
 State of Yucatan, on the west by Chiapa, on the south 
 by the Pacific Ocean, south-east by the republic of 
 Salvador, east by Honduras, and north-east by the 
 Gulf of Honduras, and the British Honduras, or Belize. 
 The total area of Gautimala is about 49,000 square 
 miles. It is divided into 17 Departments, and con- 
 tained, according to the returns of 1852, a population 
 of 972,000, distributed as follows : 
 
 Departmenls. , Populations. 
 
 Guatimala 89,500 
 
 Sacatepec 44,5D0 
 
 Chimaltenango. . 66,400 
 
 Sanmarco 89,100 
 
 Suohiltepeo 36,800 
 
 Escnintla 15,300 
 
 Amatitlan 83,000 
 
 Banta Kosa 86,000 
 
 Mita T2,300 
 
 Bolola 84,200 
 
 Dopartmenta. Populations. 
 Totonicapto . . . 84,700 
 Gucguetenango 64,800 
 Qucsaltenango. 66,800 
 
 Chiquimnia 73,000 
 
 Vera Paz 6,200 
 
 Balami 109,900 
 
 Isabel 9,000 
 
 Total 972,000 
 
 The surface of Guatimala is wholly mountainous, 
 the main chain of the continuation of the Andes tra- 
 versing it from south-east to north-west at an incon- 
 siderable distance from the Pacific shore, and branch- 
 ing off in various ramifications toward the Atlantic ; 
 forming many valleys, but inclosing few plains. 
 Along the main chain occur numerous volcanoes, all 
 near the Pacific. The culminating point of the sur- 
 face is in N. lat. 15° 30', between the towns of Toto- 
 nicap4an and Gueguetenango. The eastern border of 
 the plateau descending to the Gulf of Honduras is cut 
 by deep vallej's, which extend to a great distance, 
 and in some places advance to the very shores. The 
 country lying to the west and the north-west of the 
 Golfo Dulce is a low plain, while all between the 
 plateau and the Bay of Honduras is a succession of 
 ridges and valleys. In many places the shore is 
 rocky, with rocky barriers lying off it. 
 
 Numerous streams drain this State. The most im- 
 portant are, the Lacantun, forming part of the Mexi- 
 can boundary ; the Motagua and the Polochic, which 
 fall tlrrough the Dulce into the Bay of Honduras. 
 The most important lakes are, the Dulce, advanta- 
 geous for foreign .trading vessels j the Amatitlan, 18 
 miles south-east of Guatimala, is 9 miles by 3, of great 
 depth, and is much resorted to as a bathing-place by 
 the inhabitants of Guatimala, from February till 
 April ; near it there are several mineral and hot 
 springs ; the Atitlan, 80 miles north-west of the city of 
 Guatimala, is about 20 raUes long by 9 broad, sur- 
 rounded by lofty heights, including the volcano of 
 Atitlan, and is remarkable for its very great depth, 
 and being without outlet, though several small rivers 
 enter it 5 the Paten, near the frontiers with Yucatan, 
 about 30 miles long, and 9 broad. 
 
 The climate of the table-land is that of perennial 
 spring, the thermometer scarcely varying throughout 
 the year, and it resembles very much the climate of 
 Valencia in Spain in almost every particular. In the 
 northern part of the State, in what is called Los Altos^ 
 the highlands, the average is lower than 'any other 
 part of the country. Snow sometimes falls in the vi- 
 cinity of Quesaltenango, the capital of this Depart- 
 ment, but soon disappears, the thermometer seldom 
 remaining at the freezing point for any considerable 
 time. In the vicinity of the city of Guatimala, the 
 range of the thermometer is from 55° to 80°, averag- 
 ing about 72° of Fah. Vera Paz, the north-eastern 
 Department of Guatimala, and embracing the coast 
 below Yucatan to the Gulf of Dulce, is nearly 10 de- 
 grees warmer. This coast from Belize downward to 
 Isabel and San Tome is hot and unhealthy. From 
 May till October is the rainy season. Thunder pre- 
 vails in June, and terrific storms from the south-west 
 sweep along the Pacific coast in August and Septem- 
 ber. Earthquakes are very fi'equont. 
 
 The soil is generally very fertile, producing excel- 
 lent rice, and all the cereals in great variety and 
 abundance. Agriculture, however, is in a very back- 
 ward state from the want of enterprise and the igno- 
 
GUA 
 
 907 
 
 GUA 
 
 ranee of the people, as well as from the want of loads. 
 As articles of commerce, the most Important products 
 are cochineal and indigo. Cotton, cacao, sugar, va- 
 nilla, tobacco, and coffee, are grown in considerable 
 quantities. The table-land is almost destitute of trees 
 and even bushes, except on the declivities of the hilly 
 ranges which so extensively traverse it. Trees of 
 very large size form extensive forests on the lower 
 lands along the Pacific. These are a source of gre?it 
 natural wealth. Among the trees the most valuable 
 are the cedar, mahogany, Brazil, Santa Maria, pi- 
 mento, guaiacura, etc. ; and abundance of medicinal 
 plants are also found and turned to some account. 
 The vegetation is luxurious and vigorous along the 
 low tract by the Bay of Honduras. Sheep are reared 
 in considerable numbers, especially over the northern 
 districts, and their wool is used for native manufac- 
 tures. The horse is small, hardj-, and handsome ; and 
 mules are numerous, being the chief beasts of burden. 
 Pigs and poultry are very abimdant, and of excellent 
 quality. 
 
 Salt is manufactured along the coast of the Pacific. 
 Jaspfer, marble, and brimstone, are obtained in con- 
 siderable quantity in the vicinity of some of the vol- 
 canoes. Lead Is worked bj"- the Indians in Totonlcapan. 
 The manufactures are mostly limited to those for do- 
 mestic use. The cotton manufacture, once extensive. 
 Is now confined to the Departments of Guatlmala and 
 I Sacatepec. Coarse woolen cloth is now more manu- 
 factured, especiall}' gerga^ which is made into a pecu- 
 liar black called poncho^ in which much taste is 
 displayed. — E. B. 
 
 Since 1847, Guatlmala has been an Independent re- 
 public, and In 1851 a new constitution was adopted, by 
 virtue of which the President is elected every four 
 years ; to whom. In conjunction with an Assembly 
 General, composed of 59 members, the powers of the 
 government are confided. It is divided into 17 De- 
 partments, and its capital is Nueva Guatimalal The 
 great commercial staple of the republic Is cochineal, of 
 which upward of 20,000 bales are annually produced. 
 In addition to these articles, considerable attention has 
 been given of late to the cultivation of tobacco, sugar, 
 coffee, cotton, vanilla, and Indigo. Gold, silver, and 
 other minerals have been found in several sections of 
 the State. The exports consist of cochineal, indigo, 
 segars, sarsaparUla, mahogany, cocoa, hides, dye- 
 "woods, and some silver.' The total'' value of exports 
 amounts, annually, to about $1,880,000, and the im- 
 ports to about $2,"000,000. 
 
 The commercial relations between the United 
 States and Guatlmala are -regulated by the treaty of 
 March 3, 1849, and by the looa;Megislation of that 
 teptiblic. The treaty is one of peace, amity, com- 
 merce and navigation, and stipulates for perfect equal- 
 ity and entire reciprocity of commerce and navigation. 
 Each natioh extends the same privileges tb the vessels 
 of the other that are applicable to its own. The right 
 of residence, commerce, and trade is extended to citi- 
 zens of each In the territories of the other, with the 
 same rights, privileges, exemptions, and restrictions, 
 which apply to native citizens — the coasting trade 
 excepted, which is reserved to the parties, respectively, 
 accorilhg to their own separate laws. The high con- 
 tracting parties moreover adopt, with respect to each 
 other, the principle that free ships make free goods. 
 The treaty is to continue in force during 12 yearsj and 
 contains the usual prdvision of one year's notice after 
 the expiration of that period. The local regulations 
 of Guatlmala are altered from time to time by decree, 
 Sanctioned by the executive officers, and promulgated 
 under authority of the President of the republic. The 
 latest decree of this character, of which our Govern- 
 ment Is in possession, modifies the tariff of 1837, so far 
 as it relates to tonnage duties. It bears date May 
 6, 1852, and subjoined is a translation of its provis- 
 ions: 
 
 Article 1. Every vessel which shall anchor in the 
 ports of the republic, no matter whence it may come, 
 shall pay a tonnage duty of two reals (25 cents) for 
 each ton of measurement. This measurement shall be 
 ascertained from the register, the certificate of nation- 
 ality, the patent or clearance under which it sails. 
 
 Article 2. Shall be free of tonnage duty-^lst. Small 
 vessels engaged in transporting merchandise from one 
 port to another of the republic; 2d. Vessels which 
 anchor in ballast to take in water, provisions, or fruits 
 of the country, provided they discharge no cargoes; 
 3d. Vessels of war, and regular mall or steam-packets, 
 provided thej* do not discharge, merchandise over 20 
 tons; 4th. Merchant vessels which, exceeding 150 
 tons of registered measurement, discharge not exceed- 
 ing 20 tons of merchandise ; 5th. Vessels which, re- 
 ceive on board, for exportation, produce of the country, 
 excepting cochineal, as provided for In decree of March 
 31, 1849. 
 
 Article 3. This decree shall take effect from and 
 after the first day of July, ensuing. 
 
 Guatlmala^ laAntiffua^ a city of Central America, In 
 the republican State of Guatlmala, and about 27 miles 
 , W.S.W. from Guatimala la Nueva. It stands in a 
 ■wide and fertile vallej-, at ari elevatlen of 5820 feet 
 above the sea-level. The place was abandoned after 
 the earthquake of 1773, which partly destroyed it ; but 
 it now contains a population of nearly 20,00p. There 
 Is collected here a considerable quantity, of cochineal ; 
 and there are some Insignificant manufactories. The 
 city is regularly laid out, but a great part of it Is still 
 'In ruins. Prior to the earthquake the population 
 amounted to about 60,000. 
 
 Guatimala la Nueva, the capital of the republic of 
 Guatimala, In Central America. Its situation is in 
 N. lat. 14P 36', and W. long. 90° 30', at the extrem- 
 ity of a plain 22 miles in length by 7 in breadth, with 
 a deep rayine on tliree sides, and elevated above the 
 sea 4970 feet. The form of the town Is quadrangular ; 
 and the streets are wide, straight, and. clean. On ac- 
 count of the frequency of earthquakes the houses are 
 only one story in height. The Plaza or Great Square 
 measures about 150 yards on each side, and is sur- 
 rounded on three sides by colonnades... . Here are the 
 principal. buUdings in the town — the cathedral, the 
 archbishop's palace, the old royal palace, the College 
 des Infantes,! and the various government offices. In 
 the centre stands a large audi elegant fountain. The 
 town is well ■ supplied with water brought by pipes 
 from the mountains upward of two leagues distant. 
 Beside the cathedral, there are 26 other churches and 
 chapels ; and, beside the Plaza, several other squares, 
 each with a 'fountain In the centre. At the gouth side 
 of the city there has recently been ; erected a fort 
 mounting 20 guns. There are several private schools 
 in Guatimala; and several printing establishments, 
 whence two weekly newspapers, are Issued. 
 
 Thompson, In his Official Visit to Guatimala, states 
 that *' the mean hedt" of the city of Guatimala " dur- 
 ing the day, from the first of Januarj' to the first of 
 July, is 75° of Fahr. ; at night, 63°. In the summer 
 months the average may he taken at 10 degrees 
 higher." Fruits, vegetables, provisions, and all 
 articles of ordinary consumption are j abundant, at 
 moderate prices, while many descriptions of British 
 manufacture are as cheap as in Britain. The manu- 
 factures are muslins,: gauze, cottons, earthenware, 
 porcelain, jewelry, segars, etc. 
 
 The inhabitants are courteous and hospitable to 
 strangers, but live very much apart from each other, 
 their only recreation being their incessant religious 
 processions. The suburbs are occupied mostly hy 
 ladinos (mulattoes) and Indians. The buildings of 
 this city were begun in 1776, three years after the 
 fearful earthquake of 1773, which completely destroyed 
 Old Guatimala, the former capital. The population is 
 variously estimated from 35,000 to 50,000. 
 
GUI 
 
 908 
 
 GUI 
 
 Gruava, the fruit of the Plsidium pyriferum, and P. 
 pomiferum, nat. ord. Myrtacese, the pulp of which is 
 made into a jelly of a peculiarlj' delicious flavor. This 
 sweetmeat is imported in considerable quantities from 
 the West Indies. ' 
 
 Guayaquil, a city and port of Columbia, on the 
 western coast of South America, lat. 2° 11' 21" south, 
 long. 79° 43' west. ■ Population 20,000. The town is 
 situated on the banks of the river of the same name, 
 about six or seven leagues from the Isla Verde, or nine 
 leagues from the Isla Pufia, in the Gulf of Guaya- 
 quil, opposite to the mouth of the river. Ships bound 
 for Guayaquil generally call at the Isla Puna, where 
 expert pilots may be had, who cany them up to the 
 town by night or by day, according to the state of the 
 tides. The town is old ; but as the houses are of 
 
 wood, and it has frequently suffered from fires, much 
 of it is comparatively modem, and has a good appear- 
 ance. There is a dry dock on the south bank of the 
 river, where several ships of a superior construction 
 have been built. The district in which Guayaquil is 
 situated has for a considerable period formed a part of 
 the republic of Ecuador or ^Equator. Like the other 
 South American States, it has been subjected to per- 
 petually-recurring revolutions ; but Guayaquil has, 
 notwithstanding, continued to enjoy considerable com- 
 merce. Its principal article of export is cocoa, of 
 which large quantities are shipped ; and next to it are 
 straw hats, timber, tobacco, hides, bark, etc. The 
 principal articles of import are manufactured cottons 
 and hardware, silks, wine, flour, etc. The following 
 tables show the commerce and navigation of Guayaquil : 
 
 Account op the Quantities and Values of the principal Aeticles of Produce exported from Guayaquil, in 
 
 1849, 1850, AND 1851. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 1S4d. 1 1850. 
 
 1851. j 
 
 Qimntitiea. | Values. | Quantities. 
 
 Viilues. 
 
 Qunulities. 
 
 Values. 
 
 Cocoa lbs. 
 
 Straw hats doz. 
 
 Tanned hides sides 
 
 Tobacco quintals 
 
 Timber loss 
 
 Mangles poles 
 
 Flax lbs. 
 
 Orchilla quintals 
 
 Tamarinds " 
 
 Bark " 
 
 Total value , 
 
 14,020,446 
 
 21,101 
 
 22,867 
 
 2,123 
 
 8,243 
 
 1,419 
 
 17,156 
 
 706 
 
 180 
 
 714 
 
 £139,408 
 
 73,866 
 
 5,871 
 
 9,289 
 
 1,418 
 
 62 
 
 663 
 
 1,285 
 
 229 
 
 1,499 , 
 
 11,171,818 
 26,336 
 26,400 
 1,622 
 7,571 
 .1,458 
 7,668 
 1,240 
 175 
 1,045 
 
 £111,718 
 96,800 
 8,400 
 8,300 
 
 i 8,610 
 
 200 
 2,100 
 
 200 
 6,600 
 
 9,567,063 
 
 36,864 
 
 17,118 
 
 2,808 
 
 ( 16,244 
 
 1 10,027 
 
 860 
 
 1,188 
 
 367 
 
 2,688 
 
 £100,000 
 
 107,700 
 
 5,100 
 
 12,400 
 
 16,-300 
 
 700 
 
 50 
 
 2,000 
 
 600 
 
 14,000 
 
 
 £284,020 
 
 1 £278.625 
 
 1 £287.800 i 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 ' 
 
 Account of the Number, Tonnage, Crews, and Values of the Cargoes op the Vessels op each Nation entered 
 and cleared at the port of guayaquil, in 1851. 
 
 FLAGS. 
 
 
 tNTEKED. 
 
 
 
 CLKJIRE[>. 
 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Crews. 
 
 Value of (in. (.-'•< 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tom. 
 
 Crews, 
 
 Value of capgoes 
 
 British. 
 
 7 
 51 
 88 
 8 
 2 
 8 
 10 
 9 
 4 
 2 
 2 
 
 2,026 
 
 2,060 
 
 8,700 
 
 . 1,265 
 
 140 
 
 850 
 
 8,100 
 
 1,800 
 
 900 
 
 850 
 
 860 
 
 107 
 360 
 880 
 70 
 11 
 28 
 170 
 80 
 66 
 24 
 26 
 
 £88,000 
 33,100 
 20,000 
 25,100 
 1,200 
 2,000 
 66,000 
 36,800 
 20,000 
 16,000 
 18,000 
 
 7 
 
 51 
 83 
 8 
 2 
 8 
 10 
 9 
 4 
 2 
 2 
 
 2,026 
 
 2,060 
 
 8,700 
 
 1,265 
 
 140 
 
 860 
 
 8,100 
 
 1,800 
 
 900 
 
 360 
 
 860 
 
 107 
 
 850 
 
 .■)80 
 
 70 
 
 U 
 
 28 
 
 170 
 
 80 
 
 66 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 £41,900 
 26,500 
 22,000 
 19,000 
 6,200 
 8,200 
 82,000 
 40,000 
 18,000 
 17,000 
 18,000 
 
 
 
 Chilian.. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Danish 
 
 Total 
 
 181 
 
 16,051 
 
 1,811 
 
 £274,700 
 
 181 
 
 16,061 
 
 1,311 
 
 £287,300 
 
 The Guayaquil Kiver is the principal in western 
 Ecuador. It is formed by the union of numerous 
 streams from the Andes, and becomes navigable for 
 commercial purposes at Baybahoyo or Caracol, 70 or 
 80 miles from its mouth — river boats ascending to one 
 or other of these places according to the season. Be- 
 low Guaj'^aquil the channel is impeded by numerous 
 rocks and small islands, while at its mouth is the lar- 
 ger island of Pana. Where the riVer falls into the 
 Pacific it is Icnown as the Gulf of Guayaquil, the ex- 
 treme points of which are 70 miles apart. 
 
 Guaymas, a sea-port town of Mexico. See Mex- 
 ico. 
 
 Guayra, La, the principal sea-port town of the 
 republic of Venezuela, province of, and 11 miles north 
 north-west of Caracas. It is an unhealthy situation, 
 and is closelj' surrounded by high mountains and 
 rocks. The chain of mountains which separates it 
 from the high valley of Caracas descends almost di- 
 rectly into the sea ; and the houses of the town are 
 backed by a wall of steep rocks, leaving scarcelj' 100 
 or 140 fathoms' breadth of flat ground between this 
 wall and the sea. The town is poorly built, and con- 
 tains no edifice worthy of notice. The port is un- 
 sheltered, but has good anchorage in from six to thirty 
 fathoms, and is well defended by land batteries. Its 
 chief exports are coffee, cocoa, indigo, and hides, with 
 some cotton and sugar. Population about 8000. 
 
 Guiana, Guyana, or Guayana, an extensive 
 territory in the north-eastern part of South America, 
 comprehending in its widest acceptation all that extent 
 of country lying between the Rivera Amazon and Ori- 
 
 noco, between lat. 3° 30' south, and 8° 40' north, and 
 long. 50° 22' and 68° 10' west. It is bounded on the 
 north by the Orinoco and the Atlantic, east by the 
 Atlantic, south by the Amazon and the Rio Negro, 
 and west bj' the Orinoco and the Cassiquiare. Its 
 greatest length from east to west is about 1200 miles, 
 and its greatest breadth about 850 miles ; estimated 
 area 700,000 square miles. This vast territory- is divi- 
 ded into Brazilian (formerly Portuguese) Guiana, Ven- 
 ezuelan (formerly Spanish) Guiana, and Colonial 
 Guiana. The two former, comprising about five sixths 
 of the entire region, are now included within thq limits 
 of their respective countries ; while Colonial Guiana 
 is that to which the general term of Guiana is now 
 commonly applied. It is subdivided into British, 
 Dutch, and French Guiana. 
 
 Guiana, British, the most westerly of the three col- 
 onies, is bounded on the north and north-east by the 
 Atlantic, east by Dutch Guiana, from which it is sep- 
 arated by the Eiver Corentyn, south by Brazil, and 
 west by Venezuela. It lies between north lat. 0° 40' 
 and 8° 40', and west long. 57° and 61°, and has an 
 estimated area of 76,000 square miles ; but the posses- 
 sion of much of this has been disputed by Brazil and 
 Venezuela. It is divided into three counties, Deme- 
 rara, Essequibo, and Berbice, so named from the three 
 principal rivers which drain them. Demerara, situ- 
 ated between the other two, occupies the centre of the 
 seaboard for nearly 90 miles. To the north-west the 
 coimty of Essequibo stretches along the coast toward 
 the swamps and forests of the western frontier ; and 
 to the south-east lies the county of Berbice. 
 
GUI 
 
 909 
 
 GUI 
 
 The entire coast of British Guiana is low, and gen- 
 erally bordered with a sandy flat extending far out to 
 eea, so that vessels drawing more than 12 feet of water 
 can not approach within three or four miles of land. 
 The rivers, too, deposit at their mouths large quan- 
 tities of mud and sand, and are thus inaccessible to 
 vessels of large size. Extending from low-water mark 
 to a distance of five or six miles inland, is a tract of 
 rich alluvial soil of recent formation. This is suc- 
 ceeded by a flat narrow reef of sand running exactly 
 parallel with the present line of coast. Here remains 
 of stranded vessels and anchors eaten through with 
 rust have been found, indicating that within a com- 
 paratively recent period it had been washed by the 
 waves of the Atlantic. Running parallel to this reef, 
 at irregular distances, varj'ing from 10 to 20 miles, is 
 a second and higher range, composed of coarse white 
 sand ; and which, at a period more remote, probably 
 formed the sea limit. In the wet seasons the inter- 
 mediate tract between these two reefs becomes the 
 bed of extensive savannahs ; for the creeks being then 
 unable to carry off the torrents of rain which fall, over- 
 flow their level banks, and inundate the surrounding 
 country to the depth of five or six feet. On the re- 
 turn of dry weather the waters gradually subside, 
 leaving behind them a thick layer of deca3'ed grasses 
 and aquatic plants which had floated and flourished on 
 their surface, and these in time produce a vegetable 
 mold of considerable thicltness. Beyond the second 
 reef are swampy plains, intersected by sand-reefs, and 
 extending to the mountainous regions of the interior. 
 The high land does not rise immediately from the plain 
 to a great elevation, but begins with a range of sand 
 hills of from 50 to 200 feet above the plain. Behind 
 these the high land stretches out in level or undulating 
 plains, rising here and there into eminences. About 
 north lat. 5°, a mountain chain, an offset of the Ori- 
 noco Mountains, and composed of granite, gneiss, and 
 other primitive rocks, runs from west to east through 
 this territory, forming large cataracts where it is 
 crossed bj^ the rivers, and rising frequently to the 
 height of 1000 feet above the sea. About a degree 
 further south is the Pacaraima chain, which, in like 
 manner, runs from west to east, and is of primitive 
 formation. Its highest point, called by the natives 
 Eoraima, in north lat. 5° 9' 30", west long. 60° 47', 
 is 7500 feet above the level of the sea. The plains 
 south of this range are in general level, and form exten- 
 sive savannahs, covered with grasses and plants. The 
 Sierra Acarai is a densely wooded chain of mountains 
 forming the southern boundary of Guiana, and the 
 water-shed between the basins of the Amazon and the 
 Essequibo. This chain rises to the height of 4000 
 feet. The Conocou, or Cannucu Mountains, running 
 south-east and north-west, connect the Pacaraima with 
 the Sierra Acarai. 
 
 The principal river of British Guiana is the Esse- 
 quibo, which rises in the Sierra Acarai, and after a 
 course of at least 600 mUes discharges itself into the 
 ocean by an estuary 20 miles in width, in north lat. 
 7°, west long. 58° 40'. In the estuary of the Esse- 
 quibo are a group of beautiful islands partially cul- 
 tivated, the principal of which are Varken, or Hog 
 Island about 21 miles in length by 3 in breadth, 
 Wakenaam and Leguan, each about 12 miles by 3, 
 and Tiger Island, about half that size. The entrance 
 is difficult and dangerous, even for vessels of small 
 size, on account of the banks of mud and sand. Its 
 course lies through forests of the most gigantic vege- 
 tation. In north lat. 3° 14' 35", it forms a great cata- 
 ract, named by Schomburgk, King William's Cataract. 
 In north lat. 3° 57' 30", and west long. 58° 3', it 
 receives the Eupunoony, which has a course of about 
 220 miles. At various points of its course it forms 
 rapids and cataracts which impede its navigation. 
 About 60 miles from its mouth occur the last of these, 
 the Falls of Etabally, after which it pursues its course 
 
 through the low alluvial plain. In this part of its 
 course it receives the united waters of the Cuyuni and 
 the Massaroony. The Demerara, or Demerary rises 
 probably near north lat. 6°, and after a northward 
 course nearly parallel with the Essequibo, of more than 
 200 miles, it enters the Atlantic near north lat. 6° 50', 
 west long. 58° 20'. It is navigable for 85 miles, and 
 at its mouth at Georgetown it is more than a mile and 
 a half across. Further east runs the Berbice, whose 
 source is probably about north lat. 3° 40'. It joins 
 the Atlantic. by an estuary five miles in width, 10 
 miles north of New Amsterdam, and in north lat. 6° 
 21', west long. 67° 12'. It is navigable for 165 miles 
 from the sea, by vessels drawing seven feet water. 
 The Gorentyn which forms the eastern boundary of 
 British Guiana, and probably has its source in the 
 Sierra Acarai, flows generally northward and falls 
 into the Atlantic in north lat. 6°, west long. 57°. It 
 is navigable for boats for 150 miles. The mineral 
 productions of Guiana are necessarily but imperfectly 
 known. Clays of various kinds, including excellent 
 pipe-clay, are found near the coast. The chief rocks 
 are granite, porphyry, gneiss, clay-slate,, sandstone, 
 etc. Traces of iron are found in various parts J and 
 gold has been recently (in 1852) discovered in consid- 
 erable quantities on the upper Essequibo. 
 
 The climate of Guiana is more healthy than that 
 of most places in the West Indies. Its salubrity has 
 been much increased since the occupation of the coun- 
 try by Europeans, the gradual clearing and cultivation 
 of the surface having done much to mitigate those 
 diseases so fatal in a low, marshy, and hot region. 
 The hurricanes so destructive in the West Indies are 
 unknown here, and gales are unfrequent. Thunder- 
 storms occur only during the rainy seasons ; but, lilce 
 the few occasional shocks of earthquakes, are not at- 
 tended with danger. The year is divided into two 
 wet and two dry seasons. The long rainy season sets 
 in about the middle of April, when light showers be- 
 gin to fall. The rain increases till the middle of June, 
 when it falls in torrents ; in the beginning of July 
 these heavy rains begin to decrease, and in August 
 the long dry season begins, and continues till Novem- 
 ber. December and •Januarj'' constitute the short 
 rainy season, and February and March the short ■ 
 dry season. The winds during the rains are gener- 
 ally westerly ; in the drj' season they blow mostly 
 from the ocean, loaded with moisture, and thus render 
 the heat less oppressive than it would otherwise be. 
 The thermometer seldom rises above 90°, and rarely 
 falls below 75° Fah. The mean annual temperature 
 at Georgetown is 81° 2'; the total annual fall of rain 
 averages about 100 inches. 
 
 The vegetation of Guiana is most luxuriant. The 
 interior is thicldy wooded with valuable timber, with 
 the exception of the swamps of Berbice and the savan- 
 nahs. The trees are of great size, and many of them 
 are valuable for their timber, or their fruits, or as dye- 
 woods. Medicinal plants, including quassia, gentian, 
 the castor-oil plant, and many others, are abundant. 
 Amotto, so extensively used in the coloring of cheese, 
 grows wild in profusion on the banks of the upper 
 Corentyn. The largest of the water-lilies, the Victo- 
 ria JRegia, was first discovered here by Mr. Schom- 
 burgk on the banks of the Berbice. The hai-arry, an 
 indigenous plant deserving of notice, is a papilinaceous 
 vine, the root of which contains a powerful narcotic, 
 and is commonly used by the Indians in poisoning the 
 waters to take the fish, which are not thereby dete- 
 riorated. The domestic animals are the same as those 
 in England, and the wild animals are those common 
 to tropical South America generallj'. Black cattle 
 here attain a larger size than in Europe, but their flesh 
 is not so tender nor so fine flavored. The wool of the 
 sheep is converted into hair. Game, chiefly deer, 
 range the upper savannahs. Tigers, little inferior in 
 size to those of Asia, but different in character, being 
 
GUI 
 
 910 
 
 GTJI^ 
 
 rarely known to attack man, abound; as do aiso 
 jaguars, which prey upon the herds of wild cattle 
 and horses that graze on the extensive plains among 
 the mountains. Among the other animals are the 
 tapir, armadillo, agouti, ant-bear, sloth, and a great 
 variety of monkeys. Lizards, snakes, and alligators 
 are numerous. There are several kinds of parrots, ma- 
 caws, and humming-birds ; also the flamingo-, muscovy 
 duck, toucan, spoonbill, and vampire bat. Trouble- 
 some insects are numerous, as might be expected from 
 the swampy nature of the coast districts. The rivers 
 and coast abound with a great variety of fish. 
 
 The cultivated portion of British Guiana Is merelj' 
 a narrow strip along the sea-coast, and for a few miles 
 up the rivers, including a portion of the islands of 
 Essequibo. The whole surface of the coast lands be- 
 ing on a level with high-water mark, when these lands 
 are drained and cultivated they consolidate and be- 
 come fully a foot below it, so that the estates require 
 to be protected from inundation by dams and sluices. 
 Each estate has, therefore, a strong dam or embank- 
 ment in front ; while a similar erection at the back or 
 inland boundary, as well as on each side, is requisite 
 to I«ep off the immense body of water accumulated on 
 the savannahs during the wet seasons, and which, if 
 not repelled, would rush down to the sea carrying 
 every thing before it. The state of his dams, there- 
 fore, requires the planter's unremitting attention ; not 
 the slightest hole or leakage is allowed to exist in 
 them, and by law their willful injury is considered 
 felony. One inundation destroys a sugar estate for 
 eighteen months, and a coflPee one for six years. " The 
 original cost of damming and cultivating is fully paid 
 by the first crop, and the duration of the crops is from 
 30 to 50 years ; so that though great capital is required 
 for the first outlay, the comparative expense of cultiva- 
 tion is a mere trifle compared with that of the "West 
 India Islands, notwithstanding that the expense of 
 worlds, buildings, and machinery, may be treble or 
 quadruple, being built on an adequate scale for half a 
 century of certain production." — Geog. Jour., vol. iv., 
 323, Inside, and, at the foot of these dams, are trenches 
 12 to 18 feet wide, and 5 feet deep, running round the 
 whole plantation, and into these, smaller trenches and 
 
 open drains convey the water that falls upon the land. 
 These large trenches discharge their contents into the 
 sea through one or more sluices, which are opened as 
 the tide ebh8,:aind shut against the returning flood. 
 
 1 The staple productions of the colonyare sugar, cof- 
 fee, and cotton. "From an official table of the exports 
 of British Guiana from 1826 to 1851, we find that in 
 1827, 15,904 bales of cotton were exported, but from 
 that period this cultivation gradually gave place to 
 sugar, and in 1844 ceases to appear in the table as an 
 article of export. Since 1851, however, it seems to 
 have received more attention, for among the exports 
 from British Guiana into the United Kingdom in 1854 
 we find 1093 cwt, of cotton. Coffee, from upward of 
 9,500,000 lbs, in 1830, gradually fell off to only 3198 
 lbs. in 1851. As to sugar, making a due allowance for 
 the difl^erence of seasons, the quantity exported re- 
 mained pretty steadyfrom 1826 to 1837, the year pre- 
 ceding the termination of apprenticeships — averaging 
 abont 66,000 hhds. ; but in the year following that 
 event it fell down to nearly half its former average, 
 being in 1839 only 38,270 hhds. In 1846 it had sunk as 
 low as 26,201 hhds., owing in a great measure to a pro- 
 tracted' drought through a great part of that season. 
 In 1851 43,034 hhds. were exported. In proportion to 
 the sugar obtained the quantity of molasses is large, 
 owing partly to the defects of the common process of 
 preparation, but chiefly to the fact that the soil is so 
 riph an alluvium, and so abundant in alkaline and 
 earthy saline matter. Little of the molasses is boiled 
 down into sugar in the colony ;> it is chiefly made into 
 rum, or sold to the refiners, by whom it is much prized. 
 In 1851 the quantity of molasses exported was 9530 
 puncheons. Although the rum produced in this colony 
 does not equal in character that of Jamaica, it yet oc- 
 cupies a respectable place in the market. The qxian- 
 tity exported in 1851 was 15,848 puncheons. With 
 respect to the cultivation of the sugar cane, by reason 
 of the lowness of the land and the plan of drainage in 
 use — namely, that known as the open-drain and round- 
 bed method — the system of cultivation remains exactly 
 as in the times of slaver}', every part of the operations of 
 culture being performed by manual labor. The follow- 
 ing statistics have been compiled from oflicial sources: 
 
 Commerce of tub United States with British Guiana, from Octobbb 1, 1833, to July 1, 1856. 
 
 ifeftrs ending. 
 
 Kxporte. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Whereof there was in Bullion 
 ' and Specie. 
 
 Tonnage Cleared. 
 
 Domestic. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Exported. 
 
 Imported. 
 
 American. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Sept. 30, 1834 
 
 1835 
 
 1886 
 
 1837 
 
 1838 
 
 1889 
 
 1840 
 
 Total.... 
 
 Sept. 80, 1841 
 
 1842 
 
 9 mos. 1843 
 
 Juno 80, 1844 
 
 1845 
 
 1846 
 
 1847 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 
 
 1850 
 
 Total.... 
 
 June 30, 1851 
 
 1852 
 
 1863 
 
 1864 
 
 1855 
 
 m56 
 
 $106,214 
 64,243 
 
 105,076 
 42,885 
 
 146,682 
 34,906 
 
 118,896 
 
 $522 
 213 
 538 
 
 $106,214 
 64,248 
 
 106,075 
 42,885 
 
 146,054 
 86,124 
 
 119,434 
 
 $81,424 
 J5,696 
 92,019 
 6,244 
 86,043 
 14,216 
 10,978 
 
 - :;:: 
 
 $460. 
 193 
 
 1,110 
 6,033 
 
 21,200 
 8,715 
 
 10,100 
 
 8.988 
 5,611 
 4,118 
 6,992 
 4,892 
 6,349 
 
 "580 
 749 
 493 
 
 1,768 
 278 
 
 1,233 
 
 $616,751 
 
 $881,882 
 115,991 
 116.145 
 807,052 
 416,867 
 551,668 
 621,903 
 596,114 
 662,315 
 502,176 
 
 $1,278 
 
 $1,269 
 2,462 
 695 
 2,1 S4 
 1.881 
 1,634 
 1,816 
 1,365 
 8,759 
 
 22.663 
 
 $618,029 
 
 $382,601 
 118,453 
 116.840 
 309,286 
 418,748 
 553,.502 
 623,719 
 596,479 
 666,074 
 526,439 
 
 $196,618 
 
 $18,228 
 
 16,004 
 
 43,042 
 
 9,885 
 
 7,957 
 
 12,661 
 
 ■ 19,125 
 
 24,264 
 
 26,820 
 
 14.591 
 
 $2^800 
 
 2b;66o 
 
 $41,811 
 
 $10,767 
 
 12,206 
 
 41,316 
 
 7,503 
 
 4,900 
 
 1,4T5 
 
 18,025 
 
 12,208 
 
 4,679 
 
 500 
 
 81,890 
 
 8,827 
 5,384 
 6,146 
 10,470 
 12,.326 
 17,701 
 18,492 
 16,141 
 15,064 
 11,642 
 
 6,046 
 
 1,618 
 3,945 
 2,094 
 2,868 
 2,801 
 3,664 
 1,843 
 1,225 
 1,578 
 2,687 
 
 $4,271,163 
 
 $540,5,64 
 742,286 
 798,841 
 718,096 
 824,119 
 871,766 
 
 $89,728 
 
 $8,784 
 18,381 
 88,803 
 
 1,153 
 818 
 
 8,497 
 
 $4,810,891 
 
 $644,288 
 760,667 
 887,704 
 719,249 
 824,932 
 875,263 
 
 $189,667 
 
 $44,213 
 
 48,943 
 
 64,533 
 
 47,489 
 
 107,180 
 
 151,574 
 
 $22,800 ■ 
 
 $54,770 
 82,500 
 
 $108,578 
 
 $24,324 
 28,000 
 
 1,974 
 
 68,477 
 
 2,000 
 
 117,181 
 
 12,001 
 12,128 
 14,426 
 12,131 
 13,511 
 13,571 
 
 24,068 
 
 4,220 
 8,712 
 8,181 
 3,161 
 1,932 
 3,828 
 
 An export duty is charged in the ports of these col- 
 onies on their staple productions. Both in Honduras 
 and British Guiana, American vessels enjoy all the 
 privileges extended to the vessels of the most favored 
 nation ; and, as the following tables for 1854 and 1853 
 mil show, American commerce is generally on the in- 
 
 crease. In 1854 the United States imported from Hon- 
 duras : Indigo (41, .839 pounds), valued at $84,842 ; 
 mahogany, $83,459 ; dye-wood, $11,678 ; hides, $6706 ; 
 black pepper, $1055. " A total of $137,740, or nearly 
 one half of the entire imports from this colony for that 
 year. From British Guiana, the leading imports in 
 
G¥I 
 
 911 
 
 GUI 
 
 1854 were old and scrap iron, copper, brass, hides, 
 sugar, and rum, aiUoiintilig to nearly ^40,000, of 
 which copper alone reached $15,615. Demerara con- 
 tains a population of 74,922 whites and free blacks. 
 Berbioe contains a population of 21,580, of whom 
 21,000 are free blacks. 
 
 The following comparative statement exhibits the 
 trade between the United States' and the two colonies, 
 Demerara and Berbice, of which British Guiana is 
 composed ; 
 
 Impoits from the B States 
 
 Expoi-ts to the U. States.. . 
 
 Balance iii favor of the ) 
 
 United States.: f 
 
 Totaltradebetweentije I 
 U. S. & Brit. Gnlana f 
 
 1353; 
 
 1864. 
 
 ' 1865. 
 
 $S37,704 
 64,583 
 
 $719,249 
 "47,489 
 
 $824,932 
 107,180 
 
 $778,171 
 
 $671,760 
 
 $717,752 
 
 $902,237 
 
 $766,738 
 
 $932,112 
 
 The following table wUl show, the comparative iiyi- 
 porlance of tjhe trade, of the three Guiauas with the 
 United States during ,the year ending June 30, 185|6 : 
 
 
 BNTKRKD INTO V, e.[CLEAKED FROM If. S.j 
 
 Vesaela. 
 
 Tul]9. 
 
 .Vof^sKlj.. 1 Tune. 
 
 Brttlsh Guiana 
 
 9 
 4 
 1 
 
 ,1,246 
 70^ 
 192 
 
 28- 
 
 s 
 
 1 • ' 
 
 8,828 , 
 665 
 
 DutcV " 
 
 French " 
 
 
 Dutch Gv>i<mc^t — Dutch, or. Surinam, lies between 
 British and; French Guiana, being separated from the 
 former on the west by the River Corentyn, and from 
 the latter ou' the east by the Maroni ; on the north it 
 
 has the Atlantic, and on ther south Brazil. It lies be-< are also most of the govemnifint establishments, 
 tween latitude 1° 30' and 
 
 north,, and longitude 
 53° 30' and ,67'' 30' west.being about 300 miles in 
 length, from north to south, and 260 in extreme 
 breadth. Area, about 38,600 ,-aquare miles. In phys- 
 ical geography, climate, productions,: etc., it4iffers but 
 little from British Guiana, i The principal river is the 
 Surinam,' which flows northward through the centre of 
 the territory,, and falls into the Atlantic after a course 
 of nearly 300 miles. ,It is navigable for large , ships 
 for about four leagues from its mouth. Along, the 
 coast, and on the banks of the river, are many settle- 
 ments and plantations ; and the higher parts of the 
 country are occupied clliefly bj' the Maroons, the de- 
 scendants of runaway negroes. In the last century 
 they were very troublesome to the colonists, but they 
 
 have now adopted more settled habits. Slavery has 
 been recently abolished here by the Dutch govern- 
 ment, but in lieuiof compensation, the slaves remain 
 apprenticed, and work without wages to their proprie- 
 tors for 12 years. The colony is ruled by a governor 
 appointed: by the crown, and a cotmcil elected by the 
 freeholders. Justice is administered by a supreme 
 court, courts of minor jurisdiction, and a court of in- 
 heritance and orphansj The receipts in 1850 amounted 
 to£89,485-i the expenditure to £85,564. On 273 plantar. 
 tions,. consisting of 366,648 acres, 48,815 acres were 
 under cultivation. The chief productions are sugar, 
 rum,, molasses, coifee, cacao, and cotton. Its chief 
 trade is with Holland. ImportSj in 1851, £171,395) 
 exportsy £236,162. At the close of 1850, the colony 
 numbered 61,080 inhabitants — of whom 12,401 were 
 Europeans and, Creoles, 8000 bush negroes, 1000 In- 
 dians, and. 39,679 slaves. Of the religious sects, the 
 Moravians amounted to 17,933, and the Jews to about 
 680. The live stock consisted of 168 horses, 59 mules, 
 6564 cattle, , 3155 sheep, 464- goats, and 4664 hogsi 
 The army consists of 610 men of all arms ; and the 
 navy of 11 vessels, chiefly small. Paramaribo, the 
 capital) is- situated on the right bank of the Surinam, 
 about 10 miles from its mouth. It is built in the 
 Dutch style, with wide and straight streets, planted 
 with, orange-trees ; and the houses are generally two 
 stories in height, , and built of wood. yPopnlatiou 
 about 20,000. -■ A little,' north of the town is the fort 
 of Zeelandiaj where the governor resides, and where 
 
 Surinam was dedaj^ed a free port by proclaimatioh 
 dated May 1, 1848. Accounts are kept in dollars of 
 8 reals, or 50 stivers, (100 cents), and in pounds ster- 
 ling. Exchange on London, $4 80 to $4 85 per pound 
 sterling. Aves island, one of the leeward group of 
 the -West Indies, between 15° and 16° north latitude, 
 belongs, to the Dutch government. In the year 1854 
 extensive deposits of guano were discovered on the 
 island of Aves, by two American ship captains, but we 
 do not as yet learn that any shipments have been made 
 from it. Coffee, the product of a possession of the 
 Netherlands direct from such possessions, or from the 
 Netherlands, imported ihto the United States in a ves- 
 sel of the Netherlands, is admitted free of duty, under 
 the treat}' of August 26, 1852. 
 
 C0.1HUSEOE OF Tins United States with Dutch Guiana, eeom Ootohee 1 
 
 1832, TO July 1, 1856 
 
 
 Yeara ending 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Whareof there was in Builion 
 and Specie. 
 
 Tonnage Cleared. 
 
 Domestic. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Tolnl. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Exported. 
 
 Imported. 
 
 American. Foreign. 
 
 Sept. 80, 1883 
 
 1884 
 
 18.35 
 
 1886 
 
 183T 
 
 1838 
 
 1839 
 
 1840 
 
 Total.... 
 
 Sept 80, 1841 
 
 1842 
 
 9 mo3. 1848 
 
 Juno 80, 1844 
 
 1845 
 
 1846 
 
 1847 
 
 1848..; 
 
 1849 
 
 1850 
 
 Total.... 
 
 Jane 30, 1851 
 
 1852 
 
 1853 
 
 1854 
 
 1855 
 
 1856 
 
 $92,615 
 27,223 
 80,205 
 69,815 
 54,618 
 68,775 
 68,863 
 52,118 
 
 $2,860 
 1,595 
 2,078 
 2,808 
 
 $92,516 
 27,223 
 80,205 
 61,675 
 56,113 
 70,848 
 61,666 
 62,118 
 
 $49,326 
 67,579 
 81,420 
 88,471 
 44,976 
 ai,854 
 49,008 
 87,766 
 
 
 $1,744 
 1,236 
 
 ' •'260 
 
 8,884 
 10,106 
 6,378 
 4,718 
 6,637 
 6,729 
 
 .-2,177 
 76' 
 
 $443,637 
 
 $87,900 
 
 101,055 
 
 24,680 
 
 66.980 
 
 47,787 
 
 66,845 
 
 48,840 
 
 116,601 
 
 104,018 
 
 97,014 
 
 $3,831 
 
 $4't92 
 1,872 
 1,189 
 388 
 1,517 
 62 
 5,425 
 
 $462,368 
 
 $37,900 
 101,056 
 24,680 
 71,772 
 49,609 
 67,934 
 44,228 
 117,018 
 104,065 
 102,439 
 
 $367,900 
 
 $85,793 
 74,764 
 32,538 
 49,144 
 41,347 
 38,674 
 59,.355 
 51,297 
 68,281 
 71,043 
 
 
 $3,180 
 
 $400 
 
 2,678 
 
 275 
 
 ■■416 
 2,418 
 
 41,962 
 
 5,496 
 5,454 
 8,066 
 7,363 
 6.740 
 4,610 
 4,'881 
 6,958 
 5,869 
 4,932 
 
 2,263 
 117 
 
 "817 
 
 1,000 
 
 364 
 
 $705,566 
 
 $85,491 
 83,952 
 
 108,889 
 53,746 
 
 287,963 
 
 313,661 
 
 $16,185 
 
 $5,582 
 7,282 
 
 17,694 
 7,678 
 
 10,648 
 7,865 
 
 $720,760 
 
 $91,078 
 91,234 
 
 126,083 
 61,423 
 
 248,606 
 
 821,516 
 
 $507,281 
 
 $89,673 
 86,788 
 180,681 
 104,236 
 206,683 
 252,793 
 
 .... 
 
 $12,660 
 
 $6,087 
 
 $l'8!696 
 22,145 
 3,162 
 
 53,269 
 
 4,927 
 6,262 
 6,218 
 2,927 
 6,114 
 5.510 
 
 1,798 
 
 524 
 944 
 402 
 130 
 
 "665 
 
 This colonial territory of Holland comprises an area 
 of 10,400 square miles, and contains a population of 
 nearly 65,000 souls. Its chief products are sugar, 
 
 coffee, cotton, cocoa, rice, capara, iine woods, gums, 
 drugs, timber, and molasses ; the last ranks next to 
 sugar in value as an export. The quantity of sugar 
 
GUI 
 
 912 
 
 GUI 
 
 annually exported is stated at about 25,000,000 pounds, 
 and of coffee at about 4,000,000 pounds. 
 
 The annual average production of the leading sta- 
 ples of this colonj- are thus given : Sugar, 28,012,163 
 lbs. ; coffee, 1,355,376 lbs. ; cocoa, 151,250 lbs. ; cot- 
 ton, 765,323 lbs. ; rum, 92,183 gals. ; dram (a kind of 
 brandy), 227,965 gals. ; molasses, 1,210,463 gals. An- 
 nual average value of leading staples, $1,500,000. 
 
 The value of imports into Dutch Guiana in 1853 
 amounted to $816,474, showing an increase over the im- 
 ports of the preceding year of $71,473, Of the total 
 amount, there -were from the Netherlands, $460,482 ; 
 from the United States, $179,236 ; and from other 
 countries, $176,756. The exports amounted to $1,312,- 
 118 ; showing $101,253 increase over the exports for 
 1852. Of this sum, $844,103 were sent to the Nether- 
 lands, $201,794 to the United States, and $266,221 
 to other countries. The principal articles imported 
 into Surinam from the United States are salted fish, 
 amountmg, in 1853, to $58,892 ; salted and smoked 
 meat, about $50,000 per annum. The imports into 
 the United States from Surinam are sugar ($131,052 in 
 amount in 1852), molasses ($53,833), and cocoa ($32,026 
 in 1853). In 1853, there arrived 201 vessels, measur- 
 ing 36,858 tons. Of these, 56, of 18,960 tons, were 
 under the Dutch flag ; and 21, of 8196 tons, American. 
 In the same year there cleared 190 vessels, measuring 
 in the aggregate, 36,858 tons ; of which 55, of 17,847 
 tons, were Dutch ; 31, of 15,150 tons, American ; and 
 the others under the English and other flags. An 
 analysis of the trade of Dutch Guiana shows that the 
 United States has about one fourth of the whole com- 
 merce of the colony. 
 
 Fremk Guiana is the smallest and most eastern of 
 the three colonies, known as English Guiana, Dutch 
 Guiana, and French Guiana. It lies between 2° and 
 6° N. lat., and 51° 30' and '54° 30' W. long., being 
 bounded on the north and north-east by the Atlantic, 
 east and south by Brazil, and west by Dutch Guiana. 
 It is about 250 miles in length, from north to south, 
 and varies in breadth from 100 to 150 miles. Area, 
 27.560 square miles. It has a coast line of 200 
 miles, extending from the Maroni to the Oya- 
 poc. The low alluvial tract along the coast is of 
 great fertility. The mountain chains run east and 
 west, and are almost wholly of granite, but do not 
 attain a great elevation. The country is abundantly 
 watered, and the coast-lands appear to be less un- 
 healthj' than in British Guiana. The vegetation of 
 Guiana is very luxuriant, and the interior is thickly 
 
 wooded with trees valuable for their timber, fruits, 
 and dye-woods. Medicinal plants, including quassia, 
 gentian, the castor-oil plant, and arnotto, used in col- 
 oring cheese, are all abundant. 
 
 The island of Cayenne, at the mouth of the Oyak, 
 is about 30 miles in circumference, and is separated 
 from the continent by a narrow channel. The road- 
 stead at the mouth of the Oyak, though small, is the 
 best on the coast, having everywhere from 12 to 13 
 feet of water. The capital, Cayenne, is situated on 
 the northern side of this island, and contains 5,220 in- 
 habitants. The new town is well built, and has good 
 streets ; the government house is in the old town. 
 The harbor is protected b}^ a fort and several batteries. 
 The colony is divided into two districts, Cayenne and 
 Sinnamar}^, and 14 commimes. The government is 
 vested in a governor, a privy council, and - a colonial 
 council, composed of 16 members, elected by the col- 
 onists. The cultivated lands are estimated to be about 
 one eightieth of the whole territorj'. Besides the sta- 
 ples of British and Dutch Guiana, its "productions com- 
 prise pepper (including Cayenne, which is so called 
 from the island of that name), cloves, cinnamon, and 
 nutmegs. Trade is chiefly with France and its col- 
 onies. In 1854, the oflicial value of the imports into 
 France from French Guiana was £20,000; exports, 
 £192,000. The French first settled in Cayenne in 
 1604 ; the British and Portuguese captured the colony 
 in 1809, but restored it to the French in 1814, in whose 
 possession it still remains. It has recently been made 
 ' a place of banishment for French politjcal offenders ; 
 and, in 1852, 2,500 of these were sent out. Popula- 
 tion about 22,000, of whom about 15,000 are emanci- 
 pated slaves. 
 
 Cayenne, sea-port, town, and capital of French 
 Guiana, on the north-west extremity of the island of 
 that name, in lat. 4° 66' N., long. 52° 15' W. It con- 
 tains about 500 houses, mostly of wood, and is divided 
 into the old and new towns, the latter clean and well 
 built. It is the seat of a court of assize, and has a 
 handsome church, Jesuit college, government house, 
 and several large warehouses. The harbor is shallow, 
 has two quays, and is protected by a fort and several 
 batteries. Population about 6,000. 
 
 French vessels from Cayenne in French Guiana are 
 admitted into the ports of the United States on equal 
 terms, as to duty and tonnage, with vessels belonging 
 to the United States, when direct from Guiana, either 
 in ballast or with articles the growth or manufacture 
 
 of that countrj". 
 Commerce op tub United States witu French Gui^vxa, from October 1, 1832, to Jhly 1, 1856. 
 
 Yeftre ending 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Whereomere^»» in Bmll.n .j,„„„„^, ^e.red. 
 
 DomeBtic. 1 Foreign. 
 
 Totol. 
 
 Totol. 
 
 Ev[Ort. 
 
 Import. American. 1 Foreign. ] 
 
 Sept. 80, 1888 
 
 1834 
 
 1886 
 
 1886 
 
 1837 
 
 1838 
 
 1830 
 
 $4,668 
 
 2,438 
 
 8,488 
 1,648 
 
 '$ioo 
 
 $4,698 
 
 2,488 
 
 8,488 
 
 V.643 
 100 
 
 $5,862 
 
 
 $938 
 
 3,121 
 2,500 
 1,906 
 2,806 
 1,926 
 
 
 1840 
 
 Total.... 
 
 Sept. 30. 1841 
 
 1842 
 
 9mos. 1848 
 
 June 30, 1844 
 
 1846 
 
 1846 
 
 1847 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 
 
 1850 
 
 Total. . . . 
 
 June 80, 1851 
 
 1862 
 
 1853 
 
 1854 
 
 1855 
 
 1856 
 
 $12,807 
 
 $45,958 
 44,063 
 45,374 
 66,006 
 57,052 
 39,270 
 68,287 
 48,737 
 46,161 
 48,405 
 
 $100 
 
 $.340 
 1,080 
 
 1,033 
 444 
 2,131 
 1,990 
 1,684 
 
 1,882 
 
 ■ $12,407 
 
 $46,298 
 45,098 
 45,374 
 57,089 
 57,496 
 41,401 
 60,277 
 60,421 
 46,161 
 44,787 
 
 $6,302 
 
 $55,416 
 50,172 
 44.411 
 28,233 
 59,.306 
 71,296 
 47,775 
 68,988 
 28,417 
 12,551 
 
 
 $088 
 
 $28,692 
 18,797 
 8,700 
 2,167 
 5,600 
 8,000 
 7,400 
 29,741 
 3,720 
 
 11,757 
 
 1,657 
 1,512 
 787 
 2,822 
 1,547 
 1,390 
 1,808 
 1,717 
 1,461 
 1,334 
 
 "269 
 
 ■"89 
 98 
 
 $484,313 
 
 $45,693 
 64,747 
 64,385 
 
 100,148 
 78,662 
 
 148,093 
 
 $10,084 
 
 $615 
 1,278 
 1,104 
 685 
 1,966 
 
 $494,347 
 
 $46,344 
 66,025 
 65,439 
 
 100,8.33 
 80,618 
 
 148,093 
 
 $462,665 
 
 82,422 
 
 17,717 
 
 29,618 
 
 8,546 
 
 27,147 
 
 
 $102,817 
 
 $11,000 
 7,485 
 7,100 
 
 2,600 
 16,191 
 
 16,485 
 
 i',783 
 1,276 
 2,234 
 2.715 
 
 2;ioi 
 
 396 
 
Gtn 
 
 913 
 
 GUI 
 
 A decree of the French government, issued in 1822, 
 and continued by a decree of the governor of the 
 colony, dated the 23d of December, 1833, gives an ad- 
 vantage to French goods shipped directly from French 
 ports in French vessels, and to French goods and 
 products of French colonies brought in French vessels, 
 over the foreign trade, in the rate of duties they im- 
 pose. The products of the coltfny carried to France, 
 in French vessels, have also an advantage over pro- 
 dncts carried to other countries in foreign vessels. 
 The only duties paid by French or foreign vessels re- 
 maining in port over 72 hours, without putting out or 
 taking in any cargo, are pilotage and fees to the 
 custom-house guards. 
 
 Cayenne is the most easterly of the three colonies. 
 It extends along the coast from the River Maroni to 
 the Ozapoh, the Iratindary of Brazil. It lies between 
 2° and 6° N. lat. ' Its length, from-iiorth to south, is 
 2S0 mileSj and the breadth varies from 100 to 190 
 miles, comprising an area of 27,560 square miles, and 
 containing a population of 5,056 -vriiiteB, and 16,592 
 blacks. The coast is an alluvial tract of great fer- 
 tility, and the uplands are also very fertile. There 
 are upward of twenty rivers of tolerable size, which 
 are navigable, from 80 to 60 miles, for small craft. 
 About one eighth part of the surface is occupied ; the 
 remainder is left to Indians and wild beasts. The 
 articles cultivated are the sugar-cane, coflFee, cotton, 
 cocoa, cloves, annatto, pepper, cinnamon, nutmegs, 
 corn, etc. There are about 40 large establishments 
 for the manufacture of sugar, and about 50 sugar- 
 mills, most of which are worked by steam. The im- 
 ports are chiefly from France, being about 2,676,000 
 francs in value. The imports from other countries 
 amount to about 550,000 francs. The exports are of 
 the valtte of 3,128,000 francs, and are nearly all ship- 
 ped to France. About 40 French vessels, of the ag- 
 gregate burden of 7000 tons, usually enter, and about 
 the same number clear from Guiana every j-ear. Some 
 20 or 30 foreign vessels enter and depart each year. 
 These statistics are not exact, but probably approxi- 
 mate nearly enough for practical legislation in refer- 
 ence to them. 
 
 Guild (from the Saxon guildan, to pay), signifies a 
 fraternity or company, because every one was gildare, 
 that is, had to pay Something toward the charge and 
 support of the company. As to the origin of guilds 
 or companies in Britain, it was a law among the 
 Saxons that every freeman of fourteen years of age 
 should find sureties to keep the peace, or be com- 
 mitted. This led to the formation, among neighbors, 
 of associations, each consisting of ten families, which 
 became bound for one another, either to produce him 
 who committed an offense, or to make satisfa.ction to 
 the injured party ; and that they might the better do 
 this, they raised a sum of money among themselves, 
 which they put into a common stock, and when one 
 of their pledges had committed an offense, and fled, 
 then the other nine made satisfaction out of this stock, 
 by payment of money, according to the offense. Be- 
 cause this association consisted of ten families, it was 
 called a decenary ; and hence arose other kinds of fra- 
 ternities. But as to the precise time when these guilds 
 had their origin in England there is nothing certain to 
 be found ; since they were in use long before any for- 
 mal license was granted to them for such meetings. 
 It seems to have been about the close of the 11th 
 century, according to Anderson (History of Commerce, 
 vol. i., p. 70), that merchant-guilds, or fraternities, 
 which were afterward styled corporations, came first 
 into general use in many parts of Europe. Madox 
 (Firma Burgi, chap, i., sect. 9) thinks they were hardly 
 known to our Saxon progenitors, and that they might 
 probably have been brought into England by the Nor- 
 mans, although they do not seem to have been very 
 numerous in those days. The French and Normans 
 might perhaps have borrowed them from the free cities 
 Mm M 
 
 of Italy, where trade and mannfactnres flourished at 
 a much earlier period, and where such communities 
 appear to have been first ia use. These guilds are 
 now companies or associations having laws imd orders 
 made by themselvesj in virtue of authbrity from the 
 prince to that effect. See Gild. 
 
 Guild in the royal burghs of Scotland, is still used 
 for a company of merchants, who are freemen of the 
 burgh. EveVy royal burgh has a dean of guild, who 
 is the next magistrate below the provost. 
 
 Guild, Gild, or Geld) is also used by ancient writers 
 to signi^' a compensation or mulct for an offense. 
 
 Guinea, a gold coin formerly struck and current 
 in Britain, and so denominated because the gold of 
 which the first specimens were struck (temp. Car. II.) 
 was brought from the coast of Guinea ; and for a like 
 reason it originally bore the impression of an elephant. 
 The value of the guinea varied greatly at different 
 periods, but latterly it was worth 21 shillings. Its 
 weight was 5 dwts. 9-4125 grs. On the introduction 
 of the sovereign — first coined in 1817 — the old guinea 
 coinage was gradually superseded. 
 
 Guinea, the name assigned to a large tract of 
 country on the west coast of Africa, commencing at 
 Cape Verga, in about 10° N. lat., and terminating 
 with the Cameroon Mountains in the Gulf of Biafra. 
 These are the limits more commonly given to what is 
 called Guinea ; by some they are greatly extended, so 
 as to comprise the whole of the Portuguese settle- 
 ments south of the equator, under the name of South- 
 em Guinea, while the coast north of the equator is 
 called Northern Guinea. 
 
 The term Guinea is not of African origin, or at least 
 not among those to whom it is applied. There is, ac- 
 cording to Barbot, a district of country north of the 
 Senegal known by the name of Genahoa, the inhabit- 
 ants of which were the first blacks that the Portu- 
 guese encountered in their explorations along the 
 coast in the 15th century ; and they applied this name 
 indiscriminately afterward to all the black nations 
 which they found further south. In the two succeed- 
 ing centuries it was applied in a more restricted sense 
 to that portion of the coast which is now better known 
 as the Gold and Slave Coasts ; owing to the fact, per- 
 haps, that this region for a time offered a larger num- 
 ber of slaves for the foreign market than any other 
 part of the country. The natives here acknowledge 
 this term as applied to themselves, but it was undoubt- 
 edly borrowed in the first instance from the Portu- 
 guese. 
 
 The physical aspect of the country, as might be in- 
 ferred from the Isirge extent we have under consider- 
 ation, is very variable, but is characterized every- 
 where by excessive ricliness of natural scenerj-. In 
 the region of Sierra Leone, Cape Mount, and Cape 
 Mesurado, the eye rests on bold headlands and high 
 promontories covered with the richest tropical verd- 
 ure. In the vicinity of Cape Palmas there are ex- 
 tended plains, slightly undulating, and covered with 
 almost everj' variety of the palm and palmetto. On ' 
 the coast of Drewiss the country rises into table-lands 
 of vast extent, and apparently of great fertility. 
 The Gold Coast presents every variety of hill and 
 dale ; and as we approach the equatorial region we 
 are saluted by mountain scenery of unrivaled beauty 
 and surpassing magnificence. 
 
 The inhabitants consist chiefly of the following 
 tribes : — The Vais, the Manou or Kru, the Kovakeras 
 or Avekroom, the Inta, the Dahomey, Ashanti, and 
 the Benin. There are no large or extended political 
 organizations, with the exception, perhaps, of the 
 kingdoms of Ashanti and Dahomey, and neither of 
 these has a larger population or greater extent of ter- 
 ritorj' than the smaller kingdoms of Europe. For the 
 most part, the people live together in independent 
 communities, of not more than 8 or 10 villages, and 
 with an aggregate population of from 2000 to 25,000 
 
GUI 
 
 914 
 
 GTJL 
 
 or 30,00fl. In these different communities they have 
 50- -written forms of law, but are governed for the 
 most part by certain traditional usages that have been 
 handed down from generation to generation. Nomi- 
 nally, monarchy is the only form of government 
 acknowledged among them ; but, when closely scruti- 
 nized, their systems show much more of the popular 
 and patriarchal than of the monarchical element. 
 They are essentially a pagan people ; but in their re- 
 ligious notions and idolatrous worship they differ very 
 much from each other. There are many decided 
 traces of the Jewish origin. Among these may be 
 specified the rite of circumcision, which, with the ex- 
 ception of the Krii or Manou family, is, we believe, 
 universal ; the division of the tribes into families, and 
 in some cases into the number of 12 ; bloody sacrifices, 
 with the sprinkling of blood upon their altars and 
 door-posts ; the observance of new moons ; a formal 
 and specified time for mourning for the dead, during 
 which period they shave their head and wear tattered 
 clothes ; demoniacal possessions, purifications, and 
 various other usages of probable Jewish origin. 
 
 Respecting the natural products and trading capa- 
 bilities of the country, the articles exported consist 
 chiefly of ginger, gum, mendobi (Guinea grains, a 
 species of seed), palm-oil, some ivorj^, a wood used for 
 dyeing, called camwood, and which is worth in En- 
 gland about £15 sterling a ton. Vessels visiting that 
 coast take on board — at Sierra Leone, or on the coast 
 of Malagueta, between Cape Mesurado and Cape Pal- 
 mas — some black sailors, called krumen, who are of 
 great use in doing the heavy work on board, and for 
 boat service ; thus saving the European seamen from 
 exposing themselves too much to the sun's rays, etc. 
 The services of these krumen are recompensed with 
 two or three pieces of cotton cloth per month each. 
 Their chief food is rice, which may be purchased at a 
 verj' cheap rate on the coast of Malagueta ; the price 
 of a **kru" (a measure of capacity weighing about 
 30 lbs.), being a fathom and a half of cotton cloth, or 
 any other article of proportionate value. 
 
 On the coast of Malagueta (Grain Coast), the arti- 
 cles received principallj' in barter are rice and millet ; 
 also ivory, palm-oil, and camwood, especially at Mon- 
 rovia, the capital of Liberia. At Sierra Leone, the 
 pepper-tree (called malagueta), is cultivated on an ex- 
 tensive scale, and its fruit — Guinea pepper — after 
 being dried, is purchased in large quantities by the 
 Americans, and imported into the United States. 
 
 English muskets, gunpowder, rum, and tobacco, are 
 the principal articles of trafiic on the whole of the 
 coast as far as Onim at the bottom of the Bight of 
 Benin. 
 
 At Jaque Lahoo and Jaque Jaque, two considerable 
 towns, situated at the extremity of the bight formed 
 by Cape Palmas and Cape Three Points, commences 
 the trade in gold-dust ; here also a considerable quan- 
 tity of palm-oil and some ivory are found. After 
 passing these towns, the European settlements com- 
 mence. The first are Great Bassam and Assine, be- 
 longing to France, and situated at the mouths of the 
 rivers of the same names. Five leagues to the west 
 of Cape Three Points, is the small Dutch fort of 
 Axem ; and on the other side of the same cape is the 
 English port of Dick's Cove. From Cape Lahoo to 
 Accra, and to all the European settlements on the 
 coast, the monetary standard is the " ake" (aekie) of 
 gold-dust, which weighs half a dram English, and is 
 worth nearly 5s. The kru on this part of the coast is 
 almost double that assigned to it on the coast of Mala- 
 gueta — averaging £50, more or less. 
 
 Between Dick's Cove and the castle of St. George 
 of the Mine (S. Jorge da Mina), are situated the small 
 forts of Serunde, Sanca, and Commendo ; after which 
 we come to the first large European settlement, viz., 
 the castle of St. George of the Mine, belongmg to 
 Holland. The castle is a Portuguese structure, and 
 
 was formerly the. most important of the Portuguese 
 colonies on this coast. Next to it is Cape Coast Cas- 
 tle, belonging to England, and situated in sight of the 
 former. "The next place is Annamaboo, a small En- 
 glish fort, formerly abandoned, but where for some 
 years past trade has been again in some degree devel- 
 oped. To this fort succeed others in ruins, as Wine- 
 bah and Assam. Millet is found in abundance at these 
 places, as well as palm-oil and gold-dust. Proceed-, 
 ing along the coast, we come to the great English set- 
 tlement of Acora, where there are at present two 
 fortresses. The first, that of St. James, was built by 
 them many years since j the second, that of Chris- 
 tianburg, was purchased from Denmark, together with 
 all its possessions on that coast, in the year 1850. 
 Then follow the small settlements of Ningo ; after, 
 passing which. Cape St. Paul, a little to the east of 
 Kio da Vojta (" Return River"), is doubled. 
 
 From Cape St. Paul to Onira or Lagos, many negro 
 towns or villages are met with stationed along the 
 coast. These communicate with each other by means 
 of the lake situated at no great distance inland from 
 the beach ; and then the ford converges to the prin- 
 cipal points, which are Quita, Popo-pequeno, Ajuda, 
 Porto Novo, and Onim. The trade which formerly 
 flourished at all these places was that in slaves ; but 
 for some j^ears past that in palm-oil, or den-den, has 
 greatly developed itself, the quantity produced amount- 
 ing annually to more than 7000 tons, which arc ship- 
 ped to England, America, and France. On this section 
 of the coast there are no European establishments, 
 properly so called; but at Ajuda, Porto Novo, and 
 Onim, there are factories ; and Europeans' are also 
 resident in the country, and trafiic with vessels, as 
 they do at those establishments. The trade of the 
 Benin, Brass, Bonny, Calabar, and Cameroon Rivers, 
 is all in palm-oU, and carried on exclusively by the 
 English. 
 
 Gulf of Gruiuea. The Gulf of Guinea forms a 
 caldron and a furnace, and spreads out over the South 
 Atlantic an air-chamber for heating up in winter and 
 keeping warm the extra-tropical regions of South 
 America. Everj' traveler has remarked upon the 
 mild climate of Patagonia and the Falkland Islands. 
 " Temperature in high southern latitudes," says a very 
 close observer, who is co-operating with me in collect- 
 ing materials, " differs greatly from the temperature 
 in northern. In southern latitudes there seem to be 
 no extremes of heat and cold, as at the north. New- 
 port, Rhode Island, for instance, latitude 41° north, 
 longitude 71° west, and Rio Negro, latitude 41° south, 
 and longitude 63° west, as a comparison ; in the for- 
 mer, cattle have to be stabled and fed during the win- 
 ter, not being able to get a living in the fields on 
 account of snow and ice. In the latter, the cattle 
 feed in the fields all winter, there being plenty of veg- 
 etation and no use of hay. On the Falkland Islands 
 (latitude 51-52° south), thousands of bullocks, sheep, 
 and horses are running wild over the country, gather- 
 ing a living all through the winter." The water in 
 the equatorial caldron of Guinea can not escape north 
 — the shore-line will not permit it. It must, there- 
 fore, overflow to the south, as that of St. Roque does 
 to the north, carrying to Patagonia and the Falkland 
 Islands, beyond 50° south, the winter climate of 
 Charleston, South Carolina, on our side of the North 
 Atlantic, or of the " Emerald Island" on the other. — 
 Mahby's Phi/s. Geog. 
 
 Gulf of Mexico, a large indentation on the east 
 coast of North America, washing the shores of the 
 United States and Mexico, measuring about 1000 miles 
 from east to west, and 800 miles from north to south ; 
 estimated area, 800,000 square miles. It is partlj' 
 formed hy the projection toward each other of the pen- 
 insulas of Florida and Yucatan, nearly in a line between 
 which lies the island of Cuba, leaving a communica- 
 tion on its north with the Atlantic, through the Flor- 
 
arj./- sriiKAM atvo nnirT hy lieut. maury txs.jt. 
 
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 r^ 
 
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 JJJ^LL.i i . 1 
 
 rlS_\.-'rh.Tin:.l S..,'li'i.i. i.l lii.' (..ilT Sliv.irii. 
 „ . :,i-.7i:liv;ll.-.i' I :,.,' I„rl,:< 
 
GfUL 
 
 915 
 
 GUL 
 
 ida Channel and on its south with the Caribbean Sea, 
 through the Channel of Yucatan. The Gulf is free 
 from banks, and contains onlj' a few small rocky is- 
 lands on the coast of Yucatan, with the Florida Reef 
 near its eastern extremity. The shores are low, and 
 generally lined with flat sandy islands, not far from 
 the land, and numerous lagoons. There are few har- 
 bors ; and the rivers which fall into it are obstructed 
 hy bars at their mouth, which render them all, except 
 the Mississippi, nearly inaccessible for vessels of large 
 draught. A current of water entering the Gulf from 
 the Caribbean Sea is soon divided into two portions, 
 the one running east along the coast of Cuba, the 
 other west, in a curved line through the middle of the 
 Gulf, round' toward the Florida Channel, where it 
 meets theother current, and the two united form the 
 Gulf Stream (see Atlantic). The temperature of 
 the Gulf of Mexico is 86° in summer, and 6° higher 
 than that of the ocean in the same parallel. At high 
 tide, the Pacific rises several feet above the level of 
 the Gulf, and at low water it falls as far below it. 
 
 The depth of the mariilB'basin which holds the wa- 
 ters of the Gulf of Mexico is, in the deepest part, about 
 three quarters of a mile. The ofBo^rsi of the United 
 States' ship Albany ran a line of deep sea-soundings 
 from west to east across the Gulf ; the greatest depth 
 they reported was about 6000 feet. Subsequent ex- 
 periments, however, induce the belief that the depth is. 
 not quite so great. We should therefore have, by 
 stopping up the channels between the Gulf and the 
 Atlantic, not a sea-level in the Gulf, but we should 
 have a mean level between evaporation and precipita- 
 tion. If the former were in access, the level of the 
 Gulf waters would sink down until the surface exposed 
 to the air would be just sufficient to return to the atmo- 
 sphere, as vapor, the amount of water discharged by 
 the rivers — the Mississippi and others— into the Gulf. 
 As the waters were lowered, the extent of evaporating 
 surface would grow less and less, until Nature should 
 establish the proper ratio between the abilitj' of the 
 air to take up and the capacity of the clouds to let 
 down. Thus we might have a sea whose level would 
 be much further below the water-level of the ocean 
 than is the Dead Sea. — Maury's Pht/s. Geog. 
 
 Gulf Stream. There is a river in the ocean. In 
 the severest droughts it never fails, and in the might- 
 iest floods it never overflows. Its banks and its bot- 
 tom are of cold water, while its current is of warm. 
 The Gulf of Mexico is its fountain, and its mouth is in 
 the Arctic Seas. It is the Gulf Stream. There is in 
 the world no such majestic flow of waters. Its current 
 is more rapid than the Mississippi or the Amazon. 
 
 Its waters, as far out from the Gulf as the Carolina 
 coasts, are of an indigo-blue. They are so distinctly 
 marked that their line of junction with the common 
 sea-water may be traced by the eye. Often one half 
 of the vessel vascy be perceived floating in Gulf Stream 
 water, while the other half is in the common water of 
 the sea ; so sharp is the line, and such the want of af- 
 finity between those waters, and the reluctance on the 
 part of the Gulf Stream to mingle with the common 
 water of the sea. — Matiby's Phys. Geography. 
 
 Various causes of the Gulf Stream have been as- 
 signed. At one- period, the Mississippi Kiver ; but 
 this hypothesis was soon exploded, for it is estimated 
 that it would take 1000 such rivers, as the velocities 
 of the river and Gulf Stream are about equal. The most 
 plausible hj'pothesis yet advanced, and the one which 
 seems to ho entertained now as true, is, that the mo- 
 tive power is due to the difference of temperature be- 
 tween the equatorial and northern parts of the ocean. 
 This difference would give a cause commensurate with 
 such an eff'ect as the Gulf Stream, and is the only one 
 yet advanced where the cause and effect approach 
 equality. It is probable, however, that this is but 
 one of the many forces brought to bear. The forces 
 varying from the potent one mentioned, to others 
 
 " light as the zephyr." And, in many cases, forces 
 produced by the Gulf Stream react upon it ; as, from 
 the difference of temperature of the north and south, 
 aided by the Gulf Stream in some cases, are produced 
 the trade winds, so these trade winds have no slight 
 effect upon the Gijlf Stream. 
 
 To form some idea of the magnitude of the stream, 
 we can take a cross section at Cape Hatteras j approx- 
 imately, it may be given as 75 miles wide and 700 feet 
 in depth, with a velocity of three knots an hour. The 
 stream becomes smaller in its progress north, yielding 
 portions of its heat on its way, and so allowing por- 
 tions of the stream to assimilate with the rest of the 
 ocean. 
 
 As the Gulf Stream is but a current of water of high 
 temperature from the south to the north, it would be 
 natural to suppose its course would be from south to 
 north. This would be the case were it not for the ro- 
 tation of the earth to the east, for a current starting 
 from the equator, having a velocity of 1000 mUes an 
 hour eastward in common with the earth, when its 
 current reaches latitude 60°, where the velocity of the 
 earth is only 260 miles an hour, it will be so many de- 
 grees of longitude east as the difference of velocities 
 would force it, minus the retardations. This would be 
 sufficient to explain why the course should he north- 
 east, independent of the effect of the contour of the 
 continent. 
 
 The course and dimensions of the Gulf Stream 
 may be r^adily seen from the accompanying chart of 
 Maury's. (See Plate II.) 
 
 The amount of water forming the Gulf Stream, and 
 going north, must be rptumed into the fountain-head, 
 the seas near the equator — and so we have streams or 
 oceanic currents going south equally as important in 
 their effect, and giving as interesting phenomena, but 
 not as readily observed, because they are under-a\xT- 
 rents, and not as appreciated because they most affect 
 other parts of the world. The water from the north 
 flows to the south in manj' comparatively small under- 
 currents, and rises to the surface at various points, 
 taking for their general course the African shore, and 
 making a circle uniting with the Gulf Stream in the 
 Caribbean Sea. For the same reason that the course 
 of the Gulf Stream is north-east the returning currents 
 are south-west. 
 
 One large returning current crosses the Gulf Stream 
 near the Banks of Newfoundland, bringing icebergs 
 which melt in contact with the warm stream. The 
 deposits have formed, and are forming, the Banks of 
 Newfoundland. 
 
 The influence of the Gulf Stream, like the distance 
 of the fixed stars, can be conjectured, but we fall as 
 much short in one conjecture as in the other. 
 
 Our complaints of a variable" climate would not be 
 without foundation were it not for the beneficial influ- 
 ence of streams of water from the tropics, giving us 
 warmth and moisture ; making the climate of New 
 York in winter equal to a place in alatitude 10° south, 
 and in summer giving the health of a place as many 
 degrees north. Maury says : 
 
 " No part of the world affords a more difficult or 
 dangerous navigation than the approaches of our north- 
 ern coasts in winter. Before the warmth of the Gulf 
 Stream was known, a voyage at this season from Eu- 
 rope to New England, New York, and even to the 
 capes of the Delaware, or Chesapeake, was many 
 times more trj-ing, difficult, and dangerous than it is 
 now. In making this part of the coast, vessels are 
 frequently met by snow-storms and gales which mock 
 the seaman's strength, and set at naught his skill. In 
 a little while his bark becomes a mass of ice, with her 
 crew frosted and helpless ; she remains obedient to her 
 helm, and is kept away for the Gulf Stream. After a 
 few hours' run, she reaches the edge, and almost at . 
 the next bound passes from the midst of winter into 
 summer heat. Now the ice disappears from her ; the 
 
GUM 
 
 916 
 
 GUM 
 
 sailor bathes his stiffened limbs in tepid waters ; feeling 
 liimself invigorated and refreshed with the genial 
 warmth about him, he realizes out there at sea the 
 fable of Antseus and his mother Earth. He rises up 
 and attempts to make his port again." And though 
 he may fail again, he always has the same resource. 
 Nor is this all ; it affords an excellent water " land- 
 mark," an outside shore of the country, against which 
 no sTiip is lost; but giving definite longitude to the 
 storm-tossed mariner, and warning him that land is 
 near, saves him often. Commerce itself, defining it 
 as the interchange of commodities, is but an imitation 
 of the Gulf Stream. The Gulf Stream, taking the 
 heat of the tropics to the shivering northmen, and the 
 icebergs of the north to the feverish native of the torrid 
 zone — giving heat to some, food to others, and in some 
 way affecting all. 
 
 Gums, Resins, Gum-resins. In commerce, 
 the term gum is not only applied to gums properly so 
 called, but also to resins, and gum-resins. But though 
 these substances have many properties in common, 
 they are yet sufficiently distinct. 
 
 I. Glim is a thick, transparent fluid, that issues spon- 
 taneouslj' from certain species of plants, particularly 
 such as produce stone-fruit, as plum and cherry-trees. 
 It is very adhesive, and gradually hardens by expos- 
 ure to the atmosphere. It is usually obtained in small 
 pieces, like tears, moderately hard and somewhat brittle 
 while cold ; so that it can be reduced by pounding to 
 a fine powder. When pure, it is colorless ; but it has 
 commonly a yellowish tinge ; it is not destitute of 
 lustre ;it has no smell ; its taste is insipid ; its specific 
 gravity varies from 1-3161 to 1'4.317 ; it readilj' dis- 
 solves in water, but is insoluble m alcohol. Gum is 
 extensively used in the arts, particularly in calico- 
 printing, to give consistence to the colors, and to hin- 
 der them from spreading. It is also used in painting, 
 in the manufacture of ink, in medicine, etc. 
 
 The only important gums in a commercial point of 
 view, are gum Arabic and gum Senegal ; but lac is 
 popularly, though improperly, ranked among the 
 gums. 
 
 1. Gum Arabic (Fr. Gomme Araiique ; It. Gomma 
 Arahica; Ger. Arabische gummi; Arab. Tolh), the 
 produce of the Acacia vera^ a tree growing in Arabia, 
 and in many parts of Africa. The gum exudes naturally 
 from the trunk and branches, and hardens by expos- 
 ure to the air. " The more sickly the tree appears, 
 the more gum it yields ; and the hotter the weather 
 the more prolific it is. A wet winter and a cool or 
 mild summer are unfavorable to gum." — Jackson's 
 Morocco, p. 84. It is in irregularly-shaped pieces, 
 hard, brittle, and semi-transparent. When pure it is 
 almost colorless, or of a pale, yellowish hue ; being 
 insipid, inodorous, and dissolving completely in the 
 mouth. Specific gravity 1'31 to 1-43. It is often 
 mixed with gum Senegal. East India gum Arabic is, 
 though a useful, a spurious article, not being the pro- 
 duce of the acacia vera, but of other species of plants. 
 The best gum is either imported direct from Alexan- 
 dria, Smyrna, Tripoli, Mogadore, Tangiers, etc., or at 
 second-hand from them through Gibraltar, Malta, and 
 other Italian ports. The price depends principally on 
 its whiteness and solubilitj"-, increasing and diminish- 
 ing from £1 15s. to ;£8 or £9 per cwt., according as the 
 article has more or less of these qualities. — Thomson's 
 Dispensatory and Private Information. 
 
 The Egyptian Gum Arabic tree (Acacia vera) which 
 affords the finest gum Arabic of commerce, is a native 
 of the sandy deserts of Arabia, Egj'pt, and the west- 
 ern part of Asia ; it also grows abundantly in Barbarj- 
 and other parts of Africa, particularly in the Atlas 
 Mountains. In Morocco, or Barbarj-, where the tree 
 is csHlei Atteleh, it rises to a height of several feet, 
 having a crooked stem, covered with a smooth, gray 
 bark, while that of the branches is of a yellowish- 
 green, or purplish tinge. At the base of the leaves, 
 
 there are two opposite awl-shaped spines, growing 
 nearly erect, and having a slight, glandular swelling 
 below. The wood is hard, and takes a good polish. 
 Its seeds, which grow in a hard coriaceous pod, resem- 
 ble those of the lupine, yield a reddish dye, and are 
 used by tanners in the preparation of leather. 
 
 The gum exudes spontaneously frpm the bark of the 
 trunk and branches of the tree, in a soft or nearly fluid 
 state, and hardens by exposure to the air, or tp the 
 heat of the sun. The more ^ickly the tre?, the moj;e, 
 gum it jdelds ; and the hotter the weather, the more 
 prolific it is. A wet winter and a cool or mild summer 
 are unfavorable to the crop. It begins to flow in De- 
 cember, immediately after the rainy season, near the 
 time of the iiowering of the tree. Afterward, as the 
 weather becomes hotter, incisions are made through 
 the bark, to assist the exudation of the juice. The 
 gum, when new, emits a faint smell, and when stowed 
 in the warehouse, it may be heard to crack spontane- 
 ously for several weeks ; and this cracking is the surest 
 criterion of new gum, as it never does so when oldi 
 Several kinds of gum, .yielded by different trees, are 
 occasionally to be ip^t with, but that which is com- 
 monly substituted for it is brought from the Island of 
 Senegal, on the coast of Africa, and is called " Gum 
 Senegal." 
 
 The Mastic tree (Pistacia lentiscus'), is a native of 
 the south of Europe, the Levant, and the west of 
 Asia, and probably could be cultivated with success in 
 California, and perhaps in some parts of the South. 
 This tree, which seldom exceeds 12 feet in height, 
 with a trunk 10 inches in diameter, is covered with a 
 smooth, brownish bark, and produces the resin known 
 in commerce under the name of " mastic." It is cul- 
 tivated in various parts of continental Europe, par- 
 ticularly in Italy and Portugal. 
 
 2. Gum British. — An excellent artificial gum is now 
 largely made for the use of calico-printers and others, 
 and is sold under the name of British Gum, or dextrine. 
 It is made by roasting starch, and the manufacture is 
 very skillfully conducted ; starch has hence risen in 
 manufacturing importance, while gum Arabic, (a much 
 more expensive article) has been to some extent super- 
 seded. Not only has starch become thus applied to 
 new purposes, but the starch itself is obtained from a 
 greater variety of sources than heretofore. The old 
 customary mode has been to obtain starch from wheat 
 or other grain, by a process of fermentation, which is 
 not applicable to rice ; but excellent starch is now ob- 
 tained from rice and from sago, by improved chemical 
 methods, and the starch is bleached to a, degree of 
 great purity. 
 
 3. Gum ScTiegal, principally brought from the island 
 of that name on the coast of Africa, is obtained from 
 various trees, but chiefly from two, one called Verech, 
 which yields a white gum ; the other called Nehuel, 
 which yields a red gum ; varieties of the acacia gum^ 
 mifera. Gum Arabic is verj- often mixed with gum 
 Senegal. The latter is nearly as pure as the former, 
 but it is usually in larger masses, of a darker color, 
 and more clammy and tenacious. It is the sort of 
 gum principally employed by calico-printers. — Thom- 
 son's Chemistry, Thomson's Dispensatory, Ainslie's 
 Materia Indica, etc. The trade in gum Senegal is 
 principally in the hands of the French. 
 
 II. Begins, for the most part, exude spontaneously 
 from trees,, though they are often obtained by artifi- 
 cial wounds, and are not uncommonly, at first, com- 
 bined with volatile oil, from which they are separated 
 by distillation. They are solid substances, naturally 
 brittle ; have a certain degree of transparency, and a 
 color most commonly inclining to yellow. Their taste 
 is more or less acrid, and not unlike that of volatile 
 oils ; but they have no smell, unless they happen to 
 contain some foreign body. The)'" are all heavier than 
 water, their specific gravity varying from 1'0182 
 1.1862. They differ from gums in being insoluble in 
 
GtJM 
 
 m 
 
 GUN 
 
 •water, whether cold or hot ; while they are, with a 
 few exceptions, soluble in alcohol, especially when as- 
 sisted bj' heat. When heated, they melt ; and if the 
 heat be increased, they take fire, burning with a strong 
 yellow flame, and emitting a vast quan^.ity of smoke. 
 Common rosin furnishes a verj- perfect example of a 
 resin, and it is from this sub.stance that the whole 
 genus have derived their flame. Eosin is, indeed, 
 frequently denominated resin. The principal resins 
 are Animi, Elemi, Copal, Lac, Labdanum, Mastic, 
 Rosin, Bandaifach, Tacamahac, etc. ; which see, under 
 their respective names. — Thomson's Chemieiry. ■ 
 
 III. Gum-resins, a class of vegetable substances 
 consisting of gnta and resin. They differ from resina 
 in this, that the}' never ejtude spontaneouslj'-from the 
 plant, being obtained either by bruising the parts con- 
 taining them, and expressing the juice, which is al- 
 ways in a state of emulsion, generally white, but 
 sometimes of a diffcrfent color, or by makiilg incisions 
 in the plant, from which the juice flows. The juice, 
 being exposed to the action' of the sun, is condensed 
 and inspissated, till it forms the gum resin of com- 
 merce. Gum-resins are usually opaque, or, at least, 
 their transparency is inferior to that of resins. They 
 are always solid, and most commonly brittle, and 
 have, sometimes, a fatty appearance. When heated, 
 they do not melt as resins do, neither are they so com- 
 bustible. Heat, hdWeVer, commonly softens them, 
 and causes them tb swell. The}' bum with a flame. 
 They have almost alwa}'s a strong smell; which, in 
 several instances, is alliaceous. Their taste, also, is 
 often acrid, and alT^ays much stronger than that of 
 resins. They are usually heavier thSin resins. They 
 are paHially soluble in water, but the solution is al- 
 ways bpaque,' and usually milky. Alcohol partially 
 dissolves them, the solution being'transparent. 
 
 The most common gum-resins are, Aloes, Ammonia, 
 Ettphorhiitm, Gdlhanum, Ga*mhoge, Myrrh, Olihanum, 
 Sayapenum, Scamnidnif, etc. ; which see, under their 
 respective names. — Loudon's Ency. of Agriculture^ 
 Thomson's Chemistry. ' 
 
 Chim-tree (Nyssti, biflora}, or Twin-flowered N}'ssa 
 — known also as the 'Tupelo-tree,' yellow gum-tree, 
 soUr gum-tree, Peperidge-tree, wild pear-tree— in an 
 uncultivated state, sfeldom rises above 40 or 50 feet, 
 with a trunk 15 or 20 inches in diameter. The Nyssa 
 iijlora begins to apjiear in the lower' part of -lire w 
 Hampshire, where the climate ' is tempered by the 
 ocean ; and, ' in progressing southward, it is found 
 most abundantly in the easterly parts of New York, 
 New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. But in Virginia and 
 Carolina, it is more sparingly prod'ftced, and, as in the 
 north, it always occurs in moist ground or in watery 
 places. '^ "'"'' '" ' ' 
 
 The l^yssa hijlora holds' a middle rank between soft 
 and hard- wooded trees. When perfectly seasoned, the 
 sap-wood is of a slight reddish tiiit, ahd the hfeart-wood 
 is of a deep brown. Of trees exceding 15 or 18 inches 
 in diameter, frequently' more than half of the trunk is 
 hollow. The ligneous fibres which compose the body 
 of most other trees are closely united, and usually as- 
 cend in a perpendicular direction. But, on the con- 
 trary, the trees of this genus exhibit a constant pecu- 
 liarity of organization — the fibres bMng united in 
 bundles, and are interwoven like a braided cord. This 
 property gives it a decided superiority for certain uses. 
 In the parts of the country where it abounds, it is 
 employed for the naves of wheels destined for heavy 
 burdens. It is also employed for the heads of the 
 shafts of wind-mills ;' and, sawn into boards, it is used 
 for lining carts. Wooden bowls are made of it, which 
 are heavier than those made of the tu%-tree {Lirio- 
 dendronj, and are less liable to split. From the irreg- 
 ularity of the fibre, the " gum-tree" is not admitted as 
 evidence in the courts' of Pennsylvania, in establishing 
 boundaries to lands, etc., frbni the number of years 
 Which have elapsed since the trees have been blazed. 
 
 As fuel, this wood bums slowly, and diffuses a great 
 heat. — Browne's Trees o_f America. 
 
 Gun-cotton. Cotton is one of the numerous 
 forms of lignine, a compound of carbon, oxygen, and 
 hydrogen ; but when it is subjected to the action of 
 nitric acid, nitrogen, which exists in most explosive 
 bodies, enters into its composition. The action of 
 nitric acid on lignine had long attracted the attention 
 of chemists ; but the nearest approach to the formation 
 of gun-cotton was made by Pelouze, who, in 1838, 
 writes in the Comptes Rendusoi the properties of a sub- 
 stance named Xyloidine, from ^v?Mv, wood, discovered 
 by Braconnet in 1833 : " It is very combustible, taking 
 fire at 356° Fahr., burning with great rapidity, and 
 almost without residue. This property has led me to 
 an experiment, which I think susceptible of some 
 application, especially in artillery. By plunging 
 paper in nitric acid of sp. gr.; 1*6, leaving it there the 
 requisite time for the acid to permeate the paper, 
 which is usually accomplished in two or three minutes, 
 then withdrawing it, and lastly, washing it in water, 
 we obtain a kind of parchment impermeable to moist- 
 ure, and extremely combustible. " In 1846, Schon- 
 bein exhibited to the British Association at South- 
 ampton specimens of cotton, which appeared to be as 
 explosive as gunpowder) laut it was not till April, 
 1847, on the enrolment of the patent, that the method 
 of preparing this cotton was known, although, in the 
 interval. Otto of Brunswick, Morel of Paris, and 
 Bottger of Frankfort, published recipes for making 
 explosive cotton. Schonbein's method consisted in 
 mixing three parts of sulphuric acid, sp. gr. 1'85, with 
 one part of nitric acid, sp. gr. ,1"45 to 1"50 ; and when 
 the mixture had cooled down to between 50° aiid 60° 
 Fahr., clean rough cotton, in as open a state as pos- 
 sible, was immersed in the acid ; when well soaked, 
 the excess of acid was drawn or poured offj and the 
 cotton pressed lightly in order to separate the principal 
 portion of the acid. The cotton was then covered 
 over and left for half an hour; when it was pressed and 
 thoroughly washed in running water to get' rid of all 
 free acid. After being partially dried by pressure, it 
 was washed in an alkaline solution made by dissolv- 
 ing one ounce of carbonate of- potash in a gallon of 
 water. The free acid being thus got rid of, it was put 
 into a press, the excess of alkaline solution was ex- 
 pelled, and the cotton left nearly dr}'. It was then 
 washed io a solution of pure nitrate of potash, one 
 ounce to the gallon, and being again pressed, was 
 dried at a temperature of from 150° to 170°. It was 
 stated, that three parts of the gun-cotton thus pre- 
 pared were equal in force to eight partsof Tower-proof 
 gunpowder. 
 
 Gun-cotton has also been employed in blasting, 
 especially on the Manchester and Huddersfield railway 
 in Standedge tunnel, and on the works in the Stour 
 Valley, near Birmingham. It has been stated that 
 gun-cotton produces a much greater effect, weight for 
 weight, than gunpowder, in the proportion of five 
 to one. This seems ah exaggeration ; but the disrup- 
 tive effect really seems to be greater from gun-cotton ; 
 and as it gives no smoke, in sonfined situations the 
 'workmen are enabled sooner to resume their work. 
 
 Cotton gains considerably in ■ weight by the above 
 treatment, but is scarcely changed in color or in gen- 
 eral appearance, if the process has been carefully con- 
 ducted ; it is, however, harsh to the touch, and gives a 
 crepitating sound when pressed by the hand. It dif- 
 fers from common cotton by its electric excitability, 
 the slightest degree of friction causing it to be power- 
 fully attracted and repelled by other bodies ; and also 
 by its action on a ray of polarized light, which it'does 
 not dejjolarize like ordinary cotton. It explodes at a 
 temperature of from 350° to 400°, with such rapidity 
 as to interfere with its practical application, for, if 
 applied to the purposes of artilleryj it may burst the 
 gun before it has time to move the shot, and some of 
 
GUN 
 
 918 
 
 GUN 
 
 the products of its combustion make it also objection- 
 able for fire-arms. Among these products water may 
 be mentioned, and, should not the cotton have been 
 well washed, nitrous acid. Another great impediment 
 to the use of gun-cotton is its hygrometric condition, 
 for if exposed to a damp atmosphere, it will in an hour 
 or two absorb a considerable portion of moisture. 
 Many attempts have been made to apply it to mining 
 purposes on account of its enormous ■ force, and the 
 small quantity of smoke which it produces ; but the 
 objections to its use are numerous, the most fatal 
 objection being its liability to spontaneous ignition. 
 
 Nevertheless, gun-cotton continues to be an object 
 of great interest, on account of its application to the 
 beautiful art of photography. When the cotton is 
 prepared in such a way as to burn slowly, it is not 
 liable to spontaneous ignition, and in this state it is 
 perfectly soluble in sulphuric ether, which the more 
 explosive cotton is not. If the etherial solution called 
 collodion, be poured on the surface of cold water, a 
 paper is produced which is prepared for the use of the 
 photographer. This paper is a very active electric, 
 and is perfectly soluble in ether. Collodion has also 
 been made use of in surgery, by applj'ing the ethereal 
 solution to a wound, when a. thin delicate artificial 
 skin is formed by it, which perfectly excludes the air. 
 
 In the preparation of gun-cotton, nitric acid is the 
 active agent in the formation of xyloidine ; the sul- 
 phuric acid has no direct action on the lignine, its use 
 being to retain the water abstracted from the cotton, 
 and prevent the solution of the compound which talies 
 place to a greater or less extent in nitric acid alone. 
 The puritj' and exact strength of the acids are matters 
 of great importances Mr. Hadow found that the best 
 mixture for producing collodion wool is obtained by 
 mixing 89 parts by weight of nitric acid, sp. gr. 
 1*424, with 104 parts by weight of sulphuric acid, sp. 
 gr. 1-833. 
 
 On trying the effects of various re-agents on gun- 
 cotton, Mr. Hadow found that it could be perfectly 
 restored to the original cotton, without loss of form, 
 by means of an alcoholic solution of hydro-sulphuret of 
 potassium. On this, and other points connected with 
 the chemistrj- of gun-cotton, we must refer to Mr. 
 Hadow's paper, published in the Transactions of the 
 Chemical Society. — E. B. 
 
 GunpOTWder (Ger. Pulver, Schiesspulver ; Du. 
 Bushruid; Da. Krudt, Pulver ; Sw. Krut ; Fr. Poudre; 
 It. Polvere ; Sp. and Port. Pohora ; Eus. Poroch ; Pol. 
 Proch ; Lat. Pulvis pyriiis'). This well-known inflam- 
 mable powder i§ composed of nitre, sulphur, and char- 
 coal, reduced to powder, and mixed intimately with 
 each other. The proportion of the ingredients varies 
 very considerably ; but good gunpowder may be com- 
 posed of the following proportions; viz., 76 parts of 
 nitre, 15 of charcoal, and 9 of sulphur. These in- 
 gredients are first reduced to a fine powder separately, 
 then mixed intimately, and formed into a thick paste 
 with water. After this has dried a little, it is placed 
 upon a kind of sieve fall of holes, through which it is 
 forced. By this process it is divided into grains, the 
 size of which depends upon the size of the holes through 
 which they have been squeezed. The powder, when 
 dry, is put into barrels, which are made to turn round 
 on their axis. By this motion the grains of gunpowder 
 rub against each other, their asperities are worn off, 
 and their surfaces are made smooth. The powder is 
 then said to be glazed.— Thomson's Chemistry. _ 
 
 Dr. Thomson, whose learning is equal to his science, 
 has the following remarks with respect to the intro- 
 duction of gunpowder into warlike operations: "The 
 discoverer of this compound, and the person who first 
 thought of applying it to the purposes of war, are un- 
 known. It is certain, however, that it was used in the 
 fourteenth century. From certain archives quoted by 
 Wiegleb, it appears that cannons were employed in 
 Germany before the year 1372. No traces of it can be 
 
 found in any European author previously to the thir- 
 teenth century ; but it seems to have been known to 
 the Chinese long before that period. There is reason 
 to believe that cannons were used in the battle of 
 Cressey, which was fought in 1346. They seem even 
 to have been used three ^years earlier, at the siege of 
 Algesiras ; but before this time they must have been 
 known in Germany, as there is a piece of ordnance at 
 Amberg, on which is inscribed the year 1303. Eoger 
 Bacon, who died in 1292, knew the properties of gun- 
 powder ; hut it does not follow that he was acquainted 
 with its application to fire-arms."' — Thomson's Chem- 
 istry/. 
 
 The invention of gunpowder is by some ascribed to 
 Bertholdus or Michael Schwartz, a Cordelier monk of 
 Goslar, south of Brunswick, in Germany, about A.D. 
 1320. But man3' writers maintain that it was known 
 much earlier in various parts of the world. Some say 
 that the Chinese possessed the art a number of centu- 
 ries before. Its composition, moreover, is expressly 
 mentioned by our own famous Roger Bacon, in his 
 treatise Be •NvMitalc Magics, which was published at 
 Oxford in 1216.— Hatdn. 
 
 Composition of Gunpowder, — The present composition 
 of the Chinese gunpowder corresponds so nearly with 
 our own that the difference is nearly insensible ; but 
 whether it had arrived at that degree of perfection in 
 their ancient periods, we have no means of knowing. 
 Neither can we judge of its nature and power as 
 known to the Arabs. But in our own country it was 
 late in arriving at its present state of perfection ; nor 
 do the various proportions given by one of the earliest 
 English writers on the subject, argue much in favor 
 of their chemical knowledge. Peter Whitehome, who 
 wrote in 1673, gives numerous proportions, without 
 seeming to be well aware of their respective values ; 
 and, respecting some of them, it is easy to see that 
 they were scarcely fit for squibs, much less for the 
 purpose of projecting shot. Such is nitre, sulphur, 
 charcoal, equal parts ; while, in the very opposite ex- 
 treme, we have nitre 12 parts, sulphur and charcoal, 
 of each 3 parts ; and, still worse, nitre 27 to 3. of the 
 other two ingredients; or nitre 48 parts, with 7 of 
 sulphur and 3 of charcoal. Here, such as these com- 
 positions are, want of experience can scarcely be plead- 
 ed, as they are not better than those given by Nye in 
 1380. In France, also, the composition, at no very 
 remote period, was — nitre 60, sulphur 16, charcoal 34 ; 
 from which it varied to, nitre 67, sulphur 13, charcoal 
 20 ; and to nitre 84, sulphur 8, charcoal 8 ; these difr 
 ferences being supposed to be necessary for the larger 
 cannon, and the smaller progressively, the la^t, being 
 their musket powder. 
 
 But as we can not afford space to describe the grad- 
 ual progress of improvement in the composition of 
 gunpowder, we will state the proportions at present in 
 use in different nations. They do not materially differ 
 from each other, although it is unquestionable that 
 they are not all of equal power. 
 
 Eoyal Mills at "Walthani Abbey . . 
 France, National Establishment 
 
 French, for sportsmen 
 
 French, formining 
 
 United States of America 
 
 Pmssia 
 
 Bussia 
 
 Austria (musket) 
 
 Spain 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Switzerland, round powder 
 
 Chinese 
 
 Nitre. 
 
 Sulphur. 
 
 Chnrconl. 
 
 76 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 75 
 
 12-6 ' 
 
 12-5 
 
 T6 9 
 
 9-6 
 
 18-5 
 
 m 
 
 20 
 
 18 
 
 T5 
 
 12 5 
 
 12-5 
 
 T5 
 
 11-5 
 
 18-5 
 
 73 T8 
 
 12-68 
 
 18-59 
 
 72 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 76-47 
 
 12-75 
 
 10-78 
 
 76 
 
 9 
 
 16 
 
 76 
 
 10 
 
 14 
 
 75-7 
 
 9-9 
 
 14-4 
 
 Without any knowledge of the law of definite pro- 
 portions, and even before that law was kpown to ex- 
 ist, each nation had experimentally hit upon nearly 
 the best proportions of the three ingredients, namely, 
 1 equivalent of nitre, 1 of sulphur, and 3.of charcoal , 
 or 75 per cent, of nitre, 11-77 of sulphur, and 13-23 of 
 
GUN 
 
 919 
 
 GUT 
 
 charcoal. In practice the proportions used for the 
 manufacture of 100 lbs. of gunpowder are — saltpetre 
 77i lbs., sulphur lOJ lbs., charcoal 16 lbs. = 104 lbs., 
 the extra 4 lbs. Ijeing allowed for waste. 
 
 The proportions in the commercial gunpowder vary 
 indefiMtely, according to the views of the. manufac- 
 turer respecting the markets, the price, and other 
 matters. Cheapness being the leading object where it 
 is only made foi^ sale, and the nitre being the ttnly ex- 
 pensive article, the proportion of this is dhninished, 
 and those of the other two ingredients increased. We 
 have never met with any specimen in which there was 
 less than 62 of nitre ; but we have reason to believe 
 that some of the inferior kinds do not contain more 
 than 50. For the use of miners it is 'also made with a, 
 low proportion bf nitre, producing advantages in min- 
 ing not intended bj' the makers, whose only object is 
 to manufacture a cheap article. But the proportions 
 of all the commercial powders are very inconstant, 
 even when furnished bond Jide to the government. — 
 E. B. 
 
 Gunny (Hind. Tell; Ben. GUni), a strong coarse 
 sackcloth manufactured in Bengal for making into 
 bags, sacks, and packing generally, answering at once 
 the two purposes for which canvas and bast are used in 
 Europe. Themaferial from which this article is manu- 
 factured is the fibre of two plants of the genus Cor- 
 chorus ; viz., Corchorus oUtorius, and Corchorue cap- 
 m<W/s (Bengali ^a«); both; but particularly the first, 
 extensively cultivated throughout Lower Bengal. Be- 
 sides a large domestic consumption of gunny, the 
 whole rice, paddy, wheat, pulses, sugar, aiid saltpetre 
 of the country, as well as the pepper, coffee, and other 
 foreign produce exported from Calcutta, are packed in 
 bags or sacks made of this article. There is also a 
 considerable exportation of manufactured bags, each 
 commonly capable of containing two maunds, or about 
 160 lbs. weight, to Prince of Wales Island, Malacca, 
 Singapore, Java, and Bombay. In 1841-42 there 
 were exported from Calcutta 5,330,899 gunny bags, of 
 the value of 499,426 rupees (£49,942), and 95,412 pieces 
 of gunny cloth, worth 433j321 rupees (£43,332).— Wal- 
 LtCH, Roxburg; Review of the External Comm^ce of 
 Bengal for 1841-42. 
 
 G-uns and Fo'nrliug-pieceB, Three European 
 nations are distinguished for their production of these 
 arms — ^the English, Belgians, and French. Small arms 
 for war and for the chase are manufactured at Birming- 
 ham, the one with due solidity, the other with' refine- 
 ment of workmanship. In respect to Belgium, Li^ge 
 is the Birmingham of that country, and manufactures 
 guns on a very large scale. The Belgians, on account 
 of cheapness combined with good execution, sell a 
 great quantity of small arms to other nations, particu- 
 larly to Russia. France, for the manufacture of small 
 arms for war, is now perhaps more advanced than any 
 other nation. St. Etienne is the town principally em- 
 ployed in the manufacture of muskets ; but Paris pro- 
 duces th6 most finished weapons, combining all the 
 perfection that can be required for precision of firing 
 and beauty of ornament. Sharpe's rifles are manu- 
 factured in the United States in large numbers, also a 
 variety' of small arms. 
 
 Gunter, Edmund, an ingenious English mathe- 
 matician and machinist, was bom in Hertfordshire 
 about the year 1581. He was educated at Westmin- 
 ster, and afterward at Christ Church College, Oxford, 
 where he graduated. Though he took holy orders in 
 1614, mathematics, which had been his favorite study 
 from his youth, eontinued to engross his attention, 
 and in 1619 he was chosen to the chair of astronomy 
 in Gresham College, where he remained till his death 
 in 1626.' Of Gunter's written works ihe chief are 
 his Canon Tricmgvhrwm, a table of logarithmic sines 
 and tangents,' extended to seven decimal places, and 
 forming a sort of complement to the logarithms of 
 natural numbers by his colleague Brigg. 
 
 Gunter's Line, a logarithmic line, usually laid down 
 upon scales, sectors, etc. It is also called the Zi'rae of 
 lines saA line of numbers; being only the logarithms 
 graduated. upon a ruler, which therefore serves to solve 
 problems instrumentally in the same manner as loga- 
 rithms do arithmetically. 
 
 Gunter's Quadrant, an instrument made of wood, 
 brass, or other substance, containing a kind of stereo- 
 graphic projection of the sphere, on the plane of the 
 equinoctial ; the eye being supposed to be placed in 
 one of the poles ; so that the tropic, ecliptic, and hori- 
 zon, form the arcs of circles ; but the hour-circles are 
 other curves, drawn by means of several altitudes of 
 the sun for some particular latitude every year. This 
 instrument is used to find the hour of the day, the 
 sun's azimuth, etc., and other problems of the globe ; 
 as also to take the altitude of an object in degrees. 
 
 Gunter's Scale (generallj' called by seamen the GuTi- 
 ter), is a large plane scale, usually 2 feet long by about 
 1^ inches broad, and engraved with various lines of 
 numbers. On ime side arc placed the natural lines 
 (as the line of chords, the line of sines, tangents, 
 rhumbs, etc.), and on the other side the corresponding 
 artificial or logarithmic ones. By means of this in- 
 strument, questions in navigation, trigonometry, etc., 
 are solved, with the aid of a pair of compasses. 
 
 Gun'wale (pronounced gur^el^, the uppermost 
 wale of a ship or boat, or that piece of timber which 
 finishes the upper part of the hull. The raised work 
 above this is called the bulwark. 
 
 Gutenberg, or Guttemberg, Tohann (whose 
 real name was Gensfleisoh), was bom at Sorgenloch, 
 near Mentz, in 1397. It is no'sv generally admitted 
 that to him is due almost the entire credit of invent- 
 ing the art of printing by movable types. The 
 respective claims of Fust, Gutenberg, and Schoeffer, 
 are fully discussed under FtST. — E. B. 
 
 Gutenberg, after a life of much sufl'ering and hard- 
 ship, died at Mentz in 1468, in great poverty. Pos- 
 terity has done him the justice denied him by his 
 cotemporaries; The statue by Thorwaldsen, erected 
 in his honor at Mentz in 1837, fumished an example 
 which has since been followed by many towns in Ger- 
 many. The Gutenljerg Society keeps his name in 
 memory by an annual festival. No books are extant 
 that are known for certain to have been printed by 
 Gutenberg. The fkmous Mazarin Bible, Donatcs' 
 Grammar, and the Gatholicon of Janua, are believed 
 to have issueid from his press. See Printing. 
 
 Gutta Percha. This valuable substance has 
 only been known within the last few years. It is the 
 concrete juice of a large tree (JsonanAra gutta), grow- 
 ing in certain parts of the Malayan- Archipelago — 
 hitherto chiefly obtained from Singapore; 'The first 
 specimen of the inspissated juice which appeared in 
 England was presented to the Society of Arts in 1843, 
 but two or three years elapsed before a just sense of 
 the importance of the substance began to gain ground. 
 In 1845 the importation of gutta percha into England 
 amounted to only 20,600 lbs. ; in 1848 it had reached 
 3,000,000 lbs. ; in 1S52 it amounted to 30,580,480 lbs. 
 — a rate of increase which gives serious cause to doubt 
 whether the supply will long be adequate to meet the 
 demand ; for it is unfortunately the case that the trees 
 which yield gutta percha are not only limited in their 
 growth to certain districts, and less abundant in quan- 
 tity than india-rubber trees, but they have been sub- 
 jected for several years to the barbarous and wasteful 
 mode of cutting down the trees for the sake of the 
 sap. Whatever European industry may be able to do 
 in checlring this destructive system, and extending 
 the cultivation of the gutta percha tree, there is yet 
 reason to doubt whether this slow-growmg tree can be 
 reared in suflioient quantities to counterbalance the 
 havoc already made. The Isonand/ra gutta belongs to 
 the natural order Sapotacese, and is the only tree which 
 yields gutta percha. It rises to the beighi of SO or 7& 
 
GUT 
 
 920 
 
 GUT 
 
 feet, and the trunk is 3 or 4 feet in diameter. The 
 tree flourishes in alluvial soils, at the foot of hills, and 
 sometimes forms the chief part of the jungle in such 
 situations. The foliage is of a pale green on the up- 
 per part, and covered with reddish-brown hairs be- 
 neath. The wood is soft, fibrous, spongy, pale in 
 color, and traversed by longitudinal receptacles or res- 
 ervoirs filled with the gum, forming ebony-blacli; lines. 
 This gum has many of the properties of india-rubber, 
 but it has also special properties of its own which ad- 
 mit of its being applied to uses for which caoutchouc 
 is not adapted. It possesses the same indestructibil- 
 ity by chemical agents which makes india-rubber so 
 Yaluable, and it has also the peculiarity of becoming 
 soft and plastic on being plunged into boiling water. 
 In this state it can be molded into any desired form, 
 which form it permanently retains on cooling. The 
 great convenience and utility of such a substance 
 could not fail to strike the natives of the countries in 
 which it is produced ; and accordingly, we find that, 
 long before gutta percha became known to Europeans, 
 it had been fabricated by the Malays into whips, ba^ 
 sins, jugs, shoes, etc., thus at length exciting the 
 attention of travelers, and leading to the introduction 
 of some of these articles into Europe under the name 
 of india-rubber, or, earlier still, of mazer-wood. 
 
 The honor of having drawn attention to its real na- 
 ture and uses is due to Drsi D'Almeida and W. Mont- 
 gomerie. The latter, writing from Bengal, remarked 
 on the ordinary name of the plant thus :— " The word 
 is a pure Malayan one — ffvita meaning the gum or con- 
 crete juice of a plant, and percha the particular tree 
 from which this is procured. The ch is not pro- 
 nounced hard like i ; but like the ch in the English 
 word perch." In 1843 Dr. Wml Montgomerie, of the 
 Indian Medical Service, observing certain Malay knife 
 and kris handles, inquired the nature of the material 
 from which they were made ; and from the crude na- 
 tive manufacture inferred at once the extensive uses 
 to which the gutta percha might be put in the arts of 
 Europe. He purchased a quantity of the raw mate- 
 rial, sending from Singapore part of it to Bengal, and 
 part to Europe, and suggesting some of the uses to 
 which he thought it might be applied. The quantity 
 sent to England secured to him at once, as the discov- 
 erer, the gold medal of the Society of Arts. The 
 surgical uses of gutta percha were early discovered by 
 Dr. Oxley of Singapore, who declared it to be " the 
 best and easiest substance ever discovered for the man- 
 agement of fractures, combining ease and comfort to 
 the patient, and verj' much lessening the trouble of 
 the surgeon." 
 
 Gutta percha arrives in lumps or blocks of several 
 pounds' weight, but these often contain impurities, 
 such as stones, earth, etc., introduced by the Malays 
 for the sake of increasing the weight. The purifica- 
 tion and preparation of this substance on a large scale 
 are conducted as follows;— The lumps of gutta are 
 subjected to the action of a vertical wheel, on the face 
 of which are fixed three knives which, as the wheel 
 revolves at the rate of 300 revolutions per minute, cut 
 the lumps into thin sHces. These are then softened in 
 hot water, and thrown into a rotating machine, where 
 they are further reduced by the action of jagged teeth. 
 From this machine they again fall into -v^ater, and are 
 further cleansed. They are then kneaded into a paste 
 in hot water, and rolled between heated cylinders. 
 The mass has now become uniform in texture, and is 
 either rolled out into sheets between steel rollers, or is 
 passed in the mass through heated iron cylinders; 
 after which it is ready for use. Gutta percha is 
 scarcely affected by boning alcohol, but it dissolves 
 nearly completely in benzine and in spint of turpentme 
 with the aid of heat, and also in naphtha, coal-tar, 
 sulphuret of carbon, and in chloroform. Its solution 
 in sulphuret of carbon or in chloroform may be almost 
 entirely deprived of color by filtering, the prooeaa 
 
 being conducted under a glass jai, in order to prevent 
 loss by evaporation. If this solution be exposed in a 
 flat dish to the air, the solvent will evaporate, leaving 
 a solid cake of wliite gutta percha, which retains all 
 the properties of the common gutta ; and it may be 
 melted by a gradual increase of temperature without 
 acquiring any perceptible color. 
 
 The purposes to which gutta percha is applied are 
 too numerous for recapitulation. , Only a few of the 
 more important uses can be here mentioned. It re- 
 sists the action of water, and is at the same time a bad 
 conductor of electricity ; it is therefore employed for 
 inclosing the metallic wires used in the electric tele- 
 graph. The eflSciency of the submarine telegraph is 
 largely due to this valuable substance. ,, , 
 
 Various other maritime uses have been found for it 
 in the construction of buoys, life-boat apparatus, etc. 
 Manufacturers and agriculturists have applied gutta 
 percha to use in bands and straps for machinerj', 
 tubes, buckets, etc. Architects have accepted its aid 
 in the interior ornamental work of houses, such as 
 cornices, centres for ceilings, etc. , Scientific men .are 
 aided in their electrical experiments by its high insu- 
 lating power. Miners, railway officials, and others, 
 find the value of speaking-tubes made of this sub- 
 stance ; deaf persons are also greatly benefited by its 
 power of conducting sound. Stereotype plates have 
 been made in gutta percha* A mold is taken by pres- 
 sure of a page of type with woodcuts in gutta percha ; 
 from this mold a cast is obtained on a cylinder of 
 gutta percha, and from this last the printing is carried 
 on. The dentist employs gutta percha in fixing or 
 stopping teeth. The chemist is indebted to it in the 
 preservation and conveyance of acids which corrode 
 glass or metallic vessels. It is also extensively used 
 in the manufacture of waterproof clothing, waterproof 
 shoes, etc. 
 
 Within the last few years a substitute for gutta 
 percha has been discovered in the juice of the muddar 
 (Asclepias gigatiiecL), a common plant in India, which 
 also affords a valuable kind of hemp. Care is re- 
 quired in the collection of the milky juice, on account 
 of its exceedingly acrid nature ; but when exposed to 
 the air )^ hardens into a substance closelj' resembling 
 gutta percha, and having many of its valuable proper- 
 ties. It is, however, unfitted for electrical purposes, 
 for it is found to conduct electricity as freely as a 
 piece of untanned hide. — E. B. 
 
 G-utta Trap, a substance evidently allied to gutta 
 percha and caoutchouc, employed at Singapore in the 
 manufacture of bird-lime. It is the inspissated juice 
 of au artocarpus- ; and it is highly probable that there 
 are several similar vegetable productions, such as the 
 mangegatu (Ficus indica), from Visagapatam, which 
 njight advantageously be introduced into commerce, 
 and employed in the arts for purposes similar to those 
 for which caoutchouc and gutta percha are now so ex- 
 tensively employed. 
 
 Gruy, a rope used to steady any weighty body 
 while it is being hoisted or lowered ; also; a taclde to 
 confine a boom forward to prevent the sail from gyb» 
 ing. Guy likewise denotes a large rope extending 
 from the head of the main-mast to that of the fore- 
 mast, to sustain the taclde used for loading and un- 
 loading a ship. 
 
 G-ybing, the shifting of the boom of a fore-and- 
 aft sail from one side of tlie mast to the other, either to 
 alter the course of the vessel 'suddenly, or to accom- 
 modate the sail to a change of wind. 
 
 G-jrpsum, or Sulphate of Iiime, is found in 
 various parts of the Continent, in Derbyshire and Not- 
 tmghamshire, and in Nova Scotia, whence it is largely 
 exported. When reduced to a powder, and formed 
 into a paste with water, it is termed plaeier of Paris, 
 and is much used for forming casts, etc. It Is also 
 used for laying floors, and has been advantageously 
 employed as a manure. : 
 
HAI^ 
 
 921 
 
 HAL 
 
 H. 
 
 Hackney Carriages aTe carriages' stationed in 
 the streets or other public places, and bound to caiTj' 
 such persons as require 'their services, for certain rates 
 of hire according to the distances traveled. They have 
 generally been licensed by authority, and subjected to 
 certain regulations, intended to exempt strangers, and 
 others using them, from fraud and impositioni It may 
 be doubted, however, whether these regulations have 
 had any good effect ; and whether the public would 
 not be as well accomnlodated, at least in all large 
 towns, by throwing the business open, and trusting to 
 competition to rectify abuses. Hackney cftaches are 
 of French origin. In France, a strong kind of cob- 
 horse (haquenee) was' let out on hire for short joiitneys : 
 these were latterly harnessed (to accommodate several 
 wayfarers at once) to a plain vehicle called cocke-h- 
 haquenie: hence the name. The legend that traces 
 their origin to Hackney, near London, is a vulgar 
 error. They were iirst licensed in 1662, and subjected 
 to regulations, 6 William and Mary, i^^i.—Sutvey of 
 London, 'The numbelr plying in' London fixed at 1000, 
 and their fares raised, 1771. The cabriolets are of 
 Parisian origin; but the aristocratic taste of English- 
 men suggested the .propriety of obliging the driver to 
 be seated on the outside of the vehicle. — Haydn. 
 
 Hainan, a large island in the Chinese Sea, lying 
 south of the province of Canton, to wMch it is ail- 
 nexed, and separating the Gulf of Tonquin from the 
 Chinese Sea. It is separated from the southern ex- 
 tremity of the province of Canton ' by the Strait of 
 Luichan, 16 or 16 mUes wide, and lies between N. lat. 
 18° 10' and 20° 54', and E. long. 108° 25' and 111°. 
 It is about 150 miles in length by 100 in bteadth, and 
 has an area of above 12,000 square miles. The in- 
 terior of the island is mountainous ; some parts of it 
 rise above the snow line, and it is inhabited by abo- 
 riginal tribes. The Chinese inhabitants are mostly 
 descendants of ^emigrants from Fokien, and are agri- 
 cultural, trading, or piratical in their vocation, accord- 
 ing to- circumstances. The soil is mostly sindy, but 
 some of the plains, particularly on the west coa)st, are 
 of great fertility. Timber constitutes its most valua- 
 ble, product, the sides-of 'the mountains being covered 
 with extensive forests of sandal, rose, braziletto, 
 ebony, and other tuees. Its other products are chiefly 
 rice, sugar, tobacooj indigo, cotton, sweet potatoes, and 
 various fruits. Wax also forms an important article 
 of export; it is produced by an insect" called the 
 pelatehung, or white wax insect, when laying its 
 eggs. Hainan is divided into 13 districts. The cap- 
 ital, Kiungohanfu,, is a Very, pofiuloiis town, at the 
 mouth of the Limu Kiver, on the Luichan, and has 
 an excellent harbor. Several of the other towns are 
 very populous. The island is said to contain about 
 1,500,000 inhabitants. 
 
 Hair, Human (Ger. Haare, Menschen-haar ; Du. 
 Hair I ¥t. Clievmx; It. Capilli umani ; -^p. Cabdlos ; 
 Lat. Oapilli). " Human hair makes a very considera- 
 ble article in commerce, especially since the mode of 
 perruques has obtained. . Hair of the growth of the 
 northern coimtries, as England, etc., is valued much 
 beyond that of the more southern ones, as Italy, Spain, 
 the southern parts of France, etc. Good hair is well 
 fed, and neither too coarse nor too slender; the bigness 
 rendering it less snsceptible of the artificial curl, and 
 disposing it rather.to frizzle ; and the Smallness mak- 
 ing its curl of too short duration. Its length should 
 be about 25 inches ; the more it falls short of this, the 
 less value it bears." — M. ' 
 
 Hair of Beasts (Ger. Hacere;.JTuhaare;' Da. ffair; 
 Fr. Poll; It. and Sp. Pefo,-^ Lat. Pelles).— The hair of 
 horses is extensively used in the manufacture of chairs, 
 
 sofas, saddles, etc. ; while the hair or wool of beavers, 
 hares, rabbits, etc., is much employed in the manu- 
 facture of hats, etc. Jlair, in its mechanical nature, 
 may be regarded as a condensed form of cuticle. The 
 feathers of birds may be considered as analogous to 
 hair; while the only two classes of animals that are 
 wholly devoid of any kind of hair axe the fishes and 
 reptiles. The variety in the conformation of hair is 
 very great, ranging from the finest wool to the quills 
 of the porcupine, or the horn of the rhinoceros, which 
 last is nothing more than an assemblage of many hairs 
 in one compact mass. 
 
 Hair Manufactures. — The various uses to which hair 
 is applied are familiar to everj' one. The most valua- 
 ble kind is human hair. It is procured chiefly from 
 the north of France, Belgium, and Germany. The 
 lighter colored hair, which bears the highest value, is 
 the production of Germany; the darker shades are 
 imported from France, where a peasant girl will sell 
 the hair off her head without any sense of degrada- 
 tion; whereas in England this traffic is resorted to 
 only by females. of the lowest class. Indeed so com- 
 mon is the practice in France, that agents are em- 
 ployed to traverse certain districts annually at a par- 
 ticular season for the purpose of collecting the crops 
 of human hair which are assiduously cultivated for 
 the.isake of the purchase-money, or its equivalent in 
 gewgaws. ' A head ofJiair, such as is bought of the 
 peasant girls in the districts above named, weighs 
 frojli-lj to If pounds. 
 
 The hair used for weaving consists of the long hair 
 from .hol'ses' tails. It is procured principally from 
 South America and from Kussia. All the black and 
 gray hair is dj-ed for the manufacture of black hair- 
 cloth for covering furniture. The white is reserved 
 for djteing of the brighter hues, such as green, claret, 
 crimson, etc., . The quality' of the cloth, as well as the 
 brilliancy and permanency of the colors, depend in a 
 great degree on the nature of the warp, which may be 
 either of cotton, linen, or worsted. In the manufac- 
 ture of hair-cloth, either plain or damasked, the weaver 
 uses a sort of hook-shuttle, which he passes between 
 the threads of the warp, or shed, toward his left hand ; 
 the assistant, or '* server," places a single hair over 
 the end of the hook, and the weaver draws it through 
 the warp. The placing of the hairs one by one ren- 
 ders this a tedious operation, and one that does not 
 admit of the application of machinery, which is so ad- 
 vantageously employed in fabrics where the shot or 
 weft consists of a continuous thread. 
 
 Hair Pencils, or Brushes, for painting. Two 
 sorts are' made ; those with coarse hair, as that of the 
 swine, the wild boar, the dog, «tc.,' which are attached 
 usually tO: short wooden rods as handles; these are 
 commonly called &rusAe«; and hair pencils, properly 
 so called, which are composed of verj" fine hairs, as of 
 the minever, the marten, the badger, the polecat, etc. 
 These are mounted in a quill when they are small or 
 of moderate size, but when larger than a quill, they 
 are mounted in white Iron tubes. 
 
 Hair Powder (Ger. Puder ; Fr. Poudre a pou- 
 dr&r; It.. Polvere di cipri; Sp. Polvos de pduca) is 
 used as an ornament for the hair, and generally made 
 from starch pulverized, and sometimes perfumed. 
 
 Hake, a kind of fish, the Gadus merluccius, com- 
 mon in the Atlantic seas and the Mediterranean, and 
 often prepaiedas stock-fish. See Fisheeies. 
 
 Halifax, a city and sea-port, capital of colony and 
 province of Nova Scotia, founded in the year 1749. 
 Situated On a declivity near the coast, and the centre 
 of the peninsula, and on the west side of a deep inl^t 
 of the sea, called Halifax harbor, which extends sev^ 
 
HAL 
 
 922 
 
 HAM 
 
 eral miles inland ; lat. 44° 39' 42" north, long. 63° 
 36 30" west. Including its suburbs it is 2J miles long, 
 and about one half mile wide. Population 1852, 26,000 : 
 1854, 30,000. 
 
 _ The best mark in sailing for Halifax is Sambro 
 light-house, on a small island off the cape of the same 
 name, on the west side of the entrance to the harbor, 
 in lat. 44° 30', long. 63° 32'. The light, which is 
 fixed, is 210 feet above the level of the sea; and a de- 
 tachment of artillery, with two 24-pounders, is upon 
 duty at the light-house, firing at regular intervals dur- 
 ing the continuance of the dense fogs with which this 
 part of the coast is very much infested.— CoM&r, Ta- 
 hles des-Principales Positions Geographiques, p. 78. The 
 course into the harbor for large ships, after passing 
 Sambro light, is between the main land on the west, 
 and MoNab's island on the east. On a spit project- 
 ing from the latter, a light-house has been constructed ; 
 and when this is seen, ships may run in the harbor 
 without fear. The harbor is defended by several 
 prstty strong forts. Ships usually anchor abreast of 
 the town, where the harbor is rather more than a mile 
 in width. After gradually narrowing to about one 
 quarter of that width, it suddenly expands into a no- 
 ble sheet of water, called Bedford Basin, completely 
 land-locked, with deep water throughout, and capable 
 of accommodating the whole navy of Great Britain. 
 The harbor is accessible at all times, and is rarely im- 
 peded by ice. There is an extensive royal dockyard 
 at Halifax ; which, during war, is an important naval 
 station, being particularly well calculated for the sheU 
 ter, repair, and outfit of fleets cruising on the Amer- 
 ican coast and in the West Indies. Mr. M'Gregor has 
 severely, and, we believe, justly censured the project 
 for the removal of the dockyard from Halifax to 'Ber- 
 muda. — Com. Did., 1856. 
 
 Trade, etc., of Halifax and Nova Scotia. — Halifax is 
 the seat of a considerable fishery ; but the British col- 
 onists seem to be, for what reason it is not easy to Say, 
 less enterprising and successful fishers than the New 
 Englanders. The principal trade of the town and 
 province is with the West Indies, Great Britain, and 
 the United States. To the former ihey export dried 
 and pickled fish, lumber, coals, grindstones, cattle, 
 flour, butter, cheese, oats, potatoes, etc. They export 
 the same articles to the southern ports of the United 
 States, and gypsum to the eastern ports of New En- 
 gland. To Great Britain they send timber, deals, 
 whale, cod, and seal oil ; furs, etc. The principal ex- 
 ports of timber are from Pictou on the St. Lawrence. 
 The imports consist principally of colonial produce 
 from the West Indies ; all sorts of manufactured goods 
 from Great Britain; and of flour, provisions, etc., 
 from the United States, in part for exportation to the 
 West Indies. In 1826 a company was formed for mak- 
 ing a canal across the country from Halifax to the 
 Basin of Minas, which unites with the bottom of the 
 Bay of Fundy. The navigation will be formed, for 
 the most part, by Shubenacadie Lake and River. The 
 legislature gave £16,000 to this undertaking. The 
 excavated part of the canal is 60 feet wide at top, 86 
 feet at bottom, and will admit vessels drawing 8 feet 
 water. It seems very questionable whether this canal, 
 if constructed, will be profitable to the shareholders ; 
 but it will add to the trade of Halifax. There are 
 two chartered banking companies at Halifax. Ac- 
 counts are kept in pounds, shillings, and pence. The 
 pound being equal to $4 United States' currency ; the 
 shilling, 20 cents ; and the weights and measures are 
 also the same as in England. About 120 large square- 
 rigged vessels, and about the same number of large 
 schooners, witli several smaller craft belong to Hal- 
 ifax. The steamships conveying the mails to British 
 North America,' ply between this port and Boston 
 (Mass.), semi-monthly, and Liverpool. The fare to 
 Halifax or Boston from Liverpool, including provisions 
 and steward's fee (but excluding wines and liquors), 
 
 140 dollars. On arriving at Halifax, passengers were 
 formerly conveyed by coaches across the peninsula to 
 Pictou, whence they were carried by steamers to Quebec 
 and Montreal. The orAy commercial changes in the 
 province of Nova Scotia, during the year ending 30th 
 September, 1856, were those caused by the acceptance 
 of the " reciprocity act," or treaty, made between the 
 United States and Great Britain, and agreed to by the 
 provincial legislature in December, 1854, whereby 
 many products of the United States are now admitted 
 Into the province from the United States free of duty. 
 
 Hams. See Bacon and Pork trade. 
 
 Hamburg, a free Hanseatic city, on the north 
 bank of the River Elbe, about 70 miles from its mouth, 
 lat. 53° 32' 51" north, long. 9° 58' 37" east. Popula- 
 tion in 1836, including the suburbs of St. George and 
 St. Paul, but excluding. the territory attached to the 
 city, 148,754. Hamburg is the greatest commercial 
 city of German}', and, perhaps; of the Continent. The 
 Elbe, which may be navigated by lighters as far as 
 Melnik, in Bohemia, renders her the entrepot of a vast 
 extent of country. Advantage, too, has been taken 
 of natural facilities that extend still further her inter- 
 nal navigation ; a water communication having been 
 established, by means of the Spree and of artificial 
 cuts and sluices, between the Elbe and the Oder, and 
 between the latter and the Vistula ; so that a consid- 
 erable part of the produce of Silesia destined, for for- 
 eign markets, and some even of that of Poland, is con- 
 veyed to Hamburg. See Canals. There is, also, a 
 communication by means of the Steknitz Canal, Vith 
 the Trave; and, consequently, "with Lubec and the 
 Baltic. And she has been connected by means of rail- 
 ways with Berlin, Hanover, Bruns-vrick, Kiel, etc. 
 Vessels drawing M feet water come up to the town at 
 all. times ; and vessels drawing 18 feet may come safely 
 up with the spring tides. The largest vessels some- 
 times load from and unload into lighters at Cuxhaven. 
 The trade of Hamburg embraces every article that 
 Germany either sells to or buys from foreigners. The 
 imports consist principally of cotton, wool, stuS's, and 
 yarn ; wool, woolen, and worsted goods ; coffee, which 
 is the favorite article foi speculative purchases ; sugar, 
 silk, and silk goods ; tobacco, hides, iron, and hard- 
 ware, indigo, wine, brandy, rum, dyewoods, tea, pep- 
 per, etc. ; very large quantities of coal are imported 
 from the United Kingdom. ■ Being brought from many 
 different places, there is a great variety of quality in 
 the grain found at Hamburg ; but a large proportion 
 of the wheat is inferior. Some of the barley is very 
 good, and fit for malting. The oats are feed of vari- 
 ous qualities. With the exception of coal, the exports 
 consist of the same articles as the imports, Hamburg 
 not being a centre of consumption, but of distribution. 
 In addition to colonial produce, British manufactured 
 goods and grain of all sorts, they include wool, clover- 
 seed, bark, spelter, cattle,'butter, salted provisions, rags, 
 wooden clocks, and toys, linens, and all sorts of German 
 manufactured goods, Rhenish wines, etc. Most sorts 
 of Baltic articles, such as grain, flax, iron, pitch, and 
 tar, wax, etc., may generally be bought as cheap at 
 Hamburg, allowing for difference of freight, as in the 
 ports whence thej' were originally brought. It will 
 loe afterward seen that the total annual value of the 
 import and export trade of the port (including that of 
 Altona, the merchants of which conduct their business 
 on the Hamburg exchange), may be estimated at above 
 £50,000,000 sterling a-year, or upward; and, as the 
 largest portion of this immense trade is in the hands 
 of the English, it will be necessary that we should be 
 a little fuller than ordinary in our details in regard 
 to this great emporium. 
 
 Hamburg was visited by a most destructive fire in 
 May, 1842. But, notwithstanding the heavy losses 
 that were in consequence incurred, and the paralysis 
 it occasioned in trade and industry, the shook was less 
 severe than might have been anticipated. The system 
 
HAM 
 
 923 
 
 HAM 
 
 of mutual insurance having been generally adopted, 
 the proprietors of houses, and other property were 
 subjected to a tax, to defray the interest of a loan of 
 32,000,000 marcs-banco raised to indemnify the suffer- 
 ers, and to enable them to rebuild their houses. And 
 ■we are glad to have to state that all traces of the de- 
 vastation have nearly disappeared ; and that here, as 
 in most other places exposed to a similar calamity, it 
 has led to a great itnprovement of the town, which is 
 now better built, and more commodiously laid out than 
 formerly. 
 
 Hamburg owes its commercial distinction princi- 
 pally to its situation. Indeed, the resources of Ham- 
 burg, as well as the other Hanse-towns, so far as they 
 are dependent on their territorial limits, are of but 
 little consequence. Their trade is, as it were, passive, 
 depending entirely for its maintenance and activity 
 upon the commercial movements of other countries. 
 The city of Hamburg has but a very limited territory 
 surrounding it, comprising the adjoining district, the 
 towns of Bergdorf and Ritzebuttle, the districts of 
 Vierlanden (the sovereignty of which is shared' by 
 Lubec), Cuxhaven, some islands in the Elbe, and some 
 detached portions of the territory enclosed by the 
 Danish and Hanoverian dominions. These, together, 
 constitute the republic of Hamburg. The area is 
 about 137 square miles, and tlie , population 188,054 
 souls ! of whom 115,866 live in the city ; 16,731 in St. 
 George ; 16,157 in tlie faubourg of St. Paul ; and 39,- 
 300 in the countrj' around.— Com. Rel. V. S. 
 
 The Eiver Elbe is the chief commercial artery which 
 gives life and energy to the trade of Germany. It 
 rises in Bohemia, near the Carpathian Mountains, and, 
 ilowing through that country, receives the Moldau and 
 its tributaries, and the Eger. Leaving Bohemia, this 
 noble river flows by Dresden and Magdeburg, receiving 
 in its course the Mulde, Elster, and Haval ; , all of 
 ■which .rivers, branching off into different streams, 
 unite their waters with the Elbe immediately below 
 Hamburg. The depth of ■water .admits the largest 
 ships ; and, about 75 miles below Hamburg, the Elbe 
 merges into the waters of the ocean. In respect to 
 the navigation of the Elbe, the Stade duties levied by 
 Hanover, at the castle of Brunshausen, were justly 
 complained of, not only as arbitrary, but onerous and 
 oppressive upon the commerce of the world. The 
 principle, says McCuUoch, was^distinctly laid down 
 by the Congress of Vienna in 1815, that the naviga- 
 tion of the Rhine, the Elbe, and the Weser, etc., 
 should be quite free along their whole course. But, 
 no general tariff of duties being then established, this 
 declaration has, until lately, had no practical effect. 
 On passing Stade every captain or master ■was obliged 
 to send his papers, including the manifest, bills of la- 
 ding, and coclcets, on shore, that the amount of the 
 duties could be calculated, and certified. These duties 
 were paid at Hamburg, where the Hanoverian govern- 
 ment had an agent to receive them ; and, until the 
 receipt was produced, the vessel could not proceed to 
 unload. See Elbe Eiver. 
 
 Stade Dues. — An intelligent correspondent of the 
 State Department at Hamburg, who has given much 
 attention to the subject, has furnished the following 
 information concerning the Stade Dues : 
 
 " About twenty-five miles below Hamburg, at a 
 narrow place in the Elbe, the Schrominge, a small 
 river, empties itself, on the banks of whicli, baolt a 
 few miles from its mouth, is situated the town of Stade. 
 At this place a ' toll,' under the name of JBrinshausen, 
 or Stade Dues, is levied on all vessels coming from the 
 sea, except on those of Hamburg. 
 
 " These ' dues' owe their origin to a grant from 
 Conrad II,, Emperor of Germany, who in the year 
 A. D. 1038, granted permission to the Archbishopric of 
 Hamburg to establish afairormarhet at Stade ; and he 
 appropriated the duties which were to be.levied there- 
 on, to the benefit of the church at Hamburg, which 
 
 had been sacked and destroyed by the Pagans, as all 
 outsiders were caUed in those days,. Notliing beyond 
 a market toll, a duty to be levied on goods brought to 
 the market of Stade, was contemplated in this grant. 
 But the Archbishops, particularly after the transfer 
 of the see to Bremen, were not slow in converting, by 
 an arbitrary and unjust interpretatioft, the Stade mar- 
 ket privilege, with the trifling duty attached to it, into 
 a source of lucrative revenue for their treasury'', and in 
 place of a simple right of holding a market at Stade, 
 they feigned a privilege of compulsory market, viz., 
 that no vessel sailing upward from the sea had a right 
 to pass, but should lay to and pay a sort of transit, or 
 rather passage duty, for the purpose, as it were, -of buy- 
 ing off the right of sale pretended to have been granted 
 at Stade — a i-ight which could be easily enforced, from 
 the circumstance that vessels, as already mentioned, 
 were obliged to sail close by the Stade river, Schwinge. 
 On so groTindless a flction rests the origin of the Stade 
 dues. In the year a. d. 1189 the German Emperor, 
 the great Frederic Barbarosa, granted to Hamburg 
 the privilege which bears his name, besides other priv- 
 ileges and immunities in favor of the trade of Ham- 
 burg. ■ The emperor, by this privilege, granted to her 
 citizens, for their ships and merchandise, a free navi- 
 gation from the sea to the city, with an entire exemp- 
 tion from all dues. At the peace of Westphalia, the 
 territories of the Archbishop of Bremen were ceded to 
 the crown of Sweden ; . which government, in con- 
 sequence, claimed, the right to levy the dues, as a 
 custcnhary right. In A. d. 1691 a treaty between 
 Hamburg and Sweden was formed, wherein the rights 
 of the former were acknowledged in the broadest 
 sense ; and a tariff ■vf a^ iformed by Sweden for the rest 
 of the world, and fixed the rate at a.bout one sixteenth 
 per cent. Soon after this treaty was formed, Stade, 
 with the iDuohies of Bremen and Verdun, was occu- 
 cupied by the Dapes, and finally ceded by them in 
 A. D. 1715, to the electorate of Hanover ; which cession 
 was brought about by the cabinet of George I., of En- 
 gland, who, at that time, was Elector of Hanover, and 
 for which, the British government . paid Denmark 
 £150,000 sterling. These tolls or dues have ever since 
 been collected by Hanover, except for some four or 
 five years during the elder Bonaparte's wars, when 
 Hanover was in , possession of the French, none were 
 collected, but the lower Elbe was left as free as any 
 part of the North Sea. 
 
 " For a correct understanding of this question it is 
 proper to premise that the Lower Elbe, as it is called, 
 (that is, from Hamburg to the North Sea), is, strictly 
 speaking,, a part of tlie sea, an arm of the sea, and has 
 ever so been considered by all the European nations in 
 their official acts and intercourse. Even at the great 
 Congress of A. d. .1815, when the commerce of all the 
 German rivers was regulated, the Lower Elbe and 
 Stade dues were especially omitted for the reason as- 
 signed — ^that they were neutral waters, and the ' dues' 
 were sea tolls. Hence, in my opinion, it rests alone 
 upon the same foundation which the Danish Sound 
 dues do, or which the old Tripolitan tribute did, and 
 no other ; and if the former is, and the latter was, ille- 
 gal and unjust, so are the Stade dues. It should be 
 borne in mind that Denmark has the territory 
 on the right bank of the Elbe below Hamburg, and 
 Hanover on the left bank, except at Ouxhafen, where 
 Hamburg owns some territory. Neither Hanover nor 
 Denmark has ever contributed one dollar to the im- 
 provement of the navigation of the Lower Elbe ; but, 
 on the eontrarj-, have ever declined to do so, whUe 
 Hamburg has ever borne the whole burden of making 
 such improvements, and keeps them up at her own 
 expense. In this respect Denmark has decidedly 
 the. advantage over Hanover, for she has done some- 
 thing to add to the safety of the navigation of the 
 Sound." 
 
 A British trriter, of great commercial experience, 
 
HAM 
 
 924 
 
 HAM 
 
 says, in reference to this Elbe toll, " in equity, the du- 
 ties levied at Stade should be, hereafter, in amount, 
 only equal to the expenses of light-houses, buoys, and 
 pilotage for maintaining the safe navigation of the 
 Elbe, and should only be imposed for that purpose on 
 the tonnage of vessels, instead of, as at present, on 
 merchandise, and paid into the Hanoverian treasury." 
 This policy, we are glad to say, has been recognized ; 
 and the following notification appeared in May, 1855 : 
 " With the view of encouraging' the shipping interests 
 of Hamburg, Hanover has abolished the Stade dues on 
 the Elbe for all ships and goods entering Harburg sea. 
 ward." The manufacturing industrj' of Hamburg, 
 especially its sugar refineries, iron works, and various 
 works in metals and other materials, rope-walks, dis- 
 tilleries, and breweries, give employment to » large 
 portion of its population. Its great importance and 
 wealth, however, are owing to its advantageous posi- 
 tion as the chief emporium of the trade of Germany. 
 The principal articles exported from Hamburg to the 
 United States are silk, woolen, and cotton manufac- 
 tures, including piece goods and hosiery, and the 
 produce and manufactures of the German States gen^ 
 erally. The principal articles exported from the 
 United States to Hamburg are cotton, tobacco, rice, 
 coifee, staves and other articles of wood, naval stores, 
 whale and other fish oil, and whalebone. 
 
 I^AW Cotton ijiported into HAMBtrEG dtteing Ten Yeaks. 
 
 Yeivra. Bn1e». 
 
 1839 40,982 
 
 1340 73,9.31 
 
 1841 C2,118 
 
 1842 61,891 
 
 1843 T5,484 
 
 Years. Bales, 
 
 1844...... 64,997 
 
 1845 67,443 
 
 1846 61,601 
 
 184T. 71,487 
 
 1848: 47,846 
 
 Statement exutbiting the valtteb of Goods imported 
 INTO Hamburg during tue Tears 1853 and 1854. 
 
 U. States, iaclnding Br. N. Amer. 
 
 Australia 
 
 Afriea ,.': 
 
 8o,Tjth Amei'ica 
 
 West Indies 
 
 Northern part of Europe 
 
 Great Bi-itaic 
 
 Southern part of Europe 
 
 rrom and via Altona 
 
 By land routes and rivers 
 
 Total........ 
 
 ' Imports from the U. S. solely 
 
 1853. 
 
 I 
 
 1854. 
 
 Marcs-bnnco. 
 
 9,044,870 
 
 1,189,200 
 
 802,850 
 
 22,172,710 
 
 9,612,480 
 
 9,044,870 
 
 18,478,120 
 
 142,661,990 
 
 18,015,680 
 
 43,664,480 
 
 184,545,110 
 
 448,392,360 
 
 8,765,560 
 
 MarcB-baneo. 
 
 11,029,690 
 
 1,863,690, 
 
 6,654,0(50 
 
 ' 21,404,220 
 12,729,970 
 11,029,69,0. 
 17,278,110 
 
 149,160,760 
 18,606,130 
 52,426,270 
 
 246,018,980 
 
 ^1,696,420 
 
 10,449,960 
 
 Statement exhibiting the Values of Merohandisb ex- 
 ported BY Sea, by Kivees, and Land .Eoutbs, from 
 Hamburg, during tue Tears 1853 and 1854. 
 
 where to. 
 
 I 
 
 D. States, Including Br. N. Amer. 
 
 Australia, 
 
 Asia ,. 
 
 Africa 
 
 South America , 
 
 "West Indies 
 
 Northern part of Europe 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 Southern part of Europe 
 
 jProviBions for vessels 
 
 To and via Alt;ona 
 
 Land and river routes , . 
 
 Total '■' 
 
 Exports to the XJ. B, solely. . 
 
 Marcs-banco. 
 
 16,468,780 
 
 6,284,730 
 
 2,267,460 
 
 682,880 
 
 '25,011,940 
 
 r 7,29,6)800 
 
 ,19,163,410 
 
 62,080,480 
 
 8,874,160 
 
 706,000 
 
 46,894,700 
 
 228,607,800 
 
 421,678,490 
 
 10,0j>O,70Q 
 
 jMarca-banco. 
 
 18,982,970 
 
 5,624,710 
 
 8,121,790 
 
 729,590 
 
 27,545,470 
 
 7,679,340 
 
 26,812,680 
 
 82,823,910 
 
 ■ 7,071,790' 
 
 947,500 
 
 64,538,760 
 
 268,651,830 
 
 493,029,340 
 
 12,981,270 
 
 Exports. 
 Marcs-banco. 
 818,829,260 
 888,163,.370 
 872,495,450 , 
 421,673,490 
 498,029,840 
 607,221,fl00 
 
 siderable diminution is perceived in the iitiportation of 
 English twists (spun Cotton) at Hamburg. This is 
 attributable to the fact that the manufacturers of Prus- 
 sia and Saxony have,'of late 5'ears, ordered their sup- 
 plies direct from Great Britain. 
 
 Hamburg. — Importations and Expoetations in 1865, in 
 Marcs-banco.* 
 
 The following is the official statement of the im- 
 ports and exports of Hamburg (Germany), from 1850 
 to 1855 : 
 
 Imports. 
 VpnrB Mnrca-bftnco, 
 
 1850' 858,186,070 
 
 185l" 878,277,940 
 
 1862 892,028,820 
 
 1863 443,879,688 
 
 1864'" '.. 530,668,080 
 
 1866. ; ; 628,658,190 
 
 Hamburg receives' supplies' of raw cotton not only 
 from the United States, Brazil, and other countries of 
 South America, in the direct trade, but also from En- 
 glish ports, and other entrepote- of Europe. A con- 
 
 Copntries. 
 
 'Australia. . 
 
 China 
 
 iManilia, Philippinefl ; . : . 
 
 Singapore ■ 
 
 Java.. 
 
 British East Indies 
 
 Eastern Coast of Africa 
 
 Cape Town. . , 
 
 "Western Coast of Africa 
 
 Madeira, Teneriffe, and Azores 
 
 Western Coast of America 
 
 California 
 
 Buenos Ayresand Montevideo. 
 
 Brazil .' 
 
 Dutch Guiana. 
 
 Venezuela and New Granada. 
 
 Dutch West Indies.,,.., 
 
 English West Indies 
 
 St. Thdmaaana Porto Kico. . . 
 
 Haytl : 
 
 Cuba. ..,, 
 
 Honduras 
 
 Eastern Coast of Mexico 
 
 United States, ■.'.. 
 
 Greenland _ 
 
 British North America. 
 
 Sea Stores '. 
 
 Islande 
 
 Russia 
 
 Sweden and Norway 
 
 Prussia 
 
 Mecklenburg 
 
 Lubec 
 
 Denmark, Schleswig & Holstein 
 
 Heligoland and Cuxhaven 
 
 Bremen aUd the Wcser . . . 
 
 Oldenburg and East Friesland. 
 
 Holland 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Great Britain and Ireland. ..'.,. 
 
 France ; 
 
 Portugal. , ....'. 
 
 Spain 
 
 Gribraltar 
 
 Sardinia 
 
 Tuscany. . . j 
 
 Papal States 
 
 Naples and the Two Sicilies. . . 
 
 Trieste and Venice 
 
 Greece and Ionian Isles 
 
 Turkey and Levant 
 
 Altona 
 
 Eailroad, Schleswig & Holstein 
 Lubec (by wagons) 
 
 " Bteoknitz. 
 
 " Eailroad., 
 
 Eailroad, Berlin to Ilamburg. . 
 
 Elbe, superior. 
 
 " inferior 
 
 Luneburg. 
 
 Harburg 
 
 Post roads, etc 
 
 Total 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Grand total.. 
 
 Mfbrcs-baRco. 
 
 1,860,990 
 726,170 
 867,120 
 974,100 
 
 2,066,890 
 
 490,320 
 
 2,610 
 
 864,710 
 
 117,930 
 
 5,078,790 
 
 1,014,380 
 
 16,044,810 
 
 884,450 
 
 8,497,140 
 
 40,190 
 
 1,299,760 
 2,611,770 
 7,027,840 
 15,660 
 494,150 
 8,818,890 
 
 1,978,550 
 
 278,230 
 
 8,770 
 
 888,120 
 
 80,260 
 
 8,188,280 
 
 606,860 
 
 ' ,8,106,950 
 
 , 2,764,610 
 
 160,494,560 
 
 4,097,620 
 
 1,496,420 
 
 52,590 
 
 612,690 
 
 ,- 690,510 
 
 1,524,720 
 
 685,830 
 
 297,690 
 
 236,980 
 
 66,829,810 
 
 5,604,670 
 
 1,020 
 
 898,880 
 
 9,232,150 
 
 86,911,600 
 
 21,862,780 
 
 5,096,770 
 
 292,600 
 
 28,108,900 
 
 72,109,880 
 
 Exports. 
 
 MiiTcs- banco. 
 
 2,438,840 
 
 566,360 
 
 27,810 
 
 1,808,680 
 817,860 
 522,450 
 118,890 
 200,820 
 18-3,660 
 9,800 
 
 9,858,680 
 960,570 
 
 8,892,960 
 
 7,619,900 
 129,580 
 
 2,868,7'20 
 
 192,000 
 
 24,450 
 
 2,086,180 
 413,260 
 
 8,232,060 
 15,170 
 
 2,255,470 
 
 6,989,180 
 
 1,714460 
 
 1,009,400 
 
 81,920 
 
 11,299,870 
 
 3,681,910 
 
 24,930 
 
 1, 002,110 
 
 626,960 
 
 1,782,190 
 
 ■ 694,820 
 
 7.796,930 
 
 746,890 
 
 57,049,620 
 
 4,661,460 
 
 696,120 
 
 462,960 
 
 418,670 
 
 312,850 
 
 449,890 
 
 57,640 
 
 6,280 
 
 698,780 
 
 93,490 
 
 66,887,310 
 
 16,482,170 
 
 1,221,270 
 
 969,420 
 
 19,162,470 
 
 186,868,990 
 
 80,477,800 
 
 4.197,120 
 
 69.5,600 
 
 25,524,820 
 
 7.'!,299,080 
 
 528,658,190 1 507,221,600 
 
 1,085,779,790 
 
 * From the Almanac de Qotha, 1857. 
 Commerce in 1855. , 
 
 Continents. 
 
 Entered. 
 
 Cl.ar..d; 
 
 Vessels 
 
 Tonnage 
 lasts. 
 
 Crew. 
 
 Vessels 
 
 Tonnage 
 lasts. 
 
 Crow. 
 
 
 4,188 
 407 
 48 
 10 
 
 255,490 
 
 46,489 
 
 6,124 
 
 899 
 
 84,470 
 
 4,901 
 
 623 
 
 108 
 
 4,119 
 
 870 
 
 81 
 
 17 
 
 25 
 
 258,119 
 40,848 
 4,867 
 1,519 
 4,68) 
 
 .S4,648 
 
 4,406 
 
 469 
 
 186 
 
 409 
 
 America 
 
 Asia 
 
 Africa 
 
 Australia 
 
 Total 
 
 Loaded 
 
 In ballast 
 
 4,598 1809,002140,102 
 
 4,562 
 
 309,984 
 
 40,018 
 
 3,970 1 284,584' 86,718 
 623 1 24,4ial 8,889 
 
 2,680 
 1,982 
 
 189,068 
 120,926 
 
 26,876 
 18,187 
 
 Foriign Navigation of ■Hamburg.' — 1. the most im- 
 portant class of Hamburg packet-sliips are those whifth 
 sail, at stated periods,' for Adelaide, Melbourne, and 
 Sydney in Australia, Valparaiso in Chili, and San Fran- 
 Cisco in California. They consist of 23 large class ships. 
 
HAM 
 
 925 
 
 HAM 
 
 2. Fourteen large-sized ivessbls ply regularly be- 
 tween Hamburg, New York, New Orleans, Galveston, 
 and Indianola. 
 
 3. Five large three-masted ships, owned by a pri- 
 vate company, are engftgsd in the direct trade bcitween 
 Hamburg and New York. ■ 
 
 4. Two threeHUasted ships, also owned by a private 
 company, ply between Hamburg and the ports of North 
 and Sonth Amei$ca, as they find a market. 
 
 Table snowiNO tite JTitmber jt,7ra Tonnage of Vessels 
 
 BELONGING TO HaMBUEG IN THE YEARS SPECIFIED, ■ 
 
 yean. 
 
 1886.. 
 
 184S.. 
 
 1848.. 
 
 1868.. 
 
 VosBCla. 
 .. 146 
 .. 2(15 
 .. 249 
 .. 408 
 
 ' Tonnage. 
 
 88,978 
 
 50,937 
 
 68,691 
 
 127,695 
 
 Statement exhibiting the Navigation of HAmbitrg dur- 
 ing Seventeen Years, ending with 1852. ' 
 
 years. 
 
 VeaSola 
 entered. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 year..' 
 
 Ve.aola 
 entered. 
 
 Tpnm^ge. 
 
 1886 
 1887 
 1838 
 1339 
 1840 
 1841 
 1842 
 1843 
 1844 
 
 2,497 
 
 2,601 
 
 2,700 
 
 2,989 
 
 2,987 
 
 8,694 
 
 8,880 
 
 3,538 . 
 
 8,260 
 
 881,814 
 ,849,506 
 872,872 
 418,898 
 '448,868 
 495,738 
 620,764 
 688,949 
 484,299 
 
 1845 
 
 1846 
 
 1847 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 
 
 1860 
 
 1851 . 
 
 1852 
 
 8,990 
 8,779 
 4,178 
 3,804 
 8,459 
 4,094 
 4,169 
 4,4io; 
 
 684;424- 
 658,061 
 631#90, 
 .698,664 
 
 780,569 
 744,687 
 840,109 
 
 The following statement exhibits, in continuation, 
 the number and tbnnage of Americiin vessels arriving 
 at and departing from the port of Hamburg during the 
 six months endiilg with June 30, 1855. The letter 
 accompanj-ing the consular return contains the fol- 
 lowing passages : " The direct imports to ' this port 
 from the United States will show a great falling oflF 
 from last season ; most of our vessels brought cargoes 
 (chiefly sugar) from Cuba, destined, via Prussia, fot' 
 Eussia. The exports have also been much less than 
 last year. But few of oUr shl^s left for American 
 ports direct ; most of them left in ballast for English 
 port-s, to load coal or'iron ; several took, at low rates, 
 lon^ charters for Sonth Ainerioah ports. The number 
 of emigrants for the United States f^om this port will 
 hardly reach half as high as'last year. There being 
 no American shipping-houses at Hamburg, it will al- 
 ways be difficult for our flag, as the regular Hamburg 
 passenger lines must first "be filled, to participate 
 fairly in this trade. In the article of saltpetre, des- 
 tined for Eussia, our flag had the preference when 
 coming from our ports ; but, generilly, the Hamburg 
 flag and property being exempted from the Stade toll 
 dues, tliis can not be the ease." Numher of vessels, 
 barks, 13 ; tonnage, 6,143. Ships, 4 ; tonnage, 2,167. 
 Total number of vessels, 17, and total tonnage, 7,310. 
 Cargoes consisted principally of, — 
 
 Inward. — Arrack, seeds, cassia, dye-w66d, India- 
 rubber, rice, sugar, tamarinds, pot-ashes, household 
 goods, cotton, honey, ginger, whalebone, tobacco, 
 clocks, segars, preserves, tortoise-shells, gums, rosins, 
 hops, oil, machinery, raisins, shoes, coffee, turpentine, 
 furs, sarsaparilla, piano-fortes, and. general merchan- 
 dise. ■ ' ' 
 
 Outward. — Passengers, pig-lead, plates of spelter, 
 willow, succory flower, cinnabar, glne, gypsum, rags, 
 tow, worsted yarn, woolens, wormseed, hair cloth, 
 glass-ware, china, hardware, iron-ware, sheet-zinc, 
 musical instruments, bristles, slates, drugs, earthen- 
 ware, straw goods, and general merchandise. 
 
 Statement showing the Number of Emigrants, with 
 THE Number of Yessels conveying them, which left 
 the Poet op Hambueg fob the United States, from 
 1847 to' 1854, both inolusive. 
 
 Yeara. 
 
 No. of 
 vessoll. 
 
 No. of emi- 
 grantg. 
 
 years. 
 
 No. of 
 veaaela. 
 
 No. ofelni- 
 grants. 
 
 1847 
 1848 
 1849 
 1850 
 
 43 
 84 
 43 
 
 5,439 
 4,741 
 S,T7T 
 6,600 
 
 1851 
 1862 
 1863 
 1854 
 
 57 
 
 88 
 
 75 
 
 100 
 
 8,538 
 18,886 
 18,898 
 20,836 
 
 Belonging to the port, Deo. 81, 1865. 184 ' 
 
 !' ". 1854. 153 
 
 Tonnage 
 
 laata. Crow. 
 
 9,980 1,844 
 
 10,962 1,255 
 
 The tans' is that of December 29, 1861. Monies.— 
 1 m*rB-ba»(!0fT=16 8hilling8=$0'36 United States' cur- 
 rency. Duties on /mporis.-^These duties amount to 
 noti more than J or 1 per cent, ad: valorem ; and the 
 duties on ea^orts to not more than one eighth of 1 per 
 cent, ad valorem. The following] articles are exempt 
 both from import and export duties: apparel of trav- 
 elers, brought in by the respective parties^ or by a 
 special permit of the Director of Customs, bark nn- 
 ground, barley, bones, bronze metal, buckwheat, cop- 
 per for sheathing ships, brass, old, also in plates or 
 sheeta, coal,.8tofie, gold and silver bullion or coin, 
 open jiamples of goods, under 70 pounds' weight, ex- 
 ported and then r^lmported through the same gate, 
 linensi with or without cotton mixture, linen bagging, ; 
 lualt^ oats, oil cakes, potatoes, printed matter, musical 
 and scientific maps, rags, woolen or cotton, rape-seed,.- 
 lye, WQolj sheep's and lanib's raw, wheat, zinc, crude. 
 The following afticles are free of import duties only: 
 articles not exceeding 6 maircs-banco ($1 75) in value ; 
 those also subjected to excise duties not over 20 marcs- 
 banco in value ; timber, staves, fire-wood, and turf. 
 Those free 1 of export duties are, all articles under 20 
 marcs-banco ($7) in value, regardless of quantity ; all 
 manufactures of the city of Hamburg ; all proyisiona 
 for the immediate use of vessels lying in the harbor ; 
 articles not exceeding 100 pounds in weight, and not 
 of greater value than 100 marcs-banco. Transit J3u- 
 ^'«s.— All goods. re-expOrted within three months from 
 the date of arrival, are free of any transit duty, if yet 
 in the hands of original importers. — U. S. Coinmercial 
 
 Money is generally reckoned in Hamburg in marcs, 
 ■ilBs., each of -12 pfennings ; and is of two sorts, banco, 
 and. curr&nf. The former consists of the sums in- 
 scribed in the books of the bankj opposite to the. names 
 of those who have deposited specie or bullion in the 
 bank, or got it transferred to them at the rate of 27§ 
 marcs-banco to the Cologne marc of fine silver. The 
 value of the marc-banco, taking silver at Ss. an oz., 
 is, consequently, Is. 5Jd., which makes the par of ex- 
 change ISimarcs lOJs. banco per £1 sterling. Banco 
 is worth about 23^ per cent.' more than currency ; the 
 agio -varying from 120 to 125-|. Speaking generally, 
 the value of the current marc may be taken at Is. 2Jd. 
 or Is, 2d. stel^ng; The silver coins current in Hamburg 
 are, specie dollars (of which 9^- are equal to amarc- 
 Cologne) fine silver) ; Prussian current dollar (14 dol- 
 lars to the marc fine) ; new 2s. 3d pieces (18 to the 
 mare fine) ; Danish grob. current, and Hamburg cur- 
 rent (34 to the marc, fine). The gold coins comprise- 
 ducatST=9s. 4d. sterling, Louis and Frederic dollars. 
 The agios of these different coins, with banco, con- 
 stantly vary. Hamburg has for many years ceased > 
 to coin monies, with the exception of ducats and the 
 smaller coins. 
 
 Measures and Weights., — ^A new regulation of these 
 was effected by an act passed on the 16th January, 
 1843. There are in Hamburg three different sorts of 
 pound weights. 1. The bank or silver weight (for- 
 merly the Cologne weight). 2. The commercial 
 weight. 3. The apothecary weight. One pound 
 hank, or silver weight, is=2 marcs ; 1 marc (Cologne): 
 is 233-85489 grams, or 4865-57 Dutch As.=100 marcs 
 =62-65.64 English troy pounds. The old relation be- 
 tween the commercial weight and bank weight, by 
 which the commercial pound is equal to 33 5-32 oz. 
 bank weight, has been confirmed by the late act. 1 
 centner=112 com. pounds ; 1 pound=32 oz. ; 1 oz.== 
 ■4 drachms ; 1 drachm^=4 pfennings. By the United 
 States' Commercial Digest the centner is made equal to 
 119-604 avoirdupois. 100 commercial ponnds=lQ6-838 
 English pounds avoirdupois j 48-4609 kilogrammes ; 
 86-5355 pounds Vienna; 96.9219 pounds German cus- 
 
HAM 
 
 926 
 
 HAM 
 
 toms union. One/'schififpfund," in commerce=2J 
 centners, or 20 " lieapfand" of 14 pounds eacli, or 280 
 pounds; 1 pfund^l-067 pounds avoirdupois. One 
 " sohiffpfUnd" by land-carriage lias 20 " liespfund," 
 each of 16 pfund ; is, therefore, =320 pounds. A pipe 
 of oil is 820 pounds ; 1 barrel of butter (small willow 
 and hoops) is taken at 224 pounds ; but with common 
 hoops, at 280 pounds nett. 
 
 iLoTig Measure.— T:i.e Ha;mburg foot, divided into 
 12 inches of 8 parts each=0-28657 metres=127-056 
 Parisian lines=ll-289 English inches. Hence, 100 
 Hamburg feet=94^021 English feet ; 28-667 French 
 metres ; 91-307 Prussian or Rhenish feet ;' 90-664 Vi- 
 enna feet. The Hamburg ell (short ell)=2 Hamburg 
 feet. 05-7314 metres=254-072 Paris lines. 100 Ham- 
 burg ells=i62-681 English j'ards. The Brabant ell 
 (or long ell) most commonly used in Hamburg, in 
 measurement of piece-goods=27-585 English inches. 
 
 Liquid Measure.— 1 fuder=6 aums, IJ aum=4 an- 
 kers or 5 eimers ; 1 anker^S viertels ; 1 viertel^2 
 stubchens ; 1 stubchen=2 kannens ; 1 kannen^2 quar- 
 ters of Oessel ; 1 eimer=4 viertels ; 1 hogshead=lJ 
 aums, or 6 ankers, or 30 viertels, each of 8 quartiers or 
 bottles. The stilbchen contains 266 Hamburg cubic 
 inches=3-62 litres. 100 Hamburg vietrels=159-39 
 English imperial gallons ; 724-18 French litres ; 632-45 
 Prussian quarters ; 511-88 Vienna maass. The full 
 beer barrel contains 48 stubchens, or 192 quartiers ; 
 the small barrel only 32 stubchens, or 128 quartiers. 
 The vinegar barrel contains 30 stubchens, or 120 quar- 
 tiers. The whale and flsh-oil barrel contains 32 stiib- 
 chens, or 128 quartiers ; 2 whale-oil barrels=l quar- 
 teel. 
 
 Grain Measure. — One lass=60 fass ; 1 fass=2 himp- 
 ten ; 1 himpten=4 spint. The wispel of wheat, rye, 
 and peas is 20 fass ; but of oats and barley, 30 fass. 
 The scheffel of wheat, rj'e, and peas, is 2 fass ; of bar- 
 ley and oats, 3 fass. The fass contains 3,872 Hamburg 
 cubic inohes=52-734 litres, and 2658-45 Parisian cubic 
 inches ; and 100 Hamburg fass=18-135 imperial quar- 
 ters ; 52-734 hectolitres ; 95-947 Prussian scheffels ; 
 85.765 Austrian hetzeu. 10 Hamburg lasts=108-81 
 imperial quarters. The mode of measuring grain has 
 hitherto been by the metres throwing or pitching it 
 into the fass, and striking oif the surplus with a 
 wooden roller pressed lightly along the upper edge ; 
 but an alteration is expected on a new corn law, now 
 projected, coming into operation ; there will probably 
 be a new fass measure (of 4035 Hamburg cubic inches), 
 equal to the Prussian scheffel. In practice, 1 Ham- 
 burg last is taken at 11 imperial quarters, 31 hectolitres, 
 57 Prussian scheffels, 25 Danish barrels, and 16J Rus- 
 sian chetwerts. The coal baiTel contains (when the 
 1453 Hamburg cubic inches of head or heaped meas- 
 ure is added) 16,488 cubic inches. The Hamburg ship 
 last, or last of commerce, really weighs 6000 pounds, 
 or 3 tons (not 4000 pounds, as is generally stated). 
 
 Navigation of the Elbe, Pilotage, e^c— The mouth of 
 the Elbe is covered with sand-banks. The channel 
 leading to Cuxhaven is bounded on the north by the 
 Vogel Sands and North Grounds, and on the south by 
 the Schaarhorn Sands and Neuwerk Island. On the 
 latter there are two light-houses and two beacons, and 
 on the Schaarhorn is another beacon. The light-houses 
 on Neuwerk Island are about 700 j'ards apart ; the 
 most southerly, which is also the most elevated, being 
 in lat. 53° 54' 57" N., long. 8° 29' 40" E. It is 128 
 feet high, being twice the height of the other. The 
 channel is, in some places, hardly three quarters of a 
 mile wide. The outer red buoy in the middle of the 
 channel, at its mouth, bears from Heligoland south- 
 east by south, distant nearly 20 miles. But the best 
 mark in entering the Elbe is the floating light, or sig- 
 nal ship, moored two mUes north-west by north of the 
 red buoy, in 11 fathoms at low water. This vessel 
 never leaves her station, unless compelled by ice in the 
 winter season. By night she exhibits a lantern-light, 
 
 38 feet above deck, and in foggy weather rings a bell 
 every quarter of an hour. A second signal ship is 
 stationed 5J miles south-east by east from the first, at 
 the westernmost point of a sand-bank dividing the fair 
 way of the river. She is rigged like a galliot, to dis- 
 tinguish her by day from the first signal ship ; and 
 during the night she exhibits two lights, one 18 feet 
 above the other. The distance from the outer red 
 buoy to CuxhaveU'is about 16 miles ; thence to Gluck- 
 stadt the course is east, 28 miles ; from the latter to 
 Stade the course is south-easterly, 9 miles ; and then 
 easterly to Hamburg, 18 miles. The channel through- 
 out is marked with black aijd white buoys, which are 
 numbered and specified in the charts. The black .ones 
 are to be left, in passing up the river, on the starboard 
 or right-hand si^e,, and the white on the larboard side. 
 
 Every vessel coming from sea into the Elbe, anci 
 drawing four, feet water, is directed to take a pilot 
 on board, and must pay pilotage, though she do not 
 take one. However well the signals, lights, beacons, 
 and buoys, may be arranged, an experienced pilot is 
 very necessary, in case of a fog in the night, or of a 
 storm. To take in a pilot, a vessel must heave to by 
 the pilot galliot^ which lies, in good weather, near the 
 red buoy, and in bad weather NjE.N. from Neuwerk, 
 and is known by having at the flagstaff an admiral's 
 flag, and a long streamer flying at the top. If the 
 pilot boat have no pilot on board, or if the weathe^ be 
 so bad that the pilot can not leave her, she lowers her 
 flag, and then the vessel coming in must sail, with the 
 signal for a pilot hoisted, to Cuxhaven, and heave to 
 there, where she is certain of (getting, one. See Elbe. 
 
 There are no docks or quays, at Hamburg ; and it is 
 singular, considering the great trade of the port, that 
 none have been constructed. Vessels moor in the 
 river outside of piles driven into the ground a short 
 distance from shore ; and in this situation they are 
 not exposed to any danger unless the piles give way, 
 which rarely happens. There is a sort of inner harbor 
 formed by an arm of the Elbe which runs into the 
 city, where small craft lie and, discharge their cargoes. 
 Larger vessels load and unload from their moorings, 
 by means of lighters. These carry the goods from 
 and to the warehouses which front the various small 
 arms and channels of the river, and the canals car- 
 ried from it into different parts of the city. The 
 charges on account of lighterage are extremely mod- 
 erate. 
 
 Port Charges. — The charges of a public nature pay- 
 able by vessels entering the port of Hamburg, unload- 
 ing and loading, are pilotage and lastage. The sep- 
 arate items of which are given in the following tables : 
 
 Pilotage Earried.' — The pilotage fees are earned if 
 vessels are brought as far aa Freyburgh or Gliickstadt, 
 and when from , stress of wind or weather, which sel- 
 dom happens, the Hamburg pilots take the vessel to 
 Wittenberg or Neumiihlen, they are to pay, without 
 distinction, 
 
 Mares currency. <1. Btjr. 
 
 To Wittenberg 1 14 
 
 Neumuhleo 1 8 21 
 
 Pilotage all the way. — For pilotage the whole way 
 from Cuxhaven to Hamburg there is no table of rates, 
 for, generally speaking, the Hamburg pilots do not 
 take vessels up beyond Boesche. 
 
 Pilotage and Lastage. — The Hamburg pilots, gen- 
 erally speaking, take charge of vessels only from the 
 Red Buoy to Freyburgh or Gliickstadt. 
 
 naJf Pilotage only. — In case the Hamburg pilots enter 
 a vessel only within the first buoy beyond the Ross- 
 hacken, Strangfly, or Cuxhaven, half the above-men- 
 tioned pilotage is paid. Also half pilotage must be 
 paid at all events, whether the vessel has taken a pilot 
 from the pilot galliot or not. 
 
 From Boesche to Hamburg. — Vessels are generally 
 piloted from Boesch to Hamburg by Danish or Hano- 
 verian pilots, to whom it is customary to pay three 
 marcs. 
 
H'AM 
 
 927 
 
 HAN 
 
 Laitai/e and Custom-house Charges. — British' and 
 other forefgn Vessels' pay the same as Hamburg ves- 
 sels. For clearing in and clearing out, no separate 
 charges are made ; visiting the port is considered as 
 ani voyage, and the charges oh vessels' are paid as fot 
 lows '. For vessels arrived with cargoes from the un- 
 dermentioned places, vizi': ' 
 
 ' piaeeB, 
 
 The East Indies,. .. ..,. ..,,...., — — 
 West Indies, North and South America. . 
 Portu^l, Spain,' and the Mediterranean. 
 
 The frest'Of the'^Earopcan ports . .* j 
 
 Holland, East Fiiesland, tbe Weser, Ef - 
 
 dej; and Jutland. 
 
 Fbr vessels under' 20 commerofal lasts 
 
 without distinction ; . . . .^ 
 
 YoBsels arriving and departing in. l^tallaAt, 
 
 of upward of 20 eommevcianastg... 
 
 Lafitao^ 6,000 IbB^ 
 
 2 '8 
 2 '0 
 
 '6 li- 
 
 ft 4, 
 
 ±1: 
 
 ■A •„•:*•. 
 
 8 6, 
 
 8 ' 5' = 
 
 2 4 
 
 19 
 
 lOi 
 
 Si 
 
 g T 
 
 It is difficult to determine the exact ratio of a last 
 to a ton ; hut it inay be talEen at about 3 or 2J to 1. 
 Bat in Hamburg all vessels are measured by the har- 
 bor master ; and it is upon his report, that the lastage 
 if calculated'. " f . , i ■ > ' i - ' 
 
 For all vessels laden with coals, wood, or- turf, no 
 lastage is paid, provided they do not tak& return car- 
 goes. Vfessels arriving in ballast and dfeparting with 
 a cargo pay half the above lastage, accordingto their 
 destination. Exclusive of the above dues, which are 
 all remarkably moderate, vessels coming to the port of 
 Hamburg are obliged to pay certain dues to Hanover, 
 called Stade or Brunshausen dues. Sfee post. 
 
 Custom-house Seffulations. — On' a vessel's arrival at 
 Hamburg the broker reports her to the custom-house, 
 and gives his guaranty fbr payment of the duties, and 
 delivers her papers ; and, upon a receipt being pro- 
 duced for the Stade duties by the Hanoverian author- 
 ities at Hamburg,' the vessel is allowed tc unload. On 
 clearing, a manifest of the outward cargo, together 
 with the consul's certificate of the regularity of the 
 ship's papers, must be produced at the custom-house 
 by the broker, who obtains in return a clearance certi- 
 ficate, authorizing the vessel to go to sea. 
 
 Quarantine. — Ships are visited at Cnxhaven, a Ham- 
 burg possession at the mouth of the Elbe. Suspected 
 vessels are generally sent to a station on the Norwe- 
 gian coast ; but vessels which have undergone quaran- 
 tine in an English port, or come from beyond the 
 Cape of Good Hop* or Cape Horn, or direct from the 
 Kiver Plate, are permitted to come directly to Ham- 
 burg. 
 
 Credit, BroTcirage, etc. — Almost all goods are sold for 
 ready money, with an allowance of one per cent, for 
 discount. Sometimes, but not frequently, sales are 
 made at two or three months' credit ; and in such cases 
 a higher price is obtained than for cash. Sometimes, 
 sugar is sold to the sugar-baker at this credit. 
 
 Brokers are positively forbidden to act as merchants 
 or factors. They are licensed by the Senate, and 
 must conform to the established regulations. 
 
 Banking, Insurance, etc. — For an account of the Bank 
 of Hamburg, see Banks. All sorts of insurances are 
 eifected at Hambxirg. A municipal regulation com- 
 pels the insurance of all houses within the city, the 
 rate varying according to the number of fires and the 
 amount of loss. Marine insurance is principally ef- 
 fected bj' joint stock companies, of which there are 
 several ; their competition has reduced the premiums 
 to the lowest level, and the business is not understood 
 to be profitable. 'The high duties on policies of insur- 
 ance in this country has led to the insuring of a good 
 many English ships at Hamburg. Life insurance is 
 not prosecuted in Germany to any considerable extent ; 
 but some of the English companies have agents here, 
 who are said not to be verj- scrupulous. 
 
 Bankruptcy. — Considering the vast number of mer- 
 chants and tradespeople at Hamburg, bankruptcy does 
 not seem to be of frequent occurrence. Much pf the 
 
 business transacted at Hamburg being on commissioii 
 and for account of houses abroad, the failure of foreign 
 merchants is a prevalent; source of bankruptcy. An- 
 other source of bankruptcy is losses on goods imported 
 or exported on speculation, and occasionally losses ,^it 
 the funaB,;in which a good deal of gamblipg. goes on 
 here. Expensive living ia not , nearly so prevalent a 
 source of bankruptcy here as in London and othei; 
 places-. See Com. Bel. U. S.j, Jivsi'a Mer. Mag,, 
 xxiii., 177, XV., 177 i.'Westm. .S«!;.,,x:sxviii., 497. 
 
 Hammock or Hamac, (Span, hamaca — a word 
 of Indian origin), a kind of haugiijg.bed, which is sus- 
 pended between trees or posts, or two hoojks. The 
 true Indian hammock is a long narrow net made of 
 strong cord, and terminated at each end by small 
 ropes for suspending it. The hammock used on board 
 ship consists of a piece of stout canvas, about six feet 
 long and three broad, gathered at the ends and sus- 
 pended by cords. The sailor's hammock ^is an oblong 
 piece of hempen cloth ; at each end are fastened sev- 
 eral small lines, meeting in a grummet or iron ring : 
 these form the clews. The whole, having mattresses, 
 piUowSf'etc, placed in it, is hoisted, up into its place by 
 small ropes .palled Ifmiards, between two battens or 
 screws in the beams of the deck over head, about nine 
 feet distant asunder. The hammock is a very agree- 
 able bed, especially, in cold weather ; but some little 
 pr&ctiice is requisite at first in. getting in and .out suc- 
 cessfully. During the day, thehsmmocks, lashed up 
 tight in the form of caterpillars, are stpwe^ in tlie 
 nettiUigs along the upper edge of the bulwark. 
 
 Heuupton Roads, Va., a branch of Chesapeake 
 Baj', off the mouth of James River, between Old Point 
 Comfort on the north and Willoughby Point, on the 
 south.! It is sufficiently deep for the largest ships. of 
 war, and is an important naval rendezvous. On Old 
 Point Comfort, there have been ceded to the United, 
 States 250 acres ; — a forti^cation called Fort Monroe 
 has been erected, which mounts 335 guns, generally 
 32, and 48-pounder8,il30 of which are, under ijpmb-proof 
 covers. On the opposite point, ,one mile distant,,is 
 Foit Calhoun., The foundation is made by throwing 
 in stones, and it covers about seven acres. This fort 
 is, designed' to mount, 265. guns,, 24's and 32's, and, 
 nearly all under cover. These completely command 
 the entrance to Hampton Roads. On the north side 
 of the entrance is Old.Point Comfort Light, lat. 37° .6', 
 long. 79'' 18' W., .showing a, fi^ed Uglit on a white 
 tower, and elevated 40 feet above the surface of the 
 sea. On the south side of the entrance the Willoughby 
 Spit light Vessel shows fixed lights, elevated, the one 
 32 and the other 41 feet above the sea-level ; and 
 here is a fog-bell also. The channel leading from the 
 Capes of Virginia to Hampton Roads is reduced at Old 
 Point Comfort to a nan'ow width. The shoal water, 
 under the action of the sea and the reaction of the bar, 
 is kept in an unremitting ripple ; which circumstance 
 has given to this place the name of the Rip Raps. 
 
 Handkerchiefs. Handkerchiefs, wrought and 
 edged with gold, used to be worn in England by gen- 
 tlemen in their hats, as favors from young ladies, the 
 value of them being from iive to 12 pence for eacli, in 
 the reign of Elizabeth, 1558. — Stow's Chron. Hand- 
 kerchies were of early manufacture, and are mentioned 
 in our oldest works. Handkerciefs of the celebrated 
 Paisley manufacture were first made in that town in 
 1743. 
 
 Handspike is a stong wooden bar, used as a lever 
 to move the windlass and capstan in heaving up the 
 anchor, or raising any heavy weights on board a ship. 
 The handle is smooth, round, and somewhat taper; 
 the other end is square, to fit the holes in the head of 
 the capstan, or barrel of the windlass. 
 
 Hang-Chau-Fou, an important city of China, 
 capital of the province of Che-kiang, on a plain near 
 the River Tsientang, about 40 miles from its mouth, 
 and 140 miles south-east of Nanking. It is surrounded 
 
BAN 
 
 928 
 
 HAN 
 
 6y high and strong walls, said to be nine miles in cir- 
 cumference ; and adjoining it are very extensive sulj- 
 nrbs. The Governor-General of Che-kiang and Fa- 
 kien resides in this city, and also the governor of the 
 province, which, with their courts and troops, in ad- 
 dition to its great trade, render this one of the most 
 important and richest cities in the empire. A portion 
 of the space within the walls is divided off for the ac- 
 commodation of a garrison of 7000 troops. The Grand 
 Canal has its southern termination here, in a large 
 irregular basin. The streets are well paved, and the 
 shops and warehouses are large, and well stored with 
 goods. There are numerous rich temples and elegant 
 public buildings ; and altogether, this city presents the 
 appearance of great wealth and splendor. It is noted 
 for its silk manufactures, which employ a large portion 
 of its inhabitants. The population is said to be about 
 3,000,000. 
 
 Hanover, a kingdom in Germany, formed out of 
 the duchies which formerly belonged to several fami- 
 lies of the junior branch of the house of Brunswick. 
 In the course of the revolutionarj' war, under the in- 
 fluence of France, the dukedoms of Bavaria, of Saxony, 
 and of Wirtemburg had been raised to the rank of 
 kingdoms ; and when the overthrow of Bonaparte was 
 accomplished, the dukedoms which had composed the 
 electorate of Hanover Were thought by the allied 
 powers of sufficient consequence to be elevated to the 
 same dignity, as, with the additions then made to 
 them, they were nearly equal in extent and popula- 
 tion to the other portions of Germany whose rulers 
 had received that rank. It accordingly assumed that 
 grade in 1814, under George III., and was acknowl- 
 edged as such by all the powers of Europe. 
 
 The kingdom of Hanover lies between lat. 51° 18' 
 and 53° 52' N., and long. 6° 43' and 11° 45' E. ; and 
 is bounded on the north by the German Ocean, north- 
 east by the Elbe, which separates it from Denmark, 
 Hamburg, and Mecklenburg, east and south-east by 
 Prussia and Brunswick, south-west by Hesse-Cassel and 
 Prussia, and west by Holland. The boundaries in- 
 clude the duchy of Oldenburg, which almost completely 
 separates Hanover into two large portions, the connec- 
 tion being maintained by a narrow strip of land, not more 
 than six miles in width, south of the duchy. A small 
 portion in the south is separated from Hanover proper 
 by the interjection of part of Burnswick. The entire 
 area amounts to about 9,464,446 acres, or 14,788 square 
 miles, as follows : 
 
 ProvincGB. 
 
 Extent in 
 EnglUh acres. 
 
 Populntton In 
 Dec. 1852. 
 
 Number of 
 dwoUing-touaeB 
 
 
 1,488,693 
 
 1,102,089 
 
 2,769,662 
 
 1,674,868 
 
 . 1,540,649 
 
 737,968 
 
 156,112 
 
 849,958 
 867,«S8 
 888,764 
 279,834 
 261,965 
 186,129 
 85,720 
 
 48,446 
 52,042 
 43,885 
 44,0-31 
 41,027 
 80,024 
 3,892 
 
 Hildesheim 
 
 Stade 
 
 Osimbruck 
 
 
 Total '. 
 
 9,464,446 
 
 2,819,258 
 
 262,796 
 
 The whole of the kingdom of Hanover dips toward 
 the north, and the courses of all the rivers are in that 
 direction. These are, first, the Elbe, which borders a 
 large part of the dominion, and receives into it the 
 Ohre, which rises in the province of Luneburg ; the 
 Aland and Jeetze, which come out of Prussia, and are 
 navigable before they terminate in the Elbe ; the II- 
 meneau, which becomes navigable at Luneburg ; the 
 Este, which is navigable to Buxtehude ; the Luhe, 
 navigable to Hornburg ; the Schwinge, by which ves- 
 sels reach Stade ; the Oste, which passes Harburg, 
 and is navigable to Kirchosters ; and -the Medem, 
 which runs through the Hadeln-land, and admits large 
 vessels as high as Otterndorf; second, the Wcser, 
 which enters the dominion of Hanover at Milnden, be- 
 ing there formed by the junction of the Fulda and the 
 Werra. It is navigable for barges from the spot at 
 which its name commences; and it receives in its 
 course the Hamel, the Aller, the Oertze, the Leine, 
 
 the Bohmej the Eyther, the Wiimme, which, in the 
 lower ^art of its course, takes the name of Lesum, 
 the Geeste, and the Hunte ; all of which are Hanover- 
 ian rivers, and continue their united course till, they 
 are lost in the German Ocean, near Bremen ; third, the 
 Ems, a river rising in the Prussian province of West- 
 phalia. After entering Hanover, it receives the wa- 
 ters of the Aa, the Base, the Else, and the Leda. Be- 
 fore reaching the sea, it falls into the DoUart, near 
 Emden, which is the principal sea-port in the kingdom. 
 It is navigable for flat-bottomed vessels from Rheina 
 downward, and for sea-going ships from Halte and 
 "Weener. About 1,200,000 thalers ($87,000) have been 
 expended in improving the navigation, and it has be- 
 come in consequence a verj' important channel for the 
 inland trade of the country. Fourth, the Vecht, a 
 river of short course, rising in the Prussian province 
 of Westphalia, and terminating in the Zuyder Zee. 
 Its principal importance is derived from a navigable 
 canal, which commences at the city of Munster, and is 
 the channel of some trade through the Vecht to Am- 
 sterdam. 
 
 Though Hanover is generally a sandy soil, it has 
 some small fresh-water lakes. The Dummersee, in 
 Diepholtz, is about 12 miles in circuit. The Steinhu- 
 dermeer, in the province of Kalenburg, is about four 
 miles long and two broad; and the Dollart, at the 
 mouth of the Ems, which is rather an estuary than a 
 lake, is 12 miles across. The canals are all of short 
 course. The Aurich Canal, between Aurich and Em- 
 den, is 15 miles long ; the Bremen Canal, between the 
 Oste and the Schwinge, serves both for draining and 
 for transport ; the Papinburg Canal, between Papin- 
 burg and the Ems, is unimportant. 
 
 Manufacturing industry prevails less in Hanover 
 than in the other States of Germany. Linen yarn and 
 cloth are the principal branches. Woolen cloths are 
 made to a considerable extent in the southern part of the 
 kingdom; and this branch of trade has lately been 
 increasing. In the west stockings and gloves are 
 made. Cotton-spinning has also increased, but is 
 still insignificant, and the same may be said of silk. 
 Potteries, tile-works, and tobacco-pipe works are nu- 
 merous. There are nine glass-houses, and 52 paper- 
 mills, which produce yearly about 20,000 bales of 
 paper. Wax is bleached to a considerable amount, and 
 there are numerous tobacco factories, tanneries, brew- 
 eries, vinegar works, and brandy distilleries, the pro- 
 duce of which last has of late verj^ much increased. 
 East Friesland produces gin. The most thriving 
 branch of industry however is that of metal wares. The 
 whole population of the Hartz lives by the mining and 
 forging of metals, excavating coal, and manufacturing 
 wooden articles. Founderies and forges, and works 
 of iron, copper, brass, wire, silver, and lead, vitriol and 
 sulphur, are in the utmost activity. These mines and 
 associated works support about 35,000 persons. About 
 20,000 workmen were very recently employed in the 
 Hartz, and the yearly value of the produce was 5,000,000 
 thalers (£750,000 sterling). The latest returns give 
 the following quantity for one year, for Hanover and 
 Brunswick together : gold, 82 oz. ; silver, 375,833 oz. ; 
 iron, 377,812 cwt. ; copper, 540 ; vitriol, 5400 ; quick- 
 silver, 540 ; coal, 2,160,000 ; salt, 842,000. 
 
 As may be supposed from the small quantity of sur- 
 plus production, the trade of Hanover is not extensive. 
 The principal port, Emden, has some export and im- 
 port trade ; but from the state of the roads between 
 that place and the more populous parts of the kingdom, 
 more of its trade passes through Hamburg and Bre- 
 men than through that city. Besides the more con- 
 siderable articles made from flax, its honey, wax, 
 feathers, and large quantities of timber, are sent to 
 Hamburg and Bremen. Wool, horses, and cattle, 
 wheat and other grain, butter and cheese, tobacco and 
 mineral productions, are among the chief exports. 
 Hops, rape-seed, oil-cake, fruit, hams, and sausages, 
 
HAN 
 
 929 
 
 HAN 
 
 form also articles of export of small amount. The Im- 
 ports consist principal!}' of English manufactures, colo- 
 nial produce, fruits, wines, jewelry, and silks. As 
 the roads to the great fairs of Leipsic and Frankfort 
 pass through Hanover, the transit of goods for these 
 used to create a pretty large commission trade, and 
 give employment to many wagons, horses, and. men, 
 as well as to the barge owners. These, however, are 
 now in some degree superseded by railways, the city 
 ,of Hanover having become a central station, from 
 which these diverge in different directions to Hamburg, 
 Brunswick, Hildesheim, Bremen, and Mindan. Han- 
 over has, joined the ZoHverein or General Customs 
 Union from 1st January, 185i. 
 
 The commerce between the other States of the Ger- 
 man Customs Union and the United States is not of 
 much importajice. The linens of Hanover always 
 find, a ready market; and, were interposing import 
 duties in both countries modified qi altogether abol- 
 islied, the linens, raw wool, lead, rape-seed, hemp, and 
 flax of this kingdom would be much more extensively 
 exchanged for American rice, sugar, tobacco, and sim- 
 ilar produce. The direct exports from the United 
 States to Hanover in 1852 were, besides staves and 
 flour (in value $115), 186 hhds. of tobacco, valued at 
 S5,791. The value of exports from Hanover, via 
 Hamburg , and Bremen, in 1853, was $15,841, and the 
 exports from the United States direct to Hanover 
 were 143 hhds. tobacco, valued at $6,290. All other 
 American exports found their way to the markets of 
 Hanover through the ports of Bremen and Hamburg. 
 The value of exports from Hanover in 1855 was $44,- 
 277, of which there reached the United States via Bre- 
 men $43,409, and via Belgium $868. The tobacco 
 annually produped in the kingdom of Hanover is val- 
 ued at about $50,000, from which about 2,500,000 lbs. 
 of sm,oking tobacco is annually manufactured. Were 
 the . ZoHverein duty on tobacco abolished, as it has 
 been on raw cotton, the cultivation of the inferior 
 quality produced in Hanover would not only cease 
 altogether, but her tobacco manufactories (346 in 1843), 
 would be multiplied, and the manufacturing industry 
 of the kingdom more profitably developed. The prin- 
 cipal sea-ports of Hanover are Emben, Harburg, and 
 some minor ports or shipping places on the Weser, in 
 the district of Aurich, or that part of Hanover west 
 of Oldenburg. The Hanoverian trade from the Elbe 
 centres at Hamburg, that of the Weser at Bremen. 
 
 The commerce of the port of Harburg, on the Elbe, 
 has, within a few years, assumed considerable im- 
 portance. In 1849 the number of vessels arriving 
 at this port was only 49. The following exhibits 
 the results of three years, ending with 1854: See 
 Elbe River. 
 
 Yenrs. Veasela entered. Veseels cleared. 
 
 1852 691 5T4 
 
 1858 884 859 
 
 1854 1,082 1,02T 
 
 The preceding summary indicates the rapidly in- 
 creasing commerce of this port. The vessels chiefly 
 come from the countries of northern Europe, but some 
 even from the Mediterranean. Thus, in 1854, there 
 proceeded from the Mediterranean ports 580 vessels 
 under the Hanoverian flag, 152 under the British flag, 
 135 under the Danish, 81 under the Dutch, and 3 un- 
 der the French flag. Of these, 265 entered, and 679 
 cleared in ballast, or with partial freights. The re- 
 maining vessels were laden chiefly with wood, stone, 
 oil-cakes, and sundries. The marine service of Har- 
 burg consists of 1 three-master, 6 barks, 3 brigs, 2 
 brigantines, 1 schooner, and 6 smaller craft ; making 
 in all 19 sail, exclusive of one bark on the stocks. 
 
 The river (Elbe) arrivals, daring the same period, 
 wxsre: 
 
 Batteaux. 
 
 In 1849 2,918 
 
 1 852 4,0T9 
 
 1863 4,226 
 
 1854 6,898 
 
 Nnn 
 
 Notwithstanding this rapidly increasing prosperity 
 of the port of Harburg, and tbe commercial facilities 
 which it receives from the Hanoverian government, 
 Hamburg, on the opposite side of the river, is the 
 principal centre of Hanoverian i trade. Within the 
 past ten years the number of vessels belonging to Han- 
 over has tripled in this port. In each of the years 
 1852 and 1853,1iere arrived 1,100 vessels under the 
 Hanoverian flag, measuring, in the aggregate, a ton- 
 nage of about 15,000 commercial lasts, of 6,000 pounds 
 each, or an aggregate of 44,000 tons. In the naviga- 
 tion of Hamburg, Hanover holds the third rank as 
 respects tonnage — ^the tonnage of the port itself rank- 
 ing first, and that of England second. The freights 
 in 1853, in Hanoverian bottoms, exceeded those of the 
 preceding year 100 per cent., and many years the 
 freights are threefold greater than those given for the 
 years immediately preceding. 
 
 The Hanoverian flag participates proportionally in 
 the general foreign trade, and enjoys a considerable 
 share in the movements with trans-Atlantic countries. 
 In 1854 the number of Hanoverian vessels in the port 
 of Hamburg largely exceeded that of any former 
 year. It reached as high as 1,330 vessels, measuring 
 an aggregate of 20,336 lasts, or nearly 60,000 tons, 
 entered, and 1,317 vessels cleared. The smaller craft, 
 exclusively engaged in the river trade, are not com- 
 prised in these totals. The commercial movements 
 at the port of Emden in 1854 present the following 
 results : 
 
 Thalera <gold). 
 
 Imports 1,718,050 
 
 Exports, direct. 1,451,081 
 
 " indirect 596,388 
 
 Total 8,766,469 
 
 3,765,469 thalers equal to $2,965,306 
 
 The thaler (gold), or Bremen thaler, equals 78f cents. 
 The import trade employs 5,895 vessels, and 4,107 
 vehicles for the land trade. The imports consist 
 chiefly of cereals, butter, and cheese ; and the exports 
 are mostly of the same character. These latter em- 
 ploy, for the home trade of the port of Emden, 391 
 vessels. England, Holland, and Belgium are the 
 principal countries to which the exports from this port 
 are destined. The mercantile houses of Emden en- 
 gaged in the direct trade between that port and the 
 Russian ports of the White Sea, the Baltic and the 
 Black Seas, own about 3,000 tons of the marine service 
 employed in that commerce. The cultivation and 
 manufacture of flax, hemp, etc., yielded, in the export 
 trade of Hanover, in 1853, 8,500,000 francs, or nearly 
 $1,700,000. This sum exceeded the value of similar 
 exports in 1852, namely: of flax exported, 724,000 
 francs ; and of tissues, 1,070,000 francs. 
 
 The tissues of Hanover are in high repute in foreign 
 markets; and at the German Industrial Exposition, 
 held at Munich in 1854, they were favorably noticed. 
 As the cultivation and manufacture of flax and hemp 
 constitute the chief agricultural and industrial wealth 
 of the kingdom of Hanover, the annexed table, show- 
 ing the quantities of tissues manufactured, and their 
 values, from. 1840 to 1853 — a period of 14 years — is 
 compiled' from the official returns of that government ; 
 
 1840. 
 1841. 
 1842. 
 1843. 
 1844. 
 1846. 
 1846. 
 1847. 
 1848. 
 1849. 
 1850. 
 1861. 
 1852. 
 1868. 
 
 Tissues manufacturad. 
 
 Pieces, 
 214,593 
 217,764 
 217,244 
 198,881 
 198,173 
 208,785 
 192,261 
 228,608 
 196,436 
 238,609 
 249,448 
 241,768 
 219,246 
 207,094 
 
 Eila. 
 18,189,174 
 18,296,214 
 18,846,183 
 16,630,619 
 16,667,666 
 17,183,187 
 15,668,526 ■ 
 18,048,585 
 16,391,888 
 19,228,620 
 20,800,677 
 19,056,446 
 17,875,366 
 16,985,673 
 
 Values, 
 
 Thalers. 
 1,459,812 
 
 1,561,826 
 1,474,730 
 1,862,855 
 1,288,522 
 1,326,369 
 1,811,891 
 1,664,776 
 1,327,726 
 1,685,112 
 1,768,585 
 1,640,296 
 1,460,116:. 
 1,446.555 
 
HAN 
 
 930 
 
 HAN 
 
 The ell of 2 feet=22.gi English inches ; 12 pfennings 
 =1 groschen; 24 groschen=l thaler=73 cents. 
 
 The tissues and yams of Hanover are exported di- 
 rectly from Hanoverian ports for Friesland and the 
 countries below the Elbe, Sweden and Norway, Meck- 
 lenburg, Holland, and the States of the ZoUverein. 
 
 From Bremen, for New York, Baltimore, Havana, 
 St. Domingo, Porto Eico, Porto Cabello, Laguayra, 
 Venezuela, Mexico, and the Canary Isles. 
 
 Prom Hamburg, for the cities and countries above 
 designated, and also for Brazil, New Orleans, Cuba, 
 and the West Indies. 
 
 Ejfeciive merchant marine of Hanover in 1855. — Sail- 
 ing vessels : total, 701 ; aggregate tonnage, 64,741 
 tons. Coasting and river craft : total, 1,839 ; aggre- 
 gate tonnage, 33,121 tons. Steam vessels : total, 8 ; 
 aggregate tonnage, 551 tons. 
 
 Effective mercliant marine of Harhurg in 1855. — Sail- 
 ing vessels : total, 18 ; aggregate tonnage, 5,102 tons. 
 Steam vessels : total, 2 ; aggregate tonnage, 810 tons. 
 
 Adjacent to the town of Stade, on the Elbe, stands 
 the castle of Brunshausen, near which a vessel is sta- 
 tioned to receive toll on all vessels passing up the 
 river. American vessels passing up to Hamburg are 
 subjected to vexatious and onerous duties at this point, 
 seriously, and in violation of the treaty of June 10, 
 1846, with Hanover, affecting American commerce 
 with that port. Hamburg property and the Hamburg 
 flag are exempt from any duty at Brunshausen. 
 
 COMMEECK IN 1854. 
 
 ArrondisBenients. 
 
 VeSBela. 
 
 Capacity. 
 
 Coasting 
 veaaals. 
 
 Capacity. 
 
 Luneburg 
 
 Stade 
 
 12 
 98 
 
 e6T 
 
 1,072 
 4,772 
 26,257 
 
 124 
 928 
 
 818 
 
 540 
 10,442 
 6.821 
 
 West Friesland. 
 Total 
 
 677 
 
 82,101 
 
 1,865 
 
 16,808 
 
 The 3d section, article 1, of the treaty of 1846, is in 
 these words: "And further, it is agreed, that no 
 higher or other toll shall be levied or collected at 
 Brunshausen or Stade, on the Biver Elbe, upon the ton- 
 nage or cargoes of vessels of the United States, than is 
 levied or collected upon the tonnage and cargoes of ves- 
 sels of the kingdom of Hanover." Article 7 is in the 
 following words : ' ' The high contracting parties engage, 
 mutually, not to grant any particular favor to other 
 nationSj in respect of navigation and duties of cus- 
 toms, which shall not immediately become common to 
 the other party ; who shall enjoy the same freely, if 
 the concession were freely made, or on allowing a 
 compensation, as near as possible, if the concession 
 was conditional." It is proper, however, to add, that 
 it is claimed that the concession is conditional, viz : 
 services rendered to the Hanoverian custom-house in 
 the computation and collection of duties, etc., by the 
 officials of Hamburg. If the flag and property of 
 Hamburgians pass Stade exempt from any toll or du- 
 ty, the imposition of either on American vessels is 
 clearlj^ in violation of treaty stipulations. 
 
 The duchy of Oldenburg is nearly inclosed within 
 Hanover, having, however, a sea frontier of from 40 
 to 50 miles, and the Weser bounding it on the west. 
 The duchy lies in the basin of the North Sea, and is 
 entirely flat, and in many places marshy, though in 
 several parts it possesses excellent pasturage, on which 
 horses, cattle, and sheep are extensively raised. The 
 soil is not well adapted for agricultural purposes ; and, 
 hence, the agricultural productions are not sufficient 
 for the consumption of the inhabitants. Its commerce 
 with the United States is small. In 1852, Oldenburg 
 sent, via France and England, to the United States, 
 merchandise amounting to $478. This duchy entered 
 the ZoUverein League, January 1, 1854.— Com. Rel., 
 
 u.a. 
 
 Hanseatic League, an association of the prin- 
 cipal cities in the north of Germany, Prussia, etc,, for 
 the better caiTying on of commerce, and for their 
 mutual safety and defense. This confederacy, so cele- 
 
 brated in the early history of modem Europe, contrib- 
 uted in no ordinary degree to introduce the blessings 
 of civilization and good government into the north. 
 The extension and protection of commerce was, how- 
 ever, its main object ; and hence a short account of it 
 may not be deemed misplaced in a work of this de- 
 scription. 
 
 Oriffin and Progress of the Hanseatic League. — Ham- 
 burg, founded by Charlemagne in the ninth, and Lu- 
 bec, founded about the middle of the 12th century, 
 were the earliest members of the League. The dis- 
 tance between them not being very considerable, and 
 being alike interested in the repression of those disor- 
 ders to which most parts of Europe, and particularly 
 the coast of the Baltic, were a prey in the 12th, 13th, 
 and 14th centuries, they early formed an intimate po- 
 litical union, partly in the view of maintaining a'safe 
 intercourse by land with each other, and partly for the 
 protection of navigation from the attacks of the pirates, 
 with which every sea was at that time infested. There 
 is no very distinct evidence as to the period when this 
 alliance was consummated ; some ascribe its origin to 
 the year 1169, others to the year 1200, and others to 
 the year 1241. But the most probable opinion seems 
 to be, that it would grow up hy slow degrees, and be 
 perfected according as the advantage derivable from 
 it became more obvious. Such was the origin of the 
 Hanseatic League, so called from the old Teutonic 
 word hansa, signifying an association or confederacy. 
 
 The Hanse-Towns (so called from the old Teutonic 
 word hansa, signifying an association or confederacy), 
 or the free Hanseatic republics of Lubec, Bremen, and 
 Hamburg, are all that now remain of the once pow- 
 erful confederation which constituted the Hanseatic 
 League. Formed, it is supposed, about the year 1164, 
 partly for mutual protection and safe intercourse by 
 land, and partly for the protection of navigation from 
 the pirates who infested the Baltic and the coasts of 
 the North Sea, this League has become justly cele- 
 brated in the early histor}' of the civilization and gov- 
 ernments of modem Europe. The iirst 'and principal 
 members of this Confederacy were Hamburg, founded 
 by Charlemagne toward the close of the 8th, and Lu- 
 bec, founded about the middle of the 12th century. 
 " The wild, enthusiastic expeditions of the Crusaders, 
 in the 11th and subsequent centuries, the introduction 
 of the distillery into Europe in the 12th century, and 
 the conquest of the Teutonic Knights of the Cross in 
 Prussia and Livonia, were," says the author of "Lex 
 Mercatoria," "among the causes which originally 
 brought forward the navigation and trade of northern 
 and western Europe, and combined in forming this 
 celebrated association." 
 
 The disorders to which most parts of Europe, and 
 particularly the coast of the Baltic, were a prey, during 
 the 12th and following centuries, iirst invited the cities 
 of Lubec, Hamburg, and Bremen, to unite in this Con- 
 federacy. Soon, however, they were joined by most 
 of the trading towns of Europe. The cities which 
 were established along the coast of the Baltic, and in 
 the interior of the countries bordering upon it, eagerly 
 sought admission into a League which guarantied them 
 ample protection against the robber-princes and bar- 
 barians by whom they were surrounded. London, 
 Rouen, Bordeaux, St. Malo, Baj'onne, Marseilles, 
 Barcelona, Seville, Cadiz, Lisbon, Antwerp, Dort, 
 Amsterdam, Bruges, Eotterdam, Ostend, Dunkirk, 
 Leghorn, Messina, and Naples 5 Bergen in Norway, 
 Novgorod in Russia ; all the towns on the Elbe and 
 Weser ; Emden, Cologne, and other cities, succes- 
 sively united with this formidable association, until it 
 was able, in a war against one of the northern powers, 
 in the 14th century, to call into active service 40 ships 
 of war and 12,000 troops, exclusive of seamen. At 
 this period, several of the European powers, especially 
 the kings of France and of southern Europe, becoming 
 alarmed at the extraordinary and formidable progress 
 
HAN 
 
 931 
 
 HAN 
 
 of an aesociation, whose merchants, traders, and emis- 
 saries were found in every port, city, and Tillage 
 throughout Europe, and whose decrees were pro- 
 claimed as the supreme law in their respective domin- 
 ions, withdrew their towns and their merchants from a 
 League which threatened to annihilate their sover- 
 eignty and give laws to the world. 
 
 It has been urged, and with much force, that the 
 decline of the Hanse-towns was owing mainly to their 
 having become warlike, instead of remaining alto- 
 gether commercial. There can be no doubt that this 
 was, at least, one of the causes, and, perhaps, the pre- 
 dominating cause, of their decline. Everywhere they 
 claimed special concessions and special privileges. 
 They demanded and obtained the entire custodianship 
 of Sishopagate, one of the principal entrances to Lon- 
 don ; and when certain privileges were attempted to 
 be withdrawn from them, they boldly declared war 
 against England, and immediately drove her vessels 
 from the Baltic, until Edward IV. restored them all 
 their privileges, and even exempted them, in mari- 
 time cases, from the authority of the a!dmiralty court. 
 Referring to the treaty concluded with the llanseatic 
 League, at this period, McCuUoch remarks: "The 
 privileges of the merchants of the Hanse-towns were 
 renewed, and the King assigned to them, in absolute 
 property, a large space of ground with the buildings 
 upon it, in Thames-street, denominated the Steelyard, 
 whence the Hanse merchants have been commonly 
 denominated the Association of the Steelyard. It was 
 further agreed that the particular privileges awarded 
 to the Hanse merchants should be published, as often 
 as the latter judged proper, in all the sea-port towns 
 of England, and such Englishmen as infringed them 
 should be punished. In return for these concessions, 
 the English acquired the liberty of freely trading in 
 the Baltic, and especially in the port of Dantzie, and 
 in Prussia. This treatyj" he adds, " settled the diffi- 
 culties with the Hanse-towns on terms which were 
 any thing but honorable to the English." In 1641, 
 even when- the power of these cities had declined, and 
 their organization had become comparatively dismem- 
 bered, we again find them converting their merchant 
 vessels into ships of war, and disputing with Denmark 
 her pretensions to tax the commerce of the world at 
 the castle of Cronberg. Indeed, it may be remarked, 
 in passing, that the Hanseatic League never quietly 
 submitted to the pretensions of Denmark in the im- 
 position of the Sound tax upon the commerce of the 
 Baltic. 
 
 Prior to the treaty with Sweden in the 14th century, 
 the collection of this toll was successfully resisted by 
 the League. Being then in the meridian of its great- 
 ness, it obtained, on its own terms, a free passage for 
 its ships and cargoes through the Sound — a privilege 
 enjoyed until Denmark, perceiving that the Hanseatic 
 League held her authority in utter contempt, deemed 
 it judicious to invite other nations to engage in the 
 trade of the Baltic, permitting the vessels of England 
 and Holland to pass through the Sound on the pay- 
 ment of mere nominal tolls. This was intended "to 
 strengthen the arms of Denmark in any conflict in 
 which her abrogation of the privileges enjoyed by the 
 League might involve her. Lubec, in the name of the 
 other Hanse-towns, ineffectually protested against this 
 encroachment upon their long undisputed sovereignty 
 of the Baltic, and demanded the immediate exclusion 
 of the Dutch from that sea. Their power, however, 
 was now declining ; their demand was refused, and we 
 find them, in 15G0, submitting to ' a convention with 
 Denmark for the adjustment of the question of the 
 Sound dues, resulting in the treaty of the Odensee 
 between "the king of Denmark and his subjects on 
 the one part, and the right honorable Hanseatic cities 
 and the merchants thereof on the other part." So 
 rapid was their decline from this period, that when 
 Denmark, three years after the conclusion of this 
 
 treaty, made her war with Sweden a pretext for in- 
 creasing the Sound dues against the Hanse-towns, in 
 violation of the stipulations of that treaty, the latter, 
 being now shorn of their former power, were compelled 
 to submit. Toward the close of the 17th century, the 
 Hanseatic League may be considered as having ceased 
 to exist in a federal capacity. But, about that period, 
 individual cities which formed the League, especially 
 Hamburg, not only regained their former commercial 
 splendor, but, since that time, have gradually risen in 
 wealth and prosperity. 
 
 Notwithstanding, however, the warlike attitude in 
 which the Hanseatic League so frequently appeared, 
 whether in asserting new, or in maintaining old privi- 
 leges and concessions, other causes, no less fatal to 
 their supremacy, and more certain in result, combined 
 to bring about their dissolution. The progress of civ- 
 ilization in Europe- — the discoveries of the passage to 
 India by the Cape of Good Hope, and of .America — the 
 rise of Holland, and the consequent rapid commercial 
 progress of the Dutch — ^these causes combined, opened 
 new and hitherto unknown channels for navigation 
 and commerce, and created changes in the commercial 
 world for which ancient trading establishments were 
 neither adapted nor prepared. Thus we see that the 
 decline of this once powerful League was mainly 
 brought about by that very progress of improvement 
 which it had contributed so much to promote. Its disso- 
 lution was but the natural consequence of the improved 
 civilization, and of the development of the commercial 
 spirit which it had fostered and spread throughout the 
 different nations of Europe. The cities of Lubec, 
 , Hamburg, and Bremen, were all that continued to ac- 
 knowledge the authority of the League, and all that 
 now remain to represent its ancient splendor and 
 power. The freedom of these cities was guarantied 
 by the Congress of Vienna, in 1815 ; and since that 
 period navigation and trade have advanced and pros- 
 pered, especially the trade of Hamburg and Bremen, 
 without any interruption, until the disastrous fire of 
 1842, which destroyed so large a portion of the city 
 and property of Hamburg ; from which calamity, how- 
 ever, it has now almost entirely recovered. This con- 
 flagration commenced on the 5th of May, 1842, and 
 burned 61 streets and 120 passages and courts, and left 
 houseless 19,955 of the population. Since that period 
 a great portion has been rebuilt according to a regular 
 plan. 
 
 The Hanse-towns, especially Hamburg and Bremen, 
 have established in every part of the world, possess- 
 ing any commercial importance, numerous mercantile 
 houses, under the management of merchants of great 
 intelligence and energy. These establishments con- 
 tribute largely to the prosperity and augmentation of 
 the foreign commerce of the Hanse-towns. Of the 
 343 houses and compioirs which represent the com- 
 merce of Germanj' in foreign countries, 227, or two 
 thirds, belong to Hamburg and Bremen. In the 
 United States alone, in 1846, there are stated to have 
 been 76 commercial houses of this description, namely : 
 At New York, 35; Philadelphia, 7; Baltimore, 14; 
 New Orleans, 7 ; Louisville, 2 ; St. Louis, 5 ; Texas, 
 3 ; Cincinnati, 3. These were exclusive of 61 other 
 German houses in the United States. Since 1846 the 
 increase of commercial houses in the United States, 
 from the Hanse-towns, has been very great. 
 
 There are 37 Hanseatic commercial houses in Mex- 
 ico, of which there are in the city of Mexico, 11 ; Vera 
 Cruz, 11 ; Tampioo, 4 ; Mazatlan, 5 ; other places, 6. 
 In Guatemala, 1 ; Cuba, 14 ; Porto Eico, 3 ; Hayti, 6 ; 
 St. Thomas, 4 ; the other Antilles, 6 ; Venezuela, 23 ; 
 Peru, 5 ; Chili, 8 ; Brazil, 29 ; other German houses 
 in South America, 21. In the ports of the La Plata — 
 Hanse houses, 2 ; other German houses, 8. In Ecua- 
 dor — German houses, 2. In China and Chinese India — 
 Hanse houses, 7 ; other German houses, 7. In -African 
 ports — Hanse houses, 9 ; other German houses, 2. 
 
HAN 
 
 932 
 
 HAN 
 
 Statement ExmBiTma the Wumbee 
 
 THAT PASSED THE SOUND 
 
 OF HANSE TE88EL8 
 IN 1861. 
 
 Flags. 
 
 Wtenco nod whither. 
 
 No. of 
 vessels. 
 
 DoHespsld, 
 at the Sound. 
 
 Lubec ■ 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Bremen ■ 
 
 Foreign - 
 
 From the North Bea 
 " Baltic... 
 
 From the North Sea 
 " Baltic... 
 
 From the North Sea 
 " Baltic. . . . 
 
 From Lubec 
 
 68 
 
 60 • 
 88 
 
 48 
 19 
 15 
 16 
 81 
 86 
 17 
 89 
 100 
 
 Francs. 
 84,8T6 
 12,670 
 18,844 
 12,258 
 24,702 
 5,800 
 
 .... 1 
 
 From Hamburg 
 
 To Hamburg 
 
 From Bremen 
 
 To Bremen 
 
 From 1849 to 1851, 445 vessels, under the Hanse 
 flag, passed the Sotmd, and paid 196,170 francs for the 
 privilege of saluting the castle of Cronberg. The 
 number of Hanse vessels which passed the Sound in 
 the years 1852, 1853, and 1854, is stated as follows ; 
 
 1 
 
 1852. 
 
 1853. 
 
 1854. 
 
 
 05 
 
 7 
 109 
 
 83 
 
 8T 
 136 
 
 49 
 24 
 185 
 
 
 
 
 
 181 S.'iS 
 
 208 
 
 
 
 
 The aggregate amount of Sound dues paid by the 
 Hanse-towns from 1846 to 1851, both inculsive, was : 
 francs, 471,354 = $89,557 ; annual average, francs, 
 78,559 = $14,926. 
 
 In connection with this subject, it 'is proper to add, 
 that arrangements are now being actively brought 
 toward consummation, which will exercise a marked 
 influence on the foreign commercial movements through 
 the ports of the Hanse-towns. These have for their 
 object the opening of a route between the North Sea 
 and the Baltic : 1st. Across Schleswig, by the con- 
 struction of a railroad between Tonningen and Husum, 
 on the one side (the west of Schleswig), and on the 
 other, through Flenaburg (on the eastern side) ; and 
 2. Across southern Sweden, by steam navigation on 
 the Gotha Canal. 
 
 It need not be added that either route will supersede 
 the passage of the Sound and the impost which is 
 there levied — yielding to Denmark so large a portion 
 of her Sound-dues revenue — and must necessarily, to 
 a great extent at least, divert from the latter route the 
 transitage through the Planse-towns destined for the 
 Scandinavian countries and those bordering on the 
 BaWc. The steam navigation of the Gotha Canal has 
 been granted to an English company, denominated 
 " Navigation Company between Hull and St. Peters- 
 burg." This company commenced the construction of 
 four steamers in 1853, at the shipyards of Motala, two 
 of which were completed toward the end of that year, 
 and the other two in 1854. These steamers are even 
 now insufiicent for the heavy freights offered for 
 transit, and it is understood that others will soon be 
 added to the line. The railroad referred to has also 
 been granted to an English company, which has long 
 since commenced operations. Wlien completed, it 
 will place London within 80 hours' distance of Flens- 
 burg. 
 
 The commercial relations between the United States 
 and the Hanse-towns are regulated by the treaty of 
 December 20, 1827. This treaty stipulates entire re- 
 ciprocity of trade and perfect freedom of commerce 
 between the two high contracting parties, no matter 
 from what country or port the vessels and cargoes may 
 come. The sixth article stipulates that it shall be 
 whoUj- free for all merchants, commanders of ships, 
 and other citizens of both parties, to manage, them- 
 selves, their own business, in all the ports and places 
 subject to the jurisdiction of each other, as well with 
 respect to the consignment and sale of their goods and 
 merchandise by wholesale or retail, as with respect to 
 the loading, unloading, and sending off their ships ; 
 
 submitting themselves to the laws, decrees, and usages 
 there established, to which native citizens are sub- 
 jected; "they, in all cases, to be treated as citizens 
 of the republic in which they reside, or, at least, to be 
 placed on a footing with the citizens or subjects of the 
 most favored nations ;" and all favors granted by 
 either party to other nations, to become common to 
 the other party on equal conditions. 
 
 The policy of allowing to the Hanse-towns, by 
 treaty stipulation, the privileges of their flag to all 
 vessels owned instead of huilt within their dominions, 
 as in the treaty been the Hanse-towns and Great Brit- 
 ain, has been a question of considerable doubt among 
 eminent merchants of the United States. By virtue of 
 this stipulation, the Hanse-towns bring to the United 
 States the productions of the different States of Ger- 
 many, and carr)^ back, in return, the cotton, rice, and 
 tobacco, with which the store-houses of these towns, 
 especially Bremen, are always supplied. The effect of 
 this privilege has, undonbtedlj-, been to throw almost 
 the entire carrying trade, from the United States for 
 German markets, into the hands of Hanse ship-owners. 
 This is more particularly true with respect to the port of 
 Bremen, as appears from the following summarj' of the 
 navigation returns of that port. The vessels engaged 
 in the trade between the United States and Bremen 
 
 were : 
 
 1826—1880 Bremen 2-7 
 
 1881—1835 " 4-7 
 
 1836—1840 " 4-5 
 
 1841—1845 * Hanse-towns 5-7 
 
 1846—1850 " 4-6 
 
 1851—1855 " 6-7 
 
 United States... 
 
 5-7 
 8-7 
 1-5 
 2-7 
 1-5 
 1-7 
 
 The Cotton Trade. — Cotton and tobacco are the lead- 
 ing imports of the Hanse-towns from the United 
 States. The value of the former imported during the 
 12 months ending June 30, 1855, was nearly .^3,000,000 ; 
 of the latter, more than $2,500,000 ; while the value 
 of all other domestic produce imported into Bremen 
 and Hamburg from the United States was upward of 
 $9,000,000. The export of cotton from the United 
 States to the countries of northern Europe- commenced 
 some 60 years ago. In the year 1800, Holland, including 
 the territory now known as the kingdom of Belgium, 
 received 79,694 lbs. ; in 1865 the aggregate quantity 
 exported to the two countries was 17,160,967 lbs. In 
 1803 Norway and Denmark first imported American 
 cotton, amounting that year to 184,193 lbs. ; in 1855 
 the aggregate quantity exported to these two coun- 
 tries, including Sweden, was some 7,000,000 lbs. Prus- 
 sia and Sweden began importing cotton from the 
 United States in 1804. Russia, in 1809, received cot- 
 ton from the United States, for the first time, and to 
 the amount of 500,000 lbs ; while in 1853, the year 
 prior to the commencement of the late war, the ex- 
 portation to that country amounted to more than 
 21,000,000 lbs. The Hanse-towns received cotton 
 from the United States prior to the year 1800 ; and 
 the progress of the trade with those cities, which is 
 exhibited in the subjoined statement, strikingly ex- 
 emplifies, in connection with the remarks which have 
 preceded, and the general statement which follows it, 
 the rapid and powerful advancement of the king- 
 staple, not of the United States onlj', but of the com- 
 mercial world. The following statement shows the 
 quantities of cotton exported from the United States 
 to the Hanse-towns every 10 years, for a period of 51 
 years, from 1805, to 1856 : 
 
 lbs. 
 
 In 1805 122,003 
 
 1815 1,346,283 
 
 1825 577,109 
 
 In 1836 2,688,147 
 
 1845 17,204,094 
 
 1856 30,809,991 
 
 Tobacco is borne in direct voyage from the United 
 States ; not so, however, with cotton, in the cany- 
 
 * The Hanse-towns are given for this and the following 
 periods ; Bremen and Hamburg being united under the of- 
 ficial data, under that designation. Bremen, however, aver- 
 ages more than three fourths of the navigation between the 
 United States and the Hanse-towns. 
 
HAN 
 
 933 
 
 HAN 
 
 of our great staple from our own ports, in our own 
 vessels, to those of the countries by which it is con- 
 sumed. 
 
 compakative statement showing the quantities of cot- 
 ton exported to certain countries of nortnern 
 Europe prom tub United States and Great Britain, 
 
 RESPECTIVELY, FOR A PERIOD OF TeREB TeaRS, PROM 
 
 1852 TO 1854, BOTH inclusive. 
 
 ing trade of which Great Britain has been for many 
 years an active competitor. Entering the ports of 
 the United Kingdom free of duty, her merchant flag 
 can realize a profitable trade in its re-exportation to 
 the various porta of continental Europe. Thus the 
 Hanse-towns receive their supplies of raw cotton not 
 only from the United States, in the direct trade, but 
 also in the indirect trade, from English ports and 
 other entrepots of Europe. The annual average quan- 
 tity of cotton exported from the United States to the 
 Hanse-towns, including Prussia, during the four years 
 from 1851 to 1854, both inclusive, was 24,811,626 lbs. ; 
 while the annual average exported from Great Britain 
 during the four years ending December 31, 1854, was 
 36,563,996 lbs. 
 
 ' The annual average quantities of cotton exported 
 from the same countries, respectively, during the 
 same periods, to other nations of northern Europe, 
 exhibit similar results. These facts are illustrated by 
 the subjoined statement, and suggest a strong argu- 
 ment for the serious consideration, by the navigation 
 interests of the United States of such measures as 
 would be likely to promote the direct exportation 
 
 Tabular comparative Statement, showing the average Quantities op Cotton Produced, Consumed, and 
 Exported by the United States, with the Values of the Quantities so exported ; and the average 
 Quantities op Foreign Cotton imported into and exported from the United States ; together with the 
 CURRENT Prices op Cotton in the United States and Great Britain, respectively, during the first Three 
 Tears of each Decade, for a Period of Sixty-three Tears, from 1792 to 1854, both inclusive. 
 
 From the U. States to 
 
 185!!. . I 18(3. 
 
 1864. 
 
 Hanse-towns aud 
 Prassia 
 
 22,188,228 
 27,157,890 
 10,475,168 
 10,259,042 
 5,989,025 
 
 22,671,782 
 15,494,442 
 21,386,663 
 7,088,994 
 6,099,517 
 
 87,719,922 
 18,980,460 
 2,914,954 
 6,048,165 
 9,212,710 
 
 
 Bussia 
 
 Holland 
 
 Sweden &, Norway. . 
 Total 
 
 75,969,858 
 
 72,591,298 1 69,876,211 | 
 
 From Great Britala to 
 
 1855. 
 
 1853. 
 
 1854. 
 
 Hanse-towns and 
 
 23,146,256 
 1^,657,680 
 45,606,840 
 15,834,224 
 8,591,840 
 
 84,660,786 
 18,466,672 
 48,987,892 
 28,676,592 
 4,414.B68 
 
 59,499,888 
 14,040,768 
 208,544 
 26,984,644 
 5,866,660 
 
 Belgium 
 
 
 Holland 
 
 Sweden & Norway.. 
 Total 
 
 100,835,840 
 
 186,055,760 | 106.650.804 1 
 
 
 
 ' ■ ; 
 
 
 
 Exported. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Prices In 1 
 
 In Uie yeori Produced. 
 
 
 Quantities. 
 
 Values. 
 
 Imported. 
 
 Exported. 
 
 United 
 Stales, 
 
 Great 
 Britain. 
 
 FoundB. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Founds. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Founds. 
 
 Founds. 
 
 Cents. 
 
 Pence. 
 
 l8t period... 1792, 1798, 1794 
 
 6,800,000 
 
 5,500,000 
 
 743,000 
 
 283,000 
 
 1,900,000 
 
 1,600,000 
 
 31 1-3 
 
 19 1-6 
 
 2d period... 1802, 1808, 1804 
 
 60,000,000 
 
 10,500,000 
 
 86,600,000 
 
 6,900,000 
 
 8,200,000 
 
 2,800,000 
 
 19 1-8 
 
 16 6-6 
 
 8d period. . . 1812, 1818, 1814 
 
 78,300,000 
 
 80,000,000 
 
 22,600,000 
 
 2,700,000 
 
 800,000 
 
 200,000 
 
 12 1-2 
 
 20 1-2 
 
 4th period.. . 1822, 1828, 1824) 208,300,000 
 
 55,000,000 
 
 158,600,000 
 
 22,100,000 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 270,000 
 
 14-6 
 
 8 1-8 
 
 Bth period... 1882, 1883, 1884' 481,600,000 
 
 85,000,000 
 
 844,000,000 
 
 88,600,000 
 
 1,500,000 
 
 450,000 
 
 11-28 
 
 7 1-2 
 
 6th period... 1842, 1843, 1844' 907,100,000 
 
 148,600,000 
 
 680,200,000 
 
 50,700,000 
 
 8,000,000 
 
 7,600,000 
 
 7-46 
 
 6 
 
 7tli period... 1852, 1853, 1864 1,227,400,000 
 
 270,800,000 
 
 1,064,200,000 
 
 97,000,000 
 
 500,000 
 
 14,000 
 
 9-12 
 
 6 1-7 
 
 This statement, made up with care and labor, from I 
 sources official and unofficial, and often conflicting, 
 although not, perhaps, statistically exact, is yet, prob- 
 ably, enough so for those purposes of general compari- 
 son for which it is submitted. For obvious reasons, 
 the aggregate of the exportation and consumption of 
 cotton can not be expected to balance the production 
 in any single year, independently of stocks on hand 
 from preceding years. An average, year with year, 
 of some 70,000,000 lbs. consumed for household and 
 other uses, and of some 3,000,000 lbs. lost or de- 
 stroyed, and of some 500,000 lbs. of imported cotton 
 consumed, are, also, items to be considered in striking 
 this balance ; as well, moreover, as the fact that the 
 sums are in round numbers, and that the only figures 
 in the statement which can be viewed as at all statis- 
 tical, are those giving the amounts and values of ex- 
 portation; those for the consumption being derived 
 from the unofficial declarations of manufacturers, and 
 those for the production being estimated from all the 
 other items put together. The aggregates, however, 
 of consumption and exportation, for the whole period 
 of 63 years, balance the production and importation 
 within some 6,000,000 lbs. The data for quantities, 
 values, and prices derived from the Treasury Reports, 
 do not, it will be perceived, always afford results en- 
 tirely consistent. Prior to 1802, foreign cotton was 
 united with domestic in official accounts of exports. 
 The capacity of the bale is computed, agreeably to 
 usage, at 400 lbs., in changing bales into pounds, for 
 this statement, although an average of 450 lbs. to the 
 bale would, probably, be more exact. The unusually 
 large triennial average of cotton imported in 1842, 
 1843, and 1844, ia to be attributed to the fact, that, 
 during those years, Texas was an independent repub- 
 lic. Foreign cotton, from January, 1791, to 1812, paid 
 a duty of three cents per pound ; from July, 1812, to 
 April, 1816, six cents ; and from April, 1816, to July 
 30, 1846, tliree cents, when it was made free. The 7th 
 decade terminates in 1861, The statement may, there- 
 
 fore, be viewed as embracing a period of 70 j-ears, 
 from 1792 to 1861 inclusive. 
 
 Tarijf Regulations, — Sremen.^-The tariff is that of 
 December 23, 1850. 
 
 Moneys. — One rixdollar = 72 grotes = 78| cents ; 
 1 grote =1 1-10 cent. 
 
 Weights and Measures. One centner = 100 lbs. = 
 109.8 lbs. avoirdupois ; 1 lispund equals 14 lbs. United 
 States' weight ; 1 stone of wool equals 10 lbs. do. ; 1 
 stone of flax equals 20 lbs. do. ; 1 scheffel equals 2 
 bushels United States' measure ; 1 last equals 80 
 bushels do. ; 1 Bremen foot equals 11.38 inches do. 
 
 Import Duties.- — These duties consist of two thirds of 
 1 per cent, ad valorem on the valuation given in the in- 
 voices, including at the same time freight and insurance. 
 
 Export duties consist of one third of 1 per cent, ad 
 valorem, according to invoices. 
 
 Transit Duties. — All merchandise which has been 
 entered at the custom-house as transit goods, is sub- 
 ject to a duty of one groat (1 1-10 cent.) per centner 
 (or 109.8 lbs. avoirdupois), if re-exported within three 
 months from the date of the entrance. From this, 
 however, the following articles are excepted, and pay 
 only one half grote per centner : Alum, asphalt, empty 
 baiTels, coal, bomb-shells, boxes, cannons, cheese, 
 copper (crude), earth for coloring, gypsum, hair (cow), 
 herrings, iron in sheets, castings, bars, rods, and balls, 
 juniper berries, lime, linseed, manganese, marble (un- 
 manufactured), metallic earths, mortars, oak-bark 
 (ground or not), ochre, clay pipes, pitch, rags, railroad 
 materials, as rails, wheels, and axles, gutters (roof), 
 rosin, salts, scraps of paper, sea-grass, succory (or 
 chicory), tar, vitriol, waste paper, wrapping material, 
 common manufactures of wood, zinc (in blocks). 
 
 The following pay one quarter grote per centner : 
 Ashes Gey), birds, bones, bone-black, sugar-box 
 boards, dye-woods, fresh fruits, grass, hay, iron (old or 
 crude), lead ore, oil cakes, ores, potatoes, slates and 
 pencils, sulphuric earth, timber (hewn), wood, ebony, 
 mahogany, and timber for carpenters. 
 
HAN 
 
 934 
 
 HAN 
 
 COMMEBOE OF THE TJnITED STATES WITH THE HaNSB-TOWNS, FROM OOTOBEE 1, 1820, TO JtTLY 1, 1856. 
 
 Years eading 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Domestic. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Iinports. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Whereof there was in Bullion 
 and Specie. 
 
 Export. 
 
 Import. 
 
 Tonnage Cleared. 
 
 American. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 'Sept. 80, 1821 
 
 1822 
 
 1823 
 
 1824 
 
 1825 
 
 1826 
 
 1827 
 
 1828 
 
 1829 
 
 1880 
 
 Total. 
 
 Sept. 80, 1831. 
 1882. 
 
 $1,535,506 
 1,644,226 
 1,582,354 
 
 869,888 
 1,144,474 
 
 979,813 
 1,693,971 
 1,804,388 
 1,998,176 
 1,649,732 
 
 $697,038 
 860,789 
 1,687,085 
 1,008,890 
 1,976,569 
 1,137,334 
 1,319,214 
 1,190,918 
 1,278,984 
 726,148 
 
 $2,182,544 
 2,505,015 
 8,169,489 
 1,868,278 
 8,121,033 
 2,116,697 
 8,018,185 
 2,996,251 
 8,277,160 
 
 $990,165 
 1,578,767 
 1,981,026 
 2,527,830 
 2,789,526 
 2,816,646 
 1,688,668 
 2,644,892 
 2,274,875 
 1,873,278 
 
 $1,800 
 
 ss'oso 
 
 1834 
 
 1886 
 
 1886 
 
 1887 
 
 1833 
 
 1839 
 
 1840 
 
 Total. 
 
 $14,791,468 
 
 $1,812,241 
 2,436,642 
 2,108,110 
 2,603,671 
 2,771,890 
 8,152,418 
 2,662,867 
 2,626,802 
 2,067,608 
 8,367,968 
 
 $190,166 
 59,161 
 40,672 
 76,920 
 
 1,972 
 83,859 
 
 1,966 
 12 
 
 8,844 
 12,488 
 
 17,308 
 16,750 
 19,604 
 11,052 
 17,260 
 18,510 
 26,274 
 28,686 
 21,962 
 14,728 
 
 4,091 
 
 6,167 
 
 11,74T 
 
 9,978 
 
 6,488 
 
 4,937 
 
 5,707 
 
 11,663 
 
 10,894 
 
 10,262 
 
 $11,677,009 
 
 $779,981 
 
 1,662,670 
 
 796,186 
 
 2,056,108 
 
 756,886 
 
 1,211,464 
 
 1,192,592 
 
 665,848 
 
 738,469 
 
 830,496 
 
 $26,468,477 
 
 $2,592,172 
 4,088,212 
 2,903,296 
 4,659,674 
 3,528,276 
 4,863,882 
 3,754,949 
 3,291,645 
 2,801,067 
 4,198,469 
 
 $21,064,452 
 
 $3,498,301 
 2,866,096 
 2,227,726 
 8,355,866 
 3,841,948 
 
 6,642,221 
 2,847,358 
 4,849,160 
 2,521,493 
 
 $61,860 
 
 $43,616 
 12,538 
 12,108 
 
 $420,948 
 
 $5,628 
 6,280 
 2,200 
 
 17,067 
 1,806 
 1,207 
 
 12,785 
 
 10,211 
 6,125 
 
 180,038 
 
 17,147 
 
 18,462 
 
 9,296 
 
 16,719 
 
 7,208 
 6,967 
 8,866 
 4,892 
 17,849 
 
 Sept. 80. 1841. 
 
 1842. 
 9mo3. 1848. 
 June 80, 1844. 
 
 1845. 
 
 1846. 
 
 1847. 
 
 1848. 
 
 1849. 
 
 1860. 
 
 $25,507,002 
 
 $4,110,656 
 8,814,994 
 2,898,948 
 8,174,483 
 4,106,927 
 4,008,816 
 4,068,418 
 8,866,676 
 2,710,248 
 4,320,780 
 
 $10,674,680 
 
 $460,061 
 749,619 
 892,984 
 892,204 
 888,093 
 600,305 
 266,226 
 465,109 
 604,682 
 885,742 
 
 $86,181,632 
 
 $4,560,716 
 4,664,513 
 3,291,982 
 8,666,687 
 4,946,020 
 4,608,620 
 4,884,688 
 4,821,785 
 8,814,930 
 6,206,522 
 
 $36,638,964 
 
 $2,449,964 
 2,274,019 
 920,865 
 2,186,386 
 2,912,637 
 8,149,864 
 3,622,185 
 6,298,280 
 7,742,864 
 8,787,874 
 
 $68,458 
 
 $6,800 
 605 
 
 266,786 
 818,776 
 112,706 
 
 $62,151 
 
 4,062 
 285,267 
 85,204 
 
 "143 
 
 Total. 
 
 106,886 
 
 14,128 
 16,779 
 13,987 
 12,749 
 16,016 
 8,143 
 12,127 
 16,787 
 28,886 
 21,166 
 
 June 80, 1851. 
 1852. 
 1863, 
 1864. 
 1865. 
 1866. 
 
 }37,070,489 
 
 $5,405,966 
 6,195,927 
 7,409,315 
 
 10,641,696 
 9,15.5,169 
 
 13,188,986 
 
 $6,644,924 
 
 $641,491 
 681,030 
 610,788 
 
 1,444,662 
 975,081 
 
 1,050,886 
 
 $42,715,368 
 
 $6,047,447 
 6,876,957 
 8,020,068 
 12,086,258 
 10,180,260 
 14,289,871 
 
 $10,008,864 
 8,171,411 
 18,848,456 
 16,966,898 
 12,860,113 
 14,453,612 
 
 $699,172 
 
 $679,116 
 982,128 
 1,867,809 
 8,688,819 
 1,456,212 
 1,442,498 
 
 $872,126 
 
 $245,996 
 69,819 
 5,144 
 
 lo,iio 
 
 7,752 
 
 164,162 
 
 80,819 
 
 17,487 
 26,778 
 27,168 
 27,127 
 
 37^236 
 48,565 
 34,642 
 29,998 
 42,324 
 
 46,147 
 64,060 
 42,075 
 50,656 
 59,007 
 60,807 
 66,684 
 69,109 
 44,264 
 68,016 
 
 547,776 
 
 16,696 
 
 69,724 
 
 27,821 
 
 87,500 
 
 26,995 
 
 86,281 
 
 23,765 
 
 103,220 
 
 34,686 
 
 112,507 
 
 54,488 
 
 100,844 
 
 The following pay one sixth grote per centner: 
 Ashes (not ley), birch, brooms, blood, bottle cases, 
 bricks, cement, chalk, clay (brown or stone), earth 
 (common), earthenware (common), fayence (common), 
 glass (broken), glue, leather, offal of tanneries, gravel, 
 guano, marl, mill-stones, oyster-shells, potters' eAth, 
 shell-lime, stones (hewn or not), sugar-bakers' clay, 
 sugar scum, tiles, tomb-stones, trees for planting, turf, 
 fire-wood, hoops, shingles, materials for basket-makers, 
 and posts for fences. Goods not exported after three 
 months, by paying 25 per cent, of the transit duty, 
 may have a further prolongation of three months. 
 
 Hamburg. — The tariff is that of December 29th, 
 1851. 
 
 Moneys. — 1 marc-banco = 16 shillings = 35 cents. 
 
 Weights and Measures. — 1 centner = 119.504 lbs. ; 1 
 pfund = 1.067 lbs. avoirdupois. 
 
 Duties on Imports.^-These duties amount to not 
 more than -^ of 1 per cent, ad valorem ; and the duties 
 on exports to not more than I of 1 per cent, ad va- 
 lorem. 
 
 The following articles are exempt both from import 
 and export duties : apparel of travelers, brought in 
 by the respective parties, or by a special permit of the 
 director of customs ; bark, unground ; barley ; bones ; 
 bronze metal ; buckwheat ; copper for sheathing ships ; 
 brass, old, also in plate or sheets ; coal, stone ; gold 
 and silver bullion or coin ; open samples of goods 
 under 70 lbs. weight, exported and then re-imported 
 through the same gate ; linens, with or without cotton 
 mixture ; linen bagging ; malt ; oats ; oil cakes ; po- 
 tatoes ; printed matter ; musical and scientific maps ; 
 rags, woolen or cotton ; rape-seed ; rye ; wool, sheep's 
 and lamb's, raw ; wheat ; zinc, crude. 
 
 The following articles are free of import duties only : 
 articles not exceeding 5 marcs-banco ($1 75) in value ; 
 those also subjected to excise duties not over 20 marcs- 
 banco In value ; timber, staves, fire-wood and turf. 
 
 Those free of export duties are : all articles under 
 
 20 marcs-banco ($7) in value, regardless of quantity ; 
 all manufactures of the city of Hamburg ; all provis- 
 ions for the inlmediate use of vessels lying in harbor ; 
 articles not exceeding 100 lbs. in weight, and not of 
 greater value than 100 marcs-banco. 
 
 Transit duties. — All goods re-exported within three 
 months from the date of arrival, are free of any transit 
 duty, if yet in the hands of original importers. 
 
 Luhec—lhe tariff' is that of December 5th, 1851. 
 
 Moneys. — 1 marc = 16 schillings Lubec courant = 
 28-79 cents. 
 
 Weights and Measures. — 1 ship-pound = 2J cwt. of 
 112 lbs. English, each=280 lbs. 1 lispound=14 lbs. 
 
 Duties on Imports. — All goods, whether of foreign or 
 home production, pay one half of one per cent, ad 
 valorem, as given in the invoices, except the following 
 articles; which dre free of import duties : 
 
 Transit goods re-exported within three months after 
 entry ; effects of travelers ; household furniture used ; 
 wool brought for the Lubec fair, and delivered at the 
 wool warehouse ; goods on board vessels not consigned 
 to Lubec ; wares on board ships entering the port of 
 Travemunde in distress. 
 
 Goods where the value can not be ascertained from 
 the invoices, will be estimated at the Lubec market 
 prices. Articles of wood, as timber, boards, shingles, 
 planks, masts and spars, staves, and fire-wood, pay, 
 always, one half of one per cent, on the Lubec market 
 prices. Articles which pay an ad valorem duty, if 
 their value does not amount to 25 marcs ($7), are free ; 
 from 25 to 75 marcs ($7 to $21), the duty is levied on 
 50 marcs (|14) ; from 75 to 125 marcs '($21 to $36), 
 the duty is levied on 100 marcs (28), and so on. None 
 but citizens, or their agents, have the privilege of 
 clearing goods in the custom-house. American ves- 
 sels, however, are exempted from this tegulation. — U. 
 S., Com, Melations ; M^CrjiA^ocH^s CommercialBictioii' 
 ary; see, also, Foreign Commerce United States, and 
 Quarterly Heview, vol, vii., p. 130. 
 
HAR 
 
 935 
 
 HAR 
 
 Harbor, Haven, or Port, a piece of water com- 
 municating witli the flea, or with a navigable river or 
 lake, having depth sufficient to float ships of consider- 
 able burden, where there is convenient anchorage, and 
 where ships may lie, load, and unload, screened from 
 the winds, and without the reach of the tide. 
 
 Qualities of a good Harbor. — There is ever}' variety 
 in the form and quality of harbors. They are cither 
 natural or artificial ; but, however formed, a good har- 
 bor should have sufficient depth of water to admit the 
 largest ships at all times of the tide ; it should be easy 
 of access without having too wide an entrance ; the 
 bottom should be clean and good ; and ships should be 
 able to lie close alongside quays or piers, that the ex- 
 pense and inconvenience of loading and unloading by 
 means of lighters may be avoided. Ships lying in a 
 harbor that is land-locked, and surrounded by high 
 grounds or buildings, are, at once, without the reach 
 of storms, tides, and currents, and may, in most cases, 
 be easily protected from hostile attacks. Bar harbors 
 are those that have bars or banks at their entrances, 
 and do not, therefore^ admit of the ingress or egress of 
 large ships except at high water. These are most 
 commonly river harbors — ^the sand and mud brought 
 down by the stream, and driven back by the waves, 
 naturally forming a bar or bank at their mouths. 
 
 The designing of harbors constitutes confessedly 
 one of the most difficult branches of civil engineering. 
 In making such designs, the engineer, in order to 
 avail himself of the advantage which is to be derived 
 from past experience, must endeavor to the best of his 
 power to institute a comparison between the given 
 locality and some other, which he supposes to be in 
 pari casu. Perfect identity, however, in the physical 
 peculiarities of different stations, seldom, if ever, ex- 
 ists, and all that can be done is to select an existing 
 harbor, which appears to be as nearly as possible sim- 
 ilarly circumstanced to the proposed work. 
 
 In considering the subject of the construction of 
 harbors in exposed situations, the first and most im- 
 portant subject deserving our attention is the destruc- 
 tive action of the elemeilt with which we have to deal 
 — what are its energies when excited by storms, and 
 what the direction of its forces on the barriers which 
 have been raised to control it ? 
 
 Smeatbn, in his history of the Eddystone, when 
 speaking of the objection that might be raised against 
 the necessity for using joggles in the masonry of that 
 building, says, " When we have to do with, and to 
 endeavor to control those powers oj" nature that are sub- 
 ject to no calculation, I trust it will be deemed prudent 
 not to omit in such a case any thing that can without 
 difficulty be applied, and that would be likely to add 
 to the security." This statement of our greatest 
 marine engineer, indicates the propriety 
 of carefully collecting any facts that may 
 help us to a more accurate estimation of 
 those forces which he regarded as being 
 " subject to no calculation." We shall 
 therefore state a few facts which have beenBI 
 recorded of the destructive powers of thop, 
 waves in inland lakes, and in the open^- 
 ocean. 
 
 At Port Sonachan, in England, whereBI 
 the fetch is under 14 mUes, a stone, 
 weighing a quarter of a ton, was torn out 
 of the masonry of the landing-slip and 
 overturned. Mr. D. Stevenson, in his 
 Engineering of North America, describing 
 the harbors in Letke Erie, mentions having 
 seen one stone, weighing upward of half 
 a ton, which had been taken out of its 
 bed in the pier at Buffijlo, moved several 
 feet and overturned. The Comte de Mar- 
 siUi, in his Histoire Physique de la Mir, 
 published at Amsterdam in 1725, states 
 that the highest wave observed by him 
 
 on the shores of Languedoc in the Mediterranean Sea, 
 where the breadth is about 600 miles, was 14 feet 10 
 inches. At the mouth of a harbor on the German Ocean, 
 with a fetch of about 600 miles, the writer had observed 
 for him the height of the waves during south-easterly 
 gales, and on one occasion the result was 13J feet from 
 the crest of the wave to the trough of the sea. In deeper 
 water, and with a north-easterly gale, there is no 
 doubt that the waves of the German Ocean will attain 
 a height considerably greater than this. In Novem- 
 ber, 1817, the waves of the German Ocean overturned, 
 just after it had been finished, » colxmin of freestone 
 36 feet high and 17 feet base. The diameter at the 
 place of fracture was about 11 feet. In the Atlantic 
 Ocean, Dr. Scoresby stated, in a communication to the 
 British Association in 1850, that during several hard 
 gales he had measured many waves of about 30 feet, 
 but the highest was 43 feet from the hollow to the 
 crest. Waves of such magnitude could scarcely, how- 
 ever, reach our artificial harbors, from the shallow- 
 ness of the water near the shore. To these facts it 
 may be added, that of a block of 50 tons' weight being 
 moved by the sea at Barrahead, one of the Hebrides ; 
 and what is far more extraordinary, blocks of nine 
 tons' weight have been quarried, or broken out of 
 their beds in situ, on the top of the Bound Skerry of 
 Whalsey, in Zetland, which is elevated 85 feet above 
 the level of the sea. The Bound Skerry and neigh- 
 boring rocks, which are in the German Ocean, cer- 
 tainly furnish by far the most wonderful proof that 
 has yet been discovered, of the great force which is 
 developed by the billows of the ocean when suddenly 
 checked by opposing rocks. 
 
 It has been stated (in the Trans. Rog. Soc. Edimburg) 
 that, from observations which were made with the ma- 
 rine dynamometer (a selfTregistering instrument de- 
 signed by him for the purpose), the force of the waves of 
 the German Ocean, during hard gales, had been found 
 to be 1^ tons per superficial foot at the Bell Rock ; and 
 of the Atlantic Ocean to be 3 tons per superficial foot at 
 the Skerry vore Light-house. But these results may still 
 be far short of the maxima. As the marine dynamom- 
 eter has been often found useful in indicating the force 
 of the waves in situations where harbors were to be 
 built, it may be proper to give, such a description of it 
 as will enable any one to have it made. 
 
 D E F D is a cast-iron cylinder, which is firmly 
 bolted at the protecting flanges G, to the rock where 
 the experiments are to be made. 'This cylinder has a 
 circular flange at D. L is a door which is to be 
 opened when the observation is to be read off. A is a 
 circular disc on which the waves impinge. Fastened 
 to the disc are four guide-rods B, which pass through a 
 circular plate C, which is screwed down to the flange 
 
 Dec. 
 10 6 
 
 23456789 10 11 12 inches. 
 
 -^L^i— I— I I I I I I 
 
 Fig.l. 
 
HAR 
 
 936 
 
 HAK 
 
 D, and also through the holes in the bottom E F. 
 Within the cylinder there is attached to the, plate C a 
 powerful steel spring, to the other or free end of which 
 is fastened the small circular plate K, which again is 
 secured to the guide-rods B. There are also rings of 
 leather, T, which slide on the guide-rods, and serve as 
 indices for registering how far the rods have been 
 pushed through the holes in the bottom, or, in other 
 words, how far the spring has been drawn out by the 
 action of the waves against the disc A. 
 
 In comparing an existing harbor with a proposed 
 one, in order to ascertain the dimensions which are 
 necessary to insure stability, perhaps the most obvious 
 element is what ma}' be termed the Une of maximum 
 exposure, or, in other words, the line of greatest fetch 
 or reach of open sea, which can be easily measured 
 from a chart. But though possessed of this informa- 
 tion, the engineer still does not know in what ratio the 
 height of the wave increases in relation to any given 
 increase in the line of exposure. 
 
 As this inquiry is one of great moment in the prac- 
 tice of marine engineering, and has not been in any 
 way investigated, the writer has for some time back 
 been making occasional observations on the subject, 
 when favorable circumstances occurred. These ob- 
 servations have been but limited in extent, and can 
 not be regarded as deserving of confidence unless in 
 cases where the two harbors are not far different in 
 their lines of exposure. So far as these experiments 
 have gone, the waves seem to increase in height most 
 nfearly in the ratio of the square root of their distances 
 from the windward shore. 
 
 It does not follow, however, that the line of maxi- 
 mum exposure is in everj' case the line of maximum 
 effective force of the waves ; for this must depend not 
 only on the length of reach, but also on the angle of 
 incidence of the waves on the walls of the harbor. 
 What may be termed the line of maximum elective cx- 
 posure is that which, after being corrected for obliquity 
 of impact of the waves, produces the maximum result, 
 and this can only be taken from the chart after suc- 
 cessive trials. Let 3;=the greatest force that can 
 assail a pier, A=height of waves which produce (after 
 being corrected for obliquity) the maximum effect, 
 and which are due to the line of maximum effective 
 exposure. Sin a:=sine of azimuthal angle formed 
 between directions of pier and line of maximum effect- 
 ive exposure, radius being unity. Then x xh sin" a 
 when the force is resolved normal to the line of the 
 pier ; but if the force is resolved again in the direc- 
 tion of the waves themselves, the expression becomes 
 X oi h sin^ a.* 
 
 It should not be forgotten, in connection with this 
 subject, that there are various qualifying elements to 
 which special attention requires in some cases to be 
 given. The waves, for example, may often be no- 
 ticed, when approaching the land obliquely, to alter 
 their direction when they get close to the shore (in 
 consequence of the depth changing), so as to strike it 
 more nearly at right angles to the general line of the 
 beach. In this way a swell from the ocean may enter 
 a bay which is not directly exposed to it. It should 
 also be observed, that the lines of exposure can not 
 be directly compared if the depths of the water thrbugh 
 which they pass are materially different. 
 
 The tides, too, exert in many places a very decided 
 effect on the nature of the billows, in some places 
 causing waves of an unusually dangerous character, 
 while at others they are found to run down the sea. 
 If a marine work is situated in a race or rapid tide- 
 way, such, for example, as those called " roosts" in 
 Orkney and Shetland, the masonry will be exposed to 
 the action of a very trying and dangerous high-crest- 
 ing sea. As an example of this, we may refer to 
 Port-Patrick in Wigtonshire, where the violence of 
 
 ■ For experimental reeuUs vide article Htoeodtmajbics, E.B. 
 
 the waves is, we have no doubt, much due to the ra- 
 pidity of the tides. If, on the other hand, the race or 
 roost runs in such a direction as to be entirely outside 
 of the harbor, and at some distance off, it will have a 
 decided tendency to shelter the works, and to act as a 
 breakwater. Thus it appears, from observations at 
 Sumburg Head Light-house in Shetland during a south- 
 westerly storm, that so long as the Sumburg roost (one 
 of the most formidable in those seas), was cresting 
 and breaking heavily, one could have easily landed in 
 a small boat at a creek or bay called the West Voe ; 
 but no sooner did the roost disappear toward high 
 water than there came in towering billows that totally 
 submerged cliffs of very considerable height. The 
 study of the modifying and intensifying effects of tide- 
 currents on the waves of the sea seems to have been 
 entirely neglected in the late discussions regarding the 
 merits of vertical and sloping walls, which will be re- 
 ferred to in another section of this article. 
 
 From careful inquiries, as well as from actual per- 
 sonal experience, of such formidable breaking waters 
 as the Boar of Duncansbay, and the Merry Men of 
 Mey in the Pentland Firth, and several others, we are 
 of opinion that the true cause is the swell of the sea en- 
 countering a tidal current running in a direction more or 
 less opposed to that of the waves. While it is obvious 
 that two rapid tides may meet each other without any 
 dangerous effects, it is also quite true that when two 
 tides meet each other in a rough sea, as in coming round 
 such islands as Stroma or Swona in the Pentland Firth, 
 the effect of their union being to increase the current 
 at that place, there will be produced a highly danger- 
 ous sea ; but the fact of their meeting, though calcu- 
 lated to aggravate, is not, we think, the primary cause. 
 The races which occur in open seas, as, for instance, 
 off headlands and turning-points of the coast, are cer- 
 tain portions of those seas in which the waves hreah to 
 a greater or less extent, although the water may be 
 very deep, and there may be no wind at the time. At 
 all such places it will be found that there are rapid 
 tides. The roosts on the west coast of Orkney or of 
 the Pentland Firth, for example, are worst with ehh 
 tides and loesterly swells, because the Atlantic swell and 
 curreht of ebb are opposed. Those again on the east 
 coast are worst ynih flood tides and easterly swells from 
 a similar cause. Thus at the east end of the Pent- 
 land Firth the Boar of Duncansbay is well known to 
 rage with easterly swells and a flood tide ; whereas, at 
 the west end of the same firth, the Merry Me a of Mey 
 are equally well known to be worst with ebb tide and 
 a westerlj' swell, at which time no boat could enter 
 them without the risk of being overturned. The dan- 
 gerous surf which exists at the mouths of some rivers 
 is, we believe, not solely due to the want of depth at 
 the bar, but also to the meeting of the outward cur- 
 rent with the waves of the sea. 
 
 When a swell encounters a rapid opposing current, 
 the onward motion of the waves seems to be arrested, 
 and their width becomes visibly decreased. They get 
 higher and steeper, crest, and at last break, sometimes 
 very partially, and at other times almost as they would 
 on a shelving beach. It appears to us possible that 
 several waves may ultimately combine in such dis- 
 turbed watets into one mountainous billow ; for the 
 wave that has partially broken may have its onward 
 motion so much checked as to allow the wave behind to 
 overtake it, and having thus coalesced, they maj', as one 
 large wave, acquire a superior velocity, so as to over- 
 take those in front and be further augmented by the uni- 
 on of other waves which have reflected from the shore. 
 
 It is to this cause we are inclined to refer such won- 
 derful effects as that to which we have already alluded, 
 where blocks of 9 tons' weight were quarried out of the 
 solid rock at an elevation of 85 feet above the sea. 
 Were such violent action common to all the shores of 
 the German Ocean, instead of being restricted to one 
 or two similar places, half of the eastern sea-port 
 
H'AR 
 
 937 
 
 HAE 
 
 towns in England would, without any doutt, be washed 
 into the sea during the iifst stormy winter. As a 
 further proof of the great effect Of the tides in exas- 
 perating the waves, we may mention that the time 
 when inost danlage is done to'sea-works which are in 
 tolerably deep water, is from one to two hours before 
 and after high watef, which nearly corresponds to the 
 time when the tide runs strongest outside. We have 
 found this to hold true at many different parts of the 
 English coast, and refer to one well-marked instance. 
 At Petethead harbor, which projects prominently into 
 the sea on an isthmus, the tides, at but a short distance 
 seawatd of the harbor, run verj'rsipidly. On the 10th 
 of Januarj"", 1849, there was a verj- heavy sea, and a 
 crowd of people were down, about two hours lefore 
 hiffh watei; helping' to secure the -vrfialers and other 
 vessels in the harbor, when three successive waves 
 carried away 315 feet of a bulwark, founded 9J feet 
 abbve high-water springs, which had stood for many 
 years; One piece of this wall, weighing 13 tbns, was 
 moved 50 feet. After this outbreak of the sea the 
 waves became more moderate, until about two hours 
 afttr high water, by which time the large whalers had 
 taken the ground, when other three enormous waves 
 again swept over the harbor, submerging the quays to 
 the depth of from 6 to 7 feet of solid water, by which 
 16 people were drowned. These waves iilled the har- 
 bor to such a depth as to set all the whalers afloat 
 again, and they continued so for several minutes, until 
 the excess of water had run out through the harbor 
 mouth. These gigantic waves were, in our opinion, 
 cleai'ly the result of some such action as has been 
 attempted to be described. We should not have dwelt 
 at such length on this subject were it not that we 
 might again refer to the facts when we come to treat 
 of the subject of vertical and sloping walls for har- 
 bors of refage, where it is of importance to show that 
 even in the deepest water, the waves are not purely 
 oscillatory, but that wherever there is a tide-way the 
 waves will more or less partake of the qualities of 
 waves of translation. 
 
 Relation between height of waves and depth of water. 
 Another circumstance affecting the exposure of any 
 marine Work is the depth of water in front of it. The 
 great mountainous billows so commonly met with in 
 the Atlantic Ocean can not be generated in the shal- 
 lower waters of the German Ocean, unless perhaps in 
 such peculiar circumstances as have just been adverted 
 to. It becomes, therefore, of great consequence to 
 ascertain the maximum possible wave in a given depth 
 of water. 
 
 Mr. Scott Russell, whose observations on what may 
 he called the marine branch of hydrodjmamics are of 
 such great value, has stated that if waves be propa- 
 gated in a channel Whose depth diminishes uniformly, 
 the waves will break when their height above the sur- 
 face of the level fluid becomes equal to the depth at 
 the bottom below the surface (p. 425 Brit. Assoc. Sep. 
 on Waves'). This statement, the meaning of which 
 seems doubtful, Mr. Russell elsewhere (Instit. Civ. 
 JSnff.j p. 136), defines thus: "The author has never 
 noticbd a wave so mtich as 10 feet high in 10 feet of 
 water, nor so much as 20 feet high in 20 feet water, 
 nor 30 feet high in 5 fathoms water ; but he has seen 
 waves approach verj' nearly to those limits." It is 
 presumed that the datum here referred to is the mean 
 level of the surface of the sea. We have had no op- 
 portunities of verif jing these observations ; but as the 
 subject is very important — because the depth of water 
 in front of a worlc may be said to be the ruling ele- 
 ment which determines the amount of force which it 
 has to resist, whatever be the line of maximum Expo- 
 sure — we shall simply state what has oome within our 
 own knowledge and observation. We have repeat- 
 edly seen at different parts of the coast breaking 
 waves of from 4 to 5 feet, measuring from hollow to 
 crest, in from 7 feet 8 inches to 10 or 11 feet of water, 
 
 measuring from the bottom up to the mean level ; and 
 on one occasion we were told of waves which were es- 
 timated at 9J feet in 13 feet water. It must, however, 
 be borne in mind that these observations, and we con- 
 ceive also those of Mr. Russell, apply only to common 
 waves of the sea, or those short, steep, and superficial 
 waves which are due to an existing wind, and not to 
 the ground swells which are almost constantly to be 
 found in the open ocean, and which may be the result 
 of former gales, or are the telegraph, as Mr. Russell 
 terms them, of those which are yet to come. 
 
 From what has been stated, it would appear that in 
 most cases the heaviest waves should assail any tide- 
 work at high water. This, however, as mentioned in 
 the last section, is not always the case, the greatest 
 damage being often found to occur at the time when 
 the tide runs strongest. Mr. Leslie found that the 
 Arbroath Harbor-works were in general less severely 
 tried by the very heaviest waves than by a class of 
 waves somewhat smaller than these, owing to the out- 
 lying rocks, which, from the small depth over them, 
 had the effect of tripping up the heavier seas, and 
 thus destroying them before they reached the harbor, 
 while the depth was sufficient to allow the smaller 
 waves to pass over the shoals unbroken. In some 
 cases of severe exposure the waves might to some ex- 
 tent be reduced bj' dropping very large stones outside 
 of the harbor, so as, by forming an artificial shoal, to 
 cause them to crest and break! One great difficulty 
 connected with the subject of the generation of waves 
 still remains unsolved, viz. : — What are the minimum 
 line of exposure and area of sea which are compatible 
 with the existence of a ground swell ? This question, 
 we fear, can not be answered in the present state of 
 our knowledge. 
 
 Deep Water Sarhors. — Harbors of refuge are distin- 
 guished from tidal harbors mainly by the superior 
 depth of water which they possess, and the larger area 
 which they inclose. The requisites are shelter during 
 storms, and easy access for shipping at any time of 
 tide. There has been much discussion as to whether 
 piers for harbors of refuge should be vertical or sloping. 
 Col. Jones, R.E., has especially advocated the superior 
 merit| of the vertical wall ; and the discussions on his 
 plan at the Institution of Civil Engineers, and the able 
 protest by Sir Howard Douglas, will be found, from 
 their interest and importance, to merit a careful peru- 
 sal. 
 
 The principle which is asserted is, that oceanic waves 
 in deep water are purely oscillatorj-, and would occa- 
 sion no impact against vertical barriers, which would be 
 the most eligible, as they would only have to encounter 
 the simple hydrostatic pressure due to the height of 
 the approaching billow, and would reflect the waves 
 without causing them to break. Were it even admit- 
 ted that the waves were purely oscillatory, and were 
 reflected by a vertical barrier, would no force, it may 
 be asked, be expended when the motion of the parti- 
 cles was reversed ? The reflection of a wave is equiva- 
 lent to the nearly instantaneous creation of a wave in 
 the opposite direction, for which a very considerable 
 force must surely be required. 
 
 We believe, however, that from the effect of tide 
 currents, to which we have already referred, and per- 
 haps from other causes whose action seems to have 
 been overlooked by the advocates of the upright wall, 
 any form of barrier, in whatever depth it may have 
 been erected, must be occasionally subjected to heavy 
 impact. We conceive that the possibilitj' of waves 
 of translation being generated in the d epest water 
 has been already established, if we succeeded in satis- 
 fying the reader of the truth of the following asser- 
 tions : — First, That waves break in deep water during 
 calm weather ; a fact which is apparent to the eye, and 
 familiar to all sailors : and, secondly, and negatively. 
 That to leeward of those races or portions of broken 
 water, which certainly do not reflect the incoming 
 
HAR 
 
 938 
 
 HAR 
 
 ■waves, there is comparatively smooth water hoth at 
 sea and on the adjoining shores, until such time as the 
 strength of the tide is exhausted, and the roost has dis- 
 appeared, when violent action is again fully mani- 
 fested. 
 
 It may be argued that these are extreme cases, and 
 that such high velocities in the current of the tide are 
 seldom met with. This objection has, no doubt, truth 
 in it ; but still the tendency is shown, and though the 
 velocities may be less in other quarters, there may 
 yet be quite enough to destroy the condition of stagna- 
 tion which the oscillatory theory assumes. The break- 
 ing of waves at sea, and the existence of races, seem 
 to prove beyond question that waves of translation 
 are possible in the deepest water. Is it not also a 
 probable case that waves which have been reflected by 
 a vertical wall, and have (irrespective of the question of 
 tide currents) combined with the advancing waves may 
 then become waves of translation, possessing all the ele- 
 ments which endanger the stability of a sea- work ? Or, 
 again, how much more damage would result to a vertical 
 wall than to a slope of loose stones, from the sinking of 
 the foundations, or from their getting underwashed by 
 the reaction of the waves ? It therefore appears that 
 the method generally resorted to of forming deep water 
 harbors of masses of rubble stone with long slopes, so 
 as to form an artificial beach for the waves to spend 
 on, is, in most circumstances, the best and cheapest 
 kind of construction. We incline, however, to the 
 adoption of an upright wall, founded on the rubble as 
 u basis (similar to that at Cherbourg, about to be de- 
 scribed), in preference to long paved slopes, as there 
 is always experienced a great difficulty in founding the 
 toe of such talus walls among the loose rubble. When 
 pitched slopes are adopted, great benefit will be found 
 to accrue from leaving at the bottom or toe of the 
 slope a wide foreshore. Much, however, depends on 
 local peculiarities in selecting the best design for any 
 work ; and the nature of the bottom is all-important. 
 Where the bottom is soft, a vertical wall can hardly, 
 if ever, be attempted. 
 
 In making these remarks, we must not be under- 
 stood as condemning the adoption of vertical walls in 
 cases where the foundation is good. All that we as- 
 sert is the opinion, that waves of translation do exist 
 in deep water, and, therefore, that harbors of refuge 
 will prove failures unless they are built in such a man- 
 ner as to resist the impact of those waves of transla- 
 tion. The Cherbourg breakwater has been often 
 referred to as a successful instance of the application 
 of a vertical wall, and has been contrasted with the 
 Plymouth breakwater, which has a long slope. But 
 this appeal is quite fallacious, as the profile of that 
 work is, as already hinted, of a composite character, 
 consisting of a talus wall sloping at the rate of 10 hori- 
 zontal to one perpendicular, surmounted by a plumb 
 wall ; so that whatever merit may be supposed to be- 
 long to the vertical profile is entirely nullified at Cher- 
 bourg by the strong talus wall in front, on which the 
 violence of the waves is much broken. Moreover, 
 the heaviest waves at Cherbourg come from the 
 north-west, and do not assail the breakwater at right- 
 angles to its direction, but come more nearly end on to 
 the work, so as to a great extent to run along the outer 
 wall. The north-west waves are propagated from the 
 Atlantic, while the waves which are most trying to 
 the work come from the north, in which direction the 
 line of exposure is only about 21 leagues. These facts 
 we obtained during a recent visit to Cherbourg, under- 
 taken for the special purpose of ascertaining the phys- 
 ical characteristics of the place. The attempt to make 
 out a parallelism between Plymouth, which faces the 
 Atlantic directly, and Cherbourg, which is compar- 
 atively land-locked, can not, in our opinion, stand the 
 test of a candid inquiry. 
 
 Other comparisons may be referred to which have 
 been advanced on equally untenable grounds. Thus, 
 
 the old pier of Dunleary, which is vertical, and has 
 stood well, has been compared with the talus walls of 
 Kingstown harbor, which now protect Dunleary, and 
 which havS often received much damage. The all- 
 important element of depth of water hasbeenin this in- 
 stance entirely overlooked ; for at Kingstown there is a 
 depth of 27 feet, while Dunleary is all but dry. An able 
 writer on the same questio vexata, in comparing difi'er- 
 ent sea walls in the Firth of Forth, has, in like man- 
 ner, not sufficiently adverted to the great difi'erences 
 in the depths opposite the works to which he refers. 
 
 An important advantage of the sloping wall is the 
 small resistance which it offers to the impinging wave, 
 but it should also be borne in mind that the weight 
 resting on the face stones in a talus wall is decreased 
 in proportion to the sine of the angle of the slope. 
 If we suppose the waves which assail a sloping wall 
 to act in the horizontal plane, their direct impulse, 
 when resolved into the force acting at right angles to the 
 sloping surface of the talus wall, will be proportional 
 to the sine of the angle of incidence. The effective force 
 when estimated in the horizontal plane, will be propor- 
 tional to the square of the sine of the angle of incidence. 
 But if we assume the motion of the impinging parti- 
 cles to be horizontal, the number of them which will 
 be intercepted by the sloping surface wUl be also re- 
 duced in the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence, 
 or of elevation of the talus wall. Hence the tendency of 
 the waves to produce horizontal displacement of the 
 wall, on the assumption that the direction of the im- 
 pinging particles is horizontal, will be proportional to 
 the cube of the sine of angle of elevation of the wall. 
 If it further happens that there is obliquity of action 
 in the azimuthal as well as in the vertical plane arising 
 from the relative direction of the pier and of the waves, 
 there will be another similar reduction in the ratio of 
 the squares or cubes of the angle of incidence accord- 
 ing as the force is resolved into that at right angles to 
 the line of the pier, or to that of the direction of the waves. 
 Let =^ vertical angle of incidence or angle of ele- 
 vation of wall ; 
 0' = azimuthal angle of incidence ; 
 f = horizontal force exerted on unit of surface 
 at right angles to the line of harbor wall ; 
 h = height of greatest assailing waves ; 
 y « ^ (sin sin 0')^. 
 The above expression assigns, we think, too great 
 a reduction, as the motion of the particles may not be 
 horizontal, and no account is taken of the effects of 
 friction against the rough surface of the masonry. 
 Experiments are therefore wanting to d.etermine the 
 constant for correcting the theoretical results due to 
 this expression. 
 
 Parabolic Profile. — Mr. Scott Russell recommends 
 the parabolic curve as that best suited for the profile 
 where the object is to break the waves, and not to re- 
 flect them, as is the case in sloping breakwaters. This 
 curve possesses, according to Mr. Eussell, the advan- 
 tages of superior strength, of economy in the mate- 
 rials, of breaking the wave early, and of continuing 
 an uniform action over the longest, period of time. 
 When the tide is low, the toe of the slope, which 
 springs out of the foreshore and forms the vertex Of 
 the parabola, would, we fear, be found rather weak, 
 and perhaps difficult to form. On the whole, we 
 rather incline in suck cases simply to throw in the 
 materials, and to allow the sea to form is own slope. 
 
 According to Sir John Eennie (Account of Plymouth 
 Breakwater), rubble breakwaters with slopes formed 
 at the angle of repose, were adopted by the Greeks in 
 the moles of Tyre and Carthage, and by the Romans 
 at Athens and Halicamassus. The same design was 
 also followed at Venice, Genoa, Eochelle, Barcelona, 
 and other places. In this kingdom the first example 
 on a large scale which we find is at Howth. Kings- 
 town, Holyhead, and the noble breakwater at Ply- 
 mouth, were afterward carried out on the same princi- 
 
BtAR 
 
 939 
 
 HAR 
 
 pie, and chiefly under the direction of the late Mr, 
 Eennie. The great national harbors of refuge at 
 present in progress in Great Britain, according to Mr. 
 Kendel's designs, at Holyhead and Portland, are on a 
 similar principle ; yhile those under Messrs. Walker, 
 Burgess, and Cooper, at Dover, Aldemey, and Jersey, 
 are more nearly vertical. 
 
 Forms of Watts for Ttdd Sarbors. — Having now 
 considered the few facta of which we are in possession, 
 regarding the disputed nature of the impulse of the 
 waves in deep waters, we shall direct the reader's at- 
 tention to their effects in shallow water. Those in 
 deep water were chiefly wJioh waves, and regarded by 
 many as being purely oscillatory, while those in shoal 
 waters are breaking waves, and therefore regarded by 
 all as waves of translation. We have hitherto been 
 considering breakwaters erected in deep water, and 
 which were constantly exposed to the waves ; we now 
 tarn to piers and sea-walls which are placed within the 
 range of the surf, and which are exposed to its force 
 for a limited period only, being sometimes left nearly, 
 or altogether dry by the receding tide. 
 
 The impulse of the waves against a sea-wall or pier 
 may be resolved practically into four directions :— 1st. 
 The direct horizontal force which tends to shake loose, 
 or carry before it, the blocks of which the opposing 
 masonry consists. This force may also blow up the 
 pitching, or overturn the inner or quay-wall by con- 
 densing the air, or pressing upon the water which 
 occupies the interstices of the rubble. We know two 
 cases in the German Ocean where, in consequence of 
 want of width in the pier, coupled, in one instance, 
 with insufficient workmanship, the inner or quaj'-walls 
 were observed first to bulge and fall, before the sea- 
 wall was injured. One of these piers measured 26 
 feet 4 inches, and the other 24 feet, on the roadway. 
 2d. The vertical upward force which may act on any- 
 projecting stone or protuberance. 3d. The vertical 
 downward force of the water which results either from 
 the wave breaking upon the toe of a talus wall, or 
 from the wave passing over the parapet, and falling 
 upon the pitching behind, so as to plow it up. 4th. 
 The hach-draught, which tends by reaction from the 
 wall to plow up the soft bottom, and thus to under- 
 mine the lower coursos of the work, or perhaps by 
 suction to pull out the face-work. We may conclude 
 from the above, that the points which require to be 
 carefully attended to are — 1st. The contour and qual- 
 ity of masonry of the wall itself ; 2d. The parapet, 
 which, if not of sufficient height, pr built in a proper 
 direction, leads to damage, in the pitching behind it ; 
 and 3d. The foundation-courses, in the design and 
 construction of which, if similar precautions be not at- 
 tended to, underwashing of the bottom may in some 
 situations take place, so as to leave the lowest courses 
 without protection. 
 
 We shall in the first place consider how far these 
 remarks are applicable where the bottom is solid rock. 
 Such a supposition will render unnecessary any pre- 
 cautions arising from the wasting of the bottom, and, 
 cmterls paribus, there does not seem to be any reason 
 for preferring a talus to a vertical wall. The question 
 of preference in such a case will in the main depend 
 upon the kind of material which can be obtained. 
 Should the stone be scarce or costly, and the quality 
 such as to warrant the introduction of masonry of the 
 best description, the vertical wall may be found to be 
 the most economical. "S^Tiere freestone is to be used, 
 it is not only desirable that it should be got in large 
 blocks, but that the face stones should possess consid- 
 erable hardness. This precaution is particularly nec- 
 essary in selecting the stones, for the lower courses 
 and especially where the beach consists of hard gravel. 
 For the same reason, it is highly important that all 
 stones which are subject to decay from atmospheric in- 
 fluence should be either entirely rejected or assembled 
 in the upper courses of the parapet. 
 
 Where the materials are abundant, but of an un- 
 workable nature, a long talus wall will generally be 
 found most economical. For such walls the rate of slope 
 must depend very much upon the exposure of the 
 place, and upon the plentifulness of rubble-stone heart- 
 ing. The easily-dressed and naturally flat-bedded 
 materials, which the stratified rocks of the secondary 
 formation very often furnish, are especially applicable 
 for the construction of vertical walls ; while the un ■ 
 couth blocks of the primarj' and igneous formations 
 are better suited for talus walls. Such rocks as gne- 
 iss, the schists, basalts, greenstones, amygdaloids, and 
 the tougher kinds of granite, are best fitted for this 
 purpose. With some of those rocks the angularity of 
 the pieces, and the excessive difficulty of dressing, 
 render it necessary to assemble them without almost 
 any alteration of their shape, by an adaptation of their 
 salient and re-entrant angles, so as to make a kind of 
 random rubble face-work. In this kind of work, 
 mortar is very seldom employed. The parapet gen- 
 erally consists of squared masonry, surmounted by a 
 heavy cope, and it should in every case be set in good 
 lime mortar. 
 
 Where the materials are light and of small sizes it 
 is desirable to equalize the action of the sea over the 
 whole work, and not to concentrate it against any par- 
 ticular place. Mr. Kussell states that the cycloidal' 
 form was recommended for this purpose by Franz 
 Gerstner, of Bohemia. The only instance with which 
 we are acquainted of the adoption of this curve was in 
 a sea-wall erected at Trinity, near Edinburg, by the 
 late Mr. Robert Stevenson, in 1822. It has been al- 
 ready stated that irrespective of the quality of the 
 masoniy, the two points in the structure which are 
 weak or dangerous are the top and bottom of the wall. 
 With a rocky bottom the risk of failure at the founda- 
 tions is removed ; on the other hand, where the shore 
 consists of rotten rock, moving shingle, or sand, it is 
 obvious that provision must be made for both those 
 sources of evil. In fact, if we consult the history of 
 our harbors, we shall find that by far the most fre- 
 quent cause of damage is the reaction of the sea 
 against the shore. 
 
 The general slope of a fragmentary beach must de- 
 pend upon the size and nature of the particles and the 
 force of the sea. Tlie dissimilarity between the slopes 
 of a beach near the levels of high and low water, ari- 
 ses from a decrease in the force of the waves, owing 
 to their being broken Taefore they reach the high-water 
 mark. The great object, therefore, is to design the 
 profile of our wall so as to alter as little as possible 
 the symmetry of the beach. Where isolated rocks or 
 large boulders are seen projecting above the surface of 
 a sandy beach, there will generally be formed around 
 them hollows, corresponding in depth to the kind of 
 obstruction which the rocks present. The principal 
 point in the design, therefore, must be to avoid great and 
 sudden obstructions to the movement of the water. The 
 best form which could be adopted in any situation would 
 of course be the same as the cross section of the beach 
 itself, but this would answer no possible purpose ^ and, 
 as the wall is to consist of heavy blocks of stone in- 
 stead of minute particles of sand, it is clear that a 
 much steeper slope may be adopted than the profile of 
 conservancy of the coast, provided the lower part of 
 the slope be flattened out so as to meet the sand at 
 a low angle. The action of a bulwark is to arrest 
 the waves before they reach the general high-water 
 mark, and to change the horizontal motion of the fluid 
 particles to the vertical plane, or to compel the waves 
 to destroy themselves on an artificial beach consisting 
 of heavy stones. To prevent underwashing, the two 
 following requisites should therefore be as far as pos- 
 sible secured: — 1st. The foundation courses or bot- 
 tom of the wall should rise at a very small angle with 
 the beach, so that their top surfaces may be coincident 
 With the profile of conservation of that portion of the 
 
HAR 
 
 940 
 
 HAR 
 
 beach out of which the wall springs; 2d. The outline 
 ot the wall should be such as to allow the wave to pass 
 onward without any sudden check till it shall have 
 reached the strongest part of the wall, which should 
 he as far from the foundation as possible. 
 
 Those two requisites show clearly how inapplicable 
 a vertical wall must in most cases be for a sandy beach. 
 Instead of altering the direction of the wave at a dis- 
 tance from its foundation, the whole charge is produced 
 at that very point ; and unless the wall be founded at 
 a great depth, its destruction is all but certain. Where 
 the materials are costly, but admit of being easily 
 dressed, we are disposed to think that a horizontal, or 
 nearly horizontal, wall, connected with a vertical one 
 by a quadrant of a circle, may be found suitable. 
 Such a form will prevent, to a considerable extent, 
 the danger of reaction, by causing an alteration in the 
 form of the wave at that part where the wall is strong- 
 est and at the greatest distance from the toe or curb- 
 course. Where the materials are abundant and of a 
 rougher nature, a cycloidal wall, with vertical and 
 horizontal tangents, somewhat similar to that erected 
 at Trinity, to which we have already referred, may be 
 adopted with advantage. 
 
 A special caution may not be out of place regarding 
 clayey bottoms. Many are apt to suppose that there 
 can be no better foundation than clay ; and it is indeed 
 true that some kinds of hard clay form a satisfactorj' 
 subsoil. But there are others of a softer kind, and per- 
 meated by sandy beds, which are extremely treacher- 
 ous. If there be the slightest dip seaward, there is 
 always a risk of any pier that may be built on such a 
 ha«e slipping bodily into the sea. This holds es- 
 pecially true of inland locks, where the sides very 
 often slope suddenly. In one instance, the particulars 
 of which we got on the spot shortly after the accident, 
 a pier built on a clayey beach, sloping below water at 
 the rate of one in 12J, suddenly began to move, and 
 after two hours it had slipped seaward 150 feet, and 
 had by that time descended bodily a height of 34 feet, 
 the top of the pier being then no less than 23 feet be- 
 low low-water spring tides. 
 
 Construction of Harbors. — Our space will not admit 
 of our going much further into the subject of the con- 
 struction of harbors than the few remarks we have 
 already made. A knowledge of such matters may, to 
 some extent, be acquired by a careful perusal of the 
 published histories of marine works ; but, after all, it 
 must be confessed that the only valuable teacher in 
 this wide practical field is experience. It is, in truth, 
 impossible to lay down any general rules of guidance 
 as to matters of this kind. All that can be done with- 
 in our space is to notice very briefly some of the more 
 important methods of working. And first, with regard 
 to that invaluable piece of apparatus, the diving-bell, 
 we would refer to the article on the subject in this 
 work, and to Smeaton's Account of Ramsgate Harbor, 
 published in 1721, where it was first applied b}^ him to 
 harbor works. The diving-helmet is a most useful 
 and convenient modification of the diving-bell, and is 
 now verj- generally employed. 
 
 Of late years, the use of beton as a substitute for 
 backing has been introduced. This artificial concrete 
 is sometimes used in enormous masses. We have seen 
 at Cherbourg blocks of 50 tons prepared in boxes, 
 whose sides and tops are removed after the concrete 
 has set, in order to be again similarly employed. The 
 proportions used at Cherbourg by M. Rebeille were 
 two of sand or fine gravel to one of Portland cement. 
 
 We may also mention that the method of assembling 
 stones on their edges, instead of on their beds, which 
 formerly was in use in some old Scottish harbors and 
 sea-walls, as at St. Andrews, Prestonpans, etc., de- 
 serves to be more generally known and adopted from 
 its superior strength. 
 
 The proposal of Mr. Bremner, of Wick, for putting 
 in the foundations of low-water piers also merits no- 
 
 tice. Mr. Bremner proposes to construct, in some ad- 
 joining place of shelter, enormous pontoons of timber, 
 on which the under parts of the work are built, and af- 
 terward floated to the desired spot in favorable weather, 
 and carefully grounded. Such a plan might, we have 
 no doubt, be found economical and useful in some situ- 
 ations, 
 
 Mr. Rendel's Method. — Mr. Rendel has introduced 
 an improved method of assembling the pierres per- 
 dues or rubble used in the construction of large break- 
 waters ; this method he employed at Millbay Pier, near 
 Plymouth, in 1838, in a depth of 38 feet ; and he is at 
 present cari'j'ing out the same principle on a still larger 
 scale, in the construction of the breakwaters at Holy- 
 head and Portland. The improvement consists in de- 
 positing the rough materials from stagings elevated a 
 considerable height above high water. The stones are 
 brought on the staging in wagons, through the bottoms 
 of which they are discharged into the sea. The prin- 
 ciple on which the stagLogs are designed is that of 
 offering the smallest possible resistance to the sea, 
 the under-structure consisting of nothing more than 
 single upright piles, there being only one line of piles 
 for each roadway. 
 
 Harbors of Refuge. — Mr. Rendel states : " I use no 
 timber braces of any kind, as these offer more resist- 
 ance to the sea than strength to the staging. At Port- 
 land, England, where any accident would be a serious 
 evil, owing to our employing convicts in the quarries, 
 we stay the piles with iron guys, fixed to Mitcliel's 
 crew moorings, and also truss the outer piles in each 
 row with iron rods. We also fix the piles in the 
 ground with a screw. At Holyhead, ^ however, we 
 only attach to each pile boxes filled with small stones, 
 for the purpose of getting them into a vertical position, 
 and use no stays or guys of any kind. The super- 
 structure consists simply of balks of timber, with rails 
 laid on them to carry the wagons. The piles are 
 placed in rows 30 feet apart ; and the ease and certainty 
 with which the staging is constructed is such that a 
 length of 30 feet, including the screwing in of the 
 piles, the laying down of the roadways, and all minor 
 works necessary to make them fit to carry the wagons, 
 never occupies more than one working day and a half, 
 and often less. The length of the piles that we are 
 now using varies from 84 to 90 feet, the depth of wa- 
 ter at both Holyhead and Portland being about 11 
 fathoms. 
 
 " Of the strength of the stage you may judge from 
 its carrying on each roadway as much as three wagons, 
 weighing in the gross 12 tons each. The advantages 
 of the staging are obvious. It contributes greatly to 
 the consolidation of the stone, it makes a greater length 
 of breakwater to be under construction at the same 
 time, and it enables the deposits to be carried on with- 
 out interruption almost in the heaviest weather. As 
 an instance of this, I may remark that my resident at 
 Portland informs me that the wagons and locomotives 
 were engaged yesterday at a time when such a sea was 
 running that large bodies of spray were thrown 55 feet 
 above the water-level. As a proof of the facilities 
 which the stage affords for rapidity of construction, I 
 should state that we have deposited this year at Holy- 
 head, where free labor is employed, nearly 1,000,000 
 tons of stones. The loss from accident to the stage is 
 comparatively small on its first cost, and when spread 
 over the cost of the whole work it is a mere trifle. I 
 find the sea-slopes are, in the deep water and exposed 
 parts, from five and a half or six to one between six 
 feet above high-water, and from 12 to 15 below low- 
 water, from which point they rapidly become about 
 one to one. The inside slopes are never more than one 
 and a quarter to one, and seldom more than one to one. 
 The materials are excellent for our purpose," 
 
 Aldemey, Jersey, Dover, and Plyviouth. — Mr, Walker 
 has also contributed some facts connected with the 
 construction of the great works now going on at Jer- 
 
HAR 
 
 941 
 
 HAE 
 
 3ey, Aldemey, and Dover. At Aldemey, which is a 
 verj- exposed place, the taae, up to 12 feet below low- 
 water, is formed by stones thrown, or rather dropped, 
 in from barges. Up to low-water, the work is all 
 done by diving-helmets. The wall ig faced with gran- 
 ite, backed with blocks of beion made of sand, shingle, 
 and Portland cement. Above low-water it is faced 
 with stone of the island, a kind of millstone-grit, and 
 is backed with blocks of rubble set in Koman cement. 
 The millstone-grit is raised in very large blocks. The 
 profile is to consist of a quay, an esplande, and a para- 
 pet. Jersey is much the same as Alderney, but the 
 pell-mdl work is carried to low-water, having nearly 
 vertical walls of conglomerate built above. Dover has 
 nearly vertical walls, faced with granite from the very 
 bottom, which is now 45 feet below low-water. This 
 work was done with diving-bells. Sir J.'Eennie, in 
 his Account of the Plymouth Breakwater, says : " From 
 the bottom to within eight feet of low-water springs, 
 we find that the slope is two and a half or three to one. 
 Here the effect of the waves is comparatively small, 
 being neutralized by the mass of water. From thence 
 to low-water of spring-tides the slope increases from 
 three .or four to one, but between low-water of spring- 
 tides and high-water, when the effect of the waves is 
 greatest, there we found that the rubble would not lie 
 at less than five to one, while on the inside, the slope 
 stands generally at from one and a half or two to one." 
 The above interesting details regarding these national 
 works show, from the variety which they exhibit, how 
 difiicult it is to lay down any general rules for the 
 construction of harbors, and confirm the principle that 
 each work must be judged of^er- se. 
 
 Miscellaneous Observations. — The ultimate object of 
 constructing harbors is, by lowering the height of the 
 waves, to preserve the tranquillity of the area of wa- 
 ter wliich is inclosed by the piers ; and this property 
 is variously possessed by harbors of different forms, 
 and depends much upon the relative widths of the en- 
 trance, and of the interior, the depth of water, the 
 shape of the entrance, and the relation between the 
 direction of its opening and that of the line of maximum 
 
 . The only formula of which we are aware is that by 
 the writer in this article (Edin. New Phil. Journal, 
 1853), which gives an approximation to the reductive 
 power, or is, in other words, a numerical form of ex- 
 pressing how much a wave of given height becomes 
 reduced after it has entered a harbor. Though the 
 results obtained by the formula may not be absolutely 
 correct, this will be no objection where the object is 
 merely to obtain a comparative value ; as, for exam- 
 ple, in comparing one design for a harbor with an- 
 other. When the piers are high enough to screen the 
 inner area from the wind, where the depth is uniform, 
 the width of entrance not very great in comparison 
 with the width of the wave, and when the quay w^Us 
 are vertical, and the distance not less than 60 feet — 
 let 
 
 H = height in feet of waves in the open sea. 
 
 X = reduced height of waves in feet at place of ob- 
 servation in the interior of the harbor. 
 
 b = breadth of entrance to harbor in feet. 
 
 B = breadth of harbor at place of observation in 
 feet. 
 
 D = distance from mouth of harbor to place of ob- 
 servation in feet. 
 
 This formula has been found to give good approxima- 
 tions at several harbors where the heights of the waves 
 were registered. When H is assumed as unity, x will 
 represent the reductive power of the harbor. In situa- 
 tions where the highest waves cross the harbor mouth 
 at an oblique angle, a further reduction is due to this 
 cause. We have been unable to find any observations 
 
 ; , 
 
 DiBtancGS 
 
 Angle of , 
 
 run through 
 
 obliqnily. 
 
 by wavea. 
 
 0= 
 
 16 feet. 
 
 • 50 
 
 82 " 
 
 140 
 
 68 " 
 
 that have heen made on this subject by others, and for 
 want of better, we shall give three observations made 
 under our directions at Latheronwheel harbor : 
 
 Height of wave 
 after poselnc; 
 throngli augle. 
 
 1-00 
 0-68 
 0-21 
 
 These must however be regarded as but approxima- 
 tions. It is obvious that as the wave may be deflected 
 through more than 360°, the curve representing the 
 reduction must be spiral ; but more observations are 
 wanted to determine of what kind. , 
 
 Booms are logs of timber placed across the mouth 
 of a harbor, or the entrance to an inner basin or dock, 
 having their ends secured by projecting into grooves 
 cut in the masonry on each side of the entrance. The 
 booms are dropped into the grooves to the number of 
 from 10 to 20, or as many more as will insure close 
 contact of the lowest one with a sill-piece placed in the 
 bottom of the harbor, without which precaution the 
 swell is found to enter the harbor from below the 
 booms. By this contrivance, which forms a temporary 
 wall, the waves are completely checked and prevented 
 from spreading into the interior basin. The longest 
 booms we have seen are about 45 feet ; and in some 
 places, as at Hartlepool and Seaham, in Durhamshire, 
 tliey are taken out and in by steam-power. Though 
 perfectly successful in their tranquillizing effect (pro- 
 vided they are kept in contact with the sill-piece at the 
 bottom), booms are not suited for the mouths of har- 
 bors where there is much traffic, as the shipping and 
 unshipping of so many logs of timber can hardly take 
 less than a quarter of an hour — a delay which might 
 in may cases be attended with serious consequences. 
 
 It is very desirable, and in some cases essential, that 
 there be either a considerable internal area, or else a 
 separate basin opposite the entrance for the waves to 
 destroy or spend themselves. Such a basin should, if 
 possible, be made so as to preserve a portion of the 
 original shore for the waves to break upon ; and when 
 circumstances rendered this impossible, there should at 
 least be a flat talus of two or three to one. Talus 
 walls of one to one, or steeper, will not allow the 
 waves to break fully, but will reflect them in such a 
 manner as might in some cases make the entrance dif- 
 ficult, or even dangerous, of access, and the berthage 
 within unsafe. There are many instances of harbors 
 being materially injured by the erection of a quay-wall 
 across a beach where the waves were formerly allowed 
 to expend their force. It may be observed that when 
 there is an inner harbor or stilling-basin, the elliptical 
 form seems to be the most promising. Let one focus 
 be supposed to be on the middle line of the entrance, 
 and to coincide with the point from which the waves 
 in expanding into the interior radiate as from a centre 
 (which they do approximately) ; and if the other focus 
 is situated inland of high-water mark, the waves will 
 tend to reassemble at the landward focus, and on their 
 way will be. destroyed bj' breaking on the beach. 
 This appears from the well-known property of the el- 
 lipse, that if two radii vectores be drawn from the two 
 foci to any point in the curve they will make equal an- 
 gles with the tangent at that point ; and as the angles 
 of incidence and reflection of a wave from any obstacle 
 are practically equal, each wave will be nearly con- 
 centrated at the focus opposite to that from which it 
 emanated. 
 
 IndiscriminMe Deepening, — Another cause of disturb- 
 ance in harbors, which is often not sufficiently consid- 
 ered, is the indiscriminate deepening of the entrance 
 without a proportionate enlargement of the internal 
 area, or the execution of other works for counteracting 
 the effect. As the depth of the water is more and 
 more increased, waves of greater height become pos- 
 sible at the entrance, so that larger waves gain ad- 
 mission to the interior. The writer has had repeated 
 
HAR 
 
 942 
 
 HAR 
 
 proofs of this in the course of his practice. At the 
 port of Sunderland Mr. D. Stevenson recommended 
 the removal of nearly the whole of the south stone 
 pier, and the substitution of works of open frame-work 
 in order to tranquillize the interior. These works, 
 which have been quite successful, were rendered neces- 
 sary by the frequent dredging of the channel at and 
 near the entrance. 
 
 Artificial Scouring. — The preservation of the depth 
 of harbors where there is a tendency to deposit is often 
 attended with great difficulty and expense. Where 
 the deposit of silt is confined to the space between 
 high and low water marks, the scouring 'by means of 
 salt or fresh water is in general comparatively easy, 
 hut where there is a bar outside of the entrance the 
 case becomes most materially changed. The efficacy 
 of the scour, so long as it is not impeded by^ encoun- 
 tering stagnant water, is kept up for great distances, 
 but soon comes to an end on its meeting the sea. 
 Probably the only way in which this difficulty might 
 to some extent be obviated would be by conducting 
 the water in iron pipes to the bar, a plan which the 
 author proposed in 1843 for Hynish harbor, but the 
 expense was considerable and the success doubtful. 
 When the volume of water liberated is great compared 
 with the alveus or channel through which it has to 
 pass, the objection based on the stagnancy of the water 
 originally occupying the channel does not hold to the 
 same extent as when the scouring is to be produced by 
 a sudden finite momentum. In the one case the scour- 
 ing power depends simply on the quantity liberated in 
 a given space of time, while in the other it depends on 
 the propelling head and the direction in which the 
 water leaves the sluice. Mr. Kendel's scheme for 
 Birkenhead was on the former principle. The first 
 example of artificial scouring in this country seems to 
 be due to Smeaton, who used it effectually at Ramsgate 
 in 1779. 
 
 At Bute Docks, Cardiff, Wales, designed by Sir W. 
 Cubitt, the access to the outer basin is kept open most 
 successfully by means of artificial scouring on a gigan- 
 tic scale. The entrance was cut through mud banks 
 for a distance of about three fourths of a mile seaward 
 of high-water marli. The initial discharge when the 
 reservoir is full, is stated to be 2500 tons per minute. 
 The writer has known even so limited a discharge for 
 an hour or two as one ton a minute, produce verj' useful 
 effects in keeping a small tidal harbor clear of sand. 
 
 Floating Breakwaters. — Many proposals have from 
 time to time been made for mooring in the open sea 
 floating frameworks of timber with the view of shel- 
 tering the space inclosed by them. The objections to 
 floating breakwaters are so great and obvious that 
 there seems little chance of their ever being much 
 used. From what was stated on the subject of booms, 
 it will be recollected that it is a requisite that they 
 should fit closely to a sill piece at the bottom, other- 
 wise the run is found to extend into the harbor. From 
 what will be afterward stated regarding the liability 
 of timber to speedy destruction from the marine worm, 
 and to iron by chemical action, it is obvious that float- 
 ing structures of wood, connected by iron and moored 
 by iron chains, can not possibly be of long duration. 
 If to all these sources of evil we add the risk of their 
 being broken by the sea, we think the case maj- be 
 almost regarded as hopeless. No doubt green-heart 
 might be employed so as to resist the ravages of the 
 worm, but its high specific gravity and its great ex- 
 pense would prove bars to its employment. 
 
 Suspension Piers. — In some situations where there is 
 a long shallow beach, a harbor or pier of timber or 
 masonry may be made at or near the low-water mark, 
 which may be connected with the shore by means of a 
 suspension bridge. The inducements to adopt the sus- 
 pension principle are its economy, and the free passage 
 it affords to the currents which in this way are pre- 
 vented from forming accumulations of sand, silt, or 
 
 gravel. These advantages are, however, much re- 
 duced by the great wear and tear consequent upon the 
 perishable nature of the structure. The late Sir Sam- 
 uel Brown erected two chain piers, the one at Brighton, 
 and the other at Newhaven, near Ediuburg, both of 
 which are still in existence. 
 
 Advantages of two Entrances to a JTarbor.— In every 
 situation where it is easilj' practicable to make two en- 
 trances to a harbor, it will be found well worth the 
 extra expense, provided the}' can be so placed that the 
 one shall be available when the other has become diffi- 
 cult of access. In harbors which have but one mouth, 
 vessels are often detained for a great length of time by 
 the continuance of the wind in the direction which 
 throws a heavj"- sea into the entrance. Whereas if 
 there are two entrances situated as we have supposed, 
 vessels are at once able to take their departure by the 
 sheltered side. At the port of Peterhead, the north 
 and south harbors were some years ago united by a 
 canal, according to the writer's plans, and there the 
 advantage has been of the most marked description. 
 Vessels can now clear out as soon as loaded, either by 
 the north or south mouth, according to the state of the 
 sea. Some caution is necessary, however, as the run 
 is apt to extend from the one harbor to the other unless 
 there be a considerable area. 
 
 Harbor Repairs. — -There is generally much prudence 
 required in the alteration or repairs of existing marine 
 works. The risk of having the whole structure de- 
 stroyed by a gale coming suddenly on while there is 
 an open breach in the works, must be obvious ; and in 
 one instance, where the exposure of the place was 
 great, and the evil was a hidden one, the writer could 
 not recommend the facework being disturbed. The 
 cause of failure in this instance was supposed to be 
 the decay of the backing, which having deprived the 
 face-stones of support allowed them to be driven in- 
 ward by the force of the waves. Instead of removing 
 the face-work, the only recommendation that could be 
 given was to inject the whole pier with fluid cement, 
 so as, if possible, to render the mass monolithic. An 
 alternative of this kind is obviously of very doubtful 
 success, and can be regarded as nothing short of a last 
 resort, for there is but a small chance of getting the 
 injected fluid to permeate the whole mass of the pier. 
 The sj'Stem of permeating the masonry with fluid 
 matter could, however, be employed with more chance 
 of success in tl:i& formation of a pier, while each course 
 lies open to view. In 1844, at a harbor that had stood 
 for very manj' years, two or three faulty stones had 
 been incautiously taken out of the facework by a 
 mason who intended to replace them by others, when 
 a sudden gale came on, and nearly the whole of the 
 work was leveled with the beach. 
 
 As an example of the suddenness with which the 
 eastern coast of England is visited by gales, and as in- 
 dicating graphically the relative eligibility of the sum- 
 mer and winter months for carrying on harbor works, 
 we give the accompanying diagram of the heights of 
 waves, as observed for the Writer, by Mr. William 
 Middlemiss, resident engineer at Lybster harbor. (See 
 next page.) 
 
 Timber Piers. — In landlocked bays, where a deep- 
 water landing-place is all that is required, and where 
 the bottom is sandy or soft, timber may be employed 
 with great advantage. Even in exposed situations, 
 timber can also be used, hut the fatal disadvantage 
 attending its employment in most places where there 
 is no admixture of fresh water, is the rapid destruction 
 occasioned by marine worms. The damage occasioned 
 to harbors in this way is noticed by Semple in his 
 treatise On Building in' Water, in 1776, and very prob- 
 ably by much earlier writers. Indeed, the ravages of 
 the Teredo navalis are very ludicrously described by 
 Hector Boece in his Croniklis of Scotland, printed at 
 Edinburg circa 1536. In the Atlantic Ocean the 
 Teredo navalis, and at many places in the German 
 
HAE 
 
 943 
 
 HAE 
 
 Ebqistbr op Height of Waves fok 1852, observed at Lybsteb, Caithness-shibb. 
 Jan. Feb. ^ March. AprU. May. Jnae. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Not. Dec. 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 Ocean the Limnoria terebrans, are the animals which 
 are found to destroy any structure of timber which is 
 exposed to the water. They are found to eat most 
 rapidly between the bottom and low-water mark, but 
 above low-water the damage is not so great ; and what 
 is singular, they do not appear to exist at all below the 
 bottom where the pile is covered with sand. These 
 observations do not, however, quadrate with Mr. Hart- 
 ley's at Liverpool, for he found the parts which were 
 alternately wet and dry to decay faster than the parts 
 which were constantly immersed. Even solid lime- 
 stone is often destroyed by the persevering efforts of 
 another marine animal called the Fholas. 
 
 The late Mr. E. Stevenson made several experi- 
 ments on the ravages of the Limnoria terebrans at the 
 Bell Eock, in 1814, 1821, 1837, and 1843, by fixing 
 pieces of different kinds of timber to the rock, and 
 getting regular reports on their decay. From those 
 experiments it appeared that green-heart, beef-wood, 
 and bullet-tree, were not attacked by the worms, while 
 teak stood remarkably well, although suffering at last. 
 The kyanizing fluid and other preparations have been 
 tried, but were not found to be of permanent service. 
 In addition to these experiments on timber, no fewer 
 than 25 different kinds and combinations of iron were 
 tried, including specimens of galvanized irons. Al- 
 though separate specimens of each were tried in places 
 where they were always under water, and also in places 
 where they were alternately wet and drj', yet all the 
 ungalvanized specimens were found to oxydize with 
 much the same readiness. The galvanized specimens 
 resisted oxydation for three or four years, after which 
 the chemical action went on as quickly as in the 
 others. 
 
 Green-heajt timber is now generally had recourse to 
 in places where the worms are destructive. It ap- 
 pears to have been first used by Mr. J. Hartley of 
 Liverpool, who published in the Minutes of Institution 
 of Civil Engineers an account of its virtues in 1840, as 
 ascertained at the Liverpool Docks. Its cost is con- 
 siderably greater than memel or than most of the other 
 timbers gpnerally used. Memel logs for the inner 
 piles of piers might, perhaps, from their not being ex- 
 posed to abrasion from ships, be clad with green-heart 
 planking at those parts which are exposed to the 
 worm. Copper sheathing and scupper nailing are 
 often and successfully employed as protections for 
 piles in exposed situations. Breaming or scorching 
 the wood, and afterward saturating it with train oil, 
 also forms a partial protection. 
 
 It Is much to be regretted that timber is so ex- 
 pensive in Great Britain, and that some simple and 
 economical specific against the worm has not been 
 discovered for protecting memel and the cheaper kinds 
 of pine. The grand desideratum in the harbor works, 
 which is the want of continuity in the structure, would 
 then be supplied. It follows, from the known laws 
 of fluids, that each individual stone in a pier which is 
 equally exposed throughout its whole length, is subject- 
 
 ed to a force which it can only resist by its own inertia, 
 and the friction due to its contact with the adjoining 
 stones. The stability of a whole hydraulic work may 
 therefore be periled by the use of small stones in one 
 part of the fabric, while it is in no way increased by 
 the introduction of heavier stones into other parts. 
 By the use of long logs of timber carefully bolted 
 together a new element of strength is obviously ob- 
 tained. A pier could be erected almost free of sea risk 
 if constructed of rectangulai: or other shaped prisms, 
 consisting of logs of timber treenailed and bolted 
 together, so as to form boxes, say 10 feet square and 30 
 or 40 feet long. The interior of the boxes would be 
 filled with rubble or beton. The first layer would be 
 arranged across the pier, so as to fit the irregularities 
 of the bottom, and above that, they might be arranged 
 lengthwise of the pier, so as to form its outer and in- 
 ner walls, the space between being filled with common 
 rubble or heton. 
 
 In many ports the original depth lias been decreased 
 by the deposit of silt, sand, and gravel. This is, in- 
 deed, a great evil, and one which unfortunately is 
 most difiicult of cure. So obscure and apparently ca- 
 pricious are the causes which lead to the formation of 
 shoals, that in the present state of our knowledge it 
 would be little short of qUachery to lay down any gen- 
 eral rules for the guidance of the engineer. In fixing 
 on the site for a harbor, all existing obstructions 
 should b6j examined to ascertain whether there be a 
 tendency to deposit, and the works should be kept as 
 far as possible from places where the tendency is most 
 strongly developed. The agents which occasion bars 
 at the mouths of harbors are the waves, the tide cur- 
 rents, atnd land streams, where they exist. Eivers 
 are often more pernicious than beneficial in their 
 effects, especially where they intersect a gravelly soil ; 
 but in some cases the descending gravel may be suc- 
 cessfully intersected by the erectly of weirs from 
 which the accumulations must be from time to time 
 removed. We agree with Sir H. De la Beche in be- 
 lieving that the bars at the inouths of rivers are most 
 generally formed by the constant tendency of the 
 waves to preserve the continuity of the beach profile. 
 It is, therefore, not to be wondered at, that heavy 
 gales should distort and fill up the narrow trench 
 which the back waters cut in gravelly or sandy 
 beaches. The erection of breakwaters on each side 
 has undoubtedly a good effect in protecting the chan- 
 nel, but still a bar is very apt to form outside of 
 the breakwaters. In some cases the depth of the track 
 might probably be maintained by driving, on each 
 side of the mid-channel, dwarf piles to which contigu- 
 ous wallings should be attached so as to confine the 
 current at low water. The timber frame-work should 
 not project more than a foot or two above the bottom, 
 which in some cases might be planked. This, how- 
 ever, is but a hint, and has, so far as the author is 
 aware, never been tried. The principle on which the 
 proposal is based is that of contracting the low-water 
 
HAE 
 
 944 
 
 HAR 
 
 channel to a smaller width than that of the high-water 
 channel, and thus by fixing the low-water track, to 
 prevent a tortuous channel. The same principle was 
 adopted by the writer with success in controlling and 
 fixing the meanderings of a gravelly river, which iS 
 subject to very sudden and heavy freshets. 
 The following Table snows the different kinds ofr 
 "Wood which were made tub subject of ExpeeIjMEnt 
 AT THE Bell Eook in 1814, 1821, 1S87, and 1843, with 
 
 THEIE RELATIVE DURABILITIES. ' ' 
 
 Kind of Timber. 
 
 Green-heart. . 
 Teak-wood.. . 
 
 Treenail of locust 
 
 Beef-wood 
 
 Treenail of Bullet-wood . 
 African Oak 
 
 English " . 
 
 British " 
 
 English " kyanized.. 
 American Oak 
 
 Italian 
 Dantzic 
 Scotch 
 Baltic 
 
 Plane-tree.. 
 
 British Ash . . 
 
 Ash 
 
 English Elm. 
 
 " kyanized . 
 
 Scotch " 
 
 American " 
 
 Canada Rock Elm 
 
 Honduras Mahogany 
 
 " teak treenails . 
 Beech 
 
 " Payne's patent process. . 
 Cedar of Lebanon 
 
 Scotch Fir, teak treenails 
 
 '' from Lanarkshire. 
 
 " locust treenails.. 
 
 Memel Fir 
 
 Riga " 
 
 Dantzic " 
 
 Norway " 
 
 Baltic Red Pine 
 
 '' '' kyanized... . 
 Pitch Pine 
 
 Virginia Pine 
 
 Yellow " 
 
 Red *' 
 
 Cawdie " 
 
 American Yellow Pine 
 
 " locust treenails 
 
 " Red Pine 
 
 " " kyanized 
 
 Larch 
 
 Polish Larch 
 
 Birch, Payne's patent process. 
 
 Unsound 
 and quite 
 decayed. 
 
 12 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 5 
 3 1 
 
 2"6 
 8. 
 8 
 
 
 
 6 
 6 
 1 
 3 
 T 
 8 
 6 
 6 
 6 
 6 
 6 
 7 
 
 1 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 1 6 
 1 10 
 
 Quite 
 sound for 
 
 Yrs. Mo, 
 
 18 
 13 0' 
 
 3 
 13 
 5 
 
 a Affected in one corner. 
 
 i> Nearly sound 7J- years after being laid down. 
 
 c Nearly sound 7i years after being laid down. 
 
 '1 Decaying but slowly 5 years and 7 months after being 
 laid down. 
 
 e Much decayed when first observed. 
 
 f Decaying but slowly 5 years and 7 months after being 
 laid down. 
 
 (T Nearly sound 3^ years after being laid down. Washed 
 away fi months later. 
 
 h A little holed at one end underneath. 
 
 i A good deal decayed when first observed. 
 
 j Going fast when first observed. , 
 
 )c A good deal gone 18 months after being laid down. Swept 
 away by the sea 7 months afterward. 
 
 1 A good deal decayed when first observed, 
 
 m Going fast when first observed. 
 
 The want of sufficient funds occasions a great na- 
 tional loss in the construction of English harbors. The 
 history of a large majority of those ports which have 
 been erected by private or local enterprise, presents 
 but a record of the building of piers at one period when 
 the funds were small, and of taking them down at 
 
 another when the trade hadjncreased and more room 
 and accommodation were required. Want of funds 
 often prevents the original works from being carried 
 within deep water, and in consequence the most ex- 
 pensive part of the protecting;, breakwater is often put 
 down just in the very place which has afterward to be 
 converted, at great expense, mto a deep water access 
 or berthage. Sometimes, indeed, a whole line of pier is, 
 from imotives of economy, placed in such a^ manner as 
 to interfere r^ost materially ^with what might have 
 been by far the best and safest berths for shipping, so 
 that in the further extension of the works a great part 
 of the old harbor has to be dBmolished. Want of a 
 proper marine survey has also often led to verj^ seri- 
 ous errors ill the position of the spiers. To such an 
 extent has this system prevailed, that were an engineer 
 called on to value many of the works as they exist at 
 present, his estimate, however fairly and fully made 
 out, would fall lamentably short of the actual cost. 
 This estimate would proceed on a measurement of 
 what he sees,, while the actual cost would include the 
 building of piers and jetties which had long since 
 ceased to exist. For these reasons we conceive there 
 could hardly be a more advisable expenditure of the 
 public money than by a system of grants for supple- 
 menting the local funds on a liberal scale. With such 
 aid the authorities on the spot would be enabled to 
 protect and improve the existing physical advantages 
 which the shores possess, by preventing the construc- 
 tion of proposed improvements on too narrow a scale. 
 But a comparatively slight increase of the means would, 
 in instances of which the writer is aware, have in- 
 closed a great extra area, and secured a deeper access 
 with superior internal tranquillity, the want of which 
 now cripples the trade, and is the subject of lasting re- 
 gret to all frequenting the harbors. 
 
 For this article we are indebted to the pen of Thomas 
 Stevenson, Esq,, Civil Engineer, written for the Ency. 
 Brit., 8th ed., 1857. See vol. xi. 
 
 For other subjects connected with harbors vide arti- 
 cles on Docks and Ports. Reference may be made 
 to Bnt. Assoc. Rep.^ 1850, Scoresby ; Min. Inst. 
 Civ. Eng., 1848, Ran kin e ; do., 1847, Scott Rus- 
 sell ; Do., 1844, Bremner ; Smeaton's Reports^ 
 passim. ; Rep. Com. on Waves hyBrit. Assoc. ^ J. S. Rus- 
 sell, London, 1848 ; Researches on Hydrodynamics^ J. 
 S. Russell; Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xiv., 1837 ; 
 Account oj' Experiments on Eorce of Waves of Atlantic 
 and German Occam, Thomas Stevenson ; Trans. Roy. 
 Soc. Edin., vol. xvi., 1845; On Reduction of Height 
 of Wares after passing into Harbors, T. Stevenson ; 
 Edin. New Phil. Journ., 1852 ; Account of the Plymouth 
 Breakwater, by Sir J. Rennie, London, 1848 ; Beli- 
 dor's Architecture Hydraulique, Paris ; Semflb's 
 Treatise on Building in Water, Dublin, 1776 ; Roy(d 
 Tidal Harbor Commissions^ Reports, Captain Wash- 
 ington, London, 1845-6 ; the article on Tides and 
 Waves in the Encyclopedia Metropolitana, by G. B. 
 AiREY, Astronomer Royal ; Rep(yrt by Commissioners 
 of Harbors of Refuge, with the Protest, by Sir How- 
 ard Douglas. 
 
 Good harbors are of essential importance to a mari- 
 time nation ; and immense sums have been expended 
 in all countries ambitious of naval or commercial 
 greatness in their improvement and formation. British 
 Harbors. — Portsmouth, Milford Haven, and the Cove 
 of Cork, are the finest harbors in the British islands, 
 being surpassed by very few, if any, in the world. 
 Of these, Portsmouth is entitled to the pre-eminence. 
 This admirable harbor is about as wide at its mouth as 
 the Thames at Westminster Bridge, expanding within 
 into a noble basin, almost suificient to contain the 
 whole navy of Great Britain. Its entrance is unob- 
 structed by any bar or shallow ; and it has, through- 
 out, water adequate to float the largest men of war at 
 the lowest tides. The anchorage ground is excellent, 
 and it is entirely free from sunken rocks, sand-banks, 
 
HAR 
 
 945 
 
 HAR 
 
 or any similar obstructions. Tlie western side of the 
 liarbor is formed by the island of Portsea ; and on its 
 south-western extremity, at the entrance to the har- 
 bor, is situated the town of Portsmouth, and its large 
 and important suburb Portsea. Here are docks and 
 other establishments for the building, repair, and outfit 
 of ships of war, constructed upon a very large scale, 
 and furnished with everj' convenience. The fortifica- 
 tions that protect this great naval d4p6t are superior, 
 both as respects strength, and extent, to any other in 
 the Itingdom. " Thus," to use the words of Dr. Camp- 
 bell, " it appears that Portsmouth derives from nature 
 all the prerogatives the most fertile wits and most in,- 
 telligent judges could devise or desire ; and that these 
 have been well seconded by art, without consideration 
 of expense, which, in national iinprovements, is little 
 to be regarded. Add to all this the striking excellence 
 of its situation, which is such as if Providence had ex- 
 Jiressly determined it for that use to which we see it 
 applied, the bridling the power of France, and, if I 
 may BO speak, the peculiar residence of Neptune." 
 Portsmouth harbor has the additional and important 
 advantage of opening into the celebrated road of Spit- 
 head, between the . Hampshire coast and the I?le of 
 Wight, forming a safe and convenient retreat for the 
 largest fleets. Milford Haven deeply indents the 
 southern part of Pembrokeshire. It is of great extent, 
 and has many subordinate baj-s, creeks, and roads. 
 The water is deep, and the anchorage ground excel- 
 lent ; and being completely land-locked, ships lie as 
 safely as if they were in dock. Cork harbor has a 
 striking resemblance to that of Portsmouth, but is of 
 larger extent ; it has, like it, a narrow entrance, 
 leading into a capacious basin, affording a secure asy- 
 lum for anj' number of ships. Plj-mouth, which, after 
 Portsmouth, is the principal naval d^pot of England, 
 has an admirable double harbor. The roadstead in 
 Plymouth Sound has recently been much improved by 
 the construction, at a vast expense, of a stupendous 
 breakwater more than 1,700 yards in length. This 
 artificial bulwark protects the ship lying inside from 
 the effects of the heavy swell thrown into the Sound 
 by southerly and south-easterly winds. 
 
 London stands at the head of the river ports of 
 Great Britain. Considering the limited course of the 
 Thames, there is, probablj"", no river that is navigable 
 for large sliips to so great a distance from sea, or 
 whose mouth is less obstructed by banks. London is 
 mainly indebted for her unrivaled magnitude to her 
 favorable situation on this noble river; which not 
 -)nly gives her all the advantages of an excellent port, 
 accessible at all times to the largest ships, but renders 
 her the emporium of the extensive, rich, and populous 
 country comprised in the basin of the Thames. The 
 Mersey, now the first commercial river in the empire, 
 is more incommoded by banks than the Thames ; and 
 is in all respects inferior, as a channel of navigation, 
 to the latter. Still, however, it gives to Liverpool 
 very great advantages ; and the channels being well 
 buoyed and marked, the largest ships have little diffi- 
 culty in reaching the port. The principal channels 
 are laid down in the map of Liverpool and its environs 
 attached to the article Docks, Ency. Brit. 
 
 Bristol and Hull are both river ports. Owing to 
 the extraordinary rise of the tide in the Bristol Chan- 
 nel, the former is accessible to the largest ships. The 
 Humber is a good deal impeded by banks ; but it also 
 .s navigable as far as Hull, by large vessels. The 
 Tyne admits vessels of very considerable burden as far 
 as Newcastle. Sunderland, at the mouth of the Weir, 
 ia the principal ship-building port in the United King- 
 dom and has, after Liverpool and London, the greatest 
 amount of shipping. The shallowness of the Clyde 
 from Greenock up to Glasgow has been a serious draw- 
 back upon the commercial progress of the latter. 
 Large sums hiive been expended in attempts to con- 
 tract the course and to deepen the bed of the river ; 
 Oo o 
 
 and they have been so far successful, that ships draw- 
 ing 19 and even 20 feet have come up to the city at 
 high water. In 1852, 74 vessels drawing 17 feet of 
 water, and 18 drawing 18 feet, arrived at Glasgow, 
 which is now one of the principal commercial ports in 
 the empire. Generally speaking, the harbors on the 
 east coasts, both of Great Britain and Ireland, are, 
 with the exception of the Thames, very inferior to 
 those on their south and west coast. Several harbors 
 on the shores of Sussex, Kent, Lincoln, etc., that once 
 admitted pretty large ships, are now completely choked 
 up hy sand. Large sums have been expended upon 
 the ports of Yarmouth, Boston, Stmderland, Leith, 
 Dundee, Aberdeen, etc. Dublin harbor being natur- 
 ally bad, and obstructed by a bar, a new harbor has 
 been formed, at a great expense, at Kingstown, with- 
 out the bar, in deep water. — Bee Tides. 
 
 Ports. — The reader will find the principal commer- 
 cial harbors described in this work at considerable 
 length under their respective titles. The principal 
 French ports for the accommodation of men-of-war are 
 Brest, Toulon, and Cherbourg. The latter has been 
 very greatly improved hy the construction of a gigan- 
 tic breakwater, and the excavation of immense basins. 
 Besides Cadiz, the principal ports for the Spanish navy 
 are Ferrol and Carthagena. Cronstadt is the princi- 
 pal rendezvous of the Russian navy ; Landscrona, of 
 that of Sweden ; and the Holder, of that of Holland. 
 
 Number of Harbors in tub diffzuent States on tuk 
 Coast, and the pkihcipal ones on Kiveks to tub Hbai 
 OF Tide. 
 
 states. No. ofhivrborfl. 
 
 Maine 63 
 
 New Ilampsbire S 
 
 Massachusetts 51 
 
 Ehode Island T 
 
 Connecticut 33 
 
 New York 27 
 
 New Jersey 14 
 
 Pennsylvania 3 
 
 Total. 
 
 189 
 
 Delaware 3 
 
 Maryland 11 
 
 Virginia 22 
 
 Table Showing tub Siioub Line of States on the At- 
 lantic Coast and Gulf op Mexico. 
 
 Stfttos. No. of hnrbortf. 
 
 Nortli Catolina 52 
 
 South Cai-olina 21 
 
 Georgia...; 15 
 
 Florida..' 66 
 
 Alabama 4 
 
 Mississippi 10 
 
 Louisiana 33 
 
 Texas 12 
 
 249 
 
 Maine 
 
 New Hampsliire. 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Eliode Island 
 
 Connecticut. 
 
 New York 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Virginia 
 
 Nortli Carolina. . , 
 South Carolina. . , 
 
 Georgia. 
 
 Florida 
 
 Alabama. • 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Texas... 
 
 Total. 
 
 Miles. 
 
 43T 
 18 
 
 209 
 65 
 14 
 
 114 
 
 118 
 
 "29 
 44 
 14S 
 239 
 193 
 76 
 1,020 
 38 
 42 
 616 
 858 
 
 Miles. 
 
 1,699 
 
 87 
 
 865 
 
 IBS 
 
 702 
 
 186 
 
 1,008 
 785 
 
 1,549 
 856 
 410 
 
 3,005 
 234 
 206 
 
 1,595 
 
 1,284 
 
 u 
 
 
 Milea. 
 
 427 
 
 24 
 
 T08 
 468 
 860 
 813 
 137 
 936 
 432 
 
 d .. « 
 
 Ill 
 
 Miles. 
 
 2,026 
 
 50 
 
 1,074 
 
 2.S3 
 
 208 
 
 1,074 
 
 268 
 
 1,067 
 
 1,000 
 
 I,')! 
 
 820 
 
 106 
 
 
 506 
 
 165 
 
 8,401 
 
 1,052 
 
 1,690 
 
 888 
 
 1,848 
 548 
 486 
 
 4,025 
 817 
 24S 
 
 2,211 
 
 1,6.3T 
 
 a ilia 
 all's? 
 
 Miles, 
 
 2,458 
 
 74 
 
 1,906 
 
 440 
 
 1,.32T 
 
 2,067 
 
 971 
 
 106 
 
 .671 
 
 1,453 
 
 2,573 
 
 2,780 
 
 1,256 
 
 954 
 
 4,885 
 
 680 
 
 885 
 
 3,147 
 
 2,069 
 
 14,286 I 18,851 83,187 
 
 Total northern. 
 Total southern. . 
 
 Mites, 
 9,834 
 
 Total 83,137 
 
 For full description of the various harbors in the 
 United States showing depth of water, accessibility, 
 shoals, lights, etc., the reader is referred to the cities 
 described separately in this work. See article Coast 
 Survey: see, also. Hunt's Mer. Mag., ix,, vol. ii., 
 309 ; South. Lit. Mess., xx., p, 25, vol. xi. 
 
 According to an act of Congress, 1813, the President 
 
HAR 
 
 946 
 
 HAR 
 
 of the United States, with the consent of the State 
 authorities, is authorized, for the defense or security of 
 any of the ports or harbors of the United States in 
 time of war, to sink hulks and other impediments at 
 the mouth of such harbors, to prevent the ingress of 
 the enemy. Dunlap's Digest, p. 500. 
 
 Harburg, a sea-port town of Hanover, province 
 of Luneburg, on the left bank of the southern branch 
 of the Elbe, opposite Hamburg, which stands on the 
 right bank of the northern branch of that river. The 
 distance between Harburg and Hamburg is about A\ 
 miles, and regular steam communication is maintained 
 between them at least six or eight times a day. Har- 
 burg communicates also with Hanover by a railway, 
 and carries on a considerable trade, chiefly transit, be- 
 tween Hamburg and the countries south of the Elbe. 
 It has manufactures of linen, hosiery, soap, starch, re- 
 fined wax, leather, etc. It is a place of some strength, 
 being surrounded by walls, and defended by a citadel. 
 Population, 5500. 
 
 Hardness, that property in bodies by which the}'- 
 resist abrasion from the impression of any other sub- 
 stance. The method pursued in constructing tables 
 of the hardness of different substances is by observing 
 the order in which the articles tried are capable of 
 cutting or scratching one another. The following 
 table, extracted from Magellan's edition , of Cron- 
 stedt's Mineralogy^ was taken from Quist, Bergman, 
 and Kirwan : 
 
 Hnrd- Spec Hard- Spec, 
 
 ness, grav, nesB, grnv 
 
 Diamond, Ormus.. 20 3'7 " ^ 
 
 Pink diamond 19 8.4 
 
 Bluisii do 19 8-3 
 
 Yellowish do 19 8 3 
 
 Cubic do 13 8-3 
 
 Eubv IT 4-2 
 
 Pale Euby, Brazil. 16 3-5 
 
 Kubyspinell 13 8-4 
 
 D''p blue sapphire. 16 38 
 
 Ditto paler IT 3 8 
 
 TopaK 15 42 
 
 Whitish do 14 8-5 
 
 Bohemian do 11 2-8 
 
 Emerald 12 2.8 
 
 Oainet 12 44 
 
 Agate 1-2 2*6 
 
 Onyx 12 '2.6 
 
 A similar but shorter table is now generally used, 
 in which diamond is rated at 10. 
 
 Hard'waTe (G^v. Kurze waaren; Du. Tzerhram- 
 eri/ ; Da. Jsenkramvarer ; Sw. Jdmkram ; Fr. Clin- 
 quaiUerie, Quincalllerie ; It. Chincaglio ; Sp. Quinquil- 
 leria; Port. Quincalharia ; Rus. Mjelotzchnue towarii') 
 includes every kind of goods manufactured from met- 
 als, comprising iron, brass, steel, and copper articles 
 of all descriptions. Birmingham and Sheffield are the 
 principal seats of the British hardware manufactures ; 
 and from these, immense quantities of knives, razors, 
 scissors, gilt and plated ware, fire-arniP, etc., are sup- 
 plied, as well for exportation to most parts of the 
 world, as for home consumption. The hardware manu- 
 facture is one of the most important carried on in Great 
 Britain, and from the abundance of irun, tin, and cop- 
 per ores in the countr}*-, and the inexhaustible coal 
 mines, it is one which seems to be established on a 
 very secure foundation. The laie Mr. Stevenson, in 
 his elaborate and excellent article on the statistics of 
 England, in the Edinhurg Encyclopmdia^ published in 
 1815j estimated the value of all the articles made of 
 iron in Great Britain, at £10,000,000, and the persons 
 employed in the trade at 200,000. Mr. Stevenson es- 
 timated the value of all the articles made of brass and 
 copper at £3,000,000, and the persons employed at 
 50 000 : and he further estimated the value of steel, 
 plated, and hardware articles, including toys, at £4,- 
 000,000, and the persons employed at 70,000. So 
 fchat, assuming these estimates to be nearly correct, 
 the total value of the goods produced from different 
 sorts of metals in England and Wales, in 1815, must 
 Jiave amounted to the sum of £17,000,000, and the 
 
 Sardonyx 12 
 
 Ocei amethyst 11 
 
 Crystal 11 
 
 Cornelian 11 
 
 Green jasper 11 
 
 Eod. Yel do 9 
 
 Bchoerl 10 
 
 Touvmalin. 10 
 
 Quartz 10 
 
 Opal 10 
 
 Chrysolite 10 
 
 Zeolite S 
 
 Fluor 7 
 
 Calcareous spar. . . 6 
 
 Gypsum 5 
 
 Chalk 3 
 
 persons employed to 320,000. There is reason to be- 
 lieve that this estimate, in so far, at least, as respects 
 the value of the manufactui-e, was at the time decided- 
 ly too high ; but at this moment it is most probably 
 within the mark. There has been a verj"- extraordi- 
 nary augmentation of the quantity of bar and pig 
 iron produced within the last 15 years ; and the rapid 
 increase of Birmingham and Sheffield, as well as of 
 the smaller seats of the hardware manufacture, shows 
 that it has been increased in a corresponding propor- 
 tion. We have been assured, by those well acquainted 
 with most departments of the trade, that if to the iron 
 and other hardware manufactures of England be added 
 those of Scotland, their total aggregate value can not 
 now be reckoned at less than £17,500,000 a year, 
 affording direct employment, in the various depait- 
 ments of the trade, for at least 360,000 persons. 
 
 Fall of Prices. — Owing partly to the reduced cost 
 of iron, but incomparably more to improvements in 
 manufacturing, »■ yery extraordinary fall has taken 
 place in the price of most hardware articles during the 
 last 15 or 18 years. In some articles the fall exceeds 
 80 per cent. ; and there are but few in which it does 
 not exceed 30 per cent. In consequence, the poorest 
 individuals are now able to supply themselves with an 
 infinite variety of <;ommodious and useful articles, 
 which, half a century ago, were either wholly un- 
 known, or were too dear to be purchased by any but 
 the richer classes. And those who reflect on the im- 
 portance of the prevalence of habits of cleanliness and 
 neatness, will readily agree with us in thinking that 
 the substitution of the convenient and beautiful hard- 
 ware and earthenware household articles, that are now 
 everywhere to be met with, for the wooden and horn 
 articles used by our ancestors, has been in no ordinary 
 degree advantageous. But it is not in this respect 
 only that the cheapness and improvement of hard- 
 ware is essential. Many of the most powerful and 
 indispensable tools and instruments used by the la- 
 borer come under this description ; and every one is 
 aware how important it is that they should be at once 
 cheap and efficient. See Cutlery and luox. 
 
 Dr. Friedenberg in his German translation of Bah- 
 hage's Economy of Machinery and Manufactures gives 
 some curious information concerning the Berlin cast- 
 ings. Such are the fineness and delicacy of the sep- 
 arate arabesques, rosettes, medallions, etc., of which 
 the larger ornaments are composed, that it sometimes 
 requires nearly 10,000 of them to make a pound 
 weight. The gray iron from which they are made 
 may be taken as being worth about Cs. per cwt. ; 
 and the following table drawn up from the price-list 
 of a Berlin manufacturer, a few years ago, will show 
 to what an almost incredible height this value per 
 cwt. is increased : 
 
 Articles. 
 
 Buckles, 8J iciehes long by 2^ broad. 
 Neck-chains, 18 inchts long by 1 j 
 
 broad, in 40 pieces j 
 
 Bracelets, 7 inches long by 2 broad, i 
 
 in 72 pieces pairs j 
 
 Diadems, 7^ inches high by 5i 
 
 broad 
 
 Sevigne points, 2^ inches long by 
 
 H broad 
 
 Sevigne ear-rings, 3 inches long by 
 
 s broad, in 24 pieces pairs 
 
 Shirt buttons 
 
 Vumber lo 
 1 cwt. 
 
 Pnco 
 end,. 
 
 Prico 
 nercwi. 
 
 2,640 
 
 .. d. 
 2 6 
 
 sm 
 
 2,310 
 
 6 
 
 693 
 
 2,090 
 
 S 6 
 
 sso 
 
 1,100 
 
 16 6 
 
 90T 
 
 9,020 
 
 4 6 
 
 2,029 
 
 10,450 
 
 5 8 
 
 2,743 
 
 88,440 
 
 8 
 
 2,943 
 
 We here fmd that iron in the form of shirt buttons 
 commanded a market at a price nearly 10,000 times as 
 great as that which it sold for as graj' iron ! And 
 about the year 1820, when the fashion was at its height, 
 the v;alue was still greater ; for these iron ornaments 
 then sold for nearly their weight in gold. The great 
 saleable value of these productions has led to a result 
 similar to that which so many other branches of in- 
 dustry exhibit ; obscure manufacturers make molds 
 from the casts which others had been at the expense 
 
HAT 
 
 947 
 
 HAT 
 
 of designing and modeling, and produce inferior and 
 cheap specimens from tliese molds. The real Berlin 
 castings worthy of the name (such we may presume 
 as those which graced the Great Exhibition), must 
 always command a high price if sold at all, from the ex- 
 traordinarj' care required in their production. — Dodd's 
 Curiosities of Industry, London, 1856. 
 
 Harmonica, a musical instrument, consisting of 
 a number of glass cups fixed upon a revolving spin- 
 dle, and made to vibrate hy friction applied to their 
 edges. Mr. Puckeridge, an Irishman, is said to have 
 been the first to use a set of drinking-glasses, fixed on 
 a table, and tuned to form a scale by putting more or 
 less water into each. They were made to sound by 
 passing a wet finger round their edges. These were 
 improved by Mr. Delaval, and still further by Dr. 
 Franldin, and were called "the musical glasses." 
 Their tone is sweet and melancholy, and of a peculiar 
 timbre, which produces a painful effect on the nerves of 
 some persons. It appears, however, that the use of mu- 
 sical drinking-glasses was described in a work (^Maihe- 
 maiische und Philosophische Erquicksiunden), published 
 by G. P. Harsdorfer, at Nuremberg in 1677. What 
 was called a harpsichord-harmonica, in which finger- 
 keys like those of a piano-forte were used instead of 
 direct contact of the fingers with the revolving glasses, 
 was invented by Rolling at Vienna, and Klein at Pres- 
 burg. Another harmonica was invented b}' the Abate 
 Mazzucshi, who emploj-ed the friction of a hair-bow 
 to produce the sounds of the glasses. A stringed har- 
 monica was invented at Augusta, in 1788, by John 
 Stein, an, eminent organ-builder. It consisted of a 
 double stringed (wired) piano-forte, combined with a 
 sort of spinnet, to be used together or separately. Its 
 effects are said to have been remarkable. 
 
 Harp. It is traced to the earliest nations. David 
 played on the harp before Saul. — 1 Sam, xvi. 23. The 
 l3're'of the Greeks is the harp of the moderns. The 
 Komans had their harp ; so had the Jews, but it had 
 very few strings. The Cimbri or English Saxons had 
 this instrument. The celebrated Welsh harp was 
 strung with gut ; and the Irish harp, like the more 
 ancient harps, with wire. 
 
 Harpagiues (apiTdyn), in Antiquity, grappling- 
 irons which were flung with violence against the rig- 
 ging of an enemy's ship, and, when entangled there, 
 were used to drag the ship within reach, so that it 
 might be boarded to more advantage, or destroyed. 
 
 Harpings, the fore part of the wales which en- 
 compass the bow of a ship, and are fastened to the 
 stem, being thicker than the after-part of the wales, 
 in order to strengthen the ship in this place, where she 
 sustains the greatest shock of resistance in plunging 
 into the sea, or dividing it, under a great pressure of sail. 
 
 Harpoon, or Harping-Iron, a spear or javelin 
 used for striking whales, etc. The gun-harpoon is a 
 weapon used for the same purpose, but it is fired from 
 a gun instead of being thrown by the hand. It is 
 formed entirelj' of metal, and has a chain attached to 
 it, to which the line is fastened. See ScObesby's 
 Arctic Regions. Ilarpooner, the man that throws the 
 harpoon in fishing for whales. 
 
 Hats (Ger. Bute; Du. Hoeden; Fr. Chapeaux^ It. 
 Capelli; Sp. Sombreros; Yias. ScUopii), coverings for 
 the head in very general use. Thej' are made of very 
 various forms and sorts of material. They may, how- 
 ever, be divided into two great classes, viz, those made 
 of fur, wool, silk, etc., and those made of straw ; the 
 former being principally worn by men, and -the latter 
 by women. Hat is a term of Saxon derivation, from 
 haet, ii cover for the head. It is sometimes called 
 castor, from its being made of the fur of the castor or 
 beaver. As a piece of dress, the period of its intro- 
 duction is not certain, although it may with great 
 probability be referred to the early distinctions of 
 Roman Catholic dignitaries. Froissart chronicles, 
 that it was " saide to the cardynals, Sirs, advyse you 
 
 if ye delyvere us a Pope Eomayne, we be content, or 
 els we well maike your heddes reeder than J'our 
 hattes be ;" from which, and from many other docu- 
 ments, it appears that at this period, as well as for 
 some centuries after, hats were generally of a scarlet 
 or red color, and made of " a fine kinde of haire matted 
 thegither," A "hatte of biever," about the middle 
 of the 12th century, was worn by some one of the 
 " nobels of the lande, mett at Clarendom ;" and Frois- 
 sart describes hats and plumes which were worn at 
 Edward's court in 1340, when the Garter order was 
 instituted. In the diary of Henry's secretarj-, there is 
 "ane scarlet beever hatte" presented on New Year's 
 day, 1443. Even at this early period hats were of 
 various shapes, both in the crowns and the brims- — 
 the latter being chiefly broad, sometimes narrowing 
 toward the back, and a little bent up and scooped in 
 front. In Henry's privy purse expenses, during his 
 congress with Francis I. in 1520 or 1521, there is " peid 
 for a hatte and plume for the king, in Bolejm, xv'> ;" 
 and in Wolsey's inventorj', taken on his resigning 
 the great seal to Sir Thomas More, there are no fewer 
 than five mentioned. The fashion of this article was 
 then much more diversely capricious than even now, 
 as will appear from an extract from Stubb's ATiatomie 
 of Aivses, published about 1585: "Sometimes they 
 use them sharpe on the crowne, pearking up like the 
 spire or shaft of a steeple, standing a quarter of a yard 
 above the crowne of theire heads ; some more, some 
 lesse, as please the fantasies of their inconstant 
 mindes. Othersome be flat, and broade on the crowne, 
 lilce the battlements of a house. Another sorte have 
 rounde crownes, sometimes with one kind of bande, 
 sometimes with another; now black, now white, now 
 russed, now redde, now grene, now yellow ; now this, 
 now that ; never content with one colour or fashion 
 two dales to an end. And as the fashions be rare and 
 strange, so is the stuffe whereof their hattes be made 
 divers also ; for some are silli;, some of velvet, some of 
 taffetie, some of sarsnet, some of wool, and which is 
 more curious, some of a certaine kinde of fine haixe ; 
 these they call bever hattes, of xx. xxx. or xl. shil- 
 lings price, fetched from beyonde the seas, from 
 whence great sorte of other vanities doe come besides ; 
 and so common a thing it is, that every servyng man, 
 countreiman, and other, even all indifferentl}', doe 
 weare of these hattes." About the beginning of 1700, 
 the crowns of hats were mostly round, much lower 
 than before, and had very broad brims, resembling 
 what are now ocbasionally called Quakers' hats, the 
 protusive incumbrance of which soon suggested the 
 convenience of their being turned up in front ; fashion 
 dictated the upbending of another side or flap, and 
 ultimately a third, so that by this progress, in 1704, 
 the regular three-cocked hat became the order of the 
 day, when feathers ceased to be usually worn. Near 
 the middle of the 18th century, a round-edged but flat- 
 topped and fuU-brimmed hat got into very general- use, 
 and the flat and other cocked hats now dwindled 
 almost into a mere distinction of real or assumed rank. 
 25 years after this, a very near approach to that of the 
 present times became fashionable, and, within 10 
 years, altogether superseded the ordinarj- use of the 
 cumbrous and antique cock. 
 
 Plumes, jewels, silk loops, rosettes, badges, gold 
 and silver bands and loops, have at various periods 
 ornamented this article of dress ; metal bands and 
 loops being now esteemed proper onl}' to naval and 
 military "men of honor," and the humble liveried 
 attendants on state, rank, and ofiicial dignit3^ The 
 opera or soft-folding hat is the only relic at present 
 in general use of the hats worn by our grandfathers, 
 although it is not improbable that the mutations of 
 fashion may re-introduce the elegant Spanish hat as 
 the precursor, perhaps, of various other styles, as well 
 as the cooked hat, which are not yet entirely discarded. 
 
 In the Great Exhibition of 1851 several very novel 
 
HAT 
 
 948 
 
 HAT 
 
 styles of hat were introduced by exhibitors. It is 
 remarked in the Jurj' Report respecting them that ' ' in 
 
 an article of fashion and of such constant use as hats, 
 it does not appear to be easy to change the habits and 
 tastes of the wearers, or to induce them to adopt a new 
 costume." 
 
 Until recent times hats were chiefly produced by 
 the art of felting, an art which some persons suppose 
 to have been practiced by the nations of antiquity. It 
 is thought that lana coacia, used for soldiers' cloaks 
 and for Lacedemonian hats, was felted wool, but 
 others state that it was only knitted wool. In Roman 
 Catholic countries, St. Clement is the reputed inventor 
 of felt. This personage is said to have put carded 
 wool into his sandals to protect his feet during a piU 
 grimage, and that the effect of the moisture, warmth, 
 and friction converted the wool into a felted cloth. 
 The hatters' annual festival is on the 23d November, 
 St. Clement's day. 
 
 Hat-making embraces two distinct kinds of manu- 
 facture, viz., of felted and covered hats— the covering 
 of the latter being generally plush. Felted hats com- 
 prehend two classes, differing chiefly in the materials 
 used in making — the processes being nearly identical. 
 The lower class is marked by inferior ingredients, 
 unmixed with beaver, and embraces wool, plated and 
 short nap hats. Wool hats are made entirely of coarse 
 native wool and hair stiffened with glue. Before the 
 emancipation act these hats were largely exported for 
 negroes' wear ; but the manufacture is now almost 
 extinct. Plates have a nap or pile rather finer than 
 their body, and are sometimes waterproof stiffened. 
 Short naps are distinguished from plates by additional 
 kinds of wool, viz., hare's back, seal, neuter or nutria, 
 musquash (Muscovy cat), and are all waterproof stiff- 
 ened. 
 
 The second class may be said to comprehend two 
 orders, called stu^sinA beaver hats. The first includes 
 mottled and stuff bodies. The latter term is not used 
 generally, as all stuffs are understood to be of this 
 sort when mottled is not expressed. Mottled bodies 
 are made chiefly of fine Spanish wool, and inferior 
 rabbit down or coney wool. /Stuff bodies consist of the 
 best hare, Saxony, and red wools, mixed with Cash- 
 mere hair and silks. Stuff hats are napped, that is, 
 covered with pile of mixed seal, neuter, harems back, 
 inferior beaver, and musquash. Beaver hats are, or 
 ought to be, napped with beaver only 5 the lower- 
 priced qualities with brown wooms taken from the 
 back ; the more valuable kinds with cheek and white 
 wooms, such being the finest parts of the fur found on 
 the belly and cheeks of the beaver. 
 
 The manufacture of a beaver hat involves a number 
 of curious and interesting processes, the most import- 
 ant of which is felting, or the art of combining animal 
 fibres in such a way as to form, without weaving, a 
 thick compact cloth. The felting property of animal 
 fibres depends on their peculiar structure, which, as 
 revealed by the microscope, appears to be notched or 
 jagged at the edges, with teeth directed from the root 
 toward the extremity. "Wool in the yolk, or with the 
 natural grease adhering to it, does not readily felt, 
 the jagged portions being smoothed over or filled up 
 with the oil ; but when the fibres of clean wool or hair 
 are made to undergo a gentle friction under the influ- 
 ence of moisture and heat, they readily felt together. 
 
 Several of the furs mentioned above are used for 
 hats. The beaver has been so assiduously hunted 
 during many years that it is now becoming a rarity, 
 and the fur of other animals is substituted for it. The 
 coypu furnishes nutria skin ; the musquash or musk- 
 rat, the hare, and the rabbit, yield fur for the nap of 
 the hat, while the body is made of lamb's wool, or of 
 the woolly hair of the llama or vicuna. A beaver hat, 
 properly so called, has a body or foundation of rabbits' 
 fur, with a. beaver nap, although the beaver, for the 
 reason above stated, is often mixed with a more com- 
 
 mon fur. Such a hat has a pleasant softness and 
 plasticity, and readily molds itself to the shape of the 
 head, presenting ^ marked contrast to the hard, homy, 
 silk hat, which has nearly superseded it. Still, how- 
 ever, there must always be certain persons who, not 
 objecting -to the price, will continue to keep alive this, 
 the most interesting branch of the hat manufacture. 
 See Fur Trade. 
 
 Statement of the Foreign Expokts of Hats from the 
 UiriTED States foe thr Yeab ending June 80th, 1S56. 
 
 Whither ei5)orted. 
 
 Danish West, Indies. 
 Dutch "West indies. . 
 
 Dutch Guiana 
 
 Belgium 
 
 England 
 
 Canada 
 
 Other Bri. N, A. Pes. 
 British West Indies. 
 British Honduras. . . . 
 
 British Guiana 
 
 Br. Pes, in Africa.. . , 
 
 British Australia 
 
 France on the At 
 
 France on the Med... 
 
 Fr. Nor. Ato. Pos 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Porto Eico 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Madeira 
 
 Cape de Verd Isls 
 
 Ports in Africa 
 
 Hayti 
 
 San Domingo 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Central Kepublic 
 
 New Granada ^ 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Uruguay. 
 
 Buenos Ayrea 
 
 Chili 
 
 Peru 
 
 Sandwich Islands — 
 
 China 
 
 Whale Fisheries 
 
 Total 
 
 From warehouse.. 
 Not from warehouse, 
 
 Hats, caps, 
 and bonneM, 
 flats, brfiMs, 
 
 plat [El, etc. 
 
 Of Leghorn, 
 Btraw, chip, 
 
 or grns?, elr. 
 
 $T96 
 
 "200 
 22,184 
 T,878 
 
 4,444 
 
 2,8T2 
 
 160 
 
 8'e99 
 
 495 
 
 709 
 
 2,564 
 
 TOO 
 6,603 
 2,806 
 
 3,821 
 
 ' '295 
 
 Silk and manufncturea of Bilk, 
 
 $60,175 
 
 $27,847 
 
 258 
 80 
 
 113,488 
 29,764 
 
 1,814 
 1,187 
 
 2,654 
 1,710 
 
 65 
 1,680 
 
 "■47 
 
 Xik 
 
 1,456 
 
 699 
 
 1,095 
 
 81 
 
 1,042 
 
 8,947 
 955 
 
 Hats of 
 palm-leaf. 
 
 $2,026 
 148 
 
 7,678 
 
 3,962 
 
 645 
 
 1,789 
 
 80 
 
 820 
 
 198 
 
 84 
 19,057 
 1,088 
 
 120 
 
 189 
 
 1,080 
 
 8,784 
 
 1,473 
 
 27 
 
 601 
 2,866 
 1,065 
 1,429 
 9,619 
 
 8T0 
 
 120 
 "40 
 
 Hats and 
 bonnets. 
 
 $14,117 
 
 120 
 
 $14,287 
 
 $14,117 
 120 
 
 Statement buowing the Foreign Imports of Hats 
 INTO THE United States for the Year ending, 
 June SOtii, 1856. 
 
 whence imported. 
 
 Danish West Indies 
 
 Hamburg. 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Holland 
 
 Dutch "West Indies 
 
 Dutch Guiana 
 
 Belgium 
 
 England 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Gibraltar. 
 
 Canada ". 
 
 Other Brit. N. Amer. Pos . . . . 
 
 British West Indies 
 
 British East Indies 
 
 France on the Atlantic 
 
 France on the Mediterranean.. 
 
 Spain on the Atlantic 
 
 Spain on the Mediterranean. . . 
 
 Philippine Islands 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Tuscany. 
 
 Other ports in Africa 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Central Eepublic 
 
 New Granada 
 
 China 
 
 Total 
 
 Sill£ and manufactures of silk. 
 
 Hats and 
 bonnets. 
 
 Hats, .caps, and 
 bonnets, flats, 
 braids, plaits, 
 etc., 01 Leg- 
 horn, straw, 
 cliip, or gross, 
 etc. 
 
 $28 
 2,881 
 
 4.54 
 
 16,629 
 
 275 
 
 79,987 
 
 282 
 
 2,553 
 
 $1U2,«27 
 
 $16,684 
 
 954 
 
 51,468 
 
 87 
 
 101,549 
 
 2,248 
 
 6,463 
 
 881,828 
 
 1,427 
 
 8,886 
 
 5,262 
 
 48 
 
 16,965 
 
 285 
 
 387,798 
 
 616 
 
 149 
 
 16,811 
 
 51 
 27 
 
 ■"81 
 
 184'769 
 
 $221,795 
 
 Straw HatJy. — It is most probable that the idea of 
 plaiting straws was first suggested hy the making of 
 baskets of oziers and willow, alluded to by Virgil, in his 
 
HAT 
 
 a49 
 
 HAV 
 
 Pattoraii, as one of the pursuits of the agricultural 
 population of Italy. We are^ ignorant of the period 
 when the manufacture of straw plait first became of 
 importance in that country ; but it ' appears from 
 Cokyat'9 Crudities, published in 1611, that " the most 
 delicate strawen hats" were worn by both men and 
 women in many places of Piedmont, "many of them 
 having at least an hundred seames." It is evident, 
 therefore, that the art of straw plaiting must have 
 arrived at great perfection upward of two centuries 
 since ; but it does not appear to have been followed in 
 England for more than 70 or 80 years, as it is within 
 the remembrance of some of the old inhabitants of the 
 straw districts, now alive, that the wives and daugh- 
 ters of the farmers used to plait straw for making their 
 own bonnets, before straw-plaiting became established 
 as a manufacture. In fact, the custom, among the 
 women of England, of wearing bonnets, is compar- 
 atively modern. It is scarcelj' 100 years since " hoods 
 and pinners^^ were generally worn, and it was only the 
 ladies of q,uality who wore small silk hats. See Mal- 
 colm's Maimers and Customs. - 
 
 Hatch, in mining, an opening into a mine, or in 
 search of one. The term hMches .is also applied to the 
 earthen damsused in Cornwall to prevent the water 
 that issues from the stream-works and tin-washes from 
 Tunning into the fresh rivers. Hatch, or hatches, 
 properly the grate or frame of cross-bars laid over a 
 ship's deck, now denominated " hatch-bars." The lid 
 or cover of a hatchway is also called hatches. Hatch 
 is sometimes applied to the opening in the ship's deck; 
 but tliis is properly called the hatchway. 
 
 Hatch^xray, a square or oblong opening in the 
 deck of a ship, affording a passage into the hold, or 
 from one deck to another. Hatchway. is also applied' 
 to the passage through a falling door in the top of a 
 house. In ships, the main-hatchway is placed before 
 the mainmast, and is the largest in the ship ; the fore- 
 
 hatchway is a little abaft the foremast, or at the break 
 of the forecastle ; and the after-hatchway between the 
 mainmast and the mizzen. 
 
 Haul, the sea term for pulling upon a rope direotly. 
 To haul the wind, to bring a ship to sail close by the 
 wind after running in some other direction. 
 
 Havana, or Havaunab, on the north coast of the 
 noble island of Cuba, of which it is the capital, the 
 Moro castle being, according to Humboldt, in lat. 23° 
 8' 15" N., long. 82° 22' 45" W. The population of 
 the city and suburbs is said to be (1851), little short 
 of 200,000. In 1827, the resident population amounted 
 to 94,023; viz., 46,621 whites, 8,215 free colored, 16,347 
 free blacks, 1,010 colored slaves, and 22,830 black 
 slaves, The port of Havana is the finest in the West 
 Indies, or, perhaps, in the world. The entrance is 
 narrow, but the water is deep, without bar or obstruc- 
 tion of any sort, and within it expands into a magnifi- 
 cent bay, capable of accommodating 1000 large ships ; 
 vessels of the greatest draught of water coming close 
 to the quays. The city lies along the entrance to, and 
 on the west side of, the bay. 
 
 From its position, which commands both inlets to the 
 Gulf of Mexico, its great strength, and excellent har- 
 bor, Havana is, in a political point of view, by far the 
 most important maritime station in the West Indies. 
 As a commercial city, it also ranks in the first class ; 
 being, in this respect, second to none in the New 
 World, New York only excepted. For a long period, 
 Havana engrossed almost the whole foreign trade of 
 Cuba ; but since the relaxation of the old colonial sys- 
 tem, various ports, such, for instance, as Matanzas, 
 that were hardly known 30 years ago, have become 
 places of great commercial importance. The rapid 
 extension of the commerce of Havana is, therefore, 
 entirely to be ascribed to the freedom it now enjoys, 
 and to the great increase of wealth and population in 
 the city, and generally throughout the island; 
 
HAV 
 
 950 
 
 HAV 
 
 The suburb Regla is on the opposite side. The 
 Moro and Punta castles, the former on the east, and 
 the latter on the west side of the entrance of the har- 
 bor, are strongly fortified, as is the entire city ; the 
 citadel is also a place of great strength ; the fortifica- 
 tions have been erected on such of the neighboring 
 heights as command the city or port. The arsenal 
 and dockyard lie toward the western angle of the 
 bay, to the south of the city. In the, city, the streets 
 are narrow, inconvenient, and filthy ; but in the sub- 
 urbs, now as extensive as the city, they are wider and 
 better laid out. Latterly, too, the police and cleanli- 
 ness of all parts of the town have been materially 
 improved. 
 
 The advance of Cuba, during the last half century, 
 has been ver}^ great ; though not more, perhaps, than 
 might have been expected, from its natural advan- 
 tages, at least since its ports were freely opened to for- 
 eigners in 1809. It is at once the largest and the best 
 situated of the West India Islands. It is about 605 
 miles in length ; but its breadth from north to south 
 nowhere exceeds 117 miles, and is in many places 
 much less. Its total area, exclusive of that of the 
 numerous keys and islands attached to it, is about 
 33,000 square miles. The climate is, generally speak- 
 ing, delightful ; the refreshing sea-breezes preventing 
 the heat from becoming excessive, and fitting it for the 
 growth of a vast variety of products. Hurricanes, 
 which are so destructive in Jamaica and the Caribbee 
 Islands, are here comparatively rare ; and, when they 
 do occur, far less violent. The soil is of very various 
 qualities : there is a considerable extent of swampy 
 marshes and rocks unfit for any sort of cultivation ; 
 but there is much soil that is very superior, and capa- 
 ble of affording the most luxuriant crops of sugar, 
 coffee, maize, etc. The ancient policy of restricting 
 trade to two or three ports, caused all the population to 
 congregate in their vicinity, neglecting the rest of the 
 island, and allowing some of the finest land and best 
 situations for planting to remain unoccupied. But 
 since a different and more liberal policy has been fol- 
 lowed, population has begun to extend itself over all 
 the most fertile districts, wherever they are to be met 
 with. Still, however, only a very small proportion 
 of the best land of the island is under cultivation, and 
 its products and population might be doubled or trebled 
 with the utmost facility. The first regular census of 
 Cuba was taken in 1775, when the whole resident pop- 
 ulation amounted to 170,370 souls. Since this period 
 the increase has been as follows : 1791, 272,140 ; 1817, 
 551,998 ; and 1827, 704,867 ; exclusive of strangers. 
 We subjoiu a 
 
 Classification of the Population of Cuba according 
 TO THE Censuses of 1775 ani> 1827. 
 
 Whites 
 
 Free mulattoes 
 Free blacks. .. 
 Slaves 
 
 Total 
 
 ms. 
 
 I 
 
 Mitlu. 
 54,555 
 10,021 
 5,959 
 2S,774 
 
 Feranle , Total. 
 
 40,864' 95,419 
 
 9,006 19,027 
 
 5,629! n,55S 
 
 15,062 44,336 
 
 99,309, 71,061 170,370 
 
 Male, j Femnle. l Total. 
 168,65^ 142,898 311,051 
 28,058 29,466 57,514 
 25,904 25,079^ 48,980 
 183,290| 103,652, 286,942 
 408,905| 300,582, 704,487 
 
 Another census was taken in 1842, according to 
 which the population is said to amount to 1,007,620, 
 viz. . whites, 418,291 ; free colored, 152,838 ; and 
 slaves, 436,491. But it is alleged that both the slave 
 and white population, especially the former, is under- 
 rated in this census, and that the population is^ at 
 present (1851), little, if at all, short of 1,430,000 or 
 
 '1,450,000. 
 
 ■ The rapid increase of the slave population is princi- 
 pally to be ascribed to the continued importation of 
 slaves from Africa. In some years, since the peace of 
 1815, as many as 40,000 blacks are believed to have 
 been imported into Cuba in a single year. Spain had 
 indeed agreed by treaty in 1820 to abolish the trade ; 
 but this treaty was little better than a dead letter, 
 and it is only since 1835, when a more efficient treaty 
 
 with Spain was entered into that the trade has sus- 
 tained any considerable diminution. But though it be 
 no longer under the Spanish flag, it is continued, 
 though to a much less extent, under other flags. At 
 present, however, not more than from 2000 to 3000 
 negroes are supposed to be annually imported. But 
 though it were to be wished, as well for the interests 
 of the island as of humanity, that the further importa- 
 tion of slaves should be put a stop to, we are not of the 
 number of those who think that it would be good policy 
 rashlj'- to agitate the question of the emancipation of 
 slaves in Cuba. Their treatment in that island, as in 
 all tfie other colonies of Spain, has always been sin- 
 gularly humane ; and the results of their emancipation, 
 in Hayti and the British islands have not been such as 
 to offer much inducement to the authorities in Cuba to 
 take up this difficult question. It may, no doubt, be 
 forced on their consideration ; and the emancipation of 
 so many slaves in their immediate vicinity will mate- 
 rially increase the difficulty of maintaining the exist- 
 ing order of things. Under these circumstances, good 
 policy would seem to suggest that timely provision 
 should be made for the gradual bringing about of that 
 emancipation which is, perhaps, inevitable, coupling 
 it, if that be practicable, with some scheme for insuring 
 the supply of some sort of compulsory labor. 
 
 Whatever opinion may be formed of slaver}"- in the 
 abstract, we believe it would not be difficult to show 
 that it has contributed, in no ordinary- degree, to the 
 rapid advancement of Cuba. Industrj- will always be 
 proportioned to the strength of the motives by which 
 it is occasioned ; and in countries like Cuba, of great 
 natural fertility and under a tropical sun, where a half 
 or more of the articles indispensable in Europe would 
 be useless, it Avere absurd to imagine that the inhab- 
 itants, supposing them to be free, should exhibit the 
 persevering industry of free laborers in the temperate 
 zone. The dolce Jar nienie is in such countries the 
 summum bonzim ; and we believe it will be found that 
 the extensive cultivation of sugar, and of most other 
 commercial products within the tropics, depends on 
 the maintenance of slavery, or of compulsory labor of 
 one kind or other. The people of England may be 
 but little affected, at least directly, by these consider- 
 ations, and may, therefore, on the priuciple oi fiat jus- 
 titia, mat coBlum, think themselves warranted in using 
 their influence to enforce the abolition of slavery 
 wherever it exists. But to the Cubans, Brazilians, 
 the inhabitants of the southern States of America, 
 and a host of others, this question is of the last im- 
 portance. Were the slaves emancipated, not in law 
 merely, but practically and in fact, the probability is 
 that neither Cuba nor Brazil would, in a dozen years, 
 export a. single cwt. of sugar. Why should they do 
 so any more than Hayti ? The blacks, were they 
 really emancipated, would be able to support them- 
 selves in that state in which they wish to live, without 
 engaging in any thing like the severe labor of sugar 
 planting ; and under such circumstances it would be a 
 contradiction to suppose they should engage in it. But 
 it might be difficult, perhaps, to show what good con- 
 sequences would result from such a change. It is at 
 all events clear that the commerce of the world and 
 the comforts of all civilized nations would I)e seriously 
 impaired ; and it is by no means clear that the condi- 
 tion of the blacks would be sensibly, or at all, im- 
 proved. Besides slaves, the planters employ free 
 laborers, mostly of an Indian mixed breed, who work 
 for moderate wages. These, however, are little en- 
 gaged in the fields, but in other branches of labor, and 
 particularly in bringing sugar from the interior to the 
 shipping ports. The articles principally exported from 
 Cuba are, sugar of the finest quality, coffee, copper 
 ore, tobacco, beeswax, honey, molasses, etc. Of these, 
 the first is decidedl}' the most important. 
 
 But, exclusive of the exports from Havana and Ma- 
 tanzas, considerable quantities sugar is shipped from 
 
HAY 
 
 951 
 
 HAV 
 
 Cienfuegos, Nuevitas, Holguin, Manzanilla, and other 
 ports ; and a good deal is also shipped without entry or 
 payment of duty. We may, therefore, safely add 10 
 per cent, to the other quantities for the omissions now 
 referred to ; which will make the total exports in 1846, 
 403,200,000 lbs. or 180,00o( tons'. Since then the pro- 
 duction has considerably increased ; and the total ex- 
 ports may at present (1856) be safely estimated at 
 above 335,000 tons. The consumption of the island is 
 supposed to amount to about 20,000, so that its total 
 produce may be taken at from 350,000 to 360,000 tons. 
 Next to sugar, coffee was the most valuable vege- 
 table production of Cuba. Its cultivation increased, 
 for a while, with unprecedented rapidity. In 1800, 
 there were but 80 plantations in the island j in 1817, 
 there were 779 ; and in 1827, there were no fewer than 
 2,067, of at least 40,000 trees each ! In 1804, the ex- 
 portation from Havana was 1,250,000 lbs. ; in 1809, it 
 amounted to 8,000,000 lbs. ; from 1815 to 1820, it 
 averaged annually 18,186,200 lbs. ; and in 1827 it 
 amounted to 35,837,175 lbs. ! The exports from the 
 other ports increased with equal rapidity. They 
 amounted, in 1827, to 14,202,406 lbs.; making the 
 total exportation for that year 50,039,581 lbs. But 
 the subsequent low prices, or rather, perhaps, the 
 
 greater attention paid to the culture of sugar, not only 
 checked the further increase of the coffee plantations, 
 but made several of them be abandoned. More re- 
 cently, however, the increase in the price of coffee 
 and the low price of sugar has occasioned a reaction, 
 and the culture of coffee is again extending. The ex- 
 ports of it in 1848 amounted to 17,354,425 lbs., to 
 which 10 per cent, may be added for deficient entries. 
 
 Tobacco differs much in quality : but the segars of 
 Cuba are esteemed the finest in the world. (See To- 
 bacco). Formerly, the culture and sale of this im- 
 portant plant were monopolized by government ; but 
 since 1821, this monopoly has been wholly relin- 
 quished, there being no longer any restrictions either 
 on the growth or sale of the article. The cultivator 
 pays a duty, which, however, is to a great extent 
 evaded, of 1 per cent, ad valorem upon his crop. In 
 consequence of the freedom thus given to the busir 
 ness, the culture and exportation of tobacco are both 
 rapidly extending ; so much so, that the value of the 
 produce of tobacco in 1849 was estimated at above 
 5,000,000 dollars, being considerably more than double 
 the value of the coffee produced. Molasses, rum 
 (tafia), wax, and honey, are also largely produced, 
 and form important articles of trade. See Cuba. 
 
 Statement op Imports at the Port of Havana, from Janttary 1 to Septemreb 80, 1855, compared with tue 
 
 SAME, for the same PERIODS, IN 1854 AND 1858. [FROM CuBTOM-HoiTSE KetURNB.] 
 
 I 
 
 CoUQtrloB. 
 
 United States 
 
 Spain 
 
 Otber Countries. . 
 Total 
 
 United States 
 
 British Provinces.. 
 
 European 
 
 Total 
 
 United States... 
 South Ammiea. . 
 
 United States 
 
 British Provinces 
 
 Total 
 
 Spain. , 
 
 Floitr, 
 Barrels, 
 
 LlTMBEB. 
 
 M feet 
 
 Lard. ( 
 Quintals. ( 
 
 HlID. BItOOKS. ( 
 
 Number. ( 
 
 ■ 18S5. 
 
 1854. 
 
 1853. 
 
 864 
 109,434 
 
 2,808 
 117,619 
 
 175 
 120,852 
 
 110,298 
 
 120,327 
 
 121,027 
 
 9,635 
 1,278 
 
 10,004 
 888 
 
 8,015 
 109 
 
 10,908 
 
 10,392 
 
 8,124 
 
 64,477 
 
 68,636 
 
 45,636 
 
 87,810 ' 
 
 46,026 
 
 49,054 
 
 87,819 
 
 46,026 
 
 49,054 
 
 865,828 
 
 177,786 
 
 190,993 
 
 
 1856. 
 
 1854. 
 
 1853. 
 
 ElCE. J 
 
 Quintals. j 
 
 77,905 
 9.3,946 
 29,746 
 
 93,998 
 
 28,420 
 
 1,474 
 
 60,089 
 28,468 
 7,092 
 
 201,596 
 
 19,241 
 29,185 
 11,787 
 
 123,392 
 
 18,199 
 
 28,171 
 
 9,259 
 
 95,689 
 
 21,249 
 24,940 
 10,827 
 
 CoDFrsii, j 
 Quintals. j 
 
 60,163 
 
 185,739 
 
 568,495 
 89,257 
 
 50,629 
 
 150,477 
 
 885,740 
 12,755 
 
 56,516 
 
 148,477 
 
 886,732 
 20,092 
 
 Jerked beef. ( 
 Quintals. ( 
 
 Box siiooks. j 
 Number. ( 
 
 607,762 
 26,574 
 
 898,495 
 28,294 
 
 406,324 
 16,403 
 
 Wine. Pipes... 
 
 Number and Tonnage of Vessels -wiiicn entered the 
 Port op Havana from Jan. 1 to Sept. 80, 1855. 
 
 Nntlonalily. 
 
 American. . 
 Spanish..., 
 
 British 
 
 French 
 
 Belgian — 
 Dutch 
 
 92 
 
 110 
 18 
 13 
 
 Tonnage, 
 
 299,127 
 87,827 
 89,676 
 29,967 
 5,217 
 
 Nationality. 
 
 Ifo. of 
 
 vossals. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 I>anish 
 
 Bi-emen 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Other nations 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 4 
 
 42 
 
 3,040 
 
 4,493 
 
 860 
 
 9,819 
 
 Total 
 
 1,406 
 
 482,867 
 
 The table which we subjoin gives the amount of 
 American, Spanish and English tonnage employed, 
 with i:he per centage which each comprises of the en- 
 tire commerce of the port : 
 
 Years, 
 
 American. 
 
 per ct. 
 
 Spanisli. 
 
 per CI. 
 
 Brilish, 
 
 per ct. 
 
 1816 
 
 , 125,848 
 
 88 
 
 96,588 
 
 29 
 
 68,206 
 
 21 
 
 1S47 
 
 161,174 
 
 40 
 
 100,868 
 
 27 
 
 72,275 
 
 19 
 
 1848 
 
 170,817 
 
 44 
 
 107,707 
 
 28 
 
 66,214 
 
 17 
 
 1849 
 
 200,069 
 
 49 
 
 106,185 
 
 26 
 
 65,274 
 
 16 
 
 1860 
 
 298,299 
 
 67 
 
 107,230 
 
 20 
 
 65,186 
 
 12 
 
 1861 
 
 844,046 
 
 6(1 
 
 114,216 
 
 20 
 
 68,308 
 
 10 
 
 1862 
 
 308,120 
 
 69 
 
 114,888 
 
 22 
 
 55,427 
 
 11 . 
 
 1853 
 
 304,188 
 
 67 
 
 111,029 
 
 21 
 
 58,824 
 
 11 
 
 1854 
 
 336,998 
 
 60 
 
 111,828 
 
 20 
 
 69,556 
 
 11 
 
 1865 
 
 879,327 
 
 62 
 
 120,881 
 
 20 
 
 49,963 
 
 03 
 
 This table shows that the American tonnage em- 
 ployed in the Havana trade, has increased threefold 
 during the last ten years, and that its amount, rela- 
 tive to the entire tonnage, has nearly doubled, while 
 hoth the Spanish and English proportions have dimin- 
 ished in relative importance, and even the absolute 
 amount of British tonnage employed in this business, 
 has fallen off more than 25 per cent. The only other 
 nation which enjoys any considerable share of this 
 trade is France. The French tonnage in 1846 was 
 
 7,213 or 225 per cent, of the whole, and in 1855, 33,- 
 522 or 5 J per cent. It would appear from these, facts, 
 that the United States are rapidly advancing toward 
 a comparative monopoly of the carrj'ing trade from 
 Havana. 
 
 The rates of freights for the last ten years have 
 been subject to great fluctuation, rates to New York 
 varj-ing from 4 rials in September 1849, and August 
 1855, to 19 rials in March 1854. March and April 
 seem to have been the most favorable months for 
 American freights, and February and March for Eu- 
 ropean. The yearly averages of freight show that 
 while 1854 saw the rates at their highest point, 1855 
 found them depressed almost to the lowest. From 
 March 1855, when the rate to Cowes and a market was 
 £5 12s. 6d, and to New York 19 rials, there was a reg- 
 ular and rapid fall, hardly c.hecked even by the spring 
 months, until in August 1855, the rate to Cowes was 
 £1 15s., and to New York, 4 rials. At this point rates 
 began to recover. 
 
 The price of sugar has fluctuated from 3 3-5 rials 
 in August 1848, to 9 rials in December 1855. From 
 March of last year when the price of brown sugar was 
 6 3-8 rials, there was a steady rise to the end of the 
 year, so that the average price for the year, 6.65 rials, 
 was higher than for anj' of the previous j'ears, the 
 lowest yearly average being 4.50 rials for 1848. 
 
 Moneys. — One dollar^8 reals plate=20 reals vellon. 
 One doubloon=17 dollars. The merchants reckon 
 444 dollar8=jei00, or 1 dollar=4s. 6d. very nearly. 
 There is an export duty of Ij- per cent, on gold, and 
 2f per cent, on silver. It is a curious fact that no de- 
 scription of paper money has ever circulated in Cuba. 
 
HAV 
 
 952 
 
 HAV 
 
 Weights and Measures.- — One quintal=100 lbs., or 4 
 arrobas of 25 lbs. ; 100 lbs. Spanish=101f lbs. En- 
 glish, or 46 kilogrammes. 108 varas=100 yards ; 140 
 varas=100 French ells or aunes ; 81 vara3=100 Bra- 
 bant ells ; 108 varas=160 Hamburg ells. 1 fanega 
 =3 bushels nearly, or 100 lbs. Spanish. An arroba 
 of wine or spirits=4*l English wine gallons nearly. 
 A hogshead of sugar=1300 lbs. ; a bag of coffee^^ 
 160 lbs. ; a hogshead of molasses=110 gallons ; a pipe 
 of tafia or rum=120 gallons ; and a bale of tobacco^ 
 100 lbs. 
 
 The usual commission charged by merchants on the 
 sale of goods is 5 per cent., with a del credere of 2J 
 per cent, if the sales are on credit and guarantied, and 
 a further commission of 2f per cent, for the returns, 
 whether in bills or produce. On purchases the com- 
 mission is 2 J per cent., and a further 2J per cent, if 
 drawn for in bills of exchange. For procuring freight 
 5 per cent, is charged, and 2^ for insuring the amount. 
 For advances of money the rate is 5 per cent, when no 
 other commission is chargeable. Bill business is done 
 at various rates, from 1 to 2J per cent, according to its 
 magnitude. These are the rates of the foreign houses ; 
 those of the Spanish and Creole merchants are gener- 
 ally higher. There is no obstacle whatever to the 
 establishment of foreigners as merchants in the island. 
 The law says that those who are naturalized in Spain 
 may freely carry on trade with the same rights and 
 obligations as the natives of the kingdom, and that 
 those who have not been naturalized, or have a legal 
 domicile, may still carry on trade under the regula- 
 tions stipulated in the treaties in force between the 
 respective governments ; and in default of such con- 
 ventional regulations, the same privileges are to be 
 conceded as those enjoyed by Spaniards carrying on 
 trade in the country of which such foreigners are na- 
 tives. In practice, this last condition is not much 
 attended to \ as foreigners are allowed to establish 
 themselves as merchants without any inquir)' as to 
 the rights and privileges enjoyed hy Spaniaids in the 
 country they come from. As to manufacturers and 
 mechanics, the only difficulty that can arise regards 
 their religion. On entering the island everj' stranger 
 is required to find security in the following terms : " I 
 am responsible and become security in every case 
 for the person and conduct of A. B., arrived from C. 
 in the ship D., binding myself to present him if called 
 on by the government, and to conduct him at my ex- 
 pense to any place that may be designated." This 
 security is easily obtained, and, in fact, encourage- 
 ment is given to mechanics, and white people of all 
 classes to settle in the island. After landing it is only 
 necessary to apply for a letter of domicile, and to pre- 
 sent a certificate that the applicant is of a respectable 
 character, and professes the Roman Catholic religion. 
 Free colored people, however, by a royal order of the 
 12th March, 1837, are prohibited from landing under 
 any pretense whatever ; and so rigorously is this order 
 enforced, that such persons, though acting as seamen, 
 are, on their arrival, taken out of the vessel in which 
 they have come, and are kept in custody until her de- 
 parture, when they are compelled to proceed again on 
 board and leave the island. The business of a broker 
 is exercised under a royal license, and no foreigner is 
 eligible to the ofiice unless naturalized in the form pre- 
 scribed by law. In every commercial town a certain 
 number only is allowed, corresponding with the popu- 
 lation and trade of the place. In the great cities, the 
 business of merchant is often combined with that of 
 planter ; and sometimes, also, the importing merchant 
 keeps a shop or store, where he sells his goods by 
 retail. The foreign merchants are generally regarded 
 as transient visitors, who go there for the purpose of 
 accumulating such a fortune as may enable them to 
 live with some degree of comfort in theii: 6wn country. 
 As a class they are not considered wealthy, but they 
 are almost all in the full enjoyment of credit. The 
 
 mercantile capital, as well as the proprietary wealth 
 of the island, maybe said, to be concentrated in the 
 hands of the Creoles. When the emigrants from the 
 Peninsula make fortunes in the island, they seldom 
 think of returning to Europe. See Cuba. 
 
 Haven. (Germ, hafen.') The same as harbor. 
 See article Hakbor. 
 
 Havre, or Havre de Grace, a commercial and 
 strongly-fortified sea-port town of France, on the En- 
 glish Channel, near the mouth of the Seine, on its 
 northern bank, lat. 49° 20' 14" K., long. 0° 6' 38" 
 E. Population, in 1851, 2^,954, to which may be 
 added 5,000 or 6,000 more for the crews of the ship- 
 ping constantl}' in the port. It was a saying of Na- 
 poleon that ^^ Paris, - Rouen, Le Havre, ne Jorment 
 qu^une seule ville, dont la Seine est la gramde me." 
 Havre being, in fact, the sea-port of Paris, most of the 
 colonial and foreign products destined for its consump- 
 tion are imported thither. Nearly double the quanti- 
 ty of goods, estimated by weight, is annually imported 
 at Marseilles ; but the total value of the imports at 
 Havre amounts very nearly to that of those at the 
 former port. The principal imports are cotton, sugar, 
 coffee, linen thread and linen goods, rice, indigo, to- 
 bacco, hides, dyewoods, spices, drugs, timber, iron, tin, 
 dried fish, etc. : grain and flour are sometimes imported 
 and sometimes exported. The principal exports are 
 silks, woolen and cotton stuff's, lace, gloves, and shoes, 
 trinkets, perfumery, champagne and other wines, 
 brandy, glass, furniture, books, etc. 
 
 The Harbor, which is the best and most accessible 
 on this part of the French coast, consists of 3 basins 
 separated from each other and from the outer port by 
 4 locks, and capable of accommodating about 450 ships. 
 A large body of water being retained by a sluice, and 
 discharged at ebb tide, clears the entrance to the har- 
 bor and prevents the accumulation of filth, sand, etc. 
 Cape de la Heve, forming the northern extremit}' of 
 the Seine, lies N.N.W. from Havre, distant about 2J 
 miles. It is elevated 390 feet above the level of the 
 sea, and is surmounted by 2 light-houses 50 feet high. 
 These, which are 325 feet apart, exhibit powerful fixed 
 lights. There is also a brilliant harbor light at the en- 
 trance to the port, on the extremity of the western jetty. 
 Havre has 2 roadsteads. The greater or out road is 
 about a league from the port, and rather more than J 
 league W.S.W. from Cape de la Heve; the little or 
 inner road is about J league from the port, and about 
 i- of a mile S.S.E. from Cape de la Heve. They are 
 separated by the sand bank called Leclat ; between 
 which and the bank called Les Hautes de la Bade is 
 the north-west passage to the port. The Hoc, or 
 southern passage, lies between the last mentioned 
 bank and that of Amfar. In the great road there is 
 from 6 to 7^ fathoms water at ebb ; and in the little, 
 from 3 to 3^. Large ships always lie in the former. 
 The rise of the tide is from 22 to 27 feet : and by tak- 
 ing advantage of it, the largest class of merchantmen 
 enter the port. - The water in the harbor does not be- 
 gin perceptibly to subside till about 3 hours after liigh 
 water — a peculiarity ascribed to the current down the 
 Seine across the entrance to the harbor being suffi- 
 ciently powerful to dam up for a while the water in 
 the latter. Large fleets, taking advantage of this cir- 
 cumstance, are able to leave the port in a single tide, 
 and get to sea, even though the wind slionld be unfa- 
 vorable. See Plan of Havre, published by Laurie ; 
 Anmtaire du Commerce Maritime,; Coulier sur les 
 Phares, p. 69, etc. The Chamber of Commerce of 
 Havre have recently published the following informa- 
 tion and instructions for the use of vessels frequenting 
 the port : 
 
 "Five buoys have been moored in the shallows 
 Euvun, under the designation of the Banc de I'Eclat, 
 and Hautes de la Eade. 
 
 " These buoys are similar in form, but of different 
 colors, viz. : The first to the northward is white ; the 
 
HAV 
 
 953 
 
 HAV 
 
 second, wbite with a black top; the third is black; 
 the fourth is black with a white top ; the fifth is red. 
 
 " Vessels must always come to anchor at a distance 
 of at least five cables' length outside the line of these 
 buoys, which they may not pass without danger before 
 one hour and a half prior to high water, oi* four hours 
 after ebb ; and they must at all times pass at a dis- 
 tance of five cables' length from the black as well 
 as from the red buoy, both of which are moored on the 
 shallowest parts of these banks. Nevertheless ships 
 may at all hours of the tide frequent the north-western 
 passage, comprised between Cape La Heve and the 
 two northernmost buoys. 
 
 " All vessels using the north-western passage, and 
 bound into the inner roadstead (Petit Rade), must steer 
 for the white buoy, the' furthest north, and after leav- 
 ing it a little distance on the starboard hand, should 
 then stand toward the second white buoy, taking care 
 never to come so close to the shore as altogether to 
 lose sight of the lantern of the northernmost light- 
 house on Cape La Heve. When the light of the north- 
 western pier head bears by compass S.E., and the 
 light-houses on the Heve bear by compass N.N.E., the 
 ship may be brought to an anchor. 
 
 " Besides the live buoys herein described, Dne of 
 lessor dimensions has been moored on the shallows of 
 the inner roadsteiid, at about five cables' length W.N. 
 W. of the north-west pier head. Vessels of light 
 draught of water Ooming to an anchor in that part of 
 the road, should give this buoy an offing of at least 
 one cable's length." 
 
 Most part of the goods imported into Havre are des- 
 tined for the internal consumption of France. The 
 coasting trade has increased very largelj^ of late years, 
 as is proved by the great increase of French wines, 
 soaps, and other produce imported at Paris from Havre, 
 instead of being sent to the capital by land. The 
 coasting vessels transfer their cargoes partly to steam- 
 ers and partly to large barges, called cJialands, which 
 are towed by steam tugs as far as Rouen, and thence 
 by horses to Paris. The foreign trade of the port is 
 also very extensive. There annually enter the port 
 about SOO ships from ports out of Europe. Lines of 
 sailing packets are established between Havre and 
 New York, New Orleans, etc. A regular intercourse 
 by means of steam packets is kept up with London, 
 Southampton, and other ports. The entrances to the 
 basins are too narrow to admit the passage of the 
 largest steamers, which have, in consequence, to re- 
 main in the outer port imperfectly sheltered from the 
 winds. Indeed the port is at present inadequate to 
 the proper accommodation of the great and growing 
 trade of which it is the centre, and extensive works 
 have been undertaken for its improvement. There 
 belonged to the port, on the 31st December, 1851, 368 
 sailing vessels of the aggregate burden of 71,363 tons, 
 and 32 steamers, aggregate burden 4,259 tons. The 
 customs duties which in 1837 produced 18,123,993 
 francs, had increased in 1851 to 26,164,000 francs. 
 The Moneys^ Weights^ and Measures of Havre are 
 the same as those of the rest of France; for which, 
 see articles Bordeaux, Coins, Feasce, and Weights 
 AND Measures. 
 
 Pilotage. — From the outer roadstead 28 francs per 
 1st 100 tons ; 25 fj^anps 2d do. ;< 23 francs 3d do. ; and 
 the pilot to be fed. If the vessel be boarded nearer 
 the port the charge is lessened accordingly. Boats, 
 from 9 to 30 francs according to the distance. 
 
 Port Charges. — With coals, 75 per cent, per ton 
 in dock ; 37J do. in harbor. General cargo, 2 francs 
 50 centimes if in dock ; 1 franc 65 centimes if in har- 
 bor. Salvage dues, 5 centimes, and 10 per cent. 
 Tonnage do. 66f centimes and 10 per cent. No charge 
 for lights, buoys, or beacons. 
 
 Ballast delivered alongside. — Clean, 1 franc 95 cent- 
 imes per ton ; common do. 1 franc 14 centimes do. 
 The ton of clean ballast may be estimated to *elgh 
 
 about 15 or 16 cwt. The ton of common ballast, 
 about 20 cwt. ; a cart marked J metre Is one ton ; a 
 cart marked 1 metre Is two tons. Cost of removal of 
 ballast landed from ship, 64 centimes per ton, without 
 distinction of quality. 
 
 Harbor Bules. — 1. It is forbidden to have fire, or 
 lighted candle, or to smoke on board ships in the har- 
 bor. 
 
 ■ 2i Vessels coming into and lying In the docks must 
 have the lower and topyards topped up, jib-booms and 
 martingales rigged in, and anchors taken in. The 
 wharf alongside the vessel must be swept every even- 
 ing. 
 
 3. No gunpowder (whatever may be the quantity), 
 is allowed to remain on board, and must be deposited 
 In the gunpowder warehouse. 
 
 4.' AU foreign sailors found away from their ships 
 after 10 o'clock at night, from the 1st of April to the 
 1st of October, and after 9 o'clock. from the 1st of Oc- 
 tober to the 1st of April, shall be conveyed to prison 
 and fined. Sailors are forbidden to wear sheathing 
 knives ashore. 
 
 5. The manifest of the cargo, signed by the captain, 
 must be exhibited to and signed by the custom-house 
 officers before being taken ashore. The vessel must 
 be reported at the custom-house within 24 hours after 
 arrival. 
 
 6. Tobacco, snuflf, segars loose or in boxes, belong- 
 ing to the captain,^ officers, and mariners, to be de- 
 clared as exactly as possible. AU the tobacco, snuff, 
 and segars declared or not declared, to be exhibited. to 
 the custom-house officers, when they come and make 
 the visit on board. After such exhibition, if any 
 quantity of tobacco and segars be found on board,i it 
 shall be seized, the captain shall be condemned to pay 
 a fine which may be as high as 500 francs, and the 
 ship shall be confiscated. 
 
 Port Chakgks. 
 
 Pilotage in 28 ft. for the 1st hundred tons. 
 
 '^ 35 fr. for the 2d hundred tons. 
 
 ", ..: 23fr.for the 8d hundred tons and above. 
 
 " li per cent for the head, pilot. , ^ 
 
 Boats.of help in 24 fr. outside the banks. 
 
 " " .... 10 fr. outside the piers. 
 " " .... 9 fr. in the harbor, 
 f.. 0. 
 Weighing anchors. . 2 50 per each cwt. 
 Weighing chains. .- 50 " " and one third more if 
 I there be no buoy ropel 
 
 Haulers. 30 perman, besides 1 fr. '50 c. for the 
 
 hawsers. 
 
 Bridges.... 8 60'for each bridge. 
 
 Ballast unshipped.. 64'per tialf metre. 
 
 " shipped 1 14 " " for sand. ^ 
 
 " " ......195 j" " for clean ballast. 
 
 Board of health 2 50 for a vessel of 50 tons' I 
 
 ' measurement & under. I from 
 
 " " 5 for a vessel of 51 tons'* ['Europe. 
 
 measurement &above. j 
 
 " " 10 for a vessel fi-om other countvle^. 
 
 Tonnage dues 66^ per ton and 10 ~| forvesselswith 
 
 per cent coals only and 
 
 " " 37i per ton harbor I l-20th of their 
 
 dues. j cargoes, i with 
 
 " " 75 per ton dock bricks or 
 
 dues. J grindstones. 
 
 " " 1 65 per' ton harbor dues, with other 
 
 cargoes- r 
 " " ..I,.... 3 50 per ton dock dues with other c^rg'a. 
 " " ...... 5 per ton salvage duty, & 10 per ct. 
 
 " " .'. 1 25 stamps. 
 
 " " From 3 fi'. S5ctol8 ft. 15o. for 
 
 clearances according to his ton- 
 nage. 
 
 Pilotage out One third of the pilotage in if the 
 
 vessel is in ballast. 
 
 " One half of the pilotage in if the 
 
 vessel takes goods. ' 
 Protest before the ■ gu 
 
 court ......95 -W 
 
 Affirmation before 
 
 the court 5 50 
 
 Gunpowder shipped, 
 and unshipped... 8' 
 
 Brokerage in 50 per ton of goods landed. 
 
 " out 25 " " shipped. 
 
 " " on bal- 
 last 12 " " measurements 
 
HAV 
 
 954 
 
 HAV 
 
 Account of the Annual Imports of Coffke into Hateb, 
 wiTu THE Annual Salf^ tiiereof, and Stocks on 
 Hand on the 818t December in each Year, from 
 1852 TO 1838, noTii inclusive, in -J Kilog. or poundr, 
 
 Yenrs. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 S«le». 
 
 Stock. 
 
 1852 
 
 32,879,396 
 
 80,188,570 
 
 6,781,775 
 
 1851 
 
 26,571,340 
 
 26,840,940 
 
 8,590,950 
 
 1850 
 
 24,401,980 
 
 26,166,270 
 
 8,860,650 
 
 1849 
 
 26,814,190 
 
 26,326,660 
 
 5,628,840 
 
 1848 
 
 20,686,610 
 
 19,562,210 
 
 6,135,800 
 
 1847 
 
 26,880,000 
 
 24,628,600 
 
 4,002,000 
 
 1846 
 
 17,000,000 
 
 18,300,000 
 
 2,200,000 
 
 1845 
 
 18,850,000 
 
 18,860,000 
 
 8,6(10,000 
 
 1844 
 
 22,600,000 
 
 22,100,000 
 
 8,600,000 
 
 1843 
 
 16,800,000 
 
 17,100,000 
 
 8,000,000 
 
 1842 
 
 19,260,000 
 
 20,500,000 
 
 3,800,000 
 
 1841 
 
 17,660,000 
 
 15,2110,000 
 
 4,550,000 
 
 1840 
 
 28,600,000 
 
 28,250,000 
 
 2,100,000 
 
 1889 
 
 14,600,000 
 
 16,550,000 
 
 1,760,000 
 
 1888 
 
 19,720,000 
 
 20,044,000 
 
 2,700,000 
 
 183T 
 
 18,659,000 
 
 20,410,800 
 
 8,024,000 
 
 1836 
 
 17,726,645 
 
 15,171,546 
 
 4,875,000 
 
 1835 
 
 15,440,000 
 
 16,820,000 
 
 2,820,01)0 
 
 1834 
 
 15,600,000 
 
 13,980,000 
 
 8,700,000 
 
 1833 
 
 14,300,000 
 
 1.5,300,000 
 
 4,000,000 
 
 1832 
 
 16,850,000 
 
 1.3,650,000 
 
 6,000,000 
 
 1831 
 
 8,000,000 
 
 9,000,000 
 
 1,800,000 
 
 1880 
 
 13,300,000 
 
 13,000,000 
 
 2,800,000 
 
 1829 
 
 18,680,000 
 
 18,980,000 
 
 2,600,000 
 
 1828 
 
 16,600,000 
 
 18,800,000 
 
 2,800,000 
 
 Account of the Annual imports of Cotton into Havrf,, 
 WITH THE Annual Sales thereof, and the Stocks 
 on Hand on the SIst December in each Year fkom 
 1S52 to 1826, both inci^usive. 
 
 Tenri. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Sales. 1 Stock. 
 
 Yenrs. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Sales. 1 Stook. { 
 
 
 Uolsi. 
 
 Jinio-. 
 
 Bnles. 
 
 
 Bates. 
 
 Bales. 
 
 Bales. 
 
 1852 
 
 395,001 
 
 89.3,771 
 
 2.8,aso 
 
 1888 
 
 295,246 
 
 292,746 
 
 36,600 
 
 1851 
 
 803,976 
 
 223,775 
 
 22,600 
 
 1887 
 
 248,859 
 
 261,869 
 
 33,000 
 
 1850 
 
 812,827 
 
 808,427 
 
 42,400 
 
 1886 
 
 262,086 
 
 288,686 
 
 45,500 
 
 1849 
 
 867,176 
 
 848,178 
 
 33,000 
 
 1886 
 
 214,509 
 
 217,709 
 
 18,800 
 
 1843 
 
 237,985 
 
 260,488 
 
 19,000 
 
 1SS4 
 
 201,419 
 
 213,419 
 
 22,000 
 
 1847 
 
 267,500 
 
 251,,'iOO 
 
 41,600 
 
 1833 
 
 210,69.5 
 
 198,598 
 
 84,000 
 
 1846 
 
 825,935 
 
 360,4.35 
 
 26,500 
 
 1832 
 
 184,22E 
 
 185,228 
 
 17,000 
 
 1845 
 
 831,287 
 
 834,287 
 
 60,000 
 
 1831 
 
 157,501 
 
 164,601 
 
 18,000 
 
 1844 
 
 279,651 
 
 826,651 
 
 53,000 
 
 1880 
 
 119,186 
 
 166,686 
 
 45,000 
 
 1848 
 
 826,966 
 
 388,965 100,000 
 
 1H29 
 
 175,980 
 
 185,480 
 
 17,500 
 
 1842 
 
 370,427 
 
 352,927 
 
 108,000 
 
 iy2S 
 
 114.786 
 
 101,286 
 
 27,000 
 
 1841 
 
 857,S27| 844,027 
 
 96,800 
 
 1827 
 
 169,274 
 
 166,274 
 
 46,500 
 
 1840 
 
 376,156 356,156 
 
 77,000 
 
 1826 
 
 214,085 
 
 183,685 
 
 44,000 
 
 1889 
 
 '265,248 242,048 57,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 Account oe^tue Annual Imports of Sugar into Havre, 
 WITH the Annual Sales tiif,reop, and the Stocks 
 ON Hand on the 31st December in each Year, 
 FROM 1852 TO 1828, both inclusive. 
 
 Years. | Import.. 
 
 SaloB. 
 
 Sales. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Sales. 
 
 Stock. 
 Hhds. 
 
 
 Hhds. 
 
 Hhd.. 
 
 I-Ihtls. 
 
 
 Hhds, ■ 
 
 Hhd!. 
 
 1852 
 
 35,127 
 
 24,127 
 
 12,400 
 
 1339 
 
 46,860 
 
 51,350 
 
 1,500 
 
 1851 
 
 23,208 
 
 27,098 
 
 1,400 
 
 1838 
 
 58,690 
 
 47,290 
 
 7,000 
 
 1850 
 
 21,740 
 
 27,150 
 
 290 
 
 1837 
 
 81,7.58 
 
 42,453 
 
 800 
 
 1849 
 
 86,420 
 
 41,720 
 
 .6,700 
 
 1836 
 
 45,237 
 
 42,787 
 
 11,500 
 
 1848 
 
 88,066 
 
 29,066 
 
 11,000 
 
 1885 
 
 5,5,549 
 
 58,549 
 
 9,000 
 
 1847 
 
 67,860 68,860 
 
 7,000 
 
 13.34 
 
 69,430 
 
 60,480 
 
 12,0110 
 
 1846 
 
 53,000 
 
 53,600 
 
 2,500 
 
 1833 
 
 60,300 
 
 61,800 
 
 3,000 
 
 1845 
 
 66,.50O 
 
 68,600 
 
 8,000 
 
 1832 
 
 46,000 
 
 67,000 
 
 4,000 
 
 1844 
 
 49,600 
 
 58,600 
 
 6,000 
 
 1831 
 
 68,460 
 
 66,460 
 
 14,000 
 
 1848 
 
 54,200 
 
 54,200 
 
 14,000 
 
 1330 
 
 49,820 
 
 44,820 
 
 12,000 
 
 1842 
 
 64,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 14,000 
 
 1829 
 
 60,660 
 
 68,560 
 
 7,000 
 
 1841 
 
 64,760 
 
 51,260 
 
 14,000 
 
 1828 
 
 60,770 
 
 62,270 
 
 10,000 
 
 1840 
 
 51,900 
 
 46,900 
 
 6,600 
 
 
 
 
 
 Prices of Commodities^ Duty paid and in Bond, Du- 
 ties, Tares, Commercial Allowances, etc. — These import- 
 ant particulars may be learned by the inspection of the 
 subjoined price current for the 25th of May, 1853. The 
 duties on some of the articles mentioned in it will, 
 most probablyj at no very distant period, be varied. 
 But the other particulars embodied in it will always 
 render it an important document. 
 
 Duty paid. 
 Fr. ct. Fr. ct. 
 
 Ashes, per 50 kil. 
 
 Pot, New York 43 0—43 
 
 do. Casan 38 0—38 25 
 
 Pearl, American -j.- •^''^ 0^48 
 
 DhI 
 >r{s, 
 By foreign vessels, 11 francs 55 cent. See exceptions at 
 Note A. 
 
 Commercial and custom-houBe tare : 12 per cent. 
 Beeswax, per ■} kil. 
 
 North American yellow. ...185—2 0—00 
 
 "West India fair 160—0 0—00 
 
 Senegal 1 60— 1 75 0-00 
 
 In Bond, 
 
 ct. Fr. ct. 
 
 0^ 
 0-0 
 0-0 
 
 Djty on nett weight : by French veBsels from European 
 ports, 9 francs 90 cent. ; from elsewhere, 8 francs 25 cent. 
 
 Duty on gross weight : yellow, by French vessels from Eu- 
 ropean ports, 5J cent. ; from elsewhere, 4 2-5 cent. See 
 Note A. 
 
 Commercial tare : real. 
 
 Cnty Pftld. 
 Fr. ct. Fr. ct. 
 
 In Bond . 
 Fr, ct. Fr. ct. 
 
 4 25— 5 
 4 75— 5 25 
 
 90— 1 25 
 30— 31 
 50— 52 
 0-00 
 
 0—00 53— T 
 
 0-0 
 0—0 
 0—0 
 0—0 
 2— 1 15 
 2—17 
 
 5T— 70 
 55— 60 
 55— 72 
 50— 70 
 
 0— 
 
 0— 
 
 0— 
 
 0— 
 
 0— 
 
 Cochineal, per J kil. 
 
 silver from ord. to fine — 
 
 black, ditto 0—0 
 
 Duty on nett weight : by French vessels from places out 
 of Europe, 27-J cent. ; from elsewhere, 55 cent. By foreign 
 vessels, 82^ cent. See Note A. 
 
 Custom-house tare : in casts, 12 per cent. ; in seroons, 2 
 per cent. 
 
 Commercial tare : real. 
 
 Cocoa Caraccas, per ^ kil — 
 
 St. Domingo 0—3 
 
 Maranham and Para by a French vessel 
 
 Maracaibo 0—0 
 
 Duty on nett weight : by French vessels from the French 
 colonies, 22 cent. ; from countries west of Cape Horn, 27^ 
 cent.; from European ports, 52^ cent; from elsewhere, 30J 
 cent. By foreign vessels from any port whatever, 57^. See 
 Note A. 
 
 Custom-house tare : on casks, 12 per cent. ; on bags, 3 per 
 cent. 
 
 Commercial tare : on casks, real ; on bags, 2 per cent. 
 Coffee, per i kil. 
 
 St. Domingo, from ordi- 
 nary to fine 
 
 Porto Rico '. . 
 
 Havana, from ord. to fine.. 
 Laguyra and Port Cabel. ... 
 
 Kio, ordinary to fine 
 
 Java 1 
 
 Ceylon, native 1 
 
 Do. plantation 1 12— 1 26 
 
 Padang and Sumatra 1 7 — 1 12 
 
 Mocha 1 20— 1 35 
 
 Duty on nett weight: by French vessels from the East In- 
 dies, 42 9-10 cent. ; from European ports, 55 cent. ; from 
 elsewhere, 52| cent. By foreign vessels from any port what- 
 ever, 57f cent. See Note A.- 
 
 Custom-house tare: on casks, 12 per cent. ; on bags, 8 per 
 cent. 
 
 Commercial tare : on casks, real ; on bags, 2 per cent. ; on 
 Mocha coffee the tare runs from 4^ to 12^ kil. upon bales of 
 75 to 200 kils. 
 
 Copper, American, i kil 1 43— 1 55 0-00 
 
 Russian and British 1 60— 1 65 0-00 
 
 Duty on gross weight : by French vessels from European 
 ports, 1 1-10 cent. ; from elsewhere, 11-20 cent. By foreign 
 vessels from any port whatever, 1 13-20 cents. 
 tions at Note A. 
 
 Commercial tare : real. 
 Cotton, per ^ kil. 
 
 Upland 77— 1 
 
 Mobile 77— 1 
 
 NewOrleans 77—1 
 
 Sea Island 1 50— 3 
 
 Pernambuco 1 0— 1 15 
 
 Duty on nett weight : on long nr short staple, by French 
 vessels from the French colonies, 2^ cent, ; from European 
 ports (Turkey excepted), 16^ cent. ; from the East Indies and 
 countries beyond Cape Horn, 5^ cent. ; from other countries, 
 11 cent. By foreign vessels (except from Turkey), 19^^ cent. 
 By French vessels from Turkey, 8^ cent. ; by foreign ves- 
 sels from Turkey, 13 3-5 cent. See Note A. 
 
 Custom-house tare : on United States' cotton, 6 per cent, ; 
 Brazil cotton, 4 per cent. ; on St. Domingo, in bales, 5 per 
 cent. ; on Cumana and Caraccas, 7 kil. per seroon above 40 
 kil., and 6 kil. per seroon, at 40 kil. and under. 
 
 Draft : 2 kil. on Sea Island and Bengal ; 3 per cent, on 
 Brazil ; 3 kil. on all other descriptions in bales exceeding 50 
 kil., and 1^ kil. upon bales under 50 kil. 
 Flour, American, per barrel .... — 
 
 Gums, Senegal, per i kil SO— 90 
 
 East India, copal scraped 
 
 Shell-lac, orange 65—72 
 
 ditto, garnet 50—70 
 
 ditto, liver 65—65 
 
 Duty on Senegal, gross weight: by French vessels from 
 Senegal, 5^ cent. ; frum European ports, 18J cent. ; from 
 elsewhere, 11 cent. By foreign vessels from any port what- 
 ever, 16J cent. See Note A. 
 Commercial tare ; on casks, real ; on bags, 2 per cent. 
 Duty on copal, gross weight per 50 kil. : by French vessels 
 from the East Indies, 55 cent. ; from elsewhere, 11 francs. By 
 foreign vessels from any port whatever, 16 francs 60 cent. 
 See Note A. 
 Commercial tare : real. 
 Duty on shell-lac, nett weight : by French vessels from the 
 
 See Excep- 
 
 0— 
 0— 
 0— 
 0— 
 0— 
 
 27 
 
 0—0 
 
 
 
 
 
 0—0 
 
 
 
 
 
 0-0 
 
 
 
 (1 
 
 0— 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 0—0 
 
 
 
 
 
 0— 
 
 
 
HAV 
 
 955 
 
 HAV 
 
 East Indies, 27-100 cent. ; from elsewhere, 5f cent. By for- 
 eign veBsels from any port whatever, 8|: cent. See Note A. 
 
 Commercial tare : reaL 
 
 Duly FAid. In Bond'. 
 
 Fr. rt. Fr, ct. Fr. ct. Fr. ct. 
 
 Hides, per i kil. 
 
 Buenos Ayres 65— 100 0—00 
 
 Pernamhuco and Bahia, J. q 55- 80 0-00 
 
 drv-salted- J 
 
 Rio Janeiro 55—0 76 0-00 
 
 Carthagena and Caraccas... 54 — 75 — 
 
 New Orleans, wet salted.... 0—00 
 
 Duty on gross weight : by French vessels from European 
 ports, Bj- cent. ; from elsewhere 3j cent. By foreign vessels 
 from any port whatever, 8^ cent. See Note A. 
 
 Five bull hides are admitted among 100 bides without allow- 
 ance, and 1 kil. is allowed for every bull bide above that 
 number to the extent of 12 ; when more than 12 the allowance 
 is conditional. 
 
 Hops, American, 1851 262 50— 0-00 
 
 Duty on nett weight: by French vessels from any port 
 whatever, 33 francs per 50 kil. By foreign vessels, 38 francs 
 2^ cent. See Note A. 
 
 Commercial tare : on hales, 2 per cent. 
 Horse-hair per f kil. 
 
 Buenos Ayres, mixed 90— 115 0—00 
 
 Russia 0-0 
 
 Duty on gross weight : by French vessels, 55-100 cent. By 
 foreign vessels, 2f cent. See Note A. 
 
 Commercial tare : real. 
 Indigo, per i kil. 
 
 Bengal 0-0 0—0 
 
 superfine violet and blue, 11 25—11 50 0—00 
 sup' fine violet and purp..l0 25—10 50 0-00 
 
 fine violet and purple 9 75—10 o— 
 
 good violet 9 25— 9 50 0—00 
 
 middle violet 7 75—8 0—00 
 
 fine red 8 70— 0-00 
 
 goodred 7 0—7 25 0-00 
 
 good to fine copper 25—6 75 0-00 
 
 ordinary to low copper. . . 5 50 — 6 25 — 
 
 Java 7 0—1175 0—00 
 
 Kurpah 5 0—8 
 
 Madras 4 50—6 75 0-00 
 
 Manilla 4 0—6 50 0-00 
 
 Caraccas 4 0—7 0-0 
 
 Guatemala flores 6 75— 7 25 0-00 
 
 Bobre saliente 6 25—6 50 0—00 
 
 corteB ■ 5 0—5 75 0-0 
 
 ordinary and low 4 25—4 75 0-00 
 
 Duty on nett weight : by French vessels from places of 
 growth out of Europe, 2Ti cent. ; froili European ports, 1 franc 
 65 cent ; from Manilla direct, 22 cent ; from elsewhere, 1 
 franc 10 cent. By foreign vessels from any port' whatever, 
 2 francs 20 cent. See Exceptions at Note A. 
 
 Custom-house tare : on chests, casks, and seroons, real, or 
 at the option of the importer, 12 per cent, on chests or casks, 
 and 9 pel' cent, on seroons. 
 
 Commercial tare: on casks or chests, real; on seroons of 
 100 to 110 kil., 11 kil. ; on do. of 85 to 90 kil.^ 10 kil ; on do. 
 of 70 to 84 kil., 9 kil. ; on do. of 50 to 69 kil., 7 kil. Allow- 
 ance, 1 kil. per chest. 
 
 . Lac-dye, per J kil 3 0—3 10 0-00 
 
 Duty on nett weight: by I'rench vessels from the East 
 Indies, 13? cent. ; from elsewhere, 411cent. By foreign vessels 
 from any port whatever, 55 cent. See Exceptions at Note A. 
 Commercial and custom-house tare : real. 
 
 Lead, American, per 50 kil — 
 
 Spanish and British 25 0—28 0-00 
 
 Duty on gross weight : by French vessels from any port 
 whatever, 2 francs 75 cent. By foreign vessels, 3 francs 85 
 cent. See Note A. 
 
 Pepper, light, per i kil 72— 76 0—00 
 
 half heavy 78—0 80 0-00 
 
 Duty on nett weight : by French vessels from the East 
 Indies, and ftom countries west of Cape Horn, 22 cent. ; 
 from elsewhere, 44 cents. By foreign vessels from any port 
 whatever, 57^ cent. See Note A. 
 Custom-hoase tare : on bags, 6 per cent. 
 Commercial tare : on single bags, 2 per cent. 
 Pimento, per ^ kil. 
 
 Jamaica 0-0 70— T5 
 
 Tobago 0— 54 54^ 
 
 Duty : by French vessels from the East Indies, and from 
 countries west of Cape Horn, 24| cent, j from elsewhere, 49^- 
 cent. By foreign vessels, 63^ cent. 
 
 Tares : as for pepper. 
 Quercitron, per 50 kil. 
 
 Philadelphia, 1st sort 11 50—14 60 0—00 
 
 Baltimore 10 50—11 
 
 Duty on gross weight: by French vessels from European 
 
 ports, 3 francs 85 cent, ; from other countries, 2 francs 20 
 cent. By foreign vessels from any port whatever, 4 francs 
 06 cent. See Note A. 
 
 Commercial tare : 12 per cent, on casks ; 2 per cent, on 
 bags. 
 
 DutyPnid. In Bond. 
 
 Fr. ct. Fr. ct. Fr. cf, Fr. cK 
 
 Quicksilver, per i kil 0-0 
 
 Duty on gross weight : by French vessels from any port 
 whatever, 11 cent ; by foreign vessels, 12 1-10 cents. See Ex- 
 ceptions at Note A. 
 
 Commercial tare : real. 
 Rice, Carolina, 1833, per 50 kil. .23 50—32 50 0—00 
 
 Bengal, white 15 0—16 25 0-00 
 
 Duty on gross weight : from India, by French vessels, i 
 cent, i by foreign vessels, 4 francs 95 cent. ; from elsewhere 
 out of Europe, 1 franc 37^ cent. ; from European ports, 3 
 francs 50 cent. 
 
 Commercial tare : 12 per cent, on casks, and 2 per cent, on 
 bags. 
 
 Saltpetre, E, I., per 50 kil 0-0 36 0—37 
 
 Nitrate of soda 0—0 23 55—26 
 
 Duty on gross weight: by French vessels from East Indies 
 or the South Seas, 65 cent. ; from European ports, 11 cent. 
 By foreign vessels from any port whatever, 13 francs 75 cent. ; 
 by foreign vessels from countries out of Europe, 4 francs 12^ 
 cent. 
 
 Commercial tare : 6 kil. per double bale of the customary 
 form, for saltpetre. For nitrate of soda, 2 per cent., and 2 
 per cent, allowance for dampness of bags. 
 
 Skins, deer, each 0—0 0—00 
 
 Duty per 50 kil. on gross weight : by French vessels from 
 any port whatever, 55 cent. By foreign vessels, 60f cent. 
 See Note A. 
 
 Spelter, per 60 kil 18 0—19 
 
 Duty on gross weight : 5^ cents, per 50 kil. 
 Sugar, per 50 kil. 
 
 Mart, and Guad. bonne 46. .55 0^-65 50 34 0—34 50 
 
 Havana, white 0-0 83 0—34 
 
 yellow 0-0 29 0—32 
 
 brown 0—0 23 0—28 
 
 Porto Rico, Cuba b. 4e 0-0 28 0-0 
 
 Brazil, white 0-0 29 0—31 
 
 brown and yellow 0—0 22 0—28 
 
 ManUla 0—0 23 0—28 
 
 Duty on nett weight : foreign sugars by French vessels 
 from the East Indies above type, 81 francs 35 cent. ; at and 
 under type, 29 francs 70 cent, ; from European ports, 8 
 francs 30 cent, more; from elsewhere, above the type, 33 
 francs; at and under type, 31 francs 25 cent, per 50 kiL lOe. 
 included. By foreign vessels above type, 41 francs 26 cent. ; 
 at and under type, 39 francs 6 cent, ; from everywhere, per 
 50 kiL ,.10e included. 
 
 Custom-house tare : on chests, 12 per cent. ; on single bags, 
 2 per cent ; on double hags, 4 per cent. 
 
 Commercial tare : Havana afid St. Yago chests, 13 per 
 cent. ; Brazil, 16 per cent ; on casks, 16 per cent ; tierces, 
 6 per cent. ; barrels, 19 per cent. ; 2 per cent, on Brazil, and 8 
 per cent, on Manilla bags. 
 
 Tallow, Russian, per 30 Itil 60 0—64 0— 
 
 New York 0—00 
 
 Plata.. 58 0—60 0—00 
 
 Duty on gross weight : by French vessels from any port 
 whatever, 11 francs. By foreign vessels, 14 francs 30 cent. 
 See Note A. 
 
 Commercial tare : 12 per cent. 
 Terra Japonica, per 50 kiL 
 
 broini 46 0—50 0—0 
 
 yellow 46 0—50 0—00 
 
 Duty on gi'oss weight : by French vessels from East Indies, 
 &i cent ; from European ports, 19 francs 80 cent ; from else- 
 where, 13 1-10. By foreign vessels, 27i cent. See Note A. 
 Commercial tare : real. 
 
 Teas, Imperial, per ^ kil 0-0 2 10— 5 50 
 
 Gunpowder 0-0 2 0— 5 50 
 
 Hyson 0—0 2 0—5 
 
 Young Hyson 0-0 1 0— 2 50 
 
 Hysonskin 0-0 180—2 60 
 
 Pekoe 0—0 .150-8 
 
 Souchong. . . : 0—4 1 25— 4 50 
 
 Pouchong ..i. 0-0 1 0—2 
 
 Duty on nett weight : by French vessels from the East 
 Indies, 82^ cent. ; from China, 66 cent. ; from elsewhere, 2 
 francs 76 cent. By other vessels from any port whatever, 3 
 francs 30 cent See Note A. 
 
 Custom-house and commercial tare : real. 
 Tin, strait, and banca, p. 50 kil.110 0—122 50 0—00 
 
 British 115 0—120 ,..:... 
 
 South American 100 0—110 
 
 Duty on gross weight : by Frencli vessels from the East 
 
HAW 
 
 956 
 
 HAY 
 
 Indies, Bj cent. ; from elsewhere, 1 franc 10 cent. By foreign 
 vesselB from atiy pbrt whatever, 3 francs 20 cent. per. 30 kil. 
 See Exceptions at Note A. 
 Commercial tare : on casks, reiL 
 
 Duty Paid. 
 Fr. ct. Fr. cf. 
 
 Whalebone, per i kil. 
 
 South 2 25— 2 17 
 
 ' Polar and north-west 2 5T — 2 30 
 
 In Bond. 
 Fr. ct. Fr. ct. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0—0 
 
 
 
 () 
 
 0— 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 0— 
 
 
 
 
 
 0— 
 
 
 
 (1 
 
 0—0 
 
 
 
 1) 
 
 0— 
 
 
 
 
 
 0—0 
 
 
 
 
 
 0— 
 
 
 
 Duty on gross weight: by French vessels from any port 
 whatever, 16^ cent. By foreign vessels, 19^ cent 
 Commercial tare : real. Allowance, 2 per cent, on slabs. 
 
 Woods, per 50 kil. 
 
 Logwood, Campeachy 10 — 10 50 
 
 Honduras 7 50— 
 
 St. Domingo 6 50— 7 50 
 
 JTustic Cuba 9 0—12 
 
 Carthagena 6 50— 7 50 
 
 Sta. Martha : 18 0—20 
 
 Pernambuco 60 0—75 
 
 Jacaranda — 
 
 Duty on gross weight : Brazil, by French vessels from Eu- 
 ropean ports, 4 francs 95 cent. ; from elsewhere, 2 francs 75 
 <ient. By foreign vessels, 6 francs 60 cent. Other dye-woods 
 by French vessels from the French colonies, 4i cent. ; from 
 European ports, 2 francs 75 cent. ; from elsewhere, 82^ cent. 
 By foreign vessels, 3 francs 30 cent. See Note A. Allowance, 
 1 to 2 per cent. 
 
 Exi'LANATOEY Remaekb. — The above duties include the 
 surtax of 10 per cent. ; the custom-house admits the real tare 
 whenever the importer desires it. 
 
 Kote A. — The treaties of reciprocity entered into with the 
 countries hereafter mentioned, introduce the following de- 
 viations from the above rates of duty : 
 
 United States.— Hhe produce of the United States, except 
 that of the fisheries, direct from the United States in United 
 States' vessels, pays the same duty as if imported by French 
 vessels from the United States. 
 
 Brazils and itfierico.— The produce of the Brazils and Mex- 
 ico, imported direct in national vefiselB, enjoys also the above 
 privilege, 
 
 England. — The produce of Africa, Asia, or America, im- 
 ported from any country whatever in British vessels, or from 
 any port of the British dominions in Europe either in French 
 or foreign vessels can only be admitted in bond for re-export- 
 ation. 
 
 The same regulation is applicable to all European produce 
 (except that of Great Britain and its possessions in Europe) 
 imported hy British vessels from other ports than those of 
 Great Britain or its possessions in Europe. 
 
 The weight of 50 kilogrammes is equal to ll(i\ pounds En- 
 glish, or 100 pounds English are equal to 45 85-100 kilogram- 
 mes, and the cwt equal to 50 79-100 kilogrammes. 
 
 Credit. — Four and a half months, exception coflfee, pi- 
 mento, peppers, quicksilver, and clayed sugars, which are 
 sold at Z\ mouths, and wheat at 2^ months. 
 
 China^ and places beyond the Sunda Islands. — All natural 
 produce, sugar excepted, imported direct, by French vessels, 
 from countries situated beyond the Straits and the Sunda 
 Islands, either to the north of the 3d degree of northern lati- 
 tude, or to the east of the 106th degree of eastern longitude, 
 is admitted at four fifths of the lowest rates of duty of the 
 tariff, the French colonial duty alone excepted. 
 
 Ha*wkers and Peddlers. It is not verj- eas)' 
 to distinguish, between hawkers and peddlers. Both 
 are a sort of itini?rant retail dealers, who carry 
 about their wares from place to place ; but the former 
 are supposed to carry on business on a larger! scale 
 than the latter. 
 
 Hawse. The part of the bows close to the cables. 
 The cables pass through the hawse-holes^ which are 
 made in the timbers, and in the hawse-piece outside. 
 When the ship has two anchors down, and tbe cables 
 diverge from each other, the hawse is said to be clear ,• 
 when crossed'^jy the ship turning half round, there is a 
 cross in the hawse. Another cross makes an elbow ; then 
 a round turn : in the last two cases the hawse is said 
 to be foul. The process of disengaging the cable is 
 called clearing hawse. The danger of a foul hawse 
 is, that if it comes on to blow the cables can not be 
 veered from their friction against each other. This 
 term also denotes any small distance a-head of a ship, 
 or between her head and the anchors, employed to 
 ride her ; as, a vessel sails athwart the hawse, or an- 
 chors in the hawse of another vessel. 
 
 Freshemng hawse is veering out a little cable to ex- 
 pose a new surface to the friction in the hawse-hole, or 
 across the cutwater. 
 
 Athwart hawse implies across the bows of a vessel at 
 anchor. 
 
 Ha^wse-holes, the holes in the bows of a ship on 
 each side of the stem, through which the cables pass. 
 
 Hawser, a large rope, intermediate between the 
 cable and tow-Uhe of the ship to which it belongs. It 
 is u^ed for various purposes, as warping for a spring, 
 etc. 
 
 Hay (Ger. ffew ; Du. Horn ; Fr. Foin ; It. Fieno ; 
 Sp. Ileno ; Lat. Fanum\ any kind of grass, cut and 
 dried for the food of cattle. The great object in pre- 
 paring grass f6r hay is to preserve the green color of 
 the grass as much as possible, and to have it juicy, 
 fresh, and free from all sorts of mustiness. The haj"- 
 and fodder crops, including the dried blades, shucks, 
 and tops of Indian com, as well as of the succulent 
 corn plants and other green forage, cultivated solely 
 for soiling^ or for drying into fodder, chopped straw, 
 the haulm of beans, peas, potatoes, etc., which are by 
 no means inconsiderable, are far the most valuable of 
 any in the United States. The culture of hay is at 
 present principally confined to the eastern, middle, 
 and western States, from which the southern markets 
 are mainly supplied in the form of pressed packages or 
 bales. In the earlier settlement of the Atlantic States 
 north of Virginia, the cattle of the inhabitants were 
 chiefly dependent upon the wild, indigenous grasses — 
 such as the white clover, herd's grass (red top), wire 
 grass, Indian grass (andropogarC)^ and the coarser herb- 
 age of salt marshes, beaver meadows, and other 
 swampy grounds. In the middle and southern col- 
 onies they foraged upon the wild herbage of the coun- 
 try, in the same manner as the existing cattle do on 
 the buifalo grass of Louisiana, Texas, New Mexico, 
 etc., as well as on the leaves boughs, and fruit of trees. 
 The principal indigenous grasses which have been suc- 
 cessfully cultivated in the United States are — the Ken- 
 tucky blue grass, the red top (herd's grass of Penn- 
 sylvania), the white clover, and the fowl meadow (or 
 bird grass), the latterof which formerly grew in abund- 
 ance around Massachusetts Bjty, and was much rel- 
 ished by the cows, horses, hogs, and goats of the early 
 settlers, and upon which they thrived. 
 
 Production of Hay in the United States. 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Florida 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Maine 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Missouri 
 
 M^ew Hampshire.. 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 New York 
 
 North Carolina... 
 
 Ohio ■ 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Ehode Island 
 
 South Carolina.. . 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Virginia 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 Total 
 
 , 1850. 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 ISS 
 
 90 
 
 13,841 
 
 2,525 
 
 "182 
 
 8,427 
 
 18,320 
 
 342 
 
 8,230 
 
 2 
 
 9,09T 
 
 15,217 
 
 1,002 
 
 16,989 
 
 619 
 
 829 
 
 28,280 
 
 88,222 
 
 576 
 
 103,197 
 
 125,030 
 
 1,828 
 
 876 
 
 5,096 
 
 760 
 
 29,727 
 
 483 
 
 468,875 
 
 Hay. 
 
 1650. I 1850. 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 547 
 
 436 
 
 16,628 
 
 1,403 
 
 14,880 
 
 11,951 
 
 2,098 
 
 21,481 
 
 97 
 
 9,214 
 
 2,561 
 
 5,085 
 
 9,285 
 
 4,346 
 
 8,071 
 
 63,051 
 
 96,493 
 
 1,275 
 
 87,310 
 
 53,913 
 
 8,708 
 
 30 
 
 9,118 
 
 14,936 
 
 23.428 
 
 5,003 
 
 Tons. 
 
 32,685 
 
 8,976 
 
 516,181 
 
 80,159 
 
 2,510 
 
 23,449 
 
 601,952 
 
 403,230 
 
 89,055 
 
 113,747 
 
 25,752 
 
 755,889 
 
 157,956 
 
 651,807 
 
 404,934 
 
 116,925 
 
 598,854 
 
 435,950 
 
 3,728,797 
 
 145,658 
 
 1,448,142 
 
 1,842,970 
 
 74418 
 
 20,925 
 
 74,091 
 
 866,153 
 
 860,098, 
 
 275,662 
 
 TonH. 
 
 12,718 
 
 686 
 
 426.T04 
 
 22;4S8 
 1,197 
 
 16,970 
 16-1,982 
 178,029 
 
 17,958 
 
 88,306 
 
 24,651 
 691,358 
 106,687 
 569,895 
 180,805 
 
 49,083 
 
 496,107 
 
 8^,861 
 
 8,127,047 
 
 101,869 
 
 1,022,087 
 
 1,811,648 
 
 63,449 
 
 24,618 
 , .81,283 
 886,789 
 S64,708 
 
 80,988 
 
 416,278 13,805,870 W^ 
 
 Among the foreign cultivated grasses in this coun- 
 trj', the Timothy (herd's grass of New England), 
 
HAY 
 
 951 
 
 HAY 
 
 fanks pre-eminent. It is said to have receired the 
 name of Timothy from its first introducer into Mal}-- 
 land, Mr. Timothy Hanson. It is a native of England, 
 and is cultivated as a favorite in Sweden and other 
 parts of northern Europe. The next in extent of culti- 
 vation, among our forage crops of foreign origin, is the 
 common red clover, whicli is widely naturalized, and 
 is diligently cultivated by all good farmers. ^ The pre- 
 cise period of its introduction is not known 5 but, on.the 
 authority of Watson, in his "• Annals of Philadelphia," 
 John Bartram had fields of it prior to the American 
 Kevolution ; and; according to Dr. William Darling- 
 ton, it was introduced into general cultivation in Che3-> 
 ter county, Pennsylvania, beitween the years 1790 
 and 1800. Its congener, the creeping white clover, 
 indigenous or naturalized in Europe, is extensively 
 otdtivated in the middle and northern States from im- 
 ported seed. ' The other Europen grasses, which have 
 beiSn only partially introduced into this country, and 
 which have met with favor, are the cock'a-foot, or or- 
 chard grass, and the perennial ray grass. The latter 
 affords atolerably good pasture, and makes a handsome 
 sward for a yard or lawn ; but as a meadow grass for 
 hay it is regarded as inferior in value to any of the 
 preceding. According to the census returns of 1840, 
 the hay crop of the United States was 10,248,108 
 tons ; of 1850, 13,838,579 tons, showing an increase of 
 3,590,470 tons. 
 
 Hayti, Haiti, San Domingo, or Hispaniola, 
 one of the largest and most fertile of the West India 
 Islands, extending in length from east to west 390 
 miles, and in breadth from 60 to 150 miles, is situated 
 between lat. 17° 37' and 20° 0' N., and between long. 
 68P 20' and 74°' 28' W. It is called Hayti, or the 
 Highland country, by the natives, from the mountains 
 with which it abounds, especially in the northern part. 
 The countrj- was formerly divided between the Span- 
 iards, who were the -earliest European colonists, and 
 the French. The line of demarcation which separated 
 these two divisions commenced on the south side from 
 the- Pedernales or Flint River, and extended in a wav- 
 ing direction to the River Massacre on the north side. 
 The country to the west of this line belonged to the 
 French, while that on thf east side formed the Spanish 
 part of the island. By far the greatest portion of the 
 country was in the possession of the Spaniards ; their 
 division being reckoned 220 miles in length b}' 120 in 
 breadth, of which, though a considerable part consists 
 of mountains, these are said to be little inferior in fer- 
 tility to the champagne country, and to be equally 
 capable of cultivation. The French division is of an 
 extremely irregular figure. The land is deeply pene- 
 trated by the Gulf of Gonaive, and is in some parts 170 
 miles in length, while in others it is not 30. It is 
 nearly of the same breadth as the Spanish division. 
 
 A great part of the coast of this island is rocky and 
 dangerous, affording but an imperfect shelter to vessels 
 overtaken by storms. Many of the shipping-places on 
 the southern shore are nothing more than open bays, 
 which lie exposed to the storms and hurricanes of the 
 autumnal months. The harbor of San Domingo, form- 
 erly thought so commodious and secure, has become too 
 shallow to admit vessels of large burden. There are, 
 however, besides roadsteads and several small harbors, 
 the Bays of Neyba and Ocoa on this coast. Into the 
 former flows the River Neyba, which receives vessels 
 of 30 tons' burden: its stream before entering the 
 ocean divides itself into various channels, which, an- 
 nually changing, confound the pilot, and render the 
 navigation difScult. Ocoa Bay is a large and conve- 
 nient watering-place, with several small rivers falling 
 into it. The entrance is two leagues across, and it 
 gradually widens to nearly six. On the east side of 
 this bay is the safe and capacious port of Caldera. 
 On the south-east coast is the great Bay of Samana, 
 which, in point of size and situation, is one of the most 
 important on the island. From Cape Eaffael, which 
 
 forms the southern point of entrance into the Bay of, 
 SamRna, to the opposite side of the island or peninsula 
 of Samana, the distance is 18 miles, which is closed in 
 by bulwarks of rocks and sand, the entrance only be- 
 ing left clear, with » safe and deep channel between 
 the shore of Samana and several detachpd islands. 
 This bay is about, 60 miles long, an4 i^ surrounded on 
 ever)' side by a fertile country, suited to all the pur- 
 poses of trade. Within tl(e compass of this bay whole 
 fleets might ride at anchor in perfect security. The 
 Kiver Yuna, after being joined by the Cambu, and 
 meandering through the rich plains of La Vega Keal, 
 falls into the Bay of Samana after a course of nearly 
 100 miles. Bahia Ecos^aise, or Scotph Bay; which is 
 situated on the north ^ide of the peninsula of Samana, 
 is a dangerous rocky plapej. , Thence to Puerto F}ata 
 the coast extends about 60 miles in a north-westerly 
 direction, and in this spacp stands Balsama Bay, which 
 has only 14 feet depth of water, and is of difiicult nav- 
 igation. The harbor of Puerto Plata was first discov- 
 ered by Columbus : the entranco is narrow, but safe, 
 and the-^ieigbborhood ip, rich in every species of tirpber-f 
 trees. There are several other small harbors and baj's 
 on this side of the island, but the coast is in general 
 rocky and dangerous, , , , 
 
 Suit and /Surface.rr-A country of such magnitude as 
 Hayti, containing mountains of great height, with val- 
 leys of corresponding extent, necessarily comprises, 
 great variety of soil.,, In general, however, it is fer- 
 tile in the highest degree, being everywhere drained 
 by copious streams, and yield,ing in abundance every 
 species of vegetable produce which can minister either 
 to the luxury or comfort of man. , The soil consists 
 principally of a ,rich clay, sometimes mixed with 
 gravel, lying on a substratum of rock. That part of 
 the island formerly occupied by the French is mount- 
 ainous, but fertile and well wooded, and containing 
 mines both of silver and iron. Thp Spanish part of 
 the island is mountainous in many parts ; while in 
 other parts the country is spread out into extensiver 
 plains. These are generally in a state of nature, cov- 
 ered with herbage, or with woods' of immense growth 
 and the most luxuriant foliage. The mountains in- 
 tersect the island in two principal chains from east to 
 west. From these secondary and partial ridges diverge 
 Irregularly in different directions, forming, beautiful 
 and fertile valleys, with numerous streams. The 
 highest mountains of the interior, particularly those 
 of Cibao, rise to the height of 7200 feet above the 
 level of the sea. To the north of the capital is the 
 valley called Vega Real, or Royal Plain, which is by 
 far the largest and finest in the island. Westward it 
 extends to the old French line of demarcation, and in 
 this part it is drained by the River Yacki ; to the east, 
 where the River Yuna flows for the space of 60 miles, 
 it projects to the head of the Bay of Samana, and is 
 drained by numerous smaller streams, which cross it 
 in various directions. This valley may be .said to ex- 
 tend in length about 140 miles, and in breadth from 20 
 to 30. Other plains also, of less extent, but of equal 
 fertility, and of easy access, are everywhere found in- 
 terspersed among the mountainous tracts. West- 
 ward from San Domingo, along the southern coast, 
 is the valley of the River Bams, extending from Nisap 
 to Ocoa. Here the pasture is good ; but the country 
 is not so well watered as in the other parts of the isl- 
 and; an ineovenience which is sensibly felt by the 
 cattle during the dry months. Further to the west- 
 ward and to the north other valleys are found; but 
 where the laud, as in this island, is everywhere inter- 
 sected by, ranges of mountains, it is impossible, in any 
 general sketch, to describe particularly that continual 
 succession of hill and dale which diversifies the face of 
 the country. Eastward from the capital are those im- 
 mense plains called Los Llanos, which stretch out to 
 a vast extent on a dead level. They are covered with 
 herbage, and the eye wanders unobstructed over the 
 
HAY 
 
 958 
 
 HAY 
 
 "Wide expanse of waving grass, which is occasionally 
 diversified bj' natural clumps of shrubs. These plains 
 occupy almost one sixth part of the island, extending 
 nealy to its eastern coast, being a distance of more 
 than 90 miles, by about 30 wide. They form an im- 
 mense natural meadow, covered with pasture for vast 
 herds of cattle which belong to more than 100 different 
 owners. 
 
 Climate, — San Domingo has a hot moist climate, 
 but the heat is mitigated by the regularity of the sea- 
 breeze, and by the contiguity of the mountains. In 
 the plains the thermometer rises to 96°, sometimes to 
 99°, but in the mountainous tracts it seldom rises 
 above 78°. In the most elevated part a fire is fre- 
 quently necessar}''. In those situations meat may be 
 kept for several days, and in the morning hoar-frost is 
 frequent. The seasons, as in tropical countries, are 
 divided into the wet and the drj'. The rains are peri- 
 odical, and are heaviest in May and June, when the 
 rivers, which at other times scarcely supply water for 
 a continued stream, overflow their banks, and, with 
 an impetuous torrent, sweep over the neighboring 
 plains. The climate of San Domingo is unhealth}^ to 
 Europeans, owing to the violent heats and heavy rains ; 
 and hence all metals, however bright their original 
 polish, soon contract a tarnished appearance. This is 
 more observable on the sea-coast, which is also more 
 unhealthy tlian the interior of the island. Hurricanes 
 are not frequent, but in the southern parts of the 
 island violent gales of wind, generally preceded by a 
 closeness and sultriness in the atmosphere, frequently 
 occur. These however are not attended with such 
 fatal effects as the hurricanes in the Windward Islands. 
 Rivers. — The island of Hayti abounds in rivers and 
 smaller streams, which flow from the mountains in the. 
 interior, in different directions, to the sea. Of these the 
 principal are the Haina, the Nigua, the Nizao, the 
 Ozama, the Keyba, the Ocoa, the Yane, and the Santia- 
 go or River of Monte Christi. Near the south part of 
 the French line of demarcation is the beautiful Lake of 
 Henriquillo, which is about 60 miles in circumference ; 
 and though it is about 25 miles from the sea, its water 
 is perfectly salt, and of the same specific gravity as 
 that of the ocean. The same fishes are also found in it, 
 such as the sharlc, seal, porpoise, etc. 
 
 Vegetable Productions. — The fertile soil of Hajti is 
 distinguished by the variety of its vegetable produc- 
 tions, many of which are rare and valuable. The ma- 
 hogany-tree grows to a great size, and is of yery fine 
 quality. The manchineel-tree affords a beautiful spe- 
 cies of wood, richly veined like marble, and suscept- 
 ible of the finest polish. Several species of dye-woods 
 are produced in the forests. There is a tree called the 
 jagua, the fruit of which is accounted a delicacy by 
 the natives ; and of which the juice, as clear as water, 
 makes a stain on linen which is indelible. Different 
 kinds of guaiacum are found, as also of several other 
 woods with the same properties, which grow unno- 
 ticed and nameless in those unexplored forests. The 
 sideroxylon or iron-wood, remarkable for hardness, as 
 its name implies, is abundant ; and the oak also, which 
 differs in appearance from the European oak, frequent- 
 ly furnishes beams of from 60 to 70 feet in length. 
 On the north side of the island are extensive forests 
 of pine, which is much used for the purposes of ship- 
 building ; and Brazil-wood is found on many parts of 
 the coast. . The aatin-wood of this island is heavier 
 than that of the East Indies, and it takes so fine a pol- 
 ish that it does not require to be varnished. The cot- 
 ton-tree is the largest of all the vegetable productions, 
 and is formed into the lightest and most capacious 
 canoes. Every variety of the palm-tree is found in 
 the woods, of which they form a principal ornament. 
 The palmetto or mountain-cabbage is an erect and no- 
 ble tree, which grows to the height of 70 feet, with es- 
 culent leaves at the top. In the congenial soil of this 
 fertile island the sugar-cane, cotton, and coffee-plants. 
 
 grow in the greatest luxuriance. There is also the 
 calabash, the fruit of which serves as a substitute for 
 earthenware ; the plantain, the staff of life in the West 
 Indies ; vanilla, which is found indigenous in the un- 
 frequented woods ; quassia or simarouba, which is a tall 
 and stately plant, waving gracefully in the wind ; sar- 
 saparilla, indigo, tobacco, turmeric, ginger, and rice- 
 plants. The fruits and nutritive roots of San Domin- 
 go are nearlj' the same as those of Jamaica ; but they 
 are more abundant, and extremely fine. Of these 
 may be enumerated the choux caraib, or Indian kale, 
 with a variety of other vegetables that come under 
 the same denomination ; the avocato or vegetable mar- 
 row, the melon, sapadillo, guava, pine-apple, bread, 
 and jack-fruit, mango, nuts, rose-apple, plums, etc., 
 of man}' different species. Flowers in endless vari- 
 etj' and splendor adorn the wild scenerj' of the woods, 
 and exhale their fragrance in the desert air. 
 
 Little is known of the geological structure of the 
 island, but a limestone containing vestiges of marine 
 shells is the prevailing formation. Mineral springs 
 exist in several parts. The most noted in the eastern 
 part of the island are those of Banica, Yaya, and Par- ' 
 gatal ; and in the west, the chalybeate of St. Rose, 
 the saline of Jean Rabel, and the alkaline sulphur 
 waters of Dalmarie. The mineral products are various 
 and rich, and include gold, platina, silver, quicksilver, 
 copper, iron, tin, sulphur, manganese, antimony, rock- 
 ealt, bitumen, jasper, marble, opal, lazulite, chalcedony, 
 etc. The gold mines of the Chiboa Mountains, which, 
 in the 16th century, were verj'^ productive, have been 
 abandoned, and at the present day gold is obtained 
 onl}' from the washings in the northern rivers. None 
 of the mines, indeed, are successfuUj'- worked, and 
 hence these sources of wealth are reserved for the 
 industrj' of future generations. 
 
 Animals. — The indigenous quadrupeds of this island 
 were confined to four species, which the Indians called 
 Hutia, Quemi, Mohuy, and Cory. Of these, all are 
 believed to be extinct except the first. Horned cattle, 
 hogs, sheep, goats, horses, mules, and asses, have 
 been introduced from Europe, and have multiplied 
 prodigiously in the wild and extensive pastures of the 
 interior. Wildfowl are abundant, consisting of various 
 species of ducks, pigeons, the flamingo, the wild pea- 
 cock, the mimic thrush or mocking-bird, the banana 
 bird, the Guinea fowl, the ortolan, and parrots of 
 various species. The rivers abound with fish, some of 
 which are very' delicate. Turtle of all kinds are 
 taken, and the land-crab is much esteemed. The 
 serpents are not dreaded ; but the centipedes, which 
 are frequent in old buildings, are large and dangerous. 
 The scorpion is rarely seen ; but the venomous crab- 
 spider, which Is equally dangerous, is sometimes met 
 with. 
 
 History. — This island was discovered by Columbus 
 in 1492, and was soon filled with adventurers, who 
 crowded from Europe to the new world for sudden 
 wealth. The natives were reduced to slavery by 
 these settlers, who spread themselves over the island, 
 and by their industry the colony increased rapidly in 
 wealth and prosperity. But as it was chiefly by the 
 desire of gold that settlers were attracted to this dis- 
 tant shore, San Domingo was in its turn abandoned 
 for other countries of greater reputed wealth ; and the 
 country gradually declined, and, instead of yielding a 
 revenue, became a burden on the mother country. 
 About the middle of the 16th centuiy the island of St. 
 Christopher was taken possession of by a mixed col- 
 ony of French and English, who being attacked bj'the 
 Spaniards, were forced to fly to the barren isle of Tor- 
 tuga, where they established themselves, and grew 
 formidable, under the well-known appellation of buc- 
 caneers. They at last obtained a firm footing in San 
 Domingo, into which they had made only predatory 
 incursions ; and by the treaty of Ryswick, that part 
 of the island of which they had obtained possession 
 
HAY 
 
 959 
 
 HAY 
 
 was ceded to the King of France, who acknowledged 
 these adventurous colonists as his subjects. The 
 I'rench colony languished for a while under the galling 
 restrictions imposed on its trade by the mother coun- 
 try ; but these being removed about the year 1722, it 
 soon attained a high degree of prosperity, and was in 
 a very flourishing state when the French Revolution 
 commenced in 1789. 
 
 The revenue of Hayti arises chiefly from customs 
 and port-dues, territorial imposts, sale of landsj etc. 
 In 1850 the customs' receipts amounted to £170,000 ; 
 and in the same year the expenditure amounted to 
 £216,856. The established religion is Roman Cath- 
 olic ; but other forms of worship are not prohibited. 
 Church affairs are superintended by a vicarrgeneral. 
 In 1854 there were in the State 62 schools and 4 col- 
 leges, having in all about 9,000 or 10,000 pupils. 
 
 Comm&rce, — The foreign commerce of Hayti is in the 
 hands of foreign merchants, who are permitted to 
 reside only at certain ports, under irksome and injuri- 
 ous restrictions. The foreign commerce does not now 
 exceed £1,000,000 of annual value. The exports are 
 chiefly mahogany and other timber, dyewoods, coffee, 
 tobacco, and cotton. The imports are British cotton 
 and woolen goods, hardware, cutlery, fire-arms, gun- 
 powder, glass, earthenware, etc. From France are 
 imported brandy, wines, sillc, and fancy goods. The 
 population of Hayti is estimated at about 740,000. 
 
 The emperor has constituted Cape Haytien, formerly 
 Cape Fran9ais, the capital and seat of government of 
 the empire. It stands on the north coast, in N. lat. 
 19° 46', and W. long. 72° 10', and contains about 
 14,000 inhabitants. 
 
 Port-au-Prince, the capital of Havti, or St. Do- 
 mingo, in lat. 18° 33' 42" N., long. 72° 27' 11" W. 
 Population variously estimated — probably from 18,000 
 to' 20,000, It is situated on the west coast of the 
 island,' at the bottom of a large and deep gulf. It was 
 founded in 1749, since when, with few intervals, it has 
 been the capital of French St, Domingo, as it is now 
 of the ' entire island. It is partially fortified — the 
 harbor being protected hy a battery on a small island, 
 at a little distance from the shore. The country round 
 is low and marsh}'' ; and the heat in the summer 
 months being excessive, the climate is then exceed- 
 ingly unhealthy. The buildings are principally of 
 wood, and seldom exceed two stories in height. The 
 entrance to the harbor is between White island and 
 the southern shore. The depth of water varies from 
 about 18 feet at ebb tide to about 21 feet at full tide. 
 It is customary, but not compulsory, to emploj'' a pilot 
 in entering the harbor. They are always on the look- 
 out. Ships moor head and stern, at from 100 to 500 
 yards from shore, loading and unloading by means of 
 boats. 
 
 The Dominican republic claims for its territory the 
 whole of the Spanish portion of the island. It is 
 divided into five provinces, and has an area of about 
 17,500 square miles. The Dominicans are almost 
 entirely an agricultural people. Tlie staples of the 
 southern provinces consist chiefly of the products of 
 the forests. In Seybo, however, the raising of cattle 
 is the chief occupation. But hy far the most indus- 
 trious part is the northern, generally called the Cibao, 
 
 where the staple article is an excellent quality of 
 tobacco. The articles of export are mahogany, satin- 
 wood, lignum-vitic, and brazil-wood, tobacco, bides, 
 etc. The imports are chiefly flour and provisions from 
 the United States, and general merchandise from 
 Europe. The constitution of the republic is based 
 on that of "Venezuela. The Congress, which assembles 
 annually, consists of 15 deputiefe — three from each 
 province — who form the Tribunado or Lower Cham- 
 ber, and five senators — one from each province — con- 
 stituting the Consejo Conservador or Upper Chamber. 
 The executive posVer is vested in a President, who is 
 elected for four years, and who must be a Dominican 
 by birth, and at least 35 years of age. The ju- 
 diciary is exercised by a supreme court and various 
 inferior and local courts, and the French code has 
 been adopted in legal proceedings. In 1852 the rev- 
 enue amounted to £76,853, and the ordinary expend- 
 itures amount annually to about £51,300. No foreign 
 debt is owing ; but there exists a large home debt, on 
 which the currency is based, and which is of low and 
 fluctuating value. The army amounts to 12,000 men, 
 and may be raised to 16,000. The navy consists of 
 three corvettes and five schooners equipped as war 
 vessels, and mounted with 44 guns. The prevailing 
 religion is Roman Catholic, but other denominations 
 are tolerated. Population about 136,500, 
 
 The chief seats of commerce are San Domingo city 
 and Samana, a small town on a peninsula of the same 
 name. The city of San Domingo is situated at the 
 mouth of the Ozama, on the southern coast, in N. lat. 
 18J°, and W. long. 70°, and is the oldest European 
 settlement in the New World, having been built by 
 Columbus in 1504. The population is about 14,000, 
 and the town is defended by substantial fortifications. 
 The cathedral is more than three centuries old. The 
 harbor is capacious, but owing to a bar at its mouth, 
 vessels drawing above 13 feet of water are obliged to 
 anchor in the open roadstead. 
 
 Population. — In 1789, the French part of Hayti was 
 by far the most valuable and flourishing colony in the 
 West Indies, The population was estimated at 
 524,000 ; of which 31,000 were white, 27,500 people of 
 color,- and 465,500 slaves. The Spanish part of the 
 island was much less densely peopled — the number in 
 1785 being estimated at 152,640, of which 122,640 were 
 free people of all colors, mostly mulattoes, and the 
 rest slaves. The population of the entire island, in 
 1827, was estimated by Humboldt at 820,000, of whom 
 30,000 were whites ; but there are good grounds for 
 thinking that that estimate was exaggerated, and that 
 the present population does not exceed 600,000 or 
 700,000. 
 
 Exports. — There has been an extraordinary decline 
 in the quantity and value of the articles exported from 
 Haj'ti since 1789. Sugar, for example, has fallen off 
 from 141,000,000 pounds to almost nothing ; coffee 
 from about 77,000,000 pounds to little more than 
 25,000,000 pounds ; cotton from 7,000,000 pounds to 
 perhaps 650,000 pounds ; indigo from 758,000 pounds 
 to nothing, etc, ! Mahogany is almost the onlyarticlc 
 the exports of which have increased of late years. 
 The following table illustrates what has now been 
 stated : 
 
 A Genkkal Taule of Exports from Hayti, duking tub Years 1T89, 1801, and fkom 1818 to 182S, both inoi-usive. 
 
 Yenra. 
 
 Muscovado Siiffftr. 
 
 Coffeo, 
 
 Cotton, 
 
 Cncno, 
 
 Dye-woods. 
 
 Tobacco. 
 
 Mahopany. 
 
 Semr,. ! 
 
 
 Puiiuiis, 
 
 Fo,.iid«. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Pounds, 
 
 Pounds, 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Foet. 
 
 
 17S9 
 
 93,573,800 
 18,51S;RTa 
 
 76,835,219 
 
 7,004,274 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ISOl 
 
 48,420,270 
 
 2,480,840 
 
 648'5i8 
 
 6,768,634 
 
 
 5,217 
 
 
 1S18 
 
 5,443,667 
 
 26,065,200 
 
 474,118 
 
 484,368 
 
 6,819,800 
 
 19,140 
 
 129,962 
 
 
 1S19 
 
 8,790,143 
 
 29,240,919 
 
 216,103 
 
 870,4-89 
 
 8,094,409 
 
 89,698 
 
 141,677 
 
 
 1S20 
 
 2,514,502 
 
 85.1.37,769 
 
 846,889 
 
 656,424 
 
 1,919,748 
 
 97,600 
 
 129,509 
 
 
 1821 
 
 600,934 
 
 29,925,9,'>1 
 
 820,568 
 
 264,792 
 
 3,728,186 
 
 . 76,400 
 
 56,005 
 
 
 1823 
 
 200,454 
 
 24.2:»,372 
 
 692,868 
 
 464,154 
 
 8,295,080 
 
 688,957 
 
 2,622,277 
 
 279,66o 
 
 182a 
 
 14,920 
 
 S:!,'i02,S37 
 
 3,32,266 
 
 335,540 
 
 6,607,308 
 
 887,014 
 
 2,369,047 
 
 898,800 
 
 1824 
 
 6,106 
 
 44,269,084 
 
 1,028,045 
 
 461,694 
 
 8,.35S,151 
 
 718,679 
 
 2,181,747 
 
 176,000 
 
 1R3.5 
 
 2,020 
 
 86,034,800 
 
 815,697 
 
 389,987 
 
 8,948,190 
 
 603,425 
 
 2,986,469 
 
 
 1826 
 
 82,864 
 
 32,189.784 
 
 620,972 
 
 467,692 
 
 5,307,746 
 
 840,688 
 
 2,136,984 
 
 179,560 
 
 Gum Guaiaoum, in 1822, 7,338 pounds— 1828, 18,066 pounds— 1824, 68,692 pounds. 
 
HAY 
 
 960 
 
 HAY 
 
 Imports. — Th6 principal articles of import are pro- 
 Tisions : such as flour, rice, mess and cargo beef, fish, 
 etc., and timber from the United States ; cotton goods 
 of all sorts, Irish and Sotch linens, earthenware, cut- 
 lery, ammunition, etc., from England; wines, satins, 
 liqueurs, jewelry, toys, haberdashery, etc., from 
 France, and linens, canvas, gin, etc., from Holland 
 and Germany. 
 
 The destruction caused by the excesses which 
 accompanied the revolution explains a part of this 
 extraordinar}' falling off; but the greater part is to be 
 accounted for by the change in the condition of the inhab- 
 itants. The blacks, being no longer compelled to labor, 
 and regarding with abhorrence the culture of sugar and 
 the other occupations in which they had been princi- 
 pally engaged, sunk into a state of idleness and apathy. 
 The condition of all the great branches of industrj'^ 
 that were formerly carried on became, in consequence, 
 most deplorable, and the commerce of the island was 
 reduced within the narrowest limits. Its successive 
 rulers have endeavored, though with little success, to 
 bring about a revival of industrj'. The Code Rural, 
 enacted for this purpose by- Beyer, 1826, is exceed- 
 ingly stringent, its principal provisions being in fact 
 copied from the regulations as to slaves embodied in 
 the Code Noir. But even this code had little influ- 
 ence ; and as a proof of the low state of industrj- in 
 the island, we need only state that sugar has wholly 
 disappeared from the list of exports, and that the ex- 
 ports of coffee and most other articles seem to be sta- 
 tionary or diminishing. And this result is, after all, 
 only what should have been anticipated. To expect 
 that half-civilized Africans, imder a burning sun, and 
 without the wants or desires of Europeans, should be 
 equally industrious, is to expect what is contradictory, 
 and all but absurd. 
 
 Commerce with the United States. — There being no 
 treaty between the United States and Haj'ti, the com- 
 merce between the two countries is governed by such 
 local laws and regulations as may from time to time 
 be enacted. These are alwaj'^s subject to changes and 
 alterations, sometimes so sudden — decrees of to-day 
 superseding the laws in force but yesterday — ^that 
 commercial interests, especially those of the United 
 States, have been, in many instances, most seriously 
 affected. The United States' commercial agent, in a 
 dispatch to the Department of State, written in De- 
 cember, 1849, thus refers to this ruinous uncertainty 
 of Haj'tien commercial legislation: "There is one 
 subject to which I beg for a moment to draw your 
 attention ; that is, the sudden changes in the laws af- 
 fecting commercial interests. 1. Within the last six 
 months we have had the closing of the ports of Aquire, 
 St. Marc, Miragoane, Port de Paix, and I'Ansed 
 Hainault, 2. An additional duty of five per cent, on 
 coffee, and of seven per cent, on logwood ; and, lastly, 
 we have had those modifications in the monopoly law. 
 * * * Almost all these measures were enforced on 
 the day of their publication, merchants only being 
 apprized of the intentions of the government by a 
 vague rumor. With such hasty legislation, the most 
 careful and discreet are entrapped, and thus all calcu- 
 lation defeated, and frequently heavy loss entailed," 
 
 Advices more recently received represent but little 
 amelioration in this unsettled state of commercial leg- 
 islation. It is true, American commerce has been 
 placed on a much better footing than it enjoyed at that 
 period. Up to June 25, 1850, a law was in force sub- 
 jecting the vessels of all nations that had not acknowl- 
 edged the independence of Hayti to an additional duty 
 of 10 per cent. ■ The independence of the empire not 
 having been formally'" recognized by the United States, 
 American vessels were brought within the operation of 
 this law, and could not, in consequence, compete with 
 the vessels of such nations as had satisfied its require- 
 ments, even in exporting to Hayti our own staples. 
 In January, 1850, the State Department was officially 
 
 informed that this reciprocity duty of 10 per cent, ad- 
 ditional, was, by a law then lately published, applied 
 to American merchandise brought in vessels of any 
 other nation whatever. This was an advantage to 
 our ship-owners, as one or two vessels, under foreign 
 flags, were then running as packets from the United 
 States to Hayti, and also from the adjacent islands, 
 bringing American goods under the preference of 10 
 per cent, over American bottoms. It placed the Amer- 
 ican flag on an equality with that of other nations in 
 the carrying trade of our staples exported to Ha}'ti ; 
 and an increased American tonnage engaged in the 
 trade, and a general activity in the commercial move- 
 ments between the two countries were immediately 
 perceived. 
 
 Still, American commerce in this quarter had to en- 
 counter a difficulty no less, if not even more, formida- 
 ble than the discrimination just abolished. This was 
 a decree and accompanying tariff, which took effect 
 January 1, 1850, the 3d article of which was in these 
 words : *' The articles designated in the tariff, annexed 
 to the present decree can not be sold above the prices 
 fixed by said tariff." Articles 4, 6, and 8 run thus: 
 '* There shall be established in each of the ports of 
 Port-au-Prince, Aux Cayes, Cape Haytien, Jacmel, 
 Gonaives, and Jeremie, warehouses, into which shall 
 be put in depot, after having regularly passed through 
 the custom-houses, such articles of merchandise as 
 are designated in the tariff annexed to the present 
 decree." 
 
 * * * " Coffee shall only he divided among 
 importers of articles included in the tariff, which 
 division shall be made pro rata, according to the ac- 
 quired rights of each." * * * " The government 
 reserves to itself the right of retaining, out of the 
 quantity of coffee declared for division, a certain por- 
 tion, to be disposed of according to the necessities of 
 the moment ; such portion shall not, however, exceed 
 one fifth of the existing quantity." The low tariff 
 prices fixed upon most American goods, and those to 
 the Haytiens of the first necessity, when contrasted 
 with the more liberal prices assigned to the nierchan- 
 disc of other nations, almost paralyzed for a time 
 American trade. A dispatch from Aux Cayes, writ- 
 ten at that period to the Department of State, says : 
 " While the citizens of France are scarcely affected in 
 their importations to Hayti, the Americans here im- 
 port, and our merchants at home export, scarcely any 
 article that is free." Still, in the face of these annoy- 
 ances, and despite the embarrassments which they 
 must have occasioned, one half, at least, of the foreign 
 trade of Hayti is in the hands of American merchants. 
 Naturally indolent, and unhappily deprived of all 
 legislative stimulus to industry and labor, the natives 
 have lost that spirit of emulation and agricultural 
 enterprise which conducted them to a comparatively 
 high state of prosperity under the administration of 
 earlier rulers. The degree of this prosperit}', thus 
 attained, may he inferred from the following state- 
 ment, exhibiting the quantities and values of the 
 produce exported from St. Domingo to France, from 
 January 1 to December 31, 1790. The figures and 
 other data are derived from a rare statistical chart, 
 published in France, by the government, that year, 
 entitled " Tableau de Douanes et du Commerce de la 
 partie Franfoise de St. Domingue,'''' 
 
 The free population of this portion of the island in 
 1790 was :— whites, 38,360 ; blacks, 8370. The num- 
 ber of negroes employed in labor was 455,000. The 
 navigation returns show the number of vessels entered 
 to have been 763, with an aggregate measurement of 
 55,748 tons ; and the number cleared 721, measuring 
 53,321 tons. The total value of agricultural property, 
 including negroes, stock, etc., in the French division, 
 in 1790, is stated at about $208,297,600. The number 
 of coffee plantations was 2810 ; of cotton, 705 ; of in- 
 digo, 3097 ; and of cocoa, 69. 
 
HAT 
 
 961 
 
 HAY 
 
 QXTANTITTES AND VALUES OF PRODtTOK EXPORTED FROM ST. 
 
 Domingo (chiefly feom tiik Portion now comprised 
 "within tub limits of hatftl), from january 1 to 
 December 81, 1790, while a. Colony of France. 
 
 Producte.i , 
 
 Sugar, white pounds 
 
 '• brown " 
 
 Coffee " 
 
 Cotton " 
 
 Indigo " 
 
 Cocoa " 
 
 Simp jars 
 
 Tafia. ,.. kegs 
 
 Hides, tanned sides 
 
 '■ ". raw number 
 
 Tortoise-shell , , . . .pounds 
 
 Mahogany and Campecho " 
 Value In colonial cur. (livres) 
 
 Value in British money 
 
 Value in dollars. 
 
 Quanlitloa. ValuB&lnlivres, 
 
 T0,a37,T08 
 
 98,177,512 
 
 68,151,180 
 
 6,286,126 
 
 980,016 
 
 150,000 
 
 29,502 
 
 808 
 
 Ti887 
 
 5,186 
 
 5,000 
 
 1,500,000 
 
 67,670,781 
 
 49,041i667 
 
 51,890,748 
 
 17,572,252 
 
 10,875,120 
 
 120,000 
 
 1,947,132 
 
 ' 21,816 
 
 ■ 78te70 
 
 I, ,98,848 
 
 , 60,000 
 
 40,000 
 
 199,401,684 
 £6,665,600 
 
 $27,828,000 
 
 In 1789 Hayti was a colonial possession of France ; 
 in 1801 it was under fte government of Toussaint ; in 
 1818 ' and 1819 it was under that of Christophe ; and 
 during the residue of the years designated in the state- 
 ment, It was under that of President Boyer. 
 
 The following statement exhibits the quantities of 
 coffee, cotton, cocoa, logwood, and tobacco exported 
 from Hayti from 1835 to 1849 (1842 excepted), both 
 inclusive : 
 
 Y„m,. 
 
 OoffeB. 
 
 Cotton. 
 
 Cocoft. 
 
 Logwood. 
 
 Tobacco. 
 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Ponnda. 
 
 Pouiids. 
 
 Pounds.) 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 1885... 
 
 48,852,871 
 
 1,649,717 
 
 897,821 
 
 18,298,787 
 
 2,086,606 
 
 1886... 
 
 87,622,674 
 
 1,072,655 
 
 650,484 
 
 6,767,902 
 
 1,222,716 
 
 1887... 
 
 80,845,400 
 
 1,018,171 
 
 266,024 
 
 6,086,286 
 
 ' 890,569 
 
 ■1888... 
 
 49,820,241 
 
 1,170,175 
 
 458,418 
 
 7,887,986 
 
 1,995,049 
 
 , 1889... 
 
 87,889,092 
 
 1,635,42C 
 
 477,414 
 
 25,946,068 
 
 2,102,791 
 
 1840... 
 
 46,126,272 
 
 922,675 
 
 442,866 
 
 89,288,205 
 
 1,725,389 
 
 1841 . . . 
 
 84,114,117 
 
 1,591,454 
 
 640,616 
 
 65,071,891 
 
 8,219,680 
 
 1848... 
 
 44,900,564 
 
 448,422 
 
 .708,827 
 
 28,663,904 
 
 1,716,816 
 
 1844... 
 
 45,884,908 
 
 914,886 
 
 618,448 
 
 47,405,120 
 
 171,685 
 
 ,1846... 
 
 41,002,571 
 
 667,480 
 
 886,004 
 
 68,181,588 
 
 6,609 
 
 ,1,846..., 
 
 88,608,179 
 
 570,081 
 
 680,102 
 
 59,988,868 
 
 576 
 
 '1847'. ;■. 
 
 48,888,699 
 
 525,088 
 
 1,171,620 
 
 82,795,670 
 
 
 1848... 
 
 87,680,486 
 
 411,468 
 
 906,895 
 
 86,840,072 
 
 
 ,1849... 
 iTotal.. 
 
 ,80,608,848 
 
 644,126 
 
 664,616 
 
 86,282,580 
 
 566,698,866 
 
 18,026,64713,667,964 
 
 498,740,279114,836,846 
 
 The total quantity of acajou — a species of mahog- 
 any — exported during 11 of the years designated was 
 4S, 143, 272 lbs. The exportation of pitre — a species of 
 aloes, which furnishes a substitute for hemp and flax — 
 appears to haye commenced in 1846, and, in the four 
 ensuing years, 'had 'amounted to an aggregate of 412,- 
 874 ibs. In 1835, 8500 cigars ; 1097 lbs. sugar ; 24,951 
 hides; 31,192 lbs. of rags ; 10,993 lbs. of wax; and 
 8769 lbs, of ginger were exported ; while the ensuing 
 year, the figures were, respectively, 33,000, 16,891, 
 14,891, 275, and 15,509— sufficiently indicative of the 
 great fluctuations to which the foreign trade of Hayti 
 was subject;. 
 
 A glance at the statements presented will show that 
 a great change took: place in the character of the ex- 
 portation from Hayti during the 60 years between 
 1789 and 1849. Sugar, indigo, and tobacco, which 
 were staples of export in 1789, had entirely disap- 
 peared from the table in 1849 ; the exportation of cof- 
 fee and cocoa had (if we except two years) remained 
 nearly stationary, while the exportation of logwood 
 had vastly augmented, and that of cotton had great!}'- 
 diminished. The quantities of the article last named, 
 imported from Hayti into the United States during the 
 five years ending June, 1855, was as follows : — 1851, 
 12,000 lbs. ; 1852, none ; 1853, 215,799 ; 1854, 196,127 ; 
 1855, 189,214 ; exhibiting an aggregate of 613,140 lbs., 
 and an average, each year, of 122,628 lbs. 
 
 The quantity of coffee exported in 1850 "was about 
 ■16,000,000 lbs., while in 1851 it exceeded 50,000,000 
 lbs. ; and in 1852 the quantity produced must have 
 reached 66,000,000 pounds, as the fifth part thereof, 
 claimed by the government, amounted to 11,200,000 
 lbs. As regards tobacco, since the political division of 
 the island, its Culture and its trade are in the hands of 
 the Dominicans. There is, however, considerable 
 Ppp 
 
 traffic in this article at some of the ports of Hayti ; 
 but it is imported by the coasters from the ports of the 
 republic. In view of the statistics of Hayti, thus pre- 
 sented, it is evident that the movement of tlie country 
 has been vastly retrograde since it was a possession of 
 France. In 1789 it exported, as we have seen, 150,- 
 000,000 lbs. of sugar, and nearly 1,000,000 lbs. of indi- 
 go ; in 1849 it exported none ; in the former year it ex- 
 ported 77,000,000 lbs. of coffee, and more than 7,000,- 
 000 lbs. of cotton; in 1849 the exportation of the 
 former amounted to less than 31,000,000 lbs., and of 
 the latter, to little more than 500,000 lbs. ; while the 
 total value of exportations from Hayti, which, in 1789, 
 are given at 205,000,000 francs, 40 years later were 
 but 3,500,000 franca ! A foreign resident at the cap- 
 ital of Hayti, in view of these facts, writes as follows, 
 under recent date: — "This country has made, since 
 its emancipation, no progress whatever. The popula- 
 tion pkrtially live upon the produce of tlie grown- wild 
 coffee plantations, remnants of the French dominion. 
 Properly speaking, plantations after the model of the 
 English in Jamaica, or the Spanish in Cuba, do not 
 exist here. Hayti is the most beautiful and the most 
 fertile of the Antilles. It has more mountains than 
 Cuba, and more space than Jamaica. Nowhere the 
 coffee-tree could better thrive than here, as it especially 
 lilces a mountainous soil. But the indolence of the ne- 
 groes has brought the once splendid plantations tc. 
 decay. • They now gather the coffee only from the 
 grpwii-wild trees. The cultivation of the sugar-cane 
 has entirely disappeared ; and the island that once 
 supplied one half of Europe with sugar, now supplies 
 its own wants from Jamaica and the United States." 
 
 The following statement exhibits the general navi- 
 gation and trade of the port of Cape Haytien during 
 the year 1841, and the share thereof assigned to the 
 United States : 
 
 Nations. 
 
 United States; 
 
 British 
 
 Haytien 
 
 French 
 
 German ', 
 
 Total 
 
 Value of car. 
 goes inward 
 
 No. of 
 vessels. 
 
 145,480 
 
 5,145 
 
 185,410 
 
 112,546 
 
 $682,570 
 
 Value of car- 
 goes outward 
 
 10 
 
 $211,620 
 
 161,988 
 
 1,120 
 
 182,780 
 
 256,895 
 
 818,850 
 
 The trade of the port of Gonaives, during the same 
 year, is given as follows : 
 
 Nations. 
 
 British 
 
 French 
 
 Danish 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 United States . 
 Total 
 
 No. of 
 vessels, 
 
 Value of car- 
 goes inward 
 
 $6,995 
 17,526 
 Ballast 
 1,420 
 49,850 
 
 85 I $75,790 
 
 No. of Value of car- 
 vessels, goes outward 
 
 $91,765 
 78,270 
 48,420 
 18,985 
 
 161,980 
 
 52 I $894,820 
 
 The British vessels engaged in this trade came from 
 Turk's Island, Nassau, St. Thomas, Trinidad, Barba- 
 dbes, and Demerara, and were freighted with dry-goods, 
 hardware, crockery, beer, bricks, and provisions ; but, as 
 these islands are supplied chiefly with the articles last 
 named from the United States, it is evident that, unles.'i, 
 under positive prohibitions, or under restrictions equiv- 
 alent thereto, the United States can at all times control 
 the foreign trade of Hayti in this species of merchan- 
 dise, which the natural indolence or general aversion 
 to agricultural labor of the Haytiens necessitates them, 
 to seek from other nations, and renders as indispensa- 
 ble to their comforts, if not to their very existence, in 
 1855, as in 1841. 
 
 The following table exhibits the foreign navigation 
 of Hayti for a period of six years, from 1847 to 1855 
 both inalusive : 
 
 Year.. 
 
 1847 
 
 Vessels. 
 880 . ... 
 
 Tons. 
 
 150,478 
 
 1848 
 
 678 
 
 98,870 
 
 1849 
 
 1 065 
 
 156,22(1 
 
 1850 
 
 1,160 
 
 162 238 
 
 1851 
 
 897 
 
 117,817 
 
 1852 
 
 995 
 
 .... 139,829 
 
HAY 
 
 962 
 
 HAY 
 
 Table exhibiting the Nations to which belonged the 
 Vessels EMPLoyEo in tub Trade op 1849 and 1850. 
 
 NationB. 
 
 1849. 
 
 1850. 1 
 
 United States.. 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Vessels, 
 
 430 
 
 19 
 
 144 
 
 114 
 
 25-3 
 
 10 
 
 28 
 
 11 
 
 Tons. 
 65,564 
 4,843 
 2S,T0T 
 22,591 
 31,756 
 5S0 
 6,086 
 1,643 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 610 
 18 
 
 162 
 84 
 
 204 
 8T 
 8t 
 19 
 
 Tom. 
 81,054 
 2,478 
 21,409 
 15,797 
 80,766 
 1,688 
 6,822 
 2,734 
 
 Great Britain... 
 
 Holland 
 
 Hanse-towns. . . 
 Other countries. 
 
 Total 
 
 1,066 
 
 155,220 
 
 1,160 1 162,288 1 
 
 The navigation of 1851, compared with that given 
 above for 1850, shows a falling off in number of ves- 
 sels of 260, measuring 44,421 tons ; and the returns 
 for 1852 show a like decrease over those of 1850 of 165 
 vessels, of 22,409 tons, but an increase over those of 
 1851 of 98 vessels and 22,012 tons. 
 
 General Remarks. — The trade between the United 
 States and Hayti is becoming, every year, more im- 
 portant and necessary to both countries. Heretofore, 
 the imports into the empire from the United States 
 consisted almost exclusively, of provisions, for which 
 were exchanged coflfee, logwood, iriahogany, etc. Ar- 
 ticles of appafel, cotton manufactures, and. fashionable 
 goods were supplied chiefly from France, England, 
 Germany, etc. Under the discriminating, or, rather, 
 the reciprocity duty — namely, 10 per cent, additional 
 duty upon the cargoes of vessels belonging to nations 
 that have not recognized the independence of Hayti 
 — United States' merchants offered no serious compe- 
 tition to those of the privileged nations, except in 
 regard to such merchandise as was indispensable to the 
 natural wants of the Haytiens, and in respect to which 
 our undisputed monopoly of the trade enabled our 
 merchants to countervail the discrimination, and still 
 maintain a brisk and profitable trade. In cotton and 
 other manufactures, and general cargoes, the British 
 and French held the first rank in the Haytien markets. 
 With the abolition of the reciprocity duty, the United 
 States' flag entered the Haytien ports on terms of per- 
 fect equality with those of other nations ; and our mer- 
 chants, at once, disputed the pre-eminence hitherto 
 held by other nations in the general trade of Hayti. 
 American cotton and other manufactures filled the 
 warehouses at the different ports ; and, from the supe- 
 riority of their quality, and the lower price at which 
 they could be sold, were soon generally preferred and 
 sought after by Haytien purchasers. Instead of occu- 
 cupying, as heretofore, the third or fourth rank among 
 foreign nations traaing with this country, the United 
 States now claim fully one half of its entire foreign 
 commerce. 
 
 The French authority which has already been quoted 
 in this Digest, says : " Favored by their proximity to 
 Hayti, the Americans are determined on reducing the 
 price of their salt provisions, their flour, soap, etc., to 
 so low a figure, that European competition is out of 
 the question. They export from their warehouses at 
 New York,* at low prices, wines, hardwares, hats, 
 caps, French silks, English manufactures, etc. They 
 also furnish the Haytiens with the oils and pastes 
 of Italy, and monopolize the sale of candles, tapers, 
 cheese, and timber for building. They maintain 
 the same superiority in the export trade. They take 
 three fourths of the different woods cut in Hayti, 
 two thirds of all the coffee exported, and are the ex- 
 clusive exporters of pitre, fustic, and nearly so of tor- 
 toise-shell. In fine, the commercial superiority of 
 the United States extends over every part of the em- 
 pire, and, in its rapid progress, bids fair to exclude 
 altogether the vessels, as well as the merchants of 
 Europe. * * * 
 
 * An ofBcial return of American trade at one port, " Cape 
 Haytien," for only six; months, Bhows that, during that pe- 
 riod, American vsasels arrived from 37 different ports of the 
 United States I 
 
 " Among the countries with which the United States 
 have commercial intercourse, Hayti holds the ninth 
 rank as respects tonnage. All the States are more or 
 less interested in the Haytien trade. The north-east- 
 era States find a market there for their fish and other 
 merchandise ; Pennsylvania, northern Virginia, Mary- 
 land, Ohio, Indiana, Kentucky, Illinois, and Missouri, 
 for their salted pork ; Vermont, New York, Massachu- 
 setts, Illinois, and Ohio, for their salted beef ; Phila- 
 delphia and Boston, North and South Carolina, Vir- 
 ginia and Kentucky, for their household furniture, 
 their rice, and tobacco. The manufacturers of New 
 England, New York, and Pennsylvania, have already 
 secured an extensive market in Hayti for their cheap 
 cotton textiles, and successfully compete with Euro- 
 pean manufactures." 
 
 The extent and value of the commerce of the Unit- 
 ed States with the island of San Domingo, in the 
 year ending 30th June, 1856, was as follows : 
 
 Imports into the United States. $1,924,259 
 
 Exports from the United States, 
 
 Domestic produce and manufacture $1,862,823 
 Foreign produce and manufacture 263,621 
 
 2,126,454 
 
 Total value of commerce $4,050,713 
 
 '* The official returns of the United States show that 
 Mexico, with a population of 8,000,000, imported from 
 the different ports of the Union, in 1851, less by $335,- 
 507 than Hayti.* The trade of the United States 
 with the latter country is, therefore, more profitable 
 than that with Mexico ; indeed, American vessels gen- 
 erally return in ballast from Mexican ports, or go to 
 other States in search of freight ; while in Hayti they 
 always find cargoes, if not of coffee, at least of ac- 
 ajou, campeche, and pitre, which are always in abund- 
 ance. In 1851, the United States exported to Hayti 
 cotton goods valued at $296,000, while the value of 
 similar merchandise exported to Cuba reached onl}' 
 $26,000. The soap exported from the United States 
 to the former country exceeded 1,928,682 boxes; to 
 the latter, only 389,748. Haj-ti receives from the 
 United States three times as much flour as Cuba, and 
 six times as much salted pork." 
 
 With the exception of the errors already noted, and 
 a few others of the press, the article in the French 
 statistical work, of which the preceding sumraarj'' 
 gives the substance, presents a generally accurate re- 
 view of the commerce of the United States with Hayti. 
 Notwithstanding the United States has not yet recog- 
 nized the independence of Hayti, nor entered into any 
 treaty with its government, the restrictions and petty 
 annoyances to which our merchants and citizens in 
 that country have heretofore been subjected are now 
 removed, and the fruits of this more liberal and friendly 
 feeling are witnessed in our annually increasing com- 
 merce, and the preponderance of, and preference for, 
 American merchandise in the market of Hayti. This 
 liberal state of things may, however, at any moment, 
 change. In the absence of any commercial treaty 
 between the two countries, our relations with Hayti 
 are dependent on the will or caprice of the emperor. 
 In this respect, France and England are on a safer 
 footing than the United States. 
 
 It is stated, on the authority of private letters from 
 Port-au-Prince, that the emperor has recently pub- 
 lished an edict prohibiting the further cutting of ma- 
 hogany, and also the transportation to the sea-board 
 of what wood is now cut in the interior. The reason 
 assigned for this measure is, that his majesty wishes 
 to turn the attention of his people more to the cultiva- 
 
 * There ia an error in the text in reference to our trade 
 with Mexico for 1851. The book from which the figures are 
 taken, makes this difference $15,189 more than is given 
 above. Thus, total trade with Hayti in 1851, $3,737,258 ; to- 
 tal trade with Mexico in 1851, $3,386,662 ; difference in favor 
 of Hayti, $350,606 ; difference as per text, $335,607 ; error in 
 test. $<5,139. 
 
HAY 
 
 963 
 
 HAY 
 
 tion of their fields and the prodaotion of provisions, 
 the quantity of wliich grown in the empire is insuffi- 
 cient for the supply of the inhabitants. 
 
 The importation into the United States from Hayti, 
 of mahogany and other cabinet-makers' wood, is di- 
 minishing in value. In 1860, it reached $65,331 ; in 
 1863, $105,322 ; and in 1855, it fell to $49,507. In 
 
 1856 the amount was larger, and reached $60,679. — U. 
 8. Com. Digest. 
 
 The commercial statistics of the empire and repub- 
 lic, as supplied bj- the Eegister of the United States' 
 Treasmy, are not separated, and hence the commerce 
 of the island with the United States must be consid- 
 ered in the aggregate. 
 
 COMMISRCE OF THE UNITED STATES Wim HATTI, FECM OCTOBER 1, 1820, TO JULY 1 
 
 , 1866. 
 
 
 Years ending 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Whereof there was in Ballion 
 and Specie. 
 
 Tonnage Cleared. 
 
 DomeHtlo. 
 
 Forotpi. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Export. 
 
 Import. 
 
 American. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Sept. 80, 1821 
 
 1822 
 
 1828 
 
 1824 
 
 1825.; 
 
 1826 
 
 1827 
 
 1828 
 
 1829 
 
 1880 
 
 Total.... 
 
 Sept 80, 1881 
 
 1882 
 
 1883 
 
 1884 
 
 1886 
 
 1886 
 
 1887 
 
 1888 
 
 1889 
 
 1840 
 
 Total.... 
 
 Sept 80. 1841 
 
 1842 
 
 9mo3. 1848 
 
 June 80, 1844 
 
 1845 
 
 1846 
 
 1847 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 
 
 1850 
 
 Total.... 
 
 Juno 80, 1851 
 
 1852 
 
 1858 
 
 1854 
 
 1865 
 
 1856 
 
 $1,740,888 
 
 1,746,107 
 1,670,140 
 1,901,926 
 1,648,066 
 1,252,910 
 1,162,478 
 1,123,406 
 814,987 
 714,791 
 
 $630,218 
 378,704 
 708,642 
 468,229 
 406,560 
 166,584 
 169,486 
 209,806 
 160,171 
 108,887 
 
 $2,270,601 
 2,119,811 
 2,878,782 
 2,365,155 
 2,064,615 
 1,414,494 
 1,881,909 
 1,332,711 
 975,168 
 823,178 
 
 $2,246,267 
 2,841,817 
 2,852,788 
 2,247,286 
 2,065,829 
 1,511,836 
 1,781,809 
 2,168,585 
 1,799,809 
 1,597,140 
 
 $60,164 
 1,525 
 
 104,697 
 61,462 
 21,100 
 
 20,558 
 8,488 
 
 $504,409 
 229,489 
 65,502 
 169,027 
 61,235 
 126,945 
 47,182 
 69,703 
 46,033 
 81,718 
 
 ,46,171 
 48,167 
 87,480 
 46,267 
 39,866 
 82,209 
 25,720 
 24,727- 
 18,164 
 19,395 
 
 547 
 
 946 
 
 880 
 
 489 
 
 465 
 
 1,468 
 
 3,774 
 
 6,868 
 
 2,988 
 
 1,748 
 
 $18,775,177 
 
 $1,126,098 
 
 1,248,510 
 
 1,147,809 
 
 1,244,424 
 
 1,588,475 
 
 1,054,974 
 
 871,988 
 
 814,421 
 
 991,265 
 
 945,365 
 
 $8,291,237 
 
 $191,677 
 425,498 
 280,154 
 192,528 
 277,887 
 185,065 
 140,048 
 
 96,884 
 181,294 
 
 81,849 
 
 $17,066,414 
 
 $1,818,375 
 1,669,008 
 1,427,963 
 1,486,952 
 1,815,812 
 1,240,089 
 1,011,981 
 910,265 
 1,122,659 
 1,027,214 
 
 $20,107,050 
 
 $1,580,578 
 2,058,386 
 1,740,068 
 2,118,717 
 2,847,656 
 1,828,019 
 1,440,856 
 1,276,762 
 1,377,989 
 1,252,824 
 
 $267,989 
 
 $11,082 
 
 800 
 
 6,895 
 
 6,966 
 
 5S',644 
 
 88,847 
 
 83,378 
 
 216,458 
 
 163,510 
 
 $1,841,143 
 
 $85,714 
 
 16,150 
 
 22,078 
 
 18,609 
 
 11,270 
 
 67,299 
 
 9,940 
 
 6,408 
 
 8,102 
 
 16,488 
 
 888,166 
 
 27,807 
 29,990 
 28,425 
 82,682 
 38,274 
 24.268 
 17,642 
 16,066 
 21,031 
 20,668 
 
 19,118 
 
 1,006 
 
 1,279 
 
 666 
 
 617 
 
 847 
 
 848 
 
 1,832 
 
 2,914 
 
 2,047 
 
 2,818 
 
 $10,978,879 
 
 $1,098,684 
 
 844,452 
 
 610,796 
 
 1,082;807 
 
 1,827,891 
 
 1,114,018 
 
 1,187,017 
 
 937,586 
 
 632,577 
 
 1,211,007 
 
 $2,001,274 
 
 $61,928 
 65,514 
 42,674 
 45,649 
 77,849 
 48,129 
 
 111,756 
 
 156,229 
 70,015 
 
 189,181 
 
 $12,980,158 
 
 $1,155,567 
 
 899,966 
 
 668,870 
 
 1,128,856 
 
 1,406,740 
 
 1,157,142 
 
 1,298,778 
 
 1,093,815 
 
 602,592 
 
 1,850,188 
 
 $17,010,745 
 
 $1,809,634 
 1,266,997 
 
 898,447 
 1,441,244 
 1,886,867 
 1,542,962 
 l,891j580 
 1,867,174 
 
 901,724 
 1,544,771 
 
 $550,824 
 
 $187,167 
 68,148 
 87,898 
 68,016 
 55,544 
 90,001 
 89,062 
 18,787 
 37,776 
 164,687 
 
 $202,053 
 
 $10,900 
 36,264 
 87,188 
 90,468 
 287,617 
 260,272 
 217,726 
 42,956 
 42,174 
 18,123 
 
 266,848 
 
 26,904 
 21,115 
 16,606 
 26,710 
 27,919 
 28,425 
 27,959 
 28,840 
 16,566 
 29,981 
 
 14,264 
 
 768 
 
 863 
 
 717 
 
 649 
 
 684 
 
 1,642 
 
 2,500 
 
 2,649 
 
 4,662 
 
 8,127 
 
 $9,941,780 
 
 $1,679,872 
 1,479,836 
 1,738,418 
 1,880,187 
 1,929,384 
 1,862,828 
 
 $808,719 
 
 $167,918 
 239,677 
 260,520 
 829,538 
 815,718 
 268,681 
 
 $10,745,499 
 
 $1,847,290 
 1,718,908 
 1,998,933 
 2,209,725 
 2,245,052 
 2,126,454 
 
 $18,550,950 
 
 $1,889,968 
 1,870,672 
 1,985,624 
 2,357,252 
 2,615,626 
 1,924,259 
 
 $757,086 
 
 $181,494 
 90,098- 
 
 1.34,609 
 46,634 
 60,878 
 
 104,095 
 
 $1,038,686 
 
 $111,183 
 37,125 
 84,734 
 23,846 
 10,966 
 16,949 
 
 240,516 
 
 83,152 
 82,365 
 81,869 
 38,246 
 87,198 
 34,260 
 
 22,496 
 
 7,586 
 7,320 
 6,124 
 4,79T 
 9,051 
 4,760 
 
 Port Charges. — The charges on a native and a for- 
 eign ship of 300 tons are the same, and as follows : 
 
 Tonnage duty $800 00 
 
 Administrator 12 00 
 
 Gommandante do place 12 00 
 
 Gommissaire de guerre 13 00 
 
 Gommandante de port 12 00 
 
 Director of customs. .■ 12 00 
 
 Interpreter 12 00 
 
 Treasurer 12 00 
 
 Doctor 12 00 
 
 Stamps for entry and clearing 16 60 
 
 Fountain tax 20 00 
 
 Pilotage 2 00 
 
 Total, currency 484 50 
 
 Custom-house Regulations. — On arrival, the master 
 of the vessel proceeds to the custom-house with the 
 interpreter, where he makes his declaration whether he 
 discharges the cargo in the port. If he discharge, 
 his invoices are translated, and the goods verified in 
 the presence of the consignee, who is allowed to land 
 and store them. On clearing outward, the merchant 
 paj'S the duties on the cargoes both ways, and exhibits 
 a receipt at the office of the commissaire de guerre, 
 commandante de place, and commandante de port, who 
 sign a cartiHcate that the vessel may depart. 
 
 Warehousing. — The warehousing and bonding sys- 
 tem is established by law, but there are at present no 
 buildings appropriated to the reception of bonded 
 goods. Until very recently, goods were permitted to 
 be bonded under this law in the merchants' stores ; a 
 late order has, however, suspended that indulgence. 
 The rate is 1 per cent, per year, and no allowance 
 made for waste or loss. Goods exported in the same 
 
 vessel they arrive in, pay, if landed, \ per cent, and 
 wharfage fees. 
 
 Money. — The weight of the dollar is 216 grains ; the 
 \ and ^ dollar being in proportion. But nearly \ the 
 weight of the coin consists of tin or other alloy ; so 
 that the value of the dollar does not exceed Is. 6d. 
 sterling. 
 
 Weights in Hayti are divided as in avoirdupois and 
 apothecaries' weight ; but they are about 8 per cent, 
 heavier than British weights. 
 
 Measures. — Same as those used in France. 
 
 ■Regulations as to Trade. — It is enacted, that all per- 
 sons exercising any trade or profession, excepting that 
 of cultivating the soil, must be provided with a patent 
 or license to carry on such trade or profession ; that 
 all strangers admitted as merchants into thei republic 
 must, in the first place, procure the permission of the 
 president to take out a patent, which, when obtained, 
 only authorizes themj under heavy penalties, to carry 
 on a wholesale business, not with each other, but with 
 the Haytians, in the open ports, which are Port-au- 
 Prince, Gonaives, Cape Haytien, Port-Ji-Plate, Santo 
 Domingo, Jacmel, Les Cayes, and J6r6mie. The min- 
 imum quantities of goods that may be sold are fixed' 
 by the same law. The Haytian consignee may be also 
 a retailer, on taking out a corresponding patent. 
 
 A charge of 2000 dollars is made for each patent to, 
 a foreigner trading to Port-au-Prince ; $1800 for Les 
 Cayes, Cape Haytien, and Jacmel ; and $1600 for each 
 of the remaining ports. 
 
 Duties. — The duties on ail imported commodities 
 consigned to foreign merchants are 17^' per cent, on 
 
HAY 
 
 964 
 
 HAY 
 
 an established tariff, whether they be brought in 
 native or foreign ships, with the exception of those 
 from the United States, which pay an additional 10 
 per cent, on the amount of the duties. Goods con- 
 signed to native merchants pay only 16-|- per cent. 
 
 The following articles are duty free in all bottoms : 
 Shot of all sizes, grenades, howitzers, bomb-shells, and 
 other projectiles of artillery ; iron and bronze cannon, 
 mortars, muskets and bayonets, carbines, pistols, and 
 cavalry sabres, briquets, or short swords for infantrj' ; 
 machines and instruments for simplifying and facili- 
 tating the cultivation of the soil, and the preparation 
 of its products ; horses and cattle, mules, asses ; gold 
 and silver coin ; classical and elementary works, 
 sewed in boards, or bound in parchment, for the in- 
 struction of 3'outh. 
 
 The following is a list of articles absolutely pro- 
 hibited, without reference to their place of growth; 
 
 Mahogany, logwood, lignum vitse, fustic, coffee, cot- 
 ton, wool, cacao, raw and clayed sugar, rum, tafia, 
 syrup, molasses; canes, whips, and umbrellas, con- 
 taining swords, stilettoes, or other arms ; books and 
 other works opposed to good morals. ' 
 
 Besides the export, there is also a territorial duty 
 levied equally on the produee of the soil, whether ex- 
 ported in national or foreign ships, 
 
 The export of the following articles is strictly pro- 
 hibited : Gold and silver coin, side and fire-arms, mu- 
 nitions, and other articles of war ; old or new iron, 
 copper ; horses, brood mares, mules, asses, and wood 
 for ship-building. 
 
 The coasting trade is entirely confined to Haytian 
 citizens. 
 
 The following tabular statement exhibits the foreign 
 trade, import, and export, of Cape Haytien for the 
 year ending December 31, 1852 : 
 
 Statement of Imports 
 
 AT Ga 
 
 PE Haytien 
 
 FEOM 
 
 Januakt 1, TO Uecembee 31, 1852. 
 
 
 Flag. 
 
 Where from. 
 
 u 
 
 1 
 
 •1 
 
 P. 
 
 i 
 
 TOTAL. 
 
 Amount in- 
 voices, Spanish 
 
 Total invoices, 
 Spanish cur- 
 rency. 
 
 Duties paid, 
 Spanish cur- 
 rency. 
 
 N-o.of 
 veasela. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 American. 
 
 TTnited States 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 'i 
 
 2 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 23 
 
 'i 
 
 4 
 1 
 
 'i 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 1 
 
 'i 
 
 'i 
 i 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 1 
 
 3T 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 4,360 
 122 
 152 
 250 
 
 Dollars. ' 
 211,691 50 
 
 !■ 8,808 89 
 
 40,910 04 
 j- 62,056 20 
 
 9,888 58 
 2,52T 00 
 22,404 62 
 4,000 00 
 
 13,T86 00 
 20,666 15 
 
 Dollars. 
 j- 220,000 89 
 
 1 92,966 24 
 
 55,598 88 
 
 - 88,T70 10 
 
 i 34,452 15 
 246 00 
 
 Dollars. 
 46,826 80 
 
 , 10,485 94 
 ) 18,148 46 
 
 10,907 16 
 
 11,868 50 
 
 8,628 87 
 210 95 
 
 
 Oldenburg /. . 
 
 Oldenburg 
 
 Danish 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 It 
 
 40 
 
 4 
 1 
 2 
 1 
 1 
 
 4,884 
 
 420 
 109 
 88r 
 180 
 12T 
 
 
 Franco 
 
 Coastwise 
 
 St. Thomas 
 
 Liverpool 
 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 8 
 
 1,1T3 
 
 T96 
 610 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 3 
 3 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 
 1,406 
 
 2,0T9 
 209 
 193 
 49 
 28T 
 238 
 
 
 Danish ,.. .. 
 
 Haytian 
 
 Hamburg........ 
 
 18 
 
 1 
 1 
 2 
 
 8,050 
 
 188 
 141 
 81T 
 
 Belgian 
 
 
 
 
 Turk's Island 
 
 4 
 4 
 
 591 
 
 165 
 
 Total 
 
 6 
 
 82 
 
 27 
 
 18 
 
 88 
 
 11,269 
 
 
 442,033 76 
 
 101,527 17 
 
 
 Ca^E- Haytien. — This port has not yet entirely recov- 
 ered from the effects of the earthquake of 1842, nor 
 has its general commerce regained the high rank 
 which it held prior to that period. Still, its naviga- 
 tion is not unimportant. In 1850 there entered and 
 cleared 55 vessels, with an aggregate of 8509 tons 
 more than in 1849. In 1829 the imports at this port 
 amounted to 2,500,000 francs, and in 1850 to 3,343,168 
 francs. The large bulk of this trade is in the hands 
 of American merchants. A French statistical work, 
 referring to this fact, offers two explanations of the 
 great preponderance of Americam trade, not only at 
 this port, but in Hayti generally, as follows: "The 
 United States conduct about one half of the foreign 
 navigation of Hayti. In 1850 their progress was ac- 
 celerated beyond all precedent, showing an augmenta- 
 tion over 1849 of 124 vessels, with an aggregate of 
 15,000 tons. The facility with which they open with 
 their neighbors a credit which is often refused them in 
 Europe, together with the efforts of their propagandists 
 of different sects scattered over the island, is emi- 
 nently favorable to the increase of American influ- 
 ence." If there were even any plausibility in this 
 suggestion, it would prove, perhaBs, more than the 
 author intended ; for, ambitious as France confessedly 
 
 is, and has ever been, to extend her commerce, and 
 foster her mercantile interests, even by restrictions 
 and discriminations, which are now almost universally 
 discarded, the assertion of her statistician, above quoted, 
 would imply that this source of American commercial 
 preponderance in Haj^ti was not available to her ; but 
 some other cause must be looked for, in view of the 
 fact, that, while American merchants do sometimes — 
 nay, very frequentlj' — " give credit" to their con- 
 signees and purchasers in Hayti, they invariablj' pay 
 cash, or its equivalent, for all their exports. For 
 such articles as are monopolized by the government, 
 the Haytian law is peremptory as to that mode of 
 payment. 
 
 The other explanation assigned is more reasonable. 
 It is in these words : " Always on the look-out for new 
 sources of trade, the Americans purchase at Cape 
 Haytien red-peppers, and orange and lemon peel. 
 This new branch of trade, as well as the purchase of 
 rags, has succeeded beyond expectation. Many houses 
 at New York receive full cargoes of these descriptions 
 of merchandise, actually ^rjcefess in Hayti, on which 
 they realize large profits." Tiiis is, at least, a more 
 commercial explanation ; and, taking it to be true, as 
 there is no evidence to the contrar)', it shows that our 
 
HEB 
 
 965 
 
 HEL 
 
 merchants are determined to maintain their present 
 relations with Hayti, even if they must take in part, 
 in exchange for their provisions, their lumber, their 
 hardware, their cotton goods, and their French wines 
 and haberdasher}*", such valueless' goods as the raw ma^ 
 terial for the consumption of their 760 paper-mills, at 
 any one of which their rags will always command a 
 ready sale at four cents per pound, and raw material 
 
 for the manufacture of bergamot and various useful 
 and costly essences. These 750 mills, the number in 
 the United States in 1862, manufacture 270,000,000 
 pounds of paper annually, valued at $27,000,000, and 
 consume each year 406,000,000 pounds of rags, for 
 which our seamen have to sail to every quarter of the 
 globe. Seei article on Italian States; see, also, 
 article on Paper. » 
 
 
 Statement of 
 
 UxPOKTS 
 
 PKOM 
 
 Cape HiYTinif, fkom Janoaby 1, to 
 
 Deoembkr 81, 
 
 1852. 
 
 
 riag. 
 
 Where for. 
 
 t 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Total. 
 
 Logwood. 
 
 Coffee, 
 
 Cocoa. 
 
 Mahog- 
 any, 
 
 Tobacco. 
 
 Duiies paid, 
 HayUen cur- 
 rency. 
 
 No. of 
 vesBelB. 
 
 Ton- 
 nage, 
 
 Ameiican. . . 
 English 
 
 French 
 
 Ilaytion 
 
 Oldenburg. . 
 Hamburg... 
 
 Danish 
 
 Hanover 
 
 Bilglish 
 
 Prussian 
 
 Baiiift...... 
 
 Belgian 
 
 UlngU^b 
 
 Havtien 
 
 English.;... 
 
 Danish 
 
 Haytien 
 
 ' Total 
 
 United States... 
 
 14 
 1 
 
 .. 
 1 
 
 'i 
 1 
 
 18 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 'i 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 'i 
 
 1 
 
 80 
 
 24 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 'i 
 1 
 
 'i 
 
 2 
 ■85 
 
 
 2 
 
 i 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 87 
 4 
 
 4,489 
 506 
 
 LbB. 
 4,488,660 
 . 812,800 
 
 Lba, 
 
 2,616,602 
 
 171,884 
 
 Lbs. 
 119,191 
 8,620 
 
 Feel. 
 18,846 
 7,572 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 $252,620 42 
 
 164,680 21 
 69,812 64 
 
 48,618 07 
 
 17,602 49 
 
 , 32,791,06 
 
 747 46 
 7,789 03 
 
 41 
 
 19 
 1 
 6 
 8 
 2 
 1 
 2 
 1 
 1 
 2 
 1 
 2 
 1 
 8 
 2 
 1 
 
 4,984 
 
 4,022 
 178 
 751 
 575 
 270 
 152 
 846 
 186 
 287 
 862 
 141 
 88 
 ' 40 
 141 
 48 
 49 
 
 6,245,960 
 
 j- 6,847,550 
 880,500 
 
 ■ 526,650 
 
 82,000 
 
 - 498,800 
 
 !• 4,000 
 l 179,000 
 
 2,788,486 
 
 1,786,782 
 898,680 
 
 688,896 
 
 456,096 
 
 682,870 
 
 9,832 
 86,874 
 
 122,811 
 
 56,947 
 22,886 
 
 16,184 
 17,641 
 
 108 
 
 26,418 
 
 29 
 82,587 
 81,808 
 
 8,080 
 323 
 
 140 
 15,689 
 
 68,92T 
 1T,5;20 
 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Liverpool 
 
 Falmouth 
 
 For orders 
 
 Nassau <fc Inagne 
 Turk's Island.... 
 St. Thomas 
 
 18 
 
 6 
 
 89 
 
 12,470 
 
 13,714,850]7.24a.966 
 
 236,572 
 
 99,195 
 
 102,426 
 
 694,661 88 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' ' 
 
 Head. The fore extremitj' of a ship. It gener- 
 ally means the outwatei:, which is adorned with a fig- 
 ure. By the head, implies that the ship's head is 
 depressed in the water. Head sdils, head yards, are 
 the sails and yards in the fore part of the ship. 
 
 Headland. In Greogra^phy, a term nearly sy- 
 nonj-mons with cape, mull, or promontory ; which see. 
 
 Heath, or Heather. In a general sense the 
 term heath is applied to waste land in which the pre- 
 vailing plants consist of 'one or more of the common 
 species of heath — Calluna and Erica. (Calluna vul- 
 ga/ris, Sal. The Erica communis of Linnaeus.) This 
 plant covers many hundreds of acres in the Highlands 
 of Scotland, in Ireland, and in similar climates on the 
 Cbntinent. It attains, in many places; the height of 
 3 or 4 feet ; and is used for thatching houses, making 
 besoms, and for a variety of other purposes. The 
 tender tops form a substitute for mattresses in High- 
 land cottages ; and they are also eaten green and in a 
 dried state by horses, cattle, and sheep, in countries 
 where the grasses and clovers do not begin to grow till 
 late in the spring. 
 
 Heave, in nautical phrase, to employ force to move 
 great weights by the lever, etc. ; as to heave up the 
 anchor by the capstan or windlass ; to heave down the 
 ship, or pull her over on one side to get at a leak ; also 
 ta heave taught (tight), or turn the capstan till the rope 
 or' chain applied to it becomes tight. 
 
 Hebrides, The, or Western Islands of 
 Scotland, consist of about 200 islands or islets, Ij'ing 
 between N. lat. 55° and 58' 51", aiid W. long. 5° 
 and 7' 52". Their ancient name was ffebudm or 
 Ebudce, and the alteration was simply the result of a 
 printer's error in an early edition of the works of the 
 venerable Bede, published in Paris. From the census 
 returns it appears that in 1851 the number of inhabited 
 islands in the Hebrides was 79, having a pbpolation 
 of 116,367 j from 20 to 30 more are partially inhabited 
 during the summer and grazing season. The most 
 southern of the group are situated on the Firth of 
 Clyde — as Bute, Arran, the Cumbrays, Lamlash, and 
 Inchmarnoch. The geological formation of these 
 islands includes granite, gneissi'slate, trap, sandstone, 
 aSid limestone. Arran is peculiarly rich in attractions 
 both to the geologist and botanist, and possesses high- 
 
 ly picturesque scenery. The other islands are usually 
 divided into the Outer Hebrides, or Long Island, and 
 the Inner Hebrides. The former consists of the Lewis, 
 Harris, North and South Uist, Benbecula, Barra, and 
 a number of smaller islands — the whole length from 
 Barra^Head to the Butt of Lewis being about 130 
 miles. The Inner Hebrides include Islay, Skye, Mull, 
 Jura, Coll, Colonsay, Bum, Tiree; Ulva, Linsmore, 
 etc. ! 
 
 Heel, The after extremity of the ship's keel ; 
 also the foot of a mast. To hee^ over, to incline to one 
 side. 
 
 Helena, St., an island in the South Atlantic, be- 
 longing to Britain; S. lat. 15° 55' 26"; W. long. 5° 
 42' 30". It is about midway: between Africa and 
 South America; 1800 mileS' from the Cape of Good 
 Hope, and 600 miles from the island of Ascension. 
 Its extreme breadth is 7 miles ; and its greatest length 
 11 miles ; its area is 30,300 English acres. The geol- 
 ogj' of St, Helena is interesting. The island may be 
 considered as the highest peak of a range of mount- 
 ains traversing the South Atlantic, and is most prob- 
 ably and extinct tertiary volcano. Geologists have 
 been unable to fix with exactness its chronological 
 position. The volcanic forces which have produced 
 the complicated disturbances so conspicuous through- 
 out the island, must have ceased at a very remote 
 period; as it has evidently retained for ages its exist- 
 ing conformation. ' 
 
 The climate of St. Helena, though within the trop- 
 ics, is temperate and- healthy, and not unfavorable 
 even to European constitutions. In James Town 
 (600 feet abovo sea-level), the thermometer seldom 
 rises above 80° ; but in calm weather the heat reflected 
 from the sides of the valley is often oppressive. In 
 the open country the temperature is more uniform and 
 mild, scarcely so hot and never so cold as in England* 
 During some seasons the highest point of the ther- 
 mometer during the summer has been only 72° in the 
 interior ; and the ordinary range during winter from 
 55° to 56°. . 
 
 The SOU of St. Helena is clayey, and in many places 
 of considerable depth. Vegetation is very luxuriant 
 in the island, which is abundantly supplied with water 
 from 160 excellent wells. In some parts of the island 
 
HEL 
 
 966 
 
 HEM 
 
 iron ore has been found, but the scarcity of fuel pre- 
 vents it from being smelted. Gold and copper have 
 been observed in small quantities. Concrete lime- 
 stone is excellent in qualifc}' and abundant. Tlie hills 
 are covered with furze and various indigenous shrubs 
 and trees. Of the latter the most abundant is the 
 gumwood, of which there are three kinds, the com- 
 mon, the bastard, and the dwarf gum-tree. Other 
 native trees are stringwood, dogwood, redwood or 
 ebony, and the cabbage-tree, of which the last two are 
 very durable as building timber. Oalts, cypress, and 
 pinaster, have been introduced into the plantations, 
 and thrive well. The ferns of St. Helena are numer- 
 ous, and the myrtle grows to the height of 30 feet. 
 The cotton plant also thrives very well. Fruits ripen 
 best in the vallej^s near the coast, but every farm pro- 
 duces in abundance the common fruits and vegetables 
 both of the tropical and temperate zones. The at- 
 tempts to grow cereals have not succeeded. Of the 
 756 species of plants now found in the island only 52 
 are natives. The cattle, sheep, and goats on the 
 island are of English origin. 
 
 St. Helena was discovered by the Portuguese in 
 1501. They succeeded in concealing the position of 
 St. Helena from other European nations till 1588, when 
 it was descried and visited by Captain Cavendish on 
 his waj' home from a voyage round the world. Soon 
 after this it became well Icnown to the Dutch and 
 Spaniards. In course of time it was abandoned by 
 the Portuguese, and taken possession of by the Dutch, 
 who in turn abandoned it on the establishment of their 
 colony at the Cape of Good Hope in 1651. On their 
 departure the English East India Company formed a 
 settlement upon St. Helena, and about ten years after- 
 ward obtained from Charles II. a charter for its pos- 
 session. In 1665 the Dutch successfully attacked the 
 island, but in a few months were driven out of it by 
 the English. Again, in 1672, the Dutch recaptured 
 it, through the treacliery of the planters ; but it was 
 almost immediatel}' recovered by an English squad- 
 ron, under Captain Munden, and again restored to tlie 
 East India Company. As the trade of the East India 
 Company increased, the importance of the island be- 
 came daily more apparent. 
 
 But the chief historical interest of St. Helena cen- 
 tres in Longwood House, the residence of the exiled 
 Emperor Napoleon from 1815 till his death, May 5, 
 1821. The house in wliich the emperor lived has 
 been allowed to fall gradually into decay ever since 
 his body was removed to France in 1841. — Brooke's 
 Histoid of the Island of St. Helena; Johnson's Ac- 
 count of St. Helena; Beatson's Tracts relative to the 
 Island of St. Helena, etc. In 1805, the population was 
 3078 ; in 1823, 4381 (composed of 1201 whites, 911 in 
 the civil and military establishments, 1074 slaves, 729 
 free colored, 442 Cliinese, and 24 Lascars) ^ in 1839, 
 4205 ; in 1849, the total military force amounted to 
 about 1500 regular troops, besides four volunteer com- 
 panies of white and black militia. Soldiers are some- 
 times placed at St. Helena to undergo a seasoning 
 previous to being sent to India ; and this island and 
 the Cape of Good Hope are the principal stations to 
 which captured slaves are brought, and employed in 
 public works. 
 
 Hell Gate, Helle Gatt, or Hurl-Gate, for- 
 merly a dangerous pass in the strait called the East 
 Kiver, between Great Bam Island and Long Island, 
 near the city of New York. It is formed by project- 
 ing rocks, which confine the water to a narrow and 
 crooked channel, occasioning strong eddy currents, 
 dangerous to vessels at certain times of the tide. The 
 channel has been deepened by blasting the rocks, so 
 that there is now 21 feet of water at low tide through- 
 out it. 
 
 Helm, implies the mechanism of the steerage, 
 especially the tiller : as, to put the helm a^starioard, 
 is to put the tiller over to the right side ; a-port, to the 
 
 left side ; up, to the weather side ; down, to the lee 
 side. 
 
 Helmsman. The man who steers. A good 
 helmsman opposes in time the tendency of the ship to 
 deviate from her course by a small motion, which he 
 relaxes as soon as the effect is felt, and thus disturbs 
 her sailing as little as possible. A bad helmsman 
 gives her too much helm, and keeps her perpetually 
 yawing from one side to the other. The steerage, 
 therefore, is of the utmost consequence in chase. 
 
 Hemlock, the Conium maculatum of botanists, is 
 an umbelliferous plant possessing narcotic and power- 
 ful poisonous properties. It may readily be distin- 
 guished from most other umbelliferous plants by the 
 numerous dark purple spots which cover its smooth 
 stem and leaf stocks, and by the strong heavy odor, 
 resembling that of mice, which it exhales. The poi- 
 sonous properties reside in every part of the plant, and 
 are owing to the presence of a peculiar volatile olea- 
 ginous alkaloid, called conia or coneine, capable of 
 forming salts with acids, which are equally energetic 
 as the conia itself. 
 
 Hemp (Ger. Hanf; Du. Hennig, Kennip ; Da. 
 Hamp; Sw. Hampa; Fr. Chanvre ; It. Canape; Sp. 
 Canamo ; Eus. Konapli, Konopel ; Pol. Konope), a val- 
 uable plant (the Cannabis sativa of Linnieus), supposed 
 to be a native of India, but long since naturalized and 
 extensively cultivated in Italy, and many countries 
 of Europe, particularly Eussia and Poland, where it 
 forms an article of primary commercial importance. 
 It is also cultivated in different parts of America, 
 though not in such quantities as to supersede its im- 
 portation. It is stronger and coarser in the fibre than 
 flax; but its uses, culture, and management are pretty 
 much the same. "When grown for seed, it is a very 
 exhausting crop ; but when pulled green, it is consid- 
 ered as a cleaner of the ground. In Great Britain its 
 cultivation is not deemed profitable ; so that, notwith- 
 standing the encouragement it has received from gov- 
 ernment, and the excellent quality of English hemp, 
 it is but little grown, except in some few districts of 
 Suffolk and Lincolnshire. The quantity raised in Ire- 
 land is also inconsiderable. — Loudon's Encyc. of Ag- 
 ricult. 
 
 Flax was first planted in England, when it was 
 directed to be sown for fishing-nets, a.d. 1533. Boun- 
 ties were paid to encourage its cultivation in 1783 ; and 
 everj' exertion should be made by the government and 
 legislature to accomplish such a national good.. In 
 1785 there were imported from Eussia in British snips, 
 17,695 tons of hemp and flax. — Sir John Sinclair. 
 The annual importations of these articles now amount 
 to about 100,000 tons. More than 180,000 lbs. of 
 rough hemp are used in the cordage of a first-rate 
 man-of-war, including rigging and sails. See Flax. 
 Haydn. 
 
 Exceedingly good huckabacJc is made from hemp, for 
 towels and common tablecloths. Low-priced hempen 
 cloths are a general wear for husbandmen, servants, 
 and laboring manufacturers ; the better sorts for work- 
 ing farmers and tradesmen in the country ; and the 
 finer ones, -^ wide, are preferred by some gentlemen 
 for strength and warmth. They possess this advan- 
 tage over Irish and other linens-:— that their color im- 
 proves in wearing, whUe that of linen deteriorates. 
 But the great consumption of hemp is in the manufac- 
 ture of sailcloth and cordage, for which purposes it is 
 peculiarly fitted by the strength of its fibre. English 
 hemp, when properly prepared, is said to be stronger 
 than that of every other country, Eussia not excepted ; 
 and would, therefore, make the best cordage. It is, 
 however, but little used in that way, or in the malung 
 of sailcloth ; being principally made into cloth for the 
 uses already stated. 
 
 Hemp has been cultivated in Bengal from the re- 
 motest antiquity, but not, as in Europe, for the pur- 
 pose of being manufactured into cloth and cordage. 
 
HEM 
 
 967 
 
 HEM 
 
 In the Hindoo economy it serves as a substitute for 
 malt; a favorite intoxicating liquor, called banga, 
 being produced from it! This, also, is the use to 
 which it is applied in Egypt. — Milbhen's Orient. Com- 
 merce., etc. 
 
 The price of hemp fluctuated very much daring the 
 war of 1812. In consequence of difficulties in the 
 way of its importation, it stood at a very high level 
 from 1808 to 1814. This was the principal circum- 
 stance that originally brought iron cables into use ; 
 and the extent to which they are now introduced, has 
 contributed materially to diminish the consumption 
 and importation of hemp. — ^Tooke on High and Low 
 Prices, 2d ed., p. 345. 
 
 We borrow the following particulars, with respect 
 to the hemp trade of Petersburg, from the work of 
 Mr. Borrisow on the commerce of that city : 
 
 Hemp forms a very important article of export from 
 Petersburg, and deserves particuto notice. It is as- 
 sorted, according to its quality, into clean hemp, or 
 firsts; out-slwt hemp, or seconds; half-clean hemp, or 
 thirds ; and hemp codilla. Of the first 3 sorts there 
 are annually exported about 2,000,000 poods, the 
 greatest part in English and American bottoms. It is 
 brought to Petersburg, from the interior beyond Mos- 
 cow, by water; and its quality depends verj- much on 
 the country in which it is produced. That brought 
 from Karatshev is the best; next to this, that pro- 
 duced in Belev; hemp from Gshatsk.is considered in- 
 ferior to the latter. As soon as the hfemp is brought 
 down in the spring, or in the course of the summer, 
 it is selected and made up in bundles ; both operations 
 being performed by sworn selectors (trackers), and 
 binders appointed by government for this purpose ; 
 and it is a well-known fact, that this is done with 
 great impartiality and exactness. A bundle of clean 
 hemp weighs from 55 to 65 poods ; ditto out-shot, 48 
 to 55 ditto ; ditto half-clean, 40 to 45 ditto. (1 pood 
 =36 lbs. avoirdupois.) Binding of hemp is paid for 
 at the rate of 2 roubles 50 copecks for clean, 2 roubles 
 for out-shot, and 1 rouble 60 copecks for half-clean, per 
 bundle ; one half is paid by the seller, and the other 
 half by the purchaser, and is charged accordingly by 
 their agents. The expense of selecting hemp is 50 
 copecks per bercovitz (or 10 poods), and is the same 
 for everj' sort. To every bundle of assorted hemp is 
 attached a ticket with the names of the selector, bind- 
 er, and owner, and the date and year. Every bundle 
 has also affixed to it a piece of lead, stamped on one 
 side with the name of tlie selector, and on the other 
 with the sort of hemp' and the time when it was se- 
 lected. The external marks of good hemp are, its 
 being of an equal green color and free from spills ; 
 but its good quality is proved by the strength of the 
 fibre, which should be fine, thin, and long. The first 
 sort should be quite' clean and free from spills ; the 
 out-sJwt is less so ; and the half-clean contains a still 
 greater portion of spills, and is moreover of mixed 
 qualities and colors. 
 
 As a perfect knowledge of the qualities of hemp 
 and flax can only be acquired by experience and atten- 
 tion, agents usually employ men constantly occupied 
 in this business, by which means they are sure of get- 
 ting goods of the best quality, and have the best chance 
 of giving satisfaction to their principals ; because, al- 
 though the hemp is selected by sworn selectors, yet, 
 owing to the quantity of business and the speed with 
 which it must be executed, etc., there are often great 
 differences in the same sorts. The charges are in this 
 way somewhat increased ; but this is trifling in com- 
 parison of the advantage gained. The part separated, 
 or picked out in cleaning hemp, is called hemp codilla ; 
 it is generally made up in small bundles of 1 pood, 
 which are again, when shipped, bound together in 
 large bundles, each consisting of about 30 small ones. 
 Particular care must be taken to ship hemp and flax 
 in fine dry weather ; if it get wet, it heats and is to- j 
 
 tally spoiled. For this reason eveiy vessel taking in 
 hemp or flax is furnished with mats to prevent its get- 
 ting damp. Hemp, being light and bulky, is, when 
 stowed, forced into the hold by means of winches, 
 which renders the operation of loading rather slow. 
 It may be taken as a general rule, that the prices of 
 hemp are highest in the months of May, June, July, 
 and the early part of August ; the demand for this 
 article being then greatest, and the exportation to 
 North America being principally effected at this sea- 
 son. Again, the prices of hemp are lowest in the 
 month of September ; the reason of which is, that the 
 less opulent hemp-merchants return at the end of this 
 month to their own country in order to make new pur- 
 chases for the ensuing year ; and rather than be Re- 
 tained, sell the remainder of their stock some roubles 
 below the market price. This causes a general de- 
 cline ; although an unusual demand for the article 
 happening at the same time, or political events or 
 rumors, occasionally produce a contrary effect. Two 
 large warehouses, called ambares, are built in Peters- 
 burg for the special purpose of housing hemp, where 
 the greatest order is observed. 
 
 Hemp (Manilla) commonly called Manilla wMte 
 rope. Mr. Crawford gives the following account of 
 this article: " Of the wild banana, one kind (Mttsa 
 textilis) grows in vast abundance in some of the most 
 northerly of the spice islands. In the great island 
 of Mindanao, in the Philippines, it fills extensive for- 
 ests. From the fibrous bark or epidermis is manu- 
 factured a kind of cloth, in frequent use among the 
 natives. It also affords the material of the most val- 
 uable cordage which the indigenous products of the 
 Archipelago yield. This is known to our readers and 
 navigators under the name of Manilla rope, and is 
 equally applicable to cables, and to standing or run- 
 ning rigging." — Hist, of Archipelago, vol. i., p. 412. 
 
 Hemp (Indian), Or Sunn and Jute. — Sunn consists 
 of the fibre of the crotolaria juhcea, a totally different 
 plant from the canrmhis saliva, which, as already 
 stated, is never used by the Hindoos for cloth or 
 cordage. Sunn is grown in various places of Hin- 
 doostan. The strongest, whitest, and most durable 
 species is produced at Comercolly. During those 
 periods of the late war when the intercourse with the 
 Baltic was interrupted, and hemp bore an enormous 
 price, large quantities of sunn were imported; but 
 after the intercourse with the Continent was renewed, 
 the importation of sunn ceased for several years. But 
 within the last dozen years it has been again imported 
 to a considerable extent. It is, however, deficient in 
 toiighness. 
 
 Jute consists of the fibres of two plants, called the 
 chonch and isbund (Corchorus olitorius and Corchorus 
 capsularis), extensively cultivated in Bengal, and form- 
 ing, in fact, the material of which gunny bags and 
 gunny cloth are made. It fetches nearly though not 
 quite as high a price as sunn. It comes into competi- 
 tion with flax, tow, and cadilla, in the manufacture of 
 stair and other carpets, bagging for cotton and other 
 goods, and such like fabrics, being extensively used 
 for these purposes in Dundee. But it is unsuitable 
 for cordage and other articles into which hemp is 
 manufactured, from its snapping when twisted, and 
 rotting in water. The quantities imported, and the 
 prices, have fluctuated very greatly during the last 
 dozen years ; but from £12 to £16 a ton appears to be 
 a fair average price. 'When first introduced into this 
 countrj'-, in 1815, the price of jute varied from £35 to 
 £40 a ton. It was then, however, very little used, and 
 did not, in fact, begin to come into any thing like gen- 
 eral use as bagging till 1827 or 1828. 
 
 China-grass. — The attention of practical men has 
 long been directed to the remarkable qualities of the 
 China-grass, very similar to the Calooe hemp or Khea 
 fibre of India. This grass is very strong and beauti- 
 ful in the fibre ; and a simple but efficacious mode of 
 
HEM 
 
 968 
 
 HEM 
 
 preparing it has lately been devised. This method 
 depends chiefly on the solvent powers of a hot solu- 
 tion of carbonate of soda, and is so satisfactory that 
 mixed fabrics are now made with China-grass as one 
 of the component fibres ; and there seems scarcelj' any 
 limit to the probable supply of the grass from India. 
 
 Culture in Russia. — Next to the culture of cereals 
 and the rearing of domestic animals, the culture of 
 flax and hemp, both as textile plants and as oleaginous 
 grains, is the most important branch of Russian hus- 
 bandrj'. The gross value of these products amounts, 
 at a verj' moderate estimate, to about 55,500,000 of 
 silver roubles ($43,500,000) ; and both soil and climate 
 are exceedingly favorable to their culture throughout a 
 great part of the empire. As their production greatl}' 
 exceeds the wants of the home manufacture, the ex- 
 tension of their culture essentially depends on the 
 facility with which they find an outlet in the foreign 
 market. Flax and hemp have always formed two of 
 the principal exports ; and, if to these we add oleag- 
 inous grains, which consist principally of the seeds of 
 hemp and flax, we shall find that the export of these 
 three articles, taken as a whole, exceeds in value that 
 of any other product. In the course of 29 years, from 
 1822 to 1850, inclusive, there were but four, namely, 
 1830, 1831, 1846, and 1847, in which the value of ex- 
 ported cereals was greater than that of these. 
 
 From the custom-house returns, we find that, during 
 the period in question, the total value of exports for 
 European commerce amounted to $1,427,686,225, about 
 12 4-5 per cent, of which was in flax, 10 1-5 per cent, 
 in hemp, and 8 3-5 per cent, in oleaginous seeds. 
 These figures forcibly show the importance of the 
 culture of these textiles to the foreign commerce of 
 Russia, as well as for her domestic manufactures. In 
 this branch of agriculture, she has not hitherto met 
 with serious competition, as the other countries of con- 
 tinental Europe, in which these articles are produced, 
 not having much land to spare for that purpose, and 
 finding it, from their greater relative population, more 
 profitable to cultivate other crops, do not raise enough 
 for any considerable exportation ; for, nowhere in Eu- 
 rope can they be cultivated in such abundance as in 
 Russia. Of other countries, it is the East Indies and 
 the Philippine Islands that famish England the largest 
 supplies, say, from 10,000 to 12,500 tons per annum, 
 and the United States, which export at present not 
 over 5000 tons. England, moreover, imports from 
 Egypt and other parts of Africa about 200 tons of flax 
 and hemp, an amount comparatively insignificant. 
 
 Notwithstanding the heavy blows continuously 
 dealt out to it, by the increasing use of cotton goods, 
 the linen manufacture still maintains the foremost 
 rank in Russia, in point of extent and importance. It 
 is not, lilce the cotton manufacture in Great Britain, 
 the United States, and other countries, concentrated in 
 large establishments, which strike the eye by their 
 size, their machinery, and the number.s of workmen 
 collected on the premises ; but, conducted within the 
 modest walls of the peasants' cottages, it is diffused 
 Over the whole length and breadth of the land. There 
 is scarcely a village within the wide limits of the em- 
 pire, where the wheel, the distaS', and the loom are 
 not to be found. With regard to the extent of this 
 species of industry, it is averred that linen forms one 
 of those articles of prime necessity which no individual 
 in Russia, rich nor poor, can entirely dispense with. 
 Reckoning only 10 yards, 28 inches in width, for each 
 inhabitant, per annnm, it would require for the popu- 
 lation of 65,500,000 (including Poland), a consumption 
 of 655,000,000 yards. The culture of flax for com- 
 merce is most extensively carried on in the govern- 
 ments of Wologda, Wiatka, Jaroslaw, Wladamir, 
 Novgorod, Pskow, Livonia, Courland, Smolensk, 
 Wilna, and Witebsk, and that of hemp in the govern- 
 ments of Tschernigow, Koursk, Orel, Toula, and Tam- 
 bow. This important branch of rural economy has 
 
 attracted the special attention of the Russian govern- 
 ment. 
 
 Culture in the United Slates. — During the last half 
 century great efiVjrts have been made in Europe, and, 
 to some extent, of late, in the United States, to in- 
 crease and improve the production and manufacture of 
 flax and hemp. Formerly they were considered as in- 
 dispensable crops among our planters and farmers, but 
 their use has been superseded in a measure by the cot- 
 ton of the South. Common flax is a native of Britain, 
 where it has been cultivated from time immemorial, 
 and from its hardihood and adaptation to a wide range 
 of temperature, it has been grown in almost every 
 country on the eastern continent, from Egj'pt to the 
 polar circle, and in North America, from Texas to 
 Newfoundland. Hemp, which is supposed to be a 
 native of India, but long since acclimatized and exten- 
 sively cultivated in Spain, Italy, and several other 
 countries in Europe, particularly in Poland and Rus- 
 sia, as well as in different parts of America, also forms 
 an article of primary importance in commerce, and is 
 of extensive utility. Both of these products were in- 
 troduced into the North American colonies soon after 
 their settlement by the English. They are mentioned 
 as growing in New England prior to 1632 ; and boun- 
 ties were offered for their cultivation in Virginia as 
 early as 1751. Captain , Matthews sowed yearly both 
 hemp and flax, which he caused to be spun and woven, 
 prior to the year 1648. In 1662 an edict was passed 
 requiring each- poll in Virginia to raise annually and 
 manufacture six pounds of linen thread ; but, from 
 the change of the laws and the cessation of the boun- 
 ties, the culture declined. 
 
 In the late Exhibition at London, of the "Works, of 
 Industrj' of All Nations, both of these materials held a 
 conspicuous rank. Flax was exhibited, the growth of 
 Great Britain, Ireland, Holland, Belgium, France, 
 Spain, Portugal, Italy, Prussia, Germany, Poland, 
 Russia, Turkey, Egypt, India, Van Dieman's Land, 
 Canada, and the United States, and hemp from all of 
 these countries, except Britain, Ireland, Canada, and 
 Van Dieman's Land. The fibre of flax and hemp has 
 never been produced in this country in sufficient abund- 
 ance to form much of an article of foreign commerce, 
 but flax-seed was formerly shipped to Europe in large 
 quantities. There were exported from New Jersey 
 in 1751, 14,000 lbs. of hemp ; from Savannah, in 1770, 
 1860 lbs. ; from the United States in 1850-'51,, 4769 
 cwt. The amount of flax-seed exported from Phila- 
 delphia in 1752 was 70,000 bushels; in 1767, 84,658 
 bushels ; in 1771, 110,412 bushels ; from New York in 
 1755, 12,528 hhds. ; from the British North American 
 colonies, in 1770, 312,612 bushels ; from the United 
 States, in 1791, 292,460 bushels ; in 1800, 289,684 bush- 
 els ; in 1810, 240,579 bushels; in 1820-'21, 264,310 
 bushels ; in 1830-'31, 120,702 bushels ; in 1840-'41, 
 32,243 bushels ; in 1850-'51, 9185 bushels. 
 
 According to the census returns of 1840, there were 
 raised in the United States 95,251^ tons of flax and 
 hemp ; of 1850, 35,093 tons of hemp and 7,715,961 lbs. 
 of flax. The correctness of the returns as to hemp, in 
 the seventh census, has not yet been fully verified. 
 There has been some doubt whether, in a number of 
 instances, the marshals have not written tons where 
 they meant lbs. If, however, the returns are' all al- 
 lowed to stand without reduction, it would appear that 
 the cultivation of hemp or flax has materially changed 
 since 1840. In the returns of that year, as stated 
 above, both of these articles were included under the 
 same head. In 1840, those of Virginia gave 25,594 
 tons of hemp and flax together. In 1850, only 141 
 tons of liemp and 500 tons of flax were returned. 
 Such a falling o^ would amount to almost an aban- 
 donment of the culture of hemp in that State, which 
 there is no reason to suppose has taken place. 
 
 The discovery of new methods for separating tho 
 fibrous from the woody parts of the flax plant has 
 
HER 
 
 969 
 
 HER 
 
 doubtless given a vigorous stimulant to its cultivation 
 in the United States. The process of Chevalier Clausen 
 Urst attracted general attention among us in 1850. 
 Though considerable quantities of flax have been pro- 
 duced in former years, it has been raised principally 
 for the seod, -which commanded a remunerating price. 
 The "want of a cheap and speedy process for separating 
 the textile from the refuse parts of the stalk has occa- 
 sioned a, vast annual loss of useful material to the 
 country. Should the attempts which have lately been 
 made to apply Clausen's invention succeed, the pro- 
 duction of flax in the United States may become of 
 great importance, and be advantageously used, not 
 only alone, but in the manufacture of mixed fabrics, 
 as it appears capable of being spun with wool, silk, and 
 other flbres. 
 
 Native-grown hemp is coming into use very gener- 
 ally. Mr. W. B. Shubfick, Chief of the Bureau of Con- 
 struction, Navy Department, in a report to the Secre- 
 tajy of the Navy, recommends greater attention to the 
 detail of cultivation, curing, and packing native-grown 
 hemp, which,- in the opinion of the bureau, would be 
 found to be very beneficial in effect, and, in course of 
 time, make the navy altogether independent of a for- 
 eign market for a material so important for naval pur- 
 poses. Mr, Gardiner, Superintendent of the Kope-walk 
 of the United States' Navy Yard at Memphis, in a re- 
 port of his department, further substantiates these 
 views, concluding, that with proper care, " American 
 hemp may, as experiment has proved, be. made to 
 equal if not to excel, an}' foreign importation." 
 
 Kentucky and Missouri are our chief hemp-growing 
 States ; the former producing superior hemp as a bet- 
 ter system of preparation prevails. 
 
 Pboduotion of Hemp in tue United States in 1850. 
 
 Dow & watoi- 
 States. rotted. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Arkansas .15 
 
 Kentucky 17,781 
 
 ilaryland. 63 
 
 Missouri .16,028 
 
 Iforth Carolina... 39 
 
 Dew & water 
 Stfites. rotted. 
 
 Tone. 
 
 Ohio 160 
 
 I?ennsylvania... 4^ 
 
 Tennessee 595 
 
 Virginia 189 
 
 Total 84,860 
 
 Export of Hemp fbom the United States fkom 1854 to 
 1856, inclusive. 
 
 .■ .Hemp. 
 
 1854. 
 
 1855. 
 
 1856. , ! 
 
 B»w. 
 
 MaiiuFac. 
 
 Raw, 
 
 Mannfae. 
 
 Raw. 
 
 Maaiifac. 
 
 Domestic. 
 
 Foreign . . 
 
 Total... 
 
 Dollars. 
 98,699 
 
 42,614 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 79,717 
 
 . 45,626 
 
 Dollars. 
 121,820 
 255,441 
 
 Dollars. 
 86,5118 
 
 23,718 
 
 Dollars. 
 28,598 
 
 64,249 
 
 Dollare. 
 
 26,288 
 88,315 
 
 146,813 125,348 
 
 376,761 
 
 60,266 
 
 82,847 108,548 
 
 Imports of Hemp into the United States. 
 
 1863 $1,920,913 Cwts. 464,070 
 
 1854 2,209,718 692,174 
 
 1855 2,158,416 249,838 
 
 1856 2,845,000 2.52,730 
 
 Hemp-seed (Fr. Chenevis, Chenevi; OarHanfsaat ; 
 It. Catmapuccia ; hat. Semen cannabinum ; Eus. Kan-^ 
 opljanoe Senja)^ the seed of hemp. The best hemp- 
 seed is that which is brightest, and will not break when 
 rubbed. It is used either as seed, or for crushing for 
 oil, or as food for fowls. Previously to 1832, it was 
 loaded with a duty of £2 per quarter, which was then 
 reduced to Is. per ditto, and in 1845 was wholly re- 
 pealed. 
 
 Herat or Heraut (anciently Arid or Artcicpana), 
 capital of Shah Mahmood's State, on the west frontier 
 of Afghanistan, 2700 feet above the seia-level, three 
 miles north of the Hury River, in a beautiful and fer- 
 tile valley. Lat. 34° 22' N., long. 62° 9' E. ; 360 
 miles west of Cabool. It is entirely surrounded by an 
 earthen mound, 50 feet high, by two trenches, and a 
 ditch. From the mound rises a wall 25 feet high, and 
 upward of 100 bastions of unbumt brick. At the 
 north end of the town is a strong citadel, defended by 
 a ditch and massive towers. To the north of the town 
 is the huge mound raised by Nadu- Shah, and a little 
 farther the gorgeous ruins of the MoosuUah of Imaum 
 Beza. As there is no drainage, the town is extremely 
 
 filthy, although in the 15th and 16th centuries it was 
 one of the finest cities in the world. Commercially, 
 the position of Herat is important. It receives shawls, 
 indigo,, sugar, spices, chintzes, muslins, brocades, 
 scarfs, leather, and hides from Afghanistan; tea, 
 sugar, porcelain, glass, silk, cotton, cloth, woolens, 
 carpets, and hardware from Persia, Russia, and Tur- 
 key; The Herat carpets are famous. The annual 
 revenue of Herat is estimated at, perhaps, £100,000. 
 It was unsucoessfally besieged by the Persians in 1838. 
 Population less than 46,000. 
 
 Herrings, and Herring Fishery. The herring 
 {Clupea harengibs of LinncBus) is a fish too well known 
 to require any description. It is everywhere in high 
 esteem, both when fresh and when salted, 
 
 " Herrings are found from the highest northern lat- 
 itudes yet known, as low as the northern coasts of 
 France. They are met with in vast shoals on the 
 coast of America as low as Carolina. In Chesapeake 
 Bay iS' an annual inundation of those fish which cover 
 the shore. We find them again in the seas of Kam- 
 schatka ;. and probably they reach Japan. The great 
 winter rendezvous of the herring is within the Arctic 
 Circle : there they continue for many months, in order 
 to recruit themselves after the fatigue of spawning ; 
 the seas within that space swarming with insect food 
 in a far greater degree than those of our warmer lat- 
 itudes. This mighty army begins to put itself in mo- 
 tion in spring. They begin to appear off the Shetland 
 Isles in April and Ma}'. These are only the forerun- 
 ners of the grand shoal, which comes in June ; and 
 their appearance is marked by certain signs, such as 
 the numbers of birds, like gannets and others, which 
 follow to prey on them ;. but when the main body ap- 
 proaches, its breadth and depth is such as to alter the 
 appearance of the very ocean. It is divided into dis- 
 tinct columns of five or six miles in length, and three 
 or four in breadth ; they drive the water before them, 
 with a land of rippling. Sometimes they sink for the 
 space of 10 or 15 minutes, a^d then rise again to the 
 .surface ; and in fine weather reflect a variety of splen- 
 did colors, like a field of the most precious gems. The 
 first check this army meets in its march southward, 
 is from the Shetland Isles, which divides it into two 
 parts ; one wing takes to the east, the other to the 
 western shores of Great Britain, and fill every bay 
 and creek with their numbers ; the former proceed to- 
 ward Yarmouth, the great and ancient mart of her- 
 rings ; they then pass through the British Channel, 
 and after that in a manner disappear. Tliose which 
 take toward the west, after offering themselves to the 
 Hebrides, where the great stationary fishery is, pro- 
 ceed to the north of Ireland, where the}' meet with a 
 second interruption, and are obliged to make a second 
 division : the one takes to the western side, and is' 
 scarce!}' perceived, being soon lost in the immensity; 
 of the Atlantic ; but the other, that passes into the 
 Irish Sea, rejoices and feeds the inhabitants of most of 
 the coasts that border on it. These brigades, as we 
 may call them, which are thus separated from the 
 greater columns, are often capricious in their motions, 
 and do not show an invariable attachment to their 
 haunts. This instinct of migration was given to the 
 herrings, that they might deposit their spawn in 
 warmer seas, that would mature and vivify it more as- 
 suredly than those of the frozen zone. It is not from 
 defect of food that they set themselves in motion ; for 
 they come to us full of fat, and on their return are al- 
 most universally observed to be lean and miserable. 
 What their food is near the pole, we are not yet in- 
 formed ; but in our seas they feed much on the oniscus 
 marmus, a crustaceous insect, and sometimes on their 
 own fry. They are full of roe in the end of June, 
 and continue in perfection till the beginning of winter 
 when they deposit their spawn. The young herrings be- 
 gin to apprdach the shores in July and August, and are 
 then from one half an inch to two inches long. Though 
 
HID 
 
 9Y0 
 
 HID 
 
 we have no particular authority for it, yet, as very 
 few young herrings are found in our seas during win- 
 ter, it seems most certain that they must return to their 
 parental haunts henfeath the ice. Some of the old her- 
 rings continue on our coast the whole year.". — Pen- 
 nant's British Zoology. 
 
 The herring was unknown to the ai^cients, being 
 rarely, if ever, found within the Mediterranean. The 
 Dutch are said to have engaged in the fisherj' in 1164. 
 The invention of pickling or salting herrings is as- 
 cribed to one Beukels, or Beukelson, of Biervliet, near 
 Sluys, who died in 1397. The emperor, Charles V., 
 visited his grave, and ordered a magnificent tomb to 
 be erected to his memory. Since this early period, the 
 Dutch have uniformly maintained their ascendency in 
 the herring iishery ; but, owing to the Reformation, 
 and the relaxed observance of Lent in Catholic coun- 
 tries, the demand for herrings upon the Continent is 
 now far less than in the 14th and 15th centuries. 
 
 It is shown by a parliamentary return of 1856, that 
 the total quantity of herring cured in Great Britain, 
 during 1855, was 766,603 barrels ; the quantity branded, 
 280,581 barrels ; and the quantitj' exported, 442,264 
 barrels — being an increase over the preceding year of 
 130,141 barrels cured, 68,737 branded, and 80,567 ex- 
 ported. The quantity caught, but not cured, amounted 
 in 1855 to 830,759 barrels, being an increase of 26,970 
 barrels over 1854. The total produce of the herring 
 fisheries in 1855 amounted to 897,463 barrels, being 
 157,111 more than in 1854. Of cod and ling, during 
 1855, 113,561 cwt. was cured dried, and 6316 barrels 
 cured in pickle ; total quantity exported being 29,154 
 cwt. of the former, and 25 barrels of the latter. This 
 was an increase as compared with 1854 of 9597 cwt. 
 cured, and 25 barrels exported. The total quantity 
 caught, but not cured, amounted to 63,539 cwt., being 
 an increase over the preceding year of 5497 cwt., and 
 when added to the quantity cured, malces the produce 
 of the cod and ling fisheries for 1855, 177,100 cwt. and 
 6316 barrels, being an increase over 1854 of 9373 cwt. 
 and 150 barrels. In 1855, 11,747 boats, manned by. 
 41,602 fishermen and boys were employed in the shore- 
 curing department ; and the total number of persons 
 engaged in the fisheries was 94,155, being an increase 
 over the preceding year of 856 boats, 1243 fishermen 
 and 16,321 persons in the total number employed. 
 The value of boats, nets, and lines amounted in 1855 
 to £618,484, being an increase, as compared with 1854, 
 of £31,064. See Fisheries. 
 
 An Account of toe "Weight of tue Hides imported into England in each of the Five Years ending with 
 1851, specifying the countries whence the htdes weeb imported, and the quantities brought from each. 
 
 Hidage {Bidagiurn) was an extraordinarj' tax paj'- 
 able to the kings of England for every hide of land. 
 This tax was levied in money, provision, armor, and 
 other articles ; and when the Danes landed in Sand- 
 wich in 994, King Ethelred taxed all his lands by 
 hides, so that every 310 hides furnished one jack and 
 one saddle, to arm for the defense of the kingdom. 
 Sometimes the word hidage was used to signify exemp- 
 tion from that tax ; and this immunity was also called 
 hidegild, and interpreted, from the Saxon, a price or 
 ransom paid to save one's skin or hide from beating. 
 
 Hides (Ger. Haute; Du. Huidm; Fr. Peaux; It. 
 Ciioja ; Sp. Pellejos, Pieles ; Ens. Koshi), signify, gen- 
 erally, the skins of beasts, but the term is more partic- 
 ularly applied to those of large cattle, such as bul- 
 locks, cows, horses, etc. Hides are raw or green ; 
 that is, in the state in which they are taken off the 
 carcase, or dressed with salt, alum, and saltpetre, to 
 prevent them from putrefying ; or they are cured or 
 tanned. The hides of South America are in the high- 
 est repute, and vast quantities of them are imported. 
 
 During the year 1856 the imports of hide into va- 
 rious ports of the United States were greater than in 
 previous years, as follows : 
 
 Imports into New York $1,751,912, 
 
 ^' Boston and Salem 762,741 ' 
 
 " Philadelphia and Baltimore 836,577 
 
 Total, 1856. 
 " 1855. 
 
 . $2,861,230 
 , 2,423,864 
 
 General Statement of the 
 INTO THE United States 
 30tu, 1856. 
 
 Foreign Lmports of Hides 
 FOR the Year ending June 
 
 Raw Iiides 
 and skins. 
 
 109 
 
 6,323 
 
 9,858 
 
 161 
 
 416 
 
 246,824 
 
 15,992 
 
 1,715 
 
 Whence imp orted. 
 
 Swedish West Ind. 
 Danish West Ind.. 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Holland 
 
 Dutch West Indies 
 
 Dutch Guiana, 
 
 Dutch East Indies. 
 
 England 517,080 
 
 Canada 2 
 
 Other B.N. A. Pos. 8.988 
 
 Biitish West Ind.., 
 British Honduras.. 
 
 British Guiana 
 
 Br. Pos. in Africa. . 
 British East Indies 
 I'rance on the Med. 
 
 French Guiana 
 
 Spain on the At... 
 
 Philippine Isls 
 
 Cuba 
 
 21,365 
 
 26,0T9 
 
 5,761 
 
 277,055 
 
 568,219 
 
 950 
 
 618 
 
 2,940 
 
 15,180 
 
 9,272 
 
 Whence importecl. 
 
 Porto Rico 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Cape de Verd Isls. 
 
 Savdiiiia 
 
 Other ports in Af.. 
 
 Hayti 
 
 San Domingo 
 
 Mexico. 
 
 Central Eepublic. 
 
 New Granada 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Uruguay 
 
 Buenos Ayres 
 
 Chili 
 
 Peru 
 
 Sandwich Islands- 
 China 
 
 Total 
 
 Raw bides 
 
 and Bkins. 
 
 12,090 
 
 675 
 
 11,190 
 
 537 
 
 183,548 
 
 28,996 
 
 13,663 
 
 881,574 
 
 78,836 
 
 264,417 
 
 2,182,591 
 
 1,480,223, 
 
 313,251 
 
 1,460,787 
 
 44,354 
 
 15,940 
 
 30,797 
 
 16 
 
 Countries from which 
 imported. 
 
 Hides not tanned, tawed, cui-rled, 
 
 3r in any way dtesaed. 
 
 Hides tanned, 
 
 tawed, curried, or dressed. 1 
 
 1 
 
 1847. 
 
 1848. 
 
 1849. 
 
 1850. 
 
 1861. 
 
 1841. 
 
 1848. 
 
 1849. 
 
 1850. 
 
 1851. 1 
 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 9,774 
 
 202 
 
 8,173 
 
 6,182 
 
 4,637 
 
 1,199 
 
 840 
 
 9 
 
 628 
 
 23,620 
 
 94,794 
 
 1,421 
 
 2,623 
 
 9,284 
 
 29,602 
 
 1,151 
 
 7,118 
 
 10,781 
 
 604 
 
 1,785 
 
 994 
 
 1,213 
 
 216,905 
 
 163,669 
 
 4,776 , 
 
 74 
 
 1,399 
 
 4,625 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 6,119 
 705 
 1,531 
 6,578 
 2,786 
 
 "772 
 
 332 
 
 864 
 
 9,768 
 
 69,999 
 
 2,090 
 
 1,963 
 
 2,864 
 
 21,106 
 
 1,824 
 
 7,132 
 
 852 
 
 41 
 
 186 
 
 1,263 
 
 290 
 
 179,641 
 
 111,987 
 
 114,477 
 
 461 
 
 2,308 
 
 1,558 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 11,967 
 
 726 
 
 1,622 
 
 3,492 
 
 2,157 
 
 268 
 
 214 
 
 12 
 
 320 
 
 9,768 
 
 71,017 
 
 734 
 
 1,825 
 
 21,244 
 
 824 
 
 4,800 
 
 8,889 
 
 288 
 
 486 
 
 760 
 
 716 
 
 207,199 
 
 1,016 
 
 826,947 
 
 4,552 
 
 894 
 
 1.825 
 
 18,792 
 
 1,434 
 
 8,003 
 
 10,415 
 
 5,822 
 
 654 
 
 239 
 
 1,164 
 
 1,409 
 
 10,058 
 
 101,198 
 
 1,257 
 
 926 
 
 4,876 
 
 26,047 
 
 1,215 
 
 8,690 
 
 182 
 
 212 
 
 1,206 
 
 488 
 
 20 
 
 157,003 
 
 3,162 
 
 282,886 
 
 2,285 
 
 6,291 
 
 2,597 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 8,.822 
 
 3,792 
 
 4,021 
 
 9,831 
 
 6,789 
 
 5,640 
 
 618 
 
 10,047 
 
 535 
 
 12,269 
 
 187,206 
 
 419 
 
 1,487 
 
 6,169 
 
 83,592 
 
 500 
 
 3,045 
 
 1 
 
 ■"iio 
 
 273 
 
 160,585 
 
 10,246 
 
 . 261,663 
 
 276 
 
 2,014 
 
 8,692 
 
 Lbs. 
 184,141 
 
 8,876 
 49,621 
 
 104,950 
 18,681 
 16,526 
 
 380,075 
 
 23,352 
 981 
 
 109,711 
 
 1,872 
 
 243 
 
 866,000 
 
 288,594 
 
 "in 
 
 8,685 
 638 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 81,956 
 56 
 
 45,890 
 104,815 
 
 17,419 
 
 4,T85 
 
 466,065 
 
 147,158 
 
 870,364 
 4^ii5 
 
 49,043 
 
 1,046 
 
 Lbs. 
 12,433 
 4,888 
 
 6'8',2i9 
 137,200 
 
 23,481 
 
 3,052 
 
 715,964 
 
 "153 
 
 240,866 
 
 . . . ^ 
 
 549,821 
 
 "t46 
 "296 
 
 46,984 
 "890 
 
 Lbs. 
 23,320 
 3,700 
 
 40,248 
 
 ^^;7l 
 
 19,391 
 
 619,840 
 
 3,610 
 
 207 
 
 553 
 
 847'591 
 ■ 11 
 
 5,746 
 87,i32 
 
 Lbs. 1 
 66,633 
 
 
 8,649j 
 
 66,ii4i 
 197,764 
 
 19,860; 
 
 88,332 
 694,206 
 
 "761 
 294,616 
 
 1,079 
 
 931,600! 
 
 202 
 
 17 
 
 58,983 
 
 ■ ■ii2 
 
 72,688 
 9,936 
 
 
 Hanseatlc towns 
 
 Holland 
 
 
 Channel Isls., For. prod. 
 
 
 British South Africa. . . 
 British East Indies.... 
 French pos. in India. . . 
 
 Philippine Islands 
 
 British Australia 
 
 British North America. 
 Br. W. Indies &, Guiana 
 United States America 
 
 Central America 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Other parts 
 
 Total 
 
 601,381 
 
 547,281 
 
 678,952 
 
 591,921 
 
 672,167 
 
 1.512,208 
 
 1,271,862 
 
 1,788,442 
 
 1,896,7981 2,380,9011 
 
HIG 
 
 971 
 
 HIG 
 
 8TATBMENT SHOWING TUE NUMltER AND VALUE OF HIDE8 
 EXPORTED PROM THK UNITED STATES FOR TUB YeAR 
 
 ENDING June SOtii, 1856. 
 
 WMthor exported. 
 
 Hamburgi 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Holland 
 
 Bekium 
 
 England 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Malta 
 
 Canada 
 
 Other Br. North Am. Pos. 
 
 British East Indies 
 
 France on the Atlantic — 
 
 Franpe on the Mediter 
 
 French North Amer. Pes.. 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Austria 
 
 Austrian Pos. in Italy 
 
 Hayti 
 
 Total. 
 
 Domestic. 
 
 Foreign, 
 
 Number. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Doilnm. 
 
 -848 
 
 1,808 
 
 1,279 
 
 1,101 
 
 4,879 
 
 
 20 
 
 100 
 
 
 1,'26T 
 
 6,650 
 
 
 8,T81 
 
 20,082 
 
 681 
 
 852 
 
 610 
 
 "480 
 
 25,226 
 
 48,720 
 
 74,324 
 
 1,3S6 
 
 2,885 
 
 893 
 
 610 
 
 686 
 
 
 4,757 
 
 18,256 
 
 i',66o 
 
 4,692 
 
 60 
 
 146 
 
 18'i75 
 
 1,000 
 
 2,000 
 
 
 426 
 
 555 
 
 
 40,184 
 
 »101,174 1 $101,924 1 
 
 High Seas. The high seas mean the water of the 
 ocean without the boundary of any country, and they 
 are within the exclusive jurisdiction of the admiraltj' 
 up to high water marli, when the tide is full. The 
 (jpen ocean which washes the sea-coast is used in con- 
 tradistinction to arms of the sea. inclosed within the 
 fauces terra, or narrow headlands or promontories ; 
 and under this head is included rivers, harbors, creelcs, 
 basins, bays, etc., where the tide ebbs and flows. 
 They are within the admiralty and maritime jurisdic- 
 tion of the United States ; but if they are within the 
 body of a county of any paiticular State, the State 
 jurisdiction attaches. 
 
 The extent of the jurisdiction of the district courts 
 of the United States, as courts of admiralty and mari- 
 time jurisdiction, was verj' fully examined, and with 
 great ability and research, by the Circuit Court of the 
 United States for Massachusetts, in the insurance ease 
 of De Lovio v. Boit. It was maintained, that in very 
 early periods the admiralty jurisdiction, in civil cases, 
 extended to all maritime causes and contracts, and, in 
 . criminal cases, to all torts and offenses, as well in 
 ports and havens within the ebb and flow of the tide, 
 as upon the high seas ; and that the English admiralty 
 was formed upon the same common model, and was 
 co-extensive, in point of jurisdiction, with the mari- 
 time courts of the other commercial powers of Europe. 
 It was shown, by an exposition of the ancient cases, 
 that Lord Coke was mistaken in his attempt to confine 
 the ancient jurisdiction of .the admiralty to the high 
 seas, and to exclude it from the naiTow tide-waters, 
 and from ports and havens. The court agreed with 
 the admiralty civilians, that the statutes of 13 E. II., 
 and 15 E. II., and 2 H. IV., did not curtail this an- 
 cient and original jurisdiction of the admiralty, and 
 that, consistently with those statutes, the admiraltj' 
 might exercise jurisdiction over torts and injuries upon 
 the high seas, and in ports within the ebb and flow of 
 the Lide, and in great streams below the first bridges ; 
 and also over all maritime contracts, as well as over 
 all matters of prize and its incidents. It appeared, 
 from a historical review of the progress of the con- 
 troversy for jurisdiction, which lasted for two centu- 
 ries, between the admiralty and the courts of commoh 
 law, that the latter, by a silent and steady march, 
 gained ground, and extended their limits, until they 
 acquired concurrent jurisdiction over all maritime 
 causes, except prize causes, within the cognizance of 
 the admiralty. The common law doctrine was, that 
 the sea, ex vi termini, was without the body of any 
 country ; but that all ports and havens, and all nav- 
 igable tide waters, where one might see from one land 
 to the other what was doing, were within the body of 
 the county, and under the exclusive jurisdiction of the 
 common law courts. On the sea shore or coast, high 
 and low water mark determined what was parcel 
 of the sea, and what was the line of division between 
 
 the admiralty and the courts of law ; and it was held, 
 that it ought to be so considered by parity of reason, 
 where the tide ebbs and flows, in ports and havens ; 
 and that the admiralty jurisdiction extends to all tide 
 waters in ports and havens, and rivers beneath the 
 first bridges. It was admitted, however, that the 
 common law originally had jurisdiction on the high 
 seas, concurrent with the admiralty; and that in 
 cases manifestly within the admiralty jurisdiction, 
 both civil and criminal, the common law now claimed 
 concurrent jurisdiction. — Kent's Com,, vol. i., pp. 399, 
 400. 
 
 Crimes on the high seas, such as piracy and rob- 
 bery, are, by the laws of the United States, punished 
 with death. Perspns charged with such crimes must 
 be tried at the port where they first arrive or are 
 brought. Accessaries shall also suffer death. Con- 
 cealing a pirate, or harboring property taken by a 
 pirate, is punished by imprisonment not over three 
 years, and fine not over $500. For revolt on ship- 
 board, or abetting a revolt, seamen will be imprisoned 
 not over three years, and fined not over $1000. — Dns- 
 LAp's Digest, pp. 75, 76. 
 
 High'way. In the civil law, the banks of public 
 rivers and the sea shore were held to be public. Si- 
 parum puhUcus usus est ; littorum quoque usus publicus 
 est jure gentium. The law of nations was here used 
 for natural right, and not international law, in the 
 modem sense of it ; and it is stated in tlie Insti- 
 tutes of Justinian, that all persons have the same 
 liberty to bring their vessels to land, and to fasten 
 ropes to the banks of the river, as they have to navi- 
 gate the river itself. These liberal doctrines of the 
 Roman law have been introduced into the jurispru- 
 dence of those nations of Europe which have followed 
 the civil, and made it essentially their municipal, law. 
 Thus, in Spain, the sea shore is common to the public ; 
 and any one maj^ fish, and erect a cottage for shelter. 
 The banks of navigable rivers may also be used to 
 assist navigation. In the French law, ' navigable or 
 floatable rivers, as they are termed, have always been 
 regarded as dependencies of the public domain, and 
 the lands on each side subject to the servitude or bur- 
 den of towing paths for the benefit of the public. Sir 
 Matthew Hale, in his De Jure Maris, concludes that 
 individuals had a right to a tow-path for towing vessels 
 up and down rivers, on making a reasonable compensa- 
 tion to the owner of the land for damage. In the year 
 1789 it was decided in England, 3 Term Rep., 253, 
 that there was not, and never had been, any right, at 
 common law, for the public to tow on the banlts of 
 navigable rivers. It was admitted, that on many 
 navigable rivers, there was a custom to tow on the 
 banks ; but the privilege in that case rested on the 
 special custom, and not on any common law right. 
 The statutes which have given a right of towing on 
 parts of the Severn, Trent, and Thames, are evidence 
 that no such general right before existed. In New 
 York it has been adjudged, after a very able and 
 thorough examination of the question, that the public 
 have not the right to use and occupy the soil of an 
 individual adjoining navigable waters, as «■ public 
 landing and place of deposit of property in its transit, 
 against the will of the owner, although such user had 
 been continued upward of 20 years, with the Icnowl- 
 edge of the owner. Oh the other hand, it is held in 
 Missouri, that navigators and fishermen are entitled 
 to the temporary use of the banks of navigable rivers 
 in that State, though owned by private individuals, 
 for the purpose of landing and repairing their vessels, 
 and exposing their sails and merchandise. But this 
 use is for transient purposes onlj', and under restrictions. 
 It is a settled principle in the English law, that the 
 right of soil of owners of land bounded by the sea, or 
 on navigable water, whore the tide ebbs and flows, 
 extends to high-water mark; and the shore below 
 common, but not extraordinarj', high-water mark, 
 
HIM 
 
 972 
 
 HIM 
 
 belongs to the State as trustee for the public ; and in 
 England the crown, and in this country the people, 
 have the absolute proprietarj' interest in the same, 
 though it may, by grant or proscription, become pri- 
 vate property. The public laave, at common law, a 
 right to navigate over every part of a common nav- 
 igable river, and on the large lalies. The public, in 
 cases where the river is navigable for boats and rafts, 
 have an easement therein, or right of passage, subject 
 to the jus publicum, as a public highway. — Kent's 
 Com., vol. iii., pp. 624-52G. 
 
 Each proprietor is entitled to a larger or smaller 
 proportion of the alluvial formation and shore line, 
 according to the extent of his original line on the 
 shore of the river. In the case of rivers not nav- 
 igable, it belongs to the owners of the adjoining land. 
 This principle of the common law is recognized and 
 prevails in the States of Maine, New Hampshire, 
 Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, 
 Maryland, Ohio, Virginia, North Carolina, Louisiana. 
 —Hid., 527. 
 
 Himalaya, a Sanscrit word, compounded of 
 "hiraa," cold or snow, and " alaya," place «/■ (Wil- 
 son's Sanscrit Dictionary), is the name given to the 
 ranges of mountains which bound India on the north, 
 from tlie bend of the Indus on the west to that of the 
 Brahmaputra on the east. On the south they are 
 bounded by the plains of India, and on the north by 
 the Tibetan courses of the above-named rivers. A 
 traverse section of the Himalaya nowhere presents 
 the appearance of a simple range, but of several more 
 or less parallel chains, separated by valleys of verj' 
 great depth and steepness ; this is because the second- 
 ary ranges that ramify north and south from it are of 
 great length, breadth, and complexity, and from bend- 
 ing to the east or to the west, often run for many miles 
 parallel to one another and to the main range, besides 
 rising into eminences loftier than any on the latter, 
 for which they are sometimes mistalsen. The axis of 
 the Himalaya is, moreover, not marlced out by any 
 continuous ridge or succession of pealts, but is often 
 broad, open, and low, compared with the neighboring 
 isolated eminences. Hence the line of watershed be- 
 comes the only geographically determinable axis ; and 
 this, as in all mountain chains of anj' extent, follows 
 an extremely sinuous course. No doubt this line, 
 wliich throws the waters in two opposite directions 
 throughout the whole extent of the range (1440 miles), 
 is also that of greatest elevation, or that along which 
 the land is uninterruptedlj- the most lofty. 
 
 Before, however, the real nature and geographical 
 limits of the Himalaya, as above defined, can be 
 rightly understood, it is necessary to consider this 
 range in its relation to the little known mountain sys- 
 tems of Central Asia, of which it perhaps forms a less 
 important part than is usually supposed. On refer- 
 ence to the map of Asia, the watershed of that conti- 
 nent will be found to follow a tortuous line, running 
 diagonally from the peninsula of Gujerat to Behring's 
 Sti-ait. Across the plains of India this line is for the 
 most part indicated by the Arawali chain, north of 
 which it crosses the Himalaya obliquely in a north-east 
 direction to the sources of the Indus and Brahmapu- 
 tra, whence it trends westerly to the source of the 
 Oxns, and then again north-easterly along the Altai 
 to the south of Lake Bailcal, till it becomes the lablo- 
 noi Mountains, and finally terminates in the prolonga- 
 tion of that range which traverses the countrj^ of the 
 Tchuktchi. Late and interesting information respect- 
 ing tliese plains can be found in Hue's Travels, 1845. 
 AH the great rivers of Asia rise in this watershed ; 
 those from its western slope flow north into the Polar 
 Sea, west into the Caspian or Aral, and south-west 
 into the Arabian Sea ; those from its eastern slope 
 flow east and south-east into the Pacific, and south into 
 the Indian Ocean. Enormous mountain chains branch 
 off to the east and west of this main axis, inclosing 
 
 the valleys of the rivers ; and of these chains the, 
 southernmost is the Himalaya. 
 
 In their Tibetan courses the Indus and Brahmapu- 
 tra occupy valleys of great elevation, and the opposite 
 directions taken b}' them indicates the division of the 
 Himalaya into two portions, the eastern of which 
 stretches from their sources at the peak of Kailas to 
 the bend of the Brahmaputra, and the western termi- 
 nates at the bend of the Indus. These limits, are 
 more natural than is usually supposed, since the prev- 
 alent idea that tlie Brahmaputra enters Assam through 
 a defile caused hy a break in the chain is erroneous ; 
 on the contrary, the Himalaya gradually declines in 
 elevation in East Bhotan ; and the upper valley of the 
 Dihong (as the Brahmaputra at its ijend is called), is, 
 according to the best information hitherto procured, 
 broad, open, and hot — rice being cultivated there on 
 the very confines of eastern Tibet. So also the Indus 
 at the western extremity of the chain is usually de- 
 scribed as flowing through a defile ; but though its 
 vallej' to the west of Kashmir is contracted and rug- 
 ged, and overhung by stupendous mountains, it does 
 not in this respect differ materially, if at all, from the 
 remainder of its Tibetan course ; nor is the fall of its 
 bed between Iskardo and the plains of th? Punjab 
 greater in proportion to the length of its course than 
 it is above that town. 
 
 The branches or secondarj' ranges of the western 
 Himalaj-a are so long and lofty, that some difference 
 of opinion exists as to which of them should be most 
 appropriately considered as the continuation of the 
 chain between the peak of Kailas and Kashmir ; and 
 we have considered the line of watershed between the 
 tributaries of tlie Indus to the north, and the rivers 
 that flow to the plains of India to the south, to be the 
 axis of tlie chain, since it both indicates the line, ,of . 
 mean greatest elevation, and is the only definable axis 
 in a geographical point of view. Of the secondary'- 
 chains we shall speak at length in connection with the 
 rivers thej- inclose. Their direction is often perpen- 
 dicular to the main chain, but they are so often ob- 
 lique, and even parallel to the main chain, especially 
 at tljeir upper parts, that where very lofty and heavily 
 snowed, they are freqently taken by local observers 
 for the axis of tlie Himalaya itself; an error to which 
 may be traced that misconception regarding the rela- 
 tive amount and duration of the snow on the northern 
 and southern slopes of the Himalaj'a, which has led 
 to so much fruitless controversy in India and Europe., 
 The general direction of the Himalaya throughout 
 its length of 1440 miles, is east and west, but it trends 
 northward from the centre toward its western extrem- 
 ity, its extremes being respectively in N. lat. 28°, E. 
 long. 96°, and N. lat. 35°, E. long. 73°. ■ Its breadth 
 varies in diff'erent parts, but has been accurately as- 
 certained in the western portion onlj', where it devi- 
 ates but little from 190 miles. 
 
 It has been stated that the mountain ranges of the 
 Himalaya and the Kouenlun have no special existence 
 as chains apart from the general elevated mass of 
 Tibet, and that that rugged country forms the summit 
 of a great.or rainy, interior or intermediate, and Tibe- 
 tan or arid Himalaya. The tropical belt extends from 
 the Terai to 6000, and even 7000 feet in the humid cen- 
 tral provinces ; and to 3000 to 4000 in the extreme 
 western. It consists of a luxuriant forest of Malayan 
 and insular tj'pes of trees in the eastern provinces, 
 which to a great extent disappear to the westward, 
 where they are partially replaced by Persian, Egyp- 
 tian and Afghanistan t3-pes — among these trees the 
 palms, plantains, tree-ferns, sal (ShorearoTiusta'), sissoo 
 {Dalhergia sissoo), toon (Cedrela Toona), and some 
 oaks, are the most conspicuous, and commercially the 
 most important, especially to tlie eastward. 
 
 The temperate belt extends from 5000 feet to the 
 upper limit of forest, which varies from 12,000 to 13,- 
 000 feet, according to the diTness of the climate. It 
 
HIM 
 
 913 
 
 HOG 
 
 li1>ounds in European, Levantine, and Chinese genera 
 and even species, with but few Malayan mountain 
 ones ; of these the European are most abundant in the 
 western provinces, and the Chinese and Japanese in 
 the eastern, Vhere are also a few American genera, 
 and some belonging to the Malaj^an and insular mount- 
 ain flora. Among the most conspicuous plants of 
 this region are oaks,'birch, maple; apple, hornbeam, 
 poplar, ash, cherry, alder, celtis, pine, juniper, yew, 
 willow, and pines (Abieg, WebUdna and Brunbuiana), 
 which abound throughout the range; besides which, 
 there are to the westward of Nepal, deodar, Pinus 
 Gerardiana, hawthorn, cypress, horie-chestnut, olive, 
 myrtle, evergreen oak; sloe, black poplar, and maiiy 
 other European genera and even Species ; while to the 
 eastward, laurel, magnolia, rhododendron, darch, Abies 
 Brunonidna'^ and chestnut, more especially prevail. 
 
 The alpine belt, which commences above the forest 
 region, ascends in extreme cases to 19,000 feet; it 
 abounds in Siberian, Polar, and 'EaroJ)ean alpine 
 plants throughout the whole extent of the chain, the 
 European species and genera being most prevalent to 
 the west. Several hundred common English plants 
 are also natives of the Himalaya, and especially of 
 the temperate atid alpine zones ; and the total num- 
 ber of flo^feiing plants inhabiting the whole range 
 probably amounts to 6000 or 7000 species. Cultiva- 
 tion in the Himalaya is carried on as high as 14,000, 
 and even 15,000 feet, where summer crops of wheat 
 and barley exist in Tibet, but quite exceptionally ; 
 also buckwheat, turnips, radishes, mustard, potatoes, 
 and various pulses, are grown abundantly between 
 8,000 and 12,000 feet, a3 summer crops. ' 'Eice, maize, 
 millet, and other tropical cereals, are grown below 
 6000 feet, with buckwheat, and various species of 
 chenopodium, yams, capsicum, egg-apple, legumes, 
 and sugar-cane. 
 
 The Himalayan fruits cultivated by the natives in 
 the eastern and central provinces are plantains, or- 
 anges, pine-apples,' walnuts, indifferent peaches and 
 apples ; in the western, excellent apples, pears, apri- 
 cots, peaches; cherries, mulberries, grapes, and wal- 
 nuts. The 'cultivation of tea is now successfully 
 carried on, on a large scale in the western Hinial'aya, 
 at elevations of 2000 to 5000 feet, and might probably 
 be pnrsu^ with more or less success in all parts of the 
 chain. 
 
 The timber trees of the Himalaya are extremely 
 numerous, but few of them are of great value, and 
 some of the best inhabit inaccessible regions. The 
 sal (Skorea robusta), is decidedly the most valuable ; 
 and, from growing at the foot of the hills, close to 
 water-carriage, is the only one much felled for export. 
 The toon (Cedrala Toona), and sissoo (Dalbergia Sis- 
 soo), are' also exported from the same regions ; and 
 the deodar and other conifers from the north-western 
 provinces. The other pines, the walnut, oaks, arfd the 
 chestnuts, mostly produce indifferent timber ; but, 
 though there are exceptioiis, the use of these is prin- 
 cipally confined to the neighliorhood where they grow. 
 Of ornamental woods, few are known, and none are in 
 general use. Bamboos prevail everywhere, and rat- 
 tan-canes to the eastward. Owing, probably, to the 
 humid clinjate, the woods of European genera are, 
 almost without exception, inferior to those of their 
 western allies. Teak is unknown in the Himalaya ; 
 and the other woods of eastern Bengal and of both 
 the Indian peninsulas are either confined to the mala- 
 rious forests of Assam, or are altogether absent. The 
 vegetable economic products are also very few and un- 
 important — such as spices, gums, resins, oils, waxes, 
 fibres, and other textile materials. Of drugs, the 
 baneful aconite and hemp are the best known ; infe- 
 rior rhubarb, and a few bitters of secondarj' import- 
 ance in the pharmacopoeia, are also collected for export. 
 Attempts have been made to cultivate drugs for the 
 use of the Indian medical establishments, but hitherto 
 
 with very limited success. Wild madder is exten- 
 sively collected and exported, as are bamboos, canes, 
 and a few other products: and latterly potatoes in 
 Sikkim. There is no doubt that the vegetable riches 
 of these extensive regions are but very little known, 
 and are capable of immense extension ; but hitherto 
 the efforts haVe been limited. On the northern or 
 Tibetan parts of the range the trees are extremely 
 few and small, and confined to willows, poplars, juni- 
 pers, elieagnus, and tamarisk ; and of bushes, the well- 
 known dama or furze, that supplies fuel, is the most 
 familiar to travelers. — E. B. See Quar. Iiev.,t xvii., 
 xxii., xxiv. ; Westm. Rev., xxxvii., 294,; Monthly Rev., 
 xov., 225, 409. , 
 
 In mineral products the Himalaya is remarkably 
 poor, so far as is at present known. There is nothing 
 which can compare, in abundance or value with the 
 mines of the Ural, Andes, or European Alps. Red 
 hicmatite is worked with profit in Kumaon, and cop- 
 per exists in Nepal and the Sikkim hills. Iron (dis- 
 seminated), occurs in various places, and graphite, is 
 common. Salt, borax, and soda are procured in 
 abundance in tlie dry climate of Tibet, where they 
 are articles of commerce ; there also gold-washing is 
 carried on upon a most limited scale. Gold is known 
 to be extremely abundant in many parts of eastern 
 Tibet, where, however, the jealousy of the Chinese 
 government, prevents its being worked. Slates, lime, 
 gypsum, lead, sulphur, and magnesia, are also Him- 
 alayfin, products. There is a surprising and almost 
 total absence of gems, or minerals of rarity or beauty 
 in the Himalaya; garnets, actinolites, and tourma- 
 lins, are perhaps the only exceptions of frequent oc- 
 currence, and these are of the coarsest description. 
 
 Hot springs abound, chiefly at elevations of 10,000 
 to 18,000 feet ; they usually emit sulphuretted hydro- 
 gen gas, and maintain temperatures of 100° to 130°. 
 There is no active volcano anywhere in the range, nor 
 any traces of extinct ones. Some of the districts, 
 especially toward the north-west, have been visited 
 by violent earthquakes, but these do not appear to be 
 connected with any endemic phenomena; they have 
 generally commenced far south of the Himalaj'a,' and 
 have been propagated across the range. Eemarli:able 
 local subsidences and elevations have occurred in the 
 valley of the Jhelam in Kashmir, which have been 
 described by Dr. Thomson. 
 
 Hobart ToTwn, situated in the southern part of 
 the island of Van Dieman's Land, on the west side of 
 the River Dennert, near its junction with Storms Bay, 
 in lat. 42° 44' S., and long. 147° 28 E. The water is 
 deep,, and the anchorage is good ;, and a jetty has been 
 constructed accessible to the largest ships. 
 
 Hogs, The prevailing breeds of swine in the 
 middle, northern, and western States, are the Berk- 
 shire, the Leicestershire, the Suffolk, the Essex, the 
 Neapolitan, and the Chinese. From these and other 
 varieties various crosses have been produced, the more 
 important of which are the Byiield, the Woburn, the 
 Bedford, the Grass, and the Mackay, The Neapoli- 
 tans are particularly well adapted for a southern cli- 
 mate. See De Bow's Rev., xii., 67; Hunt's Mag., 
 xiv., 371. See United States — Live Stock of. 
 
 We give some statistics showing the number of 
 hogs packed in the West in 1850-51, also another 
 table comparing the number packed in 1855-56 and 
 1856-57 : 
 
 Where pocked. 1851—52. 1850—51. 
 
 Ohio 461,075 448,418 
 
 Indiana 869,761 348,TS4 
 
 Illinois 174,671 257,586 
 
 Iowa 2T,600 T0,500 
 
 Missouri 58,168 107,274 
 
 Kentucky. 199,300 205,914 
 
 Green and Cumberland Elvers 8,500 24,000 
 
 Total 1,288,975 1,457,896 
 
 1,2S8,975 
 
 Total defloioncy, 1851-52 182,021 
 
HOG 
 
 974 
 
 HOL 
 
 Comparison of tiib Number op Hogs packed in 1855-t 
 WITH TliE Number packed in 1856-7. 
 Where Packed. 1865—66. 1856—67. 
 
 Ohio 688,69T 488,048 
 
 Kentucky. 428,884 849,212 
 
 Indiana.. 482,681 .816,629 
 
 Illinois 481,268 868,202 
 
 Missom-i 189,904 148,244 
 
 Iowa 1T2,8T8 108,822 
 
 Tennessee 62,400 42,811 
 
 Wisconsin 89,000 15,000 
 
 Grand totals 2,489,502 l,t 
 
 1,818,468 
 
 Total deficiency, 1866-5T .... 671,034 
 
 This deficiency, compared with last season, is equal 
 to about 27 per cent. 
 
 As regards the falling ofT in weight, having exam- 
 ined the returns received with reference to this point 
 Teiy carefully, the following is the result. 
 
 We obtained the comparative weights from 121 
 places, and find that the aggregates of similar num- 
 ber of hogs packed at these places, each season, are as 
 follows : 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 1856-6 261,621,260 
 
 1866-7 243,146,440 
 
 Deficiency, 1856-67 18,474,820 
 
 Assuming this to he a fair indication of the compar- 
 ative weight of the whole number pa(;ked, according 
 to the returns, we place the falling off in weight at 7 
 per cent., which is slightly less than the above figures 
 indicate. Adding this to the falling off in number, the 
 total deficiency is swelled to 34 per cent., as compared 
 with the business of the season of 1855-56. 
 
 The crop, then, as compared-with a few previous 
 seasons, stands as follows : See Pork Trade. 
 
 81 per cent less than that of. 
 
 1865-6 
 
 6t " 
 
 1864-5 
 
 26| " " " " 
 
 1868-4 
 
 4 " " " " 
 
 1862-8 
 
 The following figures show the average weight of 
 the hogs packed in Cincinnati during 1856-67 as com- 
 pared with last : 
 
 1855-6 average weight 
 1856-7 " " .. 
 
 286i 
 
 The following table shows the whole number of 
 hogs packed in Cincinnati each season since 1883, 
 being 24 years ; 
 
 Years.. 
 
 1883 85,000 
 
 1884 -. 128,000 
 
 1886 162,000 
 
 13S6 123,000 
 
 1887 108,000 
 
 1888 182,000 
 
 1839 190,000 
 
 1840 95,000 
 
 1841 160,000 
 
 1842 220,000 
 
 1843 260,000 
 
 1844 240,000 
 
 1845 196,000 
 
 Years. No. 
 
 1846 805,000 
 
 1847 250,000 
 
 1848.... 476,000 
 
 1849...: 410,000 
 
 1850 898,000 
 
 1851 884,000 
 
 1852 862,000 
 
 186S 861,000 
 
 1854 421,000 
 
 1855 856,786 
 
 1866 405,896 
 
 1867 844,512 
 
 Hogshead, a measure of capacitj^, containing 
 52J gallons. A hogshead is equal to J a pipe. See 
 Weights and Measures. 
 
 Holidays are understood to be those days, exclu- 
 sive of Sundays, on which no regular public business 
 is transacted at particular public offices. They are 
 either fixed or variable. Banks and public ofiices 
 are only closed on fixed holidays. In England, the 
 holidays observed generally are. Good Friday, Queen's 
 Birth-day, Coronation Day (June 28), Prince of Wales' 
 Birth-day (November 8), Christmas. In the United 
 States, the holidays are. Fourth of July, Thanksgiving 
 Day (November), Christmas. At New York and some 
 other cities New Years' day is also observed, and at 
 New Orleans, January 8th. 
 
 Hogue, or Hague, Cape de la, a bold headland 
 of France, forming the north-west extremity of the 
 Department of Manche, 16 miles north by west of 
 Cherbourg. Off this point the combiaed English and 
 Dutcli fleets defeated the French 22d May, 1692. 
 
 Hold (Sax. healdan), the inside of the bottom of 
 the ship. It is divided into compartments by bulk- 
 heads across ; and contains the ballast, water, coal, and 
 wood, provisions, and cargo. 
 
 Holland is a European kingdom, formed in part 
 of islands, but chiefly of that part of the Continent 
 where the months of the Rhine are divided into several 
 branches before it enters the German Ocean. This 
 district is said to have owed the ancient name of Ba- 
 tavia, by which it was known to the Eomans, to one 
 Bato ; but at what period he flourished is unknown ; 
 and the name is now scarcely used excepting among 
 the poets of the district. By accounts collected from 
 the works of Csesar and Tacitus, we learn that the an- 
 cient tribes who inhabited this portion of Europe had 
 been able to maintain their independence in spite of ' 
 the attempts made to subdue them by the Teutones, 
 the Cimbri, and other nations, who had conquered the 
 rest of what was then called Gaul. The Batavians, 
 says the last of these historians, excelled all the other 
 people on the Ehine in military spirit. When sub- 
 dued by the Romans, they paid their tribute in sol- 
 diers J and from them was formed a cavalry, which 
 composed the most efficient part of the Roman armies. 
 They astonished the Dacians by the dexterity and 
 bravery with which, completely armed, they swam 
 their horses across the Danube to attack those people ; 
 and for a long period they formed the guard of the 
 Roman emperors. A body of Batavians accompanied 
 Agricola on his expedition into Britain, and were of 
 great assistance in securing his conquests in the 
 island. 
 
 William II. dying in 1849, was succeeded by the 
 present sovereign, William III., bom 19th February, 
 1817. He was married on the 18th June, 1839, to the 
 Princess Sophia Frederiker Mathilda of Wurtemberg. 
 They have two sons, William Nicolas, Prince of 
 Orange, born 4th September, 1840, and William Alex- 
 ander, born 25th August, 1851. 
 
 The kingdom of the Netherlands comprises the ter- 
 ritory of the ancient republic of the Seven United 
 Provinces, with some portions of Limburg. It does 
 not include that portion of Luxemburg which the King 
 of the Netherlands possesses, with the title of Grand 
 Duke, as a part of the German Confederation. It is 
 situated between N. lat. 50° 44' and 53° 34', and E. 
 long. 3° 80' and 7° 10'. It is bounded on the east by 
 Germany, from which it is not separated by any 
 natural barriers, on the north and west by the German 
 Ocean or North Sea, and on the south by Belgium. 
 
 The greater part of this country has been formed 
 of mud deposited by rivers in the same manner as the 
 Egyptian Delta is formed by the NUe. By tracing 
 the course of these rivers we obtain an idea of its 
 conformation. The Rhine enters Holland at Loliith, a 
 little below Emmerich, where it is 2800 feet broad ; 
 and then divides into two branches, the southern re- 
 ceiving the name of the Waal. At Westervoort, the 
 northern branch is again divided, and there its right 
 ann is called the New Yesel. Then the left branch, 
 taking a westerly direction, is again separated at Wyk 
 into two, and the left branch is called the Lek. The 
 right branch flows on to Utrecht, and being there 
 divided for the fourth time, receives for its right arm 
 the name of Vecht ; while the left, which still retains 
 the name of Old Rhine, taking a westerly direction by 
 Waerden and Leydeu, finally makes its way at Kal- 
 wyk to the North Sea. 
 
 The Mouse enters the Netherlands' territoiy above 
 Eysden in Limburg, and flowing northward, unites 
 with the Waal, near Loevestein ; then divides near 
 Dort, forming the island Ysselmonde, The right 
 branch at Krimper is joined by the Lek, then flowing 
 westward by Rotterdam, divides near Flardingen into 
 two branches, and so forms the island Eosenburg, 
 These branches uniting near Brielle, reach the sea at 
 Oostvourn. 
 
HOL 
 
 975 
 
 HOL 
 
 The Scheldt touches the kingdom of the Nether- 
 lands at Fort-Bath, where it divides, fonning the 
 islands of South and North Beveland, and Walcheren. 
 The left branch reaches the sea at Vlissingen. The 
 right branch flows northward between Zeeland and 
 North Brabant ; dividing near Bergen-op-Zoom, it forms 
 the island Tholen, and the left arm reaches the sea 
 north of Walcheren. The right branch still separating 
 North Brabant from Zeeland, divides into numerous 
 channels, by which its waters, mingled with those of 
 the left branch of the Meuse, form numerous islands, 
 and finally reach the sea. 
 
 To establish a firm footing amid so many rivers, the 
 inhabitants have kept them as far as possible within 
 prescribed channels by embankments, and have formed 
 numerous canals to receive the superfluous waters, and 
 to serve as means of internal communication. The 
 country is thus a net-work of rivers and canals from 
 the one end to the other. The system of drainage, of 
 what would otherwise have been an immense mud- 
 bank, well deserves to be ranked among the wonders 
 of the world. The land thus rescued from the rivers 
 is nowhere much elevkted above the sea, and in manj' 
 places is even below the sea-level, so as to require still 
 more wonderful defenses against the ocean. These 
 defenses are in part supplied by the operation of na- 
 ture, casting up sand-hills along great part of the 
 coast ; but where these have not been formed, their 
 place is supplied by dykes of vast extent, built in the 
 course of ages, partly of huge blocks of granite brought 
 from Norway, and partly of bundles formed of young 
 trees, reared expressly for the purpose. These dykes 
 stretch for hundreds of miles along the coast, and with 
 those which line the rivers and canals, and with the 
 requisite sluices, drawbridges, and hydraulic works of 
 every kind, are estimated to have cost not less than 
 £300,000,000 sterling. Thej' form in so small a coun- 
 try a most astonishing monument of human industry. 
 Yet they are not greater than the situation requires. 
 They are barely sufficient to preserve the country from 
 the dominion of the waters. The motto on the arms 
 of one of the provinces, " Luctor-et-Emergo," still de- 
 scribes the struggles of the invincible Hollanders, re- 
 quisite for maintaining the ground they stand upon. 
 A destructive inundation occuiTed so lately as March, 
 1855. The rivers, augmented by the snows of winter, 
 burst through the dykes in several provinces. A fourth 
 part of Gelderland was submerged. The whole prov- 
 ince of South Holland was in the most imminent dan- 
 ger. The embankment of the Rhine having burst in 
 five places in Gelderland, admitted the flood, where it 
 had not extended during 150 years. In Utrecht and 
 North Brabant, the people of many communes had to 
 abandon their property to the waters, and sought refuge 
 for themselves on the roofs of houses and on trees. 
 The neighborhood of Zutphen was very speedily con- 
 verted into a vast lake, and the villagers hastily be- 
 taking themselves to boats and rafts, reached with the 
 greatest difficulty the ramparts of the citj'. The flood 
 which happily subsided after some days, exhibited, 
 while it continued, the promptitude and energy with 
 which the Hollanders have always contended against 
 the peculiar difficulties of their situation. The king 
 immediately repaired in person to the scene of danger, 
 and took his station in the centre of the inundated 
 country, directing all the operations, and giving every 
 possible assistance. A collection ordered bj- the king 
 for the sufferers produced £41,667, and private collec- 
 tions reached an equal amount. This sum was imme- 
 diately distributed among the distressed families, whose 
 habitations and lands had been laid waste. To drain 
 off the remainder of the flood, to rebuild the dykes, to 
 repair the Ehine railway, a considerable part of which 
 had disappeared, could not be so quickly done, but all 
 this the patriotism of the Hollanders has completely 
 accomplished. 
 
 The Biesbosch, in the neighborhood of Dort, was 
 
 formed in 1491, burymg 72 villages under water, and 
 drowning 100,000 persons. Of these villages, 34 have 
 been rebuilt, as the progress of drainage permitted. 
 The Dutch method of draining is highly ingenious. A 
 marsh or lake is inclosed with a dylto to prevent any 
 water from flowing into it. Wind-mills are then 
 erected on the edge of the dyke, each of which works 
 an Archimedean screw, and the water thus raised is 
 discharged into a canal, which convey it to the sea. 
 The Lake of Haarlem was the most celebrated of those 
 occasioned by the overflowing of rivers ; and its drain- 
 age by the application of steam is a great improvement 
 on the old method of draining by wind-mills.. See 
 Haaklem, Ency. Brit. Besides these inundations 
 from the rivers, Holland has experienced many others 
 from the sea, which have left large tracts of country 
 submerged, of which the DoUart and the Zuyder-Zee 
 are the most extensive. 
 
 The Dollart between Groningen and East Friesland 
 originated in 1277, and was greatly extended in the 
 three following years. One town, 35 villages, and 
 several hamlets were overwhelmed. It has from time 
 to time been much reduced by drainage. The Zuyder- 
 Zee was formerly only a lake, known bj- the name of 
 Flevo, communicating by two channels with the North 
 Sea. Subsequently the sea covered the lowlands, and 
 the channels of communication were multiplied. Now 
 the expanse of water is 80 miles long, and from 20 to 
 40 miles broad. Proposals for its drainage have been 
 made to the government, and are under serious con- 
 sideration. As means of communication between Am- 
 sterdam and the North Sea, the Zuyder-Zee has long 
 been unsatisfactory, on account of the Pampus bank 
 and numerous shallows. Sometimes, in consequence 
 of long-continued northerly and easterly winds, its bed 
 is almost dry, and vessels are everywhere lying on the 
 sands. A substitute has accordingly been provided for 
 it in the great North Holland Canal, one of the most stu- 
 pendous works of the kind in existence. It was begun 
 in 1819, and finished in 1825, at a cost of about £1,000,- 
 000 sterling. It is about 50 English miles in lengtli. 
 Its breadth, at the surface, is 124J English feet, at the 
 bottom 36. The depth is 20 feet 9 inches. Its level is 
 that of the high tides of the sea, from which it receives 
 its supplj^ of water. 
 
 While the country possesses abundant means of 
 communication by rivers and canals, it also has excel- 
 lent roads. The highv.ra3's in the central provinces 
 are among the best in Europe. They run for miles in 
 a straight line along the summits of the d^^kes, and 
 are thus at once dry and elevated, commanding exten- 
 sive views. Between the large cities the)' are broad, 
 and usually paved with a kind of small hard bricks, 
 called klinkerSf made of sand, mixed with the clayey 
 mud obtained in cleaning the canals. Thej'' are fitted 
 so exactly to each other when laid down that scarcely 
 a crevice is to he seen ; and being well covered with 
 sea-sand, they sustain little injury from carriages. 
 Eailwaj'S have also been made, or are in progress in 
 all directions. Those between Rotterdam and Amster- 
 dam, and between the latter city and Amheim, have 
 been in operation for several years. Rotterdam is also 
 in communication by railway' with Utrecht via Gouda, 
 and with Antwerp. There is a branch between Ant- 
 werp and Breda. Maestricht, in Limburg, is also in 
 communication with Aix-la-Chapelle. 
 
 The general aspect of this country is different from 
 that of any other in Europe. The roads and canals 
 are usually lined with willows and other trees, which' 
 afford an agreeable shade and relieve the uniformity 
 of the landscape. Innumerable villas are seen deco- 
 rated with the utmost nicety of art. Spires, church 
 towers, villages admirable for neatness and cleanli- 
 ness, large and well-built cities, rapidly succeeding 
 one another; meadows in vernal green, varied by 
 sheets of water, cattle in large herds, barges towed by 
 horses, or spreading a sail to catch a. favoring breeze — 
 
HOL 
 
 976 
 
 HOL 
 
 every thing arid every place in the highest ' order and j in abundance, and in respect of "which it has no par- 
 perfection ; such are the sights which Holland supplies | aliel in any other part of the world. 
 
 The following Table gives tue Statistics of Holland as ascertained by Tnii Census, 31st~ DECKMBEte, 1858. 
 
 ProvlncBS. 
 
 Populalibn, 
 
 Houees. 
 
 Acres of culti- 
 vated Iflnd. 
 
 Acres of roads 
 and waters. 
 
 Acres pf un,eul- 
 tivated land. 
 
 Acrca of tqtal 
 extent. 
 
 . 1 
 
 Proporljon . 
 
 nncultivated. ' 
 
 
 405,526 
 887,428 
 891,493 
 514,765 
 166,076 
 166,824 
 269,S08 
 227,683 
 197,101 
 89,944 
 211,401 
 
 3,106 . 
 2,893 
 3,067 
 2,602 
 1,728 
 1,108 
 2,184 
 1,682 
 1,860 
 603 
 1,000 
 
 704,801 
 784,811 
 606,465 
 421,411 
 , 368,228 
 271,687 
 632,128 
 480,922 
 444,147 
 212,669 
 862,269 
 
 97,288 
 
 51,982 
 
 103,802 
 
 61,885 
 
 8,026 
 21,464 
 66,871 
 20,288 
 28,922 
 
 6,219 
 
 4,942 • 
 
 468,876 
 409,713 
 ■ 82,286 
 126,926 
 43,968 
 48,888 
 108,248 
 379,459 
 100,599 
 487,120 
 182,862 
 
 , 1,263,136 
 1,258,165 ' 
 750,071 ' 
 ,616,354 , 
 409,480 
 849,114 
 ■807;64S ' 
 684,460 . 
 678,265 . 
 6^6,498 
 ' 64b,006 ' 
 
 1 ; 2-78 
 1 ; 2-809 
 1 : 28-26 
 1.: 4-85 
 
 . 1 : 9-31 
 1 : 7-82 ' 
 1 : 7-82 
 
 '. 1<-. 2-08 
 
 1 1 : 8-74 
 1 : 1-60, 
 1 : 2-84- 
 
 
 
 North Holland 
 
 
 Utreclit 
 
 
 
 
 
 Limburg 
 
 Total 
 
 8,208,232 
 
 21,673 
 
 5,218,418 
 
 470,629 
 
 2,818,845 
 
 8,053,172 
 
 1 : 8-18 
 
 
 The colonies in Asia— Java, Amboyna, Banda, Ter- 
 nate. Macassar, with settlements in Sumatra 
 and Borneo, also Desima in Japan, are stated to 
 have a population of 16,478,137 
 
 The colonies in America — Surinam and the islands 
 
 of Cnracoa and St. Eustathius 90,581 
 
 The colonies in Africa— Elmiu a, on the coast, of 
 
 Guinea 100,000 
 
 Total 16,668,718 
 
 Population of Holland 3,308,232, 
 
 Total subjects of the King of Netherlands. . 19,871,950 
 
 The population has increased by 60 per cent, in 57 
 years at the following rates :, 
 
 Years. Population. 
 
 1796—1 815 166,422, or annually, 8,T60 
 
 1815—1830 380,321 " 25,355 
 
 1830—1840 236,525 " . 23,652 
 
 1840— 1S50 187,887 " 18,788 
 
 1796—1853 1,101,868 " 19,322 
 
 The number of the inhabitants of 87 cities in 1853 
 was 1,163,559, and of the country 2,b3'9,673. The pop- 
 ulation of the principal cities at the same period was 
 the following ; 
 
 Cities. Pop. 
 
 Haarlem 27,770 
 
 Maestricht 26,919 
 
 Leuwarden 24,461 
 
 Nimeguen 22,009 
 
 Dort 21,905 
 
 Bois-le-duc 21,862 
 
 Cities. Pop, 
 
 Amsterdam 247,780 
 
 Eotterdam 90,883 
 
 The Hague 75,276 
 
 Utrecht 50,710 
 
 Leydeu 37,106 
 
 Groningen. 35,126 
 
 Climate. — In respect of climate, Holland labors under 
 many disadvantages. In winter it is much colder than 
 England, and the waters are frequentl}' frozen for three 
 months. Even the Zuyder-Zee is sometimes frozen 
 over. The temperature has been sometimes as low as 
 23° below zero of Fahr., and sometimes as high as 
 102°. In summer, cold nights often succeed to days 
 of intense heat. The climate generally is variable. 
 The atmosphere, especially in the western provinces, 
 is loaded with moisture, and there agues, dropsies, 
 pleurisies, and rheumatisms, are frequent. Gelder- 
 land is the healthiest province, but all the eastern side 
 of the country is comparatively salubrious. Holland 
 is frequently subject to violent gales of wind, which, 
 when they blow from the west or north-west, are apt 
 to cause inundations of the sea. 
 
 AgviGuUure. — This remarkable country largely re- 
 wards the skill and labor of the agriculturist. The 
 south and central provinces are the most fertile. As 
 has been shown above in one of the tables, there are 
 still extensive tracts of uncultivated land, although 
 much has been reclaimed of late years. The farms in 
 the best parts of Zeeland vary in extent from 166 to 
 330 acres each. In South Holland the proportion of 
 pasture to arable land is about 2 to 1. In Friesland 
 the quantity of pasture is more than eight times that 
 of arable land. In Gelderland there are large planta- 
 tions of apple, pear, and cherry4rees. Tulips and hy- 
 acinths are extensively cultivated in the neighborhood 
 of ITaarlem in fields of several acres each. Pulse and 
 garden vegetables are everywhere raised in great 
 abundance, also woad and madder. Flax is largely 
 cultivated in the south, and especially in the neigh- 
 borhood of I)oit. Utrecht and Gelderland produce 
 
 considerable quantities of tobacco. The following are 
 the statistics of the harvest of 1853 : 
 
 "Wheat 
 
 Rye , 
 
 Barley 
 
 Oats 
 
 Buckwheat . — 
 Cabbage, seeds.. 
 
 Peas ... 
 
 Beans 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 Carrots 
 
 Flax 
 
 Tobacco 
 
 Cultivated Jand Produco in 
 in acres.: ' quarters. 
 
 177,065 
 
 448,648 
 
 108,316 
 
 '211,218 
 
 157,489 
 
 68,062 
 
 26,633 
 
 82,404 
 
 216,074 
 
 2,617 
 
 51,672 
 
 329,267 
 883,036 
 485,866 
 980,685 
 474,055 
 108,154 
 78,780 
 340,188 
 2,604,964 
 
 The rearing of live stock, however, and dairy hus- 
 bandry, are much more important sources of national 
 wealth than tillage. The lean cattle brought from 
 Denmarlc and Germany fatten with great rapidity in 
 the Dutch polders. Large herds of beautiful cows 
 yield great abundance of the richest milk. Butter 
 and cheese of the best quality are larely exported, and 
 bring great wealth to the peasantry. The Dutch horses 
 are good, and well adapted for draught ; the best are 
 those of Friesland. The breeds of sheep, however, are 
 not particularly good. 
 
 The statistics of 1853, December 31, give the follow- 
 ing numbers for the whole kingdom : 
 
 Horses 286,662 || Sheep 826,061 ' 
 
 Homed cattle. 1,286,974 |1 Swine 283,900 
 
 In North and South Holland, Groningen, and 
 Utrecht, there are made 140,000,000' lbs. of cheese an- 
 nually, the home consumption of which does not ex- 
 ceed one twentieth. This large quantity at its average 
 price produces ^1,800,000 sterling annually. The 
 value of the butter is about £2,000,000 sterling more; 
 of which their own consumption amounts to one 
 tenth. 
 
 Butter and cheese figure among the great articles of 
 the industry and the commerce of Holland. It appears 
 from one of the published tables, that from 1803 to 
 1850 the export of butter has constantly increased, so 
 as to have been quadrupled in half a century. From 
 8437 tons in 1803 it arrived at 11,931 tons in 1852. 
 The export of cheese was 9823 tons at the beginning 
 of the century. In 1852 it was 19, 646 tons. For 
 1854, instead of a general statement such as the above, 
 we have found indications regarding particular com- 
 modities, the trade in which was very active. The 
 importation of raw sugar in 1854 was 108,546 tons, 
 against 102,101 in 1853. The export of raw sugar rose 
 to 55,636 tons, being 4420 tons more than in 1853. 
 The importation of coffee from Java, on the other hand, 
 was less in 1854 than that of 1853 and 1852. In 1852 
 it was 1,073,888 bags ; for 8353, 938,680 bags ; and for 
 1854, only 928,230 bags. The trade in indigo, how- 
 ever, was progressing. The imports in 1854 were 
 14,180 -chests, against 10,200 in 1853, 8600 in 1852, 
 and 5500 in 1851. The importation of cochineal was 
 equally Increasing : 1535 chests in 1854 against 868 in 
 1851. Tobacco held also a principal place in the im- 
 ports of 1854. Thete were received 13,550 barrels 
 
HOL 
 
 911 
 
 HOL 
 
 from Maryland, and 3110 from Virginia. Tin from 
 Banca furnished 132,864 blocks. The trade in wool 
 revived, and that in cotton assumed considerable im- 
 portance. The trade in flax was 1611 tons in 1854. 
 In 1850 it had not reached 344 tons. Thus it had been 
 quadrupled in five years. 
 
 The account of exports is not, for the same period, 
 so favorable. It gives, indeed, the first notice of di- 
 rect trade with Australia ; but the result of this new 
 enterprise was not encouraging. Holland exported 
 its agricultural produce, however, in great quantity. 
 In 1864, the export of buj;ter was 14,244 tons against 
 13,261 in 1853. That of cheese was nearly 25,540, 
 being 982 more than in 1853. That of cattle, 77,198 
 head of oxen. In 1853 there were 83,074 oxen and 
 204,148 sheep. 
 
 Shipping. — The following account is given of the 
 shipning : 
 
 Cleared Inward. Cleared outward. 
 
 Tonnaee. 
 
 1,099,671 
 1,166,140 
 1,249,728 
 1,151,298 
 
 The Netherlands' and foreign ships were, 1853, in the 
 following proportion : 
 
 Cleared Inward. Cleared outward. 
 Flaga. 
 
 1850., 
 1851., 
 1862.. 
 1868.. 
 
 Ships. 
 6,961 
 6,960 
 7,467 
 
 Ships. TonitBg:e, 
 
 7,081 1,186,664 
 
 7,177 1,216,558 
 
 7,712 1,317.425 
 
 7,068 1,215,869 
 
 Ships. 
 
 Netherlands. ..per cent, 49^ 
 Foreign " SOJ 
 
 Tons. Ships. Tons. 
 
 44i 47"i 43 
 
 55} 62} 67 
 
 To have a full view of the trade of Holland, we 
 must not only learn its state as carried on by sea, but 
 also by the rivers, which carrjr a great amount of it. 
 Tables have been published of the merchandise which 
 arrived, and was forwarded by way of the Bhine, in 
 1854. There was an increase above 1853 of 7260 tons 
 from Amsterdam to places on the Rhine, and of 12,328 
 tons from the Rhine to that city. Coffee, rice, and the 
 oleaginous grains are foremost in this progressive in- 
 crease. The export of rice to Germany has had a re- 
 marltable increase. In 1842-'52 it was only 8666 quart- 
 ers per annum. In 1853 it was 46,459. The quantity 
 of grain sent from Amsterdam to the Rhine in 1834 
 ' was 15,600 tons. 
 
 The vessels engaged in the river navigation were in 
 1853- 
 
 Cleared Inward. Cleared outward. 
 
 VoBflela. 
 
 Laclen 15,978 
 
 In ballast.. 3,213 
 
 Tonnaire. 
 
 1,134,748 
 148,680 
 
 lags. 
 
 9,844 787,105 
 8,187 621,975 
 
 with 127 wood-rafts, measuring 24,328 cubic ells. 
 
 The proportion of these belonging to the Nether- 
 lands was : 
 
 Of laden vessols 8,879 Tonnage 611,578 inward. 
 " 4,615 " 876,009 outward. 
 
 The remainder belonged principally to Belgium and 
 Prussia, and, in smaller proportions, to Hanover, Baden, 
 Nassau, Hesse, Bavaria, Frankfort, and Wurtemberg. 
 
 On the 31st December, 1863, the merchant fleet of 
 Holland counted in all 2037 vessels = 239,601 lasts 
 burden. There were 142 frigates = 56,142 lasts ; 334 
 barks = 93,091 lasts ; 66 brigs = 8439 lasts ; 168 schoon- 
 ers = 13,436 lasts ; 783 koff's= 46,465 lasts; 250tjalk8 
 :^ 7259 lasts. The number of steamers belonging to 
 the Netherlands in 1837 was only 30 with 58 engines 
 of 2200 horse-power. In 1863 there were 100 steamers, 
 with 118 engines of 6911 horse-power, not including 
 those of the royal navy. It is stated in the tables 
 that, independently of the Netherlands' trade, there 
 were employed during 1853 in the carrying trade be- 
 tween foreign parts, Netherlands' ships which made no 
 less than 2266 voyages, with 207,204 lasts of lading. 
 The Dutch consuls at foreign ports furnished the data 
 of this enumeration, which was made in 1853 for the 
 first time. In connection with the great emigration to 
 the gold-fields of Australia, more than 50 Dutch ships 
 were freighted in different British ports for that dis- 
 tant country during the first six months of 1854. 
 
 To these details, gathered from the statistical publi- 
 Q QQ 
 
 cafions of the Dutch government, by which it has been 
 attempted to convey an idea of the present state of the 
 trade of Holland, we will only add one remark, that 
 with the exception qf the old East India Company's 
 monopoly above mentioned, the commercial policy of 
 Holland for a lengthened period was more liberal than 
 that of anj' other nation. The same enlightened pol- 
 icy, if partially departed from during recent years, has 
 been again cordially entered into after the recent ex- 
 ample of Great Britain. A law enacted on 1st Septem- 
 1854 abolished the import duties on a great number of 
 articles of merchandise ; and the Netherlands' tarifl', 
 thus modified, equals, if it does not even surpass, in 
 liberality all other tariff's in existence. It has evi- 
 dently been in consequence of this enlightened policy, 
 having for many generations been generallj'' under- 
 stood and practiced by the Dutch government, that a 
 country not more extensive than Wales, and naturally 
 not more fertile, recovered, indeed, in a great measure 
 from the waters, and kept from being again submerged, 
 by constant watchfulness, and o. heavy expenditure ; 
 accumulated a population of more than 3,000,000 ; 
 maintained wars of unexampled duratidn with the 
 most powerful monarchies ; and besides laying out 
 immense sums in works of utility and ornament at 
 home, lent hundreds of millions to foreigners. Not- 
 withstanding their want of native timber and iron, 
 they are abundantly supplied with all the materials of 
 carpentry, ship-building, and manufactures. And 
 though their commerce, notwithstanding its revival in 
 later years, is much diminished from its earlier pre- 
 eminence, the Dutch, even at this moment, are the 
 richest and most comfortable people of Europe. 
 
 The following is a budget of receipts and expendi- 
 tures of the national revenue for 1856 : 
 
 Eetentik. 
 Direct taxes (land tax, provincial taxes, patents) . . £1,697,878 
 
 Excise 1,895,871 
 
 Stamps, registrations, hypothec successions 968,525 
 
 Import, export, and navigation duties 362,664 
 
 Duty on pawned gold and silver wares 19,158 
 
 Domains 108,975 
 
 Post-ollice 120,833 
 
 Lottery 38,388 
 
 Sporting and fishing licenses 7,088 
 
 Duty on mines ge 
 
 Diverse revenues 102,475 
 
 Interest of national debt contributed by Belgium.. 33,888 
 
 Interest at the charge of the colonies 900,000 
 
 Balance derived from colonial administ'n. at home 391,667 
 Derived from sale of the national domains 77,864 
 
 Total revenue, 1856 £6,099,255 
 
 EXPENDITUKE. 
 
 King's household £66,667 
 
 High departments of state., 45,688 
 
 Department of foreign affairs 40,884 
 
 Department of justice 212,225 
 
 Home department 471,642 
 
 Churches and Jewish synagogues 141,180 
 
 Roman Catholic church 49,246 
 
 Department of marine 684,715 
 
 Interest of national debt 2,936,686 
 
 Department of finance ; 580,159 
 
 Department of war 973,750 
 
 Colonial department 9,646 
 
 Incidental expenses 8,838 
 
 Total expenditure, 1856 £6,119,670 
 
 The following table gives the receipts and expendi- 
 ture of the diS'erent provincial governments for 1855y, 
 and of the communes for 1854 : 
 
 
 Provincial, 1855. 
 
 Commuoes, 1854. 
 
 Receipts, 
 
 Expendi- 
 ture. 
 
 Receipts. 
 
 Expenditure. 
 
 North Brabant.... 
 
 G-elderlend 
 
 South Holland .... 
 North Holland.... 
 
 £60,926 
 
 11,268 
 
 19,928 
 
 20,524 
 
 9,848 
 
 ■ 6,604 
 
 28,787 
 
 16,429 
 
 26,727 
 
 4,661 
 
 6,869 
 
 £211,060 
 
 £60,363 
 
 11,258 
 
 19,928 
 
 20,625 
 
 9,848 
 
 5,603 
 
 28,777 
 
 16,429 
 
 26,721 
 
 4,661 
 
 6,369 
 
 £96,328 
 119,670 
 866,725 
 421,025 
 76,981 
 59,718 
 124,361 
 92,804 
 109,684 
 19,863 
 51,171 
 
 £8T,Bsa 
 121,693 
 864,831 
 424,620 
 78,987 
 
 8»,e87 
 
 130,456 
 
 8^424 
 
 109,597 
 
 Utrecht 
 
 
 
 Groningen 
 
 Drenthe 
 
 Limburg 
 
 Total 
 
 £210,482 
 
 £1,680,225 
 
 £1,534,80« 
 
HOL 
 
 978 
 
 HOL 
 
 £8,638,313 
 
 In consequence of the provincial and communal 
 councils having a right to levy taxes as "well as the 
 
 general government, it is necessary to sura up all the 
 three budgets in order to obtain the "whole amount of 
 the public revenue and expenditure. This can, how- 
 ever,' only be done for 1854, as the communal budgets 
 for 1856 and 1855, and the provincial for 1856, are not 
 given in the latest statistical publications : 
 
 Income. Expenditure. 
 
 National £6,656,056 £6,986,842 
 
 Provincial 176,845 176,665 
 
 Communal 1,586,225 l,i 
 
 Total £8,868,626 
 
 On the 27th August, 1751, William IV., Prince of 
 Orange, presented to the States General of Holland a 
 remarkable memoir on the state of that republic, "which 
 is still preserved in a work entitled ' ' La Bickesse de la 
 ffollande,'" published in London in 1788. That prince 
 requested the opinions of several leading merchants, 
 and others of large mercantile experience, on the fol- 
 lowing questions, viz. : 1st. What is the actual state 
 of commerce ? and if the same should be found to be 
 dimimished and fallen to decay, then to inquire ; 2d. 
 What arrangements and means may support it, and, if 
 possible, restore it to its former prosperity and grand- 
 eur ? These .questions elicited a statement, or, more 
 properly, an elaborate and lengthy report, on the 
 causes by which the trade and navigation of the Unit- 
 ed Provinces rose and flourished. This report is di- 
 vided into three heads, viz. : 1st. The natural and 
 physical causes ; 2d. The moral causes, and, 3d. The 
 accidental, adventitious, or external causes. 
 ^ Under the first head are classed the advantageous 
 situation of the country, near the sea, and at the 
 mouths of large navigable rivers ; its central situation, 
 which rendered it the general market to which the 
 merchants of northern and southern Europe were ac- 
 customed to bring their merchandise, and exchange 
 the same for such goods as they wanted. The steril- 
 ity .of the countrj'', and the consequent want, it is rep- 
 Teeented, have contributed in animating the spirit, 
 ■zeauX, industry', and genius of the people to seek in for- 
 eign -countries those things which they most need at 
 feiome; and this could only be effected by means of 
 trade. This they were enabled to do by the great 
 abundamce of fish in the neighboring sea, which fur- 
 Dfls-hefl. an equivalent for the exchange of those things 
 T^hich th« barrenness of their own country, and their 
 liamited extent of arable lands, denied them at home. 
 Aimong -tibe moral causes, the report cited the invariable 
 maxim and fundamental law of the State, which permits 
 the fxee cs^ercise of all religions, and regards toleration 
 in alhis respect as the most effectual means of attracting 
 foiteagners from adjacent countries, and, by that means, 
 to aiagmentthe population of these provinces. The con- 
 staj4 policy, it is remarked, of this republic has been to 
 mafce lihis -eonntry a safe asylum for persecuted and 
 •oppceesed {foreigners ; and no alliance, no treaty, no 
 soli^aition ^ any potentate in the world has ever been 
 capaible of 'aestro5'ing the protection and security ac- 
 corded ito these who have sought its refuge. This fun- 
 damental maxim of the republic has caused many peo- 
 ple t» ,flee from the oppressions and persecutions exer- 
 cised iin other countries, and to seek refuge, as well as 
 empleyiment, bringing with them not only their money 
 and iliheii' valuable effects, but also their industr}'. 
 Theylhave established many trades, manufactories, and 
 arts, Tnotwithetanding the first materials for the said 
 manufactures were almost wholly wanting in the Neth- 
 erlands, and -only to be procured, at great expense, 
 from >ather coumtries. 
 
 The .constitution and the form of government, and the 
 ■<;ivil liberty thus extended, furnish another cause to 
 which ;the growth of trade and the prosperity of com- 
 merce are attributed. The wisdom and prudence of 
 the ^ministration, the courage and firmness of the 
 councils, the fldeilitj- with which contracts and engage- 
 
 ments were wont to be fulfilled, are also classed among 
 the moral causes under, which their commerce had 
 reached so high a degree of prosperity, and splendor. 
 Among the accidental or external causes are enumer- 
 ated the civil wars in France, and afterward in Ger- 
 many, England, and other countries, which, contrib- 
 uted largely to the encouragement of the manufacturing 
 industry' of Holland ; while the religious persecution in 
 Spain, Brabant, Flanders, and other states and em- 
 pires, also contributed to the advancement of its com- 
 merce. After dwelling at length on these three heads, 
 this celebrated report then discusses the actual state 
 of the trade of the countrj', and shows that the first 
 two — ^the natural and moral causes — still remain un- 
 changed ; while the third — the accidental and external 
 causes — had almost entirely disappeared. Persecutions 
 in other countries had ceased ; indolence and contempt 
 for trade had given place to industry and commercial 
 enterprise ; their own example had been imitated by 
 Englaad, which for a century had been straining legis- 
 lation to attract the trade so long enjoyed by the re- 
 public, and which now prohibited the exportation of 
 the wool which formerly fed the factories of Holland ; 
 while many other countries had successfully intro- 
 duced those branches of industry which in former days 
 had flourished in the Netherlands alone. 
 
 The great number of shops which had been closed in 
 the principal towns, especially in Amsterdam; the 
 difficulty of procuring seamen to man the ships ; the 
 flourishing commerce of flamburg and other towns, 
 which now suppl}'- Germany with all kind^ of colonial 
 produce, of which Amsterdam was formerly the great 
 emporium ,• the extinction of Dutch commercial houses 
 in Spain, and of Dutch trade in the Levant : all of 
 these were cited as proofs of the present decline of the 
 trade and commerce of Holland. This report, of which 
 a brief sketch has thns been given, closes with a recom- 
 mendation to permit all raw materials to be entered 
 free of duty, as well as all foreign goods placed in en- 
 trepot, or for transit 5 basing this recommendation up- 
 on the maxim, that the lighter the burdens were, the 
 greater would be the trade. Nearly 200 years prior 
 to the date of this report, the revolt of the Netherlands 
 against Spain commenced. The Duke of Alva,_then 
 the Spanish governor of the Netherlands, was defeat- 
 ed ; all the Spanish ships on the coast of the Nether- 
 lands were destroyed ; several Spanish towns were 
 taken, and Spanish troops were expelled from the 
 cities and towns of Holland, Zealand, and West Fries- 
 land, whose citizens joined in the revolt, and swore 
 allegiance to the Prince of Orange. 
 
 In 1579, the famous union of the States of Holland, 
 Friesland, Zealand, and Utrecht was formed at the 
 latter place, and a solemn compact entered into to 
 unite as one confederation, and, as such, to advise of 
 peace, war, and taxes, and to maintain personal and 
 religious liberty, Overyssel and Groningen soon af- 
 ter joined the union ; and, in a few years, these seven 
 United Provinces became the most powerful republic 
 which the world had seen since the decline of ancient 
 Rome. From this period until the treaty of Westpha- 
 lia was signed (1648), we find the Dutch growing rap- 
 idly in power, commerce, and wealth ; sending their 
 ships to every quarter of the globe ; successfully resist- 
 ing the Spanish and Portuguese flags, on whatever sea 
 they chanced to encounter them ; capturing their ves- 
 sels ; «xpelling them from the Moluccas ; forming trad- 
 ing establishments in the Persian Gulf, and thence 
 along i!he coasts and isles of India to Japan, and es- 
 peeiajlly at Ceylon, Java, and the Moluccas. In one 
 of these caaval encounters (1658), the Dutch captured a 
 whole fleet of Spanish galleons, bringing home, as the 
 prize of vietory, precious metals to the value of 10,000,- 
 000 guilders. The vessels and seamen employed in 
 these naval adventures were under the management 
 of the Dutch East India Company, which frequently 
 realized frojn 4he rich captures and costly cargoes — 
 
HOL 
 
 979 
 
 HOL 
 
 spices, cinnamon, and other East India productions—' 
 as high as 62J per cent, on the capital stock invested. 
 
 A West India Company was also organized about 
 the year 1621, originally for the purpose of driving the 
 Portuguese out of Brazil, and the Spaniards out of 
 i'eru, in i|ttMch they were not so successful as in their 
 East India adventuj:ps. They captured, however, the 
 Spanish fleet in those seas ; scoured and plundered the 
 coasts of Cuba ; took possession of Femambuco and 
 the i^and^ of Curafoa, St. Eustace, and others, which 
 they still retain. 
 
 The first check to this extensive and almost undis- 
 puted dominion of the sea, which the Dutch expe- 
 rienced, was the celebrated nayigation act of the Rump 
 Parliament, enforced by Cromwell, and 10 years after- 
 ward legalized by Charles, II. The Dutch, at this 
 period, enjoyed a profitable , carrying trade between 
 England and her American colonies. By this act, it 
 was provided that no merchandise, the produce of Asia, 
 Africa, or America, shpuld be imported into England 
 in any but English-built ships, commanded Cj' an En- 
 glish master, and navigated by a crew three fourths of 
 whom, should be Englishmen; nor any fish exported 
 frpm or imported into England or Irelaiid, except of 
 English taking. As might have b^en, and confessedly 
 was, expected, a war soon after broke out between 
 Holland and England, exclusively naval, which was 
 carried on with the utmost desperation on both sides. 
 After several fierce and bloody engagements, the 
 Dutch were defeated, and were compelled to sue for 
 peace. A treaty followed, imposing the most humil- 
 iating terms upon the hardy republic ; among others, 
 that "of striking their flag, and lowering their top- 
 sails, whenever the Dutch ships should meet any of the 
 ships of war of the English commonwealth in the Brit- 
 ish seas." Several other wars occurred between the 
 Dutch and English, and, in 1672, between the former 
 and the English and French combined. Toward the 
 close of the war of the American Revolution, hostil- 
 ities were . again declared against Holland by Great 
 Britain, on the pretense that the dockyards and arsenals 
 of France were furnished with munitions of war, and 
 the American troops with supplies, by Dutch vessels. 
 A discovery, accidentally made by the British in the 
 followi?ig year, that a secret treaty, recognizing the 
 independence of the United States, had been negotiated 
 in 1778, between Holland and the American Congress, 
 inflamed the already excited animositj' of England 
 against the Dutch, to so high a pitch, that war was 
 immediately declared'. During the existence of these 
 hostilities the Dutch lost their West India possessions ; 
 and, during the subsequent wars of the French Revolu- 
 tion, in which the Netherlands were forced to co-op- 
 erate with the French, the whole of their East India 
 possessions passed into the hands of the British. 
 
 In 1814, the independence of Holland was restored, 
 and Belgium and Holland were erected into one king- 
 dom. In the convention of 1815, Java and all the 
 Dutch colonies were ceded to Holland, with the excep- 
 tion of the Cajie of Good Hope, and the settlements of 
 Demerara, Essequibo, and Berbice. The British, also, 
 obtained the cession of the settlement of Cochin and 
 its dependencies, on the coast of Malabar. The pos- 
 sessions of the Dutch in the East Indies are now re- 
 duced to the island of Java, the Moluccas, Sumatra 
 (for which they gave Fort Molucca in return). Macas- 
 sar, Celebes, Banda, Amboyna, and Temate. They 
 possess several forts on the coast of Guinea : in the 
 West Indies, Cura9oa, St. Eustace, Saba, and part of 
 St. Martin ; and in South America, a portion of Suri- 
 nam, or Dutch Guiana. The revolution in Belgium 
 in 1830 resulted, as already stated in the article on that 
 kingdom, after a few daj's' contest, in the separation 
 of Belgium from Holland, and its erection into an in- 
 dependent kingdom. Since 1830, Holland has unin- 
 terruptedly pursued the arts -of peaceful commerce, 
 industry, and trade. Her navigation is annually 
 
 extending ; and her great commercial marts, Amster- 
 dam and Rotterdam, bid fair to regain their former 
 prosperity. 
 
 The United States. — In their commercial relations 
 with the United States, the Netherlands have always 
 manifested a spirit of liberality. Several treaties of 
 amity, navigation, and commerce have been entered 
 into between the two countries — ^the last bearing date 
 August 26, 1852. This treaty of 1852 is based upon 
 the principle of entire reciprocity and perfect freedom 
 of commerce, and applies, with all its privileges, to 
 the intercourse between the United States and the col- 
 onies and dominions of Holland bej'ond seas. It re- 
 serves to Holland the right to levy discriminating 
 duties of import and export in favor of her direct 
 trade with such colonies and dominions ; but should 
 American vessels engage in such direct trade, they are 
 to enjo}' perfect equality with the national flag. The 
 United States is also at liberty to continue to levy the 
 discriminating duty imposed by the tariff of 1846 on 
 tea and coffee, in favor of the direct importation of 
 these articles from the places of their growth, but also 
 without discriminating between the flags of the two 
 countries. This treaty is to continue in force two 
 years, commencing six: weelts after its ratification, 
 with the usual 12 months' notice by either party wish- 
 ing to terminate its action. Before the date of this 
 last treaty, the reciprocity and freedom of commerce 
 between the Netherlands and the United States ap- 
 plied only to the direct, trade between the two coun- 
 tries. ■ All restrictions, not only as regards entire 
 reciprocity and perfect equality in the direct trade 
 between the two nations and their flags, respectively, 
 but, as it respects our trade with the Dutch colonies, 
 were by this treaty abolished, and the two flags were 
 assimilated (the coasting trade and fisheries excepted), 
 on every sea, and in every port. 
 
 Navigation Laws. — The laws amending the Nether- 
 lands legislation with respect to navigation were pre- 
 pared in 1848, but not proclaimed as in operation until 
 the j-ear 1850, when the abolition of the British nav- 
 igation acts rendered necessar}^ the immediate adoption 
 of that step. The new system agreed to by both the 
 Chambers of the States General is contained in a col- 
 lection of rules embodj'ing the legal dispositions and 
 schedules. These are too numerous and lengthy here 
 to be inserted ; but the following summary will convey 
 a general idea of their purport, and show how benefi- 
 cially the liberal spirit, which has of late years guided 
 British commercial legislation, enters into and molds 
 the commercial systems of neighboring countries. 
 Whatever favor the system of "free trade" may 
 hereafter meet with among the commercial nations 
 of the earth, there can be little doubt that the spirit of 
 free navigation has entered upon its beneficent mission, 
 and already shapes the legislation of those nations 
 which have thriven and flourished most by commerce. 
 The countries of Europe which still retain their medi- 
 eval commercial policy — and, indeed, those on our own 
 continent which have inherited from their European 
 progenitors similar systems of commercial intercourse 
 with foreign nations — must either abandon their re- 
 strictive policy, and adopt, in its widest sense, and 
 with all its privileges and rights, the common-law de- 
 finitions of mare liberum, or find themselves isolated 
 from the rest of the commercial world. When this 
 spirit has already burst through the barriers which, 
 from a time " to which the memory of man runneth 
 not to the contrarj'," closed China and Japan against 
 every approach of civilized commerce, it can^ not be 
 doubted that its influence will soon or late be felt and 
 acknowledged by those nations which would erect 
 financial barricades across the highway of nations, 
 and interdict the importation of bread to feed, and 
 fabrics to clothe, their destitute subjects. The present 
 navigation laws of England are but the commence- 
 ment of a new era in the commercial legislation of 
 
HOL 
 
 980 
 
 HOL 
 
 Europe. The example of Holland, of Belgium, of the 
 Hanse-towns, and the ZoUverein (though, as regards 
 the latter, there ia still much to be done), can not but 
 hasten this liberal reformation in the navigation laws 
 of neighboring governments. The leading features of 
 the new navigation laws of the Netherlands may be 
 gathered from the following summarj'. It embraces 
 the chief bases upon which they rest : 
 
 1. Unconditional repeal of discriminating favors 
 granted to the Dutch flag, by suppression of the rules 
 allowing to this flag preference above foreign flags. 
 2. Conditional similarity of flag in the navigation 
 to and from the Netherlands colonies. 3. Stipulations 
 by law concerning the trade and navigation in the 
 colonies of the realm, carried on by other nations of 
 the world. 4. Repeal of the interdiction to grant 
 Netherlands registers to foreign-built vessels, by ad- 
 mittance for registry (naturalization) of such vessels 
 at a duty of four per cent, of their value. 5. Diminish- 
 ing of import duties on principal materials for ship- 
 building. 6. Suspension of the shipping duties on the 
 Rhine and Yssel. 7. Total abolition of transit duties. 
 
 The principal object of all these measures is to pro- 
 mote trade, by relieving navigation, as much as pos- 
 sible, of the impediments against its development 
 which resulted from past legislation. The general 
 system comprehends a plan of establishing, in one 
 general law, instead of by complicated treaties of com- 
 merce with the different nations, the principle of im- 
 mediate and unconditional ','free navigation," and, 
 consequently, the general and unconditional assimila- 
 tion of flags, by granting to the vessels of all nations 
 the privileges enjoyed by those of the Netherlands ; 
 reserving, however, the right of retaliation, should cir- 
 cumstances render its exercise necessary, which, in 
 most cases that can happen, will be limited to an aug- 
 mentation of shipping taxes, or of import duties ; and 
 saving, also, certain restrictions and conditions relative 
 to importations from Netherlands colonies. In fine, 
 the navigation laws of Holland are framed so as to 
 open, as far as possible, all Netherlands ports for ships 
 of all nations; "to proclaim," as announced in the 
 oiScial exposition, " a renewed adherence to the liberal 
 commercial policy which the Netherlands was the first 
 nation to adopt, in order to stimulate other nations to 
 abandon all systems of protections and prohibitions ; 
 to abolish all exclusive protections of the Netherlands 
 flag, so that our (their) navigation may, with good 
 success, keep pace with that of other nations, and our 
 (their) commerce may not remain behind in the newly- 
 opened competition resulting from the repeal of the 
 navigation laws of England." Under the regulations 
 condensed above, as well as under the treaty with the 
 United States of 1852, the American flag is assimilated 
 to that of the Netherlands in the colonial trade. In- 
 deed, in all respects, without any condition or qualifi- 
 cation whatever, the flags of both nations enjoy entire 
 and perfect equality. On the 5th of August, 1844, the 
 then Secretary of the Treasury addressed to collectors 
 and naval officers circular instructions, in which the 
 following paragraphs occurred : 
 
 "The charge d'affaires of his majesty the King of the 
 Netherlands has presented a complaint that the duty of 20 
 per cent, ad valorem, levied upon coffee imported from the 
 ports of the Netherlands, is in contravention of the subsisting 
 treaties between the United States and the King of the Neth- 
 erlandB ; seeing that, by the ninth article of the act of 1842, 
 coffee imported in vessels of the United States, from the 
 place of its growth or production, is exempt from duty. 
 
 " By the first article of the treaty of 1839, between the 
 United States and the United Netherlands, it is stipulated 
 that goods and merchandise, whatever their origin may be, 
 imported into or exported from the ports of the United States, 
 from or to the ports of the Netherlands in Europe, in vessels 
 of the Netherlands, shall pay no other or higher duties than 
 shall he levied on the like goods and merchandise Imported 
 or exported in national vessels, etc. 
 
 "As colFee imported in the vessels of the United States is 
 exempt from duty, it follows, from the treaty before recited. 
 
 that coffee imported in the vessels of the Netherlands, from 
 their ports in Europe, is exempt from duty. Therefore, such 
 duties as have been so levied upon coilee, so as aforesaid im- 
 ported, in vessels of the Netherlands, from their ports in 
 Europe, must he refunded ; and, in future, coffee so imported 
 must he admitted free of duty." 
 
 From these instructions it necessarily followed in 
 practice, that while the coffee of Java, imported in 
 vessels of the Netherlands, from ports of the Nether- 
 lands, has been exempted from duty on its arrival in 
 the United States, the same article, when imported in 
 American vessels, from the same ports in the Nether- 
 lands, has been subjected, under the provisions of the 
 10th section of the tariff act of 30th of August, 1842, 
 to the payment of a duty of 20 per cent, ad valorem, 
 as a non-enumerated article. On the 11th of Septem- 
 ber, 1845, these instructions were countermanded, by 
 Treasury circular of that date, as not warranted by 
 the provisions of the treaty of 1839 ; the word " so," 
 which qualified the importation or exportation, having 
 been overlooked in preparing the circular first referred 
 to. A different construction would give to the vessels 
 of Holland an advantage over American vessels en- 
 gaged in the same trade, as already intimated, of 20 
 per cent. — an advantage which could hardly have been 
 intended to be given by any treatj- with a foreign 
 power. All ambiguity or doubt on this subject is 
 removed by the tariff act of 1846. Under the provis- 
 ions of that act, however, the Netherlands flag still 
 enjoys an advantage over that of the United States in 
 the coffee carr)'ing trade. Thus, schedule 1 of the 
 act provides, tliat " coffee, the growth or production 
 of the possessions of the Netherlands, imported from 
 the Netherlands in American vessels, or in foreign 
 vessels entitled by reciprocal treaties to be exempt 
 from discriminating duties, tonnage, and other 
 charges," shall be free. The export duty on coffee at 
 Java, is 12 per cent., half of which is remitted in 
 favor of direct importation to the Netherlands in 
 national or equalized bottoms. Consequently, a Dutch 
 vessel, carrying Java coffee from Holland into the 
 United States, can undersell the American importer 
 who brings it into port direct from Java, the amount 
 of the differential export duty, or six per cent, on the 
 value of his cargo. 
 
 Commerce. — The principal articles imported into 
 Holland in 1853, and their proportion to the total 
 amount of importations, were as follows : 
 
 per cent. 
 Grains 6-40 
 
 lion s-es 
 
 Eaw Cotton 8-49 
 
 . per cent. 
 
 Tissues of all kinds 12-61 
 
 Eaw sugar 12-03 
 
 Tarns 900 
 
 Coffee 8-47 
 
 Dye stuffs 2-99 
 
 The principal exports, and their proportion to the 
 total arhount of exportations, were : 
 
 per cent. 
 
 ■Woven fabrics 8-96 
 
 Eeflned sugar 7-29 
 
 Tarns 715 
 
 Coffee 6-59 
 
 per cent. 
 
 Grains 4-84 
 
 Eaw 8u*ar 4-54 
 
 Live animals 4-09 
 
 Butter 8.99 
 
 The total general commerce of Holland in 1853 
 (imports and exports united), amounted to $237,000,000, 
 showing a diminution, when compared with the pre- 
 ceding year, of §540,000. 
 
 The diminution in exports fell principally upon ali- 
 mentary products of the first necessity, and was 
 caused by the general bad crops of the year. The 
 share assigned in the commerce of this year amounted 
 to : imports by sea — ^to the Dutch flag, $49,391,732 ; 
 to the foreign flag, $42,613,132 — giving to the Dutch 
 flag in the import trade, 53§- per cent. ; and to the 
 foreign flag 46J- per cent. In the export trade, the 
 Dutch flag had $29,626,014; the foreign flag, $30,- 
 870,144^givingthe Dutch flag 49, and the foreign flag 
 51 per cent. 
 
 The total imports of the Netherlands in 1854, as 
 appears from the Statistical Year Boole ofBoUand, for 
 that year, amounted to 356,484,000 florins, or $142,- 
 693,000; showing an increase over the imports of 
 
HOL 
 
 981 
 
 HOL 
 
 1853 of $14,173,000, and over the imports of 1852 of 
 $13,505,000. The total exports the same year, as 
 given by the same anthoritj-, amounted to 808,780,000 
 florins, or $123,512,000 ; showing an increase over the 
 exports of 1853 of $14,391,654, and over the exports of 
 1852 of $14,518,000. 
 
 Imports and Exports op Holland fob 1864. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 ImportB, 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Totnl. 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 France 
 
 $89,904,000 
 
 4,868,000 
 
 27,627,000 
 
 8,204,000 
 
 8,018,000 
 
 $80,077,000 
 
 6,229,000 
 
 46,574,000 
 
 4,246,000 
 
 2,054,000 
 
 $69,982,000 
 
 1,098,000 
 
 74,101,000 
 
 7,460,000 
 
 5,072,000 
 
 Zollvereln 
 
 Hanse-towns 
 
 United States 
 
 The value of the total trade between Holland and 
 the United States for 1854, as given in the United 
 States' Treasury Eeport on Commerce and Navigation, 
 is $4,138,636, or $934,150 less than that given by the 
 Dutch official report. 
 
 The chief articles exported from the United States 
 to Holland are cotton, tobacco, rice, breadstuffs, etc. 
 The leading imports into the United States from Hol- 
 land are spirits (principally gin), coffee, madder, 
 spices, pictures, paintings, segars, tin, etc. There 
 entered in 1853, in Dutch ports, from foreign countries, 
 6392 vessels, measuring 1,064,233 tons ; of whidi 
 number 70, measuring 26,765 tons, bore the flag of the 
 United States ; and 18 vessels, under the Dutch flag, 
 sailed direct from our ports with American produce. 
 
 During the same year, there cleared from the Nether- 
 lands to foreign countries, 4,413 ships, measuring 
 776,889 tons ; of which there were under the American 
 flag, for United States' ports, 22 vessels, measuring 
 11,333 tons ; and for the same destination, 27 vessels 
 belonging to other nations. 
 
 In 1853 there entered at the different ports of Hol- 
 land 1006 steam vessels, laden, measuring in the ag- 
 gregate, 304,329 tons; 195 steam vessels in ballast, 
 measuring in the aggregate, 72,800 tons ; in all, 1201 
 vessels, tonnage, 377,129. 
 
 The vessels in ballast were all under the English 
 flag ; those freighted were distributed as follows : 
 Yessola. Tons. 
 
 Under the Dutch flag 856 89,641 
 
 EogUsbflag 686 210,516 
 
 " Prenchflag 18 4,082. 
 
 " Swedish flag 1 90 
 
 Total 1,006 
 
 Since the new navigation laws of Holland came into 
 operation (August 8, 1850), the maritime commerce of 
 that Icingdom has been distributed as shown by the fol- 
 lowing table : 
 
 Impohtations by Sea. 
 
 FlnffS. 1849. 18S0. ISSl. 1853. 
 
 Dutch... 59 per ct. 58 per ct. 6Sperct. 
 
 Foreign 41 " 42 "46 " 
 
 Expobtatiohs by Sea. 
 
 Fhfrs. 1849. 1850, 1851. 
 
 Dutch 61 per ct. 66 per ct. SOperct. 
 
 Foreign 49 " 44 " 49 
 
 63 per ct. 
 46 " 
 
 1863. 
 
 49 per ct. 
 61 " 
 
 OOMMEROB OP TUB UNITED STATES WITU HOLLAND, FROM OOTOBBB 1, 1820, TO JtTLY 1, 1856. 
 
 fears ending. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Domestii?. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Total, 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Total, 
 
 Wliorcof there wns in Bullion 
 
 Exported. 
 
 Imported. 
 
 Tonnage Cleared, 
 
 Foreign, 
 
 Sept. 80, 1821. 
 1822, 
 1828. 
 1824. 
 
 1827. 
 1828. 
 
 Total. 
 
 $1,964,618 
 2,077,868 
 2,642,980 
 1,597,514 
 2,486,463 
 1,970,199 
 2,889,881 
 1,863,767 
 8,095,857 
 8,854,551 
 
 $1,789,692 
 
 1,524,688 
 
 2,409,216 
 
 617,881 
 
 1,306,889 
 
 1,899,857 
 
 888,950 
 
 866,646 
 
 889,830 
 
 675,527 
 
 ,694,205 
 ,602,051 
 ,052,146 
 ,216,845 
 ,798,807 
 ,870,056 
 ,228,881 
 1,229,418 
 ,986,187 
 ,030,078 
 
 $1,938,953 
 
 868,995 
 
 754,950 
 
 1,210,267 
 
 1,258,369 
 
 1,106,408 
 
 965,917 
 
 1,898,572 
 
 1,0.57,854 
 
 888,408 
 
 1,990 
 
 740 
 4,300 
 15,461 
 
 $1,852,167 
 158,651 
 222,791 
 28J,651 
 
 15,085 
 161,880 
 
 85,608 
 181,288 
 
 17,308 
 
 12,197 
 
 63,346 
 24517 
 26,946 
 32,946 
 88,619 
 .25,515 
 88,872 
 85,220 
 
 1,063 
 1,281 
 6,769 
 1,452 
 678 
 1,188 
 1,712, 
 6,179 
 4,861 
 4,515 
 
 Sept. 80, 1881. 
 1882, 
 1883, 
 18-34. 
 1885. 
 1886', 
 1887. 
 18-38, 
 
 1840 
 
 Total, 
 
 Sept 80, 1841 
 
 1842 
 
 9 mos. 1843 
 
 June 80, 1844 
 
 1845 
 
 1846 
 
 1847 
 
 1843 
 
 1849 
 
 1650 
 
 Total.... 
 
 $23,382,548 
 
 $1,707,292 
 2,232,792 
 1,684,853 
 2,865,636 
 2,845,980 
 2,498,096 
 2,085,639 
 2,666,979 
 1,677,852 
 8,845,264 
 
 $12,817,671 
 
 $212,860 
 
 2,870,490 
 732,409 
 
 1,258,138 
 187,036 
 686,479 
 
 1,322,936 
 898,269 
 295,661 
 611,046 
 
 $35,700,119 
 
 $1,920,152 
 5,108,282 
 2,856,762 
 8,628,674 
 2,683,016 
 3,184,575 
 8,868,525 
 2,954,248 
 1,978,003 
 8,856,810 
 
 $2,237,444 
 8,236,888 
 1,698,827 
 2,517,931 
 2,758,780 
 2,097,691 
 1,885,398 
 1,695,450 
 2,165,328 
 2,188,101 
 
 $8,466,814 
 
 $277,478 
 886,988 
 288,140 
 181,028 
 268,267 
 199,074 
 139,986 
 271,518 
 242,027 
 416,564 
 
 $80,868,647 
 
 $2,514,922 
 8,628,826 
 1,986,467 
 2,698,944 
 8,022,047 
 2,296,765 
 2,016,884 
 1,866,963 
 2,897,855 
 2,604,665 
 
 $11,488,693 
 
 $989,887 
 1,860,668 
 1,166,856 
 1,123,966 
 1,690,570 
 1,828,281 
 1,886,976 
 1,180,897 
 2,149,782 
 1,074,764 
 
 $22,618 
 $5,000 
 26'i78 
 
 5,612 
 260 
 
 800 
 
 $2,436,021 
 
 $16,641 
 
 4,764 
 
 5,440 
 
 60,071 
 
 60,608 
 
 82,461 
 9,512 
 
 2,388 
 
 835,112 
 
 28,168 
 38,770 
 23,488 
 25,819 
 18,946 
 14,078 
 18,745 
 18,601 
 11,612 
 81,747 
 
 29,788 
 
 1,994 
 8,872 
 6,938 
 7,171 
 6,151 
 11,956 
 22,788 
 12,029 
 12,381 
 11,929 
 
 $14,362,477 
 
 $1,688,032 
 1,067,488 
 480,82$ 
 1,810,081 
 '954,-344 
 1,059,597 
 1,247,209 
 1,417,908 
 1,501,643 
 1,686,967 
 
 $85,850 
 
 $28,900 
 
 $182,851 
 
 $12,720 
 
 236 
 
 1,500 
 
 2,062 
 
 218,864 
 
 24,898 
 
 88,589 
 
 28,289 
 
 23,786 ■ 
 
 27,859 
 
 38,586 
 
 17,744 
 
 12,347 ' 
 
 33,536 
 
 14,968 
 
 101,709 
 
 10,888 
 18,804 
 2,660 
 16,589 
 16,517 
 11,582 
 17;i43 
 31,365 
 16,460 
 33,753 
 
 Juno 80, 1861. 
 1853. 
 -1«58. 
 1854. 
 1855. 
 
 $22,865,778 
 
 $1,911,115 
 2,292,848 
 1,988,728 
 2,399,710 
 1.920,869 
 8,501,110 
 
 $2,611,010 
 
 $334,054 
 304,631 
 215,778 
 142,956 
 
 . 203,615 
 85,318 
 
 $24,976,788 
 
 $2,196,169 
 
 .3,497,529 
 
 2,199,4.16 
 
 2,442,666 
 
 ■ 2,128,984 
 
 8,536;428 
 
 $12,814,032 
 
 $3,062,706 
 1,686,616 
 1,625,170 
 1,695,970 
 1,825,700 
 2,426,479 
 
 $28,900 
 
 $81,180 
 
 224,051 
 
 18,759 
 10,803 
 15,204 
 15,978 
 32,557 
 
 164,131 
 
 26,014 
 22,928 
 20,730 
 15,004 
 17,263 
 24,977 
 
 The general navigation and trade of Holland, con- 
 sidering its comparatively limited area, presents a 
 spe.ctacle of commercial greatness unequaled in the 
 world. In 1852, its general imports reached $129,087,- 
 823, and its exports $108,993,854. In 1853 the imports 
 amounted to $128,420,691, and the exports to $109,120,- 
 666. This commercial prosperity nearly equals that 
 which the Netherlands attained in its palmiest days, 
 when Beawes said of it in his Lex Mercatoria: "It 
 
 produces hardly any thing, and yet has wherewith to 
 furnish other people all they can have need of. It is 
 without forests, and almost without wood. There are 
 no mines or metals, and yet there is found as much 
 gold or silver as in New Spain or Peru ; as much iron 
 as in France ; as much tin as in England ; and as much 
 copper as in Sweden. The wheat and other grains 
 that are there sowed hardly sufiice for nourishment to 
 a part of the inhabitants ; and it is, notwithstanding. 
 
HOL 
 
 982 
 
 HOL 
 
 from hence that the greatest part of its neighbors, 
 receive them, either for their subsistence or trade. In 
 fine, it seems as if the spices grew there ; that the oils 
 were gathered there ; that it nourished the precious 
 insects which spin the silk:, and that all sorts of drugs, 
 for medicine or dyeing, were in the number of its prod- 
 nets and of its growth. Its warehouses are so full, 
 and its merchants seem to carry so much to strangers, 
 
 or that strangers come to load in its ports, that there 
 is not a day, and it may be said a moment, that - ships 
 do not come in or go out, and frequently entire fleets." 
 Such was the picture drawn of the Netherlands in 
 1670. Its present commercial condition, though dif- 
 ferent in everj' other respect from the Netherlands 
 of that period, is quite as prosperous, and rests upon a 
 basis more solid and secure. 
 
 Table exhibiting the Yalue op the Commerce of the Netheklands with Foreign Nations in 1853, in Florins 
 [Florin valued at Forty Cents United States' Currency]. 
 
 CouQtriea. 
 
 General Importe. '"P"" 5™.°°'°°'''' 
 
 General oxports. 
 
 Of special commerce, 
 
 Australia 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Bremen 
 
 California. 
 
 Chloa 
 
 Cuba ]], 
 
 Cura^oa 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Franbe. ;..' 
 
 Greenland, etc [,., 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Hanover and Oldenburg , 
 
 Java, etc. 
 
 Canaries, C. of G. H., E. Indies, Asia 
 
 Eoman States 
 
 Coast of Guinea 
 
 Lubec 
 
 Mecklenburg 
 
 The Two Sicilies 
 
 United States 
 
 Norway 
 
 Austria 
 
 Philippine Isles 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Eussia 
 
 Eussia (Black Sea) 
 
 Sardinia '. 
 
 America 
 
 Surinam 
 
 The ZoUverein 
 
 Tuscany 
 
 Turkey, Greece, etc 
 
 Sweden, 
 
 Spain .- 
 
 Not known 
 
 "Wrecked 
 
 Total florins 
 
 Or in dollars 
 
 25,164,698 
 4,578,593 
 1,138,643 
 
 l,4lV,i67 
 
 2,817,539 
 
 127,681 
 
 1,968,855 
 
 12,681,116 
 
 88,617 
 
 87,896,831 
 
 4,919,687 
 
 4,126,066 
 
 68,729,272 
 
 6,866,426 
 
 19,802 
 
 413,945 
 
 79,618 
 
 112,771 
 
 1,164,146 
 
 6,746,680 
 
 4,696.908 
 
 1,220;681 
 
 351,210 
 
 511,851 
 
 15,226,640 
 
 2,643,683 
 
 184,461 
 
 686,066 
 
 4,4.39,066 
 
 64,130,562 
 
 472,066 
 
 1,716,438 
 
 422,977 
 
 687,344 
 
 83,661 
 
 20,534,264 
 
 2,149,143 
 
 760,406 
 
 898,i91 
 
 2,017,682 
 
 86,408 
 
 2,028,602 
 
 9,186,864 
 
 88,617 
 
 44,809,621 
 
 1,977,961 
 
 3,687,718 
 
 52,604,164 
 
 2,996,993 
 
 18,492 
 
 413,495 
 
 28,080 
 
 215,881 
 
 227,864 
 
 4,824,610 
 
 3,801,285 
 
 621,960 
 
 78,162 
 
 407,689 
 
 14,628,969 
 
 2,774,889 
 
 91,508 
 
 204,698 
 
 2,728,145 
 
 27,662,881 
 
 802,816 
 
 1,563,286 
 
 805,152 
 
 202,527 
 
 510 
 
 82,649 
 
 204,946,186 
 
 128,420,691 60 
 
 81,978,054 40 
 
 694,628 
 
 24,112,814 
 
 40,366 
 
 982,689 
 
 129,340 
 
 2,502 
 
 159,730 
 
 822,030 
 
 1,007,351 
 
 11,687,690 
 
 78,968,646 
 
 7,314,011 
 
 2,389,984 
 
 21,809,704 
 
 159,724 
 
 271,966 
 
 260,892 
 
 40,007 
 
 182,905 
 
 2,800,924 
 
 5,877,239 
 
 681,441 
 
 4,478,060 
 
 88'7;676 
 8,488,248 
 
 276,335 
 1,809,957 
 
 678,612 
 
 1,262,320 
 
 100,146,888 
 
 1,693,893 
 
 8,419,046 
 
 877,669 
 
 667,084 
 
 272,801,666 
 
 109,120,666 40 
 
 468,061 
 
 19,698,728 
 
 26,786 
 
 766,286 
 
 102,985 
 
 1,904 
 
 169,269 
 
 269,315 
 
 796,086 
 
 4,764,005 
 
 46,498,078 
 
 6,174,854 
 
 1,625,361 
 
 18,482,184 
 
 157,318 
 
 269,248 
 
 65,480 
 
 17,084 
 
 107,124 
 
 2,728,121 
 
 8,819,646 
 
 628,926 
 
 4,284,994 
 
 220^027 
 
 2,170,266 
 
 274,678 
 
 1,716,880 
 
 404,704 
 
 977,.579 
 
 81,660,695 
 
 1,586,667 
 
 8,379,278 
 
 239,352 
 
 281,667 
 
 154,648,160 
 
 61,857,264 00 
 
 231,667 
 
 4,419,091 
 
 18,580 
 
 216,863 
 
 26,405 
 
 598 
 
 461 
 
 62,715 
 
 211,816 
 
 6,933,565 
 
 27,475,578 
 
 1,189,167 
 
 764,628 
 
 8,327,670 
 
 2,411 
 
 2,718 
 
 186,462 
 
 22,978 
 
 25,781 
 
 77,808 
 
 1,657,698 
 
 162,618 
 
 188,066 
 
 iiVleio 
 
 1,267,982 
 
 1,657 
 
 93,077 
 
 168,908 
 
 284,741 
 
 68,486,238 
 
 156,786 
 
 89,768 
 
 188,817 
 
 876,417 
 
 118,168,606 
 
 47,268,402 40 
 
 The cultivation of tobacco in the Netherlands is sub- 
 ject to no restrictions, with the exception of the ex- 
 cise duty, to which, like all other products, it is liable. 
 From 1800 to 1900 morgens (equal to from 3600 to 3800 
 acres) are annually devoted to tobacco. The tobacco 
 land is situated in the provinces of Guilderland, Over- 
 yssel, Utrecht, and Zealand. The average quantity 
 of tobacco produced on each morgen is about 4500 lbs. 
 The total crop is estimated at from 8,000,000 to 9,000,- 
 000 lbs. per annum. The quantity reserved for home 
 consumption is about 2,000,000 lbs., of which 
 
 lbs. 
 
 Smoking tobaeeo, about 900,000 
 
 Snuff. 700,000 
 
 Covers for segars 400,000 
 
 Besides the above, the Netherlands export to for- 
 eign countries about 6,000,000 lbs. of tobacco — ^iu the 
 leaf, 5,000,000 lbs., and manufactured, 1,000,000 lbs. 
 
 The following table shows the annual tobacco ex- 
 port trade of Holland : 
 
 Kilnpranimes. 
 
 The Ehenish provinces 680,000 
 
 Enssia and Great Britain 400,900 
 
 Sardinia 260,000 
 
 Norway and Denmark 80,000 
 
 Naples 60,000 
 
 Eoman States 50,000 
 
 Spain and Portugal 80,000 
 
 The total quantity of tobacco grown in the Nether- 
 lands is distributed as follows : 
 
 KllogTAnimes. 
 
 For the manufacture of snnfF and chewing tobacco . 1,875,000 
 For segars and segar covers 1,775,000 
 
 Average price of the former, from 14 to 32 florins 
 
 for common ; 30 to 90 florins for the best, per 100 kilo- 
 grammes. Average price of the latter, from 14 to 32 
 florins for common ; 60 to 90 florins for the best, per 
 100 kilogrammes. The planters of Amhem, and some 
 other districts, have, during the past few years, ap- 
 plied themselves to the raising of a very light, clear, 
 yellow tobacco, for segar covering, for which they ob- 
 tain a very high price. For this purpose they employ 
 a very active fertilizer, with a view to the large and 
 rapid growth of the plant, which they dry by the sun 
 with great skill and management. The average quan- 
 titj' of foreign tobacco annually imported is from 22,- 
 000,000 to 25,000,000 lbs., chiefly from the following 
 places : 
 
 Kilo^ammes. 
 
 Maryland 5,600,000 
 
 Kentucky 1,760,000 
 
 Virginia 1,400,000 
 
 Java 800,000 
 
 Porto Eico 860,000 
 
 Cuba 180,000 
 
 St. Domingo 120,000 
 
 Eilo^rammea 
 
 Tarinas 120,000 
 
 Manilla 76,000 
 
 Colombia 80,000 
 
 Brazil 80,000 
 
 Havana 60,000 
 
 Tobacco stems 145,000 
 
 A third part of the tobacco imported from foreign 
 countries is consumed in the Netherlands, the other 
 two thirds are exported. Germany and Belgium re- 
 ceive the larger portion, which consists altogether of 
 Virginia, Maryland, Kentucky, and some Java to- 
 bacco. Besides the imports above designated, Ham- 
 burg supplies Holland annually with large quantities 
 of tobacco of American growth. The tobacQO manu- 
 factories in Holland, of the first class, are numerous. 
 They are chiefly located at Rotterdam and Amster- 
 dam, though many similar factories are scattered 
 
HOL 
 
 983 
 
 HOL 
 
 throughout the provinces. The first-class factories 
 employ upward of 1,000,000 operatives. The average 
 consumption of tobacco' in Holland is about two kilo- 
 grammes (4.408 lbs.) for each individual, or 6,000,000 
 kilogrammes, or upward of 13,000,000 lbs. for the 
 whole' population. Germany offers the principal mar- 
 ket for the Dutch tobacco trade, though considerable 
 quantities are exported to the Levant, Italy, Austria, 
 Belgium, Denmark, Surinam, etc. — Com. Eel. U. S. 
 
 Statement exhibiting TirE leading Staples of the 
 United States, and their respective Values, ex- 
 ported TO Holland in the Years speoipied. 
 
 Arllele.. 
 
 18M. 
 
 1866. 
 
 Whale-oil 
 
 $8,944 
 
 6,571 
 
 24,476 
 
 45,101 
 
 15,259 
 
 4,635 
 
 16.642 
 
 47,441 
 
 62,289 
 
 50,276 
 
 22,299 
 
 667,482 
 
 1,350,886 
 
 7,816 
 
 4,959 
 
 25,619 
 
 $4,526 
 1,805 
 77,463 
 80,888 
 84,064 
 1,800 
 29,683' 
 
 2,662 
 
 88,789 
 23,780 
 418,438 
 1,068,782 
 4,329 
 8,2,78 
 71,219 
 
 
 ■Wooi, lumber, and timber. 
 
 Pot and pearl ashes 
 
 Beef , ,, 
 
 Hums, bacon, and lard 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Flour. 
 
 Rye and other grains 
 
 Rice 
 
 Cotton 
 
 
 manufactured 
 
 "Wiix p 
 
 Spirits of turpentine. 
 
 The following comparative statement e^ibits the 
 eifective merchant marine of the Netherlands on the 
 31st December, 18S2 andil853, respectively : 
 
 1862. No. of vessels 1,971 measuring 448,864 tons. 
 
 1853 " ", 2,087 ," 479,202 " 
 
 The following summary shows the, classification of 
 the vessels given in the preceding comparative state- 
 ment : 
 
 
 1868. 
 
 1868. 1 
 
 Ve».l.. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Vcueli. 
 
 Tom. 
 
 Sliips 
 
 141 
 296 
 66 
 2 
 134 
 1,829 
 13 
 
 111,176 
 164,206 
 14,412 
 488 
 21,554 
 133,084 
 8,950 
 
 142 
 
 834 
 
 66 
 
 2 
 
 168 
 
 1,310 
 
 15 
 
 112,284 
 186,182 
 16,878 
 488 
 26,872 
 182,046 
 4,452 
 
 BailiB 
 
 Brigs 
 
 Brigan tines 
 
 Schooners .... 
 
 Other vessels — 
 
 Steamboats 
 
 Total 
 
 1,971 
 
 448,864 
 
 2,037 1 479,202 I 
 
 U. 8. Foreign Com. 
 
 Holly-tree. Geography tmd History. — The Ilex 
 aquifolium, or European holly, is indigenous to most 
 parts of the middle and south of Europe, and it is said 
 to be found iu China and Japan. It, does not appear 
 to be a native either of America or of India, unless the 
 Ilex opaca of the United States, and the Ilex dipyreim 
 in the Himalayas, should prove, by cultivation, to be 
 varieties of it. According to Pallas, it scarcely occurs 
 within the ancient limits of the Russian empire, 
 though frequent on the southern side of Caucasus, 
 where it forms a low, branching shrub, about 10 feet 
 high. In France it is abundant, more particularly in 
 Brittany. In Germany, it abounds in many forests, 
 especially in the southern and middle States ; where, 
 when sheltered by lofty trees, it attains the height of 
 20 feet ; but in exposed situations, it does not exceed 
 a height of 6 or 8 feet. This tree appears to attain a 
 larger size in England than in any other part of the 
 globe. It abounds in that country, more or less, in 
 the remains of all aboriginal forests, and perhaps, at 
 present, it prevails nowhere to a greater extent than 
 in Needwood Forest, in Staffordshire. In Scotland it 
 is found in* most natural woods, as an undergro'wth to 
 the oak, the ash, and the pine. In Ireland, the holly 
 is not very common ; but about the lakes of Killamey 
 it attains a large size. 
 
 The wood of the holly is almost of an ivory white- 
 ness, except near the centre of very old trunks, wjiere 
 it is of a brownish hue. It is very hard and compact, 
 with a fine grain, and susceptible of a high degree of 
 polish, which renders it well adapted for many pur- 
 poses in the arts. When dry, it weighs 47|- poun^ to 
 a cubic foot, and is very retentive of its sap, in conse- 
 
 quence of which it is liable to warp, unless it is well 
 dried and seasoned before being used. It readily takes 
 a durable color of almost any shade, and hence it is 
 much used by cabinet-makers in forming what are 
 technically called " strings and borders," in orna- 
 mental works. When properly stained black, its 
 color and lustre are little inferior to those of ebony. 
 It may be applied to a great number of purposes by 
 joiners, cabinet-makers, turners, engineers, mathe- 
 matical instrument-makers, and, next to the box and 
 pear-tree, it is the best wood for engraving upon, as it 
 is compact, and stands the tool well. Among its prin- 
 cipal uses in England at present, is, when dyed black, 
 to be substituted for ebony, in the handles of metallic 
 teapots, etc. In France, the young shoots and the 
 branches are given to sheep and deer during winter ; 
 and the stronger straight shoots, ' deprived of their 
 bark, are made into whip-handles and walking-canes. 
 The bark of the holly coptains an abundance of viscid 
 matter ; and, when jnascerated in water, fermented, 
 and then separated from the fibres, it fonns bird-lime. 
 Medicinally, the bark of this tree is mucilaginous, 
 emollient, and solvent, and is said to possess strong 
 febrifugal powers. The berries are purgative, and 
 6 or 8 of them when swallowed, will cause violent 
 vomiting ; though they are considered as poisonous 
 to men, they form the food of some birds, more espe- 
 cially of the thrushes. 
 
 Xhe wood of the American holly resembles that of 
 the European species, except that it is rather browner 
 at the heart. It is compact, heavy, of a fine grain, 
 and is susceptible of a brilliant polish. Its principal 
 use ig for inlaying mahogany furniture, and for turn- 
 ing into small boxes for druggists, and for ^mall 
 screws. When perfectly seasoned, it is very hard and 
 unyielding, which renders it well adapted for pulleys 
 used in ships. It may be dyed of various colors, so as 
 to resemble many foreign woods. The bark may be 
 emplo3'ed for making bird-lime, in a similar manner as 
 that of the preceding species. Medicinall}"- it is 
 emetic and cathartic. The berries, taken to the num- 
 ber of 15 or 20, will excite vomiting, and will also act 
 as a purgative. * 
 
 The emetic holly is found in moist, shady places, 
 from Virginia to the Floridas, and was introduced into 
 Britain in 1770. It was cultivated by Miller in the 
 physic garden at Chelsea, ,and in several other collec- 
 tions in the neighborhood of London, tUl the severe 
 winter of 1789, when most of the plants were destroyed. 
 Other plants were afterward raised from seeds in that 
 country, and have ever since resisted the cold of ordi- 
 nary winters without protection. The leaves and 
 young shoots of the cassena are inodorous, the taste 
 sub-aromatic and fervid, being useful in stomach fe- 
 vers, diabetes, small-pox, etc., as a mild emetic ; but 
 the " black drink" of the Indians is a strong decoction 
 and a violent, though harmless vomitive. At a cer- 
 tain season of the year they often travel a distance of 
 some hundred miles, from parts where this tree does 
 not grow, to procure a supply of the leaves. They 
 make a fire on the ground, and putting a kettle of war 
 ter on it, filled with leaves, place themselves around 
 it, and with a wooden vessel holding about a pint, 
 commence by taking large draughts, which, iu a short 
 time, cause them to vomit freely. Thus they continue 
 drinliing and vomiting for two or three days, until 
 they are sufliciently purified, when they return with 
 large quantities of the leaves and boughs, to their 
 homes. The leaves and young shoots of the Ilex cas- 
 sena and dahoon, and of many other shrubs, .appear to 
 be substituted indiscriminately by the Indians for 
 making their " black drink." In North CaroKna, it 
 is said, the inhabitants of the sea-side swamps, having 
 no good water to drink, disguise its taste by boiling in 
 it a little cassena, or other plants of a similar nature, 
 and use it constantly warm, as the Chinese do their 
 daily tea. This circumstance gave rise to the opinion ^ 
 
HON 
 
 984 
 
 HON 
 
 that this species was tlie Ilex Paraguariensis, and was 
 erroneously called " Paraguay Tea." — Beowne's Tr. 
 of America. 
 
 Holm, (Sax. and Danish.) An island, or fennj' 
 place surrounded by water. Two well-known islands 
 in the Bristol Channel are called the Steep Holm and 
 Flat Holm. 
 
 Holy Alliance, The, a league formed by the 
 principal sovereigns of Europe after the defeat of Na- 
 poleon at Waterloo. The basis of this alliance was 
 drawn up by Alexander of Russia (September 26, 
 1815), and received the signatures of Francis of Aus- 
 tria and Frederic William of Prussia. Its name, 
 which was dictated in accordance with the popular 
 religious enthusiasm of the time, was fitly expressive 
 of the vague principles of religious charity and peace 
 on which it professed to be based. It gained strength 
 by the accession of England and France, but thence- 
 forward became an alliance simply for the establish- 
 ment of existing dynasties in Europe, as may be seen 
 from the declaration of November, 1819, and from the 
 results of the Congresses of Troppau, Laybach, and 
 Verona. After the secession of England and France 
 the holy alliance became practically obsolete. See 
 North Amer. Rev., xvii. ; For. Quar., viii. ; Ed. Rev., 
 xxxviii., xxxix., xl. ; Westminster Rev., i., 18 ; Niles' 
 Reg., XX., 313, xxiv., 365. 
 
 Holyhead (Welsh, Caer GyU, i. e., fort of Gybi), 
 a sea-port, and market-town of North Wales, on an 
 island at the western extremity of the county of An- 
 glesea. It is connected with the main part of the 
 county by a vast embankment, f of a mile in length, 
 and of an average height of 16 feet, with a bridge 
 near the centre through which the tide rushes with 
 amazing velocity and force. The town, formerly a small 
 fishing village, has acquired importance in consequence 
 of its being the nearest and most convenient place of 
 embarkation for Ireland. It is the point of termina- 
 tion of the great parliamentary roads from London 
 and Chester, and of the Chester and Holyhead rail- 
 way', in connection, with which steam-packets leave 
 the harbor several times a day for Kingston near Dub- 
 lin. The vast amount of labor and money expended 
 on public works connected with the harbor has mate- 
 rialh' contributed to attract and support an active and 
 thriving population. Holyhead has been selected by 
 the British government for a harbor of refuge. The 
 works, when completed, will inclose an area of about 
 316 acres, with a depth of at least 6J fathoms water. 
 The pier extends nearlj' 1000 feet, and upon it is an 
 arch of Mona marble commemorative of the visit of 
 George IV. in 1821. At the extremity of the pier is 
 a light-house, exhibiting a white light 50 feet above 
 sea-level. On South Stack an isolated rock 3 miles 
 west, is another light-house connected with the har- 
 bor, and of essential service in facilitating the access. 
 The light, which is 212 feet above high-water mark, 
 is produced by 21 lamps with powerful reflectors. The 
 inhabitants are chiefly engaged in the coasting trade 
 and in shipbuilding. The coast is extremely wild and 
 rugged, presenting numerous wave-worn caverns, 
 which form the haunt of innumerable sea-birds. — E. B. 
 
 Holy-stone, a large stone used for cleaning ships' 
 decks. It receives its name from the unwillingness 
 of sailors to submit to the drudgerj' of using it. 
 
 Home, in naval language, is said of any thing 
 that is close in its place ; it is applied to the sheets of 
 the sails, the shot and cartridge in a gun, and any 
 article of stowage. 
 
 Homer, or Omer, the largest drj^ measure among 
 the Hebrews. It was in later times replaced by the 
 Cor, and is estimated at 7,398,000 Paris grains. 
 
 Honduras, British, Belize, or Balize, a British 
 settlement on the east coast of Central America, be- 
 tween N. lat. 15° 14' and 18° 30', and W. long. 88° 
 and 89' 30"- It is bounded on the north by Yuca- 
 ' tan, west and south by Guatemala, and east by the 
 
 Bay of Honduras. It has a coast line of about 200 
 miles between the mouths of the Hondo and Sarstan, 
 and is about 100 miles in breadth. This coast was 
 discovered by Columbus in the year 1502, but little 
 that can be relied upon is known of its early settle- 
 ment. The abundance and fine quality of the wood, 
 particularly mahoganj' and logwood, seem first to 
 have drawn attention to it ; and at a pretty early period 
 it was occasionall)' resorted to by wood-cutters. But 
 the first permanent establishment of British wood- 
 cutters was made at Cape Catoche by some adven- 
 turers from Jamaica, whose numbers increasing, they 
 extended as far south as the River Belize, and as far 
 west as the neighborhood of Campeachy. The Span- 
 iards, however, did not quietly submit to this usurpa- 
 tion of their territorial dominion. Several expeditions 
 were fitted out against the settlers, but they were 
 uniformly unsuccessful ; and on two occasions, in 1659 
 and 1678, so complete was their discomfiture, that the 
 town of Campeachy itself was taken by the logwood- 
 cutters, with only the assistance of the seamen en- 
 gaged in the trade. This last repulse occurred eight 
 j'ears after a treaty had been concluded with Spain,' 
 by which the territorial right of Britain to the occu- 
 pancy of Honduras was generally, although not spe- 
 cificall}'', embraced. The successes of the settlers 
 aroused the jealousy of the Spaniards, and led to a 
 renewed discussion of their right to the territory which 
 they occupied. This would appear to have been again 
 generally admitted ; but the Spaniards finally suc- 
 ceeded in driving the woodmen from the Campeachy 
 shore, and confining them to the limits of the present 
 settlement. An attempt was again made in 1718 to 
 dispossess the British of the territory on the River 
 Belize ', but the firmness of the wood-cutters deterred 
 the Castilians from effecting'*3iny thing, except the 
 erection of a fortification, which in a few j'ears they 
 abandoned. In 1754 an expedition was undertaken 
 to exterminate the colony ; but by a treaty of peace 
 concluded in the year 1763, the Spaniards were com- 
 pelled to admit the right of occupancy to the Brit- 
 ish colonists, which, however, they subsequently 
 attempted to annul. In 1779 the Spaniards again 
 attacked the settlement, and after destroying property 
 to a considerable amount, the)^ took a number of the 
 colonists prisoners, and marched them off in irons to 
 Merida, whence they were shipped to the Havannah, 
 and there confined till 1782. In 1784 Britain obtained 
 from Spain a specific grant of " the lands allotted for 
 the cutting of logwood;" and in 1790 an act of Parlia- 
 ment conferred on Belize all the privileges of a Brit- 
 ish colony. The last attack on the settlement was 
 made during the war in 1798, but the expedition, which 
 consisted of 3000 men, was gallantl}' repulsed; and 
 since that period the colony has remained undisturbed 
 by foreign aggression. 
 
 The coast of the Bay of Honduras is low, and the 
 shore is studded with a number of low islands or keys, 
 which, however, are verdant. As we recede from the 
 coast, the land rises into a bold and lofty country,, 
 interspersed with rivers and lagoons, and covered with 
 gigantic forests. The lagoons or sheets of water, and 
 the falls and rapids of the rivers, constitute sublime 
 and beautiful features in the general aspect of the 
 country. The Hondo River, which forms the north- 
 ern boundary, is a fine stream. A few miles south of 
 it is the New River, which has its source in an exten- 
 sive lagoon. The Belize has a north-east by east course 
 of above 200 miles, and discharges itself into the Bay 
 of Honduras by two mouths about 3J miles apart, the 
 southern branch dividing the town of Belize into two 
 parts. The river and lagoon of Manatee, which is sit- 
 uated 10 leagues south of Belize, is considered as ex- 
 tremelj' grand. At about a mile from the mouth of 
 the river is the lagoon, a magnificent sheet of water, 
 extending for several leagues in a northerly direction. 
 In many places lofty hills ascend from its margin, 
 
HON 
 
 985 
 
 HON 
 
 overtopping large valleys and wood ranges of great 
 extent, where the jaguar, capybara, armadillo, large 
 weasel, opossum, racoon, and several species of deer, 
 abound. Among the feathered tribes there are num- 
 bers of quails, plovers, pigeons, pheasants, and wild 
 turkeys, The deficiency of streams among the mount- 
 ain ridges is supplied by the presence of large marshy 
 spots or shallow ponds, the banlts of which are fre- 
 quented by almost every species of water game. Fish 
 abound during a great part of the year in these ponds, 
 but the lajter dry up in the season of drought, and 
 then vast floclis of sea-fowl congregate around them 
 to prey upon the fish which have been left dry by the 
 evaporation of the waters. The alligator is also » fre- 
 quent visitor; and, to partake of this repast thus 
 yearly provided for him, he has been known to tra- 
 verse trackless wilds, and make long journej'S into the 
 interior. The rapids of the Manatee commence about 
 8 or 10 miles from the lagoon, and the high rocky 
 banks of the river assume a romantic and beautiful 
 appearance. Further on there is a rapid of about a 
 quarter of a mile in length, and of considerable accliv- 
 itj'. A cluster of beautiful caves, through which the 
 river winds its way, and beneath which the traveler 
 must pass, is next reached. They have been described 
 as equally singular and grand. " These magnificent 
 natural excavations of the mountains are semicircular 
 at the entrance, and about five yards in diameter. 
 Within the cave the arch rises to the height of 100 
 feet, and leads to another low arch, which being passed, 
 a second cavern of large size opens, beyond which is 
 a third with a circular orifice, through which the river 
 enters. During the floods the mouths of the caverns 
 are filled with water, which boils up with prodigious 
 furj', and thus detains travelers many days before they 
 can pass through the caves or tunnels. In the rainy 
 season, as the water increases on the upper or inland 
 sides of the mountains, the river forces its passage 
 through the interstices and openings in its sides with 
 tremendous noise, forming an indescribablj' grand 
 cascade of from 40 to 50 feet high, issuing from a 
 hundred orifices." Of the other rivers of Honduras 
 little is known. 
 
 Productions, — The country is technically divided in- 
 to the Pine and the Cahoun ridges. The soil of the 
 former has a substratum of loose reddish sand, and its 
 indigenous products consist of those varieties of vegeta- 
 tion the assimilative powers of which are strong and 
 perennial. Extensive prairies expand overthis soil, and 
 the pine, from which it derives its namej is extremely 
 abundant. The soil of the Cahoun ridge consists of a 
 deep loam, capable of growing every species of Euro- 
 pean as well as of tropical aliment. Its fertility occa^ 
 sions the growth of much brushwood, and it is covered 
 with the wild cotton-tree and other giants of the 
 forest. Fruits,, spontaneously produced, are exceed- 
 ingly abundant, and consist of oranges of excellent 
 quality, shaddocks, limes, mangoes, melons, pine- 
 apples, water-melons, avocato pears, cashew, cocoa- 
 nuts, and many others. They are all found in the 
 neighborhood of Belize, but are sometimes brought in 
 large quantities from more elevated plantations. The 
 mahogany and logwood-trees are at present the staples 
 of Honduras. The former is found best in elevated 
 situations j and growing generally solitary, it is dis- 
 cernible at a great distance, from the yellow hue of its 
 foliage. It is cut down at about 12 feet from the 
 ground, and when felled the logs are dragged to the 
 banks of the streams and floated down in rafts. The 
 boughs and limbs are said to afford the finest wood, 
 but it is the size that is principally looked to in com- 
 merce. The logwood is found in low swampy grounds, 
 growing contiguous to fresh-water creeks and lakes, 
 on the edges of which the roots, the most valuable 
 part of the wood, ramify. They are felled during the 
 dry season, and carried off when the wet season has 
 laid the ground under water. There is another valu- 
 
 able tree called the Firms occidentalism which grows to 
 the height of 60 feet, and covers many thousand acres 
 of country. The pine-wood contains an immense 
 qnantity of tar and turpentine, and is consequently 
 highly inflammable. In this respect it is very valu- 
 able to the poor, who make torches of it. It likewise 
 powerfully resists decay, and is in consequence much 
 used by builders. The cahoun or cohoon-tree yields 
 a valuable oil, which, when unadulterated, is almost 
 colorless, destitute of any disagreeable taste, and when 
 burned as a lamp oil it emits a beautiful palish fiame 
 without smoke or smell. There are various other 
 kinds of wood of beautiful vein and close texture, 
 such as iron-wood, olay-wood,'rose-wood, palmaletta, 
 and the like. Among minerals, strata of fine marble 
 and formations of alabaster are known to exist. Sev- 
 eral valuable specimens of crystals have been found, 
 and gold has occasionally been detected in some of the 
 streams. Laboring Creek, which lies on the Belize, 
 about 100 miles inland, is remarkable for the petrify- 
 ing properties possessed by its waters. They have 
 also a powerful cathartic effect on strangers, and when 
 applied externally to an ulcer have a healing property. 
 The country abounds with all kinds of animals fit for 
 the food of man. Except in very rough weather, the 
 supply of salt-water fish of excellent quality is abund- 
 ant. The common green turtle, when in a healthy 
 condition, is a staple commodity in the market. The 
 hawksbill turtle is often five feet long, and weighs from 
 200 to 250 lbs. 
 
 Belize, the capital of the settlement, stands on a 
 low flat shore immediately open to the seaj and guard- 
 ed by numerous small islands, densely covered with 
 trees and shrubs, and so similar as to render the navi- 
 gation extremely diflicnlt. It is further divided into 
 two parts by the river, which is crossed by a substan- 
 tial wooden bridge of 220 feet span and 20 feet in 
 length. The part of the town which is situated upon 
 the south or right bank of the river, along the eastern 
 edge of a point of land, is completely insulated by a 
 canal on its western side, which runs across from a 
 small arm of the sea, and bounds the town on its south 
 side. The houses are about 500 in number, and are 
 in general well built, spacious, and even elegant. 
 They are for the most part constructed of wood, and 
 raised 10 feet from the ground on pillars of mahogany. 
 The streets are regular, and cross each other at right 
 angles. The main one runs in a north-easterly direc- 
 tion to the bridge from the government-house, which 
 is situated on the south-east point or angle of the island 
 on the right bank of the river, and bounded on the 
 south and east by the sea. Behind the government- 
 house is the church, on the east side of the main 
 street. The whole town is embowered in groves and 
 avenues of the cocoa-nut and tamarind-trees. Fort 
 George is situated about half a mile from the river, 
 on a small low islet. In the neighborhood of Belize 
 the natural'heat of the climate is tempered by the sea 
 breezes that prevail during nine months in the year, 
 so that, even in the hottest season, the thermometer 
 seldom rises above 83° Fahr., and during the wet 
 season it sinks to 60°. In June, July, August, and 
 September, heavy and frequent rains fall, and these 
 are the most unhealthy months of the year, from the 
 decomposition of animal and vegetable matter in the 
 adjacent lowlands and swamps. 
 
 There are various classes of society in the settle- 
 ment, including Europeans, colored people, Indians, 
 and Mosquito men. The blacks of Honduras are dis- 
 tinct from the aborigines of the country, being of Afri- 
 can descent. In general they are inclined to indulge 
 those low propensities which are exhibited in a state 
 of barbarism. Having been derived from various 
 regions, they still retain all their national peculiarities, 
 and keep themselves distinct from every other tribe. 
 The blacks, as a body, have upon the whole little in- 
 telligence, and their dullness of comprehension is 
 
HON 
 
 986 
 
 HON 
 
 remarkable. It is asserted, however, that some of 
 them exhibit an originality of talent and a degree of 
 mental activity little inferior to their European breth- 
 ren. They are much attached to their country, and 
 with a native of his own land a Honduras black will 
 share his last plantain. The colored population has 
 resulted from the intercourse of Europeans with Afri- 
 cans or Indians. They of course, morally speaking, 
 assume a medium status, and partake more or less of 
 the qualities of black and white, according to their 
 distance from either. The Mosquito Indians abound 
 in the colony. They are remarkable for a fine muscu- 
 lar formation of body, but in their countenances they 
 exhibit an utter destitution of intelligence, and their 
 habits are most barbarous. They acknowledge the 
 existence of a good and evil spirit; and the little 
 power of thought which they possess is displayed in 
 their conduct toward their deities. The good spirit is 
 neglected, because, say they, his goodness is so great 
 that nothing is to be feared from his wrath, while on 
 the other hand, the evil spirit is propitiated, in order 
 to deprecate his malevolence. The whole wealth of a 
 Mosquito man consists in his canoe, paddle, and har- 
 poon. With these ho satisfies the cravings of nature, 
 and his groveling nature asks for no more. The Ivi- 
 dians, the real aborigines of the place, are a timid, 
 inoffensive race, apparently more under the influence 
 of instinct than of reason. They perform the most 
 astonishing journeys through woods, as trackless as 
 the sea, and impervious to all but themselves with 
 infallible correctness of direction and amazing rapid- 
 ity. Although free from vindictive or malicious pro- 
 pensities, they are addicted to drunkenness to an 
 excessive degree. The population of the colony is 
 estimated at about 12,000. 
 
 Honduras has an increase of 39,600 square miles, 
 and its population in 1855 was estimateed at 350,000, 
 exclusive of the Indian tribes. It is divided into seven 
 departments as follows : 
 
 Departmcnta. 
 
 ipop, 
 in 1856. 
 . T0,000 
 
 Tegucigalpa 60,000 
 
 Cholnteca 60,000 
 
 Santa Barbara.... 60,000 
 
 Eatimiited pop. 
 Departmeats. in 1865. 
 
 Graoias 6S,000 
 
 Tore 20,000 
 
 Olancho 45,000 
 
 Total 860 000 
 
 The rivers of Honduras are numerous, and some of 
 them of great size. The principal are the Chameli- 
 con, Ulua, Aguan or Eoman, Tinto or Black River, 
 Patuca, and Wanks or Segovia, flowing into the At- 
 lantic ; and the Choluteca, Nacaome, and Goascoran, 
 flowing into the Bay of Fonseca. 
 
 The Bay of Fonseca, the greater portion of which 
 belongs to Honduras, is upward of 50 miles in length, 
 by about 30 average breadth, with an entrance 18 
 miles wide, between the volcanoes of Conchagua 
 (3800 feet in height) and Cbseguina (3000 feet in 
 height).— E. B. 
 
 The coast alluvions of Honduras are generally 
 densely wooded, the elevated valleys of the interior 
 spread out in broad savannahs, and the mountain 
 plateaux are covered with forests of scattered pines, 
 relieved by occasional clumps of oak. Upon the 
 noithern coast, in the broad plain through which the 
 Ulua and Chamelicon flow, the country is so low as to be 
 occasionally overflowed for considerable distances. Here 
 grow immense forests of cedar, mahogany, caiba, In- 
 dia-rubber, and other large and valuable trees, thickly 
 interspersed with palms. Further to the eastward on 
 the same coast the heavy forests are confined chiefly 
 to the river valleys, and give place at short distances 
 inland to sandy savannahs, covered with coarse grass 
 and clumps of pines and acacias. The alluvions of 
 the Pacific coast are also densely wooded, but not ex- 
 tensive. At short distances inland they give place to 
 numerous savannahs, studded with clumps of acacias, 
 and covered with grass ; but the pine does not appear 
 here except upon the slopes of the hills, at an altitude 
 of about 1200 feet. The valleys of the rivers on both 
 
 coasts are thickly wooded ; but as thej' ascend toward 
 the interior, vegetation diminishes, and is , reduced to 
 a narrow fringe of trees and bushes upon their imme- 
 diate banks. These vallej^s in the high interior coun- 
 try often expand into broad and beautiful plains — half 
 savannahs and half woodland^-where the palm and 
 the pine flourish side by side. The mountains which 
 rise around these valleys are ascended by terraces 
 crowned with forests of pines and oaks, and covered 
 with grass. The summits , of the mountains some- 
 times rise in peaks, but generally constitute broad 
 table-lands, more or less undulating, and often spresid- 
 ing out in savannahs, traversed with long ridges, of 
 verdure and green belts of trees. 
 
 Woods. — Of the vegetable productions of Honduras 
 the mahogany-tree stands jfirst in importance, and, 
 from its vast size and magnificent foliage, is deservedly 
 entitled " king of the forest." It is to be found in 
 nearly all parts of Honduras in the valleys of the 
 various streams. It is, however, most abundant upon 
 the lower valleys of the rivers flowing into the Bay of 
 Honduras, where the cartes (cutting) are chiefly car- 
 ried on by the Spaniards, A fixed sum is paid to the 
 government for each tree cut down. Rosewood is 
 common on the northern coast, where it is beginning 
 to form an article of commerce. Lignuip yitae abounds 
 in the valley of the Ulua, on the river banks in the 
 plain of Comayagua, and in other parts. Among the 
 numerous dyewoods for which Honduras is celebrated, 
 may be mentioned fustic, Brazil wood, yellow Sanders, 
 dragon's-blood-tree, Mcaraugua wood (a variety of 
 Brazil wood), and the anotta. Among the gum and 
 medicinal trees, are the gum-arabic-tree, copaiba-tree, 
 copal-tree, liquid amber, castor oil, ipecacuanhji, and 
 the Hevea elasiica. . Among the more common of the 
 others are the long-leaved or pitch-pine, cedar, ceiha 
 or silk-cotton-tree, live oak, mangrove, iron-wood, cal- 
 abash, various kinds of oak and palm, lime, lemon, 
 orange, cocoa, pimento, citron, tamai'ind, and guava. 
 Sarsaparilla is obtained in great abundance and of su- 
 perior quality. The sugar-cane grows luxuriantly on 
 the plains and among the mountains, at elevations of 
 3000 to 4000 feet. Coffee, indigo, tobacco, maize, wheat, 
 rice, and potatoes are also grown. 
 
 The Honduras Interroceanic Railway. — At a recent 
 meeting of the Liverpool Chamber of Commere, Mr. 
 WUliam Brown, a member of Parliament, gave many 
 interesting particulars in relation to the Honduras 
 Inter-oceanic Railway. The distance between Kew 
 York and San Francisco, via Panama, is stated to be 
 5224 miles, whereas the distance via Honduras is only 
 4121 mUes. Difference 1103 miles. The distance 
 from Liverpool to San Francisco via Panama, touching 
 at Kmgston (Jamaica,) is 7712 miles ; via Honduras, 
 6881 miles ; saving of Honduras over Panama, 831 
 miles. The distance from Liverpool to Sydney, via 
 Honduras, has been calculated with care, and found to 
 be 11,820 miles. At an average rate of steaming of 
 12 miles per hour, and allowing three day^ for coaling 
 and trans-shipment, the voyage could be performed in 
 exactly 43 days and 12 hours. We subjoin a. table of 
 distances : 
 
 Liverpool to Fayal 
 
 Fayal to St. Thomas 
 
 St. Thomas to Puerto Caballos 
 
 Puerto Caballos to Bay of Fouseca,.' 
 Bay of Fonseca to San Francisco .... 
 
 " " " Sandwich Islands. 
 Sandwich Islands to Canton, 
 
 " " " Shanghai 
 
 " " Jeddo 
 
 Bay of Fonseca to Melbourne 
 
 " " " Sydney 
 
 " " " Auckland 
 
 " " " Callao 
 
 " " " Valparaiso 
 
 New York to Bay of Fonsoca by rail- 
 way and steamer 
 
 Miles. 
 
 1,320 
 1,860 
 1,820 
 160 
 2,220 
 8,960 
 4,920 
 4,500 
 2,760 
 7,680 
 7,159 
 6,004 
 2,359 
 3,670 
 
 1,901' 
 
 L'rpool. 
 
 4,661 
 
 
 6,381 
 
 4,121 
 
 8,621 
 
 5,861 
 
 18,641 
 
 10,781 
 
 18,121 
 
 10,361 
 
 11,381 
 
 ,8,621 
 
 12,341 
 
 
 11,820 
 
 9,060 
 
 10,665 ■ 
 
 7,906 
 
 ,7,020 
 
 4,260 
 
 8,381 
 
 5,671 
 
HON 
 
 987 
 
 HON 
 
 The time between New York, and San Franoisoo, 
 via Honduras, is estimated at 13 days and 4 hours. 
 This calculation is based on an assumption of 20 miles 
 per hour by rail, and 12 miles per hour by steamer. 
 
 Captain Fitzroy, in an official report, alludes to the 
 five distinct lines that have'been proposed, and thus 
 proceeds to refer to that by way of Honduras : 
 
 " Looking especially to European communication, 
 it may be observed, that a main or trunk line of 
 steamers, calling at Jamaica, in traversing the West 
 India Archipelago, would find a suitable terminus at 
 Port Caballos, in Honduras Bay, where the north end 
 of the railway will be ; and that Fonseca Gulf, at the 
 other end, is in the region of steady winds, and well 
 situated for a direct track across the Pacific Ocean, 
 either to China or Australasia. The climate, produc- 
 tions, and population of Honduras, are more in favor 
 of such a work, as a railway from sea to sea, than 
 those of any other part of the gi'eat Isthmus, without 
 exception ; but, as the length and elevation are great, 
 these difficulties should be well considered. 
 
 " 1. As to length. This is a question of 160 miles 
 against 40 (other things being equal, which, however, 
 they are mo«), involving first cost, constant expense, 
 and comparative local advantages. The continual 
 
 outlay on the Panama Railway, consequent on the 
 nature of the locality, and many pile-snpported struc- 
 tures, is great ; while in Hohdiiras, there will be com- 
 parative durability of works. Fuel must be carried to 
 Panama from distant ports, but it abounds near Fon- 
 seca Gulf. Eain, prevails in the eastern part of the 
 Isthmus of Panama, much more than it does in Hon- 
 duras, where the climate is such that European trees 
 and fruit thrive on the higher grounds. 
 
 " 2. With regard to the elevation, which seems at 
 first sight rather deterring, it should be borne in mind 
 that the greatest incline or gradient proposed is 1 in 
 88, and only for a short interval, in a county where ice- 
 or snow is unknown; the general gradients being 
 remarkably easy. Also, that as the country lies 
 favorably, the line running along vallej's, near rivers, 
 and without crossings of any consequence, it is likely 
 to be an economical line in this respect. AH requisite 
 materials, as well as native labor, are on the spot ; and 
 the Honduras wood-cutters are well known." 
 
 A compan}' has been fully organized in England with 
 reference to this great enterprise, and among the direc- 
 tors are some of the most prominentcitizens of Liverpool 
 and London. For a comparison of the advantages of 
 the different transit routes, see Teansit Routes. 
 
 COMMKRGB OF TUE 
 
 United States with He 
 
 >NDTTEA8, CamPEAOHY, ETC., PROM OoTOBEE 1, 1820 
 
 TO JlTlT 1, 1856. 
 
 Years ending 
 
 Experts. 
 
 Import^. 1 
 
 Whereof there mu'lo Bullion 
 ■ I', ; and Specie. ' , 
 
 .Tonnage Cleared. 
 
 Domestic. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Tolnl. 
 
 Export. 
 
 Import:' 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 American. 
 
 Sept. 30, 1821 
 
 1822 
 
 1828 
 
 1824 
 
 1825...:.... 
 
 1826 
 
 1827... 
 
 1828 
 
 1829 
 
 1880 
 
 Total.... 
 
 Sept. 80, 1831 
 
 18.32 
 
 1883 
 
 1884 
 
 1835 
 
 1886 
 
 1837 
 
 1838 
 
 1839 
 
 1840 
 
 Total.... 
 
 Sept 80. 1841...;.... 
 
 1842 
 
 9mos, 1848........ 
 
 JuneM, 1844 :.. 
 
 1845 
 
 1S46 
 
 1847 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 
 
 1850 
 
 Total.... 
 
 June 80, 1851 
 
 1852 
 
 1858. .■ 
 
 1854... 
 
 ■ 185^::""" 
 
 $99,895 
 128,115 
 211,388 
 167,060 
 57,286 
 
 18,261 
 
 6,950 
 
 12,693 
 
 25,132 
 
 $106,830 
 127,948 
 100,062 
 194,365 
 28,648 
 
 1^678 . 
 2,871 
 8,229 
 •6,432 
 
 $206,725 
 
 261,058 
 
 811,435 
 
 861,425 
 
 80,8?9 
 
 8,821 
 20,922 
 '80,664 
 
 $216,075 
 
 281,835 
 217,097 
 243,446 
 88,188 
 17,947 
 1,760 
 64,847 
 
 ,;.*fe' 
 
 ■ $80,590 
 
 ■' 187,664 
 
 86,169 
 
 51,047 
 
 27,0.31 
 
 17,428 
 
 6,576 
 
 600 
 
 46,117 
 
 1,472 
 
 6,009 
 6,447 
 7,570 
 5,290 
 • 1,201 
 
 1,042 
 
 303 
 
 479 
 
 687 
 
 1,280, 
 
 $706,775 
 
 $46,283 
 
 65,459 
 
 , 70,522 
 
 66,072 
 
 134,708 
 
 109,823 
 
 99,694 
 
 89,896 
 
 181,861 
 
 132,096 
 
 $570,888 
 
 $18,782 
 17,897 
 28,724 
 89,876 
 87,661 
 86,015 
 12,168 
 19,800 
 29,889 
 68,371 
 
 $1,276,118 
 
 $59,966 
 
 82;856 
 
 99,246 
 
 98,448 
 
 172,264 
 
 145,888 
 
 111,862' 
 
 109,196 
 
 ,211,200 
 
 190,466 
 
 $1,131,140 
 
 ' $44,463 
 84,162 
 101,616 
 149,599 
 174,960 
 216,892 
 202,624 
 201,448 
 164,027 
 168,353 
 
 $11,660 
 
 $454,698 
 
 $20,608 
 19,101 
 58,812 
 48,629 
 • 71,780 
 89,797 . 
 79,187 
 
 114,902 
 76,421 
 
 111,114 
 
 26,569 
 
 1,449 
 2,677 
 1,627 
 4,041 
 11,007 
 4,286 
 6^085 
 ' 2,406 
 6,434 
 5,048 
 
 2,649 
 
 228 
 97 
 
 , "807 
 665 
 1,813 
 2,158 
 1,506 
 2,551 
 1,70S 
 
 $986,868 
 
 ■ $141,864 
 127,889 
 92,278 
 197,495 
 188,494 
 826,494 
 261,398 
 249,648 
 191,847 
 171,984 
 
 $291,978 
 
 $51,882 
 86,648 
 16,304 
 41,524 
 51,421 
 64,688 
 40,619 
 44,181 
 34,620 
 16,661 
 
 $1,278,881 
 
 $193,246 
 168,987 
 108,582 
 239,019 
 289,915 
 
 ,890,082 
 801,917 
 293,829 
 225,967 
 188,586 
 
 $1,446,648 
 
 $282,244 
 202,868 
 136,688 
 248,843 
 204,818 
 207,997 
 197,282 
 185,684 
 262,417 
 178,690 
 
 $l,66o 
 
 ll',920 
 
 ,- T,599 
 
 2,072 
 
 5,66o 
 
 $630,096 
 
 $187,788 
 98,607 
 74,608 
 104,189 
 74,577 
 80,458 
 91,482 
 105,429 
 109,005 
 46,744 
 
 48,910 
 
 6,409 
 6,679 
 7,425 
 7,914 
 8,869 
 9,620 
 5,946 
 5,486 
 6,215 
 4,225 
 
 11,527 
 1,010 
 
 "708 
 807 
 663 
 607 
 507 
 
 1,838 
 898 
 
 1,962 
 
 $1,947,341 
 
 $218,806 
 292,81$ 
 818,865 
 208,913 
 471,438 
 360,000 
 
 $397,638 
 
 $23,862 
 69,259 
 63,005 
 68,723 
 61,626 
 83,739 
 
 $2,845,029 
 
 $237,168 ■ 
 862,072 
 881,860 • 
 262,641 
 522,959 
 388,739 
 
 $2,066,981 
 
 $174,526 
 261,646, 
 268,298 
 288,964 
 889,974 
 ,382,117 •. 
 
 $28,191 
 
 $1540^ 
 
 17,487 
 
 8,000 
 
 ,17,000 
 4,995 
 2,000 
 
 $922,777 
 
 $15,692 
 
 ' 88,294 
 
 22,887 
 
 48,220 
 
 111,328 
 
 61,788 
 
 3,988 
 6,020 
 5,111 
 4,189 
 5,382 
 4,938 
 
 8,490 
 
 6,126 
 2,440 
 8,320 
 8,637 
 4,562 
 2,786 
 
 Principal Portsi — ^The principal ports of Honduras 
 on the Atlantic are Puerto Cabello, Omoa, and Trux- 
 illo. Puerto Cabello, the first port established by the 
 Spaniards on the northern coast, isi in lat. 15° 49' 
 north. Cortez, in his expedition into Honduras, 
 founded a settlement here for the purpose of making 
 it the grand entrep6t of New Spain. For upward of 
 two centuries it was the principal establishment on the 
 coast ; but, during the time of the buccaneers it was 
 removed to Omoa, because of the large size of the 
 bay, which could not be properly defended. This bay 
 Is not less than nine miles in ciroumference, of ample 
 depth— two thirds of it being from 6 to 12 fathoms — 
 and bag secure bolding-gronnd. It is perfectly pro- 
 
 tected from the N.N.E. and N.W. winds, which are 
 those that prevail on this coast. The port of Omoa, 
 is small but secure, and is defended by a strong fort. 
 The anchorage is good, in from two to six fathoms. 
 Truxillo is situated on the western shore of a noble 
 bay, in lat. 15° 55' north. Population in 1842, 2500 ; 
 1000 whites and Ladinos, and 1600 CaribS. 
 
 The chief exports of British Honduras to the United 
 States are mahogany and various descriptions of dye- 
 woods. Copper, scrap-iron, and other old metals. The 
 following statement exhibits the value of the trade 
 between the United States and Honduras during the 
 years- 1853, 1854, and 1856, up to June 30th of each 
 year: 
 
HON 
 
 988 
 
 HON 
 
 1653. 1854. 1865. 
 
 Imports from United States $1381,860 $262,64t $522,959 
 Exports to United States. . . 268,298 238,954 839,974 
 
 This trade, although small and irregular, and ap- 
 parently from this exhibit not increasing in value, 
 is very favorable to the United States, as is shown 
 by the excess of exports to over the imports from 
 Honduras. 
 
 Hone or Hone-slate. These are various slaty- 
 stones wrought into the form of straight slabs, and 
 used for whetting or sharpening the edges of tools af- 
 ter they have been ground. They consist chiefly of 
 the following : 1. Noi^way rag-stone^ the coarsest variety 
 of the hone-slates : it gives a finer edge than the sand- 
 stones. 2. Charnley Forest stone^ which is used as a 
 substitute for Turkey oil-stone. 3, Ayr stone^ Scotch 
 stone, or slate stone, used for polishing marble and cop- 
 per plates, but the harder kinds for whetstones. 4. Id- 
 wall or Welsh oil-stone, used for small articles of cut- 
 lery. 5. Devonshire oil-stone, for sharpening thin-edged 
 broad tools. 6. Cutlers^ greenstone, from Snowdon, 
 which is very hard and close, and is used for giving 
 the last edge to lancets, etc. 7. German razor-hone, 
 used almost entirely for razors. It is obtained from 
 the slate mountains near Katisbon, where it forms a 
 yellow vein in the blue slate. It is sawn into thin 
 slabs, and cemented to a slab of slate, which serves 
 as a support. 8. Blue polishing stone, a dark slate of 
 uniform texture, used by workers in silver and some 
 other metals, for polishing off the work. 9. Gray pol- 
 ishing stone, somewhat coarser than the blue. 10. 
 Welsh clearing stone, a soft variety of hone-slate 
 used by curriers for giving a fine edge to their broad 
 knives. 11. Peruvian hone, for sharpening large tools. 
 12. Arkansas stone^ from North America. 13. Bohe- 
 mian stones, used by jewelers. 
 
 Turkey oil-stone is superior to every other substance 
 as a whetstone : it will abrade the hardest steel, and 
 is sufficiently compact to resist the pressure required 
 for sharpening a graver. The black variety is some- 
 what harder than the white. These stones are import- 
 ed from Turkej' in irregular masses, seldom exceeding 
 three inches square, and ten inches long, and are cut 
 up by means of the lapidary's splitting-mill and dia- 
 m^ond-powder, then rubbed smooth with sand or emery 
 on an iron plate, inlaid in wood, and secured by glaz- 
 ier's putty. Sperm or neats'-foot oil, or some oil 
 which does not readily thicken, should be used with 
 them. Oil-stone powder is used for grinding together 
 the brass or gun-metal fittings of mathematical instru- 
 ments, and also instead of pumice-stone for polishiug 
 superior brass- work. 
 
 The following analj'ses throw an interesting light 
 on the nature of polishing-stones : 
 
 Comparative Table of tue Pboduot of Beeswax and 
 Homey in eaoii State, 1840 and 1850, according to the 
 United States Census. 
 
 
 Alami- 
 
 Silica. 
 
 Lime. 
 
 Iron. 
 
 Water. 
 
 Magne- 
 sia. 
 
 Carbon- 
 ic add. 
 
 Polish, slate. 
 
 U It 
 
 Bohemian St. 
 Turkey hone 
 
 4-0 
 T'O 
 1-0 
 8-3S 
 
 83-5 
 66-5 
 79-0 
 72-0 
 
 8-5 
 
 1-25 
 
 1-0 
 
 18-83 
 
 1-6 
 2-5 
 4-0 
 
 9-0 
 19-0 
 14-0 
 
 i-5. 
 
 10-33 
 
 Honey (Du. Eonig, Honing ; Fr. Miel ; Ger. Honig ; 
 It. Mele; Lat. Mel; B,as. Med; Sp. Jfz'e/), a vegetable 
 juice collected bj' bees. " It varies according to the 
 nature of the flowers from -which it is collected. Thus, 
 tlie honeys of Minorca, Narbonne, and England are 
 known by their flavors ; and the honey prepared in 
 different parts even of the same country differs. It is 
 separated from the comb by dripping and by expres- 
 sion : the first method affords the purest sort ; the 
 second separates a less pure honey ; and a still inferior 
 kind is obtained by heating the comb before it is 
 pressed. When obtained from young hives, which 
 have not swarmed, it is denominated virgin honey. It 
 is sometimes adulterated with flour, which is detected 
 by mixing it with tepid water : the honey dissolves, 
 while the flour remains nearly unaltered." — ^Thom- 
 son's Diepmsatory, 
 
 states and Territories. 
 
 Beeswax and 
 Honey, lbs. of. 
 
 Wax, lbs. of. 
 
 1850. 
 
 1840. 
 
 
 897,021 
 
 192,838 
 
 550 
 
 98,304 
 
 41,248 
 
 18,971 
 
 782,514 
 
 869,444 
 
 985,329 
 
 321,711 
 
 1,158,019 
 
 96,701 
 
 189,618 
 
 74,802 
 
 59,508 
 
 859,282 
 
 897,460 
 
 1,8-28,972 
 
 117,140 
 
 156,694 
 
 1,765,830 
 
 512,289 
 
 804,275 
 
 889,509 
 
 6,347 
 
 216,281 
 
 1,036,572 
 
 880,825 
 
 249,422 
 
 880,767 
 
 181,005 
 
 80 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 25,226 
 
 7,079 
 
 44 
 
 8,897 
 
 1,088 
 
 75 
 
 19,799 
 
 29,178 
 
 30,647 
 
 2,182 
 
 88,445 
 
 1,012 
 
 8,723 
 
 3,674 
 
 1,196 
 
 4,588 
 
 6,835 
 
 66,461 
 
 1,.346 
 
 10,061 
 
 52,795 
 
 118,923 
 
 88,950 
 
 83,107 
 
 165 
 
 15,857 
 
 60,907 
 
 4,660 
 65,020 
 1,474 
 
 
 Columbia, District of 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Florida 
 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Iowa 
 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Maine 
 
 Maryland 
 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Missouri 
 
 New Hampshire. . . 
 
 
 New York 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 
 
 
 Texas 
 
 
 Virginia 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 Minnesota Territory. 
 
 New Mexico " 
 
 Utah " 
 
 Total 
 
 14,865,800 
 
 618,303 1 
 
 
 Honfleur, a sea-port to-wn of France, Department 
 of Calvados, and arrondissement of Port I'Eveque, on 
 the southern shore of the estuary of the Seine, eight 
 miles south-east of Havre, with which it has regular 
 steam communication. The town is old and ill built. 
 The harbor is accessible only at high water, and is 
 chiefly frequented by fishing or small coasting craft. 
 The herring, mackerel, and whiting fisheries are act- 
 ively prosecuted ; and numerous vessels sail annually 
 for the cod, whale, and seal fisheries. Honfleur sends 
 weekl}' to England about 7000 dozen of eggs, besides 
 butter, fruit, etc. Its commerce, formerly consider- 
 able, has been almost entirely absorbed by Havre. 
 The chief manufactures are hosiery, lace, chemical 
 products, and hardware. There are also ship-building 
 yards, rope-walks, and saw-mUls. The chapel of No- 
 tre Dame de Grace, on the hill above the town, is 
 much frequented by sailors, and filled with their votive 
 offerings. Population 9580. 
 
 Hong Kong, a small island, now a British colony, 
 lying off the coast of China, at the mouth of the Can- 
 ton Eivcr, about 40 mUes east of Macao, in lat. 22° 
 16' 30" N., long. 114° 14' 45' E. It is about nine 
 miles in length by eight in breadth, and is separated 
 from the main land b}^ a narrow strait, varying 
 from less than a mile to four or five miles in width. 
 The appearance of the island is barren and unprepos- 
 sessing. It consists for the most part of ranges of 
 rocky hills, rising sometimes to the height of 1700 or 
 1800 feet above the sea. The highest peak is 1825 
 feet in height. There are no trees of any size on the 
 island, and few valleys of any extent. The rocks of 
 Hong Kong consist of granite intermixed -with quartz, 
 mica, and felspar, affording excellent materials for 
 building. Among the vegetable productions of the 
 island are mango, lichee, longan, orange, pear, rice, 
 sweet potatoes, and yams. A small quantity of flax 
 is grown and prepared for household uses by the vil- 
 lagers. Since the occupation of the island by the 
 English, the potato of Europe and the fruits of Canton 
 and Macao have been introduced, and, lately, many 
 European seeds have been sent out. The land-tortoise, 
 a few small deer, and armadillos, and several kinds of 
 snakes, are found on the island. The climate of Hong 
 
HON 
 
 989 
 
 HOO 
 
 Kong, like that of Macao, is not generally unhealthj, 
 though from the numerous deaths that occurred in 1842 
 and 1843, this was supposed to be the case. Subse- 
 quent years, however, have shown that the climate here 
 is no more prejudicial to health than that of various 
 other eastern tropical possessions. Hong Kong was 
 first ceded to Britain in January, 1841, and again by 
 the treatj' of Nankin, in August, 1842. The govern- 
 ment is administered by a governor, aided by an ex- 
 ecutive council of three members, including the com- 
 mander of the troops. There is also a legislative 
 ^council, presided over by the goveiVor. The govern- 
 ment offices are at Victoria. The following table 
 exhibits the progress of Hong Kong from 1848 to 1853, 
 inclusive : 
 
 Yanri. 
 
 Population, ex- 
 cluBivB of troop's 
 
 Revenue. 
 
 ParUumeiitary 
 grant. 
 
 Expenditure. 
 
 1848 
 1849 
 1860 
 1851 
 1852 
 1853 
 
 21,514 
 29,607 
 83,292 
 82,983 
 87,058 
 89,017 
 
 £25,091 
 23,617 
 28,526 
 23,721 
 21,331 
 24,700 
 
 £28,000 
 25,000 
 20,000 
 16,500 
 12,000 
 9,200 
 
 £62,658 
 88,286 
 84,314 
 84,115 
 84,768 
 86,418 
 
 With reference to these six years, the governor re- 
 marks, " that the call on the home government for 
 a parliamentary grant has been reduced from £25,000 
 to £8500 (£9200 ?) for the currrent year ; that the ex- 
 penditure has been reduced from £62,658 to £36,418 ; 
 that the number of square-rigged vessels frequenting 
 the port has increased from 700 to 1103, while the ton- 
 nage is nearly double ; and that the population has in 
 like manner advanced 82>per cent, during the past six 
 years. In conclusion, I have no hesitation in saying, 
 that were this colony taxed in the same way as are the 
 settlements in the Straits, under the government of the 
 East India Company, it could in a year or two be 
 made to pay its own expenses without the efficiencj' of 
 the government being impaired." — E. B. See Hunt's 
 Mer. Mag., x., 459. 
 
 A parliamentary document relating to Hong Kong 
 has lately been printed, which possesses considerable 
 interest, as it describes the exact position and pros- 
 pects attained by the colony shortly before the break- 
 ing out of the war. It consists of a dispatch from Sir 
 John Bowring, inclosing a copy of the last annual 
 report made to him by the Colonial Secretary on the 
 progress of the island. It appears that the place has 
 benefited not only by the increase of the Chinese trade 
 during the past few years, but by the eff'ects of the 
 rebellion in promoting emigration from Canton. A 
 consequent improvement was observable in the charac- 
 ter of the Chinese population ; and many of the natives, 
 growing in wealth, had also grown in respectability. 
 The increasing disposition to settle on the island was 
 manifested especially among the better class of traders ; 
 and the general tendency to prosperity was furtber 
 stimulated by many of the chief commercial houses in 
 China, both British and American, having lately made 
 Hong Kong their central point of establishment. ' ' The 
 development of steam navigation," it is said, " the 
 rapid extension of trading relations with Australia and 
 Califorina, the increase of trade on the coasts of China, 
 the opening of Siam, and the security which the flag 
 of Great Britain oifers against piratical attacks, are 
 among the causes which have led to these results." 
 The population, which in 1848 was only 24,000, amount- 
 ed, at the beginning of 1856, to 72,600. Owing to the 
 happy fact of the absence of any custom-house, there 
 are no means of furnishing statistical details of the 
 imports and exports, but the signs of an active and 
 rapidly-increasing trade were everywhere visible, and 
 were corroborated by the rate of interest being as high 
 as 36 per cent, per annum ; although the latter circum- 
 stance is partly to be attributed to the comparatively 
 needy condition of the small Chinese traders. The 
 government-house has just been completed, at a cost 
 of £15,000, and many other public improvements were 
 
 in progress. Although the existing jail buildings are 
 pronounced totally inadequate, it was only because lar- 
 cenies and petty ofiFenses had increased with the influx 
 of population, crime of the more serious kind being 
 rare. The impression as to the unhealthiness of the 
 colony seems to be disappearing ; and notwithstanding 
 the large increase in the number of inhabitants in the 
 year 1855, the town of Victoria was found very favor- 
 able for foreigners. The Chinese consider the place 
 not more inimical to health than the towns on the 
 main land. Many improvements remain to be effect- 
 ed, which would doubtless add much to its safety; 
 but the revenue, even at its recent rate of increase, 
 would admit only of moderate undertakings. To 
 meet all requirements, the Colonial Secretary revived 
 a suggestion for the imposition " of a differential duty 
 of, say. Id. per lb. on teas shipped for England from 
 Hong Kong." Sir John Bowring, however, in har- 
 mony with the views now universally established 
 among commercial men, declined to support the rec- 
 ommendation. 
 
 Honitou, a municipal and parliamentary borough 
 and market-town of England, county of Devon, near 
 the left bank of the Otter, 16 miles north-east of Ex- 
 eter. It consists of one wide and well-paved street, 
 along which runs a small stream, supplying the town 
 with water. The houses have generally a neat and re- 
 spectable appearance, having been mostly built since the 
 destructive fires of 1745 and 1765. The parish church, 
 about half a mile from the town, was built by Courtney, 
 Bishop of Exeter, about 1482, and is remarkable for a 
 curiously carved screen. A modern Gothic church 
 stands in the centre of the town. It has a free gram- 
 mar school, national school, hospital, and several char- 
 ities. The serge manufacture was formerly exten- 
 sively carried on here, but now its chief manufac- 
 ture is Honiton lace. Honiton is governed by a port- 
 reeve, and returns two members to Parliament. Pop- 
 ulation in 1851, 3427. 
 
 Honoluln, or Honoruru, the principal town of 
 the Sandwich Islands, and ^le residence of the king, is 
 situated on the south side of the island of Woahoo, in 
 lat. 21° 18' 12" N., long. 157° 55' W. It forms an 
 entrepot for European and Indian goods, whence they 
 are reshipped to America. It is also a general rendez- 
 vous of whaling vessels ; and sometimes 80 sail of 
 them, each from 300 to 500 tons, are at anchor here to- 
 gether. In 1851, 446 merchant ships arrived at the 
 port ; in 1852, 235 ; and in 1853, 194. The imports in 
 1853 amounted to $1,240,976, and the exports to 
 $272,588.' Population about 7000. See Sandwich 
 Islands. ? 
 
 Hooghly, an extensive district in the province of 
 Bengal formerly called Saatgong, situated principally 
 between the 22d and 23d degrees of north latitude, and 
 extending a considerable distance along the right bank 
 of the River Hooghly. It is bounded on the north by 
 the district of Burdwan, on the south by the district 
 of Hidjelee, on the east by the River Hooghly, and on 
 the west by Midnapoor. This district consists of low 
 flat land, very fertile ; but that part which is nearest 
 to the sea is very thinly inhabited ; it is called the 
 Sunderbund, is swampy, covered with wood, and re- 
 markably unhealthy. The right of the East India 
 Company to the district originated in the treaty con- 
 cluded with Meer Cosin in 1760. 
 
 BoogUy, an ancient, and formerly a large town in 
 the province of Bengal, situated on the western bank 
 of the Hooghly, nearly 26 miles above Calcutta, and 
 supposed to have been founded by the Portuguese 
 about the year 1538. During the Mogul government, 
 it was a town of great consequence, being the port of 
 the western arm of the Ganges, where the duties on 
 merchandise were collected. It very soon drew away 
 all the trade from Saatgong, which had been before the 
 government port of Bengal. During the prevalence 
 of the Portuguese dominion in India, Hooghly was for- 
 
HOO 
 
 990 
 
 HOP 
 
 tified, and continued to flourish till the year 1632, when 
 it was attacked by order of the emperor Shah Jehan. 
 and, after a siege of three months and a half, was 
 taken by the Mogul troops, 1000 of the Portuguese 
 being killed, and 4400 men, women, and children, 
 taken prisoners. From this period Hooghly became 
 the imperial port. After this period every encourage- 
 ment was given to commerce ; and Hooghly, which was 
 called Bukhshy Bunder, became a great commercial 
 emporium between Europe, Persia, Arabia, and India. 
 In 1686 hostilities commenced between the English 
 and the Nawaub. An action ensued, in which the 
 Nawaub's troops were defeated ; and at the same 
 time the town of Hooghlj' was cannonaded, and 500 
 houses burned. In 1700 the East India Company's 
 factory was transferred from Hooghly to Calcutta. 
 The population of Hooghly is now estimated at 12,000. 
 The town is situate on the line of railroad recently 
 constructed from Calcutta to Burdwan. E. long. 88° 
 22', N. lat. 22° 54'. 
 
 HoogUy River, properly the Bhagirutty, a river of 
 Bengal, formed by the junction of the two westernmost 
 branches of the Ganges, the Cossimbazar, and the 
 JcUinghy. This is the port of Calcutta, being the 
 only branch of the Ganges that is navigated by large 
 vessels ; yet the entrance to the river is rendered ex- 
 tremely dangerous and difficult, by reason of numerous 
 sandbanks in it, which are frequentlj' shifting. There 
 is indeed a rumor afloat that the river is gradually 
 silting up, and must eventually cease to be navigable. 
 This would prove a fearful blow to the trade of Cal- 
 cutta, and the proposed remedy is to connect the River 
 Mutwal with the capital by railway or ship canal. 
 During the prevalence of the south-west monsoon,' 
 when a strong current sets in from the Bay of Bengal, 
 the extraordinary phenomenon, termed by Europeans 
 the " Bore," occasionally presents itself. It rises in 
 waves 12 or 15 feet high, and rushes in at the rate of 
 20 miles an hour. It commences at Hooghly Point, 
 where the river first contracts itself, and is perceptible 
 above Hooghly town; and though the distance is 
 above 70 miles, it traverses this space in about four 
 hours, running along the opposite bank to the Calcutta 
 side, whence it crosses at Chitpoor, about four miles 
 above Fort William, and rushes with great violence 
 past Barnagore, Duckingsore, etc., frequently over- 
 setting boats and driving ships from their anchorage. 
 At Calcutta it sometimes occasions an instantaneous 
 rise of five feet. The tide does not rise more than 30 
 mUes above Calcutta ; and during the rainy season its 
 influence is checked by the large body of water that 
 comes down the river. The Hboghly contains several 
 kinds of good fish, particularly Ciprinus Anjana, the 
 mango fish, or Polymmus paradoxus, and prawns ; and 
 it abounds also in crocodiles and sharks. It is about 
 three quarters of a mUe broad at Calcutta, and 8 or 10 
 miles wide at the mouth. It is only navigable for ships 
 as high as the tide reaches, and the upper part of it is 
 nearly dry during the hot season ; yet there are few 
 rivers that can boast of a more extensive commerce, 
 its banks being studded with numerous towns and vil- 
 lages. It is esteemed by the Hindoos to be the most 
 sacred branch of the Ganges, and it is on this account 
 that those who can not aSbrd to bury their dead throw 
 them into the Hooghly. — E. B. See Calcutta. 
 
 Hookah, an oriental pipe used chiefly in Turkey, 
 by which the smoke of the tobacco is made to pass 
 through water in order to cool it and render it more 
 grateful to the mouth. 
 
 Hoorn, a fortified sea-port town of Holland, prov- 
 ince of North Holland, on the Zuyder-Zee, 20 miles 
 north by east of Amsterdam. It carries on a consid- 
 erable trade, though in this respect it is much inferior 
 to what it once was. The exports are chiefly butter, 
 cheese, cattle, herrings, and other kinds of provisions. 
 The manufactures comprise woolen cloths, carpets, 
 etc. Ship-building and the herring fishery are exten- 
 
 sively carried on. It has a naval college. Hoorn was 
 the birth-place of Schouten, who in 1616 discovered 
 Cape Horn, and named it after his native town ; and 
 of Tasman, the discoverer of Van Dieman's Land and 
 New Zealand. Population about 9000. 
 
 Hops' (Ger.HbjB/ere; Bu.Hoppe; Ft. Soublon ; It. 
 Luppoli, Bitisqanaoli ; Sp. Obion; Eus. Chmel; Lat. 
 Humulus Lupulus), The hop is » perennial rooted 
 plant, of which there are several varieties. It has an 
 annual twining stem, which, when supported on poles, 
 or trees, will reach the height of from 12 to 20 feet 
 or more. It is a hative of Britain, and most parts of 
 Europe. When the hop was first used for preserving 
 and improving beer, or cultivated for that purpose, is 
 not known ; but its culture was introduced into En- 
 gland from Flanders in the reign of Henry VIII. 
 Hops are first mentioned in the Statute Book in 1552, 
 Edward VI. ; and it would appear from an act passed 
 in 1603 that hops were at that time extensively culti- 
 vated in England. Walter Blithe, in his Improver Im- 
 proved, published in 1649, has a chapter upon improve- 
 ment by plantations of hops, in which there is this 
 striking passage. He observes, that " hops were then 
 grown to be a national commodity ; but that it was 
 not many years since the famous city of London peti- 
 tioned the Parliament of England against two nui- 
 sances ; and these were, Newcastle coals, in regard to 
 their stench, etc., and hops, in regard they would spoyl 
 the taste of drink, and endanger the people ; and had 
 the Parliament been no wiser than they, we had been 
 in a measure pined, and in a great measure starved ; 
 which is just answerable to the principles of those 
 men who cry down all devices, or ingenious discov- 
 eries, as projects, and thereby stifle and choke im- 
 provement." After the hops have been picked and 
 dried, the brightest and finest are put into the pockets or 
 fine bagging, and the brown into coarse or heavy bag- 
 ging. The former are chiefly used in the brewing of 
 fine ales, and the latter by the porter brewers. A 
 pocket of hops; if they be good in quality, well cured 
 and tight trodden, will weigh about IJ cwt. ; and a hag 
 of hops will, under the same conditions, weigh about 
 2^ cwt. If the weight of either exceeds or falls much 
 short of this medium, there is reason to suspect that 
 the hops are of an inferior quality, or have been badly 
 manufactured. The brighter the color of the hops, 
 the greater is the estimation in which they are held. 
 Famham hops are reckoned best. The expense of 
 forming hop plantations in Great Britain is verj' great, 
 amounting in some instances to from £70 to £100 an 
 acre; and the produce is verj' uncertain, the crop 
 being frequently insufficient to defray the expenses of 
 cultivation. 
 
 According to Anderson's Annals of Commerce, hops 
 were introduced from the Netherlands into England 
 A.D. 1524, and were used in brewing; but the physi- 
 cians having represented that thej' were unwholesome. 
 Parliament was petitioned against them as being a 
 wicked weed, and their use was prohibited in 1528. 
 At present there are between 50,000 and 60,000 acres, 
 on an average, annually under the culture of hops in 
 England. They are grown chiefly in Hereford, Kent, 
 and Worcestershire. — Haydn. 
 
 Hops produced in the United States. — ^A gratifying 
 increase has taken place in the culture of this useful 
 article. The gain has been nearlj' 200 per cent. Al- 
 most the whole of the increment, however, has been 
 in the State of New York, which, from less than half 
 a million of pounds in 1840, now produces more than 
 two and a half millions, which exceeds five sevenths 
 of the whole crop of the United States. In connection 
 with this circumstance, it may be mentioned that New 
 York also stands foremost in the production of ale, 
 beer, and porter, in the manufacture of which the 
 larger part of the hops raised is consumed. The 
 breweries of this State produced 645,000 barrels of ale, 
 etc., in 1850, being more than a third of the quantity 
 
HOR 
 
 991 
 
 HOR 
 
 said to te produced in the whole Union. See Patent 
 Office Rep. U. S. ; Hunt's Mag., xiv., 395. See also 
 articles Ale and Beer Brewing. 
 
 Statoa'nnd TerrtttSrles. 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 Columbia, District of. . 
 
 ConTiectlcut. 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Geoi^ia. 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Indiana...! 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Keotucky 
 
 Louisiana..... 
 
 Maine , 
 
 Marylitid 
 
 Massachusetts , 
 
 Michigan.... 
 
 sippi. 
 
 Missoun., 
 
 New Hampshire, . 
 New Jersey..... - 
 
 N^w Tork 
 
 North Carolina... 
 
 Ohio 
 
 . Pennsylvania . . * . 
 
 Bbode Island 
 
 South Carolina... 
 
 Tonriessoo 
 
 Vermont. 
 
 Virginia.,...)...,.. 
 "Wiscon^lri .', 
 
 Totai.' 
 
 Hops, pounds, 
 
 *276 
 15T 
 
 15 
 
 28 
 
 554 
 
 4,573 
 
 848 
 
 746 
 
 261. 
 
 778 
 
 „ 8,531 
 
 17,742 
 
 93,7S6 
 
 88,591 
 
 ■■ B.MZ' 
 
 '88 
 
 '.4,809 
 
 T42 
 
 ., 126 
 40.120 
 
 115 
 
 36,940 
 
 1,870 
 
 2,35T 
 
 121,695 
 
 2545796 
 
 10,663 
 
 11,881 
 
 478 
 
 154 
 
 4,180 
 
 789 
 
 267,1-74 ■ 
 
 248,425 
 
 2,13?,, 
 
 , .4,681 
 
 2,536,299 
 
 447,250 
 
 9,246 
 
 1,068 
 
 63,781 
 
 62,195 
 
 277 
 
 26 
 
 1,082 
 
 288,028 
 
 .11,606 
 
 15,980 
 
 49,481 
 
 113 
 
 93 
 
 860 
 
 48,13,7 
 
 ,10,697 
 
 138 
 
 8,496,960 I 1,288,502 
 
 Horizon ((ipifu, I hound), the plane of a grea|t 
 drcuit which divides the upper or visible from the 
 lower or invisible hbmisphere. See Geography. 
 
 Horn (Du. ffoorn ; Fr. Come ; Ger. ffom ; Lat. 
 Cornii), a substance well known to manufacturers. 
 Horns are of very considerable importance in the arts, 
 being applied to a great variety of useful purposed. 
 They' are very extensively used in the manufacture 
 of handles for knives, and in that of spoons, combs, 
 lanterns, snuff-boxes, etc. When divided into thin 
 plates, horns are tolerably transparent, and were form- 
 erly used instead of glass in windows. Glue is some- 
 times made out of 'the refuse of horn. 
 
 The projecting weapons on the head of the ox, the 
 sheep; the antelopfe, and the' rhinoceros, consist of a 
 sheath of horn on a core of bone. ■ Horn is composed 
 chieflj' of coagulated- albniaen, gelatine, and a small 
 portion of phos|)hate of linie. ■ It is' essentially dis- 
 tinct from bone and ivory; the antlers of the stag, al- 
 though sometimes called horns, consist entirely of 
 bone. Modifications of horns may be noticed in the 
 scales of the armfadillo, thfe plate armor of the tortoise, 
 the spines of the porcupine and hiedge-hog, the quills 
 of birds,' and the ' lioofs, claws, and nails, of animals. 
 For manufacturing purposes, the horhs and hoofs of 
 the bull and cow are in request, and there is a large 
 import of these from South America, southern Africa, 
 and from Russia. The horns of the bison and buffalo, 
 the chamois and the antelope, are used for the better 
 kinds of work. 
 
 The manufacturer first detaches the horn from the 
 bony core, by macerating the horn in water for a 
 month or six weeks, when the membrane by which 
 the horn is attached to the core putrifies and allows 
 the two to be separated. The ash of Ihe cores makes 
 excellent cupels for the assay of gold and silver. The 
 solid tips of the horn are sawn off, and are used for 
 handles for knives, for buttons, etc. ; the other portion 
 of the horn is cut into short lengths, or soaked whole 
 in boiling water, or heated at a fire, the effect of which 
 is "to soften it, and allow it to be spread«out nearly flat. 
 Thesis are next pressed between warm and greased 
 iron plates, the pressure varj^g according to circum- 
 stances. If intended for lanterns, the pressure is con- 
 tinued until the horn separates into distinct plates ; 
 these are placed on a board covered with hide, and 
 scraped with a knife having a wire edge. Some of the 
 
 shavings which come off are sometimes dyed and cut 
 into various focms, and are so sensitive as to curl up 
 by the warmth of the hand. They are sold at toy- 
 shops under the name of "sensitive leaves." After 
 the scraping, the sheets of horn are polished with a 
 woolen cloth dipped in charcoal dust and water, next 
 with rotten-stone, and lastly with horn shavings. 
 
 The effect of heat and pressure on light-colored horn 
 is to render it transparent ; but most of the articles 
 made of horn are colored artificially by boiling the 
 horn in infusions of coloring matter. If the horn be 
 intended for combs, the pressure must be moderated, 
 or the teeth will be brittle ; if intended for drinking 
 cups, the horn is cut into lengths, scalded, roasted, and 
 molded in a cone of wood, and a wooden plug is driven 
 into it for pressing the horn into the required shape. 
 After this, the cup is turned and polished at the lathe, 
 and a groove is ditto receive the bottom ; this cut out 
 of a flat piece of horn by means of a crown saw, and 
 the bottom of the cup having been softened at the fire, 
 the disk is forced into the groove, and the horn con- 
 tracting in cooling mjikes a water-tight joint. For 
 knife-handle and similar works, the horn is cut nearly 
 •to the required form, and is molded in dies with the 
 assistance of heat and a powerful screw-press. The 
 work is finished by scraping and buffing with Trent 
 sand and oil, or rotten-stone and oil; Horn is some- 
 times used as a vehicle for applying polishing powders 
 to the flat works of the watchmaker. In the Great 
 Exhibition of 1851j there were sundry small articles 
 of chamois horn, consisting of brooches, shirt-buttons, 
 rings, and watch-keys, by a Swiss exhibitor ; there 
 were also some transparent horn paintings from Ham- 
 burg, and a pair of polished cx-homs from Port Natal, 
 ■with the head complete, measuring from tip to tip 8 
 ft. 4 in., and 21 in. circumference. The best collec- 
 tion of articles in horn-work' was, however, from 
 Turkey .-.-E. B. 
 
 Hern Manufactures. Horn is emploj'ed for 
 all the purposes of tortoise-shell ; and its much greater 
 cheapness gives it a more extended application. 
 Knife-handles, ■ buttons, umbrella-handles, whip-tops, 
 bell.^ulls, drawer-knobs, sides of lanterns, and combs, 
 are among the' numerous articles made of horn. For 
 the larger bulk of these manufactures in England; ox- 
 horns are chiefly used ; but those of the ram, the ante- 
 lope, the btiffisild,' the deer, etc., are employed for 
 Special purposes. To show how enormous the con- 
 sumption must be, it is sufiicient to state that Liver- 
 pool imported, in 1850, no less than 120 tons of buffalo 
 tips, 200 tons of buffalo horns, 280 tons of deer horns, 
 and 700 tons of ox and cow horns. Horn is brought 
 into manufactured forms by processes hearing some 
 analogy to those employed in the gutta-percha manu- 
 facture, by heat and moisture; a higher temperature 
 being, however,, required for the horn. 
 
 Horn, or Hoorn, Cape, commonly considered the 
 southern extremity of America, is not a part of that 
 continent, but the most southerly point of a small 
 island of the Tierra del Fuego group. S. lat. 56° 58' 
 40", W. long. 67° 16'. It consists of a lofty, precip- 
 itous, bare black rock, running far out into the sea ; 
 and was formerly considered dangerous to pass on ac- 
 count of the strong westerlj' gales that prevaU in its 
 neighborhood during summer, but as these are re- 
 stricted to the vicinity of the cape, vessels avoid the 
 difficulty by sailing in a higher latitude. It was dis- 
 covered in 1616 by the Dutch navigator Schouten, 
 who named it after his native tofrn, Hoorn. See 
 Cape Hoek. 
 
 Horse-chestnut. The horse-chestnut is a tree of 
 the largest size, with an erect trunk, and a pyramidal 
 head, sometimes attaining a height of 90 or 100 feet. 
 The leaves are large, of a deep green, and singularly 
 interesting and beautiful, when first developed. When 
 inclosed in the bud, they are covered with a pubes- 
 cence, that falls off, as they become expanded, which 
 
HOR 
 
 992 
 
 HOR 
 
 occurs sooner or later, according to the dryness or 
 moistness of the season. 
 
 Geography and History. — The native country of the 
 common horse-chestnut, Mr. Koyle observes, "is yet 
 unknown, though stated in some "works, to be the 
 north of India." He says that he never met with it, 
 though often visiting the mountains of that country, 
 where, if anywhere, it was likely to be found, and 
 where the Indian horse-chestnut was found in abund- 
 ance. 
 
 According to M. Bon de Saint-Hilaire, the horse- 
 chestnut passed from the mountains of Thibet to En- 
 gland in 1550, and thence to Vienna, by Clusius, and 
 afterward to Paris, by Bachelier. It is also stated by 
 Clusius, in his " Rariorum Plantarum Historia," that 
 there was a plant of this species at Vienna, in 1588, 
 which had been brought there 12 years before, but 
 which had not then flowered. It has also been said 
 that this tree was first raised in France, from seeds 
 procured from the Levant, in the year 1515, by one 
 Bachelier. Parkinson, in 1629, says, " Our Christian 
 world had first a knowledge of it from Constantino- 
 ple." The same author placed it in his orchard, as a 
 fruit-tree, between the walnut and the mulberries. 
 We afterward find it mentioned in Johnson's edition 
 of Gerard's " Herbal," in 1633, as then growing in Mr. 
 Tradescant's garden, at South Lambeth. From this 
 period till the time of Miller, it appears to have at- 
 tracted great attention, and acquired a high reputation 
 as an ^ornamental tree, as he represents it in 1731, as 
 being very common in England, and extensively em- 
 ployed in the formation of avenues and public walks, 
 
 ■The wood of the horse-chestnut is white and very 
 soft, and according to Loudon, when dry, weighs from 
 35 to 37 pounds to a cubic foot. It is unfit for use 
 where much strength and durability in the open air 
 are required ; nevertheless, there are many purposes 
 for which it is applicable, when sawn into boards ; 
 such as for flooring, lining to carts, packing-cases, etc. 
 In France, sabots, or wooden shoes, are made from it ; 
 and it is said to be used by carvers, turners, etc. 
 Boutcher says, that it is suitable for water-pipes that 
 are to be kept constantly under ground ; and it is also 
 recommended for this purpose by Du Hamel. The 
 charcoal made of this species may be used in the manu- 
 facture of gunpowder \ and the ashes of ever)'" part of 
 the plant, more especially of the fruit, aff"ord pot-ash 
 in considerable quantity. The bark, which is very 
 bitter, is employed for tanning, and also for dyeing 
 3'ellow ; and it has been used medicinally as a sub- 
 stitute for .Jesuit's bark. In Turkey, the nuts are 
 ground, and mixed with horse-food, especially when 
 the animals are broken- winded ; and in their crude 
 state, they are eaten by goats, sheep, deer, and hogs. 
 They are used in Ireland to whiten linen, and for this 
 purpose are rasped into water, in which they are al- 
 lowed to macerate for some time. The saponaceous 
 juice which they contain is very useful, not only in 
 bleaching, but in washing linens and other stufi's. 
 The nuts must be peeled and ground, and the flour of 
 twenty of them is sufficient for ten quarts of water ; 
 and either linens or woolens may be washed with the 
 infusion, without any soap, as it efl'ectually eradicates 
 spots of all kinds. The clothes, however, should af- 
 terward be rinsed in clean water. The nuts, when 
 ground into flour, and mixed in the proportion of one 
 third with the flour of wheat, are said to add to the 
 strength of bookbinder's paste ; and when steeped in 
 hot water, and mixed with an equal proportion of bran, 
 it makes a nutritious food for pigs and poultry. M. 
 Vergaud has proposed to change the starch contained 
 in the flour, into sugar, and afterward employ it in 
 distillation. — Browne's Trees of America. 
 
 Horse (G^t:. Pferd ; Du. Paard; Da. Best; Sw. 
 .Hast; Fr. Cheval ; It. Cavallo ; Sp. Caballo; Ens. 
 Loschad; Pol. Kon ; Lat. Equvs ; Gr. 'iTfTrof), a do- 
 mestic quadruped of the highest utility, being by far 
 
 the most valuable acquisition made by man among the 
 lower animals. The people of Thessaly were excel- 
 lent equestrians, and probably were the first, among 
 the Greeks at least, who rode upon horses, and broke 
 them in for service in war ; whence arose the fable 
 that Thessaly was originally inhabited by centaurs. 
 And Soloman had 40,000 stalls of horses for his chari- 
 ots, and 12,000 horsemen.— 1 Kings, iv. 26. The 
 power of the horse is equal to that of five men. — Smea- 
 TON. A horse can perform the wbrk of six men. — 
 BosacET. The Greeks and Romans had some cover- 
 ing to secure their horses' hoofs from injurj'. In the 
 9th century, horses were only shod in the time of 
 frost. The practice of shoeing was introduced into 
 England by "William I., 1066. In England there are 
 2,000,000 draft and pleasure horses, and 100,000 ag- 
 ricultural horses, which consume the produce of 7,000,- 
 000 acres. The horse-tax was imposed in 1784, and 
 was then levied on all saddle and coach horses in En- 
 gland. The existing duty upon " horses for riding" 
 only, in England, amounts to about £350,000 per year. 
 — Haydn. It maj' be fairly estimated that there are 
 in Great Britain from 1,300,000 to 1,400,000 horses 
 employed for various purposes of pleasure and utility. 
 The}' may, probablj', be worth at an average from £10 
 to £12, making their total value from £13,000,000 to 
 £16,800,000 sterling, exclusive of the young horses. 
 
 In the United States, there were, in the year 1850, 
 4,385,358 horses, the largest number (463, doO> being 
 in the State of Ohio. See Census Report U. S. See 
 also. United States, Live Stock of; Living Age, x., 
 305, xxi., 411 ; Quar. Rev., xxviii., 26. The most 
 reliable and valuable work on the horse, is by Feank 
 FoBESTEE, 8vo., New York, 1857. 
 
 The first animals brought to America from Europe 
 were imported by Columbus, in his second voyage, in 
 1493. He left Spain as admiral of 17 ships, bringing 
 a collection of European trees, plants, and seeds of 
 various kinds, a number of horses, a bull, and several 
 cows. The first horses brought into any part of the 
 territory at present embraced in the United States, 
 were landed at Florida, by Cabe9a de Vaca, in 1527, 
 42 in number, all of which perished or were otherwise 
 killed. The next importation was also brought to 
 Florida, by De Soto, in 1539, which consisted of a 
 large number of horses and swine, among which were 
 13 sows, the progeny of the latter soon increasing to 
 several hundred. The principal breeds of horses, 
 adapted for specific purposes, in the middle, northern, 
 and western States, are the Norman, the Canadian, 
 the Morgan, the Conestoga or Pennsylvanian, the 
 Virginian, and the Kentuckian. For carriages of 
 heavy draught the Conestogas are regarded by many 
 as the best. For the saddle, draught, and other use- 
 ful purposes, the Morgans are highly prized, especially 
 in New York. For roadsters, the Normans and Cana- 
 dians are frequently sought. For blood, the Virgin- 
 ians and Kentuckians generally take the lead. 
 
 Horse Latitudes. On the polar side of the 
 zones of calms, bordering the north-east trade-winds 
 on the north, and bordering the south-east trade-winds 
 on the south, there is a broad band extending up into 
 the polar regions, the prevailing winds within which 
 are the opposites of the trade-winds, viz., south-west 
 in the northern and north-west in the southern hemi- 
 sphere. The equatorial edge of these calm belts is 
 near the tropics, and their average breadth is 10° or 
 12°. On one side of these belts the winds blow per- 
 petually toward the equator ; on the other, their pre- 
 vailing direction is toward the poles. They are called 
 the " horse latitudes" by seamen. These calm zones 
 vibrate up and down with the trade-wind zones, par- 
 taking of their motions, and following the declination 
 of the sun. Along the polar borders of these two 
 calm belts (§ 190) we have another region of precipita- 
 tion, though generally the rains here are not so con- 
 stant as they are in the equatorial calms. The 
 
HOS 
 
 993 
 
 HOIJ 
 
 precipitation near the tropical calms is nevertheless 
 sufficient to mark the seasons j for whenever these 
 calm zones, as they go from north to south with the 
 sun, leave s^^ given parallel, the rainy season of that 
 parallel, if it be in winter, is said to commence. 
 Hence we may explain the rainy season in Chili at 
 the south, and in California at the north. — Madry's 
 Pht/s. Geog, 
 
 Hors'e-pOTver, a unit of force introduced by 
 Watt to enable him to determine what size of engine 
 to send to his customers to supersede the number of 
 horses which the new power was to replace. Watt 
 ascertained at one of the London breweries that the 
 average force exerted by the strongest horse was suffi- 
 cient to raise 33,000 lbs. one foot high in a minute ; 
 thus, an engine of 200 horse-power would be a force 
 equal to that of 200 horses, each lifting 33,000 lbs. one 
 foot high per minute. Watt had two methods of esti- 
 mating and comparing his engines — viz., by the power, 
 and by the dutif. By the power is meant the quantity 
 of worlt which an engine can effect in a given time ; 
 by the duty is meant the quantity of work which it 
 can effect by a given expenditure of fuel. Now, it is 
 evident that without any change in the size of an en- 
 gine, but simply by increasing the pressure of the 
 steam, the power of an engine may be greatly in- 
 creased — that is, the load remaining constant, the 
 speed of the piston may be increased, the number of 
 strokes may be increased, and, consequently, the 
 work done per minute will be increased also. Hence 
 it is difficult to apply a limit to the power obtainable 
 from the smallest cylinder, provided the boiler be 
 large enough to evaporate the increased quantitj- of 
 water, and strong enough to resist the increased burst- 
 ing pressure. In fact, no size of cylinder can be 
 reclconed as having a particular power, since the power 
 depends not on size but on strengtli. Nevertheless, 
 in modern engineering the term Jtorss-power refers 
 rather to the size of the cylinder than to the power 
 exerted, and the value of the unit has undergone man}'' 
 changes ; so that in a modern engine, a horse-power 
 may imply 62,000 lbs., or 60,000 lbs., or 66,000 lbs., one 
 foot high per minute. The plan now adopted for ascer- 
 taining the performances of different engines is by an 
 instrument called an indicator. This consists of a 
 small cylinder iitted with a piston, which is pressed 
 down by a spring. By the height to which this piston 
 rises against the spring the steam pressure within the 
 cylinder of the engine is indicated ; and the number 
 of pounds pressure on the square inch multiplied into 
 the number of square inches in the area of the cylin- 
 der, and by the number of feet traveled through by 
 the piston per minute, gives the impelling power ; de- 
 duct in large engines about one tenth for friction, and 
 the remainder is the efficient moving power, which, 
 divided by 33,000, gives the actual horse-power.— E. B. 
 
 Hospital, Hospitale, in cloisters, the place of 
 shelter for strangers, whether rich or poor; thus 
 equivalent to our hotel, the Xenodocheion of the 
 Greeks, the Hospitium of the Romans. The hospitalia 
 of the Romans correspond with our inns. They were 
 small erections on the right and left of the main 
 house. In Greece, a person who had done any great 
 public service might be rewarded with money and 
 provisions, but be required" to look after a place of 
 abode himself. Bearing some resemblance to our 
 present hospitals were the public buildings for the 
 aged women of Delos, built on the island called Rhene ; 
 and those buildings which, at a later period, were 
 erected near the temple of .lEsculapius, for sick per- 
 sons coming in search of health. It was possibly a 
 similar institution which Antonius built at Epidaurns. 
 Another appears to have existed on the island of the 
 Tiber at Rome, to which sick slaves were brought to 
 be healed. Bethuda (house of mercy), with five 
 porches, was a place in Jerusalem to which the sick 
 were brought to await the moving of the waters. 
 Rr E 
 
 Also the Tabema Meritorum at Rome appears to have 
 been a hospital for invalids. Hospitals for the poor 
 and sick are prominently characteristic of Christian- 
 ity. So early as the Council of Nice, A. d.' 325, they 
 are spoken of as commonly known. The first cele- 
 brated hospital was that of Cassarea, a. d. 370-380, 
 richly endowed by the Emperor Valens. It was of 
 immense dimensions. After it followed the hospital 
 of Chrysostom, at Constantinople. In the ninth cen- 
 t\XTy there were 24 hospitals in Rome alone. A found- 
 ling hospital was first established at Milan, A. d. 787 ; 
 a lazaretto about the same time in Constantinople; 
 and an orphan hospital in the same city, A. D. 1090, 
 by Alexius I. Hospitals are now luiiversally estab- 
 lished in all parts of Christendom, and appropriated 
 for all classes of the community, and for all kinds of 
 diseases. See Greenwich HospitaTj. See Living 
 Age, xviii., 174; Fraser's Mag., xxxvii., 539; Dublin 
 Univ., vii., 222. 
 
 By the laws of the United States, foreign seamen 
 arriving in the United States pay each 20 cents per 
 month to the collector of the port, as hospital money, 
 and pay 25 cents per day when in hospitals under 
 medical treatment. Marine hospitals are erected by 
 the United States at New York, New Orleans, Boston, 
 and other ports, for the accommodation of disabled 
 and side seamen, under the supervision of the Treas- 
 ury Department. For disabled naval officers and sea- 
 men, navy hospitals have been erected at Philadelphia, 
 Brooklyn, N. Y., Norfolk, and other sea-ports, sup- 
 ported by grants by Congress, and from contributions 
 of one ration per day from each inmate. — DuxLAp'a 
 Digest Laws XJ. S., 320, 449, 822. 
 
 HoilBsa is the name of an extensive portion of 
 Central Africa, which, along with Boruou, bears 
 the general name of Soudan, or Land of the South. 
 It consists of various petty kingdoms or states, which 
 occupy territorj^ stretching east and west from the up- 
 per course of the Yeou nearly to the Niger, the bound- 
 aries of which on the south, and north, and west have 
 now for the first time been determined by Dr. Barth. 
 This region appears in several respects to be superior 
 to the countries on either side of it. It is less sultr}-, 
 an advantage which it probably owes to its higher 
 elevation. The face of the country bears marks of 
 greater cultivation, the field!s being covered with large 
 crops of several kinds of Indian corn, two of which 
 are annually produced ; and, to prevent the grain 
 from being destroj'ed by insects, it is secured in gra- 
 naries raised on poles. The soil is well watered by 
 the Rivers Sokoto, Mariadi, Z3'rmie, Bugga, Zoma, and 
 others, which, with several tributaries, flows westward 
 to join the Niger. On its eastern quarter it is tra- 
 versed by the Yeou, and on its southern hy the Benueh 
 or Chadda. Besides these natural supplies of water, 
 artificial irrigation is diligently practiced. 
 
 The dominant people in Houssa are the Fellatas, 
 this country forming, in fact, a considerable portion of 
 the empire of Sokoto, which again comprises the east- 
 ern part of the Fellata dominions. 
 
 In the western tracts of Houssa there are few towns 
 of anj- importance : some were visited, and have been 
 described by Captain Clapperton. 
 
 Kano, the capital of a province of the same name, 
 and the principal commercial city of Houssa, is situ- 
 ated in N. lat. 12° 0' 19", and E. long. 8° 30f. It 
 may contain between 30,000 and 40,000 inhabitants, of 
 whom a great proportion are slaves. This number is 
 exclusive of strangers, who crowd thither during the 
 dry months from all parts of Africa. The city is of 
 an irregular oval shape, about 15 miles in circumfer- 
 ence, and surrounded by a clay wall 30 feet in height, 
 having a drj' ditch on both sides of it. There are 14 
 gates made of wood, and covered with sheet iron, and 
 these are regularly opened and shut at sunrise and 
 sunset. A platform inside, with two guard-houses be- 
 low it, serves to defend each entrance. The houses 
 
HOU 
 
 994 
 
 HUA 
 
 within tiie walls do not occupj' more than one fourth 
 of the ground inclosed, the remaining space being laid 
 out in fields and gardens. The city is almost divided 
 into two parts by a large morass, which stretches from 
 east to west. This swamp is crossed by a small neck 
 of land, which is overflowed during tlie rainy season, 
 but in the diy season the market is held upon it. 
 
 The great market is held upon the neck of land 
 which intersects the morass. Here streets consisting 
 of sheds or stalls of bamboo are regularly arranged, 
 different places being allotted to those who traffic in 
 different commodities. The latter consist of cattle, 
 vegetables, fruits, the fine cotton fabrics of the coun- 
 try, gora or koUa nuts, which are called African coffee, 
 and crude antimony, with which every ej^ebrow in 
 Houssa is dyed. The Arabs also dispose of sundry 
 commodities, such as various dresses. The slaves, 
 who constitute the staple article of trade, have a spe- 
 cial market appropriated to them, consisting of two 
 long ranges of sheds, one for males and the other for 
 females. Here these poor creatures, drawn up in reg- 
 ular array, and dressed in attractive attire, are in- 
 spected and scrutinized by purchasers, in much the 
 same manner as horses are in the cattle-markets of 
 this country. Tlie market of Kano is under the super- 
 intendence of a sheik, who regulates the police, and 
 is said also to possess the exorbitant power of fixing 
 the prices. The medium of exchange consists of the 
 small shells called cowries, 480 of which make a shil- 
 ling, so that paying a large sum is here rather a tedious 
 process. Kano is celebrated all over Central Africa 
 for the dyeing of cloth, for which process there are 
 numerous establishments. Some ingenuity'' is dis- 
 played in the manufacture of leathern jars, which are 
 fashioned upon a clay mold out of the raw hide. The 
 inhabitants are also acquainted with the art of tan- 
 ning. The negroes here are very polite and ceremo- 
 nious, especially to those advanced in years. A 
 part of the city is appropriated to the use of those 
 who are afiiicted ^vith blindness, which is a prevalent 
 disease. 
 
 By the most correct accounts, it would appear that 
 the i'ellatas are an off-shoot from the Foolahs of west- 
 ern Africa, and ma}"^ be identified with them. They 
 are a mixture of Moors, Arabs, Berbers, and probably 
 other races of men, and are gradually extending their 
 authority over central Africa. They are much supe- 
 rior to the native negroes, with whom they veiy rarely 
 mix their blood. Captain Lyon, speaking of the Fel- 
 latas, observes, "their complexion being of a much 
 lighter hue than that of the other tribes, they call 
 themselves white ; their color resembles that of our 
 gypsies in England. Many female slaves are brought 
 to Mourzouk from their nation, and are ver}-^ hand- 
 some women.'* Other observers describe their com- 
 plexion as being very dark, and of a shade intermediate 
 between that of the deepest African and the Moors. 
 The fact seems to be, that their color varies in a very 
 remarkable manner, from being nearlj' white to nearly 
 black. Both men and women pay considerable atten- 
 tion to their dress, which among the wealthy inhabit- 
 ants is rather show}'. In their domestic habits they 
 are regular, orderly, and cleanly, and the slaves are 
 generally well treated. The Mohammedan is the pre- 
 dominant religion, and considerable attention is paid 
 to keeping up an appearance of it. Prayers arc reg- 
 ularly said five times a day in the Arabic language, 
 which both the male and female children of the better 
 sort of Fellatas are taught to read and write. Their 
 marriages are celebrated without any pomp or noise, 
 and such contracts are of a less arbitrary nature than 
 we find them to be among the inferior races of man- 
 kind. Captain Clapperton makes the following re- 
 marks regarding Houssa: — "The government of the 
 Fellatas in Soudan is in its infancy. The govern- 
 ors of the different provinces are appointed during 
 [ileasure ; and all their property, on their death or re- 
 
 moval, falls to the sultan. The appointment to a 
 vacancy is sold to the highest bidder, who is generally 
 a near relation, provided that his propertj' is sufficient 
 to enable him to bid up to the mark. All the inferior 
 offices in the towns are sold in like manner by the gov- 
 ernors, who also succeed to the property of those petty 
 officers at their death or removal. A great deal of 
 marketable property'' is claimed by the governor, such 
 as two thirds of the produce of all the date-trees and 
 other fruit-trees, the proprietor being allowed only the 
 remaining third. A small duty is also levied on everj'" 
 article sold in the market ; or, in lieu thereof, a cer- 
 tain rent is paid for the stall or shed., A duty is also 
 fixed on every tobe that is dyed blue, and sold. On 
 grain there is no duty. Kano produces the greatest 
 revenue that the sultan receives ; it is paid monthly, 
 in horses, cloth, and cowries. Adamowa pays yearly 
 in slaves ; Yacoba in slaves and lead ore ; Zegzeg in 
 slaves and cowries ; Zamfra the same ; Hadeja and 
 Katagum in horses, bullocks, and slaves ; Cashna in 
 slaves, cowries, and cloth ; Ader, or Tadela, in bul- 
 locks, sheep, camels, and a coarse kind of cotton cloth, 
 like what is called by us a counterpane." Of the 
 number of negroes and Fellatas who inhabit the coun- 
 try of Houssa no correct idea can be formed Much 
 additional and more precise information on these coun- 
 tries may be expected from the pen of Dr. Barth, that 
 energetic traveler, who has so thoroughl}"- , explored 
 these regions. 
 
 The exports are principally civet and blue check 
 tohes called sharie^ which are manufactured by the 
 slaves from Nj'-ffi, of whom the men are considered as 
 the most expert weavers in Soudan, and the women 
 as the best spinners. The common imports are 
 brought from the borders of Ashanti ; and coarse calico 
 and woolen cloth, in small quantities, with brass and 
 pewter dishes, and some few spices, from Nyffi. The 
 Arabs, from Tripoli and Ghadamis, bring unwrought 
 silk, ottar of roses, spices, and beads. Slaves are both 
 exported and imported. A great quantity of Guinea 
 corn is taken every year by the Tuaricks, in exchange 
 for salt. The market is extremely well supplied, and 
 is held daily from sunrise to sunset. On the north 
 side of Sokoto there is a low marsh, with some stag- 
 nant pools of water, between the city and the river; 
 this, perhaps, may be the cause of the great preva- 
 lence of ague, as the city stands in a fine airy situa- 
 tion." 
 
 Sokoto is described by Dr. Barth as forming nearly 
 a regular square, and having 8 gates, not 12, as for- 
 merly supposed. Sokoto has a mixed population, the 
 Zoromana forming the chief portion of the inhabitants. 
 They are, unlike the tribes of pure Pullo or Fellan 
 origin, very industrious, and are excellent workmen 
 in leather, iron, and gebbega or cotton-stripes. The 
 articles of iron made at Sokoto are the best in all Sou- 
 dan ; and Dr. Barth purchased some specimens of 
 beautiful workmanship. The Zoromana are the prin- 
 cipal inhabitants of the town, while the Syllebana, a 
 very interesting tribe, different from, but united with 
 the Fellatas from time immemorial, inhabit the vil- 
 lages round the town. — E. B. 
 
 Houston, a oXty of Texas, United States of North 
 America, capital of Harris county, and the second 
 commercial city in the State. It is situated on Buf- 
 falo Ba3-ou, at the head of its steamboat navigation, 
 and 45 miles above its mouth in Galveston Bay. It is 
 the principal shipping port for the cotton, sugar, and 
 maize, of the adjacent counties. Pop. (1853) estimated 
 at 6000. 
 
 Huallaga, a river of Peru, rises in the Andes, 
 near lat, 11° 40' south, and at 13,200 feet above the 
 sea, flows mostly northward, and joins the Amazon, 
 near lat. 6° south, and long. 75° 40' west, after a to- 
 tal course estimated at 500 miles. From Chasuta, 50 
 leagues above its entrance into the Amazon, and 3000 
 miles above the mouth of the Amazon, there is water 
 
HUD 
 
 995 
 
 HUD 
 
 enough to float the largest vessels, for more than six 
 months in the year. See Amazon Rivek. 
 
 Hudson, Henry, a distinguished and ill-fated 
 navigator df the 17th century. His early history is 
 quite unknown, and he did not emerge from ohscurity 
 till the year 1607, when he was sent out by a company 
 of rich London merchants in quest of a shorter pas- 
 sage to China, than that by the Cape of Good Hope. 
 In that 3'ear ■ he penetrated as far as the 82d degree, 
 beyond which his passage was barred by the ice. In 
 the following year, he altered- his course, eastward, 
 and, coasting along Spitzbergen, reached the Straits of 
 Waygatz. Unable to force his way any further, in 
 that diredtion, he again returned home without effect- 
 ing his purpose. In 1609 a company of Dutch mer- 
 chants supplied him with the means of again attempt- 
 ing a north-east passage. Again the ice stopped his 
 progress, and Hudson, abandoning his original plan, 
 sailed away to America, where he discovered the 
 great river which now bears his name, and at the 
 mouth of which New York is situated. Scarcity of 
 provisions drove him once more to England, which he 
 reached on the 7th November. In the following yoar 
 (1610), he sailed from London on the forlorn quest of 
 the north-west passage. In the end of May his sail- 
 ors mutinied, and the revolt was onl3' quelled with 
 great difficulty. In June he entered the strait and 
 bay now called by his name, and was in high hopes 
 that he had at last solved the mystery that had baffled 
 so many inquirers. Stricter investigation, however, 
 showed him that he had been caught in a cul-de-sac, 
 and as summer was now drawing to a close, he found 
 himself compelled to winter on those inhospitable shores 
 with a mutinous crew, and a very scantj- stock of pro- 
 visions. Commander and sailors were alike out of 
 temper at the bad success of the whole expedition, and 
 heart-burnings and dissensions embittered the winter 
 bivouac. On the waj' home in the summer of 1611, 
 the crew again mutinied, and taking possession of the 
 ship, they turned adrift Hudson and such of the crew 
 as remained faithful to him in an open boat, and with 
 a scantj' supply of provisions. What was the fate of 
 the boat and her crew is unknown ; nothing was ever 
 heard of them. The details of Hudson's progress are 
 given at length in Poechas's Pilgrim, and in Haekis's 
 Voyages. See Sparks's Am. Biog., vol. x. 
 
 Hudson'^ Bay, a large sea of North America, 
 lying between 51 and 69 degrees of north lat., discov- 
 ered in 1610 by Henry Hudson. See HnDsoN, Hen- 
 ry, and Polar Regions. A charter for a company, 
 incorporated under the name of the Hudson's Bay 
 Company, was obtained in the year 1670. See Fna 
 Trade. 
 
 Hudson's Bay Territory. The first internal 
 explorers of the vast region surrounding Hudson's 
 Bay were traders from Canada while it was yet in 
 the possession of France. Canadian traders had, pre- 
 vious to the conquest, ascended the St. Lawrence and 
 Ottawa Rivers to their sources, and had formed estab- 
 lishments on the great lakes. From the north-western 
 end of Lake Superior, they threaded the intricate com- 
 munication which leads by lakes, streams, and port- 
 ages to Lake Winnipeg, and thence penetrated some 
 distance up the Saskatchewan River, where their most 
 distant establishment was situated, in north lat. 53°, 
 west long. 103°. These enterprises were, in a great 
 measure, suspended hy the struggles which ended in 
 the conquest of Canada by Great Britain. In 1767 a 
 party headed by a British subject, again penetrated to 
 the Saskatchewan. The Missinipi, or Churchill River, 
 was visited by Mr. Joseph Frobisher in 1775, and Lake 
 Isle-a-la-Crosse, in 1776. In the year 1781, the fur 
 trade had reached the limits of Lake Athabasca, nearly 
 1000 miles beyond the most distant point attained by 
 the French. 'These explorations were greatly extended 
 by the establishment, in 1783, of the North- West Com- 
 pany of Montreal — an association formed of the lead- 
 
 ing individuals engaged in this traffic — who, iri the 
 energetic pursuit of the fur trade, extended their es- 
 tablishments to the Arctic Circle and the Pacific Ocean. 
 The charter of the Hudson's Bay Company, conferring 
 the exclusive 'rigjit of trade with the Indians, having 
 been granted without the sanction of Parliament, has 
 generally been held invalid ; and it; was probably the 
 dread, owing to this defect, of attracting public obser- 
 vation to their proceedings that induced the Company 
 for, many years to confine their trading sti^tions almost 
 entirely to the coast, In 1769, a century after the 
 date of their charter, their farthest advance was about 
 400 miles inland. In that year, however, being de- 
 sirous of obtaining information regareling some mines 
 of copper described by the natives as existing near a 
 river flowing into the sea to the northward, called the 
 Coppermine River, they directjed Mr. Heame, a gen- 
 tleman in their service, to proceed overland for t^iat 
 river which he had orders to survey, if possible, down 
 to its embouchure — an enterprise in which, after two 
 unsuccessful attempts, he succeeded, reaching the sea 
 at the mouth of the! Coppermine River on the 13th 
 July, 1771, having been thus the fir^t to e^tablisli the 
 existence of a great Northern Ocean, washing tlje 
 shores of North America. Mr. Hearne's Journals, aij4 
 charts were, however, withheld from the public for 
 nearly 20 years after the date of his journey. On tlie 
 capture of Fort Churchill by the Frencjb. these docu- 
 ments fell into the hands of La Perouse, who com- 
 mai;ded the French squadron, and were restored to the 
 Company only on condition of their being published. 
 It was , doubtless .owing to this circumstance that 
 Hearne's claims to this important discovery were for 
 many years discredited ; although the existence of a 
 Northern Ocean was confirmed by Sir Alexander 
 M'Kenzie, who, in 1789, descended the river issuing 
 from Great Slave Lake, which bears his name, it w^s 
 not until the overland expeditions of Franklin and 
 Richardson in 1820 and 1^25, that Hearne's merits as 
 a discoverer were fully recognized. To the expedi- 
 tions last named we owe the first accurate geograph- 
 ical delineation of this extensive region, from the 
 shores of Hudson's Bay as far as M'Kenzie'a River. 
 Of the country west of this stream, and extending as 
 far as Russian America, a careful survey has b,een 
 more recently executed \>y Professor A. K. Isbister of 
 London, and published in the journal of the Royal 
 Geographical Society, for 1846. To this gentleman 
 we owe also an elaborate geological map pf the . ejitire 
 region, published in 1856 by the Geological Society of 
 London. 
 
 The new association, which retained the name of 
 the Hudson's Bay Company, obtained in 1821 a license 
 of exclusive trade for 21 years, renewed in 1842 for ^ 
 similar period, over the territories west of the Rocky 
 Mountains — the country on the east side being consid- 
 ered sufficiently protected from rival traders, by the 
 establishments of the two Companies already formed 
 there, and such vague rights as might be claimed un- 
 der the charter of 1670. Gravp doubts existing, as to 
 the validity of this charter, and numerous complaints 
 having arisen from the arbitrary exercise, of the pow- 
 ers claimed under it by the. Company, an address to 
 the crown has been recently moved by the House of 
 Commons, for an inquiry (which is now pending) , into 
 the legality of the very wide and, anomalous powers at 
 present exercised by the Company. 
 
 The territory embraced within the present operations 
 of the Hudson's Bay Companj' may be roughly esti- 
 mated at nearly 4,000,000 of square miles, or some- 
 what greater than the entire extent of Europe. This 
 vast area, which is covered by a net-work of about 100 
 trading-posts, scattered at distances of about 300 or 
 400 miles apart, is divided into four large departments 
 — 1st. The Montreal department, which, includes all 
 the establishments situated between the River St. 
 Lawrence and the great lakes of Canada, and along 
 
HUD 
 
 996 
 
 HUD 
 
 the north shore of the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the 
 coast of Labrador; 2d. The Southern department, 
 which includes the countrj- along the north shores of 
 Lake Superior and the southern shores of Hudson's 
 Bay ; 3d. The Northern department, which compre- 
 hends all the establishments north of this as far as tlie 
 shores of the Polar Sea ; and 4th. The Columbia de- 
 partment, including the territoiy watered b}' the Co- 
 lumbia and other rivers west of the Rockj' IMountains. 
 The departments are divided into a number of districts, 
 each under the direction of a superior officer ; and these 
 again are subdivided into numerous factories, forts, 
 posts, arid outposts. 
 
 In a geographical view the Hudson's Bay territories 
 may be divided into four great natural regions — 1. 
 The Columbia or Oregon Territory, a county of varied 
 features, extending from the Rocky Mountains to the 
 Pacific ; 2. The wooded region, occupj'ing the country 
 from Canada northward along the shores of Hudson's 
 Bay, and extending along the valley of the M'Kenzie 
 and Peace Eivers nearly to the Arctic Ocean ; B. The 
 prairie region, situated between the forementioned di- 
 visions, and occupying the valley of Saskatchewan 
 and Red Rivers, and the upper waters of the Missouri 
 and Mississippi ; 4. The strip of sterile countrj' along 
 the northern shores of Hudson's Bay and the coast of 
 the Polar Sea, familiarly Imown as the Barren 
 Grounds. Of these divisions the wooded region is the 
 most extensive and the most valuable for the purposes 
 of the fur trade ; all the finer skins which find their 
 way to tlie London market, being obtained from it. 
 It has, in consequence, been long occupied and thor- 
 oughly worked by the trading-posts and agencies of 
 the Company. The Indians inhabiting it are in gen- 
 eral a mild, inoffensive race. Long familiarity with 
 the whites, and the habits of trade, have produced a 
 friendly feeling among them toward Europeans ; and 
 their desire to supply them with the commodities of 
 trade renders them by far the most valuable and in- 
 dustrious class of the population of the Hudson's Baj' 
 territories. The relation of the Company toward them 
 is an extremely simple one : the Indians hunt and 
 trap for the furs which the Companj' receive, giving 
 in exchange such articles as are suited to the simple 
 wants and tastes of the natives. Trade is carried on 
 by means of a standard valuation, based on the market 
 price of a beaver-skin, and hence denominated a made 
 beaver. This is to obviate the necessitj' of circulating 
 money, which is quite unknown in any part of the 
 Indian country. A beaver-skin is considered, in the 
 Indian trade, equivalent to two, three, or more skins 
 of inferior value. The rates at which the skins can 
 be obtained under the complete monopoly enjoyed by 
 the Company render the fur trade jjrobably one of the 
 most lucrative species of traffic in the world. 
 
 It is difBcult to form an estimate approaching to ac- 
 curacy of the population of the Hudson's Bay territories. 
 From 40 to 50 different tribes, speaking distinct dialects, 
 have been enumerated ; but the discordant estimates 
 even of the oldest and most experienced residents in the 
 Indian country forbid all idea of arriving at anj' accu- 
 rate estimate of their numbers. They probably do not 
 exceed 150,000. Their numbers are, bj' the most trust- 
 worthj- accounts, rapidly diminishing. Through the 
 benevolent exertions of the Church Missionary and 
 other Societies, missions and schools have been estab- 
 lished in various parts of the country east of the 
 Rocky Mountains. These missions, supported entirely 
 from the funds of benevolent bodies in England and 
 Canada, afford the only means of education hitherto 
 available to the inhabitants of those remote regions. 
 
 The climate and soil of the Hudson's Bay territories, 
 except in the extreme northern districts, differ little 
 from those of Canada, and are equally adapted for col- 
 onization. On the banks of the Red River, flowing into 
 Lake Winnipeg, a small settlement has been formed, 
 consisting- chiefly of retired servants of the Company, 
 
 with their families. The colony now numbers a pop- 
 ulation of about 10,000 souls ; but from its isolated 
 position, the bulkj' nature of such exports as could be 
 furnished, and the long and dangerous navigation to 
 Hudson's Bay, there is but little probability of its 
 rising to commercial importance. 
 
 The necessity for creating a new penal colony for 
 England has caused attention to be directed to the ad- 
 vantages which some portions of Hudson's Bay possess 
 for such a purpose ; and at the same time it is urged 
 that these sections of country would be thereby 
 brought within the circle of civilization, and the 
 resources of the whole region opened out for man's 
 enterprise ; while it would be the means of subverting 
 that exclusive monopoly of the Hudson's Bay Com- 
 pany, which has proved so prejudicial to every British 
 interest, and is antagonistic to the spirit of the age in 
 which we live. 
 
 At this moment it is unnecessary to pronounce 
 whether such a colonj', located in some northern 
 portion of Hudson's Bay, would be prejudicial to the 
 interests of Canada. 
 
 It is urged by the Canadians that, under the charter, 
 the Hudson's Bay Companj' originally only claimed 
 around Hudson's Bay, and did not extend their claims 
 beyond its limits until about 100 j'ears after the date 
 of their charter, which was made in 1670, between 
 that year and 1690. The Company discovered that 
 the charter was illegal and unconstitutional, and pe- 
 titioned the imperial Legislature for the confirmation 
 of that charter. An act of Parliament was passed, 
 conferring it for a period of seven years, and no longer. 
 In 1697 the charter- had ceased to exist, and has never 
 again been renewed. Nevertheless, under color of 
 that charter, about the j'ear 1800, they set up a claim 
 to the possession of all that country lying this side of 
 the Rocky Mountains. Let our readers choose the 
 epithet which will most trulj"- characterize the mon- 
 strous imposition, which has the audacity now to 
 claim possession of a country which the very words of 
 the charter itself excluded from the operation of the 
 supposed grant — and which only professed to give such 
 "lands, territories, etc., as -wexe not possessed hy the 
 subject of any Christian prince or State. 34 j'ears 
 prior to the date of this charter, Louis XIII. of France 
 granted a charter to a company called the Company of 
 New France, granting them the exclusive trade over 
 that very country which the Hudson's Bay Company 
 now assume to claim under the illegal and invalid 
 charter of Charles the Second, and the French pos- 
 sessed, enjoyed, and traded throughout that country, 
 which was alwaj-s recognized as within the dominion 
 of France until 1763, when Canada was ceded to the 
 British crown ; and it was not until about 40 years 
 after, that the Hudson's Bay Companj' had the pre- 
 sumption to set up a claim to that country wliich had 
 been won by British blood. Canada maintains that 
 the whole country is a portion of Canada, and as such 
 should be thrown open to her people. See Jilackwood, 
 Ixiii., 369 ; Monthly Rev., Ixxxvii., 66 ; Dem. Rev., xii., 
 345 ; Living Age, xxiii., 588. 
 
 Hudson, a river of the State of New York, though 
 less in its length and in the amount of water which it 
 discharges than many others, is one of the most im- 
 portant in the United States. The Hudson, proper, 
 rises by two branches in the Adirondack mountains. 
 The eastern branch from the north passes through 
 Schroon lake, and is sometimes called Schroon branch ; 
 and the western has a circuitous course from the 
 north-west, and is considered as the main branch or 
 Hudson. About 40 miles from the source of each, 
 they unite in Warren county. After a course of 15 
 miles south, the Hudson receives the Sacandaga, on 
 the line between Jlontgomery and Saratoga counties. 
 The Sacandaga rises in Hamilton county, and first 
 runs south-east and then north-west and west, to its 
 junction below Jessup's Falls. The Hudson then runs 
 
SUL 
 
 997 
 
 HUL 
 
 to the east of south, 15 miles to Hadley Falls ; it then 
 turns to the north-east 20 miles to Glen's Falls. Its 
 direction is then nearly south to its entrance into New 
 York Bay. 40 miles below Glen's Falls it receiyes 
 from the west the Mohawk, its greatest tributary. 
 From the junction of the Mohawk to its mouth, is 
 about 170 miles. The length of the Hudson, from its 
 entrance Into New York Bay, is a little over 300 miles. 
 So straight is this river between Albany and New 
 York, that the distance is less by water than by land. 
 The tide flows to a little above Albany. It is naviga- 
 ble for the largest ships 118 miles, to Hudson, and for 
 sloops and large steamboats, 145 miles above New 
 York to Albany. Small sloops also proceed to Troj', 
 and through the dam and lock to Waterford, about 8 
 miles further. Through a considerable part of its 
 course the banks are elevated, and in some parts high, 
 rocky, and precipitous ; particularly in its passage 
 through the Highlands, 53 miles above the city of New 
 York. The scenery on the banks of the Hudson is 
 highly picturesque. The city of New York owes 
 much of its prosperity, and its pre-eminent advan- 
 tages, to this noble river, connected as it is by the Erie 
 Canal with the great lakes, and by the Champlain Ca- 
 nal with the St. Lawrence River. Bj"" no other route 
 can an equally favorable water communication be had 
 with the great West. There are many large and flour- 
 ishing towns on the Hudson. The principal on the 
 east side are Troy, Hudson, and Poughkeepsie ; and 
 on the west side Albanj-, Catsliill, and Newburg ; 
 besides many others on both sides. Its waters were 
 the theatre of the first success/id attempt to apply 
 steam to the propelling of vessels bj' Fulton and Liv- 
 ingston, in 1807-1808. As a navigable medium of 
 commerce this river is unrivaled. ■ During the year 
 1850 there passedyVom ilie interior through its channel, 
 or by railroad conve^'^ance along its basin, products of the 
 forest valued at $10,000,000 ; agriculture, $38,000,000 ; 
 manufactures, $4,000,000 ; merchandise $563,000 ; and 
 various other articles, $2,300,000 ; showing a grand 
 total of about $54,000,000. The total value of the 
 various kinds of property sent from the seaboard, via 
 the Hudson Kiver, in 1850, amounted to $74,000,000, 
 and in 1851, to $80,000,000, while that of the year 
 1856 is estimated at $150,000,000. See Lake Trade. 
 Hudson River Navigation. — Table showing the open- 
 ing and closing of the Hudson River in each of the 
 past 15 years : 
 
 Years. 
 
 1842 
 1843 
 1844 
 1845 
 1846 
 1847 
 1848 
 1849 
 1860 
 1851 
 1862 
 1888 
 1854 
 1855 
 1SS6 
 
 Opuned. 
 
 February 4. . 
 April 18.. 
 
 ^un. 18 
 
 March 18 
 
 Fobr'ry 24 
 
 March 18 
 April 
 March 
 
 Febr'ry 
 March 
 
 April 
 
 IT. 
 27. 
 10. 
 
 Nov. 28. 
 Dec. 10. 
 
 " 17. 
 
 " 8. 
 
 " 14. 
 
 " 25. 
 
 " 27. 
 
 " 26. 
 
 " 17. 
 
 " 14. 
 
 " 23. 
 
 " 21., 
 
 17. 
 
 Days opeg 
 
 808 
 
 270 
 274 
 266 
 
 Hulk, the name given to an old ship laid up as 
 unfit for further service. 
 
 Hull, the body of a ship, exclusive of the masts, 
 
 rigging) etc- 
 
 Hull d^vin^ expresses that the hull of the ship is 
 concealed by the convexity of the sea. 
 
 Hull, or Kingston-upon-HuU, one of the prin- 
 cipal commercial towns of England, is situated on the 
 north bank of the Humber, at the mouth of the River 
 Hull, 35 miles south-east of Yorlc. It is a municipal 
 and parliamentary borough, and though locally in the 
 East Riding of Yorkshire, is a county in itself. The 
 ancient name of this town was Wyke, or Wyke-upon- 
 HuU. For more than a century previous to 1269 it 
 was a place of considerable mercantile importance. 
 
 and possessed from the Abbot of Meaux, who was 
 lord of the manor, the privilege of holding a weeldy 
 market and a yearly fair. The town of Hull is ad- 
 mirably situated for trade. Vessels of the largest 
 size can come up to the town ; while the Hull, Ouse, 
 and Trent, affluents of the Humber, with their tribu- 
 tarj- streams and canals, afi'ord facilities for trade with 
 a large extent of country. It is also connected by 
 railways with all parts of the kingdom. These advan- 
 tages have been improved by the activity of the in- 
 habitants, 80 that Hull ranks as the third port in the 
 kingdom, the value of its exports being inferior only 
 to those from Liverpool and London. The site of the 
 old fortifications is occupied b}^ doclcs, and thus the 
 old town is surrounded with water from the Hull to 
 the Humber. The old harbor was that part of the 
 River Hull which faced the old town ; but, as it was 
 found to be inconvenient for the shipping, an act was 
 passed in 1774 for forming a dock, now called the old 
 dock, which has its entrance at the upper end of the 
 old harbor. It is 1703 feet in length, 254 in breadth, 
 and 24 in depth. Between 1805 and 1809 another doclc 
 was erected, called the Humber dock. It communi- 
 cates with the Humber bv a lock, and is 914 feet in 
 length, 342 in breadth, and 31 in depth. The accom- 
 modation becoming insufiicient for the increasing trade, 
 another doclc was constructed between 1826 and 1829, 
 called the Junction dock, from being formed on the 
 land that intervened between the old and the Humber 
 docks, and thus forming a connection between them. 
 It is 914 feet in length, 342 in breadth, and 31 in 
 depth. The locks are 120 feet long, 36 broad, and 25 
 deep. The two bridges across the locks are of cast 
 iron, and 24 feet wide. The railway dock, near the 
 terminus of the Hull and Selby railway, and the Vic- 
 toria, to the east of the citadel, are of recent construc- 
 tion. The following table exhibits the area and cost 
 of the different docks : 
 
 Area. 
 
 Docks. 
 
 Old dock 10 'i 11 
 
 Humber dock 9 324 
 
 Junction dock 6 5 
 
 Eailway dock 2 8 9 
 
 Victoria dock 20 1 8 
 
 Cost. 
 
 £73,380 
 288,086 
 165,038 
 115,000 
 470,000 
 
 Total 49 112 £l,0p6,449 
 
 A considerable quantity of shipping is also accom- 
 modated within the old harbor, which may be com- 
 puted at 10 acres of tidal water. A timber pond of 9 
 acres was constructed in 1853. The quays around the 
 docks are spacious, and are entirely surrounded with 
 warehouses and deal yards. Hull has of late years 
 become a principal steam-packet station. Steamers 
 sail regularlj' to and from London, Leith, Aberdeen, 
 Newcastle, Yarmouth, Hamburg, Rotterdam, Copen- 
 hagen, Antwerp, etc. Hull is the principal entrepot 
 of the Baltic timber trade on the east coast of Britain. 
 The staple imports are timber, deals, grain, and seeds, 
 sheep's wool, tallow, hemp, flax, hides, iron bars, 
 green fruit, bones, madder, bark, turpentine, cattle, 
 sugar, etc. The chief articles of export are cotton 
 stufl's and twist ; woolen goods and woolen yam ; iron 
 and hardware ; linens and linen yarn ; earthenware ; 
 machinery and mill-worlc ; coal, salt, and more re- 
 cently raw cotton, brought from Liverpool and Man- 
 chester. The whale fishery was formerly extensivelj' 
 carried on. In 1819 it employed 64 vessels, but from 
 that period it rapidly declined to 1837, and in that and 
 the seven subsequent years emploj'ed only one vessel 
 annually. More recently, however, a reaction has 
 talien place, and from 1846 to 1852, inclusive, from 12 
 to 14 vessels have annually set out for this flsherjr. 
 The number and tonnage of vessels registered at the 
 port on 31st December, 1854, were as follows ; Sailing 
 vessels — under 50 tons, 238, tonnage, 8822 ; above 50 
 tons, 196, tonnage, 42,861. Steam veasels^under 50 
 tons, 10, tonnage, 324 ; above 50 tons, 36, tonnage, 
 9924. The following table gives the ships and ton- 
 
HUN 
 
 HUN 
 
 nage (including both sailing and steam vessels), em- 
 ployed in the colonial and foreign trade, for 1854, and 
 the three preceding years : 
 
 1 
 
 . TEARS. 
 
 i 
 
 INWARD. 
 
 OUTWARD. 
 
 BRITISH. 
 
 FOREIGN. 
 
 DRITIEH. 1 FOREIGN. 
 
 Ships. Tonnago. 
 
 Ships. Toiinnge. 
 
 Sliiis, l-onnneo.l Ships. 
 
 Tonnage, 
 
 1861 
 1862 
 1858 
 1854 
 
 1,135 295,869 1,488, 212,709 
 1.087,286,957 J, 220 176,766 
 1,1071 286,641 1,753 269,212 
 1,042 266,721' 1,747 247,627 
 
 843 285,781 1,081 
 758 228,260 950 
 776 217,411 1,286 
 705 197,860 1,179 
 
 173,868 
 189,193 
 190,691 
 177,009 
 
 The number and tonnage of vessels, that entered and 
 cleared coastwise during 1854, were : Entered, sailing 
 vessels, 716, tonnage, 62,414 ; steam vessels, 424, ton- 
 nage, 76,406 ; cleared, sailing vessels, 1162, tonnage, 
 117,279 ; steam vessels, 468, tonnage,84,072. In 1852 
 the amount of dock duties paid was £34,'961 ; the 
 amount of customs revenue, £324,819 ; and the value 
 of British manufactured goods exported, £9,915,414. 
 The staple articles of import being subject to low du- 
 ties, or altogether free, the customs revenue is smaller 
 than that of less important ports. The port charges 
 of Hull have been reduced in the aggregate about 
 £18,000 per annum. The industrial establishments 
 of Hull are chiefly connected with the building and 
 equipment of ships, comprising ship-building yards, 
 rope-walks, and manufactories of canvas, chains, chain 
 cables, and steam machinery. Population in 1851, 
 84,690.— E. B. 
 
 Humber, a large river or rather estuarj' of En- 
 gland, formed by the junction of the Ouse and Trent, 
 and separating Yorkshire from Lincolnshire. It flows 
 first east for about 18 miles to Hull, and then south- 
 east for 22 miles to its mouth between the Spurn-head 
 on the north, and the opposite coast of Lincoln on the 
 south. Its average breadth is from two to three miles, 
 but near its mouth it widens to six or seven. By 
 means of its numerous tributaries it drains about 
 10,000 square miles, comprising some of the most fer- 
 tile and populous districts of England. Vessels of 
 considerable burden can ascend to its head, and those 
 of the largest size to Hull. 
 
 Hungary. The lungdom of Hungarj' consists of 
 Hungary Proper, Sclavonia, Croatia, Hungarian Dal- 
 matia on the sea-coast, Transylvania, and the Military 
 Frontier. It is situated between 46° and 50° N. lat!, 
 and between 15° and 26° E. long. It is bounded on 
 the north by Galicia, on the east by the Danubian Prin- 
 cipalities, on the south by Servia, Bosnia, and the Adri- 
 atic, and on the west by Styria, Lower Austria, Mora- 
 via, and Silesia. The north-eastern frontiers are formed 
 by the Carpathians, which jut out in different branches 
 toward the baulks of the Danube, and inclose Transyl- 
 vania in the form of a double crescent. A no less nat- 
 ural boundary is the Danube, separating southern 
 Hungary from the Turkish provinces. The least 
 marked frontier is the western, separating Hungary 
 from Lower Austria : it is in part formed by the small 
 March Eiver. The exact extent of Hungary and its 
 dependencies has not yet been precisely ascertained. 
 According to the Austrian official statistics, published 
 by Czosnig, the superficial area amounts to 125,037 
 English square miles ; more recent Austrian tables re- 
 duce that number, whereas the Hungarian statist, 
 Alexius Fenyes, reckons the superficial area at 180,910 
 English square miles, of which Transylvania occupies 
 about one sixth, or upward of 20,000 miles. The 
 Hungarian kingdom is thus larger than Great Britain 
 and Ireland by about 10,000, and than Prussia by 
 20,000 square miles. The physical aspect of Hungarj' 
 Proper is sharply marked liy the contrast between the 
 northern Carpathians, forming large plateaus, and the 
 vast level land intersected by the Danube, Theiss, 
 and Marosh ; while in Transylvania, where the Alpine 
 character predominates, the sudden diminution of the 
 mountains, allows only of undulating table-land, alter- 
 nating with narrow valleys. The greatest part of 
 Croatia, and part of Sclavonia, likewise consist of 
 
 mountainous land, formed by the outlines of tlie Alps, 
 the level land in the latter lying to the north. 
 
 Rivers. — Turning to the hydrographio survey of the 
 countrj', the Danube, the largest European river next 
 to the Volga, first claims notice. Keaching the Hun- 
 garian territory at Presburg, where the Carpathians 
 begin to rise on its left bank, the Danube pursues a 
 south-easterly course, dividing into three branches, 
 which receive the waters of ,the Layta, Kaab, and the 
 Waag, embracing, moreover, the two Schiitt Islands 
 about Comorn, and then the St. Andrew Island at 
 Waitzen, after "which its direction becomes more 
 southerly, and, after leaving Buda and the Osepel Isl- 
 and, it rolls along the Hungarian plain and the Banat, 
 its right banks reaching the Turkish territor)' at 
 Semlin, There, where its course becomes retarded by 
 the Servian Mountains, it receives the waters of the 
 Save, leaving the kingdom at Orsova, after forcing its 
 impetuous waves through the Iron Gate. The breadth 
 of the Danube varies in diflferent parts, being, about 
 Presburg, 900 feet; at Foldvar, 1800 feet; between 
 the former and Vanek, 4000 feet ; at Petervardein, 
 3600 feet ; at Belgrade, 508 feet, and at the Iron Gate 
 between 158 and 80 feet. The depth varies between 
 20, 40, 60, and 120 feet. The greatest tributary' of the 
 Danube, the Theiss (Tibiscum), rises from a double 
 source in the county of Marmaros, near Galicia, reaches 
 the level land at Nagy Szoles, and winds its course 
 through the large plain as far as Titel, where it flows 
 into the bed of the Danube. The chief tributaries of 
 the Theiss, remarkable for richness in fish, are the 
 Hernad, Sajo, Bodrog, Szamos, Koros, and the Ma- 
 rosh, which is the chief river in Transylvania. The 
 Drave, which rises in the Tyrol, flows through Styi'ia 
 into Croatia, and, dividing it from Hungarj^, falls into 
 the Danube near Essek. The Save, rising in Carinola, 
 winds its course through Croatia, is fed b}' the XJnna 
 and Kulpa, forms part of the frontier toward Bosnia 
 and Servia, and falls into the Danube at Belgrade. 
 The Morosh, which ranks next to the Theiss, falls into 
 the latter at Szegedin, after having received the Ar- 
 anyos, famous for its gold washings, and the Kokel or 
 Kukiilo. The Alt or Aluta rises likewise in the Tran- 
 sylvanian Mountains, entering Wallachia through 
 the Red-Tower Pass. All the Hungarian rivers flow 
 into the Black Sea, with the exception of the Popard, 
 which rises in the Zips from the Kongsberg, and flows 
 into the Vistula. 
 
 Lakes.- — Among the lakes the largest is the Platten- 
 see or Balaton, situated between the countries of Zala 
 and Schumeg. Its length is about 50 miles, and its 
 breadth between eight and nine miles ; and with the 
 surrounding marshes, it occupies about 500 square 
 miles. Its principal feeder is the Zala, and its onlj' 
 outlet is the March Sio. The Neusiedler-see, in Hun- 
 garian Ferto, between the counties of Wieselburg and 
 Oedenburg, fed by the Vulka, is 70 miles long and 10 
 miles broad ; its shallow waters are impregnated with 
 salt, and exhibit an ebb and flow, as yet i^nexplained. 
 The Palver-see is, properly speaking, a marsh, resem- 
 bling many which are formed by the Theiss and 
 Lower Danube. The Star-ret, in Bihar, the Ecseder, 
 in Szathmar, the Feketels, in the Banat, are the 
 largest marshes. The marshes covered with aquatic 
 plants, such as Ecseder, are generally distinguished 
 by the name lap. The only canal of importance is 
 that in the county of Bacs, called the Francis Canal, 
 cut from Monosterto Foldvar, and uniting the Danube 
 with the Theiss. It is about 60 miles long, and short- 
 ens the passage bj' about 200 miles. The Bega Canal, 
 near Teraesvar, is rather a river than a canal. The 
 Adriatic touches onl)' the south-western extremity of 
 the Hungarian kingdom, the sea-coast being variously 
 called Hungarian Dalmatia or lUyria, the principal 
 ports being Flume, a flourishing town inhabited chiefly 
 by Italians, Buccari', Port-re-Zengg St. George, Tab- 
 lonz, and Carlopago. The whole coast is mountain- 
 
HUN 
 
 999 
 
 HUN 
 
 ons, and in some parts steep, and exposed to violent 
 south winds. 
 
 Tlie climate of Hungarj* varies greatly. In the 
 counties of Arva, Liptau, Zips, and Marmaros, winter 
 continues for fully six months, whereas in southern 
 Hungary the trees blossom as early as March, and 
 in June the heat becomes burdensome, reaching its 
 culininating point in July. From the partial meteo- 
 rological observations that have been made, it appears 
 that the highest temperature in Buda is 30°-6 R., and 
 in Klausenburg, in Ti'ansylvania, 32°'G ; and the mean 
 is, in Bula 15°"19, and in Klausenburg 53°. This, 
 however, is far from giving an idea of the climate in 
 the different parts of the country', and especially in 
 the level land in the south, or the larger plain, where, 
 at mid-day, the heat is at times almost African ; and 
 yet in those very parts, as a geographer observes, 
 even quicksilver was frozen in the unusually severe 
 winter of 1816. Tlie heat of the smaller or western 
 plain is much tempered by the Bakonywood. The 
 first half of January marks the minimum, and the sec- 
 ond half of July the maximum of the temperature ; 
 while April and the first paVt of October coincide with 
 the mean temperature. Blasts and the falling of hail 
 happen mbst frequently among the Carpathians. 
 
 At the end of the great war in the beginning of the 
 present century, the population of Hungary, Transyl- 
 vania included, was 12,000,000; and according to the 
 last census, before the late war of 1848, it amounted to 
 about 14,500,000. Of this number, 2,200,000 belong 
 to Transylvania, and 490,267 to Croatia ; the popula- 
 tion of the military frontier being estimated at more 
 than 1,000,000. With regard to the difi'^rent races, 
 the proportion is as follows : 
 
 Magyars........ ... 5,418,773 || Eusniaks 459,870 
 
 Slovaks 1,722,003 i| Wallachians 2,686,492 
 
 Easclans 1,298,995 Germans 1,273,677 
 
 Croats. 948,995 II 
 
 Minor. Nationalities. 
 
 Jews 244,000 
 
 TCeiids, 40,000 
 
 Bulgarians '. 12,00o 
 
 French...; 6,000 
 
 The number of the Gypsies is variouslj' estimated 
 at 40,000 and 60,000. The different confessions are 
 represented in the following approximate numbers : 
 
 Eoman Catholics.. 6,500,000 1] Calvinists. 1,700,000 
 
 Greek Catholics... 890,000 Lutherans 829,000 
 
 Non-Untted Greeks 1,800,000 || 
 
 In Transylvania. 
 
 Eoman Catholics.... 221,400 II Calvinists 858,800 
 
 Greek Catholics 606,800 Lutherans..' 220,400 
 
 Non-United Greeks . 726,700 1 1 Unitarians 44,600 
 
 The character of the races is as diff'erent as their 
 origin. The Magyars, both nobles and peasants, are 
 marked by their Oriental pride and nobleness ; by 
 their love of liberty, hospitable customs, conviviality', 
 and warlike spirit. Clinging with filial love to his 
 superiors, the peasant — a gentleman in language and 
 bearing — ^is, at the same time, alive to the sense of his 
 own worth. In the field of labor and horsemanship, 
 the Magyars surpass all the rest. The Sclavonians 
 of north-western' Hungary are mild, frugal, and in- 
 dustrious. The soutliern Sclavonian or Raitzen are, 
 in character, very much like the Greeks, being, more- 
 over, merr}', warlike, and of a fierce disposition. The 
 Croats partake more of the character of the Eaitzen 
 than of that of the north-western Sclavonians ; and, as 
 to the Germans, they preserve their usual traits of in- 
 dustry' and peaoeableness. The most neglected race is, 
 perhaps, the 'Wallachians. Strongly resembling in 
 physiognomy the Italians, a fact clearly verifying their 
 intermixture with the Romans, they, lilte the Sclavon- 
 ians, are bony, and of tall stature, and are considered as 
 one of the least active races. The town population is 
 estimated to form one eighth of the inhabitants, a cir- 
 cumstance sufficiently proving the backward state of 
 the countrj". The total number of towns in Hungary 
 and Transylvania is 146 ; of boroughs, 881 ; and of 
 
 Greeks 5,000 
 
 Armenians 8,000 
 
 Montenegrins 2,000 
 
 Clementines 1,600 
 
 villages, 16,450. The population in the principal towns 
 
 and boroughs was,' in 1851, as follows : 
 
 Kronstadt (Transyl- 
 vania) 24,401 
 
 Make 22,611 
 
 Tumeswar 21,881 
 
 Grosswardein 21,221 
 
 Arad...- 19,564 
 
 Klaosenburg (in Tran- 
 sylvania) 19,846 
 
 Komoni 19,113 
 
 Pcsth 106,379 
 
 Bnda(united toPesth 
 
 by a suspension 
 
 bridge), 50,127 
 
 Debreezin 60,906 
 
 Presburg 42,178 
 
 Szegedin 50,244 
 
 Vasarhely. 83,090 
 
 Keeskomet 32,308 
 
 Csoba. .: 28,049 
 
 The fertility of the Hungarian soil; and the variety 
 of its produce are universally Itnown. Beside the 
 different species of corn and maize, raised in great 
 quantities, Hungary produces hemp and flax, various 
 kinds of delicious apples, pears, and plums ; two sorts 
 of melons, rich crops of tobacco, and lastlj- a great 
 variety of wines ; while! the vast pastures and oak 
 woods afford ample sustenance to herds of homed cat- 
 tle, sheep, and swine. It is assumed, that with the 
 aid of modern improvements in agriculture, and a lit- 
 tle more industry', it could abundantly sustain a popu- 
 lation twice as large as it actuallj' possesses. The 
 badness of the roaSs, the neglected state of the rivers, 
 which, besides being closed to navigation, entail great 
 losses by annual inundations, no less than the feudal 
 institutions, and prohibitive system of Austria, all 
 contribute to keep agriculture in a backward state, so 
 that the vast produce may be said to come from the 
 hand of nature alone. The home of the wheat is the 
 Banat, and the counties of Bacs, Baranya, Simla, 
 Arad, and Borsod. Rj'e is raised chiefly in the nortli 
 among the Slbvalcs ; barlej', oats, and maize, in dif- 
 ferent parts. The last decuples an important place in 
 the Hungarian harvest. 'With some of the Sclavo- 
 nian population, such as the Croats and Rascians, and 
 the "VVallachs, maize bread is a great favorite. Melons 
 are raised in gardens and the open field, occupying 
 sometimes continuous tracts of land of 100 acres. Of 
 the water-melons the most famous are those of Heves, 
 of more than two feet in diameter. The yellow or 
 sugar melons are generally of a much smaller size. 
 Tobacco grows almost everywhere, and greatly varies 
 in flavor ; the Csetneker of the county of Gomor, the 
 "Verpeleter and Debroer of Heyes,b?ing the most highly 
 prized. The annual crop is upward of 650,000 cwts. 
 Potatoes form but a secondary article in Hungarian 
 economy. 
 
 Wines. — Among the vine-hills and gardens, cul- 
 tivated since the thirteenth century, and which occupy 
 no inconsiderable part of the Hungarian soil, the 
 most valuable is the Hegy-alja, or southern promon- 
 tory of the Carpathians, and which comprehends the 
 Tokay mountains situated round the town of that 
 name. The whole promontory occupies above 50 En- 
 glish square miles, of 'which only one third is under 
 cultivation. The Tokay wine is of a crj'stalline yel- 
 low, and sometimes greenish color, and is known under 
 two names, the Ausbmch, the stronger, containing 
 more of the essence, and the Maslas. Tlie whole an- 
 nual produce is 180,000 gallons. Next in rank to the 
 Tol?:ay is the Menes, a red wine of the county of Arad ; 
 and inferior to it, though by no means inferior to 
 Burgundy, are the red wines of Erlau, Szeksard, Vil- 
 lany, and Buda. Among the yellow table-wines, par- 
 ticular mention maj' be made of the Nesmeler, Som- 
 loer, Badacsoner, and Ermeleker. The county of- 
 Simla is, moreover, particularly famous for its red 
 wines, the most known of which is found on the 
 Fruska Gora mountain. No less famous are spme of 
 the Croatian wines, marked by a spirituous flavor, as 
 as well as the wines of Transylvania. The total 
 produce of wine, Transj-lvania not included, is esti- 
 mated at 328,748,000 gallons. 
 
 The animal kingdom exhibits no less abundance. 
 The Hungarian oxen are the largest breed in Europe. 
 They have a grayish white sldn and long straight 
 horns. The largest herds graze on the wide pastures 
 
HUN 
 
 1000 
 
 HUN 
 
 situated between the Theiss and the Danube. The 
 original Hungarian horse, marked by its middle size, 
 broad neck, and compact build, is now only to be 
 found in some parts of Transylvania. The introduc- 
 tion of English full-blood stallions by several of the 
 magnates, has of late years ennobled the breed, and 
 the general improvement has been hastened by the 
 roj'al studs at Mezo-hegyes and Babolna. Of late 
 years much progress has been made in the breeding of 
 sheep, though the first step dates from the reign of 
 Maria Theresa, when the Merino was, for the first 
 time, imported into Hungary. The oak-woods pas- 
 turage large herds of swine, part of which arrive an- 
 nuallj' from Servia, Bosnia, and the Danubian Princi- 
 palities, for the purpose of being fattened, and there- 
 after exported to Austria. Mules, asses, buffaloes, 
 and goats, are only to be found in verj' small numbers. 
 As the war of 1848 made a great havoc in the animal 
 kingdom, the census of 1850 can not afford a fair repre- 
 sentation of the capabilities' of the countr}'. "VVe shall 
 therefore give here the statistics of the year 1840, 
 which stood as follows : Horses, 1,000,000 ; horned 
 cattle, 4,260,000 ; sheep, 17,000,000 ; hogs, 4,000,000. 
 In Transj'lvania, the numbers were these : Horses, 
 397,388; horned cattle, 800,000; sheep, 2,000,000; 
 hogs, 350,000. To this abundance must be added a 
 great number of domesticated fowl, especially geese 
 and turkeys, and » variety of game, such as ducks, 
 partridges, pheasants, etc. The rivers abound in 
 carp, pike, and sturgeon — the Theiss being reckoned 
 the richest ; the peculiar Hungarian fish called fogas^ 
 is only found in the Balaton Lake, or Platton-see. 
 Some of the waters yield trout, and large quantities 
 of leeches. 
 
 The approximate amount of the productive soil, 
 both in Hungary and Transylvania, in the latter of 
 which the forests form more than one half, is, accord- 
 ing to the Austrian ofiBcial tables, 40,200,000 jock, or 
 67,204,600 English acres, of which 10,431,760 belong 
 to Transylvania. The relative division is as follows, 
 in English acres : 
 
 Acres, 
 
 Acres. 
 Soil under tillage . 22,651,438 
 
 Vineyards. 1,659,962 
 
 Meadows 6,711,T73 
 
 Pastures 5,' 
 
 Forests 15,880;680 
 
 In the above numbers is not included the military 
 frontier, the productive soil of which occupies about 
 6,000,000 acres ; the forests forming one third. The 
 produce in corn is — Hungary, 281,000,000 bushels ; 
 Transj-lvania, 30,000,000; military frontiers, 12,000,- 
 000 ; total, 323,000,000 English bushels. The value 
 of the natural products is estimated at £29,000,000, 
 while the value of the crops in England and Wales is 
 estimated by M'CuUoch to be only £83,656,071. 
 
 Minerals, — The mountains, which are partly worked 
 b}"" the government and parti}' by private enterprise, 
 contain metals of almost every kind, viz., gold, sil- 
 ver, iron, copper, lead, antimony, zinc, alum, orpi- 
 ment, tellurium, and manjr other minerals, besides 
 coal and salt. In the neglected state in which the 
 gold mines are kept, the produce is only about 2400 
 marks. The silver mines yield 65,000 marks. Of 
 great importance are the copper mines in the Banat ; 
 the richest vein, however, is at SchmiJlnitz. Those in 
 Transylvania, at Damokos and Deva, yield 1200 cwts. 
 The produce of lead is estimated at 26,000 cwts. The 
 iron mines are found chiefly in the counties of Gomor, 
 Sohl, Ung, and Zips ; the average produce of the 
 "former being 250,000 cwts. The .richest rock-salt 
 mines are in the county of Marmoros, and the total 
 produce amounts to upward of 800,000 cwts., a quan- 
 tity which, however great, is far from sufficient for 
 the wants of the country. Several places yield also 
 soda, saltpetre, alum, and potash. Pit coals, which, 
 till very latelj-, and before the introduction of rail- 
 ways, had been entirely neglected, lie deep in formar- 
 tions almost unwrought. The total produce is 1,000,000 
 
 cwts. The value of the mineral produce in Hungary 
 is £872,000, that of Transylvania, £169,000 ; the mili- 
 tary frontiers yield almost nothing in this respect. It 
 must be added that Hungary possesses also precious 
 stones and marble of various descriptions. 
 
 Manufactures. — The chief articles of manufacture 
 are cloth, linen, and silk stuffs, carpets, leather, iron 
 wares, and chemical products, including alum, salt- 
 petre, and potash manufactures. All these are as yet 
 in an incipient state, especially cloth manufacture, if 
 it be considered that in wool Hungary is the richest 
 countrj' in Europe. Linens are chiefly manufactured 
 in the north. The county of Zips produces about 
 6,000,000 3'ards. The largest silk manufacture is at 
 Pesth, giving employment to between 400 and 500 
 men. Of greater extent are the leather manufac- 
 tures ; but even of this article much is imported. The 
 most productive iron-works are in the count}' of 
 Gomor, among which are particularly distinguished 
 the manufactories of Pohorela, and Vorosko, belong- 
 ing to the Prince of Saxe-Cobourg. The whole iron 
 produce of Hungar}- is estimated at 500,000 cwts. per 
 annum, half of which belongs to Gomor. In several 
 counties there are potteries and glass-works, some of 
 which, as at Debreczin and Papa, produce 20,000 
 bowls weekly. Soap is chiefly manufactured in Szege- 
 din, Kecskemet, and Debreczin, the last of which pro- 
 duces 7000 cwts. annually. The distilleries are mostly 
 in the north among the Sclavonic population ; and the 
 breweries, 300 in number, are situated round the large 
 towns of mixed population, as beer is no favorite 
 drink with the Magyars. Sugar refineries have also 
 of late risen in several parts of the country ; but this 
 article also requires importation. The segar manufac- 
 tories, introduced within a very recent period, had im- 
 parted a new impetus to the cultivation of tobacco ; 
 but the introduction of the tobacco monopoly at the 
 end of the late war, at once extinguished this branch 
 of industry. 
 
 Trade. — The inferiorit}- of the roads, only compen- 
 sated to some extent by two railway lines, and steam 
 navigation on the Danube and Theiss, but especially 
 the restrictive commercial system of Austria, sufii- 
 ciently accounts for the insignificance of Hungarian 
 commerce, both foreign and internal. The centre of 
 commerce is the capital, Pesth, situated on the banks 
 of the mighty artery of the kingdom, the Danube. 
 The chief feature of internal trade is the exchange of 
 products between the northern and southern districts ; 
 the former sending to the south minerals and timber, 
 and the latter carrying to the north grain and cattle, 
 an intercourse facilitated by the great number of rivers 
 navigable to vessels and boats of small freight. The 
 annual fairs held at Pesth mark the culminating points 
 of commercial activity, the chief marketable article 
 being wool, of which, according to Fenyes, upward of 
 120,000 cwts. are sold annually. The other towns of 
 commercial importance are — in the south, Becse, ex- 
 porting to Austria ; Fiume, the Hungarian littorale, 
 and Semlin, communicating with the Turkish prov- 
 inces ; in the west, Waitzen and Presburg ; in the 
 north, Koshua and Eperies. 
 
 The following details, collected by Fenyes, will give 
 a general idea of the extent and progress of the foreign 
 commerce during the five years immediately preceding 
 the late war : 
 
 Exports. 
 
 ■Wheat 1,813,626 
 
 Eye 190,TT0 
 
 Barley. 201,194 
 
 Oats 488,639 
 
 Wool 237,740 
 
 Tobacco 886,473 
 
 1846. 
 Cwl.. 
 
 2,408,118 
 942,013 
 864,614 
 782,812 
 214,446 
 211,625 
 
 The number of exported cattle in 1845 was 106,230, 
 that of hogs, 352,440. The total value of exports that 
 year was estimated at 71,735,683 florins, which, at the 
 rate of 10 florins to a pound, ia equal to £7,173,568. 
 
HUE 
 
 1001 
 
 HYD 
 
 Imports. — The value of imports, both from Austria 
 and other countries, was, in the same year, 68,514,437 
 florins, or £6,851,443. Foreign countries, it must be 
 added, enter only for one fourth of this intercourse, 
 the rest belongs entirely to the Austrian dominions. 
 Since the end of the late war the custom-duties be- 
 tween Hungary and Austria have been abolished. In 
 how far this change has hitherto affected the commerce 
 of the former, would, in consequence of its abnormal 
 political state, be difficult to decipher, even if the re- 
 quisite data had been made public. As difficult would 
 it be to form a sure estimate of the revenue and ex- 
 penditure of Hungary since the late war, as both rest 
 on momentary arbitrary measures undertaken either 
 as precautions against revolution or in consequence of 
 the periodical sickness of the Austrian finances. Am- 
 ple data, however, are extant as to the public revenue 
 and eicpenditure of Hungary before 1848. The chief 
 sources of revenue up to that date were — the house- 
 tax, war-tax, the toll duties, the crown and fiscal do- 
 mains, and salt revenues, which, with the minor 
 sources of income, such as the lottery, the post-office, 
 and the mines, yielded, according to Fenyes, £3,- 
 400,000, a sum less than that of Lombardy, but more 
 than sufficient to cover public expenses, in conse- 
 quence of the internal organization of the counties, 
 where the salaries of the constitutional officials were 
 but nominal. In the new regime a not unimportant 
 item in the public revenue is the tobacco monopoly 
 introduced into the Hungarian dominions by an im- 
 perial edict of November, 1850. By this edict no one 
 may cultivate tobaoco, except by l^revious permission, 
 specifying the place and mode of cultivation, each 
 owner being obliged to deliver up his produce to the 
 government, which determines its value. The mon- 
 opoly in itself, no less than the domiciliary visits to 
 which it gave rise, greatly injured this thriving 
 branch of Hungarian industry. A great many, indeed, 
 have in consequence of this given up its cultivation, 
 dispensing even with its use. — E. B. 
 
 For commerce of Hungary, see Hunt's Mag., xxi., 
 191 (C ASSAM) ; De Bow's Review, xiii., 433 ; Races 
 of Hungary ; Nor. Am. Rev., Ixx., and Ixxii. ; Ch. 
 Exam., xlviii., 44. 
 
 Huron, Lake, one of the five great lakes of North 
 America, lies betweeii Lake Superior on the north- 
 west. Lake Michigan on the west, and Lake Erie and 
 Lake Ontario on the south and south-east. Its shape 
 is so irregular that it is difficult accurately to deter- 
 mine its exact dimensions. Its length from north to 
 south is 260 miles, and 160 miles in breadth from east 
 to west, in its widest part, but exclusive of the bay on 
 the north-east, it is only 90, and its circumference 
 1100 miles. Its principal indentations are Saginaw 
 Bay, extending into Michigan, and two others ; one 
 immediately north of Manitou Islands, and the other 
 south-east of them. The latter, called Georgian Bay, 
 is about 170 miles long, by 70 broad ; almost a separ- 
 ate sheet of water, divided from Huron b}- a nearly 
 continuous series of islands which are closely connected 
 by the great peninsula of Cabot's Head, and with 
 Point de Tour, the easternmost cape of northern Michi- 
 gan. Manitou (or Great Spirit) Island is the largest 
 of the group, and Drummond Island separates another 
 sheet of water from the main lake, 80 miles long and 
 20 broad. The boundary between the United States 
 and Canada passes along the middle of the main Hu- 
 ron 225 miles, and between Lesser Manitou and Drum- 
 mond Islands, by what is called the Middle Passage, 
 and curves round to the north and west 25 miles, to 
 the entrance of St. Mary's river. The elevation of 
 the surface of Lake Huron above the surface of the 
 ocean is 574 feet, or less than that of Lake Superior by 
 53 feet, or than that of Lake Michigan by 4 feet. 
 
 The greatest depth toward its west shore is at least 
 1000 feet, and its mean depth 900 feet, or about 300 
 feet below the level of the Atlantic. See Lakes. 
 
 Hurricane (Sp. Huracan), a violent storm, gene- 
 rally accompanied by thunder and lightning, and dis- 
 tinguished from every other kind of tempest by the 
 vehemence of the wind, and the sudden changes to 
 which it is subject. Hurricanes prevail chieflj' in the 
 East and West Indies, the Isle of France, and in some 
 parts of China. The following graphic description of 
 the usual phenomena attending the West Indian hur- 
 ricanes, from the pen of Edmund Burke, may be in- 
 teresting to the reader : " It is in the rainy season, 
 principally in the month of August, more rarely in 
 July and September, that they are assaulted by hurri- 
 canes, the most terrible calamity to which they are 
 subject from the climate. This destroj's at one stroke 
 the labor of m.iny years, and frustrates the most ex- 
 alted hopes of the planter, and often just at the mo 
 ment when he thinks himself out of the reach of 
 fortune. It is a sudden and violent storm of wind, 
 rain, thunder, and lightning, attended with a furious 
 swelling of the sea, and sometimes with an earthquake ; 
 in short, with every circumstance which the elements 
 can assemble that is terrible and destructive. First 
 they see, as a prelude to the ensuing havoc, whole 
 fields of sugar-canes whirled into the air, and scattered 
 over the face of the country. The strongest trees of 
 the forest are torn up by the roots and driven about 
 like stubble. Their wind-mills are swept awa)' in a 
 moment. Their works, their fixtures, the ponderous 
 copper boilers and stills of several hundred weight, are 
 wrenched from the ground and battered to pieces. 
 Their houses are no protection ; the roofs are torn off 
 at one blast, while the rain, which in an hour rises 5 
 feet, rushes in upon them with an irresistible violence. 
 There are signs which the Indians of these islands 
 taught our planters, by which they can prognosticate 
 the approach of a hurricane. It comes on either in 
 the quarters, or at the full or change of the moon. If it 
 will come on at the full moon, you being at the change, 
 observe these signs. That day you will see the sky 
 very turbulent. You will observe the sky more red 
 than at other times. You will perceive a dead calm, 
 and the hills clear of all those clouds and mists which 
 usually hover about them. In the clefts of the earth, 
 and in the wells, you will hear a hollow, rumbling 
 sound, like the rushing of a great wind. At night 
 the stars seem much larger than usual, and surrounded 
 with a sort of burs. The north-west sky has a sort of 
 menacing look, and the sea emits a strong smell, and 
 rises into vast waves, often without any wind. The 
 wind itself now forsakes its usually steady easterly 
 stream, and shifts about to the west, from whence it 
 sometimes blows with intermissions violently and 
 irregularly for about two hours at a time. You have 
 the same signs at the full of the moon. The moon 
 itself is surrounded with a great bur, and sometimes 
 the sun has the same appearance." 
 
 Hydrographical Cliarti3 or Maps, usually 
 called sea-charts, are projections of some part of the 
 sea or coast for the use of navigation. In these, are 
 laid down all the rhumbs or points of the compass, 
 the meridians, parallels, etc., with the coasts, capes, 
 islands, rocks, shoals, shallows, etc., in their proper 
 places and proportions. 
 
 Hydrography, the art of measuring and describ- 
 ing the sea, rivers, canals, lakes and the lilce. With 
 regard to the sea, it .gives an account of its tides, coun- 
 tertides, soundings, bays, gulfs, creeks, and also of 
 the rocks, shelves, sands, shallows, promontories, and 
 harbors ; the distance and bearing of one port from 
 another, with everj' thing that is remarkable, whether 
 out at sea or on the coast. 
 
ICE 
 
 1002 
 
 ICE 
 
 T. 
 
 Ice. The sale of ice and snow preserved in the 
 caverns of Vesuvius and on the more elevated parts 
 of ^tna, has long been a considerable branch of trade 
 in Naples, Catania, and the adjoining towns; but it 
 was reserved for the Americans to carrj' the trade in 
 ice to an extent which could not previously have been 
 anticipated. The extreme heat of the summer in the 
 New England States occasions a natural demand for 
 ice, which the extreme cold of the winter gives the 
 means of supplying. The fresh water lakes adjoining 
 Boston and other large towns being deeply frozen in 
 winter, large ice-houses are filled with the ice taken 
 from them, which is retailed in summer at a low price. 
 The practice had not, however, been long established 
 till it occurred to some ingenious speculators to attempt 
 to realize a profit hy shipping ice to the southern parts 
 of the Union and the West Indies : and the speculation 
 having succeeded, the trade was subsequently ex- 
 tended to the Spanish Main and South America, and 
 more recently to Europe, India, and China! The 
 business has, in fact, become of the first importance ; 
 numerous companies and a very large amount of ton- 
 nage being now engaged in the ice trade from Boston. 
 And owing to the greater skill and economy with 
 which the business is at present conducted, the ice 
 which used a few years ago to cost 6 cents per lb. in 
 New Orleans and Havana, may now be had for 1 cent ; 
 and there has been a like fall in its price in India and 
 other more distant places. An immense warehouse 
 has recently been constructed at Calcutta for the re- 
 ception of the ice brought by the ships, whence it is 
 supplied in the quantities required for the public ac- 
 commodation. This singular fabric has triple wallsj 
 five distinct roofs, incloses about three fourths of an 
 acre, and is fitted to hold upward of 30,000 tons of ice ! 
 It is said that a similar d6p6t is about to be formed at 
 Canton. 
 
 Tha Ice Trade of the United Stales. — The ice trade 
 of the United States was commenced bj- Mr. Frederic 
 Tudor, of Boston, in 1805. This gentleman, having 
 previously sent agents to the West Indies to procure 
 information, determined to make his first experiment 
 in that region. Finding no one willing to receive so 
 strange an article on shipboard, he was compelled to 
 purchase a vessel, the brig Favorite^ of about 130 
 tons, which he loaded with ice from a pond in Saugus, 
 Massachusetts, belonging to his father, and sent to St. 
 Pierre, Martinique. This first enterprise resulted in a 
 loss of about $4500, but was, nevertheless, followed up 
 until the embargo and war put an end to the foreign 
 trade, at which period it had yielded no profit to its 
 projector. Its operations had been confined to Mar- 
 tinique and .Jamaica. After the close of the war with 
 England in 1815, Mr. Tudor recommenced his opera- 
 tions by shipments to Havana under a contract with 
 the government of Cuba, which enabled him to pursue 
 his undertaking without loss, and extend it, in 1817, to 
 Charleston, South Carolina ; in the following year to 
 Savannah, Georgia ; and in 1820, to New Orleans. In 
 the mean time it had been tried again (by other par- 
 ties) at Martinique and St. Thomas, and failed, and by 
 Mr. Tudor at St. Jago de Cuba, where it also failed, 
 after a trial of three years. 
 
 On the 18th May, 1883, the first .shipment of ice was 
 made to the East Indies by Mr. Tudor in the ship Tus- 
 cany, for Calcutta, and since that period he has ex- 
 tended his operations to Madras and Bombay. Previ- 
 ously to 1832 the trade had been chiefly confined to 
 the operations of the original projector, although sev- 
 eral enterprises had been undertaken by other persons, 
 and abandoned. The increase of shipments to this 
 period had been small, the whole amounting, in 1832, 
 
 to 4,352 tons, which was taken entirely from Fresh 
 Pond, in Cambridge, and shipped by Mr. Tudor, who 
 was then alone in the trade. Up to this time the ice 
 business was of a very complicated nature. Ship- 
 owners objected to receive it on freight, fearing its 
 efiect on the durability of their vessels and the safety 
 of voj^ages ; ice-houses at home and abroad were re- 
 quired, and the proper mode of constructing them was 
 to be ascertained. The best modes of preparing ships 
 to receive cargoes were the subject of expensive and 
 almost endless experiments. The machines to cut and 
 prepare ice for shipping and storing, and to perform 
 the operations of hoisting it into store-houses and low- 
 ering it into the holds of vessels, were all to be in- 
 vented, involving much expense and vexation. Many 
 of these difficulties have now been overcome, and since 
 1832 the trade has increased much, and appears des- 
 tined to a still more rapid increase for some years. It 
 has also been divided among manj' parties, and its 
 methods have been further improved, and a knowledge 
 of them more widely diff'used. 
 
 The ice has been chiefly taken from Fresh and Spy 
 Ponds, and since 1841 mainly transported on the 
 Charlestown Branch Railroad, which was constructed 
 for that purpose. Quite recently, ice establishments 
 have been made at most of the ponds near Boston, and 
 it is probable that in a few years .the products of all 
 these waters may be required to supply the trade. In 
 the year 1839 the great quantity of ice cut at Fresh 
 Pond, and the consequent difficulties which had arisen 
 among the proprieters, as to where each should take 
 ice, induced them to agree to distinct boundary lines, 
 which were settled by three commissioners, viz., Simon 
 Greenleaf, Levi Farwell, and S. M. Felton, esquires, 
 on the principle of giving to each the same proportion 
 of contiguous surface of the lake, as the length of his 
 shore-line was to its whole border. This settlement 
 was made by partition deed, executed by all the own- 
 ers, and recorded in the registry of deeds of Middlesex 
 county. Published maps were also placed in public 
 institutions and private hands. These maps show the 
 direction and length of the boundary lines of each 
 owner, and the area. This arrangement has been of 
 great advantage to the parties, and enabled them to 
 secure more ice than could otherwise be taken from a 
 pond of equal extent. 
 
 The shipments of ice from Boston coastwise for the 
 year ending December 31st, 1847, amounted to 51,887 
 tons. The ice shipped to foreign ports during the 
 same period amounted to 22,591 tons, and was sent to 
 the following places, viz. ; Havana, Matanzas, Trin- 
 idad, St. Jago, Cuba, Martinique, St. Thomas, St. 
 John's, Maj^aguez, Porto Rico, Guadaloupe, Barba- 
 does, Trinidad, Antigha, St. Vincent, Nassau, Jamaica, 
 Pernambuco, Demerara, Honduras, Vera Cruz, Rio de 
 Janeiro, Mauritius, Isle of Bourbon, Manilla, Calcutta, 
 Madras, Bombay, Ceylon, Hong Kong, Whampoa, Ba- 
 tavia, and Liverpool. 
 
 The freight paid during this year is supposed to 
 have averaged as high as S2 50 per ton, at which rate 
 it would amount, on the 74,478 tons shipped abroad 
 and coastwise, to $186,195. There is a great variation 
 in the cost of securing ice and stowing it on board 
 vessels, caused by winters favorable or otherwise for 
 securing it, and by the greater or less expense of the 
 fittings required for voyages of different duration, or 
 by difference of season when the shipments are made. 
 Taking all these contingencies into consideration, the 
 cost of ice when stowed on board may be estimated to 
 average $2 per ton, which would give for the quantity 
 shipped $148,956. There were in 1847 upward of 29 
 cargoes of provisions, fruits, and vegetables shipped In 
 
ICE 
 
 1003 
 
 ICE 
 
 ice to ports where otherwise such articles could not be 
 sent — saj- to Barbadoes, Trinidad, Demerara, Antigua, 
 St. Vincent, Guadaloupe, St. Thomas, Honduras, and 
 Calcutta — the invoiced cost of which at Boston would 
 average about $2500 each, ©72,500. To these items 
 maj- be added the profits of the trade to those engaged 
 in it, $100,000. Total returns, $507,651. 
 
 The ice trade has been without doubt one of the main 
 stays which preserved tlie Calcutta trade almost exclu- 
 sively to Boston, and it would do so for China if that 
 country were in a more quiet condition. The freights 
 paid to India by Mr. Tudor for ice amount to from 10 to 
 15 per cent, of the earnings for the whole run of the ship 
 out and home, and it is earned without cost or deduction 
 to the charterer or ship-owner. 
 
 It is probable that the commercial marine of the 
 United States has been materially increased by the 
 operation of the ice trade. A large portion of the 
 vessels formerly engaged in the freighting trade from 
 Boston sailed in ballast, depending for remuneration 
 on freights of cotton, rice, tobacco, sugar, etc., to be 
 obtained in more southern latitudes, often competing 
 with the vessels of other nations which could earn a 
 freight out and home. Now a small outward freight 
 from Boston can usually be obtained for the trans- 
 portation of ice to those places where freighting vessels 
 ordinarily obtain cargoes. The ice trade has generally 
 been unsuccessful to places where profitable return 
 freights can not be obtained, because to such places a 
 heavy freight must be paid on the ice, which it can not 
 bear; and also because southern places which do not 
 produce valuable exports, are usually unable to con- 
 sume expensive luxuries. 
 
 The methods and materials for preparing vessels for 
 the transportation of ice have been various. Formerly 
 their holds were sealed up at the sides, bottom, and 
 top, with boards nailed to joist ribs secured to the skin 
 of the vessel, and with double bulkheads forward and 
 aft. The spaces thus formed were filled with refuse 
 tan, rice-hulls, meadow-hay, straw, wood-shavings, or 
 lilce materials. These spaces were made of a thick- 
 ness proportionate to the length of the voyage, and 
 with reference to the season. The immediate surface 
 of the ice was covered with the same materials, ex- 
 cepting tan. At the present time saw-dust is used 
 almost exclusively for voyages of considerable length. 
 It is placed immediatelj' between the ice and the skin 
 of the vessel. This material is obtained from the 
 State of Maine, and before its use for this purpose was 
 entirely wasted at the water-mills, and, falling into 
 the streams, occasioned serious obstructions. During 
 the year 1847, 4600 cords were brought to Boston, at 
 an average value of $2 50 per cord, delivered. The 
 lumber is also wholly from the State of Maine. The 
 value of it is, however, small, in the present mode of 
 fitting vessels. Almost the whole value of the returns 
 of the ice trade, including freight, is a gain to this 
 countrj'. The ice itself, the labor expended on it, the 
 materials for its preservation, and the means of its 
 transportation, would be worthless if the trade did not 
 exist. The prices at which ice sells in places where there 
 is competition vary constantly. In Havana, where it is 
 a. monopoly, it is sold at 6J cents per pound, and there 
 the trade has not increased since 1832, when the ship- 
 ments were 1112 tonsi while at New Orleans, where it 
 has been sold at from half a cent to three cents per 
 pound, it has increased during the same period from 
 2310 tons to upward of 28,000. At Calcutta the trade 
 commenced, in 1833, with a shipment for that year of 
 201 tons, and the price has never been above 6 cents 
 per pound, and is now about 2J cents. The export to 
 that place had increased in 1847 to 3000 tons, but 
 probably less than one fifth of that quantity is actually 
 sold, owing to the great length of the voyage. 
 
 Ice being shipped and used at all seasons, large 
 storehouses are required to preserve it. Exclusive of 
 ice-houses on the wharves at East Charlestown and 
 
 East Boston, in which ice is stored for short periods, 
 there had been erected in 1847, and previously : 
 
 Tona. 
 
 At Fresh Pond, in Cambridge, ice-liouses capable of 
 
 containing : 86,T82 
 
 At Spy Pond, in West Cambridge 28,000 
 
 AtLittlePond " " 2,400 
 
 At Wenham Pond 13,000 
 
 At Medford Pond 4,ono 
 
 At Eel Pond, in Maiden 2,000 
 
 At Horn Pond, in Woburn 4,000 
 
 At Sumner's Pond 1,200 
 
 Total 141,332 
 
 The ice-houses now in use are built above ground. 
 In southern countries, where ice is most valuable, they 
 are constructed at great expense, usually of brick or 
 stone, and the protection to the ice consists in air 
 spacesj or in drj^, light vegetable substances inclosed 
 between two walls. In this vicinity, -on the borders 
 of the lakes, where ice is least valuable, they are 
 usually built of wood, in which case thej' are of two 
 walls, formed by placing two ranges of joists upright, 
 framed into plates at the top, and placed in the ground 
 at the bottom, or framed into sills ; these two ranges 
 are ceiled with boards secured to that side of each 
 range which is nearest the other, and the space be- 
 tween the two boardings filled with refuse tan wet 
 from the yards. This wet tan is frozen during the 
 winter, and until it is thawed in the spring and sum- 
 mer, little waste occurs ; afterward the waste is more 
 rapid, but, as a large portion of the ice is shipped or 
 otherwise used before this tal?es place, the loss in 
 quantity is small, and, occurring before the expenses 
 of transportation have been paid, is of less pecuniary 
 moment. 
 
 In one instance, brick has been used in the construc- 
 tion of an jce-house which covers 36,000 feet of land, 
 and the vaults of this ice-house are 40 feet in depth, 
 and its waUs are four feet thicli; from outside to inside, 
 inclosing two sets of air-spaces. Such a construction 
 is more costly, but has the advantage of durability and 
 safetj' from fire, to which ice-houses are much exposed 
 from the freqoient juxtaposition of railroad-engines, and 
 the light, dry material used about them to cover and 
 otherwise preserve ice. At first, the implements of 
 husbandry only were used in securing ice, hut as the 
 trade became more important, other machines and dif- 
 ferent methods were adopted, and abandoned when 
 better were brought forward, or when the increased 
 magnitude of the business required greater facilities. 
 More ice is now secured in one favorable day than 
 would have supplied the whole trade in 1832. Ordi- 
 narily, before there has been cold enough to form ice 
 of suitable thickness, snow falls on its surface. If 
 this occurs when the ice is four or more inches in thick- 
 ness, and the snow not heavy enough to sink the ice, 
 it can be removed by using horses attached to the 
 "snow-scraper;" and under such circumstances this 
 is the method in common use. But if snow falls 
 so heav}'' as to bring the water above the surface of 
 the ice, it is removed, after it has congealed into snow- 
 ice, with the "ice-plane," which takes off about two 
 inches deep and 22 inches wide of its surface. This 
 machine is drawn by two horses, and is guided by in- 
 serting its "guides" into grooves previously made 
 with the "ice-cutter." The chips made by it are 
 scraped off in the same manner as dry snow. These 
 preliminary' expenses are often very great ; fre- 
 quently, after much expense has been incurred to re- 
 move a body of snow or snow-ice, the weather be- 
 comes warm and spoils the ice on which so much has 
 been expended. And, on the other hand, if it is not 
 done and the cold continues, there will be little or no 
 increase of thickness to the ice, which is equally a 
 disaster. 
 
 When ice has been formed of sufiicicnt thickness, 
 and freed from snow and snow-ice, it is reduced to 
 blocks of uniform size, ordinarily 22 inches square, by 
 the "ice cutter." This machine is similar to a, car- 
 
ICE 
 
 1004 
 
 ICE 
 
 penter's plow, except that it lias » series of cutting- 
 chisels, one succeeding another, and deepening the 
 groove. It is drawn by a horse, and cuts at one passage 
 about two inches deep, and if the ice requires to be 
 planed to remove snow-ice, the guides of the " snow- 
 plane" are used in grooves of this depth, but when 
 grooves are required to split from, the " ice-cutter" 
 should be drawn two or three times through each. 
 These grooves should be parallel to each other, and to 
 make them so, the " ioe-cutter" has a guide, which is 
 placed in the last groove made. When the grooves 
 in one direction have been made, others at right an- 
 gles with them are produced in the same manner. 
 After this has been done, one groove at the end is 
 opened, and also the two outside grooves ; a wedging- 
 bar is then stricken into the groove next the end one, 
 and at several places along its length, which detaches 
 it easily from the mass ; then the same bar is forced, 
 with a slight blow, into the transverse grooves, which 
 reduces the ice to very uniform square blocks. The 
 blocks of ice thus formed are brought to the receiving- 
 doors of the ice-houses (which are built on the imme- 
 diate borders of the ponds), either by placing tliem on 
 sleds, or floating in canals cut through the ice. Various 
 modes of elevating the ice are in use ; the endless 
 chain, in combination with the inclined plane, has 
 been successfully used, and also the common pile- 
 driving steam-engine; but at present horse-power is 
 more used than any other. The ice is placed in the 
 houses in regular courses, every block exactly cover- 
 ing the next below it. When a vault has been filled, 
 it is immediately covered with wood-shavings and the 
 receiving-doors fitted up, to prevent waste, until the 
 contents are required for shipment abroad or use at 
 home. The weight of ice for shipment is usually de- 
 termined at the wharves, immediately before being put 
 on shipboard, on scales which have been constructed 
 for the purpose ; and this single operation settles the 
 weight to be paid for by the party for whose account 
 the ice is shipped ; the amount due for freight on ship- 
 board, for transportation on the railroad, and that 
 which is to be received by the owner of the ice. — 
 American Almanac, yew 1849. 
 
 The aggregate of freights paid for ice shipped in 
 Boston in 1856, was $2 50 the ton, clean and clear to 
 the ship-owner ; therefore he received from this trade 
 last year $365,000 (a large interest), and probably more 
 profit than any other interest wliatever in the busi- 
 ness. Railroads and wagons were paid $100,000 ; la- 
 borers, $160,000 ; towns, for taxes of ice privileges and 
 ice in store, $1500 ; and wharves $20,000 to $25,000. 
 There are 93 wagons and about 150 horses employed 
 in distributing ice in Boston and vicinity ; 60,000 tons 
 are thus retailed, supplying 18,000 families, hotels, 
 stores, and factories. 
 
 The tons of ice prepared for market, its value, capi- 
 tal invested, and number of persons employed in this 
 business in Massachusetts, in the year 1855, are shov/n 
 in the annexed summary : 
 
 Bristol. . . . 
 
 Essex 
 
 Miilcllosex . 
 
 Plymouth.. 
 
 Total.. . 
 
 market. 
 
 Vnliio 
 
 18,200 $10,000 
 
 18,900 T6,300 
 
 366,200 550,400 
 
 800 2,500 
 
 397,100 $689,100 
 
 Civplfftl 
 invested. 
 
 Hands 
 smployed. 
 
 $16,000 10 
 25,000 65 
 680,700' 862 
 8,000 | 8^ 
 
 $704,700: 445 
 
 The annual domestic consumption of ice in the chief 
 cities of the United Utates is estimated as followsj 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Boston 60,000 
 
 Now York 300,000 
 
 PbiladelpMa 200,000 
 
 Baltimore 45,000 
 
 ■Washington 20,000 
 
 In the smaller towns, especially in those where 
 water is introduced by reservoirs, the consumption of 
 ice is about two thirds as great in proportion to their 
 population as in the larger cities. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Charleston 15,000 
 
 Mobile 16,000 
 
 New Orleans 40,000 
 
 St Louis 25,000 
 
 Cincinnati 26,000 
 
 New York, up to this time, has exported but little 
 ice, being chiefly engaged in procuring an amount suf- 
 ficient for its domestic supph\ New York city and 
 vicinity is, for the most part, supplied with ice by four 
 or five joint-stock companies. The amount of ice 
 placed in storage for the winter of 1856-7, by these 
 various companies, is estimated as follows : 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Knickerbocker Ice Co 260,000 
 
 New York and Brooklyn Oo 40,000 
 
 People's Co 20,000 
 
 Independent Co 20,000 
 
 Passaic Co 7,000 
 
 Total 837,000 
 
 The Knickerbocker Company, which engrosses a 
 large proportion of the busines8,,is a consolidation of 
 three separate concerns into one company, with a capi- 
 tal of $300,000. Its supply of ice is derived from 
 Rockland and Highland lakes. The New Yorlj and 
 Brooklyn Company obtains its supply from the Hudson 
 River at Athens ; the Independent from the same 
 place ; the People's from the same river at Catsldll ; 
 and the Passaic from the reservoir at Jersey' City. 
 
 Export Track. — The export of ice during the year 
 1856, from Boston, has been as follows : 
 
 Tons. 
 
 East Indies 14,380 
 
 Peru 1,191 
 
 Callao 6,744 
 
 Melbourne, Australia. 596 
 
 Sydney, N. 8. W 620 
 
 Valparaiso 614 
 
 Guyaquil 1,028 
 
 Ceylon 467 
 
 Eio. Janeiro 1,762 
 
 Havana 5,801 
 
 Demcrara 1,100 
 
 Montevideo 898 
 
 Kingston, Ja 1,694 
 
 Aspinwall 557 
 
 Cardenas 422 
 
 St. Thomas 7T8 
 
 Buenos Ayres 530 
 
 Brazil 43 
 
 Barbadoes 87T 
 
 St. Ja20 445 
 
 Matanzas 606 
 
 New Granada 390 
 
 Laguira. 218 
 
 Porto Cabello 60 
 
 The total capital invested in the ice business is 
 
 $700,000, and the total quantity gathered 397,000 
 tons, about one third only of which is exported. 
 ILxpoRTS OP Ice from thk Unitkd States, for each 
 Yf.ar ending June 80Tn, 1853, 1854, and 1855. 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Port Spain 
 
 
 Pernambuco 
 
 257 
 
 Martinique 
 
 211 
 
 South America. . . 
 
 876 
 
 
 814 
 
 Bahia. 
 
 875 
 
 
 181 
 
 Mansanilla 
 
 57 
 
 Nassau, N. P 
 
 ISO 
 
 Kemedios 
 
 10 
 
 Bermuda 
 
 40 
 
 
 10 
 
 Southern ports.. . 
 
 ., 81,895 
 
 Total, 1856.... 
 
 .. 125,814 
 
 " 1855.,.. 
 
 . . 93,080 
 
 " 1854.... 
 
 .. 115,.315 
 
 " 1863.... 
 
 .. 82,792 
 
 " 1862. . . . 
 
 . 96,482 
 
 " 1361.... 
 
 .. 99,587 
 
 " 1850.... 
 
 .. 69,623 
 
 " 1849.... 
 
 .. 66,808 
 
 " 1848. . . . 
 
 . . 67,607 
 
 " 1847.... 
 
 . . 54,625 
 
 I 1853. 
 
 Danish West Indies 
 
 Dutch East Indies 
 
 England 
 
 Gibraltar. 
 
 British East Indies 
 
 British Guiana 
 
 British West Indies 
 
 Australia 
 
 French West Indies 
 
 Spain on the Mediter. . . 
 
 Manilla 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Spanish "West Indies 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Central Republic 
 
 New Granada 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Peru 
 
 Chili 
 
 China 
 
 Africa 
 
 Canada 
 
 British Amor, colonies. 
 
 France 
 
 Porto Pico 
 
 Cape de Verd Islands. . 
 
 Buenos Ayres 
 
 Ecuador 
 
 Total 
 
 Malu 
 
 $2,069 
 
 7,706 
 
 4,606 
 
 620 
 
 62,040 
 
 6811 
 
 22,00^ 
 
 1,191 
 
 3,416 
 
 960 
 
 3,189 
 
 83,402 
 
 2,622 
 
 848 
 
 1,066 
 
 245 
 
 4,1 
 
 68 
 
 8,523 
 
 14,186 
 
 2,982 
 
 900 
 
 2,965 
 
 Value. 
 
 $4,099 
 
 "685 
 
 108,819 
 
 688 
 
 12,236 
 
 4,409 
 
 1,676 
 
 369 
 
 1,600 
 
 25,273 
 
 916 
 
 800 
 
 2,450 
 
 'iji'm 
 
 184 
 
 11,071 
 
 16,286 
 
 4,905 
 
 853 
 
 '"12 
 675 
 
 Tons. 
 
 1,528 
 
 2,180 
 
 731 
 
 9,6S4 
 927 
 
 3,880 
 495 
 423 
 271 
 997 
 
 7,645 
 
 "286 
 36 
 20 
 130 
 
 8,109 
 6,381 
 1,587 
 
 506 
 54 
 197 
 600 
 238 
 808 
 
 Vain 
 
 $3,838 
 
 6,478 
 
 8,000 
 
 90,.327 
 2,262 
 
 14,471 
 1,606 
 1,070 
 900 
 8,200 
 
 21,161 
 
 "573 
 770 
 320 
 470 
 
 9,272 
 
 17,449 
 
 6,547 
 
 1,620 
 175 
 896 
 
 2,000 
 600 
 
 2,424 
 
 $176,056 $202,118 41,117 $190,798 
 
 From tliis statement it would appear that the Brit- 
 ish East Indies absorb the largest quantity of ice from 
 this region. Cuba next, and Peru the third in import- 
 
IGS 
 
 1005 
 
 ICE 
 
 ance. At present the aggregate is very trifling, but 
 as fast as tlie article becomes known in southern cli- 
 mates, it will be more appreciated, and will become a 
 permanent article of export from Boston, where the 
 shipments are principally made. For Ice-houses, see 
 Cakey's Mus., xii,, 175. Ice Trade, etc., see Hdnt's 
 Mag., v., 444, xi., 877; Jour, of 8ci.,m.,n9, ix., 
 136, xlvi., 179, xlviii., 373 ; Bankers' Mag., iii., 406 ; 
 Am. Eclec, iii., 307, 512 (Lonis Agassiz), iv. i. 
 
 Icebergs. The accumulation upon elevated situa- 
 tions of frozen snow, produces those moving masses 
 of ice called glaciers. In the Alps, and in Norway, 
 these glaciers coming down to a mild region melt 
 away ; but in the arctic regions, they often flow into 
 the sea and produce icebergs. While floating about, 
 these masses may increase indefinitely in size, from 
 receiving fresh accessions of snow, or by the freezing 
 of the water continually splashed against them, as well 
 as by the sudden freezing of the water which falls as 
 rain. They are of all sizes, from mere fragments to 
 upward of half a mile in diameter, and of all weights, 
 from a few pounds to 100,000 tons. They rise some- 
 times 150 feet above the water, and this is but an eighth 
 of the whole mass. They float about in hundreds, and 
 are often driven by winds far into the ocean, and be- 
 come exceedingly dangerous to navigation. Icebergs 
 from each pole have approached nearer the equater 
 than 40° north and south latitude ; they have been 
 met with in the neighborhood of the Cape of Good 
 Hope. Many of these icebergs originating on land, 
 present the same phenomena as glaciers. Hence, 
 upon near inspection, they are found to be loaded with 
 the debris which, as glaciers, they scraped off the 
 mountain sides, past which thej' flowed to the sea. 
 This debris contains masses of greenstone, clay-slate, 
 gneiss, granite, etc. In the polar circle, where the 
 floating masses reach to many hundreds of miles in 
 length, they are called ice islands. When two of 
 these approach each other, any vessel which happens 
 to be between them is almost certain to be crushed to 
 pieces. The larger of the two, by its greater momen- 
 tum, urges itself beneath the smaller, which is thus 
 tilted up on the shoulders of the larger, whose mass it 
 goes to increase. The iceblink is an appearance pro- 
 duced on the horizon by these ice islands when sta- 
 tionary, and which indicates the existence of an ice- 
 island before it is itself visible. 
 
 Ice-boats, boats so constructed as to sail upon ice, 
 and which are very common in Holland. They go 
 with incredible swiftness, sometimes so quickly as to 
 affect the breath, and are found verj^ useful in convey- 
 ing goods and passengers across lakes and great rivers. 
 Boats of different sizes are placed in a traverse form 
 upon a 2-| or 3 inch deal board. At the extremity of 
 each end are fixed irons, which turn up in the form of 
 skates. Upon this plank the boat rests, and the two 
 ends serve as outriggers to prevent oversetting, 
 whence ropes are fastened that lead to the head of the 
 mast in the nature of shrouds, and others passed 
 through a block across the bowsprit. The rudder is 
 made somewhat like a hatchet with the head placed 
 downward, which being pressed down, cuts the ice, 
 and serves all the purposes of a rudder in the water, by 
 enabling the helmsman to steer. 
 
 Ice Islands, a name given by sailors to a great 
 quantity of ice collected into one huge solid mass, and 
 floating about the seas near or within the polar cir- 
 cles. The motion of the lesser pieces is as rapid as 
 the currents ; the greater, which are sometimes 200 
 leagues long, and 60 or 80 broad, move slowly and 
 majestically ; often flx by the tide, immovable by 
 the power of the ocean, and then produce near the 
 horizon that bright white appearance called the ice- 
 blink. The approximation of two great fields produces 
 a most singular phenomenon ; it forces the lesser (if 
 the term can be applied to pieces of several acres 
 square), out of the water, and adds it to the surface : 
 
 a second and often a third succeeds, so that the whole 
 forms an aggregate of a tremendous weight. These 
 float in the sea like so many rugged mountains, and 
 are sometimes 500 or 600 yards thick ; but the far 
 greater part is concealed beneath the water. These 
 are continually increased in height by the freezing of 
 the spray of the sea, or the melting of the snow which 
 falls on them. Those which remain in this frozen cli- 
 mate receive continual additions ; others are gradu- 
 ally wafted by the northern winds into southern lati- 
 tudes, and melt by degrees by the heat of the sun, till 
 they waste awaj', or disappear in the boundless ele- 
 ment. 
 
 Iceland, one of the largest islands in Europe (be- 
 ing little inferior, in point of superficial extent, to Ire- 
 land), is situated in the north part ■ of the Atlantic 
 Ocean, between N. lat. 63° 23' 30", and 66° 32' ; 
 and W. long. 13° 32' 14", and 24° 34' 14" ; the north 
 point being thus very near to the arctic circle, but not 
 passing beyond it, as all maps but a recent authori- 
 tative one have represented it. Its extreme length 
 from east to west is about 280 miles, and its breadth 
 from north to south varies from 180 to 200 miles. 
 
 The precise period at which this island was discov- 
 ered and first colonized is unknown ; but from the 
 Landnamabok, an ancient Icelandic chronicle, and a 
 work generally relied upon as authentic, we learn that 
 the Norwegians were the first settlers upon its coasts. 
 Naddodr, a famous pirate of that adventurous nation, 
 was, on his return to the Faroe Islands from a preda- 
 tor)' excursion, about the j'ear 860, driven by a tem- 
 pest upon the coast of Iceland. He ascended to the 
 summit of a mountain, but observing around him neither 
 the vestige of a human residence, nor aught else than 
 vast and trackless fields of snow, he immediately aban- 
 doned it. Probably aware of this discovery, Gardar 
 Svarfarson, a. Swede, followed the same track a few 
 years afterward, and succeeding in circumnavigating 
 the country, discovered it to be an island. He there 
 spent the winter; but finding little inducement to 
 make it a permanent residence, he, in the following 
 spring, returned to Norway. The third adventurer on 
 this coast was one Floki, another celebrated. Norwegian 
 pirate, who, during the two seasons, explored a consid- 
 erable portion of the southern and western coasts. His 
 attempt at forming a permanent .settlement proved, 
 however, like that of his predecessors, a failure ; his 
 cattle died, his expected cropswere ruined, and, after 
 experiencing innumerable distresses and hardships from 
 the inclemency of the weather, he determined to repair 
 to a warmer region, and gave to the island at his de- 
 parture the name by which it has ever since been 
 known. That this name, and the report which he 
 spread, on his return of the inhospitable nature of the 
 island, were principally the effect of prejudice and dis- 
 appointment, is evident from the contradictory account 
 given of it by his companions, one of whom thought 
 he could Onl}' convey an adequate idea of its richness 
 and fertility by declaring that butter dropped from 
 every plant. 
 
 The ancient Icelanders possessed, as is still the case 
 with their posterity, few of the luxuries or refinements 
 of life ; and were occasionally exposed to severe priva- 
 tions, from the nature of their soil, and the climate 
 under which they lived. There is reason, however, to 
 believe, though the fact can not with perfect accuracy 
 be ascertained, that the climate of Iceland was once 
 less austere than it now is ; and that not only trees 
 and shrubs, but even corn, were grown upon the isl- 
 and. Of the ancient existence of the former, the 
 trunks occasionally discovered in the bogs afford pretty 
 satisfactory evidence. Grain of any description is not 
 now a native of this island ; and a few birches, not 
 rising much more than a yard in height, afford the 
 only approach toward timber. Like the present: in- 
 habitants, the ancient Icelanders were much dispersed 
 over the country, their habitations being seldom 
 
ICE 
 
 1006 
 
 ILL 
 
 grouped together, but placed whereTer the situation 
 and nature of the soil appeared suitable. Their occu- 
 pations and modes of life appear also to have borne 
 much similitude. The produce of the farm, and the 
 capture of iish, afforded them, as they do the present 
 inhabitants, the principal means of subsistence; and 
 their traffic with foreign countries made a valuable ad- 
 dition to their domestic comforts. 
 
 Population. — The population of Iceland has under- 
 gone considerable vicissitudes through the operation of 
 epidemics. At 50,444 in 1703, it had sunk, in 1769, to 
 46,201, nor did it rise much above this point through- 
 out the remainder of the centurj^. In 1850 it was 
 59,157. This is small for an island whose surface is to 
 that of Ireland as four to five ; but that surface, both 
 from its own nature, and the character of the climate, 
 is perhaps as unfavorable as any which exists between 
 the limits of the two arctic circles. Deducting the 
 areas of the numerous fiords with which it is inter- 
 sected, the square contents of the land may be calcu- 
 lated at 37,388 statute miles ; but as the centre of the 
 island consists entirely of snowy and uninhabited 
 mountains, the peopled portion can not be considered 
 more than 25,000 square miles ; and the population 
 therefore will hot much exceed two persons to each 
 square mile. At present the population must be in- 
 creasing with great rapidity, if we may judge from 
 the proportion of births to deaths, the respective num- 
 bers in 1852 being 2435 (of which 333 were illegitimate) 
 and 1437, The whole population is employed either 
 in farming, which occupies about three fourths of the 
 men, or in fishing. Other employments do not exist, 
 nor is there any other class of people or townsmen, 
 save the small number of merchants in Eeilciavik and 
 the other trading establishments. Every branch of 
 industry is therefore domestic, and confined chiefly to 
 articles of clothing, such as coarse cloth, gloves, mit- 
 tens, and stockings. The peasantry are generally in- 
 genious, and manufacture such simple pieces of fami- 
 ture as their cottages require ; some also aspire to 
 make trinkets of silver, and articles from the walrus' 
 tusks. The trade of Iceland has never, till the pres- 
 ent time, been managed in what modern science points 
 out as the most advantageous way. The Danish gov- 
 ernment long had a monopoly of the business of this 
 remote dependency. For man}' years, while this was 
 abolished, Danish merchants had a preference to trad- 
 ing, by virtue of higher duties exacted from those of 
 other countries. It was not until 1856 that the for- 
 eign merchant was encouraged to come to Iceland by 
 a perfect equality of terms. The only place in the 
 island entitled to be considered as a port is Reikiavik : 
 only a few trading stations exist elsewhere. There is 
 an annual export of from 1,000,000 to 1,200,000 pounds 
 of raw wool, besides about 200,000 pairs of knitted 
 stockings, and 300,000 mittens, or gloves without fin- 
 gers. The Iceland sheep have remarkably fine fleeces 
 of wool, which the farmers, in the spring of the year, 
 take off whole ; their weight being usually from four 
 to five pounds. The other principal branch of indus- 
 try in Iceland is fishing, which must be considered as 
 in a thriving state. The fishing-banks around the 
 island abound in cod and other species, and the number 
 of boats engaged in the business in 1853 amounted to 
 3506, being an advance of nearly 50 per cent, in 20 
 years. Fish-oil, whale-blubber, skins, eider-down, 
 feathers, and the Lichen Islandicus^ for medicinal pur- 
 poses, may also be included among their list of ex- 
 ports. These the natives dispose of to the Danish 
 merchants in exchange for coffee, sugar, tobacco, 
 snuff, a small quantity of brandy, rj-e and rye-bread, 
 biscuit, wheaten flour, salt, soap, and such other small 
 articles as are in constant use for domestic purposes. 
 Those who can afford it, purchase a supply of linens 
 and cottons, which of late 3'ears have become of more 
 common use, and which must tend greatly to cleanli- 
 ness, and the prevention of those diseases which wool- 
 
 en clothing worn next the skin tends to engender. 
 The traffic thus occasioned takes place in the early pait 
 of sumnjer, and while it lasts creates a kind of fair, 
 with no little bustle and business in the capital. All 
 the articles brought from the interior for sale at the 
 sea-ports, and all those taken back for winter con- 
 sumption, are transported on pack-horses. There is 
 not, in fact, in all Iceland such a machine as a wheel- 
 carriage ; before any such can be used, there must be 
 roads, of which, up to the present time, none exist. 
 The lines of transit along the country are mere tracks, 
 cut deep by use where the ground is soft, and encum- 
 bered by blocks where it is hard. Yet fi^ll as these 
 paths are of difficulties, it is surprising at what a pace 
 the small, hardy, sure-footed horses of the countrj- 
 will proceed. For foot traveling they are in general 
 impracticable. "" 
 
 The revenue of the island, arising from crown prop- 
 erty, commercial charges, a small tax on transference 
 of property, etc., amounted in the year ending 5lst 
 March, 1854, to 29,949 rix-doUars (£3119), while the 
 expenditure for officers' salaries, educating the clergj', 
 and other items, was 56,743 rix-doUars, or more than 
 double the income, the excess being supplied by the 
 central government. The income, however, appears 
 to be increasing in proportion. 
 
 The scanty produce of the land is, however, to a 
 great degree compensated for by the abundance of fine 
 fish which occurs on the coast. In several parts of 
 the island, particularly on the north and north-west, 
 the. shark fishery is a regular occupation. Strong 
 hooks fastened to chains are baited and anchored a lit- 
 tle way out to sea, and the fish when caught are thus 
 towed to shore. Of the skin, slices are made ; a con- 
 siderable quantity of oil is extracted, and some parts 
 of the flesh are occasionally smoked and used by the 
 natives for food The cod is very plentiful ; the had- 
 dock grows to a large size ; ling, skate, flounders, and 
 halibut, are likewise very common ; the herring, too, 
 frequents the fiords in vast shoals, Ijut this branch of 
 the fishery has hitherto been little attended to. The 
 salmon in the rivers are said to be very fine, and no 
 countrj' in the world produce them in greater quantity. 
 Seals are particularly numerous on the shores of the 
 Breide-fiord and the western coast. See Ed. Bev.j iii., 
 334 (Sydney Smith), xix.,416; Quar. Sev.,liY.,lS5, 
 xix., 291, vii., 43 (R. Southey) ; Wesim. Rev., Iii., 
 264 ; North Am. Rev., xxxv., 75 (O. W. B. Peaeody) ; 
 For. Quar., ix., 41. 
 
 Illinois, one of the United States, is bounded 
 north by Wisconsin, east by Lake Michigan and In- 
 diana, from which it is separated for a third of its length 
 by the Wabash River, south by the Ohio, which sep- 
 arates it from Kentucky, and west hy the Mississippi. 
 It lies between K lat. 37° and 42° 30', and between 
 W. long. 87° 49' and 91° 28'. Greatest length from 
 north to south 378 miles ; greatest breadth, 212 miles ; 
 average breadth, 140 miles. Its area is estimated at 
 65,409 square miles, being only about 3000' square 
 miles less than that of England and Wales. Accord- 
 ing to the census of 1850, little more than a sixth part 
 of the State was under cultivation. 
 
 Illinois is one of the most level States in the Union, 
 With the exception of a range of low hills in the 
 south, and a good deal of broken land in the north- 
 west, as well as a few elevations near the Illinois, and 
 some lofty bluffs along the Mississippi, the State may 
 be regarded as an extensive table-land, gently inclin- 
 ing toward the south-west. At the mouth of the Ohio 
 the soil is only about 340 feet above tide-water in the 
 Gulf of Mexico, and the highest elevation in the whole 
 State does not exceed 800 feet above that standard. 
 Its surface is occupied almost entirely by prairies, 
 which are popularly distinguished by tlie names, 
 "wet" and " drj'," "alluvial" and "rolling." The 
 wet prairies are peaty, indicating that they have once 
 been morasses. Those of an alluvial nature are dry, 
 
TLL 
 
 lOOY 
 
 ILL 
 
 with a rich black loam, and exceedingly fertile. They 
 are covered with a coarse kind of grass, which grows 
 to an enormous size. The soil of the high and " roll- 
 ing" prairies is, in general, only of second-rate quality, 
 and abounds in springs. Grape-vines are abundant. 
 The prairies furnish art inexhaustible summer range 
 for cattle. From the exceeding flatness of some of the 
 plains, the rains that fall are allowed to stagnate, and 
 thus rendei' the situation unhealthy. The Grand 
 Prairie, which is the largest tract of this description, 
 is probably the highest table-land between the Missis- 
 sippi and the Wabash. It extends from the county of 
 Jaclcson, in a north-east direction, to the Iroquois 
 county, and varies in breadth from 1 to upward of 12 
 miles. Although passing under one name, it does not 
 consist of one single tract of land, but is broken up 
 into several reaches of prairie ground, with strips of 
 wood running between them. It is rich and fertile, 
 and several settlements have beeri located on its 
 border, which is evei-ywhere skirted with wood. The 
 prairies, generally, are not plentifully supplied with 
 timber, most of them being only interspersed with 
 groups of trees, or skirted with strips of forest. 
 Much of the young wood is destroyed by the annual 
 winter burning of the coarse grass, which covers at 
 least two thirds of the prairie land. In spring the 
 prairies again become profusely decked with the 
 greatest variety of beautiful and delicate flowers of 
 ever}^ hue. 
 
 Illinois is distant from the sea, but is well provided 
 with rivers. Nearly three fourths of its boiindary is 
 formed by navigable rivers; and on the north-east 
 it has Lake Michigan for upward of 60 miles. The 
 Mississippi, which forms its entire western, and the 
 Ohio, which forms the southern boundary, give com- 
 mercial access to those valleys which bear their names. 
 The Wabash, a noble stream which bounds the State 
 on the east for more than 100 miles, is navigable for 
 more than that distance. For internal communication, 
 the Illinois, which belongs entirely to this State, is 
 navigable at all seasons for steamboats for 260 miles, 
 to La Salle, where navigation is stopped occasionally 
 bj' the little rapids, and where a canal branches off, 
 connecting the river with Lake Michigan. The prin- 
 cipal tributaries of the Illinois, which is itself formed 
 by the junction of the Kankakee and the Des Plaines, 
 ai'e the Fox Eiver, which rises in Huron Territorj', 
 and has a course of 200 miles before it joins the Illi- 
 nois ; the Vermillion River, which falls into it from 
 the south-east ; the Sangamon from the east, the 
 Mackinaw from the north-east, and the Spoon River 
 from the north-west. These are almost all navigable 
 for considerable distances. The Sangamon is naviga- 
 ble for 140 miles. The Little Wabash and the Em- 
 barrass, which flow into the Wabash, are likewise 
 navigable for upward of 150 miles. The Rock River, 
 which rises in Wisconsin, and falls into the Missis- 
 sippi, after a course of about 300 miles, is navigable 
 for some distance, but its upper course is impeded by 
 rapids. 
 
 The climate of Illinois, extending as it does over a 
 space of 6J degrees of latitude, must necessarily be 
 varied. The natural difference of temperature between 
 the northern and the southern parts is, however, in- 
 creased, by the numerous and large rivers which bound 
 and intersect the country, and by its state of cultiva- 
 tion. Everj^where the winters are severe, the sum- 
 mers hot and long, and the temperature subject to 
 frequent and sudden changes. In the southern parts 
 of the State the summer heat is very oppressive and 
 enervating ; and is only occasionally relieved by fresh 
 breezes from the prairies. In winter the snow falls to 
 a considerable depth, and lies occasionallj- for three 
 months ; and many of the rivers remain frozen for 
 the same length of time. In some parts of the State 
 only a few inches of snow falls, and it quickly dis- 
 appears. 
 
 Illinois possesses a vast extent of arable land. The 
 soil, although varied, is generally highly productive, 
 and for agriculture, it has been considered as unsur- 
 passed by any State in the American confederacy. The 
 soil in " the bottoms," or along the river valleys, such 
 as those of the Rock River, the Sangamon, and Kas- 
 kaskia, consists chiefly of rich alluvial deposits, and is 
 so productive as frequently to yield 40 bushels of wheat 
 or 100 bushels of Indian corn to the acre. Nearly all the 
 tracts adjacent to the rivers are of this character. 
 " The American Bottom," as it is called, is the richest 
 river alluvium, and has been cropped without dete- 
 rioration for a century. It extends along the Missis- 
 sippi for 90 miles ; but in consequence of its liability 
 to inundation, much of it is uncultivated. The prairies, 
 although less productive, are still very fertile, and on 
 account of their greater salubrity are preferred for 
 farms, wherever wood is to be obtained. In 1850, 
 there were 76,208 farms in Illinois, containing 5,039,- 
 545 acres of improved ground. 
 
 Important and valuable minerals abound in this 
 State. Bituminous coal occurs in almost every county ; 
 and in some instances maj' be obtained without exca^ 
 vation. Vast beds are found on the bluffs adjacent to 
 the "American Bottom;" and it has been reported 
 that anthracite coal has been found in the county of 
 Jackson. But the great coal region is an extensive 
 tract which extends quite across the State from Mis- 
 souri to Indiana, and from Iowa to Kentucky. • Iron 
 has been found in the southern part of the State, and 
 is said to be plentiful in the northern. The great lead 
 region is shared between Illinois, Iowa, and Wiscon- 
 sin. Galena in the north-west is nearly supported by 
 this mineral. Silver has also been found in the west 
 part of the State, and copper is obtained in several 
 places. The other minerals found here are, zinc, gyp- 
 sum, quartz, crystals, etc. 
 
 Manufactures^ etc: — There were in the State in 1850, 
 16 woolen factories, with a capital invested of $154,600, 
 employing 124 males and 54 females, manufacturing 
 306,995 yards of cloth, and 137,000 pounds of yam 
 valued at $206,572 ; 2 establishments making pig iron, 
 with a capital of 65,000, emplojdng 150 persons, pro- 
 ducing 2,700 tons of pig iron, etc., valued at $70,200; 
 29 establishments with a capital of $260,400, employ- 
 ing 332 persons, and making 4,160 tons of castings, 
 etc., valued at $441,185 ; 280 flouring and grist mills, 
 487 saw mills ; 94 printing offices, 10 daily, 4 tri- 
 weekly, 94 weekly, 2 semi-monthly, 7 monthly, and 
 1 quarterly publications. Total value of manufac- 
 tured articles, $5,200,000. There were in January, 
 1856, 2,215 miles of railroad in operation, and 1,945 
 miles in course of construction. 
 
 The internal trade of this State is becoming con- 
 siderable, and increasing in proportion to the means 
 of internal communication. Its direct foreign com- 
 merce is small, and is chiefly with Great Britain. 
 
 COMMEEOB OP TUB StATB OP ILLINOIS, FBOM OCTOEEE ], 
 
 1847, TO July 1, 1866. 
 
 YEARS. 
 
 BXPORT8. 
 
 IMPOHIB. 
 
 TONNAOB 
 
 CLEAK&D. 
 
 Domestic. 
 
 Tolnl. 
 
 ToKil. 
 
 American. 
 
 For«igir. 
 
 184T 
 
 $52,100 
 
 $62,100 
 
 $266 
 
 1,202 
 
 850 
 
 1848 
 
 41,885 
 
 41,885 
 
 4,865 
 
 807 
 
 
 1849 
 
 88,412 
 
 88,417 
 
 9,766 
 
 914 
 
 2,796 
 
 1850 
 
 17,669 
 
 17,669 
 
 15,705 
 
 
 
 ISSl 
 
 114,836 
 
 114,836 
 
 4,657 
 
 2,098 
 
 215 
 
 1862 
 
 51,325 
 
 51,325 
 
 4.832 
 
 8,403 
 
 218 
 
 1853 
 
 79,139 
 
 79,189 
 
 7,559 
 
 2,288 
 
 
 1854 
 
 296,046 
 
 297,046 
 
 79,844 
 
 8,014 
 
 708 
 
 1855 
 
 547,053 
 
 547,068 
 
 64,609 
 
 31,464 
 
 2,916 
 
 1856 
 
 1,846,223 
 
 1,846,228 
 
 277,404 
 
 76,930 
 
 19,511 
 
 Illinois consist of 100 counties, which contain a 
 number of thriving towns, many of which are increas- 
 ing very fast in population. Chicago is much the 
 largest, and has connected with it the greater part of 
 the traffic of the State. Population in 1850, 29,963. 
 In 1853 it is said to have increased to upward' of 
 60.000. In 1856 the population was estimated at 
 100,000. The capital of the State is Springfield. 
 
IMM 
 
 1008 
 
 IMM 
 
 The following table shows the decennial increase of 
 the population in the State since 1810 : 
 
 Ve.r,. 
 
 Whiles. 
 
 Free colored. 
 
 Slaves. 
 
 Total. 
 
 ISIO 
 
 11,601 
 
 613 
 
 168 
 
 12,282 
 
 1820 
 
 53,T88 
 
 606 
 
 917 
 
 55,211 
 
 1880 
 
 155,061 
 
 1,637 
 
 747 
 
 157,445 
 
 1840 
 
 4T2,254 
 
 8,589 
 
 831 
 
 476,188 
 
 1850 
 
 846,104 
 
 5,366 
 
 None. 
 
 851,470 
 
 The astonishing growth of the State of Illinois and 
 its promising condition, in 1855, may be seen from 
 the following returns transmitted to the Auditor of 
 the State : 
 
 Articles. Number. Value. 
 
 Horses 95,692 $20,364,812 
 
 Neat cattle 1,175,88S 14,619,529 
 
 Mules and as.ses 19,523 1,106,094 
 
 Sheep 811,827 1,044,181 
 
 Hogs 1,689,687 2,512,816 
 
 Carriages and wagons 188,654 4,766,459 
 
 Clocks and watcbes 124,494 743 244 
 
 Pianos 1,227 156,168 
 
 Merchandise 8,423,819 
 
 Bankers' property 2,516,5.34 
 
 Manufactured articles 884,951 
 
 Money and credits 14,871,340 
 
 Bonds, stocks, etc 600,840 
 
 TTnenumorated property 22,908,931 
 
 Deductions 8,765,886 
 
 Personal property 95,927,285 
 
 Townlots 82,305,905 
 
 l^nds. 202,194,178 
 
 The progress which the State has made, even within 
 a single year, may be seen from the following com- 
 parisons of totals for the last two jears : 
 
 Personal property, 
 
 1855.... $96,927,285 
 1864... 79,545,953 
 
 Lands. 
 
 $203,194,170 
 
 121,451,334 
 
 Personal property. 
 Lands nnd lots. 
 
 $884,898,425 
 252,756,568 
 
 Increase $16,381,282 $79,742,845 $31,641,857 
 
 Its internal improvements for some j'-ears past have 
 been verj'" great. Canals have been formed to com- 
 pensate for the natural barriers to navigation in some 
 of its rivers, and recently its great canal from Chicago 
 to Peru, on the Illinois River, has been completed, 
 uniting the waters of Lake Michigan with the Missis- 
 sippi 5 thus opening direct communication between the 
 whole of the Lake district in the north, and the river 
 navigation on the south. The system of railroads, pro- 
 jected on a grand scale upward of 20 years ago, and 
 which had been temporarily suspended, has been re- 
 sumed some years ago on a still greater scale, and is 
 being carried on with vigor. Chicago, its principal 
 commercial cit}', is connected with Eockford, St. 
 Charles, Aurora, Peru, and many other places within 
 the State, and beyond it, either directly or indirectly, 
 with Detroit, Cincinnati, New York, Philadelphia, 
 and Boston. Besides these there were railroads unit- 
 ing Springfield with Jacksonville, and Naples, Alton, 
 and Quincy, with Columbus. When its railroads under 
 construction are finished, Illinois will be surpassed for 
 its railroad communication by but few States in the 
 Union. 
 
 Immigration. Progress and Extent of Immi- 
 gration to the United States. — We will review the 
 progress and extent of immigration to the United 
 States of America prior to 1819, the year in which 
 the present official history'' begins. As, on this 
 point, no authentic information exists, it must be de- 
 termined by such evidence as Statisticians of that 
 period possessed, and by the relations then existing 
 between the United States and the countries from 
 which persons emigrated. The current of emigration 
 commenced its flow from England, Ireland, and Scot- 
 land, and from Germany through the French and Brit- 
 ish ports. It was subject to many fluctuations during 
 a part of this time, but continued with considerable xmi- 
 formity^ it is believed until 1806. Mr. Samuel Blodget, 
 a statistician of more than ordinary research and accu- 
 racy, wrote in 1806, while every fact in regard to immi- 
 gration was fresh in the minds of the people, that from 
 " the beet records and estimates at present attainable" 
 
 the immigrants arriving in the United States did not 
 average, for the 10 years from 1784 to 1794, more than 
 4000 per annum. During 1794, 10,000 persona were 
 estimated to have arrived in the United States from 
 foreign countries. In 1818, Dr. Adam Seybert, mem- 
 ber of the House of Representatives from Pennsylva- 
 nia, in his exceedingly valuable '■'■ Statistical Ambals" 
 of the United States, wrote to the following effect : 
 "Though we admit that 10,000 foreigners may have 
 arrived in the United States in 1794, we can not allow 
 that they did so, in an equal number, in any preceding 
 or subsequent year until 1817 ;" and he assumes that 
 6000 persons arrived in the United States from foreign 
 countries in each year from 1790 to 1810 ; to him, and 
 to the authorities he consulted, this average seemed a 
 generous one. — Seybert's Annals^ pp. 28, 29. 
 
 During the 10 j^ears from 1806 to 1816, extensive 
 immigration to the United States was precluded by the 
 unfriendly relations at that time existing between 
 Great Britain, France, and the United States. England 
 maintained the doctrine, and, for a while enforced 
 it with success, that "a man once a subject, was 
 always a subject." This deterred many from em- 
 igrating to the United States from the British em- 
 pire. Numbers had previously come for the purpose 
 of entering the merchant-service, and numbers might 
 still have come whom the fear of British impressment 
 frightened from carrying out their design. Another 
 influence retarded immigration : in 1806 Great Britain 
 issued a decree declaring the coasts of France in a 
 state of blockade. A retaliatory'- decree was, in No- 
 vember of the same year, issued by France declaring 
 the British Isles in a state of blockade. To these 
 restrictions on commerce, and, consequently, on the 
 unobstructed passage from Europe, succeeded the Brit- 
 ish orders in council, and the Milan decree of Napo- 
 leon. In March, 1809, the United Stales' law was 
 passed prohibiting, for one year, intercourse with 
 Great Britain or France. In 1810, the Napoleonic 
 decrees were annulled, and the commerce of the Unit- 
 ed States had, in 1811, fairly commenced with France, 
 but onl}' to have their vessels fall into the hands of the 
 British. Preparations were now making for active 
 hostilities, and, on the 18th of June, 1812, war was 
 formally declared by the United States to exist with 
 Great Britain. 
 
 The German emigration sensibly felt this unfavor- 
 able condition of affairs, inasmuch as the Germans 
 embarked principally at the ports of Liverpool 
 and Havre ; facilities for migrating thence to this 
 country being more numerous, and the expense of 
 the voyage less onerous. Thus, from 1806, was the 
 stream of emigration pent up at its fountain. In 
 February, 1815, peace was concluded between the 
 United States and Great Britain \ and after several 
 months requisite to restore tranquillity, and to secure 
 the confidence of those desiring to leave the Old 
 World, the tide returned to its flow, and, with a speed 
 greatly accelerated ; aa, from authentic information, 
 collected principally at the several custom-houses, it 
 appears that, during the year 1817, not less than 22,- 
 240 persons arrived at ports of the United States from 
 foreign countries. This number included American 
 citizens returning from abroad. — Seybert's Annals^ 
 p. 29. In no year previous to that had one half so 
 many foreign passengers reached our shores. Many 
 sufferings were incident to a voyage across the At- 
 lantic in a crowded emigrant vessel ; and there were 
 no laws of the United States either limiting the num- 
 ber of persons which a passenger ship or vessel should 
 be entitled to cany, or providing any measures for the 
 health or accommodation of the passengers. The 
 subject seemed to deserve the immediate attention of 
 Congress. In 1818 (^larch 10), Mr. Louis M'Lane, 
 of Delaware, reported to the House of Representatives 
 a bill " regulating passenger ships and vessels," which 
 was read twice and referred to a committee for inves- 
 
IMM 
 
 1009 
 
 IMM 
 
 tigation into the subject. In December, 1818, the 
 subject was brought before Congress by Mr. Thomas 
 Newton, of Virginia, who explained the necessitj' of 
 its passage. It was read a third time and passed by 
 the House. After receiving amendments from both 
 the Senate and House, it was finally passed and ap- 
 proved March 2, 1819. In compliance with a require- 
 ment of this act, collectors of the customs have 
 reported quarter-yearly to the Secretary of State the 
 number of passengers arriving in their collection dis- 
 tricts, by sea from foreign countries ; also, the sex, 
 age, and occupation of such passengers, and the coun- 
 try in which they were bom. Annual reports embrac- 
 ing that information, have, in conformity with the 
 same act, been communicated to Congress by the 
 Secretary of State ; and, as before indicated, from 
 these reports chiefly, this historical sketch has been 
 compiled. The country having the largest emigra- 
 tion is, doubtless, Ireland ; for, in addition to the 747,- 
 930 persons arriving from the United Kingdom, known 
 to have been born in Ireland, it is safe to assume that 
 of the 1,348,682 others, bom as indefinitely stated in 
 " Great Britain and Ireland," arriving in the United 
 States, 1,000,000 at least, were born in Ii'eland alone ; 
 thus making 1,747,930 as the total Irish emigration. 
 See Emigkation. 
 
 Next in numerical order comes Germany ; England, 
 third ; and France, fourth. The emigi-ation of Chinese 
 to this country, was very inconsiderable until 1854 ; 
 previous to which year, the aggregate number known 
 to have arrived was only 88. In that year, however, 
 13,100 came to the United States ; and in 1855, 3526 ; 
 all of whom, with the exception of a single passenger, 
 landed at the port of San Francisco ; 15,950 were 
 males, and were designated in the returns of the col- 
 lector as " laborers." 
 
 As regards passengers from British America, the 
 fact may be deemed worthy of mention, that many of 
 them, especially of those arriving during the last four 
 years are known to have come with the intention of 
 returning, and not of residing in the United States. 
 The number of such can not, however, be determined. 
 Finally, to the 4,212,624 passengers of foreign birth 
 arriving in the United States since September 30, 
 1819, may be added 250,000 as the number of immi- 
 grants who arrived prior to that date ; making the 
 total foreign arrivals from the close of the Revolution- 
 ary War to December 31, 1855, 4,462,624.— Bbom- 
 WEiA^'s History of Immigration. New York : 1866. To 
 this large number may be added, as variously esti- 
 mated, from 500,000 to 1,000,000, who emigrated to 
 the western States through Canada. 
 
 Total Number of Passengers, distinguishing Aliens from others, arriving in the United States by Sea, from 
 Foreign Countries, from September 30, 1819, To December 81, 1856. 
 
 
 , TOTALS, 
 
 
 OF WHOM W» 
 
 KH ALIBNS. 
 
 
 
 Males. 
 
 FoiOAles, 
 
 Sex not 
 stated. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Males. 
 
 Females. 
 
 Sex not 
 stated. 
 
 Total. 
 
 September 80, 1S20 
 
 6,447 
 
 2,680 
 
 1,184 
 
 10,811 
 
 4,871 
 
 2,393 
 
 1,121 
 
 8,385 
 
 1821 
 
 6,866 
 
 1,988 
 
 2,840 
 
 11,644 
 
 4,661 
 
 1,686 
 
 2,840 
 
 9,127 
 
 1822 
 
 6,818 
 
 1,149 
 
 2,082 
 
 8,549 
 
 3,816 
 
 1,018 
 
 2,082 , 
 
 6,911 
 
 1823 
 
 5,818 
 
 1,044 
 
 1,908 
 
 8,265 
 
 8,598 
 
 848 
 
 1,908 
 
 6,354 
 
 1824 
 
 6,253 
 
 1,561 
 
 1,813 
 
 9,627 
 
 4,706 
 
 1,393 
 
 1,318 
 
 7,912 
 
 1825 
 
 9,206 
 
 8,829 
 
 823 
 
 12,858 
 
 6,91T 
 
 2,959 
 
 328 
 
 10,199 
 
 1820 
 
 10,218 
 
 8,638 
 
 67 
 
 13,908 
 
 7,702 
 
 8,078 
 
 57 
 
 10,88? 
 
 1827 
 
 14,165 
 
 6,479 
 
 1,183 
 
 21,777 
 
 11,803 
 
 5,989 
 
 1,133 
 
 13,376 
 
 1823 
 
 19,446 
 
 10,677 
 
 61 
 
 80,184 
 
 17,261 
 
 10,060 
 
 61 
 
 27,882 
 
 1829 
 
 12,938 
 
 6,470 
 
 6,105 
 
 24,613 
 
 11,308 
 
 , 5,112 
 
 0,105 
 
 22,520 
 
 1830 
 
 7,514 
 
 8,576 
 
 13,748 
 
 24,837 
 
 6,489 
 
 3,136 
 
 13,748 
 
 23,822 
 
 1881 
 
 15.917 
 
 7,968 
 
 
 23,880 
 
 14,909 
 
 7,724 
 
 
 22,683 
 
 1882 
 
 85,699 
 
 18,752 
 
 
 54,351 
 
 84,596 
 
 18,683 
 
 
 63,179 
 
 Dec. 81 (8mo3.), 1832 
 
 4,691 
 
 2,612 
 
 100 
 
 7,808 
 
 4,691 
 
 2,612 
 
 100 
 
 7,308 
 
 1883 
 
 42,548 
 
 17,877 
 
 
 69,925 
 
 41,646 
 
 17,094 
 
 
 58,640 
 
 1884 
 
 40,730 
 
 28,180 
 
 4,088 
 
 67,948 
 
 88,796 
 
 22,540 
 
 4,029 
 
 5^'f^ 
 
 1835 
 
 30,752 
 
 17,791 
 
 178 
 
 48,716 
 
 28,196 
 
 17,027 
 
 161 
 
 45,874 
 
 , 1836 
 
 .'Jl,459 
 
 28.689 
 
 824 
 
 80,972 
 
 47,865 
 
 27,558 
 
 824 
 
 76,242 
 
 1887 
 
 68,403 
 
 28,706 
 
 2,360 
 
 84,959 
 
 48,887 
 
 27,663 
 
 2,850 
 
 79,840 
 
 1838 
 
 28,504 
 
 14,900 
 
 1,765 
 
 45,159 
 
 23,474 
 
 13,686 
 
 ' 1,765 
 
 38,914 
 
 1839 
 
 43,200 
 
 26,454 
 
 12 
 
 74.666 
 
 42,982 
 
 25,125 
 
 12 
 
 68,069 
 
 1840 
 
 68,998 
 
 83,158 
 
 51 
 
 92,207 
 
 62,383 
 
 81,182 
 
 61 
 
 84,066 
 
 1841 
 
 63,815 
 
 83,814 
 
 176 
 
 87,306 
 
 48,032 
 
 82,081 
 
 176 
 
 80,289 
 
 1842 
 
 67,124 
 
 48,475 
 
 381 
 
 110,980 
 
 62,277 
 
 41,907 
 
 381 
 
 104,565 
 
 Sept. 80 (9 mos.), 1848 
 
 83,172 
 
 28,364 
 
 8 
 
 56,529 
 
 80,069 
 
 22,424 
 
 8 
 
 62,496 
 
 1844 
 
 48,897 
 
 35,867 
 
 
 84,764 
 
 44,431 
 
 84,184 
 
 
 78,615 
 
 1S45 
 
 69,179 
 
 49,311 
 
 1,406 
 
 119,896 
 
 65,015 
 
 43,115 
 
 1,241 
 
 114,871 
 
 1846 
 
 90,974 
 
 66,778 
 
 897 
 
 158,649 
 
 87,777 
 
 66,743 
 
 897 
 
 154,416 
 
 1847 
 
 139,167 
 
 99,825 
 
 990 
 
 239,482 
 
 186,086 
 
 97,917 
 
 965 
 
 284,968 
 
 1848 
 
 136,128 
 
 92,883 
 
 472 
 
 229,488 
 
 188,906 
 
 92,149 
 
 472 
 
 226,627 
 
 1849 
 
 179,256 
 
 119,915 
 
 512 
 
 299,688 
 
 177,282 
 
 119,280 
 
 612 
 
 297,024 
 
 1850 
 
 200,904 
 
 118,392 
 
 1,088 
 
 815,834 
 
 196,331 
 
 112,685 
 
 1,088 
 
 810,004 
 
 Deo. 31(8 mos.), 1850 
 
 88,282 
 
 27,107 
 
 181 
 
 65,570 
 
 82,990 
 
 26,805 
 
 181 
 
 59,976 
 
 1851 
 
 245,017 
 
 168,745 
 
 66 
 
 408,828 
 
 217,181 
 
 162.219 
 
 66 
 
 879,466 
 
 1852 
 
 236,731 
 
 160,174 
 
 1,433 
 
 897,348 
 
 212,469 
 
 157,696 
 
 1,488 
 
 871,603 
 
 1858 
 
 286,732 
 
 164,178 
 
 72 
 
 400,982 
 
 207,958 
 
 160,615 
 
 72 
 
 868,645 
 
 1864 
 
 284,887 
 
 176,687 
 
 
 460,474 
 
 256,177 
 
 171,656 
 
 
 427,388 
 
 1855 
 
 140,181 
 
 90,283 
 
 12 
 
 230,476 
 
 115,307 
 
 85,667 
 
 3 
 
 200,877 
 
 1866 
 
 Total 
 
 185,308 
 
 89,188 
 
 
 224,496 
 
 115,846 
 
 84,590 
 
 
 200,436 
 
 2,849,239 
 
 1,809,393 
 
 48,701 
 
 4,707,833 
 
 2,600,926 
 
 1,768,726 
 
 48,408 
 
 4,413,060 1 
 
 
 Legal Rights of Naturalized Citizens in the United 
 States. — Aliens naturalized agreeably to the acts of 
 Congress, are not prohibited by the Constitution of 
 the United States, the enjoyment of the same rights, 
 and to the same extent as natural-born citizens, with 
 the single proviso that no person fhall be eligible to 
 the office of President or Vice-President, except a cit- 
 izen native-born, or a citizen of the United States at 
 the time of the adoption of the Federal Constitution. 
 Congress can make no law to prohibit the free exercise 
 of their religion ; nor to abridge their freedom of 
 speech. The right of security in their persons, houses, 
 papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and 
 seizures, is not denied to them ; nor are they prohib- 
 Sss 
 
 ited the purchase and occupation of lands owned by 
 the government. The Constitutions of the several 
 States concede to those naturalized citizens, who take 
 up their residence within the States, in general the same 
 rights as are enjoyed by persons born therein. Among 
 these rights may be mentioned that of voting and of 
 being elected to office. See Emigration. Beom- 
 well's Sketch of Immigration. See iVo. Am. Rev., xl., 
 457 (by A. H. Everett) ; Am. Whig Rev., vi., 455, 
 633, vii., 419 (by 0. C. Gardiner) ; Niles's Regis- 
 ter, xiv., 380, xviii., 157. Upon the subject of Ger- 
 man emigration, see N'o. Am. Rev., ii., 1 (by Edward 
 Everett) j xx., 191 (by J. Sparks). Immigration 
 to the United States, see DeBow's ' Review, v., 243, 
 
IND 
 
 1010 
 
 IND 
 
 xiii., 455, Hunt's Mer. Mag., viii., 167, xiv., 293; 
 Frazer, xvi., 562, 683, xxviii., 426 ; Edin, Rev., vii. 
 185, xlv., 49, xlvii., 204, xcii., 258, xxxix., 315 ; West- 
 minster Rev., iii., 449, vi., 342, xxxv., 131, xl., 53, 
 101; Quar. Rev., liv., 215, xxxvii., 639, xxiii., 373; 
 Blackwood, xv., 433, xx., 470, xxi., 377, xxiii., 191, 
 615, v., 523, vi., 78; Knich, xvi., 589. 
 
 Importation and Exportation, the bringing 
 of commodities from and sending them to otlier coun- 
 tries. A ver}' large portion of the revenue of a com- 
 mercial country is derived from customs duties, or 
 from duties on commodities imported from abroad ; and 
 drawbaclis being given on many, and bounties on a 
 few, articles exported ; the business of importation 
 and exportation is subjected to various regulations 
 which must be carefully observed by those who would 
 avoid incurring penalties, and subjecting their prop- 
 erty to confiscation. See articles Tariff and United 
 States for the imports and exports of this countrj'-. 
 
 Impressment, the forcible talcing away of sea- 
 men from their ordinarj' employment, and compelling 
 them to serve, against their will, in national ships. 
 See Ed. Ret-., xli., 164 ; Westm. Rev., xx., 489 ; Black- 
 wood, XX., 745. 
 
 Indemnity, is where one person secures another 
 from responsibility against any particular event ; thus 
 a policj- of insurance is a contract of indemnity against 
 any particular loss. Where one person also becomes 
 bail for another, a bond of indemnity is frequently ex- 
 ecuted; and where a bond or bill of exchange has 
 been lost or mislaid, the acceptor or obligee would not 
 act prudently in paying it, without being secured by a 
 bond of indemnity. 
 
 India, or Hindoostan, has from the earliest ages 
 been celebrated as one of the most highly-favored coun- 
 tries on the globe, and as abounding in the choicest 
 productions both of nature and art. In ancient times, 
 this distant region was very imperfectly known to the 
 Greeks and other nations of the west ; but they im- 
 ported its most valuable produce, its diamonds, its 
 aromatics, its silks, and its costly manufactures. The 
 country which abounded in those expensive luxuries 
 was naturallj' reputed to be the seat of immense 
 riches, and ever;' romantic tale of its felicity and glorj' 
 was readily believed. In the middle ages an exten- 
 sive commerce with India was still maintained through 
 the ports of Egypt and the Eed Sea ; and its precious 
 produce, imported into Europe by the merchants of 
 Venice, confirmed the popular opinion of its high re- 
 finement and its vast wealth. After the discover}' of 
 a passage to India b}' the Cape of Good Hope, the 
 same ideas still prevailed ; and the maritime states of 
 Europe contended with their fleets and armies for the 
 dominion of the Asiatic seas, and for the commerce of 
 the country. The Portuguese, and afterward the 
 Dutch, made important conquests, and carried on an 
 extensive trade. In later times. Great Britain and 
 France appeared on the field as competitors for the 
 prize of Indian commerce and dominion, and were al- 
 lowed to establish factories on the coasts for the recep- 
 tion and the store of goods. These were gradually 
 converted into militarj' posts, defended by soldiers and 
 cannon ; and in due time those two powers were ranged 
 on opposite sides in all the wars and politics of India. 
 This contest terminated in the triumph of the British 
 arms. France lost her pre-eminence on the continent 
 of India ; and her great rival, enlarging her powers on 
 every side, gradually rose to greatness and dominion, 
 and now rules with undisputed sway from the Hima- 
 laya Mountains to Cape Comorin. This vast extension 
 of the British power in the East has opened the way 
 into the interior of India. It has tended greatlj' to 
 enlarge our knowledge of this distant region ; and if 
 more accurate inquiry has reduced the marvelous tales 
 of its glory and greatness within the bounds of sobri- 
 ety and truth, Hindoostan, the seat of industry, of 
 commerce, and of the arts, when Europe was sunk in 
 
 barbarism, the scene of many eventful revolutions, 
 from the Mohammed invasion till its conquest by the 
 armies of Britain, and inhabited Jby a people of pecu- 
 liar manners, laws, institutions, and religion, still pre- 
 sents a wide field for interesting inquiry and speculation. 
 
 In the following account of this interesting country, 
 we propose to describe — I. Its geography and natural 
 features ; its produce, its animals, its manufactures, and 
 commerce ; the numerous races by which it is inhab- 
 ited, with their manners, religion, and policy ; and the 
 wars and political revolutions which have terminated 
 in establishing the sway of Great Britain over nearly 
 the whole continent of India. 
 
 I. The ancient geographers had no precise ideas of 
 the extent of Hindoostan or India, terms which we 
 mean to use synonymously in the following article ; 
 and they accordinglj- extended its frontier westward 
 as far as Persia, and eastward to China. In after 
 ages its limits often fluctuated with the events of war, 
 and served only to mark out the course of conquest, 
 with little or no attention to geographical accuracy. 
 Yet in no part of the earth has nature pointed out, in 
 the great features of the countr;', more distinct and mag- 
 nificent boundaries. On the north it is separated from 
 the elevated table-land of Thibet by the precipitous 
 wall of the Himalaya Mountains, the highest land of 
 the Asiatic continent ; on the west the Suliman range, a 
 continuation of the Sufeid Koh Mountains, separates 
 it from Afghanistan and Beloochistan ; its east bound- 
 ary is formed by parallel ofi'shoots from the opposite 
 extremity of the Himalayas, and b}' the continuous 
 ranges of forest-covered hills, which, skirting the Ben- 
 gal district of Chittagong, stretch southward to the 
 recentlj'-acquired province of Pegu, and separate the 
 British dominions from the territory of Burmah. The 
 Indus and the Ganges discharge themselves into the 
 ocean on the western and eastern coasts of Hindoostan, 
 in about north latitude 24° and 22° ; and to the south 
 the country is contracted into an irregular triangle, 
 projecting into the Indian Ocean to within eight de- 
 grees of the equator, or about 1000 miles, and on all 
 sides inclosed by the sea. The extensive region situ- 
 ated within these limits is nearly comprehended be- 
 tween the 8th and 35th degrees of north latitude, and 
 between the longitudes 66° and 99° east ; and its 
 length from the northern barrier of the Himalaya 
 Mountains to Cape Comorin is about 1900, while in 
 breadth it may be estimated at 1800 miles, though, 
 owing to the irregularity of its figure, it does not ex- 
 ceed 1,484,367 English square miles. 
 
 Hindoostan is of an extremely diversified aspect, 
 and comprehends within its bounds all the varieties of 
 climate, of soil, and of natural scenery, from the bare 
 and naked rock, and lofty mountain buried under eter- 
 nal snows, to the low and fertile plain, scorched by the 
 tropical sun, and the seat or luxuriant vegetation. 
 This diversitj' in the aspect of the country has given 
 rise to the following territorial divisions, namely : 1. 
 Northern Hindoostan, which comprehends the Hima- 
 laya Mountains on the north, with their lower ranges 
 of hills stretching southward to the plains of the In- 
 dus and the Ganges, and extending from Peshawur 
 and Cashmere on the west, to Bootan and Assam on 
 the east. 2. Hindoostan Proper which extends south- 
 ward as far as the Nerbuddah River, where the Dec- 
 can commences, and which includes the lower prov- 
 inces of Bengal, the north-western provinces, together 
 with Oude, Malwa, or Central India, the Punjab, Guz- 
 erat, Sinde, and Cutch. 3. The Deccan, bounded on 
 the north by the Nerbuddah Eiver, and on the south 
 by the Rivers Krishma and Toombudra, comprehends 
 the larger portion of the presidency of Bombay, to- 
 gether with Orissa, the Nizam's dominions, and tlie ter- 
 ritory of Nagpore. 4. India south of the Crishma River, 
 comprehending the territories under the administra- 
 tion of the government of Madras, together with the 
 native states of Cochin, Travancore, and the Mysore. 
 
IND 
 
 1011 
 
 IND 
 
 The Himalaya Mountains contain the sources of the 
 great rivers which flow through the burning plains of 
 Hindoostin. The deep valleys between the mountains 
 are the channels through which the waters flow from 
 the higher gi'ounds ; and, by the melting of the snow, 
 those streams, suddenly swollen into torrents, and 
 rushing down the declivity, work out a deep and nar- 
 row channel among the rocks, where, imprisoned as it 
 were between steep and perpendicular rocks, they roar 
 and foam amid precipices, or in dark and unfathom- 
 able glens, exhibiting, in the conflict of their troubled 
 waters, all the great phenomena which belong to riv- 
 ers, namely, the cataract, the rapid, the boiling eddy, 
 and the dangerous whirlpool, and only subside into 
 smoothness when they break out irid spread over the 
 plains. Huge rocks were seen by Dr. Gerard whirled 
 along with frightful velocity ; nothing visible but an 
 entire sheet of foam and spray, thrown up and show- 
 ered upon the surrounding rocks with loud concussion, 
 and re-echoed from bank to bank with the noise of the 
 loudest thunder. Across these streams are thrown 
 rude bridges made of ropes or of wood, the usual ex- 
 pedient by which rivers are crossed in all mountain 
 countries. Where the breadth of the river is small, 
 the passage is effected by one or two fir spars laid 
 across from rock td root; but where the space is 
 wider, a bridge of ropes is constructed, on the princi- 
 ple of the chain-bridge. In attempting the passage 
 by one of these rude bridges, a carrier who accom- 
 panied Fraser in his journey to the sources of the 
 Ganges unfortunately lost his footing and fell into the 
 water. He was instantly swept down the stream to 
 its junction with the Bhagiruttee, about 60 yards, 
 " when his head," says the traveler, " appeared for a 
 moment, and his load floating beside him; but the 
 foaming current of the Baghiruttee here tumbling over 
 large rocks with a mighty roar, seized him and hurried 
 him along with its tremendous torrent." 
 
 Northern Hindoostan varies in its climate and in its 
 aspect with the height of the ground. The lower 
 ranges of mountains, though they scarcely reach the 
 level of perpetual snows, still retain the sublime fea^ 
 tures of alpine scenerj^ ; namely, the rugged and bare 
 mountain, the craggy rock, white, gray, red, or brown, 
 springing up in fantastic forms above the general 
 mass ; and the deep and suddenly descending chasm, 
 with the foul torrent foaming over its rocky bed. The 
 luxuriant foliage is wanting which embellishes the 
 lower hills; the rich and smiling valley is not so 
 often seen ; while the forests of dark brown fir fring- 
 ing the mountains and the hollows impart a sombre 
 and unvarying appearance to the scene. At a lower 
 level the country improves ; and though it still exhib- 
 its the mountain and the precipice, the intervening 
 valley is clothed with verdure, and the lower hills 
 with the most magnificent forests of large and lofty 
 trees, the open countrj- with roses, jasmines, and other 
 lovely or odoriferous shrubs, and with the most luxu- 
 riant alpine plants. The vallfeys through which flow 
 the head waters of the Indus and the Ganges, namelj', 
 the Sutlej, the Pabur, the Jumna, the Baghiruttee, the 
 Alkananda, with their tributaries, exhibit all the va- 
 ried and sublime scenery of this romantic country. 
 The valley of the Sutlej is hemmed in by brown and 
 barren mountains, steep and rocky, without the grand- 
 eur of lofty precipices or fringing wood. The hollows 
 through which it receives its tributary streams are 
 darlv chasms, without cultivation ; the heights crowned 
 with forts, but without any neat villages surrounded 
 with ti'ees to relieve the adjacent desert. The banks 
 of the Jumna, on the other hand, though rockj' and 
 wild, are wooded and green, and the sloping faces of 
 the hills fertile and well cultivated ; and even at its 
 source, the country, however wild and picturesque, is 
 still not nearlj' so dreary as the valley of the Bhagi- 
 ruttee. The features of the landscape are here lofty, 
 rugged, and inaccessible, with less of the beautiful 
 
 than of the sublime and terrible. A pleasing contrast 
 to this wild scenery is presented by the smiling valley 
 through which the Pabur meanders, checkered as it 
 is with pasture and crops, and the banks and the hills 
 clothed with cultivation, villages, and wood. Such is 
 the usual aspect of the lower valley of northern Hin- 
 doostan, the height of which is for the most part from 
 3000 to 6000 feet above the plains. The difference be- 
 tween the northern and southern exposures of this 
 mountainous country is remarkable, not only in the 
 formation and structure of the hills and rooks, but in 
 the vegetation. The country on its southern face is 
 of a brown and dusky color ; the grass short and 
 parched ; the hills rough and lumpy, with rocks stand- 
 ing through the ground; the lower parts bare of 
 wood ; and above, the Weymouth pine, with a few 
 stunted larches sprinkled among the rocks ; while the 
 higher parts are spread over with oak, holly, and 
 alder, their leaves of brownish green, harmonizing 
 with the burned appearance of the hills, -and giving a 
 sombre hue to the whole scene. On the northern ex- 
 posure a rich color of dark green is diffused over the 
 whole landscape ; the rocky sides of the glens are 
 bolder and grander ; and they are clothed with noble 
 forests of larch, silver and spruce firs, which shroud 
 from the view the highest and steepest cliffs. " All," 
 says Fraser, " was rich and dafk; and here and there 
 a glade opened, or a high slope extended from the 
 base of the rock, or projected between two streams, of 
 a bright beautiful green shining through the sombre 
 forest." This difference between the northern and 
 southern exposures is strongly marked all over the 
 hills. 
 
 That strip of flat countrj', about 20 miles in breadth, 
 which lies at the base of the great Himalaya range^^ ' 
 dividing it from the plain of the Ganges, is called 
 Terrae or Terreeana. It is covered with thick forests 
 and low swamps, and, though fertile, it is so unhealthy 
 that it is little cultivated. Bishop Heber graphically 
 describes it as a long, black, level line, extending at 
 the foot of the lowest hills ; " so black and level," he 
 adds, " that it might seem to have been drawn with 
 ink and a ruler." This flat does not extend further 
 north-west than through a portion of Rohilcund, 
 where the healthy cultivated country reaches to the 
 foot of the hills, which rise abruptly from the sandy- 
 flat beneath. These low hills are watered by streams 
 from the higher mountains, -that rise to the level of 
 1500 or 5000 feet, from which the lower range is fre- 
 quently separated by fine valleys of some length, 
 which are called doon by the natives, answering to the 
 Scottish name of strath. The hills which rise beyond 
 this lower range, to the height of about 5000 to 7000 
 feet, are lofty and majestic, and broken into numerous 
 ridges, divided by deep shaggy dells. This appearance 
 Fraser ascribes to the quality of the rock of which 
 they are composed, which consists of a strongly in- 
 durated clay, with a mixture of siliceous matter, form- 
 ing a rock exceedingly hard, though easily destructible 
 by exposure to the air, and splitting into variously- 
 sized fragments leaving hard marbly masses staring 
 through the scanty soil. It may be finally remarked 
 of this singular and interesting countrj-, that though 
 it appears from the plains to be divided into distinct 
 ranges of terraces, it is really a vast collection of 
 mountains heaped in masses one above another, with- 
 out any order or plan that can be discovered, until 
 the height of land is reached at the great Himalaya 
 ridge which extends from beyond the sources of the 
 Indus in a continuous chain far into China. 
 
 The following are the chief rivers of Hindoostan, 
 with the length of their respective courses to the sea : 
 Indus, 1700 miles ; Brahmapootra, 1900 ; Ganges, 
 1500 ; Jumna (to its junction with the Ganges, 780), ! 
 1500 J Sutlege (to the Indus, 900), 1490 ; Ghylum (to 
 the Indus, 750), 1250 ; Gunduck (to the Ganges 450), . 
 980. In the Deccan, and south of India, the Godavery, ' 
 
IND 
 
 1012 
 
 IND 
 
 850 ; Kistna, 700 ; Nertaddah, 700 ; Mahanuddy, 550 ; 
 Taptee, 460 ; Cavery, 400. There are few coasts of 
 such extent so destitute of islands and harbors as that of 
 Hindoostan. With the exception of emerged sea-banlis 
 and mere rocks, Ceylon is the only island near its 
 shores ; and on the eastern coast, Masulipatam, which 
 admits vessels of 300 tons burden, is the only harbor 
 for large vessels between Trincomalee, in the island of 
 Ceylon, and the Ganges, which is free from raging 
 surf. To this inconvenience Madras, though an im- 
 portant British settlement, is pecnliarlj' liable. On 
 the western coast, the onl}' harbors capable of admit- 
 ting large vessels are Bombay and Kurachee, in 
 Scinde ; Mangalore admits no vessels drawing more 
 than 10 feet. 
 
 Hindoostan comprehends within its bounds the op- 
 posite extremes of heat and cold. The plains are 
 burnt up with intense heat ; while winter, with eveiy 
 intermediate variety of temperature, prevails in the 
 mountains. Philosophers have in vain endeavored to 
 fix the point of perpetual congelation under different 
 degrees of latitude. They have, indeed, framed a 
 graduated scale of the respective heights at which, ac- 
 cording to calculation, this point should begin at cor- 
 responding distances from the equator ; but theory is 
 here at variance with actual observation. The climate 
 of mountainous tracts depends so much on localities, 
 and the particular course of the winds, as to baffle all gen- 
 eral speculation. Hence, on the Himalaya Mountains 
 harvests of grain are found, where, according to hy- 
 pothesis, the ground Should be buried under deep 
 snow ; and trees are seen to flourish in the regions of 
 perpetual winter. Captain Webb, in ascending. the 
 Himalaya range, saw around him, at the height of 
 11,630 feet above the level of Calcutta, rich forests of 
 oak, pine, and rhododendra, the ground covered with 
 vegetation as high as the knee, strawberry-beds in 
 full flower, and currant-bushes in blossom ; and in 
 1818, at the Niti Pass, 16,814 feet in height, philosophy 
 was again at fault, as the ground was clear of snow, 
 though above the line of perpetual congelation, and 
 many quadrupeds were feeding on the grassy banks of 
 the Sutlege. It was remarked by Dr. Gerard that 
 vegetation attained a higher level on the northern than 
 on the southern face of the Himalaj'a ridge, where the 
 extreme height of cultivation is 10,000 feet ; the limit 
 of the forest, 11,800 feet, and 12,000 feet that of 
 bushes. On the northern side cultivation rises to the 
 height of 11,400 feet; in other places to 13,600 feet ; 
 birch-trees to 14,000 feet ; and tama-bushes, which 
 form excellent fuel, to the height of about 17,000 feet. 
 In northern Hindoostan, great and sudden changes of 
 temperature occur, which is the cause of pulmonary 
 affections. During summer, the thermometer, which 
 Is often in the morning at 32° or under it, rises to 70°, 
 75°, and 80°, or upward, during the day ; the winters 
 are, however, uniformly severe. In this also, as in 
 other hilly countries, the traveler may be fainting to- 
 daj' under a tropical sun, and shivering to-morrow amid 
 the rigor of perpetual snows. From the banks of the 
 Sutlege, where the thermometer frequently stands at 
 100° and 108°, three days' climbing will cai-ry him 
 into the regions of winter. 
 
 In the plains of Hindoostan, the heat during the 
 greater part of the year is unintermitting and intense, 
 except where it is modified by the ranges of mountains, 
 or the table-lands toward the west. The seasons here 
 are commonly divided into the hot, cold, and rainy. 
 The spring and the dry season throughout the valley 
 of the Ganges last about four months, the heat gradu- 
 ally increasing with the season, until, in May and 
 June, the thermometer rises to 100° and frequently, 
 in the interior, to 108° and 110°, when it is almost in- 
 tolerable even to the natives, and still more so to Eu- 
 ropeans, who resort to various modes of alleviation, 
 such as the cuscus tatty, which is a frame of wood in- 
 terwoven with twigs, between which is distributed a 
 
 layer of a particular kind of sweet-scented grass. 
 This being hung before an open window, in the quar- 
 ter of the prevailing wind, and constantly moistened 
 on the outside by a water-carrier, diffuses a refreshing 
 coolness. 
 
 Vegetable produce. — Hindoostan comprehends all the 
 known varieties of the vegetable tribes. The mount- 
 ainous tracts of northern Hindoostan produce all the 
 Alpine plants, and the various species of European 
 grain, fruits, and flowers. Deep woods cover tliose 
 lower ranges of mountains, in which are found the 
 pine-tree of various species, " the tallest, straightest, 
 and most magnificent," says Fraser (Fraser's Journal 
 of a Tour through the Himalaya Mountains p. 139), he 
 ever beheld, the larch, the silver, and the spruce-fir, 
 from the bark and twigs of which resin exudes in abun- 
 dance ; the yew-tree, several species of oak, holly, alder, 
 sycamore, and birch, with mulberry and chestnut-trees. 
 Here is also found the mimosa-tree, from which is made 
 the catechu or India-rubber ; the resinous part of this 
 fir, cut into slips, answers the common uses of the lamp. 
 These noble forests extend over immense tracts, and 
 would afford inexhaustible supplies of timber if they 
 could be transported to the proper market. Fruits in 
 great variety are also produced in this elevated region, 
 such as apricots, peaches, and grapes, apples, pears, 
 currants, raspberries, blackberries, and strawberries ; 
 roots, such as turnips, carrots, garlic, and onions ; flow- 
 ers and plants, as roses, both red and white, lilies of 
 the valley, jesmines, butter-cups, yellow, blue, and 
 white, cowslips, and sweet-briar, with numerous other 
 beautiful and fragrant plants. The valleys exhibit, 
 according to their altitude and temperature, the pro- 
 ductions of Europe or of the tropical countries. At 
 the height of 6000 feet appear the oak and the pine ; at 
 that of 3000 feet rattans and bamboos of enormous di- 
 mensions ; in some parts the pine-spple, the orange, 
 and the sugar-cane, grow to maturity ; in others, bar- 
 ley, millet, and similar grains are produced. The 
 lower part of these hills is the seat of the saul forests. 
 The lower valleys yield rice, sown broad-cast, maize, 
 wheat, barley, pulse of various kinds, sugar-cane, cot- 
 ton, Indian madder, a large species of cardamum, be- 
 sides other productions. The pastoral tribes of north- 
 ern Hindoostan feed considerable flocks on the lower 
 hills and valleys ; in summer they climb the Alpine 
 country, and browse on the herbage adjacent to tlie 
 region of perpetual frost. ^ 
 
 Eice is the great staple of agriculture throughout 
 Hindoostan, in the plain of the Ganges as well as in 
 southern India. It is sown at the approach of the 
 rains, and it is gathered during the rainy season, about 
 the end of August ; the last crop is sown during the 
 same season, and is gathered in the beginning of De- 
 cember. It is esteemed the best, not being equally li- 
 able with the other to decaj'. The diversity of soil 
 and climate, and the several seasons of cultivation, 
 have given rise to infinitt) varieties in this species of 
 grain. When the rains fail throughout Hindoostan, 
 which occasionally happens, the rice crops are apt to 
 be deficient to a degree altogether unknown in the 
 well-regulated agriculture of Europe, where the sever- 
 est scarcity hardly ever rises the price of com more 
 than three times its usual rate. But the famines of 
 Hindoostan leave thousands without subsistence, and 
 fill the land with scenes of misery and death. In the 
 great famine of 1769 it was estimated that 8,000,000 of 
 the people perished ; the air was so infected by the nox- 
 ious efiluvia of dead bodies that it was scarcely possible 
 to stir abroad without perceiving it, and without hear- 
 ing also the frantic cries of the victims of famine, who 
 were seen in every stage of suffering and death ; whole 
 families expired, and villages were desolated ; and 
 when the new crop came forward in August it had no 
 owners. Bengal has been less liable to famines since 
 this period, but they have frequently occurred in other 
 parts of India. Kice thrives well in the inundated 
 
IND 
 
 1013 
 
 IND 
 
 track of the Ganges, and in southern Hindoostan, es- 
 pecially on the low lands of the sea-coast ; higher up 
 the Ganges, wheat and barley are more generally culti- 
 vated, also in the high grounds and elevated table-lands 
 of southern India. Other kinds of grain are cultivat- 
 ed, such as Indian corn ; and great Varieties of pulse 
 and coarse grains, such as peas, beans, chiches, gram, 
 vetches, and raggy, which is the most important crop 
 raised in the dry field, and in some parts of southern 
 India is the subsistence of all classes, in others of the 
 poorer classes. These are important articles of culti- 
 vation, as they have each their particular season, and 
 thrive even on poorer soils. Maize is the general 
 produce of poor soils in hilly countries, and is com- 
 monly cultivated in the more western provinces. Mil- 
 let and other grains are also cultivated, and vegetating 
 rapidly, in ever}' season thej- fill up profitably for the 
 farmer the short intervals between the other modes 
 of cultivation in lower Hindoostan. Sugar is cverj'- 
 where cultivated, and at little expense by the Hindoo 
 cultivator ; and as the sugar of India is no longer sub- 
 jected in the United Kingdom to an unequal import 
 duty, there is reason to hope that the produce of India 
 may compete not only with the sugars of British colo- 
 nies, but those also of Cuba, Brazil, Siam, and Ma- 
 nilla. Though formerly unknown in Europe, sugar 
 has been produced in India from the remotest times, 
 and was thence transplanted into Arabia, whence it 
 has been introduced into Europe, Africa, the West In- 
 dies, and America. It grows luxuriantly throughout 
 all the valleys of the Ganges, and in the plains of 
 southern India, and could be produced, with the help 
 of European slcill and capital, to meet any demand. 
 It thrives more especially in Bahar and Benares, and 
 in particular districts of Bengal. Opium is the pecu- 
 liar and staple produce of the province of Bahar, and 
 is also extensively cultivated in Malwah, and in other 
 parts of Hindoostan. It is a precarious crop, produc- 
 ing alternately high profits and heavy losses. The 
 liquor extracted from the poppy is collected as it ex- 
 udes, and is then placed in pots, where it is dried and 
 formed into lumps, in which process it loses from one 
 tenth to one eighth of its weight. The opium produced 
 in Bahar and Bengal being monopolized bj' the East 
 India Company, and bought at a fixed price, is a con- 
 traband article of trade, and its cultivation is confined 
 to certain districts. Within Bengal no one is allowed 
 to cultivate the poppy, except for the government. 
 In Malwah a treaty was entered into with the different 
 rulers and chiefs, by which the monopoly'' was extend- 
 ed to that country, and all that was produced delivered 
 to the Company, at the rate of three rupees a seer, 
 which is two pounds. But so great was the discontent 
 excited by this extension of the monopoly, that, at the 
 desire of the chief, the treaties were rescinded in 1819, 
 1820 J and the trade in opium and its cultivation is 
 now free in that province, and everywhere throughout 
 India, except in the Company's dominions; but as 
 Malwah is completely surrounded by British territory, 
 a large revenue is derived from the high duty levied 
 on Malwah opium, in transit to Bombay for exporta- 
 tion to China. Malwah opium equals that of Bengal, 
 and is brought into competition with the Company's 
 opium in all the foreign markets, and especially in 
 China (see appendix to the report on the East India 
 Company's affairs, p. 15). The cotton plant has from 
 time immemorial been one of the staple products of 
 Hindoostan, and is indigenous from^Ceylonin the south 
 to the Himalaya Mountains. It is cultivated exten- 
 sively throughout Bengal, and in the interior prov- 
 inces, on the banks of the Jumna ; also in the Deccan, 
 and in southern India, whence it is imported into Ben- 
 gal, and into Mirzapoor, and the district of Benares, 
 where it is manufactured. Flax and hemp are also 
 cultivated in several districts both in the north and in 
 the south of India. Silk was long the exclusive prod- 
 uct of India and China, Silk-worms are now reared 
 
 principally in the district of Burdwan, and in the vicin- 
 ity of the Bhagirati and the Ganges, and for about 100 
 miles down their streams. Four crops of mulberry- 
 leaves are obtained in the year, the last in December. 
 A considerable quantity of silk, of a coarse kind, is ob- 
 tained from wild silk-worms, which do not feed on the 
 mulberry, and are found in the forests of Silhet, Assam, 
 and the Deccan. Indigo was originally a product of 
 India ; and the plant was afterward carried to South 
 America, whence Europe was for a long time supplied 
 with this dye. The manufacture, on which the quality 
 of the indigo depends, was very unskillfully conducted 
 until the year 1783. Since this period it has been so 
 much improved by the skill and capital of Europeans 
 that it is now a staple article of commerce ; and in 
 Bengal the value of the produce in 1854 amounted to 
 £1,701,206. Indigo is produced generally throughout 
 the plain of the Ganges, and in southern India, but 
 chiefly in Bengal. Tobacco, formerly unknown in In- 
 dia, and introduced from America probably about the 
 beginning of the 17th century, is now extensively cul- 
 tivated in every part, chiefly however in the nortbem 
 provinces, and more rarely in the south. The tobac- 
 co grown in the Mahratta territories is most esteemed, 
 particularly that which is produced near Bilsea, a 
 town in Malwah. Bengal does not yield good tobac- 
 co ; but the Company's territories in Guzerat, being 
 principally of a rich black soil, are considered as pecu- 
 liarly suitable to its cultivation (see letter of the Sec- 
 retary to the Court of Directors, to the Secretary of 
 the India Board, 5th September, 1828). The Hindoos 
 having been already in the habit of inhaling the 
 smoke of hemp-leaves and other intoxicating drugs, 
 readily adopted tobacco as a more agreeable substitute, 
 and it soon came into general use. Their recent 
 knowledge of it appears from their having no name for 
 it which is not a corruption of some European term. 
 Pepper, though of inferior consequence, is a valuable 
 product of southern India, especially of Malabar. It 
 is produced from a species of vine, which is made to 
 twine around the jack-tree. It bears fruit about the 
 third or fourth year, amounting to from three to seven 
 pounds' weight, and yields two crops in the year. 
 The areca-nut and betel-leaf, universally chewed by 
 the natives, thrive in the low grounds, where water is 
 abundant ; and cardamoms, a spice in great repute. 
 The universal and vast consumption of vegetable oils 
 in Hindoostan, for food, or unguents, or for the lamp, 
 is supplied by the extensive cultivation of mustard- 
 seed, linseed, sesamum, palma, christi, besides what is 
 procured from the cocoa-nut. The first ripen in the 
 cold season, the sesamum during the rains, or soon af- 
 terward. 
 
 The forests in the low plains of Hindoostan, of 
 southern India, and those which cover the western 
 range of the Ghauts, and more sparingly the eastern 
 Ghauts, abound in the most valuable trees, applicable 
 to many important uses. The extensive woods in 
 southern India supply the teak-tree, valuable for ship- 
 building ; and in Malabar, extensive tracts of waste 
 land have within the last few j'ears been converted in- 
 to teak plantations by the government. Saul, sissoo, 
 toon, and bamboo-trees' abound ; the last of which 
 yield a medicine much used by the native doctors, and 
 which sells for its weight in silver. There are many 
 species of the palm-tree, with its luxuriant and spread- 
 ing leaves, of which the produce is extremely useful. 
 The cocoa-nut-tree is, in some provinces, an important 
 article of culture. 'The kernel is used for food by the 
 richer natives, either in the raw state, or dressed after 
 various fashions ; and it j'ields by far the finest oil in 
 India, if the nut be fresh, and the oil quickly used. 
 Extensive tracts, many miles in length, are planted 
 with the cocoa-nut and betel-nnt palms. Many other 
 species of timber are found in the deep recesses of the 
 woods, of which Dr. Buchanan, in his account of 
 Mysore, gives a particular description, with the botan- 
 
IND 
 
 1014 
 
 IND 
 
 ical names of the different trees, and to his work we 
 refer ; observing, generally, that the woods consist of 
 overj' description of timber, black, heavy, and strong, 
 and adapted for the beams and posts of houses ; other 
 kinds are white, hard, and durable, and adapted to all 
 the purposes for which strong materials are required ; 
 some are beautifully grained, and take a fine polish, 
 and are well suited for furniture, or exude resins and 
 gums of a sweet scent, that are used in temples for in- 
 cense ; the wood of some kindles readily into a clear 
 light, and is used for torches (see Journey from Mad- 
 ras, through Mysore, Canara, and Malabar, vol. i., p. 
 25). Other kinds of wood are employed for dyeing. 
 The sandal-wood is valuable for its perfume, and for 
 the essential oil which it yields. It requires a strong 
 soil, and it is 12 years before it attains the proper 
 size for being cut. The billets of wood are prepared 
 by being buried in the dry ground for two months, 
 when the ants eat up all the outer wood, leaving the 
 heart, which is the sandal. The deeper the color, the 
 higher the perfume. The best sandal-wood of Hin- 
 doo»tan is now in possession of the rajah of Mysore, 
 who succeeded to a small portion of Tippoo's domin- 
 ions. 
 
 Animals. — Hindoostan, from the great extent and 
 inequality of its surface ; its stupendous and snow-clad 
 mountains, and its vast and wooded plains, lying un- 
 der a burning sun, comprehends all the most interest- 
 ing forms of animal life, more especially those animals 
 of the tropical regions remarkable for ferocity or size, 
 which have been the subjects of scientific research as 
 well as of popular curiosity in all ages, and which find 
 ample cover in the deep woods and jungle-covered 
 wastes of those tracts of the country which have been 
 desolated by tyranny or war. 
 
 However much the following statistics of the finan- 
 cial concerns of the British Eastern empire may be at 
 variance with the exaggerated ideas entertained re- 
 specting it, as well by a large proportion of the people 
 of England as by foreigners, it will excite no surprise 
 in the mind of any one who has ever reflected on the ■ 
 subject. It is due, indeed, to the directors, to state, 
 that though they have occasionally acted on erroneous 
 principles, they have always exerted themselves to 
 enforce economy in every branch of their expenditure, 
 and to impose and collect their revenues in the best 
 and cheapest manner. But though they have suc- 
 ceeded in repressing many abuses, it would be idle to 
 suppose that they should ever entirelj'' succeed in root- 
 ing them out. How can it be imagined, that stran- 
 gers sent to India, conscious that thej' are armed with 
 all the strength of government, placed under no real 
 responsibility, exempted from the salutary influence of 
 public opinion, fearing no effectual exposure through 
 the medium of the press, and anxious only to accumu- 
 late a fortune, should not occasionally abuse their 
 authority ? or that the}"" should manage the compli- 
 cated and difficult afi'airs of a vast empire, inhabited 
 by a race of people of whose language, manners, and 
 habits they are almost whollj^ ignorant, with that pru- 
 dence, economy, and vigilance, without which it were 
 idle to expect that any great surplus revenue should 
 ever be realized ? 
 
 India Company, tlie East. — The first commercial in- 
 tercourse of the English with the East Indies, was a 
 private adventure with three ships fitted out in 1591 ; 
 only one of them reached India, and after a voyage of 
 three years, the commander, Captain Lancaster, was 
 brought home in another ship, the sailors having seized 
 on his own ; but his information gave rise to a capital 
 mercantile voyage, and the Company's first charter, 
 in December, 1600. Their stock then consisted of 
 £72,000, and they fitted out four ships, and meeting 
 with success, have continued to trade ever since. In- 
 dia stock sold at £500 for a share of £100, in 1683. A 
 new Company was formed in 1698; and both were 
 united in 1702. The India House was built in 1726, 
 
 and enlarged in 1799- Board of Control instituted 1784, 
 See East India Company. 
 
 Hailroads in India.— There are several railroads going 
 forward in diff^erent parts of India, which promise to 
 be productive of a great increasein the trade of that 
 countrj', though it is more questionable whether for 
 some years to come they will afford a very ample in- 
 come to the proprietors, for the heavy cost of the con- 
 struction. One of the lines first undertaken is the 
 East Indian, extending from a navigable part of the 
 Ganges toward Delhi. This road is already partiall}' 
 opened, and the report of its operations for the first six 
 months of the year 1856, contained a return of 432,321 
 passengers transported, and 38,010 tons of freight. 
 The work from Allahabad to Cawnpore was going for- 
 ward successfully at the date of this report, but it had 
 been since retarded beyond the expectations that had 
 been entertained, by the difficulty in carrying forward 
 the materials. The earth-work was nearly completed at 
 that time. Allahabad is near the junction of the Jumna 
 with the Ganges, 600 or 700 miles above Calcutta. 
 The work was to be extended from Cawnpore to Delhi 
 under the officers of the Company, without contract- 
 ors. "We have lately seen an account of the total 
 loss of a costly locomotive, destined for this road, by 
 being sunk in the Ganges. A portion of the Great 
 Indian Peninsular road, beginning at Bombay, has also 
 been opened, and a location for the extension of the 
 line has been recently made, from Nagpore to Jubbul- 
 pore, where it will unite with the East Indian, thereby 
 forming an entire line of inland communication follow- 
 ing, in part, the course of the Ganges, from Bom- 
 bay to Calcutta. 
 
 The Scinde Eailway, another important work de- 
 signed for opening the trade of the great vallej' of the 
 Indus, has already made considerable progress. It 
 will extend from Hyderabad to the port of Kurrachee, 
 a distance of 110 miles, it being rendered necessary on 
 account of the difficult na.vigation of the mouths of 
 that river. As an appendage to this work, a more ex- 
 tensive one called the Punjanb Railway has been lately 
 projected, and a prospectus of it is now advertised in 
 the London papers. It is to be 230 miles in length, 
 beginning at Mooltan on the Indus 470 miles above 
 Hyderabad, and running thence to Lahore and Umrit- 
 sir, through a country of remarkable equality of sur- 
 face. It is to form, in connection with the Scinde 
 Railroad, and an improved system of steam navigation 
 on the intermediate portion of the River Scinde or Indus, 
 between Hyderabad and Mooltan, a connected line of 
 communication from Kurrachee, which is destined to 
 be the principal port for western India, to Lahore the 
 capital of the Punjaub. From Lahore it will be fur- 
 ther extended 36 miles to Umritsir, the commer- 
 cial capital of a very large and productive trading 
 district, making in all, by railroad and steam naviga- 
 tion, 810 miles. For the Punjaub railroad alone it 
 is proposed to raise a capital of £2,500,000, of which 
 two fifths of the shares are reserved to the sharehold- 
 ers in the Scinde Company, in the proportion of two 
 shares of the former to one held of the latter. The 
 prospectus advertised in the London papers contains 
 the following description of the region of country 
 through which this line of communication will pass, 
 extending nearlj' the whole length of the valley of the 
 Indus : 
 
 " A railwaj' from Mooltan to Lahore and Umritsir 
 will not only afford an outlet to the impeded traffic of 
 Punjaub and neighboring territories, but would of 
 necessity greatly enhance the importance and value 
 of the line from Kurrachee to Hyderabad Scinde 
 and the Punjaub (including the States under control) 
 cover an area of 130,000 square miles, with a popula- 
 tion of nearly 25,000,000. The flower of the European 
 and native army occupies these provinces, and num- 
 bers 70,000 men, more than 15,000 of whom are Euro- 
 peans." 
 
IND 
 
 1016 
 
 IND 
 
 The following further description of this region of 
 country, is from the Calcutta Englishman : 
 
 " Lahore, situated on the Kavee, is the capital of 
 the Punjaub and the seat of its political administration. 
 The town is very extensive, and carries on a brisk in- 
 ternal tjade. The civil station of Anarkullee, and 
 the large military station of Meean Meer, are likewise 
 attached to it. Umritsir, the commercial capital of 
 the Punjaub, distant 36 miles, is at least equal, if not 
 superior, to Delhi in population and wealth. The in- 
 tervening country is level, and without even a nullah 
 of any size, and an intercourse of so great an extent 
 is maintained between them, that the road is literally 
 thronged day and night with every description of 
 wheeled vehicles, horses, camels, etc., and foot pas- 
 sengers ; in short, more resembling the street of a 
 town than a mere communication between two cities 
 so far apart. Umritsir is the grand entrepot for the 
 commerce of the cis-Sutlej States — ^the rich and mount- 
 ainous regions eastward to Kote Kangra— the horses, 
 fruits, and woolens of Cabul and Bokhara, the shawls 
 and other produce of Cashmere, Yarkhand, and the 
 mountainous country toward the north-east — in fact, 
 of the whole Punjaub and the countries encircling it, 
 are here concentrated. Mooltan is a large town and 
 military station on the Sutlej or Gharra, so termed 
 after its conjunction with the Beas. It is quickly be- 
 coming an important emporium, for it is the connect- 
 ing linlc to the trade of northern with south-western 
 India, or rather Bombay and Europe. Kurrachee, 
 situated at the mouth of the Indus, is fast advancing 
 into prosperity and into notice as a sea-port ; it will 
 probabh' soon be known as the first in the empire, 
 being superior to Calcutta, Madras, or even Bombay." 
 
 The distance between Calcutta and Bombay in a 
 direct line is a little more than a thousand miles. By 
 the indirect route which must be pursued by the Pe- 
 ninsular line, to find one adapted either to steam nav- 
 igation or to the construction of a railroad — ^that is, 
 by following the course of the Ganges, so far as the 
 rWJte is eligible, and from the point thus reached, by 
 selecting the line best adapted to the construction of a 
 railroad, taking into consideration the comparative 
 evenness of surface, and the production, resources and 
 population of the countrj' to be traversed, the distance 
 will not be less than 1600 miles, exclusive of the minor 
 sinuosities of the route, which can not be accurately 
 estimated until the line is definitively laid down. It 
 is already ascertained that easterly from Nagpore, coal 
 of an excellent quality for the making of coke at a 
 low cost is found in abundance. Extensive as these 
 railway routes are, it will be perceived that they bear 
 no comparison, in point of extravagance, and hope- 
 lessness of execution, with the vast routes projected 
 between the Mississippi and the Pacific in various 
 directions, traversing regions uninhabited and unin- 
 habitable, and passing over mountain ranges, which 
 almost bid defiance to the power of the locomotive. 
 In one case, the projected routes pass through coun- 
 tries already covered by an immense population, and 
 affording valuable products adapted to become the ob- 
 jects of a profitable traded and consequently capable of 
 contributing to the support of the line throughout 
 every part of it. In the other case, nearly the whole 
 country to be traversed, by the most favored of the 
 projected routes, is destitute not only of the means of 
 affording even a partial support to the route when 
 constructed and put in operation, but in a great meas- 
 ure incapable of furnishing even the timber necessary 
 for its construction and repairs, the fuel neoessarj' for 
 locomotives, or provisions for the men who must be 
 employed in running them. 
 
 The great lever, however, by which England will, 
 in a greater ratio than ever, increase her power in tlie 
 East, will be tke railroad system. And in this policy 
 rapid strides and important results have been already 
 accomplished. As earlv as August, 1855, it was stated 
 
 in the House of Commons that the East India Com- 
 pany had sanctioned the construction of one road 590 
 miles In length, to be completed in the year 1856, with 
 a guaranty of 5 per cent, dividend by the Company. 
 In other words, private capitalists having subscribed 
 the required capital, the Company therefore gave a 
 guaranty of 5 per cent, income, upon a capital of 
 $20,000,000. Other roads have been projected, and 
 are now in course of construction, with an aggregate 
 line of over 8000 miles. From one extremity of Brit- 
 ish India to the other, the magnetic telegraph is in full 
 operation. The intelligence carried from England to 
 Bombay, was, as far back as April, 1855, transmitted 
 to Calcutta by telegraph. The three grand trunk 
 railroads are : 
 
 Length, mllfla. 
 
 1. From Calcutta to Peshawur 1,423 
 
 2. " Calcutta to Bombay 1,002 
 
 S. " Bombay to Agra 784 
 
 Total. 
 
 3,159 
 
 4000 miles of telegraph wii-e are now set up in In- 
 dia, and in constant use. In the construction of this 
 immense line of wire, 70 large rivers were crossed. In 
 one case the cable over a river measures 15,840 feet, 
 and in another over two miles in length. 
 
 In order to carry out the views of the British gov- 
 ernment and of the East India Company especially, a 
 standing army of 289,000 men (European and native), 
 is maintained. It requires little foresight to show that 
 it is in India (at present) and in China (hereafter) that 
 the British power will for many years be developed to 
 an extraordinary degree. With the aid of capital, 
 now abundant in India, and with the further aid of 
 railroads, manufacturing machinery', steamships and 
 steamboats, the magnetic telegraph, and cheap labor, 
 the commercial and political power of Great Britain 
 will soon overshadow all others. The subject fur- 
 nishes points of inquiry and consideration, which 
 should be duly weighed by the statesman, the mer- 
 chant, and the philanthropist. 
 
 We have all looked with astonishment upon the 
 vast commercial changes that have transpired in the 
 world within the past 20 or 30 years. Science, genius, 
 enterprise, and capital are yet at work transforming, 
 modifying, creating. America has witnessed great 
 transformations within that period. It would seem 
 that Asia is likely to undergo equally important 
 changes, through the means of the British govern- 
 ment and its thousand agents. There is no reason 
 why the United States, availing themselves of the 
 newlj'-enlarged field of operations in the East, should 
 not find a profitable market for their manufactures, 
 and further employment for their shipping. 
 
 Metals, — From the wild and inaccessible nature of 
 the country in many parts of Hindoostan, its metallic 
 products are but imperfectly known. It is found to 
 produce all the metallic ores, as well as diamonds and 
 precious stones, and other mineral substances. Gold 
 is generally found in the sands of the mountain 
 streams, and is extracted by washing. The head 
 streams of the Ganges bring along with them parti- 
 cles of gold, which in Eohilcund are collected by a 
 particular caste of people. It is found in various parts 
 of Mysore, particularly nine miles east of Boodicotta, 
 where the country is impregnated with it ; also in the 
 Nielgherry Mountains ; and in great quantities in all 
 that tract of countrj- that lies west ; and in the adjoin- 
 ing Koondanad and Ghaut Mountains. This whole 
 tract, including the mountains, and comprising a space 
 of 2000 miles, contains gold. Unrefined gold is regu- 
 larly exchanged by many of the mountain tribes of the 
 north for the produce of the plains. It is estimated 
 that about 1000 men are continually employed in col- 
 lecting this precious metal. Copper is produced in the 
 province of Delhi, which the natives coll ect either on the 
 surface or with very slight excavations ; also in the Eaj- 
 poot principality of Jeypoor in the province of Ajmeer, 
 
IND 
 
 1016 
 
 IND 
 
 and in other parts of the same province, there are 
 copper mines, and in the Camatic, about 40 miles 
 north-east from Cuddapuh. The metal is found in 
 layers about two inches, and occasionally two feet 
 thick ; they are coated with ochre, and are in general 
 flat, as if thej' had undergone compression. The ore 
 exists in nearly a metallic state, without any admix- 
 ture of sulphur, arsenic, or any other substance that 
 requires separation. The best ores j'ield 50, and the 
 worst 6 per cent, of pure metal. The granitic mount- 
 ains of Nepaul and northern Hindoostan contain much 
 iron, load, and copper, with a little gold in the river 
 courses. The copper mines are quite superficial, the 
 ore being dug from trenches entirely open above, so 
 that the work is laid aside in the rainy season. Iron 
 ore is found in many parts of Hindoostan. There are 
 mines of iron in Lahore and in Ajmeer. In Orissa 
 many of the natives are iron smelters, and most of the 
 iron sent from Balasore to Calcutta is produced in this 
 district. In Bejapoor the working of iron furnishes em- 
 ployment to many of the inhabitants, who extract it by 
 a very rude process. At Porto Novo, in the British 
 district of South Arcot, in the presidency of Madras, 
 extensive iron-works have been erected by a joint- 
 stock association called the East India Iron Companj' ; 
 to whom also belong the iron foundery works at Bey- 
 poor, in Malabar, on the opposite coast of the penin- 
 sula. The ore smelted at these establishments is found 
 in great abundance and of excellent quality in their 
 respective vicinities. The Mysore country abounds in 
 iron. There are also forges for manufacturing steel, 
 which are minutely described by Dr. Buchanan in his 
 account of the Mysore country.* In Coimbetore and 
 in Malabar the iron mines give emploj^ment to a con- 
 siderable number of persons. The process and ma- 
 chinery for extracting the iron are very imperfect. 
 Iron mines were formerly worked in the district of 
 Boglipoor, but they have been long neglected. Rich 
 iron ores are abundant in Cutch. The ore is gathered 
 in baskets from the surface of the earth, and yields 
 22 per cent, of iron ; and the steel which is made from 
 this ore is the finest in the world. Lead is produced 
 in various parts ; also antimony, plumbago, sulphur, 
 alum ; and there are inexhaustible supplies of coal, 
 though the jnines are not worked with anj- effect. 
 Coal is raised in Burdwan in considerable quantities 
 and of a fine quality. Saltpetre is produced in Bengal 
 and Bahar, though its manufacture does not go bej'ond 
 the eastern limits of the latter province. It might, 
 however, be attended with success in Bengal, where 
 the tendency of the soil to its production is verj' 
 great; and there miglit be manufactories of salt in 
 almost every part of the country, but thej^ are re- 
 stricted by the Compan3'''s monopoly. In the My- 
 sore plains the wells are salt, and the ground is 
 frequently covered with a saline efiiorescence. A range 
 of hills, extending from the Indus to the Hydaspes, 
 yields the famous rock-salt of Lahore, of which they 
 are almost entirely composed. f Many quarries are 
 found in the hilly districts, which produce fine stone, 
 that is cut by the inhabitants into pillars, flags, 
 statues, and used for other ornamental purposes. Dr. 
 Buchanan saw several fine-grained specimens of 
 granite, also a black stone used in the construction of 
 Hyder's monument, and a beautiful green stone which 
 takes on a marble polish. The hills of Guzerat con- 
 tain marbles exhibiting many colors and qualities ; 
 and marbles are seen in tlie various tombs and monu- 
 ments of ancient art still remaining in the country, 
 finely ground and of different colors, white and yellow 
 with red veins, and green clouded with yellow and 
 black, of which the quarries have never been discov- 
 ered. 
 
 ' Journey from Madras, vol. i., pp. ITO, 180 1 vol. ii., 
 p. 139. 
 
 t See the observations of Lieutenant BumeE on the com- 
 mercial relations of the Punjaub. 
 
 Diamonds are no longer found in the celebrated 
 mines of Golconda, but they are still gathered in the 
 bed of the Krishna, and in the province of Gundwana. 
 Near the confluence of the Hebe and the Mahanuddy, 
 13 miles beyond the town of Sumbhulpoor, after the 
 rains, the natives find diamonds in the red earth 
 washed down from the mountains. The matrix con- 
 taining them is a clay which has a red appearance like 
 burned bricks. There are diamond mines in the south 
 of India, about 7 miles north-east of Cudhapah, on 
 both banks of the Pennar River. These mines have 
 been worked for several hundred years, and occasion- 
 ally yield large diamonds, which are either found in 
 the alluvial soil, or are recognized by their sparkling 
 among the gravel after it is washed and spread out, or 
 in rocks of the latest formation. The grounds are 
 leased on behalf of the government to private specu- 
 lators at a moderate rent. In Bundelcund, also, the 
 table-land which surrounds Pannah, wherever the 
 ground is of a gravelly nature, produces diamonds. 
 The soil is from two to eight cubits deep, and diamonds 
 are found intermixed ^vith small pebbles, though not 
 adhering to them. A very few diamonds in the course 
 of a year repay the labors of the workmen. The dia- 
 monds found are mostly under the value of 500 rupees, 
 or X50, though some reach the value of from 500 to 
 1000 rupees. They are weighed and sold to the mer- 
 chants residing at Pannah, and are by them carried to 
 all parts of the country. The workmen are allowed 
 three fourths, two thirds, or a half the diamonds they 
 find, according to their size, and any man is at liberty 
 to dig ; but the business is less prosperous than form- 
 erly, and the worltmen are poor. The diamond 
 grounds are strictly guarded against the contraband 
 trader, and the least delinquency draws down the 
 prompt and barbarous vengeance of the rajah. These 
 are supposed to be the diamond mines mentioned by 
 Ptolemy. Their annual produce was estimated, in 
 the reign of Achar, at eiglit lacs of rupees. In 1750 
 it had fallen off to one half; the amount, compara- 
 tively insignificant, is divided between the rajahs of 
 Pennah, Banda, and Chirkaree. 
 
 The other varieties of precious stones found in India 
 are the rubj' from the table-land of Mysore, the berj'l, 
 the topaz, the chrj'solite, garnet, cat's eye, etc. There 
 are cornelian mines in tlie province of Guzerat, in the 
 wildest parts of the jungle. Thej- consist of numerous 
 shafts worked down perpendicularly, about four feet 
 wide, and several of them to the depth of fifty feet. 
 Some of them extend at the bottom in a horizontal 
 direction, though not to any distance ; the heavy rains 
 cause the banks to fall in, so that new openings are 
 always made at the end of the rainy season. The 
 nodules weigh from a few ounces to two or even three 
 pounds, and lie close to each other in abundance, not 
 in distinct strata, but scattered about. They are of 
 various colors when they are found — of a blackish 
 olive, like common dark flints ; others of a lighter hue, 
 with a slight milk}' tinge ; though it is quite uncertain 
 what appearance they will assume after the process of 
 turning. They are carried to Cambay, where they are 
 cut, polished, and formed into the fine ornaments for 
 which that city is so highly celebrated. ' Beautiful 
 jaspers and agates are also found in this district, and 
 in other parts of India. 
 
 Manufactures. — In everj' country the nature and 
 quality of the manufactures must depend on the con- 
 dition of the consumers, and among the despotic States 
 of Asia these naturally consist of two classes : 1st, of 
 the great and powerful, in whose hands the property 
 of the country is accumulated, and who are compara- 
 tively few ; and, 2dly, of the mass of the people, op- 
 pressed under native rule, and sunk in povert}'. Such, 
 accordingly, has been from time immemorial the state 
 of Hindoostan ; and its manufactures, which are neces- 
 sarily adapted to the use of these two classes, have 
 always consisted of exquisitely fine fabrics of cotton, 
 
IND 
 
 1017 
 
 IND 
 
 for the use of the imperial court or of the rajahs and 
 princes of the country, or of coarse stuffs for the com- 
 mon people ; and to such perfection have they attained, 
 that the modern art of Europe, with all the aid of its 
 wonderful machinery, has never yet rivaled in beauty 
 the product of the Indian loom. Yet the Hindoo 
 worliman has no advantage from capital, from machin- 
 ery, or from the division of labor ; he prepares the raw 
 material with his own sUUful hand, in all the various 
 stages of its manufacture ; his loom and all his im- 
 plements are of the rudest construction ; and yet, 
 by patience, perseverance, and unusual sliill, he pro- 
 duces an article which is prized aU over the world for 
 its inimitable richness and beauty, as well as for its 
 durability. The native artisan distinguishes at once 
 these fine fabrics from all counterfeits, by the eye, the 
 touch, and the smell. In the district of Dacca are 
 chiefly fabricated plain muslins, variously denomi- 
 nated, according to the closeness or fineness of the 
 texture ; also flowered, striped, or checkered muslins, 
 denominated from their patterns; and the thinnest 
 sort of muslins, for the manufacture of. which the 
 province is much celebrated, as is Coromandel in 
 southern India for its calicoes and other piece-goods, 
 of the most brilliant and durable colors. Other kinds 
 more closely woven are fabricated in the western parts 
 of Bengal ; and another sort, of a more rigid texture, 
 in every district. Coarse muslins, in the shape of 
 turbans, handkerchiefs, etc., are made in all parts of 
 Hindoostan ; and in its northern provinces, plain and 
 flowered muslins, but of inferior quality to the beauti- 
 ful fabrics of Dacca. In Moultan are manufactured 
 sillcs which possess a strength of texture and brilliancy 
 of hue that have secured for them a preference in the 
 Indian market. They are woven into shawls and 
 scarfs, which are in great demand, and which the In- 
 dian manufacturer in other parts has neverbeen able to 
 rival, either in color or durability. Carpets are also 
 manufactured in this province, thougli they do not 
 equal those of Persia. Various articles of calico are 
 made, which still retain their Indian denominations, as 
 khasahs, which are manufactured north and east of 
 the Ganges ; cloths of nearly the same quality are 
 made near Tanda in Oude. Near Luckipoor, on the 
 western frontier of Benares, in the neighborhood of 
 Allahabad, and also in the province of Bahar baftaes 
 are manufactured ; sanaes in Orissa, and in the district 
 of Midnapoor ; and a similar cloth under the same de- 
 nomination in the eastern parts of the province of 
 Benares ; woven silk and tafieta, both plain and flow- 
 ered, in the neighborhood of Moorshedabad ; tissues, 
 brocades, and ornamented gauzes, at Benares ; plain 
 gauzes for domestic use in the west and south of Ben- 
 gal ; and at Moulda, Boligpoor, and at several towns 
 in the district of Burdwan, mixed goods of sillc and 
 cotton. Sackcloth is manufactured from packthread 
 in many places, especially in the northern provinces, 
 for the clothipg of the mountaineers. Cotton is made 
 into canvas in the neighborhood of Chittagong, Patna, 
 and other places ; and blankets everywhere for com- 
 mon use. A coarse cotton cloth dj'ed red with cheap 
 materials is verj"- generally used, and is chiefly manu- 
 factured in the countrj' between the Jumna and the 
 Ganges. Fine and coarse calicoes are dyed with per- 
 manent and fugitive colors for common use in the 
 province of Benares, the city of Patna, and the neigh- 
 borhood of Calcutta. This art appears to have had its 
 origin in India, and to have been there perfected to a 
 degree never surpassed by Europeans. Dimities of 
 various kinds, and damask linen, are made at Dacca, 
 Patna, Tanda, and various other places. 
 
 In Mysore, near Bangalore, sUk is manufactured 
 into different articles of dress, into strong cloths, which 
 men, women, or boys wrap round them, and into tar- 
 ban pieces. These cloths are of a rich fabric, variously 
 figured, and the pattern, if ordered, is elegantly 
 wrought in gold thread. Turbans are made of cotton 
 
 and silk. Thin white muslins witli silk borders orna- 
 mented with gold and silver, and plain green muslins, 
 with silk borders, are manufactured for female dresses ; 
 al.so striped and checkered muslins; cloth like the 
 khasahs of Bengal, for wrapping round the shoulders 
 of men, sometimes with striped or silver borders. 
 Handkerchiefs with red borders, a coarse thick white 
 cotton cloth with red borders, and turbans ornamented 
 with silver and gold thread at the ends, are also made 
 in this district ; and the dyeing of cotton cloth, cotton 
 thread, and silk, is carried on by a set of people who 
 act as tailors, cloth-printers, and dyers. Tanneries 
 are established, and manufactories of oil. At Chen- 
 napattana there are manufactories of glass-ware and of 
 glass rings, universall}' worn as bracelets by the wo- 
 men of the Deccan. Steel wire is also made here for 
 the strings of musical instruments. At Vizigapatam, 
 in the northern Circars, the inhabitants are very ex- 
 pert in carving curious little boxes of ivory and bone. 
 Throughout southern India manufactories of cotton silk 
 are generally established. In the northern Circars 
 the principal part of the East India Company's invest- 
 ment of piece-goods was formerly provided. This 
 country, extending about 500 miles along the coast of 
 Coromandel, from the River Kistnah to the borders 
 of Cuttack, has from very early times been the seat of 
 an important and extensive manufacture of cotton piece- 
 goods, of which the description of calicoes known as 
 Madras long cloths and salempores are the chief, and, 
 with Masulipatam dyed handkerchiefs, and other Itinds 
 of goods for the African and West India trade, have, 
 until lately, been in great demand. Masulipatam goods 
 have, however, for some years been entirely super- 
 seded by the manufactures of Manchester and Glas- 
 gow ; and in all appearance the northern Circars will 
 at no distant period of time be deprived of the manu- 
 factures of white calicoes also. A great change has 
 indeed been brought about in the manufactures of In- 
 dia by the introduction of British goods, which, in 
 many branches, have supplanted those of the coun- 
 try' ; the poor Hindoo, notwithstanding the low rate at 
 which he works, is thus undersold in Iiis own marlcet 
 by the manufacturers of Manchester and Glasgow ; 
 and this competition of British goods nearly ruined the 
 native manufacturers of India, deprived the workmen 
 of employment, and reduced them to great distress ; 
 so that the directors remark concerning the Indian 
 trade, that " it exhibits the picture of a commercial 
 revolution, productive of much present suffering to 
 numerous classes in India, and hardly to be paralleled 
 in the history of commerce." / 
 
 Commerce, — Hindoostan, from its great extent, and 
 the diversity of its soil and climate, supplies the mate- 
 rials of an extensive commerce. Its internal trade is 
 great, while its rare and precious products are ex- 
 ported to the remotest regions of the world. An ex- 
 tensive commerce takes place between Bengal and the 
 other maritime districts, and the western provinces of 
 Hindoostan, consisting in the exportation of grain 
 from the corn districts, in exchange for salt, a great 
 staple ; for betel-nut, sugar, raw silk, sillc and piece 
 goods. From the native States of central India MaU 
 wah opium is sent down to Bombay for exportation to 
 China. In Bengal the culture and manufacture of 
 opium are conducted under a State monopoly, and the 
 produce is transmitted to Calcutta, where it is disposed 
 of by public sale. The holy city of Benares is a great 
 mart of trade, in which are exchanged the shawls of 
 the nortli for the diamonds of tlie south, and for the 
 muslins of Dacca and the eastern provinces : and it 
 has besides, very considerable silk, cotton, and fine 
 woolen manufactures of its own, the produce of which 
 is exchanged for other commodities. Through the 
 northern provinces of Delhi and Lahore a great trade 
 is carried on between the hUl countries and the plains. 
 The inconsiderable town of Hurdwar or Hardiwara, 
 being a celebrated place of Hindoo pilgrimage, is a 
 
IND 
 
 1018 
 
 IND 
 
 great commercial emporium, to which multitudes re- 
 sort for the purposes of trade, as well as from piety. 
 This great annual concourse talces place in the spring, 
 when the produce of the northern and western coun- 
 tries is exchanged for the manufactures of the lower 
 provinces. The principal articles brought here for 
 sale from Cabul, Candaliar, Moultan, and the Punjaub, 
 are horses, mules, camels ; some of these from Balk, 
 Bolchara, and the countries on the northern side of the 
 Hindoo Coosli Mountains ; a particular species of to- 
 bacco, antimony, assafoctida, dried fruits, such as apri- 
 cots, figs, prunes, raisins, almonds, pistachio nuts, and 
 pomegranates ; from Caslimere and Amritsir, shawls, 
 dootas, and pattoos ; spotted turbans, looking-glasses, 
 toys, with various manufactures in brass and ivory 
 from .Jej'poor ; shields from Rohilcund, Luclinow, and 
 Silhet ; bows and arrows from Moultan and the Doab ; 
 rock-salt from Lahore ; baftas and piece-goods from 
 Eahn, a large city in the Punjaub. The country of 
 Marwar also supplies many camels, and a species of 
 flannel called loo. In excliange are brought from the 
 British provinces Kharwa muslins, mushroo or sarsnet, 
 and woolen cloths, the coarsest of which only find a 
 marlcet. In this fair, Dutch and Venetian coins are 
 current ; and some toys of European manufacture 
 were seen exposed to sale by Mr. Webb. The north- 
 ern merchants l)y whom it is frequented assemble at 
 Amritsir in caravans about the end of February, and 
 pursue their route in an easterly direction througli the 
 territories of the protected Seildi powers. Still further 
 to the north and west the provinces of Lahore and 
 Moultan export to the countries to the west of the 
 Indus, sugar, rice, indigo, wheat, and white cotton 
 cloths, hides, etc. The imports are swords, horses, 
 fruit, lead, and spices ; and into all these countries 
 European goods are imported from the lower prov- 
 inces. The southern provinces export to Bengal, pep- 
 per, betel-nut, sandal-wood, and cardamums, teak 
 timber, etc. ; while they receive in return salt and 
 rice, cotton cloths, and articles of European manufac- 
 ture. 
 
 A very considerable coasting trade is carried on be- 
 tween the different parts of Hindoostan. Bengal ex- 
 ports to Madras and the coast of Coromandel, grains 
 of different descriptions, sugar, saltpetre, molasses, 
 ginger, long pepper, oil, silk wrought and unwrought, 
 muslins, spirits, and provisions. The returns are salt, 
 red wood, fine long cloth, izarees, and chintzes. From 
 tile Malabar coast the imports are sandal-wood, coir 
 rope, pepper, cardamums ; and the returns are gener- 
 ally in the annual supplies which Bombay receives 
 from Bengal. From Bombay are brought teak timber, 
 elephant's teeth, lac, etc. 
 
 From the reputed wealth and precious produce of 
 India foreign nations were always desirous to partici- 
 pate in its trade. Prior to Alexander's expedition to 
 the East it was scarcely known to the Greelcs, nor is 
 it certain that they had ever seen its productions. But 
 we Itnow that these were brought to Eome, especially 
 silk, which so allured the vanitj' of the Roman ladies 
 that it sold for its weight in gold. Other valuable 
 commodities of India, sucli as calicoes, muslins, aro- 
 matics, ivory, diamonds, pearls, and other gems, pre- 
 cious aromatics, the pepper of Malabar, turtle shell, 
 etc., and Some dry sugar and indigo, were also im- 
 ported into Alexandria, the chief emporium of eastern 
 commerce, and were naturallj' attracted to the great 
 metropolis of the ancient world. This trade was car- 
 ried on from Myos Hormos, the chief port on the Eed 
 Sea, whence, after the conquest of Egypt by the Ro- 
 mans, the annual fleets, sometimes of 120 vessels, set 
 sail, and, under the propitious influence of the south- 
 west monsoon, boldly stretched across the Indian 
 Ocean for the western coast of Hindoostan, which they 
 reached in about 40 days ; and afterward extended 
 their voyage round Cape Comorin to the coast of Coro- 
 mandel and the mouths of the Ganges. The high 
 
 price received for these eastern luxuries in Rome en- 
 couraged the merchants to provide larger vessels, and 
 a band of archers to defend them against the pirates, 
 who then, and until very lately that they were extir- 
 pated by British ships of war, infested the western 
 shores of India. The commodities of the East being 
 landed at Myos Hormos, were carried on camels to 
 Coptos, the seat of a flourishing trade, and thence by 
 sea to the Nile, whence they reached Alexandria by 
 water carriage, and were re-shipped to the different 
 ports on the Mediterranean. The produce of India 
 was also brought to Europe by other routes — ^namely, 
 by the way of Palmyra, then a flourishing city, and 
 thence to Rome and other western countries, through 
 the ports of Syria : or across the Himalaya Mountains 
 to the Oxus, thence to the Caspian, and afterward to 
 the Black Sea, and finally to its ulterior markets in 
 Europe. But though there was a demand in Europe 
 for the produce of India, there was no demand in In- 
 dia for the produce of Europe ; and bullion was the 
 only article that could be sent out in exchange. The 
 annual drain of gold from Rome and its provinces for 
 Indian goods was estimated by Pliny at 500 sestertia, 
 equal to about i:400,000. In the convulsions which 
 followed the decline of the Roman empire, the trade of 
 the East was successively engrossed by the Persians 
 and Arabians. The latter, in the year 636, built the 
 cit}^ of Bassora, which soon grew into a great com- 
 mercial mart ; and to this place, and to Ormus, long 
 celebrated for its vast riches and its trade, the spiceries 
 and merchandise of India were brought, and distrib- 
 uted through the various ports of the Mediterranean. 
 After the expulsion of the crusaders from Syria and 
 Egypt, Alexandria again became the chief entrepot of 
 eastern produce, whence it was carried to Italy by the 
 Venetians and others, and distributed throughout Eu- 
 rope. But the discovery of a passage to India in 1495 
 by the Cape of Good Hope changed the course of this 
 trade, which now entirel}' left the Italians, and was 
 engrossed by the Portuguese for nearlj' a century 
 without any molestation from European rivals. At 
 length the Dutch and the English became their com- 
 petitors, and established joint-stock companies, with 
 the exclusive privilege of the eastern trade. But their 
 anticipations of profit were not realized. The great 
 distance of Europe from India, and the want of an 
 equivalent for its produce, precluded any extensive 
 intercourse ; the trade accordingly bore a very small 
 proportion to the trade of the country ; and being be- 
 sides cramped by monopolies, it never attained its 
 natural growth. In 1773 the average exports of Brit- 
 ain to India amounted to about £489,000 a year ; in 
 1793, on a like average, to about a million a year ; and 
 it does not appear that a greater trade was carried on 
 with India from any other part of Europe, The com- 
 merce of nations is limited to the surplus produce 
 which they can mutually exchange; and, from the 
 great distance between India and Europe, this surplus 
 produce was long confined to those few articles which, 
 containing a great value in small bulk, could bear the 
 expense of a long voyage. The demand was also alto- 
 gether on the side of Europe, and its trade with India 
 consisted merely in the purchase, with bullion, of « 
 small quantity of precious articles for the consumption 
 of the rich. The progressive improvraent of industry 
 in Europe, together with the entire opening of tiie 
 trade to India and China since the year 1834, has oc- 
 casioned not only a greater exportation of British 
 goods, but a change also in the nature of the trade. It 
 is not so much the produce of the labor as of the cli- 
 mate and soil of India, which no ingenuit)'' can supply, 
 that is in demand in Britain ; and, accordingly, while 
 the import of Indian manufactures has fallen off, that 
 of the raw material, and many varieties of vegetable 
 produce, has increased. Thus the importation of cot- 
 ton piece-goods — ^namely, white calicoes and muslins — 
 which amounted in 1814 to 1,266,608 pieces had de- 
 
IND 
 
 1019 
 
 IND 
 
 creased in 18S3 to 428,294 pieces; while within the 
 same period the importation of cotton wool had in- 
 creased from 2,^0,318 lbs. to 181,369,994 lbs., and the 
 exportation of cotton manufactures in a similar ratio. 
 Even the incomparable muslins of Dacca are in less 
 demand since the introduction of British goods. Thus, 
 in the progress of the trade between India and Eu- 
 rope, the former country, notwithstanding its boasted 
 wealth and superior industry, has taken the lowest 
 place, exporting her rude produce for the manufactures 
 of the richer country. This is the nature of the trade 
 carried on between Britain and America and the coun- 
 tries in the north of Europe, and is a sure index to the 
 respective progress of the two countries in wealth 
 ajad improvement. Those countries which can not 
 manufacture their own rude produce send it to Britain, 
 which abounds in capital, and still more in art and in- 
 dustry ; and both countries are benefited, the poorer 
 country exchanging its surplus produce for a supply 
 of manufactures of which it is in want, and the richer 
 country the produce of its overflowing capital for a 
 supply of the raw material which its own soil does not 
 afford. This is now the relative condition of Great 
 Britain and India. The former having outstripped the 
 latter country in industry and wealth, sends out a sup- 
 ply of cheaper goods than the native workman can 
 furnish ; and so prodigious have been the improve- 
 i^nts in machinerj', that the raw material of cotton 
 is imported from India, and being manufactured in 
 
 Britain, is re-exported and sold at a cheaper rate than 
 it can be made at home, though loaded with the ex- 
 pense of a double voyage across half the globe ; and 
 thus it has become an important staple in the trade of 
 Great Britain with the East. ,A notion was long and 
 successfully propagated by the. advocates of the mo- 
 nopoly, that the Hindoos, from their poverty and their 
 simple habits, would never become extensive con- 
 sumers of European goods, and that the demand was 
 amply supplied by the exports of the East India 
 Company. Evidence to this effect was given before 
 the committee of the House of Commons in 1810 
 by Sir Thomas Munro and other eminent servants of 
 the Company. But such statements have been com- 
 pletelj' refuted by the rapidly increasing exportation 
 of British goods to India since the complete opening 
 of the trade in 1834. This wiU appear from the fol- 
 lowing table, showing the exports from Ilindoostan 
 for a period of 18 years : 
 
 Value or Expokts from Great Britain to Hindoostan, 
 
 EXCLUSIVE OF BULLION. 
 
 Yearn. Exports. 
 
 1885 £8,186,410 
 
 1886 8,830,604 
 
 188T. 8,210,668 
 
 1888 8,506,980 
 
 1889 4,289,489 
 
 1840 6,014,839 
 
 1841 6,489,564 
 
 1843 5,354,901 
 
 1843 6,847,349 
 
 Yenra. Exports. 
 
 1844 £7,962,179 
 
 1845 6,477,143 
 
 1846 6,420,404 
 
 1847 5,790,223 
 
 1848 6,612,110 
 
 1849 7,578,930 
 
 1850 8,327,992 
 
 1861 9,226,729 
 
 1853 7,285,078 
 
 
 
 
 
 Imports 
 
 of Hindoostan. 
 
 
 
 
 
 YEARS. 
 
 MEECHANDISE. 
 
 Bengal. 
 
 TREASURE, 
 Madras, Bombay, Total, 
 
 BengRl. 
 
 Madfm. 
 
 Bombay, 
 
 TOTAL. 
 
 Total mer- 
 chandise, 
 
 United 
 Kingdom. 
 
 other 
 countries. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 1 £ 
 
 18.34—35 
 
 1,999,130 
 
 508,290 
 
 1,T68,CS6 
 
 2,682,221 
 
 1,578,884 
 
 4,261,106 
 
 646,2-24 
 
 158,116 
 
 1,098,688 1,893,023 
 
 1889^(0 
 
 3,841,591 
 8,933,990 
 
 683,307 
 
 1,806,887 
 
 4,289,489 
 
 1,541,747 
 
 5,831,286 
 
 1,236,756 
 
 113,406 
 
 606,071 
 
 1,946,264 
 
 1844—45 
 
 1,046,894 
 
 8,773,181 
 
 7,952,179 
 
 2,801,886 
 
 10,7.54,065 
 
 1,531,865 
 
 188,561 
 
 1,983,545 
 
 8,752,471 
 
 1849—50 
 
 6,883,170 
 
 906,004 
 
 4,110,718 
 
 7,578,980 
 
 2,720,907 
 
 10,299,888 
 
 1,214,865 
 
 121,437 
 
 2,060,506 
 
 8,396,8117 
 
 1860—61 
 
 6,115,201 
 
 897,823 
 
 4,646,764 
 
 8,827,992 
 
 8,280,795 
 
 11,658,788 
 
 1,189,484 
 
 260,110 
 
 2,862,214 
 
 8,811,,S08 
 
 1851—52 
 
 7,087,406 
 
 906,435 
 
 4,246,647 
 
 9,226,729 
 
 8,018,760 
 
 12,240,490 
 
 2,306,470 
 
 297,898 
 
 2,448,190 
 
 5,052,0.59 
 
 1852—53 
 
 4(998,674 
 
 840,531 
 
 4,236,655 
 
 7,235,078 
 
 2,835,783 10,070,861 
 
 3,893,987 
 
 576,854 
 
 2,860,586 
 
 6,831,677 
 
 
 
 
 
 Exports 
 
 of Hindoostan. 
 
 
 
 
 
 VEAB9, 
 
 MERCHANDISE, 
 
 
 trea 
 
 Madras. 
 
 SURE, 
 
 
 Bengal, 
 
 Madras, 
 
 Bombay, 
 
 TOTAI.. 
 
 Total mer- 
 
 Bengal. 
 
 Bombay, 
 
 Total, 
 
 United 
 
 other 
 
 
 
 
 
 Kingdom. 
 
 conntrlea, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 1884—85 
 
 4,092,048 
 
 886,107 
 
 8,016,368 
 
 8,056,978 
 
 4,986,447 
 
 7,993.420 
 
 66,654 
 
 106,877 
 
 21,803 
 
 194,740 
 
 1889^ 
 
 6,800,925 
 
 1,228,467 
 
 2,838,852 
 
 6,969,961 
 
 4,892,793 
 
 10,362,746 
 
 200,017 
 
 127,446 
 
 148,059 
 
 470,,638 
 
 1844—15 
 
 9,822,197 
 
 1,641,462 
 
 6,126,6.52 
 
 7,240,619 
 
 9,849,.592 
 
 16,590,212 
 
 896,548 
 
 65,053 
 
 646,248 
 
 1,106,340 ■ 
 
 1349—60 
 
 10,148,088 
 
 1,272,384 
 
 5,891,876 
 
 7,036,470 
 
 10,286,838 
 
 17,812,299 
 
 854,205 
 
 72,637 
 
 644,400 
 
 971,344 1 
 
 1850—61 
 
 9,997,627 
 
 1,566,976 
 
 6,599,645 
 
 8,104,016 
 
 10,060,188 
 
 18,164,149 
 
 376,.339 
 
 104,140 
 
 160,818 
 
 541,289 , 
 
 1851—52 
 
 10,428,970 1,658,308 
 
 7,796,474 
 
 7,188,338 
 
 12,740,517 
 
 19,379,258 
 
 250,588 
 
 216,768 
 
 462,733 
 
 919,083 1 
 
 1852—68 
 
 10,788,654' 2,121,618 
 
 7,804,464 
 
 8,428,295 
 
 12,086,888 
 
 20,464,688 476,875 
 
 86,882 
 
 642,472 
 
 1,055,239 1 
 
 The goods exported, as they are enumerated by Mr. 
 Eickards in his valuable work on India, consist of all 
 the staple manufactures of Britain. " "Woolens and 
 cottons," he mentions, " of every variety and value ; 
 manufactured silks ; hardware of all descriptions; 
 iron, copper, lead, tin, and spelta, in large quantities ; 
 marine and military stores ; machinery for various 
 uses ; glass-ware of the metal specimens, down to 
 articles of the commonest use ; china-ware or porce- 
 lain, the same ; jewelry of all sorts ; gold and silver 
 plate and ornaments ; clocks, watches, furniture, car- 
 riages, harness, haberdashery, hosiery, stationery, 
 books ; in short, every article of luxury, comfort, or 
 convenience, which British industry can produce." 
 According also to all the most correct observers of In- 
 dian manners, the taste for European fashions, luxu- 
 ries, and comforts, is rapidlj' extending among the 
 Hindoos. Bishop Heber, in his interesting journal of 
 a tour through India, strongly confirms this fact. 
 " The wealthy natives," he observes, " now all affect 
 to have their houses decorated with Corinthian pU- 
 lars, and filled with English furniture ; they drive the 
 best horses and the most dashing carriages in Calcutta. 
 Many of them spea^ English fluently, and. are toler- 
 
 ably read in English literature ; and the children of 
 one of our friends I saw one day dressed in jackets and 
 trowsers, with round hats, shoes, and stockings." At 
 Benares he found " English hardware, swords, shields, 
 and spears, from Lucknow and Monghyr ; and those 
 European luxuries and elegancies, which are daily 
 becoming more popular in India, circulate from lience 
 through Bundelcund, Gorruckpoor, Nepaul, and other 
 tracts which are removed from the main artery of the 
 Ganges." At Nusseerabad, in the provincp of Berar, 
 the same traveler mentions that " English cotton 
 cloths, both white and printed, are to be met with 
 commonly in wear among the people of the countrj-, 
 and may, I learn to my surprise, be bought best and 
 cheapest, as well as all kinds of hardware, crockery, 
 writing desks, etc., at Pallee, a large town and cele- 
 brated mart in Marwar, on the edge of the desert, 
 several days' journey west of Joudpoor, where, till 
 very latel}', no European was ever known to have 
 penetrated." In short, it appears that British and 
 other European manufactures, from their quality and 
 cheapness, are everywhere in demand. They pene- 
 trate into the remotest districts of Asia ; and now 
 that the termination of the East India Company's 
 
IND 
 
 1020 
 
 IND 
 
 monopoly, -which took place in 1834, has laid open 
 I-Kndoostan to the capital and enterprise of Britain, 
 experience proves that an equal demand for them 
 may be anticipated in that country. The preced- 
 ing tables contain a view of the extent and value of 
 the trade of India to all parts of the world. The ex- 
 cess of exports over imports arises from the necessitj' 
 of making annual remittances to Great Britain to de- 
 fray the interest of debt, and to meet the expenditure 
 of the home government. 
 
 AcCOUNi OF THE PEINCIPAL IMPORTS INTO GeEAT BbITAIN 
 
 FROM India in Turf,e Tears, from 1851-52 to 1852-63. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 Quantities, 
 
 Value in sterling. 
 
 1851—2. 
 
 1862—3. 
 
 1851—2. 1862—3. 
 
 Coffee lbs, 
 
 iCotton, I'aw " 
 
 Grain cwt. 
 
 Indigo lbs 
 
 Ivory cwt 
 
 Lac " 
 
 Pepper lbs. 
 
 Piece-goods 
 
 Cotton pieces 
 
 Silli " 
 
 Shawls " 
 
 Eum gallons 
 
 Silk, raw lbs 
 
 Saltpetre cwt. 
 
 Sugai- " 
 
 Wool lbs. 
 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 Total mercbandisc. 
 
 " treasure 
 
 Grand total 
 
 6,824,485 
 
 81,104,228 
 
 624,167 
 
 8,198,236 
 
 5,149 
 
 30,448 
 
 1,918,978 
 
 208,723 
 
 40S,.304 
 7,496 
 
 224,463 
 1,437,668 
 
 254,670 
 1.506,051 
 7,056,718 
 
 4,244,846 
 
 181,860,994 
 
 1,167,985 
 
 6,778,160 
 
 8,376 
 
 52,548 
 
 1,208,946 
 
 428,.550 
 
 502,947 
 
 11,211 
 
 171,984 
 
 1,881,203 
 
 839.444 
 
 1,856,680 
 
 12,000,999 
 
 £ 
 
 58,429 
 
 1,171,280 
 
 106,838 
 
 1,444,705 
 
 85,949 
 
 58,041 
 
 ^ 16,835 
 
 71,071 
 
 224,880 
 
 118,848 
 
 10,814 
 
 68ll,.587 
 
 196,848 
 
 1,689,158 
 
 100,606 
 
 1,111,108 
 
 61,029 
 
 2,525,186 
 
 177,459 
 
 1,186,887, 
 
 51,078 
 
 104,043 
 
 10,479 
 
 186,622! 
 267,855 
 179,410 
 8,447 
 664,454 
 268,787 
 
 1,606,821 
 171,169 
 
 1,070,069 
 
 ::::! ;::; 
 
 7,138,839 
 7,051 
 
 8,428,295 
 128,919 
 
 .... 1 
 
 7,145,940 
 
 8,557,214 
 
 Account of the Quantities and declared Value of 
 TUB principal Articles exported from Great Brit- 
 ain TO India in Three Tears, fro.m 1851-52 to 
 1852—63. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 Quantities, 
 
 1851—62, 186: 
 
 Apparel 
 
 Books, stationery, etc. , 
 Cotton, twist and yarn, 
 
 " piece-goods — 
 
 Fruits 
 
 Jewelry 
 
 Malt liquor 
 
 Macbiuery 
 
 Metals, manufactured., 
 
 " Copper cwt. 
 
 " Iron 
 
 " Lead 
 
 ^' Spelter 
 
 " Tin 
 
 Salt 
 
 Silken goods 
 
 Spices 
 
 Spirits gallons 
 
 Tea 
 
 Tobacco, segars 
 
 Timber 
 
 Woolen goods 
 
 Wines gallons 
 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 Total merchandise. . 
 
 " treasure 
 
 Grand total 
 
 58, 
 1,168, 
 
 24, 
 
 Value in sterling. 
 
 1851—52. 1862- 
 
 250,981 
 
 118,712 
 
 1,878,949 
 
 4,662,086 
 
 948 
 
 56,984 
 
 146,947 
 
 11,541 
 
 280,105 
 
 216,842 
 
 267,462 
 
 27,829 
 
 65,738 
 
 6,955 
 
 652,366 
 
 81,495 
 
 49,648 
 
 "gis 
 
 1,086 
 200,485 
 200,668 
 764,204 
 
 9,226,729 
 1,041,015 
 
 10,267,744 
 
 266,218 
 
 118,601 
 
 1,102,500 
 
 8,878,349 
 
 121 
 
 28,564 
 
 161,870 
 
 23,126 
 
 182,944 
 
 114,681 
 
 140,005 
 
 17,992 
 
 8,748 
 
 1,608 
 
 399,862 
 
 88,804 
 
 584 
 
 1,252 
 
 114,794 
 
 144,761 
 
 781,817 
 
 7,286,078 
 2,840,947 
 
 9,576,025 
 
 The following table shows the several territories 
 which have been annexed, or have been proposed to be 
 annexed, to the Indian possessions of Great Britain 
 since the year 1848 : 
 
 Territories annexed. 
 
 Population. Gross Revenue 
 
 Nett Revenue. 
 
 Jeltpore (Bundelcuud) .... 
 Sumbulpore (south-westfront- 
 
 ier Bengal) 
 
 Bugbat (Cis-Sutlej Hill States) 
 
 Part of Sikkim (nortb-eastern 
 Indi.a) 
 
 Oodevpore (south-west frontier 
 of iJengal) 
 
 Pegu. 
 
 1849 
 1849 
 1860 
 
 1850 
 
 1852 
 1862 
 
 Failure of licii-s 
 
 Failure of heirs 
 
 Failure of beirs 
 
 Insult to the British GoV' 
 ernment in seizing the 
 person of its represent- 
 ative 
 
 Territory resumed from Mcer 
 All Morad, one of the Ameers 
 of Scinde 
 
 County of Tularam Sonaputter 
 in northern Cachar 
 
 Nagpore Territory (Ihansi) . 
 
 Bundclcund 
 
 Boodawal (Candeish) 
 
 1S64 
 1854 
 1856 
 
 Square mil, 
 
 165 
 
 T 
 
 Failure of heirs 
 
 Conquered from the Bur- 
 mese during the last 
 war 
 
 Forgery of a treaty, 
 whereby he acquired 
 certain districts which 
 belonged to the British 
 Government 
 
 Misconduct and breach of 
 engagement with the 
 British Government 
 
 Failure of heirs 
 
 Failure of heirs 
 
 Failure of beirs 
 
 4,693 
 30 
 
 1,670 
 
 2,306 
 - 20,000 
 
 2,160 
 
 80,000 
 2,632 
 
 16,000 
 
 274,000 
 
 8,420 
 
 61,766 
 
 133,000 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 Not known. 
 
 6,015 
 
 4,000,000 
 
 200,000 
 
 910 
 
 Rupees, 
 64,180 
 
 98,000 
 
 7,000 
 
 32,037 
 
 16,480 
 Not known, 
 
 488,668 
 
 4,000,000 
 618,889 
 
 2,T27 
 
 Rupees. 
 
 Not known. 
 
 Not known, 
 Not known, 
 
 Not known 
 Not known 
 
 2GLC 
 
 Not known. 
 Not known. 
 Not known 
 
 The cases in whicli annexation has been proposed 
 by the government in India, are — Kerowlee (Eaj- 
 pootana), in 1852, 1800 square miles, having a revenue 
 of 511,402 rupees ; Adj}-- ghur (Bundelcund), in 1855, 
 340 square miles, 45,000 inhabitants, and a revenue 
 of 175,000 rupees ; Incbullairunjie (Colapore), in 1856, 
 800 square miles, 43,547 inhabitants, with a revenue 
 of 15,000 rupees ; Tanjore Fort and ground adjacent in 
 1856. See Annals of British Legislation, by Leone 
 
 Levi, July, 1856; Ency. Brit., eighth edition; Com. 
 Ret. U. S., 1856-7. 
 
 Revenues of British India 1849-1855. — An abstract 
 statement of the revenues and charges of India, in- 
 cluding the charges disbursed in England, for the 
 years 1849-50 to ] 854-55 (the last year partly esti- 
 mated), showing the surplus or deficit in each year 
 converted into sterling money, at the established rate 
 of two shillings the sicca rupee : 
 
 Years. 
 
 Gross 
 Revenue. 
 
 Allowances 
 in aecordivnc,- 
 
 wlth treaties. 
 
 Net 
 RevBimes. 
 
 Cliftrees of 
 
 culluL-Lion. 
 
 Civil, judi- 
 
 .'iftl, military, 
 
 and infirine 
 
 charges. 
 
 Total 
 Infl'o'.'" 
 
 Charges dis- 
 bursed in 
 England. 
 
 Total 
 charges. 
 
 Surplus. 
 
 DeBeit. 
 
 1849—50 
 
 1850—51 
 1851—62 
 1862-63 
 186.3—54 
 1864—65 
 
 £ 
 
 25,698,016 
 25,838,160 
 26,092,718 
 26,821,038 
 26,875,197 
 26,654,071 
 
 £ 
 2,809,207 
 2,682,088 
 2,447,565 
 2,866,603 
 2.426,131 
 2;412,693 
 
 £ 
 2-3,388,889 
 23,801,067 
 28,646,163 
 24,456,435 
 23,949,066 
 24,241,478 
 
 £ 
 
 8,242,236 
 8,860,015 
 3,817,657 
 4,104,166 
 4,24.3,986 
 4,607,466 
 
 £ 
 17,041,329 
 16,808,000 
 16,789,854 
 17,229,684 
 18,486,908 
 19,268,875 
 
 £ 
 20,288,665 
 20,168,016 
 20,607,511 
 21,83.3,690 
 22,780,894 
 23,766,341 
 
 £ 
 2,750,937 
 2,717,186 
 2,606,877 
 2,697,488 
 8,262,289 
 3,018,847 
 
 £ 
 2.3,084,602 
 22,885,201 
 23,118,888 
 24,031,178 
 25,993,188 
 26,736,188 
 
 £ 
 854,.337 
 416,866 
 581,265 
 424,257 
 
 £ 
 
 2,o&,iiT 
 
 2,648,710 
 
 The British possessions in India are intermixed with 
 the dominions of various nativ« governments, with 
 which political relations, varying in nature and degree, 
 are maintained. The following table exhibits the rel- 
 
 ative area and population of the presidencies of Ben- 
 gal, Madras, and IJombay, and those also of the native 
 States of Hindoostan, and also giving the area and 
 population of the separate provinces of the presidencies. 
 
IND 
 
 1021 
 
 IND 
 
 Area, and Population of thb Beitish Peesidenoies and 
 THE Native States op India. 
 
 Brltlth FrsflideDciee, 
 
 Madras. 
 
 Bombay . 
 
 The eastern"^ 
 settlements ] 
 of Singapore, 1 
 Prince ot [ 
 Wales' IslM. 
 and Malacca J 
 
 Native States"! 
 within the 1 
 Presidency [ 
 of Bengal. .. J 
 
 Do. Presidcn- ) 
 cy of Madras J 
 
 Do. Presidcn- ( 
 cy of Bombay f 
 
 Foreign EurO' 
 pean posseS' 
 fiions 
 
 '} 
 
 Dlvielons. 
 
 Lower Provinces.. . 
 
 Saugur and Nerbudda 
 TeiTitorles 
 
 Jaloun 
 
 British Mhairwarrah . . 
 
 Umballah, Loodianah, 
 and Territory lately 
 belonging to Seikh 
 chiefs 
 
 North-eastern frontier, 
 including Assam, etc. 
 
 Arracan 
 
 South-west frontier, iii' 
 eluding Sumbulpore, 
 Chota Nagpore, etc.. 
 
 Nagpore or Berar 
 
 The Punjaub and Koo 
 loo Territory 
 
 Tenasserim Provinces. 
 
 ■Jhanai 
 
 The Sutiderbunda, etc. 
 
 tSTorth-wostern Prov- 
 inces, including Del- 
 hi, Agra, Benares,etc. 
 
 Butty Territoij, Dey- 
 rah Dhoon, Kumaon, 
 G-urhwal, etc 
 
 Total 
 
 Regulation Provinces.. 
 Non-Eegulation Dis- 
 tricts 
 
 Total 
 
 Regulation Provinces.. 
 No n- Regulation Dis- 
 tricts 
 
 Total. 
 
 Oude, Hyderabad, Bho- 
 
 Sal, Bhurtpore, Scin- 
 las, and Holkar's 
 Dominions, etc.. . 
 
 Cochin, Mysore, Tra- 
 vancore, etc 
 
 Gruzerat, Cutch, Cola- 
 pore, etc. 
 
 French (Pondicherry, 
 etc.) 
 
 Portuguese (Goa) 
 
 Area In 
 eqnnro 
 miles. 
 
 119,688 
 
 [ 15,388 
 
 1,8T8 
 282 
 
 4,559 
 
 i 29,900 
 15,164 
 
 80,589 
 
 76,402 
 
 ■ 78,447 
 
 29,16S 
 2,58'^ 
 6,50H 
 
 ■ 72,052 
 - 18,599 
 
 496,118 
 
 116,245 
 j- 19,444 
 "1357692 
 
 57,728 
 62,842 
 
 120,065 
 
 1,575 
 
 508,554 
 
 ^ 51,802 
 
 [ 60,575 
 
 j- 188 
 1,' 
 
 Populalion, 
 
 87,262,168 
 
 1,929,587 
 
 176,297 
 87,715 
 
 2,811,969 
 
 1,180,986 
 821,522 
 
 2,627,466 
 
 4,650,000 
 
 9,158,209 
 
 115,431 
 
 200,000 
 
 [Jukuown, 
 
 80,271,886 
 600,881 
 
 90,889,050 
 
 19,847,305 
 2,454,398 
 
 22,801,697 
 
 9,015,684 
 2,093,588 
 
 202,540 
 
 88,269,862 
 
 4,752,975 
 
 4,460,870 
 
 171,217 
 818,262' 
 
 Abstract of the Foregoing. 
 
 
 
 Area in 
 Bqaaro milea. 
 
 FopnIatioD. 
 
 British Pos-, 
 sessions. . . . 
 
 Native States- 
 Foreign Eu- 
 ropean States' 
 Total of 
 
 
 496,118 
 
 185,692 
 
 120,065 
 
 1,576 
 
 503,554 
 
 51,802 
 
 60,675 
 
 183 
 
 1,066 
 
 90,839,050 
 
 22,801,697 
 
 11,109,067 
 
 202,540 
 
 33,259,862 
 
 4,762,975 
 
 4,460,870 
 
 171,217 
 
 813,262 
 
 Madras 
 
 
 Eastn. Settlements 
 
 Madras , 
 
 
 
 Portuguese 
 
 India 
 
 1,870,635 1 172,410,040 1 
 
 Notwithstanding the ravages committed b/ inces- 
 sant wars and revolutions, as well as by famine and 
 pestilence, their usual concomitants, India has from 
 the earliest times been a densely-peopled country'. In 
 different states of society, the law of the increase of 
 mankind will varj' according to their relative circum- 
 stances and position ; and the same, or nearly the same, 
 principle will be found to apply to those classes who 
 are placed in the opposite extremities of the scale. 
 Amorfg the people who are possessed of affluence, 
 or the means of commanding the necessaries and 
 comforts of life, the exercise of moral restraint is un- 
 necessary ; among those who are reduced to a mere 
 physical subsistence, without the possibility, and 
 consequently without the desire, of improving their 
 condition, it will be disregarded ; and hence the same 
 
 results will follow from causes in their own nature dia- 
 metrically opposite. But in India the great mass of 
 the population have -for ages been placed in a situation 
 which excludes all idea of improvement ; and religion 
 has lent its powerful aid to obstruct the operation of 
 those natural causes which, in other countries, have 
 served to ameliorate the condition of the people. It 
 may, however, be permitted to hope, that though In- 
 dia always has been, it will not always be, what it 
 now is ; that the extension of commerce, under the 
 protection of a vigorous and impartial government, 
 will awaken new ideas in the minds of the people ; that 
 security to person and property will give a strong stim- 
 ulus to industry ; that the habitaal contact with a 
 higher and more rational form of civilizatioh will 
 serve to mitigate their prejudices, and, in time, to 
 destroy the influence of a debasing superstition ; and 
 that, in proportion as their wants are multiplied, their 
 efforts to ameliorate their condition will be increased. 
 
 Calcutta is the principal city of the province of Ben- 
 gal, the capital of the British dominions in India, and, 
 with the exception, perhaps, of Canton, the greatest 
 emporium to the eastward of the Cape of Good Hope. 
 Its citadel is in latitude 22° 34' 49" N., longitude 88° 
 27' 16" E. It is about 100 miles from the sea, being 
 situated on the eastern bank of the western branch of 
 the Ganges, denominated by Europeans the Hooghly 
 River, which is the only arm of the Ganges navigable 
 to any considerable distance by large ships. At high 
 water, the river opposite to the town is about a mile 
 in breadth ; but, during the ebb, the side opposite to 
 Calcutta, exposes a long range of drj' sand-banks. 
 Owing to the length and intricacy of the navigation 
 from the sea, it can not be undertaken without a pilot ; 
 so that, even if it did not exceed our limits, it would 
 be useless to attempt anj' description of it in this place. 
 The principal merchants and traders consist of British 
 and other Europeans, Portuguese, bom in India, Ar- 
 menians, Jews, Persians, from the coast of the Persian 
 Gulf, commonly called Parsees, Moguls, Mohammed- 
 ans of Hindoostan, and Hindoos ; the latter usually 
 either of the Brahminical or mercantile castes, and na- 
 tives of Bengal. The native Portuguese and Arme- 
 nian merchants have of late greatly declined in wealth 
 and importance. On the other hand, the Persian 
 merchants have increased in numbers and wealth, sev- 
 eral of them being worth ^£250, 000 sterling. The large 
 fortunes of the Hindoo merchants have been much 
 broken down of late years by litigation in the courts, 
 and naturally through the law of equal coparcenary 
 among brothers. To counterbalance this, there has 
 been, since the opening of the free trade in 1814, a vast 
 augmentation of the number of inferior merchants, 
 worth from £20,000 to £50,000 sterling. There are 
 but few Hindoo merchants at present whose wealth 
 exceeds £200,000 sterling. See Calcotta. 
 
 The sales of opium the last five years at Calcutta 
 alone stand thus : 
 
 Chests sold. 
 
 1849—50. 35,888 
 
 18 0—61 84,409 
 
 1862 88,561 
 
 1853 89,468 
 
 1854 43,819 
 
 Proceeds realized 
 
 by Bale. 
 
 Rupees. 
 36,432,079 
 82,260,889 
 87,245,185 
 88,348,088 
 86,727,534 
 
 The price paid to the cultivator is about 240 ru- 
 pees a chest, the rupee being worth 46 to 50 cents. 
 
 This revenue from opium amounts to one seventh of 
 the total income of the empire. Of the £4,000,000 
 which it represents, £1,000,000 in round numbers is 
 produced by a duty levied in Bombay, and £3,000,000 
 by the monthly sale of opium in Calcutta. For some 
 years past the average production in Bengal has been 
 36,000 chests, and the average price of each chest 1050 
 rupees, or 300 per cent, advance. Two or three years 
 ago, however, the government removed certain re- 
 strictions on cultivation. Any body might grow it, to 
 any extent he pleased, though he must still sell it at a 
 
IND 
 
 1022 
 
 IND 
 
 fixed price, settled beforehand, and never altered to 
 the opium agent. The profit on this price is so great 
 that the peasants will cultivate it wherever it will 
 grow. The result was an increase of production, 
 which increased the sales to about 56,000 chests. 
 
 Opium fell : the chests which had brought 1050 ru- 
 pees sold for 630 rupees, and the difference in quantity 
 no longer compensates for the difference in price. The 
 taste of opium, like the taste of tobacco, never leaves 
 its votaries. 
 
 Abstract View op the external Commerce of Bengal. 
 
 IMPORTS, 1861 — 63, 
 
 J_ 
 
 Merchandise. 
 
 Treasure 
 
 Total. 
 
 Merchandiee. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 France 
 
 North America 
 
 Madras Coast 
 
 Ceylon 
 
 Maldives and Laccadives.. 
 
 Malabar Coast 
 
 Arabian and Persian Gulfs. 
 
 Singapore 
 
 Penang and Malacca 
 
 China 
 
 New Holland 
 
 Java and Sumatra 
 
 Pegu 
 
 Mauritius 
 
 Bourbon 
 
 Cape and tit Helena 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Cadiz 
 
 Amsterdam 
 
 Trieste 
 
 Genoa 
 
 Other places 
 
 Total, Company's rupees 
 
 K.inee.. 
 
 5,69,79,382 
 
 9,88,031 
 
 9,99,668 
 
 9,24,888 
 
 80,681 
 
 1,86,292 
 
 1T,T5,800 
 
 7,29,205 
 
 14,69,481 
 
 6,12,629 
 
 16,00,846 
 
 12,66,265 
 
 37,162 
 
 5,84,968 
 
 22,823 
 
 20,058 
 
 85,675 
 
 1,49,014 
 
 1,18,996 
 
 1,568 
 
 35,966 
 96,602 
 
 Rupees. 
 
 91,74,544 
 4,25,850 
 2,22,090 
 
 18.08,653 
 i;80,225 
 
 3,47,880 
 
 1,80,722 
 
 16,25,081 
 
 1,34,631 
 
 89,12,398 
 
 16,452 
 
 2,497 
 
 8,61,068 
 
 8,61,993 
 
 7,38,905 
 
 85,850 
 
 6,51,63,826 
 
 13,63,881 
 
 12,21,743 
 
 27,82,891 
 
 1,60,906 
 
 1,86,292 
 
 21,23,180 
 
 9,09,927 
 
 80,94,462 
 
 7,47,260 
 
 l',05,18,244 
 
 12,82,707 
 
 89,649 
 
 8,86,026 
 
 8,84,816 
 
 7,58,968 
 
 71,525 
 
 1,49,014 
 
 1,18,996 
 
 1,568 
 
 86,956 
 
 Rupees. 
 
 4,78,20,146 
 
 48,07,431 
 
 76,84,224 
 
 12,62,690 
 
 1,50,240 
 
 60,682 
 
 29,71,501 
 
 12,61,697 
 
 44,04,187 
 
 5,44,769 
 
 3,22,17,277 
 
 8,16,544 
 
 68,971 
 
 14,48,883 
 
 16,96,297 
 
 6,06,865 
 
 2,68,585 
 
 2,27,960 
 
 88,063 
 4,21,838 
 2,66,278 
 
 Rupees, 
 
 78,063 
 
 1,47,924 
 57,100 
 
 540 
 7,148 
 
 16,96,174 
 56,370 
 
 Rupees. 
 
 4,78,98,198 
 
 48,07,431 
 
 76,84,221 
 
 14,00,614 
 
 2,07,840 
 
 60,632 
 
 29,71,501 
 
 12,51,697 
 
 44,04,677 
 
 5,61,907 
 
 8,22,17,277 
 
 8,16,544 
 
 68,971 
 
 30,40,057 
 
 16,51,667 
 
 6,06,865 
 
 2,71,086 
 
 2,27,960 
 
 4,21,888 
 V 
 
 2,49,68,184 I 9,24,77,934 
 
 10,84,68,897 
 
 19,45,809 
 
 I j:,uu,i&fo 
 
 ~f 11,04,09,706 
 
 The other principal ports are — Bombay, a sea-port 
 on the western coast of British India, lat 18° 56' N,, 
 long. 72° 57' E. It is situated at the south-easterly 
 extremity of a small island of same name, separated 
 from the main land by an arm of the sea, fonning, 
 with the contiguous islands of Colabah, Salsette, 
 Butchers' and Curaigah, one of the best harbors in 
 India. The entrance is nearly three miles wide, and 
 has a depth of from 35 to 40 feet. 
 
 Madras is the second British Indian presidency, and 
 principal port on the western coast of the Bay of Bengal. 
 It is without port or harbor, Ij'ing close to an open road- 
 stead, and the shore having a constant surf. A rapid 
 current runs along the coast, and typhoons are com- 
 mon. Large ships anchor about two miles from 
 shore, in the roads, in from 40 to 60 feet of water, and 
 lighters are used to load and unload freight. 
 
 Singapore, a British settlement on an island of the 
 sam6 name, at the eastern extremity of Malacca, lat. 
 1° 17' 22" N., long. 103° 51' 45" E. 
 
 United States and the East Indies. — The commercial 
 intercourse of the United States with the territories of 
 the East India Company is regulated by the different 
 local governments thereof, under the supreme control 
 and approval of the Governor-General of India in coun- 
 cil. The regulations prescribed by these authorities 
 are not of a permanent character, being liable to modi- 
 fications and changes whenever, in their opinion, such 
 become necessarj'. To present, however, the true 
 basis upon which this intercourse rests, it will be neces- 
 sary to refer briefly to the treaty stipulations subsist- 
 ing between the governments of the United States and 
 Great Britain ; premising, that prior to the convention 
 of London, signed on the 3d of July, 1816, between the 
 United States and Great Britain, the commercial in- 
 tercourse of the former with the East India posses- 
 sions was regulated, as was that of other foreign na- 
 tions, by a general clause in the Company's charter, 
 providing that " vessels of countries in amity with 
 Great Britain may import into, and export from, the 
 British possessions in India, such goods and commodi- 
 ties as may be specified in rules to be prescribed by the 
 East India Company ; provided that such rules shall 
 not be inconsistent with any treaty now [then] made, 
 or which may be made between Great Britain and any 
 foreign State in amity with her, or with any act of 
 Parliament for regulating the affairs of India." By 
 the convention above referred to, and the subsequent 
 
 convention of October, 1818, continuing the former, it 
 was stipulated : 
 
 1st. That vessels of the United States shall be ad- 
 mitted and hospitably received at the principal settle- 
 ments of the British dominions in the East Indies, 
 viz. : Calcutta, Madras, Bombay, and Prince of Wales' 
 Island ; and the citizens of the United States may 
 freely trade between the said settlements and the 
 United States, in all articles of which the importation 
 and exportation, respectively, to and from the said 
 territories, shall not be entirely prohibited ; and, 2d, 
 it was provided, that the citizens of the United States 
 shall paj^ for their vessels, when admitted, no higher 
 or other duty or charges than shall be payable on the 
 vessels of the most favored European nation. And 
 they shall pay no higher or other duties or charges on 
 the importotion or exportation of the cargoes of said 
 vessels than shall be payable on the same article 
 when imported or exported in the vessels of the most 
 favored nation ; and, 3d, It was expressly agreed, that 
 the vessels of the United States shall not carrj' any 
 article from the said settlements to any port or place, 
 except to some port or place in the United States of 
 America, where the same shall be unladen. 
 
 This convention is still in force, and regulates the 
 commercial intercourse of the United States with the 
 East India possessions, except as to paragraph 3, 
 which has been susperseded hy the repeal of the British 
 navigation laws in 1849 ; the effect of which has been 
 to open the ports of Great Britain, and of all her colo- 
 nial possessions abroad, to " goods of any soii;, in a ship 
 of any country, from any part of the world." By an 
 act of the imperial Parliament, entitled IB Victoria, 
 chap, xxix., sees. 3, 4, 5, 6, the Governor-General of 
 the East India possessions was clothed with full powers 
 to admit, whenever he should deem it advisable so to 
 do, to the coasting trade in the East Indies, the ves- 
 sels of all foreign nations. This privilege is now en- 
 joyed by every flag. With these two exceptions, the 
 convention of 1818 is still in full force, and constitutes 
 the only guarantj' which the United States possesses 
 of equal privileges with the most favored natien in 
 its intercourse and commerce with the East India pos- 
 sessions. Notwithstanding the express stipulations 
 contained in the treaty above referred to, that the East 
 India Company should prescribe no regulations '* incon- 
 sistent with any treaty now made, or which may be 
 made, by Great Britain, with any nation in amity 
 
IND 
 
 1023 
 
 IND 
 
 with her," it has, on more than one occasion, been 
 represented to the Department of State that the offi- 
 cers of this Company do not consider themselves bound 
 by the commercial treaties which exist between the 
 United States and England." The dispatch from 
 wliich the foregoing extract is taken further says, that 
 '* the speedy settlement of this question is deemed of 
 paramount importance to the commercial interests of 
 the United States." No case, however, having been 
 presented to the Department, beyond the naked asser- 
 
 tion of the quad independent sovereignty by the offi- 
 cers of the East India Company, the necessity has not 
 yet arisen for an examination of the grounds upon 
 which this claim is based. As the question may, how- 
 ever, hereafter embarrass the commercial relations of 
 the United States with this portion of her Britannic 
 majesty's possessions, it has been deemed proper to 
 present the facts in relation to it, which have come to 
 the knowledge of the Department. See Commercial 
 Relations U. S. 
 
 COMMSEOE OF THE UNITED StATBS WITH THE BRITISH EAST INDIES 
 
 FKO-M OOTOBEB 1, 1820, 
 
 ro July 1 
 
 1866. 
 
 YearH endinB 
 
 Eiporte. 
 
 Impovta, 
 
 Whereof there woa in Bullion 
 and Specie. 
 
 Tonnage 
 
 Cleared. 
 
 Domestic. . ; 
 
 „F<>reigii. 
 
 . Toimi 
 
 Tolol. 
 
 Export. 
 
 ■Import. 
 
 Americau, 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Sept. 80, 1831 
 
 $82,089 
 
 $li984,190 
 
 $1,966,279 
 
 $1,680,799 
 
 $1,884,949 
 
 
 8,U27 
 
 
 1822 
 
 67,979 
 
 1,968,865 
 
 2,086,844 
 
 8,272,217 
 
 1,980,876 
 
 
 8,347 
 
 
 1823 
 
 10,642 
 
 807,738 
 
 818,880 
 
 8,265,961 
 
 283,053 
 
 
 895 
 
 
 1824 
 
 84,354 
 
 927,716 
 
 962,070 
 
 441,867 
 
 782,886 
 
 
 2,920 ■ 
 
 
 1825........ 
 
 206,450 
 
 784,629 
 
 991,079 
 
 1,756,484 
 
 665,528 
 
 
 4,124 
 
 
 1826 
 
 24,226 
 
 418,042 
 
 442,268 
 
 2,610,606 
 
 854,657 
 
 
 2,080 
 
 
 1827 
 
 82,T17 
 
 1,018,788 
 
 1,051,450 
 
 669,066 
 
 873,183 
 
 
 2,4.30 
 
 
 1928 
 
 54,199 
 
 795,682 
 
 849,881 
 
 1,542,786 
 
 650,080 
 
 
 8,441 
 
 
 1829 
 
 69,070 
 
 477,629 
 
 646,699 
 
 1,229,569 
 
 297,801 
 
 
 8,060 
 
 
 1880 
 
 Total.... 
 
 98,781 
 
 558,126 
 
 646,867 
 
 1,878,297 
 
 160,641 
 
 $600 
 
 4,029 
 
 
 $625,457 
 
 $9,186,850 
 
 $9,811,307 
 
 $17,492,692 
 
 $7,381,048 
 
 $600 
 
 29,298 
 
 
 Sept 80, 1881 
 
 $182,442 
 
 $675,890 
 
 $807,882 
 
 $1,544,278 
 
 $486,027 
 
 $82 
 
 6,481 
 
 
 
 18.32 
 
 189,218 
 
 889,235 
 
 628,458 
 
 2,588,938 
 
 212,886 
 
 11,000 
 
 6,916 
 
 
 1833 
 
 186,156 
 
 188,848 
 
 824,999 
 
 1,882,089 
 
 80,910 
 
 2,700 
 
 M?5 
 
 
 1834 
 
 199,602 
 
 206,941 
 
 406,548 
 
 2,298,012 
 
 147,826 
 
 872 
 
 6,655 
 
 
 1886 
 
 864,417 
 
 339,641 
 
 764,068 
 
 1,697,898 
 
 529,128 
 
 .... 
 
 10,889 
 
 
 1886 
 
 239,815 
 
 485,461 
 
 724,776 
 
 2,964,476 
 
 851,925 
 
 
 10,520 
 
 
 188T 
 
 120,591 
 
 82,967 
 
 203,668 
 
 8,041,842 
 
 18,850 
 
 1,290 
 
 8,487 
 
 
 18-38 
 
 820,605 
 
 . 268,402 
 
 678,907 
 
 675,681 
 
 279,921 
 
 .... 
 
 8,334 
 
 
 1889 
 
 246,845 
 
 887,597 
 
 584,442 
 
 2,186,152 
 
 391,726 
 
 
 10,557 
 
 
 1840 ,.. 
 
 Total.... 
 
 230,404 
 
 351,791 
 
 632,195 
 
 1,952,461 
 
 816,007 
 
 1,697 
 
 6,742 
 
 
 $2,279,495 
 
 $8,266,263 
 
 $5,545,768 
 
 $20,665,637 
 
 $2,768,699 
 
 $17,541 
 
 73,816 
 
 .... 
 
 Sept. 80. 1841 ;. 
 
 $532,884 
 
 $480,867 
 
 $968,201 
 
 $1,286,641 
 
 $378,660 
 
 $40 
 
 12,647 
 
 
 1842 
 
 899,979 
 
 288,825 
 
 683,804 
 
 1,630,864 
 
 202,560 
 
 2,951 
 
 9,079 
 
 1,129 
 
 9mo3. 1848 
 
 2.37,576 
 
 140,186 
 
 877,712 
 
 689,777 
 
 37,839 
 
 
 5,415 
 
 
 June 80, 1844 
 
 838,418 
 
 887,653 
 
 675,966 
 
 882,792 
 
 274,107 
 
 50 
 
 10,479 
 
 
 1845....:... 
 
 297,881 
 
 184,067 
 
 ' 431,898 
 
 1,276,584 
 
 76,168 
 
 
 10,814 
 
 
 1846 
 
 270,600 
 
 99,772 
 
 870,872 
 
 1,861,345 
 
 78,930 
 
 1,479 
 
 10,979 
 
 706 
 
 184T 
 
 237,788 
 
 185,454 
 
 878,237 
 
 1,646,457 
 
 100,132 
 
 2,300 
 
 1^'^E* 
 
 
 1843 
 
 510,284 
 
 166,715 
 
 666,999 
 
 2,069,632 
 
 66,298 
 
 
 15,854 
 
 612 
 
 1849 
 
 882,962 
 
 76,562 
 
 409,524 
 
 2,086,264 
 
 249 
 
 
 21,020 
 
 327 
 
 1850 
 
 Total.... 
 
 502,618 
 
 166,846 
 
 659,459 
 
 2,685,016 
 
 86,400 
 
 
 29,839 
 
 2,188 
 
 $8,659,875 
 
 $1,951,797 
 
 $■^611,672 
 
 $16,414,812 
 
 $1,286,828 
 
 $6,820 
 
 186,970 
 
 4,942 
 
 Juno 80, 1851 
 
 $512,906 
 
 $175,484 
 
 ■ $683,390 
 
 $8,336,336 
 
 $80,571 
 
 
 49,216 
 
 ?'S^ 
 
 1852 
 
 565,188 
 
 89,860 
 
 604,498 
 
 4,225,041 
 
 650 
 
 
 52,768 
 
 7,780 
 
 1858 
 
 503,856 
 
 68,642 
 
 567,398 
 
 8,581,726 
 
 45,727 
 
 .... 
 
 50,461 
 
 6,809 
 
 1854 
 
 567,198 
 
 69,219 
 
 686,412 
 
 6,378,821 
 
 29,721 
 
 
 45,812 
 
 585 
 
 1855 
 
 714,119 
 
 198,144 
 
 912,268 
 
 5,457,378 
 
 65,424 
 
 
 80,729 
 
 4,742 
 
 1856 
 
 691,998 
 
 75,681 
 
 767.639 
 
 7,005,911 
 
 80,700 
 
 
 63.265 
 
 9,483 
 
 The whole number of arrivals in the United States 
 from the East Indies during the year 1856 were 226. 
 In 1855, 168. At Boston, 133 ; New York, 82 ; Salem, 
 7 ; Philadelphia, 2 ; Providence, 1 ; Savannah, 1. 
 
 At Boston, in 1856, 133. In 1855, 100. From Cal- 
 cutta, 77 ; Manilla, 22 ; Cape Town, 9 ; Singapore, 4 ; 
 Padang, 4 ; Penang, 2 ; Batavia, 2 ; Mauritius via 
 London, 1 ; Foo Chow Fow, 2 ; Whampoa, 1 ; Hong 
 Kong viS, New York, 1 ; Padang via New York, 1 ; 
 Singapore via Rotterdam, 1 ; Canton, 1 ; Canton via 
 London, 1 ;' Sumatra, i ; Shanghae via New York, 1 ; 
 Calcutta via London, 1. 
 
 At New York, in 1856, 82 (of which 50 belonged to 
 Boston and ports east of New York). In 1855, 69. 
 From Manilla, 15 ; Shanghae, 14 ; Singapore, 12 ; Foo 
 Chow Fow, 9 ; Calcutta, 9 ; Song Kong, 6 ; Whampoa, 
 5 ; Penang, 5 ; Canton, 4 ; Calcutta viS, London, 1 ; 
 Foo Chow Fow vii Havana, 1 ; Swatow via Ha- 
 vana, 1. 
 
 At Salem, in 1856, 7. In 1855, 6. From Zanzibar, 
 5 ; Penang, 1 ; Manilla, 1. 
 
 At Philadelphia, in 1856, 2. In 1855, 4. From Cal- 
 cutta, 1 ; Calcutta via London, 1. 
 
 At Providence, 1 from Zanzibar. 
 
 At Savannah, 1 from Calcutta via Liverpool. 
 
 Clearances. — The whole number of clearances in the 
 United States for the East Indies were 161. In 1855, 
 172. At Boston, 96 ; New York, 40 ; Salem, 8 ; New 
 
 Orleans, 6; Providence, 3; Philadelphia, 2; Balti- 
 more, 2 ; Mobile, 2 ; Portland, 1 ; Newburj'port, 1. 
 
 At Boston, in 1856, 96. In 1855, 76. For Calcutta, 
 28 ; Batavia, 10 ; Cape Town, 14 ; Manilla, 6 ; Bom- 
 bay, 5 ; Hong Kong, 4 ; Calcutta via Buenos Ayres; 
 5 ; Madras and Calcutta, 3 ; Akyab, 3 ; Madras, 3 ; 
 Sumatra, 2 ; Singapore, 4 ; Calcutta via London, 2 , 
 Calcutta via Liverpool, 1 ; Zanzibar viii Providence, 
 1 ; Pedang, 1 ; Columbo, 1 ; Whampoa, 1. 
 
 At New York, in 1856, 40 (of which 24 traded from 
 Boston and ports east of New York). In 1855, 50. 
 For Hong Kong, 9 ; Calcutta, 6 ; Shanghae, 4 ; Cape 
 Town, 3 ; Canton, 8 ; Batavia, 2 ; Calcutta, via Bue nos 
 Ayres, 3 ; Sumatra, 2 ; Bombay, 2 ; Mauritius, 1 ; Sing- 
 apore, 1 ; Anjier, 1 ; Akyab, 1 ; Siam, 1 ; Padang, I. 
 
 At Salem, in 1866, 9. In 1856, 8. For Zanzibar, 7 ; 
 Batavia, 1 ; Penang, 1. 
 
 At New Orleans, 6. Last year, 24. For Calcutta 
 via Liverpool, 6 ; Bombay via Liverpool, 1. 
 
 At Providence, 3 for Zanzibar. Last year, 1. 
 
 At Philadelphia, 2. Last year, 4. For Calcutta, 
 1 ; Manilla, 1. 
 
 At Baltimore, 2 for Cape Town. Last year, 3. 
 
 At Mobile, 2 for Calcutta. Last year, 0. 
 
 At Newburyport, 1 for Calcutta. Last year, 0. 
 
 At Portland, 1 for Calcutta via Buenos Ayres. 
 Last year, 1. See Annals Brit. Leg., July, 1856, p. 25, 
 " Territories Annexed." 
 
IND 
 
 1024 
 
 IND 
 
 The British East India possessions embrace an al- 
 most boundless extent of territory, extending from the 
 Himalaya range of mountains on the north to the 
 ocean, including nearly the whole of the peninsula of 
 Hindoostan, the island of Ceylon, and that portion of 
 Burmah Ij'ing between 20° of north latitude and the 
 Bay of Bengal. These vast possessions are supposed 
 to contain a popnlation of 152,000,000 of souls. The 
 East India Company's possessions comprise the several 
 presidencies of, 1st, the Bengal presidency; 2d, the 
 Bombay presidency ; 3d, the Madras presidepcy ; 4th, 
 the Agra presidency ; and the several dependencies of 
 each of these presidencies. 
 
 Bengal. — The commerce of the United States with the 
 East Indies is principally confined to the presidencies of 
 Bengal and Bombay, and to a few of their dependencies. 
 The leading exports from the East India possessions to 
 the United States are wool, oil-seeds, hides, medicin- 
 al drugs, sandal-woods, gums, spices, horns, indigo, 
 ivory, coir, saltpetre. The principal exports from the 
 United States to the East Indies are, tobacco, naval 
 stores, provisions, ice, and miscellaneous merchandise, 
 copper, pitch, tar, rosin, pine-boards, and spars. Num- 
 ber of American vessels entered the port of Calcutta 
 in 1852, 65; tonnage, 34,849. Number of vessels 
 cleared from Calcutta in the same year, 101 ; tonnage, 
 59,340. In 1853; 109 vessels from the United States 
 entered this port. See Calcutta, Bengal, and 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Imports from Calcutta, 1851-1853, #9,676,072 ; value 
 of exports during the same period, $1,490,399 ; appar- 
 ent balance against the United States, $8,185,673. 
 This heavj' balance apparently against the United 
 States is accounted for by the large discriminating 
 duties on all its manufactures, in favor of similar mer- 
 chandise imported from the mother country. Ameri- 
 can vessels usually enter the ports of Calcutta and 
 Bengal in ballast, for the purpose of taking in a home- 
 ward cargo. 
 
 Bombay, — Exports from Bombay the same as from 
 Calcutta. The same description of merchandise is im- 
 ported from the United States. The following market 
 prices at Bombay will show that the articles specified 
 might enter advantageously into American exports, 
 not only to that port, but to the other ports in the 
 East Indies : Copper sheathing sells at 55 rupees, or 
 $27 25 per cwt. ; duty, 10 per cent ; annual imports, 
 400 tons. Copper bolts sell at 50 rupees, or $25 per cwt. , 
 duty, 10 per cent. ; annual imports, 700 tons. Pitch, 
 4 rupees = $1 50 per barrel ; annual imports, 1000 
 barrels; duty 10 per cent. Tar, 4 rupees = $2 per 
 barrel ; annual imports, 620 barrels ; duty, 10 per cent. 
 Tonnage duty in Bombay, 1-16 rupee, or nearly 3 
 cents per ton. Light-house dues on ships from 15- 
 20 rupees =from $7 60 to $10, according to the nature 
 of the cargo and time of the year. The rupee is val- 
 ued by Pope at 46 cents ; consular returns from Bom- 
 bay value it at 50 cents. 
 
 Pilotage is regulated by the season, and is as fol- 
 lows : 
 
 Vessels of 
 
 Tons. Tons, | 
 
 100— 300 
 
 800— 400 
 
 400— 500 
 
 600— 600 
 
 600— 700 
 
 TOO— 800 
 
 800— 900 
 
 900—1,000 
 1,000—1,100 
 1,100—1,200 
 1,200—1,300 
 1,800—1,400 
 1,400—1,600 
 1,500—1,600 
 
 From Sept. to June. | from June to Sept. 
 
 The above rates are regulated by the local govern 
 ment of the Company's possessions, and the pilots are 
 regularly licensed. "See articles Bombay and East 
 India Company. 
 
 The following table exhibits the trade of the United 
 States with the East Indies generally : 
 
 Exports to East Indies : 1858, 1854. 
 
 Domestic manufactures $508,866 $667,193 
 
 Foreign " 63,542 69,219 
 
 Total 667,898 686,412 
 
 Imports from 8,581,726 5,378,821 
 
 Excess of imports over exports. 3,014,823 
 
 4,741,909 
 
 For Commerce, etc., of East India, see Ed. Uev.., 
 xlviii., 312, 336, Ixxii., 181, Ixx., 157 (Macaulay), 
 xxix., 335 ; Chr. Exam., xlviii. (E. Peabody) ; Wesim. 
 Bev., ii. 326; For. Quar., xxiii., 93 ("British Usurpa- 
 tion"), XXXV., 382, xxxvi., 306. 
 
 Indian Ocean, Indicum Mare, a vast oceanic 
 basin, separated from the Pacific on the east by the 
 Asiatic Archipelago and Australia, bounded on the south 
 bj' a line drawn from the Cape of Good Hope to Bass' 
 Strait, divided from the Atlantic hy Africa on the west, 
 and inclosed by the countries of Asia on the north. It 
 communicates with the Chinese Sea by the Strait of 
 Malacca, Sunda Strait, and the Strait of Flores. Prin- 
 cipal inlets, the Bay of Bengal, the Sea of Oman, the 
 Persian Gulf, and the Bed Sea, Chief straits, the 
 Channel of Mozambique, and Palk's Strait. The most 
 important islands are Madagascar, Mauritius, Bourbon, 
 the Comoro Islands, Seychelles, and Socotra, belong- 
 ing to Africa; the Laccadives, Maldives, Cej'lon, the 
 Andaman and Nicobar Islands, to Asia. Its principal 
 afiluents are, in Asia, the Saluen, Irrawadi, Brahma- 
 putra, Ganges, Godaveiy, Kistna, Nerbudda, Indus, 
 and the Shat-el-Arab, formed by the junction of the 
 Tigris and Euphrates ; in Africa, the Zambeze. The 
 chief sea-ports are, Calcutta and Bombay in India ; 
 Malacca, in the Asiatic Archipelago ; Aden, Mocha, 
 and Muscat, in Arabia; Zanzibar, etc., in Africa. 
 Steam-packets are established between the principal 
 ports. The monsoons, or periodical winds, prevail in 
 the north part of the ocean, blowing from the south- 
 west between April and October, and south-east from 
 October to April. Tempests are general at the periods 
 of change, and between lat. 5° and 40° S. violent hur- 
 ricanes frequently occur. 
 
 Indiana, one of the United States of North Amer- 
 ica, is bounded east by the State of Ohio, south by 
 the Eiver Ohio, -which separates it from Kentuckj', 
 west by Illinois, from which it is partly separated ijy 
 the Wabash Eiver, and north by Michigan and Lake 
 Michigan. It lies between 37° 51' and 40° 46' N. 
 lat., and 85° 49' and 88° 2' W. long. Extreme length 
 from north to south, 276 miles ; greatest breadth, 175 
 miles. Area, 33,809 square miles. 
 
 Indiana may be generally characterized as a great 
 plain, inclining toward the south-west. A range of 
 hills extends along the Ohio from the mouth of the 
 Great Miami to Blue Eiver, and the shore of Lake 
 Michigan is lined by large sandy hills, which rise to a 
 height of 200 feet. In some other parts are to be found 
 " knobs," but these are seldom of great extent or ele- 
 vation. The surface of the countrj' naturally divides 
 itself into several extensive river valleys. The valley 
 of the Ohio, comprising an area of about 5500 square 
 miles, is a limestone tract, and was originally covered 
 with forests. About one third of it is rugged and 
 broken, so as to be unfit for cultivation. The White 
 Eiver Valley, extending through the centre of the 
 State, from the Wabash to the Ohio, contains about 
 9000 square miles. This district is almost uniformly 
 level, and richly wooded, except in the west, where 
 there are some ranges of low rugged hills, and several 
 patches of prairie ground. The soil is of the richest 
 kind. The Wabash Valley is much larger than the 
 others, and contains upward of 12,000 square miles. 
 The eastern portion equals the White River Vallcj- in 
 fertility, but the other parts are not so productive. 
 The northern part of the State, watered by the St. 
 Joseph and the Kankakee Rivers, is somewhat more 
 
IND 
 
 1025 
 
 IND 
 
 swampy than the Wabash Valley'; and a large tract, 
 comprising the sand-chills on Lake Michigan, is cov- 
 ered only -with stunted ptnes dnd burr oaks. 
 
 The State is well watered by numerous beautiful 
 streams ahd rivers; but -^th the exception of the Ohio 
 and Wabash, few of thsm are navigable. The Wabash 
 is the largest river that has its course mainly within 
 the State, and, together with its branches, drains three 
 fourths of the entire surface. It rises in the west of 
 Ohio, and flows first in a north-west direction, ahd 
 then south-west till it meets the boundary of Illinois, 
 which 'it follows southward for more than 100 miles, 
 till it falls into the Ohio, after a course of iipward of 
 500 miles ; foi' 400 of which it is' navigable for steam- 
 boats at high water. The Ohio forms the entire 
 sdutltern boundary of the State. The Other Jirincipal 
 rivers of Indiana are tributaries of the Wabaish. The 
 White Eiver, the most important of these, is formed 
 bj- the West and East Forks — two rivers, respectively 
 about 300 and 200 mileh Itmg — which unite about 100 
 miles above its confluence with the Wabash. The 
 Miami is formed by the St. Joseph and St. Mary in the 
 north-east, and falls' into the Ohio. The Upper St. 
 Josephj with its tributaries, passes through the north- 
 ern countifes, and falls into Lake Michigan. ' 
 
 Indiana resembles the other western States north 
 of the Ohio in climate. ' Thfej' are generally milder 
 than those on the Atlantic coasts, but very subject to 
 sadden changes. The winter is very severe in the 
 northern parts, but mors genial in the southern. Ex- 
 cept in the neighborhood of wet prairies and Swattips,' 
 the climate is everywhere' healthy. Dr. Owen, speak- 
 ing of the geological position of Indiana, remarks, that 
 "it possesses all the elements of extraordinary fer- 
 tilitj'." The richest soil is that of the' river bottoms, 
 where it is very deep and exceedingly fertile. The 
 most prddilctive are those inblosed by the river hills, 
 vAich run parallel to the Ohio and other rivers. The 
 extensive valky of thS' Wabash is a tract of this de- 
 scription. Behind the river hills, a table-land spreads 
 out, foriiiing' what iriay be called the interior of the 
 country, and here, instead of the bottom-lands, or 
 river valleys; there are vast prairies. The soil of 
 these is not so luxuriant, but is subh as amply to repay 
 the expense of culture. Even the wet aiid marshy 
 parts of the State admit of being brought under culti- 
 vation, Indiana ranks fourth of the States of the 
 Union in the absolute amount of Indian c6m raised. 
 It also produces large quantities of wheat, oats, and 
 Irish potatoes; as well as a fair proportion of the other 
 productions common to the western States. 
 
 The number of farms in Indiana under cultivation 
 in 1850 comprised 93,896 acres, and the ej^tent of im- 
 proved land was 6,046,543 acres; of unimproved, 
 7,746,879 acres. The value of the farms returned was 
 $135,000,000. The orchard produce was estimated at 
 $322,000, and market-garden products, $71,000. 
 
 The chief minerals of Indiana are coal, iron, lime, 
 marble, freestone, and some copper. Of these the first 
 is by far the most important. It has been estimated 
 that the coal beds of Indiana cover 7700 square miles, 
 and are capable of yielding 50,000,000 bushels to the 
 square mile. One coal deposit commences in Perrj' 
 county, and extends north-west into the county of 
 Vermilion upward of 150 miles. 
 
 The manufacturing capital of Indiana in 1850 
 amounted to $7,941,602. The value of raw material, 
 etc., consumed in the year had been $10,214,337. The 
 products were valued at $18,922,651. There were on 
 June 1, 1850, 4326 industrial establishments, producing 
 annually to the value of $500 and upward. Of these, 
 2 were cotton factories, 23 woolen factories, 19 iron 
 works, and 358 tanneries. 
 
 Indiana has no direct foreign commerce, but it has 
 a considerable transit trade, and exports large quanti- 
 ties of agricultural produce. The facilities for inter- 
 nal communication are great, and rapidly increasing. 
 Ttt 
 
 The principal canals are the Wabash and Erie Canal 
 between Evansville, on the Ohio, and Toledo, on Lake 
 Erie, 467 miles, of which 379 miles are in Indiana ; 
 and the White Water Canal, 68 miles long, uniting 
 Lawrenceburg, on the Ohio, with Hagerstown. In 
 1853 the State had 755 miles of railroad completed, 
 and 979 in course of construction. The principal rail- 
 roads centre in Indianapolis, and radiate from that city 
 in all directions. See De Bow's Rev., 1., 512, vii., 
 246; Bankers' Mag., iii., 164; Hunt's Mer. Mag. 
 xxi., 147. 
 
 Indian Ink. A species of ink used in Europe for 
 the lines and shadows of drawings. It is principallj' 
 manufactured in China, and there used for writing. 
 From the experiments of 'Dr. Lewis, it appears to be 
 a compound of fine lampblack and animal glue. See 
 Ink. 
 
 India-rubber. Also called caoutchouc, first 
 brought to Europe from South America, Several 
 plants produce varioxis kinds of elastic gum ; but that 
 in commerce is chiefly the juice of the Siphonia Eltu- 
 tica, or syringe-tree. Incisions in the bark of this 
 tree ^ve vent to a liquid which forms India-rubber. 
 Np substance is yet known which is so pliable, and at 
 the same time so exceedingly elastic ; it oozes out un- 
 der the form of a vegetable milk, from incisions made 
 in the tree, and is gathered chiefly in the time of rain, 
 because it flows then most abundantly.- — M. Macquer. 
 
 The most astonishing and useful discovery of the 
 19th centurj', after the practical application of steam 
 and electricity, is the employment of India-rubber for 
 manufacturing purposes. The first knowledge of it 
 is due to La Condamine, a French phUosopher, who in 
 1730 was sent by his government to Peru to measure 
 an arc of the meridian. The tree which produces 
 rubber or caoutchouc (as it is called by the natives of 
 South America), is found in the tropics of both hemi- 
 spheres. It rises to the height of 60 or 60 feet, with- 
 out branches, and is crowned or tufted with rich foliage. 
 The leaves are a deep green, thick and glossy, six or 
 seven inches in length ; the bark is smooth, and the 
 fruit consists of white almonds, of an agreeable flavor, 
 much liked by the natives. In order to obtain this 
 substance, the natives of the valley of the Amazon 
 make a longitudinal gash in the bark of the tree with 
 a narrow hatchet ; a thick, white and oily liquid (a 
 sort of vegetable milk) flows out, a wedge of wood is 
 inserted to keep the gash open, and a small clay cup is 
 stuck to the tree beneath the gash. In four or five 
 hours the milk ceases to run, and each wound has 
 yielded from three to five table-spoonfuls. The "se- 
 ringero," or rubber gatherer, then empties the con- 
 tents of the cups into an earthen vessel and commences 
 the operation of forming it into shapes and smoking it. 
 This must be done at onceas the milk soon coagulates. 
 A fire is made on the ground, of nuts of the wassou 
 palm tree, over which is placed, inverted, an earthen 
 pot with a hole in the bottom whence issues a jet of 
 pungent smoke. Molds are made either of clay or 
 wood, which are dipped into the milk, and then passed 
 slowly through the hot smoke. When the required 
 thickness is obtained, the molds are cut or washed out. 
 Smoking changes the color of the rubber very little, 
 but by exposure to the sun and atmosphere it becomes 
 brown, and in time black. The superiority of the 
 rubber imported from the valley of the Amazon is 
 said to be owing to the peculiar properties of the smoke 
 of this nut, no other smoke producing a similar effect 
 upon the gum. A belt of forest trees extends 10 de- 
 grees each side of the equator, which yield India- 
 rubber of various kinds ; so the supply is literally 
 inexhaustible. The gum from India and the Pacific- 
 coast of Sonth America is obtained by allowing the 
 sap to flow down the side of the tree, and is then gath- 
 ered with the loose bark and dirt into ceroons or bun- 
 dles for shipment. For a long time this substance was 
 valued simply as an object of curiosity, to be preserved^ 
 
IND 
 
 1026 
 
 IND 
 
 in collections of natural history, and its first practical 
 application was as an eraser of pencil marks. 
 
 Statement showing the Exports of India-etjbber from 
 THE United States foe the Teak ending June 30th, 
 1866. 
 
 WHITHHR EXPOETED. 
 
 DOMESTIC MANCTPACTUBES 0^ 
 INDIA-RUBBEB. 
 
 FOEKiaS IKDIA- 
 BUBBBR. 
 
 Indla-nibljer shoes. 
 
 Other 
 manufac- 
 tures of. 
 
 Manul 
 
 Unmanu- 
 lactured. 
 
 Eussia on the Baltic ) 
 and North Seas. . . f 
 Daslsh West Indies.. 
 Hamburg 
 
 Pair. 
 
 8,866 
 
 422,660 
 
 43,000 
 
 300 
 
 4,486 
 
 9,705 
 
 137,161 
 
 700 
 
 1,248 
 
 8,892 
 
 27,218 
 
 288 
 
 157 
 
 io,66o 
 
 600 
 24 
 
 "278 
 
 7,560 
 
 2,162 
 
 l,i63 
 
 428 
 
 7,046 
 
 1,714 
 
 "360 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 2,608 
 
 257,689 
 
 80,606 
 
 210 
 
 8,300 
 
 6,440 
 
 82,841 
 
 432 
 
 1,194 
 
 8,241 
 
 19,198 
 
 230 
 
 140 
 
 6,462 
 844 
 
 42 
 
 "264 
 
 5,660 
 
 1,878 
 
 "692 
 
 294 
 
 4,966 
 
 1,088 
 
 "267 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 760 
 
 569 
 
 182,783 
 83,187 
 
 8,696 
 
 26,163 
 
 168,848 
 
 2,306 
 
 449 
 
 78 
 
 9,911 
 
 7,663 
 
 123 
 
 8 
 
 8,629 
 
 2,842 
 
 86,151 
 
 1,052 
 
 "120 
 
 3,184 
 
 568 
 
 890 
 
 11,619 
 
 444 
 
 22,984 
 
 2,872 
 
 2,168 
 
 189 
 
 11,870 
 
 7,696 
 
 4,179 
 
 6,692 
 
 Dollar.. 
 
 lo,ii8 
 
 3,949 
 
 "iss 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 4,448 
 
 10,687 
 26,547 
 
 79,020 
 100 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Other Grermau ports.. 
 Holland 
 
 Belffium 
 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 Malta 
 
 Canada 
 
 Other Br. N. Am. pos. 
 
 British Honduras 
 
 British Guiana 
 
 British pos. in Africa. 
 
 British Australia 
 
 France on the Atlantic 
 France on the Med... 
 French N. Amer. pos. 
 Spain on the Atlantic. 
 Cuba 
 
 4,1 
 
 !7 
 
 Porto Eico 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Turkey in Europe 
 
 Hayti 
 
 
 Central Eepublic 
 
 New Granada 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Buenos Ayres 
 
 Chili 
 
 Peru 
 
 Total 
 
 685,220 
 
 427,936:665.602 
 
 18,879 
 
 120,802 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Statement showing the Impokts of India-hubbee into 
 THE United States foe the Tear ending June 80th, 
 1856. 
 
 Whence imported. 
 
 Danish West Indies , 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Holland 
 
 Dutch West Indies 
 
 Dutch East Indies 
 
 England..., 
 
 Canada 
 
 Other British North American pos. . 
 
 British West Indies 
 
 British Honduras 
 
 British possessions In Africa 
 
 British East Indies 
 
 France on the Atlantic 
 
 Other ports In Africa 
 
 Hayti 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Central Kepublic '. 
 
 New G-ranada 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Chili 
 
 Peru 
 
 Total 
 
 Miuiufnc- 
 tured. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 "'88 
 922 
 
 82,982 
 1,690 
 
 12,164 
 
 UDOianufac- 
 tured. 
 
 Dollars. 
 4 
 2,548 
 
 9,047 
 
 6 
 
 41,800 
 
 37,469 
 
 "761 
 
 1,174 
 
 123 
 
 8,768 
 
 89,494 
 
 461 
 
 6,878 
 
 844 
 
 777 
 
 289 
 
 70,274 
 
 11 
 
 771,826 
 
 10,046 
 
 47 
 
 97,796 I 1,045,676 
 
 About the year 1821, Charles Macintosh of England, 
 having learned how to dissolve the gum in spirits of 
 turpentine, commenced manufacturing the goods which 
 now bear his name, by spreading the gum so dissolved 
 between two layers of cloth. The rude overshoes 
 made by the natives in South America from the nat- 
 ural gum, were beginning to be worn, and in 1823, 500 
 pairs of shoes were imported into Boston. At a later 
 date gum-elastic became the subject of scientific inves- 
 tigation and many persons commenced experimenting 
 with it. In 1832, the considerable manufacture of it 
 vras commenced in Massachusetts, by John Haskins 
 and Edwin M. Chaffee, who, in connection with oth- 
 
 ers, started the celebrated Eoxbury India-rubber Com- 
 pany, which was shortlj- after incorporated with a 
 capital of $400,000. For this Company Mr. Chaffee 
 invented the famous mammoth machine for spreading 
 rubber without u, solvent — the machine itself costing 
 nearly $30,000. Similar machines are now required 
 \>y all manufacturers of rubber goods. The apparent 
 prosperity of- this Company induced the starting of 
 factories in Boston, Chelsea, Wobum and Framing- 
 ham, Mass., New York city, Staten Island, and Troy, 
 N. y., with capitals of from $50,000 to $500,000. 
 These Companies made their goods by dissolving the 
 rubber in camphene or other solvents, then mixing 
 lampblack with it, and while in the form of paste 
 spreading it on cloth from which coats, etc., are made. 
 The goods were then dried in the sun or in a warm 
 room until the solvent evaporated, leaving a coating 
 of rubber. See Gdtta Peecha. 
 
 Indies, Dutch. See Java. 
 
 Indigo (Fr. Indigo ; Ger. Indigo ; Sans. Nili ; Arab. 
 Neel ; Malay, Taroom), the drug which yields thp 
 beautiful blue dye known by that name. It is ob- 
 tained by the maceration in water of certain tropical 
 plants ; but the indigo of commerce is almost entirely 
 obtained from leguminous plants of the genus Indigo- 
 fera; that cultivated in India being the Indigofera 
 tincioria ; and that in America the Indigofera omit. 
 The Indian plant has pinnate leaves and a slender lig- 
 neous stem ; and when successfully cultivated, rises to 
 the height of three, five, and even six feet. Before 
 the American colonies were established, all the indigo 
 used in Europe came from the East Indies ; and until 
 the discovery of a passage round the Cape of Good 
 Hope, it was conveyed, like other Indian products, 
 partly through the Persian Gulf, and partly by land 
 to Babylon, or through Arabia and up the Red Sea to 
 Egypt. The real nature of indigo was so little known 
 in Europe, that it was classed among the minerals, as 
 appears by letters-patent for erecting works to obtain 
 it from mines in the principalitj' of Halberstadt, dated 
 December 23, 1705 ; yet what Vitruvius and Pliny call 
 indicum is supposed to have been our indigo. — Beck- 
 MAyN. The first mention of indigo occurs in English 
 statutes in 1581. The first brought to Europe was pro- 
 curedfrom Mexico. Its cultivation was begun in Caro- 
 lina, in 1747. It appears pretty certain that the culture 
 of the indigo plant, and the preparation of the drug have 
 been practiced in India from a very remote epoch. It 
 has been questioned, indeed, whether the indicum men- 
 tioned by Pliny (Hist. Nat. lib., xxxv., c. 6), was in- 
 digo, but, as it would seem, without any good reason. 
 Pliny states that it was brought from India; that 
 when diluted it produced an admirable misturc'of blue 
 and purple color (in diluendo misiuram pvrpurce ccsru- 
 leique mirabilem reddii) ; and he gives tests by which 
 the genuine drug might be discriminated with sufii- 
 cient precision. It is true that Pliny is egregiously 
 mistaken as to the mode in which the drug was pro- 
 duced; but there are many examples in modem as 
 well as ancient times, to prove that the possession of 
 an article brought from a distance implies no accurate 
 knowledge of its nature, or of the processes followed 
 in its manufacture. Beckmann (Hist, of Invtntions^ 
 vol. iv., art. Indigo), and Dr. Bancroft (Permanent 
 Colors, vol. i., pp. 241, 252), have each investigated 
 this subject with great learning and sagacity ; and 
 agree in the conclusion that the indicum of Pliny was 
 real indigo, and not, as has been supposed, a drug pre- 
 pared ^from the isatis or woad. At all events, there 
 can be no question that indigo was imported into mod- 
 em Europe, by way of Alexandria, previously to the 
 discovery of the route to India by the Cape of Good 
 Hope. "When first introduced, it was customarj' to 
 mix a little of it with woad to heighten and improve 
 the color of the latter ; but, by degrees, the quantity 
 of indigo was increased ; and woad was, at last, en- 
 tirely superseded. It is worth while, however, to 
 
IND 
 
 102'; 
 
 IND 
 
 remark, that indigo did not make its way into general 
 use without encountering much opposition. The 
 growers of wood prevailed on several governments to 
 prohibit the use of indigo 1 In Germany, an imperial 
 edict was published in 1654, prohibiting the use of 
 indigo, or " devil's dye," and directing great care to 
 be taken to prevent its clandestine importation, " be- 
 cause," says the edict, " the trade in woad is lessened, 
 dyed articles injured, and money carried out of the 
 country I" The magistrates of Kuremberg went fur- 
 ther, and compelled the dyers of that city to take an 
 oath once a year not to use indigo ; which practice was 
 continued down to a late period. In 1598, upon an 
 urgent representation of the States of Languedoc, at 
 the solicitation of the woad growers, the use of indigo 
 was prohibited in that province ; and it was not till 
 1737, that the dyers of France were left at liberty to 
 dye with such articles, and in such a way, as they 
 pleased. — Beckmann, vol. iv., p. 142. Let not those 
 who may happen to throw, their eyes over this para- 
 graph, smile at the ignorance of tlieir ancestors — Mu- 
 tato nomifie, de te fabula narratur. How much oppo- 
 sition is made in most countries at this moment to the 
 importation of many important articles, for no better 
 reasons than were alleged in the 16th century against 
 the importation of indigo I 
 
 Indigo is produced in Bengal, and the other prov- 
 inces subject to the presidency of that name, from the 
 20th to the 30th degree of north latitude ; in the prov- 
 ince of Tinnevelly, under the Madras government ; in 
 Java ; in Luconia, the principal of the Philippine Isl- 
 ands ; and in Guatemala, and the Caraccas, in Central 
 America. Bengal is, however, the great mart for ip- 
 
 digo ; and the quantity produced in the other places is 
 comparatively inconsiderable. 
 
 Eaj-nal was of opinion that the culture of indigo 
 had been introduced into America by the Spaniards ; 
 but this is undoubtedly an error. Several spefeies of 
 indigofera belong to the New World ; and the Span- 
 iards used it as a substitute for ink, ver}' soon after the 
 conquest. (Humboldt, Nouvelle Espagne.") For the 
 first 20 years after the English became masters of 
 Bengal, the culture and manufacture of indigo, now 
 of such importance, was unknown as a branch of Brit- 
 ish industry ; and the exports were but trifling. The 
 European markets were, at this period, principally 
 supplied from America. In 1783, however, the atten- 
 tion of the English began to be directed to this busi- 
 ness ; and though the processes pursued by them be 
 nearly the same with those followed by the natives, 
 their greater skill, intelligence, and capital ^ve them 
 immense advantages. In their hands, the growth and 
 preparation of indigo has become the most important 
 employment, at least in a commercial point of view, 
 which can be freely carried on in the country, the cul- 
 ture and preparation of opium being a monopoly. The 
 indigo made by the natives supplies the internal de- 
 mand ; but a portion of that which is raised by them, 
 with all that is raised by Europeans, is exported. In 
 the Delta of the Ganges, where the best and largest 
 quantity of indigo is produced, the plant lasts only for 
 a single season, being destroyed by the periodical in- 
 undation ; but in the diy central and western prov- 
 inces, one or two rattoon crops are obtained ; and owing 
 to this circumstance, the latter are enabled to furnish 
 a large supply of reed to the former. 
 
 Statement op the Qitantitt and Value op Ikdigo shipped peom Calcutta in 1830 — 31, 1840 — 41, 1851 — 52. 
 
 J CountrleB. 
 
 1830-31. 
 
 1840—41. 
 
 18S1 
 
 —52. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Valuo. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Great Britain... 
 
 Fy. mnundB. 
 
 85,741 
 
 28,161 
 
 6,899 
 
 10,989 
 
 550 
 
 248 
 
 '"'88 
 
 Rupeoa. 
 
 85,74,100 
 
 23,15,100 
 5,89,900 
 
 10,98,900 
 55,000 
 24,800 
 
 8^800 
 
 Fy. mminda. 
 84,205 
 20,260^ 
 4,822| 
 6.05S| , 
 637 
 
 "206} 
 
 Rupees. 
 l,65,Sl,074 
 40,66,266 
 9,45,863 
 9,64,414 
 1,27,499 
 
 4l',256 
 15,775 
 
 Ind. maunda. 
 80,679i- 
 24,791* 
 3,75U 
 5,887+ 
 207i 
 
 i',687i 
 
 Rupeca. 
 
 1,27,18,127 
 
 89,68,162 
 
 5,97,297 
 
 6,81,194 
 
 22,795 
 
 2,78,961 
 
 
 
 Arabian and Persian Gulfs 
 
 Bombay 
 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Elsewhere 
 
 Total 
 
 1,26,656 
 
 1,26,56,600 
 
 l,16,268i 
 
 2,27,11,602 
 
 1,17,0043 
 
 1,82,16,586 
 
 Being in pounds.. 
 
 " tons 
 
 Shipped for Britain only . . 
 
 9,444,241i 
 
 8,601,5571 
 
 9,633,371 
 
 Tons. cwtB. Iba. 
 4,216 8 651 
 
 Tone. owts. lbs. 
 
 8,889 19 69i 
 
 Tona. cwta. Iba. 
 4,300 12 27 
 
 2,856 8 86i 
 
 2,805 6 88J 
 
 2,965 8 95 
 
 It deserves to be remarked, that since the opening 
 of the trade, Indian capitalists have betaken them- 
 selves to the manufacture of indigo on the European 
 method, and that at present a considerable part of the 
 whole annual produce is prepared by them. The cul- 
 ture of indigo is very precarious, not only in so far as 
 respects the growth of the plant from year to year, 
 but also as regards the quantity and quality of the 
 drug which the same amount of plant will afford even 
 in the same season. Thus the produce or 1825-26 was 
 41,000 chests, while that of 1826-7 was but 25,000 
 chests; and in 1842 the produce was only 79,000 
 maunds, while that of the following year was no less 
 than 172,249 maunds ! The price of indigo in India, 
 increased for a wliile, in a far greater ratio than the 
 quantity. In 1813-14, the real value of that exported 
 from Calcutta was £1,461,000; but in 1827-28, al- 
 though the quantity had increased but 20 per cent., the 
 value rose to £2,920,000, or was about doubled. There 
 was no corresponding rise in the price in Europe, but, 
 on the contrary, a decline ; and the circumstance is to 
 be accounted for by the restraints that were then 
 placed on the investment of capital in the production 
 of colonial articles suited to the European market, the 
 consequent difficulty of maldng remittances from In- 
 dia, and an unnatural flow of capital to the only great 
 article of Indian produce and export that was supposed 
 
 capable of bearing its application. The consumption 
 of indigo has varied but little in England during the 
 last 10 years, having been, at an average of that pe- 
 riod, about 2,000,000 lbs. a year. This stationary de- 
 mand, notwithstanding the fall in the price of the 
 drug and the increase of population, is principally to 
 be ascribed to the decreasing use of blue cloth, in the 
 dyeing of which it is principally made use of. Its 
 consumption in France is about as great as in Britain. 
 Besides the exports to Great Britain, France, and the 
 United States, a good deal of Bengal indigo is ex- 
 ported to the ports on the Persian Gulf, whence it finds 
 its way to southern Knssia. It is singular that it is 
 not used by the Chinese, with whom blue is a favorite 
 color. The indigo of Bengal is divided into two classes, 
 called, in commercial language, Bengal and Oude; the 
 first being the produce of the southern provinces of 
 Bengal and Bahar, and the last that of their northern 
 provinces and of Benares. The first is, in point of 
 quality, much superior to the other. This arose at one 
 time, in a considerable degree, from the practice which 
 prevailed in the northern provinces, of the European 
 planter purchasing the wet fecula from the Eyot or 
 native manufacturer, and completmg the processes of 
 curing and drying the drug. This is at present in a 
 great measure discontinued ; and the Oude indigo has, 
 in consequence, considerably improved in quality. Its 
 
IND 
 
 1028 
 
 IND 
 
 inferiority is probably more the result of soil and cli- 
 mate, than of any difference in the skill with which 
 the manufacture is conducted. 
 
 The following ia 'believed to be a pretty accurate 
 estimate, of the, annual production of indigo in India, 
 in maunds of 82 lbs. ; 
 
 i 18M. ] 1848. [ 1844. 
 
 1846. 
 
 i84e. 
 
 1841. 
 
 1848. 1 1849. 
 
 1860. 
 
 1861. 1 Average. | 
 
 Bengal 
 
 Tirhoot 
 
 Benares 
 
 Oude 
 
 Total.... 
 
 MauodB. MtLuuda. 
 
 42,120 108,288 
 12,610 41,4T0 
 18,980 12,8T8 
 5,890 9,663 
 
 MaundH. 
 
 9T,04fi 
 
 28,432 
 
 16,869 
 
 6,860 
 
 Maunds. 
 
 80,634 
 21,816 
 16,T12 
 9,800 
 
 jVlibtind,*. 
 
 68,277 
 11,413 
 18,788 
 
 7,865 
 
 MnundB. 
 72,010 
 
 18,880 
 11,060 
 7,460 
 
 Maimds. 
 88,420 
 27,412 
 10,118 
 5,620 
 
 M«»nd9. 
 
 82;620 
 
 22,800, 
 
 9,850 
 
 6,600 
 
 Mnnnda. 
 
 70,660 
 
 , 21,950 
 
 12,000 
 
 8,012 
 
 Maunds. 
 
 74,000 
 81,000 
 11,000 
 9,000 
 
 Mnundrt. 
 
 77,431 
 
 23,168 , 
 
 18,t75 
 
 7,625' 
 
 T9,000 1 172,249 
 
 148,207 
 
 127,862 1 101,828 
 
 110,000 
 
 126,665 
 
 121,270 
 
 112,522 
 
 125,Q00 
 
 ,121,899 
 
 In addition to the exports from India, indigo is ex- 
 ported from Java, the Philippine Islands, Central Amer- 
 ica, ond other places. In 1845 the exports from Bata- 
 vta amounted to 1,653,869 lbs., and, we believe, they 
 have varied but little in the interval. In 1850 the ex- 
 ports from Manilla were estimated at about 450,000 lbs. 
 According to Humboldt, 1,800,000 lbs. of indigo were 
 exported from Guatemala in 1825. But if so, its pro- 
 duction must have fallen olf greatly in the interval. 
 It does not now probably exceed 500,000 lbs. in all 
 Central America. Indigo is also produced in some of 
 the West India islands, but in small quantities. Good 
 indigo is known by its lightness or small specific grav- 
 ity, indicating the absence of earthy impurities ; by 
 the mass not readily parting with its coloring matter 
 when tested by drawing a streak with it over a white 
 surface ; but above all, by the purity of the color 
 itself. The first quality, estimated by this last test, is 
 called,, in commercial language, fijie blue ; then follow 
 ordinary Hue, fine purple, purple and violet, ordinary 
 purple and violet, dull blue, inferior purple and violet, 
 strong copper, and ordinary copper. These distinctions 
 refer to the Bengal indigo only, the Oude being dis- 
 tinguished only into fine and ordinary. The indigo 
 of Madras, which is superior to that of Manilla, is 
 about equal to ordinary Bengal indigo. The indigo 
 of Java is superior to these. 
 
 We subjoin an account of the prices of Bengal in- 
 digo of medium quality, at the quarterly sales in Lon- 
 don, from 1847 to 1851, both inclusive : 
 
 1851. 
 1850. 
 1849. 
 1848. 
 1847. 
 
 May. 
 
 6 2 
 
 4 6 
 
 4 
 
 8 7 
 
 4 4 
 
 July. 
 
 4 10 
 4 9 
 4 
 
 8 5 
 4 
 
 4 4 
 
 5 6 
 
 4 
 
 8 7 
 
 5 8 
 
 For further information as to indigo, see Colb- 
 beooke's Husbam^dry of Bengal, p. 154 ; Milburn's 
 Orient. Com. ; Wilkinson's Commerce of Bengal ; 
 Wilson's Seview of do. ; evidence of Gillian Maclaine, 
 Esq., East India Committee, 1830-31, etc. The fixed 
 capital required in the manufacture of indigo consists 
 of a few vats of common masonry for steeping the 
 plant, and precipitating the coloring matter ; a boiling 
 and drying-house ; and a dwelling-house for the 
 planter. These, for a factor)- of 10 pair of vats, capa- 
 ble of producing, at an average, 12,500 lbs. of indigo, 
 worth on the spot about £2500, will not cost above 
 £1500 sterling. The buildings and machinery neces- 
 sary to produce an equal value in sugar and rum, 
 would probably cost about £4000. This fact, there- 
 fore, without any reference to municipal regulations, 
 afibrda a ready answer to the question which has been 
 frequently put, why the planters in India have seldom 
 engaged in the manufacture of sugar in preference to 
 that of indigo. 
 
 Cultivation of American Indigo.— Xt the present mo- 
 ment, and for the past two years, the supply of the 
 first quality indigo has not been equal to the demand 
 for it, and that demand is constantly increasing. Some 
 very excellent indigo, well adapted for making chymic, 
 used to be obtained from Guatemala, but the kind most 
 esteemed is the first quality of Bengal, for which we 
 are dependent on a colony of Great Britain. About 
 12 years ago the best Bengal indigo could easily be ob- 
 tained, but at present it is almost unknown in the 
 
 market. A spurious article, however, much resembling 
 it, is abundant,' but it does not possess one half the 
 coloring matter of the' genuine, and yet it is Sold at a 
 retail price varjing from 6s. to 14s. per pound. Our 
 object is to direct the attention of our southern plant- 
 ers to the cultivation of the indigo plant, and the 
 manufacture of the best kinds of iudigo, for the infe-' 
 rior kinds are by far too plenty. About 60 years ago, 
 and within that period, some very fine qualities of in- 
 digo used to be cultivated in South Carolina ; its char- 
 acter was much higher than the finest Guatemala or 
 the best Bengal, but it is now unknown in the arts, to 
 the great regi'et of calico-printers, dyers, and leather- 
 dressers. In the fermentation of the indigo-plant so 
 much oxygen is absorbed, that its manufacture was 
 found to be very injurious to the health of the negroes 
 on the plantations. This was one reason for giving up 
 its culture ; and another, and perhaps the strongest, 
 was the higher profits derived from the cultivation of 
 cotton. It appears to us now, however, that with ex- 
 ercise of sufficient care, the health of the negroes may 
 be maintained as well as in the rice culture : also that 
 the price which could now be Obtained for it would be 
 very remunerative. There are hundreds of persons in 
 our country who would rather pay $2 per pound for 
 the ^est kind of indigo — -that quality which was manu- 
 factured at one time in South Carolina, or the kind 
 that was sold for the best Bengal 12 years ago— than 
 that which is now sold for 75 cents per pound. We 
 think these considerations ought to induce some of our 
 planters to engage in the cultivation of the finest quali- 
 ties of indigo. See Hunt's Mer. Mag., xiii., 227 ; 
 Jour. ofSci., xviii., 237 ; Ency. Brit. 
 
 Statement snowiNG tue Exports of Indiqo from the 
 United States foe the Teak ending June 80th, 1866. 
 
 Whither exported. 
 
 Danish West ludies 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Bremen 
 
 England 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 Canada 
 
 Other British North Amer. pos . 
 
 British West Indies 
 
 Canary Islands 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Turkey in Europe 
 
 Hayti 
 
 San Domingo 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Uruguay. 
 
 Total 
 
 From warehouse 
 
 Not from warehouse . 
 
 84,660 
 
 14,071 
 
 764 
 
 796 
 
 8 
 
 5,548 
 
 200 
 
 8,506 
 
 1,087 
 
 1,180 
 
 105 
 
 568 
 
 1,617 
 
 92,.529 
 
 48,824 
 49,205 
 
 $130 
 
 21,544 
 
 21,761 
 
 18,071 
 
 802 
 
 352 
 
 10 
 
 1,909 
 
 219 
 
 2,448 
 
 984 
 
 8.52 
 
 72 
 
 061 
 
 1,051 
 
 0,866 
 
 $40,642 
 80,824 
 
 Statement showing the Imports op Indigo into the 
 United States for the Year ending June 80th, 1S56. 
 
 Whence Imported. 
 
 Holland 
 
 England 
 
 Canada 
 
 Other British North Amer. pos.. , 
 
 British Honduras 
 
 British East Indies 
 
 Philippine Islands 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Central Eepublic 
 
 New Granada 
 
 Venezuela. , 
 
 China. 
 
 Total , 
 
 Founds. 
 
 261 
 
 508,193 
 
 590 
 
 224 
 
 42,629 
 
 «22,108 
 
 407,899 
 
 408 
 
 1,000 
 
 1,928 
 
 ,5,510 
 
 146,370 
 
 176 
 
 1,782,290 
 
 Value. 
 
 $194 
 
 868,273 
 
 345 
 
 )38 
 
 82,211 
 
 416,122 
 
 123,421 
 
 462 
 
 1,028 
 
 1,484 
 
 4,857 
 
 115,198 
 
 10 
 
 $1,068,743 
 
IND 
 
 1029 
 
 IND 
 
 Indorsement. — The Law of Indorsement, and the 
 Rights and Dvtiea'of an Indorser. — Only a note or bill 
 payable to a payee or order, is, strictly speaking, sub- 
 ject to indorsement. ' Those who write their names on 
 the back of any note Or bill, are indorsers in one sense, 
 and are sometimes cdlled so. The payee of a negotia- 
 ble bill or note — whether he be also maker or not — 
 may indorse it, and afterward any person, or any num- 
 ber of persons may indorse it. The maker promises to 
 pay to the J)kyee or his order ; and the indorsement is 
 an order to pay to the indorsee, and the maker's prom- 
 ise is then to him. But if the original promise was to 
 the payee or order, this " or order," which is a negoti- 
 able element, passes over to the indorsee, and he may 
 indorse, and so may his indorsee, indefinitely. Each 
 indorser, by his indorsement, does tWo things ; first, 
 he orders the Antecedent parties to pay to his indorsee ; 
 and next; he engages with his indorsee that if they do 
 not pay, he will. What effect an indorsement of a ne- 
 gotiable note or bill, by one not payee, before the in- 
 dorsement by payee, should have, is not quite certain. 
 Upon the whole, however, we should hold, with some 
 reason and authority, that irheve such a name appears, 
 as it may be made to have the place of a second in- 
 dorser whenever the payee chooses to write his name 
 over it, it shall be held to be so intended, in the ab- 
 sence of evidence ; and then, of course, it gives the 
 payee no claim against such a party, because a first 
 indorser can have none against a second, but the sec- 
 ond may have a claim against the first. But evidence 
 is receivable to prove that the party put his name on 
 the note for the purpose of adding to its security, by 
 becoming responsitle for it to the payee. And then, 
 if lie indorse the note before it was received by the 
 payee, the consideration of the note attaches to him, 
 and he may be held either as surety for consideration 
 or as a Maker. If he wrote his name on the note af- 
 ter it was made, and, at the request of the payee or 
 other holder, he is bound only as a guarantor or surety, 
 arid the consideration of the note being exhausted, he 
 is bound only by showing some new and independent 
 consideration:. No one who thus indorses a note not ne- 
 gotiable can be treated or considered precisely as a 
 second indorsei', ■whatever be the names on the paper 
 before his own ; but any indorser of such a note or 
 bill tiiay be hSld tb be a new maker or drawer, or a 
 guarantor or surety, as the circumstances of the case 
 indicate or require ; but either the original considera- 
 tion or a new one must attach to him to afiect him with 
 a legal obligation. 
 
 If the words "to order," or "to bearer," are omitted 
 accidentally arid by mistake, it seems they may be af- 
 terward inserted without injurj' to the bill or note ; 
 and whether a bill or note is negotiable or not, is held 
 to be a question of law. By the law-merchant, bills 
 and notes which are payable to order can be effectually 
 and fully transferred only by indorsement. This in- 
 dorsement maj' be in blank or in full. The writing of 
 the name of the payee — either the original payee or an 
 indorsee — with nothing more, is an indorsement in 
 blank, and a blank indorsement makes the bill or note 
 transferable by the delivery, in like manner as if it 
 had originally been paid to bearer. If the indorse- 
 ment consists not only of the name, but of an order 
 above the name, to pay the note to some specified per- 
 son, then it is an indorsemient in full, and the note can 
 be paid to no one else ; nor can the property in it be 
 fully transferred, except hy the indorsement of such 
 indorsee ; and he may again indorse it in blank or in 
 full. If the indorsement is paid to A B ordy, or its 
 equivalent words, A B is indorsee, but can not indorse 
 it over. 
 
 Any holder for value of a bill or note indorsed in 
 blank, whether he be the first indorsee or one to whom 
 it has come through many hands, may write over any 
 name indorsed an order to pay the contents to himself, 
 and this makes it a special indorsement, or an indorse- 
 
 ment in full. This is often done for security, that is to 
 guard against the loss of the note hj accident or theft. 
 For the rule of the law is, that negotiable paper, trans- 
 ferable by delivery (whether payable to bearer or in- 
 dorsed in blank), is, like money, the property of who- 
 ever receives it in good faith. The same rule has 
 been extended, in England, to exchequer bills, to pub- 
 lic bonds payable to bearer, and to East India bonds ; 
 and we think it would extend here to our railroad and 
 other corporation bonds ; and, perhaps, to all such in- 
 struments as are paj'able to bearer, whether sealed or 
 not, and whatever they maj- be called. If one has 
 such an instrument, and it be stolen, and the thief 
 passes it for consideration to a bona fide holder, this 
 holder acquires a legal right to it, because the property 
 and possession go together. But if the bill or note be 
 specially indorsed, no person can acquire an}' property 
 in it, except by the indorsement of the specif indorsee. 
 It is said, however, that this precaution protects only 
 the party who has thus made himself a special indorsee, 
 and that the former parties remain liable in the same 
 way as if the indorsement continued blank. 
 
 At one time this acquirement of property in negoti- 
 able paper was defeasible by want of proof or care ; 
 that is, if a holder lost his note, and a thief or finder 
 passed it off to a Soffit fide holder, the property did not 
 pass, if the circumstances were such as to show neg- 
 ligence on the part of the purchaser, or a want of due 
 inquiry. But this question of negligence seems now 
 to be at an end, and nothing less than fraud defeats 
 the title of the purchaser. 
 
 The written transfer of negotiable paper is called an 
 indorsement, because it is almost always written on 
 the back of the note ; but it has its full legal effect if 
 written on the face. Joint payees of a bill or note, who 
 are not partners, must all indorse. An indorser may 
 always prevent his own responsibility by writing 
 " without recourse," or other equivalent words, over 
 his indorsement ; and any bargain between the in- 
 dorser and indorsee, written or oral, that the indorser 
 shall not be sued, is available against that indorsee; 
 but not against subsequent indorsees, without notice. 
 A bill or note may be indorsed conditionally, and an 
 acceptor of a bill so indorsed, who paid it before such 
 condition is satisfied or complied with, has been held 
 to pay it again after the condition is performed. 
 
 Every indorsement and acceptance admits conclu- 
 sively the signature of every party who has put his 
 name upon the bill previously in fact, and is also pre- 
 vious in order. Thus an acceptance admits the sig- 
 nature of the drawer, but not the signature of one 
 who actually indorses before acceptance, because ac- 
 ceptance is in its nature prior to indorsement. If a 
 holder strike out an indorsement by mistake, he may 
 restore it ; if on purpose, the indorser is permanently 
 discharged. If the plaintiff, in his declaration, de- 
 rives his title through all tlie previous indorsements, 
 all must be there, and proved. But a holder may 
 bring his action against any prior indorser, and fill any 
 blank indorsement, specially to himself, and sue ac- 
 cordingly ; but then he invalidates subsequent indorse- 
 ments. The reason is, that he takes from them all 
 right to indorse ; thus, for example, if A makes a 
 note to B, and B, C, D, E, and F, indorse it in blank, 
 and G, the holder, writes over C's name, " pay to G," 
 it is as if C had written this himself, and then- G only, 
 could indorse, and, of course, D, E, and F could not, 
 as they were mere strangers. And a holder precludes 
 himself from taking advantage of the title of any 
 party whose indorsement is thus voided. Nor can 
 he strike out the name of any indorser prior to tliat 
 one whom he makes defendant ; for, bj' so doing, he 
 deprives the'defendant of his right to look to the party 
 whose name is stricken out, and this discharges the 
 defendant. 
 
 One may make a note or bill payable to his own 
 order, and indorse it in blank ; and this ip now very 
 
IND 
 
 1030 
 
 IND 
 
 common in our commercial cities, because tlie holder of 
 sucli a bill or note can transfer it by delivery, and it 
 needs not his indorsement to malte it negotiable fur- 
 ther. 
 
 A transfer by delivery, without Indorsement, of a 
 bill or note payable to bearer, or indorsed in blank, 
 does not generally make the transferrer responsible to 
 the transferree, for the payment of the instrument. 
 Nor has the transferree a right to fall back, in case of 
 non-paj-ment, upon the transferrer, for the original 
 consideration of the transfer, if the bill were trans- 
 ferred in good faith, in exchange for money or goods ; 
 for such transfer would be held to be a sale of the bill 
 or note, and the purchaser ta,kes it with all risks. But 
 it seems not to be so where such a note is delivered 
 either in payment or by way of security for a pre- 
 viously existing debt. Then if the transferrer has 
 lost nothing by the reception of the note by the trans- 
 ferree — because if he had continued to hold the note, 
 he would have lost it — there seems to be no reason 
 why the transferree should lose it. We have no 
 doubt that such a transferrer may make himself liable, 
 without indorsement, by express contract ; and that 
 circumstances might warrant and require the implica- 
 tion that the bill or note so transferred remained, by 
 the agreement and understanding of both parties, at 
 the risk of the transferrer. And every such transfer- 
 rer warrants that the bill or note (or bank-note) is not 
 forged or fictitious. 
 
 An indorsement may be made on the paper before 
 the bill or note is drawn ; and such indorsement, says 
 Lord Mansfield, " is a letter of credit for an indefinite 
 sum, and it will not lie in the indorser's mouth to say 
 that the indorsements were not regular." The same 
 rule applies to an acceptance on blank paper. So, an 
 indorsement may be made after or before acceptance. 
 If made after a refusal of acceptance, which is known 
 to the indorsee, he takes only the title of the indorsor, 
 and is subject to all defenses available against him. 
 A bill or note once paid at or after maturity ceases to 
 be negotiable, in reference to all who could be preju- 
 diced by its transfer. So, where a bill drawn payable 
 to a third person, by whom it is indorsed, is dishonored 
 and taken up by the drawer, it ceases to be a negoti- 
 able instrument ; for the drawer has no title to indorse 
 it. But if one draw a bill paj'able to his own order, 
 and indorse it over, and, upon the bill being dishon- 
 ored, take it up, he may indorse it again, and this last 
 indorsee can recover against the acceptor. And if a 
 bill or note is paid before it is due, it is valid in the 
 hands of a subsequent hondjide indorsee. 
 
 A portion of a negotiable bill or note can not be 
 transferred so as to give the transferree a right of 
 action for that portion in his own name. But if the 
 bill or note be partly paid, it may be indorsed over for 
 the balance. If an action be brought on a bill or note, 
 no transfer during the pendency of such action gives 
 to the transferree a right of action, unless he was 
 ignorant of the action ; then the transfer is valid. 
 After a holder's death his personal representative 
 should transfer. But it seems that if a note needing 
 indorsement was indorsed by the holder, but not de- 
 livered, the executor can not complete the transfer by 
 delivery. The husband who acquires a right to a bill 
 or note given to the wife, either before or after mar- 
 riage, may indorse. One who may claim payment of 
 a bill or note, and of whom payment may also be de- 
 manded, or one who is liable to contribute for the pay- 
 ment of a note, can not sue upon it. But if only the 
 technical rule — that the same party can not be plaintiff 
 and defendant — prevents the action, in may be avoided 
 by indorsement over to another before maturity. — 
 Parsons' Elements of Mercamtik Law, ch. ix. See 
 articles Bills of Exchange ; Story on Bills ; 
 Kent's Commentaries on American Law; Banker's 
 Mag., vols, v., vi., vii. ; En. Brit., article Exchange ; 
 Basxet on Bilk; Manual for Notaries Public. 
 
 Indus. This great river of Asia has its rise in 
 Thibet, at the north of the Kailas mountain, regarded 
 in Hindoo mythology as the mansion of the gods, in 
 about lat. 32°, long. 81° 30'. It first takes a north- 
 westerly direction for about 460 miles, when it is joined 
 by the river of Dras, which, rising in the mountains 
 of Cashmere, and receiving several streams both from 
 the east and west, discharges a considerable volume of 
 water at its confluence. At Makpon-i-Shagaron, in 
 lat. 35° 48', long. 74° 30', the Indus emerges from 
 the mountainous region, and turning south (a course 
 which it thenceforth continues to the sea), takes its 
 way through the country north of Attock. Close 
 above this last-mentioned town, and at the distance of 
 870 miles from its source, the Indus receives on the 
 western side the great river of Cabool. Both rivers 
 have a large volume of water, and as they meet amid 
 numerous rocks, the confluence is turbulent, and at- 
 tended with great uproar. The town of Attock is sit- 
 uate about 1000 feet above the sea-level, and about 
 17,000 feet below the source of the Indus, which falls, 
 therefore, 16,000 feet in 870 miles, or at the average 
 rate of about 19 feet per mile. The length of its 
 channel from Attock to the sea is 942 miles, and, con- 
 sequently, in that lower part of its course, it falls little 
 more than 1 foot per mile. For about 10 miles below At- 
 tock, the river, though in general rolling between high 
 cliffs of slate rock, has a calm, deep and rapid current ; 
 but for 100 miles further down to Kalabagh, it becomes 
 an enormous torrent. Lieutenant Wood, describing 
 this section of its course, observes, " It here rushes 
 down a valley, varying from 100 to 400 yards wide, 
 between precipitous banks from 70 to 700 feet high." 
 From Kalabagh southward, to Mittunkote, distant 
 about 350 miles, the banks, either right or left, are in 
 several places so low, that the first rise of the river 
 covers the country round with water, extending, as 
 the inundation advances, as far as the eye can reach. 
 On entering the plain, the water loses its clearness, 
 and becomes loaded with mud. Two or three miles 
 below Mittunkote, and about 490 miles from the sea, the 
 Indus receives the waters of the Punjnud, the channel 
 which conveys the collected stream of the Punjaub. 
 Above the confluence, the breadth of the Indus is less 
 than that of the other river, but in consequence of the 
 greater depth and velocity, the former has the greater 
 volume of water. AVood found that the Indus, near 
 the confluence, bad » breadth of 608 yards, a velocity 
 of about five miles an hour, a depth of 12 or 15 feet, 
 and discharged 91,719 cubic feet per second. The 
 Punjnud had a breadth of 1766 yards, a velocity of 
 about two miles an hour, a depth of 12 or 15 feet, and 
 discharged 68,955 cubic feet per second. Below the 
 junction, the Indus in its lowest state is 2000 yards 
 wide. Its aspect in this part is well described by 
 Major Boileau. He says, " At the place where we 
 crossed the Indus, almost immediately below its junc- 
 tion with the Punjnud, its stream is 2047 j-ards, or 
 nearly a mile and a quarter in breadth, at a place 
 where its width is unbroken, either by islands or sand- 
 banks. The banks are very low, and the water very 
 muddy, having just began to rise from the melting 
 snow at its sources, nor is the stream of very, great 
 depth, except in the main channel ; but with all these 
 drawbacks, it is a magnificent sheet of water, a very 
 prince of rivers." Below Mittunkote, the river passes 
 in succession the towns of Sukkur, Bukkur, Sehwan, 
 Hyderabad, and Triecal. The last mentioned of these 
 towns is situate in lat. 25° 9', long. 68° 21', and here 
 the delta commences ; all the country below it, and 
 contained between the Fulailee branch on the east, 
 and the extreme western branch of the river, being, 
 with little exception, alluvial, and obviously deposited 
 by the stream. At about five miles below Tatta, and 
 60 miles from the sea, the Indus divaricates into two 
 great branches, the Buggaur, which flows westward, 
 and the Sata, which maintains the previous course of 
 
INK 
 
 1031 
 
 INK 
 
 the Indus southward, and is, in strictness, the contin- 
 uation of that river. The lower part of the delta is 
 Intersected by riyers and creeks in almost every direc- 
 tion, like the delta of the Ganges ; but it so far differs 
 from the latter, that it has no trees on its surface, the 
 dry parts being covered with brushwood, and the re- 
 mainder, by much the largest part, being noisome 
 swamps or muddy lakes. It is remarkable that the 
 influence of the tides is not felt at a greater distance 
 than 60 or 65 miles from the sea. At the mouths of 
 the different branches, the rush or influx of the tide is 
 high and dangerous, running, as has been estimated, 
 at the rate of four miles an hour, though varying 
 greatly at different places. From the sea up to Hy- 
 derabad, the Indus is in general about a mile in 
 breadth, varying in depth, from two to five fathoms. 
 The river begins to swell in the middle of July, from 
 the melting of the snow, and continues to increase 
 until the end of August. The most eastern of the 
 estuaries connected with the Indus is the Koree 
 Mouth, from which, proceeding westward, the remain- 
 ing creeks or estuaries most worthy of notice, occur in 
 the following order: The Seer, Mull, Kaha, Kooke- 
 warree, Kedywarree (discharging the waters of the 
 Sata), Hujamree, Jooa, Durbar, Pitteeanee, Coondee, 
 Pitty, and Gizree. The spring-tide rises nine feet. 
 The length of the navigable part of the river from the 
 sea to Attock, has been ascertained by measurement 
 to be 942 miles, that of the upper part is about 870 
 miles, making a total length in round numbers of 
 1800 miles. The average declivity of the water-course 
 from the locality of the source to Attock is, per mile, 
 19 fegt ; from Attock downward to Kalabagh, a dis- 
 tance of about 110 miles, it is 20 inches ; from this place 
 to Mittuukote, a distance of about 350 miles,, it is eight 
 inches, and thence to the sea six inches. The Indus 
 appears destined to become an important channel of 
 commercial communication. — E. T. 
 
 Ingot, a mass of gold or silver melted down and 
 oast in a mold, but not coined or wrought. A large 
 portion of the gold received from California at New 
 York is put into this shape for more convenient ex- 
 port. 
 
 Ink (Du. Inh, Inkt ; Fr. Encre ; Ger. Dinte ; It. 
 Inchiostro ; Lat. Atramenium ; Rus. Tschemilo ; Sp. 
 Tinta ; Sw. BlaK). Every liquor or pigment used for 
 writing or printing is distinguished by the name of 
 ink. Common practice knows only black and red. 
 Of black there are three principal kinds : 1. Indian 
 ink ; 2. Printers' ink ; and 3. Writing ink. The In- 
 dian ink is used in China for writing with a brush, and 
 for painting upon the soft flexible paper of Chinese 
 manufacture. It is ascertained, as well from experi- 
 ment as froim information, that the cakes of this ink 
 are made of lampblack and size, or animal glue, with 
 the addition of perfumes or other substances not es- 
 sential to its quality as an ink. The fine soot from the 
 flame of a lamp or candle received by holding a plate 
 over it, mixed with clean size from the shreds of 
 parchment or glove-leather not dj-ed, will make an 
 ink equal to that imported. Good printers' ink is a 
 black paint, smooth, and uniform in its composition, 
 of a firm black color, and possesses a singular apti- 
 tude to adhere to paper thoroughly impregnated with 
 moisture. 
 
 The ancient black inks were composed of soot and 
 ivory black, and Vitruvius and Pliny mention lamp- 
 black ; but they had likewise various colors, as red, 
 gold, silver, and purple. Red ink was made by them 
 of vermilion and various kinds of gum. Indian ink 
 is brought from China, and must have been in use by 
 the people of the East from the earliest ages, most of 
 the artificial Chinese productions being of very great 
 antiquity. It is usually brought to Europe in small 
 quadrangular cakes, and is composed of a fine black 
 animal glue. — Beckmann. 
 
 Black Ink, — ^Nutgalls, sulphate of iron, and gum. 
 
 are the only substances truly useful in the preparation 
 of ordinary ink ; the other things often added merely 
 modify the shade, and considerably diminish the cost 
 to the manufacturer upon the great scale. Many of 
 these inks contain little gallic acid, or tannin, and are 
 therefore of inferior quality. To make 12 gallons of 
 ink, we may take 12 lbs. of nutgalls, 5 lbs. of green 
 sulphate of iron, 5 lbs. of gum Senegal, and 12 gallons 
 of water. 
 
 The bruised nutgalls are to be put into a cylindrical 
 copper, of a depth equal to its diameter, and boiled, 
 during three hours, with three fourths of the above 
 quantity of water, taking care to add fresh water to 
 replace what is lost by evaporation. The decoction is 
 to be emptied into a tub, allowed to settle, and the 
 clear liquor being drawn off, the lees are to be drained. 
 Some recommend the addition of a little bullock's 
 blood or white of egg, to remove a part of the tannin. 
 But this abstraction tends to lessen the product, and 
 will seldom be practiced by the manufacturer intent 
 upon a large return for his capital. The gum is to be 
 dissolved in a small quantity of hot water, and the 
 mucilage thus formed, being filtered, is added to the 
 clear decoction. The sulphate of iron must likewise 
 be separately dissolved, and well mixed with the 
 above. The color darkens by degrees, in consequence 
 of the peroxydizement of the iron on exposing the ink 
 to the action of the air. But ink affords a more dura- 
 ble writing when used in the pale state, because its 
 particles are then finer, and penetrate the paper more 
 intimately. When ink consists chiefly of tannate of 
 peroxyd of iron, however black, it is merely super- 
 ficial, and is easily erased or effaced. Therefore, 
 whenever the liquid made by the above prescription 
 has acquired a moderately deep tint, it should be 
 drawn off clear into bottles, and well corked up. 
 Some ink-makers allow it to mold a little in the casks 
 before bottling, and suppose that it will thereby be 
 not so liable to become moldy in the bottles. A few 
 bruised cloves, or other aromatic perfume, added to 
 ink, is said to prevent the formation of moldiness, 
 which is produced by the ova of infusoria animalcules. 
 I prefer digesting the galls to boiling them. 
 
 The operation may be abridged, by peroxydizing the 
 copperas beforehand, by moderate calcination in an 
 open vessel ; but, for the reasons above assigned, ink 
 made with such a sulphate of iron, however agreeable 
 to the ignorant, when made to shine with gum and 
 sugar, under the name of japan ink, is neither the 
 most durable nor the most pleasant to write with. 
 From the comparatively high price of gall-nuts, sumach, 
 logwood, and even oak bark, are too frequently substi- 
 tuted, to a considerable degree, in the manufacture of 
 ink. The ink made by the prescription given above, 
 is much more rich and powerful than many of the inks 
 commonly sold. To bring it to their standard, a half 
 more water may safely be added, or even 20 gallons of 
 tolerable ink may be made from that weight of mate- 
 rials. Sumach and logwood admit of only about one 
 half of the copperas that galls will take to bring out 
 the maximum amount of black dye. Chaptal gives a 
 prescription in his Chimie appliquSe aux arts, which, 
 like many other things in that book, are published 
 with verj' little knowledge and discrimination. He 
 uses logwood and sulphate of copper, in addition to 
 the galls and sulphate of iron ; a pernicious combina- 
 tion, productive of a spurious fugitive black, and a 
 liquor corrosive of pens. It is, in fact, a modification 
 of the vile dye of the hatters. Lewis, who made ex- 
 act experiments on inks, assigned the proportion of 3 
 parts of galls to 1 of sulphate of iron, which, with 
 average galls, will answer very well ; but good galls 
 will admit of more copperas. 
 
 Gold Ink is made by grinding upon a porphyry slab, 
 with a muller, gold leaves along with white honey, till 
 they be reduced to the finest possible division. The 
 paste is then collected upon the edge of a knife or 
 
INK 
 
 1032 
 
 INK 
 
 spatula, put into a large glass, and diffused through 
 water. The gold by gravity soon falls to the bottom, 
 while the honey dissolves in the water, which must ba 
 decanted off. The sediment is to be repeatedly washed 
 till entirely freed from the honey. The powder, when 
 dried, is very brilliant, and when to be used as an ink, 
 may be mixed up with a little gum water. After the 
 writing becomes drj', it should be burnished with a 
 wolfs tooth. 
 
 Silver Ink is prepared in the same manner. 
 
 Indelible Ink. — A very good ink, capable of resisting 
 chlorine, oxalic acid, and ablution with a hair pencU 
 or sponge, may be made by mixing some of the ink 
 made by the preceding prescription, with a little gen- 
 uine China ink. It writes well. Many other formulae 
 have been given for indelible inks, but they are aU in- 
 ferior in simplicity and usefulness to the one now pre- 
 scribed. Solution of nitrate of silver thickened with 
 gum, and written with upon linen or cotton cloth, pr^ 
 viously imbued with a solution of soda, and dried,, is 
 the ordinary permanent ink of the shops. Before the 
 cloths are washed, the writing should be exposed to 
 the sunbeams, or to bright daylight, which blackens 
 and fixes the oxj-d of silver. It is easily discharged 
 by chlorin and ammonia. A good permanent ink 
 may be made by mixing a strong solution of chlorid 
 of platinum with a little potash sugar, and gum to 
 thicken. The writing made therewith should be passed 
 over with a hot smoothing iron to fix it. 
 
 By decomposing vanadate of ammonia with infu- 
 sion of galls, a liquid is obtained of a perfectlj' black 
 hue, which flows freely from the pen, is rendered blue 
 by acids, is insoluble in dilute alkalis, and resists the 
 action of chlorin. Whenever the metal vanadium 
 shall become more abundant, as it probably may ere 
 long, we shall possess the means of making an ink, at 
 a moderate price, much superior to the tannate and 
 gallate of iron. To prepare the above vanadic salt 
 cheaply, the cinder or hammerschlag obtained from 
 the iron made at Ekersholm, in Sweden, or other iron 
 which contains vanadium, being reduced to a fine pow- 
 der, is to be mixed with two thirds of its weight of 
 nitre, and one third of effloresced soda. The mixture 
 is to be ignited in a crucible ; cooled and lixiviated, 
 whereby solutions of the vanadates of potash and soda 
 are obtained, not pure, indeed, but sufficiently so for 
 being decomposed, by means of sal ammoniac, into a 
 vanadate of ammonia. This being rendered nearly 
 neutral with any acid, constitutes an excellent indeli- 
 ble ink. 
 
 Indelible Ink may be prepared by a dding lampblack 
 and indigo to a solution of the gluten of wheat in acetic 
 acid. This ink is of a beautiful black color, at the 
 same time cheap, and can not be removed by water, 
 chlorin, or dilute acids. M. Herberger gives the fol- 
 lowing directions for its preparation : Wheat-gluten is 
 carefully freed from the starch, and then dissolved in a 
 little weak acetic acid ; the liquid is now mixed with 
 so much rain water that the solution has about the 
 strength of wine vinegar, i. e., neutralizes 1-16 of its 
 weight of carbonate of soda. 10 grs. of the best lamp- 
 black and 2 grs. of indigo are mixed with i ozs. of the 
 solution of gluten, and a little oil of cloves added. 
 This ink may be employed for iparking linen, as it 
 does not resist mechanical force. 
 
 Ink, indelible, of Dr. Traill, is essentially the same 
 as the above. French indelible ink consists of Indian 
 ink diifused through dilute muriatic acid, for writing 
 with quills, and through weak potash lye for writing 
 with steel pens. 
 
 Red Ink. — This ink may be made by infusing, for 
 three or four days in weak vinegar, Brazil wood chip- 
 ped into small pieces ; the infusion may be then boiled 
 upon the wood for an hour, strained, and thickened 
 slightly with gum arable and sugar. A little alum 
 improves the color. A decoction of cochineal with a 
 little water of ammonia, forms a more beautiful red 
 
 ink, but it is fugitive. An extemporaneous red ink 
 of the same kind may be made by dissolving carmine 
 in weak water of ammoijia, and adding a little mu- 
 cilage. 
 
 Green Ink. — According to Klaproth, a fine ink of 
 this color may be prepared by boiling a mixture of 
 two parts of verdigris in eight parts of water, with one 
 of cream of tartar, till the total bulk be reduced one 
 half. The solution must be then passed through a 
 cloth, cooled, and bottled for use. 
 
 Yellow Ink is made by dissolving 3 parts of alum in 
 100 of water, adding 25 parts of Persian or Avignon 
 berries bruised, boiling the mixture for an hour, 
 straining the liquor, and dissolving it in 4 parts of 
 gum arable. A solution of gamboge in water forms a 
 convenient yellow ink. 
 
 By examining the different dye-stuffs, and consider- 
 ing the processes used in dyeing with them, a variety 
 of colored inks may be made. 
 
 China Ink. — Proust says, that lampblack purified 
 by potash ley, when mixed with a solution of glue, 
 and dried, formed an ink which was preferred by 
 artists to that of China. M. Merimte, in his interest- 
 ing treatise, entitled Le lapeinture a Vhuile, says, that 
 the Chinese do not use glue in the fabrication of their 
 ink, but that they add vegetable juices, which render 
 it more brilliant and more indelible upon paper. When 
 the best lampblack is levigated with the purest gela^ 
 tine or soluticin. of glue, it , forms, no doubt, an ink of 
 a good color, but wants the shining fracture, and is not 
 so permanent on paper as good China ink ; and it 
 stiffens in cold weather into a tremulous jell}'. Glue 
 may be deprived of the gelatinizing property by boil- 
 ing it for a long time, or subjecting it to a high heat in 
 aPapin's digester; but as ammonia is apt to, be gener- 
 ated in this way, M. Merim6e recommends starch gum 
 made by sulphuric acid (British gum) to be used in 
 preference to glue. He gives, however, the following 
 directions for preparing this ink with glue. Into a 
 solution of glue he pours a concentrated solution of 
 gall-nuts, which, occasions an elastic resinous-looking 
 precipitate. He washes this matter with hot water, 
 and dissolves it in a spare solution of clarified glue. 
 He filters anew, and concentrates it to the proper de- 
 gree for being incorporated with the purified lamp- 
 black. The astringent principle in vegetables does 
 not precipitate gelatin when its acid is saturated,- as 
 is done by boiling the nut-galls with lime-water or 
 magnesia. The first mode of making the ink is to 
 be preferred. The lampblack is said to be made in 
 China, b}'' collecting the smoke of the oil of sesame. 
 A little camphor (about 2 per cent.) has been detected 
 in the ink of China, and is supposed to improve it. 
 Infusion of galls renders the ink permanent on 
 paper. 
 
 Sympathetic Ink. — The best is a solution of muriate 
 of cobalt. 
 
 Printers^ Ink. See Ure's Diet, for full details. 
 
 Blue Ink. — Mr. Stephens's patent blue ink is made 
 by dissolving Prussian blue in a solution of oxalic 
 acid. The blue should be washed in dUute ninriatio 
 acid. M. Homung has given the following as the best 
 formula for blue ink : Mix 4 parts of perchlorid of 
 iron, in solution, with 7'5D parts of water, then add 4 
 parts of cyanid of potassium dissolved in a little wa- 
 ter ; collect the precipitate formed ; wash it with sev- 
 eral additions of water ; allow it to drain until it weighs 
 about 200 parts ; add to this 1 part of oxalic acid, and 
 promote the solution of the cyanid by shaking the 
 bottle containing the mixture. The addition of gum 
 and sugar is useless, and even appears to exercise a prej- 
 udicial effect on the beauty of the ink. It may be 
 kept without any addition for a long time. — Uke's 
 Dictionary of Manufactures. See Indian Ink. 
 
 Inkle, a sort of broad linen tape, principally manu- 
 factured at Manchester and some other towns in Lan- 
 cashire. 
 
INS 
 
 1033 
 
 INS 
 
 Inlaid 'V70Tk. There are many pretty and varied 
 kinds of inlaid work manufactured from small fragments 
 of material. There is the Marquetrie or inlaid cabinet- 
 furniture of France, consisting in inlaying ffoods of a 
 great variety of tints, in the form of flowers, ornaments, 
 etc. The Buhl, or Bonl-worky is also of French inven- 
 tion, wherein metals are inlaid upon a ground of ebony 
 or tortoise-shell. The elaborate German cabinets, made 
 of ebony, are inlaid with precious stones and various 
 woods and metals. There is the Mosaic irday, in which 
 the pieces, inlaid are extremely small, and of which ex- 
 quisite boxes are made by the Hindoos ; witness, too, 
 the. marvelous Spanish table at the Great Exhibition 
 of London in 8,000,000 of pieces. The Parquetry, or 
 inlaid floweringj which differs from Marquetrie chiefly 
 in the bolder scale of the designs ; woods of different 
 colors being, cut to pattern, and inlaid. There is the 
 novel and beautiful process of inlaying articles of fur- 
 niture with porcelain; the inlaid portions are not 
 merely pannels and pilasters, but painted porcelain 
 flowers and other ornaments. The Pietra Sura is a 
 kind of art carried to great perfection in Tuscany : its 
 cultivation in that country has for a long period sup- 
 plied most of the palaces of Europe with works in 
 pietra dura, which rank among the finest examples of 
 decorative furniture. 
 
 Insolvenoy and Bankruptcy. The first In- 
 solvent Act in England was passed in 1649, biit it 
 was of limited operation; a number of acts of more 
 extensive operation were passed at various \periods, 
 and particularly in the reign^ of George III. The 
 benefit of the act known as the Great Insolvent Act 
 was taken in England by 50,1733 insolvents from the 
 time of its passing, in 1814, to March, 1827, a period of 
 13 years. Since then, the acts relating to insolvency 
 have been several times amended. Persons not trad- 
 ers, or, being traders, whose debts are less than £300, 
 may petition the Court of Bankruptcy, and propose 
 composition, and have pro tern, protection from all pro- 
 cess against their persons and property, 6 Yiot., 1842. 
 Act amended, 8 Vict., August, 1844. — Haydn. 
 
 Bonhruptcy, — Blackstone defines a bankrupt — " A 
 trader who secretes himself, or does certain other acts 
 tending to defraud his creditors." But an intention 
 to defraud is not now held to be essential to constitute 
 a bankrupt ; who may be either simply an insolvent, 
 or a person who is guilty of certain acts tending to de- 
 fraud his creditors; i 
 
 J-ssoi-VETSCY.^-Atudysis of the Laws of Bankruptcy. 
 — In Great Britain, insolvency is applied to every class 
 of persons, while banlcruptcy is exclusively applied to 
 traders. In foreign coujitries, insolvency is the general 
 denomination. Bankruptcy is declared when there is 
 any degree of criminality. The law of bankruptcy of 
 England is consolidated in the 12 and 13 Vict., c. 106. 
 In America, various attempts were made for a general 
 enactment for all the States, but with no success. The 
 act of Congress on the subject, passed in 1841, was re- 
 pealed in 1843. Special insolvency laws exist, of 
 which an abstract is- given hereaften In Scotland, 
 the bankrupt law is included in the 2 and 3 Vict., chapv 
 41. The French law of the 28th of May, 1838, has 
 modified the Code of Commerce of 1807. Article 437 
 permits declaration of the insolvency of a trader after 
 his decease. The law of Scotland authorizes the seques- 
 tration of estates of a deceased debtor. The same is 
 permitted in Portugal. In England a Court of Bank- 
 ruptcy is instituted, which may adjudge the creditor a 
 bankrupt. In Scotland the same is- placed with the 
 Lord Ordinary. In France the same authority is 
 given to the tribunal. Acts of bankruptcy may be 
 committed in England in various ways. All acts 
 made previous to adjudication of bankruptcy are valid, 
 if they are entered into bona Jide on the part of the 
 contracting party. In France, the following acts, 
 made within 10 days preceding the opening of the in- 
 solvency, sue void: 1st. Acts transferring property 
 
 gratuitously ; 2d. Payment of debts not due, and of 
 those due settled otherwise than with commercial efi- 
 fects; 3d. All mortgages, antichrese, or security, con- 
 sented to for anterior debts ; and, lastlj', all acts what- 
 ever made by the debtor with a third party who was 
 cognizant of his having stopped payment. Articles 
 63 to 54 of the Prussian code contain also similar in- 
 structions. The Spanish code fixes 30 days ; the Por- 
 tuguese code, 40 daj's ; the Dutch code, two months 
 previous to the insolvency as the time during which 
 the insolvent could not alienate his property gratui- 
 tously, or endow his children, or transfer or mortgage 
 his real estate. 
 
 The Dutch code declares void the donations made 
 by the insolvent at any time where he knew his affairs 
 embarrassed,, although the- donates was bimajlde.' The 
 Bussian code prohibits the wife and children of the in- 
 solvent to reclaim the donations made to them. By 
 Article 1451, the property engaged by the insolvent, 
 and not yet sold, may be redeemed, and form portions 
 of the assets. As to the administration of the insolv- 
 ency in England, assignees are chosen by the creditors, 
 under the supervision of the Court. In Scotland, cred- 
 itors are to elect an interim factor and a trustee, and 
 also three commissioners. In France, the agents cre- 
 ated by the code 1807 have been suppressed, and at 
 present there are no more than provisiouary assignees, 
 who continue their functions till the confirmation of 
 the settlement, or till the formation of the contract of 
 union. The Tribunal of Commerce of Paris has formed 
 a fixed number of assignees, to whom is confided the 
 management of all liankrnptcles. 
 
 In Spain, the tribunal designates a commissioner, 
 nominates a trustee for the property of the insolvent, 
 and calls the creditors, who choose some assignees, 
 who are to be taken from among the creditors, or 
 their attorneys." In Efigland, the commissioners of 
 bankruptcy are judges, elected by the Lord Chancel- 
 lor, one for each district. All legislation provides for 
 the remuneration of the assignees, trustees, or admin- 
 istrators : these remunerations are fixed by Art. 1078, 
 Spanish code, Portuguese code, Russian code, etc., etc., 
 either upon a determined share, or the receipts which 
 they have realized, or by remimeration, valued by the 
 tribunal. The Spanish code prohibts an attorney from 
 representing more than one creditor ; and the Portu- 
 guese code prohibits a' creditor from representing an- 
 other creditor at the meetings. 
 
 In order that an insolvent may obtain a settlement, 
 there need be, in France and in Russia, a majority of 
 the creditors and- three fourths of the debts. In Scot- 
 land, a majority and three fifths of the debts. In 
 Spain, one more than the half of creditors and three 
 fifths of the debts. The wife of the insolvent has no 
 deliberative voice there in the resolutions relative to 
 the settlement. In Holland, in Portugal, in Wurtem- 
 burg, and according to- the ordinance of Bilboa, the 
 two thirds of ordinary creditors and three fourths of 
 debts, or the three fourths of the creditors and two 
 thirds of the debts must be added together. The Prus- 
 sian code, which divides the creditors into six classes, 
 exacts the majority on sum and classes ; in case of di- 
 vision of classes, the settlement may be adopted by 
 the one and rejected by another ; but if the division 
 is impracticable, the declaration of division shall be 
 equivalent then to a refusal. With respect to the 
 confirmation, both in France and in Spain, it can only 
 be pronounced eight days after the settlement, has been 
 obtained. The dissenting creditors, according to the 
 Spanish code, can not form opposition to it, unless on 
 account of defects in the forms of calling the meet- 
 ings, on account of collusion, or of want of legitimate 
 rights in the parties voting, or of fraudulent exaggera- 
 tion of their debts ; and in Holland, when the assets 
 exceed the sum entered in the settlement. The Dutch 
 code and the French law render the confirmation 
 obligatory upon all the creditors both absent and 
 
INS 
 
 1034 
 
 INS 
 
 present, and even upon those who have not been 
 called. 
 
 The rights of foreign creditors are generally regu- 
 lated by treaties, Prussia, or by the right of reciproc- 
 ity, Austria. By the French code of civil procedure, 
 two months are granted to creditors residing in En- 
 gland to prove their debts. B3' the Sardinian code, 
 such delay is three months.- — Com. Law of tlie World, 
 by Leone Levi. London, 1856. 2 vols. 
 
 United States, — There is not any bankrupt sj'stem 
 in existence under the government of the United 
 States. An act of Congress was passed on the subject 
 in 1841, but it was repealed in 1843. The several 
 States are left free to institute their own bankrupt 
 system Insolvent laws prevail throughout the Union. 
 In the States of Maine, New Hampshire, Massachu- 
 setts, Virginia, and Kentucky, they are confined to 
 the relief of debtors charged in execution. In New 
 Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, Tennessee, North and 
 South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and 
 Illinois, the insolvent laws extend to debtors in 
 prison on mesne, or final process. In New York, 
 Connecticut, Ehode Island, Pennsylvania, Ohio, In- 
 diana, Missouri, and Louisiana, they are still more 
 extensive, and reach the debtor whether in or out of 
 prison. The following is an abstract of the laws of the 
 several States in reference to summarj- attachment 
 against insolvents : 
 
 I. Alabama. — Original attachments, foreign and do- 
 mestic, are issued by judges of the circuit or county 
 courts, or justices of the peace. An attachment may 
 issue, although the debt or demand of the plaintiff be 
 not due ; and shall be a lien on the property attached, 
 until the debt or demand becomes due, when judgment 
 shall be rendered and execution issued. A non-resi- 
 dent plaintiff may have an attachment against the 
 property of a non-resident defendant ; provided he 
 gives good and sufficient resident security in the re- 
 quired bond ; making oath that the defendant has not 
 sufBcient property within the State of defendant's 
 residence to satisfy the debt or demand. 
 
 II. ArJcansas. — An attachment may be issued 
 against the property of a non-resident ; and also 
 against a resident of the State when the latter is about 
 to remove out of the State ; or is about to remove his 
 goods or effects ; or about to secrete himself so that 
 the ordinany process of law can not be served on him. 
 
 III. California. — 1. Creditors may proceed by at- 
 tachment when the defendant has absconded, or is 
 about to abscond from the State ; or is concealed 
 therein to the injurj- of his creditors. 2. When the 
 defendant has removed, or is about to remove, any 
 of his property out of the State, with intent to de- 
 fraud his creditors., 3. When the defendant fraudu- 
 lently contracted the debt, or incurred the obligation, 
 respecting which the suit is brought. 4. When the 
 defendant is a non-resident. 6. When he has fraudu- 
 lently conveyed, disposed of, or concealed his propert)', 
 or a part of it ; or intends to convey the same to de- 
 fraud his creditors. In California the real estate shall 
 be bound, and the attachment shall be a lien thereon, 
 although the debt or demand due the plaintiff be not 
 due — in case the defendant is about to remove himself 
 or his property from the State. The law of attachment 
 applies in California, when the contract has heen made in 
 that State, or when made payable in that State. 
 
 IV. Connecticut. — Attachment may be granted 
 against the goods and chattels and land of the defend- 
 ant ; and likewise against his person when not ex- 
 empted from imprisonment on the execution in the 
 suit. The plaintiff to give bonds to prosecute his 
 claim to efifect. 
 
 V. Delaware. — A writ of domestic attachment issues 
 against an inhabitant of Delaware when the defendant 
 can not be found ; or has absconded with intent to de- 
 fraud his creditors ; and a writ of foreign attachment 
 when the defendant is not an inhabitant of this State. 
 
 This attachment is dissolved by the defendant's ap- 
 pearing and patting in special bail at any time before 
 judgment. 
 
 VI. Florida. — An attachment issues when the 
 amount is actually due, and the defendant is actually 
 removing out of the State,' or absconds or conceals 
 himself. 
 
 VII. Georgia. — A judge of the superior court, or 
 a justice of the inferior court, or a justice of the 
 peace, may grant an attachment against a debtor 
 whether the debt be matured or not, when the lat- 
 ter is removing without the limits of the State, or 
 any county, or conceals himself. The remedy by at- 
 tachment may be resorted to by non-resident as well 
 as by resident creditors. The necessarj'' affidavit may 
 be made before any commissioner appointed by the 
 State to take affidavits. Indorsers of notes, obliga- 
 tions, and all other instruments in writing, are entitled 
 to the same remedy as provided for securities. In all 
 cases the attachment first served shall be first satisfied. 
 No lien shall be created by the levying of an attach- 
 ment, to the exclusion of any judgment obtained by 
 any creditor, before judgment is obtained by the at- 
 taching creditor. 
 
 VIII. Illinois. — Attachnaents are issued by the 
 clerks of the circuit court, when afidavit is filed that 
 the defendant has departed, or is about to depart, out 
 of the State, or conceals himself, so that process can 
 not be served upon him. 
 
 IX. Indiana. — The property of an inhabitant of the 
 State may be attached, whenever he is secretly leav- 
 ing the State, or shall have left the State with intent 
 to defraud his creditors. The property of a non- 
 resident is liable to attachment as in other States. 
 
 X. Iowa. — The plaintiff may cause any property of 
 the defendant, which is not subject to execution, to be 
 attached at the commencement, or during the progress, 
 of the proceedings, whether the claim be matured or 
 not; provided an affidavit is filed to the effect that 
 the defendant is a foreign corporation, or acting as 
 such, or that he is a non-resident of the State, or (if a 
 resident) that he is in some manner about to dispose 
 of or remove his property out of the State. 
 
 XL Kentucky. — 1. The plaintifi^ may have an attach- 
 ment against the propertj- of the defendant when the 
 latter is a foreign corporation, or a non-resident of this 
 State ; or, 2, who has been absent therefrom four 
 months ; or, 3, has departed from the State with in- 
 tent to defraud his creditors ; or, 4, has left the county 
 of his residence to avoid the service of a summons, or 
 conceals himself that a summons can not reach him ; 
 or, 5, is about to remove his property, or a material 
 part thereof, out of the State ; or, 6, has sold or con- 
 veyed his property with the intent to defraud his 
 creditors, or is about so to sell or convej'. Such at- 
 tachment is binding upon the defendant's property in 
 the county from the time of the delivery of the order 
 to the sheriff. 
 
 XII. Louisiana. — A creditor may obtain an attach- 
 ment against the property of his debtor upon affidavit : 
 1, when the latter is about leaving permanently the 
 State before obtaining or executing judgment against 
 him ; 2, when the debtor resides out of the State ; 3, 
 when he conceals himself to avoid being cited to an- 
 swer to a suit, and provided the term of paj^ment have 
 arrived. In the absence of the creditor, the oath may 
 be made by his agent or attorney, to best of his knowl- 
 edge and belief. 
 
 XIII. Maine. — In this State, an original writ may 
 be framed either to attach the goods or estate of the 
 defendant, or for want thereof to take his body. All 
 goods and chattels may be attached by the creditor 
 and held as security pending any suit against the 
 debtor. Such a writ will authorize an attachment of 
 goods and estate of the principal defendant, in his 
 own hands, as well as in the hands of trustees. Beal 
 estate, liable to be taken in execution, may be attached.. 
 
INS 
 
 1035 
 
 INS 
 
 XIV. Maryla/ad, — A creditor may obtain an attach- 
 ment, "whether he be a citizen of Maryland or not, 
 against his debtor, who is not a citizen of this State, 
 and not residing therein. If any citizen of the State, 
 being indebted to another citizen thereof, shall actu- 
 ally run away or abscond, or secretly remove himself 
 from his place of abode, with intent to evade the pay- 
 ment of his just debts, an attachment may be obtained 
 against him. An attachment may be laid upon debts 
 due the defendant upon judgments or decrees rendered 
 or passed by any court of this State, and judgment of 
 condemnation thereof may be had, as upon other debts 
 due the defendant, 
 
 XV. Mctssaclmsetts. — Original writs may be framed, 
 either to attach the goods or estate of the defendant, 
 or for want thereof to take his body ; or, there may be 
 an original summons, either with or without an order 
 to attach the goods or estate. All real estate, or goods 
 and chattels that are liable to be taken in execution, 
 may be attached upon the original writ, in any action 
 in which any debt or damages are recoverable, and 
 may be held as security to satisfy such judgment as 
 the plaintiff may recover. 
 
 XVI. Michigan. — The grounds of attachment in this 
 State are, 1, that the defendant has absconded, or is 
 about to abscond, or has concealed himself ; 2, that he 
 has assigned, or concealed, or is about to remove, his 
 property with a view to defraud ; 3, that he fraudu- 
 lently contracted the debt, or incurred the obligation, 
 about which the suit is brought ; 4, that he is not a 
 resident of the State, or has not resided there three 
 months immediately preceding the suit ; 5, that the 
 defendant is a foreign corporation. 
 
 XVII. Mississippi. — ^An attachment against the es- 
 tate, including real estate, slaves, goods, chattels, 
 etc., of a debtor, when it is shown that he has re- 
 moved, or is about removing or absconding from the 
 State, or privately conceals himself. Attachment also 
 lies against the property of non-resident decedents. 
 It may be obtained before the debt is due for which it 
 issues, when the creditor has ground to believe that 
 the debtor will remove with his effects out of the 
 State, or has removed. 
 
 XVIII. Missouri. — An attachment may be issued 
 here when the debtor is not a resident of the State ; 
 or, if a resident, when he absconds, absents, or con- 
 ceals himself ; or is about to remove his property, or 
 fraudulently convey it, with a view to hinder or delay 
 his creditors ; or, 2, where the debt was contracted out 
 of the State, and the debtor has secretly removed his 
 effects into this State with intent to defraud. 
 
 XIX. New Hampshire. — In this State a writ of at- 
 tachment may be issued upon the institution of any 
 personal action ; and will hold real and personal prop- 
 erty, shares of stock in corporations, pews in churches, 
 and the franchise of any corporation authorized to re- 
 ceive tolls, until the period of thirty days from the 
 time of rendering the judgment. 
 
 XX. New Jersey. — ^An attachment may issue at the 
 instance of a creditor (or in his absence, of his agent 
 or attorney), against the property of a debtor when 
 the latter is about to abscond from the State, or is not 
 a resident of the State, or is a foreign corporation. 
 
 XXI. New Yorlc. — ^Any creditor to the amount of 
 $25 may compel the assignment of their estates by 
 debtors imprisoned on execution in civil causes for 
 more than 60 years. If the debtor refuses to be ex- 
 amined, and to disclose his affairs, he is liable to be 
 committed to close confinement. If he refuses to ren- 
 der an account inventory, and make an assignment, 
 he will not be entitled to his discharge ; though the 
 officer having jurisdiction in the case is authorized to 
 make the assignment for him. The proceedings, and 
 the effect; of the discharge, when diiy obtained, and 
 the duties of the debtor, and the rights of the credit- 
 ors, are essentially the same as in the case of proceed- 
 ings with the assent of two thirds of the creditors. 
 
 2. Every insolvent debtor may also petition the pro- 
 per officers for leave voluntarily to assign his estate 
 for the benefit of his creditors ; and the same proceed- 
 ings and checks are substantially prescribed as in other 
 cijses of insolvency. His discharge, obtained in such 
 a case, exempts him from imprisonment, as to debts 
 due at the time of the assignment, or previously con- 
 tracted ; and as to liabilities incurred by making or 
 indorsing any promissory note or bill of exchange. 
 Eut the discharge does not atfect or impair any debt, 
 demand, payment, or decree against the insolvent ; 
 and they remain good against his property acquired 
 after the execution of the assignment ; and the lien of 
 judgment and decree is not affected by the discharge. 
 
 3. The creditor at whose suit the debtor is im- 
 pnsoned, may require him, after the expiration of three 
 months, to make the assignment, and his refusal will 
 forever bar him from his discharge imder this provision. 
 
 4. Corporations being creditors, may petition by a 
 director, or other officer, acting under the corporate 
 seal ; and such director or officer, may make the requi- 
 site affidavits. So one joint partner may act as a 
 creditor for the firm ; and provision is made for the 
 accommodation of non-resident creditors. 
 
 5.; Debts purchased below the nominal amount enti- 
 tle the creditor to act to the amount of the sum act- 
 ually and bona fide paid ; nor is a creditor having a 
 security permitted to become a petitioner unless he 
 relinquishes his security for the common benefit of the 
 creditors. The assignments and discharges in these 
 insolvent cases are to be recorded by the clerk of the 
 county in which they were executed. No debt or 
 duty to the United States is affected by any such dis- 
 charge, not even as to the remedy by imprisonment ; 
 but debts and duties to the State, except taxes, are 
 placed upon the same footing as debts to individuals. 
 
 6. The assignment of the insolvent passes all his 
 interest, legal and equitable, existing at the time of 
 executing the assignment in any estate, real or per- 
 sonal ; but no contingent interest passes unless it shall 
 become vested within three years after making the as- 
 signment, and then it passes. Probabilities coupled 
 with an interest are assignable ; but not bare possibil- 
 ities, such as the expectancy of an heir. The assign- 
 ment does not affect property held by the debtor in 
 trust ; nor does the assignment by the insolvent hus- 
 band affect the property settled to the separate use of 
 the wife free and clear of her husband. 
 
 7. The insolvent discharges apply only to debts ex- 
 isting when the petition, inventor}*, and schedule of 
 debts arc presented, and not so as to cover debts con- 
 tracted between that time and the time of the dis- 
 
 8. The property assigned is distributed ratably 
 among all the creditors, subject, nevertheless, to exist- 
 ing legal liens and priorities existing before the as- 
 signment ; and under the New York insolvent laws, a 
 creditor can not become a petitioning creditor in re- 
 spect to any debt secured by a legal lien, unless he 
 previousl}' relinquishes that lien for the general benefit 
 of the creditors. , 
 
 9. The attachment-law of New York is a legal 
 mode, by which, a title to property may be acquired 
 by operation of law. When the debtor, who is an in- 
 habitant of New York, absconds, or is concealed, a 
 creditor to whom he owes $100, or rfny two, to whom 
 he owes $150, or any three, to whom he owes $300, 
 may, on application to a judge or commissioner, and 
 on due proof of the debt, and of the departure or con- 
 cealment, procure his real and personal estate to be 
 attached ; and on due public notice of the proceeding, 
 if the debtor does not within three months return and 
 satisfy the creditor, or appear and offer to contest the 
 fact of having absconded, or offer to appear and con- 
 test the validity of the demand and giye the requisite 
 security, then trustees are to be appointed who become 
 vested with the debtor's estate ; and they are to ooli 
 
INS 
 
 1036 
 
 INS 
 
 lect and sell it, and settle controversies, and make divi- 
 dends among all his creditors, in the mode prescribed. 
 
 10. From the time of the notice, all sales and as- 
 signments by the debtor are declared to be void. If 
 the debtor resides out of the State, and is indebted on 
 a contract made within the State, or to a creditor resi- 
 ding within the State, although upon a contract made 
 elsewhere, his property is liable to be attached and 
 sold in like manner ; but the trustees are not to be ap- 
 pointed until nine months after public notice of tlie 
 proceedings. 
 
 11. Perishable goods, other than vessels, when at- 
 tached imder the Absconding Debtor Act, may be im- 
 mediately sold and converted into money ; and if the 
 sheriflF, under the attachment, seizes property claimed 
 by third persons, he is to summon a jury and to take 
 their inquisition as to the title to the property claimed. 
 
 12. If any American vessel belonging to the debtor 
 be attached under these proceedings, it may be re- 
 leased on the claimant of the vessel giving security 
 to pay the amount of the valuation of the vessel 
 to the trustees, or to the debtor, as the case may be ; 
 and if it be a foreign vessel claimed by a third per- 
 son, the attaching creditor must give security to pros- 
 ecute the attachment, and to pay the damages if it 
 should appear that the vessel belonged'to the Claimant. 
 
 13. A creditor, having an unliquidated demand rest- 
 ing on contract, is a creditor within the Absconding 
 Debtor Act, and competent to apply for the attach- 
 ment. Any creditor may proceed against an abscond- 
 ing or concealed debtor, being an inhabitant of the 
 State, or against any non-resident debtor, if the con- 
 tract was made in New York ; but if the Contract was 
 made elsewhere, then the creditor must be a resident 
 of the State. 
 
 14. Attachment-laws against the property, real and 
 personal, of absconding and non-resident debtors pre- 
 vail throughout the several United States, but those 
 statute laws are not uniform on this point, 
 
 XXII, North Carolina. — An attachment may issue 
 on the complaint of a creditor, his agent, attorney or 
 factor, against the property of a debtor when he has 
 removed, or is about to remove, privately from the 
 State, so that the ordinary process of law will not 
 reach him. 
 
 XXIII, Ohio. — 1, A creditor may procure, before or 
 after the maturity of the claim, an attachment against 
 the property of a debtor, where the latter is a foreign 
 corporation or a non-resident ; or, if a resident, when 
 he has absconded, or left the county of his residence, 
 or conceals himself; or is about to remove or convert 
 his property, with a view to defraud his creditors, 2, 
 When the debtor fraudulently contracted the debt, or 
 incurred the obligation, 
 
 XXIV, Pennsyhamia, — In this State the writ of do- 
 mestic attachment issues against any debtor, being an 
 inhabitant of the State, if he has absconded from his 
 usual place of abode ; or shall have remained absent 
 from the State, or shall have confined himself in his 
 own house, or concealed himself elsewhere, to defraud 
 his creditors. No second attachment will be issued 
 against the same property, unless the first be not exe- 
 cuted, or be dissolved by the court. A writ of attach- 
 ment may be also issued against the property of a 
 foreign corporation or a non-resident. In the latter 
 casS, the attachment inures to the benefit of the at- 
 taching creditor only. In the former case, it is for 
 the benefit of creditors at large. 
 
 XXV, Rhode lakmd. — In this State a writ of at- 
 tachment is first levied against the body of the de- 
 fendant ; and if he can not be found, then against his 
 goods and chattels. The property of foreign corpora- 
 tions and debtors is also liable to attachment, at the 
 suit of a creditor, 
 
 XXVI, South Carolina. — A writ of attachment will 
 issue, at the instance of a creditor wherever resid- 
 ing, against a debtor when he is a non-resident— or 
 
 against a citizen who has ' been absent more than a 
 year and a day ; or when he absconds or is removing 
 out of the county ; or conceals hiniself so that the 
 ordinary process of law can not reach him, 
 
 XXVII, 2'eranessee,-r-When a debtor has removed, 
 or is about to remove out of the countj' privately, or 
 absconds or conceals himself, an attachment may bo 
 obtained against his property, at the suit of a creditor, 
 or liis agent, attorney, or factor. In the case of non- 
 resident debtors, having any real or personal property 
 in' the StatCj it is required, in order to obtain an at- 
 tachment, to file a bill in chancery. 
 
 XXVIII, Texas. — Original attachments are issued 
 against the property of a debtor when he is not to be 
 found in the county ; and the property' attached shall 
 remain in custody uutil final judgment. Attachment 
 will also lie when the defendant is a non-resident ; or 
 when a resident is about to remove out of the State ; 
 and whether the debt be matured or not, 
 
 XXIX, Vermont. — ^Writs of attachment may issue 
 against the goods,- chattels, or estate of the defendant, 
 or for want thereof, against his body, before or after 
 the maturity of a claim. Actions against non-resi- 
 dents, or when the defendant has absconded from the 
 State, may be commenced by trustee process, 
 
 XXX, Vh-ginia.—TTue property of the defendant, 
 if a non-resident, or a resident who is about to remove 
 himself or effects from the State, is liable to attach- 
 ment. An attachment in such cases will hold before 
 the claim is due and payable, 
 
 XXXI, Wisconsin. — ^An attachment will hold against 
 the property of a debtor when he has absconded, or is 
 about to abscond, from the State ; or has fraudulently 
 assigned, disposed of, or concealed his effects ; or re- 
 moved his property from the State ; or when the de- 
 fendant is a non-resident or a foreign corporation. 
 
 XXXII, Minnesota. — ^A warrant of attachment may 
 bei issued against the property of a defendant when a 
 foreign corporation ; or, when not a resident of this 
 Territory ; or, 3, has left the Territory with intent to 
 defraud Ms creditors. 
 
 Thus it will be seen that in all the States the prop- 
 erty of non-residents and foreign corporations is liable 
 to attachments at the suit of creditors, before judg- 
 ment is rendered ; likewise against domestic debtors 
 when they have absconded from the State, or have 
 fraudulently conveyed, or are about to convey, sell, as- 
 sign, or secrete their effects. In some few States, 
 however, even this condition is not essential before a 
 writ of attachment will issue. 
 
 In the States of Alabama, Massachusetts, Connec- 
 ticut, Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, and Rhode 
 Island, the creditor may have a writ of attachment 
 against the property of the debtor at the first institu- 
 tion of a suit ; and without any ground of fraud or 
 fraudulent intent — such property being held by the 
 attachment until the termination of the suit, or until 
 judgment ; the plaintiff in such cases giving bond or 
 security to indemnify the defendant for any loss or 
 damage sustained, should the case be decided in fa- 
 vor of the latter. Generally, the property is liable 
 only when actually levied upon ; but in the State of 
 Kentucky only, the property is liable from the mo- 
 ment of the delivery of the order to the sheriff. 
 
 The reader will find the American law on this sub- 
 ject fully illustrated in "A Treatise on the Law of 
 Suits by Attachment in the United States. Bj' Chas, 
 D, Dkake, of the St. Louis Bar," 8vo. Published 
 by Messrs, Little & Brown, Boston ; to which work 
 we are indebted for the present abstract. On the sub- 
 jects of insolvency and bankrupt laws, see Hunt's 
 Mer. Mag., v., 360, iv,, 22, vi,, 419, vii,, 261, 352, viii,, 
 294, xxi,, 613, Kxu,, 64, 195, 311; N. Y.B'ev., vii., 
 440; Am. Reg., ii., 74; Westminster Rev., xlvi., 500, 
 lii., 419; Dem. Rev., xiii., 286; No. Am. Rev., vii,, 
 25; NiLEs's Register, xix,, 403, xxi,, 243, 382 (JoHU 
 Sekgeaiit)^ 407 (Andeew Stevbbson). 
 
INS.- 
 
 1037. 
 
 ms 
 
 Insuraace, a contract o£ fiidemnityi by which one 
 party engages, for » stipulated sum, to insure another 
 against a rislt to which he is exposed. The party who 
 takes upon him the rislt, is qalled the Insurer^ Aamrer, 
 or Underwriter ; and the wrty protected by the insur- 
 ance is called the Insured, or Assured; the sumipaidis 
 called the Premium; and the instrumeuti cohtaining 
 the contract of indemnity is called the PoiiCT/. 
 
 Insurance on Ships and Merchcmdise. — Suetonius 
 conjectures that Claudius was the first contriver of it, 
 A.D. 43. Insurance was in general use in Italy 
 in. 1194, and! in' England in 1560. Insurance pol- 
 ieiea were first used in Florence in 1623. The first 
 law relating to insurance was enacted in 1601. Insur- 
 ance of houses and goods in London began in 1667. 
 This was the year following that of the great fire of 
 London. An office was then set up for insuring houses 
 and buildings, principally contrived<by Dr. i Barton, 
 one of the first and most extensive bnilders of the city 
 of Loudon. The first regular oflice set up in London 
 was the Hand4n-Hand,>va. 1696. A duty was laid on 
 insurances of la; 6d. per £100 insured,' in 1782 ; this 
 duty was increased in 1797, and was variously altered 
 since. The date of the first insurance office in' the 
 United States has not been ascertaiued. — Haydn. 
 
 This article has been divided under the general 
 heads of : I. Insurance (General Principles of). II. 
 Insurance (Marine). III. Insurance (Fire). IV. 
 Insurance (Life). 
 
 I. Inshbance (General Pbinciples of). — It is 
 the duty of government to assist, by every means in its 
 power, the efforts of individuals to protect their prop- 
 erty. Losses do not always arise from accidental cir- 
 cumstances, but are frequently occasioned by the 
 crimes and misconduct Of individnals ; and there are 
 no means so efiectual for their prevention, when) they 
 arise from this source, as the establishment of a vigil-' 
 ant system of police, and of such an administration of 
 the law as maji be calculated to afford those who are 
 injured a ready and cheap method of obtaining every 
 pi'aoticable redress ;- and, as far as possible, of insuring 
 the punishment of culprits. But, in despite of all 
 that may be done by government, and of the utmost 
 vigilance on the part of individuals, property must 
 alwaj's be exposed to a variety of casualties from fire, 
 shipwreck and other unforeseen disasters. And hence 
 the importance of inquiring how such unavoidable 
 losses, when they do occur, may be rendered least in^ 
 jurious. The »loss of a ship, or the conflagration of a 
 cotton-mill, is a calamity that would press heavily 
 even on the richest individual. But were it distributed 
 among several individuals, each would feel it propor- 
 tionally less ; and provided the number of those among 
 whom it was distributed were very considerable, it 
 would hardly occasion any sensible inconvenience to 
 any one in particular. Hence the advantage of com- 
 bining to lessen the injury arising from the accidental 
 destruction of property t'Sind it is the diffusion of the 
 risk of loss over a wide surface, and its valuatiob, that 
 forms the employment of those engaged in insurance. 
 
 Though it be impossible to trace the circumstances 
 which occasion those events that are, on that account, 
 termed accidental, they are, notwithstanding, found to 
 obey certain laws. The number of births, mart-iages, 
 and deaths ; the proportions of male to female, and of 
 legitimate to illegitimate births ; the ships cast away ; 
 the houses burned ; and a vast variety of apparently 
 accidental events, are yet, when our experience em- 
 braces u sufficiently wide field, found to be nearly 
 equal in equal periods of time ; and it is easy, from ob- 
 servations made npon them, to estimate the sum which 
 an individual should pay, either to guaranty his prop- 
 erty from risk, or to secure a certain sum for his heirs 
 at his death. It must, however, be carefully observed, 
 that no confidence can be placed in such estimates, un- 
 less they are deduced from a verj' wide inductibn. 
 Suppose, for example, it happens that during the pres- 
 
 en<> year one honee is accidentally bumed, in ^ town 
 containing 1,000 houses ; this woulfi afibrd very little 
 ground, for presuiniBg, that the average probabilitj' of 
 fire ii> that, town was 1 to 1,000. For it might be 
 found that not a single house h^d been burned d^ng 
 the previous V) years, or .that 1ft were burned during 
 each lof these years. But supposing it were ascer- 
 tained, that, at an average' of, 10, years,, 1 house,. had 
 Ibeen annually burned, the presumption that 1 to 1000 
 was the i^eal ratip of the, probability of fire, would be 
 very mui^, strengthened ; and if it were found to obr 
 taip for ,20 or 30 years together, it might be heldj for 
 all practical purposes at least, as indicating the precise 
 degree of probability. 
 
 Besides its, being; ,necessarj', in order .to obtain the 
 true measure of , the probability of any event, that the 
 aeries ef events, of which it is one, should be observed 
 for ftfjfather lengthened period, it is necessary, alsOj 
 that the events should be numerous, or of pretty fre- 
 quent occurrence. Suppose it were found, by observ- 
 ing thcjiirths apd deaths of 1,000,000 individuals,., 
 taken indiscriminately from among the whole popula- 
 tion, that the mean duration of human life was 40 
 years j we should have but very slender grounds for 
 concluding that this ratio would hold in the case of the 
 next 10, 20, or 30 individuals that are bom. Such a 
 number is so small as, hardly to admit of the operation 
 pf Wihat is . called, ithe. km of average. When a large 
 number of lives is taken, those that exceed the medium 
 term are balanced by those that fall short of it ; but 
 when the number is small,ith6re is comparatively little 
 room for the principle^of compensation, and the result 
 can not, therefore, be depended upon. It is found, by 
 the , experience of all countries in which censuses of 
 the .-population have been taken with considerable ac- 
 curacy, that /the number of male children bom is to 
 that of female children in the proportion nearly of 22 
 to ,21. But unless the observations ,be ma^e, on a very 
 large .'scale, this, result will not be obtained. If we 
 look ,at particular families, they sometimes consist 
 wholly of boys, and sometimes wholly of girls ; and it 
 is not possible that the boys , can be to the girls of a 
 single family in the ratio of 22 to 21. But when, 
 instead of confining our observations to particular fam- 
 ilies, or even parishes, we extend them so as to em- 
 brace a . population of 600,000, these discrepancies 
 disappear, and. we find that, there is invariably a 
 smalLexcess in the number of males bom over the fe- 
 males. . , ' 
 
 The false inferences that have been drawn from the 
 doctrine of chances, have uniformly, almost, proceeded 
 from generalizing, too rapidly, or from deducing a rate 
 of probability from such a, number of instances as do 
 not give a fair average. But when the instances on 
 which we found our conclusions are sufficiently numer- 
 ous, it is seen that the most anomalous events, such as 
 suicides, deaths by accidents, the number of letters put 
 into the posf>K)ffice without any address, etc., form 
 pretty regular series, and consequently admit of being 
 estimated a priori. The business of insurance is 
 founded upon the principles thus briefly stated. Suppose 
 it has been remarked that of forty ships, of the ordinary 
 degree of sea- worthiness, employed in a given trade, one 
 is annually cast away, the probability of loss will plainly 
 be equal to one fortieth. And if an individual wish to 
 insure a ship, or the cargo on board a ship, engaged in 
 this trade, he ought to pay a premium equal to the 
 l-40th part of the sum he insures, exclusive of such an 
 additional sum as may be required to indemnify the 
 insurer for his trouble, and to leave him a fair profit. 
 If the premium exceed this sum, the insurer is over- 
 paid ; and if it fall below it, he is underpaid. 
 
 Insurances are efl'ected sometimes bj' societies, and . 
 sometimes by individuals, the risk being in either case 
 diffused among a number of persons. Companies 
 formed for carrying on the business have generally a 
 large subscribed capital, or such a number of propTi- 
 
INS 
 
 1038 
 
 INS 
 
 etors, as enables them to raise, -without diffioulty", 
 whatever sums may at any time be required to make 
 good losses. Societies of this sort do not limit their 
 risks to small sums ; that is, they do not often refuse 
 to insure a large sum upon a ship, a house, a life, etc. 
 The magnitude of their capitals affords them the 
 means of easily defraying a heavy loss; and their 
 premiums being proportioned to their risks, their profit 
 is, at an average, independent of such contingencies. 
 
 Individuals, it is plain, could not act in this way, 
 unless they were possessed of verj' large capitals ; and 
 besides, the taking of large risks would render the 
 business so hazardous, that few would be disposed to 
 engage in it. Instead, therefore, of insuring a large 
 sum, as $20,000, upon a single ship, a private under- 
 writer or insurer may not, probably, in ordinary cases, 
 take a greater risk than $200 or $500 ; so that, though 
 his engagements may, when added together, amount 
 to $20,000, they will be diffused over from 40 to 100 
 ships ; and supposing one or two ships to be lost, the 
 loss would not impair his capital, and would only 
 lessen his profits. Hence it is, that while one trans- 
 actfon only may be required in getting a ship insured 
 by a company, 10 or 20 separate transactions may be 
 required in getting the same thing done at Lloyd's, or 
 by private individuals. When conducted in this cau- 
 tious manner, the business of insurance is as safe a line 
 of speculation as any in which individuals can engage. 
 To establish a policy of insurance on a fair founda- 
 tion, or in such a way that the premiums paid by the 
 insured shall exactly balance the risks incurred by the 
 insurers, and the various necessary expenses to which 
 they are put, including, of course, their profit, it is 
 necessary, as previously remarked, that the experience 
 of the risks should be pretty extensive. It is not, 
 however, at all necessary, that either party should in- 
 quire into the circumstances that lead to those events 
 that are most commonly made the subject of insur- 
 ance. Such a research would, indeed, be entirely 
 fruitless : we are, and must necessarily continue to be, 
 wholly ignorant of the causes of their occurrence. 
 
 It appears, from the accounts given by Mr. Scores- 
 by, in his valuable work on the Arctic Regions, that 
 of 586 ships which sailed from the various ports of 
 Great Britain for the northern whale fisherj', during 
 the four years ending with 1817, eight were lost (vol. 
 ii., p. 131), being at the rate of one ship out of eveiy 
 73 of those employed. Now, supposing this to be 
 about the average loss, it follows that the premium 
 required to insure against it should be 1-70 per cent., 
 exclusive, as already observed, of the expenses and 
 profits of the insurer. Both the insurer and the in- 
 sured would gain by entering into a transaction 
 founded on this fair principle. When the operations 
 of the insurer are extensive, and his risks spread over 
 a considerable number of ships, his profit does not de- 
 pend upon chance, but is as steady, and may be as 
 fairly calculated upon, as that of a manufacturer or a 
 merchant ; while, on the other hand, the individuals 
 who have insured their property have exempted it 
 from any chance of loss, and placed it, as it wero, in a 
 state of absolute security. 
 
 It is easy, from the brief statement now made, to 
 perceive the immense advantages resulting to naviga- 
 tion and commerce from the practice of marine insur- 
 ance. Without the aid that it afi'ords, comparatively 
 few individuals would be found disposed to expose 
 their property to the risk of long and hazardous voy- 
 ages ; but by its means insecurity is changed for se- 
 curity, and the capital of the merchant, whose ships 
 are dispersed over every sea, and exposed to all the 
 perils of the ocean, is as secure as that of the agricul- 
 turist. He can combine his measures and arrange his 
 plans as if they could no longer be affected by acci- 
 dent. The chances of shipwreck, or of loss by unfore- 
 seen occurrences, enter not into his calculations. He 
 has purchased an exemption from the efi^ects of such 
 
 casualties ; and applies himself to the prosecution of 
 his business with that confidence and energy which 
 nothing but a feeling of security can inspire. " Les 
 chances de la navigation entravaient le commerce. Le 
 systfeme des assurances a paru ; il a consults les sai- 
 sons ; il a port6 ses regards sur la mer ; il a interrogS 
 ce terrible Moment ; il en a juge I'inconstance ; il en a 
 pressenti les orages : il a ^pi6 la politique : il a reconnn 
 les ports et les cotes des deux mondes ; il a tout souniis 
 h. des calculs savans, k des th6ories approximatives ; et 
 il a dit au commer<;ant habUe, an navigateur intr^pide : 
 certes, il y a des d^sastres sur lesquels I'humanitS no 
 pent que g6mir; mais quant k votre fortune, allez 
 franchissez les mers, d^ployez votre activity et votre 
 industrie ; je me charge de vos risques. Alors, Mes- 
 sieurs, s'il est permis de le dire, les quatre parties du 
 monde se sont rapprochSes."^Co(ie de Commerce, Ex- 
 posi des Motifs, liv., ii. 
 
 Besides insuring against the perils of the sea, and 
 losses arising from accidents caused by the operation 
 of natural causes, it is common to insure against ene- 
 mies, pirates, thieves, and even the fraud, or, as it is 
 technically termed, barratry, of the master. The risk 
 arising from these sources of casualty being extremely 
 fiuctuating and various, it is not easy to estimate it with 
 any considerable degree of accuracy ; and nothing 
 more than a, rough average can, in most cases, be 
 looked for. In time of war, the fluctuation in the 
 rates of insurance is particularly great ; and the in- 
 telligence that an enemy's squadron, or even a single 
 privateer, is cruising in the course which the ships 
 bound to or returning from any given port usually fol- 
 low, causes an instantaneous rise in the premium. The 
 appointment of convoys for the protection of trade 
 during war; necessarily tends, by lessening the chance 
 of capture, to lessen the premium on insurance. Still, 
 however, the risk in such periods is, in most cases, vcrj' 
 considerable \ and as it is liable to change, very sud- 
 denly, great caution is required on the part of the un- 
 derwriters. 
 
 Provision may also be made, by means of insurance, 
 against loss bj' fire, and almost all the casualties to 
 which property on land is subject. But, notwithstand- 
 ing what has now been stated, it must be admitted that 
 the advantages derived from the practice of insuring 
 against losses by sea and land are not altogether un- 
 mixed with evil. The security which it affords tends 
 to relax that vigilant attention to the protection of 
 property which the fear of its loss is sure otherwise to 
 excite. This, however, is not its worst effect. The 
 records of our courts, and the experience of all who 
 are largely engaged in the business of insurance, too 
 clearly prove that ships have been repeatedly sunk, 
 and houses burned, in order to defraud the insurers. 
 In despite, however, of the temptation to inattention 
 and fraud which is thus afforded, there can be no doubt 
 that, on the whole, the practice is, in a public as well 
 as private point of view, decidedly beneficial. The 
 frauds that are occasionally committed raise, in some 
 degree, the rate of insurance. Still it is exceedingly 
 moderate ; and it is most probable that the precautions 
 adopted by the insurance offices for the prevention of 
 fire, especially in great towns, where it is most destruct- 
 ive, outweigh the chance of increased conflagration 
 arising from the greater tendency to carelessness and 
 crime. 
 
 The business of life insurance has been carried to a 
 far greater extent in Great Britain than in any other 
 country, and has been productive of the most bene- 
 ficial effects. Life insurances are of various kinds. 
 Individuals without any very near connections, and 
 possessing only a limited fortune, are sometimes desir- 
 ous, or are sometimes, from the necessity of their situ- 
 ation, obliged annually to encroach on their capitals. 
 But should the life of such persons be extended beyond 
 the ordinary term of existence, they might be totally 
 unprovided for in old age ; and to secure themselves 
 
INS 
 
 1039 
 
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 against this contingency, they pay to an insurance 
 company the whole or a part of their capital, on con- 
 dition of its guarantying them, as long as they live, a 
 certain q,unuity, proportioned partly, of course, to the 
 amount of the sum paid, and partly to their age when 
 they buy thh annuity. But though sometimes service- 
 able to individuals, it may be questioned whether in- 
 surances of this sort are, in a public point of view, 
 really advantageous. So far as their influence extends, 
 its obvious tendency is to weaken the principle of ac- 
 cumulation ; to stimulate individuals to consume their 
 capitals during their own life, without thinking or 
 caring about the interest of their successors. Were 
 such a practice to become general, it would be pro- 
 ductive of the most extensively ruinous consequences. 
 The interest which moat men talce in the welfare of 
 their families and friends affords, indeed, a pretty 
 strong security against its becoming injuriously preva- 
 lent. There can, however, be little doubt that this 
 selfish practice may be strengthened by adventitious 
 means; such, for example, as the opening of govern- 
 ment loans'in the shape of life annuities, or in the still 
 more objectionable form of tontines. But when no 
 extrinsic stimulus of this sort is given to it, there do 
 not seem to be any very good grounds for thinldng 
 that the sale of annuities by private individuals or as- 
 sociations can materially wealcen the principle of accu- 
 mulation. 
 
 Luckily, however, the species of insurance now re- 
 ferred to is but inconsiderable compared with that 
 which has accumulation for its object. All profession- 
 al persons, or those living on salaries or wages, such 
 as lawyers, physicians, militarj' and naval officers, 
 clerks in public or private offices, etc., whose incomes 
 must of coarse terminate with their lives, and a host of 
 others, who are either not possessed of capital or can 
 not dispose of their capital at pleasure, must naturally 
 be desirous of providing, so far as they may be able, 
 for the comfortable subsistence of their families in the 
 event of their death. Take, for example, a physician 
 or lawyer, without fortune, but making, perhaps, $1000 
 or $2000 a-year by his business ; and suppose that he 
 marries and has a family : if this individual attain to 
 the average duration of human life, he may accumu- 
 late such a fortune as will provide for the adequate 
 support of his family at his death. But who can pre- 
 sume to say that such will be the case ? — that he will 
 not be one of the many exceptions to the general rule ? 
 — ^And suppose that he were hurried into an untimely 
 grave, his family would necessarily be destitute. Now, 
 it is against such calamitous contingencies that life in- 
 surance is intended chiefly to provide. An individual 
 possessed of an income terminating at his death, agrees 
 to pay a certain sum annuallj' to an insurance office ; 
 and this office binds itself to pay to his family at his 
 death, a sum equivalent, after deduction of the expens- 
 es of management and the profits of the insurers, to 
 what these annual contributions, accumulated at com- 
 pound interest, would amount to, supposing the in- 
 sured to reach the common and average term of human 
 life. Though he were to die the day after the insur- 
 ance has been effected, his family would be as amply 
 provided for as it is likely they would be by his accu- 
 mulations were his life of the ordinary duration. In 
 all cases, indeed, in wMch those insured die before at- 
 taining the average age, their gain is obvious. But 
 even in those cases in which their lives are prolonged 
 beyond the ordinarj' term, they are not losers — they 
 then merely pay for a securitj' which they must other- 
 wise have been without. During the whole period, from 
 the time when they effect their insurances, down to the 
 time when they arrive at the mean duration of human 
 life, they are protected against the risk of dying with- 
 out leaving their families sufficiently provided for; 
 and the sum which they pay after having passed this 
 mean term is nothing more than a fair compensation 
 for the security they previously enjoyed. Of those 
 
 who insure houses against fire, a very small proportion 
 bnly have occasion to claim an indemnity for losses ac- 
 tually sustained ; but the possession of a security against 
 loss, in the event of accident, is sufficient motive to 
 induce every prudent individual to insure his proper- 
 ty. The case of life insurance is in this respect different. 
 When established on a proper footing, the extra sums 
 which those pay whose lives exceed the estimated du- 
 ration is but the value of the previous security. In 
 order to adjust the terms of an insurance that the party 
 insuring may neither pay too much nor too little, it is 
 necessary that the probability of his life failing in 
 each subsequent year should be determined with as 
 much accuracy as possible. 
 
 To ascertain this probability, various observations 
 liave been made in different countries and periods, 
 showing, out of a given number of persons bom in a 
 particular country or place, how many complete each 
 subsequent year, and how many die in it, till the whole 
 be extinct. The result of such observations, when 
 collected and arranged in a tabular form, are called 
 Tables of Mortality ; being entitled, of course, to more 
 or less confidence, according to the number and spe- 
 cies of lives observed ; the period when, and the care 
 with which, the observations were made, etc. But 
 supposing these tables to be formed with sufficient ac- 
 curacy, the expectation of life at any age, or its mean 
 duration after such age, may be readily learned from 
 them ; and hence also the value of an annuity, or the 
 assurance on a life of o,ny . age. Thus, in the table of 
 mortality for Carlisle, ' framed by Mr. Milne, of the 
 Sun Life Office, and which is believed to represent the 
 average law of mortality in, England with verj^ consid- 
 erable accuracy, out of 10,000 persons, born together, 
 4000 complete their 5Gth year ; and it further appears, 
 that the number of such persons who die in their 
 66th year is 124 ; so that the probability that a life now 
 56 years of age will terminate in the 10th year hence is 
 124-4000. But reckoning interest at 4 per cent., it ap- 
 pears (Tables Iktekest and Annuities), that the 
 present value of $100 to be received 10 years hence is 
 $67'556 ; consequently if its receipt be made to depend 
 upon the probability that a life now 66 years of age 
 will fail in the 66th year, its present value will be re- 
 duced by that contmgency to '" ' ''"'^"' =$2-094. The 
 
 present value of $100, receivable upon the life of a 
 party now 56 years of age, terminating in the 57th or 
 any subsequent year of his life, up to its extreme lim- 
 it (which, according to the Carlisle table, is the 105th 
 year), being calculated in this way, the sum of the 
 whole will be the present value of $100, receivable 
 whenever the life may fail ; that is, of $100 insured 
 upon it, supposing no additions were made to it for 
 the profits and expenses of the insurers. 
 
 More compendious processes are resorted to for cal- 
 culating tables of insurances at all ages ; but the 
 above statement sufficiently' illustrates the principle 
 on which they all depend. In practice, a life insurance 
 is seldom made by the payment of a single sum when 
 it is effected, but almost always by the payment of an 
 cmnual premium during its continuance, the first being 
 paid down at the commencement of the insurance.* 
 If the Table of Mortality adopted by the insurers fair- 
 ly represent the law of mortality prevailing among the 
 insured, it follows that when a party insured does not 
 attain to the average age according to the table, the 
 insurers will either lose by him, or realize less than 
 their ordinary profit ; and when, on the other hand, 
 the life of an insured party is prolonged beyond the 
 tabular average, the profits of the insurers are propor- 
 tionally increased. But if their business be so exten- 
 sive as to enable the law of average fully to apply, 
 what they lose by premature death will be balanced 
 by the payments received from those who lives are 
 
 * For the method of calculating these annual premiums sea 
 Interest and Annuities. 
 
INS 
 
 1040 
 
 INS 
 
 pi-olongea beyond the mean duration of life for the 
 ages at -which they were respectively insured ; so that 
 the profits of the society will be wholly independent of 
 chances. 
 
 The relief from anxiety afforded by life insurance 
 rery frequently contributes to prolong the life of the 
 insured, at the same time that it materially augments 
 the comfort and well-being of those dependent on him. 
 It has also an obvious tendency to strengthen habits 
 of accumulation. An individual who has insured a 
 sum on his life, wOuld forfeit all the advantages of the 
 insurance werfe he not to continue regularly to make 
 his annual payments. It is not, therefore, optional 
 with him to save a sum from his ordinary expenditure 
 adequate for this purpose. He is compelled, under a 
 heavy penalty, to do so ; and having thus been led to 
 contract a habit of saving to a certain extent, it is 
 most probable' that the habit will acquire additional 
 strength, and that he will either insure an additional 
 sum or privately accumulate. 
 
 The practice of marine insurance, no doubt from the 
 extraordinary hazard to which property at sea is ex- 
 posed, seems to have long preceded insurances against 
 fire and upon lives. We are ignorant of the precise 
 period when it began to be introduced ; but it appears 
 most probable that it dates from the end of the 14th or 
 the heginnmg of the 15th centurj'. It has, however, 
 been contended by Loccenius (JDe Jure Maritimo, lib., 
 ii., c. 1), Puffendorff (Draft de la Nature et des Gem, 
 lib. v., c. 9), and others, that the practice of marine 
 insurance is of much higher antiquity, and that traces 
 of, it may be found in the history of the'Punic wars. 
 Livy mentions, that during the second of these con- 
 tests, the contractors employed by the Romans to 
 transport ammunition and provisions to Spain, stipu- 
 lated that government should indemnify them against 
 such losses as might be occasioned by the enemy, or 
 by tempests, in the course of the voy nge.^Tmpetratum, 
 yitit, ut qucB navibus imponerentur ad exerciium Bispani- 
 ensem deferenda, ab kostium tempestatisque vi, publico 
 pericuh essent. — Hist., lib. xxiii., c. 49. Maljmes 
 (Lex Mercatoria, 3d ed., p. 105), founding on a passage 
 in Suetonius, ascribes the first introduction of insur- 
 ance to the emperor Claudius, who, in a period of scar- 
 city at Rome, to encourage the importation of com, 
 took upon himself all the loss or damge that it might 
 sustain in the voyage thither by storms and tempests. 
 — N6gotiat(yrihus certa lucra ptoposuit, suscepto in se 
 damno, si qui quid per tempestates accidisset, et naves 
 mercaturas causa] fabricantihus, magna comnwda consti- 
 iuit. — c. 18. It is curious to observe that this stipula- 
 tion gave occasion to the commission of acts of fraud, 
 similar to those so frequent in modem times. Ship- 
 wrecks were pretended to have happened, that never 
 took place : old shattered vessels, freighted witli arti- 
 cles of little value, were purposely sunk, and the crew 
 saved in boats ; large sums being then demanded as a 
 recompense for the loss. Some years after, the fraud 
 was discovered, and some of the contractors were pro- 
 secuted and punished.^Lib. xxv., c. 3. But none of 
 these passages, nor a similar one, in Cicero's Letters 
 (Ad Fam., lib. ii., c. 17), warrant the inferences that 
 Loccenius, Malyues, and others have attempted to 
 draw from them. Insurance is a contract between two 
 parties ; one of whom, on receiving a certain premium 
 (pretium periculi), agrees to take upon himself the risk 
 of any loss that may happen to the property of the 
 other. In ancient, no less than in modem times, 
 every one must have been desirous to be exonerated 
 from 'the chance of loss arising from the exposure of 
 property to the perils of the sea. But though, in 
 the cases referred to, the carriers were exempted from 
 this chance, they were not exempted by a contract 
 propter aversionem periculi, or by an insurance ; but by 
 their employers taking the risk upon themselves. 
 And it is abundantly obvious that the object of the 
 latter in doing this was not to profit, like an insurer, 
 
 by dealing in risks, but to induce individuals the more 
 readily to undertake the performance of an urgent 
 public duty. 
 
 But with the exception of the instances now men- 
 tioned, nothing bearing the remotest resemblance to 
 an insurance is to be met with tiU a compa&ratively re- 
 cent period. If we might rely on a passage in one of 
 the Flemish chroniclers, quoted by the learned M. 
 Pardessus — see his excellent -work, Collection des Loix 
 Ma/ritimes, tome i., p.' 356 — ^we should be warranted iu 
 concluding that insurance had been effected at Bruges 
 so early as the end of the 13th century ; for the chron- 
 icler states that, in 1311, the Earl of Planders con- 
 sented, on a requisition from the inhabitants, to estab- 
 lish a chamber of insurance at Bruges. M. -Pardessus 
 is' not, however, inclined to think that this statement 
 should be regarded as decisive. It is evident from the 
 manner in which the subject is mentioned, that the 
 chronicler was not ' a cotemporary ; and no- trace can 
 be found, either^ in the archives of Bruges, or in any 
 authentic publication, of any thing like the circum- 
 stance alluded to. The earliest extant Flemish law as 
 to insurance, is dated in 1527 ; and none of the early 
 maritime codes of the North so much as alludes to tliie 
 interesting subject. 
 
 Beckmann seems to have thought that the practice 
 of insurance originated in Italy, in the latter part of 
 the 15th, or early part of the 16th century. — Hist, of 
 Invent., vol. i., art. Insurance. But the learned 
 Spanish antiquary, Don Antonio de Capmany, has 
 given, in his very valuable publication on the History 
 and Commerce of Barcelona (Meinorias Historicas sohre 
 la MiH/rina, etc., de Barcelona, tomo ii., p. 383), an or- 
 dinance relative to insurance, issued by the magis- 
 trates of that city in 1485 ; whereas, the earliest Italian 
 law on the subject is nearly a century later, being 
 dated in 1523. It is, however, exceedingly unlikely, 
 had insurance been as «arly practiced in Italy as in 
 Catalonia, that the former should have been so much 
 behind the latter in subjecting it to any fixed rules ; 
 and it is stUl more unlikely that the practice should 
 have escaped, as is the case, all mention by any pre- 
 vious Italian writer. We, therefore, agree entirely in 
 Capmany's opinions, that, until some authentic evi- 
 dence to the contrary be produced, Barcelona should 
 be regarded as the birth-place of this most useful and 
 beautiful application of the doctrine of chances. — 
 Tom. i., p. 237. 
 
 A knowledge of the principles and practice of insur 
 ance was early brought into England. According to 
 Malynes (Lex Mercat., p. 105), it was first practiced 
 among us by the Lombards, who were established in 
 London from a very remote epoch. It is probable it 
 was introduced some time about the beginning of the 
 16th century ; for it is mentioned' in the statute 43 
 Eliz., c. 12, in which its utility is very clearly set forth, 
 that it had been an immemorial usage among merchants, 
 both English and foreign, when they made any great 
 adventure, to procure insurance to be made on the ships 
 or goods adventured. From this it may reasonably 
 be supposed that insurance had been in use in England 
 for at least a century previous. It appears from the 
 same statute, that it had originally been usual to refer 
 all disputes that ^arose with respect to insurances to 
 the decision of " grave and discreet" merchants ap- 
 pointed by the Lord Mayor. But abuses having 
 gi'own out of this practice, the statute authorized the 
 Lord Chancellor to appoint a commission for the trial 
 of insurance cases ; and in the reign of Charles II. the 
 powers of the commissioners were enlarged. But this 
 court soon after fell into disuse ; and, what is singular, 
 no trace can now be discovered of any of its proceed- 
 ings. — ^Marshall on Insurance, Prelim. Disc, p. 26. 
 
 Few questions as to insurance seem to have come 
 before the courts at Westminster till after the middle 
 of last centurj'. The decisions of Lord Mansfield 
 may, indeed, be said to have fixed, and in a. consider- 
 
INS 
 
 1041 
 
 INS 
 
 able degree formed, the law upon this subject. His 
 judgments were not bottomed on narrow views, or on 
 the municipal regulations of England ; but on those 
 great principles of public justice and convenience 
 which had been sanctioned and approved by universal 
 experience. His deep and extensive information was 
 acquired by consulting the most intelligent merchants, 
 and the works of distinguished foreign jurists ; ' and 
 by carefully studj-ing the famous French ordinance of 
 1681, the most admirably digested body of maritime 
 law of which any country has ever had to boast. 
 Hence the comprehensiveness and excellence of his 
 lordship's decisions, and the respect they have justly 
 commanded in all countries. In his hands the law 
 of insurance became, in a far greater degree than any 
 other part of English law, a branch of that national or 
 public law, of which Gicero has beautifully said, " Non 
 erit alia lex Homce, alia Athenis, alia, nunc, alia posihac, 
 ged et omn-es gentes et omni tempore una lex et sempifernaj 
 et iTTimoHalis continebit, unusque erit communis quasi 
 magister et imperator omnium Z>eus," — Fragm., lib. iii., 
 de RepuUica, 
 
 Insurance against fire and upon lives is of much 
 later origin than insurance against perils of the sea. 
 The former, however, has been known and carried on 
 among us, to some extent, at least, for nearly a cen- 
 tury and a half. The Amicable Society, for insurance 
 upon lives, was established by charter of Queen Anne, 
 in 1706 ; the Royal Exchange and London Assurance 
 Companies began to make insurances upon lives, in the 
 reign of George I. ; and the Equitable Society was es- 
 tablished in 1762. But the advantages of life insur- 
 ance, and the principles on which the business should 
 be conducted, were then very ill understood , and the 
 practice can hardly be said to have obtained any firm 
 footing among us, till the Equitable Society, by adopts 
 ing the judicious suggestions of Dr. Price, began its 
 career of prosperity about 1775j Notwithstanding the 
 example of England, life insurance has made compar- 
 atively little progress on the Continent. It was, in- 
 deed, expressly forbidden by the French ordinance of 
 1681 (liv. iii., tit. 6, art. 10) ; by the regulations as to 
 insurance issued at Amsterdam in 1612 (art. 24) ; and 
 it is doubtful whether the practice be not inconsistent 
 with the 334th art. of the Code de Commerce, though 
 it be now extensively carried on in France. But we are 
 inclined to think that the want of security, more than 
 any positive regulations, has been the principal cause 
 of the little progress of life insurance on the Conti- 
 nent. 
 
 II. Insurance (Mabine). — There are few persons 
 who are not acquainted, in some degree, with fire and 
 life insurances. The security which they afford to 
 individuals and families is a luxury which nobody, in 
 tolerably comfortable circumstances, la willing to be 
 without. Hence the great increase, in our days, of 
 companies professing to afford this security ; and hence 
 the knowledge, on the part of the public generally, of 
 the nature and principles of the engagements into 
 which these companies enter. But marine insurance 
 is a subject which is of immediate interest only to 
 merchants and ship owners ; unless, indeed, we should 
 refer to that small portion of the community who 
 have occasion to transport themselves beyond seas with 
 capital and effects for purposes of colonization, or to 
 iill some official situation. Hence the comparative 
 indifference, on the part of the public, as to this sub- 
 ject. The general principles, however, of all insur- 
 ance are the same ; and in treating of marine insur- 
 ance, it will be necessary to notice little beyond such 
 topics as are peculiar to that branch of the business. 
 
 Individual Insurers, or Underwriters. — The first cir- 
 cumstance that can not fail to strike the general in- 
 quirer into the practice of marine insurance in this 
 country, is that, while all fire and life insurances are 
 made at the risk of companies, which include within 
 themselves the desirable requisites of security, wealth, 
 Udd 
 
 and numbers, a large proportion of marine insurances 
 is made at the risk of individuals. 
 
 Prohibition of Companies. — Till 1824, in Great Brit- 
 ain, all firms and companies, with the exception of the 
 two chartered companies, the Royal Exchange and 
 London, were prohibited by law from taking marine 
 insurances. Toward the latter end of that year, the 
 prohibition was removed, and the business of marine 
 insurance was placed on the same legal footing as 
 other descriptions of business. "While the restriction 
 lasted, the two chartered companies did so little busi- 
 ness that marine insurance might in fact, be said to be 
 wholly in the hands of individuals. These companies 
 were so much higher in their premiums, and so much 
 more exclusive in the risks they were willing to un- 
 dertake, than their individual competitors, that even 
 those merchants and ship owners, who would cheer- 
 fully have paid some trifling consideration to obtain 
 the greater security of a company, were obliged to 
 resort to individuals. And it was only when the 
 repeal of this absurd restriction was proposed, that 
 the companies showed, by defending it, that they set 
 any value upon their privilege. The underwriters at 
 Lloyd's joined them in this opposition ; and pamphlets 
 were written and speeches made, to demonstrate how 
 much merchants and ship owners would suffer, were 
 the law to allow them the free use of their discretion 
 in insuring their property ; and how much more con- 
 ducive to their interests it was, that; they should be 
 forced up to Lloyd's, to pay premiums to individuals 
 rather than companies. But these pamphlets and 
 speeches are forgotten ; and we should be sorry to 
 wound the feelings of their authors, or to trespass on 
 the patience of our readers, by referring to them more 
 particularly. 
 
 Mode of conducting Business. — ^We shall now give an 
 account of the arrangement in England for conducting 
 the business of marine insurance, as well by individu- 
 als as the companies. 
 
 Lloyd's. — The individual underwriters meet in a 
 subscription room at Lloyd's. The joint affairs of the 
 subscribers to these rooms are managed by a commit- 
 tee chosen by the subscribers. Agents (who are com- 
 monly styled Lloj'd's agents) are appointed in all the 
 principal ports of the world, who, forward, regularly, 
 to Lloyd's, accounts of the departures from and arriv- 
 als at their ports, as well as of losses and other casu- 
 alties ; and, in general, all such information as may be 
 supposed of importance toward guiding the judgment 
 of the underwriters. These accounts are regularly 
 filed, and are accessible to all the subscribers. The 
 principal arrivals and losses are, besides, posted in two 
 boolts, placed in two conspicuous parts of the room ; 
 and also in another book, which is placed in an adjoin- 
 ing room, for the use of the public at large. The 
 rooms are open from 10 o'clock in the morning till 5 
 o'clock in the afternoon, but the most considerable 
 part of the business is transacted between 1 and 4. 
 Those merchants and ship owners who manage their 
 own insurance business, procure blank policies at the 
 government ofiice, or of their stationers, which they 
 fill up so as to meet the particular object in view, 
 and submit them to those underwriters with whom 
 they are connected ; by whom they are subscribed or 
 rejected. Each policy is handed about in this way 
 until the amount required is complete. The form of 
 the policy and of a subscription is subjoined to this ar- 
 ticle. The premium is not paid to the underwriter in 
 ready money, but is passed to account. Nor does the 
 underwriter debit the account of the person to whom 
 he subscribes a policy with the whole amount of the 
 premium, but with the premium less 5 per cent. When- 
 ever losses occur which more than absorb the premi- 
 ums on any one account, the underwriter is called 
 upon to pay the balance. But should the underwrit- 
 er's account be what is called good, that is, should the 
 premiums exceed the claims, he sends round, during 
 
INS 
 
 1042 
 
 INS 
 
 the spring and summer, to collect from his various 
 debtors either the balance of his last year's account, 
 or money on account, according to his judgment ; but 
 upon what he receives, he malies an allowance of 12 
 per cent. An underwriter, if prudent, therefore, be- 
 fore he consents to receive, will not only loolc to the 
 goodness of his account, but to the probability of its 
 continuing so. 
 
 Insurance Brokers. — Many merchants and ship own- 
 ers do not transact their own insurance business. 
 They give their orders for insurance to others, who 
 undertalce it for thern, and are responsible for its 
 proper management. These latter persons are called 
 insurance brokers ; and some of them manage the 
 business of a number of principals. To them, lilie- 
 wise, are transmitted the orders for insurance from the 
 outports and manufacturing towns. They charge the 
 Whole premium to their principals, and their profits 
 consist in 6 per cent, upon the premium, 12 per cent, 
 upon the money that they pay to the underwriters, 
 and J per cent, that they deduct from all the claims 
 which they recover from the underwriters. It is 
 proper to remarli; that this is the established or regu- 
 lar profit ; but competition has occasioned numerous 
 deviations from it by the brokers, many of whom con- 
 sent to divide this profit with the principals who em- 
 ploy them. The insurance Ijrokers are not unfre- 
 quently underwriters also ; and as some insurances 
 are considered far more lucrative than others to un- 
 derwriters, and as the brokers have particular facili- 
 ties, in some respects, of judging of the goodness of 
 their own risks, so likewise have thej' an inducement 
 to play into one another's hands, and they do so ac- 
 cordingly. See Bkokees. 
 
 Paymmt of Losses. — Losses are paid at all the offices 
 promptly, and without deduction. In England, a 
 month's credit is allowed to the underwriters ; and 
 another month, and sometimes two months, are given 
 to the broker, to collect from the underwriters, and 
 pay over to his principals. 
 
 Clubs. — Besides the individual underwriters and 
 companies above noticed, there are clubs or associa- 
 tions formed by ship owners, who agree, each entering 
 his ships for a certain amount, to divide among them- 
 selves one another's losses. These clubs are institu- 
 tions of long standing ; but, since the alteration of the 
 law in 1824, appear to be on the decline. Their 
 formation originated in a twofold reason : first, that 
 the underwriters charged premiums more than com- 
 mensurate with the risk ; and secondly, that they did 
 not afford adequate protection. To avoid the first of 
 these two evils, instead of paying a fixed premium, 
 they pay among themselves the actual losses of their 
 several members as they occur ; and to avoid the sec- 
 ond, they lay down certain principles of settlement in 
 accordance with their views of indemnity. Each 
 member of one of these clubs gives his power of attor- 
 ney to the selected manager ; and this manager issues 
 a policy for each ship, which policy is subscribed by 
 him as attorney for all the members, the premium in- 
 serted in the policy being understood to be nominal. 
 These clubs are open to the leading objections that ap- 
 ply to individual underwriters ; for the members are 
 not collectively, but only individually, liable to those 
 of their number who happen to sustain a loss ; and the 
 delay of settlement is such, that more than 12 months 
 have been known to elapse before the payment of a 
 loss has been obtained from all the members. 
 
 Bate of Premium. — But little need be said upon the 
 circumstances that influence the rate of premium de- 
 manded by the insurers. It must be self-evident that 
 premiums will vaiy according to the seasons, the 
 quality of the vessel, the known character of the cap- 
 tain, the nature of the commodity, and the state of our 
 political relations. All these, of course, are matters 
 upon which each individual must exercise his own dis- 
 cretion, partly from general experience, and partly 
 
 from particular information ; exaggeration of risk, and 
 consequent exorbitancy of premium for any length of 
 time, being out of the question, where so many indi- 
 vidual underwriters, in addition to the companies, are 
 in competition with one another, and where the mer- 
 chants have the means at hand of effecting their insur- 
 ances abroad. We have already taken notice of the 
 intelligence of which Lloyd's is the focus. In addi- 
 tion to this there is a subscription register book for 
 shipping maintained by the principal merchants, ship- 
 owners, and underwriters. This book professes to 
 give an account of the tonnage, build, age, repairs, 
 and quality of almost all the vessels that frequent our 
 ports ; and, although exceedingly defective in many 
 respects, is a material assistance to the insurers, who 
 have no means of ascertaining by their own observa- 
 tion the particulars of one in a hundred of the ships 
 they are called upon to insure. 
 
 Contract of Ifisurance. — Having thus given a gene- 
 ral outline of the mode of transacting business be- 
 tween the insurers and insured, and the means used to 
 enable both parties to come, as near as possible, to a 
 due estimate of the risk to be insured against, our next 
 step will be to explain the nature of the contract, and 
 the bearing of its more important clauses. 
 
 It is unnecessary to state that the object of those 
 wlio are engaged in commerce, or in moving articles 
 of mercliandise from one part of the world to another, 
 is to but/ at such a price that, after paying all the ex- 
 penses of transport, the sale price maj^ leave them a 
 surplus in the shape of profit. If there were no such 
 contrivance as insurance, merchants would be obliged 
 to calculate upon the probability of the occasional loss 
 of their property, and to regulate their transactions 
 accordingly ; but it must be obvious that enterprise, 
 under such circumstances, would be very much crip- 
 pled. Now, insurance, in as far as it approaches per- 
 fection in guarantying the merchant against all loss, 
 except that of tlie market, substitutes a fixed charge 
 for uncertain and contingent loss, and enables him to 
 confine his attention exclusively to price and quality, 
 and to charges of transport ; in which latter, of course, 
 the premium of insurance is included. As, however, 
 in practice, insurance is by no means a perfect protec- 
 tion, either to the merchant or ship owner, against all 
 loss that may occur in transitu, there is, even after in- 
 surance, some contingencies remaining to be taken 
 into consideration ; and we do not know that we can 
 do better, by way of explaining the contract of insur- 
 ance, than state, as briefly and succinctly as possible, 
 what are the losses against which the merchant and 
 ship owner are not protected by an insurance effected 
 in this country. 
 
 1. Acts of our own Government.- — All losses arising 
 from the acts of our own government. Thus, if an em- 
 bargo were laid on vessels about to sail for a particular 
 quarter, and the merchant obliged to unload hia 
 goods ; or if his goods were condemned to be de- 
 stroyed in quarantine ; or purposely destroyed at sea 
 \>j some of our cruisers ; no part of his loss would be 
 made good by the insurer. The insurer in this coun- 
 try, although liable for the acts of foreign powers, is 
 not liable for such acts directed against the property 
 of their own subjects. Thus, if French property, in- 
 sured in this country, were confiscated by the French 
 government, the owner would have no remedy against 
 his insurer. 
 
 2. Breaches of the Revenue Laws. — All losses arising 
 from a breach of the revenue laws. It may be ob- 
 served, that if the owner of the ship, by his act, ex- 
 pose the goods of the merchant to loss, the merchant 
 so injured, although he can not recover from his insur- 
 ers, may claim from him. It may also be observed, 
 that if the captain of the vessel, bj' his act, to which 
 neither the owner of the ship nor the merchant is a 
 party, expose the ship and cargo to loss, the insurers, 
 in such case, are bound to make good the loss ; the 
 
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 1043 
 
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 insurers being liable for all damage ariaiog from illegal 
 acts of the captain and crew, supposing the owner of 
 the ship not to be accessory. The illegal acts of the 
 captain and (rew, contrary to the instructions and 
 without the consent of the owners, are termed " bar- 
 ratry" in the policy. See Barbatky. 
 
 3. Breaches of the Law of Nations. — ^All losses aris- 
 ing from a breach of the law of nations. Thus, if any 
 port is declared by a foreign power to be in a state 
 of bloclcade, and such blockade is acknowledged by 
 our government ; and if a ship, in defiance of that no- 
 tification, attempt to break the blockade, and is taken 
 in the attempt ; the insurer is not liable for the loss. 
 It will often happen, when a port is under blockade, 
 that the profit is so great upon goods introduced in de- 
 fiance of the blockade, as to tempt adventurers to 
 break it, and to enable them to afford a very high pre- 
 mium to insure against the risk. But as policies for such 
 an object are not acknowledged in our courts of law, 
 when effected, they are understood to be policies of 
 honor. The same kind of policy is adopted by under- 
 writers, to protect foreign merchants who prefer insur- 
 ing in this country against capture by our vessels. 
 
 4. Consegueiices of Deviation. — All losses subsequent 
 to any deviation from the terms of the policy. Thus, 
 if a merchant, in a policy on produce from the West 
 Indies to London, warrant the ship to sail on or before 
 the 1st of August, and the ship sail after that day and 
 be lost, the insurer is exonerated. Or, if a merchant 
 insure from London to Lisbon, and the ship call at 
 Havre and is afterward lost, the insurer is not liable. 
 It will be understood, of course, that the owner of the 
 ship is liable to the merchant for any breach of con- 
 tract on his part, as well as that the insurer is liable 
 for the barratry of the master ; a deviation on the part 
 of the master, not intended for the benefit of the 
 owner, and contrary to his instructions, being consid- 
 ered barratrj'. Should the owner of the goods neglect 
 to describe accurately the voyage for which he wishes 
 to be insured, the loss would be a consequence of his 
 orwn negligence. 
 
 There is a doctrine connected with barratry which 
 it will here be proper to notice. A captain, owner or 
 part owner of the ship in which he sails, can not com- 
 mit an act of barratry. In other words, the insurers 
 are not, in such a case, liable for an act of his which 
 would otherwise be barratrous. The equity of this 
 doctrine, as far as regards the interests of the captain 
 himself, can not be called in question ; but it is difii- 
 cult to understand why the merchant who ships goods 
 on board such a captain's vessel should not be permit- 
 ted to insure, among other risks, against the captain's 
 illegal acts. "We have heard that a clause has occa- 
 sionally been introduced into policies to protect mer- 
 chants against captain-owners, and we do not suppose 
 that our courts of law would refuse to enforce such a 
 clause. Indeed, we can not discover any reason why 
 every party, saving the captain, should not have the 
 power of insuring against the consequences of illegal 
 acts of the captain. We believe, that among the life 
 offices which protect themselves from loss by suicide 
 and the hands of justice, there are some which make a 
 distinction in favor of those who merely hold policies 
 on the lives of others as a collateral security. The 
 propriety of such a distinction must strike every body. 
 
 5. Unseaworthiness. — ^AU losses arising from unsea- 
 worthiness. Unseaworthiness may be caused in va- 
 rious ways, such as want of repair, want of stores, 
 want of provisions, want of nautical instruments, in- 
 sufficiency of hands to navigate the vessel, or incom- 
 petency of the master. It might be supposed, at first 
 sight, that insurance affords a much less perfect secur- 
 ity than it really does, seeing on how manj' pleas it is 
 possible for the insurer to dispute his liability ; but 
 when it is considered that the proof of unseaworthiness 
 is thrown upon the defendant, and that the leaning of 
 the courts is almost always in favor of the insured, it 
 
 will be easy to suppose that no respectable insurers 
 would ever plead unseaworthiness unless they could 
 make out a case of more than ordinarj- strength and 
 clearness. The degree of uneasiness felt by merchants 
 and ship owners at their liability to be involved in 
 loss by cases of unseaworthiness, may be guessed from 
 the fact that although the Indemnity Insurance Com- 
 pany at one time precluded themselves from pleading 
 unseaworthiness by a special clause in their policy, 
 not only did they obtain no additional premium in con- 
 sequence thereof, but they did not even obtain a pref- 
 erence over other companies and individuals at the 
 same premiums. At least, this fact must be either 
 admitted as ». proof of the absence of uneasiness on 
 this head, or of that inveteraoj' of habit which seems 
 to lead the great bulk of mankind always, if possible, 
 to continue undeviatingly in those courses to which 
 they are accustomed, even where the benefits to be 
 derived from a deviation are undeniable. 
 
 6. Protraction of the Voyage. — ^All loss arising from 
 unusual protraction of the voyage. Thus, if a ship 
 meet with an accident in the Baltic, and the repairs 
 detain the vessel till the close of the season, when the 
 passage home is rendered impracticable by the ice till 
 the opening of the ensuing season, no payment is made 
 to the merchant, in mitigation of his loss from interest 
 of monc}'', loss of market (if the market fall), or dete- 
 rioration in the quality of his goods (unless arising 
 from actual sea damage) ; nor to the ship owner, in 
 mitigation of his loss from the extra wages and main- 
 tenance of his crew. In most foreign countries the 
 ship owner is remunerated by the insurers for the 
 wages and maintenance of his crew while his ship is 
 detained in consequence of any loss for the making 
 good of which they are liable. 
 
 7. Liability for doing Damage to other Vessels. — All 
 loss to which the ship owner is liable when his vessel 
 does damage to others. According to our laws, the 
 owner of every ship not in charge of a pilot, that does 
 damage, by negligence of the master and crew, to any 
 description of craft or vessel, is liable to make good 
 the same to the extent of the value of his own ship 
 and freight : for beyond this he is not liable. The 
 common policj' in use among the underwriters at 
 Lloyd's and the companies does not protect the ship 
 owner from this loss. But the clubs or associations 
 before mentioned almost universallj' take this risk. 
 Indeed, this is one of the purposes which gave rise to 
 their formation. But even they limit their liability to 
 the amount of the policy ; so that if a ship insured 
 with them were to run down another, and to sink her- 
 self in the concussion, the owner would only receive 
 the value of his own vessel from the club, and still be 
 liable to the owner of the other vessel. The Indem- 
 nity and Marine Companies, by a clause in their poli- 
 cies, make themselves liable for three fourths of the 
 loss which the owner of the vessel insured with them 
 may sustain from damage done by his vessel to those 
 of others. If such a case as the one just supposed 
 should occur under their policy, the insured would re- 
 ceive the value of his own vessel and three fourths of 
 the loss to be made good by him to the owner of the 
 other vessel. The policies of these companies ap- 
 proach in this respect the nearest of any to perfect 
 protection to the ship owner. But the loss from run 
 ning down other vessels, although serious, nay som. 
 times ruinous, seldom occurs ; and many ship owners 
 trust so confidently that it will never fall upon them, 
 that they are as well satisfied to be without as with 
 this protection. The Supreme Court of the United 
 States has confirmed a decision, to the effect, that 
 where a collision takes place without fault in a port 
 where the local law divides the whole loss (thereby op- 
 posing the general maritime law), the insurers were 
 liable for it. This is opposed to the English decisions. 
 
 8. .1 -oerage Clause.— The next description of loss of 
 which we shall treat, against which the insured are 
 
INS 
 
 1044 
 
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 aot protected, is described in the following clause of 
 the policy: " Com, fish, salt, seed, flour, and fruit, are 
 warranted free from average, unless general, or the 
 ship be stranded ; sugar, tobacco, hemp, flax, hides, 
 and skins are warranted free from average under 5 per 
 cent,, unless general, or the ship be stranded ; and all 
 other goods, also the ship and freight, are warranted 
 free from average under 3 per cent., unless general, or 
 the ship be stranded." The language employed in this 
 clause, being technical, requires explanation to render 
 it intelligible to the general reader. Average is a 
 name applied to certain descriptions of loss, to which 
 the merchant and ship owner are liable. There are 
 two kinds of average, general and particular. General 
 Average comprehends all loss arising out of a volun- 
 tary sacrifice of a part of either vessel or cargo, made 
 by the captain for the benefit of the whole. Thus, if 
 a captain throw part of his cargo overboard, cut from 
 an anchor and cable, or cut away his masts ; the loss 
 so sustained, being voluntarily submitted to for the 
 benefit of the whole, is distributed over the value of 
 the whole ship and cargo, and is called *' general 
 average." 
 
 Particular Average comprehends all loss occasioned 
 to ship, freight, and cargo, which is not of so serious a 
 nature as to debar them from reaching their port of 
 destination, and when the damage to the ship is not so 
 extensive as to render her unworthy of repair. Losses 
 where the goods are saved, but in such a state as to be 
 unfit to forward to their port of destination, and where 
 the ship is rendered unfit to repair, are called '* partial 
 or salvage loss." The leading distinction, between 
 particular average and salvage loss is, that, in the 
 first, the property insured remains the propierty of the 
 assured — the damage sustained, or part thereof, as the 
 case may be, and as will hereafter be explained, being 
 made good by the insurer ; and in the second, the 
 property insured is abandoned to the insurer, and the 
 value insured claimed from him, he retaining the prop- 
 erty so abandoned, or its value. 
 
 Particular Average on Goods. — ^A few cases illustra- 
 tive of the method of stating a. claim for particular 
 average will best explain the nature of this descrip- 
 tion of loss, and will at the same time show the reader 
 what the practical distinction is between particular 
 average and salvage loss. 
 
 The property insured we shall suppose to be a ton 
 of hemp^ the cost of which at Petersburg is $150, for 
 which sum it is insured from New York to London, 
 and that the duty, freight, and charges to which the 
 merchant is subject on landing at London are $50. 
 We shall likewise suppose that the hemp, on its arri- 
 val, is so damaged as not to be worth more than half 
 what it would have fetched had it been sound. The 
 insurer would then be called upon to make good to the 
 insured $75, or 50 per cent., upon the sum insured. 
 But it does not follow that this payment of $75 would 
 indemnify the merchant, or that it would not more 
 than indemnify him, for the loss sustained. 
 
 If the hemp upon aiTival in that countiy 
 
 would have fetched in a sound state $250 00 
 
 Less duty, freight, and charges 50 00 
 
 $300 00 
 
 But in its damaged state is only worth. . . 125 00 
 Less duty, freight, and charges 50 00 
 
 75 00 
 
 The merchant's loss by the damage is $125 00 
 
 "Whereas he only receives from the insurer $75, Upon the 
 principle of a salvage loss he would also receive $75. 
 
 If the hemp would have fetched in a sound 
 
 state $100 00 
 
 Less duty, freight, and charges 50 00 
 
 $50 00 
 
 But in its damped state is only worth ... 50 00 
 
 Less duty, freight, and charges CO 00 
 
 The merchant's loss hy the damage is $50 00 
 
 Whereas he receives from the insurer $75. Upon the prin- 
 ciple of a salvage loss he would receive $150. 
 
 If the hemp would have fetched in a sound 
 
 state $150 00 
 
 Less duty, freight, and charges 50 00 
 
 ■ ■ $100 OO 
 
 But in its damaged state is only worth ... 75 00 
 
 Less duty, freight, and charges 50 00 
 
 25 00 
 
 The merchant's loss by the damage is $75 00 
 
 And he receives from the insurer $75. Upon the principle 
 of a salvage loss he would receive $125. 
 
 It will be observed that the merchant's loss by the 
 damage of his goods varies with the state of the mar- 
 ket. It may also be observed, that in general the 
 merchant will not receive from the insurer the whole 
 amount of the loss that he sustains. Whenever his 
 market is a profitable one (and that it must usually be 
 so will be obvious to everj^ l^ody), whenever, indeed, 
 his market is not a decidedly losing one, his policy 
 does not afi'ord him a complete protection. 
 
 The argument in favor of this mode of settling 
 claims for particular average — and it should be ob- 
 served that the subject has been discussed, and the 
 principle acknowledged in the courts of law — is, that 
 the insurer's liability is to be guided by the amount 
 upon which he had received a premium or considera- 
 tion ; that he is not to be affected by the rise or fall of 
 markets ; but that the gross market price of the sounds 
 and the gross market price of the damaged goods, are 
 to be the test by which the rate of damage upon the 
 amount insured is to be adjusted; the insurer being 
 liable, besides, for all the extra charges arising out of 
 the damage. 
 
 In the first case stated, the merchant's loss by 
 damage is $25 upon $40, or 62^ per cent. ; in the sec- 
 ond, $10 upon $10, or 100 per cent. ; in the third, $15 
 upon $20, or 75 per cent. If the duty, freight, and 
 charges were diminished in proportion to the dimin- 
 ished value of the goods, the loss in each case would 
 be 50 per cent, upon the nett price, as it is 50 per cent, 
 upon the gross price. As far as the duty is concerned, 
 government, upon many articles, reduces it in propor- 
 tion to the diminution in the value of the goods ; and 
 if the freight were reduced in a similar manner, the 
 merchant would always be indemnified for his loss by 
 the insurer. But the practice with regard to freight 
 in this country admits of no such arrangement ; freight 
 being paid according to the quantity delivered. 
 
 To make the principle upon which claims for partic- 
 ular average are adjusted, and its bearing, still clearer, 
 we shall illustrate it by a few more cases. Suppose 
 two packages to be insured at cost price — a cask of 
 rice and a cask of sugar — each weighing 10 cwt. ; the 
 cost of each at the port of shipment $50, the freight 
 of each 250 cents per cwt. at the port of delivery, both 
 articles free from dut}', and to arrive at a market 
 where no more than the cost price is realized ; assum- 
 ing that both packages are damaged 50 per cent. — the 
 rice by loss of quality, the sugar by loss of weight — 
 the statement will be as follows ; 
 
 10 cwt. of rice, had it arrived sound, would 
 
 have produced $75 00 
 
 Less freight on 10 cwt. 25 00 
 
 But being damaged did only produce 37 50 
 
 Less freight on 10 cwt at 250 c. per cwt. 25 00 
 
 $50 00 
 
 12 50 
 
 Merchant's loss $87 50 
 
 10 cwt. of sugar, if sound, would have pro- 
 duced $75 00 
 
 Less freight on 10 cwt at 50 c. per cwt 25 00 
 
 The baiTel, being damaged, did only weigh 
 
 5 cwt, and produce 87 50 
 
 Lessfreight on5cwt at250 c.percwt 12 50 
 
 $50 00 
 
 25 00 
 
 Merchant's loss $25 00 
 
 In each case the merchant is entitled to recover 
 from his insurer $25, or 50 per cent., upon $50, the 
 sum insured, which, although an indemnity to him for 
 
INS 
 
 1045 
 
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 hifl loss on the sugar, is far from bfeing so for his loss 
 upon the rice. If the merchant would contrive so to 
 shape his contract with the ship owner for freight as 
 to reduce the freight in proportion to the depreciation 
 in the value of the damaged commodity, he would be 
 completely protected. The ship owner might, on his 
 side, protect himself by insurance from loss by reduc- 
 tion of quality, as he now does from loss by reduction 
 of quantity. But we have already more than once 
 adverted to the difficulty of breaking in upon estab- 
 lished practices. The merchants go on from year to 
 year complaining of the losses to which they are sub- 
 jected from this awkward contrivance, while no steps 
 are taken to improve it. To show that the principle is 
 equitable as between the merchant and his insurer, 
 we subjoin one more statement, where the damage is 
 taken at 100 per cent. 
 
 10 cwt. of rice, if sound, would have pro- 
 duced T5 00 
 
 Less freight on 10 cwt. 25 00 
 
 $50 00 
 'he pierch'ant being still liable for the Iteight. ... 25 00 
 
 Being totally spoiled did produce nothing. 
 Tl ' ■■ 
 
 Making Ms loss $T5 00 
 
 He receives $50 only from the insurer. 
 
 10 cwt. of sugar. If sound, would have pro- 
 duced $75 00 
 
 Leas ftolght on 10 cwt 26 00 
 
 $60 00 
 
 The barrel being washed out produces nothing. 
 
 The merchant, however, not being liable to pay 
 freight 
 
 iria loss is only $50 00 
 
 "Which he recovers from the insurer. 
 It will be observed, that in each case the insurer pays $60, 
 or the full sum upon which he receives the premium. 
 
 When whole cargoes, or parcels of goods of consid- 
 erable value, are insured, the clause in the policy 
 which protects the insurer from particular average 
 under a certain percentage is often partially set aside. 
 Thus, if a cargo of 500 hogsheads of sugar, valued at 
 $10,000, were damaged to the extent of $460, the 
 merchant, supposing the protecting clause to remain in 
 force, would recover nothing from the insurer, the loss 
 not amounting to 5 per cent. The additional written 
 clause, by which it is the practice to modify the printed 
 clause, is as follows : " Particular average, payable 
 upon each 10 hhds. sugar, 10 casks and 50 bags coffee, 
 and 10 bags cotton, following numbers, and upon each 
 package of manufactured goods, chest of indigo, bag 
 of wool or silk, the same as if separately insured." 
 Such clauses may be, and are, introduced ad libitum by 
 mutual consent of insurer and insured, the premium 
 or consideration being arranged accordingly. The pro- 
 tecting clause is considered, on the other hand, by the 
 insurers, exceedingly unsatisfactory. in some respects ; 
 an^ they, as occasion requires, insist upon additional 
 protection. Thus, saltpetre, hides, cocoa, and tin 
 plates, are generally warranted free from particular 
 average, unless the ship be stranded; and upon to- 
 bacco, it is customary for the insurers to make them- 
 selves liable only to such part of the particular average 
 as exceeds 5 per cent., throwing 5 per cent, upon the 
 merchant. 
 
 Particular Average on Freight. — The clause, as far 
 as it affects " freight," calls for no particular comment. 
 Particular average upon freight can only arise, ac- 
 cording to prevailing practice, from loss of weight ; 
 and whenever the loss of weight amounts to 3 per 
 cent, or upward, the ship owner is entitled to recover 
 from his insurer. The ship owner, upon the arrival of 
 the ship at its port of destination, is entitled to hold 
 the goods as security until the freight is paid. If the 
 owner of the goods should prove insolvent, and the' 
 goods should be entirely spoiled by sea damage during 
 the voyage, and the ship owner thus lose his freight, 
 he has no claim upon the insurer ; because, although 
 his collateral security i& destroyed by a peril of the 
 sea, his right to receive freight remains unimpaired, 
 
 and it is against the loss or impairing of this right that 
 the insurer protects him. 
 
 Particular Average ore Ships. — ^Particular average 
 upon ships is a subject somewhat more beset with 
 difficulties. There is scarcely a ship that makes a 
 voyage of any length that does not sustain some dam- 
 age. The clause in the policy warranting the ship 
 free from particular average under 3 per cent., unless 
 stranded, protects the insurer from the constant recur- 
 rence of petty claims ; but in addition to this, it is the 
 practice to class the damage that a ship sustains in the 
 prosecution of her voyage under two heads ; ordinary 
 damage, or wear and tear ; and extraordinary damage, 
 or particular average. The splitting of sails, the 
 breaking of anchors and cables, the upsetting of wind- 
 lasses, are losses that come under the Srst head. The 
 carrying away of masts and bulwarks, damage to the 
 copper sheathing and hull from striking on rocks, come 
 under the second. When a ship sustains damage, if 
 she be on her first voyage, the whole expense of the 
 repairs is made good by the insurers. But if she be 
 not on her iirst voyage, it is the established custom 
 that the insurer pays no more than two thirds of the 
 repairs, the owner of the vessel having, as it is 
 thought, an equivalent for the one third which falls 
 upon him, in the substitution of new work for old. 
 Where the nature of the damage is such as to require 
 that the copper should be stripped off the ship's bot- 
 tom, the insurer pays the difference between the price 
 of tlie old and the new copper on the weight of the old 
 copper stripped pfF; the excess in weight of the new 
 over the old copper is paid for by the ship owner ; and 
 the labor of stripping and replacing the copper is paid 
 for on the principle already mentioned. In any gen- 
 eral rule of this kind, it must be obvious that the ship 
 owner will sometimes gain and sometimes lose by an 
 accident. As soon as the ship owner, or his captain, 
 learns that his vessel has met with an accident, or as 
 soon after as possible, he summons regular surveyors 
 to examine his vessel and report all defects, discrim- 
 inating between those defects that have arisen from 
 perils of the sea and those from wear and tear. The 
 first only are made good by the insurer, together with 
 all charges, such as surveyors' fees, dock dues, etc.,' 
 caused by the necessity of undergoing repair. It has 
 been already observed, that when a ship is obliged, 
 in the progress of her voyage, to put into port for the 
 purpose of repair, although the owner of the ship be 
 subjected to great expense for the wages and main- 
 tenance of his crew during the detention, he can re- 
 cover no part of this expense from the insurer ; the 
 doctrine being, that the owner of the ship is bound to 
 navigate his vessel, and that the insurer does not un- 
 dertake to guaranty that the voyage shall be com- 
 pleted within any specific time. Such is the doctrine, 
 at least, in this country, and the practice is founded 
 upon it ; but in all other countries the doctrine and 
 practice are the reverse. For in them allowance is 
 made to the ship owner for the wages and maintenance 
 of the crew during the whole period that the ship is 
 under repair. Where a vessel sustains damage and 
 undergoes repair in the progress of her voyage, and is 
 subsequently lost, the insurer is liable both for the 
 particular average and a total loss. Or the owner of 
 the ship may, if he please, insure the amount expend- 
 ed in repair ; and then, in the event of subsequent loss, 
 the insurer is liable for the total loss only ; but in the 
 event of subsequent safe arrival, the average is aug- 
 mented by the charge of insurance. The operation 
 of the clause warranting the ship free from average 
 under 3 per cent., unless general, or the ship be 
 stranded, may now be clearly seen. If a ship be in- 
 sured and valued at $50,000, and the repairs of the 
 vessel do not, after all the deductions above referred 
 to, amount to 3 per cent., there is no claim upon the 
 insurer, unless the vessel shall have been stranded. 
 See Atebage. 
 
INS 
 
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 Stranding. — The term stranded is not well chosen, 
 admitting of more than one construction; and the 
 clause of which it forms a part is imperfectly con- 
 ceived. And in settlements of accounts', when differ- 
 ences arise, the parties who discuss them are more apt 
 to strive for that interpretation of terms and clauses 
 which is favorable to their interests, than for that 
 which is best adapted for general purposes. It is com- 
 monly understood that merely striking the ground and 
 coming off is not a stranding ; it being necessary, in 
 order to fall within that term, that the ship should 
 remain on the ground or rock, as it may happen, and 
 that efforts should be made to float her. Striking on 
 an anchor and leaking dangerously is not a stranding. 
 We shall only adduce two illustrations, for the pur- 
 pose of showing how ill adapted this clause is as a 
 means to an end. Corn and other such articles are 
 warranted free from particular average, unless the 
 ship be stranded, because the insurers, considering 
 these articles to be peculiarly susceptible of damage, 
 will not consent to take that risk, except on some ex- 
 traordinary occasion. A ship laden with com, makes 
 a very stormy passage from the Baltic to London, and 
 damages the whole of her cargo. Upon arrival off 
 the coast she is stranded, but got off without straining 
 or sustaining any damage. The insurer is held to be 
 liable for the damage to the corn, under the clause of 
 the policy. On another occasion, after a very favor- 
 able passage to the coast, a ship strikes upon a shoal, 
 but is not stranded, sustaining, however, so much 
 damage that she arrives at London with 6 feet of water 
 ia her hold, and her cargo almost wholly spoiled. The 
 insurer is held not to be liable under the clause of the 
 polic3^ 
 
 General Average.— The insurer is bound to make 
 good all general average without exception, however 
 trifling the amount. General average is treated as 
 though altogether unconnected with particular aver- 
 age ; and damage to the goods not amounting to 3 per 
 cent, is not payable by the insurer, although there 
 may be also a general average, and the general and 
 particular average together may amount to more than 
 3 or 5 per cent. General average is a charge which 
 must be paid by the merchant and ship owner, even if 
 uninsured ; although when insured, he transfers, as it 
 were, in virtue of his insurance, the charge from him- 
 self to his insurer. All the elements that can hy pos- 
 sibility enter into general average may be classed 
 under four heads : — 1. Sacrifice of part of the ship 
 and stores; 2. Sacrifice of part of the cargo and 
 freight ; 3. Remuneration of services required for gen- 
 eral preservation; 4. Expense of raising money to 
 replace what has been sacrificed, and to remunerate 
 services. 
 
 1. When any part of the ship is sacrificed for the 
 general benefit, the owner is entitled to receive (de- 
 ducting, of course, his share of contribution), the 
 amount of his outlay in the replacing of such sacri- 
 fice ; allowance being made, on the principle stated 
 above, where old works and materials are replaced 
 with new. The deduction of one third, however, does 
 not invariably apply. For instance, one sixth only is 
 taken off the price of an iron cable that is slipped from 
 for the general benefit,because iron cables are calculated 
 to last for a great number of years j and no reduction 
 is ever made from the price of anchors. The charge 
 of replacing the loss may amount to considerably more 
 than the value lost, computing the value at the place 
 where the ship was originally fitted. Thus, the cost 
 of rq)lacing an anchor and cable slipped from in the 
 Downs, is frequently double the value of the anchor 
 and cable at London. But whatever the charge may 
 be, such charge forms the basis of settlement. 
 
 2. Sacrifice of the cargo and freight takes place in 
 jettison, or where part of the cargo is flung overboard 
 to lighten the vessel. Upon arrival in port, after such 
 jettison, the owner of the goods jettisoned is entitled 
 
 to receive (deducting his share of contribution), what 
 the goods would have produced nctt to him, supposing 
 them to have arrived sound ; and the owner of the 
 ship is entitled to receive (deducting his share of con- 
 tribution), the freight to which he would have been 
 entitled upon the same delivery of the goods. 
 
 3. Remuneration of services and other charges. 
 When a ship loses her anchors and cables, very large 
 sums are frequently awarded to boatmen who venture 
 off to her with new ones at the imminent hazard of 
 their lives. A ship disabled at sea is towed into port 
 by another, and remuneration for such service is 
 awarded according to the value saved, the detention 
 occasioned, and the loss sustained. The ship render- 
 ing the service may be laden with fish or fruit, that 
 may be totally spoiled by the detention, or may be in 
 ballast. A ship captured by the enemy may be re- 
 captured by a man of war or armed merchant vessel ; 
 here, again, salvage is awarded according to the cir- 
 cumstances of the case. All these charges are gen- 
 eral average ; that is to say, must be distributed over 
 ship, freight, and cargo. When a ship, with her car- 
 go, is driven on shore, the expense of attempting to 
 get her off is general average. If she can not be got 
 off without discharging, the expense of discharging is 
 general average ; but the expense of getting the ship 
 off after the cargo has been taken out falls exclusively 
 upon the ship. The warehousing of the cargo, and 
 other expenses incurred for its preservation, are 
 charges exclusively upon the cargo. The expense of 
 reloading is borne by the freight. When a ship puts 
 into port in distress, the pilotage inward is general 
 average ; the pilotage outward is a charge upon the 
 freight. This distribution of charges has settled into 
 a tolerably well established practice ; and upon this 
 principle claims are settled at the offices. 
 
 4. The money required to meet the above charges 
 is sometimes attainable without expense. If the acci- 
 dent happen near home, and the ship owner be respect- 
 able, he advances the money and recovers from the 
 various parties concerned so soon as the accounts can 
 be made up ; or if the accident happen in a foreign 
 port, where the owner of the ship is well known, the 
 captain's bill upon him will sometimes be received in 
 payment of the charges incun-ed. But where such 
 facilities do not exist, the captain is empowered to 
 pledge his ship, freight, and cargo, as security to any 
 one he may prevail upon to supply the necessary 
 funds. This pledge is termed a bottomry bond. By 
 it the captain admits the receipt of the money ; con- 
 sents to the payment of a premium (which varies with 
 the distance of the port of destination, the risk of the 
 voyage, the respectability of the owner, and the neces- 
 sities of the captain) ; and assigns the ship, freight, 
 and cargo, as security for the repaj-ment of the money 
 advanced and the stipulated premium. Should the 
 captain consider the bottomry premium demanded of 
 him exorbitant, or should, he deem it preferable in 
 other respects, he may sell a portion of the cargo for 
 the purpose of raising such money as he may stand in 
 need of toward the prosecution of his voyage. The 
 expense of raising the requisite funds, whether by 
 commission, by bottomry premium, or by loss on the 
 sale of the cargo, is charged to those parties for whose 
 interest the money is required. Thus, if a ship, hav- 
 ing struck upon a rock, puts into port in distress, and 
 is obliged to unload to repair ; supposing the particular 
 average upon the ship to amount to $500 ; the gen- 
 eral average, consisting of assistance into port and 
 expense of unloading, $200 ; particular charges on 
 freight, consisting of expense of reloading and pilotage 
 outward, $100 ; and particular charges on cargo, con- 
 sisting of warehouse rent and repair of packages, 
 $200 ; and the expense of raising money should be 20 
 per cent. ; — these sums would be severally increased 
 by this addition, and would be raised to §000, $240, 
 $120, and $340. See Bottosiky, Respondentia. 
 
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 It still remaina to te inqnired in what proportion 
 the general average is to be paid by the different own- 
 ers of the cargo, and the owner of ship and freight. 
 Almost all general averages are adjusted at the ship's 
 port of destination, and the values of the ship and 
 cargo are taken at what they would produce in their 
 actual state upon arrival, and the freight, according to 
 what is actually receivable, less the wages of the cap- 
 tain and crew ; the general average being distributed 
 in proportion to these values. Should the cargo be 
 altogether worthless, it can not be made to contribute ; 
 and should the wages of the crew exceed the freight, 
 then the freight is not liable to contribute. In case 
 of jettison, the party whose property has been sacri- 
 ficed for the general benefit receives indemnity on the 
 same principle ; the value to which he is entitled being 
 what his property would have produced nett, supposing 
 it to have been sold on the arrival of the vessel — ^the 
 same value serving for the basis of his proportion of 
 contribution. Some few cases occur where the general 
 average is adjusted at the port of departure. Thus, 
 if a ship, outward bound to the British colonies, cut 
 from an anchor and cable in the Downs, or incur other 
 general average on our own coast, the insurances being 
 principally effected in this country, it is the custom to 
 adjust it on the spot, by which means both delay and 
 expense are avoided. On these occasions, the values 
 at the port of shipment are taken as the basis of con- 
 tribution. A total loss, subsequently to a general 
 average, does not exonerate the insurer from his prior 
 liability ; and although it is customary with the ship 
 owner, or his agent, specifically to insure the money 
 expended in average, for the purpose of protecting the 
 insurer against any greater liability than 100 per cent., 
 he is not absolutely obliged to do so. When the aver- 
 age funds are raised by bottomry, the party advancing 
 them takes the ship, freight, and cargo, as security, 
 and charges a premium to cover the risk of the ship's 
 non-arrival at her port of destination. And thus, on 
 such an occasion, a subsequent total loss relieves the 
 insurer from all liability to average. The law and 
 customs by which averages are adjusted vary in differ- 
 ent countries ; but the insurer in this countrj' is only 
 liable for the averages adjusted according to our laws. 
 The merchant, however, whose goods arrive at a for- 
 eign port, is obliged to submit to the laws of that 
 port. He maj^ thus be a considerable loser ; pajang 
 general average according to one law, and receiving 
 from his insurer according to another. And he never 
 can be a gainer, because, before he is entitled to re- 
 cover from his insurer, he must prove that he has 
 paid to the owner of the ship. This is one of the 
 many inconveniences to which mercantile men are ex- 
 posed, which can not be removed without, what it may 
 be hoped will gradually take place, an assimilation of 
 the commercial laws of different countries. 
 
 Proof of Loss. — The policy of insurance is the in- 
 strument under which the merchant and ship owner 
 claim indemnification for all losses that are not spe- 
 cially excepted. The proof fhat the loss has been 
 sustained must also be exhibited ; such as the title to 
 the vessel and cargo, and the evidence of the captain 
 and crew to establish the circumstances out of .which 
 the claim arises. If A were to insure his vessel for 
 the space of 12 months, and at the expiration of 6. 
 months were to sell his ship to B : A's interest in the 
 vessel having ceased, so also does his insurer's liabil- 
 ity ; and B, if he wish to be protected, must make a 
 new insurance. Proof of ownership, therefore, is an 
 essential preliminary to the recovery of a claim. In 
 general practice, no difficulty arises from this, because 
 the fact of ownership is sufficiently notorious. The 
 bill of lading is, in most cases, satisfactory proof that 
 the cargo was on board, as well as of the amount of 
 freight. 
 
 Valued and open Policies. — If an insurance for 
 $10,000 be effected upon 100 hhds, of sugar, valued at 
 
 $100 per hhd., the bill of lading, showing that the ves- 
 sel had 100 hhds. on board, establishes the interest at 
 $10,000, and the policy is termed a valued policy. But 
 if an insurance for $10,000 be eflFected on 100 hhds. of 
 sugar, and nothing be expressed as to value, the bill 
 of lading only establishes that 100 hhds. are on board, 
 without establishing the amount of interest. The 
 production of the invoice, showing the cost of the 
 goods, is necessary to that end, the policy being 
 termed an open one. 
 
 Betum of Premium for short Interest. — In a valued 
 policy, when the whole of the property insured does 
 not appear to have been shipped, the difference be- 
 tween the quantity insured and the quantity shipped 
 is termed short interest. Thus, if $10,000 be insured 
 upon 100 hhds. of sugar, valued at $100 per hhd., and 
 80 hhds, only be shipped; as the insurer's liability 
 does not extend beyond $8,000, so he is obliged to re- 
 turn the premium upon $2,000 to which no risk attaches. 
 This return of premium is called a return for short 
 interest. 
 
 For Over-Insurance, — In an open policy, where the 
 value shipped is not equal to the value insured, the 
 difference is termed over-insurance. If a merchant 
 insures in London for £5,000 upon goods, without 
 specifying any value, from Calcutta to London, the 
 premium being £3 and the stamp duty 6s. per cent., 
 the amount of interest that attaches to the policy is 
 so fixed, that he is neither to gain nor lose by the 
 transaction in the event of the vessel's loss, suppos- 
 ing his insurance' to be sufficient. To entitle him to 
 recover a profit, the profit to be insured must be stip- 
 ulated in the policy. The expense of insurance upon 
 £100 beihg 3.25, it is clear that every £100 insurance 
 covers 96.75 original cost, that is to say, protects the 
 merchant from loss to that extent in case of the loss 
 of the vessel. If then, we assume the invoice of the 
 goods shipped to be 40,000 rupees, or, at the exchange 
 of .10c. per rupee, £4,000, the interest attaching to 
 the policy is ascertained as foUowss : — If 96.75 cost 
 is insured by £100 insurance, what will £4,000 cost be 
 insured by? Answer, £4,135. Under such circum^ 
 stances, although a policy exists for £6,000, the in- 
 sured is not able to prove interest for more than 
 £4,136 J and consequently, the insured being entitled 
 to recover no more than that sum in case of loss, the 
 insurer is called upon to make a return of premium 
 for over-insurance upon £865. 
 
 Although we have treated separately of returns for 
 short interest and over-insurance, we should observe 
 that these terms in practice are used indiscriminately ; 
 and, indeed, we can not say that we perceive much 
 advantage in making the distinction, or preserving the 
 distinctive appellations. It sometimes happens that 
 the property expected in a vessel is not all insured at 
 one time or in one policy. But this makes no differ- 
 ence in the principle of settlement according to our 
 law : although, according to the laws of most other 
 countries, the policies take precedence of one another 
 according to their dates, the whole short interest fall- 
 ing upon the policy or policies last effected. The for- 
 eign law, in this instance, appears to us the more 
 equitable and reasonable of the two ; and that our 
 reason for thinking so may be intelligible, and thus 
 gain assent or meet with refutation, we shall state a 
 case of short interest upon a number of policies, such 
 as not imfrequently appears. A merchant. A, orders 
 his correspondent at Calcutta to ship for his account a 
 quantity of sugar, not exceeding 1,000 tons, at a price 
 not exceeding £200 per ton. ' In due time he receives 
 a letter from his correspondent acknowledging the re- 
 ceipt of his order, and expressing confident hopes of 
 being able to purchase the quantity, or the greater 
 part of it, at the limits prescribed, and promising to 
 advise as he proceeds. A, on receipt of this letter, 
 say on the 1st of January, makes a provisional insur- 
 ance for £60,000 upon sugar valued at £200 per ton. 
 
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 Continumg ivithout further advices, and fearing lest 
 his correspondent's letter should have miscarried, and 
 that he might have property afloat uninsured, on the 
 1st of Februarj-, 1st of March, and 1st of April, he ef- 
 fects similar insurances, thus covering the whole 1,000 
 tons. He subsequently receives advice that his cor- 
 respondent had not been able to purchase more than 
 half the quantitj' ordered, at his limit, and recovers 
 from his insurers half the premium upon each policy. 
 Now, it was not at all Improbable that he might have 
 received advice from his correspondent, as he expected, 
 much sooner. And if he had received advice in the 
 middle of Februar}^, of the shipment of 500 tons, and 
 that the ship which contained them was. totally lost in 
 the river Hooghly, the insurers upon the two first pol- 
 icies would have been liable for a total loss. And it 
 appears to us a defective arrangement, by which a 
 partj', who is at one, time exposed to a total loss, 
 should at another be compelled to return half his pre- 
 mium. It is true that the merchant may, if he please, 
 insert in his policies a clause by which the policies 
 shall be made to succeed one another ; but we should 
 say that the law, in insurance cases, as in the disposal 
 of the property of deceased persons, ought to be the 
 best general disposition, leaving to individuals the 
 right of modification according to particular circum- 
 stances. 
 
 Reium for Double Insurance. — Besides returns for 
 short interest and over-insurance, there are returns for 
 double insurance. They are, in fact, to all intents 
 and purposes, the same thing. Double insurance ex- 
 ists where the party, through forgetfulness, makes an 
 insurance upon his property twice over ; or where the 
 shippers and consignees of goods, when unctotain of 
 one another's intentions, effect each an insurance upon 
 them ; or where the captain of a vessel in foreign 
 parts, fearing lest his advices should not reach his 
 owner, effects an insurance upon it, and the owner at 
 the same time, acting with equal caution, effects one 
 also. The observations already made upon returns for 
 short interest, and upon the difference between our 
 laws and those of other countries, apply with equal 
 force here. 
 
 We have now gone over all the principal topics con- 
 nected with marine assurance. Those who peruse 
 this article with ordinary attention will, we hope, gain 
 a tolerably clear insight into the principles and prac- 
 tice of the business. But a perfectly familiar ac- 
 quaintance with it can only be acquired by those who 
 are daily conversant with its details. 
 
 Analysis of the General Law of /Kswrarace.— The in- 
 vention of maritime insurance is due to Italy, and it 
 came into use at the close of the 12th or the beginning 
 of the 13th century. The term "policy" is derived 
 from the Italian Polizza, which signifies any note or 
 memorandum in writing, creating an evidence of a legal 
 obligation. At that time the Italians were the car- 
 riers of Europe, and by their means insurance was 
 introduced into other countries. A colony of Lom- 
 bards was settled in London in the 13th century, and 
 conducted for a long time almost exclusively the for- 
 eign trade of the kingdom ; and it is to them that the 
 tradition of England attributes the introduction of 
 insurance. In the reign of Elizabeth a court was con- 
 stituted to treat of causes relative to policies of insur- 
 ance in a summary way. The court was formed of 
 the judge of admiralty, the recorder of London, two 
 doctors of civil law, two common lawyers, and eight 
 merchants, empowering any five of them to hear and 
 determine all such causes arising in London. But the 
 court, on account of its restricted character and other 
 causes, fell into disuse, and cases of insurance are now 
 decided by trial in the courts of common law. The 
 contract of insurance is essentially a contract of in- 
 demnity against the perils of the sea. The various 
 codes differ in the objects prohibited to be insured. 
 Thus the French code, ordinance of Bilboa, Spanish 
 
 code, Danish, Two Sicilies, Boman States, Ionian Isl- 
 ands, Lombardo-Veneto, Sardinia, Hayti, and Greece, 
 prohibit insurance on freight of goods on board, ex- 
 cepted profits, wages of seamen, and maritime interest 
 on loans on bottomry. While Great Britain, Holland, 
 Portugal, Prussia, Malta, United States, and Ham- 
 burg, permit them. Ee-insurance is prohibited in 
 Great Britain. In Great Britain mariners are forbidden 
 to insure their wages ; but a captain of a ship can in- 
 sure his wages, or any interest as part owner. An in- 
 surance on money lent to the captain, payable out of 
 the freight, is illegal. So are wager policies ; and it 
 is the same in Massachusetts. 
 
 Article 335 of the French code authorizes the assur- 
 ance on the whole or on a part of the objects which 
 may be insured ; but in Spain and Denmark the goods 
 can not be insured for more than nine tenths of their 
 value, and in Spain, no more than four fifths can be 
 insured on the value of a ship ; at Malta the insurance 
 can not exceed seven eighths ; in Prussia it may be 
 made for the cost price, or for the value of the ship ; 
 but in Holland and in Portugal the entire value may 
 be insured after the vessel has set sail. In Great 
 Britain no policy can be made for a longer time than 
 for 12 calendar months. 
 
 The duration of risks for a ship continues in Great 
 Britain until 24 hours after she has moored at anchor in 
 safety. The same in the United States and at Malta. 
 
 According to the Prussian code, payment ought to 
 be effected within two months after the notice of the 
 damages ; after this time interest commences to run. 
 The law of Great Britain being mostly similar to that 
 of America, it has been thought necessary to vary the 
 mode of treating the various subjects ; so illegal in- 
 surance, rights of agents, concealment, and representa^ 
 tions have been enlarged on in the law of America, 
 while for these, as well as for all others, the reader is 
 particularly referred to the law of Great Britain. The 
 general spirit of the law of insurance is beautifully 
 illustrated in the following language of the French 
 jurists at the close of their report to the council of 
 State on the title of insurance in the code of com- 
 merce, and rendered by Duer in his work on insur- 
 ance : " Marine insurance may justly be deemed one 
 of the noblest creations of human geuius. From a 
 lofty height it surveys and protects the commerce of 
 the world. It scans the heavens ; it consults the sea- 
 sons ; it interrogates the ocean ; and, regardless of its 
 terrors or caprice, defines its perils and circumscribes its 
 storms. It extends its cares to everj' part of the hab- 
 itable globe ; studies the usage of every nation ; ex- 
 plores every coast, sounds every harbor. To the sci- 
 ence of politics it directs a sleepless attention ; it 
 enters the council of monarchs — watches the delibera- 
 tions of statesmen — ^weighs their motives, and pene- 
 trates their designs. Founding on these vast materials 
 its skillful calculations, secure of the result, it then 
 addresses the hesitating merchant : ' Dismiss your anx- 
 iety and fears ; these are misfortunes that humanity 
 maj^ deplore, but can not prevent or alleviate. Such 
 are not the disasters you dread to encounter. Trust 
 in me and they shall not reach j'ou. Summon all 
 your resources, put forth all your skill, and, with 
 unfaltering courage, pursue your adventures. Suc- 
 ceed — your riches are enlarged ; fail — they shall not 
 be diminished. Mj'' wealth shall supply your loss. 
 Rely on me, and, for your sake, at my bidding, the 
 arm of your enemies shall be paralyzed, and the dan- 
 gers of the ocean cease to exist.' The merchant list- 
 ens, obeys, and is rewarded. Thousands, tempted by 
 his success, follow his example. Those whom it had 
 long separated, the ocean now unites. The quarters 
 of the world approach each other, and are hound \iy 
 the permanent ties of mutual interest and mutual 
 benefits." — Levi's Com. Law of the World. 
 
 We extract from Duer's Marine Insurance the fol- 
 lowing Law of Insurance in the United States : 
 
INS 
 
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 "1. Insurance is a contract of indemnity against 
 tlie perils of tlie sea. 2. A policy must specify, 1st, 
 the parties between whom, and on whose account, the 
 insurance is made ; 2d, the consideration or premium 
 paid ; 3d, the subject insured'; 4th, the amount insured ; 
 5th, the risk insured against ; and, lastly, the voyage or 
 period of time during which the insurance is to con- 
 tinue in force. 3. Form and execution of the contract. 
 The uniform and general practice of merchants may be 
 considered as evidence of the legal necessity of a writ- 
 ten contract. A specification of the risks is an essen- 
 tial part of the contract. 4. The policies used in the 
 different States of the Union differ materially ; and in 
 New York the forms of the policy in use for the differ- 
 ent subjects of insurance are distinct and separate. 
 5. The subscription of the insurer is alone sufficient. 
 When the insurance is made by an incorporated com- 
 pany, the execution of the policy must be attested by 
 the officers designated for that purpose by its charters 
 or by its laws. 6. When a policy has in fact been ex- 
 ecuted, and notice of its execution has been given to 
 the assured, its actual delivery is not essential to the 
 completion of the contract. 7. The insurer, whether an 
 individual or an incorporated company, would not be 
 allowed to retract a consent thus confessed to have 
 been given; but would be considered as holding the 
 policy for the benefit of the assured, and bound to de- 
 liver it at his request. Should a loss occur, and the 
 policy then be withheld from the assured, he would have 
 a complete lemed}' in an action at law. 8. When an ap- 
 plication for insurance is accepted by the insurer, the 
 rate of premium and the date inserted, and the writing 
 signed by the parties, it constitutes in equity a valid in- 
 surance, and in law a valid agreement to insure : it gives 
 to the assured an immediate right, upon the tender of 
 the premium, or premium note, to demand from the 
 insurer the execution and deliver}- of the policy. The 
 validity of an agreement to insure may be proved by 
 the correspondence, but the evidence of the assent of 
 both to all the terms proposed must be clear and une- 
 quivocal. 9. An offer to insure made by letter is a 
 valid undertaking that the party will be bound by it, 
 if in due season a favorable answer be returned. But 
 although the insured is necessarily bound by his offer 
 during the interval that has been stated, it must not 
 be inferred that the applicant has the right, under all 
 circumstances, to accept the offer when he receives it. 
 10. The policy, from the time of its execution, consti- 
 tutes the sole evidence of the agreement of the parties ; 
 nor, subject to some exceptions, can any previous let- 
 ters or communications between them, nor even the 
 written application or agreement, be used to vary or 
 control its interpretation. 11. When a policy refers 
 to any other document or paper, the contents of the 
 document or paper become a part of the contract as 
 fully as if they were recited or incorporated in the 
 policy. 12. A policy of insurance, when executed, 
 may not only be cancelled by the consent of the par- 
 ties, but is subject to any change or modification of 
 its terms that they may choose to adopt. When an 
 alteration is made in the body of the policy by the as- 
 sured, without the assent of the underwriters, if it 
 change the sense, or affect in any degree the substance 
 of the contract, it renders the whole instrument void. 
 
 13. The date is one of the principal requisites in the 
 policy. The date, however, is only presumptive, 
 not conclusive, evidence of the facts that it attests. 
 
 14. Wagdr policies are established and admitted to 
 be illegal. 
 
 Of the Construction of die Policy . — 15. The construc- 
 tion of a policy, with the exception of cases in which 
 parole evidence is admitted, is a question of law, the 
 determination of which belongs exclusively to the 
 court. As a contract of indemnity to the assured, the 
 policy is to be liberally construed in his favor. An ex- 
 ception from the risks of the policy is to be construed 
 strictly against the insurer. 16. When a discrepancy. 
 
 apparent or real, is found to exist between a written 
 and a printed clause of the policy, it is the writing that 
 controls the interpretation. 17. Extrinsic proof, by 
 the testimony of witnesses or otherwise, is received to 
 control or aid the interpretation, in order, Ist, to fix 
 the application of general or indeterminate words ; 2d, 
 to correct an error of description, by showing the iden- 
 tity of the subject to which it relates ; 3d, to remove a 
 latent ambiguity ; and, lastly, to explain the meaning 
 of foreign or technical words. 18. Parole evidence 
 shall never be received to show that the intention of 
 the parties was directly opposite to that which their 
 language expresses, or substantially different from any 
 meaning that the words they have used, upon any con- 
 struction, will admit or convey. Parole evidence may 
 be admitted to show that particular words, upon the 
 construction of which a controversy turns, have ac- 
 quired, by the known usages of trade, a peculiar mean- 
 ing, wholly distinct from their ordinary and popular 
 sense. 19. When the interpretation of words, or the 
 construction of a clause in the policy, that may be un- 
 derstood in a sense more or less extensive, has not 
 been fixed by judicial decisions, parole evidence may 
 be admitted to show whether they have obtained, by 
 use and practice between the assurers and the assured, 
 any, and what, known and definite import. The 
 usage, if proved, will govern the construction. 20. If 
 by a general practice, the voyage or trade to which 
 the insurance relates has been pursued in a certain 
 course or manner that the terms of the policy, in their 
 ordinary interpretation, would not embrace parole, evi- 
 dence may be admitted to prove the existence of the 
 usage. 21. A Usage that can alone be allowed to con- 
 trol the interpretation of the policy, or vary the legal 
 rights of the parties, must be general, uniform, notor- 
 ious, reasonable, and consistent with the terms of the 
 policy, and, to a certain extent, with the rules of law. 
 Qf Illegal In&urwnces. — JBreach of Municipal Laws, — 
 22. The invalidity of an insurance, as an implied 
 violation of the laws of trade, may arise from the 
 character of the goods exported or imported, the na- 
 ture of the trade, or the breach of some statutory pro- 
 vision relative to the navigation of the ship or conduct 
 of the voyage. 23. When the exportatation or im- 
 portation of the goods shipped is prohibited, the ille- 
 gality affects not only.the policy upon the goods them- 
 selves, but equall}' those upon the ship and freight, 
 since the voluntary reception of the goods by the mas- 
 ter is as much a violation of law as their shipment by 
 the owner. When the prohibited act renders the sub- 
 sequent voyage or trade illegal, it vacates the policy. 
 24. The illegality of a voyage, arising from the 
 transportation of prohibited goods, is never permitted 
 to affect a distinct policy upon the lawful goods of a 
 different owner. 25. Where the goods insured by one 
 policy are all of them lawful, the insurance is valid, 
 even when the assured, as Owner or otherwise, is in- 
 terested or concerned in the transportation of unlaw- 
 ful goods by the same vessel, but otherwise when in- 
 cluded in an entire policy. 26. The contract is entire 
 when the goods insured (whether the insurance be 
 general or specific) are included in one gross valuation ; 
 but where an insurance is specific upon different 
 kinds of goods, and a separate value is afiixed to 
 each denomination, the contract is distinct. So where 
 the policy is open upon different kinds of goods. 
 27. An insurance in one policy for the owners of a 
 ship is not devisable ; but the illegal act of one with- 
 out the knowledge or privity of the others, has the 
 same effect in voiding the entire contract as if all had 
 concurred. But the contract will not be regarded as 
 entire when the insurance is made by a common agent 
 on account of several persons whose interests are seve- 
 ral and distinct. 28. When an entire voyage is ille- 
 gal at its inception, the illegality runs through and 
 infects every part of it. 29. When a particular trade 
 is prohibited by the express terms of a treaty to 
 
INS 
 
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 INS 
 
 which the State within whose jurisdiction the policy- 
 is effected is a party, the effect of the prohibition, 
 whether general as to trade or limited to particular 
 commodities, is precisely the same as if it were by a 
 municipal law, an act of Parliament, or of Congress. 
 Every voyage in contravention of the treaty is illegal, 
 and every insurance upon such a voyage, whatever be 
 the subject or terms of the policy, is necessarily void. 
 
 30. The defeat of the voyage by an embargo after 
 the policy has attached, is not considered as a dis- 
 solution of the contract, but as a loss by a peril 
 insured against, entitling the insured, upon an aban- 
 donment, to a recovery of the whole sum insured. 
 
 31. The contingent expectation of the parties that 
 an existing law will be repealed interdicting a voyage 
 or trade meant to be covered by the policy, is not suf- 
 ficient to render the insurance valid when the expect- 
 ation is not realized, and the voyage is undertaken and 
 prosecuted in defiance of the provisions of the law. 
 
 Section II. Enemy's Property. — 32. Eveiy insur- 
 ance upon property liable to confiscation as prize of 
 war by the government of the country to which the 
 insurance belongs, is of necessity invalid. An insur- 
 ance made in a belligerent country upon the property 
 of the subjects of an opposite belligerent, is void. 33. 
 Goods in the course of transportation from a neutral 
 country to a belligerent, if they are to be delivered to, 
 and become the property of, a belligerent immediately 
 on their arrival, are considered as his goods during the 
 voyage (in itinere), and as such are subject to capture 
 and confiscation. 
 
 Section III. Enemy's Property — Domicile. — 34. A 
 merchant is a. political member of the country into 
 which, by his residence and business, he is incorpo- 
 rated ; he is a subject of the government that protects 
 him in his pursuits, that his industry contributes to 
 support, and of whose natural resources his own means 
 are a constituent part. 35. "\^Tien the property of a 
 foreigner who, at the time of its shipment was living 
 in a hostile country, is seized as that of an enemj', the 
 captors are not bound to prove in the first instance that 
 his place of residence was his actual domicile. The 
 presumption of law is in their favor. The animus ma,- 
 nendi, the intention to remain, the law imputes to 
 him, and to redeem his property from the noxious im- 
 putation, he must give such evidence of his intention 
 and plans as shall be effectual to destroy it. 36. The 
 national character of persons who reside in a foreign 
 country, in a public or representative capacity, is not 
 changed or affected by their residence, whatever may 
 be its duration, or by whatever circumstances indica- 
 tive of the intent to render it permanent it may be ac- 
 companied. But if a foreign consul engage in com- 
 merce, he is immediately stamped, with respect to that 
 commerce, with the national character of the country 
 in which he resides, and from which his trade is con- 
 ducted. His character of consul affords no protection 
 to his mercantile adventures. 37. A native subject 
 can not acquire a foreign domicile by an emigration 
 from his own country during the existence of hostili- 
 ties (flagrante bello) so as to protect his trade during 
 the war, either against the belligerent claims of his 
 own country or against those of a hostile power. His 
 native character is wholly unchanged by his change of 
 residence. 38. The nature of the traffic or business in 
 which an individual is engaged, may stamp upon him 
 a national character wholly independent of that which 
 his place of residence would alone impose. 
 
 Section IV. Trade with the Enemy.— S9. The prop- 
 erty of a subject is in all cases liable to confiscation in 
 a court of prize when it is found engaged in an unlaw- 
 ful trade or intercourse with the ports, territories, or 
 subjects of the public enemy ; and the property of a 
 subject of a State allied in the war is liable under the 
 like circumstances to the same penalty. 40. To ren- 
 der the importation of goods from an enemy's port an 
 illegal trading, it is not requisite that they should be 
 
 the fruits of any purchase, barter, contract, or nego- 
 tiation in the enemy's country, after, hostility had 
 commenced. The sailing of the vessel with the goods 
 on board after the party had knowledge of the war, 
 completes the offense, stamps the cargo with an illegal 
 character, and subjects it, during its transportation, to 
 a rightful seizure. 41. To render a trade with the 
 enemy unlawful, it is not necessary that the commu- 
 nication with the enemy's country should be immedi- 
 ate and direct. A circuitous trade is liable to the 
 same abuses, and involves the same political dangers 
 as a direct one, and therefore equally falls within the 
 interdiction and penalty of the law. 42. If an Amer- 
 ican vessel, during a war, even when destined to a 
 neutral port, prosecutes her voyage under a license 
 from the government of the enemy, both ship and 
 cargo, while they remain under the protection of the 
 license, are liable to capture, and if captured, are law- 
 ful subjects of confiscation. 43. A license granted by 
 the sovereign power is not subject to transfer or assign- 
 ment, but its legitimate use is confined to those for 
 whose benefit it was originally granted. A license to 
 an alien enemy, whether by name or general words, 
 removes all his personal disabilities. 44. The goods 
 for which the protection of a license is claimed, must 
 correspond with those that the license enumerates or 
 describes. When a license authorizes the importation 
 of goods from an enemy's country in an enemy's ship, 
 the protection intended to be granted, although con- 
 fined in terms to the goods, by tlie just construction of 
 the law is extended to the vessel. The national char- 
 acter of the ship, as described in the license, is, in 
 most cases, a condition necessarj- to be fulfilled to se- 
 cure the protection that is desired. 
 
 Section V. Breach of Neutrality. — 45. The duties 
 of a subject or citizen of the neutral State are, 1. To 
 abstain from every act that tends to the assistance of 
 either of the belligerents in the prosecution of the war. 
 2. To abstain from every act that tends directly to re- 
 lieve one of the belligerents from the pressure and 
 effect of the opposite hostilities. 3. To offer no resist- 
 ance to the /uU exercise of the belligerents' rights of 
 visitation and search, and to resort to no means for 
 eluding and defrauding the rights of capture. 46. 
 From the moment that a ship, with contraband arti- 
 cles on board, quits her port on a hostile destination, 
 as a general rule the offense is complete and the cap- 
 ture legal. To justify the capture, it is enough that 
 the immediate object of the voyage is to supply the 
 enemy, and that the contraband is certainly destined 
 to his immediate use. 47. Articles of contraband are all 
 the munitions and instruments of war ; all manufac- 
 tured articles that in their actual state are fitted for 
 military and naval use, and more especially for the 
 building and equipping of ships of war. Pitch, tar, and 
 hemp are contraband ; but they enjoy exemptions if di- 
 rected to a mercantile port. Provisions are not contra- 
 band, but they may be rendered so by their special desti- 
 nation and intended use. 48. An insurance upon goods 
 liable to confiscation as contraband of war — if made in 
 the belligerent country whose rights are violated — ^is 
 wholly void. 49. A blockade is a naval ciroumvalla- 
 tion intended to prevent and cut off all communica- 
 tion with the port that it incloses, and to cause an 
 entire suspension of its commerce. The breach of a 
 blockade subjects all the property so employed to con- 
 fiscation by the belligerent power whose rights are 
 violated. 
 
 Of the Parties to the Contract — Of the Leycd Compel 
 tency of the Parties. — 50. All persons of full age and 
 otherwise capable of contracting, have the right to in- 
 sure and be insured. 51. In order to render a party 
 capable of insuring, it is not necessary that he should 
 have any interest in the property insured at the time 
 the insurance is effected, unless the risks as described 
 in the policy have already commenced. When the 
 contract is perspective, it is valid and effectual if the 
 
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 interest meant to be covered exists when tlie policy 
 attaches. When a party effects an insurance after the 
 rislcs have commenced, if he has an interest at the 
 time in the subject-matter of the policj-, the contract 
 may be so framed as to entitle him to recover for a loss 
 that had in fact occurred before his own title was ac- 
 quired by insuring the goods " lost or not lost." 62. 
 An agent employed to procure an insurance can not 
 himself become the insurer. 
 
 Of the Description of the Parties in the Poliqj. — 53. 
 The names of the immediate parties to the Contract, 
 that is, of the individual or company agreeing to as- 
 sume the risks, and of the person effecting the insur- 
 ance, must be mentioned in the policy. 54. When 
 the insurance is made by an agent, the parties really 
 assured may be described by general words ; nor is 
 even a general description necessary, if the party 
 effecting the insurance describes himself as " agent" 
 in the policy. Where the person effecting the insur- 
 ance describes himself as the agent of a particular 
 person, the policy, bj' its necessary construction, 
 inures only to protect an interest of the party thus 
 named as the principal. 55. When an agent effects a 
 policy in his own name on account of a third person, 
 who is named, or describing the assured by general 
 words, an action on the policy for the recovery of a 
 loss may be maintained in the name of the agent, or 
 in that of the party really interested. But where the 
 agent is a naked trustee, having no'lien in the policy, 
 and no interest of his own that was meant to be pro- 
 tected, he will not be allowed to maintain the action in 
 his own name, if it appear that previous to the com- 
 mencement of the suit his authority as agent had been 
 countermanded or revoked. 66. Although each part- 
 ner has a right to insure the partnership property in 
 the name or on account of the firm, yet Where the in- 
 surance is expressed to be on his sole account, it 
 must be limited in its application to his individual 
 share. When the separate interest of a partner, sep- 
 arately insuring, is equal to the amount insured, he 
 can have no motive for averring or attempting to prove 
 a partnership property. 67. When the interest of the 
 party in whom the interest is averred is proved, and an 
 authority from him to insure, or his adoption of the 
 contract is also proved, it is an inference of law from 
 the terms of his policy that the insurance was effected 
 on his account. But when the proof establishes that 
 his interest was not intended to be covered, it forms 
 an insuperable bar to a recovery. 58. The interpreta- 
 tion of every policy that is effected by an agent under 
 previous instructions, must be controlled by the inten- 
 tion of the principal in every case where evidence of 
 the intention can properly be received to determine 
 the construction. The general words of a policy de- 
 scribing the assured, have always received a liberal 
 interpretation. 59. The policy may be so framed that 
 the insurance shall be inseparably attached to the 
 property meant to be covered, so that the successive 
 owners, during the continuance of the risks, shall be- 
 come in turn the parties really assured. 
 
 Of the Assignment of the Policy and of the Rights of 
 the A ssignee. — 60. Although a policy of insurance in 
 its usual form is not assignable in law so as to enable 
 the assignee to maintain an action upon the contract 
 in his own name, -it is in all cases assignable inequity, 
 and vests in the assignee a beneficial interest, varying 
 in its extent according to the purpose for which the 
 assignment is made. 61. Although the rights of the 
 assignee of a policy are equitable in their nature, it is 
 not in a court of equity, when a loss has occurred to 
 which he claims to be entitled, and the underwriters 
 refuse to pay, that he must seek relief. He has a full 
 remedy in an action at law, in the name of the as- 
 surer. 62. The assignment in writing of a policy of 
 insurance does not vest in the assignee a perfect title, 
 except as against the assignor, unless it is accompanied 
 by an actual delivery of the instrument itself. The 
 
 policies in use in Boston contain special clauses re- 
 stricting their assignment. 
 
 Of Insurance effected by an Agent. — Of the Author- 
 ity of an Agent to Insure. — 63. The necessity of prov- 
 ing either the original authority of the agent, or the 
 subsequent adoption of his contract, is expressly af- 
 firmed, or necessarily implied, in every case in .which 
 a question as to the authority of the agent has arisen. 
 A prior authority conferring on the agent the right to 
 insure, is either express or implied.! . An express au- 
 thority may be written or verbal. 64. The author- 
 ity of a single partner, and of each partner, to insure 
 the partnership property in the name or by general 
 words on account of the firm, or to direct such an as- 
 surance to be made, is established and undoubted. 
 05. The right of a part owner to insure is limited to 
 his own individual share. 66. The master of a ship 
 has no general authority, but has an implied authority 
 in special cases. 67. When a consignee has an inter- 
 estj he may insure the entire property consigned to 
 him ; but a consignee who has no interest, and no lien 
 whatever, upon the goods consigned to him for sale, 
 has no right to insure them on behalf of the consigner, 
 unless specially instructed. 68. A general agent may 
 insure on behalf of his principal, imless restricted in 
 his discretion by the express instruction of his princi- 
 pal. The authority of the agent, express or implied, 
 may be revoked by the principal at any time before 
 the terms of the insurance have been settled by an 
 agreement with the underwriters. 69. In the United 
 States a usage prevails to cover all shipments by a 
 general standing time policy on goods, so as to em- 
 brace not onlj' all outward and home shipments made 
 on their own account, hut all shipments made to 
 them from foreign ports, upon which they are di- 
 rected to effect insurance. When there is a sub- 
 sisting policy in the above form, a direction to insure, 
 once given, is in its nature irrevocable. 70. When 
 an agent accepts an order to insure, or omits to 
 give notice of his refusal, he is of course bound to its 
 execution. When the principal has funds or effects 
 in the hands of his correspondent, the application 
 of which rests in his own discretion, he is justified 
 that they will be applied by his correspondent to pro- 
 cure the insurance that he directs. 71. When the 
 agent has no funds or effects of his principal on hand, 
 but, by an established course of dealing, has been in 
 *he habit of executing the orders of his principal to 
 effect insurance, and of advancing the premium, he is 
 bound to execute all similar orders that he may re- 
 ceive from him, until he has given him notice that this 
 course of dealing must be discontinued. 72. When a 
 consignee receives a bill of lading, with an order to in- 
 sure its contents, if he accepts the consignment, he 
 must execute the order. The law regards the trans- 
 action as entire, and the acceptance of the benefit as a 
 tacit promise to discharge the duty. 73. These rules 
 are subject to exceptions. The agent can never be 
 bound to effect an insurance that, fron^ circumstances 
 that could not have been known or anticipated when 
 the order was given, instead of securing an indemnity 
 to his principal, would tend to his certain prejudice and 
 loss. When the agent, when he receives the order, 
 knows, or has just grounds for believing that his cor- 
 respondent is insolvent, or is threatened with insolv- 
 ency, the acceptance of the trust rests in his own dis- 
 cretion. Yet, should his apprehension prove to be 
 groundless, he should be called to justify his conduct, 
 by proving that the information on which he has 
 acted was credible and trustworthy. The obligation 
 to insure that arises from a previous course of dealing, 
 can only apply to insurances similar to those that the 
 agent had been in the habit of effecting. 74. The con- 
 fidence reposed in an agent is strictly personal ; and 
 he can not delegate to a third person an authority that, 
 by the intention of his principal, was meant to be exe- 
 cuted by himself alone. 
 
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 Section III. — Of Insurances hy voluntary Agents, 
 and their Adoption.— 15. Although the adoption of a 
 voluntary insurance is necessary to render the contract 
 valid against the principal, and proof of its adoption 
 to warrant the recovery of a loss against the insurer, 
 we are not to infer that the agent who effects the policy 
 is at liberty to rescind his own contract, upon proof 
 either of his want of a previous authority, or of the re- 
 fusal of his intended principals to ratify his act. 76. 
 There are, however, two cases in which, as exceptions 
 from the general rule, the voluntary agent, when his 
 insurance has been rejected, may justly claim to re- 
 cover back the premium he has paid : 1st. When he 
 discloses to the underwriters that the insurance is 
 made -without authority, and they agree that it 
 shall be cancelled, if not adopted ; and 2dly : Where 
 the insurance is rejected for reasons that would 
 have rendered the contract valid, if adopted. 77. 
 The contract of the voluntary agent may be rat- 
 ified and appropriated bj- the principal, even with 
 Itnowledge of a loss, unless the power to adopt the in- 
 surance under these circumstances, is excluded by the 
 express provisions of the policy. When an abandon- 
 ment of the property insured is necessary to justify a 
 claim for a total loss, an adoption of the contract, with 
 the right to enforce the claim, is of necessity limited to 
 the period within which, either by the provisions of 
 the policy or by the general rule of law, the abandon- 
 ment must be made to render it valid ; and a claim for 
 partial loss is just as liable to be barred by the lapse 
 of time, as if it arose under a policy duly authorized. 
 The party for whom the insurance was intended can 
 have no right to adopt and enforce a contract that 
 would not have been valid if made by his express di- 
 rection. 78. When the agent merely exceeds a given 
 authority, the principal is concluded if he fail to give 
 notice of his dissent within a reasonable time after re- 
 ceiving the information. 
 
 Of the Duties of Agents in their Relatione with their 
 Principals, and with tJie Insurers. — 79. Every agent 
 who is entitled to receive a compensation for his serv- 
 ices, is bound to exercise not only the same care and 
 diligence that he is accustomed to employ in his own 
 private affairs, but all the care, and diligence, and 
 sltiU that the transaction of the particular business 
 with which he is intrusted, according to its nature, 
 may be reasonably construed to require. 80. A 
 person who undertakes to effect an insurance fof 
 another, should make proper inquiries as to the cir- 
 cumstances and standing of the insurers to whom 
 he wishes to apply, and to be careful to select those 
 whose credit is established and undisputed ; but when 
 he acts in good faith in making the selection, and has 
 exercised the necessary caution, he is not, generally 
 speaking, responsible for the ultimate solvency of 
 those who subscribe that policy, unless he receives a 
 del credere commission. From this rule the voluntary 
 agent is not exempted. 81. When the agent employs 
 a broker to effect the policy, as he is always justified 
 in doing, when such is the usage of the place where 
 the contract is made, it is to the discretion of the 
 broker that the choice of the insurers is intrusted ; and 
 for his fraud or neglect in the execution of this trust, 
 the agent is not responsible where no want of good 
 faith, or of proper diligence, is justly imputable to him. 
 82. An agent who has effected a policy in conform- 
 ity to the orders of his principal, has the power when 
 the first insurer becomes insolvent, even of rescinding 
 the contract when the interests of his principal plainly 
 demand the measure, so long as the policy remains in 
 his hands. But the agent ought never to cancel a 
 subsisting policy when the partial security that it af- 
 fords is preferable to a return of the premium, unless 
 with the certainty that he will be able to pay a new 
 contract fully, to protect the interest of his principal. 
 The subsisting policy being rescinded, if the order was 
 special and limited, he will still be boimd to follow its 
 
 provisions and observe its limits ; but if within its 
 limits, and according to its terms, it is the duty of the 
 agent to eflfect a second insurance. 83. Where an 
 increased premium is demanded, the execution of the 
 order can no longer be regarded as a positive duty, 
 but will rest in the sound discretion of the agent. 
 Where, from the lapse of time, or other circumstan- 
 ces, the alteration of the risk is so material that the 
 premium demanded is much larger than the prin- 
 cipal when he gave the order to insure could have 
 contemplated as necessary to be paid, the agent may 
 be partly excused who declines to exercise his author- 
 ity ; and, on the other hand, whatever may be the 
 change in the risk, and the increase of the premium, 
 if there are reasonable grounds to believe that a sec- 
 ond insurance will tend to the advantage of the prin- 
 cipal, the agent, proceeding in good faith to effect it, 
 will be protected. 84. It is the duty of every agent 
 to communicate to the underwriters all the facts and 
 circumstances of which he has any knowledge or 
 information ; to represent truly all the facts he dis- 
 closes, and to answer truly all the proper inquiries 
 of the insurer \ for the concealment or misrepresent- 
 ation of the agent, whether intentional or unde- 
 signed, has the same effect on the validity of the 
 contract as that of the party really assured. 85. 
 Although an agent to whom no fraud or neglect 
 is imputable, is not responsible for the concealment 
 and misrepresentstion of the sub-agent whom he is 
 authorized to employ, yet when he employs a broker 
 to effect the policy, he is bound to give him all the 
 necessary instructions and all material information 
 that he himself possesses, and this duty attaches even 
 on an agent who acts gratuitously, who may be ren- 
 dered liable for the damages resiilting from his omis- 
 sions. 86. When the omission or act of the agent 
 that vitiates the contract can be justly imputed to his 
 fraud or his neglect, he is personally liable for the 
 resulting damage ; but where it proceeds from his 
 want of the requisite skill, there are cases in which 
 equity demands some distinctions. 87. A mercantile 
 agent who was neither authorized to insure nor has 
 effected an insurance, may yet render himself liable 
 as an insurer, b}^ a false representation, not to the un- 
 derwriter, but to his principal, if the nature of the 
 misrepresentation is such as to invalidate a policy 
 founded on it, effected hy the principal, or on his be- 
 half. The most important and responsible duty of 
 every agent in efi^ecting an insurance, is to take care 
 that the policy shall be so framed as effectuallj' to 
 cover the property and risks, which he is directed to 
 insure, or which, when not acting under a previous 
 order, he believes and represents himself to have in- 
 sured. 88. When an agent acts under clear and 
 positive instructions, and violates them in the term 
 and form of the insurance that he effects, his negli- 
 gence, it is manifest, is still more culpable and renders 
 the agent personally liable. But when the order is 
 plain, the good faith of the agent will not protect him. 
 89. Even when an agent acts gratuitouslj', without 
 the hope or expectation of a reward, j'et, if he enters 
 on the execution of an order to insure, he must follow 
 its terms, and by his omission to cover all the property 
 or risks that he is directed to insure, will become re- 
 sponsible for a loss that the insurance of property 
 effected would have embraced. The mistake of the 
 agent where the practice is unsettled and the law un- 
 certain, affords no evidence of the want of reasonable 
 skill and ordinary diligence, for which, alone, he is re- 
 sponsible. 90. The agent is not responsible if his 
 mistake arose not from his want of requisite diligence 
 and skill, but from the imperfect and confused manner 
 in which the instructions of his principal were ex- 
 pressed. 91. All prior verbal communications are 
 superseded by the written instructions which consti- 
 tute the proper and sole evidence of the intentions of 
 the party directing the insurances. 92. If the agent 
 
INS 
 
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 finds it impracticable to effect an insurance according 
 to the terms of his instructions it is Ms duty to give 
 immediate notice of liis failure to his principal. When 
 an agent has separate orders to insure on the same 
 voyage, and against the same risks, the property of 
 several persons whose interests are several, should he 
 ?lect to cover the whole property in one policy, 
 he must be careful so to frame the contract as to 
 secure to each of his constituents the same indem- 
 nity to which he would have been entitled had his 
 property and interest alone been covered. 93. An 
 order to insure is either discretionary or positive, 
 and when positive, is either general or limited. The 
 order is discretionary when the election to insure 
 or not to insure, is committed absolutely to the dis- 
 cretion of the agent ; and in such a case if the agent 
 determines not to insure he is responsible only for his 
 good faith. The order when positive is general when 
 it describes the property and voyage, but gives no di- 
 rection as to the risks to be covered and imposes no 
 limitation as to the premium. When the order is thus 
 general the duty of the agent is fully discharged by 
 his obtaining an insurance in the usual form of the 
 policy at the place where the insurance is made. 
 94. When the order to insure contains no direction or 
 restriction as to the amount of the premium to be paid, 
 it is the dutj' of the agent to effect the insurance at all 
 events without regard to the premium ; and if by lim- 
 iting himself to a smaller premium he defeats an insur- 
 ance, he is liable, with the exception, however, that 
 where the funds he has or he is to advance should not 
 permit him to enhance the premium suffioientlj'-, he 
 would be excused. 95. Special instructions must be 
 exactlj' followed by the agent. When an agent is di- 
 rected to insure a certain amount, it is his duty to pro- 
 cure an insurance, if possible, to the fall extent of the 
 sum required ; but if he can not, he must execute the 
 order as far as he can. 96. An insurance is not wholly 
 void when the agent exceeds the premium to which 
 he was limited. A contract made by an agent who in 
 its terms exceeds his authority, is never wholly void 
 if the excess may be readily ascertained and separated. 
 97. As a general rule the order unless otherwise express- 
 ed, may be construed as intended to refer in its execution 
 solely to the place of the agent's residence ; but circum- 
 stances may doubtless create an exception and impose 
 a duty that the order does not in terms require. 98. 
 Where an agent who has effected a polity retains its 
 possession with the consent of his principal, his agen- 
 cy is continued. His general duty is to enforce the 
 rights and protect the interests of his principal in all 
 matters arising out of the contract. If a loss, partial 
 or totkl, has occurred he must collect, arrange, and 
 submit the necessary proofs, adjust and settle its 
 amounts, demand and receive its payment. If in 
 order to sustain the claim of the assured for a total 
 loss, an abandonment is necessarj-, he must take it on 
 behalf of his principal, must take care that it is prop- 
 erly expressed and is delivered in due season, and he 
 must be careful to preserve the requisite evidence of 
 all his transactions. 99. The most important and re- 
 sponsible of the subsequent duties of the agent is to 
 collect, receive, and pay over the losses that may oc- 
 cur and fkll due under the policy, and by his negli- 
 gence in the discharge of his duty he may readily 
 incur a heavj- liability since he is necessarily bound to 
 pay all losses, that but for his neglect and delay might 
 have been recovered from the underwriters. Payment 
 to the agent to discharge the underwriters must be an 
 actual pajTnent made in good faith, not the allowances 
 of a credit. 100. An insurance agent or broker who is 
 authorized to receive a loss, has no authority to accept a 
 credit in lieu of a payment in money, nor can the un- 
 derwriter in such a case allege his own ignorance of 
 the trust that is violated. When the agent is a cred- 
 itor of the assured and the nature of his debt gives 
 him a lien on the policy, that lien will attach on all 
 
 moneys that he may receive from the underwriter un- 
 der the policy, and he has a perfeqt right to retain 
 such moneys to his own use so far as may be neces- 
 sary to satisfy his claims, by giving due credit to the 
 assured for the amount. The credit given by the 
 agent extinguishes the debt to the assured, and dis- 
 charges the insurer. 101. A settlement on account 
 between the underwriter and the agent is conclusive on 
 the agent himself. 102. The agent should transmit to 
 his principal, full and just accounts of all his transac- 
 tions on his behalf, keep him advised of all occur- 
 rences connected with the insurance by which his 
 interests may be affected, and deliver over to his prin- 
 cipal, on request, the policy effected on his behalf, 
 provided his own claims, if such as give him a lien on 
 instrument, are first satisfied. The policy is in all 
 cases the property of the party really. assured. He 
 may maintain an action of trover for its recovery, not 
 only against his agents, but against every person into 
 whose hands it may have passed, and by whom in vio- 
 lation of his rights it may be witliheld. 103. In the 
 United States it is not unusual to insert a provision in 
 the policy by which all losses are made payable only 
 to the person in whose name the insurance is effected. 
 104. If the agent intends by the insertion of the spe- 
 cial clause to extend his lien so as to cover advances 
 or a balance of accounts, to which the privilege is not 
 annexed by law, the extension, if not authorized by 
 the principal, is a fraud upon his rights ; and where, 
 no such intention exists a provision limiting the pay- 
 ment of a loss to the agent alone may operate to em- 
 barrass or delay the remedy of the assured, and should 
 therefore, without his consent, never be inserted. 
 
 Of the Rights of the Agent. — ^105. An agent has a 
 lien on the policy; and moreover, has authority to 
 maintain an action in his own name for the recovery 
 of a loss under the policy. 106. An insurance broker 
 has a lien on the policy against his immediate em- 
 ployer, not only for his commissions and premiums, 
 but for the general balance of his insurance account. 
 If the broker, when he effected the policy knew, or had 
 reasonable ground to believe, that the insurance was 
 on the account of a third person, his lien as against the 
 party really assured, will be confined to the premium 
 and his commission in the particular transaction. 
 
 107. A broker who has received moneys under a pol- 
 icj' that he effected in ignorance that his employer 
 was an agent, is liable to the party really assured. 
 
 108. A mercantile agent has a lien on the policy that 
 he is directed to effect, not only to the premium and 
 his commission in the particiilar transaction, or ex- 
 tended only to advances made by him on account of 
 the property assured, but also to the general balance 
 due to him, or becoming due while the policy is in his 
 hands in his account with his principal. The privi- 
 lege of lien embracing claims arising from other dis- 
 tinct transactions does not extend to the necessary, the 
 voluntary or the gratuitous agent. A general lien is 
 not limited to moneys actually paid hy the agent or then 
 due to him, but embraces all his outstanding liabilities 
 on behalf of his principal arising out of his agency. 
 
 109. But a general lien, unless by a special agreement, 
 does not embrace all the existing demands and liabili- 
 ties of the agent against his principal, but only such 
 as relate to the business or employment in which the 
 agent is engaged, and have grown out of the relation 
 in that employment between him and his principal. 
 
 110. The obligation of the lien attaches equally on all 
 moneys received by him under the policy. The agent 
 waives his lien when he voluntarily delivers the policy 
 to his principal or to his order, or when he parts with 
 the possession wrongfully, as by pledging the policy 
 as his own property. So he may waive his lien by an 
 express or implied agreement. When the policy comes 
 again into his possession, his lien is revived in all its 
 original extent. The lien of a mercantile agent at- 
 taches on the policy in the possession of the broker 
 
INS 
 
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 ■whom he had employed to effect the insurance. 
 111. The Revised Statutes of New Yorlc limit the 
 right of set-off to a defendant to whom the demand 
 proposed to be set off is due in his own right, either 
 as the original creditor and payee or as the assignee 
 and owner, and the provision, if literally and strictly 
 construed, would exclude a set-off by an agent in any 
 case whatever. The courts, however, may adopt as a 
 reasonable construction, that an agent who in his own 
 name is a party to the contract, and has a lien on the 
 policy and its proceeds, is to be considered as an 
 original creditor, or, in judgment of law, as the as- 
 signee and owner of the demand. So long as the pre- 
 mium-note remains in the hand of the underwriter, a 
 return premium on the same policy is its necessarj' ap- 
 pendage ; where the return is entire, it extinguishes 
 the note ; where it is partial, it operates pro tanto as 
 a satisfaction. 
 
 Of the. Extent of the Liability of the. Agent. — 112. The 
 liability of the agent is simply to make good to his 
 principal the actual damage that the specific breach of 
 duty with which he is charged has directly occasioned. 
 The liability of an agent arising from the insolvency 
 of an underwriter from whom a loss was due that he 
 might have collected, is probably of the same nature 
 as that of an agent under a del credere commission not 
 immediate, but secondary. 113. The first remedy of 
 the principal is against the estate of the bankrupt, and 
 the agent is answerable only for the sum that the es- 
 tate may be deficient to satisfy. And when an agent 
 has received the amount of a loss, he is not permitted 
 to dispute the title of his principal, his duty is to pay 
 over the moneys he receives. 114. To fix the liability 
 of the agent an actual damage resulting to his princi- 
 pal, must be proved. Where an agent, from his neg- 
 lect to insure, has rendered himself liable as an in- 
 surer, he is entitled to avail himself of everj' defense 
 which, had the necessarj' insurance been made, might 
 have been tu-ged by the underwriters themselves. 
 
 115. The liability of the agent is not in all cases de- 
 termined, even where it appears that the principal had 
 parted with all his interest in the subject to be insured 
 previous to the happening of the loss. The liability 
 of an agent is not in all cases to be limited to the sum 
 that his principal would have been entitled to claim as 
 an indemnity from the underwriters had an insurance 
 been properly effected. Where the principal hag been 
 defeated in an action against the underwriters on the 
 policy, owing to the breach of duty of the agent, the 
 costs and expenses are chargeable to the agent. 
 
 116. An agent acting under a del credere commission 
 is liable only as a surety for the ultimate solvency of 
 the party with whom he contracts for his principal. A 
 del credere agent has no immediate remedy against the 
 underwriter. When the policy is effected in the name 
 of the del credere agent, he may maintain an action 
 in his own name on the policy itself, but not when 
 his own name is not on the face of the policy. A 
 .del credere commission is not within the statute of 
 frauds. See Del Credeee. 
 
 Of Insurances hy an Agent of the Underwriters. — 
 
 117. The authority of the agent to sign a policy may 
 be proved by his habit of subscribing policies on be- 
 half of the defendant, although such proof is incom- 
 plete unless it embraces some positive act of the de- 
 fendant amounting to a recognition of the authority. 
 Where the agent subscribes the policy in his own 
 name and omits that of his principal, he becomes re- 
 sponsible. 118. An agent whose original authority to 
 sign the policy as such has been proved or admitted, 
 has an implied authority to perform everj' subsequent 
 act on behalf of his principal ; and this implied au- 
 thority extends to the adjustment of a loss, the accept- 
 ance of an abandonment, and the payment of a loss. 
 An insurance broker is not the agent of the under- 
 writer to admit or to pay a loss ; and if such o. pay- 
 ment is made by him, it is regarded as purely voluntarj'. 
 
 119. Agents of insurance companies in the United 
 States are usually intrusted with an authority not 
 merely to transmit applications, but, under certain re- 
 strictions, to perfect insurances in the name and on the 
 behalf of their constituents. If the restrictions to 
 which the agent is subject in the exercise of his au- 
 thority are private and confidential in their nature, 
 their existence as between the principal and his agent 
 is not permitted to be alleged. So far as the rights of 
 third persons are concerned, unless disclosed, they 
 are inoperative and void. The pstensible or apparent 
 authority of a general agent is his real authority in re- 
 spect to all who deal with him in ignco-ance and good 
 fajth. It is, the custom of the underwriters at Lloyd's 
 and of the principal insurance companies in the United 
 States, to appoint agents in nearly all the ports of 
 the world, but the powers of these' agents are cir- 
 cumscribed by very narrow limits. They can not 
 bind their employers by any positive act so as to 
 create a liability to the assured that would not other- 
 wise exist, nor are the acts which they are authorized 
 to perform of such a nature as to mislead the public 
 as to the real extent of their authority. When a 
 question arises as to the validitj' of their acts, it is 
 solely hy a reference to their written instructions that 
 it must be determined. 
 
 Of Concealment. — 120. Each is bound to communi- 
 cate to the other all facts within his personal knowl- 
 edge that tend to show the true character and value 
 of the risks that are meant to be covered, and each, in 
 his own communication to the other, is bound to state 
 the exact and the whole truth in relation to the facts 
 that he represents, or, upon inquiry, discloses. A 
 misrepresentation or concealment of material facts, 
 whether it resulted from design or from ignorance, 
 mistake or inadvertence, vitiates that mutual consent 
 essential to its validity. 121. The materiality of facts 
 concealed or misrepresented is not to be determined 
 by the event, but results solely from their probable 
 influence on the estimated value of the risks at the 
 time they were assured. The question is not whether 
 the loss that is claimed is attributable in any degree 
 to the risks that were concealed, but whether, had the 
 facts been known, the underwriter would have sub- 
 scribed the policy or would have limited himself to the 
 premium that he received. The obligation of a frank 
 and full disclosure attaches equally upon both the 
 parties, the underwriter as well as the assured. 
 
 Fads that the Assured is hound to disclose. — 122. It 
 is the duty of the assured to communicate all facts that 
 are material to the risks, and which are not known, or 
 presumed to be known, to the underwriter. The as- 
 sured is bound to disclose all the intelligence that he 
 has received, and all the information that he possesses, 
 that relate to facts which are material to the risks, al- 
 though the information may be of a doubtful charac- 
 ter, and may ultimately prove to be untrue. 123. 
 So if the intelligence received by the assured relates 
 not to a fact, but to mere expectation or belief 
 of the person from whom it was received, if the ex- 
 pectation refers to an event that, had it occurred, would 
 be material to the risks, it must be communicated ; 
 nor will the suppression be excused by evidence that 
 the expectation, although entertained and expressed 
 in good faith, was not realized in the event. When it 
 is certain, however, that the assured acted with an en- 
 tire good faith, circumstances not disclosed bj' him are 
 not to be deemed material simply on the ground that 
 if communicated thej' might have excited a suspicion 
 of danger in the mind of the insurer. 124. The as- 
 sured will not be allowed to protect himself against 
 the charge of an undue concealment by evidence that 
 he had disclosed to the underwi'iter, in general terms, 
 the information that he possessed. Where his own in- 
 formation is specific, it must be communicated in the 
 terms in which it was received. The information pos- 
 sessed by the assured may not be material in itself. 
 
INS 
 
 1055 
 
 INS 
 
 separately considered, yet may be of such a chaTacter 
 that it would probably lead to further inquiries on the 
 part of the underwriter ; and if the result of the in- 
 quiry would show the information to be material, it 
 must be communicated. Its concealment, whether 
 fraudulent or innocent, will vitiate the insurance. 
 125. When the insurance is " on ship or ships," omis- 
 sion to disclose the name will not avoid the policy un- 
 less the concealment was rendered material by other 
 facts. The voluntary ignorance of the assured, 
 whether the result of fraud or of gross negligence, 
 will not be allowed to excuse him, but as evidence 
 of a concealment vitiating the policy, will have the 
 same effect ais his actual knowledge. 126. Where 
 the assured employs an agent to effect the policy, 
 it is his duty to communicate throUgh him all the 
 facts that are requisite to be disclosed. The duty 
 of the principal is the same whether the author- 
 ity of the agent be general or special. The conceal- 
 iuent of a loss' by an agent who is' bound to give the 
 intelligence, violates the irtiplied undei'stsinding on 
 which the contract is founded, as a similar conceal- 
 ment by the principal. Concealment Of material facts 
 when the policy is altered, renders the policy void. 
 127. Where an underwriter seeks to protect himself 
 by d re-assurance, he is bound to communicate not 
 only all tbe representations made to himself when he 
 subscribed the policy, but all the knowledge and in- 
 formation he had subsequently acquired. In England 
 and in the United States the knowledge of the as- 
 sured, or of his agent, is never presumed, but must be 
 established, in all cases, by positive evidence. 128. 
 The information usually necessary to be given, may 
 be distributed under the following general heads : 1. 
 The state and condition of the ship or property in- 
 sured. 2. The nature and extent of the interest 
 insured ; and, lastly, the extraordinary perils arising 
 from extreme causes to whicli the property has been 
 or will probably be exposed. The assured is not 
 bound, in the first instance, to make any representa- 
 tion as to the condition of the ship at the commence- 
 ment of the rislcs to which the policy relates. 129. 
 Although not by the terms of the contract, yet in 
 judgment of the law, stipulates that the vessel was or 
 shall be seaworthy, and it is on the truth of this im- 
 plied stipulation, and not of any representation of the 
 assured, that the underwriter relies, and the policy is 
 founded. Hence, a policy, where the ship is unsea- 
 worthy, and the fact is known to, and suppressed by 
 the assumed, is conclusive evidence of a meditated 
 fraud. The same disclosures must be made by the as- 
 \ sured if any facts are known to him which would just- 
 ify a reasonable suspicion of the honesty of the mas- 
 ter. As tile warranty of seaworthiness relates solely 
 to the condition of the ship at the commencement of 
 the risks that are covered by the policy, if the as- 
 sured has received any advices relating to the state 
 and condition of the ship since the commencement of 
 the voyage insured, he is bound to communicate them. 
 130. Condition and quality of the goods. When no 
 inquiry is made by the underwriter, the assured is not 
 bound to distlose the state and condition of the goods 
 when shipped, nor where the insurance is on goods 
 generally, is he bound to disclose, in the first instance, 
 the particular character and description of the goods 
 that are meant to be covered. Goods lashed on deck 
 are not at the risk of the underwriter. Whether they 
 were insured in special or general terms, they are not 
 protected unless the fact that they are thus transported 
 is stated in the policy, or unless the mode of transport- 
 ing is sanctioned by a usage of trade, the existence of 
 which the underwriter is bound to know. When goods 
 laden, or to be laden, are insured in a time policy, such 
 a disclosure is not necessary to be made. The same 
 when the insurance is on successive cargoes on a trad- 
 ing voyage to successive ports, the choice of the port 
 at the discretion of the assured. 
 
 Title or Interest of the Assured. — 131. The assured 
 is not bound to communicate to the underwriters the 
 particular- nature of his interest in the property in- 
 sured ; but in some cases, as when the insurance is on 
 freight, bottomry, respondentia, etc., the nature of his 
 interest must be specified in the policy, and in others, 
 its disclosure to the underwriter is necessary, in order 
 that the terms of the policy may be construed to eia- 
 brace it. The decisions on this subject in the Ameri- 
 can courts are very confiicting. 132. i When letter- 
 marques are intended to be used, although for the 
 limited purpose of chasing and capturing vessels tliat 
 may be met in the course of the voyage, it must be 
 disclosed. 133i Information of the fact, or of the day 
 of sailing, although known to the assured, is not in 
 all cases to be given to the insurer. When the ship 
 is known to have performed a part of the voyage, in- 
 sured, she may not be out of time when the policy is 
 effected in reference to the whole voyagCj yet may be 
 so in reference to the accon)t)lished portion ; and, in 
 such a case, it is the duty of the assured to communi- 
 cate not merely the original time of sailing, but all 
 the information he had received relative to the course 
 and progress of the voyage, 134. However material 
 may be the facts known to the assured, it is plainly 
 unnecessarj' to communicate them to the insurer, if 
 they are in fact already known to him. Proof, there- 
 fore, of the actual knowledge of the underwriter is in 
 all cases a complete answer to a charge of conceal- 
 ment. The assured is not bound to make any commu- 
 nication in the first instance respecting facts which the 
 underwriter ought to know, and of which, for this rea- 
 son, the law imputes to him the actual knowledge. 
 The presumption of law in the cases comprehended in 
 this rule, is conclusive and absolute. The insurer is 
 bound to know all the general causes that are open to 
 his inquiry, that may by their operation affect either 
 the political or natural perils that are intended to be 
 covered by the policj'. 135. The political perils 
 usually covered by the policy, are the rislcs of capture, 
 seizure, and detention ; therefore the assurer is bound 
 to know the general and public facts upon which a loss 
 arising from such risks may occur. 136. The natural 
 perils of a policy are such as wholly arise from physi- 
 cal causes, and in a limited, but not in an unusual 
 sense of tlie words, are aptly denominated " perils of 
 the sea," or " sea risks." The underwriter is bound 
 to know all the general causes by which they may be 
 occasioned, increased, or varied. The usages of trade 
 are equally presumed to be known to the underwriter. 
 In all these cases the presumption of knowledge at- 
 taches equally upon both parties. 187. To fix the 
 presumption of knowledge upon the underwriters, it is 
 the duty of the assured to communicate all the circum- 
 stances within his personal knowledge that are neces- 
 sary to be known to enable the underwriter to applj' 
 the presumption to the particular risks that are meant 
 to be covered. The assured is not bound to communi- 
 cate material facts if the underwriter expressly or im- 
 pliedly waives the information. 138. Where, from the 
 facts communicated to the underwriter, he is bound to 
 infer the existence of other facts not disclosed, his 
 omission to make the inquiry is an implied waiver of 
 a more explicit disclosure. The underwriter, by the 
 nature and terms of the contract, maj' waive all spe- 
 cial information as to the actual and probable existence 
 of the particular risk that he agrees to assume. When 
 he thus consents to assume the risk in its most aggra^ 
 vated form, he can not justly complain that facts 
 showing that such was its real extent were not dis- 
 closed to him. 139. The assured is not bound in the 
 first instance to communicate any facts that are cov- 
 ered by a warrant}' express or implied. He is not 
 bound in the first instance to communicate facts that 
 are only material, as showing the existence of a rislt 
 which is excepted from the policy. He is not bound 
 to communicate facts that tend to diminish the rislcs 
 
INS 
 
 1056 
 
 INS 
 
 as tliey would otherwise be understood bj' the insurer. 
 140. The insurer has the right, upon inquiry, to be 
 informed of all facts within the knowledge of the 
 assured, that in the exercise of his own judgment he 
 may deem material to the risks, or important to be 
 known, as a guide to his own discretion. Where the 
 insurer is not to be charged with an equal knowledge, 
 the assured, either without, or upon inquiry, is bound 
 to communicate all the facts, that his knowledge or in- 
 formation embraces, that are material to the risks, or 
 may be deemed material by the insurer, but he is not 
 bound to communicate his own conclusions from the 
 facts that he must disclose. 141. The following are 
 cases in which the effect of a concealment is not to 
 vitiate the entire contract, but merely to exonorate 
 the insurer from a loss resulting from the risk con- 
 cealed : 1st. National character of the insured. 2d. 
 Liability of the property insured to capture and deten- 
 tion. 3d. Liability to seizure from breach of foreign 
 laws of trade. 4th. Want of necessary documents. 
 5th and lastly, the use of false or simulated papers. 
 
 National Character of the Assured — 142. Where the 
 insurance is made in a neutral countrj', a, full dis- 
 closure of the national character of the assured in the 
 first instance is necessary, not to give validity to the 
 contract, but to cover the risk, so as to charge the un- 
 derwriter with a resulting loss. The assured may be 
 the subject of a neutral State, and legal owner of the 
 property insured, yet, an equitable interest, rendering 
 the propertj' liable to hostile capture, may be vested in 
 a belligerent subject. As such an interest creates a risk 
 not contemplated by the parties, it must be disclosed. 
 143. Even when the policy contains a warrant}^ of 
 neutrality, and describes the assured by general words, 
 facts not disproving the warranty, yet showing that 
 the property is liable to seizure as enemy's property, 
 are necessary to be disclosed. 144. Liability of prop- 
 erty to capture or detention ; The voyage or trade 
 to which the insurance relates may be interdicted 
 by the law of nations, by the special provisions 
 of a treaty, or by an unjust ordinance or decree 
 of the belligerent power, or hy arbitrary' rules or 
 decisions that prevail in the courts of prize. 145. 
 Where the voyage or trade on which the insurance 
 relates, is prohibited by the municipal laws of the 
 foreign country to which the ship is destined, or where 
 the risks are to commence, a concealment of such an 
 extraordinary risk discharges the insurer from a con- 
 sequent loss, without affecting in other respects the 
 validity of the contract. 146. The rules that deter- 
 mine the validity of an insurance, embracing the risks 
 of an illicit trade, or trade in violation of the municipal 
 laws of a foreign country, are substantially the same 
 as in respect to an insurance on goods contraband of 
 war. 
 
 Of Hepresentations. — 147. A representation is a 
 statement of facts, circumstances, or information tend- 
 ing to increase or diminish the risks, as they would 
 otherwise be considered made, prior to the execution 
 of the policy by the assured or his agent, to the in- 
 surer, in order to guide his judgment in forming a just 
 estimate of the risks he is desired to assume. It is 
 usually made by parole, or by a writing not inserted 
 in the policy ; but when the intention as to the con- 
 struction is sufficiently declared, may be expressed in 
 the policy. 148. Representations relate either, Ist, to 
 facts ; 2d, to the information ; or, lastly, to the inten- 
 tions, expectations, or beliefs of the assured. A repre- 
 sentation of facts is a positive representation, which is 
 divided into affirmative and promissory : when affirm- 
 ative, they assert the past or present existence of the 
 facts to which they relate ; when promissory, that the 
 specified event will happen, or act be performed. 149. 
 The evidence of a positive representation of facts, may 
 properly be received in all cases. The rules of evi- 
 dence in respect to the admissibility of a representa- 
 tion, are substantially the same as in respect to a 
 
 usage ; and, in many cases, the representation, when 
 proved, becomes, like the usage, a part of the contract. 
 The words of the representation are to be strictly and 
 literally construed, but are to be understood in their 
 plain and obvious meaning, in that which it is most 
 probable they were suggested to the mind of the 
 insurer. It will be construed to embrace all the facts, 
 the existence of which, from the terms used, would 
 reasonably and probablj' be inferred. 150. When a 
 representation is so ambiguous in its terms, that it maj' 
 be understood with equal propriety in two different 
 senses, it is the duty of the insurer to seek an explana- 
 tion ; and when such a representation is understood by 
 him in a sense different from that intended by the 
 assured if he had omitted to inquire, he will not be 
 permitted to aver its falsity. A representation of 
 future facts, although positive in its terms, may in 
 some cases be justly interpreted, not as an undertaking 
 for the truth of the facts, but as referring solely to the 
 expectation or belief of the party. When a represent- 
 ation of future facts is inconsistent with the terms of 
 the policy, it is not to be rejected. The policy remains 
 the sole evidence of the agreement; but the repre- 
 sentation may be operative, by construing it to refer 
 to the intentions of the assured at the time of making it. 
 
 151. The words of a representation must be construed 
 in reference to the usages of trade, or in their tech- 
 nical and commercial sense. A representation may 
 supersede a usage and an implied warranty. Where 
 there are several underwriters on the same policy, a 
 representation to the first is construed to extend to all, 
 so that each, when it proves to be false, may avail 
 himself of the defense. This rule is strictly confined 
 to the cases in which the representation is made to the 
 underwriter whose name stands first on the policy. 
 The terms of the rule are restricted to underwriters on 
 the same policy, and it is confined to cases in which 
 the representation to the first underwriter was favorable 
 to the risk, and to such cases the rule exclusively applies. 
 
 152. Where the subscription of the first underwriter 
 is obtained under a secret agreement that it is not to be 
 binding, and for the sole purpose of decoying others to 
 insure, the exhibition of the policy thus subscribed is 
 the assertion of a falsehood, and the contract is void, 
 A representation once made is binding on the party, 
 unless it is altered or withdrawn before the insurance is 
 effected. The completion of the policy is therefore 
 the time to which the representation is construed to 
 refer. 153. A representation, to be binding, must be 
 material, and, to discharge tlie insurer, must be .false 
 wholly or partially, and, according to the character of 
 the representation, false in fact or in the event. It is 
 not necessary that the facts represented should be ma- 
 terial to the risk, that is, should affect or change the 
 value of the risk, considered in themselves. The ma- 
 teriality required is not absolute, but relative, and its 
 test is the actual or probable influence of the facts 
 represented on the mind of the insurer. In judgment 
 of law a representation is false when it fails to corre- 
 spond with the facts that it affirms or stipulates ; and 
 hence its falsity is either intentional or accidental. 
 154. When the representation, whether affirmative 
 or promissory, is made with an intent to deceive, the 
 fraud in all cases vitiates the contract ; nor to produce 
 this effect is it requisite that the falsity should be en- 
 tire : partial falsity, when intentional, is equally a 
 fraud ; and an inquiry into the materiality of the 
 charge, as affecting the character and value of the 
 risks, would never be allowed. 155. When the falsity 
 of the representation is accidental, its effect upon the 
 contract will depend, first, upon the nature and extent, 
 and next upon the period of time to which it is to be re- 
 ferred. The falsity of the representation, when entire, 
 in all cases discharges the insurer ; but such is not its 
 necessary consequence when it is only literal or partial. 
 The substantial falsity of a representation, in cases 
 exempt from fraud, does not always render the con- 
 
INS 
 
 105Y 
 
 INS 
 
 tract ■wholly void. When the repreaentation is false 
 when made, or at the commencement of the risks, such 
 is the necessary effect, but when the policy has at- 
 tached, and the representation is falsified by a subse- 
 quent event, the breach does not, by a, retro-active 
 force, render the policy void in its origin. 156. When 
 the assured has no personal knowledge of the facts he 
 desires to represent, and is unwilling to bind himself 
 by a positive statement, he may qualify the represent- 
 ation by adding, that it is made from the information 
 of others, or may submit the information in its whole ex- 
 tent to the insurer. When the assured submits the in- 
 formation in extenso to the insurers, he is not answer- 
 able for the actual or eventual truth of the facts that it 
 embraces, nor, in any case, for the accuracy of the con- 
 clusions that the insurers may draw from it. It would 
 be different if the, information proceeds from an agent of 
 the assured whose duty it is to give the intelligence. 
 157. The assured is responsible when the policy is in- 
 duced by a false representation of his own agent. Where 
 the assured, or his agent in his name, declares that he 
 intends to pursue a certain course, or perform certain 
 acts favorable to the risks, he has entire liberty to 
 change the inteutions'so declared ; but if the represent- 
 ation is made with an actual intent to deceive, the 
 fraud vitiates the contract. Where the party seek- 
 ing the insurance declares his own expectation, br that 
 of his principal, in regard to the existence or happen- 
 ing of a fact or event that, if true, would diminish the 
 risks, the effect of the representation must depend up- 
 on its just interpretation. The same will be for a rep- 
 resentation of a belief of a material fact. It is from 
 the character of the party, and his relation to the sub- 
 ject, that such representation acquires strength. 
 
 Of the Right and Duties of the Insured in case of Loss. 
 Section /. — Of Ahandonment. — 158. A total loss, within 
 the meaning of the policy, may arise either by the 
 total destruction of the thing insured, or, if it specifi- 
 cally remains, by such damage to it as renders it of lit- 
 tle or no value. A loss is sai^ to be total if the voy- 
 age be entirely lost or defeated, or not worth pursuing, 
 and the projected adventure frustrated. It is a con- 
 structive total loss if the thing insured, though exist- 
 ing in fact, is lost for any useful purpose to the owner. 
 In such cases the insured may abandon all his interest 
 in the subject insured, and all his hopes of recover}' to 
 the insurer, and call upon him to pay as for a total 
 loss. 159. In cases of abandonment the insurer stands 
 in place of the insured, and takes the subject to him- 
 self, with all the chances of recovery and indemnity. 
 A valid abandonment has a retrospective effect, and 
 does of itself, and without any deed of cession, trans- 
 fer the right of property to the insurer, to the extent 
 of the insurance ; and if, after an abandonment duly 
 made and accepted, the ship should be recovered and 
 proceed and make a prosperous voyage, the insurer as 
 owner would reap the profit. 160. As soon as the insured 
 is informed of the loss he ought (after being allowed a 
 reasonable time to inspect the cargo, and for no other 
 purpose), to determine promptly whether he will or 
 will not abandon ; and he can not lie by and speculate 
 on events. If he elects to abandon, he must do it in 
 a reasonable time, and give notice promptly to the in- 
 surer of his determination, otherwise he will be deemed 
 to have waived his right to abandon, arid will be enti- 
 tled to recover only for a partial loss, unless the loss 
 be in fact absolutely total. If the thing insured exist 
 in specie, and the insured wishes to go for a total loss, 
 an abandonment is indispensable. The main general 
 doctrines respecting abandonment being entirely in- 
 corporated into the English law, it would be useless to 
 insert them at length. 161. An abandonment once 
 rightfully made is binding and conclusive between 
 the parties, and the rights flowing from it become 
 vested rights, and are not to be divested by subsequent 
 events. The right to abandon is to be tested by the ac- 
 tual facts at the time of the abandonment, and not up- 
 Xxx 
 
 on the state of the information received. Upon a valid 
 abandonment, the master becomes the agent of the in- 
 surer, and the insured is not bound by his subsequent 
 acts, unless he adopts them. 162. It is the same 
 thing with the assignee of the cargo. On an accepted 
 abandonment of the ship, the freight earned previous 
 to the disaster is to be retained by the owner or his 
 representative, the insurer of the freight, and appor- 
 tioned pro rata itineris, and the freight subsequently 
 to be earned goes to the insurer on the ship. 
 
 Section II, Of the Adjustment of Partial Losses. — 
 163. In an open policy, the actual or market value 
 of the subject insured is to be estimated at the time of 
 the commencement of the risk. 164. There are two 
 kinds of indemnity that may lawfully be obtained un- 
 der a contract of insurance. The first is to pay what 
 the goods would have sold for if they had reached the 
 place of their destination ; and the value there con- 
 sists of the prime costs and expenses of the out- 
 iit, the freight and expenses at the port of deliver}-, 
 and the profit or loss arising from the state of the 
 market. This puts the insured in the same situation 
 as if no loss had happened. The other kind of indem- 
 nity is to pay only the first cost of the goods and the 
 expenses incurred ; and this places the insured in the 
 situation he was before he undertook the adventure. 
 165. The actual or market value at the port of de- 
 parture may frequently be different from the invoice 
 price or prime cost, and when that happens, or can be 
 ascertained, it is to be preferred. 166. If goods ar- 
 rive damaged at the place of destination, the way to 
 ascertain the quantity of damage^ either in open or 
 valued policies, is to compare the market price or gross 
 amount at which the same goods would have sold if 
 sound. There is a material difference between the 
 adjustment of a partial loss and of a general average, 
 since the former is adjusted according to the value at 
 the time and place of departure of the vessel, and the 
 latter according to the value at the foreign port. 167. 
 In settling losses under the memorandum in the policy 
 which declares articles free of average under, say 4 
 per cent., if a partial loss to an article he found on 
 survey and sale to have been 5 per cent., the insurer 
 pays the damages and the expenses. If under 5 per 
 cent,, he pays nothing, and the insurer bears the ex- 
 penses. The expenses are like costs of suit, and fall 
 upon the losing party. The expenses are not taken to 
 make up the 5 per cent, 168. With respect to leak- 
 age, the rule in cases free from special stipulations is, 
 that the insurer is not liable for waste occasioned by 
 ordinary leakage, and only for leakage beyond the 
 ordinary waste and produced by some extraordinary 
 accident. The practice is to ascertain in each case 
 what amount of leakage is to be attributed to ordinarj- 
 cases, or the fault of the insured, or bad stowage, and 
 what to the perils of the sea ; and, in pursuing his in- 
 quiry, the season of the year, the nature of the arti- 
 cles, the description of the vessel, the length of the 
 voyage, and tlie stowage, are all to be considered. 
 169. An adjustment of a loss can not be set aside or 
 opened except on the ground of fraud or mistake of 
 facts not known. In making the adjustment in the 
 case of a partial loss, the rule is to apply the old ma- 
 terials toward the payment of the new, and a deduc- 
 tion of one third new for old is made whether the ves- 
 sel be new or old. 170. The insurer is liable for all 
 the labor and expenses attendant upon an accident 
 which forces the vessel into port to be repaired ; and in 
 consequence of the general permission in the policy 
 for the insured to labor for the recovery of the prop- 
 erty, the insurer may be rendered liable for the ex- 
 penses incurred in the attempt to recover the lost 
 property in addition to the payment of a total loss. 
 
 Of the Return of Premium. — 171. The premium paid 
 by, the insured is in consideration of the risk which 
 the insurer assumes, and if the contract of insurance 
 be void ab initio, or the risk has not been commentied, 
 
INS 
 
 1058 
 
 INS 
 
 the insnred is entitled to a return of premium. If the 
 insurance be made without any interest whatsoever in 
 the thing insured, and this proceeds through mistake, 
 misinformation, or any other innocent cause, the pre- 
 mium is to be returned. So if the insurance be made 
 with short interest, or for more than the real interest, 
 there is to be a ratable return of premium. If the 
 risk has not been run the premium must be returned. 
 172. If the interest has not been run, whether it be 
 owing to the fault, pleasure, or will of the insured, or 
 to anj^ other cause, the premium must be returned for 
 the consideration for which it was given fails. 173. If 
 the vessel never sailed on the voj^age insured, or the 
 policy became void by a failure of the warranty, and 
 without fraud, the policy never attaches ; but if the 
 risk has once commenced, though the voyage be im- 
 mediately thereafter abandoned, there is no return or 
 apportionment of premium. 174. And if the premium 
 is to be returned, the insurer retains ^ per cent, by 
 way of indemnity for his trouble and concern in the 
 transaction. 175. The insurer retains the premium in 
 all cases of actual fraud on the part of the insured or 
 his agent. So if the trade be in any respect illegal, 
 the premium can not be reclaimed. If the voyage be 
 divisible, there may be an apportionment of the pre- 
 mium, but not unless the risk were divisible and dis- 
 tinct in the policy. If the voyage and premium be 
 entire, there can'be no apportionment. It is requisite 
 that the voyage, bj- the usage of trade or the agree- 
 ment of the parties, be divisible into distinct risks; 
 and, in that case, if no risk has been run as to one 
 part, -there may be an apportionment of premium. — 
 See DuEK on Marine Imurance. 
 
 Losses of ihe Boston Stock Insurance Companies. — 
 According to the annual report of the insurance com- 
 missioners, the following were the issues of the various 
 stock insurance companies of Boston for the year end- 
 ing November 1, 1856 : 
 
 CompanieB. 
 
 American 
 
 Boston 
 
 Boylston 
 
 caty 
 
 Eliot 
 
 Tremont. 
 
 Franklin 
 
 Hope 
 
 Manufacturers' 
 
 Merchants' 
 
 Merchants' Marine . 
 
 National 
 
 Neptune 
 
 Shoe & L. Dealers' . 
 
 Suffolk 
 
 United States 
 
 'SVarren 
 
 Washington 
 
 $6,076 08 
 
 8,044 '83 
 1:7,688 08 
 18,924 45 
 32,472 9o 
 
 9,864 57 
 
 27,599 '28 
 1T,851 63 
 
 17,718' 89 
 12,268 03 
 lOT 92 
 40 00 
 880 00 
 693 66 
 1,293 06 
 
 $137,179 70 
 197,628 80 
 328,440 06 
 
 26;63B 25 
 188,013 44 
 
 90,801 27 
 133,241 94 
 ] 23,718 56 
 131,213 28 
 483,405 94 
 3,929 20 
 118,681 28 
 
 73,442 62 
 101,288 91 
 285,909 05 
 
 $142,255 78 
 
 l9T,628 80 
 
 441;484 94 
 
 17,588 03 
 
 18,924 45 
 
 82,472 95 
 
 85,900 82 
 
 183,018 45 
 
 117,870, 50 
 
 156,098 57 
 
 128,7lS 56 
 
 148,931 67 
 
 445,658 97 
 
 4,087 12 
 
 118,671 28 
 
 74,882 62 
 
 101,985 47 
 
 287,201 11 
 
 As the commissioners observe, the past year or two 
 have been unusually disastrous to the marine insurance 
 companies, who, in most cases, pay a portion of their 
 losses from the reserved funds of more favorable years. 
 The North American Company reports no losses, either 
 fire or marine. The annual report of the Boston 
 Board of Trade represents the following losses, etc., 
 for the year 1856 : 
 
 Class of dlaaaters. 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 ~i 
 
 S» 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 •c 
 
 •§ 
 
 ^ 
 
 B 
 
 a 
 
 
 m 
 
 « 
 
 M 
 
 m 
 
 M 
 
 
 ° 
 
 Missing vessels. . . 
 Aban'dorcond'd. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 11 
 
 16 
 
 
 86 
 
 14 
 
 22 
 
 Eeturned in dist's 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 28 
 
 20 
 
 8 
 
 Arrived damaged. 
 
 9 
 
 17 
 
 II' 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 45 
 
 23 
 
 22 
 
 
 26 
 6 
 
 24 
 10 
 
 25 
 9 
 
 44 
 24 
 
 's 
 
 119 
 62 
 
 46 
 19 
 
 72 
 88 
 
 Collisions 
 
 Put in leaky 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 87 
 
 89 
 
 
 124 
 
 66 
 
 U 
 
 Dismantled 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 Sunk by ice 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 .. 
 
 Burned or injured 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 '2 
 
 a 
 
 
 Strackbylightn'g 
 Total 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 5 
 
 b 
 
 
 85 
 
 93 
 
 101 
 
 146 
 
 5 
 
 435 
 
 202 
 
 238 
 
 Rates op Insueance in the United States. - 
 
 Atlantic ports, frotn, to ports In Europe, not in I 
 the Northern Sea. . f 
 
 " " " " in the Northern Sea.. 
 
 Africa, to or from, general liability 
 
 '^ out and home 
 
 Apalachlcola, to and from 
 
 Bermuda, to or from 
 
 Brazils, to any port 
 
 Buenos Ayres, direct 
 
 " '* and Montevideo 
 
 Bahamas, to- or from..; 
 
 Batavia, or any one port in the Indian Ocean .... 
 
 '' out and home 
 
 Canton, direct 
 
 " out and home 
 
 Cuba, any one port 
 
 Calcutta, out 
 
 " out and home , 
 
 Cadiz 
 
 Charleston, Savannah, and Darien, to or from 
 
 Denmark , 
 
 Demerara or Surinam, out or home .' 
 
 France, to or ft-om 
 
 " .out and home 
 
 Great Britain or Ireland, to any port, out or home 
 
 '' north of the Thaipes 
 
 " and hack to the United States 
 
 " Diy goods, homov 
 
 " Hardware, home 
 
 (Jibral tar 
 
 Halifax, to or from 
 
 Honduras, to or from 
 
 Laguayra 
 
 Lisbon, to or from 
 
 Madeira and Western 
 
 Cape de Verd Islands 
 
 " " '' outandhome 
 
 Malaga 
 
 Trieste 
 
 " and back to the United States 
 
 Manilla, outandhome 
 
 Mobile 
 
 New Orleans 
 
 Mohil6 or New Orleans, from either 
 
 " " " to ports in Europe not [ 
 
 in the North Sea. 
 
 " " " in the North Sea 
 
 Ocracock Bar Cover) 
 
 Porto Cabello 
 
 Rio Janeiro 
 
 Pernambupo 
 
 Russia, different seasons 
 
 St Domingo, out or home. 
 
 San Francisco 
 
 Smyrna or Constantinople 
 
 Spanish Main, any one port, or between the 
 Orinoco and the Sabine 
 
 '' " outandhome 
 
 Sumatra, port or ports in, to or from 
 
 St. Croix and St. Thomas, to or from 
 
 Turks Island and back 
 
 Valparaisoj out or home 
 
 " out and home 
 
 Vera Cruz 
 
 Tampico . , 
 
 Wilmington, N. 0., to or from 
 
 To the coast of Patagonia, per annum 
 
 To the Pacific, voyage round 
 
 North of Guayaquil, and not north of 8. Francisco 
 To the Brazil Banks, " " " " 
 Windward Islands 
 
 " " out and home 
 
 California 
 
 Oregon 
 
 Coastwise Risks. 
 To or from any port in Maine, not east of Portland 
 " • " " " east of Portland 
 
 Rate. 
 
 11—3 
 
 11— 2 
 8 — 4 
 11— 2i 
 
 1 -li 
 14—3 
 
 2 — 
 
 H-lf 
 
 Ij— 2 
 If— 2 
 8|-32 
 2- 2i 
 81- 4i 
 l|— 2 
 2J-2i 
 3—4 
 13— 2i 
 , J-1 
 21-84 
 11— 2 
 
 1 -21 
 'M—H 
 11— 3 
 
 3 — 5 
 2J— 2f 
 
 2 — 2i 
 21- 
 11—21 
 H— 2i 
 2 — 21 
 1|— ll' 
 11-21 
 li— 2i 
 2 — 2i' 
 4-4t 
 11— 2i 
 11—21 
 84-44 
 2—21 
 11—21 
 11-21 
 1}- 
 
 11- H 
 
 2;- 21 
 
 1?- 41 
 
 l-l| 
 
 l-ll 
 
 l!-l| 
 11—6 
 11^' 2 
 81—41 
 
 11— _21 
 
 11— 2 
 
 21-31 
 8 — 
 
 U-11 
 
 4 — 41 
 2-21 
 4-41 
 21—3 
 81- 4 
 1-U 
 8 —10 
 44-51 
 84—5 
 24— 3 
 
 n-u 
 
 24— 8 
 31— 5 
 41— 5 
 
 II. Fire Insurance. — It is impossible to estimate too 
 highly the value and importance of insurance, and 
 the benefits conferred on mankind by the invention, 
 whether it be considered in its original character as a 
 protection to the merchant who adventured his prop- 
 erty on the bosom of the treacherous deep — against its 
 many perils — or in its more modem applications, as a 
 guaranty against loss by^re, and its further interest- 
 ing adaptation to the assuring of life. Considering 
 that maritime insurance was well known, and insur- 
 ance on life understood and practiced, to a certain ex- 
 tent, in several mercantile countries by the middle of 
 the 16th century, it appears extraordinary, when we 
 call to remembrance the devastations and distress oc- 
 
ncs 
 
 1059 
 
 INS 
 
 casiotiea ty fin in Great Britain, that some means 
 shbiild not have been adopted at an earlier period to 
 render such calamities less ruinous to individuals, par- 
 ticularly when a plan, which appears evenfally to have 
 fbrmed the basis of the present insurance companies, 
 was suggested so early as 1609. 
 
 In th^t year, a person proposed to Count Anthony 
 Gunther von Oldenburg, that, as a new species of 
 iitianbe,' he should insure the houses of all his subjects 
 against fire, oil their piijang so much per cent, an- 
 hiially, according to their valtie ; but the prospect of 
 gain so tempting to 'most'perSons, could not induce the 
 Count to adopt the plan. He thought it good if a 
 company was formed of individuals to insure each 
 othet's' houses, but he doubted that it could by him be 
 "honorably, justly, and irreproachfully instituted 
 without tempting Providence — without incurring' the 
 censure of neighbors, and without disgracing one's'name 
 and'.dignity," adding that "God had without such means 
 preserved and blessed, for many centuries, the ancient 
 h'6nse of Oldenlsur^, and' He would still be present 
 ^ith him through his merpy, and protect- his subjects 
 from destructive fires." This plan appears not to have 
 been again thought of until the fire of 1666 had laid 
 the city of Loiidpn in ashes. ■• 
 
 In consequencij of this calamitous event, the cit- 
 izens began Ijo see the importance, and indeed neces- 
 sity; of erecting their buildings of a material less 
 susceptible of fire than hitherto; also Of adopting a 
 regular system of precaution against future accidents, 
 as well as of dritising some scheme for mutual pecuni- 
 ftiy' protection and relief. Various proposals were 
 fttcordingly submitted to the Court Of Common Coun- 
 dl'of.the city of London, between 1669 and 1680, for 
 the mutual relief of such as might have their houses 
 destroyed by fire— the most notable and acceptable of 
 which ,was by otie 'of their own body, Mr. Deputy 
 Newbold. But if we may judge from the leiigth of 
 time that elipsed ere the worshipful committee made 
 their report to the court, we Should conclude the 
 adopting of the 'proposal to have been attended with ' 
 serious difficulties, and in verification of the old prov- 
 prb that "delays are dangerous," during the period 
 between the first presentation of Mr. Wewbold's pro- 
 posals to the Lord Mayor, and the final report of the 
 cdnjmittee, to whom the matter was referred by the 
 Court of Common Council,, several private individuals 
 associated themselves together, and submitted to the 
 good citizens of London a "design for insuring houses 
 from fire," and on the 16th September, 1681, a notice 
 or advertisement Was iisued from their '■'■office, on the 
 hack side of the Royal Exchmige" oflfering to insure 
 h'Tick houses against fire for sixpence, and ti'mher houses 
 for twelvepence in the pound — being at the rate of £2 
 iOs. pet- cent, for the brick houses, and of £5 per cent. 
 for timber. 
 
 Subsequently, on the 13th October, 1681, the Court 
 of. Common Council did " agree and resolve to under- 
 talte ye insuring all houses wthin this city and liber- 
 tyes from fire, and execute ye same with all expedi- 
 co'n," and thereafter " resolved forthwith to engage a 
 sufflcieht fund, atad undoubted security by the cham- 
 ber of" London, in lands and good ground rents, for the 
 performance thereof," Much amusing pamphleteer- 
 ing and advertising in the Gazette took place between 
 the advocates of the corporation scheme, and the " in- 
 terested" in the sale insurance office on the back side 
 of the Eoyal Exchange. ' 
 
 The journals of the Court of Common Council in 
 1G81, 16S2, and 1683, record the signing of many poli- 
 cies, and bear amusing evidence of the zeal and pru- 
 dence of the fire insurance Committees in promulgating 
 the benefits of the corporation scheme, and combat- 
 ing the antagonistic pamphlets issued by their com- 
 petitors. 
 
 As the fruit of this pamphleteering agitation, the 
 >ubject was brought under the most serious considera- 
 
 tion of the court on the 13th November, 1682, as ap- 
 pears by a minute of that date ; when the court evinced 
 a much greater anxiety to relinquish than they had 
 to undertake the design, and directed the discharge of 
 existing contracts,! with the prepayment of the money 
 which had been advanced. 
 
 Notv/ithstanding this resolution, however, contained 
 in the foregoing minute, we find several policies sub- 
 sequently passed the common seal, on the 6th March 
 and 3d May, 1683. 
 
 After tliis, the city discontinued issuing policies, and 
 having had a ytM warranto brought against their char- 
 ter, every exertion was used to obtain a surrender of 
 the existing policies, and thus release the city lands 
 from the incumbrances thereon. 
 
 The last matter taken into consideration, was the 
 petition of Mr. Newbold, the author of the design 
 which turned out so unsuccessful for remuneration, 
 for the time, trouble, and expense he had been at, 
 which was referred to a committee who reported on 
 the 13th Ootober, 1696, and on the 8th December fol- 
 lowing it was " resolved to give him the benefit of 
 maMng two persons free of this citie by redemp.con, 
 paying' to Mr. Chamberl.in to the citie's use of fortie- 
 six shillings eight, pence a^piece, the said persons to be 
 first presented and allowed of by this court." This 
 was the fate of the " City's Design and Undertaking 
 for the insuring of Houses from the evil of Fire." 
 The " interessed" in the rival office became, of course, 
 greatly elated, and their success led to the formation 
 of several other companies or mutual insurance socie- 
 ties, for protection against fire. 
 
 In 1696, the Hand-inrSand Fire Office was estab- 
 lished by about 100 persons, who afterwards formed 
 a deed of settlement, enrolled in Chancer}' January 
 24, 1698. This office is remarkable at the present 
 day for its age, and is the only surviving one of those 
 of that period. 
 
 Up to the year 1706, the protection afforded by fire 
 insurance societies was limited entirely to houses 
 (buildings'), but in that year the Sun Fire Office was 
 projected by one Charles Povey, for insuring merchan- 
 dise and household goods (as well as houses) from &ie, 
 and was the first office to extend the benefits of insur- 
 ance beyond the confines of London. This office has 
 for very many years stood first on the list in amount 
 of business. 
 
 There, is also a stamp duty of Is. on each policy. 
 B3- far the greater number of the above are joint- 
 stock companies, who insure at their own risk and for 
 their own profit, and are represented by agents in all 
 the principal towns of the kingdom ; the remainder 
 are joint-contribution, or mutual insurance societies, 
 in which every insurer participates in the profit or loss 
 of the concern. — E. B. 
 
 Practice of Fire Insurance. — The advantages oi fire 
 insurance are too well known to require any very elab- 
 orate description. A manufacturer or private individ- 
 ual can, by the payment of an annual sum (premium) 
 proportioned to the risk, secure himself against loss in 
 the event of his manufactory or dwelling-house, or 
 their contents, being destroyed by fire. 
 
 The Latjo of Fire Insurance in the Unit-ed States — 
 Of the usual subject and form of this insurance. — We 
 have seen that fire is one of the perils insured against 
 by the common marine policies. It is usual, however, 
 to insure building and personal property which is not 
 to be water borne, against fire alone'; and this is what 
 is commonly called fire insurance. The general pur- 
 poses and principles of this kind of insurance are the 
 same as those of the marine insurance ; and the law 
 in respect to it differs only in those respects and in 
 that degree in which the diflFerence is made necessary 
 by the subject-matter of the contract. It wUl be 
 proper, therefore, to confine ourselves in this chapter, 
 mainly to the statement of these differences and to 
 consider those general principles which have already 
 
INS 
 
 1060 
 
 INS 
 
 been discussed, only so far as this maj' be necessary 
 for the comprehension or illustration of the peculiari- 
 ties -which belong to fire insurance. This kind of in- 
 surance is sometimes made to indemnify against loss 
 by fire, of ships in port ; more often of warehouses, 
 and mercantile propertj- stored in them, still more fre- 
 quently of personal chattels in stores or factories, in 
 dwelling-houses or barns, as merchandise, furniture, 
 books, and plate, or pictures, or live stock. But by 
 far the most common application of this mode of insur- 
 ance is to dwelling-houses. Like marine insurance, it 
 may be effected by any individual who is capable of 
 making a legal contract. In fact, however, it is al- 
 ways or nearly always in this country, and we sup- 
 pose elsewhere, made by companies. There are stock 
 companies, in which certain persons own the capital, 
 and take all the profits by way of dividends. Or mu- 
 tual in which every one who is insured, becomes 
 thereby a member, and the nett profits, or a certain 
 proportion of them, are divided among all the mem- 
 bers in such a manner as the charter or by-laws of the 
 company may direct. Or both united, in which case 
 there is a capital stock provided, as a permanent guar- 
 anty fund, over and above the premium received, and 
 a certain part or pi-oportion of the nett profits is paid 
 by way of dividend upon the fund, and the residue 
 divided among the insured. Parsons on Contracts. 
 
 Of late years the number of mutual fire insurance 
 companies has greatly increased in this country, and 
 probablj' by far the largest amount of insurance 
 against fire is efiected by them. The principal reason 
 for this is undoubtedly their cheapness ; the premiums 
 required by them being in general, very much less in 
 fact than in the stock offices. For example, if the in- 
 surance is effected for seven years, which is a common 
 period — an amount or percentage is charged about the 
 same as, or a little more than is charged as the stock 
 companies. Only a small part of this is taken in 
 cash ; for the rest a premium note or bond is given, 
 promising to pay whatever part of the amount may 
 be needed for losses, which shall occur during the 
 period for which the note is given. More than this, 
 therefore, the insured can not be bound to pay, and it 
 frequently happens that no assessment whatever is 
 demanded ; and sometimes where the company is well 
 established, and does a large business upon sound prin- 
 ciples, a part of the money paid by him is refunded 
 when the . insurance expires, or credited to him on the 
 renewal of the policy if such be his wish. The dis- 
 advantage of these mutual companies is, that the pre- 
 miums paid, and premium notes, constitute the whole 
 capital or fund, out of which losses are to be paid for. 
 To make this more secure it is provided by the charter 
 of some companies, that they should have a lien upon 
 the land itself on which any insured building stands 
 to the amount of the premium. But while this adds 
 very much to the trustworthiness of the premium 
 notes, and so to the availability of the capital, it is, 
 with some persons, an objection, that their land is 
 thus subjected to a lien or incumbrance. — Ibid. 
 
 There is another point of difference which recom- 
 mends the stock rather than the mutual compan3^ It 
 is that the stock company will generally insure ver)' 
 nearly the full value of the property insured, while the 
 mutual companies are generally restrained by their 
 charters from insuring more than a moderate propor- 
 tion, namely, from one half to three fourths of the 
 assessed value of the proverty. It would follow, 
 therefore, that one insured by a mutual company can 
 not be fully indemnified against loss by fire : and maj' 
 not be quite so certain of getting the indemnity he 
 bargains for, as if he were insured by a stock company. 
 But this last reason is, practically, of very little im- 
 portance, and the lowness of the premiums effectually 
 overcomes the other. The method and operation of 
 fire insurance have become quite uniform throughout 
 the country, and any company may appeal to the 
 
 usage of other companies to answer questions which 
 have arisen under its own policy ; only, however, with- 
 in certain rules, and under some well-defined restric- 
 tions. In the first place, usage may be resorted to for 
 the purpose of explaining that which needs explana- 
 tion, but never to contradict that which is clearly 
 expressed in the contract. And no usage can be ad- 
 mitted, even to explain a contract, unless the usage 
 be so well established and so well known, that it may 
 reasonably be supposed that the parties entered into 
 the contract with reference to it. Thus if under a 
 policy'' against fire on a vessel in one part of this coun- 
 try, an inquirj' is raised as to the local usage, the 
 policy is not to be affected by proof of usage upon any 
 particular matter in other parts of the world, or even 
 of the United States. And not only the terms of the 
 contract must be duly regarded, but those of the char- 
 ter; thus if this provides that " all policies and otlier 
 instruments made and signed by the president or other 
 officer of the compan}', shall bind the company," an 
 agreement to cancel the policy should be signed ; al- 
 though it can not be doubted that a party insured 
 might otherwise give up his policy, or renounce all 
 claim under it, and that a valid agreement to that 
 effect between him and the company would not be set 
 aside for his benefit, on the ground of a merely formal 
 defect. — Ibid. 
 
 In regard to the execution of a fire policy, and what 
 is necessary to constitute such execution — as, for ex- 
 ample, whether delivery is necessary or a signed mem- 
 orandum be sufficient, or indeed an oral bargain only, 
 and whether this insurance may be effected by corre- 
 pondence, and if when the proposition and assent com- 
 plete the contract — we are not aware of any material 
 difference on any of these points, between the law of 
 fire insurance and that which has already been pre- 
 sented as applicable to marine. It has been held in 
 an action on a fire policy, as doubtless it would be on 
 a marine policy, that a memorandum made on the ap- 
 plication book of the company by the president, and 
 signed by him, was not binding, when the party to be 
 insured wished the policy to be delayed until a differ- 
 ent adjustment of the terms could be settled, and after 
 some delay, was notified by the company to call and 
 settle the business, or the company' would not be 
 bound, and he did not call ; because there was here no 
 consummated agreement. So, too, a subsequent adop- 
 tion or ratification is equivalent, either in a fire or 
 marine policy, to the making originally of the con- 
 tract ; with this limitation, however, that no party 
 can by his adoption, secure to himself the benefit of a 
 polic3% if it had not been intended that his interest 
 should be embraced within it. It is quite common to 
 describe the insured in marine policies, b}' general ex- 
 pressions — as, "for whom it may concern," or, "for 
 owners" or the like ; but such language is seldom if 
 ever used in fire policies, the insured being specifically 
 named in them. — Ibid. 
 
 It may be remarked, that the effecting of a fire in- 
 surance is not so often done through the agency of a 
 broker, as that of marine insurance ; nor is it so usual 
 to pay nothing down, but to give a note for the whole 
 premium. If, however, the insurance companj' has 
 an express rule to that effect, it may be waived ; and 
 this waiver may be express or implied, from the conduct 
 of officers of the company who have the right to act for 
 it ; and their admissions bind the company. — Ibid. 
 
 On the Interest of the Insured. — As to what interest y 
 in the insured is sufficient to support an insurance, the 
 principle is the same in fire as in marine insurance. 
 Any legal interest is sufficient ; and if it be equitable 
 in the sense that a court of equity will recognize and 
 protect it, that is sufficient ; but a merely moral or ex- 
 pectant interest is not enough. Hence, one who has 
 only made an oral bargain with another to purchase 
 his house, can not insure it ; but if there be a valid 
 contract in law, or if by writing, or by part perform- 
 
INS 
 
 1061 
 
 INS 
 
 anoe, it is enforceable in eqnity, the purchaser may 
 insure. So he may, although there be a stipulation, 
 the breach of which has made the contract void bj' its 
 terms, if the other party might waive the condition 
 and enforce the contracts. So if a debtor assign his 
 property to pay his debts, he has an insurable interest 
 in it until the debts are paid, or until th© property be 
 sold. This was so held where it appeared that the 
 property would pay the debts, and leave a surplus for 
 the assignor; but we should expect the same ruling 
 where this was not the case, although, in this instance, 
 there had been previously a verdict for the plaintiff, 
 and a new trial for want of evidence of such surplus. — 
 Ibid. 
 
 Of Reinsurance. — Reinsurance is equally lawful in 
 lire policies as in marine policies, and iu general is 
 governed by the same rules. The reinsurance is an 
 insurance, not of the risk of the insured, for that is a 
 merely ideal thing, but it is an insurance of the prop- 
 erty originally insured, in which the first insurers have 
 an insurable interest. If a common policy be used, 
 with no other change than the word reinsurance 
 used instead of insurance, all its requirements are in 
 force. If, for example, in case of loss, this property 
 requires a certificate from a magistrate, as to character, 
 circumstances, etc., that must .be furnished bj' the re- 
 insured. But if a suitable certificate were given by 
 the ,party first insured to the original insurer, and he 
 transmit the same forthwith to those who insure him, 
 that is enough ; and so it would be with notice, pre- 
 liminary proof, and all similar requirements. And an 
 insurer who obtains reinsurance, is bound to communi- 
 cate (in addition to whatever else should be stated by 
 one asking insurance), all the information he has con- 
 cerning the character of the part}' originally insured ; 
 and a material concealment on this point would avoid 
 the policy. — Ihid., page 516. 
 
 Of Double Insurance. — Double insurance, although 
 sometimes confounded with reinsurance, is essentially 
 different, B3' this, the party originally insured be- 
 comes again insured ; but by reinsurance, the original 
 insurer is insured, and, as we have seen, the original 
 insurer has no interest in, and no lien upon, this pol- 
 icy. If, by a double insurance, the insured could pro- 
 tect himself over and over again, he might recover 
 many indemnities for one loss. This can not be per- 
 mitted, not only because it is opposed to the first prin- 
 ciples of insurance, but because it would tempt to 
 fraud, and make it very easy. This effect maj' be ob- 
 viated in two ways : one, by considering the second 
 insurance as operating only on so much of the value of 
 the property insured, as is not covered by the first ; and 
 then, as soon as the whole value is covered, whether by 
 the first or by subsequent policies, any further insur- 
 ance has no effect. A second way is, by' considering 
 the second insurance as made jointly with the first ; 
 then only as much would be paid on any loss, on many 
 insurances, as on one only; but this payment is di- 
 vided ratably among all the insurers. All the policies 
 are considered as making but one policy ; and there- 
 fore, any one insurer who paj's more than his propor- 
 tion, may claim a contribution from others who were 
 liable. — Ibid, 
 
 In this country fire policies usually contain express 
 and exact provisions on this subject. They vary 
 somewhat ; but, generally, they require that any other 
 insurance must be stated by the insured, and indorsed 
 on the policy ; and it is a frequent condition, that each 
 office shall, in that case, pay only a ratable proportion 
 of a loss ; and it is often added that, if such other in- 
 surance be not so stated and indorsed, the insured 
 shall not recover on the policy ; and it has been held 
 that such a condition applies to a subsequent as well as 
 a prior insurance. Nor will a court of equity relieve 
 if sufficient notice and indorsement have been made. 
 But it has been held that a valid notice might be given 
 to the agent of the company, who was authorized to 
 
 receive applications and 
 
 survey property proposed for 
 
 insurance. — Ibid. 
 
 Of the Rislc incurred by the Insurers. — At the time of 
 
 the insurance the property must be in existence, and 
 
 not on fire, and not at that moment exposed to a dan- 
 
 gerous fire in the immediate neighborhood, because the 
 
 insurance assumes that no unusual risks exist at that 
 
 time. — lUd. 
 
 The U. S. Insurance Gazette for March contains the 
 
 report of the insurance commissioners, appointed by 
 
 the comptroller to inquire into the affairs of the fire 
 
 insurance companies of New York and Brooklyn. The 
 
 leading features of the report are contained in the an- 
 
 nexed table. The examinations were made from 
 
 March to December : 
 
 
 Vnloeof 
 
 Value of 
 
 Amount of 
 
 Amount of 
 ra-insuranee 
 f'd after 
 
 Name of Company. 
 
 bonds and 
 
 loans on 
 
 annual 
 
 
 mortgages. 
 
 stocks. 
 
 pmmiums. 
 
 last dividend. 
 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Astor. 
 
 162,660 00 
 
 8,200 00 
 
 50,671 50 
 87,152 11 
 78,810 88 
 
 19,600 00 
 16,778 85 
 87,192 00 
 
 Arctic 
 
 248,600 00 
 165,200 00 
 
 17,660 00 
 26,266 46 
 
 Atlantic (Br.)... 
 
 .(Etna 
 
 202,100 DO 
 178,414 00 
 
 17,250 00 
 10,000 00 
 
 86,689 89 
 60,666 87 
 
 24,000 00 
 42,048 00 
 
 Broadway 
 
 Beekman 
 
 208,280 00 
 
 26,740 00 
 
 66,880 61 
 
 27,404 00 
 
 Brooklyn (.Br.).. 
 
 98,897 20 
 
 4,800 00 
 
 62,186 00 
 
 
 Continental 
 
 608,266 00 
 
 127,600 00 
 
 186,876 53 
 
 105,6i3"41 
 
 Com Exchange. 
 
 194,850 00 
 
 41,700 00 
 
 146,617 20 
 
 48,177 17 
 
 Commonwealth. 
 
 249,450 OOi 20,610 00 
 
 72,194 06 
 
 25,48612 
 
 Clinton 
 
 257,400 00' 24.800 on 
 
 48,640 97 
 84.009 17 
 
 19,284 18 
 101,788 84 
 
 City 
 
 261,850 00 
 
 11,000 00 
 17,800 00 
 
 Commercial 
 
 213,651 00 
 
 77;278 72 
 
 88,169 17 
 
 Columbia 
 
 196,600 00 
 
 80,800 00 
 
 40,718 05 
 
 17,608 69 
 
 Citizen's 
 
 216,045 12 
 
 9,500 00 
 
 81,456 96 
 
 104,674 90 
 
 Empire 
 
 199,500 00 
 
 26,260 00 
 
 48,178 17 
 
 40,031 13 
 
 East Eiver 
 
 122,760 00 
 
 89,460 00 
 
 27,265 81 
 
 14,874 60 
 
 Excelsior 
 
 216,606 00 
 
 2,250 00 
 
 90,671 91 
 
 28,676 65 
 
 Eagle 
 
 238,410 64 
 
 56,650 00 
 
 74,120 17 
 
 96,778 66 
 
 Fulton 
 
 163,602 00 
 
 15,041 00 
 39,000 00 
 
 82,567 51 
 
 24,164 54 
 
 Firemen's 
 
 223,102 00 
 
 99,086 87 
 
 54,300 00 
 
 Grocers 
 
 209,466 00 
 
 80,000 00 
 
 42,886 91 
 
 26,107 26 
 
 Greenwich 
 
 210,351 00 
 
 
 87,240 09 
 
 81,972 82 
 
 Home 
 
 470,000 00 
 
 194,800 '60 
 19,860 00 
 
 838,292 50 
 
 204,606 85 
 
 Harmony 
 
 159,936 00 
 
 70,594 95 
 
 26,868 58 
 
 Hanover 
 
 152,800 00 
 
 22,700 00 
 
 41,801 00 
 
 24,911 07 
 
 Howard 
 
 249,400 00 
 
 S0,'906 00 
 
 174,300 00 
 
 97,000 00 
 
 Hamilton 
 
 118,104 00 
 
 
 58,978 33 
 
 
 Irving. 
 
 200,650 00 
 
 48,606 CO 
 
 62,697 08 
 
 82,256'88 
 
 Indemnity. 
 
 186,050 00 
 
 6,000 00 
 
 
 
 Jefferson 
 
 297,000 00 
 
 11,000 00 
 
 77,722 '43 
 
 100,862'66 
 
 Knickerbocker. 
 
 220,129 50 
 
 7,000 00 
 
 68,008 48 
 
 47,600 00 
 
 Lorillard 
 
 216,650 00 
 
 23,800 00 
 
 71,446 86 
 
 40,209 02 
 
 La Farge 
 
 97,683 26 
 
 2,076 00 
 
 66,602 77 
 
 
 Lenox* 
 
 182,240 00 
 
 2BfiR7 HI 
 
 81,423 00 
 
 10,76400 
 
 L. Island (Br.) . . 
 
 204,366 00 82,160 00 
 
 70,308 73 
 
 100,000 ,87 
 
 Merchants' 
 
 214,144 00 
 
 20,700 00 
 
 80,164 00 
 
 84,850 00 
 
 Market 
 
 203,900 00 
 
 89,900 00 
 
 89,465 28 
 
 49,000 00 
 
 Metropolitan.... 
 
 308,487 68 
 
 19,800 00 
 
 70,248 18 
 
 26,199 44 
 
 Mechanics' 
 
 211,420 00 
 
 25,050 00 
 
 68,725 10 
 
 49,366 24 
 
 Manhattan 
 
 298,676 00 
 
 49,100 00 
 
 108,643 67 
 
 60,308 16 
 
 Mercantile 
 
 208,916 67 
 
 25,400 00 
 
 54,667 12 
 
 40,429 68 
 
 Niagara 
 
 212,900 00 
 
 88,740 76 
 
 78,322 73 
 
 58,383 11 
 
 New Amsterdam 
 
 211,600 00 
 
 24,400 00 
 
 74,600 92 
 
 87,971 41 
 
 Nassau 
 
 149,200 00 
 
 25,600 00 
 
 44,066 81 
 
 40,266 75 
 
 North Eiver 
 
 375,800 00 
 
 10,700 00 
 
 68,980 79 
 
 51,445 72 
 
 North American 
 
 266,748 11 
 
 13,000, 00 
 
 '54,786 81 
 
 82,624 21 
 
 National 
 
 251,720 00 
 
 20,100 00 
 
 79,052 67 
 
 106,614 00 
 
 N. Y. Bowery.. 
 
 816,600 00 
 
 66,460 00 
 
 69,004 27 
 
 108,000 00 
 
 N. T. Equitable. 
 
 254,100 00 
 
 55,250 00 
 
 102,684 86 
 
 81,474 29 
 
 New York 
 
 190,180 00 
 
 10,295 00 
 
 77,996 01 
 
 80,000 00 
 
 Park 
 
 196,984 00 
 
 15,890 00 
 
 54,481 91 
 
 7,000 00 
 
 Pacific 
 
 196,987 00 
 
 41,450 00 
 
 90,281 49 
 49,885 59 
 
 26,814 00 
 
 People's 
 
 187,126 00 
 
 28,060 00 
 
 84,072 76 
 
 Peter Cooper's. . 
 
 144,361 00 
 
 21,250 00 
 
 29,246 91 
 
 20,167 48 
 
 Phenix 
 
 201,961 00 
 
 45,600 00 
 
 78,160 06 
 
 57,289 90 
 
 Eepublio 
 
 174,860 00 
 
 14,500 00 
 
 67,920 64 
 
 86,609 61 
 
 Kutger's........ 
 
 172,619 00 
 
 2,200 00 
 
 66,169 71 
 
 81,291 88 
 
 EeUef 
 
 131,200 00 
 
 38,588 00 
 
 61,740 00 
 
 21,600 00 
 
 St. Nicholas.... 
 
 114,400 00 
 
 12,607 00 
 
 67,948 60 
 
 
 Bt Mark's 
 
 170,710 00 
 
 900 00 
 
 65,996 16 
 
 25,000 '60 
 
 Btny vesant 
 
 199,446 00 
 
 18,011 50 
 
 47,207 53 
 
 30,060 57 
 
 Security 
 
 201,900 00 
 
 10,000 00 
 
 
 
 United States'.. 
 
 237,850 00 
 
 10,600 Oo 
 
 54,4i6'46 
 
 40,692 '60 
 
 Washington — 
 
 218,636 07 
 
 86,280 00 
 
 88,938 79 
 
 48,220 52 
 
 Wllllamsb. city. 
 
 160,800 00 
 
 24,200 00 
 
 56,319 00 
 
 40,727 09 
 
 Of Adjustment and iosa.— Insurers against fire are 
 
 not held to pay for loss of profits, gains of business, or 
 
 other indirect and remote consequences of a loss by 
 
 fire ; we do not know, however, why profits may not 
 
 be specifically insured against fire, where it is not for- 
 
 bidden by, or i 
 
 nconsistei 
 
 t with, til 
 
 e charter 
 
 of the in- 
 
INS 
 
 1062 
 
 INS 
 
 surers. There is one wide difference between the 
 principle of adjustment of a marine policy, and of a fire 
 policy. In the former, if a proportion only of the 
 Talue is insured, the insured is considered as his own 
 insurer for the residue, and only an equal proportion 
 of the loss is paid. Thus, if on a ship valued at $10,000, 
 S5000 be insured, there is a loss of one half, the in- 
 surers pay only one half of the sum they insure, just as 
 if some other party had insured other ^5000. But 
 in a fire policy, the insurers pay in all cases the whole 
 amount which is lost by the fire, provided only that it 
 does not exceed the amount which they insure. It is 
 said that general average clauses or provisions are in- 
 serted in fire policies in England, but are not known 
 here. Still, in one case, the principle of general aver- 
 age was applied. Blankets were used by the assured, 
 with the consent of the insurers, to protect the. build- 
 ing from a near fire ; they did this effectually, but 
 were themselves made worthless, and an action by the 
 insured against the insurers, for thi^ loss, was sus- 
 tained by the court. — Ibid., p. 637. 
 
 Life Assurance. — It is curious to observe that life 
 assurance, which ha$ so favorable a bearing on our 
 social and moral welfare, may be said to have origin- 
 ated from the study of the laws of chance, as observed 
 in the experience of the gambler. It will be remarked, 
 however, that the one is the very antithesis of the 
 other. In life assurance, the individual is freed from 
 risk by union for mutual protection with his fellow- 
 men. The gambler takes the single risk upon him- 
 self, and his average, if he obtain it, can only arise 
 from the duration of his play. In fact, the man 
 who has the opportunity of assuring his life, and does 
 not do it, is the gambler, taking the single risk upon 
 himself. 
 
 That the one practice took its origin, however, from 
 the observation of the other, there can be no doubt j 
 the earliest mathematical publication on probabilities, 
 being a little tract of Christian Huygens, written in 
 Dutch, but afterward translated into Latin, and ap- 
 pearing under the title " De Ratiociniis in Ludo Alea;," 
 in the Exercitationes Geometricce of Francis Schooten, 
 printed at Leyden, 1657. Two other mathematicians, 
 however, who preceded Huygens, really laid the found- 
 ation of the science, although he wrote the first sys- 
 tematic treatise on the subject. We refer to the famous 
 Pascal, and Format his friend, a magistrate of the 
 Parliament of Toulouse. But as the history of the 
 general doctrines of probabilities is given under that 
 head, we must confine our remarks to the history of 
 that doctrine as applied to the duration of life, and the 
 progress of life computations. 
 
 It has been usual to commence the history of life 
 contingencies with the little volume of " John Graunt, 
 citizen of London," who published observations on 
 the bills of mortality in 1662 ; but Mr. Hendriks has 
 given the means of more remote speculation on the 
 subject. 
 
 The piactioe in the da3'S of Herodotus was to reckon 
 three generations equivalent to a century, and the cen- 
 sus of Vespasian, as noticed in Pliny, distinguished 
 cases of extreme longevity. But we do not find any 
 thing like an observation on the subject until we come 
 to the calculations of the Prjetorian prsefect, Ulpianus, 
 one of the most eminent commentators on the Jus- 
 tinian Code, who gave a table of the estimated present 
 worth of life annuities, with reference to the require- 
 ments of the Falcidian law, which rendered it neces- 
 sary to put a value on life-rents and other similar 
 provisions. Ulpianus, however, took no account of 
 interest, so that his calculations are more expectations 
 of life than life annuities, and in that view Mr. Hen- 
 driks Says, "The old Eoman jurisprudence gave far 
 more correct views of the comparative value of life at 
 difierent ages than the modems possessed, in a popular 
 waj', until nearly the close of the 17th century." Ul- 
 pianus's calculations (Pandect, 35-2-68), compared with 
 
 certain Swedish observations given by Dr. Price, are 
 as follows : 
 
 Ag«>. 
 
 Stockholm life. 
 Dr. Pirice. 
 
 Agog. 
 
 Uxpeclatiotis 
 Male and 
 female. 
 
 
 Expectation of 
 
 
 Roman life. 
 
 
 Males. 1 ]• emales. 
 
 
 Ulpianus. 
 
 Birth. 
 
 14-25 
 
 18-10 
 
 Birth— 20, 
 
 30 
 
 5 
 
 81-06 
 
 87-12 
 
 20—25 
 
 28 
 
 10 
 
 80-00 
 
 86-89 
 
 25-60..:.... 
 
 25 
 
 15 
 
 26-74 
 
 83-43 
 
 80—38 
 
 22 
 
 20 
 
 23-85 
 
 30-01 
 
 35—40 
 
 20 
 
 25 
 
 21-40 
 
 26-80 
 
 40-41 
 
 19 
 
 80 
 
 19-42 
 
 23-98 
 
 41—42 
 
 18 
 
 85 
 
 17^68, 
 
 21-62 
 
 42^-48 
 
 17 
 
 40 
 
 15-61 
 
 19-25 
 
 ,43^-44 
 
 16 
 
 45 
 
 13-78 
 
 17-17 
 
 44—45....... 
 
 15 
 
 50 
 
 11-95 
 
 15-12 
 
 45—46 
 
 14 
 
 55 
 
 10-80 
 
 12-89 . 
 
 48—47 
 
 18 
 
 60 
 
 8-69 
 
 10-45 
 
 47-t48, 
 
 12 > 
 
 65 
 
 7-89 
 
 8-39 
 
 48—49 
 
 11 
 
 70 
 
 5-81 
 
 6-16 
 
 49—50.. 
 
 10 
 
 T5 
 
 4-09 
 
 4-89 
 
 50—55., 
 
 55—00....... 
 
 60 and upward. 
 
 9 
 
 7 , 
 5 
 
 It seems abundantly evident that Ulpianuff's esti- 
 mate must have been based on actual observations in 
 some form, but the Komans must have had a miserable 
 chance of life in old age. 
 
 From that period we have nothing to attract atten- 
 tion till the 16th century, when Dr. (or Sir) Thomas 
 Wilson, who died in 1581, published his Discourse upon- 
 Usurie, which contains illustrations ■ of endowment* 
 transactions on the lives of children, but the life con- 
 tingency portion seems merely incidentally introduced 
 with reference to questions as to usury. 
 
 In 1661, M. Cleirac, the author of Les us et CouD- 
 tums de laMer, notices the Gmdon, '' a French produc- 
 tion, formerly compiled for the benefit of the mer- 
 chants trading in the noble city of Rouen." This 
 work is nearly 300 years old, its author's name is un- 
 known, but it is a most curious document, in conse- 
 quence of the reference it makes to assurance matters. 
 From Mr. Hendriks we give the following translation, 
 omitting Cleirac's notes : 
 
 "1. In other countries, where the bodies of people 
 may be captured and reduced to bondage, there are 
 various usages for the insurance of the body and life 
 of men, whether they be of free condition, or slaves, 
 which customs will not- be mentioned here, because in 
 France, men of whatsoever nation are of frank and 
 free condition. 
 
 " 2. Notice only will be taken of what is practiced 
 in this country by those who undertake distant voy- 
 ages, as to the coast of Italy, Constantinople, Alex- 
 andria, or other like voyages in the Mediterranean and 
 Atlantic seas, on account of the fear which they have 
 of the galleys, fustes^ and frigates of the army of the" 
 Turk, or Corsairs; who make a traffic of the sale of 
 Christians, whom they capture as well on sea as on 
 land ; which creates occasion for the masters and cap- 
 tains of this country, when they undertake such voy- 
 ages, to stipulate with their merchant freighters, or 
 others, for the restitution of their persons, in case they 
 are captured ; and this they can do even for the peo- 
 ple of their crew. 
 
 " 3. In such a case, the master must, in the policy, 
 estimate his ransom, and that of his companions, at sO 
 much per head ; declare the name of the ship, the etay 
 or touchings which it will make, the duration of each 
 stay, and to whom the ransom is payable. The insurer 
 is bound to pay the sum insured for the ransom 15 
 days after verification and certification of the captiv- 
 ity, without waiting for the usual two months' delay ; 
 and without other formality of seeing freightage, bill 
 of lading, or charter party, it will suffice to produce 
 the attestation of capture and policy. 
 
 " 4. Pilgrims going to the Holy Sepulchre of Jeru- 
 salem, or on other distant voyages, may eff"ect insur- 
 ance for their redemption, valued at a given amount. 
 Description shall besides be made of their persons, 
 names, surnames, country, abode, age, and rank ; and, 
 
ms 
 
 1063 
 
 INS 
 
 moreover, limit sliall be made as to within what time 
 they undertake to liiake and adcrimplish the vOya^S : 
 the longest period shall be of three j-ears inclusive, 
 iSoii whatsoever. In imitation of the preceding, those 
 without admitting excuse of illness, or other deten- 
 who undertake journeys or Vows for a lengthened 
 period, or a passage from one country to another, may 
 insure for their ransom. 
 
 ^ " 5. Another kind of insurance is made hy other na- 
 tions upon the life of miri, in cdie of thdr decease upon 
 their voyage, ty paj>" dertain sums to their heirs or cred- 
 itors.' Creditors even may insure their debts, if their 
 debtor remove from one cojintryto another; the same 
 Can be done by those having rents or pensions, so as in 
 case of theii- decease, to vohtinudt'a their heirs such pen- 
 sion or rent [as mn't/ be due io' them. Which are all stip- 
 ulations forbidden, as against good morals and cus- 
 toms, from which endle'ss abuses arid deceptions arose, 
 whence they have been constrai'ned to abolish and 
 prohibit the said usages ; wiich is also to be' prohib- 
 ited and forbidden iri' this' country." 
 
 'The most remarkable feature of these'times was tie 
 condemnationofj'and legislation against, the practice 
 of' assurance in many countries. Not only in France 
 was it assumed unrecognizable by law, but in the 
 Netherlands' ordinance of Philip II., and in the civil 
 statutes of Genoa (1588), in which last it 'is declared 
 that "securities, bonds,, or wagers may not be made, 
 without the license of the' Seriate, tipon the life of the 
 pops, nor upon' th^ life of the eriiperor, nor upon the 
 life of Idngs, cardinals, dikes, princes, bishops, nor 
 upon the life of other lords or persons, in constituted 
 dignities, ecclesiastical or secular. ' Neither may they 
 be made lipon the acquisition, loss, or change of lord- 
 ships, governments, kingdoms, provinces, duchies, 
 cities, lands, or places ... nor upon any other trans- 
 action having the species or form of a bond/ security, 
 or wager (vadimoniisecuritatis, seupartii) ; but all are 
 understood and are forbidden." The 24th article of the 
 Amsterdam ordinance of 1598 prohibits insurance of the 
 life of any person, and likewise wagers upon any voyage 
 or frivolous purpose ; and the Rotterdam ordinances 
 of 1604' and 1635 repeat' the latter injunctions. The 
 10th article (,Tifre 6), of the great French marine ordi- 
 nance of Louis XlV., dated 1681, says, "We forbid 
 the making of any insurance on the life of men ;" but 
 the 11th article excepts those who redeem captives, 
 and gurantees the price of the redeinption assured 
 upon the persons, if the redeemed on his way back 
 perish by other means thaip nedural death. " Even later 
 than the 17th century,'- adds Hendriks, '' life insur- 
 ance was regarded in France as obnoxious. In 1783, 
 there remained a spirit of opposition to it. EmerigOn, 
 Whose work on assurance comprises more than 1300 
 quarto pages, dteVotes one page to the subject of life 
 assurance, and that short space to the purpose of at- 
 tacking the system." 
 
 But we must now pass on to a more Interesting pe- 
 riod, when we are called on to consider the conflicting 
 claims of great names, "with reference to the origina- 
 tion and practical application of the doctrine of annui- 
 ties, as derived from the studj' of the laws of chance 
 or probability. 
 
 John de 'Wit, the grand pensionary of Holland, sub- 
 mitted to the States-General of Holland, in 1671, a trea- 
 tise on the valuation of life annuities, and on the basis of 
 that document, it was resolved to grant life annuities 
 for the purpose of raising funds. This treatise Mr. 
 Hendriks characterizes as " the first known production 
 of any age treating in a formal manner of the valua- 
 tion of life annuities," and the scientific world are 
 much indebted to him for the restoration of this docu- 
 ment, which was inserted in the resolutions of the 
 States of Holland and West Friesland of the year 1671, 
 and which had remained as good as lost for 180 years. 
 
 In the preparation of this document De Wit was 
 no doubt aided by the preceding labors of Pascal, 
 
 Format, and Huygens, and he had no doubt the ad- 
 vantage of observations on the duration of life among 
 persons to whom the States of Holland had previously 
 granted annuities ; but, independently of the origi- 
 nalitj' of the design, we must give him' the entire 
 credit of having discovered' a correct principle on 
 which the value of a life annuity might be calcu- 
 lated. 
 
 De Wit's treatise is Maded, "Value of Life Annui- 
 ties in Proportion to Redeemable Annuities." He 
 commences with pointing out the difference between a 
 "redeemable annuity," as he terms it, at 4 per cent., 
 that is a perpetuity at 25 years' purchase, or perpetual 
 investment at 4 per cent., and a life annuity; esti- 
 mating the value of the latter' in the most favorable 
 circumstances as "really not below, but certainly 
 above 16 years' purchase. " He then gives some pre- 
 liminary observations on the doctrine of chances, 
 and afterward 'applies the principle to the calculation 
 of an annuity value at a particular age. His calcula- 
 tions are simplified and explained as follows by Mr. 
 Hendriks ; >.',:. 
 
 " First, Out of 128 lives, aged say 3 years, 1 is sup- 
 posed to 'die in every half year of the first 100 half 
 years, or 2 per annum for 50 years, leaving 28 alive, 
 aged 53 years, at the end of the term ; out of whom 1 
 dies in every 9 months, being 0'66 per half-year during 
 the next 20 half years, or 1-33 per annum for 10 years, 
 leaving 15'66 alive, aged 63 years, at the end of the 
 second term ; of whom 1 dies in every year for 10 
 years, being 0'5 per half year during the next 20 half 
 years, leaving 5'66 alive, aged 73 years, at the end of 
 the third term ; of whom 1 dies in every year and a 
 half for 7 years, being 0'33 per half j-ear during the 
 next 14 half years, leaving 1 aliVe, aged 80, at the end 
 of the fourth term ; which survivor does not live over 
 another half year. Secondly, Out of the 128 lives, 
 those Who die in the respective half years between the 
 ages of 3 and 80, will receive an annuity certain in 
 half-yearly instalments, for a term equal in continu- 
 ance to the number of completed half years elapsed 
 between age 3 and the date of their death ; therefore, 
 the sum of the present values of half-yearly annuities 
 certain, for the corresponding terms multiplied in the 
 numbers dying within such respective terms, gives the 
 present worth of all the annuities which will be en- 
 joyed by the 128 lives-,' 1-128 of which represents the 
 present Value of the single life annuity at age of, say 
 3 years." 
 
 We have dwelt at some length on the discovery of 
 De Witj as it has not been available previously in any 
 account given of the progress of life calculations, our 
 best writers in this country, from the absence of any 
 precise knowledge in regard to it, having' passed it 
 over with a slight notice. On the continent, however, 
 the labors of De Wit have been more highly appreci- 
 ated. The Marquis of Condorcet, in his Discours Pre- 
 liminmre, gave him the credit of being "the first 
 mathematician who thought of applying calculation 
 to political questions." " It was he who first essayed to 
 fix the rale of life annuities according to the probabili- 
 ties of life given by the tables of mortality. Upon 
 politics, upon the true interests of nations, upon the 
 freedom of trade, he had very superior ideas to those 
 of his age; and we may say that his premature 
 death was a misfortune to Europe as well as to his 
 country." 
 
 We can not conclude our notice of De Wit without 
 mentioning the name of his fellow-laborer, if we may 
 so term him, the Burgomaster Hudde. We had at 
 one time rather a painful impression left on our mind, 
 arising out of the terms of Hudde's certificate to the 
 report of De Wit to the States-General, -and other ob- 
 servations by Mr. Hendriks, but we are glad to find, 
 from the correspondence subsequently brought for- 
 ward, that they were fellow-laborers in the same field, 
 and that Hudde himself was a man of science. 
 
INS 
 
 1064 
 
 INS 
 
 We have now to mention the first published work in 
 which an attempt is made to form tables of mortality. 
 We allude to the work of John Graunt, whose name 
 has been already mentioned. It was published in 1662, 
 and is the first book on the subject of life observations, 
 as a distinct treatise. It is entitled, Natural and Po- 
 litical Observations, mentioned in a following index, and 
 made upon the Bills of Mortality, hy John Geadnt, 
 citizen of London (afterward described in the fifth edi- 
 tion as "Captain John Graunt, F.E.S"). A century 
 previous to the publication of this little volume, viz., 
 on 1st January, 1562, the first register of burials was 
 commenced in London, the necessity for the inquiry 
 arising from the great mortality occasioned by the 
 plague at that time. From that time the bills of mor- 
 tality were kept at irregular intervals, according to the 
 appearance and disappearance of the plague, but from 
 1603 the records were continued uninterruptedly. 
 Graunt paid particular attention to these weekly re- 
 turns, and, with a sagacious appreciation of their 
 value, reduced the results into tables, " in order to the 
 more ready comparing of one year, season, parish, or 
 other division of the city." He analyzes the bills 
 themselves, and draws certain conclusions with great 
 adroitness, giving the first semblance of a table of 
 mortality in the arrangement of deaths in decades. The 
 work passed through five editions, the last under the 
 superintendence of his relative Sir William Petty, who 
 himself paid some attention to the subject, having 
 published Essays on Political Arithmetic concerning the 
 People, Housings, etc., of London and Paris; Essay 
 concerning the Multiplication of Mankind, and the 
 Growth of tlie city of London; Observations on the 
 Dublin Bills of Mortality, etc. ; and Discourse on Du- 
 plicate Proportion, read before the Eoyal Society, 1674. 
 
 From this time till 1693, when the celebrated Dr. 
 Halley's investigations and calculations appeared, 
 there is little to attract attention. A set of tables 
 was published during this interval, entitled. Tables 
 for Renewing and Purchasing of the Leases of Cathedral 
 Churches and Colleges, etc. ; also Tables for Renewing 
 and Purchasing of Lives, etc., bearing the imposing 
 title of ^^ Sir Isaac Newton's Tables;" but we learn 
 from Mr. Edwin James Fan'en's historical Essay on the 
 Rise and Early Progress of the Doctrine of Life Coniin- 
 gencies in England, that Sir Isaac Newton being then at 
 Cambridge (Lucasian Professor vice Barrow), it ap- 
 pears to have been thought politic to obtain his sanc- 
 tion or imprimatur as to the correctness of the tables, 
 and "his original cognizance of the work appears to 
 have been to merely confirm the (Q.E.D.) correctness 
 of a single table relative to the established usage of 
 renewing college leases." 
 
 In No. 196 of the Philosophical Transactions, 1693, 
 Dr. Halley published the result of his investigations 
 under the following title: "An Estimate of the De- 
 grees of Mortality of Mankind, drawn from curious 
 Tables of the Births and Funerals at the citj' of Bres- 
 lau, with an attempt to ascertain the price of Annui- 
 ties upon Lives, by E. Halley, E.S.S." — E. B. 
 
 Additional information will also be found in the 
 Actuarial Tables of W. T. Thomson, F.R.S.E., 1853, 
 and in the very valuable Tables and FormvXce for the 
 Computation of Life Contingencies, of Mr. Peter Gray, 
 published in 1849. In conclusion, the names of Ed- 
 ward Sang, Peter Hardy, Samuel Brown, Charles 
 Jellicoe, William Wood, William Orchard, and B. H. 
 Todd, may be selected for special notice from the long 
 list of calculators who have advanced various depart- 
 ments of the science. Much valuable information on the 
 subject will also be found in the Assurance Magazine ; 
 the Reports of the Registrar-General ; and in the Evi- 
 dence given before the Souse of Commons, in 1843, on 
 Joint Stock Companies, and in 1858, on Assurance As- 
 sociations. The evidence on Friendly Societies wUl 
 also be found interesting. — E. B. See Interest and 
 Annuities. 
 
 The following summary of the plan of operation and 
 condition of the Mutual Life Insurance Company of 
 New York, is given to show the state of life insurance 
 in the United States. This Company is the largest 
 and one of the best managed in the country ; and its 
 condition may, therefore, be taken as a fair exponent 
 of the others, and shows clearly to the insurers the 
 safety of their policies. 
 
 Mutual Life Insurance Co., N. Y. — -It will be per- 
 ceived by the statement following that there have been 
 issued in the past year (1856) 2,041 policies, amounting 
 to $5,878,457, being a net increase in policies of 1,016, 
 and in amount of insured of $3,119,902, The cash 
 receipts have been $1,045,235 17 ; the increase of in- 
 vestments on bonds and mortgages has been $555,562 
 14, and the entire net increase $610,749 94, irrespective 
 of the items of interest accrued, and deferred premiums, 
 which are not estimated. Total assets, $3,787,945 76. 
 The loans are at 7 per cent, interest. Aggregate 
 amount of loans, May 1, 1856, $3,187,858 36. 
 
 Securities. — Value of lands mortgaged, $5,009,- 
 415; value of improvements thereon, $3,513,650; 
 aggregate value of mortgaged property, $8,523,065. 
 
 Collaterals. — Policies of fire insurance, assigned or 
 made payable, in case of loss, to the Company, $1,702,- 
 636 85 ; personal guaranties to a considerable amount, 
 say $200,000. Total amount of securities, $10,425,701. 
 It will thus be seen that the value of the mortgaged 
 property is more than twice and a half the amount of the 
 loans they are intended to secure. These securities are 
 fortified by collateral policies of fire insurance to the 
 amount of $1,702,636. The following schedule of the 
 predicted losses by the tables, and the actual losses for 
 the past 14 years, has been prepared by the Actuary : 
 
 A COMPABATIVE TaBLE OP THE PrOBABLE AND AcTUAL 
 JSTUMBEB OF BbATUS AND LoSSES, ACCOBDING TO THE 
 
 Life Table of the Mutual Life Instjeance Co. of 
 New York. 
 
 Ycnr. 
 
 Probable No. 
 of deaths. 
 
 Probable 
 
 amount of 
 
 losses. 
 
 Nnmber of 
 
 deaths. 
 
 Actual amount 
 of losses. 
 
 1843.... 
 1844.... 
 1846.... 
 1846.... 
 1847.... 
 1848.... 
 1849.... 
 I860.... 
 1851.... 
 1852.... 
 1853.... 
 1864.... 
 1865.... 
 1866.... 
 Total 
 
 2-96 
 7-72 
 15-66 
 24-96 
 83-67 
 44-37 
 56-81 
 67-61 
 72-48 
 76 86 
 83-59 
 92-44 
 100-76 
 118 56 
 
 $11,461 
 29-703 
 54,530 
 80,485 
 107,017 
 140,496 
 174,608 
 200,827 
 214,360 
 229,729 
 2.58,048 
 239,921 
 317,681 
 862,639 
 
 5 
 7 
 23 
 29 
 27 
 64 
 71 
 50 
 68 
 71 
 85 
 80 
 75 
 
 $18,000 
 
 18,100 
 
 69,400 
 
 71,150 
 
 94-200 
 
 176,960 
 
 164,640 
 
 166,600 
 
 206,100 
 
 207,200 
 
 281,500 
 
 267,860 
 
 264,255 
 
 793-03 
 
 $2,471,839 
 
 655 
 
 $1,994,946 
 
 In the above table the second column shows the prob- 
 able number of deaths, according to the mortality ta- 
 bles now used in the United States. The third column 
 represents the amount of such losses, whereas the 
 fourth and fifth columns show the actual results in a 
 business of 14 years. In none of these years has the 
 Companj' lost the full amount called for in its tables. 
 
 But it must be borne in mind that life insurance is 
 onlj- in its infancy in this country, and that full 30 
 years must elapse before we can calculate results with 
 any degree of certainty. 
 
 Fourteenth Annual Statement foe tue Teae ending 
 
 81st January, 1857, 
 
 receipts. 
 
 For premtnms and Interest $1,045,235 17 
 
 . $434,485 28 
 
 DI8BUr.SE.MENTS. 
 
 Paid claims by death and expenses 
 
 Net increase of assets during the year. $610,749 94 
 
 Net assets 31st January, 1856 8,177,195 82 
 
 Total net assets 3l8t January, 1857 $3(787,945 76 
 
 Number of policies issued during the year 2,041 
 
 Amount insured by the same $5,878,457 00 
 
 Number of policies in force 1st of Fobruai-y, 1857 9,794 
 
 The following is the division of the country into 
 classes, shomng the rates charged : 
 
 1. In the United States, north of the southern lines 
 
INS 
 
 1066 
 
 INS 
 
 of Virginia and Kentucky (except within 10 miles of 
 the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers, between 36° 30' 
 and 40° north latitude) ; in the interior of North Car- 
 olina, from the coast ; in Tennessee, except within 50 
 miles of the Mississippi Biver ; and in British North 
 America. All to be east of the 100th meridian of lon- 
 gitude west from Greenwich. 
 
 2. Additional Raies. — Residences within 10 miles of 
 the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers, hetween 36° 30' 
 and 40° north latitude, J- per cent. The United States, 
 south of the southerly line of Virginia and Kentucky, 
 and north of the 32d degree of north latitude, except 
 on the Mississippi River (east of the 100th meridian 
 of west longitude), from 1st July to 1st November, for 
 acclimated persons, \ per cent. 
 
 3. The United States, south of the 32d degree of 
 north latitude (east of the 100th meridian west longi- 
 tude), from 1st July to 1st November, for acclimated 
 persons, 2 per cent. Acclimation is only deemed com- 
 plete when the party has had the yellow fever. 
 
 4. Upper California, Oregon (except those engaged 
 in mining), Australia (with similar restriction), China, 
 Philippine Islands, and Sandwich Islands, for resi- 
 dence, 1 per cent. For South America, West Indies, 
 East Indies, and other parts of the world not men- 
 tioned, rates will be named at the office correspond- 
 ing with the risks, except in places prohibited. 
 
 5. Voyages and trips to and from California and 
 Oregon, 1 per cent. ; round the world, 2 >per cent. 
 Other voyages subject to special contract at this office. 
 Master mariners and sea-faring men are taken at rates 
 
 ^ of premium graduated to the risk of the particular 
 trade in which they may be engaged. The condi- 
 tions as to voyages in such class are applicable to time 
 of peace onl}', an additional rate being charged in time 
 of war, if the risk of war should be taken by tlie Co. 
 
 Military and naval men are not protected when en- 
 gaged in actual warfare ; but if regularly called into 
 actual service, and dying thereby, the Company will 
 consider said death, under such circumstances, as a ten- 
 der of their policy to the Company, and will pay the 
 same value therefor as if surrendered by sale. Per- 
 sons engaged in military corps are not held to come 
 under military conditions, except in the event of for- 
 eign invasion. 
 
 Persons passing from one class to another. — Persons 
 insured, who pass from a class where the risk is 
 smaller to one which is greater, must apply at the 
 office, and pay the enhanced premium. Persons com- 
 ing from a class where the risk is greater, to where it 
 is less, will commence to pay the reduced preinium 
 when the next renewal premium becomes due, should 
 the extra premium be taken oif. But where the 
 health and constitution have become impaired by said 
 residence, the extra premium will not be taken off. 
 All reductions of the extra premiums charged, must 
 be made at the office. 
 
 Acclimation for the purpose of life insurance is ob- 
 tained, 1. By birth and continued residence in the place 
 where insurance is sought. 2. By long continued 
 summer residence, and during the season when and 
 where epidemic and endemic diseases prevail. 3. By 
 having had the disease incident to the climate or local- 
 ity. 4. Acclimation against yellow fever is not consid- 
 ered complete unless the party has had it, and has con- 
 tinued since to reside in places where it is epidemic. 
 
 Rates for Insurance. — The rates adopted by this 
 Company have been formed on the most correct ob- 
 servations which now exist, as to the duration of life 
 at the different places where we insure. We believe 
 that these rates can not be safely reduced, and that 
 any attempt to do it, with the present limited experi- 
 ence in life insurance in this countrj-, would evince a 
 recklessness of results which would justly cost any 
 Company which should attempt it, the withdrawal of 
 the confidence of all who are conversant with the sci- 
 ence and principles upon which this business is based. 
 
 The Eates of Assueance of One Thousand Bollaks on 
 A Single Life, fob the whole continuance thereof. 
 
 Age. 
 
 Qufirtorly 
 payinentB 
 for life.' 
 
 Semi-finn. 
 paymente 
 for life. 
 
 Anminl 
 paymonla 
 for life. 
 
 Annual 
 payments 
 itr 10 y'rs. 
 
 Annual 
 pnyracnu 
 for 6 yeoTB 
 
 In one 
 payment. 
 
 14 
 
 8 7T 
 
 7 48 
 
 14 71 
 
 88 49 
 
 67 68 
 
 264 59 
 
 15 
 
 888 
 
 7 68 
 
 15 11 
 
 84 18 
 
 68 86 
 
 259 69 
 
 16 
 
 8 98 
 
 7 89 
 
 15 62 
 
 84 89 
 
 60 05 
 
 264 88 
 
 IT 
 
 4 09 
 
 8 11 
 
 15 94 
 
 85 62 
 
 61 27 
 
 270 16 
 
 18 
 
 4 20 
 
 8 88 
 
 16 88 
 
 86 85 
 
 62 61 
 
 275 58 
 
 19 
 
 4 32 
 
 8 56 
 
 16 88 
 
 87 11 
 
 63 78 
 
 280 99 
 
 20 
 
 444 
 
 8 80 
 
 17 80 
 
 87 87 
 
 65 07 
 
 286 66 
 
 21 
 
 4 66 
 
 9 05 
 
 17 78 
 
 88 66 
 
 66 88 
 
 292 28 
 
 22 
 
 4 69 
 
 9 80 
 
 18 28 
 
 39 45 
 
 67 72 
 
 298 00 
 
 23 
 
 4 82 
 
 9 56 
 
 18 80 
 
 40 27 
 
 69 08 
 
 303 88 
 
 24 
 
 4 96 
 
 9 84 
 
 19 34 
 
 41 10 
 
 70 48 
 
 809 87 
 
 25 
 
 5 10 
 
 10 12 
 
 19 89 
 
 41 95 
 
 71 89 
 
 815 97 
 
 26 
 
 525 
 
 10 41 
 
 20 47 
 
 42 82 
 
 T8 35 
 
 822 20 
 
 2T 
 
 5 41 
 
 10 72 
 
 21 07 
 
 48 71 
 
 74 83 
 
 828 55 
 
 28 
 
 5 6T 
 
 11 04 
 
 21 70 
 
 44 62 
 
 76 84 
 
 836 OS 
 
 29 
 
 5 78 
 
 11 87 
 
 22 85 
 
 45 55 
 
 77 88 
 
 841 64 
 
 30 
 
 5 91 
 
 1171 
 
 23 02 
 
 46 61 
 
 79 46 
 
 848 38 
 
 81 
 
 6 09 
 
 12 07 
 
 23 78 
 
 47 48 
 
 81 07 
 
 865 26 
 
 82 
 
 6 28 
 
 12 45 
 
 24 47 
 
 48 48 
 
 82 72 
 
 362 29 
 
 88 
 
 6 4T 
 
 12 84 
 
 25 23 
 
 49 60 
 
 84 41 
 
 369 46 
 
 84 
 
 6 68 
 
 18 24 
 
 26 08 
 
 60 65 
 
 86 13 
 
 876 78 
 
 85 
 
 6 89 
 
 18 67 
 
 26 87 
 
 51 62 
 
 87 89 
 
 884 26 
 
 86 
 
 T12 
 
 14 12 
 
 27 76 
 
 52 72 
 
 69 70 
 
 891 90 
 
 8T 
 
 T 86 
 
 14 69 
 
 28 67 
 
 53 86 
 
 91 55 
 
 899 71 
 
 38 
 
 7 61 
 
 15 08 
 
 29 64 
 
 55 02 
 
 98 44 
 
 407 70 
 
 89 
 
 7 '87 
 
 15 60 
 
 80 66 
 
 56 21 
 
 95 SS 
 
 415 87 
 
 40 
 
 8 14 
 
 16 14 
 
 81 78 
 
 57 45 
 
 97 87 
 
 424 28 
 
 41 
 
 8 48 
 
 16 72 
 
 82 86 
 
 58 72 
 
 99 41 
 
 482 79 
 
 42 
 
 8 74 
 
 17 82 
 
 84 05 
 
 60 03 
 
 101 51 
 
 441 54 
 
 48 
 
 9 06 
 
 17 96 
 
 86 80 
 
 61 88 
 
 108 66 
 
 460 49 
 
 44 
 
 9 40 
 
 IS 64 
 
 86 68 
 
 62 78 
 
 106 87 
 
 469 66 
 
 45 
 
 9 76 
 
 19 86 
 
 38 04 
 
 64 24 
 
 108 16 
 
 469 08 
 
 46 
 
 10 14 
 
 20 11 
 
 89 .58 
 
 66 74 
 
 110 49 
 
 478 62 
 
 4T 
 
 10 55 
 
 20 92 
 
 41 11 
 
 67 81 
 
 112 91 
 
 488 41 
 
 48 
 
 10 98 
 
 21 77 
 
 42 78 
 
 68 92 
 
 116 89 
 
 498 87 
 
 49 
 
 11 48 
 
 22 66 
 
 44 65 
 
 70 69 
 
 117 92 
 
 508 49 
 
 60 
 
 11 91 
 
 23 61 
 
 46 42 
 
 72 81 
 
 120 61 
 
 518 75 
 
 51 
 
 12 42 
 
 24 62 
 
 48 89 
 
 74 08 
 
 123 15 
 
 529 15 
 
 52 
 
 12 95 
 
 25 69 
 
 50 49 
 
 76 91 
 
 128 85 
 
 589 68 
 
 53 
 
 18 52 
 
 26 82 
 
 62 71 
 
 77 81 
 
 128 61 
 
 550-86 
 
 64 
 
 14 13 
 
 28 02 
 
 66 07 
 
 79 78 
 
 131 44 
 
 56117 
 
 65 
 
 14 77 
 
 29 29 
 
 67 58 
 
 81 84 
 
 184 34 
 
 572 12 
 
 66 
 
 15 46 
 
 30 65 
 
 60 25 
 
 S3 98 
 
 187 32 
 
 688 19 
 
 The Bates of 
 
 ASSUKANOE OF ONE THOUSAND DoLLAES OH 
 
 
 A Single Lith 
 
 , FOE A 
 
 Teem of 
 
 Teaks. 
 
 
 Age. 
 
 Qua 
 
 policy for 7 
 
 years. 
 
 For 6 yr's. 
 
 For 2 y'rs. 
 
 For 1 year. 
 
 Quarterlj 
 
 Semi-ann'l 
 
 Annual 
 
 AnuiiHl 
 
 Annual 
 
 Annual 
 
 
 payments. 
 
 payments. 
 
 payments. 
 
 payments. 
 
 payments. 
 
 payments. 
 
 14 
 
 2 00 
 
 8 97 
 
 7 80 
 
 7 60 
 
 7 28 
 
 7 18 
 
 15 
 
 2 06 
 
 4 09 
 
 8 03 
 
 7 82 
 
 7 60 
 
 7 39 
 
 16 
 
 2 12 
 
 4 21 
 
 8 27 
 
 8 05 
 
 7 72 
 
 7 61 
 
 17 
 
 2 18 
 
 4 88 
 
 8 51 
 
 8 28 
 
 7 95 
 
 7 88 
 
 18 
 
 2 25 
 
 4 46 
 
 8 75 
 
 8 52 
 
 8 18 
 
 8 06 
 
 19 
 
 2 81 
 
 4 58-' 
 
 9 00 
 
 8 77 
 
 8 41 
 
 8 80 
 
 20 
 
 2 38 
 
 4 71 
 
 9 26 
 
 9 02 
 
 8 66 
 
 8 68 
 
 21 
 
 244 
 
 4 85 
 
 9 68 
 
 9 28 
 
 8 91 
 
 8 79 
 
 22 
 
 2 51 
 
 4 99 
 
 9 80 
 
 9 65 
 
 9 17 
 
 9 05 
 
 28 
 
 2 69 
 
 5 13 
 
 10 08 
 
 9 82 
 
 9 48 
 
 9 81 
 
 24 
 
 2 66 
 
 5 27 
 
 10 87 
 
 10 10 
 
 9 70 
 
 9 57 
 
 25 
 
 2 74 
 
 5 42 
 
 10 66 
 
 10 88 
 
 9 97 
 
 9 83 
 
 26 
 
 2 82 
 
 5 58 
 
 10 97 
 
 10 68 
 
 10 25 
 
 10 11 
 
 27 
 
 2 90 
 
 6 74 
 
 11 29 
 
 10 99 
 
 10 55 
 
 10 40 
 
 28 
 
 2 98 
 
 6 91 
 
 11 62 
 
 11 31 
 
 10 85 
 
 10 70 
 
 29 
 
 8 07 
 
 6 08 
 
 11 96 
 
 11 64 
 
 11 17 
 
 11 01 
 
 80 
 
 3 16 
 
 6 26 
 
 12 31 
 
 11 93 
 
 11 49 
 
 11 83 
 
 81 
 
 8 25 
 
 6 45 
 
 12 67 
 
 12 88 
 
 11 88 
 
 11 65 
 
 32 
 
 3 85 
 
 64 
 
 18 04 
 
 12 69 
 
 12 18 
 
 12 01 
 
 88 
 
 846 
 
 6 83 
 
 18 48 
 
 13 07 
 
 12 53 
 
 12 86 
 
 84 
 
 8 55 
 
 7 04 
 
 18 S3 
 
 18 46 
 
 12 90 
 
 12 71 
 
 85 
 
 8 66 
 
 7 25 
 
 14 25 
 
 13 86 
 
 13 28 
 
 18 10 
 
 86 
 
 8 77 
 
 7 47 
 
 14 69 
 
 14 28 
 
 13 68 
 
 18 48 
 
 87 
 
 3 89 
 
 7 70 
 
 16 14 
 
 14 71 
 
 14 09 
 
 18 88 
 
 88 
 
 4 01 
 
 7 95 
 
 15 62 
 
 15 17 
 
 14 51 
 
 14 80 
 
 89 
 
 4 14 
 
 S 20 
 
 16 18 
 
 15 65 
 
 14 96 
 
 14 73 
 
 40 
 
 4 28 
 
 848 
 
 16 66 
 
 16 15 
 
 15 48 
 
 15 19 
 
 41 
 
 443 
 
 8 77 
 
 17 25 
 
 16 69 
 
 16 92 
 
 15 67 
 
 42 
 
 4 69 
 
 9 10 
 
 17 89 
 
 17 26 
 
 16 43 
 
 16 18 
 
 48 
 
 4 77 
 
 9 46 
 
 18 69 
 
 17 89 
 
 16 99 
 
 16 71 
 
 44 
 
 4 97 
 
 9 85 
 
 19 86 
 
 18 58 
 
 17 67 
 
 17 28 
 
 45 
 
 5 18 
 
 10 28 
 
 20 21 
 
 19 36 
 
 18 21 
 
 17 88 
 
 46 
 
 6 42 
 
 10 75 
 
 21 13 
 
 20 22 
 
 18 94 
 
 18 56 
 
 47 
 
 5 68 
 
 11 27 
 
 22 15 
 
 21 17 
 
 19 79 
 
 19 86 
 
 48 
 
 5 96 
 
 11 88 
 
 23 24 
 
 22 20 
 
 20 71 
 
 20 24 
 
 49 
 
 6 26 
 
 12 42 
 
 24 42 
 
 23 30 
 
 21 71 
 
 21 21 
 
 50 
 
 6 59 
 
 18 06 
 
 26 67 
 
 24 48 
 
 22 79 
 
 22 25 
 
 51 
 
 6 94 
 
 18 75 
 
 27 03 
 
 25 74 
 
 23 98 
 
 28 37 
 
 62 
 
 7.31 
 
 14 60 
 
 28 60 
 
 27 09 
 
 26 15 
 
 24 54 
 
 53 
 
 7 72 
 
 15 81 
 
 30 10 
 
 28 56 
 
 26 46 
 
 26 81 
 
 54 
 
 3 17 
 
 16 20 
 
 81 84 
 
 30 16 
 
 27 86 
 
 27 15 
 
 55 
 
 8 66 
 
 17 18 
 
 88 76 
 
 31 90 
 
 29 89 
 
 28 62 
 
 66 
 
 920 
 
 18 25 
 
 35 87 
 
 38 83 
 
 81 06 
 
 30 21 
 
INS 
 
 1066 
 
 INS 
 
 Life insurance 'in tte United States is as yet in its 
 infancy, as far as regards the science, but the practice 
 is rapidly gaining favor with all classes of the com- 
 munity, and the number availing themselves of its 
 benefits in this countrj' are daily increasing. Statis- 
 tics of life and mortality are the foundation upon -which 
 the science of life insurance is erected, and reliable in- 
 formation regarding the relative value of life in dif- 
 ferent climates and at each, age is of the greatest im- 
 portance to a life company, in order to prosecute its 
 business successfully. In Great Britain this'infonna- 
 tion is obtained from two sources, viz., the experience 
 obtaining each year among the companies themselves ; 
 and, secondly, from the reports of th6 registrar-gener- 
 al which are annually made to Parliament. Prom the 
 comparatively small area of the British Isles, and the 
 excellent system of appointments by the government 
 of its scientific men, great advantage is derived. The 
 decennial census of Great Britain is taken in one day, 
 which at once eliminates one of the most fruitful 
 sources of error ; and by having a registrar and corps 
 of assistants in his oflice regularly educated and train- 
 ed, a perfect system is adopted ; and thus we have in 
 their reports a mass of reliable, intereiSting^ and valua- 
 ble information which can nowhere else be obtained. 
 Unfortunately, in the United States' it is difi^erent. 
 From the immense area of territory, embracing every 
 variety of soil, climate, and physical configuration, it 
 would be almost impossible, even if we Jiad as perfect 
 a system of registration as they have in England, to 
 complete the enumeration of the census in a day, or 
 even a few days. 
 
 For the tables of mortality upon which to determine 
 the rates of premium to be charged for assurances 
 upon lives, the American companies are entirely de- 
 pendent upen European observations ; and it is found 
 by tl)e experience of cojnpanies in this countrj', that 
 the rate of mortalitj' in Great Britain will very fairly 
 represent that in the New England and Middle States, 
 But in the Southern States ancl California it is verj' 
 different. We have as yet no sufficient data for the 
 determination of the relative mortality among resi- 
 dents of the different States in the Union ; consequent- 
 ly, when a life company is called upon to insure the 
 life of a person residing in the South or California, a 
 sum is charged, in addition to the regular premium, for 
 the increased risk in those climates, which is entirely 
 arbitrary. Yet it has been shown in th^ report by the 
 actuary of the experience of the Mutual Life Insurance 
 Company of New York for ten j'cars ending Februaiy 
 1, 1853, that the annual mortality among every 10,000 
 persons insured was as follows : 
 
 In the whole company t09 
 
 New England and Middle States 89 
 
 Western States lOT 
 
 Southern States bordering on the Atlaritic 12T 
 
 " " " " Gulf 180 
 
 California 430 
 
 The experience of the company has also been com- 
 puted since 1853, and will be published in 1858, which 
 will include a period of fifteen years in the history of 
 that company. 
 
 The following table is taken from the report of Dr. 
 E. Barton, of New Orleans, to the president of the 
 above company, on the relative mortality from yellow 
 fever of persons from various parts of the world who 
 emigrate to New Orleans. The table is an answer to 
 the question. What is the relative mortality ietween na- 
 tives and strangers, American and European ? 
 
 Reply. — The answer to this must necessarily be two- 
 fold, viz. : 1st, in relation to the acclimated, and, 2d, 
 the unacclimated. Of the first, the following table, 
 with precise details of each nation and people, foreign 
 and domestic, and from different latitudes, was made 
 from the data furnished during the disastrous epidemic 
 of 1853, this having been the most extensive and ma- 
 lignant yellow fever that ever occurred in New Or- 
 
 leansi' This tdble was most carefully and laboriously 
 coinpiled by mj'self, and is,-! believe, the only one 
 madethat can furnish any reply to this most important 
 questionj aiid should be deemed a/fair exponent of the 
 general liabilities, as the greater should embrace the 
 less. ■ ' ■'' 
 
 Table suowing the Life Cbst op Acclimation ob Liabtl- 
 'UTiES TO Yellow Pevee as nERiVED from ott inpluenced 
 
 EY-NATIYITV, PEP- lOOO OP, THE POPULATION.' , '' ,■ ■ 
 Clnss. ;. . , ,; ,,, , Frf^ j, , ,'.- Per.lOOO. 
 
 1, 2. New Orleans and tu^ State pf Louisiana 3 -53 
 
 Southern Slave States. 
 
 3. Arkansas, ^Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, and 
 
 ' 'South Carolina ..;-.■... ..:.;:■ ; 13'22 
 
 'Northern Slnve States. 
 
 4. Tirginia, Maryland, Tennessee, Eentucky i and ' ' 
 
 of this class of States, the largest mol'tality ex- 
 isted among those coming from, Tennessee and i , . - , 
 
 KentucKy . . ' .;.'... .'...'... 1 ' 36-69 
 
 ' S^orthern States. 
 
 5. New York, Vermoiit, Massachusetts, Maine, 
 
 lihode Island, Gonnectieut,'NewiJer3ey, Penn- 
 sylvania, and Delaware, ,,,........ 32'83 
 
 , , ,, ' -Northwestern StateSf.- i ,-.' 
 
 G. Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and Missouri. . •. 44-23 
 
 T. liritishAinerica .', ...; 50-24 
 
 General' average in America ....^.'.i... 20-11 
 
 8.. West Indies, South' America, and Mexico 6-1^ 
 
 9. Great Britain , • ,5219 
 
 10. Ireland..., .,., 204-8? 
 
 North of Europe. 
 
 11. Denmark, Sweden, and PLUSsia. , .' 163-26 
 
 Middle Europe. ' " , 
 
 12. Eussia andGerliiany .' 13^-oi 
 
 Lower Western Europe. 
 
 13. Holland and Edlgium . . . .". 32S-94 
 
 MomUavnous Europe. 
 
 14. Austria and Switzerland 220-OS 
 
 16. jfrance ' 48'13 
 
 16. Spain and Italy..,, ,., 22-06 
 
 General'average from European countries .. . 140-45 
 
 Xhe total liabilities, in, passing through the acclima- 
 ting process in ^ew Orleans, in 1862i, was to their re- 
 spective population, 60-56, 
 
 From this table it w31 appear, Jst, that liabilities to 
 yellow fever exist (i^ relation to America) pretty much 
 in proportion to increase of latitude ; and, 2dly, bj' 
 their .cpld moisture, so diametrically opposite ,jn its ef- 
 fects on the constitution to warm moisture ; an.d, above 
 all, their personal habits of crowding into cheap and 
 filthy, dwellings, and the immigrants being of a low 
 class, and the. predominance of intemperance. The 
 comparatively small mortality occurring in those from 
 Great Britain.arises from the fact of, these immigrants 
 being of a higher class of subjects. 
 
 From these remarks it will be seen that life insur- 
 ance companies in this country must depend in a great 
 measure upon the results of theif own, experience. 
 
 Something, however, has been added to vital statis- 
 tics by, individual States, particularly Massachusetts, 
 New York, Maryland, and Kentucky ; and there is no 
 reason why these individual States, as well as the 
 United States, should not have as complete a system 
 of registration of births, marriages, and deaths, as they 
 now have in Great Britain, and thereby give full and 
 accurate statistics, of the life and mortality of the 
 country. 
 
 The reports of the six life insurance companies of 
 New York, for the year 1857, show that the large sum 
 of $798,000 has been paid to the representatives of pol- 
 icy holders, and that. their aggregate premiums, loss- 
 es, and assets were severally as follow : 
 
 Prom, find Intor. Loflses. AEsets. 
 
 1857 1857. 1857, 
 
 MutualT,ifelDs.,N. Y. ... $1,146,000 $31T,000 $4,488,000 
 
 Mutual Benefit Co 690,000 207,000 2,T43,O00 
 
 N. Y. Life Ins. Co 4T4,000 161,000 1,402,000 
 
 Manhattan Life Ins.Co.... 312,000 5T,000 006,000 
 
 U. S. Life Ins. Co 184,000 58,000 430,000 
 
 KnickerbockerTns. Co 40,000 8,000 
 
 Total $2,846,000 $798,000 $9,669,000 
 
 — See Bankers' Magazine, 1856-57 ; also Jones on 
 Life Annuities; Leose Levi's Com. Law of the World. 
 
INT 
 
 1067 
 
 INT 
 
 Interest is the anaual sum or rate per cent, which 
 the borrower of a capital agrees, or is bound, to pay to 
 the lender for its use. ' " Int^r^.; loyer d'un eapitdl 
 pret^ J ou bien, en termes plus exacts, achat des serv- 
 ices productifs que pent rendre un capital'! (Saji, torn. 
 H.', p. 480, ed. 4me). ' It Was generally supposed, pre^ 
 viously to the middle of the last century, that, in the 
 event of all legislative «nadtments regulating the i rate 
 of interest being repealed, its bicreasei or diminution 
 would wholly depend on the comparative scarcity or 
 ahundance of money; or, ii otherwords, thatitrwoiild 
 rise as money became scarce, and fall as it became 
 more plentiful. But this opinion has been successfully 
 cohtrovetted, first by Mr. Joseph Massie, in a tract pub- 
 lish6d in 1750, entitled *' An Essa^ on the' Governing 
 Causes of the Rate of Interest ;" anfl) second, withhet' 
 ter effeet in Hume's EWay on Interest, in 1752. i And it 
 Has been shown that the rate of interest in. advanced 
 commuilities is not 'determined Ijy the iabuhdance of' 
 the currency, but^by theaverage rate of profit derived 
 from the employment of capital. No doubt it most 
 frequently happens that loans are made in currency; 
 but this is of no conseCfiience; There is obviously no 
 substantial difference between A furnishing B with 
 100 bushels of com, or 100 yards of cloth, to be repaid 
 at the expiration of a specified period by the delivery 
 of iOloi: 105 bushels; of 104"or 105 yards, or with as 
 much money, at 4 or 5 per cent., as would purchase 
 the com or cloth. ' Arid it is easy to perceive that; as 
 crowds of passengers may- be successively conveyed 
 by the same carriage, so the same sum of moaeymay 
 serve to negotiate an' infinity of loans. ' Silppose A 
 lends to X $1000; with which thelatter buys' from B 
 an equivalent' amount of commodities ; that B,' having 
 nouseforthe money, lends it to Y, whopaysitawayfor 
 produce to C, \\'ho again lends it to Z, and sff on. It 
 is plain thst X, Y, Z halve received loans of commodii 
 ties or 'produce from A, B, CWoi'th ^Aree times (and 
 they might have been worth 80 or 300 times) as much 
 as'the mon^y employed 'in settling the ttansaottons. 
 According as 'the' supply of currency, compared with 
 the business it litis to perform, is g reater or less, we 
 give a greater- or less' number 'bf guineas or' livres, 
 notes or asslgnats, for the article we wish to dbtain.- 
 It is not, however,' hjr the fact of the price of such 
 articles bbing high or low, but by the advantage or 
 profit which the borrowers expect to derive from their 
 possession, that the 'interest or compenfeatioli 'to be 
 paid to the lenders for their use is deteimined. It 
 may, perhaps, be Supposed, in the case of goldsmiths 
 and jewelers, that when ■ the quantity of metallic 
 money is increased, thej^will obtain the-raw material 
 of their business with greater facility. Bat this is 
 not always the case ; and' though it were, it would not 
 in-any degree'Affeet the rate of interest. 'No coins are 
 ever sent to the melting-pot unless the currency be' de- 
 graded or depreciated ; that is; "unless it be deficient in 
 weight, or relativelj' redundant in quantity. And it is 
 plain that the inducement to otfer a high or a low rate 
 of interest for loans of money, which it is intended 
 to work up intO' plate or othei- articles, will not depend 
 on the sn'pply of such money, but on the profit to be 
 derived from its conversion into goods — a circumstance 
 wholly unconnected with the scarcity or abundance of 
 coin. 
 
 It therefore appears that, speaking generally, the 
 rate of interest depends on the profit that may be made 
 by employing capital' in industrious undertakings, and 
 not on the price paid for the articles of which it con- 
 sists. The latter are affected bj- every change in the 
 value of money, whereas the former is little, if at all, 
 affected by these changes, and is determined by the 
 productiveness of industry. A low or a high rate of 
 profit is uniformly accompanied by a high or low rate 
 of interest. Money, as every one knows, is cheaper 
 in the United States and in Australia than in En- 
 gland ; hut the ordinary rate of profit being higher, in- 
 
 tenest, despite the lower value of money, is also higher. 
 Extraordinaj^ as it may seem, it is nevertheless true, 
 that during! the, half dozen years ending with 1856, the 
 current I rate of interest in San Francisco, where bullT 
 ion is so very abundant as tp b^. almost a drug, has 
 varied from l-J to 2 and 3 per oent> a month, or from 18 
 to 24 and 3$ per cent, per annum. And thoi^gh it 
 were allowed that from a third to a half of this rate 
 shonldibe yiewed a^iS^ premium tp compensate the- in- 
 security prevalent in California, stiU the residue would 
 amount to three, four, or five times the ordinary rate 
 of interest in England. In further corroboration of 
 these statemeints we may mention^ that the low rate 
 of lim^erejSt. in -Holland during the greater part of the 
 17th and whole of the, 18th oenturj-, w^s not owing to 
 any peculiar abundance or cheapness of- money, but, to 
 theihigh rate-of/ta;xation, and the difficulty of investing 
 oapitaliwith profit. -. And to: this latter, circumstance 
 we owe the low rate of interest in, this country tpward 
 the middle of last) century, and at, several later periods. 
 It is not, in short, by the amount or value of the cur- 
 rencies of different countries, but, by the means which 
 they respectively ehjoyfor the profitable employment 
 of capital or stock, that their profit and interest are 
 governed. - ■ , . . , 
 
 T-hatiftrise of fall in the, value of money can have 
 no direct influence over interest is plain from the. fact 
 of the interest being itself paid in the money th^t has 
 risen -or fallen. But^ et.ithe- same time, a suddpn in- 
 crease in the supply of: money may undoubtedly, have 
 a temporary efifect in depressing interest. Importers 
 of bullion may not be able to lay it iOUt advantageous- 
 ly in purchases,, and may, in consequence, .be disposed 
 to have it.ooinediand lent, though at a low rate. "W^ 
 incline, however, to think that the. influence of cpnsid' 
 orations of this, sort is but inconsiderable. Lenders 
 will not take less for loans than the borrowers are will- 
 ing -to offer, and the. offers of the latteB must be deterr 
 mined . not .merely by the amount of money seeking 
 investments, but partly also, and in . a still greater 
 degree, by the profit that, may , be made' by its em- 
 ploj-menti When there is a rapid influx of money, 
 loans for short periods are usually obtainable at low 
 rates.,. This, however, is' not generally the case with 
 loans for lengthened periods. The lenders are ■will- 
 ing -to- accept a reduced interest .for a short term, 
 till they can! look about for some more profitajble 
 means of investment. But, the interest on loans on 
 mortgages, or for lengthened periods, is always propor- 
 tioned to the rate of profit :at the time ; and, supposing 
 thesecnrity to be uqexceptionable, is but little affect, 
 ed by any thing- else. t_' 
 
 -The- profits made in industrious undertakings are, 
 for, the most part, 'distributed into ^os^and fiett profits. 
 Thus, if from the total returns; whether annual or 
 otherwise, obtained 4n any husiness Or employment, 
 we deduct all sorts of outlays necessarily incurred in 
 carrying it on,- including the wages or remuneration 
 due to the undertakers for their skill and trouble in su- 
 perintending, the business, and a sum to compensate 
 the risks provided against by insurance,, the residue is 
 the Bctt profit: of, or return to, the capital employed. 
 And it is on this latter portion .that interest depends, 
 or rather With which it is usually identical. Lenders 
 having nothing to do.-with the employment of capital, 
 are not entitled to any peculiar advantage that may 
 arise from it. But they are entitled to all that can 
 fairly be considered as the return to the capital they 
 have lent, after the risks, salaries, and necessary emol- 
 uments of those -who undertake its emploj'ment are 
 deducted ; and this much, speaking generally, they 
 will get, and no more. "Whatever ejse may be real- 
 ized by the einployment Of capital in industrial pur- 
 suits belongs to the borrowers, and forms the fund out 
 of which they are remunerated. In coming to^this 
 conclusion, we are supported by the authority of Mr. 
 Tooke. "The rate of interest," says he, "is the 
 
INT 
 
 1068 
 
 INT 
 
 measure of the nett profit on capital. All returns 
 beyond this on the employment of capital are resolv- 
 able into compensations, under distinct heads, for risks, 
 troubles, or sldll, or for advantages of situation or con- 
 nection." (Considerations on the State of the Currency, 
 p. 12.) Whatever, therefore, may at any time occa- 
 sion a sudden glut of money or capital may lower the 
 rate of nett profit and interest. But that very circum- 
 stance, by increasing the demand for capital, will 
 eventually raise the rate to its proper level ; and the 
 glut having disappeared, profits on interest will de- 
 pend on the productiveness of industry''. 
 
 Besides such variations as are proportioned to varia- 
 tions in the ordinary rate of profit, and which equally 
 affect all loans, the rate of interest varies according to 
 the security for the repayment of the principal and the 
 duration of the loan. Hence the powerful influence 
 which the character of the borrower, the purpose for 
 which he borrows, and the nature of the business in 
 which he is engaged, have over interest. Careful, 
 sldllful, and intelligent parties always borrow, cceteris 
 paribus, on lower terms than those of an opposite de- 
 scription. The spendthrift, the idle, and the unsltill- 
 ful, can with difficulty obtain loans on any terras ; and 
 those who deal with them, and stipulate for a high 
 rate of interest to cover their risk, frequently find that 
 their guaranty is inadequate, and that they would 
 have better consulted tlieir own advantage by lending 
 to respectable parties on the usual terms. Tlie nature 
 of the employment in which borrowers are engaged 
 has also, as now stated, a powerful effect in determin- 
 ing the rate of interest. Wherever there is risk, it 
 must be compensated. A sum lent on mortgage over 
 a valuable estate is not exposed to any risk. But a 
 sura lent to a manufacturer or a merchant engaged in 
 a hazardous business, is exposed to a high degree of 
 risk ; and the interest payable on the latter, inasmuch 
 as it must include a premium to compensate tliis extra 
 risk, may be twice or three times as much as that 
 paid on the mortgage. 
 
 We should mistake, however, if we supposed that 
 this circumstance places those who carry on particu- 
 larl}"- hazardous businesses in a comparatively disad- 
 vantageous situation. Competition will not permit, 
 taking everj'^ thing into account, a, greater or a less 
 amount of nett profit to be permanently obtained in one 
 branch of industry than in another. The produce re- 
 alized by those who engage in employments of more 
 than ordinarj"- hazard is generally sold at prices that 
 yield the ordinary rate of profit, with a surplus suf- 
 ficient to guaranty their stock against the extra risk 
 to which it is exposed. Were it otherwise, every body 
 would decline placing their property in a state of com- 
 parative danger, and undertakings of a hazardous na- 
 ture would not be entered into. But it very frequently 
 happens, that the manager of a hazardous branch of 
 industry, pa}'ing from 10 to 12 per cent, for loans, rea- 
 lizes larger nett profits than the purchaser of an estate 
 with money borrowed at 3 or 4 per cent. 
 
 Supposing the security to be equal, capital lent for 
 a fixed and considerable period always fetches a higher 
 rate of interest than that which is lent for short pe- 
 riods, or which may be demanded at the pleasure of 
 the lender. There are but few modes of safely em- 
 ploying loans of which the duration is so uncertain, so 
 that they are frequently worth very little ; and hence 
 the rate of interest is, in the majority of cases, in part 
 at least, detennined by the length of the loan ; for, 
 when that is considerable, it may be productively 
 emplo5'ed in a variety of businesses, in which it would 
 not otherwise be prudent to invest it, at the same time 
 that the borrower has time to prepare for its repay- 
 ment. But this principle has only a slight influence 
 over loans for terms beyond three, or, at most, five 
 years ; for a loan for either of these terms, but espe- 
 cially the latter, may be employed in a great variety of 
 ways, and would bring nearly as much interest as it 
 
 T^ould do were it for 10 or 12 years. It is further 
 
 to be observed, that large classes of borrowers prefer 
 the less interest which they get for advances at short 
 dates to the higher rate which they might get were 
 they for longer terms. Most people wish to have the 
 full command of their capital. Merchants and manu- 
 facturers who lent on mortgage would in so far deprive 
 themselves of the means of extending their business, 
 and of speculating. . And though sometimes, perhaps, 
 this might be for their advantage, yet the flattering 
 opinion which most people entertain of their own 
 sagacity and good fortune, would but seldom permit 
 them to doubt that it was a very serious disadvantage. 
 Hence the low rates at which banking companies who 
 pay the sums deposited with them on demand, and gov- 
 ernments overwhelmed with debt are able to borrow. 
 A stockholder's mortgage, or claim on the revenue of a 
 country, maj- be immediately converted into cash at 
 the current prices. And, however much the majority 
 of the creditors of a deeply indebted countrj'- ma}' be 
 impressed with a conviction of its inability to dis- 
 charge the various claims upon it, each individual, 
 confident in his own good fortune and foresight, flat- 
 ters himself that Ae, at all events, will foresee the com- 
 ing tempest, and be able to sell out before a. public 
 bankruptcy. 
 
 It is evident, from these statements, that in addi- 
 tion to the security for loans and their duration, the 
 rate of interest will, to a considerable extent, depend 
 on the facilities afforded for enforcing or carrying out 
 the stipulations in contracts. And hence a main cause 
 of its reduction as society is more and more improved. 
 Generall}"", it may be said that a speedy, cheap, and 
 effectual process for securing the payment of debts, 
 has a powerful tendency to lower — and a slow, costly, 
 and ineffectual process, to raise — the rate of interest. 
 In most countries, extraordinary means are taken to 
 compel paj'^ment of bills ; and this is a principal cause 
 of the low rate at which they are commonly dis- 
 counted. The easy enforcement of contracts consti- 
 tutes, in truth, an important portion of the securitj- 
 for a debt. By a good security, is not meant a guar- 
 anty that a loan will ultimately, be made good, but 
 that it will be punctually paid when due ; or, if the 
 loan be of a kind that a little delay in its payment is 
 usually given, that that delay will not be exceeded, 
 and that it will be paid within th^ customary terra. 
 A security which should insure the final payment of a 
 debt, but which should not insure its payment when 
 due, or shortly thereafter, is not a good, but a bad secur- 
 ity. It is indispensable to the transacting of business 
 safely, cheaply, and expeditiously, that there should 
 be as little doubt as possible either in regard to the 
 payment of loans or the term when they ar& to be 
 paid. If either of these points be doubtful, the lender 
 will insist on an indemnity for the consequent risk. 
 And it therefore appears that the summary proceed- 
 ings taken to enforce payment of bills, and such like 
 debts, are in truth and reality more for the advantage 
 of the borrowers than of the lenders. They reduce 
 the rate of interest ; and the hardship, such as it is, 
 which they occasionally inflict on the borrower, does not 
 occur in one case out of five hundred ; while their pow- 
 erful influence in depressing interest tells in every case. 
 
 Greece. — In Greece the rate of interest was not regu- 
 lated by law ; and it consequently varied with all the 
 causes of variation above alluded to. Generally, how- 
 ever, it was what we should reckon very high, amount- 
 ing, in most cases, to from 10 to 18 per cent., and 
 upward. This high rate of interest was not occasioned 
 by a high rate of profit, but by the uncertainty of the 
 laws, and the facilities which they afforded to fraudu- 
 lent debtors to defeat the just claims of their creditors. 
 The interest on money lent on bottomry^ or on the 
 security of the ship or cargo, or both, was rated at so 
 mitch per voyage. It therefore depended on the place 
 to which the ship was to sail, the season of the year, 
 
INT 
 
 1069 
 
 INT 
 
 the chance of meeting pirates or enemies' ships, etc. 
 Usually it was extremely great, varying from SO to 
 50 or 60 per cent. The banlcers and money-lenders of 
 Athens, though of low origin, being mostly freedmen 
 or aliens, appear to have been considered as eminently 
 trustworthy, and entitled to the public confidence. 
 But they were, notwithstanding, quite as unpopular, 
 and for no better reasons, as the Jews and Lombards 
 of the middle ages. We are surprised that so learned 
 a writer as Boeckh should have been so imbued with 
 the vulgar prejudice against them as to state that 
 they drew upon themselves " the merited hatred of all 
 classes." He should have known that it has not been 
 the oovetousness of bankers, but that bad laws admin- 
 istered by interested judges, by making loans insecure, 
 and driving parties of the highest respectability from 
 the banking business, have been alone to blame for the 
 exorbitant usury of ancient as well as of modem 
 times. Had contracts been properly enforced, the 
 probability is that interest would have been as low in 
 Greece as in England. — Boeckh's Pvhlic Economy of 
 Athens, vol. i., pp. 164r-191. 
 
 ■Attempts to limit the rate of interest have raised it. — 
 Instead, however, of leaving the rate of interest to be 
 adjusted by the free competition of the parties, on the 
 principles thus briefly explained, or endeavoring to 
 reduce it by facilitating the enforcement of contracts, 
 most governments have interfered, either entirely to 
 prohibit the taking of Interest, or to fix certain rates 
 which might be legally exacted, while any excess 
 over them was declared to be usury, and prohibited 
 under the severest penalties. In the ages in which 
 these enactments had their origin, the precious metals 
 were the onlj' species of money, and were considered 
 quite peculiar. Being used in a double capacity — as 
 standards by which to ascertain the values of differ- 
 ent articles, and as the equivalents for which they 
 were most frequently exchanged — they acquired a 
 factitious importance in the estimation, not merely of 
 the vulgar, but of persons of the greatest discernment. 
 The fact, that to buy and to sell is merely to barter 
 one commodity for another, to exchange a quantity of 
 corn, or cloth, or beef, for a quantity of gold or silver, 
 and vice versa, was entirely overlooked. The atten- 
 tion was graduallj' transferred from the money's worth 
 to the money itself. And the wealth of states and of 
 individuals was not measured by the amount of their 
 disposable produce, or by the quantity' or value of the 
 articles with which they could afford to purchase the 
 precious metals, but by the quantity or value of these 
 metals actually in their possession. For these and 
 other reasons, money has been considered as a mer- 
 chandise par excellence. And we need not, therefore, 
 be surprised at the measures to which the prevalence 
 of such exaggerated opinions almost necessarily led ; 
 or that vigorous efforts should have been made to pro- 
 tect those who were .unprovided with so powerful an 
 instrument from becoming a prey to their more fortu- 
 nate neighbors. Individuals might freely dispose of 
 their corn, cattle, land, etc. But it was supposed that 
 the demand for money might be so great, as to enable 
 the lenders, unless restrained in their exactions, to 
 ruin the borrowers, and engross the whole property of 
 the country. 
 
 Another cause of the prejudice against stipulating 
 for interest grew out of the dislike entertained to ac- 
 cumulation. It is a consequence of economy, or of a 
 saving of income ; and this, in rude ages, is considered 
 indicative of a sordid disposition, and as being posi- 
 tively hurtful. Prodigals and spendthrifts were long, 
 and perhaps still continue to be, the favorites of the 
 public. Before the nature and functions of capital 
 were properly understood, it was believed that it could 
 not be increased without injury to individuals, and 
 that whatever advantage it might give to one party 
 must occasion an equal disadvantage to others. Our 
 ancestors did not know that those who, by their econ- 
 
 omy, accumulate stock, add to their own wealth, with- 
 out diminishing that of any one else ; nor did they 
 know that, when expended, as is almost always the 
 case, in the support of productive industry, this stock 
 affords the means of producing an increased income. 
 But reckoning, as they did, that the savings of indi- 
 viduals were so much withdrawn from income in which 
 the public would otherwise have participated, it was 
 natural enough that they should endeavor to limit the 
 advantage derivable from their employment. 
 
 Much, also, of the prejudice against bargaining for 
 interest, prevalent in the middle ages, may be traced 
 to the authority of certain texts of Scripture, which 
 were understood to prohibit its exaction. It is doubt- 
 ful, however, whether, thej' will really bear that in- 
 terpretation. And supposing that they did, nothing 
 could be more irrational than to regard the municipal 
 regulation of a people placed in such peculiar circum- 
 stances as the Jews, as general and fixed principles, ap- 
 plicable in- all ages and countries. (Michaelis On the 
 Laws of Moses, vol, ii., 386. English translation.) Jt 
 is a remarkable fact that the famous reformer Calvin 
 was one of the first to emancipate himself from the 
 prejudices formerly so prevalent, especially among 
 religious people, against taking interest. He com- 
 ments as follows on the statement of Aristotle, that as 
 money did not produce money, no return could be 
 equitably claimed by the lender : — " Pecunia non parit 
 pecuniam. Quid mare ? quid domus, ex cujus loca- 
 tione pensionem percipio ? An ex tectis et parietibus 
 argentum propria nascitur ? Sed et terrp, producit, et 
 mari advehitur quod pecuniam deindfe prodnoat, et habi- 
 tationis commoditas cum certa peciunia parari commu- 
 tarive solet. Quod si igitur plus ex negotiatione lucri 
 percipi possit, quam ex fundi cujusvis proventu : an 
 feretui: qui fundem sterilem fortassfe colono locaverit 
 ex quo mercedem vel proventum recipiat sibi, qui ex 
 pecunia fructum aliquem perceperit, non feretur ? et 
 qui pecunia fundum acquirit, annon pecunia ilia gen- 
 erat alteram annuam pecuniam ? Unde vero merca- 
 tores lucrum ? Ex ipsius, inquies, diligentia atque 
 industria. Quis dubitet pecuniam vacuam inutilem 
 omnino esse ? neque qui k me mutuam rogat, vacuam 
 apud se habere t me acceptam cogitat. Non erga ex 
 pecunia ilia lucrum accedit, sed ex proventu. Illse 
 igitur rationes subtiles quidem sunt, et speciem quan- 
 dam habent, sed ubi propius expenduntur, seipsa con- 
 cidunt. Nunc igitur conclude judicandum do usuris 
 esse, non ex particular! aliquo Scripturee loco, sed tan- 
 tum ex sequitatis regula." Quoted by Dugald Stew- 
 art in his Notes to his Preliminary Dissertation to the 
 JSncyclopcedia Britannica, 
 
 But, whatever may have led to the efforts so gener- 
 ally made to limit or suppress interest, it is abundant- 
 iy certain that, instead of succeeding in their object, 
 the)' had an opposite effect. If a borrower consider 
 it for his advantage to offer 6, 7, or 8 per cent, for a 
 loan (and otherwise he would not make the offer), why 
 should the legislature prohibit him from offering, and 
 the lender from receiving, more than 3, 4, or 5 per 
 cent. ? An interference of this sort, besides being 
 uncalled for and unnecessary, is in a high degree preju- 
 dicial. Eestrictive laws, instead of reducing, uni- 
 formly raise the rate of interest. They can not be so 
 framed as to prevent borrowers from engaging under- 
 hand, to pay a higher rate of interest than is fixed by 
 statute. And if the lenders had implicit confidence 
 in the secrecy and solvency of the borrowers, they 
 might accommodate them with the sums wanted, with- 
 out requiring any additional interest, because of the 
 illegality of the transaction. But cases of this sort 
 are extremely rare. Gratitude, and a sense of bene- 
 fits received, are but slender securities for honorable 
 conduct. IfumberlesB unforeseen events occur to 
 weaken and dissolve the best cemented friendships ; 
 and a transaction of this kind would afford an addi- 
 tional source of jealousies and divisions. In such 
 
INT 
 
 1070 
 
 INT 
 
 matters, indeed, men are more than usuallj' sharp- 
 sighted, and are little disposed to trust to moral guar- 
 antees for the security of their property: But though 
 neither the threatenings of the law, nor the induce- 
 ments which it held out to dishonest ■ debtors to recede 
 :front the stipulations into which thej" had entered, 
 were able to prevent, or even greatly to lessen, what 
 are termed usurious bargains, thej^" rendered, them 
 more oppressive. They obliged the lenders to demand, 
 and the borrowers to undertake to pay a rate of inter- 
 .est sufficient to yield the current rate of nett 'profit at 
 . the time, with a further sura to balance the ,risfc of'en- 
 tering into what the law made an illegal transaction. 
 This latter sum being, of course, proportioned to the 
 greater or less magnitude of the tisk to be provided 
 against, it increased or diminished' according as the 
 laws, for the prevention of usury were enforced 'or 
 relaxed. Whenever, under the old system, the 'mar- 
 ket rate ' of ! interest rose above the statutory rate, 
 the free transfer of capital was obstructed. Parties 
 could no. longer look 'iherely to their own advantage. 
 And loans which might haive been obtained for 6, 7, or 
 8 per cent., had there been no hazard froth' anti-usuri- 
 ous statutes, were raised, on its account, to- 8,- 10, and 
 12 per cent. It is,' therefore; plain that if the means 
 taken to put doSro usury were not wholly responsible 
 for its existence, they, at all events, added largely to 
 its amount. ' ' - ' ' . 
 
 These conclusions do not rest on 'theory only, but 
 are supported by a wide! and uniform experience.' In 
 £ome, during the republic, the ordinary rate of inter- 
 est was excessively high. The debtors, or plebeians, 
 were every now and then threatening to deprive their 
 creditors, who were generally of the 'patrician order, 
 not only of the interest, but of the principal itself. 
 Repeated instances occurred to show that these were 
 not mere empty threats j and' thfe patricians indemni- 
 iied themselves, by a corresponding premium, for the 
 (iangers to which' they were exposed. '^Des oonti- 
 -nuels,changenients," says Montesquieu, " soit par des 
 loix, soit par des plebiscites, naturaliserent' k Rome 
 I'usure ; car les creanciers, voyant le peuple leur A6- 
 biteur, leur legislateur, et leur 'juge, n'eurent plus 'de 
 conflanoe dans les contrats. Le peuple, comme un Akhi- 
 teur decr6dit6, ne tentoit h lui prater que par des gros 
 profits ; d'autant plus que, si les loix ne venoient que de 
 temps en temps, les plaintes du peuple etoient coiitinu- 
 ellea, et intimidoient toujours les Creanciers. Csla fit 
 que tous les moyens honnfetes de preter et d'emprunter 
 furent abolis k Rome, et qu'une usure affreuse tou- 
 jours foudroy^e; et toujours renaissante, 's'y etablit. 
 Le mal venoient de ce que les choses n'avoient pas 6t6 
 m6nag63. ' Les loix extremes dans le bien font naStre 
 le mal extreme : il fallut payer pour le pret de I'argeiit, 
 et pourle danger des peines de la loi."- — Esprit des 
 Loix, liv. xxii., c. 21. 
 
 In Mohammedan countries, notwithstanding the 
 prohibition in the Koran, the ordinary rate of interest 
 is at least three or four times as great as its ordinary 
 rate in Europe. " L'usure augmente dans les pays 
 Mahometans k proportion de la 86verit6 de la defense : 
 le preteur s'indemnise du p6ril de la contravention." 
 Ibid., liv. xxi., u. 19. During the middle ages, when 
 interest was excessively high, the rate of profit was 
 probably little, if at all higher than at present. But 
 it should be observed that a very great majority of the 
 loans of these ages were but little influenced by its 
 amount. Thej' were not made to be invested, but to 
 be spent. The great barons and other landed proprie- 
 tors were the principal borrowers. And in 19 out of 
 every 20 instances, the sums which they borrowed 
 were expended in the maintenance of crowds of idle 
 retainers, in warfare, or in prodigalities of some sort 
 or other; And while the borrowers belonged gener- 
 ally to what we should now call the spendthrift class, 
 and there were no efficient means of compelling them 
 to abide by their engagements, the lenders were but 
 
 few in number, and mostly! Jews and' Italians, the 6b- 
 
 jects of >the most unreasonable prejudices. ' Undbr 
 such circumstances, it would be folly to suppose that 
 ithe rate of 'interest should; depend in any cbnsiderable 
 degree on. the, rate of profit. , The numbers, position, 
 and character! of the borrowers, compared with the 
 fewness,, position,; and character of the. lenders, ' and 
 the risk to which the i latter were exposed in entering 
 into stich transactions, occasioned the excessively high 
 rate of interest. Of the 50 anid even 100 per cent, 
 which, borrowers then frequently engaged to pay as 
 interest,'U6t more than 10 or 12 per cent, can properly 
 be said' to have been given for the iprbductive services 
 of loansi . The rest must be considered as occasionled 
 partly by the extreme scarcity of disposable capital 
 and thecarelessness of the borrowers, and partly,' and 
 principallj', as a botius to compensate the lenders for 
 • the imminent hazaa-d of dosing. the principal. ' " 
 '■ Englcuid.t — In England,, as in most other countries. 
 Christians ,were, after thei Conq&sstJ absolutely! pro- 
 hibited, both, by the > civil and the: -ecclesiastical 'law, 
 from bargaining for interest. But as Jews, according 
 -tothe Mosaic law (Deuteronomy, chap, xxiii., v. 20), 
 were allowedto lend at an interest to a stranger, its 
 eixactioni by. them was first connived at, arid subse- 
 quently authorized by law. Aiid the same privilege 
 was afterward extended to the, Italian or Lombard 
 merchants. In consequence of this exemption, many 
 Jews early settled in England, and engrossed a large 
 share of the trade of the kingdomi But despite their 
 industry and general good conduct, the prejudices 
 against them, and against the business in which they 
 were mostly engaged, were so very strong that they 
 and'their families were regarded as slaves of the crown, 
 \>y whom they were plundered, to an extent and un- 
 der . pretenses which would now appear incredible. 
 To such an extreme, indeed,, i were these oppressive 
 practices carried, that .a particular pffl«e, called the 
 .exclK(juertiftheJews,<-was established, , for receiving 
 the sums extorted' from them in. fines, customs, tal- 
 lages, forfeitures, etc They were, in, consequence, 
 obliged to charge an enormous rate of interest, or, as 
 Madox expresses it, .'ffo fleece the subjects of the 
 realm as the king fleeced them." (Madox's History 
 of the Exchequer, vol. i., pp. 221-261, 4tOj 1769.) And 
 hence, while Only 'from'7 to 10 and 12 per cent, inter- 
 est was paid in countries where sounder, principles pre- 
 vailed, the rate charged in England was 3, 4, and even 
 5 times, as great; At Verona, in 1228, the interest of 
 money was fixed by law at, 12^ per cent. Toward the 
 end of the 14th ceuturj', ,the republic of Genoa paid 
 only from 7 to. 10 per cent, tor'her creditors; and the 
 average discoutot on good 'bills at Barcelona, in 1435, 
 is stated to have been about 10 per cent. But while 
 interest in Italy and Catalonia, where a considerable 
 degree of freedom was allowed to the parties bargain- 
 ing for a loan, was thus comparatively moderate, it 
 was, despite its total prohibition, incomparably higher 
 in ITrance and England.' Matthew Paris mentions 
 that, in the reign of Henry III., the debtor paid 10 
 per cent, every two months. And this, though impos- 
 sible as a general practice, may not have been very 
 far from the average interest charged on the few loans 
 that were then contracted for. (Hallam's Middle 
 Ages, vol. iii., p. 402.) 
 
 But in the end the disorders occasioned by this ruin- 
 ous system became so obvious, that, notwithstanding 
 the deeply-rooted prejudices to the contrary, a statute 
 was passed in 1546 (37 Hen. Till., cap. 7), legalizing 
 interest to the extent of 10 per cent, per annum ; be- 
 cause, as is recited in the words of the act, the stat- 
 utes "prohibiting interest altogether have so little 
 force, that little or no punishment hath ensued to the 
 ofienders." In the reign of Edward VI., the horror 
 against interest seems to have revived in full force ; 
 for, in 1552, the taking of any was again prohibited, 
 " as a vice most odious and detestable," and " contrary 
 
INT 
 
 1071 
 
 INT 
 
 toithB word of God.'' j But, ia spite of this denujioia^ 
 tion, tlie rate of interest, instead of being reduced, 
 immediately rose to 14 per cent., and continued at 
 this rate until, in 1671, an act was passed (13th Eliz., 
 cap. 8), repealing the act of Edward VI,, and reviv- 
 ing the act of Henry VIII., allowing 10 per cent, in- 
 terest. In the preamble to this act it ij stated, " That 
 the prohibiting act of King Edward VI. had hot done 
 so much good as was hoped (for; but that rather the 
 vice of usury hath much more exceedingly abounded, 
 to the utter undoing' of mamy gentlemen, merchants, 
 occupiers, and others, and to the importable hurt of 
 the commonwealth." This salutary statute was op^ 
 poaed, even by those who should have known better, 
 with all the violence of superstitious fanaticism. Dr. 
 John Wilson, a man famous in his day, and celebrated 
 for the extent of 'Ms learning, informed the House of 
 Commons, 'of which he "was a member, that '' it was 
 not the amount of the interest taken that codstituted 
 the crime -but that all lending for any gain,ibe it ever 
 so little, was wickedness before' God and man, >and a 
 danmable deed in itself, and that there was ho mean 
 inthis vice any more than in murder or theft." ' To 
 quiet the consciences of the bishops, a'dause was in" 
 serted, declaring usury to be forbidden by the law of 
 God, and to be in its nature sin, and detestable. This 
 statute; -was limited tO' a period of five y«ftTs; but, 
 " forasmuch' ds it was, by proof and experience; 'found 
 to be very necessarj- and profitable 'fbr the common- 
 wealth 6f this I'ealm," it was, in 'the same reign, made 
 perpetual (39th Eliz.j cap.' IS).'' • i 
 
 In the 2l8t of' James I., the legal rate of interest 
 waS''reauced to 8 per cent., by an act to continue for 
 seven years only, but which was made perpetual in 
 the succeeding reign (3d Car. I., cap. 4). Durihg the 
 Commonwealth, the legal rate of interest was Seduced 
 to & per cent., a reduction which' was afterward con- 
 firmed by the 12th Car. II. And, finally, in the rdghof 
 QueeB Anne, a statute (12th Anne, cap. 16)" was framed, 
 reducingthe rate of interest to 5' pet cent., at wMch it 
 stood till 1839. In tlie 'preairible to this statute, it is 
 stated that, " w'hereas, the reducing interest to 10, and 
 from thence to 8j and thence to 6, in the 'hundred, hath 
 fromtinie to time,'b5^ expeaience, been found very bene- 
 ficial to the advancement bf trade and the improvement 
 of lands, it is becbmei absolutely necessary to reduce 
 the high rateof' interest of 6 per cent, to a nearer pro- 
 portion to the i'nterest allowed for money in foreign 
 States." ' It was for these reasons enacted, that' all 
 bargains or contracts stipulating for a higher rate of 
 interest than 5 per cent, should be utterly void. And 
 " that all persons Who should after that time receive, 
 bj' means of any corrupt bargain, loan, exchange, 
 chevizance, or interest, of any Wares, merchandise, or 
 ©tlrei^ thing whatever, or' by any deceitful Way or 
 means,- or by any covin, engine, or deceitful convey- 
 ance for the forbearing or giving day of payment, for 
 one whole year, for their ihohey or other thing, above 
 the sum of £5 for £100 for a year,- should forfeit,' fo* 
 every sttch offense, the treik value of the moneys or 
 other things so lent, bargained," etc. 
 
 Scotland and Ireland. — In Scotland previous to the 
 Reformation, no interest could be legally charged. 
 But that great event, by weakening the force, of those 
 religious prejudices which had chiefly dictated the 
 prohibition of interest, led to the >adoption of more 
 liberal opinions on the subject, and to the enact- 
 ment of the statute of 1687 (11th Pari., Jac. VI. cap. 
 62), which legalized interest to the extent of 10 per 
 cent. In 1633 the legal rate was reduced to 8 per 
 cent., and in 1661 to 6 per cent. The statute of Anne, 
 reducing the rate of interest to 5 per cent., extended 
 to both kingdoms. The statutes proMbiting the tak- 
 ing of interest in Ireland were not repealed until 1G35, 
 when the statute 10th Car. I., cap. 22, gave liberty to 
 stipulate for any rate not exceeding 10 per cent. In 
 1704 this rate was reduced to 8 per cent. ; in 1722 it 
 
 was reduced to 7 per cent. ; and in 1732 it was further 
 reduced to 6 percent. 
 
 - France. — In France the rate of interest was fixed 
 at 5 per cent, so early as 1665 ; and this, a few short 
 intervals only excepted; continued to be the legal rate 
 till the Eevolution. Laverdy, in 1766,' reduced it from 
 5 to 4 per cent. Instead, however j of the marliet rate 
 being proportionally deduced, it was raised from 5 to 6 
 per cent. , Previously to the promulgation of the edifcl, 
 loans miglrt have been obtained on good security at 6 
 per cent. ; but an; additional per cent, was ^afterward 
 required to cover .the ; illegality.. This caused the 
 speedy abandonment of the measure."" The. same 
 tiling happened'in Livonia in 1786, when the Empress 
 Catherine reduced intereslfronu 6 to 6 per 'cent.' Hitli* 
 ertO) .says Storch (m loco a'toto), thbse^ho' had good 
 securitj'.tOi offer were able to borrow' at 6 per. cent. ) 
 but thenceforth they had to pay 7 per cent, or n])ward. 
 And such. will be found to beiimfariably the case,' When 
 the legal is less, than the market rate, of interest. 
 
 It has been observed .by Adam. Smith, that the stat- 
 utory regulations, reducing interest in England, were 
 made with great' propriety. Instead of' preceding^ 
 they followed the fall which was gradually taking 
 place in ftheimarftet' rate of . interest, and, therefore, 
 did not contribute, as they would otherwise have 'donSy 
 to raise that whioh they were intended to reduce.. Sir 
 Josiah Child, ■whose treatise, recommending a reduc- 
 tion of interest to 4 percent,, was originally published 
 in 1668,1 states, that the .goldsmiths of London, whq 
 the^ acted as bankers,' could obtain as-much money^as 
 they pleased, upon their serva'nts'' notes only, at 4^ 
 per cent. The siipposed-'insecurity of the revolution- 
 ary establishment, and the- 'novelty of !the practice of 
 funding, 'Occasioned -the payment of a liigh rate of in- 
 terest for a large portion of the sums borrowed by the 
 public in the reigns of William III. and Annej But 
 private persons, of imdoubted' credit, could then bor- 
 row at less than 6 per cent. During the reign of 
 Georgff/II. the market rate of interest fluctuated from 
 3 to 4and44- p'er cent.}: Smith mentions that the in- 
 creased means of -profitably in-vesting capital acquired 
 during 'the.- war, terminated by the peace of Paris in 
 1763, raised the market rate of interest to a level -with 
 the statutory rate, or jJerhslps higher. -But it was not 
 until the subsequent European war that any very ma- 
 terial or general inconvenience was found' to result 
 from.the limitation of "interest to 6 per cent. . 
 
 It is necessary, however, to observe, that this re- 
 mark applies exclusively, to loans negotiated by indi- 
 viduals who could offer unexceptionable security ; for; 
 since the act of 1714, persons engaged in employments 
 of more than ordinary hazard, or whose character for 
 prudence and punctuality did not stand high, or who 
 could only offer inferior security, were unable to bor.> 
 row at 5 per cent., and were consequently compelled 
 to resort to a variety.of schemes for defeating or evad- 
 ing the enactments in- the statute. The most -common 
 device. was the sale of an annuity. - Thusy supposing 
 an individual whose personal credit was indifferent, 
 and who had only the life-rent of an estate to give in 
 security, wished 'to borro"w,ihe sold an annuity to the 
 lender suflicient to pay the interest stipulated for, 
 which, because of the risks and odium 'attending such 
 transactions, was always higher than the market rate, 
 and also to pay the premium necessary to insure pay- 
 ment of the principal at the death of the borrower. 
 It is curious to observe, tlmt though the sale of an ir- 
 
 ■ * Storch, TraiU d^Bconomie Politique^ torn, iii., p. 18T. 
 
 t A second edition, very greatly enlarged, was published 
 in 1690. 
 
 t. On the 18th December, 1762, the 3 per cents, brought the 
 highest price they have hitherto reached, namely, 106| per 
 cent ■ On the 20th of September, 179T, the day on which the 
 failure of Lord Malmeebury'B attempt to negotiate with the 
 French republic transpired, consols fell to 4Tf, being the 
 lowest price at which they have ever been sold. 
 
INT 
 
 1072 
 
 INT 
 
 redeemable life annuity, at a rate exceeding legal in- 
 terest, was not reckoned fraudulent or usurious, yet, 
 80 late as 1743, Lord Hardwicke held that, in their less 
 exceptionable form, or when they were redeemable^ 
 their sale could be looked upon in no other light than 
 as an invasion of the statute of usury, and a loan of 
 money.* But the extreme inexpediency of this dis- 
 tinction soon became obvious, and the law was changed. 
 The great extension of the traffic in annuities, and the 
 advantage of giving as much publicity as possible to 
 such transactions, led to various inquiries and regula- 
 tions respecting them in the early part of the reign of 
 George III. In consequence, the sale of irredeemable 
 annuities became nearly imknown ; and it was ruled, 
 that the sale of a redeemable annuity could not be 
 impeached, though it appeared on the face of the deeds 
 that the lender had secured the principal by effecting 
 an assurance of the borrower's life. 
 
 During the greater part of the French revolutionary 
 war, the usury laws operated to the prejudice of all 
 classes of borrowers. The greater extent and high 
 interest of the public loans, the facility of selling out 
 of the funds, the regularitj'- with which the dividends 
 were paid, and the temptations to speculation arising 
 from the fluctuations in the price of funded property, 
 diverted so large a portion of the floating capital of the 
 country into the coffers of the treasury, that it was 
 next to impossible for private individuals to borrow at 
 the legal rate of interest, except from the trustees of 
 public companies, or through the influence of circum- 
 stances of a very peculiar nature. Hence, the propri- 
 etors of unencumbered freehold estates, of which they 
 had the absolute disposal, were very generally obliged, 
 when they had occasion for loans, to resort to those 
 destructive expedients which had formerly been the 
 resource only of spendthrifts and persons in desperate 
 circumstances. 
 
 Committee on Usury Laws. — The evidence annexed 
 to the ''Report of the Committee of the House of 
 Commons, in 1818, on the Usury Laws," sets their 
 impolicy and pernicious influence in a clear light. Mr. 
 Sugden, now Lord St. Leonard, stated that when the 
 market rate of interest was iibove the legal rate, the 
 landed proprietor was compelled to resort to some shift 
 to evade the usurj' laws. He had *' known annuities 
 granted for three lives, at 10 per cent., upon fee-simple 
 estates, unencumbered, and of great annual value, in 
 a register county. He had also known annuities 
 granted for four lives ; and more would have been 
 added, but for the danger of equity setting aside the 
 transaction on account of the inadequacy of the con- 
 sideration. Latterly, many annuities were granted for 
 a term of years certain, not depending upon lives." 
 On being asked whether, were there not laws limiting 
 the rate of interest, better terms could or could not 
 have been obtained, he answered, " I am decidedly'' of 
 opinion that better terms could have been obtained ; 
 for there is a stigma which attaches to men who lend 
 money upon annuities, that drives all respectable men 
 out of the market. Some leading men did latterly 
 embark in such transactions, but I never knew a man 
 of reputation in ray own profession lend money in 
 such a manner, although we have the best means of 
 ascertaining the safest securities, and of obtaining the 
 best terms." 
 
 "The laws against usury," says Mr. Holland, of 
 the house of Messrs. Baring Brothers and Company, 
 " drive men in distress, or in want of money, to much 
 more disastrous modes of raising it than they would 
 adopt if no usury laws existed. The man in trade, in 
 want of money for an unexpected demand, or disap- 
 pointed in his returns, must fulfill his engagements, or 
 forfeit his credit. He might have borrowed money at 
 6 per cent., but the law allows no one to lend it to 
 
 * '^Condderations on the Rate 0/ Inter eat j" byE.B. Sug- 
 den, Esq., Pamphleteer, vol. viil, p. 2T8. 
 
 him; and he must sell some of the commodity he 
 holds, at a reduced price, in order to meet his engage- 
 ments. For example, he holds sugar which is worth 
 80s. ; but he is compelled to sell it immediately for 
 70s. to the man who will give him cash for it, and thus 
 actuallj'- borrows money at 12^ per cent., which, had 
 the law allowed him, he might have borrowed from a 
 money dealer at 6 per cent. It is known to every 
 merchant that cases of this kind are common occur- 
 rences in every commercial town, and more especially 
 in the metropolis. A man in distress for money pays 
 more interest, owing to the usury laws, than he would 
 if no such laws existed ; because now he is obliged to 
 go to some of the disreputable money-lenders to bor- 
 row, as he knows the respectable money-lender will 
 not break the laws of his country. The disreputable 
 money-lender knows that he has the ordinary risk of 
 his debtor to incur in lending his money, and he has 
 further to encounter the penalty of the law, for both 
 of which risks the borrower must pay. If no usur}' 
 laws existed, in common cases, and where a person is 
 respectable, he might obtain a loan from the respecta- 
 ble monej'^-lender, who would then only have to calcu- 
 late his ordinary risk, and the compensation for the use 
 of his money." 
 
 The committee admitted the force of this evidence 
 by agreeing to the following resolutions: "1st. That 
 it is the opinion of this committee, that the laws regu- 
 lating or restraining the rate of interest have been ex- 
 tensively evaded, and have failed of the effect of im- 
 posing a maximum on such rate; and that, of late 
 years, from the constant excess of the market rate of 
 interest above the rate limited by law, they have 
 added to the expense incurred by borrowers on real 
 security, and that such borrowers have been compelled 
 to resort to the mode of granting annuities on lives ; a 
 mode which has been made a cover for obtaining a 
 higher rate of interest than the rate limited by law, 
 and has further subjected the borrowers to enormous 
 charges, or forced them to make verj' disadvantageous 
 sales of their estates. 2d. That it is the opinion of 
 this committee, that the construction of such laws, as 
 applicable to the transactions of commerce as at pres- 
 ent carried on, have been attended with much uncer- 
 tainty as to the legality of many transactions of 
 frequent occurrence, and consequently been product- 
 ive of much embarrassment and litigation. 3d. That 
 it is the opinion of this committee, that the present 
 period, when the market rate of interest is below the 
 legal rate, affords an opportunity peculiarly favorable 
 for the repeal of the said laws." 
 
 In spite, however, of the recommendation of the 
 committee, and the cogent evidence on which it was 
 founded, the popular prejudice continued so strong, 
 that it was not till 1839 that a statute was passed, the 
 2d and 3 Vict., cap. 37, which exempted all bills of ex- 
 change and promissory notes, not having more than 
 twelve months to run, and all contracts for sums above 
 £10 from the operation of the usury laws. It was 
 supposed, or at all events argued, that the repeal of 
 the usury laws would tempt such individuals as had 
 money to lend, to indulge in those mean and discred- 
 itable practices which characterize the lowest class 
 of money-dealers. But it was more reasonably con- 
 tended, that in the event of the rate of interest being 
 left to be adjusted by the free competition of the par- 
 ties, there would be little employment for inferior 
 dealers. Except when the market rate of interest was 
 below the legal rate, the usury laws prevented all per- 
 sons, whose credit was not extremely good, from ob- 
 taining loans from capitalists of the highest character, 
 and forced them to have recourse to those who were 
 less scrupulous. Supposing the market rate of inter- 
 est to be 6 or 7 per cent., an individual in ordinarily 
 good credit may, now that the usurj' laws are abol- 
 ished, easil}^ obtain a loan at that rate. But when the 
 law declared that no more than 5 per cent, should be 
 
INT 
 
 1073 
 
 INT 
 
 taken, and, consequently, affixed a species of stigma to 
 those lenders who bargained for a higher rate, the rich 
 and more respectable capitalists being excluded from 
 the market, borrowers were obliged to resort to those 
 of an inferior character, who, in addition to the pre- 
 mium for the risk of entering into an illegal transac- 
 tion, received an indemnification for the oiwm which, 
 in such cases, always attaches to the lender. It is idle 
 to attempt to secure individuals against the risk of im- 
 position in pecuniary more than in any other species 
 of transactions. And, although the object had been 
 desirable, it could not be obtained by such inadeqiiate 
 means. The usury laws generated the very mischief 
 they were intended to suppress. Instead of diminish- 
 ing, they multiplied usurious transactions, and aggra- 
 vated the evils they were designed to mitigate or 
 remove. 
 
 Nothing can be more unreasonable than the clamor 
 against money-lenders, because of their exacting a 
 comparatively high rate of interest from prodigals and 
 spendthrifts. This is the most proper and efficient 
 check that can be put upon extravagance. Supposing 
 the security of a prodigal and an industrious man to be 
 nearly equal, and this is but seldom the case, the cap- 
 italist who lends to the latter in preference to the 
 former, confers a service on the community. He pre- 
 vents those funds which ought to be employed in sup- 
 porting useful labor, and in adding to the public 
 wealth, from being wasted in frivolous or pernicious 
 pursuits. 
 
 But perhaps it will be said that this is mistaking the 
 object of the usury laws ; that they were not intended 
 to force capitalists to lend to spendthrifts on the same 
 terms as to industrious persons, but to protect the 
 prodigal and unwary from the extortion of usurers, by 
 making any stipulation between them for more than a 
 given rate of interest null and void. But why all this 
 solicitude about the least valuable class of society? 
 Why fetter the circulation of capital among those who 
 would turn it to the best account, lest any portion of 
 it chance to fall into the hands of those who would 
 squander it away ? If the prevention of prodigality 
 ,be of sufficient importance to justify the interference 
 of the legislature, prodigals should be put under an in- 
 terdict ; for this is the only way in which it is possible 
 to restrict them. It is not by borrowing money at 
 high interest, but by contracting debts to dealers, on 
 whose charge there is no check, that spendthrifts run 
 through their fortunes. Bentham has justlj' observed, 
 that so long as a man is looked upon as one who will 
 pay, he can much more easily get the goods he wants 
 than the money to buy them with, though he were 
 content to give for it twice or three times the ordinary 
 rate of interest. How contradictory, then, to permit 
 prodigals to borrow (for it was really borrowing) the 
 largest supplies of food, clothes, etc., at 20, 30, or even 
 100 per cent, interest, at the same time that we pro- 
 hibited them, and everj' one else, from borrowing 
 money at more than 5 per cent. ? Instead of being of 
 any service, this restriction was evidently injurious to 
 the prodigal. It narrowed his choice, and drove him 
 to a market where no disgrace is attached to the ex- 
 action of the most exorbitant interest, and where he 
 could scarcely escape being ruined. 
 
 The outcry which is sometimes raised against capi- 
 talists for taking advantage of the necessities of indus- 
 trious individuals, is seldom much better founded than 
 that which is raised against them for talung advantage 
 of the prodigal or simple. Parties borrow according 
 to their character for sobriety, and punctuality in 
 meeting their engagements, and according to the pre- 
 sumed state of their affairs at the time. To say that 
 a capitalist takes advantage of the necessities of indi- 
 viduals, is, in most cases, equivalent to saying that he 
 refuses to lend to persons in suspicious or necessitous 
 circumstances on the same terms he would do were 
 they in good credit, or were there no doubt of their 
 Ytt 
 
 solvency. And were he to act otherwise, would he be 
 considered fit to he intrusted with the management ol 
 his affairs ? 
 
 But, as already seen, whatever may be the extortion 
 of lenders, the usury laws did not check it. On the 
 contrarj-, they compelled the borrowers to pay, over 
 and above the common rate of interest, a premium to 
 indemnify the lenders for the risks incurred in break- 
 ing them. They attempted to remedy what was not 
 an evil, and what, consequently, should not have been 
 interfered with ; and in doing this, they necessarily 
 created » real grievance. The wisdom of an act of 
 Parliament which should compel the underwriters to 
 insure a gunpowder magazine and a salt warehouse on 
 the same terms, would not he very evident. Yet it 
 would not be more absurd than to enact that the same 
 rate of interest shall he charged on capital lent on 
 good, on indifferent, and on bad securities. " It is in 
 vain, therefore," to use the words of Locke, "to go 
 about effectually to reduce the price of interest by law, 
 and you may as rationally hope to set a fixed rate 
 upon the hire of houses or ships, as of money. He 
 that wants a vessel rather than lose his market, will 
 not stick to have it at the market rate, and find means 
 to do it with security to the owner, though the rate 
 were limited by law ; and he that wants money, 
 rather than lose his voyage or his trade, will pay the 
 natural interest for it, and submit to such ways of con- 
 veyance as shall keep the lender out of reach of the 
 law." (" Considerations of the lowering of interest 
 and raising the value of money, 1691," works, vol. ii., 
 p. 7, 4to, 1777.) The case of Holland famishes a 
 striking proof of the correctness of the theory we have 
 been endeavoring to establish. The rate of interest 
 has been, for a very long period, lower in Holland 
 than anywhere else in Europe ; and yet it is the only 
 country in which usury laws have been altogether un- 
 known, where capitalists are allowed to demand, and 
 borrowers to pay, any rate of interest. Strictly speak- 
 ing, this applies only to the state of Holland previously 
 to the revolution in 1795. The enactments of the Code 
 Napoleon were subsequently introduced; but it ap- 
 pears, from the report of the Parliamentary Commit- 
 tee on the usury laws, that they have not been acted 
 upon. Notwithstan^ug all the violent changes of the 
 government, and the extraordinary disturbance of her 
 financial concerns since 1790, the rate of interest in 
 Holland has continued comparatively steady. Dar- 
 ing the whole of that period, persons who could offer 
 unexceptionable security have been able to borrow at 
 from 2 to 5J per cent. ; nor has the average rate of in- 
 terest charged on capital advanced on the worst spe- 
 cies of security ever exceeded 6 or 7 per cent., except 
 when the government was negotiating a forced loan. 
 But, in this country, where the law declared that no 
 more than 5 per cent, should be taken, the rate of in- 
 terest for money advanced on the best landed security 
 varied, in the same period, from 6 to 16 or 17 per cent., 
 or above ^zje times as much as in Holland. 
 
 In France the usury laws were abolished at the Eevo- 
 Intion ; and it is stated that their abolition was not at- 
 tended by any rise of interest. — Stokch, Economie 
 Politique, tom. iii., p. 187. According to the Code Na- 
 poleon, only 6 per cent, is allowed to be charged on 
 commercial loans, and 5 per cent, on those made 
 on the security of real property. There is, how- 
 ever, no difficulty in evading the law. This is usu- 
 allj' done by giving a bonus before completing the 
 transaotioUj or, which is the same thing, by framing 
 the obligation for the debt for a larger sum than is 
 really advanced by the lender. None of the parties 
 particularly interested can be called to swear to the 
 fact of such bonus being given ; so that the transaction 
 is unimpeachable, unless a. third party, privy to the 
 settlement of the affair, be produced as a witness. — E.B. 
 The reader is referred to M'Culloch's Essay on Inter- 
 est and Exchanrje, pub. in Bankers' Mag., New York. 
 
INT 
 
 10'74 
 
 INT 
 
 TABLES OP INTEEEST AND ANNUITIES. 
 I — Table bhotino the Amount or $1 impkoved at Compound Intehest, at 8, 4, 4i, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10 pee Cent., 
 
 AT THE end of EVERY YEAE FEOM 1 TO 85. 
 
 YOTE. 
 
 S per cent. 
 
 4 per cent. 
 
 4 1-2 per cent. 
 
 6 per cent. 
 
 6 per cent. 
 
 7 per cent. 
 
 8 per cent. 
 
 9 per cent. 
 
 10 per cent. 
 
 1 
 
 1-030000 
 
 1-040000 
 
 1-04B0O0 ' 
 
 1-050000 
 
 1-060000 
 
 1-070000 
 
 1-080000 
 
 1-090000 
 
 1-100000 
 
 2 
 
 1-060900 
 
 1-081600 
 
 1-092035 
 
 1-102600 
 
 1.128600 
 
 1-144900 
 
 1-166400 
 
 1-188100 
 
 1-210000 
 
 8 
 
 1-092727 
 
 1-124864 
 
 1-141166 
 
 1-167626 
 
 1-191016 
 
 1-226048 
 
 1-259712 
 
 1-298029 
 
 1-331000 
 
 4 
 
 1-125508 
 
 1169868 
 
 1192818 
 
 1-218506 
 
 1-262476 
 
 1-310796 
 
 1-860488 
 
 1-411581 
 
 1-464100 
 
 6 
 
 1-189274 
 
 1-216652 
 
 1-246181 
 
 1-276281 
 
 1-838225 
 
 1-402881 
 
 1-469328 
 
 1-5-38623 
 
 1-610510 
 
 6 
 
 1-194062 
 
 1-265319 
 
 1-802260 
 
 1-340095 
 
 1-418619 
 
 1-600780 
 
 1-536874 
 
 1-677100 
 
 1-771661 
 
 7 
 
 1229878 
 
 1-816931 
 
 ,1-360861 
 
 1 -407100 
 
 1.603680 
 
 1-605781 
 
 1-713824 
 
 1-828039 
 
 1-948717 
 
 8 
 
 1-266770 
 
 , 1-368569 
 
 1-422100 
 
 1-477486 
 
 1.898848 
 
 1718186 
 
 1-860930 
 
 1-992862 
 
 2-143833 
 
 9 
 
 1-804773 
 
 1-428311 
 
 1-486096 
 
 1-661828 
 
 1-639478 
 
 1-888459 
 
 1-999004 
 
 2-171893 
 
 2-887947 
 
 10 
 
 1-843916 
 
 1-4S0244 
 
 1-682969 
 
 1-628894 
 
 1-790847 
 
 1-967151 
 
 2-168935 
 
 2-867863 
 
 2-593742 
 
 11 
 
 1-884233 
 
 1-589464 
 
 1-622863 
 
 1-710339 
 
 1-398298 
 
 2-104851 
 
 2-331689 
 
 2-68(1426 
 
 2-853116 
 
 12 
 
 1-426760 
 
 1-601032 
 
 1-695881 
 
 1-795856 
 
 2-012196 
 
 2-252191 
 
 2-518170 
 
 2-812664 
 
 3-183428 
 
 18 
 
 1-468583 
 
 1-666078 
 
 1-772196 
 
 1-885649 
 
 2-182928 
 
 2-409846 
 
 2-719623 
 
 8-066804 
 
 3-462371 
 
 14 
 
 1-612589 
 
 1-731676 
 
 1-851944 
 
 1-979981 
 
 2-260903 
 
 2-578584 
 
 2-937198 
 
 8-341727 
 
 3-797498 
 
 15 
 
 1-657967 
 
 1-800943 
 
 1-938282 
 
 2-078928 
 
 2-396558 
 
 2-759031 
 
 8-172169 
 
 8-642482 
 
 4-177248 
 
 16 
 
 1-604706 
 
 1-872981 
 
 2-022870 
 
 2-182874 
 
 2-840851 
 
 2-952163 
 
 8-426942 
 
 3-970306 
 
 4-594972 
 
 17 
 
 1-662847 
 
 1-947900 
 
 2-113376 
 
 2-292018 
 
 2-692772 
 
 8188316 
 
 3-700018 
 
 4-327633 
 
 5-054470 
 
 18 
 
 1 ■702433 
 
 2-1125816 
 
 2-208478 
 
 2-406619 
 
 2-864339 
 
 8-879932 
 
 3-996019 
 
 4-717120 
 
 5-659917 
 
 19 
 
 1-768506 
 
 2-106849 
 
 2-80T860 
 
 2-526950 
 
 8-028899 
 
 3-616627 
 
 4-816701 
 
 6-141661 
 
 6-116909 
 
 20 
 
 1-806111 
 
 2-191123 
 
 2-411714 
 
 2-653297 
 
 8-307185 
 
 8-869684 
 
 4-660967 
 
 6-604410 
 
 6-727499 
 
 21 
 
 1-860294 
 
 2-278768 
 
 2-820241 
 
 2785962 
 
 8-899563 
 
 4-140562 
 
 6-033838 
 
 6-103807 
 
 7-400249 
 
 22 
 
 1-916108 
 
 2-369918 
 
 2-688662 
 
 2-926260 
 
 8-608537 
 
 4-480401 
 
 5-436540 
 
 6-653600 
 
 8-140274 
 
 23 
 
 1-973586 
 
 2-464716 
 
 2-762166 
 
 8-071523 
 
 3-819749 
 
 4-740639 
 
 5-871463 
 
 7-257874 
 
 8-964802 
 
 24 
 
 2-082794 
 
 2-563304 
 
 2-876018 
 
 8-226099 
 
 4-0489.34 
 
 6072866 
 
 6-341180 
 
 7-911088 
 
 9-849733 
 
 25 
 
 2-098777 
 
 2-665836 
 
 30054.34 
 
 3-386.354 
 
 4-291870 
 
 5-427482 
 
 6-848475 
 
 8-628080 
 
 10-884708 
 
 26 
 
 2-166591 
 
 2-772469 
 
 8140679 
 
 3-668672 
 
 4-649382 
 
 5-807352 
 
 7-396388 
 
 9-399187 
 
 11-918176 
 
 27 
 
 2-221289 
 
 2-883368 
 
 8-282009 
 
 8-783456 
 
 4-822846 
 
 6-218867 
 
 7-988061 
 
 10-245083 
 
 13-109994 
 
 28 
 
 2-287927 
 
 2-998703 
 
 8-429699 
 
 3-920129 
 
 6-111686 
 
 6-648888 
 
 8-627106 
 
 11-167139 
 
 14-420993 
 
 29 
 
 2-856565 
 
 8-118661 
 
 8-584086 
 
 4-116185 
 
 5-418387 
 
 7-114257 
 
 9-817274 
 
 13-172132 
 
 15-863092 
 
 80 
 
 2-42T262 
 
 3-248397 
 
 8-746818 
 
 4-321942 
 
 6-748491 
 
 7-612265 
 
 10-062666 
 
 13-367678 
 
 17-449402 
 
 81 
 
 2-500000 
 
 3-378188 
 
 3-918867 
 
 4-53S039 
 
 6-088100 
 
 8-145112 
 
 10-867669 
 
 14-461769 
 
 19-194842 
 
 32 
 
 2-676082 
 
 3-508068 
 
 4-089981 
 
 4-764941 
 
 6-458886 
 
 8-718270 
 
 11-787083 
 
 16-763328 
 
 21-118776 
 
 33 
 
 2-652886 
 
 3-643381 
 
 4-274030 
 
 5-008188 
 
 6-840589 
 
 9-835889 
 
 13-67-6049 
 
 17-182028 
 
 28-228164 
 
 84 
 
 2-781906 
 
 8-794816 
 
 4-466361 
 
 6-258847 
 
 7-251025 
 
 9-978113 
 
 13-690138 
 
 18-728410 
 
 26,547669 
 
 86 
 
 2-813862 
 
 8-946088 
 
 4-667847 
 
 6-616015 
 
 7.636086 
 
 10-676581 
 
 14-785344 
 
 20-413967 
 
 28-102436 
 
 86 
 
 2-898278 
 
 4-103932 
 
 4-877878 
 
 5-791816 
 
 3-147252 
 
 11-428942 
 
 18-963171 
 
 22-251226 
 
 80-912680 
 
 87 
 
 8-985226 
 
 4-268089 
 
 5-096860 
 
 6-081406 
 
 8-636087 
 
 12-223618 
 
 17-245625 
 
 24-283886 
 
 84008948 
 
 88 
 
 8-074783 
 
 4-488818 
 
 5-336219 
 
 6-385477 
 
 9-184282 
 
 13-079271 
 
 18-625276 
 
 26-436680 
 
 37-404343 
 
 89 
 
 3-167026 
 
 4-616865 
 
 6-568399 
 
 6-704761 
 
 9-703607 
 
 18-994820 
 
 20-115297 
 
 28-816981 
 
 41-144777 
 
 40 
 
 3-262087 
 
 4-801020 
 
 5-816864 
 
 7-089988 
 
 10-285717 
 
 14-974457 
 
 21-724521 
 
 81-409420 
 
 48-269265 
 
 41 
 
 8-.369898 
 
 4-993061 
 
 6-078100 
 
 7-391983 
 
 10-902361 
 
 16-023669 
 
 23-462433 
 
 84-236267 
 
 49-785181 
 
 42 
 
 3-460695 
 
 5-192783 
 
 6-351616 
 
 7-761687 
 
 11-567032 
 
 17-144266 
 
 25-339481 
 
 37-3176.31 
 
 84-768699 
 
 43 
 
 S-664616 
 
 5-400496 
 
 6-687488 
 
 8-149666 
 
 12-230464 
 
 18-844354 
 
 27-866640 
 
 40-676109 
 
 60-240069 
 
 44 
 
 3-671462 
 
 5-616515 
 
 6-986122 
 
 8-164150 
 
 12-935481 
 
 19-638469 
 
 29-555971 
 
 44-386959 
 
 66-264076 
 
 46 
 
 8-781695 
 
 6-841176 
 
 7-248248 
 
 8-935007 
 
 13-764610 
 
 21-002451 
 
 81-9-.J0449 
 
 48-327286 
 
 72-890483 
 
 46 
 
 3-896048 
 
 6-074822 
 
 7-574419 
 
 9-434253 
 
 14-590487 
 
 22-472628 
 
 84-474085 
 
 62-676741 
 
 80-179682 
 
 47 
 
 4-011895 
 
 6-817816 
 
 7-916268 
 
 9-905971 
 
 16-465916 
 
 24046707 
 
 37-282012 
 
 67-417648 
 
 88-197486 
 
 48 
 
 4-182261 
 
 6-670528 
 
 8-271465 
 
 10-401269 
 
 16-398871 
 
 25-723906 
 
 40-210678 
 
 62-586237 
 
 97-017283 
 
 49 
 
 4-256219 
 
 6-838349 
 
 3-643671 
 
 10-921338 
 
 17-377604 
 
 27-529939 
 
 48-427418 
 
 68-217908 
 
 106-718987 
 
 60 
 
 4-383906 
 
 7-106688 
 
 9-032636 
 
 10-467399 
 
 13-420164 
 
 29-457026 
 
 46-901612 
 
 74-367520 
 
 117-390862 
 
 51 
 
 4-515428 
 
 7-390950 
 
 9-489104 
 
 12-040769 
 
 19-625363 
 
 81-519016 
 
 60-668741 
 
 81-049696 
 
 129-129938 
 
 62 
 
 4-680885 
 
 7-686688 
 
 9-868864 
 
 12-642808 
 
 20-696886 
 
 83-726347 
 
 64-706040 
 
 88-344169 
 
 142-042931 
 
 53 
 
 4-790412 
 
 7-994082 
 
 10-807738 
 
 18-274948 
 
 21-988698 
 
 36-086122 
 
 69-082624 
 
 96-298144 
 
 156-247225 
 
 54 
 
 4 934124 
 
 8-818814 
 
 10-771586 
 
 13-933696 
 
 23-285020 
 
 33-612160 
 
 68-809126 
 
 104-961707 
 
 171-871947 
 
 56 
 
 5-0S214S 
 
 8-646366 
 
 11-266308 
 
 14-635630 
 
 24-680321 
 
 41-316001 
 
 68-913866 
 
 114-408261 
 
 189-069142 
 
 56 
 
 6-284613 
 
 8-992321 
 
 11-762842 
 
 16-867412 
 
 26-129340 
 
 44-207061 
 
 74-426964 
 
 124-706005 
 
 207-966036 
 
 57 
 
 5-391651 
 
 9-861910 
 
 12-392169 
 
 16-138783 
 
 27-697101 
 
 47-301648 
 
 80-881121 
 
 136-928455 
 
 228-761502 
 
 58 
 
 5-653400 
 
 9-T26936 
 
 12-848317 
 
 16-942572 
 
 29-853927 
 
 60-612663 
 
 86-811611 
 
 148-162016 
 
 251-637718 
 
 59 
 
 5-T20003 
 
 10-115026 
 
 18-428356 
 
 17-789700 
 
 81-120463 
 
 64-155539 
 
 98-756540 
 
 161-496593 
 
 276801490 
 
 60 
 
 5-891603 
 
 10-519627 
 
 14-037407 
 
 18-679185 
 
 82-987690 
 
 67-946426 
 
 101-257063 
 
 176-031291 
 
 304-481689 
 
 61 
 
 6-068S81 
 
 10-940412 
 
 14-653641 
 
 19-613146 
 
 84-966982 
 
 62-002676 
 
 109-357628 
 
 191-874108 
 
 884-939803 
 
 62 
 
 6-230401 
 
 11-378029 
 
 16-318280 
 
 20-693302 
 
 37-064969 
 
 66-842864 
 
 118-106289 
 
 209-142777 
 
 368-422788 
 
 63 
 
 6-437918 
 
 11-833180 
 
 16-007602 
 
 21-628492 
 
 89-288867 
 
 70-986864 
 
 137-664788 
 
 227-965628 
 
 405-265062 
 
 64 
 
 6-631061 
 
 12-806476 
 
 16-727944 
 
 22-704667 
 
 41-646199 
 
 76-965945 
 
 137-759117 
 
 248-482584 
 
 445-791668 
 
 65 
 
 6-829982 
 
 12-798736 
 
 17-480702 
 
 23-889900 
 
 44-144971 
 
 81-272861 
 
 148-779846 
 
 270-845962 
 
 490-370725 
 
 66 
 
 7084882 
 
 18-310684 
 
 18-267834 
 
 35-031898 
 
 46-798669 
 
 86-961961 
 
 160-682234 
 
 296-233099 
 
 639-407797 
 
 67. 
 
 7-246928 
 
 13-843112 
 
 19-039364 
 
 26-238490 
 
 49-601290 
 
 93-049398 
 
 173-536818 
 
 321-792088 
 
 593-348677 
 
 68 
 
 7-463306 
 
 14-896836 
 
 19-943385 
 
 27-597664 
 
 62-677867 
 
 99663749 
 
 187-419758 
 
 850-758376 
 
 652-638435 
 
 69 
 
 7-687205 
 
 14-972709 
 
 20-346062 
 
 28-977648 
 
 56-782009 
 
 106-532142 
 
 202-413338 
 
 332-821179 
 
 717-951778 
 
 70 
 
 7-917821 
 
 16;671618 
 
 21-784185 
 
 30-426425 
 
 69-078930 
 
 113-989392 
 
 218-606406 
 
 410-780086 
 
 789-746956 
 
 71 
 
 8-155866 
 
 16-194488 
 
 22-764421 
 
 31-947746 
 
 62-620485 
 
 121-968649 
 
 236094918 
 
 464-235793 
 
 868731652 
 
 72 
 
 8-400017 
 
 16-842262 
 
 28-783320 
 
 88-646184 
 
 66-377716 
 
 130-506468 
 
 264-982511 
 
 495-117016 
 
 965-693817 
 
 73 
 
 8-652017 
 
 17-516952 
 
 24-869817 
 
 38 -223390 
 
 70-360378 
 
 139-641906 
 
 275-331112 
 
 539-677646 
 
 1,061163199 
 
 74 
 
 8-911678 
 
 18-216691 
 
 26-977986 
 
 86-938810 
 
 74-582000 
 
 149-416840 
 
 297-411601 
 
 688-243625 
 
 1,156-268619 
 
 75 
 
 9-178926 
 
 18-946264 
 
 27-146996 
 
 88-832688 
 
 79-056920 
 
 169-876019 
 
 821-204529 
 
 641190893 
 
 1.271-896371 
 
 76 
 
 9-464293 
 
 19-rOS064 
 
 28-363611 
 
 40-774320 
 
 83-800336 
 
 171-067840 
 
 846-900892 
 
 693-898073 
 
 1,399-084908 
 
 77 
 
 9-787922 
 
 20-491187 
 
 29-646198 
 
 42-813036 
 
 88-338856 
 
 183-042064 
 
 374-652968 
 
 761-798900 
 
 1,583-998899 
 
 78 
 
 10-080059 
 
 21-310834 
 
 30-979282 
 
 44-98S638 
 
 94-168067 
 
 195-854998 
 
 404-626300 
 
 330-360801 
 
 1,692-893739 
 
 79 
 
 10-880961 
 
 22-168268 
 
 32-87.3293 
 
 47-201872 
 
 99-807541 
 
 209-564848 
 
 436-996216 
 
 905098278 
 
 1,862-183013 
 
 80 
 
 10-640890 
 
 23-049799 
 
 88-830096 
 
 49-561441 
 
 106-795998 
 
 224-284387 
 
 471-964334 
 
 936 -651668 
 
 2,048-400314 
 
 8) 
 
 10-960117 
 
 23-971791 
 
 35-363460 
 
 52-039518 
 
 113-148753 
 
 239-930794 
 
 509-711321 
 
 1,076-341313 
 
 2,253-240286 
 
 82 
 
 11-288920 
 
 24-980662 
 
 36-948311 
 
 54-041438 
 
 118-872878 
 
 256-726960 
 
 550-488118 
 
 1,172122086 
 
 2,478-564259 
 
 88 
 
 11-62T8S8 
 
 25-927889 
 
 88-606760 
 
 67-378668 
 
 126-004720 
 
 274-096766 
 
 694-627168 
 
 1,277-613020 
 
 2,726-420686 
 
 84 
 
 11-976416 
 
 26-968004 
 
 40-34.3019 
 
 60-242241 
 
 188-56.8004 
 
 293-928540 
 
 643-089341 
 
 1,892-598192 
 
 2,999-062764 
 
 86 
 
 12-888708 
 
 28-048604 
 
 42-158465 
 
 68-264383 
 
 141-673904 
 
 314-500328 
 
 693-456488 
 
 1,517-932029 
 
 3,298-969029 
 
nTT 
 
 1075 
 
 INT 
 
 TABLES OP INTEREST AND ANNUITIES. 
 
 II.— Table showing the Pkesent Value of $1 beoeitable at the eitd op ant given Teae fbom 1 to 85, beck- 
 oning Compound Ihtebest, at 8, 4, H, 6, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10 peb Cent. 
 
 Yonrn. 
 
 8 per cent. 
 
 4 per cenl. 
 
 4 1-2 per cent. 
 
 6 per cent. 
 
 6 per cent. 
 
 1 per cent. 
 
 8 per cent. 
 
 9 per cent. 
 
 10 per cent. 
 
 1 
 
 •970878 
 
 •961588 
 
 •956937 
 
 •962880 
 
 '948896 
 
 ■984679 
 
 •925925 
 
 •917481 
 
 •909090 
 
 2 
 
 ■942695 
 
 •924656 
 
 •915729 
 
 •907029 
 
 ■889996 
 
 ■873483 
 
 •867888 
 
 ■841679 
 
 •826446 
 
 8 
 
 ■916141 
 
 •838996 
 
 •876296, 
 
 •868387 
 
 '839619 
 
 •816297 
 
 •793882 
 
 •772188 
 
 •751814 
 
 4 
 
 ■888487 
 
 •854804 
 
 •888561 
 
 •822702 
 
 •792098 
 
 •762895 
 
 •735029 
 
 •708425 
 
 •688018 
 
 6 
 
 •862608 
 
 •821927 
 
 •802461 
 
 •783626 
 
 •747268 
 
 •712986 
 
 •680588 
 
 •649981 
 
 ■620921 
 
 6 
 
 •887484 
 
 •790314 
 
 •767895 
 
 •746215 
 
 ■704960 
 
 •666842 
 
 •630169 
 
 •696267 
 
 •664478 
 
 T 
 
 •818091 
 
 •759917 
 
 •734823 
 
 •710681 
 
 ■666057 
 
 •622749 
 
 •683490 
 
 •647084 
 
 •61315S 
 
 8 
 
 •789409 
 
 •780690 
 
 ■■703185 
 
 •676889 
 
 ■627412 ■ 
 
 •682009 
 
 •540268 
 
 •501866 
 
 •466607 
 
 9 
 
 •766416 
 
 •702586 
 
 •672904 
 
 •644608 
 
 ■591898 
 
 ■643938 
 
 •500248 
 
 •460427 
 
 •424097 
 
 10 
 
 •744098 
 
 •675564 
 
 •648927 
 
 •613918 
 
 ■653894 
 
 •508849 
 
 •468198 
 
 •422410 
 
 •88654S 
 
 11 
 
 •722421 
 
 •649680 
 
 - •616198 
 
 ■584679 
 
 •626787 
 
 •476092 
 
 •423882 
 
 ■887582 
 
 •860498 
 
 12 
 
 ■701879 
 
 •624697 
 
 ■589668 
 
 ■6668S7 
 
 •496969 
 
 •444011 
 
 •897118 
 
 •865584 
 
 •818680 
 
 18 
 
 ■680951 
 
 •600674 
 
 ■564271 
 
 ■530821 
 
 •468839 
 
 •414964 
 
 ■367697 
 
 •326178 
 
 •289664 
 
 14 
 
 ■661117 
 
 •677475 
 
 •589972 
 
 ■505067 
 
 •442800 
 
 •887817 
 
 ■840461 
 
 •299246 
 
 •263381 
 
 16 
 
 •641861 
 
 ■665264 
 
 •616720 
 
 ■481017 
 
 •417265 
 
 •862446 
 
 ■816241 
 
 •274588 
 
 •289392 
 
 16 
 
 ■628166 
 
 •583908 
 
 •494469 
 
 •458111 
 
 •898646 
 
 ■888784 
 
 ■291890 
 
 •251869 
 
 •217629 
 
 17 
 
 •606016 
 
 •613373 
 
 •478176 
 
 •486296 
 
 '871864 
 
 ■316674 
 
 ■270268 
 
 •281078 
 
 197844 
 
 18 
 
 ■587894 
 
 •493628 
 
 •452800 
 
 ■416520 
 
 •850348 
 
 •295863 
 
 •260249 
 
 •211993 
 
 179868 
 
 19 
 
 •570286 
 
 •474642 
 
 •433301 
 
 ■896733 
 
 •830613 
 
 •276508 
 
 •281712 
 
 194489 
 
 163507 
 
 20 
 
 •558675 
 
 •466886 
 
 •414642 
 
 •376839 
 
 •311804 
 
 •258419 
 
 •214648 
 
 178480 
 
 148643 
 
 21 
 
 •687549 
 
 '438833 
 
 •896787 
 
 •858942 
 
 ■294166 
 
 •241613 
 
 198665 
 
 •168698 
 
 •135180 
 
 22 
 
 •521892 
 
 •421965 
 
 •879700 
 
 •841849 
 
 ■277605 
 
 •226713 
 
 183940 
 
 •160181 
 
 122845 
 
 28 
 
 •506691 
 
 •405726 
 
 •868350 
 
 •825671 
 
 ■261797 
 
 •210946 
 
 170816 
 
 •187781 
 
 111678 
 
 24 
 
 •491983 
 
 •890121 
 
 •847708 
 
 •810067 
 
 ■246978 
 
 •197146 
 
 •167699 
 
 126404 
 
 101525 
 
 25 
 
 •477606 
 
 ■375116 
 
 •882780 
 
 •295302 
 
 ■232998 
 
 •184249 
 
 •146017 
 
 116967 
 
 •092296 
 
 26 
 
 •468694 
 
 ■860689 
 
 •818402 
 
 ■281240 
 
 •219810 
 
 •172195 
 
 •185201 
 
 106392 
 
 •083905 
 
 27 
 
 •460189 
 
 ■846816 
 
 ■804691 
 
 •267848 
 
 •207867 
 
 •160980 
 
 126186 
 
 •097607 
 
 •076277 
 
 28 
 
 •487076 
 
 ■83.3477 
 
 ■291570 
 
 •265098 
 
 •196680 
 
 •150402 
 
 116918 
 
 •089648 
 
 •069343 
 
 29 
 
 •424846 
 
 ■320661 
 
 ■279015 
 
 •242946 
 
 •184566 
 
 140662 
 
 107827 
 
 •082154 
 
 •063089 
 
 80 
 
 •411936 
 
 ■808818 
 
 •267000 
 
 •281377 
 
 •174110 
 
 •131867 
 
 •099877 
 
 •076371 
 
 •067308 
 
 81 
 
 •899987 
 
 •296460 
 
 •265602 
 
 •220869 
 
 •164264 
 
 122778 
 
 •092016 
 
 •069147 
 
 •062098 
 
 82 
 
 •888337 
 
 •286067 
 
 •244499 
 
 •209366 
 
 •164957 
 
 •114741 
 
 ■085200 
 
 •0634.33 
 
 •047862 
 
 83 
 
 •877026 
 
 •274094 
 
 •288971 
 
 •199872 
 
 •146186 
 
 10T234 
 
 ■078888 
 
 •068200 
 
 •043066 
 
 84 
 
 •866044 
 
 •268552 
 
 •228895 
 
 •190364 
 
 •137911 
 
 •100219 
 
 •078045 
 
 •068894 
 
 •089142 
 
 85 
 
 •365883 
 
 •263416 
 
 •214254 
 
 •181290 
 
 •180105 
 
 •093662 
 
 •067634 
 
 •048986 
 
 •086684 
 
 86 
 
 ■345082 
 
 •243668 
 
 •206028 
 
 •172667 
 
 •122740 
 
 •087685 
 
 •062624 
 
 •044941 
 
 •08!!849 
 
 87 
 
 •884982 
 
 ■284296 
 
 ■196109 
 
 •164486 
 
 •115793 
 
 •081808 
 
 •057986 
 
 •041230 
 
 •029408 
 
 88 
 
 ■826228 
 
 •226285 
 
 ■187750 
 
 ■156605 
 
 •109288 
 
 •076466 
 
 '063690 
 
 •037326 
 
 •026784 
 
 39 
 
 ■816758 
 
 ■216620 
 
 •179665 
 
 ■149147 
 
 •108055 
 
 •071455 
 
 '049713 
 
 •084702 
 
 •024804 
 
 40 
 
 •306556 
 
 •2082S9 
 
 •171928 
 
 ■148045 
 
 -097222 
 
 •066780 
 
 •046030 
 
 •081887 
 
 •022094 
 
 41 
 
 •297628 
 
 •200277 
 
 •164625 
 
 ■135281 
 
 •091719 
 
 •062411 
 
 •042621 
 
 •029203 
 
 •020086 
 
 42 
 
 •28S959 
 
 •192674 
 
 •157440 
 
 •128839 
 
 •086627 
 
 •058828 
 
 •039464 
 
 •026797 
 
 •018260 
 
 48 
 
 •280542 
 
 •186168 
 
 •160660 
 
 •122704 
 
 ■081629 
 
 . •054612 
 
 •086640 
 
 •024684 
 
 •016600 
 
 44 
 
 •272871 
 
 •178046 
 
 •144172 
 
 ■116361 
 
 ■077009 
 
 •060946 
 
 ■083884 
 
 •022664 
 
 •015091 
 
 45 
 
 •264488 
 
 ■171198 
 
 •137964 
 
 •111296 
 
 ■072660 
 
 •047618 
 
 ■081327 
 
 •020692 
 
 •013719 
 
 46 
 
 •266736 
 
 ■164618 
 
 ■132023 
 
 •105996 
 
 ■068637 
 
 •044498 
 
 •029007 
 
 •018988 
 
 •012472 
 
 47 
 
 •249258 
 
 •158282 
 
 •126338 
 
 •100949 
 
 •064668 
 
 •041687 
 
 •026863 
 
 •017416 
 
 •011888 
 
 48 
 
 •241998 
 
 152194 
 
 •120897 
 
 •096142 
 
 •060998 
 
 •088366 
 
 •024869 
 
 •015978 
 
 •010807 
 
 49 
 
 ■284950 
 
 -146341 
 
 •115691 
 
 •091668 
 
 •0.57646 
 
 •086824 
 
 •028026 
 
 ■014668 
 
 •009370 
 
 60 
 
 ■228107 
 
 •140712 
 
 •110709 
 
 •087208 
 
 •064288 
 
 •083947 
 
 •021321 
 
 ■013448 
 
 •008618 
 
 51 
 
 ■221468 
 
 •185300 
 
 •106942 
 
 •088051 
 
 •051215 
 
 •031726 
 
 •019741 
 
 ■012388 
 
 •007744 
 
 52 
 
 •216012 
 
 •180096 
 
 •101380 
 
 •079096 
 
 •048816 
 
 •029651 
 
 •018279 
 
 •011319 
 
 •007040 
 
 58 
 
 •208760 
 
 •125098 
 
 ■097014 
 
 •075329 . 
 
 •046681 
 
 •027711 
 
 •016925 
 
 •010384 
 
 ■006400 
 
 64 
 
 •202670 
 
 •120281 
 
 ■092886 
 
 :071742 
 
 •043001 
 
 •026898 
 
 ' -016671 
 
 •009627 
 
 •006818 
 
 55 
 
 •196767 
 
 ■116655 
 
 •088839 
 
 •068826 
 
 •040667 
 
 •024204 
 
 •014610 
 
 •008740 
 
 •006289 
 
 56 
 
 •191086 
 
 •111207 
 
 •085013 
 
 •065072 
 
 •038271 
 
 •022620 
 
 •013486 
 
 ■008018 
 
 •004308 
 
 57 
 
 •186471 
 
 •106980 
 
 •081862 
 
 •061974 
 
 •086104 
 
 •021140 
 
 ■012440 
 
 •007366 
 
 •004871 
 
 58 
 
 •180069 
 
 ■102817 
 
 •077849 
 
 •059022 
 
 •034061 
 
 ■019757 
 
 ■011619 
 
 •006749 
 
 •008973 
 
 59 
 
 •174S25 
 
 •098862 
 
 •074497 
 
 ■056212 
 
 ■082138 
 
 ■018466 
 
 ■010665 
 
 ■006192 
 
 •003612 
 
 60 
 
 •169T88 
 
 •095060 
 
 •071289 
 
 •053636 
 
 •030314 
 
 •017257 
 
 ■009875 
 
 ■005680 
 
 •008284 
 
 61 
 
 •164789 
 
 •091404 
 
 •068219 
 
 •060986 
 
 •028598 
 
 •016128 
 
 ■009144 
 
 ■005211 
 
 •002985 
 
 62 
 
 •159989 
 
 •087888 
 
 ■ •066281 
 
 ■048668 
 
 •026979 
 
 ■016078 
 
 ■008466 
 
 ■004781 
 
 •002714 
 
 63 
 
 •155329 
 
 •084608 
 
 •062470 
 
 ■046246 
 
 ■026452 
 
 •014087 
 
 ■007889 
 
 ■0043S6 
 
 •002467 
 
 64 
 
 •160805 
 
 ■081258 
 
 •059780 
 
 •044048 
 
 •024011 
 
 •013165 
 
 •007269 
 
 ■004024 
 
 ■002248 
 
 65 
 
 •146418 
 
 ■078182 
 
 ■057205 
 
 •041946 
 
 •022662 
 
 •012304 
 
 •006721 
 
 •003692 
 
 ■002089 
 
 66 
 
 •142148 
 
 •075127 
 
 ■054742 
 
 •039949 
 
 •021870 
 
 •011499 
 
 •006228 
 
 •008387 
 
 •001863 
 
 67 
 
 ■138008 
 
 •072288 
 
 ■052885 
 
 •038046 
 
 •020160 
 
 •010746 
 
 •006762 
 
 •008107 
 
 ■001085 
 
 68 
 
 ■183988 
 
 •069459 
 
 •060129 
 
 •086234 
 
 •019019 
 
 •010043 
 
 •006335 
 
 •002851 
 
 •001532 
 
 69 
 
 •180086 
 
 •066788 
 
 •047970 
 
 •084609 
 
 •017943 
 
 ■009386 
 
 •004940 
 
 •002616 
 
 •001392 
 
 70 
 
 •126297 
 
 •064219 
 
 •045904 
 
 •082866 
 
 ■016927 
 
 •008772 
 
 •004674 
 
 •002399 
 
 •001266 
 
 71 
 
 •122618 
 
 •061749 
 
 •048928 
 
 •081801 
 
 ■015969 
 
 •008198 
 
 •004235 
 
 •002201 
 
 •001161 
 
 72 
 
 •119047 
 
 •059874 
 
 •042086 
 
 •029810 
 
 ■016065 
 
 •007662 
 
 •008921 
 
 •002019 
 
 •001046 
 
 7S 
 
 •115679 
 
 •057090 
 
 •040226 
 
 •028891 
 
 ■014212 
 
 •007161 
 
 •008681 
 
 •001852 
 
 •000961 
 
 74 
 
 •112218 
 
 •054896 
 
 •088494 
 
 •027039 
 
 ■018408 
 
 •006692 
 
 •008862 
 
 •001699 
 
 •000864 
 
 75 
 
 •108945 
 
 •062788 
 
 •0368S6 
 
 •026751 
 
 ■012649 
 
 •006264 
 
 •003118 
 
 •001669 
 
 •000786 
 
 76 
 
 •105772 
 
 •050758 
 
 •085250 
 
 •024625 
 
 ■011938 
 
 •006845 - 
 
 •002882 
 
 •001480 
 
 •000714 
 
 77 
 
 •102691 ■ 
 
 •048801 
 
 ■038782 
 
 ■023867 
 
 •011267 
 
 ■005463 
 
 •002669 
 
 •001312 
 
 •000649 
 
 78 
 
 •099700 
 
 •046924 
 
 ■032279 
 
 •022245 
 
 ■010620 
 
 •005105 
 
 ■002471 
 
 •001204 
 
 •000590 
 
 79 
 
 •096796 
 
 •045119 
 
 ■080889 
 
 •021186 
 
 •010019 
 
 •004771 
 
 •002288 
 
 •001104 
 
 •000587 
 
 80 
 
 •098977 
 
 •048884 
 
 ■029569 
 
 •020176 
 
 •009462 
 
 •004469 
 
 .002118 
 
 •001018 
 
 •000488 
 
 31 
 
 •091239 
 
 •041715 
 
 •028236 
 
 •019216 
 
 •008917 
 
 •004167 
 
 •001961 
 
 •000929 
 
 •000443 
 
 82 
 
 ■088682 
 
 •040111 
 
 •027068 
 
 •018301 
 
 •008412 
 
 •008S95 
 
 •001816 
 
 ■000863 
 
 •000403 
 
 83 
 
 ■080002 
 
 •088668 
 
 •026902 
 
 •017429 
 
 •007936 
 
 •003640 
 
 •001682 
 
 ■000782 
 
 •000866 
 
 ■ 84 
 
 •083497 
 
 ■087085 
 
 •024787 
 
 •016599 
 
 •007486 
 
 •008402 
 
 •001667 
 
 ■000718 
 
 •000333 
 
 85 
 
 •081065 
 
 •085668 
 
 '028720 
 
 •015809 
 
 •007063 
 
 •008179 
 
 •001442 
 
 ■000668 
 
 •000303 
 
INT 
 
 1076 
 
 INT 
 
 TABLES OP INTEREST AND ANNUITIES. 
 
 ~"^®''^ SHOWINO THE AmOITNT OF AN AnkDITY OF $1 PEE AniTOM, IMPEOVED AT COMPOmfD IkTEREST, AT 3, 4, 4}, 
 
 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, AND 10 PEE Cent., at the end op eaoh Teae feom 1 to 85. 
 
 Years. 
 
 3 per cent. 
 
 4 per cent. 
 
 4 1-2 per cent. 
 
 5 per cent. 
 
 6 per cent. 
 
 7 per cent. 
 
 8 per cent. 
 
 9 per cent. 
 
 10 per cent. 
 
 1 
 
 1000000 
 
 1-000000 
 
 1-000000 
 
 l.OOOOOO 
 
 1-000000 
 
 i-oooooo 
 
 l-OOOOOO 
 
 1-000000 
 
 1-OOOOUO 
 
 % 
 
 2-030000 
 
 2-04000O 
 
 2-045000 
 
 2-060000 
 
 2-060000 
 
 2-070000 
 
 2-080000 
 
 2-090000 
 
 2 lOOOOO 
 
 8 
 
 8-090900 
 
 8-121600 
 
 8-137025 
 
 8-152500 
 
 8-18860O 
 
 8-214900 
 
 8246400 
 
 8-278100 
 
 8-310000 
 
 4 
 
 4-183627 
 
 4-246464 
 
 4-278191 
 
 4-310125 
 
 4-374616 
 
 4-489948 
 
 4-506112 
 
 4-578129 
 
 4-641000 
 
 5 
 
 5-309136 
 
 6-416323 
 
 6-470710 
 
 5-525681 
 
 6-637093 
 
 6-750739 
 
 5-866601 
 
 5984711 
 
 6-108100 
 
 6 
 
 6-468410 
 
 6-682975 
 
 6-716892 
 
 6-801913 
 
 6-975319 
 
 7-158291 
 
 T-386929 
 
 7-523386 
 
 7-715610 
 
 T 
 
 7662462 
 
 7-898294 
 
 8-019162 
 
 8-142008 
 
 8-393838 
 
 8-664021 
 
 8-922808 
 
 9-200486 
 
 9-487171 
 
 8 
 
 8-892886 
 
 9-214226 
 
 9-380014 
 
 9-549109 
 
 9-897468 
 
 10-259803 
 
 10-686628 
 
 11-028474 
 
 11-436883 
 
 9 
 
 10159106 
 
 10-582795 
 
 10-802114 
 
 11-026664 
 
 11-491816 
 
 11-977989 
 
 12-437658 
 
 18-021036 
 
 13-579477 
 
 10 
 
 11-468879 
 
 12-006107 
 
 12-288209 
 
 12-677898 
 
 18-180796 
 
 18-816448 
 
 14-486562 
 
 15-192980 
 
 15-937425 
 
 11 
 
 12-807196 
 
 13-486351 
 
 18-841179 
 
 14-206787 
 
 14-971648 
 
 15-788599 
 
 16-646487 
 
 17-560293 
 
 18-581167 
 
 12 
 
 14-192030 
 
 15-026805 
 
 15-464032 
 
 15-917127 
 
 16-869941 
 
 17 888451 
 
 18-977126 
 
 20-140720 
 
 21-884284 
 
 13 
 
 16-617790 
 
 16-626838 
 
 17-169913 
 
 17-712988 
 
 18-882188 
 
 20-140643 
 
 21-495297 
 
 22-968386 
 
 24-622712 
 
 14 
 
 17-086824 
 
 18-291911 
 
 18-982109 
 
 19-598632 
 
 21-015066 
 
 22-650438 
 
 24-214920 
 
 26-019189 
 
 27-974983 
 
 15 
 
 18-698914 
 
 20-023588 
 
 20-784054 
 
 21-678564 
 
 28-275970 
 
 25-129022 
 
 27-152114 
 
 29-860916 
 
 81-772482 
 
 16 
 
 20-156881 
 
 21 ■824631 
 
 22-719-337 
 
 28-657492 
 
 25-672528 
 
 27-888064 
 
 80-824288 
 
 88-008399 
 
 88-949730 
 
 17 
 
 21-761683 
 
 28-697512 
 
 24-741707 
 
 25 840866 
 
 28-212380 
 
 80-840217 
 
 88 ■750226 
 
 86-978705 
 
 40-644703 
 
 18 
 
 23-414436 
 
 25-646413 
 
 26-866084 
 
 28-132886 
 
 80-906653 
 
 88 -999038 
 
 87-450244 
 
 41-801338 
 
 46 599173 
 
 19 
 
 25-116868 
 
 27-671229 
 
 29-063562 
 
 80-589004 
 
 83-759990 
 
 87-878965 
 
 41-446268 
 
 46-018458 
 
 51-159090 
 
 20 
 
 26-870374 
 
 29-778079 
 
 81-371428 
 
 33-065954 
 
 36-785591 
 
 40995492 
 
 46-761964 
 
 61-160120 
 
 67-274999 
 
 21 
 
 28-676436 
 
 81-969202 
 
 88-788137 
 
 85-719262 
 
 89-992727 
 
 44-865177 
 
 50-422921 
 
 66^764630 
 
 . 64-002499 
 
 22 
 
 30-636780 
 
 84-247970 
 
 86-808378 
 
 83-506214 
 
 43-892290 
 
 49-006739 
 
 65-456755 
 
 62-878388 
 
 71-402749 
 
 23 
 
 33-462834 
 
 86-617839 
 
 83-98T080 
 
 41-430476 
 
 46-995828 
 
 53-486141 
 
 60-898296 
 
 69-581939 
 
 79-643024 
 
 24 
 
 34-426470 
 
 89-082604 
 
 41-689196 
 
 44-501999 
 
 60-816677 
 
 68176671 
 
 66-764759 
 
 76 ■789818 
 
 88-497327 
 
 25 
 
 86-459264 
 
 41-645908 
 
 44-666210 
 
 47-727099 
 
 54 ■864512 
 
 63-249038 
 
 78-105940 
 
 84^700896 
 
 98-847069 
 
 26 
 
 88-553042 
 
 44-311746 
 
 47670646 
 
 61-113454 
 
 59-156-383 
 
 68-676470 
 
 79-954415 
 
 98-328977 
 
 109-181766 
 
 27 
 
 40-709634 
 
 47-084214 
 
 50 -711824 
 
 64-669126 
 
 68-706766 
 
 74-483823 
 
 87-850763 
 
 102-723135 
 
 121-099942 
 
 28 
 
 42-980923 
 
 49-967683 
 
 63-998333 
 
 63-402583 
 
 68-528112 
 
 80-697691 
 
 95-338880 
 
 112 968217 
 
 184-209936 
 
 29 
 
 45-218850 
 
 52-966286 
 
 57-428083 
 
 62-322712 
 
 73639798 
 
 87-846529 
 
 103-966936 
 
 124-136386 
 
 148-680980 
 
 80 
 
 4T-575416 
 
 66 084938 
 
 61-007070 
 
 66-438848 
 
 79-068136 
 
 94-460786 
 
 118-288211 
 
 186-307589 
 
 164^494023 
 
 31 
 
 50-002678 
 
 69-828835 
 
 64-752388 
 
 70-760790 
 
 84-801677 
 
 102-073041 
 
 128-845868 
 
 149-675217 
 
 181-948425 
 
 82 
 
 52-602759 
 
 62-701469 
 
 68-666-246 
 
 75-298829 
 
 90-889778 
 
 110-218154 
 
 184-213637 
 
 164-036987 
 
 201-187767 
 
 33 
 
 55-077841 
 
 66-209527 
 
 72-766226 
 
 80-063771 
 
 97-848165 
 
 118-983425 
 
 146-950620 
 
 179-800315 
 
 222-281644 
 
 34 
 
 57-730177 
 
 69-857909 
 
 77-030266 
 
 Kj -066959 
 
 104-133766 
 
 128-258765 
 
 158-626670 
 
 196-982344 
 
 245'476699 
 
 85 
 
 60-462082 
 
 73-652226 
 
 81-496618 
 
 90-820307 
 
 111-484780 
 
 138-236878 
 
 172-316804 
 
 215-71 0765 
 
 271-024868 
 
 36 
 
 68-275944 
 
 77-598314 
 
 86-163966 
 
 96-836823 
 
 119-120807 
 
 148-913460 
 
 187-102148 
 
 236-124728 
 
 299-126805 
 
 87 
 
 66-174223 
 
 81-702246 
 
 91-041844 
 
 101-628139 
 
 127-268119 
 
 160-337402 
 
 208-070320 
 
 253-875948 
 
 880-089486 
 
 33 
 
 69-169449 
 
 86-970336 
 
 96-1S8208 
 
 107-709646 
 
 135-904206 
 
 172-661020 
 
 220-815945 
 
 282-629783 
 
 864043484 
 
 89 
 
 72-284233 
 
 90-409150 
 
 101-464424 
 
 114-095023 
 
 146-058453 
 
 185-640292 
 
 238-941221 
 
 809-066463 
 
 401-447778 
 
 40 
 
 75-401260 
 
 96-025616 
 
 107-080328 
 
 120-799774 
 
 154-761966 
 
 199-635112 
 
 239-066519 
 
 887 ■882445 
 
 442-592556 
 
 41 
 
 78-663298 
 
 99-826586 
 
 112-846688 
 
 127-889768 
 
 165-047684 
 
 214-609570 
 
 280-781040 
 
 869^291865 
 
 487-851811 
 
 42 
 
 80-023196 
 
 104-819598 
 
 118-924789 
 
 135-231761 
 
 175-950545 
 
 280-682240 
 
 804-248528 
 
 408-528188 
 
 587-686992 
 
 43 
 
 85-483892 
 
 110-012382 
 
 125-276404 
 
 142-9938-39 
 
 187-607577 
 
 247-776496 
 
 829-688006 
 
 440-845665 
 
 592-400692 
 
 44 
 
 89-048409 
 
 115-412877 
 
 131-913842 
 
 151 -143006 
 
 199-768032 
 
 266-120851 
 
 856-949646 
 
 481-621776 
 
 652-640761 
 
 45 
 
 92-719861 
 
 121-029-392 
 
 138-849965 
 
 169-700166 
 
 212-743514 
 
 285-749811 
 
 836-505617 
 
 625-858884 
 
 718-904887 
 
 46 
 
 96-501467 
 
 126-870568 
 
 146-098214 
 
 168-636164 
 
 226-608126 
 
 806-751768 
 
 418'426067 
 
 674-186021 
 
 791795821 
 
 47 
 
 100-396601 
 
 182-945890 
 
 168-672633 
 
 178-119422 
 
 241-098612 
 
 829'224886 
 
 452'900152 
 
 626862762 
 
 871-974868 
 
 48 
 
 104-408396 
 
 139'268206 
 
 161-587902 
 
 188-025893 
 
 266-664629 
 
 863-270093 
 
 490-182164 
 
 684280411 
 
 960-172338 
 
 49 
 
 108-540648 
 
 145-833734 
 
 169-859357 
 
 198-426663 
 
 272-953401 
 
 378-999000 
 
 580-842737 
 
 746-865648 
 
 1057-189572 
 
 50 
 
 112-796367 
 
 152-667084 
 
 178-503028 
 
 209-847996 
 
 290-885905 
 
 406-628929 
 
 578-770156 
 
 815-088656 
 
 1168'908629 
 
 61 
 
 117-180778 
 
 159-773767 
 
 187-535665 
 
 220-815-395 
 
 80S -756059 
 
 486 •935955 
 
 620-671769 
 
 889-441076 
 
 1281-299882 
 
 52 
 
 121-696197 
 
 167-164718 
 
 196-974769 
 
 232-866165 
 
 328-281422 
 
 467-504971 
 
 671 ■825510 
 
 970-490773 
 
 1410-429320 
 
 63 
 
 126-847082 
 
 174-861806 
 
 206-888 684 
 
 245 49S974 
 
 348-978308 
 
 601-280819 
 
 726-031551 
 
 1058 884948 
 
 1682-472282 
 
 64 
 
 131-137495 
 
 1S2 845-359 
 
 217-146378 
 
 253-778922 
 
 870-917006 
 
 637-316442 
 
 785-114075 
 
 1155-130088 
 
 1708-719477 
 
 56 
 
 136-071620 
 
 191-169173 
 
 227917969 
 
 272-712613 
 
 394-172027 
 
 675-928593 
 
 S48-923201 
 
 1260-091796 
 
 1880-691425 
 
 56 
 
 141-153768 
 
 199-806640 
 
 289 174268 
 
 287-843249 
 
 418-822848 
 
 617-248394 
 
 917-337058 
 
 1874-600057 
 
 2069 -660567 
 
 57 
 
 146-388381 
 
 208-797762 
 
 260-93T110 
 
 802-715662 
 
 444-951689 
 
 661-450646 
 
 992264022 
 
 1499-205063 
 
 2277-615624 
 
 68 
 
 151-780083 
 
 218-149672 
 
 263-229280 
 
 818 851445 
 
 472-648790 
 
 708-762191 
 
 1072'645144 
 
 1685-183818 
 
 2506-877186 
 
 59 
 
 167-8a3434 
 
 227-375659 
 
 276-074597 
 
 885-794017 
 
 502-007718 
 
 769-364844 
 
 1159-466755 
 
 1783-295685 
 
 2758-014905 
 
 60 
 
 163.06843T 
 
 287-990685 
 
 289-49T954 
 
 863-5S8718 
 
 583-123181 
 
 818 ■520883 
 
 1268-213296 
 
 1944-792133 
 
 80.34-816395 
 
 61 
 
 168'945040 
 
 248-610318 
 
 808-525362 
 
 372-262904 
 
 566-115872 
 
 871-466810 
 
 1864 470360 
 
 2130^823425 
 
 83-39-298085 
 
 62 
 
 176-013391 
 
 259-450725 
 
 313-184003 
 
 391-870049 
 
 601-082824 
 
 938-469487 
 
 1463^S279SS 
 
 2312-697583 
 
 8674-227838 
 
 68 
 
 181-263798 
 
 270-823754 
 
 833-502283 
 
 412-469851 
 
 638-147793 
 
 999-812851 
 
 1581-984227 
 
 252V840811 
 
 4042-650622 
 
 64 
 
 1S7-701T07 
 
 282-661904 
 
 349-509SS6 
 
 43409-3844 
 
 677-436661 
 
 1070-799216 
 
 1709'4S8966 
 
 2749-805939 
 
 4447 ■915685 
 
 66 
 
 194-882T63 
 
 294-968381 
 
 866-23T831 
 
 456-798011 
 
 719-082861 
 
 1146-765161 
 
 1347-248088 
 
 2998-283474 
 
 4898-707258 
 
 66 
 
 201-162741 
 
 307-767116 
 
 883-718533 
 
 480-637912 
 
 768-2273-32 
 
 1228-028022 
 
 1996-02I929 
 
 8269184436 
 
 6384-0779T8 
 
 67 
 
 208-197623 
 
 321-077800 
 
 401-985867 
 
 505-669307 
 
 810021502 
 
 1814-939933 
 
 2166-710164 
 
 3564-856885 
 
 5928-485776 
 
 68 
 
 215 443551 
 
 884-920912 
 
 421-075281 
 
 631958298 
 
 859-622792 
 
 1408-039282 
 
 2880-246977 
 
 8886-148624 
 
 6516-834854 
 
 69 
 
 222-906383 
 
 849-317749 
 
 441-028617 
 
 569-650968 
 
 912-200160 
 
 1607-602032 
 
 2617-666785 
 
 4236-902000 
 
 7169-517789 
 
 TO 
 
 230-694064 
 
 861-290469 
 
 461-869630 
 
 588-523511 
 
 967-982170 
 
 1614-134174 
 
 2720-080074 
 
 4619-228180 
 
 7887-469568 
 
 71 
 
 238-611886 
 
 8T9-8620T7 
 
 488-663815 
 
 618-964936 
 
 1027-008100 
 
 1728-128566 
 
 2088-686480 
 
 5086-953266 
 
 8677-216626 
 
 72 
 
 246-667242 
 
 896-056560 
 
 506-418287 
 
 660-902638 
 
 1089 6'38586 
 
 1850-092216 
 
 3174-731898 
 
 5490^189060 
 
 9645-988177 
 
 78 
 
 265-067259 
 
 412-8988a8 
 
 530-207067 
 
 684-447817 
 
 1156-006301 
 
 1980-598671 
 
 3429'768910 
 
 6985^806076 
 
 10501 •681996 
 
 74 
 
 263-719277 
 
 480-414776 
 
 665-066375 
 
 719'670203 
 
 1226-866679 
 
 2120-240678 
 
 8705-146028 
 
 6824-988622 
 
 11652-686195 
 
 75 
 
 272-630866 
 
 4«-631867 
 
 681-044362 
 
 786 668718 
 
 1800-948680 
 
 2209-667419 
 
 4002-866624 
 
 7118-282148 
 
 12708 958714 
 
 76 
 
 281 ■809781 
 
 467-576621 
 
 608-191363 
 
 795-436404 
 
 1330-005601 
 
 2429 •633488 
 
 4323-761164 
 
 7754-428041 
 
 18980-849085 
 
 77 
 
 291-264075 
 
 487-279686 
 
 636-559969 
 
 886-260725 
 
 1463-8059-37 
 
 2600-600779 
 
 4670662047 
 
 8458-821115 
 
 16879-988994 
 
 78 
 
 801-001997 
 
 507-7I0874 
 
 666-205168 
 
 879078761 
 
 1562-6-34293 
 
 2783-642883 
 
 5045-816011 
 
 9216^120015 
 
 16918-927398 
 
 79 
 
 811-032057 
 
 629-081708 
 
 697-184401 
 
 924-027449 
 
 1646-792350 
 
 2979-497S31 
 
 5449-940211 
 
 10045^480817 
 
 18611 ■320188 
 
 80 
 
 821-363019 
 
 551-244977 
 
 729-567699 
 
 971-228821 
 
 1746-599891 
 
 8189 -062680 
 
 D8S6-936428 
 
 10860'674090 
 
 20474^002146 
 
 81 
 
 832-008909 
 
 574-294776 
 
 763-387795 
 
 1020-790262 
 
 1852-395885 
 
 8413-297067 
 
 6858-890268 
 
 11937^125768 
 
 22522-402860 
 
 82 
 
 842-964026 
 
 598-26666T 
 
 798-740246 
 
 1072-829775 
 
 1964-589638 
 
 8663 -227862 
 
 6863-601484 
 
 18012-467077 
 
 24775-642696 
 
 88 
 
 354-262947 
 
 628-197280 
 
 836-683557 
 
 1127-471264 
 
 2083-412016 
 
 8909-968312 
 
 7419-089602 
 
 14184-589114 
 
 27264-206856 
 
 84 
 
 365-880636 
 
 649126119 
 
 874-239817 
 
 1184-844827 
 
 2209-416737 
 
 4184-660579 
 
 8013-616770 
 
 15462-202134 
 
 29930-627542 
 
 85 
 
 877-856952 
 
 676-090124 
 
 914-632836 
 
 1245-087069 
 
 2342-981741 
 
 4478-576120 
 
 8655-706112 
 
 16864-800826 
 
 82979-690296 
 
INT 
 
 1011 
 
 INT 
 
 TABLES OF INTEEEST AND ANNUITIES. 
 
 IV.— Table showing the Peesknt Value 
 
 OF AN AKNDITT op $1 PEE ANNUM, TO OON-HNUE FOE ANT GIVEN NOUBEB 
 
 
 OF TeAES, FEOM 1 TO 
 
 86, EBCKONIHG COMPOTTND InTEKEBT, 
 
 AT 3, 4, 4i, ! 
 
 , 6, 7, 8, 9, AND 10 PEE Cent. 
 
 Yeara. 
 
 8 percent, . 
 
 Vpefceol. 
 
 4 1-2 "per cent. 
 
 ' 6 per 'cent. 
 
 6 per cent.'' 
 
 7 per cent. 
 
 8 per cent. 
 
 9 per cent. 
 
 10 per cent. 
 
 1 
 
 ■970ST4 
 
 .'961688 
 
 ■956988 
 
 ■ -952381 
 
 . -948396 
 
 ■934679 
 
 ■926926 
 
 -917431 
 
 -909091 
 
 2 
 
 1-918470 
 
 ■1-886095 
 
 1-872668 
 
 ■1-859410 
 
 1-838393 
 
 • 1-808018 
 
 1-788266 
 
 1-769111 
 
 1-736587 
 
 S 
 
 2-828611 
 
 2-776091 
 
 2-748964 
 
 2-728248 , ■ 
 
 2-673012 ■■ 
 
 2-624816 
 
 2-677097 
 
 2-581295 
 
 2-486852 
 
 i 
 
 8-717098 
 
 8-629895 ' 
 
 8-587526 ■ 
 
 8-645951 
 
 • 3-465106 
 
 8-887211 
 
 S-812127 
 
 8-289720 
 
 8-169866 
 
 s 
 
 4-679707 
 
 '4-451822 
 
 4-38997T 
 
 4-829477 
 
 4-212364 
 
 4-100197 
 
 8-992710 
 
 8-889651 
 
 8790787 
 
 '6 
 
 6-417191 
 
 6-242187 
 
 6-167872 
 
 5-075692 
 
 . 4-917824 ' 
 
 4-766640 
 
 4-«22880 
 
 4-485919 
 
 4-355261 
 
 T 
 
 6280288 
 
 6'002056 
 
 ■ 6-892701 
 
 6-786878 ■ 
 
 6-582881 
 
 6-889289 
 
 5-206870 
 
 8-082968 
 
 4-368419 
 
 8, 
 
 7^9692 
 
 6-782745 
 
 6-595886 
 
 6-468218 
 
 6-209794 ■ 
 
 8-971299 
 
 5-746689 
 
 6-834819 
 
 6-334926 
 
 9 
 
 7-786109 
 
 7-486382 
 
 ' 7-268790 
 
 7-107822 
 
 6-801692 
 
 6-615282 
 
 6-246888 
 
 6-996247 
 
 5-759024 
 
 10 
 
 8-530208 
 
 8-110896 
 
 7-912718 
 
 7^21785 
 
 7-860087 
 
 7-028582 
 
 6-710081 
 
 6-417658 
 
 6-144567 
 
 11 
 
 9-262624 
 
 8-76047r 
 
 8-528917 
 
 8-806414 
 
 7-886875 
 
 7-498674 
 
 7-138964 
 
 , 6-806191 
 
 6-495061 
 
 12 
 
 9-954004 
 
 9-38607* 
 
 9-118581 
 
 8-868252 
 
 8-888844 
 
 7-942686 
 
 7-686078 
 
 7-160726 
 
 6-818692 
 
 18 
 
 10-634965 
 
 9-985648 
 
 9-682852 
 
 9-898578 
 
 8-862683 
 
 8-867661 
 
 7-908776 
 
 7-486904 
 
 7-103866 
 
 14 
 
 11-296078 
 
 10 568123' 
 
 10-222825 
 
 9-898641 
 
 9-29i984 
 
 8-746468 
 
 8-244287 
 
 7-786160 
 
 7-366687 
 
 IS 
 
 11-987985 
 
 11-118387 
 
 10-789646 
 
 10-879668 
 
 9-712249 
 
 9-107914 
 
 8-669479 
 
 8K)60688 
 
 7-606080 
 
 16 
 
 12-561102 
 
 11-662296 
 
 11-23401S 
 
 10-887770 
 
 10-106896 
 
 9-446649 
 
 8-861869 
 
 8-312658 
 
 7-823709 
 
 IT 
 
 18-166118 
 
 12-166669 
 
 11-707191 
 
 11-274066 
 
 10-477260 
 
 9-763223 
 
 9-121688 
 
 8-648631 
 
 8-021663 
 
 18 
 
 18-758518 
 
 12-659297 
 
 12-159992 
 
 11-689687 
 
 10-827608 
 
 10-089087 
 
 9-871887 
 
 8-765626 
 
 8-201412 
 
 19 
 
 14-828799 
 
 18-138989 
 
 12-693294 
 
 12-086821 
 
 11-168116 
 
 10-885896 
 
 9-603699 
 
 8-950115 
 
 8-364920 
 
 20 
 
 14-877476 
 
 13-590326 
 
 18-007936 
 
 12-462210 
 
 11-469921 
 
 10-594014 
 
 9-818147 
 
 9-128646 
 
 8-613664 
 
 21 
 
 16-416024 
 
 14029160 
 
 18-404724 
 
 12-821168 
 
 11-764077 
 
 10-885527 
 
 10-016808 
 
 9-292244 
 
 S-648694 
 
 22 
 
 16-986917 
 
 14-451115 
 
 18-784425 
 
 18-163003 
 
 12-041682 
 
 11-061241 
 
 10-200744 
 
 9-442425 
 
 8771640 
 
 28 
 
 16-443608 
 
 14-856842 
 
 14.147775 
 
 18-488674 
 
 12-808379 
 
 11-272187 
 
 10-871069 
 
 9-680207 
 
 8-888218 
 
 24 
 
 16-985542 
 
 16-246963 
 
 14.495478 
 
 18-798642 
 
 12-650868 
 
 11-469834 
 
 10-628768 
 
 9-706612 
 
 8-984744 
 
 25 
 
 17-413148 
 
 15.622080 
 
 14-828209 
 
 14098946 
 
 12-788856 
 
 11-663688 
 
 10-674776 
 
 9-822580 
 
 9 077040 
 
 26 
 
 17-876842 
 
 15-982769 
 
 ■16-146611 
 
 14-876185 
 
 18-008166 
 
 11-825779 
 
 10-809978 
 
 9-928972 
 
 9-160946 
 
 27 
 
 18-827081 
 
 16-329586 
 
 16-451808 
 
 14-648084 
 
 18-210584 
 
 11-986709 
 
 10-935165 
 
 10-026580 
 
 9-287223 
 
 28 
 
 18-764108 
 
 16-668063 
 
 16-742874 
 
 14-898127 
 
 18-40*164 
 
 12-187111 
 
 11-061078 
 
 10-116128 
 
 9-806667 
 
 29 
 
 19-188456 
 
 16-988716 
 
 16-021839 
 
 16-141074 
 
 18-690721 
 
 12-277674 
 
 11-158406 
 
 10-198283 
 
 9-369606 
 
 80 
 
 19-600441 
 
 17-292088 
 
 16-288889 
 
 16-872451 
 
 187e4831 
 
 12-409041 
 
 ■ 11-267788 
 
 10-273654 
 
 9-426914 
 
 81 
 
 20-000428 
 
 17-688494 
 
 16-644391 
 
 15-592811 
 
 13-929086 
 
 12-631814 
 
 11-349799 
 
 10-342802 
 
 9 479018 
 
 82 
 
 20-888766 
 
 17-878562 
 
 16-788891 
 
 15-802677 
 
 14-084048 
 
 12-646555 
 
 ■11 -434999 
 
 10-406240 
 
 9-526876 
 
 88 
 
 20-'^66792 
 
 18-147646 
 
 17-022862 
 
 16-002649 
 
 14-230280 
 
 12-768790 
 
 11-618888 
 
 10-464441 
 
 9-569432 
 
 84 
 
 21181887 
 
 18-411198 
 
 17-246758 
 
 16-192904 
 
 14-868141 
 
 12-854009 
 
 11-686934 
 
 10-617885 
 
 9-608576 
 
 86 
 
 21-487220 
 
 18-664618 
 
 17-461012 
 
 16-874194 
 
 14-498246 
 
 12-947672 
 
 11-664663 
 
 10-566821 
 
 9-644159 
 
 86 
 
 21-832252 
 
 18-908282 
 
 17-666041 
 
 16-646862 
 
 14-620987 
 
 18-085208 
 
 11-717198 
 
 10-611763 
 
 9-676608 
 
 87 
 
 22-167285 
 
 19-142579 
 
 17-862240 
 
 16-711287 
 
 14-786780 
 
 18-117017 
 
 11775179 
 
 10-652998 
 
 9-706917 
 
 88 
 
 22-492462 
 
 19-367864 
 
 18-049990 
 
 16-867898 
 
 14-846019 
 
 18-198478 
 
 11-828869 
 
 10-690820 
 
 9-732651 
 
 89 
 
 22-808'M5 
 
 19-684486 
 
 18-229666 
 
 17-017041 
 
 14-949075 
 
 18-264928 
 
 11-878582 
 
 10-725828 
 
 9-756966 
 
 40 
 
 23-114772 
 
 19-792774 
 
 18-401584 
 
 17-159086 
 
 15-046297 
 
 18-881709 
 
 11-924613 
 
 10-757860 
 
 9-779061 
 
 41 
 
 28-412400 
 
 19-998052 
 
 18-566109 
 
 17-294868 
 
 15-188016 
 
 18-894120 
 
 11-967285 
 
 10-786869 
 
 9-799137 
 
 42 
 
 28-701359 
 
 20-186627 
 
 18-728560 
 
 17-428208 
 
 16-224643 
 
 18-452449 
 
 12-006699 
 
 10-813866 
 
 9-817897 
 
 48 
 
 28-981902 
 
 20-370795 
 
 18-874210 
 
 17-545912 
 
 15-806173 
 
 18-606962 
 
 12-043240 
 
 10-887951 
 
 9-833998 
 
 44 
 
 24-254274 
 
 20-648841 
 
 19-018383 
 
 17-062778 
 
 15-388182 
 
 18-557908 
 
 12-077074 
 
 10-860505 
 
 9-849089 
 
 4? 
 
 24-518718 
 
 20-720040 
 
 19-156847 
 
 17-774070 
 
 15-456882 
 
 18-808522 
 
 12-108402 
 
 10-881197 
 
 9-862808 
 
 46 
 
 24-775449 
 
 20-884664 
 
 19-288871 
 
 17880067 
 
 : 15-524870 
 
 13-660020 
 
 12 137409 
 
 10-900181 
 
 9-S76280 
 
 47 
 
 25-024708 
 
 21-042936 
 
 19-414709 
 
 17-981016 
 
 15-589028 
 
 18-691608 
 
 12-164267 
 
 10-917697 
 
 9-886618 
 
 48 
 
 25-266707 
 
 21-196181 
 
 19-586607 
 
 18-077163 
 
 15-650027 
 
 18-730474 
 
 12-189186 
 
 10-983676 
 
 9-896926 
 
 49 
 
 25-501667 
 
 21-841472 
 
 19-651298 
 
 18-168722 
 
 15-707672 
 
 18-766799 
 
 12-212163 
 
 10-948234 
 
 9-906296 
 
 60 
 
 25-729764 
 
 21-482185 
 
 19-762008 
 
 18-255925 
 
 15-761861 
 
 18-800746 
 
 12-283485 
 
 10-961683 
 
 9-914814 
 
 61 
 
 25-961227 
 
 21-617485 
 
 19-867950 
 
 18-338977 
 
 16-818076 
 
 13-832473 
 
 12-288227 
 
 10-974021 
 
 9-922559 
 
 62 
 
 26-166240 
 
 21-747582 
 
 19-969880 
 
 18-418078 
 
 15-861393 
 
 13-862124 
 
 12-271606 
 
 10-985840 
 
 9-929699 
 
 68 
 
 20-874990 
 
 21-872675 
 
 20-066846 
 
 18-498408 
 
 15-906974 
 
 18-889886 
 
 12-288482 
 
 10-996725 
 
 9-936999 
 
 64 
 
 26-577660 
 
 21 992957 
 
 20-169181 
 
 18-666146 
 
 15-949976 
 
 18-915785 
 
 12-304103 
 
 11-006262 
 
 9-941817 
 
 65 
 
 26-774428 
 
 22-108612 
 
 20-248021 
 
 18-683472 
 
 15-990648 
 
 18-989939 
 
 12-818614 
 
 11-018993 
 
 9-947107 
 
 66 
 
 26-905464 
 
 22-219819 
 
 20-888084 
 
 18-698545 
 
 16-028814 
 
 18-962560 
 
 12-832050 
 
 11-022012 
 
 9-961915 
 
 67 
 
 27160986 
 
 22-826749 
 
 20-414387 
 
 18-760619 
 
 16064919 
 
 18-988701 
 
 12-844491 
 
 11-029869 
 
 9-966286 
 
 63 
 
 27-881003 
 
 22-429567 
 
 20-492286 
 
 18 819542 
 
 16-098980 
 
 14-008459 
 
 12-856010 
 
 11-086118 
 
 9-960260 
 
 69 
 
 27-606881 
 
 22-628480 
 
 20-566738 
 
 18-876764 
 
 16-181113 
 
 14-021924 
 
 12-366676 
 
 11-042310 
 
 9-968878 
 
 60 
 
 27-675564 
 
 22-028490 
 
 20-638022 
 
 18-929290 
 
 16161428 
 
 14039131 
 
 12-876562 
 
 11-047991 
 
 9 967157 
 
 61 
 
 27-840363 
 
 22-714894 
 
 20-706241 
 
 18-980276 
 
 16-190026 
 
 14-055309 
 
 12-385696 
 
 11053203 
 
 9-970148 
 
 62 
 
 28-000348 
 
 22-802788 
 
 20-771523 
 
 19-028834 
 
 16-217006 
 
 14-0708S3 
 
 12-894168 
 
 11-067984 
 
 9-972857 
 
 68 
 
 28-155673 
 
 22-887291 
 
 20-833998 
 
 19-075080 
 
 16-242458 
 
 14-084470 
 
 12-402003 
 
 11-062371 
 
 9-975825 
 
 64 
 
 28-806478 
 
 22-968549 
 
 20 898778 
 
 19-119124 
 
 16-266470 
 
 14-097636 
 
 12-409262 
 
 11-066895" 
 
 ■ 9-977568 
 
 65 
 
 28-452891 
 
 23-046682 
 
 20-960979 
 
 19-161070 
 
 16-289128 
 
 14-109940 
 
 12-415983 
 
 11-070087 
 
 9-979607 
 
 66 
 
 23-895040 
 
 23-121810 
 
 21-005722 
 
 19-201019 
 
 16-810498 
 
 14-121439 
 
 12-422207 
 
 11-078476 
 
 9-981461 
 
 67 
 
 28-738049 
 
 23-194048 
 
 21-058107 
 
 19-239066 
 
 16-880664 
 
 14-132186 
 
 12-437969 
 
 11-076682 
 
 9-988147 
 
 68 
 
 2S-867038 
 
 28-268S07 
 
 21-108286 
 
 19-276801 
 
 16-849678 
 
 14-142280 
 
 12-433805 
 
 11-079438 
 
 9 984679 
 
 69 
 
 28-997124 
 
 28-880296 
 
 21-166207 
 
 19-809810 
 
 16-867617 
 
 14-161617 
 
 12-488245 
 
 11-082049 
 
 9-986071 
 
 70 
 
 29-128421 
 
 28-894615 
 
 21-202112 
 
 19-842677 
 
 16-884644 
 
 14-160889 
 
 12-442820 
 
 11-084449 
 
 9-987388 
 
 71 
 
 29-246040 
 
 28-466264 
 
 21-246040 
 
 19-873978 
 
 16400513 
 
 14-168588 
 
 12-447065 
 
 11-086650 
 
 9-988489 
 
 72 
 
 29-865087 
 
 28-616639 
 
 21-288077 
 
 19-408783 
 
 16-416578 
 
 14-176261 
 
 12-450977 
 
 11-088670 
 
 9-989536 
 
 78 
 
 29-480667 
 
 23-672780 
 
 21-328808 
 
 19-432179 
 
 16-429791 
 
 14-188412 
 
 12-464608 
 
 11-090528 
 
 9-990487 
 
 74 
 
 29-692881 
 
 26-627625 
 
 21-366797 
 
 19-459218 
 
 16-448199 
 
 14-190104 
 
 12-467971 
 
 11-092228 
 
 9-991351 
 
 76 
 
 29 701826 
 
 23-6S0408 
 
 21-408684 
 
 19-484970 
 
 16-455848 
 
 14-196859 
 
 12-461084 
 
 11-098782 
 
 9-992188 
 
 76 
 
 29-807698 
 
 28-781162 
 
 21-488884 
 
 19-609495 
 
 16-467781 
 
 14-202205 
 
 12-463967 
 
 11-096218 
 
 9-992852 
 
 77 
 
 29-910290 , 
 
 28-779968 
 
 21-472616 
 
 19-6828,53 
 
 16-479089 
 
 14-207668- 
 
 12-466686 
 
 11-096626 
 
 9-998502 
 
 78 
 
 80-009990 
 
 23-826888 
 
 21-504396 
 
 19-556098 
 
 16489669 
 
 14-212774 
 
 12-469107 
 
 11-097730 
 
 9-994098 
 
 79 
 
 30-106786 
 
 28-872008 
 
 21-635785 
 
 19-576284 
 
 16-499679 
 
 14-217546 
 
 12-471896 
 
 11-098386 
 
 9-994680 
 
 80 
 
 80-200763 
 
 28-916892 
 
 21-566846 
 
 19-596460 
 
 16-609181 
 
 14-222005 
 
 12-478614 
 
 11-099849 
 
 9-995118 
 
 81 
 
 80-292003 
 
 28-967108 
 
 21-598632 
 
 19616677 
 
 16-518048 
 
 14-226173 
 
 12-476476 
 
 11-100778 
 
 9-995562 
 
 82 
 
 80-880686 
 
 28-997219 
 
 21-620700 
 
 19'688978 
 
 16-626460 
 
 14-280069 
 
 12-477298 
 
 11-101682 
 
 9-995966 
 
 88 
 
 80-466688 
 
 24086787 
 
 21-646603 
 
 19-651407 
 
 16-584896 
 
 14-288709 
 
 12-478976 
 
 11-102414 
 
 9-996882 
 
 84 
 
 80-660086 
 
 24-072872 
 
 21-671890 
 
 19-668007 
 
 16-541888 
 
 14-237111 
 
 12-480582 
 
 11-108182 
 
 9-996666 
 
 85 
 
 80-681161 
 
 24-108581 
 
 21-695110 
 
 19-683816 
 
 16-648947 
 
 14-240291 
 
 12-431974 
 
 11-103791 
 
 9-996969 
 
INT 
 
 1078 
 
 INT 
 
 In Hamburg the rate of interest is quite unrestrict- 
 ed ; or, if tliere be a written law restraining it, it has 
 become obsolete. The rate, therefore, varies accord- 
 ing to circumstances. Occasionally it has been at 7, 
 8, and even 10 per cent. ; and in 1799, a period of 
 great mercantile embarrassment and insecurity, it was 
 as high as 14 per cent. Generally, however, the rate 
 of discount on good bills does not exceed 3 or 4 per 
 cent. — Report on Usury Laws, p. 4C. 
 
 In Russia the legal rate of interest is 6 per cent. 
 But as Eassia is a country capable of much improve- 
 ment, and where there are very great facilities for the 
 advantageous employment of capital, the market rate 
 of interest is invariably higher than the statute rate, 
 and the law is constantly and easily evaded. — Report 
 on Usury Laws, p. 46 ; and Storch, tom. iii., p. 207. 
 
 The previous statements apply only to the cases of 
 'interest arising out of loans made by one part)' to 
 another. But there are cases in which interest may 
 ibecome due without being stipulated for, by unneces- 
 sary or unjustifiable delays in the payment of debts, 
 or by trustees, agents, or other parties coming into 
 possession of property belonging to others, etc., and in 
 these it is necessary to obviate .litigation, that the in- 
 terest to' be charged should be fixed by law. This 
 legal rate had better be somewhat below the ordinary 
 market rate, and may be adjusted from time to time 
 as circumstances may require. But, except in cases 
 of this sort, there is no more reason for interfering to 
 regulate the rate of interest, than there is for inter- 
 fering to regulate premiums of insurance. 
 I Distinction of Simple and Compound Interest. — ^When 
 a loan is made, it is usual to stipulate that the interest 
 upon it should be regularly paid at the end of every 
 year, half year, etc. A loan of this sort is said to be 
 at simple interest. It is of the essence of such loan 
 that no part of the interest accruing upon it should be 
 added to the principal to form a new principal ; and 
 though payment of the interest were not made when 
 it becomes due, the lender would not be entitled to 
 charge interest upon such unpaid interest. Thus, sup- 
 pose $100 were lent at simple interest at 5 per cent., 
 payable at the end of each year ; the lender would, at 
 the end of three or four years, supposing him to have 
 received no previous payments, be entitled to $15 or 
 !$20, and no more. 
 
 Compound Interest. — Sometimes, however, money or 
 capital is invested so that the interest is not paid at 
 the periods when it becomes due, but is progressively 
 added to the principal ; so that at every term a new 
 principal is formed, consisting of the original princi- 
 pal and the successive accumulations of interest upon 
 interest. Money invested in this waj' is said to be 
 placed at compound interest. It appears only reasona- 
 ble, when a borrower does not pay the interest he has 
 contracted for at the period when it is due, that he 
 should pay interest upon such interest. This, how- 
 ever, is not allowed hy the law of England ; nor is it 
 allowed to make a loan at compound interest. But 
 this rule is easily evaded by taking a new obligation 
 for the principal with the interest included, when the 
 latter becomes due. Investments at compound inter- 
 est are also very frequent. Thus, if an individual 
 buy into the funds, and regularly buy fresh stock with 
 the dividends, the capital will increase at compound 
 interest ; and so in any similar case. 
 
 Calculation of Interest. — Interest is estimated at so 
 much per cent, per annum, or by dividing the princi- 
 pal into 100 equal parts, and specifying how many of 
 these parts are paid yearly for its use. Thus 5 per 
 cent., or 5 parts out of 100, means that $5 are paid for 
 the use of $100 for a year, $10 for the use of $200, 
 $2 50 for the use of $50 for the same period, and so on. 
 
 Many attempts have been made to contrive expedi- 
 tious processes for calculating interest. The follow- 
 ing is, one of the best: Suppose it were required to 
 find the interest upon $172 for 107 days at 5 per cent. 
 
 This forms what js called in arithmetical books a 
 double rule of three question, and would be stated as 
 follows : 
 
 Z. Days. Z. Z. Days. 
 
 100X365 : 5 : : 172X107=the interest required. 
 Hence to find the interest of any sura for any number 
 of days at any rate per cent., multiply the sum by the 
 number of days, and the product by the rate, and di- 
 vide by 36,500 (365X100); the quotient is the inter- 
 est required. When the rate is, 5 per cent., or l-20th 
 of the principal, all that is required is to divide the 
 product of the sum multiplied by the days by 7300 
 (365, the days in a year, multiplied by 20). Five per 
 cent, interest being found by this extremely simple 
 process, it is usual in practice to calculate 4 per cent, 
 interest by deducting l-5th ; 3 per cent, by deducting 
 2-5ths ; 2J per cent, by dividing by 2 ; 2 per cent, by 
 taking the half of 4, and so on. 
 
 In calculating interest upon accounts current, it is 
 requisite to state the number of daj-^s between each re- 
 ceipt or payment, and the date (commonly the 31st of 
 December) to which the account current is made up. 
 Thus, $172 paid on the 15th of September, bearing in- 
 terest to the 31st of December, 107 days. The amount 
 of such interest may, then, be calculated as above ex- 
 plained, or by the aid of tables. 
 
 The 30th of June is, after the 31st of December, the 
 most usual date to which accounts current are made 
 up, and interest calculated. It is desirable, in calcu- 
 lating interest on accounts current, to be able readily 
 to find the number of days from one day in any month 
 to any day in any other month. This may be done 
 with the greatest ease by means of the following table : 
 
 Table foe ascertaining tue Number of Days fbom any 
 ONE Day in the Teae to any other Day. 
 
 1 
 
 ■s 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 i 
 
 t 
 
 ^ 
 
 1 
 
 1 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 32 
 
 60 
 
 91 
 
 121 1 152 
 
 132 
 
 218 
 
 244 
 
 274 805 
 
 885 
 
 2 
 
 83 
 
 61 
 
 §2 
 
 122 1 158 
 
 188 
 
 214 
 
 245 
 
 275 806 
 
 836 
 
 8 
 
 84 
 
 62 
 
 98 
 
 123 1 154 
 
 184 
 
 215 
 
 246 
 
 276 307 
 
 387 
 
 4 
 6 
 
 85 
 36 
 
 68 
 
 94 
 
 124 
 
 155 
 
 186 
 
 216 
 
 247 
 
 277 
 
 803 
 
 383 
 
 «4 
 
 95 
 
 125 
 
 156 
 
 186 
 
 217 
 
 248 
 
 273 
 
 809 
 810 
 
 839 
 
 6 
 
 T 
 
 87 
 88 
 
 66 
 
 96 
 
 126 
 
 157 
 
 18T 
 
 218 
 
 249 
 
 279 
 
 840 
 
 66 
 
 97 
 
 127 
 
 153 
 
 183 
 
 219 
 
 250 
 
 280 
 
 811 
 
 841 
 
 8 
 
 89 
 
 67 
 
 98 
 
 128 
 
 159 
 
 189 
 
 220 
 
 261 
 
 281 
 
 812 
 
 342 
 843 
 
 9 
 10 
 
 40 
 41 
 
 68 
 69 
 
 99 
 
 100 
 
 129 
 
 160 
 
 190 
 
 221 
 
 252 
 
 282 
 
 818 
 
 130 
 
 161 
 
 191 
 192 
 
 222 
 228 
 
 258 
 264 
 
 288 
 284 
 
 814 
 
 815 
 
 844 
 845 
 
 11 
 12 
 
 42 
 48 
 
 70 101 
 
 71 102 
 
 181 
 
 162 
 
 182 
 
 168 
 
 193 
 
 224 
 
 255 
 
 235 816 
 
 846 
 
 347 
 
 18 
 
 44 
 
 72 
 
 lOS 
 
 138 
 
 164 
 
 194 
 
 225 
 
 266 
 
 286 
 287 
 288' 
 239 
 290 
 291 
 
 817 
 
 14 
 
 45 
 46 
 
 78 
 
 T4- 
 
 104 
 105 
 
 184 
 186 
 
 165 
 166 
 
 196 
 196 
 
 226 
 227 
 
 257 
 263' 
 
 813 
 
 843 
 849 
 850 
 
 15 
 
 819 
 320 
 821 
 822 
 
 16 
 
 47 
 
 75 
 
 106 
 
 136 
 
 167 
 
 197 
 
 228 
 
 269 
 
 IT 
 
 48 
 
 76 
 
 107 
 
 187 
 
 168 
 
 198 
 
 229 
 
 260 
 261 
 
 851 
 352 
 
 18 
 19 
 
 49 
 
 T7 
 
 108 
 
 138 
 
 169 
 
 199 
 
 230 
 
 50 
 
 78 
 
 109 
 
 189 
 
 170 
 
 200 
 
 281 
 
 262 
 
 292 
 
 823 
 
 858 
 
 20 
 
 61 
 
 79 
 
 110 
 
 140 
 
 171 
 
 201 
 
 232 
 
 263 
 
 298 
 
 824 
 325" 
 826 
 
 864 
 866 
 856 
 857 
 
 21 
 23 
 
 62 
 53 
 
 80 
 81 
 
 111 
 112 
 
 141 
 142 
 
 172 
 178 
 
 202 
 208 
 
 288 
 284 
 
 264 
 266 
 
 894 
 295 
 
 28 
 24 
 
 54 
 56 
 
 82 
 83 
 
 118 
 
 14S 
 
 174 
 
 204 
 
 235 
 
 266 
 
 296 
 
 827 
 
 114 
 
 144 
 
 175 
 
 205 
 
 236 
 
 267 
 
 29T 
 
 828 
 
 358 
 859 
 860 
 
 25 
 
 56 
 
 84 
 
 115 
 
 145 
 
 176 
 
 206 
 
 287 
 
 268 
 269 
 
 298 
 299 
 
 829 
 880 
 
 26 
 
 67 
 
 85 
 
 116 
 
 146 
 
 177 
 
 207 
 
 238 
 
 2T 
 
 23 
 
 68 
 69 
 
 86 
 
 87 
 
 117 
 
 118 
 
 147 
 148 
 
 178 
 179 
 
 208 
 209 
 
 289 
 240 
 
 270 
 271 
 
 800 
 
 881 
 
 861 
 862 
 
 801 
 
 882 
 
 29 
 
 
 88 
 
 119 
 
 149 
 
 180 
 
 210 
 
 241 
 
 272 
 
 802 
 
 888 
 
 868 
 
 30 
 
 .. 
 
 89 
 
 120 
 
 150 
 151 
 
 181 
 
 211 
 
 242 
 
 278 
 
 803 
 
 834 
 
 864 
 
 81 
 
 
 90 
 
 
 212 
 
 248 
 
 
 804 
 
 
 865 
 
 By this table may be readily ascertained the number 
 of days from any given day in the year to another. 
 For instance, from the 1st of January to the 14th of 
 August (first and last days included), there are 226 
 days. To find the number, look down the column 
 headed January, to No. 14, and then look along in a 
 
INT 
 
 10'79 
 
 INT 
 
 parallel line to the column headed August, you find 
 226, the number required. To find the number of 
 days between any other two given days, when they 
 are both after the first of January, the number oppo- 
 site the first day must, of course, be deducted from 
 that opposite to the second. Thus, to find the num- 
 ber of days between the 13th of March and the 19th of 
 August, deduct from 231 — the number in the table 
 opposite to 19 and under August — 72, the number op- 
 posite to 13 and under March, and the remainder, 159, 
 is the number required, last day included. In leap 
 years, one must be added to the number after the 28th 
 of February. 
 
 When interest, instead of being simple, is compound, 
 the first year's or term's interest must be found, and 
 "being added to the original principal, makes the prin- 
 cipal upon which interest is to be calculated for the 
 second year or term j and the second year's or term's 
 interest being added to this last principal, makes that 
 upon which interest is to be calculated for the third 
 year or term; and so on for any number of years. 
 But when the number of years is considerable, this 
 process becomes exceedingly cumbersome and tedious, 
 and to facilitate it tables hare been constructed, which 
 are subjoined to this article. 
 
 The first of these tables (p. 1074) represents the amount 
 of $1 accumulating at compound interest, at 3, SJ, 4, 4f , 
 up to 10 per cSnt. everj' year, from 1 year to 85 years, in 
 dollars and decimals of a dollar. Now, suppose that 
 we wish to know how much $500 will amount to in 
 seven years at 4 per cent. In the column marked i 
 per cent., and opposite to 7 years, we find $1'31.5931, 
 which shows that $1 will, if invested at 4 per cent., 
 compound interest, amount to $1"31.5931 in 7 years ; 
 and, consequently, $500 will, in the same time, arid at 
 the same rate, amount to $500X1'31.5931, or $657-96.6. 
 For the same purpose of facilitating calculation, the 
 present Value of $1 due any number of years hence, 
 not exceeding 85, at 3, 3J, 4, 4J, up to 10 per cent., com- 
 pound interest, is given in the tables, pp. 1074-1077. 
 The use of these tables is precisely similar to the one 
 above. Let it, for example, be required to find the 
 present worth of $500 due 7 years hence, reckoning 
 compound interest at 4 per cent. ; opposite to 7 years, 
 aiid under 4 per cent., 75-291781, the present worth of 
 $1 due at the end of 7 years ; and multiplying this sum 
 by $500, the product being $379-95.89, is the answer 
 required. These tables are in part from Tables of In- 
 terest, Discount, and Annuities, by John Ssiart, Gent., 
 4to., London, 1726. They are carried to eight decimal 
 places, and enjoy the highest character in England 
 and on the Continent, for accuracy and completeness. 
 The original work is now become scarce. 
 
 Annuities. 1. Annmties certain. — ^When a sum of 
 money is to be paid yearly for a certain number of 
 years, it is called an annuity. ' The annuities usually 
 met with are either for a given number of years, which 
 are called annuities certain ; or they are to be paid so 
 long as one or more individuals shall live, and are 
 thence called contingent annuities. 
 
 By the amount of an annuity at any given time, is 
 meant the sum to which it will then amount, supposing 
 it to have been regularly improved at compound inter- 
 est during the intervening period. 
 
 The present value of an annuity for any given pe- 
 riod, is the sum of the present values of all the pay- 
 ments of that annuity. 
 
 See Jones on Annuities, London, 2 vols., 8vo; 
 jBncy. Brit., 8th ed. ; Bankers' Mag., vols, v., vi., 
 vii., New York, 1854-1857; J. E. McCtillooh, Es- 
 says on Exchange, Interest, etc., New York, 1857 ; As- 
 surance Magazine,ljond(m, 1854-1857 ; Heport to British 
 Parliament on Usurg Laws ,- Stobch, Economie Poli- 
 tique, iii. ; Madox, History of the Exchequer ; Consid- 
 erations on the State of the English Currency ; Hume's 
 Essay on Imtehest ; Essay on the Governing Causes of 
 the Rate of Interest. 
 
 The uses of these tables are numerous, and they are 
 easily applied. Suppose, for example, it were required 
 to tell the amount of an annuity of $50 a year for 17 
 years, at 4 per cent., compound interest. 
 
 Opposite to 17 (Table, p. 1074) in the column of years, 
 and under 4 per cent., is 23-69751,239, being the 
 amount of an annuity of $1 for the given time at the 
 given rate per cent. ; and this multiplied by-50 gives 
 $1184-87.56195, the amount required. 
 
 Suppose, now, that it is required what sum one 
 must pay down to receive an annuity of $50, to con- 
 tinue for 17 years, compound interest at 4 per cent. ? 
 
 Opposite to 17 years (Table, p. 1076) and under 4 per 
 cent., is 12-16566,886, the present value of an annuity 
 of $1 for the given time and at the given rate per 
 cent. ; and this multiplied by 50, gives $608-28.3443, 
 the present value required. 
 
 When it is required to find the time which must 
 elapse, in order that a given sum, improved at a speci- 
 fied rate of compound interest, may increase to some 
 other given sum, divide the latter sum by the former, 
 and look for the quotient, or the number nearest to it, 
 in table No. I., under the given rate per cent., and the 
 years opposite to it are the answer : thus. 
 
 In what tune will $523 amount to $1087-27.94, at 5 
 per cent., compound interest? 
 
 Divide 1087-27.94, etc., by 523, and the quotient 
 will be 2-0789, etc., which under 5 per cent, in table I., 
 is opposite to 15 years, the time required. 
 
 If it had been required to find the time in which a 
 given annuity, improved at a certain rate of compound 
 interest, would have increased to some given sum, the 
 question would have been answered by dividing, as 
 above, the given sum by the annuitj', and looking for 
 the quotient (not in table No. I., but) in table No. III., 
 under the given rate per cent., it would be found on a 
 line with the time required ; thus, 
 
 A owes $1000, and resolves to appropriate $10 a 
 year of his income to its discharge ; in what time will 
 the debt be extinguished,, reckoning compound interest 
 at 4 per cent. ? 
 
 1000 divided by 10 gives 100, the number in table 
 No. Ill, under 4 per cent, and nearest to this quotient 
 is 99-8265^ etc., opposite to 41 years, the required time. 
 Had the rate of interest been 5 per cent., the debt 
 would have been discharged in somewhat less than 37 
 years. This example is given by Dr. Price {Annu- 
 ities, 6th ed., vol. ii., p. 289) ; and on this principle the 
 whole fabric of the sinking fund was constructed. Of 
 the abstract truth of the principle there can not, in- 
 deed, be a doubt. But every thing depends on the 
 increasing sums annually produced being immediately 
 invested on the same terms ; and this, when the sum 
 is large, and the period long, is altogether imprac- 
 ticable. 
 
 Let it next be required to find an annuity which, 
 being increased at a given rate of compound interest 
 during a given time, will amount to a specified sum : 
 in this case we divide the specified sum by the amount 
 of $1 for the time and rate given, as found in the 
 Table III., and the quotient is the answer. — Thus, 
 What annuity will amount to $1,087, 27.94 in 15 years 
 at 5 per cent, compound interest? Opposite to 15 
 years in Table III., and under 5 per cent., is 21-5785, 
 etc., the amount of $1 for the given time and rate ; 
 and dividing 1087-2794, etc., by this sum, the quotient 
 50-387, etc., is the annuity required. Deferred annui- 
 ties are those which do not commence till after a cer- 
 tain number of years ; and reversionary annuities, such 
 as depend upon the occurrence of some uncertain 
 event, as the death of an individual, etc. The pres- 
 ent value of a deferred annuity is found by deducting, 
 from the value of an annuity for the whole period, the 
 value of an annuity to the term at which the rever- 
 sionary annuity is to commence. — Thus, What is the 
 present value of an annuity of $50 to continue for 25, 
 years, commencing at 7 years from the present time, . 
 
INT 
 
 1080 
 
 INT 
 
 interest at 4 per cent. ? According to Table No. IV., 
 
 the value of an annuity of $1 for 25 years at 4 per 
 cent, is 15-62207,995, and that of $1 for 7 years la 
 6-00205,467, which being deducted from the other, 
 leaves 9-62002,628, -which multiplied by 50 gives $481, 
 the answer required. Supposing the annuity, instead 
 of being for 25 years, had been a perpetuity. It would 
 have been worth il,250, from which deducting $300 
 lOc, the value of an annuity for 7 years at 4 per cent., 
 there remains $949-90, the value of the reversion. For 
 a selection of problems that may be solved by Table 
 of annuities certain, see Smart's Tables, pp. 20-109. 
 2. Life Annuities. — After what has been stated in 
 the article on Insurance (General Principles of), 
 respecting tables of mortality, it will be easy to see 
 how the value of a life annuity is calculated. Sup- 
 posing — to revert to the example given before Inscr. 
 Ance, that it were required to find the present value 
 of $1, the receipt of which is dependent on the contin- 
 gency of a person, now 66 years of age, being alive 10 
 years hence, taking the Carlisle table of mortality, 
 and interest at 4 per cent. Now, according to that 
 table, of 10,000 persons born together, 4000 attain to 
 56, and 2894 to 66 years of age. The probability that 
 a person, now 56 years, will be alive 10 years hence, 
 is, consequently, 2894 — 4000 ; and the present value 
 of $1, to be received certain 10 years hence being 
 $0-675564, it follows, that if its receipt be made to 
 depend on a life 56 years of age, attaining to 66 years, 
 its value will be reduced by that contingency to 
 2884X$0-676664-4000=^$0-48877. If, then, we had 
 to find the present value of an annuity of $1, secured 
 on the life of a person now 66, we should calculate in 
 this way the present value of each of the 48 payments, 
 which, according to the Carlisle table, he might re- 
 ceive, and their sum would, of course, be the present 
 value of the annuity. 
 
 This statement is enough to show the principle on 
 which all calculations of annuities depend ; and this 
 also was, in fact, the method according to which they 
 were calculated, till Mr. Simpson and M. Euler in- 
 vented a shorter and easier process, deriving from the 
 value of an annuity at any age, that of an annuity at 
 the next 3'ounger age. There is a considerable discrep- 
 ancy in the sums at which different authors, and dif- 
 ferent insurance offices, estimate the present value of 
 life annuities payable to persons of the same age. This 
 does not arise from any difference in the mode of cal- 
 culating the annuities, but from differences in the 
 tables of mortality employed. These can only be ac- 
 curate when they are deduced from multiplied and 
 careful observations made, during a long series of 
 years, on a large bodj^ of persons ; or when the aver- 
 age numbers of the whole population, and of the deaths 
 at everj' age, for a lengthened period, have been deter- 
 mined with the necessary care. It is to be regretted, 
 that governments who alone have the means of ascer- 
 taining the rate of mortality by observations made on 
 a sufficiently large scale, have been singularly inatten- 
 tive to their duty in this respect. And until a very 
 few years since, when Mr. Finlayson was employed to 
 calculate tables of the value of annuities from the ages 
 of the nominees in public tontines, and of individuals 
 on whose lives government had granted annuities, all 
 that had been done in this country to lay a solid foun- 
 dation on which to construct the vast fabric of life in- 
 surance, had been the work of a few private persons, 
 who had, of course, but a limited number of observa- 
 tions to work upon. 
 
 The celebrated mathematician. Dr. Halley, was the 
 first who calculated a table of mortality, which he de- 
 duced from observations made at Breslau, In Silesia. 
 In 1724 M. de Moivre published the first edition of his 
 tract on Annuities on Lives, In order to facilitate the 
 calculation of their values, M. de Moivre assumed the 
 annual decrements of life to be equal ; that is, he sup- 
 posed that out of 86 (the utmost limit of life on his hy. 
 
 pothesis) persons bom together one would die every 
 year till thp whole were extinct. This assumption 
 agreed pretty well with the true values between 30 
 and 70 years of age, as given in Dr. Halley's table ; 
 but was very remote from the truth in the earlier and 
 later periods. Mr. Thomas Simpson, in his work on 
 Annuities and Reversions, originally published in 1742, 
 gave a table of mortality deduced from the London 
 bills, and tables founded upon it of the values of annu- 
 ities. But at the period when this table was calcu- 
 lated, the mortality in London was so much higher 
 than in the rest of the country, that the values of the 
 annuities given in it were far too small for.general use. 
 In 1746 M. Deparcieux published, in his Essai gur les 
 Prohahilites de la DurSe de la Vie Humaine — a work dis- 
 tinguished by its perspicuity and neatness — tables of 
 mortality" deduced from observations made on the mor- 
 tuary registers of several religious houses, and on lists 
 of the nominees in several tontines. In this work, 
 separate tables were first constructed for males and fe- 
 males, and the greater longevity of the latter rendered 
 apparent. M. Deparcieux's tables were a very great 
 acquisition to the science, and are decidedly superior 
 to some that are still extensively used. Dr. Price's 
 famous work on Annuities, the first edition of which 
 was published in 1770, contributed powerfully to direct 
 the public attention to inquiries of this sort, and was, 
 in this respect, of very great utility. Of the more re- 
 cent works, the best are those of Mr. Baily and Mr. 
 Milne, which, indeed, are both excellent. 'The latter, 
 besides all that was previously known as to the his- 
 tovy, theory, or practice of the science, contains much 
 new and valuable matter ; and to it we beg to refer such 
 of our readers as wish to enter fully into the subject. 
 
 The table on which Dr. Price laid the greatest stress 
 was calculated from the burial registers kept in the 
 parish of All Saints, in Northampton, containing little 
 more than half the population of the town. There can 
 be no doubt, however, as well from original defects in 
 the construction of the table, as from the improve- 
 ment that has since taken place in the healthiness of 
 the public, that the mortalitj- represented in the North- 
 ampton table is, and has long been, decidedly above 
 the average rate of mortality in England. ' Mr. Mor- 
 gan, indeed, the late learned actuary' of the Equitable 
 Society, contended that this is not the case, and that the 
 society's experience shows that the Northampton ta- 
 ble is still remarkably accurate. But the facts Mr. 
 Morgan disclosed in his " Views of the Rise and Prog- 
 ress of the Equitable Society," p. 42, published in 
 1828, are quite at variance with this opinion; for he 
 there states, that the deaths of persons insured in thei 
 Eqitable Society, from 60 to 60 years of age, during the 
 12 years previously to 1828, were 339 ; whereas, ac- 
 cording to the Northampton table, they should have 
 been 545 ! And Mr. Milne has endeavored to show 
 (Art. Annuities, new ed. of Ency, Brit,') that the dis- 
 crepancy is really much greater. 
 
 The only other table used to any extent in England 
 for the calculation of life annuities, is that framed by 
 Mr. Milne, from observations made by Dr. Heysham on 
 the rate of mortality at Carlisle. It gives a decidedly 
 lower rate of mortality than the Northampton Table ; 
 and there are good grounds for thinking that the mor- 
 tality which it represents is not very different from 
 the actual rate throughout most parts of England; 
 though it can not be supposed that a table founded on 
 so narrow a basis should give a perfectly fair view of 
 the average mortality of the entire kingdom. 
 
 In life insurance, the first annual premium is al- 
 ways paid at the commencement of the assurance, and 
 the others at the beginning of each year, so long as 
 the party assured survives. Hence, at the beginning 
 of the assurance, the whole of the annual premiums 
 payable for it exceed the value of an equal annuity on 
 life by one year's purchase. And, therefore, when 
 the value of an assurance in present money is given. 
 
INT 
 
 1081 
 
 INT 
 
 to find the equivalent annual premium dupng the life, 
 the whole present value must be divided by the num- 
 ber of years' purchase an annuity on the life is worth, 
 increased by i. Thus, for an assurance of $100 on a 
 life of 40 years of age, an office, calculating by the 
 Carlisle table of mortality, and at 4 per cent, interest, 
 requires $53'446 in present money. Now, according 
 to that table and rate of interest, an annuity on a 
 life just 40 years of age is worth 15*074 years' pur- 
 chase, so that, the equivalent annual premium is 
 jg.^jj^j =$3-325. The annual premium may, however, 
 be derived directly from the value of an annuity on 
 the life, without first calculating the total present 
 value of the assurance. See Mr. Milnes Treat, on An- 
 nuities, or art. Annuities, in new edition of Ency. Brit. 
 
 "In order to exhibit the foundation upon which tables 
 of life annuities and insurance have been founded in 
 this and other countries, we have given, in a portion 
 of the preceding tables, the rate of mortality that has 
 been observed to take place among 1000 children bom 
 together, or the numbers alive at the end of each year, 
 till the whole become extinct, in England, France, 
 Sweden, etc., according to the most celebrated authori- 
 ities. The rate of mortality at Carlisle, represented 
 in this table, is less than that observed anywhere else : 
 the rates which approach nearest to it are those deduced 
 from the obervations already referred to, of M. De- 
 parcieux, and those of M. Kersseboom, on the nomi- 
 nees of life annuities in Holland. In order to calcu- 
 late from this table the chances Which a person of any 
 given age has of attaining to any higher age, we have 
 only to divide the number of persons alive at such 
 higher, age, given in the column of the table selected 
 to decide the question, by the number of persons alive 
 at the given age, and the fraction resulting is the 
 chance. We have added, by way of supplement to this 
 table, Mr. Finlayson's table (No. VI.) of the rate of 
 mortality among 1000 children bom together, accord- 
 ing to the decrement of life observed to take place 
 among the nominees in government tontines and life 
 annuities in this country, distinguishing males from 
 females. The rate of mortality which this table ex- 
 hibits is decidedly less than that given in the Carlisle 
 table ; but the lives in the latter are the average of the 
 population, while those in the former are all picked. 
 The nominees in tontines are uniformly chosen among 
 the healthiest individuals ; and none but those who 
 consider their lives as good ever buy an annuity. Still, 
 however, the table is very curious ; and it sets the su- 
 perioritj' of female life in a very striking point of view. 
 Tables VII. and VIII. give the expectation of life, ac- 
 cording to the mortality observed at Northampton and 
 Carlisle ; the former by Dr. Price, and the latter by Mr. 
 Milne. The next table. No. IX., extracted from the 
 Secoiid Report of the Committee of the House of Commons 
 on Friendly Societies, gives a comparative view of the 
 results of some of the most celebrated tables of mortal- 
 ity, in relation to the rate of mortality, the expectation 
 of life, the value of an annuity, etc. The coincidence 
 between the results deduced from M. Deparoieux's ta^ 
 ble and that for Carlisle, is very striking. And to 
 render the information on these subjects laid before 
 the reader as complete as the nature of this work will 
 admit, we have given tables (Nos. X.-XV.) of the 
 value of an annuity of £i on a singe life, at every age, 
 and at 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 per cent. , according tot he North- 
 ampton and Carlisle tables ; we have also given tables 
 of the value of an annuity of £1 on 2 equal lives, and 
 two lives differing by five years, at 3, 4, 5, and 6 per 
 cent., according to the same tables. It is but sel- 
 dom, therefore, that our readers will requue to re- 
 sort to any other work for the means of solving 
 the questions that usually occur in practice with re- 
 gard to annuities ; and there are not many works 
 in which they will find so good a collection of the 
 tables. We subjoin one or two examples of the mode 
 
 of using the tables of life annuities. Suppose it were 
 required, what oUght a person aged 45, to give to se- 
 cure an annuity of $50 a year for life, interest at 4 per 
 cent., according to the Carlisle table ? In Table No. 
 XI., under 4 per cent., and opposite 45, is 14-104, the 
 value of an annuity of $1, which being multiplied by 60 
 gives $705-20, or the value required. According to the 
 Northampton table, the annuity would only have been 
 worth $614 15. The value of an annuity on two lives 
 of the same age, or on two lives different by five years, 
 may be found in precisely the same way. Some ques- 
 tions in reversionary life annuities admit of an equally 
 easy solution. Thus, suppose it is required to find the 
 present value of A's interest in an estate worth $100 a 
 year, falling to him at the death of B, aged 40, inter- 
 est 4 per cent., according to the Carlisle table ? The 
 value of the perpetuity of $100 a year, interest 4 per 
 cent., is $2500 ; and the value of an annuity of $100 
 on a person aged 40, interest 4 per cent., is $1507 40, 
 which, deducted from $2500, leaves $992 60, the pres- 
 ent value required. A person aged 30 wishes to pur- 
 chase an annuity of $50 for his wife, aged 25, provided 
 she survives him ; what ought he to pay for it, interest 
 at 4 per cent, according to the Carlisle table ? The 
 value of an annuity of $1 on a life aged 30 is $16-852 ; 
 from which subtracting the value of an annuity of $1 
 on two joint lives of 26 and 30, 14-339, the difference, 
 2-513 X 50 =125-650, the sum required. For the solu- 
 tion of the more complex cases of survivorship, which 
 do not often occur in practice, recourse may be had to 
 the directions in Mr. Milne's Treatise on Annuities, and 
 other works of that description. To attempt explain- 
 ing them here would lead us into details quite incon- 
 sistent with the object of this work." See Com. Bid., 
 art. Interest, by J. R. M'Chllooh ; Bamkers' Mag., 
 N. Y., 1853-6 ; the Interest Tables now in use in New 
 York city, are by Delisser, Six and Seven per Cent. 
 4to $4 ; Pkicb, 8vo ; Gates, 8vo. 
 
 Invoice, an account of goods or merchandise sent 
 by merchants to their correspondents at home or 
 abroad, in which the peculiar marks of each package, 
 with other particulars, are set forth. 
 
 The revenue laws of the United States require two 
 consular certificates only to invoices of foreign mer- 
 chandise imported into 'this country (the owners, of 
 which reside abroad)— one authenticating the invoice, 
 the other as to the value in Spanish or American dol- 
 lars of the currency in which the invoice is made out. 
 Where consular certificates to invoices of goods des- 
 tined for the United States are required, they are to 
 be granted only bj- the consular officer within whose 
 consular jurisdiction such goods have been manufac- 
 tured pr prepared for exportation. A practice, it is 
 understood, has extensively prevailed of transmitting 
 invoices to a consular officer at the port of shipment 
 for the usual consular certificates, whose certificate 
 must often necessarily be given without due knowl- 
 edge of their accuracy or details. Thus, invoices of 
 goods manufactured or prepared for shipment in Switz- 
 erland have sometimes heretofore been sworn to at 
 Havre; invoices from Lyons have been verified at 
 Marseilles ; and those from the Prussian provinces of 
 the Rhine, at the ports of Holland and Belgium. It 
 is manifest that great abuses must spring from such a 
 practice, the meaning and intent of the law being to 
 require those who have an accurate knowledge of the 
 contents of invoices, and the prices of goods compris- 
 ing the same, personally to depose to their valuation. 
 All consular officers of the United States are strictly 
 enjoined to conform to this rule, and report to the 
 Treasury Department any violation of it which may 
 come within their knowledge. Under the provisions 
 of the act of Congress of 1st March, 182^, the invoices 
 of all imported goods subject to ad valorem duty be- 
 longing to persons not residing- in the United States, 
 must be sworn to and verified by consular certificates ; 
 the oath must be taken by the owner or manufacturer 
 
INV 
 
 1082 
 
 INV 
 
 of the goods, or a member of the firm owmng or manu- 
 facturing them, and not by a clerk or other subordinate. 
 
 In all cases where the oaths to invoices are not 
 taken before the United States' consul, but before some 
 public officer duly authorized to administer oaths in 
 the country where the goods shall have been pur- 
 chased, the official certificate of such officer must be 
 authenticated by a consular officer of the United 
 States. If there be no consular officer of the United 
 States in the couptr}'" from which the merchandise shall 
 have been imported, the authentication must be exe- 
 cuted by a consul of a nation at the time in amitj' 
 with the United States, if there be any such residing 
 there. If there be no such consul, the authentica- 
 tion must be made by two respectable merchants, if 
 any such there be, residing at the port from which the 
 merchandise shall have been imported. 
 
 It is proper that the oath taken by foreigners should 
 be adnunistered to them, not only in their own lan- 
 guage, so that they may fully understand the nature 
 and import of it, but also in the form practiced in their 
 own country, which would probably be considered by 
 them as more solemn and of a more binding nature 
 than if administered in a form to which they have not 
 been accustomed. The attention of consular officers 
 is also directed to the 8th and 11th sections of the act 
 of Congress of the 1st March, 1823, in which it will 
 be seen that a consular certificate is required in all 
 cases of invoices of goods exported by the manuftXti' 
 turers thereof, in whole or in part for their account, 
 notwithstanding another owner in part may reside in 
 the United States. This provision of the law of 
 1823, there is reason to believe, has been hitherto over- 
 looked in many instances. If a consular officer ascer- 
 tains and has reliable evidence of the falsity of an 
 oath, administered either by himself or by a local 
 magistrate whose certificate he has authenticated, he 
 should notify the Treasury Department, which will 
 transmit to him the original invoice and oath, to be 
 used, if deemed expedient, in a prosecution for perjurj'. 
 
 It is to be remarked that, by the act of 3d March, 
 1801, invoices of all goods imported into the United 
 States svhjected to a duty ad valorem are required to be 
 ** made out in the currency of the place or country 
 from whence the importation shall be made ; and shall 
 contain a true statement of the actual cost of such 
 goods in such foreign currency or currencies, without 
 any respect to the value of the coins of the United 
 States, or foreign coins which now are, or shall be, \yy 
 law, made current within the United States in such 
 foreign place or country." Hence, invoices of free 
 goods are not required to be made out in the currency 
 of the country from whence the goods may be im- 
 ported ; but whenever invoices of such goods may be 
 made out in the currency of the country, and said cur- 
 rency is depreciated, and its value not fixed by any 
 law of the United States, a consular certificate of the 
 value of such currency must, as before intimated, ac- 
 company the same. 
 
 There is nothing in the law or instructions of the 
 Treasury Department to prohibit invoices of free 
 goods from being made out in the currency of the 
 United States, or that of any other country where its 
 value is fixed by our laws. Invoices of ad valorem 
 or free goods, when made out in a foreign depreciated 
 currenc}"", or a currency the value of which is not fixed 
 by the laws of the United States, whether the importer 
 or owner resides in this country or abroad, must in 
 each case be accompanied by a consular certificate, 
 showing the value of such currency in Spanish or 
 United States silver dollars. Applications are fre- 
 quently made to the Treasury Department for permis- 
 sion to enter merchandise where the invoices are not 
 acccftttpanied by the needful consular certificates in the 
 cases where such certificates are by law required. 
 That Department has heretofore acted with great len- 
 iency and Indulgence in such cases, but experience hae 
 
 shown the necessity for a more rigid course in future ; 
 and, in all cases where such consular certificates 
 should accompany the invoices, any penalty which may 
 be incurred for want of them will be regularly enforced. 
 
 Consuls abroad, by due attention and vigilance, can 
 do much toward checking and preventing the numerous 
 frauds which are undoubtedly practiced upon the rev- 
 enue, if they will report to the collectors of the cus- 
 toms of the United States all those invoices where, in 
 their opinions, undervaluations have been made, and by 
 otherwise keeping the collectors or this Department 
 generally and fully advised On this subject ; and they 
 are earnestly requested to do so, and to consider it one 
 of the most important services which they can render 
 in connection with the faithful collection of the rev- 
 enue. An erroneous impression exists with many for- 
 eign shippers of goods to the United States, that the 
 consuls before whom the oath to invoices is either 
 taken or verified have no power to examine the details 
 of such invoices, but simply to verify the fa(;t of such 
 oath being taken before them, or by an officer in au- 
 thority known to them as such. This is not the fact ; 
 and consular officers are expected before verifying in- 
 voices to satisfy themselves of their correctness. 
 
 For the purpose of carrying out a particular system 
 of revenue duties, the government of the United States 
 requires that the accuracy of certain invoices should 
 be ascertained and verified ; and a reasonable time for 
 consuls to accomplish that object, by an examination 
 of such invoices, can not be justly denied to them. 
 Consular officers are not supposed to be practically ac- 
 quainted with the market prices or value of all mer- 
 chandise within their district, or of the precise weights, 
 tares, measures, bounties, etc., included therein ; but 
 inquiry and experience wUl soon enable them to ren- 
 der efficient aid to the revenue officers of the United 
 States, by ascertaining errors or frauds, and promptly 
 informing the Treasury' Department, as well as the 
 collector of the port to which the goods may be des- 
 tined, of every instance where an exporter persists in 
 refusing to correct his invoice, when apprised of its 
 defects, and that it will be subject to revision at the 
 custom houses of the United States. 
 
 CERTIFICATE TO INVOICE. 
 
 Foreign Owner's oath, where goods, wares, or mercTiandiset 
 
 have teen actually purchased. 
 
 I, , do solemnly and truly swear, that the 
 
 goods, -wares, or merchandise described in the invoice now 
 produced, and hereunto annexed, were actually purchased for 
 my account, or for account of myself and partners in the said 
 purchase: and that said invoice contains a true and faithful 
 account of the actual cost thereof, and of all charges thereon ; 
 and that no discounts, bounties, or drawbacks, are contained 
 in the said invoice but such as have been actually allowed on 
 the same. 
 
 Sworn to and subscribed before me, at -, the day 
 
 of ~ , A.D., 18 — , and of the independence of the United 
 
 States the -: and 1 do further certify, that I am satis- 
 fied that . , who subscribes the foregoing oath, is 
 
 the person he represents himself to he ; that he is a credible 
 person; and that the statements made by him under said 
 oath (or affirmation, as the case may he) are true. 
 
 [L. S.] 
 
 U. S. Consul. 
 CERTIFICATE TO INVOICE. 
 Foreign wxmufacturer or oxoner's oath, in cases where goods, 
 
 wares, or merchandise, have not been actually purchased. 
 
 I, ■, of ~ , do solemnly and truly swear, 
 
 that the invoice now produced, and hereunto annexed, con- 
 tains a true and faithfuLaccount of the goods, wares, or mer- 
 chandise therein described at their market value at , at 
 
 the time the same were (procured or manufactured, as the 
 case maybe), and of all charges thereon; and that the said 
 invoice contains no discounts, bounties, or drawbacks, but 
 such as have been actually allowed. 
 
 Sworn and subscribed before me, at , the - 
 
 of — — -, A.D. 18 — , and of the independence of the United 
 
 ■ day 
 
 States of America the - 
 am satisfied that - 
 
 and I further certify, that I 
 -, who subscribes the foregoing 
 
ION 
 
 1083 
 
 ION 
 
 oaib, Ifi the person he represonts himself to be; that h^-is a 
 credlhle person; and that the statements made.by him under 
 said oath (or affirmation, as the case may he) are true. 
 
 Ctsj U.S.Cormd. 
 
 Consular CerKfleate of the value of eufrenc^. 
 
 I» , consul of the United States of America, 
 
 do hereby certify, that the true value of the currency of 
 
 the of , in which currency the annexed invoice 
 
 of merchandise is made out, is cents, estimated in 
 
 American or Spanish silver dollars. 
 
 Ionian Islands, the name given to the islands of 
 Corfu, Paxo, Santa Maura, Ithaca, Cephalonia, Zante, 
 Cerigo, and their dependent islets. "With the excep- 
 tion of Cerigo, which lies opposite to the south-eastern 
 e?;tremity of the-Morea,,the rest lie pyetty qontiguous, 
 along the western coasts of Epirus and Greece ;, the 
 most northerly point of Corfu being.in lat. 39° 48' 15" 
 If., and the most southerly point of Zante (Cape Kieri, 
 on which there is a light-house) being in lat; 37° 38' 
 35" N, Kapsali, the, port, of Cerigo, is in lat. 36° 7' 
 30" N., Ibng. 23° E. The area and populatio^ of 
 the different islands may be estimated as follows: 
 
 iBJiUlds. 
 
 Arealnaq.mllea 
 15 to a degrdo. 
 
 Population 
 In 1863. 
 
 Oorfa. 
 
 10-76 
 16-20 
 5-60 
 4-25 
 8-82 
 , 4-60 
 1-90 
 
 T9,S81 
 
 70,8T0 
 41,992 
 18,966 
 11,264 
 12,886 
 5,111 
 
 
 Zante 
 
 
 Ithicaand Oalanios . : : .' 
 
 
 
 TotaI.,„ 
 
 4T-13* 
 
 240,620 
 
 
 « This is equal to 1001-8 English square riiiles of 60-16 to 
 the degree, r - , !■ 
 
 Soil and Climate. — Tliese are very various; Zante 
 is the mo^t fruitful; It consists principally of an ex- 
 tensive plain, occupied by plantations of currants, and 
 having an air of luxuriant fertility and richness. Its 
 climate is comparatively equal and fine, but it is very 
 subject to earthquakes. Corfu and Cephalonia are 
 more rugged and less fruitful than Zante ; and the 
 former, from its vicinity to the snowy mountains of 
 Epirus, and the latter from the Black Mountain (the 
 Mount ^nos of antiquity) in its interior, are exposed 
 in winter to great and sudden variations of tempera- 
 ture ; the frost sometimes damaging to a great extent 
 the oranges and vines of these islands and' those of 
 Santa Maura. The latter is, in the hot season, ex- 
 ceedingly unhealthy — a consequence of the vapors 
 arising from the marshes and the shallow seas to the 
 north-east, Cerigo' is rocky and sterile ; it is subject 
 to continued gales, and the current seldom permit its 
 waters to remain unruffled. 
 
 These islands have undergone manj' vicissitudes. 
 Corfu, the ancient Corcyra, was famous in antiquity 
 for its naval power, and for the contest between it and 
 its mother state Corinth, which eventually terminated 
 in the Peloponnesian war. Ithaca, the kingdom of 
 Ulysses ; Cephalonia, sometimes called Dulichium, 
 from the name of one of its cities ; Zante, or Zacyn- 
 thus; Santa Jlaura, known to the ancients by the 
 name of Leucas or Leucadia, celebrated for its prom- 
 ontorj', surmounted by a temple of Apollo, whence 
 Sappho precipitated herself into' the ocean ; and Ce- 
 irigo, or Cythera, the birth-place of Helen, and sacred 
 to Venus ; — have all acquired an immortality of re- 
 nown. 
 
 For upward of 400 years these islands remained' 
 subject to Venice, constituting the Venetian Levant. 
 By the treaty of Paris, 6th November, 1816, be- 
 tween England and Russia; it was agreed that the 
 Ionian Islands should regulate their own internal 
 organization, with the approbation of the protecting 
 power, which should be represented by a lord high co^n- 
 missioner ; that the merchant flag of the new States 
 should be acknowledged as that of a free and inde- 
 pendent State ! and that Austria should enjoy equal 
 
 commercial privileges with Great Britain in its com- 
 merce with the republic. This treaty was acceded to 
 by all the representatives of the allied powers, then 
 negotiating at Paris, and by the Grand Sultan and 
 the King of the Two Sicilies. The ports of the islands 
 are Corfu, Cephaloni,, Zante, Santa Maura, Ithaca, 
 -Cerigo, and Faxo. These are free f 9rts, at which all 
 kiqds of merchandise jnay be stored in designated 
 warehouses, free of any duties or charges, except rent, 
 portage, and other minor expenses, which are regulat- 
 ed by special tariffs. There is no treaty between the 
 United States and the Ionian republic, and t^^e com- 
 mercial intercourse between the two countries is si^b- 
 ject to the various restrictions which apply to non- 
 equalized vessels. The restrictions are higher tonnage 
 duties, light duties, port charges, etc. 
 
 The following items will illustrate these discrimina- 
 tions : Charges for clearance, including bill of health, 
 muster-roll, anchorage, and light duties, on an Ionian 
 or equalized vessel of from 250 to 300 tons, $8 10 ; 
 charges, etc., including as above, for a non-equalized 
 vessel of from 250 to 300 tons, $10 84. 
 
 Other restrictions and discriminations exist in favor 
 of equalized flags, especially in the transhipment of 
 mercliandise from one port to another, which confer 
 such advantages on vessels coming under this cate- 
 gory, as to preclude all competition on the pai-t of those 
 belonging to the other class. Merchandise tranship- 
 ped, as above, in the former, is exempt from every ex- 
 tra charge ; in the latter, three fourths of the original 
 djity^is exacted on all merchandise paying specific 
 duties,, and five per cent, on such as pay ad valorem 
 duties. These discriminating duties amount, in the 
 aggregate, to about 14, per cent, against non-privileged 
 vessels. There entered, in the year 1851, into all the 
 Ionian ports, 1436 vessels, measuring 169,144 tons j 
 and there cleared 1401 vessels, measuring 164,780 tons ; 
 making, in all, 2836 vessels, measuring 333,924' tons. 
 
 The flags of these vessels represented 14 different 
 nations, among which the United States is not includ- 
 ed. Indeed, it is but seldom that a United States' 
 vessel is found in any of the Ionian ports, nor can we 
 look for any direct trade between the two countries so 
 long as f;he present restrictions exist. Their removal 
 can be effected by treaty or convention only ; and nego- 
 tiations to this end, under the constitution of the Ion- 
 ian republic, must originate at London, as all diplo- 
 matic questions and conventions between these islands 
 and foreign States must be conducted by the govern- 
 ment of the protecting power. 
 
 Manufactures, ete.-^These islands possess few manu- 
 factures properly so termed. The wives of the villani, 
 or peasants^, spin and weave a coarse kind of woolen 
 cloth, sufficient in great part for the use of their fam- 
 ilies. A little soap is made at Corfu and Zante. The 
 latter manufactures a considerable quantity of silk 
 gros-de-Naples and handlcerchiefs ; the art of dyeing 
 is, however, too little studied, and the establishments 
 are on too small a scale. ' The peasantry, ii^ general, are 
 lazy, vain, delighting in display, and very supersti- 
 tious. Those of Zante and Cephalonia are more in- 
 dustrious than the Corfiotes ; in the first, particularly, 
 their superior condition is probably to be ascribed, in 
 part at least, to the nobles residing more on their es- 
 tates in th^ country, and contribiiting, by their exam- 
 ple, to stimulate ihdusti-j''. In Corfu, the taste for the 
 city life, which prevailed in the time of the Venetian 
 government, still operates to a great degree. The 
 Corfiote proprietor resides but little in his villa ; his 
 land is iieglectecl, while he continues in the practice of 
 his forefathers, who preferred watching opportunities 
 at the seat of a corrupt government, to improving their 
 fortunes by the more legitimate means of honorable 
 exertion and attention to their patrimony. In this 
 respect, however, a material change for the better has 
 taken place during the last 20 years. 
 • Imports of Gtain, etc. — Great part of the land is 
 
ION 
 
 1084 
 
 ION 
 
 held under short tenures, on the metayer system^ the 
 tenant pajnng half the produce to the landlord. Owing 
 to the nature of the soil, and the superior attention 
 given to the culture of olives and currants, the staple 
 products of the islands, most part of the grain and 
 cattle required for their consumption is imported. The 
 hard wheat of Odessa is preferred, -and large sums are 
 annually sent to the Black Sea in payment. The Par- 
 liament, in March, 1833, repealed the duties on the in- 
 troduction of corn ; and the grain monopoly' of Corfu, 
 "which had been established in favor of government, in 
 order to provide against the possibility of a general or 
 partial scarcity, was then also suffered to expire. 
 These two sources of revenue, while they existed, did 
 , not probably produce less than £20,000 annually. They 
 are similarly dependent upon Greece and Turkey for 
 supplies of butcher's meat ; a small number only of 
 sheep and goats being bred in the islands. Oxen, 
 whether for agriculture or the slaughter-house, are 
 principally brought from Turkey. The beeves eaten 
 by the troops are six weeks or two months walking 
 down from the Danube, and the provinces that skirt 
 it, to the shores of Epirus, where they remain in pas- 
 ture nntU fit for the table. 
 
 Exports. — The staple exports from these islands are 
 oil, currants, wine, soap, salt, and Valonia. The first 
 is produced in great abundance in Corfu and Paxo, 
 and in a less quantity in Zante, Santa Maura, and 
 Cephalonia. Corfu has, in fact, the appearance of a 
 continuous olive wood ; a consequence, partly, of the 
 extraordiuarj' encouragement formerly given to the 
 culture of the plant by the Venetians. Although 
 there is a harvest every year, the great crop is prop- 
 erly biennial ; the tree generally reposing for a year 
 after its effort. (In France and Piedmont the period 
 of inactivity is two and three years.) During five or 
 six months, from October till April, the country, par- 
 ticularly in Corfu, presents an animated appearance, 
 persons of all ages being busily employed in picking 
 up the fruit. The average price may be about £1 lis. 
 per barrel. Under the old Venetian system, the ' oil 
 could only be carried to Trieste. It is charged with an 
 ad valorem duty of 18 per cent., paj'able on the ex- 
 port. The quality might be much improved by a little 
 more care in the manufacture, the trees being generally 
 finer than in any other country. Currants, originallj' 
 introduced from the Morea, are grown in Zante, Ceph- 
 alonia, and Ithaca, but principally in the first. The 
 plant is a vine of small size and delicate nature, the 
 cultivation of which requires much care. Six or seven 
 years elapse after a plantation has been made before it 
 yields a crop. In the beginning of October, the earth 
 about the roots of the plants is loosened,-tInd gathered 
 up in small heaps, away from the vine, which is pruned 
 in March ; after which the ground is again laid down 
 smooth around ; the blight called the " brina," and 
 rainy weather in harvest produce great mischief. 
 The currants are gathered toward September, and 
 after being carefully picked, are thrown singly upon a 
 stone floor, exposed to the sun in the open air. The 
 drying process may occupy a fortnight or longer, if 
 the weather be not .favorable. A heavy shower or 
 thunder-storm (no unfrequent occurrence at th^t sea- 
 son), not only interrupts it, but sometimes causes fer- 
 mentation. The fruit is then only fit to be given to 
 animals. Should it escape these risks, it is deposited 
 in magazines called " scraglie," until a purchaser 
 casts up. 
 
 The exports of these islands are raisins, olives, olive- 
 oil, honey, soap, silk, and wine ; and the imports are 
 coffee, sugar, wines, brandy, grain, cured fish, manu- 
 factures of wood, wool, cotton, iron, etc. Currants and 
 raisins constitute the heaviest articles of export from 
 these islands, the annual produce of currants amount- 
 ing to some 12,000,000 pounds ; but of late years the 
 producers have had to contend with diseases called 
 " the blight," for which sulphur has proved to be the 
 
 only efficient remedy. Notwithstanding the partial 
 failure of the crops from this cause, for four consecn- 
 tive years, the exports of currants in 1855 show an ac- 
 tive and remunerating trade. The following summary 
 for this year will .give some idea of the extent of the 
 currant trade of the republic : 
 
 -' 
 
 Exported to 
 
 CiBtUled, 
 
 Existing 
 
 Total. 
 
 Englond.' 
 
 Trieste. 
 
 
 Zante 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 701,981 
 4,868,400 
 
 Pounda, 
 85,367 
 
 485,486 
 46,000 
 
 Pounds, 
 
 1,002,702 
 
 576,118 
 
 4,000 
 
 Pounds, 
 120^660 
 
 Pounds, 
 
 1,790,000 
 
 6,999,999 
 
 60,000 
 
 ,10,000 
 
 Cephalonia. 
 
 Santa Maura 
 
 Total 
 
 5,670,831 
 
 666,85S[1,582,816, 120,000 
 
 7,849,999 
 
 Salt may be obtained in considerable quantities in 
 Corfu, Zante, and Santa Maura, for exportation ; the 
 latter island alone produced it until the late act of Par- 
 liament, -which provided that government should let 
 the salt-pans in all the islands to those bidders who 
 should oflfer, by sealed tenders, to supply it at the low- 
 est rate to the consumer, paying at the sam^ time the 
 highest price to government. ■ No export duty is 
 charged upon it. These statements show that heavy 
 duties are levied upon the exportation of the staple 
 products of the islands — an objectionable system, and 
 one which, if it is to be excused at all, can only be so 
 by the peculiar circumstances under which they are 
 placed. There is no land-tax or impost on property in 
 the Ionian Islands, such as exists in many other rude 
 countries ; and, supposing it were desirable to intro- 
 duce such a tax, the complicated state of property in 
 them, the feudal tenures under which it is held, and 
 the variety of usages with respect to it, oppose all but 
 invincible obstacles to its imposition on fair and equal 
 principles. At the same time, too, a large amount of 
 revenue is required to meet the expenses of the general 
 and local governments, to maintain an efficient police, 
 and to prevent smuggling and piracy. However, we 
 can not help thinking that some very material retrench- 
 ments might be niade from the expenditure ; and it is 
 to this source, more, perhaps, than to any other, that 
 the inhabitants must look for anj'- real or effectual re- 
 lief from their burdens. 
 
 The Duties on Exports from the Ionian Islands are 
 regulated by acts dated 8th June, 1836, 25th April, 
 1837, and 29th May, 1847. Oil and currants pay 18 
 per. cent, ad valorem. Wine (excepting that of the 
 Cephalonia "Wine Company), 6 per cent, ad valorem. 
 Soap, 8 per cent, ad valorem. Valonia, 6 per cent, ad 
 valorem. All other articles free. N. B. — Oil shipped^ 
 in vessels under Ionian colors for the purpose of being 
 conveyed from one island to another of the States must 
 pay only 7 per cent, ad valorem. 
 Account of the Eeventte of the Ionian Islands in 1851 
 
 AND 1852, SPECIFYING THE DIFFERENT ItEMB, AND TIIR 
 
 Amount op eaoh, 
 
 Duties, 
 
 Revenue in 
 1851, 
 
 Revenue in 
 
 1852. 
 
 Customs 
 
 Export duty — 
 
 £80,040 
 
 20,785 
 
 84,4^1 
 
 454 
 
 1,872 
 2,909 
 28,604 
 12,481 
 726 
 
 4,749 
 
 2,206 
 
 2,688 
 
 1,076 
 
 1,208 
 
 607 
 
 348 
 
 2,250 
 
 1,599 
 
 811 
 
 £22,113» 
 
 11,106* 
 
 18,6ia* 
 
 670 
 
 1,120 
 2,583 
 22,141 
 10,860 
 879 
 
 4,216 
 2,048 
 2,251 
 
 571 
 1,223 
 
 898 
 
 268 
 1,828 
 1,681 
 
 538 
 
 
 
 Import duty — 
 On foreign wines and spirits, , , 
 " tobacco 
 
 " grain 
 
 
 Sale of gunpowder (monopoly) , . . 
 Receipts for tariff dues- 
 Health Office 
 
 Post Office 
 
 Executive Police, 
 
 Judicial 
 
 Free port warehouse rents 
 
 Mortgage and registration dues. , , 
 Printing office receipts , , . 
 
 Freights of gov't steam packets, . 
 Receipts for public instruction. , . 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 Total 
 
 £144,086 
 
 £99,081 
 
 
 * The diminution of the duties was wholly owing to the 
 failure in the crops of oil and currants. 
 
ION 
 
 1085 
 
 ION 
 
 A.OOOTTNT OF THE EXPENDITTTEB OF THE IONIAN ISLANDS 
 IN 1851 ASH 1862, SPEOIFTINO THE DIFFERENT ItEMS, 
 
 AND THE Amount of bach. 
 
 Heads of expenditure. 
 
 1851. 
 
 1853. 
 
 Military protection (paid by Eng.) 
 Lord H. Gommissioiier's clvillist 
 
 £26,000 
 
 14,448 
 
 811 
 
 42,613 
 
 15,629 
 
 11,894 
 
 1,853 
 
 2,8S1 
 
 4,580 
 
 1,889 
 
 1,822 
 
 887 
 1,460 
 1,853 
 
 20,028 
 
 £25,000 
 
 18,000 
 
 4,720 
 
 40,460 
 
 15,866 
 
 11,499 
 
 1,662 
 
 722 
 
 2,643 
 
 432 
 
 1,880 
 
 888 
 1,949 
 2,069 ■ 
 
 14,434 
 
 Civil establishment 
 
 
 
 
 Public works 
 
 Packet service, coals, repairs, etc. 
 Collection of revenue, including 
 
 paper for stamps 
 
 Health office, lazarettos and 
 
 light-houses 
 
 Post offices. 
 
 
 
 GontingeQt expenditure of gen- 
 eral and local governments. . . 
 Total 
 
 £145,696 
 
 £136,119 
 
 
 Account of thk Quantities and Yalues of the princi- 
 pal -.Aetioleb exported from the Ionian Islands 
 M 1862. 
 
 Articles exported. 
 
 Olive oil bar.ofl6imp. l 
 
 Currants lbs 
 
 Wine .barrels 
 
 Spirits.; ' 
 
 Salt ' bushels 
 
 Hides number 
 
 Casks of currants.,.,..,... " 
 
 Barrels for oil.' inc. butts 
 
 Soap lbs. 
 
 All other articles 
 
 Foreign manufactures 
 
 Total 
 
 Merehaodise in transit. 
 
 27,178 
 
 7,8e?,908* 
 
 89,063 
 
 720 
 
 109,797 
 
 6,087 
 
 8,779 
 
 '6,240 
 
 1,291,687 
 
 18,877 
 
 Vfttue. 
 
 £61,662 
 
 76,014 
 
 9,512 
 
 554 
 
 1,146 
 
 1,788 
 
 2,382 
 
 932 
 
 16,698 
 
 8,983 
 
 8,717 
 
 182,872 
 
 * A very bad season. In favorable years the exports 
 amount to 15,000,000 or 16,000,000 lbs. 
 
 Account op the Quantities and Values of the various 
 Articles imported into the Ionian Islands in 1852. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 Quantities. 
 
 Vaiue. 
 
 Produce, sugar lbs. 
 
 Coffee . . '. " 
 
 Drugs, gums, etc £ 
 
 1,886,807 
 696,883 
 
 ""95 
 
 50,655 
 28,824 
 62,683 
 898,672 
 846,070 
 296,880 
 
 9,641 
 
 928,332 
 
 167,828 
 
 T3,668 
 
 18,644 
 
 1,181,084 
 
 891,727 
 
 271,644 
 
 872,817 
 
 81,828 
 
 474,452 
 
 71,767 
 
 28.746 
 
 1,038,619 
 
 59,018 
 
 1,244,826 
 
 9,614 
 
 17^197 
 
 682 
 
 1,164 
 
 9,966 
 
 2,028 
 
 816 
 
 89,142 
 
 290,821 
 
 £80,738 
 
 15,617 
 
 10,286 
 
 114,468 
 
 38 
 
 1,256 
 
 280 
 
 1,148 
 
 !■ 5,795 
 
 2,410 
 
 17,251 
 
 8,708 
 
 201,646 
 
 23,189 
 6,751 
 8,248 
 4,887 
 9,219 
 2,548 
 8,262 
 818 
 5,754 
 2,886 
 828 
 9,192 
 4,280 
 
 16,964 
 2,659 
 4,862 
 962 
 4,299 
 8,200 
 
 82,741 
 2,678 
 2,071 
 5,894 
 6,828 
 
 12,873 
 
 Raw silk lbs. 
 
 Wool " 
 
 Staves for largo casks No 
 
 Hoops " " " 
 
 Iron lbs. 
 
 Firewood passi. 
 
 Wheat.'..! i.kllogs. 
 
 
 Beans and other pulse. . . " 
 
 Potatoes lbs. 
 
 Eice " 
 
 Maccaroni , " 
 
 riour. " 
 
 Biscuits " 
 
 Cheese " 
 
 Butter " 
 
 Stock fish and baccala " 
 
 Bottarga and Caviare " 
 
 Sardlnias and anchovies — . " 
 
 Onions and garlic mil. 
 
 Dried ftuits. £ 
 
 Poultry. No. 
 
 Wines, fcreign barrels 
 
 Spirits. " 
 
 Horned cattle No. 
 
 Horses, mules, and asses.. . . " 
 
 Sheep, goats, and pigs " 
 
 Tobacco .IbSi 
 
 Eye kilogs. 
 
 All other articles £ 
 
 Total ... 
 
 
 
 686,288 
 
 
 Value of merchandise In transit 
 
 .... 
 
 198,128 
 
 Porta. — The principal ports in the Ionian republic 
 are Corfu anil Zante, in the islaniis of the same names, 
 and Argostoli in Cephalonia. The city and port of 
 Corfu lie on the east side of the island, on the canal 
 
 or channel between it and the opposite continent, 
 which is here about five miles wide. The citadel, 
 which projects into the sea, is furnished with a light- 
 house, 240 feet high; the latter being iulat. 39° 37' 
 N., long. 19° 66' E. The town is but indifferently 
 built. Population about 18,000, exclusive of the mili- 
 tary. The fortifications are very strong, both toward 
 the sea and the land. The canal has deep water 
 throughout ; its navigation, which is a little difficult, 
 has been much facilitated by the erection of a light- 
 house on the rock of Tignoso in the northern entrance, 
 where the channel is less than a mile in width ; and 
 by the mooring of a floating light off Point Leschino, 
 in the southern entrance. Ships anchor between the 
 small but well-fortifled island of Vido and the city, in 
 from 12 to 17 fathoms water. The port, or rather gulf, 
 of A;'gostoli in Cephalonia, lies on the south-west side 
 of the island. Cape Aji, forming its south-western 
 extremity, is in lat. 88° 8' 40" N., long. 20° 23' 30" 
 E. Cape San Nicolo, forming the other extremity, is 
 about 4|- miles from Cape Aji ; and between them, 
 within about 1^ mile of the latter, is the small islet of 
 Guardiani, on which is a light-house. From this isl- 
 and the gulf stretches N. J W., from seven to eight 
 miles inland. The town of Argostoli lies on the west 
 side of a haven on the east side of the gulf formed by 
 Point Statura. The situation is low and rather un- 
 healthy. Population about 5000. Its appearance and 
 police, particularly the latter, have been much im- 
 proved since its occupation by the English, There is 
 deep water and good anchorage ground in most parts 
 of the gulf. The best entrance is between Cape San 
 Nicolo and Guardiani, keeping rather more than a mile 
 to the eastward of the latter, on account of a reef that 
 extends N. E. and S. W. from it nearly that distance. 
 The port and city of Zante are situated on the east- 
 em side of the island, in lat. 37° 27 N., long, 20° 54' 
 42" E. The city, the largest in the Ionian Islands, 
 extends along the shore for nearly IJ mile, but it is 
 nowhere above 200 yards in breadth, except where it as- 
 cends the hill on which the citadel is erected. The style 
 of building is chiefly Italian ; and the interior of the city 
 displays every where great neatness, and even a certain 
 degree of magnificence. Population estimated by Dr. 
 Burgess at about 20,000. It has a mole or jetty of con- 
 siderable utility, at the extremity of which a light- 
 house is erected ; and a lazaretto, situated a little to 
 the south-west. The harbor is, capacious. Ships an- 
 chor opposite the town at from 600 to 1000 yards' dis- 
 tance, in from 12 to 15 fathoms, availing themselves 
 of the protection of the mole when the wind is from 
 the north-east. When the troops took possession of 
 Zante, in 1810, the fortifications were found to be in 
 very bad repair ; but immense suras have since been 
 expended upon their improvement and extension. 
 
 In 1853 566,817 tons of shipping entered the ports 
 of the Ionian Islands, of which 27,916 were English. 
 The others were Ionian, Greek, Turkish, etc. 
 
 Money. — ^Accounts are kept in sterling money, or in 
 Spanish dollars and oboli, 100 obeli being = 1 doll. ^ 
 4s. 4d. ; a doubloon ^ 1 dollar. — Tate's Cambist. 
 
 Weights. — English weights and measures are some- 
 times made use of, though with Italian denominations ; 
 but the following are most generally used : The pound 
 peso grosso, or great weight of 12 oz. = 7384 grains 
 Troy ; 94-8 lbs. = 100 lbs. avoirdupois. The pound 
 peso sottile, or small weight used for precious metals 
 and drugs, is l-3d lighter than the foregoing ; 12 oz. 
 peso sottUe corresponding to 8 oz. peso grosso. 
 
 The oke, used in the southern islands, weighs about 
 18,900 grains Troy, or 2710 lbs. avourdupois. The 
 Levant oantar, or quintal, should contain 44 okes. 
 The migliajo (1000 lbs.), for currants in Zante, is 1 per 
 cent, lighter than for other articles. 
 
 Measures of Length. — ^The Venetian foot is 12 onufe 
 = 13f inches English. Passo == 5 Venetian feet. 
 Braccio, for cloths, etc., = 27 3-16 inches English. 
 
lOW 
 
 1086 
 
 lOW 
 
 Do. for silks, = 25 3'18. Land is measured by the 
 misura or 1'8 of a moggio, or bacile, 400 square passi 
 being 1 misura, or bacile, about 3-10 of an acre En- 
 glish. Vineyards are measured by the zappade ; 3 
 zappade (a computed day's work) being 1 misura. Fire- 
 wood is measured by the square passo, usually, how- 
 ever, only 2 feet thick, this depending on the quality 
 of the wood. Stone is measured by the passo cubo. 
 
 Measures of Capacity. — Com. — Corfu and Paxo ; 
 moggio of 8 misure, about 5 Winchester bushels. Ceph- 
 alonia : bacile should contain 80 lbs. peso grosso, best 
 quality wheat. Santa Maura : cado of 8 erivelli, 4 = 
 
 3 mog. ; 1 cado = 3f bushels English. Ithaca : 5 
 bacile = 1 moggio. Cerigo : chilo, the measure of 
 Constantinople, = 1 bushel English. 
 
 Wine. — Corfu and Paxo ; 32 quartucci = 1 jar, and 
 
 4 jars = 1 barrel = 18 English wine gallons. Ceph- 
 alonia and Ithaca : 2 quartucci = 1 boccale ; 4 boo- 
 cali = 1 secchio ; 6 secchio = 1 barrel = 18 English 
 gallons. Zante : 13 1-3 quartucci = 1 lire ; 40 quar- 
 tucci = 1 jar ; 3 jars = 1 barrel = 17 5-8 English 
 wine gallons. Santa Maura : 22 quartucci = 1 stam- 
 no ; 6 stamni = 1 barrel = 18 English wine gallons. 
 Cerigo : 2 agosten = 1 boccia ; 30 boccio = 1 barrel 
 = 18 English wine gallons. 
 
 Oil.- — Corfu and Paxo : 4 quartucci = 1 miltro ; 6 
 miltri =1 jar ; 4 jars = 1 barrel = 18 English wine 
 gallons. Cephalonia : 9 pagliazzi = 1 barrel = 18 
 English wine gallons. Zante : 9 lire, or 3 jars of 46 
 quartucci each = 1 barrel S-8 English wine gallons. 
 Santa Maura : 7 stamni = 1 barrel = 18 English wine 
 gallons. Ithaca : 13 pagliazzi = 1 barrel = 18 En- 
 glish wine gallons. Cerigo : 24 bozze = 1 barrel = 
 14 0-5 English wine gallons. Sail. — Centinajo, about 
 4000 lbs. Venetian peso grosso. Lime.- — Corfu, meas- 
 ure of 4 English cubic feet. 
 
 In compiling this article, we have consulted, besides 
 the works referred to above, the Voyage Ilistorique Pit- 
 ioresque, etc., by Saint Sauvedr — a diffuse but valu- 
 able work. The account of Zante, in the last volume 
 (tome iii., pp. 101-278), is particularly good. "We 
 have also looked into the Voyage en Grece of ScRO- 
 FANI, 3 tomes, Paris, 1801 ; the Archives du Commerce ; 
 the Papers laid hefore the British Finance Committee^ 
 etc. See Westm. Rev., xxxviii., 413 ; Monthly Rev., 
 Ixxxiii., 225, cii., 138; Quar. Rev., xxix., 86; Chris. 
 Rev., xiv., 625 ; Com. Rel. U. S., vol. i., 457, vol. ii., 
 171. 
 
 lovra, one of the United States of North America, 
 lies between north lat. 40° 40' and 43° 30', and west 
 long. 90° 12' and 96° 53'. It is bounded north by 
 Minnesota Territory, east by the Mississippi River, 
 which separates it from the States of Illinois and Wis- 
 consin, south by Missouri, and west by the Missouri 
 and the great Sioux Rivers, the former of which sepa- 
 rates it from the Indian Territory, and the later from 
 Minnesota. Greatest length from east to west, 307 
 miles ; greatest breadth, 196 miles ; area, 50,914 square 
 miles. 
 
 The surface of Iowa Is somewhat elevated and gen- 
 erally undulating. It has no mountains, nor even 
 hills, of any great height. Table Mound, a conical 
 elevation with a flat summit, three or four miles from 
 Dubuque, is perhaps 500 feet high. On the borders 
 of the rivers there are frequent " bluffs" which are 
 generally from 40 to 130 feet high. The highest 
 ground in the State is a plateau in the north-west, 
 called Coieau des Prairies, which enters it from IMin- 
 nesota. The southern part of the State abounds with 
 grassy lawns and verdant plains, intersected by nu- 
 merous rivers, the chief of which are the Des Moines, 
 the Skunk, the Iowa, and the Red Cedar (a branch of 
 Iowa) Rivers which flow in a south-east direction into 
 the Mississippi. The banks of almost all of these 
 rivers are skirted with belts of wood. The distinguish- 
 ing feature, however, of Iowa is its unique and admir- 
 ably diversified prairies, sometimes spreading out into 
 
 vast plains. The entire State is named "a rolling 
 prairie" by the settlers, from the resemblance its sur- 
 face bears to the rolling swell of the ocean. From 
 the absence of wood, the scenery becomes wearisome 
 and tame. 
 
 The soil of Iowa is in general fertile. Near the 
 confines of the Coteau des Prairies the country is hilly 
 and desolate ; the high lands being covered with gravel 
 support but a scanty vegetation, while the low grounds 
 are marshy. It appears, however, from the surv'ej's 
 which have been made, that no State in the Union has 
 a smaller proportion of inferior land. Dr. Owen, in 
 his geological report, remarks that " the soil of Iowa 
 is generally excellent, and of easy cultivation. The 
 valleys — especially of the Red Cedar, Iowa, and Des 
 Moines Rivers — present a body of arable land, which, 
 taken as a whole, for richness in organic elements, for 
 amount of saline matter, and due admixture of earthy 
 silicates, affords a combination which belongs only to 
 the most fertile upland plains." The climate is gen- 
 erally more healthful than most of the new States, 
 The openness of the country renders it less liable than 
 is usual to the influence of malaria ; the air on the 
 upland prairies is buoyant, and rendered free from all 
 pernicious influences by the refreshing breezes that 
 blow periodically over them. The rapid flow of its 
 rivers also canies off in the valleys those miasmatic 
 influences which otherwise tend to the production of 
 disease. The winter is occasionally severe, but the 
 severity is not so great as is usual in the same lat- 
 itudes. The summer, also, is less oppressively hot. 
 
 Iowa is strictly an agricultural country. Its fine 
 prairies and rich natural pastures afford peculiar facil- 
 ities for rearing cattle and sheep. Wool-growing has 
 accordingly become one of the staple employments of 
 the settlers. The raising of hogs is an occupation 
 equally common and profitable. The value of live 
 stock in 1850 was estimated at $3,660,000, and slaugh- 
 tered animals at $810, 000. The amount of wool pro- 
 duced was 373,898 pounds. Considerable progress 
 has recently been made in agriculture, as shown by 
 the increase of various productions of the State. For 
 instance, in 1840 there were only 154,693 bushels of 
 ■Rheat grown ; in 1850, there were 1,540,581 ; in 1840, 
 216,385 bushels oats; in 1850, 1,524,345; in 1840, 
 1,406,241 bushels maize ; in 1850, 8,656,799. All the 
 other productions common to similar latitudes are 
 grown in Iowa, and have increased in an equal or 
 greater proportion. 
 
 Manufactures have, until recently made little prog- 
 ress in the State. Having only existed for little 
 more than 10 years as an independent State, time has 
 not been afforded to develop its manufacturing re- 
 sources. Possessing within itself abundance of the 
 two grand elements for manufacturers — coal and wa- 
 ter power — there can be no doubt that Iowa wUl yet 
 be distinguished as a manufacturing State. In 1850 
 the number of manufacturing establishments, produ- 
 cing each to the value of $500 annually'' and upward, 
 was 482. Of these there were three for the manufac- 
 ture of cast iron, 14 tanneries, and one woolen factory. 
 The others are chieflj' employed in the manufacture of 
 articles for ordinary and domestic purposes and agri- 
 cultural implements. The home-made manufactures 
 in the vear ending 1st June 1850, were valued at 
 $220,000. 
 
 The minerals of Iowa are not of great variety. The 
 vast bituminous coal-field of the State occupies most 
 of its central and southern portions. For upwards of 
 200 miles the River Des Moines passes through this 
 great deposit, the area of which has been estimated at 
 about 20,000 square miles embracing a country equal 
 in extent to more than one half of the State of Indi- 
 ana. The beds of coal, which are 100 feet in thick- 
 ness, lie near the surface, and ma}^ be worked at small 
 expense. The lead mines of Iowa are a continuation 
 of those of Illinois and Wisconsin. The workings are 
 
low 
 
 1087 
 
 IRE 
 
 did and have been vfery productive. They occur in 
 the north-east part of the State, Dubuque, one of the 
 oldest settlements in North America, being the Chief 
 town of the lead-mining district. Dr. Owen, in his 
 Geological Survey, remarks that the lead-mines of Iowa 
 produce as much of that metal as the whole of Europe, 
 except Great Britain, and that their capabilities are 
 unbounded. Zinc is foimd chieflj' in the form of elec- 
 tric calamine, in cellular masses in connection with the 
 lead. This mineral occurs in some " diggings" also, 
 in a state of carbonate, and in others, as a sulphuret. 
 Copper is found in the same localities as zinc. It has 
 recently been discovered in Cedar cojinty in consider- 
 able quantities. Iron-ore is abundantly distributed, 
 but as 3'et, only a small quantity of it' has been con- 
 verted into metal. In the geological survey of the 
 State above referred to, it is affirmed that its resources 
 and capabilities are such that 10,000 laborers and 
 miners might be profitably employed within its bound- 
 aries. Iowa has no direct foreign commerce, but its 
 .trade with the ports of the Atlantifc arid the Mexican 
 Gulf is very considerable, and rapidly increasing. 
 The exports consist of agricultural and ' mining pro- 
 ducts. The home traffic of this State is also very con- 
 siderable. The facilities which it possesses, both for 
 internal trade and foreign commerce are very abund- 
 ant, and in a short time will be greatly increased. A 
 railroad of 180 miles in length has been projected be- 
 tween Dubuque, the capital of the lead-mining district, 
 and Keokulc, the chief port ,of the State for foreign 
 trade. Keokuk, Davenport, Lyons, and Dubuque will 
 also shortly be connected by railroads with the inte- 
 rior. Besides these, which will radiate through the 
 State in various directions, the grand trunk line is 
 proposed to be carried from -this city westward to 
 Council Bluffs on the Missouri, and will form a part of 
 the great Pacific line which is to terminate at San 
 Francisco, in California. Through Iowa will also pass 
 a branch of the great chain of north and south rail- 
 roads connecting St. Louis with the extreme settle- 
 ments of Minnesota Territory.' When these are com- 
 pleted, both the home and foreign commerce of the 
 State will be indefinitely increased. Congress has 
 given 1,300,000 acres for the improvement of the Des 
 Moines River, as far as Des Moines City — to be 
 made navigable for large steamboats. In July, 1856, 
 there were 108 miles of railroad finished, and 1110 
 proposed, for which Congress, in May, 1856, appropri- 
 ated 4,320,000 acres. The valley of the Des Moines 
 Eiver contains at present half the population, as well 
 as half the agricultural wealth of the State, and its pros- 
 perity may for some time depend as much upon the 
 improvement of navigation on this river, as upon the 
 execution of these projected railroads. The Des 
 Moines rises in the Coteau des Prairies, 'in the south- 
 west of Minnesota, and flowing through the State in gen- 
 eral in a south south-east direction, divides it into two 
 nearly equal sections, and after a course of 400 miles, 
 falls into the Mississippi at the south-east extremity of 
 the State, about four miles below Keokuk. Iowa has 
 many other interior rivers which are navigable for va- 
 rious — -some of them for considerable — distances. The 
 Skunk is more than 200 miles in length, and flows 
 through a fertile countrj-. It pursues a course of 150 
 miles in a south-east direction nearly parallel to Des 
 Moines. The Iowa, from which the State takes its 
 name, has, in general, a south south-east direction, 
 and after a course of upwards of 300 miles, discharges 
 itself in the Mississippi by two mouths, forming a delta, 
 the sides of which are about six miles long. It is 
 navigable by steamboats at all seasons, to Iowa City, 
 80 miles from its mouth, and for boats of light draught 
 much further up. The Red Cedar (a branch of the 
 Iowa), is navigable for 60 miles. The Wapsipinicon, 
 the Makoquete, Turkey, and Upper Iowa Rivers have 
 courses varj-ing in length from 100 to 200 mUes, and 
 are navigable for distances of 20 to 60 miles. They 
 
 flow in an east or eoiith-east direction into the Missis- 
 sippi. The Great Sioux, an important tributary of 
 the Missouri, forms the north-west boundary of the 
 State ; its length is estimated at 300 mile^. The trib- 
 utaries of the Missouri in this State are of minor im- 
 portance. The Mississippi' borders the State for its 
 whole length on the east, and is navigable in time of 
 high water for steamboats, to the mouth of the St. 
 Peters, in Minnesota. 
 
 Ipecacuanha (Fr. Xpecacuanlm ; Ger. American- 
 ische brechwurzel ; It. Ipecoacanjia ; Port. Cipo de cam^ 
 aras, Ipecacuanha ; Sp. JpecacuaTia, £aiz de oro), the 
 root of a perennial plant (CephaeKa ipecacuanha), grow- 
 ing in Brazil and other parts of South America. It 
 is from its color usuallj' denominated vihite, gray, or 
 ash-colored, and brown. Little of the first variety is 
 found in the shops. The gray and brown varieties are 
 brought to this countrj' in bales from Rio Janeiro. 
 Both are in short, wrinkled, variously bent, and con- 
 torted pieces, which break with a resinous fracture. 
 The gray is about the thickness of a small quill, full 
 of knots and deep circular fissures, that nearly reach 
 down to a white, woody, vascular cord that runs 
 through the heart of each piece ; the external part is 
 compact, brittle, and looks smooth ; the brown is 
 smaller, more wrinkled, of a blackish-brown color on 
 the outside, and whitish within : the white is woody, 
 and has no wrinkles. The entire root is inodorous ; 
 but the powder has a faint disagreeable odor. The 
 taste is hitter, sub-acrid, and extremely nauseous. In 
 choosing ipecacuanha, the larger roots, which are com- 
 pact and break with a resinous fracture, ha'ving a 
 whitish gray, somewhat semi-transparent appearance 
 in the outside cortical part, with a pale straw-colored 
 medullar}' fibre, are to be preferred. When pounded', 
 ipecacuanha forms the mildest and safest emetic in the 
 whole materia medica. Though probably employed 
 in America from time immemorial, it was not intro- 
 duced into Europe till the time of Louis XIV., when 
 one Grenier, a French merchant, brought 150 pounds 
 of it from Spain, with which trials were made at the 
 Hotel Dieu. Helvetius first made known its use in 
 dysentery, for which Louis XIV. munificently rewarded 
 him by a douceur of 25,000 francs. — ^Thomson's Dis- 
 pensatory ; Thomson's Chemistry, 
 
 Ireland, one of the largest of the European islands, 
 is situated to the west of Great Britain, from which it 
 is separated by a narrow channel called the Irish Sea 
 and St. George's Channel on the east, and is bounded 
 on its other sides by the Atlantic Ocean, through 
 which it can maintain a direct communication with the 
 continents of Europe, Africa,, and America. The ad- 
 vantageous position, the fertility of the soil, and the 
 salubrity of the climate, have conferred upon Ireland 
 commercial facilities which are capable of being 
 greatly increased. How far these natural advantages 
 have been made available toward the internal im- 
 provement of the island itself, and the general benefit 
 of the empire of which it forms an important part, may 
 be best ascertained from the following details of its 
 history and statistics. 
 
 Ireland is rhomboidal in shape, and placed at the 
 eastern extremity of the Atlantic Ocean, which washes 
 its northern, western, and southern shores, wMle its 
 eastern coast is separated from the adjacent island of 
 Great Britain by the Northern Channel, which at one 
 point is only 13J miles wide, the Irish Sea, about 130 
 mUes in width, and St. George's Channel, which is 69 
 miles wide between Dublin and Holyhead, and some- 
 what less at its southern extremity. Its geographical 
 position is betvfeen N. lat. 51° 26' and 55° 21', and 
 W. long. 5° 20' and 10° 26', comprising, therefore, 
 3° 55' of lat., and 6° 6' of long.— the degrees of lati- 
 tude being the same as those under which are situated 
 the dissimilar climates of Berlin, Hamburg, Rotter- 
 dam, Leipzig, Warsaw, part of Hudson's Bay, the 
 Straits of Belleisle, and Petropaulowski, in Kamta- 
 
IRE 
 
 1088 
 
 IRE 
 
 chatka, which latter is nearly under the same parallel 
 of latitude as Wicklow. The largest diagonal line 
 that can be drawn within the island, viz,, from Tor 
 Head, in Antrim, to Mizen Head, in Cork, measures 
 302 miles ; and the shorter, from Carnsore, in Wex- 
 ford, to Erris Head, in Mayo, is 210 miles in length. 
 The breadth of the country, from Dundalk to Bally- 
 shannon is 85 miles ; from Dublin to the head of Gal- 
 
 way Bay, 110 miles ; and the indentations of the coast 
 by harbors, arms of the sea, and mouths of rivers are 
 so numerous, that scarcely an acre of land in the coun- 
 try is more than ^0 miles from the sea or good naviga^ 
 tion. The territorial divisions, and the acreable ex- 
 tent of Ireland, which, next to Great Britain, is the 
 largest island in Kurope, appear in the following 
 table : 
 
 Territorial Divisions. 
 
 ACBBABLE EXTENT, 
 According to the Ordnance Survey and Census Report. 
 
 Aunual amount 
 of Griffith's 
 Valuation. 
 
 Provinces. 
 
 No. of 
 Baronies. 
 
 No. of 
 Parisliea. 
 
 Of arable land. 
 
 Of uncultiv- 
 ated land. 
 
 Of planta- 
 tions. 
 
 Of towns and 
 villages. 
 
 Of water. 
 
 Total area. 
 
 L^inster 
 
 Munster 
 
 Ulster 
 
 124^ 
 
 75 
 70 
 47 
 
 1,008 
 824 
 891 
 809 
 
 8,961,188 
 
 8,874,613 
 3,407,589 
 2,220,960 
 
 731,886 
 1,893,477 
 1,764,870 
 1,906,002 
 
 116,944 
 
 130,415 
 
 79,783 
 
 48,340 
 
 15,669 
 14,693 
 8,T90 
 3,877 
 
 51,624 
 151,831 
 214,956 
 212,864 
 
 4,876,211 
 6,064,579 
 6,475,488 
 4,892,048 
 
 £4,806,418 
 8,247,177 
 2,688,266 
 1,863,720 
 
 Connaugbt 
 
 Total 
 
 816 
 
 2,682 
 
 18,464,300 
 
 6,296,786 
 
 374,482 
 
 42,929 
 
 680,825 
 
 20,808,261 
 
 11,489,675 
 
 Several coal-fields .exist in Ireland, resting on a 
 limestone basis. In Ulster, the district of Coal Island, 
 in the county of Tyrone, produces coal of good quality, 
 extensively used in the neighborhood ; the small coaU 
 field at Ballycastle in Antrim, is of no economical im- 
 portance. The province of Connaught affords beds of 
 coal in Leitrim, Eoscommon, and Sligo, but rarely ex- 
 ceeding three or four inches in thickness. The Mun- 
 ster coal-fields are in the counties of Cork, Kerry, and 
 Limerick. The chief coal-district, however, is that of 
 Leinster, in Carlow, Kilkenny, and the Queen's 
 Count}^, This coal, as well as- that of the Munster 
 district, is anthracitous ; that of Connaght is bitumin- 
 ous. The native coal is only used in the districts 
 where it is raised, and neither the quantity nor the 
 quality has been found such as to interfere with the 
 importation of coal from Great Britain, which probably 
 exceeds 1,000,000 of tons annually. 
 
 More notable in Ireland are the unstratified igneous 
 rocks, of which man}' varieties are found. Trap-rocks 
 exist in various parts of the country, but more espec- 
 ially in Antrim, where they are found in great variety. 
 The basaltic columns of Fairhead and the Giant's 
 Causeway form one of the most interesting geological 
 districts in the British empire. The trap-rocks often 
 repose on the indurated chalk of Antrim, especially in 
 Eathlin Island and at Cushendole. At the latter place 
 beds of trap and the chalk alternate. Of quartz rock, 
 the chief development in Ireland is in Mayo and Don- 
 egal ; it appears, also, in the peninsula of Howth and 
 Dublin, the summits of the Sugar-Loaf Mountains, and 
 Bray Head, in Wicklow, and in the district of Forth, 
 in Wexford. No tertiarj- formation has been discov- 
 ered in Ireland, except the clays containing lignite or 
 wood-coal on the southern shore of Lough Neagh. 
 
 The elevation of the surface of Ireland is stated in 
 the following table from the Land Tenure Commission- 
 ers' map : 
 
 Square miles. 
 
 Between sea-level and 250 feet in height 18,242| 
 
 260 and 600 feet ll,797i 
 
 " 500 "1000 " 5,797| 
 
 " 1000 "2000 " 1,539| 
 
 Above 2000 feet in height 82i 
 
 Total 82,509 J 
 
 The highest peaks in the chief mountain groups are : 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Carntnal, M'GilUcnddy's Eeeks, Co. Kerry. . . . 8,414 
 
 Lugnaquilla, Wicklow 3,039 
 
 Slieve Donard, Momrne Mountains, Co. Down. 2,796 
 
 Mulrea, Co. Mayo 2,688 
 
 Comei-agh, Co. Waterford 2,697 
 
 EiTigal, Co. Donegal 2,462 
 
 Trostan, Co. Antrim 1,810 
 
 If the possession of numerous fine baj's and harbors 
 made a country great as a commercial and maritime 
 power, Ireland would be second to none in Europe. 
 Pre-eminent even in Ireland is the magnificent harbor 
 of Cork, securely land-locked, protected by strong bat- 
 teries, and used as the only naval station on the Irish 
 coast. Baltimore Harbor, Skull, Cfip^ Clear, Crook- 
 haven, Dunmanus and Bantry Bay, are all of sufficient 
 
 depth and capacity for large vessels. On the western 
 coast are Berehaven, Kenmare River, Valentia, Ven- 
 try, Smerwick, Brandon Bay, the estuary of the Shan- 
 non, Galway Bay, Eoundstone Bay, Ardbear or Clif- 
 den, Ballynakill and Killery Harbors, Clew, Blackrod, 
 and Killala Bays, with many others of less importance. 
 On the northern coast are Milroy Harbor, and the fine 
 gulfs of Lough Swilly and Lough Foyle. The eastern 
 coast has been less favored by nature, and furnishes 
 only one bay, with sufficient depth of water for the 
 largest vessels, that of Strangford. The Bay of Dub- 
 lin, which is much exposed, contains the fine artificial 
 Harbor of Kingstown. Belfast, NewTy, Drogheda, 
 Wicklow, Arklow, and Wexford, have all been con- 
 verted into ports, but are naturally deficient in the 
 requisites for good harbors. Between Wexford and 
 Cork is the fine Estuary of Waterford, formed by the 
 confluence of the Rivers Suir, Nore, and Barrow. Al- 
 together, Ireland possesses 14 harbors for the largest 
 ships, 17 for frigates, from 30 to 40 for merchant ves- 
 sels, with many good summer roadsteads, and an in- 
 finity of small harbors for fishing-boats. The islands 
 off the coast of Ireland are numerous, but generally of 
 small size ; the largest are Eathlin and Tory in the 
 north ; Achill, Clare, the South Arran Islands, and 
 Valentia, in the west ; and Whiddy and Cape Clear in 
 the south. 
 
 Lakes. — The lakes in Ireland are numerous. Lough 
 Neagh, in Ulster, is the largest inland lake in the 
 United Kingdom, and is only exceeded in Europe by 
 Lake Ladoga in Russia, Lake Vener in Sweden, and 
 the Lake of Geneva. According to the Ordnance Sur- 
 vey it covers 98,255 statute acres. The River Bann, 
 passing through it, affords the means of lowering its 
 surface, which is 48 feet above the sea at low water ; 
 but as its deepest part is beneath the level of low wa- 
 ter, total drainage would be impracticable. Tradition 
 states that it was once dry land, and that the tops of 
 buildings may at times be seen in it — a legend which 
 has been made use of by Moore in one of his melodies. 
 Lough Neagh contains but one islet, Earn Island, re- 
 markable only for a round tower, and as contributing 
 to break the sameness of the surface of the lake, which, 
 being surrounded by shores almost as level as itself, 
 and generallj- bare of wood, has little or none of the 
 picturesque beauty which renders Lough Erne and 
 Killarney so delightful. Its vicinity to the five coun- 
 ties of Ulster, Antrim, Down, Armagh, Tyrone, and 
 Londonderry, each of which its waters touch, presents 
 great advantages for internal trade by inland naviga- 
 tion ; steam vessels have been placed upon the lake, 
 and, in conjunction with Coal Island, Newry, Ulster, 
 and Lagan Canals, Lough Neagh, with its 100 miles 
 of coast, promises to increase in importance as a centre 
 of internal traffic. Lough Erne, the next in size, lies 
 wholly within the county of Fermanagh. Its total 
 length is upward of 40 miles, but its greatest breadth 
 is not more than 8. Strictly speaking, it consists of , 
 two lakes, about 5 miles apart ; the more inland meas- 
 uring about 14 miles in length, and tliat nearer the 
 
IRE 
 
 1089 
 
 IRE 
 
 sea, 25. They are connected with each other by a 
 fine river flowing from the upper or southern, into the 
 lower or northern lake. On the island formed by the 
 division of this river into two branches, the chief part 
 of the town of EnnisMllen is built. The upper lake 
 covers 9278 statute acres, and contains about 90 isl- 
 ands ; the lower and larger lake contains nearly 28,- 
 000 statute acres and numerous islets. Its coasts are 
 studded with numerous seats and villas of much beau- 
 ty. Lough Corrib and Lough Mask, in the west of 
 Connaught, are separated from each other by an isth- 
 mus not ^ore than 3 miles broad. The former of these 
 lakes covers an area of 43,484 acres, and the latter, 
 22,219. It discharges its waters into Galway Bay by 
 a short but broad and rapid river, which skirts the 
 town of Galway. Its level is but 14 feet above that 
 of the sea, and works have long been in progress to 
 connect the navigation of the bay with that of the two 
 great lakes above it. Means of connecting them by 
 water communication has not yet been effected. Fur- 
 ther north, and about 3 miles from Ballina, is the nar- 
 row lake of Lough Conn, 12 miles long. The lakes 
 of Killarney, in Kerrj-, have long been celebrated for 
 their picturesque scenery. • They are small as com- 
 pared with the larger lakes of Ireland ; the lower lake 
 covers 5001 acres, the middle lake 680 acres, and the 
 upper lake only 430 acres. Lough Derg, in the south 
 of Donegal, is small, but of great celebrity from an 
 islet in it, called St. Patrick's Purgatory, which has 
 been resorted to from time immemorial as a place of 
 penance by pilgrims of the Roman Catholic persuasion. 
 ' This lake is not to be confounded with the great Lough 
 Dearg lying on the course of the Shannon, which con- 
 tains 29,570 acres. Lough Gill, in Sligo, Lough Shel- 
 lin to the north of Meath, and Lough Oughter, in 
 Cavan, are also worthy of notice for their scenic beau- 
 ties. There are many other lakes of small size in 
 most parts of Ireland, but chiefly in the counties of Ca- 
 van, Westmeath, and Longford. 
 
 Ireland contains not only the largest lake, but also 
 the largest river in the United Kingdom — the Shan- 
 non, which, rising in the mountains on the confines of 
 Fermanagh and Leitrim, flows through Lough Allen, 
 and thence in a south-western direction, separating 
 Connaught from Leinster, till, arriving at Limerick, 
 it turns westward, and discharges itself into the At- 
 lantic, through a fine estuarj', which, at its entrance 
 between the Capes of Loophead and Kerrj'head, is 8 
 miles wide. It is navigable for large vessels to Lim- 
 erick, and for vessels of smaller tonnage to within 5 
 miles of its source in Lough Allen. Its centre length 
 measures 240 miles, and in consequence of the small 
 amount of its fall, which does not exceed 150 feet, its 
 current is very slow and often imperceptible. Dur- 
 ing its passage from Lough Allen to Limerick it ex- 
 pands into the large lakes of Longh Eeagh, 15 miles, 
 and Lough Dearg, 21 miles in length, and studded 
 with numerous islets. The Blackwater rises near 
 Charleville, and, flowing south-eastward, discharges 
 itself into the Atlantic at Youghal, after forming the 
 boundary between the counties of Cork and Waterford. 
 Between the latter county and that of Wexford is the 
 estuary of the Suir, the Nore, and the Barrow, all of 
 which have their sources not far from each other in 
 the central range of the Slievebloom Mountains ; and, 
 after diverging so that their streams enrich a great 
 portion of the provinces of Leinster and Munster, unite 
 again near the city of Waterford. The Slaney rises 
 in the mountains of Wicklow, and empties itself into 
 St. George's Channel at Wexford. 'The Boyne, fa- 
 mous for its historical recollections as well as for its 
 natural advantages, has its sources in the central ele- 
 vated plain of Leinster, and, flowing north-eastward, 
 falls into the Irish Sea at Drogheda. The Bann rises 
 in the Moume Mountains, flows northward through 
 Lough Neagh, and, after separating the counties of 
 Londonderry and Antrim, flows into the Atlantic at I 
 2zz 
 
 Sq. miles. 
 
 Lee -735 
 
 Litfoy .-. -668 
 
 Blackwater, N -626 
 
 Maine and Inney. '511 
 
 Fealo and Galle -479 
 
 Eoughty -475 
 
 Ovoca -231 
 
 Bandon -228 
 
 Lagan -227 
 
 Avonmore •200 
 
 Coleraine. The Foyle is formed by the union of the 
 streams of the Poe, the Monme, the Finn, and the 
 Derg, which, flowing from different parts of the interior 
 of Ulster, discharge their combined waters into Lough 
 Foyle near Londonderry. The Erne, which flows 
 from Lough Erne, has a short but rapid course to the 
 Atlantic westward, and discharges its gr?at body of 
 waters into Donegal Bay, over a ledge of rocks rising 
 10 feet above the level of the ordinary tides. The 
 other rivers, though numerous, amounting nearly to 
 100, are small, and mostly confined to the counties 
 that give them birth. The Liffey, which rises in the 
 mountain-land of Wicklow, and, after a circuitous 
 course through Kildare, discharges itself into the Irish 
 Sea, is remarkable for nothing except that the metro- 
 politan city of Dublin is seated on its banks. 
 
 The extent of country forming the basin from 
 whence each of the principal rivers derives its supply, 
 is as follows : 
 
 Sq. miles. 
 
 Shannon 4*544 
 
 Barrow, Nore, and Suir 8'400 
 Galway, includ. Loughs 
 Corrib and Mask.... 1-374 
 
 Erne 1'585 
 
 Foyle 1-476 
 
 Bann and Maine 1,2(56 
 
 Blackwater, S 1-219 
 
 Boyne and Blackwater 1-086 
 
 Moy. 1-088 
 
 Slaney. -815 
 
 Ireland was once so thickly covered with timber as 
 to receive the name of the Island of the Woods. Dur- 
 ing the early periods of its connection with England, 
 its extensive and impenetrable forests formed a main 
 obstacle to the progress of the English troops. West- 
 minster Hall is said to be roofed with oak cut in the 
 woods of Shillelagh. Numerous trunks of large trees 
 are constantly found in the bogs. Even in mountain 
 tracts, devoted for a long succession of years to the 
 pasturage of sheep, timber trees shoot up spontane- 
 ously wherever the land is secured from the intrusions 
 of cattle. Many places, where the vestige of a plant- 
 ation is not to be seen, retain names of which the word 
 "wood" forms a component part; and in localities 
 where the most attentive culture will not sufiice to 
 keep any tree or shrub alive on account of the western 
 blasts, large trees are found imbedded in the bogs. 
 The different kinds of timber found in the bogs of Ire- 
 land are confined to oak, fir, yew, holly, sallow, and 
 birch. Two centuries ago, when Ireland was covered 
 with forests, there were numerous small iron-works, 
 in which wood charcoal was employed, and vast quan- 
 tities of wood used until the country was gradually 
 stripped of its supply, and the working of iron was 
 consequently abandoned. The extension of agricul- 
 tural improvement, and more especially the timber 
 act, which gives the tenant at the expiration of his 
 lease, a pecuniary interest in the trees he has planted, 
 are gradually removing this defect, the consequence of 
 ages of disturbance and desolation ; but trees in large 
 quantities are generally found in Ireland only in the 
 vicinity of the residences of the gentry, except in 
 some favored spots, which are well wooded. 
 
 Minerals. — Ireland is reputed to contain much lead, 
 copper, and iron, but notwithstanding many attempts 
 to work the metallic mines discovered in the country, 
 few have been found sufficiently productive to repay 
 the necessarj' outlay of capital. 'Toward the close of 
 the last century, gold was discovered, accidentally, in 
 the streams flowing from the Mountain of Croghan 
 Kinsela, on the confines of Wicklow and Wexford. 
 The metal was found in lumps and small pieces down 
 to the minutest grain. Many of the peasants having 
 ruined themselves by leaving their proper occupations 
 to join the search, the government, to put an end to 
 the fruitless quest, took up the enterprise, and only 
 relinquished it after satisfying the seekers of its worth- 
 lessness. " The gold is associated with magnetic iron- 
 stone, sometimes in masses of half a hundred weight ; 
 
IRE 
 
 1090 
 
 IRE 
 
 also iron pyrites, brown and red hematite, wolfram, 
 manganese, and fragments of tinstone in crystals, 
 together with quartz. From the nature of these at- 
 tendant minerals, of which most are known to occur 
 in the quartz veins of the adjacent mountain, it was 
 hoped that by tracing up the rivulets to their sources, 
 and laying bare in various directions the underlying 
 rock, the metalliferous veins might be discovered, 
 from the disintegration of which the sand and soil of the 
 bed of the streams had been produced. All such trials 
 proved useless, and the question as to the source from 
 whence the gold in those streams in Wicklow has been 
 derived, remains still unanswered." — Sir E. Kane's 
 Industrial Resources of Ireland. Copper ores are dis- 
 tributed throughout the clay-slate districts in a great 
 number of localities more or less abundantly. The 
 principal mines are those of Ballymurtagh, Conoree, 
 Cronebane and Tigroaey, and Ballygahan, in Wick- 
 low county ; the Knockmahon, Kilduane, Bonmahon, 
 and Balinasisla, in the Waterford district ; AUihies or 
 Berehaven, Audley, and Cosheen, and Skull, in the 
 south-western district ; and the mines of HoUyford 
 and Lackamor, in the western district. 
 
 The total quantity aad value of copper ore from Ire- 
 land, sold in Swansea, where it is smelted, were, in 
 
 Yejira. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Value. 
 
 1836... 
 
 .. 21,819 
 
 £163,866 
 
 1847... 
 
 .. 14,857 
 
 £96,330 
 
 1840... 
 
 .. 19,680 
 
 127,911 
 
 184S. . . 
 
 .. 12,808 
 
 82,039 
 
 184.3... 
 
 .. 17,509 
 
 117,626 
 
 1849... 
 
 .. 10,425 
 
 68,794 
 
 1844... 
 
 .. 18,59T 
 
 77,622 
 
 1850... 
 
 .. 10,021 
 
 69,694 
 
 1846... 
 
 .. 18,430 
 
 97,122 
 
 1861. . . 
 
 .. 10,577 
 
 77,718 
 
 1846... 
 
 .. 17,471 
 
 106,078 
 
 1852... 
 
 .. 12,171 
 
 104,822 
 
 Lead is more extensively diffused through Ireland than 
 copper. The granitic district of Wicklow contains nu- 
 merous veins ; the principal are those of Glendalough, 
 Glenmalur, Glendasane or Luganure, and Ballycorus. 
 The clay-slate districts also yield numerous indications 
 of this metal, but few of the mines have proved proiit- 
 able. Those still worked are at Clonligg, Newtown- 
 ards, and Rathmullen, in Down county ; Bond and 
 Newrj', in Armagh county ; Castleblaj-ney, in Mon- 
 aghan county ; Kenmare, in Kerry county ; Kilbrioken 
 and Ballyhickey, in Clare count}- ; Shallee, in Limer- 
 iclc county ; and Bantrj', in Cork county. A vein at 
 Clontarf, near Dublin, w-as worked until the mine was 
 filled with water by the ingress of the sea. At Bally- 
 corus, where the lead ores from the mines of the Min- 
 ing Company of Ireland are smelted, the quantities of 
 ore worked up in 1851 from Luganure mines was 674 
 tons, which produced 460 tons of lead, equal to nearly 
 69 per cent. The proportions of silver to a ton of lead 
 are generally found to be, from the mine of Luganure, 
 8 oz. ; Caime, 12 oz. ; Ballyhickey, 15 oz. ; Shallee, 
 25 oz. ; Kilbrioken, 120 oz. ; Tollyratty, near Strang- 
 ford, 10 oz. The average of silver extracted from the 
 lead ore raised by the Mining Company of Ireland in 
 1851, was 7 oz. to the ton of lead ; the total quantity 
 3860 oz. ; producing £1029 63. 8d. 
 
 Native sUver was found in a bed of iron ochre in 
 
 Cronebane, but the deposit has been long since ex- 
 hausted. Snlphuret of silver was found in the lead 
 ore at Ballycorus some years since, and the Mining 
 Company of Ireland have resumed operations to prove 
 this valuable discovery. Tinstone has been found in 
 the auriferous soil of Wicklow, but no veins or work- 
 able deposits have been discovered. Other minerals, 
 useful in manufactures and the arts, and found in 
 quantities in various parts of the country, are mang- 
 anese, antimony, zinc, nickel, iron pyrites, alum, 
 clays of various kinds, building stone, marble, flags, 
 and roofing slates. Mineral springs, chiefly chaly- 
 beate, are numerous in many parts of the country. 
 Those of chief note for their medicinal qualities are at 
 Mallow, in Cork, resembling the hot wells of Bristol j 
 Ballynahinch, in Down ; Swanlinbar, in Cavan ; Cas- 
 tleconnel, near Limerick ; and Lucan, near Dublin. 
 
 The following is the result of the different estimates 
 and census inquiries into the number of the popula- 
 tion of Ireland at various periods : 
 
 Year. P(«). 
 
 1652 Sir "William Petty 850,000 
 
 1672 " " 1.820,000 
 
 1695 Captain South 1,034,102 
 
 1712 Thomaa Dobbs 2,099,094 
 
 1718 " " 2,169,048 
 
 1723 " " 2,817,374 
 
 1726 " " 2,809,106 
 
 1781 Established Clergy 2,010,221 
 
 1754 Tax Collectors 2,872,634 
 
 1760 De Burgho, Hiborn. Dominican 2,817,884 
 
 1767 Tax Collectors 2,544,270 
 
 1777 " '• 2,690,656 
 
 1785 " " 2,846,982 
 
 1783 Gorvais P. Bushe 4,040,000 
 
 1791 Tax Collectors 4,206,612 
 
 1792 Dr. Beaufort 4,088,226 
 
 1806 Thomas Newjiiiham 5,895,456 
 
 isll Parliamentary return 6,987,856 
 
 1821 " " 6,801,827 
 
 18.31 " " 7,767,401 
 
 1S34 Commissioners of Public Instruction . 7,943,940 
 
 1841 Parliamentaiy return 8,176,124 
 
 1851 " " 6,562,386 
 
 Few countries in the world have increased in popu- 
 lation so rapidly as Ireland during the first 40 years 
 of the present, and the conclusion of th^ last century. 
 Arthur Young, in his Tour through Ireland^ in 1766, 
 observed that it everywhere evinces the marks of a 
 rapid increase of population. It is generallj' supposed 
 that the number of the people increases in tbe ratio of 
 food and comforts, and that an increase of population 
 is a convincing proof of the advancing prosperitj- of a 
 nation. The effect of the failure of the potato crop 
 in depopulating the country would show that the pop- 
 ulation of Ireland had outstripped the progress of 
 wealth, and the increase of industry, and had reduced 
 their wants to the lowest point without procuring an 
 addition to the comforts of life corresponding to the 
 increase of the population. 
 
 The following table exhibits the population of each 
 portion of the country, according to the census of 1821, 
 1831, 1841, and 1851, together -with the house accom- 
 modation at the latter period : 
 
 j 
 
 1621. 
 
 1831. 
 
 1841. 
 
 1851. 
 
 Families. 
 
 Houses ill 1861. 1 
 
 Provincos. 
 
 Moles. 
 
 Females. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Inhabited. 
 
 Unialiablted. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Built. 
 
 Enild- 
 iuB. 
 
 jLeinster 
 
 iMuuster 
 
 'Ulster 
 
 ^Connaught. . . 
 
 1,757,492 
 1,935,612 
 1,998,494 
 1,110,229 
 
 1,909,718 
 2,227,152 
 2,286,622 
 1,-348,914 
 
 1,978,781 
 2,396,161 
 2,386,373 
 1,418,869 
 
 813,462 
 904,657 
 976,288 
 498,106 
 
 869,129 
 
 952,755 
 
 1,086,473 
 
 614,106 
 
 1,672,691 
 1,867,412 
 2,011,766 
 1,010,211 
 
 821,991 
 820,250 
 880,781 
 184,080 
 
 258,002 
 267,116 
 361,873 
 169,303 
 
 17,666 
 19,360 
 20,647 
 
 7,605 
 
 692 
 473 
 634 
 
 286 
 
 276,160 
 286,949 
 873,064 
 177,193 
 
 Total 
 
 6,801,827 
 
 7,767,401 ]• 8,175,124 
 
 8,190,507 
 
 8,861,463 
 
 6,551,970 
 
 1,207,002 
 
 1,046,294 
 
 66,^8 
 
 1,884 
 
 1,113,856 
 
 The chief impediment to improvement m the con- 
 dition of the people of Ireland during the present cen- 
 tury has been the redundancy of the population. In 
 a country almost wholly dependent on the cultivation 
 of the soil, there were in 1841 as many as 335 persons 
 to each square mile of arable land. Perhaps, with 
 the exception of China there was no other countrj- in 
 the world so densely peopled, and certainly none 
 where the population was so disproportioned to the 
 
 means of employment. This great density of popu- 
 lation was necessarily accompanied by an extreme 
 competition for laud and employment, with the ab- 
 sence of all inducements to the acquirement of skill, 
 and in consequence of the low rate of remuneration 
 for labor, and high rents, the impossibility of any ac- 
 cumulation of capital in the hands of the cultivators of 
 the soil. The following table shows the density of the 
 population in 1841, and its remarkable decrease in 1851 : 
 
IRE 
 
 1091 
 
 IRE 
 
 Table showing the 
 
 Density 
 
 OF Population 
 
 IN 1841, AND ira 
 
 BEMAEKABLE DECREASE IN 1851. 
 
 
 
 Rural population. 
 
 No. of persona to the square mile. [ 
 
 Provinoe8, 
 
 Of arable land. 
 
 Of the entire rural diBtrict. 
 
 Of the entire area (Including the 
 town population). 
 
 1841. 
 
 IStl. 
 
 1841. 
 
 1851. 
 
 Decrease 
 between 
 1841-61. 
 
 1841. 
 
 IStl. 
 
 Decrease 
 between 
 1841—61. 
 
 1841. 
 
 1861. 
 
 Decrease ! 
 
 between 
 
 1841-61. 
 
 Lelnster 
 
 1,631,106 
 2,009,220 
 2,160,698 
 1,838,635 
 
 1,191,634 
 
 1,466,099 
 
 1,749,707 
 
 926,269 
 
 247 
 
 832 
 406 
 886 
 
 189 
 218 
 280 
 241 
 
 58 
 114 
 126 
 146 
 
 202 
 212 
 263 
 195 
 
 157 
 156 
 205 
 185 
 
 45 
 
 57 
 48 
 60 
 
 259 
 253 
 
 279 
 20T 
 
 220 
 196 
 235 
 147 
 
 39 
 
 57 
 
 44 
 60 
 
 
 Ulster 
 
 Conuaught 
 
 Total 
 
 7,089,659 
 
 5,833,709 
 
 335 
 
 286 
 
 99 
 
 217 
 
 164 
 
 53 
 
 251 
 
 202 
 
 49 
 
 Number or Peebonb by Occupations in 1841 and 1851, 
 
 CLASSIFIED ACCOKDINO AS PuODUOEKS, MANUFACTURERS, 
 
 AND Traders. 
 Occupations. 1841. 
 
 Ministering to food : 
 
 Producers 1,864,141 
 
 Manofacturers 18,995 
 
 Traders 86,985 
 
 Total 1,904,071 
 
 Ministering to clothing : 
 
 Clotli manufacturers 669,224 
 
 Leather-workers 57,883 
 
 Olothes-makera 167,998 
 
 Traders 6,269 
 
 Total 901,824 
 
 Ministering to lodging, etc. : 
 
 Workers in stone 80,204 
 
 " wood 64,086 
 
 metal 44,197 
 
 Miscellaneous 28,786 
 
 Traders 2,098 
 
 Total 164,866 
 
 Ministering to health 6,871 
 
 " charity 253 
 
 " Justice 19,541 
 
 " education 16,814 
 
 " religion 7,192 
 
 Total 60,671 
 
 UnclasBifled: 
 
 Ministering to arts 8,495 
 
 " trade 69,649 
 
 " trayellng..... 18,975 
 
 Miscellaneous 409,409 
 
 Total 491,428 
 
 General total 8,611,860 
 
 1851. 
 
 1,461,776 
 18,085 
 62,103 
 
 1,531,914 
 
 278,228 
 49,900 
 
 267,226 
 11,184 
 
 606,532 
 
 27,177 
 48,195 
 45,083 
 20,749 
 6,265 
 
 146,469 
 7,148 
 1,898 
 26,862 
 17,407 
 
 61,713 
 
 2,674 
 54,470 
 48,743 
 894,208 
 
 494,995 
 
 2,841,628 
 
 Ireland is naturally, both from soil and climate, a 
 pastoral country, and it was not until the commence- 
 ment of the last century that efforts were made to in- 
 troduce an attention to tillage on an extended scale. 
 Primate Boulter, when one of the Lords Justices, 
 pressed strongly on the British government the neces- 
 sity of enforcing a tillage system ; and for tliis pur- 
 pose proposed a law, in 1727, to compel landlords to 
 till five acres out of every hundred in their possession, 
 exclusive of meadows and bogs ; and also to release 
 tenants to the same extent from the penal covenants 
 against tillage, inserted in their leases. Mr. M'Cnl- 
 loch observes, in Ms Statistical Account of the British 
 Empire, that the luxuriance of the pastures in Ireland 
 and the heavy crops of oats raised, even with the 
 most wretched cultivation, attest the extraordinary 
 
 fertility of the soil. Strong retentive clay soils, sandy 
 soils, chalky and gravelly soils, and several other de- 
 scriptions of soil common in England, are seldom or 
 never met with in Ireland, which affords no great 
 diversity as compared with Great Britain. Mr. Wake- 
 field describes the soils of Ireland as follows : — " A 
 great portion of the soil of Ireland throws out a luxu- 
 riant herbage, springing from a calcareous subsoil 
 without any considerable depth. This is one species 
 of the rich soil of Ireland, and is found throughout 
 Roscommon, in some parts of Galwaj-, Clare, and 
 other districts. Some places exhibit the richest loam 
 I ever saw turned up with a plow ; this is the case 
 throughout Meath in particular. Where such soil oc- 
 curs, its fertility is so conspicuous, that it appears as 
 if nature had determined to counteract the bad efiects 
 produced by the clumsy system of its cultivators. On 
 the banks of the Fergus and Shannon, the land is of a 
 different kind, bu-t equally productive, though the sur- 
 face presents the appearance of marsh. These dis- 
 tricts are called caucassee : the substratum is a blue 
 silt deposited by the sea, which seems to partake of 
 the qualities of the upper stratum, for this land can be 
 injijred by no depth of plowing." 
 
 The prevalent soil is a fertile loam, resting on a 
 rocky substratum, chiefly of limestone. The depth, 
 though in general not great, is in some parts such as 
 to admit of a fresh vegetable mold being repeatedly 
 thrown up by successive plowings to a greater depth. 
 This occurrence is most striking in Meath, and in the 
 district of the counties of Tipperary and Limerick, 
 long distinguished by the name of the Golden Vale, 
 from its extraordinary fertility. In some parts, par- 
 ticularly in Galway, the rock shows itself above the 
 surface in ridges like waves, the interstices being filled 
 with rich mold, which protiuces a thick, close sward, 
 extremely grateful to sheep. Large tracts of grazing 
 land similar to the Downs in England are unusual j 
 the only tract of any extent of such description is the 
 Curragh of Kildare, which has been used, time im- 
 memorial, for a sheep walk. The mountains are capa- 
 ble of tillage to a considerable height; and their 
 summits, with the exception of a few of the very 
 highest, are fit for pasturage in summer. 
 
 The quantity of arable land in 1841, according to 
 the return of the Census Commissioners, was 13,464,- 
 300 acres, and in 1851, 14,802,581 acres j and the pro- 
 portion per cent, of cultivated and uncultivated 
 surface, etc., at those two periods was as follows : 
 
 
 Total area In 
 statute acres. 
 
 
 
 
 DJTisioD of surlace. 
 
 
 
 PrOTinces. 
 
 Arabia 
 
 land. 
 
 Uncultivated. 
 
 Plantations. 
 
 Towns. 
 
 Water. 
 
 Proporliot 
 
 per cent. 
 
 Proportion per cent. 
 
 Proportion per cent. 
 
 Proportiou per cent. 
 
 Proportion par cent. 
 
 1S41. 
 
 1851. 
 
 1841. 1 1851. 
 
 1841. 
 
 1861. 
 
 J841. 1 1851. 
 
 1841. 
 
 1851. 
 
 Lelnster... 
 
 Ulster 
 
 Munster... 
 
 Conuaught 
 
 Total.. 
 
 4,876,211 
 6,064,579 
 5,475,488 
 4,392,048 
 
 81-28 
 63-S9 
 62-23 
 60-67 
 
 82-80 
 71-08 
 72-95 
 5601 
 
 15-01 
 81-22 
 82 22 
 43-89 
 
 18-67 
 24-48 
 21-89 
 38-12 
 
 2-8S 
 2-15 
 1-46 
 1-10 
 
 2-09 
 1-71 
 1-07 
 0-98 
 
 0'32 
 0-24 
 016 
 0-09 
 
 0-38 
 0-23 
 0-16 
 0-09 
 
 1-06 
 2-50 
 8-93 
 4-85 
 
 1-06 
 2-60 1 
 3-98 ! 
 4-85 . 
 
 20,808,271 
 
 64-71 
 
 7114 
 
 80-25 1 2^-14 
 
 1-80 
 
 1-47 
 
 0-21 
 
 02-2 
 
 8-08 
 
 8-08 
 
 The laws which prohibited the exportation of Irish 
 woolens to foreign countries, and to the British col- 
 onies, were repealed in 1779. By the Act of Union, 
 the duties on woolens imported into either island were 
 confined to those called "old and new draperies;" and 
 the high duties of Charles II. were reduced to 8Jd. per 
 yard on the old, and 2fd. on the new draperies. By 
 
 the same act, England relaxed her monopoly so far as 
 to permit the export of wool and woolen yarn duty 
 free to Ireland. Previous to the Union, when the im- 
 port of English wool was prohibited, the manufacture 
 of Ireland was confined to the coarsest description of 
 goods, for which alone the Irish wool was suited. Pre- 
 ■vious to the introduction of carding machinery the 
 
IRE 
 
 1092 
 
 IRE 
 
 manufacture of woolens was inconsiderable, but im- 
 mediately after the Union, machinery worked by 
 water power became general, and the trade Increased, 
 but the combinations of workmen and protecting duties 
 rendered the Irish manufacturers unable to compete 
 with those of Great Britain, and the trade continued 
 
 limited to the demand for home consumption. Flan- 
 nels are made in Wicklow, and blankets in Kilkenny, 
 Frieze of the coarsest kind is in some parts manufac- 
 tured by the peasantry for domestic consumption, and 
 the supply of the adjoining district. 
 
 Table showinq the Extent of 
 
 AND 
 
 Land unmk Crops foe each County and Peotinoe in Ieeland, is 1854 and 1855, 
 THE Nttmber of Acres under each species op Ceop. 
 
 Provinces. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 OaU. 
 
 Barley, bere 
 rye, beana, 
 and peas. 
 
 Potatoes. 
 
 Turnips. 
 
 Other green 
 crops. 
 
 Flax. 
 
 Meadow am 
 Clover. 
 
 Total extent 
 under crops. 
 
 I-elOBter | J^g 
 
 Increase or decrease ) 
 in Leinster ) 
 
 Monster |J|* 
 
 Increase or decrease 1 
 
 in Manster f 
 
 Tyi-f.,. J 1854 
 
 Increase or decrease ) 
 in Ulster. f 
 
 C"™"^?"- {ml 
 
 Increase or decrease ) 
 in Connaught j 
 
 ■^o^' W^ 
 
 Increase or decrease } 
 in Ireland 
 
 Acres. 
 169,325 
 187,698 
 
 Inc. 
 13,378 
 
 Acres. 
 
 658,656 
 563,077 
 Dec. 
 479 
 
 Acres. 
 127,841 
 
 116,686 
 
 Dee. 
 11,766 
 
 Acres. 
 
 204,820 
 
 208,005 
 
 Inc. 
 
 8,185 
 
 Acres. 
 
 96,745 
 105,790 
 ■ Inc. 
 9,046 
 
 Acres. 
 
 31,863 
 80,848 
 
 Inc. 
 
 620 
 
 Acies. 
 2,820 
 
 2,142 
 
 Dec. 
 
 678 
 
 Acres. 
 
 479,629 
 
 602,544 
 
 Inc. 
 
 22,915 
 
 Acres. 
 
 1,666,699 
 
 1,705,634 
 
 Total inc. 
 
 40,085 
 
 151,670 
 157,766 
 
 Inc. 
 
 6,196 
 
 364,479 
 
 880,246 
 
 Inc. 
 
 15,767 
 
 100,699 
 93,36T 
 Dec. 
 7,342 
 
 266,449 
 
 254,944 
 
 Dec. 
 
 1,505 
 
 114,912 
 
 124,948 
 
 Inc. 
 
 10,036 
 
 26,425 
 26,695 
 Inc. 
 170 
 
 6,452 
 4,294 
 Dec. 
 
 1,158 
 
 360,038 
 885,771 
 
 Inc. 
 
 26,783 
 
 1,879,024 
 1,426,921 
 
 Total inc. 
 
 47,897 
 
 65,592 
 70,127 
 
 Inc. 
 
 4,535 
 
 841,372 
 890,171 
 Inc. 
 
 48,799 
 
 89,808 
 39,425 
 Dec. 
 -878 
 
 380,896 
 818,167 
 
 Dec. 
 
 12,729 
 
 86,884 
 
 100,872 
 
 Inc. 
 
 15,038 
 
 25,871 
 24,274 
 
 Dec. 
 
 1,097 
 
 189,402 
 8T,904 
 Dec. 
 51,498 
 
 233,726 
 284,964 
 
 Inc. 
 
 1,238 
 
 1,817,496 
 1,815,404 
 Total inc. 
 
 8,908 
 
 24,797 
 29,918 
 
 Inc. 
 
 6,121 
 
 286,891 
 294,461 
 
 Inc. 
 8,570 
 
 19,811 
 19,193 
 
 Dec. 
 
 113 
 
 197,496 
 200,418 
 
 Inc. 
 2,918 
 
 82,179 
 36,887 
 
 Inc. 
 
 3,208 
 
 16,618 
 14,382 
 
 Dec. 
 
 2,286 
 
 3,729 
 2,766 
 Dec. 
 968 
 
 184,471 
 138,458 
 
 Inc. 
 
 3,987 
 
 714,491 
 
 784,983 
 
 Total inc. 
 
 20,492 
 
 411,234 
 
 446,509 
 
 Inc. 
 
 34,225 
 
 2,046,293 
 2,117,956 
 
 Inc. 
 
 72,667 
 
 287,164 
 267,665 
 
 Dec. 
 
 19,589 
 
 9.S9,660 
 981,629 
 
 Dec. 
 
 8,131 
 
 829,170 
 866,497 
 
 Inc. 
 37,32T 
 
 98,777 
 95,094 
 
 Dec. 
 
 8,688 
 
 161,408 
 97,106 
 Dec. 
 
 54,297 
 
 1,257,664 
 1,311,737 
 Inc. 
 53,878 
 
 6,670,610 
 6,682,992 
 Total inc. 
 112,832 1 
 
 Linen. — The same legislative measure -wMcli was 
 intended to discourage the woolen manufacturer stated, 
 that "if the Irish turned their industry and skill to 
 the settling and improving of the linen manufacture, 
 they should receive all the countenance, favor, and 
 protection for its encouragement, and promotion to all 
 the advantage and profit they might be capable of de- 
 riving from it." This declaration should not lead to 
 the inference that the manufacture had been previ- 
 ously unknown or disregarded in Ireland. On the con- 
 trary, the use of linen was so prevalent among the 
 higher orders, that sumptuary laws were enacted to 
 check its excessive use. The unfortunate Earl of 
 Strafford seems also to have anticipated the views of 
 the British manufacturers on the subject. Instead of 
 extinguishing the woolen trade by exclusive duties, he 
 labored to foster that of linen. He imported flax seed 
 in large quantities from Holland, and held out pre- 
 miums to induce Flemings and Dutchmen acquainted 
 with the manufacture to settle in Ireland. On these 
 laudable objects he spent upward of £30,000 of his 
 private fortune ; and his example was followed by the 
 Duke of Ormond. Still, however, the woolen manu- 
 facture prevailed, particularly in the south and west, 
 where the climate and extensive pasturage for sheep 
 insured a copious and cheap supply of the raw mate- 
 rial. In the same spirit, an act was passed by the En- 
 glish Parliament in 1696, to encourage foreign linen 
 manufacturers to settle in Ireland ; and with that view 
 all articles made of flax or hemp in this country were 
 admitted into England duty free — a privilege which is 
 estimated to have given that branch of trade an ad- 
 vantage of 25 per cent, over other nations in the 
 English market. The Irish Parliament responding to 
 the sentiments and wishes of that of England, prom- 
 ised that " it would heartily endeavor to establish the 
 linen and hempen manufacture, so as to render it use- 
 ful to both kingdoms ;" adding, that *'it hoped to find 
 such a temperament in respect to the woolen trade 
 here, that the same may not be injurious to England." 
 The "temperament" here announced was evinced 
 most effectually by laying prohibitory duties on the 
 export of its own woolens, thus accepting the compact 
 on the part of Ireland, and giving the country' an in- 
 
 controvertible claim upon England for a perpetual en- 
 couragement of that branch which was to be nurtured 
 in lieu of the natural staple of the country. In fur- 
 therance of the measures mutually agreed on between 
 both kingdoms, a board of trustees for the encourage- 
 ment of the linen manufacture was established in 
 1710, consisting of a number of individuals of influ- 
 ence in each province. Under its control a code of 
 regulations was devised and maintained, which ex- 
 tended to the most minute particulars of the processes, 
 and had the effect for many years of securing the fab- 
 ric a decided preference both in the home and foreign 
 market. A large sum was annually granted to this 
 board for premiums and the supply of wheels and 
 other implements, which was continued till the year 
 1830, when the grants were discontinued, and the 
 board ceased to act. The flax seed is chiefly im- 
 ported. Little is grown in the country, as, notwith- 
 standing all the exertions made by the grower, the 
 plant raised from it is considered of inferior quality. 
 
 Flax. — The first fiax-spinning raachinerj' erected in 
 Ireland was at Cork in 1805. About 1825, English 
 and Scotch yams were first imported into Ireland, and 
 undersold the spun article. The use of machinery 
 graduall}' increased, and the linen manufacture soon 
 became extinguished in the south and west, and con- 
 centrated in the north. In 1821 the yarns were all 
 made by hand. With one or two trifling exceptions, 
 not a spinning factory was to be seen. In 1849 there 
 were upward of 70, In 1819, with the existence of 
 bounties on the export of linens, and heavy duties on 
 the admission of foreign flax and linen fabrics, only 
 40 millions of yams were exported from Ireland. In 
 1849 these exports had increased to 75 millions. The 
 question became not as to whether the employment of 
 linen-weavers by extensive manufacturers, and con- 
 fining them to the mere process of weaving, was or 
 was not more advantageous than the old system, 
 where the producer of the raw material, the weaver 
 of the cloth, and the merchant who disposed of it, 
 were the same individual ; but whether it would be 
 more profitable to alter the system or lose the trade. 
 
 The following tables show the value of the brown 
 or unbleached linen sold in the several linen markets 
 
IRE 
 
 1093 
 
 IRE 
 
 in Ireland during a period of four years, as fumishecl 
 by the returns of the seal-masters and inspectors of 
 the Linen Board to Parliament in 1825. The sums 
 stated in the former of these tables are the first cost 
 paid to the manufacturer by the country purchaser ; 
 the value of most of the linen sold is afterward con- 
 siderably increased by the process of bleaching and 
 other treatment. 
 
 Total of Bbown ob Uhbleaohed Linen sold in Iseland. 
 
 Ymr.. 
 
 Lelnster, 
 
 Ulster. 
 
 Munster. 
 
 Conuaught. 
 
 Totol. 
 
 1822 
 1828 
 1824 
 1826 
 
 £ 
 286,854 
 886,698 
 207,688 
 192,888 
 
 £ 
 2,066,122 
 2,127,529 
 1,968,180 
 2,109,809 
 
 £ 
 
 68,870 
 
 82,202 
 
 96,195 
 
 110,420 
 
 £ 
 117,664 
 180,914 
 140,856 
 168,090 
 
 £ 
 
 2,538,010 
 2,617,848 
 2,411,869 
 2,580,707 
 
 Total. jl,022,678 
 
 8,271,140 
 
 856,687 
 
 657,524 
 
 10,207,929 
 
 Since 1825 no returns have been kept. The number 
 of yards of linen exported from Ireland was : 
 
 Yenr. 
 
 To Great Britain, 
 
 To foreign parts. 
 
 Totol. 
 
 1800 
 
 1801 
 
 1809 
 
 1818 
 
 1817 
 
 1821 
 
 1826 
 
 1885 
 
 No sepai- 
 84,622,898 
 88,018,884 
 85,018,884 
 60,290,821 
 45,519,509 
 62,660,926 
 
 ate returns. 
 8,288,704 
 4,147,615 
 8,928,781 
 6,940,264 
 4,011,630 
 2,668,589 
 
 86,676,908 
 87,911,602 
 87,166,899 
 88,945,615 
 56,230,675 
 49,581,189 
 66,114,515 
 60,916,592 
 
 The apparent amount of exports of linen from Ire- 
 land is now small, arising from the fact, that nearly 
 all is sent by cross-channel steamers to the English 
 and Scotch ports, whence it is transhipped to foreign 
 countries. The entire export from Ireland to Great 
 Britain and all foreign countries reaches about 106 
 000,000 yards; value, £4,400,000. The following 
 table shows a comparison of the production and value 
 of the yarns made, and amount of wages paid, in an 
 interval of ten years : 
 
 Bundles of 
 yarn produced. 
 
 1840 5,000,000 £1,600,000 
 
 1850. 7,400,000 1,942,500 
 
 ^, 38 pai 
 £208,000 
 817,000 
 
 The cotton manufacture was introduced in 1777, 
 and became an object of attention to the Irish Parlia- 
 ment, which endeavored to secure a monopoly of the 
 home market b}' high import duties and bounties. 
 The first cotton mills were erected at Prosperous, in 
 the ■ county of Kildare, and in Belfast, about the year 
 1784. From that period till the Union, it throve, in 
 consequence of the measures adopted to prevent for- 
 eign competition. At the Union it was arranged that 
 the then existing duties should continue for eight 
 years, after whicli they were to be gradually lowered, 
 by eight annual reductions, in such manner that, after 
 the year 1816, they should stand at 10 per cent, ad 
 valorem. The progress of the manufacture has been 
 very slow as compared with that of Great Britain. 
 The alteration of the scale of duties materially affect- 
 ed the home demand, and the immense capital and 
 great superiority of the British artist have contributed 
 much to secure to his manufacture a preference in the 
 foreign market. In 1822 the quantity of cotton wool 
 imported was 3,756,024 lbs., and of cotton yam, 
 1,197,294 lbs. ; leaving a total quantity of 4,576,816 
 lbs. of cotton yarn consumed, after allowing 10 per 
 cent, for waste, etc., on the cotton imported. 
 
 Silk and La^e. — The silk manufacture was introduced 
 into Ireland in 1693, by French emigrants after the re- 
 vocation of the Edict of Nantes. Its seat was the city 
 of Dublin, where it was maintaineo by the aid of pro- 
 tecting duties. Some feeble attempts to fix it in the 
 country parts failed completely. The last of these 
 was so lately as 1826, when a company was formed 
 Ibr the purpose of fixing the trade on a secure basis 
 in the soutli of Ireland, by earing the silk-worm there, 
 and thus having the benefit of the raw material for 
 the labor of producing it ; but after considerable ex- 
 pense had been incurred for the purchase of ground 
 
 and the planting of mulberry-trees, the scheme was re- 
 linquished as hopeless. One branch of the manufac- 
 ture, a fabric of mixed worsted and silk, known by 
 the name of tabbinet, or Irish poplin, is in considerable 
 demand, both at home and elsewhere, for the richness 
 and beauty of the texture. It is almost the only 
 branch now flourishing. The general trade has been 
 nearly annihilated by the removal of the protecting 
 duties in 1821, after which, in consequence of the com- 
 bination of the workmen to keep up the rate of wages, 
 the Irish manufacturer became unable to compete suc- 
 cessfully with the English trade. The manufacture of 
 lace is carried on to some extent in Limerick, and of 
 late years a great source of employment for females 
 has been introduced in the working of patterns on 
 muslin with the needle. 
 
 Metals.- — Manufactures in metal exist only to a 
 small extent; and the making of glass, which was 
 once carried on largely, has declined. 
 
 Provisions. — The provision trade, together with the 
 exportation of the agricultural produce of the coun- 
 try, has always been, and will probably long remain, 
 the principal commercial business carried on in Ire- 
 land. This export trade is mainly with Great Britain, 
 to Liverpool, Bristol, and Glasgow, from Belfast, Dun- 
 dalk, Drogheda, Newrj^, Waterford, Limerick, and 
 more particularlj' from Cork and Dublin. In 1825, 
 181,276 barrels of beef and pork, 362,278 cwt. of bacon 
 and hams, 474,161 cwt. of butter, and 35,279 cwt. of 
 lard, were exported. Since that period the provision 
 trade has vastly increased ; but in consequence of the 
 cessation of the duties on the cross-channel trade, there 
 are no means of accurately ascertaining the present ex- 
 tent of the trade. 
 
 The following table shows the number of gallons of 
 Irish spirits brought to charge since 1840, and the 
 amount of duty : 
 
 Years. 
 
 1840., 
 1841., 
 1842. 
 1848. 
 18U. 
 1845., 
 1846., 
 1847.. 
 1848.. 
 18*9.. 
 1850.. 
 1851.. 
 1852.. 
 1868.. 
 1854.. 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 10,815,709 
 7,401,051 
 6,485,448 
 5,290,650 
 6,546,488 
 6,461,187 
 7,605,196 
 7,952,076 
 6,787,687 
 8,126,507 
 6,978,883 
 7,408,086 
 7,550,518 
 8,208,266 
 8,186,862 
 
 Doty. 
 
 £1,261,832 
 
 936,126 
 
 864,726 
 
 904,908 
 
 852,418 
 
 860,151 
 
 1,014,026 
 
 1,060,276 
 
 804,984 
 
 948,057 
 
 929,777 
 
 987,774 
 
 1,006,785 
 
 1,094,434 
 
 1,278,151 
 
 The principle of extracting the largest psssible 
 amount of revenue from the duty on spirits having 
 been adopted, the rate was raised in 1855 to 6s. 2d. per 
 gallon, when the number of gallons brought to charge 
 declined to 6,228,856, and the maximum rate of duty 
 productive to the revenue appears to have been at- 
 tained, if not exceeded. There are breweries in most 
 of the large towns in Ireland, the produce of which has 
 superseded the use of beer imported from Great Britain, 
 and also furnishes a quantity sufficient for a large ex- 
 port trade, which has of late years much increased. 
 
 The external trade of Ireland branches out into two 
 great divisions, the cross-channel trade with Great 
 Britain, and the commerce with foreign nations. The 
 relative importance of each port, as respects its com- 
 mercial character, will appear from the first and sec- 
 ond tables following, which contain a specification of 
 the number and tonnage of vessels that entered and 
 cleared out coastwise, from and to the British col- 
 onies and foreign countries in 1853, in each of the 
 ports of Ireland ; while the progress of domestic navi- 
 gation will appear from the third and fourth tables, 
 containing a summary, in triennial periods, of the 
 tonnage of ships belonging to and registered at the 
 diflferent ports in Ireland, and of the number and ton- 
 nage of those employed in the cross-channel trade. 
 
IRE 
 
 1094 
 
 IRE 
 
 NcrjiBER AND Tonnage op Sailing Vessels and Steam Vessels that Entered and Cleabed out Coastwise at 
 
 EACH OF THE POETS IN IeELAND IN THE YeAK 1853. 
 
 
 SAILINa TESSEL8. | STBAU VBESELB. 
 
 POETS. 
 
 Inward. 
 
 Outward, | Inward. 1 Outward. 
 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tonnage, 
 
 VeeselB. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Vosaela. 
 
 Tonnage. Veaaela. 1 Tonnage. I 
 
 Belfast. .' 
 
 5,168 
 
 2,080 
 659 
 
 5,110 
 588 
 697 
 905 
 
 2,999 
 
 470,065 
 
 170,291 
 42,462 
 
 896,892 
 89,000 
 42,987 
 72,891 
 
 183,877 
 
 1,180 
 
 1,513 
 266 
 
 2,510 
 266 
 198 
 736 
 
 1,912 
 
 198^61 
 
 94,769 
 19,757 
 
 129,787 
 15,820 
 11,791 
 50,955 
 
 127,255 
 
 1,477 
 265 
 208 
 
 1,436 
 468 
 145 
 169 
 690 
 
 419,511 
 
 104,376 
 
 80,240 
 
 440,446 
 
 148,815 
 
 40,686 
 
 49,857 
 
 201,396 
 
 1,-399 1 412,604 1 
 267 1 101 S99 1 
 
 Cork 
 
 Drogheda 
 
 Dublin 
 
 256 
 1,608 
 464 
 135 
 177 
 396 
 
 94,142 
 498,132 
 146,698 
 88,266 
 50,400 
 122,844 
 
 Londonderry. — 
 
 ■Waterford 
 
 Otber ports 
 
 Total 
 
 18,101 
 
 1,417,465 
 
 8,570 
 
 64S,196 
 
 4,860 
 
 1,484,827 
 
 4,692 
 
 1,459,410 
 
 Number and Tonnage of Sailing Vessels that Entered and Cleared out from and to tiie Colonies and 
 i'oREiGN Ports at each of tue Poets of Ireland (including their repeated Voyages), distinguishing 
 British and Irisu from Foreign Vessels, in the Year 1858. 
 
 POBT3. 
 
 FROM AKD TO BHIT18H COLONJBSj 
 
 FROM AND TO FOREIGN FLACKS. 1 
 
 Inward - 
 
 Outward. 
 
 Inward. 
 
 Outward. j 
 
 British & Irish. 1 If'oreign, 
 
 British & Irish. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 British 4 Irish. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 British & Irish. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Ves. 
 
 Too'ge. 
 
 Vos. 
 
 Ton'go. 
 
 Ves. 
 
 Ton'ge. 
 
 Ves. 
 
 Ton'ge. 
 
 Vos. 
 
 Ton'ge. 
 
 Ves. 
 
 Ton'ge. 
 
 Ves. 
 
 Ton'tre. 
 
 Ves. 
 
 Ton'ge. 
 
 Belfast 
 
 Cork 
 
 Dublin 
 
 Limerick 
 
 ."Waterford.... 
 
 Other ports.. 
 
 Total 
 
 67 
 52 
 61 
 89 
 22 
 T8 
 
 17,968 
 14,962 
 20,545 
 11,206 
 6,029 
 70,T00 
 
 24 
 S 
 
 22 
 
 "9 
 
 T,921 
 1,842 
 7,244 
 
 2,837 
 
 81 
 
 54 
 26 
 
 38 
 23 
 43 
 
 10,472 
 15,691 
 
 9,1S4 
 12,419 
 
 8,274 
 13,923 
 
 12 
 
 16 
 13 
 4 
 13 
 11 
 
 8,048 
 8,858 
 8,906 
 1,210 
 8,846 
 2,616 
 
 160 
 167 
 157 
 99 
 61 
 226 
 
 22,608 
 28,665 
 21,786 
 22.666 
 10,819 
 88,007 
 
 206 
 224 
 1T6 
 98 
 96 
 887 
 
 88,157 
 50,164 
 81,533 
 24,994 
 20,186 
 68,166 
 
 69 
 
 61 
 61 
 29 
 24 
 85 
 
 18,840 
 11,422 
 18,886 
 6,878 
 5,149 
 23,626 
 
 2U 
 207 
 181 
 71 
 83 
 202 
 
 40,869 
 49,216 
 84,888 
 18,962 
 18,652 
 89,101 
 
 809 1 90,856 
 
 60 
 
 19,844 
 
 220 
 
 69,953 
 
 69 
 
 17,477 1 850 
 
 144,636 
 
 1.135 218,166 
 
 319 
 
 74,261 
 
 945 1 201.628| 
 
 Account of the Tonnage belonging to and Eegistered 
 at the Irish Ports at different Triennial Periods, 
 with the Increase between the Eiest and Last 
 Periods. 
 
 Name of port. 
 
 Tears. 
 
 18«, 1841, 
 
 1842. 
 
 Years. 
 
 1843, 1844, 
 
 1845. 
 
 Years. 
 
 1846, 1847, 
 1848. 
 
 Years. 
 
 1849, 1850, 
 
 1851. 
 
 Increase 
 between 
 first period 
 1191—98- 
 99, and last 
 
 period, 
 
 1849-50- 
 
 51. 
 
 Ballina 
 
 Belfast 
 
 Tons. 
 
 149,809 
 
 101,349 
 14,607 
 94,742 
 
 42,247 
 26,155 
 82,720 
 
 13,680 
 
 60,846 
 
 26,693 
 8,291 
 
 Tons. 
 I6M62 
 
 115,668 
 14,692 
 105,101 
 
 42,887 
 28,507 
 36,018 
 
 9,858 
 
 66,647 
 
 24;683 
 40,288 
 
 Tons. 
 
 202'6il 
 2,795 
 
 146,127 
 19,287 
 
 126,288 
 7,971 
 11,448 
 43,165 
 27,844 
 35,714 
 26,824 
 
 H296 
 
 "979 
 81,926 
 785 
 25,318 
 11,230 
 
 Tons. 
 
 162 
 
 226,414 
 
 1,080 
 
 149,465 
 
 20,524 
 
 123,182 
 
 8,918 
 
 12,170 
 
 •39,646 
 
 23,383 
 
 80,748 
 
 28,371 
 
 8,649 
 
 1.3,112 
 
 6,626 
 
 3,180 
 
 69,237 
 
 624 
 
 27,089 
 
 Tons. 
 
 213,852 
 
 136,641 
 17,528 
 89,697 
 
 86,256 
 20,627 
 18,251 
 
 12,766 
 
 2,640 
 60,808 
 
 20,266 
 
 Coleraine 
 
 Cork 
 
 Drogheda 
 
 Dublin 
 
 Dundalk 
 
 Galway. ,. 
 
 Limerick '. 
 
 Londonderry. . . 
 
 Newry 
 
 Boss 
 
 Bkibbereen 
 
 Sligo 
 
 Strangford 
 
 Waterford 
 
 Westport 
 
 Wexford 
 
 Other ports 
 
 Total 
 
 669,294 1 681,931 
 
 781,948 
 
 791,525 1 627,571 | 
 
 Number and Tonnage of Vessels EaMploted in the In- 
 tercourse between Great Britain and Ireland, 
 which entered Inward and cleared Outward with 
 Cargoes, at the Ports of the United Kingdom dur- 
 ing Four Years. 
 
 
 1852. 
 
 1868. 
 
 1864. 
 
 Vessels Tonnage. 
 
 Vessels 1 Tonnage. 
 
 Vessels [ Tonnage. 
 
 Inward 
 
 Outward. . . 
 
 9,406 
 
 18,676 
 
 1,762,197 
 2,409,905 
 
 9,84o|l,981,989 
 19,244|2,694,656 
 
 10,6062,042,146 
 20,685 2,819,396 
 
 These tables exhibit the great preponderance of the 
 cross-channel trade, which has been greatly augment- 
 ed since the introduction of steam navigation. The 
 earliest attempts at establishing a company for this 
 purpose were made in Dublin about the year 1816. 
 Two small vessels were fitted up, but the construction 
 of their machinery was faulty, their dimensions were 
 too small, and the effort proved abortive. The cross- 
 channel trade, with the exception of that in coal, is 
 almost wholly carried on by means of steam-vessels ; 
 but since 1825, when the trade between Great Britain 
 and Ireland was placed upon the footing of a coasting 
 
 trade, no separate returns have been made out at the 
 custom-house of the quantity and value of the exports 
 and imports. 
 
 Fisheries. — The coasts of Ireland abound with fish ; 
 and Sir William Temple observed, " that the fishery of 
 Ireland, if improved, would prove a mine under wa- 
 ter, as rich as any under ground." Arthur Young also 
 remarks, " that there is scarcely a part of Ireland but 
 what is well situated for some fishery of consequence ; 
 and that her coasts, of innumerable creeks and river 
 mouths, are the resort of vast shoals of herrings, cod, 
 ling, hake, and mackerel. 
 
 Revenue. — Before the arrival of the English, the 
 revenues of Ireland were paid in cattle ; and even after 
 that period the custom prevailed for several centuries 
 in the parts less subject to foreign influence. Traces 
 of it have been met with so late as the reign of Eliza- 
 beth. The new government, under the English, in- 
 troduced the method of raising money by subsidies. 
 John exacted a subsidy from the Irish clergy, and es- 
 tablished the court of exchequer for the general man- 
 agement of the revenue. The same method was 
 continued during the reigns of Henry III., and the 
 first Edwards ; but the income thus extracted from the 
 people proved so inadequate to meet the expenditure, 
 that recourse was had to the legalized extortion of 
 coygne and livery, which was the levying of man's 
 meat and horse's meat for the soldiery in time of seri'- 
 ice. The amount of the regular revenue, in the reign 
 of Edward III., is stated by Walsingham and Holing- 
 shed to have been £30,000 ; but Sir John Davis, who 
 collected his information from the pipe-rolls, and other 
 authentic sources, reduces it to £10,000. The most 
 remarkable financial measure of Richard II. was a tax 
 upon absentees. In 1433, the eleventh of Henry VI., 
 the revenue was reduced to £2,339 18s. 6d., while the 
 expenses of the government were £2,3i8, 16s. lljd., 
 thus exceeding the income by £18, 17s. 5Jd. At the 
 latter end of the same reign, the Duke of York, when 
 sent over as lord-lieutenant with extraordinarj- pow- 
 ers, not only obtained the whole revenue, but stipu- 
 lated for an additional supply from England of 4,000 
 marks for the first year, and £2,000 for every year 
 thereafter. Edward IV. raised money by the imposi- 
 tion of duties on all merchandise sold in Ireland ex- 
 cept hides. In the 15th year of Henry VII. a duty 
 of one shilling In the pound was laid on all merchan- 
 dise imported and exported, except wine and oil ; and 
 
IRE 
 
 1096 
 
 IRE 
 
 a tax, by way of subsidy, of 138. 4d. on every hide of 
 land. During this reign the revenue seldom exceeded 
 JE5000. Henry VIII. increased the revenue by the 
 suppression of monasteries. The laws against absen- 
 tees were also ejjforced. During the iirst 15 years of 
 Elizabeth, the revenue was .£120,000, or .£8000 per 
 annum, while the expenses amounted to i490,779, 7s. 
 6Jd. In 1599, at tlie close of Tyrone's rebellion, 
 .£600,000 were spent in six months ; and Sir Kobert 
 Cecil affirmed that Ireland had cost the queen £3,400,- 
 000 in ten j'ears' time. In the pacific reign of James 
 the customs increased from £50 to £3000, and at the 
 close of his reign to £9700. The wardships and other 
 feudal rights produced about £10,000, notwithstanding 
 which the income was inadequate to the expenditure. 
 To defray the expense of the army, an order of bar- 
 onets was established by which £98,500 were raised, 
 in addition to which £247,433 were remitted from En- 
 gland to clear off the debts incurred by Elizabeth. 
 The Irish Parliament granted the same king a subsidy 
 of 28. 8d. in £1 on every personal estate of £3 annual 
 value, and 4d. in £1 on every real estate of £1 value ; 
 an act of liberality with which James was so much 
 pleased, that he declared "he would hereafter hold his 
 Irish subjects in equal favor with those of his other 
 kingdoms." In the succeeding leign Strafford raised 
 the customs to four times their previous amount. In 
 the same reign the first mention is made of an excise 
 tax. Thurloe, however, in his state papers, men- 
 tions that the revenue for two years ending in 1657, 
 amounted to £137,558, while the expenditure was 
 £142,509. When the Irish Parliament met after the 
 Restoration, it granted, first, an hereditary revenue to 
 the king, his heirs, and successors ; second, an excise 
 for maintaining the army ; third, the subsidy of ton- 
 nage and poundage for the navy ; and, fourth, a tax 
 of 2s. each on hearths, in lieu of the feudal burdens, 
 which were then abolished. After the Eevolution, the 
 information respecting this important element of na- 
 tioi^al statistics becomes more precise and satisfactory. 
 
 Tlie revenue, from the landing of Schomberg in 1689 
 tai the end of the reign of William, was as follows, 
 the total on the previous military expenditure of the 
 war with James having amounted to £3,851,655 : 
 
 Yeai". Kovenue. 
 
 1689 £8,884 
 
 1690 98,910 
 
 1691 274,949 
 
 1692 898,926 
 
 1698 444,183 
 
 1694 480,584 
 
 1695 438,804 
 
 Year. Revenue. 
 
 1696 £518,684 
 
 169T 548,967 
 
 1698 601,846 
 
 1699 701,982 
 
 1700 766,620 
 
 1701 697,965 
 
 1702 581,286 
 
 During the earlier part of Anne's reign the income 
 exceeded half a million, but in her latter days it was 
 less productive. In the reign of George I. the state 
 of the revenue continued nearly as in the preceding 
 reign. In that of George II. there was a surplus, 
 which was applied, not always judiciously, to public 
 works. The national debt of Ireland, incurred by an 
 excess of expenditure beyond the income of the coun- 
 trj', increased with great rapidity toward the close of 
 the last centurj' and till the year 1817, when it ceased 
 to form a separate item in the public accounts, in con- 
 sequence of the consolidation of the British and Irish 
 exchequers. Its progressive increase since the Eevo- 
 lution is exhibited in the following table : 
 
 Public Debt of Ireland. 
 
 1716 £16,106 
 
 1720 87,611 
 
 1780 220,780 
 
 1740 296,988 
 
 1750 206,117 
 
 1762 223,488 
 
 1770 £628,888 
 
 1780 1,067,565 
 
 1790 1,586,067 
 
 1800 22,246,190 
 
 1810 76,240,790 
 
 1817 134,602,769 
 
 The following table gives an account of the gross 
 revenue levied in Ireland, in each year from 1840 to 
 1853 ; distinguishing the expenses of collection and 
 the other payments out of the revenue in its way 
 to the exchequer ; also an account of the amount of 
 repayments into tlie exchequer on account of advances 
 for public works, employment of the poor, distress, 
 etc., in Ireland, for the like period. 
 
 Geoss Ebvenue levied in Ireland, in each Tear fbo.m 1840 to 1853. 
 
 Years. 
 
 BKVENUE. 
 
 CMABGas. 
 
 Total 
 Charges. 
 
 Payments on 
 account of 
 
 Public 
 Works, etc. 
 
 Poymenta oo 
 account of 
 Revenue. 
 
 Balances 
 outstanding. 
 
 GrOBfl 
 revenue. 
 
 Total 
 Income. 
 
 Charges of 
 collection. 
 
 Payments 
 
 to the 
 Exchequer. 
 
 Payments 
 
 on account ol 
 
 Reveaue. 
 
 Balances at 
 the end of 
 the year. 
 
 1840 
 
 1841 
 
 1842 
 
 1848 
 
 1844 
 
 1846 
 
 1846 
 
 1847 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 
 
 1850 
 
 1851 
 
 1852 
 
 1853 
 
 £220,509 
 190,389 
 199,628 
 220,065 
 172,827 
 169,938 
 166,769 
 179,203 
 210,686 
 169,781 
 156,185 
 144,352 
 167,674 
 167,946 
 
 £4,107,866 
 4,118,689 
 4,166,892 
 4,099,062 
 4,406,509 
 4,667,462 
 4,919,622 
 4,464,462 
 4,521,938 
 4,291,807 
 4,267,686 
 4,382,000 
 4,424.785 
 4,752,288 
 
 £4,328,375 
 4,809,078 
 4,856,520 
 4,319,127 
 4,579,886 
 4,887,400 
 6,086,891 
 4,633,666 
 4,782,644 
 4,451,688 
 4,413,820 
 4,626,862 
 4,582,859 
 4,886,444 
 
 £542,716 
 637,616 
 686,707 
 634,838 
 528,700 
 589,124 
 688,351 
 546,499 
 666,701 
 545,956 
 618,744 
 561,821 
 661,207 
 580,713 
 
 £35,808 
 85,643 
 87,256. 
 86,660 
 86,488 
 34,664 
 34,017 
 85,560 
 88;764 
 88,141 
 86,813 
 84,072 
 83,019 
 80,460 
 
 £8,659,462 
 8,536,192 
 8,662,492 
 8,674,917 
 8,846,260 
 4,096,853 
 4,839,821 
 8,840,920 
 3,970,448 
 8,711,804 
 8,618,911 
 8,672,883 
 8,820,186 
 4,118,449 
 
 £190,889 
 199,628 
 220,0^6 
 172,827 
 169,988 
 166,769 
 179,203 
 210,686 
 159,731 
 156,186 
 144,851 
 167,674 
 167,946 
 166,821 
 
 £4,328,875 
 4,309,078 
 4,856,620 
 4,319,127 
 4,679,836 
 4,887,400 
 5,086,891 
 4,633,666 
 4,732,644 
 4,461,683 
 4,418,820 
 4,526,351 
 4,582,369 
 4,886,444 
 
 £868;688 
 433,441 
 371,877 
 884,794 
 420,470 
 394,805 
 870,288 
 614,481 
 3,57,117 
 621,155 
 605,021 
 360,195 
 466,329 
 445,889 
 
 £8,918,100 
 3,969,688 
 8,934,369 
 8,959,711 
 4,265,780 
 4,491,168 
 4,710,104 
 4,856,4()1 
 4,327,565 
 4,332,469 
 4,118,982 
 4,642,195 
 4,286,515 
 4,664,888 
 
 Nett Eeventte of Ireland in eaoii Yeak feom 1840 to 1854, DiSTiNGuisnED under the different Heads of Kepenue. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Customs. 
 
 Excise. 
 
 Stamps. 
 
 Property and 
 Income tax. 
 
 Post Office. 
 
 Miscello- Imprest and 
 neouB. other Moneys. 
 
 Repayments of 
 Advances for 
 Public Works. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1840 
 
 1841 
 
 1842 
 
 1843 
 
 1344 
 
 1845 
 
 1840 
 
 1847 
 
 ISl-i 
 
 1349 
 
 18.10 
 
 1851 
 
 1852 
 
 1S63 
 
 1864 
 
 £2,030,169 
 1,999,257 
 1,949,834 
 1,960,498 
 2,126,149 
 2,091,651 
 2,258,048 
 2,009,188 
 2,069,773 
 1,941,122 
 1,827,289 
 1,864,268 
 1,866,160 
 1,924,511 
 1,862,103 
 
 £1,177,407 
 1,097,918 
 1,110,342 
 1,082,722 
 1,147,940 
 1,408,471 
 1,467,060 
 1,152,932 
 1,821,915 
 1,281,548 
 1,812,128 
 1,848,911 
 1,478,092 
 1,708,621 
 2,208,580 
 
 £482,722 
 425,771 
 491,851 
 621,981 
 645,898 
 668,669 
 678,767 
 667.996 
 632,924 
 602,073 
 462,691 
 451,684 
 474,374 
 474,480 
 458,312 
 
 27'976 
 649,011 
 
 £6,664 
 
 8,66o 
 
 3,000 
 16,000 
 22,000 
 29,000 
 59,000 
 89,000 
 26,000 
 
 Xooo 
 ib^ooo 
 
 £6,929 
 7,411 
 5,248 
 6,069 
 6,590 
 6,847 
 6,068 
 5,698 
 4,885 
 6,688 
 5,744 
 9,000 
 7,782 
 7,206 
 6,202 
 
 £6,631 
 6,885 
 2,216 
 1,677 
 2,688 
 9,816 
 5,888 
 
 46,160 
 2,000 ■ 
 3,928 
 6,068 
 4,470 
 3,829 
 8,681 
 4,812 
 
 £868,638 
 438,441 
 871,878 
 884,794 
 420,470 
 381,938 
 362,642 
 484.924 
 804,927 
 621,155 
 605,021 
 827,499 
 466,329 
 475,445 
 351,281 
 
 £4,013,100 
 8,969,688 
 3,934,869 
 3,969,781 
 4,265,780 
 4,478,792 
 4,692,463 
 4,325.844 
 4,276,375 
 4,882,469 
 4,118,982 
 4,000,682 
 4,286,815 
 4,621,870 
 6,434,807 
 
 The circulating medium in Ireland was, until lately, I mint in Ireland established by the Ostemen or Danes, 
 subject to a great variety of alterations. Without en- the first certain account of a mint there is that estab- 
 tering into the disputed question of the existence of a I lished in 1210, by King John, who caused pennies. 
 
IRE 
 
 1096 
 
 IRE 
 
 halfpennies, and farthings to be coined and made cur- 
 rent by proclamation. Further coinages were made 
 by Henry III. and by Edward I., who added the title 
 of DoMiNus HiBERNiE to that of Eex Anglie on 
 his Irish coinage. It consisted of groats, halfpence, 
 and farthings. The first important alteration as to 
 value was in the latter part of the reign of Edward 
 III. who caused the ounce of silver to be cut into 26 
 deniers or pennies, instead of 20, as before, which 
 caused the depreciation of 8J- per cent, in the Irish, as 
 compared with the British currency, which existed un- 
 til the final assimilation of the two currencies in 1825. 
 Henry VI., or rather the Duke of York, his lieutenant 
 in Ireland, had mints in Dublin and Trim, in which 
 both silver and copper money were coined. 
 
 In the beginning of the subsequent reign of Ed- 
 ward IV. the value of silver coins was raised to double 
 their previous amount. The consequence was an 
 enormous increase of price in all the necessaries of 
 life ; to remedy which, the Irish Parliament enacted, 
 thai the master of the mint should strike, in the Cas- 
 tles of Dublin and Trim, and in the town of Drogheda, 
 five kinds of silver coins ; the gross (or groat), the 
 demi-gross, the denier (or penny), the demi-deuier, and 
 quadrant (or farthing) ; eleven groats to weigh an 
 ounce troy, and each, undipped, to pass for fourpence. 
 A few years afterward, the price of silver was again 
 raised so excessively, that the difference between the 
 Irish "3nd English groat was 50 per cent, in a pound of 
 bullion. In the reign of Henry VII. the difference 
 between the two coinages was one third. Soon after 
 the accession of Henry VIII. the coin in Ireland was 
 so clipped, defaced, and scarce, that the Earl of Sur- 
 rey, then lord-lieutenant, sued for his recall, in con- 
 sequence of the want of money to carry on the war 
 against the Irish. Elizabeth ordered the ounce of 
 silver to be cut into 60 pennies, so that the coin of that 
 name was reduced in weight from the 20th to the 60 th 
 part of an ounce. The total value of the monej- 
 coined in Ireland by that princess, is said to have been 
 i£94,577 10s. 6d. English, which, at the rate of 16d. 
 Irish, for a shilling English, amounts to £118,222 9s. 
 4^. Irish. The Irish shilling, or harp, as it was 
 called, from the impression on its reverse, was worth 
 ninepence English. By a proclamation issued in the 
 fifth year of James I. the same proportion of values 
 was continued." In 1713 English money was current in 
 Ireland at an increased value ; the English five-shilling 
 crown-piece passing for six shillings and eightpence, 
 and the other coins in proportion. The exchange be- 
 tween Dublin and London was 21s. Irish for 16s. En- 
 glish, with 6d. or 8d. per pound extra, payable in Lon- 
 don. Bj' a proclamation in 1637, the name of Irish 
 money was ordered to be abolished, and all payments 
 were reduced to English sterling money. About 1672, 
 small change was so scarce in Ireland, that towns and 
 private dealers were obliged to issue copper tokens. 
 Jame II., on his arrival in Dublin in 1688, issued a 
 proclamation, by which the English guinea was to pass 
 current at £1 4s., the crown-piece at 5s. 5d., and all 
 lesser corns in the same proportion. In 1690, he de- 
 preciated stai further the value of the coin, by the 
 issue of pieces of base metal, which were to pass at a 
 nominal value far above their intrinsic worth ; so that 
 the coins issued of the nominal value of £966,878 accord- 
 ing to some, but, according to others, of £1,596,799, were 
 really worth no more than £6495, estimating the metal 
 at 4d. per pound. On the accession of William, this 
 coinage was cried down. In 1725, the new gold coin 
 of Portugal was made current in Ireland, the largest 
 coin, or Portugal piece, being rated at £4. About the 
 same time, in consequence of the scarcity of small 
 change, Wood obtained his patent for the issue of a 
 copper currenc}', which was prevented by the literary 
 exertions of Dean Swift in his celebrated publications 
 called the Drapier^s Letters. In 1780, the acts of Par- 
 liament prohibiting the carrying of gold or silver into 
 
 Ireland were repealed. At that time the value of 
 precious metals in circulation as specie, or hoarded, 
 was estimated at £3,000,000 Irish. No further legis- 
 lative change took place until the assimilation of the 
 Irish and English currency in 1825, previously to 
 which, however, the want of a metallic circulation was 
 so severely felt, particularly during some periods of 
 the French war, that private bankers and traders is- 
 sued notes or tickets for small sums, from 5s. down to 
 twopence-halfpenny; and also copper tokens. The 
 evils of this combined pressure of the scarcity of legal 
 and the abundance of counterfeit coin, was ultimately 
 remedied by the issue of stamped dollars estimated at 
 6s., and hj silver tokens of lOd. and 5d., by the bank 
 of Ireland, which circulated freely until they were re- 
 placed by the issue of a pure standard coinage of sil- 
 ver from the royal mint. 
 
 The amount of subscriptions raised in England for 
 the relief of sufferers by the famine of 1822 having 
 exceeded the expenditure, the surplus was intrusted 
 to a committee in London, and was retained under the 
 name of the Irish Reproductive Loan Fund, as a per- 
 manent fund for organizing loan societies, ultimately 
 originated the present loan fund system, under which 
 small sums are advanced to industrious individuals of 
 the working classes, to be repaid by instalments, with 
 interest, and which was placed under the control of 
 a commission in 1836 by the Act 6th and 7th Will. 
 IV., chap. 65. The rate of discount on loans, made 
 chargeable by it at 6d. in the pound, has been reduced 
 to 4d. in the pound by the Act of 6th and 7th Vict., c. 
 91, which placed the general control overall charitable 
 loan societies and charitable pawn or deposit offices 
 under the superintendence of the " Loan Fund Board." 
 The number of funds, with their capital and circula- 
 tion since the commencement of the system, has been 
 
 1S39. 
 1840. 
 1841. 
 1842. 
 1848. 
 1844. 
 1S45. 
 1846. 
 1847. 
 1848. 
 1849. 
 1850. 
 1851. 
 1852. 
 1853., 
 1854. 
 
 60 
 224 
 215 
 268 
 300 
 298 
 259 
 255 
 250 
 228 
 177 
 160 
 132 
 123 
 113 
 112 
 115 
 
 Capital. 
 
 Circuiation. 
 
 £370,507 
 124,920 
 403,343 
 417,584 
 444,427 
 408,842 
 270,613 
 217,119 
 189,187 
 182,501 
 186,240 
 186,271 
 212,888 
 214,785 
 
 £180,626 
 
 816,478 
 
 1,164,046 
 
 1,438,598 
 
 1,691,871 
 
 1,650,968 
 
 1,702,918 
 
 1,857,437 
 
 1,770,897 
 
 863,647 
 
 717,865 
 
 649,984 
 
 662,794 
 
 712,078 
 
 739,056 
 
 842,803 
 
 870,024 
 
 Pawn offices, on the plan and under the name of 
 the French Monts de Piite, were opened in several 
 towns of Ireland in 1841, with the object of advancing 
 money on pledges at rates more moderate than those 
 of the licensed pawnbrokers ; but all have since been 
 discontinued. By means of navigable rivers and ca- 
 nals, Ireland possesses extensive inland navigation. 
 For the details of the various canals, see Canals. The 
 railway from Dublin to Kingstown, which was opened 
 at the latter end of 1834, was the first, and for several 
 years the only railwa}^ in Ireland. 
 
 Banks. — The entire banking business of Ireland, im- 
 til 1783, was in the hands of private individuals, who 
 often issued notes to an amount not only far beyond 
 their respective capitals, but exceeding, in a great de- 
 gree, what the wants of the country required, or its credit 
 could support. To remedy the evil effects of a system 
 so pernicious, a national bank was established iii that 
 year, with similar privilegfes to those of the Bank of 
 England in respect to the restriction of more than six 
 partners in a private bank. The injury that Ireland 
 has sustained from the repeated failure of banks may 
 be mainly attributed to this injudicious regulation. 
 The loss that the country has suffered by the failure of 
 banks may be described in a few words. On the ex- 
 
IRE 
 
 1097 
 
 IRE 
 
 piry of tho Bank of Ireland's charter in 1838, it was 
 continued by act of Parliament from year to year un- 
 tU 1845, since which time it has been regulated by the 
 new Banking Act, 8th and 9th Viet., c. 37, according 
 to the following principles : — The bank to continue the 
 banker of government, which is to pay for the 10 sub- 
 sequent years 3J per cent, on the debt it owes to the 
 bank. The proceedings of the establishment to be 
 
 under the same rule which has been applied by Par- 
 liament to other banking institutions, and to make 
 weekly returns, similar to those of the Bank of En- 
 gland under the new act, containing a fuU develop- 
 ment of its affairs, the amount of its bullion, and the 
 variations in the quantity. The joint-stock banks now 
 doing business are as follows. Those marked (*) do 
 not issue their own notes : 
 
 Whan 
 InsUtuted. 
 
 No. of 
 bTancheB. 
 
 Capital. Capital paid up. 
 
 Paid up 
 per nhare. 
 
 Reserved fund. 
 
 Bank of Ireland 
 
 *HiberDian Joint-Stock Co., Dublin., 
 J'rovlncial Bank of Ireland 
 
 Northern Banking Co., Belfast 
 
 Belfast Banking Company 
 
 Rational Bank. i 
 
 TJlster Banking Company, Belfast. . 
 
 Clonmel National Bank. ..." 
 
 Cavrick-on-9nlr National Bank 
 
 *Eoyal Bank, Dublin 
 
 1788 
 1824 
 1825 
 1825 
 1827 
 1835 
 1886 
 1836 
 1836 
 1886 
 
 2 
 88 
 11 
 22 
 45 
 13 
 
 2 
 
 £8,000,000 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 600,000 
 
 600,000 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 80,000 
 
 40,000 
 
 1,044,250 
 
 1 £3,000,000 
 260,000 
 640,000 
 150,000 
 125,000 
 450,000 
 137,000 
 16,285 
 4,962 
 209,175 
 
 £100 
 26 
 26 
 30 
 25 
 
 m- 
 
 2i 
 2i 
 
 n 
 
 10 
 
 £1,144,000 
 
 63,000 
 
 162,216 
 
 69,778 
 
 4b',S26 
 
 £3,788,428 
 
 927,667 
 248,440 
 281,611 
 761,767 
 811,079 
 66,428 
 24,084 
 
 Tub Ahnual Aveeaob of thb sevkkai Banks or 
 
 Issue in Ieeland fou the 
 
 Yeaes 1846 TO 
 
 1864. 
 
 . Vnn« CertlHed issue of 1 Notes of jE6 aud 
 .. Years. ali tie banlts. 1 upward. 
 
 Notss under £6. 
 
 Totai issue of ail 
 tile banks. 
 
 Gold held. 
 
 Silver held. 
 
 Total specie held 
 by nU the banlis. 
 
 1846.... 
 
 £6,864,494 
 6,854,494 
 e,864,494 
 6,364,494 
 6,864,494 
 6,854,494 
 6,854,494 
 6,854,494 
 6,854,494 
 
 £8,121,259 
 2,844,049 
 
 ■2,439,121 . 
 2,204,474 
 2,197,117 
 2,118,077 
 2.216,603 
 2,517,570 
 2,872,007 
 
 £4,144,461 
 2,986,876 
 2,389,868 
 2,106,802 
 2,815,401 
 2,849,870 
 2,602,986 
 8,182,888 
 8,428,697 
 
 £7,266,721 
 5,880,426 
 4,323,992 ■ 
 4,810,283 
 4,512,448 
 4,463,909 
 4,818,288 
 6,630,455 
 6,295,607 
 
 £2,106,004 
 1,268,617 
 1,088,919 
 1,089,476 , 
 1,017,086 
 987,408 
 994,648 
 1,893,867 
 1745,829 
 
 £884,268 
 491,963 
 602,975 
 628,788 
 876,822 
 818,574 
 249,028 
 182,729 
 
 ' 218,711 
 
 2,440,266 
 
 1,755,475 
 
 1,686,898 
 
 1,641,094 
 
 1,815,439 . 
 
 1,265,986 
 
 1,248,676 
 
 1,676,600 
 
 1,959,043 
 
 1847 
 
 1S48 
 
 1849 
 
 I860.. 
 
 1851 
 
 1852 
 
 1858 
 
 1884.. 
 
 
 COMMBROE OF THE UNITED STATES WITH lUBLAND, FKOM OOTOBBB 1, 1820, TO JtTLY 1, 1856. 
 
 YoarB ending 
 
 ExpprtB. 
 
 Domoatlo. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Whereof there was in Bullion 
 and Specio, 
 
 £xport. 
 
 Import, 
 
 Tonnage Cleared. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Sept. 80, 1821. 
 
 1824. 
 1826. 
 
 1827. 
 1828. 
 
 1830 
 
 Total. 
 
 »889,677 
 770,176 
 714,087 
 918,532 
 
 1,247,660 
 776,187 
 687,120 
 894,450 
 327,728 
 261,687 
 
 $4,069 
 
 87,644 
 
 8,673 
 
 20,669 
 
 6,684 
 
 "sio 
 
 ^893,646 
 Wo,176 
 751,681 
 922,205 
 
 1,268,219 
 781821 
 687,120 
 395,260 
 828,094 
 261,687 
 
 $636,164 
 ' 306,024 
 547,738 
 481,875 
 ■ 612,272 
 672(994 
 550,129 
 711,041 
 862,611 
 331,883 
 
 4,425 
 
 5,978 
 
 13,168 
 
 12,982 
 
 20,641 
 
 19,488 
 
 14,486 
 
 8,247 
 
 6,626 
 
 4838 
 
 41694 
 
 2,201 
 2,047 
 2,479 
 1,761 
 1,821 
 1,359 
 1,889 
 3,780 
 2,502 
 2,570 
 
 Sept. 80, 1831., 
 1882. 
 1888. 
 1834. 
 1885. 
 
 1837 
 
 1338 
 
 1839 
 
 1840 
 
 Totrn. 
 
 (539,941 
 152,913 
 120,482 
 189,914 
 403,604 
 848,846 
 9,898 
 88,585 
 880,719 
 217,lf62 
 
 $78,916 
 
 "189 
 8,854 
 
 $7,009,909 
 
 $589,941 
 157,028 
 120,482 
 190,108 
 408,604 
 347,699 
 9,893 
 38,636 
 830,719 
 217,762 
 
 $6,762,071 
 
 $261,664 
 491,891 
 152,280 
 274,712 
 642,890 
 608,366 
 181,776 
 
 76,162 
 150,689 
 
 98,849 
 
 $4,618 
 
 Sept. 80. 1841 
 
 1842 
 
 9mo8. 1843 ,. 
 
 June 80, 1844.....;. 
 
 1845....'.;; 
 
 1346 
 
 1847 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 
 
 1650 
 
 Total... 
 
 $2,397,603 
 
 $60,872 
 
 . 49,968 
 
 , 208,502 
 
 42,591 
 
 ' 108,471 
 1,077,008 
 
 12,897,693 
 2,879,291 
 8,916,842 
 1,025,081 
 
 $8,158 
 
 6,468 
 
 81,483 
 1,308 
 22,528 
 42,693 
 
 $2,405,766 
 
 $60,872 
 
 49,968 
 
 209,632 
 
 42,591 
 
 108,471 
 
 1,082,471 
 
 12,429,136 
 
 2,880,594 
 
 8,988,868 
 
 1,067,724 
 
 $2,687,669: 
 
 $81,921 
 
 102,700 
 
 43,686 
 
 88,084 
 
 104,857 
 
 85,774 
 
 690,240 
 
 415,928 
 
 376,798 
 
 298,783 
 
 117,657 
 
 7,833 
 1,791 
 1,406 
 
 551 
 472 
 
 2,306 
 
 1,343 
 246 
 
 760 
 240 
 184 
 166 
 832 
 851 
 
 $62,171 
 116,945 
 
 $21,260,774 
 
 June 80, 1851. 
 1652. 
 1863. 
 1854. 
 1865. 
 1856. 
 
 678,250 
 
 618,812 
 
 1,006,017 
 
 1,209,638 
 
 4,800,021 
 
 $104,663 
 
 $1,200 
 100 
 69,272 
 86,485 
 832,851 
 74,709 
 
 25,929 
 
 1,891 
 681 
 
 982 
 
 191 
 
 1,412 
 
 14,743 
 
 124,600 
 
 17,410 
 
 53,801 
 
 10,014 
 
 5,92T 
 
 880 
 
 2,197 
 
 786 
 
 987 
 
 6,304 
 
 101,067 
 
 34,779 
 
 46,165 
 
 22,972 
 
 $21,865,427 
 
 578,850 
 
 623,084 
 
 1,092,502 
 
 1,542,484 
 
 4,374,780 
 
 $2,183,610 
 
 152,688 
 158,118 
 229,836 
 162,293 
 
 $199,116 
 
 225,230 
 
 8,142 
 4,116 
 8,482 
 9,120 
 12,927 
 36,785 
 
 216,687 
 
 12,613 
 9,460 
 14,955 
 14,432 
 25,662 
 19,089 
 
 Savings-banks were introduced into Ireland in 1810. 
 The greatest amount deposited was in 1845, previous 
 to the years of distress consequent on the famine ; and 
 the fluctuations which have since taken place appear 
 in the annexed table : 
 
 Years. Depositors 
 1846.... 96,422 
 1846.... 98,863 
 1847.... 80,851 
 1848.... 48,612 
 1849... 46^ 
 
 Amount. 
 
 years. 
 
 Depositors 
 
 . 47,937 
 
 £2,921,681 
 
 1850.. 
 
 2,855,827 
 
 1361.. 
 
 . 49,654 
 
 2,410,720 
 
 1362.. 
 
 . 52,142 
 
 1,384,296 
 
 1868.. 
 
 . 56,680 
 
 1,200,278 
 
 
 
 Amount. 
 £1,291,798 
 1,347,617 
 1,447,316 
 1,586,010 
 
 The internal traffic of the country is carried on 
 chiefly by wheel-carriage roads. Their condition, both 
 as to lines of direction and mode of construction, is 
 excellent. Materials for the construction and repairs 
 of roads are very generally distributed throughout the 
 whole island, either in quarries, ridges, and masses of 
 gravel, or in the beds or channels of rivers and 
 streams. The limestone, which is the general sub- 
 stratum of the greater part of the country, is the best 
 material for their formation ; and the system known 
 
IRO 
 
 1098 
 
 IRO 
 
 under the name of macadamizing was long and suc- 
 cessfully practiced on many of the leading lines of road 
 in Ireland before it was thought of in Great Britain. 
 
 The progress and condition of the Irish railwaj' sys- 
 tem from 1836 to 1854, inclusive, maj' be seen in the 
 following tables, compiled from the Board of Trade 
 Returns : 
 
 Years ending 
 30th June. 
 
 Miles open 
 on the 1st 
 Jnnunry in 
 
 each yenv. 
 
 No. of 
 passengers. 
 
 Receipts. | 
 
 From pas- 
 sengers. 
 
 From 
 goods. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1836 (16 mos.) 
 1837. .. 
 
 6 
 6 
 6 
 6 
 
 18i 
 
 18i 
 
 13i 
 
 8H 
 
 81} 
 
 65 
 
 65 
 
 120J 
 
 209} 
 
 428 
 
 515 
 
 580 
 
 660 
 
 771 
 
 865 
 
 1,237,800 
 1,184,428 
 1,248,972 
 1,841,208 
 1,368,761 
 1,039,024 
 2,046,903 
 2,074,444 
 2,588,096 
 8,431,707 
 3,610,506 
 8,866,294 
 4,374,749 
 6,059,947 
 5,496,796 
 5,668,603 
 6,166,127 
 7,074,476 
 6,711,170 
 
 £25,816 
 
 31,901 
 
 83,818 
 
 84,409 
 
 86,171 
 
 41,002 
 
 54,219 
 
 56,648 
 
 62,608 
 
 104,762 
 
 105,469 
 
 149,681 
 
 211,693 
 
 290,604 
 
 339,076 
 
 866,603 
 
 435,910 
 
 537,259 
 
 521,671 
 
 £106 
 
 44 
 
 270 
 
 807 
 
 414 
 
 466 
 
 2,620 
 
 6,802 
 
 8,286 
 
 14,936 
 
 18,274 
 
 35,000 
 
 60,216 
 
 127,462 
 
 174,959 
 
 198,469 
 
 248,609 
 
 249,810 
 
 362,806 
 
 £35,421 
 
 81,946 
 
 8.3,588 
 
 84,716 
 
 36,590 
 
 41,468 
 
 66,789 
 
 63,850 
 
 71,494 
 
 119,898 
 
 128,743 
 
 184,581 
 
 271,808 
 
 418,066 
 
 514,085 
 
 664,062 
 
 679,519 
 
 831,669 
 
 874,477 
 
 1833 
 
 
 1840 
 
 1841 
 
 1842 
 
 1843 
 
 1844 
 
 1845 
 
 1846 
 
 1847 
 
 1848 . . 
 
 1849 
 
 1850 
 
 1851 
 
 1S52 ... 
 
 185S 
 
 1854 
 
 E. B. 
 
 Iris, or Orris-Root Plant (irisjloreatis), a peren- 
 nial, native of Carniola, and common in the gardens of 
 Europej the root of which is remarkable for communi- 
 cating an odor like that of violets, and produces the 
 orris of the shops. The flowers, which put forth in 
 spring, are noted for the graceful curve of their petals, 
 as well as for the brilliancy of their hues. It has a 
 thick, tuberous, creeping stem, usually called its root, 
 which, externally, is brown and j'ellowish, is white 
 within, and sends out numerous fibres- — the true roots 
 — from the lower part. When these are pared off, the 
 stem appears full of round spots. Independent of the 
 value which would be derived from the roots of this 
 plant, it would be highly desirable to cultivate it for 
 the purposes of ornament, in all parts of the country'- 
 where it would thrive. 
 
 Iron (Dan. Jem; Du. Yzer ; Fr. Fer ; Ger. Eisen ; 
 It. Ferro ; hat. FerruTHj Mars ; Vq\. Zelazo ; Vow Fer- 
 ro ; Rus. Scheleso ; Sp. Hlerro ; Sw. Jem ; Gr. 1,t6ypog ; 
 Sans. Loha; Arab. Iledeed ; Pers. AhuTi), the most 
 abundant and most useful of all the metals. It is of 
 bluish-white color, and when polished has a great 
 deal of brilliancj'. It has a styptic taste, and emits 
 a smell when rubbed. Its hardness exceeds that of 
 most other metals ; and it may be rendered harder 
 than most bodies hy being converted into steel. Its 
 specific gravity varies from 7'6 to 7'8. It is attracted 
 bj'the magnet or loadstone, and is itself the substance 
 which constitutes the loadstone. But when iron is 
 perfectly pure, it retains the magnetic virtue for a 
 very short time. It is malleable in everj' temperature, 
 and its malleability increases in proportion as the 
 temperature augments ; but it can not be hammered 
 out nearly as thin as gold or silver, or even copper. 
 Its ductility, is, however, more perfect ; for it may be 
 drawn out into wire as fine at least as a human hair. 
 Its tenacity is such, that an iron wire 0"078 of an inch 
 in diameter is capable of supporting 549"25 lbs. avoir- 
 dupois without breaking. Historical Notice. — Iron, 
 though the most common, is the most difficult of all 
 the metals to obtain in a state fit for use ; and the 
 discovery of the method of working it seems to have 
 been posterior to the use of gold, silver, and copper. 
 We are wholly ignorant of the steps by which men 
 were lead to practice the process required to fuse it 
 and render it malleable. It is certain, however, that 
 it was prepared in ancient Egypt, and some other 
 countries, at a very remote epoch ; but it was very 
 little used in Greece till after the Trojan war. (See 
 the admirable work of M. Goguet on the origin of Laws, 
 Arts, etc.) Iron was found on Mount Ida by Dactyles, 
 
 owing to the forests of the mount ha\'ing being burnt 
 by lightning, 1432 B. c. — Arundelian Marbles, The 
 Greeks ascribe the discovery of iron to themselves, 
 and referred glass to the Phoenicians ; but Moses re- 
 lates that iron was wrought by Tubal-Cain. Iron fur- 
 naces among the Romans were unprovided with bel- 
 lows, but were placed on eminences with the grate in 
 the direction of the prevailing winds. Swedish iron is 
 very celebrated, and Daunemora is the greatest mine 
 of Sweden. British iron was cast by Ralph Page and 
 Peter Baude, in Sussex, in 1543. — Reymer^s Fcedera. 
 Iron-mills were first used for slitting iron into bars for 
 smiths by Godfrey Rochs, in 1590. Tinning of iron 
 was first introduced from Bohemia in 1681. There 
 are upward of 800,000 tons of iron produced annually 
 in England. — Haydn. There are many varieties of 
 iron, which artists distinguish by particular names ; 
 but all of them may be reduced under one or other of 
 the three following classes ; cast ov pig iron, vyrouglit or 
 soft iron, and steel. 1. Cast or pig iron is the name 
 given to this metal when first extracted from its ores. 
 The ores from which iron is usually obtained are com- 
 posed of ox3'"d of iron and clay. The object of the 
 manufacturer is to reduce the oxyd to the metallic 
 state, and to separate all the clay with which it is com- 
 bined. This is effected by a peculiar process ; and the 
 iron, being exposed to strong heat in furnaces, and 
 melted, runs out into molds prepared for its reception, 
 and obtains the name of cast or pig iron. The cast 
 iron thus obtained is distinguished by manufacturers 
 into different varieties, from its color and other quali- 
 ties. Of these the following are the most ramarkable : 
 White cast iron, which is extremely hard and brittle, 
 and appears to be composed of a congeries of small 
 crystals. It can neither be filed, bored, nor bent, and 
 is very apt to break when suddenly heated or cooled. 
 Gray or Tnottled cast iron, so called from the inequality 
 of its color. Its texture is granulated. It is much 
 softer and less brittle than the last variety, and may 
 be cut, bored, and turned on the lathe. Cannons are 
 made of it. 
 
 Blach cast iron is the most unequal in its texture, 
 the most fusible, and least cohesive, of the three. 
 
 Wrought or soft iron is prepared from cast iron by a 
 process termed a refinement or finery. The wrought 
 iron manufactured in Sweden is reckoned the finest in 
 the world. 
 
 Steel consists of pieces of wrought iron hardened hy 
 a peculiar process. The Swedish iron imported into 
 this country is mostly used in the manufacture of 
 steel.' — Thomson's Chemistry. 
 
 Uses of Iron. — To enumerate the various uses of iron 
 would require a lengthened dissertation. No one who 
 reflects for a moment on the subject can doubt that its 
 discovery and employment in the shape of tools and 
 engines has been of the utmost importance to man ; 
 and has done more, perhaps, than any thing else to ac- 
 celerate his advance in the career of improvement. 
 Locke has the following striking observations on this 
 subject: " Of what consequence the discovery of one 
 natural bodj'- and its properties may be to human life, 
 the whole great continent of America is a convincing in- 
 stance : whose ignorance in useful arts, and want of 
 the greatest part of the conveniences of life, in a coun- 
 try that abounds with all sorts of natural plenty, I 
 think may be attributed to their ignorance of what was 
 to be found in a very ordinary despicable stone — I 
 mean the mineral of iron. And whatever we think of 
 our parts or improvements in this part of the world, 
 where knowledge and plenty seem to vie with each 
 other, yet to any one that will seriously reflect upon 
 it, I suppose it will appear past doubt, that, were the 
 use of iron lost among us, we should in a few ages be 
 unavoidably reduced to the wants and ignorance of the 
 ancient savage Americans, whose natural endowments 
 and provisions came no way short of those of the most 
 flourishing and polite nations ; so that he who first 
 
mo 
 
 1099 
 
 lEO 
 
 made use of that one contemptible mineral, may be 
 truly styled the father of arts and author of plenty." — 
 Essay on the Understanding, book iv., c. 12. 
 
 Iron, on account of its abundance, working qual- 
 ities, and tenacity, is probably the most useful and 
 valuable of metals. According to Dr. Ure, " it is ca- 
 pable of being cast into molds of any form, of being 
 drawn into wire of any desired length or fineness, of 
 being extended into plates or sheets, of being bent in 
 every direction, of being sharpened, or hardened, or 
 softened at pleasure. Iron accommodates itself to all 
 our wants and desires, and even to our caprices. It is 
 equally serviceable to the arts, the sciences, to ag- 
 riculture, and war. The same ore famishes the 
 sword, the plowshare, the scythe, the pruning-hook, 
 the needle, the graver, the spring of a watch or of a 
 carriage, the chisel, the chain, the anchor, the com- 
 pass, the cannon, and the bomb. It is a medicine of 
 much virtue, and the only metal friendly to the human 
 frame." In its primitive position it is commingled 
 with the earth's strata in bountiful profusion; it is 
 found in various combinations and conditions in every 
 formation, and it is a constituent element of both ani- 
 mals and vegetables. 
 
 History. — Malleable iron appears to have been 
 known from a remote antiquitj". Its obvious utility 
 and great superiority over the softer metals, then com- 
 raonlj' used, combined with the expense of its reduc- 
 tion, caused it to be highly prized, though the extreme 
 difiiculty of worlcing it by the rude methods then em- 
 ployed, greatly restricted its application. There are 
 notices in Homer and Hesiod of the arts of reducing 
 and forging iron ; but cast-iron was then unknown — 
 an imperfectly malleable iron being produced at once 
 from the ores in the furnace. It is probable that the 
 Greeks obtained most of their iron through the Phce- 
 nicians from the shores of the Black Sea, and from La- 
 conia. It would be interesting to trace the gradual 
 advances which have been made in the reduction of 
 iron, from its discovery to the present time ; to inquire 
 into the circumstances which led to the successive 
 changes in the processes, and into the principle on 
 which those changes were founded ; to examine into 
 the differences in the products which from time to time 
 ensued, and to notice the influence of these conditions 
 on the extent and progress of the manufacture. Our 
 knowledge of these changes, however, is scanty and 
 imperfect, and we can only conjecture what was prob- 
 ably its early progress. The furnaces which were first 
 employed for smelting iron were probably similar to 
 those now called air-iloomeries. They were probably 
 simple conical structures, with small openings below 
 for the admission of air, and a large one above for the 
 escape of the products of combustion, and would be 
 erected on high grounds in order that the wind might 
 assist combustion. The fire being kindled, successive 
 layers of ore and charcoal would be placed in it, and 
 the heat regulated by opening or closing the apertures 
 below. 
 
 The process of reduction would consist of the de- 
 oxydation of the ore and the cementation of the metal 
 by long continued heat. The temperature would 
 never rise sufficiently high to ftise the ore, and the 
 product would therefore be an imperfectly malleable 
 iron, mixed with scorise and unreduced oxyd. It 
 would then be brought under the hammer, and fash- 
 ioned into a rude bloom, during which process it would 
 be freed from the greater portion of the earthy impur- 
 ities. By such a process as this the Romans probably 
 worked the iron ores of our own island ; scoriae, the 
 refuse of ancient bloomeries, occur in various localities, 
 in some cases identified with that people by the coinci- 
 dent remains of altars dedicated to the god who pre- 
 sided over iron. Mungo Park saw a rude furnace of 
 this kind used by the Africans, and, indeed, with some 
 modifications, it is still retained in Spain, and along 
 the coasts of the Mediterranean, where rich specular 
 
 ores are worked. The advantages of an artificial blast 
 would soon become manifest, and a pair of bellows, or 
 a cylinder and piston would soon be applied to the 
 construction mentioned above. Homer represents 
 HephsBStus as throwing the materials from which the 
 shield of Achilles was to be forged into a furnace 
 urged by 20 pairs of bellows QjrSaai,). The inhabit- 
 ants of Madagascar smelt iron in much the same way, 
 their blowing apparatus, however, consisting of hollow 
 trunks of trees, with looselj'-fitting pistons. 
 
 The furnace corresponds to the blast-hloomery, and 
 has, by successive improvements, developed into the 
 blast furnace, now almost universally used, and into 
 the Catalan Jorge, still employed in some districts. 
 The application of the blast -would offer considerable 
 advantages ; it would obviate the necessity of an ele- 
 vated site, place the temperature more immediately 
 under the direction of the smelter, and render the 
 whole process more regular and certain. The method 
 of reduction remained the same aa before, but the 
 product would differ considerably, for whenever the 
 blast ^as sufficiently powerful, the iron would be 
 fused, a partial carburation would take place, and the 
 resulting metal would be a species of steel, utterly 
 useless to the workmen of those days ; hence, it seems 
 necessar}' to infer, that a rude process of refining was 
 invented, the metal being again heated with charcoal, 
 and the blast directed over its surface, the carbon 
 would be burnt out, and the iron become tough and 
 malleable. The processes might perhaps form two 
 successive stages of one operation, as at present prac- 
 ticed with the Catalan forge. 
 
 The increasing demand for iron, and the progress of 
 internal communication, would lead the smelter to in- 
 crease the size and height of his bloomerj-, and this, 
 probably, would lead to a very unexpected result. 
 The greater length through which the ore had to de- 
 scend, would prolong its contact with the charcoal, 
 and a higher state of carburation would ensue, the 
 product being cast-iron — a compound till then perhaps 
 unknown. 
 
 From the time that cast-iron became the product of 
 the smelting furnace, the refining would be made a 
 separate process, requiring a separate furnace and ma- 
 chinery. It would soon be found also that, as the 
 furnace increased in height, the pressure of the super- 
 incumbent mass would render the materials so dense 
 as to retard the ascent of the blast, and thus cause it 
 to become soft and inefficient ;. hence the internal but- 
 tresses called bos!ies were first introduced to support 
 the weight of the charge, relieving the central parts 
 from the pressure, and permitting the free ascent of 
 the blast. While the good quality of the iron and the 
 regularity of the process were thus insured, increase 
 of quantity was the result of improvements in the 
 blowing apparatus, which was now enlarged and 
 worked by water-power. With these modifications, 
 the furnace was the same essentially as the blast-fur- 
 nace now employed, though not so large ; indeed until 
 the introduction of coke at a much later period, the 
 blast-furnace seldom exceeded 15 feet in height by 6 at 
 the widest diameter. The more perfect operation of 
 the blast-furnace allowed the reduction of the heaps of 
 scoriiE, which had been gradually accumulating during 
 the period that the blast-bloomeries had been in opera^ 
 tion, and which contained 30 to 40 per cent, of iron. 
 A ntew species of propertj' was thus created ; extensive 
 proprietorships of Danish and Eoman cinders were 
 formed ; large deposits of scorise, which for ages had 
 kiin concealed beneath forests of decayed oak, were 
 dug up, and in Dean Forest it is computed that 20 fur- 
 naces, for a period of upward of 300 years, were sup- 
 plied chiefly with the bloomery cinders as a substitute 
 for iron ore. 
 
 At what period the complete transformation of the 
 blast-bloomery into the blast furnace was effected, it is 
 impossible to say. It was probably in the early part 
 
IRO 
 
 1100 
 
 IRO 
 
 of the 16th century, as we find that in the 17th the 
 art of casting had arrived at a considerable degree of 
 perfection, and in the reign of Elizabeth there was a 
 considerable export trade of cast-iron ordnance to the 
 Continent. In the forest of Dean are the remains of 
 two blast furnaces, which formerly belonged to the 
 kings of England, but they have been out of blast 
 since the commencement of the struggle between 
 Charles I. and his Parliament. Calculating from the 
 quantity of scoriae accumulated in their immediate 
 neighborhood, whicli appear to have lain undisturbed 
 for the last two centuries, Mr. Mushet has attempted 
 to deduce the period of their erection, which he con- 
 ceives to have been about the year 1550, in the time 
 of Edward VI. Up to this period wood charcoal was 
 the only material employed in smelting operations, 
 but the wants of a constantly increasing population, 
 not less than the great consumption of the blast fur- 
 naces themselves, created a scarcity of this essential 
 material, and gave a check to the manufacture. To 
 such an extent had the wood been destroyed, that the 
 cutting down of timber for the use of the iron-works 
 was prohibited by special enactments ; and the forests 
 of Sussex alone appear to have been exempt from the 
 general decree of conservation. The number of fur- 
 naces in blast decreased three fourths, and the annual 
 production, which but a short time before is said to 
 have been 180,000 tons, was in 1740 reduced to only 
 17,860 tons. 
 
 James I. granted patents to iron-masters in various 
 parts of the kingdom for using pit-coal in the manu- 
 facture of iron. The obstacles to its introduction, 
 however, were numerous, and not easily overcome. 
 The comparatively incombustible nature of coke, and 
 its feebler chemical affinities, rendered a more power- 
 ful blast and a longer subjection to the heat indispen- 
 sable to its successful adoption. Ignorance of the 
 causes of failure operated long and seriously, but all 
 difficulties were at length surmounted. An enlarge- 
 ment of the height of the furnace prolonged the con- 
 tact of the ore and coke, and at last the emplojTnent 
 of the steam-engine and improved blowing apparatus 
 rendered the blast much more powerful and regular, 
 and gave that impetus to the manufacture which has 
 caused Great Britain to take the first rank in this 
 branch of industry. 
 
 The first great improvement in the blowing appa- 
 ratus was the substitution of large cylinders, with 
 closelj' fitting pistons, for the bellows. The earliest 
 of anj- magnitude were probably those erected liy 
 Smeaton at the Carron Iron-Works, in 1760. In 
 1783-i, Mr. Cort, of Gosport, introduced the processes 
 of puddling and rolling, two of the most important in- 
 ventions connected with the production of iron since 
 the employment of the blast furnace. (See Ad- 
 denda, A.) About this time the steam-engine of 
 James Watt came into use, and along with it com- 
 menced a new era in the history of the iron trade and 
 ever)' other branch of industry. Its immense power, 
 economy, and convenience of application, brought it at 
 once into general employment. It was soon applied to 
 pumping, blowing, and rolling ; it enabled the mines 
 to be sunk to a greater depth ; refractory ores to be re- 
 duced with facility, and the processes of rolling, forg- 
 ing, etc., to be effected with a rapidity previously 
 unknown. Of late j'ears Scotland has made consider- 
 able progress in the iron manufacture. The introduc- 
 tion of railway communication, and the invention of 
 the hot-blast, have given a stimulus to the trade 
 which has raised Glasgow into importance as an iron 
 district, and few towns possess greater facilities for 
 the sale of their produce, than this central d6p6t of 
 the mineral treasures of the country by which it is 
 surrounded. 
 
 The hot-blast process, for which a patent was taken 
 out by Mr. Nelson in 1824, has efi'ected an entire rev- 
 olution in the iron industry of Great Britain, and 
 
 forms the last era in the history of this material. This 
 simple but effective invention has given such facilities 
 for the reduction of refractory ores, that between three 
 and four times the quantitj- of iron can be produced 
 weekly, with an expenditure of little more than one 
 third the fuel ; and, moreover, the coal does not re- 
 quire to be coked, or the ores to be calcined. In con- 
 clusion, we may add that there appear to have been 
 five distinct epochs in the historj' of the iron trade. 
 
 Theirs* dating from the employment of an artificial 
 blast to accelerate combustion. The second marked by 
 the employment of coke for reduction, about the year 
 1750. The third dating from the introduction of the 
 steam-engine, and on account of the facilities which 
 that invention has given for raising the ores, pumping 
 the mines, supplying the furnace with a copious and 
 regular blast, and moving the powerful forge and roll- 
 ing machinery, we may safely attribute this era to the 
 genius of James Watt. The fourth epoch is indicated 
 by the introduction of the system of puddling and roll- 
 ing, very soon after the employment of the steam- 
 engine. The fifth, and last — though not the least 
 important epoch in the historj' of this manufacture — is 
 marked by the application ttf the hot-blast — an inven- 
 tion which has increased the production of iron four- 
 fold, and has enabled the iron-master to smelt other- 
 wise useless and unreducible ores ; it has abolished the 
 processes of coking and roasting, and has given facili- 
 ties for a large and rapid production, far beyond the 
 most sanguine anticipations of its inventor. Manu- 
 facturers taking advantage of so powerful an agent, 
 have not hesitated to reduce improper materials, such 
 as cinder-heaps and impure ores, and by unduly has- 
 tening the process, and attending to quantity more 
 than to quality, have produced an inferior description 
 of iron, 'that has brought the invention into unmerited 
 obloquy. 
 
 The Ores. — The ores of iron are found in profuse 
 abundance in every latitude, embedded in or stratified 
 with every formation. They occur both crystallized, 
 massive, and arenaceous, lying deep in strata of vast 
 extent, filling veins and faults in other rocks, and 
 scattered over the surface of the ground. Sometimes, 
 but rarely, found native ; usually as oxyds, sulphurets, 
 or carbonates, more or less mingled with other sub- 
 stances. Of these ores there are perhaps twenty vari- 
 eties, many of which are, however, rare ; others are 
 combined with substances which unfit them for the 
 manufacture of iron, so that the remainder may be 
 classed under the following general heads ; their com- 
 position, however, varies^reatlj' : 
 
 1. The magnetic oxyds, in which the iron occurs, 
 as Fes O4 or Fe2 Os-j-Fe 0. This is the purest ore 
 which is worked : the best Swedish metal is manufac- 
 tured from it. It is found in primitive rocks, and is 
 widely diff'used over the globe. 2. Specular iron ore, 
 peroxyd of iron, Fe2 O3. This is rich and valuable, 
 and has been worked from a remote antiquity in Elba 
 and Spain. It is found chiefly in primary and transi- 
 tion rocks. 3. Red and brown haematites, hydrated 
 peroxyd of iron. These ores occur in botyroidal radi- 
 ating masses, in Cumberland, Ireland, America, and 
 other places. 4. Carbonate of iron. This ore occurs 
 mixed with large quantities of argillaceous, carbon- 
 aceous, and silicious substances, forming the large de- 
 posits of cla3--iron-stone and blackbauds, from which 
 most of the iron of this country is obtained. These 
 strata are generally found in close proximity to the 
 coal measures. All thS above ores are more or less 
 mixed with silica, alumina, oxyd of manganese, etc., 
 and it may not be uninteresting to glance at their geo- 
 graphical distribution in Europe and America. 
 
 The United Kingdom. — Great Britain possesses pecu- 
 liar and remarkable advantages for the manufacture of 
 iron. The ores are found in exhaustless abundance, 
 usually interstratified with the coal for their reduction, 
 and in close proximity to the mountain limestone, 
 
IRO 
 
 1101 
 
 IRO 
 
 which is used as a flux. In few countries do these 
 three essential materials occur in such abundance, or 
 so near together as to give the necessarj' facilities for 
 a large and profitable production. The ores princi- 
 pally employed are the clay-ironstones and carbonates 
 of blackbands, which are found interstratifled -with 
 the coal fields of Ayrshire, Lanarkshire, Shropshire, 
 South Wales, and other parts, and these vary in rich- 
 ness in different localities, according to position and 
 the amount of silica, clay and other foreign matter 
 •with which they are associated. The chemical com- 
 position of three varieties of the ore used in Lanark- 
 shire is given by Colquhoun, as follows : 
 
 
 No. 1. 
 
 No. 8. 
 
 No. 8. 
 
 Protoxyd of iron 
 
 Carbonic acid 
 
 Silica 
 
 53^08 
 8517 
 1^40 
 0^68 
 8 83 
 1^77 
 0^28 
 8^03 
 000 
 0^00 
 141 
 
 47^33 
 8810 
 6^68 
 4^30 
 / 2-00 
 2^20 
 0^83 
 1^70 
 0-22 
 0^13 
 2^26 
 
 35^22 
 32^58 
 ,9^56 
 6-84 
 8^62 
 5^19 
 1-16 
 2^18 
 0^62 
 0^00 
 0^00 
 
 Alumina 
 
 
 
 Peroxyd of iron 
 
 Bituminous matter.-. 
 
 O.vydof manmnese. 
 
 MIoisture and loss...'. 
 
 Total....! 
 
 100^00 
 
 1 00^00 
 
 100^37 
 
 The carbonic acid in the above ores may be partly 
 combined with the lime as carbonate of lime, as well 
 as with the protoxyd of iron. M. Berthier gives, 
 according to Dr. Ure, the following analysis of 
 the English and Welsh ironstones of the coal meas- 
 
 Loss by Ignition.... 
 Insoluble residuum. 
 Peroxyd of iron.... 
 Lime 
 
 Total. 
 
 Rloli WeUh 
 Ore. 
 
 80^00 
 8^40 
 
 60-00 
 0^00 
 
 98^40 
 
 Poor Welsh 
 Ore. 
 
 27^00 
 22^03 
 
 42 •oe 
 
 6-00 
 
 97^69 
 
 Dudley Rich 
 Ore or Gobblo. 
 
 ai^oo 
 
 7^66 
 58 •SS 
 2^66 
 
 99^65 
 
 Calculating the amount of carbonate of iron and 
 metallic iron indicated by the above analyses, we 
 have : 
 
 {Carbonate of iron.. . 
 Metallic iron 
 
 88^77 
 42^16 
 
 65^09 
 81 •SS 
 
 85^20 
 40^46 . 
 
 The richness of the abovo ironstones would be about 
 33 per cent, of iron. In the process of roasting, 28 per 
 cent, of the ore is dissipated. Mr. Mitchel gives also 
 the following assays of clay-ironstone and blackband 
 ore, as under : 
 
 
 Clay Ironstone, 
 Lollrim, Irelnnd. 
 
 Blackbnnd Car- 
 bonitto Ore. 
 
 
 61 658 
 8-742 
 
 , -976 • 
 1^849 
 
 ■284 
 
 •410 
 
 •274 
 
 •372 
 
 •214 
 
 •284 
 
 31^142 
 
 6-640 
 
 !■ 2-160 j 
 
 20-924 
 
 -741 
 
 1-742 
 
 14-974 
 
 -987 
 
 •881 
 
 Trace. 
 
 Trace. 
 
 ■098 
 
 •114 
 
 14^000 
 
 26'179 
 
 16^940 
 
 2^420 
 
 Peroxyd of iron 
 
 
 
 Magnesia 
 
 
 Potash 
 
 Soda 
 
 
 
 
 Silica 
 
 Carbonaceous matter 
 
 Loss 
 
 Total 
 
 100-000 
 
 100 •ooo 
 
 
 In North Lancashire and Cumberland, the red 
 haematite ores are now extensively worked, and great 
 quantities are yearly shipped from Whitehaven, Ulver- 
 stone, etc., to Staffordshire, South Wales, and Scot- 
 land, for mixing with the poorer argillaceous and 
 blackband ores. In Cumberland, North Lancashire, 
 no less than 546,998 tons were raised in 1854 for this 
 purpose, and the greater portion was exported from 
 those districts. In addition to these exports, about 
 25,000 to 30,000 tons are smelted by the hot blast at 
 Oleator, in the neighborhood of Whitehaven. It 
 produces a strong and ductile iron, considered highly 
 
 valuable for mixing with the weaker irons. These 
 ores have been carfully analyzed, and contain : 
 
 Peroyd of iron 90^8 
 
 Silica 50 
 
 Alumina 8 
 
 Lime . . .■. trace. 
 
 Magnesia trace. 
 
 Water 6 
 
 Total 104^3 
 
 Or about 62 per cent, of metallic iron. 
 
 The following table gives the state of the trade in 
 1856 ; the particulars are extracted from the Mining 
 Records, published under the direction of Mr. E. 
 Hunt, in connection with the Museum of Practical 
 Geology, London. The importance which Scotland 
 has assumed in reference to the iron manufacture is 
 especially worthy of notice : 
 
 Counties. 
 
 ^o.of 
 Worka. 
 
 No. of 
 fumacea 
 .erected. 
 
 No. of 
 furnaces 
 In blast. 
 
 Total pro- 
 duce In tons. 
 
 England : 
 Northumberland, Dur- 
 ham, and Yorkshire.. . . 
 
 ^87 
 
 18 
 2 
 72 
 18 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 ■ 14 
 
 ■ 84 
 
 9 
 
 18 
 10 
 
 106 
 83 
 6 
 208 
 84 
 7 
 
 11 
 85 
 
 184 
 
 41 
 88 
 27 
 
 80 
 
 25 
 
 8 
 
 166 
 
 23 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 21 
 
 100 
 
 80 
 72 
 16 
 
 848,444 
 
 127,600 
 20,000 
 847,600 
 124,800 
 21,990 
 
 82,900 
 • 750,000 
 
 249,600 
 
 468,000 
 
 79,040 
 
 Lancashire &GamberIand 
 Staffordshire 
 
 
 G-loucestershlre 
 
 "Wales : 
 Flintshire, Denbighshire. 
 Glamorgansblro. 
 
 Anthracite district. 
 Glamorganshire andMon- 
 mouthshire. 
 
 Bituminous district 
 Scotland; 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 228 
 
 724 
 
 565 
 
 3,069,874 
 
 
 In connection with the above, we insert the follow- 
 ing table from Mr. Kenyon Blackwell's paper on the 
 Iron Industry of Great Britain, read before the Society 
 of Arts. It gives the estimated production of crude 
 iron in the various countries : 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Sweden 150,000 
 
 ''St"s.^!™.';°[ ""'"o" 
 
 other countries. . . . 800,000 
 
 Total 6,000,000 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Great Britain 3,000,000 
 
 Franco 760,000 
 
 United States 750,000 
 
 Prussia 800,000 
 
 Austria 250,000 
 
 Belgium 200,000 
 
 Eussia 200,000 
 
 In referring to the above, it will be seen that Great 
 Britain produces as much crude iron as all other coun- 
 tries put together ; and a great portion of that iron 
 being converted into bars and plates, indicates a large 
 and important article of production. An article of 
 immense value to the country — of great demand at 
 home and abroad — and justly entitled not only to im- 
 provements and economy ;n its manufacture, but to 
 the generous support of a liberal and an enlightened 
 government. 
 
 Previously to 1845, the imports of foreign iron into 
 Great Britain usually varied from 20,000 to 25,000 tons 
 a year. But at that epoch the duties on foreign iron 
 (20s. a ton on iron in bars) were repealed ; and there 
 has since been an increase in the imports of Swedish 
 bar-iron, which is especially well fitted for being made 
 into steel. The imports of all sorts of foreign iron 
 amounted, in 1849, to 29,396 tons, whereof 25,039 tons 
 were from Sweden. ' 
 
 Perhaps in nothing has the fall of price, consequent 
 on the diminution of the cost of production, that has 
 taken place since the peace of 1815, been more con- 
 spicuous than in hardware. At an average, articles 
 of hardware are at present (1857) full 50 per cent, 
 lower than in 1820. And it may be safely affirmed 
 that there are very few descriptions of articles to whicb 
 a fall of price would have been so advantageous. 
 
IRO 
 
 1102 
 
 IRO 
 
 AOCOITNT OF THE DIFFERENT DESCRIPTIONS OP IRON (INCLUDING UNWROtTGHT StEEL) EXPORTED FROM THE UNITED 
 
 Kingdom during 1850, spECipitiNG tue Quantities bent to the different Countries.* 
 
 Conntries to which exported. 
 
 Pig iron. \ Bar iron. 
 
 Cast 
 iron. 
 
 Iron 
 wro. 
 
 Wrought iron, viz. 
 
 Anchors | 
 
 grapnels, 
 
 eto. 
 
 Hoops, 
 
 Of all oth- 
 er sorts 
 (oxcept 
 
 ordnance). 
 
 Old iron 
 
 for ra- 
 
 mnnufac- 
 
 ture. 
 
 Un. 
 
 wrought 
 
 steel. 
 
 Russia 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Norway 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Prussia 
 
 Mecklenburg 
 
 Hanover 
 
 Oldenburg 
 
 Hanseatic Towns 
 
 Holland 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Channel Islands 
 
 France 
 
 Portugal, Azores, and Madeira 
 
 Spain and the Canaries 
 
 Gibraltar. 
 
 Italy, 
 
 Malta 
 
 Ionian Islands 
 
 Greece 
 
 Turkish dominions, exclusive of 
 "Wallachia, Moldavia, Syria, Pal- 
 estine, and Egypt 
 
 "Wallachia and Moldavia 
 
 Syria and Palestine 
 
 Egypt 
 
 Algeria 
 
 Tunis 
 
 Morocco 
 
 Western coast of Africa 
 
 British possessions in S. Africa. . . 
 
 Cape Verd Islands 
 
 St. Helena and Ascension Isls — 
 
 Mauritius 
 
 British territories in East Indies. 
 
 Java 
 
 Philippine Islands 
 
 China, including Hong Kong 
 
 British settlements in Australia. . 
 
 South Sea Islands 
 
 British North Amer. colonies 
 
 British W. Indies and Br. Guiana 
 
 Forei;j:n West Indies 
 
 United States of America 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Central America, 
 
 New Granada 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Ecuador 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Oriental republic of Uruguay, . 
 
 Buenos Ayres,. 
 
 Chili 
 
 Peru 
 
 Falkland Islands 
 
 Russian settlements on the north- 
 west coast of America 
 
 Total 
 
 Tons. 
 812 
 
 280 
 
 1,460 
 
 T,6T1 
 
 10,959 
 
 21 
 
 1,398 
 
 318 
 
 T,3T0 
 
 13,103 
 
 28 
 
 512 
 
 11,718 
 
 887 
 
 4,641 
 
 7,460 
 
 861 
 70 
 
 '190 
 
 580 
 260 
 
 "820 
 1,102 
 
 10,894 
 
 16 
 
 269 
 
 57,021 
 
 280 
 50 
 
 Tons. 
 449 
 
 463 
 
 171 
 
 2,268 
 
 1,422 
 
 284 
 
 629 
 
 278 
 
 7,868 
 
 8,786 
 
 21 
 
 592 
 
 1,085 
 
 4,649 
 
 1,.312 
 
 351 
 
 22,184 
 
 1,996 
 
 305 
 
 1,031 
 
 9,060 
 
 1,608 
 165 
 379 
 958 
 282 
 161 
 2,715 
 1,338 
 
 ""1 
 
 517 
 
 32,819 
 
 1,946 
 
 345 
 
 608 
 
 4,865 
 
 18 
 
 48,893 
 
 812 
 
 6,475 
 
 260,841 
 
 1,731 
 
 180 
 
 1,965 
 
 70 
 
 65 
 
 2,942 
 
 14 
 
 1,545 
 
 6,446 
 
 846 
 
 142 
 
 422 
 
 98 
 
 114 
 
 470 
 
 69 
 
 1,991 
 
 417 
 
 100 
 
 42 
 
 846 
 
 2,232 
 
 875 
 
 9 
 
 4,388 
 
 160 
 
 "146 
 
 3,557 
 
 658 
 141 
 
 '"16 
 
 62 
 
 4,848 
 468 
 160 
 
 2,207 
 208 
 
 27 
 
 437 
 
 1,400 
 
 19 
 
 2 
 12 
 
 147 
 
 \.... 
 
 Tons. 
 516 
 410 
 95 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 1,309 
 
 707 
 
 25 
 
 869 
 
 66 
 
 64 
 
 1,620 
 
 12 
 
 1,583 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 14 
 
 80 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 42 
 
 3114 
 
 407 
 
 5 
 
 "358 
 
 1,841 
 
 - 206 
 
 7 
 
 35 
 
 2,895 
 1,543 
 1,803 
 1,476 
 
 479 
 864 
 
 124 
 
 141,972 
 
 26,485 I 21,092 
 
 Tons. 
 254 
 
 8 
 
 41 
 46 
 10 
 12 
 27 
 
 "581 
 
 168 
 
 578 
 
 8 
 
 29 
 
 12 
 
 282 
 
 2 
 
 256 
 
 53 
 
 65 
 20 
 12 
 1,295 
 10 
 
 4,034 
 
 192 
 
 98 
 
 583 
 
 675 
 
 166 
 
 49 
 
 78 
 
 8 
 
 960 
 
 811 
 
 48 
 
 227 
 
 216 
 
 200 
 
 727 
 
 197 
 
 1,067 
 
 163 
 
 5 
 
 206 
 
 653 
 
 13 
 
 5 
 22T 
 
 57 
 
 735 
 
 167 
 
 62 
 
 15 
 
 483 
 
 8 
 
 2,683 
 
 102 
 
 128 
 
 12,882 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 18 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 729 
 
 14 
 
 166 
 
 178 
 
 87 
 
 82 
 
 867 
 
 69 
 
 139 
 
 808 
 
 30 
 
 1,612 
 
 1,821 
 
 "'58 
 476 
 
 1,462 
 
 1,873 
 60 
 
 3,415 
 142 
 102 
 146 
 
 223 
 
 297 
 5 
 
 120 
 16 
 5 
 6 
 
 449 
 
 100 
 
 3,813 
 
 140 
 
 75 
 
 191 
 
 916 
 
 2 
 
 1,980- 
 
 878 
 
 349 
 
 7,.S49 
 
 200 
 
 9 
 
 28 
 
 18 
 
 "890 
 
 24 
 
 831 
 
 141 
 
 34 
 
 9 
 
 
 1 
 7 
 85 
 1 
 1 
 
 '121 
 94 
 
 
 162 
 
 
 
 215 
 
 26 
 180 
 
 268 
 
 669 
 
 86 
 
 10 
 
 13 
 
 1,577 
 
 8 
 
 2,016 
 
 1,112 
 
 804 
 
 697 
 
 46 
 
 23 
 
 78 
 
 80 
 
 31 
 
 430 
 
 19 
 
 166 
 
 155 
 
 62 
 
 26,927 I 30,605 1 
 
 S.267 
 
 Tons. 
 
 863 
 
 75 
 
 292 
 
 847 
 
 942 
 
 160 
 
 344 
 
 93 
 
 6,201 
 
 4,763 
 
 120 
 
 198 
 
 1,086 
 
 682 
 
 1,020 I 
 
 21 I 
 
 2,834 
 
 100 
 
 10 
 
 758 
 
 26 
 192 
 61 
 10 
 
 "ieo 
 
 669 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 461 
 
 8,978 
 
 198 
 
 212 
 
 28 
 
 1,606 
 
 3 
 
 6,354 
 
 1,068 
 
 762 
 
 10,894 
 
 82 
 
 64 
 
 66 
 
 26 
 
 14 
 
 840 
 
 67 
 
 489 
 
 412 
 
 277 
 
 7 
 
 Tons. 
 
 "io 
 
 952 
 5,666 
 
 171 
 
 1,138 
 10 
 
 7,679 
 
 54,808 15,688 10,592 
 
 Tons. 
 
 576 
 
 7 
 
 14 
 
 85 
 
 214 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 "807 
 
 478 
 
 618 
 
 16 
 
 183 
 
 •4 
 117 
 
 8 
 312 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 100 
 
 ""5 
 
 "65 
 
 '476 
 9 
 14 
 
 S,325 
 70 
 17 
 11 
 
 * Cwts. and lbs, are omitted in this table, but are allowed for in the summing up. 
 
 In Ireland there are vast deposits of iron ore of 
 great richness, though as yet but little worked. Some 
 of these, such as the ores worked at the Arigua mines, 
 and the Kidney ores of Balcarry Baj-, yield as much 
 as 70 per cent, of iron. If these mines were worked 
 more extensively, and if peat fuel were used in the 
 smelting operations, the iron would probably be of the 
 verj' best quality, and might rival the famed Swedish 
 charcoal metal. Of this there is now every reason to 
 hope, as the establishment of railwaj' communication, 
 with almost everj' part of Ireland, will open out the 
 immense peat bogs of that country, and facilitate the 
 introduction of vegetable fuel for the reduction of the 
 ores, and create a large and important addition to other 
 branches of Irish industrj'. 
 
 ' France possesses an abundant supply of iron ore, 
 but on account of the scarcity of coal, the manufac- 
 ture has been greatly restricted in extent. The intro- 
 duction of railway communication is, however, rapidly 
 removing this diificulty, and the operations of smelt- 
 ing are greatly on the increase. The railroad has 
 enabled the French iron-master to substitute coal for 
 charcoal in the reduction of the iron ores, and in con- 
 sequence an immense increase has taken place in the 
 
 production of pig and manufactured iron. The ores 
 are found in beds or strata in the Jura range ; accu- 
 mulated in kidney-shaped concretions in the fissures 
 of the limestone ; or dispersed over the surface of the 
 groimd, and but slightly covered with sand or clay. 
 They are found in the Departments of the Yonne, the 
 Mouse, and the Moselle, and indeed may be traced 
 from the Pas de Calais on the north to the Jura on the 
 south, indicating throughout an abundant and ample 
 supply. The present increased production of iron in 
 France is chiefly due to the introduction of coal in 
 smelting, but it may also be traced in some measure 
 to the encouragement given bj' the government to 
 that branch of industry, and to the enterprise of such 
 men as M, de Gallois and M. Dufrfenoy, who have ex- 
 erted themselves to extend its manufacture in that 
 countrj'. M. de Gallois resided in England for sev- 
 eral years, immediately subsequent to the peace of 
 1815, and having obtained admission into the different 
 iron-works here, he returned to France and established 
 the works at St. Etienne, now probably the largest 
 and most extensive in that country. The universal 
 exhibition of last j-ear (1855) fully justifies the re- 
 marks in reference to the great increase of the iron 
 
IRO 
 
 1103 
 
 IRO 
 
 trade of France. Any person in the least conversant 
 with the imperfect machinery and processes of the iron 
 manufacture as it existed in France some years since, 
 could not have been otherwise than strucli with the 
 improved character of those exemplified in the Paris 
 Exhibition. In no country<(probably not excepting 
 even this) has so great progress been made in so short 
 a time, in advancing from a state of comparative rude- 
 ness to one of considerable perfection, as in France. 
 The production of crude pig-iron in France is now lit- 
 tle short of 1,000,000 tons annually, but the demand 
 for railways, rolling-stock, bridges, iron ships, girders, 
 and other constructions is so great that large quanti- 
 ties of iron are still annually imported from this conn- 
 try. 
 
 German Iron Manufactures. — The- increase in the 
 production and manufacture of iron in Germany, 
 within the last few j'ears, is remaltable. In Prussian 
 Westphalia alone, no less than 16 mining and smelting 
 companies have been formed since 1848 — 12 of them 
 since 1854. In 1853, this province produced but 603,- 
 625 cwt. pig iron, and 118,064 cwt. cast iron ware ; 
 while in 1854 the product was 709,110 cwt. pig iron, 
 and 332,061 cast iron ware ; showing an increase of 73 
 per cent, in one year. In 1855 the same province 
 produced 1,513,039 cwt. pig iron, and 1,126,025 cwt. 
 bar iron. The product of iron ore in all Prussia in 
 
 1853, was 1,496,516 tons, and in 1854, 2,144,149 tons ; 
 increase, 647,633 tons. The product of all the fur- 
 naces in the kingdom of Saxonj', in 1852, was 168,175 
 cwt. ; in 1853, 170,637 ewt. Bavaria produced in 1850, 
 668,167 cwt.; in 1853, 1,074,317 cwt. Austria, in 
 1830, produced 1,437,836 cwt. pig iron, and 151,637 
 cwt. cast iron ware in 1854, 4,151,505 cwt. pig iron, 
 and 582,446 cwt. cast iron ware. The product of all 
 the furnaces in the States of the ZoUverein was : In 
 1851, 4,612,102 cwt. ; in 1852, 5,137,821 cwt. ; in 1853, 
 6,126,458 cwt. ; in 1854, 7,601,470 cwt. ; showing an 
 increase from 1851 to 1864, of 64 per cent. At this 
 rate of increase, the production of iron will soon ex- 
 ceed its consumption in Germany. But little railroad 
 iron is now imported into Germany. The rolling- 
 mills on the lower Bhine, in Berlin, and in Silesia, 
 supply Prussia ; the rolling-mill of Zwickau meets the 
 demand of Saxony, and that of Burglengenfield sup- 
 plies Bavaria. Austria, too, is supplied by domestic 
 mills. German rails are more expensive than En- 
 glish, but are also said to be more durable. 
 
 In regard to machinery, Germany is also making 
 rapid progress, and already outstrips England in the 
 building of locomotives. Not a single locomotive is 
 now sent from England to Germany on German ac- 
 count, while numbers of them are sent from Germany 
 to France and Switzerland. Extensive iron-founderies 
 and machine-shops are to be found in Berlin, Vienna, 
 Munich, Augsburg, Esslingen, Carlsruhe, Aix-la- 
 Chapelle, Euhrort, Hanover, etc. Up to January 1, 
 
 1854, one establishment in Berlin had alone turned 
 out 600 locomotives, and 1300 have been built in all in 
 Germany since 1841. German cutlery is likewise 
 beginning to compete with the English, especially in 
 the .West India and South American markets. The 
 sugar plantations of the West Indies, which formerly 
 obtained their harvesting implements from England, 
 now import them direct from Germany. 
 
 Prussia. — ^Valuable deposits of the blackband and 
 clay carbonate ores are fonnd interstratified with the 
 great coal-field of Ruhr ; and the bog-iron and hsema- 
 tite ores are found in considerable profusion in Bhen- 
 ish Prussia and other parts. In Upper Silesia, on the 
 Vistula and the Oder, large deposits of coal and iron 
 are found in juxtaposition, and are worked to a con- 
 siderable extent. 
 
 The consumption of iron is not so great as in France, 
 though it is increasing rapidly, as may be seen from 
 returns recently given by the British Charg^ d' Af- 
 faires at Berlin. These returns show that the amount 
 
 of iron ore raised in Prussia has increased from 1,495,- 
 516 tons in 1853, to 2,144,609 tons in 1854 ; this has 
 taken place in nearly all the producing districts, but 
 chiefly on the Rliine, where the demand has increased 
 from 719,684 to 1,068,656 tons ; in Westphalia, from 
 146,320 to 330,014 tons ; in Silesia, from 563,739 to 
 650,369 tons ; in lower Saxony and Thuringia, from 
 51,963 to 70,676 tons ; in Prussian Brandenburg, from 
 8,084 to 12,731 tons; and in the Upper ZoUverein 
 from 6,736 to 12,063 tons. 
 
 In Austria, all the iron is smelted with charcoal or 
 carbonized peat, and is, in consequence, of the finest 
 quality ; it may be applied to every description of 
 manufacture, from the most ductile wire to the hardest 
 steel. The production ia, however, small. The ores 
 are found in Hungary, Styria, Moravia, and Upper 
 Silesia. 
 
 In Bdgium, both coal and iron are found in equal 
 abundance, and are worked at Charleroi, Liege, and at 
 other places. The ores, which are chiefly hajmatite, 
 are derived from the limestone at the base of the coal 
 measures. 
 
 The superiority of the Swedish iron has long been 
 acknowledged, and till recently it has been unrivaled. 
 This arises not only from the purity of the ore — the 
 magnetic oxyd of iron — but in consequence of its 
 being smelted with charcoal only. The quantity is, 
 however, restricted, as the iron-masters are allowed by 
 law only a certain number of trees per annum, in or- 
 der that the forests may not be totally destroyed. 
 Coal does not exist in either Sweden or Norway. 
 
 In 1844 some experimental researches were under- 
 taken by Mr. Fairbairn of Manchester, at the request 
 of the Sublime Porte, in regard to the properties of 
 iron made from the ores of Samakoff in Turkey. The 
 ores were strongly magnetic, and contained, according 
 to Dumas and others, 62 to 64 per cent, of iron. They 
 consisted of : 
 
 One atom iron 28 + one atom oxygen 8 = 86 
 Two atoms iron 56 + three atoms oxygen 24 = 80 
 
 Iron.... 84 
 
 Oxygen 82 116 
 
 Some of these ores have been smelted with char- 
 coal, and some veiy fine specimens of iron and steel 
 produced. The manufacture is, however, in a languid 
 state in Turkey, and although smelting furnaces, 
 blowing apparatus, forges, rolling mills, etc., were 
 prepared and sent out from this countrj', they are to a 
 great extent useless among a people who have deeply 
 rooted prejudices and habitual inactivity to overcome, 
 and every thing to learn in all those habits of industry 
 which indicate the rising prosperity of an energetic 
 and an active people. 
 
 America. — Both the magnetic, hsematite, and clay- 
 ironstones abound in the United States. The mag- 
 netic ores worked in New England, New York, and 
 New Jersey ; the haematite in Pennsylvania, New 
 York, New Jersey, and other localities ; but the greater 
 part of the manufacture must eventually establish 
 itself in the valley of the Mississippi, west of the 
 Alleghany range, where vast deposits of coal and iron 
 exist, though at present but imperfectly known or 
 developed. The ores in most of these districts are 
 smelted with a mixture of charcoal and anthracite, 
 and the usual limestone flux, and produce a very ex- 
 cellent quality of iron. In another portion of this arti- 
 cle (see p. 1105) a full account of the iron ores of the 
 United States is given. 
 
 In Nova Scotia some of the richest ores yet discov- 
 ered occur in exhaustless abundance. The iron manu- 
 factured from them is of the very best quality, and is 
 equal to the finest Swedish metal. The specular ore 
 of the Acadian mines. Nova Scotia, is said by Dr. Ure 
 to be a nearly pure peroxyd of iron, containing 99 per 
 cent, of the peroxyd, and about 70 per cent, of iron. 
 When smelted, 100 parts yield 75 of iron, the increase 
 in weight being due to combined carbon. The red 
 
mo 
 
 1104 
 
 IRO 
 
 ore Dr. Ure states to be analogous to the kidney ore 
 
 of Cumberland, and to contain : 
 
 Peroxyd ot iron 85 8 S4-4 
 
 Si'ica 8-2 8-0 
 
 water 6-0 T-6 
 
 100-0 100-0 
 
 The Acadian ores are situated in the neighborhood 
 of large tracts of forests, capable of supplying almost 
 any quantity of charcoal for the manufacture of the 
 superior qualities of iron and steel. Several speci- 
 mens of iron from these mines have been submitted 
 to direct experiment, and the results prove its high 
 powers of resistance to strain, ductility, and adapta- 
 tion to all those processes by which the finest descrip- 
 tion of wire and steel are manufactured. The difficul- 
 ties which the government have had to encounter, 
 durii^g the last two years, in obtaining a sufficientlj' 
 strong metal for artillery, are likely to be removed bj' 
 the use of the Acadian pig-iron. Large quantities 
 have been purchased by the War OfBce, and experi- 
 ments are now in progress, under the direction of Lieu- 
 tenant-Colonel Wilmot, Inspector of Artillery, and of 
 Mr. Fairbairn, which seem calculated to establish the 
 superiority of this metal for casting every description 
 of heavy ordnance. There are also some very rich 
 ores at the Nictau mines, as the following analyses by 
 Dr. Jackson show. They contain impressions of Sil- 
 urian tentaculites, spirifers, etc. : 
 
 
 Brown Ore, 
 ■omewhat 
 magnetic. 
 
 Red Iron Ore. 
 
 Perosyd of h-on 
 
 TO-20 
 
 14-40 
 
 5-60 
 
 2-80 
 
 6-80 
 
 ■40 
 
 •00 
 
 64-40 
 19-20 
 5-40 
 8-20 
 1-20 
 4-40 
 2-40 
 
 Silica 
 
 
 
 
 
 Water. 
 
 
 * Gain from oxygen. 
 
 100-20 
 ■20* 
 
 100-20 
 -20t 
 
 carbonate of lime. 
 
 100-00 
 
 100-00 
 
 As our limits are circumscribed, it will not be neces- 
 sary to extend this section further ; suffice it there- 
 ■ fore to observe, that in all countries nature has, with 
 a beneficent purpose, interlaid and interstratified the 
 whole surface of the globe with this useful and indis- 
 pensable material, and it would ill bespeak that high 
 intelligence with which man is endowed if he did not 
 avail himself of, and turn to good account, the im- 
 mense stores of mineral treasures which are so pro- 
 fusely laid at his feet. 
 
 Fuel. — The inquir}' into the properties and compo- 
 sition of the ores of iron, and the processes emploj'ed 
 for their reduction and subsequent conversion into 
 bars and plates, would be incomplete unless accom- 
 panied by descriptive analyses of the fuel by which 
 they are fused. Indeed the results of the operations 
 of smelting, puddling, etc., are so intimately depend- 
 ent on the quality of the fuel employed, as to render a 
 knowledge of its constituents essential to the manu- 
 facture of good iron. 
 
 Charcoal was at first universally employed in the 
 manufacture of iron, and on account of its purity com- 
 pared with other kinds of fuel, and its strong chemical 
 affinities and consequent high combustibilit)', it is of 
 very superior value where it can be obtained in large 
 quantities at a moderate cost. This, however, is rare- 
 ly the case, and hence its use is restricted within very 
 narrow limits in most countries. Charcoal is the 
 result of several processes, in each of which the ob- 
 ject is to increase the amount of fuel in a given bulk. 
 The wood being cut into convenient lengths, and piled 
 closely together, in a large heap, the interstices being 
 filled with the smaller branches, and the whole cov- 
 ered with wet charcoal powder, is then set on fire. 
 Care is taken that only sufficient air is admitted to 
 consume the gaseous products of the wood, so as to 
 maintain the high temperature without needlessly con- 
 
 suming the carbon. After the whole of the gaseous 
 products have been separated, and the carbon and 
 salts only are left, the access of air is prevented, and 
 the heap allowed to cool. , 
 
 Another and better process is to throw the wood 
 into a large close oven ot furnace, heated either by the 
 combustion within it, or by a separate fire conducted 
 in flues around it. By this process, not only is the 
 yield greater and of better quality, from the slower 
 progress of the operation, but the products of the dis- 
 tillation may be preserved and employed for a great 
 variety of purposes. The following results of some 
 experiments by Karsten, show the difference in yield 
 of vei-y rapid and very slow processes : 
 
 Wood. 
 
 Ciiarcosi produced by 
 quick c nrbonization. 
 
 Ciiarcoai produced by 
 Blow carbonizntion. 
 
 Young oak 
 
 Old oak 
 
 16-54 
 15-91 
 1- 14-25 
 14-05 
 16-22 
 15-35 
 
 25-60 
 25-Tl 
 25-25 
 25-00 
 27-72 
 24-75 
 
 Young deal ■..'.■- 
 
 Old deal ::■ 
 
 Young fir 
 
 Old flr 
 
 Mean 
 
 15-88 1 25-6T 1 
 
 These, on the average, give for the quick processes 
 15-3, and for the slow 25'6, being in the ratio of 1 : 
 i'67, or 0-67 in favor of the quick process. 
 
 Peat — This material seems likely to come into use 
 for smelting iron in countries such as Ireland, where 
 neither coal nor wood are found in abundance. It is 
 purer and less objectionable than coal, and if properly 
 dried, compressed, and carbonized, would prove a very 
 valuable fuel for the reduction of such ores as we have 
 already described in the section on the iron ores of Ire- 
 land. It is carbonized in the same way as the char- 
 ring of wood. 
 
 Coke, — Before the introduction of the hot-blast, this 
 material was used to a very great extent in the manu- 
 facture of iron ; it is prepared from coal in the same 
 way that charcoal is prepared from wood, the opera- 
 tion being called the coking or desulphurizing process. 
 The heaps do not require so careful a regulation of the 
 admission of air as those of charcoal, on account of 
 the comparatively incombustible character of the coke. 
 Sometimes the heaps are made large, with perforated 
 brick chimnies, to increase the draught through the 
 mounds ; at other times they are formed into smaller 
 heaps, and the conversion takes place without the in- 
 tervention of fines. The more usual and economical 
 plan is, however, the employment of close ovens, by 
 which process a great saving is effected, the yield 
 being from 30 to 60 per cent, in the one case, and from 
 50 to 75 in the other, according to the nature and qual- 
 ity of the coal. 
 
 The following table of the heating power of various 
 kinds of fuel, from Knapp's Chemical Technology, is 
 not without interest ; in practice, however, only a 
 portion of the absolute heating power is made avail- 
 able: 
 
 Charcoal, Average 
 
 Feat from Allen in Ireland, Upper 
 '^ " " Lower 
 
 " " Pressed 
 
 Peat charcoal, Essone _ . 
 
 " Framont & Champ de Feu 
 
 Coke, St. Etionne 
 
 Besseges 
 
 Eive de Gier 
 
 Coal, brown, mean of 7 varieties. 
 
 cannel, Wigan 
 
 cherry, Derbyshire 
 
 cannel, Glasgow 
 
 " Lancashire 
 
 Durham 
 
 Gas coke, Paris 
 
 Anthracite, Pennsylvania 
 
 " mean of 5 varieties. . 
 
 Authority. 
 
 IPoimds of wate] 
 beated from 0" 
 to lOOo centlg. 
 by 1 lb. of fuel. 
 
 Berthier. 
 t Griffith.-^ 
 
 Berthier., 
 
 J-Berthier-j 
 
 Berthier.. 
 
 ^ Berthier-^ 
 >-Bei-thier-< 
 
 68-0 
 62 -T 
 56-6 
 28-0 
 50-7 
 68-9 
 65-6 
 64-3 
 53-9 
 50-3 
 64-1 
 61-6 
 56-4 
 53-2 
 71-6 
 SO -8 
 69-1 
 67-4 
 
 Coal. — The hot-blast has enabled the iron-masters to 
 use raw coal in the blast furnaces, the great heat of 
 
IRO 
 
 1105 
 
 IRO 
 
 the ascending cnnent of the prodacts of combustion 
 coking it as it falls in the furnace. The sulphur how- 
 ever, and other deleterious ingredients, do not appear 
 to be so completely got rid of as whenthe coal ia used 
 in the shape of coke ; and it appears probable, that 
 even with the hot-blast, the Separate process Of coking 
 
 might be advaiitagfeously used, on, account of the 
 greater purity of the iron produced. 
 
 The following tables, selected from various sources, 
 give the composition of the different kinds of fuel, 
 all of which are applicable to the reduction and fusion 
 of the iron ores : 
 
 Fuel. 
 
 Locality. 
 
 Specific 
 graTity. 
 
 Carbau. 
 
 7800 
 
 70-90 
 
 74-828 
 
 82.924 
 
 64-72 
 
 72-22 
 
 83-758 
 
 6T-S97 
 
 74-45 
 
 84-846 
 
 Hydrogen. 
 
 Oxygen and 
 Nitrogen. 
 
 Ajhfls In 100 
 parte. 
 
 Authority. 
 
 Splint Coal... 
 
 (( 
 Ganuel coal.. 
 
 (( 
 Cherry coal. 
 
 (I 
 Caking coal. 
 
 Newcastle, Wylam. 
 Glasgow 
 
 Lancashire, Wigan 
 
 Edtnbuig (parrot coal.). 
 
 Newcastle, Jarrow 
 
 Glasgow 
 
 Newcastle, Garesfleld. . . 
 Durham, South Hetton. 
 
 1-290 
 1-266 
 1-302 
 1-307 
 1272 
 1-228 
 1-819 
 1-318 
 1-268 
 1-266 
 1-286 
 1-280 
 ,1-274 
 1-269 
 
 87-952 
 88-274 
 76-28 
 
 6-25 
 4-80 
 6-180 
 6-491 
 
 21-66 
 8-98 
 6-660 
 5-405 
 
 12-40 
 6-048 
 5-462 
 6-239 
 5-171 
 4-18 
 
 18-75 
 24-80 
 
 5-085 
 10-487 
 18-72 
 28-85 
 
 8-089 
 12-432 
 18-15 
 
 8-430 
 11-928 
 
 6-416 
 
 8-086 
 20-54 
 
 18-612 
 1-128 
 
 2-545 
 14-566 
 
 1-676 
 1-421 
 1-898 
 1-619 
 4 670 
 
 Thomson. 
 
 Ure. 
 
 j-Eichardson. 
 
 Thomson. 
 Ure. 
 
 j-Bichardson. 
 
 Thomson. 
 
 Klchardson. 
 
 Thomson. 
 
 Anthracite. 
 
 Swansea. 
 
 South "Wales.. 
 Pennsylvania. 
 
 1-848 
 1-270 
 
 1-462 
 
 Massachusetts, Worcester. 
 
 92-56 
 90-68 
 94-05 
 90-46 
 94-89 
 28-35 
 
 2-380 
 2-600 
 8-380 
 2-480 
 2-550 
 0-92O 
 
 2-630 
 4-100 
 2-670 
 2-460 
 2-660 
 2-160 
 
 1-720 
 
 4-670 
 
 Begnauit.- 
 Jacquelin. 
 Overman^ 
 Begnanlt. 
 
 >■ Overman. 
 
 Peat. 
 
 Vulcaire 
 
 Long 
 
 Champ de Feu. 
 
 Cappage 
 
 Kilbeggan 
 
 Kilbacan 
 
 6708 
 68-09 
 67-79 
 61-05 
 61-04 
 51-13 
 
 5-680 
 
 0-980 
 
 6-110 
 
 6-86 
 
 6-67 
 
 6-83 
 
 81-760 
 
 81-870 
 
 30-770 
 
 89-65 
 
 80-46 
 
 84-43 
 
 2-56 
 1-88 
 8-06 
 
 ^Eegnault 
 i-Dr. Kane. 
 
 According to Knapp, peat contains from 1 to 33 per 
 cent, of its weight of ash. In coal we have the follow- 
 ing from Mr. Mushet's analyses : 
 
 
 , Specific 
 gravity. 
 
 Carbon. 
 
 Aihes. 
 
 Volatile 
 matter. 
 
 Welsh fhmace coal . . . '. 
 
 " slaty " 
 
 Derbyshire fiirnace coal 
 " cannel " 
 
 1-887 
 1-393. 
 1-409 
 1-264 
 1-2T8 
 
 88-068 
 89-709 
 82-175 
 62-882 
 48-362 
 
 3-432 
 2-800 
 6-726 
 4-288 
 4-638 
 
 8-800 
 
 8-000 
 
 9-100 
 
 42-830 
 
 47-000 , 
 
 And again the analyses, from Overman, of the ash 
 of coal, may be quoted, as showing the constituents 
 contained in the ashes derived from combustion : 
 
 Sulphate of lime 80-8 8-6 
 
 Lime 8-8 2-6 
 
 Bllex 14-2 85-7 
 
 Oxydofiron 1-7 0-0 
 
 Alumina 0-0 8-2 
 
 Total 100-0 100-0 
 
 Mcdkabk Iron. — The greatly extended application 
 of wrought iron to every variety of construction ren- 
 ders an investigation of its properties peculiarly inter- 
 esting. It is now employed more extensively than 
 cast iron ; and on account of its ductility and strength 
 nearly two thirds of the weight of material may in 
 many cases be saved by its employment, while great 
 lightness and durabilitj' are secured. Its superiority 
 is especially evident in constructions where great stiff- 
 ness is not required, but on the other hand any degree 
 of rigidity may be obtained by the employment of a 
 tubular or cellular structure, and this inay be seen in 
 the construction of wrought iron tubular bridges, 
 beams, and iron shops. The material of malleable 
 iron which is making such vast changes in the forms 
 of construction, can not bnt be interesting and import- 
 ant, and considering that the present is far from the 
 limit of its application, we shall endeavor to give it 
 that degree of attention which the importance of the 
 subject demands. From the forge and the rolling- 
 mill we derive two distinct qualities of iron, known as 
 " red-short" and " cold-short i" The former is the most 
 ductile, and is a tough, iibrous material, which exhib- 
 its considerable strength when cold ; the latter is more 
 brittle, and has a highly crystalline fracture almost 
 like cast-iron ; but the feet is probably not generally 
 known, that the brittle works as well, and is as ductile 
 4A 
 
 under the hammer, as the other, when at a high tem- 
 perature. 
 
 United States. — Iron was first made in America in the 
 province of Virginia, about the year. 1715, and the ex- 
 ample was quickly followed by "the provinces of Mary- 
 land and Pennsylvania. This opening of a new source 
 of wealth was a subject of great satisfaction and im- 
 portance to those who were interested in the prosperity 
 of the colonies, presenting to their view, at no distant 
 date, a prospect of independence of foreign countries 
 for the supplies of those most essential articles, iron 
 and timber. 
 
 ExpOUTS OP Ieow pnoM the American Plantations. 
 
 Years. Tons. 
 
 1717, 1718 together 7 
 
 1729—1735, average 2,111 
 
 1739—1748 " 2,428 
 
 1760—1755 " 8,305 
 
 1761—1776 " ■ 4,045 
 
 Imports of Ikon. 
 
 Yeara. Tons. 
 
 1711—1718, average 1,732 
 
 1729—1788 " 2,312 
 
 No ftirther returns were published. 
 
 In 1810, Mr. Gallatm, the Secretary of the Treas- 
 ury of the United States, presented to Congress a re- 
 port on the manufactures, in Which, among many other 
 branches, iron, and the manufactures of. iron, are men- 
 tioned as being firmly established, supplying, in seve- 
 ral instances, the greater, and in all, a considerable 
 portion of the consumption of the United States. 
 
 " The furnaces, forges, and bloomeries of the United 
 States, amount to 530, of which the State of New York 
 furnishes 69. The annual value of iron and its manu- 
 factures is estimated at $12,006,000 or $15,000,000. 
 The average value of imported .metal, in bar-iron and 
 steel, at $4,000,000. The Franconia Iron Works, in 
 New Hampshire, established in 1810, employ a capital 
 of $100,000. The Vergennes Iron Works, in Ver- 
 mont, promise to 1)e very important. The price of 
 bar-iron at this establishment i9 |140 per ton, the ore 
 $3, charcoal $4 50 per 100 bushels; 19,000 muskets 
 are annually made at the two public armories of 
 Springfield and Harper's Ferry. There is now a con- 
 siderable surplus of small arms." 
 
 Spme of the ores Of iron are found in every State in 
 the Union ; and, about the period of Mr. Gallatin's re- 
 port, mines of this metal were worked in New Hamp- 
 shire, Vermont, Bhode Island, New York, Connedii- 
 
mo 
 
 1106 
 
 IRO 
 
 cut, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and North 
 Carolina. 
 
 According to the " Statistical Annals of the United 
 States," by Adam Seybert, founded on official docu- 
 ments, the manufacture of iron in the year 1810 was 
 as follows : 153 furnaces, making 53,908 tons of iron ; 
 330 forges, making 24,641 tons of bar-iron ; 316 trip- 
 hammers ; 34 rolling and slitting-mills, which re- 
 quired 6500 tons of iron ; 410 naUiries, in which 15,- 
 727,914 lbs. of nails had been made. Manufacture of 
 iron, value, $14,364,526. 
 
 From abstracts of reliable statements it appears 
 that the whole quantity of iron made in the year 1830, 
 computed in pig-iron, amounted to 191,536 tons, pro- 
 duced from 239 furnaces, two fifths of which were 
 made in Pennsylvania. 
 
 The average quantity of hammered iron imported 
 from 1821 to 1830, was about 26,200 tons, and of rolled 
 iron about 5600 tons, making together 31,800 tons, 
 valued at $1,762,000. The whole quantity of ham- 
 mered and rolled iron consumed in the United States 
 in 1830, may be estimated at about 144,666 tons. 
 
 The value of the various foreign manufactures of 
 iron consumed, on an average, from 1821 to 1830, was 
 about $4,000,000, making the whole amount of foreign 
 iron and its manufactures annually consumed, about 
 $5,762,000. 
 
 Irrni Manufactures of the United States in 1850, ^rom 
 the ' ' Report of the Superintendent of the seventh Census^ " 
 printed by order of tJie House of Bepresentatives, — Pig- 
 iron. — ^Number of establishments in operation, 377. 
 Capital invested, $17,346,425. Materials used, and 
 value. 
 
 Ore 
 
 Coal 
 
 Coke and charcoal. . . 
 
 .tons 
 
 
 ,005,289 
 
 1,579,309 
 645,242 
 .bushels 54,165,286 
 Number of persons employed, 20,448. Average wages 
 per month, $20 76. Pig-iron made, 564,755 tons ; 
 value, $12,748,777. 
 
 Castings. — Number of establishments in operation, 
 1391. Capital invested, $17,416,361. Materials used, 
 and value. 
 
 Pig iron tons 
 
 Old metal " 
 
 Ore " 
 
 Goal. 
 
 Coke and charcoal bushels 2,418,750 
 
 $10,846,855 
 
 Number of persons employed, 23,589. Average wages 
 per month, $27 38. Castings made, 322,745 tons; 
 value, $25,108,155. 
 
 WnonGHT-iRON. — Number of establishments in op- 
 eration, 422. Capital invested, $14,495,220. Materi- 
 als used, and value. 
 
 Pig metal tons 
 
 Blooms " 
 
 Ore " 
 
 Coal. 
 
 251,491-) 
 
 88,844 
 
 78,787 [ $9,698,109 
 688,063 
 
 Coke and charcoal bushels 14,510,828 J 
 
 Number of persons employed, 13,257. Average wages 
 per month, $25 41. Wrought-iron made, 278,044 
 tons ; value, $16,747,074. 
 
 Impoets op Bkitish Iron. 
 
 Yeara. Tons. 
 
 1815—1819, average 15,097 
 
 11,832 
 17,491 
 43,680 
 74,846 
 63,099 
 181,662 
 
 1820—1824 
 1825—1829 
 1830-1884 
 1885—1889 
 1840—1844 
 1845—1849 
 
 1860 867,862 
 
 1851 464,659 
 
 1852 501,158 
 
 Imports op Beitibii Hardware and Cutlery. 
 Years. Dedaved value. 
 
 1840—1844, average £498,654 
 
 1846—1849 " 803,608 
 
 1850 1,049,903 
 
 1851 1,060,487 
 
 1852 968,492 
 
 This table shows the imports to have reached the 
 maximum in 1851. 
 
 Iron Manufactures op the United States in 1840. 
 
 CAST-IEON. 
 
 No. of furnaces. Tons produced 
 
 Bloomeries, 
 forgea, and 
 rolling oiills. 
 
 Tons produced 
 
 Tons of fuel 
 consumed. 
 
 Men employed, 
 including min- 
 ing operations. 
 
 Capital Invested. 
 
 Maine 
 
 New Hampshire. . 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 Vermont 
 
 New York 
 
 New Jersey" 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Virginia 
 
 North Carolina.. . 
 South Carolina... 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Missouri 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 16 
 15 
 48 
 5 
 28 
 26 
 186 
 26 
 
 12 
 
 42 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 14 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 34 
 
 IT 
 
 72 
 
 T 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 15 
 
 1 
 
 6,122 
 
 1,820 
 
 9,832 
 
 4,126 
 
 6,495 
 
 6,743 
 
 29,088 
 
 11,114 
 
 98,395 
 
 17 
 
 8,876 
 
 18,810 
 
 968 
 
 1,250 
 
 494 
 
 80 
 
 1,400 
 
 16,129 
 
 29,206 
 
 35,286 
 
 810 
 
 168 
 
 180 
 
 601 
 
 1 
 2 
 67 
 
 44 
 14 
 
 120 
 80 
 
 169 
 6 
 
 17 
 62 
 
 99 
 
 13 
 
 19 
 
 1 
 
 125 
 6,004 
 
 655 
 
 58,693 
 
 7,171 
 
 87,244 
 
 440 
 
 7,900 
 
 5,886 
 
 963 
 
 1,165 
 
 ■ "75 
 1,866 
 9,678 
 8,637 
 T,466 
 20 
 
 "lis 
 
 285 
 
 2,104 
 
 199,262 
 
 227 
 
 16,938 
 
 888,407 
 
 123,677 
 
 27,425 
 
 855,903 
 
 971 
 
 24,422 
 
 86,588 
 
 11,698 
 
 6,334 
 
 630 
 
 167 
 
 4,162 
 
 187,453 
 
 35,501 
 
 104,812 
 
 787 
 
 240 
 
 300 
 
 451 
 
 1 
 
 121 
 
 1,097 
 
 29 
 
 896 
 
 788 
 
 3,466 
 
 2,056 
 
 11,522 
 
 23 
 
 1,782 
 
 1,742 
 
 468 
 
 248 
 
 41 
 
 80 
 
 145 
 
 2,266 
 
 1,108 
 
 2,268 
 
 108 
 
 74 
 
 $185,950 
 
 98,200 
 
 1,232,875 
 
 22,250 
 
 677,800 
 
 664,150 
 
 2,103,418 
 
 1,721,820 
 
 7,781,471 
 
 86,200 
 
 796,650 
 
 1,246,650 
 
 94,961 
 
 118,800 
 
 24,000 
 
 9,600 
 
 857,000 
 
 1,614,736 
 
 449,000 
 
 1,161,900 
 
 57,700 
 
 40,800 
 
 79,000 
 
 60,800 
 
 4,000 
 
 Total. 
 
 804 
 
 1,628,110 I 80,497 
 
 20,432,131 
 
 It is not easy to strike the true medium, the best 
 policy, between the proper fostering care by protec- 
 tion, due to the iron manufacturer, and, at the same 
 time, not to restrict the construction of railroads, and, 
 as a consequence, the growth of new States, by con- 
 fining by high duties the supply of iron to the pro- 
 duction of our own mills. The reduction of duty on 
 iron, by the new tariff, from 30 to 24 per cent, will, 
 undoubtedly, have some effect on our iron manufac- 
 tures ; but rather to limit the profits, than to reduce 
 the production or number of mills ; the present prices 
 are ample to give large proiits to home manufacture, 
 
 even if a small decline follows the reduction of duty. 
 The iron manufacture of the United States is only a 
 question of time, and no very great amount of that 
 cash article is now required to bring it to that point 
 where it will take the lead of the world, and become 
 the staplest and most profitable branch of American 
 industry. A great deal of instruction is to be derived 
 from the reports of the iron manufacture in England. 
 The following is an extract from one of the most re- 
 cent : 
 
 " Thanks for the most part to the demand from the 
 United States, the iron trade of south Staffordshire 
 
mo 
 
 1107 
 
 mo 
 
 may be reported as much more healthy than it was a 
 month ago. By the last two or three American mails 
 there have been brought specifications which, in their 
 number and value, form a striking contrast to those 
 received during many months past. These show tliat 
 the American mills are able to supply only a very small 
 portion of the demand of the States ; and are demon- 
 strative that with bars at ^8 instead of £9, a trade 
 might bo carried on with America to an extent that 
 would be restricted by nothing else than the powers of 
 production attaching to the British works. The Persia, 
 whose letters were delivered on Saturday last, was 
 especially valuable in respect of such specifications. 
 In the past fortnight, however, the ' make' of south 
 Staffordshire has not been by any means so large as 
 under such circumstances might have been expected. 
 This has been occasioned by the unusual circumstances 
 of large masses of machinery at several works having 
 been stopped by breakages, which have all happened 
 within a few days of each other. By the end of this 
 week the preparations that have ensued will be com- 
 pleted, and if there should not be a recurrence, the 
 next fortnight will be characterized by the utmost 
 animation at the works of the principal iron-masters of 
 the district. The large American demand will make 
 the inconvenience greater than is now being felt by 
 most of the makers of malleable iron, from the exceed- 
 ingly short supply of hiematite ore of sample suffi- 
 ciently fine for the purposes of the puddling furnace. 
 If this deficiency should last much longer, it will cause 
 some little anxiety in cases where those descriptions 
 of iron are in demand, in the manufacture of which 
 pounded calcined cinder is not an efficient substitute. 
 There are no complaints of a shortness of supply of 
 those coarser samples of red ore used in the blast fur- 
 nace." — London Engineer, Feb. 
 
 The supply of the best quality of iron is decreasing 
 in England, whereas in this country we are but begin- 
 ning to develop and become acquainted with our best 
 ores. " Iron Mountain" and " Pilot Knob" in Missouri, 
 contain iron in immense quantities, and of a purity of 
 ore not to be found but in two or three mines, and 
 limited in amount, in Sweden. And Kentucky has 
 undeveloped iron ores to a great extent, and of un- 
 common purity. We ought to export rather than im- 
 port iron ; and in less than twenty years we shall do 
 so, unless some wonderful miueralogical discoveries 
 are made in the British Isles. 
 
 No State in the Union is so vitally interested in the 
 iron trade as Pennsylvania. Iron, in all its different 
 varieties, forms one of the chief sources of State 
 wealth. The ore abounds in several sections of this 
 commonwealth, while furnaces dot the hill-sides and 
 valleys, giving employment to numerous laborers, and 
 prodiicing thousands of tons of iron, which are trans- 
 ported to other States, and serve to enrich all who are 
 interested in its manufacture. Each year science ap- 
 plies iron to more of the common uses of everj'-day 
 life. It supplies the material for ships ; enters largely 
 into the construction of houses ; forms part of all the 
 new and improved agricultural implements ; and thus 
 becomes a rival to timber in the mechanical depart- 
 ment of our country. This increasing consumption, 
 of course, must increase the demand in a parallel de- 
 gree, and if Congress will but legislate wisely, and in 
 favor of home labor and capital, as exhibited in the iron 
 trade, it must prosper in ttie future. It is surely the 
 policy of our country to foster this branch of her pro- 
 ductive industry. It is by wise, judicious legislation, 
 that comparatively young countries are enabled to 
 compete with older and more practiced ones, where 
 capital is abundant and labor cheap. This is the kind 
 of legislation demanded by the iron trade of this State 
 and countrj', and we hope that such will be extended 
 by our national legislature. 
 
 Since the commencement of the present year, the 
 iron market of this country has been marked by pecu- 
 
 liar circumstances. East of the Alleghany mountains 
 the production of pig iron exceeds the quantity manu- 
 factured during the same period of any previous sea- 
 son. A still greater increase is also looked for during 
 the remaining months. There is now on hand a con- 
 siderable quantity of the stock of 1855, accumulated 
 in consequence of the severity of the winter prevent- 
 ing iron from being delivered when ordered. But a 
 singular fact is, that with all these apparent draw- 
 bajcks, the price steadily and firmly advanced to the 
 highest quotation, and sales have been greater in the 
 early months of this, than in the same months of an}- 
 other 3''ear. More than 60,000 tons were contracted 
 for in this city, in the month of April, to be delivered 
 during the year. This is a verj' heavy business to be 
 perfected so early in the season, and since then the 
 quantity has been swelled to a much higher figure. 
 Importations of pig iron, especially Scotch, have been 
 decreasing for the past year or 18 months. During the 
 six months ending December 31st, 1855, the importation 
 of pig iron from all foreign ports only reached 29,839 
 tons. This is less than one third of the amount im- 
 ported during the previous 12 months. This is a cheer- 
 ing indication, and the decrease in the importation of 
 foreign pig iron will give a fresh impetus to our home 
 manufacture, which is much needed in many sections 
 of the Union. 
 
 The long and severe winter prevented shipments of 
 bar iron from Pittsburg in the usual quantities, conse- 
 quently there has been a heavy accumulation of that 
 particular stock at that place. It was estimated that 
 in the month of April, there were 35,000 tons of bar 
 iron waiting sale and transportation at Pittsburg. In 
 despite of these facts, however, the various mills are 
 in full operation, depending upon the heavy trade to 
 carry them through the season. The general prosper- 
 ity of all the western interests must keep up the de- 
 mand for iron, and if so the stock will not be too 
 heavy. It is computed that 280,0^00 tons of pig iron 
 will be produced in the West during the present year 
 — ^this, of course, includes western Pennsylvania. 
 From the districts of Alleghany, Hanging Kock, and 
 Clarksville, about 200,000 tons will be sent to market. 
 There will be a decrease of charcoal pig iron in the 
 present year, when compared with the production of 
 1855, of 55,000 tons. The product of new coke and 
 raw bituminous coal furnaces will, however, make 
 good at least 15,000 tons of this deficit. The amount 
 of anthracite pig iron consumed in the West in 1855, 
 was 33,000 tons. There will be an increased amount 
 needed during the present year, if we may judge from 
 the contracts made for supplies from Susquehanna. We 
 give below an interesting article from the '* Iron Mas- 
 ters' Review," showing the amount of pig iron con- 
 sumed in the places named in the West ; and also the 
 quantity and value of railroad iron imported into the 
 United States, from the 30th June, 1839, to the 30th 
 June, 1855. It is well worthy an attentive perusal by 
 all those who are interested in the iron trade of the 
 United States. 
 
 In the lower part of the Susquehanna district, the 
 furnaces have mostly produced for the western mar- 
 ket. There has been considerable irregularity in 
 their operations, partly on account of deficiency of 
 coal and the late opening of navigation. The new 
 furnaces — Dudley, Keystone, No. 2 Cornwall — and 
 several furnaces which worked little, if any, in 1855, 
 wUl probably increase the product of the district this 
 year by 25,000 tons. Circumstances do not admit of a 
 comprehensive survey of the product of this district, 
 nor of the demands that may come from the West. 
 
 In the Lehigh district, at this date, the stock of 
 pig iron, which is nearly all No. 1, amounts to 34,150 
 tons. 'The contracts already made, for iron of this 
 district, for this year's delivery, approximate to 37,600 
 tons. There are 17 furnaces now in blast, one to be 
 put in blast by the middle of May, and one in July. 
 
IRO 
 
 1108 
 
 IRO 
 
 The 17 famaces are ftroducing weekly au average of 
 2100 tons, making for the remaining 37-J- weeks of 1856, 
 78,750 tons, which, added to the present stock, gives 
 an aggregate of 112,900 tons. In this estimate we 
 omit the product of the two famaces soon going into 
 blast, to make up for the possible deficiencies that may 
 result from accidents. If we allow for next year's 
 market the production in four weeks of December, 
 during which the product may be closed in by winter, 
 we have 104,600 tons for the market for this j'ear, less 
 than already contracted, 37,600 tons ; leaving unsold for 
 this year's delivery 66,900 tons. In these estimates 
 no account is taken of the small sales in the district, 
 nor of a few small shipments by railroad, made in 
 1856 prior to this date. The sales of iron from this 
 district in 1855, approximated to 105,000 tons — equal 
 to a reduction of stocks, of 19,000 tons. The stocks 
 on the 1st of January last approximated to 20,700 tons, 
 and on the 1st of January, 1855, to 39,000. The total 
 production in this district in the year 1856, will ap- 
 proximate to 106,000 tons; assuming as a basis the 
 data above given, which will prove reliable, save as 
 it may be affected by accidents in manufacturing, or by 
 a change in the market. The production in the 14 
 weeks past has not averaged 2100 tons — several fur- 
 naces having but recently been put in blast. 
 
 The consumption of rails within the past nine 
 months has greatly increased over the average of the 
 previous year. The importation in the, six months 
 ending December 31, 1855, amounted to 89,854 tons ; 
 or 50 per cent, more than in the average of the pre- 
 vious 12 months. In the six months named, Amer- 
 ican mills produced about 70,000 tons. As the returns 
 of last year's harvest are now exerting their greatest 
 influence upon the general prosperity of the interior, 
 railroad enterprises are much encouraged. , If the prom- 
 ised peace of Europe is fully re-inaugurated, there is no 
 doubt that with an average harvest the present j'car, 
 our railroad extensions will be greater than in any pe- 
 riod heretofore. In addition to the requirements for new 
 roads and extensions, the older roads are progressively 
 needing a greater amount of rails for renewals, where 
 in most instances heavier rails are put down. It is wor- 
 thy of note, that a large portion of the old rails taken up 
 is used in other manufactures, to which this description 
 of iron is regarded by manj' as being better adapted. 
 The increasing amount of this stock, which comes in 
 competition with pig iron, is worthy of special consid- 
 eration. Capital is wanted in Pennsylvania, Maryland, 
 Virginia, Missouri, Tennessee, and other States, for the 
 more vigorous and more profitable workings of the ex- 
 tensive iron ores of those States. 
 
 
 PEODucTioif OF Pig Ieon in tiie United States, according 
 
 10 THE Census 
 
 or 1850. 
 
 
 
 ■^ 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Average 
 
 1 1 
 
 STATES. 
 
 
 Capital 
 invested. 
 
 Ore used. 
 
 Mineral 
 coal 
 used. 
 
 Coke and 
 
 charcoal 
 used. 
 
 Value of 
 
 employed. 
 
 per month. 
 
 month. 
 
 
 Value of 
 
 entire 
 products. 
 
 rial, fuel, 
 etc. 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 
 
 .2 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 made. 
 
 other 
 products. 
 
 
 
 Dollar., 
 
 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dole. 
 
 Dol'ra. 
 
 Dole. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Maine 
 
 1 
 
 214.000 
 
 2,907 
 
 
 218,970 
 
 14,939 
 
 71 
 
 
 1,662 
 
 
 22 OO 
 
 
 1,484 
 
 
 80,616 
 
 N.Hampshire 
 
 1 
 
 2,000 
 
 5O0 
 
 
 60,000 
 
 4,900 
 
 10 
 
 
 180 
 
 
 18 00 
 
 
 200 
 
 
 6,000 
 
 Vermont 
 
 3 
 
 62,500 
 
 7,676 
 
 160 
 
 326,437 
 
 40,176 
 
 100 
 
 
 3,208 
 
 
 32 08 
 
 
 8,200 
 
 
 68,000 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 6 
 
 469,000 
 
 27,908 
 
 
 1,866,000 
 
 185,741 
 
 268 
 
 
 7,388 
 
 
 27 52 
 
 
 12,287 
 
 
 295,123 
 
 Connecticut. 
 
 13 
 
 226,600 
 
 85,450 
 
 
 2,870,000 
 
 289,225 
 
 •148 
 
 
 3,967 
 
 
 36 SO 
 
 
 18,420 
 
 20,000 
 
 416,600 
 
 New York... 
 
 IS 
 
 605,000 
 
 46,885 
 
 20 
 
 8,000,074 
 
 321,027 
 
 605 
 
 
 12,625 
 
 
 3o 00 
 
 
 28,022 
 
 12,800 
 
 597,920 
 
 New Jersey. . 
 
 10 
 
 967,000 
 
 51,266 
 
 20,865 
 
 1,631,000 
 
 832,707 
 
 600 
 
 
 12,720 
 
 
 21 30 
 
 
 24,031 
 
 
 560,544 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 ISO 
 
 8,570,425 
 
 877,288 
 
 816,060 
 
 27,506,186 
 
 8,782,427 
 
 9,285 
 
 9 
 
 201,089 
 
 46 
 
 il 65 
 
 b il 
 
 285,703 
 
 40,000 
 
 6,071,518 
 
 Maryland 
 
 IP 
 
 1,420,000 
 
 99,866 
 
 14,085 
 
 8,707,600 560,726 
 
 1,370 
 
 
 27,595 
 
 
 30 14 
 
 
 4-3,641 
 
 96,000 
 
 1,056,400 
 
 Virginia 
 
 N. Carolina.. 
 
 2S 
 
 613,800 
 
 67,319 
 
 89,982 
 
 1,311,000 
 
 168,807 
 
 1,116 
 
 14 
 
 14,333 
 
 % 
 
 12 'in 
 
 6 86 
 
 32,168 
 
 
 521,924 
 
 2 
 
 25,000 
 
 906 
 
 
 150,000 
 
 27,900 
 
 26 
 
 t> 
 
 208 
 
 23 
 
 H 00 
 
 4 40 
 
 400 
 
 
 12,600 
 
 Georgia 
 
 a 
 
 26,000 
 
 5,189 
 
 
 430,000 
 
 25,840 
 
 185 
 
 S 
 
 2,356 
 
 15 
 
 17 44 
 
 5 00 
 
 900 
 
 28,000 
 
 57,300 
 
 Alahama. ... 
 
 s 
 
 11,000 
 
 1,886 
 
 
 145,000 
 
 6,770 
 
 40 
 
 
 700 
 
 
 17 50 
 
 
 522 
 
 6,000 
 
 22,500 
 
 Tennessee.. . . 
 
 28 
 
 1,021,400 
 
 83,810 
 
 177,167 
 
 160,000 
 
 254,900 
 
 1,T18 
 
 109 
 
 21,958 
 
 658 
 
 13 81 
 
 5 il 
 
 30,420 
 
 41,900 
 
 676,100 
 
 Kentucky.... 
 
 21 
 
 924,700 
 
 72,010 
 
 
 4,576,269 
 
 260,152' 1,845 
 
 10 
 
 37,386 
 
 47 
 
 iO 23 
 
 4 10 
 
 24,246 
 
 10,000 
 
 604,037 
 
 Ohio 
 
 85 
 
 1,503,000 
 
 140,610 
 
 21,730 
 
 ,%42S.800 
 
 630,037 
 
 2,415 
 
 
 69,129 
 
 
 24 4« 
 
 
 52,658 
 
 
 1,35.5,860 
 
 Michigan 
 
 1 
 
 15,000 
 
 2,700 
 
 
 185,000 
 
 14,O0C 
 
 26 
 
 
 875 
 
 
 85 00 
 
 
 660 
 
 6,000 
 
 21,000 
 
 Indiana 
 
 a 
 
 72,000 
 
 5,200 
 
 
 810,000 
 
 24,40C 
 
 88 
 
 
 2,290 
 
 
 36 00 
 
 
 1,860 
 
 
 68,000 
 
 Illinois 
 
 2 
 
 65,000 
 
 6,600 
 
 
 170,000 
 
 16,60C 
 
 150 
 
 
 8,810 
 
 
 33 06 
 
 
 2,700 
 
 
 70,200 
 
 Missouri 
 
 5 
 
 619,000 
 
 87,000 
 
 55,180 
 
 
 97,367 
 
 884 
 
 
 8,112 
 
 
 34 3S 
 
 
 19,250 
 
 
 314,600 
 
 Wisconsin... 
 Total.... 
 
 1 
 
 15,000 
 
 3,000 
 
 
 150,000 
 
 8,250 
 
 60 
 
 
 1,800 
 
 
 30 00 
 
 
 1,000 
 
 
 27,000 
 
 377ll7,846,425 
 
 1,679,309 
 
 646,242 
 
 54,165,236 
 
 7,005,289 
 
 20,298 
 
 150 
 
 4i!l,4a6' 784 
 
 
 .. 1564,755 
 
 239,700 
 
 12,748,777 
 
 Peoduction of WiiouGUT Ieon in the United States, 1850. 
 
 BTATK9. 
 
 Id 
 
 if 
 
 Capital 
 invested. 
 
 Pit- 
 metal. 
 
 Bloomt 
 used. 
 
 Ore 
 
 used. 
 
 Mineral 
 coal. 
 
 Coke and 
 charcoal. 
 
 Value of 
 nw mate 
 rial used. 
 
 "ll'anda 
 ,mpl.,y. 
 
 ot 
 
 1. 
 
 Average 
 
 -raga 
 
 per month. 
 
 Wroughl 
 iron 
 made. 
 
 Value of 
 other 
 
 products. 
 
 Value of 
 
 entire 
 products. 
 
 1 
 
 14 
 
 1 
 
 65 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 N. Hampshire 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Massachusetts. 
 Rhode Island. 
 Connecticut . . 
 New York.... 
 New Jersey. . . 
 Pennsylvania.. 
 Delaware ....', 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Virginia 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Ohio 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 18 
 
 60 
 
 53 
 
 181 
 
 2 
 
 17 
 
 89 
 
 19 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 42 
 
 4 
 
 11 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 4,000 
 
 62,700 
 
 610,800 
 
 208,000 
 
 539,500 
 
 1,181,300 
 
 1,016,848 
 
 7,620,066 
 
 15,000 
 
 780,650 
 
 791,211 
 
 103,000 
 
 9,200 
 
 2,500 
 
 755,050 
 
 176,000 
 
 620,800 
 
 17,000 
 
 42,100 
 
 a'ons. 
 
 145 
 
 7.50 
 
 7,080 
 
 8,000 
 
 7,081 
 
 8,580 
 
 10,480 
 
 168,702 
 
 510 
 
 10,172 
 
 17,296 
 
 "ioo 
 
 120 
 
 11,696 
 
 2,000 
 
 1.3,675 
 
 50 
 
 1,204 
 
 Tons. 
 ■■535 
 
 1,644 
 
 20,465 
 60 
 
 8,389 
 2,500 
 
 "825 
 1,600 
 2,901) 
 
 Tonsi 
 2,626 
 
 44', 642 
 14,649 
 
 4650 
 9,151 
 3^i50 
 
 Tons. 
 
 11,622 
 6,060 
 
 5,062 
 
 13,908 
 
 4,507 
 
 825,967 
 
 10,455 
 06,516 
 
 62,633 
 22,755 
 9,834 
 
 Bushels. 
 50,000 
 837,000 
 78,600 
 
 783,660 
 
 6,564,150 
 
 1,994,180 
 
 3,989,998 
 
 238,000 
 
 246,000 
 
 103,000 
 
 857,900 
 
 76,600 
 
 80,000 
 
 280,66o 
 
 466,900 
 
 85,000 
 
 Dollar.. 
 .5,600 
 
 66,194 
 
 221,194 
 
 111,760 
 
 858,780 
 
 838,814 
 
 320,950 
 
 5,433,391 
 
 19,500 
 
 439,511 
 
 591,448 
 
 28,114 
 
 5.986 
 
 8,000 
 
 385,616 
 
 180,800 
 
 604,493 
 
 4,425 
 
 24,509 
 
 6 
 
 67 
 
 260 
 
 220 
 
 874 
 
 1,037 
 
 598 
 
 6,764 
 
 50 
 
 568 
 
 1,295 
 
 173 
 
 26 
 
 14 
 
 781 
 
 183 
 
 708 
 
 22 
 
 101 
 
 Dels. 
 32 00 
 31 03 
 
 22 60 
 36 00 
 31 59 
 
 26 00 
 
 27 78 
 27 63 
 34 19 
 
 23 83 
 23 63 
 
 10 87 
 
 11 35 
 30 00 
 16 20 
 82 06 
 88 61 
 
 Dels. 
 
 7'50 
 
 .. 
 
 5'28 
 5 00 
 
 6'6o 
 
 Tons. 
 110 
 
 2,046 
 
 6,730 
 
 3,630 
 
 6,325 
 
 13,636 
 
 8,162 
 
 183,506 
 
 550 
 
 10,000 
 
 15,828 
 
 850 
 
 90 
 
 100 
 
 10,348 
 
 8,070 
 
 14,416 
 
 175 
 
 968 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 5,660 
 195,000 
 
 219,500 
 
 88,860 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 10,400 
 
 163,986 
 
 438,320 
 
 222,400 
 
 067,560 
 
 1,423,968 
 
 629,278 
 
 8,902,907 
 
 55,000 
 
 771,481 
 
 1,254,995 
 
 66,980 
 
 15,334 
 
 7,500 
 
 670,618 
 
 299,700 
 
 1,076,192 
 
 11,760 
 
 68,700 
 
 Indiana. 
 
 Missouri 
 
 2 
 
 27 454 00 
 
 80 00 .. 
 
 Total 1 422'l4,495,220! 251,49l' 83,344 
 
 78,787 588,063 
 
 14,510,828 9,698,109' 18,178 
 
 79 
 
 .... 1 ,. 1 278,044' 458,800'l6,747,074 
 
IRO 
 
 1109 
 
 IRO 
 
 Fbodttotioh of Ibon Oasthigs ikt the TJhitbd BiATiie, 18S0. 
 
 $7,000,000, and the expectations of a profitable traffic, 
 fair. To say nothing of the trade from ocean to ocean, 
 there are forests of mahogany and other woods to sup- 
 ply timher-freight for centuries. According to a-re- 
 port in the Jourrud of the Society of Arts, the Honduras 
 government " agrees to give a bounty of 50 acres of land 
 to unmarried, and 75 acres to married laborers who sliall 
 go to the countrj' to worlt on the road, and who shall 
 declare their intention to become citizens." — Chamh^n' 
 Journal. We now subjoin an official summary of the 
 export trade of the United States from 1847 to 1856 : 
 FoEEtGN Ikon Tead-e or United States foe ten Teabs. 
 
 Appearances indicate that iron will grow more and 
 more into request — in architecture, ships, and rigging. 
 Wire ropes are now used at many of the mines in the 
 midland and northern counties ; and an attempt is be- 
 ing made to introduce them in Pevon and Cornwall. 
 At equal strength, a wire rope is lighter by one third 
 than a hemp rope, and by two thirds than a chain ; an 
 important fact, espepiallj' where mines are deepest. 
 Then we are to have metallic life-boata, pontoons,, 
 arm}'- wagons, if the result of experiments made at 
 Woobfich and Rochester may be trusted. The lpoat|, 
 wo hear, can not be. broken or overset, let them be. 
 used ever so roughlj' ; and the pontoons are models of 
 lightness. And again — ^the United States' Congress 
 have recommended three lines of railway to California : 
 northern, central, and southern, each about 2000 miles 
 in length. The lands granted to the three comprise 
 131,866,000 acres — a truly gigantic encouragement ! 
 What a demand there .will be for rails ! Then we are 
 to have the often-taUced-of railway to India by the 
 Euphrates valley; the route is to be .forthwith sur- 
 veyed. And there is talk of a railway from Honduras 
 across to the Pacific — 161 miles, the estimated cost 
 
 Statement showing the Expoets of Foeeign MANUFACTUiiED Ieon feom the United States, foe the Teae 
 
 ENDING June SOto, 1856. 
 
 Yeari. 
 
 Amaricao 
 exported. 
 
 
 ExceBs in foreign ; 
 con.m»ed. | 
 
 184T 
 
 »1,16T,4S4 
 
 $8,717,656 
 
 '$7,650,iT2' 
 
 1848 
 
 1,259,632 
 
 12,428,559 
 
 11,168,927 
 
 1849 
 
 1,096,172 
 
 18,722,884 
 
 12,626,212 
 
 1830 
 
 1,911,820 
 
 16,282,899 
 
 14,821,079 
 
 1851 
 
 2,265,698 
 
 17,206,410 
 
 14,950,712 
 
 1852 
 
 2,808,819 
 
 18,828,058 
 
 16,519,287' 
 
 1863. 
 
 2,499,653 
 
 26,998,082 
 
 24,493,480 
 
 1854 
 
 4,210,860 
 
 28,545,908 
 
 32,483,066 -, 
 
 185S 
 
 8,758,472 
 
 21,415,205 
 
 17,661,783 
 
 1«56 
 
 4,161,008 
 
 21,618,718 
 
 17,467,710' 
 
 Whither exported. 
 
 Muaketa and rlflfis. 
 
 Flre-anna j 
 act specified. 
 
 Needle.. 
 
 Cutlery, 
 
 Uther.manufae- 
 tures and wares 
 of, not specified. 
 
 Side-arms, 
 
 Cap or bonnet wire. 
 
 
 No, 
 
 DoUars. 
 1,200 
 
 10,689 
 
 1,026 
 
 413 
 
 Dollars, 
 
 24614 
 8,895 
 
 "260 
 
 i'.iw 
 
 "292 
 "850 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 s'sso 
 
 "506 
 
 Dollars, 
 
 ^',646 
 160 
 82' 
 
 i'sss 
 
 819 
 1,746' 
 
 Doiiors, 
 
 450 
 
 4,770 
 
 181,906 
 
 3,602 
 
 618 
 
 3,091 
 
 "472 
 
 172 
 
 • 1,522 
 
 1,187 
 
 ■ 7,726 
 568 
 674 
 841 
 
 8,666 
 
 Dollars, 
 
 "485 
 
 877 
 
 Pounds. 
 4260 
 
 Dollars, 
 '448 
 
 England 
 
 "mo 
 
 Ksi96 
 384 
 
 100 
 
 Other Br. North Amerjcan pes . 
 
 British West Indies . . . , , 
 
 Bijtisjl Australia , 
 
 France on the Atlantic 
 
 Flrench North American posses, 
 
 
 Mesico., 
 
 Central Bepublio. . j 
 
 Pefj^ ....'.,, 
 
 Sandwich islands 
 
 Total 
 
 
 . 4,280 
 
 13,228 
 
 80,508 
 
 6,066 
 
 80,226. 
 
 . 210,605 
 
 1,362 
 
 4,200 
 
 418 
 
 
 8,494 
 786 
 
 11,194 
 2,034 
 
 6,544 
 24,964 
 
 5,882 
 224 
 
 25,129 
 28,096 
 
 120,043 
 90,562 
 
 1,856 
 6 
 
 iim 
 
 '448 
 
 '''* ■ Not from warehouse 
 
mo 
 
 1110 
 
 IRO 
 
 Statement showing the Expoetb of Foreign MANTTFAortrEED Ieon feom the United States, foe the Teae 
 
 ENDING June 80th, lB6Q—Oontimi6d. 
 
 Whither exported. 
 
 Bnr iron. 
 
 Kod iron. 
 
 Hoop 
 
 iron. 
 
 Sheet iron. 
 
 Pig 
 
 ron. 
 
 
 Cwls. 
 250 
 
 8,976 
 806 
 
 '5i5 
 
 "'24 
 8,576 
 120 
 11 
 637 
 35 
 20 
 
 Dollars. 
 1,250 
 
 lV,287 
 2,593 
 
 i',590 
 
 "'96 
 
 18,885 
 
 462 
 
 45 
 
 1,119 
 
 219 
 
 50 
 
 Cffts. 
 '827 
 
 Dollars. 
 4,434 
 
 .... 
 
 Founds. 
 
 22,160 
 
 68,480 
 16,6-36 
 22,186 
 6,-620 
 
 DolLlrs. 
 
 "619 
 
 2,863 
 789 
 931 
 802 
 
 .... 
 
 Founds. 
 
 447'i6l 
 18,076 
 87,882 
 
 8,463 
 
 6,860 
 
 Dollars. 
 972 
 
 2,829 
 "183 
 "289 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 i'eoo 
 
 440 
 890 
 100 
 
 "600 
 "125 
 8,66o 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 1,981 
 716 
 T52 
 150 
 
 "770 
 "400 
 
 6,hm 
 
 Holland 
 
 England 
 
 Canada 
 
 Other British North Amcr. pos. . . 
 
 British Australia 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Other ports in Africa 
 
 Hayti 
 
 
 
 Bi-azil 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 9,970 
 
 82,546 
 
 827 
 
 4,484 
 
 126,932 
 
 5,454 
 
 512,881 
 
 18,634 
 
 6,765 
 
 10,069 
 
 
 6,871 
 8,599 
 
 17,465 
 15,081 
 
 82T 
 
 4,484 
 
 .71,888 
 54,044 
 
 2,858 
 2,601 
 
 447,901 
 64,980 
 
 14,936 
 8,698 
 
 2,600 
 4,155 
 
 4,100 
 5,969 
 
 
 
 Statement showing the Expoets of Foreign MANUFACTtmED Ieon feom the United States, foe the Teae 
 
 ending June 80th, ISBG—Continnied. 
 
 "WTiither exported. 
 
 Naita, Bpikes, tacks, 
 etc. 
 
 chain cables. 
 
 MiU-saws, cross-cut 
 and pit-saws. 
 
 Anchors, and parU 
 thereof. 
 
 Anvils, and parte 1 
 thereof. | 
 
 Russian pos. ia North America. . 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 "■70 
 
 4,340 
 9,000 
 8,000 
 
 e'soo 
 
 8,260 
 
 Dolkrs. 
 
 "'il 
 
 209 
 420 
 164 
 
 "661 
 
 "730 
 
 Pounds. 
 21,400 
 
 22,986 
 64,786 
 
 14,892 
 5,376 
 1,788 
 
 17,660 
 
 1,121 
 
 215,339 
 
 Dollars. 
 642 
 
 "565 
 3,877 
 
 "630 
 
 289 
 
 86 
 
 "969 
 
 59 
 
 6,685 
 
 No. 
 
 ■553 
 ■365 
 
 Dolkrs. 
 
 ' 1,833 
 1,467 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 ^965 
 4,697 
 21,016 
 
 8,894 
 
 "310 
 125,701 
 
 DoUars. 
 
 "197 
 
 208 
 
 1,419 
 
 "220 
 
 "ieo 
 
 6,452 
 
 Pounds. 
 "550 
 
 8,t6o 
 
 DoUars. 
 
 "66 
 '865 
 
 
 Other Britisli North Amer. pos.. 
 British Australia 
 
 Philippine Islands 
 
 Other ports in Africa 
 
 Hayti 
 
 Mexico 
 
 New Granada 
 
 Chili 
 
 Sandwich Islands 
 
 Whale Fisheries 
 
 Total 
 
 31,410 
 
 2,085 
 
 364,188 
 
 18,801 
 
 863 
 
 8,240 
 
 169,073 
 
 8,666 
 
 9,250 ' 431 
 
 
 '18,810 
 12,600 
 
 1,008 
 1,077 
 
 307,089 
 67,149 
 
 10,859 
 2,442 
 
 858 
 6 
 
 8,065 
 175 
 
 88,356 
 125,717 
 
 1,716 
 6,940 
 
 8,700 ."iliS 
 
 Not from warehouse 
 
 '550 
 
 66 1 
 
 Iron Mountain. — Iron Mouiitaiii is situated in St. 
 Francis county, Mo. The land on which it lies was a 
 grant by the Spanish government, when this portion 
 of the south-west was in possession of that govern- 
 ment. The grant was confirmed by the Congress of 
 the United States in 1836 ; but on account of the diffi- 
 culty of transportation, and of the impression that the 
 ore could not be smelted, this inexhaustible supply 
 was permitted to remain unproductive until 1851, when 
 the Iron Moimtain Company was formed and proceed- 
 ed to the erection of furnaces. The mountain is a 
 flattened, conical shaped hill, with an average eleva- 
 tion above the surrounding valleys of 228 feet, the 
 base of which covers an area of about 500 acres. The 
 ore is the specular iron ore, and is remarkably pure ; 
 its average yield, in the furnace, being 56 per cent. 
 From surface indications, and from all explorations 
 made, the whole Iron Mountain seems to be made of 
 iron ore. Almost the entire surface of the mountain 
 is covered with iron ore, the particles increasing in 
 size as you ascend toward the top, until on its summit 
 are found disconnected masses, many tons in weight, 
 
 and often six or eight feet in diameter. To what depth 
 the iron ore extends below the base of the mountain, 
 has never yet been ascertained. An artesian well was 
 attempted to be bored by the company, at the base of 
 the mountain, and after attaining the depth of 180 
 feet, most of the way through iron ore, the work was 
 abandoned. When the boring ceased, the auger rgsted 
 in a solid mass of ore ; so that there is ore under the 
 ground, as well as above it. 
 
 Imports of Iron into the United States. — The United 
 States, next to England, may be considered among the 
 leading iron producing countries in the world — England 
 producing 3,600,000, and the United States 1,000,000 
 tons per annum. Assuming the average price of iron 
 to be $27, or even S30, we produce annually to the 
 value of $27,000,000 or $30,000,000. From the follow- 
 ing table it wUl be seen that our imports of iron and 
 steel manufactures have gradually reached nearly the 
 same sum. The imports were in 
 
 1849 $15,058,961 
 
 1850 17,665,898 
 
 1861 18,876,768 
 
 1852 20,661,592 
 
 1853 $80,826,788 
 
 1854 81,819,484 
 
 1865 25,573,866 
 
 1856 24,680,262 
 
 Statement showing the Imports of 
 
 Mancfaotitkes op Ieon into the United States foe 
 June 80th, 1856. 
 
 THE YeAK ending 
 
 Whence imported. 
 
 Caporhonnetwire. 
 
 ^rall^, spUces, tacks, etc. 
 
 Chain cables. 
 
 MUl-saws, crxjss- 
 cut and pit-saws. 
 
 Anchors, and parts | 
 thereof. i 
 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 s,m 
 
 8,311 
 
 120,698 
 ■2'i70 
 
 2l'680 
 
 DoUars. 
 
 "'99 
 246 
 8,864 
 
 
 87 
 
 "666 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 ■6,860 
 1,960 
 
 1,135,466 
 1,104,282 
 
 2,400 
 14,910 
 
 6,876 
 
 '8^660 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 "827 
 
 91 
 
 48,008 
 
 76,940 
 
 838 
 
 1,225 
 
 275 
 
 "521 
 "154 
 
 Pounds. 
 9,050 
 
 l'2',356 
 15,569,722 
 80,100 
 57,415 
 86,118 
 4,065 
 
 20'450 
 11,518 
 
 Dollars. 
 275 
 
 "447 
 
 476,994 
 
 2,840 
 
 1,807 
 
 2,475 
 
 83 
 
 "629 
 118 
 
 No. 
 20',S88 
 
 "a 
 
 2 
 
 Dollars. 
 54^972 
 
 ""s 
 
 8 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 844^290 
 
 9,966 
 
 600 
 
 62,690 
 
 '8',66o 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 sim 
 
 607 
 
 22 
 
 2,048 
 
 '119 
 26 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 British West Indies 
 
 
 France on the Atlantic 
 
 
 
 
 China..., 
 
 Total 
 
 156,876 
 
 4,892 2.292.696 
 
 127,879 15.850.788 
 
 485,668 
 
 20,848 
 
 54,988 
 
 921,128 
 
 39,866 
 
 
 
 
 
 
lEO 
 
 1111 
 
 IRO 
 
 BTATEUEHT BHOWIKa THZ lUPOBTS OF MAHTTFAOTUBEG 
 
 Jin7E 80Tn, 
 
 oir IBOH INTO Tns United States, foe tbe 
 ISB&.-Cotaimaed. 
 
 Teak bhi)ih9 
 
 Whence imported. 
 
 Muskets and riilos. - 
 
 Fire-arms, 
 uot specUied. 
 
 Side-arms. 
 
 Needles. 
 
 Cutlery. 
 
 other manufac- 
 tures and wares of, 
 not specitled. 
 
 Bwedou and Ntfrway 
 
 No. 
 
 ""e 
 
 1 
 
 "122 
 
 T,606 
 ""4 
 
 '"84 
 ""5 
 
 DolUrs. 
 '"41 
 
 25 
 
 "654 
 89,824 
 
 "'42 
 "849 
 
 '"ii 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 ' '8l626 
 
 11,162 
 10 
 
 265,406 
 264,959 
 
 "'il7 
 
 '"289 
 
 564 
 
 '271974 
 ' ■2',828 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 '1,264 
 
 "420 
 468 
 
 "928 
 
 Dct\laft. 
 
 "sis 
 21,020 
 
 842 
 
 '1,486 
 174,221 
 
 '"as 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 "8,869 
 
 119,518 
 210 
 
 '12,617 
 
 1,489,882 
 467 
 
 '"4O6 
 25 
 
 '691614 
 "'478 
 
 ' '21481 
 "'S82 
 
 DoUam. 
 96 
 
 297 
 
 19,179 
 
 121,662 
 
 1,860 
 
 20 
 
 147,788 
 
 8,602,115 
 
 14,080 
 
 424 
 
 7,652 
 
 1,274 
 
 784 
 
 "212 
 
 269,880 
 
 10 
 
 152 
 
 102 
 
 202 
 
 98 
 
 62 
 
 684 
 
 10 
 
 9,486 
 
 188 ■ 
 
 585 
 
 3,060 
 
 Danish West Indies 
 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Holland 
 
 
 
 En^and 
 
 
 Gibraltar. 
 
 Canada 
 
 Otber British Korth Amer. posses. . 
 British West Indies 7. 
 
 British Guiana. 
 
 British possessions in Milca 
 
 France on the Atlantic 
 
 Ipalnph the Mediterranean 
 
 
 
 Turkey in Asia .... 
 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Central Kepubllc 
 
 
 
 Sandwich Islands 
 
 
 Total 
 
 7,778 
 
 40,946 
 
 , 576,485 
 
 8,015 
 
 246,060 
 
 1,698,094 
 
 4,191,147 
 
 
 Statement showino the Imposts of the Manupactuees op Iron into the United States fob the Teab ending 
 
 June SOth, 1856. — OonUjvited. 
 
 Whenco imported. 
 
 Anvils ond parts 
 thereof. 
 
 Bar iroQ. 
 
 Rod Iron, 
 
 Hoop Iron. 
 
 Sheet iron. 1 
 
 Knssia on the Baltic and ) 
 North Seas f 
 
 Founde. 
 
 958,t6o 
 2,i69 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 46*764 
 *"64 
 
 Owts. 
 1,449 
 
 2771905 
 
 48,816 
 
 10,246 
 
 989 
 
 1,805,194 
 
 16,818 
 
 ,87 
 
 6,901, 
 
 1,405 
 
 464 
 
 155 
 
 "'20 
 
 Dollars. . 
 2,796 
 
 86'ol669 
 
 110,166 
 
 26,672 
 
 1,968 
 
 4,808,581 
 
 89,186 
 
 88 
 
 12,983 
 
 2,706 
 
 1,609 
 
 486 
 
 '"80 
 
 Cwls. 
 "120 
 
 1981579 
 
 121 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 "288 
 
 4771994 
 296 
 
 ""l 
 
 Pounds. 
 7,686 
 
 18,1571688 
 60,820 
 
 "482 
 
 '6,937 
 
 "126 
 
 Dollars. 
 255 
 
 84S1687 
 1,482 
 
 '"21 
 
 "268 
 
 "'41 
 
 . Pounds, 
 
 1,088,058 
 
 16,775 
 
 4o'ol655 
 
 29,851,191 
 
 25,984 
 
 66,295 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 42,250 
 
 875 
 
 12,186 
 
 756,766 
 
 564 
 
 '2,761 
 
 Sweden and Norway 
 
 
 Belgium 
 
 
 
 Ireland 
 
 Canada 
 
 British West Indies 
 
 France on the Atlantic. .. 
 
 Central Eepubllc 
 
 China 
 
 Total 
 
 960,809 
 
 46,828 
 
 2,168,449 
 
 5,862,786 
 
 198,820 
 
 478,523 
 
 18,228,639 
 
 345,094 ■ 
 
 31,387,853 | 814.342 1 
 
 
 
 ' 1 
 
 Statement showing the 
 
 Impoetb 
 
 OF THE ManITFAOTUBES OF IRON AND St 
 
 Tear ending Jume SOth, 1856. 
 
 DEL INTO 
 
 THE United States foe the 
 
 ■ whence imported. 
 
 Plgr Iron. 
 
 Old and scrap. 
 
 Railroad iron. 
 
 Cast, shear, and tiermoi 
 steel. 
 
 All other. | 
 
 
 CwtS. 
 
 4,081 
 
 '4,892 
 500 
 
 852li70 
 749,415 
 89,879 
 20.T02 
 
 DoUars. 
 8,500 
 
 '4,687 
 554 
 
 8691183 
 733,188 
 87,967 
 23.695 
 
 CwtS. 
 
 ""s 
 
 2,716 
 
 '"57 
 
 78,688 
 
 58 
 
 6,050 
 
 40,016 
 
 20,121 
 
 44,874 
 
 171 
 
 9,584 
 
 1,202 
 
 228 
 
 4,986 
 
 12.964 
 
 84 
 
 'l',244 
 
 176 
 
 495 
 
 2,260 
 
 18,185 
 
 1,950 
 
 28 
 
 162 
 
 2,610 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 ""5 
 1,481 
 
 '"42 
 
 81,668 
 
 55 
 
 4,742 
 
 25,475 
 
 18,572 
 
 27,049 
 
 97. 
 
 4,407 
 
 905 
 
 84 
 
 8,075 
 
 7,125 
 
 8 
 
 102 
 
 "782 
 121 
 247 
 
 1,288 
 
 9,862 
 
 940 
 
 81 
 
 144 
 
 1,860 
 
 CwH. 
 
 2,922,685 
 
 1871689 
 242 
 
 Dollara. 
 
 6,79'ol387 
 
 86'sl667 
 256 
 
 CwtS. 
 '2,685 
 
 ""6 
 226 
 161 
 
 8,960 
 
 ■"47 
 158,295 
 
 "'i2 
 
 98 
 
 "885 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 2'o',i60 
 
 '"68 
 
 2,855 
 
 1,474 
 
 86,484 
 
 "420 
 1,688,285 
 
 "142 
 523 
 
 '8l469 
 
 CwtS. 
 
 1081678 
 
 "224 
 '"59 
 
 "'58 
 
 ' "55 
 
 1,211 
 
 Dolbrs. 
 
 '■'*..;. . 
 
 8281921 
 
 "672 
 "861 
 
 "652 
 
 "488 
 9,029 
 
 Sweden and Norway... 
 Swedish "West Indies... 
 Danish West Indies 
 
 
 
 Dutch East Indies 
 
 
 
 
 
 Other Br. N. Amer. pos. 
 British West Indies.... 
 
 British Honduras. 
 
 British Guiana 
 
 
 8,090 
 1,660 
 
 
 6,884 
 2li77 
 
 British pos. in Africa... 
 
 British Australia 
 
 France on the Atlantic . 
 Cuba 
 
 Porto Eico 
 
 Capo de Yerd Islands. . . 
 
 
 Other ports In Africa . , . 
 Hayti 
 
 
 
 
 Brazil 
 
 
 Sandwich Islands 
 
 China..... 
 
 Total 
 
 1,180,289 
 
 l,m,0S5 
 
 247,769 
 
 185,112 
 
 8,109,916 
 
 6,179,280 
 
 165,894 
 
 1,698,855 
 
 106,185 889,968 1 
 
IRR 
 
 1112 
 
 ISI 
 
 Statement SHOWING thb Expobts 
 
 or DoMBBTia Ieok (eaw and MANtrPAOTOEiD) rnoM TEE U»iTin> States, toe the 
 
 TkAE ENDING JiTNE 80TB, 1856. 
 
 Whllher exported. 
 
 Pig. 
 
 Bar. ■■ 
 
 ■ ■ ' Nails. 
 
 Castings. 
 
 AU other manu- 
 factures of. 
 
 Enssian posses, in North America. . 
 Swedish West Indies . 
 
 Cwts. 
 15,523 
 
 "200 
 '"15 
 
 I 
 2 
 
 )oU»r«. 
 
 6;565 
 '850 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 ""s 
 
 "ioo 
 
 '3"545 
 102 
 
 ""4 
 
 ■"22 
 
 '"re 
 
 '"24 
 
 '"is 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 "'is 
 
 "560 
 
 19,611 
 422 
 
 ■"25 
 
 "iii 
 
 "497 
 
 "ioo 
 "ioi 
 
 Founde. 
 
 ■ 6,100 
 • 58',460 
 
 '2J660 
 
 "600 
 
 e'o'.soo 
 
 6,000 
 
 647,417 
 
 415,874 
 
 80,425 
 
 9,000 
 
 68,480 
 10,600 
 
 6'i',66o 
 
 42,500 
 7,600 
 9,200 
 
 40,000 
 
 1,837'450 
 70,740 
 
 '2,600 
 14,100 
 26,600 
 10,000 
 
 58,7i2 
 
 148,900 
 
 11,500 
 
 185,762 
 
 8,600 
 
 68,400 
 
 48,900 
 
 42,100 
 
 80,244 
 
 66,800 
 
 1,356,225 
 
 267,800 
 
 1,600 
 
 119,720 
 
 8,600 
 
 7,681 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 310 
 '2,487 
 
 "ioo 
 
 "'28 
 
 '2^580 
 256 
 29,771 
 19,825 
 • 1,823 
 897 
 
 '8,167 
 420 
 
 '2,395 
 
 1,766 
 
 212 
 
 893 
 
 2,000 
 
 73,969 
 2,797 
 
 "ii4 
 
 689 
 
 1,160 
 
 675 
 
 ,'2,663 
 6,405 
 
 472 
 8,721 
 
 867 
 2,682 
 1,966 
 1,768 
 1,697 
 2,793 
 62,539 
 2,863 
 72 
 6,871 
 
 730 
 
 SOO 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 "26O 
 
 '"20 
 
 "698 
 
 180 
 
 175,698 
 
 61,190 
 
 585 
 
 26 
 
 '2,924 
 
 36,832 
 
 106 
 
 "i79 
 
 i',6i4 
 101 
 
 '"so 
 "soo 
 
 "847 
 
 23 
 
 244 
 
 1,262 
 
 "429 
 
 '2,414 
 
 273 
 
 150 
 
 1,942 
 
 1,000 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 622 
 
 9,880 
 
 8,662 
 
 11,768 
 
 6,638 
 
 347 
 
 1,208 
 
 906 
 
 88 
 
 51,241 
 
 115,178 
 
 19,725 
 
 1,488 
 
 591 
 
 1,311,688 
 
 88,555 
 
 15,334 . 
 
 2,702 
 
 298 
 
 7,698 
 
 294,897 
 
 18,401 
 
 17,848 
 
 860 
 
 149 
 
 28 
 
 62 
 
 640 
 
 52 
 
 800 
 
 589,809 
 
 110,405 
 
 878 
 
 60 
 
 126 
 
 '2,852 
 
 2,806 
 16,417 
 29,925 
 
 20'8,889 
 18,911 
 
 178,006 
 84,226 
 26,666 
 81,967 
 23,861 
 63,773 
 63,820 
 
 10'6,5O4 
 76,639 
 84,811 
 
 Danish West Indies 
 
 
 
 Holland 
 
 Dutch West Indies 
 
 
 
 
 England 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 Malta 
 
 
 Other British North American pos. 
 British West Indies 
 
 British Hondaras,. . , . 
 
 British Gniana 
 
 British possessions in Africa 
 
 British Australia . . 
 
 British East Indies 
 
 
 France on the Mediterranean 
 
 French North American possessions 
 
 French Guiana 
 
 Spain on the Mediterranean 
 
 
 
 
 
 Madeira 
 
 
 
 
 Other-ports in Afiica. . .- -. 
 
 San Domingo 
 
 
 Central Eepublic 
 
 
 
 Brazil 
 
 
 Buenos Ayres.i 
 
 Chili 
 
 
 
 
 China. 
 
 800 
 
 Whale Fisheries 
 
 Total 
 
 15,788 
 
 27,215 3,896 
 
 21,882 
 
 5,786,580 
 
 288,883 
 
 288,316 
 
 8,685,712 
 
 Irou-Wood (Ger. Eisenholz ; Du. Yserhout ; Fr. 
 Bois de fer; It. Legno di ferro ; Sp. Plo hierro ; Lat. 
 Slderoxylon^ Lignum f&rreum)^ a species of wood of a 
 reddisli cast, so called on account of its corroding as 
 that inetal does, and its being remarlcaWy hard and 
 ponderous — even more so than ebony. Tlie tree which 
 produces it grows principallj' in the West India Islands, 
 and is likewise very common in South America, and 
 in some parts of Asia, especially about Siam, 
 
 Irravradi (Erivati, " the great river"), one of the 
 great rivers of south-eastern Asia, is supposed to rise in 
 Tibet, near lat. 28° north, long. 97° 30' east, flows 
 generally southward,, traversing the Burmese Empire' 
 throughout, and entersthe Indian Ocean (Bay of Ben- 
 gal) by numerous months, east of C4pe Negtais, ip 
 lat. 16° 20' north, ! long. 96° east. I'rinoipal afflu- 
 ents, the Ning-the&,-Mogouny, Bhamo, and-Lung- 
 tchuen Rivers. In lat. 17° north, it separates into nu- 
 merous arms, which cover the whole kingdom of Pegu 
 with net-worlc of ramifications, and the Bangoon- and 
 Bassein branches form the east and west boundaries of 
 its delta, a region comprising upward of 10,000 square 
 miles, covered with teali forests and grass jungles, in- 
 terspersed with some rice-grounds. The main stream 
 from the head of the delta to Tedan, above Ava, va- 
 ries from one to foiir miles in breadth, and may always 
 be ascended to Ava from the sea by vessels of 200 
 tons, which, during tte rains, can reach the influx of 
 the Mogouny Eiver, 800 miles from the oceaa. It is 
 
 usually navigable for canoes as high as Bhamo, besides 
 which town and Ava, Amarapura, Salcaing, Yandabo, 
 Pagahm Mew, Prome, Henthada, Bassein, and Ran- 
 goon, are the principal places on its banks. 
 
 Isinglass (Ger. ffausenWase, Hausblase ; Fr. CoHe 
 depoisson, Carloch; It. Coladipesce; Rus. Kleirubuij 
 KarluK), one of the purest and finest of the animal 
 glues. A variety of gelatine, sometimes called ichthy- 
 ooolla, or fish-glue (from Ix^v^, ajish, and Ko^Xa, glue), 
 prepared from the air-bag, swimming-bladder, or sound 
 of various fishes. The Russian and Siberian isinglass 
 is most esteemed j it is chiefly obtained from sturgeons, 
 a family of cartilaginous fishes of the genus Acipenser. 
 The swimming-bladder is cut up, washed, and then 
 exposed to the air, with the inner silvery membrane 
 upward. When dry, this membrane Is removed by 
 beating and rubbing ; the sound Is then prepared in 
 various ways. For forming what is called feo/' isin- 
 glass, it is merely dried ; for long and short staple, it is 
 twisted between three pegs, into the shape of a horse- 
 shoe, harp, or lyre', for iooJ; isinglass, it is folded like 
 the sheets of a book ; for ribbon isinglass, it is rolled 
 out. The swimming-bladder of A . efurio of the Cas- 
 pian Sea furnishes leaf isinglass of three qualities, 
 known &i Jine-fiHta, firsts,' ^ni- seconds: A. giilden- 
 stadtii of the Caspian and Black Seas and their tribu- 
 tary rivers, furnishes caviare from its roe or ovary, 
 while the swimming-bladder yields staple and leaf 
 isinglass. The varieties of staple are Patriarch Astra- 
 
[SL 
 
 1113 
 
 ISO 
 
 hhan, B.bi Asirakhad ^firstilf' seednch, and tldrds. The 
 varieties of leaf axe dBoJireti, seconds, and thirds— the 
 &tsts forming the finest leaf known in commerce. A. 
 rtiflnus and A . stellatus also yield isinglass. There is 
 a kind known as Samovey leaf, from Tanganrod, but 
 this is inferior ; there is also the siaane leaf, said to be 
 obtained from a smallish', and JrosH mim^Jows, which 
 is made into small membranous disks. Isinglass is also 
 procured from Sihiris giants. Foi? 'purse, pipe, and 
 lump isinglass, the swimming-bladder is dried un- 
 opened, and the variety' known as Siberian purse, of 
 moderately good quality, is greatly in demand. 
 
 Brazilian isinglass is bbtained from Para and Ma- 
 ranham, but the fishes Which produce it have not been 
 named. For the varietj* known as pipe-Brazil, the 
 swimming-bladders are dried unopened, and made into 
 pip^s 10 or 12 inches long, and from 2 to 2^ inches 
 broad; and are sometimes distended with air. Lump 
 isinglass is formed by placing two swimmirig-hladders 
 side by side, and for honey-comb isinglass, the largest 
 lump isinglass is sj)lit open. There are also varieties 
 of isinglass from New York, from Hudson's Bay, and 
 from the East IMies. In Moldavia a variety is pre- 
 pared from the' skin, stomach, intestines, and swim- 
 ming-bladder of the sturgeon. These are cut small, 
 steeped in cold water, and simmered. The jellj- thus 
 produced is spread out into tliin layers, and dried into 
 a kind of parchment, which, on being softened with 
 water, is rolled into cylinders, or extended into plates, 
 and forms an inferior isinglass; Cod sounds are also 
 used for a similar purpose. The patent gelatin pre- 
 pared ftom glue-pieces or cuttiiigs of hides, etc., after 
 the manner of glue, is also used as a substitute for 
 isinglass. A solid gelatin in thin plates and strings 
 is prepared from bones, and is chiefly of French manu- 
 facture. 
 
 Isinglass is prepared for sale by being picked and 
 cut. This was formerly done by hand, but is now 
 eflfeoted by steam machinerj' ; the thin filaments thus 
 produced should be whitish in color, drj-, semi-trans- 
 parent, nearly tasteless, and quite devoid of smell. 
 Isinglass differs from glue in being tough, fibrous, and 
 elastic, instead of brittle. On boiling, it should com- 
 pletely dissolve, and on cooling, should form a white 
 jelly, soluble in weak acids, but separable from them 
 by alkalies. With milk and sugar it is used as a diet 
 for invalids, and it is also used in the preparation of 
 blanc-mange, jellies and creams, and for enriching 
 soups and sauCes. Isihgl&ss is no longer considered to 
 be highly nutritive ; it is even less digestible than the 
 flesh or muscular part of animals. The great con- 
 sumer of isinglass is the brewer, who uses it as a fining 
 material, for which purpose lump isinglass is chiefly 
 used. This is deeper in color, and inferior in solubility 
 to the better varieties. On mixing it with the liquor 
 to be fined, it partly combines with some of those 
 matters which render the Kquor cloudy, and en- 
 tangles in its meshes those which are mechanically 
 suspended, the whole then rising to the surface can be 
 removed ; and the liquor be left clear. Wine, cofifee, 
 and othfer liquids' are also clarified by isinglass, -but 
 sole-skins and hartshorn shavings are often used as 
 substitutes for it. Isinglass forms the adhesive ma- 
 terial in court-plaster, for which purpose a solution of 
 isinglass, mixed with tincture of benzoin, is brushed 
 over black sarsenet. Isinglass dissolved in spirits of 
 wine or common gin, and gently-simmered by placing 
 the bottle in a vessel of boiling water for about an 
 hour, forms diamxmd cement, or wMie fsh-glue ; gum 
 ammoniac is sometimes added. Panes of isinglass, 
 instead of gliie, are used in France instead of horn, for 
 lanterns, and also for lamp-shades, etc. — E. B. 
 
 Isle of Bourbon. Merchandise from Europe, or 
 any country facing the Mediterranean, is inadmissible 
 to the established entrep6t of this island, unless di- 
 rectly imported from French entrepAts, or the place 
 of production; but merchandise of any other origin 
 
 may be imported under any flag. This island is situ- 
 ated in the Indian Ocean, between latitude 20° 50' 
 and 21° 24' S., 440 miles east of Madagascar. It is of 
 an oval shape, greatest length 40 miles, greatest 
 breadth 27 miles. Population about 109,000. Area, 
 900 square miles. It is intersected by two mountain 
 ridges, with volcanoes. There are many small rivers, 
 but none navigable. The valleys of any considerable 
 size are not numerous. It has no safe harbor. The 
 climate Is healthy and pleasant. From December to 
 May is the hot and rainy season. The soil is very 
 fertile. lii 1836 the surface was distributed into 
 about 65 parts of cultivated land, 14 parts of ^jastur- 
 age, 65 parts of wood, and 97 parts of waste lauds. 
 The cultivated parts encircle the island, and press up 
 the sides of the interior mountains, Tlie articles pro- 
 duced are the sugar-cane, coffee, cloves, cocoa, tobac- 
 co, and grain ; of these, the sugar-cane, grain, and 
 cofiee are most largely produced. The fisheries are 
 excellent. -They employ-about 500 persons. The fish 
 taken sell in the island for about $80,000 per annum.' 
 In 1848 the population consisted of 108,000 souls. 
 They have numerous brick and lime kilns, tanneries, 
 forges, founderies, tin-ware factories, breweries, and 
 manufactures of palm-leaf bagging. The prineipal ar- 
 ticles of export ' are raw sugar, coffee, cloves, dye- 
 woods, cabinet-wood, and saltpetre. The staples are 
 enumerated in the order of their importance, and are 
 of the annual value of about $5,000,000. The chief 
 imports are rice, wheat, oil, wines, cattle, timber, salt, 
 glass, porcelain, and cottons and other manufactured 
 goods. The' total value of the imports is about 
 $2,800,000. 
 
 Isothermal (Gr. urof and Bepiiri, Tteai). In physical 
 geography, isothermal lines are those-which pass through 
 those points on the surface of the earth at which the 
 mean annual temperature is the same. Isothermal zones 
 are spaces on opposite sides of the equator, having the 
 same mean temperature, and bounded by correspond- 
 ing isothermal lines. On account of the irregular form 
 and disposition of the continental masses, by wliioh the 
 climate of different places is greatly influenced, the 
 isothermal curves are not parallel to the equator, ex- 
 cepting in the very low latitudes. According to Hum^ 
 boldt, the isothermal line, which corresponds to the 
 temperature of. 32° Fahrenheit, passes between Ulea, 
 in Lapland, lat. 66°, and Table Bay, on the coast of 
 Labrador, lat. 54°. The isothermal line of 41° passes 
 near Stocldiolm, lat. 59.^°,'and St. George's Bay, New- 
 foundland, lat. 48°. The line of 50° passes through 
 the Netherlands,, lat. 51°, and near Boston, in the 
 United States, lat. 42 J° ; that of 59° between Kome 
 and Florence, lat. 43°, and Kaleigh, in North Carolina, 
 lat. 36°. In all these cases we see that the isothermal 
 lines, in passing from the western side of the conti- 
 nent of Europe to the eastern coast of America, deviate 
 very considerably toward the south ; the deviation in 
 one case amounting to 11J° of latitude. In passing 
 over the American continent they again recede to the 
 northward ; and in California, and to the north of that 
 peninsula, along the western side of the continent, the 
 annual temperature is nearly the same bs under similar 
 latitudes in the west of Europe. From the western to 
 the eastern side of the old continent the flexure of the 
 isothermal curves and the diminution of the mean 
 annual temperature under the same parallels, are not 
 less conspicuons. The isothermal line of 65° passes 
 through Nantes, lat. 47°, and Pekin, lat. 39^°. Ed- 
 inburg, and Kasan, in the east of Enssia, have the same 
 latitude ; but the mean annual temperature of the 
 former is 48°, while that of the second is below 38°. 
 For the different causes which affect the parallelism 
 of the isothermal lines, or which produce the difi'er- 
 ences of the mean annual temperature of the places 
 under the same parallel of latitude. ; 
 
 Humboldt gives the name of isotheral lines (uTOf, 
 and depo;, summer') to the curves passing through those 
 
ITA 
 
 1114 
 
 ITA 
 
 places at which the mean summer heat is the same ; 
 and of isochimenal {taoc, and ;f£m(jv, winter) to those 
 which pass through the places at which the mean tem- 
 perature of winter is the same. The isotheral and 
 isochimenal curves deviate much more from the paral- 
 ■ lels of latitude than the isothermal. The latitudes of 
 places having the same winter temperature sometimes 
 differ so much as 18° or 20°. The winter of Scotland 
 is as mild as that of Milan. The mean temperature 
 of the winter months at Edinburg is about 38J° ; of 
 Kasan, under the same parallel, only 2°. The winter 
 of Pekin is as rigorous as that of Stockholm. — Hum- 
 boldt's Fragmens Asiatiques. 
 
 Isthmus, a narrow neck or slip of land which 
 connects two continents ; or joins a peninsula to the 
 terra firma, and separates two seas. The most cele- 
 brated isthmuses are, that of Panama or Darien, which 
 joins North and South America ; that of Suez, which 
 connects Asia and Africa; that of Corinth, which 
 unites the Morea with western Greece ; that of'Crim 
 Tartary, otherwise called Taurica Chersonesus ; and 
 that of the Peninsula Romania, and Erisso, or the 
 isthmus of the Thracian Chersonesus, twelve furlongs 
 broad, being that which Xerxes undertook to cut 
 through. 
 
 Italy. The name Italia was originally applied to 
 the extreme end of the peninsula, south of a line 
 drawn from the Gulf of Squillace, Sinus Scylacexis, to 
 that of Sta. Eufemia, Sinus TeriTiwus. By the time 
 of Thucydides, in the 5th century B.C., the appellation 
 had alieadj' extended to Metapontum on the east, and 
 the Posidonian Gulf on the west coast, thus including 
 the whole of modern Calabria, and great part of the 
 provinces of Basilicata and Salerno. The further ex- 
 tension of the name was cotemporary with the prog- 
 ress of the Roman power, and at the time of Pj'^rrhus 
 it included apparently the whole peninsula, except 
 Liguria and Cisalpine Gaul. In the 7th century of 
 Rome, though both Liguria and Cisalpine Ganl were 
 still, in official usage, distinct from Italia, yet the 
 latter name, as we gather from many passages in the 
 classics, was already employed, in common accepta- 
 tion, to designate the whole country from the Alps to 
 the Sicilian Straits. The official acceptation was 
 dropped as soon as Augustus, in his division of Italy, 
 incorporated Liguria, Cisalpine Gaul, Venetia, and 
 Istria. 
 
 The origin of the name has been referred to various 
 sources, all equally uncertain. Greek and Roman tra- 
 dition deduced it from the eponymous hero Italus, a 
 supposed CEnotrian or Pelasgic chief; while Timseus, 
 followed \)y Varro and Gellius, derived it from Italos, 
 which in old Greek signified an ox, from the quantity 
 of cattle bred in the country. Graicia, enim antiqua, 
 ut scribit Tim<Eus, iauros vocabat 'IraXowf, a quorum 
 muUiiudine et pulchritudine et fcetu vitulorum, Italiam 
 dixerunt.* The word Vitulus (calf) and Italus were, 
 according to Festus, synonj'mous ; and on the denarii 
 struck by the Sabellian nations during the Social 
 War, B.C. 90-88, there occurs the word Vitelu for 
 Italy. 
 
 In early times Italy was also called Saturnia from 
 the Latin god Satumus, (Enotria from an ancient chief 
 (Enotrus, and Ausonia from the Ausones, the Aurunci 
 of the Romans, who occupied the centre of the penin- 
 sula. All these names, however, seem to have be- 
 longed to particular districts, and to have been applied 
 to the whole country only by the Latin and later 
 Greek poets ; indeed (Enotria would appear from An- 
 tiochus to have been synonymous with Italia in its 
 original acceptation. The Greek poets applied to it 
 sometimes the name Ilesperia, on account of its being 
 to the westward of their country. The Germans called 
 it Waelshland, because the parts nearest to them were 
 inhabited by the Galles or Walles ; and in their pres- 
 
 ' Varro, De Ro RMatkd, ii, 6. 
 
 ent language the name of Waelshland is still retained 
 by the common people. 
 
 The loftiest range of mountains in Europe on the 
 north-east, north, and north-west, and the sea on 
 every other side, form the natural boundaries of 
 Italy. The Alpine chain, extending in a semicir- 
 cular form from the Julian Alps at the head of the 
 Adriatic to the Maritime Alps on the Gulf of Genoa, 
 divides it on the north-east from lUyria and the 
 Tyrol, on the north and north-west from Switzer- 
 land, and on the west from France, where the River 
 Var (^Varus) forms its boundary. From this Alpine 
 range, which may be called its basis, Italy projects 
 south-east in a peninsular form, and nearly in the 
 shape of a boot, far into the Mediterranean Sea, which 
 takes the diiferent names of — Adriatic, Mare Superum, 
 on the east coast — Ionian, Mare Ionium, on the south- 
 east coast, from the Cape of Sta. Maria di Leuca to the 
 Straits of Messina — and of Tyrrhenian, Mare Inferum 
 vel Tyrrhenum, on the west coast. According to these 
 physical barriers, Trieste and the province of Istria on 
 the east, and Nice on the west, would be excluded 
 from Italy; but ever since Augustus extended its 
 limits to the Var on the west, and the Gulf of Quar- 
 nero (Sinus Flanaticus') on the east, they have been 
 reckoned as part of Italy. In the present political 
 division of the Austrian empire, however, neither 
 Istria nor Trieste is included in the Lombardo- Vene- 
 tian kingdom, the limits of which are at the Isonzo, 
 north-east of Aquileia. Along the north and north- 
 west frontier the limits of Italy have at different times 
 undergone various, though insignificant changes ; for 
 the Alps, though presenting an unbroken line on a 
 distant view, are so deeply indented with valleys as to 
 make a natural boundary possible only by following 
 the watershed, a course never or seldom adopted in 
 political arrangements. But even the watershed would 
 not mark the limits of different nationalities, as valleys 
 which, by this criterion, should not belong to It.aXy, are 
 inhabited by an Italian race ; and German or French is 
 spoken in districts which should be included in Italy. 
 
 The Italian peninsula is situated between the paral- 
 lels of N. lat. 46° 30' and 37° 54', and E. long. 6° 38' 
 and 18° 32' ; if the islands are included, the southern- 
 most parallel of lat. is 35° 40'. Its length in a direct 
 line from the foot of the Alps near Aosta to the Capo 
 di Sta. Maria di Leuca (lapygium Proviontorium') is 
 about 600 miles, and to the Capo dell' Armi (Leucope- 
 tra) a little more than 660. Its breadth varies greatly. 
 From the mouth of the Var to the head of the Adriatic, 
 near the Isonzo, it is 300 miles ; and if the line be car- 
 ried to the head of the Gulf of Quamero, near Fiume, 
 it is more than 350. It narrows rapidly as it descends 
 south ; and from Viareggio to Cervia is only 95 miles. 
 Further south it expands a little ; and from Piombino 
 to Ancona the breadth is 138 miles, and 150 from Capo 
 di Licosa to Brindisi. From Diamante to the mouth 
 of the Crati, in Calabria, it is 29 miles, and only 18 
 between the Gulfs of Sta. Eufemia and SquUlace. It 
 is surrounded by many islands, the principal of which 
 are : on the east coast the group of the Tremiti, north 
 of Monte Gargano, and S. Pietro and S. Paolo in the 
 Gulf of Taranto ; on the south, Sicily, the largest of 
 all, the Lipari group, Pantelleria, Malta, and Gozo, 58 
 miles from Sicily; on the west, Capri, Procida, and 
 Ischia, at the two extremities of the Gulf of Naples ; 
 the Ponza group opposite Gaeta, Giglio near Monte 
 Argentaro, the two large islands of Sardinia and Cor- 
 sica; and between the latter one and the coast of 
 Tuscany are Pianosa, Elba, and Capraxa. The most 
 important of these are noticed under their respective 
 heads in this work. 
 
 The sea coasts of the peninsula, on the Tj^rrhenian 
 side, are, for the most part, protected bj' lofty acclivi- 
 ties, but on the Adriatic and the Ionian they are gen- 
 erally flat. The most remarkable capes and promon- 
 tories of the peninsula are; Delle Melle, Manara, 
 
ITA 
 
 1115 
 
 ITA 
 
 Piombino, Argentaro, Circello, Miseno, Campanella, 
 Licosa, Vaticano, Delle Armi, on the west shore ; 
 Spartivento, Rizzuto, Nau or Colonne, Alice, Leuca, 
 Gargano, on the south-east and east shore. 
 
 The extent and population of Italy, including its 
 islands, are shown by the following table, which is to 
 
 be considered as merely approximative. In some of 
 the States, the returns of population are not much at- 
 tended to; and, with regard to their area, there is 
 great discrepancy between the various authorities. 
 This table, however, has been comj^ed from the most 
 authentic data. 
 
 Names of tho States, 
 
 Kingdom of the Two Sicilies: 
 
 Naples 
 
 Sicily 
 
 Eingdom of Sardinia: 
 
 Piedmont and BlrieTa 
 
 Island of Sardinia. 
 
 Lombardo- Venetian Kingdom 
 
 Papal States 
 
 Grand Duchy of Tuscany (including Lucca) 
 
 Duchy of Modena 
 
 Duchy of Parma. 
 
 Kepnbllc of 8. Marino. 
 
 Total 
 
 Corsica, belonging to France 
 
 Malta and Gozo, belonging to England 
 
 Total 
 
 Splscopal 
 sees. 
 
 Extent in squnrG 
 miles. 
 
 Population, Capital cities. 
 
 14 
 
 11 
 20 
 68 
 21 
 4 
 4 
 
 9,556 
 
 15,397 
 
 8,228 
 
 18,208 
 
 12,120 
 
 6,784 
 
 1,629 
 
 1,T12 
 
 18 
 
 2,500 
 
 4,250 
 
 7,66o 
 12,800 
 7,180 
 
 6,345,865 
 2,286,580 
 
 8,946,450 
 
 552,665 
 
 6,608,478 
 
 8,065,000 
 
 1,817,600 
 
 606,800 
 
 608,800 
 
 7,800 
 
 98,614 
 
 2,850 
 114 
 
 87,040 I 25,148,928 
 I 286,261 
 
 Naples. 
 Palermo. 
 
 Turin. 
 
 Cagliarl, 
 
 Miran. 
 
 Kome. 
 
 Florence. 
 
 Modena. 
 
 Parma. 
 
 S. Maiino. 
 
 Aiaccio. 
 Taletta. 
 
 258 
 
 96,578 
 
 I 25,508,685 
 
 The most densely inhabited State is that of Lucca, 
 which contains 525 individuals for every square mile ; 
 next to it come the Lombard provinces. The most 
 thinly inhabited parts are the Campagna of Kome and 
 the Island of Sardinia. Italy has more populous 
 towns than any other State of Europe of the same ex- 
 tent. Naples has more than 400,000 inhabitants ; 
 Milan, Turin, Kome, and Palermo, each more than 
 150,000 ; Florence, Venice, and Genoa, more than 
 100,000 ; Leghorn, Messina, Verona, and Bologna, 
 more than 60,000 ; Parma, Padua, and Catania, more 
 than 40,000 ; Mantua, Bergamo, Brescia, Ferrara, 
 Modena, Piacenza, Ancona, and Bari, more than 
 30,000, etc. 
 
 The division of Italy into northern, central, and 
 southern, is neither political nor strictly geographical, 
 but is adopted sometimes as a convenient designation 
 of some parts of the country. According to the gen- 
 eral acceptation in the peninsula, northern Italy is 
 understood to include Piedmont and the Kiviera, Lom- 
 bardy, the Venetian, Parma, Modena, and the States 
 of the Church, as far as an imaginary line from the 
 Gulf of Spezia to Ravenna ; central Italy includes 
 Tuscany and the rest of the States of the Church; 
 and southern Italy the kingdom of Naples. The 
 division in more common use among natives is into 
 upper and lower Italy, the former applying to the por- 
 tion north of the Apennines and to the Riviera, the 
 latter to all the rest of the peninsula. 
 
 The face of the country is much diversified by mount- 
 ains, of which those forming its northern and north- 
 western boundary have been described in this work 
 under the article Alfs. A second range of mount- 
 ains, running through its whole length, determines its 
 configuration and its physical character. From the 
 earliest historical times they were called Apennines — a 
 name supposed to be of Celtic origin, from its contain- 
 ing the root Pen, which in Celtic dialects signifies 
 height or head. 
 
 The Apennines may be regarded as a great offshoot 
 of the Alps, from which they branch off near the Gulf 
 of Genoa; but as there is no regular break in the 
 chain, much difference of opinion has prevailed as to 
 the point of their real commencement. Polybius ex- 
 tends the Apennines nearly as far as Marseilles ; 
 Strabo, on the contrary, extends the Maritime Alps to 
 Vado, and states that the Apennines begin near Genoa. 
 The latter opinion has been adopted by the best mod- 
 em geograpliers, who fix the junction of the Maritime 
 Alps and the Apennines in the valley of the Bormida, 
 west of Savona, where the range, which does not ex- 
 ceed the height of 1300 feet, presents the nearest ap- 
 proach to a break. 
 
 All tba rivers of Italy are subject to sudden and 
 
 very heavy floods, and with the exception of the Po, 
 the Adige, and the Tiber, have their volume of water 
 greatly reduced in summer. The insignificant amount 
 of tide in the Mediterranean renders most of them use- 
 less for navigation. 
 
 In a country extending through 10 degrees of lati- 
 tude there must be great differences of climate, and 
 consequently of vegetation and agriculture, from posi- 
 tion alone. Besides that, however, the climate of 
 Italy is modified to such a degree by the ranges of the 
 Alps and Apennines, and by the air of the sea along 
 its coasts, as to render useless any division into regions 
 according to the classification of Saussure. In the 
 plains of Lombardy and Piedmont, and the other ter- 
 ritories to the north of the Apennines, which are in- 
 closed by mountains on every side but the east, Fah- 
 renheit's thermometer in winter descends to 10°; 
 snow lies sometimes a fortnight on the ground, the 
 lagoons at the mouths of the rivers are frozen, and 
 slight night frosts appear early in November, and 
 some years as late as April. Delicate plants do not 
 thrive except in sheltered situations, but the mul- 
 berry-trees flourish, rice is grown, and the pastures 
 are rich. South of the Apennines, that part of Tus- 
 cany and the States of the Church which is near their 
 main range is subject to great cold, but westward, 
 and along the Riviera, the temperature grows milder, 
 snow seldom lies long on the fields, and the climate is 
 suitable to the growth of the olive and the orange. Bnt 
 it is when we reach the central range of the Apen- 
 nines that we find the coldest districts of Italy. In 
 all the upland valleys of the Abruzzi and of Sannio, 
 snow begins to fall early in November, and heavj' 
 storms occur often as late as May ; whole communi- 
 ties are shut out for months from any intercourse with 
 their neighbors, and some villages are so long buried 
 in snow that regular passages are made between the 
 different houses for the sake of communication among 
 the inhabitants. The district extending from the 
 south-east of Lake Fucinus to the Piano di Cinquerai- 
 glia, and inclosing the upper basin of the Sangro and 
 the small lake of Scanno, is the coldest and most bleak 
 part of Italy south of the Alps. Heavy falls of snow in 
 June are not uncommon, and it is onlj' for a short time 
 toward the end of July that the nights are totally ex- 
 empt from light frosts. Yet, less that 40 miles east of 
 this district, and even more to the north, we find the 
 olive, the fig-tree, and the orange, thriving luxuriantly 
 on the shores of the Adriatic from Ortona to Vasto. In 
 the same way, while in the plains and hills round 
 Naples snow is rarely seen, and never remains long, 
 and the thermometer seldom descends to the freezing 
 point, 20 miles east from it in the fertile valley of 
 Avellino, of no great elevation, but encircled by high 
 
ITA 
 
 1116 
 
 ITA 
 
 moTintaing, light frosts are not uncommon as late as 
 June ; and 18 miles further east, in the elevated re- 
 gion of S. Angelo de' Lombard! and Bisaccia, the in- 
 habitants are always warmlj' clad, and vines grow with 
 difficulty and only in sheltered places. But nowhere 
 are these contrasts so striking as in Calabria. The 
 shores, especially on the Tyrrhenian Sea, present almost 
 a continued grove of olive, orange, lemon, and citron- 
 trees, which attain a size unknown in the north of Italy. 
 The sugar-cane flourishes, the cotton-plant ripens to 
 perfection, the date-trees are seen in the gardens, the 
 rocks are clothed with the pricklj'-pear or Indian-fig, 
 the inclosures of the fields are formed by aloes and 
 sometimes pomegranates, the liquorice-root grows wild, 
 and the mastich, the rosemarj', the myrtle, and many 
 varieties of oleander and cistus, form the underwood 
 of the natural forests of arbutus and evergreen oak. 
 If we turn inland but five or six miles from the shore, 
 and often even less, the scene changes. High dis- 
 tricts covered with oaks and chestnuts succeed to this 
 almost tropical vegetation ; a little higher up, and we 
 reach the elevated table-lands of the PoUino and the 
 Sila, covered with firs and pines, and aflbrding rich 
 pastures even in the midst of summer, when heavy 
 dews and light frosts succeed each other in July and 
 August, and snow begins to appear at the end of Sep- 
 tember or early in October. 
 
 The cerealia form, as elsewhere in Europe, the chief 
 aliment of the inhabitants ; in Italy, however, the 
 lower classes, who are the most numerous, subsist 
 much on maize and beans, which require little prep- 
 aration to render them fit for food. In some of the south- 
 em parts wheat is made use of hy the same class, both 
 ■in the form of bread and in that of macaroni, wliich is 
 manipulated with great facility. Wheat and maize 
 are, on the average of years, about equal to the con- 
 sumption, but little can be spared for exportation; 
 and in many of the ports are depots of foreign wheat 
 kept to meet the variations of seasons, or to be used 
 as articles of commerce with other countries. 
 
 As Italy produces abimdance of wine, and conse- 
 quently needs neither beer nor corn-spirits, no barley 
 is needed for these drinks, and scarcely any is culti- 
 vated. Oats are but little grown, bnt abundance of 
 beans of various lands are produced. Eye, the common 
 bread-corn of the far greater portion of Europe, is 
 only raised in a few spots in the very northernmost 
 parts of Italy, where it is made into bread for the poor ; 
 while those of .the higher classes there, as well as 
 throughout the whole peninsula in the cities, make 
 use of wheaten bread. Rice grows in many parts, in 
 fact wherever there is a sufficiency of water to insure 
 a good produce, at such distance from towns as not to 
 be injurious to the health of the inhabitants. It is a 
 part of almost every meal in families in easy circum- 
 stances, but is scarcely used by families who are 
 in circumstances that require the practice of great 
 parsimony. A great variety of lupines are used as 
 food, especially in the soups. In some parts of the 
 mountainous regions, chestnuts are «. substitute for 
 corn as long as they last. Fruits are plentifully used, 
 particularly figs, grapes, and melons, as food ; while 
 the cheapness of onions, garlic, tomatoes or love-apples, 
 and capsicums, render them valuable as condiments. 
 The potato, which in the other parts of Europe has 
 been so much extended of late years, has been but 
 partially introduced into Italy ; and, where it is culti- 
 vated, it occupies a very small proportion of the soil. 
 Lettuces, asparagus, endive, artichokes, and several 
 kinds of turnips and of carrots, are everywhere grown. 
 
 Animal, food is far from being extensively used. 
 The oxen yield in some parts excellent, in other very 
 indifferent meat. The mutton is neither good nor 
 abundant, bnt has been much improved of late years. 
 Swine furnish a plentiful supply during the winter 
 months : they are also prepared as bacon or hams, and 
 above all as sausages, the fame of which latter has 
 
 reached unto England under the name of the city of 
 Bologna, where they were early and extensively pre- 
 pared. The large dairj' farms in Lombardy, in which 
 the cheese known by the name of Parmesan is made, 
 and the oak and chestnut forests of Calabria, furnish 
 the most and best swine's flesh. 
 
 The fisheries contribute largely to the supply of 
 food in Italy, though from the number of fasts still 
 countenanced by the Catholic church, not sufiicient 
 for the consumption ; and the deficiency is procured by 
 commerce with the English, French, and Americans, 
 who convey to the sea-ports the salted cod-fish from 
 the banks of Newfoundland. Their own fisheries on 
 the coast give much occupation ; the most considerable 
 are those for the tunny, a very large fish, and for the 
 anchovj', a very small one. These are conducted upon 
 a large scale by joint-stock companies. The lakes and 
 the rivers also yield some, though not a great propor- 
 tion, of that .kind .of food which ecclesiastical restric- 
 tions render indispensable. The sugar-cane is not 
 cultivated in the south of Italy, as it is found, that in 
 point of strength, as well as of cost, the sugar made 
 from it does not succeed in a competition with that 
 substance when imported from the West Indies. The 
 products of agriculture are sufficient for the clothing 
 of all the inhabitants ; for though wool is neither 
 good nor plentiful, yet hemp and flax are grown every- 
 where, are manufactured at home, and, from the nature 
 of the climate, linen can be substituted for woolen 
 dress during most of the months of the year. Some 
 raw wool is, however, imported to supply the manu- 
 factures, and some cloths, both from England and 
 France, together with (in Lombardy) those from the 
 other Austrian provinces, especially from Bohemia. 
 Some cotton is grown in the southern divisions of 
 Italy, but not sufficient to furnish materials for their 
 very insignificant manufactures of that article. 
 
 The chief product of Italian agriculture is the silk. 
 It is produced from every part, and much of it is con- 
 verted into articles of dress or of furniture where it 
 is collected ; but the chief production of it is in Sar- 
 dinia, Naples, and Lombardy, whence the looms of 
 England, Prussia, Austria, Kussia, and Germany are 
 supplied. The value of this commodity exceeds that 
 of all the other productions of Italy which are ex- 
 ported to foreign countries. The manufacture has of 
 late years made great progress, which it is still stead- 
 ilj'' maintaining. The great increase which has taken 
 place in the propagation of the mulberrj'-tree has, 
 within the last 30 years, increased the quantity of raw 
 silk to an extent that had never before been dreamed of. 
 
 Another very important Italian product, which is 
 used partly as food, partly employed in home manu- 
 factures, and extensivel}' exported as an article' of 
 foreign commerce, is the oil of the olive-tree. It is 
 used as a substitute for butter in the south, is much 
 appropriated to the manufacture of many kinds of 
 soap,- and is exported to England for the use of our 
 various fabrics, chiefly those of wool, and as a luxury 
 at our tables. The planting and watching cost but 
 little labor or expense, and in a few years the income 
 more than recompenses the labor. The best olive oil 
 is produced near Genoa, in Lucca, in Tuscany, and in 
 Calabria ; but it is plentiful throughout the whole of 
 Italy, except in Lombardy and in Piedmont. 
 
 The wines of Italy are not very highly valued in 
 other countries, and almost the whole that is produced 
 is consumed at home. Those of the north are for the 
 most part disagreeably acid, and scarcely any of them 
 are or can be preserved beyond one year. The vines 
 are not so much grown in vineyards as ip the hedgor 
 rows ; a system which doubtless injures the quality of 
 the wine. In the southern parts, however, where the 
 vines are grown in low vineyards as in France, the 
 wines are of a more fierj' quality, and though prepared 
 with little care, they only require to be better known 
 to be esteemed by foreigners. 
 
ITA 
 
 iin 
 
 IVO 
 
 • The minerals of Italy are of small value ; and 
 tiiongh mines of gold, silver, and copper were once 
 wrought, the veins have long been ecihansted. Some 
 alum is found in the Papal dominions and the^eapoli- 
 tan territoiy, some vitriol and antimony in Parma, 
 and sulphur in the island of Sicily. In many places 
 there are excellent marble quarries, the best near 
 Verona and Carrara. Alabaster is found in many of 
 the mountains. The salt manufactured on the sea- 
 shore, and from saline springs, is more than is re- 
 quired for the home consumption, and a large quantity 
 might be exported. 
 
 Direct trade between the United States and Italy is 
 conducted through the ports of Leghorn, Genoa, and 
 Palermo, to which may be added the Austrian port of 
 Trieste. Exports to Sicily, Sardinia, and Tuscany, 
 in 1854, amounted to $469,143; while to Trieste they 
 reached, during the same year, $1,761,766. The value 
 
 of cptton exported to Sicily, iSardinia, and Tuscany, 
 during th,e same year, was $179,093; to Trieste, it 
 reached $1,370,402. The value of tobacco exported 
 to Sicily, Sardinia, and Tuscany, in 1854, was $144,- 
 082 ; to Trieste, it reached the sum of $259,252. A 
 large portion of the exports to Trieste, however, are 
 purchased there fqr the German markets, that port 
 possessing unusual facilities as a leading entrepot for 
 many of the States of Germany. Manj- American 
 vessels clear from the ports, of the United States with 
 cargoes destined for the markets of " Italy general- 
 ly ;" at least such would seem to be their mode pf 
 clearance, from the custom-house returns ; and the av- 
 erage annual value of cargoes thus destined, exceeds 
 the whole amount of cargoes for designated points in 
 the Italian ^enjlnsula, except Trieste. The following 
 table exhibits the value of this triangular trade for a 
 period of 36 successive years : 
 
 CoMMEaci. OF THE United States 
 
 witu Italy 
 
 (INOLITMNG 
 JOIT 1 
 
 Malta to 
 1866. 
 
 OOTOBEI 1, 
 
 1883), FEOM 
 
 October 1, 1820, to 
 
 Yenra ending 
 
 Exports. 
 
 ImportB. 
 
 Whereof there was In bullion 
 andSpecio. 
 
 Tonnage Cleared. ' 
 
 PpmeBtic. 
 
 Foraign. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Totnl. 
 
 Export. 
 
 Import. 
 
 American. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Sept 80, 1821 
 
 1822 
 
 1828 
 
 ■1824. .V 
 
 1825 
 
 1826 
 
 1827 
 
 1828 
 
 1829 
 
 1830..,,,... 
 Tolfll.... 
 
 Sept. SO, 1881........ 
 
 1832 
 
 1888 
 
 1884 
 
 1885 
 
 ■ 1886 
 
 1887 
 
 1888 
 
 1889.: 
 
 1840 
 
 Total. . . . 
 
 Sept. 80. 1841 
 
 1842 
 
 9mos. 1848 
 
 June 80, 1844 
 
 1845 
 
 1346 
 
 1847, 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 
 
 1850 
 
 Total.... 
 
 June 80, 1851 
 
 1SB2 
 
 1858 
 
 1854 
 
 1855 
 
 1856 
 
 $410,171 
 
 560,714 
 
 115,994 
 
 76,868 
 
 66,605 
 
 81,622 
 
 '74,417 
 
 279,520 
 
 289,755 
 
 826,289, , 
 
 $689,496 
 889,470 
 951,911 
 ' 587,480 
 678,434 
 448,599 
 585,804 
 641,280 
 611,257 
 414,121 
 
 $1,099,667 
 
 1,460,184 
 1,067,905 
 '664,848 
 645,089 
 530,221 
 610,221 
 920,750 
 901,012 
 740,360 
 
 $978,468 
 
 1,562,088 
 1,869,440 ■ 
 1,029,439 ■ 
 . 1,454,022 
 1,120,749 
 1,018,126 
 1,607,417 
 1,409,688 
 940,254, 
 
 $26^660 
 88,692 
 
 $865,211 
 211,944 
 215,197 
 70,898 
 100,034 
 74,269 
 102,692 
 67,682 
 1,200 
 2,570 
 
 8,802 
 10,056 
 6,057 
 6,111 
 7,015 
 6,208 
 6,391 
 6,516 
 7,081 
 6,626 
 
 "461 
 "767 
 
 "iis ' 
 
 $2,281,905 
 
 $871,515 
 178,807 
 70,864 
 105,786 
 178,545 
 180,478 ' 
 205,268 
 818,586 
 815,399 
 
 1,189,888 
 
 $6,347,802 
 
 $323,010 
 609,056 
 801,822 
 887,771 
 107,898 
 524,686 
 418,409 
 141,357 
 122,753 
 288,847 
 
 $8,629,707 
 
 $694,525 
 687,568 
 872,186 
 498,667 
 285,941 
 664,069 
 628,677 
 459,898 
 488,162 
 
 1,478,185 
 
 $12,479,681 
 
 $1,704,264 
 1,619,795 
 999,134 
 1,422,063 
 1,457,977 
 1,970,246 
 1,827,181 
 944,238 
 1,182,297 
 1,167,200 
 
 $58,692 
 $660 
 
 $1,201,432 
 
 $37,988 
 4,400 
 1,200 
 18,305 
 14,004 
 2,614 
 
 38,6i8 
 
 6,728 
 
 67,672 
 
 , 67,812 
 
 9,120 
 ,6,042 
 6,056 
 : 4,482 
 4,544 
 6,868 
 2,687 
 3,041 
 1,016 
 8,071 
 
 1,646 
 
 "882 
 
 426 
 
 206 
 
 258 
 
 8,531 
 
 1,310 
 
 1,836 
 
 2,602 
 
 $8,073,231 
 
 $781,411 
 615,577 
 541,500 
 818,566 
 587,569 
 942,263 
 
 1,056,022 
 
 1,101,118 
 811,450 
 
 1,567,166 
 
 $8,119,507 
 
 $180,907 
 804,940 
 186,721 
 258,257 
 230,3.52 
 424,662 
 98,333 
 169,488 
 298,419 
 239,904 
 
 $6,192,738 
 
 $912,818 
 
 820,517 
 
 728,221 
 
 576,828 
 
 817,921 
 
 1,366,915 
 
 1,149,855 
 
 1,260,601 
 
 1,104,869 
 
 1,807,070 
 
 $14,284,396 
 
 $1,151,286 
 987,628 
 894,664 
 1,096,926 
 1,301,577 
 1,189,786 
 1,279,986 
 1,616,100 
 1,550,896 
 2,105,077 
 
 $660 
 $8,760 
 
 i6;ooo 
 
 $180,769 
 
 $3,841 
 1,414 
 
 1,861 
 2,^00 
 
 18,475 
 7,719 
 8,000 
 4,028 
 
 50,871 
 
 6,282 
 T,867 
 8,860 
 .2,340 
 6,984 
 1,196 
 
 11,000 
 
 1,267 
 
 1,402 
 
 1,117 
 
 941 
 
 914 
 
 $3,172,637 
 
 $1,786,384 
 
 1,578,852 
 
 2,173,746 
 
 1,686,327 
 
 606,657 
 
 457,437 
 
 $2,871,973 
 
 $127,406 
 206,842 
 159,883 
 165,489 
 42,786 
 6,683 
 
 .$10,544,610 
 
 $1,864,240 
 
 1,779,194 
 
 2,833,578 
 
 1,761,766 
 
 549,898 
 
 468,020 
 
 $12,673,626 
 
 $2,051,897 
 
 1,234,905 
 
 953,714 
 
 971,728 
 
 1,773,488 
 
 1,636,865 
 
 $19,760 
 
 $42,233 
 
 26,519 
 
 2,898 
 4,179 
 
 6,641 
 
 "237 
 768 
 
 The commerce of Italy has suffered from the de- 
 rangement of the government ; and although favor- 
 ably situated for a large trade, the merchant marine is 
 small, and confined almost entirely to coasting vessels. 
 
 Value. 
 Sciido. . 
 
 Imports in 1862 10,218,426 
 
 Exports 10,474,018 
 
 The 8oudo=$l 08 of United States' currency. 
 Value op the Imposts and Exports op Leguobn. 
 
 Year ending Imports. Exports. , 
 
 October. Francs. Francs. 
 
 1852 86,520,000 54,800,000 
 
 1858 116,400,000 71,220,000 
 
 1855 142,260,000 
 
 Na'Viqation op the Ports op Civita Vecohia and of 
 Ancona (1852). 
 
 Veisels. 
 
 Entered 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Crew. 
 
 Cleared 
 
 Tonnage. | Crews. 1 
 
 Roman 
 
 Foreign 
 
 ToUl .... 
 
 1,080 
 1,281 
 
 67,096 
 187,728 
 
 7,489 
 20,117 
 
 1,082 
 1.210 
 
 66,679 
 185,818 
 
 7,893 
 19,729 
 
 2,811 
 
 254,824 
 
 27,556 
 
 2,292 
 
 251,992 
 
 27,122 
 
 The mercantile marine numbered at the close of 
 the year 1854, 1,893 vessels (of which 210 were ves- 
 sels of war), having a total tonnage of 31,637 with 
 9711 men. — Foreign Com. U. S. 
 
 Ivoiy, the name given to the t-eeth or tusks of the 
 elephant, and of the walrus or sea-horse. Each male 
 elephant come to maturity has. two tusks. These 
 are hollow at the root, tapering, and of various sizes, 
 depending principally on the age of the animal. 
 Color externally, yellowish, brownish, and sometimes 
 dark ; internally, white. The best are large, straight, 
 and light-colored, without flaws ; not very hollow in 
 the stump, but solid and thick. The most esteemed 
 come from Africa, being of a closer texture, and less 
 liable to turn yellow, than those from the East Indies. 
 The trade in London thus divide them : — First sort, 
 weighing 70 pounds or upward ; second sort, weighing 
 56 lbs. to 60 lbs. ; third sort, weighing 38 lbs. to 56 
 lbs. ; fourth sort, weighing 28 lbs. to 37 lbs. ; fifth sort, 
 
IVO 
 
 1118 
 
 IVO 
 
 ■weighing 18 lbs. to 27 lbs. All under 18 lbs. are 
 called scrivelloes, and are of the least value. In pur- 
 chasing elephants' teeth, those that are very crooked, 
 hoIloTT, and broken at the ends, or cracked and decayed 
 in the inside, should be rejected ; and care taken that 
 lead or any other substance has not been poured into 
 the hollow. The freight is rated at 16 cwt. to the ton. 
 — Milbtien's Orient. Com. 
 
 Supply of Ivory. — The imports of elephants' teeth, 
 in 1840 and 1841, were, at an average, 5556 cwt., of 
 which 4520 cwt. were retained for consumption. The 
 medium weight of a tusk may be taken at about 60 
 lbs. ; so that the yearly imports of 1840 and 1841 may 
 be taken at 10,372 tusks ; a fact which supposes the 
 destruction of at least 5186 male elephants I But, 
 supposing the tusks could only be obtained by killing 
 the animal, the destruction would really be a good deal 
 greater, and would, most probablj', indeed, amount 
 to about 7000 elephants. Occasionally, however, 
 tusks are accidentally broken, one lost in this way 
 being replaced by a new one ; and a good manj' are 
 also obtained from elephants that have died in the nat- 
 ural way. Still it is sufficiently obvious, that the 
 supply from the sources now alluded to can not be 
 verj- large ; and if to the quantity of ivory required 
 for Great Britain, we add that required for the other 
 countries of Europe, America, and Asia, the slaughter 
 of elephants must, after everj' reasonable deduction is 
 made, appear immense ; and it may well excite sur- 
 prise, that the breed of this noble animal has not been 
 more diminished. The western and eastern coasts of 
 Africa, the Cape of Good Hope, Ceylon, India, and 
 the countries to the eastward of the Straits of Malacca, 
 are the great marts whence supplies of ivory are de- 
 rived. The imports from western Africa into Great 
 Britain, in 1840, amounted to 1933 cwt. ; the Cape 
 famished only 97 cwt. The imports during the same 
 3'ear from India, Ceylon, and other eastern countries, 
 were 2418 cwt. The Chinese marlcet is principally 
 supplied with ivory from Malacca, Siam, and Su- 
 matra. 
 
 The chief consumption of ivory is in the manufac- 
 ture of handles for knives ; but it is also extensively 
 used in the manufacture of musical and mathematical 
 instruments, chess-men, billiard-balls, plates for min- 
 iatures, toys, etc. Ivory articles are said to be manu- 
 factured to a greater extent, and with better success 
 at Dieppe, than in any other place in Europe. But 
 the preparation of this beautiful material is much bet- 
 ter understood by the Chinese than by any other peo- 
 ple. No European artist has hitherto succeeded in 
 cutting concentric balls after the manner of the Chi- 
 nese ; and their boxes, chess-men, and other ivory 
 articles, are all far superior to any that are to be met 
 with anywhere else. 
 
 Statement showing the Impoktb of Ivory into the 
 United States fok the Fiscal Tear ending June 
 80th, 1856. 
 
 Whence imported. 
 
 Manufactures of. 
 
 Knssian Posses, iu N. America. 
 
 Bremen 
 
 England 
 
 British Possessions in Africa. . . 
 
 France 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Ports in Africa 
 
 Oliina 
 
 Other places 
 
 Total 
 
 Unmanufactured. 
 
 $2,018 
 9,858 
 
 4,86T 
 
 2,180 
 102 
 
 $18,620 
 
 46,658 
 21,945 
 205 
 188 
 250,278 
 1T8 
 88 
 
 $820,100 
 
 Historical Notice. — It is a curious fact, that the peo- 
 ple of all Asiatic countries in which the elephant is 
 found, have always had the art of taming the animal 
 and applying it to useful purposes, but that no such 
 art has ever been possessed by any native African na- 
 tion. Is this owing to any difference between the 
 Asiatic and African elephants, or to the inferior sa- 
 gacity of the African people ? We incline to think 
 that the latter is the true hypothesis. Alexander the 
 Great is believed to have been the first European who 
 employed elephants in war. It appears prettj- certain 
 that the elephants made use of by the Carthaginians 
 were mostly, if not wholly, brought from India ; and 
 that they were managed by Indian leaders. Some of 
 the latter were captured b}' the Romans, in the great 
 victorj' gained by Metellus over Asdrnbal. See, on 
 this curious subject, two very learned and valuable 
 notes in the Ancient Universal History. Buffon's 
 Article on the Elephant is a splendid piece of compo- 
 sition. 
 
 Rendering Ivory Soft, — The various mechanical and 
 chemical processes connected with the manipulation 
 of ivory, are among the most interesting peculiarities 
 of art. In rendering it soft and transparent, small 
 pieces of the article are laid in strong phosphoric acid 
 until they become transparent, then rinsed in water, 
 and dried in pure linen. When drj- it is translucent 
 and hard, but softens as often as it is dipped in warm 
 water or milk. The time of immersion in the acid 
 differs with different pieces of ivorj-. If certain parts 
 are to retain their original character, they are covered 
 with a varnish before immersion. The acid probably 
 acts by forming an acid phosphate of lime out of the 
 buric phosphate which constitutes three fourths of 
 ivory. The process of hardening ivory, which has 
 become pliable by age, consists in boiling it for some 
 time in a solution of gelatin. 
 
 Vegetable Ivory is now imported chiefly from the 
 River Magdalen into Europe and the United States of 
 America ; in some years no less than 150 tons of it 
 have been imported into England. The " nuts" may 
 be purchased in the toy-shops of the British metropo- 
 lis for a few pence each, but when bought in large 
 quantities, they are obtained at a much cheaper rate. 
 In August, 1854, 1000 " nuts" were sold in London 
 for 7s. 6d. The ivory plant is confined to the conti- 
 nent of South America, where it grows between the 
 9th degree of north, and the 8th degree of south lat- 
 itude, and the 70th and 79th of west longitude. It 
 inhabits damp localities, such as confined valleys, 
 banks of rivers and rivulets, and is found not only on 
 the lower coast region, as in Darien, but also on moun- 
 tains at an elevation of more than 3000 feet above the 
 sea, as in Ocana. Among the Spaniards and their de- 
 scendants, it is known by the name of Palme de Marfil 
 (ivory palm) ; while its fruit is called by them Cdbeza 
 de Negro (Negro's head) ; and its seed, Marfil vegetal 
 (vegetable ivorj'). The Indians on the banks of the 
 Magdalena term the plant Tagua, those on the coast 
 of Darien Anta, and those of Peru, PuUipunia and 
 Homero. It is generally found in separate groves, 
 seldom intermixed with other trees or shrubs, and 
 where herbs are rarely met with, — Botanical Magazine, 
 May, 1856. 
 
 Ivory Black. The mixture of charcoal and 
 phosphate of lime obtained by burning bone, is sold 
 under this name, and, lilce other forms of animal char- 
 coal, is very effective in depriving certain substances 
 of their color. 
 
JAD 
 
 1119 
 
 JAF 
 
 J. 
 
 Jack, in nautical language, is a flag of colors used 
 in malcing signals. See Flags. 
 
 Jacmel, a sea-port of Hayti. This port, consider- 
 ^g the scantiness of its supplies for foreign export, 
 onjoys a considerable share of the navigation of Hayti. 
 It forwards to Port-au-Prince most of the merchandise 
 it imports, especially the large quantities of flax and 
 silk textiles which It receives by the British steam- 
 packets. The first rank in the commerce of this port, 
 formerly held by the British, is now transferred to the 
 United States. In the movements of 1850 there were 
 under the American flag 60 vessels, out of a total of 
 151 ; under the English flag, 45 (including their regu- 
 lar royal mail steamers) ; and under the French flag 
 onl}"- 5. The trade and navigation between the United 
 States and the port of Jacmel during the last six 
 months of 1854 is given as follows : — Number of ves- 
 sels, 30 ; average tonnage of each, 140 tons ; value of 
 cargoes inward, $661,599 32; value of cargoes out- 
 ward, not given in official returns. Cargoes inward 
 consisted of provisions, lumber, shingles, and assorted 
 goods. Cargoes outwanl of coffee, logwood, lignum- 
 vitsB, fustic, braziletto. 
 
 Jacobus, a gold coin, worth 25s., and so called 
 from King James I. of England, in whose reign it was 
 struck. There are two kinds of Jacobus, the old and 
 new; theformer valued at 25s., weighing six penny- 
 weights ten grains; the latter, called also Carolw, 
 valued at 23s., and in weight five pennyweights twenty 
 grains. 
 
 Jacquard, a peculiar and most ingenious mechan- 
 ism, invented by M. Jacquart of Lyons, to be adapted 
 to a silk or muslin loom for superseding the employ- 
 ment of draw-boys, in weaving figured goods. Inde- 
 pendently of the ordinary play of the warp threads, 
 for the formation of the ground of such a web, all 
 those threads which should rise simultaneously to pro- 
 duce the figure have their appropriate healds, which a 
 child formerly raised by means of cords, that grouped 
 them together into a system, in the order, and at the 
 time desired by the weaver. This plan evidently oc- 
 casioned no little complication in the machine, when 
 the design was richly figured ; but the apparatus of 
 Jacquart, which subjects this manoeuvre to a regular 
 mechanical operation, and derives its motion from a 
 simple pedal put in action by the weaver's feet, was 
 generally adopted soon after its invention in 1800. 
 Every common loom is susceptible of receiving this 
 beautiful appendage. It costs in France 200 francs, or 
 $40 in this country. 
 
 Jade, an ornamental stone, of which there appear 
 to be two varieties, common jade or nephrite, and saus- 
 surite or jade tenace. Common jade is a silicate of 
 magnesia, oxyd of iron, alumina. Its specific gravity 
 varies from 2'9 to 3*0 ; hardness 7"0. Its color is leek 
 green, passing into gray. It is very tough, and 
 scarclj' fusible before the blow-pipe. Kephrite was 
 formerly worn as a charm, and was supposed to be a 
 cure for disease of the kidney, whence the name from 
 ve(t>po^, kidney. From its toughness it has been used 
 for the blades of hatchets by the New Zealanders, and 
 other savage nations. Humboldt speaks of jade stones 
 being an article of trade among the natives of the 
 north and south sides of the Orinoco. Jade is much 
 used in Turkey and Poland for the handles of knives, 
 daggers, swords, etc. ; and in India, ornaments and 
 trinkets, delicately worked, are made of it. In China, 
 the jade is of a whitish color, and is called t/u. It is 
 farmed into vases, rings, and other articles. A great 
 variety of jade ornaments from India and China ap- 
 peared at the Great Exhibition of 1851. Such articles 
 are very costly, on account of the extreme difiiculty 
 
 of working this refractory substance, but it has been 
 suggested that mortars, pestles, and some other objects 
 required bj' chemists, could be manufactured of jade 
 of larger size than can now be made of agate, and, ' 
 from the simplicity of the forms, at moderate cost. 
 Jade is polished bj' camelian, but it takes only a 
 greasy, not a brilliant polish. 
 
 Saussurite is a double silicate of magnesia, lime, 
 and oxyd of iron, with silicate of alumina ; specific 
 gravity 3*2 to 3"4, hardness 5*5. Its color is greenish- 
 white, or ash-gray ; its cleavage is in two directions, 
 meeting at an angle of nearly 120°. Its lustre is 
 pearly, resinous, or vitreous ; it is extremely tough, 
 and is fusible before the blow-pipe. — ^E. B. 
 
 Jafia, or Yaffa (the ancient Joppa), is a sea-port 
 town of Palestine, in north lat. 32° 3', east long. 34° 
 45'. It is situate on an eminence projecting into 
 the sea, about 40 miles north-west of Jerusalem. It 
 is mentioned in the Old Testament as the port at which 
 the timber for Solomon's Temple was unshipped. Dur- 
 ing the wars of the Maccabees, its shipping was set on 
 fire by Jonathan ; and it was again pillaged during 
 the wars between the Romans and the Jews, 8400 of 
 its inhabitants being put to the sword, and the town 
 burned. Having subsequently become the refuge of 
 pirates, the place was utterly destroyed. Gradually, 
 however, it seems again to have risen to importance, 
 for, during the reign of the Christian emperors, it was 
 made the seat of a bishopric. In A. D. 636 it was 
 taken by Omar. In the crusades it was taken 
 by Baldwin I., and in 1186 retaken by Saladin. In 
 more recent times it was stormed by Napoleon in 
 1797, when 500 Turkish prisoners were put to death. 
 The harbor of Joppa has always been dangerous, owing 
 to its exposure to the sea, and, being now nearly 
 choked up with sand, vessels are obliged to keep at a 
 distance from the shore. Notwithstanding all the 
 danger and difiiculty of landing, Joppa has for many 
 centuries been the resort of pilgrims on their waj' to 
 Jerusalem. The town chiefly faces the north. The 
 buildings are surmounted by flattened domes, which 
 rise in rows above one another like terraces, on the 
 steep face of the eminence on which the town is built. 
 The summit of the height is crowned with a castle ; 
 but though the general situation of the town is thus 
 somewhat picturesque, its appearance on closer inspec- 
 tion is mean and comfortless. A wall 12 feet high 
 defends the town on the landward side, and two forts 
 protect the harbor. Joppa carries on trade in cotton, 
 soap, fruit, coral, etc. The fruits, consisting of water- 
 melons, oranges, lemons, etc., grow well in the sandy 
 soil of the numerous neighboring gardens. It imports 
 rice from Egypt. ,The inhabitants consist of Turks 
 and Arabs, Romanists and Greeks, with some Arme- 
 nians, as may be inferred from the three mosques, 
 three churches, and three Armenian convents to be 
 seen in the town. A British consul resides here. 
 Population 4000.— E. B. 
 
 Jafna, the capital of the district of Jafnapatam. It 
 stands at some distance from the sea, but communicates 
 with it by a river navigable for large boats, and which 
 falls into the sea near Point Pedro. The town is for- 
 tified and possesses a good citadel, which, though small, 
 is exceedingly well built ; but it was given up in 1795, 
 after a short resistance, to the British troops. The 
 situation is salubrious, and living is cheap ; on which 
 account many families have removed to this place from 
 Columbo. "The greater part of the inhabitants are of 
 Mohammedan extraction, and are divided into several 
 tribes, known by the names of Lubbahs, Moplays, 
 Chittees, and Cholias. The foreign settlers are more 
 numerous than the native inhabitants. There are 
 
JAM 
 
 1120 
 
 JAM 
 
 manufactures of coarse cotton cloths, calicoes, haud- 
 kercliiefs, shawls, stockings, etc., and there are also 
 many artificers, such as goldsmiths, jewelers, joiners, 
 and cabinet-makers. — E. B. ' 
 
 Jalap, or Jalop (Ger. Jalapp; Fr. Jalap; It. 
 Sciarappo ; Sp. Jalapd), the root of a certain convol- 
 vulus, so named from JCalapa, in Mexico, whence we 
 chiefly import it. The root, when brought to this 
 country, is in thin transverse slices, solid, hard, 
 weighty, of a blackish color on the outside, and inter- 
 nally of a dark .gray, with black circular striae. The 
 hardest and darkest colored is the best ; that which 
 is light, spongy, and pale colored, should be rejected. 
 The odor of jalap, especially when in powder, is very 
 characteristic. Its taste is exceedingly nauseous, ac- 
 companied by a sweetish bitterness. — Lewis's Mat. 
 Med. ; Brande's Pharmacy. 
 
 In Mexico, from 4000 to 6000 feet above the sea 
 level, grows the plant which yields true jalap, and 
 which has been called bj' botanists Cormohulus purga, 
 and Ipomaa pnrga, the latter name being adopted by 
 De Candolle. It has since, however, been placed in 
 the genus Exogonium. The true jalap (Exogoniur/l 
 purga) has a tuberous perennial root, a smooth, twin- 
 ing, annual stem, a salver-shaped corolla, with long 
 cylindrical tube, a calyx of five small, unequal sepals, 
 and herbaceous stems. Its leaves resemble the ivy, 
 and its beautiful red flowers open only at night. The 
 dried tubers of this plant supply the drug jalap ; 
 these, as found in commerce, rarely exceed 1 lb. in 
 weight; they are oval in form, and covered with a 
 dark skin or cuticle. Internally they are yellowish 
 gray, with deep brown concentric circles, and are hard 
 and difficult to powder. Inferior sorts are more irreg- 
 ular in form, and are called spurious jalap, or, from 
 their shape, coched-hat jah.p. Some roots are much 
 worm-eaten, and are so called ; but as the insects do 
 not touch the resinous portions, such roots are avail- 
 able for extracts. Four kinds of jalap are known in 
 commerce, two genuine and two spurious ; first, dark, 
 heavy, resinous tubers ; secondly, lighter colored and 
 less resinous; thirdly, white or false jalap, pieces of 
 which are occasionally mixed with the true ; and, 
 towAlAy, jalap-stalk or woody jalap, the slices of which 
 are more fibrous and woody than the genuine. There 
 are about 200,000 lbs. of the pure jalap annually ex- 
 ported from Vera Cruz on the Gulf of Mexico, the 
 sea-port of Jalapa. 
 
 Jalapa, or Xalapa, a town of Mexico, capital of 
 a eognominal department, in the State of Vera Cruz. 
 It is situated on a small plain at the foot of a range of 
 hills 55 miles north-west of the toivn of Vera Cruz, and 
 about 4500 feet above the sea level. On account of its 
 exhilarating climate it is a favorite resort of the in- 
 habitants of Vera Cruz when the vomito prieto is prev- 
 alent there. The only buUding of importance is an 
 old church, which is believed by the people to have 
 been founded by Cortez. Cotton is manufactured, but 
 its trade has greatly diminished. In the neighborhood 
 grows the creeping-plant, Exogonium purga, or, as it is 
 called from this town. Jalap. The population of the 
 department is estimated at 45,000, and the town at 
 16,000 persons. 
 
 Jamaica, an island lying off the Bay of Honduras, 
 between the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico, within 
 N. lat. 17° 40' and 18° 30', and W. long. 76° 10' and 
 78° 30', about 4000 miles S.W. of England, 80 S. of 
 Cuba, 90 W. of St. Domingo, and 515 miles N. of 
 Chagres, the Atlantic port of the Isthmus of Panama. 
 It is the most southern of that group, which is called 
 by some the Greater Antilles, by others the Leeward 
 Islands. The latter name, however, is now generally 
 applied to the smaller islands on the north-east, and 
 sometimes to those on the south of the Caribbean Sea. 
 It is the largest, and was formerly the most valuable 
 of the British West Indies, being 140 geographical 
 miles in length, by 50 in extreme breadth, and con- 
 
 taining about 4,080,000 acres, or 6400 square miles 
 Within its government are comprised, besides the 
 three small islands called the Caymanas, Belize, or 
 British Honduras, on the main land of Central Amer- 
 ica, with Ruatan and other islands in the Bay of Hon- 
 duras. These places, though distant respectively 600 
 and 460 miles, have been called the dependencies of 
 Jamaica, and are ruled by superintendents appointed 
 by the governor. The title qf Britain was disputed 
 by Spain in the early part of the last century, and the 
 Bay Islands were given up to that power by the treaty 
 of London in 1786, but were re-occupied by the British 
 during the subsequent war. Having, with the Mos- 
 quito Territory, formed the subject of dispute between 
 Great Britain and the United States, arising out of the 
 Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, they have (1856) been consti- 
 tuted as free territory under the republic of Honduras, 
 with provisos against alienation, the erection of forts, 
 and the introduction of slavery. 
 
 Jamaica was discovered by Columbus on the 3d of 
 May, 1494, while coasting along the south of Cuba, 
 during his second voyage. He called it St. Jago, after 
 the patron saint of Spain, but it is now generally 
 known by its Indian name Jamaica, a word signifying 
 the Isle of Springs, according to the best authorities, 
 though Long derives it from a kind of fruit. It is 
 sometimes written Xaymaca by the Spaniards. On ap- 
 proaching the shore, Columbus called the nearest land 
 after his first ship, Santa Maria, a name still preserved 
 in Port Maria. He effected a landing a little to the 
 westward, at Ora Cabessa, where, after a slight oppo- 
 sition from the natives, he took possession of the coun- 
 try, with the usual formalities, for the king of Spain. 
 The inhabitants were the same mild, inoffensive race 
 as those of Cuba and Hayti. Like the Arowaks of 
 Trinidad and Guiana, they were probably off'shoots of 
 the great Mexican stock, and very different from the 
 fierce Caribs of the Windward Islands. After a short 
 stay, Columbus quitted Jamaica, which remained un- 
 disturbed for nine years. In June, 1503, on his fourth 
 and last voyage, he was driven by a tempest, in which 
 he lost two ships, to a bay on the north side of the isl- 
 and, which he named Sta. Gloria (now St. Ann's Bay), 
 where he ran his remaining vessels ashore in a small 
 inlet still called Don Christopher's Cove. The ship- 
 wrecked mariners were received with the greatest 
 kindness by the Indians, and here Columbus remained 
 upward of a year awaiting the return of messengers he 
 had dispatched to Ovando, governor of Hispaniola, as 
 Cuba was then called. During this time he suffered 
 much from disease, as well as from the mutiny of his 
 followers, whose gross misconduct alienated the In- 
 dians, and provoked them to withhold their accus- 
 tomed supplies, until he dexterously worked upon their 
 superstition by prognosticating an eclipse. 
 
 By Esquivel the natives were treated, according to 
 Herrera, with unusual humanity. That his successors 
 did not imitate him in this respect is proved by the 
 astounding fact that of the Indian population, at this 
 time estimated at from 60,000 to 100,000 souls, not a 
 descendant of either sex existed in 1655, when the 
 island fell into the hands of the English, nor, is it 
 supposed, for nearly a century before. After a short 
 sway, Esquivel died in Sevilla d'Oro, a town founded 
 by himself on St. Ann's Bay, which is supposed by 
 some to have been deserted on account of the ravages 
 of ants, by others to have been destroyed during an 
 insurrection of the Indians. Its premature fall was, 
 however, most probably owing to the attacks of French 
 flibustiers, or pirates, who for a long period infested 
 these coasts. The site of the town may still be traced 
 by moimds of earth, as well as in the names of certain 
 fields belonging to the Seville sugar plantation. Mel- 
 illa, near Port Maria, or, according to another opinion, 
 at Martha Brae, near Falmoth, shared the same fate. 
 
 About the year 1523, Diego Columbus, visiting 
 Jamaica from Hispaniola, founded on the River Cobre, 
 
JAM 
 
 1121 
 
 JAM 
 
 inland to the Bouth of the mountain range, St. Jago de 
 la Vega, St. James of the Plain, which gave the title 
 of marquis to his descendants, and is still the official 
 capital, under the name of Spanish Town. At some 
 distance westward, on the coast, was built Oristan, 
 which is now called Bluefields.' Down to 1596 the 
 historj- of Jamaica is onlj- a record of the rapid disap- 
 pearance of the Indians, under the Spanish yoke, and 
 of intrigues at the court of Spain, having for their ob- 
 ject the dispossession of the descendants of Columbus, 
 whose rights were, however, successfully defended, 
 and eventually centred in an heiress, through whom 
 they passed by marriage to the house of Braganza, 
 reverting afterward to the Spanish crown, in conse- 
 quence of the revolution of 1640, which placed John, 
 duke of Braganza, on the throne of Portugal. Long 
 anterior to this last event, the union of the crowns of 
 Spain and Portugal, under Philip, II., in 1580, occa- 
 sioned an influx of Portuguese colonists into Jamaica, 
 who contributed much to its strength and prosperity, 
 but were usually on indifferent terms with Spanish 
 settlers. Attention had at an early period been paid 
 to agriculture, the cotton-plant was extensively culti- 
 vated, and the sugar-cane, vine, and various kinds of 
 corn and grass had been introduced ; and whereas a 
 small species of dog, called the alco, was the only do- 
 mestic quadruped known to the aborigines, horses, 
 horned cattle, and swine had been imported from His- 
 paniola, which multiplied amazingly, and a flourishing 
 trade sprang up in lard and hides, as well as tobacco, 
 sugar, and ginger. 
 
 The population, according to the return of 1855, 
 consists of 181,633 males, and 195,800 females ; but 
 this is based upon the last census, that of 1844, when 
 the population was returned at 380,000, of whom 16,000 
 were white, 68,000 colored, and the rest black, of whom 
 about 1200 were maroons. Since then upward of 40,000 
 people have died from cholera and small-pox, and about 
 2000 have emigrated to Navj' Bay to work on the rail- 
 way over the Isthmus of Panama, a portion of whom 
 only have returned. The careless treatment of chil- 
 dren by the negroes, and their almost invincible re- 
 pugnance to pay doctors' fees, which has necessarily 
 reduced the number of medical practitioners, prevent 
 the natural rate of increase ; and the waste of public 
 money during the protracted dispute between the 
 Council and House of Assembly, has caused the num- 
 ber of immigrants imported to fall very short of other 
 colonies. We find, in consequence, that while 49,000 
 arrived in British Guiana between the j'ears 1840 and 
 1852 only 14,000 were brought to Jamaica. The fol- 
 lowing returns have been made by the Emigration 
 Commissioners of Immigrants introduced into Jamaica 
 from 1848 to 1855, both inclusive : 
 
 Emanclpadoes fVom Havana 276 
 
 SieiTa Leone 1,870 
 
 St. Helena. 2,198 
 
 Madeira 879 
 
 China. 472 
 
 Total 6,195 
 
 Besides which there were still in the island 1684 coolies 
 who had arrived before 1847, and a considerable num- 
 ber of recaptured Africans. The criminal returns of 
 this population are remarkably favorable ; the num- 
 ber in prison throughout the island on the 31st De- 
 cember, 1855, was only 583; and Sir H. Barkly 
 reports that the numbers convicted of crimes in 
 Jamaica when compared with British Guiana were as 
 18 to 33. 
 
 The revenue of Jamaica was estimated, in a calcu- 
 lation made in 1830, on an average of ten years, at 
 £490,000 currency, or about £327,000 sterling. This 
 was independent of that raised by the vestries for 
 parochial purposes, which amounted to about £300,000 
 currency, or £200,000 sterling. The public revenue 
 of 1841 was £226,959, 18s. 3d. ; the parochial, £177,- 
 491, 12s. lOd. sterling. The public expenditure, i291,- 
 4B 
 
 415, 16s. Od. ; the parochial, £150,357, 16s. 8d. In the 
 year 1854, owing to the suspension of the import and 
 rum duties, and consequent large accumulation of tax- 
 able articles which had paid nothing to the treasury, 
 the revenue fell to £96,624 sterling, while the expen- 
 diture was £197,633. In 1855 the following return was 
 made: Income. — Ordinary "revenue, £199,647; casual 
 revenue, £26,771; total, £226,419. Expenditures.- - 
 Ordinary expenditure, £193,461 ; casual expenditure, 
 £49,643 ; total, £243,105. In the same year the local 
 or parochial taxes amounted to about £80,000. In the 
 budget for 1856, the following estimates of the rev- 
 enue and expenditure for the current year were pre- 
 sented to the Jamaica Legislature : 
 Income. 
 
 Import dues £126,000 
 
 Eum duties 80,000 
 
 Stamps 11,000 
 
 Tonnage dues 11,000 
 
 Fees 1,000 
 
 Stock and hereditaments 16,000 
 
 House tax (disallowed) 6,000 
 
 Land tax 6,000 
 
 Interest on guaranteed loan in Colonial B'k 1,000 
 
 Total income £206,000 
 
 EXPENDITTTBK. 
 
 Collection of revenue £20,105 
 
 Parochial items transferred 14,058 
 
 Church establishment .'. 29,898 
 
 Administration of justice 20,292 
 
 Police 23,455 
 
 Governor and Privy Council 4.450 
 
 Legislative Council 2,064 
 
 House of Assembly 8,845 
 
 Executive committee 3,320 
 
 Sanitavy establishment 10,120 
 
 Education (disallowed) 6,000 
 
 Printing. 4,000 
 
 Public works 8,500 
 
 Light-housos 1,000 
 
 Prisons 1T,700 
 
 Insolvent deposits 2,000 
 
 Interest on loans 88,411 
 
 Miscellaneous, including £300 for militia, 
 
 £800 to geologist. 8,546 
 
 Total expenditure £206,765 
 
 By an act of the Assembly in 1854, the Council fund 
 of £6000 a year, originally granted in 1728, ceased, and 
 it was provided that £25,000 should be raised annually 
 as a permanent civil list, for the purposes of the gov- 
 ernment of, the island, and a further sum of £30,000 
 for the interest on, and repayment of the guaranteed 
 debt. 
 
 It is difficult te fix the value of the movable and 
 immovable property in Jamaica, once estimated at 
 £50,000,000. The latter, however, that is, the land 
 with the buildings on it, is periodically valued for tax- 
 ation, and the hereditament tax is raised upon a sum 
 equal to 6 per cent, on such valuation — ^that being, ac- 
 cording to an arbitrary assumption, the nett revenue 
 of the land. Though the tax is paid upon many prop- 
 erties on which the cultivation has been given up, and 
 which produce no revenue at all, this sum was fixed in 
 1860 at £693,382, 48. 3d., on an estimated value of 
 about £11,500,000. Since then the decline has been 
 rapid ; and when it is remembered that the fall in rata- 
 ble property in the next year exceeded £2,000,000, 
 there can be little doubt that the difference in value 
 since the prosperous days of Jamaica amounts to at 
 least 80 per cent. For many once valuable estates no 
 purchaser could now be found on any terms. It is on 
 record that 231 sugar estates have been abandoned, 
 besides 243 coffee plantations, and 132 grass pens. It 
 is notorious that the paper circulation, which amount- 
 ed to £258,816 in 1844, has dwindled to £70,000 in 
 1865. It is clear, therefore, that though the public 
 and parochial taxation has been reduced from about 
 £800,000 currency to less than £300,000 sterling, it is 
 much more burdensome to the tax payer now. Indeed, 
 when it is considered that the value of articles ex- 
 ported, expensive as they are to produce, does not 
 reach £1,000,000, it is evident that the estates in the 
 
JAM 
 
 1122 
 
 JAM 
 
 aggregate 3-ield no rental at all, but are maintained by- 
 non-resident proprietors possessed of other means, who 
 are unwilling to abandon the hope of future improve- 
 ment. Even supposing the whole money expended in/ 
 raising these articles of export amounted to little more 
 than double the public revenue of the countiy, a pro- 
 portion, highly taxed as the island is admitted to be, 
 quite beyond belief, it would follow that after pay- 
 ment of production, expenses, and taxes, little or no 
 surplus would remain for the proprietor ; but such ex- 
 penses must in reality far exceed £600,000, and can 
 only be provided, as before observed, by those propri- 
 etors who have other funds at their disposal. 
 
 It is necessary to explain the two forms of calcula- 
 tion to which reference has been made — currenc}'' and 
 sterling. The former was an arbitrarj'- mode of reck- 
 oning, unrepresented by anj' coinage, employed until 
 the year 1840, by which £140 currency equalled nom- 
 inally £100 sterling ; but a premium of about 18 per 
 cent, was paid in addition to place this sum in En- 
 gland, so that upward of £166 in Jamaica were needed 
 t9 pay £100 in England. In 1840 an act passed es- 
 tablishing the English computation, fixing the pound 
 sterling at $5, or £1, 13s. 4d. currency, and making 
 English money the legal tender. Spanish and Portu- 
 guese coins are still current, the highest being the 
 doubloon, or ounce, worth about £3, 6s. 8d. Before 
 this date, a "fivepenny," worth 3d, sterling, was the 
 lowest coin. There is still no copper, and the lowest 
 coin is the silver three-halfpence, coined especially for 
 Jamaica, and called a praedial, as intended for the pay- 
 ment of agricultural laborers. In former days, the 
 only paper currency consisted of island checks issued 
 bj' the treasurj'. There are now two banks of issue, a 
 branch of the Colonial Bank, and the Bank of Jamaica, 
 A third, the Planters' Bank, has been given up since 
 the trade of the colony declined. The present issue is 
 usually from £70,000 to £80.000. Savings banks have 
 also been established in the island. 
 
 The commerce of Jamaica depends almost entirely 
 on its agriculture. It has gradually lost the greater 
 portion of the transit trade in consequence of the re- 
 volt, and subsequent disorganization of the Spanish 
 colonies on the mainland, the establishment of St. 
 Thomas as a free port, and thd rapidit}' of steam com- 
 munication between Europe and the American coast, 
 which diminished the advantages of an emporium in 
 the West Indies. Its agricultural prosperity has de- 
 clined in equal proportion, though, from diflFerent 
 causes, the value of its staple having been depreciated 
 by successive acts of the Imperial Government, where- 
 by the differential duties, under the protection of which 
 
 the scheme of emancipation was originally intended to 
 be carried out, were discontinued. In 1840 East India 
 sugar was admitted on equal terras into the British 
 market. Four j'ears afterward the same advantage 
 was conceded to foreign sugar, the produce of free 
 labor ; and in 1846 to slave-grown sugar. Protection 
 has also been removed from molasses, coffee, and 
 cocoa. Under these circumstances, the want of ade- 
 quate labor has prevented Jamaica competing with 
 those countries in which, from slavery and other 
 causes, there is a sufficient supply. 
 
 The following tables illustrate these observations : 
 
 Teara. Value of imporU. Value of exports. 
 
 1809 £4,063,897 £3,083,234 
 
 1810 4,808,381 2,808,579 
 
 1858 864,094 837,276 
 
 1854 403,520 932,316 
 
 The exports consist of her own products only, the 
 imports include those intended for re-exportation, as 
 well as those taken for home consumption, which ex- 
 plains wh}"-, in the flourishing era of the transit trade, 
 the balance should be apparently so much against 
 Jamaica. The exports, too, are entered at their value 
 in the place of growth, while to imports are added 
 charges for freight, etc. The small imports of 1854 
 were partly owing to the goods imported in anticipa- 
 tion the year before, when the duties were not levied. 
 The same cause accounts for the small quantity of 
 rum exported in 1853, and the excess of the two fol- 
 lowing years, enough for two years' home consumption 
 having been entered in the same year duty free. The 
 following table gives the trade and navigation report 
 for 1855 : 
 
 AERIVAI5 IN Jamaica in 1855. 
 
 From 
 
 No. of 
 aliipa. 
 
 Ton- 
 nage. 
 
 Men. 
 
 Value of imports. 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 United States.... 
 
 122 
 
 . 94 
 
 145 
 
 '127 
 
 48,029 
 18,T84 
 15,486 
 11,804 
 
 
 Brit. £494,019 15 6 
 For. 406,487 12 4 
 
 Foreign 
 
 
 483 
 
 84,062 
 
 4,322 
 
 £899,607 7 10 
 
 
 Departitees fbom Jamaica in 1855. 
 
 To 
 
 No. of 
 Bhipa. 
 
 Ton- 
 nage. 
 
 Men. 
 
 Value of exporta. 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 United States 
 
 Colonies 
 
 Foreign countries 
 Total 
 
 128 
 77 
 63 
 
 240 
 
 88,997 
 
 18,502 
 
 8,847 
 
 26,014 
 
 
 £1,003,825 9 6 
 
 of which 
 
 963,123 10 
 
 represented island 
 
 produce. 
 
 508 1 RR Sitit) 
 
 4,462 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 Of the ships in this list 40 were ships of war, 44 
 steamers, and 38 colliers. 
 
 Imports into Great Britain from Jamaica of the Principal Articles of Native Produce in 1S17 and 1855. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Sugar. 
 
 Rum. 
 
 Molaa- 
 Bea. 
 
 Coffee. 
 
 Cocoa. 
 
 Cotton. 
 
 Pimento. 
 
 Ginger. 
 
 Arrow- 
 root. 
 
 Logwood 
 4 fustic. 
 
 Maliog- 
 any. 
 
 Indigo. 
 
 w„°xV «™»y- 
 
 1817 
 1855 
 
 1,400,500 
 460,282 
 
 Galla. 
 
 2,706,969 
 2,109,291 
 
 Cwta. 
 95 
 
 •• 
 
 Lba. 
 
 14,668,,538 
 6,657,103 
 
 Cwls. 
 260 
 
 Lba. 
 1,021,674 
 
 280 
 
 Lbs. 
 1,627,612 
 
 7,666,580 
 
 Lb.. 
 840,373 
 
 799,796 
 
 Lba. 
 
 * 
 
 87,900 
 
 Tons, 
 11,819 
 
 11,644 
 
 T..na. 
 
 1,896 
 Feet. 
 147,929 
 
 Lbs. 
 82,011 
 
 Lba. 1 GalU. 
 
 81,586, 6,487 
 
 
 Dec. 
 950,218 
 
 Doc. 
 697,678 
 
 Doc. 
 95 
 
 Dec. 
 8,990,436 
 
 Dec. 
 260 
 
 Dec. 1 Inc. j Inc. 
 1,021,894 6,038,968 459,423 
 
 
 Doc. 
 
 2T5 
 
 
 Dec. 
 32,011 
 
 ....!.... 
 
 The largest sugar crop "was in 1805, which exceeded 
 150,000 hhds. ; that of 1855 did not reach 30,000 hhds. ; 
 that of 1856 had fallen to 20,000 hhds. The largest 
 coffee crop was in 1814, and .exceeded 34,000,000 lbs. 
 The great increase of pimento is unfortunately ac- 
 counted for by the rapid spread of the tree, which 
 grows wild in Jamaica, over lands formerlj' under culti- 
 vation. Since 1852 a small quantity of copper ore has 
 been exported, amounting in 1854 to 37 tons. Besides 
 these principal articles, there is exported a small 
 quantity of tamarinds, cocoa-nuts, succades, shrub, 
 ebony, lignum vitae, and lancewood. There are five 
 mining companies in Jamaica, all in their infancy — 
 the Clarendon Consols, and Wheal Jamaica, in Claren- 
 don J the Port-Eoyal and St. Andrews, and the EUers- 
 
 lie and Bardowie, in St. Andrew ; the Portland Min- 
 ing Company in Portland. Of these the first two are 
 at present the most promising. The principal imports 
 into Jamaica are salt pork and beef, salt fish and oil, 
 butter, lard, cheese, com, corn-meal, oatmeal, flour, 
 biscuits, rice, tobacco, wine and beer ; hardware, cut- 
 lery and ironmongery ; ready-made clothes, boots and 
 shoes, and dry goods of all sorts ; soap, candles sad- 
 dlerj', and harness ; shingles, lumber, wood-hoops, 
 and coals. 
 
 Imports into the Islajid of Jamaica from the United 
 States in 1854.— Flour, 13,823 barrels; candles, 7941 
 boxes ; butter, 2378 kegs ; lard, 2577 kegs ; pork, 1433 
 barrels ; hams, 20 barrels, 15 casks, 11 tierces ; cheese, 
 108 boxes ; meal, 2614 barrels ; corn, 2191 bags ; 
 
JAM 
 
 1123 
 
 JAM 
 
 bread, 977 barrels ; beef, 241 barrels ; coals, 3301 tons j 
 lumber, 33,186 feet ; rice, 1542 bags. Approximate 
 value, $499,515. 
 
 American vessels engaged in trade with Jamaica in 
 1852, 194 ; ill 1858, 164 ; from all European ports, in 
 1852, 119 i in 1853, 155. 
 
 The commercial resources of this island may be 
 seen from the following tables of exports for three 
 years, 1850-1862 : 
 
 185-i. 
 
 Sugar. hhtls. 
 
 Bam puncheons 
 
 Molasses casks 
 
 Ginger lbs. 
 
 Pimento 
 
 Coffee 
 
 15,691 
 
 9 
 
 799;000 
 
 4,059,000 
 
 127,000 
 
 40,298 
 
 18,49^ 
 
 40 
 
 1,176,000 
 
 4,489,000 
 
 5.595,000 
 
 84,414 
 
 15,660 
 
 11 
 
 994,000 
 
 6,488,000 
 
 7,127,000 
 
 Port Hegulations. — On every vessel entering Ja- 
 maica, there is levied under the customs-tonnage act, 
 a port duty of 24 cents' per ton. Light-house duty, 6 
 cents per ton. Hospital tax — vessels from out of the 
 tropics, 8 cents per ton ; from within the tropios, 4 
 cents per ton. Health officer's fees — on a ship or bark, 
 $2 88 ; on a brig or brigantine, $2 16 ; on a schooner 
 or sloop, $1 44. Harbor dues — ship or bark, $7 68 ; 
 brig or brigantine, $5 76 ; schooner or sloop, $3 84. 
 Jamaica embraces an area of 5520 square miles, and 
 contains a population of about 86,000 whites, and 
 ■ 312,000 free blacks. Total population, 348,000. 
 
 Pilot dues in the ports of Kingston and Port Royal. — 
 In — 350 tons and over, $23 04 ; 250 tons and over, 
 $17 28 ; 150 tons and over, $14 40 ; 100 tons and over, 
 $11 52 ; 100 tons, $5 04. 
 
 Out — 350 tons and'over, $15 36 ; 250 tons and over, 
 $13 44 J 200 tons and over, $11 52 ; 150 tons and over, 
 $9 60 ; 100 tons and over, $7 68 ; 100 tons, $6 72. 
 These charges are reduced when tlie vessel enters or 
 clears from Port Eoyal only. 
 
 There is a steam communication between England 
 and Jamaica, and vice versa, twice a month, in 19 days. 
 The Eoyal Mail Steam-packet Company's ships leave 
 Southampton on the 2d and 17th of each month, call- 
 ing at St. Thomas, Porto Rico, and Jacmel, in Hayti, 
 and reach Kingston on the 21st and 6th. They leave 
 again for England on the 27th and 12th, making the 
 course of post about 44 days. They also sail once a 
 month between Jamaica and Honduras ; course of 
 post 10 days. There are frequent opportunities be- 
 tween Jamaica and Havana, and the United States. 
 In the island there is a post twice a day between King- 
 ston and Spanish Town, and a communication twice a 
 week between these capitals and the country districts ; 
 besides expresses, on the arrival and departure of the 
 mail pacl^ets. Jamaica being on the direct route from 
 England to Nicaragua, can scarcely fail to share in the 
 growing importance of the States of Central America. 
 
 Emancipation. — Hitherto its history, since emanci- 
 pation, has been discouraging to the friends of liberty. 
 The negro on whom the cultivation of the island de- 
 pends, has gradually retired from labor, and retro- 
 graded in the social scale. This does not arise from 
 any hostile feeling toward the whites, with whom he 
 usually lives on the most amicable terms ; it is the 
 natural result of removing all restraint from a people 
 low in civilization, and consequently with few artificial 
 wants, in a country where land is superabundant. 
 The Jamaica negro can earn enough on a sugar planta- 
 tion in a few weeks to buy a small patch of freehold 
 land. The wood upon it forms his cottage ; the vege- 
 tables which grow almost spontaneously support him 
 in tolerable comfort. When his little property does 
 not require his care, he worlts from time to time for 
 hire ; but as plantation after plantation is abandoned, 
 and the country returns to its primeval forest, he is 
 confined more and more to the society of his own race ; 
 and though not more addicted to crime, is rapidly re- 
 ceding into a savage state. During slavery the dis- 
 senting ministers possessed great influence over Mm ; 
 
 he now prefers the established church, because it costs 
 him nothing, but he cares little for either. Not feeling 
 the want of education, he does not seek it for his 
 children, whom he prefers employing in his own ser- 
 vice. Hence, neither churches nor schopls are wanted 
 in Jamaica, but congregations and scholars. These 
 observations are confirmed bj- the last returns, which 
 fix the diminution of children in the schools in 1854, 
 as compared with the previous year, at 2000, and show 
 this decrease to be less conspicuous in those belonging 
 to the established church of England and Scotland, 
 than in those of the Baptists and Independents. We 
 can scarcely blame the negro for following the bent of 
 his inclination ; but it is evident that under these cir- 
 cumstances, unless there is a large and immediate 
 suppty of immigrants, to meet the expense of whose 
 introduction, averaging at least £W per head, there 
 are no available, funds, all society will come to a 
 speedy end, and the island become a second HaytL 
 Already the enormous depreciation of property has 
 caused the ruin of so many, that the name of Jamaica 
 proprietor, once used proverbially to indicate wealth, 
 is now associated with poverty and distress. 
 
 Jamaica is of a long oval shape, and has been com- 
 pared to a seal with the head pointed to the west. Its 
 surface is beautifully diversified with hills and valleys. 
 An elevated range, called, in the eastern or highest 
 part, the Blue Mountains, and terminating in Dolphin 
 Head, to the west, runs longitudinally through the isl- 
 and, and other high ridges insersect this chain. On 
 the south the mountains are generally steep, with 
 gigantic spines or buttresses rising from the plain at 
 an average distance of 12 miles from the sea. Though 
 difficult of access they are traversed by bridle-roads in 
 various directions to the height of nearly 6000 feet ; 
 and several passes, or gaps, as thej' are called, of great 
 altitude, connect the two sides of the island. On 
 these elevated ranges the coffee attains the greatest 
 perfection, and above, dense forests ascend to the 
 highest peak, composed chiefly of beef-wood, as it is 
 called from its color, and satin-wood. Under their 
 shade the tree-fern grows to the height of 15 feet, and 
 the flute-like note is heard of the solitaire, a bird only 
 found in these wildernesses. On the north side the 
 mountains approach the sea closely, but more gradu- 
 allj', their conical forms are gently rounded, and in St. 
 Ann and Trelawnj- the lower slopes are shaded by 
 pimento woods, the indigenous growth of the island, and 
 elsewhere by orange groves, mango, and cedar forests, 
 ^bove- which frequently towers the gigantic silk-cot- 
 ton tree. The shady valleys between were once occu- 
 pied by cacao walks, now destroyed ; and on the low;- 
 lands, near the sea, were formerly the indigo-works, 
 long since abandoned. Here are now the sugar estates, 
 in which the dark green of the cane is varied by the 
 golden tint of the guinea grass, and the cabbage and 
 cocoa-nut palms shoot up in long lines close to the 
 water's edge, from which they are separated by a 
 fringe of mangroves, growing below high-water mark, 
 and the beautiful but poisonous 'manchineel. The 
 waving field of canes is broken at intervals by the 
 white cluster of buildings composing the sugar-works. 
 The mill, the boiling-house, with its tall chimneys, 
 and the stables, stores, and bookkeepers' houses sur- 
 round a large court-j'ard. Above, on an eminence, is 
 usually the proprietor's mansion, and close by, though 
 completely buried in the broad foliage of the plantain 
 and banana, the negro village. On these plantations 
 during crop the scene is most animated. Bands of 
 negroes, with cutlasses, attack the rows of canes which 
 tower above their heads ; wagons, drawn by oxen or 
 mules, in endless succession, carry the canes to the 
 mill ; women and children hurrj' with the dry stalks 
 to feed the fires ; and the shouts, without which a 
 negro seldom does any thing, announce afar ofl', in this 
 clear atmosphere, the neighborhood of a sugar estate. 
 It is here, too, that the traveler sees most clearly the 
 
JAM 
 
 1124 
 
 JAM 
 
 decline of the country. At each end of the island, in 
 the parishes of Hanover and Portland, he may journey 
 for miles through deserted plantations. Eidges, over-' 
 grown with guava bushes, mark the site of the corn 
 fields ; rank vegetation fills the court-yard, and even 
 bursts through the once hospitable roof. A curse 
 seems to have fallen upon the land, as if this genera- 
 tion were atoning for the sins of the past. For while 
 we lament the ruin of the present proprietors, we can 
 not forget the unrequited toil which in times gone by 
 created the wealth they have lost, nor that hapless 
 race, the original owners of the soil, whose fate sad- 
 dens the darkest page of history. 
 
 The sugar estates resemble generally those of the 
 other islands, but Jamaica has a feature peculiar to 
 itself. In the centre of the island, and toward the 
 south and west, are large plains, or table-lands, at an 
 elevation of about 1000 feet, covered with a luxuriant 
 growth of guinea grass, dotted with groves of tall 
 trees, and, at greater intervals, with white houses and 
 villages. From an eminence the whole country re- 
 sembles a series of English parks. These are the pens, 
 or grazing farms, where horses and cattle of most ex- 
 cellent quality are bred. They are chiefly in St. Ann, 
 Manchester, St. Elizabeth, St. James, and Hanover. 
 The climate, at this elevation, is well suited to a Eu- 
 ropean population, who can not work on the sugar 
 plantations, but may with safety be employed on the 
 light and healthy duties of the farm. From one of the 
 many points of view on the mountain range the coun- 
 try presents an aspect of beauty and grandeur scarcely 
 to be surpassed. Above tower the lofty peaks, with 
 clouds on their summits — around are magnificent for- 
 ests — beneath are the peculiar hollow basins, called 
 cock-pits — below them deep ravines, or wider valleys ; 
 through these flow rivers or mountain torrents, occa- 
 sionally falling from the rocky ledges in cascades 
 which would attract notice in any part of the world. 
 At a greater distance the wide plains are spread out 
 like a map, checkered with towns and villages ; and the 
 deeply indented coast, terminating to the east in lofty 
 clifl's, is washed bj' the glittering waters of the Carib- 
 bean Sea. The view of the island from the sea has 
 long been celebrated. Soon after leaving Caipe Tibu- 
 ron, the western point of Hayti, the Blue Mountains 
 are in sight, and along the south coast of Jamaica, 
 from Point Morant to Kingston, the inhabited plains, 
 sloping gradually up, till cultivation terminates in for- 
 est, present an aspect of no common beauty. From Fort 
 Nugent, which is conspicuous under a steep hill, to 
 Port Royal, runs a narrow sandy promontory, called 
 the Palisades. Here is the great cemetery where so 
 many victims to yellow fever lie buried that the name 
 has become proverbial ; and this neck of land incloses 
 the harbor of Kingston, which is entered bj- a most 
 intricate channel between Port Royal and Port Hen- 
 derson, and beyond which the capital is seen stretching 
 northward toward the amphitheatre of the Liguana 
 Hills, and protected by the loftiest range of the Blue 
 Mountains. The heights of the principal peaks have 
 been computed as follows : Blue Mountain Peak, 7770 
 feet; the Portland Gap ridge, 6501 feet; Portland 
 Gap, 5640 feet ; and St. Catherine's Peak, 4970 feet. 
 It is stated, however, by some authorities, that the 
 three highest peaks on the grand ridge of the Blue 
 Mountains, called Coldridge, have their respective 
 summits 8184, 7656, and 7576 feet above the level of 
 the sea.' 
 
 The soil is in most places deep and fertile, and for 
 the gro^vth of sugar, pimento, and ginger, and, as 
 some think, of coff"ee, has never been surpassed. On 
 the north there is a reddish yellow soil. The brick 
 mold, reckoned the best in the West Indies for the 
 cane, is a, deep warm hazel mold, easily labored, and 
 requiring little manure. The black shell mold owes 
 its fertility to the mineral salts and exuviae which it 
 contains. On the south side are large natural salt 
 
 ponds, which of late years have been neglected. The 
 principal soils in the interior are a red clay, a yellow- 
 ish clay, a red grit, a loose conchaceous mold, a black 
 mold.or clay or marl, a loose vegetable mold on rock, 
 a fine sand. The red sandstone of the lower mount- 
 ains resembles much the porphyrite conglomerate of 
 the higher, and both produce coff^ee; but while that 
 grown on the former has been driven out of the mar- 
 ket by the cheaply grown coffee of Ceylon, the latter 
 retains its value, being considered by many superior to 
 the Mocha which springs from a similar soil. Among 
 minerals are — argillaceous dark purple schist ; gneiss ; 
 steatite, and even serpentine ; sienites, highly mica- 
 ceous ; and the hard lamellated amianthus, resembling 
 petrified wood ; white freestone ; quartz of different 
 kinds ; limestone, and a kind of marble. Rich lead 
 ore, impregnated with silver is found in St. Andrew ; 
 radiated antimony and rich copper ores, abounding in 
 malachite, are found chiefly in Clarendon, Portland, 
 and St. George; magnetic iron and cobalt in St. 
 George and Metcalf; anthracite coal in Portland 
 and St. George ; but neither gold nor pure silver have 
 been found, though the Indians possessed ornaments 
 of both when discovered by the Spaniards. A species 
 of marl, common in Jamaica, was eaten by the negroes 
 during slavery, so much to the detriment of their 
 health and value that the practice was made penal. 
 The honeycomb limestone rock, of which a great ' 
 part of the island is composed, contains no minerals, 
 but is hollowed into innumerable caverns and fissHires. 
 Many of these are beautifully ornamented with stalac- 
 tites, particularly one on the Roaring River estate, 
 near Savafia la Mar. In some of these fissures called 
 " sinks," rivers suddenly disappear to rise again at a 
 considerable distance. On- the Sweet River estate 
 several springs rise like fountains with gi-eat force in 
 one field. On the road from Falmouth to Maroon 
 Town, a considerable stream pours from an opening in 
 the solid rock several feet above the groimd, and the 
 Rio Bueno streams at once from the foot of a perpen- 
 dicular rock in St. Ann. There are fewer traces of 
 fire in Jamaica than in the other islands.; but 'the 
 Burnt Hill, near Hope Bay, seem^ to be an extinct 
 volcano. There is great variety of climate ; the me- 
 dium heat at Kingston is about 80°, and the minimum 
 70° Fahrenheit, throughout the year. At an elevation 
 of from 4000 to 5000 feet, the average range Is from 
 55° to 66° ; the minimum in winter being 44°. On 
 the Blue Mountain Peak, in August, the writer found 
 the temperature 44° at sunrise, and ice of some thick- 
 ness has been formed there in March. Snow has never 
 been known to fall. The alternation of temperature 
 is from 8° to 10° on the south side, and more on the 
 north, but the transitions are not so sudden and detri- 
 mental as in many parts of the continent of North 
 America. The grand compensation for excess of tem- 
 perature is aff'orded by the breezes which regularly 
 every morning set in from the sea to the land, and 
 every evening from the land to the sea, to preserve 
 the equilibrium which the noonday sun has disturbed ; 
 when these are sometimes interrupted the heat is in- 
 tense, the thermometer rising to 100° Fahrenheit, and 
 the island becomes unhealthy. There is no striking 
 variety in the length of the day, or in the seasons, 
 except the alternations of wet and dry. Storms of 
 thunder and lightning are prevalent, and sometimes 
 very mischievous in autumn. The hurricane season 
 ranges from July to October. The periodical rains, 
 which last ordinarily for six weeks, are called the May 
 and October seasons, but there is great irregularity in 
 the time of their falling. The north side usually 
 suffers less from drought than the south, but even 
 there the rains are sometimes very capricious, follow- 
 ing the course of a river, or being stopped by a ridgo 
 of hills. The parishes of Vere and St. Dorothy, on 
 the south side, have sometimes been more than a year 
 without rain , to the destruction of vegetation and cattle. 
 
JAM 
 
 1125 
 
 JAM 
 
 Some parts of Jamaica, particularly near morasses, 
 are extremely unhealthy, and there few escape inter- 
 mittent fevers, or " fever and ague," as it is called ; 
 but in general tlie climate is favorable to those who 
 live carefully, though when the yellow fever comes as 
 an epidemic, which happens every seven or eight 
 years, it carries of? all alike. It is, however, rarely 
 known at an elevation of 1000 feet, and in some of the 
 hilly districts, especially the Santa Cruz Mountains 
 and Pedro Plains, there are remarkable instances of 
 longevity among the English settlers. The annual 
 mortality among the white troops for twenty years 
 ending 1837 was 130 in the 1000, or a seventh of the 
 entire force. Since they have been fed on fresh pro- 
 visions, and more especialy since they have been en- 
 camped on higt ground, this has been reduced to 34 
 per 1000. Of late years the cholera has made its ap- 
 pearance, and committed extraordinary havoc ; and 
 since emancipation, small pox has been more preva- 
 lent, on account of the negroes neglecting the vaccina- 
 tion of their children. The vegetable productions of 
 Jamaica are far too numerous to be described. There 
 are forest trees fit for everj' purpose, from ship-buUding 
 to cabinet-making, among which the ballata, rosewood, 
 satinwood, mahogany, lignum vites, lancewood, and 
 ebony, are conspicuous ; but the scarcity of labor 
 makes it cheaper to import planks ready sawn from 
 America, fhe logwood, the trunk of which resem- 
 bles the clustered columns of Gothic architecture, and 
 the fustic, are largely exported for dyeing. The 
 Jamaica cedar (Cedrela odoratd), with ash-like leaves, 
 is valuable for the interior of houses, as its scented 
 wood keeps off insects. The silk-cotton tree (fieiba 
 Bombax or Ertodendron) is one of the largest in Ja- 
 jnaica; its silky pods are used to stuff pillows, but, 
 from want of adhesion in the fibres, is useless for manu- 
 facture. The pimento is indigenous, and furnishes the 
 allspice. The bamboo, the coffee, the cacao or choco- 
 late tree, are well known productions ; the last, how- 
 ever, is disappearing, and the export has ceased. 
 Several species of palm abound, the macca, the fan 
 palm, and screw palm, but the noblest is the palmetto 
 royal {Areca oleracea), the green top of which is called 
 the mountain cabbage, and eaten as a vegetable. The 
 cocoa-nut is the most valuable of all this tribe. The 
 mango, which overspreads the island, forming a splen- 
 did forest tree, and affording food for man and beast, 
 was introduced by Rodney, who took it from a French 
 sMp ; the bread-fruit by the famous Bligh in 1793. 
 The papaw has the peculiar property of rendering 
 meat tender. The lace-bark tree, found near Maroon 
 Town, has an inner bark of so delicate a texture that 
 ladies' dresses have been made of it. The guava, 
 from which the delicious preserve is made, is a weed 
 of the country, and the fruit when raw scarcely eata- 
 ble. The palma christi, from which castor oil is made, 
 is tt very abundant annual. A new species of silk- 
 worm (the Bomhyx Cynthia), which feeds on its leaf, 
 has lately been introduced from India, by the Jamaica 
 Society of Arts, founded by Sir 0. Grey. The sun- 
 flower is sometimes cultivated for oil. A variety of the 
 Cactus Opuntia, on which the cochineal feeds, is com- 
 mon, and from which, as well as from the insect, 
 recent experiments have proved that a dye may be 
 obtained. English vegetables grow in the hills ; 
 while the plains produce the, plantain, cocoa, yam, 
 cassava, ochra, beans and peas of various sorts, gin- 
 ger, and arrowroot. Maize- and guinea com are gen- 
 erally cultivated, and the guinea grass, accidentally 
 introduced in 1750, has overspread the whole island, 
 and forms the most wholesome and strengthening food 
 for horses and cattle. The principal fruits are the 
 orange, the shaddock, the lime, the grape or cluster 
 fruit, the pineapple, noseberrj', granadilla, star-apple, 
 custard-apple, mammee sapota, mango, banana, grapes, 
 melons, the avocado pear, the bread-fruit, and tamarind, 
 though the last three would be more correctly ranked 
 
 among vegetables. There is a botanic garden near 
 Kingston, and a finer one at Bath, where many now 
 naturalized exotics were first planted. The sarsapa- 
 rilla is erroneously supposed to grow in Jamaica, 
 though it is classed in the customs' returns there 
 among the imports. It is brought from the Spanish 
 main, and re-exported by the Jamaica Jews, in whose 
 hands the trade is ; hence it is called Jamaica sarsapa.r 
 rilla. The sugar-cane was cultivated at an early pe- 
 riod in Jamaica by the Spaniards, and was so much 
 extended by the English that, in 1671, we read of 
 sugar works scattered over the whole island. There are 
 several varieties, the most valuable being the one 
 brought from Bourbon in 1799, which is of a bright 
 yellow ; and the Mont Blanc, of three sorts, white, 
 violet, and blue. Besides which is the ribbon-cane, 
 beautifully striped with various colors, which is coarse 
 and dry, but more hardy than the other sorts. The 
 statistics of the sugar and coffee cultivation have been 
 given elsewhere. There are many beautiful flowers in 
 the island, the most remarkable of which are the aloe, 
 the yucca, the datura, the mountain pride, the port- 
 landia ; the cactus and cereus tribe, the various kinds 
 of convolvulus and ipomoea, and two beautiful de- 
 scriptions of plumeria, called the tree jasmine. In- 
 numerable varieties of ferns grow in the mountains, 
 and orchids in the woods. The pastures are infested 
 by that interesting mimosa, the sensitive plant. It is 
 eaten by sheep, but is armed with minute thorns, 
 which make troublesome wounds in their feet. There 
 are many beautiful insects, among which the fire-flies 
 are most remarkable. Tliere are fourteen sorts of 
 LampyridcB or fire-flies, besides the Elatcridcs or lan- 
 tern beetles, which are larger and more luminous; 
 but neither in flowers nor insects is Jamaica so rich as 
 more southern islands. To compensate for this it has 
 no venomous serpents, though abounding in harmless 
 snakes and lizards. A large lizard, the iguana, is con- 
 sidered a delicacy, as are the land-crab and tortoise. 
 The scorpion and centipede are poisonous, but not 
 very common or dangerous. Ants, mosquitoes, and 
 sandflies swarm in the lowlands. Bees^ among which 
 is a stingless variety, are numerous in the woods, and 
 produce excellent honey. It is a popular error that in 
 the tropics flowers have no scent and birds no song. 
 The datura and orange are among many instances to 
 the contrary in the former case ; and as to the latter, 
 Goss enumerates some twenty different song birds in 
 Jamaica, among which may be mentioned the Jamaica 
 nightingale, a kind of mocking-bird (Menila Jamcd- 
 censis), and a species of humming-bird (Mettisvga 
 humilis). Parrots and pigeons are coinmon, and the 
 wild guinea fowl ; also a species of goatsucker, called 
 the mosquito hawk, and a great variety of water- 
 birds, among which is the pelican and a sort of alba- 
 tross. The crane, heron, plover, snipe, ortolan (or 
 rice-bird of Carolina), and quail, are migratory. The 
 aura vulture, or turkey buzzard, called the John 
 Crow, is numerous, and valuable as a scavenger. By 
 its instinct the concealed body of a murdered man 
 has more than once been traced in Jamaica. The sea 
 and rivers swarm with fish ; among the larger ones 
 are the shark, the nurse shark, the bonito, the sword 
 and saw-fish J besides the snapper, mullet, king-fish, 
 Spanish mackerel, the flying-fish, etc. The cachalot 
 is found. Turtles abound ; and the seal and manatee, 
 or river cow, are sometimes found, and the crocodile 
 (called erroneously alligator). Jamaica, when discov- 
 ered, contained but few species of animals. Besides 
 the alco, there was the utia or Indian cony, the musk 
 rat, the armadillo, monkey, agouti, peccary, opossum, 
 and raccoon. At present the only wild animals are the 
 wild hog (an African variety, introduced from the Ca/- 
 naiies), a kind of deer (the cariacou), goats, rats, and 
 mice. The rats commit serious ravages among the 
 canes, and those which feed'only in the cane-fields are 
 by some esteemed a delicacy. This species, called the 
 
JAM 
 
 1126 
 
 JAP 
 
 Charles Price rat, was introduced to destroy a smaller 
 kind; tut the remedj'- seems to hare proved worse 
 than the evil. The breed of oxen has been much im- 
 proved by Judicious crossing, and can scarcely be sur- 
 passed. The horses have much of the Arab blood. 
 Thej' are small but fleet, and at the island races have 
 often beaten English racers, particularly some taken 
 out by the Marquis of Normanbj^, when governor. 
 The Cleveland bay has lately been introduced from 
 England, with a view to size and bone. The mules 
 are large, hardj', and sagacious, and much used for 
 mountain-riding, as well as for carrying baggage and 
 working on the estates. The sheep and pigs are of 
 excellent quality, and the pork of Jamaica is consid- 
 ered much more wholesome than that of England, 
 being frequently recommended to invalids. Goats are 
 much reared by the negroes, but they are very mis- 
 chievous in sugar and coffee plantations. The Cuba 
 bloodhound is used as a watch-dog, being the species 
 which thrives best in a hot climate; the English 
 hound and terrier, which have frequently been intro- 
 duced, soon degenerate and die. Poultrj- succeeds 
 well, particularly the turkey, the Guinea fowl, and 
 Muscovy duck. 
 
 The principal publications relating to Jamaica are : 
 Long's nistory, 1774; Bryon Edwards' History, 
 1809, with an Appendix, 1819; Eenny's History, 
 1807 ; Mathison, 1811 ; Howard's Laws of Jamaica, 
 1827 ; Bbckfoed's History ; Dallas' Maroon War ; 
 Stewart's Jamaica; Monk Lewis' Tour; Mad- 
 den's JomajOT; Montgomery Martin, 1836; Phi-, 
 Lippo's Past and Present State of Jamaica, 1843. The 
 earlier histories are scarcely applicable to the present 
 day, while man)' of the later publications are mere 
 vehicles for conveying the authors' views for or 
 against slavery. By far the best and most reliable 
 information is contained in the dispatches of suc- 
 cessive governors, published in the Parliamentary 
 Blue Books ; many of which, and particularly those 
 of Sir Charles Grey, contain admirable expositions of 
 the state of the country, and causes of its decline. 
 The natural history of Jamaica has also been the 
 theme of many writers— Sloane, in 1692; Brown, 
 1754 ; Barham, 1794 ; Lunah, 1814. These authors 
 have a most able and enthusiastic successor in Gosse, 
 whose Journal of a Naturalist in Jamaica, 1851, and 
 Birds of Jamaica, 1847, are delightful books. For 
 vivid pictures of scenery and life in Jamaica, Tom 
 Cringle's Imq, and The Cruise of Ike Midge, by 
 Michael Scott, a Kingston merchant, are unri- 
 valed. 
 
 The Caymanas, or Cayman Isles, are three small 
 coral islands or keys, in N. lat. 19° to 19° 20', and 30 
 to 40 leagues west north-v/est from Point Negril, Ja- 
 maica, and about the same distance south of Cuba. 
 Grand Cayman lies off the centre of the Yucatan 
 Passage ; Cayman-Braque or Brae, and Little Cay- 
 man, are near each other, and about 34 miles north- 
 east from Grand Cayman. They were discovered by 
 Columbus, but no settlement was ever made by the 
 Spaniards. Grand Cayman, the only one occupied, is 
 about o, mile and a half long by a mile broad, and 
 contains about 1000 acres. It is very low, entirely 
 without springs, and overgrown with low stunted 
 shrubs. These islands are favorite breeding-places for 
 turtles, immense shoals of which animals frequent the 
 low sandy shore for the purpose of depositing their 
 eggs. 
 
 James, Capt. Thomas. This English navigator 
 was employed by a company of merchants of Bristol, 
 in connection with one Luke Fox, in 1631, on a voy- 
 age of exploration for the discovery of a north-west 
 passage. Sir Thomas Eoe presented him to Charles 
 I., who greatlj' encouraged the enterprise. He sailed 
 from the port of Bristol on 3d May, and wintered on 
 an island in Hudson's Bay, in latitude about 52°, 
 from whence he proceeided northward as far as 65J°, 
 
 when his further progress was prevented by the great 
 accumulation of ice, and he returned to England, 
 where he arrived 22d October, 1632. During the en- 
 suing year, he published his " Strange and Dangerous 
 Voyage for the Discover)- of a North-west Passage to 
 the South Sea." He made some discoveries on the 
 coast of Hudson's Bay, to the western side of which 
 country he gave the name of New Wales, in honor of 
 the prince, afterward Charles II. His journal con- 
 tains much curious and interesting matter connected 
 with the sufferrings of himself and his companions 
 during their sojourn on the Isle of Charlton. 
 
 Japan. The empire of Japan consists of a chain 
 of islands lying off the eastern coast of continental 
 Asia, and extending south-east and north-west between 
 north lat. 31° and 48°, and east long. 129° and 150°. 
 Inclosed between this chain of islands and the oppo- 
 site coasts of Corea and Manchu Tartary, is the Sea of 
 Japan, which communicates by means of straits with 
 the Chinese Sea on the south, the Pacific Ocean on the 
 east, and the Sea of Okhotsk on the north. To the 
 east, Japan has no nearer land than California, 5000 
 miles off ; the nearest part of China is about 420 miles, 
 and of Kamschatka 270 miles distant. The term Ja- 
 pan is probably a corruption of the Chinese name, 
 Ji-pun-quo — i. e.. Kingdom of the Source of the Sun, 
 or Eastern Kingdom. Marco Polo, who was the first 
 to bring intelligence of this country to Europe, and 
 who acquired his information in China, calls it Zi- 
 pangu. The Japanese name is Nipon, or Nifon — i. e.. 
 Sun-source. 
 
 The empire is divided into Japan proper — consisting 
 of the three large islands of Nipon, Kiu-siu, and Sitkokf, 
 and the numerous small islands. Nipon, the largest 
 and most important of the group, and that which 
 gives name to the whole empire, has an estimated area 
 of 100,000 square miles ; its length being more than 
 900 miles, while its average breadth exceeds 100. It 
 is thus about one fifth larger than Great Britain. Its 
 form is that of a curve or crescent, with the concave 
 side toward the main land. South of Nipon, and sep- 
 arated from it bj' a narrow channel, is the island of 
 Kiu-siu, or Ximo, about 200 miles in length and about 
 80 in average breadth, thus containing an area of 
 about 16,000 square miles. Lying north-east of Kiu- 
 siu, and eastward of the southern extremity of Nipon, 
 is the island of Sitkokf, or Sikoko, about 150 miles in 
 length by 70 in average breadth. It is separated from 
 Nipon by a long strait in some parts not more than a 
 mile in width ; and from Kiu-siu by Bungo Channel, 
 which is about 30 miles broad. North of Nipon, and 
 separated from it by the Sangar Straits, is the large 
 Island of Yesso, a conquest and colony of the empire. 
 Its form is that of an irregular triangle, and its area is 
 computed at 30,000 square miles. The southern por- 
 tion of the island of Krafto, or Sagalien, which is sep- 
 arated from Yesso by the Strait of Perouse, and the 
 three southernmost of the Kurile Islands — Kunashir, 
 Iturup, and Ourop — belong to Japan. 
 
 The small islands which surround these are gener- 
 ally rocky and barren, but occasionally rich and fruit- 
 ful. The entire number of islands composing the 
 empire of Japan is estimated at above 1000, and the 
 area of the whole empire at not less than 170,000 
 square miles. The coasts are difficult of access, not 
 only from the multitude of rocks and islets which be- 
 set the passages, but also from the severe gales which, 
 more than any other part of the ocean, agitate these 
 narrow seas. Several dangerous whirlpools also occur 
 among the rocks. Kiempfer remarl^, that nature 
 seems to have designed these islands to be a sort of 
 little world, secluded and independent from the rest, 
 as well by rendering it dangerous to approach their 
 shores, as by endowing them plentifully with every 
 thing necessary for luxurj' and comfort, and thus en- 
 abling them to subsist without any commerce with 
 other nations. The Japanese policy, which rigidly 
 
JAP 
 
 1127 
 
 JAP 
 
 forbids all intercourse with strangers, in other circum- 
 stances Impracticable, has been greatly facilitated by 
 the interposition of these natural barriers. 
 
 Climate. — The climate of Japan must vary consider- 
 ably between its northern and southern extremities ; 
 but, except at a few points, we possess very little in- 
 formation on the subject. In the southern part of the 
 empire, it is said in many respects to resemble that of 
 England. At Nagasaki, in the island of Kiu-siu, lat. 
 33°, the average temperature in the month of January 
 was 35°, and in August 98° of Fahr. At this point 
 the weather is very changeable. Eain is frequent at 
 all seasons of the year, but especiallj' in the months 
 of July and August. In December and Januai-y the 
 ground is covered with hoar frost, and occasionally 
 with snow, except in very mild winters. In summer 
 the land is cooled by the sea-breeze, which blows from 
 the south during the day, and from the east at night. 
 At Simoda, on the island of Nipon, in north lat. 34° 
 39' 49", east long. 138° 57' 50", we learn, from the 
 account of the American expedition (1852-54), that 
 " the climate is more or less variable in the winter and 
 spring. The presence of snow upon the lofty peaks, 
 although there is seldom frost or snow at Simoda it- 
 self, and the not unfrequent rains, with the ever ne- 
 cessary fogs, give an occasional humidity and rareness 
 to the atmosphere, which are chilling to the senses, 
 and must be productive of occasional inSammatory dis- 
 eases, such as are frequent in the spring and winter 
 with us. The change of wind alternates often between 
 the warm sea-breezes from the south, and the cold 
 blasts from the snow-capped mountains inland, and 
 produces the usual effects, doubtless, of such varia- 
 tions. In summer it is occasionally very hot in the day- 
 time, but the nights are refreshed by the sea-breezes. 
 From April 19 to May 13, a record of the ther- 
 mometer gives 72° as the highest, and 58° as the 
 lowest point ; and of the barometer, 29° 38' and 30°. 
 As the season advances the mercury rises, no doubt, 
 much higher, reaching probably 85° of Fahr., or 
 more." Golownin, a Russian naval officer, who was 
 for two years a prisoner at Hakodadi in Yesso (north 
 lat. 41° 49', east long. 140° 47'), describes its climate 
 as follows : — " The ponds and lakes freeze, snow lies 
 in the valleys and plains from November till April, and 
 falls in as great abundance as at St. Petersburg. Se- 
 vere frosts are indeed uncommon, yet the temperature 
 is often two degrees below the freezing point. In sum- 
 mer the rain pours in torrents at least twice a week, 
 the horizon is obscured by dark cloudsj violent winds 
 blow, and the fog is scarcely ever dispersed. Apples, 
 pears, and peaches hardly attain ripeness, and the or- 
 ange and lemon will not bear fruit." Of the cli- 
 mate of the still more northern part of the empire we 
 have no precise account ; but the same writer Informs 
 us that on the coast of Sagalien, which is but little 
 further north than Paris, the sea is not clear of ice so 
 early as the Gulf of Finland. Fogs are also, as might 
 be expected, verj- prevalent in Japan, and thunder- 
 storms are frequent. 
 
 Surface. — The surface of the principal islands is in 
 general very irregular, though in the interior some 
 plains of considerable extent occur. In many places 
 hills descend close to the sea-shore, or leave only a 
 narrow strip of land between the water and their 
 bases. The highest mountain is said to be Fusi, an 
 extinct volcano, on the island of Nipon, westward of 
 the Bay of Yeddo. Its summit is clad in perpetual 
 snow, thus indicating a height of not less than 12,000 
 feet above the level of the sea. Several mountains of 
 considerable elevation are seen to rise in the northern 
 part of Nipon, in Yesso, and in Sagalien, and some of 
 them are active volcanoes. Besides the outbursts of 
 frequent volcanic eruptions, no country is more fre- 
 quently visited by destructive earthquakes. Ksemp- 
 f er enumerates six active volcanic mountains. ' ' Earth- 
 quakes," says he, "are so frequent that the natives 
 
 regard them no more than Europeans do ordinary 
 storms." In 1586 a succession of earthquakes took 
 place and lasted for 40 daj-s, causing the destruction of 
 the best part of the city of Yeddo, and the death, it is 
 alleged, of 200,000 of its inhabitants. In 1783 the 
 eruption of a volcano in the island of Kiu-siu, accom- 
 panied by violent earthquakes, destroyed in a single 
 province 27 villages. Another volcanic eruption took 
 place in the same island in 1793, accompanied by 
 earthquakes which continued from March to June, and 
 caused, according to official returns, the death of 
 53,000 persons, with a proportional destruction of prop- 
 erty. On 23d December, 1854, an earthquake occurred 
 which was felt on the whole coast. Of the town of 
 Simoda only a few temples and private edifices, that 
 stood on elevated spots, escaped destruction. The fine 
 city of Osaca, on the south-eastern side of Nipon, was 
 completely destroyed, and the capital Yeddo did not 
 escape without injury. On 10th November, 1855, an 
 earthquake at Yeddo is said to have caused the de- 
 struction of 100,000 dwellings and 54 temples, and the 
 death of 30,000 persons. 
 
 Rivers. — The rivers are numerous, but short, shal- 
 low, and rapid. Thej' are not navigable for vessels of 
 burden, but some of them may be ascended by small 
 boats for some miles from the sea. The principal lake 
 of Japan is that of Oitz, in the southern part of the 
 island of Nipon. It is about 60 miles in length, but 
 of inconsiderable breadth. 
 
 Geology. — Little is at present known of the geolog- 
 ical formation of the Japanese islands. The volcanic 
 formation appears to prevail, but by no means to the 
 exclusion of the plutonic and sedimentary. The use- 
 ful mineral products, so far as yet known, are gold, 
 silver, copper, quicksilver, tin, lead, iron, coal, sul- 
 phur, and salt. With the exception of tin and iron, 
 these seem to be all verj' abundant. The gold is found 
 in many parts of the empire,- sometimes as ore, and 
 sometimes from the washings of the earth or sand. 
 Silver is equalty plentiful with gold, and it is probable 
 that the quantity of these metals annually exported 
 from the country, when the trade was open, amounted 
 in value to a million and a half sterling. Copper 
 abounds through the whole group, and sometimes of 
 a quality not to be surpassed by any in the world. 
 The natives refine it, and cast it into cj'linders about a 
 foot long and an inch thick. A specimen analj'zed by 
 Dr. Percy gave 0"13 per cent, of nickel, 0-03 per cent, 
 of iron, and extremely minute traces of tin and gold. 
 The coarser kinds they cast into round lumps or cakes. 
 Iron ore rich enough for the purpose of smelting ap- 
 pears to be confined to three provinces, and the metal 
 is consequently dear. " Iron," saj'S Ksempfer, " is 
 much of a price with copper, iron tools being full as 
 dear, or rather dearer, than those of copper or brass." 
 The same is stated with respect to the proportional 
 value of iron and copper by Golownin. Lead and 
 quicksilver are said to be abundant, but they have 
 never been articles of export. Tin has been discovered 
 in small quantities, and of a quality so fine and white 
 that it almost equals silver ; but of the extent to which 
 it may be procured little is known, as the Japanese do 
 not attach much value to it. Zinc, according to 
 Ksempfer, is not produced in Japan, and in his time 
 calamine used to be imported from Tonquin for the 
 manufacture of brass wares. Zinc, however, is ex- 
 pressly stated by the governor-general Baron Van 
 Imhoff to be an article of export as well as brass. 
 This was 50 years after Ksempfer's time. Sulphur, as 
 might be expected in a region so volcanic, is very 
 abundant. In some places it lies in broad deep beds, 
 and may be dug up and removed with as much ease as 
 sand. A considerable revenue is derived by the gov- 
 ernment from this source. Coal appears to be found 
 in many parts of the country, and is used for fuel. 
 Siebold speaks of it as being in common use through- 
 out the country, and on visiting one of the mines he 
 
JAP 
 
 1128 
 
 JAP 
 
 saw enough to convince him that it was skilfully 
 worked. Being bituminous, it Is, for domestic pur- 
 poses, generally converted into coke. Rock-salt seems 
 to exist in some parts of the country, but does not ap- 
 pear to be much used, the culinary salt in use being 
 made from sea-water by an unskillful and expensive 
 process. By saturating masses of sand with sea-water 
 in the sun, a strong lye is obtained, which is afterward 
 boiled in earthen vessels, and yields an expensive and 
 impure muriate of soda. No diamonds have been 
 found, but agates, carnelians, and jaspers are met with, 
 some of them of great beauty. Pearls, frequently of 
 great size and beautj', are iished up on nearlj- all parts 
 of the coast. 
 
 Vegetable Productions. — The vegetable productions 
 of Japan are, for the most' part, those common to tem- 
 perate regions. Timber is, however, so scarce, that 
 no one is permitted to cut down a tree without permis- 
 sion from the magistrate, and only on condition of 
 planting a young one in its stead. The most common 
 forest trees are the fir and cedar — ^the latter growing 
 to an immense size, being sometimes more than 18 
 feet in diameter. In the northern parts of the empire 
 two species of oak are found which differ from those of 
 Europe. The acorns of one kind are boiled and eaten 
 for food, and are said to be both palatable and nutri- 
 tious. The mulberry grows wild in great abundance, 
 and the varnish-tree (rhus vernix) abounds in many 
 districts. In the south, the bamboo cane, though a 
 tropical plant, is found either in the wild or cultivated 
 state, and is largely used in the manufactories. The 
 camphor-tree is of great value here, and lives to 
 great age. Siebold visited one which Kserapfer had 
 described as having been seen by him 135 years before. 
 It was healthj', and covered with foliage, and had a 
 circumference of 50 feet. The countrj' people make 
 the camphor from a decoction of the root and stems cut 
 into small pieces. Chestnut and walnut trees are 
 both found. Among the fruit trees are the orange, 
 lemon, fig, plum, cherry, and apricot. 
 
 Animals. — Extensive cultivation leaves no room for 
 wild animals ; and tame animals, not being used for food, 
 are not multiplied beyond the felt necessity for their 
 use. The horses are small, hut hardy, active, and of 
 good bottom. William Adams, an English mariner of 
 the time of James I., describes them as " not tall, but 
 of the size of our middling nags, short and well trust, 
 small headed and very full of mettle, in my opinion 
 far excelling the Spanish jennet in pride and stomach." 
 Oxen and cows are only used in plowing and carriage, 
 milk and butter not being used as articles of food. 
 Buffaloes of an extraordinarj' size, with hunches on 
 their backs, like camels, are used to draw carts and 
 carry heavy goods on their backs. Sheep and goats 
 were formerly kept at Firando by the Dutch and Portu- 
 guese, and might be bred in the country to great ad- 
 vantage if the natives were permitted to eat their 
 flesh, or knew how to manufacture their wool. They 
 have ji few swine, kept chiefly for trading with the 
 Chinese, among whom they are in great demand. 
 Dogs are to be found in large numbers in the half do- 
 mesticated state in which they generally exist in the 
 East. This is not true, however, of one species, re- 
 sembling somewhat an English spaniel, which is con- 
 sidered so valuable as to form part of every royal 
 Japanese present. It is conjectured that the English 
 variety may have sprung from some presented by the 
 emperor to the king of England. The wild animals 
 are bears, wild boars, foxes, monkeys, deer and hares. 
 Eats and mice are very common, as well as two small 
 species of weasel or ichneumon, which live, half tame, 
 under the eaves of houses. 
 
 Wild fowl are ver)' abundant, consisting chiefly of 
 geese and ducks, which migrate in great numbers to 
 the shores of Japan in winter. Numerous species of 
 pigeons are to be found, and woodcoclcs, pheasants, 
 snipes, larks, etc., are common. There are two spe- 
 
 cies of pheasant, and one of peacock, peculiar to Japan. 
 Domestic poultry are kept by the natives almost solely 
 for ornament or amusement. Some of the reptilia are 
 of large size, and, along with the insect tribes, are 
 dreaded for their deadl}' and destructive powers. 
 
 The shallow bays and creeks around the islands 
 swarm with shoals of fish, which. Indeed, constitute 
 nearly the whole animal food of the Japanese, and 
 furnish them plentifullj' with oil for domestic pftrposes. 
 In their coarse taste, the intestines of the whale, and 
 even the refuse of blubber, are considered good enough 
 for food. The Japanese are the boldest and most ex- 
 pert of all Asiatic fisliermen. Their fishing voyages 
 extend to the rigorous seas of Sagalien and Kuriles in 
 pursuit of herring, with which they manure their cot- 
 ton fields. They are the only Asiatic people that pur- 
 sue the whale. The women are said to be expert 
 divers for shell-fish, with which the shores of Japan 
 abound. 
 
 Natives. — The Japanese are described as an active, 
 vigorous people, of the middling size, and their bodily 
 and mental powers more closely assimilated to Euro- 
 peans than Asiatics. The oommon people, according 
 to Thunberg, are of a yellow color, which sometimes 
 borders on brown, and sometimes on white. The la- 
 boring classes, from the exposure of the upper parts of 
 their bodies in summer, have their naturally fair com- 
 plexion deepened into lirown. Their dark brown eyes 
 are oblong, small, and sunk deep in the head. The 
 ej-elids forming a deep furrow gives them the appear- 
 ance of being keen-sighted. Their heads are large, 
 and their necks short, their hair black and glossy with 
 oil. Their noses, without being flat, are yet rather 
 thick and short. Dr. Ainslie gives a somewhat diS'er- 
 ent account of tiieir complexion. He represents them 
 as perfectly fair, and indeed blooming, though this 
 seems to apply chiefly to the women. Thunberg also 
 mentions that the descendants of the oldest and no- 
 blest families of the princes and lords of the empire 
 are somewhat majestic in their shape and countenance, 
 being more like Europeans ; and the ladies of distinc- 
 tion, who seldom go out in the open air without being 
 covered, are perfectly white. Siebold, speaking of 
 the inhabitants of Kiu-siu, corroborates this view, and 
 says that " the women who protected themselves from 
 the influence of the atmosphere have generally a fine 
 and white skin, and the cheeks of the young girls dis- 
 play a blooming carnation." The married women of 
 Japan dye their teeth black, by means of a corrosive 
 composition, so powerful that b}' mere touch it burns 
 the flesh into a purple gangrenous spot, and in spite of 
 the utmost care in its application, invariably taints 
 the gums, destroying their ruddy color and vitality. 
 " The Japanese women, always excepting the disgust- 
 ing black teeth of those who are married, are not ill- 
 looking. The young girls are well formed, and rather 
 pretty, and have much of that vivacity and self-reli- 
 ance in manners which come from a consciousness of 
 dignity, derived from the comparatively high regard 
 in which they are held. In the ordinary mutual in- 
 tercourse of friends and families the women have their 
 share, and rounds of visiting and tea-parties are kept 
 up as briskly in Japan as in the United States." — 
 American Expedition. 
 
 Language. — Superficial observation led to the belief 
 that Japan was colonized by the Chinese ; but a more 
 accurate knowledge of the physical characteristics and 
 language of the people has rendered this opinion unten- 
 able. Indeed, the Japanese themselves consider it a 
 high disgrace to be compared with the Chinese. Dr. 
 Ainslie states that the only occasion on which he saw 
 a Japanese surprised into a passion, and, forgetting his 
 habitual politeness, lay his hand on his sword, was on 
 a comparison being made between the two nations. 
 The structure of the languages of the two countries is 
 essentially different, that of Japan being polysyllabic, 
 while all the dialects of the Chinese are monosyllabic 
 
JAP 
 
 1129 
 
 JAP 
 
 It is trae that, like the Latin in Europe during the 
 middle ages, the mandarin dialect of the Chinese is in 
 use among the learned here, as in Corea, Tonquin, and 
 elsewhere ; and hence many Chinese words have been 
 introduced into the Japanese ; but the introduction of 
 these only makes the structural difference the more 
 strikingly apparent. The Yomi, or primitive language 
 of Japan, is used in poetry and works of light litera- 
 ture. The Koye, or Cliinese language, slightly varied 
 in pronunciation, is employed by the bonzes or priests 
 in their religious books. The vulgar language of the 
 countrj- is a mixture of the two. Close afRnities have 
 not been traced between the Yomi of Japan and BXiy 
 other Asiatic language. By some, at least, it is 
 thought to be most analogous to the languages of the 
 Tartar race, to which, in spite of diversity in phj'sical 
 characteristics, it is now most commonly believed that 
 the Japanese belong. 
 
 Population. — In regard to the population of Japan, 
 all our information rests merely on conjecture. Some 
 authorities estimate it at more than 10,000,000, while 
 others make it more than four or five times that 
 amount. All travelers who have visited the country 
 bear testimony to the populousness of the parts visited 
 by them. Thus, Kajmpfer, who passed four times 
 over that part of the countrj' between Nagasaki and 
 Yeddo, says — " The countrj' is populous beyond ex- 
 pression, and one would scarce think it possible that, 
 being not greater than it is, it should nevertheless main- 
 tain and support such a vast number of inhabitants. 
 The highways are an almost continued row of villages 
 and burghs. You scarce come out of one but you 
 enter another ; and you may travel many miles, as it 
 were, in one street without knowing it to be composed 
 of different villages but by the different names that 
 were formerly given them, and which they afterward 
 retain though joined to one another. It has many 
 towns, the chief whereof may vie with the most con- 
 siderable in the world for largeness, magnificence, and 
 the number of inhabitants." 
 
 The men of all classes are exceedingly courteous, 
 and although inquisitive about strangers, never become 
 offensively intrusive. The lower people are evidently 
 in great dread of their superiors, and are more reserved 
 in their presence than they would be if they were left 
 to their iiatural instincts. The rigid exclusiveness in 
 regard to foreigners is a law merely enacted by the 
 government from motives of policy, and not a senti- 
 ment of the Japanese people. Their habits are social 
 among themselves, and they frequently intermingle in 
 friendly intercourse. " The Japanese," says Kaemp- 
 fer, " are very industrious and inured to hardships. 
 V^ery little will satisfy them. They generally live on 
 plants and roots, tortoises, shell-flsh, sea-weeds, and 
 the like. 'Vy^ater is their common drinlt. They go 
 bare-headed and bare-legged. They wear no shirts ; 
 they have no soft pillows to lay their heads on, but 
 sleep on the' ground, laying their heads, instead of a 
 pillow, on a piece of wood, or a wooden box somewhat 
 depressed in the middle. They can pass whole nights 
 without sleeping, and suffer all manner of hardships." 
 The following apparently very correct picture of this 
 people is given by an anonymous writer of the reign 
 of Elizabeth : " The inhabitants show a notable wit 
 and an incredible patience in suffering, labor, and sor- 
 rows. They take great and diligent care lest either in 
 word or deed they should show their fear or dullness 
 of mind, and lest they should make any man (whoso- 
 ever he be) partaker of their troubles and wants. 
 They covet exceedingly honor and praise ; and pov- 
 erty with them bringeth no damage to nobility of 
 birth. They suffer not the least injury in the world 
 to pass unrevenged. For gravity and courtesy they 
 give not place to the Spaniards. They are generally 
 affable and full of compliments. They are very punc- 
 tual in the entertainment of strangers, of whom they 
 will curiously inquire even trifles of foreign people, as 
 
 of their manners, and such like things. They will as 
 soon lose a limb as omit one ceremony in welcoming a 
 friend. They used to give and receive the cup at 
 one and the other's hands, and before the master of 
 the house begins to drink, he will proffer the cup to 
 every one of his guests, making show to have them 
 begin. Fish, roots, and rice are their common junk- 
 ets ; and if they chance to kill a hen, duck, or pig, 
 which is but seldom, they will not, like churls, eat it 
 alone, but their friends will be "partakers of it. Al- 
 though essentially an abstemious and sober people, 
 they are not averse occasionally to strong potations." 
 
 The Japanese laws are %-er3' short and intelligible, 
 and the proceedings under them are as simple as the 
 laws themselves. There are no professional lawyers, 
 everj' man being deemed competent to plead his own 
 cause. If a part}' is aggrieved, he appeals to the 
 magistrate, who summons the otixer party before him. 
 The case is then stated by the complainant in his own 
 way, and the accused is heard in reply. The magis- 
 trate examines witnesses, and is said frequently to dis- 
 play great acuteness in the detection of falsehood. He 
 passes sentence, from which there is no appeal, and it 
 is carried into execution instaiUer, If the matter in 
 dispute be of great importance, the magistrate may 
 refer it to the emperor in council. Sometimes in 
 trifling cases he orders the parties to go and settle the 
 matter privately with the aid of their friends, and it is 
 well understood that the matter must be settled, or un- 
 pleasant consequences will result. See Ency. Brit., 
 1856 ; De Bow's Review, ix. 
 
 Revenue. — The great source of revenue in Japan is 
 the rent of land, with an impost on houses, in the man- 
 ner of a ground rent. There appears to be no tax on 
 articles of consumption, no capitation tax, and no 
 transit duties. The cultivators of the soil appear to 
 be mere villeins, simply occupants cultivating as meta- 
 yers. In lands belonging to the crown, the proportion 
 of the crop considered rent is four parts in ten, and in the 
 rest six in ten, most commonly the latter. These 
 proportions apply to every kind of crop — com, pulses, 
 and cotton. 'The land, in order to determine the rent, 
 is surveyed by sworn appraisers twice a year, once be- 
 fore the seed is sown, and again immediately before 
 harvest. Those that cultivate untilled ground have 
 the whole crop for two or three years.- Among their 
 many excellent laws relating to agriculture, one is, 
 that whosoever does not cultivate his ground for the 
 term of one year forfeits his possession. It would ap- 
 pear, from the proportion of crop taken as rent, that 
 the impost on the land does not materially differ from 
 that assumed as land-tax under the Mohammedan gov- 
 ernment of Hindoostan, and continued in some places 
 by ourselves. This will enable us to make an approx- 
 imate estimate of the rental of Japan — that is, of the 
 principal source of its public income. This, of course, 
 will suppose a similar condition of society and rate of 
 population in Japan and the countrj' with which it is 
 compared. Let us take, therefore, the same Indian ter- 
 ritories by which we have attempted to estimate the 
 population. These have, in round numbers, a popula- 
 tion of 46,0*00,000, and yield a land-tax of £10,000,000. 
 This proportion would give to Japan, with its esti- 
 mated population of 40,000,000, a rental of nearly 
 £8,700,000 to be divided between the imperial govern- 
 ments, feudatory princes, hereditary nobles, and the 
 soldierj'. 
 
 To the rent of lands is to be added the ground-rent 
 of the houses, which is said to be at the rate of Is. 8d. 
 for each fathom of frontage, without regard to depth, 
 unless it exceed 15 fathoms, when the rate is doubled. 
 Whether the impost applies to all houses, wherever 
 situated, or onlj' to those in towns, is not stated ; but if 
 the former be the case, estimating each house to have 
 an average of five inhabitants, and also five fathoms 
 of frontage, would give the income from this source at 
 more than £3,300,000, or, adding this to the land-rent, 
 
JAP 
 
 1130 
 
 JAP 
 
 would make the annual revenue of the empire about 
 £12,000,000. 
 
 The Japanese being chiefly dependent on the soil for 
 subsistence, have arrived at a high state of perfection 
 in the arts of agriculture. Though a great part of the 
 country hi hilly or mountainous, and the soil in general 
 rather poor, yet almost every available foot of land is 
 cultivated, and very abundant crops are raised. Where 
 the land is inaccessible to the plow it is cultivated by 
 manual labor. Like the Chinese, they pay great at- 
 tention to manuring and irrigation. As animal food 
 constitutes hardlj' any part of their subsistence, no 
 pastures or meadows are to be seen. Eice constitutes 
 the main object of agriculture, as it forms the bread 
 corn of the people from one end of the empire to the 
 other. Its cultivation extends to the island of Yesso, 
 and as far north as 45 degrees of latitude. The rice of 
 Japan is known to excel every other in Asia, and this 
 may not be owing exclusively to its skillful cultiva- 
 tion, but partly to the climate and the distance of 
 Japan from the tropics. From it the inhabitants distil 
 a drink called saH (a kind of rice beer), in very general 
 use. Wheat and barley are grown, but the former is 
 not in much use, and the latter is the chief provender 
 of cattle. Eye, maize, panic, millet, and the Cynosu- 
 rus cororanus are also raised. Beans and peas of 
 different kinds are cultivated in great abundance, par- 
 ticularly the bean DoUchos soja^ from which soy^ a kind 
 of sauce, prepared by boUing and fermentation, is 
 made. Among esculent roots and pot-herbs the fol- 
 lowing are successfully cultivated : the bata, the po- 
 tato, carrot, turnip, cabbage, radish, lettuce, gourd, 
 melon, and cucumber. The fruits are generlly those 
 of Europe, as the orange, lemon, peach, fig, pear, 
 chestnut, walnut, and cherry. 
 
 The tea-plant in Japan, as in China, takes the place 
 of the vine in the temperate regions of the west, and 
 of the coffee in tropical countries. " The tea shrub," 
 says Kajmpfer, "is one of the most useful plants 
 growing in Japan, and yet it is allowed no other 
 room but round the borders of rice and com fields, and 
 in other barren places unfit for the culture of other 
 things." In a few places the plant, according to Sie- 
 bold, receives more attention ; generally, however, 
 hardly as much as our hawthorn hedges, and thus the 
 leaves are unfit for the consumption of strangers. Its 
 use, however, is universal among the natives. It was 
 introduced into this countrj' from China in the ninth 
 century. Tobacco was first introduced by the Portu- 
 guese in the early part of the 16th century, about the 
 same time that it was introduced into England, and it 
 is remarkable that the Japanese emperor instituted a 
 persecution against its growers and smokers at the 
 same time that King James issued his Counter Blast; 
 and with as little effect in arresting its use. The 
 plants cultivated in Japan for textile purposes are cot- 
 ton and hemp in the northern islands. The mulberry 
 is grown for the silk- worm. In husbandry cotton 
 ranks next in importance to rice, and furnishes mate- 
 rials for clothing the great mass of the people. 
 
 Manufactures.— \n the manufacture of cotton fab- 
 rics the Japanese display considerable skill, but in this 
 respect they do not equal the Hindoos. Their best 
 silk is said to be superior to that of China. In the 
 manufacture of porcelain, too, they are said by some 
 to excel the Chinese. Specimens of great beauty and 
 delicacy, at least, have been produced, though some 
 assert that, owing to the exhaustion of the best clay, 
 such articles can no longer be manufactured. Like 
 the Chinese the Japanese have long practiced the 
 manufacture of paper and glass. Formerly they did not 
 know how to make the flat pane for window glass, and 
 probably what they do make is of an inferior quality, 
 as they still purchase thick mirror glass from the 
 Dutch, to grind into lenses. Paper they manufacture 
 in great abundance, as well for writing and printing as 
 for tapestry, handkerchiefs, etc. It is made of very 
 
 various qualities, and some of it is as soft and flexible 
 as cotton cloth. Indeed, that used for handkerchiefs 
 might be mistaken for cloth, so far as toughness and 
 flexibility are concerned. This paper is made of the 
 bark of the mulberry {Morus papyrifera) by means of 
 the following process ; In December after the tree has 
 shed its leaves, they cut off the young shoots, about 
 three feet in length, and tie them up in bundles. They 
 are then boiled in a lye of ashes in a covered kettle, 
 till the bark is so shrunk that half an inch of the 
 wood may be seen projecting at either end of the 
 branch. When cool the bark is stripped off, and soaked 
 in water for three or four hours until it becomes soft, 
 when the exterior black cuticle is scraped off with a 
 knife. The coarse baric, which is full a year old, is 
 then separated from the fine, which covered the 
 younger branches, and which makes the best paper. 
 The bark is then boiled again in clear lye, continually 
 stirred with a stick, and fresh lye from time to time 
 added, to make up for the evaporation. It is then 
 carefully washed at a running stream, by means of a 
 sieve, and incessantly stirred until it becomes a fine 
 pulp. For the finer lands of paper this process is re- 
 peated, a piece of linen being substituted for the sieve. 
 After being washed, it is beaten with sticks of hard 
 wood on a wooden table, till it is brought to a pulp, 
 wliich is put into water and dissolved and dispersed like 
 meal. This is put into a small vessel with a decoction 
 of rice and a species of Hibiscus^ and stirred until it 
 has attained a tolerable consistence. It is then poured 
 into a larger vessel, whence it is taken out, and put in 
 the form of sheets in mats or layers of grass straw. 
 These sheets are laid one upon another, with' straw be- 
 tween, and pressure is applied to force the water out. 
 After this they are spread upon boards in the sun, 
 dried, cut, and gathered into bundles for sale and use. 
 The well-known lacquer ware to which Japan has 
 given name, is unequaled for beauty and durability 
 by that of any other nation. We have ourselves of 
 late years imitated, but certainly not equaled it. They 
 display considerable skill in working the metals. In 
 wood work, caskets, cabinets, and the like, they are un- 
 surpassed. Some of their swords are said to be equal 
 to the finest Damascus blades ; and Golownin states 
 that their carpenters' and cabinet-makers' tools are 
 equal in temper to those of a similar kind in England. 
 They are exceeding quick in observing any improve- 
 ment brought in among them by foreigners, and copy 
 it with great skill and exactness. Clocks, watches, 
 and astronomical instruments are made by them, 
 copied from European models. 
 
 Arts.~~ln certain branches of the fine arts the Jap- 
 anese have attained no small skill. They are ignor- 
 ant of anatomy and perspective, and therefore barbar- 
 ous in their sculptures and landscapes ; but in the 
 representation of a single object they manifest great 
 accurac}^ of detail, and a truthful adherence to nature. 
 Architecture, as an art, can hardly be said to have an 
 existence — their temples, palaces, and private houses 
 being all low and temporar}- structures, generally of 
 wood ; and the frequency of earthquakes leads them 
 to bestow less care on their buildings than in other 
 circumstances they might do. 
 
 Trade. — The Japanese carry on a large internal 
 traffic, which, from the peculiar characteristics of 
 their country, is in a great measure by coasting. The 
 numerous straits and creeks, with their shallow 
 waters, though generally unfit for ships of burden, 
 are sufficiently commodious for the small craft of the 
 Japanese, which rarely exceed 60 tons burden. The 
 inland transport is by horses, oxen, and porters, there 
 being very little river or canal navigation. Kaempfer, 
 who, however, refers to the busiest parts of the coun- 
 try, that between the chief port Osaco and the two 
 capitals, speaks of its commercial activity as follows : 
 *' How much is carried on between the several prov- 
 inces of the empire ! How busy and industrious the 
 
JAP 
 
 1131 
 
 JAP 
 
 merchants are everyTvhere ! How fall their ports of 
 ships I How many rich and mercantile towns up and 
 down the country! There are such multitudes of 
 people along the coasts and near the sea-ports ; such a 
 noise of oars and sails and numbers of ships and boats, 
 both for use and pleasure, that one would be apt to 
 Imagine the whole nation had settled there, and all 
 the inland parts were left quite desert and empty." 
 This was said 160 years ago, and it may be safely as- 
 sumed that the uninterrupted peace which the country 
 has since enjoyed has not impaired its commercial 
 prosperity. That the Japanese are a commercial peo- 
 ple may be inferred from the order, neatness, and pro- 
 priety with which every thing connected with their 
 trade is conducted. They have gold, silver, and cop- 
 per money, as well as bills of exchange. Their shops 
 have signs, and their goods are packed and labeled 
 with a truly mercantile care and neatness. 
 
 The foreign intercourse of Japan was, more than 
 two centuries, and till within the last few years, solely 
 confined to the Dutch aiid Chinese. Even with these 
 the trade was limited, being with the Dutch for a con- 
 siderable time restricted to a single ship annually, and 
 with the Chinese to ten junks. The exports and im- 
 ports were even limited as to value, and the sales and 
 purchases fixed by a tariff of the Japanese govern- 
 ment. The Dutch were confined to the small island 
 of Dezima, in the harbor of Nagasald, which is only 
 about 640 feet in length by 240 in extreme breadth. 
 A small stone bridge connects the island with the 
 town of Nagasaki, and a strong Japanese guard was 
 always stationed here, no one being allowed to pass 
 either to or from the island without license. The 
 whole island is surrounded with a high fence, on the 
 top of which are placed iron spikes. On the north 
 side are two water.jgates, which were kept always 
 Shut, except to admit or let out the Dutch vessels. 
 When a ship arrived her guns and ammunition were 
 first taken out, and she was afterward searched in 
 every part, and an exact list made of every thing on 
 board. The crew were then permitted to land on the 
 island, where they were kept, as long as the ship re- 
 mained, under the inspection of guards. Every Ja- 
 panese official at tho Dutch factory was bound twice 
 or thrice a j'ear to take a solemn oath of renunciation 
 and hatred of the Christian religion, and was made to 
 trample crosses and crucifixes under his feet. The 
 Dutch were at all times surrounded by Japanese spies, 
 whom thej' were obliged to employ as interpreters, 
 clerlts, servants, etc. 
 
 As the empire is again in some measure thrown 
 open to foreign intercourse, it taay not be unprofitable 
 to speculate on the nature and value of a trade with 
 it. The commodities which have been chiefly in de- 
 mand in Japan, are iron, steel, lead, tin, quicksilver, 
 cinnabar, sapan-wood, black pepper, cloves, nutmegs, 
 sugar, putchuk, deer-skins; ivory, Chinese and Ton- 
 quin raw silk, Indian cotton goods, cotton yarn, mir- 
 rors and other glass ware, and English woolens. At 
 one time or another all these articles found a market 
 in Japan, and most of them are imported by the Dutch 
 and Chinese at the present time. In a free trade, or 
 any approach to it, with Japan, w6 may suppose that 
 iron and steel, high-priced commodities there, would 
 become staple imports. The climate would give rise 
 to a consumption of woolens ; and although the Ja- 
 panese are clothed in their own cotton, judging from 
 what has taken place in India, where both the raw and 
 wrought articles are cheaper than in Japan, we raay 
 infer that cotton fabrics might be imported with ad- 
 vantage. Cotton yam or twist has long been one of 
 the regular articles of import, although it was long the 
 high-priced manufacture of Java spun with the distaff 
 that was imported. Mirrors and glass ware would, no 
 doubt, find a ready mart. Sugar would certainly be 
 in demand, as Japan produces none; and the same 
 may be said of nearly all kinds of spiceries and dVe- 
 
 woods. Even cotton wool and rice might be occa- 
 sionally imported, as they are regularly into China. 
 According to M. Caron, whose information refers 
 to 1636, or the period preceding the last persecu- 
 tion, the European nations imported annually into 
 Japan from 540,000 to 675,000 lbs. of Chinese raw 
 silk, 200,000 deer-skins, and 100,000 other kmds of 
 peltry. 
 
 With respect to the exchangeable products from 
 Japan, gold, silver, and copper were largely exported 
 when the trade was open. While'the Dutch were 
 carrying on their trade at Firando, and still unrestrict- 
 ed, they exported annually gold to the value of 
 £470,000, and silver to from £330,000 to £385,000. 
 But the Spanish and Portuguese trade was free at the 
 same time, and these nations are stated to have ex- 
 ported more largely, so that we may conclude that a 
 million and a half of the precious metals were, from 
 near the beginning to near the middle of the 17th 
 century, exported from Japan. Of copper, the Dutch 
 exported in some years as much as 1800 tons. Most 
 important, however, in this part of the world will be 
 the supply of coal, which the islands are said to fur- 
 nish abundantly. It will also be seen from what we 
 have already said of the productions of the country, 
 that there are many things among them that may be- 
 come valuable as exports, while a demand for other 
 articles will no doubt lead to their introduction as 
 subjects of trade. 
 
 After the expulsion of the Portuguese in 1639, and 
 before the restrictions were so stringent as they after- 
 ward became, the entire value of the foreign trade 
 was estimated by the Dutch governor-general, the 
 Baron Van Imhoff, at £833,000 ; while in his own 
 time (1744) it had declined to £264,583, of which one 
 third only was Dutch, the rest being Chinese. In 
 1805 the cargoes of two ships laid in at Batavia, were 
 sold in Japan for £35,416, with which, or rather with 
 the balance after deducting heavy local charges, cop- 
 per and camphor were purchased, which in Batavia 
 sold for £195,733. The adventure of next year was 
 neither so large nor so prosperous, for the outward 
 cargo brought in Japan only £24,325, and the return 
 cargo of copper and camphor produced when sold in 
 Batavia only £101,644. These favorable speculations 
 however, arose entirely from the enormous war prices 
 for copper and camphor. Since then the trade has 
 become still smaller, and, as already stated, is con- 
 fined to a single ship. In the earlier period of its 
 trade Japan was not only free to all the world, but 
 was not even burdened with imposts on either ship or 
 cargo ; presents, however, required to be made to the 
 emperor, the provincial governors, and one or two 
 other parties. — E. B. 
 
 Money. — Accounts are kept in taels, mace, and can- 
 darines ; 10 candarines make 1 mace, and 10 maces 1 
 tael. The Dutch reckon the Nangasaki tael at 3^ 
 florins, equal to about 6s. 2d. The gold coins current 
 are the new and old itjib and cobangs, or copangs ; the 
 silver coins are, the nandiogin, itaganne, and kodama. 
 They are in general very simple, struck plain and un- 
 adorned, the greatest part of them without any rim 
 round the margin, and most of them without any de- 
 termined value. For this reason they are always 
 weighed by the merchants, who put their chop or 
 stamp upon them, to signify that the coin is standard 
 weight and unadulterated. The new cobangs are ob- 
 long, rounded at the ends and flat, about 2 inches 
 broad, scarcely thicker than an English farthing, of a 
 pale 3'ellow color ; the die on one side consists of sev- 
 eral cross lines stamped ; and at both ends there is a 
 rectangular figure, with raised letters on it, and, be- 
 sides, a moonlike figure, with a flower on it in relief. 
 On the other side is a circular stamp, with raised let- 
 ters on it ; and within the margin, toward one end, 
 two smaller sunk stamps with raised letters, which are 
 difl'erent on each cobang ; they are valued at 60 mace. 
 
JAP 
 
 1132 
 
 JAP 
 
 There are old cobangs occasionally met with, which 
 are of fine gold, somewhat broader than the new. The 
 old cobang weigh 371 Dutch asen, or 276 English 
 grains, and the gold is said to be 22 carats fine, which 
 would give 448. 7d. for the value of the old cobang. 
 But the Japanese coins are reckoned at Madras only 
 87 touch, which is 20, 22, 26 carats ; this reduces the 
 old cobang to 41s. lOd. The new cobang weigh 180 
 grains ; the gold is about 16 carats fine, and the value 
 21s. 3d. The oban is thrice the value of the cobang. 
 The itjib is called by the Dutch golden bean, and is 
 made of pale gold, of a parallelogramical figure, and 
 flat, rather thicker than a farthing, with many raised 
 letters on one side, and two figures or flowers in relief 
 on the other ; the value of this is half of a cobang. 
 There are old itjibs also to be met with ; these are 
 thicker than the new ones, and in value 22 mace 5 
 candarines. Nandiogin is a parallelogramical flat sil- 
 ver coin, of twice the thickness of a halfpenny, 1 inch 
 long and ^ inch broad, and formed of fine silver. The 
 edge is stamped with stars, and within the edges are 
 raised dots. One side is marked all over with raised 
 letters ; and the other on its lower and larger moiety,' 
 is filled with raised letters, and at the same time ex- 
 hibits a double moonlike figure. Its value is 7 mace 5 
 candarines. 
 
 Itaganne and kodama are denominations by which 
 various lumps of silver, without form or fashion, are 
 known, which are neither of the same size, shape, nor 
 value. The former of these, however, are oblong, and 
 the latter roundish, for the most part thick, but some- 
 times, though seldom, flat. These pass in trade, but 
 are always weighed in payment from one individual to 
 another, and have a dull leaden appearance. Sen! is a 
 denomination applied to pieces of copper, brass, and 
 iron coin, which bear a near resemblance to our old 
 farthings. They diff'er in size, value, and external 
 appearance, but are always cast, and have it square 
 hole in the middle, by means of which they may be 
 strung together; and likewise have always broad 
 edges. Of these are current, sjumon seni, of the 
 value of 4 common seni, made of brass, and almost as 
 broad as a halfpenny, but thin. The common seni are 
 the size of a farthing, and made of red copper ; 60 of 
 them = l mace. Doosa seni is a cast iron coin, in ap- 
 pearance like the last, of the same size and value, but 
 is so brittle that it is easily broken by the hand, or 
 breaks in pieces when let fall on the ground. The 
 seni are strung 100 at a time, or as is most commonly 
 the case, 96 on a. rush. The coins in one of these 
 parcels are seldom all of one sort, but generally con- 
 sist of 2, 3, or more different kinds ; in this case, the 
 larger ones are strung on first, and then follow the 
 smaller ; the number diminishing in proportion to the 
 number of large pieces in the parcel, which are of 
 greater value than the smaller. The schuit is a silver 
 piece of 4 oz. 18 dwts. 16 grs. Troy, and is 11 oz. fine, 
 which gives its value £1 5s. 3d. The name is Dutch, 
 referring, probably, to its shape, like a boat. 
 
 Weights. — These are the candarine, mace, tael, catty, 
 and picul, thus divided: 
 
 10 candarines --= 1 mace. 
 
 10 mace = 1 tael. 
 
 16 taels = 1 catty. 
 
 loo catties = 1 picul. 
 
 The picul = 125 Dutch lbs., or 133^ lbs. avoirdupois. 
 It is, however, said to weigh only 130 lbs. 
 
 Measures. — -The revenues of Japan are estimated by 
 two measures of rice, the man and koif ; the former 
 contains 10,000 koifs, each 3000 bales or bags of rice. 
 The long measure is the inc, which is about 4 Chinese 
 cubits, or G\ feet English nearly ; and 2\ Japanese 
 leagues are computed to be about 1 Dutch league. — ■ 
 Milburn's Orient. Com. 
 
 The principal, or more important towns of the em- 
 pire, are Yedo (or Jeddo), Mijako (or Kio), etc. ; Nan- 
 gaski. Saga, Kokura, etc. ; Simoda, Kotsi, Takamutsi, 
 etc. ; Hakodade, Matsumae, etc. 
 
 Commercial Intercourse. — At an early period the 
 Portuguese founded a settlement, and established 
 trade with the Japanese, having succeeded in winning 
 the favor of several of the native princes, through the 
 instrumentality mainly of Christian missionaries. In 
 1542, Fernando Mendez Pinto, a Portuguese, em- 
 barked in ii junk from Macao to Lew-Chew; but en- 
 countering adverse winds, he was driven to one of the 
 western islands of the Japanese archipelago. About 
 the same period, the celebrated Xavier arrived at Goa, 
 and, proceeding soon after to Koyosima, made so favor- 
 able an impression on the Prince of Satsuma that an 
 active and profitable intercourse at once sprung up be- 
 tween the western ports of Japan and Macao. This 
 intercourse continued uninterrupted during a period of 
 nearly 40 years, when an edict was issued permitting 
 the Portuguese to continue their trade as before, but 
 forbidding them to bring any more missionaries, or 
 even to speak on religious subjects. In 1635, under 
 the reign of Yeye Mitson, a prison was constructed 
 oft^ Nangasaki, and all the Portuguese found in the 
 countr}' were there confined, and the commercial priv- 
 ileges which they had so long enjoyed were transferred 
 to the Dutch, who were generallj' believed to be the 
 instigators of the severe measures put in force against 
 the Portuguese. A sanguinary battle between the 
 Portuguese and native Christians, amounting to 38,000 
 men, on the one side, and the Dutch, and such of the 
 natives as sympathized -with them in their hostility to 
 the Portuguese, on the other, was the result of these 
 rigorous measures. The former fortified themselves 
 in Simabara, and the latter made their attack under 
 the command of the Dutch director Kockebecker. The 
 fortress was soon reduced, and the Portuguese, rather 
 than submit to their rivals, to whom they attributed 
 all the misfortunes that had befallen them, perished 
 to a man. An edict was immediately published, for- 
 bidding the Portuguese to enter the countr}'. The in- 
 telligence of these proceedings soon reached Macao, 
 and four of the most distinguished citizens were sent 
 to conciliate the favor of the government of Japan. 
 They arrived at Nangasaki in 1640, and were imme- 
 diately put under arrest, and condemned to death for 
 entering the country in violation of the edict. The 
 following inscription, written, it is said, by the Dutch 
 director, Kockebecker, was placed on their grave : 
 "So long as the sun shall warm the earth, let no 
 Christians be so bold as to come to Japan ; and let all 
 know, that the King of Spain himself, or the Christian 
 God, or the Great Saca, if he violate this command, 
 shall pay for it with his head." The Portuguese have 
 never since been permitted to renew their intercourse 
 with Japan. 
 
 The first formal edict in favor of the Dutch was is- 
 sued in 1011, and the privileges 6f trade which were 
 then conceded have continued, modified at various 
 times, to the present day. In the earlier period of 
 this trade, return cargoes consisted chieflj' of silver 
 and gold, Japanese copper being then but little known 
 in Europe. This latter article, however, soon became 
 one of the leading staples of Japanese export trade. 
 In a work, entitled " Notes of the Voj'age of the Mor- 
 rison from Canton to Japan," published in 1839, the 
 following reference to the Dutch trade at this period is 
 made : " The Dutch were now left in sole possession 
 of the trade with Japan ; and, since that time, it is 
 well known, their monopoly has never been disturbed. 
 Their subsequent political intercourse has been limited 
 to an occasional mission from Batavia. and the visits 
 of the Dutch chief of the factory to Yedo, formerly 
 made annually but now once in four years. Charlevoix 
 mentions embassies in 1664, 1666, and 1659. It was 
 while the second of these missions was at Yedo, that 
 two thirds of that city and 100,000 of its population 
 were destroyed \>y fire. It remains to trace, brieflj', 
 the use the Dutch have made of the monopoly to 
 which they have so long aspired. Of the assortment 
 
JAP 
 
 1133 
 
 JAP 
 
 and value of their import cargoes, in the ITth century, 
 we have little or no account. Their returns had been 
 in silver, chiefly, until 1641, when the directors of the 
 Company suggested returns in gold. Japanese copper 
 was at this time in little estimation in Europe, because 
 little known ; but afterward, on a rise in value, it be- 
 came an important return. The first order for 20,000 
 piculs was sent out in 1655." 
 
 Various restrictions and prohibitions have been, 
 from time to time, imposed upon Dutch commerce by 
 the Japanese authorities. The imports and exports 
 were limited, and the number of vessels was finally 
 restricted to four, three, and two, as before the late 
 treaty. The profits realized by the Dutch from this 
 trade have never been accurately ascertained. The 
 author already cited, referring to the restrictions im- 
 posed by the Japanese government, remarks : " Un- 
 der these circumstances, the trade, which had yielded 
 an annual profit of 600,000 to 600,000 florins for the 
 30 years previous [to 1714], would no longer pay the 
 charges." Efforts have been made, at diflerent pe- 
 riods, by the English and French governments, as well 
 as by that of the United States, to open commercial 
 intercourse with Japan ; but, with the exception of 
 the very limited concessions granted by the treaty of 
 31st March, 1854, between the United States and 
 Japan, and concessions nearly similar allowed to the 
 British, by treaty, subsequently ratified, and the priv- 
 ileges granted to the Dutch by the treaty of 1856, 
 without success. Some years since, Russia endeavored 
 to establish commercial relations with Japan ; but the 
 proposal was declined, and the envoys were ordered 
 not to return again on pain of death. 
 
 The treaty, already referred to, between the United 
 States and Japan, which was concluded March 31, 
 
 1854, ratified August 7, 1854, exchanged February 21, 
 
 1855, and proclaimed June 22, 1855, is as follows : 
 " The United States of America and the empire of 
 Japan, desiring to establish firm, lasting, and sincere 
 friendship between the two nations, have resolved to 
 fix, in a manner clear and positive, bj' means of a 
 treaty or general convention of peace and amity, the 
 rules which shall in future be mutually observed in 
 the intercourse of their respective countries ; for which 
 most desirable object the President of the United 
 States has conferred full powers on his commissioner, 
 Matthew Galbraith Perry, special embassador of the 
 United States to Japan, and the august Sovereign of 
 Japan has given similar full powers to his commis- 
 sioners, Hayashi, Daigaku-no-kami, Ido, prince of 
 Tsus-Sima, Izawa, prince of Mima-saki, and Udono, 
 member of the board of revenue. And the said com- 
 missioners, after having exchanged their said full 
 powers, and duly considered the premises, have agreed 
 to the following articles : Article I. There shall be a 
 perfect, permanent, and universal peace and a sincere 
 and cordial amity between the United States of Amer- 
 ica on the one part, and the empire of Japan on the 
 other part, and between their people respectively, 
 without exception of persons of places. Article II. 
 The port of Simoda, in the principality of Idzu, and 
 the port of Hakodade, in the principality of Matsmai, 
 are granted by the Japanese as ports for the reception 
 of American ships, where they can be supplied with 
 wood, water, provisions, and coal, and other articles 
 their necessities may require, as far as the Japanese 
 have them. The time for opening the first-named 
 port is immediately on signing this treaty ; the last- 
 named port is to be opened immediately after the 
 same day in the ensuing Japanese year, [iVote. — A 
 tariff of prices shall be given by the Japanese offi- 
 cers of the things which they can furnish, payment 
 for which shall be made in gold and silver coin.] 
 Article III. — Whenever ships of the United States are 
 thrown or wrecked on the coast of Japan, the Japanese 
 vessels will assist them, and carry their crews to Si- 
 moda, or Hakodade, and hand them over to their coun- 
 
 trymen appointed to receive them ; whatever articles 
 the shipwrecked men may have preserved shall like- 
 wise be restored, and the expenses incurred in the res- 
 cue and support of Americans and Japanese who may 
 be thus thrown upon the shores of either nation, are 
 not to be refunded. Article IV. — Those shipwrecked 
 persons and other citizens of the I/nited States shall 
 be free as in other countries, and not subjected to con- 
 finement, but shall be amenable to just laws. Article 
 V. — -Shipwrecked men and other citizens of the United 
 States, temporarily living at Simoda and Hakodade, 
 shall not be subject to such restrictions and confine- 
 ment as the Dutch and Chinese are at Nangasaki, but 
 shall be free at Simoda to go whefe they please within 
 the limits of seven Japanese miles (or n) from a small 
 island in the barber of Simoda, marked on the accom- 
 panying chart hereto appended ; and shall in like man- 
 ner be free to go where they please at Hakodade, within 
 the limits to be defined after the visit of the United 
 States' squadron at that place. Article VI. — If there 
 be any other kind of goods wanted, or any business 
 which shall require to be arranged, there shall be 
 careful deliberation between the parties in order to 
 settle such matters. Article VII. — It is agreed that 
 ships of the United States resorting to the ports open 
 to them shall be permitted to exchange gold and silver 
 coin and articles of goods for other articles of goods, 
 under such regulations as shall be temporarily estab- 
 lished by the Japanese government for that purpose. 
 It is stipulated, however, that the ships of the United 
 States shall be permitted to carry away whatever arti- 
 cles they are unwilling to exchange. Article VIII. — 
 Wood, water, provisions, coal, and goods required, 
 shall only be procured through the agency of Japanese 
 ofiicers appointed for that purpose, and in no other 
 manner. Article IX. — It is agreed that if at any 
 future day the government of Japan shall grant to 
 an 3^ other nation or nations, privileges and advantages 
 which are not herein granted to the United States and 
 the citizens thereof, that these same privileges and 
 advantages shall be granted likewise to the United 
 States and to the citizens thereof, without any con- 
 sultation or delaj-. Article X. — Ships of the United 
 States shall be permitted to resort to no other ports in 
 Japan but Simoda and Hakodade, unless in distress or 
 forced by stress of weather. Article XI. — There shall 
 be appointed by the government of the United States 
 consuls or agents to reside in Simoda, at any time after 
 the expiration of 18 months from the date of the sign- 
 ing of this treaty: provided that either of the two 
 governments deem such arrangment necessary." 
 
 The harbor of Simoda is near the south-eastern ex- 
 tremity of the peninsula of Idzu, and affords a safe 
 and capacious anchorage. Hakodade lies on a spa- 
 cious and beautiful bay of that name, and, for accessi- 
 bility and safety, is one of the finest in the world — ca- 
 pable, says the Hong Kong Register, of holding all the 
 fleets of the Pacific in security. 
 
 Port Regulations of Simoda. — Three natives have 
 been appointed pilots for American vessels entering or 
 departing from the port of Simoda, and the following 
 rates of pilotage have been established by the proper 
 authorities, viz. : Vessels drawing over 18 feet, pay 
 $15 ; over 13 feet, and less than 18 feet, $10 ; under 13 
 feet, $5. 
 
 " These rates shall be paid in gold or silver coin, or 
 their- equivalent in goods ; and the same shall be paid 
 for piloting vessels out, as well as into port. When 
 vessels anchor in the outer roads, and do not enter the 
 inner harbor, only half the above compensation shall 
 be paid to pilots. A look-out place shall be established 
 at some convenient point, from which vessels ap- 
 pearing in the offing can be seen and reported ; and 
 when one is discovered, making apparently for the 
 harbor, a boat shall be sent to her with a pilot. And 
 in order to carry this regulation into full effect, boats 
 of suitable size and quality shall always be kept in 
 
JAP 
 
 1134 
 
 JAP 
 
 readiness by the harbor-master, which, if necessary, 
 shall proceed bej'ond Rock Island, to ascertain whether 
 the vessel in sight intends entering the harbor or not. 
 If "it may be the desire of the master of the said ves- 
 sel to enter the port, the pilot shall conduct her to safe 
 anchorage, and, during her stay, shall render every 
 assistance in his' power in facilitating the procure- 
 ment of all the supplies, he may require. The prices 
 for supplying water to American vessels at Simoda 
 shall be 1400 cash* per boat-load (the casks being fur- 
 nished by the vessel). And for wood delivered on 
 board, about 7200 cash per cube of 5 American feet." 
 
 The foregoing is a full summary of the concessions 
 granted to American intercourse by the treaty with 
 Japan of March 31st, 1854. As a means of opening 
 commercial relations with that empire, its provisions 
 have proved inefficient ; but, before submitting any no- 
 tice of facts that have come to knowledge of the Depart- 
 ment relative to this subject, it is deemed appropriate 
 to give the leading provisions of the treaty entered into 
 by Great Britain with Japan. The first article of this 
 treaty opens the ports of Nangasaki and Hakodade to 
 British vessels to repair and obtain supplies only. It 
 opens all parts of these ports ; but, as respects anchor- 
 age, vessels must conform to the instructions of the local 
 government. Safe and commodious places are to be 
 designated for the repair of vessels. "Workmen, ifia- 
 terial, and other necessarj' supplies to be furnished by 
 the local government, in accordance with a tariff to be 
 agreed upon, which shall regulate the manner of pay- 
 ment. All officicial communications to be conducted 
 in the English language, as soon as the Japanese shall 
 have acquired a knowledge of that language. A place 
 to be reserved as a burial-ground for the English at 
 Medsuma Sima, which will be inclosed by a stone wall 
 and suitably protected. The second article stipulates 
 that at each of the ports of Nangasaki and of Hako- 
 dade, the regulations of the port shall be observed ; 
 but the Japanese government will see that these regu- 
 lations shall be such as to create no difficulties and in- 
 terpose no obstacle whatever to the general object of 
 the treaty, which is essentially designed to facilitate 
 amicable relations between Great Britain and Japan. 
 
 The third article declares that only vessels in dis- 
 tress or dismantled can enter other ports than Nanga- 
 saki and Hakodade, without permission of the Japanese 
 government ; but ships of war possess, as a necessary 
 attribute of their public character, the general right to 
 enter all the ports of friendly powers ; while, however, 
 this right shall suffer no prejudice or restriction, the 
 vessels of war of her Britannic majesty will not enter 
 any other than open ports, without necessity, nor 
 without offering proper explanations to the imperial 
 authorities. The fourth article provides that British 
 ships and subjects in Japanese ports shall conform to 
 the laws of Japan ; and that if any subordinate British 
 subjects commit offenses against the laws, they shall 
 be delivered to their own officers for punishment ; and 
 that if superior officers, or commanders' of ships, shall 
 break the laws, it will lead to the closing of the ports 
 specified : but it is not intended by this article that any 
 acts of individuals, whether high or low, previously 
 unauthorized or subsequentlj' disapproved of by her 
 majest}' the Queen of Great Britain, can set aside the 
 convention entered into with her majesty alone by his 
 imperial highness the Emperor of Japan. The fifth 
 article secures, in the fullest sense, to British ships and 
 subjects, in every port of Japan, either now open or 
 hereafter to be opened, an equality, in point of advan- 
 tage and accommodation, with the ships and subjects 
 or citizens of any other nation, without prejudice, 
 however, to any peculiar privileges hitherto conceded 
 to the Dutch and Chinese in the port of Nangasaki. 
 
 * 600 copper cash are equal to 43 cents (arbitrary value). 
 The currency of Japan is Bimilar to that of China, in which 1 
 tael « 10 maco « 100 candareena =■ 1000 cash = $1 48 U. S. 
 currency. 
 
 If, therefore, any other nation or people be now, or 
 hereafter, permitted to enter other ports than Nanga- 
 saki and Hakodade, or to appoint consuls, or to open 
 trade, or to enjoy any advantage or privilege whatever, 
 British ships and subjects shall, as of right, enter upon 
 the enjoyment of the same. The sixth article declares 
 that the convention shall be exchanged at Nangasaki, 
 on behalf of her majesty the Queen of Great Britain, 
 and on behalf of his highness the Emperor of Japan, 
 within 12 months from the 14th day of October, 1854. 
 
 The governor of Nangasaki communicated, in Octo- 
 ber, 1854, to Sir James Sterling, the following standing 
 port regulations : Article 1. Ships shall anchor within 
 two sima, and there await the direction of the gov-' 
 emor. 2. No fire-arms are to be discharged. 3. No 
 person to land on any of the islands. 4-. No soundings 
 to be taken, nor boats to be pulling about. 5. Should 
 any communications be desired, a boat of the upper 
 officers shall be called ; but no communication shall be 
 held with merchant boats, and no exchange of articles 
 take place, or trading of any sort. 
 
 The above being, according to the law of Great 
 Japan, all commanders and other officers shall obey 
 the same, and orders shall be given to the crew that 
 the aforesaid law shall not be broken. 
 
 An arrangement, made subsequentl)'' to the conven- 
 tion with Great Britain, requires that British ships, 
 intending to visit Japan, shall be provided with a doc- 
 ument in proof of their nationality, and as a check 
 upon the conduct of vessels in Japanese ports ; and her 
 majesty's government has directed a form of certificate 
 of registration to be adopted, which has been accepted 
 as satisfactory by the Japanese authorities ; and mer- 
 chant ships arriving in Japanese ports are to submit 
 their certificate of registration to the officers to be ap- 
 pointed by the Japanese authorities, and to permit 
 them to make such extracts from it as maj"^ seem good 
 to them, before such ships can be admitted to obtain 
 repairs and supplies. Her majesty's ships of war are 
 not to be provided with such documents ; but the 
 officers in command, upon proper application, will 
 afford all reasonable information regarding their ships. 
 
 Holland has also recently formed a provisional 
 treaty with Japan, but it is stated that the Dutch gov- 
 ernment withholds it from publication. The Singa- 
 pore papers give the following summary of its provis- 
 ions: "The Dutch are no longer limited to Decima, 
 but ma}' freely resort to Nangasaki and the immediate 
 neighborhood. The island of Decima is placed at the 
 disposal of the Dutch, and the buildings thereon sold 
 to Holland. This island will serve as an entrepot for 
 the Dutch, where the)' can land their goods without 
 pa^'raent of duties or search. The kej's of the water- 
 gates and of the entrepot warehouses will remain with 
 the Dutch chief factor. The usual duties will not be 
 exacted until goods are brought to Nangasaki. The 
 trade with the Dutch government remains on the 
 former footing. Free exercise of religion and right of 
 burial is conceded to the Dutch. There shall exist, 
 henceforward, freedom of communication with other 
 ships entering or departing from the roads. A defini- 
 tive treaty is to be hereafter concluded ; but, until 
 that takes place, the present agreement is to be con- 
 sidered in force." 
 
 The above is, in substance, all that has been pub- 
 lished relative to the convention between Holland and 
 Japan; but, until the definitive treaty, alluded to in 
 the last paragraph, shall have been entered into, the 
 intercourse between the two countries will be of the 
 same limited character that has hitherto existed. In- 
 deed, the Japanese evince an almost invincible repug- 
 nance to opening their ports to foreign commerce, and, 
 in their interpretation of treaties, concede nothing be- 
 yond what is specifically granted. Thus, the term 
 "temporary residence" in the treaty with the United 
 States, is so strictly interpreted that citizens of this 
 couutr)^, who desired to land at one of the open ports, 
 
JAP 
 
 1135 
 
 JAP 
 
 were required, before being permitted to go ashore, to 
 state how long they intended so to reside ; and intima- 
 tions were given that "four or five days" would be 
 sufficient to satisfy the words of the treaty. In one 
 case, the applicants, whose object appears to have 
 been to reside permanentlj' at one of the open ports, 
 for the purpose of establishing a d6p6t for the supply 
 of whaleships, were informed that, until thej' stated 
 the exact number of days they intended to stay on 
 shore for " temporary residence, '"they would not be 
 permitted to sleep one night from their vessel. 
 
 On the 17th August, 1855, the American schooner 
 WUminfftonj Brown master, of New London, Con- 
 necticut, arrived at Simoda from Hong Kong, with a 
 miscellaneous cargo, supposed to be suitable for trade 
 at that port. Shortlj' after casting anchor, some 15 or 
 20 officers came on board, and desired to know on what 
 business the vessel came into port. They were in- 
 formed that she brought a cargo of American com- 
 modities, which the captain wished to sell or exchange 
 for goods of Japanese manufacture. They then in- 
 formed the captain that they could not trade ; that the 
 people at large would be much pleased to do so, but 
 that the emperor had positively prohibited all commer- 
 cial intercourse, under penalty of death to the offend- 
 ers. A letter was addressed to the governor of the 
 city of Simoda, which was returned in the same en- 
 velope, with a verbal message to the effect that he 
 would not be permitted to land a single article for 
 tvade( nor could he present any for trade on shipboard. 
 Wood and water (the former at $5 per cord) were 
 oft'ered ; but fresh provisions, it is stated by the cap- 
 tain, were refused. The vessel was, night and day, 
 surrounded by guard-boats until she cleared from the 
 bay. The Wilmington then proceeded to Hakodade, 
 where she met with more liberal treatment, but per- 
 mission to trade was refused, a^ at Simoda. The only 
 provisions to be purchased consisted of beans, tur- 
 nips, scallions, and such vegetables. The cattle the 
 Japanese look upon as sacred, and will neither sell nor 
 kill them. The captain and crew were permitted to go 
 ashore and visit wherever they pleased. They were 
 also exempted from the vigilance of guard-boats, as 
 well as from the constant attendance of guards, as at 
 Simoda. 
 
 It , seems evident, therefore, so far as appears, that, 
 under the present treaty, the Japanese government 
 will not permit any trade to be carried on; nor is 
 there much probability of the treaty receiving anj' 
 more liberal interpretation than that given to it by 
 the officials at Simoda. It is, as the Japanese aver, a 
 treat}' of peace and amity only, strictly guarded 
 against any concession or clause under which Amer- 
 ican citizens could claim the privileges of general 
 trade. — Com. Bel. U. S. 
 
 To America undoubtedly belongs the credit of hav- 
 ing been the first to re-establish commercial relations 
 with Japan. The increased traffic in this part of the 
 world, particularly between eastern Asia and north- 
 western America, and the importance of the whale- 
 fishery in the Japanese seas, had rendered it very de- 
 sirable to have free access to at least some of the ports 
 of Japan. Repeated attempts had been made by En- 
 gland, Russia, and the United States, but without 
 success, when at length the United States' government 
 resolved to make an effort worthy of the object, and 
 accordingly fitted out an expedition under the com- 
 mand of Commodore M. C. Perry. The commodore 
 sailed from Norfolk in the Mississippi war-steamer, on 
 the 24th of November, 1852, to be followed as soon as 
 possible by the other vessels of the expedition. He 
 arrived in the Bay of Yeddo on the 8th of Julj-, 1853, 
 with four vessels, two war-steamers, and two sloops of 
 war, and after some negotiations he delivered the let- 
 ter of the President, promising to return for an answer 
 in the spring. The rest of the year was spent at Loo 
 Choo and China, and on the 12th of February, 1854, 
 
 the squadron reappeared in the Bay of Yeddo, having 
 by, this time been increased to nine vessels, t}iree 
 steam-frigates, four sloops of war, and two store-ships. 
 A treaty was concluded on the 31st of March, in terms 
 of which the ports of Simoda in the island of Nipon, 
 and Hakodade in Yesso, are opened fol: the reception of 
 An;ierican ships, where they will be supplied with 
 wood, water, provisions, coal, and other articles, so far 
 as the Japanese possess them. Ships in distress, or 
 from stress of weather, may enter other ports ; and 
 seamen shipwrecked on any part of the coast are to be 
 aided and carried to either Simoda or Hakodade. Ship- 
 wrecked seamen and others temporarily residing at 
 these ports, are, at Simoda, free to go anywhere within 
 the limits of 17 English miles from a small island in 
 the harbor, and in like manner at Hakodade within 12 
 miles. Sliips of the United States are also permitted 
 to trade under such regulations as shall be temporarily 
 established by the Japanese government for that pur- 
 pose. All the privileges that may hereafter be granted 
 to any other nation are to be accorded to the United 
 States. On the 7th of September following, an En- 
 glish squadron, consisting of a frigate and three steam- 
 ers, under the command of Rear-Admiral Sir James 
 Sterling, entered the harbor of Nangasaki. The primary 
 object of this visit to Japan was to search for Russian 
 vessels, but it was also intended to attempt to estab., 
 lish friendly relations between the two nations. A 
 treaty was entered into, the effect of which is to open 
 absolutely and at once to British ships of everj' der 
 scription, for effecting repairs and obtaining fresh 
 water, proyisions, and other supplies, two of the most 
 convenient harbors in Japan — Nangasaki and Hakor 
 dade ; to open inferentially to British ships in distress 
 any other port in Japan it may be expedient for them 
 to seek shelter in; to secure eventually to British 
 ships and subjects in every port of Japan which may 
 hereafter be open to foreigners, equal advantages with 
 the ships and subjects of the most favored nation, ex- 
 cepting onl}' the advantages at present accorded to the 
 Dutch and Chinese. It imposes in return for these 
 concessions, no other obligation on British ships and 
 subjects than that of respecting, the laws and ordi- 
 nances of the ports they visit. More recently the 
 Russians have succeeded in obtaining a similar footing 
 in Japan. See Enct/. Brit, 8th. edition ; Hunt's Mer, 
 Mag., i., 208, xxxi., 234, 626, xxxiv., 120, 742 ; Nor. 
 Am. Rev., x., 33 (by N. Hale) ; Quar. Rev., xxii., 107, 
 lii., 159, vL, 857; Peeky's Japm Exped., 1854; Liv- 
 ing Age, X., xiv., xxiii. ; Db Bow!s Rev. ix., 444. 
 
 Japanned Wares (Ger. Japanische ware; Du. 
 Japansch lakwerk; Fr. Marclia7idises.de Japan), arti- 
 cles of every description, such as tea-trays, clock- 
 dials, candlesticks, snuflF-boxes, etc., covered with 
 coats of Japan, whether plain, or embellished with 
 painting or gilding. 
 
 Japanning, a species of lac-varnishing, in imita- 
 tion of the lacquered ware of Japan, which, with that 
 of China, is esteemed the best in the world. The ware 
 may be lacquered upon wood, metal, or papier-macM 
 grounds. A description of the process as practiced in 
 China may serve to explain the sources of superiority. 
 The article, if of wood, being made very dry, light, 
 and smooth, is primed with a mixture of ox gall and 
 rottenstone, which is rubbed smooth before the varnish 
 is. applied. The varnish lo composed of 605 grains 
 of gum-lao in 1200 grains of water, to which are 
 added 38 grains of oil of Camellia sasanqua, pig's 
 gall, and 19 grains of rice vinegar. The ingredients 
 are well mixed in full daylight, when the varnish 
 gradually deepens into a brilliant black. A very 
 thin coat of this varnish is applied with a flat hair 
 brush. The article is left in a steamy heat, and is 
 then rubbed down in water with very fine pumice. 
 A second coat of lac-varnish is next applied, and the 
 polishing is repeated, which two operations, are con- 
 tinued until a perfectly even and brilliant surface is 
 
JAP 
 
 1136 
 
 JAV 
 
 attained, a finer quality of lac being used for the later 
 coats, of "which there are never less than three, nor 
 more than 18. The object is ornamented by an artist, 
 who draws the design in white lead, engraves it, and 
 fills up the details. The article is next painted with 
 the camphorated lac of Kouang-si, which serves as a 
 basis for the gilding. It is completed b}'' varnishing. 
 
 In our method of japanning, the wood intended for 
 the best works is thoroughly dried, since any warping 
 or shrinking would be fatal to the finished surface ; for 
 which purpose well-seasoned wood is cut nearly into 
 the required forms, and exposed for several days to a 
 gradually increasing heat in the japanner's stove. The 
 articles are then finished as to form, and are again 
 stoved, after which the cracks are stopped with puttj'' 
 or white lead. For black japanned works, a ground 
 of ivory-black mixed with dark-colored anim& varnish 
 is applied. This is dried in the stove, and coated with 
 varnish three or four times, the work being stoved be- 
 tween every two coats. For colored grounds, the var- 
 nish mixed with the proper color is laid on in one or 
 two coats, and the work is completed by several suc- 
 cessive vamishings and dryi^igs. Ordinary painters' 
 colors ground with linseed oil or turpentine and mixed 
 with animfe varnish are employed for various black or 
 brown surfaces with gilt edges, imitations of marble, 
 fine-grained woods, tortoise-shell, etc. The colors 
 mostly used are flake-white or white lead, Prussian- 
 blue, Vermillion, Indian-red, king's yellow, verdigris, 
 lamp-black, and the various tints produced by their 
 admixture. The varnishes used are copal, seed-lac, 
 anim^, and mastic. The lac varnish is the best for 
 hardness, but its color prevents its use for delicate 
 grounds, so that for such purposes it is either mixed 
 with gum varnish, or copal varnish is used instead. 
 Copal or animfe varnish made without driers is applied, 
 in from two to six coats, after the color has been laid 
 on. See Varnish. 
 
 Japanners sometimes use a priming of size and 
 whiting, which is laid on with a brush, and left for a 
 day or two to dry ; it is then made smooth by rubbing 
 with rushes and a wet cloth. When this is quite dry, 
 the grounds are laid on, and finished by varnishing 
 and polishing with rottenstone, or in the case of a 
 white ground, with putty or starch, and oil. It must, 
 however, be remarked, that a priming, or artificially 
 perpared ground, is objectionable, the japanning being 
 more liable to crack than when executed on the actual 
 surface of the object itself. A gold ground is formed 
 by varnishing the work with japanner's gold size, and 
 when nearly dry, but still clammy, covering it with 
 gold dust applied on a piece of wash-leather ; the effect 
 of such a ground when highl}-- varnished is very brilliant. 
 Japan work is ornamented with drawings or engrav- 
 ings, on the principle of transfer, for which purpose the 
 engraving is printed, or the drawing executed on fine 
 paper previously prepared "with a coat of isinglass or 
 gum- water. When this is dry it is placed face downward 
 upon the japan ground, which is covered with a thin 
 coat of copal varnish. A sponge dipped in warm 
 water is then applied to the back of the paper, which 
 dissolves the isinglass, loosens the paper, and leaves 
 the print on the work. Another method is to execute 
 the print on an elastic composition of glue, etc., which 
 receives the impression well, and can be laid down at 
 once on the japanned surface. The whole of the pro- 
 cesses require so much drying, that stoves are requi- 
 site to hasten the work. 
 
 The great demand for japanning is for works in 
 papier mache, to which article we must refer for fur- 
 ther information on the subject. Common articles of 
 furniture are sometimes said to be japanned, thereby 
 implying that they are more durable than common 
 painted articles. The term as thus used is, however, 
 incorrect, since the colors employed on such common 
 works are only mixed with turpentine instead of oil. 
 For japanning works in metal, they are cleaned with 
 
 turpentine to get rid of grease or oil, unless the oil 
 should be linseed, in which case the articles are stoved 
 until the oil becomes quite hard. Japanning is then 
 performed in the usual manner. — E. B. 
 
 Jasper (Ger. Jaspiss ; Du. Jasis ; Fr. Jaspe ; It. 
 Diaspro ; Sp. Jaspe ; "Rus. Jaschma). This stone is 
 an ingredient in the composition of many mountains. 
 It occurs usually in large amorphous masses, some- 
 times in round or angular pieces ; its fracture is conch- 
 oidal ; specific gravity from 2 to 27. Its colors are 
 various ; when heated it does not decrepitate ; it is 
 usually divided into four species, denominated Egyp- 
 tian jasper, striped jasper, porcelain jasper, and com- 
 mon jasper. It is sometimes employed by jewelers in 
 the formation of seals. 
 
 Java, the first in importance, although only the 
 third in magnitude of the islands in the Indian Archi- 
 pelago, lies between east long. 105° 12' and 114° 4'', 
 and south lat. 5° 62" and 8° 40'. In form it is long 
 and narrow, being 666 miles in length from east to 
 west, by from 56 to 136 miles in breadth. Area 50,260 
 square miles. To the north-west it is parted from 
 Sumatra by a strait, at its narrowest part only 14 
 miles wide, and with islands between ; and to the east 
 from Bali, by a strait of no more than two miles 
 broad. On its low, and in some measure sheltered 
 north coast, Java has a good many islands, by far the 
 largest and most important of which is Madura, sepa- 
 rate from it by a strait at one part only about a mile 
 wide. On the bold precipitous south coast there are 
 very few islands, and only two of a considerable size, 
 Baron and Kambanagan, The coast line of Java, 
 which is about 1400 English miles in extent, has many 
 bays on its northern coast, but it is not deeply pene- 
 trated by any one of them, so that it has properly no 
 harbor but one, that of Surabaya, formed between the 
 main island and Madura, where the strait that divides 
 them is still narrow. The southern coast is still less 
 indented. Here there are two harbors only, Pachitan 
 — inconvenient and unsafe — and Chalachap, formed 
 between the main island and Kambangan, both out of 
 the way of intercourse, and little frequented. On 
 other parts of the south coast there is no safe anchor- 
 age, while dangerous surge rolls in on the shore in all 
 seasons. With the single exception named, the ports 
 of the northern coast are but open roadsteads, with 
 good anchoring ground ; but the want of land-locked 
 harbors is not felt so near the equator, where hurri- 
 canes are never experienced, and where the weather 
 is only occasionally tempestuous at the change of the 
 monsoons. 
 
 The physical outline of Java may be divided into 
 five different sections of various breadths. Beginning 
 from the western end and following the line of the 
 northern coast, the first section ends with the eastern 
 side of the bay of Batavia. This is about 75 miles in 
 average breadth. The second extends east as far as 
 Cheribon, in long. 108° 36', and is about 95 miles 
 broad. Both these divisions are mountainous, the 
 mountains being of less elevation than in the other 
 parts of the island, but more crowded, and with nar- 
 rower valleys. They constitute the proper country of 
 the Sundas, who speak a distinct language, and are 
 less advanced in civilization than the Javanese, the 
 nation which occupies all the rest of the island. The 
 third section extends from Cheribon to the western 
 side of the promontory of Japara, in about long. 110° 
 30', and its breadth does not exceed 50 miles, the 
 island being greatly narrowed by the bay which ex- 
 tends for 140 miles from the point of Indramaya to 
 that of Sapara. The fourth section extends from the 
 promontory of Japara to that portion of the island 
 which is opposite to the western end of Madura, and 
 this has an average breadth of 100 miles. The fifth 
 section embraces the remainder of the island, and is 
 no more than 50 miles in breadth. In the three last 
 flections, the mountains are of greater elevation, the 
 
JAV 
 
 1137 
 
 JAV 
 
 plains more spacious, and along tlieir northern coasts 
 there runs generally a belt of alluvial land varying 
 from 5 to 15 miles in depth. 
 
 The geological formation of Java is eminently vol- 
 canic. A range of mountains runs in a longitudinal 
 direction through the centre of Java, the peaks of 
 which vary from the height of near 4000 to near 12,- 
 000 feet above the level of the sea. No fewer than 46 
 of those peaks are volcanoes, 20 of which are in a 
 state of greater or less activity. The craters are 
 sometimes of great extent, and their walls illustrate 
 the structure of the mountains, which is either vertical 
 and irregularly columnar, or disposed in oblique or 
 horizontal strata. 
 
 Java has no extensive collection of water, salt or 
 fresh, and no large lagoons connected with the sea. 
 There exist, however, a few beautiful mountain lakes. 
 One of those lies within the mountain Wilis (" the 
 green"), which parts the plains of Madiyun and Kadiri, 
 and is known by the name of Gabcd. There is a sec- 
 ond in the province of Cheribon, known by the San- 
 scrit name of TJilaga, or the reservoir ; and a third is 
 in the province of Pasuruhan and called Banunila, or 
 the blue water. In Java, however, there are several 
 extensive marshes, which, in the season of the rains, 
 become lakes, are navigated, and have fisheries. The 
 rivers of Java, especially on its northern side, are nu- 
 merous ; but from the form of the island, they are of 
 small size. None of them are navigable for vessels of 
 burden, and few even fer boats beyond the reach of 
 the tide. They are all, more or less, obstructed by 
 mud or sand-bars at their mouths. Though of little 
 utility for trade, they are excellently adapted for irri- 
 gation. Few of the rivers of Java have specific 
 names, but take their appellations generally from the 
 places they pass by, and change them with every new 
 one, a circumstance which may, perhaps, be owing to 
 their small size and great number. There are, how- 
 ever, a few exceptions, in some of the larger, as the 
 Siraya, a river of the province of Bafiumas and the 
 Praga, with its tributaries the Elos Rivers of Kadu, 
 all debouching on the southern coast. 
 
 Climate. — -The climate of Java is what may he ex- 
 pected in a narrow sea-girt countrj* between five and 
 eight degrees south of the equator, having plains al- 
 most on a level with the sea, and inhabited land 5000 
 feet above it. The wet season begins with October 
 and ends with March, and the dry with April and ends 
 with September. The monsoons are those of the 
 southern hemisphere, the north-western corresponding 
 with the wet season, and the south-eastern with the 
 dry. The setting in of these monsoons is irregular, 
 and, even during their prevalence, there is some drj' 
 weather in the wet, and not unfreqnently rain in the 
 drj'. At the equinoxes, when the monsoons change, 
 the weather is very unsettled, and most tempestuous 
 at the commencement of the winter solstice in Septem- 
 ber and October. Thunder-storms are then frequent, 
 and often destructive to life. Land and sea-breezes 
 are experienced within 15 miles of the northern and 
 soutliern coasts, and in particular localities of its east- 
 em and narrowest extremity the south-eastern mon- 
 soon blows with great force across the whole island. 
 The temperature, so far as the seasons are concerned, 
 is equable,. Near the level of the sea, which is that 
 of the great alluvial band, which runs along the 
 northern side of the island, and of the wide plains of 
 the interior, Fahrenheit's thermometer seldom falls 
 below 70°, and seldom rises above 90°. According 
 to the elevation of the land, every variety of temper- 
 ature is experienced from this last to 5° below the 
 freezing point. Snow never falls, even on the highest 
 peaks i but on these at the height of winter, in July 
 and August, ice a few lines thick is formed, and hoar 
 frost is seen every morning, called by the natives, 
 poison-dew (ambun'Upaa), from its pernicious effect on 
 vegetation. In the inhabited mountain valleys, at 
 4C 
 
 the height of 4000 feet, the thermometer is usually 
 about 20° below what it is at the level of the sea. 
 Here is experienced a climate agreeable and congenial 
 to the European constitution ; and here, the corns, 
 fruits, flowers, and esculent vegetables of temperate 
 regions, have long been acclimated. In point of salu- 
 brity, the climate of the high lands of Java is unex- 
 ceptionable, and that of the low, containing the mass 
 of the population, is generally equal to that of any 
 other tropical country. In a few spots of the alluvial 
 band of the northern coast, such as Batavia and Cheri- 
 bon, deleterious malaria have occasionally prevailed, 
 arising from the neglect of canals and water-courses, 
 or from these being obstructed by volcanic debris ; but 
 these are exceptions, as are also a few forest tracts of 
 the interior of the island. The extensive cultivation of 
 rice by irrigation might have been expected to gener- 
 erate malaria, but such is not the case, nor h^ it ever 
 been alleged to have done so in the country itself. 
 
 The elephant is not found in Java, nor does there 
 exist any evidence of its ever having been indigenous, 
 and this is the more remarkable as it is abundant in 
 Sumatra. The animal, however, was known to the 
 Javanese for ages, and was probably imported occa- 
 sionally for the use of its princes. Java has one rhi- 
 noceros peculiar to itself, and differing even from those 
 of Sumatra. It is an animal easily tamed, and when 
 so, gentle in its habits. Besides the domesticated hog, 
 Java has two wild species, the Sus verrucosus and Sus 
 vitiatus. Both are very numerous, and their depreda- 
 tions are a serious impediment to agriculture. 
 
 A wild ox is found in the forests of Java, the same 
 as that found in the peninsula and Borneo, but which 
 is wanting in Sumatra. It is the Hos sondaicus of 
 naturalists. The Dutch naturalists inform us that all 
 attempts to tame it have been vain, as in the case of 
 the buffalo of the American prairies. According to 
 the Javanese, however, it will pair with the domesti- 
 cated cattle, producing a fertile offspring, to which 
 they attribute the largest breed of their oxen. The 
 buffalo. Bos hubaluSj is found wild in many of the 
 forests of Java, but considered by naturalists to be de- 
 rived from individuals in the domestic state that had 
 escaped from servitude. The horse nowhere exists in 
 Java in the wild state, but the numbers of this ani- 
 mal and of homed cattle in the domestic state through- 
 out the island are very large, the Dutch returns 
 reckoning the first at 320,000, and the last at about 
 2,000,000. 
 
 Fish are plentiful along the whole northern coast of 
 Java, and a few species are of excellent quality, but, 
 upon the whole, the abundance and the quality are 
 not eqnal to those of the shores of the Straits of 
 Malacca. The fresh water fish are all of very inferior 
 quality and no migratory species frequent the rivers 
 for spawning as they do on the rivers of the eastern 
 side of Sumatra. Shell-fish are very abundant on the 
 northern coast, especially oysters of excellent quality, 
 and prawns, tlie last being much used by the people in 
 the shape of the condiment called by the Javanese 
 trasi. The fisheries of the exposed southern coast of 
 the island are unimportant. 
 
 Java, whether the inhabitants be of the Javanese 
 or Sunda nation, is peopled by the same race, the 
 Malayan. This is characterized by a short and squat 
 person, the stature being about two inches less than 
 that of the European, the Chinese, the Hindoo, the 
 Persian, or Arabian. The face is round, the mouth 
 wide, the cheek-bones high, the nose short, small, 
 never prominent as with the European, and never flat 
 as with the African negro. The eyes are always 
 black, small, and deep-seated. The complexion is 
 brown, with a shade of yellow, not so dark as with the 
 majority of Hindoos, and never black as with some of 
 them. Fairness is, indeed, in estimation with the 
 Javanese and others of the same race. The hair of the 
 head is abundant, always black, lank, and harsh, or at 
 
JAV 
 
 1138 
 
 JAV 
 
 least never soft or silky. The hair on other parts of 
 the body is either scanty or altogether wanting. The 
 beard consists only of a few short straggling hairs, 
 and there is none at all on the breast or limbs. The 
 Javanese, personally, are not an agile people, and 
 make very indifferent runners or wrestlers. As to 
 moral character, the Javanese of the present day may 
 be described as a peaceable, docile, sober, simple, and 
 industrious people. The practice of running a muck, 
 so frequent with the other cultivated nations of the 
 Archipelago, is of very rare occurrence with them. 
 Java was populous, and to a considerable degree civ- 
 ilized for many ages before it was known to Euro- 
 peans. De Barros describes the Javanese, at the 
 arrival of the Portuguese, as what they still are, "the 
 most civilized people of these parts" {gentes de mais 
 policia). They were then found carrj-ing on trade 
 from Sumatra to the Moluccas ; they furnished bread- 
 corn and manufactures to the less advanced nations 
 in return for their rude productions, and they had 
 effected conquests or settlements in Malacca, Palem- 
 bang in Sumatra, and in the two fertile islands of Bali 
 and Lomboc. In fact, it is certain that the Javanese 
 were, at this time, a far more civilized, probably even 
 a more numerous people than either the Mexicans or 
 Peruvians, who became known to Europe nearly at 
 the same time. The essential part of Javanese civ- 
 ilization seems to be of native origin and to have sprung 
 up in the island itself, although it subsequently received 
 considerable accessions by intercourse with Hindoostan. 
 With the exception of the people of Bali and Lom- 
 boc, the Javanese are the only nation of the Archi- 
 pelago that can be said to be almost exclusively 
 agricultural. With the exception of the fishermen of 
 the northern coast, and a small proportion of artisans, 
 the computed ten millions of the population of the 
 island is directly or indirectly engaged in agriculture, 
 and have made a respectable progress in it. To regu- 
 late the processes of agriculture, the Javanese have a 
 rural calendar still in use. This consists of a year of 
 360 daj's, begmning with the winter solstice of the 
 southern hemisphere in the end of June, and divided 
 into twelve seasons of unequal length, varying from 
 23 to 41 days each. It details the times for clearing 
 and preparing the land, for sowing, for transplanting, 
 and for reaping the different crops. The native terms 
 by which the seasons are named, are, for the most 
 part, the ordinal numbers of the vernacular language, 
 while the adaptation of the seasons to the latitude of 
 Java sufficiently show that this calendar is a Javanese 
 invention, and not borrowed from strangers. Irriga- 
 tion, in so far as the rice crop is concerned, multiplies 
 the productive powers of the soil from five to tenfold, 
 according to the abundance of water, and the facility 
 of using it, and has been carried to such an extent in 
 Java that the majority of the arable land of the island 
 consists of rice fields. The perennial streams and 
 rivers, as they descend from the mountains, are, by 
 means of embankments and trenches, diverted into 
 small fields surrounded by low dikes, which can be 
 flooded or drained at pleasure. The process of form- 
 ing such lands is expensive and laborious, but when 
 once formed, they are easily preserved. When the 
 water for irrigated lands is sufficiently abundant and ' 
 continuous, two crops of rice are raised within the 
 year, and in some cases even three within fifteen 
 months, the sun being hot enough to ripen rice in 
 every season. The husbandman may follow his con- 
 venience as to the time of sowing, and in contiguous 
 fields may be seen at once sowing and reaping rice, 
 with every intermediate stage of the growth of the 
 plant. When the water is not sufficiently copious for 
 two crops, .the rice is sown in the wet or hot season ; 
 and in the dry, or cold, crops considered of secondary 
 value are produced, such as pulses, oil-giving plants, 
 and cotton. No manure is ever applied to irrigated 
 lands, nor are fallows practiced. 
 
 Dry or upland arable is of small value compared to 
 irrigated land. On the best, dry lands rice is occa- 
 sionally grown, but more generally these lands are 
 used for such crops as pulses, oil-giving plants, cotton, 
 sugar-cane, and tobacco^ and on the mountain-slopes, 
 at an elevation of 2000 and 3000 feet, for coffee. In 
 the most fertile parts of Java, which, from the neigh- 
 borhood of the high mountains, are usually also the 
 most picturesque, the scenery ia at once agreeable and 
 magnificent, and certainly for grandeur and beauty 
 excels all that may be seen, even in Italy, that coun- 
 try which in summer bears the nearest resemblance to 
 Java. In such situations we have mountains 10,000 
 feet high, cultivated to half their height, the valleys 
 below having all the appearance of a well-watered 
 garden. 
 
 When Java, first became known to Europeans, its 
 principal agricultural products were rice, pulses, 
 sesame, ground-pea, and other oil-giving plants, in- 
 digo and cotton, with palms and indigenous fruits. 
 European intercourse has added to tliese, maize, to- 
 bacco, and coffee. The quantity of its great staple, 
 rice, which it produces, can only be estimated. With 
 the exception of a small quantity of maize, rice is the 
 only bread-corn of the Javanese ; and, therefore, if 
 we take the consumption per head at a quarter, or 448 
 lbs., this, on a computed population of 10,000,000, will 
 make the total annual produce the same number of 
 quarters. The export is, at present, too inconsidera- 
 ble materially to affect this computation, for in 1848 it 
 amounted to no more than 217,000 quarters. Prom 
 the first appearance of Europeans, and no doubt for 
 many ages before, Java was the greatest granarj"- of 
 the other countries of the Archipelago. Recently the 
 extensive culture by corvee labor of such products as 
 sugar, coffee, and indigo, under an idle and pernicious 
 hypothesis that some peculiar commercial advantage 
 to the State belonged to their culture, has greatly in- 
 terfered with the production of corn. The export of 
 it has consequently diminished, and the price materi- 
 allj' risen ; the consequence of which has been, that 
 countries immemorially supplied by Java, now draw 
 their corn from other places, such as Bali, Lomboc, 
 Siam, and Arracan. 
 
 Mechanic Arts. — The state of the mechanic arts 
 among the Javanese is far below that of their agricul- 
 ture, but still in advance of that of the other nations 
 of the Archipelago ; and with the exception of textile 
 fabrics, not below that of the Hindoos. About thirty 
 different crafts may be enumerated as practiced among 
 them, the most important of which are the black- 
 smith or cutler, the carpenter, the kris-sheath maker, 
 the coppersmith, the goldsmith, and the potter. Both 
 bricks and tiles are, at present, largely made; and 
 excellent bricks are found in the remains of many 
 ancient temples, proving that the art of manufacturing 
 them has been known for many ages. Coarse un- 
 glazed pottery, similar to that of Hindoostan, is also 
 made ; and the names of the different sorts all belong 
 to the vernacular language. Beyond the manufacture 
 of this coarse article, the Javanese have not advanced 
 — all their better pottery having been for ages received 
 from China. Their skill in carpentry is displayed in 
 house and boat building, in the fabrication of agri- 
 cultural implements, and of the hilts, shafts, and 
 scabbards of warlike weapons. The ordinarj' dwell- 
 ings of the peasantrj' consist of a rough frame of tim- 
 ber, thatched on the coast with the leaves of the nipa 
 palm, and in the interior with grass ; having walls 
 and partitions of split, flattened, and plaited bamboo 
 work. They are always built on the ground. The 
 dwellings of the upper classes differ, chiefly, in their 
 greater size, with the exception of the palaces of the 
 princes and higher nobility. Boat-building is an art 
 extensively practiced all along the northern coast of 
 Java, Their boats vary in form and size from mere 
 fishing canoes to vessels of fifty tons. The buUding 
 
JAV 
 
 1139 
 
 JAV 
 
 of ships is, at present, carried on under the direction 
 of Europeans, the workmen, however, being all 
 Javanese. When Europeans became first acquainted 
 with the Javanese, they were possessed of vessels of 
 large size, well entitled to the name of ships. The 
 agricultural implements of the Javanese are, like 
 those of nearly every other Asiatic people, simple and 
 rude. 
 
 The Javanese of the present day ha* e no architec- 
 ture that deserves the name, and apart from the tem- 
 ples of their ancient worship, no relics remain of any 
 kind of domestic architecture, of bridges, of reservoirs, 
 or of embankments of rivers, such as are found in the 
 country of the Hindoos. The remains of the remark- 
 able edifices connected with the Hindoo religion are 
 abundant ; but it is singular that an improved archi- 
 tecture ceased with that religion, and that no Moham- 
 medan structure of solid materials or beauty has been 
 constructed since the adoption of the Hlohamtaedan 
 religion towilrd the end of the 15th century. ' 
 
 It is in working the nietalS, however, that the 
 Javanese have most excelled, and as they acquired 
 this comparative excellence without possessing any of 
 the metals themselves, but having all of them im- 
 ported, the fact may be considered as evidence of com- 
 paratively advanced civilization. According to the 
 Javanese, the first rank among artisans is to bo as- 
 cribed to the blacksmith, or at least to the cutler. The 
 niost esteemed product of his skill is the dagger, the 
 well known kris. Every man, and boy of 14, wears 
 at least one kris as part of his ordinary dress, and men 
 of rank two, and sometimes four. Even ladies of high 
 rank occasionally wear one. Swords are used only in 
 native warfare, and are much less esteemed than the 
 kris, the national weapon. The Javanese spear, a 
 plain pike with an iron head, is a formidable weapon, 
 from its long shaft of from 12 to 14 feet. Some of the 
 Javanese kifises, from their antiquity, are highly ap- 
 preciated, and when sold bring enormous prices. The 
 Javanese had also, before the arrival of the Portu- 
 guese, a knowledge of gunpowder and artillery. De 
 Barros, in describing an expedition which invaded 
 Malacca in 1513, saj-s, "tliat it was furnished with 
 much artillery, made in Java, for," adds he, "the 
 Javanese are skilled in founding or casting, and in all 
 work in iron, besides what they have from India." 
 
 The Javanese, although they manufacture gold 
 and silver ornaments of considerable beautj'', execute 
 nothing equal to the filigree work of Sumatra. In 
 works in brass, their chief excellence consists in the 
 fabrication of musical instruments, a full band of 
 which is known throughout the Archipelago by the 
 Javanese name of garrlMan. The instruments consist 
 chiefly of bars, constructed after the manner of the 
 staocata, or of the gong, a word which has found its 
 way into our dictionaries and is genuine JaVanese. 
 Some of these gongs have been made three feet in 
 diameter. Musical instruments of this description are 
 still manufactured in Java, and form an article of ex- 
 portation, as, indeed, thej' are said to have done on the 
 first arrival of the Portuguese. 
 
 The only textile material of native produce is cot- 
 ton, rather a coarse article, and the only kind of cloth 
 made from it is a stout durable calico, the muslins and 
 other fine textures of continental India being un- 
 Icnown as manufactures. The processes of cleaning 
 and preparing the cotton, of spinning, weaving, and 
 dyeing, are all carried on by women, and are purely 
 domestic operations, as is the case with all the other 
 nations of the Archipelago. The usual mode of giving 
 variety of colors to the web is the simplest possible, 
 consisting in weaving the previously colored yam in 
 stripes, checkered or tartan patterns, so ftequent 
 with the other tribes, being against the taste of the 
 Javanese. Another mode peculiar to this people con- 
 sists in covering with melted wax the part of the 
 cloth not intended to he dyed before putting it in the 
 
 rat, the process necessarily requiring repetition in 
 proportion to the number of colors intended to be 
 given. The only material, besides cotton, from which 
 cloth is made by the Javanese is silk, and as the art 
 of rearing the silk-worm has never been successfully 
 introduced into Java, the raw material has always 
 been imported. At present it is imported from China, 
 an inferior silk, from which a coarse cloth is wrought 
 with the same implements as that of cotton. Paper is 
 a manufacture peculiar to the Javanese, It is of the 
 nature of the papj'rus of the ancients, and not of the 
 beautiful and Ingenious fabric which the nations of 
 Europe acquired from the Arabs of Spain, and so long 
 Imown to the Chinese. 
 
 ■Two languages are spoken in Java, of the same 
 general structure, belonging to the same class of 
 tongues, ad having many words in common, yet es- 
 sentially differing from each other. These are the 
 Javanese and Sunda. The Javanese has been im- 
 memorially a written language, and its alphabet has 
 extended "to the Sunda language. Inscriptions on 
 stone and brass carry us back in its history to the 12th 
 century. The written character is of two descriptions, 
 that found in ancient inscriptions, and that at present 
 current. They seem, however, to be essentially the 
 same, and not to differ more than black letter from 
 modem manuscript. 
 
 History. — Java was unknown even by name to the 
 civilized nations of ancient Europe, and even to those 
 of the middle ages. It is first named by Marco Polo, 
 who, in his junk voyage from China to the Persian 
 Gulf, passed through the northern part of the Archi- 
 pelago about the close of the 13th century. He gives 
 the name as Ciaua or Java, but his information being 
 mere hearsay, is in other respects erroneous. Thus, 
 mistaking probably the products of its commerce for 
 its indigenous productions, he enumerates among 
 the latter cloves and nutmegs, and gold in quantity 
 "exceeding all calculation and belief," although it 
 produces none at all. No sooner had the Portuguese 
 reached India by the Cape of Good Hope than the 
 name became familiar enough to Europeans. L. Bar- 
 thema visited the island and remained fourteen daj's 
 in it, but his account is obviously false or worthless, for 
 he describes parents as selling their children to be 
 eaten by the purchasers, and himself as quitting the 
 island in haste for fear of being made a meal of. 
 Edoardo Barbosa, although he had not visited it, 
 describes its productions, its trade, its manufactures 
 of arms, and the persons, dress, and manners of its 
 inhabitants, with much accuracy. Pigafetta, although 
 his information respecting it was derived, as he tells 
 us, himself, from the old pilot who accompanied him 
 from the Moluccas, is even more correct than Barbosa. 
 How very little, however, was really known of Java 
 by the early Portuguese of India, is to be seen from 
 what De Barros, master of all the Indian archives, 
 says of it in his Third Decade, published in 1663, no 
 less than 62 years after the conquest of Malacca, and 
 several years after his countrymen had visited China, 
 discovered Java, and traded with both. He makes it 
 consist of two islands, Java and Sunda ; and his work 
 contains a rude map, in which a great river, or rather 
 a strait of the sea, is represented as dividing them. 
 This he calls the River Chiamo, which may possibly 
 be the Chitando of the Sundas, a considerable stream 
 at the eastern boundary of their country, and which, in 
 their language, signifies, " boundary water or river." 
 
 It was in the reign of the second prince of this dy- 
 nasty, that the Dutch made their first appearance in 
 Java, under Hontman, in 1595. In 1610 they obtained 
 permission from the Sunda prince of Jacatra, to build 
 a fort near the spot on which now stands the city of 
 Batavia. In 1619 this fort was besieged by the joint 
 forces of the princes of Jacatra and Bantam, aided an* 
 abetted by the English. It was relievd by a Dutch 
 fleet under admiral Koen, and the assailants defeated 
 
JAV 
 
 1140 
 
 JAY 
 
 and driven off. It was after this event that the name 
 of Batavia first given to the fortress was bestowed on 
 the town. In 1628 Batavia was besieged by a numer- 
 ous army sent against it by the reigning prince of 
 Mataram, with the hope of expelling the Dutch from 
 the island ; but by the skill and courage of the Euro- 
 pean garrison, the rude and disorderlj- host was baffled 
 and routed. From this time the history of Java is 
 properly that of its European conquerors. No con- 
 siderable territorial acquisition, however, was made 
 until 1677, when the Dutch obtained a cession of the 
 principality of Jacatra. From that time up to the 
 year 1830, every war earned on by them witli the na- 
 tive princes, whether as principals or auxiliaries, inva- 
 riably ended in a cession of territoiy to the former ; 
 so that, at present, hardly one fourteenth part of the 
 island is in possession of native rulers, and even that 
 is entirely tributary and dependent. From the year 
 1674 to 1830, the Dutch, as principals or auxiliaries, 
 have been engaged in no fewer than four great wars, 
 all of long duration ; one of which, begun in 1674, 
 lasted for 34 years ; one in 1718, lasted for 5 years ; 
 one in 1740, for 15 years ; and one in 1825, for 5 years ; 
 so that, of one third part, at least, of a period of 156 
 years, civil war raged in the island. The Dutch have 
 divided their possessions in Java into 20 provinces or 
 residences, each of which is administered b}' a resident 
 or prefect. Six of these belong to the countr^^ of the 
 Sundas, and 14 to that of the Javanese. The two 
 remaining native States, although administered by 
 their own princes, are virtually Dutch provinces, and 
 placed under the control of an oificer, with the same 
 title as those of the provinces under direct Dutch rule. 
 Populaiion. — Attempts have been made at various 
 times to estimate the total population of Java. The 
 first of these was by the historian Valentyn, who esti- 
 mates the population in his time (1726) at 3,199,750 ; 
 and including Madura, 3,591,500. This estimate was 
 made shortly after a civil war of five years' duration. 
 In 1755, immediately after the finest parts of the island 
 had been the theatre of a civil war of 15 years, an es- 
 timate was made which gave Java onl)' 1,941,911, or 
 including Madura, 2,001,911. This would seem to 
 show that in less than 30 years a decrease had talcen 
 place exceeding a million and a quarter. At therflose 
 of the last century, estimates of the population were 
 made, which raised the joint population of Java and 
 Madura to 3,559,611. This was after a continued 
 peace of 45 years ; and shows, compared to the last 
 estimate, an increase exceeding » million and a half. 
 In 1808 another estimate was made, and by this, the 
 number was made 3,730,000. In 1815 a census was 
 attempted during the temporarj' occupation of the En- 
 glish, which raised the population of Java to 4,390,661, 
 or including Madura, to 4,615,270. In 1826 a census 
 was taken which gave the population at 5,403,786. 
 10 years later, another was taken, and this raised the 
 number to 7,861,551 ; and consequently gave a decen- 
 nial increase at the rate of about 44 per cent. The 
 census of 1845 made the joint population of Java and 
 Madura 9,530,781, or of Java alone, 9,235,033. The last 
 census is that of 1852, and this made the joint population 
 of Java and Madura 9,943,075. The population was es- 
 timated as being, on 31st December, 1853, 10,290,000. 
 
 Revenue— T\ie revenue of the European government 
 of Java is that of the whole island, including Madura; 
 excepting as to some taxes on consumption, the terri- 
 tories are subject to the two remaining native princes, 
 embracing an area of 2229 square miles, and a reputed 
 population of 850,000. It is derived from multifarious 
 sources, and may be briefly described, taking the fig- 
 ures from the public accounts of 1843, as given by Mr. 
 Temminck. These may be sufficient for a general 
 view, as no material change has since been made in 
 the fiscal system. 
 
 During the five years' temporary' occupation of Java 
 by the British government, from 1811 to 1816, nearly 
 
 the whole ancient system of monopolies, forced deliv- 
 eries, and corvee labor was overthrown, and free cult- 
 ure, open trade, and free labor substituted for them. 
 The merit of this great revolution in the administra- 
 tion of the island belongs to the late Sir Stamford 
 Raffles, the British lieutenant-governor of Java, under 
 the supreme government of India ; and he carried his 
 bold and valuable innovations into eflifect with a cour- 
 age, industry', and perseverance entitled to the greatest 
 praise. The financial system which he adopted, how- 
 ever, was not so happy, in so far as the land-tax was 
 concerned, for it proceeded on the principle of the 
 States entering directly into an arrangement with each 
 individual occupant of a few acres, in the case of Java 
 probably not fewer than half a million. Under this 
 system, the tax was paid either in monej' or in kind, 
 at the option of the occupant ; and being generally 
 paid in the latter, it followed that the government was 
 converted at once into warehouse-keepers, and corn- 
 merchants. As in other territories on the continent 
 of India, the new system was found mischievous and 
 impracticable. The land was over-assessed, and the 
 hypothetical land-tax could not be realized. 
 
 After two years' trial, the Dutch commissioners who 
 received charge of the island, judiciously abandoned 
 the Kyotwarrie system of 1814, and arranged with the 
 heads of the village corporations for the land-tax, 
 leaving its distribution among the occupants to these 
 corporations themselves. This natural and simple 
 system, the only one suited to such a state of society 
 as that of Java, after being in operation for 14 years, 
 was partially relinquished in 1832, and the old system 
 of forced deliveries of certain agricultural products, 
 and of corvee labor in raising them, was, to a large 
 extent, restored. The pretext for this was the hope 
 of greater gain, and the assumption that, by the im- 
 memorial usage of the country, the State was entitled 
 to take, at its option, its tax in money, in kind, or in 
 corvee labor. Under this system, a considerable por- 
 tion of the tax on rent is remitted, and some of the 
 best land with the labor of its peasantry has been ap- 
 propriated to the cultivation of products deemed pecu- 
 liarly fitted for the markets of Europe, such as coffee, 
 sugar, and indigo, with tea, cinnamon, and cochineal, 
 and the last three expressly introduced into the island 
 for this special purpose. By this impolitic measure, 
 the Dutch government has become, once more, a cul- 
 tivator, a trader, and necessarily, from its position, to 
 a certain extent, a monopolist trader. The evil effects 
 of such a system on that wealth, which is the only 
 source of public revenue, must be obvious to every 
 enlightened statesman. 
 
 The actual amount of the tax on rent or land-tax 
 remaining to the Dutch government, after deducting 
 exemptions, was, in 1843, allowing 20d. to the florin, 
 £835,551. To this, however, is to be added a sura of 
 £26,215 for the quit-rents of land sold at various times 
 in fee-simple to Europeans, with other items of the 
 nature of a land-tax, as the rents of certain fish-ponds, 
 or stews, amounting to £27,302, making the total land- 
 tax realized £889,128. No account is rendered of re- 
 missions on account of land appropriated to the culture 
 of produce for government, but a few facts are stated 
 which will give a tolerable notion of the extent to 
 which this very barbarous system is carried. The 
 number of Javanese families from which corvee labor 
 was exacted for the culture of coffee, in 1841, was 
 453,289, and for that of sugar, indigo, and cinnamon, 
 350,955, making the total number, exclusive of those 
 employed in the cultivation of tea and cochineal, which 
 is not stated, 704,244 families, equivalent to a popula- 
 tion exceeding three millions and a half, or 40 parts in 
 100 of the entire population of the European portion 
 of the island. The quantity of land set aside for the 
 cultivation of sugar, indigo, and cinnamon, amounted 
 in 1841 to 317,635 acres, and this consisted of the rich- 
 est irrigated lands of the island, usually yielding twc 
 
JAV 
 
 1141 
 
 JAV 
 
 yearly harvests, and equal in value to 10 times that of 
 the average of all dry lands. The quantity of land, 
 of an inferior description, appropriated to the culture 
 of coffee and tea, all peculiarly fitted for the growth of 
 maize, is not stated, but some notion of it may be 
 formed from the number of families employed, as above 
 given, and from the number of trees, which amounted 
 in 1841 to 336,922,460. 
 
 The taxes on consumption are multifarious, consist- 
 ing of monopolies, excises, customs, transit and market 
 duties, taxes on fisheries, and on the slaughter of cat- 
 tle. The chief monopolies are those of the vend of 
 opium and salt. In 1843 the first of these amounted 
 to £796,630, and the last to £384,159. The monopoly 
 of opium is at once productive and unexceptionable in 
 principle. That on salt is, of course, a poll-tax, which 
 amounts to about 4s. on each family, and is only less 
 onerous than our own in Bengal, from the salt of Java, 
 the produce, chiefly by solar evaporation, of its north- 
 em coast, being better, cheaper, and more econom- 
 ically distributed to the consumers than that of Ben- 
 gal. Another monopoly is that exercised in certain 
 caves producing the esculent swallow-nests, and this, 
 as the birds are the chief manufacturers, and strangers 
 the chief consumers, is an unexceptionable source of 
 revenue. In 1843 its amount was £24,271. The sale 
 of timber from the tealc forests, which are the exclu- 
 sive propertj' of the government, constitutes another 
 monopoly, of which the produce in the same year was 
 £42,141. These different items make the total revenues 
 arising from monopolies £1,247,201. In the public 
 accounts the monopoly of the tin of Banca is set down 
 as Javanese revenue, and stated at the sum of £250, 
 000. As the revenue of Java alone supplies the funds 
 with which the mining and smelting is carried on, this 
 branch is therefore correctly enough included in the 
 financial resources of that island. 
 
 The export and import duties of Java in 1843, in- 
 cluding port charges, amounted to £460,840 ; and the 
 market, transit, and ferry dues, came to £262,672. 
 The tax on the slaughter of cattle was £39,341, and 
 that on fish and fisheries £27,911. It is not necessary 
 to add that the two last, as taxes on necessaries of life, 
 are injurious imposts. A strange want of attention to 
 an obvious principle is evinced by the European gov- 
 ernment of Java, connected with the slaughter of cat- 
 tle. The slaughter of the bufl'alo is expressly prohib- 
 ited, with the avowed object of increasing the num- 
 ber of this animal for the benefit of agriculture. The 
 certain effect of the prohibition, however, must of 
 course be the very reverse of what is intended, for the 
 rearing of these animals, is surely discouraged, not 
 promoted, by depriving the owners of a market for the 
 old, imperfect, or superfluous ones. 
 
 The expenses of the government of Java in 1843, 
 were given at the sum of £6,291,606. Thus, then, the 
 expenditure exceeded the amount of the taxes bj' the 
 enormous sum of £3,082,249, to be made good by the 
 contingencj' of profits on produce remitted to Europe. 
 The civil charges came to £827,825, the military to 
 £720,319, the naval to £138,846, and the extraordina- 
 ry expenditure, on account of Sumatra, to £220,076. 
 The expense of dispatching government produce, ex- 
 clusive of freight and charges, amounted to £75,212, 
 while the interest of the public debt, nearly all incur- 
 red in 27 years' time, came to £1,018,463, or about half 
 of that of British India, with 120,000,000 of inhab- 
 itants, and which it has taken a century to incur. 
 
 Trade. — The internal trade of Java embraces that of 
 all the Netherland possessions in India, as it is the en- 
 trepot for the whole of it. It includes also a large 
 remittance for the public revenue in the shape of pro- 
 duce, as coffee, sugar, indigo, tin, and spices. Java 
 and the other Dutch possessions were delivered over 
 by the English in 1816, with a considerably improved 
 commerce, and certainly, at all events, with a clear 
 field for the establishment of a liberal system. The 
 
 opportunity has assuredly not been taken advantage 
 of. Double duties have been imposed on all goods 
 imported under a foreign flag, and other contrivances 
 of the exploded mercantile system have been had re- 
 course to, in order to give trade a direction to Holland, 
 a costly expedient, injurious to the colony, and of no 
 substantial value to the mother country. In 1824, and 
 within eight years after the restoration, a new East 
 India Companj- was set up as one of these contrivances, 
 the Handel Maatschapij or trading association. This 
 association is merchant, shipowner, agent, for the sale 
 of the government produce in Europe, carrier of this 
 produce, and farmer of some branches of the public 
 revenue of Java. Originally, there was guaranteed 
 to it a fixed and certainnnterest on its capital stock, 
 and even the sovereign of the Netherlands was a 
 sleeping partner of it. The false hypothesis on which 
 this retrograde policy was adopted, was a supposed 
 necessity for encountering what was called the over- 
 grown capitals and enterprise of England and America, 
 as if the free capital and enterprise of Holland, which, 
 under greater difficulties had achieved much greater 
 things, was unequal to carry on the trade of its own 
 colony without pillowing and bolstering. 
 
 The values of the exports from Java, and their des- 
 tination, in 1840, 1836, and 1826, were as follows : 
 
 CountrieB. 
 
 1846. 
 
 1836. 
 
 18S6. 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 Indian Archipelago. 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 China, Macao, etc. . 
 
 Florins. 
 
 89,608,848 
 
 9,826,548 
 
 , 2,865,987 
 
 1,886,708 
 
 1,826,149 
 
 1,199,644 
 
 615,041 
 
 845,949 
 
 711,868 
 
 Florins, 
 
 27.282,688 
 
 6,708,168 
 
 189,592 
 
 8,818,706 
 
 1,944,146 
 
 1,002,529 
 
 103,142 
 
 258,969 
 
 869,815 
 
 Florins. 
 
 6,518,625 
 
 4,857,788 
 
 849,098 
 
 1,976,192 
 
 42,282 
 
 211,231 
 
 68,884 
 
 57,172 
 
 969,785 
 
 America 
 
 Hamburg....!... . 
 
 
 Other places 
 
 The previous statements show that the produce and 
 trade of Java have increased during the last 12 years 
 with a rapidity unknown in anj' other colony, Cuba, 
 perhaps, excepted ; and if the resources and capabil- 
 ities of this noble island be fully developed, it is quite 
 impossible to say how much further her trade may be 
 extended and her resources developed. 
 
 Principal Porf. — Batavia, a citj'- of the island of 
 Java, the capital of the Dutch possessions in the East 
 Indies, and the principal trading port of the Oriental 
 Islands, lat. 6° 8' south, long. 106° 50' east, on the 
 north-west coast of the island, at the mouth of the 
 Jacatra Eiver, on an extensive bay. The harbor lies 
 between the main land and several small uninhab- 
 ited islands, which, during the north-western mon- 
 soon, afford sufficient shelter and good anchorage. 
 Population in 1842, 53,860, including about 3000 Eu- 
 ropeans ; the rest are Chinese, Javanese, Malays, etc. 
 It is built on marshy ground, and intersected by canals 
 in the Dutch style. It is defended by a citadel and 
 several batteries, and has a considerable garrison and 
 marine arsenal. Other authorities represent the 
 population of Batavia, in 1832, at 118,000 ; viz., Euro- 
 peans, 3000; Chinese, 25,000; Aborigines, 80,000; 
 Moors, 1000 ; Arabs, 9000. Batavia has a bank, with 
 branches at Samarano and Surabayo. This place was 
 long considered very unhealthy, but has been much im- 
 proved by drainage. Mean temperature of year, 78°. 
 
 The Jacatra is navigable by vessels of 40 tons two 
 miles inland ; ships of from 300 to 400 tons anchor in 
 the bay. If miles from shore. Batavia is the great 
 commercial emporium of the Asiatic Archipelago, and 
 absorbs by far the greatest proportion of the trade of 
 Java and Madura ; the annual exports of which islands 
 amount to 60,300,000 florins ($25,123,000), and the 
 imports to 30,000,000 florins ($12,000,000).— E. B. 
 
 See Quar. Rev., vi., 487, xvii., 72 ; HnjJi's Mer, 
 '., ii., 328, xxxiii., 369 ; Ed. Rev., xxxi., 895. 
 
 In 1853 the foreign commerce of Java and Ma^ 
 dura amounted to $17,712,241 for 'general imports, 
 and to $28,677,183 for exports. The imports and ex- 
 
JAV 
 
 1142 
 
 JAV 
 
 ports during this year exceeded those of the preceding 
 year— the former $1,596,164, or 9.9 per cent. ; the lat- 
 ter $6,294,489, or 21.83 per cent. ; thus exhibiting the 
 most practical illustration of the increasing trade of 
 these rich and fertile islands. The share assigned to 
 
 COMMEKOE OF THE UkiTED StAIES WITH THE DUTCH EAST INDIES, FEOM OOTOBEE 1, 1820, TO JULT 1, 1856. 
 
 the Netherlands in the general trade of 1853 repre- 
 sented, for imports, 42.23 per cent of the whole j and 
 for exports, 76.09 per cent. The trade with the United 
 States with these islands, during the same year, was 
 1.39 of the whole. 
 
 
 Ejiports. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Whereof there was in Bullion 
 and Specie. 
 
 Tonnage Cleared. 
 
 
 Domestic. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Exported. 
 
 Imported. 
 
 American. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Sept 80, 1821 
 
 $183,010 
 
 $1,681,803 
 
 $1,714,813 
 
 $184,869 
 
 $1,257,996 
 
 
 6,610 
 
 
 1832 
 
 121,441 
 
 999,671 
 
 1,121,012 
 
 868,144 
 
 877,641 
 
 $2,800 
 
 5'?5* 
 
 
 1828 
 
 151,120 
 
 1,760,981 
 
 1,902,101 
 
 419,680 
 
 998,940 
 
 240 
 
 4,990 
 
 
 1824 
 
 61,669 
 
 688,616 
 
 700,285 
 
 147,458 
 
 419,818 
 
 
 8,814 
 
 
 1825 
 
 168,022 
 
 1,864,884 
 
 1,527,906 
 
 188,402 
 
 669,558 
 
 24,808 
 
 T,866 
 
 1,234 
 
 1826 
 
 67,806 
 
 874,967 
 
 482,468 
 
 518,886 
 
 273,069 
 
 
 8,232 
 
 
 1827 
 
 88,859 
 
 127,749 
 
 166,608 
 
 286,447 
 
 96,222 
 
 2,067 
 
 1,148 
 
 
 1828 
 
 83,710 
 
 813.277 
 
 896,987 
 
 118,462 
 
 266,480 
 
 2,000 
 
 8,028 
 
 
 1829 
 
 62,074 
 
 176,818 
 
 288,392 
 
 121,848 
 
 149,550 
 
 3,398 
 
 1,986 
 
 
 1880 
 
 Toeal.... 
 
 68,278 
 
 107,298 
 
 170,566 
 
 181,848 
 
 62,600 
 
 10,000 
 
 1,601 
 
 220 
 
 $985,684 
 
 $7,488,449 
 
 $8,871,188 
 
 $2,409,714 
 
 $5,080,868 
 
 $44,803 
 
 87,696 
 
 1,454 
 
 Sept. 80, 1881 
 
 $128,884 
 
 $631,442 
 
 $760,826 
 
 $819,895 
 
 $480,975 
 
 $4,827 
 
 6,493 
 
 
 1882 
 
 24,616 
 
 503,604 
 
 528,020 
 
 668,974 
 
 426,598 
 
 
 7,486 
 
 630 
 
 1888 
 
 98,852 
 
 680,989 
 
 774,841 
 
 760,290 
 
 477,983 
 
 10,281 
 
 7,477 
 
 1,488 
 
 1884 
 
 116,011 
 
 466,138 
 
 581,149 
 
 682,169 
 
 886,876 
 
 1,615 
 
 8,823 
 
 846 
 
 1885 
 
 280,608 
 
 1,218,682 
 
 1,444,290 
 
 800,888 
 
 1,106,498 
 
 926 
 
 20,476 
 
 
 1836 
 
 172,691 
 
 906,381 
 
 1,079,022 
 
 1,477,906 
 
 706,746 
 
 224 
 
 16,988 
 
 447 
 
 1837 
 
 268,260 
 
 286,224 
 
 648,474 
 
 1,019,769 
 
 286,828 
 
 
 6,441 
 
 7,840 
 
 18.38 
 
 166,214 
 
 829,747 
 
 495,961 
 
 . 576,396 
 
 308,184 
 
 8,742 
 
 11,480 
 
 
 la39 
 
 86.619 
 
 896,984 
 
 488,558 
 
 692,196 
 
 878,626 
 
 626 
 
 ?'!S 
 
 668 
 
 1840 
 
 Total.... 
 
 182,761 
 
 202,652 
 
 385,808 
 
 817,897 
 
 176,724 
 
 21,619 
 
 1,828 
 
 485 
 
 $1,414,896 
 
 $6,616,548 
 
 $7,030,939 
 
 $7,705,870 
 
 $4,686,032 
 
 $48,569 
 
 98,141 
 
 11,449 
 
 Sept. 80, 1841 
 
 $178,876 
 
 $224,150 
 
 $408,026 
 
 $266,425 
 
 $208,600 
 
 $8,000 
 
 5,324 
 
 
 1842 
 
 86,678 
 
 198,680 
 
 279,168 
 
 , 741,048 
 
 178,271 
 
 
 794 
 
 
 9inos. 1843 
 
 90,289 
 
 108,742 
 
 193,981 
 
 121,624 
 
 89,677 
 
 
 2,890 
 
 
 June SO, 1844 
 
 96,818 
 
 261i070 
 
 869,388 
 
 936,984 
 
 244,325 
 
 11,950 
 
 •4,656 
 
 
 1846 
 
 129,161 
 
 72,007 
 
 201,163 
 
 538,608 
 
 • 68,616 
 
 121 
 
 4,692 
 
 
 1846 
 
 40,700 
 
 42,842 
 
 83,542 
 
 480,858 
 
 88,440 
 
 
 8,679 
 
 
 1847 
 
 91,902 
 
 108,288 
 
 200,140 
 
 894,982 
 
 106,120 
 
 
 ^'?ri 
 
 
 1848 
 
 138,905 
 
 107,964 
 
 241,869 
 
 249,846 
 
 92,334 
 
 
 i'il^. 
 
 
 1849 
 
 280,828 
 
 54,118 
 
 334,941 
 
 854,828 
 
 82,000 
 
 
 6,688 
 
 1,488 
 
 1860 
 
 Total.... 
 
 180,683 
 
 262,962 
 
 448,486 
 
 444,404 
 
 219,400 
 
 1,800 
 
 4,070 
 
 8,820 
 
 $1,810,020 
 
 $1,480,668 
 
 $2,740,678 
 
 $5,027,202 
 
 $1,272,488 
 
 $21,871 
 
 42,638 
 
 4,763 
 
 June 30, 1851 
 
 $204,430 
 
 $43,140 
 
 $247,570 
 
 $410,148 
 
 $31,500 
 
 
 8,016 
 
 6,651 
 
 1862 
 
 142,997 
 
 181,185 
 
 824,182 
 
 1,016,994 
 
 164,430 
 
 
 8,639 
 
 14,022 
 
 1858 
 
 202,822 
 
 180,884 
 
 883,706 
 
 884,688 
 
 149,800 
 
 
 8,526 
 
 6,605 
 
 1854 
 
 109,208 
 
 76,678 
 
 184,776 
 
 1,041,609 
 
 68,600 
 
 2,886 
 
 8,633 
 
 4,313 
 
 1865 
 
 287,987 
 
 68,886 
 
 841,823 
 
 1,082,270 
 
 87,170 
 
 
 8,406 
 
 3,463 
 
 18156 
 
 120,444 
 
 89,712 
 
 210,166 
 
 1,399,289 
 
 71,000 
 
 17,660 
 
 10,877 
 
 2,141 
 
 Tariff. — The tariff regulations of Java are divided 
 into six different classes, viz. ; Class 1 relates to du- 
 ties on wines and spirits, etc. ; class 2 relates to duties 
 on cotton and woolen goods ; class B relates to sundry 
 imports from Europe, America, and the Cape of Good 
 Hope ; class 4 prescribes the duties on the products of 
 the Indian Archipelago ; class 5 relates to merchandise 
 being the produce of countries east of the Cape of 
 Good Hope, not included in any of the foregoing 
 classes ; class 6 prescribes the export duties levied on 
 the products of Java. All these classes recognize a 
 discrimination in favor of the Dutch flag ; but, under 
 the treaty of August 26, 1852, between the United 
 States and Holland, these discriminations do not apply 
 to the American flag when importing or exporting 
 from or to the same places as the national flag. The 
 article, by virtue of which the vessels of the United 
 States are equalized with those of Holland, reads thus ; 
 Art. II. " The above reciprocal equality in relation to 
 the flags of the two countries is understood to extend 
 also to the ports of the colonies and dominions of the 
 Netherlands beyond the seas, in which goods and mer- 
 chandise, whatever their origin may be, imported or 
 exported from and to any other country in vessels of 
 the United States, shall pay no higher or other duties 
 than shall be levied on the like goods and merchandise 
 imported or exported from and to the same places in 
 vessels of the Netherlands. The bounties, drawbacks, 
 or other privileges of similar denomination, -which may 
 be there granted on goods and merchandise imported 
 or exported in vessels of the Netherlands, shall also, and 
 in like manner, be granted on goods and merchandise 
 imported or exported in vessels of the United States." 
 
 Table exhibiting the Navigation of the Iblani>8 of 
 Java and Madura in the Years specified. 
 
 Nationality. 
 
 Vessels entered. 
 
 Vessels cleared. 1 
 
 1852. 
 
 1868. 
 
 1852. 
 
 1853. 
 
 Dutch 
 
 1,868 
 56 
 19 
 
 1,886 
 77 
 14 
 8 
 17 
 9 
 1 
 
 '\ 
 5 
 
 28 
 8 
 1 
 
 12 
 100 
 
 1,819 
 48 
 16 
 
 '"io 
 
 10 
 8 
 
 17 
 1 
 6 
 
 10 
 1 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 88 
 
 2,038 
 
 85 
 
 13 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 28; 
 S 
 1 
 
 19 
 62 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 10 
 1 
 12 
 1 
 4 
 7 
 2 
 1 
 19 
 51 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Other Asiatic countries. . . 
 Total 
 
 2,046 
 
 2.170 
 
 2,012 
 
 2,280 
 
 
 From the preceding table it appears that in 1853 the 
 United States just trebled in one year the 'number of 
 vessels bearing their flag in that remote corner of the 
 globe. This is to be ascribed to the liberal commer- 
 cial treaty of 1852, equalizing the United States' and 
 the Dutch flags in the colonial trade. The subjoined 
 tariff of duties of the island of Java has been prepared 
 from a copy printed at Batavia in 1844, with modifica- 
 tions and changes down to June, 1855, transmitted 
 from the United States' consulate at that port : 
 
 Port Charges at Java,- — The harbor dues are one 
 half a rupee per ton ; but a ship having once paid this 
 charge can touch either at Samarang, Soerabaya, or go 
 to a foreign port and return, if within six months from 
 date of payment, without further expense. Ships can 
 
JAV 
 
 1143 
 
 JAV 
 
 anchor and remain in the roads, and can communicate 
 "with the shore, receive provisions, water, etc.,, without 
 charge of anchorage fees. The roads are south of a 
 line drawn from the Rhoneland to the Neptune shoal. 
 All letters must be immediately delivered at the cus- 
 tom-house, except consignees' letters, and such as may 
 be intended for the captain or supercargo. There are 
 no pilots for Batavia or Samarang. For Soerayaba 
 pilots can be had at Point Pauka coming from the 
 west, and at Passaroeng coming from the east. Fil- 
 tered water is sent alongside in government tanks, 
 with a force-pump and hose, at a charge of 57 cents 
 
 per hogshead, and in the outer roads at 66 cents. When 
 a blue flag is flying a): the main-mast head of the 
 guard-ship, or at the signal staff of the lookout-house 
 at the head of the canal, it is unsafe to attempt enter- 
 ing the xiver. 
 
 Tariff of Duties for the Island of Java, — By Dutch 
 vessels are meant vessels belonging to Holland, and 
 no others. Under the Dutch flag are comprehended 
 the flags of Asiatic princes which are placed on the 
 same footing as the Dutch flag. The pound in this 
 tariff is the old Amsterdam pound. To the duties in 
 the tariff, 5 per cent, is added for breakwater. 
 
 Duties on Cotton and Woolen Goods Imported into Java. 
 
 Rnte of duty. 
 
 Dutch 
 
 In Dutch vessels,: with cevtiflcates of Dutch origin 
 
 European and American, if fi-om countries between which 
 and Holland fl'iendly relations subsist 
 
 From countries between which and Holland friendly rela- 
 tions do not subsist ' 
 
 From Dutch India and favored States in the Indian Archi- 
 pelago J 
 
 From do. in Dutch Indian vessels, provided they have not 
 touched at any foreign port 
 
 All other countries eastof the Cape of Good Hope, except 
 Chinese goods In Chinese Junks 
 
 25 per cent, 
 
 i2i, " . 
 
 50 " 
 [■25 per cent. 
 t2i » 
 25 " 
 
 On appraised value, according to tariff of 
 Jirices, corrected every three montbs. 
 
 On appraised value, according to the markelj 
 price of th6 day.' 
 
 On Invoice value, with addition of 80 per ct.,or 
 appraisement according to market prices. 
 
 Lmpokt Duties on sundry Goods tub Pbodttots op Ettropb, America, and the Cape op Good Hope. 
 
 Rato of duty. 
 
 Komarks. 
 
 Beei; salted, smoked, etc 
 
 Books, music, maps, and charts. , 
 
 Butter 
 
 Cheese 
 
 Candles, wax 
 
 " spermaceti 
 
 Clothing, wool and cotton 
 
 *' silk and linen 
 
 Copper and copper ware 
 
 Coal 
 
 Corfes 
 
 Carriages 
 
 Cards, playing 
 
 Cordage 
 
 Casks, new 
 
 Cattle, as cows, sheep, etc. 
 
 Brugs and medicines 
 
 Flour 
 
 Furniture 
 
 Gloss, china, and earthenware 
 
 Gold and silver plate, lace, thread, and military ornaments. 
 
 Gold and silver coin..... V, J ; 
 
 Gold and silver bullions 
 
 Hams. . 
 
 Horses and mules 
 
 Hats 
 
 Iron, in bars, pigs, rods, etc 
 
 Iron ware and machinery. 
 
 Jewelry, pearls, and precious stones, set or not, if real. 
 
 Lumber. ,. 
 
 Leather, and articles of leather - 
 
 Load. . 
 
 Hnen of Hemp or flax. i.i. 
 
 Musical inBtmtiients 
 
 J^s^val; stoi;es, except cordage 
 
 Qpiurh, prohibited. 
 
 Provisions, other than those named in this tariff. 
 
 Paper 
 
 Perfumery 
 
 Paints, linseed oil, etc 
 
 Picttirfea, plates, and prints 
 
 Fork, salt, smoked, etc ....:.„ 
 
 ateejin b^rs, etc 
 
 Steel wave 
 
 Bton6 fof bulldiiig 
 
 Marble tiUs. .. . . , . j 
 
 Flints, prohibited, unless especially permitted., 
 
 Segars, Havana : — ..... 
 
 All other kinds, European and American , 
 
 Snnfl^ of all kinds - , , 
 
 Saddles and harness (same as leather). 
 
 Boap. 
 
 Silver. (See Gold.) 
 Silk and silk goods.. 
 Bait, prohibited, 
 ian and tin ware — 
 
 24 per cent. . . 
 
 6 « 
 24 " 
 
 24 '• 
 
 $0 10 per lb. 
 10 " . 
 
 25 per cent . . . 
 
 12 '■• 
 
 Tobacco leaii manufactured 
 
 Tar. CSee Naval stores.) 
 
 All goods not mentioned in this tariff, the products of 
 Eui'ope, America, and Cape of Good Hope 
 
 Free 
 
 12 per cent. 
 24 " 
 24 » 
 24 " 
 24 " 
 Free. 
 12 per cent . 
 
 24 " 
 
 24 " 
 24 " 
 24 " 
 Free. 
 
 24 per cent. 
 
 Free. 
 
 24 per cent . 
 
 12 " 
 
 24 " 
 
 Free. 
 
 12 per cent., 
 
 24 " ., 
 
 24 " 
 
 24 per cent. . . 
 24 " 
 12 « 
 12 « 
 24 " 
 12 " ... 
 24 « ... 
 12 " ... 
 12 « 
 12 " 
 $0 80 per lb. 
 
 40 " . 
 
 16 " . 
 
 12 per cent..., 
 12 « .... 
 24 " .... 
 $0 OGiperlb, 
 
 pl2 per cent 
 
 In Dutch vessels, with certificate of Dutch 
 origin, 12 per cent. 
 As above, free. 
 
 As above, one half these duties, 
 
 irect from Holland in Dutch vessels, 12 p. ct. 
 In Dutch vessels, with certlflcato, etc., 6 p. ct. 
 As above, 12 per cent. . 
 Direct from Holland, in Dutch vessels, free, 
 In Dutch vessels, with certificate, etc., 6. p. ct. 
 As above, 12 per cent. 
 As above, 12 per cent 
 
 - As above, 12 per cent 
 
 Direct from Holland, in Dutch vessels, 6 p. ct. 
 ) Dutch flour packed according to the tariff of 
 J 1828, 12 per cent 
 
 In Dutch vessels, with certificate, etc., 12 p. ct 
 In Dutch vessels, with certificate, etc, 12 p. ct 
 As above, 12 per cent 
 
 As above, 12 per cent. 
 
 As above, 12 per cent. 
 
 Direct iVbm Holland, in Dutch vessels, 6 p. ct 
 
 In Dutch vessels, with certificate, etc., 12 p. ct, 
 
 Direct from Holland, in Dutch vessels, 6 p. ct 
 
 In Dutch Vessels, with certificate of Dutch 
 origin, 12 per cent 
 
 .8 above, free. 
 Direct from Holland, in Dutch vessels, 6 p. ct. 
 
 Direct from Holland, In Dutch vessels, 12 p. ct 
 In Dutch vessels, with ccrtj^cate, etc., 12 p, ct 
 Direct from Holland^ in Dutch vessels, 12,p. ct 
 In Dutch vessels, with certificate, etc., 6 p. ct. 
 As above, 6 per cent 
 As above, 12 per cent 
 
 Direct from Holland, in Dutch vessels, 6 p. ct 
 In Dutch vessels, with certificate, etc., 12 p. ct 
 As above, 6 per cent 
 
 Direct from Holland, in Dutch vessels, G p, ct 
 As, above, 6 per cent. 
 
 direct from Holland, in Dutch vessels, $0 40. 
 
 ' In Dutch vessels, with certificate of origin, 
 
 one half these duties. 
 
 Direct from Holland, in Dutch vessels, 6 p. ct 
 
 As above, (J per cent 
 
 In Dutch'vessels, with certificate, etc., 12 p. ct 
 1 Direct from Holland, in Dutch vessels, one 
 f half of this duty. 
 
 As above, 6 per cent 
 
JER 
 
 1144 
 
 JET 
 
 Jata Tariff— Export Bctties. 
 
 Rate of da' 7, 
 
 Free. 
 
 12 per cent. . . 
 
 $2 80 per tub 
 
 4 per cent 
 
 ( Perpicolofl25 
 ( lbs., 12 p. ct 
 
 $2 80 per picol 
 Free. 
 
 5 per cent. . . 
 4 " 
 
 4 " 
 
 $16 00 each... 
 3 20 per 100. 
 2 40 p. picol 
 4 per lb. 
 Free. 
 
 $1 20 per picol 
 12 " 
 4 80 p. legger 
 4 per picol 
 
 7 60 '> 
 
 8 00 
 7 60 ' 
 
 4 per cent 
 
 80 cts per picol 
 
 6 per cent. 
 
 Arrack 
 
 'Birds' nests 
 
 ICamphor, Japan 
 
 Cotton goods, Japanese. 
 
 Coffee , 
 
 Copper, Japan 
 
 Copper coin, Dutch 
 
 Gold and silver coin, by Chinese, to China 
 
 In other cases 
 
 Gold and silver not coined, and Japan cobangs. 
 
 Horses 
 
 Hides, cow 
 
 " buffalo 
 
 'Indigo <. 
 
 Jewels, pearls, and precious stones 
 
 Oil, cocoanut 
 
 Katans 
 
 Rum, Java 
 
 Rice. 
 
 Spices, cloves.. 
 
 Sugar, 
 
 nutmegs 
 
 wild nutmegs 
 
 pepper, black 
 
 Java, 1st and 2d sorts 
 
 brown, and molasses if, in the opinion of the col- 
 lector, not suitable for export to Europe or 
 America 
 
 Under Dutch flag, 6 per cent 
 To Holland, in Dutch vessels, $1 40. 
 Under Dutch fl^, 2 per cent. 
 To Holland, in Dutch vessels, 6 per cent, giv- 
 ing bond for the difference. 
 Under Dutch flag, $1 40, 
 
 I In sums less than $200, for owner's use, free, 
 j provided permission be obtained. 
 
 ^ Under Dutch flag, one half these duties. 
 
 I To Holland, in Dutch vessels, one half these 
 [ duties. 
 
 •-Under Dutch flag, one half these duties. 
 
 ^ To Holland, in Dutch vessels, one half these 
 duties. 
 
 Salt.. 
 
 Tortoise-shell , 
 
 Tobacco, Java 
 
 Tin 
 
 Tripang. , 
 
 Wax 
 
 Wood, sandal wood. 
 
 i-20 cts. per picol 
 
 Free. 
 
 4 per cent 
 
 4 " 
 
 $1 60 per picol 
 
 4 per cent 
 
 4 ■■- 
 
 sapan wood 
 
 Goods not mentioned above, being the products of the In- 
 dian ArchipelaiTO 
 
 Goods, the maximum import duty on which is 25 or 24 per 
 cent 
 
 All other goods ' 
 
 40 ct. per picol 
 
 -4 per cent..... 
 
 As above, free. 
 Under Dutch flag, free. 
 
 !■ Under Dutch flag, 2 per cent. 
 
 To Holland, in Dutch vessels, 80 cents. 
 
 Under Dutch flag, 2 per cent. 
 
 TJnder Dutch flag, one half this duty. 
 
 J To Holland, in Dutch vessels, one half this 
 
 1 duty. 
 
 Under Dutch flag, 2 per cent. 
 
 As above, free. 
 
 As above, 2 per cent. 
 
 Jeddo, Jedo, or Yedo, the capital of Japan, and 
 the largest city in that empire, is situate on a gulf, on 
 the "western side of the island of Nipon, in N. lat. 
 35° 32', E. long, 140°. It stands on a large plain at 
 the head of the gulf, which is here so shallow that 
 vessels generally discharge their cargoes a league or 
 two below the city. Jeddo is said to be 7 miles in 
 length by 5 in breadth^, and to have a circumference 
 of 20 miles. It is not inclosed by walls, but is inter- 
 sected by numerous broad canals and ditches, having 
 on each side high embankments, on the top of which 
 are planted rows of trees. A river of considerable 
 size flows through the town into the harbor. The 
 houses are small and low on account of the frequency 
 of earthquakes. They are built of wood -with thin 
 clay walls, and are divided into rooms by paper 
 screens. The floors are covered with mats, and the 
 roofs with shavings of wood. Being thus entirely 
 composed of combustible materials, fires are frequent 
 and destructive. As the families of princes, lords, 
 and nobility of the empire are obliged to reside con- 
 tinually at Jeddo, there are numerous houses of a su- 
 perior class. These, however, are only one story in 
 height, and have no towers. They are distinguished 
 from the other houses by large court-j'ards, stately 
 gates, and fine varnished steps leading up to the door. 
 There are besides numerous temples, monasteries, and 
 other religious buildings, The imperial palace is near 
 the middle of the town, and is said to be more than 
 eight miles in circumference. It consists of several 
 palaces or castles, with large gardens and orchards. 
 Besides being the residence of the court, Jeddo con- 
 tains flourishing manufactures, and carries on an ex- 
 tensive commerce. The population is variously esti- 
 mated from 700,000 to 1,500,000, and even more. See 
 Japan. 
 
 Jeremie. This is the smallest port in the island 
 of Hayti open to foreign commerce. The anchorage 
 at Jeremie is so dangerous that scarcely a year passes 
 without one or more shipwrecks, or other serious casu- 
 alties, being recorded. In 1849 there entered and 
 
 cleared 76 vessels, with an aggregate, of 8200 tons; 
 and in 1850 there entered and cleared 91 vessels, meas- 
 uring 11,536 tons. The following summary exhibits 
 the general trade of this port for 1850 : 
 
 United States 
 
 France 
 
 Great Britain — 
 Denmark , 
 
 Value of 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Francs. 
 1,064,000 
 244,0110 
 248,000 
 118,000 
 
 Arliclea and quantilies of exports 
 fn 1850. 
 
 CoflFee 
 
 Cocoa... i.. 
 Campeche. 
 
 Guyac 
 
 Wax 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 4,593,919 
 
 541,371 
 
 6,429,059 
 
 64,500 
 
 8,12s 
 
 Jersey, the largest and most important of the En- 
 lish Channel Islands, is situate in the Bay of St. 
 Michael, 13 miles west of the nearest coast of France, 
 and 85 miles from the nearest point on the English 
 coast; N. lat. (St. Helier's) 49° 11^ 3'^ W. long. 2° 
 7\ it is 12 miles in length, from e'ast to west, and 7 
 in breadth from north to south, and has an area of 
 about 40,000 acres. The north coast of the island is 
 rock}", bold, and precipitous, rising sometimes to the 
 height of more than 200 feet above the sea. The 
 Channel Islands are considered as belonging to the 
 crown, but as forming no part of the realm, so that 
 they are not represented in Parliament ; and Acts of 
 Parliament, as such, have no legal force as regards 
 them, unless they are therein specially named, or un- 
 less the acts, in virtue of an order of council, are regis- 
 tered on the records of the islands. In their institu- 
 tions, customs, and laws, the people still retain much 
 that is Norman ; and, in this respect, Jersey has re- 
 tained considerably more of the old institutions and of 
 their free spirit than the sister island of Guernsey. 
 The people appear to have at all times enjoyed much 
 freedom and great privileges. — E, B. 
 
 Jet, or Pitch Coal (Du. Git, Zwarte hamsteen; 
 Fr. Jais^ Jayet; Ger. Gagai; It. Gogata, Lusirino ; Lat. 
 Gagus, Gagates), of a black velvet color, occurs mas- 
 sive, in plates ; sometimes in the shape of branches of 
 trees, but without a regular woody texture. Internal 
 'lustre shining, resinous, soft ; rather brittle ; easily 
 
JOB 
 
 1145 
 
 JOI 
 
 frangible; specific gravity 1-3. It is used for fuel, 
 and for making vessels and snuff-boxes. In Prussia 
 it is called black amber, and is cut into rosaries and 
 necklaces. It is distinguislied by its brilliancy and 
 conchoidal fracture. — Thomson's Chemistry. 
 
 Jetsam. See Flotsam. 
 
 Jettee, the border made round the stilts under a 
 pier, in certain old bridges, being the same with star- 
 ling ; consisting of a strong framing of timber filled 
 with stones, chalk, or other materials, to preserve the 
 foundations of the piers from injury. 
 
 Jetty-head, a name usually given in the royal 
 dockyards to that part of a wharf which projects be- 
 yond the rest ; but more particularly the front of a 
 wharf, the side of which forms one of the cheeks of a 
 4ry or wet dock. 
 
 Jewelry. Worn by most of the early nations. 
 So prodigious was the extravagance of the Roman la^ 
 dies, that Pliny the elder says he saw Lollia Paulina 
 wearing ornaments which were valued at $1,606,000. 
 Jewels were worn in France by Agnes Sorel, in 1434. 
 The manufacture was extensively encouraged in En- 
 gland in 1686. See Gold. 
 
 Jib, a large triangular sail, between the fore-top- 
 mast head and the boom (thence called jib-boom), 
 which projects beyond the bowsprit. 
 
 Jidda, or Djidda, a sea-port town of Arabia on 
 the Red Sea, 64 miles west from Mecca, of which it is 
 the port ; N. lat. 21° 29', E. long. 39° 15'. It stands 
 on a gentle elevation, rising from the sea, while the 
 surrounding country is a bare desert. Jidda, as re- 
 spects cleanliness and regularity of plan, is superior 
 to most eastern towns. The streets, though unpaved, 
 are comparatively well laid out and wide. The houses 
 are built of coralline stone, from the shores of the 
 Red Sea, and from the perishing nature of this mate- 
 rial, are not very durable. In the suburbs, the houses 
 are mere huts constructed of reeds and bushwood. 
 
 Jidda has long been famous as the commercial em- 
 poriam of Arabia, and indeed is solely dependent 
 for its existence upon its trade. Situate about the 
 middle of the east coast of the Red Sea, only about 
 120 miles distant from the opposite shore of Nubia, 
 and within two days' journey of Mecca, it is peculiarly 
 fitted for the importation of foreign goods as well as 
 for the exportation of home produce. The harbor, 
 however, like most of the other ports on the Red Sea, 
 is inconvenient, and the entrance rather intricate. On 
 account of the shallowness of the harbor, large ships 
 are obliged to dischage their cargoes in the oifing 
 about two miles from the shore. The imports from 
 Egypt and Abyssinia comprise corn, rice, butter, sugar, 
 clothing, oil, tobacco, musk, and incense ; from India, 
 muslins, shawls, spices, and cocoa-nuts ; while the 
 Malay islands and the Mozambique coast send hither 
 slaves. The imports are conveyed by ships to Suez, 
 whence they find their way to the Mediterranean 
 ports, or by caravans to Mecca and Medina, from 
 which cities they are dispersed to Syria, Asia Minor, 
 and Turkey. Dates, and the celebrated balm of 
 Mecca, are brought from the interior for shipment. 
 Next to grain, the most important article of trade is 
 perhaps coffee, which is obtained in large quantities 
 from Mocha. The number of vessels belonging to 
 the port is estimated at about 250. The government 
 of Jidda is in the hands of the Pasha of Egypt, and 
 the town is garrisoned by Egyptian troops, amounting 
 usually to about 400. The population is very fluctu- 
 ating; the permanent population does not probably 
 exceed 10,000, while, on the arrival of the merchant 
 fleets, and during the feast of Ramadthan, there may 
 be as many as 20,000 strangers within its walls. — E. B. 
 
 Jobber, a person wlio undertakes jobs, or small 
 pieces of work. In some statutes, jobber is used to 
 signify a person who buys and sells for others. See 
 Broker. 
 
 Jobbing is the business of a jobber. 
 
 Siochjdbbing denotes the practice of trafficking in 
 the public funds, or of buying and selling stock, with 
 a view to its rise or fall. The term is commonly ap- 
 plied to the practice of buying and selling stock for 
 time, or of accounting for the differences in the rise or 
 fall of any particular stock for a stipulated time, 
 whether the buyer or seller be possessed of any such 
 real stock or not. 
 
 Joint-stock Companies are, in England, a 
 species of partnership in which a number of persons 
 contribute funds or " stock" for the accomplishment 
 of some trading or other profitable object. 'The pecu- 
 liarity from which the term is derived is the contribu- 
 tion of stock apart from joint management. In an 
 ordinary partnership the members bring more or less 
 of their own personal management into the affairs of 
 the company; and although, in peculiar circum- 
 stances, a partner may abstain from any interference, 
 such a person, called in the trading world " a sleeping 
 partner," is treated by the law in all respects as if he 
 participated in the privileges and responsibilities of 
 his working brethren. The distinctive peculiarity of 
 the joint-stock company is, that their members throw 
 their stock into the venture without directly partici- 
 pating in the management, which may be either in the 
 hands of a selected number of the shareholders, or in 
 that of persons who do not contribute at all to the un- 
 dertaking. The subject thus presents considerations 
 stretching far beyond the boundary of the mere laws 
 affecting the rights and obligations of individual part- 
 ners into the field of politics and history. It is at 
 once obvious that these arrangements, by which the 
 wealth of indefinite numbers can be concentrated in 
 the hands of a few, are capable of creating a political 
 influence which will have more or less the character 
 of a ruling or governing power, according to the 
 strength of the otherwise constituted authorities with 
 which it may come in contact. It was by this sort of 
 concentration of the wealth of many in the hands of a 
 few that some of the religious societies of the middle 
 ages became formidable rivals of the monarchies ; the 
 Society of the Knights Templars rising conspicuously 
 above all others, and threatening to establish a sort of 
 corporate empire, presiding over the European mon- 
 archies. Subsequently the Jesuits, in their govern- 
 ment of Paraguay, afforded evidence of the power at 
 the command of clever men regulating a common fund, 
 which alarmed crowned heads no less than the usurp- 
 ing tenor of their doctrines. The great union of the 
 Hanse Towns, before which the robber monarchies and 
 aristocracies of central Europe fell, was again an in- 
 stance of the power of concentrated wealth when 
 measured against pure monarchical and aristocratic 
 authority ; and the expanding resources of the repub- 
 lic of Venice, and of other wealthy oligarchies, seemed 
 to be raising a new ruling power which would grad- 
 ually absorb and supersede the old dynasties, whether 
 autocratic or aristocratic, by which nations were ruled. 
 The expansion of trade by the discovery of America 
 and a new passage to India, and still more perhaps 
 the recasting of the political state of Europe by the 
 Reformation, brolce up these great concentrated masses, 
 and distributed the power of collective wealth into 
 smaller groups. Still the influence of joint-stock as- 
 sociations has ever, from time to time, arisen in formi- 
 dable rivalry witli other forms of political power, 
 sometimes creating an effectual barrier to political op- 
 pression, but at others threatening the liberties and 
 just rigiits of communities by a spirit of aggrandize- 
 ment and rapacity. Perhaps the most curious single 
 instance of a struggle between concentrated wealth 
 and a ruling dynasty will be found in the historj' of 
 Russia. The merchants of Novogorod increased in 
 wealth and influence until they became a virtual re- 
 publican government, gradually absorbing under their 
 influence the surrounding territory. " Who can resist 
 God and the great Novogorod?" became a saying of 
 
JOI 
 
 1146 
 
 JON 
 
 the 15(;h centnr;-. The Grand Dukes of Muscovy 
 commenced a systematic war against the roj-al com- 
 pany of merchants, and It seemed for some time a 
 question whether Russia should be ruled by a commer- 
 cial company or an autocracy. After many scenes of 
 cruelty and rapacity, the latter prevailed. But the 
 influence of Novogorod was not entirely extinguished 
 until the foundation of St. Petersburg drew the north- 
 ern trade of Russia into a new channel, where it came 
 effectually under imperial control. 
 
 British history affords many memorable instances of 
 the influence of joint-stock operations. It became the 
 policy of the crown, from Queen Elizabeth's reign down- 
 ward, to cherish commercial combinations, as a balance 
 against the power of the aristocracy, and sometimes the 
 body thus started with a stock of exclusive privileges 
 acquired an influence dangerous alike to the authority 
 of the crown and to the rights of the subject. The 
 Russian Company, which had been licensed just be- 
 fore the accession of Elizabeth, acquired so much 
 influence under her fostering care as to spread its 
 transactions into Persia on the one hand, and embark 
 in the whale fishery of Spitzbergen on the other. 
 This potent body was in use to send embassadors to 
 the Grand Duke of Muscovy. But his successors, the 
 czars, were not inclined to encourage such fellowship, 
 and gradually enfeebled the haughty corporation by 
 restricting its foreign privileges, and encouraging the 
 rival company of Holland. The celebrated Turkey or 
 Levant Company was chartered in 1581. Just 18 
 years afterward was formed, under far less pompous 
 auspices, that East India Company which has been 
 destined to rule over a greater empire than that of 
 Julius Caesar or Charlemagne. See India. Many 
 African and American companies were formed in the 
 17th century, and created much excitement by their 
 aggressions and rivalries. The Scots, excited by wit- 
 nessing the enterprise and prosperity of England, in 
 which the invidious navigation law of Charles II. pro- 
 hibited them from participating, resolved to establish 
 a great national joint-stock company for themselves. 
 In 1695 they formed the "African Company," better 
 known as the Darien project, subscribing a capital of 
 four millions, the greater portion of which was paid 
 up. This was held in its day to be a marvelous pe- 
 cuniary effort for a portion of the empire which, a 
 century and a half later, entered on railway projects 
 involving in one year an outlay of sixteen millions. 
 The company obtained from the Scottish Parliament 
 more absolute power than even the great corporations 
 of England ; being authorized to hold a monopoly of 
 certain trades, to occupy and govern territories, and to 
 make peace and war. It commenced the execution of 
 a variety of projects on a grand scale, and their disas- 
 trous result was a signal instance of that unscrupulous 
 spirit of aggrandizement and oppression to which 
 trading corporations are so liable. The Scottish com- 
 pany, probably, like many of the other bodies of ad- 
 venturers, committed some questionable acts, but none 
 sufficient to justify the rancorous hatred of the English 
 rival companies, which, while the Scots were prevent- 
 ed, as an alien nation, from having their share in the 
 English companies, denounced the corporation set up 
 by the nation, which they thus counted separate and 
 independent, for an infringement of a monopoly 
 purely English. King William was too dependent on 
 the moneyed power in England to hold an even balance 
 of justice between opponents so unequally matched, 
 and the Scottish colony was ruined. 
 
 Among the English companies of that age, several 
 were successively established for trading with Africa 
 and America. Their chief object and source of gain 
 was one that would be fortunately held in detestation 
 by the greater portion of British speculators at the 
 present day — the supply of captured negroes to the 
 plantations, foreign as well as British. The culmina- 
 tion of these projects in the great South Sea scheme 
 
 of 1719 is a well-known chapter in English history. 
 The names of the many preposterous satellite schemes 
 by which it was surrounded have often been cited as 
 instances of folly calculated to tax the credulity of 
 soberer periods, as projects in which the inhabitants 
 of the wisest of nations actually embarked. If it 
 were any consolation to find their neighbors guilty of 
 greater follies than their own, the British of that age 
 might find such consolation in a view of the French 
 Mississippi scheme. The corporate power thus created 
 not only professed to absorb the trade, finance, and 
 banking of France, but projected the creation of a 
 transatlantic empire, which, from its centre in Louis- 
 iana, should gradually absorb the American conti- 
 nent. 
 
 Since the passing of the Patents Act in the reign of 
 James I., the crown alone was precluded from grant- 
 ing powers of trading monopoly in royal charters, and 
 the companies which, since that period, have obtained 
 any monopolies in England beyond those created by 
 the simple instance of their large capital, have held 
 their powers from Parliament. The crown continued 
 to grant monopolies in foreign trade till 1693, when, in 
 the celebrated question of the old East India Company, 
 the practice was condemned by a vote of the House of 
 Commons. A remarkable instance lately occurred of 
 an attempt by some enterprising men to carry out a 
 project something like that of the East India Com- 
 pany, independently of authority either from the 
 crown or Parliament. It was represented that the 
 islands of New Zealand were admirably suited for col- 
 onization, and should be immediately attached to the 
 British colonial empire by the right of occupancy. 
 There was, however, a strong disinclination on the 
 part of British statesmen at that period to encumber 
 the imperial government with the management of ad- 
 ditional colonies. The adventurers conceived the idea 
 of occupying the islands with independent British 
 emigrants. The novelty of their views, and the en- 
 ergy'' and eloquence with which these were enforced, 
 attracted a number of ardent spirits around them, who 
 were taught that in these happy islands, possessed of 
 all the advantages of our British climate without its 
 drawbacks, they were to found that empire of Anglo- 
 Saxon ' origin, by which the southern portion of the 
 world was to be eventually ruled. It seemed hard 
 that the government, declining to occupj' the colonies, 
 should discourage this project ; but there were many 
 grounds for dreading from it evil consequences, among 
 which the most obvious and immediate was, that when 
 the colonj' began slightly to prosper, it would attract 
 the cupidity of some other European power, from 
 which it could not be protected without an interference 
 which might involve the British government in formi- 
 dable disputes. Hence, in the year 1840, the British 
 flag was hoisted in New Zealand, and although " The 
 New Zealand Company" was incorporated, and after- 
 ward became the medium for the disposal of large 
 tracts of land, its position was so humble- in com- 
 parison with the splendid visions entertained by its 
 promoters, that after a long series of intricate dis- 
 putes, they resigned their charter to the government 
 in 1850.— E. B. 
 
 The chief objects for which joint-stock companies 
 have lately been constituted are banking, insurance, 
 works for the supply of cities with water and gas, 
 canals, shipping, and harbors, and, at the head of all, 
 railways. The railway system, indeed, is the form in 
 which both the government and the people have of late 
 felt the pressure of joint-stock power, and known the 
 influence of which it is susceptible. The histor)- and 
 effect of the railway system will be found under its 
 proper head. 
 
 Jonk, Jonque, or Junk, in naval affairs, is a 
 kind of small ship, very common in the East Indies. 
 These vessels are of various dimensions ; and differ in 
 the form of their building, according to the different 
 
jnt 
 
 1147 
 
 Jim 
 
 methods of naval architecture used by the nations to 
 which they belong. Their sails are frequently made 
 of mats, and their anchors of wood. 
 
 Journal, a day-book, register, or account of what 
 passes daily. Journal, in merchants' accounts, is a 
 book in which every particular article is posted out of 
 the waste-book, and made debtor. This is to be very 
 clearly worded and fairly engrossed. Jounial, in tiaviga- 
 tion, a sort of diary or daily register of the ship's 
 course, winds and weather, together with a general 
 account of whatever is material to be remarked in the 
 period of a sea voyage. In all such journals, the day, 
 or what is called the 24 hours, terminates at noon, be- 
 cause the errors of the dead-reckoning are at that 
 period generally corrected by a solar observation. 
 The daily compact usually contains the state of the 
 weather; the variation, increase, or diminution of the 
 wind ; and the suitable shifting, reducing, or enlarg- 
 ing the quantity of sail extended ; as also the most 
 material incidents of the voyage, and the condition of 
 the Ship and her crew ; together with the discovery of 
 other ships or fleets, land-shoals, breakers, soundings, 
 and the like. 
 
 Juan Fernandez, or Mas-a-tierra, a rocky 
 island in the Pacific Ocean, about 400 miles off the 
 coast of Chili, of which it it is a dependency. Lat. 
 33° 45' S., long. 79° 2' W. It is 18 miles long and 6 
 miles broad, rises to 3,000 feet above the ocean, has 
 steep shores, and a desolate appearance from the sea ; 
 but in its north half, in which is Cumberland Bay, are 
 some fertile valleys, producing figs, grapes, and Randal 
 wood,' cork, and other timber trees, and it is leased 
 from the Chilian government by settlers from the 
 United States and Tahiti. The 'solitary residence 
 here for four years of a Scotchman, named Alexander 
 Selkirk, is Supposed to have formed the basis of De- 
 foe's well-known tale of " Robinson Crusoe." Mas-a- 
 fuera is another rocky and precipitous island, Ijing to 
 the west. Lat. 33° 49' S., long. 80° 27' W. 
 
 Juniper. The juniper-tree belongs to the natural 
 order Coraferie, and is >iseful both for its wood and its 
 berries. The Virginian species, which is called red 
 cedar, affords a light and durable material vdluable in 
 ship-building. It attains the height of about 30 feet, , 
 and grows well in barren soil. The berries used for 
 flavoring gin are obtained from the Juniperus commu- 
 nis, and about 200 tons of them are annually imported 
 to this country. They are also used for imparting 
 pungency to beer. When roasted and ground, they 
 afford a substitute for coffee. The oil of juniper is an 
 important ingredient in varnish for pictures, wood- 
 work, etc. The berries have also a diuretic property, 
 and are used in medicine. The heavy duty to whicli 
 they were subject in England was abolished in 1845. 
 
 Junk, in nautical language, a name given to any 
 remnant or piece of old 'cable, which is usually cut 
 into small portions, for the purpose of making points, 
 mats, gaskets, sennets, and the like. See Jonk. 
 
 Jute. Jute is a remarkably beautiful fibre — soft, 
 silky, and easily spun ; and if to its other advan- 
 tages were added those of stfength and durabilty, it 
 would probably supeisede all other fibrous materials. 
 But it is as rapid in its decay as in its growth, and is, 
 in reality, the most perishable of fibres. From the 
 period of its first production in the clear state, it 
 slowly, and of its own accord, changes its color, losing 
 the beautiful pearly white, which at first distinguishes 
 it, and assuming successive shades of fawn-color and 
 brown. At the same time, its strength proportion- 
 
 ately diminishes. Circumstances hasten or retard this 
 decay, and moisture is particularly injurious to it. 
 High-pressure steam almost melts it away, so that 
 when sail-cloth, adulterated with jute, is submitted to 
 high-pressure steam (of only 30 lbs. pressure), for four 
 hours, mere washing afterward removes the jute. It 
 is believed that an improvement in the process of set- 
 ting would increase both its strength and durability ; 
 but it is very doubtful if it can ever be rendered equal 
 in these respects to either hemp or flax. 
 
 The extent of the foreign traffic which has already 
 been established in this fibre, notwithstanding its im- 
 perfections, may be judged of from the fact, that in 
 the years 1850 and 1851, the quantity of jnte exported 
 from Calcutta alone was valued at 2,000^000 rupees, or 
 £200,000, and the jute or gunny-cloth at an equal sum, 
 and that it has already obtained a considerable, place 
 among the raw materials employed in.manufactures. — 
 P. J. of T. See Hemp. 
 
 According to Braithwaite's " Commerce of Liver- 
 pool,'-' 100,000 bales of jute are used annually in En- 
 gland, valued at £20 per bale. The grass is sent to 
 Dundee and oth^r places, and the fibre so resembles 
 caterpillar's thread, that it is used to adulterate silk. 
 It is made into coverings, called " baggings," for cot- 
 ton bales ;, and; after various uses, finds its way to the 
 paper-mill, for the manufacture of coarse wrapping- 
 papers. — Hekepath's Journal. 
 
 This article is now largely introduced in the manu- 
 factures of England. It much resembles a coarse flax, 
 having a long flbry texture, and when dyed has a very 
 woolly appearance. In and around Qundee,, Scotland, 
 there are no fewer than 76 mills, all engaged, spinning 
 this jute and flax^-the principal of which is said to be the 
 largest mill in Scotland. There are in this mill some 
 200Q bands, all wholly employed: spinning jute, which 
 is used to a large extent in the manufacture of carpets 
 and rugs. Some three houses in that quarter d3^e for 
 this branch of trade alone about seven tons a day. The 
 carpets are sold as low as from 7d. to lid. per yard ; 
 the rugs again as low as 3s. sterling. Jute can be spun 
 to a ver)^ fine thread. It might be turned to a good 
 account in the shawl trade, as a substitute for cotton. 
 In its unmanufactured state it is said only to cost lis. 
 per cwt. ; a very great contrast to the verj' coarsest 
 wool — at least Is. per pound in its oilj'" state. 
 
 Jury-mast. In naval affairs, a temporary mast 
 erected in a ship in the room of one that has been car- 
 ried away by tempest or any other accident. Jury- 
 masts are sometimes erected in a new ship to navigate 
 her down a river, or to a neighboring port, where her 
 proper masts are prepared for her. 
 
 Jury Trial, the most thoroughly expressive feature 
 in the administration of modern justice, is, in its essen- 
 tial principle, nothing more than the citizen's right to 
 have the judgment of an impartial committee of his 
 fellow-citizens on any question of fact tending to affect 
 his life, his liberty, or some important patrimonial in- 
 terest. The origin of the practice has been traced by 
 juridical antiquaries into many and far diverghig 
 sources, but they have all been found converging in 
 one direction, by the influence of a common determina- 
 tion, which seems to have ever guided the purpose of 
 the Anglo-Saxons and some other northern races in 
 the practical api^ication of such existing Institutions 
 as could be influenced to the end in view. See North 
 Brit. Rev., viii., 44 ; Quar, Rev., Ivii., 177 ; Dem. Rev., 
 vi., 463 ; Blackwood, xxvii., 736; Knich., xv., 478, 
 xviii., 247 ; Nilbs's Reg., xiii., 139. 
 
KAN 
 
 1148 
 
 KEL 
 
 K. 
 
 Kaleidoscope, This optical instrument, wliicli 
 combines mirrors, and produces a symmetrical re- 
 flection of beautiful images, was invented by Dr. 
 Brewster of Edinburg ; it was first suggested in 1814, 
 and the instrument perfected in 1817, after which 
 large numbers were manufactured. It ia intended to 
 assist jewelers, glass-painters, and other ornamental 
 artists, in the formation of patterns, of which it pro- 
 duces an infinite number. See Blackwood, iii. 
 
 Kane, Elisha Kent, the Arctic explorer, was 
 born in Philadelphia on the 3d of February, 1822, and 
 graduated at the University of Pennsylvania in 1843, 
 first in the college and subsequently in the medical de- 
 partment ; and when he started upon his active career 
 of adventure, he was esteemed a good classical scholar, 
 and a good chemist, mineralogist, astronomer, and 
 surgeon. His frame, even in boyhood, was delicate, 
 and, with a view of strengthening his constitution, he 
 solicited an appointment in the navy as surgeon, and 
 obtained it, and was attached to the first American em- 
 bassy to China. This position gave him an opportu- 
 nity to explore the Philippine Islands, which he 
 effected mainly on foot. He was the first man who 
 descended into the crater of Tael, lowered more than 
 100 feet by a bamboo rope from the overhanging clifi", 
 and clambering down some 700 more through the sco- 
 rise, he made a topograpical sketch of the interior of 
 this great volcano, collected a bottle of sulphurous 
 acid from the very mouth of the crater, and, although 
 he was drawn up almost senseless, he brought with 
 him a slietch of this hideous cavern and the specimens 
 which it afforded. Before returning home from this 
 expedition he had ascended the Himalaj'as, visited 
 Ceylon, the upper Nile, and all the mythological re- 
 gions of Egypt — traversing the route and making the 
 acquaintance of the learned Lepsius who was then 
 prosecuting his archajological researches. He also tra- 
 versed Greece on foot, and returned to the United States 
 through Europe. Soon after his arrival he was again 
 ordered on duty — ^this time to the western coast of 
 Africa. He now attempted to visit the slave marts 
 of Whydah, but having taken the African fever, he 
 was sent home in ^ precarious state of health. He 
 recovered, however, and we next find him a volunteer 
 in the Mexican war. His adventures in Mexico proved 
 him to be the possessor of lion-like courage, and of a 
 most generous and noble heart ; but he fell a victim to 
 one of the fevers of the countrj', and was very near 
 dying. When he recovered and returned, he was em- 
 ployed in the Coast Survey department, from which he 
 was transferred by the Secretary of ttie Navy to the 
 post of surgeon on the Grinnell Arctic expedition. 
 His history of that expedition gave him a high posi- 
 tion as an author. Not yet satisfied, however, he 
 scarcel}^ gave himself time to recover from the hard- 
 ships of that cruise, before he set on foot the second 
 Grinnell or Kane expedition, the results of which 
 have been pronounced by the highest European au- 
 thorities as among the wonders of the present century. 
 Dr. Kane died of consumption, at Havana, February 
 16th, 1857. See Arctic Explorations and Life of Kane. 
 Kansas Territory extends from the 37th degree 
 of north latitude to 40 degrees north, and from the 
 west boundary of Missouri to the crest of the Rocky 
 Mountains. Area, 122,000 square miles. Drained by 
 tile main branch of the Arkansas, by the Kansas, and 
 by head branches of the south fork of Platte or Ne- 
 braska River. Surface level, consisting of an immense 
 plain, with a gentle slope from the base of the Rocky 
 Mountains to the Missouri border, and the abrupt de- 
 scent from the mountain ridge to the base of about 75 
 miles in width. The soil is various, rich alluvial bot- 
 
 tom lands bordering the streams, some fertile prairie 
 lands and extensive sandy plains, but these are of suf- 
 ficient fertilit}' to furnish nourishment to immense 
 herds of the American bison. It was formed into a 
 Territory by the act of Congress of May, 1854, to- 
 gether with the Territory of Nebraslta. 
 
 Kedge, a small anchor used to keep a ship steadj'' 
 while she rides in a harbor or river, particularly at the 
 turn of the tide, when she might otherwise dilive over 
 her principal anchor, and entangle the stock or flukes 
 with her stack cable, so as to loosen it from the ground. 
 This is accordingly prevented by a kedge rope that 
 hinders her from approaching it. The kedges are par- 
 ticularly useful in transporting a ship ; that is, remov- 
 ing her from one part of the harbor to another, by 
 means of ropes, which are fastened to these anchors. 
 They are generallj' furnished with an iron stock, which 
 is easily displaced for the convenience of stowing 
 them. 
 
 Keel, the principal piece of timber in a ship, which 
 is usually first laid on the blocks in building. By 
 comparing the carcass of a ship with the skeleton of the 
 human body, the keel appears as the back-bone, and 
 the timbers as the ribs. The keel supports and unites 
 the whole fabric, since the stem and stem posts, which 
 are elevated on its ends, are, in s6me measure, a con- 
 tinuation of the keel, and serve to connect and inclose 
 the extremities of the sides by transoms, as the keel 
 forms and unites the bottom by timbers. The keel is 
 generally composed of several thick pieces placed 
 lengthways, which, after being scarfed together, are 
 bolted and clinched upon the upper side. 
 
 False Keel, a strong thick piece of timber, bolted to 
 the bottom of the keel, which is very useful in pre- 
 serving its lower side. The false keel is proWded 
 when the thick pieces which form the keel can not be 
 procured large enough to give a suflicient depth there- 
 to. In large ships of war the false keel is composed 
 of two pieces, called the upper and lower false keels. 
 The lowest plank in a ship's bottom, called the gar- 
 hoard streak, has its inner edge let into a groove or 
 channel, cut longitudinally on the side of the keel. 
 The depth of this channel is therefore regulated by the 
 thickness of the garboard streak. — -E. A. 
 
 Keel-hauling, a punishment inflicted for various 
 offenses in the Dutch navy. It is performed by sus- 
 pending the culprit by a rope from one yard-arm, with 
 a weight of lead or iron upon his legs, and having 
 another rope fastened to him, leading under the ship's 
 bottom, and through a block at its opposite yard-arm. 
 He is then suddenly let fall from the one yard arm 
 into the sea, where, passing under the ship's bottom, 
 he is hoisted up on the opposite side of the vessel to 
 the other. This punishment is not altogether un- 
 known in British ships ; but, as it is dangerous, it is 
 very rarelj', or, indeed, scarcely ever, now practiced. 
 
 Keelson, or Kelson, a piece of timber forming 
 the interior or counterpart of the keel, being laid upon 
 the middle of the fore-timbers immediately over the 
 keel, and serving to bind and unite the former to the 
 latter, by means of long bolts driven from without, 
 and clinched on the upper side of the keelson. The 
 keelson, like the keel, is composed of several pieces 
 scarfed together ; and, in order to fit with more secur- 
 ity upon the floor-timbers and crotchets, it is notched 
 about an inch and a half deep opposite to each of those 
 pieces, thereby scored down upon them to that depth, 
 where it is secured upon them by spike-nails. The 
 pieces of which it is formed are of only half the 
 breadth and thickness of those of the keel. — E. A. 
 
 Kelp, a substance composed of different materials, 
 of which the fossil or mineral alkali, or, as it is com- 
 
KEL 
 
 1149 
 
 KEN 
 
 monly termed, soda, is the chief. This ingredient 
 renders it useful in the composition of soap, in the 
 manufacture of alum, and in the formation of crown 
 and bottle glass. It is formed of marine plants, which, 
 being cut from the rocks with a hook, are collected 
 and dried on the beach to a certain extent ; they are 
 afterward put into kilns prepared for the purpose, the 
 heat of which is sufficient to bring the plants into a 
 state of semi-fusion. They are then strongly stirred 
 with iron rakes ; and when cool, condense into a dark 
 blue or whitish mass, very hard and solid. Plants 
 about three years old yield the largest quantity of 
 kelp. The best kelp has an acrid caustic taste, a sul- 
 phurous odor, is compact, and of a dark-blue greenish 
 color. It yields about 5 per cent, of its weight of 
 soda.— Barry's Oriney Islands ; Thomson's Dispen- 
 satory. The manufacture of kelp in Great Britain, is, 
 or rather was, principally carried on in the Western 
 Islands, and on the western shores of Scotland, where 
 it was introduced from Ireland, about the middle of 
 last century. Toward the end of the year 1815, the 
 kelp shores of the island of North Uist let for £7000 
 a year. It has been calculated that the quantity of 
 kelp annually manufactured in the Hebrides only, ex- 
 clusive of the mainland, and of the Orkney and Shet- 
 land Isles, amounted, at the period referred to, to 
 about 6000 tons a year, and that the total quantity 
 made in Scotland and its adjacent isles, amounted to 
 about 20,000 tons. At some periods during the war, 
 it sold for .£20 a ton ; but at an average of the 23 years 
 ending with 1822, the price was £10.— Art. Scotland, 
 EdiiAurg Encychpmdia. Unluckily, however, the 
 foundations on which this manufacture rested were 
 altogether factitious. Its existence depended on the 
 maintenance of the high duties on barilla and salt. 
 Inasmucll, however, as kelp could not be substituted, 
 without undergoing a very expensive process, for barilla, 
 in a gi-eat many departments of industry in which the 
 use of mineral alkali is indispensable, it became neces- 
 sary materially to reduce the high duty in Great Britain 
 on barilla during the war. The ruin of the kelp manu- 
 facture has been ascribed to this reduction; but 
 though barilla had been altogether excluded from the 
 markets which could not have been done without great 
 injury to many most important manufactures, the re- 
 sult would have been perfectly the same, in so far as 
 kelp is concerned, unless the high duty on salt had 
 also been maintained. It was the repeal of the latter 
 that gave the kelp manufacture the coup de grace. 
 The purification of kelp, so as to render it fit for soap- 
 making, is a, much more troublesome and expensive 
 process than the decomposition of salt ; and the great- 
 est quantity of alkali used, is now obtained by the 
 latter method. The manufacture is now almost ex- 
 tinct. Shores that formerly yielded the proprietors a 
 rent of £200 to £500 a year, are now worth next to 
 nothing. The price of kelp since 1822 has not been, 
 at an average, above £4 a ton ; and the article will, 
 most probably, soon cease to he produced. 
 
 This result, though injurious to the proprietors of 
 kelp shores, and productive of temporar}' distress to 
 the laborers employed in the manufacture, is not to be 
 regretted. It could not have been obviated, without 
 keeping up the price of some of the most important 
 necessaries of life at a forced and unnatural elevation. 
 The high price of kelp was occasioned by the exigen- 
 cies of the late war, which, besides obstructing the 
 supply of barilla, forced government to lay high du- 
 ties on it and on salt. The proprietors had not the 
 vestige of a ground for considering that such a state of 
 things would be permanent ; they did right in profiting 
 by it while it lasted ; but they could not expect that 
 government was to subject the countrj^, during peace, 
 to some of the severest privations occasioned by the 
 war, merely that they might continue to enjoy an ac- 
 cidental advantage. 
 
 Kelp is chiefly used in the United States as a. ma- 
 
 nure, and for this purpose is very valuable. Large 
 quantities are thrown on the beaches after a storm, and 
 the Gulf Stream constantly brings it to our shores, 
 from whence it is carted by our farmers to their fields, 
 and allowed to decompose. 
 
 Kentledge, the name sometimes given to the iron 
 pigs cast in a particular form for ballasting ships, and 
 employed for that purpose. 
 
 Kentucky, one of the central United States, is 
 situated between 36° 30' and 39° 10' north lat. and 
 between 82° and 89° 40' west long. Its length is 
 about 400 miles, and its breadth 170 miles, containing 
 37,680 square miles. Population in 1790 was 73,667 ; 
 in 1800, 220,959 ; in 1810, 406,511 ; in 1820, 564,317 ; 
 in 1830, 688,844 ; in 1840, 779,828, and in 1850, 982,- 
 405. The Stite is divided into 100 counties. 
 
 Surface, Soil, etc. — A tract from 5 to 20 miles wide 
 along the Ohio River, through the whole length of 
 the State, is hilly and broken, but has a fertile soil. 
 The margin of the Ohio for about a mile in width, con- 
 sists of bottom lands, which are overflowed when the 
 river is high. Between this tract of hilly country the 
 more mountainous eastern counties and Green River 
 is a fertile tract, frequently denominated the garden 
 of the State. It is about 150 miles long, and from 50 
 to 100 wide. The soil is excellent, the surface gently 
 undulating, and the forest-growth, black-walnut, black- 
 cherry, buckeye, paw-paw, sugar-maple, mulberry, 
 elm, ash, cotton-wood, white thorn, and an abundance 
 of grape-vines. The country in the south-west part 
 of the State, between Green and Cumberland Rivers, 
 is called the "barrens." In 1800 the legislature of 
 the State made a gratuitous grant of this tract to act- 
 ual settlers, under the impression that it was of little 
 value, but it proves to be excellent grain-land, and 
 also adapted to the raising of cattle and swine. The 
 whole State below the mountains, has, at the usual 
 depth of eight feet, a bed of limestone which has fre- 
 quent apertures through which the waters of the rivera 
 sink into the earth, causing some of them to disappear 
 for a time, and others to be greatly diminished in the 
 summer season. The rivers have generally worn deep 
 channels in the calcareous rocks over which they flow. 
 The precipices formed by the Kentucky are in many 
 places stupendous, presenting perpendicular banks of 
 solid limestone 300 feet high, above which is a steep 
 and difScult ascent several times as high. In the 
 south-west part of the State, between Green and Cum- 
 berland Rivers, are several remarkable caves. One 
 called the Mammoth Cave, 130 miles from Lexington, 
 on the road to Nashville, has been explored for a dis- 
 tance of eight or ten miles. Iron ore and coal, are 
 widely diffused, coal especially occupies an extensive 
 field. Salt springs are numerous, and mineral springs 
 are found in many localities. There were in this State 
 in 1850, 5,968,270 acres of land improved, and 10,981,- 
 478 of unimproved land in farms ; cash value of farms, 
 $155,031,262, and the value of implements and ma- 
 chinery, $5,169,037 ; Uve stock — horses, 315,682 ; asses 
 and mules, 65,609 ; milch cows, 247,475 ; working 
 oxen, 62,274 ; other cattle, 442,763 ; sheep, 1,102,091 ; 
 swine, 2,891,163 ; value of live stock, $29,661,436. 
 
 AffricuUural Products, etc. — Wheat, 2,142,822 bush- 
 els ; rj'e, 415,073; Indian corn, 58,672,591; oats, 
 8,201,311; barley, 95,343; buckwheat, 16,097; peas 
 and beans, 202,574 ; potatoes, 1,492,487 ; sweet pota^ 
 toes, 998,179 ; value of products of the orchard, $106,- 
 230 ; produce of market gardens, $303,120 ; pounds of 
 butter made, 9,947,523 ; of cheese, 213,954; sugar, 284 
 hhds. ; maple sugar, 437,405 pounds ; molasses, 30,079 
 gallons ; beeswax and honey, 1,158,019 pounds ; wool, 
 pounds produced, 2,297,433 ; cotton, 758 ; flax, 2,100,- 
 116 ; silk cocoons, 1201 ; hops, 4309 pounds ; tobacco, 
 55,501,196 ; hay, tons of, 113,747 ; hemp, 16,432 tons ; 
 clover seed, 3230 bushels ; other grass seeds, 21,481 ; 
 flax seed, 75,801 bushels ; and were made 8093 gallons 
 of wine ; value of slaughtered animals, $6,462,598, 
 
KEP 
 
 1150 
 
 KEE 
 
 The Ohio Biver, by its various windings, borders this 
 State on the north for 637 miles. Cumberland and 
 Tennessee Rivers pass through its western part as they 
 approach their entrance into the Ohio. Cumberland 
 rises in the eastern part of this State. The Big Sandy 
 IS 250 miles long, and for a Considerable distance forms 
 the boundary between this State and Virginia. It is nav- 
 igable 50 miles for boats. The Kentucky River rises in 
 the Cumberland Mountains, and after a course generally 
 through a deep rocky bed, falls into the Ohio 77 miles 
 above Louisville. It is navigble for steamboats 60 
 miles to Frankfort. Licking, Green, and Salt, are 
 other considerable rivers. The Mississippi runs on the 
 western border. Tonnage of thft State, January, 
 1853, 12^166, composed entirely of steamboats. 
 
 Manufactures, etc. — There were in this State in 1850, 
 8 cotton factories, with a capital invested of $541,000, 
 employing 206 males and 307 females, producing 
 1,078,034 yards of sheeting, etc.; and 725,000 pounds 
 of 3'arn, valued at it440,095 ; 27 woolen factories, with 
 a capital of $260,320, employing 289 males and 81 fe- 
 males, manufacturing 878,034 yards of cloth, valued 
 at $424,544 ; 24 establishments making pig iron, with 
 a capital of $1,027,500, employing 1922 persons, pro- 
 ducing 28,609 tons of pig iron, etc., the entire value of 
 products, $629,937 ; 20 establishments, with a capital 
 of $502,200, employing 678 persons, and making 5888 
 tons of castings, etc., valued at $744,316 ; 4 establish- 
 ments, with a capital of $176,000, employing 183 per- 
 sons in manufacturing 3070 tons of wrought iron, 
 valued at $299,700 ; 320 flouring and grist-mills 362 
 saw-mills, and 390 tanneries; 61 printing offices, 9 
 daily, 5 tri-weekly, 2 semi-weekly, 38 weekly, 1 semi- 
 monthly, and 7 monthly publications ; total copies 
 printed annually, 6,582,838. 
 
 ^There were in this State January 1857, 33 banks, 
 with a capital of about $12,000,000. There were in 
 operation January, 1856, 233 miles of railroad, and 
 452 miles in course of construction. 
 
 The foreign commerce of Kentucky is very small. 
 Effort is being made to increase it, and also the foreign 
 commerce of some of the other western States, by giv- 
 ing facilities for the direct importation of goods. At 
 several of the western cities, fine custom-houses have 
 been built ; at St. Louis and Cincinnati, and at others, 
 . Louisville and Dubuque, it is proposed to erect them. 
 There are no records of the foreign commerce of Ken- 
 tucky prior to 1835. Since that time it has been as 
 follows : 
 
 Foreign Commerob of Kentucky. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Exports. 
 DomeBtic. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Uistrlot Tonnage. 
 Enrolled. 
 
 Sept. 30, 1835, to (. 
 
 Sept. 80, 1840.. f 
 Sept. 80, 1840, to 1 
 
 June 80, 1850. ( 
 July 1, 18.50, to i 
 
 July 1,1838... f 
 
 $8,728 
 
 «89,485 
 890,835 
 674,498 
 
 In 1836 1,714 
 
 " 1841.... 8,359 
 " 1851.... 12,989 
 
 Kepler, John. This eminent man, known in the 
 annals of astronomical science as discoverer of the 
 laws of motion of the planetary bodies which compose 
 the solar circle, was the son of a military officer, and 
 was born at Wiel, Duchj' of Wirtemburg, 27th De- 
 cember, 1571. In 1591 he became the pupil of Michael 
 Msestlins, under whom he made great progress as a 
 mathematician. Having added divinity to his studies, 
 he acquired considerable celebrity as a preacher ; but, 
 relinquishing the clerical gown, he succeeded, in 1594, 
 in obtaining the mathematical chair in the university 
 of Gratz, in Styria. In 1598, having professed the 
 Protestant faith, he was removed from his office, but 
 was soon recalled again by the States. In 1600 he ac- 
 cepted an invitation from Tycho, urging him' to set- 
 tle at Prague, and assist him in the prosecution of 
 astronomical researches, under the patronage of the 
 Emperor Rodolph. The death of Tycho, and Kepler's 
 own illness almost immediately on his arrival in Prague, 
 prevented the desired co-operation ; but on his introduc- 
 
 tion to the emperor, he was requested to complete the 
 tables his late friend had begun, which were to be called 
 the Modolphme Tables. This work, which occupied him 
 during the greater part of the remainder of his life, 
 he carried on and completed in 1627, amid the incon- 
 veniences and difficulties which arose from the irregu- 
 lar payment of his pension, and the other expenses 
 attending the undertaking. His health now again 
 failed, and as a means of restoration, together with the 
 desire of obtaining the arrears due him by the emperor, 
 he went to Ratisbon ; but the fatigue of traveling and 
 mental uneasiness threw him into a sickness which 
 closed his life, soon after his arrival in that city, in 
 November, 1630. His published works on astronomi- 
 cal subjects are numerous, besides which he wrote on 
 chronology^ geometry of solids, ■ trigonometry, loga- 
 rithms, and dioptrics. To this great philosopher the 
 world is indebted for the diseovery of the true figure 
 of the orbits of the planets, which he demonstrated tc 
 be ellipses, together with those principles of planetary 
 motion generally denominated "the laws of Kepler." 
 
 Kermes (Ger. Scharlachheeren ; Du. Grein Schar- 
 lakenbessen; It. Grana, Chermes, Cremese, Cocchi ; Sp. 
 Grana Kermes, Grana de la coscoja), an insect {Coccus 
 iUicis Lin.) of the same species as the true Mexican 
 cochineal, found upon the quercits ilex, a species of oak 
 growing in Spain, France, the Levant, etc. Before the 
 discover}^ of America, kermes was the most esteemed 
 drug for dyeing scarlet, and had been used for that 
 purpose from a verj' remote period. Beckmann inclines 
 to think that it was employed by the Phoenicians, and 
 that it excelled even the famous Tyrian purple. {Hist, 
 of Invent., vol. ii., p. 197, Eng. ed.) From the name 
 of coccum or coccus, cloth dyed with kermes was called 
 coccinum, and persons wearing this cloth were said by 
 the Romans to be coccinati. {Mart., lib. i., epig. 97, 
 lin. 6.) It is singular, however, notwithstanding its 
 extensive use in antiquity, that the ancients had the 
 most incorrect notions with respect to the nature of 
 kermes ; many of them supposing that it was the 
 grains {grand) or fruit of the ilex. This was Pliny's 
 opinion ; others, after him, considered it in the same 
 light, or as an excrescence formed by the puncture of a 
 particular kind of fly, like the gall-nut. It was not 
 till the early part of last century that it was finally and 
 satisfactorily established that the kermes is really 
 nothing but an insect, assuming the appearance of a 
 berry in the process of drjang.— The term kermes is 
 of Persian origin. The Arabians had been acquainted 
 with this production from the earliest periods in Africa ; 
 and having found it in Spain, they cultivated it ex- 
 tensively as an article of commerce, as well as a dye 
 drug for their own use. But since the Introduction of 
 cochineal, it has become an object of comparativelj' 
 trifling importance. It is still, however, prepared in 
 some parts of Spain. Cloths dyed with kermes are of 
 a deep red color ; and though much inferior in bril- 
 liancy to the scarlet cloths dyed with real Mexican 
 cochineal, they retain the color better, and are less 
 liable to stain. The old tapestries of Brussels, and 
 other places in Flanders, which have scarcely lost any 
 thing of their original vivacity, though 200 years 
 old, were all dyed with kermes. The history of this 
 production has been treated with great learning by 
 Beckmann {Bist. of Invent., vol. i., pp. 171-191, 1st 
 ed. trans.) ; and by Dr. Bancroft {Permanent Colors, 
 vol. i., pp. 393-409). 
 
 Kersey (probably a corruption of Jersey, whence 
 it originally came), a kind of coarse cloth, usually rib- 
 bed, and woven from long wool. It is chiefly manu- 
 factured in the north of England. Kerseymere, on the 
 other hand, is a thin stufi', generally woven plain from 
 the finest wools ; and hence it has been inferred that 
 these two terms, whose meaning is so distinct, can not 
 be referred to the same origin. Kerseymere is said to 
 have .derived its appellation from Cashmir, a, country 
 whicli produces the finest wool, and is consequently 
 
KEY 
 
 1161 
 
 KIA 
 
 most celebrated for the works of its looms. In En- 
 gland it is principally manufactured in the -western 
 district. 
 
 Ketch (It. caicchio), an old English term ap- 
 plied to a Tessel equipped with two masts, and from 
 100 to 250 tons burden. It was nearly sj-nonymoas 
 with the modem term t/acht,, being used chiefly by em- 
 bassadors or other distinguished personages in voyages 
 from one place to another, and was furnished with all 
 the apparatus necessary for defense or aggression. 
 
 Keys, The invention of them is ascribed to Theo- 
 dore, of Samos, by Pliny, about 730 B. o. But this is 
 an error, as keys are mentioned in the siege of Troy, 
 1193 B. c. Keys were originally made of wood, and 
 the earliest form was a simple crook similar to the 
 common picklock now in use. The ancient keys now 
 to be found in tlie cabinets of the curious are mostly 
 of bronze. The late Francis Donee, Esq., had some 
 of remarkable shapes, the shaft terminating on one 
 side by the works, on the othfer by a ring. Keys of 
 this description were presented by husbands to wives, 
 and were returned again upon divorce or separation. 
 
 Keifa are certain sunken rocks lying near the surface 
 of the water, particularly in the West Indies, from 
 the Spanish cai/o (an islet rock). The Iceys, so called, 
 off the Florida coast, are prolific in wrecks of the 
 larger class of vessels. For an account of these wrecks, 
 see articles Key West, Florida, and Wrecks. 
 
 Key-West, a small island from four to five miles 
 in length, by one in width ; 66 miles south-west from 
 Cape Sable, in Florida. It is one of the Florida keys, 
 or of that extensive circular range of low islands, 
 banks, and reefs, which fences the coast of Florida, 
 and forms the northern boundary of the Gulf Stream, 
 from theTortugas islands on the west round to Cape 
 Florida on the north. A light-house erected on the 
 south-west point of the island, lat. 24° 32' 32" N., 
 long. 81° 48' 30" W., has a fixed light elevated 67 
 feet above the level of the water. The town of Key- 
 West, near the north-west part of the island, has 
 about 1600 inhabitants, and has an excellent harbor, 
 with about 25 feet of water. A safe passage, about 
 six miles in length, leads by Key-Weet from 'the 
 Gulf Stream to the Gulf of Mexico. It has 12 feet 
 of water at ebb tide, and vessels from the north bound 
 for New Orleans, Mobile, etc., or from the latter for 
 the former, by passing through it, avoid the delay and 
 danger of the more westerly passage round the Tortu- 
 gas. Owing to the frequent accidents to shipping 
 from coming in contact with the banks and reefs in 
 this dangerous vicinity, the -American government 
 has organized an establishment at Key- West for the 
 assistance of ships in distress, and made it the seat of 
 an admiralty court for the adjudication of claims for 
 salvage. The former consists of above 20 licensed 
 vessels, with crews of about 10 men each. These are 
 kept constantly cruising about on the look-out for 
 ships in distress or wanting pilots ; and as their emolu- 
 ment principally depends on the fees they obtain for 
 their assistance, it may be fairly assumed that it will be 
 rendered with the greatest alacrity. But the desirable 
 thing is to hinder vessels from getting on shore, the 
 assisting them when in that predicament being, though 
 an important, a secondary consideration. The latter, 
 however, and not the former, is the main object which 
 the licensed cruisers of Key-West have in view ; and it 
 would be preferable, could means be devised for mak- 
 ing their remuneration depend rather on their success 
 in preventing disasters, than, as at present, in miti- 
 gating their influence. This, however, is by no means 
 easily done. Shipwrecks will, perhaps, be more effect- 
 ually prevented by increasing the number of light- 
 houses, light-vessels, and sea-marks along the edges 
 of the islands and reefs, than in any other way. We 
 subjoin ah aocoimt of the sums awarded as salvages 
 by the court of Key-West, in each of the 16. years 
 ending with 1861. These, though of small amount. 
 
 show a general uniformity, making it probable that 
 they are from local causes. 
 
 1886 $174,132 
 
 1887. 107,495 
 
 1888 84,578 
 
 1839 90,797 
 
 1840... 86,118 
 
 1841 71,173 
 
 1842 88.108 
 
 1843 83,811 
 
 1844 $92,712 
 
 1845 69,592 
 
 1846 124,400 
 
 1847 60,854 
 
 1848 125,800 
 
 1849 127,870 
 
 1850 122,831 
 
 1861 75,862 
 
 See Blunt's American Pilot ; DeBow's InduBtrial 
 Resources ; Account of Light-houses, U.S., in 1850. ' 
 
 Kiakhta, a Russian settlement of more than a 
 century old, a little to the south of Lake Baikal, and 
 constitutes, with the Chinese frontier town Maimachen 
 (which is in immediate juxtaposition), the emporium 
 through which the whole of the overland tea for Eussia 
 passes, and it is from this fact that this place acquires 
 its present importance. It is by this cliannel that the 
 article originally reached western Europe ; and if all 
 intercourse With the Chinese seaboard were stopped, by 
 this channel only would all consumers, not only in 
 Europe, but in America also, be able to obtain it. The 
 whole tea-drinking world would have to content itself 
 with obtaining from St. Petersburg what supplies it 
 could^ after it had been brought a distance of nearly 
 8000 miles by land transport and river navigation. 
 The cost of transit is such that before the late war with 
 Eussia scarcely any thing was drunk throughout the 
 whole kingdom of Poland but smuggled Canton tea, 
 which was every year penetrating further and further 
 into the interior of Eussia, as will be believed, when it is 
 stated that the average wholesale price of the common 
 tea was 270 copecks ($2 10) and of the best 410 co- 
 pecks ($3 28) at Moscow in the year 1854. To what 
 price it would reach, were the demand suddenly in- 
 increased to any great extent, is mere conjecture. 
 One thing is plain — it would deprive not merely the 
 common people, but the great bulk of the middle 
 class, of all participation whatever in this great neces- 
 sity. 
 
 The duties on this overland tea form an important 
 item in Eussian finance. A most serious diminution 
 in them was occasioned by the treaty with China 
 which threw open the northern ports. In 1842 no less 
 than 467,679 poods of Chinese merchandise, the far 
 greater part of it being tea, left Kiakhta ; in 1864 little 
 more than half as much. If a perfectly free inter- 
 course with the interior of China were allowed, the 
 Kiakhta trade would be proportionably diminished; 
 and it is quite conceivable that it would even be super- 
 seded altogether, except as regards the so-called 
 "brick-tea" — a compost of tea^leaves and sheep's 
 blood, in which the Mongul palate exclusively de- 
 lights. This inference is drawn confidently from the 
 positive statement of the Eussian statist, M. Tengobo- 
 raski, that the Kiakhta tea costs 20 copecks the pound 
 in transport before it even reaches the emporium ; 
 whereas the same article from the same d6p6t may be 
 taken to Shanghai for only 8 copecks, and all the way 
 to London for 10. It is plain, therefore, that the ques- 
 tion of open or closed ports in China is the question 
 between the annihilation of the Eussian revenue from 
 tea, and the compelling of the consumers of the com- 
 modity throughout the world to enrich the Eussian 
 treasury by purchasing a tithe of their requirements 
 at tenfold the price they need pay for an ample sup- 
 
 ply- 
 
 The only country' which has an interest in sealing 
 the Chinese seaboard is likewise the only one which 
 enjoys, and has long enjoyed, the privilege of being 
 represented at Pekin. Ever since the year 1727 the 
 Eussian government has maintained an establishment 
 in that capital, the members of which are changed 
 regularly every 10 years. It originally professed to 
 be for the spu'itual behoof of the descendants of some 
 Siberian settlers who had been carried off about half a 
 century before from the upper valley of the Amoor, 
 
KIN 
 
 1152 
 
 KON 
 
 but the mission still contiaiues, although the neces- 
 sity has ceased ; and, ■while authentic information rel- 
 ative to the resources and the administration of the 
 Celestial Empire is derived through this channel by 
 the foreign ofl&ce at St. Petersburg, no doubt what- 
 ever opinions are current at Pekin of the powers of 
 western Europe owe their shape and color to the same 
 agency. — London Times. 
 
 Kidderminster, a manufacturing town of En- 
 gland, county Worcester, on the Oxford, Worcester 
 and Wolverhampton railroad, and on both sides of the 
 Stour, near its confluence with the Severn, 15 miles 
 north of Worcester. Population, 18,462. Kidder- 
 minster was noted for its woolen manufactures in the 
 reign of Henry VIII. The fabrics now made are car- 
 pets and finger rugs, with some bombazines, button 
 coverings and waistcoat pieces. The carpets are un- 
 rivaled for excellence of workmanship at the low 
 prices charged. In 1838, upward of 2000 looms, and 
 4000 hands, were employed in this manufacture. The 
 Stafford and Worcester canal passes the town, and 
 opens a communication with Liverpool, Hull, and 
 Bristol. The Kidderminster and Scotch carpets are 
 woven on the principle of damask patterns, all being 
 wool, and the patterns being effected by arranging 
 and interchanging two colors, so that while one pre- 
 dominates on one side, the other pattern shows itself 
 on the other side. They have little substance, and 
 soon wear out ; their low price being their only ad- 
 vantage. They are made in widths of a yard, and are 
 sold at about 3s. sterling per yard, or sometimes even 
 below that price. 
 
 Kidney Beans, or French Beans, were intro- 
 duced into England about a.d. 1633. The kidney 
 bean-tree (Glycine frutescens) was brought to that 
 country from South Carolina about the year 1724, 
 though some authorities say earlier. Kidney beans 
 are a summer pulse, and are of peculiar delicacj' 
 early in the season. They are much esteemed, both 
 in this country and in England. 
 
 Kilogramme. In France, the unit used in weigh- 
 ing is the gramme, which has been fixed by law, and 
 is equal to the specific weight of the distilled water 
 contained in one cubic centimetre. The gramme thus 
 fixed weighs 15'433 grains Troy and 16-924 grains 
 avoirdupois, while the kilogramme, which consists 
 of 1000 grammes, is found to be equal to 2 livres 
 (pounds) 5 gros, 35 grains — 15-lOOths poids de mark — 
 and to 2 pounds, 8 ounces, 3 pennyweights, 6'355 
 grains Troy, or 2 pounds, 3 ounces, 4 dramchans, 16 
 grains avoirdupois weight English. As the most 
 common things of daily consumption are sold by 
 weights in small quantities, a great difficulty arose in 
 introducing this part of the system ; and the old de- 
 nominations of weights have therefore been allowed 
 to remain, with some modification in their actual 
 value, taking the kilogramme as the basis. The 
 kilogramme is divided into 2 livres, the livre is sub- 
 divided into 16 ounces, the ounce into 8 gros, and the 
 gros into 72 grains. The new Uvre, therefore, ex- 
 ceeds the old one (poids de marc) by 2-lOOths ; so, to 
 reduce kilogrammes into old measure, it is necessarj'' 
 to multiply by 2 and add 2-100th3. In the decimal 
 system adopted in France, the prefixes for multiplying 
 are Greek, and for dividing are Latin. Thus : 
 
 Deca means 10 times. 
 Hecto '^ 100 " 
 Kilo " 1,000 " 
 
 Myria " 10,000 " 
 
 Dcci means 10th part. 
 
 Centi " 100th " 
 Milli '» l,000tU " 
 
 We have, therefore, the milligramme, centigramme, 
 decigramme, Gramsie, decagramme, hectogramme, 
 kilogramme, and myriagrammCj as the names of the 
 various weights. 
 
 Kino (Fr. Gomme de Kino ; Ger. Kinoharz ; It. 
 Chino'), a gum, the produce of trees that grow in the 
 East and West Indies, Africa, Botany Bay, etc. The 
 kino now found in the shops is said by Dr. A. T. 
 
 Thomson to come from India, and to be the produce of 
 the nauclea gamhir. The branches and twigs are 
 bruised and boiled in water. The decoction is then 
 evaporated until it acquires the consistence of an ex- 
 tract, which is kino. It is imported in chests contain- 
 ing from 1 to 2 cwt. ; and on the inside of the lid of 
 each chest is a paper, inscribed with the name of 
 John Brown, the month and year of its importation, 
 and stating that it is the produce of Amboyna. It is 
 inodorous, very rough, and slightly bitter when first 
 taken into the mouth ; but it afterward impresses a 
 degree of sweetness on the palate. It is in small, 
 uniform, deep brown, shining, brittle fragments, 
 which appear like portions of a dried extract broken 
 down; being perfectly uniform in their appearance. 
 It is easily pulverized, affording a powder of a lighter 
 brown color than the fragments. But it may be 
 doubted whether the inspissated juice of the nauclea 
 gamhir ought to be considered ^s kino. Dr. Ainslie 
 says that Botany Bay kino is the only kind he had 
 seen in an Indian bazaar. The tree which, yields it 
 grows to a great height : it flows from incisions made 
 into the wood of the trunk. — Thomson's Dispensatory; 
 Ainslie's Materia Indica. 
 
 Knee, in a ship, a crooked piece of timber, having 
 two branches or arms, and generall}'' used to connect 
 the beams of a ship with her sides or timbers. The 
 branches of the knees form an angle of greater or 
 smaller extent, according to the mutual situation of the 
 pieces which they are designed to unite. 
 
 Knee of the Head, a large, flat piece of timber, fixed 
 edgewise upon the fore part of a ship's stem, and sup- 
 porting the ornamental figure or image placed under 
 the bowsprit. The knee of the head is a phrase peculiar 
 to shipwrights, as this piece is always called the cut- 
 water by seamen, if we except a few, who, affecting to 
 be wiser than tlieir brethren, have adopted this ex- 
 pression, probably on the presumption that the other 
 is a cant phrase or vulgarism. 
 
 Carling-Knees, in a ship, those timbers which ex- 
 tend from the ship to the hatchway, and bear up the 
 deck on both sides. 
 
 Knives (Ger. Jl/esser ; Dn.Messen; Tt, Couteaux ; 
 It. Coltelli ; Sp. Cuchillos ; Bus. NosJii) well known 
 utensils made of iron and steel, and employed to cut 
 with: they are principally manufactured in London 
 and Sheffield. Knives are made for a variety of pur- 
 poses, as their different denominations imply; such 
 as table-knives, pen-knives, oyster-knives, pruning- 
 knives, etc. Although England at present excels 
 every part of the world in the manufacture of knives, 
 as in most branches of cutlery, the finer kinds were 
 imported until the reign of Elizabeth. It is stated by 
 Mr. Macpherson {Annals of Com., a.d. 1563), that 
 knives were not made for use in England till 1563 ; 
 but there can be no doubt that this is an error. They 
 had been made, though probably of a rude and clumsy 
 pattern, for centuries before, in the district called Hal- 
 lamshire, of which Sheffield is the centre ; the cutlers 
 of London were formed into a corporation in 1417. — ■ 
 Manufactures in Metal^ in Lardner's Cyclopcedia. 
 See Hardware and Cutlery. Forks were in use on 
 the Continent in the 13th and 14th centuries. — Vol- 
 taire. This is reasonably disputed, as being too 
 early. In Fynes Moryson's Itinerary, reign of 
 Elizabeth, he says: '*At Venice each person was 
 served (besides his knife and spoon) with » fork to 
 hold the meat while he cuts it, for there they deem it 
 ill manners that one should touch it with his hand." 
 Thomas Coryate describes, with much solemnity, the 
 manner of using forks in Italy, and adds, *' I myself 
 have thought it good to imitate the Italian fashion 
 since I came home to England," a.d. 1608. 
 
 Konigsberg, the capital of east Prussia, in lat. 
 54° 42^ 11'^ N,-, long. 20° 29' 15'' E. Population, in 
 1846, 75,234. Konigsberg is situated on the Pregel, 
 which flows in the Frische Haff, or Fresh Bay, a large 
 
KON 
 
 1153 
 
 KUR 
 
 j.ate having from 10 to 14 feet water. The bar at the 
 mouth of the Pregel has only from 10 to 11 feet water, 
 BO that vessels of more than that draught of water 
 require to be lightered to come up to KOnigsberg. 
 Pillau, in lat. 54° 33' 39" N., long. 19° 52' 30" E. on 
 the north side of the entrance from the Baltic to the 
 Frische Haif, is properly the port of the town. Within 
 these few years, a light-house has been erected on a 
 rising ground, a little to the south of Pillau, the lan- 
 tern of which is elevated 95 feet above the level of the 
 sea. The light is fixed and brilliant. The entrance to 
 the harbor is marked by buoys ; those on the larboard 
 side being surmounted by small flags. A Gothic build- 
 ing, 120 feet above the level of the sea, has been erect- 
 ed to serve for a land-mark ; at a distance it looks like 
 a three-masted ship under saU. There is usually from 
 15 to 16 feet water between the buoys on entering the 
 harbor ; but particular winds occasion material differ- 
 ences in this respect. Being situated on a navigable 
 river of considerable importance, Konigsberg has a 
 large command of internal navigation, and is the prin- 
 cipal emporium of a large extent of country. "Wheat, 
 rye, and other species of grain are the chief articles of 
 export. The wheat is somewhat similar to that of 
 Dantzio, but of inferior quality, being larger in the 
 berry, and thicker skinned. The rye is of good quality, 
 but barley, with few exceptions, is thin and light. A 
 few remarkable large and fitie peas are exported ; but 
 the bulk are of small size, and inferior. Oats are com- 
 mon feed, with a slight admixture of tares, but as 
 these last answer in some degree the purpose of beans, 
 the value of the oats is rather enhanced than other- 
 wise by the circumstance. More tares are shipped 
 here than from any other port in the Baltic. The 
 price of all sorts of grain is usually low-er at K6nigs- 
 berg than at the neighboring Prussian ports. Linseed 
 and rapeseed, hemp, flax, linens, oil-cake, oil, bristles, 
 refined sugar, etc., are largely exported. 
 
 AOOOUNT OP TUB ^UTIOLBS EXPORTED FROM KoNIGSBERO 
 
 BY Sea in 1851, Spkoieying tub Quantities shipped 
 TO Great Britain, tub total Quantities exported, 
 AND THEIR Values, with the total Quantities ex- 
 ported in 1850. 
 
 Wheat lasts* 
 
 Eyo 
 
 Barley 
 
 Oals 
 
 Peas. 
 
 Beans 
 
 Tares 
 
 Linseed and rapeseed. . . 
 Clover & Timothy seed, ewt+ 
 
 Flax 
 
 Flaxcodilla 
 
 Hemp 
 
 Hemp cedilla 
 
 Linen 
 
 Bristles and hair 
 
 Feathers and quills 
 
 Oilcakes 
 
 Oil 
 
 Bonos 
 
 Bone Black 
 
 Sugar rcf d & molasses. . 
 
 Butter and cheeso 
 
 Hides and skins 
 
 Ashes 
 
 Kags 
 
 Mats bundles of 5 
 
 Sundries 
 
 Total value of exports 1851 
 
 ExportalnI861. 
 
 Toffll 
 qnanti- 
 
 8,T56 
 22,447 
 2,890 
 1,055 
 
 e 
 
 8T 
 4,411 
 2,096 
 13,835 
 16,770 
 2,862 
 ( — 
 
 4v 
 
 15T 
 
 104 
 
 70,364 
 
 9,005 
 
 1,826 
 
 7, 
 
 12,716 
 
 62 
 
 368 
 
 66 
 
 802 
 
 6,060 
 
 Vslue [d 
 PrusBinn 
 currency, 
 
 R. th, 
 1,109,093 
 
 1,496,467 
 
 154,188 
 
 46,T17 
 
 139,993 
 
 47,925 
 
 2,348 
 
 499,918 
 
 19,903 
 
 124,615 
 
 75,465 
 
 22,844 
 
 1,010 
 
 125,460 
 
 14,130 
 
 11,440 
 
 98,820 
 
 90,050 
 
 2,180 
 
 1,240 
 
 10,890 
 
 120 
 
 906 
 
 8,036 
 
 50,000 
 
 4,374,861 
 
 Value in 
 sterling. 
 
 £ 
 
 166,364 
 
 224,470 
 
 28,120 
 
 6,858 
 
 20,999 
 
 7,189 
 
 851 
 
 74,987 
 
 2,985 
 
 18,677 
 
 11,320 
 
 8, — 
 
 151 
 
 18319 
 
 2,120 
 
 1,T16 
 
 14,078 
 
 13,507 
 
 84,333 
 
 136 
 
 1,634 
 
 18 
 
 136 
 
 455 
 
 7,500 
 
 656,228 
 
 14,828 
 
 28,344 
 
 5,066 
 
 4,808 
 
 4,108 
 
 1,512 
 
 636 
 
 6,101 
 
 2,046 
 
 20,468 
 
 8,724 
 
 8,501 
 
 171 
 
 4,175 
 
 64 
 
 126 
 
 67,998 
 
 13,421 
 
 1,466 
 
 668 
 
 11,668 
 
 166 
 
 "'64 
 
 Ksio 
 
 * 10^ imperial quarters. 
 
 t 20 to a ton. 
 
 The imports arc sugar, tea, herrings, iron and 
 steel, coffee, wines, tin and tin plates, dye-woods, 
 tobacco, spices, drugs, coals, etc. Salt is a govern- 
 ment monopoly ; any person being allowed to import 
 it, but he must either sell it to government at a price 
 fixed by them, or export it again. 
 
 Account op the Peoduots imported into KSnigsberg bt 
 Sea in the Tear 1851, speoipying tub Quantities 
 imported from Great Britain and elsewhere, with 
 
 TUEIR estimated VaLUES. 
 
 From the 
 United 
 Kingdom 
 
 Arrack, rum, & brandy . cwts. 
 
 Ashes, calcined " 
 
 Cotton wool " 
 
 Cotton ware " 
 
 Cotton yarn " 
 
 Coffee " 
 
 Cheese " 
 
 leras and vitriol... " 
 
 Coafs " 
 
 China and earthenware " 
 
 Cement " 
 
 Dye wood " 
 
 Drugs " 
 
 Fruit, southern " 
 
 Fruit, fresh and dried.. " 
 
 Fireclay " 
 
 Glass and glassware '* 
 
 Gypsum " 
 
 Honey " 
 
 Hops " 
 
 Hides and skins " 
 
 Herrings barrels 
 
 Indigo cwts. 
 
 Iron and steel ware .... " 
 Iron and steel, raw .... " 
 
 Iron and steel, new " 
 
 Lead " 
 
 White lead " 
 
 Litharge " 
 
 Limestone lasts 
 
 Linen cwts. 
 
 Mill and grind-stones, ),„_., 
 
 flies and bricks f""'^^ 
 
 Malt liquors cwts. 
 
 Molasses 
 
 Mustard 
 
 Oil, different sorts 
 
 Paper 
 
 Eice 
 
 Salt 
 
 Spices of all kinds 
 
 Sugar, refined 
 
 Sugar, raw 
 
 Succory root 
 
 Tea, 
 
 Tin 
 
 Tinplate 
 
 Tobacco, manufactured 
 
 Tobacco leaves 
 
 Tar and pitch 
 
 Train oil 
 
 Vinegar 
 
 Wine 
 
 Woolen ware. 
 
 Wool, not European . , 
 Sundry Imports of various 
 
 descriptions 
 
 Total value of Importsf 
 
 614 
 
 20 
 
 1,422 
 
 82 
 
 6,1 
 
 816 
 
 7 
 
 2,037 
 
 190,800 
 
 58 
 
 7,1 
 
 1,218 
 
 3,414 
 
 183 
 
 2,104 
 10 
 
 87 
 
 4, 
 
 '442 
 
 1,498 
 
 80,718 
 
 1,485 
 
 1, — 
 
 76 
 
 119 
 
 148 
 
 49 
 
 261 
 
 4, 
 
 145,847 
 1,887 
 
 100,400 
 
 9,658 
 84 
 655 
 
 600 
 2,143 
 
 175 
 146 
 
 From 
 b]1 other 
 places. 
 
 Total 
 quanti- 
 ties. 
 
 13,689 
 296 
 918 
 224 
 64 
 
 14,694 
 
 360 
 1,1T8 
 
 9,563 
 11,666 
 4,058 
 1,198 
 
 1,922 
 81,225 
 1,289 
 
 718 
 
 2,544 
 
 75,039 
 
 24 
 
 18,951 
 
 1,490 
 
 28,128 
 
 829 
 
 175 
 
 80 
 
 l,i66 
 
 17 
 207 
 
 8^676 
 
 861 
 
 4,908 
 
 8,018 
 
 14,453 
 
 785 
 
 24,948 
 
 9,642 
 
 4,394 
 
 188 
 
 1^96 
 
 2,841 
 
 1,111 
 
 14,267 
 
 2,150 
 
 971 
 
 17,466 
 
 - 69 
 
 960 
 
 14,i 
 
 816 
 
 2,840 
 
 266 
 
 6,027 
 
 16,510 
 
 683 
 
 2,669 
 
 190,660 
 
 1,! 
 
 7,1 
 
 10,T71 
 
 15,070 
 
 4,191 
 
 1,198 
 
 2,104 
 
 1"-" 
 
 81,225 
 
 1,2.39 
 
 756 
 
 8,029 
 
 79,269 
 
 466 
 
 16,444 
 
 32,208 
 
 29,618 
 
 2,827 
 
 251 
 
 149 
 
 148 
 
 1,206 
 
 827 
 
 1,605 
 
 207 
 
 116 
 
 8,682 
 
 861 
 
 9,809 
 
 158,865 
 
 16,290 
 
 7.35 
 
 126,848 
 
 9,642 
 
 13,447 
 
 217 
 
 2,05: 
 
 2,841 
 
 1,111 
 
 14,867 
 
 4' — 
 
 '971 
 
 17,641 
 
 214 
 
 Value In 
 sterling. 
 
 83,848 
 
 417 
 
 7, 
 
 8,072 
 
 22,601 
 
 53,610 
 
 959 
 
 1,201 
 
 7,627 
 
 6,988 
 
 1,180 
 
 11,810 
 
 11,802 
 
 6,287 
 
 1,: 
 
 106 
 
 4,847 
 
 1,875 
 
 2,280 
 
 2,832 
 
 9,087 
 
 77,295 
 
 10,485 
 
 84,749 
 
 9,662 
 
 35,636 
 
 2,094 
 
 490 
 
 179 
 
 38 
 
 13,000 
 
 8,722 
 
 2,167 
 
 218 
 
 696 
 
 8,060 
 
 975 
 
 11,770 
 
 9,870 
 
 24,486 
 
 1,654 
 
 150,418 
 
 121*028 
 
 «61 
 
 9,280 
 
 17,046 
 
 8,338 
 
 3,845 
 
 5,162 
 
 487 
 
 81,758 
 
 2,889 
 
 720 
 
 7,500 
 
 806,3851 
 
 Monet/, Weights, and Measures, same as at Dantzic ; 
 see Dantzic. 
 
 Kurachee, or Karacbee, the principal sea^port 
 town of Scinde, on an inlet of the Indian Ocean, 18 
 miles from the west branch of the Indus. Lat. 24° 
 47' 3" K., long. 66° 56' 2" E. It stands on a low, 
 sandy shore, and a few years ago consisted, with its 
 extensive suburbs, mostly of straggling huts ; but 
 the latest accounts state that it has been almost rebuilt, 
 and greatly improved since it has become a British 
 possession. Its trade and consequence are rapidly 
 augmenting. The harbor is the only port along this 
 coast for vessels drawing more than 10 feet water, and 
 is sheltered by Cape Munoiah, four miles south-west. 
 
 4D 
 
LAB 
 
 1154 
 
 LAB 
 
 L. 
 
 Laboring of a ship, implies pitching or rolling 
 heavily in a turbulent sea, an effect by which the masts 
 and hull are greatly endangered ; because by the 
 rolling motion the masts strain upon their shrouds 
 with an effort which increases as the sine of their ob- 
 liquity ; and the continual agitation of the vessel 
 often loosens her joints and makes her extremely 
 leaky. 
 
 Labrador, a. large peninsula of North America, 
 nearly of a triangular shape, extending from N. lat. 
 50° to 63°, and from W. long. 56° to 79°. It is 
 bounded on the south by Canada and the Gulf of St. 
 Lawrence, east by the Atlantic Ocean, north by Hud- 
 son's Straits, and west by Hudson's Bay. Labrador 
 is thus detached from the arctic lands, but is neverthe- 
 less a country as frozen, desolate, and barren, as those 
 on the west of Hudson's Bay. The coast along that 
 spacious inland sea is called East Main, and the cli- 
 mate there is peculiarly rigorous. The whole surface 
 of Labrador, indeed, is as sterile and naked as anj' part 
 of the globe. The prevailing features are rocks, 
 swamps, and water ; and vegetation appears as the 
 last effort of expiring nature. Small, scragg)'' pop- 
 lars, stunted firs, creeping birch, and dwarf willows, 
 thinly scattered in the southern parts, constitute the 
 whole of the trees. Herbs and grass are also in shel- 
 tered places to be met with, but in the most northerly 
 parts only varieties of moss and lichens are to be 
 found. The whole of the interior, from the aspect of 
 what has been explored, and from the reports of the 
 Esquimaux and other Indians, seems to be broken up 
 with rivers, lakes, and rocks. The prevailing rock 
 continuous to the sea-shore of Labrador, is gneiss. 
 On this, at L'Anse k Loup, the most fertile part of the 
 country', it bed of old red sand-stone, abut 200 feet 
 thick, is superimposed, and extends about half a mile 
 inland. Here, also, as on other parts of the coast, 
 the appearances of the cliffs and of the land near them, 
 and the rolled masses inland, which have evidently 
 been exposed to the action of the sea, seem to prove 
 that the latter has considerably receded. 
 
 On the coast of Labrador the winter is extremely 
 severe, the thermometer often falling 30 degrees be- 
 low the freezing "point ; and although the houses of 
 the Moravian missionaries are heated by large cast- 
 iron stoves, the windows and walls are ^1 the winter 
 covered with ice, and the bed-clothes freeze to the 
 walls. Rum is frozen in the air as rapidly as water, 
 and rectified spirits soon become thick like oil. From 
 December to June, the sea is completely frozen over, 
 and so intense is the cold during the winter months, 
 that traveling is sometimes attended with the most 
 painfid consequences. The summer mouths, again, 
 are extremly hot along the coast, the thermometer 
 rising to 86 degrees of Fahrenheit, when swarms of 
 musquitoes infest the air. 
 
 The climate is not insalubrious ; and, notwithstand- 
 ing all its disadvantages, Labrador is of considerable 
 importance to Great Britain. No country is better 
 provided with large, convenient, and safe harbors, or 
 supplied with better water ; and vast multitudes of all 
 those kinds of fish common to the arctic seas abound 
 on the coast. Herrings are verj' fine and plentiful in 
 August, but there is no weather to cure any kind of 
 fish after the 10th of September. The rivers are fre- 
 quented by salmon and sea trout ; and pike, barbel, 
 eels, river trout, and the like, are likewise found in 
 them. On the numerous islands which are scattered 
 along the east coast, multitudes of eider-ducks and 
 other water-fowl breed. Those of large size have 
 deor, foxes, and hares upon them. On the continent 
 the wild animals are principally bears, wolves, foxes, 
 
 and otters ; beavers and deer are jiot numerous, but 
 their furs are remarkably close and beautiful. The 
 birds of the countrj' are the white-tailed eagle, fal- 
 cons, hawks, and owls of various kinds ; raven, white 
 grouse, ptarmigan, spruce-game, whistling-curlew, 
 gray plover, various kinds of sand-pipers and other 
 waders ; geese, ducks of various sorts, shags, gulls, 
 divers, and some few species of small birds. During 
 the short summer insects are very numerous, especi- 
 ally in swampy places. In winter they exist in a 
 state of torpidity, from which thej"" are aroused by the 
 solar heat or artificial warmth. The phenomenon of 
 the aurora borealis is uncommonly brilliant in this re- 
 gion, and exercises a very marked influence over the 
 compass. 
 
 No accurate account of the trade of Labrador can 
 be obtained, as there are no custom-houses or public 
 officers in the country ; but the following estimate is 
 probably as close an approximation as can be made to 
 the annual value of the exports : 
 
 In Newfoundland vessels £240,000 
 
 " :i!fova Scotia '* 96,000 
 
 " American " 96,000 
 
 "Canadian " 29,000 
 
 " Vessels owned or cbavtered by English \ no ^nn 
 or Jersey houses j" ^"^'"^^ 
 
 Total £557,000 
 
 Some, however, estimate the total exports at £800, 
 000.— E. B. 
 
 The exports of Labrador are cod, herring, pickled 
 salmon, fresh salmon (preserved in tin cases), seal- 
 skins, cod and seal oil, furs, and feathers. 
 
 Fisheries of Labrador. — As late as 1761, it is not 
 probable that fishermen of any flag had visited the 
 waters of Labrador. The English whale and sea fish- 
 eries were the first, and employed upward of 100 ves- 
 sels, at times, prior to the year 1775. The earliest ad- 
 ventures were near 1763 \ as at that time the Labrador 
 country was politically separated from Canada, and 
 annexed to the government of Newfoundland by royal 
 proclamation, to the end that the ** open and free fish- 
 ery of our subjects may be extended." The pursuit 
 of the cod and salmon followed. Meantime the Mo- 
 ravians, whose principal settlement is at Nain, who 
 have ever led a quiet and simple life, and who now 
 annually ship furs, oils, and other productions of that 
 region to England, in payment for the manufactured 
 commodities which they require, had founded a col- 
 ony. The islands are so numerous, and so near each 
 other, as to resemble, and often to be mistaken for, the 
 main land. Back from the coast, the country is still 
 unknown. Labrador still forms a part of the colony 
 of Newfoundland. The natives bear the general name 
 of Esquimaux. The resident inhabitants of European 
 origin are English, Irish, Jersej'men, and Canadians, 
 who are employed either on their own account, or as 
 servants of others, as furriers, seal-catchers, and cod 
 and salmon-fishers. 
 
 The Canadian fisheries are small. They send 8 or 
 10 vessels to the coast, with 80 or 100 men. They 
 fish for cod and salmon. The}'' cany a part of what 
 they catch to Quebec, and send a part to Europe. The 
 colonists of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick adven- 
 ture at Labrador to a considerable extent ; but they 
 do not pursue the business as regularly and with as 
 much system as do those of Newfoundland. Some- 
 times they send more than 100 vessels in a year ; at 
 others the number is much less. They engage princi- 
 pally in the cod-fisherj'", making a single fare and cur- 
 ing their fish at home. The Labrador fisheries have 
 ' ' increased more than sixfold, ' ' says Macgregor, 
 "principally in consequence of our fishermen (the 
 
LAB 
 
 1155 
 
 LAC 
 
 English) being driven from tlie grounds now occupied 
 by tlie French," since the year 1814 ; and he estimates 
 that about 20,000 British subjects are at present re- 
 quired during the fishing season, in the catching, cur- 
 ing, and transporting the various products of these 
 remote seas. 
 
 Statistics of FisnEEiES. 
 
 Yosr. 
 
 VeuelB 
 
 Men. "'?«•'' 
 produced 
 
 1 
 
 Salmon 
 , pro- 
 duced.. 
 
 Seals 
 caught. 
 
 Oils pro- 
 duced. 
 
 Value. 
 
 ]829 
 
 isai 
 
 No. 
 608 
 700 
 
 No. 
 
 9,110 
 11,200 
 
 Quintals. 
 678,000 
 720,000 
 
 Tierces. 
 2°4S6 
 
 No. 
 
 le'ooo 
 
 Tuns. 
 1,682 
 2,200 
 
 DoUara. 
 1,460,000 
 
 The fishing establishments of the English and Jer- 
 sey merchants are extensive and well conducted. 
 They are engaged in the cod and salmon fisheries, and 
 in the taking of seals. la the year 1831, the value of 
 their shipments to Europe was upward of $200,000. 
 The number of these commercial houses is from 10 to 
 12, who manage their business at Newfoundland, 
 either by the temporary presence of junior partners or 
 clerks, or by resident agents. The people of New- 
 foundland, averring that the French and Americans 
 have driven them from their own " bank-fisherj'," re- 
 sort to Labrador. They employ 200 or 300 vessels. A 
 part make two voyages in a season. The first fare is 
 commonly cured on the coast ; but the second is car- 
 ried home without drying. Some of the merchants of 
 Newfoundland ship both cod and salmon directly to 
 correspondents in Europe ; while others order their 
 captains to return to the island and unlade their fish 
 and oil at their own warehouses.— Sabine's Americcm 
 Fisheries. 
 
 Labuan, a small island off the north-west coast of 
 Borneo, a dependencj' on the British crown, about six 
 miles distant from the nearest point of the mainland, 
 and 30 miles north from the city of Borneo or Bruni, 
 lat. 50° 12' N., long. 115° 19' 36" E. It is from 26 
 to 30 miles in circumference, flat, and covered with 
 wood. The anchorage on the south side of the island 
 IS protected by a greater and three smaller islands ; 
 and the town of Victoria has been commenced at the 
 embouchure of a rivulet in a small bay, at the head of 
 the anchorage. Coal of good quality is found on the 
 island, and it is well supplied with fresh water. It 
 was ceded by the Sultan of Borneo to Great Britain in 
 1844 ; and Sir James Brooke, who negotiated its ces- 
 sion, was afterward appointed its governor. "When it 
 came into possession of the English it was uninhabited ; 
 but its situation is such that, 'provided it be moderate- 
 ly healthy, it can hardly fail to become an important 
 emporium. It lies near the best route for shipping 
 from the Straits of Singapore to China, and, while it 
 is extremely woU situated for carrying on trade with 
 the west and north coasts of Borneo and the Philippine 
 Islands, it will serve as a harbor of refuge, and as a 
 convenient station for the steamers and other ships of 
 war required to put down the piracy that has been, 
 to the great injury' of commerce, carried to so great 
 extent from the ports and rivers of Borneo, and of 
 some of the adjacent islands. In this respect, its 
 abundant supply of coal will be of the greatest service. 
 In wai*, the possession of Labuan will give to the En- 
 glish entire command of the Chinese Sea. — Brooke's 
 Journal. 
 
 Borneo, or Bruni, on the adjacent shore of the main- 
 land, and the residence of the Sultan of Borneo proper, 
 lias been termed the Venice of the East. It contains 
 from 30,000 to 40,000 inhabitants, mostlj' Malays, and 
 really seems as if it floated on the waves. It is situ- 
 ated on an estuary, and though built with little regard 
 to regularity, it is intersected crosswise by two main 
 streets, which divide it into four portions, one only of 
 which stands on dry land. The houses in the other 
 three parts are of wood, built on piles, which support 
 them above the water, with streets, if so they may be 
 called, to admit the passage of canoes. The steamer 
 
 which conveyed Sir James Brooke to Borneo, when 
 Labuan was ceded, anchored in the main street, in the 
 centre of the town ! " The greatest novelty at Bru- 
 ni," says Mr. Marryat, from whom we have borrowed 
 these details, " is the floating bazaar. There are no 
 shops in the city, and the market is held every day in 
 canoes. These come in at sunrise every morning from 
 every part of the river, laden with fresh fruit, tobac- 
 co, pepper, and every other article which is produced 
 in the vicinity ; a few European productions, such as 
 handkerchiefs, check-cotton prints, etc., also make 
 their appearance. Congregated, in the main street, 
 the canoes are tacked together, forming lanes, through 
 which the purchasers, in their own canoes, paddle, se- 
 lecting and bargaining for goods with as much conve- 
 nience as if the whole were transacted on terra firma. 
 Iron is here so valuable that it is used as money. 
 100 flat pieces, an inch square, are valued at a dol- 
 lar ; and among the lower classes these iron pieces 
 form the sole coin. They are unstamped, so that any 
 person appears to be at liberty to cut his own iron into 
 money ; but whether such is really the case, I can not 
 vouch." — Marryat's Borneo. 
 
 But though deficient in iron, the gold mines of Bor- 
 neo are said to be of the richest description. Sir 
 Stamford Baffles estimated that in his time about 
 32,000 Chinese laborers were employed in these mines 
 on the west coast of Borneo ; and it is not easy to say 
 how productive they might become were the miners in 
 a condition to prosecute their undertakings in safety, 
 and to bring the resources of science and of capital to 
 their aid. Antimony is also found in abundance in 
 Borneo, especially in the district of Sarawak, of which 
 Sir James Brooke is rajah.; and the diamonds of Bor- 
 neo rival those of India and Brazil. But independently 
 of its coal, and of its precious and other metals, its 
 vegetable products might alone furnish the materials 
 of an extensive commerce. The sago-palm grows in 
 great perfection in many parts of the island, and sago 
 is largely exported in a rough state to Singapore. The 
 areca nut, rattan, gutta-percha, gum-benjamin, cam- 
 phor, birds' nests, etc., are also considerable articles of 
 export; and sugar, pepper, and all the products of 
 tropical regions, might, with a little care, be raised to 
 any extent in most parts of this vast island. The 
 numbers and ferocity of the savages by whom it is oc- 
 cupied present, indeed, formidable obstacles to its im- 
 provement. But civilization is beginning to make its 
 way among them ; and, though probably slow, its prog- 
 ress can not well be arrested. 
 
 Lac or Gum Lac (Ger. Lack^ Gunvmilack] Fr. 
 Lacque, Gomme lacque; It. Lacca, Gommalacca; Sp. 
 Gomalaca; Rus. Lc^, Gummilah ; Arab. Laak ; Hind. 
 Lak^h'f Sans. LahshcC)^ a substance which has been 
 improperly called a gum, produced in Bengal, Assam, 
 Pegu, Siam, etc., on the leaves and branches of cer- 
 tain trees, by an insect (chermes lacca). The trees se- 
 lected by the insect on which to deposit its eggs are 
 known by the names of the bihar-tree (Croton laccijer- 
 um Lin.), the pepel ^Buteafrondosa), bott and coosim- 
 trees, etc. After being deposited, the egg is covered 
 bj- the insect with a quantity of this peculiar sub- 
 stance, or lac, evidently intended to serve, in the econ- 
 omy of nature, as a nidus and protection to the ovum 
 and insect in its first stage, and as food for the mag- 
 got in its more advanced stage. It is formed into 
 cells, finished with as much art as a honeycomb, but 
 differently arranged. Lac yields a fine red dye, 
 which, though not so bright as the true Mexican 
 cochineal, is said to be more permanent ; and the res- 
 inous part is extensively used in the manufacture of 
 sealing-wax and hats, and as a varnish. Lac, when in 
 its natui-al state, inorusting leaves and twigs, is called 
 sticlc lac. It is collected twice a year ; and the only 
 trouble in procuring it is in breaking down the leaves 
 and branches, and carrying them to market. When 
 the twigs and sticks are large, or only partially cov- 
 
LAC 
 
 1156 
 
 LAC 
 
 ered, the lao is frequently separated from them, as it 
 always ought to be when shipped for market, to lessen 
 the expense of freight. The best stick lac is of a 
 deep red color. When held against the light it should 
 look bright, and when broken should appear in dia- 
 mond-like points. If it be not gathered till the in- 
 sects have left their cells, it becomes pale, and pierced 
 at the top ; and it is of little use as a dye, though prob- 
 ably better for a varnish. 
 
 Lac dye, lac lalce, or cahe lac, consists of the coloring 
 matter extracted from the stick lac. Varions processes 
 have been adopted for this purpose. It is formed into 
 small square cakes or pieces, like those of indigo. 
 It should, when broken, look dark-colored, shining, 
 smooth, and compact ; when scraped or powdered, it 
 should be of a bright red color, approaching to that of 
 carmine. That which is sandy, light-colored, and 
 spongj-, and which, when scraped, is of a dull brick- 
 dust color, should be rejected. Notwithstanding the 
 continued fall in the price of cochineal, the use of lac 
 dye has been extending. The annual consumption in 
 1853 was estimated at about 1,200,000 lbs., having 
 more than quintupled since 1818. The finest qualities 
 of lac dye are seldom met with for sale in Calcutta, 
 being generally manufactured under contract for the 
 European market. When stick lac has been separated 
 from the twigs to which it naturallj' adheres; and 
 coarsely pounded, the native silk and cotton dyers ex- 
 tract the color as far as it conveniently can be done 
 by water. The yellowish, hard, resinous powder 
 which remains, having somewhat of the appearance of 
 mustard-seed, is called seed lax:. When liquefied by 
 fire, it is formed into cakes, and denominated lump lac. 
 The natives use the latter in making bangles, or orna- 
 ments in the form of rings, for the arms of the lower 
 class of females ; the best sMlac being used in manu- 
 facturing these ornaments for the superior class. 
 
 Shellac is produced from seed lac, by putting the 
 latter into bags of cotton cloth, and holding it over a 
 charcoal fire, when the lac melts, and being strained 
 through the bag, the resinous part, which is the most 
 liquefiable, is obtained in a considerable degree of pur- 
 ity ; it is formed into thin sheets or plates. Thin, 
 transparant, or amber-colored shellac is best. Avoid 
 that which is thick, dark, and speckled. It should al- 
 ways, when broken, be amber-colored on the edge. That 
 which has a dark-brown fracture, however thin, 
 should be rejected. When laid on a hot iron, shellac, 
 if pure, will instantly catch fire, and burn with a 
 strong but not disagreeable smell. It used to be princi- 
 pally employed in this country in the manufacture of 
 sealing-wax and as a varnish, but it is now very ex- 
 tensively used in the manufacture of hats. In Bengal 
 lac is chiefly produced in the forests of Sylhet and 
 Burdwan. The finest dye is said to be obtained from 
 the stick lac of Siam and Pegu ; but the shellac or 
 resinous part obtained from the latter is inferior to 
 that produced from Sj'lhet stick lac. It may be ob- 
 tained in almost any quantity. — Bancroft on Perma- 
 nent Colors ; Ainslib's Mat. Med. ; Mileukn's Orient. 
 Com. 
 
 Lao of Rupees, is 100,000 rupees, which, suppos- 
 ing them standard or siccas, at 2s. 6d. each, amounts 
 to £12,500 sterling. 
 
 Laccadives, an archipelago of low islands lying 
 oflT the western coast of India, between 8° and 13° 
 N. lat. There are 19 considerable ones ; but as 
 most of them are surrounded with reefs and steep 
 rocks, with a great depth of water close to them, the 
 approach to them is very dangerous. Between these 
 islands there are many channels, through which ships 
 from India, bound to Persia or Arabia, frequently sail. 
 The safest of these is called Mamale, or the Nine-de- 
 gree Channel, which runs between the islands of Seu- 
 hilipar and Kalpenny. The largest of these islands is 
 about 7 miles in length and 2J in breath. Most of 
 them are inhabited bv a race of Mohammedans called 
 
 Moplays. They do not yield grain, but produce an 
 infinite quantity of cocoa-nuts, from the husks of 
 which they form the coir cables, which are more elas- 
 tic and durable than hemp, as the sea-water, instead 
 of rotting, preserves them. These islands are well sup- 
 blied with fish, and carry on a trade with the small 
 shells called cowries, which pass as coin all over India 
 and most of Africa. Most of these islands are under 
 the uncontrolled management of the beebee of Canna- 
 nore, subject to the payment of an annual tribute to 
 the British government. A proposal has been made 
 to the beebee to transfer them to the British, in consid- 
 eration of a pecuniarj' equivalent. They were dis- 
 covered by Vasco de Gama in 1499, but have since 
 been little frequented by Europeans. 
 
 Lace (Du. Kanten; Fr. Dentelle; Ger. Spitzen; It. 
 Merletti, Pizzi; Pus. Krushewo ; Sp. Encajes), a plain 
 or ornamented net-work, tastefully composed of many 
 fine threads of gold, sUver, silk, flax, or cotton, inter- 
 woven, from Lacinia (Lat.), the guard hem or fringe 
 of a garment. This delicate fabric appears to have 
 claims to high antiquity, but its origin is involved in 
 considerable obscurit}'. That it was worn by Grecian 
 females is certain, and the derivation of the word lace 
 afi'ords presumptive evidence that it was also in use 
 among the Romans. In Venice, and the neighboring 
 States of Italy, it was very early worn ; and Mary of 
 Medicis is supposed to have been the first who intro- 
 duced its use into France ; but as early as 1483 it was 
 included in a list of articles prohibited from importa- 
 tion into England. Hence it had been made in this 
 country prior to the period above mentioned ; and this 
 prohibition, like many other subsequent acts, was for 
 the protection and encouragement of home manufac- 
 tures. But pins, which are indispensable in the pro- 
 cess of fine lace-making, were unknown till long af- 
 terward ; so that it is probable the fabric made was 
 neither ver}^ fine in texture nor produced to any great 
 extent. It is uncertain by whom the manufacture of 
 lace was originally introduced into this country. 
 About the middle of the 17th century the lace trade 
 was flourishing in Buckinghamshire ; and so greatly 
 had it advanced in England, that, by a royal ordon- 
 nance in France, passed in 1660, a mark was estab- 
 lished upon the thread lace imported from this country 
 and from Flanders, and upon point lace from Genoa, 
 Venice, and other countries. 
 
 Pillow, or Thread Lace, is made by placing a per- 
 forated pattern oh a hard stuS'ed pillow, and the thread 
 required is wound upon bobbins with a groove in the 
 upper part for retaining the thread ; while, to form the 
 meshes, pins are stuck in the cushions, and threads 
 woven or twisted round them, the pattern showing the 
 points of insertion for the pins, and also the direction 
 for the gimp, which is interwoven with the fine threads 
 of the fabric to form the pattern. At the commence- 
 ment of the work the bobbins are arranged on one 
 side of the cushion, and are brought to the front side, 
 two pairs at a time, and twisted together. The woman 
 holds one pair of bobbins in each hand, and twists 
 them three times over each other to form the sides of 
 the mesh, the adjacent bobbins of each pair are next 
 interchanged, so as to cross these threads over one 
 another to form the bottom of the next. Supposing 
 the four bobbins to be marked 1, 2, 3, 4, — No. 1 is 
 twisted round 2, and No. 3 round 4 ; these, in order 
 to cross 2 and 3, are interchanged, so that 1 and 3 and 
 2 and 4 come together, and at the next twist these 
 pairs of threads will be combined. As the meshes or 
 half-meshes are formed, they are secured by pins. 
 These four bobbins are now put on one side of the 
 cushion ; two more pairs are brought forward, twisted 
 and crossed as before, and these operations are re- 
 peated until a row of meshes is formed of the required 
 breadth, when the bobbins are worked over again to 
 form another row. From 48 to 60 bobbins are re- 
 quired for every inch of breadth. Pillow or thread 
 
LAC 
 
 1157 
 
 LAC 
 
 kce, formerly employed a large number of women and 
 chUdren in the counties of Bedford, Buckingham, 
 Northampton, and Oxford, but the demand for this 
 kind of white thread lace failed, and black lace took 
 its place. Honiton lace differs from pillow lace in hav- 
 ing the pattern made separately. The ornaments 
 were formerly confined to simple sprigs and borders ; 
 but the fabrics now produced show extreme delicacy 
 of execution, with beauty and taste in design : flounc- 
 ings, shawls, scarfs, handkerchiefs, berthes, etc., now 
 vary in price from 10 to 200 guineas. The Honiton 
 lace district extends about 30 miles along the coast of 
 Devonshire, and about 12 miles inland. In 1851 from 
 7000 to 8000 persons were employed in the manufac- 
 ture. 
 
 British point, tambour, and Limerich laces are chiefly 
 imitation, and are produced in shawls, scarfs, dresses, 
 court trains, Bouncings, lappets, etc. British point is 
 made chieflj'in the neighborhood of London, tambour 
 chiefly at Islington, Coggleshall, and Nottingham, 
 while Limerick lace is peculiar to Ireland. Black 
 laces now occupy a considerable portion of the atten- 
 tion of the trade. The most celebrated laces have 
 been classed as— 1. Brussels, the most valuable. 
 There are two kinds : Brussels ground, having a hex- 
 agon mesh, formed by platting and twisting four 
 threads of flax to a perpendicular line of mesh ; Brus- 
 sels wire ground, made of silk ; meshes partly straight 
 and partly arched. The pattern is worked separately, 
 and set on by the needle. 2. Mechlin : a hexagonal 
 mesh, formed of three flax threads twisted and platted 
 to a perpendicular line or pillar. The pattern is 
 worked in the net. 3. Valenciennes: an irregular 
 hexagon, formed of two threads, partly twisted and 
 platted at the top of the mesh. The pattern is worked 
 in the net similar to Mechlin lace. 4. Lisle : a dia^ 
 mond mesh, formed of two threads platted to a pillar. 
 5. Alenfon, called hlond: hexagon, of two threads, 
 twisted similar to Buckingham lace; considered the 
 most inferior of any made on the cushion. 6. Alen- 
 fon point : formed of two threads to a pillar, with oc- 
 tagonal and square meshes alternately. 
 
 In the manufacture of lace, France takes the lead ; 
 and it is calculated that the production of Ince by 
 hand gives employment in that countr}' to upward of 
 200,000 females of all ages. It is all niade with bob- 
 bins upon i^ small pillow, except at Alenfon, where 
 the needle only is employed. The materials used are 
 hand-spun linen thread, cotton, wool, silk, and gold 
 and silver thread. Point d' Alenpon is the only lace 
 made with pure linen hand-spun thread ; this thread 
 is worth from $500 to $600 per pound. White lace is 
 now chiefly made with cotton thread, Nos. 120 to 320. 
 The principal seats of the manufacture are — Caen and 
 Bayeux, Chantilly and its neighborhood, Lille, Arras, 
 Mirecourt, Puy, Bailleul, and Alen9on. Each of these 
 districts has its own peculiar style ; and although the 
 lace maj- be made in the same way, and with the same 
 material, in all these districts except the last, yet each 
 is easily recognized. Silk blond originated at Caen, 
 and was so called from being made of undyed silk of 
 a nankeen color : the finest white or the finest black 
 silk is now employed. Caen and Bayeux excel all 
 other places in the production of piece goods, and 
 manufacture shawls, robes, mantles, etc., more exten- 
 sivelj' than any other districts in the world. By 
 means of a stitch called r^tcroe, the women of the de- 
 partment of Calvados join several parts into one piece 
 so cleverly as to defy detection, even with a magnifj-- 
 ing glass. Most of the improvements and novelties 
 in lace-making originate at Mirecourt ; it produces the 
 same kind of lace as Lille and Arras, viz., clear found- 
 ation, fonds clair, and also fends de champs, in white 
 thread, also a lace resembling the Honiton called gui- 
 pure. 
 
 Flowers are also made, and sewed upon the ex- 
 tremely fine net called Brussels net, closely resem- 
 
 bling the Belgian fabric. The whitest and cheapest 
 French lace is produced at Bayeux. 
 
 Belgium is the great rival of France in the manu- 
 facture of laces, the chief varieties of which are knowD 
 as Brussels, Mechlin, Valenciennes, and Grammont, 
 Brussels produces two descriptions of lace, known as 
 point a Vaiguille, and Brussels plait, the one made en- 
 tirely with the needle, and the other on the pillow. 
 The finest kind is made of very fine flax thread, and 
 some of cotton. It is remarkably soft and clear, but 
 very costly. Mechlin laces are made at Malines, 
 Antwerp, etc. They are made in one piece on the pil- 
 low, and the flowers are surrounded bj- a plait thread, 
 which designs the outline, and has the effect of em- 
 broidery. Valenciennes laces are made chiefly at 
 Ypres, Menin, Courtrai, Bruges, Ghent, Alost, and 
 their respective neighborhoods, each town having its 
 characteristic peculiarities by which its productions 
 are identified. Ypres produces laces of the finest 
 square grounds, varying in price from 12 cents to $250 
 the English yard. 
 
 It is natural to suppose that attempts would be 
 made to lessen the cost of production of so beautiful 
 and costly an article as lace. It was not, however, 
 until machinery had been largely inti educed for the 
 purpose of manufacturing textile fabrics that lace ma- 
 chinery can be said to have been successfully emploj'ed. 
 About the year 1768 a frame-work knitter of Notting- 
 ham employed the common stocking-frame in the 
 manufacture of lace, and about the same time another 
 person of the same place intro(^uced a pin machine for 
 making single-press point-net in imitation of the Brus- 
 sels ground. Various machines were from time to 
 time introduced, all of which, except the warp machine, 
 have been superseded by the bobbins-net machine, so 
 called from the circumstance that the thread that 
 makes the lace is partly supplied from bobbins and 
 partly from a, warp. The first successful machine of 
 this kind was made and patented by John Heathcote 
 in 1809, the principle of which was to pass the bob- 
 bins from front to back, and from back to front, while 
 a lateral motion was imparted to the warp-threads, 
 thus causing one series of t^ireads to wrap round the 
 other. The first machine was so complicated, that 60 
 motions were required to complete one hole — an effect 
 that can now be produced with six. The cost of produc- 
 tion has also more than proportionally decreased ; for 
 in 1815 one square yard of the produce was worth $7, 
 and can now be purchased for eight to ten cents. Up 
 to the year 1831 plain net and quillings were the chief 
 produce of the bobbin-net machine ; but about this 
 time methods were introduced to purl and bullet-hole 
 the edges of narrow laces, finishing them afterward, 
 with a gimp thread, with the needle. The machines 
 used were known as the Leavers, named after the 
 original constructor; the pusher Tnachine, so called 
 from having independent pushers to propel the bobbins 
 and carriages from front to back, instead of pulling or 
 hooking them ; the circular machine, so called from the 
 bolts or combs on which the carriages pass being made 
 circular instead of straight ; the traverse-warp machine, 
 so called from the warp traversing, instead of the car- 
 riages. About the year 1839 the Jacquard apparatus 
 was successfully applied to a pusher machine ; and 
 since 1841, when a plan was discoverd for applying 
 the Jacquard to the guide-bars, scarcely a machine has 
 been worked without the ornaments being applied by 
 means of cards. New sources of manufacture soon 
 developed themselves, such as flounces, scarfs, shawls, 
 window-curtains, etc. 
 
 Bobbin-net lace owes much of its beauty to the qual- 
 ity of the threads, and the correct shape of the meshes. 
 By increasing the number of warp-threads within a 
 given space the meshes are reduced in size, and finer 
 lace is formed. There maj' be from 700 to 1200 and 
 upward of warp-threads in a piece one yard wide. 
 The fineness, oiguage ox points, as it is called, depends 
 
LAO 
 
 1158 
 
 LAC 
 
 on the numter of slits in the combs, and hence on the 
 number of bobbins in an inch ; thus guage nine points 
 indicates nine openings in one inch of the comb. 
 The length of work counted vertically, and containing 
 240 holes or meshes, is called a rack. A circular-bolt 
 machine may produce about 360 racks per -week. 
 Bobbin-net is made up in pieces of from 20 to 30, or 
 more yards in length, and of variable breadth. Nar- 
 row quillings are worked together in a number of 
 breadths, united by threads, which are afterward 
 drawn out. In well-made lace the meshes are slightly 
 elongated in the direction of the selvage. Ornaments, 
 consisting of separate flowers, sprigs, etc., are worked 
 in by a Jacquard apparatus attached to the frame ; 
 but as the ornaments are all necessarily connected hy 
 the thread of gimp which forms them, the connected 
 thread is afterward cut out with scissors, by children 
 employed for the purpose. Where the machine pro- 
 duces only one plain net, the pattern is worked in by 
 hand, the lace-runner being guided by a lithographic 
 pattern placed under the net. When the embroidery 
 is complete, it is examined, defective parts are marked 
 by tying the lace in a knot, and these are restored by 
 a distinct set of women called lace-menders. 
 
 In addition to the bobbin-net machine for making 
 lace, there is also the warp machine, invented about 
 the jQ-dX 1775. It was suggested by the stocking- 
 frame, in which only one thread is required, while in 
 the warp-frame there is a thread to each needle. The 
 first articles made by it were silk stockings, with blue 
 and white zig-zag stripes, or Vandykes^ as they were 
 called, from the name of one of the four claimants to 
 the invention of the warp-frame, the other three being 
 Englishmen. About 1784 a Nottingham mechanic 
 greatly improved the warp-frame by the application of 
 the rotatory motion, and the cam-wheels to move the 
 guide-bars, still known as Dawson^s wheels. The im- 
 proved frames produced officers' sashes, purses, braces, 
 and other elastic textile fabrics, the manufacture of 
 some of which still continues. In 1796 a new fabric 
 was produced from the warp, and employed for sailors' 
 jackets, pantaloons, and the article known as Berlin, 
 so much used for making gloves. Warp machines 
 were the first to produce ornamental patterns on lace, 
 such as spots, bullet-holes, etc., which had been pre- 
 viously embroidered or tamboured by hand. The 
 bobbin-net machine, invented in 1809, soon became a 
 formidable rival of the warp, and influenced its for- 
 tunes in various ways, until 1839, when the Jacquard 
 apparatus was applied to it, and so much increased its 
 capabilities as to introduce into the warp-lace trade of 
 Nottingham u new class of products of elaborate de- 
 sign, such as shawls, scarfs, mits, falls, laces, etc. Of 
 late years the twist machine has been employed on sim- 
 ilar goods, and has to a great extent superseded the 
 warp. Great improvements have also been introduced 
 in the English methods of dressing lace, especiallj'' in 
 silk goods. Many new kinds of elastic fabrics, in 
 gloves, in silk, and other materials, have been intro- 
 duced. Velvet, and velvet in combination with lace, 
 have also been produced at the warp-frame. At the 
 time of the Great Exhibition there were about 1400 
 warp-frames in operation, namely about 600 in Leices- 
 tershire, about 400 in Derbyshire, and about the same 
 number in Nottinghamshire. The employment in the 
 various branches was estimated as follows : 160 ma- 
 chines engaged in the production of blond, and other 
 silk laces ; 150 in cotton tattings, 550 in Leicester 
 hosiery, etc. ; 100 in lace gloves and mits, 150 in 
 woolen cloth, hosiery, purses, and various fabrics for 
 gloves, etc. The first machines were about 16 inches 
 in width; they are now, in the Nottingham trade, 
 from 90 to 150 inches in -width, and in the Leicester 
 hosiery trade, from 44 to 72 inches. The number of 
 persons employed in the warp trade in Great Britain, 
 in 1851, was estimated at 10,000, and the capital in- 
 vested at $1,800,000, making a return per annum of 
 
 $3,500,000. In the Great Exhibition was exhibited a 
 power machine, capable of producing (working 12 
 hours per day) 800 racks per week, which, when 
 dressed, would be equal to about 1200 square yards. 
 A yard of 4- quarter white silk blond, which in 1830 
 cost 50 cents, can now be had for 12 cents. 
 
 Gold and Silver Lace. — The textile fabric known as 
 gold or silver lace consists of warp threads of silk, or 
 of a mixture of silk and cotton, while the weft or shoot 
 is a silk thread covered with silver, or with silver gilt, 
 as the case may be. The production of this thread is 
 a remarkable illustration of the extensibility of gold, 
 and of the ductility of silver. The silver preferred by 
 the wire-drawers is that which has been separated 
 from argentiferous galena, this being less brittle than 
 the silver obtained from purer sources. From 400 to 
 500 ounces are cast into an ingot about 2 inches in 
 diameter, and from 20 to 24 inches in length. This is 
 made red-hot in a charcoal fire, and hammered until 
 sufficiently reduced to pass through the first hole of 
 the draw-plate, the hammering increasing the tenacity 
 and elasticity of the metal. After the bar has been 
 reduced by passing through 10 or 12 holes, it is planed, 
 in order to remove any imperfections from the surface 
 wliich would interfere with the perfect gilding ; the 
 blemishes are readily detected by the reflection of a 
 sheet of foolscap paper slightly arched, and placed 
 over the bar. The bar is now gilt, by placing on it a 
 number of gold leaves, varying from 10 to 30, accord- 
 ing to the richness of the wire required, the higher 
 qualities being used for military purposes, and pearls 
 and bullions for embroidering, while the lower qual- 
 ities are used for liveries, the ends of muslins, and for 
 skein threads exported to India and China. The gold 
 leaves are placed in a row, side by side, nearly the 
 length of the bar, on a piece of cartridge paper : the 
 bar is then gently placed on the leaves, pressed close, 
 and the edges of the leaves raised up until the silver is 
 entirely covered. The bar is next enveloped in paper 
 tied tightly round ■with cord, and placed in a charcoal 
 fire, where it is left until it becomes of a bright red 
 heat, the paper not burning, but becoming red with 
 the metal, when it slowly consumes, after which the 
 bar is withdrawn. While still red-hot it is burnished 
 with a blood-stone or with South Sea ax-stone, for 
 the purpose of uniting the gold and the silver perfectly. 
 When cold the surface is covered with wax, and the 
 bar is drawn into wire through graduated steel dies, 
 and, after one or two annealings, finished by drawing 
 through perforated rubies, so fine that from an ounce 
 of metal a wire a mile and u. quarter in length is pro- 
 duced. At this point the wire has not so rich and 
 deep a shade of yellow as is required, but this is given 
 by winding the wire round a copper cylinder, with the 
 addition of a small portion of wax, and filling the cav- 
 ity of the cylinder with red-hot charcoal made from 
 birch-wood, the effect of which is to deepen the color, 
 and render it permanent. The next process is to flat- 
 ten the wire by passing it between a couple of steel 
 rollers, one of ten, and the other of four inclies in di- 
 ameter, made of the finest steel, and of exquisite pol- 
 ish. They are manufactured in Rhenish Prussia, at a 
 cost of $600 for a single pair of rollers. The flattened 
 wire is wound on small bobbins, which are placed in 
 the centre of circular rings, attached to a bar over a 
 spinning frame. On the front of the frame are bob- 
 bins of silk, the threads of which pass through the 
 centre of the ring to which the reel of wire is fixed. 
 The whole is set in motion, and while the thread is 
 being twisted, the ring with the wire revolves round 
 the thread in the opposite direction. In this way from 
 30 to 40 threads are covered at once, the result being a 
 resplendent flexible gold thread, adapted to the pur- 
 poses of lace-making, embroidery, etc. Of this thread, 
 although gold onlj' appears, probably 9-lOths of its 
 bulk is silk, while of the remaining 1-lOth only l-50th 
 part is gold. See details on this 'subject in the Journal 
 
LAD 
 
 1169 
 
 LAG 
 
 of the Society of Arts, Ko. 178, in the Report of Mr. F. 
 Bennoch's paper on " Thread or Fibre Gilding." — 
 E. B. 
 
 The exports of laces from the United States for the 
 year 1856, were as follows : 
 
 Thread and 
 Caiintriea. inaertlns;B. Value. 
 
 Canada. $15,769 $26,878 
 
 British possessions 1,440 
 
 Mexico 249 1,472 
 
 Total $17,458 $26,845 
 
 Statement showing the Imporib of Laces and Em- 
 broideries INTO THE United States for the Ybak 
 ENDING June 80th, 1866. 
 
 "Whence imported. 
 
 Lacea. 
 
 
 Thread and 
 Insertlnga. 
 
 Cotton Insert- 
 Inga, trimniings, 
 laees.brHldH.etc. 
 
 of wool, cotton, 
 Bilh, and linen. 
 
 Sweden and Norway. . 
 
 "$29 
 82,704 
 
 ■"iil 
 
 275,646 
 
 279 
 
 2T 
 
 100,252 
 112 
 
 'l',662 
 
 29 
 
 %-iVd 591 
 
 $l'8,655 
 
 '"85 
 
 1,151,222 
 
 8,940 
 
 28 
 
 "878 
 l'9',743 
 '2,028 
 
 $12 
 
 11,.542 
 
 186,754 
 
 746 
 
 2,254 
 
 8,294,092 
 
 198,194 
 
 '"is 
 
 46 
 
 40 
 
 252 
 
 958,483 
 
 1,725 
 
 258 
 
 7,210 
 
 2,724 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Holland 
 
 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Malta 
 
 
 Britiah West Indies .. . 
 British DOS. in Africa.. 
 Britiah East Indies.... 
 France on the Atlantic 
 France on the Meditor. 
 
 Canary Islands 
 
 New Granada. 
 
 China and other places. 
 Total 
 
 $1,191,019 
 
 $4,664,858 
 
 
 
 Lacquer, or Lacker, a yellow varnish, consist- 
 ing of a solution of shellac in alcohol, colored by 
 gamboge, saffron, annotto, or other yellow, orange, or 
 red coloring matters. Lacquers are chiefly used for 
 varnishing brass and some other metals, in order to 
 give tliem a golden color and preserve their lustre. 
 
 Lacquer Ware, is derived from the Hindoo name 
 lac, which is the resin secreted together with lac-dye 
 by the lac insect. The lacquer ware has a covering 
 or coating of lac ; but two different processes are often 
 confounded in India under this name— the one prevail- 
 ing in the southern parts of India and in Burmah ; 
 the other in Cashmere and Lahore. The former of 
 these wares, comprising lacquered cabinets, boxes, 
 etc., was much appreciated in the last century ; part 
 being brought from Burmah and India, and part from 
 China ; but the lacquered or japanned work of Japan, 
 seems to have been superior to either ; many fine spe- 
 cimens of it may still be seen in the forms of large 
 folding screens, etc. The chief expense of the manu- 
 facture arises from the care with which successive lay- 
 ers of varnish must be laid on. Boxes have been sent 
 to this country in various stages of progress, which 
 show the gradual production of the desired effect. 
 The other kind of lacquered ware partakes somewhat 
 of the nature of papier-mache, covered with one or 
 more layers of lac varnish. Many of the lacquered 
 boxes belonging to this class, from Cashmere and La- 
 hore, are remarkable for the elegance of their patterns. 
 
 Lading, bill of. See Bill of Lading. 
 
 Laden, in nautical language, the state of a ship 
 when she is charged with a weight or quantity of any 
 sort of merchandise or other materials equal to her 
 tonnage or burden. If the cargo with which she is 
 laden be extremely heavj', her burden is determined 
 by the weight of the goods ; if it be light she carries 
 as much as she can stow, that she may be fit for the 
 purposes of navigation. As a ton in measure is gen- 
 erally estimated at 2000 pounds in weight, a vessel of 
 200 tons ought, accordingly, to carrj- a weight equal 
 to 400,000 pounds, when the matter of which the cargo 
 is composed is specifically heavier than the water in 
 which she floats ; or, in other words, when the cargo 
 is so hea-v-j' that she can not float high enough with so 
 great a quantity of it as her hold will contain. 
 
 Laden in hulk, the state of being freighted with a 
 cargo which is neither in casks, boxes, bales, nor cases, 
 but lies loose in the hold, being defended from the 
 moisture or wet of the hold by a number of mats, and 
 a quantity of dunnage. Such are usually the cargoes 
 of grain, salt, or such materials. 
 
 Ladoga, a lake in Russia, the largest in Europe, 
 lies between the governments of Viborg on the north 
 and west, Petersburg on the south, and Olonetz on the 
 east. Its greatest length is about 130 miles, breadth 
 above 70. The coast is generally low, much indented, 
 and abounding in dangerous reefs. The depth in some 
 places reaches about 150 fathoms, in others it is in- 
 sufficient for safe navigation. Storms are frequent, 
 and the influx of many considerable streams produces 
 strong currents. Tb,e chief rivers entering the lake 
 are the Swir (or Sveer) from the east, bearing the wa- 
 ters of Lake Onega ; the Volkhoff on the south ; those 
 of Lake Ilmen and the Saima on the north, draining 
 the reticulation of waters of that name. It empties 
 itself on the south-west by the Neva, into the Gnlf of 
 Finland. There are numerous islands scattered along 
 the north-western shore, several of them inhabited. 
 The principal towns on the coast are Kexholm, Schlus- 
 selburg, and Novaia Ladoga. A canal executed in 
 the reign of Peter the Great connects the two latter, 
 forming a direct communication between the Neva and 
 Volkhoff. 
 
 Ladrone, or Marianne Islands (so called re- 
 spectively from the thievish habits of the natives, and 
 in honor of Queen Mary Anne of Spain), a group in 
 the North Pacific Ocean, between lat. 1S° and 21°, 
 long. 144° and 146°. They are about 20 in number, 
 of volcanic origin, irregular and picturesque in outline, 
 and clothed with luxuriant vegetation. The inter- 
 vening straits abound in shoals and currents, and there 
 are few good harbors. The heat of the climate is 
 somewhat tempered by the trade-winds. ■ Among the 
 vegetable products are sugar, rice, Indian com, tobacco, 
 cotton, indigo, etc. Of wild animals, the most nu- 
 merous are swine, sometimes of large size ; cattle, 
 horses, asses, mules, and llamas, have been introduced 
 by the Spaniards. The principal island is Guajtan, 
 or St. John, the most southerly of the group. It is 
 about SO miles in circumference, and has a good forti- 
 fied harbor, some miles to the south of St. Ygnacio de 
 Agaiia, the seat of government. The aboriginal in- 
 habitants, an active and athletic race, have gradually 
 given place to a mixed population, descended of col- 
 onists from Mexico and the Philippine Isles. This 
 group was discovered in 1521 by Magellan; but no 
 settlement was made in them for, about 150 years, 
 when the widow of Philip IV. sent out a body of mis- 
 sionaries to convert the natives. They were visited in 
 1742 by Anson, who spent some time on the island of 
 Tinain, where he discovered architectural remains, in- 
 dicating a considerable progress in the arts of civiliza- 
 tion. There are two other small island groups of this 
 name, the one on the coast of China, at the mouth of 
 the bay of Canton, a great stronghold of pirates, the 
 other off the coast of Guatemala. 
 
 Lager-Bier was introduced into this country, 
 generally, about nine years ago. The process of 
 manufacturing the peculiar and popular beer under 
 consideration, differs very much from that in making 
 common beer, or ale. The only materials used are 
 malt, hops, and water, and an inspection of the brew- 
 eries is convincing that much care and cleanliness are 
 exercised in all the operations. Lager-bier ferments 
 downward. Common beer can be made fit to drink in 
 four or five daj^s, according to the heat of the weath- 
 er ; but it requires as many weeks before lager-bier 
 can be drank, and it is thought to improve constantly 
 if it be given years of probation. 
 
 Breweries, etc, — The art of fermenting grain was 
 early known to the ancients, who emploj'ed it advan- 
 tageously in fattening animals. Urquhart has noticed 
 
LAG 
 
 1160 
 
 LAG 
 
 that Penelope steeped the grain with which she fed 
 her geese. The earliest mention of beer is found in 
 the histor}' of the Egj'ptians, who are said to have in- 
 vented it more than 12 centuries before the Christian 
 advent. They called it, however, not leer, but Pdu- 
 sian liquid, from Pelusium, a city near the mouth of 
 the Nile, where it was first made. Hops were first 
 used in England, A. D. 1524, where, it appears, they 
 were for « time prohibited as >■, " poisonous drug." 
 The famous white beer was made from wheat, at Ku- 
 remberg, in Germany, about A. D. 1541. Ah was 
 brewed by the English Saxons as early as A. D. 728, 
 and their " barley-wine" was celebrated for its exhil- 
 arating qualities. Porter was originally a mixture of 
 different draught beers, first compounded in 1730 for 
 the laboring classes in London, who required a. bever- 
 age of more nutritive qualities than had been produced 
 by the mixture of ales of two, three or four " threads" 
 or draughts. The celebrated German mumm was first 
 brewed at Brunswick, A. D. 1492, by Charles Mumm, 
 who gave his name to his invention. England has, 
 however, till recently, been the great '' beer country." 
 Official returns show that in 1850 the licensed brewers 
 in the United Kingdom were : 
 
 In England, 5631 ; malt consumed, 24,955,202 bush. ; 
 Scotland, 1510 ; 950,105 ; Ireland, 951 ; 164,702. 
 
 Of this last quantit}', the greater portion was doubt- 
 less used in distillation ! The licensed tavern-keepers 
 in Scotland are shown by these returns to have num- 
 bered 14,971, and the number in Ireland to have been 
 13,793, many of whom were also licensed to brew or 
 distill. 
 
 The quantity of ale and beer brewed in the United 
 States, in 1850, was 1,177,924 barrels ; of whisky and 
 high wines, 42,133,955 gallons ; of rum, 6,500,600. 
 
 The amount of capital invested in the United States' 
 breweries averaged #8,334,254; and the number of 
 persons employed in this branch of commtrce, 5487. 
 The breweries in our American States have been 
 greatly increased of late j'ears by the addition of Ger- 
 man capital, amounting nearly to $7,500,000, distribu- 
 ted among upward of 500 establishments. In 1847, 
 the German breweries first introduced into this coun- 
 try the beverage known as lager-hier ; perhaps the 
 drink more extensively used than any other beer com- 
 pound in the present daj-. The process of brewing 
 this peculiar and popular bier differs, we are told, very 
 much from that employed in making common ale or 
 beer. The only materials, we learn, are malt, hops, 
 and water, but the quantities employed, and the mean 
 temperature observed, are a secret to all but the initi- 
 ated. An inspection of the different breweries, will 
 show that a studied care and cleanliness are exercised 
 in all the operations. Fermentation, which in common 
 beer is upward, we are told, in the instance of lager- 
 bier, is the reverse, or downward ; but as it is the na- 
 ture of all fermentation processes for the *' workings," 
 as thej' are termed, to ascerid for a certain period be- 
 fore they finally settle, we are inclined to believe this 
 " downward fermentation" an ingenious joke, in order 
 to stifle further inquirj-. The word lagerr, in German 
 language, means "res«, repose," an attention this pe- 
 culiar drink requires in order to secure a ripening or 
 maturity of perfectness ; and from this word the hier 
 derives its prefix, lager. 
 
 The lager-bier annuall3' made in New York city and 
 suburbs is estimated at 85,000 barrels, a number we 
 are inclined to believe beneath the actual average. 
 The entire city consumption, however, of this bier 
 from all parts, is computed to be not less than 3,075,- 
 000 barrels ! The city retailers number about 2000, 
 exclusive of the large hotels and restaurants, which 
 alone consume from $5000 to $6000 worth annually. 
 In the city of St. Louis, Missouri, there were drank, 
 from 1st jiarch to September 17, 1854, more than 17,- 
 ■500,000 glasses of lager and common beer, and the 
 entire stock of 24 breweries of that district was com- 
 
 pletely exhausted. Philadelphia has 22 breweries of 
 lager-bier, and the stock accumulated during the fall 
 and winter of 1855, was valued at $600,000 wholesale ! 
 The cit}' of Cincinnati has 7 first-class and 22 second- 
 class breweries; the value of the "plant" (machin- 
 ery, tubs, etc., etc.) of the former is estimated at 
 $150,000 each. The first-class breweries average each 
 about 4000 barrels per year. Most of them have large 
 excavated vaults for stocking or lagering this bier. 
 M. Von Beck's store-cellar, in the rocks at Eondout, 
 New York, which will contain 30,000 casks, cost $16,- 
 000 for excavations, etc. 
 
 The brewing of lager-bier usually commences about 
 October, and is then deposited till the succeeding April 
 or May, when it is considered to be in "fine condi- 
 tion." The Cincinnati lager-bier breweries employ 
 about 250 brewers, and as many others as assistants, 
 etc., etc. The salary of a good foreman is $1000 per 
 annum and house-rent ; his assistants receive from $30 
 to $50 per' month. They commence operations at four 
 A. M., and get through in fron> 9 to 10 hours. These 
 men are remarkable for good health. Some of these 
 establishments make 9 brewings a week. The fall 
 stock of Milwaukie lager-bier, in 1856, was fully 
 60,000 barrels. The western lager requires to be of a 
 stronger quality than that made in the northern brew- 
 eries. Of the benefical qualities of this bier, opinions 
 are far from unanimous ; the partisans in favor of the 
 beverage profess that from 10 to 60 glasses per day may 
 be drank with impunity ! While the editor of the 
 New York Scalpel, in his issue for October, 1856, as- 
 serts that its continued use produces the most injurious 
 efl^ects on the human constitution, and which, if per- 
 sisted in, induces disease and gradual decay, mentally 
 and physically. 
 
 Lagoon, from the Latin lacuna, a ditch, means a 
 morass. The name is given particularly to those 
 creeks which extend along the coast of the Adriatic, 
 in the present government of Venice, and which are 
 formed by water running up in the land. They con- 
 tain many islands. Venice, for instance, is built on 60 
 of them. In some places they are deep ; in others so 
 shallow that their exhalations are offensive and dan- 
 gerous. The Austrian government does less toward 
 clearing them out than the former Venetian govern- 
 ment did ; and Venice in consequence is considerably 
 less healthy than it was. Toward the sea the islets 
 are secured by dams, natural or artificial. 
 
 La Gruayra, the principal sea-port of the republic 
 of Venezuela, in the province of Caraccas, on the 
 Caribbean Sea, lat. 10° 36' 19" N., Ion. 67° 6' 46" 
 W. Population 8000 ? In 1810, the population is be- 
 lieved to have amounted to 13,000 ; the reduction being 
 a consequence of the loss of life caused by the tremen- 
 dous earthquake of 1812, and the massacres and pro- 
 scriptions incident to the revolutionary war. The 
 population of the citj- of Caraccas, of which La Guayra 
 may be considered as the port, fell off, from the same 
 causes, from 43,000 in 1810, to 23,000 in 1830; but 
 they are now both increasing. There is neither quay 
 nor mole at La Guayra. Ships moor E. N. E. and W. 
 S. W., with their heads to the north, at from i to 4 of 
 a mile from the land, in from 9 to 18 fathoms. "The 
 holding ground is good ; and notwithstanding the 
 openness of the road, vessels properly found in an- 
 chors and cables run very little risk of being driven 
 from their moorings. The principal articles of export 
 are coffee, cocoa, indigo, hides, sarsaparilla, etc. La 
 Guayra shares the trade of Venezuela with the ports 
 of Cumana, Puerto Cabello, Maracaybo, etc., havmg 
 about a half of its entire amount. 
 
 Port Regulations. — On casting anchor, a visit is paid 
 by the collector of customs, or his agent, accompanied 
 by other officers, who take from the master his regis- 
 ter, manifest, and muster-roll, and an officer is left on 
 board until the cargo is discharged. The master must 
 swear to his manifest within 24 hours after his arrival, 
 
LAG 
 
 1161 
 
 LAH 
 
 when the permit to discharge is granted, and within 3 
 days all invoices must be/ presented. The discharge 
 completed, the same officers repair on board to exam- 
 ine the vessel, and all being found in order, the officer 
 is withdrawn. The clearing of a vessel outward (that 
 has entered with cargo), in ballast is then completed 
 by paying the port charges ; proof whereof being pro- 
 duced, the permission to sail is signed by the governor 
 and harbor master. If the vessel talce cargo ou,board, 
 then the same formality, as to visiting, is pursued, as 
 on the entry of a vessel. Goods imported are almost 
 invariably sold upon credit ; those exported are, on the 
 other hand, always sold for ready money. The terms 
 of credit vary from 2 to 6 months, or more. Bank- 
 ruptcy is very rare. 
 
 We subjoin a statement of the principal exports 
 from La Guayra during each of the 5 years ending the 
 5th October, 1847. 
 
 Years ondliig; 5tli 
 October. 
 
 1843 
 1844. 
 1845. 
 1846. 
 1847. 
 
 Coffoc. 
 
 Qubitals. 
 147,474 
 182,086 
 122,912 
 151,975 
 126,812 
 
 Cocoa. 
 
 ITanegas, 
 28,624 
 88,739 
 29,418 
 82,476 
 87,876 
 
 CoUoD. 
 
 510 
 285 
 767 
 240 
 1,128 
 
 Sugar. 
 
 Quiut'la 
 
 8,268 
 2,508 
 5,158 
 4,662 
 7,040 
 
 Quint'lslNumber. 
 
 Indlgo.l HIdei. 
 
 1,074 
 702 
 489 
 517 
 621 
 
 81,684 
 45,242 
 44,878 
 86,560 
 49,773 
 
 Duties received at custom-house, La "Guayra, 
 1842-43, $831,848 ; 1843-44, #722,115 ; 1844-45, $796,- 
 651; 1845-46, $891,502. 
 
 
 Nnliooal. 
 
 t'oielKU (oot 
 prlvilegod). 
 
 
 $37 50 
 4 00 
 
 12 00 
 8 00 
 2 00 
 112i 
 4 00 
 
 40 00 
 2 00 
 
 1 m 
 
 2 00 
 
 $150 00 
 
 6 00 
 
 16 00 
 
 6 00 
 
 4 00 
 
 1 12J 
 4 00 
 
 40 00 
 
 2 00 
 
 1 12J 
 
 2 00 
 
 Entrance fee 
 
 Anchorage . 
 
 
 
 Permit to discliargo and stamp 
 
 Municipal charge for water 
 
 Municipal bill of health 
 
 Permit to load and stamp 
 
 Certificate of sea worthiness 
 
 Total 
 
 $108 75 
 
 $282 25 
 
 Value in sterling money 
 
 £17 15 
 
 £88 14 
 
 A ship introducing a cargo, and sailing in ballast, 
 ■vrould be liable to all the above charges, with the 
 
 exception of the last two. The charge for water is 
 levied without regard to tonnage; viz., sloops and 
 schooners, $20 each, brigs, $30, and ships, $4.0. Ton- 
 nage emplo^'ed in the foreign commerce of La Guayra, 
 for six months of 1856, 30,417 tons. See Venezuela. 
 
 Laguna di TerminoB, or Laguua di Car- 
 men, a sea-port on the south shore of the Gulf of 
 Mexico, State of Yucatan, lat. 18° 38' 44'' N., long. 
 91° 51' 22" W. It derives its names from being sit- 
 uated about 1 mile within the south-west extremity of 
 Carmen island, on the most westerly of the straits or 
 entrances leading into the basin or lagoon of Termi- 
 nos. Population about 3000., The port, which is se- 
 cure and one of the best on the gulf, has from 12 to 14 
 feet water over the bar at the entrance to the lagoon. 
 Vessels of greater draught load and unload by means 
 of lighters, outside the bar, in from 3 to 4 fathoms, 
 with good holding ground. 
 
 To Enter the Port. — Run in over the bar with Xical- 
 ango Point, bearing by compass S. f E., till Point 
 Sacatal bears S. E, ^ S., and then steer for it; and 
 when the north side of the island begins to shut in haul 
 up for the anchorage off the town. The lead is a safe 
 guide on the west side of the channel, but not on the 
 east. The chief trade of the town consists in the 
 shipping of logwood, known in foreign markets by the 
 name of Campeachy wood, from its having been orig- 
 inally cut down in the vicinity of that port and ship- 
 ped from it. But Campeachy has ceased to be an 
 entrepot for logwood. It is now principally cut down 
 on the mainland adjoining the lagoon of Terminos; 
 and being thence conveyed to Laguna in coasting 
 schooners, is sent from it to all parts of the world. 
 Vessels arriving with cargoes must bring a general 
 manifest and invoice in triplicate, certified by the 
 Mexican consul at the port of departure. Those ar- 
 riving from a foreign port in ballast, must produce a 
 clearance either from the Mexican consul or the au- 
 thorities of the place from whence they came, show- 
 ing that they bring no cargo. Pilotage $1.75 per foot, 
 other port charges, such as harbor-master's fees, an- 
 chorage, board of health, etc., about $25 each vessel. 
 Ships arriving direct from a foreign port pay $1.50 per 
 ton for tonnage dues. See Mexico. 
 
 Statement of tub Exportation of Dyewoods fkom tub Poht of Laguna di Terminos during the Teaks 1850, 
 1851, and 1852, SPECIFYING also tub Vessels in wiiioh tIiey were shipped and the Ports to wuicn thby 
 belonged. 
 
 1851. 
 
 Logwood. I Fustic. 
 
 1852. 
 
 Logwood. 
 
 Liverpool - 
 
 Havre 
 
 Hamburg. 
 
 Cork and market 
 
 Bordeaux 
 
 New York 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Marseilles 
 
 Antwerp , 
 
 Stettin...- 
 
 Genoa 
 
 Petersburg 
 
 Boston 
 
 New Orleans 
 
 Barcolona. 
 
 Gibraltar and market 
 
 Elsinour and market 
 
 Cadiz 
 
 Nantes 
 
 Havana 
 
 Lancaster 
 
 Oette 
 
 In ballast to sundry ports.. 
 Total 
 
 "1 
 
 i 
 
 10 
 
 QiilnlfliB, 
 
 97,728 
 
 99,678i 
 
 42,369 
 
 70,940i 
 
 26,849 
 
 20,280 
 
 4,511i 
 14,029 
 
 5,197 
 17,718 
 
 6,821 
 17,069J 
 
 8,585 
 50O 
 
 1,600 
 1,400 
 
 Quintals. 
 
 l,891i 
 
 1,474 
 "623 
 4^440 
 
 23 
 12 
 9 
 7 
 10 
 2 
 5 
 
 QuiDtale. 
 
 100,908 
 
 73,845 
 
 82,889 
 
 81,563i 
 
 24,164 
 
 6,014 
 
 27,482 
 
 22,638 
 
 7,864 
 
 16,102 
 
 T,606 
 
 8,9664 
 
 2,100 
 
 1,591 
 
 7,481 
 6^011 
 
 2,231 
 
 Quintals. 
 
 4,491 
 
 520 
 
 2,897 
 
 1,177 
 
 l,201i 
 
 630 
 
 21 
 15 
 14 
 7 
 7 
 4 
 6' 
 5 
 6 
 
 Quiutnlp. 
 96,311i 
 88,703 
 47,877 
 80,010 
 17,068 
 21,07H 
 44,237 
 81,.W4 
 34,510 
 
 15^603 
 
 8,461 i 
 1,000 
 2,480 
 8,673i 
 
 1,678 
 
 8,972 
 
 Quintals. 
 
 i',66o 
 
 3,084 
 2,012 
 12,277 
 
 '"so 
 
 "'40 
 
 101 
 
 484,611 
 
 3,838 I 
 
 871,406 I 12.8454 ! 104 
 
 453,0594 I 19,577 
 
 Iiahore, an extensive province of Hindoostan, sit- 
 uated between the thirtieth and thirt3''-fonrth degrees 
 of north latitude. It has been estimated at 340 miles 
 in length by 200 in average breadth. It is bounded 
 on the north by Cashmere and the course of the In- 
 dus ; on the south by Delhi, Ajeueer, and Moultan ; 
 on the east by the mountains of northern Hindoostan ; 
 and on the west it is separated from Afghanistan by 
 
 the Indus. The principal geographical and territorial 
 subdivisions are the Punjab, comprehending other 
 minor subdivisions, and the Kohistan of Lahore. 
 Rice is cultivated in the narrow vaUe3'S, but the in- 
 habitants subsist chiefly on wheat bread, and peas 
 made into a thick soup. Pines and willow-trees grow 
 on the surface of the mountains. The resinous part 
 of the fir is cut into slips, and supplies the place of a 
 
LAK 
 
 1162 
 
 LAK 
 
 lamp. The climate is not favorable to fruits and veg- 
 etables. Fossil salt is found in man}'' parts, and the 
 mountain tracts are supposed to be rich in minerals. 
 
 The commerce of this country was formerly much 
 obstructed by the heavy duties levied on all the goods 
 as they passed through the different territories of the 
 petty Sikhs. It was in consequence carried to Hin- 
 doostan Proper by the difficult and mountainous route 
 of Jamboe, Nadone, and Serinagem. The Sikh chiefs, 
 however, discovered their error, and many of these 
 heavy and vexatious duties have been reduced ; and 
 by a more strict administration of justice, confidence 
 has been restored to the merchants. The exports of 
 Lahore to the countries west of the Indus are, sugar, 
 rice, indigo, wheat, and cotton cloths. The imports 
 from these countries are, swords, horses, fruit, lead, 
 and spices. The exports to Cashmere are nearly the 
 same as to Persia, the imports being shawls, a variety 
 of cloths, saffron, and fruits. "With Kohistan the 
 mountainous district of Lahore, the inhabitants of 
 Punjab exchange cloth, matchlocks, and horses, for 
 iron and other small commodities. From the south 
 are imported sulphur, indigo, salt, lead, iron, Euro- 
 pean coarse broadcloth, and spices. The exports to 
 the south are, horses, camels, sugar, rice, white cloth, 
 matchlocks, swords, and bows and arrows. 
 
 Lahore^ the capital city of the Punjab, British In- 
 dia, on an affluent of the Eavee, in lat. 31° 36' N., 
 long. 74° 18' E. Population estimated at from 100,- 
 000 to 120,000. It is inclosed by a double line of 
 defenses, the outer being about 7 miles in circuit. 
 Streets narrow, filthy, and excessively crowded ; 
 houses of brick, and lofty. It has many large and 
 handsome mosques, and around it for many miles are 
 extensive Mohammedan ruins, with the line tomb of 
 the Emperor Jehangire, and the garden of Shah Jehan. 
 Here are also many Hindoo temples, well-supplied 
 markets, and a citadel, containing the palace of the 
 Sikh sovereigns. Under the Mogul emperors, the 
 city was of much greater extent. In 1748, it fell in- 
 to the hands of Ahmed Shah ; in 1798 Eunjeet Singh 
 was invested governor and rajah. After the final de- 
 feat of the Sikhs, in 1849, Lahore was taken posses- 
 sion of by the British. 
 
 Lake, an extensive accumulation of water wholly 
 surrounded by land, and having no direct nor imme- 
 diate communication with the ocean, or with any seas, 
 or having so only by means of rivers. Lakes are of 
 various kinds, and have been divided into two classes, 
 according to their situation and causes of production. 
 Those which are formed in deep hollows between the 
 ridges or at the bases of the mountains, and which are 
 supplied with water by springs or torrents, are classed 
 together, and those which are formed in low and level 
 countries by the surplus water of rivers, or from a 
 want of sufficient declivity in the ground to allow the 
 waters to cotinue their course, constitute a second 
 class. Sometimes a chain of lakes is connected with 
 one another and with the ocean by a series of rivers. 
 This is the case with the great lakes on the northern 
 frontier of North America, where basin succeeds basin, 
 on a lower level, like so many locks on a canal. A 
 fourth class of lakes are those which receive streams 
 of water and often great rivers without having appar- 
 ently any outlet. These lakes are in general confined 
 to warm climates ; but the Caspian Sea, the largest 
 of all lakes, belongs to this class. There arc a great 
 rs\Q.uj others beside in Asia ; and South America con- 
 tains Lake Titicaca which has no efflux, although it 
 receives very considerable rivers into it. Such lakes 
 appear to belong to the interior of great continents ; 
 they are placed on elevated plains which have no sen- 
 sible declivity toward the sea, and which do not allow 
 the water opening for itself a passage through which 
 to flow out. 
 
 It was long conjectured that by some subterraneous 
 channel lakes of this description communicated with 
 
 the sea ; but the fact that the surfaces of some of the 
 most remarkable of them, such as the Caspian and the 
 Dead Sea, are depressed below the level of the ocean, 
 is quite sufficient to explode this hypothesis. For 
 were there any communication, however small, the 
 ocean would flow into the lake till it brought it to a 
 level with itself. The true explanation seems to be 
 that a quantity of water equal to that which runs in is 
 carried off by evaporation. The absorption of liquid 
 by the contiguous land, may also materially assist in 
 carrying off the surplus fluid. 
 
 Distinct from any of the characteristics of lakes yet 
 alluded to, is the chemical nature of their waters. 
 Lakes in respect to the quality' of the waters are dis- 
 tinguished into fresh, saline, and alkaline. Those 
 which receive and discharge considerable quantities of 
 fresh water are almost always kept in a state of per- 
 fect freshness ; but those which have no outlet are in- 
 variably saline. Thus the Dead Sea, whose waters 
 have no efflux, and into which the river Jordan con- 
 tinually flows, contains about eight times as much salt 
 as common sea-water. The waters of the Jordan are 
 brackish, and the neighboring soil is much impreg- 
 nated with salt, so that the accumulation of such a 
 quantity of saline matter in the lake during a series 
 of ages is b}'" no means surprising, for none of it ever 
 passes off by evaporation. Salt must likewise be ac- 
 cumulating in beds at its bottom ; for as soon as water 
 is perfectly saturated, and can hold no more salt in so- 
 lution, the latter must fall to the bottom. Some of 
 the large Asiatic lakes are dried up during summer, 
 and their beds appear lined with an incrustation of 
 salt. All the great American lakes consist of fresh 
 water ; those of Europe are either fresh or slightly 
 saline ; but the Caspian Sea, and various others which 
 are situated in plains full of salt, or in tracts of coun- 
 ti-y where salt springs abound, are almost invariably 
 impregnated with that substance. Some lakes are 
 both saline and alkaline, as is the case with the Nat- 
 ron Lakes in Lower Eg3'pt. They derive their appel- 
 lation from their abounding in soda which is there 
 called trona, and natron, the nitre of the Scriptures. 
 Some lakes produce a pitchy substance. In the island 
 of Trinidad there is one on the surface of which an 
 enormous quantinj'" of bitumen, fit for naval purposes, 
 is collected. Deposits of various kinds besides those 
 enumerated seem to owe their origin to lakes. Bog 
 iron ore, or hydro -phosphate of iron, is often found in 
 such situations as to show that it has been deposited 
 from the waters of lakes ; and in some countries it is 
 collected from the sides and bottoms of lakes once in 
 a certain number of j'ears. Calcareous springs are 
 numerous, and when the waters of these collect in a 
 hollow place so as to form a lake, quantities of calca- 
 reous sinters and tuffas are deposited, so that the lakes 
 when emptied present extensive deposits of that min- 
 eral. The travertine employed at Rome for building, 
 is a lake or spring calcareous deposit of sinter and tuffa. 
 
 Lakes, Great American. The following are 
 the principal lakes forming the great chain of inland 
 navigation, extending from the St. Lawrence River to 
 the head of Lake Superior : 
 
 Lake Ontario^ in shape^ approaches to a long and 
 narrow ellipse, being about 190 miles long and 55 wide, 
 with a coast line of about 480 miles. Its surface is 
 234 feet above tide water, and 330 feet below the sur- 
 face of Lake Erie. It is in many places over 600 feet 
 deep, so that its bottom is below the level of the At- 
 lantic. In every part it has sufficient depth for the 
 largest vessels, and is rarely frozen, except near the 
 shore. There are man}' good harbors on the lake. It 
 receives the water of Niagara River, the outlet of the 
 other American Lakes ; also the Genesee, Oswego, 
 and Black Rivers. It is connected with the Erie Ca- 
 nal by the Oswego Canal, and has "by this means a 
 direct water communication with New York city. 
 
 Lalce Erie, which is situated 565 feet above the sea, 
 
LAlt 
 
 1163 
 
 LAK 
 
 330 feet above the level of Lake Ontario, is about 265 
 miles in length, from 30 to 60 miles in breadth, and 
 between 600 and 700 miles in circumference. Its mean 
 depth is 120 feet, being the shallowest of all the great 
 lakes, and most easily frozen. Its waters are also, on 
 account of its shallowness, more readily agitated by 
 storms, causing its navigation to be therefore more 
 dangerous during stormy weather. Disasters, involv- 
 ing large loss of life and property, are not of unfre- 
 quent occurrence on the lake, toward the close of 
 navigation, before the rigors of winter have put a final 
 stop to all active lake traffic. The shores of this lake 
 present features very similar to those of Lake On- 
 tario ; the banks of Lake Erie being generally bolder 
 and more elevated, and composed chiefly of clay and 
 sand. The more fertile parts are at some distance 
 from the banks, throughout the extensive plain of 
 table-land beyond. There are several good natural 
 harbors along the shore, formed chiefly by the mouths 
 of deep creeks or streams, and protected from the ac- 
 tion of storms and current of the lake by strong pro- 
 jecting piers. 
 
 Among the harbors of Lake Erie may be mentioned 
 Port Colbome, situated at the entrance to the Welland 
 Canal, at the foot of Lake Erie, and a little above the 
 commencement of the Niagara Eiver. A little further 
 up is the harbor of Port Maitland, at the mouth of 
 the Grand River. This is a very fine and capacious 
 stream, navigable for small vessels a considerable dis- 
 tance, and possessing much fertile land and pleasing 
 scenery along its banks. The shore of the lake for 
 some way above thfr mouth of. the Grand River pre- 
 sents many delightful and fertile settlements. Among 
 the harbors farther up the lake are Ports Dover, Bur- 
 well, and Stanley. Port Stanley is perhaps the most 
 flourishing of these harbors, being the port of one of 
 the most populous and enterprising districts of this 
 part of Canada, and situated near the centre of the 
 great fertile peninsula. The banks of Lake Erie are 
 here high, and of a sandy character ; but off the im- 
 mediate bank, and extending all the way through the 
 extensive tract of country to the town of Goderich, on 
 Lake Huron, a distance of 85 miles, the soil is of the 
 best quality, being for the most part timbered with 
 beech, maple, black and white walnut, oalc, ash, 
 cherry, and other trees, indicating the first qualities 
 of soil. The whole tract is greatly undulating in its 
 appearance, and is ever5'where well watered. The 
 upper part of Lake Erie is distinguished by many 
 beautiful islands, the largest of which is Pele, on which 
 there is a light-house, and several faros. The shores 
 along the upper part of the lake, especially toward the 
 mouth of the Detroit River, have a smiling and luxu- 
 riant aspect. Trees of the finest growth rise from the 
 shore, and the wild vine may be seen twining and 
 clustering among the branches of the lesser trees and 
 tall shrubs along the sloping banks. The shore is 
 here covered with fine white sand. 
 
 Lake St. Clair. — In our further progress up this 
 countr}', we pass the Detroit Eiver, thence into Lake 
 St. Clair, then the River St. Clair, which last opens 
 into the broad expanse of Lake Huron. From the 
 head of Lake Erie to the foot of Lake Huron, is a dis- 
 tance of between 80 and 90 miles, through a country 
 of unsurpassed fertility and luxuriance, and possess- 
 ing many delightful features. The Detroit River, 
 about 27 miles in length, is interspersed with many 
 islands, several of which, near its entrance into Lake 
 Erie, are beautifully wooded. The towns of Amherst- 
 burg and Sandwich, and the small village of Wind- 
 sor, are situated along the Canada side of this river. 
 Opposite Windsor, toward the upper pai't of the river, 
 and where the banks narrow to about three quarters 
 of a mile, is the American city of Detroit, in the State 
 of Michigan. Lake St. Clair, which forms the con- 
 necting link, by means of the St. Clair and Detroit 
 Rivers, between Lakes Huron, Michigan, and Erie, is 
 
 the smallest of all the lakes, and exceedingly shallow 
 for the larger class of vessels passing through it. It 
 is froin 20 to 30 miles in length, and about the same in 
 breadth. Its average depth is about 20 feet, but the 
 principal channel used by vessels passing through it is 
 much shallower, especially in drj' seasons, when the 
 mud of its flats is stirred to the surface not unfre- 
 quently by large vessels. The chief stream which it 
 receives from the Canadian shore is the Eiver Thames, 
 which is navigable for lake vessels 22 miles from its 
 mouth, and the banks of which are exceedingly fertile, 
 and mostly well settled. Much of the land bordering 
 on the lake is low and marshy. In the upper part of 
 the lake are several islands, the principal of which is 
 Walpole Island, about 10 miles long, and from 3 to 4 
 miles wide. This island is inhabited by a stray por- 
 tion of the remnant of Indians still existing in small 
 and decreasing numbers in Canada. We are now at 
 the entrance to the Eivei St. Clair, in length about 30 
 miles. There are several thriving settlements along 
 the fertile and beautiful banks of this river. Toward 
 the lower part, amid a cluster of wooded islands, the 
 banks, with somewhat of a flat appearance, are cov- 
 ered with luxuriant timber. Further up, the land rises, 
 with finely sloping banlss and cultivated farms. Near 
 the head of the river, and pleasantly situated, is the 
 flourishing town of Saruia. 
 
 Lake IIuron.^-The River St. Clair now opens to the 
 wide expanse of Lake Huron, of about 1000 miles in cir- 
 cumference. This vast sheet of inland sea is the second 
 in point of size of the great lakes, yielding only in this 
 respect to Lake Superior. The surface of Lake Huron 
 is about 30 feet above tlie level of Lake Erie, and 695 
 feet above the level of the Atlantic. The length may 
 be estimated at 250 miles, and its breadth 160 miles, 
 inclusive of the Georgian Kay, a large wing of the 
 lake, extending along tlie north-eastern shore for a 
 distance of about 100 miles.. The mean depth of Lake 
 Huron is 900 feet, and its greatest depth 1000 feet 
 near the west shore. This lake is said to contain the 
 almost incredible number of 32,000 islands, principally 
 along the northern shore and at the north-western end, 
 varying in size from mere rocky reefs and pinnacles to 
 large and cultivable islands. The Great Manitoulin, the 
 longest of the islands, is upward of 75 miles in length, 
 and varies in width from 3 to 23 miles. The waters 
 of the lalte are remarkably pure, clear, and cold ; in 
 these respects resembling the great upper Lake Supe- 
 rior. The surface of Lake Huron is about 32 feet 
 lower than that of Lake Superior, and it is very nearlj' 
 as deep as that lake. The nature of the banks of Lake 
 Huron va.ry very much. In parts they are low and 
 sandy, in others formed of clay ; they rise to a height 
 of about 120 feet, while again the shore of this inland 
 sea presents a bold, rocky, iron-bound coast, liaving 
 great depth of water to the base. Numerous streams 
 descend on all sides into the lake; and among its 
 rivers may be mentioned the Maitland, Severn, and 
 River Francjais. The lake, which is rather subject to 
 storms, is deficient in good and natural harbors, the 
 principal of which, along the eastern coast, are Gode- 
 rich, at the month of the Maitland, Saugeen, and 
 Penetanguishene ; and on the western shore the best 
 places of shelter in heavy weather are Thunder Bay 
 and Saginaw Bay. 
 
 Lake Huron possesses the advantage of being re- 
 remarkably centrally situated with respect to the 
 other great lakes. With Lake Erie, as we have seen, 
 it is connected by the Straits or Rivers St. Clair and 
 Detroit, and the sm^all Lake St. Clair. Lake Ontario, 
 the lower of the lakes, is even open to it by the River 
 Severn, Lake Simcoe, then by a short portage, a chain 
 of lakes, and Trent River. Lalce Simcoe, tlius situ- 
 ated between Lake Huron and Lake Ontario, is a very 
 beautiful lake, about 30 miles in length and 20 in 
 breadth. The neck of land south of Lake Simcoe 
 from Holland Eiver leading to Toronto is, it will be 
 
LAK 
 
 1164 
 
 LAK 
 
 remembered, about 36 miles; and again, north of 
 Lake Simcoe, from the narrows of this lake to Lake 
 Huron, the portage ia only about 14 miles. The new 
 railway now cutting through this neck of the penin- 
 sula westward, situated between the Lakes Erie, On- 
 tario, and Huron, will greatly facilitate the growing 
 intercourse between the shores of Ontario, as well as 
 all the country lower down along the banks of the St. 
 Lawrence, and also great part of the United States, 
 with the regions of the great upper lakes, Huron and 
 Superi(jr. This direct course will no doubt be much 
 preferred to the circuitous route through Lakes Erie 
 and St. Clair, and the connecting rivers. 
 
 Lake Huron, besides, communicates with the Otta- 
 wa, and thence with the St. Lawrence above Montreal, 
 by means of French Kiver, Lake Nipissing, and the 
 River Mattawa, into the Ottawa. This is the route 
 adopted generally by the north-west traders in pro- 
 ceeding to the remote parts of the country, and it is 
 also the one by which Europeans first penetrated the 
 West. The distance from Montreal by this route to 
 I^ake Huron is fully more than one half shorter than 
 that by the St. Lawrence. From Montreal to the 
 Georgian Bay, the distance is estimated at 400 miles, 
 while by the St. Lawrence the distance is upward of 
 1000 miles. Again, Lake Huron communicates with 
 the great upper Lake Superior by means of the River 
 St. Mary, about 40 miles in length. Lastly, we have 
 this centrally situated lake communicating by the 
 straits of Mackinac with Lake Michigan, and thence 
 by the Illinois River and Canal with the Mississippi 
 and Gulf of Mexico. The shores of Lake Huron have 
 of late revealed important mineral treasures. The 
 Bruce copper mines promise to be of great value. 
 These mines are situated upon the northern shore of 
 the lake under the Cloche Mountains, a bold range of 
 hills extending about 40 miles along the coast. Along 
 the south-eastern shores of the lake, extending be- 
 yond the town and harbor of Goderich, on the Eiver 
 Maitland, are manj' highly prosperous settlements. 
 The lands in this direction, and through the large and 
 fine district inland, are believed to be the most fertile 
 in Canada. The countiy is everywhere well watered, 
 and enjoj^s much delightful scenery, both along the 
 elevated banks of the lake and the beautiful rivers 
 which diversify it. The town of Goderich, on the 
 River Maitland, is very agreeably situated, and pos- 
 sesses an excellent hajbor. The high banks of the 
 Maitland are exceedingly picturesque. 
 
 Lake Su^yerior. — We now approach the uppermost 
 of these vast collections of water, not inappropriately 
 named inland seas. The River or Strait of St. Mar}'-, 
 connecting Lake Huron with Lake Superior, is be- 
 tween 30 and 40 miles in length. The character of the 
 sceneiy, on entering St. Mary's Channel, is the most 
 delightful that can be imagined. The channel through- 
 out, with the exception of several small lakes, seems 
 to be almost packed with islands; and while perplex- 
 ing the navigator by its intricacy, it is every now and 
 then revealing new and striking beauties of wooded 
 heights and steep banks clothed with verdure, and 
 spots of flat, fertile meadows, and, at times, bare, 
 rocky, fantastic crags. The sides of the ridges of 
 table-lands that skirt the country, around the borders 
 of Lake Superior, appear in the distance clothed with 
 one mass of lively green. The foot of the Falls, or, 
 more properly speaking, Rapids of St. Mary, approach 
 within about 18 miles of Lake Superior. The region 
 in this direction seems much less fertile; the trees 
 along the shores of the broad strait appearing to be 
 chiefly of the pine species, and the soil in many parts 
 light and sandy, while the lands close upon the banks 
 lie for the most part low and flat. We now approach 
 the chief seat of the great copper district of America, 
 where the barrenness of a large portion of the country 
 is richly compensated by the value of the metals with 
 which it abounds. The copper mines of Canada, along 
 
 the shores of Lakes Huron and Superior, are perhaps 
 entitled to rank among the most valuable resources of 
 this great country. 
 
 As we approach the great queen lake or inland sea, 
 upward of 400 miles in length and 130 in breadth, dark 
 blue masses of hills uprise, somewhat reminding the 
 voyager of the approaches to the St. Lawrence in the 
 forms of the headlands of Cape Rozifere and others, 
 yet being neither so high nor so bold as these. The 
 main entrance to the lake is marked by two such rocky 
 headlands, one upon either shore several miles apart. 
 From the heights of the one on the other shore, named 
 Gros Cap, composed of the rock of the old red sand- 
 stone, the sides of which are partially covered with 
 junipers, blue bells, wild briars, and other vegetation, 
 reminding one of the Scottish hills, we overlook a 
 scene of the most imposing and still grandeur possible 
 to be imagined. The dim distance into the lake is 
 bounded by vast islands, and along both shores bold 
 uneven banks uprise, apparently covered with dark 
 dense foliage, and stretch themselves in irregular 
 course, as far as the eye can reach, along the wide ex- 
 panse of water that scarcely as yet presents anj' speck 
 of navigation. The shores of Lake Superior, which 
 are even now imperfectly explored, already prove to 
 be abundant in mineral resources. Many of the en- 
 terprising inhabitants of Canada, having formed them- 
 selves into associations, are now engaged in raining 
 the seemingly inexhaustible treasures of virgin cop- 
 per which are found along the shores of this lake as 
 well as Lake Huron. This source of wealth to the 
 colony is likely to prove of considerable import- 
 ance. 
 
 Lake Superior, which is the largest sheet of fresh 
 water on the face of the globe, is the most remarkable 
 of the great American Lakes, not only from its mag- 
 nitude, but also from the picturesque scenery of its 
 borders, and the interest and value attaching to its 
 geological features. " As a mining region," continues 
 Dr. Jackson, who, as United States' geologist, was in- 
 trusted by his government to survey the territory, " it 
 is one of the most important to this countr}'-, and is 
 rich in veins of metallic copper and silver, as well as 
 in the ores of those metals. At the present moment it 
 may be regarded as the most valuable mining district 
 in North America, with the exception only of the gold 
 deposits of California. The whole coast of Lake Su- 
 perior is rock-bound. Mountain masses of considerable 
 elevation in some places rear themselves from the im- 
 mediate shore, while steep precipices and frightful 
 crags oppose themselves to the surges of the mighty 
 lake, and threaten the unfortunate mariner who ma}' 
 be caught in a storm upon a lee shore with almost in- 
 evitable destruction. The northern or Canadian shore 
 of the lake is the most precipitous, and consequently 
 most dangerous to the navigator. Good harbors for 
 vessels of moderate capacity are comparatively few, 
 but there are abundance of coves or boat-harbors 
 formed by the countless indentations of the rocky 
 coast. In remarkable contrast to Lake Huron, which 
 is thickly studded with islands, there are very few 
 islands in Lake Superior. 
 
 Agriculture may be truly said to have not yet com- 
 menced to tame the great and comparatively unex- 
 plored wilderness around the shores of Lake Superior. 
 The forests of stunted spruce and fir-trees along the 
 immediate coast of the lake are said to aff"ord a very 
 inadequate idea of the agricultural resources of the 
 shores of the great queen lake. The cold air from the 
 lake, says Dr. Jackson, affects only the vegetation 
 near its shores, while further inland the temperature 
 more resembles that Of the settled parts of Canada. 
 The native forest trees, and also the flowering plants, 
 as well as the agricultural produce where clearings 
 have been made, are believed to afford very satisfac- 
 tory evidence on this point. The forests are filled 
 with excellent timber for building * purposes ; the 
 
LAK 
 
 1165 
 
 LAK 
 
 white and yellow pines, particularly, being of large 
 dimenaiona. " Tlie tributary rivers of Lake Superior 
 are numerous," says Mr. I. D. Andrews, in his verj- 
 interesting report to the United States' Senate, " and, 
 bringing down a large volume of water, afford super- 
 abundant water-power for manufactories the most 
 extensive in the world, though, from the precipitous 
 descents and numerous falls and chutes, they can 
 never be rendered navigable for more than a few miles 
 above their mouths, except for canoes." 
 
 Lalie Michigan, one of the five great lakes of North 
 America, lies between 41° 38' 58" and 46° N. lat., 
 and between 84° 41' and 87° 8' W. long. In the 
 northern parts it communicates witli Huron by the 
 Straits of Michilimackinac or Mackinac, about four 
 miles in width in its narrowest part, and by which and 
 its northern part it separates the two peninsulas of 
 Michigan. Michigan Lalte is the largest lake that 
 lies wholly within the United States, being 330 miles 
 long, and, on an average, 60 miles broad, containing 
 16,981 square miles, or 10,868,000 acres. It has Green 
 Bay, a large branch on the north-west ; and on the 
 east. Grand Traverse Bay and Little Traverse Bay. 
 It is estimated to be on an average 900 feet deep ; and 
 is elevated about 300 feet above tide-water. It has 
 few good harbors. On the west side are those of Chi- 
 cago, Milwaukie, and Green Baj'. On the east side 
 are Michigan City, St. Joseph, at the mouth of St. 
 Joseph Eiver, and Grand Haven, near the mouth of 
 Grand Eiver. It is navigated by many large vessels 
 and several steamboats, which ply from Buffalo to 
 
 Lake Erie and Chicago, stopping at the intermediate 
 places. It affords great facilities for transportatton. 
 The lake has pure and clear water, and abounds with 
 excellent fish. There are several islands on its north- 
 ern part. It has 23 light-houses and 4 beacons on its 
 islands and coasts. The Illinois and Michigan Canal 
 connects the navigable waters of the Illinois Eiver 
 with Lake Michigan. 
 
 Commerce of the Lakes. — These lakes are estimated 
 to drain an entire area of 335,515 square miles, and 
 discharge their waters into the ocean through the 
 Eiver St. Lawrence, which is rendered navigable from 
 Lake Erie downward to all vessels not exceeding 130 
 feet keel, 26 beam, and 10 feet draught, and the free 
 navigation of which for American bottoms was recently 
 acquired by the concession of reciprocity of trade to the 
 Canadian government. The whole traffic of these great 
 waters maj' be now unhesitatingly stated at $326,000,- 
 000, employing 74,Q00 tons of steam, and 138,000 tons 
 of sail, for the year 1851, of 216,000 tons burden. 
 
 The entire number of vessels and crews of the in- 
 terior trade amounts to 140 bottoms, and 5,837 men, in 
 excess of the whole ocean and coast nav}', though tht 
 tonnage employed in the latter is smaller by 7,775 tons. 
 
 However remote the period of the discovery, "ex- 
 ploration, and partial colonization of these wilds and 
 waters, any thing like practical navigation of them for 
 commercial purposes was unattempted until after the 
 commencement of this century. In 1679 a French 
 craft indeed was launched at Erie, Pennsylvania, for the 
 expedition of the celebrated and unfortunate La Salle. 
 
 
 
 
 TONNAOE OF THE LAKE PORTS, 1866. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Collection dlitrlols. 
 
 Owned in dlHtrlcta. 
 
 Tonnage entered. 
 
 
 Tonnage cleared. 1 
 
 SLenm 
 tonnngR. 
 
 Sail 
 tonnage. 
 
 American. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 American. 
 
 Foreign. ' | 
 
 Steam. 
 
 Sail. 
 
 'Steam. 
 
 Sail. 
 
 Steam. 
 
 tsm, 
 
 Steam. 
 
 Sail. 
 
 Vermont 
 
 ...Ver. 
 
 8,240 
 
 692 
 
 66,421 
 
 17,490 
 
 9,666 
 
 10,758 
 
 58,024 
 
 17,020 
 
 9,821 
 
 7,602 
 
 Ohamplain 
 
 .N. T. 
 
 917 
 
 8,291 
 
 90,484 
 
 8,185 
 
 8,899 
 
 20,759 
 
 90,486 
 
 8,185 
 
 8,899 
 
 20,769 , 
 
 Osweiatehie 
 
 Cape Vincent 
 
 . " 
 
 1,985 
 
 570 
 
 206,684 
 
 47,124 
 
 90,962 
 
 6,667 
 
 218,069 
 
 45,205 
 
 89,856 
 
 6,657 
 
 • " 
 
 "343 
 
 2,496 
 6,768 
 
 427,457 
 163,616 
 
 "261 
 
 12,473 
 1,060 
 
 1,984 
 
 427,467 
 161,875 
 
 1,885 
 
 12,478 
 1,060 
 
 1,984 
 
 Sackett's Harbor... 
 
 Oswego 
 
 , " 
 
 4,882 
 
 21,941 
 
 228,842 
 
 845,681 
 
 7,269 
 
 86,601 
 
 267,594 ■ 
 
 827,172 
 
 7,269 
 
 83,768 
 
 Genesee 
 
 . " 
 
 429 
 
 257 
 
 160,000 
 
 1,620 
 
 27,900 
 
 8,714 
 
 160,000 
 
 1,620 
 
 27,900 
 
 8,714 
 
 Niagara 
 
 Buffalo 
 
 " 
 
 100 
 
 606 
 
 76,072 
 
 964 
 
 145,778 
 
 1,844 
 
 76,072 
 
 964 
 
 145,773 
 
 1,844 
 
 " 
 
 22,488 
 
 23,620 
 
 18,498 
 
 11,706 
 
 48,468 
 
 23,765 
 
 18,152 
 
 13,774 
 
 48,672 
 
 22,568 
 
 
 .Penn. 
 ..Ohio 
 
 5,961 
 11,855 
 
 2,249 
 24,716 
 
 680 
 4,548 
 
 1,089 
 24,269 
 
 "878 
 
 731 
 10,892 
 
 2,670 
 
 8,205 
 15,690 
 
 "926 
 
 721 
 9,619 
 
 Cuyahoga 
 
 Sandusky 
 
 .. " 
 
 78 
 
 4,785 
 
 1,494 
 
 4,760 
 
 280 
 
 746 
 
 
 1,896 
 
 886 
 
 1,800 
 
 Miami 
 
 . , " 
 
 1,153 
 
 2,088 
 
 
 
 . . J . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Detroit 
 
 .Mich. 
 
 21,944 
 
 18,475 
 
 888 
 
 1,544 
 
 49,081 
 
 7,300 
 
 2,086 
 
 1,668 
 
 51,737 
 
 6,546 
 
 Mackinac 
 
 , " 
 
 1,747 
 
 1,409 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .... 
 
 
 Milwaukie 
 
 ..Wis. 
 
 287 
 
 2,659 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Chicago 
 
 Total 
 
 ....111. 
 
 707 
 
 22,8^6 
 
 652 
 
 290 
 
 
 428 
 
 2,183 
 
 1,628 
 
 
 428 
 
 77,061 
 
 188,914 
 
 1,484,779 
 
 464,822 
 
 897,587 
 
 174,619 
 
 1,482,548 
 
 438,862 
 
 898,702 1 166,010 | 
 
 
 Zake Trade. — The great chain of river, lake, and 
 canal navigation, which extends westward to Fond du 
 Lac and Chicago, a distance of about 1400 miles, em- 
 bracing the largest extent of inland water communica- 
 tion in the world, the following table exhibits in a 
 condensed form : 
 
 
 Lenglli. 
 
 Breadth. 
 
 Depth. 
 
 oi"""°»"l *""■ 
 
 Lake Superior 
 
 " Michigan 
 
 " Huron 
 
 " St. Clair 
 
 " Erie 
 
 Mllei. 
 420 
 820 
 270 
 26 
 250 
 190 
 700 
 
 Milei. 
 
 120 
 70 
 
 145 
 18 
 45 
 40 
 
 Feet. 
 
 600 
 1,000 
 
 850 
 20 
 70 
 
 600 
 
 If eel. 
 600 
 
 673 
 678 
 670 
 664 
 284 
 ... 
 
 Sq.milee. 
 
 31,100 
 
 21,900 
 
 18,760 
 
 300 
 
 9,800 
 
 7,800 
 
 " Ontario 
 
 Eiver St. Lawrence. 
 
 
 
 Canals 
 
 
 
 
 Cnimle. 
 
 Length. 
 
 Depth. 
 
 size or 
 Locks. 
 
 Lockage. 
 
 Loots. 
 
 Lachino 
 
 BeauhavnoU.... 
 
 Cornwall 
 
 Farrand's Point 
 
 EapidPlat 
 
 Point Iroquis.. 
 
 Mile. 
 H 
 
 Hi 
 iii 
 
 • 9?- 
 
 88 
 
 Feet. 
 10 
 10 
 10 
 10 
 10 
 10 
 10 
 10 
 
 Feet. 
 200X45 
 200X46 
 200X46 
 200X46 
 200X46 
 200x45 
 200x46 
 150x26i 
 
 44} 
 82i 
 48 
 4 
 
 'I' 
 8 
 830 
 
 No. 
 
 5 
 9 
 T 
 1 
 2 
 1 
 2 
 27 
 
 Welland 
 
 The great lakes are about l-25th of the area of the 
 
 Atlantic Ocean ; but in proportion afford much greater 
 facilities for commerce, in consequence of the advan- 
 tage of great length with less width, and of greater 
 proportion of shore line. The country forming the 
 shores of the lakes can not be surpas.sed in general 
 productiveness by any section of the Union, either in 
 variety of important commodities, or in quantity pro- 
 duced per square mile. The extent of the commerce 
 of the lakes may be estimated by the commerce of the 
 lake ports. During the past 15 years the value of the 
 trade of the lakes has swelled from $65,000,000, in 
 1841, to $608,310,320, in 1856 ; and the whole of this 
 grand aggregate, with the exception of $42,260,060, 
 set down for Sackett's Harbor, Cape Tincent, Oswe- 
 gatchie, Genesee, and Niagara, came through the fol- 
 lowing ports : 
 
 Buffalo $803,028,000 || Milwaukie.. $35,000,000 
 
 Chicago.... 228,898,000 Maumee.... 94,107,000 
 
 Cleveland.. 162,186,000 Sandusky. . . 59,966,000 
 
 Detroit.... 140,000,000 || Oswego 146,235,000 
 
 With the exception of Buffalo and Oswego, these 
 are all ports of the north-west, whose trade has been 
 the result of its development during a very brief period ; 
 and the great bulk of the trade of Buffalo and Oswego 
 is derived from the same cause. 
 
 The tonnage employed on the great lakes is shown 
 
LAK 
 
 1166 
 
 LAM 
 
 m the following table, and does not include any ocean 
 or river tonnage : 
 
 Tone. 
 
 Tone. 
 
 Illinois 1,742 
 
 Wisconsin 1,461 
 
 Michigan 7,848 
 
 Ohio (Lake tonnage) 11,856 
 
 NewTorls; 22,634 
 
 Total 46,426 
 
 Thi8 is l-12th of the total tonnage owned by the 
 United States, and about 1-oth of the total amount 
 emploj'ed in the coasting trade. The first steamer 
 launched on Lake Ontario was in 1816, while on Lake 
 Erie steam navigation commenced in 1814. In 1851 
 the proportion of steam craft to sailing craft was as 
 74,000 to 138,000 tons. The number of Canadian 
 
 steamers and schooners now trading on Lake Ontario 
 is 234, of which 48 are steamers, 17 propellers, and 169 
 schooners, the tonnage of which amounts to about 
 42,000 tons, and their value is about £378,000. The 
 whole tonnage owned on the lakes in 1820 amounted 
 to but 5,500 tons, in 1840 to 70,000 tons, in 1850 to 
 215,787 tons, and in 1855 to 345,000 tons. But even 
 this rapid increase hardly convej'S an idea of the vast 
 commerce of which these great inland seas are destined 
 to become the scene even before the close of the cui'- 
 rent century. The liberal provisions of existing treat- 
 ies with England and her American colonies, will rap- 
 idly develop the resources of Canada and the N. States. 
 
 Yalite of Expokts from the Lake Ports, 1856. 
 
 Collection diatricta. 
 
 Coasting trnde. 
 
 Canadian and foreign trade. 
 
 Aggregate value 
 of eoaeting trade. 
 
 Aggregate value 
 of foreign trade. 
 
 Exports. 1 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Vermont Ver 
 
 i $20,868,426 
 918,637 
 
 308,268 
 11,471,071 
 
 48'8,634 
 60,674,975 
 1,601,867 
 12,026,497 
 6,469,669 
 7,847,808 
 6,961,480 
 2,000,000 
 4,664,797 
 6,859,471 
 
 $8,455,196 
 2,424,145 
 
 497,809 
 6,088,086 
 
 2.30,684 
 87,472,108 
 
 2,207,682 
 22,804,159 
 15,985367 
 22,937,772 
 20,416,867 
 
 8,000,000 
 19,660,718 
 26,325,052 
 
 J $767,692 
 
 1 749.002 
 
 618;648 
 
 82,889 
 
 21,980 
 
 8,207,811 
 
 918,654 
 
 586,784 
 
 613,943 
 
 15,415 
 
 284,986 
 
 99,088 
 
 66,804 
 
 115,014 
 
 116,186 
 
 $266,417 
 
 294,234 
 
 214,620 
 
 51,358 
 
 56,119 
 
 1,784,412 
 
 49,040 
 
 108,985 
 
 507,606 
 
 8,45b 
 
 860,684 
 
 76,628 
 
 26,470 
 
 98,541 
 
 8,967 
 
 5,811 
 
 [$24,313,622 
 3,342,732 
 
 80V,667 
 17,654,107 
 
 ■ 67b'8i8 
 88,147,088 
 
 8,809,489 
 86,830,656 
 22,445,016 
 80,886,580 
 27,877,807. 
 
 6,000,000 
 24,126,510 
 81,184,523 
 
 J $1,083,989 
 
 t 1,048,286 
 
 883,168 
 
 98,747 
 
 78,099 
 
 4,992,228 
 
 962,694 
 
 689,769 
 
 1,121,464 
 
 18,870 
 
 646,670 
 
 174,716 
 
 92,774 
 
 218,565 
 
 8,967 
 
 121,996 
 
 Ohamplain N. T. 
 
 Oswegatchie " 
 
 Cape Vincent " 
 
 Saokett's Harbor " 
 
 Oswego " 
 
 Genesee " 
 
 Buffalo " 
 
 Presquo Isie. . . Penn 
 
 Onyahoga Ohio 
 
 Sandusky " 
 
 Miami " 
 
 Detroit Mich 
 
 
 Milwaukie../. Wis. 
 
 Chicago 111. 
 
 Total 
 
 $182,017,470 
 
 $182,465,988 
 
 $8,207,760 1 $3,912,147 
 
 $814,473,458 $12,119,877 
 
 Total coasting & for. trade . 
 
 
 .... 1 .... 1 .... ■ 
 
 $826,598,386 
 
 Mariiie Losses on the Lakes for the Year 1856. — The 
 - Report to the Board of Lake Underwriters is annually 
 published, showing the disasters and losses on the 
 lakes. The losses during 1856 are shown in the fol- 
 lowing summarj' : 
 
 Loss OP Pbopeett. 
 
 May steam and sail,. 
 
 June " '' " . 
 
 July, " " " . 
 
 August. " " " . 
 
 September " " " . 
 
 October " " " . 
 
 November " " " . 
 
 December " " " . 
 
 Total loss, steam and sail, in 1856. $3,088,874 
 " " " " " 1855. 2,797,839 
 
 Increased loss in 1866 $241,085 
 
 in 18.54 $2,187,825 
 
 1863 864,360 
 
 1862 991,016 
 
 1851 740,615 
 
 1860 644,440 
 
 5 on steam hulls 
 
 ' cargoes by steam. 
 
 616,800 
 
 Total loss by steam In 1866 $1,878,100 
 
 " " 1855 1,692,700 
 
 Decrease in 1856 $314,800 
 
 Loss on sail hulls $868,616 
 
 " cargoes by sail 697,099 
 
 Total loss by sail in 1866 $1,660,774 
 
 " " 1866 1,106,189 
 
 Increased loss in 1866 $565,6 
 
 Loss of life. 
 
 Loss of Life. 
 
 1854. 
 
 119 
 
 1865. 
 118 
 
 1866. 
 407 
 
 This shows an increase in the loss of life during the 
 past year over that of 1855 of 289. 
 
 The increased facilities for saving wrecked property 
 has lessened the actual amount of loss on property in 
 distress at least 25 per cent, during the past severe 
 season ; as the proportion of total losses to the whole 
 number of disasters will show when compared with 
 1855. 
 
 Synopsis of the Marine Kegister of the Board op Lake 
 Underwriters of Vessels in Commission on the 
 Lakes in the Fall of 1866. 
 
 Steamers.. 
 Propellers.. 
 
 Barks 
 
 Brigs 
 
 Schooners.. 
 Total.. 
 
 107 
 186 
 56 
 108 
 860 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 64,675 
 21,778 
 27,046 
 176,880 
 
 Cash Value. 
 
 $3,320,400 
 
 2,741,200 
 
 693,800 
 
 701,860 
 .'>,487,100 
 
 1,266 
 
 839,736 I $12,944,880 1 
 
 For Commerce of the Lakes, see South. Quar., xix., 
 420; South. Lit. Misc., ii. (JIadky) ; De Bow's Rei\, 
 vii., 279 ; Chris. Exam.., Ixix. ; Silliman's Joa?-., x., 83 
 (Agassiz) ; Hunt's Mag., viii. ; Am. Whig Rev., vi., 
 466 ; Andrews' Report on Colonial and Lake Trade. 
 
 Lamar, formerly Cobija, a sea-port of the repub- 
 lic of Bolivia, the ci-devant Upper Peru, on the west 
 coast of South America, lat. 22° 39' 30" S., long. 70° 
 12' W. Population 5000. In 1833 Lamar was de- 
 clared a free port, and in it centres almost the whole 
 foreign trade of the republic. Its situation is, how- 
 ever, very unfavorable. It labors under a great want 
 of fresh water ; and is obliged to import all its provisions 
 by sea, either from Valparaiso on the one hand, or 
 from Arica on the other. The Desert of Atacama 
 lies between it and the internal and populous part of 
 the country, where the towns of Potosi, Cochabamba, 
 Charcas, etc., are situated. The produce imported 
 at Lamar is conveyed across the desert on the backs 
 of mules to the interior ; the gold and silver of the 
 mines being brought in the same way to the port to be 
 shipped. These, with copper, saltpetre, chinchilla- 
 skins, and wool, form the principal articles of export. 
 Saltpetre is found in large quantities in the desert ; the 
 copper is found near the coast, and, owing to the scarcity 
 of fuel, most part of it is exported in the shape of ore. 
 Peru possesses a long narrow strip of land, stretching 
 along the coast of the Pacific from Arequipa to the 
 Baj' of Pica, which ought naturally to belong to Boli- 
 via, being, in fact, the littoral of the latter. The 
 Bolivian government has set on foot various negotia- 
 tions to obtain the cession of this tract, which, be- 
 sides greatly improving the frontier of the republic, 
 would, at the same time, render her mistress of Arica, 
 which is in all respects much better fitted than Lamar for 
 
LAM 
 
 1167 
 
 LAM 
 
 becoming the entrepot of trade. Hitherto, however, 
 these negotiations have proved abortive, so that, as 
 already stated, Lamar at present engrosses most part 
 of the foreign trade of the State. We subjoin the de- 
 cree constituting Lamar a free port : 
 
 1. From and after the Ist of July of this present year, 1833, 
 Port Lamar shall be absolutely free and open. 2. Vessels of 
 every nation may enter this port, and remain as long as they 
 please, without being subjected to any tax ■whatever, either 
 on entrance, or during their stay,*or on their departure. 8. 
 They shall be free from all duties of anchorage, tonnage, 
 shifting, unloading, or reloading of cargo, deppsit, storage, or 
 any other of whatever denomination. 4. Goods may be de- 
 posited in private warehouses, without any intervention on 
 the part of t\ie government. 5. The custom-house of Port 
 Lamar is suppressed. In its stead will be a commissioner's 
 office, for the purpose of distributing permits for the trans- 
 portation of goods into the interior. 6. Whenever goods are 
 to be Bent into the interior, they must first be submitted to 
 the commissioner, together with the invoice corresponding. 
 T. The commissioner will re^ster them in a book, to- 
 gether with their Taluatlon, made by two merchants of the 
 place, and the name of their owners, of the person to whom, 
 and the place where they are to he sent. This is to be signed 
 by the person entering the goods, who, at the same time, 
 binds himself to have them transported direct to the custom- 
 house for which they are destined, without opening any of 
 the cases, bags, or other envelops, each of which shall be 
 sealed, marked, and numbered before departure. These 
 points are to be expressed in the permit. 8. The commis- 
 sioner shall by the earliest post send a notice to the collector 
 of the custom-house for which any merchandise is destined, 
 specifying the numbers, characters, quantities, and qualities 
 of the several articles. 9. The goods must not be carried by 
 any unaccustomed roads, but only through Galama and the 
 public thoroughfares ; and whenever they pass through any 
 place at which a guard or commissioner is stationed, the per- 
 mits must he exhibited, in order that their arrival with their 
 seals unbroken may he ascertained. 10. Merchants, either in 
 person or by a representative, must produce to the commis- 
 sioner of the port a certificate of the delivery of the goods at 
 the custom-house for which they arc destined within six 
 months .from the day of their entry ; in case they do not, they 
 must at the end of that period pay the whole of the duties on 
 them. 11. From and after the 1st of July, 1838, all goods en- 
 tered at Port Lamar shall pay a duty of only 6 per cent, over 
 and above that of half per cent, to the consulado. 13, The 
 duty of 5 per cent, shall be paid thus: at the port, 2 per cent. 
 on the valuation made as aforesaid ; and the other 3 at the cus- 
 tom-house in the interior for which the goods are destined, 
 In each case, one half at the end of 3, the other half at the 
 end of 5 months. 13. All goods carried from Port Lamar by 
 land to any of the adjacent republics shall only pay a transit 
 duty of 2 per cent. 14. A duty of 2 per cent, shall be paid on 
 three fourths of all gold and silver money entered at any of 
 the custom-houses in the interior for exportation through 
 
 Port Lamar. 15. It is absolutely prohibited to export gold or 
 silver in bullion or plate, except in small quantities for the 
 use of the person carrying it out. It will be seized wherever 
 it is found on this side the districts of San Antonio, San Yin- 
 eente, Atoca, Agua, de Castilla, Lequapate, or the line of 
 the canaL 16. All hardware for agriculture and mining ma- 
 chinery, instruments of science or the arts, iron, steel, quick- 
 silver, and moral books, may be introduced free of duty into 
 the republic, and productions of Bolivia may be exported like- 
 wise free. 17. A premium of 2 per cent, on their value shall 
 be allowed on the exportation through Fort Lamar, of casca- 
 rllla, wool, tin, cocoa, and cpflfee, in the shape of remission 
 from 'duties to the amount on goods carrfed into the inte- 
 rior from the same port. The remaining articles of the De- 
 cree are of a purely local nature. See Bolivia and Pektt. 
 
 Lamb-skins (Ger. Lammsfelle ; Fr. Peaux d'agen- 
 eaux ; It. Pelli agndline ; Sp. Pielles de carderos). 
 The value of lamb-skins varies according to the fine- 
 ness, brilliancy and color of the wool. Black lamb- 
 skins are more generally esteemed than those of any 
 other color. English lamb-skins are seldom to be met 
 with perfectly black; but since the introduction of 
 Merino sheep into this country, many of the white 
 fleeces have, in point of quality, arrived at a pitch of 
 perfection which justly entitles them to be ranked with 
 some of the best fleeces in Spain. The importation of 
 lamb-skins is immense. Eight tenths of the whole 
 quantity are supplied by Italy. They are mostly used 
 in the glove manufacture. 
 
 Lamp (Ger. Lamps ; Fr. Lampe ; It. Lucerna ; Sp 
 Lanipara; Rus. Lam^adu% an instrument used for the 
 combustion of liquid inflammable bodies, for the pur- 
 pose of producing artificial light. Lamps are men- 
 tioned in all the early ages : they were in use in 
 Egypt, Greece, and Rome. The earthen lamp which 
 Epictetus the philosopher had in his study sold after 
 his death for 3000 drachmas, a. d. 161. Lamps with 
 horn sides were the invention of Alfred. Lamps were 
 in general use through the streets of London up to the 
 close of the 18th century, as were flambeaux, which 
 were carried by link-boys. London streets were first 
 lighted by oil-lamps in 1681, and with gas-lamps in 
 1814. The domestic lamp is now of elegant manufac 
 ture ; of this kind is the Argand lamp, brought into 
 general use in England in 1785. — Haydn. 
 
 It is unnecessarj' to give any description of instru- 
 ments that are BO well known. We may, however, re- 
 mark that the discovery of Sir H. Davj', who, by 
 covering the flame with wire gauze, succeeded in pro- 
 ducing a lamp that may be sechrely used in coal mines 
 charged with inflammable gas, is one of the most in- 
 genious and valuable that has ever been made. The 
 following extracts from a communication of the late 
 Mr. Buddie, an able and well-informed coal engineer, 
 evinces the great importance of Sir Humphrey Davy's 
 invention : ** Besides the facilities aflforded by this in- 
 vention to the working of coal mines abounding in fire- 
 damp, it has enabled the directors and superintendent 
 to ascertain, with the utmost precision and expedition 
 both the presence, the quantity, and correct situation 
 of the gas. Instead of creeping inch by inch with a 
 candle, as is usual, along the galleries of the mine 
 suspected to contain fire-damp, in order to ascer- 
 tain its presence, we walk firmly on with the safe 
 lamps, and, with the utmost confidence, prove the ac- 
 tual state of the mine. By observing attentively the 
 several appearances upon the flame of the lamp, in an 
 examination of this kind, the cause of accidents which 
 happened to the most experienced and cautious miners 
 is completely developed ; and this has hitherto been 
 in a great measure matter of mere conjecture. It is 
 not necessary that I should enlarge upon the natural 
 advantages which must necessarily result from an in- 
 vention calculated to prolong our supply of mineral 
 coal, because I think them obvious to every reflecting 
 mind ; but I can not conclude without expressing my 
 highest sentiments of admiration for those talents 
 which have developed the properties and controlled 
 the power of one of the most dangerous elements 
 which human enterprise has hitherto had to en- 
 counter," 
 
 The lamps now used for light-houses are highly in- 
 genious, and beautiful. In the first place, it is neces- 
 sarj' to distinguish between two systems — ^the catoptric 
 and the dioptric — ^the former depending on the reflec- 
 tion of light from a mirror, and the latter on the 
 transmission of light through a lens. If a large lamp 
 were placed on the top of a light-house, with glass 
 roof and'windows all around it, the light would shine 
 in every direction, losing its intensity by being so 
 much diffused ; but by the use either of mirrors 
 or of lenses, all the light is concentrated to one defi- 
 nite direction; its energy is increased by being cir- 
 cumscribed in range. In the catoptric sj^stem, nu- 
 merous concave reflectors are placed at definite angles 
 round a central lamp : they are of silvered copper, and 
 are kept exquisitely bright ; and they all contrive to 
 reflect the rays out seaward, without allowing any to 
 waste their power landward. The dioptric system in- 
 volves the use of powerful convex lenses, through 
 which the raj^s are focalized in a definite direction. 
 If very large, these lenses would be difficult to make 
 and costly to purchase ; but it has been shown by 
 Brewster and Fresnel, that a compound lens may be 
 built up of a number of pieces, provided the curvatures 
 are well adjusted. Around thousands of miles of coast, 
 
LAN 
 
 1168 
 
 LAN 
 
 where the annual wrecks are from 700 to 800, and the 
 propertj' lost amounts to millions sterling, the light- 
 houses have passed through many stages of efficiency. 
 First there was the large coal fire used on the summits 
 of open buildings, then the old-fashioned oil lamps, or 
 sometimes wax candles, with a looking-glass reflector 
 behind ; then the more brightly-burning Argand lamp, 
 with concave metallic reflectors behind ; then the con- 
 vex lens, to focalize tlie rays by transmission ; and 
 then the lens built up piecemealj so that the light may 
 appear almost as one vast luminous pillar. See Light- 
 Houses. 
 
 Lamp-black (Ger. Kienruss ; Fr. Noir de fumee, 
 Nero di/umOj Negro-fume^ Negro de huno'). The finest 
 lamp-black is produced b}'' collecting the smoke from a 
 lamp with a long wick, which supplies more oil than 
 can be perfect!}'- consumed, or by suffering the flame 
 to play against a metalline cover, which impedes the 
 combustion, not only by conducting off parts of the 
 heat, but b}^ obstructing the current of air. Lamp- 
 black, however, is prepared in a much cheaper way 
 for the demands of trade. The dregs which remain 
 after the eliquation of pitch, or else small pieces of 
 fir-wood, are burned in furnaces of a peculiar construc- 
 tion, the smoke of which is made to pass through a 
 long horizontal flue, terminating in a close boarded 
 chamber. The roof of this chamber is made of coarse 
 cloth, through which the current of air escapes, while 
 the soot remains. — XJre's Dictionary. 
 
 Laud, in sea language, makes part of several com- 
 pound terms ; thus, laying the land, denotes that motion 
 of a ship which increases its distance from the coast, so 
 as to make it appear lower or smaller on account of the 
 intermediate convexity of the sea. liaising the land^ 
 is produced by the motion of the vessel toward it. 
 Land is shut in, signifies that another part of the land 
 hinders the sight of that the ship came from. Land to, 
 or so far from shore that it can only be just discerned. 
 Land turn, a wind that in almost all hot countries 
 blows at certain times from the shore in the night. 
 To set the land; that is, to see by the compass how it 
 bears. Land-breeze, a current of air, which in man}' 
 parts within the tropics, particularly in the West In- 
 dies, regularly sets from the land toward the sea dur- 
 ing the night, and this even on opposite points of the 
 coast. Land-locked, is said of a harbor which is envi- 
 roned by land on all sides, so as to exclude the prospect 
 of the sea, unless over some intervening land. If a 
 ship is at anchor in such a place, she is said to ride land- 
 locked, and is therefore considered to be safe from the 
 violence of winds and tides. To malce the land, is to dis- 
 cover it after having been out of sight of it for some 
 time. Land-mark; any mountain, rock, steeple, or the 
 like, near the sea-side, which serves to direct ships 
 passing by how to steer so as to avoid certain danger- 
 ous rocks, shoals, whirlpools, etc. 
 
 Lands, Public. Grants of public land to certain 
 States for railroads, made at the last session of the 
 34th Congress, 1855-'6 : — To Iowa, a grant of the al- 
 ternate sections designated by odd numbers, for six 
 miles in width on each side of certain railroads named 
 in the act ; and, in case any of such sections shall have 
 been sold, or become subject to pre-emption, then the 
 limit of selection is extended to fifteen miles on each 
 side, to make up the deficiency so caused. The alter- 
 nate sections remaining to the United States within 
 six miles on each side not to be sold for less than 
 double the minimum price of other public lands — 
 $1 25 per acre. Troops and other property of the 
 United States to be transported free upon the rail- 
 roads — mails to be carried at such rates as Congress 
 may prescribe, and, until so fixed, at such rates as 
 the Postmaster- General may allow. 
 
 At the second session of the same Congress, 1856-7, 
 a like grant was made to Minnesota and to Alabama. 
 The quantity of land granted in each case is over 3000 
 lores per mile of railway. 
 
 In the first grant made to Alabama, there does not 
 seem to be any increase of the price of the sections re- 
 tained by the United States, that provision of the law 
 not being fairly construable as one of the terms or con- 
 ditions of the grant. In all these grants, it will be 
 observed, the States are authorized to make their se- 
 lections as far as fifteen miles on each side of everj' 
 railroad, while the increase in the minimum gov- 
 ernment price of the retained lands is confined to 
 the six mile limit. The public lands, in all the above- 
 named States, particularly in Iowa, Alabama, Missis- 
 sippi, Louisiana, Wisconsin, and Michigan, having 
 been sold or pre-empted to a great extent, it is mani- 
 fest that the selections for all the named railroads will 
 range, more or less, to the maximum limit of 15 miles 
 on each side of them. The increase in the minimum 
 price, therefore, does not apply in a width of nine 
 miles on each side. This seems to give up the argu- 
 ment that the only consideration which moved Con- 
 gress to make these grants was such as would actuate 
 any large holder of unoccupied land to give away part 
 to enhance the value of the residue ; for if the laud is 
 not improved in value for the full extent of the 15 
 miles, what right have Congress to make such a grant 
 for such a reason ? 
 
 The immense donations of public land made of late 
 years by Congress to corporations within the new 
 States, have awakened the attention of the people of 
 the old States to the subject, and of "Virginia, especially, 
 where the burden of taxation for internal improve- 
 ments has been greatly increased. It strikes us, 
 therefore, that a brief recurrence to the history and 
 conditions of the tenure of the public domain may be 
 of general interest at this time. 
 
 At the commencement of the Revolutionary War, 
 there belonged to some of the States large tracts of 
 wild and unappropriated lands, while in others none 
 such existed; the States possessing no such lands, 
 claimed that as the war was waged with united means 
 and equal sacrifices, the waste lands which might be 
 conquered from the enemy should become common 
 propert}', and, under the recommendations of Con- 
 gress, 10th October, 1780, " that the unappropriated 
 lands which might be ceded to the United States, by 
 anj' particular State, pursuant to the recommendation 
 of Congress of the 5th of September last, shall be dis- 
 posed of for the common benefit of the United States." 
 
 Virginia promptly made a cession of her vast do- 
 main north of the River Ohio, out of which six States 
 have since been formed. The condition of her cession 
 (adopted substantially by other States) was, that all 
 the lands conveyed " shall be considered as a common 
 fund for the use and benefit of such of the United 
 States as have become or shall become members of the 
 confederacy or federal alliance of the said States, Vir- 
 ginia inclusive, according to their usual respective 
 proportions in the general charge and expenditure, 
 and shall be faithfully and bond fide disposed of for 
 that purpose, and for no other use or purpose whatever." 
 Thus were the lands ceded, accepted, and held in iT^st. 
 How they have since been disposed of, in total disre- 
 gard of the conditions of the trust, the historj' of the 
 country tells in the annals of Congressional legisla- 
 tion. 
 
 In disregard of the plain obligations of the trust, 
 President Jackson, in the early days of his adminis- 
 tration, proposed to cede the lands thus acquired, and 
 all subsequently purchased, to the States in which 
 they lie, gratuitously, or for a nominal price. 
 
 To counteract this movement, which at that time 
 met with no favor in Congress, but which has since 
 been substantially adopted in the system of partial 
 grants, Mr, Clay introduced his well-known distribu- 
 tion bill, which was passed by Congress on the 2d day 
 of March, 1833, by a vote of 24 to 20 in the Senate, 
 and 96 to 40 in the House of Representatives. This 
 [ bill President Jackson refused to approve, and it did 
 
LAN 
 
 1169 
 
 LAN 
 
 not become a law, the popular will, as indicated by 
 the vote of the Hons^, to the contrary notwithstand- 
 ing. Some of the western members did not hesitate 
 to avow the purpose of eventually appropriating to 
 the States in which they lie all the public lands, and 
 one of the most eminent of them declared that, after 
 the census of 1820, the power to do so would be irre- 
 sistible. The fulfillment of this menace is almost com- 
 plete, and after the census of 1860 the old States will 
 be utterly powerless unless they unite cordially for 
 their common protection. 
 
 The whole amount of money which would have 
 gone into the Treasury of Virginia, under the pro- 
 visions of Mr. Clay's land bill from 1832 to 1839, a 
 period of seven years, would have been $4,369,169, or 
 for e,ich year, $728,194. 
 
 Statement op tub Aeeas op the several Pdblio Land, States and Territories op the IT. S., the 
 op Land disposed of, and the Quantity remaining vacant, on the SOtii op June, 1866. 
 
 On September 4, 1841, an act was passed to appro- 
 priate the proceeds of the sales of the public lands 
 among the several States. The first section provided 
 that from and after the 31st of December, 1841, there 
 should " be allowed and paid to each of the States of 
 Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Alabama, Missouri, Missis- 
 sippi, Louisiana, Arkansas, and Michigan, over and 
 above what each of the said States is entitled to by 
 the terms of the compacts entered into between them 
 and the United States, upon their admission into the 
 Union, the sum of ten per centum upon the nett pro- 
 ceeds of the sales of the public lands, which, subse- 
 quent to the day aforesaid, shall be made within the 
 limits of each of said States respectively." We give 
 below a statement^ showing the quantities of public 
 land disposed of, and also the quantities vacant. 
 
 Quantity 
 
 Stutes and Territories. 
 
 Surveyed 
 
 J)p to 
 
 June 80, 
 
 1856. 
 
 Unaurvuyod, 
 
 Offered for 
 Sale. 
 
 IlESKRTATIONS FOK— 
 
 Salines. 
 
 iDdions. 
 
 Companies, 
 individuals, & 
 corporAtlons, 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Missouri 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Mississippi... 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 Florida 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Wisconsin . . . 
 California.... 
 Minnesota. . . 
 
 Oregon 
 
 Washington.. 
 New Mexico. 
 
 Utah 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 Kansas 
 
 Indian 
 
 Total 
 
 So. mlleB,] 
 
 89,964 
 
 83,809 
 
 56,410 
 
 66,087 
 
 +60,948 
 
 t87,827 
 
 ■41,346 
 
 66,451 
 
 62,198 
 
 59,268 
 
 56,080 
 
 68^924 
 
 188,980 
 
 141,889 
 
 186,920 
 
 126,647 
 
 246,984 
 
 187,923 
 
 842,488 
 
 126,288 
 
 67,020 
 
 AcrCf.. 
 
 *25,878. 
 
 *21,68T: 
 
 85,462; 
 
 41,608 
 
 +82,021 
 
 +2,3,895, 
 
 26,461, 
 
 86,128, 
 
 88,406, 
 
 87,981 
 
 86,891, 
 
 84,611, 
 
 120,947, 
 
 90,776,! 
 
 119.683,1 
 
 80;990,( 
 
 168,037, 
 
 120,270: 
 
 219,160, 
 
 80,82 
 
 42,892,1 
 
 ,960 
 760 
 ,400 
 ,680 
 ,62081, 
 
 Acres, 
 
 16,770,984 
 21,487,760 
 35,462,400 
 41,590,898 
 ,998,818 
 23,895,680 
 24,022,272 
 36,168,640 
 8!i,279,008 
 25,292,062 
 88,816,480 
 27,834,391 
 10,921,401 
 10,675,188 
 8,987,679 
 617,720 
 
 220,877 
 
 179,189 
 
 1,572,690 
 
 Acres, 
 
 Acres. 
 16,770,984 
 24,487,760 
 85.464,262 
 24,78241,186,664 
 88,70781,908,288 
 28,892,677, 
 19,281,161 
 84,115,710 
 32,618,409 
 18,876,615 
 28,560,514 
 24,181,412 
 
 2,489,163 
 
 127,712 
 12,689,458 
 1,820,720 
 7,176,969 
 110,026,489 
 80,101,827 
 116,691,121 
 80,872,860 
 168,037,760 
 120,050,843 
 218,981,181 
 79,248,480 
 42,892,800 
 
 . 2,21.5,752 1,418,081.280 
 
 2,608,710 
 
 Acres. 
 
 12,820,890-98 
 16,090,860-87 
 19,060,890-69 
 16,891,887-07 
 16,688,228-84 
 11,847,267-81 
 4,328,198-80 
 11,117,714-66 
 4,486,621-85 
 l,682,29e -- 
 10,908,607-46 
 
 1,682,087-67 
 
 28,484-69 
 
 495-76 
 
 Acres. 
 24,216 
 28,040 
 121,629 
 48,080 
 28,040 
 
 46,080 
 46,080 
 
 46,680 
 46,080 
 
 Acres, 
 
 16.880-73 
 126,220-71 
 48,989-69 
 22,587-61 
 2,642,378-82 
 277,612-04 
 
 109,800-88 
 
 227-49 
 119,188 84 
 187,894-27 
 
 Acres. 
 
 8,806,976-00 
 149,10200 
 
 805-76 
 10,880-00 
 
 1 184,800,180-31 
 
 422,825| 3,400,725-53 8,966,263-75J 
 
 Statement op the Areas op the several Publio Land States and Territories, 
 
 POSED OP, AND TIIK QUANTITY REMAINING VACANT, ON THE SOtH OP JUNE, 
 
 THE Quantity op Land dis- 
 1866.— OofiMrmed. 
 
 StiltosandTonitorlOB 
 
 BONATIONB AND GBANTfl FOR— 
 
 (Confirmed 
 private 
 
 Swamp 
 lands. 
 
 Vacant pablic 
 lands. 
 
 Schools and 
 
 Deaf and 
 
 Dumb 
 Asylums. 
 
 Internal 
 
 Rallroada. 
 
 Individuals 
 
 and 
 rompanies. 
 
 Seats Gov. 
 and public 
 buildines. 
 
 Military 
 Services. 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Acres. 
 
 727,528 
 
 678.867 
 
 1,001,795 
 
 1,222,179 
 
 926,804 
 
 830,624 
 
 882,124 
 
 1,113,478 
 
 932,640 
 
 964,582 
 
 951,224 
 
 1,004,714 
 
 6,765,404 
 
 5,089,244 
 
 6,692,124 
 
 4,645,529 
 
 8.826,956 
 
 6,681,777 
 
 12,175,668 
 
 4,460,062 
 
 Acres. 
 
 21,949-46 
 
 2,097-43 
 20,924-22 
 
 Acres. 
 
 1,248,001-77 
 
 1,609,861-61 
 500,000-00 
 600,000-00 
 600,000-00 
 500,000-00 
 600,000-00 
 
 1,260,000-00 
 
 500,00r;-00 
 
 500.000-00 
 
 tl,366,M3-22 
 
 1,069,371 99 
 500,000-00 
 
 § 840,000-00 
 
 Acres, 
 
 2,595,658 
 1,815,184 
 2,854,248 
 1,664,540 
 1,091,640 
 1,269,520 
 1,681,911 
 1,328,280 
 2,748,660 
 1,201,920 
 
 Acres. 
 
 32,141-24 
 848-44 
 964-64 
 
 1,981-63 
 15,966-81 
 
 8,412 98 
 
 4,080 00 
 189,866-26 
 52,114-00 
 18,276-86 
 
 6,705-82 
 
 Acres. 
 
 2,560 
 2,660 
 2,660 
 1,620 
 1,280 
 
 18,266 
 10,600 
 6,240 
 8,840 
 6,400 
 
 Acres. 
 
 1,824,428-96 
 
 1,281,886-61 
 
 9,597,050-68 
 
 8,041,778-20 
 
 1,014,244-95 
 
 244,068-21 
 
 688,190-30 
 
 1,922,068-59 
 
 1,744,693-16 
 
 402,839-81 
 
 10.929,688-80 
 
 8,942,087-17 
 
 1,818,020-00 
 
 Acres. 
 28,460 
 829,881 
 183,902 
 
 1,862,466 
 218,387 
 688,088 
 
 2,092,914 
 126,711 
 118,451 
 
 8,739,789 
 
 86,881 
 
 Acres. 
 
 1.32,428 
 
 11,816,199 
 
 tl,883,418 
 
 1 8,368,458 
 
 12,696 
 
 1.8,768,824 
 
 1110,580,676 
 
 I 7,173,725 
 
 II 8,401,680 
 110,790,787 
 
 II 1,499,716 
 1 2,860,000 
 
 Acres. 
 
 48,553 
 
 86,807 
 
 511,663 
 
 13,875,021 
 
 8,283,088 
 
 5,542,881 
 
 6,444,294 
 
 11,882,778 
 
 16,443,930 
 
 18,568,183 
 
 7,688,596 
 
 15,643,439 
 
 113,682,486 
 
 82,592,608 
 
 112,918,241 
 
 76,444,055 
 
 149,210,804 
 
 118,689,018 
 
 206,934,747 
 
 76,861,058 
 
 42,892,800 
 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Missouri 
 
 Alabama. 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 Florida 
 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 California 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 Oregon 
 
 Washington 
 
 New Mexico — 
 Utah 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 Indian 
 
 Total 
 
 66,486,572 
 
 44,971-11| 10,878,988-5918,190,806279,792-071 50,330 | 87,826,099-888,928,903 
 
 49,787,858; 1,077,988,6851 
 
 * Includes reserves under deeds of cession. + Exclusive of Chiclcasaw cession. 
 
 ± Includes tho quantity of 641,625 acres of the Des Moines Eiver Grant above the Baccoou Fork. 
 § Is the estimate of the Des Moines River Grant, within this Territory. 
 I Reported by the State's authorities. \ Estimated. 
 
 Land--waiter, an officer of the English custom- 
 house, whose duty it is, upon landing any merchan- 
 dise, to taste, weigh, measure, or otherwise examine 
 the various articles, etc., and" to take an account of" 
 the same. They are likewise stj-led searchers, and 
 are to attend, and join with, the patent searchers, in 
 execution of all cockets for the shipping of goods to be 
 exported to foreign parts ; and', in cases where draw- 
 backs or bounties are to be paid to the merchant on 
 4£ 
 
 the exportation? of any goods, they, as well as the pat- 
 ent searchers, are to certify the shipping thereof on 
 the debentures. 
 
 Laniard, or Lanyard (from Lanier, Fr.), a short 
 piece of cord or line fastened to several machines in a 
 ship, and serving to secure them in a particular place, 
 or to manage them more conveniently. Such are the 
 lanyards of the gun-port, the lanyard of the buoy, the 
 lanyard of the cat-hook, and others. The principal 
 
LAP 
 
 1170 
 
 LAP 
 
 lanj'ards used in a ship, however, are those employed 
 to, extendithe shrouds and stays of the masts by their 
 communication with>the~dead eyes, so as to form a sort 
 of mephanical power resembling that of a tackle. These 
 lanyards are fixed in the dead-eyes as follows : one 
 end of the lanyards is thrust through one of the holes 
 of the upper dead-ej-e, and then knotted to prevent it 
 from drawing out ; the other is then passed through 
 one of the holes in the lower dead-eye, whence return- 
 ing upward, it is inserted through the second hole in 
 the upper dead-eye, and next through the second hole 
 in the lower dead-eye, and finally through the third 
 hole of both dead-ej'es. The end of the lanyard be- 
 ing then directed upward from the lowest dead-eye, is 
 stretched as stiff as possible by the application of 
 tackles ; and that the several parts of it may slide 
 with more facility'- through the holes of the dead-eyes, 
 it is well smeared with hog's-lard or tallow, so that 
 the strain is immediately communicated to all the 
 turns at once. 
 
 , La Perouse, a celebrated French navigator. His 
 first voyage was commenced in 1785, when Perouse 
 sailed from France for the Pacific with the Boussole 
 and Astrolabe under his command. The last direct 
 intelligence received from him was from Botany Bay, 
 in March, 1788. Several expeditions were subse- 
 quently dispatched in searcli of Perouse, but no certain 
 information was had until Captain Dillon, of the East 
 India ship Research^ ascertained that the French ships 
 had been cast away on two different islands of the New 
 Hebrides — a fate authenticated hy various articles of the 
 wreck of these vessels, which Captain Dillon brought 
 with him to Calcutta, April 9, 1828, 40 years afterward. 
 Lapidary, a name given to the artist or artisan 
 whose business it is to cut, grind, and polish gems, small 
 stones, etc., for the purposes of jewelrj--, and also for 
 mineralbgical specimens. The name, derived from 
 lapidarius, pertaining to stones (from lapis^ a. stone), 
 would seem to include the various modes of worldng 
 or finishing stones in general ; the technical use of the 
 word, however, is limited as above noticed. 
 Lapis Lazuli. See Ultramarine. 
 Lapland, the most northerly country of Europe, 
 is bounded north by the Arctic Ocean, south by Swe- 
 den, east hy the White Sea, and west by Norway and 
 the Atlantic Ocean. Its limits are not very accu- 
 rately laid down by geographers ; but it seems to be 
 divided from the rest of Scandinavia by a line nearly 
 corresponding with the polar circle, in latitude Q^'^ 
 32', and is consequently almost entirely an arctic 
 region. North Cape, its most northerlj^ point, is sit- 
 uated in N. lat. 71° 10' 15", consequently its length 
 from north to south, is about 330 miles, and not 500, as 
 is usuall}' stated. From Cape Orlov, on the White 
 Sea, to the Atlantic on the west, it extends about 700 
 miles 5 but besides this continental territory', there are 
 a vast number of islands, which are included in the 
 general name of Lapland. The whole country is di- 
 vided into three parts, called Russian, Swedish, and 
 Norwegian Lapland or Finmark, and is recognized by 
 the Swedes and Norwegians by the name of Lapmark, 
 marh signifying, both in Swedish and Norse, land or 
 tract of country. The very early writers, however, 
 do not notice any country under the name of Lapmark, 
 while Finmark is alluded to, though not with such 
 clearness as would admit of our defining the exact ex- 
 tent of country which went by that appellation. It 
 has been conjectured that, in former ages, the parts of 
 the north now known by the names of Swedish and 
 Russian Lapland were distinguished as Russian and 
 Swedish Finmark previously to the period when the 
 Finns obtained the name of Lapper, or Laplanders. 
 
 Finmark, which forms the most northern part of 
 this wild and extensive territory, constitutes one ex- 
 tremity of the kingdom of Norway, to which it now 
 belongs, though doubtless in ancient times it was a 
 separate kingdom, governed by its own sovereigns. 
 
 Its present boundary on the west is Loppen, the first 
 island in Finmark, and which forms a line between it 
 and the Nordlands, a part of Norway sometimes erro- 
 neously confounded with Lapland. On the north- 
 west and north-east it is washed by the Polar Ocean, 
 while to the east it is bordered by Russian Lapland, 
 which also, with Nordland, bounds it to the south — 
 the boundary line between the two countries being the 
 River Tana. Its extent from north to south — that is, 
 from the borders of Russian Lapland to the North 
 Cape — is nearly three degrees of latitude ; its greatest 
 breadth being from west to east, namely, from the 
 western side of Faroe to the coast above Waranger, 
 near the borders of Russian Lapland. At the eastern 
 extremity of Finmark there is a considerable tract, to 
 which both Norway and Russia lay claim. It lies 
 between the acknowledged boundaries of each of these 
 powers, and being now considered as neutral ground, 
 is free to the Laplander of both countries to hunt and 
 fish in. This district extends a little to the westward 
 of Bugefiord, stretching nearly south to the Enara 
 Lake, where it bends to the east, and afterward to the 
 N.E., where it joins the coast. Russian Lapland lies, 
 to the south and east of the debatable ground above 
 mentioned. The river Muonio,%hich for a consider-' 
 able portion of its early course receives the name of 
 the Kongamaelf, constitutes the boundary between 
 Sweden and Russia. The circle of Kola, and the 
 northern part of eastern Kemi, constituted at one 
 time Russian Lapland; but, by subsequent treaties, 
 two extensive districts, all the Lapmark of western 
 Kemi, and the greater part of the Lapmark of Torneo, 
 have been ceded to Russia. Thus nearly two thirds 
 of the regions inhabited by the Laplanders are included 
 in the dominions of the Emperor of Russia. Swedish 
 Lapland, the most southerly division, occupies the in- 
 terior part of the country to the west of the River 
 Torneo — the maritime district of Nordland, a portion 
 of Norwaj^, being situated between it and the North 
 Sea. How much of the northern part of Sweden is 
 entitled to be called Swedish Lapland, it is impossible 
 to say. If the arctic circle be taken as the boundary 
 line, onl}' that portion of Sweden called North Both- 
 nia can be considered as belonging to Lapland ; but 
 Pitea Lapmark and Umea Lapmark are sometimes 
 mentioned as forming part of the latter country, and 
 these are situated in West Bothnia. The cause of 
 error may be traced to the circumstance of these no- 
 madic tribes frequentlj'' inhabiting, at least for a por- > 
 tion of the j'-ear, districts of countrj' far down in the - 
 interior of Sweden and Norwaj"-. Thus, in the latter ' 
 countr)', the Roraas Mountains, situated between 
 Christiania and Drontheim, are inhabited, during 
 summer at least, by a family of Laplanders, with the 
 never-failing herd of reindeer. But the exact bound- 
 ary line is not ^ery material, as it has reference only 
 to different portions of a tract of country which is 
 under one government. , 
 
 There are numerous lakes and rivers in Lapland. Of , 
 the latter, several take their rise in the Koelin Mount- 
 ains, and flow in various directions into the Atlantic 
 Ocean or the Gulf of Bothnia. The principal rivers of ; 
 the country are the Tana or Tama, which takes a north- : 
 eastern course through Finmark, and empties itself into 
 a bay or sound of the same name ; the Alten or Alata, 
 which is verj' rapid, forcing its way through the 
 mountains of Finmark in a north-westerly direction, 
 empties itself into a bay of the same name ; the Torneo, 
 which issues from a lake so named, and, after being 
 enlarged by a number of streams uniting in one chan- 
 nel and running nearlj' due south through a long 
 course, falls into the northorn extremity of the Both- 
 nian Gulf at Torneo ; and the Muonio, which rises 
 from the Killpis Jaure, at the foot of the alpine chain 
 of Norway, is a considerable stream, and constitutes the 
 boundary line between Sweden and Russia, till it 
 unites with the River Torneo, when the latter marks the 
 
LAP 
 
 1171 
 
 LAP 
 
 limits of either country in this quarter. There are 
 also other rivers which take their rise in Lapland, and 
 fall into the Gulf of Bothnia, such as the Lulea, Pitea, 
 Kalix, and others. In Russian Lapland there are 
 several considerable streams, but these have not been 
 so well defined, nor has this part of Lapland been so 
 fully described as the others. The K^tnt takes its rise 
 among the Kemi Mountains, situated near the centre 
 of the country, and flows into the Gulf of Bothnia. 
 It has many imposing cataracts, of which the Taival 
 Kosht^ or the fall of the heavens, is the only one which 
 the adventurous boatmen never attempt to cross. The 
 Passe, or holy stream, is the outlet of the great lake 
 Enara, flowing thence to the Arctic Ocean. The east- 
 ern declivities of Russian Lapland are Watered by the 
 Panoi; which discharges itself into the White Sea. 
 The Tuloma falls from a great height, enters the Lake 
 Kola, which name it afterward takes, and falls into 
 Kola Bay, on the Arctic Ocean. Beside these, there 
 are numerous other rivers which traverse the country 
 in various directions, and either give rise to lakes, or 
 issue from them. 
 
 Fishery. — The coast Laplanders support themselves 
 entirely by the fishery; which is astonisllingly pro- 
 ductive, 2000 pounds' weight of cod-fish being caught 
 in a day bj' means of lines alone. From the great 
 number of small Russian vessels which frequent the 
 coast at certain seasons, thej' find a ready sale for the 
 fruits of their industry, receiving in exchange chiefly 
 meal, brandy, tobacco, and the like. AVhales are 
 abundant, particularly what is called the fin whale, 
 which is long, active, swimming with great strength 
 and speed, and consequently difficult to capture. 
 
 Manufactures. — In their manual arts and manufac- 
 tures, that is, maldng the various utensils which their 
 mode of life requires, the Laps display some ingenuity. 
 Their sledges and canoes are verj' strongly and closely 
 put together, so as to be entirely impervious to water. 
 They tan hides with the first inner bark of the birch, 
 make strong cordage and thread of the sinews of the 
 reindeer, weave coverings for their tents, knit gloves, 
 fashion wooden utensils for domestic purposes ; and 
 the women prepare the skins of foxes, fawns, otters, 
 and other animals for sale, by stripping off the mem- 
 braneous parts, and curing them with fish-oil. 
 
 Russian Lapland begins at the Waranger Fiord, un- 
 der N. lat. 70, and extends as far as the White Sea. 
 Admiral Litke, in surveying its northern coast, in the- 
 years 1822-3, has noted down many interesting par- 
 ticulars, from which we derive the following notes : 
 
 It may appear stirprising, but it is nevertheless true, 
 that this coast, navigated for three centuries by the 
 first maritime nations, was, before Admiral Litke's 
 survey, less known to us than many of the most dis- 
 tant and uninhabited parts of the globe. Vessels 
 trading to Archangel had, for a long time, only the 
 Zeefakel of the Dutch for a guide. Litke, June, 1822, 
 began his survey of the Lapland coast at Cape Orlov, 
 in about N. lat. 67°. This, the eastern extremity of 
 Russian Lapland, consists of high, steep, and bare 
 rocks. Near Sviatoi Nos (in N. lat. 68°) the coast has 
 an inviting appearance ; the south side of the islands, 
 or indentations, being covered with beautiful turf, 
 wild leek, and a number of strawberries, but there 
 were no bushes. On the main shore, however, were 
 seen low dwarf birch and juniper bushes, and numer- 
 ous tracks of reindeer. During summer, as Admiral 
 Litke was here informed, there is no land route through 
 Lapland ; and all who are then necessitated to travel 
 — as, for example, clergjTnen, the judges, or officers 
 of judicial courts, etc. — pass by sknakes along the 
 shore, bj' stations, from Kola, round the whole penin- 
 sula, as far as Kandalaksha, in the extreme north- 
 eastern point of the White Sea. Between Kandalak- 
 sha, however, and Kola, they manage to travel in the 
 usual manner. A little to the west of Sviatoi Nos is 
 the mouth of the Yukanka River, which is navigable 
 
 for three to four sea miles up, when rapids commence, 
 and prevent navigation, even for small boats. On the 
 left bank of this river lies a Lopar villagej called the 
 Yukanka Lodge : for all places of the Lopares, both 
 for summer and winter residence, are called by the 
 Russians pagosti (lodges). 
 
 About 30 miles north-west from Yukanka is Chemi 
 Nos, or Black Cape ; and near it, Noknev Island — in 
 earlier charts, called Nagel, or Nagol. Here Admiral 
 Litke found that the needle showed no variation. On 
 the main shore, near Noknev Island, the principal 
 fishes CElught are salmon, bib, paltus, anipiksha. The 
 peshcfuinka (sand-eel) is caught in a remarkable man- 
 ner. Some time before ebb, the Lopares set about dig- 
 ging up the wet sand close above the strand line ; with 
 almost every step they dig out such a fish, to which, 
 however, they must not allow a second's time, aa oth- 
 erwise it would be sure to dig itself in again, and es- 
 cape. As soon as they perceive it, therefore,- they 
 seize it with a handful of sand, and throw it violentlj' 
 on the ground. The fish; thus stunned, are collected 
 in baskets or casks. It is strange that this fish is 
 found only at ebb during the day, and never at n^ht. 
 The people of this place had also some sheep, whici 
 had abundant food in the adjoining pastures. 
 
 The chief island on the coast of Russian Lapland is 
 Kildin — not Kilduin, as the Dutch call it — and lies 11 
 miles east from the month of the Kola Bay. It is 9 
 miles long, and IJ to 3J miles broad. Its shores are 
 high and precipitous on the north side, and terminate 
 abruptly in a perpendicular rock on the west, while on 
 the south-east side it slopes down gently to the sea. 
 The appearance of the south coast is most peculiar, 
 rising as it does in four most regular terraces, fdrming 
 an amphitheatre of 500 feet in height, with a flat, 
 table-like top. This coast is everj'where clothed with 
 the richest verdure, forming a most striking contrast 
 with the bare granite crags on the main shore.- The 
 isLind consists of primary slate, and thus differs from 
 both the islands and the main shore to the south-east- 
 ward, which show only granite. 
 
 Kola, the capital of Russian Lapland, is situate at 
 the confluence of the Rivers Kola and Tuloma, about 
 30 miles from the sea. As determined by Mr. Rasu- 
 mowski, who, in the last century, observed in this 
 place the transit of Venus over the sun, the latitude 
 of the city is 689 52', the longitude 33° 1' east from 
 Greenwich. It appears that Kola was founded long 
 before 1533, as English and other mariners traded 
 already about the middle of the 16th century to Kola 
 as to a well-known place. It was at first only a wo- 
 lash (capital of a district), became under Peter the 
 Great an osirog (fortified place), and since the founda- 
 tion of the stadtholdership, the capital of a govern- 
 ment. The place extends 530 fathoms along the River 
 Kola, and 175 fathoms along the River Tuloma. Ex- 
 cept a church built of stone, all the houses are of 
 wood. The streets are paved with planks. On the 
 bank of the Kola, near the centre of the town, lies a 
 wooden fort, being a square with five towers : since 
 the rupture with England, in the year 1800, the can- 
 non of this fort were removed to the priory of Solowez, 
 in order to put the latter in a state of defense ; and 
 since then, the walls of the fort serve only as a fence 
 for the cathedral, and the towers are transformed into 
 storehouses. The number of inhabitants of both 
 sexes was estimated by Litke, in 1822, at about 800, 
 but recent official data show that it was, in 1849, only 
 6i2. The officials and merchants of Kola live in a 
 style varying little from that of the capital. In ex- 
 ternal appearance. Kola is that of a clean town ; and 
 the houses, consisting frequently of two floors, are 
 neat. The view of the town from the north-east is 
 most charming ; it stands on a high and abrupt bank, 
 from which a wide plain extends, bordered on three 
 sides by high hills. The principal trade of Kola is in 
 fish, particularly in bib (treska') and paltus. The Ko- 
 
LAP 
 
 1172 
 
 LAP 
 
 laers are not themselves engaged in fishing, but obtain 
 the fish by barter, mostly from the Russian fishers 
 trading on the Lapland coast, partly from the Norway 
 ports of Wadso, Wardhnus, Hammerfest, and even 
 from Tromso, to which ports the Kolaers are permitted 
 to export about 2000 tchetwert of rye flour ever;' year. 
 
 Kola lodji go to Archangel to barter their cargo of 
 fish for the various merchandise they require, and 
 some of them venture to set out from the latter place 
 on their return home as late as October. While the 
 men of Kola are thus occupied, their wives and daugh- 
 ters do not remain idle. They cross in little boats to 
 the islands to gather maroshka, the berries of Ruhus 
 ckamcEmoms. A boat contains usually but one young 
 and able man, and from 12 to 20 women. Among the 
 islands near the Bay of Kola, the Koreline Islands are 
 considered to give the best produce of moroshka ; they 
 lie five miles west from the mouth of the bay. The 
 Kola women, however, will go still further, to Motov 
 Bay, and even to the Ainova Isles, at least 100 miles 
 from Kola, ih a boat. The moroshka from these isles 
 are said to surpass in size and flavor all others, and 
 are mostly destined for the imperial court. The Bay 
 of Kola, near the town, is so shallow that even the 
 smallest vessels can approach it only at high water. 
 The River Kola ceases altogether to be navigable at 
 the town ; but the Tuloma is navigable for about 
 40 miles, namely, to its origin from the lake. Its 
 banks are densely wooded with splendid fir. There is a 
 small and bare island in the middle of the Bay of 
 Kola, called Solnoi Ostrov (Tallow Island), from the 
 immense number of seals which formerly used to 
 come ashore here, but which entirely disappeared about 
 the end of the last century. 
 
 The Lap hut is formed interiorl}'' of wood, by means 
 of curved ribs, which unite near the centre in a ring, 
 which is open, and allows free escape for the smoke, 
 the fire being lighted in the centre of the floor. The 
 exterior is covered with turf. The door is wood on 
 one side. The inmates recline on skins on the floor, 
 with their feet toward the fire ; and behind them, on a 
 row of stones near the wall of the hut, are their various 
 utensils. Their clothing — chiefly of tanned skins and 
 woolen stuffs — looked verj' dirty. Their whole wealth 
 consists in reindeer. The two families who frequent this 
 valley possess about 700 deer. "We saw, perhaps, about 
 one fourth of that number. A few of them were 
 driven, for our inspection, into a circular inclosure of 
 wooden paling, where they are habitually milked. 
 One of the men dexterously caught them by the horns 
 with a lasso, or noose. The deer are small ; but some 
 of them carry immense branching horns, the weight 
 of which they seem almost unable to support. At this 
 season their long winter coat of hair came off' hy hand- 
 fulls. They make a low grunting noise, almost like a 
 pig. The milk is very small in quantity, and excess- 
 ively rich. 
 
 The whole population of irinraark does not exceed 
 45,000. The degrading superstition in which they 
 were formerly sunk has now in a great measure disap- 
 peared, along with those numerous deities which they 
 worshiped : the wild creations of unenlightened na- 
 ture have been superseded by Christianity, and a 
 knowledge of the true God. Regular clergj'men are 
 established in the country by the diff'erent govern- 
 ments, and the Laps exhibit much reverence and de- 
 votional feeling during divine service, although its 
 purport is only known to them through an interpreter. 
 Finmark, in regard to ecclesiastical regulations, is un- 
 der the jurisdiction of the Bishop of Norland and Fin- 
 mark, both of which form one diocese. Swedish Lap- 
 land has a population of only about 12,000. — E. B. 
 
 La Plata. The Argentine Republic, or " La Con- 
 federacion Argentina," comprises the provinces which, 
 with Paraguay and Uruguay, now independent States, 
 constituted, under Spanish rule, the vice-royalty of Bue- 
 nos Ayres. Its area is the largest of the South Amer- 
 
 ican republics, and its population to the square mile 
 the smallest. It consists of 13 provinces, comprising 
 an area estimated at 786,000 square miles, and contains 
 a population of about 764,000 souls. Other estimates 
 reduce this number to 596,000, while the " Almanach 
 de Gotha" for 1855 gives a total number of about 
 2,000,000, of whom l,200,0u0 are Creoles, Spaniards, 
 and mestizos, 200,000 subjugated Indians, and 25,000 
 negroes. Within a few years, Buenos Ayres has with- 
 drawn from the confederacy. With the exception of 
 a portion of the extensive plains, called pampas, wa- 
 tered by the rivers Rio Negro, Colorado, and Desagua- 
 dero, nearly all the countrj- belongs to the basin of the 
 La Plata, the great estuary of which is between the 
 State of Buenos AjTes and the Uruguayan port of 
 Montevideo. The most important product of the re- 
 public is cattle. Immense droves of oxen roam at 
 large over the pampas, and vast herds are scattered 
 throughout the extensive breeding estates of private 
 individuals. Horses and mules constitute a prominent 
 article of commerce with the Peruvian and other 
 traders ; and sheep and hogs, and the small quadru- 
 peds which furnish the nutria and chinchilla-skins, are 
 among the valuable native animals. Cotton, tobacco, 
 rice, cocoa, sugar-cane, indigo, maize, wheat, and 
 other grains, constitute leading productions ; but the 
 staples of export are hides, skins, horns, .bones, horse- 
 hair, wool, tallow, ostrich feathers, salted meats, crude 
 saltpetre, and cocoa. The export trade reaches, annu- 
 ally, a value of about $10,000,000. 
 
 Commercial relations between the United States and 
 the Argentine Republic are regulated by treaties of 
 July 10th and 27th, 1853. The former treaty relates 
 chiefly to the navigation of the rivers Parana and 
 Uruguay : that of July 27th was designed to acknowl- 
 edge and confirm the relations subsisting between the 
 two governments by the signing of a treaty of friend- 
 ship, commerce, and navigation, as well for the good 
 security as for the encouragement of the commercial 
 intercourse already subsisting between them. This 
 latter treat}' stipulates that perpetual amity shall ex- 
 ist between the two countries and their respective 
 citizens ; that there shall be reciprocal freedom of com- 
 merce ; that the citizens, ships, etc., of each shall be 
 protected in the territories of the other, to which other 
 foreigners, or the ships or cargoes of any other foreign 
 nation or state are or may be, permitted to come ; that 
 the respective ships of war, and .post-oflace or passen- 
 ger packets of the two countries shall have liberty 
 freel}' and securely to come to all harbors, rivers, and 
 places to which other foreign ships of war and packets 
 are, or may be, permitted to come ; to enter into the 
 same ; to anchor and remain there, and refit, subject 
 always to the laws and usages of the two countries 
 respectively ; that any favor, exemption, privilege, or 
 immunity whatever, in matters of commerce or navi- 
 gation, which either of the two nations has actually 
 granted, or may hereafter grant, to the citizens or 
 subjects of any other government, nation, or state, 
 shall extend, in like cases and circumstances, to the 
 citizens of the other ■ that no high or discriminating 
 duties shall be imposed, in the territories of either of 
 the contracting parties, on any article of the growth, 
 produce, or manufacture of the territories of the other, 
 than are, or shall be, payable on the like article of any 
 other foreign country ; that export duties on all arti- 
 cles exported from the territories of either party to those 
 of the other, shall be the same as when the exporta- 
 tion is made to any other foreign country ; and that all 
 prohibitions as to imports and exports, into or from 
 either countrj', shall be such as extend to the like ar- 
 ticles of any other foreign country. The treatj' fur- 
 ther provides that no other or higher duties or charges, 
 on account of tonnage, light or harbor dues, pilotage, 
 salvage in case of average or shipwreck, or any other 
 local charges, shall be imposed in the ports of either 
 of the two contracting parties, on the vessels of the 
 
LAP 
 
 1173 
 
 LAP 
 
 other, than those payable in the same ports on its own 
 vessels ; that the vessels of each shall enjoy entire 
 equality with national vessels in the ports of the other, 
 both as respects imports and exports ; that a regular 
 passport, or sea^-letter, furnished by competent author- 
 ity, shall be sufBcient evidence of the nationality of 
 the vessel ; that the merchants, commanders of ships, 
 and all other citizens of either of the contracting par- 
 ties, shall enjoy, in the management of their affairs in 
 the territories of the other, the same privileges and 
 rights, in all respects, that belong to its own citizens 
 under the laws and established customs of the cojin- 
 trj' ; that, in case of the death, without will or testa- 
 ment, of any citizen of either of the contracting par- 
 ties, in the territories of the other, the consul-general 
 or consul of the nation to which the deceased belonged, 
 or the representative of such consul-general or consul 
 in his absence, shall have the right to intervene in the 
 possession, administration, and judicial liquidation of 
 the estate of the deceased, conformably with the laws 
 of the country, for the benefit of creditors and legal 
 heirs. The treaty concludes with placing the diplo- 
 matic agents and consuls of the United States on the 
 same footing as similar representatives of the most 
 favored nation, and makes ample provision respecting 
 religious privileges, rites of burial, etc. This treaty 
 contains no limitation as to its duration, but provides 
 that the amity which it establishes between the citi- 
 zens of the two republics shall be perpetual. The for- 
 eign trade of the Argentine Republic was formerly 
 monopolized by Buenos Ayres; but, in 1852, new 
 channels of commerce were opened, the Parana and 
 Uruguay Rivers being declared free to the commercial 
 traffic and navigation of all nations by a decree offi- 
 cially promulgated October 30, of which a translation 
 is subjoined : 
 
 Article 1. The navigation of the Eivers Parana and 
 Uruguay is allowed to every description of merchant 
 vessels, whatever may be their nation, place of de- 
 parture, or tonnage. Art. 2. All merchant vessels 
 may enter the ports established on the Eivers Parana 
 and Uruguaj-. Art. 3. The established ports are : 1. 
 In the province of Entre Eios, that of the city of Pa- 
 rana, the capital of said province, and those of Dia- 
 manti, Victtori, Gualeguai, and La Paz, on the Eiver 
 Parana ; and those of Gualeguaichu, Concepcion del 
 Uruguay, Concordia, and Federacion, on the Eiver 
 Uruguay. 2. In the province of Santa F^, that of 
 
 ' the capital of the province and that of Eosario. 3. 
 In Corrientes, the capital of the same, Bella Vista, and 
 Gorga. Art. 4. All those ports designated in the fore- 
 going article shall have custom-houses for foreign 
 trade ; and those established in the provinces of Jujui, 
 Salta, San Juan, and Mendoza shall have custom- 
 houses for inland trade. Art. 5. Until the national 
 tariffs be fully arranged, the custom-houses for foreign 
 trade on the river shall continue to collect duties, ac- 
 cording to existing regulations. Art. 6. Seven per 
 cent, upon the valuation of the articles imported for 
 consumption into the litoral provinces shall be col- 
 lected as the sole national tax. Art. 7. In the cus- 
 tom-houses for inland trade, six per cent, upon the 
 valuation shall be collected on all articles introduced, 
 as a national tax. Art. 8. All the custom-houses for 
 foreign trade, as well on the rivers as in the inte- 
 rior, shall permit the transit of foreign merchandise 
 
 - for the provinces of the confederation ; but the cus- 
 tom-house dispatching them shall collect and retain 
 five per cent, upon the valuation of the goods, as the 
 whole of the national tax. Art. 9. All goods and 
 merchandise of foreign production, or shipped from 
 foreign places, and all the productions of the manufac- 
 tures or industry of Buenos Ayres, which are intro- 
 duced by land into any of the provinces of the interior , 
 shall pay, for the present, the same duties as are col- 
 lected in the custom-house of Eosario. Art. 10. In 
 the same custom-house, the same duties on exporta- 
 
 tion as on importation shall be paid on whatever arti- 
 cles interior provinces may mtroduce into the province 
 of Buenos Ayres. Art. 11. In all the custom-houses 
 in which deposit is allowed, the same shall be con- 
 tinued subject to the existing regulations. Art. 12. 
 Within the territories of the 13 confederated provinces, 
 the passage of their own product or manufacture shall 
 be free of all duties of transit or on consumption. 
 Art. 13. The present decree shall have effect only un- 
 til the national congress shall establish permanent 
 regulations on the subject it embraces. 
 
 The above decree, published by the provisional di- 
 rector of the republic, was followed by the publication, 
 on the 18th of the same month, of the following resolu- 
 tion of the representatives of the province of Buenos 
 Ayres : — " The province of Buenos Ayres, recognizing 
 as a principle of general convenience the opening of 
 the Eiver Parana to the traffic and navigation of all 
 nations, from this present date declares and authorizes 
 the same on its part." 
 
 Buenos Ayres must always be a point of great com- 
 mercial importance, as it is the principal outlet through 
 which the produce and industry of the immense re- 
 gions Ij'ing behind can have an egress to a foreign 
 market ; ^nd it is only through this port and Monte- 
 video that those countries can receive, by the La Plata 
 and its tributaries, unless in the direct trade, their 
 supplies of foreign merchandise. Indeed, these two 
 ports form the only channels through which the pro- 
 ductions of the countries lying between the Cordilleras 
 and the La Plata will find their way to foreign markets. 
 By late advices to the State Department, notice is re- 
 ceived of a law which passed both houses of the Ar- 
 gentine legislature, and was approved by the President 
 July 19, 1856, establishing differential duties on all 
 foreign merchandise introduced into the ports of the 
 confederation, in the indirect trade from Buenos Ayres. 
 These duties are almost equivalent to prohibition, and 
 will divert from the port of Buenos Ayres that portion 
 of the foreign trade destined for the fluvial provinces. 
 The chief reason assigned for the adoption of this 
 measure, as announced during the debate which it 
 elicited in both branches of the legislatue, was, that it 
 would be the most effective means that could be adopt- 
 ed to force Buenos Ayres from its secession move- 
 ments, and thus restore tranquillity to the republic. 
 Already the goivernment budget of Buenos Ayres 
 shows a deficiency of $9,000,000. This act of the 
 confederation, in driving from its ports the foreign 
 trade of the other provinces — hitherto a source of im- 
 mense profit to its treasury — ^may lead to a commercial, 
 perhaps a political, crisis. 
 
 The navigation of the La Plata and its tributaries 
 is represented to be at this time active, employing a 
 heavj' tonnage both of steamers and sailing vessels. 
 The trade between Buenos Ayres and Montevideo con- 
 sists in the transhipment, to and from either port, of 
 articles the growth or manufacture of Europe and the 
 United States, and the conveyance of passengers. 
 From Buenos Ayres to the interior, the trade consists 
 in the interchange of foreign merchandise for the va- 
 rious productions of the La Plata provinces. South 
 of Buenos Ayres, and from'Patagonia, in exchange for 
 dry goods, spirits, wines, and sundries, are imported 
 hides, skins, tallow, hair, and, occasionally, wheat and 
 salt, especially from Patagonia. The principal ports 
 in the provinces open to this trade are San Fernando, 
 San Pedro, and San Nicolas, in the province of Buenos 
 Ayres ; Eossario and Santa F6, in Santa Fe ; Guale- 
 guaigchu, Parana, and Concordia, in Entre Eios ; Gor- 
 ga, Bella Vista, and Corrientes, in the province of 
 Corrientes. From all these ports, as from those in 
 Paraguay and Uruguay, the imports consist chiefly of 
 yerba matS (Paraguay tea), and tobacco, hides, lum- 
 ber, nutria, wool, candles, soap, ashes, peanuts, and 
 various manufactures of wood. 
 
 The stSam-vesselSi exclusive of those of the British 
 
LAP 
 
 nu 
 
 LAP 
 
 Koyal MaU Steam-packet Company, regularly em- 
 ployed, at a late date, in the navigation of the Plata, 
 are : five steamers, under the Oriental flag — one of 
 them constructed in the United States — and one under 
 the Buenos Ayres flag, also of United States' origin. 
 According to the navigation returns of the Argentine 
 Republic for 1852, the steamers engaged in the regular 
 
 number of round trips made by each, were as follows : 
 1 American, 44 round trips ; 1 British, 17 ; 2 Oriental, 
 38 ; and 2 Brazilian, 14. The sailing-vessels engaged 
 in the same trade, were 2 schooners, under the Orient- 
 al flag, which made 42 round trips ; and 2 schooners 
 and 2 brigantines, under the flag of Buenos Ayres, 
 which made 40 round trips. The following table shows 
 
 trade between Buenos Ayres and Montevideo, with the I the exports ofBuenos Ayres for six years, ending 1854. 
 
 Comparative Statement exhibiting the Exportation of Staple PRODtJors op the State of Buenos Atees to 
 ALL Countries, from 1849 to 1854, both inclusive. [Made up from "Eejistro Estadistico del Estapo db 
 Buenos Aires."] 
 
 Exported to 
 
 In the 
 
 year. 
 
 Dry Udes. 
 
 Salted hldee. 
 
 Wool. 
 
 Hair. 
 
 Tallow and horse 
 greose. 
 
 
 
 Ox and cow. 
 
 Horse, 
 
 Ox & cow. 
 
 Horse. 
 
 Boles. 
 
 Ser,& bage 
 
 Bales. 
 
 Ser.*l|oge 
 
 Pipes. iBxs.4 clia. 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 1849 
 
 88,494 
 
 9,982 
 
 517,886 
 
 195,045 
 
 4,898 
 
 1,070 
 
 1,889 
 
 425 
 
 17,130 
 
 37,050 
 
 
 1850 
 
 26,843 
 
 3,660 
 
 857,988 
 
 102,865 
 
 1,821 
 
 326 
 
 960 
 
 678 
 
 11,055 
 
 17,337 
 
 
 1851 
 
 48,686 
 
 4,564 
 
 547,840 
 
 57,208 
 
 999 
 
 270 
 
 1,171 
 
 854 
 
 19,266 
 
 4,096 
 
 
 1852 
 
 11,503 
 
 1,220 
 
 363,114 
 
 58,006 
 
 8,966 
 
 372 
 
 897 
 
 209 
 
 23,950 
 
 7,609 
 
 
 1853 
 
 83,209 
 
 6,927 
 
 285,577 
 
 106,656 
 
 5,834 
 
 1,196 
 
 914 
 
 T83 
 
 16,978 
 
 3,644 
 
 
 1854 
 
 2,290 
 
 727 
 
 288,281 
 
 139,294 
 
 5,120 
 
 235 
 
 1,122 
 
 299 
 
 20,951 
 
 8,929 
 
 France 
 
 1849 
 1850 
 
 244,808 
 23T,T82 
 
 7,927 
 8,191 
 
 79,753 
 85,208 
 
 7,284 
 
 3,387 
 2,035 
 
 7 
 68 
 
 696 
 298 
 
 96 
 
 257 
 
 812 
 394 
 
 6,449 
 2,745 
 
 
 
 1851 
 
 189,.3e0 
 
 9,825 
 
 90,844 
 
 10,416 
 
 871 
 
 
 897 
 
 279 
 
 380 
 
 755 
 
 
 1852 
 
 126,192 
 
 1,869 
 
 87,892 
 
 8,718 
 
 3,689 
 
 
 461 
 
 150 
 
 268 
 
 819 
 
 
 1863 
 
 62,972 
 
 1,461 
 
 44,863 
 
 2,497 
 
 4,688 
 
 "■53 
 
 287 
 
 503 
 
 568 
 
 646 
 
 
 1854 
 
 90,456 
 
 1,060 
 
 48,279 
 
 21,768 
 
 8,829 
 
 2 
 
 829 
 
 62 
 
 144 
 
 1,608 
 
 Continent 
 
 1849 
 1850 
 
 618,416 
 685.353 
 
 750 
 941 
 
 81,678 
 67,195 
 
 "224 
 
 1,119 
 1,495} 
 
 164 
 143 
 
 841 
 841 
 
 77 - 
 25 
 
 182} 
 896 
 
 962 
 , 976 
 
 
 , 
 
 1851 
 
 529;689 
 
 2,051 
 
 85,646 
 
 107 
 
 760 
 
 3 
 
 479 
 
 6 
 
 105J 
 
 
 
 1852 
 
 874,894 
 
 8,041 
 
 96,662 
 
 580 
 
 2,874 
 
 427 
 
 866 
 
 19 
 
 380 
 
 "40 
 
 
 1863 
 
 248,440 
 
 690 
 
 84,073 
 
 1,554 
 
 8,176 
 
 
 102 
 
 
 162 
 
 884 ■ 
 
 
 1864 
 
 295,026 
 
 8,090 
 
 52,541 
 
 4,298 
 
 8,011 
 
 ""2 
 
 182 
 
 "'io 
 
 263 
 
 4 
 
 United States 
 
 1349 
 1850 
 
 784,701 
 608,929 
 
 8,009 
 13,474 
 
 122,784 
 187,184 
 
 7,576 
 
 13,008 
 12,549 
 
 1,955 ■ 
 2,666 
 
 800} 
 909 
 
 529 
 1,217 
 
 199} 
 
 
 
 
 1851 
 
 572,109 
 
 14,037 
 
 124,471 
 
 20,868 
 
 15,794 
 
 2,499 
 
 726 
 
 886 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 1852 
 
 398,433 
 
 255 
 
 106,640 
 
 25,107 
 
 7,847 
 
 677 
 
 1,020 
 
 1,808 
 
 l,061i 
 
 "371 
 
 
 1853 
 
 259,164 
 
 1,265. 
 
 25,280 
 
 7,196 
 
 8,016 
 
 124 
 
 763 
 
 550 
 
 1,435 
 
 69 
 
 
 1854 
 
 312,265 
 
 6,072 
 
 66,645 
 
 44,419 
 
 9,606 
 
 862 
 
 1,101 
 
 1,174 
 
 46 
 
 
 Italy 
 
 1849 
 1860 
 
 11,252 
 131,123 
 
 18,880 
 
 4,949 
 66,648 
 
 16,688 
 
 "843 
 
 28 
 
 168 
 
 "i45 
 
 "192 
 
 "'87 
 
 84 
 1,994 
 
 
 
 1851 
 
 185,280 
 
 2,630 
 
 58,024 
 
 80 
 
 626 
 
 804 
 
 41 
 
 263 
 
 2 
 
 249 
 
 
 1852 
 
 175,274 
 
 13,787 
 
 74,417 
 
 
 683 
 
 74 
 
 11 
 
 221 
 
 44 
 
 678 
 
 
 1853 
 
 82,857 
 
 
 23,118 
 
 "791 
 
 536 
 
 11 
 
 42 
 
 426 
 
 152} 
 
 578 
 
 
 1854 
 
 76,605 
 
 1,600 
 
 18,768 
 
 1,245 
 
 480 
 
 
 25 
 
 28 
 
 137 
 
 1,850 
 
 Spain 
 
 1849 
 
 262,468 
 
 9,311 
 
 9,889 
 
 2,462 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 175 
 
 
 1850 
 
 158,868 
 
 10,677 
 
 6,817 
 
 2,827 
 
 ■"l 
 
 
 ""a 
 
 "'86 
 
 .... 
 
 402 
 
 
 1851 
 
 208,416 
 
 14,388 
 
 5,911 
 
 5,503 
 
 
 
 42 
 
 11 
 
 
 229 
 
 
 1862 
 
 168,828 
 
 1,048 
 
 9,002 
 
 1,212 
 
 ""4 
 
 
 
 
 "'28 
 
 888 
 
 
 1858 
 
 98,888 
 
 3,85« 
 
 2,881 
 
 447 
 
 
 
 
 
 80 
 
 64 
 
 
 1854 
 
 211,215 
 
 16,786 
 
 5,891 
 
 6,276 
 
 "285 
 
 
 
 "'23 
 
 
 29 
 
 Brazil 
 
 1849 
 
 82,798 
 7,746 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 457 
 
 402 
 
 
 1850 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 .... 
 
 
 
 
 T| 
 
 ,160 
 
 
 1851 
 
 1,606 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ ■ •■i 
 
 28} 
 
 ,. 238 
 
 
 1852 
 
 2,752 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4794 
 
 260 
 
 
 1858 
 
 2,176 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 993 
 
 
 
 1854 
 
 1,818 
 
 « 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,797 
 
 "449 
 
 Havana 
 
 1849 
 1860 
 1861 
 1862 
 1868 
 
 6,634 
 8,522 
 4,069 
 2,069 
 1,623 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 '■'■'■'■ 
 
 "'20 
 
 1,831 
 1,767 
 2,168 
 2,101 
 ,642, 
 
 Grand totals 
 
 1854 
 
 1,928 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "'87 
 
 911 
 
 1849 
 
 2,111,088 
 
 40,863 
 
 850,269 
 
 197,661 
 
 28,329 
 
 8,879 
 
 8,285 
 
 1,217 
 
 18,624 
 
 54,824 
 
 
 1880 
 
 1,704,211 
 
 60,223 
 
 720,040 
 
 136,884 
 
 17,744S 
 
 8,866 
 
 2,659 
 
 2,400 
 
 12,090 
 
 25,860 
 
 
 1861 
 
 1,689,005 
 
 47,005 
 
 912,813 
 
 98,672 
 
 19,060" 
 
 2,914 
 
 3,366 
 
 1,267 
 
 19,946 
 
 18,584 
 
 
 1852 
 
 1,266,580 
 
 21,480 
 
 737,616 
 
 84,617 
 
 19,018 
 
 1,554 
 
 2,745 
 
 1,902 
 
 26,222 
 
 19,350J 
 
 
 1863 
 
 783,510 
 
 14,529 
 
 416,742 
 
 119,141 
 
 22,249 
 
 1,890 
 
 2,058 
 
 2,216 
 
 20,568 
 
 9,497 
 
 
 1854 
 
 989,928 
 
 29,973 
 
 409,430 
 
 216,300 
 
 22,442 
 
 601 
 
 2,709 
 
 1,601 
 
 28,379 
 
 16,589 
 
 * These are embraced under os and cow. 
 
 Statement ExnisiriNG tue QuANxmEs of Domestic Producf. exported from the Port op Buenos Atres, feom 
 1849 TO 1858, DiSTiNGulsniMG those exported to the United States. 
 
 Articlea. 
 
 Bones No. 
 
 Hair Bales, etc. 
 
 Hides, ox and cow, salted. . . .No, 
 
 " " " dry " 
 
 , " horse, dry 
 
 '; " salted 
 
 Sbeep-sklns Bale? 
 
 " " Dozens 
 
 Wool Bi 
 
 " Seroons 
 
 Horns, ox and cow No. 
 
 1,568 
 827,002 
 774,091 
 22,969 
 89,814 
 1,884 
 
 13,466 
 
 204,398' 
 
 United 
 States. 
 
 201 
 
 16,286 
 
 115.868 
 
 8;&45 
 
 850 
 
 »,66o 
 
 All 
 conntrlea. 
 
 1,100,780 
 
 6,059 
 
 720,040 
 
 1,704,211 
 
 50,228 
 
 186,834 
 
 ' 8,568 
 
 17,744 
 
 8,866 
 
 1,917,160 
 
 United 
 States. 
 
 800,000 
 2,126 
 137,184 
 608,929 
 18,474 
 7,b7e 
 2,020 
 
 12,549 
 
 2,666 
 
 ,1,166,012 
 
 AU I United 
 countries.! States. 
 
 3,110,780 
 
 4,082 1,603 
 
 912,135 124,471 
 
 1,689,005 572,109 
 
 47,005 14,037 
 
 93,672 20,-'" 
 
 4,820 1,871 
 
 19,060 ,i6^T94 
 
 2,914' 2,499 
 
 2,86S,720 1,158,648 
 
 •AU 
 countries. 
 
 8,520,072 
 
 8,765 
 
 416,742 
 
 1,256,680 
 
 14,629 
 
 119,141 
 
 8,477 
 
 1,869,276 
 
 United 
 States. 
 
 620,000 
 
 8,619 
 
 106,640 
 
 897,488 
 
 255 
 
 25,107 
 
 ' 685 
 
 "7",847 
 677 
 
 countries. 
 
 1,988,267 
 
 2,058 
 
 2,216 
 
 788,510 
 
 14, " 
 7,196 
 8,4t7 
 ■ 281 
 
 22,249 
 1,890 
 
 876,9041,369,276 
 
 United 
 
 Sta.teB. 
 
 90,000 
 
 -"768 
 
 .!.S80 
 
 259^11 
 
 1,21. 
 
 ^B4t7 
 
 198 
 
 . , .192 
 
 '^^ 
 2to,849 
 
LAP 
 
 1115 
 
 LAF 
 
 SlATBIMBNT OP FOBEION MeBOHAUT ■ VKSSBLa "WHICH AE- 
 RIVED AT THE PqKT OF BtJBNOS AtKBS, FROM 1821 TO 
 1854, nieTINGDTBniNQ THOSE* tiMDEtt THp/'USITED STATES* 
 
 Flag. 
 
 
 From 
 
 From 
 
 Years. 
 
 From 
 
 
 
 all naUoiiB. 
 
 Unltaii.Stillo. 
 
 All nations. 
 
 Unltfld States 
 
 1821 
 
 202 , 
 
 42 
 
 1886 
 
 200 
 
 37 
 
 1822 
 
 252 
 
 T5 
 
 1887 
 
 223 
 
 40 
 
 1828 
 
 240 
 
 80 
 
 1842 
 
 406 
 
 w 
 
 1824 
 
 812 
 
 148 
 
 1848 
 
 576 
 
 76 
 
 1825 
 
 275 - 
 
 ,. ,102 
 
 1844 
 
 513 
 
 88 
 
 1880 
 
 25r 
 
 88 
 
 1849 
 
 82« 
 
 86 
 
 1831 
 
 207 
 
 
 1850 
 
 440 
 
 87 
 
 1832 
 
 213 : 
 
 1851 
 
 471 
 
 80 
 
 1838 
 
 294 
 
 91' 
 
 1852 
 
 489 
 
 6T 
 
 1884 
 
 261 
 
 67 
 
 1858 
 
 844 
 
 
 1885 
 
 218 
 
 61 
 
 1854 
 
 884 
 
 28 
 
 The aggregate value of cargoes from the United 
 States, imported into the port of Suenos Ayres during 
 the year 1851, was $600,181; 1852, $659,915; 1863, 
 $497,836. The aggregate value of exports from the 
 port of Buenos Ayres to all countries in 1854, is stated 
 by French authorities, as follows : 
 
 Franfis. 
 
 Hanover 204,382 
 
 Holland 1,829,647 
 
 Portugal 125,599 
 
 Argentine Kepub. 866,061 
 
 Uruguay 212,088 
 
 Prussia , 49,853 
 
 TwW Sicilies 80,788 
 
 (Francs. 
 
 Great Britain.... 10,060,558 
 United States.,.. 9,168,799 
 
 Spain 111255,889 
 
 Hanse Towns 6,186,907 
 
 France 6,866,852 
 
 Sardinia 8,796,605, 
 
 Brazil 1,785,272 
 
 Belgium.. 888,183 
 
 Denmark.. 947,840. 
 
 Sweden 827,604 
 
 Norway. , S3,*60 
 
 Total francs.... 61,287,072 
 Total dollars... $9,744,548 
 
 From statements published by the minister of finance 
 of the State of Buenos Ayres to the legislative cham- 
 bers, on the revenues of the customs, it appears that 
 there was imparted in 1854, of merchandise of every 
 description, in value, as follows : 
 
 ' V Paper piastres. 
 
 Sundry articles, paying 5. per cent, duty . ^ 16,677,540 
 
 Sundry articles, paying 10 per cent, duty 1,487,987 
 
 Silks, paying 12 per cent, duty 6,811,241 
 
 Sundry articles, paying 15 per cent, duty 134,494,883 
 
 Articles made up, and proylsions, paying 20 per 
 
 cent, duty 44,800,380 
 
 Liquors, paying 25 per cent, duty 89,424,824 
 
 Articles free of duty, or entered in contraband . . . 57,358,245 
 
 Total , . . , 800,000,000 
 
 Value In U. S. currency. $15,000,000 
 
 Total exports of Buenos Ayres in 1864 $9,744,543 
 
 ■ Totaliudportsofpuenos Ayi-esin 1854....:. 16,000,000 
 
 The large balance of tr^de, however, which appears 
 against this port (as is the case also with the port of 
 Montevideo), is accounted for by the fact that the 
 wants of the interior provinces of Paraguay, and even 
 of many places in Bolivia, are supplied from these two 
 points. 
 
 "Wool constitutes upward of 25 per cent, in value of 
 all the imports into tlie United States from the Argen- 
 tine Eepublic. This is shown by the following tabtilar 
 statement made up from annual reports of the Treas- 
 urj'. Department on commerce and navigation for the 
 3'ears named, exhibiting the total values of . imports 
 into the United States from the Argentine Eepublic, 
 from 1851 to 1855, together with the values of wool 
 imported from the same country during the same 
 period : 
 
 Years, Total Tatuea of imports. Values of wool. 
 
 1851 $3,266,382 $1,828,887 
 
 1852 ■ 2,091,097 704,084 
 
 1888 8,186,641 588,668 
 
 1854 2,144,971 854,282 
 
 1855 2,645,087 627,718 
 
 Of the total quantity of wool imported into the 
 United States from all countries, about one third, or 
 nearly so, is received from the Argentine Eepublic. 
 This is shown by the following tabular statement, de- 
 rived {Tom the same sources as the former, exhibiting 
 the quantities of wool imported into the United States 
 from all countries, from 1851 to 1856, together with | 
 
 Argentine Repn] 
 
 12,106,58? 
 7,0^,743 
 5,745,867 
 6,2.55,698 
 6,966,969 
 
 the quantities imporfied from the Argentine Bepublip 
 during the same period : .; ,, 
 
 Years. All coimtrles. 
 
 1851 82,648,491 
 
 1852 18,841,298 
 
 1858... 21,695,079 
 
 1864 20,200,110 
 
 1855 18,684,415 
 
 The preceding table exhibits an aggregate of 111,- 
 219,393 pounds of wool imported from all countries., 
 and of 37,169,802 pounds from the Argentine Eepublic, 
 or an annual average of 22,243,878 of the former, and 
 of 7,431,960 of the latter; being a fraction over one 
 third of the whole, 
 
 Regulations of the Port of Buenos Ayres. — Article 1. 
 — ;A11 vessels at anchor in the port, whether national 
 or foreign, shall render every assistance in case of a 
 vessel breaking adrift, or of any other accident ; or, 
 in default, shall sulFer the penalties established by 
 law, and in proportion to the gravity of the case. 2.' 
 All vessels at anchor in the roads must have their 
 anchors btioyed, on account of the shallow water ; or 
 pay all damages which may occur to any vessel or boat, 
 from this"^ precaution having been neglected. .3, Any 
 vessel losing a buoy from her anchors shall report it 
 immediately to the captain of the port, who will send 
 off a pilot to replace it. No anchor can be weighed 
 without permission of the captain of the port. 4.. Pi- 
 lots on bringing vessels up in the roads are to inform 
 the captain what articles are necessary for their perfect 
 safet}'^, and in case of there being any wanting, report it 
 to the captaiti of the port. Pilots neglecting to do so 
 will be punished with the rigor of the law. 5. If, in 
 a gale, the anchor of any vessel should happen to 
 drag, or the cable part, either on account of said cable 
 not corresponding with the size of the vessel or the 
 anchor, or from ijpttenness, said vessel will be resppn- 
 sible for all the damages .occasioned thereby. 6. Any 
 vessel from. sea, that may anchor in this port without 
 applying to a pilot, will be liable to pay all damages 
 that may occur, and can not claim redress if she, in 
 any way, sustains damage. 7. Any vessel at anchoi 
 with her boats astern, and not hauling them along- 
 side upon .seeing,, another under. sail, spas to give a 
 free passage, can not claim for the damages she 
 may suffer, and shall be oJpliged to pay for those 
 occasioned. 8. No vessel at anchor in the roads 
 can heave ballast, or any thing that does not float, 
 overboard; and if such be proved'to have been done, 
 the act will be punished according to law. 9. No ves- 
 sel, excepting on her arrival, can salute in the inner 
 roads without obtaining permission of the captain of 
 the port. Those which do so wUl suffer the penalties 
 the government may determine on. 10. All boats, 
 belonging to merchant vessels at anchor in either 
 roads, shall put off from shore one hour after sunse.t. 
 11. All boats that may be found oia the beach, from ttie 
 time I of firing the evening gun until daybreak, will be 
 seized, and the crew punished according to the gravity 
 of the case. 
 
 Pilot Dues op the Pokt of Busnos Ayees. 
 
 Vessels drawing Silver dollars. 
 
 10 feet, pay -. 40 
 
 11 " 60 
 
 18 " 70 
 
 • 14 " 9ft 
 
 16 " lift 
 
 All vessels, excepting packets, requiring a pUot to 
 enter the inner roads, pay $200 currency (equal to 
 $10 United States' coin — the currency dollar being, at 
 present, equal to 6 cents. United States). When leav- 
 ing port, whether taking a pilot or not, they pay $200 
 currency ($10 United States). Anj' vessel that may 
 enter the inner roads without a pilot, wishing to be 
 moored or to change anchorage, pays $100 currency 
 ($5 United States). 
 
 Port Charges. — Tonnage dues per ton, entering (pnr- 
 renoy), $1J = $0 07J cents. United States ; visit and 
 regiUatioa, $7 == $0 35 j stamps for opening register, 
 
 Vessels drawing Stiver dollan. 
 
 17 feet pay 150 
 
 19 " 210 
 
 aO " 240 
 
 21 " 260 
 
LAT 
 
 live 
 
 LATJ 
 
 Tonnage dues, clearing, $1^ = 
 ! = $0 60 ; bill of health, $6 = 
 
 etc., $169 = $8 45, 
 $0 7J ; crew list, $: 
 $0 30. 
 
 By the following law, passed by the Senate and 
 Chamber of Representatives of Buenos Ay res, and 
 officially announced under date of September 6, 1854, 
 it will be seen that vessels of friendlj'" nations enjoy 
 the same privileges, and are subject to the same re- 
 strictions, as national vessels : — ■" From the date of 
 the present law, there will not be charged in the 
 
 ports of the State of Buenos Ayres, to the vessels, of 
 friendly nations of more than 120 tons, for tonnage 
 dues, port dues, pilotage, salvage in case of damage 
 or shipwreck, more than will be charged to Argentine 
 vessels." 
 
 This law places the vessels of the United States on 
 an equality with those of Buenos Ayres ; while, under 
 an old law, the ship's register is taken as evidence of 
 her measurement. For a more extended account of 
 the commerce of La Plata, see article Buenos Ayres. 
 
 COMPAEATIVE STATEMENT OF THE COMUBROB OP TmB UNITED STATES WITH THE ARGENTINE KePTJBLIC, EXHIBITING TUB 
 
 Value of Expoktbto and Imports pkom bach Couhtet, and tub Tonnage of American and JFoeeign Vessels 
 
 ARRIVING FROM AND DEPARTING TO EAOH COUNTET, DURING THE YeARS DESIGNATED. 
 
 VKABS. 
 
 COMMERCE. 
 
 NAVIGATION. j 
 
 VALUE 09 EXPORTS. 
 
 VALUE Off 
 IMP0ET8. 
 
 AMERICAN TONNAGE. | FORBIGN TONNAGE. 1 
 
 DomesUis 
 produce. 
 
 Foreign 
 produce. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Entered the 
 United States. 
 
 Cleared from 
 the U. States, 
 
 Entered the 
 United States. 
 
 Cleared from 
 the U. States. 
 
 1845 
 
 $842,675 
 147,807 
 128,954 
 21)8,708 
 695,518 
 718,881 
 659,862 
 518,007 
 618,855 
 658,720 
 810,766 
 
 $160,431 
 
 38,118 
 
 62,186 
 
 26,226 
 
 172,076 
 
 346,311 
 
 414,916 
 
 281,110 
 
 262,611 
 
 108,006 
 
 168,671 
 
 $608,006 
 185,425 
 176,089 
 288,928 
 767,594 
 1,064,642 
 1,074,708 
 799,117 
 881,466 
 761,725 
 969,427 
 
 $1,750,698 
 799,218 
 241,209 
 1,026,097 
 1,709,827 
 2,658,877 
 8,265,882 
 2,091,097 
 2,186,641 
 2,144,971 
 2,645,087 
 
 11,653 
 
 5,988 
 
 693 
 
 695 
 
 11,929 
 
 13,930 
 
 18,382 
 
 13,453 
 
 11,.387 
 
 11,245 
 
 12,583 
 
 10,667 
 
 4,134 
 
 2,237 
 
 686 
 
 9,897 
 
 16,107 
 
 11,661 
 
 18,711 
 
 10,749 
 
 8,526 
 
 18,684 
 
 1,889 
 
 987 
 
 "7i4 
 7,282 
 13,081 
 11,005 
 4,872 
 4,741 
 1,669 
 70T 
 
 848 
 
 1,450 
 5,492 
 9,260 
 6,186 
 4,881 
 4,639 
 1,830 
 2,315 
 
 1846 
 
 1847 
 
 1848 , 
 
 1849 
 
 1850 
 
 1851 
 
 1852 
 
 1863 
 
 1864 
 
 1865 
 
 
 By a recent treaty with Brazil, the free navigation 
 of the Parana and Paraguay is secured. The tariff of 
 import duties adopted hy the Argentine Republic is 
 based on the per cent, ad valorem principle, breadstuffs 
 excepted; while export duties are chiefly specific. — 
 Com. Relations^ U. S. 
 
 Larboard, among seamen, the left hand side of 
 the ship when you stand with your face toward the 
 head. 
 
 Xjarch. In the catalogue of soft timber used in 
 ship-building, the larch or hacmatack is not the least 
 useful — the latter name is the aboriginal. It some- 
 times attains an altitude of 70 feet, but is usuallj' 
 found from 40 to 50 feet. It is generally of straight 
 growth, but quite tapering. It grows rapidly, and is 
 of great strength ; and its durability exceeds that of 
 the oak. It is distinguished for the closeness of its 
 grain, is verj' compact, and of reddish color ; and for 
 knees and top-timbers of vessels, particularly steam- 
 vessels, is unequaled. This fact should, however, be 
 retained, that its strength is quite out of proportion to 
 its density ; hence, we say, that it should always be 
 fastened with square iron ; imder such circumstances 
 it is superior to oak. This timber is extensively cul- 
 tivated in Europe, and is not a rare specimen of veg- 
 etation in the New England States.— Griffith's Ship- 
 builders^ Manual, N. Y., 1856. 
 
 Lascars, native Indian sailors, many of whom are 
 in the service of the East India Company. 
 
 Last, an uncertain quantity, varj'ing in different 
 countries, and with respect to different articles. Gen- 
 erally, however, a last is estimated at 4000 pounds ; 
 but there are great discrepancies. ' 
 
 The following quantities of different articles make 
 a last, viz. : — 14 barrels of pitch, tar, or ashes ; 12 
 dozen of hides or skins ; 12 barrels of codfish, potash, 
 or meal ; 20 cades, each of 1000 herrings, every 1000, 
 10 hundred, and every 100 five score ; lOJ quarters of 
 cole-seed ; 10 quarters of coan or rape-seed. In some 
 parts of I?ngland, 21 quarters of corn go to a last ; 12 
 sacks of wool ; 20 dickers (every dicker 12 skins) of 
 leather ; 18 barrels of unpacked herrings ; 10,000 
 pilchards ; 24 barrels (each barrel containing 100 lbs.) 
 of gunpowder ; 1700 lbs. of feathers or flax. Last is 
 sometimes used to signify the burden of a ship. 
 
 Lateen Sail, a long triangular sail, extended by 
 a lateen yard, and frequently used in Xebecs, Polacres, 
 Setees, and other vessels which navigate in the Med- 
 iterranean Se!a. 
 
 Lath, Laths (Fr. Laiies ; Ger. Latten; It. Cor- 
 renii; Bus. Slegu), long, thin, and narrow slips of 
 
 wood, nailed to the rafters of a roof or ceiling in order 
 to sustain the covering. Laths are distinguished into 
 various sorts, according to the different kinds of wood 
 of which they are made, and the different purposes to 
 which they are to be applied. They are also distin- 
 guished, according to their length, into five, four, and 
 three feet laths. Their ordinary breadth is about an 
 inch, and their thickness a quarter of an inch. Laths 
 are sold by the bundle, which is generally called a 
 hundred; but seven score, or 140, are computed in 
 the hundred for three feet laths; six score, or 120, 
 in such as are four feet ; and for those which are 
 denominated five feet the common hundred, or five 
 score. 
 
 Latitude. Krst determined by Hipparchus of 
 Nice, about 170 b. c. It is the extent of the earth or of 
 the heavens, reckoned from the equator to either pole. 
 Maupertuis, in latitude 66'20 measured 1° of latitude, 
 and made it 69-493 ; he measured it in 1737. Swanberg, 
 in 1603, made it 69-292. At the equator, in 1744, four 
 astronomers made it 68*732 ; and Lampton, in latitude 
 12°, made it 68-743. Mudge, in England, made it 
 69-148. Cassini, in France, in 1718 and 1740, made 
 it 69-12, and Biot 68-769 ; while a recent measurer in 
 Spain makes it but 68-63, less than at the eqator ; and 
 contradicts all the others, proving the earth to be a 
 prolate spheroid, which was the opinion of Cassini, 
 Euler, and others, while it has more generally been 
 regarded as an oblate spheroid. See Longitude. 
 
 Latten, a name sometimes given to tin plates ; 
 that is, to thin plates of iron, tinned over. See Tin. 
 
 Launch, in sea language, signifies to put out ; as, 
 launch the ship ; that is, put her out of dock. Launch 
 aft or forward, speaking of things that are stowed in 
 the hold, is, put them more forward. Launch, ho ! is 
 a term used when a yard is hoisted high enough, and 
 signifies, hoist no more. 
 
 Laurel-tree. The Kalmia latifolia, or laurel, is 
 a large evergreen shrub or low tree, growing to a 
 height of 15 or 20 feet, in favorable situations, with a 
 stem three or four inches in diameter ; but ordinarily 
 it does not attain more than one half of these dimen- 
 sions. Its leaves are of a coriaceous texture, oval- 
 acuminate, entire, and al)0ut three inches long. The 
 flowers, which put forth from May to July, are some- 
 times of a pure white, tinted with pale pink, delicately 
 spotted; but, in general, they are a beautiful rose- 
 color, and are destitute of odor. They are disposed in 
 corymbs at the extremity of the branches ; and, as 
 they are always numerous, their brilliant effect is 
 heightened by the richness of the surrounding foliage. 
 
LAU 
 
 nil 
 
 LAW 
 
 The seeds are verj' minute, and are contained in small, 
 globular capsules. 
 
 The Kalmia latifolia is Indigenous to North Amer- 
 ica, from Canada to Carolina, It rarely occurs, how- 
 ever, north of the 42d or 43d degrees of north latitude, 
 and is but sparingly produced in Kentucky and west- 
 em Tennessee, and disappears entirely in the southern 
 States wherever the rivers enter the low countr}', or 
 where the pine-barrens begin. Although it is com- 
 paratively abundant along the rivers of the middle and 
 southern States, it is nowhere seen more profusely 
 multiplied, nor of a greater height, and of more luxu 
 riant vegetation, than in North Carolina, on the loftiest 
 parts of the AUeghanies. It there occupies large 
 tracts, and forms thickets upon their summits, and 
 for a third of their distance down their sides, which 
 are rendered almost impenetrable by the crooked and 
 unyielding trunks, crossed and locked with each other. 
 As the shrubs which compose these copses are nearly 
 of the same height, and richly laden with evergreen 
 foliage, they present, at a distance, the appearance of 
 verdant meadows, surrounded by tall trees. 
 
 The wood of the Kalmia latifolia, particularly that 
 of the roots, is very compact, fine-grained, and marked 
 with red lines. When green, it is of a soft texture, 
 and is easily wrought ; but, when well seasoned, it is 
 very hard, and more nearly resembles the European 
 box (Buxus sempervirens), than any other American 
 wood. Consequently it is worthy of the attention of 
 mathematical instrument-makers, and of engravers on 
 wood. It is sometimes employed in the United States 
 for the handles of light tools, for screws, boxes, etc. ; 
 and it is said, also, to make good clarionets. It is 
 used by the American Indians for making small 
 dishes, spoons, and other domestic utensils. The whole 
 ^ plant is regarded as poisonous to young cattle, and 
 sheep, but not to goats and deer. A decoction of the 
 leaves of this tree was formerly taken bj' those miser- 
 able natives who had determined on self-destruction. 
 But modern enterprise has successfully enlisted it in 
 the service of medicine, and it is applied, in a pulver- 
 ized form, internally, in fevers, or topically, for the 
 relief of cutaneous affections. A few drops of the 
 tincture poured upon the body of a large and vigorous 
 rattlesnake, killed the reptile in a, short time. The 
 powder which covers the leaves is popularly employed 
 in some parts of the countrj' where it grows, for.snufif. 
 The honey collected from the flowers by bees, is ac- 
 counted deleterious, which, with other noxious quali- 
 ties of this elegant shrub, lessens that esteem which 
 its beauty claims. 
 
 The Laurus nobilis is a native of the south of Eu- 
 rope, and northern Africa ; and, according to St. Pierre, 
 remarkably line trees of it were found on the banks of 
 the river Peneus, in Thessaly, which, probably, might 
 have given rise to the fable of the nymph Daphne 
 (supposing the Greek daphni to be this tree), the 
 daughter of that river. The exact date of the intro- 
 duction of this species into Britain is unknown, but it 
 must have been previous to 1562, as it is mentioned by 
 Turner, in his *' Herbal," published in that year; and 
 we find that, in the reign of Elizabeth, the floors of the 
 houses of distinguished persons were strewed with its 
 leaves. The largest recorded tree of this species in 
 Britain, is at Margram, in Glamorganshire, at the 
 seat of C. P. Talbot, M. P., about 12 miles from Swan- 
 sea. It is upward of 60 feet in, height, with a mag- 
 nificent bell-shaped summit, about 60 feet in diameter. 
 At Cypress Grove, near Dublin, in Ireland, there is a 
 laurel 50 feet in height, with a trunk two feet in diam- 
 eter, and an ambitus or spread of branches of 25 feet. 
 Throughout Germany, the Laurus nobilis is a green- 
 house plant. In Bussia, in the Crimea, it requires 
 protection during winter. In Italy and Spain it at- 
 tains a larger size than in any other part of Europe, 
 forming immense bushes, from 50 to 70 feet in height. 
 In the northern parts of the United States it is only 
 
 cultivated as a green-house plant ; but in the southern 
 sections of the Union, where the climate is more mild, 
 it grows in great perfection in the open air. The 
 wood of this tree, from its inferior size, is not much 
 used in construction, nor in the arts. The young 
 branches ^re sometimes employed for the hoops of 
 small casks. Both the leaves and berries were for- 
 merly considered medicinal, being highly aromatic and 
 stomachic ; they are also astringent and carminative. 
 An infusion of them was not only considered benefi- 
 cial, when taken internally, but it was used in foment- 
 ations, etc. From the berries there is extracted a 
 particular principle, called laurine. The kernels of the 
 fruit yield an emollient and resolutive oil,' called Oi'^o/* 
 laurel, which is employed as an embrocation in materia 
 medica, and in the veterinary art. The essential oil 
 is used in perfumery, and for scrubbing wainscots in 
 chambers, in order to drive away flies. The leaves 
 impart a j'ellow color to wool. The principal use of 
 this tree, however, is for hedges, and other purposes 
 of ornament, though the leaves are much employed 
 for flavoring custards, blanc-mange, etc. The flowers 
 afford the best kind of honey, and are numerously 
 frequented by bees. 
 
 The Laurus carolinensis is indigenous to the lower 
 part of Virginia, and is found more or less abundantly 
 throughout the maritime districts of the Carolinas, 
 Georgia, Florida, and of Louisiana. It occurs in the 
 broad swamps which intersect the pine-barrens, and is 
 there associated with the tupelo (Nyssa bljhra), red 
 maple (Acer rubrurn), and the water c^k {Quercus 
 aquatica), A cool and humid soil appears to be essen- 
 tial to its growth ; and it is remarked, that the further 
 south it grows, the more vigorous and beautiful is its 
 vegetation. The wood of the Laurus carolinensis is 
 very strong, and of a beautiful rose-color, with a fine, 
 compact grain, and is susceptible of a brilliant polish, 
 having the appearance of watered satin. Before ma- 
 hogany became in general use in cabinet-making, in 
 the United States, the wood of this tree was much 
 emploj-ed in the regions where it abounds, in the manu- 
 facture of articles of furniture of the highest degree 
 of beauty. It might also be emploj'ed in ship-build- 
 ing, and for other purposes of construction, as it unites 
 the properties of strength and durability; but its 
 trunks are rarely found, of late, of sufficient dimen- 
 sions to render it available for these purposes. When 
 bruised, the leaves diffuse a strong odor, resembling 
 that of the sweet bay (Laurus nobilis), and may, like 
 them, be employed in cookery. — Uromie's Trees of 
 America. 
 
 La'w, John. Law's Bubble was the most ruinous 
 speculation of modern times. The projector, John 
 Law, of Edinburg, raised himself to the dignity of 
 comptroller-general of the finances of Europe, upon the 
 strength of a scheme for establishing a bank, an East 
 India and a Mississippi Companj', by the profits of which 
 the national debt of France was to be paid off. He 
 first offered his plan to Victor Amadeus, King of Sar- 
 dinia, who told him he was not powerful enough to 
 ruin himself. The French ministry accepted of it in 
 1710 ; and in 1716 he opened a bank in his own name, 
 under the protection of the Duke of Orleans, regent of 
 France ; and most of the people of property of every 
 rank in that kingdom, seduced by the prospects of im- 
 mense gains, subscribed both in the bank and the 
 companies. In 1718, Law's was declared a royal bank, 
 and the shares rose to upward of twenty-fold the original 
 value, so that in 1719 they were worth more than 80 
 times the amount of all the current specie in France. 
 But the following year this great fabric of false credit 
 fell to the ground, and almost overthrew the French 
 government, ruining tens of thousand of families. It 
 is remarkable that the same desperate game was 
 played by the South Sea directors in England in the 
 same fatal year, 1720. — Hist, of France, Nouv. Diet. 
 
 Law was the eldest son of William Law, and was 
 
LAW 
 
 niQ 
 
 LAW 
 
 born at Edinburg in the montli of April, 1671. His 
 father followed the profession of goldsmith or banker, 
 with so niuch success, that he was enabled to purchase 
 the lands of Lauriston and Kandleston, which after- 
 ward descended to his son. The latter was educated 
 at Edinburg, where he is said to have made some prog- 
 ress in literature ; but the bent of his genius having 
 led him to study arithmetic and geometry, he attained 
 such proficiency'" in these branches as to be able to 
 solve with facility the most intricate problems ; and 
 he likewise made himself master of algebra. rLaw 
 resided for several years abroad ; first at Paris where 
 he acquired great dexterity in all games of chance, 
 and afterward at Genoa and Venice. One cause as- 
 signed for his leaving Paris, was his eloping with 
 Lad}' Catharine, third daughter of Nicholas, Lord 
 Banbury, and wife of Mr. Senor, or Semour. His 
 success in play was so great, that he is said to 
 have acquired £20,000. The favorite maxim incul- 
 cated by Law, and upon which his whole fabric 
 of the Mississippi system was reared ; namely, that 
 the power and prosperity of a nation increase in pro- 
 portion to the quantity of money circulating therein, 
 and that, as the richest nations have not specie suffi- 
 cient to afford full employment to their inhabitants, 
 this defect may be supplied by paper credit ; involves 
 a dangerous fallacy, even in the most restricted view 
 that can be taken of its application, inasmuch as it 
 implies that paper money may be issued with advan- 
 tage to an almost unlimited extent, upon general 
 Bccurit)' ; aiwl that its credit, or, in other words, its 
 value, may thus be maintained without its being ren- 
 derd convertible at pleasure into cash. But all expe- 
 rience has proved that this is absolutely impossible. 
 There is much truth in an observation of Mr. Burke, 
 in his Reflections on the French Revolution. '* It is not 
 true," says he, "that Law built solely on a specula- 
 tion concerning the Mississippi ; he added the East In- 
 dia trade, he added the African trade, he added the 
 farms of all the farmed revenue of France ; all these 
 unquestionably could mot support the structure which 
 the public enthusiasm, not he, chose to build on these 
 bases. He laid the best foundation that he could, 
 perhaps the best which, in the circumstances, it was 
 possible to laj' ; but the nation went suddenly mad, an 
 event which he could scarcely have foreseen ; the 
 Company was hurried onward by the general frenzy ; 
 and when the delirium had reached its height, the re- 
 gent was advised to Issue the fatal edict, which level- 
 ed the whole fabric to the dust. (See E. B., 1856.) 
 (Euvres de Law^ passim ; Hlstoire du Syst&me des Fi- 
 nances^ torn. i. ; PoUnitz, Memoires; Massillon, Me- 
 moires de la Minorite de Louis XV, ; Memoires de la 
 Regence de M. le Due d' Orleans, tom. i. ; Eichelieu, 
 Memoires, tom. iii. ; Voltaire, Siecle de Louis XV. ; 
 Chalmers's Bioff. Diet., art. " Law." 
 
 Lawn (Ger. and Er. Linon; It. Lmone, Rensa ; 
 Sp. Cambray clarin), a sort of clear or open-worked 
 cambric, which, till of late years, was exclusivelj' 
 manufactured in France and Flanders. At present, 
 the lawn manufacture is established in Scotland and 
 in the north of Ireland, where articles of this kind are 
 brought to such a degree of perfection as nearly to 
 rival the productions of the French and Flemish manu- 
 factories. In the manufacture of lawns, finer flaxen 
 thread is used than in that of cambric. 
 
 Lawrence, a manufacturing town of the United 
 States of North America, Essex county, Massachusetts, 
 is situated on the left bank of the Merrimac, 26 miles 
 north of Boston, and forms the centre of a network of 
 railroads communicating with Lowell, Newburyport, 
 Boston, and other places of importance. Although 
 founded but recently, I^awrence has become one of the 
 chief manufacturing towns in New England, in conse- 
 quence of the great w&ter-power it derives from the Mer- 
 rimac. In 1845, the Essex Commercial Company con- 
 structed a dam of masonry across the stream, by which a 
 
 fall of 28 feet was obtained for the whole riyer. From 
 this dam a canal, from 60 to 100 feet broad, 12 feet deep, 
 and more than a mile long, conducts the water to the 
 various factories situate between it and the Merrimac. 
 The town proper, which is laid out betweeii the latter 
 and a small tributary called the Spicket, has in Its 
 centre an open common of 17-J^ acres in extent, a.nd 
 contains a town-house, jail, several churches and 
 schools, and a literary institute. The inhabitants are 
 almost all employed in the various factories in the 
 town, some of which are of great size, and one, the 
 Pacific, is said to be the largest in the world. The 
 building has seven stories, and. its flooring covers 16 
 acres, while the consumption of cotton within its walls 
 amounts to 1,500,000 lbs. yearly, and of wool to the 
 third of that amount. It giyes employment to about 
 2000 persons. The manufactures of the town com- 
 prise woolen, linen, and cotton goods of various kinds. 
 Incorporated 1847. Population in 1848, 6000 ; in 1850, 
 8283 ; in 1855, about 14,000. . 
 
 Lawrence, St., an important river of North 
 America, forming part of the , north boundarj'" of the 
 United States, and watering the finest portion of Brit- 
 ish America, rises, under the name of the St. Louis, in 
 lat. 47° 45' N., long. 93° W., flows east, and enters 
 the south-west extremity of Lake Superior. Passing 
 through the chain of great lakes, it quits Lake Onta- 
 rio at Kingston. Here it takes the name of the Iro- 
 quois, and flowing north-east forms the wide expanses 
 called Lakes St, Francis, St. Louis, and St. Peter. It 
 is first called St. Lawrence after passing Montreal. 
 Below Quebec it forms a broad estuary ; and it enters 
 the Gulf of St. Lawrence at Gaspe Point by a mouth 
 100 miles wide. Length, from Lake Ontario to the 
 Gulf, 650 miles ; entire length, 1800 miles. The basin 
 of the St. Lawrence is estimated to contain 297,000 
 square miles, of which 94,000 are covered with the 
 waters of the great lakes. The river receives many 
 important tributaries from the north, but none of 
 any size from the south. The tides rise to the dis- 
 trict of Three Rivers. Ships of the line ascend to Que- 
 bec, and vessels of 600 tons to Montreal, The naviga- 
 tion is continued hence by canals to Kingston and 
 Lake Ontario. See Canada Lakes, Commerce of. 
 
 Lawrence, St., Gulf, an inlet of the Atlantic 
 Ocean, British North America, having Newfoundland 
 on the east, Labrador, Lower Canada, and New 
 Brunswick on the north and west, and Nova Scotia 
 and Cape Breton on the south; extending from N. 
 lat. 46° to 51° 30^ and W. long. 58° to 65°. It com- 
 municates with the ocean by three channels, the prin- 
 cipal of which is between Cape Breton and Newfound- 
 land, 48 miles in width at its narrowest part. The 
 other two channels are much narrower ; the Straits 
 of Belle Isle, between the north extremity of New- 
 foundland and Labrador, being 10 miles, and the Gut 
 of Canso, betwixt Cape Breton and the main land, be- 
 ing onl}'- about half a mile in width at the narrowest 
 part. The Gulf is about 300 miles in length, from 
 north to south, by 240 miles in breadth, and incloses 
 numerous islands, the chief of which are — Anticosti, in 
 the north, the Magdalen group in the centre, and 
 Prince Edward's Island in the south. The estuary of 
 the St. Lawrence Kiver debouches into the Gulf at the 
 western extremity of Anticosti ; although, properly 
 speaking, this firth is an inlet of the Gulf as far up as 
 the River Saguenay. Navigation is suspended here 
 during winter and early spring, from the prevalence 
 of ice, which is especiall}'' dangerous in the entrance 
 to the Gulf. Fogs also are verj' frequent during tha 
 prevalence of the east winds in spring. In summer, 
 however, the west and south-west winds render navi- 
 gation comparatively safe. The fisheries, which are 
 very valuable, are prosecuted with assiduity by the 
 colonies as well as by United States' companies. Her- 
 ring, cod, and mackerel abound. See Canada and 
 Lakes. 
 
LAW 
 
 ll'JQ 
 
 LAW 
 
 Lavirs of Commerce. The following article 
 contains a condensed snmmarj' of the present state of 
 commercial law in those countries with which the 
 United States have commercial intercourse. For 
 this valuable sketch, we are indebted to " The Coin- 
 mercial Laws of the World," by Leone Levi, London, 
 1854, 2 vols., 4to. 
 
 1. Anhalt-Benihiurg^ Anhalt-Coethen, Anhall-Dessau, 
 Duchies of. — The Duchies of Anhalt-Bemboufg, An- 
 halt-Coethen, and Anhalt-Dessau, each foTming an 
 independent State, are under laws peculiar to them- 
 selves. One may easily perceive, however, that in 
 provinces of 85 limited eirteht, and where commercial 
 relations are very partially developed, legislation must 
 have remained imperfect. Thus,' in their tribunals, 
 they have to refer either to laws which are rather civil 
 than commercial, to foreign legislation, or to the com- 
 mon law of Germany. Two ordinances of 31st Au- 
 gust, 1802 and 1832, on bills of exchange,'were replaced 
 by the law recently enacted for all Germany. There 
 exists in the Duchy of Anhalt-Dessau an ordinance in 
 regard to brokers, of the 19th April, 1803, and a law 
 relating to bankruptcy, of the 12th July, 1818 ; but 
 these contain only a small number of unimportant ar- 
 rangements, which it is unnecessary to -Specify ; with 
 only one exception, namely, that in the law regarding 
 brokers, every contract concluded by such persons is 
 null if not drawn up in writing, and is Complete onlj' 
 when the deed has appended to it the signatures of the 
 parties interested. There is no special jurisdiction in 
 the three Duchies for the determination of commercial 
 suits. They are decided by the ordinaiy tribunals. 
 It would be difficult to enter into the detail of the or- 
 ganization of these courts, the powers of which are of 
 a very complicated character, and whose competency 
 varies according to the persons or matters brought be- 
 fore them. It is sufficient to remark that the princes 
 of the three Duchies of Anhalt joined with the princes 
 of Sohwartzburg in establishing, 14th October, 1807, a 
 supreme court of appeal, before which all affairs, civil 
 and criminal, of their respective States, are, or may 
 be, finally carried. 
 
 2. Austrian' Empire. — The commercial legislation of 
 Austria, at present in force, is traced to the time of 
 Maria Theresa, who, in ' 1756, published an ordinance 
 of considerable length on matters connected with com- 
 merce. She at the same time caused a revision of the 
 fonner law of exchange of 1717, and by letters patent 
 of 1st October, 1763, declared the same to be impera- 
 tive in almost all the provinces of the Austrian mon- 
 archy. This, consisting of 54 articles; contains direc- 
 tions relative to bills of exchange and to other points 
 of commercial law. ■ Various modifications, however, 
 of later date, have passed on it. The law of bank- 
 ruptcy is equally due to the care of Maria Theresa, al- 
 though not promulgated before the reign of Joseph II. 
 This law, not less important on account of the wisdom 
 of its pi-ovisions than from its general ' extension 
 throughout all the Austrian States, was to have come 
 in force on the 1st of Januarj*-, 1782, but in conse- 
 quence of some accompanying difficulties, was not 
 acted u])Oii till the Ist of May following. It repeals 
 all the pre-existing statutes in relation to bankruptcj-i 
 It presents at the same time certain undetermined 
 points afterward provided for by later statutes, mostly 
 inserted In the judiciary ordinances of Gallicia. As 
 all the provisions of this law were repeated in a new 
 edition of the Lombardo-Venetian code, the most im- 
 portant p'oints will be exhibited in that division under 
 the title " Bankruptcy." The maritime legislation of 
 Austria is the work of the same empress. It dates 25th 
 April, 1774. She published the ordinance known un- 
 der the title, " Editto Politico di Navigaziohe Mercan- 
 tile AuStriaca," attended thereafter by some other ordi- 
 nances. The whole, however, is far from being a perfect 
 system of commercial legislation. The " Editto Polit- 
 ico," which embraces the most extensive and the wisest 
 
 provisions in regard to captains and seamen, contains 
 nothing on the subject of freight-contracts, of bot- 
 tomrj'-bond, and insurances. In the absence, there- 
 fore, of legislative decision, reference is at present 
 made, on the shores of the Adriatic, to the French " Or- 
 donnance de la Marine" of 1682. These different laws 
 are already of somewhat ancient date, and are by no 
 means adequate to the new wants of commerce. We 
 are led to this conclusion bj' the fact that of late 
 there were being prepared in Austria two projects of 
 law, the object of which was to embrace in the one 
 the interests of inland commerce on which a great part 
 of the new code of Hungary has been based ; in the 
 other, all the maritime legislation. Neither the one 
 nor the other has received the legislative sanction.- 
 
 . 3. Backw^ Grand Duchy<of. — From the 1st July, 
 1809, the French code has been in force within the 
 Grand Duchy of Baden. Though the text of this 
 has not been altered, and the same order of articles 
 has been maintained as far as article 206, numerbus 
 additions, under the form of articles supplemenlalry, 
 have been introduced, particularly in what relates' to 
 commission, carrying-trade, and bills of exchange. "We 
 have inserted only these' additional regulations. The 
 civil code of the Grand Duchy of Baden, under the 
 head of " Property," contains important provisions in 
 regard to literary property. The -second book on 
 maritime commerce was necessarily retrenched. The 
 fourth, on commercial jurisdiction, also has not been 
 reproduced. 
 
 4. BavO/ria. — Bavaria has no commercial code, nor 
 evena commercial legislation, applicable to the whole 
 extent of its territory. In the provinces where the 
 Code Napoleon has been maintained, that is, in Rhenish 
 Bavaria, the Code de Commerce is equally in force. 
 In a similar manner, the districts which formerly be- 
 longed to Prussia, such as the principalities of Ans.' 
 pach and Bairenth, incorporated into Bavaria in 1803, 
 have preserved' the Prussian legislation. There are, 
 therefore, none but the ancient provinces of Bavaria 
 which are governed by.special laws. This legislation, 
 in what concerns commercial right, is extremely im- 
 perfect. In most cases, it is true, the defect is sup- 
 plied by the common law of Germany and by the civil 
 lawj but the documents most important and complete, 
 are three statutes : the first known under the name of 
 the statute for Bavaria of 24th November, 1785, ex- 
 tending to all the provinces of the kingdom by the 
 laws of 11th of September, 1825. The two others, 
 that of 1778, for the city of Augsburg, and that of the 
 16th February, 1722, for the city of Nuremberg. We 
 find in these three enactments regulations not only in 
 regard to bills of exchange, but respecting merchants^ 
 brokers, partnership, and factorage. 
 
 5. Belgium,^ Kingdom of, — The commercial code of 
 France, without any modification, has continued to 
 regulate affairs of commerce in Belgium ever since the 
 year 1814, the period at which a political separation 
 between the two countries took place. The same ju- 
 diciary organization has been in like manner continued. 
 The single exception is, that a law has been enacted 
 in Belgium (26th March, 1841) ordering that the tri- 
 bunals of commerce shall give final judgment in causes 
 that may come before them to the amount of 2000 
 francs, whereas in France the law of the 25th May, 
 1838, fixes the competency of the tribunals in the first 
 instance at 1500 francs. Royal edicts have named 
 commissions charged to prepare projects of law for the 
 revision of the legislation in regard to bankruptcy, 
 suspension of payment, partnership, civil or commer- 
 cial insurances, writs of captim, mortgage seizure 
 of real estate, accounts of law, expenses', marriage 
 contract, possession and division of property. A law 
 has been in progress on the proper interpretation of 
 article 442 of the Code of Commerce. It was discussed 
 in the Chamber of Representatives in the session of 
 1842, but was rejected by the Senate. 
 
LAW 
 
 1180 
 
 LAW 
 
 6. Brazil^ Empire of. — A commercial code to which 
 that of Spain has served as a basis, has lately been 
 issued, but not being yet in our possession, we refer 
 our readers to article Brazil. 
 
 7. BremeQi. — Though the city of Bremen was one of 
 the first in the ancient Hanseatic League, and is still 
 among the most important sea-ports in Germany, its 
 commercial legislation is extremel}*" defective and in- 
 complete. Statutes and legislative enactments bear- 
 ing a very remote date, have fallen entirely into 
 desuetude, and causes are determined either by the 
 common law of Germany or by that of neighboring 
 legislations, Hamburg, etc. Commercial disputes are 
 determined by the tribunal of commerce, as in Ham- 
 burg. Bremen names two deputies to the Supreme 
 Court established at Lubec for the four Hanseatic 
 Towns. 
 
 8. Brunswick, Duchy of. — The city of Brunswick 
 had formerly celebrated fairs. She obtained at an 
 early period a special ordonnance in regard to exchange, 
 which, renewed on 1st August, 1715, and afterward 
 extended to the Duchies of Brunswick andBranden- 
 bourg, was still the law of the State until, the law for 
 bills of exchange for all Germany came into force. 
 Another ordinance relating to bankruptcy, of date 26th 
 March, 1823, is almost the only document of a com- 
 mercial character to be found in the duchy ; for with 
 the exception of some recent decisions in the Court of 
 Appeal of Wolfenbiittel in regard to mercantile ac- 
 coxmts and factorage, and whose simple object was to 
 give the force of law to usages already established, 
 other enactments have been of a description so purely 
 of detail, without bearing directly on commercial leg- 
 islation, properl}' so called, that it has been thought 
 unnecessary to do more than refer to them. In the 
 Duchy of Brunswick commercial causes are deter- 
 mined by the ordinarj' tribunals. 
 
 9. Cracow, — The commercial code of France, of 
 which an almost literal translation was made for the 
 use of Warsaw, has not been officially repealed in the 
 new kingdom of Poland. ' It appears unlikely, how- 
 ever, that legislation of French origin will be per- 
 manent in this country. In the city of Cracow the 
 code just mentioned still maintains its authority. It 
 is also in force throughout the Grand Duchy of War- 
 saw, having been introduced in 1808 ; Cracow at that 
 time forming a part of the duchy. Only one altera- 
 tion has been made in the code, namely, that which 
 authorizes the notaries and the judges of the court to 
 affix their seals to the property real or movable of a 
 bankrupt, and to determine the dividend payable to 
 the respective creditors. Commercial affairs have no 
 special tribunal. They are earned before the ordinarj'- 
 courts as well in first instance as in cases of appeal. 
 Three laws, the one of loth October, 1819, relative to 
 the public exchange (la Bourse), and the corporation 
 of merchants, and the other two of the 1st March, 
 1821, and 19th May, 1833, on the freedom of commer- 
 cial transactions, and on the restrictions to which in 
 certain cases they may be liable, are not of sufficiently 
 general interest to have a place given them here. 
 There are certain articles of produce subjected by the 
 Senate to a tarift', in which trading is not considered 
 as a part of commerce, and only legal process of a 
 civil character is allowed. 
 
 10. Denmark.- — The enactments relating to com- 
 mercial jurisprudence in Denmark are not at all 
 numerous. In matters of exchange the ancient ordon- 
 nance of 1768, has been replaced by a later act of legis- 
 lature of 18th May, 1825, which repeals all preceding 
 deeds with the exception of that of 26th June, 1824, 
 relative to some particular branches of the law on 
 bills of exchange, the rescript of 22d March, 1769, 
 and the proclamation of 8th November, 1799, in which 
 are found regulations for bills upon the West Indies. 
 The maritime law of Denmark contained in the code 
 of Christian V., 1683, continues still in force. We 
 
 should have confined ourselves to an analysis of those 
 regulations which possess only a historical interest ; 
 but we have felt the propriety of joining with them 
 an anah'tic view of all the later enactments and laws 
 which have served to complete, at this day, this an- 
 cient monument of maritime jurisprudence, and which 
 we are enabled to present by the assistance of the ex- 
 cellent abstract of M. Poehls. As to bankruptcy, 
 there exists no law which gives precise and fixed 
 rules. Ordonnances of verj' ancient date, the mean- 
 ing of which long custom has determined, constitute, 
 on this subject, the legislation of the country. It 
 would have been a matter of great difficulty to give a 
 copy of these had not a valuable document, due to the 
 labors of M. Orstedt, Attorney-General in the High 
 Court of Copenhagen, and generally intended for the 
 use of the French Conseil d'Etat at the time of the 
 discussions on the projet de loi on bankruptcy (pub- 
 lished 28th May, 1838), enabled us to present an ab- 
 stract which will be found as exact as it is substantial 
 and well arranged. 
 
 11. France. — France had, under the administration 
 of Colbert, united, or rather codified, her commercial 
 legislation, and collected in the two ordinances of com- 
 merce and navigation of 1673 and 1681, their princi- 
 ples, usages, and customs. Yet the want of a general 
 code of laws was seriously felt until, with the entire 
 reconstruction of her political institutions. Napoleon 
 ordered the compilation of codes which, within a short 
 period, were presented and adopted. With some un- 
 important modifications, they are still the basis of 
 French jurisprudence. AVith regard to the adminis- 
 tration of commercial law, the following is a summary 
 of the report of the Minister of Justice for the year 
 1846, which deserves attentive consideration : — Tribu- 
 nals of Commerce. — Commercial affairs are adjudicated 
 by 220 special tribunals of commerce, established in 
 the most commercial departments, and by 170 civil tri- 
 bunals, which are charged to take cognizance of the 
 same in the other departments. In 1846 there were 
 introduced 207,279 new cases before these 390 tribun- 
 als ; 177,446 have been brought before the 220 special 
 tribunals, and 29,833 only before the civil tribunals, 
 judging commercially. In 1845 only 191,687 cases 
 were enrolled in the 390 tribunals ; since 1845 the 
 number has increased 38 per cent. On 31st Decem- 
 ber, 1845, there remained 7,932 cases to be adjudi- 
 cated ; 3,864 cases which were considered as terminated 
 by compromise or abandonment, were brought before 
 the court in 1846. These, united to the 207,279 new 
 cases, form a total of 219,039 cases to be adjudicated. 
 Of this number 59,323 have been adjudicated contra- 
 dictorily, and 115,308 by non-appearance ; 4029 have 
 been submitted bj' the tribunals to arbitration, and 
 32,705 have been erased from the register as termi- 
 nated by compromise or abandonment ; 7678 only 
 were left unsettled on the 3l6t December, 1846, or 
 hardly 3^ per cent., while the civil tribunals left un- 
 settled at the same epoch 26 per cent, of the civil 
 cases brought before them. Of the 174,641 adjudica- 
 tions rendered in 1846 by the tribunals of commerce 
 34,569 only, hardly one fifth, were susceptible of ap- 
 peal. The special tribunals of commerce have 1 
 court and 1 president onl}' ; the number of judges 
 varies from 1 to 10, and that of the surrogates from 2 
 to 16. The tribunals of Paris and Lyons have each 
 10 judges, and of suiTogates the first 16, the second 6 ; 
 8 tribunals have 6 judges and 4 to 6 surrogates ; 1 only 
 has 5 judges and 3 surrogates ; 96 have 4 judges and 2 
 to 4 surrogates ; 106 have 3 judges and 2 to 4 surro- 
 gates ; lastly, 7 have 2 judges and 2 surrogates. In 
 1840 the tribunals of commerce of Paris had dis- 
 patched 56,276 cases, or more than one fourth of the 
 total number. The tribunals of commerce which 
 have dispatched most cases after that of Paris, are 
 those of Lyons, 9841 ; Pvouen, 4914 ; Marseilles, 4296 ; 
 Bordeaux, 4137 ; Toulouse, 3723 ; that of Limoges, 
 
LAW 
 
 1181 
 
 LAW 
 
 2307 ; 21 other tribunals have adjudicated upon 1000 
 to 2000 cases ; 11 tribunals composed of 3 to 4 judges 
 have dispatched each 50 per year, and 16 others have 
 terminated from 50 to 100 only. There were rendered, 
 in 1846, 290 sentences by arbitration in disputes be- 
 tween partners, 169 of which with the assistance 
 of a third. The greffiers of the tribunals of com- 
 merce have received the deposit of 2724 partnership 
 deeds, of which 1989 in collective names, 459 in com- 
 mandite, 235 by shares to nominated persons, and 41 
 by shares to the bearer, 39 anonymous partnerships, 
 have been besides authorized by regulations of public 
 administration; in all, 2747 partnerships of every 
 kind. The greffier of the tribunal of the Seine alone 
 has received 869 partnership deeds, almost the third of 
 the total number. -On 31st December, 1845, there re- 
 mained 5964 bankruptcies to be liquidated. In 1846, 
 3795 new ones were opened ; 3606 only have been ter- 
 minated, and 6153, or almost two thirds of them were 
 left unsettled at the end of the year ; 1612 bankrupt- 
 cies have been terminated by compromise ; 1031 by 
 liquidations ; 829 have been closed by insufficiencj' of 
 capital; lastly, there have been declared 134 judg- 
 ments of bankruptcies. The tribunal of commerce of 
 the Seine has terminated 896 bankruptcies in 1846, 
 that of Rouen 193, of Lyons 131, of Bordeaux 60, of 
 Marseilles 51. The passive debt of 356 bankruptcies 
 which terminated in 1846, by agreement or liquida- 
 tion, did not exceed 5000 francs ; it varied from 5000 
 to 10,000 in 441 bankruptcies ; from 10,000 to 50,000 
 In 1269 ; from 50,000 to 100,000 francs m 270; lastly, 
 it exceeded 100,000 francs in 307. The amount of the 
 active debt of 2943 bankruptcies liquidated was 51,- 
 819,391 francs ; namely, in estates, 19,855,111 francs ; 
 and movables, 31,964,280 francs. The total amount 
 of the passive debt was 143,544,671 francs ; mortgaged 
 debt, 19,257,540 ; prtvileged, 3,901,637 ; and ordinarj-, 
 120,385,494 francs. The loss borne by the ordinarj' 
 creditors was, on an average, 76 per cent. The divi- 
 dend obtained has been more than 75 per cent. ; in 84 
 bankruptcies 51 to 75 per cent. ; in 62 from 26 to 50 
 per cent. ; in 594 10 to 25 in 1228 ; and 1 per cent, in 
 412. In 185 bankruptcies the ordinary creditors have 
 received nothing; the assets having been absorbed 
 by mortgaged and privileged creditors. Lastly, the 
 dividends of 78 bankruptcies terminated by compro- 
 mise have not been, indicated, as the assets could not 
 be realized immediately. Court of Appeal. — In com- 
 mercial matters the number of judgments susceptible 
 of appeal have been in 1846, 34,569. 2511 appeals 
 were made, namely, 7 appeals for 100 judgments less 
 than in civil matters ; 1777 appeals only were adjudi- 
 cated upon. 1212 judgments (68 per cent.) have been 
 confirmed ; 1565 (32 per cent.) modified in whole or in 
 part; 602 appeals have been negatived. Council of 
 Prudhommes. — 68 councils existed, 4 of which did not 
 sit in 1846. The 64 councils have had on hand 21,254 
 cases. The parties have withdrawn 3153 cases before 
 they were settled ; 16,140 have been conciliated ; 1762 
 remitted to the bureaux-general, and 196 to the judge 
 of peace. 
 
 12. Frcmhfort. — The ancient ordinance of Frankfort 
 (26 May, 1739) relative to various points of com- 
 mercial law, such as partnership, commission, and 
 brokerage, has alwaj-s continued in force. The Sen- 
 ate had in- 1811 prepared a project similar in great part 
 of its provisions to the French code, but which, from 
 national feeling; was not adopted in 1814. In 1827, a 
 new project of a code of commercial law was pub- 
 lished, for the purpose of being submitted to jurists 
 and to merchants. This project, however, has not 
 hitherto received any legislative sanction ; so that the 
 ordinance of 1739 still remains as law. There exists 
 in Frankfort no special jurisdiction for commercial 
 matters : they are brought before the ordinary tribu- 
 nals. There is a court of appeal, a municipal court, 
 and a municipal or tentorial bailiwick. The supreme 
 
 court of appeal sits at Lubec. Its jurisdiction extends 
 to all the free cities of Germany. 
 
 13. Great Britain. — The mercantile law of England 
 is almost entirely founded on what has been expe- 
 rienced to be most conducive to the welfare of society. 
 Its origin is derived from many sources, whUe ancient 
 commercial enactments were the basis of our maritime 
 law. With the increase of commerce and general ad- 
 vancement of the nation, mercantile law grew in im- 
 portance. Promissorj'-notes and the banking system 
 were placed in their present state during the reign of 
 William and Anne. Numbers of judges followed, whose 
 commanding intelligence formed an epoch in the annals 
 of jurisprudence. The names of Justice Hale, Lord 
 Mansfield, and Lord Stowell, are rendered familiar from 
 their being constantly referred to in the adjudication of 
 the most subtle arguments on conimercial law. Moat 
 of the commercial law of Great Britain is included in 
 the common law ; yet lately various enactments have 
 passedyconsolidating the bankruptcy law, joint-stock 
 compaAies, etc. The law of Scotland differs materially 
 from that of England in contracts and bankruptcy. 
 The mercantile law of this country is entirely included 
 in the civil law, of which Erskine, Stair, etc., are the 
 leading writers. 
 
 14. Greece. — Since the erection of Greece into a sov- 
 ereign and independent State, its government has been 
 engaged in fixing its laws and digesting the various 
 codes. The civil law is still determined by the manu- 
 al of Hermunapol, the latest compilation of the Byzan- 
 tine emperors. The commercial code, which is but a 
 textual repetition of that of France, with a few unim- 
 portant alterations, has been in force since 1st May, 
 1835. These alterations consist only in the suppres- 
 sion of Articles 615 to 630, relating to the organization 
 of tribunals of commerce, in place of which there is 
 the law of 1834. To complete the documents relative 
 to the commercial code, we shall say that the law of 
 14th May, 1835, re-established the regulations of Arts. 
 631 and 641 of the French code, which at first had been 
 suppressed. It is interesting to remark that the 
 adoption of the French code was anterior to the Greek 
 revolution ; inasmuch as in 1821 it had been twice 
 translated, and the merchants of Greece had unani- 
 mously adopted it. It was for the purpose of con- 
 firming this volutnary preference that his majesty 
 Otho, by a royal declaration of May, 1835, gave 
 the force of law to a translation executed by his 
 command, and now acknowledged as the sole official 
 authority. As to the judicial organization, it is simi- 
 lar to that of France. There is an innovation, how- 
 ever, which is of some practical utility; this is the 
 being obliged to choose a jurist as president of the 
 tribunal of commerce. All the articles of the com- 
 mercial code are the same as the regulations of that of 
 France, with the exceptions of the modifications duly 
 noticed. 
 
 15. Hamburg. — Though the commercial laws of 
 Hamburg are now of old date, and have frequently, 
 particularly in later j'ears, been sought to be submitted 
 to revision, yet going back, as they do, to the statutes 
 of 1603, and supplied, when defective, by enactments of 
 greatly more recent date, they demand our notice ; 
 and the more so that they regulate matters not only in 
 Hamburg but in the neighboring cities, such as Bre- 
 men and Lubec, where, properly speaking, there exist 
 no commercial laws whatever. The enactments most 
 recently made in regard to points embraced in the 
 commercial code of France are the following : an en- 
 actment on the subject of brokerage, of 15th Decem- 
 ber, 1824, and another on partnership, of 28th Decem- 
 ber, 1836, the latter, however, having only for its 
 object the deposit and publication of partnership deeds. 
 The statutes of 1603, relative to mercantile books, 
 have not been repealed by any later enactment. The 
 law on bills of exchange is now similar to that of Prus- 
 sia. The regulations in regard to maritime commerce 
 
LAW 
 
 1182 
 
 LAW 
 
 are still chiefly borrowed from the statutes of 1603. As 
 they have been modified, however, by several more 
 recent enactments, we have availed ourselves of the 
 work of M. Poehls upon this subject. These will be 
 found also in the proper place — the regulation in re- 
 gard to maritime insurance of 10th September, 1731 — 
 of great importance to one wishing information, and 
 remarkable for the completeness of its details. Bank- 
 ruptcies, before the tribunals of commerce (a procedure 
 which does not exist generally in Germany, where in 
 cases of failure the process for a settlement between 
 the parties is carried to the civil courts), have been 
 regulated by an ordinance of 31st August, 1752. The 
 commercial jurisdiction and competency of tribunals 
 of commerce had been fixed by the law of 15th Decem- 
 ber, 1815, which appointed a tribunal of commerce at 
 Hamburg for all commercial afi'airs. Prior to 1816 
 these were carried before the administrative authority, 
 or before the Court of Admiralty when the afl'air was 
 of a maritime character. 
 
 16. Hanover. — There existed, accurately speaking, 
 no commercial legislation in Hanover till the period 
 of the Prussian occupation in 1801. Immediately 
 after this the Prussian code was introduced into the 
 bailiages of Heldesheim, Verden, Haya, Diepholtz, 
 Osnabruch, and Lenjar. A royal ordinance of George 
 IV., dated 23d July, 1822, confirmed it. It is still the 
 existing law. In the other parts of the kingdom there 
 exists, with the exception of the regulation in bills of 
 exchange, of the same date (23d July, 1822), no law 
 whatever, bearing on commerce. Actions are deter- 
 mined by usage and common law. The new penal code 
 adopted in Hanover, 1840, fixes the penalties estab- 
 lished in cases of bankruptcy. All commercial difi'er- 
 ences are brought before the ordinary tribunals. In 
 most instances, however, they are terminated amica- 
 bly by arbitrament, or they are decided by the muni- 
 cipal court which ordains according to common law, 
 or, otherwise, acts in the capacity of a court of equity. 
 
 17. Hayti, Republic of. — The republic of Haj'ti has 
 had, since 1828, its codes in uniformity with those of 
 France. The commercial code is throughout the same 
 as that of France. It was published on 28th March, 
 1826, and has been acted upon since 1st July, 1827. 
 The other codes, those relating to civil and commercial 
 procedure, penal and rural, form together, with the 
 civil and commercial codes, one body of law, dated the 
 25th year of Independence, and produced by the la- 
 bors of M. Blanchet, a distinguished member of the 
 Parisian bar. 
 
 18. Hesse, Grand Duchy of. — The French code has 
 been maintained where it had been introduced at the 
 time of the French occupation in the Rhenish prov- 
 inces. With regard to the other provinces such as 
 Starkenburg and Hesse-Superieure, commercial leg- 
 islation is regulated as much as possible in conformity 
 with the French law, with the exception of the town 
 of Offenbach, which had a special ordinance on the 
 exchange, of date 4th March, 1829, the same as that 
 of Frankfort. There are no tribunals of commerce in 
 the Grand Duchy ; commercial disputes are submitted, 
 as in most parts of Germany, to ordinarj- tribunals. 
 
 19. Hesse Electorate. — Three ordinances onlj-, and of 
 verj' old date, exist in this State on commercial mat- 
 ters ; the first, of 16th May, 1747, on bankruptcies ; 
 the second, of 21st November, 1788, on partnerships ; 
 the third, of 14th December, 1796, concerning com- 
 mercial books. Although these three ordinances serve 
 only to establish principles already recognized, and 
 contain only a very limited number of provisions, yet 
 we have thought it necessary to reproduce them. In- 
 dependently of these ordinances, which are far from 
 forming a suflicient body of commercial law, they gen- 
 erally refer either to the French code which has been 
 in force for some time in this country, or to the com- 
 mon law of Germany. 
 
 20. Holland. — The code of Holland came into oper- 
 
 ation the 1st October, 1838. It passed.under a severe 
 ordeal, and it was delayed through the revolution which 
 caused her separation from Belgium. 
 
 21. fisJensoHonv-i/ecAwijre™.— (Principalities of Sieg- 
 maringer and Lichtenstein.) These States have no 
 general procedure for commercial matters ; the disputes 
 arising on them are adjudicated by the ordinary tribu- 
 nals. The principality of Lichtenstein is governed, for 
 commercial. matters especially, by the laws and ordi- 
 nances of' Austria. 
 
 22. Ionian Islands. — The French code of commerce, 
 with a small number of modifications, most of which 
 have been borrowed from the code of commerce of Two 
 Sicilies, has recently been introduced in the United 
 States of the seven Ionian Islands, which form an 
 aristocratic representative republic under the perpet- 
 ual protectorate of England. A decree of 16th March 
 (26th February), 1841, abrogated all the laws, stat- 
 utes, regulations) general or local customs, the re- 
 quirements of which are contrary to the present code 
 which came in force on the 1st May, 1841. At the 
 same epoch of Ist May, 1841, the other codes of civil 
 and criminal procedure, and the penal codes, had been 
 promulgated ; they are drawn up almost in the same 
 spirit and system as the French codes. 
 
 23. Lombardo-Venellan Kingdom. — The French code 
 of commerce has been almost entirely preserved 
 in the Lombardo-Venetian Kingdom; only with re- 
 gard to bankruptcies' they refer to the Austrian legis- 
 lation ; namely, to the ordinance of 1st January, 1782, 
 and to the more recent ordinances inserted mostly in 
 the ordinance for ^yeste^n Gallicia, and later on in the 
 judicial ordinance, for the Italian States of the Aus- 
 trian monarchy. A translation in Italian of the French 
 code of commerce has been recently published at Mi- 
 lan, where those provisions which have remained in 
 vigor, and have the force of law have been reproduced ; 
 these provisions have replaced the French code, espe- 
 cially on bankruptcies. We have made use of this 
 work as the most' authentic compilation we could 
 adopt ; and have simply indicated the direct corre- 
 spondence between them and the ancient ordinances 
 or law of 1782, and the ordinance of Gallicia, deeming 
 this sufiicient to show the various changes which have 
 been made. Trieste follows entirely the Austrian leg- 
 islation, namely, the ordinance of 1760 on bills of ex- 
 change; that on bankruptcies of 1782 modified by 
 more recent laws, such as that of Gallicia and others, 
 and the political proclamation of Maria Theresa of 
 1673, on maritime commerce. 
 
 24. Lubec (Free Town of). — Lubec, although a 
 truly commercial city, does not, properly speaking, 
 possess any body of commercial law. She borrows 
 provisions relative to this matter either from the com- 
 mon law of Germany from foreign legislation, or from 
 ancient statutes. The Stadtrecht, which is the found- 
 ation of the law of Lubec, is not sufficient for the 
 wants of commerce. Vet, with all the imperfections 
 of the law, attempts to improve it have proved abor- 
 tive. The political constitution of Lubec, which 
 goes as far back as the middle ages, demands, for the 
 compilation or revision of the law, such minute and 
 complicated formalities that even the most indispensa- 
 ble improvements are infinitely long delayed. Every 
 project, in fact, after having been elaborated by a com- 
 mission, and subjected to the examination of the Sen- 
 ate, must be successively discussed and approved by 
 the eleven colleges of the Burgess. This mode of de- 
 liberating, isolated and multiplied, carries with it 
 lengthened and incalculable difficulties. Practice 
 very imperfectly supplies defects of the written law; 
 because no regular jurisprudence can be established in 
 a country where the inhabitants terminate their dif- 
 ferences chiefly by arbitration. This is so true that 
 in 1840 the supreme court established at Lubec, for 
 the 4 free towns of Germany, had to adjudicate only 
 upon 4 appeals made by the citizens of Lubec. Nev- 
 
LAW 
 
 1183 
 
 LAW 
 
 ertheless, M. Herbert, the French consul there, in 18il, 
 IranBmilted to the Minister of Foreign Affairs in 
 France, a remarkable work on such le'gislation as that 
 of Lubec, that we think proper to give some extracts 
 from it. Through his care and enlightened zeal, we 
 are furnished with some valuable documents on mer- 
 chants, also, oil commercial books, brokers, on whom 
 there exists a regulation of the 26th June, 1822, and 
 on commercial jurisdiction. With reference to mari- 
 time commerce we have followed the treatise of Poehls, 
 so methodic and complete. The Stadtrecht is silent 
 on bills of exchange. The three ordinances of 14th 
 November, 1669, of 5th March, 1738, and of 20th Au- 
 gust, 1823, contain only provisions of simple proce- 
 dure. The first prescribes some measure for prompt 
 execution iti matters of exchange ; the second declares 
 the right of appeal, but not its suspension po*fers ; and 
 the third leaves to the tribunals'the faculty to exam- 
 itie whether a permission may be given to the natives 
 of taking prdceediiigs in matters of exchange. The 
 reproduction of these texts did not aj)pear to us neces- 
 sary. Title IX. of the Third Book of the Stadtrecht 
 is devoted to commercial partnerships ; but their pro- 
 visioiis are not in conformitj' with the developments 
 that have taken place which ancient law could neither 
 foresee nor regulate. Thus while expecting the en- 
 actment of a law on bankruptcy^ and bearing on this 
 subject, they are guided by the regulation of Ham- 
 burg. As for bankruptcies, the subject is so obscure 
 and uncertain thait it is now fifty j'ears since mer- 
 chants demanded some regulations; but difiiculties, 
 apparently insur'modntable, have hitherto prevented 
 any inipi-ovement. Still there exists a project pre- 
 pared in the name of a' commission by the Syndic 
 Buccholz, a distinguished jurist. This project is to be 
 submitted to the Senate. It seems that it is composed of 
 more than 150 Arts, and that it approaches the French 
 code in its spirit and as' a whole. The title I. of the 
 Third Boole of the Stadtrecht contains some pro%'lsi6ns 
 still in force (the rights of creditors privileged, cred- 
 itors distraint, etc., etc.), but which bave reference 
 more to individuals in general than to merchants. The 
 " Bourse" of Lubec is regulated entirely by that of 
 Hamburg, for the course of exchange, money and pub- 
 lic funds, With respect to jurisdiction, commercial 
 affairs are submitted to the civil tribunals of three dif- 
 ferent degrees, of which we will give some details. 
 
 25. X'Ucca, Duchy of. — -An oirdinance' of 6th May, 
 1840, declares that the French code of commerce shall 
 continue in force in the Duchy of Lucca. 
 
 '20. Luxemburg., Grand Duchy of. — .The French code 
 of commerce has not ceased in the Grand Duchy of 
 Luxemburg. Simply a decree of King William, of 
 3d April,' 1817, modifies the articles 615, 640, and 641. 
 It suppresses the tribunals of commerce, and it orders 
 that commercial disputes shall be adjudicated by the 
 Ordinarj' tribunals. 
 
 27. J/a?^a.— Much confusion exists in Malta, in the 
 application 6f the laws in regard to commerce ; a want 
 of Jtxiti/j which gives occasion to constant complaints. 
 Their onljf guides are the " Ordonnance oy French Ma- 
 rine," of 1681, and other old authorities, such as the 
 Code, or *' Pragmatique," of the Grand Master Manoel 
 (which is only subsidiarily in force), or the code of 
 1784, of the Grand Master de Rohan, which bears the 
 name of " Municipal Law," and is at present a very 
 general authority. Subsequently to the date last 
 given, proclamations emanating from the different 
 governments which have succeeded each other in 
 Malta, and in particular that of Britain, since 1800, 
 have introduced or remodeled certain rules of juris- 
 prudence in regard to various points of commercial 
 equity. The result has been a sort of common law, 
 generally adopted in practice, and acted upon by the 
 tribunals. To promote this object, a collection of all 
 commercial usages in the form of a manual, has been 
 published by gentlemen of the legal profession; it 
 
 bears the title of " Compendm di Diritto Commereiale 
 Maltese (Malta, 1841)"-Al!ompendium of the Commer- 
 cial Law of Malta. This collection presents an 
 abridged view of the principles of Maltese legislation 
 and jurisprudence, in the aisence of any thing lilce a 
 regular system of commercial law. It is a subject of 
 regret that the English government has not followed 
 up its plan in ^ving a code to the Ionian Republic by 
 promulgating a similar one in Malta. (We under- 
 stand that the civil code for Malta is already prepared 
 and printed.) On the subject of bills of excha,nge, the 
 want of legal arrangements has been peculiarly felt. 
 In the mean time, the regulations in regard to mari- 
 time commerce, borrowed chieflj' from the French 
 shipping law, enter much into the necessarj' details, 
 and foririthe principal part of the commercial law of the 
 island. In the matter of bankruptcy, the ordinances 
 of 1815 have established certain principles which, 
 in the form of procedure especially, have been only 
 imperceptibly modified by later enactments. These 
 regulations treat bankruptcy as in England — Chap. 
 XVI. — in which it is stated, that should any difiicul.' 
 ties occur in regard to procedure, reference should be 
 had to the law of England. The judiciary organiza- 
 tion, which dates from 1679, was terminated by the 
 constitution of 1814. The maritime' consulship was 
 then reformed, and the name of tribunal of commerce 
 imposed. ' Regulations were at the same time enacted 
 for its suitableeificiency. The commercial code so many 
 years under consideration, was revised by the council 
 in 1847, on tlie recommendation contained in the able 
 Report of Andrew Jameson, Esq., Advocate, Sheriff- 
 depute of the County of Edinburg. A commission was 
 also named to revise the code of civil procedure, in- 
 tended to remove many obstructions and delays in the 
 administration of justice.' — Parliamentary Report, 1849. 
 
 28. MecMenburg-Schwerin, and Mecklenburg-StrelUz, 
 Duchies of. — -There exists in these Duchies no pecu- 
 liar law relating to commerce. The only authority 
 throughout their respective provinces is the common 
 law of German)''. Rostock, however, has a municipal 
 law peculiar to itself. A decree of this city was passed, 
 19th December, 1827, relativeto bills of exchange. 
 
 29. Modena, DUchy of.- — The duchy of Modena has 
 no code of commerce. Reference is made to the opin- 
 ions of the most celebrated writers, Such as Casaregi 
 and Ansaldo, and still more to Azuni, Baldasseroni, 
 and Cassiani. In the absence of legislative enact- 
 ment, in regard to commerce, the civil code is also 
 most frequently appealed to, which in commercial dif- 
 ferences alone permits to act by executory process. 
 
 30. Nassau, Duchy of. — Till the present period there 
 existed in the Duchy no law relating to commercial 
 rights, and the ordinance of Frankfort on bills of ex- 
 change was the sole authority. The government has, 
 however, recently promulgated the project of a com- 
 mercial code, extending to every subject that might 
 be contemplated by it. This project, which has been 
 aided by the valuable co-operation of Messrs. Vol- 
 pracht and Bertram, is in a great measure a repetition 
 (as to the text almost always so) of the regulations of 
 the code of Wurtembnrg, of those of the ordonnance of 
 Saxe- Weimar (20th April, 1819) on bills of exchange. 
 Though the above jyrojet has not yet been discussed 
 at an assembly of the States, there is every probabil- 
 ity of its being adopted in its present form, at least 
 without any material alteration. We have accord- 
 ingly inserted it in due order. 
 
 31. Norway. — ^Civil and commercial legislation re- 
 main in this countr}' the same as in Denmark. Its 
 union with Sweden, in 1814, produced no alteration. 
 Two laws only were can-ied in the last Storthing (Par- 
 liament) in 1842. The first, of date 4th August, on 
 bills of exchange, given in its proper place, the second, 
 of 29th June, and which has received the royal assent. 
 This law, however, being merely a regulation on the 
 right of engaging in commerce, which it limits, with 
 
LAW 
 
 1184 
 
 LAW 
 
 verj'- few exceptions, to the citizens of commercial 
 towns, we regard as not coming within the legal depart- 
 ment we had assigned ourselves ; we therefore omit it. 
 There was recently in force a regulation in regard to 
 exchange of Copenhagen, 16th April, 1681, as pre- 
 sented by M. "Nonguier. This regulation has been 
 replaced in Denmark by the law of 28th May, 1825. 
 In Norway it has hitherto undergone no alteration ex- 
 cept those of the recent law of 4th August, 1842. 
 
 The maritime law of Norway is the same with that 
 of Denmark. The code of Christian, promulgated In 
 1683 in Denmark, and in 1657 in Norway, is still in 
 force. 
 
 32. Parma, Placentia, and Guastalla, Duchies of. — The 
 commercial code of France, which had been introduced 
 into these duchies, still continues in force. Only the 
 civil code of Parma contains regulations in regard to 
 bills of exchange. These remain the sole distinguish- 
 ing documents of commercial character. 
 
 33. ■ Portuffal— On the 18th September, 1833, an or- 
 dinance of the King Don Pedro sanctioned a code drawn 
 out by a jurist alone, and which, derived in great part 
 from the Spanish and Dutch codes, has taken from 
 them the most enlightened provisions, and added oth- 
 ers, especially on the institution of the jury, for com- 
 mercial matters. 
 
 34. Roman States. — The commercial code of France, 
 suppressed in 1814, when the French ceased to occupy 
 the Roman territory, has, notwithstanding, still con- 
 tinued in force in some of its provinces, and in 1821 
 was formally re-established throughout all the Papal 
 States, by an edict of Pius VII., under the title of 
 Provisional Law of Commerce. Certain modifications, 
 however, of minor importance, and which were to re- 
 main only until the completion of a new code, were 
 introduced. This code has not yet appeared. The 
 edict of 1st June, 1821, contains, moreover, several 
 enactments which have for their object the better or- 
 ganization of tribunals of commerce. In regard to 
 this point, however, the legislative and judiciarj' regu- 
 lations of 10th November, 1834, contains, in sections 
 three and four, new provisions. The decisions of the 
 tribunals of commerce may be carried before the ordi- 
 nary courts of appeals. The new law, however, has 
 not revoked a papal statute of date 27th Februaiy, 
 1830, re-establishing a court of appeal at Ancona, and 
 of which we have also given a translation. The edict 
 of 1st June, 1821, contains, besides, different judiciarj'- 
 enactments, several of which have been borrowed from 
 the English code of civil procedure. Into the exam- 
 ination of these we felt it unnecessary to enter, the 
 greater part being presented in the new legislative 
 and judiciat}'^ law. 
 
 35. Russia. — As early as in 1700, Peter the Great 
 conceived the idea of collecting all the ukases pub- 
 lished since the code of 1649, but co-operation was 
 wanting to carry it into practice. Nicholas completed 
 this important undertaking. The swod was published 
 with the ukase of 31st January, 1826. It is a com- 
 plete digest where the old laws are inserted, yet con- 
 forming them to the progress of legislation and Euro- 
 pean civilization. The commercial part, forming the 
 11th volume, occupies an important place ; it includes 
 more than 2000 articles, and it contains very remarka- 
 ble provisions, such as demonstrate the customs and 
 usages of the inhabitants of this vast empire. 
 
 36. Sardinia. — After the events of 1814, which 
 placed upon the throne the present familj'-, the ancient 
 laws published in 1723, an impression of which, with 
 numerous additional provisions, had been published by 
 King Charles Emmanuel III., the 7th April, 1770, 
 were re-established in Sardinia, Savoy, and Piedmont. 
 They remained in force as to commercial matters until 
 the promulgation of the new code of commerce, which 
 came into operation the 1st July, 1848. The city of 
 Genoa alone has continued to be regulated by the 
 French code since the Eestoration, the exigencies of 
 
 this commercial port requiring the application of a 
 more modem legislation, and one which would be in 
 harmonj^ with the laws and customs of other nations. 
 The same motive has urged the enlightened govern- 
 ments of Sardinia to endow their country with new and 
 more uniform provisions by publishing a code of com- 
 merce. The new code of 1843 follows entirely the 
 French code, taking into careful consideration the 
 laws voted for its amelioration by the French Cham- 
 bers in 1817, 1833, 1838, and 1841, It has done more ; 
 it has almost always resolved any difficulties that have 
 arisen in the practice according to the sense and judg- 
 ment of the Court of Cassation, and often made re- 
 forms which experience had proved to be necessarj"-. 
 Among the various innovations introduced, it is nec- 
 essar}' to mention that minors and females whom the 
 civil Sardinian code — the same as the Macedonian and 
 Velleine status consuUus — considered as incapacitated 
 to act for themselves, are, as regards the exercise of 
 commercial profession, independent ; which modifica- 
 tion was certainly indispensable ; adding also to the 
 No. 6 of the French law in conformity with their ju- 
 risprudence, a presumption of the consent of the hus- 
 band when the married female is engaged in trade. 
 The code intrusts to the tribunals of commerce the in- 
 spection of books of commerce ; it prescribes precau- 
 tions already specified in the projects of law presented 
 by the Garde-des-sceaux, before the Chamber of Depu- 
 ties, the 15th February, 1838, with a view to put an 
 end to the scandalous speculations of partnerships 
 in commandite; it relieves partners from forced ar- 
 bitration, and makes it optional, as in several modern 
 codes ; it dedicates a fourth book to this important 
 matter, under a special title, in conformity with the pro- 
 visions of our code of pi'ocedure ; and it replaces the 
 entire section of the French code which treats of 
 disputes between partners, with most valuable provis- 
 ions in the functions of the liquidators of partnerships. 
 The exchange agents are, as the notaries in France, 
 responsible for the signatures to bills which they nego- 
 tiate when signed in their presence ; their books, and 
 those of brokers, form evidence of agreements among 
 parties. "With reference to bills of exchange, those 
 drawn by the States of the king in a foreign countrj', 
 may be signed by any person who may be subjected to 
 imprisonment for non-payment, without distinction of 
 rank, but, for inland bills, merchants alone may be 
 prosecuted commercially ; and it is further necessary 
 that the bill shall not be drawn by order and on ac- 
 count of a third, in which case they are only deemed 
 as simple promises. The endorsement, after the bill 
 becomes due, and the security given by a person not en- 
 gaged in trade, do not constitute procuration. It is wor- 
 th}' of remark that Sardinia has adopted the same metri- 
 cal system for distances and measurement as in France. 
 The second book relative to maritime commerce con- 
 tains only regulations analogous to the French code, 
 with the exception in reference to the sale of ships, 
 which must be made by public act, under penalty of 
 nullity ; it prescribes also to the captain, express duty 
 of ascertaining the good state of the ship before going 
 to sea ; it enjoins on him to watch with great care over 
 the interests of seamen. Lastly, by the Art. 343, § 1, 
 the negotiation of a bottomr)'-bond between persons 
 not engaged in trade, produces the same effect as bUls 
 to order, and by the Art. 360, any convention which 
 should have for its object to discharge the lender on 
 bottomry-bond from the contribution to the common 
 averages, is null. The regulations of the third book on 
 bankruptcies are the same as those of the French law 
 of 20th May, 1838. Simply they have suppressed the 
 Art. 448 of the French code which declares null the 
 inscriptions of mortgages taken within 10 days pre- 
 ceding the suspension of payment ; and, also, they 
 order the exposition of the names of all persons who 
 fail at the hall of the tribunal of commerce daring 
 the whole of their lives unless they obtained a license. 
 
LAW 
 
 1185 
 
 LAW 
 
 The treasury advances the preliminary expenses of 
 the procedure. With reference to the license, it can 
 only be given by the Senate (court of appeal) after 
 the accomplishment of many formalities. The tribu- 
 nals have the same organization as in France ; but the 
 judges elected by the merchants are nominated by the 
 king. An important modification lias been introduced 
 in Sardinia, as in Mexico, and in Spain ; a lawyer 
 (consulente quidiziale) is appointed to each tribunal as a 
 counselor, but without a deliberative vote. This in- 
 stitution has doubtless great advantages, yet it is sub- 
 ject to great inconveniences, as if, for example, the 
 consuUore, through the influence of his acquaintances, 
 should predominate in all the deliberations, and over- 
 rule the judges. Another innovation consists in the 
 creation of a judge, delegated every week by the tri- 
 bunals, who decides by himself all disputes below 300 
 francs, and judges without appeal all those which do 
 not exceed 100 francs. The appeal is admissible only 
 in disputes above 1200 francs, as before the enactment 
 of the French law of 11th April, 1838. An article on 
 imprisonment for debt has been added to the code ; it 
 fixes its duration in proportion to the sums due, arid 
 submits to it persons not engaged in trade for bills of 
 exchange, drawn from or on foreign countries, when it 
 results from maritime operations ; and in consequence 
 of frauds, or presumption of flight, and insolvency. 
 There is not yet any regulation on the procedure be- 
 fore the tribunals of commerce. The publication of 
 the code of procedure is shortly expected, the ministry 
 having been occupied with it for several years past. 
 A diplomatic treaty of 24th March, 1760, seems to 
 place Sardinia, with respect to France, in a very ex- 
 ceptional position relative to the ej;ecution of judg- 
 ments rendered by the Sardinian tribunals, and the 
 payment of the security judicatum solvi. 
 
 37. Saxe-Attmhurg, Saxe-Colurg Gotha, and Saxe- 
 Meiningen. — In these duchies tliere exists, in regard to 
 commerce, only a very small number of regulations. 
 Commercial diflferences are decided before the ordinary 
 tribunals, and, in general, by a reference to common 
 law and usage much more than to particular statutes. 
 Thus, for example, the practice of Leipsic is the prin- 
 cipal guide to that of the two duchies of Saxe-Atten- 
 burg and Saxe-Meiningen. 
 
 38. Saxe-Moldburghausen, Duchy of. — The ordinance 
 of Leipsic, which was introduced into this duchy in 
 virtue of a rescript of 11th June, 1714, still continues 
 in force. 
 
 39. Saxe^Weimar. — A number of laws, entering into 
 considerable detail, on the subject of mortgages, and 
 the proper distribution ancj precedency of creditors in 
 cases of bankruptcy, were promulgated by the govern- 
 ment in 1839 and 1841. Their object, however, is 
 only to establish, in regard to the latter subject, a uni- 
 formit}' of rule, such as is required in any other civil 
 arrangement. For books of merchants, partnership, 
 brokerage, failures, there exist no other special regula- 
 tions. The Prussian code is followed, or, as in other 
 parts of Germany, actions are decided by usage and 
 common law. There is no special tribunal of com- 
 merce in the Grand Duchy. It is proper, however, 
 to remark, that, during the continuance of the wool- 
 fair, which is annually held in Weimar, in the month 
 of June, a commission is named by the burgomaster, 
 composed of two members of the municipality and 
 several merchants, for the purpose of deciding upon 
 diflferences that may occasionally arise. There being 
 no commercial town in the Grand Duchy, no Bourse 
 (place of exchange) has been regularly established. 
 Each city has its particular regulations in regard to 
 fairs held in it. 
 
 40. Saxony, Kingdom of. — ^The government of Sax- 
 ony are at present occupied in the revision of the an- 
 cient legislation, and in completing it by new laws. 
 As yet, however, there exists no commercial code, not 
 even in the form of a "projet." The tribunals are 
 
 4F 
 
 guided by ancient statutes and ordinances, which, 
 where no enactments exist, are considered as possessing 
 uniform authority. Various regulations have passed 
 in regard to brokerage. Thfeir respective dates are 7th 
 March, 1818, 21st September, 1833, and 14th April, 
 1832. In regard to payments and bankruptcy, the 
 only legal authority is the ordinance of 20th Decem- 
 ber, 1766, promulgated in Lusatia in 1783 ; this an- 
 swers, however, very insufiiciently for the present 
 requirements of commerce, and government are pre- 
 paring to replace it by new enactments. The ancient 
 tribunal of commerce established at Leipsic, by an 
 ordinance of date 21st December, 1682, still exists, but 
 simply as a local court, and without any effort being 
 made to establish other tribunals upon a common prin- 
 ciple of judiciary organization. Such is the present 
 state of commercial law in Saxony, to which the gov- 
 ernment are now endeavoring to apply a remedy. In 
 addition to other means for this purpose, M. Kinert, 
 one of the most distinguished jurisconsults of the 
 country, has latelj' received an order to review the re- 
 cent laws, so as to bring them still more into unison 
 with the increasing demands of commerce and in- 
 dustrj'. 
 
 41. Schwariziurg, Rudoktadt and S«hwarizbwg-Son- 
 dersJiausen, Principalities of. — As in the greater num- 
 ber of the minor States of Germany, so in the above 
 principalities, commercial differences are brought be- 
 fore the ordinary tribunals, and are decided upon ac- 
 cording to common law usage, or even the laws of the 
 neighboring States, Saxony, etc. The former ordi- 
 nance of 1: i September, 1787, respecting fal.ures, has 
 been replaced by another of 1st December, 1835, on the 
 same subject. 
 
 42. Sicilies, Kingdom of the Two. — The French com- 
 mercial code was introduced into Naples the 28th May, 
 1808, when the throne was occupied by King Joseph 
 Napoleon Bonaparte. The laws, having undergone a 
 general revision at the time of the Eestoratiou, a new 
 code of commerce for the Two Sicilies was made public 
 26th March, 1819. It forms one of the parts of a body 
 of general law, arranged under the five heads of 
 civil, penal, and commercial law, and civil and crim- 
 inal procedure. This code of commerce contains 
 nearly the same regulations as that of France, on the 
 basis of which it has obviously been founded, and which 
 long practice besides has sanctioned. 
 
 43. Spain. — In 1827 King Ferdinand VII. nomi- 
 nated a commission charged to frame a code of com- 
 merce ; and on the 30th May, 1829, a royal ordinance 
 sanctioned the new code, which was to come into force 
 the 1st January, 1830. 
 
 44. Sweden. — For bills of exchange in Sweden 
 there are two ordinances, of 1st February, 1748, and 
 12th June, 1816. The text of them has been given by 
 M. Nonqnier in his treatise, It appears, however, 
 that these ordinances have been insufiScient for the 
 wants of commerce. Accordingly, on 20th May, 1835, 
 there appeared a new law regulating inland bills. Tliis 
 law, which is perfect in itself, and may be considered 
 as the common law of exchange in Sweden, forms, 
 with the ordinances already mentioned, an extremely 
 remarkable body of laws. In relation to maritime 
 law, a complete account of it, as it formerlj- stood, may 
 be found in the collection of M. Pardessus. He has 
 given +,here the ordinance of 1667, being an abstract 
 of the Hanseatic Reces Maritime Consulate, etc. Nu- 
 merous changes, however, have since been made in 
 this ordinance, certain articles having been retained, 
 while others have been supressed or modified. On 
 the present state of the maritime law of the north, the 
 work of M. Poehls may be regarded as of the highest 
 authority. A law, very minute in detail, was is- 
 sued in regard to failures, in 1818. This has been 
 more recently replaced by a new law of date 12th 
 March, 1830,' having regard to some modifications 
 made in it in 1835. In regard to justiciary organiza- 
 
LAW 
 
 1186 
 
 LAW 
 
 tions, it is sufficient to note that, generally, the settle- 
 ment of commercial disputes devolves on the civil 
 tribunals. The only exceptions are proceedings rela- 
 tive to bills, or arising from disputes which may have 
 arisen between ship-owners and the proprietors of the 
 cargo, or the captains, or between captains and their 
 seamen. Actions in regard to these are within the 
 competency of the municipal courts. The same tribu- 
 nals take cognizance of ordinarj*" failures. If the 
 bankrupt is a noble, the case is brought before the 
 courts of justice. To these also an appeal lies from 
 the decisions of the municipal tribunals. When there 
 is room for appeal from an inferior district court, it 
 ma}' be carried in the second instance before a superior 
 one ; and in the third (finallj') before one of the three 
 high courts of the realm. 
 
 45. Switzerland, — Each of the twenty-two Swiss 
 cantons is sovereign and independent, ruled by its own 
 laws. There exists, however, in the greater part of 
 them, no commercial law whatever. Matters of com- 
 merce are treated as other affairs of civil life, with all 
 the restrictions and impedimenta which have been the 
 fruit of municipal legislation. In the Canton of Ge- 
 neva, the French code, introduced provisionally after 
 the events of 1814, seems now to possess the authority 
 of definitive law. No change has been made in it, 
 except in what regards the mode of legal procedure, 
 delineated in the " Code de Procedure^'''' arranged by 
 M. Bellot, and promulgated 1st January, 1821. A law 
 of 12th Ma)', 1817, giving a new sanction to the French 
 code of commerce, established those changes already'' 
 adopted in France, and introduced into the art, 160 a 
 provision having special reference to Geneva, namely : 
 " The loss of right mentioned in the art. 160, shall 
 take place against the bearer of a bill of exchange, at 
 one or more days after sight, or months or usances 
 after sight, drawn from the Canton of Geneva, payable 
 in foreign countries, who shall not exact the pay- 
 ment or acceptance within the time prescribed by 
 each of the prefixed dates." In the other French 
 Cantons of Switzerland, the same French code, 
 though not expressly enacted, is frequently, in the 
 absence of other legislative authority, the guide, 
 or is at least appealed to as a rule of equity. The 
 Canton of Vaud has published a law on bills of 
 exchange, the 4th June, 1819, which is chieflj' ex- 
 tracted from the French code, and which has been also 
 adopted in the Canton of Friburg. In 1818, the 
 Council d'Etat of the Canton of Vaud had prepared a 
 report of a code of commerce to be submitted to dis- 
 cussion, but it was rejected in 1841, by the Grand 
 Council. The Canton of Friburg, in 1840, presented 
 the projet of the first book of the " Code de Com- 
 merce ;" it has not yet, however, undergone discussion. 
 Lastly, Neufchatel has recently published some com- 
 mercial laws. The legislation in the German Can- 
 tons is extremely imperfect. The least defective sys- 
 tem of mercantile law is that of Basle, in which, in 
 addition to an ordinance on exchange, of 14th Decem- 
 ber, 1808, there are to be found various regulations in 
 regard to mercantile books, brokerage (26th Dec, 
 1822 ; April, 1805 and 1817) as well as some old regu- 
 lations (1719) relative to the ranking of creditors in a 
 case of bankruptcy. The latter also still retain some 
 degree of authority, and are therefore not without 
 importance. Recently, in the Canton of Berne, the 
 discussion as to the propriety of maintaining the codes 
 of France in the French portion of the Canton, seems 
 to have led the way to important reforms, having for 
 their object the revision, not only of these codes in 
 certain articles, but of the entire legislation of the 
 country. This legislation is composed of ver>' ancient 
 laws, which could not be included in this work. The 
 law on bankruptcy', of 22d December, 1820, contains 
 some very remarkable provisions. The new civil 
 code of Lucerne embraces various regulations on com- 
 mercial matters, Zurich possesses an ordinance on 
 
 bills of exchange, of date 16th May, 1805. St. Gall, 
 an ordinance on the same of 18th July, 1734, and a 
 law of 11th October, 1832, on commercial accounts. 
 Lucerne follows the ordinance on bills of exchange of 
 St. Gall ; Soleure, that of Basle ; and Friburg has the 
 same law as Vaud on bills of exchange, of date 24th 
 June, 1829. In the German Cantons the defects of 
 commercial law are supplied partly from the civil law, 
 but chiefly by usage. Commercial disputes are deter- 
 mined before the ordinary tribunals. A law on bank- 
 ruptcy, of 18th May, 1818, for the Canton of Zug, 
 contains some curious regulations in regard to religious 
 establishments, in favor of the bankrupt himself, who 
 preserves the right of redemption over the sale of his 
 real estate, and against his family in certain cases. 
 There still exists at SchoflFenhausen a committee of 
 commerce which traces its origin to the year 1703 ; 
 similar ones were to be found in several cities in 
 Switzerland. Its members were elected from the 
 mercantile bodj', and were appointed to watch over 
 every thing that concerned the commerce of the cit}'. 
 In 1805 it was erected into a tribunal of commerce for 
 the decision of all mercantile differences. It is much 
 to be wished that Switzerland, especially in regard to 
 commercial affairs, were possessed of a common legis- 
 lation applicable throughout the whole extent of the 
 confederations. It is possible that the late reforms in 
 the civil and the criminal codes of the Cantons indi- 
 vidually, may lead eventually to this result. In cer- 
 tain cases, indeed, the Cantons have already felt it 
 necessar}', amid the multiplicity of statutes and 
 usages, to adopt certain measures of a general char- 
 acter, by federal conventions or concordats. Thus, in 
 a case of bankruptcy, by the concordat of 15th June, 
 1804, confirmed 8th July, 1818, every Swiss through- 
 out all the Cantons, enjoys, on ranking as creditor, 
 the same rights with the inhabitant of the Canton in 
 whose jurisdiction the bankruptcy has been declared, 
 both in regard to preferable and to ordinary claims. 
 No seizure can take place of the movable property of 
 the bankrupt, except for the common interest. Three 
 Cantons only — Schwitz, Glaris, and Appenzell — re- 
 fused their adherence to this federal agreement : 
 their particular legislation seems to oppose it. By 
 another concordat, 7th June, 1810, confirmed 8th 
 Julj-, 1818, the Cantons have mutually decreed 
 that all the effects of the bankrupt, wherever found, 
 must go into the general mass, without prejudice, 
 meanwhile, to the claims of the present holder. In 
 the case, however, of the body of the creditors contest 
 ing either the property of deposits, or a mortgage or 
 ownership security situated in a different Canton from 
 that in which the bankrupt was domiciled, the claim 
 must be carried before the competent judge in that Can- 
 ton, where the said effects, mortgage, or security, were 
 found. By virtue of art. 14 of the treat}' of alliance 
 between France and Switzerland, Frenchmen and 
 Swiss are respectively exempted, in pleading before 
 the courts of each other's country, from the obligation 
 to furnish a '■^ judlcatum solvi.''^ The Court of Cassa- 
 tion, 9th April, 1807, and the Court of Colmar, 28th 
 March, 1810, have specially determined to this effect ; 
 and the law may be considered as fixed. 
 
 46. Tunis. — There is no commercial law in Tunis. 
 Usage and particular articles of agreement direct the 
 decision in those cases of dispute that may occur be- 
 tween native traders. Every trader keeps a book in 
 which he registers his purchases and his sales. The 
 native Mussulmen and Jews know no higher form of 
 mercantile book-keeping. There are few countries, 
 however, where commercial probity is found more 
 prevalent. And though cases may occur, in which 
 the confidence of the creditor or tlie equity of the judge 
 are attempted to be worked upon, yet such are pro- 
 portionablj' rare, when compared with similar instances 
 among nations where the written laws of commerce 
 are of a more definite and extended character. 
 
LAW 
 
 1187 
 
 LAW 
 
 47. TurJcey. — The geographical position of Turkey 
 was destined to form this rich country into an essen- 
 tially commercial power. But the natural indolence 
 of its inhabitants has prevented it from reaping the 
 advantages which nature had lavished on it. Their 
 foreign trade is almost exclusively carried on bj' 
 strangers, who enjoy, by virtue of diplomatic treaties, 
 the privilege of pajing dues of customs of smaller 
 amount than those which are exacted from the Mus- 
 sulmen and Raj-as, and possess the right, in cases of 
 differences with other foreigners, of appealing to their 
 own international laws. The Koran is the common 
 law according to which causes among natives are al- 
 most always decided. It is no matter of surprise, 
 therefore, that there exists no special law applicable 
 to matters of commerce. Those enactments which 
 seem to bear the nearest resemblance to such, are scat- 
 tered throughout the general code — a collection of all 
 sorts of laws ; to which, moreover, the idea of religious 
 sanctity is attached, and which have been brought 
 together by various doctors for the purpose of regulat- 
 ing religious services and public administrations. The 
 collection of highest authority is that which was com- 
 piled by order of Solyman II., from 1520 to 1566, en- 
 titled Multeka Ehbar. This code has been translated 
 by Chevalier Mourudja di Hossen, a native of Con- 
 stantinople, of honorable Armenian family, and drago. 
 man (interpreter) to the embassy of the King of Swe- 
 den. The work appeared in France, the first two 
 volumes in 1798, and the third in 1824, under the title 
 of " Tableau General de I'Empire Ottoman," and pre- 
 sents an accurate exhibition of the laws which govern 
 that vast empire. This code contains a book on com- 
 mercial matters, hut the laws embraced in it refer 
 rather to principles bearing upon civil contracts, and 
 adapted to Mussulman manners, than to commercial 
 right, properly so called. Under the administration 
 of Ahmed-Fetchi-Pacha, in 1839, a project of a com- 
 mercial code was prepared on the model of that of 
 France. The fall of that minister, however, Jias in- 
 definitely deferred its publication. As to commercial 
 jurisdiction not falling under the rule of common law, 
 actions in regard to it were determined at Constanti- 
 nople and in the principal sea-ports of the Levant, by 
 the chief officer of the custom-house (chef de la 
 douane), aided b}' several assessors chosen from the 
 leading merchants of the place, Mussulmen, Rayas, 
 and freemen. This court, however, had been sup- 
 pressed in the capital, and the Ministers of Commerce, 
 similarly aided by assessors from the same class of 
 merchants, have for some time taken cognizance of 
 all commercial affairs. It was the wish of the Porte 
 that disputes between Ottoman subjects and Euro- 
 peans, should be carried by petition before this tribu- 
 nal without the presence of any European assessor, 
 and subject only to the interposition of the interpreter 
 of the embassador of the respective countrj'. The en- 
 tire diplomatic bodj' were opposed to this, and the min- 
 istry of commerce has been abolished. The former 
 order of things has now been re-established, and the 
 Grand Douanier (the officer already mentioned) pre- 
 sides as formerly in the tribunals. Its decisions are 
 final. "A cause," says the religious code, "legally 
 examined, discussed, and determined, can not again 
 be brought into court, the law having pronounced 
 against all appeal." The judgments which it pro- 
 nounces are not founded on any well-defined usages. 
 The code of France is generally the rule to which, in 
 their private transactions, the Rayas, who hold a seat 
 in the tribtmal, are accustomed to defer. The tribunal 
 of commerce is not the only tribunal existing in Con- 
 stantinople. There are other three, namelj* : 1. The 
 Arz Odassez, a supreme tribunal where formerly the 
 Grand Vizir presided, now the Cheik-ul-islam (mufti), 
 before whom, without appeal, differences of every kind 
 are determined, save on commercial and maritime sub- 
 jects. 2. The tribunal of the Cadis ; the Mehkeim, a 
 
 sort of court of peace or conciliation. 3. The court of 
 the commandant du port (governor of the harbor), 
 Leiman-Odassy, who, assisted by several captains, 
 judges of all maritime question^, insurances, ship- 
 wrecks, jettisons, etc. Commercial differences between 
 the subjects of the Grand Seignior and those of foreign 
 powers who are residents in the Ottoman empire, are 
 determined summarily in presence of an interpreter 
 of the legation, or of the consul of the nation to which 
 the foreign subject belongs, sometimes by the decision 
 of the custom-house authority, sometimes by that of 
 the Pacha. In consequence of foreign treaties, every 
 process involving a subject exceeding 4000 aspres 
 (about 8 francs each) may be forced before the divan 
 in Constantinople. This privilege, however, is sel- 
 dom made use of. In cases of dispute between the 
 subjects of foreign powers, a decision is given b3' the 
 consuls of the respective parties, assisted by merchants 
 of both nations. The Turkish tribunals decide on ac- 
 tions brought before them by the commentaries of the 
 Koran, of which there are four in number, namely, as 
 follows : the Hanafi, the Maleki, the Chajiy, and the 
 Hambuli. These have never been translated from the 
 original language. The Hanafi is followed at Constan- 
 tinople and throughout European and Asiatic Turkey ; 
 the Maleki, in Barbary ; the Chafly, in Egypt ; the 
 Mambvli is no longer used ; the collection entitled 
 Multeka Ehbar is known over the whole empire. 
 
 48. Tuscany, — The "Code de Commerce" has al- 
 ways, since it was introduced into the Grand Duchy, 
 held its position as law ; and with the exception of the 
 suppression of the tribunals of commerce, which, not- 
 withstanding, have been continued in Florence itself, 
 it has undergone no alteration of any importance. 
 The article 117, however, of the judiciary reform of 
 1838, has annulled the regulations of article 61 of the 
 French code, relative to obligatory arbitration in mat- 
 ters of copartnery. An ordinance of 5th Septem- 
 ber, 1814, with a view to prevent the facility with 
 which persons not engaged in trade sign bills of ex- 
 change, authorizes only bankers, merchants, and trad- 
 ers, to draw bills of exchange. In cases when on such 
 bills there should be the signatures of others than mer- 
 chants, the ordinance grants only a recourse against 
 them through the civil procedure. Another ordinance 
 of 23d November, 1818, prescribes certain measures 
 proper to shorten the procedure in matters of bills of 
 exchange. Lastly, a third ordinance, of 20th Decem- 
 ber, 1824, declares that the words value exchanged, in 
 bills of exciiange, shall be considered as a true cause. 
 We ma}' also announce an important resolution of the 
 jurisprudence of the court of Tuscany, by which a fail- 
 ure does not destroy the provision of funds for a bill of 
 exchange ; a question much disputed in France, and 
 which the Court of Cassation has adjudicated upon in 
 a manner contrary to the judiciary decisions of the tri- 
 bunals of Florence, by decrees of 7th Februarj', 1816, 
 30th July, 1832, and 20th March, 1841. We may add 
 that the article 130, of the new Sardinian code of com- 
 merce, contains a regulation in conformity to the juris- 
 prudence of Tuscanj'. An ordinance of 6th August, 
 1827', has made alterations in regard to insolvency and 
 bankruptcy. It confers on the Advocate Fiscal (pub- 
 lic prosecutor), or his substitute, the same powers with 
 those of the public minister of France. The same or- 
 dinance proceeds thereafter to abrogate the enactments 
 of article 587, of the French code of 1807, relative to 
 those cases in which proceedings might be taken 
 against a simple bankrupt. The court above men- 
 tioned in Florence consists of two merchants who are 
 judges, two surrogates, one judge, a professional law- 
 yer, and a " grefiier." The judges-consular are chosen 
 by the principal merchants ; the list of nominals is 
 laid before the Grand Duke for approval. The judg- 
 ments awarded by this tribunal may be carried by 
 appeal before the tribunal " de la vote," and finally 
 before the council of justice. All maritime cases are 
 
LAW 
 
 1188 
 
 LAW 
 
 under the Jurisdiction of the '* bureau de la Marine," 
 at Leghorn. lu the other provinces of Tuscany the 
 tribunals of commerce have been suppressed, and the 
 cognizance of commercial affairs transferred to the 
 civil judges, whose jurisdiction is unlimited. 
 
 49. United States. — The commercial law of the 
 United States is, in general, the same with that of En- 
 gland. The principles connected with it are almost 
 always traceable to the latter source ; modified, how- 
 ever, by the legislation of individual States, as well 
 as by the decisions of the federal court of the Union, 
 and other inferior tribunals. English laws are not 
 valid as such. They must be sanctioned by legisla- 
 tive enactment, or introduced by a court, as an expo- 
 sition of principles common to the two nations. Each 
 State has a separate commercial legislation. This is 
 founded either on express statute, or on decisions of 
 court. But as the decrees of the different courts have 
 a sort of authority of themselves, and as, in addition 
 to this, questions in relation to commerce emanate 
 from general principles, or consist only in determining 
 the proper interpretation of the contracts, commercial 
 law may be said to be the same, or, at least, to vary 
 very inconsiderably throughout the Union. Numer- 
 ous questions on commercial affairs are decided by the 
 federal courts of the Union (district and circuit courts), 
 held for the purpose of taking cognizance of civil dis- 
 putes between inhabitants of different States, and of 
 all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction. The 
 final revision of the decisions of these courts in gen- 
 erally competent to the Supreme Court of the United 
 States, which, differing from the Court of Cassation in 
 France, judges both in regard to fact and law ; and 
 the decrees of which, while not considered as deter- 
 mining the principles of legislation or jurisprudence, 
 have, indirectly, great influence in giving uniformity 
 to the decisions of inferior courts in the several States 
 of the republic. Though each State is in itself inde- 
 pendent, yet laws of a general and uniform character 
 may be enacted by Congress. For example, article 
 1st of section 8 and section 4 of the Constitution of 
 1787, provides, that Congress shall have the power, in 
 the matter of bankruptcy — a subject of so grave in- 
 terest in America, and affecting so deeply public credit 
 — to enact laws that shall be obligatory on all the 
 States, and take place of local enactments, whatever 
 these may be. Under a general view, the tribunals 
 must form their decisions on the basis of four suffi- 
 ciently defined elements : 1st. The common or imper- 
 fectly written law, 2d. The statutes of the particu- 
 lar States. 3d. The legislative acts of Congress ; and 
 4th. The decisions of English courts and treatises on 
 English jurisprudence to which lawyers are permitted 
 to appeal, as raison ecrit, professional decision reduced 
 to writing. There are no tribunals of commerce in 
 the United States. Commercial or maritime ques- 
 tions are determined in the first instance by the ordi- 
 nary courts appointed in each State. There are many 
 exceptions, however, viz. . 1st. Of maritime civil 
 causes such as seamen's wages, mortgages, salvage, 
 engagements of vessels, etc., in general, of every real 
 action against the vessel, or even in certain cases 
 against the cargo. 2d. In the case of seizure of the 
 ship or cargo. 3d. In regard to patents for discover}', 
 rights of authorship, etc. ; and 4th. In an action in- 
 tended by a citizen of one State against a. citizen of 
 another. In all these cases the jurisdiction devolves 
 on the federal court of circuit or of district. Though 
 the judges have no political privileges, they possess 
 each in his own sphere, great power ; inasmuch as 
 they may refuse to apply the law on the ground 
 of unconstitutional impropriety in particular cases 
 brought before them — an ingenious but sure method 
 of fixing the character of imperfection on a particular 
 law. In order to place in one view the documents 
 necessary to give the most perfect view of American 
 legislation on the various matters contained in a com- 
 
 mercial code, it was necessary to have recourse to the 
 best accredited expositions and commentaries, and 
 to which the Americana themselves attach the highest 
 authority. The author generallj' followed, as the 
 most accurate, is Chancellor Kent, whose Commenta- 
 ries on Amencan Lato, presents an admirable and gen- 
 eral view of commercial legislation. With reference 
 to bankruptcies, the Congress having made use of the 
 power granted to it by the Constitution, voted 19th 
 June, 1841, a general law for all the States of the 
 Union, which came in force 1st February, 1842. See 
 Insolvency. 
 
 50. Wallachia and Moldavia. — These principalities 
 are ruled by laws, originally a mixture of Roman law, 
 and usage. More recently the laws of the Lower Empire 
 came into force, and retained their authority to a pe- 
 riod not 3''et remote. The position of the two coun- 
 tries, pressed by the great powers which surround 
 them, has led them to feel the importance of stability 
 in civil legislation. For this purpose there have been 
 established organic regulations, with a view to protect 
 the citizens against the usurpations of the governing 
 authorities, as well as to render secure the rights of 
 the principalities against their powerful protectors. A 
 desire has been felt also to preserve the traditionary 
 usages which are the expression of national habits, 
 though sometimes these usages are not perfectly in 
 harmony with the French legislation, which has been 
 adopted as the leading authority. The aristocratic 
 principle is maintained in all its rigor in their laws. 
 As the primary element in that principle is the pres- 
 ervation of the great estates, the law confers on pa- 
 rents, according to their rank, and, failing these, on 
 inhabitants of the localitj:, a preference in the right of 
 purchase, and also a power of redemption on the sale 
 of immovable property. In the case of encroach- 
 ments on contiguous property, prescription is not 
 admitted. So jealous indeed are the inhabitants in 
 preserving their estates intact that the property con- 
 veyed^in dowry by the wife (such is the rigor with 
 which the dotal system is carried into execution), is 
 freed from obligation to a leasehold by the simple fact 
 of marriage, if the husband refuses to confirm the 
 lease ; a regulation greatly tending to shackle and dis- 
 courage the labors of the agriculturist. In 1840 a. 
 commercial code was laid before the General Assembly, 
 containing, with a few alterations, the same regula- 
 tions with that of France. It has 596 articles. After 
 having been adopted by the General Assembly it re- 
 ceived the sanction of the prince, June, 1840, and was 
 to come into force 1st January, 1841. 
 
 CountrieB. 
 India. 
 India. 
 India. 
 
 Greece. 
 Rome. 
 
 Chronological Table of Commercial Laws. 
 
 Date. Title. 
 
 B.C. Maritime Law of Menu 
 
 B.C. Maritime Law of Barges 
 
 General Code of Malacca 
 
 B.C. Law on Contract, Usury, Factor, Ex- 
 change, Debtor and Creditor, 
 Partnership, Books of Commerce, 
 Maritime 
 
 B. C. Law on Bankers, Debtors and Credit- 
 ors, Maritime, etc 
 
 5th cent. Aniani Breviarum of AJaric II., 
 a Court of Admiralty at Amalfi for 
 all Nations trading in the Mediter- 
 ranean and Constantinople 
 
 9th cent. Excerpta Juris Orientalis ad Rem 
 Nauticam Perfcinentia 
 
 9th cent. Jus Navale Rhodiorum 
 
 940. The Gelaping on Shipping 
 
 1063. Maritime Law of Trarri 
 
 11th cent. The Maritime Law of 'William 
 the Conqueror 
 
 1150, Statutes of Sleswick Maritime Law . 
 
 1150. Statutes of Aries 
 
 1158. Code 
 
 1160. Conatitutum Usus 
 
 12th cent. Maritime Law from the Book of 
 the Assizes, and from the Usages 
 of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, by 
 the Court of Burgesses. [From 
 this document it appears that 
 other laws were enacted on com- 
 merce la general.] 
 
 Amalfi. 
 Eastern Empire 
 
 Norway. 
 Two Sicilies. 
 
 England, 
 
 Denmark. 
 
 France. 
 
 Lubec. 
 
 Pisa. 
 
 Jerusalem* 
 
LAW 
 
 1189 
 
 LAW 
 
 Cheonologioal Table of Commercial Laws — Oontinued, 
 
 Data. Ttlle. 
 
 12th cent. Maritime Lav knovn under the 
 name of Eooles or Judgments of. . 
 12th cent Lav of GrSgd'a, or the Code of 
 12th cent. Maritime Law of the Burghs of 
 12th cent. Maritime Law called Biar 
 
 Eeyar-Rett 
 
 1214. Civil Statutes of. 
 
 1323. Maritime Law from Coutume of. . . , 
 
 1224 Maritime Privilege granted to Lu 
 
 bee in the town of. 
 
 1231. Extract from a Constitution of Fred. 
 
 eric II. for the Kingdom of , 
 
 1232. The Criminal Statute regarding 
 
 Shipping. 
 
 1240. Maritime Extract fromihe Cede of. 
 1243, Maritime Privileges granted to the 
 
 city of Valence hy the King of 
 
 Aragon 
 
 1250. Afarltlme Law, extracted from the 
 
 Coutume of. 
 
 1254. Maritime Law, Statute of Biarkoo, 
 
 or Birca 
 
 1265. Maritime Law, from the Statute of. 
 1265. Maritime Statutes 
 
 1265. Maritime Statutes, extracted from 
 
 the Fuero Real. 
 
 1263, Ordinance of the King of Aragon on 
 the policy of Navigation of. 
 
 1266. Privilege granted hy the King of 
 
 Aragon to the Magistrates of Bar- 
 celona to nominate the Consuls 
 
 beyond the Seas 
 
 1266. Maritime Law, from the Partidas. . 
 
 1269. Maritime Law, extract of Privilege 
 
 granted to 
 
 1270. Maritime Statute. [This statute is 
 
 also dated 1276 and 1292.].. 
 
 1270. Maritime Statute, extract from the 
 
 statute of. . '. 
 
 1271. Maritime Law, extracted from 
 
 Pragmatic 
 
 1274 Maritime Law, extracted from the 
 Gulathingslagh of the King Mag- 
 nus 
 
 1274. Maritime S^tutes 
 
 Norway. 
 
 Bergen and Dron- 
 theiuL 
 
 127S. Maritime Statutes Stralsund. 
 
 1280. Maritime Law, extracted from the 
 
 Ions-bog Code. Iceland. 
 
 1282. Maritime Law, a Constitution Two Sicilies. 
 
 1283. Maritime Law, a Constitution Two Sicilies. 
 
 1283. Maritime Law, the Recogiioverunt 
 Ptoceres '. Barcelona. 
 
 1284. Maritime Law, from the Statute of. Flensburg. 
 
 1285. Letters Patent of Edward I. on the 
 Contribution of Jetison England. 
 
 1286.' Maritime Law, extracted from a 
 
 Constitution of Jacob I Sicily. 
 
 1288. "Pragmatic of the King of Aragon 
 
 relative to Shipwrecks Aragona. 
 
 1283. Pragmatic of the King of Aragon 
 
 relative to Krates Aragona. 
 
 1292. Maritime Law, extracted from the 
 
 Statute of Hadersleben. 
 
 1298. Maritime Law, from the Breve Curice 
 maris. Pisa. 
 
 1299. Maritime Statute Lubec. 
 
 About 1300. Maritime Law of Bremen .... Bremen. 
 18th cent ConstiUtUo Sodetatia Navium. Bayonne. 
 13th cent. Maritime Law, extracted from 
 
 the 1st and 2d Skraa NovogorOd. 
 
 13th c^nt Maritime Code. Malacca. 
 
 13th cent. Maritime Laws, extracted from 
 
 the General Codes Malacca. 
 
 13th cent. Maritime Code iMang Kassar and 
 
 Bougui, in the Island 
 of Celebes. 
 
 ConntrleB. 
 
 016ron. 
 Iceland. 
 
 Scotland. 
 
 Norway. 
 Curzola. 
 MontpeUiei. 
 
 Stralsund. 
 
 Sicily. 
 
 Venice. 
 Lubec. 
 
 Vaienoe. 
 
 Sweden. 
 
 Marseilles, 
 Venice. 
 
 Barcelona. 
 Castllilla. 
 
 Barcelona. 
 
 Hamburg. 
 
 Riga. 
 
 Barcelona, 
 
 13th cent Maritime Code 
 
 13th cent. Maritime Code, extracted from 
 
 Statutes of Genoa 
 
 13th cent. Maritime Law, extracted from 
 
 the Statute of Zara Dalmatia. 
 
 13th cent Maritime Law, extracted from 
 
 the Establishments of. 
 
 1303. Maritime Law, extracted from the 
 
 Establishments of .• 
 
 1303. Maritime Law, extracted from the 
 
 Establishments of 
 
 1303. Maritime Law, extracted from the 
 
 Establishments of 
 
 1304. Pragmatic of Maritime Law, 
 1306. Articles of Maritime Law. . 
 About 1316. Extract from a Maritime 
 
 Statute of Genoa 
 
 About 1316, Maritime Law, extract of 
 
 a Statute of Sassari 
 
 1318 or 1319. Breve partus Killuretani 
 
 (Caglia) 
 
 Bougui, 
 Colony of Pera. 
 
 Montpellier, 
 
 Baii. 
 
 Bremen. 
 
 Rimini. 
 
 Catalogna. 
 
 Hamburg. 
 
 Genoa. 
 
 Island of Sardinia. 
 
 Island of Sardinia, 
 
 Chkonologioal Tablk op Commeboial IaJl-wb— Continued . 
 
 CountrieB. 
 
 Island of Gothland. 
 
 Genoa. 
 
 Catalonia. 
 
 Adriatic. 
 Genoa. 
 
 Appenrade. 
 
 England. 
 Genoa. 
 
 Island of Ol6ron. 
 
 Date. Title. 
 Aboutl320. Maritime Law, extracted from 
 the Statute of the Cityof Wisby, 
 1330. Extract from a Statute of Genda 
 .(Sept 24) 
 
 1330. Privilege for the Charters (armatenr 
 
 in course) 
 
 1331. Maritime Law, extract from the 
 
 Statute of Pharo Island, of 
 
 Lesina in the 
 
 1333. Maritime Statute of Genoa (Jan. 
 1335. Maritime Law, extract from the 
 
 Skraa , 
 
 1338. Extract from an Inquiry on the 
 
 Maritime Law of. , 
 
 1389. Maritime Statute of Genoa (Nov, 15) 
 1340. Maritime Law, extracted from the 
 
 Coutume of , 
 
 1340. Maritime Ordinance of the King of. 
 1841. Maritime Statute of Genoa (Sept 6) 
 
 1341. Maritime Ordinance relative to the 
 
 Consuls of Barcelona , 
 
 1343. Ordinance of the Magistrates of Bar- 
 celona on Maritime Law , 
 
 1343. Regulations of Consular Procedure, 
 1346 or 1847, Maritime Law, extracted' 
 
 from 6th volume of the "Civil 
 
 Statutes" _ . _ 
 
 1354, Ordinance of the King of Aragon on 
 
 Men-of-War ; 
 
 1364 Ordinance of the King of Aragon on 
 
 Navigation in Times of "War. . .. . 
 1356. Ordinance of the King of Aragon on 
 
 Maritime Courses 
 
 1369. Reoes of the Hanseatic League. 
 
 1375. Extract of the Inquiry of Queenbor- 
 
 ough on the Maritime Law. 
 
 1377. Maritime Law, extract from the 
 
 Statute of Levant 
 
 1378. Eeces of the Hanseatic League. 
 
 1380. Reces of the Hanseatic League 
 
 1381. Regulation in the Consulate of Bar- 
 
 celona 
 
 1386. Regulation for the Consulate of Bar- 
 celona 
 
 1390. Maritime Law,, extracted ftom the 
 
 Coutume.. 
 
 1891. Reces of the Hanseatic League 
 
 1397. Maritime Statute 
 
 1399. Privileges of the Grand Admiral. . . 
 
 14th cent. Maritime Law, known under the 
 name of Jugements de Damme, or 
 Laws of Westcapelle '. 
 
 14th cent. Body of Maritime Law, known 
 under the name of Consolato del 
 Mare 
 
 14th cent. Articles, of Maritime Law 
 
 14th cent Maritime Law, extracted from 
 the Compilation of the Law of 
 Lubec, published by Brokes 
 
 14th cent Maritime Law, extracts from 
 the Statute of. 
 
 14th cent. Maritime Law, from the CivU 
 Statute of Cataro 
 
 14th cent. Chapters on the Armaments in 
 Course 
 
 14th cent. Maritime Law, extracted ftdm 
 the Recapitulation of the Ordi- 
 nance of 
 
 14th cent Maritime Law, extract from 
 the Lure de Justice et de pXet, 
 drawn up in. . .' France. 
 
 1405. Royal Cedule^ relative to the Juris- 
 diction of Judges, Consuls Barcelona. 
 
 1412. Reces of the Hanseatic League Hause Towns- 
 
 1417, Reces of the Hanseatic League Hanse Towns. 
 
 1418. Reces of the Hanseatic League H inse Towns. 
 
 1428. Law .on Averages (June 9) Venico. 
 
 1432. Privilege in favor of Judges, C!on- 
 
 Buls of Barcelona, 
 
 1434 Reces of the Hanseatic League 
 
 (June 6) '..,, Hanse Towns. 
 
 1434. Reces of the Hanseatic League (Oct) Hanse Towns. 
 
 1435. Ordinance of the Magistrates on 
 
 Maritime Police Barcelona. 
 
 1435. Ordinance on Insurances Barcelona, 
 
 1435. Ordinance on Insurances Barcelona. 
 
 1436. Ordinance on Maritime Police. ..... Barcelona, 
 
 1441. Reces of the Hanseatic League Hanse Towns. 
 
 1441. Maritime Statute of Genoa Genoa. 
 
 1442. Reces of the Hanseatic League Hanse Towns. 
 
 1447. Reces of the .Hanseatic League. . - . . Hanse Towns. 
 1450. Maritime Law, extract of the no^ori- . j " 
 
 ous Role Bremen. ' " 
 
 1464 Reces of the Hanseatic League. . f . . HanB6 To^s.^ 
 1465. Maritime Law, extract of a.WilleJeUr Dantzig. :. ' ., 
 1455. Maritime Law, extract of a WillekUT Dantzig. 
 1457. Maritime Law, extract of a WUUIdtr, 
 
 additions Dantzig. 
 
 Gazarie, 
 SicUy. 
 
 Barcelona. 
 
 Valenza. 
 
 Venice. 
 
 Aragona, 
 
 Aragona. 
 
 Aragona. 
 Hanse Towns. 
 
 England. 
 
 Genoa. 
 
 Hanse Towns. 
 Hanse Towns. 
 
 Alexandria. 
 
 Damasco. 
 
 Harlem. 
 
 Hanse Towns. 
 
 Ancona. 
 
 Sicily. 
 
 Low. Netherlands. 
 
 Venice. 
 Bremen. 
 
 Riga. 
 
 Catalogna. 
 
 Seville. 
 
LAW 
 
 1190 
 
 LAW 
 
 Barcelona. 
 
 Barcelona. 
 Venice. 
 Hanse Towns. 
 Hanse Towns. 
 
 Barcelona. 
 
 Ancona. 
 
 BurgoB. 
 
 Hamburg. 
 Portugal. 
 
 Northern Nether- 
 lands. 
 
 Chronological Table of Commebclal hJi-WB— Continued. 
 
 Date, Title. 
 
 About 1457. Regulations on Maritime Nav- 
 igation 
 
 1458. Oi'dioance of the Magistrates on In- 
 surances 
 
 1461. Ordinance of the magistrates on In- 
 surances 
 
 1468. Ordinance on Insurances (July 2) . . . 
 
 1470. Reces of the Haneeatic League 
 
 1432. Reces of the Hanseatic League (May) 
 
 1484. Ordinance of the Magistrates on In- 
 surances 
 
 1493. Maritime Law, extract from the 
 
 Statute (April 29) 
 
 1494. Pragmatic, which constitutes a Con^ 
 
 sulate 
 
 1497, Maritime Law, extract from the Gen- 
 
 eral Code 
 
 1498. Maritime Law, Code of Emmanuel. 
 15th cent. Maritime Law, known under 
 
 the name of " Usages Marilimes 
 
 de Amnterdam^ Schuyaen, Stav- 
 
 em" etc 
 
 15Lh cent. Compilation of tiie Maritime 
 
 Law 
 
 15th cent. Maritime Law 
 
 15th cent. Maritime Law, gxtracted from 
 
 the Statuta Ancomtano urJns. 
 15th cent. Additions to the Maritime 
 
 Statutes of 1397, 
 
 1507. Maritime Ordinance of the Officers 
 
 of the Casa de la Contratadon 
 (Nov. 21) 
 
 1508, Maritime Law, attributed to the 
 
 King John 
 
 1510. Pragmatic of the King of Aragon 
 relative to the Consular Jurisdic- 
 tions. 
 
 1510, Maritime Law, extract from a Stat- 
 ute of (June 21) 
 
 1612. Pragmatic concerning the Freight- 
 ing of Ships (Jan. 31) 
 
 1512. Maritime Law, extract from a Stat- 
 ute of (Dec. 19) 
 
 1523. Statute on Insurances (Jan. 23) 
 
 1523. Statute on Insurances (Jan. 27).... 
 
 1526. Statute on Insurances (June 15). . . . 
 
 1526. Maritime Law, extracted from a 
 
 Privilege granted 
 
 1527. Ordinance on the Loading of Ships 
 
 (July 12) 
 
 1527. Statute relative to the Bottomry 
 
 (Aug. 13) 
 
 1530, Reces of the Hanseatic League, 
 
 1532. Maritime Law, extract from a Stat- 
 
 ute 
 
 1533. Ordinance of Bottomry 
 
 1537. Maritime Law, extract from an Ordi- 
 
 nance (May 25) 
 
 1538. Additions to the Pragmatic of Jan- 
 
 uary 31,1512 
 
 1538. Regulation on the Police of the Con- 
 tractation 
 
 1 538. Ordinance for Insurance 
 
 1540. Maritime Law extract of an Ordi- 
 nance 
 
 1542. Maritime Ordinance 
 
 1549. Maritime Law, extract of an Ordi- 
 nance (Jan. 29) 
 
 1551. Maritime Ordinance (July 19) 
 
 1652. Extract of the Maritime Ordinance 
 Charles V 
 
 1556. Maritime Law, extract of the Book 
 II. of the Criminal Statute 
 
 1556. Maritime Law, extract from the' 
 
 Ordinance of the Contractation. . 'Seville. 
 
 1557. Extract of a Statute relative to In- 
 
 surance (Oct.) Genoa. 
 
 1560. Maritime Ordinance for the Con-j 
 
 tractation Bilboa. 
 
 1561. Mai"itime Code Denmark. 
 
 Wishy. 
 Dautzig. 
 
 Ancona. 
 
 Ancona. 
 
 Seville. 
 Denmark. 
 
 Barcelona. 
 
 Ancona. 
 
 Burgos. 
 
 Ancona. 
 Florence. 
 Florence. 
 Florence. 
 
 Dantzig. 
 
 Venice. 
 
 Amsterdam. 
 Hanse Towns. 
 
 Pisaro, 
 
 Dordrecht. 
 
 Brabant. 
 
 Burgos. 
 
 Burgos. 
 Burgos. 
 
 Prussia. 
 Lubec. 
 
 Netherlands. 
 Netherlands. 
 
 Spain, 
 Genoa. 
 
 1563. Maritime Ordinance (Oct. 31> Netherlandr. 
 
 1567. Policy of Insurance Ancona. 
 
 1569. Law on Shipwrecks (June 8) Venice. 
 
 1569. Law on Loading of Ships and Ship- 
 
 wrecks Venice. 
 
 1570. Maritime Ordinance (Jan. 20) Netherlands, 
 
 1570. Extract on Bottomry Bonds Middelburg. 
 
 1572. Reces of the Hanseatic League Hanse Towns. 
 
 1582. Extract on Insurances of the Cou- 
 
 tume Antwerp. 
 
 1584. Edict on the Admiralty (March).. . France. 
 
 1 585. Law on Bottomry Bonds (Aug. 4) . , . Venice. 
 
 1586. Law on Shipwrecks (June 28) Venice. 
 
 1586, Law on Insurance (Sept. 28) Venice. 
 
 1586. Maritime Law, extracted from the 
 
 Statutes Lubec. 
 
 15SS. Maritime Law, extracted from the 
 
 Civil StatuteP (Dec. 16) Genoa. 
 
 Cheonological Table of Comjuercial "LKw^—Oontiniied, 
 
 Coimtrio3. 
 
 Venice. 
 
 Duchy of Urbino. 
 
 I>Ale. Title. 
 
 1589. Law on Loading of Ships (Nov. 4) . . 
 1691. Law on Shipwrecks. 
 
 1597. Maritime Law, extract from the 
 
 Statutes of. 
 
 1598. Ordinance on Insurance (Jan. 31).. . 
 
 1598. Maritime Law, extract from the an- 
 
 cient Statute of 
 
 1599. Pragmatic of the King of Aragon on 
 
 the Consular Jurisdiction 
 
 1600. Ordinance on Insurance (Sept. 30). 
 
 16th cent. Guidon de la mer 
 
 16th cent. Maritime Law, extract from the 
 
 Statute of. 
 
 16th cent. Hanseatic Regulations on the 
 
 Police of Ships 
 
 16th cent. Maritime Law, extract from the 
 
 Political Statute of 
 
 16th cent. Maritime Law, from the Statute 
 
 of the Court of Merchants 
 
 1601. Statute of Elizabeth on Insurance. . 
 
 1602. Law on Navigation (Aug, 31) 
 
 1603. Statute on Books of Commerce 
 
 1603. Mercantile Law, extract from the 2d 
 
 part of the General Statute of. . . 
 
 1604. Pragmatic on Sailors (July 23) 
 
 1604. Ordinance on Insurance 
 
 1605. Law on loading and arming Ships 
 
 (April 16) 
 
 1606. Ordinance on Insurance (June 20) . _ 
 
 1608. Law on the Luggage of SaUors 
 
 (Oct. 3) 
 
 1609. Ordinance on Bottomry Bonds 
 
 (Feb. 14) 
 
 1609. Maritime Law, extracted from the 
 
 Statute of Bonifacio 
 
 1610. An Act concerning Monopolies 
 1610. Maritime Law, from the Coutume 
 
 of 
 
 1610. Ordinance on Insurance (Jan. 26).. . 
 1614. Ordinance on Insurance (May 9)... 
 
 1614. Reces of the Hanseatic League 
 
 1615. Maritime Law, from the Chapters of 
 
 the Court of 
 
 161T. Maritime Law, from the Coutume of 
 1618. Maritime Law, from the Stadtz- 
 
 Lagh 
 
 1620. Maritime Law, from the Code of the 
 
 Duchy of. 
 
 1620. Ordinance on Insurance (Dec. 5) 
 
 1621. Declaration of the Magistrates of 
 
 Amsterdam on the ^Bottomry. . 
 
 1621. Ordinance on Insurance (Sept. 7) 
 
 1622. Law on Quarantine (Sept. 13), . . 
 
 1622. Ordinance on Insurance 
 
 1623. Ordinance on Bottomry Bond 
 
 (Aug. 23) 
 
 1623. Ordinance on Insurances...., 
 
 1624. Law on Insurance (March 12), 
 1626. Ordinance on Insurances (Jan. 30. . 
 1632. Law on Provisioning of Ships (April 
 
 Dantzig. 
 Amsterdam. 
 
 Barcelona. 
 
 Middelburg. 
 
 Guidon. 
 
 Gaeta. 
 
 Hanse Towns. 
 
 Savona. 
 
 1532. Law on the Police of Navigation 
 (May 1) 
 
 1633. Maritime Law, extract from the 
 computation of the Pragmatic of 
 
 1639. Extract of an Ordinance of Enchuy- 
 sen on Insurance 
 
 1640. Maritime Law, from the Pragmatic 
 of the Grand Master , 
 
 1644. Law on Bottomry Bond.(May 20). . . 
 1655. Ordinance on Maritime Law and Ju- 
 
 risdiction (March 16) , 
 
 1661. Ordinance on Insurance (Feb. 12)., 
 1664. Act of Charles II. on Maritime Law 
 
 and Jurisdiction , 
 
 1667. Maritime Code 
 
 1672. Maritime Law, extract from Statute 
 
 of. 
 
 1631. The Law on Bills of Exchange of 
 
 Copenhagen (April 16) 
 
 1681. Ordinance on the Marine (Aug.) 
 
 1681. Regulations on the Marine (Oct. 24) 
 
 1682. Regulations on Bottomry (Jan. 30). . 
 1682. A Tribunal of Commerce established 
 
 (Dec. 21) 
 
 1682. Law on Bills of Exchange (Oct. 
 
 1682. Ordinance of St. Sebastian on the 
 
 Contractation (Sept. 19) 
 
 1683. Maritime Law, from the general 
 
 code 
 
 1683. Maritime Law, Code of Christian V. 
 
 1684. Ordinance on Insurance (Nov. 22). . 
 1687. Ordinance on Insurance. (Jan. 31).. 
 
 1687. Ordinance on Insurance 
 
 1638. Ordinance on Insurance (Jan 29). . . 
 
 1688. Ordinance on Insurance (Oct, 29).. . 
 1693. Ordinance on Insurance (Jan. 26). . 
 
 Lucca. 
 England. 
 Venice. 
 Hamburg. 
 
 Hamburg. 
 Two Sicilies. 
 Rotterdam. 
 
 Venice, 
 Amsterdam. 
 
 Venice. 
 
 Portugal. 
 
 Corsica. 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Ostend. 
 Amsterdam. 
 Amsterdam. 
 Hanse Towns. 
 
 Sardinia. 
 Zuitcotte. 
 
 Sweden. 
 
 Prussia. 
 Amsterdam. 
 
 Amsterdam. 
 Amsterdam. 
 Venice. 
 Two Sicilies. 
 
 Portugal. 
 Two Sicilies. 
 Venice. 
 Amsterdam. 
 
 Venice. 
 
 Venice. 
 
 Sardinia. 
 
 Enchuysen. 
 
 Malta. 
 Genoa. 
 
 Rotterdam. 
 Flessing. 
 
 England. 
 Sweden. 
 
 Riga. 
 
 Denmark. 
 France. 
 France. 
 Amsterdam. 
 
 Leipzig. Saxony. 
 Leipzig. Saxony. 
 
 St. Sebastian. 
 
 Denmark and 
 
 Norway. 
 Denmark. 
 Portugal, 
 Amsterdam. 
 Senate of Bremen- 
 Amsterdam. 
 Portugal. 
 Amsterdam. 
 
LAW 
 
 1191 
 
 LAW 
 
 Ohronologioal Table op Commeroial ItA.VA—OonUrmed. 
 
 Date. Title. 
 
 169T, Pragmatic on Maritime Lav of 
 Grand-Master FerelloB (Sept.1) 
 
 1699. Ordinance on Insurance (Jan, 33). 
 
 ITtta cent. Maritime Lav, extract from a 
 code of Georgia^ by the Prince 
 Vakhtang. 
 
 17th cent. UsagcB on customs of Olonne 
 
 1705. An Act for giving like remedies on 
 Promissory Notes as is nov upon 
 Bills of Excliange, and for the bet- 
 ter payment of Inland Bills of Ex- 
 change (May 1) 
 
 1710. An Act for reviving^ continuancy, 
 
 and appropriating certain Duties 
 (March 8) 
 
 1711. Lav on Bills of Exchange (March 1) 
 
 1712. Lav on BUls of Exchange (March 23) 
 
 1714. An Act to reduce the rate of inter- 
 
 est (Sept. 29) 
 
 1715. Lav on Bills of Exchange (Aug. 1). 
 1719. Ordinance on Bankruptcy. Basle.. 
 
 1721. An Act for preventing trading to the 
 
 East Indies (June 24) 
 
 1722. RegulatioilB on Bills of Exchange for 
 
 the City of Nuremburg (Feb. 16) . 
 
 L731. Regulations on Insurances and Aver- 
 ages (Sept. 1) 
 
 ,1732. Ordinance on Bills of Exchange 
 signed by minors and persons not 
 engaged in trade (Sept. 4) 
 
 1T34. Svediah Code 
 
 1734. An Act to prevent the infamous prac- 
 tice of Stock -jobbing (June 1) 
 
 , 1784. An Act for settling the responsibili- 
 ties of vners, of Ships for the a,ctB 
 of Masters and Seamen (June 24) . 
 
 1739. Ordinance on Bills of Exchange 
 (May 26) 
 
 1746. An Act to regulate insurance of Ships 
 and on Merchandise (Aug. 1). . . . , 
 
 1746. An Act for regulating Insurance up 
 
 on Lives, etc. .....;....... 
 
 1747. Ordinance on Bankruptcies (May 16) 
 
 1748. Ordinance on . Bills of Sxchangei 
 
 (Feb. 1) ^ 
 
 1750. Ordinance on Bills of Exchange. . 
 1753. Regulation oil Bankruptcies (Aug. 31) 
 1755. Ordinance on Bills of Exchange 
 
 (March 20) 
 
 1756. Ordinance on Commerce (March 4) . 
 17G3. Ordinance on Bills of . Exchange 
 
 (Oct.l) 
 
 1766. Additional Articles on Bankruptcies 
 
 (Dec. 4) 
 
 1773. Regulations on Bills of Exchange 
 
 (Nov. 5) 
 
 1774. Lav on Merchant Shipping (July 
 
 1775. Lav on Tril^unals of Exchange and 
 
 Commerce (July 22) , . . , 
 
 1776. Ordinance on BiUs of Exchange, 
 17 rO. On the declaration of Cargoes at 
 
 the arrival and sailing of Ships 
 (March 18) , 
 
 1784. Ordinance on Bills of Exchange. St, 
 
 Gall (June 18) 
 
 1785. Ordinance on Bills of Exchange 
 
 (Nov. 24) ,... 
 
 1786. An Act to explain and amend an Act 
 
 on the Responsibility of Ovners 
 of Ships, etc., (Sept. 1) 
 
 1787. Concerning the Regulations estab- 
 
 blished for obtaining a Royal Pa- 
 tent of Navigation (Sept. 14) 
 
 1788. Ordinance on Commercial Partner- 
 
 ships (Nov. 21) , 
 
 1794 \ Maritime I/oan (Deo. 19) 
 
 1796. Ordinance on Books of Commerce 
 
 (Dec. 21) 
 
 18(tl. Ordinance of Brokers. Basle (April 
 
 28) 
 
 1802. Ordinance on Bills of Exchange 
 
 (Aug. 31) 
 
 1804. On the deposit of Accounts at the 
 
 " Greffe" in case of Bankruptcy 
 
 (Nov. 8) 
 
 1806. Lav on Bills of Exchange. Zurich 
 
 (May 16) 
 
 1803. Code of Commerce (Jan. 1) 
 
 1808. Lav on Bills of Exchange (Dec. 14). 
 
 1810. Lav on Bankruptcy. Basle (Dec. 18) 
 
 1811. Lav on Bankruptcy. Basle (Dec. 2) . 
 1813. An Act to limit the responsibility of 
 
 Ship-ovners in certain. Cargoes 
 (July 21) 
 
 1815. Regulation on Bankruptoy (Nov. 1). 
 
 1815. Procedure in matter of Bankruptcy 
 (Nov.l) *.. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Malta. 
 Amsterdam. 
 
 Georgia- 
 France. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Hamburg. 
 
 Bremen. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 BruuBvick. 
 
 Bvitzerland. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Hamburg. 
 
 Hamburg. 
 Sveden. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 Frankfort. 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 HesBe-Electorate . 
 
 Sveden. 
 
 Saxe-Altenburg. 
 
 Hamburg. 
 
 Schvartzburg, 
 
 Rudolstadt 
 Austria. 
 
 Austria. 
 
 Hamburg. 
 
 Augsburg, 
 Austria. 
 
 Austria. 
 Saxe-Cob. Gotha. 
 
 Austria. 
 Svitzerland. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Hesse Electorate. 
 Denmark. 
 
 Hesse-Electorate . 
 Svitzerland. 
 
 Anhalt-Coethen. 
 
 Svitzerland. 
 
 Svitzerland. 
 France. 
 Svitzerland. 
 Svitzerland. 
 
 Svitzerland. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Malta. 
 
 Malta. 
 
 CHEONOLOQrOAL TABLE OF COMMEBOIAL Xj±VrB^ConH7m6(t 
 
 Date. Title. 
 
 1815. Ordinance on Commercial Jurisdic- 
 
 tion (Dec. 15) 
 
 1816. Ordinance on Bills of ^Exchange 
 
 (Feb. 12) 
 
 1817. Ordinance on Brokers. Basle (Aug. 3) 
 
 1818. On Bankruptcy. Basle (Feb.ll).... 
 1818. Lav on Bankruptcy. Zug(Mayll) 
 
 1818. Ordinance on Brokers. Leipzig 
 
 (March 7) 
 
 1819. Codeof Commerce (March 26) 
 
 1819. Ordinance on BiUs of Exchange 
 
 (April 20) 
 
 1819. Act for resumption of Specie Pay- 
 ments 
 
 1821. An Act to regulate acceptance of 
 Bills of Exchange (June 1) 
 
 1821. An Act for preventing Fraud upon 
 Creditors, etc. (July 2) 
 
 1821. Provisional regulation of Com- 
 
 merce (June 24) 
 
 1822. Regulation on Brokers (June 26). . . , 
 1822. Ordinance on Bills of Exchange 
 
 (July 23) 
 
 1822. Lav on Merchants. Basle (Dec. 
 
 1823. Lav on Bankruptcies (March 26)..^ 
 1823. Lav on Bankruptcies. Berne (Dec. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Russia. 
 
 Hayti. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Rostock. 
 Bremen. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 Spain. 
 
 Papal States. 
 Sveden. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 1824. Regulation on Brokerage (Dec. 15) . 
 
 1825. An Act to amend the Lavs relative to 
 
 Bankrupts (May 2) 
 
 1825. Ordinance on Bills of Ex. (May 18). 
 
 1825. An Act to alter and amend the Lav 
 
 for the better protection of the 
 Property of Merchants (July 5). . . 
 
 1826. Code of Commerce (Jan. 31) 
 
 1826. Haytian code (March 28) 
 
 1826. An Act for better regulating co- 
 
 partnership of certain Bankers in 
 England (May 26) 
 
 1827. Bills of Exchange payable on Good 
 
 Friday or Christmas Day (Apr. 12) 
 
 1827. Ordinance on BiUs of Exchange 
 
 (Dec. 17) 
 
 1828. On Bills of Exchange (Jan. 21) 
 
 1828. An Actfor rendering a vritten mem- 
 orandum necessary to the validity 
 of certain promises and engage- 
 ments (May 9) , 
 
 1830. Code of Commerce (May 1) 
 
 1830. Establishment of a Tribunal of Ap- 
 peal at Ancona (Feb. 27) 
 
 1830. Lav on Bankruptcy (March 12), 
 
 1831. An Act to prohibit the payment in 
 
 certain trades of vages in goods, 
 etc (Oct. 16) 
 
 1832. On the establishments of Brokers. 
 
 Dresden (April 14) 
 
 1832, An Act for regulating the protesting 
 for non-payment of Bills of Ex- 
 change (Aug. 9) 
 
 1832. Bankruptcy amendment (Aug. 15).. 
 
 1832. Lav on commercial firms, partner- 
 ships, female property Lncerne 
 (Oct. 11) , 
 
 1832. An Act to establish a Court in Bank- 
 
 ruptcy (Oct. 20) 
 
 1833. Bank Charter (Aug. 29) 
 
 1833. Code of Commerce (Sept. IS). 
 
 1833. Ordinance on the evidence resulting 
 
 from Books and Papers of Brok- 
 ers (Sept. 21): 
 
 1834, Slavery abolished in Jamaica., 
 1834. Lav on the Organization of Justice 
 1834. Circular on Bankruptcies. Berne 
 
 (Sept. 17) , 
 
 1834. Legislation and Judiciary Regula- 
 
 tions (Nov. 10) 
 
 1835. Law on Bills of Exchange (May 20) . 
 
 1835. Illegal Securities (Aug. 31) 
 
 1835. Weights and Measures (Sept 9) 
 
 1835. An Act to amend the Lav touching 
 
 the Letters-patent for Invention 
 (Sept. 10) 
 
 1835. Regulation of Partnership (Dec. 28) 
 
 1836. An Act for declaring the Lav as to 
 
 the day for presentation for pay- 
 ment of Bills of Exchange, etc. 
 (Aug. 13) 
 
 1837. Joint-sto'ck Companies (July 17) 
 
 1838. Joint-stock Bank Partners (Aug. 14) 
 1838. Imprisonment for Debt and Insolvent 
 
 Act (Aug. 16) 
 
 1838. Cheap Postage Act 
 
 1839. Lav on Bills of Exchange. Vaud 
 
 (June 4) 
 
 1839. Lav on the confirmation of the Civil 
 Code and Code of Commerce. 
 Berne (June 22) Switzerland. 
 
 Countries. 
 Hamburg. 
 
 Sveden. 
 
 Svitzerland. 
 Svitzerland. 
 Bvitzerland. 
 
 Saxe. 
 
 Tvo Sicilies. 
 
 Saxe-Weimar. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Great Britain, 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Roman States. 
 Lubec. 
 
 Hanover. 
 
 Svitzerland. 
 
 Brunsvick. 
 
 Svitzerland. 
 Hamburg. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 Denmark. 
 
 Saxony. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Svitzerland. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 Great Britain. 
 Portugal 
 
 Saxony. 
 Great Britain, 
 Greece. 
 
 Svitzerland. 
 
 Roman States. 
 Sveden. 
 Great Britain. 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 Hamburg. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 Great Britain. 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Svitzerland. 
 
LEA 
 
 1192 
 
 LEA 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 Great Britain. 
 Hanover, 
 Great Britain. 
 Norway. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 Sardinia. 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 Great Britain. 
 Great Britain. 
 Great Britain. 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Sweden. 
 Prussia. 
 
 Prussia. 
 Great Britain. 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Ohkonological Table of Commeecial Laws — Contkmed. 
 
 Date. Title. 
 
 1839, An Act for the better protection of 
 parties dealing with, persons liable 
 to the Bankrupt Laws (July 19). . 
 
 1839. Exempting certain Bills of Exchange. 
 
 etc., from the operation of the 
 Law relating to Usury (July 29) , . 
 
 1840. Admiralty Court (Aug. T) : . . . 
 
 ISiO. On Bankruptcies (Aug. 7) 
 
 1842. New Factor's Act (June 30) 
 
 1842. Law on Bills of Exchange (Aug. 4). . 
 
 1843. An Act for the relief of Insolvent 
 
 Debtors (Aug. 12) 
 
 1842. Bankruptcy Amendment Act (Aug. 
 
 12) 
 
 1S42. Code of Commerce (Dec. 30) 
 
 1844. Bank Regulation Act (July 19) 
 
 1844. Debtors' and Creditors' Arrangement 
 
 Bill (Aug. 6) 
 
 1844. Insolvency, Bankruptcy, etc., amend- 
 ment (Aug. 9) 
 
 1844. Joint-stock Bank Act (Sept. 6) 
 
 1846. Duties on Cotton abolished 
 
 1845. Navigation Act (Aug. 4) 
 
 1845. Ship-registry Act (Aug. 4) 
 
 1845. Merchant Seamen Protection Act 
 
 (Aug. 8) 
 
 1846. Regulation on Commerce and Manu- 
 
 factures (Dec. 22) 
 
 1846. Ordinance on Partnership 
 
 1846. Ordinance on Tribunals of Com- 
 
 merce 
 
 1 6, Corn Law reform 
 
 184T. Act for relief of Ireland (£8,000,00)) 
 
 184T. Amendment of Registration, etc. ; 
 Joint-stock Company's Act, etc. 
 (July 22) 
 
 184T. Bankruptcy and Insolvency Juris- 
 diction Act (July 22) 
 
 1848. Suspension of Bank of France legal- 
 ized (March 15) 
 
 1848. An Act to consolidate and amend 
 the Laws relative to Insolvent 
 Debtors In India (June 9), . 
 
 1848. Joint-stock Company's Winding-up 
 
 Act (Aug. 14) 
 
 184S. An Act to empower the Commission- 
 ers of the Court of Bankruptcy to 
 order the release of BaiStrupts 
 from Prison in certain 
 (Aug,Bl) 
 
 1849. An Act to amend the Laws in force 
 
 for the encouragement of British 
 
 Shipping and Navigation (June 26) 
 1849. Banki'uptcy Law Consolidation Act 
 
 (Aug. ]) 
 
 1849. BankruptcyAmendment Act(Aug. 1) 
 
 1849. Joint-stock Company's Winding-up 
 
 Enactment (Aug. 1) 
 
 1847. Institution of Tribunals of Commerce 
 
 (Aprils) 
 
 18-19. Law on Bills of Exchange for all 
 Leipzig (May 1) 
 
 1850. A Stamp Law on Bills of Exchange, 
 
 Shares, Policy of Ins. (June 5) . . 
 
 1850. New Stamp Act 
 
 1850" County Court Extension Act 
 
 1S.5D. Mercantile Marine Act 
 
 1854. Repeal of Uunry Laws (Aug. 5),. . 
 See CoMMEEoiAL Latv of tue Woelt), by Leone Levi. 
 
 Xiazaretto. See Quarantine. 
 
 Iiead (Ger. Bley^ Blei ; Du. Lood^ Loot; Fr. 
 Ploirib ; It. Piomho ; Sp. Plomo ; Rus, Swinetz ; PoL 
 Olow ; Lat. Plumbum ; Arab, Anuk; Hind. Sisa ; Pers. 
 Surb), one of the most useful metals. It is of a blu- 
 ish "white color, and when newly melted is very bright, 
 but it soon becomes tarnished by exposure to the air. 
 It has scarcely any taste, but emits, on friction, a pe- 
 culiar smeU. It stains paper, or the fingers, of a bluish 
 color. When taken internally, it acts as a poison. It 
 is one of the softest of the metals ; its specific gravity 
 is 11-35. It is very malleable, and may be reduced to 
 thin plates by the hammer ; it may also be drawn out 
 into wire, but its ductility is not very great. Its 
 tenacitj' is so small, that a lead wire 1-126 inch diam- 
 eter is capable of supporting only 18'4 lbs. without 
 breaking. It melts at 612°. — Thomson's Chemistry. 
 Lead is a metal of much importance in the arts. Its 
 durability and malleability make it very suitalile for 
 the roofing of buildings, the construction of gutters, 
 and such like purposes. It used to be very exten- 
 sively employed in the formation of water-pipes and 
 
 Prussia, 
 Prussia, 
 
 France. 
 
 Prussia. 
 Prussia. 
 
 Prussia. 
 
 Prussia. 
 
 Prussia. 
 Ireland. 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 Prussia. 
 
 Germany, 
 
 France. 
 Great Britain. 
 Great Britain. 
 Great Britain. 
 Great Britain, 
 
 cisterns. But though water has no direct action on 
 lead, it facilitates the action of the external air \ and 
 hence the lead of cisterns and of pipes from which the 
 air is not entirely excluded becomes oxydized, and is 
 covered with a white crust at the point where the sur- 
 face of the water comes into contact with the air. In- 
 asmuch, however, as this oxyd is extremely delete- 
 rious, lead pipes and cisterns are now very generally 
 superseded by those of cast iron. At present, per- 
 haps, lead is more extensively used in the manufac- 
 ture of small shot than in any other way. Its salts, 
 though poisonous, are used in medicine to form seda- 
 tive external applications ; and frequently not a little, 
 by the disreputable wine merchant, to stop the prog- 
 ress of acetous fermentation. Wine thus poisoned 
 may, however, be readily distinguished ; a small quan- 
 tity of the bicarbonate of potass producing a white 
 precipitate, and sulphureted hydrogen a black one. 
 Pure wine will not be affected by either of these tests. 
 *' The oxyd of lead enters into the composition of 
 white glass, which it renders clearer and more fusible ; 
 it is also used in glazing common earthen vessels ; 
 hence the reason that pickles kept in common red pans 
 become poisonous. Lead, with tin, and a small quan- 
 tity of some of the other metals, forms pewter ; with 
 antimony, it forms the alloy of which printing types 
 are made." — Joyce's Chemistry. Mines of this valu- 
 able mineral have been wrought in England from the 
 cera of the Romans. It does not, however, appear 
 that it was obtained any where except in Derbyshire, 
 till 1289, when it was discovered in Wales ; and the 
 fact that silver was found intermixed with the Welsh 
 ores having transpired, gave a new stimulus to the 
 business ; but in other respects the discover^'' of silver 
 was of no use ; the quantity obtained being insuffi- 
 cient to defray the cost of its separation from the lead. 
 At present, the most productive English lead mines 
 are situated in Northumberland ; in Cumberland ; in 
 the western parts of Durham ; in Yorkshire ; in Der- 
 byshire, and in Cornwall. The Welsh mines are prin- 
 cipally situated in the counties of Flint, Cardigan, and 
 Montgomery ; those of Scotland in Ayr, Kirkcud- 
 bright, and Lanark ; and those of Ireland, in Wick- 
 low, Down, Limerick. Lead mines are also wrought 
 to considerable advantage in the Isle of Man. We 
 subjoin an abstract deduced from the accounts fur- 
 nished by the Museum of Practical Geology, of the 
 
 Qcantitieb of Lead Ore and Lead peodfoed in Great 
 Britain, in 1852. 
 
 Lead ore. Lead. 
 
 Tons. Tons. 
 
 England 62,411 43,813 
 
 Wales 18,3T9 13,T08 
 
 Ireland 4,493 3,223 
 
 Scotland 8,499 2,881 
 
 Isle of Man 2,415 1,885 
 
 Total 91,1! 
 
 64,961 
 
 " In 1852, 14,124 tons of lead were imported, and 26,- 
 548 tons (including 2,967 tons foreign), were exported. 
 It consequently follows that the produce of British 
 mines is sufficient not onlj^ to supply the home demand, 
 but to furnish a surplus of 9,457 tons for exportation. 
 Pig lead was worth, in the London market, in Septem- 
 ber, 1853, £22 10s, 6d. «. ton. In 1832 it was only 
 worth £13 10s. a ton, 
 
 " Lead, when first extracted from its ore, always con- 
 tains a certain portion of silver, varj'ing from a few 
 grains to 45 oz, or more in the ton. When the silver 
 mixed up with the lead is sufficient to repay the ex- 
 pense, it is usual to separate it, which is effected by 
 the process termed refining. The lead of some of the 
 English mines, especially those of Cornwall, and, also, 
 of the Isle of Man, contains very considerable quan- 
 tities of silver, and our readers will, perhaps, be sur- 
 prised to learn that it has been estimated by the highest 
 authority that, in 1852, the United Kingdom furnished 
 no fewer than 818,325 oz. of silver, worth, at 5s an oz., 
 £205,080, obtained from lead." 
 
LEA 
 
 1193 
 
 LEA 
 
 The consumption of lead in France has greatly in- 
 creased within the last 20 years. In 1852, about 
 30,000 tons of ore were imported, of which from 8-lOths 
 to 9-10th3 were brought frqm Spain. v 
 
 The lead mines of the United States are principally 
 
 situated in Illinois and Wisconsin, on the Upper Mis- ' 
 sissippi. Their produce and that of the other mines 
 in the Union, may, perhaps, average from 16,000 to 
 18,000 tons a year. Lead ore is also found in abund- 
 ance in Missouri, 
 
 An AcoorNT op British Lead and Lead Orb bxpoetbd prom the United- Kingdom in 1852, DisTiNGxrismNS the 
 Countries to whioh it was sent, and the Quantities sent to each. 
 
 CoQQtrlea to which exported. 
 
 Bussia. 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Prussia 
 
 Hanseatic Towns 
 
 Holland 
 
 Belgium 
 
 France 
 
 Portugal, Azores, and Madeira 
 
 Turkey J 
 
 Byria and Palestine 
 
 Egypt 
 
 Western coast of Africa ^ 
 
 British possessions In S, Africa. 
 Britlsli territories in E. Indies. 
 
 Java 
 
 China. 
 
 British settlements in Australia 
 British North Amor, colonies 
 
 British West Indies 
 
 Foreign West Indies 
 
 United States 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Uruguay 
 
 Chili 
 
 Peru 
 
 Other places 
 
 Total 
 
 16 
 102 
 
 195 
 
 Fig and rolled 
 
 Tons. cwt8 
 
 1,918 
 
 295 
 
 262 
 
 435 
 
 207 
 
 269 
 
 2,244 
 
 172 
 
 71 
 
 80 
 
 21 
 
 84 
 
 199 
 
 1,811 
 
 21 
 
 2,202 
 
 488 
 
 688 
 
 226 
 
 62 
 
 6,466 
 
 499 
 
 9 
 
 107 
 
 15 
 
 405 
 
 18,641 
 
 Tons, cwta, 
 
 3 
 83 
 
 '45' 
 
 2 0- 
 1 
 
 49 
 11 
 
 
 
 7 
 28 
 
 200 
 
 23 
 
 8 
 147 
 419 
 
 58 
 
 46 
 
 83 
 
 104 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 4 
 
 113 
 
 Litharge. 
 
 Tone. cwta. 
 1.81 7 
 
 36 4 
 
 13 4 
 
 69 6 
 
 24 18 
 
 20 5 
 
 13 IS 
 
 26 8 
 18 
 
 16 
 2 
 
 2 9 
 1 17 
 5 
 1 
 7 16 
 11 1 
 7 
 10 
 4 
 126 8 
 
 1,366 
 
 477 13 
 
 Red load. 
 
 Tona. cwtB. 
 41 3 
 20 6 
 16 19 
 182 8 
 167 11 ■ 
 107 -6 
 
 1 7 
 
 68 2 
 
 8 19 
 5 10 
 4 18 
 6 
 
 9 9 
 160 18 
 
 7 
 6 
 7 3 
 38 14 
 
 2 17 
 22 10 
 
 151 4 
 
 69 5 
 
 "6'l8 
 
 2 10 
 
 171 2 
 
 1,181 15 
 
 White load, i Total Exporta. 
 
 Tona. cwta. 
 
 17 19 
 
 169 15 
 
 5 4 
 
 48 4 
 
 9 18 
 
 169 18 
 7 4 
 
 "o'lo 
 
 7 18 
 29 19 
 260 9 
 
 1 16 
 
 2 19 
 160 13 
 179 12 
 
 88 19 
 28 5 
 106 1 
 194 4 
 4 16 
 18 18 
 4 6 
 224 10 
 
 1,781 1 
 
 TOn'a. cwta, 
 
 2,106 9 
 564 4 
 287 7 
 719 17 
 471 2 
 397 10 
 
 2,259 
 426 8 
 137 1 
 62 10 
 129 8 
 98 19 
 267 4 
 
 1,928 9 
 46 2 
 
 2,208 4 
 T95 5 
 
 1,278 8 
 
 876 1 
 168 16 
 
 6,764 1 
 
 877 10 
 24 8 
 
 142 6 
 
 26 
 
 1,089 18 
 
 28,681 9 
 
 The annexed table shows the total product of the lead 
 mines, and the average yearly price at Galena, Illinois. 
 
 pig lead. 
 
 1842. 
 1843. 
 1844. 
 1845. 
 1846. 
 1847. 
 1848. 
 1849. 
 1850. 
 1861. 
 1852. 
 1863. 
 18B4. 
 1865. 
 1866. 
 
 447,909 
 559,261 
 
 778,499 
 782,403 
 772,666 
 631,969 
 628,935 
 568,689 
 474,115 
 408,628 
 425,814 
 428,617 
 430,366 
 
 Total pounds. 
 
 81,368,680 
 39,148^70 
 43,727,040 
 54,494,860 
 61,288,210 
 61,096,920 
 47,737,880 
 . 41,025,380 
 89,801,280 
 83,188,060 
 28,603,960 
 29,807,980 
 29,658,190 
 80,125,550 
 
 $2 24 
 2 34 
 2 SO 
 2 96 
 
 2 89 
 
 3 17 
 3 24 
 
 3 67 
 420 
 
 4 18 
 
 4 12 
 6 50 
 
 5 50 
 
 5 75 
 
 6 00 
 
 * Estimated at 25 per cent, less than 1866. 
 
 The following tables show the quantity of lead of 
 ■Western production received in the port of New Or- 
 leans from 1844 to 1855 inclusive, and also of foreign 
 lead, paying 20 per cent, duty, imported into the port 
 of New Yorli, from 1849, the first year of late importa- 
 tions of this staple, to 185S, both inclusive : 
 
 Years. 
 
 Received at Now Orleans, 
 and moBtly forwarded to 
 northern oitiea of U.S. 
 
 Foreign lead 
 imported into 
 Hew York. 
 
 1844 
 
 Pounds. 
 44,746,880 
 . 51,248,760 
 54,977,680 
 46,609,080 
 36,487,620 
 86,598,990 
 29,078,600 
 22,785,860 
 18,729,480 
 14,720,090 < 
 2,456,000 
 8,000,000 
 1,800,000 
 
 Poonda. 
 
 23,875,660 
 80,004,240 
 43,464,120 
 88,451,000 
 37,918,160 
 55,948,900 
 40,327,140 
 42,281,680 
 
 1845 
 
 1846 
 
 1847 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 
 
 1850 .' 
 
 1851 
 
 1852 
 
 1858 
 
 1854 : 
 
 1S55 
 
 1856 
 
 Estimating the American lead to weigh 70 pounds 
 each pig, and the foreign 140 pounds each, which is 
 deemed about the average of both. 
 
 Lead keoeived at St. Louis prom Western Mines. 
 
 Yenre. Pigs- . Pounda. 
 
 1854 806,827 = 21,470,890 
 
 1855 315,67T = 22,097,890 
 
 1856. 204,656 = 14,325,920 
 
 In 1844 the Galena mines produced 61,494,860 
 pounds of lead, and the price at St. Louis was about 
 3 cents per pound. In 1856 they landed at St. Louis 
 14,325,920 pounds-^less than one fourth the supply of 
 12 years previous, and the price was about OJ cents 
 per pound, thus being more than doubled. In 1854 
 there was imported into the single port of New York 
 65,945,900 pounds of foreign lead — more than the Ga- 
 lena mines ever produced in any one year. Doubling 
 the price, doubling the demand, has reduced the pro- 
 duction to one quarter, and it is certain that in 1857 
 the western manufacturers of lead will have to pro- 
 cure a portion of their staple from imported foreign 
 lead in the Atlantic cities. 
 
 Statement exbiibiting the Foreign Importations and 
 Expoetations, Domestic Exports and Home Con- 
 sumption op Foreign Impoetations of Lead, and 
 THE Manufactures thereof ; also Home Consump- 
 tion OF Foreign Importations, less Domestic Ex- 
 poets, op Lead, and tub Manufactures of Lead, 
 AND Domestic Exports, less Home Consumption of 
 Foreign Importations of Lead, and the Manufac- 
 tures thereof, for the l.^st Seventeen Years, and 
 THE Annual Average thereof. 
 
 1840... 
 1841... 
 1842... 
 1848*.. 
 1844... 
 1845 .. 
 1846... 
 1847... 
 1848... 
 1849... 
 1850... 
 1851... 
 1862... 
 1853... 
 1854... 
 1865... 
 1866... 
 Averag( 
 
 Foreign 
 importa- 
 tions. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 20,366 
 
 6,989 
 
 816 
 
 227 
 
 103 
 
 5,485 
 
 7,192 
 
 86,257 
 
 1,187,425 
 
 1,284,672 
 1,619,757 
 2,102,487 
 2,566,163 
 2,564,234 
 
 864,860 
 
 Foreign 
 exports. 
 
 Domastio 
 exports, 
 
 Dollars, 
 34,090 
 
 526 
 47 
 192 
 
 121 
 11,501 
 61,876 
 164,246 
 132,644 
 60,657 
 28,117 
 90,688 
 189,57" 
 
 54,941 
 
 Home con- 
 sumption 
 of foreig^i 
 importn- 
 tlons. 
 
 DoUara. 
 
 89,687 
 
 117,294 
 
 540,217 
 
 492,766 
 
 606,266 
 
 867,050 
 
 624,796 
 
 188,675 
 
 92,017 
 
 43,394 
 
 35,479 
 
 28.200 
 
 51,194 
 
 19,604 
 
 48,352 
 
 19,681 
 
 83,140 
 
 Home con- 
 sumption 
 of foreign 
 importa- 
 tions, less 
 domestic 
 exports. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 5,98! 
 816 
 
 '"56 
 
 6,486 
 
 7,on 
 
 74,756 
 1,125,649 
 ,1,369, 
 1,162,028 
 1,569,100 
 2,074,870 
 2,476,.526 
 :2,4U,656 
 
 GOnsump- 
 lion of 
 foreign 
 
 importa- 
 tions. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 81,862 
 ,090,070 
 ,841,692 
 ,100,834 
 ,6.39,496 
 1,081,018 
 1,466,994 
 1,881.516 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 89,687 
 111,305 
 689,402 
 492,765 
 606,200 
 857,060 
 624,796 
 188,240 
 
 84,946 
 
 198,088[ 948,4801,496,498 832,043 
 
 * The year 1843 is given for nine months only, in conse- 
 quence of a change in the fiscal year. 
 
LEA 
 
 1194 
 
 LEA 
 
 Statement bhowing- the Impobts of Lbad into tub United States for the Tear ending June 80th, 1856. ' 
 
 Wheace Imported. 
 
 Pig, bar, sheet and old. 
 
 Shot. 
 
 Pipes. 
 
 Manufactures 
 
 of, not 
 
 specified. 
 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 4,628 
 
 3,768 
 
 427,663 
 
 88,289 
 
 409,734 
 
 291 
 
 1,267,141 
 
 20,265,075 
 
 6,160 
 
 8,825 
 
 64,807 
 
 701,244 
 
 16,815 
 
 9,244,283 
 
 13,678,997 
 
 8,777 
 
 1,491,794 
 
 6,642,896 
 
 4,753 
 
 800 
 
 82,169 
 
 1,091,766 
 
 520 
 
 215 
 
 Doners. 
 
 9S 
 
 105 
 
 18,238 
 
 1,396 
 
 21,284 
 
 6 
 
 55,458 
 
 972,218 
 
 "197 
 
 2-34 
 
 1,811 
 
 28,213 
 
 496 
 
 416,825 
 
 626,283 
 
 77 
 
 69,151 
 
 297,660 
 
 185 
 
 24 
 
 1,632 
 
 22,645 
 
 23 
 
 18 
 
 Pounds. 
 10,000 
 
 248,6io 
 60 
 
 "454 
 "850 
 
 183,632 
 
 Dollars. 
 "595 
 
 H524 
 3 
 
 "'26 
 "'21 
 
 8,887 
 
 Pounds, 
 
 Dollars. 
 "830 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 "932 
 
 "248 
 
 1 
 
 "437 
 "166 
 
 "'is 
 
 
 .... 1 
 
 Danish "West Indies. 
 
 
 6^679 
 
 HambuTff. . . 
 
 Bremen. . 
 
 Holland 
 
 Dutch Guiana 
 
 Belgium 
 
 England . . 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 
 Other British North Amer. pos. 
 British West Indies. . . 
 
 British Guiana 
 
 France on the Atlantic 
 
 France on the Mediterranean, . 
 French West Indies 
 
 
 
 Poi-to Eico 
 
 3ardinia 
 
 
 New Granada 
 
 Venezuela . . 
 
 Total 
 
 65,294,256 
 
 2,.528,014 
 
 448,106 
 
 24,066 
 
 
 880 
 
 1,884 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 ExpoKTs OP Lead from the United States, foe the Teaes ending June 30th, 1853, 1854, 1855, and 1856, 
 
 Exported to 
 
 1853. 
 
 1S64. 
 
 1855. 
 
 1866. ' 1 
 
 
 Pounds. 
 8,950 
 10,890 
 226 
 2,219 
 65,783 
 6,160 
 6,611 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 400 
 
 807 
 
 12 
 
 100 
 
 3,469 
 820 
 482 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 48,000 
 282,844 
 
 66,000 
 
 8,421 
 
 32,886 
 
 21,642 
 
 890 
 
 1,000 
 
 989 
 
 2,075 
 
 Dollars. 
 2,700 
 14,918 
 8,940 
 
 "521 
 
 2,622 
 
 1,848 
 
 445 
 
 70 
 
 75 
 
 145 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 66,259 
 
 1,720 
 
 604 
 
 6,185 
 
 12,860 
 
 21,686 
 
 3,560 
 
 1,000 
 
 1,225 
 
 800 
 
 6,900 • 
 
 763 
 
 209 
 
 2,625 
 
 86,131 
 
 473 
 
 4,098 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 "539 
 
 187 
 
 61 
 
 482 
 
 1,875 
 
 1,774 
 
 804 
 
 100 
 
 99 
 
 26 
 
 472 
 
 64 
 
 17 
 
 199 
 
 2,714 
 
 89 
 
 837 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 228,702 
 1,425 
 8,280 
 
 1,500 
 
 *9',i99 
 
 t40,822 
 
 2,625 
 
 3,978 
 
 ±6^640 
 800 
 
 "680 
 11,870 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 2i',iio 
 
 160 
 210 
 
 "ioo 
 
 "674 
 
 3,092 
 
 200 
 
 281 
 
 "580 
 29 
 
 "is 
 
 1,055 
 
 
 British Amer, col.. 
 Cuba 
 
 Hayti 
 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Bi-itish W. Indies. 
 Central Republic. . 
 New Granada 
 
 
 British East Indies 
 Porto P.ico 
 
 Buenos Ayres 
 
 Peru 
 
 Sandwich Islands . 
 Total 
 
 100,778 
 
 5,540 
 
 404,247 
 
 26,874 
 
 166,638 
 
 14,298 j 310,029 
 
 27,512 
 
 * Including British Honduras and Guiana. 
 
 The production of lead at the Galena mines, of late 
 years, has been materially reduced by the discover}'' of 
 gold in California 
 
 White Lead. — The manufacturers of white lead, 
 shot, lead pipe, etc., have petitioned Congress to place 
 the raw material, pig lead, on the free list, and the 
 committee reported favorably on the subject. The 
 petition was signed by all the leading houses engaged 
 in the trade, and the facts presented in favor of their 
 request are numerous and conclusive. They say that 
 for a long time previous to 1849 the domestic supply 
 of pig lead was more than adequate to the entire do- 
 mestic demand. Up to 1847 the Galena mines steadily 
 increased in productiveness, and kept pace with the 
 increase in consumption. Since that year the con- 
 sumption has been in advance of the home supply, 
 and the manufacturers on the seaboard have had to 
 pay comparati-velj'' high prices for the raw material, 
 the western States now manufacturing nearly all the 
 pig lead they produce. Out of 60.000,000 pounds of 
 pig lead imported into New York in 1854, only about 
 2,500,000 pounds were American. The duty on pig 
 lead, by the tariff of 1846, was 20 per cent, ad valorem, 
 and at the time that act was passed, it protected all 
 domestic interests, for we produced as much lead as 
 the countrj' consumed. Since 1848 we have been 
 obliged to import the bulk of our consumption, and all 
 consumers and manufacturers are therefore injured, 
 while foreign manufacturers are benefited by the duty 
 now imposed on the article. Our manufacturers are 
 shut out of all foreiffn markets by the enhanced price 
 
 t Including Yenezuela. 
 
 $ China. 
 
 which the duty of 20 per cent, puts upon their goods. 
 The manufacturers ask only that pig lead should be 
 put in the free list. It is their wish that all articles 
 manufactured from pig lead should remain as at pres- 
 ent, under a duty of 20 per cent. The manufacturers 
 of articles from pig lead ask no more than the Secre- 
 tary of the Treasury has repeatedly suggested in his 
 annual reports — "that the raw materials used in our 
 manufactures should be admitted free of duty." By 
 the tariff of 1857, passed 3d March, the duty on lead 
 manufactures generally was reduced from 30 per cent, 
 to 24 ; lead in pig and bars from 20 to 15 per cent. 
 Ore from 20 to 15 per cent. 
 
 Lead, for sounding. The common hand lead 
 weighs 11 lbs. with about 20 fathoms of line. The 
 leadsman stands somewhere on the side of the vessel, 
 leaning against a band for the purpose ; lets the lead 
 descend near the water ; then, swinging it over his 
 head once, or twice, if the ship is going fast, throws it 
 forward. The line is marked at 5, 7, 10, 13, 17, and 
 20 fathoms. The numbers between are called deeps: 
 thus, "by the mark 7," " by the deep 9," indi- 
 cates 7 and 9 fathoms. When the depth is great, the 
 deep-sea lead of 28 lbs. is used. The lead is dropped 
 from the fore part of the vessel, the line being passed 
 outside all. It is generally necessary to heave the 
 ship to. See Souxdings. 
 
 League, a. measure of length, used in reckoning 
 distances b}' sea. The sea league is three nautical or 
 geographical miles, or the l-20th of a degree, and con- 
 sequently about 3*45 English miles. The common 
 
LEA 
 
 1195 
 
 LEA 
 
 land league is a well-known itinerary measure on the 
 continent of Europe, chiefly in France. The French, 
 however, have two distinct leagues : the legal posting 
 league (lieue de paste), containing 2O0O toises, and 
 equal to 2-42 English miles ; and a league of 25 to the 
 degi'ee (anciently the lieue moyenne), or equal to about 
 2'76 English miles. This last, however, can scarcely 
 be regarded as a definite measure ; and previous to the 
 Revolution the league was different in the different 
 provinces. The word is said to be derived from the 
 Celtic loach, stone ; the distances having been marked 
 by stones in the Roman provinces. In Gaul alone of 
 those provinces, they were marked in some instances 
 by leagues as well as miles. The Gaulish league was 
 considered by the Romans as equal to a mile and a 
 half of their own measure, or as containing 1500 Ro- 
 man paces. It is supposed that the league, or leuca, 
 was introduced into England by the Normans, where at 
 an early period, it came to be reckoned as an equivalent 
 to 2 miles of the time ; thi^ being the sense in which the 
 term leuca is used by the oldest law writers, and in most 
 of the old English charters. A league, or 3 miles, is 
 the limit from shore generally allowed for the jurisdic- 
 tion of a country to extend in fisheries, etc. ; and also 
 the limit of neutral water, in which a fugitive ship is 
 safe. See Fisheries and NBUTEALa. See Mile. 
 
 Leak, at sea, is a hole in the ship, through which 
 the water comes in. A ship is said to spring a leak, 
 when she begins to leak or let in the water. The 
 manner of stopping a leak is to put into it a plug 
 wrapped in oakum and well tarred, or to insert a tar- 
 pauling clout which keeps out the water, or to naU a 
 piece of sheet-lead on the place. Seamen sometimes 
 stop a leak by thrusting a piece of salt beef into it. 
 The sea-water, says Mr. Boyle, being fresher than the 
 brine imbibed bj- the beef penetrates into its body and 
 causes it to swell so as to bear strongly against the 
 edges of the broken plank, and thereby stops the in- 
 flux of the water. A ready way to find a leak in a 
 ship is to apply the narrower part of a speaking- 
 trumpet to the ear and the other to the -side of the ship 
 where the leak is supposed to be j then the noise of 
 the water rushing in at the leak will be distinctly 
 heard, and thereby discovered. 
 
 Leakage, in commerce, an allowance in the cus- 
 toms, granted to importers of wine for the waste and 
 damage the goods are supposed to receive by keeping. 
 Leather. The skins of various animals, in their 
 fresh state, are flexible, tough, and elastic, and ap- 
 pear to be admirably adapted to the purposes of cloth- 
 ing. But in drying, they become hard and horny, and, 
 on exposure to moisture, putrid. The art of restoring 
 the supple qualities to sicins, and rendering them dura- 
 ble, appears to have been discovered at an early pe- 
 riod of man's history ; and the word leather, from the 
 Saxon lith, lithe, or lither, indicates the quality of sup- 
 pleness. Leather is formed by the chemical union of 
 the dermis, corium, cutis, or true skin of an animal, 
 ■with an astringent vegetable principle, known as tan- 
 nin, or tannic acid. The word tan, from the French 
 tanner, to tan, appears to be derived from the low Latin 
 tanare. Leather may, however, be prepared by im- 
 pregnating the skin with alum, oil, or grease. In the 
 animal hide or skin, the outer part, which is covered 
 with hair or wool, is called the epidermis or cuticle, 
 below which is the reticulated tissue; and then, in con- 
 tact with the flesh, is the dermis, or true skin, which 
 is the only part which admits of being tanned. It 
 varies in thickness in different parts ; the mane, the 
 back and the rump, being thicker than the belly. The 
 skin is converted into gelatin, or glue, by the action of 
 boiling water. 
 
 Varieties. — Leather tanned is generally divided into 
 three kinds, namely, hides, kips, and skins ; and these 
 yield different varieties of leather, such as butts and 
 backs, which arc made of the stoutest and heaviest ox- 
 hides. When hides are tanned whole for sole leather. 
 
 they are called crop hides. Skins produce the lighter 
 varieties of leather. Large quantities of hides, drj' 
 salted, are imported into the United Kingdom from 
 South America and different parts of Europe, from the 
 Gape of Good Hope, Morocco, etc. Calf skins are 
 imported from the Baltic, and the calves being killed 
 younger than in England, the leather prepared from 
 them is used for book-binding, gloves, and ladies' shoes. 
 The stoutest leather is made from butts or backs. 
 Buff leather was formerly made from the hide of the 
 buffalo, but it is now furnished by the cow-hide, and is 
 used chiefly for soldiers' belts. Bull-hide is tliicker 
 than cow-hide, while that of the bullock is intermedi- 
 ate. Calf-skin supplies the great demand for the up- 
 per part of boots and shoes. Sheep-skins form a thin, 
 cheap leather ; lamb-skins are used for gloves ; goat 
 and kid-skins form a light leather of fine quality; 
 deer and antelope are usually shamoi/ed, or dressed in 
 oil ; horse-hide is prepared for harness-work, etc., and 
 this, with seal-skin, is used for making enameled 
 leather ; dog-$kin makes a thin tough leather, but most 
 of the gloves sold as dog-skin are made of lamb-skin. 
 Hogrskin makes a thin, porous leather, and is used for 
 covering tlie seats of saddles. There is a large import 
 trade in skins. The great demand for leather for the 
 best gloves is supplied by lamb-skins from Italy, 
 Spain, the south of France, and other parts, where, in 
 consequence of the lamb being killed earlier than with 
 us, the skin is small, fine, and thin, and is used instead 
 of Irid ; but it is neither so strong nor so glossy. The 
 skin of lambs that die soon after their birth are some' 
 times dressed with the wool, and are used for lining 
 gloves and shoes. The best kid-skins are from the 
 south , of France ; they are also imported from Gej- 
 many, Switzerland, Italy, and Ireland. It is said 
 that as soon as the kid begins to feed on herbage, the 
 skin suffers in fineness and delicacy,, and is no longer 
 suitable for the best gloves. The best morocco leather 
 is made from Swiss goat-skins, another kind is from 
 Mogador and East Indian goat-skins, which are often 
 made into black morocco, known as " black Spanish 
 leather," from the circumstance of the first supplies 
 having been obtained from Spain. The leather from 
 the Cape sheep-skin is nearly equal to morocco. Hip- 
 popotamus hides are imported from south Africa, and 
 when tanned with oak bark, they make an extremely 
 thick and compact leather. 
 
 Tanning Materials. — The vegetable substances used 
 in tanning have of late years become almost as numer- 
 ous as the varieties of hides and skins on which they 
 are employed. The active vegetable principle, tannin, 
 varies somewhat according to the source fl'om which 
 it is derived j but it is always marked by an astringent 
 taste, a bluish-black, or dark-green precipitate, in 
 aqueous solutions, by admixture with a solution of one 
 of the salts of peroxyd of iron j while, with a solution 
 of gelatin, it gives a dirty white or brown precipitate. 
 A cold aqueous solution of tannin, mixed in certain pro- 
 portions with one of gelatin in the form of glue, size, 
 or isinglass, forms a substance which is known as 
 tanno-gelatin, which may be formed by the application 
 of heat into a viscid elastic mass, resembling India- 
 rubber. Bj' the action of ether, containing a little 
 water, on gall-nuts, pure tannin may be procured. 
 The etherial solution separates by repose into two lay- 
 ers, the lower one, which is of an amber color, being a 
 solution of tannin in water ; while the upper layer 
 contains gallic acid, mixed with other substances. On 
 gently evaporating tiie aqueous solution, nearly pure 
 tannin is procured, to the extent of from 35 to 40 per 
 cent, from galls. Obtained in this way, it is a shining, 
 porous, uncrystallizable mass : it is soluble in water, 
 and then exerts the properties of an acid. By expos- 
 ure to air it absorbs oxygen, and gives off a carbonic 
 acid ; two new products, gallic acid and ellagic acid, 
 being formed at the expense of the tannin, the latter 
 being insoluble. Tannin may be precipitated from its 
 
LEA 
 
 1196 
 
 LEA 
 
 solutions by sulphuric and some other acids ; by boil- 
 ing the precipitate with sulphuric acid for a few min- 
 utes in a dilute solution of the same acid, gallic acid is 
 formed, and crystallizes in cooling. Gallic acid ex- 
 ists in gall-nuts, sumach, vallonea, tea, and other sub- 
 stances, and probably arises from the decomposition of 
 tannin. It does not combine with gelatin, and is, 
 therefore, useless in tanning. Some tanners, however, 
 imagine the gallic acid of the waste liquor to be useful 
 in swelling or raising the hides, preparatory to remov- 
 ing them to a stronger liquor. It is important to the 
 tanner to understand the circumstances under which 
 tannin is converted into gallic acid ; they are numer- 
 ous and somewhat complicated, and their investigation 
 belongs to the scientific chemist, to whom the manu- 
 facturer ah'eady owes so manj^ obligations. 
 
 During a long period the principal tanning material 
 has been oak baric. That which is stripped in the 
 spring is the most esteemed, for it then contains a 
 larger quantity of tannin than that stripped in au- 
 tumn, and this more than the bark stripped in winter. 
 The best bark is obtained in a warm spring, from cop- 
 pice-trees about 12 years of age. Oak bark contains 
 from 6*6 to 6'0 of tannin, which is contained in the inner 
 white layers next the alburnum, as in the case of other 
 astringent barks. The tannin of bark is probably not 
 identical with that of galls, as it does not 3'ield pyro- 
 gallic acid when subjected to destructive distillaton. 
 From four to six pounds of oak bark are required for 
 everj' pound of leather. After the stripping, the bark 
 is stacked to dry. Should the season be rainy a portion 
 of the tannin may be washed out, and the bark be 
 thus deteriorated. There is no doubt that the peculiar 
 excellence of the sole leather of England is due in great 
 measure to the superior oak bark which is possessed. 
 Oak bark imparts firmness and solidity to leather, 
 while other sorts give softness ; thus the peculiar soft- 
 ness of French curried leather is referred to the bark of 
 the evergreen oak, with which the better kinds are tan- 
 ned, while the other tanning materials next to be named 
 give each its peculiar quality with respect to color, scent, 
 toughness, or the power of resisting moisture and decay. 
 
 The other tanning materials, used chiefly for fancj' 
 leathers, are as follows : — Sumach, consisting of the 
 young branches and powder of the leaves of Rhus Co- 
 tinus, Venus sumach, or the wild olive, and Shus Cori- 
 aria. Sumach varies in its amount of tannin from 
 16*4 per cent, in Malaga and Sicilian specimens, to 10 
 and 5 in Virginia and Carolina sumach. The solution 
 is liable to fermentation. Blvi, or divi-divi, is the 
 pod of a South American shrub, CcBsdlpinia Coriaria. 
 The pod is dark-brown, about three inches long, and 
 curled up as if by heat. It is rich in tannin, the whole 
 of which is found in the rind below the epidermis. 
 Vallonea, consisting of the acorn cups of Quercus 
 ^gilops, or pricklj'-cupped oak, growing in the Morea. 
 A smaller kind, called carwato, containing a larger pro- 
 portion of tannin, is for the most part used by the silk 
 dyers. About two pounds of vallonea are required 
 for making one pound of leather. Vallonea and oak 
 bark may be mixed together with good effect. Cat- 
 echu^ cutch, Terrajaponica, or terra, are the inspissated 
 aqueous extracts of the bark, wood, and leaves of the 
 Acacia Catechu, and Uncaria gambler. The two vari- 
 eties are known in commerce as catechu, or gambier, 
 and cutch ; that from Bombay is richer in tannin than 
 that from Bengal. Myrohalan is a name given to the 
 fruit of several East India trees ; the husk, being the 
 portion valuable to the tanner, is separated by bruis- 
 ing the nut which it incloses. Mimosa or Wattleharh 
 is furnished by diflferent species of Mimosa growing in 
 Australia and New Zealand. Cork-tree lark is the 
 inner bark of the cork oak, the outer, or dead bark 
 being the well-known substance, cork. It is obtained 
 from Corsica, Spain, and a few other countries, and 
 contains twice as much tannin as average oak bark. 
 Larch harh is sometimes used for tanning sheep-skins, 
 
 and Willow harh for kid and lamb-skins. The last- 
 named bark is used in making Russia leather, but its 
 peculiar odor is given b}' means of the oil of birch-tree 
 bark. In addition to the tannin contained in the above 
 substances, there are mucilaginous, coloring and other 
 matters which have an influence on the kind of leather 
 produced. The tannin itself may also vary in different 
 materials ; thus catechu and Tlivi give a more porous 
 leather than oak bark or vallonea, while larch bark 
 gives a verj' inferior leather to that prepared from 
 oak bark. The coloring matter in some excellent 
 tanning materials prevents their use, since it is the 
 custom to sell both upper and sole leathers of a yel- 
 lowish-fawn color, and any thing which interfered 
 with the production of this tint would be objected to ; 
 thus, catechu and cutch would be among the cheapest 
 of tanning materials, were it not that they impart to 
 the leather a reddish-brown color, which would in no 
 way interfere with the dressing or currying. 
 
 Statement showing the Exports of Leather prom the 
 United States for the tear ending June 30, 1856. 
 
 ■Whither exported. 
 
 Leather. 
 
 Boots luid shoes of 
 leather. 
 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Dollara. 
 
 Pairs. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Eussiau Poss. N. Amer. 
 
 
 
 2,004 
 
 8,630 
 
 Danish West Indies... 
 
 11,723 
 
 2,474 
 
 6,172 
 
 7,857 
 
 
 20,000 
 
 4,670 
 225 
 150 
 
 2,460 
 
 
 
 Bremen 
 
 1,200 
 1,000 
 11,44T 
 
 .... 
 
 
 Holland 
 
 Dutch West Indies. . . . 
 
 Dutch Guiana 
 
 400 
 
 57 
 
 
 
 Dutch East Indies. 
 
 86 
 
 28 
 
 
 
 Belgium 
 
 5,000 
 
 T50 
 
 200. 
 
 is5 
 
 England 
 
 48,70T 
 84,866 
 393,194 
 
 9,T86 
 
 4,905 
 
 8,877 
 
 Scotland ... . 
 
 4,826 
 181,049 
 
 
 
 
 215,100 
 
 882,748 
 
 British N. Amer. pes. . 
 
 879,891 
 
 80,141 
 
 158,518 
 
 142.115 
 
 British West Indies... 
 
 8,610 
 
 820 
 
 20,870 
 
 17,682 
 
 British Honduras 
 
 
 
 4,992 
 
 6,965 
 
 British Guiana 
 
 750 
 
 227 
 
 
 
 British poss. in Africa. 
 
 
 
 2,191 
 
 2,049 
 
 British Australia 
 
 
 
 148,688 
 
 858,770 
 
 New Zealand 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 260 
 
 French K. Amer. poss. 
 
 1,056 
 
 258 
 
 252 
 
 210 
 
 French West Indies. . . 
 
 800 
 
 B6 
 
 
 
 
 25,548 
 
 4,986 
 
 11,154 
 
 11,654 
 211 
 
 Porto Rico 
 
 342 
 
 Cape de Verd Islands.. 
 
 
 
 960 
 
 778 
 
 Turkey in Europe 
 
 
 
 468 
 
 410 
 
 Turkey in Asia 
 
 
 
 588 
 
 648 
 
 Other ports in Africa. . 
 
 
 
 2,T08 
 
 8,676 
 
 Hayti 
 
 6,122 
 
 1,871 
 
 10,409 
 
 12,768 
 
 
 
 2,042 
 
 2,055 
 
 
 2,425 
 6fl0 
 
 405 
 TO 
 
 580 
 8,946 
 
 780 
 4,770 
 
 Central Republic 
 
 New Granada 
 
 8,200 
 
 T62 
 
 7,887 
 
 10,652 
 
 
 11,594 
 
 8,902 
 
 4,040 
 
 8,827 
 1,142 
 
 Brazil 
 
 4,800 
 
 763 
 
 1,804 
 
 Uruguay 
 
 
 8,000 
 
 2,524 
 
 
 800 
 
 68 
 
 18,436 
 17,.322 
 
 18,567 
 14,515 
 17,287 
 80.482 
 
 Oliili 
 
 
 
 
 4,000 
 
 636 
 
 19,758 
 
 Sandwich Islands 
 
 8,642 
 
 822 
 
 26,746 
 
 China 
 
 2,600 
 212 
 
 541 
 
 2,128 
 494 
 
 4,199 
 560 
 
 Whale Fisheries 
 
 Total . 
 
 57 
 
 972,768 
 
 252,844 
 
 688,149 
 
 1,060,967 
 
 
 iMPOETa OF Leather Manufaotctres into the Usited 
 States, fok the Yeaks ending June SOtii, 1853, 1354, 
 1855. 
 
 Leather. 
 
 Tanned, bend and sole 
 
 Tanned and dressed upper. 
 Skins tanned and dressed. . 
 Skins tanned & not dressed 
 Skivers 
 
 Boots 
 
 Shoes and pumps 
 
 Gloves 
 
 General 
 
 Total 
 
 XfoUars. 
 28,267 
 
 1,052,120 
 486,666 
 16,520 
 89,760 
 64,601 
 87,608 
 1,868,997 
 281,748 
 
 1854. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 $50,147 
 
 1,266,630 
 
 618,686 
 
 10,888 
 
 60,483 
 
 68,677 
 
 83,126 
 
 1,826,386 
 
 887,362 
 
 1,252,369 
 486,031 
 
 681496 
 
 • 90,818 
 
 986,225 
 285,926 
 
 8,816,282 1 3,661,204 I I 
 
 Grained Leatlier, which is curried on the hair or 
 grained side, is called Hack on the grain, and is mostly 
 used for the upper leathers of ladies' shoes. In prepar- 
 ing such leather, the waxing is performed as follows : 
 A solution of sulphate of iron, called copperas-waicr, or 
 iron-liquor, is applied to the grain side of the wet skin, 
 when the salt, uniting with the gallic acid of the tan, 
 
LEA 
 
 1197 
 
 LEA 
 
 produces an ink dye ; stale urine is then applied to the 
 skin, and when dry, the stuffing is applied. The grain 
 is raised, and when dry the skin is whitened, bruised, 
 and again grained ; after which a mixture of oil and 
 tallow applied to the grain side, completes the process. 
 Varnished wad STiameled Leather. — For many years 
 it was found difScult to cause a bright varnish to ad- 
 here to leather without cracking, an effect which is 
 now produced by means of boiled linseed oil, mixed 
 
 with Tegeta,ble black and Prussian blue. This com- 
 position, of the consistence of a thick paste, is rubbed 
 upon the surface of the leather, and then dried at a 
 temperature of from 150° to 170° Fahr. The process 
 is repeated from 3 to 7 times, and when quite dry, the 
 varnish adheres very firmly, and will bear considera-, 
 ble flexure and tension without cracking. By mixing 
 colored pigments with the varnish, enameled leather 
 of various colors may be produced. 
 
 Statement showing the 
 
 Imposts 
 
 OP Lbatiibe and Manufactures of Leathed 
 Teak endino Jitne 80th, 1866. 
 
 , into 
 
 THE United States toe the 
 
 Whence imported. 
 
 Tanned, bend, Bole, and 
 upper. 
 
 Skins tanned and 
 dressed. 
 
 Sklvera. - 
 
 Boots and shoes. 
 
 Gloves for men, 
 women, and children. 
 
 Manufactnros 
 
 of leather 
 not specified. 
 
 
 Pounds. , DollarB. 
 1,659 79« 
 
 DoEen. 
 
 42 
 
 1 
 
 40 
 
 648 
 
 2,551 
 
 53 
 
 101 
 
 89,184 
 
 1,685 
 
 '"56 
 
 64 
 
 100 
 
 66 
 
 27S 
 
 19,455 
 
 84,687 
 
 82 
 
 '"40 
 10 
 1 
 
 '"24 
 
 18 
 
 197 
 
 426 
 
 ■"28 
 
 DoDars. 
 
 606 
 
 6 
 
 181 
 
 7,272 
 
 22,888 
 
 625 
 
 1,081 
 
 288,400 
 
 12,804 
 
 "895 
 
 286 
 
 668 
 
 239 
 
 8,408 
 
 47,402 
 
 878,986 
 
 183 
 
 "164 
 44 
 18 
 
 "283 
 
 74 
 
 914 
 
 2,797 
 
 "S20 
 
 Dozen. 
 
 "289 
 
 l'l',636 
 
 '2^825 
 
 DoUars. 
 
 'V79 
 
 54'780 
 l'2'653 
 
 Pairs. 
 
 "828 
 
 1,065 
 
 710 
 
 86',265 
 
 "461 
 80 
 98 
 
 "120 
 
 22,777 
 514, 
 
 '"40 
 
 ""6 
 '8,921 
 
 Dollnri. 
 
 1,208 
 1,935 
 2,048 
 
 85",656 
 
 "485 
 
 81 
 
 228 
 
 "154 
 
 4'o"2io 
 888 
 
 "'79 
 
 ""5 
 '6'950 
 
 Dozen. 
 
 '"15 
 15,626 
 
 118',261 
 
 ""9 
 
 14l',998 
 100 
 
 "so 
 
 's^sio 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 ■"62 
 79,365 
 
 660^610 
 
 "■75 
 
 6981641 
 174 
 
 '"68 
 10,655 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 '6,872 
 
 52,889 
 
 1,065 
 
 944 
 
 79,025 
 
 208 
 
 49 
 
 3,264 
 
 11 
 
 21 
 
 16'8',640 
 46 
 21 
 
 "638 
 "581 
 
 ■2,524 
 
 Swedish West In4ies 
 
 Danish West Indies 
 
 83,591 
 74,678 
 18,890 
 108,611 
 411,837 
 7,190 
 
 '8,86o 
 1,646 
 
 3,84S',480 
 6,086 
 
 "497 
 970 
 
 '1^066 
 866 
 446 
 150 
 
 "260 
 
 12,645 
 29,594 
 
 8,411 
 42,702 
 141,163 
 
 1,883 
 
 'l',947 
 508 
 
 1,669^889 
 8,816 
 
 "886 
 820 
 
 "211 
 71 
 171 
 60 
 
 "'69 
 
 
 Holland , 
 
 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Malta 
 
 
 Other Br. N. Amer. pos, . 
 
 British W.Indies 
 
 British Guiana 
 
 British Australia 
 
 British East Indies 
 
 France on the Atlantic., 
 France on the Mediter. . . 
 
 PhUlppine Islands 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Two Sicilies 
 
 
 Other porta in Africa 
 
 Central Republic 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Uruguay. ,.. — 
 
 Ohili 
 
 China 
 
 Total 
 
 4,519,651 
 
 1,918,987 
 
 99,561 
 
 768,758! 18,599 1 69,212 1 66,821 
 
 188,8721 279,349 
 
 1,844,5601 810,248 ( 
 
 Statistics of the Tanneries in the United States, accoedino to 
 
 the 
 
 Denbus 01 
 
 1850. 
 
 
 States. 
 
 No.ol 
 
 tfln- 
 
 nerioB 
 
 Capital 
 Invested. 
 
 No. of hide 
 
 s and skins. 
 
 Value raw 
 material. 
 
 No.ofhanda 
 employed. 
 
 Monthly wages. 
 
 No. of sides of leather, 
 skins, etc., produced. 
 
 Value of 
 mannfaee. 
 
 Hides. 
 
 Skins,* 
 
 Males. 
 
 Fern. 
 
 Moles. 
 
 Fem. 
 
 Sklna. 
 
 Sides leath. 
 
 
 213 
 
 163 
 152 
 246 
 
 10 
 
 115 
 
 942 
 
 183 
 
 1,039 
 
 16 
 116 
 841 
 151 
 
 91 
 140 
 
 Dollars. 
 782,747 
 441,975 
 846,260 
 
 1,377,726 
 42,900 
 360,600 
 
 5,026,143 
 572,857 
 
 8,640,318 
 99,860 
 628,900 
 676,988 
 261,055 
 184,335 
 262.855 
 
 816,334 
 
 166,679 
 
 125,052 
 
 760,220 
 
 10,571 
 
 122,456 
 
 1,707,862 
 
 101,485 
 
 926,460 
 
 26,050 
 
 169,585 
 
 189,200 
 
 77,805 
 
 66,000 
 
 81,484 
 
 2,100 
 
 79,038 
 
 52,815 
 
 10,500 
 
 9,350 
 
 16,460 
 
 166,944 
 
 196,200 
 
 844,280 
 
 72,866 
 
 141,549 
 
 60,825 
 
 120,667 
 
 6,840 
 
 29,800 
 
 120 
 
 6,000 
 
 81,850 
 
 109,596 
 
 44,380 
 
 298,000 
 
 14,861 
 
 67,110 
 
 871,894 
 
 120,781 
 
 293,798 
 
 12,950 
 
 68,810 
 
 74,678 
 
 24,035 
 
 18,880 
 
 21,705 
 
 1,200 
 
 18,922 
 
 9,730 
 
 2,850 
 
 1,750 
 
 3,851 
 
 48,429 
 
 69,880 
 
 228,498 
 
 23,600 
 
 67,070 
 
 21,676 
 
 44,498 
 
 850 
 
 14,900 
 
 '4^260 
 
 Dollar.. 
 
 892,843 
 
 643,779 
 
 867,946 
 
 2,311,178 
 
 40,615 
 
 453,854 
 
 6,065,221 
 
 428,587 
 
 8,169,809 
 
 99,620 
 
 726,612 
 
 498,926 
 
 191,287 
 
 131,679 
 
 185,604 
 
 4,800 
 
 168,247 
 
 111,474 
 
 26,440 
 
 18,624 
 
 85,230 
 
 896,159 
 
 587,147 
 
 1,118,080 
 
 208,450 
 
 406,888 
 
 129,907 
 
 247,966 
 
 10,746 
 
 93,880 
 
 200 
 
 25.600 
 
 787 
 
 602 
 
 890 
 
 1,610 
 
 88 
 407 
 4,914 
 405 
 2,978 
 108 
 479 
 900 
 372 
 264 
 402 
 
 12 
 457 
 266 
 
 61 
 
 63 
 110 
 916 
 877 
 1,826 
 266 
 836 
 240 
 412 
 
 28 
 
 76 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 ■ ■82 
 
 ■ s'l 
 
 ■"2 
 
 "e 
 
 1 
 
 "■5 
 3 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 '"6 
 
 2 
 
 '"2 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 17,229 
 
 11.737 
 
 8,807 
 
 41,245 
 
 829 
 
 10,027 
 
 108,171 
 
 8,946 
 
 54,784 
 
 2,588 
 
 8,084 
 
 18,648 
 
 6,291 
 
 8,667 
 
 7,107 
 
 189 
 
 7,700 
 
 4,924 
 
 930 
 
 1,007 
 
 1,814 
 
 14,888 
 
 14,417 
 
 36,830 
 
 6,782 
 
 16,199 
 
 5,146 
 
 8,306 
 
 643 
 
 1,710 
 
 60 
 
 270 
 
 Dolls. 
 23 
 
 'ses 
 
 ■293' 
 "ii 
 
 "ii 
 4 
 
 ■45 
 
 25 
 22 
 10 
 
 "82' 
 9 
 
 "ii 
 "ii 
 
 81,850- 
 
 109,596 
 
 44,380 
 
 293,000 
 
 14,861 
 
 67,110 
 
 871,894' 
 
 120,781 
 
 298,798 
 
 12,950 
 
 68,810 
 
 74,673 
 
 24,085 
 
 18,830 
 
 21705 
 
 1,200 
 
 18,922 
 
 9,7.30 
 
 2,860 
 
 1,750 
 
 8,861 
 
 43,429 
 
 69,880 
 
 228,498 
 
 28,600 
 
 67,070 
 
 21,575 
 
 44,498 
 
 850 
 
 14,900 
 
 '4^260 
 
 6-32,668 
 
 838,163 
 
 260,104 
 
 1,600,440 
 
 21,142 
 
 244,910 
 
 8,416,724 
 
 202,970 
 
 1,862,900 
 
 52,100 
 
 889,170 
 
 878,400 
 
 156,610 
 
 110,000 
 
 162,968 
 
 4,200 
 
 168,066 
 
 104,080 
 
 21,000 
 
 18,700 
 
 32,900 
 
 888,888 
 
 892,400 
 
 688,660 
 
 144,780 
 
 288,098 
 
 101,650 
 
 241,834 
 
 10,680 
 
 69,600 
 
 240 
 
 10,000 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 1,620,686 
 900,421 
 687,466 
 
 8,519,128 
 75,040 
 781,000 
 
 9,804,00ft 
 724,466 
 
 6,276,492 
 163,742 
 
 1,103,189 
 894,877 
 862,685 
 261,832 
 861,686 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Khode Island 
 
 
 New York 
 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Virginia 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Florida 
 
 4' 9.400 
 
 9,200 
 
 
 149 
 
 92 
 
 16 
 
 22 
 
 51 
 
 894 
 
 275 
 
 706 
 
 60 
 
 858 
 
 96 
 
 148 
 
 14 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2110,570 
 
 145,615 
 
 83,800 
 
 83,860 
 
 42,100 
 
 490,820 
 
 763,456 
 
 l,,8«l,889 
 
 236,000 
 
 . 514,897 
 
 138,878 
 
 228,095 
 
 20,360 
 
 78,950 
 
 600 
 
 25,000 
 
 885 911 
 
 229,407 
 
 55,026 
 
 52,060 
 
 78,774 
 
 746,484 
 
 985,267 
 
 1,964,691 
 
 368,980 
 
 714,818 
 
 244,028 
 
 466,241 
 
 24,620 
 
 176,710 
 
 940 
 
 40,000 
 
 
 
 Texas . 
 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 
 Ohio 
 
 
 
 Illinois 
 
 
 
 
 Caliibrnia 
 
 Dist. of Columbia 
 
 Total 
 
 6,26318.900.567 
 
 6,128,970 
 
 2,668,865 
 
 19,618,287 
 
 20,909 
 
 102 
 
 416,214 
 
 970 
 
 2,668,865 
 
 12,257,940 
 
 82,861,796 
 
 
 
 
 * There are about 6,000,000 sheep, goat, and other small skins dressed annually which are not included in the aboTe table. 
 
 Thin Leather. — The process of tanning differs con- 
 siderably in the mode of treatment, with the kind of 
 skin, and the result desired. A large number of thin 
 leathers which are intended to be dyed, are tanned in 
 various ways. White leathers are not tanned, but 
 
 tawed ; or treated with alum, salt, and some other mat- 
 ters. Wash leather is dressed with oil, or shamoyed. 
 But whatever may be the subsequent treatment, the 
 preparatory steps somewhat resemble each other, 
 whereby hair, wool, grease, and other matters, are 
 
LEA 
 
 1198 
 
 LEA 
 
 removed, and the skin is reduced to the state of a 
 gelatinous membrane called peft. The hair is removed 
 from kid and goat-skins by means of cream of lime ; 
 the wool is generally removed by the fell-mongers be- 
 fore the skin is passed to the tawers. Foreign lamb- 
 sltins, which are received with the wool on, are washed, 
 scraped on the flesh side, and sweated in a close room, 
 nntil, in consequence of the putrefactive fermentation, 
 the wool can be easily removed. After this, fatty 
 
 matters are got rid of by subjecting the skins to hy- 
 drostatic pressure ; they are next worked at the beam, 
 and pared into shape, treated with lime, and next with 
 dogs' or pigeons' dung if the skins are to be tanned, 
 and with bran and water if the}' are to be tawed, the 
 object being in either case to get rid of the lime. Dur- 
 ing these operations the skins are worked a few times 
 at the beam, and are finished by washing in clean 
 water. 
 
 ExpoETS OF Leather and Manufactures of Leather, from the United States, for the Tears ending June 80th, 
 
 1858, 1854, 1855. 
 
 E:cported to 
 
 ^'^"■fToS' ™ue. 
 
 Leather. 
 
 Boots nnd 
 Shoes. . 
 
 Boots and Shoes. 
 
 Swedish West Indies 
 
 Danish West Indies 
 
 Dutch West Indies 
 
 England , 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 Honduras 
 
 British Guiana 
 
 British West Indies 
 
 Canada 
 
 British American colonies. .. 
 
 Australia 
 
 Miquelon and Brit. E. Indies. 
 
 Teneriffe 
 
 Cuba.., , 
 
 Spanish West Indies 
 
 Madeira 
 
 Cape de Verd Islands 
 
 Hayti 
 
 Mexico , 
 
 Central American Eepublic. 
 
 New Granada 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Uruguay. 
 
 Ai'frentine Republic , 
 
 Peru 
 
 Chili 
 
 China. 
 
 South America generally 
 
 West Indies generally 
 
 Africa 
 
 Indian Ocean 
 
 South Seas and Pacific Ocean. 
 Other places 
 
 Total Exports 
 
 FouDda. i 
 
 878! 
 
 7,822 
 
 9,289l 
 
 678,872 
 
 168,720 
 
 280l 
 
 8,866! 
 
 722! 
 
 8,661 I 
 
 179,576' 
 
 190,2971 
 
 468' 
 
 V,i.5n 
 
 21,866 
 634 
 
 Puirs. 
 
 6,379 
 
 6,266 
 500 
 
 "264 
 
 8,882 
 260 
 
 2,989 
 
 2,623 
 
 18,866 
 
 70,671 
 
 118,822 
 
 126,462 
 
 150 
 
 HTW 
 
 25 
 
 80 
 
 60 
 
 22,794 
 
 1,248 
 
 5,214 
 
 6,809 
 
 2,250 
 
 10 
 
 4,272 
 
 7,960 
 
 7,729 
 
 6,824 
 
 8,840 
 780 
 
 2,836 
 
 800 
 
 22,628 
 
 DolltLrs. 
 
 78 
 
 7,632 
 
 1,688 
 
 85,071 
 
 26,600 
 
 62 
 
 4,451 
 
 2,9o4 
 
 13,436 
 
 104,878 
 
 121,646 
 
 198,788 
 
 190 
 
 261 
 
 8,662 
 
 145 
 
 64 
 
 86 
 
 19,876 
 
 1,861 
 
 6,089 
 
 T,880 
 
 4,213 
 
 68 
 
 . 4,035 
 
 ' 5,.524 
 
 8,678 
 
 T,635 
 
 1,146 
 
 2,950 
 
 840 
 
 25,223 
 
 1,172,661] 440,709 ] 673,708 
 
 Poundi 
 
 900 
 
 14,045 
 
 16,266 
 
 641,689 
 
 332,957 
 
 5,476 
 1,926 
 9,068 
 490,008 
 266,990 
 4,100 
 
 19,295 
 "200 
 
 16,24] 
 
 2,256 
 
 2,490 
 
 116 
 
 19,340 
 
 1,110 
 4^600 
 
 9,0.34 
 5,826 
 
 1,768,066 
 
 p»il.. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 24 
 
 182 
 
 9,228 
 
 11,546 
 
 
 2,696 
 
 3,275 
 
 87,031 
 
 
 53,678 
 
 6,680 
 
 10,744 
 
 626 
 
 1,175 
 
 17,188 
 
 17,592 
 
 106,842 
 
 271,447 
 
 165,496 
 
 219,562 
 
 42,791 
 
 84,863 
 
 1,748 
 48 
 
 14,816 
 1,802 
 1,946 
 7,669 
 2,.694 
 2,182 
 
 25 
 
 5,488 
 
 8,380 
 
 80,682 
 
 1,0110 
 
 62 
 
 2,810 
 
 27^876 
 
 6,8.86 
 
 455,630 
 
 6.59S 
 
 59 
 
 866 
 
 800 
 
 16,265 
 
 1,446 
 
 8,858 
 
 9,817 
 
 6,626 
 
 2,191 
 
 75 
 
 5,369 
 
 10,318 
 
 28,227 
 
 1,829 
 
 75 
 
 2,572 
 
 3'0,i46 
 9,162 
 
 PoUDds. 
 648 
 80,927 
 16,027 
 467 998 
 194,289 
 
 12,080 
 2,T24 
 
 12,077 
 288,790 
 417,586 
 
 80,850 
 
 10,299 
 1,500 
 
 l',SllO 
 10,5.39 
 1,800 
 
 2,667 
 8,500 
 
 li',6(ll 
 
 2,147 
 
 17,S4li 
 
 98,728 
 
 1,400,380 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 117 
 
 6,868 
 
 2,854 
 
 79,400 
 
 26,038 
 
 2,148 
 718 
 
 1,859 
 76,886 
 74,650 
 
 6,245 
 
 216 
 
 "2T4 
 
 2,760 
 
 250 
 
 2,080 
 
 "425 
 804 
 
 2,318 
 
 621 
 2,618 
 
 Fairs. 
 18,088 
 3,762 
 
 8,946 
 
 8,870 
 
 27,661 
 
 112,434 
 
 161.487 
 
 68,868 
 
 891 
 
 "340 
 
 946 
 
 4,872 
 
 1,630 
 
 6,218 
 
 18,,528 
 
 8,666 
 
 2,174 
 
 1,662 
 
 16,004 
 
 27,866 
 
 72,696 
 
 8,263 
 
 "446 
 
 Dollars. 
 10,161 
 4^818 
 
 8,160 
 
 8,886 
 
 24,746 
 
 206,433 
 
 172,011 
 
 186,054 
 
 640 
 
 "S65 
 
 946 
 
 4,062 
 
 8,026 
 
 4,881 
 
 11,798 
 
 7,518 
 
 2,008 
 
 1,658 
 
 18,730 
 
 86,608 
 
 64,578 
 
 8,602 
 
 "512 
 
 81,782 83,240 
 5,856 5,872 
 
 288,867 
 
 616,104 I 703,589 
 
 Morocco. — Morocco leather is prepared by tanning 
 goat-skins with sumach, and dyeing on the grain side. 
 Inferior moroccoes are prepared from sheep-skins sim- 
 ilarly treated, for which purpose each skin of pelt is 
 sewed up into a bag, the grain side outermost, dis- 
 tended with air, and placed in a mordant of tin or 
 alum. They are next placed in a warm cochineal 
 bath for red, indigo for blue, orchil for purple, and are 
 worked by hand until the dye has prqperly struck. 
 For certain colors the tanning precedes the dj'eing. 
 The tanning or sumaching is carried on in a large tub, 
 containing a weak solution of sumach in warm water ; 
 another and stronger solution is contained in an ad- 
 joining vessel, a portion of which, together with some 
 sumach leaves, is poured into the bag ; some of the 
 weak solution is then added, the bag is then distended 
 with air, and the skin thrown into the vat. In this 
 way about 50 skins are treated, and are kept in mo- 
 tion a few hours in the sumach tub by means of pad- 
 dles worked by hand or by machinerjr. The skins are 
 then taken out and heaped up on a shelf at the side of 
 the tub, the pressure thus produced causing the liquor 
 to escape slowly through the pores of the skin, the 
 bags being shifted about from time to time. The bags 
 are next passed into a second vat containing a stronger 
 solution, where they remain for 9 hours. The bags 
 are now opened and washed ; fine red skins being fin- 
 ished in a bath of saffron. All the sldns are next 
 struck on a sloping board until they are smooth and 
 flat, and in order to improve their appearance in the 
 cunying, a little linseed oil may be rubbed on the 
 grain side. They are then hung up in a loft to dry, 
 when they become horny, and are in the crust, as it is 
 
 called. They next pass through much laborious fric- 
 tion with the pommel, and with a glass-ball ; while 
 the peculiar ribbed appearance of morocco is given by 
 means of a ball of box-wood, on which is a number 
 of narrow ridges. Sheep-skin morocco is prepared 
 from split skins ; the skin-splitting machine resem- 
 bles in principle that already described, only as the 
 membrane is thinner certain variations are required. 
 Instead of stretching the skin on a drum, it is passed 
 between two rollers, the lower one of gun-metal, and 
 solid, and the upper made of gun-metal rings ; while 
 between the two rollers, and nearly in contact, is the 
 edge of the sharp knife, which is moved by a crank, 
 as alread}' mentioned. When a. skin is introduced 
 between the two rollers, it is dragged through against 
 the knife edge and divided, the solid lower roller sup- 
 porting the membrane, while the upper one, being 
 capable of moving through a small space by means of 
 its rings, adjusts itself to inequalities in the mem- 
 brane ; where this is thin the rings become depressed, 
 and where it is thick they rise up, so that no part es- 
 capes the action of the knife. The divided skins are 
 not sewed up into bags, as from their thinness they 
 can be sumached quickly. 
 
 In preparing white leather by tawing, the pelt is 
 made as pure as possible ; the best kind of leather being 
 prepared from kid-skins, while sheep or lamb-skins 
 make the inferior kinds. They are first fed with alum 
 and salt in a drum or tumbler made like a huge churn ; 
 about 3 lbs. of alum, and 4 lbs. of salt being used to 
 120 skins of medium size. The alumina of the alum 
 probably forms some definite compound with the gela- 
 tin of the skins, while the salt serves to whiten them. 
 
LED 
 
 1199 
 
 LEE 
 
 When taken out, the skms are washed m water, then 
 allowed to ferment in bran and water, to remove the 
 surplus alum and salt, and to reduce the thickness. 
 They are next dried in a loft, and become tough and 
 brittle, but they are made soft and glossy by means of 
 a dressing of 20' lbs. of wheat flour, and yolks of 8 
 dozen eggs. By rotating the skins in the drums for 
 some time the dressing is absorbed, and scarcely any 
 thing but water remains. This dressing is usually 
 repeated, and the skins are hung up to drj'. The 
 beautiful softness and elasticity of this leather is now 
 given by manipulation. The skins are first dipped in 
 clean water, worked upon a board, and staked upon a 
 stretching, or softening iron, consisting of a rounded 
 iron plate fixed to the top of an upright beam, by 
 which the skins become extended and made smooth. 
 They are finished by being passed over a hot iron. 
 
 Statement sitHiBiTiNQ tub Fokeign Imports and Ex- 
 ports AND Domestic Expobtb, togetiteii with tub 
 Home Consumption of Foreign Importations of 
 Leather, and tub Manufactures tuereof, for the 
 last seventeen tears, and the yearly average 
 
 THEREOF. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Forelen 
 importations. 
 
 Foreign 
 exports. 
 
 BomesUc 
 exports. 
 
 Homo con- 
 sumption of 
 
 foreign 
 Importations. 
 
 1840 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 542,498 
 
 809,864 
 
 912,685 
 
 287,217 
 
 778,407 
 
 979,886 
 
 1,130,064 
 
 1,060,818 
 
 1,390,492 
 
 1,460.126 
 
 2,107,520 
 
 2,815,668 
 
 2,627,911 
 
 8,816,282 
 
 8,661,204 
 
 3,069,860 
 
 4,535,122 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 14,248 
 
 22,503 
 
 10,258. 
 
 8,446 
 
 6,216 
 
 40,268 
 
 5,198 
 
 2,830 
 
 6,692 
 
 18,098 
 
 16,066 
 
 26,04ft 
 
 23,787 
 
 40,670 
 
 82,688 
 
 138,700 
 
 73,297 
 
 Dollars. 
 233,917 
 232,272 
 191,427 
 142,137 
 243,197 
 844,454 
 
 ■ 878,183 
 278,672 
 210,678 
 161,201 
 193,698 
 472,147 
 447,325 
 680,156 
 9(19,606 
 324,912 
 
 1,819,076 
 
 Doilai'f. 
 
 ' 628,250 
 
 787,351 
 
 902,882 
 
 288,771 
 
 778,191 
 
 989,628 
 
 1,124,871 
 
 .1,058,488 
 
 1,883,800 
 
 1,447,027 
 
 2,091,454 
 
 ,2,789,614 
 
 2,604,124 
 
 3,275,612 
 
 3,578,671 
 
 2,931,160 
 
 4,461,826 
 
 1841 
 
 1842 
 
 184:^* 
 
 1844 
 
 1845 
 
 .1846 
 
 1847 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 
 
 1850 
 
 1851 
 
 1852 
 
 1858... 
 
 1854 
 
 1866 
 
 1856 
 
 Yearly average. 
 
 1,849,148 
 
 80,850 
 
 897,227 
 
 1,618,298 
 
 * The year 1843 represents but nine months, In conse- 
 quence of a change in the fiscal year. 
 
 Statement eshidittng the Foreign Impoetations and 
 kxpobtations, domkstic exports asi> home con- 
 SUMPTION OF Foreign Importations op Hidp.s and 
 Skins in tue United States, for the last Seven- 
 teen Years, and tiik Yearly Average thereof. 
 
 Ycors. 
 
 Foreign 
 tmportatioDa. 
 
 Foreign 
 exports. 
 
 Domestic 
 exports. 
 
 Home con- 
 sumptioiiitif 
 
 forei^ 
 importations. 
 
 1840 
 
 Dollars. 
 2,756,214 
 8,467248 
 4,067,816 
 2,619,815 
 
 H, 529,948 
 4,262,069 
 3,507,300 
 4,799,081 
 5,964,833 
 4,828,119 
 6,919,891 
 7,620,272 
 8,048,016 
 8,088,292 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 68,972 
 64,762 
 7,528 
 
 127,6i6 
 ' 78,822 
 103,688 
 101,044 
 67,682 
 179,798 
 804,088 
 101,924 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 112,500 
 
 45,898 
 
 68,187 
 
 50,-340 
 
 62,668 
 
 111,686 
 
 143,323 
 
 181,894 
 
 36,145 
 
 28,890 
 
 71,940 
 
 86,624 
 
 65,421 
 
 25,9.W 
 
 23,622 
 
 361,992 
 
 Dollars, 
 2,756,2i4 
 3,898,276 
 4,008,064 
 2,612,287 
 
 1,629,948 
 4,262,069 
 8.879,684 
 4,720,209 
 6,861,200 
 4,722,075 
 6,851,759 
 7,440,479 
 7.748.927 
 
 1841 
 
 1842 
 
 1848* 
 
 1844 
 
 1845 . 
 
 1846 
 
 1847 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 
 
 1850 
 
 1S51 
 
 1852 
 
 1853 
 
 1854 
 
 1855 
 
 1856 
 
 Yearly average. 
 
 101,174 i 7,981,368 
 
 4,818,466 109,164 
 
 91,805 4,732,683 
 
 * Year 1843 Is given for nine months only, in consequence 
 of a change In the fiscal year. 
 + For but six months. 
 
 See Hides, for the imports into, and exports from, 
 the United States, of hides and leather. 
 
 Ledger, the principal book of accounts kept by 
 merchants and tradesmen, wherein every person's ac- 
 count is placed by itself, after being extracted from 
 the Journal. For an extended summary of the laws of 
 different countries regulating the keeping of accounts, 
 see Leokb Levi's Commercial Law of the World. 
 
 Lee, an epithet used by seamen to distinguish that 
 part of the hemisphere to which the wind is directed 
 from the other part whence it blows, and which is ac- 
 cordingly called to windward. This expression is 
 chiefly used when the wind crosses the line of a ship's 
 course, so that all on one side of he' is called to wind- 
 ward, and all on the other side to leeward. Hence, 
 under the /ee, implies further to the leeward, or further 
 from that part of the horizon whence the wind blows. 
 Under the lee of the shore, means a short distance from 
 the shore which lies to windward. This phrase is com- 
 monly understood to express the situation of a vessel 
 anchored, or sailing under the weather-shore, where 
 there is always smoother water and less danger of 
 heavy seas than at a great distance from it. Lee lurches, 
 the sudden and violent rolls which a ship often makes 
 to the leeward in a high sea particularly when a large 
 wave strikes her on the weather-side. Lee side, all 
 that part of a ship or boat that lies between the mast 
 and the side furthest from the direction of the wind ; 
 or, otherwise, that part of a ship which is pressed down 
 toward the water by the effort of the sails, as separated 
 from the other half by a line drawn through the middle 
 of her length. That part of the ship which lies to 
 windward of this line is accordingly called the weather 
 Side, Thus, admit a ship to be sailing southward with 
 the wind at east, then is her starboard or right side 
 the lee side, and the larboard or left the weather 
 side. 
 
 Leeward Ship, signifies a vessel that falls much to 
 leeward of her course when sailing close-hauled and 
 consequently loses much ground. To leeward, toward 
 that part of the horizon which lies under the lee, or 
 whither the wind blows. Thus, "We saw a fleet 
 under the lee," and " we saw a fleet to leeward," are 
 sj'nonymous expressions. 
 
 Lee-watf, in navigation^ is the deviation of the course 
 actuallj'' ran by a ship from the course steered upon ; 
 or it is the angle formed between the line of the ship's 
 keel and the line which she actually describes through 
 the Water. In consequence of the action of the wind 
 or currents, a ship is generally impelled sideways as 
 well as forward, whence the direction of her motion is 
 different from that of the keel. 
 
 Leevirard Islands, a name frequently applied to 
 those of the West India Islands lying between N. lat. 
 15° and 19°, and W. long. 60° 30' and 65° 40'. The 
 group comprises the British possessions of Antigua, 
 Dominica, Montserrat, Nevis, St. Christopher's, An- 
 guilla, Barouda, and the Virgin Islands, which are all 
 included under one government. The French, Dutch, 
 Danes, etc., have also possessions in the group. There 
 are 23 islands, besides numerous islets, having in all an 
 area of about 1700 square miles, and a population of 
 about 321,000. 
 
 Leech-Fishery. The demand for the medicinal 
 leech {Hirudo medicinalis') is so great as to afford em- 
 ployment to a considerable number of persons in catch- 
 ing and selling the animal. It is common throughout 
 Europe, America, and India, inhabiting lakes and 
 pools. Norfolk supplies the greater part of the leeches 
 brought to the London market ; but some are taken in 
 Kent, Suffolk, Essex, and Wales ; and large quantities 
 are imported from Bordeaux and Lisbon. They are 
 caught in spring and autumn by people who wade into 
 the pools and allow them to fasten on their limbs ; or 
 more generally the catchers beat, as they wade in the 
 surface of the water with poles, which sets the leeches 
 in motion, and brings them to the surface ; when they 
 are taken with the hand, and put into bags. As they 
 come to the surface just before a thunder storm, this 
 is regarded a good time for collecting them. — Thom- 
 son. We extract from the Gazette des Hopitaux the 
 following interesting account of the fishery of leeches 
 at La Brenne, in France : 
 
 "The country about La Brenne is, perhaps, the most unin- 
 teresting in France. The people are miserable-looldng, the 
 
LEE 
 
 1200 
 
 LEG 
 
 cattle wretched, the fish just as bad — ^but the leeches are ad- 
 mirable. If ever you pass through La Brenne, you will see a 
 man, pale and straight-haired, with a woolen cap on his head, 
 and his legs and arms naked ; he walks along the borders of 
 a marsh, among the spots left dry hy the surrounding waters, 
 but particularly wherever the vegetation seems to preserve 
 the subjacent soil undisturbed ; this man is a leech-fisher. 
 To Bee him from a distance— his woe-hegone aspect — ^his hol- 
 low eyes — his livid lips— his singular gestures— you would 
 take him for a patient who had left his sick bed in a fit of de- 
 lirium. If you observe him eVery now and then raising his 
 legs, and examining them one after the other, you might sup- 
 pose him a fool; but he is an intelligent leech-fisher. The 
 leeches attach themselves to his legs and feet as he moves 
 among their haunts ; he feels their presence from their bite, 
 and gathers them as they cluster about the roots of the hull- 
 rushes and sea-weeds, or beneath the stones covered with 
 green and gluey moss. Some repose on the mud, while others 
 swim about, but so slowly that they are easily gathered with 
 the hand. In a favorable season, it is possible, in the course 
 of three or four hours, to stow ten or twelve dozen of them 
 in the little bag which the gatherer celrries on his shoulder. 
 Sometimes you will see the leech-iisher armed with a kind of 
 spear or harpoon ; with this he deposits pieces of decayed an- 
 imal matter in places frequented by the leeches ; they soon 
 gather round the prey, and are presently themselves gathered 
 into a little vessel half full of water. Such is the leech-fishery 
 in spring. In summer the leech retires into deep water; and 
 the fishers have then to strip naked, and walk immersed up 
 to the chin. Some of them have little rafts to go upon ; these 
 rafts are made of twigs and rushes, and it is no easy matter 
 to propel them among the weeds and aquatic plants. At this 
 season, too, the supply in the pools is scanty ; the fisher can 
 only take the few that swim within his reach, or those that 
 get entangled in the structure of his raft. It is a horrid trade, 
 in whatever way it is carried on. The leech-gathe'3r is con- 
 stantly more or less in the water, breathing fog and mist and 
 fetid odors from the marsh ; he is often attacked with ague, 
 catarrhs, and rheumatism. Some indulge in strong liquors 
 to keep off the noxious influence, but they pay for it in the 
 end by disorders of other kinds. But, with all its forbidding 
 peculiarities, the leech-fishery gives employment to many 
 hands : if it be pernicious, it is also lucrative. Besides sup- 
 plying all the neighboring plmrmadens^ great quantities are 
 exported, and there are regular traders engaged for the pur- 
 pose. Henri Chartier is one of those persons ; and an im- 
 portant personage he is when he comes to Meohecq, or its 
 vicinity ; his arrival makes quite a f6te — all are eager to greet 
 him. Among the interesting particulars which I gathered in 
 La Brenne relative to the leech-trade, I may mention the fol- 
 lowing : One of the traders — what with his own fishing and 
 that of his children, and what with his acquisitions from the 
 carriers, who sell quantities second-hand — was enabled to 
 hoard up 17,500 leeches in the course of a few months; he 
 kept them deposited in a place where, in one night, they all 
 became frozen en masse. But the frost does not immediately 
 kill them ; they may generally be thawed into life again. 
 They easily, indeed, bear very hard usage. I am told by one 
 of the carriers, that he can pack them as closely as he pleases 
 in the moist sack, which he ties behind his saddle ; and 
 sometimes he stows his cloak and boots on top of the 
 sack. The trader buys his leeches pele mcle, big and little, 
 green and black — all the same ; but he afterward sorts 
 them for the market. Those are generally accounted the 
 best which are of a green ground, with yellow stripes along 
 the body." 
 
 A tract published at Paris in 1845, by M. Joseph 
 Martin, leech- merchant, contains a great variety of 
 curious and instructive details in regard to the natural 
 history of leeches, the trade carried on in them , and the 
 frauds of the dealers. They are, we believe, much 
 more extensively used in medical practice in France 
 than in England ; and, at all events, their consumption 
 in the former seems to be quite immense. Notwith- 
 standing the exhaustion of some of the marshes and 
 ponds in different parts of the country, whence sup- 
 plies of leeches were formerly procured, great numbers 
 are still obtained at home. By far the larger portion 
 of the necessary supplies is, however, brought from 
 abroad; principally from Germany, Spain, Sardinia, 
 Turkey in Europe, Algiers, Asia Minor, etc. In the 
 French custom-house the imports are estimated at 500 
 leeches per kilog. ; but M. Martin affirms that 1000 
 leeches do not, at an average, weigh more than a kilog. 
 Hence the numbers and values of the leeches imported 
 
 into- France during each of the five years ending with 
 1847, will be : 
 
 Y- Numbera, according NumlierB Official 
 
 I care, to official Returns, corrected. Value. 
 
 Franc?. 
 
 1S4.3 17,607,696 86,215,892 52S,231 
 
 1844 15,232,678 80,465,846 466,980 
 
 1845 18,843,483 27,686,960 415,304 
 
 1846 12,721,645 26,443,090 381,647 
 
 1847 11,790,840 23,681,680 863,710 
 
 See De Bow's Rev., xiii., 30. 
 
 Leghorn, a city and sea-port of Italy, in Tuscany, 
 lat. 43° 33' 5" N., long. X0° 16' 45" E. Population, 
 in 1851, 84,000. Leghorn has an outer harbor, pro- 
 tected by a fine mole, running in a north north-west 
 direction upward of half a mile into the sea, and a 
 small inner harbor or basin. The water in the harbor 
 is rather shallow, varying from 8 feet in the inner 
 basin to 18 or 19 feet at the end of tho mole. The rise 
 of the tides is about 14 inches. Ships lie within the 
 mole with their stems made fast to it by a cable, and 
 an anchor out ahead. The light-house is built on a 
 rock a little to the south-west of the mole. It is a con- 
 spicuous object, being about 170 feet above the level 
 of the sea. The roadstead lies west north-west of the 
 harbor, between it and the Melora bank. The latter is 
 sandy, lying north and south, 4 miles in length by 2 
 in breadth, the side nearest the shore being about 4 
 miles from it. It consists, for the most part, of sand 
 and mud, and has from 3 to 3J fathoms water over 
 it ; but toward its southern extremity it is rocky ; and 
 there, on some of the points which project above the 
 water, the Melora tower has been constructed to serve 
 as a sea-mark ; it bears from the light-house west one 
 half north, distant about 4 miles. The best course for 
 entering the roads is to keep to the northward of the 
 Melora bank at about a mile from it, and then, hnymg 
 doubled it, to stand on for the light-house about 2^ 
 miles, anchoring in from 7 to 9 fathoms, the light-house 
 bearing south south-east one half east 4 miles off. The 
 entrance by the channel to the south of the Melora 
 bank is also quite safe ; but it is not so suitable for 
 large ships as that by the north. During southerly 
 winds there is sometimes a heavy sea in the roads, 
 but the holding-ground is good; and with suiiScient 
 anchors and cables, and ordinary precaution, there is 
 no danger. The lazaretto lies to the south, about one 
 mile from the tower, and is said to be one of the best 
 in Europe. 
 
 Trade, etc. — The comparative security and freedom 
 which foreigners have long enjoyed in Tuscan}', still 
 more than its advantageous situation, render Leghorn 
 the greatest commercial city of Italy. Its exports are 
 similar to those from the other Italian ports ; consist- 
 ing principally of raw and manufactured silks, olive 
 oil, borax, fruits, shumac, valonia, wines, rags, brim- 
 stone, cheese, marble, argol, anchovies, manna, juniper 
 berries, hemp, skins, cork, etc. Leghorn platting for 
 .straw hats is the finest in the world ; and large quan- 
 tities are imported into Britain. See Hats, Stkaw. 
 Besides the above, all sorts of articles, the produce of 
 the Levant, may be had at Leghorn. Recently, hew- 
 ever, this trade has fallen off ; the English and otlier na- 
 tions who used to import Levant produce at second hand 
 from Italy, preferring now, at least for the most part, 
 to bring it direct from Smyrna, Alexandria, etc. The 
 imports are exceedingly numerous and valuable, com- 
 prising all sorts of commodities, with the exception of 
 those produced by Italy. Sugar, coffee, and all sorts 
 of colonial produce ; cotton stuffs, yarn, and wool ; 
 com, woolen stuffs, spices, dried fish, indigo, dye- 
 woods, rice, iron, tin, hides, etc ; are among the most 
 prominent articles. Ships with corn on board may un- 
 load within the limits of the lazaretto, without being 
 detained to perform quarantine ; a circumstance which 
 has contributed to make Leghorn one of the principal 
 dep6ts for the wheat of the Black Sea. Hard wheat, 
 particularly from Taganrog, is in high estimation here 
 and in the other Italian ports. It is particularly well 
 
LEG 
 
 1201 
 
 LEI 
 
 fitted for making vermicelli, maccaroni, etc. The gov- 
 ernment do not publish any ofBcial account of the im- 
 ports of Leghorn ; and no mercantile circulars that we 
 have been fortunate enough to fall in with supply the 
 deficiency. 
 
 Money. — ^Down to 1837 accounts were principally 
 kept in pezze da otto reali (or dollars of 8 reali), the 
 pezza being divided into 20 soli or 240 denari ; but this 
 money has been discontinued since the above date, and 
 accounts are now kept in lire Toscane. The lire of 100 
 centesimi is worth 7"82d. ; so that the par of exchange 
 with London is 30'69 lire per £1. The lire is divided 
 in 20 soldi di lira each of 5 centesimi. — Tatk's Cam- 
 bist, p. 37. 
 
 Weights and Measures. — The pound by which gold 
 and silver and all sorts of merchandise are weighed is 
 divided iuto 12 ounces, 96 drachms, 288 denari, and 
 6912 grani. It is =: 339"542 French grammes, or 5240 
 English grains. Hence 100 lbs. of Leghorn = 74-864 
 lbs. avoirdupois ; but in mercantile calculations it is 
 usual to reclcon 100 lbs. of Leghorn = 77 lbs. avoirdu- 
 pois : this, perhaps, has arisen from taking the tares 
 and other allowances, as to which there is a good deal 
 of uncertainty, into account. Thus it is found that the 
 Knglish cwt. seldom renders more than 140 or 142 lbs, 
 at Leghorn, though it is = 160 l.bs. ; in the instances 
 of logwood, tobacco, and a few others, it does not ren- 
 der more than 135 lbs. The quintal, or centinago = 
 100 lbs. The centaro is generally 150 lbs. ; but a cen- 
 taro of sugar = 151 lbs. ; that of oil ^ 88 lbs. ; of 
 brandy = 120 lbs. ; of stock-fish, and some other arti- 
 cles = 160 lbs. The rotolo = 3 lbs. Corn is sold by 
 the saeco or sack ^ 2'0739 Winch, bushels ; hence 
 4 sacks = 1 imperial quarter, very nearly. The liquid 
 measures are: 
 
 2 Me?zette = 1 Boccale. 
 2 Boccale = 1 Fiasco. 
 20 Fiaschl = 1 BarilG=12 English wine gallons. 
 
 The barile of oil is 16 fiaschi, of two boccali each = 
 8"83 wine gallons ; it weighs about 66 lbs. avoirdupois. 
 A large jar of oil contains 30 gallons ; a small one 15 ; 
 and a box with 30 bottles = i gallons. 
 
 The long measure is the braccio, which is divided 
 into 20 soldi, 60 quattrini, or 240 denari ; it contains 
 22-98 English inches. 155 bracci = 100 English 
 yards. The canna of 4 bracci = 92 English inches. 
 
 Credit, Charges, etc. — Goods in general are bought 
 and sold for silver money ; between which, and the 
 money in which bills of exchange are bought, there is 
 a difference of 7 per cent, (agio) against silver ; i. e., 
 $107 in silver are equal to $100 in gold. On goods 
 bought or sold (unless it be in effective money, where 
 there is no discount) there is, generally speaking, a 
 discount of 3 per cent. ; on all cotton manufactures, 4 
 per cent. Charges on sales, including commission, are 
 generally from 6 to 8 per cent_. ; on flsh, 8 or 10 per 
 cent. Tares. — Cinnamon lb. 12 to 14 per half bale ; 
 Mocha coffee, 5 to 7 per cent. ; indigo seroons, lb. 20, 
 30 to 40 per seroon ; sugar Havana, 14 per cent. ; 
 crushed, 42 per cent, or real tare of package ; loaf 
 paclcage, and 4 per cent, for paper ; Brazil of 19 inches, 
 18 per cent, upward 20 per cent. ; tobacco, 10 per cent. ; 
 rosin, 12 per cent. For most other articles specified in 
 the price current the real tare is allowed. Exchanges, 
 Three Months' Bate. — London, liv. @ per £ stg. ; Span- 
 ish dollars, £6 lis. ; Paris, liv. @ per 100 francs ; doub- 
 loons, £101 ; Genoa, liv. @ per 100 Ln. ; Trieste, liv. 
 (g) per 100 C, Flor. 
 
 In 1836 a joint-stock bank was established in Leg- 
 horn, with a capital of 2,000,000 lire (£66,666 sterling, 
 taking the lira at 8d.) in shares of 1000 lire each. The 
 whole of the capital is paid up, and the responsi- 
 bility is limited to the capital. The managers hare 
 the power of issuing promissory notes to the extent of 
 6,000,000 lire. These notes, though received by the 
 government, are not legal tender. The operations of 
 the bank are confined to the discounting bills of ex- 
 4G 
 
 change not having more than four months to run, and 
 to the purchase and sale of foreign coins. The rate of 
 discount is fixed at 5 per cent. The superintendence 
 is vested in a director and eight regents, nominated by 
 the shareholders ; and the government appoints a com- 
 missary and three censors (from among the share 
 holders), who exercise the highest authority, to eecurt 
 obedience to the statutes. An annual report and bal- 
 ance-sheet is produced, and is accessible to all share- 
 holders. The maximum amount for which notes are 
 issned is 2000 lire=:£66 13s. 4d. sterling ; the lowest, 
 200 lire=£6 13s, 4d, sterling. It is a profitable eafab- 
 lishment ; its shares -are at a considerable premium, 
 and it has every prospect of success. 
 
 Imports of the leading Articles into Leghorn, mrEiNO 
 THE Years 1850, 1851, 1862. 
 
 Artiolea. 
 
 Sugar, Havana ..lbs. 
 
 " crushed ..lbs. 
 
 " loaf lbs. 
 
 ' Brazil ....lbs. 
 
 " E. L & Santos 
 
 Coflfee lbs. 
 
 Cotton lbs 
 
 Pepper lbs. 
 
 Indigo J CMOS- ■ 
 
 ** ( seroons 
 
 I3S0. 
 
 1851. 
 
 8,400,000 
 
 13,374,000 
 
 18,600 
 
 602,000 
 
 1,612,800 
 
 8,028,000 
 
 211,500 
 
 298,500 
 
 162 
 
 123 
 
 1,149,000 
 
 7,686,000 
 
 6,000 
 
 185,000 
 
 129,000 
 
 4,489,000 
 
 660,700 
 
 636,000 
 
 128 
 
 181 
 
 1669. 
 
 2,510,000 
 
 16,182,000 
 
 87,000 
 
 89,000 
 
 966,000 
 
 8,610,000 
 
 188900 
 
 836,000 
 
 278 
 
 111 
 
 AOOOTTNT OF THE NlTMBEE, TONNAGE, AND CREWS OF THE 
 
 Merchant Yesbblb which belonged to each Mari- 
 time Division of Tuscany in 1850, 
 
 Mlritime 
 DivlBlona. 
 
 1 to 49 tons. 
 
 Above 60 tons. 
 
 Total. 1 
 
 VeB. 1 Tons. CrewB 
 
 Ve» 
 
 Tom. 
 
 Crow 
 
 Vo8.| Tonfl. 
 
 Crews, 
 
 Leghorn... 
 Orbetello.. 
 Isl of Elba 
 Tlareggio. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1 
 
 2,677 
 
 818 
 2,284 
 2,712 
 
 867 
 
 940 
 
 1,438 
 
 647 
 
 118 
 
 46 
 54 
 
 14,674 
 
 4°663 
 8,612 
 
 1,809 
 841 
 
 221 
 124 
 214 
 162 
 
 17,251 
 
 818 
 
 6,947 
 
 6,824 
 
 81,840 
 
 2,166 
 940 
 
 2,228 
 888 
 
 8,491 
 
 8,782 
 
 213 
 
 22,849 
 
 2,440 
 
 711 
 
 6,222; 
 
 Customs Duties reoeivkd in the Grand Duouy of 
 Tuscany, in 1848, 1849, and 1850. 
 
 Import. . 
 
 Export.. 
 
 Transit.. 
 
 Total.. 
 
 1849. 
 
 Llvres. 
 
 8,411,749 
 286,490 
 81,922 
 
 8,780,161 
 
 £ Livres. 
 
 118,7258,614,281 
 7,888 274,010 
 2,T30| 100,761 
 
 124,8888,989,042 
 
 120,476 
 9,134 
 
 LlTres. I £ 
 
 4,660,466 155,848 
 297,rl0| 9,924 
 79,7981 2,660 
 
 182,968:5,087,974| 167,982 
 
 lieipsic, or more correctly Leipzig, one of the four 
 circles into which Saxony is divided, comprises the 
 north-west part of that kingdom, and is bounded on 
 the north and west by Prussia, south by Saxe-Alten- 
 burg and the circle of Zwickau, and east by the circle 
 of Dresden. Area, 1336 square miles. The country 
 is generally level, and lies lower than any other part 
 of Saxony, It is most elevated in the south, where 
 some offsets of the Erzgebirge appear, but do not at- 
 tain any great height. Leipsic belongs to the basin 
 of the Elbe, and is principally drained by its tribut- 
 aries the Elster and Mulda. The soil is fertile, and in 
 general well cultivated. The principal crop is com. 
 The rearing of cattle, and especially of sheep of a supe- 
 rior breed, is much attended to. Tobacco is exten- 
 sively grown. There are no metals ; but limestone, 
 marble, potters' clay, fuUers' earth, and peat are 
 abundant in various parts. The manufactures in this 
 circle are flourishing, and include woolen, cotton, and 
 linen goods, and earthenware. Population (1855) 
 454,262. 
 
 Leipsic, or Leipzig, the capital of the above circle, 
 and the second city in the kingdom, is situate on an 
 extensive and fertile plain, on the White Elster, here 
 joined by the Pleisse and Parde, 72 miles W.N.W. of 
 Dresden by railway. The fortifications which for- 
 merly surrounded the town have been converted into 
 beautiful walks and gardens. The houses are chiefly 
 old-fashioned stately buildings, frequently six stories 
 in height, besides three or four additional ones in the 
 pyramidal roof, and exhibiting much carved masonry. 
 The streets are narrow, and from the height of the 
 houses, have rather a dingy appearance, but are weU 
 
LEI 
 
 1202 
 
 LEI 
 
 paved and clean. The suburbs, however, of which 
 there are four, are of recent date, and more regularly 
 built. 
 
 Leipsic is connected by railways with Dresden, 
 Magdeburg, Berlin, and Altenburg, and Is the centre 
 of a very extensive trade. The celebrated Leipsic 
 fairs are held thrice a j'^ear — on the 1st of January, at 
 Easter, and at Michaelmas. They usually last for 
 three weeks, and are attended by merchants from -all 
 parts of Germany, England, France, America, Russia, 
 Italy, Greece, Turkey, Persia, etc. The goods com- 
 prise all kinds of woolen, linen, and cotton stuffs, 
 silks, lace, hardware, jewelry, watches, toys, paper, 
 books, leather, etc. The value of the goods brought 
 to these fairs in 1855 was estimated at about $55,000,- 
 000. On these occasions the town presents the great- 
 est bustle and confusion 5 the streets and squares are 
 occupied by temporary booths, in addition to the ordi- 
 nary shops, while the population of the town is nearly 
 doubled. The Easter and Michaelmas fairs, particu- 
 larly the former, are famous for the vast number of 
 new publications brought there for sale. The Easter 
 fair is attended by booksellers from all parts of Ger- 
 many, and even from other countries, sometimes to 
 the number of 600. Prospectuses and specimens of 
 new publications are brought here for circulation, an- 
 nual accounts are settled, and purchases made. In 
 the Easter fair catalogue for 1856 the number of new 
 works announced as published in Germany during the 
 preceding year was 9540, as forthcoming, 1171. Leip- 
 sic is also of considerable importance as a manufactur- 
 ing town. It has large type-founderies, oil-mills, 
 paper-mills, and manufactories of silken goods, stock- 
 ings, leather, hats, hardware, musical, optical, and 
 mathematical instruments. There are about 150 pub- 
 lishing establishments in the town ; and in 1853 there 
 were 36 printing-offices, with 58 steam, and 164 hand 
 presses. Leipsic was the scene of a tremendous con- 
 iflict on the 16th, 17th, and 18th of October, 1813, be- 
 tween the allies under Prince Schwartzenberg, and 
 the French, under Napoleon, in which the latter were 
 totally defeated. See Histoky of France. Popu- 
 lation (1855), 69,986.— E. B. 
 
 Leith, although tn independent burgh, may be 
 considered the sea-port of Edinburg, from which it is 
 only about a mile and a half distant. The Water of 
 Leith, at its confluence with the Firth of Forth, di- 
 vides the town into two parts, called, respectively, 
 North and South Leith, The first mention made of 
 Leith is in the charter of erection of Holyrood Abbey, 
 founded by David I. in 1128, where it is styled Inver- 
 leith. The magistrates of Edinburg obtained a grant 
 of the harbor and mills from Robert I. in 1329, and 
 the}' subsequently purchased, from Logan of Eestal- 
 rig, all the other rights and privileges. 
 
 The chief manufactures of Leith are ropes, sailcloth, 
 locomotive engines and machinery, glass, soap, ale, 
 refined sugar, and oil-seed cakes. Iron and timber 
 ship-building is also carried on to a considerable ex- 
 tent. Various efi'orts have from time to time been 
 made to overcome the natural obstacles that lay in the 
 way of Leith as a shipping port. In 1720 a dock was 
 formed on the east side of the river, and in 1777 a 
 small quay called the custom-house quay was built. 
 Between 1800 and 1817, two wet docks were con- 
 structed, each measuring 750 feet in length by 300 in 
 width, and having a united area of about 10 acres. 
 In 1831 two great additional works were undertaken, 
 viz., an addition to the old or east pier of 500 yards, and 
 the formation of a covering bulwark, by means of 
 which the water in the channel was deepened about 
 two feet. There were still, however, only 17 feet of 
 water over the bar at its mouth at high-water spring 
 tides, and no vessel of above 400 tons could enter the 
 harbor without lightening. Further improvements 
 were commenced in 1848, and completed in 1855. 
 These included the formation of the Victoria Dock, 
 
 equal in extent to either of the others ; the new west- 
 ern pier and low-water landing slip ; the extension of 
 the eastern pier 1000 feet seaward. The length of the 
 east pier is now 3530 feet, and of the west, 8123 feet. 
 They are unsurpassed by any in the kingdom ; and, in 
 addition to other important purposes, afford the means 
 of a healthful and pleasant promenade. By means of 
 these improvements, a depth of 26 feet water has been 
 obtained in the new harbor at high- water spring, and of 
 21 feet at neap, tides. The Victoria Dock has 25 feet 
 water at spring, and 20 feet at neap, tides, upon the 
 gate sill, and two feet more within the dock ; and the 
 two old docks have 18 feet at spring, and 13 feet at 
 neap, tides. Vessels of upward of 2000 tons burden, 
 of 320 feet in length, and 58 feet in breadth, can be 
 accommodated in the Victoria Dock. There are also 
 five dry or graving docks at Leith, of the following 
 dimensions : 
 
 No. of 
 docks. 
 
 Length. 
 
 
 Width. 
 
 
 Of floor. 
 
 At top. 
 
 Of floor. 
 
 At top. 
 
 Of gates. 
 
 2 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 ft. In. 
 160 
 1T3 
 
 166 
 117 6 
 
 ft In. 
 1T4 
 
 ITT 
 1T2 
 121 6 
 
 ft. In. 
 45 
 
 82 
 86 9 
 41 
 
 ft. in. 
 
 TO 6 
 58 
 49 6 
 51 
 
 it. in, 
 36 
 
 86 
 30 9 
 88 9 
 
 Depth of water 
 over dock sjUb 
 at high-wftter 
 spring tidea. 
 
 ft, in. 
 
 16 6 
 13 8 
 12 5 
 12 6 
 
 A new graving dock of greater capacity is proposed 
 to be made on the east sands, and to enter the present 
 new harbor a little to the north of the entrance to Vic- 
 toria Dock. The following are its proposed dimen- 
 sions : length of floor, 300 feet, at top, 330 feet ; width 
 of floor, 45 feet, at top, 80 feet ; of caisson, 72 feet ; 
 depth of water over sills at high- water springs, 24 feet 
 5 inches. Besides having regular steam communica- 
 tion with Rotterdam, Hamburg, Hull, London, New- 
 castle, and the north of Scotland, Leith trades largely 
 with the Baltic, Mediterranean, North America, and 
 Australia. The exports are principally coal, iron, 
 spirits, ale, paper, linen yarn, etc. Of coal and iron 
 the quantities exported during the last three years 
 were as follows : 
 
 Exports. 
 
 
 Coals. 
 
 Pig-iron. 
 Tons. 
 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 To May 15th, 1854.... 
 
 29,TT8 
 
 24,0T2 
 
 2,008 
 
 1855.... 
 
 85,098 
 
 33,094 
 
 1,196 
 
 1866.... 
 
 80,898 
 
 29,220 
 
 2,852 
 
 The principal import is grain, of which the quantity 
 imported during the last three years is given in the 
 following table. After grain and timber, the chief 
 articles of import are hemp, flax, wool, linseed, oil- 
 cakes, guano, agricultural seeds, butter, cheese, fruit, 
 corkwood, wines, spirits, oil, sugar, tea, etc. 
 Imports. 
 
 Years 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Flour. 
 
 Timber from 1 
 
 ending May 161h. 
 
 Baitic and 
 other ports. 
 
 North 
 America. 
 
 1854 
 
 Or,. 
 2TT,2S6 
 2T1,91T 
 254,006 
 
 Bags 4 bnr'ls 
 80,687 
 
 46,898 
 85,T00 
 
 Loads. 
 86,850 
 19 539 
 
 Loads. 
 
 10,54T 
 
 t ?i OCtA 
 
 1855. 
 
 1S56 
 
 
 
 
 "'""" 1 
 
 Number and Tonnage op Vessisls 
 FOR THE Years ending May 15th 
 
 4.RK1YING AT 
 
 , 1864, 1655, 
 
 Leith, 
 
 1856. 
 
 Years. 
 
 British 
 sailing vessels. 
 
 British 
 steam vessels. 
 
 Foreign vessels. 
 
 Total. j 
 
 1854 
 
 1855 
 1856 
 
 No. 
 8,406 
 8,814 
 8,289 
 
 Tons. 
 192,936 
 198,431 
 194,T39 
 
 No. 
 
 643 
 626 
 680 
 
 Tons. 
 
 89,111 
 86,052 
 88,064 
 
 No. 
 863 
 816 
 
 774 
 
 Tons. 
 
 87,452 
 78,481 
 81,188 
 
 No. 
 4,912 
 4,756 
 4,698 
 
 Tons. 
 
 369,499 
 867,964 
 863,941 
 
 Number and Tonnage of Vessels sailing from Leith, 
 FOB THE Years ending May 15th, 1854, 1855, 1856. 
 
 1854 
 1855 
 1856 
 
 British British 
 
 sailing vessels, steam vessels. 
 
 No. 
 
 8,410 
 3,816 
 8,803 
 
 Foreign vessels. 
 
 Tons. No. 
 
 191,800 680 
 
 194,284 626 
 
 196,227 628 
 
 Tons, 
 87,504 
 85,899 
 87,668 
 
 Tons. 
 
 85,218 
 78,486 
 88,585 
 
 No, 
 4,882 
 4,719 
 4,778 
 
 Tons. 
 
 864,022 
 853,669 
 871,475 
 
 The amount of customs duties received at Leith for 
 the last four years were: 1853, £485,915; 1854, 
 
LEN 
 
 1203 
 
 LEN 
 
 £455,403; 1855, £462,917; and 1856, £498,172. The 
 vessels registered as belonging to the port on 31st De- 
 cember, 1855, were : sailing vessels, of and under 50 
 tons, 71 ; tonnage, 2218 ; above 50 tons, 80 ; tonnage, 
 17,058 ; steam vessels of and under 60 tons, 14 ; ton- 
 nage, 289 ; above 50 tons, 23 ; tonnage, 6654. The 
 recent war with Kussia has checked the increase in the 
 trade that would otherwise have resulted from the 
 greatly enlarged accommodation. — E. B. 
 
 Lemons (Ger. Limonen; Dvi. Limoenen; Fr. Li- 
 mons, Citrons; It. Limoni; Sp.Limones; Fort. LimSes ; 
 Eus. Limonu; Arab. TJmm), the fruit of the lemon 
 tree (^Citrus medica, var. /3. C). It is a native of As- 
 syria and Persia, whence it was brought into Europe : 
 first to Greece, and afterward to Italy. It is now cul- 
 tivated in Spain, Portugal, and France, and is not 
 uncommon in our green-houses. Lemons are brought 
 to England from Spain, Portugal, and the Azores, 
 packed in chests, each lemon being separately rolled 
 in paper. The Spanish lemons are most esteemed. 
 Lilie most of its tribe, the lemon produces under culti- 
 vation a great number of varieties. Several are 
 Icnown in commerce. The principal ^re : the Wax 
 Lemon (Citrus Limonum ceriescum of Kisso) ; this is the 
 smooth-peeled one, most generally found in the markets ; 
 its rind is thick. The Bignette Lemon (Citrus Li- 
 monum Bignetta of Eisso) is a thinner-peeled fruit than 
 the wax lemon, less oval in shape, and more blunt at 
 the point ; the color of the rind is less clear, and is 
 usually tinged with green. It is cultivated more 
 largely than any other variety, as it yields a larger 
 quantity of juice, and is a most abundant bearer. The 
 Clustered Lemon (Citrus Limonum racemosum of Risso) 
 is the least oval of the imported lemons, but the nipple- 
 like point is fully developed. The rind is thick, and 
 has a bright yellow color. The pulp is less agreeable 
 than the varieties previously mentioned. One or two 
 other varieties, as the imperial and Gaeta lemons, are 
 occasionally brought to this countrj', but not in any 
 considerable quantities. 
 
 Lemon Juice, or Citric Acid (Ger. Zitzronen- 
 saft ; Fr. Jus de limou ; It. Agro o Sugo de Umone ; Sp. 
 Jugo de limon), the liquor contained in the lemon. It 
 may be preserved in bottles for a considerable time by, 
 covering it with a thin stratum of oil : thus secured, 
 great quantities of the juice are exported from Italy to 
 different parts of the world ; from Turkey, also, where 
 abundance of lemons are grown, it is a considerable 
 article of export, particularly to Odessa. The discov- 
 ery of the antiscorbutic influence of lemon juice is 
 one of the most valuable that has ever been made. 
 The scurvy, formerly so fatal in ships making long 
 voyages, is now almost wholly unknown : a result 
 that is entirely to be ascribed to the regular allowance 
 of lemon juice served out to the men. The juice is 
 also frequently administered as a medicine, and is ex- 
 tensively used in the manufacture of punch. 
 
 Lemon Peel (Ger. Zitronenshalen, Limonschellen ; 
 Fr. Lames d'ecorce de citron ; It. Scorze de Hmone; Sp. 
 Courtezas de citrd). The outward rind of lemons is 
 warm, aromatic, and slightly bitter — qualities depend- 
 ing on the essential oil it contains. It is turned to many 
 uses, and, when well candied, constitutes a very good 
 preserve. In Barbadoes, a liqueur, known under the 
 name of Eau. de Barhade, is manufactured from lemon 
 peel, which the inhabitants have the art of preserving 
 in a manner peculiar to themselves. Both the liqueur 
 and the conserve used to be in high repute, especially 
 in France. 
 
 Lending-houses. That it should have once 
 been conceived unlawful to exact interest for the loan 
 of money, will not appear surprising when it is consid- 
 ered that at an early period the occupations by which 
 a man could support his famil}' were neither so numer- 
 ous nor so productive as in modern times. As money, 
 therefore, was at that time sought to remove imme- 
 diate necessity, those who advanced it were influenced 
 
 by benevolence and friendship. But on the extension 
 of trade, arts, and manufactures, money lent produced 
 much more than what was adequate to the borrower's 
 daily support, and therefore the lender might reason- 
 ably expect from him some remuneration. To the 
 lending of money upon interest, according to the earli- 
 est accounts, succeeded the practice of establishing 
 funds for the relief of the needy, on condition that they 
 could deposit any thing equal in value to double the 
 sum borrowed, for which they were to pay no interest. 
 But, as upon the one hand, the idea of exacting in- 
 terest for the loan of money was odious to the mem- 
 bers of the Catholic church in general, while, on the 
 other, it appeared proper, and even necessarj-, to pay 
 interest for money to be employed in commerce, the 
 pontiffs themselves at length allowed the lending- 
 houses to take a moderate interest ; and, in order not 
 to alarm the prejudices of those to whom the measure 
 was obnoxious, it was concealed under thfe name of 
 being paid pro indemnitate, the expression made use 
 of In the papal bull. 
 
 It appears that lending-houses, which gave money 
 on receipt of pledges at a certain interest^ are by no 
 means of recent date ; for manj' houses of this de- 
 scription, in Italy at least, were established in the 15th 
 century, by Marcus Bononiensis, Michel a Carcano, 
 Cherubinus Spoletanus, Antonius Vercellensis, Bdr- 
 nardinus Tomitano and others. The lendingrhouse at 
 Perugia established by Barnabas Interamnensis was 
 inspected in 1485 bj' Bernardinus, who augmented its 
 capital, and in the same j-ear established one at Assisi, 
 which was confirmed by Pope Innocent, and visited 
 and improved by its founder in the year 1487. He 
 likewise established one at Mantua after formidable 
 opposition, having procured for it the sanction of the 
 Pope. The same person also founded lending-houses 
 at Florence, Parma, Chieli, and Piaoenza, in doing 
 which he was sometimes well received, wliile at others 
 he frequently met with great opposition. A house of 
 this kind was established at Padua in the year 1491, 
 and another at Ravenna, which were approved of and 
 confirmed by Pope Alexander VI. 
 
 Long after the period here referred to, lending-houses 
 were established at Rome and Naples ; that of the 
 former city having been opened in 1539, and that of 
 the latter probably in the following year. A lending- 
 house was established at Nuremberg, in Germany, 
 about 1618, the inhabitants having obtained from Italy 
 the regulations of different houses in order to selects 
 the best. In France, England, and the Netherlands, 
 lending-houses were first known under the denomina- 
 tion of lombards. Similar institutions were formed at 
 Brussels in 1619, at Antwerp in 1620, and at Ghent in 
 1622. Although such houses must be allowed to be of 
 verj^ considerable utility under certain circumstances, 
 especially when interest is not allowed to be exorbitant, 
 yet they were always odious in France. One was, 
 however, established at Paris in 1626 in the reign of 
 Louis XIII., which the managers next year were 
 obliged to atiandon. The mont de pietS in that city, 
 which has sometimes had in its possession forty casks 
 full of gold watches which had been pledged, was es- 
 tablished by royal authority in the j-ear 1777, as we 
 learn from the Tableau de Paris, published at Hamburg 
 in the year 1781.— E. A. 
 
 Lengthening, in ship-building, the operation of 
 cutting a ship down across the middle and adding a cer- 
 tain portion to her length. It is performed by sawing 
 her planks asunder in different places of her length on 
 each side of the midship frame to prevent her from 
 being too much weakened in one place. The two ends 
 are then drawn apart to a limited distance, which must 
 be equal to the proposed addition of length. An in- 
 termediate piece of timber is next added to the keel, 
 upon which a suflicient number of timbers are erected 
 to fill up the vacancy produced by the separation. The 
 two parts of the kelson are afterward united by an ad- 
 
LEN 
 
 1204 
 
 LET 
 
 ditional piece, ■ffhicli is scored down upon the floor 
 timbers, and as many beams as may be necessary are 
 fixed across the ship in the new interval. Finally, the 
 planks of the side are prolonged so as to unite with 
 each other, and those of the ceiling are refitted in the 
 same manner, by which the whole process is com- 
 pleted. 
 
 Lentil, the seeds oi Ervum lens (natural order Le- 
 guminoscB). The lentil is closely allied to the tare, and 
 is probably the most ancient of all the food products 
 which man derives from the peiutribe. The red pot- 
 tage in Gen. xxv, 34, is the small lentil decorticated, 
 as it is sold at the present day hi the bazaars of India. 
 Pliny mentions two kinds of lentils grown in Egypt, 
 one rounder and blacker than the other. These were, 
 probably, onlj' varieties resulting from cultivation. 
 Three such are cultivated in France, where, as in most 
 Koman Catholic countries, this kind of pulse is exten- 
 sively used during Lent ; to which season, as some sup- 
 pose, it gives its name. The lentil is a native of Europe, 
 Asia, and northern Africa ; or, at all events, it is natu- 
 ralized in those parts of the world. It is cultivated oc- 
 casionally in some parts of England, but chiefly as a 
 fodder plant. The ripe seeds are very nutritious, and 
 contain a large proportion of gluten. They are fre- 
 quently imported from Alexandria for cattle-feeding ; 
 while, for culinary purposes, the larger and lighter- 
 colored varieties are imported from France and Ger- 
 many, where considerable attention is paid to their 
 cultivation and harvesting. In Egj'pt the lentil forms 
 a large proportion of the general food of the inhab- 
 itants, and the haulm is used for packing purposes- 
 The empirical preparation called Revalenta Arabica^ 
 has been proved to be nothing but the meal of decorti- 
 cated lentils ; a food by no means well adapted to all 
 constitutions, especially those of infants. The quan- 
 tity of starch in the lentil is very considerable ; and, 
 in addition to the gluten, renders this pulse one of the 
 most nutritive of vegetable food products. Lentils are, 
 however, heating if used much. The starch, accord- 
 ing to EinhoflF, is nearly one third its weight. 
 
 Iietters of Credit. A letter of credit is an open 
 letter of request, whereby one person requests some 
 
 other person or persons to advance money or to give 
 credit to a third person, named therein, for a certain 
 amount, and promises that he will repay the same to 
 the person advancing the same, or accept bills drawn 
 upon himself for the like amount. It is called a gen- 
 eral letter of credit when it is addressed to all mer- 
 chants, or other persons in general, requesting such 
 advance to a third person, and a special letter of credit 
 when it is addressed to a i)articular person by name, 
 requesting him to make such advance to a third per- 
 son. If the letter of credit be of the latter sort, there 
 does not seem to be any doubt that it is an available 
 promise in favor of the person to whom it is addressed, 
 and who makes the advance upon the faith thereof. But 
 if the letter of credit be general, it is a matter of some 
 doubt whether the writer is bound to the person mak- 
 ing advance upon the strength of the letter. The 
 question does not appear to have been ever decided in 
 England, but it has several times been thoroughly dis- 
 cussed in the Supreme Court of the United States 
 {Lawrasonva, Mason, 3 Cranch, 492 ; Adams vs. JoneSj 
 12 Peters, 207). The doctrine was maintained in 
 these cases that the letter writer is bound positively 
 and directly to any party making the advance upon 
 the faith of the letter, not only where the letter pur- 
 ports, on its face, to be addressed generally to any 
 person or persons whatsoever who should make the 
 advance, but also in cases where the letter is ad-- 
 dressed solely to the person to whom the advance is to 
 be made, and merely states that the person signing 
 the same will become his surety for a certain amount, 
 without naming any person to whom he will become 
 security, if it is obviously to be used to procure credit 
 from some third person, and the advance is made upon 
 the faith of the letter b}' such third person. 
 
 Formerly, and up to the years 1825 — 1830, remit- 
 tances to India and China, for importations into the 
 United States, were made almost exclusively in Span- 
 ish dollars. After that period letters of credit were 
 liberally issued by the Bank of the United States, on 
 their European correspondents, in favor of American 
 merchants. This mode of remittance is made univers- 
 ally from the United States. 
 
 r3:gj 
 
 Forms of Letters of Credit, as used in New York, and as issued by the Western Bank of 
 Scotland, for Remittances to India, etc. 
 No. 130. 
 
 New York, 7th June, 1842. 
 Exchange for £300 Sterling. 
 2385 
 
 ! i W S w.H-i 
 
 m 
 
 '^ £ 5 *^ -g o *H -J H 
 |-S I. t^ij * " - - - - 
 
 .a 
 
 E. S. & Co. 
 > fJ Six Months after sight of this First of Exchange (Second 
 
 O S and Third unpaid) pay to the order of Davis, Brooks, & Co. Three Hundred 
 Pounds Sterling, value received, as advised by 
 
 Your obedient servant, 
 
 Geo. D. Caktek.* 
 To 
 
 Messrs. Palmers, Macltillop, Dent, & Co., 
 London. 
 The bulla Indorsed, "Pay Goorge D. Carter, or order. — Davis, Brooks, & Co. 
 
 fok fibbt op exchange. 
 Webteen Bank of Scotland. 
 
 I hereby engage to accept, and to pay at Ma- 
 turity-, the first presented Bill of the set of Ex- 
 change, of which the annexed is the First, to ^ 
 he drawn by . « ^^ 
 
 the Western Bank of Scotland, on or before 
 
 at Sixty Days' Sight, provided this Letter of 
 Credit, as annexed to such Bill, be presented i 
 therewith and delivered to me on acceptance ( 
 thereof. For the Western Bank of Scotland, 
 Glasgow. Manager. 
 
 By the Westeen Bask of Scotland. 
 No. £ . . 
 
 1851. 
 
 Sixty days after sight, pay this First of 
 Exchange (Second and Third of same tenor and date unpaid), 
 to the order of 
 
 at Messrs. Jones, Lloyd, & Co.'s, London, value received as 
 advised. 
 
 To the 
 Western Bank of Scotland, 
 Glasgow. 
 
LIB 
 
 J205 
 
 LIB 
 
 XHIltD OF EXCHANQZ. 
 
 Clydesdale Bajte, (Glasgow. 
 
 By the Clydesdale Bank. 
 No. 
 
 1861. 
 
 To 
 
 "We hereliy engage to accept and to pay at 
 maturity, the first presented Bill of the set of 
 Exchange, of which the annexed is the Third, 
 to he drawn hyiyon on ua, on or before the 
 
 for £ say 
 
 Sterling, payahle in London at a date not less 
 than and not exceeding 
 
 days' Bight, proTided this Letter of Credit he 
 delivered to us on acceptance of the annexed 
 Bill. For the Clyde8dalB|Banking Company. 
 
 In Neir York It has Ibeen held (Hill's Rep., vol. v., 
 634) that letters of credit and commercial guaranties 
 are not negotiable instruments. In Campbell's Rep., 
 iv., 393, it was decided that a letter of credit, addressed 
 to any person who should make an advance upon 
 the faith of the letter, is an available promise in favor 
 of the person malting the advance ; and it is considered 
 as available if it be a general letter of credit, in favor 
 of any person who makes the advancement the faith 
 of it. See articles Banks, Bills of Exchange, and 
 Exchange. 
 
 Levant, a name derived from the Italian word for 
 the south-east, and applied in the middle ages to that 
 quarter of the Mediterranean east of Cape Matapan, 
 now generally applied to the coasts of Asia Minor, 
 Syria, etc. Levant^ in geography^ signifies any coun- 
 try to the eastward of us. or in the eastern part of any 
 continent or country, or m that quarter where the sun 
 rises. 
 
 Levee, an embankment on the margin of a river 
 to confine it within its natural channel. The lower 
 part of Louisiana, which has been formed by encroach- 
 ments iipon the sea, is subjected to be inundated by 
 the, Mississippi and' its various branches for a distance 
 of more than 300 miles. In order to protect the rich 
 lands on these rivers, mounds are thrown up of clay, 
 cypress-logs, and green turf, sometimes to the height 
 of 15 feet, with a breadth 6f 30 feet at the base. 
 These, in the language of that part of the country, are 
 called levees. They extend for hundreds of miles ; 
 and when the rivers are full, cultivated fields covered 
 with rich crops, and studded with villages, are seen 
 several feet beloW the river courses. The giving way 
 of these levees, sometimes occasioned by a sudden and 
 violent pressure of the water, and sometimes by acci- 
 dental perforations, is called a crevasse j French, a dis- 
 ruption. 
 
 Lew-CheTV Islands. See Loo-Choo Islands. 
 
 Liberia, an independent Negro republic of west 
 Africa, established 1823, extends along the coast of 
 Guinea, between Sierra Leone and Cape Mensurado, 
 from tte Shebar Riveir on the north, to the Garaway on 
 the south, a distance of 350 miles, with an average 
 breadth of 80 miles. Population 1850, 250,000, of 
 whom 10,000 are free blacks from the United States, 
 and the remainder aborigines, or captives released 
 from slavers. The country has been all purchased 
 from time to time by the American Colonization So- 
 ciety, and its climate has improved greatly by a sys- 
 tematic drainage, and clearance of woods. It is esti- 
 mated that 2,000,000 inhabitants of the interior now 
 obtain supplies of European goods from this republic 
 and Cape Palmas. Liberia, formerly a dependency of 
 the United States of America, was recognized as an 
 independent republic in July, 1848. Government 
 vested in a president, vice-president, and a senate of 
 6 members, and a house of representatives of 28 mem- 
 bers, elected by all possessors of a real estate to the 
 value of $30. About 50,000 of the population are said 
 to use the English language, and children are sent 
 from the surrounding coiintries, 400 or 500 miles dis- 
 tant, to attend the schools of this State, which also 
 supports two public journals. The sea-port and capi- 
 tal, Monrovia, has a population of 9,000. 
 
 after sight, paj* this Third of Exchange 
 (First and Second of the same tenor and date unpaid), to the 
 Order of 
 
 in London 
 
 Sterling. 
 Value received as advised 
 To 
 
 The treaty concluded in 1852 between France and 
 the republic of Liberia was finally ratified in the year 
 1856. The independence of the republic was recog- 
 nized successively by the United States, England, 
 Belgium, Prussia, and Brazil, from 1847 to 1854. To 
 this list France has at last added her name b}' the late 
 treaty. The original colony of Liberia was founded 
 by the American Colonization Society, under the di- 
 rection of its first President, Mr. Finley. It is situ- 
 ated at the northern extremity of the coast of Guinea, 
 and is about 370 miles in length. Its capital, Monro- 
 via, is on the former site of the principal slave-mar- 
 ket on this part of the African coast, and stands as a 
 living protest against the slave-trade, in the abolition 
 of which the colony has been largely instrumental. In 
 February, 1820, the first ship-load of emigrants left 
 New York for the coast of Guinea. They were 80 
 in number— forming 25 families — under the care of 3 
 citizens of the United States, a clergyman, a lawyer, 
 and a physician. In 1847 Liberia emerged from its 
 dependent colonial conation, and became an independ- 
 ent State. In 1854 it contained a population of about 
 12,000 black colonists, chiefly Americans, and from 
 140,000 to 150,000 natives, whose social and religious 
 condition is far in advance of that of their blood-thirsty 
 and idolatrous ancestors. 
 
 The capital is now a flourishing maritime city, hav- 
 ing a forti a light-house, a commercial market, a small 
 marine, and schools, churches, newspapers, charitable 
 associations, and< other institutions similar to those in 
 the United States. The 6th article of the constitution 
 of the redublie declares that, inasmuch as the essential 
 object of Its foundation was to open an asylum for the 
 scattered and oppressed children of Africa, and, at the 
 same time, to regenerate the people of the vast conti- 
 nent of Africa, yet enveloped in the darltness of igno- 
 rance, none but persons of color will be allowed to be- 
 come citizens of the republic. 
 
 The exports of Liberia, consisting chiefly of palm- 
 oil, logwood, and other ■ dye-woods, which are trans- 
 ported to England and the United States, amount to 
 about $1,000^000 annually. Besides all the usual 
 tropical productions, it produces Indian com, rice, the 
 potato, sugar, coffee, and cotton. Gold is also found 
 in considerable quantities. The cotton of Liberia, 
 which has been highlj^ approved in the Manchester 
 market, has lately attracted much attention^ and its 
 probable successful cultivation promises to exert a 
 most important influence on the future of the republic. 
 A communication from a highly respectable and relia- 
 ble source recently appeared in the National Intelli- 
 gencer, the writer of which gave a decided preference 
 to the cotton of Liberia over that of Brazil, in point of 
 quality, cheapness of production, and facility of trans- 
 portation to market. The subject deserves further 
 and full investigation. Considered simply as an ex- 
 periment in practical benevolence, Liberia deserves 
 and will receive the protection of the great powers of 
 the world. Whether or not it be destined, as some 
 have thought, to work out the solution of the vexed 
 question of slaverj- in the United States, it will yet 
 gain the great glory of redeeming from barbarism and 
 idolatry many millions of the human race. 
 
 Trade is the chosen employment of the great mass 
 
LIB 
 
 1206 
 
 LIB 
 
 of the Liberians, and some of them have been decld- 1 to the production of so great a variety of valuable 
 edly successful in this vocation. It consists in the ex- staples. 
 
 change of articles of American or European manufac- In a letter from the Secretarj' of the Treasurj' of 
 ture for the natural products of the country, of which Liberia, in November, 1849, that gentleman says. 
 
 palm-oil, cam-wood, and ivory, are the principal arti- 
 cles. Cam-wood is a rich dye-wood, and it is brought 
 to Monrovia on the shoulders of the natives from a 
 great distance. It is worth, in the European and 
 American markets, from $60 to $80 per ton. The ivory 
 of this region does not form an important item of com- 
 merce. The Liberian merchants own a number of 
 small vessels, built by themselves, and varying in 
 size froni 10 or 15 to 40 or 50 tons. These are navi- 
 gated by the Liberian sailors, and are constantly en- 
 gaged in bringing palm-oil to Monrovia, from whence 
 it is again shipped in foreign vessels for Liverpool or 
 Ne-rt- York. 
 
 Under the general name of Liberia are compre- 
 hended the territories of the republic and of the Mary- 
 land colony, founded at Cape Palmas, The political 
 jurisdiction of the republic extends from Shebar, a 
 point immediately north of Gallenas, to Grand Ses- 
 ters, giving a coast frontier of 350 miles, or, including 
 the Maryland colony, of 470 miles, running into the 
 interior an average of 40 miles ; the whole territory 
 embracing an area of upward of 14,000 square miles. 
 The jurisdiction of the Mai-j'land colony extends from 
 Grand Sesters to the River San Pedro, opening a coast 
 frontier of 120 miles. These territories have, of late 
 years, been considerably extended by means of pur- 
 chase, the most important addition being the annexa- 
 tion of Gallenas, formerly the point at which the 
 slave-trade was most extensivelj' conducted. The 
 New Jersey Colonization Society, established in 1826, 
 is said to have recently purchased from the natives 
 150,000 acres in the interior of Bassa country. The 
 population in 1850, as estimated by the Eev. E. E. 
 Gurley, who was sent out by government to obtain 
 information in respect to Liberia, was, in the republic, 
 emigrants, 6,000; natives, 140,000 to 200,000. In 
 the Maryland colony, emigrants, 9000 ; natives, 100, 
 000. The independence of the republic of Liberia has 
 been recognized by France, Belgium, Prussia, the 
 Hanse Towns, and England ; and, with the latter 
 country, a treatj' of peace, friendship, and commerce, 
 was concluded, August 1, 1849. Treaties of friend- 
 ship, etc., have also been entered into with several 
 tribes of the interior, containing stipulations for the 
 abolition of the slave-trade, and including new terri- 
 tory within the political and judicial jurisdiction of 
 the republic. The soil of the republic is capable of 
 yielding, in the greatest abundance, the most valua- 
 ble productions of the tropics. Rice, cotton, the 
 sugar-cane, and coffee are classed among the staples 
 of Liberia ; and corn, cassada, yams, sweet potatoes, 
 arrow-root, vegetables, and beans, of every variety, 
 are among the productions of this region. 
 
 It is stated, on the authority of persons thoroughly 
 acquainted with the resources of this region of Africa, 
 that no clime or country in the world will bring coffee 
 to higher perfection than Africa; and, whether intro- 
 duced at an early period by the Portuguese and Span- 
 iards, or whether it is a native of the country, it has 
 propagated itself along a great extent of the African 
 coast, without culture, for many ages. The com- 
 merce of the republic with foreign countries consists 
 chiefly in the exportation of articles supplied bj' the 
 native population, from the spontaneous growth of the 
 countrj', such as palm-oil, cam-wood, ivory, tortoise- 
 shell, and gold, which are bartered for tobacco, pow- 
 der, muskets, rum, cotton goods, salt, soap, crockery, I 
 and iron wares, copper and iron rods, and American 
 provisions. This commerce must necessarily expand 
 with the growing development of the agricultural re- 
 sources of the country, and the extension of the arts of 
 civilization and industry, in a region so highly fa- 
 vored in soil and climate, and so eminently adapted 
 
 The committee whose duty it was to furnish you with 
 a report, have, I think, considerably unden'ated the 
 annual exports from Liberia. It may be fairly stated 
 at $500,000, in African commodities (one fifth of which 
 is $100,000), and our imports from the United States 
 maj' be estimated at $150,000. It is worthy of re- 
 mark that, at present, it is only from the United States 
 that our merchants import goods ; and, further, that 
 the kinds of goods most suitable for the African trade 
 come from Europe. The commerce of Liberia is in its 
 infanc}', but it advances rapidly. The two principal 
 articles of trade are tobacco and powder; and no 
 country can compete with the United States in these 
 items. Provisions, also, will soon find an extensive 
 market in Liberia ; already the natives have com- 
 menced purchasing them, particularly beef, pork, and 
 salt fish. I am not exaggerating when I say that the 
 trade advances at least 50 per cent, annually. The 
 American cotton goods are, in quality, superior to 
 those brought from Europe; but there is a material 
 difference in price. The European is the cheapest, 
 and hence the inability of the American to compete 
 with the European. In Liberia we attribute the dif- 
 ference in price to the low price of labor in Europe." 
 Changes have occurred in the commercial movements 
 of Liberia since the date of Mr. Gurley's report. Then, 
 Liberia imported English goods, though not directlj- 
 from England ; but now, importations from England 
 are verj- large, while from the United States they are 
 annually diminishing. It is estimated that there are 
 not less than 100 ships, some of them of 1000 tons' 
 burden, regularly trading between British ports and 
 the coast of Africa, while a regular line of steamers 
 plies monthly between England and Liberia. Most of 
 the supplies of everj' description are derived from En- 
 gland ; while the only articles going from the United 
 States are powder, rum, flour, beef, pork, tobacco, 
 herrings, mackerel, and some few cotton goods ; the 
 latter article constantly diminishing. A reliable state- 
 ment, recently put forth, estimates the value of the 
 average annual exports from all this region of western 
 central Africa, to the European States, at some $15,- 
 000,000, and at a commercial exchange in favor of the 
 European merchants of about 600 per cent. The com- 
 merce has been carried on chiefly by native and Libe- 
 rian traders from Liberian ports and others on the 
 Gulf of Guinea, in European vessels. France, Spain, 
 Denmark, Portugal, and Germany, have participated 
 in this commercial intercourse ; but they are all sur- 
 passed by Great Britain. 
 
 From the " Annual Statements of the Trade and 
 Navigation of the United Kingdom," it appears that 
 the imports into Great Britain from the western coast 
 of Africa— the limits of which are not particularly 
 designated, though estimated to contain some 50,000,- 
 000 inhabitants — consist chiefly of bar- wood, cam-wood, 
 ebony, guano, gum-animi, gum-copal, untanned hides, 
 palm-oil, orchal, elephants' teeth, and bees'-wax— the 
 heaviest item, by far, being palm-oil, which averaged 
 some 450,000 cwt. each of the five years ending with 
 1853; and amounted to 633,508 cwt., at a " computed 
 real value" of £1,457,068, in 1854. The aggregate 
 value of imports in 1854 is given officially at £1,528,- 
 896. The exports, during the same year, the produce 
 and manufactures of the United Kingdom, or of other 
 countries, consisted of arms and ammunition, wearing 
 apparel, manufactures of cotton, wool, silk, iron, 
 brass, copper, steel, and glass ; salt, soap, spirits, 
 staves, coals, beads, unmanufactured tobacco, earth- 
 enware, and porcelain ; of which the heaviest items 
 were cottons, gunpowder, guns, staves, and tobacco. 
 The average ' ' declared value" of cottons thus exported, 
 during the six years ending 1854, was £187,000 ; and 
 
LIB 
 
 1201 
 
 LIB 
 
 of tobacco, the average quantity was 2,160,000 pounds. 
 The computed real value of the 1,816,327 pounds of 
 tobacco exported in 1854 is given at £66,760. The 
 computed real value of all foreign exports to western 
 Africa for the same year was £174,073 ; and of all do- 
 mestic exports, £646,868 ; being more than that of 
 1863, and double that of 1852 — the average value of 
 each of the six years ending with 1854, being upward 
 of £460,000. 
 
 It is thus seen that the trade of Great Britain with 
 western Africa is rapidly increasing — amounting, in 
 value, in 1864, to £1,528,896 imports: domestic ex- 
 ports, £646,868 ; foreign exports, £174,073 ; aggregate 
 (imports and exports) £2,349,837=$11,749,185. And 
 this, independently of the British colony of Sierra 
 Leone, the trade of which amounted in 1854 to $1,421,- 
 866 ; and of the British possessions on the Gold Coast 
 and the River Gambia, amounting to $1,547,285 more ; 
 and of those at the Cape of Good Hope and south Af- 
 rica, swelling the amount $8,383,090 more ; making, 
 in all, an aggregate of over $23,000,000 in 1864, for 
 the western coast of Africa entire. The trade of the 
 United States with west Africa, there are no means of 
 determining — the values of imports and exports being 
 given in Commerce and Navigation for " Africa Gene- 
 rally." " Liberia," it is true, appears in the reports 
 from 1849 to 1854, inclusive, but with no iigures to in- 
 dicate trade, and but few to indicate navigation ; giv- 
 ing, it is inferred, the tonnage of colonization vessels 
 only — none others, perhaps, being engaged in the di- 
 rect intercourse with Liberia. The following table 
 shows the trade of the United States with Africa dur- 
 ing the seven years ending June 30, 1855 ; 
 
 Yonn. 
 
 Exporte. 
 
 ImporlB. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1849 
 
 $708,411 
 759,266 
 1,840,644 
 1,246,141 
 1,610,888 
 1,804,972 
 1,875,905 
 
 $495,742 
 524,722 
 1,168,176 
 1,057,657 
 1,202,986 
 1,386,560 
 1,887,527 
 
 $1,204,158 
 1,288,938 
 2,508,820 
 2,803,798 
 2,818,819 
 8,191,532 
 2,718,482 
 
 I860 
 
 1861. 
 
 1852 
 
 1868 
 
 1854 
 
 1865 
 
 
 From this statement, it will be perceived that, al- 
 though the figures for 1855 show a falling off in that 
 year, as compared with 1854 and 1853, yet that there 
 is a regular and very rapid advance from 1849. But, 
 while the average value of the trade of the United 
 States with all Africa, during the six years ending 
 1854, is found to be only $2,200,000 ; that of Great 
 Britian with west Africa, alone, for the same period, 
 averaged $2,300,000 ; and, including all of her Afri- 
 can colonies and possessions, together with the esti- 
 mated value of her trade on the eastern coast, it could 
 not have averaged much less than $20,000,000. 
 
 In 1854, the trade of the United States with " Af- 
 rica Generallj'" rose to $3,191,532 — ^a higher figure 
 than before or since ; at the same time, the trade of 
 Great Britain with west Africa, only, amounted to 
 $11,749,185. The value of the unmanufactured to- 
 bacco alone — derived mostly from the United States — 
 amounted to nearly $300,000 of that total ; and the 
 value of British trade with "Africa Generally" was, 
 as has been seen, more than $23,000,000, or nearly 8 
 times that of the United States. 
 
 The establishment of a line of commercial steamers 
 between the United States and the western coast of 
 Africa has been urged, as tending greatly to the aug- 
 mentation of our commerce with that country. The 
 uses which such steamers might subserve have been 
 stated thus: — 1. The transportation of free negroes 
 from the United States to Liberia. ?. The carrying 
 of the mails. 3. The transporiai;ion of merchandize. 
 
 4. The carrying of pilgrims on their way to Mecca. 
 
 5. The carrying, on the return voyage, of the pil- 
 grims, who now assume the name of Hadjis ; the cer. 
 tain and expeditious transportation of the fruit and 
 other products of the Mediterranean ; and the greater 
 facility afforded to passengers from central Europe 
 
 to America, whose expense of travel will be greatly 
 diminished by embarking at the south of France in- 
 stead of at the usual western ports. 
 
 Palm-oil has become, within a few years, a staple of 
 export from Liberia. More than 30 vessels were 
 freighted with the article at her ports, in 1856 ; while 
 three years before, the quantity exported did not 
 exceed 1000 gallons, at a cost of $1 per gallon. The 
 quantity exported at the present time is, at least, 
 700,000 gallons ; but the price has fallen to 33 cents 
 per gallon. The trade in ground-nuts, chiefly carried 
 on with France, is becoming of great importance. 
 They are shipped in bags, and, when ground, supply 
 a wholesome substitute for olive-oil. Sugar, cotton, 
 and coffee are, however, viewed as the great natural 
 staplBS of product for the soil and climate of Liberia. 
 The import duties in the republic of Liberia are 6 per 
 cent, ad valorem. 
 
 From recent intimations, it is not improbable that 
 the countrj' east of Liberia may shortly be more ex- 
 tensively explored, with a view of planting new set- 
 tlements in the interior of the present coast line, which 
 it is hoped will be beyond the reach of malaria. Should 
 such an enterprise be successfully carried out, the im- 
 mense natural resources of that fertile region would 
 soon attract foreign commerce, and thus the philan- 
 thropic labors of those engaged in the movement would 
 be greatly facilitated. — Com. Ret, U. S. 
 
 There can be no question that vast commercial advan- 
 tages would accrue to the commerce of western Africa, 
 if the Niger and Tschadda, the natural highways into 
 the interior to Timbuctoo and other large cities of the 
 continent, were effectually opened and maintained so 
 for a few years. The last expedition is a proof that, 
 under judicious management, and at the proper season, 
 there is no greater danger to health in a navigation of 
 those streams, than of other rivers in Brazil and our 
 southern States. While the British export trade with 
 different parts of the world has only increased in the 
 last 20 years 60 per cent., the export trade of western 
 Africa has more than doubled. British manufactures 
 are mainly dependent on that quarter for several arti- 
 cles, especially vegetable oils and ivorj-. The yearly 
 export of palm-oil has risen to the value of nearly 
 £2,000,000 sterling, or $10,000,000. Ground-nuts, for 
 oil, are a, leading article of production. Dyewoods 
 are important. Of the whole imports of ivory into 
 Great Britain, Africa supplies one half. When it is 
 noticed what has been done in stimulating the cultiva- 
 tion of coffee, sugar, spices, and other staples in Libe- 
 ria, there is no reason why a great stimulus may not be 
 given also to the countries bordering on the rivers of 
 the interior. 
 
 The following returns to Parliament illustrate the 
 increase of British exports to the west coast of Africa, 
 and of imports from the same region : 
 
 1850. 
 1851. 
 1852. 
 1853. 
 1854. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 664,548 
 688,725 
 901,402 
 968,809 
 
 ImportB. 
 
 £605,968 
 794,810 
 707,024 
 749,878 
 908,684 
 
 Total. 
 
 £1,245,837 
 1,449,353 
 1,240,749 
 1,659,776 
 1,864,448 
 
 This is independent of the British colonies of Sierra 
 Leone, the trade of which amounted in 1854 to $1,421,- 
 866, and of the British possessions on the Gold Coast 
 and the River Gambia, amounting to $1,547,285 more, 
 and of those at the Cape of Good Hope and in south 
 Africa, swelling the amount $8,383,090 more ; making 
 in all an aggregate of over $23,000,000 in 1854, for the 
 western coast of Africa entire. 
 
 An American steam line to Africa would be >^ pio- 
 neer of civilization. It would afford a rapid communi- 
 cation with the interesting republic of Liberia, which 
 is proving the capacity of the Christianized and Amer- 
 icanized African for self-government, according to An- 
 glo-Saxon ideas and institutions. It could not fail to 
 promote powerfully the prosperity of that young com- 
 
LIF 
 
 1208 
 
 LIF 
 
 monwealth. It would practically bridge the Atlantic 
 in a new direction, and connect together the most pro- 
 gressive and the most stationary of the continents. 
 It would soon be an effectual aid in that African exo- 
 dus from the soil of the new world to the ancient 
 fatherland of the race, of which we now see the faint 
 beginnings. Its realization would involve more wide- 
 reaching and beneficial results than even its warmest 
 friends have ever hoped. 
 
 Iiibraries. In a volume on Pablic Libraries of 
 the United States, published \>y the Smithsonian In- 
 stitution, the following statistics appear, obtained for 
 a large part from replies to circulars, and therefore 
 less full than those of the census : 
 
 Libraries. No. Volumea. 
 
 State Libraries 39 283,987 
 
 Social Libraries 126 611,834 
 
 Colleffe Libraries 126 536,912 
 
 Students' Libranes 142 254,639 
 
 Seminaries and Professional Libraries 22T 320,909 
 
 Scientificand Historical Societies' do. 34 133,901 
 
 Great Libraries op Europe in 1848. 
 
 Libraries. Volumes, 
 
 * Paris National 824,000 
 
 * Munich Eoyal 600,000 
 
 Petersburg Imperial 446,000 
 
 * London British Museum 485,000 
 
 * Copenhagen Koyal 412,000 
 
 * Berlin Royal 410,000 
 
 * Vienna Imperial 318,000 
 
 * Dresden Eoyal 300,000 
 
 Madrid National 200,000 
 
 "Wolfenbuttel Ducal 200,000 
 
 Stutgard Royal 187,000 
 
 Paris Arsenal 180,000 
 
 * Milan Breza 170,000 
 
 Paris St. Genevieve 150,000 
 
 Darmstadt Grand Ducal 150,000 
 
 * Florence Magliabecchian 150,000 
 
 * Naples Royal. 150,000 
 
 * Brussels Eoyal 133,500 
 
 Rome Casanate 120,000 
 
 * Hague Royal 100,000 
 
 Paris Mazarin 100,000 
 
 Rome Vatican 100,000 
 
 * Parma Ducal 100,000 
 
 These marked thus (*) are entitled by law to a copy of 
 
 every book published within the States to which they re- 
 spectively belong. 
 
 Lien. It has been decided that no shipwright has 
 alien upon avessel for the repairs, etc., done to the ves- 
 sel, when he parts with the possession of the vessel, 
 and can only recover the same from the owners in an 
 action for debt, as he in this case, as well as trades- 
 men, who have no lien upon the ship, are supposed to 
 have given the credit for the requisites required for the 
 vessel to the owner. In maritime lien, the persons 
 who have a claim in the Admiralty Court in rem, and 
 can compel reimburement, consist of those who have 
 rendered services to the ship by their labor, as mar- 
 iners, by pilotage, tonnage, salvage, and by the loan of 
 money as bottomry for repairs. The wages of seamen 
 have the first claim upon a vessel, and then come sal- 
 vage, pilotage, tonnage, or bottomry. Bottomry, how- 
 ever, has a precedence over prior salvage, although it 
 gives way to subsequent salvage. Sir John Michel, 
 speaking of lien, says : " Subjects which operate for 
 the protection of prior interests are privileged over 
 those interests." 
 
 Lieutenant, of a ship of war, the officer next in 
 rank and power to the captain, in whose absence he is i 
 accordingly charged with the command of the ship, as , 
 also the execution of whatever orders he may have 
 received from the commander. 
 
 Lieutenant (locum tenens, holding the place of), in a 
 military sense, means the person second in command : 
 as, lord-lieutenant, one who represents the prince or 
 governing power ; lieutenant-general, one who stands 
 next to the general ; lieutenant-colonel, the next to a 
 colonel ; and lieutenant, the next to a captain, in every 
 company of both foot and horse, and who takes the 
 command upon the death or absence of a superior 
 officer. 
 
 Life-Boats. See Life-preservers, 
 
 Life-Freservers. Although it too frequently 
 
 happens that an accident which materially endangers 
 the life of an individual, deprives him, in the mean- 
 time, of that presence of mind which alone would 
 enable him to take proper measures for his safety ; yet 
 to have meditated, in an interval of leisure, upon the 
 best method of proceeding in case of emergency, must 
 tend greatly to diminish the embarrassment, and con- 
 fusion that commonly accompany' the accident, even if 
 it should not be thought necessary to provide any par- 
 ticular apparatus for the purpose of escaping the dan- 
 ger. There are also many ways in which those who 
 are not immediatelj' involved in the disaster may con- 
 tribute to the preservation of life, whether actuated by 
 interest, or by humanity only ; and the modes of re- 
 lief will therefore be naturally divided into the inter- 
 nal and the external, whether relating to Jires or to 
 skipwrecJcs. 
 
 Internal Fire-Escapes. — Whenever a family estab- 
 lishes itself in a residence not detached from others, 
 it becomes of importance to ascertain what facilities 
 the house affords for ascending to the roof, and for 
 passing to those of the neighboring houses. It is 
 scarcely possible that a conflagration should extend at 
 once to the contiguous houses on each side, before the 
 inhabitants of the house in question have had time to 
 escape. But in a detached house, if there are not two 
 or more stair-cases remote from each other, and even in 
 a house contiguous to others, when there is no facility 
 of communicating by the roof, it becomes highly ex- 
 pedient to provide some internal means of escaping 
 through the windows, in case of fire, and to have on 
 ever}-^ floor a strong-rope, with a hook or a loop at tho 
 end, by which it may be fastened to a bed-post, so as 
 to enable an active person to descend by its help out of 
 the window, finding from time to time a partial footing 
 in the inequalities of the wall. This process will be 
 greatly facilitated by having the rope knotted at inter- 
 vals of about a foot throughout its length ; the knots 
 being nearly as convenient as the blocks or clips, that 
 are sometimes made for the purpose of retarding the 
 descent, by holding them, and regulating the friction 
 by the pressure of the hand ; unless the clip be at- 
 tached to a strong cross-bar, on which a person may 
 sit, while he regulates the position of the clip-by its 
 handles, allows himself to descend with more or less 
 velocity at pleasure. — ^Emerson's Mechanics, figs. 228, 
 229 ; Lettpold's Theatrum Machinarium , plate Uv. 
 
 External Means of Escape from Fire. — The external 
 means to be employed in cases of conflagration must 
 be provided by the managers of fire-offices, or hj other 
 public officers ; and every ingenious workman whom 
 they may employ will be able at Ms leisure, to devise 
 such apparatus as he can the most conveniently execute, 
 and to give it a full trial in the absence of all danger ; 
 it will therefore only be advisable that he should com- 
 pare for himself the particular inventions which have 
 been suggested for this purpose, and that he should 
 choose from among them such as he thinks most likely 
 to do him credit ; and he may, indeed, verj' possibly 
 find means of improving on any of them. In Leu- 
 pold's Theatrum Machinarium (plates liv. Iv.), we find 
 the representation of a cliair calculated to be drawn up 
 or down by means of pulleys. Mr. Varcourt obtained, 
 in 17C1, the approbation of the Parisian Academy of 
 Sciences for his invention of a hollow mast, fixed- in a 
 wagon, and supporting a stage, with the means of as- 
 cending and descending. — Hist,, p. 158. In the begin- 
 ning of the present century, a fire-escape of Mr. Audi- 
 bert was approffed by the Parisian Institute. — Mem-. 
 Inst., iv. A committee was also appointed for exam- 
 ining several similar inventions at the Lyceum of Arts, 
 and a medal was awarded by it to Mr. Daujon, for his 
 apparatus, which consists of a platform carried on 
 wheels, supported by three frames, with brass wires, 
 on which boxes are made to slide up and down for the 
 conveyance of persons or furniture. — Armales des Arts. 
 
LIF 
 
 1209 
 
 LIF 
 
 Repertory, ii., vol. i., p. 439. Mr. CoUins's invention 
 of pipes raised by ropes, and affording a centre to a 
 long lever, is described in the fourth volume of the 
 ATnerican Traneaciiahs, and in the Repertory, vol. xv., 
 p. 35. In the Slat volume of the Transactions of the 
 Sodely of Arts tot 1813, p. 244, -we have an account of 
 a fire-escape invented by Mr. Adam Young, for which 
 he received a medal ffom the society. It appears to 
 constitute by far the most portable of ladders, consist- 
 ing of cross bars or rounds connected by ropes, and 
 having their ends fitted together^ so as to form a pole, 
 ■which is readilj' elevated to the window ; and the 
 rounds being separated, and the hooks at the end prop- 
 erly fixed to the window-frame, the whole forms itself 
 into a very convenient ladder of a mixed structure. 
 The 34th volume, for 1816, p. 227, contains a descrip- 
 tion of Mr. Braby's fire-escape, Consisting of a car 
 made to slide on a strip of plank fixed to a pole, 
 and goyemed by a rope, -which is cased with iron, 
 to protect it in case of necessity, from the effect of 
 the fire. 
 
 A great many other foims of fire-escapes might be 
 noticed, for it Is one of those subjects which readily 
 appeal to the ingenious mechanic in a large city where 
 fires are numerous ; and everj' form of fire-eScape 
 must at times fail. Hence, there has been a sort of 
 competition among the uneducated inventors, Who 
 have displayed some mechanical' ingenuity, but have 
 not, so far as we are aware, developed toy new prin- 
 ciple. 
 
 Internal Means of Escape from 8hipwrech.-^T\i& 
 means of escaping from sffipwteck may be similari|y 
 divided into internal and exieHtal, or into the precau- 
 tions to be taken by the ship's company, and the 
 measures to be adopted by persons on shore. The in- 
 ternal means depend either on enabling the individ- 
 uals tq^wim or float, or establishing a connection with 
 the shore by ropes ; and of the former, We ihay first 
 consider those which require no particular preparation 
 before the occurrence of the accident that calls them 
 into action, and which are, therefore, the most uni- 
 versally applicable. Of such expedients, the most 
 effectual appear to be those which depend on the em- 
 ployment of empty water-casks for assisting the ship's 
 company to drift on shore. 1. A paper on the ar- 
 rangement of water-casks, to serve las floats in case of 
 shipwreck, appears in the publications of the Society 
 for the Improvement of Naval Architecture, dated in 
 1796 (vol. ii., p. 51). 2. In 1818, Mr. Grant of Bide- 
 ford obtained a gold medal from the Society of Arts, 
 for the invention of a life-presen'er, cotisistiUg of a 
 36 gallbn cask, with some iron ballast fixed on a wood- 
 en bed, and lashed to the cask, and with ropes rottnd 
 it for the inen to hold ; and it was found that 10 men 
 were supported by it with convenience in tolerably 
 smooth water, the bung of the cask being well secured 
 by cork (vol. xxxvi., p. 63). The ballast could be of 
 very little nse, and a cask simply tied round with a 
 rope, like a common parcel, would probably answer 
 the purpose equally well. It would, indeed, be pru- 
 dent for every ship in a storm, on a lee shore, to have 
 a few of her casks well emptied and stopped, arid tied 
 in this manner, before the actual occurrence of immi- 
 nent danger. 3. In 37th volume of the Transac- 
 tion^ of the Society (p. 110), there is an account of Mr. 
 Cook's life-raft, consisting of a square frame with 
 canvas nailed across it, supported by a cask at each 
 corner, for which the gold medal was voted to him. 
 4. It is followed by a description of Lieutenant Rodg- 
 er's life-raft (p. 112), which obtained a similar compli- 
 ment. This raft has the advantage of requiring only 
 such materials as are usually found on board of every 
 ship; capstan-bars, boat-masts, yards, or any other 
 spars of moderate dimensions, which are tied together 
 so as to make a sort of wagon frame, with a large 
 cask fixed on each side ; it appears to afford a very 
 convenient support to the men, but it can scarcely 
 
 possess any great strength for resisting the force of the 
 breakers. 
 
 Mr. J. Bremer, a clergyman in the Orkneys,' had 
 received a medal from the Society in 1810, for his 
 method of converting any ship's boat into a life-boat 
 by putting into it 3 or 4 casks lashed to the keel, which 
 is to have ring-bolts fixed in it for receiving the ropes 
 by which the casks are fastened ; he gives particular 
 directions for making aU the necessary arrangements, 
 in the 28th volume of the Transactions (p. 134) ; he 
 particularly advises that no use should be made of the 
 natural buoyancy Of the cavity of the boat, but that 
 the bottom 'should be perforated without hesitation, 
 wherever the hole would afford any additional facility 
 for fixing a rope. Captain Manby's jolly-boat, fitted 
 as a life-boat, *'at the expense of £3," seems' to be 
 comprehended among those preparations which are to 
 be made previously to the voyage. The buckling a 
 soldiers canteen on his breast as an assistance to ena~ 
 ble him to fioat,' belongs to those temporary expedi- 
 ents which may occasionally be emploj'ed with advan- 
 tage. Tying a hat in a pocket-handkerchief, and 
 holding it as a fioat, has been recommended by Mr. 
 Dawson in the Philosophical Magazine (vol. xx., p. 
 362) ; he advises that the crown of the hat should be 
 held downward, and observes that a stick may be em- 
 ployed; to enable us to use 2 or 4 hats at once ; but 
 this method can Only 'be adopted when the accident 
 occurs in very still water. ' 
 
 In China, a frame of bamboo surrounding the per- 
 son is used for a float, and the lightness and strength 
 of this substance must well adapt it for the purpose ; 
 sometimes alsoa gourd is tied to a child, to secure its 
 floating in case of accident." The inflated goat-skins 
 used from time immemorial by the Arabs, or the seal- 
 skins employed by the Chilians, have tlie disadvan- 
 tage of being easily relit Or torn by a rock or a spat j 
 an objection which is also more or less applicable to all 
 substances containing air ; for example, to the air- 
 jackets described in Leupold's Theatrum Pontifcuin, 
 published about 1724. A float of a semicircular form 
 was recommended by Ozanam, the author of the Rec- 
 reations; and Bachstrom, in his Art of Swimming, pro- 
 posed to float a troop of cavalry, by fixing cork to the 
 saddles. The cork jacket of Gelacy is described in the 
 History of the Parisian Academy of Sciences for lib! , 
 and Lachapelle's Seapha/nder, which is considered an 
 improvement on it, in the volume for 1765. In the 
 3-ear 1764 the attention of the British public was par- 
 ticularly called to the floating powers of cork, by some 
 experiments which were made with cork jackets on 
 the Thames, together with some Comparative experi- 
 ments on air-jackets ; and Dr. Wilkinson; in the Phi- 
 losophical Transactions for 1765, describes some experi- 
 ments by which he ascertained that about a pound of 
 cork was amply sufficient to enable a man of ordinary 
 size and make to floatwithout effort. It is almost super- 
 fluous to enumerate the multitude of trifling variations 
 that have been made in the arrangements of cork jack- 
 ets and air-jackets, apparentl)' for the purpose of ex- 
 citing a momentary interest, though possibly from the 
 best motives. Mr. Bosquet advised a bag of cork shav- 
 ings to be- kept in readiness by each pei-son ; the Sea- 
 man^ s Friend was Composed of two pieces of cork, united 
 b3' straps ; the Collinetta was a hollow vessel of copper, 
 divided into cells ; a " marine spencer" has been de- 
 scribed hy Mr. Spencer, in the 16tli volume of the Philo- 
 sophical Magazine, consisting of a number of old corks, 
 arranged so aS to form a girdle ; and in 1806, Mr. T. 0. 
 Daniel obtained agold medal from the Societj' of Arts, 
 for the invention of an apparatus of waterproof leather, 
 surrounding the' body, which, according to the testi- 
 monials he produced, had saved the lives of some per- 
 sons who had been sailing in a pleasure-boat on a river. 
 In smooth water, it has been Suggested that throwing 
 a foot-ball, with a small weight tied to it, to the per- 
 son immersed, would often affold'sufiicient assistance; 
 
LIF 
 
 1210 
 
 LIF 
 
 and, with respect to floating, tliere is no doubt tliat 
 any of tlie assistances whicli have been proposed 
 would be sufficient if they were at hand ; but there is 
 another object, to which it is necessary to attend, in 
 cold, and even in temperate climates, that of support- 
 ing a temperature compatible with life and health, if 
 the immersion is likely to be of long duration ; and an 
 additional provision of worsted stockings, jackets, and 
 trowsers, will be almost as essential, in such cases, as 
 the means of obtaining buoyancy. 
 
 The invention of India-rubber cloth led to the in- 
 troduction of inflated belts, the advantages of which, 
 compared with cork, and other forms of belt, are their 
 greater buoyancy compared with their hulk, and their 
 greater portability, for, when emptied of air, they can 
 be folded up, and packed into a small space. The ob- 
 jections to them are their liability to get punctured or 
 torn, and to decay, from being put away damp ; the 
 metal valves by which they are inflated may also get 
 out of order; during the hurry and confusion of a 
 wreck they are liable to be only partially inflated, and 
 the valves to be only half screwed up, so as to allow 
 of the escape of the inclosed air. Commander J. E. 
 Ward, E. N., inspector of life-boats to the National 
 Life-Boat Institution, has invented a belt with 4 com- 
 partments, which admit of being separately' inflated, 
 thus mitigating the danger arising from puncture or 
 injury to the inflating valves ; it has a buoyancj' equal 
 to 30 lbs., and should two of its compartments be dis- 
 abled, the remaining two would be snflicient to float 
 the wearer. 
 
 For the rough purposes of ordinarj' boat- work, Com- 
 mander Ward insists on the advantages of cork as a 
 material for life-belts, and he has invented a form of 
 belt, which has been selected by the National Life- 
 Boat Institution for the use of its life-boats' crews. 
 The buoyant power of each belt is from 20 to 24 lbs., 
 the cork is uncovered, so that its quality can be seen, 
 and it is divided into numerous narrow pieces, each of 
 which is sewed separately to a strong linen or duck 
 belt, which covers the body from the arm-pits to be- 
 low the hips. The pieces of cork are distributed in 
 two rows, one above, the other below the waist, 
 and the belt is secured closely about the body by 
 means of strings passed round the waist, between the 
 two rows of cork. It is further secured bj' other 
 strings, crossed over the shoulders. By this arrange- 
 ment the trunk of the body is enveloped in cork, at- 
 tached so as to be quite flexible, and to allow of the 
 usual movements of the body without inconvenience, 
 while it protects the bod}' against injurj' from blows, 
 and is a warm covering in cold weather. 
 
 Various forms of buoyant mattresses have been con- 
 trived by Mr. Laurie and others. As manufactured 
 by Mr. Silver, numerous waterproof tubes are partly 
 distended with horse-hair, woolen flocks, or cocoa-nut 
 fibres, so that, should one or more of the tubes fail, 
 the others may sufiice to sustain the required weight 
 on the water. The tubes are made up into mattresses, 
 pillows, and floats — ^the last to be placed under the 
 thwarts of boats. A mattress weighing 17 lbs. sus- 
 tains in the water 284 lbs. A pillow sustains 28 lbs. 
 A mattress for emigrant vessels, sold at 9s., was 
 proved at the Great Exhibition. It sustained 96 lbs. 
 in the water during 5 days, without being injured. 
 Floating mattresses are also made, filled with cork 
 shavings. In the Great Exhibition, Mr. Rhind had 
 various models of deck seats and benches for steam- 
 ers, so constructed as to be readily formed into rafts, 
 each of which was capable of sustaining 8 persons. 
 
 For the second object which is desirable to a ship in 
 distress, that of obtaining a safe ooromunication with 
 the shore, it has been usual of late years to rely prin- 
 cipally on the humane exertions of persons who may 
 be on the coast, and who may have made preparations 
 for this purpose ; and with this view, some instruc- 
 tions for properly co-operating in the measures to be 
 
 adopted with Captain Manby's apparatus have been 
 liberally distributed to all ships when they received 
 their papers from some of the British custom-houses. 
 There are, however, some simple expedients which 
 may be adopted for this purpose by persons on board 
 of the ship ; for example, the making a kite with a 
 pocket-handkerchief stretched over a hoop, and caus- 
 ing it to carry a cord to the lee shore, by means of 
 which a stronger line, and at last a hawser, may be 
 drawn by persons standing on the beach. A line may 
 also sometimes be carried on shore by a cask, allowed 
 to drift before the wind ; and a bag has been recom- 
 mended to be attached to such a cask, or to a buoj', 
 in order to act as a sail, and to insure its crossing the 
 surf. Mr. Cleghom was also rewarded, in 1814, by 
 the Society of Arts, for the invention of a buoyant 
 line, having a heart of cork, to obviate the inconven- 
 ience which would arise from its sinking and being 
 dragged on the stones under the breakers ; but he ob- 
 serves, that in heavy storms there is generally a cur- 
 rent along shore which renders the method almost 
 impracticable. (^Transactions, xxxii., p. 181.) A 
 Mr. Wheatley assures us, in Captain Manby's Essay, 
 that his own life, and those of 8 other persons, were 
 saved, in 1791, by a lead line, which was carried on 
 shore by a Newfoundland dog that he happened to 
 have on board, when two good swimmers had been 
 drowned in the attempt to swim on shore. It had oc- 
 curred to Lieutenant Bell, in 1791, that a rope might 
 be thrown from a ship which had struck, by means of 
 a mortar carrj'ing a heavj- shot, and upon the princi- 
 ple of the gun harpoon ; and he showed the practica- 
 bility of the suggestion by an actual experiment, in 
 which a deep-sea line was carried to a distance of about 
 400 yards. (Trans. Soc. Arts, xxv., p. 136.) He 
 recommended that every ship should be provided with 
 a mortar capable of carrj'ing such a shot, and observed 
 that it might be placed on a coil of rope to be fired, 
 instead of a carriage. The line was to be coiled on 
 handspikes, which were to be drawn out before the 
 mortar was fired. In 1792 he received a premium 
 of 50 guineas from the Society of Arts {Transactions, 
 X., p. 204) ; and he obtained his promotion in the 
 Ordnance as an acknowledgment of his merits. The 
 shot was to weigh about 60 lbs. or more, and the mor- 
 tar 5 or 6 cwt. The experiments of the French artil- 
 lery at Lafere were subsequent to those of Mr. Bell, 
 though they have sometimes been quoted as the first 
 of the kind. 
 
 It has, however, generally been thought impractica- 
 ble to manage a mortar -with effect under the circum- 
 stances of actual shipwreck ; and Mr. Trengrouse has 
 preferred a rocket, as more easily fired, and as having 
 a smaller initial velocity than a shot, so that the rope 
 would be less in danger of being broken !>}' the im- 
 pulse. He found that a rocket of 8 oz. carried a mack- 
 erel line 180 yards, and a 1 lb. rocket 212 ; and in 
 some experiments made under the inspection of the 
 Society of Arts, a rocket IJ- inch in diameter carried a 
 cord across the Serpentine Eiver in Hyde Park. The 
 musket is provided with a valve, to prevent the escape 
 of the materials of the rocket ; and it is to be fired with 
 a little powder, without wadding. The whole appara- 
 tus is packed in a chest, containing from 8 to 12 rock- 
 ets, the musket, a life-spencer, a chair to traverse on a 
 rope, a canvas bag, and a ball of wood to throw to a 
 person swimming. Mr. Trengrouse was compliment- 
 ed with a medal from the Society of Arts in 1820. 
 (Vol. xxxviii., p. 161.) 
 
 External Means of Escape from Shipwreck. — The 
 means to be employed by persons on shore, in cases 
 of shipwreck, depend either in projecting a line over 
 the ship, or on the use of a life-boat. Mr. Bell had 
 cursorily observed that a line might be carried over 
 a ship from the shore by means of his mortar ; but 
 for the actual execution of this proposal, in a variety of 
 cases, we are indebted to the meritorious exertions of 
 
LIF 
 
 1211 
 
 LIF 
 
 Captain 6. W. Manby, whose apparatus, according to 
 the report of a committee of the House of Commons, 
 dated in March 1810, appears " to be admirably adapt- 
 ed to its purpose, and to have been attended with the 
 fallest success in almost every instance." In conse- 
 quence of this report. Captain Manby was thought 
 worthy of a parliamentary reward ; and he afterward 
 published a description of his inventions, under the 
 title of " An Essay on the Preservation of Shipwrecked 
 Persons," 8vo, London, 1812. He had previously re- 
 ceived a gold medal from the Society of Arts in 1808 
 (Transactions, xxvi., p. 209). ' His success makes it 
 expedient to extract from his essay a detailed descrip- 
 tion of the apparatus ; and it will be easy to make it 
 somewhat more intelligible by a slight alteration of the 
 order of arrangement : " The method of affixing a rope 
 to a shot, for the purpose of affecting communication, 
 when projected from a piece of ordnance over a strand- 
 ed vessel, was at length succeeded in, by introducing 
 a jagged piece of iron, with an eye at the top, into a 
 shell, and securing it by filling the hollow sphere with 
 boiling lead ; and in another way, by drilling a hole 
 through a solid ball, and passing a piece of iron with 
 an eye to it, as before described, to the bottom, where 
 it should be well secured by riveting. To produce the 
 means of connecting a rope tu a shot, and prevent its 
 being burnt, and rendering it ' irresistible^ to the pow- 
 erful inflammation of gunpowder, was the labor of 
 infinite time, and the number of experiments to accom- 
 plish it were numer- 
 ous. Chains in every' 
 variety of form, and 
 great strength, break- 
 ing, proved that it re- 
 quired not only an 
 elastic, but a closer 
 connected body. At length," some 
 stout platted hide (fig. 2), woven 
 extremel}'' close to the eye of the 
 shot, about two feet in length be- 
 yond the muzzle of the piece, and 
 with a loop at the end to receive 
 the rope, happily effected it. 3?ig. 1, 
 
 " This method is certainly desirable, as a rope may 
 immediately [as] it is required, be affixed to the loop, 
 and applied in service. The form of the platted hide 
 may likewise be woven by twisting it in the manner 
 that the lashes of whips or rope are spun. There is 
 another method, by passing the rope through a case of 
 leather, taking the greatest care that it is so well se- 
 cured at the eye of the shot a* to leave no room for 
 the sliffhiest play, as is represented by the annexed 
 barbed shot (fig. 2). 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 When the crew of the distressed vessel are incapable 
 of availing themselves of the benefits arising from com- 
 munication, they having previously lashed themselves 
 in the rigging to prevent being swept away by the sea, 
 which is repeatedly breaking over them, and when, 
 from long fatigue and the severity of the storm (on 
 which occasions it too frequently occurs)', they totally 
 lose the use of their limbs, and are rendered incapable 
 of assisting themselves in the slightest degree — the 
 advantages of this shot are, that, on its being projected 
 over the vessel, and the people of the shore hauling it 
 in, it firmly secures itself on some part of the wreck 
 or rigging, by which a boat can be hauled to the re- 
 lief of the distressed objects ; and by the counterbarbs 
 it is rendered impossible [that it should] give up its 
 hold, or slip, while that part of the wreck remains to 
 which it has secured itself. 
 
 "Among the many that have been saved by this 
 shot, the following are testimonials of a few of the 
 cases : ' We, the crew of the brig Nancy of Sunderland, 
 do hereby certify that we were on board the said ves- 
 sel when she was stranded on the beach of Tarmouth, 
 on Friday morning, the 15th of December, 1809, and 
 compelled to secure ourselves in the rigging to prevent 
 being swept away, the sea running so high over the 
 vessel. And we do further declare and certify that 
 Captain Manby, firing a rope with a hooked shot, se- 
 curely holding on to the wreck, enabled a boat to be 
 hauled from the shore over the surf to our relief, other- 
 wise we must inevitably have perished.' This certi- 
 ficate is attested by six signatures. 
 
 " Facilitating communication is at all times of im- 
 portance ; but when the stranded vessel is in moment- 
 ary danger of going to pieces, this point becomes a 
 consideration of extreme urgenc)'". I feel a persuasion 
 that this particular service can only be carried into 
 effect by a small and light piece of ordnance, the 
 range of which is consequently very inconsiderable, 
 when compared with that of a large and heavier piece, 
 as it is weight alone that conveys the rope. In order, 
 therefore, to increase the powers of shot projected from 
 a small mortar, its natural form must 
 be varied, so as to give it additional. 
 ' preponderane.' The annexed shape, ^ 
 in the form of a pear (fig. 3), has been 
 used with the greatest success ; for, by Fig. 3. 
 the increased weight, the shot's momentum and power 
 over the line is in consequence considerably augment- 
 ed in its range; and when made to fit the piece as 
 close as possible, a great increase of velocity is like- 
 wise produced from the decrease of windage. 
 
 " Portability in the construction of a piece or ord- 
 nance (as just described) is the very essence of this 
 service ; and communication with the stranded vessel 
 or wreck may be effected with 
 a cord, hy which cord a rope 
 can be conveyed, and by that 
 rope a hawser or cable sent to 
 the distressed vessel ; for this 
 purpose the annexed was con- 
 structed (fig. 4). A person com- 
 pletely equipped with every 
 necessary apparatus to effect 
 communication with a vessel 
 driven on a lee-shore * * * 
 the horseman, fully equipped, traveled a mile and a 
 half, the howitzer was dismounfed, and the line pro- 
 jected 163 yards, in six minutes. 
 
 " The application of a small piece of ordnance like- 
 wise offers particular advantages, capable of being em- 
 ployed from a boat to go to the assistance of a vessel 
 grounded on a bar when running for a harbor, the ne- 
 cessity of which repeatedly occurs, and was twice wit- 
 nessed at Blakeney, on the 10th of November, 1810, 
 when boats endeavored to go to their relief, and were 
 enabled to get out of the harbor on the ebb tide, within 
 20 yards of the vessel ; but it was found impossible to 
 approach them nearer. Had such boats been provided 
 with a piece of this description, and the same firmly 
 secured on a stout piece of plank, by the holes left at 
 each corner of the iron bed, they might have projected 
 a small rope, coiled in a crate or basket, made to the 
 form of the bow of the boat ; and the persons in the 
 boat, so provided, would not have remained the dis- 
 tressed spectators of the untimely end of their fellow- 
 creatures, without being able to afford them the small- 
 est relief, although so little was then wanting for that 
 desirable purpose. 
 
 " Although advantages have been pointed out in the 
 use of these small mortars, it is necessary to be kept 
 in remembrance that they are produced for particular 
 services ; as the nature of the coast, and circumstan- 
 ces attending the distressed vessels, will direct what 
 piece is best adapted to the undertaking. To enable 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
LIP 
 
 1212 
 
 LIF 
 
 the mind to form a judgment of what can be effected 
 by other pieces, the following are the minutes of ex- 
 periments made with a 5^inch brass mortar, stating 
 the quantity of powder used, and distance the ropes 
 were projected against 'a strong wind, at the angle of 
 17° (elevation) : weight of the mortar and bed about 
 300 lbs. : 
 
 Onnces of 
 
 Yards of inch 
 
 Yards of d 
 
 powder. 
 
 and half rope. 
 
 sea lin 
 
 4 
 
 184 
 
 148 
 
 6 
 
 169 
 
 182 
 
 8 
 
 184 
 
 215 
 
 10 
 
 20T 
 
 249 
 
 12 
 
 285 
 
 290 
 
 14 
 
 250 
 
 810 
 
 " "With a short 8-inch mortar, the weight of which, 
 and bed, was supposed to be abdut 700 lbs ; the angles 
 of elevation uncertain : 
 
 Yards of two-ineli patent 
 
 Sunderland rope,:capable 
 
 of hauling the largest 
 
 ' bOnt from a beacb> 
 
 Ounces of 
 powder. 
 
 32 
 32 
 
 Yards of deep- 
 sea ]lnc. 
 
 439 
 479 
 
 " Directions for using the Apparatus. — ^When the rope 
 (which should be pliant and well stretched) is brought 
 on the beach or cliff opposite to the stranded vessel, 
 the most even spot, and free from projecting stones, 
 should be selected to lay it on, and great care be taken 
 that no two parts of it whatever overlay or even touch 
 each other ; nor must it be laid in longer lengths than 
 of two yards. But to project a small line or cord, it 
 will be necessaiy, if it is required to contract the faker 
 to half a yard at most, to avoid the jerk received at the 
 end of each right line. The best method, with such a 
 description of cord, is to lay it on the ground in the most 
 short and in'egular windings, to relieve it from the pow- 
 erful impulse. To prove the effect of the impulse on a 
 rope, if it is faked in lengths of 10 or 15 yards, it will 
 break each time, as it then becomes a most powerful 
 pendulum. These precautions are absolutely neces- 
 sary to the success of the service. 
 
 *' The following has, after various trials, been found a 
 
 certain method of 
 laying the rope, 
 and placing it 
 into compart- 
 ments." (^French 
 Faking^ fig. 6 ) 
 
 *' A particular 
 attention to this 
 mode will never 
 fail, with a good 
 rope, when the 
 impediments are 
 removed that might otherwise obstruct its rapid flight. 
 Its advantages are, that it will allow the eye riapidlj' 
 (yet correctly, just hefore firing^ which is absolutely 
 necessar}'-) to pass over the different compartments, 
 and at once discover if any fake has been displaced by 
 the storm, or hj any other casualty or accident come 
 in contact with another part, which would destroy its 
 application b}^ the rope breaking. 
 
 '" It may likewise be coiled in the manner used in 
 the whale fisher}', whale lair (fig. 6) ; and in the 
 method called chain faking (fig. 7). 
 
 Fig 5. 
 
 place it, but from the great anxiety of mind natural on 
 these occasions, where the lives of fellow-creatures are 
 literally dependent on the correctness with which the 
 rope is laid ; it is therefore extremely difficult, in a 
 moment of agitation, to determine whether any over- 
 lay has taken place, an error that would infallibly de- 
 stroy every endeavor, and occasion even the fates of 
 those whose lives we might be exerting ourselves to 
 preserve. Could persons in the performance of this 
 service be always collected, the two latter methods 
 would have a decided advantage over the first mode 
 of faking, they being laid in a much less space of time. 
 "As all these methods of laying the rope occupy 
 time to place it with the care necessary ; and as it has 
 repeatedly happened that a vessel very soon after 
 grounding, has gone to pieces, and all hands perished ; 
 it "was necessary to produce a method of arranging the 
 rope, so that it could be immediately^ projected as soon 
 as it amved at the spot ; and none proved so effectual 
 as when brought ready in a basket (fig. 8.) In this 
 
 Fig. 6. Fig, 7. 
 
 It is, however, necessary to add, that great atten- 
 tion is required in laying it agreeably to the two latter 
 methods, arising not only from the arm being liable to 
 get under certain parts of the ropo, and thereby dis- 
 
 Fig. 8. 
 case, the rope should be most carefully laid in alter- 
 nate tiers or fakes, no part of it overlaying ; and it 
 should be well secured down, that in traveling it be 
 not displaced ; but, above all, no mistake must happen 
 in placing the hashet properly . For example, that the end 
 of the basket, from which the shot hangs in the above 
 figure, should be previously marked, and must be 
 placed toward the sea or wreck, that the rope be deliv- 
 ered freely, and without any chance of entanglement. 
 It will be scarcely necessary'" to add, there will be sev- 
 eral tiers of the rope when laid. The utmost care and 
 attention are required in laying the rope in tiers with 
 strict regularity, to prevent entanglement. 
 
 "The next is the application of the mortar. If 
 the wind is sideways to the shore, it must be pointed 
 sufficiently to windward to allow for the slack of 
 the rope lighting on the object, as the rope will, 
 of course, be considerably borne to leeward by the 
 effect of a strong wind, and by its being laid at a 
 low elevation insures the rope falling against the 
 weathermost part of the rigging. While this service 
 is performing, great care should be taken to keep the 
 mortar Ary ; nor should it be loaded until every thing 
 is ready ; when that is done, it should be primed ; but 
 as it would be impossible to do it with loose powder in 
 a storm, a tube is constructed in the simplest manner 
 of common writing paper (the outer edge being ce- 
 mented with a little gum) in this form (fig. 9). 
 It is filled with meal gunpowder, made into 
 paste with spirit of wine ; when in a state 'of 
 drying, run a needle through the centre, and 
 tfitke care the hole is left open, for, on the tube 
 being inflamed, a stream of fire darts through 
 the aperture with such force as to perforate 
 the cartridge. The mortar 
 should then instantly be fired; Fig. .9, 
 and in order to lessen a difficulty that 
 has often occurred in performing this 
 service, a pistol may be used, having 
 a tin box over the lock, to exclude the 
 effect of wind or rain on the priming ; 
 and the muzzle being cut [obliquelyj, 
 dilates the inflammation, so as to re- 
 quire but little exactness in the direc- 
 tion of the aim. 
 
 " We will suppose the comraimication to b& secured, 
 although it is scarcely necessary to offer any other 
 assistance than that of a rope, as the inventive genius 
 
LIF 
 
 1213 
 
 LIP 
 
 of a sailor will supply every thing else ; yet I could 
 expect the people on shore to get a boat ready for 
 meeting the vessel when driven on a beach: it is the 
 promptest and most certain method of relief, as well 
 as the most easy to be accomplished ; for by hauling 
 her off with the rope projected, the boat's head is kept 
 to the waves, and not only insures safety by rising to 
 the surge, but prevents her upsetting. When the 
 rope attached to the shot (not having barbs to it), is 
 iired over the vessel and lodges, let it be secured iby 
 those on board, and made fast to some firm part of the 
 rigging or Wreck, that they may haul off a boat by it ; 
 but should there not be any boat, then haul on board 
 by the projected rope a larger one and a tailed block, 
 through which a smaller rope is rove. Let the large 
 rope be made fast at the mast-head, between the cap 
 and the top of one of the lower masts, and the tailed 
 block a little distance below it ; but, if the mast should 
 have been cut or carried away, then it must be made 
 fast to the loftiest remaining part of the wreck. When 
 this is done, there will be ■ supplied from the shore a 
 cot, hammock, netting, basket, hoop, or any of the 
 numerous resources of seamen, which will run on the 
 larger rope, and be worked by the people on shore. 
 If a cot be used, the men may be so securely fastened 
 to it as to preclude all possibility of falling out, and 
 then be brought from 'the wreck, one by one, in per- 
 fect safety. 
 
 *' While communication is gaining, 3 stakes^ should 
 be driven into the ground in a triangular position, so 
 as to meet close at the heads to support each other. 
 As soon as communication has been effected hy the 
 crew of the vessel, and they have secured the line 
 attached to the shot, made fast to these stakes, the 
 crew will haul on board by it a large rope and a tailed 
 block, through which a smallerrope is to be rove, both 
 ends of which (the smaller rope) are to be kept on 
 shore. When they have secured these on board, and 
 the larger rope is rove through the rollers, let a gun- 
 tackle purchase be lashed to It, then lash the purchase 
 to the stakes. By the means of the purchase the 
 larger rope may be kept at a fit degree of tension ; for, 
 if care be taken to slacken the purchase as the ship 
 rolls out to sea, the danger of the rope being broken 
 will be guarded against ; and on the other hand, if the 
 purchase be gathered in as the ship rolls toward the 
 shore, the slackness of the rope, which would prevent 
 the cot (flg. 10) traversing as it ought to do, and 
 plunge it in the water more than it otherwise would, 
 will be avoided. 
 
 " Supposing neither boat nor cot apparatus at hand, 
 first cast off the shot from the projected rope, and with 
 a close hitch, let it be put over the head and shoul- 
 ders of the person to be saved, bringing it close under 
 
 seize every moment fftr respiration, a^ter each surf has 
 passed over the, body. If circumstances compel re- 
 course to this, method, care must be taken to free the 
 rope fropiL any part "of the wreck, and to jump clear 
 away ;, but should there be more than one on board, 
 each man should.make himself fast in the same way, 
 about 4 four feet from the other, and join hands, all 
 attending to, the same directiop^. 
 
 " For giving Reli^, to Vessels Stranded on a Lee 
 Shore in a Dark arid Tempestuous Night. — It will be 
 requisite, first, to devise, the njpans of, discovering pre- 
 cisely where the distressed vessel lies, when the crew 
 are not able to make their situation kppwn by Jumi- 
 nous signals ; secondly, to produce a method of laying 
 the mortar for the object, with as much accuracy as in 
 the light ; thbdly, to render the flight of the rope per- 
 fectly distinguishable to those who project it, and to 
 the crew on board of the vessel, so that they can not 
 fail of seeing on what part of the rigging it lodges, 
 and consequently, have no difficulty, in securing it. 
 To attain the first object, a hollow ball was made to 
 the, size, of the piece, composed of layers of pasted 
 cartridge paper of the thickness of half an inch, 
 having a lid on the top to contain a fuse 
 (fig. 11), and it was then filled with about 
 60 luminous balls of star composition, and 
 a sufficient quantity of gunpowder to burst 
 the ball and inflame the stars. The fuse 
 fixed in the ball was graduated, to set fire 
 to the bursting powder at the height of 300 
 yards. , Through the head of the fuse were 
 drilled, holes, at equal [distances], to pass through 
 them strands of quick match, to prevent the possibil- 
 ity of any accident from the match falling out, or from 
 its not firing the fuse. On the stars being released, 
 they continued their splendor, while falling, for near 
 one minute, which allows ample time to discovw the 
 situation of the distressed vessel. During the period 
 of the light, 
 a stand, with 
 two upright 
 sticks (flg. 12), 
 (painted white 
 torenderthem 
 more discerni- 
 ble in the 
 dark), was 
 ready at hand, 
 and pointed in 
 a direct line to 
 the vessel. 
 " A shell 
 
 Fig. 11. 
 
 lig. 10. 
 each arm, drawing it tight, observing particularly the 
 knot is on the ireastbone ; for, by having the knot in 
 that position, on the people of the shore hauling the 
 person from the wreck, he will naturally be on his 
 back, consequently, the face will be uppermost to 
 
 rig. 13. 
 affixed to the rope, having four holes in it to receive a 
 like number of fuses (headed as before described), and 
 filled with the fiercest and most glaring com- 
 position, which, when Inflamed at the dis- 
 charge of the piece, displayed so splendid an 
 illumination, of the rope, that its flight could 
 not be mistaken. 
 
 " To get a Boat from a Beach over the Surf. 
 — The importance of going to the relief of 
 ships in distress at a dis,ta,nce from the land, 
 or for taking off' pilots, was viewed as of the 
 highest consequence by the elder brethren of 
 the Trinity House, and offered to my partic- 
 ular attention by several distinguished char- 
 ^acters. After numerous experiments to ac- 
 •icomplish it in various ways, the mode follow- 
 ing was most approved : — ^About 40 fathoms of 
 2^inch rope, made fast to 2 moving anchors, 
 was laid out parallel with the shore, at a dis- 
 tance beyond the sweep of the surf ; to the cen- 
 tre of this rope was made fast a buoy, of sufficient power 
 to suspend the great rope, and prevent it from chafing 
 on the sand, rock, or stones, as well as embedding, a 
 circumstance that has rendered it impossible, on a 
 sandy or shingly coast, to heave out an anchor with a 
 
LIF 
 
 1214 
 
 LIF 
 
 rope to it from the shore. As this service should be 
 performed in fair weather (to be prepared for the 
 storm), it may be regulated with the greatest exact- 
 ness, and should take place at the top of high-water, 
 that the upper part of the buoy may be at the full 
 stretch of its power, and only seen at that time. 
 Should the shore be extremely flat, it will be desira- 
 ble to place another set at a sufficient distance beyond 
 the first, to insure the operation of this method in any 
 state of the tide. 
 
 " The royal mortar being brought to the spot, is to 
 be pointed in the direction for the buoy, and should 
 be laid at a verj' low elevation, but such as to insure 
 the range ; for the more it is depressed, the less slack 
 of rope there will be from the parabola formed in the 
 shot's flight ; the basket with the rope ready laid 
 (having a barbed shot to it) is to be placed in the front 
 of the mortar ; on its being fixed, instantly haul the 
 slack of the rope in, to prevent the effect produced on 
 it by a strong tide ; which being done, let the remain- 
 der be gently hauled in, to insure the shot's grappling 
 with the great rope ; when that is caught and hooked, 
 a power will be acquired full}'' adequate to the service. 
 
 Fig. 13. 
 
 *' As a cast-iron anchor appears particularly adapted 
 to this method, and would be much cheaper than ham- 
 mered, fig. 13 is a plan of one which the British Navj' 
 Board approved, and allowed me to cast at their ex- 
 pense, for the purpose of making the experiment. 
 When a vessel is in that extreme and perilous situa^ 
 tion, driven under a rugged and inaccessible 
 clifi', and in danger of going soon to pieces, 
 the most prompt method I should suggest is, 
 hy lowering to the crew a rope with stiff loops 
 spliced into it (fig, 14), at the distance of a 
 foot and a half from each loop, of sufficient 
 size to contain the foot, by which they can 
 ascend as a ladder. This rope-ladder is capa- 
 ble of being projected; and one of an inch 
 and a half rope was thrown from a mortar 194 
 ■ytirds. It might also, from the simplicity of 
 its structure, be extremely useful in escaping 
 from a house on fire. By making one end 
 fast to the leg of a bed or a table, the person 
 would come down from the window in safety, 
 and with much less difficulty, and quicker, 
 ing. 14. tjjjjjj "vrith the common rope-ladder, which is 
 heavier and more unwieldy. It has great advantages 
 when employed in saving shipwrecked men in situa- 
 tions just described, when, from extreme cold, and 
 almost benumbed limbs, it would be impossible for 
 them to climb up a rock, or ascend it even by the aid 
 of a common rope. The holds, thus spliced in, will 
 support bqth hands and feet." 
 
 The Report of a Committee of the House of Com- 
 mons contains also a paper of instructions for the man- 
 agers of Captain Manby's apparatus on shore, which 
 are somewhat more minute than the directions pub- 
 lished in his Essay. For example: — "If the wind 
 be sideways to the shore, the mortar must be pointed 
 sufficiently to windward to allow for the slack of the 
 
 rope lighting on the object, as the rope will, of course, 
 be borne considerably to leeward by the effect of a 
 strong wind. The distance your judgment decides 
 the vessel to be from the shore should regulate the 
 charge of powder as stated in the scale, taking just a 
 sufficient quantity to clear the object : an attention to 
 this will be more certain of your effecting communi- 
 cation, and guarding against the danger of the rope 
 breaking, or any other circumstance that might pre- 
 vent the successful performance of the service. The 
 elevation of 15° is to be preferred, particularlj' if the 
 wind is sideways, pointing the mortar sufficiently to 
 windward, as the rope would then fall against the 
 weather-most part of the rigging of the stranded ves- 
 sel. When a vessel is driven on shore in the night, 
 you will flash gunpowder as often as convenient on 
 your way ; this will animate the crew, and denote to 
 them you are coming to their assistance. On getting 
 to the spot where you have reason to suspect the ves- 
 sel lies, as you are not able to discover her from the 
 extreme darkness, and if the people on board can not 
 [make known] their situation by luminous signals, or 
 noises (which they will be directed to make if possi- 
 ble), 3''ou wUl lay the mortar at a very high elevation, 
 and fire a light ball. Just before you fire (the rope) 
 it would be advisable to let off a blue light to put the 
 crew on their guard, to look out, and be ready to se- 
 cure the rope. The service can be performed with a 
 carronade." 
 
 In the report we have a copy of directions to per- 
 sons on board vessels stranded on a lee-shore, proposed 
 to be delivered to the masters at the custom-house. It 
 is observed, that even snapping a pistol, when the 
 powder is wet, may sometimes afford a signal visible 
 on shore, from the sparks of the steel alone. The 
 other parts of the directions will be supplied by those 
 who understand the principles of the proposed mode of 
 relief. 
 
 Rockets have of late years been much employed in- 
 stead of the mortar, in Manby's apparatus for throw- 
 ing a line to a ship in distress. "Dennett's Rocket 
 Apparatus" is supplied to many stations along the 
 coast. The only advantage which the rocket has over 
 the mortar is its greater portability ; for, being much 
 lighter, it can be used with greater facility among 
 rocky cliffs, and in positions difficult of access. The 
 disadvantages of rockets are, that they are somewhat 
 uncertain, sometimes exploding as soon as ignited, to 
 the danger of the bystanders 5 and they are also liable 
 to deteriorate from the effects of damp or of age. 
 Moreover, being expensive, they can not be often 
 emploj'ed in trials, so as to keep up the practice of the 
 people employed in using them. The range of a shot 
 from a 24^1b. mortar, which is the ordinary size, is 
 about the same as that of a 12-lb. rocket, which is the 
 largest in use. As the management of the mortar and 
 rocket apparatus is much better understood by the 
 officers and men of the coast-guard service than by 
 ordinary boatmen and fishermen, it has been almost 
 entirely left in their hands, and is provided by the 
 Board of Customs. There are in England 132 mortar 
 and rocket stations ; in Scotland, 15 ; in Ireland, 22, 
 Several inventions, or variations, in the Manby appa- 
 ratus may be just glanced at. M. G. Delvigne uses a 
 howitzer instead of a mortar, while a portion of the 
 line to be carried is contained in the projectile. Mr. 
 Greener has a method of discharging a rocket, with a 
 line attached, from a light harpoon gun. When dis- 
 charged, the rocket ignites, and is said to prolong the 
 range to a greater distance than if the gun or the 
 rocket were alone employed. Captain Jemingham, 
 R.N., has an anchor of a particular form, which he 
 proposes to fire from a Manby's mortar, in sufficient 
 numbers to afford the means of hauling a life-boat 
 through the surf. Mr. A. G. Carte employs a war- 
 rocket instead of a Dennett's rocket. 
 
 Life-boats. — The last description of the inventions 
 
LIF 
 
 1215 
 
 LIF 
 
 to be considered, with regard to tlie preservation of 
 lives in cases of shipwreck, is that of life-boats, which 
 are of such a construction as to be incapable of sinlc- 
 ing, even when filled with water. The occasional 
 adaptation of the common boats of the ship to such 
 purposes, by means of empty casks, has been already 
 noticed. But the boats now in question are supposed 
 to be kept on shore at proper stations, and manned by 
 active persons, who are in the habit of exerting them- 
 selves for the relief of seamen in distress. Mr. Henrj' 
 Greathead of South Shields, received a gold medal and 
 fifty guineas from the Society of Arts, in 1802, and a 
 parliamentary reward of £1200, besides further remu- 
 nerations from the Trinity House and from Lloyd's 
 Coffee-house, for his invention of a life-boat, which is 
 described in the Transactions of the Society, vol. xx., 
 p. 283. The length of this boat is 30 feet, its breadth, 
 10, and its greatest depth about 3, besides a general 
 curvature, which nearly doubles the depth, as reck- 
 oned from the ends ; the convexity below being in- 
 tended to give it a greater facility of turning, and a 
 greater power of mounting on the waves without sub- 
 mersion of the bow, which would increase the resist- 
 ance, though it would not sink the boat ; the breadth 
 is also continued further than usual fore and aft, in 
 order to contribute to the same property. The gun- 
 wale projects some inches, and the sides below it are 
 cased with pieces of cork, amounting in the whole to 
 seven owt., which are secured by plates of copper. 
 There are ten short oars of fir, fixed on pins to the 
 gunwales, and a longer oar for steering at each end, 
 both ends of the boat being alike. It is painted white, 
 in order to be more conspicuous ; and a carriage is 
 provided, for conveying it overland when required. 
 The description is accompanied by documents of the 
 preservation of 200 or 300 men by the boats of South 
 Shields and North Shields, which were built in 1789 
 and 1798 respectively. 
 
 Mr. Christopher Wilson received a gold medal in 
 1807, for a life-boat with air gunwales, which was 
 tried at Newhaven, and was said to be lighter and more 
 manageable than Mr. Greathead's. (Transactions, 
 XXV. 56.) " Little is required," says Captain Manby, 
 " to establish the importance and advantages that will 
 result from giving every boat the properties of .a life- 
 boat, particularly when taken into consideration that 
 it can be produced at a very trifling expense." To^ 
 illustrate the method of giving the properties of pres- 
 ervation to any boat-— a man-of-war's jolly-boat, for 
 example — we quote the description of the one which 
 was fitted up to make experiments thereon, by per- 
 mission of the Honorable Commissioners of the Navy 
 Board. " To give it buoyancy, empty casks were well 
 lashed and secured in it. For the advantage of keeping 
 it in an upright position, launching from a flat shore, 
 beaching, and to resist upsetting, it had billage boards 
 of equal depth with the keel, and when a good sized 
 piece of iron or lead was let into or made fast to the 
 keel, if any accident did upset the boat, it immediately 
 regained its original posture. A stout projecting rope, 
 with swellings upon it to increase its elasticity, sur- 
 rounded the gunwale, served as a fender, and pre- 
 vented it being stove in lowering down, or when 
 driven in contact with the vessel it might be going to 
 relieve. The boat thus described had the plug out, 
 and was filled with water until it ran over the gun- 
 wale, when a crew of four, with myself, tried it in 
 every way, and found from the buoyant property of 
 the casks, it kept the boat so much above the water's 
 edge, that it was rowed with the greatest ease, and 
 was capable of performing any service required." 
 
 Mr. J. Boyce, in 1814, obtained a medal for his life- 
 boat and safety-buoy, consisting of hollow cylinders 
 made of canvas, painted and varnished, and connected 
 with each other. It was tried on a river, and carried 
 a man with safety (Trans., xxxii., 177) ; but surely it 
 could not be trusted among breakers on a lee shore. 
 
 In 1818 Mr. Gabriel Bray obtained a silver medal for 
 his invention of a boat filled with air-boxes under the 
 seats and along the sides. (Vol. xxxv., p. 172.) 
 
 Of late years the subject of life-boats has attracted 
 considerable attention, from the circumstance of the 
 increasing number of wrecks, consequent on the rocky 
 nature of many shores, and the vast and increasing 
 amount of our commerce. The exertions, too, of the 
 National Life-Boat Institution have had a powerful 
 influence in directing attention to this subject. This 
 society, founded in 1824, is under the patronage of her 
 majesty, and the presidency of his grace the Duke of 
 Northumberland. The object is to assist every 
 wrecked person in the kingdom, by such means as the 
 establishment of life-boats and rocket-mortars at all 
 the dangerous parts of the coast ; to assist in the form- 
 ation of local committees at the chief ports ; to confer 
 rewards in the form of medals, votes of thanks, or pe- 
 cuniar)' remuneration to all persons risking their lives 
 for the sake of others ; and also to encourage the in- 
 vention of new or improved life-boats, belts, rocket 
 apparatus, buoj'S, and other means of saving life. 
 This admirable society is dependent on voluntarj- sub- 
 scriptions for its existence and support. That the so- 
 ciety has worked with some success, may be judged of 
 from the fact, that since its establishment it has been 
 instrumenal in saving the lives of 9682 persons ; it has 
 granted 79 gold medallions, and 556 silver medals, be- 
 sides pecuniary rewards, amounting to £9631. The 
 attention of the public is also kept alive by the publi- 
 cation of a journal entitled The Life-Boat, which, in 
 addition to statistical returns of shipwrecks, contains 
 information on everj' subject connected with the pres- 
 ervation of life from shipwreck. One bf the publica- 
 tions of the society is a WrecTc Cliart of the British 
 Islands, originally published by the Admiralty. A 
 vessel wrecked on their coast is indicated hy a black 
 spot • , while a vessel so seriously damaged as to re- 
 quire to discharge her cargo is indicated by -\- ; and 
 the number of such marks at any one spot indicates 
 the annual average of wrecks, which may be large 
 because the coast is dangerous, or because the traffic 
 is great. Thus, the mouth of the Tyne shows a 
 larger number of black dots and Crosses than any 
 other place ; the mouth of the Tees and the mouth of 
 the Weir occupy the next places of distinction in this 
 dismal chart : these three rivers being the outlets of 
 the district by which London is supplied by sea with 
 3,000,000 tons of coal every year, giving employment 
 to several thousand collier ships, which sail to and fro, 
 and greatly add to the otherwise large trade of the 
 Northumberland and Durham ports. The coast of 
 these two counties indicates per annum 180 wrecks, 
 sinkings, and serious collisions. The mouth of the- 
 Humber, the coast of Suffolk between Yarmouth and 
 Southwold, the sandy shoals off the mouth of the 
 Thames, the Goodwin Sands, the Scilly Isles, Barn- 
 stable Bay, and Liverpool, rank as the next dangerous 
 portions of the English coast. The Welsh coast is 
 also dangerous, especially Glamorgan, Pembroke, and 
 Anglesea. Scotland, except near the Firth of Forth, 
 is comparatively free from wrecks, the western coast 
 remarkably so, probably from being less exposed to 
 the winds, which tend to drive ships ashore on the 
 eastern coast. In Ireland, the east and south coasts 
 present about an equal number of wrecks , the smaller 
 number being on the northern and western. In the 
 year 1855 no less than 1141 wrecks occurred on the 
 coasts of the United Kingdom — about one half of that 
 number belonging to the east coasts of Great Britain. 
 The loss of life from shipwreck during that year was 
 comparatively small, being only 469, or less than one 
 third of the loss of the preceding year, the average 
 loss per annum being between 600 and 700 lives. 
 
 Passing over a great variety of proposals for life- 
 boats, we proceed to notice the boat which the Life- 
 boat Institution recommends and supplies to its sta- 
 
LIF 
 
 1216 
 
 LIF 
 
 tions. Its history is interesting. A few years ago, a 
 lamentable accident occurred to a South Shields life- 
 boat, whereby twenty pilots were drowned. This in- 
 duced the Duke of Northumberland to offer a reward 
 for the best model of a life-boat. This offer was ror 
 sponded to by boat-builders and others from yarious 
 parts of the Itingdom, as well as from France, Holland, 
 Germany, and America, so that 280 models and plajis 
 were sent in. About 50 of the best of these were ex- 
 hibited by his Grace in the Great Exhibition of 1851 ; 
 and he expressed the intention of placing the best 
 life-boats, with their subsidiary apparatus, on all the 
 exposed points of the coast of Northumberland. He 
 also caused a, report to be prepared, accompanied by 
 plans and drawings, with a view to elicit the best form 
 of life-boat ; for although the prize of £100 was as- 
 signed to Mr. Beeching of Great Yarmouth, it was 
 considered that a better boat might still be produced. 
 Accordingly, Mr. James Pealte, assistant master-ship- 
 wright in her majesty's dockyard at Woolwich, and a 
 member of the Life-boat Committee appointed by the 
 Duke of Northumberland, was requested to furnish a 
 design for a life-boat which might combine as man}' as 
 possible of the advantages, and have as few as possible 
 of the defects, of the best of the models examined by 
 the committee. A boat was accordingly designed by 
 Mr. Peake, and built at the public expense , in. Wool- 
 wich dockyard. Some modifications were from time 
 to time made in her, in consequence of various experi- 
 
 ments, and a trial of her capabilities made in a gale of 
 wind at Brighton. The boaty with others of the same 
 design, built at the cost of the Duke of Northumber- 
 land, was placed on tlie Northumberland coast in the 
 autumn of 1852. In the course of the following win- 
 ter, these boats were taken afloat on trial by the Soci- 
 ety's inspector of life-boats, some of them in heavy 
 seas and gales of wind, and the result of the trials was 
 considered to be highlj' satisfactory. Other boats were 
 therefore built on the same plan, and we may therefore 
 consider this as the model life-boat. These boats have 
 been, for the most part, of two sizes, viz., 27 and 30 feet 
 in length, with 7J to 8 feet beam, and rowing from 8 to 
 12 oars, double-banked — their weight averaging two 
 tons. But as such boats have been found too heavy 
 to be managed in some localities, where boatmen are 
 few, boats of less beam and weight, rowing six oars 
 single-banked, but on the same design in other re- 
 spects, have been built under the denomination of 
 second-class life-boats. The former class of boats has 
 also been somewhat modified, since the description of 
 the boat was first published, so as to be reduced some- 
 what in beam, and to have less height, and greater 
 sharpness of bow and stem, to enable them to be 
 rowed with greater speed against a head gale and a 
 heavy sea. They are also built of fir, upon the diag- 
 onal principle of double planking without timbers, 
 whereas the earlier boats were of elm, and clenched, 
 or clinker-built. 
 
 Fig. 15. 
 
 Kg. 16. 
 
 The accompanying figures show the general form and 
 the nature of the fittings of the air-chambers of one 
 of these boats, 30 feet in length, and 7 feet 6 inches in 
 breadth. In figs. 15 and 16, corresponding to the ele- 
 vation and deck-plans, the general exterior form of the 
 boat is seen, showing the sheer of gunwale, length of 
 keel, and rake, or slope of stem and stem posts. The 
 dotted lines of fig. 15 show the position and dimensions 
 of the air-chambers within the board, and of the reliev- 
 ing tubes. A represents the deck, B the relieving tubes, 
 six inches in diameter, 
 C the side air-cases, D 
 the end air-chambers. 
 In fig. 17 the exterior 
 form of transverse sec- 
 tions, at different dis- 
 tances, from stem to 
 ptem, is shown. Fig. 
 18 represents a midship 
 Fjg. 17. transverse section, A be- 
 
 mg sections of the side air-cases, B the relieving tubes, 
 
 bored through solid massive chocks of wood, of the same 
 
 depth as the space between the deck and the boat's floor ; 
 
 C C are spaces beneath the deck filled up, over six feet 
 
 in length, at the mid-ship part of the boat, with solid 
 
 chocks of light wood, or 
 
 boxes of cork, forming %_ 
 
 a portion of the ballast ; 
 
 D is a section of a tier 
 
 below the deck, with a „™ 
 
 movable batch or lid, in ^M 
 
 which the boat's cable is 
 
 stowed, and into which 
 
 all leakage beneath the Fig. 18. 
 
 declc is drained through 
 
 small holes with valves fixed in them. In some of 
 
 the later boats a small draining tier only is placed, 
 
 having a pump in it, by which any leakage can be 
 
 pumped out by one of the crew while afloat. The 
 
 festooned lines in fig. 15 represent exterior life-lines, 
 
LIF 
 
 1217 
 
 LIF 
 
 attached round the entire length of the boat, to which 
 persons in the water may cling until they can be got 
 into the boat ; the two central lines are festooned 
 lower than the others, to be used as stirrups, so that a 
 person in the water, by stepping on them, may climb 
 into the boat. 
 
 The chief peculiarity of a life-boat is its incapability 
 of being sunk, in consequence of its being fitted with 
 water-tight air-cases, or compartments. One of the 
 difficulties of life-boats has been to decide as to the 
 amount and distribution of such air-cases. The nec- 
 essary space for rowing and working the boat, and for 
 the stowage of shipwrecked persons being secured, the 
 space along the sides within-board should be entirely 
 occupied by buoj-ant cases, or compartments, because, 
 on the boat's shipping a sea, the water, until got rid 
 of, is confined to the midship parts of the boat, where 
 it serves to a great extent as ballast, instead of falling 
 over to the lee-side, and destroying the equilibrium of 
 the boat. Hence, barrels or casks, which do not con- 
 form in shape to the sides of the boat, are not well 
 adapted to serve as air-cases. In Mr. Peake's life- 
 boat there is a water-tight deck at the load-water-line, 
 and detached air-boxes along the sides, closely con- 
 forming to their shape from the thwarts to the deck. 
 Extra buoj'ancy is also derived from large air-cases, 
 built across the bow and stem, and occupying from 3 
 feet to 4J feet^n length, from the stem and stern posts 
 to the gunwale height. These cases are chiefly in- 
 tended to provide self-righting power; but in the 
 event of the boat being stove in, and the space below 
 the deck being filled with water, these air-cases alone 
 have sufficient buoyancy to float the boat. 
 
 The second peculiarity of a life-boat is its power of 
 discharging, in a few seconds, any water which may be 
 shipped by the breaking over of the sea, or by the 
 boat being suddenly thrown on her beam-ends. This 
 property does not belong to all life-boats, for, in cer- 
 tain cases (the Norfolk life-boats, for example) the 
 plugs which stop certain holes in the floors are taken 
 out during a gale of wind, or a heavy sea, so as to let 
 the water into them until it is at the level of the sea. 
 The water thus let in is confined by the wide sea-cases 
 to the midships of the boat, where it serves as a loose 
 ballast, and the boatmen consider that it is safest to 
 go ofi' under sail with the boat deeply immersed. The 
 Liverpool life-boats have no relieving holes, so that 
 when filled by a sea, the water must be got rid of b)- 
 bailing. In Mr. Peake's boat there is a water-tight 
 deck at the load-water-line, and a number of large 
 open tubes, opening at the surface of the deck, and 
 passing through the space between the deck and the 
 floor; the bottom orifices being furnished with self- 
 acting valves opening downward, so as to allow any 
 water shipped to escape through them. The deck be- 
 ing placed at or above the load-water-line, any water 
 which is above it will be above the outside level of the 
 sea, so that the water escapes from the deck bi' its own 
 weight, and disappears in a few seconds. As a life- 
 boat has ^ery great buoyant power, it is important to 
 her stability and safety to attend to the ballasting. 
 The Greathead life-boats have usually no ballast, 
 their great breadth of beam being relied-on for stabil- 
 itj' ; but some of them have a tank in the midships be- 
 neath the deck, which can be filled with water. 
 Beeching's life-boats are similarly ballasted ; but ac- 
 cidents, with loss of life, have arisen from a difficulty 
 in filling the tanks, and preventing the escape of the 
 water when full ; hence solid ballast is to be preferred. 
 Mr. Peake's life-boats are ballasted with heavy iron 
 keels, and with solid wood and cork ballast, stowed 
 under the decks ; and should these be stove in, and 
 the space beneath be filled with water, the wood and 
 the cork would supply extra buoyancy. 
 
 A life-boat ought to be self-righting if upset, a prop- 
 erty which, however, belongs only to Mr. Peake's and 
 Mr. Beeching's boats, some boat-builders considering 
 4H 
 
 that stability is sacrificed thereby. The fact, how- 
 ever, has been established in the Life-boat Journal, 
 that the means employed to produce self-righting add 
 to the stability of a boat, and improve her in other re- 
 spects. The self-righting power is thus attained : 1. 
 The boat is built with considerable sheer of gunwale, 
 the bow and stern being from 1 foot 6 inches to 2 feet 
 higher than the sides of the boat at her centre, and 
 the space within the boat at either extremity, to the 
 distance of from 3 to 4J feet from the stem and stern 
 posts to gunwale height, is then inclosed by a sectional 
 bulk-head and a ceiling, and so converted into a water- 
 tight air-chamber, the cubical contents of which, from 
 the thwarts upward, are sufficient to bear the whole 
 weight of the boat when she is placed in the water in 
 an inverted position, or keel upward. 2. A heavy 
 iron keel (from 4 to 8 cwt.) is attached, and a nearly 
 equal weight of light wood or cork ballast is stowed 
 between the boat's floor on the deck. No other meas- 
 ures are necessary to be taken in order to efi^ect the 
 self-righting power. When the boat is forcibly placed 
 in the water with her keel upward, she is floated un- 
 steadilj' on the two air-chambers at bow and stern ; 
 while the heavy iron keel and other ballast being then 
 carried above the centre of gravity, an unstable equi- 
 librium is at once effected, and the.weight of the iron 
 keel falling over on one side, immediately restores the 
 boat to her proper position ; in other words, she self- 
 rights." — The, Life-boat, No. 22. Lateral stability or 
 stiffness, being the tendency to preserve an upright 
 position in the water, with proportionate resistance to 
 upsetting, is obtained by breadth of beam or by bal- 
 last — as in Mr. Peake's boats, by an iron keel and 
 other solid ballast, and hy flatness and length of floor, 
 with moderate beam only. The other qualities to he 
 required in a good life-boat are speed, strength, and 
 stowage-room, all of which seem to have been well 
 considered in Mr. Peake's boats. 
 
 A new description of life-boat, invented bj' the Rev. 
 E. L. Berthon, M.A., of Fareham, and known as the 
 Fareham Life-boat, has been made the subject of a 
 patent. Its novel feature is, that it is collapsible, so 
 that it combines the property of the life-boat, with fa- 
 cility of stowage in a small space. Hence, it is well 
 adapted for the use of ships, especially large steamers, 
 emigrant vessels, and troop-ships. Its frame-work is 
 of wood, all the timbers extending the whole length of 
 the boat, there being no transverse timbers or ribs. 
 The timbers, four on each side of the stem and keel- 
 piece, are thin, flat, and deep, something like a thin 
 slice of melon ; they are made without scarfing, by 
 bending plank over plank till the required thickness 
 is attained. They are jointed together at their ends, 
 and to the tops of the stem and stern posts by a kind 
 of chain hinge. When the boat is collapsed, these 
 timbers stand side by side in vertical planes, like the 
 leaves of a closed book ; but when expanded, they 
 stand apart in radial planes, somewhat like the seg- 
 ments of an orange. Attached to the edges of all the 
 timbers are water-proof coverings, of which there are 
 two, the outer slcin being secured to the outer edges, 
 and the inner skin to the inner edges of the timbers, 
 bj' which means the whole body of the boat is divided 
 into eight separate longitudinal cells or compartments, 
 which become filled with air on expanding the boat. 
 This is effected and maintained by the bottom boards 
 and thwarts, which being jointed along the middle 
 line, are made to stand up at an acute angle when the 
 boat is collapsed, and fall down to straight lines when 
 open. The inventor compares the principle of exten- 
 sion to that of a carriage-head, the frame of which 
 may be compared to the boat's timbers, and the joints 
 to the thwarts and stretchers of the bottom boards ; 
 and as the leathern covering of the carriage shuts in 
 when the head is down, so the coverings of the boat 
 shut in between the timbers. The boat has rather a 
 deep keel, besides two bUge pieces on each side, and 
 
LIF 
 
 1218 
 
 LIF 
 
 in every other salient point the covering is protected 
 by wood or copper. The boat is lowered by the fol- 
 lowing contrivance : Inside the bulwarks is a large, 
 flat, deeply-grooved sheave about 2 feet 6 inches in 
 diameter ; it has two deep, narrow grooves cut nearly 
 to its axis, and in these are wound separately the ends 
 of the two falls. From this sheave is a projection on 
 which a friction-strap with a powerful lever is made to 
 work. This being placed flat against the bulwarks, 
 the falls are brought to it fore and aft by small sheaves 
 set in the top-rail ; thus the friction of the strap, when 
 the boat is up, is enough to prevent motion ; but by 
 slacking the lanyard by which the leather is secured, 
 it may be allowed to descend rapidly or slowly, ac- 
 cording to the pressure applied to the break. Ris- 
 ing and falling derricks are substituted for davits. 
 The average size of the Fareham life-boat is 32 by 10 
 feet ; it has 8 thwarts, besides seats round the stem, 
 and will pull, if required, 12 oars, double-banked. 
 
 Captain Manby's proposal for throwing ropes from 
 ship to ship in cases of accidents may easily be under- 
 stood from the methods which he employs for saving 
 lives in shipwrecks. The life-buoy by Lieutenant 
 Cook, E.N. F.R.S., Professor of Fortification at Ad- 
 discombe College, is related to the same class of in- 
 ventions ; its object is to preserve the life of a person 
 falling overboard in the night, by means of a floating 
 light ; and it obtained him a gold medal from the So- 
 ciety of Arts, in 1818. — Transactions, xxxvi. He 
 observes that a ship may often have to run half a mUe 
 before she can get about and lower a boat, so that it 
 becomes highly desirable to afford a temporary sup- 
 port to the sufferer. The machine consists of two 
 copper spherical air-vessels, with a square tapering 
 tube through each, made water-tight, and united to- 
 gether by a cross-piece of wood, in which are two 
 brass conducting tubes through which is fixed a per- 
 pendicular tubular-staff, with a brass ferule at each 
 end, and a copper sliding-rod, nearly its own length, 
 within it. Attached to the lower end of the rod is a 
 flat circular balance-weight, bearing a chain by which 
 the life-buoy is suspended, and a link which, when 
 hooked to a stud in the lower ferule, bears up the rod 
 and the balance-weight, but which, when unhooked, 
 allows the weight to draw the rod about two thirds- out 
 of the staff. To the head of the perpendicular staff is 
 attached at night a fuse, on a brass fuse-plate, the 
 shank of which is secured in a socket liy a thumb- 
 screw. The buoy is secured to the ship by the chain 
 only, the ring of which hangs on the hook of the 
 sheave of the trigger-plate. Attached to the stern of 
 the vessel are two iron rods cased with copper tubing, 
 together with the screw-bolts, from which they are 
 suspended ; just above the forked stay which keeps 
 tlie rods parallel, at a proper distance from the stern, 
 is the trigger-plate, and the brass fuse-case which 
 covers and protects the fuse on the head of the staff. 
 There Ls also a brass case for the lock or percussion- 
 hammer, placed so as to communicate with the fuse- 
 case, by means of the horizontal tube ; all these, to- 
 gether with the pulleys and guard-iron, are firmly 
 attached to the stern of the vessel, inside of which, 
 immediately opposite to the pnllies, are fixed the cups 
 and handles, the one for firing the lock and lighting 
 the fuse, the other for raising the trigger-bolt and dis- 
 engaging the buoy from the ship. As soon as the 
 trigger-bolt is raised, the sheave revolves, the stop 
 turns round, and the life-buoy slides off the rods into 
 the water, bearing on the head of the staff a brilliant 
 flame. The balance-weight, when no longer held up 
 by the chain, drops upward of three feet below the 
 cross-piece, prevents the buoy from upsetting, and 
 affords a place for the man to stand on. This appara- 
 tus admits of being lighted and let down into the wa- 
 ter in the short space of five seconds. Lieutenant 
 Cook is also the inventor of a plan for converting boats 
 used for ordinary purposes into life-boats at pleasure. 
 
 Mr. Miller's safety-poles for skaters, and Mr. Pri- 
 or's mode of preventing accidents in descending mines, 
 are mentioned in the TramactioTis of the Society of 
 Arts (vols, xxxii., xxxvi.) Apparatus of the latter 
 kind has been introduced at different times with vari- 
 ous modifications. In coal-pits, or coal and iron pits, 
 where the men are raised and lowered in a rectangular 
 iron frame, called a cage, the rope or chain may break, 
 or the cage may be overwound by drawing it over the 
 framing at the pit's mouth. Mr. Robert Blee of 
 Redruth, has introduced what he calls a safety-bucket, 
 and Messrs. White and Grant of Glasgow, have a 
 safety-cage. These inventions depend upon some 
 such arrangements as the following : Two pairs of ec- 
 centrics are attached to the ends of two parallel shafts, 
 whicli extend across the top of the cage ; the edges of 
 the eccentrics are toothed; and when the cage is in 
 motion they are free of the vertical wooden rails which 
 stead}"- the cage in its motion up and down the pit. 
 Should the rope break, two volute springs bring round 
 the thick sides of the eccentrips to bear against the 
 guides, and hold the cage securely. To prevent over- 
 winding, the holdfast which connects the rope to the 
 cage is secured by a curved bolt, kept in place by a 
 strong spring ; this bolt moves on a fulcrum, and is 
 continued as a lever beyond the holdfast ; across the 
 framing at the mouth of the pit ig? a bar so an'anged 
 that, when the lever comes in contact with it, the 
 bolt becomes disengaged, the cage, by the action of 
 the eccentrics, becomes fixed, and the rope only is 
 drawn up over the pulley. In Mr. Blee's safety-cage 
 the catches allow it to move freely so long as there is 
 a vertical strain on tliem ; but should this cease by the 
 breaking of the rope, the catches become liberated, 
 and attached to the iron staves of the ladders placed 
 on either side of the shaft. 
 
 A sketch of the expedients which have been recom- 
 mended for the preservation of mariners, published in 
 a work entitled iSkiptvrecks and Disasters at Sea (vol. 
 iii., Kdinburg, 1822), contains a few further historical 
 details relating to some of the inventions which have 
 been described. — E. B. 
 
 Francis's life-boats are verj- generally used on our 
 American coast, and below we give a short description 
 of tliem. Many of them are also used in Great Brit- 
 ain. The structure of the boats, and of the wagons 
 may be briefly described. A sheet of galvanized iron 
 or copper of the full size of one half of the boat, from 
 stem to stem, but not thicker than a sixpence, is 
 placed between two dies of the requisite form, and 
 then subjected to enormous hydraulic pressure. The 
 dies require great care, labor, and expense, in their 
 preparation, two being required for each form and size 
 of boat — one for the starboard, and one for the lar- 
 board section. The plate of metal is thus pressed into 
 the shape of the half boat, receiving at the same time 
 certain longitudinal, or fore-and-aft corrugations of a 
 peculiar character. The two halves are then riveted 
 together, and the boat is complete. 
 
 It is to tlie corrugations that the boat owes its enor- 
 mous strength, for it has no frame-work, no ribs, no 
 timbers. A plate of plain metal was exhibited ; it 
 was laid on two blocks of wood a yard apart, and was 
 too weak even to bear its own weight. Another plate 
 of metal of the same thickness, but corrugated, was 
 placed on the block, and bore the weight of a man 
 without bending ; and would have borne four men. 
 Boats of all sizes may be thus constructed, from the 
 smallest gig to the largest man-of-war's cutter or 
 launch. The great majority of the American steamers 
 have, for some years, carried Francis's boats. In an 
 experiment to test the strength of these boats, one of 
 them was subjected to most violent treatment. It was 
 pitched from a height on stone pavement ; it was rolled 
 and bruised upon it, and several men used their utmost 
 endeavors, with heavy hammers, to damage it, but all 
 in vain. It was then set afloat, and four strong men, 
 
LIG 
 
 1219 
 
 LIG 
 
 pulling with might and main, ran it, stem on, at full 
 speed, to the stone wharf, again and again ; but at the 
 close of the experiments, which would have utteriy 
 annihilated a wooden boat, it was found to have suf- 
 fered no damage beyond a few dents and bruises, 
 which a hammar set to rights in five minutes. 
 
 The wagons were also experimented upon. The 
 wagon was first placed in the water, with the whole of its 
 running-gear attached, including the pole, the weight, 
 17 cwt. 16 men then got in, their weight amounting to 
 25 cwt., and brought the wagon to about one foot from 
 the top. .Attempts were then made to upset it in the 
 water, by the whole of the men bearing down, first on 
 one side, and then on the other, but all in vain ; the 
 upper edge of the wagon could not be brought below 
 the water. Many other severe experiments were tried. 
 The advantages possessed by an army marching with 
 these wagons, are manifold and self-evident. The 
 cumbrous pontoon and bridge train may be dispensed 
 with, the ordinary wagons which must accompany an 
 army supplying their place. On approaching a river, 
 these wagons, full of men, may at once be driven 
 across the water ; or if the stream be full and rapid, 
 the wagon-bodies may be taken off their running-gear, 
 and used as boats, propelled by oars, or dragged by 
 ropes from the opposite bank. Two wagon-bodies put 
 together will float a field-piece, with its limber and 
 ammunition ready for instant action. Four of the 
 bodies make a valuable raft. A succession of them may 
 be anchored across the river, planks laid over them, 
 and a bridge for all arms is at once established. For 
 a more extended account of the losses on the coast of 
 the United States, see Wrecks. 
 
 Lighter, a large open flat-bottomed vessel, gener- 
 ally managed with oars, and employed to carry goods 
 to, or from a ship, when she is to be laden or delivered. 
 There are also some lighters furnished with a deck 
 throughout their whole length, in order to inclose such 
 merchandise as would be damaged by rainy weather. 
 These are usually called close lighters. 
 
 Light-houses. Light-house, and sea-light, are 
 terras which, although not strictly synonymous, are 
 indifierently employed to denote the same thing. A 
 Sea-light may be defined as a light so modified and di- 
 rected as to present to the mariner an appearance which 
 shall at once enable him to Judge of his position during 
 the nighty in the same marm&r as the sight of a landmark 
 would do during the day. The early history of light- 
 houses is very uncertain ; and many ingenious anti- 
 quaries, finding the want of authentic records, have 
 endeavored to supply the deficiency by conjectures 
 founded on casual and obscure allusions in ancient 
 writers, and have invented many vague and unsat- 
 isfactorj- hj'potheses on the subject, di'awn from the 
 heathen mythology. Some writers have gone so far 
 as to Imagine that the Cyclops were the keepers of 
 light-houses ; while others have actually maintained 
 that Cyclops was intended, by a bold prosopopoeia, to 
 represent a light-house itself. A notion so fanciful de- 
 serves little consideration ; and in order to show how 
 ill it accords with that mythology of which it is in- 
 tended to be an exposition, it seems enough to quote 
 the lines from the ninth Od3'-Bsey, where Homer, after 
 describing the darkness of the night, informs us that 
 the fleet of Ulysses actually struck the shore of the 
 Cyclopean island before it could be seen. 
 
 'Evfl' ovTiQ T7)v vvaov kaeSpaKev 6^Ba'X,fiC>Laiv 
 'Out* o^v KVfiaTa /naKpd. K.v'Xtvdoiieva Trori x^P^ov 
 'EiaiSo/isv Tcplv vf/a; ivacjeTi/iOvc kiziKelaal, 
 
 Odgss., ix., 146. 
 
 There does not appear any better reason for sup- 
 posing, that under the history of Tithonus, Cliiron, or 
 any other personage of antiquity, the idea of a light- 
 house was conveyed ; for such suppositions, however 
 reconcilable they may appear with some parts of 
 the mythology, involve obvious inconsistencies with 
 
 others. Kor does it seem at all probable, that in those 
 early times, when navigation was so little practiced, 
 the advantages of beacon-lights were so generally 
 known and acknowledged as to render them the objects 
 of mj-thological allegory. 
 
 Colossus of Rhodes. — ^Abont 300 years before the 
 Chistian era, Chares, the disciple of Lysippus, con- 
 structed the celebrated brazen statue, called the Colos- 
 sus of Khodes, whose height was upward of 100 feet, 
 which stood at the entrance to the harbor. There is 
 considerable probability in the idea that this figure 
 served the purposes of a light-house j but we do not 
 remember any passage in ancient writers, where this 
 use of the Colossus is expressly mentioned. There is 
 much inconsistency in the account of this fabric by 
 early writers, who, in describing distant objects which 
 could be seen from it, appear to have forgotten the 
 height which they assign to the figure. It was partly 
 demolished by an earthquake, about 80 years after its 
 completion ; and so late as the year 672 of our era, the 
 brass of which it was composed was sold by the Sara- 
 cens to a Jewish merchant of Edessa, for a sum, it is 
 said, equal to $180,000. 
 
 Pliaros. — Little is known with certainty regarding 
 the Pharos of Alexandria, which was regarded by the 
 ancients as one of the seven wonders of the world. 
 It was built by Ptolemy Pliiladelphus, about 300 years 
 before Christ ; and it is recorded by Strabo, that the 
 architect Sostratus, the son of Dexiphanes, having 
 first secretly cut his own name on the solid walls 
 of the building, covered the words with plaster, and, 
 in obedience to Ptolemy's command made the follow- 
 ing inscription on the plaster — " King Ptolemy to the 
 gods, the saviours, for the benefit of sailors." What 
 truth there may be in this account of the fraud of Sos- 
 tratus there is now no means of determining ; and the 
 story is only now interesting, in so far as it shows the 
 object of the, royal founder and the use of the tower. 
 The accounts which have reached us of the dimensions 
 of this remarkable edifice are exceedingly various ; , 
 and many of the statements regarding the distance at 
 which it could be seen are clearly fabulous. Josephus 
 approaches nearest to probability, and informs us, that 
 the fire which was kept constantly burning on the top, 
 was visible by seamen at a distance of about 40 miles. 
 If the reports of some writers are to be believed, this 
 tower must have far exceeded in size the great pj'r- 
 amid itself; but the fact that a building of compar- 
 atively so late a date should have so completelj' 
 disappeared, while the pyramid remains almost un- 
 changed, is a sufficient reason for rejecting, as errone- 
 ous, the dimensions which have been assigned by most 
 writers to the Pharos of Alexandria. Some have pre- 
 tended that large mirrors were employed to direct the 
 rays of the beacon-light on its top, in the most advan- 
 tageous direction ; but there is nothing like respectable 
 evidence in favor of this supposition. Others, with 
 greater probability, have imagined that this celebrated 
 beacon was known to mariners, simply by the uncer- 
 tain and rude light afi'orded by a common fire. In 
 speaking of the Pharos, the poet Lucan, on most occa> 
 sions sufficiently fond of the marvelous, takes no no- 
 tice of the gigantic mirrors which it is said to have 
 contained. 
 
 Septima nox, Zephyro nunquam laxante rudcntes, 
 Ostendit Fhariis .Sgyptia littora flaimnis. 
 Sed prius orta dies nocturnam laimpada texit, 
 Quam tutaa intraret aquas. Pltarsal.^ ix., 1004. 
 
 It is true that, by using the word " lampada" whicl- 
 can only with pronriety be applied to a more perfect 
 mode of illumination than an open fire, he appears to 
 indicate that the ^^flammai'^ of which he speaks, were 
 not so produced. The word lampada may, however, 
 be used metaphorically ; and flammis would, in this 
 case, not improperly describe the in'egular appearance 
 of a common fire. Those who are desirous of knowing 
 all that occurs in ancient authors on the subject of the 
 
LIG 
 
 1220 
 
 LIG 
 
 Pharos of Alexandria, may consult Pliny, 1. xxxvi., 
 c. 12 ; 1. v., c. 13, and 1. xiii., u. 11. Strabo, 1. xvii., 
 p. 791, et seq. CssAR, Comment, de Bell. Civil., 1. iii.. 
 Pompon. Mela, 1. ii., c. 7. Amjoan. Makcellin, 1. 
 xxii., c. 16. Joseph, de Bell. Judiac., 1. vi. Nich- 
 olas Lloyd's Lexicon Geographicum, and the Notitia 
 Orhis Antiquij of Celarius, 1, iv., c. 1, p. 13. 
 
 Coruna. — Mr. Moore, in his History of Ireland (vol. 
 i., p. 16), speaks of the Tower of Corufia, -which, he 
 says, is mentioned in the traditionary history/ of that 
 country as a light-house erected for the use of the Irish 
 in their frequent early intercourse with Spain. In 
 confirmation of this opinion, he cites a somewhat ob- 
 scure passage from iEthicus, the cosmographer. This 
 in all probability is the tower which Humboldt men- 
 tions in his Narrative under the name of the Iron 
 Tower, which was built as a light-house by Caius Ssevias 
 Lupus, an architect of the city of Aqua Flavia, the 
 modern Chaves. A light-house has lately been estab- 
 lished on this headland, for which dioptric apparatus 
 was supplied from the workhop of M. L6tourneau of 
 Paris. See also a curious account of the traditions 
 about this tower in Southey's Letters from Spain and 
 Portugal, p. 17. There is also a record in Strabo, of a 
 magnificent light-house of stone at Capio, or Apio, near 
 the harbor of Menestheus (the modem Mesa Asta, or 
 Puerto de Sta. Maria), built on a rock nearly sur- 
 rounded by the sea, as a guide for the shallows at the 
 mouth of the Guadalquiver, which he describes in 
 terms almost identical with those used by him in 
 speaking of the Pharos of Alexandria. I am not 
 aware of any other notice of this great work, for such 
 it seems to have been, to have deserved the praises of 
 Strabo. In Camden's Britannia a passing notice is 
 taken of the ruins called Cmsar's A Itar, at Dover, and 
 of the Tour d'Ordre, at Boulogne, on the opposite 
 coast ; both of which are conjectured, on somewhat 
 doubtful grounds, to have been ancient light-houses. 
 Pennant describes the remains of a Koman Pharos 
 near Holywell, but cites no authorities for his 
 opinion as to its use. There were likewise re- 
 mains of a similar structure at Flamborongh- 
 head. A very meagre and unintelligible account 
 is also given of a light-house at St. Edmund's 
 Chapel, on the coast of Norfolk, in Gough's ad- 
 ditions to Camden, by which it might seem that 
 the light-house was erected in 1272. — Gough's 
 Camden's Britannia, vol. i., p. 318, and vol. ii., p. 
 198. Batcheller, in his Somr Guide (1845, p. Ill), 
 says, that the Dover Pharos was built "during the 
 lieutenancy of Aulius Plautius and Ostorius Scapula, 
 the latter of whom left Britain A. D. 53" (Pennant's 
 History of Whiteford and Holywell, p. 112). 
 
 Modern History. — Such seems to be the sum of our 
 knowledge of the ancient historj' of light-houses, which, 
 it must be admitted, is neither accurate nor extensive. 
 Our information regarding modern light-houses is of 
 course more minute in its details, and more worthy of 
 credit, as the greater part of it is drawn from authen- 
 tic sources, oris the result of the actual observation of 
 the writer of this article, who has visited the most im- 
 portant light-houses of Europe. It seems sufiicient 
 here to notice briefly the most remarkable establish- 
 ments of the kind now in existence ; reserving, fdr 
 the latter part of the article, the more appropriate 
 and important topics of the methods of illumination, 
 and the systems of management. The first light-house 
 of modern days which merits attention is the Tour de 
 Corduan, which, in point of architectural grandeur, 
 is unquestionably the noblest edifice of the kind in the 
 world. It is situate on an extensive reef at the mouth 
 of the Elver Garonne, and serves as a guide to the 
 shipping of Bordeaux and the Languedoc Canal, and, 
 indeed, of all that part of the Bay of Biscay. It was 
 founded in the year 1584, and was not completed till 
 1610, under Henri IV. It is minutely described in 
 Belidor's Architecture Hydraulique. The building is 
 
 197 feet in height, and is shown in the accompanying 
 woodcut, fig. 1. Round the base is a wall of circum7 
 vallation, 134 feet in diameter, in which the light- 
 
 Fig. 1. TOUE 3)B OORDUAN. 
 
 keeper's apartments are formed, somewhat in the 
 style of casemates. The first light exhibited in the 
 Tour de Corduan was obtained by burning billets of 
 oak wood, in a chauffer at the top of the tower ; and 
 the use of coal instead of wood was the first improve- 
 ment which the light received. A rude reflector, in 
 the form of an inverted cone, was afterwards added, 
 to prevent the loss of light which escaped upward. 
 About the year 1780, M. Lenoir was employed to sub- 
 stitute reflectors and lamps ; and in 1822 the light re- 
 ceived its last improvement, by the introduction of 
 the dioptric instruments of M. Fresnel. — History oj 
 Celebrated Light-houses. 
 
 Eddysione. — The history of the celebrated light- 
 house on the Eddystone rocks, is well known to the 
 general reader, from the narrative of Mr. Smeaton the 
 engineer. These rocks are 9J miles from the Ram- 
 head, on the coast of Cornwall ; and from the small 
 extent of the surface of the chief rock, and its exposed 
 situation, the construction of the light-house was a 
 work of very great difilculty. The first erection was 
 of timber, designed by Mr. Winstanley, and was com- 
 menced in 1696. The light was exhibited in Novem- 
 ber, 1698. It was soon found, however, that the sea 
 rose upon this tower to a, much greater height than 
 had been anticipated, so much so, it is said, as to 
 " hury under the water" the lantern, which was 60 feet 
 above the rock ; and Mr. "Winstanley was therefore 
 afterward under the necessity of enlarging the tower, 
 and carrying it to the height of 120 feet. In Novem- 
 
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 1221 
 
 LIG 
 
 ber, 1703, some considerable repairs were required, 
 and Mr. Winstanley, accompanied by liis workmen, 
 went to tbe light-house to attend to their execution ; 
 but the storm of the 26th of that month carried away 
 the whole erection, when the engineer and all his as- 
 sistants unhappily perished. 
 
 The want of a light on the Kddystone soon led to a 
 fatal accident ; for, not long after the destruction of 
 Mr. Winstanley's light-house, the Winchihea man-of- 
 war was wrecked on the Eddystone rooks, and most of 
 her crew were lost. Three ^ears, however, elapsed 
 after this melancholy proof of the necessity of a light 
 before the Trinity House of London could obtain a 
 new act to ej^tend their powers ; and it was not till the 
 month of July, 1706, that the construction of a new 
 light-house was begun, under the direction of Mr. John 
 Rudyerd of Loudon. On the 28th of July, 1708, the 
 new light was first shown, and continued to be regu- 
 larly exhibited till the year 1755, when the whole fab- 
 ric was destroyed by accidental fire, after standing 47 
 years. But for this circumstance, it is impossble to tell 
 how long the light-house might, with occasional repair, 
 have lasted, as Mr. Eudyerd seems to have executed 
 his tasic with much judgment, carefully rejecting all 
 architectural decoration, as unsuitable for such a situ- 
 ation, and directing his attention to ttie formation of a 
 tower which should offer the least resistance to the 
 waves. The height of the tower, which was of a cir- 
 cular form, and constructed of timber, was, including 
 the lantern, 92 feet, and the diameter at the base, 
 which was a little above the level of high water, was 
 23. 
 
 son. 
 
 Fig. 3. EDDTSTONB LIGHT, CORNWALL. 
 
 The advantages of a light on the Eddystone having 
 been so long known and acknowledged by seamen, no 
 time was permitted to elapse before active measures 
 were taken for its restoration ; and Mr. Smeaton, to 
 whom application was made for advice on the subject, 
 recommended the exclusive use of stone as the material, 
 which, both from its weight and other qualities, he 
 considered most suitable for the situation. On the 
 6th of April, 1756, Mr. Smeaton first landed on the 
 rock, and made arrangements for erecting a light-house 
 of stone, and preparing tbe foundations, by cutting 
 
 the surface of the rock into regular horizontal benches, 
 into which the stones were carefully dovetailed or 
 notched. The first stone was laid on 12th June, 1757, 
 and the last on the 24th of August, 1759. The tower 
 measures 68 feet in height, and 26 feet in diameter at 
 the level of the first entire course, and the diameter 
 under the cornice is 15 feet. The first 12 feet of the 
 tower form a solid mass of masonrj', and the stones 
 are united by means of stone joggles, dovetailed joints, 
 and oak treenails. It is remarkable that Mr. Smeaton 
 should have adopted an arched form for the floors of 
 his building, instead of employing these floors as tie- 
 walls formed of dovetailed stones. To counteract the 
 injurious tendency of the outward thrust of the arched 
 floors, Mr. Smeaton had recourse to the ingenious ex- 
 pedient of laying, in circular trenches or beds in the 
 stones which form the outside casing, sets of chains, 
 which were heated by means of an application of hot 
 lead, and became tight in cooling. The light was ex- 
 hibited on the 16th October, 1759 ; but such was the 
 state of the lightrroom apparatas in Britain at this pe- 
 riod, that a feeble light from tallow candles was all 
 that decorated this noble structure. In 1807, when 
 the property of this light-house, again came into the 
 hands of the Trinity House, on the expir}' of a long 
 lease, Argaijd burners, and parabolic reflectors of sil- 
 vered copper, were substituted for the chandelier of 
 candles. Figure 2 shows a section of the Eddj-stone 
 light-house, as executed according to Mr. Smeaton's 
 design, 
 
 Bdl-Rock ^Tlie dangerous reef called the Inch 
 
 Cape, or Bell-Rock, so long a terror to mariners, was 
 well known to the earliest navigators of Scotland. 
 Its dangers were so generally aclmowledged, that the 
 Abbots of Aberbrothick, from which the rock is distant 
 about 12 miles, caused a float to be fixed upon the 
 rock, with a bell attached to it, which, being swung 
 by the motion of the waves, served by its tolling to 
 warn the mariner of his approach to the reef. Among 
 the many losses which occurred on the Bell-Rock in 
 modern times, one of the most remarkable is that of 
 the Yorh, 74, with all her crew, part of the wreck hav- 
 ing been afterward found on the rock, and part having 
 come ashore on the neighboring coast. During the 
 survey of the rock also, many instances were discov- 
 ered of the extent of loss which this reef had occa- 
 sioned, and many articles of ships' furnishings were 
 picked up on it, as well as various coins, a bayonet, a 
 silver shoe-buckle, and many other small objects. 
 Impressed with the great importance of some guide 
 for the Bell-Rock, Captain Brodie, E.N., set a small 
 subscription on foot, and erected a beacon on spars on 
 the rock, which, however, was soon destroyed by the 
 sea. He afterward constructed a second beacon, 
 which/ soon shared the same fate. It was not, how- 
 ever, until 1802, when the Commissioners of Northern 
 Lights brought a bill into Parliament for power to 
 erect a light-house on it, that any efficient measures 
 were contemplated for the protection of seamen from 
 this roclt, which, being covered at every spring-tide to 
 the deptli of 12 feet, and lying right in the fareway to 
 the Firths of Forth and Taj-, had been the occasion of 
 much loss both of property and life. In 1806 the bill 
 passed into a law, and various ingenious plans were 
 suggested for overcoming the difficulties which were 
 apprehended, in erecting a light-house on a rock 12 
 miles from land, and covered to the depth of 12 feet 
 by the tide. But the suggestion of Mr. Robert Ste- 
 venson, the engineer to the Light-house Board, after 
 being submitted to the late Mr. Rennie, was at length 
 adopted ; and it was determined to construct a tower 
 of masonrj-, on the principle of the Eddystone. On 
 the 17th of August, 1807, Mr. Stevenson accordingly 
 landed with his workmen, and commenced the work by 
 preparing the rock to receive the supports of a tempora- 
 ry wooden pyramid, on which a barrack-house, for the 
 reception of the workmen, was to be placed j and during 
 
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 1222 
 
 LIG 
 
 this operation much hazard was often incurred in trans- 
 porting the men from the rock, which was only dry 
 for a few hours at spring-tides, to the vessel which lay 
 moored off it. The lowest floor of this temporaiy 
 erection, in which the mortar for the building was pre- 
 pared, was often broken up and removed by the force 
 of the sea. The foundation hsLving been excavated, 
 the first stone was laid on the 10th July, 1808, at the 
 depth of 16 feet below the high-water of spring-tides, 
 and at the end of the second season, the building was 
 5 feet 6 inches above the lowest part of the founda- 
 tion. The third season's operations terminated by 
 finishing the solid part of the structure, which is 30 
 feet in height ; and the whole of the masonrj' was 
 completed in October, 1810. The light was first ex- 
 hibited to the public on the night of the 1st of Febru- 
 ary, 1811. The difficulties and hazards of this work 
 were chiefly caused by the short time during which 
 the rock was accessible between the ebbing and flow- 
 ing tides ; and among the many eventful incidents 
 which rendered the history of this work interesting, 
 was the narrow escape which the engineer and 31 per- 
 sons made from being drowned, by the rising of the 
 tide upon the rock, before a boat came to their assist- 
 ance, the attending vessel having broken adrift. This 
 circumstance occurred before the barrack-house was 
 erected, and is narrated by Mr. Stevenson in his ac- 
 count of the work, published at the expense of the 
 Light-house Board in 1824, to which we may refer for 
 more minute information on the subject of this work, 
 and the other lights of the coast of Scotland. 
 
 a 
 
 Fig. 3. BELL-ROCK LIGHT, SCOTLAND. 
 
 The Bell-Rock tower is 100 feet in height, 42 feet 
 in diameter at the base, and 15 at the top. The door 
 is 30 feet from the base, and the ascent is by a massive 
 copper ladder. The apartments, including the light- 
 room, are six in number. The light is a revolving 
 
 red and white light, and is produced by the revolution 
 of a frame containing 20 Argand lamps, placed in the 
 foci of parabolic mirrors, arranged on a quadrangular 
 frame, whose alternate faces have shades of red glass 
 placed before the reflectors, so that a red and white 
 light is shown successively. The machinery, which 
 causes the revolution of the frame containing the 
 lamps, is also applied to tolling two large bells, to give 
 warning to the mariner of his approach to the rock in 
 foggy weather. Fig. 3 shows a section of the Bell- 
 Rock Light-house, and of the temporar)'" barrack-house, 
 which was removed on the completion of the work. 
 The entire cost of the light-house was over £61,331, 
 The great merit of Mr. Stevenson, as architect of the 
 Bell-Rock Light-house, lies in his bold conception and 
 unshaken belief in the possibility of erecting a tower 
 of masonry on a reef 12 miles from the nearest land, 
 and covered by eveiy tide — a situation, undoubtedly, 
 much more difficult than that of the Eddystone. But 
 his mechanical skill in carrj'ing on the work is also 
 deserving of high praise. Not only did he conceive 
 the plan of the movable jib and balance cranes, which 
 he afterward used with much advantage in building 
 the tower ; but his zeal, ever alive to the possibility of 
 improving on the conceptions of his great master 
 Smeaton, led him to introduce several beneficial 
 changes into the arrangements of the masonry. In 
 particular, he converted the stone floors of the apart- 
 ments, which in the Eddj'stone exert an outward, and 
 in its tendency disruptive, thrust, into bonds of union 
 and efficient sources of stability. This thrust was by 
 Smeaton himself considered so disadvantageous, that 
 he thought fit to counteract it, as already noticed, by 
 means of metallic girders, concealed in the stone-work, 
 and most ingeniously applied. The Light-house Board 
 placed in the upper apartment of the tower a bust of 
 Mr. Stevenson, " in testimony," as the minutes re- 
 cord, "of the sense entertained by the Commissioners 
 of his distinguished talent and indefatigable zeal in 
 the erection of the Light-house." 
 
 The most remarkable light-house on the coast of Ire- 
 land is that of Carlingford, near Cranfleld Point, at 
 the entrance of Carlingford Lough. It was built ac- 
 cording to the design of Mr. George Halpin, the In- 
 spector of the Irish Lights j and was a work of an 
 arduous nature, being founded 12 feet below the level 
 of high-water on the Hawlbowline Rock, which lies 
 about two miles off Cranfleld Point. The figure is 
 that of a frustum of a cone. 111 feet in 
 height, and 48 feet in diameter at the 
 base. The light, which is fixed, is from 
 oil burned in Argand lamps placed in 
 the foci of parabolic mirrors. It was 
 first exhibited on the night of the 20th 
 December, 1830. 
 
 Skerryvore Rocks. — The Skerryvore 
 Rocks, which lie about 12 miles W. S.W. 
 of the seaward point of the Isle of 
 Tyree, in Argj'leshire, were long known 
 as a terror to mariners, owing to the 
 numerous shipwrecks, fatal alike to the 
 vessels and the crews, which had oc- 
 curred in the neighborhood. A list, 
 confessedly incomplete, enumerates 30 
 vessels lost in the 40 years preceding 
 1844 ; but how many others, which 
 during that period had been reported 
 as "foundered at sea," or as to whose 
 fate not even an opinion has been haz- 
 arded, may have been wrecked on this 
 dangerous reef, which lies so much in the 
 track of the shipping of Liverpool and 
 the Clyde, it would be vain to conjecture. The Com- 
 missioners of the Northern Light-houses had for many 
 years entertained the project of erecting a light-house 
 on the Skerryvore ; and with this object had visited 
 it, more especially in the year 1814, in compajiy with 
 
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 1223 
 
 LIG 
 
 Sir Walter Scott, who, in his diary, gives a graphic 
 description of its inhospitable aspect. The great diffi- 
 culty of landing on the rock, which is worn smooth by 
 the continual beat of Atlantic wares, which rise with 
 undiminished power from the deep water near it, held 
 out no cheering prospect ; and it was not* until the 
 year 1834, when a minute survey of the reef was or- 
 dered by the Board, that the idea of commencing this 
 formidable work was seriously embraced. 
 
 HwTiTC 
 
 :^^xV:S^^^-^ 
 
 lO 
 
 bx 
 
 Fig. 4. SKERRYVOEE LIGHT. 
 
 The reef is composed of numerous rocks, stretching 
 over a surface of nearly eight miles from W.S.W. to 
 E.N.E. The main nucleus, which alone presents suffi- 
 cient surface for the base of a light-house, is nearly 
 three miles from the seaward end of the cluster. It is 
 composed of a verj' compact gneiss worn smooth as 
 glass by the incessant play of the waters, and is so 
 small that at high-water little remains around the base 
 of the tower but a narrow band of a few feet in width, 
 and some rugged humps of rock, separated by gullies, 
 through which the sea plays almost incessantly. The 
 
 cutting of the foundation for the tower in this irregu- 
 lar flinty mass occupied nearly two summers ; and the 
 blasting of the rock, in so narrow a space, without any 
 shelter from the risk of flying splinters, was attended 
 with much hazard. 
 
 The design for the Skerryvore Light-house was 
 given by Mr. Alan Stevenson, and is an adaptation of 
 Smeaton's Eddystone Tower to the peculiar situation 
 and the circumstances of the case at the Skerryvore, 
 with such modifications in the general arrangements 
 and dimensions of the building as the enlarged views 
 of the importance of light-houses which prevail in the 
 present day seemed to call for. 
 
 The tower is 138 feet 6 inches high, and 42 feet in 
 diameter at the base, and 16 feet at the top. It con- 
 -\ tains a mass of stone-work of about 58,580 cubic 
 feet, or more than double that of the Bell-Bock, 
 and not much less than Jive times that of the 
 Eddystone. The lower part of the tower was 
 built by means of jib-cranes^ and the upper 
 part with ahea/r-poles., needles, and a balance- 
 crane. The shear-poles were similar to those 
 used by Smeaton at the Eddystone ; and thejib- 
 cranes and balance-crane were the same as those 
 which were designed and first employed by Mr. 
 Kobert Stevenson in the erection of the Bell- 
 Bock Light-house. The mortar used was com- 
 pounded of equal parts of limestone (from the 
 Halkin Mountain, near Holywell, in North 
 Wales), burnt and ground at the works, and of 
 Pozzolano earth. The light of Skerryvore is 
 revolving, and reaches its brightest state once 
 every minute. It is produced by the revolution 
 of eight great annular lenses around a central 
 lamp with four wicks, and belongs to the first 
 order of dioptric lights in the system of Fresnel. 
 The light may be seen from a vessel's deck at 
 the distance of 18 miles. The entire cost of the 
 light-house, including the purchase of the steam- 
 vessel, and the building of the harbor at H3-nish , 
 for the reception of the small vessel which now 
 attends the light-house, was £86,977, 17s. 7d. 
 
 " In such a situation as the Skerryvore," 
 says the engineer, " innumerable delays and 
 disappointments were to be expected by those 
 engaged in the work ; and the entire loss of the 
 fruit of the first season's labor in the course of 
 a few hours was a good lesson in the school of 
 patience, and of trust in something better than 
 an arm of flesh. During our progress, also, 
 cranes and other materials were swept away 
 by the waves ; vessels were driven by sudden 
 gales to seek shelter at a distance from the 
 rocky shores of Mull and Tyree ; and the work- 
 men were left on the rock desponding and idle, 
 and destitute of many of the comforts with which 
 a more roomy and sheltered dwelling, and the 
 neighborhood of friends, are generally connect- 
 ed. Daily risks were run in landing on the 
 rock in u heavy surf, in blasting the 
 splintery gneiss, or by the falling of 
 heavy bodies from the tower on the 
 narrow space below, to which so many 
 persons were necessarily confined. Yet 
 had we not any loss of either life or limb ; 
 and although our labors were prolonged 
 from dawn to night, and our provisions were chiefly salt, 
 the health of the people, with the exception of a few 
 slight cases of dysentery, was generally good through- 
 out the six successive summers of our sojourn on the 
 rock. The close of the work was welcomed with 
 thankfulness by all engaged in it ; and our remarka- 
 ble preservation was viewed, even by many of the 
 most thoughtless, as, in a peculiar manner, the gra- 
 cious work of Him by whom ' the verj' hairs of our 
 heads are all numbered.' " 
 
 There can be little doubt that, down to a very late pe- 
 
 50 Feet 
 
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 1224 
 
 LIG 
 
 riod, the only mode of illumination adopted in the light- 
 liouses, even of the most civilized nations of Europe, 
 was the combustion of wood or coal in a chauffer on 
 the top of a higli tower. It is needless to enlarge upon 
 the evils of such a method ; they need only be named 
 to be understood ; for it is difficult to conceive how an 
 efficient S3'stem of lighting a coast could be managed 
 under such disadvantages. The uncertainty caused 
 by the effects of wind and rain, and the impossibility 
 of rendering one light distinguishable from another, 
 must have at all times rendered the early light-houses 
 in a great measure useless to the mariner. 
 
 Catoptric System. — M. Teulfere, a member of the 
 Royal Corps of Engineers of Bridges and Eoads in 
 France, is, by some, considered the first who hinted at 
 the advantages of parabolic reflectors ; and lie is said, 
 in a memoir dated the 26th June, 1783, to have pro- 
 posed their combination with Argand lamps, ranged on 
 a revolving frame, for the Corduan Light-house. 
 Whatever foundation there may be for the claim of 
 M. Teulfere, certain it is, that this plan was actually 
 carried into effect at Corduan under the directions of 
 the Chevalier Borda, and to him is generally awarded 
 the merit of having conceived the idea of applying 
 parabolic mirrors to light-houses. These were prodi- 
 gious steps in the improvement of light-houses, as not 
 only the power of the lights was thus greatly in- 
 creased, but the introduction of a revolving frame 
 proved a valuable source of distinction among the 
 lights, and has since been the means of greatly ex- 
 tending their utility. The exact date of the change 
 on the light of the Corduan is not known ; but as it 
 was made by Lenoir, the same young artist to whom 
 Borda, about the j'ear 1780, intrusted the construction 
 of his reflecting circle, it has been conjectured by 
 some that the improvement was made about the same 
 time. If this conjecture be correct, the claim of M. 
 Teulire must of course fall to the ground. The re- 
 flectors were formed of sheet copper, plated with sil- 
 ver, and had a double ordinate of 31 French inches. 
 It was not long before these improvements were 
 adopted in England by the Trinity House of London, 
 who sent a deputation to France to inquire into their 
 nature. In Scotland, one of the first acts of the North- 
 em Lights Board, in 1786, was to substitute reflectors 
 in the room of coal lights, then in use at the Isle of 
 May in the Firth of Forth, and the Cumbrae Isle in 
 the Firth of Clyde, which had, till that period, been 
 the only beacons on the Scotch coast. The reflectors 
 employed were formed of facets of mirror glass, placed 
 in hollow parabolical molds of plaster, according to 
 the designs of the late Mr. Thomas Smith, the En- 
 gineer of the Board, who, as appears from the article 
 Keflectok in the Supplement to the 3d edition of 
 the Encydopmdia Britannica^ was not aware of what 
 had been done in France, and had himself conceived 
 the idea of this combination. The system of Borda 
 was also adopted in Ireland ; and, in time, variously 
 modified, it became general wherever light-houses 
 were known. 
 
 Faraboloidal Mirrors. — The property of the parabola, 
 by which all lines incident on its surface from the fo- 
 cus make with normals to the curve at the points of 
 incidence, angles equal to the inclination of these same 
 normals respectively to lines drawn parallel to the axis 
 of the curve, is that which fits it for the purposes of a 
 light-house. A hollow mirror, formed by the revolu- 
 tion of a portion of a parabola about its axis, has, in 
 consequence of this property, the power of projecting 
 the repeated images of a luminous point placed in its 
 focus, in directions parallel to the axis of the generat- 
 ing curve ; so that, when the mirror is placed with its 
 axis parallel to the horizon, a cj'lindrical beam of 
 light is thereby sent forward in a horizontal direction. 
 AVhen such mirrors are placed side by side, with their 
 axis parallel on the faces of a quadrangular frame 
 which revolves about « vertical axis, a distant ob- 
 
 server receives the successive impressions which re- 
 sult from the passage of each face of the frame, over a 
 line drawn between the observer's eye and the centre 
 of the revolving frame. This arrangement consti- 
 tutes what is called a revolving light. A fixed light 
 is produced by placing, side b}' side, round a circular 
 frame, a number of reflectors, with their axes inclined 
 to each other, so as to be radii containing equal arcs 
 of the frame on which they are placed. It is obvious 
 that a perfect parabolic figure, and a luminous point 
 mathematically true, would render the illumination of 
 the whole horizon by means of a fixed light impossi- 
 ble ; and it is only from the aberration caused by the 
 size of the flame which is substituted for the point, 
 that we are enabled to render even revolving lights 
 practically useful. But for this aberration, even the 
 slowest revolution in a revolving light, which would 
 be consistent with a continued observable series, such 
 as the practical seaman could follow, would render the 
 flashes of a revolving light greatly too transient for 
 any useful purpose ; while fixed lights, being visible 
 in the azimuths only in which the mirrors are placed, 
 would, over the greater part of the distant horizon, be 
 altogether invisible. The size of the flame, therefore, 
 which is placed in the focus of a parabolic mirror, when 
 taken in connection with the form of the mirror itself, 
 leads to those important modifications in the paths of 
 the rays, and the form of the resultant beam of light, 
 which have rendered the catopric system of lights so 
 great a benefit to the benighted seaman. It is obvi- 
 ous, from a consideration of the nature of the action 
 which takes place in this combination of the parabo- 
 loidal mirrors with Argand lamps, that the revolving 
 light is not only more perfect in its nature than the 
 fixed light, but that it possesses the advantage of be- 
 ing susceptible of an increase of its power, by increas- 
 ing the number of reflectors, which have their axes 
 parallel to each other, so as to concentrate the effect 
 of several mirrors in one direction. The perfect par- 
 allelism of the axes of separate mirrors, it is true, is 
 unattainable, but approaches may be made sufficiently 
 near for practical results ; and in order to prolong the 
 duration of the flash, the reflectors are sometimes 
 placed on a frame, having each of its sides slightly 
 convex, by which arrangement the outer reflectors of 
 each face of the frame have their axes less inclined in- 
 wards from the radii of the revolving frame which pass 
 through their foci. 
 
 Proportions and Divergence of Paraholoidal Mirrors. 
 — The best proportions for the paraholoidal mirrors de- 
 pend upon the object to which they are to be applied ; 
 as mirrors which are intended to produce great diverg- 
 ence in the form of the resultant beam should have 
 one form ; while those which are designed to cause a 
 near approach to parallelism of the rays will have 
 another form. These objects may also be attained by 
 variations of the size of the flame applied in the same 
 mirror ; but it is much more advantageous to produce 
 the effect \>y a change in the form of the mirror, as any 
 increase of the flame beyond the size which is found 
 to be most advantageous in other respects can not be 
 regarded otherwise than as a wasteful expenditure of 
 light. The details into which a full investigation of 
 this matter would lead us are quite beyond the scope 
 of this article, and it therefore seems sufficient to give 
 the formulse which express the relations which exist 
 between the size of the flame, the reflecting surface, 
 and the corresponding divergence of the reflected 
 ray. If A represent the inclination of anj' reflected 
 ray to the axis of a paraholoidal mirror, e the distance 
 of the focus from the point of reflection, and d the dis- 
 tance from the edge of the flame to the focus in the 
 
 d 
 plane of reflection, we shall have sine A= - ; and when 
 
 e 
 the flame in the given plane of reflection is circular, 
 or has its opposite sides equidistant from the focus of 
 
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 1225 
 
 LIG 
 
 the mirror, we shall, by putting A' for the effective di- 
 vergence of the mirror have in the given plane, A'=2 A. 
 When, therefore, great divergence, as in the case of 
 the fixed lights, is required, the prolate form of the 
 curve is to be preferred ; and the oblate is conversely- 
 more suited to revolving lights. 
 
 Power of Paraboloidal Mirrors. — The power of the 
 reflectors ordinarily employed in light-houses is gen- 
 erally equal to about 360 times the effect of the unas- 
 sisted flame which is placed in the focus. This value, 
 however, is strictly applicable only at the distances at 
 which the observations have been made, as the pro- 
 portional value of the reflected beam must necessarily 
 vary with the distance of the observer, agreeably to 
 some law dependent upon the unequal distribution of 
 the light in the luminous cone which proceeds from it. 
 The ordinary burners used in light-houses are one inch 
 in diameter, and the focal distance generally adopted 
 is 4 inches, so that the effective divergence of the 
 mirror in the horizontal plane may be estimated at 
 about 14° 22'. In arranging reflectors on the frame 
 of a fixed light, however, it would be advisable to cal- 
 culate upon less effective divergence, for beyond 11° 
 the light is feeble ; but the difficulty of placing many 
 mirrors on one frame, and the great expense of oil 
 required for so many lamps, have generally led to the 
 adoption of the first valuation of the divergence. 
 
 Manufactvre and testing of Reflectors. — The reflect- 
 ors used in the best light-houses are made of sheet 
 copper plated, in the proportion of 6 oz. of silver to 16 
 oz. of copper. They are molded to the paraboloidal 
 form by a delicate and laborious process of beating 
 with mallets and hammers, of various forms and ma^ 
 terials, and are frequently tested during the operation 
 by the application of a carefully-formed mold. After 
 being brought to the curve, they are stiffened by means 
 of a strong beazle, and a strap of brass, which is at- 
 tached to it for the purpose of preventing any acci- 
 dental alteration of its figure. Polishing powders are 
 then applied, and the instrument receives its last fin- 
 ish. Two guages of brass are applied to test the form 
 of the reflector. One is for the back, and is used by 
 the workmen during the process of liammering, and 
 the other is applied to the concave face as a test, while 
 the mirror is receiving its final polish. It is then 
 tested, by trying a burner in the focus, and measuring 
 the intensity of the light at various points of the re 
 fleeted conical beam. Another test ma}' also be ap- 
 plied successively to various points in the surface, by 
 masking the rest of the mirror. Having placed a 
 screen in the line of the axis of the mirror at some 
 given distance from it, it is easy to find whether the 
 image of a very small object placed in the conjugate 
 focus, which is due to the distance of the screen, be 
 reflected at any distance from that point on the centre 
 of the screen through which the prolongation of the 
 axis of the mirror would pass, and thus to obtain a 
 measure of the error of the instrument. For this pur- 
 pose it is necessary to find the position of the conju- 
 gate focus, which corresponds to the distance of the 
 screen. If b be the distance which the object should 
 be removed outward from the principal focus of the 
 mirror, d the distance frOm the focus to the screen, 
 and r the distance from the focus to the point of the 
 
 r' 
 mirror which is to be tested, we shall have 6= — as 
 
 d 
 the distance which the object must be removed out- 
 ward from the true focus on the line of the axis. 
 
 Argand Lamps. — The flame generally used in re- 
 flectors is from an Argand fountain-lamp, whose wick 
 is an inch in diameter. Much care is bestowed upon 
 the manufacture of these lamps for the Northern 
 Light-houses, which have their burners tipped with 
 silver, to prevent wasting by the great heat which is 
 evolved. These burners are also fitted with a slide 
 apparatus, accurately formed, by which the burner 
 
 rig. 6. 
 
 may be removed from the interior of the mirror at the 
 time of cleaning it, and returned exactly to the same 
 place, and locked by means of a key. This arrange- 
 ment, which is shown 
 in figures 6, 6, and 7, is 
 very important, as it in- 
 sures the burner always 
 being in the focus, and 
 does not require 'the re- 
 flector to be lifted out 
 of its place every time 
 it is cleaned ; so that, 
 when once carefully set 
 and screwed down to 
 the frame, it is never 
 altered. In these figs. 
 aaa represents one of the 
 reflectors, h is the lamp, 
 c is a cylindric fount- 
 ain, which contains 24 
 oz. of oil. The oil-pipe 
 and fountain of the for- 
 mer is connected with 
 the rectangular frame t?, and is movable in a vertical 
 direction upon the guide-rods c and f by which it can 
 be let down and talcen out of the reflector by simply 
 turning the handle g, as will be more fully under- 
 stood by examining fig. 6. 
 An aperture of an elliptical 
 form, measuring about 2 
 inches by 3, is cut in the up- 
 per and lower part of the re- 
 flector, the lower serving for 
 the free egress and ingress of 
 the lamp, and the upper, to 
 which the copper tube A is at- 
 tached, serving for ventila- 
 tion ; i shows a cross section 
 of the main bar of the chan- 
 delier or frame, on which the 
 reflectors are ranged, each 
 being made to rest on knobs 
 of brass, one of which is seen 
 at hk^ and which are soldered 
 on the brass band I, that clasps 
 the exterior of the reflector. 
 Fig. 5 is a section of the re- 
 flector aa, showing the posi- 
 tion of the burner 6, with the 
 glass chimney 6', and oil-cup 
 I, which receives any oil that 
 may drop from the lamp. Fig. 6 shows the apparatus 
 for moving the lamp up and down, so as to remove it 
 from the reflector at the time of cleaning it. In the 
 diagram, c;, the fountain is moved partly down ; dd 
 
 Fig. 7. 
 
 shows the rectangular frame on which the burner is 
 mounted, *;, e the elongated socket-guides, f the rec- 
 tangular guide-rod, connected "with the perforated sock- 
 ects on which the checking-handle g slides. 
 
LIG 
 
 1226 
 
 LIG 
 
 A^Tcmgement of Reflectors on the frame. — The modes 
 of arrangipg the reflectors in the frames are shown 
 in figs. 8, 9, and 10. It seems quite unnecessary, 
 after what is said on the suhject of divergence, 
 to do more than remarlc, that in revolving lights 
 the reflectors are placed with their axes parallel to 
 each other, so as to concentrate their power in one 
 direction ; whUe in fixed lights it is necessary, in or- 
 der to effect as equal a distribution of the light over 
 the horizon as possible, to place the reflectors, with 
 their axes inclined to each other at an angle somewhat 
 less than that of the divergence of the reflected cone. 
 For this purpose a brass guage, composed of two long 
 arms, somewhat in the fonn of a pair of common di- 
 viders, connected by means of a graduated limb, is 
 employed. The arms having been first placed at the 
 angle, which is supplemental to that of the inclination 
 of the axes of the two adjacent mirrors, are made to 
 span the faces of the reflectors, one of which is moved 
 about till its edges are in close contact with the flat 
 surface of one of the arms of the guage. The differ- 
 ent arrangements of the reflectors will be more fully 
 understood by referring to the figures. 
 
 r ' 
 
 (k^-- 
 
 i 
 
 Fig. 8 shows an elevation of a revolving apparatus 
 on the catoptric principle. In these figures, nn, shows 
 the reflector frame or chandelier ; o, o, the reflectors 
 with their oil-fountains, ;;, p. The whole is attached 
 to the revolving axis or sliaft ?• The copper tubes, 
 r, r, convey the smolte from the lamps ; s, s are cross 
 bars which support the shaft at it ; uu is a copper pan 
 for receiving any moisture which maj- accidentally 
 enter at the central ventilator in the roof of the light- 
 room ; Z is a cast-iron braclcet, which supports the pivot 
 on the shaft ; «i, m are beveled wheels, which convey 
 motion from the machine to the shaft. Fig. 9 shows 
 a plan of one tier of reflectors arranged in the manner 
 employed in a fixed catoptric light; nn shows the 
 
 chandelier, q the fixed shaft in the centre, which sup- 
 ports the whole, o, o the reflectors, and p, p the fount- 
 ains of their lamps. 
 
 To the Dutch belongs the honor of having first, 
 after the French, embraced the system of Fresnel in 
 their lights. The Commissioners of the N. British 
 Lights followed in the train of improvement, and, in 
 1834, sent Mr. Alan Stevenson on a mission to Paris, 
 with full power to take such steps for acquiring a per- 
 fect knowledge of the dioptric system, and forming an 
 opinion on its merits, as he should find necessary'. The 
 singular liberality with which he was received by M. 
 Leonor Fresnel, brother of the late illustrious inventor 
 of the system, and his successor as the Secretary of 
 the Light-house Commission of France, afforded Mr. 
 A. Stevenson the means of making such a report on 
 his return as induced the Commissioners to authorize 
 him to remove the reflecting apparatus of the revolv- 
 ing light at Inchkeith, and substitute dioptric instru- 
 ments in its place. This change was completed, and 
 the light exhibited on the evening of 1st October, 
 1835 ; and so great was the satisfaction which the 
 change produced, that the Commissioners immediately 
 instructed Mr. Stevenson to make a similar change at 
 the fixed light of the Isle of Jlay, where the new light 
 was exhibited on the 22d September, 1836. The Trin- 
 ity House of London followed next in adopting the 
 improved system, and employed Mr. A. Stevenson to 
 superintend the construction of a revolving dioptric 
 light of the first order, which was afterward erected 
 at Start Point in Devonshire. Other countries fol- 
 lowed, and the Report of the Light-house Board of 
 America, published in 1852, which recommends (see 
 page 1229 of this article) the adoption of Fresnel's di- 
 optric system, and the holophotal improvements, is a 
 very full body of information on light-house subjects, 
 extending over about 750 pages. Even Turkey has 
 followed in the train of improvement, and we believe 
 that a light on the dioptric principle will shortly be 
 exhibited (if it be not already completed) from the 
 Isle of Serpents. Fresnel, who is already classed 
 with the greatest of those inventive minds which ex- 
 tend the boundaries of human knowledge, will thus, at 
 the same time, receive a place among those benefactors 
 of the species who have consecrated their genius to the 
 common good of mankind ; and, wherever maritime 
 intercourse prevails, the solid advantages which his 
 labors have procured will be felt and acknowledged. 
 
 When, however, this system was in its infancy, 
 there were several objections raised to its adoption, 
 which appeared to be of ver)' considerable importance, 
 though the experience of years has proved that they 
 are not insurmountable. The first, and probably the 
 
LIG 
 
 1227 
 
 L^G 
 
 most important, was the liability of the lamp to be ex- 
 tinguished from the failure of the leather worlc of the 
 oil-pumps — a most serious objection, inasmuch as, from 
 there being only one lamp, its failure implies the ex- 
 tinction of the light. The means adopted to remedy this 
 have been already described (vide " mechanical lamp"), 
 and an experience of 21 years in the Northern Light- 
 houses has proved them to be sufficient for the pur- 
 pose ; for during the whole of that time (although it 
 has on several occasions been necessary to light the 
 spare lamp), the light has only on one occasion been 
 totally extinguished, a casualty which was caused by 
 the keeper sleeping on his watch. 
 
 The onlj' other objection worthy of mention -is the 
 short duration of the flash in revolving lights, owing 
 to the small divergence (5° 9') of the annular lens. 
 This has been corrected by setting the inclined mirrors, 
 or holophotal prisms, a little in advance of the great 
 lenses, so that they precede, and consequently prolong, 
 the principal flash. M. Degrand has also proposed to 
 cut the whole apparatus by a horizontal plane passing 
 through the focus, and to set one portion a few degrees 
 in advance of the other, a plan which has considerable 
 advantages, as all the portions of the beam are more 
 nearly of equal intensity. 
 
 Spherico-Cylindric Lenses. — ^Mr. T. Stevenson, more- 
 over, suggests an ingenious method of remedying this 
 evil, by constructing lenses whose aberration in the 
 Vertical plane is corrected, while that in the horizontal 
 plane may be adjusted to any determinate amount. 
 In the application of this method of construction to 
 the annular lenses they would be ground on the exter- 
 nal surface as before ; but the internal surface would 
 be a portion of a vertical cylinder of suitable radius. 
 Thus each vertical section would be similar to that of 
 a plano-convex lens as at present, and would refract 
 the rays accordingly, while the horizontal sections 
 would be of a meniscal form, and would act only by 
 the excess of their convexity over their concavity. 
 Thus, by varj-ing the radius of the cylinder, any 
 amount of horizontal divergence may be obtained, and 
 this without much increasing the thickness of the 
 glass, at least in the case of revolving lights, in which 
 a curve of long radius might be applied. 
 
 Fuel of Light-houses. — The oil, until lately, most 
 generally employed in the light-houses of the United 
 Kingdom, was the sperm oil of commerce, which is 
 obtained from the South Sea whale (Physeter macro- 
 cephalus). In France, the colza oil, which is expressed 
 from the seed of a species of wild cabbage (Brassica 
 oleracea colza), and the olive oil, are chiefly used ; and 
 a species of tlie former has now been successfully in- 
 troduced into the British light-houses. The advantages 
 of the colza oil are thus stated by the engineer of the 
 Scottish Light-house Board : — " It appears from pretty 
 careful photometrical measurements of various kinds, 
 that the light derived from the colza oil is, in point of 
 intensit}', a little superior to that derived from the 
 spermaceti oil, being in the ratio of 1*056 to 1. The 
 colza oil burns both in the Fresnel lamp and the single 
 Argand burner with a thick wick during 17 hours, 
 without requiring any coaling of the wick or any ad- 
 justment of the damper ; and the flame seems to be 
 more steady and freer from flickering than that derived 
 from spermaceti oil. There seems (most probably 
 owing to the greater steadiness of the flame), to be 
 less breakage of glass chimneys with the colza than 
 with the spermaceti oil. The consumption of oil 
 seems in the Fresnel lamp to be 121 for colza, and 114 
 for spermaceti ; while in the common Argand, the 
 consumption appears to be 910 for colza, and 902 for 
 spermaceti; and if we assume the means of these 
 numbers, 615 for colza, and 608 for spermaceti, as 
 representing the relative expenditure of these oils ; 
 and if the price of colza be 3s. 9d., while that of sper- 
 maceti is 6s. 9d. per imperial gallon ; we shall have a 
 saving in the ratio of 1 to 1"755, which, at the present 
 
 rate of supply for the Northern Lights, would give a 
 saving of about £3266 per annum." 
 
 Gas. — In a few light-houses which are near towns, 
 the gas of pit coal has been used, and there are certain 
 advantages, more especially in dioptric lights, where 
 there is only one large central flame, which, would 
 render the use of gas desirable. The form of the 
 flame, which is an object of considerable importance, 
 would thus be rendered less variable, and could be 
 more easily regulated, and the inconvenience of the 
 clock-work of the lamp would be wholly avoided. But 
 it is obvious that gas is by no means suitable for the 
 majority of light-houses, their distant situation, and 
 generally difficult access, rendering the transport of 
 large quantities of coal expensive and uncertain; 
 while in many of them there is no means of erecting 
 the apparatus necessary for manufacturing gas. There 
 are other considerations which must induce us to pause 
 before adopting gas as the fuel of light-houses ; for, 
 however much the risk of accident may be diminished 
 in the present daj^, it still forms a question which 
 ought not to be hastily decided, how far we should be 
 justified in running even the most remote risk of ex- 
 plosion in establishments such as light-houses, the 
 sudden failure of which might involve consequences of 
 the most fatal description, and the situation of which 
 is often sucli that their re-establishment must be a 
 work of great expense and time. 
 
 Brummond and Voltaic Lights.— The application of 
 the Drummond and Voltaic lights to light-house pur- 
 poses is, owing to their prodigious intensity, a very 
 desirable consummation ; but it is surrounded by so 
 many practical difficulties, that it maj', in the present 
 state of our knowledge, be pronounced unattainable. 
 The uncertainty which attends the exhibition of both 
 these lights is of itself a sufficient reason for coming 
 to this conclusion. But other reasons, unhappily, are 
 not wanting. The smallness of the flame renders 
 those lights wholly inapplicable to dioptric instru- 
 ments, which require a great body of flame, in order 
 to produce a degree of divergence sufficient to render 
 the duration of the flash in revolving lights long 
 enough to answer the purpose of the mariner. M. 
 Fresnel made some experiments on the application of 
 the Drummond light to dioptric instruments, which 
 completely demonstrate their unfitness for this combi- 
 nation. He found that the light obtained by placing 
 it in the focus of a great annular lens was much more 
 intense than that produced by the great lamp and lens 
 of Corduan ; but the divergence did not exceed 30'; 
 so that, in a revolution like that of Corduan, the flashes 
 would last only IJ second, and would not, therefore, 
 be seen in such a manner as to suit the practical pur- 
 poses of a revolving light. The great cylindric refrac- 
 tor, used in fixed lights of the first order, was also 
 tried with the Drummond light in its focus ; but it 
 gave colored spectra at the top and bottom, and only 
 a small bar of white light was transmitted from the 
 centre of the instrument. The same deficiency of di- 
 vergence completely unfits the combination of the 
 Drummond light with the refiector for the purposes of 
 a fixed light, and even if this cause did not operate 
 against its application in revolving lights on the ca- 
 toptric plan, the supply of the gases, which is attend- 
 ed with almost insurmountable difficulties, would, in 
 any case, render the maintenance of the light precari- 
 ous and uncertain in the last degree. 
 
 There are many questions of much interest regard- 
 ing light-houses which appear to open an extensive 
 field of inquiry ; and it may be doubted whether some 
 of them have received that degree of consideration to 
 which their importance entitles them. Among these 
 we may rank the numerous questions which may be 
 raised regarding the most effective kind of distinctions 
 for lights. Those distinctions may be naturally ex- 
 pected to be of the most effective Idnd which strike an 
 observer by their aj^earance alone. Thus a red and 
 
LIG 
 
 1228 
 
 LIG 
 
 white light, a revolving and a fixed light, offer appear- 
 ances which are calculated to produce upon the observer 
 a stronger 'sense of their difference than the same ob- 
 server would receive from lights the sole difference of 
 which lies in their revolutions being performed in 
 greater or less intervals of time. On the other hand, 
 the distinctions derived from time, if the intervals on 
 which they depend do not approach too closely to each 
 other, appear to afford verj' suitable means for charac- 
 terizing lights ; and the number of distinctions which 
 may be founded upon time alone are pretty numerous. 
 Colored media have the great disadvantage of absorb- 
 ing light, and the only color which has hitherto been 
 found useful in practice is red, all others at even mod- 
 erate distances, serving merely to enfeeble, without 
 characterizing lights. In the system of Fresnel, as 
 already explained, all the distinctions are based upon 
 time alone. Mr. Robert Stevenson, the engineer of 
 the Northern Light-houses, has invented two distinc- 
 tions, which, although they are produced by variations 
 of the time, possess characteristic appearances, suffi- 
 ciently marked to enable an observer to distinguish a 
 light without counting time. The one is called & flaw- 
 ing light, in which the flashes and eclipses succeed each 
 other so rapidly as to give the appearance of a succes- 
 sion of brilliant scintillations ; and the other has been 
 called intermittent, from its consisting of a fixed light, 
 which is suddenlj' and totally eclipsed, and again as 
 suddenly revealed to view. The effect of this light 
 is entirely different from that of anj' revolving light, 
 both from the great inequality of the intervals of light 
 and darkness, and also from the contrast which is pro- 
 duced by its sudden disappearance and reappearance, 
 which is completely different from the gradual diminu- 
 tion and increase of the light in revolving lights, more 
 especially in those on the catoptric principle. The 
 great and still increasing number of lights renders the 
 means of distinguishing them one of the most import- 
 ant considerations connected with light-houses. 
 
 Lights on the Coast. — Not less important, and very 
 nearly allied to the subject of distinction, is that of the 
 arrangement of lights on a line of coast. The choice 
 of the most suitable places, and the assigning to each 
 the characteristic appearances which are ijiost likely to 
 distinguish it from all the neighboring lights, are 
 points requiring much consideration ; and it ought 
 never to be forgotten, that the indiscriminate erection 
 of light-houses soon leads to confusion, and that the 
 needless exhibition of a light, by involving the loss of 
 a distinction, may afterward prove inconvenient in the 
 case of some future light, which time and the growing 
 wants of trade may call for on the same line of coast. 
 To enter at length upon this topic, or even to lay down 
 the general principles which ought to regulate the dis- 
 tribution of lights, would exceed the limits of this arti- 
 cle ; but in connection with this it may be observed, 
 that the superintendence of light-houses should be 
 committed to one general body, and ought not to be 
 left to local trusts, whose operations are too often con- 
 ducted on narrow principles, without reference to gene- 
 ral interebts. The inconveniences arising from inter- 
 ference between the distinctions of the lights under 
 one trust, and those of the lights under another, are 
 thereby avoided ; and the full advantage is obtained 
 of the means of distinction at the disposal of both. 
 
 The considerations which enter into the choice of 
 the position and character of the lights on a line of 
 coast are either, on the one hand, so simple and self- 
 evident as scarcely to admit of being stated in a gene- 
 ral form, without becoming mere truisms ; or are, on 
 the other hand, so verj' numerous, and often so com- 
 plicated, as scarcely to be susceptible of compression 
 ■into any general laws. We shall not, therefore, do 
 more than verj' briefly notice, in the form of distinct 
 propositions, a few of the chief considerations which 
 should guide us in the selection of the sites and char- 
 acteristic appearance of the light-houses to be placed 
 
 on a line of coast. For further information on this 
 subject, -see works mentioned at the end of this article. 
 1. The most prominent points of a line of coast, or 
 those first made on over-sea voyages, should first be 
 lighted ; and the most powerful lights should be 
 adapted to them, so that they may be discovered by 
 the mariner as long as possible before his reaching 
 land. 2. So far as is consistent with a due attention 
 to distinction, revolving lights of some description, 
 which are necessarily more powerful than fixed lights, 
 should be employed at the outposts on a line of coast. 
 3. Lights of precisely identical character and appear- 
 ance should not, if possible, occur within a less dis- 
 tance than 100 miles of each other on the same line of 
 coast, which is made by over-sea vessels. 4. In all 
 cases, the distinction of color should never be adopted 
 except from absolute necessity. 5. Fixed lights, and 
 others of less power, may be more readily adopted in 
 narrow seas, because the range of the lights in such 
 situations is generally less than that of open sea-lights. 
 6. In narrow seas, also, the distance between lights of 
 the same appearance may often be safely reduced 
 within much lower limits than is desirable for the 
 greater sea-lights. Thus there are many instances in 
 which the distance separating lights of the same char- 
 acter need not exceed 50 miles ; and peculiar cases oc- 
 cur in which even a much less separation between 
 similar lights may be sufficient. 7. Lights intended to 
 guard vessels from reefs, shoals, or other dangers, 
 should, in every case where it is practicable, be placed 
 seaward of the danger itself, as it is desirable that sea- 
 men be enabled to make the lights with confidence. 8. 
 Views of economy in the first cost of a light-house 
 should never be permitted to interfere with placing it 
 in the best possible position ; and, when funds are de- 
 ficient, it will generally be found that the wise course 
 is to delay the work until a sum shall have been ob- 
 tained sufficient for the erection of the light-house on 
 the best site. 9. The elevation of the lantern above 
 the sea should not, if possible, for sea-lights, exceed 
 200 feet ; and about 150 feet is sufficient, under almost 
 any circumstances, to give the range which is re- 
 quired. Lights placed on high headlands are subject 
 to be frequently wrapped in fog, and are often thereby 
 rendered useless at times when lights on a lower level 
 might be perfectly efficient. But this rule must not, 
 and indeed can not, be strictlj' followed, especially on 
 a coast where there are many projecting cliffs, which, 
 while they subject the lights placed on them to occa- 
 sional obscuration by fog, would also entirely and per- 
 manently hide from view lights placed on the lower 
 land adjoining them. In such cases, all that can be 
 done is carefully to weigh all the circumstances of the 
 locality, and choose that site for the light-house wliich 
 seems to afford the greatest balance of advantage to 
 navigation. As might be expected, in questions of 
 this kind, the opinions of the most experienced per- 
 sons are often very conflicting, according to the value 
 which is s„et on the various elements T/hich enter into 
 the inquiry. 10. The best position for a sea-light 
 ought rarely to be neglected for the sake of the more 
 immediate benefit of some neighboring port, however 
 important or influential ; and the interests of naviga- 
 tion, as well as the true ifelfare of the port itself, will 
 generally be much better served by placing the sea- 
 light where it ought to be, and adding, on a smaller 
 scale, such subsidiary lights as the channel leading 
 to the entrance of the port may require. 11. It may 
 be held as a general maxim, that the fewer lights that 
 can be employed in the illumination of a coast the bet- 
 ter, not only on the score of economy, but also of real 
 efficiency. Every light needlessly' erected ma.y, in 
 certain circumstances, become a source of confusion to 
 the mariner ; and, in the event of another light being 
 required in the neighborhood, it becomes a deduction 
 from the means of distinguishing it from the lights 
 which existed previous to its establishment. By the 
 
LIG 
 
 1229 
 
 LIG 
 
 needless erection of a new light-house, therefore, we 
 not only expend public treasure, but waste the means 
 of distinction among the neighboring lights. 12. Dis- 
 tinctions of lights, founded upon the minute estimation 
 of intervals of time between flashes, and especially on 
 the measurement of the duration of light and daric 
 periods, are less satisfactory to the great majority of 
 coasting seamen, and more liable to derangement by 
 atmospheric changes, than those distinctions which 
 are founded on what may more properly be called the 
 characteristic appearance of the lights, in which the 
 times for the recurrence of certain appearances differ 
 so widely from each other as not to require for their 
 detection any verj- minute observation in a stormy 
 night. ThuBj'for example, flashing lights of iive sec- 
 onds' interval, and revolving lights of half a minute, 
 one minute, and two minutes, are much more charac- 
 teristic than those which are distinguished from each 
 other by intervals varj'ing according to a slower series 
 of 5", 10", 20", 40", etc. 13. Harbor and local 
 lights, which have a circumscribed range, should gene- 
 rally be iixed, instead of revolving ; and may often, 
 for the same reason, be safely distinguished by colored 
 media. In many cases, also, where they are to serve 
 as guides into a narrow channel, the leading lights 
 which are used should, at the same time, be so ar- 
 ranged as to serve for a distinction from any neigh- 
 boring lights. 14. Floating lights, which are very 
 expensive, and more or less uncertain, from their lia- 
 bilitj- to drift from their moorings, as well as defect- 
 ive in power, should never be employed to indicate a 
 turning-point in navigation in any situation where the 
 conjunction of lights on the shore can be applied at a 
 reasonable expense. 
 
 British and Irish Lights. — English lights are placed 
 under the Corporation of Trinity House of Deptford, 
 Stroud ; the Scottish lights are under the manage- 
 ment of the Commissioners of Northern Lights ; and 
 the Irish lights are under the care of the corporation 
 for preserving and improving the port of Dublin, com- 
 monly called the Ballast Board. 
 
 The last act of Parliament on the subject of light- 
 houses forms part of one the general title of which is, 
 *' An act to amend various laws relating to merchant 
 shipping." It passed 20th August, 1853. The chief 
 provisions which affect light -houses are the following : 
 1. The light dues of the United Kingdom are to form 
 one imperial fund, imder the control of the Board of 
 Trade. 2. From this fund all expenses of erecting 
 and maintaining the lights of the United Kingdom are 
 to be defrayed. 3. The three boards which manage 
 the light-houses in England, Scotland, and Ireland, 
 are to render account of their expenditure to the Board 
 of Trade. 4. The Trinity House, or English board, is 
 to exercise a certain control over the boards in Scot- 
 land and Ireland, and is to judge of all their proposals 
 to erect new lights, or to change existing fines ; but 
 in every case the sanction of the Board of Trade must 
 precede the acts of each of the three boards. — E. B. 
 
 Comparison of the Systems of Lighting in the United 
 States, France, Great Britain, etc. — To make this com- 
 parison intelligible, will require a brief notice of the 
 light-house sj'steins of France and Great Britain, with 
 some remarlis on the systems of other countries, before 
 giving an extended notice of the systems 6f the United 
 States' light-houses. 
 
 France. — ^The administrative matters relating to 
 light-houses, though hardly such as it would be pos- 
 sible for us to follow, are, nevertheless, regulated 
 with a system of order worthy of all commendation. 
 As with us, no light dues are exacted from shipping, 
 but the light-houses are a direct charge upon the treas- 
 ury, and supported by annual appropriations. The 
 question, shall there be a light-house at a particular 
 point, is decided by a board consisting of naval officers, 
 government engineers, and scientific civilians. The 
 first decision settles that inquiry Is desirable. The 
 
 civil engineer of the Department where the work is to 
 be placed, reports his views, with plans and estimates 
 for it, which are laid before the board by their secre- 
 tary. If it now appears that the work should go on 
 in the manner proposed, the details of construction 
 and the estimates pass to the general council of gov- 
 ernment engineers (Bridges and Boads — " Ponts et 
 Chausshs"'), and when approved are constrhcted by 
 contract, under the supervision of the government en- 
 gineers of the Department. These engineers also super- 
 intend all repairs of light-houses. In some cases local 
 boards are required, first, to examine and report upon 
 the necessity for a proposed light,' before the subject is 
 examined by the light-house board. The administra- 
 tive details are in the Department of State, ministry 
 of public works, under which the different persons re- 
 ferred to, serve. The general arrangement of sea- 
 coast lights, adopted on the report of Rear Admiral 
 Sossel to the light-house board in 1825, is based upon 
 two principles ; that one light of the brightest class 
 shall not be lost sight of until another is visible ; and 
 that such distinction shall be presented by the light, 
 that a vessel on nearing the coast, without very gross 
 error in the knowledge of her position, can not mistake 
 one light for another. 21 nautical miles was adopted 
 as the distance of visibility of the brightest lights, and 
 three classes of distinction were admitted, viz. : fixed 
 lights, revolving lights showing a bright light, and an 
 eclipse at intervals of a minute and at half a minute. 
 By placing the fixed light midway between the two 
 revolving ones, of the different kinds, and at a distance 
 of 42 nautical miles from each other, the essential con- 
 ditions of the system would be fulfilled. In applying 
 this practicall}', it was, of course, so modified as to 
 conform to the general features of the coast, and to the 
 wants of navigation. Between these brightest sea- 
 coast lights, others of inferior power were arranged as 
 required. 
 
 Every light is placed under the inspection of a per- 
 son called a conductor, who visits it at least once a month, 
 by night as well as by day, and is provided with keys of 
 the building and of the watch-room, so that he can 
 enter at all times, without summoning a keeper. The 
 resident engineer of the Department inspects all the 
 lights in his Department at least once a quarter, and 
 the chief engineer of the Department once a year, and 
 the secretary of the Department makes an inspection at 
 least once in three years. The light-house keepers 
 are furnished with books, ruled, and with appropriate 
 headings to the columns, to record the observations 
 required of them. Detailed instructions for light- 
 houses and beacons are distributed, which direct 
 minutely their duty. 
 
 Prior to 1822, Argand lamps with reflectors were 
 used in the French light-houses. In that year, Au- 
 gustine'Fresnel put up the first lens light of his inven- 
 tion, in the tower of Cordouan, at the mouth of the 
 Gironde. In 1825 the general adaption of the lens 
 sj'stem was determined upon. In 1845 there were on 
 the coast of France, not including the colonies, 151 
 lens lights and 47 reflector lights ; and nearly all of 
 the latter were merely beacon-lights. 
 
 According to Mr. Eeynaud's statement, not one 
 reflector light will be left in 1852, in the class of lights 
 of the first and second order. Experience, then, has 
 led to the substitution of lens lights for the others, 
 except as small harbor beacon-lights, requiring a 
 small arc of the horizon to be illuminated. The me- 
 chanical lamp used with the lens light was the joint 
 invention of Arago and Fresnel, combining the idea of 
 Rumford, of a number of concentric wicks, according 
 to the intensity and volume required for the flame, 
 and the idea of Carcel of keeping the wick from burn- 
 ing rapidly, by making the oil overflow about it, by 
 raising it with a pump, moved by clock-work. Sev- 
 eral kinds of mechanical lamps have, from time to 
 time, been presented for examination and trial, an- 
 
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 1230 
 
 LIG 
 
 sweriug, generally, satisfactoril}' ; those used in some 
 of the recent lights are called the " moderator lamp." 
 The repair of 28 lamps of the first order lights, 4 of the 
 second, and 13 of the third, amounted, in 1850, only to 
 $183 66. 
 
 Mr. Fresnel suggests that if it be apprehended, that, 
 on account of the distance of a light-house from the 
 workshops, there may be difficulties in regard to the 
 repairs of the mechanical lamp, the appointment of a 
 mechanic as light-house keeper, and the supplying 
 him with the necessary tools, will be a very simple 
 remedy. In the refracting light the diverging rays 
 from the lamp are rendered nearly parallel, bypassing 
 through a glass lens. Several such lenses, forming 
 the sides of a prism, surround the lamp, the light 
 from which is thus refracted into a number of beams 
 corresponding to the number of the faces of the prism, 
 separated by dark angles. If this prism be made to 
 revolve slowly about a vertical axis, there will be 
 alternations of light and darkness, as the beam from 
 the face of the prism reaches the eye, or it is in the 
 dark angle between the beams. The increase of the 
 light to its greatest brightness, and the decrease again, 
 will be gradual. A prism of eight sides, thus revolv- 
 ing in eight minutes, would show bright flashes at in- 
 tervals of a minute, and eclipses at the same interval. 
 
 The lens is made of a number of pieces of glass, 
 ground to the same curve, and fitted closely together. 
 The building up of a lens in this way, of separate 
 pieces, has been carried to very great perfection, and 
 the separate pieces composing it are of beautiful clear- 
 ness, polish, and precision of form. A drum of glass, 
 cylindrical in its horizontal sections, and lens-shaped 
 in the vertical direction, placed about a lamp which 
 occupies its centre, will diffuse all around the horizon 
 the rays falling horizontally upon it, bending toward 
 the horizon those coming above or below the horizontal 
 line from the lamp, furnishing a fixed light of equal 
 brilliancy in every direction. A panel of glass, lens- 
 shaped in the horizontal direction, being made to re- 
 volve about this, would give a bright flash as the axis 
 of the lens passed any particular point ; and several of 
 these thus made to revolve, constitute a fixed light, 
 varied by flashes. 
 
 When the whole of the horizon is not to be illumin- 
 ated, a reflector is substituted for the lens behind the 
 lamp, so as to throw to the front the light which would 
 otherwise be lost. Not to lose the light thrown up- 
 ward b)' the lamp, a series of glass prisms is So ar- 
 ranged as to receive the rays at the angle at which 
 they are reflected, to throw them downward to the 
 horizon. Similar prisms below the lamp, serve to 
 prevent the waste of the light which falls below the 
 lens. This application of totally reflecting prisms, is 
 claimed by Mr. Alan Stevenson, of Edinburg. There 
 are four orders of lights, according to the range of vis- 
 ibility, determined by the volume and brilliancy of 
 the flame ; the first order corresponding to the greatest 
 range. The number of wicks of the lamps, and the 
 dimensions of the whole apparatus, vary, accordingly, 
 in the different orders. The third and fourth orders 
 are subdivided into two classes, corresponding to the 
 larger and smaller size of the apparatus. The dimen- 
 sions of the lantern of the several orders, the number 
 of wicks of the lamps, and other details, will be found 
 in the table annexed. 
 
 Fixed and revolving white lights are used to give 
 six characteristic combinations : the simple fixed 
 light ; the fixed light, varied by bright flashes everj' 
 four, three, or two minutes ; the revolving light, with 
 intervals between the flashes, or between the eclipses, 
 of a minute or half a minute. By introducing a red 
 fixed light, alternate red and white flashes, and a fixed 
 white light with red flashes, these combinations are 
 extended to eight. Two fixed white lights, in sep- 
 arate towers, are used in a few cases for the sake of 
 distinction. 
 
 The loss of light by a deep-red glass, is stated by 
 Mr. Stevenson to be as high as 80 per cent, of the 
 whole. A pink French glass absorbed but'57 per 
 cent., but the color of the burner was not very decided. 
 All parts of the illuminating apparatus for light-houses 
 are supplied from a depot and workshops under the 
 immediate direction of the secretary of the light-house 
 board. The distance to which a light may be seen, 
 its range of visibility (called sometimes simply its 
 range), depends upon the brightness (intensity) of the 
 light, its elevation above the general surface, and the 
 greater or less transparency of the atmosphere. Some 
 persons, too, can distinguish lights at a much greater 
 distance than others. The range of a light, then, is 
 not a sure test for comparing it with other lights. 
 
 The value (useful effect) of a light depends on its 
 brightness and the extent of the horizon which it will 
 illuminate. The brightness can be ascertained by ex- 
 periment with the photometer, in terms of the light of 
 a standard lamp as a unit ; the extent of horizon illu- 
 minated, by simple measurement in degrees, minutes, 
 and fractions. Hence the value of a light can be ex- 
 pressed in numbers : so many units of the standard 
 lamp, multiplied bj'' so many degrees on the horizon. 
 If the light is not spread uniformlj' over the horizon, 
 it is necessary to estimate its brightness at different 
 parts, and the space over which it extends. The value 
 for each portion being thus found, the whole value is 
 easily deduced. 
 
 Theory will show how much of a light from a lamp 
 can be thrown by a given lens, or mirror, in a particu- 
 lar direction ; but as the degree of perfection of these 
 instruments would vary the result considerably, re- 
 course is to be had to experiment in comparing differ- 
 ent kinds of illuminating apparatus. Very careful 
 and often-repeated experiments have been made by 
 M. Leonor Fresnel, late secretary of the light-house 
 board of France, for the purpose of comparing the 
 reflector and lens lights used in France. To appre- 
 ciate them fully, it is necessary to follow the very 
 minute details entered into, by measuring the brilliancy 
 of the light in the various divisions of the horizon, 
 and finding its total value (useful effect) in estimating 
 the value from different parts of the apparatus, and 
 the allowance to be made for loss of light from the 
 construction of the lantern, etc. Without such a 
 scrutiny, however, the character of their author, as an 
 experimentalist, is a guaranty for the accuracy of the 
 results. They show the following comparison for lens 
 lights of the different orders, and equivalent systems 
 of reflector lights ; 
 
 4th order, 2d class ; economy 2J to 1 in favor of the 
 lens light. 
 
 3d order, 1st class ; economj' 3^ to 1 in favor of the 
 lens light. 
 
 2d order, fixed ; economy 3^ to 1 in favor of the lens 
 light. 
 
 2d order, revolving ; economj' 4 to 1 in favor of the 
 lens light. 
 
 1st order, fixed, economy 4 to 1 in favor of the lens 
 light. 
 
 The combination of reflectors, to be equivalent to 
 the first order lens, is such as has never been made. 
 The average economy of the light itself is about 3^ to 
 1 in favor of the lens system. 
 
 To render these deductions strictly applicable to 
 practice, tliey should be made under the precise cir- 
 cumstances in which the apparatus is used; but as 
 they would then be made in conditions unfavorable to 
 accuracy, it is usual to assume that, in practice, the 
 lamp is burning in the best way, and thus to make the 
 comparisons. To render them strictly applicable to 
 the lights of the United States, the oil, too, should 
 be the same, and the manner of burning it the 
 same ; or, if dififerent oils were used, each oil should 
 be burned under the most favorable circumstances for 
 it. These remarks, however, touch only the refine- 
 
LIG 
 
 1231 
 
 LIG 
 
 ments of the case, and show the desirableness of ex- 
 periments made with th^ actual reflectors, lamps, and 
 oil in use in the United States, with the lenses and 
 their lamps, the oil being the same. 
 
 The question of the relative economj' of the lens 
 and reflector lights, depends upon the relative cost of 
 the light-house adapted to them ; of the illuminating 
 apparatus ; of the repairs of the building and appa- 
 ratus ; salrfries of the keepers ; cost of the oil, and inci- 
 dental expenses. In France two keepers have always 
 been employed for the larger lights ; one or the other 
 being required to be constantly on duty, so as never 
 to leave the lights without attendance in the lantern 
 or watch-room. With the new apparatus for the first 
 order lights, in ordinarj' cases, three keepers are al- 
 lowed, increasing the expense for salaries about one 
 fourth. With those of the other orders, there has 
 been no increase — two keepers being allowed to those 
 of the second order, and third order, first class, using 
 the mechanical lamp ; and one to the third order, sec- 
 ond class, and to the fourth order lights, using the 
 ordinary fountain lamps with .Argand burners. The 
 light-house buildings are of the same cost, except that 
 an additional room must be provided for the third 
 keeper of the lens lights of the first order. The first 
 cost of the lens apparatus is somewhat greater than 
 that of the mirrors ; but the great economy in con- 
 sumption of oil, turns the scale entirely in favor of 
 the lens lights — ^giving, according to the calculations 
 of M. Fresnel, made upon the prices in France, for a 
 small light, an economy of nearty 2 to 1 in favor of 
 the lens ; and for a large light (revolving light, sec- 
 ond order), an economy of more than IJ to 1. The 
 interest on the first cost of apparatus, and the ad- 
 ditional salaries, must mal^e a large increase to coun- 
 terbalance the large economy in the consumption of 
 oil, which, in France, we have seen to be more than 
 8 to 1 in favor of the lens lights. The same grade of 
 intelligence and education is stated by M. Fresnel to 
 be required in the keepers of the two kinds of lights. 
 The care of the mechanical lamp, however, requires 
 more mechanical tact than that of a common lamp ; 
 while the cleansing of the lens apparatus requires less 
 time and care than the others. 
 
 The additional keeper of the large lights, and the 
 providing of a second lamp in case of accident, is sup- 
 posed to guard against the danger of the total extin- 
 guishment, for any considerable time, of the single 
 lights, which is the weaS point of the lens system. 
 A very simple alarum is also provided, which, as soon 
 as the overflow in the lamp ceases, rings a bell, giv- 
 ing notice of any derangement in the machinery, etc., 
 for raising the oil. Mr. Stevenson causes this appa- 
 ratus to keep a bell constantly sounding, and to stop 
 when the machinery becomes deranged ; believing 
 that he better secures the watchfulness of the keeper 
 thereby. On this question M. Fresnel gives this very 
 decided opinion — after an experience of 22 years, sus- 
 tained by the daily results of more than 100 lenticular 
 lights of the first 3 orders — " that they have been dis- 
 tinguished by the regularity of their service." f he 
 metallic parts of the lantern are made of gun-metal 
 (bronze), the astragals being inclined to the vertical. 
 The ventilation of the lanterns is carefullj"- attended 
 to. The domes are of copper, painted white inside. 
 There is a lightning-conductor, of copper wire strands, 
 twisted like a rope, to each tower. The keeper's 
 house, and the cellars for oil, are generally detached 
 from the light-house, when practicable. The con- 
 struction of light-house towers offers nothing for spe- 
 cial remark, except that, as might be expected from 
 the care nsed in obtaining plans for them, they are 
 substantial and convenient, dry and well ventilated. 
 
 Oil of colza (rape-.seed), expressed from the seeds 
 of a kind of wild cabbage (brassica olerased), is the 
 only oil used in the French light-houses. The colza 
 gives a very white light, and the oil does not readily 
 
 thicken by cold. M. Eeynaud, secretary to the light- 
 house board of France, speaks of the results of com- 
 parative experiments on olive s>il, mineral oil from 
 bituminous schiste, hydrogen, and mixtures of oxy- 
 gen and hydrogen, as having been unfavorable. The 
 oil is tested before being received, by burning for 15 or 
 16 consecutive hours in a mechanical lamp, when, if 
 it bums clearly, and makes little or no crust on the 
 wick, it is received. The oliometer is also used in the 
 inspection. At the principal ports a book is kept, in 
 which masters of vessels may register their complaints 
 in reference to the lights on the coast. Their remarks 
 are examined, and inquiry made by the inspecting en- 
 gineers. 
 Table of Compabisow of Lens and Reflector Lights 
 
 FOE THE experiments OF M. LeONOR FeeSNEL, 
 
 Order of the 
 lights. 
 
 C1&s» and char- 
 DCter of lights. 
 
 Fourth, 
 |Third.. 
 .Second, 
 ISecond, 
 First. . 
 
 Second class 
 First class.. . 
 
 Fixed 
 
 Revolving.. . 
 FLxed 
 
 Eqnivnlent aystGCk | Value — I Economy 
 of reftectors. | useful — eooaom- 
 offocta. ical cfTects 
 
 u 
 
 84 
 
 SC 
 
 Inches. 
 ISi 
 11 
 20 
 20 
 24 
 
 2 —1 
 1-4—1 
 1-2—1 
 
 2i-l 
 8^—1 
 SJ— 1 
 4—1 
 4—1 
 
 8-4—1 
 
 For a list of the principal French, Danish, Russian, 
 and other Continental Lights, showing the heights of 
 power and elevation above the level, see the last part 
 of this article. 
 
 Great Britain. — The administrative part of the 
 British light-house system is so peculiar, having grown 
 up irregularly with the expansion of commerce, that 
 it does not require to be described in detail. The 
 chief English lights are under tlie direction of the 
 corporation of Trinitj' House, Deptford Stroud, Lon- 
 don ; and the Scottish and Irish lights under commis- 
 sioners. The expense of the lights is paid by dues 
 collected from vessels of all nations, including En- 
 gland herself. 
 
 The British lights are divided, according to their 
 power and position, into three classes — sea-eoast, sec- 
 ondary, and harbor lights. 
 
 Each district in England has a local inspector, and 
 the members of the Trinity House corporation also 
 inspect from time to time. In Scotland, the engineer 
 of the commissioners has the general superintendence 
 of the lights. Notices in regard to lights arc given 
 in several of the daUy metropolitan papers, in period- 
 icals perused by nautical men, and are posted at the 
 custom-houses. 
 
 The lights of Great Britain are principally still re- 
 flecting lights, but the lens light has been introduced 
 in many of the most important positions, and is grad- 
 ually taking the place of the other. 
 
 Trinity House lenses, 1st order, 15 ; 2d order, 5 ; 
 4th order, number not known. 
 
 In Scotland, the proportion of lenses to reflectors is 
 greater than under the Trinity House corporation. 
 Mr. Stevenson says : " The Board of Northern Light- 
 houses are, excepting in a few cases, giving up the 
 use of reflectors, and substituting either Fresnel or 
 holophotal lights." (See letter of October 15, 1851.) 
 Quite recently three new lens lights have been estab- 
 lished in England, by the Trinity House board ; threo 
 others, of the first, second, and fourth orders, respect- 
 ively, have taken the place of reflector lights, and 
 fourth order lenses have been introduced for harbor 
 lights. 
 
 The first lens light in Great Britain was established 
 in 1835, at Inchkeith, near Edinburg, under the charge 
 of Mr. Alan Stevenson ; the next at the Isle of May ; 
 and now the Scottish lights of the larger classes are 
 gradually being converted into lens lights. The Trin- 
 ity House, of Deptford Stroud, introduced the first 
 lens light in England, i^ 1837, at Start Point, in Dev- 
 onshire. Mr. Herbert says : " The hydraulic lamp is 
 universally in use in the dioptric lights of the corpo- 
 
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 1232 
 
 LIG 
 
 ration of Trinity House, with one exception (the South 
 Foreland light), where the light is shown from a Car- 
 eel lamp, the disadvantage arising from the use of 
 which is the occasional derangement of the machin- 
 ery." In Scotland, the mechanical lamp is used with 
 the lens lights. When the ventilation of the towers 
 is not complete, the introduction of Professor Farra- 
 day's ventilating tubes over the chimneys of the lamps 
 has been found very useful. The consumption of oil 
 is increased, but the light is also increased, and no 
 flickering of the lamp can occur in the highest wind. 
 These tubes are used in all the English light-houses 
 under the Trinity House board. The oil of colza is 
 now exclusively used in all the lights under the Trinity 
 House hoard. According to Mr. Stevenson, its light 
 is a little more intense than that of spermaceti oil ; 
 the consumption for a given quantity of light about 
 the same, whether the two be compared in a mechani- 
 cal lamp or a common Argand lamp ; it remains fluid 
 at temperatures which would thicken spermaceti oil ; 
 the flame appears more steady, and hence the break- 
 age of lamp-glasses is less than with spermaceti oil. 
 It is furnished in England at 89 cents per gallon, which 
 is 40 per cent, less than the cost of spermaceti oil 
 there. The supplies of oil, wicks, glasses, etc., are 
 delivered once a year by a vessel belonging to the 
 corporation. There are two distinctive characters 
 given to the reflector lights on the Scotch coast, dif- 
 fering from those already adverted to ; in one, hy plac- 
 ing the rims of all the mirrors on one side of a revolv- 
 ing light, in one vertical plane, and inclining their 
 axes slightly to the horizon, and causing a rapid rota- 
 tion of the frame, a flash is produced every 5 seconds, 
 which appears to rise and fall \ the bright and dark 
 intervals follow each other rapidly. In the other, an 
 intermittent light is produced by the vertical motion 
 of circular discs in front of the reflectors, eclipsing the 
 light for half a minute, and then permitting it sudden- 
 ly to show out. 
 
 In England, the cost of the lens apparatus for a sea- 
 coast light, lantern, and pedestal, exceeds that of the 
 reflector apparatus nearly one fourth ; but this disap- 
 pears in the cost of towers and apparatus, and the ad- 
 vantage is on the other side when the charge for con- 
 struction is turned into an annual interest, and the 
 cost of illumination is considered. 
 
 No difference is made in the number or salaries of 
 the keepers of the lens lights in England. Two keep- 
 ers are allowed to all large lights, because one is re- 
 quired alwa3'-s to be on duty in the watch-room. 
 
 Comparing the value (useful effect) of the revolving 
 lens light at Skerryvore, Scotland, with the old re- 
 flector light at Inchkeith, Mr. Stevenson makes it in 
 the ratio of nearly 8| to 1, and the economj'- (econom- 
 ical effect) in the proportion of 3^ to 1. Spermaceti 
 oil was used in these comparisons, the result of which, 
 as to economy, is the same as was obtained in France. 
 In the comparison of fixed lights, Mr. Stevenson 
 makes the economy of the lens light rise to four times 
 that of the reflector. Taking the interest on first cost 
 of erection as an annual charge, and combining it with 
 the cost of maintaining the two kinds of lights, Mr. 
 Stevenson makes the economy of the lens system, for 
 revolving lights of the first order, to be as 1'2 to 1, and 
 for large fixed lights as 1^ to 1. 
 
 Argand burners and parabolic reflectors are used in 
 the British light- vessels, both for fixed and revolving 
 lights. The lanterns are of copper, or of gun-metal. 
 
 There are from 3 to 11 light-vessels in each of the 
 districts under the charge of the Trinity House board, 
 and in each district a relief light vessel is stationed. 
 A gong is used as a fog-alarm, in the Trinity House 
 corporation light-vessels. 
 
 The lens system was early introduced into Holland, 
 where it has been entirely approved ; it has also been 
 introduced into Sweden, Denmark, Prussia, and Rus- 
 sia. The colza oil is also in common use. There is 
 
 no case where the lens lights have been introduced, in 
 which recurrence has been made to the reflector sys- 
 tem. 
 
 From these data, we are prepared to make the com- 
 parison required by the instructions of the Department, 
 under the heads which it has pointed out, as far as it 
 can be done without further experiments. 
 
 The use of these data will be entirely safe, since the 
 systems of reflecting and refracting are ccftnpared un- 
 der the most favorable circumstances for each class- 
 
 1, 1 Useful Effect. — We have just shown that, by the 
 experiments of Fresnel and Stevenson, the useful effect 
 of a lens light is to that of a reflector light of the same 
 class, on the average, as 3^ to 1 ; of course, the holo- 
 photal system of saving some of the lost light in the 
 various arrangements, increases this disparity. 
 
 2. Economy — First Cost — Repairs — Durability — Effi- 
 ciency. — This branch of the subject has been so elabo- 
 rated elsewhere in this report, that it is considered 
 only necessar}' to remark briefly upon it in this place. 
 
 Assuming that the lights in the two systems are the 
 best of their kind : 
 
 The economy of the third order lens light, in com- 
 parison to the reflector light, as nearly equal to it as 
 possible, is as 1 to 2-6. That is, it requires more than 
 two and a half times as much oil, etc., for the reflector 
 light, which is less than one third as useful, as for the 
 lens light. 
 
 The economy of the second order lens light, in com- 
 parison to the reflector light, as nearlj' equal to it as it 
 is possible to be made, is as 1 to 4*07. That is, the 
 lens apparatus is four times as advantageous as the 
 reflector light. 
 
 The economy of the first order lens light, compared 
 to that of the reflector, is 4'08 to 1 ; or that the re- 
 flector is four times as expensive as the lens, or that 
 the lens is four times as advantageous as the reflector 
 light. 
 
 " That if we take into account the first cost of con- 
 struction and the expense of their maintenance, we 
 will find, in respect to the effect produced, the new 
 system (dioptric) is stUl from one and a half to twice 
 as advantageous as the old." 
 
 The repairs to the mechanical lamps employed in 
 lens lights, amount to a mere nominal sum. 
 
 No difflculty can be anticipated in getting proper 
 keepers to attend to the lens lights. Men belonging 
 to the class of ordinary'" mechanics or laborers, are ap- 
 pointed to take charge of the lamps in France. Eight 
 or ten daj's will suffice to instruct a light-keeper in the 
 most essential parts of his duty, receiving lessons from 
 an instructor conversant with all the details of the 
 service. 
 
 The attendance upon the lamps can no longer be 
 regarded with fear of ill consequences. They have 
 been greatly improved, and are now believed to be 
 nearl}' perfect. 
 
 There is nothing belonging to a mechanical lamp 
 which could not be repaired by a watch-maker, and 
 any person capable of taking charge of a movable 
 light is equally competent to manage a l^s light. 
 
 While experience has fully proved that the fears 
 which were entertained of the extinction of the single 
 lamp used in the lens lights are illusory, j'et, should 
 the}'- still exist in any mind, any greater guaranty be 
 absolutely required than experience gives, it would be 
 easily afforded by furnishing each of the three or four 
 wicks of the mechanical lamp with a separate pump, 
 rendering them thus, in effect, three or four lamps. 
 B}' subdividing the wicks, this might, if desired, be 
 carried still further, and the expense of the additional 
 pumps would not add two dollars per annum to the 
 cost of each first-class light. The experience in rela- 
 tion to lenses has not been confined to any one coun- 
 try ; even in our own, with but three stations, the * 
 results are most conclusive in their favor. Every 
 first-class light should have two keepers, as in Great 
 
LIG 
 
 1233 
 
 LIG 
 
 Britain, etc. 'Such, however, is not the case in the 
 United States ; and in making the comparison of cost, 
 they have deemed it best to allow the salary of an as- 
 sistant keeper, and the additional cost of his dwelling- 
 rooms, in making comparative estimates of the ex- 
 pense of the lens and reflector lights ; but in compar- 
 ing the actual annual expense of lights per lamp in 
 this and in foreign countries, no credit was given to 
 the foreign light for having additional keepers, and no 
 charge made to our lights for deficiency of keepers. 
 The Congressional Committee on Commerce say : 
 
 "It is not believed that dioptric lights of the first 
 order can be required at any points except a few, and 
 those the most important outer sea-stations. The re- 
 marks hereinafter made in regard to the comparative 
 efficiency and economy of French and American lights, 
 and the letter of the Auditor, may suggest doubts of 
 the propriety of using any of the first order." 
 
 First order lights are, if possible, more necessary on 
 our coast than on that of any other country^ .and the 
 Board can not, therefore, conceive what good reason 
 could be given for not introducing them. It is true, we 
 have nofrst.order lights at present, but many are claimed 
 to be of that class, while they are no better than thirds 
 class ones. It is demonstrated elsewhere in this re- 
 port, that ike first order lenses are absolutely necessary ; 
 and it is beyond question true, that no combination of the 
 rejlectors can produce a first order light equal in power 
 to a first order lens. 
 
 Again, the committee say : 
 
 " In arranging lights, useful effect and expense 
 should be looked at in one view. An outer or sea- 
 coast light should have a ' portee' or reach of light 
 sufficient to give the approaching vessel, in all weath- 
 ers, timely notice of danger. Any expense in fitting 
 up lights to produce more effect is useless. A light 
 extending its limit of visibilitj" to the distance of 25 
 miles, is as efficient and useful as one of greater range. 
 The mariner sees it in ample time to shape his course 
 free from all difficulty." The Board concur in these 
 opinions. But our lights are not of that character. 
 The object of a light is to warn the navigator of some 
 hidden danger, or of his approach to land, and to guide 
 him clear of that danger on his way, or into his des- 
 tined port. It therefore becomes necessary to regu- 
 late the power and range of a light, solely with refer- 
 ence to these primary objects. If a light is placed on 
 a " clear coast" merely to warn the mariner of his ap- 
 proach or proximity to a lee-shore, or of his danger of 
 running his vessel on it at night, a power and range 
 must be given with reference to the gradual or irregu- 
 lar soundings in approaching the danger. If it is in- 
 tended to serve as a guide around a dangerous point 
 or shoal, then it becomes necessary to give it such a 
 range as will insure safety to the vessel outside of 
 these dangers under every circumstance ; such, for 
 example, as a sudden storm, or a continued gale blow- 
 ing on shore for many days. 
 
 There are many points along the coast of the United 
 States, with dangerous shoals extending many miles 
 from them. To guide vessek clear of these dangers, 
 lights of the greatest power and range are indispensa- 
 ble. Take as example the Nantucket Shoals, those 
 between Barnegat and Cape May, off Absecum, and 
 those off Capes Hatteras, Lookout, Fear, Bomain, etc. 
 The shoals off Cape Fear extend 20 nautical miles from 
 the present light, which can only be seen under favor- 
 able circumstances about 12 miles. The necessity for 
 first order lights at all points where sea-coast lights are 
 required, is therefore indisputable. None of the lights 
 named above have a sufficient range to warrant the 
 mariner in running boldly for them. The lights on 
 the Bahama banks are vastly superior to those on the 
 Florida coast. The idea that our lights are injured by 
 the haze, mists, etc., etc., arising from the proximity 
 of our southern coast to the Gulf Stream, is therefore 
 erroneous. That there is nothing in the atmosphere 
 41 
 
 along our coast calculated to affect the brilliancy and 
 power of good lights, which does not exist on the 
 coasts of England, Ireland, Scotland, France, Holland, 
 Denmark, Norway, Sweden, etc., etc., is abundantly 
 proved by the observations of intelligent individuals, 
 who are acute observers of meteorological phenomena, 
 and who have had their attention drawn to this par- 
 ticular subject in consequence of the great inferiority 
 of our lights, compared to those of the rest of the mar- 
 itime world. 
 
 The proper elevation to be given to first-class lights, 
 is a subject closely allied to, and in some degree de- 
 pendent upon, the general state of the atmosphere in 
 the vicinity of the particular lights. 
 
 Observation by intelligent professional persons, will 
 always enable the light-house engineer to act under- 
 standingly and decide correctly in all special cases of 
 this kind. 
 
 As a general rule, it is considered by able light- 
 house engineers in Europe, that on coasts where fogs 
 prevail, a light should not have a greater elevation 
 than 200 feet above the mean sea-level; but under 
 other circumstances any elevation, if desirable to 
 afford a greater range to the light, may be given, 
 which is not above the region of clouds. 
 
 For a list of the principal British lights, showing 
 the height of tower and elevation above sea-level, see 
 the last part of this article. 
 
 No light dues are charged upon shipping in France, 
 as in Great Britain, Holland, Denmark, Norway, and 
 Sweden, etc., but the whole establishment is provided 
 for as in the United States and Kussia. The main- 
 tenance of the light-house buildings is confided to the 
 departmental or local engineers, and the expenses are 
 defrayed from funds appropriated for the service of the 
 department of public works. 
 
 United States, Light-house System in the. — The foUow- 
 ng account of the condition of the light-houses in the 
 United States, and the proposed changes to be made in 
 the light-house system, is extracted from the Beport 
 of the Light-house Board, made in 1851. 
 
 " The subject of light-house illumination and im- 
 provement, although one of occasional discussion in 
 Congress and in certain circles within the last 12 or 15 
 years, has not occupied the public mind to any great 
 extent in this country, while in Europe generally, but 
 more especially in France, England, Scotland, and 
 Ireland, the ablest and most distinguished statesmen, 
 philosophers, and philanthropists have devoted them- 
 selves for the last 25 or 30 years to this subject, in en- 
 deavoring to apply practically the aids which science 
 and the mechanic arts have developed. Experiments 
 to ascertain the truthful practical tests of the relative 
 useful and economical values of illuminating appa- 
 ratus, combustibles, and their accessories, in the most 
 minute detail, have been made by Fresnel, Faraday, 
 Stevenson, and other distinguished individuals ; the 
 results of their investigations have been published to 
 the world, and their conclusions have served for the 
 formation of a system for light-house illumination, ap- 
 proximating to perfection. Legislation, too, has taken 
 a prominent part in this important branch of the public 
 service in Europe. In 1825 the French government 
 adopted definitely the Fresnel system of illumination 
 on the coasts of France, and tooli, as the basis of their 
 future light-house establishment, the programme pro- 
 posed by the Board organized for the purpose, at the 
 head of which was Admiral Kossel of the French 
 navy. 
 
 "About this time the subject, which Sir David 
 Brewster had foreshadowed in 1811, was revived in 
 England and Scotland, through Colonel Colby of the 
 Royal Engineers, and Mr. Stevenson the engineer to 
 the Northern Lights, and the distinguished architect of 
 the Bell-Eock tower. However, no important step was 
 taken on the English side of the Channel to introduce the 
 Fresnel apparatus until after a more careful and rigid 
 
LIG 
 
 1234 
 
 LIG 
 
 examination had been made by the light-house en- 
 gineer of Scotland, and after trials of comparative 
 usefulness and economy with that and the reflector ap- 
 paratus at the Inchkeith station. In 1834, a new 
 impulse was given to the subject of improvement in 
 light-house illumination by letters from Sir David 
 Brewster, and from the action of the House of Com- 
 mons' select committee. The light-house boards of 
 Europe seemed to exert themselves to satisfy public 
 opinion by the introduction of the Fresnel lens at a 
 few of the most important points for land lights, and 
 of improved apparatus for floating lights, consisting 
 of the Argand lamps and parabolic reflectors, in gen- 
 eral use for land lights prior to the introduction of the 
 Fresnel lens, and movable machinery for converting 
 such fixed floating lights as were necessary into re- 
 volving ones. 
 
 "Although the lens met with much favor in En- 
 gland, and has been gradually getting into use, until 
 nearly one half the sea-coast lights have been changed 
 since 1837, still Scotland has introduced a larger num- 
 ber, in proportion to extent of coast, than the Trinity 
 House corporation. Notwithstanding these decided 
 improvements in the lights of Great Britain, another 
 select committee on light-houses was raised by the 
 House of Commons in 1845 ; and of the benefits arising 
 from this last report have been the introduction of a 
 large number of lens apparatus, not only in Great 
 Britain but also into many of the colonies, and the sub- 
 stitution of the colza or rape-seed oil in nearly every 
 light-house in the kingdom, in consequence of its su- 
 periority and economy compared to the best sperm oil. 
 Improvements in illuminating apparatus and constrnc- 
 tion, ventilation, combustibles, etc., have made rapid 
 progress in light-house engineering in Europe ; while 
 in this country no attempt has been made to improve 
 the lights, with the exception of the act of Congress 
 approved July 7, 1838, and which was the result of the 
 recommendation of the committee on commerce in 
 the Senate, as follows : 
 
 " ' Sec. 2. And be it further enacted, That the Sec- 
 retary of the Treasury' be, and he is hereby directed 
 to cause two sets of dioptric or lenticular appararas — 
 one of the first, the other of the second class — and also 
 one set, if he deem it expedient, of the reflector appa- 
 ratus, aU of the most improved kinds, to be imported, 
 and cause the said several sets to be set up, and their 
 merits as compared with the apparatus in use, to be 
 tested by full and satisfactorj' experiments.' Under 
 this authority, a lens apparatus was placed in each of 
 the towers at the highlands of Navesink, and 14 out of 
 the 15 reflectors were placed in the Boston light-house. 
 If ' the said several sets' were ' set up' and ' their mer- 
 its, as compared with the apparatus in use, tested by 
 full and satisfactory experiment,' in confomity to the 
 act, the results of those experiments have not been 
 made known. With this exception, and the authority 
 of Congress ' to test Mr. Isherwood's plan of discrimi- 
 nating one light from another, and of determining the 
 distance of a vessel from a light,' which resulted in 
 placing a second order lens in the tower at Sankaty 
 Head, Nantucket, and the lights authorized by law to 
 be constructed under the direction of the Topographical 
 Bureau (Brandywine Shoal, Carysford Eeef, and Sand 
 Key), no steps have been taken to keep pace in light- 
 house improvements in this country with those of 
 France and Great Britain. 
 
 " The board, after examining with a patience and a 
 zeal which they believe this important branch of the 
 public service to demand, the different points to which 
 their attention was'specially called by the instructions 
 of the Department, have arrived at the following con- 
 clusions, which they feel assured will be found to be 
 fully sustained by the detailed data in this report, and 
 its appendix, upon which they are chiefly based : 
 
 "That the light-houses, light-vessels, beacons, and 
 buoys, and their accessories in the United States, are 
 
 not as efficient as the interests of commerce, naviga- 
 tion, and humanity demand; and that they do not 
 compare favorably with similar aids to navigation in 
 Europe in general, but especially with those of France 
 and Great Britain, and their dependencies. That the 
 light-house establishment of the United States does 
 not compare favorably in economy with those of Great 
 Britain and France. * * * That while the supe- 
 riority of European lights to those of the United States 
 (arising from the greater care and attention bestowed 
 upon them, the better and more expensive apparatus 
 employed in them, the larger number of keepers to 
 the lights, the more rigid superintendence and frequent 
 visitations for inspection and for delivery of supplies), 
 render any just comparison of them in annual expense 
 in money impossible, it is shown that the difference 
 for maintenance per lamp per annum is verj- small, 
 fitted with lens apparatus of equal power to the re- 
 and that not invariably in favor of those of this 
 countrj'. * * * If all our present lights were 
 flectors now in use, the annual expense for supplies of 
 oil and cleaning materials would cost little more than 
 one fourth as much as is now expended for these arti- 
 cles of supply annuall}' ; that is, that the supplies now 
 costing upward of $162,000, would not exceed $38,000 
 to $42,000, making an annual saving of $110,000 to 
 $116,000. That in addition to the great superiority in 
 brilliancy, power, and economy of the lenses, compared 
 to the reflectors, they possess the great advantage of 
 durability to the extent of never requiring to be re- 
 newed. 
 
 " The light-house system of the United States has 
 grown up from small beginnings — only 8 lights in 1789, 
 and 55 lights in 1820 — to the enlarged condition of 331 
 lights in 1851, and without those helps from organiza^ 
 tion of which some other countries have had the ad- 
 vantage. Great credit is due to the zeal and faithful- 
 ness of the present general superintendent, and to the 
 spirit of economy which he has shown. The systems 
 of lighting, however, which 25 years ago were in gen- 
 eral use, have gradually given way to more improved 
 OTies — more efficient and more economical. The general 
 condition of our lights is not such as our commerce now 
 requires, and not such as the improvements of the day 
 can supply. In considering the condition of the dif- 
 ferent parts of the system in their order, these facts 
 will strongly appear, viz. : that waste of light, by 
 imperfect apparatus, is waste of oil, and must be paid 
 for in money. The navigator would be more benefited 
 by a few good and reliable lights than by many imper- 
 fect ones ; indeed, he would prefer no light at all to a 
 bad one. 
 
 " Ciassijication o/Lights. — A proper classification of 
 lights has many and obvious advantages ; in fact, it 
 forms the basis of the arrangement of lights in a sys- 
 tem. In England the shore-lights are classed as sea^ 
 coast, secondar}', river, and harbor-lights. In France 
 they are divided into six orders, according to the size 
 of the illuminating apparatus. The name of the order 
 of the light in the French system suggests its purpose, 
 the range, the relative brEliancy, the size and character 
 of the parts of the illuminating apparatus, and tli'^ 
 particulars of detail. That our own lights have not 
 been classed, will explain the many anomalies in the 
 number of lamps, the forms of the reflectors, and the 
 like. It is an admitted principle, that the degree of 
 divergency given to a light by a reflector for light- 
 house purposes, should depend upon its intended ob- 
 jects, including range, etc., etc. ; and yet no such prin- 
 ciple has been applied in our light-houses, and a waste 
 of light has been the consequence. Classification is of 
 little avail without other and more important qualities ; 
 but it is nevertheless an essential of a system. The 
 following is an assumed classification of the lights of 
 the United States, according to their present value and 
 useful effect, as compared to the lens : 
 
 1. One station with a first order fixed and a second 
 
LIG 
 
 1235 
 
 LIG 
 
 order revolving lens light. This combination renders 
 the light only equal to a second order lens light. 2. 
 One station with a second order flashing light (lens). 
 This light is not fully equal to a second order lens, 
 constructed on the most approved plan, inconsequence 
 of the loss of light by metal placed in the focal plane. 
 3. One station with a third order larger model lens 
 light, constructed on the most approved planr 4. One 
 station with a revolving light, 21 21-inch reflectors, the 
 nearest approximation to a first order catoptric light on 
 the coast ; inferior to a second order lens light. 5. 
 Three stations with 18 21-inch reflectors (fixed light) ; 
 not better than second order catoptric, or third order 
 dioptric light. 6. One station with 30 18-inch reflect- 
 ors (two lights in one tower), not. better than second 
 order catoptric, or third order lens light (larger mod- 
 el). 7. Four stations with 18 l^-inch reflectors ; about 
 equal to third order lens light (larger model). 8. Two 
 stations with 17 21-inch reflectors ; about equal to third 
 order lens light (larger model). 9. Nine stations, 15 
 21-inch reflectors ; not equal to a third order lens light. 
 10. Eight stations, 1^ 21-inch reflectors ; inferior to 
 third order lens light. 11. Fourteen stations, 15 15- 
 inch do. 12. Three stations, 16 15-inch do. 13. Eight 
 stations, 14 16-iuch do. 14. Eleven stations, 13 14- 
 inch do. 15. Three stations, 12 21-inch do. 16. One 
 station, 12 16-inch do. 17. Four stations, 12 15-inch 
 do. 18. Three stations, 11 21-inch do. 19. Twelve 
 stations, 11 l6-inch do. 20. Nine statibns, 10 21-inch 
 do. 21. Eighteen stations, 10 15-inch do. 22. Forty 
 stations, 10 14-inch do. 23. Thirty-nine stations, 8 14- 
 inch do. 24. Twenty-eight stations, 8 14-inch do. 25. 
 Two stations, 8 16-inch do. 26. Two stations, 9 21-inch 
 do. 27. Eighteen stations, 7 14-inch do. 28. Fourteen 
 Stations, 6 14-inch do. 29. Two stations, 2 16-inch do. 
 30. Eight stations, 4 14 and 16-inch do. 31. Fourteen 
 stations, 11 14-inch do. 32. Four stations, 1 14-inch 
 33. One station, 8 9-inch do. 34. Eight stations, 5 14- 
 inch do. 35. Four stations, 3 14-inch do. 36. Nine 
 stations, without reflectors. 
 
 " Secapitulation, — 1 tower with 30 lamps (two lights 
 in one tower) ; 1 do. 29 do. ; 1 do. 21 do. ; 7 do. 18 
 do. ; 2 do. 17 do. ; 3 do. 16 do. ; 23 do. 15 do. ; 16 do. 
 14 do. ; 11 do. 13 do. ; 8 do. 12 do. ; 29 do. 11 do. ; 67 
 do. 10 do. ; 2 do. 9 do. ; 70 do. 8 do. ; 18 do. 7 do. ; 14 
 do. 6 do. ; 13 do. 6 do. ; 8 do. 4 do. ; 5 do. 3 do. ; 2 do. 
 2 do. ; 7 do. 1 do. ; 5 do. small gas-lights ; 4 do. lens 
 lights ; 37 towers with 21-inoh reflectors ; 1 do. 18 do. ; 
 41 do. 16 do. ; 51 do. 15 do. ; 168 do. 14 do. ; 1 do. 9 
 do. ; 9 without reflectors. 
 
 " Lens Lights. — One station equal to second order 
 lens light. One station not equal to second order lens 
 light. One station with third order (larger model) 
 lens light. 
 
 "Sefiecior Lights. — 12 lights not equal to second or- 
 der lens light. 61 lights not equal to third order lens 
 light (large size). 35 do. (small size). 121 lights 
 not better than fourth order lens light. 84 lights infe- 
 rior to the fifth and sixth order lens light. 
 
 " It is apparent from this statement that there is not 
 a first-class light of any description on the whole coast 
 of the United States. The nearest approximations are 
 at the Highlands of Navesink, composed of a first and 
 second order light, and the revolving reflector light at 
 Mobile Point, of 21 reflectors. The three next in or- 
 der are Sandy Hook, Cape Henlopen, and Cape Henry, 
 each fitted with 18 21-inch reflectors, and in towers of 
 a good elevation. The Boston harbor light, fitted with 
 14 21-inch English reflectors, probably now stands next 
 on this list, although the apparatus is much worn, and 
 has not had the care and attention it deserved. There 
 are 236 fixed lights, 30 revolving lights, 2 fixed and 
 revolving lights, 18 double lights, 2 triple lights. 
 
 " Average number of lamps per light-house, in the 
 United States, is now 9^ ; in England (general coast), 
 13 ; in Scotland (do.), 17^ ; in Ireland (do.), 20 ; in 
 Ireland harbor, 7J. The 41 light- vessels of the United 
 
 States are fitted without lamps (in the ordinary ac- 
 ceptation of the term), and without reflectors. The 
 lights are consequently seen at very short distances, 
 and do not fully subserve the objects for which they 
 were authorized bj' Congress, Argand lamps, with 
 large parabolic reflectors, are employed in Great Brit- 
 ain in light-vessels. The Admiralty list of Trinity 
 House lights for 1849, shows that there were at that 
 time seven floating lights fitted with revolving appara- 
 tus, belonging to that corporation. 
 
 " Distinctive Characters. — The distinctive characters 
 of the lights of the United States, are : — 1st, fixed 
 lights ; 2d, revolving lights ; 3d, double lights, or 
 lights in two towers ; 4th, lights in three towers ; 5th, 
 colored lights. Distinctions have been employed at 
 10 stations from two fixed lights, and from one fixed 
 light, and one revolving light ; and in three towers 
 with two lights, one above the other. There is but 
 one triple light on the coast of the United States. 
 The beacons for ranges are not, of course, included in 
 these numbers. Double and triple lights are among 
 the most wasteful modes of distinction, and, it may be 
 added, the least effective. Very little attention has 
 been paid to distinguishing lights in the United States. 
 At points along the eastern coast, many fixed lights 
 are seen at the same moment, without the means of 
 Itnowing any of them. The proportion of revolving 
 to fixed lights on the entire coast, is 1 to 9'2. The 
 proportion of all modes of distinction, including mul- 
 tiple and colored lights, is 1 to 5'2. 
 
 " On the coast of Maine there are 34 light-stations ; 
 of which number, 3 are revolving, 1 two-towers fixed 
 and revolving, 1 two-towers fixed lights, and the re- 
 maining 29 are all fixed lights. In New Hampshire 
 there are 3 light-stations : 1 fixed, 1 revolving red and 
 white, and 1 fixed, with 2 lights in 1 tower. In Mas- 
 sachusetts there are 42 light-stations ; of which 5 are 
 revolving, 11 fixed and revolving, 1 lens, flashing, 8 
 double fixed, 1 triple, and the remaining 26 are fixed 
 white lights. In Khode Island there are 9 stations ; 
 2 are revolving, and 7 are fixed lights. In Connecti- 
 cut there are 11 stations ; 2 are revolving, and 9 fixed 
 lights. In New York there are 41 light-stations ; 4 
 are revolving, and 37 fixed lights. In New Jersey 
 there are 10 light stations ; 1 revolving, 1 fixed and 
 revolving, 1 red, and 7 fixed lights. In Pennsylva- 
 nia there are 4 lighl^stations, and all fixed lights. 
 In Delaware there are 8 light-stations, and all the 
 lights are fixed. The one on the breakwater is catted 
 a red and white light, by the keeper ; but as the light 
 can not be seen through the dark red shield-like 
 shades, the white part only is seen. In Maryland 
 there are 14 light-stations ; 1 double fixed, and 13 sin- 
 gle fixed lights. In Virginia there are 8 light-sta- 
 tions ; 2 are revolving, and 6 are fixed lights. In 
 North Carolina there are 11 light stations : 2 are re- 
 volving, 2 double fixed lights, and 7 fixed lights. In 
 South Carolina there are 5 light-stations ; 1 revolving, 
 2 double fixed light-beacons, and 2 fixed lights. In 
 Georgia there are 9 light-stations ; 2 revolving, 1 two 
 fixed beacons, and 6 fixed lights. In Florida there 
 are 12 light-stations ; 6 revolving, and 6 fixed ; one of 
 the latter with red shades. In Alabama there are 3 
 light-stations ; 1 revolving, and 2 fixed lights. In 
 Mississippi there are 4 light-stations, and all fixed 
 lights. In Louisiana there are 14 light-stations ; 3 
 revolving, 1 with two lights in one tower, 1 red light, 
 and the remaining 9 are all fixed lights. Of the re- 
 maining 49 lights, only two are revolving. 
 
 " The foregoing lights are exclusive of the 42 light- 
 vessels distributed along the coast, forming an im- 
 portant part of the light sj'stem, all of which are fixed 
 lights. From the Highlands of Navesink to the fixed 
 light on Dry Tortugas, a distance of upward of 1300 
 miles by the coast, there are only 3 prominent revolv- 
 ing lights ; all the rest being single fixed lights. The 
 revolving lights at Cape Charles, at Ocl'acoke, Sapel' 
 
LIG 
 
 1236 
 
 LIG 
 
 and Amelia island, are not included in this estimate, 
 because they are minor lights, and not seen, except by 
 vessels bound into ports near their location. Body's 
 island is so badly placed, and so low, that it is of very 
 little use to navigators. From Dry Tortugas to Cape 
 Canaveral, a distance of nearly 400 miles, there is not 
 a single revolving or other than fixed lights. From 
 Charleston to Cape Canaveral, a distance of 300 miles, 
 all the prominent lights are fixed, with only two minor 
 revolving lights. From Charleston to Navesink, there 
 is but one revolving light which can be of any use to 
 the mariner bound to New Yorlt. 
 
 " In England the lights are distinguished by fixed, 
 revolving, flashing, colored (red only being used), with 
 combinations of double fixed, fixed and revolving, 
 etc., etc. The English Trinity House corporation 
 have 7 revolving lights on board of light-vessels, out 
 of 25 ; and the proportion of revolving to fixed lights 
 is 1 to 4.2. Of 40 sea-coast lights, 19 are fixed white, 
 
 10 revolving, 4 revolving and fixed, 3 red fixed, and 1 
 double fixed light ; that is, one half are fixed, and the 
 remaining half are revolving, etc. The Scotch have 
 
 11 fixed white ; 2 revolving red and white ; 4 revolv- 
 ing, showing brightest every minute ; 4 revolving, and 
 showing white lights every two minutes ; 2 double 
 fixed lights ; 2 flashing once in every five seconds ; 4 
 intermittent lights, brightest state once in two min- 
 utes J 2 fixed and red ; 1 double, revolving at the same 
 instant ; malting only 11 fixed lights, out of 33, on the 
 entire coast of Scotland. In Ireland there are five 
 distinctions employed : fixed white, fixed red, revolv- 
 ing white, revolving red and white, and intermittent 
 lights. Of 23 sea-coast lights, 11 are fixed white, 7 
 revolving, 1 fixed red, and 1 fixed and revolving. 
 
 " In France there are nine principal combinations of 
 lights, possessing distinctive characteristics, viz. : 1. 
 Flashes which succeed eacli other every minute. 2. 
 Flashes which succeed each other every half min- 
 ute. 3. Flashes alternate red and white. 4. Fixed 
 lights, varied by flashes every 4 minutes. 5. Fixed 
 lights, varied by flashes every 3 minutes. 6. Fixed 
 lights, varied by flashes every 2 minutes. 7. Fixed 
 white lights, varied by red flashes more or less fre- 
 quently. 8. Fixed lights. 9. Double fixed lights. 
 To which might be added fixed and revolving, in two 
 towers, as at Navesinlc. There are, however, very 
 few double lights in France, and are only employed to 
 give a very decided character to a locality, in contra- 
 distinction to those nearest. By adopting the princi- 
 ple of Rear Admiral Eossel, as set forth in the pro- 
 gramme reported by him for lighting the coasts of 
 France, in 1822, finally adopted by the French admin- 
 istration in 1825, and which has been steadily adhered 
 to since, of placing first order sea-coast lights within 
 the distance of 42 nautical miles of each other, there 
 can be no great difficulty in obtaining a sufficient 
 number of very marked distinctions for sea-coast 
 lights. The present advanced and progressive state 
 of nautical science is also brought in to the aid of the 
 light-Iiouse engineer, as it will now seldom happen 
 that a navigator will be 84 miles out of his reckoning. 
 By commencing at one line of the boundary'' of a coun- 
 try'", on a sea-coast where a first order light is required, 
 with a revolving light ; then, at the distance of 42 
 nautical miles, a fixed light ; and at the distance of 
 42 nautical miles further, a flashing light ; then an 
 intermittent bright, then a fixed light ; then a revolv- 
 ing — and so on along the entire coast — the mariner 
 will find no difficulty in recognizing any well-kept 
 light that he may see. Should it become necessary 
 to emploj' time as one of the elements, then there can 
 be no better system than that employed in France. 
 An occasional deviation may be found to be necessarj', 
 such as the erection of two towers for fixed, revolving, 
 or fixed and revolving lights. This is one of the 
 branches of light-house service which can only be ex- 
 ecuted properly by competent persons, who have thor- 
 
 oughly investigated and studied the subject, both in 
 general and for special cases. Should the very inge- 
 nious plan of distinguishing lights by occultations, as 
 proposed by Mr. Charles Babbage, prove, upon experi- 
 ment, to be practicable, the whole system of charac- 
 teristic distinctions will be entirely changed and 
 greatly simplified. 
 
 "The floating lights of the United States are all 
 fixed, and fitted with common torch lamps, without 
 Argand burners and reflectors. The light-vessels are 
 too small for exposed positions, and the models are 
 not the best for the purposes for which they are de- 
 signed. They are not provided with moorings such as 
 they require, and there is not sufficient attention paid 
 to placing them in their proper positions. The lights, 
 in consequence of the inferior lamps without reflectors, 
 are of very little use to the navigator. The uncer- 
 tainty of finding the light-vessels in their proper posi- 
 tions, by navigators who have been several mouths 
 absent from the country, produces a general distrust, 
 which destroys all reliance on them. 
 
 "The floating lights of England and Ireland are 
 built upon the best models ; are of sufficient tonnage 
 to be safe at the points for which they were built ; 
 are constructed in the most substantial manner — of 
 wood generally, but in some cases of iron ; are moored 
 with heavy anchors and chains, and long scopes. 
 Those placed to mark channels, as the North-West 
 light-vessel at Liverpool, are moored with long scopes 
 of cable to a swivel, and hove in, so that in swinging 
 they do not change their positions perceptibly. These 
 floating lights are placed in the most exposed positions 
 in the Irish or St. George's Channel, in the British 
 Channel, North Sea, and in the most exposed posi- 
 tions of the English, and Irish coasts. It very seldom 
 happens that they break from their moorings, and are 
 never taken away without previously placing a dupli- 
 cate in the position. The system of relief to the 
 keepers and crews is an admirable one ; one that in- 
 sures a faithful performance of the duties intrusted to 
 them, to the great advantage of navigators. 
 
 " The English floating lights are fitted with Argand 
 lamps and parabolic reflectors — fixed, revolving, and 
 double lights. They are distinguished by day by 
 cages of hoop-iron, balls, cones, flags, etc., etc. The 
 name and number of each light-vessel are painted in 
 large letters and figures conspicuously on the sides 
 and stern. These lights from the superior apparatus 
 employed in them, and the great care and attention of 
 inspections and superintendence, under the most rigid 
 instructions in detail (which are printed in large type, 
 and hung in frames in the apartments), are verj' little 
 inferior to the same class of reflector lights, with equal 
 elevations, on shore. Many of them can be seen from 
 the deck of a merchant vessel 12 to 14 miles, while 
 those in this country can only be seen from 3 to 7 
 miles. Refractors have been made by Mr. Letour- 
 neau, of Paris, for light- vessels, which can not fail to 
 be productive of much benefit, and which are, no 
 doubt, destined to render floating lights much more 
 useful to the navigator than they have hitherto been, 
 even in England, where the best reflecting apparatus 
 has been employed for many years. 
 
 " Mode of ascertaining Places of Light-Houses. — No 
 systematic mode of determining where there should he 
 a light-house, or boat, seems to have been followed for 
 any period of years, and hence the lights are so numer- 
 ous on some parts of the coast as to he inconvenient, 
 and on other parts are so few as not to supply, even 
 moderately, the demands of navigation. The princi- 
 ple adopted by the French commissioner of light- 
 houses for placing lights on the coast of France, will 
 be found stated in another part of this report : steadi- 
 ly adhered to, it has prevented the wasteful multipli- 
 cation of lights, and has provided, gradually, those 
 really necessary for facilitating navigation. 
 
 ' ' Plans for Light-Houses, Light- Vessels, etc. — ^No ays- 
 
LIG 
 
 1237 
 
 LIG 
 
 tematic methods appear to have been resorted to to se- 
 cure plans for light-houses, light-boats, lighting appa^ 
 ratus and other accessories, in the United States. The 
 preparation of plans for light-houses, lighting appa- 
 ratus, and other accessories, is the business of an engin- 
 eer. Occasionally architects have been consulted, and 
 the Treasury Department and Congress have some- 
 times devolved the preparation of plans, etc., upon the 
 officers of the corps of topographical engineers. The 
 uncalled-for variety and the inconvenience and ill- 
 adaptation of the structures visited by the Board, show 
 how much the intervention of knowledge is required. 
 In discussing the details of these works, this fact will 
 constantly appear. Professional skill is essential to 
 efficiency and economy. Ill-contrived light-houses re- 
 quire numerous additions, and do not then answer 
 their purpose. Badly-constructed ones are expensive 
 in repairs, besides injuring the apparatus and stores 
 contained in them. Badly-contrived lamps waste the 
 oil, and answer imperfectly the purpose of lighting. 
 Mirrors badly made, unskillfully arranged, unscientific 
 in their forms and adjustments, cause a loss of light 
 which is paid for in oil. Imperfect ventilation causes 
 a bad light. Unscientific arrangements of the lantern 
 in regard to glazing, painting, etc., cause a waste of 
 light. The proper arrangement of these matters is the 
 study and occupation of a profession. The neglect of 
 the proper conditions is wasteful. Plans of light- 
 houses of different classes, with modifications adapted 
 to different localities, would promote economy by the 
 frequent repetition of the same pieces, which in stone- 
 work, brick-work, iron-casting, carpenter's-work, gla- 
 zier's-work, and the like, is productive always of a 
 decided economy. The important subject of alarm 
 signals has not received the attention which it de- 
 serves. In the English light-houses the gong is used 
 instead of the bell, to give signals in case of fogs, and 
 no attempt appears to have been made in this countrj' 
 to compare the value of the two Irinds of alarm sig- 
 nals. The fog-whistle, introduced by Mr. DaboU and 
 recommended by the Board, has been found to be far 
 more efficient than the bell. The Board had ample 
 means of forming correct conclusions as to the relative 
 merits of the two modes of warning the mariner in 
 fogs, and found no difficulty in deciding in favor of the 
 whistle for positions where it can be put up. 
 
 " Mr. Alexander Gordon, civil engineer, of London, 
 proposed to the select committee of the House of Com- 
 mons on light-houses, in 1845, that the gong employed 
 on board of light-vessels should be superseded by the 
 use of a shrill scream or whistle, such as the railway 
 whistle, giving it sound by a bellows, and having the 
 sound directed around the horizon by reflectors, similar 
 to those of Bordier Marcet for reflecting light. The 
 reflection of the sound of the air- whistle of Mr. DaboU 
 is believed to be practicable by the means suggested by 
 Mr. Gordon ; at any rate, the importance of the sub- 
 ject warrants the small expenditure which would be 
 required to test it experimentally. The discharge of 
 heavy guns has been recommended, and would be 
 effective if there were sufficient force at the light- 
 houses to load and fire them. They would always be 
 expensive, however, every discharge of a 24-pounder 
 gun costing about $1. The fog-bells examined by the 
 United States' Board were not placed so as to produce 
 tlie best effect. That at Boston harbor was inclosed in 
 a frame building, the sides of which effectually dead- 
 ened the sound in two directions. It is time that this 
 subject received full and careful investigation by ex- 
 periments under the direction of scientific men. Be- 
 sides this class of signals, those intended to guide 
 vessels entering into barred harbors, when (from heavy 
 weather or other causes) pilots can not be had, should be 
 carefully systematized. The system should be adopted 
 of Captain Fenoux, of the French navy, depending upon 
 the positions of a movable triangle fixed to a pole or 
 mast, or to a light-house ; and that of Lieutenant John 1 
 
 Eodgers, United States' navy, by a flag, to be used in 
 a boat or on shore. Surf-boats and life-boats should 
 be furnished to certain light-house stations, and the 
 means of readilj' providing crews for them in time of 
 need, be furnished. They should be planned by, and 
 constructed under the direction of, competent persons, 
 who would study all the details of their use, and make 
 it certain that when required they could be launched 
 and effectively manned. The trustees of the Liver- 
 pool Dock Company (England) have, under the admi- 
 rable management of their very able marine surveyor 
 of that port, a most perfect system for the relief of the 
 shipwrecked. 
 
 "There are nine life-boats stationed at different 
 points around the bay and port of Liverpool. The 
 boats are constructed on the most approved principles ; 
 kept on carriages in the boat-houses near the shore, 
 and horses provided to enable them to proceed to the 
 most advantageous spot for launching. A gun is 
 placed at each station to summon the crew, besides 
 distress flags placed at each light-house, light-ship, 
 and telegraph station. The arrangements are so per- 
 fect that in many instances the life-boat has been 
 manned, launched, and on her way to the wreck in 17 
 or 18 minutes from the time the distress signal was 
 made. The life-boats are manned by picked boatmen 
 of Liverpool and picked fishermen along the coast, who 
 reside near the boat stations, and who are familiar with 
 the banks, swashways, tides and currents, in Liverpool 
 Bay. The whole of the boatmen are Icept on constant 
 and permanent pay, and are regularly mustered and 
 exercised once a month, and no expense has been 
 spared in rendering the boats, their equipments and 
 crews, as perfect as possible.' The Liverpool arrange- 
 ments are well worthy of imitation for many parts of 
 our dangerous coast (especially during the winter 
 months). The necessitj- can not too strongly be urged 
 for the employment of more efficient means than now 
 exist at the points where life-boats have been author* 
 ized by law to be placed. 
 
 *' Light-Boais and their Accessories. — The first cost, 
 large annual expense for maintenance and repairs, and 
 the rapid decay of light-vessels, render this mode of 
 lighting verj' objectionable, independentlj' of the in- 
 effectual manner in which they subserve the purposes 
 of warning the mariner of danger. That this descrip- 
 tion of lights has not received the attention in this 
 country due to its importance as a necessary adjunct 
 to a proper system of sea-coast illumination, is very 
 evident to the Board. 
 
 " That there are many points on our extended sea- 
 coast requiring to be lighted, which will not admit 
 of any other means, is also evident. It therefore be- 
 comes necessary to select those means least objection- 
 able, in an economical point of view, and best adapted 
 to the desired end. The rapid decay of timbers, espe- 
 cially on our southern coast, would seem to suggest 
 the propriety of employing more durable materials. It 
 is stated by the general superintendent of lights that 
 these vessels last from 5 to 10 years. To obviate the 
 necessity for renewing them at such short periods iron 
 vessels might, with great propriety, be substituted. 
 The experiment has been tried in Europe with perfect 
 success. The advantages of iron over wood for the 
 construction of light-vessels are self-evident. Dura- 
 bility, buoyancy, and econom)' of first cost, are the ad- 
 vantages, without any conceivable disadvantages that 
 could arise from their introduction. 
 
 '* The inferiority of those vessels seen by the Board, 
 the large sums appropriated annually for their support 
 and repair, and the small amount of usefulness arising 
 from their employment, warrant the Board in recom- 
 mending a better class of vessels ; to be built of iron, 
 and filled with the best parabolic reflectors and Argand 
 lamps, similar to the north-west light-ship at Liver- 
 pool and those generally employed by the Trinity 
 House Board and Irish Board. Proper distinguishing 
 
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 marks by day, as well as the distinctions of tlie lights 
 at night, should not be neglected, and the Board can 
 not do better than recommend the Liverpool and other 
 English light-vessels as proper models, in every respect 
 worthy of imitation. There are many points on our 
 southern, coast, especially in the sounds and bays, 
 where small light-vessels are now placed, at which 
 screw-pile foundations might be substituted with great 
 advantage to the navigator, and in an economical point 
 of view. Structures on screw-piles costing in the ag- 
 gregate much less than the light-boats, and affording 
 a more powerful and efficient light, would conduce 
 greatly to the efficiency and econom}"- of this branch of 
 the lighting service of the United States. The appa- 
 ratus of the light-vessels of this countiy is so far inferior 
 that most intelligent and disinterested persons engaged 
 in commerce and navigation pronounce them useless. 
 The example of the Trinity House corporation, Liver- 
 pool lights establishments, etc., etc., in fitting up their 
 light-ships with 21-inch parabolic reflectors and Argand 
 lamps and burners, has not been followed in this coun- 
 try. While the light-vessels of this countrj' are com- 
 paratively useless, those of Great Britain are in many 
 instances equal, and in all nearly so, to those placed 
 in towers on the shore. The introduction of movable 
 machinery, with the view to distinguishing these 
 lights, is not of very recent date in Europe, though 
 not known here. 
 
 " The removal of light-vessels from dangerous and 
 important points on the coast, without due notice (a 
 source of almost universal complaint by masters of 
 vessels), is an evil that can not be remedied too soon. 
 It has not been xaa,ny days since the finest steam-frigate 
 in the navy struck on a dangerous shoal, properly laid 
 down on the coast-survey chart, in consequence of the 
 absence of the light-vessel from her position. Light- 
 vessels seldom break away from their m^oorings in En- 
 gland, and are never taken away from their positions 
 without previously placing a substitute. This branch 
 of the lighting service of the country is probablj' the 
 most defective. Properly modeled, built, and moored, 
 light- vessels, fitted with the best apparatus, and placed 
 under the charge of competent masters, with ample 
 crews, governed by the most rigid rules and regular 
 tions, and subjected to frequent xisitation and inspec- 
 tion, can alone subserve the great interests of naviga- 
 tion, in this branch of the lighting service. 
 
 ^^ Manner and Frequency of Inspection—Persons hy 
 whom made, — All experience shows that frequent in- 
 spections of light-houses are essential to maintaining 
 an efficient system. These inspections, by competent 
 persons (engineers of the corps of Fonts et Chaus^es) are 
 carefuUj' provided for in France, by members of the 
 Trinity Board in England, and by the engineers of local 
 establishments, such as that of the Port and Bay of 
 Liverpool, and by the engineers and their assistants 
 of the establishments of Scotland and Ireland. The 
 vigilance which is secured by inspections at irregular 
 intervals is of greater value than even the direct re- 
 sults of an examination. Our system, at present is 
 quite deficient in this respect ; a single annual visit 
 from the collectors, who are superintendents of lights, 
 and the visit of the employee who delivers supplies to 
 the light-house, etc. (the latter, in some districts, 
 being the only inspection), is obviously insufficent. 
 (See Senate Doc. No. 428, 1st session, 29th Congress.) 
 The evident state of preparation in the light-houses at 
 which the visits of the Board were expected, showed 
 that good effects would flow from a system of inspec- 
 tion. Such a system could be organized with very 
 little, if any, additional expense to the grovemment ; 
 which will be discussed in detail in another part of this 
 report. The efficiency which would be gained by 
 thorough inspection would justify additional expendi- 
 ture, if it could not be reached without it ; but it is 
 believed to be clearly demonstrated elsewhere in this 
 report, that the present annual expenditure for com- ' 
 
 mission on purchases, distributing supplies, and nom- 
 inal inspections, would he ample, under the sj'-stem pro- 
 posed by the Board, to produce these desirable and 
 beneficial results. Better have fewer lights and effective, 
 than many without efficiency. In the district of New 
 York the collector emploj's an assistant, who is charged 
 with the care of the lights, beacons, buoys, etc., and 
 who has under his charge a small vessel for furnishing 
 supplies, visiting the lights, replacing buoys when 
 displaced, and the like. The zeal of this gentleman 
 has been servicable in the management of this district ; 
 and were it guided by good instructions, and sustained 
 by occasional visits of a competent general inspector, 
 would produce still better results. 
 
 ^^ Positions of Beacons, Buoys^ etc. — As a general rule, 
 only seamen familiar with hydrography, and pUots, 
 know what beacons, buoys, and sea-marks are required, 
 and where and how they should be placed. The 
 beacons, buoys, and sear-marks which would suffice 
 for pilots, with their accurate knowledge of natural 
 and artificial objects available for safe navigation, are 
 not always sufficient for mariners generally. Their 
 object is not to dispense with the services of the pilot, 
 but to furnish him with marks, etc., to provide for 
 cases of emergency, when the vessel must enter, and 
 may not be provided with a pilot. Small coasting 
 vessels, carrying freights which do not pay well, can 
 not afford to pay pilotage. The necessity for the 
 beacons, buoys, and sea-marks recently and at present 
 provided for by law, is inquired into and reported 
 upon by the superintendent of the coast survey, on the 
 examination of officers of the work, and by the chief 
 of the Topographical Bureau. They are then usually 
 placed by pilots or seamen, but sometimes by the 
 officers of the coast survey. When required to be 
 removed on account of ice, or for repairs, or when 
 displaced, they are replaced by contract by the year, 
 under the authority of the local superintendent. The 
 duty of replacing buoys driven from their moorings is 
 neither superintended nor executed in a proper man- 
 ner. The buoys are usually placed by pilots (who 
 contract to perform the service) bj' compass bearings, 
 ranges, or by guess ; and it has been remarked by the 
 surve3''ors, that in many cases their places are so much 
 changed in different j'^ears as to produce error, and 
 eyen danger. The coast survey officers place them 
 by the kno\vn positions of three suitable objects on 
 shore — a method known as the three-point problem, 
 measming the angles with a sextant. This is the true 
 mode of placing them ; and no person should be per- 
 mitted to put them down who is not competent to use 
 that instrument. When placed, it is indispensable 
 that their position should be verified by a competent 
 officer, that he should report in relation to them to the 
 local or general superintendent, and that he should 
 inspect their positions from time to time, and always 
 when, by accident or design, they have been moved. 
 
 '* Colm^ing and Numbering Buoys. — Until the passage 
 of the recent law (1850), in regard to coloring buoys, 
 the local superintendents changed the colors at pleasure, 
 often introducing the utmost confusion. No notice of 
 such ctiange being given to the general superintend- 
 ent, no changes could be made in the charts of the 
 coast, and the worst consequence might have resulted. 
 Wise legislation has checked this ; but it is still true, 
 that the examination of positions, colors, and num- 
 bers, should be made by competent inspectors, and 
 reported to the Department. Plain as are the direc- 
 tions of the law in regard to coloring and numbering 
 buoys, there is known one important port in which the 
 provisions of the law have been completely misunder- 
 stood, so that a navigator running by the buoys must 
 put his vessel, if of considerable draught, on the bar. 
 
 "Sufficient care has not been bestowed upon the 
 buo3'0 generally, under the law of 1850. The paint 
 used for coloring has not been, in any single instance 
 that the Board has seen, of the best quality. To carry 
 
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 out the design of the act of Congress, the red especially 
 should be of the best quality of red lead, the black of 
 the glossiest, and the white of the purest white. 
 Spanish brown and dirty black are difficult to distin- 
 guish from each other. Such may be seen almost 
 everywhere along our entire coast. The spar-buoys, 
 being the most common in this country, are inefficient ; 
 difficult to give easily distinguished marks or num- 
 bers, and from their peculiar shape, size, and improper 
 mooring, are too often at such an angle with the sur- 
 face of the water as to render them exceedingly diffi- 
 cult to be seen. Can and nun-buoys are employed, 
 but not to a great extent, and those used are much 
 too small. The boat-buoys, used chiefly on the east- 
 ern coast are very inefficient. In some of the rivers, 
 barrel-buoys, equal in capacity to about a sisty-gallon 
 cask, are emploj-ed. Iron buoys have been authorized, 
 by special act of Congress, for the Columbia River, 
 rivers in Texas, Hatteras Shoals, etc. The moorings 
 of buoys in the United States are, as a general rule, 
 very, defective. The weight of the blocks of granite, 
 or sinkers of iron, and size of chains, are not sufficient. 
 For want of proper inspection, buoys frequently sink 
 at their moorings, and part their chains. Too much 
 care can not. be talcen to guard against those casual- 
 ties, especially in important channels : in rivers and 
 on sand-bars, lodgments of this kind may destroy a 
 valuable channel. The important duty of raising and 
 replacing buoys should not be left to the discretion of 
 contractors. The kind of buoys required, their ma- 
 terial, etc., should all be provided for by competent 
 persons. In regard to distinguishing them, the Board 
 will elsewhere make further' remarks. The numbers, 
 as now placed upon the buoys, are very ineffective. 
 The law in regard to coloring and numbering them,' 
 however, is deemed all-sufficient. 
 
 " Notice to Mummers in regard to Changes. — This is a 
 subject which, in the opinion of the Board, requires 
 more attention than has ever been given to it in this 
 country. It is not sufficient to publish changes in a 
 local newspaper. They should be published, as far in 
 advance of the proposed change as possible, in all the 
 leading commercial newspapers, nautical periodicals, 
 and by placards in large type, with conspicuous head- 
 ings, and distributed at home and abroad, at the cus- 
 tom-houses, and offices of the differest consulates. In 
 making changes, they should take place at the precise 
 time designated,! and nothing should prevent the per- 
 fect fulfillment of the originally published design. 
 Changes of lights in light-houses, removal or placing 
 of light- vessels, should never take place with less than 
 six months' notice : a year's notice would be better. 
 Should a light-vessel break adrift, although replaced 
 within a few days, a notice of both facts sliould ap- 
 pear together in the same papers, and on the same 
 placards, as the navigator might otherwise see the no- 
 tice of the breaking adrift, and not the other, and there- 
 by be deceived. This is one of the most important 
 branches of the lighting service, and one that can 
 never be perfectly systematized without a corps of com- 
 petent' and efficient local inspectors'. In this respect 
 the Trinity House, Northern Lights, Irish Board, Liv- 
 erpool Dock Trustees, etc., are good models. Notices 
 of proposed changes of lights, buoys, beacons, and of 
 new lights, are to be fonnd in every part of the globe, 
 and always placed where the navigator is obliged to 
 go before leaving port^— the clearance office, and at the 
 office of the consul of his conntrj''. The admirable 
 system followed by these independent boards, in all 
 the niinute details of the service, for the 'benefit of 
 commerce and navigation, can not be too highly com- 
 mended. Those who have been around the world, and 
 visited nearly every principal port it contains, never 
 saw a notice to mariners relating to an American 
 light, except by chance, in some comer of a newspa- 
 per, and that probably a merely local one. 
 
 " Changes arising from casualties should bo pub- 
 
 lished ■widely in the manner prescribed, and at the 
 same time reported by the local inspector to the De- 
 partment. No changes should be made except on the 
 authority of the Department, which should authorize 
 at least six months' notice, in all cases of lights. The 
 looseness of the system in this country heretofore in 
 these respects is proved by the fact, that although a 
 circular was issued by the general superintendent of 
 lights, etc., directing the collectors, acting as superin- 
 tendents of lights to report to the superintendent of 
 the coast survey all changes in regard to lights, bea^ 
 cons, buoj's, etc., that they might be placed upon the 
 charts, but one collector ever complied with the direc- 
 tion. Changes which otherwise would be improve- 
 ments, unless known to the mariner, become snares. 
 No list of beacons, buoys, or'sea-marks exists; no de- 
 scription of them can be obtained, except by a general 
 visitation and inspection of them along the whole 
 coast. Having failed to obtain the required informa- 
 tion, efforts have been made by the Board to procure 
 this important information from the local superintend- 
 ents, for the purpose of arranging a descriptive list of 
 them. So far only a few returns have been made, 
 and some of these not full enough to carry out the de- 
 sign. European light-house boards do not confine 
 themselves to giving notice to mariners of proposed 
 changes, etc., in their own lights, etc., but they cause 
 those in foreign languages to be translated, and as 
 ■widely disseminated as their own. The Trinity House 
 corporation of London causes the notices relating to 
 lights, etc., on the French coasts, as well as on their 
 own, to be published in the commercial papers in this 
 country. 
 
 " Relative EcoTwmy of Rejkctor amd Lens Systems. — 
 Now, although the most decided results in favor of 
 economy are to be expected from the reformation of 
 the minor classes of lights, we do not therefore con- 
 clude that we should begin with them, because human- 
 ity, and the more general interests of commerce, and 
 the safety of our ships-of-war, have their claims. Our 
 ships-of-war, vessels engaged in foreign commerce, all 
 that arrive on our coast from distant voyages, are 
 more liable to suffer from the inferiority of our sea- 
 coast lights, or higher class lights, than are our coast- 
 ers from the deficiencies of the inferior classes" and, 
 accordingly, it is along our exterior coast line that we 
 find occurring the greater number and the inost disas- 
 trous ship^wrecks during the stormy seasons. 
 
 " The minor lights are usually so multiplied, and the 
 localities inside of the general coast line so well known 
 to the navigators of our bays and rivers, that they can 
 not often be at a loss for a secure harbor somewhere in 
 hea'vy weather ; whereas the sea-coast lights, at times 
 comparatively few, and even deficient in number, 
 and at others complicated by their superabundance, 
 occupy positions full of danger to the na^vigator. It is, 
 therefore, of the first importance to ships arriving on 
 the coast from distant voyages, that the light which 
 they first make should be clearly visible at the greatest 
 distance from the land, and that it should be so dis- 
 tinct in character as not to be confounded "with other 
 lights ; and it is not less important that we should not 
 delay giving to such lights all the perfection they are 
 capable of receiving j and having accomplished this 
 purpose "with respect to the most prominent and im- 
 portant, we should extend the improvement to the 
 lights of inferior classes and of minor importance, 
 although by so doing we were to save at the outset 
 something less than if we were to begin by reforming 
 the minor lights, because in the mean time our foreign 
 commerce and the navy might be suffering to an 
 amount far surpassing that which might be saved to 
 the revenue. 
 
 " Mr. Alan Stevenson says : ' In comparing the fixed 
 dioptric and the fixed' catoptric apparatus, the results 
 may be summed up rmder the following heads : 
 
 " ' 1. It is impossible, by means of any practical 
 
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 combination of paraboloidal reflectors, to distribute 
 round the horizon a zone of light of exactly equal 
 intensity, while this may be easily effected by diop- 
 tric means in the manuer already described. In other 
 words, the qualities required in fixed lights can not be 
 so fully obtained by reflectors as bj' refractors. 
 
 *' ' 2. The average light produced in every azimuth 
 by burning one gallon of oil in Argand lamps with 
 reflectors, is only about one fourth of that produced 
 by burning the same quantity in the dioptric appara- 
 tus, and the annual expenditure is £140 3s. 8d. less 
 for the entire dioptric light than for the catoptric 
 light. 
 
 " ' 3. The characteiistic appearance of the fixed re- 
 flecting light in any one azimuth, would not be 
 changed by the adoption of the dioptric method, al- 
 though its increased mean power would render it vis- 
 ible at a greater distance in every direction. 
 
 " ' i. From the equal distribution of the rays, the 
 dioptric light would be observed at equal distances on 
 eveiy point of the horizon — an effect which can not be 
 fully attained by any practicable combination of para- 
 boloidal reflectors. 
 
 '" 5. The inconveniences arising from the uncertainty 
 which attends the use of the mechanical lamp, are not, 
 perhaps so much felt in a fixed as in a revolving light, 
 because the greater simplicity of the apparatus admits 
 of easier access to it, in case of accident. 
 
 ***** 
 
 " ' There can be but little doubt that the more fully 
 the system of Fresnel is understood, the more cer- 
 tainly will it be preferred to the catoptric system of 
 illuminating light-houses, at least in those countries 
 where this important branch of administration is con- 
 ducted with the care and solicitude which it deserves. 
 
 " ' The expense of fitting up a revolving light with 
 twenty-four reflectors, ranged on three faces, may be 
 estimated at j£1298, and the annual maintenance, in- 
 cluding the interest of the first cost of the apparatus, 
 may be calculated at £418 8s. 4d. The fitting up of a 
 revolving light with eight lenses, and the diacatoptric 
 accessory apparatus, may be estimated at £1459, and 
 the annual maintenance at £354 10s. 4d. It therefore 
 follows, that to establish, and afterward maintain, a 
 catop(i:ic light of the kind called revolving white, with 
 a frame of three faces, each equal in power to a face of 
 the dioptric light of Cordouan, an annual outlay of £63 
 18s. more would be required for the reflecting light than 
 for the lens light ; while for a light of the l^ind called 
 revolving red and white, whose frame has four faces, 
 at least 86 reflectors would be required in order to 
 make the light even approach an equality to that of 
 Cordouan ; and the catoptric light would, in that case, 
 cost £225 more than the dioptric light.' 
 
 " Convert these two sums into our currency, and it 
 will be seen that we have a saving in the first case of 
 $309, and in the second case of $1089 per annum. 
 
 " The effect produced by burning an equal quantity 
 of oil in revolving lights in either system, may be 
 estimated as follows : In a revolving light, like that of 
 Skerryvore, having eight sides, each lighting with its 
 greatest power a horizontal sector of 4°, we have 32° 
 (or units) of the horizon illuminated with the full 
 power of 3200 Argand flames, and consequently an 
 aggregate effect of 102,400 flames produced by burn- 
 ing the oil required for 16 reflectors ; while in a catop- 
 tric apparatus like that of the old light at Inchkeith, 
 having seven sides of one reflector each, lighting with 
 its greatest power a sector of 4° 25', we have nearly 
 31° (or units) of the horizon illuminated with the full 
 power of 400 Argand flames, and consequently an ag- 
 gregate effect of 12,400 flames as the result of burning 
 the oil required for seven reflectors. Hence the effect 
 of burning the same quantity of oil in revolving lights 
 in either system will be represented respectively by 
 16-7, 12,400=28,343 for the catoptric, contrasted with 
 102,400 for the dioptric light ; or, in other words, re- 
 
 volving lights on the dioptric principle use the oil 
 more economically than those on the catoptric plan, 
 nearly in the ratio of 3-6 to 1. 
 
 " Let us, then, take the appropriation for oil for the 
 lights in the United States, deducting the quantity 
 used in the four towers fitted with dioptric apparatus, 
 and divide it by 3'6, the proportion to 1, in favor of the 
 lens apparatus. 
 
 " 1851-2. — ^Appropriation for oil (less oil burned in 
 lens lights) $122,629 55 ; 1 to 3-6 will give necessary 
 quantity for lens lights of equal power, $34,063 68 : 
 annual saving for oil by this mode of comparison, 
 $88,565 57. Glass chimnej'S, wicks, and repairs of 
 lighting apparatus, will be in the proportion of not 
 less than 310 to 3193 ; that is, 1 to 10. Amount apr 
 propriated for these objects, minus the expenses of the 
 same articles, for the four lens lights, $15,162 30 ; 1 
 to 10 will give the necessary expense with lenses, 
 $1216 23 : annual saving by this comparison in these 
 articles, $13,646 07. 
 
 " The oil being the most bulky article of supplies, it 
 may be assumed that the saving in oil will be a fair 
 proportion for the transportation, the more especially 
 as spare lamps, burners, reflectors, and the great wear 
 and tear of the Argand lamps, burners, and reflectors, 
 is not included in the estimate of annual saving. 
 
 " Amount appropriated for the transportation and 
 delivery of oil and other annual supplies, 1851-2, 
 $11,437 ; 1 to 3'6 will give the necessary expense for 
 this article, $3176 94: annual saving with lenses, 
 $8260 06. It may be urged that there would not be so 
 great a saving in transportation by the change ; of 
 that, the experiment alone can decide. By the aid of 
 a small steamer, one half of the amount appropriated 
 could be saved in money, while very important ad- 
 ditional service would be rendered in the way of in- 
 spections, and more frequent visits to the principal 
 sea-coast lights. Taking, then, the savings of this 
 mode of comparison, it will be as follows : for oil in 
 one year, $88,565 57 ; for wicks, chimnej's, repairs of 
 apparatus, etc., $13,646 07 ; for transportation, $8260 
 06 : total annual saving, $110,471 70. Making within 
 a fraction the same amount which would be saved 
 annually by the introduction of the lens apparatus by 
 this comparison, that was shown by taking the lights 
 in their regular order of powers, and comparing with 
 orders of as nearly as possible equal powers in the 
 Fresnel system. Nothing therefore can be clearer 
 than the results thus set forth. 
 
 " The effect produced by the consumption of a gal- 
 lon of oil in a fixed light, with 26 refiectors, which is 
 the smallest number that can be properly employed, 
 may be estimated as follows : The mean effect of the 
 light spread over the horizontal sector, substituted by 
 one reflector, as deduced from measurements made at 
 each horizontal degree, by the method of shadows, is 
 equal to 174 unassisted Argand burners. If, then, 
 this quantity be multiplied by 360 degrees, we shall 
 obtain an aggregate effect of 62,640 ; which, divided 
 by 1,040 (the number of gallons burned during a year 
 in 26 reflectors), would give 60 Argand flames for the 
 effect of the light maintained throughout the year by 
 the combustion of a gallon of oil. On the other hand, 
 the power of a catadioptric light of the first order, like 
 that lately established at Girdleness, may be estimated 
 thus : The mean effect of the light produced by joint 
 effect of both the dioptric and catadioptric parts of a 
 fixed light apparatus, may be valued at 450 Argand 
 flames; which, multiplied by 360 degrees, gives an 
 aggregate of 162,000 ; and if this quantity be divided 
 by 570 (the number of gallons burned by the great 
 lamp in a year) we shall have about 284 Argand 
 flames for the effect of the light produced by the com- 
 bustion of a gallon of oil. It would thus appear, that 
 in fixed lights the French apparatus, as lately im- 
 proved, produces as the average effect of the consump- 
 tion of the same quantity of oil over the whole horizon, 
 
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 upward of four times the amount of light that is 
 obtained by the catoptric mode, although in certain 
 directions, opposite the axes of each reflector, the 
 catoptric light is fnlly 50 per centum more powerful 
 than the dioptric light. 
 
 " But the great superiority of the dioptric method 
 rests chiefly upon Its perfect fulfillment of an import- 
 ant condition required in a iixed light, by distributing 
 the rays equally in everj' point of the horizon. Hence, 
 the saving for fixed lights in the same amount of oil, 
 etc., appropriated for as before, will be $91,971 94 ; 
 saving on other articles, $22,226 07 : total saving per 
 annum, $114,198 01. 
 
 " It may, and probably will be urged, that a large 
 portion of this annual saving will be absorbed in the 
 wages of additional keepers. In answer to that, it 
 may be stated, that in the comparisons of reflecting 
 and refracting systems in Europe, the same number 
 of keepers is required for both, of equal class or order, 
 and therefore the ascertained saving is a net annual 
 gain. 
 
 *' In the United States, as a general rule, but one 
 keeper (there being only 14 assistants belonging to an 
 establishment of 301 light-stations, fitted with reflector 
 apparatus) is attached to a light-station. To render 
 the larger, or sea-coast lights efiicient and safe, two 
 keepers should be attached to each station having a 
 single tower, and three to those with two towers, 
 whether fitted with reflectors or lenses. 
 
 " However, as it may be contended, that inasmuch 
 as our reflector lights in general have only one keeper, 
 and that the change to the lens system would require 
 two to each light of the first or second class or orders, 
 it may not be inappropriate to see how many of the 
 present lights on our coast would be required to be 
 changed, and the increased expense for an additional 
 keeper to each. From the north-eastorn boundarj' to 
 the Eio Grande there are 38 positions which ought to 
 be fitted with the most powerful first order lenses. 
 
 " There are points between some of these first order 
 lights, which ought to be fitted with second order lens 
 apparatus, making a total of about 50 lights of the first 
 and second orders. An additional keeper for each, at 
 the rate of $300 per annum, will be $15,000. 
 
 *' If this sum be deducted from the total already 
 shown (which, on the contrary, ought to be added to 
 the present expenditures, to render our lights in that 
 department equal to European lights), there will still 
 be an annual saving of $95,471 70, or $99,198 01. If 
 additional evidence were required to prove so plain a 
 proposition, that the reflector system is more expens- 
 ive than the lens system in the proportion of 3'6 to 1, 
 disregarding the great superiority of the lens sj'stem 
 for all the useful purposes of the mariner, it would be 
 found in the action of the Trinity House corporatidn, 
 of Deptford Stroud, London ; Northern Lights commis- 
 sioners, of Edinburg ; and the Ballast Board, of Dub- 
 lin, Ireland. 
 
 "In 1835 the first lens apparatus was introduced 
 into Scotland. 
 
 ' ' In 1837 the first lens was introduced into England, 
 under the Trinitj' House corporation ; and since 1845 
 the first lens light was lighted in Ireland. 
 
 " Now (1851) there are veiy few lights fitted with 
 reflectors in Scotland ; the .commissioners having 
 abandoned the use of that apparatus, and substituted 
 for it the Fresnel and holophotal svstem of Mr. Thomas 
 Stevenson; 
 
 The Trinity House (London) has upward of 20 lens 
 lights of the first and second order, besides numerous 
 fourth order harbor lights. Lens lights are also being 
 introduced into Ireland ; the precise number, however, 
 now existing there, is no»known, as thej' are not 
 marlied in their printed lists, and no information has 
 yet been received from that board. 
 
 " It is worthy of remark, that these three light- 
 house boards of Great Britain and Ireland, are close 
 
 corporations, deriving their means entirely from light- 
 dues levied upon the shipping of all nations, including 
 that of their own. They derive no pecuniary advan- 
 tages from the government, and are only under its 
 general control ; consequently their acts are independ- 
 ent of Parliamentary legislation. 
 
 "If these boards had found the recommendations 
 of the select committee of the House of Commons of 
 1845, to use less expensive apparatus and combusti- 
 bles in their lights, with a view to the reduction of 
 light dues, had not been based upon sound principles, 
 they would have had no inducement to follow them ; 
 for whether the lights are economically kept or not, 
 good or bad, the same amount of light-money would 
 be collected. It is, therefore, plain that the introduc- 
 tion of the lens apparatus, and the colza oil, into the 
 establishments under the control of these independent 
 corporations, was the result of close examination and 
 trial by those charged with, and most interested in the 
 subject. The introduction after France, first by Hol- 
 land, and successively by Belgium, Hanover, Prussia, 
 Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Russia, Italy, Spain, 
 Portugal, and Brazil, and the colonies of the respect- 
 ive nations, goes far to counteract any prejudice which 
 may exist in any quarter, of the globe against this 
 inimitaUe illuminating apparatus for light-houses. 
 
 " Notwithstanding the renovations of English, 
 Scotch, and Irish lights, and the erection of new tow- 
 ers, fitted with the lens apparatus, a material reduc- 
 tion has been made of late years in the light-dues 
 levied in Great Britain upon shipping. This may in 
 some degree be attributed to the increased amount of 
 commerce and navigation, and the more frequent and 
 rapid intercourse between nations, by the aid of steam 
 navigation ; but, it can not fairly be contended that it 
 is wholly due to that cause, 
 
 " These facts are undoubted, and the deductions 
 from them, it is believed, will, upon the closest scru- 
 tiny, be found to be correct. 
 
 " Mr. Alan Stevenson says, ' It therefore follows, 
 that, b}' dioptric means, the consumption of oil neces- 
 sary for betweeen 14 and 16 reflectors, will produce a 
 light as powerful as that which would require the oil 
 of 24 reflectors in the catoptric system of Scotland ; 
 and, consequently, that there is an excess of oil equal 
 to that consumed by 10 reflectors ; or 400 gallons in 
 the year against the Scotch system. But in order 
 fully to compare the economy of producing two re- 
 volving lights of equal power, by those two methods, 
 it will be necessary to take into the calculation the 
 interest of the first outlay in establishing them.' 
 
 " It is worthy of remark that the French were fol- 
 lowed bj' the Dutch government in introducing lenses 
 into their light-houses. 
 
 " The subject of introducing lenses into the Scotch 
 light-houses was brought before the commissioners of 
 Northern Lights by the Engineer* of that body, at the 
 instance of General Colbj'', of the Royal Engineers, as 
 early as 1824. The Scotch commissioners directed 
 their engineer to visit France, and report upon the 
 lights of that country. At the close of the year 1834, 
 the board directed lenses to be imported for the pur- 
 pose of making experiments. These experiments re- 
 sulted in the recommendation that an important light 
 should be changed from a reflector to a lens apparatus. 
 
 " It is believed the powerful and unanswerable ar- 
 guments contained in the letters of Sir David Brews- 
 ter, in 1833, to the Bell-Rock committee, in favor of 
 lenses, contributed greatlj' to the early introduction 
 of them into the lights of Scotland. 
 
 " Notwithstanding the numerous experiments from 
 1825 to 1834, made by the Northern Lights commis- 
 sioners to test the relative merits of the two systems, 
 it was not until the latter year that decisive steps were 
 taken to decide the question. 
 
 * Robert Stevenson, 
 
UG 
 
 1242 
 
 LIG 
 
 In October, 1835, the reflecting apparatus of the 
 revolying light at Inchkeith was removed, and diop- 
 tric apparatus substituted. 
 
 "So great was the satisfaction which this cliange 
 produced, that another light was immediately changed 
 to a lens light. The second lens light erected in Soot- 
 land was at the Isle of May, in September, 1836. 
 
 "The Trinity House, London, fitted the Start Point 
 light with a lens apparatus in 1837. 
 
 "The Turkish government employed an English 
 engineer in 1836-7, to make experiments with the 
 Fresnel lenses, Drummond's light, etc., to enable it to 
 decide upon the best illuminating apparatus for the 
 Bosphorus from the Black Sea. The letter upon this 
 subject from William Henry Barlow, Esq., which was 
 read before the Eoyal Society of Loudon, will be found 
 to contain much valuable information for those inter- 
 ested in the experiments of light-house navigation. — 
 Vide Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of 
 London, 1837, p. 211. 
 
 * ' Numhcr of Lenses in the World. — At the present 
 moment (1851), there are lens lights of the three first 
 orders (first, second, and third orders), 216, and of the 
 smaller classes, 152 ; making the total number of 
 lenses 368. 
 
 " They are found now in England, Scotland, Ire- 
 land, France, Belgium, the maritime States of Ger- 
 many, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Russia (the Rus- 
 sian government has a French artist established at St. 
 Petersburg, for the manufacture of lenses for their 
 lights), Italy, Spain, Portugal, the Mediterranean, 
 Egypt, Turkey, East and West Indies, Brazil, and, in 
 general, in all the colonial dependencies of the Euro- 
 pean States. One first, two second, and one third or- 
 der, are the only lenses at present in the United 
 States. 
 
 " The three first named were procured in obedience 
 to special acts of Congress, and the third order was 
 placed on the Brandj^wine shoal by the Topographical 
 Bureau. 
 
 " It is understood that the two light-towers now in 
 the course of erection at Sand Key and Carysfort 
 Eeef, under the direction of the Topographical Bureau, 
 are to be fitted with first order lenses. 
 
 "Mr. Stevenson pays this merited tribute to the 
 distinguished savan whose sj'stem is now almost uni- 
 versally admired and adopted throughout the maritime 
 world : ' Fresnel, who is already classed with the 
 greatest of those inventors who extend the boundaries 
 of human knowledge, will thus at the same time re- 
 ceive a place among those benefactors of the species 
 who have consecrated their genius to the common 
 good of mankind ; and, wherever maritime intercourse 
 prevails, the solid advantages which his labors have 
 procured will be felt and acknowledged.' 
 
 "Illumination.- — On areview of this subject, the adop- 
 tion is recommended, as early as practicable, of the 
 lens system instead of that of reflectors, as most effect- 
 ive and economical. 
 
 " It has been shown that the Fresnel lens is essen- 
 tial for sea or lake-coast lights of the first order ; that 
 for those of the second order, or for secondary or bea- 
 con lights, including the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth 
 orders, the useful effect of a lens light is from 3-6 to 4 
 times that of reflector lights of the same class, and 
 that, economically, the reflector lights are 4 times as 
 expensive for oil alone as the lens lights. 
 
 " It has been clearly shown, in discussing this mat- 
 ter, that if it were possible to convert in a moment all 
 the present reflector lights of the United States into 
 lens lights as nearly as possible (though, in almost 
 every instance, they would be superior), of equal or- 
 ders, the annual saving, for oil and other supplies, 
 would be $112,185 27, taking the appropriations of 
 1851-'52 as the basis of the calculation, with, at the 
 same time, an increase of 3J to 4 times as much light 
 from each lantern as at present. 
 
 " If the estimates for 1852-'53 be taken as a basis, 
 then the annual saving may be increased $20,000, 
 which will make the entii'e saving for one year, with 
 all the advantages to be derived from superior lights, 
 $132,185. 
 
 "Add to this sum $40,000, the mean of the value 
 of the lamps and reflectors proposed to be taken from 
 the light-houses, to be fitted first with the lens appa- 
 ratus, and which would be required, under any circum- 
 stances of improvement, for the 42 light vessels already 
 existing, and the sum of $172,185 may be put down as 
 clear profit, with which to purchase lens apparatus for 
 the first year. 
 
 " By appropriating this sum, or as much of it as 
 can be economically and judiciously emploj^ed in im- 
 proving the sea-coast lights, there will be an additional 
 gain, at the end of the first year, in the difference in 
 the cost of oil, etc., under the two systems, for all the 
 apparatus procured with this saving. This saving 
 will go on from year to year, on compound interest, 
 at the rate of 30 to 50 per cent., until, in 5 or 6 years, 
 should the appropriations be made as required to carry 
 out gradually the system, we shall have lights equal 
 to those of France and Great Britain in brilliancy, 
 useful eff'ect, and economy, and apparatus that never 
 requires renewing, without, in the aggregate, having 
 spent one cent more than would have been required 
 for the ordinary service under the present system, 
 with inferior lights, and enormous sums for annual re- 
 pairs and renovations. 
 
 "These estimates are based upon the assumption 
 that the sperm oil now in use is to be continued. 
 Should it be decided, however, to follow the example 
 of nearly the whole maritime world in introducing the 
 colza or rape-seed oil, a saving of 35 to 40 cents per 
 gallon will be gained, equivalent to $40,000 to $45,000 
 more. 
 
 " The price of the first-quality clarified colza oil is, 
 on an average, at the principal markets in France, 72 
 francs the hectolitre, or for a little more than 26 gallons, 
 which is equal to nearly 55^ cents per gallon. Sperm 
 oil, in this country, ranges from $1.30 to $1.50 per 
 gallon, and it is doubtful if a fair quality can be fur- 
 nished at these prices. The supply of the best sperm 
 oil to stand a temperature of 28° Fahrenheit, is not 
 equal to the demand, and no other quality should ever 
 be burnt in a light-house. A few gallons of rape-seed 
 oil have been sent from Havre to the Board, costing 
 about 60 cents per gallon. 
 
 " This important agricultural product (rape-seed) 
 only requires to be introduced favorably to the notice 
 of our planters and farmers, to become a boon to the 
 nation of no ordinary value. Adapted to the soils of 
 nearly every portion of this great countrj', its admira- 
 ble qualities for domestic illumination would soon 
 bring it into favor, and, by its means, expel from our 
 houses the many dangerous fluids now used for the 
 sake only of economy. 
 
 " The experiments made by Fresnel, Faraday, Ste- 
 venson, and other distinguished individuals, have 
 proved, beyond all question, that the colza is not only 
 better than the best sperm oil (an article now very 
 diflicult to procure), but that it will burn 17 hours 
 without coaluag the wicks ; that it will remain in a 
 fluid state in a lower temperature than the best sperm 
 oil, and that it is cheaper by nearly one third. 
 
 " In this countrj', the quantity of sperm oil, inde- 
 pendently of its high price, has not been sufiicient to 
 meet the demands for the various purposes connected 
 with steam machinery, etc., for several years. Lard 
 and other prepared oils have been forced to take the 
 place of it, for these and other purposes for which it 
 is peculiarly adapted. ^ 
 
 " The returns from the fishing grounds show that 
 this branch of commerce is becoming more and more 
 uncertain, and less profitable, every year. When those 
 engaged in the whale fisheries find it unprofitable. 
 
LIG 
 
 1243 
 
 LIG 
 
 they will not pursue it because the government may 
 reqiiire a few thousands of gallons annually. We can 
 not go wrong in this matter, in following the example 
 of other countries. 
 
 " France introduced the rape-seed oil, from convic- 
 tion of its superiority. England, Scotland, Ireland, 
 and the northern powers of Europe generally, have 
 followed ; first from motives of economy, and continue 
 its use from the conviction that it is not only more 
 economical, but is better for light-house purposes than 
 the best winter-strained sperm oil, the only kind used 
 in most lights. Olive-oil has been introduced into the 
 light-houses of Liverpool, England, at a saving of 40 
 per cent, over sperm oil. 
 
 " In the United States, the oil (two kinds, ' winter 
 and summer,' being used) for our lights, is not of the 
 best quality. It is now nearly SO per cent, higher in 
 price than it was a few years since ; and with the pres- 
 ent prospects, it must continue to increase in price so 
 long as the demand is so great for it as at present. 
 
 " It has been proposed that the 38 most important 
 sea-coast lights should be fitted, with as little delay as 
 possible, with first order lenses, and that the Argand 
 lamps and reflectors taken from them (or such of them 
 as may, upon examination, be found to be sufficiently 
 good for that purpose) be used for fitting up the 42 
 light-vessels now existing, which have been pro- 
 nounced by high authority comparatively useless in 
 their present state. Several years would be required 
 to efiect this change, as the new lights authorized by 
 law, amounting to 34, exclusive of those for the coasts 
 of California and Oregon, require illuminating appa- 
 ratus ; and as there are only two establishments from 
 which the lenses could be procured for some time at 
 least, it would not be prudent to demand a larger num- 
 ber at once than could be easily supplied. 
 
 " Having fitted the most important sea-coast lights 
 with the best lens apparatus, as well as the newly 
 authorized lights, by changing thereafter such only of 
 the minor lights as now, or hereafter, require new ap- 
 paratus, would in two or three years place the light- 
 house establishment of this coiintrj- far in advance of 
 its present state in efficiency and economy; 
 
 " To purchase Argand lamps and reflectors for the 
 42 light-vessels, would be to retrograde in light-house 
 illumination at a first cost of $40,000 or $45,000, and 
 an annual waste of $7660 for oil alone ; and of the 
 supplies, to the extent to increase the amount to 
 $10,000, with apparatus which must be frequently re- 
 newed, producing onlj* from one fourth to one sixth 
 the usefulness of the less economical system, which 
 never requires renewing. 
 
 " Taking the estimate for 1852-3 for maintaining 
 the lights of this country as a basis, the present sys- 
 tem costs annually within a fraction of $135,000 more 
 than the same lights would under the lens system. 
 But in so important and humane a branch of the 
 public service as this is, upon the efficient and proper 
 management of which depends, in a greater or less 
 degree, the loss of human life and property, in which 
 every individual in the land is to a certain extent inter- 
 ested personally, mere saving of money, which is by 
 no means always true economj', should not be the only 
 guide. The incalculable benefits to the seaman ; the 
 merchant, who receives the foreign products to gratify 
 the wants of our citizens ; the planter, who- ships his 
 cotton, tobacco, grain, breadstuff's, provisions, naval 
 stores, and the thousands of products of our clime, to 
 the best markets, would seem sufficient to show tiie 
 necessity for this change. 
 
 " By those of our citizens along our southern coasts, 
 from the mouth of Delaware Bay to the Rio Grande, 
 who are now and have ever been suflfering in conse- 
 quence of a badly lighted coast, will this additional 
 reason be best understood and appreciated. Their 
 freight lists and heavy insurances speak out truly on 
 this point. 
 
 "The $7,000,000 worth of property sent into Key 
 West, and there adjudicated for salvage, within the six 
 years prior to January, 1850 (lost to our citizens and 
 our government chiefly), speaks trumpet-tongued on 
 this subject. But this is not all. The wreck lists of 
 Nassau and New Providence exceed by far those of 
 Key West. 
 
 " Let us light our coasts as France and Great Brit- 
 ain have done theirs^ and wreckers will be compelled 
 to turn their attention to other means of livelihood, 
 and the consumers of every class and grade will pay 
 less for their necessaries and luxuries, and the planter, 
 farmer, mechanic, wUl have smaller freight and in- 
 surance bills to pay on their exports. 
 
 " If we assume the necessitj- for changing all of the 
 lights on our coast to lans lights, and give to each one 
 of them its proper power and efficiency, we should 
 have about as follows : 36 first order lens lights, cost- 
 ing for apparatus $244,800; 10 second order lens 
 lights, costing for apparatus $44,000 ; 61 third order 
 lens lights, costing for apparatus $113,460 ; 206 fourth, 
 fifth, and sixth order lens lights, costing, in the ag- 
 gregate, about $92,700; total amount necessary' to 
 purchase lens apparatus for all the lights in the United 
 States, $494,960 ; deduct value of reflectors and lamps 
 for light-vessels at pres/^nt existing, and for proposed 
 ones, $45,000 ; deduct value of present illuminating 
 apparatus, lamps, reflectors, chandeliers, etc., merely 
 estimating the value of the old silver, copper, and 
 iron, say 2500 lamps and reflectors, and 315 chande- 
 liers, at one fifth their cost, $50,000; deduct first 
 year's saving on oil and other supplies, $110,000; 
 total expenditure, $205,000 ; leaving at the end of the 
 first year, with lenses, only a balance of $289,960; 
 saving for four years, $440,000 ; making a gain, at the 
 end of the fifth, of $150,040. 
 
 " Thus, at the end of the fifth year the country will 
 have ' gained $150,000 in money, including interest, 
 and an annual saWng of $110,000, the interest of 
 which will make it $117,600, and aS'ord to the mariner 
 lights equal to the best in the world, by which means 
 every consumer and exporter will derive a pecuniary 
 advantage; and those who go to sea, either from 
 pleasure or necessity, will be doubly insured against 
 shipwreck on our inhospitable coast. 
 
 *' To make the reform in our present light-house 
 system perfect in its illuminating department, it only 
 remains to introduce, in addition to the lenses, the 
 colza or rape-seed oil, which will produce an additional 
 saving, as has already been shown, of about $10,000 
 per annum ; making the grand total, in five years, of 
 $200,000. It may, be contended that, inasmuch as in- 
 terest is included in the saving, it is but fair to allow 
 it on the first cost, which will be, at the end of the 
 second year, $15,397 60 ; third year, $8,797 60 ; fourth 
 year, $2,197 60; making for interest, $26,392 80; 
 still leaving a nett gain, at the end of five years, of 
 $132,647 20, without taking into consideration the 
 saving from the rape-seed oil, if introduced, which 
 would increase it to $182, 647 20 of clear gain at the 
 end of five years, in addition to the annual gain and 
 other advantages already stated. 
 
 "But if we continue to employ reflectors, such as 
 we have now in use and are constantly introducing 
 into our lights, we will not only lose the amount an- 
 nually which has been shown we should gain with 
 lenses, but, in addition to that, these reflectors and 
 lamps will require to be renewed once in 10 to 15 
 years, at a cost verj- little short of that of the lenses, 
 which suff'er no deterioration from long use, and 
 humanity and commerce will continue to suffer for 
 want of good and efficient lights on our coast. 
 
 " Inspection. — Without a rigid system of inspection 
 by competent persons, the light-house system can 
 never be efficient or economical. The whole sea and 
 lake coasts of the United States should be divided into 
 light-house districts, with less regard to geographical 
 
LIG 
 
 1244 
 
 LIG 
 
 than to local lines. For example, the New York dis- 
 trict should embrace all the lights from Watch Hill, 
 including Block Island, Montauk Point, etc., to the 
 Highlands of Navesink, up the bays, including the 
 Raritan, Hackensack, Passaic and North Rivers, to 
 the head of navigation. The Philadelphia or Dela- 
 ware Bay district should embrace the coast from the 
 Barnegat to near Assateague, and up the Delaware on 
 both sides to the head of navigation. The Baltimore 
 or Chesapeake Bay district should embrace all the 
 coast from Assateague to Cape Henrj-, Hampton 
 Roads and tributaries, and Chesapeake Bay and tribu- 
 taries, to the head of navigation. The other districts 
 should be formed upon the same principles. In each 
 of these districts there should be a. local inspector, 
 who should be furnished with the necessary means 
 and facilities for regularly inspecting the lights, at- 
 tending to the wants of the keepers, superintending 
 small repairs, reporting the condition of the* establish- 
 ment, at short intervals of time, to the executive offi- 
 cer or engineer of the Light-House Board, superintend 
 the placing, replacing and renovating buoys, beacons, 
 etc., etc., under the general and special instruction of 
 the Light-House Board, communicated through their 
 executive officer or engineer. 
 
 " For this purpose, there would be required on the 
 lakes two inspectors, and on the Atlantic, Gulf, and 
 north-west coasts, including all the adjacent navigable 
 waters, from 10 to 13 inspectors more, making the 
 whole number required from 13 to 15. 
 
 '* Each of these light-house districts should be 
 placed under the charge of an active and zealous offi- 
 cer of the arm}-- or navy, who should receive all his in- 
 structions from, and be responsible to the Light-House 
 Board, through their executive officer or engineer, and 
 to whom all reports should be made. 
 
 "The facilities for inspectors superintending such 
 repairs, etc., etc., as may be confided to the local in- 
 spector, to be furnished by the light-house vessels, 
 revenue cutters, and such other means as the Treasury' 
 Department may from time to time authorize. 
 
 '* By this mode of inspection, very little if any ad- 
 ditional expense will be incurred, while there will be 
 secured an independent examination of every light on 
 the coast, say from four to six times per annum, b}'' a 
 competent person, whose *uty it will be to inform him- 
 self upon all essential matters connected with this 
 service. In addition to the foregoing means, the rev- 
 enue boarding boats might and would be appropriately 
 put in requisition, as occasion might require, to assist 
 the inspector in his duties in situations where a strict 
 economj'' would not authorize the emploj-ment of a 
 vessel permanently to peform this service. 
 
 "Instead of, as now, contracting with persons to 
 keep the buoys in their places for a certain sum per 
 annum, and who seldom, if ever, perform the service 
 faithfully, the inspector would, under proper instruc- 
 tions, be required to examine the bars, channels, etc., 
 etc., of his district, at regular periods, and always im- 
 mediately after heavy gales of wind to ascertain what 
 buo3'-s are out of position, and to replace them. 
 
 "The inspecting officers would occasionally be ac- 
 companied by the sccretarj'' or engineer to the Light- 
 House Board, or perhaps by both of them ; a thorough 
 system would be provided, which would inevitably be 
 less expensive in the aggregate than that at present 
 existing without specific law. In connection with 
 these inspections, depots for stores, spare buoys, moor- 
 ings, etc., etc., are indispensable in each district. 
 These depots might in most places be at some place 
 requiring but little annual expense, where the buoys 
 and their moorings could be repaired, painted, etc, and 
 where a spare light-vessel might be kept ready for use. 
 There should be at least one spare light-vessel for 
 every three placed in exposed open sea-positions. Du- 
 plicate buoys and moorings should be ready at all 
 times. The Light-House Board should have authority 
 
 to cause buoys to be placed on newly-discovered shoals, 
 wrecks, etc., etc., whenever necessary. By the em- 
 ploj'^ment of these inspectors, the country would derive 
 the benefit of their services without expense, and 
 have an assiirance, from their position and standing, 
 of a faithful execution of their duties. The Board 
 would refer again to the reports of the committee of 
 the Senate and House, already pointed out in this re- 
 port, on this important branch of the lighting service. 
 In connection with this recommendation, the Board 
 would advise that light-keepers be examined, as naval 
 engineers, midshipmen, and cadets are, in reference to 
 qualifications for their appointments ; that they should 
 not be allowed to take charge of the lights without 
 suitable preparation ; nor the more important lights 
 without proportionally higher qualifications ; that such 
 meteorological and tidal observations be required of 
 them in addition to the keeping of suitable registers 
 of lighting, consumption of supplies daily, etc., as may 
 tend to test the capacity of the keepers, and to elevate 
 the standard of information and practical slcUl of them 
 as a class. 
 
 " To Guide Legislation in Extending and Improving 
 Our Present System, of Construction^ Illumination^ In- 
 spection^ and Superintendence. — The seventh section of 
 the act making appropriation for light-houses, light- 
 boats, buoys, etc., approved March 3, 1851, provides, 
 ' That hereafter, in all new light-houses, in all light- 
 houses requiring new lighting apparatus, and in all 
 light-houses as yet unsupplied with illuminating appa- 
 ratus, the lens or Fresnel system shall be adopted, if, 
 in the opinion of the Secretary of the Treasury, the 
 public interest will be subserved thereby.' 
 
 " This is a wise provision. There are verj' few 
 cases, in the opinion of the Board, where the public in- 
 terest will not be greatly subserved by the substitution 
 of the Fresnel lens for the reflectors now employed in 
 illuminating our light-houses. In positions where the 
 light is only required to illuminate a small arc of the 
 horizon, it may be of questionable proprietj' ; but in 
 all such cases, the capable light-house engineer should 
 decide upon the merits of the two kinds of apparatus. 
 In no case requiring one half or more of the horizon 
 to be illuminated, is it believed reflectors ought to be 
 employed, in preference to the lens. There may be 
 occasionally circumstances of a paramount character, 
 which may render the employment of reflectors prefer- 
 able. 
 
 " The ninth section of the act approved March 3, 
 1851, provides, * That the President be, and he is hereby 
 required to cause to be detailed from the engineer corps 
 of the army, from time to time, such officers as may be 
 necessary to superintend the construction and renova- 
 tion of light-houses.' 
 
 " The Board are of opinion that this act is one cal- 
 culated to produce the most beneficial results, in in- 
 creasing the durability of light-house structures, and 
 consequently lessening, to some extent, at least, the 
 present large annual appropriations for renovations 
 and repairs ; and they recommend that no new struct- 
 ure be erected, and no old ones be repaired, except un- 
 der the superintendence of a competent officer of the 
 corps of engineers. 
 
 " The Board are of opinion that, pending the action 
 of Congress upon the subject of improving our lights, 
 etc., much may be done toward introducing a more ef- 
 ficient and economical administration of the establish- 
 ment, by a rigid adherence to the provisions of the 
 seventh and ninth sections of the law of 1851. 
 
 " Locating of Sea and Lahe-coast- Lights. — -The Board 
 have adopted the same principle which has proved so 
 effective in the organization of the French system of 
 lights ; namely, to place a sea-coast light of the first 
 order, in general, everj' 42 nautical miles, so that, as 
 a rule, one light will not be lost sight of until another 
 is above the horizon. If it should be necessary to 
 adopt only two main systems of distinction for these 
 
LIG 
 
 1245 
 
 LIG 
 
 lights into fixed and revolving, then a fixed light 
 shoald be placed between two revolving lights, suit- 
 ably distinguished by flashes, etc., so that no two 
 lights of the same kind should be nearer than 84 miles 
 from each other. Other distinctions, easily described 
 in the published lists, and easilj- comprehended by 
 navigators, which would render all fear of mistakes 
 arising from the want of proper distinctions illusory 
 (without the use of colored media), can be employed. 
 If, however, Mr. Babbage's system prove to be prac- 
 ticable, and be adopted, all doubt in regard to distinc- 
 tions of light will be obviated. The Board have adopt- 
 ed an approximate programme, in this report, for the 
 sea and lake-coast lights, the number of whicli is nec- 
 essary to a full system. Of these many now exist, 
 though not with the requisite range of visibility. 
 There are many locations where the wants of com- 
 merce will not require such lights for many years, 
 though necessarily included in a general programme, 
 
 *' At a full meeting of the Light-house Board, holden 
 on the 6th of January, 1852, the following resolutions 
 were offered and unanimously adopted ; 
 
 "Sesolved, That it is the opinion of this Board, 1. 
 That the Ions or Fresnel system of light-house illumi- 
 nation is the best at present known. 2. That the 
 lens or Fresnel system of light-house illumination is, 
 in ecouom)', brilliancy, power, and usefulness, supe- 
 rior to the best reflector system of illumination in the 
 ratio of about 4 to 1 ; or, in other words, that the lens 
 system is about four times more advantageous than 
 the best reflector system, and at the same time, at an 
 expense, for oil alone, of only one fourth as much as 
 the reflector system. 3. That the lens system of light- 
 house illumination is as well adapted to the coasts of 
 the United States as to those of .the rest of the mari- 
 time world. 4. That while there is no well-founded 
 objection to introducing the lens system of illumina- 
 tion into ■ this country, there is every reason for doing 
 so as rapidly as possible. 5. That the floating lights of 
 this country are comparatively useless to the mariner, 
 in consequence of the very inferior apparatus em- 
 ployed in them, 6. That the reflector lights of the 
 United States are greatly inferior, in usefulness, power, 
 and range,'to the same description of lights in foreign 
 countries generally, but especially to those of Great 
 Britain." 
 
 " The object of these notes is to point out certain im- 
 provements in the use of existing light-houses, by 
 which it shall become almost impossible — 1st, To mis- 
 take any casual light, on shore or at sea, for a light- 
 house ; 2d, Ever to mistake one light-house for another. 
 The plan requires, in most instances, no change in the 
 optical means at present used for condensing and di- 
 recting the illumination of light-houses ; it adds slight- 
 ly to the facility of observing them at great distances, 
 and from its simplicity and generality is equally 
 adapted to the use of all countries. Eevolving-lights 
 must become fixed ; but the mechanism already ex- 
 isting for their rotation may, with little alteration, be 
 employed for the motions required by the new system. 
 The principle by which these objects are to be accom- 
 plished, is to make each light-house repeat its own 
 number continually during the whole time it is lighted. 
 This is accomplished by inclosing the upper part of the 
 glass cylinder of the Argand burner by a thin tube of 
 tin or brass, which, when made to descend slowly be- 
 fore the flame, and then allowed suddenly to start 
 back, will cause an occultation and re-appearance of 
 the light. 
 
 " Congress having authorized lights to be erected 
 on a few of the most prominent and important points 
 to aid the rapidly increasing commerce along that 
 coast, which it is presumed will be fitted with appro- 
 priate lens apparatus, in conformity to the 7th section 
 of the act of 1851, the Board have only added the 
 names of the remaining most prominent points of that 
 coast to tliis list, leaving the more detailed wants of 
 
 this branch of the public service to be developed by 
 the operations of the coast-survey, now in rapid prog- 
 ress for external or sea-coast, and of population and 
 interior communication for local lights. 
 
 "Petit Manan Light-house. — This is a fixed light, 
 53 feet above the level of the sea, situated on the south 
 end of Petit Manan Island, Maine, lat. 44° 22' north, 
 long. 67° 52' west. This light is fitted with 12 lamps 
 and 15-inch reflectors, to illuminate the whole horizon. 
 If the apparatus belonged to the first class, instead of, 
 as it does, to about the fourth, the greatest distance at 
 which it could be seen, under the most favorable cir- 
 cumstances of weather, would be, from a vessel's deck 
 15 feet from the sea-level, about 13 miles. If we take 
 into consideration the small size of the reflectors, and 
 the small number of lamps for so large an arc of the 
 horizon, it is fair to presume this light is seldom seen 
 over 10 miles. Distant from this light to the eastward 
 are Seal Islands, 34 miles (two fixed lights), and Gan- 
 net Bock (flashing light), 46 miles at the mouth of the 
 Bay of Fundy, belonging to the British government. 
 This light, with a proper elevation, and a lens appara/- 
 tus, would serve to guide vessels bound to any of the 
 ports on the coast of Maine, from Frenchman's Bay to 
 Passamaquoddy Bay, having the sea-coast lights of 
 Seal Island and Gannet Rock to the eastward, and 
 Mount Desert Rock, distant 27 miles to the southward 
 and westward. [Now become a flashing light (1856).] 
 
 " Mount Desert Rode Lighi-hovse.—'i^ia light is on 
 the keeper's dwelling, with an elevation of 56^ feet 
 above tlie level of the sea ; it is fitted with 12 lamps 
 and 21-inch reflectors, to illuminate the whole horizon. 
 Lat. 43° 68' 5" north, long. 68° 08' west; it is sit- 
 uated about 20 miles S.S.E. of Mount Desert Island ; 
 is 27 miles distant from Petit Menan light and 33 miles 
 from Matinicus light (two fixed lights). This light, 
 with the best illuminating apparatus, could not be seen, 
 under the most favorable circumstances of weather, at 
 a greater distance than 14 miles. The small number 
 of lamps for so great an arc, renders it little better 
 than a fourth order light, while its elevation can only 
 give it the range of a light of that class. 
 
 " A much greater elevation is required for this light, 
 with the most powerful lens apparatus that can be con- 
 structed. Vessels bound from the eastward into any 
 port from the neighborhood of Mount Desert to Pe- 
 nobscot Bay, would run for it ; having made it as a 
 first-class light, it would guide them into the ranges of 
 the diff'erent harbor-lights along the coast. From its 
 isolated position at the distance of 14 to 18 miles from 
 the nearest land, it is one of the most important points 
 on the eastern coast for a first-class light. 
 
 " Martinicus Sock Light-house. — These lights (two 
 fixed), are situated on the rock south of Martinicus 
 Island, at the mouth of Penobscot Bay. They are 
 placed 40 feet apart, N.N.W. and S.S.E. on the keep- 
 er's dwelling. Each light has 14 lamps and 21-inch 
 reflectors, at an elevation of 82J feet above the level 
 of the sea ; 33 miles from Mount Desert Rock and 39 
 miles from Seguin's Island light, lat. 43° 46' 30" north, 
 long. 68° 49' west. 
 
 " Seguin Island Light, — This is a fixed light, 166 
 feet above tlie level of the sea, fitted with 15 lamps 
 and 21-inch reflectors. This light is deficient in illumi- 
 nating apparatus ; with 24 lamps and 21-inch parabolic 
 reflectors of the proper shape and finish, it could, un- 
 der favorable circumstances of weather, be seen 18 to 
 19 miles. It is 39 miles from Martinicus Rock light, 46 
 miles from Boone Island light, and 21 miles from Mon- 
 hegan and Cape Elizabeth lights. Lat. 53° 41' 36" 
 north, long. 69° 44' west. 
 
 " Boone Island Light.- — This light is situated on the 
 west part of the small low island bearing its name, oft 
 York River, Maine. It is fitted with 12 lamps and 15- 
 inch reflectors (fixed), with an elevation of 70 feet 
 above the level of the sea, in lat. 43° 08' north, long. 
 70° 29' west. 
 
LIQ 
 
 1246 
 
 LIG 
 
 ' Thatcher's Island Lights These two fixed lights 
 
 are sitaated about two miles off Cape Ann, fitted with 
 11 lamps and 21-inch reflectors, each with an elevation 
 of 90 feet ; greatest range, 16 miles. Cape Ann forms 
 the northern limit of Massachusetts Bay. Distant 
 from Boone Island light 30 miles, Boston light 24 
 miles, and from Truro, Cape Cod, 43 miles. Lat. 42° 
 38' 21" north, long. 70° 34' 48" west. This is a yeiy 
 important light-station, and the lights require to be 
 increased in power and range. 
 
 " Truro, Cape Cod, Light.— This is an important 
 sea-coast light, situated on the highlands outside of 
 Cape Cod. It is 43 miles from Thatcher's Island 
 lights, 45 miles from Sanliaty Head light, and 41 miles 
 from Boston light. It is fitted with 15 lamps and 21- 
 inch reflectors (fixed), with an elevation of 180 feet, 
 giving it a range, in good weather, if the apparatus is 
 of the first order, of 20 to 21 miles. A first order lens 
 is required for this tower. Lat. 42° 02' 23" north, 
 long. 70° 03' 55" west. 
 
 "Sankaty Head Light.— This is a second order Fres- 
 nel flashing lens light. It is placed on the south-east 
 extremity of the island of Nantuclset, with an elevation 
 of about 150 feet above the level of the sea, which 
 gives it a range of about 19 miles in ordinary states of 
 the weather. It has been seen at a much greater dis- 
 tance, and is considered equal to the Highlands of 
 Navesinls: lights (first and second order lenses). 
 
 " In consideration of the dangerous navigation around 
 the reefs and shoals off the island of Nantucket, it 
 would have been advisable to have placed a first order 
 lens in this tower ; but the superiority of this light to 
 those in its vicinity, renders it of doubtful propriety to 
 propose any change in it. 
 
 " Gag Head Light. — This light is placed on the west 
 point of Martha's Vineyard. It is a revolving light 
 fitted with 10 lamps and 14-inch reflectors, having an 
 elevation of 172 feet above the level of the sea. This 
 light is deficient in power, and not arranged to sub- 
 serve the wants of the navigator. At the distance of 
 about 12 miles it is obscured about three fourths of the 
 time. Its present elevation, with first order apparatus, 
 would give it a range of 19 to 20 miles. Lat. 41° 20' 
 54" north, long. 70° 50' 26" west. Distant from 
 Sankaty Head 39 miles, Montauk Point 38 miles, and 
 Point Judith light 30 miles. This light is not second 
 to any on the easteni coast, and should be fitted, with- 
 out delay, with a first order illuminating apparatus. 
 A glance at the chart will suiiice, to see its great im- 
 portance. 
 
 "Montauh Point Light-house.— Lat. 41° 04' 10" 
 north, long. 71° 51' 58" west. This is a very import- 
 ant light, especially for navigators bound from Europe 
 to New York. It is fitted now with only 15 lamps 
 and 21-inch reflectors for a fixed light. Its reported 
 elevation is 160 feet above the level of the sea, and 
 with a first order apparatus would be seen under ordi- 
 nary circumstances- about 20 nautical miles. Distant 
 from Gay Head 47 miles ; from Fire Island Inlet light 
 66 miles. By erecting a light in the vicinity of Great 
 West Bay, Long Island, midway between Montauk 
 Point and Fire Island lights, the trade between New 
 York and all ports to the eastward, including the 
 whole of Europe, would be greatly benefited. 
 
 "Lights near Great West Bag, Long Island, New 
 York. — It is proposed to erect a first-class light on 
 Long Island, midway between Montauk Point and 
 Fire Island Inlet, distant 33 miles, to facilitate navi- 
 gators going to and coming from the eastward. The 
 letters of packet and other shipmasters in Appendix B, 
 will show concljjsively the necessity for a light in this 
 vicinity. 
 
 "Fire Island Inlet Light-house, Long Island, New 
 York. — This is a most important light to navigators 
 trading to New York. It may be said to mark the 
 eastern entrance to the Bay of New York. It is situ- 
 ated on the south side of Long Island, New York, east 
 
 side of Fire Island Inlet, lat. 40° 37'. 46" N., and 73° 
 13' 38" W. long. ; distant 37 miles from the High- 
 lands of Navesink, which mark the western entrance 
 to the Bay of New York. This tower has an eleva- 
 tion of only 89 feet 3 inches, and has onlj' 14 lamps, 
 and 21-inch reflectors for a revolving light. The 
 range of this light, with its present elevation and the 
 best apparatus that could be procured, would not ex- 
 ceed 14^ nautical miles in ordinar}'' weather. It is, 
 therefore, clearly necessary to increase its height, and 
 place in the tower the most powerful lens apparatus 
 that can be procui-ed. 
 
 " Highlands of Navesink Lights, New Jersey. — There 
 are two towers and lights at this station ; a first order 
 fixed, and a second order revolving lens apparatus. 
 The great importance of the lights on this point ren- 
 ders it highly necessar}'', in carrying out the proposed 
 plan of improving and increasing the number of sea- 
 coast lights, that the second order apparatus should be 
 changed for a first order one. These lights are now 
 the best on the coast, but are not, when combined, 
 equal to better than a second order lens light. With 
 the present elevations of these lights above the level 
 of the sea, and the substitution of a first order lens 
 for the second order apparatus, navigators would be 
 warranted in running boldly for them, and with the 
 certainty of seeing them, under ordinary circumstan- 
 ces, at the distance of 22 nautical miles. 
 
 " Bamegat Light-house. — This is a light in point of 
 importance equal to that of Fire Island Inlet. It is 
 situated 37 miles from the Highland lights, on Long 
 Beach New Jersey, on the south side of Barnegat In- 
 let. At present it is fitted as a fixed light, with 11 
 lamps and 14-inch reflectors, equal in power to about 
 a fifth order lens light. The numerous wrecks, involv- 
 ing the great loss of life and property, attest the truth 
 of the necessity for making this a first class sea-coast 
 light. The tower is 40 feet high, placed on a low 
 beach, giving it a range of probably 11^ nautical miles. 
 The improvement of the Montauk, Fire Island, and 
 Barnegat lights, and the erection of a first class light 
 near Great West Bay, Long Island, would render the 
 approaches to New York Bay much safer than they 
 are at present, and would save to our government and 
 to our citizens many millions of dollars' worth of prop- 
 erty, and prevent the untimely loss of many valuable 
 lives. 
 
 " Ahsecum Beach, New Jersey. — A sea-coast light is 
 absolutely necessary in this vicinity to guide vessels, 
 bound north, clear of the Absecum and Brigantine 
 shoals. The coast here is very low, and difiicult to 
 distingmsh, and the light on Tucker's Beach, near 
 Little Egg Harbor, although fitted with 15 lamps and 
 15-inch reflectors, showing a fixed red light, from its 
 little elevation (39^ feet) is not seen furtlaer than five 
 to eight mUes ; in addition to which the woods on the 
 Absecum beach to the southward hide it from the mar- 
 iner going north. A light should be placed somewhere 
 in this vicinity, west of the inlet, and as nearlj"- mid- 
 way between Bamegat and Cape May light as pos- 
 sible. An examination of this coast by competent 
 professional persons can alone decide the best site for a 
 sea-coast light. 
 
 " Cape May Light-house, New Jersey. — The position 
 of this light on the east side of Delaware Bay, and its 
 contiguity to the dangerous bank known to navigators 
 as the Five-fathom Bank, renders it of great import- 
 ance that it should be of the first order. This is a re- 
 volving light, 88 feet above the level of the sea, fitted 
 with 15 lamps and 16-inch reflectors. This light has 
 been shown to be inferior to the third order lens light 
 on Brandywine Shoal, in the proportion of three to 
 one. Its present range, under the most favorable cir- 
 cumstances of weather, is not greater than 14i^ nautical 
 miles, and, with the present apparatus, it is doubtful 
 if it can be seei so far by several miles. Make Cape 
 May and Heulopen lights first order lights, with 
 
LIG 
 
 1247 
 
 LIG 
 
 proper elevations, and navigators -will be able to 
 place their vessels in positions for receiving pilots 
 witliout the risk of shipwreck on the dangerous Five- 
 fathom Bank, distant 16 miles from Gape May, and 20 
 miles from Cape Henlopen. With hearings from these 
 two lights, seen at the distance of i 20 to 25 mUes, 
 the navigator could always shape his course by the 
 most direct line into the bay, or for the breakwater. 
 The light vessel authorized by law to be placed on the 
 Five-fathom Bank is so often out of position that it is 
 the more important that these improvements should 
 be made. 
 
 " Cape Henlopm Light-house. — This is one of the 
 best reflector fixed lights on the coast, although in- 
 ferior to the third order lens on Brandywine Shoal in 
 the proportion of one to six. This light has an eleva- 
 tion of 180 feet, and only requires a first order lens 
 apparatus to make it equal to the requirements of com- 
 merce and navigation. The large amount of trade 
 fi:om Philadelphia warrants the proposed expenditure, 
 and humanity would seem to dictate it as consistent 
 with true policy and philanthropy. 
 
 ' ' A ssateague Light-house, Virginia. — This light is situ- 
 ated onAssateague Island,, between Capes Henlopen 
 and Charles, in lat. 37° 54' 36'' N., and long. 75f 21' 
 45" "W. ; a fixed light, fitted with only 11 lamps and 
 14rlnch reflectors. . The shoals of this low and danger- 
 ous coast render the Improvement of this light one of 
 paramount importance. By elevating this tower to 
 150 feet, and placing in it a first order lens apparatus, 
 there will be no great necessity for any other sea- 
 coast light until we reach Cape Charles (Smith's Isl- 
 and). The very dangerous shoals extending along 
 this entire coast, at a considerable distance from the 
 low coast, at distances, ranging from five to twelve 
 miles, as shown from the recent: surveys by the coast 
 survey, make it the duty of the government to cause 
 this light to be increased in power and range to the 
 rank of a first class seo^coast light, without delay. 
 
 " Smith's Island: Light-house, Cape Charles. — This 
 light is placed on the north-east of Cape Charles, tod 
 at the north entrance of Chesapeake Bay. This very 
 important light has at present only 10 lamps and 21- 
 inch reflectors. The dangers at the entrance to Ches- 
 apeake Bay render it extremely important that this 
 light should be increased to a first order one. The 
 tower has an elevation of only 65 feet, placed on a 
 verj- low coast, giving the light, if in other respects 
 good, a range of not more than 12 nautical miles, 
 which it can seldom reach in consequence of the very 
 inferior illuminating apparatus. This is one of the 
 lights requiring the earliest attention of the light-house 
 department. 
 
 " Cape Henri/ Light-house, Virginia. — This is one of 
 the best reflector lights on the coast. It is situated on 
 the south side of the entrance of Chesapeake Bay, has 
 an elevation of 120 feet, and is fitted with 18 lamps 
 and 21-inch reflectors. It being a prominent leading 
 mark for vessels bound into Chesapeake Baj', Hamp- 
 ton Roads, and their numerous tributaries, every argu- 
 ment would seem to be in favor of its speedy improve- 
 ment, to render it equal to the best first class lights of 
 other maritime nations. 
 
 '* Light-house halfway between Cape Henry and Body's 
 Island Light. — The large number of shipwrecks and the 
 vast amount of life and property lost annually on this 
 coast should be a suiEoient reason for erecting and 
 maintaining a first class sea-coast light on some eligi- 
 ble site in this vicinity. The Body's Island Light is 
 badly located, and insufficient in power and range to 
 subserve fully the requirements of commerce and nav- 
 igation. Vessels bound south from the eastward run 
 to make this coast, with the view to avoid the oppos- 
 ing currents of the Gulf Stream, and, at the same 
 time, to avail of the favorable currents within the 
 limits of the cold wall bounding the Gulf Stream. The 
 trend of the coasts on either side of the Chesapeake 
 
 Bay renders navigation more dangerous than it would 
 otherwise be ; and therefore it becomes the more im- 
 portant to light well the entire coast from Cape Hat- 
 teras to Cape Henlopen. 
 
 "Body's Island Light-house, North Carolina. — This 
 light has already been referred to. It is of great im- 
 portance, especially to thei coasting trade, and would 
 be of much more if it were increased to a first class 
 light. It is now fitted with 14 lamps and 21-inch re- 
 flectorSj revolving, with an elevation of 56|^ feet, giv- 
 ing. It a rangeof about 12 nautical miles. This, in 
 addition to the proposed sea-coast light between it and 
 Cape Henrj', would, if properly fitted, save the life of 
 many a gallant seaman, and niillions of dollars' worth 
 of property to the country. 
 
 " Cape Hatteras Light-house, North Carolina. — There 
 is perhaps no light on the entire .^oast of the United 
 States of greater value to the commerce and naviga- 
 tion of the country than this. That it is not such a 
 light as any sea-coast light should be is too apparent 
 to require much argument ; while its special require- 
 ment, having reference to the Gulf Stream, the cur- 
 rents and counter-currents which sweep past it, and 
 the verj' dangerous shoals, extending to the distance 
 of 10 nautical miles from the light, all tend to make 
 it one of no ordinary importance.; Vessels propelled 
 both by wind and steam run for soundings off this 
 cape ; and it is of the first importance to navigators 
 wishing to make quick passages, that they should see 
 this light in going south. At present it is of very lit- 
 tle use, in consequence of its limited range. Navi- 
 gators do not, as a general rule, rely upon it sufiiciently 
 to warrant them in running for it. It is fitted ivith 15 
 lamps and 21-inch reflectors, having an elevation of 
 about 95 feet, which would give it a range, under fa- 
 vorable circumstances, of 14.^ nautical miles, provided 
 the apparatus for illuminating was of the best descrip- 
 tion. There is no single light on the coast believed to 
 require renovation morethan this does. An elevatibn 
 of 150 feet, and a first class illuminating apparatus, are 
 imperiously demanded, and without any unnecessary 
 delay. 
 
 " Cape Lookout Light-house, North Carolina. — This is 
 at present a fixed light, fitted with 13 lamps and 21- 
 inch reflectors, and elevated 95 feet' above the level of 
 the sea. In consideration of the manner in which 
 navigators have to follow this low coast, this light be- 
 comes, necessarily, one of the important sea-coast 
 lights, and requires to be elevated and improved to 
 that extent. The shoals of this cape arS of such a 
 character as to render it a very important light. 
 
 *' New River Inlet, North Carolina. — The great dis- 
 tance from Cape Lookout to Cape Fear, and the dan- 
 gerous shoals extending to such a great distance from 
 them, without any prominent mark intervening to 
 guide navigators, render it necessar;-, in making up a 
 general plan for lighting the entire sea-coast, to in- 
 clude a first class light, to be placed somewhere in the 
 vicinity of New River Inlet. The coast between 
 Capes Hatteras and Fear forms a curve, but not to 
 such a degree as to render a light near this point un- 
 necessary. Although the necessity for this proposed 
 light may not be considered as pressing, yet in a well- 
 devised scheme it can not be entirely omitted. 
 
 "Bald Head, Cape Fear, North Carolina. — -This 
 light in its present position and with its present appa^ 
 ratus, etc., is comparatively useless. The apparatus, 
 15 lamps and 21-inch reflectors, is inadequate to the 
 requirements of the service of an ordinary sea^coast 
 light, while this is one of the special cases requiring 
 extraordinary means to insure any amount of good. 
 The tower is nearly 4 miles from the pitch of the cape, 
 and 20 nautical miles from 10 fathoms water, in a di- 
 rect line on the end of the ' Frying Pan shoals,' which 
 extend continuously from the pitch of the cape. The 
 assumed elevation of the light is 110 feet, which, with 
 good illuminating apparatus, would give a range, un- 
 
LIG 
 
 1248 
 
 LIG 
 
 der the most favorable circumstances, of 17 to 17J 
 nautical miles. Careful observation has, however, 
 shown that it is very seldom seen 12 miles ; and then 
 only resembling a star of the fifth or sixth magnitude. 
 This light is considered by the pilots as of very little, 
 if indeed of any use at all, for the local purposes of 
 the harbor ; while it is perfectly clear that it is of no 
 value to the navigator in guiding him around and 
 clear of these shoals, which, in the opinion of naviga- 
 tors, are only exceeded in importance by those off 
 Nantucket. This light should either be reduced to a 
 mere harbor light, or removed to the pitch of the cape, 
 and given an elevation suflEicient to insure a first order 
 light being seen, under ordinary circumstances, out- 
 side of the shoals. This light as a first-class sea-coast 
 light, and a first-class light- vessel placed on the shoals, 
 would tend greatly toward increasing the safety of 
 navigation. 
 
 *' Cape Homain, South Carolina. — The dangerous 
 shoals off this point render this an important light to 
 navigators bound to Charleston, and as far south as 
 St. Augustine. To save the current, and to keep out 
 of the influence of the current of the Gulf Stream, 
 navigators run for soundings off the Cape Komain 
 shoals. A first-class light would tend greatlj^ to less- 
 en the hazards of this navigation. The present light, 
 fitted with only 11 lamps and 21-inch reflectors, at an 
 elevation of only 87 feet, can not be seen with any de- 
 gree of certainty at a greater distance, under the most 
 favorable circumstances, than about 14 nautical miles, 
 which is by no means far enough to enable navigators 
 to run their vessels with that boldness which is essen- 
 tial to success. This light, in point of power, brillian- 
 cy and range, is not superior to a fourth order lens. 
 
 *' Charleston Light-house^ South Carolina, — This im- 
 portant light is fitted with only 12 lamps and 21-inch 
 reflectors ; revolving, with an elevation of about 126 
 feet. Its greatest range about 16 miles. The neces- 
 sity for a first order lens apparatus for this light is too 
 apparent to require more than a bare reference to the 
 chart. This light should be changed to a fixed light, 
 and the lights on either side of it changed in their 
 characteristic distinctions, for the reason that it is used 
 as a range with the beacon-light for crossing the bar. 
 Revolving lights are not adapted to this purpose, es- 
 pecially where channels are narrow and the eclipses of 
 long duration. 
 
 " Hunting Island^ Georgia. — This point is one of the 
 positions selected for new lights in carrying out the 
 general programme. Distant 33 miles from Charles- 
 ton, South Carolina, and about midway between the 
 Charleston and Tybee lights. 
 
 " Tyhee Light. — This is an important light both in a 
 general and local point of view. Por the over-sea 
 voyager along the coast, it is of equal importance to 
 those generally on the coast for local purposes, as the 
 guide to the entrance to Savannah River. This light 
 at present is fitted with 15 lamps and 16-inch reflect- 
 ors, and has an elevation of 100 feet. This light, in 
 consideration of the sameness in the appearance of the 
 coast, should be well distinguished and improved to 
 the extent of making it a first order light. 
 
 '•'■ Sapelo Island Light-house. — This light is 46 miles 
 from Tybee light, and comes into the list embracing 
 the general programme. As a sea^coast light, its im- 
 portance will appear clearly by referring to the chart, 
 and in a local point of view it is the mark to guide 
 vessels into the important inland-waters constituting 
 Doboy Sound. This is at present a light fitted with 
 15 lamps and 15-inch reflectors, elevated 74 feet above 
 the level of the sea, and is revolving. Its greatest 
 range now, will not exceed 13^ nautical miles. As a 
 sea^coast light, it should be seen clearly and distinctly 
 at the distance of 20 nautical miles. 
 
 " Amelia Island Light-house^ Florida.—This light, 
 41 miles from Sapelo light-house, is another of the 
 proposed sea-coast lights. It is at present fitted "with 
 
 14 lamps and 15-inch reflectors; a revolving light, 
 having an elevation of about 60 feet, and a consequent 
 range for the best description of apparatus, of 13 nau- 
 tical miles. The tower requires to be elevated, and 
 in other respects improved, to the extent of making it 
 a first-class sea-coast light. 
 
 '^ St. Augustine Light-house, — This light, being 50 
 miles from the Amelia Island light, is included in the 
 list of sea-coast lights. The present light is one of a 
 merely local character, being fitted with only 10 lamps 
 and small reflectors. 
 
 " Musquito Bar. — Alight is proposed to be placed 
 in this vicinitj'. Although its immediate necessity is 
 not apparent, jQt in time it will become necessary to 
 erect a sea-coast light half-way between St. Augustine 
 and Cape Canaveral. This point is 50 miles from St. 
 Augustine, and 43 miles from Cape Canaveral. 
 
 ' ' Cape Canaveral, — This is one of the prominent 
 points on the coast, requiring the most powerful sea^ 
 coast lights to facilitate navigation. Dangerous 
 shoals extend to a considerable distance off this cape, 
 rendering it still more important that a first order 
 light should be substituted for the present ver^-^ ineffi- 
 cient one. The present apparatus consists of 15 lamps 
 and 21-inch reflectors, revolving, in a tower of only 
 55 feet elevation. The present range of this light 
 does not exceed 12 nautical miles, and should be in- 
 creased to not less than 20 nautical miles. 
 
 " Cape Florida. — Between this and Cape Canaveral 
 it is proposed to erect 3 new sea-coast lights of the 
 first order : one near Jupiter Inlet is considered of im- 
 mediate importance ; and the other two at different 
 periods, according to circumstances, and as the expend- 
 itures for light-house service on other points maj"" 
 warrant. The Cape Florida light, marking, as it does, 
 a prominent point on a most dangerous coast, should 
 necessarily be of the most powerful illuminating ap- 
 paratus. The present apparatus is composed of 17 
 lamps and 21-inch reflectors, with an elevation of 70 
 feet above the level of the sea, giving a range of not 
 more than 13 nautical miles. The currents and dan- 
 gerous reefs along the Florida coast, render it of abso- 
 lute importance that it should be increased to the rank 
 of a first-class sea-coast light. 
 
 " Carysfort Reef and Sand Key Lights. — These two 
 important lights are now in course of construction by 
 the officers of the Topographical Engineers, to be fitted 
 with first order lens apparatus. 
 
 " D-ry Bank. — This position has been selected as an 
 intermediate point for a first-class light midway be- 
 tween Carysfort Reef and Sand Key lights, at the dis- 
 tance of 48 miles from them. It is believed to be of 
 the first importance that the entire Florida coast should 
 be lighted with the lens apparatus of the greatest 
 power, without delay. 
 
 " Dry Tortugas. — This is a very important light, es- 
 pecially to those navigators bound to and from the 
 Gulf of Mexico. It is fitted at present with 17 lamps 
 and 21-inch reflectors, with an elevation of 70 feet, 
 giving a range of about 13 nautical miles. This light 
 is 55 miles from Sand Key, which makes it still more 
 important that it should be of the first ord-er. 
 
 '■'■ Pensacola Light-house. — This light is deficient in 
 power, being fitted with only 10 lamps and 16-inch 
 reflectors. This and the light at Mobile Point, being 
 about 40 miles apart, are both revolving. As an im- 
 portant naval station, Pensacola requires a first-class 
 sea-coast light. The present light is very little better 
 than the ordinary local lights along the coast. The 
 distinction of this light should be changed, as it is lia- 
 ble to be mistaken for the one at Mobile Point. The 
 proposed lights along the Florida coast, from the Keys 
 and Dry Tortugas to Pensacola, etc., although nec- 
 essary in a general plan, are not deemed to be of pres- 
 ent great importance. With the increase of trade and 
 population, the coast must keep pace in its improve- 
 ments in lighting. 
 
LIG 
 
 1249 
 
 LIG 
 
 "J/bii'fePoJW.—This is believed to be the best re- 
 flector-Kght on the coast ; being revolving, and fitted 
 with 21 lamps and 21-inch reflectors. The elevation 
 of this light being only 55 feet, its range is necessarily 
 restricted within the Very narrow limits of only 12 
 nautical miles. This light, from a proper elevation, 
 could be seen at a distance of 18 to 20 miles. This 
 tower should be elevated to at least 125 feet, to render 
 the light of as much importance as the navigation in- 
 terests of Mobile demand. This light may be easily 
 mistaken for the one at Pensacola, and therefore the 
 characteristic distinction of one of them should be 
 changed. In carrying out the gaueral plan, it may 
 become a question as to whether Mobile Point or Sand 
 Island light should be the principal or sea-coast light. 
 
 "Passes of the Mississippi.— These lights should be 
 of the first class, with such elevations as will give 
 them the ranges of at least 20 nautical miles. The 
 present lights are ineificient, and unnecessarily expen- 
 sive, without any commensurate benefits. These 
 lights are of great importance to the commerce of the 
 Gulf of Mexico, and should be rendered the most 
 •efficient in the shortest space of time. The remainmg 
 lights along the coast, embraced in the programme, are 
 of minor importance, compared to those already enu- 
 merated ; but deserve the attention of those who are, 
 or may be, charged with the light-house service. 
 Many of the points along the coast of Texas require 
 lights; especially at the entrances to the ports and 
 bays, at an early day. The prominent points on the 
 Pacific coast should have lights without unnecessary 
 delay, and no sea-coast light should be fitted except 
 with first-class apparatus. 
 
 ''Lake Coast. Champlain, Ontario, Erie, Huron, 
 Michigam, Superior, and their tributaries or connecting 
 links. — The shores of these inland seas belonging to 
 the United States, are, so far as the number of the 
 lights is concerned, pretty well lighted. There are a 
 few important points which require lights of greater 
 power and range than those now existing ; and as com- 
 merce and navigation increase there, a few additional 
 small lights may be required, to the extent probably 
 of 6 in Michigan, 1 in Ontario, 3 in Huron, and sev- 
 eral in Superior. The most of these lights are mere 
 pier-head beacons. A system arranging the lights 
 into classes, and giving to each one a distinctive char- 
 acteristic, is necessary. In Lake Huron, the two im- 
 portant lights of Thunder Bay Island and Pomt aux 
 Barques, distant about 22 miles, and marking the en- 
 trance to Saginaw Bay, are both fixed. 
 
 " Many of these lake lights have more lamps and 
 reflectors, although only requiring to have short 
 ranges, than many sea-coast lights on the Atlantic and 
 Gulf coasts. Galloo Island, east end of Lake Ontario, 
 near the River St. Lawrence, is fitted with 15 lamps 
 and reflectors ; in Lake Superior, Manitou Island, 15 
 lamps and reflectors ; White Fish Point, 13 ; and 
 Copper Harbor, 13 lamps and reflectors. These prin- 
 cipal lights on the lakes should be fitted with third 
 order lenses, of smaller or larger model, according to 
 circumstances, similar to the one recently placed in 
 the Wagooshance Light, built under the direction of 
 the Topographical Bureau. The following may be 
 considered first-class lake lights, and should be of the 
 third order lens apparatus, viz. : Galloo Island, Lake 
 Ontario, fixed ; Sodus Bay, Lake Ontario, revolving ; 
 Fort Niagara, Lake Ontario, fixed ; Dunkirk, Lake 
 Erie, fixed ; Presq' Isle, Lake Erie, fixed ; Cleveland, 
 Lake Erie, fixed ; Western Sister, Lake Erie, fixed ; 
 Bufi'alo, Lake Erie, fixed ; Point aux Barques, Lake 
 Huron, fixed; Thunder Bay Island, Lake Huron, 
 fixed ; Presq' Isle, Lake Huron, revolving ; Point de 
 Tour, Lake Huron, fixed ; Wagooshance, Lake Mich- 
 igan, third order lens ; Fox Isles, Lake Michigan, re- 
 quired ; South Manitou Island, Lake Michigan, fixed ; 
 Milwaukie, Lake Michigan, fixed; Chicago, Lake 
 Michigan, fixed ; White Fish Point, Lake Superior, 
 4K 
 
 fixed ; Copper Harbor, Lake Superior, fixed ; Manitou 
 Island, Lake Superior, fixed. 
 
 " Of the 72 lights on the lakes and their tributaries, 
 68 are fixed and 4 revolving. 
 
 " Arramgement into one System in reference to Classi- 
 fication. — The following classification of lights is recom- 
 mended according to their positions, uses, etc., etc. : 
 1. Main coast lights for the most prominent points on 
 the coast. 2. Secondary lights for the inferior points 
 on the coasts, and in broad sounds, bays, etc. 3. Minor 
 sounds and bays, and for harbors and river lights. 
 4, Range, beacon, and pier lights. Also into six 
 classes, according to the dimensions of the lighting 
 apparatus and the range of the lights. All the main 
 sea-coast lignts should be of the first order, and the 
 classes to which the secondary, sound, bay, harbor, 
 river, range, beacon, and pier lights should belong, 
 would be determined by the light-house board, accord- 
 ing to the locality, objects for which placed, etc., etc. 
 This applies to new lights, and to the gradual replac- 
 ing of the old ones as they may require renewal. It 
 is believed that many of the present lights might be 
 dispensed with if effective ones were substituted for 
 those now placed on important points, but not of suffi- 
 cient power and range, which would in the end produce 
 a considerable saving. 
 
 "Distinctive Characteristics. — Experiments will throw 
 light on this important subject. The light-houses and 
 vessels, as well as the lights, should be distinguished 
 from each other by sight, as well as, in case of fogs, 
 by sound. Colors should only be used for distinguish- 
 ing small lights of short range, as river, pier, beacon, 
 or ^ange lights. In employing colored media at all 
 for lights, it is important that the most approved modes, 
 with the best quality of appliances, only be used ; a 
 duty which should devolve upon professional men. 
 Mr. Stevens enumerates the number of distinctions of 
 which reflecting lights are susceptible as nine: 1st, 
 fixed ; 2d, revolving white ; 3d, revolving red and 
 white; 4th, revolving red with two whites; 5th, 
 revolving white with two reds ; 6th, flashing ; 7th, 
 intermitting ; 8th, double fixed light ; 9th, double 
 revolving white lights ; to which may be added, lOtb, 
 double, one fixed and one revolving. Of these, three 
 depend on color and should be discarded, reducing the 
 distinctions to seven. In the Scottish lights, by caus- 
 ing a rapid revolution of the frame, and pladng the 
 rims of the mirrors of each side in one vertical plane, 
 while their axes are in a plane inclined to the vertical, 
 flashes are produced every five seconds, which appear 
 to rise and sink. The intermitting light suddenly ap- 
 pears, is steady for a short time, and then disappears 
 suddenly." These changes are produced by the verti- 
 cal motion of circular shades in front of the reflectors. 
 The different characteristic combinations in the lens 
 system, according to M. L. Fresnel, are nine: Ist, 
 flashing at the interval of a minute ; 2d, flashing at 
 the interval of half a minute; 3d, white and red 
 flashes alternating; 4th, fixed lights flashing every 
 five minutes ; 6th, flashing every three minutes ; 6th, 
 every two minutes ; 7th, fixed white lights with red 
 flashes ; 8th, fixed white lights ; 9th, double fixed 
 lights. These are applied only to the first three orders 
 of lights. In England the lights are classified as sea- 
 coast, secondary, and harbor and river lights. In 
 France they are divided into six orders, according to 
 their range and the size of the lighting apparatus ; the 
 first order being the largest, and the second, third and 
 fourth orders being each divided into two classes, the 
 larger and smaller, or first and second classes. The- 
 objections to colored lights are, the large absorption of 
 the incident light, and the difficulty of distinguishing 
 the color. Red is admitted to be the best color. A 
 good red light is seen 16 miles, and sometimes 22. 
 Green lights from a powerful apparatus, in Mr. 
 Stevenson's experiments, were seen 7 miles in very 
 clear weather, and blue lights only 5. 
 
LIG 
 
 1250 
 
 LIG 
 
 "The objections to red are: 1. The great loss of 
 light by absorption. A full red glass used as a chim- 
 ney of a lamp absorbed 80 per cent, of the whole. A 
 pink French glass absorbed but 57 per cent, of the 
 light, but the light was not characteristic. 
 
 '* 2. White lights grow reddish in a fog. In a re- 
 volving light, showing alternately red and white, the 
 red is absorbed at a less distance than the white, and 
 the light may be mistalcen for a white light of half the 
 period of revolution. Two lights will appear blended 
 in one, which are not separated by at least 3' 18" ; 
 call H the required distance between the lights in feet, 
 A the observer's distance in feet, half of 3' 18". 
 Then H = 2 A tan. 9. For 1 mile, H = 5-84 feet, 
 and for n ipiles H = ra X 5-84. Leading, or range 
 lights, should be nearl}' on the same elevation, so as 
 to cause them to appear nearly, but not quite in one. 
 The distance between them should not be less than 
 one sixth of the distance at which they are thus to be 
 used. 
 
 " In forming a programme for lifting the coast, 
 the following conditions should be realized: 1. The 
 most prominent points should be first lighted. 2. Ee- 
 volving lights, as more powerful than fixed, should be 
 used, when possible, on the projecting points. 3.1 
 Lights identical in appearance should not occur within 
 80 to 100 miles of each other. 4. Distinctions of color' 
 should not be adopted except in cases of absolute ne- 
 cessity. 6. As few lights as possible should be used, 
 not only for the sake of economy, but to avoid con- 
 fusion. 6. Distinctions of lights depending on the 
 estimations of smaU differences of time, of appearance 
 and disappearance, should never be resorted to. 7. 
 Harbor or local lights should generally be fixed, and 
 may be distinguished by colors. 8. Floating lights 
 should never be used when fixed lights can be em- 
 ployed. 
 
 " The system proposed by Charles Babbage, Esq., 
 of London, and which has been communicated by its 
 distinguished author to the Board, at the request of 
 one of its members, is to distinguish lights by occulta- 
 tions; or, to make each light-house repeat its own 
 number continually during the whole time it is lighted. 
 This is accomplished by inclosing the upper part of the 
 glass cylinder of the Argand burner by a thin tube of tin 
 or brass, which, when made to descend slowly before the 
 flame, and then allowed suddenly to start back, will 
 cause an oecuUation and reappearance of the light. 
 
 " The number belonging to a light-house may be 
 thus indicated to distant vessels. Take, as an exam- 
 ple, 243. 1. Let there be two occultations. 2. A short 
 pause. 3. Four occultations. 4. A short pause. 6. 
 Three occultations. 6. A longer interval of time. 
 This system of occultations may be repeated all night 
 by m«ana of proper mechanism. 
 
 "The rapidity of the occultations themselves, the 
 length of the pauses between the units and tens and 
 between the tens and hundreds, as well as the dura- 
 tion of the long interval of time which marlcs the 
 termination of the number, must be made the subject 
 of experiment. A light has been already used as an 
 illustration, in which the occultations occurred at in- 
 tervals of one second ; the pauses occupied four and 
 the long interval ten seconds. The pause was thought 
 to be unnecessarily long, and was diminished. What- 
 ever may be the times ultimately adopted, the experi- 
 ments already made render it improbable that the 
 average time required by a light-house for repeating 
 its number should amount to one minute. It is by no 
 means necessary that the counting of the number of a 
 light-house should commence with the digit which ex- 
 presses hundreds. No greater amount of time would 
 have elapsed, if, in the above instance, the observer 
 had commenced with counting the unit's figure. It 
 would then have read thus : (three occultations) long 
 interval ; (two occultations) pause ; (four occulta- 
 tions) pause. By the long interval denoting the com- 
 
 mencement of a number, it is already apparent that 
 the number of the light-house is 243, and not 324. In 
 order still further to prevent mistakes arising from an 
 incidental error in counting the number of occulta- 
 tions, it will be convenient to establish another princi- 
 ple for the purpose of numbering the light-houses. 
 Light-houses must not be numbered in the order of 
 their position ; but every light-house must have such 
 a number assigned to it, that no digit occurring in the 
 number denoting the several lighthouses nearest to it 
 on either side shall have the same digit in the same 
 places of figures. 
 
 " If five adjacent light-houses were thus numbered : 
 361, 517, 243, 876, 182; 
 supposing a mistake to have occurred in the first time 
 of counting 243, and that it had been reported to the 
 master of the vessel as 253, he would immediately, on 
 looking at his numerical list of light-houses, perceive 
 that a mistake had been made in the middle figure ; 
 because, in any general arrangement, 253 would have 
 been assigned to some light-house on a coast very dis- 
 tant from that on which 243 was placed. In fact, two 
 out of any three figures would always detect the error 
 of the third. 
 
 " The occultations would distinguish every light- 
 house from all casual lights, and tlieir number would 
 identify the light. The whole illuminating power 
 would be always employed, undiminished by the in- 
 terposition of colored glass. These lights would be 
 more readilj"- visible at a distance, because it is known 
 that the eye perceives more readily a faint light which 
 is intermittent than an equal light which is fixed. 
 The Board regard this as the most important proposi- 
 tion for distinguishing lights which has ever been 
 made, and propose to make full experimental trials of 
 it. In fogs, Mr. Babbage proposes to make the pauses 
 between the strolces of the gong take the places of the 
 occultations of the light. To give this plan a full de- 
 velopment, all nations should unite in a system of 
 numbering for light-houses. Such a co-operation might 
 reasonably be looked for, if the plan have all the suc- 
 cess which is now expected. 
 
 ^^ Best mode of a^certalnijbg the necessity for intro- 
 ducing Tiew Lights, Beacons, etc. — Legislation is, of 
 course, necessary to the establishment of a new liglit. 
 The recommendations of the Light-house Board, of 
 officers of the coast survey, of pilots, navigators, and 
 others, all reach the Committees of Commerce of the 
 two Houses of Congress, through different appropriate 
 channels. It does not seem practicable to propose any 
 system of examination of sites which would not be 
 verj' expensive, while legislation is pending on the 
 subject. A reference to the Light-house Board, in 
 doubtful cases, would secure the committees from 
 recommending appropriations for objects which cer- 
 tainly would not have the approval of professional 
 men. The law of the last session provided for the ex- 
 amination of sites, for which appropriations were 
 made, by the ofiicers of the coast survey, and a report 
 by the superintendent. As this will leave u full 
 knowledge of all the circumstances of the case, and be 
 attended with very little expense, the same plan 
 should be pursued in all future cases. 
 
 " Best mode of supplying new Lights. — When it has 
 been shown, to the satisfaction of Congress, that new 
 lights are required, and appropriations made for the 
 purpose, the plans and specifications for construction, 
 illuminating apparatus, distinction, etc. , should be made 
 by th« engineer of the Light-house Board. Should 
 a previous estimate have been made by this engineer, 
 for the information of Congress, generally, there will 
 be required but little more than to fill up the details. 
 The construction having been approved \>j the Light- 
 house Board, a contract should be entered into, accord- 
 ing to law — based entirely upon the plans, drawings, 
 and specifications and estimates of the engineer — and 
 the building should be erected, and the lightmg appa- 
 
LIG 
 
 1251 
 
 LIG 
 
 ratus and accessories be procnred, under the inspection 
 of the engineer of the Board, or of such officer of the 
 corps of engineers of the army as may be detailed for 
 the purpose, in conformity to the 9th section of the 
 act approved 3d March, 1851. All the details should 
 be subject to similar inspection. 
 
 " Mode of renovating Lights. — ^Whenever the Light- 
 house Board is satisfied of the. necessity for renovating 
 any existing light, by the introduction of better illu- 
 minating apparatus, etc., the engineer of the Board 
 should be required to prepare estimates and plans in 
 detail, to be submitted to the board, which should be 
 passed upon, and, if approved, the necessary steps 
 should be taken to make the repairs, etc., according to 
 law ; or, in the event of the expense being too great 
 to admit of the works being done, except by a special 
 appropriation, then the necessarj- estimates, explana- 
 tions, etc., should be prepared and submitted, through 
 the Secretary of the Treasury, for the consideration of 
 Congress. It should also be the duty of the Board to 
 procure all the necessary information relating to the 
 establishment of new lights, abolishment of old ones, 
 etc. ; to be accompanied by estimates of cost, to be 
 submitted, through the Secretary of the Treasury, to 
 Congress, at the commencement of each session. 
 
 " Discontinuance of unnecessary Ligl/is. — The steps 
 in regard to the discontinuance of lights should be 
 similar to tbose necessary in cases of Renovation of 
 lights. 
 
 " Subjects of Instruction to Employees. — Inspectors 
 and light-keepers should be provided with printed in- 
 structions, in the form of manuals of instruction, as 
 well as those necessary to guide them in the police of 
 the establishments, similar to those provided for the 
 inspectors and keepers of lighthouses in France and 
 Great Britain. This manual should embrace a de- 
 tailed account of the modes of executing every part of 
 the duties confined to the inspectors and keepers; a 
 description of the parts of the machinerj' employed ; 
 and the means to be employed, in case of accident to 
 the machinerj', etc., until it can be repaired. The in- 
 structions for the light-house service of France em- 
 brace every point in the most minute detail, and serve 
 not only for the guidance of inspectors and keepers, 
 but also of the engineers and others in any way con- 
 nected with the service. The instructions for light- 
 houses, light-vessels, etc., of England, are full and 
 explicit ; printed in large type, with conspicuous head- 
 ings ; and are kept in the quarters of the keepers, in 
 frames, so that no one can ever be at a loss to know 
 his duty. The different kinds of lamps employed are 
 described, and the modes of attending to them pointed 
 out, in plain, clear, and explicit terms, adapted espec- 
 ially to the understandings of the keepers of the lights. 
 The subjects contained in the printed instructions and 
 manuals, would form a part of the essentials in the 
 examinations for qualifications of keepers. 
 
 '* Best Mode of securing Attention to Instructions. — 
 The system of inspection already recommended, the 
 examinations for higher positions in the districts, and 
 the exercise of the present power of removal for ne- 
 glect or disobedience of instructions, would secure a 
 due degree of attention to them.' If promotions were 
 made entirely by merit, on the recommendation of the 
 general or local inspectors, and changes, not depend- 
 ing upon want of qualification, were avoided, there 
 would be doubtless, great improvement in the knowl- 
 edge, skill, and attention of the light-keepers. 
 
 ^'Improvements in the Materials for Uluminaiion. — 
 In regard to the substitution of the oil of colza (rape- 
 seed), now used exclusively for light-house purposes 
 in France, England, Scotland, and Ireland, and in 
 most of the light-houses of the other maritime nations, 
 for spermaceti oil, or, more properly, for that used in 
 our lights, the Board would refer to the fact, that the 
 recommendation of the select committee of the House 
 of Commons of Great Britain, in 1845, to the Light- 
 
 house Board, to introduce the more economical oil of 
 colza into their light-house establishments, had the ef- 
 fect of causing a thorough experimental examination 
 to be made of the two oils (colza and the best winter- 
 strained sperm oil), by Professor Faraday, Mr. Alan 
 Stevenson, and others interested in light-house serv- 
 ice, by which it was clearlj' demonstrated that the 
 colza oil is superior, in every essential particular, to 
 the best winter-strained sperm oil. Professor Faraday- 
 says, in his report : ' Having burnt the lamps for many 
 days, I have been much struck by the great steadiness 
 of the rape oil lamps, either as considered alone or in 
 comparison with the sperm-oil lamps. They would 
 burn for 12 or 14 hours at a time with little or no alter- 
 ation of the light, the cottons or lamps not being 
 touched the whole time ; whereas the sperm oil lamps 
 would in the course of four, five, or six hours, give a 
 diminished flame, from the incrustation of the charred 
 part of the cotton retarding the flow of oil. In the 
 rape oil lamps the coal is broken and porous, and 
 serves for wick almost as well as the fresh cotton; 
 but in the sperm oil lampsthe coal forms a hard, con- 
 tinuous ring, which seals up the ends of the threads ; 
 and this, with the more confined condition of the 
 burner, and the greater distance of the oil beneath 
 (from intentional difference of flow in the lamps), 
 causes the sperm oil lamp flame to fail in bright- 
 ness, and requires that the wick should be re-trimmed. 
 
 * * * I have made many careful experiments 
 on the proportion of light produced by the two 
 kinds of lamps, in every case weighing the oil before 
 and after combustion, so as to know exactly the quan- 
 tity burned, and making, during the experiments, 
 above 100 comparisons of the lights one with another. 
 The rape oil lamps were always more brilliant than 
 the sperm oil lamps, except, indeed, one or two rare 
 cases ; but, at the same time, more oil was burned 
 in them. * * * From 108 observations of the 
 lights, taken at such times as appeared fitted to 
 give the best mean expression of the light of the lamps 
 compared with the oil burned in them, the average 
 light of the rape oil lamp came out as one and a half, that 
 of the sperm oil lamp being one.' Mr. Alan Steven- 
 son says : ' In my last annual report on the state of 
 the light-houses, I directed the attention of the Board 
 to the propriety of making trial, at several stations, of 
 the patent colza or rape-seed oil, prepared by Messrs. 
 Briggs, of Bishopsgate-street. These trials have now 
 been inade, during the months of January and Feb- 
 ruary, at three catoptric and three dioptric lights. 
 
 * * * The substantial agreement of all the re^ 
 ports, as to the qualities of the oil, renders it needless 
 to enter into any details as to the slightly- varying cir- 
 cumstances of each case ; and I have, therefore, great 
 satisfaction in briefly stating, as follows, the verj' 
 favorable conclusions " at which I have arrived: 1. 
 The colza oil possesses the advantage of remaining 
 fluid at temperatures which thicken the spermaceti 
 oil, so that it requires the application of the frost- 
 lamp. * * * /3. The colza oil bums, both in the 
 Fresnel lamp and the single Argand burner, with a 
 thick wick, during 17 hours, without requiring any 
 coaling of the wick or any adjustment of the damper, 
 and the flame seems to be more steady and free from 
 flickering than that from spermaceti oil. 4. There 
 seems (most probably owing to the greater steadiness 
 of the flame) to be less breakage of glass chimne3's 
 with the colza than with the sperm oU. 5. The con- 
 sumption of oil, in so far as that can be ascertained 
 during so short a period of trial, seems, in the Fresnel 
 lamp, to be 121 for colza and 114 for sijermaceti ;- 
 while in the common Argand lamp, the consumption 
 appears to be 910 for colza and 902 for spermaceti. 6. 
 If we may assume the means of these numbers, 515 
 for colza and 508 for spermaceti, as representing the 
 relative expenditure of these oils, and if the price of 
 the colza i's 3s. 9d., while that of spermaceti is 6s. 9d. 
 
LIG 
 
 1252 
 
 LIG 
 
 per imperial gallon, we shall have a saving in the 
 ratio of 1 to to 1'775, -which, at the present rate of 
 supply for the Northern lights, -would give a saving of 
 about £3226 per annum.' The evidence of these t-wo 
 distinguished gentlemen is conclusive of the superior- 
 ity of the colza or rape-seed oil to the best -winter- 
 strained sperm oil ; and how much better than that 
 used in our lights, may be readily inferred -without the 
 aid of experiments on so nice a scale as these employed 
 by Professor Faraday and Mr. Stevenson, -when it is 
 remembered that our lights are supplied -with oil 
 called -winter and spring or summer oil. That efficient 
 lights along the coasts of all maritime countries are 
 essential to a safe navigation, and the successful prose- 
 cution of a lucrative commerce, mil not be contested; 
 that all mere personal or local interests should give 
 way to the general good, is an assumption which will 
 not meet with disfavor in this country ; and inasmuch 
 as it is of paramount importance to the best interests 
 of the whole country, that our lights and other aids to 
 navigation should be the best which money, science, 
 and the mechanic arts -will afford, it is, in the opinion 
 of the Board, the duty of those charged with this im- 
 portant branch of the public service to employ every 
 reasonable means, not inconsistent with law, to per- 
 fect them, and therefore recommend that the subject of 
 introducing other combustibles than the oil now used, 
 be taken into serious consideration, as one of the 
 means of improving our lights, and, at the same time, 
 of effecting considerable annual saving of expense to 
 the country. If the rape-seed were cultivated to any 
 extent in this countrj', it is not doubted it would sup- 
 ply the place of the numerous chemical oils, fluids, 
 etc., now in general use for domestic purposes, as well 
 as, for lighting our light-houses and light-vessels. To 
 insure the consummation of so desirable an object as 
 the cultivation of this plant on a large scale in this 
 country, where climate and soil are so well adapted to 
 it, will be to place it in a fair competition with its 
 rivals. It will be the duty of the Board, if authorized 
 by Congress, among its numerous other important du- 
 ties connected with the light-house establishment, to 
 examine into the merits of all proposed improvements 
 in apparatus and combustibles, and, by their recom- 
 mendations to Congress, keep pace with the improve- 
 ments of other countries in this branch. The intro- 
 duction of gas into light-houses has long been looked 
 forward to as an important step. Hitherto it has met 
 with but little favor in any quarter. While the in- 
 troduction of gas into our light-houses, if found adapt- 
 able to them, would involve important points to be 
 considered, it is by no means certain that by the 
 means of a series of experiments, the Board would not 
 be enabled to decide conclusively as to the practica- 
 bility of making the attempt in the present state of 
 knowledge, or the best and safest means of generating, 
 conducting, and continuing it for light-house pur- 
 poses. The persons charged with the few gas-lights 
 now existing in this country, for want of practical and 
 theoretical knowledge, it is believed, are not compe- 
 tent to report results sufficiently reliable to decide so 
 important a question. 
 
 "Buoys. — ^The material is iron or wood, sometimes 
 .covered with copper. The anchors are heavy blocks 
 of stone, or mushroom anchors, or iron sinkers (which 
 should be hollowed out below), or iron screws. It is 
 worth trial whether fastening the buoys by a traverse 
 line passing through the centre of oscillation would 
 not diminish the liability to chafe off the chain, and 
 separate the buoy from the anchor. A swivel-shackle, 
 in a degree, prevents this, but not effectually. The 
 colors of buoys are made to indicate their purpose, as 
 designating a channel, shoal, spit, etc. They are 
 sometimes even characteristically marked to distin- 
 guish them. The law passed in 1850, in regard to color- 
 ing and numbering buoys in the United States, is sim- 
 ple and effective. The numbers were intended to 
 
 begin at the exterior of a bay, harbor, etc. This law is 
 as follows : Extract from an act making appropriation 
 for light-houses, light vessels, buoys, etc., and provid- 
 ing for the creation and establishment of the same, 
 and for other purposes, approved September 23, 1850 : 
 'Section 6. And be it further enacted^ That hereafter 
 all buoys along the coast, or in the bays, harbors, 
 sounds, or channels, shall be colored and numbered, 
 so that, passing up the coast, or sound, or entering the 
 bay, harbor, or channel, red buoys with even num- 
 bers shall be passed on the starboard hand"; black 
 buoys with uneven numbers, on the port hand ; and 
 buoys with red and black stripes, on either hand. 
 Buoys in channel ways to be colored with alternate 
 white and black perpendicular stripes.' Of course 
 the buoys show, with more or less distinctness, when 
 projected on , the water, against the sky, trees, etc. 
 The red buoys should be painted a bright red, and not 
 a Spanish brown, in order to be well distinguished — 
 red lead or vermilion being used as the paint. The 
 experiments and observations of the Board satisfied 
 them that in such a case, red and black were good col- 
 ors for distinguishing buoys. The can-buoj-'s, in some 
 instances (as in New York harbor) are too small to be 
 easily seen. The numbering is a simple matter, but 
 is by no means effectively executed, especially on the 
 spar-buoys, wljere the numbers repeated on the differ- 
 ent sides, being seen in range in a diagonal view, lead 
 to confusion. The Board have given some attention 
 to plans for numbering buoys. The numbers should 
 be placed above the buoys, on stems or perches ; should 
 present the same appearance on different sides, and 
 have their distinctions by difference in a vertical line, 
 and not by varying horizontally. Several plans have 
 occurred to them. Three solids, the cone, cylinder, 
 and sphere, arranged in groups of not more than 3 
 eachj will give 42 combinations ; no one of these fig- 
 ures can be taken for the other, and they may easily 
 be placed on stems projecting nearly vertically above 
 the buoy, the several solids being placed one above 
 the other, with a sufficient interval. They can be of 
 adequate size, and may be cheaply made in the turn- 
 ing lathe. The elementary forms of the unit, the 5 
 and the 10, of the Koman numerals, are the cylinder, 
 the cone and the double cone. By combinations of 
 these, 39 numbers are represented. Seven numbers 
 may be represented by 2 signs and their combinations ; 
 28 by 3 signs, restricting the number of elements in 
 any one combination, to 4. Seven numbers of every 
 10 may be represented by onlj' 2 more signs than those 
 expressing the value of the ten's place, giving a very 
 great variety. A letter made to revolve about a verti- 
 cal axis, produces a solid of revolution which is easily 
 recognized as the sign for the letter. Fourteen of the 
 twenty-six letters are adapted to characteristic signs, 
 as shown in the figures (A, B, E, I, J, L, O, P, 
 Q, E, T, W, V, Y). Nine digits of the Arabic num- 
 erals, viz. : 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 0, give easily 
 formed and easily recognized signs, as is shown in the 
 accompanying plate ; and these the Board recommend 
 for numbering buoys, excluding 3 as not sufficientlj' 
 characteristic. In the English system of placing 
 buoys, a red and black are placed on opposite sides of 
 a channel, and the vessel runs between them. In our 
 system only one buoy is placed on the starboard or 
 port hand, and the vessel runs for the buoy, keeping 
 it close aboard in passing. The English system is 
 most simple, and even the most economical. In order 
 to render buoys available at night, various proposi- 
 tions have been made for causing them to appear 
 luminous, but none have succeeded practically. Light- 
 ing by gas is among the methods proposed. 
 
 " Of Fog Signals. — During the prevalence of fogs, 
 the lights which ought to guide the seaman are often 
 indistinctly seen, or entirely obscured, until he has 
 approached too near the danger against which they 
 were intended to warn him. In cases of fog, light- 
 
LIG 
 
 1253 
 
 LIG 
 
 ships and light-houses are, in some instances, provided 
 ■with gongs and bells, which are then kept constantly 
 eounding. It is unfortunate that the means of warn- 
 ing the seaman of his danger should extend to the 
 shortest distance when that danger is most imminent. 
 The lights usually employed are visible at a distance 
 of from 6 to 30 miles ; but the sound of a gong or 
 bell is heard at a comparatively very small distance. 
 When these instruments are heard, they merely indi- 
 cate danger, but not its exact nature. It might, in 
 some cases, be of great importance that the gong or 
 bell should indicate the number of the light-ship. 
 This could be accomplished By a very trifling altera- 
 tion in the mechanism. Instead of striking the instru- 
 ment at fixeif intervals, let there be pauses and a long 
 interval between the number of strokes which succes- 
 sively represent the digits of the number of the light- 
 ships; just in the same manner as has been proposed 
 fo;: light-houses. A light-house or light-ship whose 
 nuinber is 243, would be thus indicated during fog : 
 two blows on gong, pause ; four blows on gong, pause ; 
 three blows on gong, long interval. The same mechan- 
 ism which caused the occultations of the light might 
 produce the blows on the gong. The preceding ex- 
 planations are sufficient to show that each light-house 
 or light-ship, by continually repeating its own number, 
 ibight render anj' mistake of it for a dififerent light 
 Very nearly impossible. The great principle on which 
 the system rests is to give numerical expression to 
 each light. If it be not thought necessary to apply it 
 to every light-house, the most important may be 
 chosen for its application. The expense of the altera- 
 tion, and the amount of danger incurred by a mistake, 
 will famish the ground of decision in each individual 
 case. In proposing, however, a new system which has 
 extensive bearings on other questions connected with 
 the safety of those who travel on the waters, it is desir- 
 able that a general and comprehensive view should be 
 taken of such of its applications as the rapid advance in 
 mechanical and chemical science justify us in supposing 
 must take place in a few years. However partially the 
 system may^ be adopted at first, a judicious foresight 
 into its probable applications may enable us, without 
 any present inconvenience, to accelerate future im- 
 provements, and to save considerable expense on their 
 adoption. The following suggestions for improve- 
 ments or applications, many of which are perfectly 
 practicable at the present time, are offered for the con- 
 siijeration of those who may be called upon to carry 
 out the Numerical System of Light-houses. They are 
 not necessary for the success of the simple plan which 
 has been already described, but may be adopted or re- 
 jected without any interference with it. 
 
 " Suggestiomfor the Improvement of Light-house Sig- 
 nals^ StiOf/Sf etc. — Telegraphic ccrmmunication dwing the 
 night between Light'houses^ and Ships in distress. — Cases 
 occur in which it is of great consequence that a ship 
 should communicate with the land long before it can 
 send a boat ashore or enter its intended port. It may 
 be the bearer of important intelligence. It may con- 
 vey some person whose presence is essential for some 
 great object. The vessel itself may be in distress. 
 The state of the elements may render it impossible to 
 send for or receive any assistance from the land ; yet, 
 even under such unfavorable circumstances, if direc- 
 tions from skillful pilots, acquainted with the coast, 
 could be conveyed to the ship, its wreck might, per- 
 haps, be prevented ; or, if driven on shore, having been 
 directed to the least unfavorable spot, its crew might 
 possibly be saved. Such communications might easily 
 be organized. There are already existing in the royal 
 navj' in the East India Company's service, and else- 
 where, large dictionaries of numerical signals. These, 
 it is true, are made by flags, or by balls ; but the same 
 numbers maj' be expressed by the occultations of 
 lamps. Any number, however large, may be ex- 
 pressed by making the number of occultations corre- 
 
 sponding to the first or highest digit, then allowing a 
 pause ; after which the number of occultations repre- 
 senting the second digit, then a pause; and so on, 
 always observing that, after the unit's figure has been 
 expressed, there must follow a long interval. 
 
 " The plan for telegraphic communications would be 
 thus arranged : 1. Light-house repeating its own num- 
 ber. 2. Ship fires a gun, and hoists a light, to call 
 the attention of the light-keeper. 3. Light-house 
 ceases repeating its number, and becomes a steady 
 light, thus informing the ship that it is observed, i. 
 Ship having prepared its message, numerically ex- 
 presses it by the occultations of its own lamp. 5. 
 Light-house repeats the message of ship, in order to 
 show that it has been rightly understood. 6. Light- 
 house now repeats its own number, while it is prepar- 
 ing the answer. 7. Light-house expresses its answer 
 by occultations. 8. Ship repeats the answer. This 
 interchange of question and answer is continued as 
 long as necessary, during which the light-house re- 
 peats its own number previously to each reply. 
 
 " Very little delay will occur ; for these questions 
 and answers will be arranged on movable discs, which 
 may be placed in the mechanism employed for occult- 
 ing, even while it is repeating another message. Man}** 
 such discs, each containing a diflerent message, may 
 be placed in the machine at once, and on touching ahy 
 lever the light will continue repeating the correspond" 
 ing message. In case of a ship in distress, for in- 
 stance, requiring an anchor of given weight, it may be 
 necessary to send to the harbor-master of the adjacent 
 port to give the order, and to ascertain the time when 
 it can reach the Vessel. During this interval, the 
 light-house will be repeating its own number. An 
 electric telegraph from the light-house to the dwelling 
 of the ^arbor-master would save much time, and, in 
 some cases, much damage. The gun fired by the ves- 
 sel might also be heard by the harbor-master ; and his 
 attention then being directed to the telegraph light- 
 house, the whole time might be saved. If even his 
 own house was invisible to the ship, but within view 
 of the light-house, he might, by means of a small 
 light, correspond with the ship, through the interven- 
 tion of the light-house, repeating the signals of both 
 parties. Colored shades might, if thought expedieilt, 
 be used for different dictionaries ; or an entirely inde- 
 pendent lantern might be specially devoted to sig- 
 nals ; but this would cause additional expense,' and 
 seems unnecessary. It may be objected to this plan, 
 that it would mislead other vessels on first coming in 
 sight of the light-house. This objection, however, will 
 be found on examination to be invalid ; for a ship on 
 first getting sight of a light-house, will be at the dis- 
 tance of many miles ; and as all telegraphic messages 
 would consist of more than three places of figures, the 
 ship would immediately perceive that the light-house 
 was acting telegraphically, and on turning to the dic- 
 tionary would even become acquainted with its mes- 
 sage. Besides, in the course of everj' 'three minutes, 
 at least, the light-house would repeat its own number. 
 Thus the ship would always know that it was in the 
 presence of a light-house ; and if its reckoning did not 
 enable it identify the light, it could only remain in 
 doubt during a few minutes. 
 
 ** Telgraphic Signals between Ships at night. — The ap- 
 plication of the system of occultations to ships at sea 
 may not perhaps" be quite so easy as that which is 
 proposed for light-houses, but no objection has yet 
 occurred which appears at all insurmountable. The 
 question of the position of the occulted light or lights 
 placed on the ship must be settled by practical men, 
 after due consideration and experiment. It may, 
 however, be suggested, that a light hid by a mast or 
 sail may yet have its occultations made perfectly appa- 
 rent by "reflection from another sail. If such a system 
 of signals were adopted, fleets might sail in company 
 during the night, each repeating its own numher; and 
 
LIG 
 
 1254 
 
 LIG 
 
 any orders could be conveyed to any individual ship. 
 Specific lights have already been employed to distin- 
 guish sailing-vessels from steamers, in order to prevent 
 collisions. By adapting the system of occultations to 
 one or more of the lights of steamers, their character 
 would appear more distinctly, and at gi'eater distances. 
 Perhaps, indeed, it would be 'better to have the dis- 
 tinctive character of a steam- vessel indicated by a con- 
 tinual enlargement and diminution of its light, rather 
 than by an occultation. Two steamers also would 
 have much less reason for approaching each other, be- 
 cause they could hold any correspondence by signals. 
 They might also, by the same means, convey to each 
 other their mtended course long before they approach 
 each other. 
 
 '''■ Of a universal Dictionary of Signals. — Whether 
 the system of occultations be generally adopted or 
 not, numerical dictionaries of signals have been found 
 absolutely necessary, and have long been in use. The 
 rapid increase both of ships and of steamers renders 
 some common language for all nations almost a mat- 
 ter of necessity. The concurrence between adjacent 
 nations in numbering their respective light-houses 
 would be essential if any numerical system is adopted 
 for distinguishing them. Such an opportunity ought 
 not to be lost of rendering those discussions still more 
 useful b3' attempting to organize a plan for a universal 
 system of numerical signals. The first step might, 
 perhaps, be that each nation should supply all ques- 
 tions and answers that ships could ever require for 
 their safety or convenience. Out of these, the dupli- 
 cates being omitted, the first draught of the naval part 
 of the dictionary might be formed. This being sub- 
 mitted to criticism, would probably itself suggest 
 many additions. 
 
 *'The questions should be very carfally translated 
 into the languages of all maritime nations, and should 
 be printed in columns for each language. A dictionary 
 of this kind, containing about 5000 terms in ten Eu- 
 ropean languages, was published in 1849 by M. K. P. 
 Ter Reehorst. The words are contained on about 200 
 double pages ; and since each word, of which there 
 are usuallj- about 25 in a page, is numbered, this work 
 might be used as a numerical telegraphic dictionarj^. 
 If a more general dictionary were undertaken, other 
 considerations arise, and the great questions relating 
 to the philosophy of language must be examined with 
 reference to such a work. It will, however, he suffi- 
 ciently early to enter on that subject when any steps 
 are seriouslj' taken to accomplish so desirable an ob- 
 ject. The continually increasing use of the electric 
 telegraph renders a universal language still more de- 
 sirable. 
 
 ' ' On the Identification of a Light-house. — A case has 
 been more than once suggested to the author, to which 
 it maj' be desirable to advert in order to point out the 
 course of experiment which may lead to its removal. 
 At certain periods of the year, and on certain coasts, 
 there occur dense fogs. Under these circumstances, 
 it has happened that a vessel has, on a partial and 
 momentary opening in the fog, insufficient to show 
 more than a single occultation, found herself almost close 
 upon a light-house. In such a case, there is neither 
 time nor opportunity to ascertain its number. It may 
 here be remarked, that the assumed danger of going 
 ashore is so imminent that it is not necessary to know 
 the number. It is sufficient for the moment to know 
 that there is a light-house in a certain direction, which 
 is close at hand. It must, however, be admitted, that 
 in common with all received systems of lights, the 
 method of occultations will not furnish a remedy. If 
 a colored light is already employed in particular local- 
 ities to meet such a case, it will still accomplish the 
 purpose when occultations are applied to it. The 
 danger, although rare, ought, however, to be -provided 
 against. The following remarks sxe suggested to as- 
 sist in attaining that object : 
 
 " The time between two occultations (usually one 
 second) might be doubled in special cases. A little ex- 
 perience would enable most men to recognize the fact 
 after two occultations. If such light-houses were 
 placed alternately with others, no light-house would 
 be mistaken for either of its adjacent neighbors. This 
 plan might be partially extended, but it is liable to 
 objections. Another view may be taken. Is it possi- 
 ble to give a specific character to the occultation itself? 
 It has been found, that if the occultating cylinder de- 
 scend rather slowly over the lamp, and then, after a 
 very short pause, rise suddenly, the effect is best. It 
 has also been observed, when an accidental defect in 
 the apparatus caused the cylinder, after suddenly 
 rising up, to rebound, and again to obscure partially 
 the lamp, that the nature of the occultation was pecu- 
 liarly characteristic. This peculiarity was very re- 
 markable xip to a certain distance, after which it 
 became lost. Almost any form of peculiarity can be 
 given to the occultations by giving proper forms to the 
 cams which govern them. The fact that such pecu- 
 liarities are not seen until the ship has approached 
 within certain distances, does not appear to present a 
 material difficulty, and maj' even prove an advantage. 
 It would seem, then, to be desirable to institute a se- 
 ries of experiments to determine the following ques- 
 tions : Can the occultations of a lamp, in which the 
 rapid re-appearance of the light occurs from the falling 
 down of the ahade, be distinguished from those in which 
 it occurs in consequence of the rapid rising up of the 
 shade ; and if so, at what distance ? In some cases 
 the shades might move from right to left, and in ths 
 reverse direction. What peculiarities in occultations 
 can be seen at the greatest distances ? Among the 
 experiments still required may be mentioned the loss 
 of light resulting from the interposition of colored 
 glasses, and also the proportion of light lost by sacri- 
 ficing given portions of various parts of the optical ap- 
 paratus used for concentrating it. This is necessarj'^ 
 in order to enable us to judge what portion may be 
 most economically sacrificed in case the space might 
 be required for other purposes. The dangers arising 
 from fogs are of such an extent that all the resources 
 of science ought to be called in to remove them. Vol- 
 taic light can scarcely be depended upon except under 
 continual superintendence ; it would therefore be ex- 
 pensive. If, however, any intense light can be found 
 capable of penetrating dense fogs, it might, during 
 their continuance, be good economy to employ it even 
 at considerable expense. Perhaps the ordinarj' light- 
 house lamps might be supplied with oxygen during 
 fogs ; its expenditure being regulated by the obscurity 
 to be penetrated. Possibly portions of phosphorus 
 might be burnt in oxj^gen, and the light-house would 
 then express its number by a series of flashes, and of 
 pauses between them. The new form which that body 
 is now known to assume, might render its application 
 to this purpose free from danger. 
 
 " On Sounds used for Signals. — Both gongs and bells 
 are employed as substitutes for lights during fogs. I 
 am not aware of any series of experiments ou the dis- 
 tances at which sounds of various kinds can be heard. 
 In a question on which so much property and so many 
 lives depend, it is surelj' important to be well informed. 
 The only resource is experiment. It may be remarked 
 that the low notes of the gong might be confounded 
 with those of the roll of waves breaking on the shore, 
 while the shrill whistle of the steam-engine will find a 
 rival in the wind whistling through the rigging. The 
 trumpet and the new and still more powerful instru- 
 ment at the recent exposition ought also to be com- 
 pared. 
 
 ''Again, although some of these maybe heard at 
 greater distances in the open air, some may be more 
 easily adapted to have their sound concentrated and 
 directed, when placed in the focus of a parabolic mir- 
 ror, or, perhaps, at the end of a long tube. Sound ifl 
 
LIG 
 
 1255 
 
 LIG 
 
 transmitted to considerable distances through water, 
 and it has been suggested that this might be used in 
 case of fogs. But it seems probable that sound would 
 be much interrupted in its progress from the constant 
 motion of the waves ; and if it were transmitted at a 
 considerable depth, it might be difficult for a vessel to 
 send down an apparatus to render it sensible. Experi- 
 ments should be made on the distance at which sounds 
 can be heard under water in various circumstances of 
 its motion. If, during storms, the surface only is agi- 
 tated, it might be possible to transmit sounds in the 
 still water near the bottom to considerable distances. 
 Thus channels might be traversed by telegraphic com- 
 munications with a less costly apparatus than that of 
 the electric wire. It ought also to be ascertained 
 whether the forms of the instruments struck would 
 enable them to project their sounds in particular direc- 
 tions. Gongs, bells, and the firing of cannon under 
 water, are among the sounds to be tried. 
 
 " Whatever may be the sound audible at the great- 
 est distance, it will be necessary to ascertain what are 
 the best means of producing it in greatest intensity — 
 whether by one large instrument, or by many small 
 ones. It seems probable that some combination of 
 discordant sounds may be most effective, because it 
 seemd to be a law of our nature that contrasts produce 
 stronger impressions than uniformity. . There is one 
 form of sound the most disagreeable with which we 
 are acquainted; it is said 'to set the teeth on edge.' 
 "What is the cause of this, and does tliat highly obnox- 
 ious sound penetrate further than others ? If it pen- 
 etrate as, far as others, it will certainly be the earliest 
 to be noticed. 
 
 " Lights on Biwys. — The time is probably not remote 
 when lights will be placed on floating buoys for the 
 purpose of pointing out isolated dangers — as sunken 
 rocks, shoals, etc., on which light-houses can not be 
 placed, or where the great expense may prevent them 
 from being built. They may also be useful to indicate 
 the channels leading to some few ports of very great 
 resort in order to render the approach of vessels possi- 
 ble during the night. The first difficulty in placing 
 lights on buoys arises from the necessity of trimming 
 the lamps, and of supplying them with fresh oil. 
 Galvanic processes seem to present a similar difficulty. 
 The chemical discoveries of recent times, however, 
 offer some hope of removing it. By the destructive 
 distillation of peat, of coal, and of shale, as well as by 
 other methods, a variety of combinations of h3-drogen 
 and carbon have been obtained. Some of" these only 
 remain liquid under a pressure of two or three atmos- 
 pheres. They possess considerable illuminating power ; 
 and by confining them in a close vessel, and allowing 
 a very small aperture for their escape in the state of 
 gas, a jet of flame may be produced, of uniform mag- 
 nitude, and without the use of a wick, until the last 
 drop of fluid has evaporated. If such a fluid could be 
 produced at a moderate price, a quantity might be in- 
 closed within the buoy, sufficient to last several weeks, 
 if not months. 
 
 " Such a light would burn without the necessity of 
 trimming, but it would require mechanism to light it 
 each evening, and to put it out each morning. Such 
 mechanism alreadj' exists in many of our public clocks. 
 If it is thought desirable, too, that it should occult, so 
 as to indicate its number, the plan already described 
 might be applied. Thus the buoy would contain two 
 pieces of mechanism. The only remaining difficulty 
 would be the necessity of visiting the light frequently 
 in order to wind up the two instruments. This might 
 probably be removed ..by having within the buoy a 
 heavy pendulum, or perhaps two such, swinging at 
 right angles to each other. If the perpendict^r mo- 
 tion of the buoy could be secured, then the winding up 
 pendulums must be maintained horizontally b}' means 
 of a powerful spring. These, by the action of the 
 waves, would be continually winding up the springs 
 
 which drive the mechanism. This might be so ar- 
 ranged that it would never over-wind them. Spirits 
 of turpentine, benzole, and several other compounds, 
 assume a gaseous state at very low temperatures. If 
 the end of a tolerably thick rod of metal is heated by 
 the flame of the lamp, and the other end conducts the 
 heat to the bottom of the fluid, it is sufficient to pro- 
 duce a continuous stream of gas to supply the burner 
 until the last drdp of the fluid is exhausted. Lamps 
 constructed on this principle have, under various 
 names, been in use for several years. If the fluid 
 were sufficiently cheap, one of these movements might 
 be dispensed with, by allowing the light to burn con- 
 stantly during the day as well as the night. New 
 forms would be required for such buoys. Probably a 
 columnar form, weighted at the bottom, might give a 
 steadier light amid the fluctuations caused by the 
 waves. These buoys should be attached to their 
 moorings by rings fixed at the centre of resistance. 
 
 " Of the Mechanism necessary fcnr Occulting Lights. — 
 The period of time occupied by any occulting light in 
 making a signal is so short tliat great accuracy in the 
 wheel-work is not necessary. In light-houses the 
 moving power may be a heavy weight driving a train 
 of wheels. This must terminate in a governor, which 
 presses by springs against the inner side of a hollow 
 cj^linder. When the length of the time necessary to 
 indicate the number of the light-house is known, the 
 governor must be so adjusted that some one axis shall 
 revolve in the given time. A cam- wheel must be fixed 
 on this axis, having its cams and blank spaces so ar- 
 ranged as to lift up the tail of a lever carrj'ing the oc- 
 cultating cylinder at the proper intervals of time. 
 Each tooth of the cain-wheel will cause an occultation 
 of the lamp by the cylinder, which is instantly drawn 
 back by a spring. It is obvious that an axis inight be 
 used which moves round in the course of two, three, 
 or more cj'cles. In this case, the same s^^stem of cams 
 would be repeated an equal number of times in the 
 circumference of the cam- wheel. This plan is sufficient 
 for light-houses which are not intended for signal sta- 
 tions also. When signals are to be used, it is better 
 to have a single cam on an axis which revolves once 
 in the time which' elapses from the end of one occulta- 
 tion to the end of the next. The effect of tMs cam 
 will be, by acting upon a forked lever, to lift up the 
 occulting cylinder. If nothing retain it in that posi- 
 tion, the action of the spring on the lever will cause it 
 to descend, and the cylinder, acted on by gravity, will 
 instantly follow. But if an arm is interposed which 
 retains the cylinder, then the forked lever alone will 
 be pulled back by its spring, and the occulting cylin- 
 der will remain suspended until the next turn of the 
 cam-wheel. The suspending arm which was inter- 
 posed must itself be governed by a cam-wheel, ex- 
 pressing the number of the light-house. 
 
 " When a signal is to be made, an adjustable cam- 
 wheel is to be set to the proposed signal, and is to be 
 fixed upon the axis carrying the constant number of 
 the light-house. When the proper time arrives for 
 making the signal, it is only necessary to shift the 
 axis, so that the adjustable cam-wheel shall be moved 
 into the place occupied by the fixed cam-wheel. The 
 signal will now be made and repeated as often as re- 
 quired, after which, the original position of the con- 
 stant cam-wheel must be restored. It is clear that 
 anj' number of adjusting cam-wheels might be pre- 
 pared for signals, and put upon the axis at once, so, 
 that a series of different signals might be made in a 
 very .short time. Lights to mark the depth of water 
 must have a heavy float connected with them, which, 
 at every foot of its rise or fall, must alter the number 
 of occuitations made by the colored light. It must, 
 also, at the turn of the tide, change the color of the 
 light. It is sufficient for the present purpose to ol)- 
 serve that the mechanism similar to that by which a 
 clock strikes different hours, might be employed for 
 
LIG 
 
 1256 
 
 LIG 
 
 this purpose. The -Arell in which the float is placed 
 ought to be open to the tide by several small apertures ; 
 this would render the rise or fall of the float more uni- 
 form. Telescopes are used for observing light-houses. 
 They Iiave a small magnifying power, but a large aper- 
 
 ture. It is important that, they should be as short 
 as possible, for taking in a given, visual angle. Pos- 
 sibly, those constructed with a lens of rock-crystal 
 might bo employed with advantage, but upon this sub- 
 ject, sAso, experiment must be made. 
 
 COMPAKATtVE ElkVATION OF FOEEIGS AND UNITED STATES' LiGHT-HOTISE TOWEKS, ETC. 
 
 Unit. States.* 
 
 Portland. 
 
 Seguin 
 
 West QHoddy, 
 Monhegan Isl . . 
 
 Owl's Head 
 
 Cape Elizabeth. 
 
 Dice's Head — 
 Eagle Isl. point 
 
 Bear Islanct 
 
 Boston 
 
 Thatcher's Isl.. 
 
 Cape Cod 
 
 Gay Head 
 
 Sankaty Head. . 
 Juniper Island. 
 New London. . . 
 Eaton's Neck... 
 
 Moiitank 
 
 Sandy Hook 
 
 Navesink 
 
 Cape Henlopen 
 Cape Henry. , . . 
 
 Bald Head 
 
 Cape Hatteras. . 
 Cape Lookout. . 
 
 Charleston 
 
 Cape Eomain... 
 
 Tybee 
 
 Dry Tortngas . 
 Cape Florida. . . 
 Cape May. 
 
 ENGLISU LTGIITB 
 
 Scilly 
 
 Longships. . 
 Lizard 
 
 Eddystone . . 
 Start Point. 
 Casquets. . . . 
 
 Portland. 
 
 Needles 
 
 St. Catharine's. 
 Beachy Head. . 
 Dungeoness. . . 
 South Foreland 
 
 North Foi-eland 
 
 Margate 
 
 Orford 
 
 Lowestoft. . . 
 
 Haisbrough . 
 
 HeteU 
 tower. 
 
 65 
 
 30 
 80 
 SO 
 80 
 77 
 40 
 40 
 72 
 72 
 90 
 90? 
 93 
 102 
 65 
 93 
 65 
 65 
 68 
 
 25 
 TO 
 26 
 105 
 20 
 86 
 41 
 32 
 70 
 70 
 87 
 42 
 42 
 85 
 
 EJeva- 
 tloa 
 
 above 
 sea 
 
 level. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 166 
 
 90 
 
 170 
 
 117 
 
 140 
 
 140 
 
 116 
 
 100 
 
 95 
 
 90 
 
 90 
 
 90 
 
 180 
 
 172 
 
 95 
 111 
 184 
 160 
 
 90 
 248 
 246 
 180 
 120 
 110 
 
 95 
 
 95 
 105 
 
 87 
 100 
 
 70 
 
 70 
 
 188 
 
 72 
 
 204 
 
 81 
 
 81 
 
 81 
 
 198 
 
 181 
 
 469 
 
 178 
 
 285 
 
 92 
 
 872 
 
 275 
 
 184 
 
 85 
 
 87 
 
 119 
 
 Haisbrough... 
 
 Cromer 
 
 Chapel 
 
 Spurn 
 
 Flamborongh . 
 Tynemouth. . . 
 
 SCOTLAND. 
 
 Inchkelth 
 
 Isle of May. , . . 
 
 BellKook.. 
 Glrdleness. 
 
 Buchanncss. 
 
 Klnnaird 
 
 Skerries 
 
 Tarbet 
 
 Noss Head . . 
 
 Dunnet 
 
 Pentland. ... 
 
 Start 
 
 Sumburg. 
 
 Cape Wrath — 
 
 Glass 
 
 Barra Head 
 
 Skerryvore... I 
 
 Lismore J 
 
 Bhins of Islay.. 
 
 Kyntyre 
 
 Pladdo 
 
 Mall 
 
 Little Eoss 
 
 Corse wall 
 
 Calf of Man.... 
 
 Douglas 
 
 ENGLAND — 
 WKST COAST. 
 
 St Beos 
 
 Walney. 
 
 Black Rock... 
 
 Lesowe 
 
 Lynns 
 
 Skerries 
 
 Stack 
 
 Bardsey 
 
 Small's (Eock) 
 St Ann's 
 
 South Bishop. . 
 
 Caldy 
 
 Mumbles. 
 
 Nash 
 
 Flatholm 
 
 Lundy. 
 
 Trevose Head 
 
 Height 
 
 Feet. 
 67 
 88 
 49 
 90 
 72 
 75 
 
 100 
 
 45 
 80 
 10 
 80 
 35 
 50 
 80 
 
 Roclr- 
 awoeh 
 
 80 
 28 
 80 
 TO 
 
 60 
 118 
 50 
 36 
 84 
 
 Eleva- 
 tion 
 
 above 
 sea 
 
 level. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 100 
 
 274 
 
 116 
 
 100 
 
 214 
 
 154 
 
 240 
 110 
 90 
 185 
 115 
 130 
 120 
 160 
 175 
 175 
 846 
 170 
 140 
 100 
 300 
 400 
 180 
 680 
 160 
 103 
 160 
 297 
 180 
 825 
 175 
 112 
 876 
 
 70 
 118 
 800 
 128 
 117 
 201 
 129 
 
 70 
 192 
 159 
 144 
 2t0 
 114 
 167 
 122 
 166 
 640 
 204 
 
 Baily 
 
 Poolbeg. 
 
 Oarlingford(K0ck) 
 
 Copeland 
 
 Maidens 
 
 Innlstrahul.. , 
 Tory Island.. 
 
 Killybeg 
 
 Eagle 
 
 Clare Island. . 
 
 Arran 
 
 Loophead. . , , 
 
 Eilkradan 
 
 Skellig. 
 
 This list comprises 
 all the most im- 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 Fastnet Eock 
 
 Cape Clear 
 
 Kinsale 
 
 Elnsaie Harbor.. . 
 Hook Tower. . 
 
 Tnskar 
 
 Wioklow. 
 
 HeI|Lt 
 tower. 
 
 Belgium. 
 
 Ostend (2d order 
 fixed) 
 
 75 
 42 
 42 
 35 
 
 110 
 81 
 58 
 29 
 42 
 63 
 
 111 
 52 
 60 
 60 
 26 
 63 
 41 
 
 ■m 
 
 abovo 
 sea 
 levol. 
 
 Netheelands. 
 
 Westkappel(flx'd) 
 Schouwen (1st or-' 1 
 
 der lens) j ■ ■ 
 
 Goeree (fixed),... 
 Brlelle (fixed).... 
 Egmond-aan-zee . 
 
 Kykduin 
 
 Ylleland 
 
 Terschelling. 
 
 HANOVEKIAlf. 
 
 Borcum '. 
 
 Hambtteg. 
 
 Neuwerk (fixed). 
 
 Danish. 
 
 Skaw 
 
 Anholt 
 
 Hesseloe 
 
 Nakkehoved 
 
 Kronborg — 
 
 ThunOe. L 
 
 Stevensklint 
 
 Fakkebeirg 
 
 Hamer^n..., — 
 Lubec — 
 
 151 
 465 
 274 
 
 98 
 152 
 101 
 260 
 121 
 184 
 
 68 
 101 
 181 
 
 84 
 
 94 
 167 
 125 
 104 
 220 
 849 
 498 
 269 
 188 
 8T2 
 ITS 
 
 146 
 
 ITO 
 
 148 
 203 
 126 
 164 
 151 
 ITT 
 
 123 
 85 
 147 
 113 
 100 
 144 
 128 
 
 Pkussian. 
 
 Arcona 
 
 Jershdft 
 
 Eixhoft 
 
 Hela. 
 
 Briisterort 
 
 Memel 
 
 Swedish. 
 
 Orskar., 
 
 Grpnskar.. . . . 
 
 Korsso 
 
 Landsort 
 
 Oland 
 
 KuUen 
 
 Winga 
 
 Marstrond 
 
 Helgit 
 tower. 
 
 Norwegian. 
 
 Feerder 
 
 Jnmfruland . . . 
 
 Oxoe. 
 
 The Naze 
 
 Marklie 
 
 Gunnarshong . 
 Hoidingsoe . . . 
 
 Eondoe 
 
 iSrUitholmen. . 
 
 Terningen 
 
 AgdencES 
 
 Villa Oen 
 
 EuSSIAN. 
 
 Swalferort 
 
 Riga. 
 
 Filsand 
 
 Dagerort. . . . 
 Odensholm*. 
 Pakerort . . . 
 
 Sourop 
 
 Narghen. . . , 
 Eevel 
 
 Hogland 
 
 Oato 
 
 Hangaoud.. . 
 Parkalond, . 
 
 Enskar. 
 
 Odessa. 
 
 Pellinghe 
 
 Tarkankoot. 
 Khersonese . 
 InkermaD, . . 
 
 Takli 
 
 Belosarfiisk . 
 
 Eleva- 
 tion 
 above 
 
 130 
 148 
 
 118 
 103 
 161 
 146 
 180 
 
 216 
 134 
 140 
 146 
 201 
 129 
 133 
 168 
 131 
 100 
 116 
 124 
 
 110 
 100 
 110 
 96 
 688 
 111 
 146 
 186 
 115 
 136 
 210 
 882 
 146 
 107 
 1T2 
 168 
 203 
 126 
 115 
 109 
 420 
 860 
 168 
 176 
 
 * This list of 34 towers comprises those of the greatest elevation of the entire number of stations (296) on the coasts of 
 the United States. Of the remaining towers (say 261), the majority have no greater average elevation than 50 to 65 feet, while 
 there are many having less than 30 to 40 feet The European lists, on the contrary, comprise nearly all the sea-coast lights. 
 
 Scotch Lights. 4 with 12. In 1851, nearly all the northern lights fit- 
 
 ted previously with reflectors and Argand lamps had 
 been changed to lens lights and the colza or rape-seed 
 oil introduced. Perfectly formed parabolic reflectors, 
 heavily plated with silver, and of large size, are employ- 
 ed in the lights of Great Britain, chiefly 24 and 21 inches 
 in diameter. Reflectors are being changed as rapidly as 
 possible for lenses, and the holophotal system of lenses 
 and reflectors upon the plan of Mr, Thomas Stevenson 
 of Edinburg. 
 
 " Of the sea-coast lights of Ireland in 1845, 1 was 
 fitted with 40 lamps and reflectors ; 1 with 28 ; 1 with 
 27 ; 2 with 26 ; 2 with 24; 2 with 23 ; 6 with 21 ; 2 
 with 20 ; 3 with 19 ; 1 with 17 ; 2 with 16 j 3 with 15. 
 "^ Floating Lights. — 1 was fitted with 24 lamps and 
 reflectors ; 2 with 16. Lens lights are being intro- 
 
 Of the 24 northern lights in 
 as below : 
 
 No. of 
 Name. laoipa & 
 
 reflectors. 
 
 Isle of May 24 
 
 Bell Eock 20 
 
 Girdleness 23 
 
 Buchanness 24 
 
 Klnnaird Head 18 
 
 Tarbetness 21 
 
 Pentland Skerries (2) . . . . 60 
 
 Sumburg Head 26 
 
 Dunnet Head 17 
 
 1834, the following were fitted 
 No. of 
 
 Name. lampa & 
 
 reflectore. 
 
 Cape Wrath 20 
 
 Island Glass 19 
 
 Barra Head 21 
 
 Lismoro 18 
 
 Islay 24 
 
 MnllofKintyre 20 
 
 Mull of Galloway. 17 
 
 One of only 9 
 
 Six of only 12 
 
 " Of the. 27 northern lights in 1845, there were 4 di- 
 optric lights. (Reflector lights.) 1 fitted with 28 lamps 
 and reflectors; 2 with 26; 4 with 24; 2 with 21; 2 
 with 20 ; 1 with 19 ; 3 with 18 ; 1 with 17 ; 1 with 16 ; 
 
UG 
 
 1257 
 
 UQ 
 
 Kaoio. 
 
 No. of 
 ' latnpB & 
 reflectors. 
 TLrtATIHO LlOniS. 
 
 Newarp. 24 
 
 Goodwin , 24 
 
 Galloper 16 
 
 HalBborough 16 
 
 Stanford.. 12 
 
 Gall Stream 16 
 
 Lynn Well 12 
 
 doced intio Ireland, and the colza or fape-eeed oil sub- 
 stituted for -vrinter-strained sperm oil. 
 
 Tbinity Hovsi: Ooepoeation Lights in 1834. 
 
 "flight. „ae,'i„r.. 
 
 Sollly, revolving. 80 
 
 Eddystone, fixed 24 
 
 Portland, revolving. 21 
 
 Lizard (2), fixed each 19 
 
 Flamborough, revolving. 21 
 
 South Stack, revolving. . . 21 
 
 Beachy Head, revolving. 80 
 
 Heligoland, fixed..-., 24 
 
 Foulness, revolving. 80 
 
 LoiiBShips 19 
 
 N. Foreland 18 
 
 " Whole number of Trinity House lights in 1834, 42 ; 
 do. floating lights' in 1834, 13. 
 
 " Trinity Souse Corporation Lights. — Total number of 
 light-houses in 18'i6, 66 ; floating lights in 1845, 25. 
 Of that number, there were, , in 1845, 1st order lens 
 lights, 11 ; 2d order, 4; total, in 1845,15. Of the 51 
 remaining (reflector) lights, 2 were fitted with 30 lamps 
 and reflectors each ; 1 with 27 ; 1 with 26 ; 4 with 24 ; 
 2 with 21 ; 3 with 19 ; 3 with 18 ; 3 with 17 ; 3 with 
 15 J , 1 with 14 ; 5 with 13. Of the 25 floating lights 
 belonging to the Trinity House in 1845, 2 were fitted 
 with 24 lamps and reflectors each ; 9 with 16 ; 1 with 
 12 ; 8 with 8 ; 5 with 4. 6 lens apparatus have been 
 introduced into the Trinity Holise lights between 184G 
 and 1851. 
 
 " The fourth order lenses are introduced as substi- 
 tutes in harbors for reflectors. 
 
 Fbbncii Lights. 
 
 Na-no and chftuacter of light. ^ 
 
 Holght 
 tower. 
 
 Eleva- 
 tloil. 
 
 Range. 
 
 DunkerquG, Ist order, revolving. 
 
 Gravelines, 8d order, fixed 
 
 Feet, 
 
 166 
 4T 
 169 
 
 55 
 
 63 
 
 104 
 43 
 
 65 
 43 
 72 
 
 ISO 
 
 84 
 
 81 
 107 
 
 BO 
 160 
 140 
 203 
 
 80 
 
 7S 
 
 52 '- 
 
 Feet. 
 
 192 
 94 
 189 
 192 
 172 
 91 
 86 
 422 
 89 
 393 
 39 
 415 
 137 
 234 
 166 
 120 
 158 
 287 
 146 
 221 
 273 
 176 
 182 
 186 
 267 
 273 
 163 
 
 743 
 410 
 822 
 
 No«t.M 
 '24. 
 15 
 20 
 22 
 20 
 15 
 
 9 
 18 
 
 9 
 20 
 10 
 
 15 
 22 
 18 
 15 
 15 
 22 
 IS 
 24 
 18 
 18 
 18 
 20 
 18 
 27 
 18 
 24 
 18 
 27 
 27 
 
 Calais, Ist order, movable.. 
 
 Cape Grlsnez, 1st order, revolving 
 
 
 Treport, 4th order, fixed 
 
 
 Fecamp 4tb order, revolving 
 
 
 
 
 Point de Ver, 3d order, movable 
 
 Polnte de Barfleur, 1st order, revolving 
 
 Isles Chansey, 8d order, movable 
 
 Cape Frohel, Ist order, revolving 
 
 Heaux de Brehat, 1st order, fixed 
 
 L'lale de Bas, Ist order, revolving, , — 
 Lisle d'Bnessant, lat order, fixed. . . „ . 
 
 St. Mathlen, 2d drdei',rovolVing. ;.■ 
 
 Portzec, 2d order,imovabl6i , . . 
 
 L'lle de Seln, Ist.order, movable 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mont d'Agdi,' 1st order, revolving 
 
 Mont PestuSttto, Ist order, revolving. . . 
 
 Tablk of Distances at which Objeots can be sben^/p 
 Sea, aooobziin£^ to theik respective Elevations 
 AND THE Elevation 6j the Ete oe the Observek. 
 
 " There are, in addition to the foregoing, 1st order 
 lights, with elevations 133 feet, range 22 miles ; 192 
 feet, range 18 miles ; 175 feet, range 18 miles ; 237 
 feet, range 20 miles ; 160 feet, range 18 miles ; 134 feet, 
 range 18 miles ; 130 feet, range 20 miles 5 260 feet, 
 range 20 miles ; 420 feet, range 27 miles ; 335 feet, 
 range 18 miles ; 266 feet, range 22 miles ; 286 feet, 
 range 18 miles ; 338 feet, range 20 miles.; 215 feet, 
 range 20 miles. Second order lights, 78 feet eleva- 
 tion, range 18 miles ; 104 feet, range 18 miles ; 150 
 feet, range 18 miles. Third order lights are given a 
 sufficient elevation to average a range of about 15 
 nautical miles. Fourth order lights (harbor lights) 
 have generally an average range of 9 to 10 nautical 
 nules. This list comprises all the important lights of 
 france. 
 
 HelghtB 
 In toot. 
 
 Sietancee 
 
 Distances 
 
 s« 
 
 Distanees 
 
 Distances 
 
 in Engliflh 
 
 in nnnticol 
 miles. 
 
 in English 
 n-tlles, 
 
 in nautical 
 miles. 
 
 5 
 
 2'958 
 
 2-565 
 
 no 
 
 18-874 
 
 12-08 
 
 10 
 
 4-184 
 
 3-628 
 
 120 
 
 l'4-490 
 
 12-66 
 
 15 
 
 6-128 
 
 4-443 
 
 180 
 
 16-088 
 
 13-08 
 
 20 
 
 6-916 
 
 5-130 
 
 140 
 
 16-662 
 
 18-57 
 
 2S 
 
 6-614 
 
 6-736 
 
 160 
 
 17-201 
 
 14-91 
 
 SO 
 
 7-245 
 
 6-288 
 
 200 
 
 18-708 
 
 16-22 
 
 85 
 
 7-826 
 
 6-787 
 
 250 
 
 20-916 
 
 18-14 
 
 40 
 
 8-366 
 
 7-255 
 
 300 
 
 22-912 
 
 19-87 
 
 45 
 
 8-874 
 
 7-696 
 
 860 
 
 24-748 
 
 21-46 
 
 60 
 
 9-351 
 
 8-112 
 
 400 
 
 26-457 
 
 22-94 
 
 65 
 
 9-8U 
 
 8-509 
 
 460 
 
 28-062 
 
 24-83 
 
 60 
 
 10-246 
 
 8-886 
 
 600 
 
 29-580 
 
 25-65 
 
 63 
 
 10-665 
 
 9-249 
 
 650 
 
 81-024 
 
 26-90 
 
 70 
 
 11-067 
 
 9-598 
 
 600 
 
 82-408 
 
 28-10 
 
 76 
 
 11-456 
 
 9-985 
 
 660 
 
 88-726 
 
 29-25 
 
 80 
 
 11-832 
 
 10-26 
 
 700 
 
 35-000 
 
 80-28 
 
 85 
 
 12-M6 
 
 10-67 
 
 800 
 
 87-416 
 
 82-45 
 
 90 
 
 '12-649 
 
 10-88 
 
 , 900 
 
 89-886 
 
 84-54 
 
 95 
 
 12-893 
 
 , 11-18 
 
 1,000 
 
 41-833 
 
 86-28 
 
 IQO, 
 
 18-223 
 
 11-47 
 
 
 
 
 " 'The splieroidajl form of the earth requires that 
 the height of a lightriouse tower should increase pro- 
 porliionally to the difference between the earth's radius 
 and the secant of the angle intercepted between the 
 normal to the spheroidal at the light-honse, and the 
 normal at the point of the light's occultation from the 
 view of a distant observer. The effect of atmospheric 
 refraction, however, is too considerable to be neglected 
 in estimating the range of a li^t, or in computing the 
 height of a tower which is required to give to any light 
 a given range ; and we must, therefore, in accordance 
 with the influence of this element, on the one hand, 
 increase the range due to any given height and vi'c-e versa 
 reduce the height required for any given range, which 
 a simple consideration of the form of the globe would 
 assign.' 
 
 " If the distance at which a light of a given height 
 can be seen by a person on a given level be required, 
 it is only needful to add together the two numbers in 
 the column of distances corresponding to those in the 
 column of heights, which represent respectively the 
 height of the observer's eye and the height of the lan- 
 tern above the sea. ' When the height required to ren- 
 der the light visible at a given distance is required, 
 we must first seek for the number corresponding to the 
 height of the observer's eye, and deducff this from the 
 whole j)rdpbsed range of the light, and opposite the 
 remainder, in the column of distances, seek for the cor- 
 responding number in the column of heights." 
 
 Statement sho-a'ing the Inouease of Lens Lights in 
 Feance since, 1884. Feencu Lights. 
 
 Character of lights. No. 
 
 In 1834. 
 
 Lens lights 29 
 
 Eefleotor lights 46 
 
 Total T4 
 
 In 1845. 
 
 Ist order reflector lights. . , , 4 
 
 1st order lens lights 81 
 
 2d " " 4 
 
 8d " " IS 
 
 4th " " 67 
 
 Total of lens lights 109 
 
 Eefiector lights (small) 42 
 
 Total 161 
 
 In 1851. 
 
 1st order lens lights 89 
 
 2d " " 5 
 
 8d " " 16 
 
 4th " " 66 
 
 Total of lens lights 126 
 
 r Beflector beacons 40 
 
 ^.TliSs lights of Algiers and the colonies are not included in 
 thisjiat .An imperfect list of these, up to the latest dates, 
 may i^e found in Pope's Yearly Journal of Trade. Several 
 Impdrtant lights have been erected in Algiers during the past 
 year (1886). , . , 
 
LIG 
 
 1258 
 
 LIG 
 
 Statement showing the nttmber op Lens LiGnTS in ex- 
 istence IN 1851. Lens Apparatus. 
 
 Character of liphta. No. 
 
 In 1845 there were lights fitted with the first three 
 
 orders of lens apparatus throughout the world . 95 
 Smaller catadioptric lights 115 
 
 Total lens lights 210 
 
 From 1845 to 1851 (six years), there were con- 
 structed in Paris and sold — 
 
 1st order lens apparatus 65 
 
 2d " " 20 
 
 Sd " " 8S 
 
 4th " " 87 
 
 Total in six years 158 
 
 Total of the first three orders of lens apparatus 
 
 in use in 1351 216 
 
 Smaller lens lights 152 
 
 Total of lens lights In 1851 S68 
 
 Books and Public Documents of Reference. — The 
 following works, Reports, and Documents ma)^ be con- 
 sulted upon the subject of light-houses, viz. : — Smea- 
 ton's Narrative of the Eddystone Light-house : Lon- 
 don, 1793. Stevenson's Account of the Bell-Rock 
 Light-house : Edinburg, 1824. Momoire sur un nou- 
 veau systfeme d'eclairage des Phares ; par M. A. Fres- 
 nel, Ingenieur au Corps Eoyal des Pouts et Chaussees, 
 etc., etc., etc. : Paris, 1822. Belidor, Architecture 
 Hydraulique, tome iv., p. 1.51. Peclet, Traite de 1' 
 6clairage : Paris, 1827. Admiral de Rossel, Rapport 
 contenant I'csposition du syst6me adopts par la Com- 
 mission des Phares pour 6clairer les cotes de France ; 
 Paris, 1825. Treatise on burning instruments, con- 
 taining the method of building large polyzonal lenses. 
 By David Brewster, LL.D., F.E.S. : Edinburg, 1812. 
 Fanal di Salvore, nell'Istria, illuminato a gaz : Vien- 
 na, 1821. On the construction of polj'zonal lenses 
 and mirrors of great magnitude for light-houses and 
 for burning instruments, and on the formation of a 
 great national burning apparatus. By David Brews- 
 ter, LL.D., F.E.S. : (Edinburg Phil. Journal, 1823, 
 vol. viii., p. 160.) Account of a new system of illumi- 
 nation for light-houses. By David Brewster, LL.D., 
 F.U.S. Edinburg, 1827. Saggio di osservazione, or 
 observations on the means of improving the construc- 
 tion of light-houses ; with an appendix, on the appli- 
 cation of gas to light-houses. By Chevalier G. Al- 
 dini: Milan, 1823. Bodier Marcet, Notice descriptif 
 d'un fanal h. double aspect, etc., etc. : Paris, 1823. 
 Bordier ^larcct, Parabole soumise ^ I'art, ou Essaie sur 
 la catoptrique de I'eclairage: Paris, 1819. Descrip- 
 tion Sommaire des Phares et Fanaux allum^s sur les 
 cotes de France : Paris, 1845. Stevenson's British 
 Pharos : Leith, 1831. The Light-houses of tlie Brit- 
 ish Islands, corrected at the Admiralty, to October, 
 18-M. The Belgian, Netherlands, Hanoverian, Dan- 
 isli, Prussian, Swedish, Norwegian, Ionian Isles, and 
 Russian li;4ht-houses : London, 1843. The Light- 
 houses, Beacons, and Floating Lights of the United 
 States : Washington, 1845. Instruction pour le serv- 
 ice des Phares Lenticulaires, Par L^onor Fresnel, 
 ing6nieur-en-chef, s6cretaire de la Commission des 
 Phares : Paris, 1835. Clauses et Conditions relatives 
 h, la fourniture, pendant trois annces, de I'huile de col- 
 za ndcessaire au service do I'eclairage des Phares et 
 Fanaux des cotes de la Manche, 1839. Detail estima- 
 tif de la dipense annuelle de la fourniture en huile de 
 colza nucessaire au service de Tcclairage des Phares 
 et Fanaux des cotes de la Manche : Paris, 1839. Clau- 
 ses et conditions de I'enterprise de I'eclairage des Phares 
 et Fanaux des cotes de I'ocean, et de la MediteiTan6e : 
 Paris, 1838. Tableau de service de I'eclairage des 
 Phares de l'oc6an : Paris, 1838. DetaU estimatif des 
 depenses annuelles du service de I'eclairage des Phares 
 et Fanaux des cotes de France : Paris, 1839, 1848. 
 Sous details du prix des diverses foarniturcs et des de- 
 penses a faire pour le service de recUirage des Phares 
 et Fanaux des cotes de France, 1838. Notice sur la 
 
 composition et les prix des Phares Lenticulaires, Ca- 
 toptriques et Catadioptriques, parties optique et m^ca- 
 nique, par L6toui*neau et Cie., successeurs de MM., 
 Soliel pfere, et Fran9ois, jeune, constructeurs de Phares 
 dioptriques, systferae de M. A. Fresnel, Rue des Pois- 
 sonniers No. 24, prfes et hors la barrifere Poissonnifere, 
 ^ Paris. Instruction sur I'organisation et la surveil- 
 lance du service des Phares et Fanaux des cotes de 
 France. Par L6onor Fresnel, ringfenieur-en-chef, di- 
 recteur, secretaire de la Commission des Phares : Pa- 
 ris, 1842. Captain Leontey SpafareifF's New Guide 
 for the Navigation of the Gulf of Finland : St. Peters- 
 burg, 1813. Colier, Guide des Marins : Paris, 1825. 
 Stevenson's Sketch of Civil Engineering in America : 
 London : 1838, p. 296, Report of the Select Commit- 
 tee of the House of Commons of Great Britain on 
 Light-houses : Hansard, London, 1834. Report by a 
 Committee of the Board of Commissioners, of the 
 Northern Light-houses, on the Report of the Select 
 Committee ; Edinburg, 1836. Report of the Commis- 
 sioners of the Northern Light-houses on the illumina- 
 tion of Light-houses, by Alan Stevenson M. A. : Edin- 
 burg, 1834. Report to the same board, on the Inchkeith 
 Dioptric Light, by Alan Stevenson : Edinburg, 1835. 
 Report on the Isle of May Dioptric Light, by Alan 
 Stevenson : 1836. Report on the Isle of May Light, 
 by a Committee of the Royal Society (Professor 
 Forbes, reporter) : Edinburg, 1836. Comptes Rendus 
 Hebdomadaires des Seances de I'Aca^emie des Scien- 
 ces, tome 18, p. 25 : Memoire present^ k I'Academie 
 des Sciences le 8 Janvier, 1844. Note sur I'Appareil 
 Catadioptrique exucutee par M. Fran9ois, jeune, pour 
 le Phare Ecossais de Scherivore : Commissaires MM. 
 Arago, Mathieu, Babinet. Report of the Select Com- 
 mittee of the HoiRe of Commons of Great Britain 
 upon Light-houses : Hansai'd, London, 1845. Captain 
 Denham, R. N. Mersey, and Dee Navigation : Liver- 
 pool, 1840. Encyclopajdia Britannica, 7th edition : 
 Edinburg, 1842 ; vol. xx., article Sea-lights, p. 15. 
 Circular ; Instruction sur la Nouvelle Organisation de 
 I'eclairage des Phares et Fanaux : Paris, le 25 Juin, 
 1839. Circular : the same subject : Paris, le 28 Juin, 
 1839. Circular : Phares et Fanaux ; Controle des con- 
 sommations en huile et de la situation des divers ap- 
 provissionments : Paris, le 17 Mars, 1845. Documents 
 H. R., 2d session 25th Congress, Nos. 21, 27, 38, and 
 41. Documents Senate, 2d session 25th Congress, 
 Nos. 138, 159, 428, 375, 506, 258. Document H. R., 
 3d session 25th Congress, No. 24. Documents Senate, 
 1st session 26th Congress, Nos. 474 and 619. Docu- 
 ments H. R., 2d session 27th Congress, Nos. 140, 193, 
 274, 811. Documents H. R., 3d session 27th Congress, 
 Nos. 183 and 199. Documents H. E. 1st session 28th 
 Congress, Nos. 38 and 62. Document Senate, 2d ses- 
 sion 28th Congress, No. 166. Document Senate, 3d 
 session 26th Congress, No. 190. Document II. R., Sd 
 session 27th Congress, No. 282, Document Senate, 
 2d session 27th Congress, No. 983. Document H. R., 
 2d session 27th Congress, No. 740. Document Senate, 
 1st session 26th Congress, No. 58. Documents Sen- 
 ate, 3d session 26th Congress, Nos. 160, 131, 187, Doc- 
 uments Senate, 2d session 25th Congress, Nos. 189, 
 254, 15. Memoir of Colonel B. Aycrigg, on the 
 Light-houses at Barfleur and Ostend ; Document H. 
 R., No. 190, 3d session 25th Congress. American 
 Review, vol. i.. No. 3 : New York, March, 1845. 
 Captain Cotton's History of the Trinity House, Lou- 
 don. Edinburg Review, No. cxv., vol. 57, p. 180 ; 
 No. cxxiii., vol. 61, p. 117; No. cxxiv., vol. 61, p, 
 279. Transactions of the Eoyal Society, London : 
 Drummond Light. Nautical Magazine, vols. 1 to 15 : 
 1832 to 1846. Encyclopedia Britannica, 8th edition : 
 Edinburg, 1856 ; vol. 6, article Burning-glasses. An- 
 nuaire pour I'an 1831, presente au Roi, par le Bureau 
 des Longitudes : Notices Scientifiques par M, Arago, 
 p. 151 et p. 172. Ex. Document H. R., No, 14, 2d 
 session 31st Congress. Rudimentary Treatise on 
 
LIG 
 
 1269 
 
 LIG 
 
 Light-houses, by Alan Stevenson, C. E., etc., etc., 
 etc. : London, 1850. Account of the Skerryvore 
 Light-house, with notes on the illumination of Light- 
 houses, by Alan Stevenson, LL.B., F.R.S.E., M.I.C. 
 E., Engineer to the Northern Light-house Board : Ed- 
 inburg and London, 1848. Keport of the Franklin 
 . Institute on the Dioptric System of Augustin Fresnel, 
 for the illumination of Light Houses : Journal Frank- 
 lin Institute, 1849, 1850. Account of the Holophotal 
 system of illuminating light-houses ; being a descrip- 
 tion of the light of maximum intensity : by Thom- 
 as Stevenson, F.R.S.E., F.E.S.S.A., civil engineer: 
 Edinburg, 1851. Ex. document, first session, 30th 
 Congress, No. 27. Ex. document, special session 
 Senate, No. 1. Instruction pour le service des Phares 
 lenticulaires : Paris, 1848. An account of the cast- 
 iron light-house tower on Gibbs's Hill on the Bermu- 
 das : by Peter Paterson ; London, 1850. An account 
 of the construction and fitting up of the new light- 
 house on the Moro castle at Havana, island of Cuba ; 
 first order lens apparatus. Franklin Institute Journal, 
 July, 1847. Returns to Parliament of Northern lights 
 for 1844, 1845, 1846, 1847, 1848, 1849, and 1860. Re- 
 turns to Parliament of British Colonial lights for 1846, 
 1849, 1850, and 1851: London. Returns to Parlia- 
 ment of Trinity House Corporation lights for 1844, 
 1845, 1847, and 1848. Returns to Parliament of Irish 
 lights for 1846 and 1848. Returns relating to the use 
 of colza oil in Great Britain, three cahiers, 1846. Cast- 
 iron light-houses. Nautical Magazine: June, 1850. 
 Light-house economy. Nautical Magazine : May, 1851. 
 Light-houses of the British colonies and possessions 
 abroad: by Alexander Gordon, M. Inst. C.E., etc., 
 London, 1848. Parliamentary report on shipwrecks : 
 London, 1843. William Herschel on the reflection of 
 light from surfaces of speculum metal, in the Philo- 
 sophical Transactions, vol. 90, p. 64 : London. An 
 account of the construction and price of lenticular 
 sea-lights ; catoptric and catadioptric, optical and me- 
 chanical portions. W. Wilkins : London, 1851. Trait6 
 elementaire de Physique, par E. Peclet : Paris, 1847." 
 
 Liffjti-Iiouse System of the United States 1856-57. — 
 The recommendations suggested in the Report of 1851, 
 have been generally carried into effect. At the end of 
 the year 1856, there were in operation, or nearly fin- 
 ished, in the United States, 609 light-houses, light- 
 boats, etc. The following extracts from the Light- 
 house Board Report, under date November 1, 1856, 
 will sliow some of the important changes that have 
 recently taken place : 
 
 " The general condition of the aids to navigation, at 
 the date of the last report from this office, was such 
 as to leave but little to be done toward completing the 
 systematic plan of improvements of authorized aids 
 to navigation along the coasts beyond the general 
 routine duties of renovating and repairing existing 
 structures, and of providing those aids for which ap- 
 propriations had been then recentl3'made. The system 
 of buoyage and beaconage had been carried out as per- 
 fectly, and to as great an extent as the means provided 
 for that object would admit ; and it is believed that 
 but few localities are known to exist requiring ad- 
 ditional aids of that kind. Renovations and improve- 
 ments of light-houses and light-vessels, in addition to 
 the ordinary necessarj' repairs, have been made as ex- 
 tensively during the past year as the means provided 
 and the period of time for doing so would permit. A 
 large number of lens illuminating apparatus has been 
 substituted for the old reflectors and fountain lamps, 
 to the great benefit and economy of the service. 
 Changes are still being made as rapidly as the lens 
 apparatus is available, having in each case due regard 
 to the condition of the old apparatus in the light- 
 houses requiring renovation. New and improved illu- 
 minating apparatus has been placed in, or is in course 
 of preparation for, such of the light-vessels as had 
 ■ not been refitted at the date of the last report. All 
 
 the aids to navigation, for which special appropriations 
 have been made, have either been completed or com- 
 menced, except those condemned as being unnecessar)' 
 by the proper authority, or those to the sites of which 
 perfect titles have not been obtained. The late period 
 of the year at which Congress made appropriations at 
 its last regular session for new aids to navigation, ren- 
 dered it impracticable to commence many of the works 
 this season ; but preliminary steps have been taken 
 for commencing those at the nortli early next spring, 
 and those at tl^e south will be commenced and pros- 
 ecuted as far as possible during the ensuing winter. 
 
 " The frequent inspections of the lights by inspectors 
 and others, the instruction which the keepers have de- 
 rived from them, and their acquirement of a Ijetter 
 knowledge of their duties, as laid down in the printed 
 instructions and directions, have resulted in a gradual 
 but very perceptible improvement in the character, 
 appearance, and reliability of lights along the entire 
 coast. Notwithstanding the extraordinary severity of 
 the past winter, and the consequent injury done to the 
 buoys and light-vessels by the masses of floating ice 
 on the coast from the capes of Virginia to the eastern 
 boundary, it is believed but little serious inconvenience 
 resulted to navigation on account of the temporary 
 absence at times of these aids from their proper sta- 
 tions. Tlie buoys whicli were driven from their sta- 
 tions were promptly replaced, by means of the buoy 
 vessels, from the duplicates kept on hand at different 
 points along the coast, and no efforts were spared to 
 have the light- vessels repaired and towed by steamers 
 to their stations with the least practicable delay. Since 
 the light-vessels have been provided with service and 
 spare moorings of the best description, but few of them 
 have broken adrift from, or left even the most exposed 
 positions. The supplies have been distributed to the 
 lights on the Atlantic, gulf, and lake coasts, by three 
 supply vessels employed, with as much regularity, and 
 as satisfactorily as could be expected in a service, the 
 successful performance of which depends so much 
 upon the weather. The great diminution in the quan- 
 tity of oil required to be delivered at the lights fitted 
 with lens apparatus, will be the means, as the new 
 apparatus is Substituted for reflectors, of facilitating 
 the operations of making deliveries ; and more fre- 
 quent and regular visits will be made without increas- 
 ing the number or expense of the supply-vessels. 
 
 " The officer in charge of the light-house service on 
 the Pacific coast was instriicted to lose no time in com- 
 mencing the erection of the light-house at Umpqua, 
 in Oregon Territorj-, and it is expected, from the ur- 
 gent instructions from this office, and the zeal and 
 energy of the officer in charge, that it will be built as 
 soon as the necessary materials can be collected at the 
 site. The illuminating apparatus and lantern for that 
 light reached the Pacific coast in July last. Instruc- 
 tions were also given to commence the building of the 
 light at New Dungcness, in Washington Territory, 
 and to take the nCcessar}' steps for commencing the 
 one at Cape Flattery and at Blunt's Island witli 
 the least practicable delaj'. The Indian hostilities 
 in Washington and Oregon Territories, and the diffi- 
 culties attending, necessarily, operations at such dis- 
 tant and sparsely populated localities, will doubtless 
 account for any seeming delay in the execution of 
 these worlcs. In the last report from this Board at- 
 tention was invited to the low rate of compensation 
 allowed to light-keepers under the existing law. By 
 the fourth section of the act making appropriations for 
 light-houses, etc., approved May 23, 1828, the Secre- 
 tary of the Treasury is authorized and empowered to 
 regulate and iix the salaries of the respective keepers 
 of light-houses in such a manner as he shall deem just 
 and proper, ' provided the whole sum allowed shall 
 not exceed an average of $400 to each keeper.' The 
 Board would again respectfully renew its recommend- 
 ation of last year, that a reasonable increase be made 
 
LIG 
 
 1260 
 
 LIG 
 
 to the present average rate of compensation to light- 
 keepers, as the best means of insuring efficiency and 
 true economy in the care and management of the 
 light-houses on our extended, dangerous, and, in many 
 portions, sparsely populated and inhospitable coast. 
 The present average rate of compensation to the keep- 
 ers of light-houses on the Pacific coast, as established 
 by the appropriation bills, is $800 per annum ; but the 
 difficulties which have been met with in obtaining the 
 services of competent and reliable keepers for some of 
 the lights at isolated, though important points, on that 
 coast, and the frequent resignations of keepers after a 
 short trial of the duties, lead to the opinion that the 
 main cause of dissatisfaction with the service arises 
 from insufficiency of the compensation in the present 
 state of that part of the country." 
 
 The annual report of the United States Light-houso 
 Board, under date of November, 1857, recapitulates the 
 progress of the work, viz. . 
 
 _ The systematic plan for an economical administra- 
 tion of the light-house establishment service, and for 
 improving and perfecting those aids to navigation 
 which had been authorized bj- the different acts of 
 Congress subsequent to the passage of the law of 
 August 7, 1789, which enacted "that all expenses 
 which shall accrue from and after the fifteenth day of 
 August, one thousand seven hundred and eightj^-nine, 
 In the necessarj' support, maintenance, and repairs of 
 light-houses, beacons, buoys, and public piers, erected, 
 placed, or sunk, before the passage of this act, at the 
 entrance of or within any bay, inlet, harbor, or port 
 of the United States, for rendering the navigation 
 thereof easy and safe, shall be defrayed out of the 
 treasury of the United States," was commenced by 
 this board under the direction, orders, and instructions 
 of the honorable Secretary of the Treasury on the 9th 
 of October, 1852, under the authority of the act of 
 Congress of 31st August, 1852. 
 
 At that time there were 325 light-houses and lighted 
 beacons, and 38 light-vessels, making an aggregate of 
 343 light stations and 371 lights of all orders or classes, 
 distributed in the waters and along the coasts of the 
 Atlantic, Gulf, and northwestern lakes. A few buoys 
 and beacons were placed along the coast and in the 
 bays and harbors of the most prominent sea-ports, with- 
 out system or plan, and often misleading instead of 
 guiding the mariner. There were no lights or other 
 aids to navigation at that time in the harbors or bays 
 on the Pacific coast of the United States. There are 
 now on the Atlantic, Gulf, Lake, and Pacific coasts of 
 the United States, 548 light-house and light-vessel sta- 
 tions, with an aggregate of 602 lights ; also 31 lights 
 remaining either to be condemned according to law, 
 or to be built in obedience to the directions of Con- 
 gress, as soon as valid titles to the sites are obtained ; 
 making, after allowing for all probable condemnations 
 and the discontinuance of such as time has shown to 
 be wholly unnecessary for the general interests of 
 commerce and navigation, an aggregate of 579 light 
 stations, including light-vessels, and 627 lights. The 
 buoyage and beaconage, at that time almost entirely 
 neglected, is now, it is Relieved, unsurpassed in sys- 
 tematic arrangement, in reliability, and in economy 
 of administration. The number of buoys and beacons 
 may be put down, in round numbers, at not less than 
 4500 or ,5000, with duplicates (and at most places 
 along the coast spare buoys) to replace those to be 
 taken up each spring and autumn for cleaning and 
 painting, and to replace those removed or destroyed 
 by ice or by storms, and by being run into and sunk 
 by steamers and other vessels. The entrances to the 
 prmcipal harbors, and ship-channels leading to them, 
 are marked by large nun and can buoys, made chiefly 
 of iron, which h»vc been introduced within the last 
 four years. The previous reports from this office dur- 
 ing the last five years have informed the department 
 and Congress of the extremely dilapidated condition 
 
 of the towers and buildings, of the inferior quality of 
 the illuminating apparatus, and of the wasteful expen- 
 ditures of oil, wicks, chimneys, and other necessary 
 supplies, owing to the large number of lamps employ- 
 ed at the different light-stations, many of which, with 
 proper illuminating apparatus, would have incurred 
 less than one-tenth the cost for far more brilliant and 
 better adapted lights. The light-vessels were found 
 to be in a state of inefficiency, some of them absent 
 from their stations for months at a time, without sub- 
 stitutes to occupy their places, with an inferior descrip- 
 tion of lamps, consuming large quantities of oil with- 
 out producing sufficiently powerful lights to be seen at 
 the required distances, or an adequate return for the 
 expense incurred. 
 
 It will appear that at the time the Light-house 
 Board was organized under the act of August 31, 1852, 
 there were but five lights at four stations fitted with 
 apparatus that had long before been shown incontesta- 
 bly to be in point of economical effect in no case less 
 than 4 to 1, as compared with the catadioptric or re- 
 flecting light system, and in point of power and brill- 
 iancy the proportion in percentage was 83 to 16 — that 
 is, the consumption of oil would not exceed one-fourth 
 in the new system of what was actually required in 
 the old, and at the same time the new system produc- 
 ing for the benefit of the navigator more than five 
 times as much light with this one-fourth part of the 
 oil required for the argand lamps and parabolic re- 
 flectors. But even this comparison is too favorable to 
 the state of the light-house establishment as it existed 
 up to 1853, inasmuch as the apparatus was not, of its 
 kind, the best that could be made, and also from the 
 fact that the great majority of lights (those in the bays, 
 sounds, rivers, and harbors) were fitted with a much 
 larger number of lamps than was necessarj^, even under 
 that system, attributable, however, to the great infe- 
 riority of the apparatus, which, it would seem, it was 
 attempted to remedy by increasing the number of 
 lamps at each station. The estimates for 1853 gave 
 3093 lamps for the 331 light stations. Estimating at 
 an average of 10 lamps for each new light authorized 
 or built since that time, the number of lamps to be fed 
 with oil, to be supplied with wicks and chimneys, and 
 in proportion to be supplied with the various articles 
 of expensive cleaning materials, would, under the old 
 system, have amounted to the large number of 5660 
 lamps, requiring an annual supply of not less than 
 222,400 gallons of oil, computing the consumption at 
 40 gallons per lamp, which is the minimum rate. The 
 cost of oil has been as high as $2 per gallon at the 
 warehouses of the manufacturer, and has been esti- 
 mated for the year 1858-59 at the rate of $1 60 per 
 gallon. 
 
 The lights at Southwest Pass and South Pass of the 
 Mississippi should be discontinued after the completion 
 of the Southwest Pass screw-pile tower, which was au- 
 thorized August 4, 1854, and for which $45,000 was 
 appropriated, leaving about $70,000 to be appropri- 
 ated for its entire completion before commencing tho 
 work. 
 
 The annual appropriations for renovations, repaii'8, 
 etc., of light-houses, within the period referred to, 
 have been employed to the best possible advantage in 
 rebuilding such light-houses as were in imminent dan- 
 ger of falling to pieces, and, where special appropria- 
 tions had not been made for rebuilding them, in pro- 
 viding the necessary improved and economical appa- 
 ratus, fitting the lanterns and towers for receiving 
 them, and in placing them; and with those means 
 alone the whole of the light-houses existing in Jan- 
 uary, 1853, have been provided with new apparatus 
 of the most approved kind, which combines the great- 
 est advantages j'ct discovered in the science of light- 
 house illumination — of power, durability, and econ- 
 omy. — See ZighUhouse BeporU, 18P3 to 1858 ; also 
 Coast Survey Reports. 
 
LIM 
 
 1261 
 
 LIM 
 
 Iiima, the capital of Peru, on the west coast of 
 South America, lat. 12° %' 42" S., long. 77° 7' 15" 
 W. Population variously estimated ; but may proh- 
 ably amount to from 60,000 to 60,000. In 1524, 
 Pizarro, marching through Peru, was struck with the 
 beauty of the valley of Rimac, and there he founded a 
 city, and gave it the name of Ciudad de los Reyes, or 
 Cit}' of the Kings. - This Spanish name it retains in 
 all legal deeds, but it is better known as Lima. Awful 
 earthquakes occurred here, since solemnly commemo- 
 rated by annual festivals, a.d., 1686, 1630, 1687, and 
 October 28, 1746. In the last it was almost totally 
 destroyed, as well as Callao. 
 
 'Callao, the port of Lima, is about six miles west 
 from the latter. The harbor lies to the north of a 
 projecting point of land, in the angle farmed by the 
 smaE uninhabited island of San Lorenzo. Previously 
 to the emancipation of Peru, and the other ci-devant 
 Spanish provinces in the Nc*w World, Lima was the 
 grand e«trep6t for the trade of all the west coast of 
 South America : but a considerable portion of the for^ 
 eign trade of Peru is now carried on through Buenos 
 Ayres, and the fortner is also in the habit of importing 
 European goods at second hand from Valparaiso and 
 other ports in Chili. The exports from Lima consist 
 principally of silver, which is by far the most import- 
 ant article, copper ore, bark, soap, Alpaca wool, etc. 
 Guano is found in large quantities on some parts of 
 the coast of Peru, but is principally imported from 
 Bome small islands, opposite to Pisco, where it is found 
 in vast quantities. The great value of guano as a 
 manure is now generallj' recognized, and it is hardly 
 of less importance as an article of commerce, no fewer 
 than 80,000 tons having been imported in 1847. It 
 was partly, however, brought from Chili and other 
 ports, as well as from Peru ; but that from the latter 
 is decidedly thebest. The imports consist principally 
 of cotton stuffs, linens, woolens, and hardware, prin- 
 cipally from Engla^nd ; silks, brandy, wine, and 
 quicksilver from Spain and France; stock-flsh and 
 flour from the United States, indigo from Mexico, 
 Paraguay herb from Paraguay, spices, dj'e-stufTs, etc. 
 Timber for the construction of ships and houses is 
 brought from Guayaquil. For moneys, weights, and 
 measures, see Peru. 
 
 Lime (Ger. Kalk; Fr. Chaux; It. Calcina, Calce; 
 Sp. Cal; Eus. Ismesf), an earthy substance of a white 
 color, moderately hard, but which is easily reduced to 
 powder, either by sprinUing it with water or by tri- 
 turation. It has a hot burning taste, and in some 
 measure corrodes and destroys the texture of those 
 animal bodies to which it is applied. Specific gravity, 
 2'3, Calcium, the metallic basis of limcj was discov- 
 ered by Sir H. Davy. There are few parts of the 
 world in which lime does not exist. It is found purest 
 in limestone, marble, and chalk. None of these sub- 
 stances is, however, strictly speaking, lime ; but they 
 are all easily converted into it by a well-known process ; 
 that is, by placing them in kilns or furnaces con- 
 structed for the purpose, and keeping them for some 
 time in a white heat— a process called the burning of 
 lime. — Thomson's Chemistry. The use of lime as 
 mortar in building, has prevailed from the earliest an- 
 tiquity, and is nearly universal. It is also very ex- 
 tensively used in this country, and in an inferior 
 degree in some parts of the Continent and of North 
 America, as a manure to fertilize land. But it is a 
 curious fact that the use of lime as a manure is entire- 
 ly a European practice ; and that its employment in 
 that way has never been so much as dreamed of in any 
 part of Asia or Africa. Lime is of much importance 
 in the arts, as a flux in the smelting of metals, in the 
 shape of chlorate in bleaching, in tanning, etc. Lime 
 and limestones may be carried and landed coastwise 
 without any customs document whatever. Its con- 
 sumption in this countrj' is very great. 
 
 Lime (Fr. Citronier; Ger. Citrone; Hind. Neem- 
 
 6o)( a species of lemon (Citrus medica, var. i C), 
 which grows in abundance in most of the West India 
 islands, and is also to be met with in some parts of 
 France, in Spain, Portugal, and throughout India, etc. 
 The lime is smaller than the lemon, its rind is usually 
 thinner, and its color, when the fruit arrives at a per- 
 fect state of maturity, is a fine bright yellow. It is 
 uncommonly juicy, and its flavor is esteemed superior 
 to that of the lemon ; it is, besides, more acid than 
 the latter, and to a certain degree acrid. 
 
 Limerick, the principal city of west Ireland, and 
 a parliamentary and municipal borough, rri ver port, and 
 county of itself, and capital county. Limerick, on an 
 island in the Shannon, and on both banks of that river, 
 being partly in county Clare, 60 miles from the Atlan- 
 tic, and 25 miles N.N.W. Tipperarj-, with which town 
 it communicates by railroad. Lat. 62° 40' N., long. 
 8° 35' W. Area of border, 70,000 acres. Population 
 1851, 65,268. Inhabited houses, 6,566. Population 
 of town, 53,274. There are numerous flour mills, but 
 manufactories are very limited ; those of lace and fish- 
 hooks are the principal ; the trade, consisting of im- 
 ports of British manufactures, coal, turf, continental 
 and colonial produce, and of exports of corn, meal, 
 butter, beef, pork, is great, and still increasing. 
 Ships of 500 tons unload at the quays, and those of 
 1000 tons approach within 5 miles of the city, which 
 by steamers on the upper Shannon and by canals, has 
 also a water communication with Dublin. 
 
 Lime-tree. Lime-tree, Black Lime-tree, Smooth- 
 leaved Lime-tree, Bass-wood. The Tilia Americana, 
 like the European linden, is regarded as one of the 
 finest of forest trees, and when cultivated, proves 
 highly ornamental. In our native woods it often rises 
 more than 80 feet in height, and frequently upward of 
 four feet in diameter ; and there is little doubt but, if 
 cultivated, and judiciousl}' treated, it would reach a 
 size little inferior, if not equal, to the European spe- 
 cies. Its body is straight, uniform, and surmounted 
 with an ample and tufted summit. In winter it is 
 readily recognized by the robust appearance of the 
 trunk and branches, and by the dark-brown color of 
 the bark on the shoots. 
 
 Geography and History. — The Tilia Americana is 
 found in Canada and the northern parts of the United 
 States. It becomes less abundant toward the south, 
 except on the Alleghanies, where it is found quite at 
 their termination in Georgia. It is profusely mul- 
 tiplied on the borders of Lakes Erie, Ontario, and in 
 Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont. It was culti- 
 vated in England by Miller, in 1752, but has not been 
 verj' extensively distributed. The Tilia Americana 
 laxijlora is said to abound from Mar3''land to Georgia, 
 near the sea-coast. It was introduced into Britain in 
 1820, and is but sparingly cultivated in that country. 
 The Tilia Americana pubescens belongs to the southern 
 parts of the United States, Florida, Kentucky,' and 
 Texas. It is said to be the only, variety found in the 
 maritime parts of Carolina, Georgia, and Florida, 
 Seeds of this tree were carried from this country to 
 England by Mark Catesby, in 1726 ; but it does not 
 appear to have been much cultivated. The Tilia 
 Americana alba is not met with east of the Eiver Dela- 
 ware, but it is found in Pennsylvania, Maryland, 
 Delaware, Virginia, Ohio, Kentucky, and Georgia. 
 It is said, also, to grow on the River Santee, in South 
 Carolina, and on the Mississippi. It is remarkable, 
 that, although this variety was known in France in 
 1755, it should not have been introduced into England 
 till 1811. 
 
 Properties and Uses. — The wood of the American 
 lime-tree, when drj', weighs 35 pounds to a cubic foot. 
 It is very white, when green, but becomes of a light- 
 brown hue, when eeasoned. It is soft, easily worked, 
 and is often sawed into boards, which do not warp, 
 like those formed of resinous trees. In the northern 
 parts of the United States, and in the British prov- 
 
LIM 
 
 1262 
 
 LIN 
 
 inces, where the tulip-tree does not abound, it is used I shade, generallj' in the forest where it grows, and, in 
 lor tne panels of carriage bodies, and the seats of the course of the summer, is manufactured into mats 
 cuairs. '" Tr««*-.,„i — — j ii__ . — r,,._,. ,. , . . , ' . _ ^ » 
 
 In Kentucky and the western States, the 
 wood of the white lime is often substituted for that of 
 the white pine. In various parts of the country, it is 
 turned into domestic utensils of various kinds ; and is 
 also carved into images for the heads of vessels, and 
 other ornamental work. , The j-oung trees are some- 
 times cut, and employed as rails for rural fences ; but 
 they are not durable when thus exposed. The wood 
 is almost useless as fuel, when green, being too full of 
 sap, and of but little value when dry. The cellular 
 integument of the bark is separated from the epidermis, 
 and, after being macerated in water, is formed into 
 ropes, after the manner of making them in Europe, of 
 the other species. The bark was also employed by 
 the Lenni Lenape Indians for making lines and ropes, 
 as well as for covering their habitations. The outer 
 bark of the Tilia Americana is rough and stringy, and 
 the inner portion viscid and sweet. The twigs and 
 buds are very glutinous when chewed, and afford 
 considerable nutriment. In severe winters, when 
 fodder is scarce, it is common for the farmers of the 
 British American provinces, as well as those of Maine, 
 New Hampshire, and Vermont, to drive their cattle 
 into the woods in the morning, and fell a bass-wood, 
 or other tree, on which they eagerly browse during 
 the day. 
 
 The wood of the European lime-tree, or linden-tree, 
 as compared with that of the oak, the ash, and other 
 timber trees, holds but an inferior rank, and is only 
 used in such works as are not to be exposed to the 
 alternations of moisture and dryness. It is of a pale 
 yellow, or white, close-grained, soft, light, and smooth ; 
 and, when seasoned, it is not liable to be attacked by 
 insects. It is used by piano-forte-makera for sound- 
 ing-boards, and by cabinet-makers for a varietj- of 
 purposes, as it does not warp under atmospheric 
 changes. It is turned into domestic utensils of va- 
 rious kinds, carved into to3's, and turned into small 
 boxes for apothecaries. The most elegant use to 
 which it is applied, is for carving, for which it is supe- 
 rior to every other wood. Many of the fine carvings 
 in Windsor Castle, Trinity College Library, at Cam- 
 bridge, and in the Duke of Devonshire's mansion, at 
 Chatworth, are of this wood. It is said to make ex- 
 cellent charcoal for gunpowder, even better than alder, 
 and nearly as good as hazel, or willow. Baskets and 
 cradles were formerly made from the twigs ; and shoe- 
 makers and glovers are said to prefer planks of lime- 
 tree for cutting the finer kinds of leather upon. The 
 leaves of this tree are collected in Sweden, Norway, 
 Camiola, and Switzerland, for feeding cattle ; though, 
 in Sweden, Linnasus says, they communicate a bad 
 flavor to the milk of cows. One of the most import- 
 ant uses of the lime-tree, in the north of Europe, is 
 that of supplying material for making ropes and mats ; 
 the latter of which enter extensively into European 
 commerce. The Russian peasants weave the bark of 
 the young shoots for the upper parts of their shoes, 
 the bark of the trunks or large branches serving for 
 the soles ; and they also make of it, tied together with 
 strips of the inner bark, baskets and boxes for domes- 
 tic purposes. The outer bark of old trees also sup- 
 plies them, like that of the birch, with tiles for cover- 
 ing their cottages. Ropes are still made of the bark 
 of this tree in Cornwall, and in some parts of Devon- 
 shire. The manufacture of mats from the inner bark, 
 however, is now chiefly confined to Russsia, and to 
 some parts of Sweden. Trees from six to twelve inches 
 in diameter are selected at the beginning of summer, 
 when, from the expansion produced from the ascend- 
 ing sap, the bark parts freely from the wood. The 
 bark is then stripped from them in lengths of six 
 to eight feet, and is afterward steeped in water till it 
 separates freely in layers. It is then taken out, and 
 divided into ribbons or strands, and hung up in the 
 
 so much in use by gardeners and upholsterers, and for 
 covering packages generally. The fishermen of Swe- 
 den make nets for catching fish, of the fibres of the 
 inner bark, separated by maceration, so as to form a 
 kind of fiax or hemp ; and the shepherds of Camiola 
 weave a coarse cloth of it, which serves for their ordi- 
 nary clothing. The sap of the lime-tree, drawn oif in 
 spring, and evaporated, affords a considerable quantity 
 of sugar. The honey produced from the flowers is 
 considered superior to all other kinds for its delicacj-, 
 selling for three or four times the price of common 
 honey j and it is used in the preparation of medicine, 
 and for making particular liqueurs, more especially 
 rosoglia. This lime-tree honey is only produced at 
 the little town of Kowuo, on the River Niemen, in 
 Lithuania, which is surrounded by an extensive forest 
 of lime-trees, and where the management of the honey- 
 bee occupies the principal attention of the inhabitants. 
 The Jews of Poland produce a close imitation of this 
 honey, by bleaching the common kind in the open air, 
 during frosty weather. The fruit of the lime-tree had 
 long been thought of little use, till M. Missa, of Paris, 
 by triturating it, mixed with some of its flowers, suc- 
 ceeded in procuring a butter, perfectly resembling 
 chocolate, both in taste and consistency ; but, unfor- 
 tunatelj', it was found that the lime-tree chocolate 
 would not keep. It has been suggested whether some 
 of the American varieties of tUia would not prove 
 successful in this particular. In England, there are 
 many ancient lime-trees, planted in towns, because, 
 in olden times, their odor was considered as purifj-ing 
 to the air, and to be good against epilepsy. — Browne's 
 Trees of America. 
 
 Line, in Geometry, a quantity extended in length 
 only without breadth or thickness. It is formed bv 
 the flux or motion of a point. Line, in the art of war, 
 is understood as the disposition of an army ranged in 
 order of battle with the front extended out so that it 
 may be flanked. Line of battle is also understood as 
 the disposition of a fleet in the day of engagement ; 
 on which occasion the vessels are usually drawn up as 
 much as possible in a straight line, as well to gain and 
 keep the advantage of the wind as to run the same 
 board. Horizontal line, in Geography, and Astrono- 
 my, a line drawn parallel to the horizon of any part 
 of the earth. Equinoctial line in Geography is a great 
 circle on the earth's surface exactly at the distance of 
 90° from each of the poles, and of consequence bisect- 
 ing the earth in that part. From this imaginary line 
 the degrees of longitude and latitude are reckoned. 
 In Astronomy, the equinoctial line is that circle which 
 the sun seems to describe round the earth on the days 
 of the equinox in March and September. Meridian 
 line, is an imaginary circle drawn through the two 
 poles of the earth and any part of its surface. 
 
 Xiiuen (Ger. Linnen, Leinwand; Du. Lynwaat ; Fi". 
 Toile ; It. Tela, Panno, lino ; Sp. Lienza, Tela de lino ; 
 Rus. Polotno), a species of cloth made of thread of 
 flax or hemp. The linen manufacture has been pros- 
 ecuted in England for a very long period ; but though 
 its progress has been considerable, particularly of late 
 years, it has not been so great as might have been an- 
 ticipated. This is partly, perhaps, to be ascribed to 
 the efforts that have been made to bolster up and en- 
 courage the manufacture in Ireland and Scotland, and 
 partly to the rapid growth of the cotton manufacture 
 ■ — fabrics of cotton having to a considerable extent 
 supplanted those of linen. 
 
 Linen is a fabric of veiy remote antiquity. Pha- 
 raoh arrayed Joseph in vestures of fine linen. — (jcn., 
 xli. 42. This article was first manufactured in En- 
 gland by Flemish weavers, under the protection of 
 Henry III. 1253. Before this period woolen shirts 
 were generally worn. A company of linen weavers 
 established itself in London, 1368, and the art of stain- 
 
LIN 
 
 1263 
 
 LIN 
 
 ing linen became known in 1579. A colony of Scots 
 in the reign of James I., and other Presbyterians who 
 fled from persecution in that country in the succeed- 
 ing inglorious reigns, planted themselves in the north- 
 east part of Ireland and there established the linen 
 manufacture. It was liberally encouraged by the 
 lord deputy Wentworth, in 1634. Hemp, flax, linen, 
 thread, and yam, from Ireland, were permitted to be 
 exported duty free, 1696. This law gave rise to the 
 subsequently improved state of the manufacture there. 
 The Irish Linen Board was established in 1711 ; the 
 Linen-hall, Dublin, was opened, 1728 ; the Board was 
 abolished in 1828. Dunfermline in Fifeshire, Dundee 
 in Angusshire, and Barnsley in Yorkshire, are, in 
 Great Britain, chief seats of the linen manufacture. 
 
 Spinning by the hand is now nearly unknown in Ire- 
 land, and the manufacture has disappeared from sev- 
 eral parts of the country, where it had been largely 
 introduced, leaving those who were partially depend- 
 ent on it for subsistence, in a very depressed state. 
 On the whole, however, there can be no doubt that 
 the introduction of the factory system will be, in the 
 end, most advantageous. Belfast has long been the 
 great seat of the manufacture in Ireland, and there it 
 is carried on in large factories furnished with the best 
 machinery, and conducted on the most approved prin- 
 ciple. In 1841, there were in the town and its imme- 
 diate vicinity, 25 steam mills for spinning linen yarn, 
 one of which employed 800 hands. In 1835, the ex- 
 ports of linen goods from Belfast, amounted to 53,881,- 
 000 yards of the value of £2,694,000. According to 
 the official returns, there were in Ireland, in 1838, 40 
 flax-mills employing in all, 9,017 hands. The total 
 average export of linens from Ireland during the 3 
 years ending with 1825, was 51,947,413 yards, of which 
 49,031,073 came to this country; the exports to all 
 other parts being only 2,916,340. Since 1825, the 
 trade between Ireland and Great Britain has been 
 placed on the footing of a coasting trade ; and linens 
 being exported and imported without any specific en- 
 try at the custom-house, no account is kept of their 
 quantity and value. 
 
 Scotch Linen. — In 1727, a Board of Trustees was 
 established in Scotland for the superintendence and 
 improvement of the linen manufacture. It is not 
 easy to suppose that the institution of this Board could 
 of itself have been of any material service ; but con- 
 siderable bounties and premiums being at the same 
 time given on the production and exportation of linen, 
 the manufacture went on increasing. Still, however, 
 it did not increase so fast as cotton and some others, 
 which have not received any adventitious support, un- 
 til machinery began to be extensively employed in the 
 manufacture ; so that it is very doubtful whether the 
 influence of the bounty has been so great as it would 
 at first sight appear to have been. The regulations as 
 to the manufacture, after having been long objected 
 to by those concerned, were abolished in 1822 ; and 
 the bounties have now ceased. 
 
 Dundee is the grand seat of the Scotch linen manu- 
 facture ; and its progress there during the last few 
 years has been so extraordinary, that the following 
 details in respect to it may not be unacceptable. The 
 manufacture appears to have been introduced into 
 Dundee some time toward the beginning of last cen- 
 tury ; but, for a lengthened period, its progress was 
 comparatively slow. In 1745 only 74 tons of flax 
 were imported, without any hemp ; the shipments of 
 linen cloth during the same year being estimated at 
 about 1,000,000 yards, no mention being made either 
 of sail-cloth or bagging. In 1791, the imports of flax 
 amounted to 2,444 tons, and those of hemp to 299 tons ; 
 the exports that year being 7,842,000 yards linen, 
 280,000 yards sail-cloth, and 65,000 yards bagging. 
 From this period the trade began to extend itself grad- 
 ually, though not rapidlj'. Previously to the peace 
 of 1815, no great quantity of machinery was em- 
 
 ployed in spinning ; but about this period, in conse- 
 quence, partly and principally, of the improvement 
 of machinery, and its extensive introduction into the 
 manufacture, and partly of the greater regularity with 
 which supplies of the raw material were obtained from 
 the Northern powers, the trade began rapidly to in- 
 crease. Its progress has, indeed, been quite astonish- 
 ing ; the imports of flax and hemp having increased 
 from about 3000 tons in 1814 to 15,000 tons in 1830, 
 and 40,000 tons in 1845, of which at least 30,000 tons 
 were spun by the mills in the town, the rest being 
 spun in the vicinity. The value of the exports of 
 manufactured goods and yarn, from Dundee, amounts 
 at present (1847) to from £1,600,000 to £1,700,000, a 
 year. 
 
 An AcnoTTNT of thk Quajstitibs op Tim diffeeent 
 Varieties of Linen Goods exported from Dundee 
 
 DURING KAOU OF TUE FouR TeaES ENDING WITH 1845. 
 
 Linens. i 1881. 
 
 1885. 
 
 1844. 
 
 1845. 
 
 Osnaburgs 
 
 Sheetings 
 
 Cotton bagging 
 Sundries....... 
 
 Sail-cloth 
 
 Sacking 
 
 Dowlas 
 
 Sundiles 
 
 Total 
 
 Pieces. 
 96,957 
 181,660 
 65,592 
 7,396 
 72,268 
 46,898 
 40,915 
 11,550 
 
 Pieces. 
 
 139,460 
 
 165,959 
 
 80,168 
 
 12,611 
 
 108,010 
 
 57,177 
 
 46,788 
 
 13.709 
 
 Pieces. 
 78,816 
 268,:M5 
 10,624 
 16,009 
 118,264 
 174.759 
 82;987 
 24,837 
 
 Pieces. 
 
 77,629 
 
 281,904 
 
 952 
 
 28,886 
 160,861 
 182,817, 
 
 78,181 
 
 29,280 
 
 474,230 
 
 618,707 
 
 774,591 .1 784,910' 1 
 
 It is not eas3' to give any satisfactory explanation 
 of the remarkable progress of the linen manufacture at 
 Dundee. Something must be ascribed to the conve- 
 nient situation of the port for obtaining supplies of the 
 raw material ; and more perhaps to the manufacture 
 having been long established in the towns and vil- 
 lages of Strathmore, the Carse of Gowiie, and the 
 northern parts of Fife, of which Dundee is the em- 
 porium. But these circumstances do not seem ade- 
 quate to explain the superiority to which she has 
 recently attained in this department ; and however 
 unphilosophical it may seem, we do not reallj- know 
 that we can ascribe it to any thing else than a concur- 
 rence of fortunate accidents. Nothing, in fact, is so 
 difficult to explain as the superiority to which certain 
 towns frequently attain in particular departments of 
 industry, without apparently possessing any peculiar 
 facilities for carrying them on. But from whatever 
 causes their pre-eminence ma}'' arise in the first in- 
 stance, it is very difficult, when once they have at- 
 tained it, for others to come into competition with 
 them. They have on their side established connec- 
 tions, workmen of superior skill and dexterity in man- 
 ipulation, improved machinery, etc. Eeoently indeed 
 the advantages in favor of old establishments have 
 been, to a considerable extent, neutralized by the 
 prevalence of combinations among their workmen ; 
 but it is to be hoped that means may be devised for 
 obviating this formidable evil. 
 
 Value of Manufacture. — There are no means by 
 which to form an accurate estimate of the entire value 
 of the linen manufacture of Great Britain and Ireland. 
 Dr. Colquhoun estimates it at £15,000,000 ; but there 
 can not be the shadow of a doubt that this estimate 
 was, at the time, absurdly exaggerated. In the last 
 edition of this work we estimated the annual value of 
 the manufacture at £7,500,000. But it has increased 
 very rapidly in the interval, principally through the 
 great extension of the exports of France, and its value 
 is at present (1847) certainly not under, if it do not 
 exceed £10,000,000 or £12,000,000. But taking it at 
 the former amount, and setting aside a third part of 
 this sum for the value of the raw material, and another 
 third for profits, wages of superintendence, wear and 
 tear of capital, coal, etc., we have £3,333,000 to be 
 divided as wages among those employed in the manu- 
 facture. And supposing each individual to earn on an 
 average £24 a year, the total number employed would 
 be about 133,000. It may be thought, perhaps, that 
 £24 is too low an estimate for wages ; and such, no 
 
LIN 
 
 1264 
 
 LTQ 
 
 doubt, would be the case •were not Ireland taken into 
 the average. But as many persons are there employed 
 in the manufacture at very low wages, we believe that 
 £24 is not very far from the mean rate. 
 
 The rapid increase in the exports of linen goods and 
 yarn, especially the latter, to France (see for an ac- 
 count of this increase the article Havke), though 
 latterly they have declined, is wholly a consequence 
 of their comparative cheapness in this country, occa- 
 sioned by our superior and cheaper machinery. And 
 if the French really wish to rival us in this department 
 of industry, they should endeavor, by reducing or re- 
 pealing the oppressive duties on iron and machinery 
 itnported into France (which would, of course, propor- 
 tionally reduce the cost of the spinning-mills and pow- 
 er-loom factories), to place their manufacturers and 
 spinners on something like the same footing as ours. 
 In this way they might, perhaps, have some chance 
 of rivaling us; but the attempts that have recently 
 been made to bolster up the manufacture by means of 
 duties, must necessarily fail^ and will have no effect 
 but to perpetuate exploded practices, and to promote 
 the trade of smu^ling. The British exports of linen 
 goods are also increasing to most other countries, as 
 well as to France ; and we are gaining on the Ger- 
 mans in most markets that are equally accessible to 
 both. Hence the decrease of late years in the export 
 of linens from Hamburg. The improvement in the 
 manufacture of damasks and table-linen generally, 
 which is principally carried 'on in Dunfermline and 
 Kirkcaldy, has been quite as striking as in the other 
 departments of the trade, especially since the intro- 
 duction of the Jacquard mounting. In fact, table- 
 linen is now shipped from this countrj' for Germany ; 
 so that the duty of 10 per cent, on the importation of 
 German damasks and such like fabrics might be re- 
 duced or repealed without the measure having any in- 
 jurious influence over the manufacturer. 
 
 Tabular view of the Foreign Exports of 
 PROM Great Britain for eacu Year 
 
 1S52, BOTU INCLUSIVE. 
 
 YeaTB, 
 1821.. 
 1«22.. 
 1828.. 
 1324.. 
 
 1827.. 
 1828.. 
 1829.. 
 1880.. 
 1831.. 
 
 Value . 
 .£1,981,465 
 . 2,192,772 
 . 2,095,574 
 . 2,442,440 
 . 2,180,705 
 . 1,489,647 
 . 1,895,186 
 . 2,000,088 
 . 1,886,831 
 . 1,926,256 
 
 Years. 
 1832. 
 1888. 
 18.34. 
 1835. 
 1836. 
 1837. 
 
 1840. 
 1841. 
 1842. 
 
 Value. 
 
 .£1,655,478 
 
 . 2,289,030 
 
 . 2,679,658 
 
 . 8,208,778 
 
 . 8,645,097 
 
 . 2,606,752 
 
 . 8,666,435 
 
 . 4,2.38,452 
 
 . 4,128,964 
 
 . 4,320,021 
 
 . 3,872,300 
 
 Years, 
 
 1848 
 1844, 
 1845 
 1846 
 1847 
 1848 
 1849 
 1860 
 1851 
 1862 
 
 Linen Goods 
 
 FROM 1821 TO 
 
 Value. 
 
 ....£3,702,062 
 ... 4,075,476 
 ... 4,104,986 
 ... 8,706,212 
 ... 3,619,772 
 
 .... 8,292,701 
 
 .... 4,103,468 
 ... 4,848,030 
 ... 5,067,096 
 
 .... 5,867,871 
 
 Statement showing the Lmports op Linen into the 
 United States for the Tear ending June 80tii, 1856. 
 
 Fassamaquoddy. . 
 Portland & Falmouth 
 
 Gloucester 
 
 Boston&CharlestowD 
 
 Niagara 
 
 Oswegatchie 
 
 New York'. 
 
 Champlaln 
 
 Cape Vincent 
 
 Pliiladnlphia 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Baltimore 
 
 Charleston 
 
 Savannah 
 
 Mobile 
 
 Key West. 
 
 New Orleans 
 
 Texas 
 
 Salnria 
 
 Brazos de Santiago. 
 
 Detroit. 
 
 Micbilimacklnae — 
 
 Ban Francisco 
 
 Total 
 
 Linen bleached 
 
 or unbleached. 
 
 Hosiery and ar- 
 
 licles made on 
 
 framee. 
 
 $1,962 
 
 18,788 
 64l',298 
 
 7,657,778 
 
 973,468 
 
 81 
 
 126,899 
 
 42,783 
 
 14,8( 
 
 11,168 
 
 1,615 
 
 26 
 
 87,295 
 
 $9,849,600 
 
 $4,858 
 
 11 
 24 
 
 $4,921 
 
 Mannfactures 
 not epecified. 
 
 $206 
 464,169 
 
 ""i 
 
 601,897 
 
 798 
 
 10 
 
 229,971 
 
 14,671 
 
 2,671 
 
 400 
 
 12,861 
 997 
 
 68 
 20 
 
 2,466 
 
 $1,384,942 
 
 Consumption of Foreign imens.— According to the 
 returns of the imports and entries of foreign linens 
 
 for the four years ending with 1844, the consumption 
 of foreign linens in England is quite inconsiderable ; 
 the real or declared value of those entered for home 
 consumption in 1844 could hardly amount to £40,000. 
 
 Until recently, this manufacture has been neglected 
 in the United States. Lately, however, mills have 
 been erected to test the profitableness of linen manu- 
 facture. In Fall Eiver, Mass., new mills have been 
 built, but not long enough in operation to give any 
 statistics. 
 
 Linseed. The manufacture of linseed oil has 
 greatly increased withiJl a few years, encouraging the 
 importation of seed from Calcutta and other places. 
 The imports of linseed into Boston from Calcutta for 
 the year 1856 were 1,387,944 bushels, valued at 
 $1,841,719. The imports of linseed into the United 
 States for the year 1856, amounted to 1,696,294 bushels, 
 of which 1,691,875 bushels were from the East Indies. 
 
 By the oificial returns it appears that the imports into 
 the United Kingdoms in 1856 amoutited to 1,180,179 
 quarters of linseed, and to 264,919 of rape-seed, show- 
 ing a very great increase in both cases as compared 
 with the previous annual arrivals. Annexed are the 
 official returns for the last 16 years, during which the 
 consumption of the manufactured articles has made 
 rapid strides. 
 
 1841. 
 1842. 
 1848. 
 1844., 
 1846. 
 1846. 
 1847., 
 1848.. 
 1849., 
 1850., 
 1851.. 
 1862.. 
 1858., 
 1854., 
 1855. 
 1856. 
 
 Linaeed. 
 
 Kape-seed. 
 
 Quarters. 
 868,461 
 867,700 
 470,639 
 616,947 
 656,798 
 606,141 
 439,612 
 799,660 
 626,495 
 608,984 
 680,471 
 799,402 
 
 1,085,885 
 828,648 
 756,950 
 
 1,180,179 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 89,442 
 
 66,685 
 
 87,097 
 
 63,884 
 
 47,677 
 
 87,662 
 
 47,.623 
 
 79,970 
 
 29,480 
 
 107,029 
 
 82,894 
 
 146,230 
 
 86,816 
 
 103,166 
 
 162,863 
 
 264,919 
 
 Liquorice (Ger. Stisskolz; Fr. HegUsse, Racine 
 douce ; It. Regolizia^ Logorizia, Liquirizia ; Sp. Hegaliz 
 Orozuz), a perennial plant {Glycirrhiza glabra), a na- 
 tive of the south of Europe, but cultivated to some 
 extent in England, particularly at Mitcham in Surrey. 
 Its root, which is its only valuable part, is long, slen- 
 der, fibrous, of a yellow color, and when fresh very 
 juicy. The liquorice grown in England Is fit for use 
 at the end of 3 years ; the roots, when taken up, are 
 either immediately sold to the brewers' druggists, or 
 to common druggists, by whom they are applied to 
 different purposes, or they are packed in sand, like 
 carrots or potatoes, till wanted. The roots of liquor- 
 ice have been introduced into the middle and southern 
 States, and have thus far been successful. From the 
 increasing demands for this root, it is probable that it 
 could be cultivated profitably. The amount annually 
 imported (and manufactured), is valued at about $300,- 
 000. 
 
 Liquorice Juice {Succus Liquoritiee), popularly 
 ilaclc sugar, the inspissated juice of the roots just men- 
 tioned. Very little of this extract is prepared in Brit- 
 ain, by far the larger part of our supply being im- 
 ported from Spain and Sicily. The juice obtained by 
 crushing the roots in a mill, and subjecting them to 
 the press, is slowly boiled till it becomes of a proper 
 consistency, when it is formed into rolls of a consid- 
 erable thickness, which are usually covered with bay 
 leaves. This is the state in which we import it. 
 Most part of it is afterward redissolved, purified, and 
 cast into small cylindrical rolls of about the thickness 
 of a goose quill, when it is called refined liquorice. It 
 is then of a glossy black color, brittle, having a sweet 
 mucilaginous taste. It is useti in the materia medica, 
 particularly in colds, etc. — Thomson's Chemistry. 
 
LIS 
 
 1265 
 
 LIS 
 
 Lisbon, the capital of Fortngal, situated on the 
 north bank of the River Tagus, the observatory of the 
 fort being in lat. 38° 42' ^' N., long. 9° 5' 60" W. 
 Papulation about 240,000. The Moors are said to 
 have given the name of Lisboa to' this city when they 
 conquered it, a.d. 716. It -was made the capital of 
 Portugal by Emanuel, 1506. Lisbon -was almost de- 
 stroyed by an earthquake, November 1, 1755. See 
 Earthquakes. It became a point of the late war, and 
 the court fled to the Brazils, November, 1807, in which 
 month (the 30th) the French army under Junot entered 
 Lisbon, and held possession of it until the battle of 
 Vimeira, in which they were defeated by the British, 
 under Sir Arthur Wellesley, August 21, 1808. Insur- 
 rection at Lisbon, August 21, 1831. Massacre at Lis- 
 bon, June 9, 1834. See Poetugal. 
 
 Port. — The harbor, or rather road, of Lisbon is one 
 of the fmest in the; world, and the quays are at once 
 convenient and beautiful. Fort St. Julian marks the 
 northern entrance of the Tagus. It is buUt on a 
 steep projecting rock. There is a light-house in the 
 centre, 120 feet above the level of the sea. At the 
 mouth of the Tagus are two large banks, called the 
 North and South Cachops. There are two channels 
 for entering the river; the north or little, and the 
 south or great channel, exhibited in the ordinary 
 charts. On the middle of the South Cachop, about IJ 
 miles from Fort St. Julian, is the Bugio fort and light- 
 house, the latter being 66 feet in height. The least 
 depth of water in the north channel on the bar is 4 
 fathomsj and in the south, 6. The only danger in en- 
 tering the port arises from the strength of the tide ; 
 the ebb running down at the rate of 7 miles an hour ; 
 and after heavy rains, when there is a great deal of 
 fresh water in the river, the difficulty of entering is 
 considerably augmented. When at such periods, there 
 is a strong wind from the sea, there is a complete 
 break all over the bar ; vessels moor up and down the 
 river with open hawee to the southward. In some 
 parts they may come within 200 yards of the shore, 
 being guided by the depth of water, which, from near- 
 ly 20 fathoms in mid-channel, shoals gradually to the 
 edge. 
 
 Trade, etc. — Lisbon is one of the best situated com- 
 mercial cities of Europe. But notwithstanding this 
 circumstance, the excellence of the port, and the com- 
 mand of the navigation of the Tagus, her commerce 
 is comparatively trifling. Lisbon has a royal manu- 
 factory of fire-arms and powder, and a cannon foun- 
 dery ; other manufactories comprise sillcs, porcelain, 
 paper, soap, jewelry, and trinkets ; none of these, ex- 
 cept the last, is in a flourishing state. The despotism, 
 intolerance, and imbecility of the gjverement have 
 weighed down all the energies of the nation. The 
 law and police being alike bad, there is no adequate 
 security. Assassination is very frequent. Industry 
 of all sorts is,! in consequence, paralyzed ; and since 
 the independence of Brazil, commerce has rapidly de- 
 clined. Formerly Lisbon had about 400 ships, of from 
 300 to 600 tons burden, employed in the trade with 
 South America. But at present there are not above 
 60 ships belonging to the port engaged in foreign 
 trade ; and, of these, the average burden does not 
 exceed 150 tons ! The produce of Portugal sent to 
 foreign countriesj is almost entirely conveyed to its 
 destination in foreign ships. The trade between Lis- 
 bon and Cork, is, we believe, the only exception to 
 this ; it being principally carried on in 'Portuguese 
 vessels, which take salt from St. Ubes, and bring back 
 butter in return. About 200 small craft belong to the 
 city, which are exclusively employed in the coasting 
 trade. There are neither price currents, shipping 
 lists, nor oiScial returns of any kind) published in Lis- 
 bon. The principal exports are lemons and oranges — 
 which, however, are very inferior to those of Spain ; 
 wine, particularly Lisbon and Calcavella ; wool, nil, 
 tanned hides, woolen caps, vinegar, salt, cork, etc. 
 4L 
 
 Besides colonial produce, the principal imports consist 
 of cotton, woolen, and linen goods; hardware, earth- 
 enware, dried fish, butter, com, cheese, timber and 
 deals, hemp, etc. 
 
 M(ymy. — Accounts are kept in rees, 1000 of which 
 =1 milree. In the notation of accounts the milrees 
 are separated from the rees by a crossed cypher (ff), 
 and the milrees from the millions by a colon : thus, 
 Rs. 2:700 0500=2,700 milrees and 500 rees. The cru- 
 sado of exchange, or old crusado=400 rees ; the new 
 cru8ado=480 rees ; the testoon=100 rees ; and the 
 vinteu or vintem=20 rees. The gold piece of 6,400 
 rees^35s. lid. sterling ; the gold crusado=2s. 3d. ; 
 and the milree, valued in gold=67Jd. sterling. It 
 appears, however, from assaj's made at the London 
 mint, in 1812, on modem silver crusadosj that the 
 average value of the milree in silver may be estimated 
 at 60d. or 5s. sterling. Weights and Measures. — The 
 commercial weights are, 8 ounce3=l marc ; 2 marcs 
 =1 pound or arratel ; 22 pounds=l arroba ; 4 arrobas 
 =1 quintal ; 100 lbs. or arratels of Portugal^lOl'19 
 lbs. avoirdupois=45'895 kilogrammes=94'761 lbs. of 
 Hamburg=92'918 lbs, of Amsterdam. The principal 
 measure for com, salt, etc., is the moyo, divided into 
 15 fanegas, 30 alquidres, 240 quartos, 480 selemis, etCi 
 The mo3-o=23'03 Winchester bushels. The principal 
 liquid measure is the almude, divided into 2 potes, 12 
 canadas, or 48 quartellos ; 18 almudes=l barU ; 26 
 almudes=l pipe; 52 almudes=l tonelada. The al- 
 mude=4'37 English wine gaHons; and the tonelada 
 =227J ditto. A pipe of Lisbon is estimated by the 
 custom-house (British) at 140 gallons ; and this pipe 
 is supposed to be 31 almtides. A pipe of port is 160 
 gallons, divided into 21 almudes of Oporto. Of meas- 
 ures of length, 2 pes=3 palmos=l covado, or cubit ; 
 1|- covados^l vara ; 2 varas^l branga. The pe or 
 foot=12-944 English inches ; 100 feet of Portugal= 
 107-8 English feet; the vara=43-2 English inches. 
 For freight a last is reckoned at 4 pipes of oil or wine, 
 4 chests of sugar, 4000 lbs. of tobacco, 3,600 lbs. of 
 shumac. But from one place in Portugal to another, 
 a tonelada is reckoned at 52 almudes of liquid, or 54 
 almudes of dry goods. Cofiee is sold per arraba ; cot- 
 ton, indigo, and pepper, per lb. ; oil, per almude ; 
 wine, per pipe ; corn, per alquiere ; salt, per moyo. 
 Grain, seed, fish, wool, and timber are sold on board. .. 
 Weights and long measures are the same throughout 
 Portugal ; but there is a great discrepancy in the 
 measures of capacity. The almude and alqui6re, at 
 the principal places, are in English measures as fol- 
 lows : Lisbon almude=^5'37 gals. English wine meas- 
 ure ; Lisbon alqui6re;=3"07 gals. Winchester measure ; 
 Oporto almude=6-| gals, wine measure ; Oporto al- 
 qui6re=3|*gals. Winchester measure ; Faro almude= 
 4^ gals, wine measure ; Faro alqui6re=3f gals. Win- 
 chester measure ; Figuiera almude=6J gals, wine 
 measure ; Figuiera alquiere=3i gals. Winchester 
 measure ; Vianna almude=6J gals, wine measure ; 
 Vianna alqui6re=3j gals. Winchester measure. 
 
 Bank of Lisbon. — This establishment was founded 
 in 1822. Its capital consists of about £700,000 ster- 
 ling, divided into 7000 shares. The shareholders are 
 not liable beyond the amount of their shares. The 
 bank discounts bills not having more than 3 months 
 to run, at 5 per cent. Its dividends, at an average of 
 the 3 years ending with 1831, were about 6 per cent. 
 It enjoys the singular but valuable privilege of hav- 
 ing its claims on all estates paid off in full, provided 
 the estate amounts to so much ; other creditors being 
 obliged to content themselves with a division of the 
 residue, if there be any. 
 
 Port regulations. — All vessels entering the Tagus 
 are obliged to come to anchor off Belem Castle, where 
 there is an office at which they must be entered, their 
 cargoes declared, from whence they come, and whether- 
 the cargo be intended to be landed in Lisbon or not : 
 if not, the master applies for "franquia," that is, for 
 
LIT 
 
 1266 
 
 LIV 
 
 leave to remain 8 daj'-s in the port for tlie purpose of 
 disposing of tlie cargo or of departing with it. Two 
 custom-house officers are then sent on board, and if the 
 cargo is to be discharged at Lisbon, the vessel pro- 
 ceeds to the custom-house, when the master makes 
 entrj', delivering the manifest and bills of lading at- 
 tached to the certificate of the Portuguese consul, at 
 the port of lading, in order to identify the cargo. 
 The officers put on board at Belem are then relieved bj' 
 two others, who remain until the vessel be discharged 
 and visited by the custom-house searcher. The port 
 dues have to be paid in different offices ; but the ves- 
 sel is not subject to any other charges. 
 
 All goods sent on board for exportation must be ac- 
 companied by a permit from the custom-house. When 
 the clearances are obtained, the papers are presented 
 by the master, or the ship's agent, to the authorities 
 at Belem, who deliver the signal the vessel is to hoist 
 when going to sea. 
 
 There is no regular warehousing and bonding sys- 
 tem at Lisbon. All imported dry goods are allowed 
 to remain in the custom-house stores 2 years, and 
 liquids 6 months, without being charged warehouse 
 rent, provided they are intended for consumption, and 
 pay the duties accordingly. But if, after that period, 
 they are then taken out to be exported, they are 
 charged 2 per cent. duty. 
 
 Port Charges. — Oh a foreign ship of 300 tons enter- 
 ing the port of Lisbon, with a general or mixed cargo, 
 and clearing out with the same : 
 
 KeeB. 
 
 Eoyal passport 7,200 
 
 Petty expenses on entering at the 
 
 Custom house, about 700 
 
 Anchorage. 500 
 
 Ballast clearance 400 
 
 Tonnage, 100 rees per ton 80,000 
 
 Lights, 50 rees per ton 15,000 
 
 Contribution to board of trade... 1,500 
 
 Petty charges. 720 
 
 Billofhealth 240 
 
 TotaL 66,260=£11 68.01 
 
 Vessels coming with a cargo, or in ballast, and de- 
 parting in ballast, pay 200 rees per ton lights, or 4 
 times as ranch as if they sailed with cargoes. Ves- 
 sels coming with a cargo, and sailing with the same 
 cargo, pay no tonnage dutj'. 
 
 Commission — The ordinary rates of commission are, 
 on the sale of goods, 2J per cent. ; del credere, 2J per 
 cent. ; on the value of goods landed from a vessel put- 
 ting in to effect repairs, 1 per cent. ; on ship's disburse- 
 ments, 5 per cent. 
 
 Insurances are effected to a trifling amount. There 
 is one national company for effecting insurances ; but 
 it enjoys little credit. ^ 
 
 Tares are not regulated by any certain rule. Those 
 allowed are generally those invoiced or marked on the 
 package. See Annuaire du Commerce Maritime, p. 
 290; Kblhy's Cambist; Consuls' Answers to Circular 
 Queries, etc. 
 
 Litharge (Gter. Glotte, Glatte; Du. Gelit; Vr. Li^ 
 tharge; It. Litargirio; Sp. Almartaga, Litarjirio ; Rus. 
 Glet ; Lat. Lithargyriuni), an oxyd of lead in an im- 
 perfect state of vitrification. Most of the lead met 
 with in commerce contains silver, from a few grains 
 to 20 ounces or more in the fodder : when the quantity 
 is sufiicient to pay the expense of separation, it is re- 
 fined; that is, the metal is exposed to a high heat, 
 passing at the same time a current of air over the sur- 
 face: the lead is thus oxydised and converted into 
 litharge, while the silver, remaining unchanged, is col- 
 lected at the end of the process.— Thomson's Chem- 
 istrg. Litharge is used for various purposes in the 
 arts, by potters, glass makers, painters, etc. 
 
 Litre. The French standard measure of capacity 
 in the decimal system. The litre is a cubic decime- 
 tre ; that is, a cube, each of the sides of which are 
 3'937 English inches : it contains 61-028 English cubic 
 inches, and is, therefore, rather less than our quart. 
 
 Four and a half litres are a close approach to the En- 
 glish imperial gallon. 
 
 Live Oak. Under acts of Congress, the President 
 of the United States is authorized to take measures 
 for the protection of the live oak timber growing on 
 lands owned by the United States in Florida and else- 
 where. Persons cutting or removing live oak, or red 
 cedar, and other timber belonging to the United 
 States (without authority), are subject to imprison- 
 ment for twelve months and to a fine: the vessels 
 engaged in such unlawful removal are subject to for- 
 feiture, and the captain to a fine of $1000. (Act of 
 1831.) See Oak. 
 
 Liverpool, a borough of England, in Lancashire, 
 and one of the greatest commercial towns in the world, 
 is situate on the Mersey, along which it extends for 
 nearl}' six miles. For five miles of this distance a 
 line or chain of docks runs parallel with the river, and 
 from these docks, at intervals, streets extend at right 
 angles, tolerably direct, to the extremity of the bound- 
 ary. These are crossed by streets more or less par- 
 allel to the river; but as the town grew up rather 
 suddenly, no great attention was paid to regularity. 
 The boundary line, froni where it touches the river at 
 the south, to its termination at Bootle Bay, embraces a 
 circle of about eight miles. As yet the extremities 
 are imperfectly filled up, but in some places the houses 
 extend beyond the line. 
 
 History. — Local archaeologists have been eager to 
 invest the town with the dignity of a remote antiquity ; 
 but their labors have not been very successful. In 
 Doomsday Boole the name does not appear, although 
 sites within its present boundary are mentioned. Mr. 
 Picton, in his admirable paper on ''Ancient Liver- 
 pool," contends that the place mentioned as SmedoTie 
 must have represented Liverpool, and that iSmedone is 
 identical with Smithdown, now one of the southern 
 streets. This, however, is not likely, for Smithdown 
 was remote from ancient Liverpool, and on the south 
 side of the Pool, then called Mersey Sea. The name 
 has been a subject of unsatisfying contention ; for al- 
 though the final syllable pool is derived from the 
 locality, liver is of doubtful origin. In early times the 
 town was called indifferently Lirpool, Litherpool, Lith- 
 pool, and Liferpole. F and v were commutable ; but, 
 in the most ancient records, the name is written in- 
 differently Lithepol and Lithepole. Mr. Baines, in his 
 History of Liverpool, is disposed to think that lithe 
 must be accepted for sea, and thus the derivation will 
 be the pool on the sea. Originally the place was only 
 a small fishing village ; for the Mersey, up to a very 
 recent period, was remarkable for its supply of salmon 
 and other fish. The first authentic record of the town 
 is found in a cliarter of Henry II., in the year 1173, 
 declaring that the estuary of "the Mersey shall be 
 for ever a port endowed with all the liberties belonging 
 to a port of the sea, and that the men of Lyrpul, near 
 to Toxteth, may come and go from each side of the 
 sea with their ships and merchandise free and without 
 obstruction." It is supposed that his majesty in this 
 charter had reference to the conquest of Ireland ; for, 
 not content with the bestowal of a barren privilege, he 
 actually erected dwellings called burgage houses, the 
 tenants of which were the primitive freemen of Liver- 
 pool. These houses continued to j-ield a rental to the 
 crown up to the time of Elizabeth, and constituted, to 
 a great extent, the dwellings of the inhabitants. In 
 1207 King John granted the town a charter, as fol- 
 lows : " Know ye, that we have granted to all our 
 faithful subjects who have taken burgage houses at 
 Liverpool, that thej' may have all the liberties and 
 free customs in the town of Liverpool which any other 
 free borough upon the sea has in our territories. And, 
 therefore, we command you, that, securely and in our 
 peace, you may come thither to receive and dwell in 
 our burgage houses ; in witness whereof, we transmit 
 to you these our letters patent. Witness— Simon de 
 
LIV 
 
 1267 
 
 LIV 
 
 Pateshill, at Winchester, the 28th day of August, in 
 the 9th year of our reign." i 
 
 The first palpable step in advance taken by the 
 town was in the reign of Charles II. A new world 
 had then been opened to the enterprise of the old ; 
 and Liverpool invited to its port such trade as was 
 created by the infant manufactures of Lancashire, 
 Yorkshire, and Cheshire. As the plantations in Amer- 
 ica increased, so did the trade of Liverpool ; and from 
 an early period her merchants took a prominent part 
 in the slave-trade. She sent out ships to Africa, con- 
 veyed their live burdens to America and the West 
 Indies, and in return brought back to the Mersey the 
 sugar, tobacco, and other produce of those regions. 
 The English merchants and ship-owners had competed 
 successfully with the Spaniards and Portuguese ; but 
 it was not until 1708 that the first slaver was de- 
 spatched from the Mersey. Having entered on the 
 trade, they soon participated largely in it; for, in 
 1752, 101 Liverpool merchants were engaged in the 
 slave traffic, 185 appertaining to London, and 157 to 
 Bristol. The number of Liverpool vessels engaged in 
 the American and West India trade was 106, and of 
 these 88 were slavers. In due time this trade greatly 
 increased ; and that it enriched Liverpool may be in- 
 ferred from the fact that the greater portion of the 
 West Indies belonged to merchants of this place. 
 This trade, however, like every other, was affected by 
 war. It almost ceased during the French war of the 
 18th century, and the merchant ships unemployed 
 were eagerly converted into privateers. At first the 
 gain was immense ; but subsequently the French pre- 
 dominated, and Liverpool suffered severely by the pri- 
 vateers of the enemy. On the return of peace trade 
 was resumed, but not with any accelerated force until 
 the inventiohs of Arkwright and others created the 
 cotton trade in Lancashire. The war of American In- 
 dependence had the worst possible effect on the pros- 
 perity of Liverpool ; and the late war of the French 
 Revolution at first operated most adversely. Still, two 
 circumstances obviated these bad effects. The great in- 
 crease of population and trade in the United States of 
 America created a demand for British manufactures, 
 and these manufactures had nearly all to pass from the 
 Mersej', which received in return the raw produce in- 
 directly paid for them. At the close of the war Liver- 
 pool was still advancing, but not so rapidly as within 
 the last 25 years. The population of the old borough 
 in 1801 was 77,000 ; in 1811, 94,000 ; in 1821, 118,000 ; 
 in 1831, 203,000 ; in 1841, in the new borough, 286,000 ; 
 and in 1861, 376,000. The usual rate of increase from 
 1851 to 1857 will have augmented the population to 
 more than 400,000, and latterly it has gone on in accel- 
 erated ratio. Proof of this is derived from the fact, 
 that the number of new houses erected in 1855 was 
 1355, while in 1856 it was 1703. 
 
 Trade of the Port.— In 1750 Liverpool had only 20 
 sailing vessels engaged in the continental trade ; now 
 she has treble that number, and fleets of screw steam- 
 ers, which constantly visit every port in the Mediter- 
 ranean, and render the Mersey a medium of com- 
 munication between France, Holland, Belgium, and 
 America. The East Indies, too, have been opened to 
 Liverpool enterprise. Since the alteration in the 
 Oompanj''s charter, and in the amount of business 
 done in the East, Liverpool stands next to London. 
 Another trade she has almost monopolized — the Aus- 
 tralian trade. Her clipper vessels are admitted to be 
 the finest in the world, and, in consequence, the emi- 
 gration to the antipodes is the largest from this port, 
 and the return cargoes the heaviest ; for necessarily the 
 freights are low, as more goods go than come, and 
 cheapness induces shippers to send their wool here 
 rather than to London, although London is the princi- 
 pal market. But Liverpool is now creating a wool 
 market of her own. The first authentic account of 
 the number of vessels entering the port dates from 
 
 1577 ; and the following returns indicate at a glance 
 the progress of the trade : 
 
 Yei^, 
 
 Vesaela. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Dock duties. 
 
 1757 
 
 1780 
 
 1800 
 
 1820* 
 
 1880 
 
 1840 
 
 1860 
 
 1,371 
 2,261 
 4,746 
 7,277 
 11,214 
 15,998 
 20,467 
 20,886 
 
 4.50,660 
 806,088 
 1,411,964 
 2,446.708 
 8,886,887 
 4,820,618 
 
 ,£2,336 
 
 8,628 
 
 ' 28,879 
 
 94,412 
 
 151,359 
 
 178,196 
 
 211,743 
 
 826,801 
 
 1866 
 
 * This is the first year when goods were rated as well as 
 ships. 
 
 The custom-house revenue collected in the port was, 
 in 1855, £3,576,344, 2s. 8d., and 1856, £3,824,177, 14s. 
 8d., showing an increase of £247,843, 12s. The last 
 quarter of 1856 exhibits a comparatively further in- 
 crease of £118,581 over the corresponding quarter of 
 1855. The town dues now produce more than £120,000 
 a year, and there is another impost called light-dues, 
 which produced in 1856 £99,965, against £86,182 in 
 1855. These light-dues go altogether to the Board of 
 Trade, and are disposed of as passing tolls. The 
 greater number of vessels frequenting the port comes 
 from the United States of America; for the great 
 trade of Liverpool is in cotton, and the cotton supplied 
 comes in largest quantities from the southern States of 
 the Union. The following returns will give a correct 
 idea of the progress of this trade. In 1770 there were 
 imported into Liverpool 6037 bags 3 bales 3 barrels 
 of raw cotton ; but since the improvements of Har- 
 greaves and Arkwright in spinning, the trade has 
 greatly increased. Thus the importation was, in 
 
 Ponnde. 
 
 1880 261,961,452 
 
 1840 688,400,000 
 
 1850 686,600,000 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 1780 6,766,613 
 
 1800 56,010,782 
 
 1820 143,672,665 
 
 In 1856 there were imported into Liverpool 2,028,850 
 bales of cotton. A large trade is carried On in flour, 
 grain, and corn. The imports of these in 1856 were : 
 
 Wheat qrs. 1,870,152 11 Hour sacks 282,704 
 
 Com " 897,407 1 1 " ....barrels 1,188,260 
 
 Two thirds of all this came from the United States. 
 The quantity re-exported is small. The total sugar 
 imported in 1856 was 76,000 tons, of which 17,840 tons 
 were from the British West India plantations, 18,555 
 from Bengal, and 19,996 from Brazil. 
 
 Docks. — For carrying on a trade so large great facili- 
 ties are afforded. In 1715 the first dock was con- 
 structed with an area of 3J acres. This sufficed for 42 
 years ; but, at an interval of 18 years, another dock 
 appeared, and within a period of 50 years five addi- 
 tional docks were made. In 1826 the corporation filled 
 up the primitive dock in order to erect the custom- 
 house on its site. In consequence of this proceeding, 
 and the rapid increase of buildings, none of the docks 
 run inland, but all extend along and parallel with the 
 river. From 1880 to 1842, eight new docks were 
 opened ; and from 1845 to 1852, not less than 14 docks 
 and basins have been added. The total water space 
 afforded by the docks is 200 acres ; and the quays 
 measure 14 miles in length. The river wall is 5 miles 
 200 yards long ; the total area of the dock estate is 
 712 acres. No other port can present any thing to be 
 compared with the Liverpool Docks. One serious in- 
 convenience, however, is, that running along the river 
 wall, they interrupt the approaches to the ferries, and 
 when the gates are open, stop intercourse for a short 
 time altogether. To remedy this, an immense landing 
 stage, constructed by Mr. Cubitt, has been placed at 
 St. George's Pier, and this has not only'promoted the 
 comfort of passengers, but served as a verj' popular 
 promenade. Another landing-stage has been con- 
 structed, three times the size of the former one, at a 
 cost of £150,000. Means, too, are under consideration 
 for facilitating approach to the ferries. Until 1826 
 there were few warehouses on the dock quays. The 
 warehouses are in general up the town, or at some dis- 
 
LIV 
 
 1268 
 
 LIV 
 
 tance from the quays. The inconvenience of this pro- 
 voked a lively agitation among the merchants, and, 
 through the great exertion of several members of the 
 council, the Albert Dock -was constructed ahd sur- 
 rounded, like St. Katherine's Dock, London, by piles 
 of ponderous "warehouses. Stanley Dock has since 
 also been surrounded by warehouses, and the new 
 Wapping Docks are to have the same advantage. 
 Extensive as the dock accommodation is, it is no 
 longer adequate to the "vrants of the port. Several 
 new docks are projected at the north end, on land 
 reclaimed from the bay, under a certain understanding 
 with the Earl of Derby ; and in 1854 the corporation 
 became purchasers of the Birkenhead Dock and estates 
 for a sum of JE1,143,000. But these docks, to be ren- 
 dered available, will require a further outlay of £800,.- 
 000. The constitution of the dock management has 
 undergone some changes. The corporation having 
 been the first projectors and supporters of the docks, 
 Tjiere recognized as trustees of the estate. Under the 
 act 51st George III. the committee consisted of 21 
 persons, all members of and appointed by the common 
 council, and this continued until the passing of the 
 act 6th George IV., 1825, when the dock rate-payers 
 were first directlj' represented by returning 8 mem- 
 bers to the committee ; the council electing 13, in- 
 cluding the chairman, and the council having a veto 
 on the proceedings. This continued until the act of 
 1851, by which a committee of 24 is appointed — 12 by 
 the council and 12 by the dock rate-payers. The com- 
 mittee appoint their own chairman and deputy-chair- 
 man ; the chairman being, however, one of the 12 
 members elected by the council. The council have 
 also a veto on the proceedings of the committee by a 
 majority of two thirds. The care of the port is divided 
 between the dock committee and the corporation. The 
 latter constructed the light-house and built the Wal- 
 lasey embankment, to prevent the sea encroaching on 
 the district and impairing the channels leading to the 
 river; and the former provide buoys, and a marine 
 surveyor whose duty it is to note the shifting of the 
 sandbanks, and give notice to the pilots and mari- 
 ners. 
 
 Skip-huilding. — There are several eminent ship- 
 builders in Liverpool, but of late the greater part of 
 the trade has been in repairing and in the building of 
 iron ships. There are five building-yards on the Lan- 
 cashire side of the river, and three on the other side. 
 Those on the Cheshire side combine graving with 
 building docks, and, although there are several grav- 
 ing docks on tlie Liverpool side, they are found to be 
 inadequate to the wants of the port. As might be 
 expected, a large trade is carried on in ships. In 
 1856, 694 ships, of 328,991 tons were sold, and of these 
 one fifth were bought by foreigners. Liverpool is a 
 place of trade rather than of manufactures, and those 
 manufactures which exist are more for the supply of 
 local wants than for general purposes. An attempt 
 was made to establish a cotton manufactory, but with- 
 out success. 
 
 Next to London, the corporation of Liverpool is de- 
 cidedly the richest in the kingdom. At first her 
 income was miserably small, and centuries passed 
 without improving it ; but in 1777 the corporation 
 purchased from Lord Molyneaux, for £2250, his re- 
 version, expectant on the determination of his lease in 
 the town dues, and these rose gradually from £20,000 
 a year to £120,000. The income of the corporation is 
 also derived from land within the town, from markets, 
 and from police rates — the whole estimated at £268,000 
 for 1857. The claim to the town dues has often been 
 questioned. A case was tried in the Court of King's 
 Bench in 1831, and decided in favor of the corporation ; 
 but in 1856 government brought in a bill to abolish 
 them. Great resistance being offered, a select com- 
 mittee was appointed ; it heard evidence, but made no' 
 report. The people of Manchester are opposed to 
 
 these dues, and it is believed that ultimately there 
 must be a compromise. The dues consist of small 
 sums, hardly appreciable fa amount, collected on mer- 
 chandise. The dock-rates belong to no special in- 
 terest, being devoted not to demands, but simply to 
 interest of money borrowed, and the cost of working. 
 
 With the increase of trade and wealth, the mode of 
 doing business underwent a great change. At the 
 beginning of the present century the merchant had 
 his counting-house and warehouse behind, his dwelling- 
 house. These mansions may now be seen in Hanover- 
 street, Duke-street, Seel-street, and others, bearing 
 still, in their architecture, evidence of cost and taste, 
 although now mostly devoted to meaner uses. 30 
 years later the mercantile oiBces began to gather 
 about the Exchange ; mean buildings were trans- 
 formed into lordly edifices ; and as much as £600 or 
 £800 a year is now (1857) paid for a suite of rooms on 
 a single floor. Such rents are, of course, temptations 
 to an increase of buildings ; and in 1856 as much as 
 £47 a square yard has been paid for building-land 
 near the Town-hall. All the opulent classes live in the 
 environs. Up to the year 1833 New Brighton was a 
 sand-hill, without a single tenement on it ; now it is 
 covered with villas. The villas cover the hills and 
 crowd the gorges, which extend from the Eed Noses to 
 Eock Ferry ; while on the Lancashire side, Aigburth, 
 AUerton, Woolton, Wavertree, Old Swan, Knotty 
 Ash, West Derby, Walton, Crosby, Litherland, Water- 
 loo, and Bootle, have been entirely occupied by the 
 mansions and villas of the opulent people of Liverpool. 
 
 The mercantile offices which have sprung up around 
 the Exchange are remarkable for their architectural 
 beauty, as well as for their convenience. Water- 
 street, from the Town-hall to George's Dock, presents a 
 succession of such buildings. On the site of the old 
 tower, the last remnant of the Castle, have been 
 erected the Tower Buildings — a mass of counting- 
 houses, ornamented toward the river by an Italian 
 tower, now used as a semaphore telegraph station. 
 Fenwick-street, at right angles with Water-street, 
 presents a succession of buildings equally beautiful. 
 The Com Exchange is in Brunswick-street ; and in the 
 same street is the Union Bank, a perfect architectural 
 hijou ; and a little further on, in James-street, at the 
 top of Fenwick-street, is the North and South Wales 
 Bank, equally entitled to notice. In Castle-street 
 stands the Branch Bank of England, constructed by 
 Mr. Cockerell ; and in the same street the Commercial 
 Bank Buildings, erected after Mr. Cunningham's de- 
 sign. North John-street, which runs parallel with 
 Castle-street, is entirely devoted to offices ; and in 
 Dale-street are situated the Koyal Bank Buildings, 
 remarkable for boldness of design. The Custom- 
 house, which stands at the foot of South-street, was 
 built after a design of John Foster, at the cost of 
 £283,804. The estimate was £175,000 ; and although 
 the building is an imposing one in appearance, it is 
 regarded as not fully answering its purposes. In front 
 of it is a bronze statue of Huskisson, by Gibson. 
 Part of the custom-house is used as a dock-office, and 
 another part of it as the post-office; for neither of 
 which is the building particularly suitable. To the 
 east of the custom-house is the Sailors' Home, which 
 is admirably adapted to the intended object of the 
 Marine Board, and for a sailors' depot.- — E. B. 
 
 Bredhwater for Liverpool. — Mr. George Rennie, C. 
 E., has projected for the port and harbor of Liverpool 
 a jetty or breakwater, from the Black Kock Point, at 
 the entrance of the Mersey, on the Cheshire shore, in 
 a line nearly parallel to the Lancashire shore. The 
 breakwater will take a north-westerly direction and 
 curve outward toward the Victoria Channel, across 
 the Brazil and Burbo Banks, for a distance of upward 
 of three miles, when it will be ended by a light-house. 
 Simultaneously with the construction of a breakwater, 
 it is proposed to continue the line of quay wall of the 
 
LIV 
 
 1269 
 
 LIV 
 
 north docks, In a direction cumng inward as far as 
 Formby Point, so as to assimilate the form of the en- 
 trance into the Mersey to a trnrapet's month. The 
 advantages proposed by this plan are said to be : 1. 
 The general improvement of the entrance into the 
 harbor, by which the flow and ebb of the tides will 
 be more reguhir and more favorable to the deepening 
 and preserving the low water channels, and to their 
 navigation generally. 2. The protection of the north 
 docks (occasionally inaccessible in stormy weather), 
 and of the Bootle and Formby shores from the violent 
 effects of the prevailing winds. 3. The acquisition of 
 nearly 2000 acres of valuable land, which will be in- 
 closed between the new wall and that shore. 4. The 
 valuable conversion of from 30,000 to 40,000 acres of 
 sand-banks now rapidly accumulating and rising above 
 low water, along the whole shore in front of the Lea- 
 
 sowes, from the Eock Point to the entrance of the 
 Dee estuary at Hilbre Point. 5. The prevention from 
 entering into the harbor of vast quantities of drift 
 sand which come from the North Burbo banks, in 
 south-westerly gales. 6. The prevention of many 
 shipwrecks and loss of lives and property which occur 
 annually. 7. The reduction to a minimum of the great 
 expenses now incurred in maintaining the lights, 
 buoys, steam-tugs, dredgers, etc., now employed in 
 preserving the direction and depth of the sea channels, 
 and which heavily tax the 40,000 ships and 4,000,000 
 of tons carried by them annually. Finally, the pres- 
 ervation and improvement of the port and harbor of 
 Liverpool, and which, like its neighbor, the estuary of 
 the Dee, will be entirely ruined if prompt measures be 
 not taken to prevent it. The following table shows 
 the grain trade of Liverpool : 
 
 COMPABISON OF IJIPOETS OF GRAIN, ETC., INTO LtvBEPOOL FOR TWBLVB MoNTUS ENDING 80Tn SefTEMBEB, 1852, 1858, 
 
 1864, 1865, AND 1866. 
 
 , Years. 
 
 WHEAT. 
 
 FLOUR. 
 
 OAra. 
 
 Coastwise 
 and Ireland. 
 
 Colonial. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 British. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Colonial. 
 
 British. 
 
 Foreign; 
 
 1852 
 
 Quarters. 
 20,080 
 22,147 
 26,665 
 89,286 
 58,817 
 
 Quarters. 
 21,780 
 47,661 
 48,021 
 4,948 
 66,857 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 476,799 
 
 , 880,770 
 
 761,676 
 
 891,007 
 
 1,017,605 
 
 Saeks. 
 81,684: 
 
 85,650 
 27,474 
 61,411 
 52,626 
 
 Sacks. 
 140,597 
 207,896 
 172,591 
 804,808 
 281,447 
 
 Barrels. 
 930,463 
 
 1,080,658 
 
 1,281,443 
 
 70,674 
 
 1,016,587 
 
 Barrels. 
 78,066 
 
 85,526 
 
 77,707 
 
 11,168 
 
 121.845 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 186,228 
 171,943 
 167,094 
 167,211 
 182,271 
 
 Quarters. 
 22,481 
 
 5,446 
 2,206 
 1,612 
 4,721 
 
 ims 
 
 1854 
 
 1855 
 
 1856 
 
 COMPAHISQN OF IMPORTS OP GeAIN, ETC., INTO LIVERPOOL.— (?OH.{i?Mfi0Q5. 
 
 Years, 
 
 BAaLEY, 
 
 BEANS. 
 
 PBAg. 
 
 OATMEAL. 
 
 INDIAN COBK. 
 
 INDIAN COBN 
 MEAL. 
 
 British. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 British. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 British. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 British. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 1862 
 
 Quarters. 
 86,628 
 
 22,108 
 29,069 
 16,944 
 12,396 
 
 Quarters. 
 28,896 
 18,024 
 26,258 
 10,891 
 14,189 
 
 Quarters. 
 18,189 
 9,915 
 9,635 
 
 3,834 
 2,776 
 
 Quarters. 
 118,386 
 106,681 
 76,247 
 126,488 
 127,218 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 7,763 
 
 , 18,958 
 
 7,582 
 
 8,686 
 
 16,949 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 4,911 
 9,100 
 8,648 
 9,823 
 16,893 
 
 Loads. 
 
 277,312 
 848,888 
 824,621 
 861,220 
 287,710 
 
 QuarlerB. 
 
 211,626 
 304,360 
 814,008 
 765,299 
 776,894 
 
 Barrels. 
 712 
 228 
 87,440 
 4,832 
 8,699 
 
 1883 
 
 1854 
 
 1855 
 
 1856 
 
 OoMPAiiiBON OP Exports op Grain, etc., from Liverpool for Twelve Months ending 30th September, 1852, 1858, 
 
 1854, 1855, AND 1856, 
 
 Years. 
 
 WHEAT. 
 
 FLOUR. 
 
 OAIB. 
 
 BARLEY. 
 
 Coastwise 
 and Ireland 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Coastwise and Ireland. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Coastwise. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Coastwise. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 1852 
 
 12",607' 
 180,468 
 116,258 
 88,477 
 108,982 
 
 Quarters. 
 1,657 
 6,SU 
 4,994 
 972 
 17,824 
 
 Saoks. 
 42,468 
 72,098 
 83,410 
 69,514 
 85,107 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 846,982 
 228,440 
 298,867 
 87,937 
 88,620 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 29,246 
 26,634 
 13,320 
 16,536 
 89,095 
 
 Quarters. 
 750 
 
 2,396 
 
 2,084 
 
 1,048 
 
 393 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 12,680 
 13,627 
 86,168 
 42,629 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 987 
 
 827 
 
 7,262 
 
 2;989' 
 
 6,061 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 '284 
 275 
 810 
 569 
 
 1S58 i. 
 
 1854 
 
 1S55 
 
 1856 
 
 Comparison op Exports of Grain, etc., peo.m Liverpool.— C(m<^?weA 
 
 Years. 
 
 BBAN8. 
 
 PEAS. 
 
 OATHBAL. 
 
 mDIAN COBN. 
 
 INDllN CORN 
 MEAL. 1 
 
 Coastwise. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Coastwise. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 British and 
 Foreijfn. 
 
 Coastwise, j Foreign. 
 
 BriUsh and 
 Foreign. 
 
 1852 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 12,068 
 8,174 
 7,758 
 6,698 
 
 11,917 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 '218 
 63 
 69 
 683 
 
 Quarters. 
 419 
 865 
 242 
 870 
 4,989 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 '186 
 104 
 616 
 968 
 
 Loads. 
 
 18,747 
 
 88,748 
 
 8,911 
 
 7,787 
 
 Quarters. 
 185,574 
 123,412 
 482,501 
 692,996 
 861,088 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 "in 
 
 14,857 
 6,196 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 8,484 
 
 9,872 
 
 22,793 
 
 12,608 
 
 6,499 
 
 1858 
 
 1854 
 
 1866 , .. .. 
 
 1856 
 
 For a full exhibit of the commerce of Great Britain, 
 including a statement of that of Liverpool, see articles 
 Grbat Britain and England. 
 
 Livre. From abont the year 800, in the reign of 
 Charlemagne, to the year 1103, in that of Philip I., 
 the French Uvre, or money unit, contained exactly a 
 pound weight of twelve ounces (^poids de marc) of pure 
 silver. It was divided into 20 sols, each of which, of 
 course, weighed l-20th part of a pound. This ancient 
 standard was first violated by Philip I., who dimin- 
 ished considerably the quantity of pure silver contained 
 in the sols. The example, once set, was so well fol- 
 lowed up, that in 1180 the livre was reduced to less 
 than V. fourth part of its original weight of pure silver. 
 In almost every succeeding reign there was a fresh 
 diminution. "La Monnoye," says Le Blanc, "qui 
 est la plus prdcieuse et la plus important des mSsures, 
 a chang6 en France presque aussi souvent que nos 
 habits ont chang6 de mode." And to such an extent 
 had the process of degradation been carried, that, at 
 the epoch of the Revolution, the livre did not contain 
 
 a severdt/'eighth part of the silver contained in the livre 
 of Charlemagne. It would then have required 7885 
 livres really to extinguish a debt of 100 livres con- 
 tracted in the ninth or tenth century ; and an indi- 
 vidual who, in that remote period, had an annual 
 income of 1000 livres, was as rich, in respect to monej^, 
 as those who, at the Revolution, enjoyed a revenue of 
 78,850 livres. (Paucton, Traite des Mesures, Folds, 
 etc., p. 698.) It was not to be expected that degrada- 
 tions originating in the necessities, the ignorance, and 
 the rapacity of a long series of arbitrarj' princes, should 
 be made according to any fixed principle. They were 
 sometimes the result of an increase in the denomina- 
 tion of the coins, but more frequently of a diminution 
 of the purity of the metal of which they were struck. 
 A degradation of this kind was not so easily detected ; 
 and, in order to render its discovery still more difficult, 
 Philip of Valois, John, and some other kings, obUged 
 the officers of the mint to swear to conceal the fraud, 
 and to endeavor to make the merchants believe that 
 the coins were of full value. (Lb Blanc, p. 212.) 
 
LLO 
 
 1270 
 
 LOA 
 
 Sometimes one species of money was reduced, frithout 
 any alteration being made in the others. No sooner, 
 however, had the people, in their dealings, manifested 
 a preference, as they uniformly did, for the money 
 which had not been reduced, than its circulation was 
 forbidden, or its value brought down to the same level 
 with the rest. By an enactment of Congress, the 
 commercial value, in the United States, of a livre 
 toumois of France, is fixed at 18^ cents. 
 
 Lloyd's, a number of rooms in the Royal Exchange 
 of London, frequented by underwriters, merchants, 
 ship-owners, ship and insurance brokers, and others, 
 chiefly for the 'purpose of obtaining shipping intelli- 
 gence, and of transacting business connected with 
 marine insurance. The principal room is that of the 
 Underwriters, in which two enormous ledgers lie con- 
 stantly open, the one containing notices of speakinffs, 
 or ships spoken with, and arrivals of vessels at their 
 various destinations ; the other recording disasters at 
 sea. All intelligence is entered immediately upon its 
 reception, without removing the ledgers from their 
 places, in order that they may at any moment be in- 
 spected by those interested in their contents. At the 
 inner end of the room is an ingenious piece of mechan- 
 ism, bj' means of which the indications of an anemom- 
 eter and an anemoscope are inscribed every hour in 
 the 24, by a couple of pencils, upon a sheet of white 
 paper. The advantage to the underwriter, in the con- 
 duct of his business, of this information respecting the 
 force and the direction of the wind, can scarcely be 
 over-estimated. The underwriters are persons who, for 
 a premium, grant an indemnity to merchants against 
 risks by sea ; and 'they are so called from the custom 
 of writing their names under, or at the foot of the poli- 
 cies of insurance. The method of effecting an insur- 
 ance at Lloyd's is the following : When a broker re- 
 ceives an order to insure interest to a certain amount 
 in a particular ship, he writes upon a slip of paper the 
 name of the vessel, the master's name, the nature of 
 the voyage, the subject to be insured, and its value, 
 and any other information which the circumstances of 
 the case may require. He then ofifers the risk to dif- 
 ferent underwriters until the value of the interest to 
 be insured is exhausted, each underwriter subscribing 
 his name opposite to the amount he engages to insure, 
 and all agreeing to accept a uniform premium. The 
 insurance is now virtually effected ; the stamped pol- 
 icy being afterward extended from this slip. 'This dis- 
 tribution of the risk among many individuals is, of 
 course, very conducive both to the solvency of the un- 
 derwriter and to the security of the insured. The 
 number of underwriters is under 200 ; but some idea 
 of the immense amount of insurance business done at 
 Lloyd's may be derived from the fact, that the value 
 of the interest annually insured at the present is esti- 
 mated at about ^40,000,000. No person is permitted 
 to transact business at Lloyd's as an underwriter or in- 
 surance broker until he shall have been duly admitted 
 as a member, and shall have paid an entrance fee. 
 Communicating with the Underwriters' Room is the 
 Chart Room. Here a valuable collection of charts, 
 and shipping intelligence as originally received, are 
 carefully arranged, so as to be at all times eisy of ac- 
 cess. In this room also lie, for the use of members, 
 four ledgers, in which the names of ships are arranged 
 in alphabetical order, each name having under it all the 
 information possessed regarding the vessel. The Mer- 
 chants' Room is a place of resort for general news ; it 
 is, in fact, a news or reading-room. The Captains' 
 Room is employed as an auction-room for sales of 
 ships, etc. Every person who enjoys the privilage 
 of frequenting Lloyd's pays a fixed annual subscrip- 
 tion. 
 
 The shipping intelligence received at Lloyd s is fur- 
 nished by agents, who are appointed for the purpose ; 
 and as there is scarcely a port of any consequence 
 where one is not resident, their number is very large. 
 
 The information which each transmits to head-quar- 
 ters is regular, accurate, and complete. It is fur- 
 nished by means of letters, signed by the agents, and 
 by means of the newspapers, and shipping lists which 
 are published at the various ports ; the intelligence 
 thus received consisting not only of lists of vessels 
 which had arrived at and which had sailed from the par- 
 ticular ports, together with their accomplished and in- 
 tended voyages, and of casualties which had occuri'ed 
 at or near the ports, but also of notices of ships spoken 
 with, and of casualties at sea, furnished by vessels. No 
 salary attaches to the office of agtat for Lloyd's ; the 
 labor involved being amply recompensed by the busi- 
 ness which it commands, and by the credit which the 
 appointment confers upon its holder as a person of 
 worth and respectability. The intelligence, besides 
 being made known to the members of Lloyd's by 
 means of the ledgers, of which we have already 
 spoken, is published every afternoon in LloycCs List 
 for diffusion over the country. The management of 
 Lloyd's lies with the subscribers, who select a commit- 
 tee from their number for the purpose, called the 
 "Committee for managing the affairs of Lloyd's." 
 This committee appoints the agents and the oflicials 
 of the establishment. The expenses connected with 
 the establishment are defrayed by the fees and annual 
 subscriptions. 
 
 The designation Lloyd^s originated with a person of 
 the name of Lloyd, who kept a coffee-house in Ab- 
 church Lane, Lombard-street. From the vicinity of 
 this house to the Old Royal Exchange, it speedily be- 
 came a rendezvous of merchants for news, and for the 
 transaction of business. It was afterward removed to 
 Pope's Head Alley, and thence again, in 1774, to the 
 Royal Exchange. After the destruction of the Ex- 
 change, in 1838, by fire, which originated in Lloyd's,, 
 the business was carried on in the South Sea House, 
 in Old Broad-street, where it remained until the open- 
 ing of the present Royal Exchange, in 1844, when it 
 was finally removed to its present splendid apart- 
 ments. Similar establishments exist in our principal 
 sea-ports, Lloyd's Megisier of British and Foreign Ship- 
 ping, a volume published annually, and furnishing in- 
 formation respecting the nature of vessels, their class, 
 place where built, materials, owners, captains, age^ 
 repairs, etc. The ships are registered according to 
 the reports of salaried agents, appointed at various 
 ports. The ofiELce of this Register is in White Lion 
 Court, Cornhill, and is quite distinct from Lloyd's of 
 the Exchange.— E. B. 
 
 Loadstone (Ger. Magnet ; Du. Magneet ; Fr. 
 Aimant ; It. Calamita ; Sp. Iman ; Rus. Magnit ; Lat. 
 Magnes). M. Haiij'- observes, that the ores in which 
 the iron contains the least oxygen without being en- 
 gaged in other combinations, form natural magnets ; 
 and he calls the loadstones of commerce, which are 
 found in considerable masses in Germany, Sweden, 
 Norway, Spain, Italy, China, Siam, the ]?hilippine 
 Isles, Corsica, and Ethiopia, oxydulated iron. The 
 loadstone is characterized by the following properties ; 
 A very strong action on the magnetic needle. Spe- 
 cific gravity 4-2457 ; not ductile ; of a dark gray color, 
 with a metallic lustre ; primitive form, the regular oc- 
 tahedron ; insoluble in nitric acid. This singular 
 substance was known to the ancients ; and they had 
 remarked its peculiar property of attracting iron ; but 
 it does not appear that they were acquainted with the 
 wonderful property which it also has of turning to the 
 pole when suspended, and left at liberty to move free- 
 ly. Upon this remarkable circumstance the mariners' 
 compass depends — an instrument which gives us such 
 infinite advantage over the ancients. It is this which 
 enables the mariner to conduct his vessel through vast 
 oceans out of the sight of land, in any given direction ; 
 and this directive property also guides the miner in 
 subterranean excavations, and the traveler through 
 deserts otherwise impassable. The natural loadstone 
 
LOG 
 
 1211 
 
 LOG 
 
 has also the quality of communicating its pioperties to 
 iron and steel ; and when pieces of steel properly pre- 
 pared are touched, as it is called, by the loadstone, they 
 are denominated artificial magnets. See Compass. 
 Its virtues were but indistinctly known to the ancients, 
 yet its attractive quality had been taken notice of 
 from very remote times. — Sturmius, Aristotle as- 
 sures us that Thales made /mention of it, and Hippo- 
 crates speaks of it under the name of stone that at- 
 tracts iron ; and Pliny was struck with its attractive 
 power. The polar attraction of the loadstone was, it 
 is said, known in France before A. d. 1180 ; but this 
 honor is accorded to Roger Bacon about 1267. The 
 Italians discovered that it could communicate its vir- 
 tues to steel or iron ; and Flavio Giojo, of Amalfi, was 
 the inventor of the mariners' compass. — Haydn. 
 
 Loans. Those for the service of the crown of En- 
 gland were generally boiTowed at Antwerp until after 
 the reign of Elizabeth. In 1559, the queen borrowed 
 £200,000 of the city of Antwerp, to enable her to re- 
 form her own coin, and Sir Thomas Gresham and the 
 city of London joined in the security. — Sapin. The 
 amount of the English loans, during four late memor- 
 able periods, was, viz. ; 
 
 Seven years' war, 1755—1763 £52,100,000 
 
 American war, 1776—1 784 75,600,000 
 
 French Eevolutlonary war, 1798— 1802.. . 168,600,000 
 War against Bonaparte, 1808— 18M 206,800,000 
 
 Besides the property tax. In 1813 were raised two 
 loans of 21,000,000 and 22,000,000 ; and it deserves to 
 be recorded, that a subscription loan to carry the war 
 against France was filled up in London in 15 hours and 
 20 minutes, to the amount of £18,000,000, December 
 5, 1796. 
 
 LobOB, or Seal Islands, two groups of guano 
 islands in the Pacific Ocean, lying off the coast of Pe- 
 ru. The landward and northern group are about 20 
 miles west of the main land, in S. lat. 6° 29', W. long. 
 80° 53', and consist of one large island, 5 miles long 
 by 2 in breadth, with several rocky islets. The sea- 
 ward group lie about 38 miles from the main land, in 
 S. lat. 6° 56', W. long. 80° 55', and consist of two 
 islands of about the same size, viz., 1 mile long by 1 
 in breadth, and separated from each other by a narrow 
 channel. Both belong to Peru, although unsuccess- 
 ful attempts have been made at various times by pri- 
 vate companies to obtain possession of them. On the 
 north group there is estimated to be a deposit of guano 
 of about 400,000 tons, and on the other islands of more 
 than 200,000 tons. The only inhabitants are those 
 emploj'ed in the shipment of the manure, and consist- 
 ing chiefly of Indians and Chinese. 
 
 Lobster (Fr. Ecrevisse ; Lat. Cancer), a fish of the 
 crab species. The Scilly Islands and the Land's End 
 abound in lobsters, as well as several places on the 
 Scotch shores, particularly about Montrose. But the 
 principal lobster fishery is on the coast of Norway ; 
 whence it is believed about 1,000,000 lobsters are an- 
 nually imported into London. Those of Heligoland 
 are, however, esteemed the best ; they are of a deeper 
 black color, and their flesh is firmer than those brought 
 from Norway. 
 
 Loch. The Scotch term for lake, which see. 
 
 Lock, in Internal Navigation, is a part 9f a canal 
 included between two floodgates, by means of which a 
 vessel is transferred from a higher to a lower level, or 
 from a lower to a higher. 
 
 Lock, Locks (Ger. Schlosser; Du. Sloten; Fr. 
 Serrures / It. Serrature ; Sp. Cerraduras, Cerrajos ; 
 Ens. Samld), a well-known instrument, of which there 
 are infinite varieties. A great deal of art and deli- 
 cacy is sometimes displayed in contriving and varying 
 the wards, springs, bolts, etc., and adjusting them to 
 the places where they are to be used, and to the occa< 
 sions of using them. From the various structure of 
 locks, accommodated to their different intentions, they 
 acquire various names, as stock locks, spring locks, 
 
 padlocks, etc. The grand difficulty to be overcome in 
 making a lock is to construct it so that it may not be 
 opened by any key except its own, nor admit of being 
 picked ; it should also be possessed of sufficient strength 
 and durability, and not be too complex. Many inge- 
 nious contrivances have been proposed for the attain- 
 ment of the desired security — several of which are 
 possessed of considerable merit. Common door-locks 
 are now usually inserted in the wood, instead of being, 
 as formerly, screwed to it ; and when so placed are 
 called mortise locks. 
 
 Locust-tree. The Robina pseudaoacia, or com- 
 mon locust, from the valuable properties of its wood, 
 and the beauty of its foliage and flowers, ranks among 
 the first trees of the American forests. In favorable 
 situations, it attains a height of 80 or 90 feet, and 
 sometimes exceeds four feet in diameter ; but ordina- 
 rily, it does not surpass half of these dimensions. On 
 the trunks and large limbs of old trees, the bark is 
 very thick, and deeply furrowed, but on young trees, 
 not more than two or three inches in diameter, it is 
 armed with strong, hooked pricl^les, which disappear 
 altogether as they grow old ; and in some varieties 
 they are wanting even when young. 
 
 T'he common locust naturally abounds in the coun- 
 try west of the Alleghanies, as far as Arkansas, It 
 is also plentiful in the Canadas, but is not found in- 
 digenous in the United States east of the river Del- 
 aware, nor does it grow spontaneously in the maritime 
 parts . of the middle and southern States, within the 
 distance of 50 to 100 miles from the sea. It is planted, 
 however, for purposes of utility and ornament, from 
 Maine to Georgia. It was observed by Michaux, that 
 "the locust forms a much smaller portion of the Amer- 
 ican forests than the oaks and walnuts, and that it is 
 nowhere found occupying tracts, even of a few acres 
 exclusively." Hence the tree, where it ismet with, 
 is often spared by settlers, as being ornamental, and 
 comparatively rare, and old specimens, which formerly 
 belonged to the aboriginal forests, are frequently seen 
 growing in the midst of cultivated fields. 
 
 Of all American trees that have been cultivated in 
 Europe there is no one, of which so much has been 
 said and done, as the locust. It was among the first 
 plants that were carried to that countrj'', and it has 
 been more extensively propagated than any other, 
 both in Britain and in France, where it has been al- 
 ternately extolled and neglected; and even at the 
 present day, though the beauty of its foliage and flow- 
 ers is universally admired, and the valuable properties 
 have enthusiastically been praised and acknowledged, 
 it is not considered as holding a high rank as a timber- 
 tree, or as being generally planted with a view to 
 profit. 
 
 The wood of the locust, which is commonly of a 
 greenish-yellow color, marked with brown veins, is 
 very hard, compact, and susceptible of a brilliant pol- 
 ish. It possesses great strength, with but little elas- 
 ticity ; and its most valuable property is that of resist- 
 ing decay longer than almost any other species of 
 wood. When newly cut, it weighs 63 pounds 3 ounces 
 to a cubic foot ; half dry, 56J pounds, and when quite 
 dry, only 48^ pounds, or according to others, only 46 
 pounds. According to M. Hartig, the German den- 
 drologist, its value for fuel, when compared with that 
 of the beech (Fagus sylvaticd), is as 12 t» 15. For dur- 
 ation, he places it next below the oak {Querois rohur), 
 and next above the larch (Larix eurojioad), and the 
 Scotch pine (Pinus aylvestris). Barlow, in Wither's 
 Treatise, gives the strength of locust timber, as com- 
 pared with other woods, as follows : — Teak (Tectona 
 grandis), 2462 ; Ash (Fraxinus excelsior), 2026 ; Locust 
 {Sohina pseudacacid), 1867 ; Oak ((2«ercas roiur), 1672 ; 
 Beech {Fagus sylvatica), 1556 ; Norway spar {JLbiea ex- 
 celsa), 1474 ; Riga fir (Pinus sylveslris rigensis), 1108 ; 
 Elm (JJlmus campestris), 1013. From some exper- 
 iments made at Brest, in 1823, the weight of the lo- 
 
LOO 
 
 1272 
 
 LOF 
 
 cust wood was found to be one sixth heavier than 
 that qf the English oak ; its strength as 1427 to 820 ; 
 and Its elasticitj' as 21 to 9. By experiments made in 
 the j-ard of the royal naval college, at Woolwich, it 
 appears that the lateral strength of the locust timber, 
 m resisting fracture; is greater than that of the British 
 oak, in the proportion of 100 to 75. From all these 
 experiments, however widely they may differ in their 
 results, we may safely conclude, that sound, well- 
 seasoned locust timber " is heavier, harder, stronger, 
 more rigid, more elastic, and tougher than that of the 
 best English oak," and consequently is more suitable 
 for trenails. Michaux remarks that, "if the trunks 
 of the locust-trees grown in the north of Pennsylvania, 
 exceed 15 inches in diameter, when they are cut down 
 and split open, they are frequently found to be decayed 
 at the heart ; but that this is not the case with trees 
 that have grown further south ;" which would tend 
 to show that a poor soil and a cold climate are not suf- 
 ficient to produce good timber. 
 
 There are, at least, three popular varieties of the 
 common locust, distinguishable by the color of the 
 heart-wood, which may be described as follows : 
 
 1. Red Locust, with the heart red, and is esteemed 
 as'.far the most beautiful and durable timber. Posts 
 of this varietj', perfectly seasoned before they are set 
 in the ground, are estimated to last 40 years, or twice 
 as long as those of the white locust. 
 
 2. Green, or Yellow Locust. — This is the most com- 
 mon variety, being known by its greenish-yellow 
 heart, and is held next best in quality to the red locust. 
 
 3. White Locust, with a white heart, and is con- 
 sidered as the least valuable of them all. 
 
 All of the above-mentioned variations are supposed 
 to be owing entirely to the soil and situations in which 
 they grow, being caused in a similar manner as the 
 various colors of the flowers of the hydrangea, which 
 depend on the nature of the earth in which they are 
 planted, and even on the color of the water with which 
 they are irrigated. 
 
 In naval architecture, the timber of the locust is 
 much esteemed hy American shipwrights, and enters, 
 with the live oak, the white oak, and the red cedar, 
 into the upper and the lower parts of the frames of 
 vessels, though in very small proportions. It is con- 
 sidered as durable as the live oak and the red cedar, 
 with the advantage of being lighter than the former 
 and stronger than the latter. It is used for trenails 
 in the dockyards of Europe and the United States, in 
 preference to any other kind of wood ; and instead of 
 decaying, it acquires, in time, an extraordinary degree 
 of hardness. In civil architecture, in this country, it 
 enters but little into the composition of houses, on ac- 
 count of its scarcitj', and its value in ship-building, 
 and for posts of rural fences, etc. When employed in 
 the construction of houses, it is more particularly ap- 
 plied for the support of the sills, which usually consist 
 of more destructible timber, and which, if they were 
 placed immediately on the ground, would sooner de- 
 cay. From the hardness of the wood when seasoned, 
 the firmness of the grain, and its lustre when polished, 
 it has been extensively used in cabinet-making, and 
 has been substituted by turners for the box-wood, in 
 many species of light work, such as small domestic 
 wares, toys, etc. It has also been emploj'ed by mill- 
 wrights for cogs, but it is less valuable for this pur- 
 pose than that of the rock-maple. 
 
 The mo.st important use to which the locust is ap- 
 plied in Britain, is that of forming trenails for ship- 
 fastenings ; and large quantities are annually imported 
 into that country from America. As long as we can 
 supply them for the prices which they at present bear, 
 it never would repay the grower to cultivate them in 
 England for this special purpose. 
 
 In France, the locust has been extensively culti- 
 vated in the Gironde, in copses, which are cut at the 
 age of four years, for vine-props ; and these props are 
 
 said to last more than 20 years. In the same district,- 
 old trees are pollarded, and their branches lopped every 
 third year, for the same purpose!. In Paris, many 
 small articles are made of the -Vfood; such as salt- 
 cellars, sugar-dishes, spoons, forks, sand-boxes, paper- 
 knives, etc, 
 
 In Lombardy, the wood of the locust is used for 
 many rural purposes. Young plants of it were form- 
 erly much emploj'ed for live fences ; but this practice 
 has long since been abandoned, because the tree was 
 found to impoverish the soil ; and, with age, lost its 
 prickles ; besides, from being continually pruned, to 
 keep it low, or from being cropped by animals, the 
 hedges became thin and open at the bottom, and 
 eventually became mere stumps. . Italy, as well as 
 the southern Departments of France, Michaux consid- 
 ers the countries in wMch the greatest advantages may 
 be derived from the rapid growth of this tree. In 
 good soils, in such climates, at the end of 20 or 25 
 years, he says that a mass of wood may be obtained 
 from the locust, twice as great as from any other spe- 
 cies of tree. 
 
 In countries where clover and root crops are not 
 cultivated, the leaves o/ the locust may serve as a 
 substitute for these articles as provender for animals. 
 When this species is cultivated for this purpose, it 
 should be mown every year ; or the trees may be al- 
 lowed to grow to the height of 8 or 10 feet, and treated 
 as pollards, the branches being cut off every other 
 year, which should be done at mid-summer, when thev 
 are succulent, and can be dried for winter's use. In 
 performing this operation, one or two shoots should be 
 left on each tree, to keep up vegetation, which may be 
 pruned off the following winter or spring. When the 
 shoots are to be eaten green, none should be taken but 
 those of the same season ; because in them the prickles 
 are herbaceous, and, consequently, do not injure the 
 months of the animals. — Browne's Trees oj^ America. 
 Lofoden Islands, a large group of islands off 
 the north-west coast of Norway, stretching north-east 
 to south-west from N. lat. 67° 30' to 69° 30', and E. 
 long. 12° 16' 30". The group resembles the verte- 
 brae of an animal in form ; the islands fitting into each 
 other so closely, that from a distance thej' seem to 
 form one long continent. The islands, which are all 
 of a granite or limestone formation, are precipitous, 
 and very loftj' ; the hills of Vaagoe rising almost per- 
 pendicularly to a height of 4000 feet above the sea. 
 The channels which separate them are narrow, tortu- 
 ous, and generally of great depth. The largest islands 
 of the group are in the north, viz., Hindoe, Andoe, and 
 Langoe ; the first being separated from the main land 
 by a passage about a mile in width. The tail of the 
 chain is formed of a number of smaller islands, the 
 chief of which are the two Vaagoes, Moskenosoe, Va- 
 roe, and Eost, separated from the main land by West 
 Fiord. This gulf is much dreaded by mariners when 
 the wind is south-west, on account of the great swell 
 which rolls in from the North Sea, and which is es- 
 pecially dangerous at the Malstroem channel between 
 Varoe and Moskenosoe. The mean temperature of 
 the group ranges from 23° in winter to 50° in sum- 
 mer, which, considering the high latitude, is compara- 
 tively mil,d. This is caused, however, by the exposure 
 of the group to the Gulf Stream. Large shoals of 
 herring and cod frequent the Lofodens annually, and 
 attract to these islands a large concourse of fishing- 
 boats from several hundreds of miles of sea-coast. In 
 the inclement months of Februarj' and March, gener- 
 ally about 3000 boats (mostly open) assemble here for 
 the cod-fishing, each having, on an average, five of a 
 crew, while the aggregate number of fish taken amounts 
 to more than 3,000,000. These are chiefly dried in 
 the sun and wind, without salt, and sent to Tromsoe, 
 Trondhjem, Bergen, etc., along with large quantities 
 of cod-Hver oil and cod-roe, for exportation or home 
 consumption. The cod-fishery ends in April, and is 
 
LOG 
 
 1219 
 
 LOG 
 
 followed by the herring-fisliuig, wllicli is carried on 
 till the boisteroils season, at the end of aututnn. The 
 permanent population of the Lofodens is very small, 
 considering the extent of territory, and is sustained 
 principally by the iisheries. Some cattle, however, 
 are kept in the most sheltered parts of the island, 
 where good pasturage is obtained in the summer. 
 Steilo, in the island of Ulvo, is the chief village of the 
 group, and has communication with the ports of the 
 main land by means of a steamer, which visits the Lo- 
 fodens in summer. Estimated population Of group, 
 4000. 
 
 IiOg, an apparatus used to measure the rate of a 
 ship's velocity through the water. For this purpose, 
 there are several inventions, biit the one mCst gener- 
 ally used is the following, called the common log; It 
 is a piece of thin board, forming the quadrant of a cir. 
 cle of about 6 inches radius, and balances \>y a small 
 plate of lead, nailed on the circular part, so as to swim 
 perpendicularly in the water, with the greater part 
 immersed. The log-line 'is fastened to the log by 
 means of two legs, one of ^whichis knotted, through a 
 hole at one comer, while the other is attached to a pin, 
 fixed in ahole at the other comer so as to draw out 
 occasionally. The log-line being divided into certain 
 spaces, which are in proportion to an equal number of 
 geographical miles, as a half or quarter minute is to 
 an hour of time, is wound abotit a reel. The whole is 
 emploj-ed to measure the ship's head-way in the fol- 
 lowing manner : the reel being held by one man, and 
 the half-minute glass by another ; the mate of the 
 watch fixes the pin, and throws the log over the stem, 
 which, swimming perpendicularly, feels an immediate 
 resistance, and is considered as fixed, the line being 
 slackened over the stern to prevent the pin coming 
 out. The knots are measured from a mark on the 
 line, at the distance of 12 or 15 fathoms from the log. 
 The glass is, therefore, turned the instant the mark 
 passes over the stern ; and, as soon as the sand in the 
 glass has run out, the line is stopped. The water, 
 then being on the log, dislodges the pin, so that the 
 board, now presenting only its edge to the water, is 
 easily drawn aboard. The number of knots and fath- 
 oms which had run off at the expiration of the glass, 
 determines the ship's velocity. The half-minute 
 glass, and divisions on the line, should be frequently 
 measured, to determine any variation in either of 
 them, and to make allowance accordingly. If the 
 glass runs 30 secondsj the distance between the knots 
 should be 50 feet. When it runs more or less, it should 
 therefore be corrected by the following analogy: as 
 30 is to 50, so is the number of seconds of the glass to 
 the distance between the knots upon the line. As the 
 heat or moisture of the weather has often a consider- 
 able effect on the glass, so as to make it run slower or 
 faster, it should be frequently tried by the vibration 
 of a pendulum. As many accidents attend a ship dur- 
 ing a day's sailing, such as the variableness of winds, 
 the dificrent quantity of sail carried, etc., it will be 
 necessary to heave the log at every alteration, and 
 even if no alteration be perceptible, yet it ought to be 
 constantly heaved. The inventor of this simple but 
 valuable device is not known, and no mention of it 
 occurs till the year 1607, in an East India voyage, 
 published by Purchas. — E. A. 
 
 Logarithms, so useful in mathematics, are the 
 indexes of the ratio of numbers one to another. They 
 were invented by Baron Merchiston^ an eminent 
 Scotchman (Sir John Napier), in 1614. The method of 
 computing by means of marked pieces of ivory, was 
 discovered about the same time, ;'and hence called 
 Napier's lines. The invention was afterward com- 
 pleted by Mr. Briggs, at Oxford. 
 
 IfOg-Board, two boards shutting together like a 
 book, and divided into several columns, containing 
 the hours of the day and night,; the -direction of the 
 winds and the course of the ship, wtb all the material 
 
 occurrences that happen during the 24 hours, or from 
 noon to noon, together with the' latitude by observa- 
 tion. From this table the officers work the ship's way, 
 and compile their journals. The whole being written 
 with chalk, is rubbed out every day at noon. — E. A. 
 
 IiOg-Bool£, a book into which the contents of 
 the log-board are daily transcribed at noon, together 
 with any circumstance, deserving notice, that may 
 happen to the ship, or within hefcognizance, either at 
 sea, or within a harbor, etc. The intermediate divis^ 
 ions or watches of a log-bookji containing 4 hours 
 each, are usually, signed by the commanding officer 
 thereof, in ships of war, or East Indiamen. — E. A. 
 
 Log-Line, the line which is fastened to the log. 
 
 Logwood (Fr. Bois de Camp'eohe; Ger. Kampe- 
 soholz; Du. Campecheoutj'Sp. Pcdode Campeche)^ the 
 wood of a tree (Swmatoxplart Campeckianum, Lin.), a 
 native of America, and which attains the greatest per- 
 fection at Campeachy, and in the West Indies; It 
 thrives best in a wet soil, with a large proportion of 
 clay. The logwood-tree is like the white thorn, but a 
 great deal larger. The wood is hard, compact, heavy, 
 and of a deep red color internally, which it gives out 
 both to water and alcohol. It is an article of great 
 commercial importance, being extensively used as a 
 dye-wood. It is imported in logs, that are afterward 
 ohippedi' (The logwood-tree, and the adventures of 
 those that were formerly engaged in cutting it, are 
 described by Dampier ; see his Voyages, vol. ii., part 2, 
 p. 56, edi 1729.) We borrow from the learned and 
 able work of Br. Bancroft, the following curious de- 
 tails with respect to the use of logwood: "Logwood 
 seems to have been first brought to England soon after 
 the accession of Queen Elizabeth ; but the various and 
 beautiful colors dyed from it proved so fugacious, that 
 a general outcrj'' against its use was soon raised ; and 
 an Act of Parliament was passed in the 23d year of her 
 reign, which prohibited its use as a dye under severe 
 penalties, and not only authorized but directed the 
 burning of it, in whatever hands it might be found 
 within the realm ; and though this wood was after- 
 ward sometimes clandestinely used (under the feigned 
 name of blackwood), it continued subject to this pro- 
 hibition for nearly 100 years, or uaitili the passing of 
 the act 13 and 14 Chas. II. ; the preamble of which 
 declares, that the ingenious industry of modern times 
 hath taught the dyers of England the art of fixing 
 colors made of logwood, alias blackwood, so as that, by 
 experience, they are found as lasting as the colors 
 made with any other sort of dyeing wood whatever ; and 
 on this ground it repeals so much of the statute of 
 Elizabeth as related to logwood, and gives permission 
 to import and use it for dyeing. Probably the solici- 
 tude of tl^e dyers to obtain this permission, induced 
 them to pretend that their industry had done much 
 more than it reallj' had, in fixing' the colors of log- 
 wood ; most of which, even at this time, are noto- 
 riously deficient in regard to their durability." — Bak- 
 CROFT on Permanent Colors. 
 
 Loire, La (anc. Liger), the longest river in France, 
 rises at the foot of Gerbier des Jones, among the Ce- 
 vennes Mountains, in the Department of Ardtehe, and 
 after a westerly coarse of 540 miles, falls into the Bay 
 of Biscay. 'This river drains a district of France 
 nearly equal in extent to one fourth of the entire 
 kingdom. It becomes navigable at Eoanne, and 
 passes the flourishing towns of Orleans/ Blois, Tours, 
 Saumur, and Nantes. The navigation is interrupted, 
 however, during four or five months of the year, by 
 frost or floods. To obviate some of the difficulties in- 
 cidental to the navigation of this river, a lateral canal 
 has been formed along a part of its course, extending 
 from the Canal du Centre to the Canal do Briare. 
 The Loire communicates with the Rhone and Seine by 
 means of canals. The affluents of this river are very 
 numerous and > important — many of them navigable. 
 Those on the right are, the Arroux, the Ni^vie, tha 
 
LON 
 
 12li 
 
 LON 
 
 Maine (formed by the union of the Mayenne and the 
 Sarthe) ; on the left, the AUiet, the Loiret, the Cher, 
 the Indre, the Tienne, the Thoufe, and the Sevre-Nan- 
 taise. To prevent the Loire from spreading over the 
 low grounds along Its course, it has been baniced in by 
 dykes, built much above its ordinary level. These 
 embankments were never known to give way previous 
 to the great floods of 1846. They gave way at the same 
 place during the fearful inundations of June, 1856, car- 
 rying away the bridge and village of Savouniferes, and 
 inundating the communes of La Eiche-extra and La 
 ChapeUe-aux-Naux, causing a dreadful loss of life and 
 property. The mouth of the river is about seven 
 miles wide, measured from St. Nazare to Paimboenf. 
 Ships find great difficulty in taking the mouth of the 
 river, owing to the exposed nature of its position, 
 and to the numerous sand-banks which traverse it. 
 
 Lombard, a term anciently used in England for a 
 banker or money-lender. The name Is derived from 
 the Italian merchants, the great usurers or money- 
 lenders of the middle ages, principally from the cities 
 of Lombardy, who are said to have settled in London 
 in the middle of the 13th century, and to have taken 
 up their residence in a street in the city which still 
 bears their name. Lombard usurers were sent to 
 England by Pope Gregory IX. to lend money to con- 
 vents, communities, and private persons, who were 
 not able to paj' down the tenths which were collected 
 throughout the kingdom with great rigor that year, 
 13 Henry III., 1229. They had offices in Lombard- 
 street, which great banking street is called after them 
 to this day. Their usurious transactions caused their 
 expulsion from the kingdom in the reign of Elizabeth. 
 Stowe, in his Survey of London^ says, " Then have ye 
 Lombarde-street, so called of the Longobards and 
 other merchants, strangers of diverse nations, assem- 
 bling there twice every day. The meeting of which 
 merchants there continued until the 22d of December, 
 In the year 1568 ; on the which day the said merchants 
 to make their meetings at the Bursse, a place then new 
 builded for that purpose, in the ward of Cornhill, and 
 was since, by her majesty Queen Elizabeth, named 
 the Roj^al Exchange." 
 
 London (Latin, Londinium ; French, Londres ; 
 Italian, Londra), the metropolis of the British empire, 
 and one of the greatest cities of ancient or modem 
 times, is situate on both banks ' of the Thames, about 
 45 miles above its mouth at the Nore, and 15 below 
 the highest tideway. Though chiefly within the 
 county of Middlesex, London includes parts of Surrey 
 and Kent, and extends into Essex. St. Paul's, the 
 most striking object in the city, is in lat. 51° 30' 48" 
 N., long. 0° 5' 48" W. of Greenwich. Its early his- 
 tory is lost in obscurity, and the first authentic notice 
 of its existence is that of Tacitus {Amial., lib. xiv., 
 cap. 3), who, in alluding to Londinium, says, " Cog- 
 nomento quidem colonic non insigne, sed copia nego- 
 tiatorum et commeatuum maxime celebre." The 
 derivation of the name " London," has been the sub- 
 ject of much conjecture ; but that mentioned by Pen- 
 nant (London, p. 17) seems most feasible, viz., Llyn, 
 in Celtic, a lake, and din, a town. It could not, how- 
 ever, have been a place of importance at the period 
 of Julius Caesar's invasion, as it is not noticed in 
 his Commentaries. About 100 years thereafter, the 
 Romans, under Claudius, took possession of the city, 
 and called it Augusta, in honor of that prince. It was 
 erected into a prefecture ; and the inhabitants, nom- 
 inally citizens of Rome, were governed by Roman laws 
 and Roman magistrates. 
 
 London was not fortified at an early period of the 
 Roman occupation ; for in a.d. 61, the Britons under 
 Boadioeu, revolted, captured and burned the city, and 
 massacred the inhabitants. The city was soon, how- 
 ever, rebuilt, but is supposed to have remained open 
 till the reign of Constantine the Great. From the 
 number of coins of his time found, under the walls, it 
 
 may be inferred that that emperor constructed the 
 ■walls ; and it is alleged that he made London an epis- 
 copal see. The limits of these walls have been pretty 
 exactly ascertained. They commenced near the site 
 of the present Tower, extended along the Minories 
 and back of Houndsditch, across Bishopsgate-street, in 
 a straight line, by London Wall, to Cripplegate; 
 thence southward to Aldersgate, proceeding afterward 
 by the back of Christ's Hospital and Old Newgate, 
 passing behind the site of Newgate Prison, and so 
 reaching Ludgate ; again proceeding westward to the 
 River Fleet, and terminating at a fort called afterward 
 Baynard's Castle. Their compass was completed by 
 another wall along the bank of the Thames. Extent of 
 the walls from and to the side of the river, 2 miles and 
 1 furlong ; on the bank, 1 mile and 1-lOth ; uniform 
 height, 22 feet. Through gates in these walls, roads 
 led to different parts of the kingdom. The great 
 Roman Roads, Watling-street and Ermin-street, had 
 their termini at the London Stone, or Roman Milliari- 
 um, a portion of which still remains, and is inserted 
 in the most conspicuous part of St. Swithin's Church, 
 abutting on Cannon-street. The names of the gate^ 
 are still preserved in streets, etc.", viz., Ludgate, Al- 
 dersgate, Moorgate, Bishopsgate, Aldgate, Newgate, 
 Cripplegate, and Postern Row, on Tower Hill. After 
 the Romans withdrew their forces from England, Lon- 
 don sufl'ered severely till the Saxons fixed themselves 
 in the country. It is said to have become then the 
 capital of the East Saxon kingdom ; at any rate, it 
 quickly regained its former importance, and is called 
 by Venerable Bede a "princely town of trade." 
 Soon after the introduction of Christiantity, Old St. 
 Paul's, and St. Peter's at Westminster, were founded. 
 When the Saxon monarchies were united in the person 
 of Egbert, London became the capital of the consol- 
 idated kingdom, and such it has continued to be. In 
 the reign of Alfred it recovered from the effects of the 
 Danish invasion, as well as from those of a fire, which 
 nearly consumed it in 893. 
 
 After the battle of Hastings, the cit}- submitted to 
 William, who granted it a charter, still extant ; and 
 who commenced building the Tower of London in 
 1078. About this time the capital suffered severely 
 and frequently by fires, especially in 1077 and 1086. 
 In the following reign it was visited by a hurricane 
 and an inundation ; the latter carrj'ing away the first 
 wooden bridge over the Thames. Henry I. granted a 
 new charter to the city in 1100, restoring the privileges 
 it enjoyed previous to the Conquest, and conferring on 
 the citizens the right of electing their own magistrates. 
 It is said that this document served as the model for 
 Magna Charta. The population in 1141 was estimated 
 by Peter of Blois at 40,000. The title of the chief 
 magistrate was changed by Henry II. from Portreeve 
 to Bailiff; and in 1191 he is called Lord Maj'or, in a 
 document issued by the Court of Aldermen. In 1198 
 Richard I. committed the duty of fixing a national 
 standard of weights and measures to the sheriffs of 
 London and Middlesex. John, by several charters, 
 conferred additional favors on the city ; among others, 
 the jurisdiction and conservation of the Rivers Thames 
 and Medway ; and the power of choosing sheriffs. In 
 1221 the first stone of the present Westminster Abbey 
 was laid by Henry III. ; and in 1236 water was con- 
 veyed in pipes from the village of Tyburn to the city. 
 In 1258 and 1270 the city was visited by famine, and 
 in 1348 by a species of plague, on all of which occa- 
 sions it suffered grievously. 
 
 Under Edward I. London was first divided into 24 
 wards, each to choose common coungilmen and an 
 alderman. Edward II., in 1316, prohibited as a nui- 
 sance the burning of coal, then lately introduced, but 
 his mistake was soon discovered and rectified. Under 
 Edward III. the city received the perpetual right of 
 magistracy over Southwark. In 1381 the citizens 
 were alarmed by the insurrection of Wat Tyler, but 
 
LON 
 
 1275 
 
 LON 
 
 thia was soon suppressed. Street lamps were first 
 used in 1416. In the wars of the Roses, London 
 chiefly favored the interests of the House of Torfc ; 
 and after the battle of Bamet, in 1471, Edward VI. 
 knighted the mayor, recorder, and 12 aldermen. 
 This was the era of the first printing-press, constructed 
 and worked by Caxton in Westminster Abbey, as 
 well as the erection of water cisterns and conduits in 
 several parts of the city and suburbs. In the reign of 
 Henrj' VII., a disease called the " sweating sickness" 
 carried off two mayors and six aldermen, with many 
 citizens. Some considerable improvements were made 
 in this reign, as well as in that of Henry VIII., to 
 which the suppression of religious houses by the latter 
 materially contributed ; these giving way to schools, 
 hospitals, and charitable institutions. By the aid of 
 Queen Elizabeth, the prosperity of London rapidly 
 advanced during her reign. The refugees from the 
 Netherlands introduced numerous manufactures be- 
 fore unknown in England, and in this way conferred 
 especial benefits on London. 
 
 By maps of the time of Elizabeth and James I., it 
 may be seen that the chief part of London then con- 
 sisted of Newgate-street, Cheapside, the Poultrj', and 
 Cornhill, and the various streets and alleys leading 
 from them to the Thames. Along the Strand, toward 
 Westminster, were houses on both sides — ^those to the 
 south, and abutting on the river, being the palaces of 
 the chief nobility. The names of Salisbury, Norfolk, 
 Buckingham, Arundel, Essex, etc., have been perpet- 
 uated in the streets now on the sites of palaces and 
 gardens formerly belonging to these families. Spring 
 Gardens formed a series of wallcs, with bowling green, 
 etc., extending from Charing Cross toward Whitehall 
 Palace, whence to the Abbey there was a regular 
 street. On the Sun-ey side, there were not ten build- 
 ings between Lambeth and the west foot of Black- 
 friars Bridge; but from that point a row of houses 
 was continued to the Borough. Southwark then ex- 
 tended but a short distance along High-street ; and 
 there were small scattered houses from Tooley-street 
 to Horselydown. In the reign of James I. brick was 
 introduced as a substitute for wood in London houses, 
 and the streets were first paved with stones. The city 
 was severely visited by the plague in 1604, and again 
 in the reign of Charles I. During the civil wars a 
 majority of the corporation took part with the Com- 
 mons, and the city treasury was of great service to 
 their party. 
 
 After the Eestoration London began greatlj' to re- 
 vive ; but a serious check was given to it by the last 
 visit of the plague, which raged from June till the 
 end of December, 1665, and destroyed nearlj' at third 
 of the population. This was speedily followed by the 
 " Great Fire," which commenced 2d September, 1666, 
 lasted four days and nights, and in that time reduced 
 to ashes five sixths of the whole city within the walls. 
 The ruins covered a space more than a mile long and 
 half a mile broad; and the value of buildings and 
 goods consumed was estimated at ten to twelve mil- 
 lions sterling. But though severe at the time, this 
 visitation contributed materially to the improvement 
 of the city. It was built on a more commodious plan 
 by Sir Christopher Wren in about four years. From 
 the time of its re-construction, few stirring events oc- 
 curred. The first stone of St. Paul's was laid in 1675. 
 The revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685 brought 
 to London many French Protestant families, who peo- 
 pled Spitalfields, and introduced the manufacture of 
 silk. The continued growth of the city in the reign 
 of Queen Anne occasioned the act of 1711 for building 
 §fty new churches, the cost being paid by a tax on aS 
 coals brought into the Thames. The streets were then 
 first generally lighted ; fire-engines were provided, 
 and measures taken for watching the city. In her 
 reign, Clerkenwell, Old-street, the lower part of Shore- 
 .ditch, Marlborough-street, Soho, Bedford-row, Red 
 
 Lion-square, and a district north of Holbom, were 
 annexed to the metropolis. 
 
 In the reign of George I. some additions were made 
 to London, chiefly to the north of Oxford-street and 
 about Berkeley-square. In the reign of George II. 
 some new parishes were erected, viz., St. George's, 
 Bloomsbury ; St. Ann's, Limehouse ; St. Paul's, Dept- 
 ford ; and St. Matthew's, Bethnal Green. The River 
 Fleet was covered, and a market built on it ; Grosve- 
 nor-square, Westminster Bridge, and Great George- 
 street, were built ; and roads were formed in several 
 directions, the principal one skirting the northern part 
 of the city from Paddington to Islington. 
 
 The accession of George III. gave a fresh stimulus 
 to improvement and extension. A new bridge at 
 Blacldriars, with handsome streets leading to it, and 
 many new dwellings on the Surrey side, were erected. 
 On the north-west side the parishes of St. Pancras and 
 Marj'lebone were formed. At the same period the 
 street pavement for foot passengers was first laid 
 down, the kei^nels removed from the middle to the 
 sides of the streets, and the numbering of houses in- 
 troduced. The American war gave a temporarj' check 
 to extension ; but soon after the peace of 1783 the ad- 
 vance became more rapid than ever. Docks were con- 
 structed, the commerce of the city rapidly augmented, 
 the ground near the water side was covered witli 
 buildings, and, westward, Bedford, Russell, and 
 Brunswick Squares quickly sprung up. From the 
 Regency in 1811, London advanced in extent and ele- 
 gance still more rapidly. Regent's Park was formed, 
 and surrounded by handsome terraces ; and within the 
 last few years the extensive and fashionable districts 
 called Belgravia and Tybumia — the former to the 
 south and the latter to the north of Hyde Park — have 
 been created, and literally covered with houses of a 
 high class. In 1851 there were 305,933 inhabited 
 houses in the metropolis, and there are no less than 
 6300 streets enumerated in the London Postal Guide for 
 Januarj', 1857. 
 
 The situation of London, on the banks of a great 
 tidal river, is also peculiarly favorable for a large city 
 in a sanitary point of view. The subsoil is partly clay 
 (the London clay of the geologist). The vaUey of the 
 Thames has a gradual ascent on the north side ; and 
 the south side, though below the level of spring tides, 
 has been well secured against inundations by embank- 
 ments. The air is temperate and rather drj' than 
 moist, and tlie health of the inhabitants has gradually 
 but rapidly improved from the earlier part of last cen- 
 tury, when the deaths were annually 1 in 20 of the 
 population, whereas at present they are about 1 
 in 40. 
 
 It is difficult to assign any distinct boundaries to 
 the metropolis, as almost continuous lines of houses 
 stretch like branches from the main trunk of London, 
 to Chiswick, Eensal Green, Kilburn, Hampstead, 
 Highgate, Stamford Hill, and Upper Clapton in Mid- 
 dlesex; Stratford and North Woolwich in Essex; 
 Greenwich and Lee in Kent ; and Dulwich, Norwood, 
 Clapham, Wandsworth, and Putney in Surrey. 
 These, too, are constantly increasing in length and 
 breadth ; the vacant spaces between distant lines of 
 road being filled up with extraordinary rapidity. The 
 circle formed on a radius of four miles from Charing 
 Cross excludes a large portion of London ; but its ex- 
 treme length may be set down as ten miles, and its 
 breadth at about six. There are four divisions of the 
 metropolis which, though rather vague, are pretty gen- 
 erally understood by Londoners — these are, the City, 
 the West End, Lambeth, and the Borough ; the two 
 first on the Middlesex, and the others on the Surrey 
 side of the water. The city of London proper has an 
 area of 725 acres, and contains 108 parishes — 97 within 
 and 11 without the walls. In its most limited sense, 
 the metropolis includes the cities of London and West- 
 minster, the parliamentary boroughs of Tower Ham- 
 
LON 
 
 i2Te 
 
 LON" 
 
 lets, Finsbury, Marylebone; Lambeth, and Southwark. I cities and boronghs above mentioned, as ascertained bj^ 
 Annexed is an account of the population of the various | the different censuses', beginning with the first in 1801 : 
 
 Cities and Borouglis. 
 
 1801. 
 
 . 1811. 1 1821. 
 
 m- . 
 
 1841. 
 
 1851. 
 
 "Westminster City. ..'. 
 
 156,859 
 158,210 
 184,568 
 134,616 
 97,642 
 49,886 
 94,813 
 
 120,909 
 162,085 
 287,437 
 167,130 
 126je66< 
 76,806 
 108,763 
 
 12S,484 
 182,085 
 291,660 
 201,781 
 174,864 
 108,566 
 123,663 
 
 122,863 
 201,842 
 867,246 
 259,123 
 ■240;294 
 160,668 
 134,117 
 
 ■ 120,702 
 ; 219,980 
 419,730 
 265,048 
 287,465 
 197,412 
 1^2,620 
 
 127,869 
 241,611 
 689,111 
 828,772 
 870,967 
 251,34S 
 172,863 
 
 Tower Samlets Borough 
 
 Finsbury « 
 
 Marylebone " 
 
 Lambeth - " 
 
 Southwark.. 
 
 
 
 876,964 994,746 | 1,207,482 
 
 1,476,048 
 
 1,662,902 
 
 2,027,528 
 
 The metropolitan district comprised within the bills 
 of mortality includes, with the cities and boroughs 
 embraced in the foregoing table, other integral parts 
 of London, like Chelsea, Brompton, and Kensington ; 
 and the suburbs, such as Greenwich, Wandsworth, 
 Hammersmith, Putney, etc. In this view, the area 
 of the metropolis is 78,029 acres, comprising 188 par- 
 ishes, and the present population may be estimated at 
 upward of 2,500,000. Annexed is an account of the 
 population of this area at the date of each census, 
 commencing with 1801 : 
 
 YEars. Population. 
 
 1301 968,868 
 
 1811 1,188,816 
 
 1821 1,878,947 
 
 Years. Population. 
 
 1881 3,654,994 
 
 1841 1,948,417 
 
 1851 2,862,236 
 
 But many merchants and citizens, taking advantage 
 of the easy access to the countrj'' afforded by the rail- 
 ways, occupy houses at such places as Kingston, 
 Esther, Walton, Kichmond, Twickenham, Staines, 
 Windsor, Eeigate, Brighton, etc., making daily jour- 
 nej's to and from the city, so that they and their fami- 
 lies are not included in the foregoing account. 
 
 Commerce. — As one of the great occupations of its 
 inhabitants, the commerce of London demands the 
 first notice. The capital of a great empire, with im- 
 mense wealth concentrated in it, having easy access, 
 both by land and water, to all parts of the kingdom, 
 and every facility of communication with foreign 
 countries, London has become, with perhaps the single 
 exception of New York, the greatest commercial city 
 in the 'world. The commercial growth and prosperity 
 of London are especially to be ascribed to its grtat 
 river-port, the Thames. This famous stream has its 
 source within the borders of Gloucestershire, a little 
 to the south-west of Cirencester, and becomes navi- 
 gable at Lechlade, 138 miles above London, It is first 
 affected by the tide about 15 miles above the metropo- 
 lis ; but before reaching this point it is swollen by 
 junction with the Isis, Kennet, Coin, and Wey. The 
 city corporation are the chief conservators of the 
 river, and appoint a navigation committee, who super- 
 intend the towing-paths, bridges, water-courses, and 
 T/hatever relates to the river, as far as a stone a little 
 above Staine's Bridge. Higher Up the supervision is 
 divided between the city and a body chiefly coniposed 
 of the landowners on both sides of the river. The 
 conservation of the river below London is also in some 
 measure under the government of the city corporation, 
 but the Trinity House has concurrent jurisdiction, and 
 no ballast can be raised without its authority. The 
 appointment and control of pilots, the placing and 
 repairs of land-marks and bUoys to indicate the chan- 
 nels, and the establishment of floating lights, are also 
 under the superintendence of the Trinity House. Close 
 to London Bridge there is water sufficient for vessels 
 of 800 tons burden, and the legislature has placed the 
 shipping of the port, and their moorings, under the 
 direction of the harbor-masters, nominated by the cor- 
 poration, and approved by the Trinity House. The 
 sinuosities, currents, and shoals in the river, and its 
 varj'ing depth, render the navigation rather intricate. 
 The river pilots, who are a distinct class, conduct ves- 
 sels to Gravesend, where they are relieved by the sea 
 pilots. Down to 1800, the commerce of London, and 
 the shipping interest, suffered materially from the 
 crowded state of the river, and the difficulties, delays, 
 
 and abuses connected with the berthing and mooring 
 of vessels, and the landing and storing of merchandise. 
 These evils led to the construction of the West India 
 Docks, which were opened in August, 1802. Thes6, 
 next to the Commercial Docks, the oldest in London, 
 were formed in the gorge of the Isle of Dogs, on the 
 Middlesex side of the river. They comprise the im- 
 port and export dock (communicating with the river 
 at Blackwall and Limehouse), and a dock of 19 acres 
 for bonded timber. 
 
 The export dock occupies about 25, and the import 
 dock 30, acres. The gates are 45 feet wide, and admit 
 vessels of 1200 tons. At the highest spring-tides the 
 water is 24 feet deep ; and within the docks there ii 
 sufficient space for 600 vessels of from 250 to 600 tons. 
 The import and export docks are parallel to each 
 other, but divided by stacks of warehouses. There 
 are sheds for sheltering the goods ; and the chief 
 warehouses are capable of storing 170,000 hhds. of 
 sugar, besides coffee ithd other tropical productions. 
 The whole space occupied by these docks and ware- 
 houses is 295 acres. The East India Docks at Black- 
 wall now belong to, and are Inanaged by, the same 
 company as the West India Docks. They were com- 
 menced in 1803, finished in 1806, and were intended to 
 accommodate the trade of the East India Company. 
 They include an import basin of 18 acres, an export 
 basin of about 9; and an ■ entrance basin of 2J acres. 
 The entrance lock is 210 feet wide, the width of the 
 gates 48 feet, and the depth of water in the docks is 
 never less than 23 feet. The extent of warehouse- 
 room at these docks is comparatively small. The East 
 and West India Docks are well inclosed and guarded, 
 and the buildings are fireproof. The London Docks, 
 situated between Ratcliff Highway and the Thames, 
 were begun in June, 1802, and opened in January, 
 1805. Thej' consist of two docks ; the western, cov- 
 ering 20 acres, and the eastern about 7 acres. The 
 latter is entered from Shadwell, and the former near 
 Wapping Old Stairs, and also at the Hermitage. The 
 whole can receive 500 vessels of from 200 to 800 tons. 
 The entire space inclosed is 71 acres. The ware- 
 houses are very fine ; the most extraordinary being 
 that for bonded tobacco. The roof and pillars sup- 
 porting it are of iron, and the whole building covers 
 five acres of land, and is capable of containing 24,000 
 hhds. The company is governed by a body of direct- 
 ors, of whom the lord mayor is one. The regulations 
 to prevent fire and pilfering are as effectual as in the 
 East India Docks. St. Katherine's Docks, situate 
 between the London Docks and the Tower, were ex- 
 ecuted in a year and a half, and first opened in Octo- 
 ber, 1828. The whole extent of the property is 24 
 acres, of which nearly one half is inclosed in the two 
 docks, communicating bj' a basin. The entrance lock, 
 near Irongate Wharf, is 180 feet long, and 45 feet 
 broad, and admits ships of from 200 to 800 tons. The 
 warehouses are very large and commodious, and the 
 regulations and charges are similar to those of the 
 other dock. 'Victoria Docks, the last constructed, 
 were completed in 1865. They are situated in the 
 Plaistow Marshes, immediately below the East and 
 West India Docks. The portion of this property ap- 
 propriated by the Dock Company for their own pur- 
 poses is about 200 acres, but the dock itself occupies 
 but 74, and affords 23J feet depth of water. The en- 
 
LON 
 
 mi 
 
 EON 
 
 trance lock at Bow Creek is 300 feet long, and 80 
 wide. Tliere ia a half-tide basin of 16 acres ; and the 
 available warehouse floor is stated to be upward of 11 
 acres. The company have also acquired about an 
 acre and a half between Thames-street and the river 
 for the erection of an up-town warehouse. One ob- 
 ject of the compkny is to'withdraw from the Thames a 
 portion of the large fleet of colliers which lie at anchor 
 in the Pool, and Seriously obstruct the traffic on the 
 river. On the other bank of the Thames, extending 
 along th« side of the river opposite Eimehouse', and 
 terminating nearly opposite the entrance to the West 
 India Docks, are the Commercial, formerly the Green- 
 land Docks, which existed in the 17th' centur)'. They 
 are now of great extent, inclosing 120 acres, of which 
 70 are water, and were designed to receive vessels 
 laden with timber, corn, and other commodities more 
 bulky than costly. Tliese docks are entered by a 
 basin near Dog-and-Duck Stairs, sometimes called the 
 East Country Docks, and the main body of the water 
 within is divided into six unequal parts. See Docks. 
 Parallel to these is the Surrey Canal, having an 
 inner and outer dock at the entrance in Rotherhithe, 
 by which ships are received, and affording communi- 
 cation with the Croydon Canal. The Eegent's Canal 
 was formed to save expense of cartage through Lon- 
 don of articles brought by sea, and afterward forward- 
 ed for consumption to the north-west parts of the me- 
 tropolis J and also ' to communicate with the Grand 
 Junction Canal. The Eegent's Canal passes from 
 Paddington; by a tunnel under Mftida Hill; to the 
 Regent's Park, thence to Islington, under which it is 
 carried by a tunnel three quarters of a mile in length, 
 and so on to Hoxton, Hackney, and LimehouSe. It 
 is 9 miles long,' and is provided with 12 large locks. It 
 is not easy, within a moderate compass, to give even a 
 sketch of the foreign commerce of London. It would 
 be an epitome of that of the world. To the British 
 capital are brought the products, natural and artificial, 
 of all soils and all climates. It has in store whatever 
 the ingenuity and industry of man in inj' part of the 
 globe can spare to exchange for what his own country 
 does not yield. We can, therefore, do little more than 
 state the number and size of the vessels that belong to 
 and frequent the, port, and the value of the produce 
 and manufactures of the United Kingdom exported 
 from the same ; 
 
 AcCOtTNT OP THE NUMBER AND TONNAGB OF VESSELS BE- 
 LONGING Tu THE Fort oe London on SIst December, 
 1856. 
 
 Description of ' 
 Teasels, 
 
 Under 60 toM, 
 
 Above 50 tons. 
 
 Vessttls. , Tons. 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Sailing vessels. , 
 
 Steamers 
 
 Total 
 
 617 
 
 132 
 
 21,308 
 4,827 
 
 1,870 
 405 
 
 668,899 
 163,406 
 
 749 
 
 25,630 
 
 2,2T8 
 
 827,805 
 
 Account of the Numbkr and Tonnage of Vessels wnrcn 
 have entered the pobt of london from foreign 
 countrif^ and tub colonies, in each of the fivb 
 Years ending "with 1855. 
 
 YooTB. VeSBels. Tonnaee. 
 
 1854 10,943 2,667,828 
 
 1855 9,T70 2,420,586 
 
 Years. Vessola. Tonnaps. 
 
 1851 10,841 2,170,322 
 
 1852 9,986 2,160,157 
 
 1853 11,763 2,594,113 
 
 Account of the Number and Tonnagjs of Goabting 
 Vessels that entered the Port of London in 1855, 
 distinguishing Beitish from Foreign. 
 
 DescripUon of 
 vessels. 
 
 Brilisli. 
 
 Foreign. ] 
 
 Vessel.. 
 
 Tonnugo. 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Sailing vessels.. 
 
 Steamers 
 
 ■iotal 
 
 17,729 
 1,297 
 
 2,488,873 
 411,444 
 
 IS 
 
 1 
 
 1,801 
 
 105 
 
 19,026 2,850,817 
 
 14 ■ 
 
 1,906 
 
 The conveyance of coals to London employs a great 
 deal of shipping. They are chiefly brought from the 
 north-eastern district of the kingdom, and are sold at 
 the New Coal Exchange, lately erected in Lower 
 Thames-street. 
 
 Very large quantities of coal now reach London by 
 means of the railways which centre in the metropolis. 
 
 Account ov the Ntthber .of Ships laden with GDal 
 wuicn entered the Poet; of London in each Yeae 
 
 FROM 1846 TO IS55 INCLUSIVE. 
 
 Yenrs. Sllllis. 
 
 1851. 11,785 
 
 1852 12,085 
 
 Years. Ships. 
 
 1845 11,987 
 
 1846 10,488 
 
 1847 11,911 
 
 1848 13,267 
 
 1849 12,074 
 
 1850.. 12,638 
 
 1858 12,11} 
 
 1854 ■:.. 11,875 
 
 1855.': .< 10,764 
 
 Declared Value of British a(jd litisn Produce and 
 Manufactures exported from London to' Foreign 
 c0untep:s and tub .colonies ., in . 1855 . and 156p. 
 
 18S6 £20,915,512 
 
 1850 ,. 25,966,088 
 
 ' Custom-house. — The present custom-house, opened 
 in May, 1817, stands in Lower Tliamea-street, with its 
 principal and imposing front, 480 feet long, toward 
 the river, and occupies the site of a similar but smaller 
 one destroyed by fire in 1814, as a preceding one had 
 been in 1718. The Long Boom is a noble apartment, 
 186 feet long, 60 broad, and of an appropriate height, 
 with desks on each side for the several officers ; the 
 centre being left for such of the public as have busi- 
 ness there. The other parts are distributed so as to 
 suit the several branches of the office. The London 
 customs establishment of clerks, tide-waiters, etc., 
 amounted in 1856 to 2167 ; though as but 1620 were 
 required for all the other English ports, it would seem 
 as if the numbers here were excessive. 
 
 Amount of Customs Duties collected in the Poet of 
 London in 1855. and 1856. 
 
 1865 £11,625,125 
 
 1856. 12,287,519 
 
 Trinity Bouse. — The Society of the Trinity House 
 has its chief establishment in a large and' handsome 
 house on Tower Hill, built by Wyatt in 1793. It was 
 incorporated in 1815 ; but from the terms of its char- 
 ter, it evidently had a previous • existence, and was 
 then established at Deptford Stroud. Its privileges 
 were confirmed by the charter of 1658, and its mem- 
 bers are now partly men of high rank, and partly 
 those remarkable for naval knowledge and skill in 
 maritime affairs. Its duties as to pilots, light-houses, 
 buoys, ballast, etc., have already been mentioned. In 
 process of time this society acquired large property ; 
 the net revenue under its management having in 1855 
 amounted to £204,195. Until the passing of the act 
 13th and 17th Vic, c. 131, the society spent miich of 
 its surplus revenue in pensions to poor and disabled 
 seamen, or their widows and' orphans ; but this act 
 transfers their revenue, as well as the charge for main- 
 taining light-houses, etc., to the Mercantile Marine 
 Fund. It would appear, from a parliamentary paper 
 lately published, that the Board of Trade expended in 
 1866 out of this fund £1388 as rewards for the salvage 
 of life. The Trinity House contains some portraits of 
 naval heroes, naval trophies, etc. 
 
 Mint. — The Royal Mint, also on Tower Hill, was 
 removed thither from the Tower in 1811. The present 
 building which is extensive and well suited to its pur- 
 pose, was completed under the direction of Sir E. 
 Smirke. The interior is appropriately arranged for 
 the manufacture of coin ; and the machinery combines 
 great ingenuity and beauty. In consequence of the 
 report of a commission in 1849, the old company of 
 moneyers was abolished, and a scientific chief has 
 since been allotted to this department, instead of a 
 political one. The amount of gold, silver, and copper 
 money coined here in the last tliree years has been as 
 follows : 
 
 Account of the Total Taluk of Gold, Silver, and 
 Copper coined at the Mint in each of the Thses 
 Tears ending with 1856. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Gold. Silver. Copper. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1854 
 1855 
 1866 
 
 £4,162,188 £140,480 
 9,008,668 196,511 
 6,002,114 462,528 
 
 £60,866 
 41,091 
 11,418 
 
 £4,358,529 
 9,246,266 
 6,476,060 
 
 Total 
 
 £19,162,960 £798,519 1 £118,875 1 £20,074,854 
 
LON 
 
 12'78 
 
 LON 
 
 JJonfo,— The Bank of JEngland, one of the most at- 
 tractive objects in the citj', was founded by act of 
 Parliament in 1694, and its business was canied on for 
 many years at Grocers' Hall. In 1733 it -was trans- 
 ferred to Threadneedle-street, and soon thereafter 
 the present hall and bullion office were opened. Be- 
 tween 1770 and 1788 the fa9ade was extended, and 
 two wings added, under the directions of Sir Eobert 
 Taylor and Sir John Soane. Under the superintend- 
 ence of the latter, the front and wings of the original 
 structure were harmonized. The area of the bank is 
 an irregular quadrangle ; the south or principal front 
 is 365 feet, and the north 410 ; the east 245 feet, and 
 the west 440. Its principal entrance is from Thread- 
 needle-street, the other two from Bartholomew Lane 
 and Lothbury. The interior contains several open 
 courts, the rotunda, or circular room, numerous offices, 
 committee-rooms, and private apartments for the resi- 
 dence of officers and servants. The business is car- 
 ried on by a staff of about 800 clerks, etc., whose 
 salaries amount to nearly £200,000. The bank has 
 received nine successive renewals of its charter since 
 it was first granted in 1694, and measures have been 
 taken in Parliament this session (the first of 1857) for 
 again renewing it. The act of 1844, still in force, sep- 
 arated the Bank into two distinct branches, viz. : 1. 
 The Issue Department, devoted to its business as agent 
 of the State in creating and issuing paper money, or 
 bank-notes, convertible into gold on demand ; and, 2. 
 The Banking Department, where the private business 
 of deposit and discount is carried on. There are 60 
 private and 28 joint-stock banks in the metropolis. 
 Some few of the former, such as Child's, in Fleet- 
 street, were established before the end of the 17th cen- 
 tury ; while the joint-stock banks are all the offspring 
 of the last few years. There is an establishment near 
 Lombard-street, called the Clearing House, where a 
 daily exchange of checks or drafts on city bankers is 
 effected, and this process tends greatly to facilitate 
 banking business. 
 
 Eoyal Exchange. — The Eoyal Exchange, colossal in 
 proportions, and occupying a commanding position be- 
 tween the Bank of England and Cornhill, is a spot 
 where great mercantile transactions are daily con- 
 cluded. The first exchange was built by Sir Thomas 
 Gresham, completed in 1567, but destroyed by the great 
 fire of 1666. It was, however, speedily rebuilt, and was 
 opened on 28th September, 1669. Again destroyed by 
 fire in 1838, it was rebuilt, and completed in 1846 by 
 Mr. Tite. The present building is quadrangular, and 
 the interior surrounded by arcades. In the centre, 
 which is uncovered and unprotected from the weather, 
 stands a statue of her majesty by Lough. The oat- 
 side of the building, except the grand western en- 
 trance, is occupied by small shops ; and on the upper 
 floor is Lloyd's, where the business of marine insur- 
 ance is conducted by underwriters. It has been esti- 
 mated that, on an average, 200,000 persons daily visit 
 the exchange, but this can be little more than con- 
 jecture. Merchants and brokers resort much to coffee- 
 houses in the vicinity of the Exchange for the trans- 
 action of business. Most of the larger transactions 
 are negotiated by brokers, who in general confine 
 themselves to one branch of trade, with which they 
 are thoroughly acquainted. Thus we have colonial 
 brokers, insurance brokers, ship brokers, stock brok- 
 ers bill or money brokers, etc. Near the Eoyal Ex- 
 change and the Bank is the Stock Exchange, where 
 real and fictitious sales are made of property in the 
 public funds, etc. ; the latter for the most part being 
 a species of gambling. „ , ^ 
 
 London, when compared with some of the towns in 
 the north and west of England, can scarcely be called 
 a manufacturing place; yet the various articles pro- 
 duced here employ many thousand persons. 1 he silk 
 manufacture especially employs a large number of 
 hands. Originally introduced by French Protestant 
 
 refugees, many of their descendants still continue the 
 trade, which employed, in 1851, 15,764 persons, of 
 whom 8277 were females. The manufacture of Lon- 
 don porter and beer is a much more lucrative business, 
 but a London brewery requires a very large capital. 
 Sugar-refining and clock and watch making also pre- 
 vail to a considerable extent, the latter chiefly in a 
 district called Clerkenwell. London-built carriages 
 are generallj' considered the best, as they are undoubt- 
 edly the most elegant in the world. London enjoys 
 a high reputation for the manufacture of numerous 
 smaller articles, such as mathematical, surgical, and 
 musical instruments, jewelry of the superior kinds, 
 gold and silver plate, etc. The great number of those 
 employed in house-building proves that the metropo- 
 lis is still rapidly extending ; and though this business 
 received a severe check during the late war with Eus- 
 sia, it was only temporftr}', as evinced by the general 
 resumption of building in the various outskirts of 
 London. 
 
 The shops in London are, generally speaking, well 
 managed, and manj' of them are handsomely fitted up, 
 especially those in Bond-street, Eegent-street, and 
 Oxford-street. The wholesale shops or warehouses 
 are chiefly to be found in the city ; the retail shops, 
 particularly those on a large scale, being more gen- 
 eral in the west or fashionable end of the metropolis. 
 The bazaars in London, each of which forms an aggre- 
 gation of shops or stalls, are not now so attractive as 
 they once were. They deal mostly in fancy goods, 
 furniture, toys, etc. The four great establishments of 
 the kind are those in Soho Square and Baker-street, 
 the Pantheon in Oxford-street, and the Pantechnicon 
 in Halkiu-street, Belgrave Square. The Burlington 
 and Lowther Arcades contain many shops for the sale 
 of the like commodities. 
 
 Table showing the Aeea in Squarh Miles, and the 
 Population op the Metropolis, the Numher of 
 hodbes therein, and the numeee of families oc- 
 cupying the same in 1851. 
 
 DivisioDs. 
 
 ■a 
 
 Houses. 
 
 hi 
 
 Popula- 
 tion. 
 
 i»i'«wt.dtSilSd. 
 
 Build- 
 ing. 
 
 Middlesex 
 
 51 
 86 
 85 
 
 218,279 
 72,844 
 20,810 
 
 10,618 
 4,524 
 1,506 
 
 16,964 
 
 8,046 
 
 1,160 
 
 609 
 
 4,815 
 
 895,703 
 
 110,027 
 
 27,850 
 
 1,745,601 
 482,485 
 134,202 
 
 Kent 
 
 Total 
 
 122 
 
 805,983 
 
 683,680,2,862,2881 
 
 acoottnt snowing the number of persons over 20 
 Years of Age in the Metkopolis in 1851, distin- 
 guishing TUE Married from the Unmarried. 
 
 Sexes. 
 
 Of the age of 20 and upwfird. | 
 
 Total. 
 
 Bsclielora 
 and spinsters. 
 
 Husbands 
 and wives. 
 
 Widowers 
 and widows. 
 
 Males 
 
 682,546 
 762,418 
 
 196,867 
 246,124 
 
 398,624 
 406,266 
 
 37,064 
 110,028 
 
 Females 
 
 From different quarters we have gleaned the fol- 
 lowing estimates of the annual consumption of certain 
 articles of London food. All, however, may be con- 
 sidered applicable to the period of the last census in 
 1851: 
 
 -(Vheat 1,600,000 quarters. 
 
 Bullocks 240,000head. 
 
 Bheep 1,700,000 " 
 
 Calves 28,000 " 
 
 pi„.* 35,000 " 
 
 pouw .■.':.■ .■;...'..: 8,748,000 " 
 
 Game,etc 1,807,000 " 
 
 Fish, wet and dry, of which more 
 
 than half were henings 450,180,900 lbs. 
 
 Oysters 809,985 barrels. 
 
 pbtatoes::::.'::;:.: 810,464,000 ibs. 
 
 Cabbages 89,672,000 ;; 
 
 Onions 1,489,600 
 
 ADDles 725,500 bushels. 
 
 Foreiffii' efra's about 75,000,000 
 
 Milk, the p?oduee of. 13,000 cows, 
 
 * Exclueive of large qnantlttes of bacon and ham. 
 
 Water. Although London is supplied with many 
 
 excellent springs of fresh water, they proved, centu- 
 
LON 
 
 12Y9 
 
 LON 
 
 riea ago, quite inadequate to the wants of the citizens. 
 Aa already mentioned, conduits were then adopted as 
 a substitute. The first effort to supply water on a 
 great scale was made in 1608 by Sir Hugh Myddelton 
 — a spirited citizen, who undertook, at his own risk, to 
 convey a river of fresh and good water to the city. 
 From this we may presume that in Myddelton's time 
 the Thames no longer merited the eulogy of Stowe, 
 that its " water was as cleere aa that of the sea." In 
 1613 the River Lea water was let into the basin at the 
 
 New Giver head at Islington, and thence, at the pres- 
 ent day, the New Eiver Company, with increased 
 means, transmit the water through pipes to the houses, 
 etc., supplied by them. 
 
 Bridges. — The bridges spanning the Thames in its 
 passage through London, are nine in number, eight of 
 these being adapted for carriages. The cost of New 
 Westminster Bridge is estimated at jE235,000, The 
 following table will show the cost and dimensions of 
 these various bridges : 
 
 Table showing the Mateeial, Cost, etc., of the Bbidoes ovee the Thames, in London and its Yicinitt. 
 
 Nnmes. 
 
 Dote 
 of com- 
 pletion. 
 
 Material. 
 
 ■ Oo.t 
 
 including 
 
 Approaches. 
 
 •Co.t 
 exoluBlve of 
 Approaches. 
 
 Number 
 
 of 
 Arches, 
 
 Length. 
 
 Breadth. 
 
 Span of 
 central 
 Arch. 
 
 
 1881 
 1819 
 ITTO 
 181T 
 1761 
 1814 
 1845 
 1857 
 1770 
 
 Granite 
 
 £2,000,000 
 
 800,000 
 
 260,000 
 
 1,150,000 
 
 889,600 
 
 Unknown. 
 
 113,000 
 
 8S,000 
 
 Unknown. 
 
 £642,160 
 884,000 
 157,840 
 579,915' 
 
 800^000 
 98,760 
 
 6 
 3 
 9 
 9 
 15 
 9 
 
 Keel. 
 904 
 800 
 995 
 
 1,880 
 
 1,1«0 
 840 
 
 1,636 
 922 
 
 Feet. 
 53 
 42 
 
 42 
 42 
 43 
 86 
 13 
 46 
 
 Feet. 
 150 
 240 
 100 
 120 
 76 
 78 
 
 .... 
 
 Southwark 
 
 Iron arches, stone piers. . 
 Stone 
 
 Blackfrlars 
 
 Granite, 
 
 "Westminster 
 
 Portland stone 
 
 Iron arches, stone piers. . 
 Brick and stone piers.. . . 
 Iron piers and roadway. . 
 Woott. 
 
 Vaaxball 
 
 Hungerford Suspension. , 
 
 Chelsea Suspension 
 
 Battersea.. 
 
 
 
 Trade ofl%b6. — The East India and China Associa- 
 tion have published their usual comparative statement 
 of the number of ships, both British and foreign, with 
 their aggregate tonnage, entered inward and cleared 
 outward with cargo from and to places within the lim- 
 its of the East India Company's charter, from the 
 1st of January to the 31st of March, 1855 and 1856. 
 According to the statistics of the vessels entered in- 
 ward, the return for the port of London shows a de- 
 crease of 31 vessels and 8971 tons, the difference 
 between 197 vessels, with the capacity of 109,484 tons, 
 in 1855, and 166 vessels, with a capacity of 100,513 
 tons, in 1856. Liverpool figures for an increase of 8 
 vessels and 14,339 tons, the arrivals in the former pe- 
 riod having been 62 vessels, with a capacity of 39,364 
 tons, and in the latter 70 vessels, with a capacitj' of 
 63,703 tons. With regard to Bristol, there is a de- 
 crease of 3 vessels, with an increase of 806 tons ; the 
 arrivals in 1855 having been 10 vessels, with a capacity 
 of 2917 tons, and in 1856 7 vessels, with a capacity of 
 3723 tons. The return for the Clyde exhibits a de- 
 crease of 2 vessels and an increase of 722 tons, the 
 difference between 8 vessels, with a capacity of 3414 
 tons, and 10 vessels with v. capacity of 2629 tons. A 
 review of these figures shows a net decrease of 24 ves- 
 sels and an increase of 5452 tons ; the arrivals in 1855 
 having been 277 vessels, with a capacity of 155,179 
 tons, and in 1856 253 vessels, with a capacit}' of 160,- 
 631 tons. The principal arrivals were from Calcutta, 
 Madras, and the Cape of Good Hope. According to 
 the statistics of vessels cleared outward, the return for 
 the port of London exhibits an increase of 6 vessels, 
 and 5905 tons ; the departures in 1855 having been 157 
 vessels, with a capacity of 94,784 tons, and in 1856 
 163 vessels, with a capacity of 100,689 tons. In the 
 case of Liverpool there is a decrease of 9 vessels and 
 11,197 tons, the difference between 98 vessels, with a 
 capacity of 80,444 tons, and 89 vessels, with a capacity 
 of 69,247 tons. The figures for Bristol show a decrease 
 of 2 vessels and 459 tons ; the departures in 1855 hav- 
 ing been 3 vessels, with a capacity of 1641 tons, and 
 in 1856 1 vessel, with a capacity of 1182 tons. With 
 regard to the Clj'de, the results show a. decrease 
 of 3 vessels, with 2534 tons, the difference between 
 25 vessels, with a capacity of 16,044 tons, and 22 ves- 
 sels, with a capacity of 13, 510 tons. Taking the re- 
 sult of the whole return, there is a net decrease of 8 
 vessels, with 8285 tons ; the departures in 1855 having 
 been 283 vessels, with a capacity of 192,913 tons, and 
 in 1856 275 vessels, with a capacity of 184,628 tons. 
 The principal decline has been in departures for Aus- 
 tralia, Calcutta, the Mauritius, Java and Sumatra, and 
 Arabia. For a full exhibit of the commerce of Great 
 Britain, including that of London, see Gbeat Brit- 
 ain. 
 
 Long Island, N. T. Situated in the south-east 
 part of the State, and contains 1500 square miles, lying 
 between the Atlantic on the south, and Long Island 
 Sound on the north. It contains three counties — 
 Kings on the west end. Queens in the middle, and Suf- 
 folk on the east end of the island. A chain of hills 
 runs from west to east, on the north of which the sur- 
 face is somewhat hilly and broken ; on the south it is 
 level. The north shore is somewhat bold; on the 
 south it is a beach of sand and gravel, inclosing bays, 
 with various inlets, admitting vessels of 60 or 70 tons, 
 and abounding with shell and other fish. At the east 
 end is Gardiner's Bay and Island, and Montauk Point, 
 a bold promontory, on which is a light-house. The 
 north shore has several ^ght-houses. 
 
 Longitude. By the term geographical longitude, 
 is meant an arc which measures the inclinations of 
 two terrestrial meridional planes, one of which passes 
 through a , known place as a place of reference, the 
 other through anj' place whatever. It is sometimes 
 also defined as the distance east or west, along the 
 equator, of any place from a certain meridian. Lon- 
 gitude was determined bj' Hipparchus at Nice, who 
 fixed the first degree in the Canaries, 162 B. c. Har- 
 rison made a time-keeper in A. D. 1759, which in two 
 voyages was found to correct the longitude within the 
 limits required by the act of Parliament, 12th Annq, 
 1714 ; and in 1763, he applied for the reward of £20, 
 000 offered by that act, which he receiyed. The cel- 
 ebrated Le Roi of Paris, in 1766, invented a watch 
 that keeps time better ; and the chronometers of Ar- 
 nold, Earnshaw, and Br^guet, bring the longitude al- 
 most to the trutti. Philosophers have sought the lon- 
 gitude in vain ; but Newton has said it will yet be 
 discovered by a fool. The selection, of a station from 
 which the longitudes of all other places are to be reck- 
 oned is entirely arbitrarj- ; British astronomers and 
 geographers have chosen the meridian of the Royal 
 Observatory of Greenwich as their^^i-s^ meridian. The 
 French and other continental nations refer the lon- 
 gitudes of all places to the meridian of their principal 
 observatory. The longitude of a place may be ex- 
 pressed in hours, minutes, and seconds of time, or in 
 degrees, minutes, and seconds of space j if it be given 
 in either, it may be translated into the other. The 
 reason of this is, that the earth revolves on its axis 
 from west to east in 24 mean solar hours, thereby 
 causing the first meridian to describe during that time 
 a space equal to 360°, and therefore. In one hour, 15°. 
 Hence, if the plane of the first meridian pass at the 
 present moment through the sun, then the meridian of a 
 place 15° west of the former, will pass tlirough the sun 
 exactly one hour after ; if the place be Xb° east of the 
 first meridian, the plane of the former will pass through 
 the sun one hour before the latter. The sun always 
 
LON 
 
 1280 
 
 LON 
 
 "passes the meridian of any place when highest in the 
 heavens, i. e., at mid-daj'-, or 12 o'clock mean solar 
 time. 'VVherefore, places lying to the east of the first 
 meridian -will have every hour earlier, but places Ijing 
 to the -west of that meridian -will have every hour later 
 than it ; so that if, while the meridian of one place is 
 passing through the sun, the time be known before the 
 meridian of another place pass through the sun^ then 
 the longitude of that place from the former is deter- 
 mined, the time being turned into space at the rate of 
 15° to the hour* Hence, therefore, places will have 
 east or west longitude, according as they lie east or 
 west of Greenwich Observatory, the longitude of the 
 meridian of which is zero. 
 
 The problem of the longitude may be reduced to 
 this — Given the hour hy calculation at the place of ob- 
 servation, to find the hour at Greenwich Observatory 
 corresponding to the same time ; the difference of times 
 gives the longitude of the place from Greenwich. The 
 solution of this I problem was attempted in very early 
 times, dating even from the time of the ancient Egyp- 
 tians, bu;t the results obtained were very inaccurate. 
 These results were deduced from tables of celestial 
 phenomena calculated for a certain meridian, and 
 then the times were compared with the times at which 
 the same phenomena appeared at a different place; 
 actual admeasurement was also employed. But it was 
 not until after the invention of watches that the prob- 
 lem was rendered solvable. Harrison, in the 18th 
 century, was the first who gave a true solution by a 
 watch ; but the first accurate resolution of the problem 
 may be said to date from the discovery by Galileo of 
 Jupiter's satellites, and his tables of their motions. 
 The result of the problem at this period, as well as 
 now, was, as Wolfius has expressed it, that the means 
 might be found whereby the art of navigation might 
 be brought to its utmost pitch of perfection. If the 
 advantages of determining the longitude to a commer- 
 cial and maritime people be considered, it will not ap- 
 pear surprising that princes and others should have 
 held out high rewards for a true solution of the prob- 
 lem. Philip III., King of Spain, saw its value, and 
 in 1598 offered a reward of 1000 crowns to the person 
 who would solve it. The States of Holland imitated 
 his example by a prize of 10,000 florins. In the year 
 1714, the British government offered a, premium of 
 £20,000 for an}"" method whereby the longitude might 
 be determined at sea to within 30 miles ; £15,000, if 
 the proposed method would give it to within 40 geo- 
 graphical miles ; £10,000, if it would determine the 
 longitude to within 60 miles. It was also enacted, 
 that a reward of £5000 would be given to the inventor 
 of any time-keeper which should enable a ship, during 
 a voyage of six months, to keep her longitude to within 
 60 miles ; £7500, if within 40 miles ; and £10,000, if 
 within 30 miles. If the method were by improved 
 astronomical tables, the reward was to be £5000, the 
 tables being compared with previous observations. 
 France, also, in 1716, under the regency of the Duke 
 of Orleans, offered a prize of 100,000 livres. In con- 
 sequence of these rewards, many and various methods 
 were proposed, the best of which, at least as respects 
 frequency of observation and shortness of calculation, 
 is the method of Lunar Distances. 
 
 Jean Werner of Nuremberg, appears to be the first 
 who proposed, in his Ptolemy's Geographj/^ 1514, a 
 method of finding the longitude by the distance be- 
 tween the moon and a star. The lunar method was also 
 recommended by Oronce Fin6 of Brian9on, in his book 
 De Tnvenienda Longitudine ; by Gemma Frisius, in his 
 treatise Structura Radii Astronomici et Geovieirici, 
 1545; by Kepler, in his Rudolphine Tables; and by 
 Christian Longomontanus, in his Astronomia Danica^ 
 1622. Gemma Frisius is, moreover, said to have at- 
 tempted the longitude by a watch some time after 
 1530. Carpenter, in his Geography^ 1635, says that 
 the lunar method is to be ascribed to Pierre Appian, a 
 
 German, horn in 1495. John Baptiste Morin, in 1634, 
 attempted to improve the lunar method, and received, 
 in 1646,; a pension of 2000 livres ; but his improvements 
 were Useless, as Paschal declared, owing to the imper- 
 fect nature of the existing tables. 
 
 The tables of, celestial observations previous to 
 Flamsteed's time were imperfect and erroneous ; those 
 generally used were Tycho Brahe's, or Kepler's, and 
 to show that they were of little value in determining 
 the longitude, although invaluable in other respects, 
 it may be stated that Flamsteed's observed differed 
 from Tj'cho's computed places by 6', 6', or more ; and 
 the tabulated* distances of the latter differed from the 
 observed distances of the former by 15' or 20', which 
 would cause an error in the longitude of about 15°, or 
 300 leagues. ' Trcho's lunur theoi'y^ and the tables 
 grounded on it, were in error 12' and more. The un- 
 certainty, then, of these tables being known, as well 
 as the paucity of astronomical observations generally, 
 a Frenchman, named Le Sieur de St; Pierre, contrived, 
 in 1674, to get his pretensions to the discovery of the 
 longitude brought under the notice of Charles II., of 
 Britain and the court. Commissioners were appointed, 
 and St. Pierre's data necessaryfto work the problem 
 were as follows : — 1. The heights of two stars, and on 
 which side of the meridian they were ; 2. The heights 
 of the two limbs of the moon ; 3. The height of the 
 pole ; all to be given in degrees and minutes ; and 4. 
 The year and day of observation. Flamsteed being 
 in London at the time, was appointed, not only to act 
 as a commissioner, but also to supply the necessary 
 data. St. Pierre, having received the data which he 
 required, refused to work the problem, because he al- 
 leged the observations given him were feigned. Flam- 
 steed, on this, wrote to the commissioners, assuring 
 them that the observations were genuine, and at the 
 same time stated, that the longitude could not be 
 solved by the conditions proposed ; but if the tables of 
 celestial observations, especially those of the moon, 
 could be rendered more accurate, then the longitude 
 might be determined by them. On the letter being 
 shown to Charles, his majesty was startled at the as- 
 sertion of the computed places not agreeing with the 
 observed, and said with some vehemence, he must 
 have them observed, examined, and corrected anew 
 for the use of his seamen. It was this simple incident 
 which led to the formation of the Eoyal Observatory 
 of Greenwich, the foundation of which was laid hy 
 Flamsteed on the 10th of August, 1675 ; and it was in 
 that building that Flamsteed labored for 44 years, un- 
 der the most trying circumstances, to correct existing 
 tables, and to commence the British Catalogue, one of 
 the noblest monuments of British perseverance. So 
 valuable were Flamsteed's observations to Newton, 
 that the}' enabled him to form his lunar theory, which is 
 now of such consequence in determining the longitude. 
 
 From the improvements made in watches by Huy- 
 gens, Hooke, and others, pre\'ious to the year 1714, it 
 was thought that the longitude would be solved by this 
 machine. Hence, after 1714, the best artists applied 
 themselves to the construction and improvement of 
 watches. Henry Sully, an Englishman, but resident 
 at Paris, tried in 1726 to determine the longitude by a 
 marine watch, but without success. Julian Leroy, 
 one of his pupils, would appear to lay claim to prior- 
 it}' of invention ; but it has never been disputed that 
 the honor of solving the diflScult problem of the longi- 
 tude by means of a watch belongs wholly to Harrison. 
 This ingenious workman began, at a very early period, 
 to make experiments on pendulums made of different 
 metals, in order to counteract the effects of heat and 
 cold. In the year 1736 Harrison was brought into 
 notice by a pendulum clock which he had made in 
 1726, and which, for ten successive years, kept remark- 
 ably exact time. This clock was tried in a voyage to 
 Lisbon during August, 1736, when it corrected an er- 
 ror in the ship's reckoning of 1° 30'. At the special 
 
LON 
 
 1281 
 
 LON 
 
 request of the commissioners of longitude, who ad- 
 vanced him money, he continued his experiments on 
 watches from 1737 till 1761, when he produced three 
 watches, or tirae-Iceepers — ^the third the most accurate, 
 and about 4 inches in diameter. This watch, or chro- 
 nometer, was tried in a voyage to Jamaica as to its 
 practicability in determining the longitude. The trial 
 was eminently successful : the difference of time as 
 shown by the chronometer indicating Greenwich or 
 rather Portsmouth local time, and the local time of the 
 place, being 4 seconds of time, which is equivalent to 
 1 nautical mile in the parallel of Jamaica. On the 
 arrival of the vessel at Portsmouth, it was found that 
 the error of the chronometer was only 1' 53-5", or 
 28' "375 for the entire voyage, which, in the parallel 
 of Portsmouth, would be equivalent to 18 nautical 
 miles. Since this error was within the limit prescribed 
 ay the act, Harrison claimed the full reward of £20,- 
 000 ; but the commissioners, considering the matter in 
 all its detail, came to the conclusion that the watch 
 was not yet sufficiently tried. In order, however, to 
 testif)' their appreciation of the invention, they gave 
 Harrison a grant of £5000, and requested him to im- 
 prove the watch still further against a second voyage. 
 This voyage was undertalcen, in 1764, to Barbadoes ; 
 and that no misunderstanding might ensue, Maske- 
 lyne and Green were also sent out to make the neces- 
 8ar3' astronomical observations at that place. The 
 difference of longitude, as shown by the chronometer 
 and that by astronomical observation, was 43" of 
 time, which is equivalent to 10' 45" of space, or longi- 
 tude. In consequence of the success attending this 
 and the former trial, the House of Commons ordered 
 one half of the reward promised bj' the act of 1714, or 
 £10,000, to be paid to Mr. Harrison, the Inventor of 
 the longitude clock ; the other half to be paid him when 
 watches, constructed on principles stated by him, 
 should determine by trial the longitude of any place 
 to within 30 nautical miles. Another condition an- 
 nexed to the payment of the other £10,000 was, that 
 the inventor should give on an oath a full explanation 
 of the principles on which the watch was constructed. 
 This was done most willingly, and Harrison delivered 
 over all his watches to government. The first watch 
 made on Harrison's principles was that by Mr. Ken- 
 dall ; it was found to exceed the regularity of the best 
 of its models. This instrument was committed to the 
 care of Mr. Wales, in his voyage round the world with 
 Captain Cooke, during the years 1772, 1773, etc., and 
 such was its success, that in 1774 an appeal was made 
 to the House of Commons to order the remaining sum ■ 
 to be paid to Mr. Harrison, which was accordingly 
 done. Harrison realized by his invention alone up- 
 ward of £24,000. 
 
 Several other parties received rewards for their im- 
 provements in chronometers. Arnold & Son received 
 £3000, and Mudge £500. 
 
 Since Harrison's time, remarkable improvements 
 have been made in time-keepers, or chronometers^ as 
 they are now termed ; no one sustaining a good char- 
 acter that gains or loses more than a single second in 
 one day. 
 
 But while watches were thus gradually being per- 
 fected, the tables of celestial motions were also at- 
 tended to. Halley, on succeeding Flamsteed as 
 astronomer-royal, continued improving what the lat- 
 ter had begun, so that for 1730, and consequently for 
 the future, the Caroline Tables were presumed to give 
 the true place of the moon within the compass of 2' 
 of her motion. But however perfect such tables may 
 be made, they will be useless without a proper instru- 
 ment with which to take angles accurately at sea. Dr. 
 Halley proposed to overcome this obstacle, by using on 
 shipboard a telescope of five or six feet; but the error 
 in such a case would nearly equal 2°, or under the 
 equator the longitude would be in excess or defect 
 about 40 leagues. But in 1761 Mr. Hadloy communi- 
 4M 
 
 cated to the Royal Society the nature of the aextq.mt, 
 which he had then invented. The sextant is an in- 
 strument for taking angles at sea with surprising ac- 
 curacy; its principle depends on the law of the 
 reflection of light. This instrument was tried in sev- 
 eral voyages with wonderful success ; but its results 
 were most accurate when used with Professor Mayer's 
 Tables of the Moon, computed for the meridian of 
 Paris, These tables first appeared in the Memoirs of 
 Gottingen for 1742, and a manuscript copy was sent in 
 1755 by Mayer to the Board of Longitude, setting 
 forth, at the same time, his claim for some one of the 
 rewards which he might be thought to merit. These 
 tables were placed in the hands of Dr. Bradley, as- 
 tronomer-royal, who compared several hundred com- 
 puted longitudes of the moon with his own observed 
 longitudes, and never found a greater difference than 
 I'S. Dr. Bradley showed the commissioners the 
 value of these tables. Mayer died in 1762 ; but 
 having in the interval greatly improved his tables, his 
 widow sent them in 1763 to the Board of Longitude, 
 These are the tables which, in consideration of their 
 value in finding the longitude at sea, were, by act of 
 Parliament, honored with a reward of £5000, which 
 was paid, in 1765, to Mayer's widow, Dr, Maskelyne, 
 astronomer-royal, was at the same time requested to 
 improve and correct them, as far as possible, so that 
 they might be compiled, and form the basis of a 
 hritlsh Nautical Ephemeris, or Almanac ;^ And to print 
 the same, in order to make the lunar tables of general 
 utility. 'The first of the series of the Nautical Almanac 
 and Astronomical Epkemeris was published in 1766, 
 under the superintendence of Dr. Maskelyne. It was 
 published yearly by the Commissioners of the Board 
 of Longitude. "The Ncmiical Almanac has been greatly 
 improved, corrected, and extended, under the able 
 superintendence of Mr. Airy, the present astronomer- 
 royal ; it is now published four or five years previous 
 to the observations being made at Greenwich Observa- 
 tory ; hence in long voyages the set of tables may be 
 taken out. 
 
 In consideration of Maj'er having availed himself of 
 Euler's lunur theory, the latter received from govern- 
 ment £300. 
 
 The several methods for finding the longitude are 
 the following : 
 
 To fnd the Longitude hg a Chronometer. — Suppose 
 that a chronometer is warranted to measure equal 
 portions of time uniformly, and always indicates 
 Greenwich local time ; it is evident that, were this 
 instrument carried to any station on the surface of the 
 earth where also the local time is known, the local 
 times of Greenwich and that place can be compared 
 with each other. If the chronometer be carried 
 to any station on the meridian of Greenwich, the 
 chronometer and local time of the place will always 
 coincide ; but if it be carried to any station west or 
 east of the meridian of Greenwich, then the time as 
 shown by the chronometer will be in excess in the 
 former case, but in the latter in defect of the local 
 time of the place ; the difference of local times gives 
 the longitude of the place from Greenwich. The time 
 may be converted into distance, at the rate of 15° to 
 one hour. Chronometers can never be made perfect ; 
 they require, therefore, to be dailj' compared with the 
 heavenly bodies in order to ascertain if their motion 
 has been uniform. 
 
 To find the Longitude hy Lunar Eclipses.- — Since an 
 eclipse of the moon is visible to one half of the earth 
 at the same time, this would seem to be an excellent 
 method of finding the longitude. The different steps 
 of the process are — to compute the time at which an 
 eclipse is to happen at the place of observation, and to 
 compare this time with an accurate chronometer show- 
 ing Greenwich time ; or, in the absence of this, the 
 Greenwich time of the happening of the phenomenon 
 must be looked for in the Nautical Almamac; or it may 
 
LON 
 
 1282 
 
 LON 
 
 be oompaTed by the observer from the lunar tables. 
 But this method of determinining the longitude is 
 rarely used, owing to the difficulty of asoertainrug the 
 exact time of contact of the penumbra of the earth's 
 shadow with the moon's limb at the beginning or end- 
 ing of the eclipse. Sometimes, indeed, two observers 
 of an eclipse at the same place may differ more than 
 two minutes in noting the time of contact ; and hence 
 the error from this cause alone would be about four 
 minutes of time, which would be equivalent to nearly 
 1° of longitude. It was proposed in the Philosophical 
 Transactions of 1786 to diminish this source of error, 
 by observing the contact of the earth's shadow with 
 some remarkable spot on the moon's face. But al- 
 though this method were more accurate, the unfre- 
 quency of lunar eclipses at sea renders the method of 
 little use. 
 
 To find the Longitude ly the Eclipses of Jupiter's Sa- 
 tellites. — Ever since the discovery by Galileo of Jupi- 
 ter's satellites the observation of their eclipses by 
 their primarj- has been used as a method of finding 
 the longitude. Tables of these eclipses were con- 
 structed by Galileo ; and it was the disagreement of 
 these tables with actual observation that led Eoemer 
 to the discovery of the gradual propagation of light. 
 See Light. The first astronomical solution of the 
 great problem of the longitude really dates from the 
 discoverj' of these secondaries, for the tables of their 
 eclipses were framed on scientific principles. The 
 three interior satellites of Jupiter pass through his 
 shadow, and are eclipsed at every revolution ; the 
 fourth, or outer one, at times escapes eclipse, grazes 
 the umbra, or is partially eclipsed. The computed 
 times at which the eclipses are to happen at Green- 
 wich Observatory are noted in the Nautical Almanac, 
 published three or four years in advance ; so that if 
 these tables are in tlie hands of any one distant from 
 Greenwich, he has but to observe the eclipse, and cal- 
 culate the time at which it occurs, to find the differ- 
 ence of the local times between Greenwich and the 
 place of observation, and thus ascertain the longitude. 
 The times of immersion and emersion are noted with 
 much greater accuracy than the contact of the moon's 
 limb with the earth's shadow. 
 
 But before these eclipses can be observed with ac- 
 curacy, H telescope of considerable power must be 
 used ; and as it is extremely diilicult to direct a tele- 
 scope properly on shipboard, the method is practically 
 useless at sea. But, again, particular care is required 
 in observing ; for two observers at the same place, 
 with telescopes of different magnifying powers and 
 apertures, seldom agree within a second or two of 
 each other ; hence the mean of the results of immer- 
 sion and emersion should be taken. But another 
 source of error is, that no two or more obsei-vers will 
 agree as to the instant of the total immersion, or of 
 the complete emersion of the satellite ; hence the only 
 case in which this method is practically useful in de- 
 termining terrestrial longitudes is that in which the 
 instant of immersion and emersion are observed with 
 the same telescope, and by the same observer, since in 
 this manner he will find the precise instant of the sa- 
 tellite's opposition to the sun. 
 
 To find the Longitude by Signals.— It the difference 
 of longitude between two places be small, it may be 
 easily found by means of the bursting of a rocket, the 
 oxy-hydrogen lime-ball light, or the explosion of gun- 
 powder fired from the one place at a preconcerted 
 time, and observed at the other place ; the local times 
 of these places being accurately ascertained, the longi- 
 tude is known. These artificial signals, when fired 
 from an elevated spot of country, may be seen, when 
 the atmosphere is in a proper stete, at distances varj-- 
 ing from 30 to above 100 miles; .4n observer, there- 
 fore, distant from the spot at which the rocket or other 
 signal is exposed, has only to observe the time when 
 he sees it, and afterward compare this time with the 
 
 time when the rocket was set up, the difference of 
 times giving the longitude of the one place from the 
 other ; if at one of the places the Greenwich time cor- 
 responding to tha]t of the event is known, the longi- 
 tudes of the places from that meridian are also known. 
 It is here supposed that the gradual propagation of 
 light leads to no appreciable error in the small distance 
 between the two places. 
 
 If the distance between the two places be consider- 
 able, and if a rocket sent up at the one place can not 
 be seen at the other place, the longitude of which is re- 
 quired, then a series of signals must be made and 
 noted by observers, placed at stations intermediate to 
 the two extreme places. 
 
 Tims, let A and E be the two places, the longitude 
 between which is required ; B, C, and D, observers 
 at intermediate stations ; w, x, y, z, sigiial places, 
 and let these places be arranged in t^e following 
 manner : ' 
 
 AwBicC^D^E. 
 Before the signals are sent up at the previously ar- 
 ranged hours from 'w, x, y, z, the local times of the 
 places along the whole line AE are supposed to be ac- 
 curately known. Let then a signal be sent up at w, 
 and noted at A and B, the difference of times of ob- 
 servation, as noted by the chronometers at'those two 
 places, will give the longitude AB. Lei, again, an- 
 other signal be sent up at x, and the time of appear- 
 ance noted at B and C, then the difference of times, as 
 shown by the chronometers, gives the longitude be- 
 tween B and C : and tlierefore between A and C. 
 Similar results will be found when signals are sent up 
 from the stations y and ii, to be observed at C and D, 
 D and E ; and, in this manner, the whole longitude 
 AE between the extreme stations can be found. The 
 longitude found on this principle, and the mode of de- 
 ducing the most advantageous results from a combina- 
 tion of all the observations, is fully stated by Sir John 
 Herschel in the Philosophical Transactions, 1826, on the 
 Dijjference ofi Longitudes ofi Greenwich and Paris. 
 
 To determine the Longitude by Moon-culminating 
 Stars. — This method consists in finding the increase of 
 the moon's right ascension in the intervals between 
 the passage of the moon over the meridian of Green- 
 wicli and over that place whose longitude is required. 
 It is necessary to find the right ascension of the moon's 
 bright limb, and of a star selected on, or as near as pos- 
 sible to, the moon's parallel of declination, and not 
 differing much from her in right ascension at the two 
 meridians ; then, the moon's increase of right ascen- 
 sion being known, the difference of longitude is deter- 
 mined. 
 
 Let T, for example, be the time when the moon's 
 enlightened limb transits the meridian of anj' place 
 distant from Greenwich ; * the time of passage of a 
 star over the meridian of the same place ; let also n be 
 the error of the clock in the course of the day ; then 
 24-|-n will be the interval of time elapsing between 
 two successive transits of the same star, and 24-)-)j t 
 
 T t=360°: the difference of right ascension of the 
 
 moon's bright limb and the star at the instant of the 
 limb being on the meridian ; and if to this the right 
 ascension of the star be added, the right ascension, 
 ^a', of the moon's bright limb when on the meridian 
 is determined. Now the proper stars to be observed 
 for this purpose, as well as the right ascension of the 
 moon's bright limb when on the meridian of Green- 
 wich, are given for every day of tiie year in the Nau- 
 tical Almanac, from which the daily increment of right 
 ascension may be determined. Let a be the right as- 
 cension of the moon's bright limb when on the merid- 
 ,ian of Greenwich, e the increment of right ascension 
 in the time between two successive transits over the 
 same meridian ; then, while the moon, by her relative 
 motion, separates from the meridian of Greenwich by 
 an angle of 360°, its real motion in right ascension is 
 e; and while it separates by an angle equal to the dif- 
 
LON" 
 
 1283 
 
 LON 
 
 ference of lon^tude, the motion in right ascension is 
 a'—a'; ancl therefore, supposing the change in right 
 
 a — a' 
 
 ascension uniform, the required longitade= .360°. 
 
 e 
 Where greater accuracy is required, the difference of 
 longitude corresponding to the increase of right as- 
 cension a — a', must be determined by interpolation; 
 This method is considered one of the best which can 
 be adapted for determining the longitude of distant 
 places, when the observer, furnished with a transit in- 
 strument, can -obtain a landing.— Hymer's Astroji.. 
 1840. 
 
 To jind tJie Longitude hy the passages of the Moon over 
 the Meridian. — If the sun, moon, and a star be sup- 
 posed to be on the meridian of Greenwich at the pres- 
 ent moment, then the next instant the three bodies 
 will be separated from each other— the star will be 
 found most advanced to the west, the moon least ad- 
 vanced from the meridian, while the sun will occupy 
 an intermediate situation. The meridian itself also 
 leaves these bodies, but will approach them with dif- 
 ferent degrees of velocity, and reach each of them 
 after certain intervals of time. It will pass the star 
 after the lapse of a sidereal day, or after having de- 
 scribed 360° ; it will pass the sun at the end of a Solar 
 day, or after having described 360°59'8"-3; and it 
 will pass the moon after a time==the sum of 24 hours 
 and the moon's retardation for that time, or after hav- 
 ing described an angle=the sum of 360° and the 
 moon's right ascension in 24 hours. This alwaj'S 
 talces places in the interval between two successive 
 transits of the moon over the same meridian. So also 
 a spectator on a different meridian will notice similar 
 effects, but less in degree, and less proportional to the 
 distance of liis from the first meridian. The sun's 
 right ascension will be increased (or the separation of 
 the sun from the star), but less than 59' 8"-3 ; the 
 moon's right ascension (or the separation of the moon 
 from the star) will also be increased to the spectator, 
 but less than its increase between two successive 
 transits ; consequentlj' there will be an excess of in- 
 crease of the moon's right ascension above that of the 
 sun's, but less than the excess that takes place be-- 
 tween two successive transits of the moon over the 
 meridian of Greenwich. Wherefore, since the spec- 
 tator at the second meridian may compute the respect- 
 ive increments of right ascension of moon and sun 
 that take place between two successive passages of the 
 moon over the meridian of Greenwich ; then, since, 
 he is also- able to compute, by actual observation, the 
 right ascensions of sun and moon at the times of their 
 passage over his own meridian, he has detemiined the 
 longitude. The spectator may choose the sun and a 
 star, the moon and a star, or the moon and sun ; the 
 two former are preferable. — Woodhocse's Astron., 
 1821. 
 
 To determine the Longitude hy means of Eclipses of the 
 Sun, or bg Oceultations of Stars hy the Moon. — One of 
 the most exact methods, and at the same time the 
 simplest, for finding the longitude, is by means of solar 
 eclipses and oceultations. If the commencement and 
 ending of an eclipse of the sun, or the immersion and 
 emersion respectively of a star from the enlightened 
 and dark limb of the moon or of a planet, be observed, 
 it is only necessary to deduce the true time of conjunc- 
 tion for Greenwich and also for another place of obser- 
 vation ; the difference of the times gives the difference 
 of meridians, and therefore also of longitudes. Kepler 
 employed this method, and it is one of the simplest. — 
 Keplee, Astron, pars opt. The onlj- inconvenience 
 of this method is the large amount of calculation 
 required. 
 
 To find the Longitude hy Lunar Distances ; that is, 
 by the distance of the Moon from a Star or the Sum — 
 This method supposes that the face of the heavens is 
 a dial-plate, the stars marks apparently irregularly 
 
 distributed upon it, and the moon the hand movable 
 among them and round the earth as a variable centre 
 Three things require particular notice about this cloch : 
 1. The intervals pf {>lace separating the principal and 
 secondary marks from one another and from the mov- 
 ing hand — the moon. 2. The exact amount of the . 
 eccentricity of the earth, the centre of motion of the 
 hand. 3. The proper motion of both moon and earth 
 at any part of their respective paths. When these 
 data are properly known, the time as shown by this 
 clock may be read. The time as pointed out on this 
 dial-plate is generally read at Greenwich Observatory, 
 and tabulated in the Nautical Almanac, 4 or 5 3'earB 
 beforehand, for every three hours. But this clock is 
 supposed to be accurately seen by a spectator at the 
 centre of the earth, and consequently, since observers 
 are on the surface, the moving hand being rather near, 
 and the marks immensely distant from the earth, it is 
 evident that this movable hand will be displaced, or 
 undergo a parallax with respect to the stars, which 
 must be allowed for, ere the true place is known which 
 she occupies in space, as seen from the centre of the 
 earth. A redaction must also be made to the centre 
 of the earth. The necessary steps for computing the 
 longitude by this method are : (1.) Find by a sextant 
 the distance between a star and one of the moon's 
 limbs; or, between the limbs of the sun and moon; 
 add or subtract, in the former case, the semi-diameter 
 of the moon, and in the latter, the sum of the semi- 
 diameters of sun and moon, which gives the distance 
 of the moon's centre from the star, or that between the 
 centres of sun and moon. (2.) When two observers 
 are malcing the observations, one should take the above 
 distance, while at the same instant the other takes the 
 altitude above the horizon of the moon and star, or of the 
 moon and sun. In the case of one observer, he must take 
 the altitudes immediately before and after the distance 
 has been found, and allow for the changes of altitude 
 which may have talcen place in the intervals between 
 their observations and that of the distance. (3.) The true 
 altitudes are derived from the apparent and observed, 
 -by correcting the latter for refraction and parallax ; 
 the apparent altitude being the observed altitude cor- 
 rected for the dip of the horizon and instrumental 
 errors. (4.) The observed is also an apparent dis- 
 tance, and must, like the altitude, be corrected for par- 
 allax and refraction in order to find the true distance. 
 (5.) Since the true distance is found, the hour, minute, 
 etc., of Greenwich time corresponding to it will also 
 be found bj' the tables of the Nautical Almanac, (6.) 
 The local time of the place of observation is now to 
 be computed from the true and corrected altitude of a 
 star or the sun, the sun's or star's north polar distance, 
 and the latitude. (7.) The difference between this 
 local time and Greenwich time gives the longitude. 
 
 To find the Longitude hy the Electric Telegraph, — 
 This beautiful and ingenious application of electricity 
 for recording astronomical observations is the latest 
 method of finding the longitude, and was proposed by 
 Mr. Bond of the Cambridge Observatory, United 
 States. Mr. Airy, of the Greenwich Observatory, 
 has also carried it into effect with great improvements. 
 During the summer of 1847 experiments were made 
 on the electric telegraph connecting New York, Phila- 
 delphia, and Washington, for the purpose of determin- 
 ing the differences of longitude between these three 
 cities. A competent observer was stationed at each 
 observatory. A continuous wire connected the three 
 cities, so that telegraph signals might be exchanged 
 between any two of them at pleasure. In some of 
 the first experiments, signals were exchanged be- 
 tween Philadelphia and Washington, but it was found 
 impossible to transmit signals from Jersey City to 
 Washington, the power of the battery being inade- 
 quate to that distance. This, however, was remedied 
 on the 29th of July, when 20 clock signals were given 
 at Jersey City, and riuurded both at Philadelphia and 
 
LOO 
 
 1284 
 
 LOO 
 
 Washington; 20 signals were given at Philadelphia 
 and recorded at Jersey City and Washington; and 
 20 signals were given at Washington and recorded 
 at Jersey City and Philadelphia. Thus the compari- 
 son of the three clocks "was decisively made in a re- 
 markably short period of time. The success of these 
 experiments amply repaid the first unsuccessful 
 efforts. The difference of longitude between Jersey 
 City and Philadelphia is 40" 3' ; and between Jersey 
 City and Washington, 12" 8* ; omitting in each case 
 the small fractional part of a second, which was ulti- 
 mately allowed for. The distance between New York 
 and Washington is 225 miles, and the time required 
 to make a communication pass betwixt these two 
 places was a fraction of a second which can not be 
 measured. 
 
 Soon after a system of telegraphic wires was erected 
 on the principal English lines of railway, Mr. Airy 
 had them put in communication with Greenwich Ob- 
 servatorj-, his object being to give Greenwich time on 
 a given day to the United Kingdom. It was at first 
 proposed that a ball should be dropped from the upper 
 part of Greenwich Observatory', so as to touch a spring 
 communicating with all the telegraphic wires in the 
 kingdom, and then, by the striking of a bell, give in- 
 stantaneously true Greenwich time to Liverpool, Man- 
 chester, and all the northern towns. But this method 
 was found impracticable, owing to the non-completion 
 of all the lines with Greenwich. On the 1st of Decem- 
 ber, 1847, true Greenwich time was communicated di- 
 rectly from the observatory to the several stations of the 
 London and North-Western and Midland lines in con- 
 nection with it ; but to all other stations of these lines 
 special messengers were sent with chronometers indi- 
 cating true Greenwich time. Hence, since Greenwich 
 time is used over the whole of the United Kingdom, if 
 the local time of any place be known, its longitude from 
 Greenwich is also determined. Since submarine cables 
 connect Greenwich with Brussels and Paris, and these 
 again with the principal cities of Europe, Mr. Airy was 
 very lately enabled to correct the latitudes and longi- 
 tudes of their observatories. Hence, also, when the sub- 
 marine cables which are to connect India, Australia, and 
 America, with Greenwich, shall have been completed, 
 the true longitudes of the principal cities of the world 
 will easily be determined. — E. B. See articles Lati- 
 tude and Longitude, Earth and Degeee. 
 
 Loo-Choo Islands, a group consisting of about 
 36 islands in the North Pacific Ocean, between Japan 
 and Formosa. They lie between N. lat. 24° and 28° 
 40', and E. long. 127° and 129°. They are small and 
 insignificant, with the exception of Great Loo-Choo, 
 which extends about 60 miles in a north-easterly di- 
 rection,' and has an average breadth of about 10 or 12 
 miles. This island is entirely encircled by coral reefs, 
 which, however, do not appear above water. Along 
 its centre runs a chain of hills, covered for the most 
 part by forests of pine, and broken at intervals by 
 rupt crags that bear seeming traces of volcanic action. 
 Their slopes in many parts are covered with terraced 
 gardens and fields of grain, and are watered by streams 
 led in artificial channels. The valleys are well wa- 
 tered, fruitful, and covered with a luxuriant vegeta- 
 tion. The villages are almost completely hidden 
 among groves of bananas, bamboos, banyans, and 
 pines. Eows of trees overarch the roads, line the 
 streets of the chief towns, and form a screen in front 
 of the houses. There are large rich fields of rice, inter- 
 mingled with crops of sugar-cane, wheat, millet, sweet 
 potatoes, plums, oranges, cotton, and tobacco. The 
 principal surface-rock is argillaceous, and is inter- 
 sected at intervals by peculiar ridges of limestone. 
 The disintegration of the former rock forms the chief 
 ingredient of the rich adhesive soil which is most 
 prevalent in the island. Situate within the range of 
 the trade-winds, Loo-Choo has in general a mUd 
 climate. The domestic animals are, geese, ducks, 
 
 fowls, pigs, goats, a small species of black ox, and a 
 nimble, and hardy breed of horses. Wild boars abound 
 in the extensive forests. A striking trait in the 
 zoology of the island is the scarcity of birds in the 
 woods. 
 
 The dress, customs, but especially the language, of 
 the Loo-Chooans, indicate a Japanese origin. Sus- 
 picious of strangers, they are, nevertheless, gentle 
 and hospitable. They are diminutive in stature, and 
 in complexion resemble the Chinese. They have 
 dark eyes and black hair, plaited into a Imot on the 
 crown of the head ; and the character of the hair-pin 
 determines the sex as well as the rank of the wearer. 
 The women wear single, and the men double hair-pins. 
 Among the higher classes, these articles are made of 
 gold or silver; among the lower, of brass, lead, or 
 pewter. The highest grade of society includes the 
 spies and officers of the government, and also the 
 mechanics and small merchants. Immediately below 
 them are the literary class, who pass the most of their 
 time in smoking tobacco and drinking tea, and are 
 supported by the subordinate rank of field-laborers. 
 The meanest order are the public slaves, possessing no 
 personal freedom, and no civU rights. Subjected from 
 mere infancy to perpetual toil, closely watched by 
 spies, and prevented from all intercourse with strang- 
 ers, the lower classes are spiritless, uncomplaining 
 drudges, subsisting upon two tenths of the produce 
 they reap from the soil. In the same slavish labor 
 the women also are engaged. The Loo-Chooans of 
 one village seldom intermarry with those of another. 
 Their dead are treated with great respect ; and their 
 capacious tombs, built of white limestone, appear at a 
 distance like cottages, checkering the hill-sides. The 
 huts are generally placed in the middle of well-culti- 
 vated gardens. Their floors, covered with thick mats, 
 are used both for sitting and sleeping. A great part 
 of the industrial population are engaged in weaving 
 the grass-cloth that forms the ordinarj^ garment, and 
 in turning wooden implements and covering them 
 with lacquer. There are also manufactured tobacco, 
 sugar, and small quantities of salt. Saki, a, strong 
 intoxicating liquor, is distilled from rice. All the 
 processes of agriculture, and especially that of irriga- 
 tion, are . carried on with great success. The entire 
 trade of the island is with Japan, and consists chiefly 
 of sugar, saki, and grass-cloth. The government of 
 Loo-Choo seems to consist of an oligarchy of literati 
 subject to Japan. Learning is limited to a knowledge 
 of the Chinese character and the Confucian classics, 
 and the principal means of disseminating it is home 
 education. A few regular schools, however, are scat- 
 tered over the island, and at Napakiang there is an 
 advanced seminary. The Loo-Chooans have no na- 
 tive literature. Their religion is a hybrid between 
 Confucianism and Buddhism. Concerning the history 
 of the island nothing certain is known, but tradition 
 reports that it was once subject to tliree distinct sov- 
 ereigns. 
 
 The principal sea-port is Napa, or Napa-Keang, situ- 
 ated in latitude 26° 13' N., and longitude 127° 36' E. 
 The harbor is secure, and the port is now open to 
 American vessels, for the purposes specified in the 
 convention concluded July 11, 1854, and proclaimed 
 March 9, 1855. The government of Japan having 
 virtually disclaimed any jurisdiction whatever over 
 the Loo-Choo Islands, a separate compact was entered 
 into between the United States and the kingdom of 
 Loo-Choo. It is as follows : 
 
 " Hereafter, whenever citizens of the United States 
 come to Loo-Choo, they shall be treated with great 
 courtesy &T\i friendship. Whatever articles these 
 people ask for, whether from the officers or people, 
 which the country can furnish, shall be sold to them ; 
 nor shall the authorities interpose any prohibitorj' 
 regulations to the people selling ; and whatever either 
 party may wish to buy, shall be exchanged at reason- 
 
LOR 
 
 1285 
 
 LOT 
 
 able prices. Whenever ships of the United States 
 shall come into any harbor in Loo-Choo, they shall be 
 supplied with wood and water at reasonable prices ; 
 but if they wish to get other articles, thej' shall be 
 purchasable only at Napo. If ships of the United States 
 are wrecked on Great Loo-Choo, or on islands under 
 the jurisdiction of the royal government of Loo-Choo, 
 the local authorities shall dispatch persons to assist in 
 saving liffe and property, and preserve what can be 
 brought ashore, till the ships of that nation shall come 
 to take away all that may have been saved ; and the 
 expenses incurred in rescuing these unfortunate per- 
 sons shall be refunded by the nation they belong to. 
 Whenever persons from ships of the United States 
 come ashore in Loo-Choo, they shall be at liberty to 
 ramble where they please, without hinderance, or hav- 
 ing officials sent to follow them, or to spy what they 
 do ; but if they violently go into houses, or trifle with 
 women, or force people to sell them things, or do other 
 such like illegal acts, they shall be arrested by the 
 local officers, but not maltreated, and shall be reported 
 to the captain of the ship to which they belong, for 
 punishment by him. At Tumai is a burial-ground for 
 the citizens of the United States, where their graves 
 and tombs shall not be molested. The government of 
 Loo-Choo shall appoint skillful pilots, who shall be on 
 the look-out for ships appearing off the island ; and if 
 one is seen coming toward Napa, they shall go out in 
 good boats, beyond the reefs, to conduct her into a se- 
 cure anchrage ; for which service the captain shall pay 
 the pilot five dollars, and the same for going out of 
 the harbor, beyond the reefs. Whenever ships anchor 
 at Napa, the officers shall furnish them with wood at 
 the rate of 3600 copper cash (43 cents) per 1000 cat- 
 ties ; and with water at the rate of 600 copper cash for 
 1000 catties, or 6 barrels full, each containing 30 
 American gallons." 
 
 Loom (Fr. Metier a tisser ; Ger. WeberstuhZ), is the 
 ancient and well-known machine for weaving cloth by 
 the decussation of a series of parallel threads, which 
 run lengthwise, called the warp or chain, with other 
 threads thrown transversely with the shuttle, called 
 the woof or weft. See Jacqoabd, article. Woolen 
 Manufactdees. 
 
 Lorcha, the name of a coasting vessel used in the 
 Chinese seas. One of those vessels, sailing under 
 British colors, was, in 1856, boarded by the Canton- 
 ese, had her flag pulled down, and her crew forciblj' 
 carried off. Governor Yeh refused either reparation 
 or apolog}', and this led to the conflict between Britain 
 and China during the same year. 
 
 IiOrient, one of the five great naval ports of 
 France, and the principal town in the arrondisse- 
 ment of the same name in the Department of Morbi- 
 han, is situated on the northern shore of the Bay of 
 Biscay, where the Rivers Scarf and Blavet, after 
 mingling their waters, fall into the Bay of St. Louis. 
 It is a large and flourishing town, strongly fortified, 
 tolerably well built, but not very clean, standing in 
 an angle between two creeks, one of which forms the na- 
 val, and^he other the mercantile port. The port, which 
 is large and commodious, is walled off from the town, 
 thereby excluding all view of the water from the in- 
 habitants. It is the seat of a maritime prefecture, of 
 a civil tribunal, of a tribunal of commerce, of a col- 
 lege, and of a school of naval artillery. The dock- 
 yard is the first in France for the building and- equip- 
 ment of ships of war : there is accommodation on its 
 slips for the simultaneous construction of 30 ships of 
 war. It has an arsenal, a park of artillerj-, engineer- 
 ing works, masting-sheds and forges, etc. There is a 
 good trade in sardines, marine stores, iron, wax, honey, 
 etc. The town is quite modem. Founded by the 
 French India Company, in the reign of Louis XIV., in 
 1664, it was not till the time of the Duke of Orleans 
 that the company took full advantage of the accommo- 
 dation of Lorient. The greater portion of the town 
 
 was then built, and the port fortified. In 1745 it 
 contained 35 frigates, besides a very great number of 
 ships, averaging from 900 to 1200 tons burden. In 
 the comparatively short space of 30 years Lorient had 
 risen to the first rank of towns. On the dissolution of 
 the company in 1770, it was made one of the stations 
 for the French navy. Its population and shipping de- 
 clined during the unsettled period of the Revolution, 
 but since the peace of 1815 it has been more than re- 
 stored to its former activity. Population 25,700. 
 
 Lo3 Angeles (the City of the A ngele), capital of Los 
 Angelos count}^ CaUfomia, 350 miles south south-east 
 of San Francisco, and in a direct line 3,000 miles a 
 little south of west from Washington. It contains a 
 large Roman Catholic church, and 1620 inhabitants. 
 Thjs city was founded in 1781, by order of the Vice- 
 roj' of New Spain, Balilio Frey, Antonio Bucareli y 
 Ursa, and is situated on the right bank of the Porciu- 
 neula River, which copiously waters the highly fertile 
 plain on which the city stands. Invited by a genial 
 climate, the inhabitants have converted this plain into 
 a delightful garden, covered with all sorts of native 
 fruits, but especially the vine, which is cultivated with 
 care and extraordinary success (the product of 1852 
 amounted to 2,250,000 pounds). This valley, famous 
 for its wines and liquors, contains the missions of San 
 Juan Capristrano, San Gabriel, and San Fernando, 
 which but a few years since constituted the richest es- 
 tablishment in California, and numbered very nearly 
 500,000 head of cattle. 
 
 Lotteries, in their highest application, are insti- 
 tutions for raising the revenue of the country by grant- 
 ing to those who voluntarily contribute the chance 
 of obtaining a reversion of part of the money collected. 
 This reversion is determined by lot. The first men- 
 tioned in English history began drawing at the west- 
 ern door of St. Paul's Cathedral, January 11, 1569, and 
 continued, day and night, until May 6 following. Its 
 profits were for repairing the fortifications on the coast 
 of England, and the prizes were pieces of plate. The 
 first letter}'' mentioned for sums of monej' took place 
 in 1630- Lotteries were established in 1693, and for 
 more than 130 years yielded a large annual revenue to 
 the crown. The Irish state lottery was drawn in 
 Dublin in 1780. All lotteries were suppressed in 
 France by a decree of the National Convention, No- 
 vember 15, 1793. They were abolished in England 1826 ; 
 and an act was passed imposing a penalty of £50 for 
 advertising foreign or any lotteries in the British news- 
 papers, 1836. Abolished in Bavaria by unanimous 
 vote of the deputies, October 19, 1847. They have 
 long been abolished in New England : in New York 
 they were prohibited about 1830. In nearly all the 
 States there is a penalty against lotteries not specially 
 authorized by the legislatures. The practice may be 
 traced back to the Romans, who were accustomed, at 
 least in the days of the empire, to enliven their festi- 
 vals with the distribution of tickets, uniform in appear- 
 ance, but entitling the holders to receive articles of 
 various value. Instead. of granting largesses to the 
 leaders of the Plebs, the Emperor Augustus frequently 
 distributed his gifs on the same principle ; and Helio- 
 gobalus has the merit of devising in sport a plan fre- 
 quently resorted to in fraud to avoid the penalties 
 against lotteries in England, of making prizes really 
 worthless take the place of blanks. In the middle 
 ages the same practice prevailed at the banquets of 
 feudal princes, who distribued their presents economi- 
 cally, and without the fear of jealousy, by granting 
 lotterj' tickets indiscriminatelj' to their friends. The 
 practice soon descended to the merchants ; and in Ita- 
 ly, in the 16th century, this became a favorite mode 
 of disposing of their wares. In 1530 the " Lotto" of 
 Florence was established for the necessities of the 
 State, and the example was quickly followed through- 
 out Europe. The first lotteries with numbered tickets 
 w«re instituted at Genoa. Mercantile lotteries were 
 
LOT 
 
 1286 
 
 LOU 
 
 established in France, under Francis I., in 1539, and a 
 tax levied on each ticket ; but these were supplanted 
 in 3660 by lotteries of money, under the direct control 
 of the king. The first lottery established in England 
 ■was drawn in 1569. It consisted of 40,000 lots, which 
 were sold at 10s. each. The prizes were pieces of 
 plate ; and the profits were devoted to the repairs of 
 certain harbors in the kingdom. The printed plan of 
 this scheme is still in possession of the Antiquarian 
 Society of London. In 1612 a lotterj' was granted in 
 behalf of the Virginia Corapan}- ; and in 1680 the same 
 privilege was accorded to a contractor who under- 
 took to supply London with water. From this time 
 forward the spirit of gambling increased so rapidly, 
 and grew so strong, that, in the reign of Queen Anne, 
 private lotteries had to be suppressed as public nui- 
 sances. The first parliamentarj' lottery was insti- 
 tuted in 1709 ; and from this period till 1824 the pass- 
 ing of a lottery bUl was in the programme of every 
 session. Up till about the close of the 18th century 
 the prizes were generally paid in the form of termin- 
 able, and sometimes of perpetual, annuities. Loans 
 were also raised by granting a bonus of lottery tickets 
 to all who subscribed a certain amount. This gam- 
 bling in annuities, however, despite the restrictions 
 of an act passed in 1793, soon led to an appalling 
 amount of vice and misery; and in 1808a committee 
 of the House of Commons urged the suppression of 
 this ruinous mode of filling the national exchequer. 
 In October, 1826, the last public lottery was drawn in 
 Britain. In France, State lotteries have been abol- 
 ished, but they still exist in most of the continental 
 States ; and although demonstrably a source of loss to 
 those who embark in them, they are upheld as a very 
 ready mode of procuring money from the poor, the 
 miserly, and the adventurous. The Hamburg lottery- 
 affords the most favorable representation of the system, 
 as in it all the money raised by the sale of tickets is 
 re-distributed in the drawing of the lots, with the excep- 
 tion of 10 per cent, deducted in expenses and other- 
 wise. In the United States, lotteries were established 
 by Congress in 1776, but with the exception of the 
 southern States, heavy penalties are now imposed on 
 persons attempting to establish them. Private lot- 
 teries are now illegal at common law in Great Britain 
 and Ireland ; and penalties are also incurred by the 
 advertisers of foreign lotteries. Some years ago it 
 became common in Scotland to dispose of merchandise 
 by means of lotteries ; but this is specially condemned 
 in the statute 42d Geo. III., c. 119. An evasion of 
 the law has been attempted by aflixing a prize to 
 every ticket, so as to make the transaction resemble a 
 legal sale ; but this has been punished as a fraud, even 
 when it could be proved that the prize equaled in 
 value the price 'of the ticket. This decision rested 
 upon the plea, that in such a transaction there was no 
 definite sale of a specific article. 
 
 In 1844 art-unions began to be established in Britain j 
 and as the principle on which they are founded involves 
 that of the lottery, their operations, which are in reality 
 illegal, were immediately suspended by order of gov- 
 ernment. In the following year, however, an act was 
 passed to indemnify those who had embarked in them 
 for the losses which they had incurred by the ar- 
 rest of their proceedings ; and since that time they 
 have been tolerated under the eye of the law without 
 any express statute being framed for their exemption. 
 — E. B. 
 
 IiOtus. The lotus (Nymplioe lotus) is a native of the 
 lakes of the Cashmere, and its stems serve as an ar- 
 ticle of food. In autumn, after the plate of the leaf 
 has begun to decay, the stem has arrived at maturity, 
 and being boiled till tender, furnishes a wholesome, 
 nutritious diet, which is said to support 5000 persons in 
 Cashmere for nearly eight months in the year. This 
 plant would probably succeed well in the mnddy bot- 
 toms of the coves, creeks, and sloughs of our lakes and 
 
 streams-; and, if not relished as human food, doubtless 
 
 its products would serve to nourish animals. Patent 
 
 Office Hep., 1855. 
 
 IiOUgh, an Irish term, synonymous with the Scotch 
 loch, but not with the English lake : for loch and lough 
 are applied to designate arms of the sea, as well as 
 collections of fresh water, which lake is not. 
 
 Louis d'Or, a French coin, first struck in the 
 year 1640, under the reign of Louis XIII. By the 
 French mint regulations it was at length made equal 
 to 24 livres, or £1 sterling. This, however, was under- 
 rating it as compared with silver ; and hence, as evetj' 
 one preferred paying their debts in the over-valued 
 
 coin, silver became the principal currency of France 
 
 the gold coins being either sent to the meltmg-pot or 
 exported. In Great Britain the process was reversed, 
 gold having, for a long period, been overvalued by 
 their mint. 
 
 Louisiana, one of the southern United States, lies 
 between 29° and 33° N. lat. It is 240 miles long 
 from north to south, and 216 broad, containing 41,346 
 square mUes. Population in 1810 was 76,666; in 
 1820, 153,407 ; in 1830, 215,676; in 1840, a52,4U ; and 
 in 1850, 511,974. The State is divided into 47 parishes.. 
 Robert de la Sale, when he reached the mouth of the 
 Mississippi (1682), introduced the name Louisiane, in 
 honor of the great king, as the name of the countrj- 
 along the great river, "from the Illinois to the Gulf 
 of Mexico." {Charlevoix, tom. i.) Many other 
 points and locations were vowed round the same gulf 
 to the same name, king and his saint. La Sale (1686) 
 vowed to the saint and to the king "the Bay of St. 
 Louis" (Matagorda Bay), discovered by him on the 
 coast of Texas. When Iberville, on the" 12th of April 
 1699, discovered that little bay opposite Cat Island, on 
 the coast of the continent, he introduced this name 
 again into the Mississippi country, by naming the 
 harbor "La Baye de St. Louis." In the year 1701 
 Mr. Bienville, when he evacuated Billoxi, and re- 
 moved the French head-quarters to Mobile Bay, called 
 his fort there '^ Fort de St. Louis," and this name. 
 Fort St. Louis, then designated, for more than 20 
 years, the central settlement or capital of the French 
 Mississippi colony. It is cdrious that the name 
 " Louisiane" seems not to have been much used before 
 1712. We do not find it, for instance, a single time 
 mentioned in the Memoirs of M. De Sauvole, written 
 in this colony in the beginning of the ^18th centurj-. 
 In the year 1712 King Louis XIV. adopted officially 
 the name " Louisiane" for that province, which seemed 
 now promising and important enough for such a grace. 
 He pronounces that the countries at the mouth of the 
 Mississippi shall henceforward be called " La Province 
 de la Louisiane." He at the same time changes also 
 the name of the Mississippi, and saj's that it shall at 
 present be called " Jiiviere de St. Louis" (the St. Louis 
 River). The French extended the name of Louisiana 
 over the whole Mississippi valley, between the Al- 
 leghany Mountains, the Lakes of Canada, Mexico, 
 and the Rocky Mountains, and south they went as far 
 with their pretensions as the Rio Bravo, including all 
 Texas. All the old French maps go with their " Lou- 
 isiane" as far south as the Rio Bravo. On some maps 
 even the peninsula of Florida was called ' ' La Peninsule 
 de Louisiane ;" so that, according to these French pre- 
 tensions, the name " Louisiane" comprehended the 
 whole coasts of the Gulf of Mexico which belong now 
 to the United States. 
 
 The Spaniards, on the other hand, went with their 
 name " Mexico" as far as Red River and the western 
 shore of the Mississippi, and they kept in Texas their 
 ground. They also kept up their old dominion in the 
 Floridas ; so that, in time, the name "Louisiane" was 
 on the French maps more contracted. When the 
 Spaniards acquired (1763) from France the dominion 
 of Louisiana, they retained that name, changing it 
 only to " Louisiana," or sometimes also to " Lusiana," 
 
LOU 
 
 1281 
 
 LOU 
 
 arid even to " Luciana." They put the eastern limit 
 of their Mexican provinces and of Texas at the River 
 Mermentau, qnite near to the Mississippi Delta ; and 
 the western limit of the Floridas was, as well at the 
 time of the English dominion in the Floridas (1763- 
 1783) as after the retrocession of these provinces to 
 Spain (1783), considered to be at the easternmost 
 branch of the Mississippi (Riviere, Iberville and the 
 Lakes Pontchartrain, etc.) ; so that during this time 
 (1763-1800) the name '* Lusiatia" comprised only a 
 very small part of the coasts of the Mexican Gulf. 
 When the tftiited States acquired the dominion of 
 Louisiana (1802) this name was at first quitfe extin- 
 guished on the shores of the Gulf. The whole southern 
 part of old Louisiana was called "The Territory of 
 New Orleans." The old name was, however, revived 
 again in the year 1812, when a part of the old French 
 colony was admitted into the Union under the name 
 of the " State of Louisiana." After the final settle- 
 ment of the boundaries of this State, the name Lou- 
 isiana comprised all the shores between the mouth of 
 Pearl River to the east and that of Sabine River to the 
 west, the whole Mississippi Delta, and on both aides a 
 little more. We may remark that the orthographj' of 
 the name Louisiana^ which we have adopted, is half 
 Spanish, half French. Purely French it ought to be 
 '^ LouUiane," and purely. Spanish, '• Luisiama." — J. G. 
 Kohl. 
 
 Pbydcai Features, etc. — Below the mouth of Red 
 River, the Mississippi divides into several branches or 
 outlets, which, diverging from each other, slowly wend 
 their way to the Gulf of Mexico, and divide the souths 
 Iwest part of the State into a number of large (slands. 
 The western of these outlets is the Atchafalaya, which 
 leaves the main stream at the mouth of Red River, 
 and inclining eastward, flows into Atchafalaya Bay, in 
 the Gulf flf Mexico. About 128 miles below the 
 Atchafalaya is the outlet of Plaquemine, the main 
 stream of which unites with Atchafalaya, but other 
 portions of it intersect the country in different direc- 
 tions. 31 miles below the Plaquemine, and 82 above 
 New Orleans, is the outlet of La Fourche, which com- 
 municates with the Gulf of Mexico by two mouths. 
 Below the La Fourche, numerous other small streams 
 branch off from the river at various points. On the 
 east side of the Mississippi the principal outlet is the 
 Iberville, which communicates with the Gulf of 
 Mexico through Lakes Maurepas, Pontchartrain and 
 Borgne. The whole territory between the Atchafalaya 
 on the west, and Iberville, etc., on the east, is called 
 the Delta of the Mississippi, from its resemblance in 
 shape to the Greek letter of that name. A large ex/- 
 tent of country in, this State is annually overflowed. 
 The alluvial margin along the Mississippi has a breadth 
 of from one to two miles, and is of great fertility. To 
 prevent the river from inundating the valuable tracts 
 in the rear, an artificial embankment has been raised 
 on the margin of the river, called the Levee. On the 
 east side of the river this embankment commences 
 about 40 miles below New Orleans, and extends up 
 the river for a distance of 180 miles. On the west side 
 it continues with little interruption to the Arkansas 
 line. Along this portion of the rjver there are many 
 beautiful and finely-cultivated, plantations, and a con- 
 tinual succession of pleasant residences. The south- 
 western part of the State consists of sea marsh on the 
 margin of the Gulf, but further inland of extensive 
 and fertile prairies, which contain many flourishing 
 settlements. The surface is elevated from 10 to 50 
 feet above high tide. The country between the Mis- 
 .sissippi, Iberville, and Pearl Rivers, in its southern 
 parts, is generally level and highly productive in cot- 
 ton, sugar, corn, rice, and indigo. The northern part 
 has an undulating surface and a heavy natural growth 
 of white, red, and yellow oak, hickorj', black walnut, 
 sassafras, magnolia, and poplar. In the north-western 
 part, the Red River, after entering the State by a 
 
 single channel and .flow;ing about 80 miles, spreads 
 into a number of channels, forming many lakes, 
 islands, and swamps, over a space of 60 miles long and 
 6 broad. The bottoms on the river are from 1 to 10 
 miles wide, and verj' fertile. The timber is willow, 
 cotton-wood,. honey-locust, pawpaw, and buckeye ; on 
 the rich uplands, elm, ash, hickory, mulberry, black 
 walnut, with a profusion of grape vines. On the less 
 fertile and sandy uplands of the State are white pit<Jh 
 and yellow pines, and various kinds of oak. There 
 were in this State in 1850, 1,590,025 acres of land im- 
 proved, and 3,939,018 of unimproved land in farms. 
 Cash value of farms, $75,814,398; and the value of 
 implements and machiner}-, $11,576,938. 
 
 Live Stock. — Horses, 89,514 ; asses and mules, 
 44,849 ; milch cows, 105,576 ; working oxen, 54,968 ; 
 other cattle, 414,798 ; sheep, 110,333 ; swine, 597,301. 
 Value of live stock, $11,152,275. 
 
 Agricultural Products, etc. — Wheat, 417 bushels ; 
 rye, 475 ; Indian corn, 10,266,373 ; oats, 89,637 ; buck- 
 wheat, 3 J peas and beans, 161,732 ; potatoes, 95,632 ; 
 sweet potatoes, 1,428,453 j rice, 4,425,349 lbs. Value 
 of products of the orchard, $22,359 ; produce of market 
 gardens, 148,329. Pounds of butter made, 683,069 ; 
 of cheese, 1,957; sugar, bhds, 226,001; maple sugar, 
 255 pounds ; molasses, 10,931,177 gallons ; bees' wax 
 and honey, 96,701 pounds; wool, 109,897; cotton, 
 178,737; silk cocoons, 29 ; hops, 125 ; tobacco, 26,878 ; 
 hay, 25,752 tons ; clove* seeds, 2 bushels ; other grass 
 seeds, 97 busbels ; and there were made 15 gallons of 
 wine. Value of home-made manufactures, 139,232 ; 
 of slaughtered animals, $1,458,990. 
 
 Rivera, etc. — The Mississippi RiVer forms the bound- 
 ary' of the State for a considerable distance, and in its 
 lower part runs wholly within the State, and enters 
 the Gulf of Mexico by several channels. ' It is nav- 
 igable for vessels of the largest size. Red River enters \ 
 the State near the north-west corner, and passes 
 through in a south-east direction, discharging a vast 
 amount of water into the Mississippi, 236 miles above 
 New Orleans. The Washita runs in a south direction 
 in the north part of the State, and enters Red River a 
 little above its junction with the Mississippi. Bayou 
 La Fourche and Atchafalaya are large outlets of the 
 Mississippi. The other rivers and streams are the 
 Black, Tensau, Sabine, Calcasieu, Mermanteau, Ver- 
 milion, Teche, Pearl, AJnitie, Iberville, etc. 
 
 Manufactures. — There were in this State in 1850, 8 
 establishments with a capital of 225,000, employing, 
 347 persons, and making 1,570 tons of castings, etc., 
 valued at 312,500 ; 96 flouring and grist mills, 120 saw 
 mills, 16 tanneries, 47 printing offices, 60 newspapers 
 — 11 daily, 6 tri and semi-weekly, 37 weekly — and one 
 monthly publication ; aggregate number of copies 
 issued annually, 12,416,224. Capital invested in 
 manufactures, $5,304,924 ; value of manufactured, 
 articles, $7,045,814. On the 1st of January, 1856, 
 there were 7 railroads, with XH miles of track finished 
 and in operation. 
 
 The principal places in the State are Baton Rouge, 
 the capital. New Orleans, Jackson, St. Francisville, 
 Opelousas, Grand Coteau, Alexandria, Natchitoches, 
 and Shreveport. There were, January 1st, 1853, 7 
 banks in the State, with an aggregate capital of 
 $12,000,000. Tonnage, same year, 156,273 tons. 
 Total value of exports of American and foreign pro- 
 duce, 1852, $49,058,885. Value of imports, $12,057,- 
 724. 
 
 Louisiana was first explored by the French, and 
 received its name in 1682 from M. La Salle, in honor 
 of Louis XIV., and a settlement was attempted in 
 1684, but failed. In 1699 a more successful attempt 
 was made by M. Iberville, who entered the Mississippi 
 arid founded a Colony. His efforts were followed by 
 Crozat, who held the exclusive trade of the country 
 for a number of years. About 1717 he transferred his 
 interest to a chartered company, at the head of which 
 
LOW 
 
 1288 
 
 LOW 
 
 was the notorious John Law, whose national bank and 
 Mississippi speculation involved half the French no- 
 bility. In 1731 the company resigned the concern to 
 the crown, who, in 1762, ceded the country of Louisi- 
 ana to Spain. In 1800 Spain re-conveyed the province 
 to France, from whom, in 1803, the United States 
 
 purchased the entire territory for $15,000,000. The 
 portion now included in the State formed a constitu- 
 tion, and was admitted into the Union in 1812. A 
 second constitution was adopted and went into opera- 
 tion in 1845, and the third and present one was formed 
 and adopted in 1862. 
 
 Foreign Commeece oe 
 
 THE State 
 
 OF Louisiana, Prom Oct 
 
 OBEE 1, 1820, to July 1, 1856. 
 
 
 YearB ending 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Tonnage Cleared. 
 
 District Tonnage. 1 
 
 Domestic, 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Total. 
 
 American. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Registered. 
 
 Enrolled and 
 
 Licensed. 
 
 Sept 80, 1821 
 
 1822 
 
 1828 
 
 1824 
 
 1826 
 
 1836 
 
 1827 
 
 1828 
 
 1829 
 
 1880 
 
 Total 
 
 Sept SO, 1881 
 
 1832 
 
 1888 
 
 1884 
 
 1885 
 
 1836 
 
 1837 
 
 1838 
 
 1839 
 
 1840 
 
 Total 
 
 Sept 80, 1841 
 
 1842 
 
 9mos., 1843 
 
 June 80, 1844 
 
 1845 
 
 1846 
 
 1847 
 
 1348 
 
 1349 
 
 1860 
 
 Total 
 
 June 80, 1851 
 
 1852 
 
 1868 
 
 1854 
 
 1855 
 
 1856 
 
 $6,907,699 
 
 7,808,461 
 
 6,769,410 
 
 6,442,946 
 
 10,966,284 
 
 9,048,506 
 
 10,602,882 
 
 10,168,842 
 
 10,398,183 
 
 18,042,740 
 
 $864,578 
 676,184 
 1,009,662 
 1,485,874 
 1,617,690 
 1,236,874 
 1,126,165 
 1,784,068 
 1,487,877 
 2,446,962 
 
 $7,272,172 
 7,978,645 
 7,779,072 
 7,928,820 
 12,582,924 
 10,284,880 
 11,723,997 
 11,947,400 
 12,886,060 
 16,488,692 
 
 $8,879,717 
 8,817,288 
 4,283,126 
 4,539,769 
 4,290,084 
 4,167,621 
 4,531,646 
 6,217,881 
 6,857,209 
 7,599,088 
 
 58,812 
 87,888 
 
 .58,258 
 54,189 
 51,602 
 68,144 
 89,798 
 85,841 
 87,657 
 
 I06;017 
 
 21,328 
 20,716 
 26,445 
 21,996 
 25,776 
 22,943 
 30,240 
 88,731 
 38,172 
 86.317 
 
 16,244 
 
 88,114 
 
 $92,144,258 
 
 $12,385,631 
 14.105,118 
 16,133,467 
 28,769,607 
 81,265,015 
 82,226,565 
 81,546,275 
 80,077,684 
 80,996,986 
 82,998,C69 
 
 $13,282,909 
 
 $3,926,458 
 2,426,812 
 2,807,916 
 2,797,917 
 6,005,808 
 4,963,263 
 8,792,422 
 1,424,714 
 2,185,231 
 1,288,877 
 
 $105,877,162 
 
 $16,761,989 
 16,680,980 
 18,941,.378 
 26,667,624 
 86,270,823 
 87,179,828 
 85,838,697 
 81,502,248 
 38,181,167 
 84,286,986 
 
 $49,683,222 
 
 $9,766,693 
 8,871,653 
 9,590,505 
 18,781,809 
 17,519,814 
 15,117,649 
 14,020,012 
 9,496,808 
 12,064,942 
 10,673,196 
 
 692,151 
 
 96,768 
 88,236 
 86,021 
 112,830 
 187,891 
 147,838 
 175,563 
 189,722 
 177,267 
 277,021 
 
 277,659 
 
 58,668 
 69,620 
 60,580 
 71,699 
 53,778 
 48,110 
 45,628 
 43,184 
 54,772 
 78,350 
 
 16,408 
 
 88,999 
 
 $265,948,097 
 
 $82,866,618 
 27,427,422 
 26,658,924 
 29,442,784 
 25,841,811 
 80,747,633 
 41,788,808 
 89,860,148 
 86,957,118 
 87,698,277 
 
 $80,558,418 
 
 $1,621,865 
 
 976,727 
 
 786,600 
 
 1,066,578 
 
 1,816,164 
 
 528,171 
 
 268,380 
 
 1,621,213 
 
 654,549 
 
 407,073 
 
 $286,601,615 
 
 $84,887,483 
 28,404,149 
 27,390,424 
 30,498,307 
 27,157,465 
 81,275,704 
 42,061,688 
 40,971,861 
 87,611,667 
 88,106,350 
 
 $120,908,081 
 
 $10,256,850 
 8,088,590 
 8,170,016 
 7,826,789 
 7,864,397 
 7,228,090 
 9,222,969 
 9,380,489 
 10,050,697 
 10,760,499 
 
 1,488,182 
 
 244,988 
 244,110 
 292,478 
 287,179 
 248,648 
 238,468 
 274,112 
 287,887 
 293,456 
 211,800 
 
 669,074 
 
 72,577 
 73,668 
 80,697 
 101,066 
 129,561 
 110,028 
 166,768 
 148,612 
 194,284 
 168,187 
 
 54,792 
 
 91,007 
 
 $328,772,888 
 
 $53,968,018 
 48,808,169 
 67,768,724 
 60,666,687 
 65,056,094 
 80,576,662 
 
 $9,081,155 
 
 $445,950 
 250,716 
 623,934 
 276,265 
 811,868 
 288,428 
 
 $387,858,543 
 
 $64,418,968 
 49,058,836 
 68,292,658 
 60,981,862 
 65,867,962 
 80,865,080 
 
 $88,273,835 
 
 $12,528,460 
 12,057,724 
 18,680,686 
 14,422,164 
 12,900,321 
 16,682,892 
 
 2,568,011 
 
 293,964 
 870,741 
 440,736 
 448,499 
 480,502 
 586,747 
 
 1,285,883 
 
 128,612 
 173,741 
 190,084 
 155,256 
 128,900 
 136,416 
 
 81,158 
 
 172,126 
 
 New Orleans is the principal port on the Mississippi, 
 and the natural d6p6t for the commerce of the great 
 central valley. It is situated on the left bank of the 
 river, 100 miles from the Gulf of Mexico, in lat. 29° 
 58^, and long. 90° Y - Its site is low and marshj', 
 and in the summer and fall very sickly. Two rail- 
 roads connect it with Lake Pontchartrain, and thence 
 steamboats connect with Mobile, etc. It communi- 
 cates northward by the New Orleans, Jackson, and 
 Great Northern Railroad, and westward by the New 
 Orleans, Opelousas, and Great Western Eailroad. Its 
 commerce by river is carried on by steamboats in con- 
 stant succession, and these traverse the great river 
 and tributaries for thousands of miles. By these 
 means it receives and distributes its merchandise. 
 The average value of produce received from the inte- 
 rior, is about $120,000,000. Its foreign trade is co- 
 extensive, and with regard to cotton and sugar, it is 
 the first port of the Union. The depth of water in the 
 river, opposite New Orleans, is at a medium of 70 feet, 
 and it maintains soundings of 30 feet until within a 
 mile of its confluence with the sea. The river has four 
 principal passes. The tonnage of the port in 1856, 
 was 163,308 tons. 
 
 LoTwell, an important manufacturing town in Mid- 
 dlesex county, Massachusetts, on the right bank of the 
 Merrimack River, at its junction with the Concord, 25 
 miles north north-west of Boston. Although the site 
 of the town has considerable inequality of surface, its 
 streets are regularly laid out, and intersect each other 
 at right angles. The private residences are spacious, 
 and many of them elegant buildings. Among the 
 
 public edifices, the chief are the court-house, the me- 
 chanics' hall, a sick hospital for operatives, and a 
 market-hoase. The literary institutions of the town 
 are very efficient, and have been of considerable ser- 
 vice to the community. The Mechanic Association, 
 incorporated in 1825, has a valuable library of about 
 6000 volumes, and a scientific apparatus ; while the 
 city school librarj- contains 9500 volumes, and is open 
 to all on a small j-earlj' payment. The great advan- 
 tage which Lowell enjoys for a manufacturing town is 
 derived from a descent of 30 feet made by the Merri- 
 mack, and known as the Pairtucket Falls, which, by 
 means of canals and locks, provides abundance of 
 water-power. Besides these there is a spacious reser- 
 voir, placed on an elevation eastward of the city, 
 which furnishes an immense supply of water at all 
 times in case of fire. The principal goods manu- 
 factured here are cotton, wool, and iron. The first is 
 made into cotton cloth and calico ; the second into 
 carpets, cloth, and coarse stuff's ; and iron into ma- 
 chinery 'and wire fences. Besides these, however, 
 bleaching is carried on extensively, as well as the 
 preparation of dyes, glue, and other essentials of the 
 cotton and wool manufactures. In January, 1865, 
 there were 12 manufacturing companies in Lowell, 
 ownmg 52 mills, and working 371,838 spindles, and 
 11,407 looms. The aggregate quantities produced 
 every week were 2,230,000 yards of cotton cloth, 30,- 
 000 yards of woolen cloth, 25,000 yards of carpeting, 
 and 50 rugs. In the same year, $14,500,000 of capital 
 was invested in the whole manufactures of the place ; 
 while the number of hands employed amounted to 
 
LOW 
 
 1289 
 
 LTJB 
 
 8723 females, and 4542 males. Every attention is paid 
 bj- the mill-owners to the health and morality of their 
 operatives. One of the best proofs of the general 
 good conduct of the mill-workers here is shown in the 
 large amounts deposited by them in the savings-bank ; 
 and also in the interest they take in the literary and 
 scientific associations connected with the factories. 
 
 In the rapidity of its growth, and in the extent of 
 its manufactures, it stands pre-eminent ; it has attained 
 its present position altogether from the extent of its 
 manufacturing facilities. A tract of 400 acres, con- 
 stituting the most central part of the present city, was 
 laid out iu 1821. It was purchased for $100,000, and 
 the owners were incorporated the following year, un- 
 der the title of Merrimac Manufaciuring Compimy, and 
 the first mill erected. Population 1820, about 200 ; 
 1830, 6,477 ; 1836, 17,330 ; 1840, 20,796 ; 1850, 33,383 ; 
 and in 1854, 40,000. In 1834, Belvidere village 
 was added to it, making a territory of nearly 5 square 
 miles, and in 1836 it was incorporated as a city. Low- 
 ell lies on the right bank of Merrimack River, at the 
 junction of Concord River, and at the intersection of 
 several lines of railroads. It was originally known as 
 Pawtucket Falls. The water power is verj' extensive, 
 and easily available. A canal, 100 feet wide, 15 feet 
 deep, and IJ miles in length, supplies the factories 
 with water, taken from the Concord River, at Paw- 
 tucket Falls. The entire descent is 31 feet. The pro- 
 prietors of the " Locks and Canals Company," acting 
 under a charter granted in 1792, with a capital of $600,- 
 000, supplies the water power to the different manu- 
 facturing establishments. The Merrimac Manufac- 
 turing Company, was chartered in 1822, has a capital 
 stock of $2,000,000 ; with 5 cotton factories, with 67,- 
 965 spindles, and 1,920 looms, employs 1,600 males, 
 and 645 females j manufactures 18,000 j-ards of prints 
 and sheetings annually. Connected with this Com- 
 pany is an extensive print works. The Hamilton 
 Manufacturing Company, chartered in 1825, with a cap- 
 ital stock of $1,200,000, has 3 cotton factories, with 
 36,228 spindles, and 1,002 looms, employs 875 females, 
 and 360 males ; manufactures 10,000,000 yards of 
 prints, flannels, and sheetings annually. It also has 
 an extensive print works. The Appleton Company was 
 incorporated in 1828, with a capital of $600,000 ; has 
 2 cotton factories, with 17,920 spindles, and 538 
 looms ; employs 480 females, and 120 males ; manu- 
 factures 6,500,000 yards sheetings and shirtings annu- 
 ally. The Lowell Manufacturing Company was char- 
 tered in 1828, with a capital of $1,300,000; has a 
 cotton factory, 7,142 spindles, 244 looms, and a carpet 
 factory, 4,300 spindles, and 80 looms, the whole em- 
 ploying 500 females, and 225 males ; manufacturing 
 4,940,000 yards rugs, carpeting, and cotton cloth, an- 
 nually. The Middlesex Manufacturing Company was 
 chartered in 1830, with a capital of $1,000,000 ; has 3 
 mills, with 13,000 spindles, 45 broadcloth, and 375 cas- 
 simere looms, and 3 dye-houses, employing 950 females, 
 and 820 males ; manufacturing 950,000 yards of broad- 
 cloths and cassimeres annuallj'. The Suffolk Manu- 
 facturing Company, chartered in 1830, with a capital 
 of $600,000, has 2 factories. — See Statistics of 
 Mass., 1855, for further items. 
 
 Lowering, among distillers, a term employed to 
 express the debasing the strength of any spirituous 
 liquor by mixing water with it. The standard and 
 marketable price of these liquors is fixed in regard to 
 a certain strength in them called proof; or, that 
 strength which makes them, when shaken in a phial or 
 poured from on high into a glass, retain for some time 
 a froth or crown of bubbles. In this state spirits con- 
 sist of about half pure, or totally inflammable spirits, 
 and half water ; and If any foreign or home spirit be 
 exposed for sale and found to have that proof wanting, 
 scarcely any body will buy it until it has been distilled 
 again and brought to the proper strength ; and if It be 
 above that strength the proprietor usually adds water 
 
 to bring it down to the standard. There is another 
 kind of lowering among the retailers of spintuous 
 liquors to the vulgar, by reducing it under the stand-v 
 ard proof. Whoever has the art of doing this without 
 destroying the bubble-proof, which is easily done by 
 means of some addition which gives a greater tenacity 
 to the parts of the spirits, will deceive all who judge 
 by this proof alone. In this case, the best way to judge 
 of liquors is by the eye and the tongue, and especially 
 by the instrument called the hydrometer. 
 
 Lubber, a contemptuous name, given by sailors to 
 those who know not the duty of a seaman. Lubber's 
 Hole is the vacant space between the head of a lower 
 mast and the edge of the top. It is so termed from a 
 supposition that a lubber, not caring to trust himself 
 up the futtock shrouds, will prefer that way of getting 
 into the top. 
 
 Lubec, one of the free cities of northern Germany, 
 and nominally the chief of the Hanse Towns, is the 
 capital of a small territorj', is situate on a gentle ridge 
 between the rivers Trave aud Wakenitz, 10 miles from 
 the mouth of the former at Travemunde, and 36 miles 
 north-east of Hamburg. Lubec is the capital of the 
 four free or Hanseatic towns, and the seat of their 
 supreme court of appeal. The court consists of six 
 members, one of whom is chosen by each of the free 
 towns; Frankfort and Bremen nominate the fifth; 
 while the sixth is named alternately once by Lubec 
 and twice by Hamburg. The president is chosen an- 
 nually by the senates of the four towns. The present 
 city of Lubec was founded in 1143 by Adolphus II., 
 Count of Holstein and Schaumburg, by whom it was 
 ceded in 1158 to Henry Duke of Saxony, surnamed 
 the Lion. In 1226 it was made a free imperial city by 
 Frederic II. At this time it was an important com- 
 mercial city, and was rapidlj' increasing. In 1241 it 
 entered into treaty with Hamburg, and thus laid the 
 foundation of the Hanseatic League, of which it be- 
 came the head about 1260. For four centuries Lubec 
 continued in a flourishing condition, and is said to have 
 at one time contained 200,000 persons. After the dis- 
 solution of the League, which took place in 1632, it 
 gradually fell into decay, and has never again attained 
 its former importance. After the battle of Jena in 
 1806, the Prussian general Blucher, with the remains 
 of his army, took refuge in Lubec, which was then 
 stormed by the French, and sacked and pillaged for 
 three days. In 1810 it was annexed to the French 
 empire, and so remained till after the battle of Leipzig 
 in 1813, when it was restored to its political inde- 
 pendence, and subsequently joined the German Con- 
 federation as a free city. It has one vote In the full 
 council ; but in the select council it has only one in 
 conjunction with the other free towns. Lubec is one 
 of the most picturesque old towns in Germany. Its 
 streets are generally straight and regular, and its 
 public buildings, which are mostly of brick, have un- 
 dergone little change since the 15th century. Many 
 of the houses are in the old-fashioned style, with their 
 quaint gables toward the street; and not a few of 
 them are remarkable for the richness of their archi- 
 tecture. The old ramparts of the town have been laid 
 out in public walks. The finest building in Lubec is 
 the Marienkirche, founded in 1304. It is in the pointed 
 Gothic style, constructed almost entirely of brick, and 
 surmounted by two towers with spires rising to the 
 height of 430 feet. It has three naves ; the roof of 
 the centre one rising to the unusual height of 134 feet. 
 It contains numerous monuments and paintings — the 
 latter by Holbein, Vandyck, Overbeck, etc. The 
 "Dance of Death," dated 1463, is remarkable as>rep- 
 resenting the costumes of the period. This church 
 possesses a very fine organ, and has also a curious old 
 astronomical clock, constructed in 1405. The Dom- 
 kirche, or cathedral, built between 1170 and 1341, is 
 almost entirely of brick, and has two towers surmount- 
 ed by spires 300 feet high. It contains numerous 
 
LUB 
 
 1290 
 
 LUC 
 
 monuments to bishops and others connected with Lu- 
 bec. The screen of the- choir is a. master-piece of 
 wood-oarvidg of the early German school. In one of 
 the side chapels is a painting by Memling representing 
 the Passion of our Saviour in 23 distinct groups. The 
 town-house, on the marltet-place, is a curious old 
 Gothic brick building, completed in 1617. Here in 
 ancient times deputies from 85 cities in Germany 
 composing the Hanseatic League, held their sittings. 
 The educational and charitable institutions are nu- 
 merous ; besides which there are an exchange, mint, 
 arsenal, public library with 37,000 volumes- and a 
 theatre. 
 
 Lubec is still a place of considerable commercial 
 importance. It trades largely with Hamburg by 
 means of the Trave and a canal, and also with Russia, 
 Denmarlt, Sweden, and Finland. A branch line con- 
 nects it with the Hamburg and Berlin railway. Reg- 
 ular steam communication is kept up with Copen- 
 hagen, Stockholm, and St. Petersburg. Vessels draw- 
 ing not more than nine feet of water can come up to 
 the town, but larger vessels load and unload by means 
 of lighters at Travemunde, between which and Lubec 
 small steamers are constantly plying. The chief 
 exports are — com, cattle, wool, iron, and timber; 
 imports — wines, silks, cottons, hardware, colonial 
 products, and dye-stuffs. In 1855, 972 vessels, carry- 
 ing 55,266 lasts, entered; and 958 vessels, carrying 
 54,246 lasts, left the port. The manufactures are 
 numerous, but not large or important. Among the 
 chief are woolen, linen, cotton, and silk goods; to- 
 bacco, soap, paper, playing-cards, musical instru- 
 ments, hats ; and iron, copper, and brass wares. 
 
 Its trade is principally carried on with the Baltic 
 States, to which it exports corn, cattle, wool, fish, 
 iron, and timber. Its imports comprise wines, silks, 
 cottons, hardwares, and other manufactured goods ; 
 also colonial produce, dye-stuffs, etc. The territory 
 belonging to Lubec is about 20 miles in length, by 3 
 miles in breadth, containing a population of 54,166, 
 chiefly employed in the rearing of live stock. In 1852 
 there entered the port of Lubec 2086 vessels, measur- 
 ing 262,724 tons, viz. : sailing vessels, 1699, of an ag. 
 gregate tonnage of 170,096 tons, and 387 regular 
 steam-packets, of an aggregate of 92,628 tons. Russia 
 holds the first rank in the trade of Lubec. Of the 
 whole number of vessels entered in 1852 (2085), there 
 were under the Russian flag 456 vessels, with an ag- 
 gregate of 85,730 tons. The total imports into this 
 port in 1852 reached, in weight, 122,000,000 kilos. 
 (2-20 lbs. each), viz. : by sea, 94,000,000 kilos. ; by 
 land, 28,000,000 kilos. This was a falling off from the 
 preceding year of 10,000,000 kilos. 
 
 Among the imports of 1852 were : tobacco, 1,049,132 
 kilos. ; cotton, drugs, and dye-stuffs, 4,034,849 kilos. ; 
 coffee, 2,291,526 kilos. ; sugar, 4,278,066 kilos. 
 
 The total imports in 1851 amounted to 132,333,000 
 kilos. ; but the increase of 10,000,000 kilos, was at- 
 tributable to the heavy stock of material introduced 
 by those engaged in the construction of the railroad 
 between Lubec and Hamburg. A comparison with the 
 preceding years of regular trade will show a steady, 
 though a gradual increase. In 1850 the total imports 
 reached 120,000,000 kilos., or 2,000,000 less than in 
 1852. 
 
 The general imports of Lubec are thus classi- 
 fied : Jtfonu/octores.— Including, principally, liquors, 
 watches, jewelry, hardware, gunpowder, piece-goods, 
 glass-ware, 13,954,580 kUos. Colonial, or trans-Atlaniic 
 Merchandise.— Consisting of coffee, cotton, drugs, dye- 
 stuffs, sugar, tobacco, and tea, 11,708,795 kilos. Ani- 
 mal Substances.— Consisting of batter, cheese, wax, 
 oils, wool, peltry, silk, 2,827,453 kilos. Metals.— 
 Chiefly of iron and copper, 6,121,736 kUos. Mtscel- 
 ?areeOMS.— Including salted fish, tallow, grains, timber, 
 pot-ashes, etc., 88,424,913. Total, 123,037,477_ kilos. 
 Manufactures represent llj per cent., colonial, or 
 
 trans-Atlantic merchandise 9 J per cent., metals 5 per 
 cent., and all other imports 74 per cent, of the total 
 trade. 
 
 Statement showing the Steam Navigation between 
 Lubec and the Baltic Pbrts, from 1849 to 1852. — 
 1849. — Between Travemilnde (the port of Lubec) and 
 Copenbagen-T-voyages, 67 ; passengers, 1955 ; re- 
 ceipts, 162,046 francs. 1850. — Between Travemunde, 
 Copenhagen, and Gothenburg — voyages, 61; passen- 
 gers, 2858 ; receipts, 194,738 francs. 1861.— Between 
 Traveinunde, Copenhagen, and Gothenburg — voyages, 
 37 ; passengers, 3,416 ; receipts, 137,884 francs. 
 1852.- — Between Lubec, Copenhagen, and Gothen- 
 burg — ^voyages, 20 ; passengers, 3061 ; receipts, 114,- 
 360 francs. 
 
 The merchant marine of Lubec in 1853 consisted of 
 65 vessels, of 13,300 tons aggregate, viz., 60 sailing 
 vessels, of 11,826 tons, and 5 steamers. The once ex- 
 tensive and flourishing trade of Lubec had dwindled 
 down to the mere shadow of its former greatness. 
 The tardy communication with Hamburg (a city on 
 which it depends almost exclusively for its commercial 
 activity) by canal navigation, contributed much to de- 
 press its commercial enterprise ; and, hence, its mer- 
 chants have, for , a long period, been strenuous and 
 unremitting in their efforts for the construction of a 
 railroad that would connect them with that city. 
 Denmark, however, jealous of any enterprise that 
 would be likely to create a rival for the trade of Kiel, 
 which town is also connected by railroad with Ham- 
 burg, long refused permission to construct the contem- 
 plated railroad across an^- portion of its territories. 
 The difficulties were, however, adjusted, the road con- 
 structed, and during the past few years tlie trade of 
 Lubec has risen to considerable importance. In 1850, 
 before the connection by railroad was established, the 
 merchandise, which passed between the two cities 
 amounted to but 26,000 quintals of 106*85 lbs. each ; 
 in 1853, after the railroad was opened, it ascended to 
 267,380 quintals, viz., 89,576 Hamburg merchandise, 
 and 177,805 foreign merchandise, forwarded via Ham- 
 burg. The United States has no direct trade with 
 Lubec, such of its staples as reach that market being 
 supplied either from Hamburg or Altona, chiefly the 
 former. 
 
 The tariff is that of December 5th, 1851. 
 
 Moneys. — 1 marc = 16 schillings Lubec courant == 
 28-79 cents. 
 
 Weights and Measures.— 1 ship-pound = 2J cwt. 
 of 112 lbs. English, each = 280 Iba. 1 lis-pound = 
 14 lbs. 
 
 Duties on Imports. — All goods, whether of foreign or 
 home production, pay J of 1 per cent, ad valorem, as 
 given in the invoices, except the following articles, 
 which are free of import duties : Transit goods re-ex- 
 ported within three months after entrj' ; effects of 
 travelers ; household furniture used ; wool brought for 
 the Lubec fair, and delivered at the wool warehouse ; 
 goods on board of vessels not consigned to Lubec ; 
 wares on board of ships entering the port of Trave- 
 miinde in distress. 
 
 None but citizens have the privilege of clearing 
 goods in the custom-house ; American vessels, how- 
 ever, are exempt from this regulation. — Com. Ret. V. S, 
 
 Lucia, St., one of the British West India Islands, 
 Windward group, lying about 30 miles north of Mar- 
 tinique, in lat. 13° 50' N., long. 60° 58' W. It is 32 
 miles in length from north to south, by 12 in extreme 
 breadth, and has an area of about 235 square miles, 
 or 150,000 acres. It is longitudinally divided by a 
 chain of mountains, generally from 1200 to 1800, and 
 in some cases 2000 feet high, densely clothed with the 
 finest timber. These are of volcanic formation, and 
 assume the most fantastic forms, abounding in deep 
 chasms and pointedeminences. From either side of 
 this chain branches of lesser altitude go off toward the 
 coast, forming plains and valleys of various sizes. At 
 
Lire 
 
 1291 
 
 LUM 
 
 its southern extremity are two mountains of volcanic 
 origin, called the Sugar Loares, which rise nearly per- 
 pendicularly from the sea, in the form of parallel cones, 
 to the height of about 2700 feet ; they are covered with 
 evergreen foliage, and mark the entrance into the 
 deep and beautiful Bay of Soufrifere. The valleys 
 throughout the island, as well as the plains upon the 
 coast, are fertile, being yie\\ watered by numerous 
 streams, and are under good cultivation. The island 
 is divided into two territories — Basseterre, the low or 
 leeward portion, which is well cultivated, and the 
 most populous, though the prevalence of stagnant wa- 
 ters and morasses renders the climate very unhealthy ; 
 and Capisterre, the high or windward territory, which 
 is also very unhealthy, but is becoming less so as the 
 wood on the high lands is being cleared awaj'. The 
 climate is very moist, as the trees on the mountains 
 attract the clouds, and hence render the island subject 
 to frequent arid heavy rains for 9 or 10 months in the 
 year. 
 
 The extent of land under each description of crop in 
 1854, and the three preceding years, was : 
 
 Canos 
 
 Coffee 
 
 GoQoa 
 
 Provisions, 
 
 1851. 
 
 AcrcH. 
 
 8,015 
 155 
 184 
 
 1,018 
 
 1852. 
 
 Acres, 
 
 8,563 
 187 
 109 
 
 1,136 
 
 1854. 
 
 8,489 
 
 130 
 
 89 
 
 Acres. 
 
 8,290 
 97 
 87 
 
 1,164 
 
 The quantities of various articles produced in each 
 of the above years were : 
 
 
 1651. 
 
 185!. 
 
 1853. 
 
 1854. 
 
 Sugar lbs. 
 
 Coffee " 
 
 Cocoa "■ 
 
 Rum galls. 
 
 Molasses. . " 
 
 6,691,800 
 
 18,620 
 
 16,143 
 
 46,068 
 
 159,540 
 
 7,180,560 
 
 ■ 26;933 
 
 '■ 40,3.')8 
 
 ,. 66(929 
 
 206i696 
 
 6,782,700 
 
 6,051 
 
 21,600 
 
 68,343 
 
 214.712 
 
 7,414,100 
 10,260 
 17,480 
 77,751 
 208,625 
 
 i The quantities and value of (articles exported in 1864 
 ■^ere : i 
 
 ArticleB. 
 
 ^ocoa lbs. 
 
 Goods, Brit, manu- 
 
 fact p&ckage: 
 
 tiOKwood tons 
 
 Molasses..;.. galls. 
 
 Uice., cwt 
 
 Kum galls. 
 
 Sugar, Mus.. . . cwt 
 pther articles.. 
 Total value 
 
 Cluanti- 
 llea. 
 
 148,988 
 
 I" ^^} 
 
 1,098 
 116,490 
 
 14,864 
 69,242 
 
 To United t,S„i, 
 J^S"""- cS""lt, 
 
 £1,491 
 
 1,417 
 
 2,868 
 2,984 
 30 
 1,428 
 41,468 
 4,700 
 
 iJ66,836 
 
 85 
 
 1,057 
 1,655 
 
 1,428 
 
 41,462 
 
 300 
 
 1,230 
 
 To 
 
 foreign 
 Stntea. 
 
 £151 
 1,311 
 
 2,699 2.702 
 
 £6,668 £8,164 
 
 The total value of imports in 1854 (principally arti- 
 cles of British manufacture, flour, dried fish, butter, 
 live stock, lumber, salted meat, olive oil, wine, rice, 
 and tobacco), was £96,809; being £41,996 from the 
 United Kingdom, £27,880 from Brjtish colonies, and 
 £26,433 from foreign States. The nett amount of the 
 general revenue in 1854 was £14,098 ; being, custom 
 duties on imports, £6482 ; on tonnage, £744 ; assessed 
 and other tax«s, £6872, . The nett expenditurefor that 
 year was £13,566. The total population in 1854 was 
 24,123, of whom 430 were male and 617 female whites, 
 11,081 male and 12,095 female persons of color. The 
 chief town of the island is Castries, which contains 
 about 3000 persons. St. Lucia was first colonized by 
 English settlers in 1639, but these were soon after 
 driven off by the Caribs. About 1650 the French 
 effected a settlement, and from that time to 1803, 
 when it was finally captured by the English, it be- 
 longed alternately to France and England. Tiie gov- 
 ernment is administered by the commanding officer of 
 the troops, a lieutenant-governor, and an executive 
 council, consisting of the colonial secretarj', the attor- 
 ney-general, and the second military oflicer. There 
 is also a legislative council, composed of five ^official 
 and five non-official members, in wliich the colonial 
 secretary and attorney-general have seats and votes, 
 and of which the commanding officer is president. The 
 
 laws of St. Lucia, except in so far as they have been 
 altered by orders of council, are the l*ws of France, 
 antecedent to the Code of Napoleon. 
 
 Luff, the order from the pilot to the steersman to 
 put the helm toward the lee side of the ship, in order to 
 make the ship sail nearer the direction of the wind. 
 Hence, lufi' round, or luff a-lee, is the excess of this 
 movement, bj' which it is intended to throw the ship's 
 head up in the wind in order to tack her. A ship i« 
 also said to spring her luff when she j-ields to the effort 
 of the helm by sailing nearer to the line of the wind 
 than she had done before. Luff Tackk, a name given 
 by sailors to any large tackle that is not destined for 
 any particular place, but may be variously employed 
 as occasion requires. It is generally somewhat larger 
 than the jigger tackle, altliough smaller than those 
 which serve to hoist the heavier materials into and out 
 of the vessel; which latter are the main and fore- 
 tackles, the stay and quarter-tackles, and so forth. 
 
 Lug-Sail, a square sail, hoisted occasionally on the 
 mast of a boat or small vessel, upon a yard whiob' 
 hangs nearly at right angles with the mast. These 
 sails are more particularly used in the , barca-longas 
 navigated by the Spaniards in the Mediterranean. 
 
 Lumber. One of the distinguishing characteris- 
 tics of the United States is the quantity of wood and 
 lumber they furnish. Of the well-wooded- countries 
 of th^ world, Bussia, Sweden, Norway, and America, 
 this country, no doubt, ranks as first. A discriminat- 
 ing writer, Volney, once described this country as 
 " one vast forest, diversified occasionally by cultivated' 
 intervals." If this is less true than it was a century 
 or even half a century ago, it applies in the main at 
 the present moment. ;Even the oldest States of the 
 Union, such ;as New Hampshire, New York, and the 
 Carolinas, are still famous for both the qualitj' and 
 quantity of t|ieir lumber. And Maine, that had some- 
 thing like settleraents before any other portion of New 
 England, is to this daj- tlie- great lumber State of the 
 land. Hence, perhaps, the name it so'metimes gets — ^ 
 the Pine-tree State, The trees of any countrj- are 
 valuable for at' least four distinct purposes, fpr fuel, 
 for shelter, for the food many of them afford, and for 
 ornament. In the last point of view, which is gener- 
 ally considered the least, important, trees are of much 
 consequence. England has obtained the name of an 
 extensive garden, very much through its beautiful 
 shade trees and shrubbery. One half of the beauty 
 of many of our New England villages would be lost 
 in the warm season without their elegant natural 
 screens in the shape of trees. It was Lord Bacon who 
 said that " a tree in full leaf is a nobler object than a 
 king in his coropation robes." No artist would, ever' 
 think, of presenting a fine landscape without trees. 
 And so important are trees regarded as objects of beaur 
 ty and shade, that ornamental tree associations are 
 springing up in different parts of the country, whose 
 objects are to adorn streets and highwaj's ■with our 
 beautiful elms, maples, and evergreens. 
 
 It is stated by Michaux that in the United States 
 there are 140 species of forest trees which attain a 
 greater height than 30 feet, while in France there are 
 only.18 of the same description. And we suppose that 
 the comparison would be similar if exten4ed to Great 
 Britain, Spain, or Germany. No wonder, then, that 
 our forest scenery so much surpasses, that in the west 
 and south of .Europe, and that European travelers 
 think that it is worth while to cross the Atlantic to 
 see our forest, scenery as painted by th^ invisible artist 
 every autumn. 
 
 So great is the interest in portions of Europe to pro- 
 mote the growth of forest trees that, associations have 
 been formed in Germany and other countries to plant 
 forests upon soil adapted to their growth. Th,e vast 
 amount of forest trees annually used by such a coun- 
 try as Great Britain may be estimated by the fact that 
 to build a 70 gun ship 40 acres of ship timber are re- 
 
LUM 
 
 1292 
 
 LIJM 
 
 qmred. In the light of such a fact, it may be seen 
 that it is none too early for the people of this country 
 to exercise due economy with regard to the use of for- 
 
 ests already existing, and to promote the growth of 
 others — on the waste lands that already abound in va- 
 rious sections of the country. 
 
 Statement sho wimo tue 
 
 EXPOKTS 
 
 OF LUMBEE (SPEOIFTING TIIK EXPOETING DiSTBIOTS) 
 
 THE Year ending June 80tu, 1856. 
 
 FROM niE 
 
 UNrrsD States, for 
 
 Districts. 
 
 Shlogl... 
 
 Boards, plunks, and 
 
 ficantling. 
 
 Hewn Umber. 
 
 Other lumber 
 
 Oak bark and 
 other dye. 
 
 All oLber 
 
 mamifuctures 
 
 of wood. 
 
 Passamaquodcly 
 
 Machias 
 
 M. feet. 
 844 
 259 
 
 ■"S3 
 
 '"53 
 
 266 
 
 '4',653 
 
 '"65 
 
 "397 
 3,275 
 
 "isi 
 
 ""8 
 
 '2,681 
 
 "168 
 
 ']',630 
 
 '2,998 
 
 '6,788 
 5,684 
 6,366 
 
 1,884 
 
 '"61 
 
 5,048 
 
 105 
 
 232 
 
 11 
 
 8 
 
 '"74 
 
 "167 
 
 "714 
 
 ■ '1,677 
 
 '"82 
 
 848 
 
 1,988 
 
 46,173 
 
 DoIInrB. 
 
 1,416 
 624 
 
 "'71 
 
 '"88 
 639 
 
 l'2,261 
 
 "275 
 
 "882 
 11,880 
 
 "606 
 
 '"i? 
 
 l'4',8i2 
 
 'l',848 
 
 '8^995 
 
 l'8',66o 
 
 l'8',s63 
 
 15,368 
 
 13,840 
 
 4,849 
 
 "167 
 19,826 
 781 
 928 
 44 
 40 
 
 "254 
 
 "585 
 
 '4',i92 
 
 '2,9T1 
 
 "247 
 1,646 
 9,717 
 
 M. feet. 
 8,485 
 3,681 
 
 'l',698 
 
 2 
 
 1,713 
 
 8,918 
 
 '2,165 
 8,122 
 
 ■"86 
 
 103 
 
 817 
 
 11,766 
 
 '"is 
 
 419 
 167 
 199 
 443 
 
 ■"53 
 
 602 
 
 8 
 
 131 
 
 2'7',469 
 947 
 
 'l',669 
 115 
 
 '2',i98 
 146 
 22 
 
 "852 
 680 
 
 "269 
 7,918 
 2,476 
 1,690 
 8,388 
 2,628 
 8,106 
 5,161 
 4,885 
 
 '8,436 
 860 
 
 1,700 
 106 
 
 4,018 
 
 "285 
 
 2,286 
 
 75 
 
 DoUnre. 
 86,241 
 48,442 
 
 2'7',821 
 
 32 
 
 21,831 
 
 118,906 
 
 27,673 
 106,418 
 
 ']',853 
 
 1,704 
 
 14,637 
 
 226,964 
 
 "270 
 6,606 
 2,688 
 4,040 
 11,076 
 
 '3,762 
 
 6,659 
 
 66 
 
 2,887 
 
 56'4',9il 
 6,681 
 
 2'7',741 
 3,450 
 
 88;488 
 
 2,647 
 
 899 
 
 l'l',659 
 6,795 
 
 '2,965 
 111,441 
 43,368 
 24,555 
 62,686 
 86,126 
 49,724 
 68,878 
 53,778 
 
 109,858 
 
 601 
 
 41,118 
 
 1,060 
 
 34,486 
 
 '8,659 
 85,448 
 1,515 
 
 Tona. 
 "286 
 
 ' '520 
 3,197 
 
 2'6'S78 
 "982 
 
 "781 
 ■1,666 
 
 DoUnrs. 
 '6,857 
 
 '8,470 
 20,003 
 
 18'9',i67 
 '7,766 
 
 '2,616 
 'l',690 
 
 Dollnrt. 
 
 4,692 
 
 601 
 
 "i96 
 
 56,642 
 120,676 
 
 '"66 
 8,516 
 
 '"89 
 
 '"78 
 
 248,572 
 
 1,401 
 
 "368 
 1,446 
 
 l'8',691 
 
 65,724 
 1,229 
 
 "728 
 9,830 
 
 '3',883 
 2,260 
 
 "'65 
 
 l'8',875 
 l'9',986 
 
 128,938 
 1,520 
 
 "465 
 
 14,500 
 
 31,818 
 
 125 
 
 828 
 
 "215 
 2ri,8'i9 
 4H,2(i4 
 
 DoUar.. 
 
 '6J568 
 
 ' '690 
 8,597 
 
 "600 
 
 850 
 
 87,694 
 
 768 
 
 s'mso 
 
 34^848 
 "660 
 
 Dollar.. 
 
 19,268 
 640 
 
 5,696 
 
 8,474 
 19,852 
 
 1,047 
 419,667 
 
 6,564 
 27,183 
 28,662 
 10,073 
 
 ■4',4i0 
 
 21,364 
 
 410,404 
 
 "eii 
 
 22,489 
 
 28,160 
 
 11,139 
 
 42,661 
 
 16,671 
 
 50 
 
 37,768 
 
 4,905 
 
 84,453 
 
 84,840 
 
 4,076 
 
 773,788 
 
 60,800 
 
 41,579 ■ 
 
 164,679 
 
 200 
 
 ll'3',640 
 
 69,719 
 8,613 
 
 "i25 
 
 'l',829 
 "185 
 
 l'9',822 
 ""7 
 
 2's',640 
 14.3il 
 
 Frenchman's Bay 
 
 Penobscot., 
 
 
 Bath 
 
 Portland and Falmouth. 
 
 Belfast 
 
 
 
 Ne'wburyport 
 
 Gloucester. 
 
 
 Boston and Charlestown 
 Fall River 
 
 New Bedford.. 
 
 
 Bristol and Warren 
 
 
 
 Sackett's Harbor 
 
 Genesee 
 
 
 
 Buffalo Creek 
 
 
 New York 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Georgetown, D. C 
 
 Norfolk and Portsmouth 
 
 
 Plymouth, N. 
 
 Washington, N. C 
 
 
 
 
 
 Georgetown, S. 
 
 St Marv's 
 
 
 
 
 Kflv West 
 
 
 
 
 IVflnmi 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 166,207 
 
 1 126,330 1 1,987,802 | 84,260 
 
 284,969 
 
 808,684 
 
 121,080 
 
 1 2,501,683 
 
 This table shows the singular fact, that Chicago, the 
 greatest lumber market in the world, exports directly 
 no lumber to foreign countries. 
 
 The State of Maine, as the head-quarters of the 
 lumber and ship building trade, has for a long time 
 excited much interest. The season for cutting the 
 timber and bringing it to market commences in De- 
 cember or earlier, and closes in March or April. 
 
 According to a careful estimate of George W. Cram, 
 Esq surveyor-general of lumber for Boston, the 
 amount sold at that port in 1854, was 131,900,000 feet. 
 The descriptions were 40,000,000 of white pine lumber, 
 18 000,000 southern pine, 25,000,000 spruce, 10,000,000 
 hard wood, 1,800,000 mahogany, 2,100,000 clapboards, 
 10,000,000 shingles, 20,000,000 laths, 4,000,000 hem- 
 look, 1,000,000 pickets. . ^ ,^ , , 
 
 The following- is a careful estumte of the lumber 
 business. The number of men employed in getting 
 the lumber to market is 120,000; number of cattle 
 
 and horses, 80,000 ; number of saw-mills, 3000; num- 
 ber of vessels, 1000. Pine, spruce, and hemlock lum- 
 ber is principally obtained from Bangor, Ellsworth, 
 the Kennebec River, Calais, Machias, Cherrifield, 
 Maine, and St. John, New Brunswick, while the larger 
 portion of the hard pine grows in North and South 
 Carolina, Georgia, Florida, and Alabama. Pine and 
 spruce, too, are brought from Canada to Portland, and 
 is thence shipped to this and other markets. The lum- 
 ber secured from St. John is of a superior quality 
 Lumber is obtained also from the States of New York, 
 Ohio, and Michigan. The two last States furnish 
 black walnut, cherry, ash, white wood, and basswood ; 
 while New York and Pennsylvania furnish a share of 
 the same. The railroads bring to market, oak timber 
 from Massachusetts and New Hampshire. The south- 
 ern and western States grow a portion of the same, 
 and furnish considerable live oak. New York yields 
 a large quantity of pine. Delaware and Maryland 
 
LTJM 
 
 1293 
 
 LUM 
 
 more sparingly. It is stated that the best hard pine 
 for ship-building grows on the Alatamaha River in 
 Georgia, and on the Waooamaw Eiver in South Caro- 
 lina. It is but a few years since hard pine, has been 
 used in ship-building. It is now employed extensively 
 in New England, and is considered as good for manj' 
 parts of a ship as oak. During the year 1854 a com- 
 mission house of this city sold about 23,000,000 of feet, 
 to be used mostly in Massachusetts and Maine. It 
 will be perceived that this house sold 5,000,000 feet 
 more than aU that was surveyed in the city for that 
 year, showing how large a part of the lumber sold 
 liere is not surveyed under our surveyor-general. 
 Formerly there was no hard pine obtained at the South 
 except what grew immedaitely upon the rivers. But 
 within five or six years the timber upon the margin of 
 the streams has become scarce, so that now it is con- 
 veyed for several miles to the rivers, and in some cases 
 is floated 300 miles to some sea-port, from whence it is 
 shipped to the North or to foreign ports. 
 
 The reciprocity treaty that has recently been effect- 
 ed between the United States and the British posses- 
 sions in North America is quite sure to increase our 
 lumber trade, as Canada and the other provinces 
 abound in this great staple. A few statistics will give 
 some idea of the wealth and activity of the British 
 provinces in this department. In 1832 the new ships 
 built in the British colonies, were of 32,778 tons bur- 
 den; while in 1841 the tonnage of the ships built 
 amounted to 108,038 tons, and in 1850 to 112,787 tons. 
 Most of these ships were built for the British market. 
 In the city of- Quebec, according to Andrews's Report 
 on Colonial and Lake Trade, there are about 25 ship- 
 building establishments, and 8 or 10 floating docks. 
 The vessels built there average from 500 to 1500 tons. 
 In 1849, 114 vessels were built in New Brunswick, of 
 36,534 tons burden. Most of the ships built in New 
 Brunswick are constructed in St. John and St. Andrews. 
 
 Domestic Exports of Lumber and Naval Stores frok 
 TUE United States. 
 
 Staves, shingles, boards, etc. 
 
 Other lumber 
 
 Masts and spars 
 
 Oak bark and dye 
 
 All manufactures of 
 
 Naval stores, tar, pitch, 
 
 rosin, etc 
 
 Asbes, pot and pearl 
 
 Total 
 
 (-2,518,149 
 12-3,T4.3 
 129,628 
 118,894 
 
 2,294,122 
 
 1,406,488 
 834,821 
 
 $6,986,345 
 
 $5,122,884 
 
 165,178 
 
 180,522 
 
 95,863 
 
 2,S3T,2T0 
 
 2,066,806 
 
 822,728 
 
 $10,740,701 
 
 1855. 
 
 $4, 
 
 609,665 
 677,659 
 306,643 
 99,168 
 ,688,420 
 
 ,049,456 
 
 448,499 
 
 $11,874,510 
 
 Of these exportations, more than half of the naval 
 stores go to England, and more than half of the lum- 
 ber to Cuba. 
 
 The ship-building interest alone of Massachusetts 
 consumes a vast amount of lumber. In 1837 the ves- 
 sels built in the State were estimated to be worth $1,- 
 370,649, and the agricultural and domestic articles 
 consuming lumber were worth $2,952,317. The per- 
 sons employed in this handiwork were 3950. The esti- 
 mated value of ships built in this State in 1854 was 
 $5,000,000. If the value of agricultural and other 
 articles requiring timber advanced in the " same ratio 
 the Value was fully $10,000,000 for that year. 
 
 There were built in the United States in 1854, 1774 
 vessels of all descriptions, with a tonnage of 535,636. 
 About a sixth of the value of the whole we find to 
 have been built in Massachusetts. The value of the 
 whole, then, in round numbers, may be stated at $30,- 
 000,000. It is true that the demand for vessels was 
 unusual, and the prices obtained the same. What de- 
 struction of forests was made bj' the ship-building of 
 that single year I 
 
 The lumber trade of this country is immense. It 
 costs $30,000,000 a year to build our ships, and we 
 may form some idea of the cost of all the buildings 
 erected in the countrj- for a year, and then of the cost 
 of aU other articles made of wood, and of the cost of 
 the lumber material required. 
 
 Statement snown^a the Expokts of I.tr.MBEa (Awn to 
 
 WHAT COUNTKIES EXPORTED) FROM THE UWITHD StATB« 
 
 foe the Year ending June SOtii, 1856. 
 
 WMthcr exported. 
 
 I on the Bal- 1 
 
 tie & North Seas. ) 
 
 Sweden and Norway 
 
 Swedish- West Indies 
 
 Danish West Indies.. 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Other German ports. 
 
 Holland 
 
 Dutch West Indies,. 
 
 Dutch Ouiano. 
 
 Dutch East Indies, . , 
 
 Belgium 
 
 England 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Ireland 
 
 Gibraltar. 
 
 Malta 
 
 Canada 
 
 Other Br. N. A. pes, , 
 British West Indies,, 
 
 British Honduras 
 
 British Guiana 
 
 British pos, in Africa 
 
 British Australia 
 
 New Zealand 
 
 British East Indies.. 
 France on the Atlan 
 France on the Med. . 
 French N. Amer.pos. 
 French W, Indies, , . 
 French Guiana, , . 
 Spain on the Atlantic 
 Spain on the Medit. 
 
 Canary Islands 
 
 Philippine Islands., 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Porto Blco., , , 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Madeira 
 
 Cape de Verd Islands 
 
 Azores 
 
 Sardinia , ,' 
 
 Hewn timber. 
 
 80 
 
 "887 
 12,161 
 8,116 
 1,113 
 
 781 
 
 6,525 
 
 841 
 
 Two Sicilies 
 
 Austria 
 
 Turkey in Europe, , 
 
 Turkey in Asia 
 
 Other ports in Africa 
 
 Hayti 
 
 San Domingo 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Central Kepublio 
 
 New Granada 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Uruguay 
 
 Buenos Ayres 
 
 Chill. 
 
 Peru 
 
 Ecuador ., 
 
 Sandwich Islands 
 
 Cliina, 
 
 Whale Fisheries 
 
 Total [84,! 
 
 T8 
 1,619 
 
 305 
 879 
 
 20 
 
 646 
 600 
 
 600 
 
 ■7^664 
 84,287 
 22,183 
 
 8,097 
 
 2,616 
 
 46,667 
 
 2,661 
 
 . 1. 
 li;726 
 
 1,360 
 
 8,225 
 6,105 
 
 6^636 
 1,561 
 
 4,671 
 5,168 
 
 1,190 
 4,400 
 
 Other i^*** ^^rk^All nuuiu- 
 
 ,„„, and ot]ier,Cacturea of 
 
 Inmber, I j^, | ^^^ 
 
 Uoilara. DoUars, Collars, - 
 
 728 
 1,464 
 18,252 
 
 24^164 
 
 196 
 
 4,185 
 
 1,270 
 
 9,884 
 
 76,986 
 
 140 
 
 665 
 
 897 
 
 14,816 
 9,065 
 4,027 
 166 
 600 
 3,578 
 21,660 
 
 12,581 
 
 98,657 
 
 18,199 
 
 ITS 
 
 2S8 
 
 86 
 
 11,144 
 
 16,711 
 
 1,140 
 
 S6i',286 
 12,861 
 41 
 860 
 46 
 46 
 
 1,799 
 8,085 
 
 6,050 
 
 8^080 
 
 2,259 
 
 7,685 
 
 11,782 
 
 1,972 
 
 2,000 
 
 4,830 
 
 24,298 
 
 16,763 
 
 6,194 
 9,934 
 
 10,289 
 
 50,073 
 6,665 
 
 10,805 
 464 
 
 16,278 
 5,676 
 
 163 
 
 665 
 '5i4 
 
 200 
 400 
 
 140 
 
 647 
 
 918 
 
 20,71T 
 
 80,66S 
 
 4,381 
 2,379 
 4,848 
 
 162,788 
 
 18,185 
 
 110 
 
 1/ 
 
 448 
 
 280,682 
 
 67,198 
 
 62,489 
 
 8,578 
 
 8,916 
 
 10,480 
 
 218,190 
 
 618 
 
 12,444 
 
 27,265 
 
 1,791 
 
 8,106 
 
 217 
 
 1,468 
 
 458 
 
 527 
 
 62 
 
 1,900 
 
 1,127,884 
 
 107,241 
 
 4,706 
 
 610 
 
 1,120 
 
 "408 
 
 "824 
 
 "800 
 
 ,110 
 
 23,426 
 
 11,202 
 
 102 
 
 16,286 
 
 8,149 
 23,961 
 18,660 
 87,848 
 
 6,811 
 24,660 
 88,881 
 19,326 
 
 23',9il 
 8,328 
 62,880 
 
 284,969, 803,6841 121,030,2,501,688 
 
 Lute, a substance used for making vessels or appara- 
 tus air-tight, by closing the apertures of their joints, or 
 for coating, so as to enable them to bear a higher tem- 
 perature, or for repairing a fracture. Clay is the basis 
 of many lutes; whence the term, from lutum, clay. 
 Among the principl lutes are Stowerhridge clay, in fine 
 powder, made into a paste with water ; Windsor loam, 
 a natural mixture of clay and sand ; Willis's lute, a 
 thin paste made of a solution of borax, in boiling wa- 
 ter, with slacked lime. Mixtures of borax and clay 
 also form useful lutes. What is called fai lute is a 
 mixture of pipe-clay with drying linseed-oil. Caustic 
 lime furnishes, by admixture with orther bodies, a va- 
 riety of lutes. A mixture of lime and white of egg, or 
 glue, forms a powerful cement. Iron cement is useful 
 for maldng joints tight, as is also white lead ground up 
 with oil land spread on strips of cloth. Among the 
 other substances used as lutes, may be mentioned 
 moistened bladder, paste, and paper ; paper prepared 
 with a mixture of wax and turpentine, linseed-meal, 
 and caoutchouc. The last named substance is in exten- 
 
LYO 
 
 1294 
 
 LYO 
 
 sive use for making chemical joints or elastic connectors, 
 getting rid of that rigidity which, in a cornplicated 
 arrangement of apparatus is so liable to lead to accident. 
 
 Luie^ a stringed instrument of music, long since su- 
 perseded by the harp and the guitar, but for centuries 
 very fashionable in Europe. The music for the lute 
 was written in tablature. 
 
 Luxury. The instances of extravagance and lux- 
 nrj- are numerous in the history of almost all countries, 
 ancient and modem, and many laws-have been enforced 
 to repress thenl. Horace mentions fowls dressed in 
 Falerniari wine, muscles and oj'sters from the Lucrine 
 lake and Circean promontory, and black game from 
 the Umbrian forests. — Lardiier. LncuUus, at Rome, 
 was distinguished for the immoderate expenses of his 
 ■meals. His halls were named from the diflferent gods ; 
 and when Cicero and Pompey attempted to surprise 
 hiiri, they were amazed by the costliness of a supper 
 which had been prepared upon the word of Lucullus, 
 who merelj' ordered his attendants to serve in the hall 
 of Apollo. This feast for three persons casually met 
 would have sufficed for 300 nobles specially invited. 
 In England, Inxurj' was restricted by law, wherein 
 the prelates and nobility were confined to two courses 
 every meal, and two kinds of food in every course, ex- 
 cept on great festivals. The law also prohibited all 
 who did not enjoy a free estate of £100 per annum 
 from wearing furs (see -Furs), skins, or silks : and the 
 use of foreign cloth was confined to the royal family 
 alone : to all others it was prohibited A. D. 1337. An 
 edict was issued by Charles VI. of France, which said : 
 " Let no man presume to treat with more than a soup 
 and two dishes." 1340. — Haydn^ 
 
 Lying-to. A nautical term denoting the state of 
 the ship when the sails are so disposed as to counteract 
 each other, and thereby retard or destroy the progress- 
 ive motion of the vessel. The fore and main stay-sails 
 and mizzen try-sail serve very well for this purpose, 
 as they cause but little way, and have sufficient power 
 to keep the ship heeled over, and therefore steady, 
 with her decks turned from the sea. When the sea 
 runs very high, the lower sails are liable to be be- 
 calmed by the waves, and therefore to suifer the ship 
 to roU to windward ; the maintop-sail is then used. 
 
 Lyons (Fr. Lyon^ ancient Lugdunum), the capital of 
 the French Department of Rhone, and till recently 
 ranking, in point of population and commercial im- 
 portance, as the second city of the empire ; but the 
 last census returns show that in the former of these re- 
 spects it has been exceeded by Marseilles, It is situ- 
 ated at the junction of the Sa6ne with the Rh6ne, and 
 on the Paris and Marseilles Railway, 316 miles from 
 the former, and 218 from the latter city ; lat. 45° 45' 
 45" N., long. 4° 49' 33" E. ; elevatiort abovS the level 
 of the sea, 963 feet. The Rivers Rhone and Saone be- 
 ing both navigable, it enjoys great facilities for trade ; 
 but it is as a manufacturing city that it is chiefly cel- 
 ebrated ; and in this respect it is justly entitled to the 
 name of the French Manchester. The staple articles 
 of manufacture are silk stuffs of all descriptions, and 
 which for richness and beauty are linequaled. In 
 this manufacture about 100,000 of the population are 
 either actively or indirectly concerned. There are no 
 exact statistics of the silk manufacture at Lj-ons ; but 
 the following extract from a letter by the President of 
 the Chamber of Commerce at Lyons, dated December 
 19, 1853, is said to give veiy nearly the exact results : 
 " During the present year, and the two preceding, the 
 manufacturers of silk at Lyons have employed about 
 60,000 machines (metiers), scattered over a district of 
 about 40 miles. These machines have consumed about 
 2,500,000 kilogrammes of silk (5,500;OOD lbs.), valued 
 at 160,000,000 francs ($32,000,000) ; and the manufac- 
 
 tured stuffs at 250,000,000 francs ($50,000,000). It is 
 estimated that the home consumption amounts to one 
 fourth or one third of that quantity. The balance is ex- 
 ported to all parts of the civilized world ; but by far 
 the largest foreign market is found in the United 
 States." The silk manufacture in Lyons is not carried 
 on in large factories, but on the domestic system, in 
 the dwellings of the master-weavers, each of which 
 has usually from two to six or eight looms, which, with 
 their fittings, are generally his own property. Him- 
 self and as many of his family as can work are em- 
 ployed on these looms, and frequently also one or more 
 compagnnns, or journej-men. The number of master- 
 weavers in the citj' and suburbs is estimated to be 
 about 9000. The silk merchants, of whom there are 
 about 600 in Lyons, supply the silk and patterns to 
 the owners of looms, who are Intrusted with the task 
 of producing the web in a finished state. The weav- 
 ing population, though earning comparatively good 
 wages, are an ignorant and degraded race, living, in a 
 disgracefully filthy state, and showing little desire to 
 iraprove'their condition. Few of the journeymen ever 
 raise themselves to be master-weavers. The silk manu- 
 facture was established here by Italian refugees in the 
 middle of the 15th century. It was nearly ruined by 
 the revocation of the edict of Nantes, which dispersed 
 most of its best workmen to Spitalfields, Amsterdam, 
 Crefeld, and other places. Lyons has numerous dye- 
 works, printing establishments, founderies, glass- 
 works, potteries tan-yards, breweries, chemical worEs, 
 boat-building 3'ards, etc. ; but these are all insignifi- 
 cant compared with its chief branch of industry. The 
 commerce carried on by means of the rivers is very 
 considerable. The town is built principally on the 
 tongue of land, or peninsula, between the Rhone and 
 Saone, each of wliich is crossed by eight or nine 
 bridges communicating with extensive suburbs lying 
 to the east and west. The old portion of Lyons con- 
 sists chiefly of narrow, crooked, and dirty streets, 
 rendered dark and gloomy by the great height of the 
 houses on each side,- which are generally seven or 
 eight stories high. About three fourths of a century 
 ago, the point of confluence of the two rivers was re- 
 moved about a mile further south, and on the addition- 
 al territory thus acquired the suburb of Perrache was 
 formed. This has been laid out on a regular plan,'and 
 now contains many elegant streets and some very 
 agreeable promenades. The suburb of La Croix 
 Eousse, to the north of the town, and that of Four- 
 vieres, on the right bank of the Saone, are chiefly in- 
 hibited by silk- weavers. Those of Brotteaux and 
 Guillotifere are on the left bank of the Rhone. The 
 best view of the town and neighborhood is obtained 
 from the summit of the steep hill of Fourviferes, on 
 the right bank of the Saone. The fortifications of 
 Lyons consist of 18 detached forts, arranged in a 
 circle of 12^ miles around the town, crowning the 
 heights of St. Croix and Fourvi^res, and of Croix 
 Rousse, above the suburb of that name, and including 
 in its circuit the suburbs of Brotteaux and Guillotiere. 
 These fortifications are required more to quell insur- 
 rections among the inhabitants than to withstand at- 
 tacks from without. In 1831, 1834, and 1837, formid- 
 able riots took place, in which many lives were lost. 
 Both banks of the Saone and the left bank of the 
 Rhone are lined with quays, some of which are planted 
 with trees, and afford verj' agreeable promenades. 
 
 In the revolution of 1793, the people of Lj'ons hav- 
 ing declared against th" revolutionary part}-, the city 
 was taken by the conventional army after a seige of up- 
 ward of two months, and almost reduced to ruins. It 
 suffered severely from the inundations of its two rivers 
 in June, 1856. Population in 1851, 156,169.— E. B. 
 
MAC 
 
 1296 
 
 MAC 
 
 M. 
 
 Macadam, John Iioudon, tbe introducer of 
 macadamized road-making, was descended from an old 
 and respectable family in Kirkcudbrightshire, and was 
 bom in Ayrshire, Scotland, in 1766. His plan of road 
 improvement occurred to him when acting as trustee 
 for a district of roads in Ayrshire, and was first carried 
 into practice on the Bristol roads, of which he had 
 been appointed Burveyor-getieral in 1815. He ex- 
 plained his system fully in two works — A Practical 
 Essay on the Scientijic Repair ami Preservation of Pub- 
 lic Roads, London, 1819 ; and Remarks on the present 
 State of Road-making, London, 1820. In 1827 he was 
 appointed general surveyor of roads ; and for the large 
 sums which he expended while performing the duties 
 of this office, he was afterward compensated by two 
 grants- from government, amounting together to £10,- 
 000. The honor of knighthood, which he declined, 
 was conferred upon his sou in 1834. Macadam died in 
 1836. 
 
 IIAaoao, a sea-port and settlement belonging to the 
 Portuguese, on the island of the same name, at the 
 mouth of the Canton River, in China, in lat. 22° 12' 
 46" N., long. 113° 35' E. The situation of Macao 
 strikingly resembles that of Cadiz. It is built near 
 the extremity of a peninsula projecting from the 
 south-west comer of the island of Macao, to which it 
 is joined by a long narrow neck. Across this isthmus, 
 which is not more than 100 yards wide, a wall is 
 erected, with a gate and guard-house in the middle for 
 ,the Chinese soldiers. The greatest length of the 
 peninsula belonging to the Portuguese, from north- 
 east to south-west, is under three miles, and its breadth 
 nnder half a mile. The broadest part, to the north of 
 the town, is flat, and of a light, sandy soil ; but is 
 well cultivated, principally b\' Chinese, and produces 
 all sorts of Asiatic and European culinary vegetables. 
 Provisions are obtained from the Chinese part of the 
 island or from the main land; and whenever the 
 Portuguese do any thing to offend the Chinese au- 
 thorities, the provisions are cut off till thej' are 
 obliged quietly to submit. They are seldom allowed to 
 pass beyond the narrow precincts of the territory 
 assigned to them. The population of the peninsula 
 may amount to from 12,000 to 13,000, of whom consid- 
 erably more than half are Chinese. The functionaries 
 belonging to the East India Company's factory at 
 Canton resided here during the whole of the dead 
 season. The Portuguese obtained possession of Macao 
 in 1686. It was for a considerable period the seat of a 
 great trade carried on not only with China, but with 
 Japan, Siam, Cochin-China, the Philippine Islands, 
 etc. ; but for these manj- years past it has been of 
 comparatively little importance, though it is probable 
 that, if it belonged to a more enterprising and active 
 people, it might still recover most part of its former 
 prosperity. The public administration is vested in a 
 senate composed of the bishop, the judge, and a few of 
 the principal inhabitants ; but all real authority is in 
 the hands of the Chinese mandarin resident in the 
 town. 
 
 The harbor is on the west side of the town, between 
 it and Priest's Island ; but the water in it not being 
 sufficiently deep to admit large ships, they generally 
 anchor in the roads on the other side of the peninsula, 
 from five to ten miles east south-east from the town. 
 All vessels coming into the roads send their boats to 
 the Portuguese custom-house on the south side of the 
 town. When a ship arrives among the islands, she is 
 generally boarded by a pilot, who carries her into 
 Macao roads. As soon as she is anchored, the pilot 
 proceeds to Macao to inform the mandarin of the 
 nation she belongs to. If there be any women on 
 
 board, application must be made to the bishop and 
 senate for leave to send them on shore, as they will 
 not be permitted to proceed to Whampoa in the 
 ship. As soon as the mandarin has made the neces- 
 sary inquiries, he orders off a river pilot, who brings 
 with him a chop or license to pass the Bocea Tigris, or 
 mouth of the Canton Kiver, and carries the ship to 
 Whampoa. 
 
 The Chinese regulations do not permit any vessels, 
 except such as belong to Portuguese or Spaniards, of 
 which there are very few, to trade at Macao. But the 
 Portuguese inhabitants lend their names, for a trifling 
 consideration, to such foreigners as wish to be associ- 
 ated with them for the purpose of trading from the 
 port. Independently, however, of this, vessels of 
 other nations usually experience no difficulty in ob- 
 taining the connivance of the Chinese officers to the 
 landing or receiving of goods in the roads by means 
 of Portuguese ' boats. At intervals the prohibitory 
 regulation is strictly enforced. Vessels of other na- 
 tions, if in distress, and not engaged in the contraband 
 trade, are admitted into the harbor for repairs, on ap- 
 plication to the senate. 
 
 The following summary exhibits the direct trade 
 between the United States and Macao during the 
 years 1854 and 1856 — the 'latter j-earup to March 6th: 
 Arrived, 3 barks and 1 ship, measuring 1828 tons, 
 laden with rice, sundries, salt provisions, and miscel- 
 laneous goods. The return cargoes were chiefly 
 Coolies. 
 
 Port Charges. — The measurement duty paid by 
 Spanish and Portuguese vessels is moderate. When 
 a vessel has once paid the full amount, and is admitted 
 on the list of registered ships belonging to the port 
 (limited by the Chinese to 25^, she is liable only to a 
 third of theoriginal charges, on everj' subsequent oc- 
 casion of her entering, so long as she continues on the 
 register. Portuguese vessels from Europe do not pos- 
 sess this privilege, unless they be registered as belong- 
 ing to a morador of Macao. The rates of. measure- 
 ment duty, which varj^, as at Canton (which see), on 
 three classes of vessels, are the following ; On vessels 
 of 154 covids and upward, 6'223 taels per covid ; on 
 vessels from 120 to 154 covids, 5:72 taels per covid ; 
 on vessels from 90 to 120 covids, 4 taels per covid. 
 
 These rates are nearly the same as those levied on 
 Canton junlcs trading with foreign countries, and 
 ought, in fact, to be entirely so. The dimensions are 
 taken and calculated in the manner formerly practiced 
 at Canton ; but the Chinese, at both places, speak not 
 of the covid, but of the chang of 10 covids. However, 
 as this is only a decimal increase, it makes no differ- 
 ence in the method of calculation. The following ad- 
 ditional charges, to be calculated on the amount of 
 measurement duty, are the same on every class of ves- 
 sels, viz.: 2 per cent, for inspectors; 8 per cent, for 
 difference in weight by the treasury scales ; 10 per 
 cent, for loss in melting; -17 per cent, for making 
 sycee. Also the sum of 70 taels for the " public 
 purse," or hoppo's treasury. 
 
 In addition to these, the following are the charges 
 levied by the hoppo (collector of customs), or his 
 deputy : On a 1st class vessel from Europe, 250 taels ; 
 if belonging to Macao or Manilla, 60 taels. On a 2d 
 class vessel from Europe, 240 taels ; if belonging to 
 Macao or Manilla, 40 taels. On a 3d class vessel from 
 Europe, 170 taels ; if belonging to Ma<;ao or Manilla, 
 30 taels. Ships importmg rice are exempt from the 
 measurement dutj', and pay only $50, as fees to the 
 procurador of Macao and the officers of his depart- 
 ment. Portuguese vessels from Europe, in addition to 
 the measurement duty, have to pay to the Canton 
 
MAO 
 
 1296 
 
 MAC 
 
 hong merchants a charge, termed by the Portuguese, 
 Hanistagem, or Consoo charge, which is usually a 
 matter of specific bargain, varying from about $200 
 on a vessel of 200 tons to $3500 and upward on those 
 of 500 tons, and of larger sizes. The charges on 
 goods carried by the inner passage, between Canton 
 and Macao, being generally less than those paid on 
 gsods to and from Whampoa ; and the duties levied 
 by the Portuguese, on articles of merchandise imported 
 by vessels belonging to Macao, being very moderate ; 
 the Chinese are often led to engage in speculations 
 on board the Macao vessels, the risk being so much 
 less than in native junks. If the ship owners could 
 manage their expenses so as to be satisfied with only 
 the same freight as is charged by English vessels, it 
 would probablj' induce many more Chinese to make 
 remittances in this way. 
 
 Opium. — The trade in opium is prohibited at Macao 
 by the Chinese government, as well as throughout the 
 rest of the empire. It was, nevertheless, formerly 
 carried on to a great extent bj' the Portuguese mora- 
 dores, or citizens, to the exclusion of all others, even 
 Portuguese who were not citizens. But this restric- 
 tion, having occasioned the decline of the trade, it was 
 abolished in 1823, when the senate passed a regulation 
 throwing open the trade to all, without distinction, 
 whether Portuguese or foreigners ; securing to the 
 latter " hospitality and the utmost freedom in the 
 speculations." At present, however, very little opium 
 is imported, in consequence, it is said, of the heavy 
 bribes demanded by the Chinese officers, to insure 
 their connivance. The trade is now principally car- 
 ried on at Lintin, about 30 miles from Macao. 
 
 Imports. — Goods imported pay at the Portuguese, 
 custom-house a duty of 6 per cent, on a fixed valua- 
 tion, besides some fees, and Coolie hire. The follow- 
 ing are a few articles extracted from the tariff : 
 
 Cotton per picul 
 
 Broad cloth, middling • per covid 
 
 " better than ordinary '' 
 
 " ordinary or coarse. ' 
 
 Camlets ' 
 
 Betel nut per picul 
 
 Tin " 
 
 Birds' nests, 1st sort per catty 22-400 
 
 Rattans per picul 1-: 
 
 Saltpetre, Bengal " 4 
 
 " coastofGoa " 1-600 
 
 Pepper " 4 
 
 Opium imported in Portuguese ships, per chest 
 
 » " foreign ships " 
 
 TneU. 
 
 4 
 
 1.600 
 
 0-800 
 
 0-480 
 
 1-280 
 
 1-200 
 
 Diity. 
 
 Tads. 
 0-240 
 0-098 
 0-048 
 0-028 
 0-016 
 0-0T2 
 0-480 
 1-844 
 0-072 
 2-240 
 0-096 
 0-240 
 
 lOi drs. 
 
 16i " 
 
 Gold and silver, whether in coin, in bullion, or manu- 
 factured, pay, on importation, 2 per cent. ; except in 
 Spanish vessels from Manilla, when the charge is IJ 
 per cent. 
 
 Exports.— 'So duty is levied by the Portuguese on 
 goods exported from Macao ; nor does the custom- 
 bouse take any cognizance of them. 
 
 Duties and Chairges on Goods landed at Macao. — 
 Macao is a place without any manufactures or com- 
 merce of its own. Prices are, in consequence, gener- 
 ally dependent on those of Canton. Money is usually 
 paid at 72 taels per $100. It is a point of some in- 
 terest to ascertain the internal duties and expenses to 
 which goods landed at Macao are liable before coming 
 into the Chinese purchaser's hands at Canton. ^ But 
 the subject is so involved in mystery and uncertainty, 
 the charges varying according to the quantity of goods 
 laden in one boat, etc., that it is scarcely possible to 
 arrive at any accurate information respecting it. We 
 believe, however, that the following may be consid- 
 ered as a pretty close approximation to the real 
 amount of charges incurred on cotton landed at 
 Macao : 
 
 Portuguese duty, fees, etc., 2-6 mace per picul ; 
 duties and charges on conveyance to Canton,^ 6-3 
 mace per picul ; Canton charges, difference of weight. 
 
 brokerage on sale, etc., 8 mace per picul ; total, about 
 2 taels 6-9 mace. The duties and charges on convey- 
 ance from Macao to Canton are, for pepper, 9 mace per 
 picul ; rattans, 4-5 mace per picul ; betel nut, 4-5 
 mace per picul. 
 
 The hoppo's examiner charges 90 taels per boat of 
 1000 piculs, the largest quantity allowed to be con- 
 veyed by a single boat ; but the same charge of 90 
 taels is levied, although the boat should only contain 
 100 piculs. The duty on exporting goods from Can- 
 ton to Macao is in some cases less, in other cases 
 greater, than the Whampoa duty. Thus, nankeens to 
 Macao pay $2 per 100 less than to Whampoa. Most 
 descriptions of silk piece goods also pay less duty. 
 On the other hand, tea, paper, China ware, etc., pay 
 a higher duty to Macao than to Whampoa. 
 
 For details aa to the WeigJits, Measures, etc., used at 
 Macao, see Canton. 
 
 For further particulars, see Hamilton's East India 
 Gazetteer, art. Macao ; Milbdkn's Orient. Com. ; and 
 the Anglo-Chinese Kalendar Companion to the Almanac, 
 Macao, 1832. 
 
 Macaroni, a species of wheaten paste formed into 
 long, slender, hollow tubes, used among us dressed 
 with cheese, and in soups, broths, etc. Macaroni is 
 the same substance as vermicelli ; the only difference 
 between them being that the latter is made into 
 smaller tubes. Both of them are prepared in the 
 greatest perfection in Naples, where they form the 
 favorite dish of all classes, and the principal food of 
 the bulk of the population. The flour of the hard 
 wheat (grano duro) imported from the Black Sea is the 
 best suited for the manufacture of macaroni. Being 
 mixed with water, it is kneaded by means of heavy 
 wooden blocks wrought by levers, till it acquires a 
 sufficient degree of tenacity ; it is then forced, by 
 simple pressure, through a number of holes, so con- 
 trived that it is formed into hollow cylinders. The 
 name given to the tubes depends on their diameter ; 
 those of the largest size being macaroni, the next to 
 them vermicelli, and the smallest fedelini. At Genoa, 
 and some other places, the paste is colored by an ad- 
 mixture of saffron ; but at Naples, where its prepara- 
 tion is best understood, nothing is used except flour 
 and water ; the best being made of the flour of hard 
 wheat, and the inferior sorts of the flour of soft wheat. 
 When properly prepared and boiled to a nicety, 
 Neapolitan macaroni assumes a greenish tinge. It is 
 then taken out of the caldron, drained of the water, 
 and being saturated with concentrated meat gravy, 
 and sprinkled with finely-grated cheese, it forms a 
 dish of which all classes, from the prince to the beg- 
 gar, are passionately fond. But the macaroni used by 
 the poor is merely boiled in plain water, and is rarely 
 eaten with any condiment whatever. The macaroni 
 usually served up in England is said, by those familiar 
 with that of Naples, to be a disgrace to the name it 
 bears. When properly prepared, macaroni is nutri- 
 tious and easy of digestion. 'The lazzaroni pique 
 themselves on the dexterity with which they swallow 
 long strings of macaroni and vermicelli -without break- 
 ing them. 
 
 Mace (Ger. ' jlfaos, Musiaieribluthe ; Du. Foelie, 
 Fody, Muscaatbloom ; Fr. Mads, Fleur de muscade; 
 It. Mace ; Sp. Macio ; Port. Maxcis, Flor de noz mos- 
 cada; Lat. Macis), a thin, flat, membranous substance, 
 enveloping the nutmeg ; of a lively, reddish yellow 
 color, a pleasant aromatic smell, and a warm, bitter- 
 ish, pungent taste. Mace should be chosen fresh, 
 tough, oleaginous, of an extremely fragrant smell, 
 and a bright color — ^the brighter the better. The 
 smaller pieces are esteemed the best. The preferable 
 mode of packing is in bales, pressed down close and 
 firm, which preserves its fragrance and consistence. 
 It is imported from the Moluccas, where the best is to 
 be found. The import trade in mace for home con- 
 sumption in Great Britain for three years ending with 
 
MAD 
 
 1297 
 
 MAD 
 
 31st December, 1856, was : in 1854, 25,584 lbs. ; in 
 1855, 28,563 lbs. ; in 1856, 27,299 lbs. The present 
 (1857) duty on mace imported into Great Britain is Is. 
 per lb. A production is met with on the coast of 
 Malabar, so like mace, that at first it is not easy to be 
 distinguished ; but it has not the least flavor of spici- 
 ness, and when chewed has a kind of resiny taste. 
 
 Statement showing the Imports op Mace into the 
 United States for tub Fisoal Year ending Jxtne 
 SOtii, 1856. 
 
 Whence imported. Pounds. DollArs. 
 
 Holland 8,543 4,981 
 
 Dutch "West Indies 640 17T 
 
 Dutch East Indies 4,624 1,818 
 
 EUgland , 6,244 8,408 
 
 British 'West Indies... 8 8 
 
 British East Indies 28,826 18,496 
 
 China. ISO 81 
 
 Total 44,418 28,909 
 
 Machinery. The effects produced upon the world 
 by the interposition and general use of machinery, are 
 very important. Serious obstacles were at first pre- 
 sented and objections made . by the masses, upon the 
 ground that the use of machinery was opposed to the 
 interests of labor. Gradually these objections wore 
 away, it being found that there was, and still is, em- 
 ployment for all classes, even with the extraordinarj- 
 facilities added by the manj' improvements in machin- 
 ery. These questions have been fully discussed by 
 some of the ablest writers in England and the United 
 States. As to the " effects of machinery and accu- 
 mulations," see £din. Rev., xxxv., p. 102, Ivi., 313; 
 Qimr. Rev., xxxi., 391 ; Fraser, viii., 167, ii., 419 ; 
 Am. Monthlt/, iii., 24 ; Westm. Rev., v., 101, xiv., 191 ; 
 North Am. Rev., xxxiv., 220, xiv., 401 ; Am. Quar., 
 xii., 300. 
 
 Macintosh Cloth. The manufacture of the 
 Macintosh cloth is a singular one. The material is 
 merely two layers of cotton cemented with liquid 
 India-rubber ; but the junction is so well effected, that 
 the three become, to all intents and purposes, one. The 
 stout and well-woven cotton cloth is coiled upon a 
 horizontal beam, like the yam beam of a loom ; and 
 from this it is stretched out in a tight state and a near- 
 1}' horizontal position. A layer of liquid, or rather 
 paste-like, solution is applied with a spatula, to a con- 
 siderable thickness, and the cloth is drawn under a 
 knife edge, which scrapes the solution and diffuses it 
 equally over every part of the cloth, which may be 
 30 or 40 yards long. The cloth is then extended out 
 on a horizontal framework to dry ; and, when dried, a 
 second coating is applied in a similar way ; and a third 
 and fourth may be similarly applied if necessary. 
 Two pieces, thus coated, are next placed face to face 
 with great care, to prevent creasing or distortion ; and, 
 being passed between two smooth wooden rollers, they 
 are so thoroughly pressed as to be made to unite dura- 
 bly and permanently. Cloth, thus cemented and 
 doubled and dried, may be cut and made into garments 
 which will bear many a rough trial and many a delug- 
 ing before rain or water can penetrate. 
 
 Madder (Ger. Farherothe ; Du. Mee ; Fr. Alizari, 
 Garance; It. Robhla; Sp. Granza, Rubia; Eus. Mari.- 
 tma, Krap ; Hind. MunjilK), the roots of a plant (Jlu- 
 bia tinctorum), of which there are several varieties. 
 They are long and slender, varying from the thickness 
 of a goose-quill to that of the little finger. They are 
 semi-transparent, of a reddish color, have a strong 
 smell, and a smooth bark. Madder is very exten- 
 sively used in dyeing red ; and though the color which 
 it imparts be less bright and beautiful than that of 
 cochineal, it has the advantage of being cheaper and 
 more durable. It is a native of the south of Europe, 
 Asia Minor, and India ; but has been long since intro- 
 duced into and successfully cultivated ■ in Holland, 
 Alsace, Provence, etc. Its cultivation has been at- 
 tempted in England, but without any beneficial result. 
 Our supplies of madder were, for a lengthened period, 
 4N 
 
 almost entirely derived from Holland (Zealand) ; but 
 large quantities are now imported from France and 
 Turkey. Dutch or Zealand madder is never exported 
 except in u prepared or manufactured state. It is 
 divided by commercial men into four qualities, distin- 
 guished by the terms mull, gamea, ombro, and crops. 
 The roots being dried in stoves, the first species, or 
 mull, consists of a powder formed by pounding the 
 very small roots, and the husk or bark of the larger 
 ones. It is comparatively low priced, and is employed 
 for dyeing cheap dark colors. A second pounding 
 separates about a third part of the larger roots ; and 
 this, being sifted and packed separately, is sold here 
 under the name of gamene, or gemeens. The third 
 and last pounding comprehends the interior, pure, and 
 bright part of the roots, and is sold in Holland under 
 the name of hop kraps, but is here simply denominated 
 crops. Sometimes, however, after the mull has been 
 separated, the entire residue is ground, sifted, and 
 packed together, under the name of onberoo/de, or om- 
 bro. It consists of about one third of gamene, and 
 two thirds of crops. Prepared madder should be kept 
 dry. It attracts the moisture of the atmosphere, and 
 is injured by it. The Smyrna or Levant madder 
 {Rubia peregrlna), the alizari or lizary of the modem 
 Greeks, is cultivated in Boeotia, along the border of 
 Lake Copais, and in the plain of Thebes. It also 
 grows in large quantities at Kurdar near Smyrna, and 
 in Cj'prus. The madder of Provence has been raised 
 from seeds carried from the latter in 1761. Turkey 
 madder affords, when properly prepared, a brighter 
 color than that of Zealand. It is, however, imported 
 in its natural state, or as roots : the natives, by whom 
 it is chiefly produced, not having industry or skill 
 sufficient to prepare it like the Zealanders, by pound- 
 ing and separating the skins and inferior roots ; so 
 that, the finer coloring matter of the larger roots being 
 degraded by the presence of that derived from the 
 former, a peculiar process is required to evolve that 
 beautiful Turkej- red which is so highly and deserved- 
 ly esteemed. — Thomson's Chemistry; Bancroft on 
 Colors, vol. ii., pp. 221-278 ; see also Bechmawn, Hist, 
 of Invent., vol. iii., art. Madder. 
 
 In France, madder is prepared nearly in the same 
 manner as in Zealand. The following details are in 
 regard to its cultivation, price, etc., in Provence. 
 
 This town (Avignon) is the centre of the madder 
 country, the cultivation of which was introduced here 
 about the middle of the 18th century, and, with the 
 exception of Alsace, is still confined (in France) to 
 this Department (Vaucluse). The soil appears to be 
 better adapted for its cidtivation here than anywhere 
 else, and it has long been the source of great wealth 
 to the cultivators. Of late years, however, the prices 
 have fluctuated so much, that many proprietors have 
 abandoned, or only occasionally cultivated this root, 
 so that the crop, which was . formerly estimated to 
 average 500,000 quintals, is now supposed not to ex- 
 ceed from 300,000 to 400,000, The root is called ali- 
 zari, and the powder (made from it) garance. The 
 plant is raised from seed, and requires three years to 
 come to maturity. It is, however, often pulled in 18 
 months without injurj'' to quality ; the quantity only 
 is smaller. A rich soil is necessary for its successful 
 cultivation; and when the soil is impregnated with 
 alkaline matter, the root acquires a red color ; in other 
 cases it is yellow. The latter is preferred in England, 
 from the long habit of using Dutch madder, which is 
 of this color ; but in France the red sells at 2 francs 
 per quintal higher, being used for the Turkey red dye. 
 It is calculated that when wheat sells at 20 francs per 
 hectolitre, alizari should bring 35 francs per quintal 
 (poids de table), to give the same remuneration to the 
 cultivator. That is, wheat 63s. per English quarter, 
 and alizari 34s. per English cwt. The price has, how- 
 ever, been frequently' as low as 22 francs per quintal. 
 Prices undergo a revolution every 7 or 8 years, touch- 
 
MAD 
 
 1298 
 
 MAD 
 
 ing the minimum of 22, and riaing as high as 100 
 francs. As in every similar case, the high price in- 
 duces extensive cultivation, and this generally pro- 
 duces its full efiect 4 or 5 years after. The produce 
 of Alsace, which is inferior both in quantity and qual- 
 it}' to that of Vaucluse, is generally sold in Strasburg 
 market. England employs both the root and the pow- 
 der, according to the purpose for which they are in- 
 tended. The Dutch madder is more employed by the 
 woolen dyers, and the French by the cotton dyers and 
 printers. In making purchases of fforance, it is essen- 
 tial to employ a house of confldenee, because the qual- 
 ity depends entirely upon the care and honesty of th« 
 agent. The finest is produced from the roots after 
 being cleaned and stripped of their bark. The second 
 by grinding th« roots without cleaning. A third \>y 
 mixing the bark of ih& first while grinding ^ and eo on 
 to any degree of adulteration. 
 
 Statement Showing the Imports op Madder into the 
 United States fok the Fiscal Year ending June 
 SOtii, 1856. 
 
 Whenco importod. Founds. Dollnra. 
 
 Holland 4,266,822 881,807 
 
 Belgium 601,662 S4,972 
 
 England 134,668 10,800 
 
 Malta 7,750 480 
 
 British West Indies 30 2 
 
 France on the Atlantic 336 29 
 
 France on the MeditEr. .... 16,868,081 1,287,946 
 
 Turkey in Asia 68,122 6,819 
 
 Total 20,847,472 
 
 1,671,806 
 
 Madagascar, a large and important island in the 
 Indian Ocean, about 300 miles from the coast of Af- 
 rica, from which it is separated by the Mozambique 
 Channel. Cape Ambenr, its northern extremity'', is 
 situate in S. lat. 12°, -whence it extends southward, 
 slightly inclining to the west, about 937 English miles, 
 to Cape St. Mar}', in S. lat. 25° 40'. Its extreme 
 western shore is in E. long. 48° 10', a-nd its most 
 easterly cape in E. long. 50° 30'. The breadth of the 
 island increases gradually from the northern point to 
 the centre, where it is widest, being about 350 miles 
 across ; while the average breadth of the southern 
 portion is about 250 miles. It has been estimated to 
 contain 160,000,000 or even 200,000,000 acres of land ; 
 and though such estimates, in the absence of actual 
 measurements, can onlj' be regarded as approxima- 
 tions to its actual extent, its surface is equal to three 
 fourths of the territory of France, and larger than 
 Great Britain and Ireland combined. 
 
 The coasts of Madagascar contain a number of bays 
 and harbors, some of them spacious and sheltered, 
 and capable of affording excellent and secure anchor- 
 age for shipping of the largest dimensions. Among 
 these may be specified Diego Saurez Bay, or British 
 Sound, near the north-eastern extremity of the island ; 
 Port Loquez, Antongil Bay, and the Bay of St. Luce, 
 on the eastern coast. Samatave and Foule Point, 
 though the most frequented ports on this side of the 
 island, are only open roadsteads, protected by reefs of 
 coral. St. Augustine's Bay, a port of frequent resort 
 for vessels trading on the north-west coast and ships 
 engaged in the whale fishery, Tolia Bay, Boiana, Bam- 
 betoka, Majambo, Nareeuda, Pasandava, and Chun- 
 paj'kee Bays, are the most important on the western 
 coast. There are several small islands adjacent to the 
 northern shores of Madagascar, of which St. Mary's, 
 31 miles long, and 2 or 3 mUes broad, on the eastern 
 coast, and Nosibe, a somewhat larger and more com- 
 pact island, on the north-west coast are the most im- 
 portant. Both these small islands are now occupied 
 by the French— the latter having been tafc«n posses- 
 sion of by them in 1840. 
 
 The commerce of the island, though at present but 
 trifling, is capable of almost unlimited extension. The 
 chief articles of export are cattle, poultry, rice, rufia 
 cloth, matting ; a kind of grass hat, woven by hand, 
 light and durable; gums, and bees' wax. Cofi'ee 
 
 would grow well in many parts of the island ; indigo 
 might be produced to almost any extent ; and both 
 might furnish valuable articles of export. Good sugar 
 has been made, but at present the cane is only culti- 
 vated for purposes of food, or for distilling from its 
 juice a strong, fiers' sort of arrack, the use of which is 
 extended among the people, especially at the ports, 
 and threatens to produce the most disastrous conse- 
 quences. Other articles of export might be produced 
 in a country so fertile and extensive ; and rice might, 
 with but comparatively little additional labor, be raised 
 in much larger quantities than it is produced at pres- 
 ent. It is scarcely possible to conceive of a soil more 
 adapted for the cultivation of rice than that of many 
 parts of Madagascar, or more fertile than, in favorable 
 seasons, it often proves — a single bushel of seed yield- 
 ing, under the most skillful modes of culture, in a 
 favorable season, 100 bushels of grain. The crop, 
 when ripe, is reaped, dried, and thrashed on the 
 ground. Their process of thrashing consists in taking 
 up large handfulls of rice and straw, and beating the 
 ears on a stone or portion of rock fixed in the midst of 
 a dry, hard, thrashing-floor, prepared for that purpose 
 in some central spot easily accessible from the culti- 
 vated fields. When the grain is thrashed, it is carried 
 on the heads of slaves to the granaries of their owners. 
 These granaries vary in structure in diff"erent parts of 
 the island. On the eastern coast and to the south- 
 ward, the grain is stored in small houses raised on 
 posts, with projecting ledges, to prevent the access of 
 rats and mice. At the capital and some of the central 
 provinces, the rice is preserved in granaries built of 
 clay, in the form of a cone, with only one aperture on 
 the summit. Some of these granaries are built above 
 ground adjacent to the dwellings of their owners ; 
 others are constructed of the same form and dimen- 
 sions under ground— the aperture at the top, generally 
 about a foot below the surface, being covered with a 
 stone, and then the hollow filled up with earth com- 
 posing the surface of the court-yard, in which the 
 underground granary is usually sunk. Eice, by these 
 means, is often preserved for a great length of time in 
 excellent condition. With land so fertile and adapted 
 for the growth of such abundant crops of rice as the 
 plantations in the interior often yield, it might be 
 raised for exportation to almost any extent ; but the 
 absence of canals and public roads, and all means of 
 land carriage, precludes the possibility of conveying 
 the produce of many of the provinces to the sea-ports, 
 excepting in comparatively small quantities, and thus 
 impedes very materially the development of the re- 
 sources of the island. The government has been de- 
 terred from constructing or encouraging the formation 
 of public roads, from an apprehension of the facilities 
 they would aflrord to a hostile force invading the coun- 
 trj"- and seeking to penetrate the interior. The want 
 of good roads, therefore, though detrimental to their 
 commercial interests, is prefeiTed \>j them as a means 
 of security. This disadvantage might be, to a great 
 extent, compensated in some of the provinces by 
 greater attention to the means of carriage by water. 
 The late Eadama commenced the work of connecting 
 some of the principal lakes on the eastern coast by 
 means of a canal, but since his death the work has 
 been discontinued. Boats, better adapted for convey- 
 ing grain in larger quantities to the places adjacent to 
 the ports, and accessible bj' water, might be con- 
 structed, and would assist in augmenting the exports 
 from the island. Their imports are chiefly cotton and 
 woolen goods, wearing apparel, articles of domestic 
 use, fire-arms, ammunition, wines and liquors ; and to 
 these other articles will doubtless be added as theii 
 means of purchasing them increase. The Hovas, the 
 paramount race in the country, exhibit many of the 
 elements of a thoroughly commercial people ; keenness 
 in trade seems to be intuitive with many, and the love 
 of bartering almost a passion among all ; scarcely any 
 
MAD 
 
 1299 
 
 MAD 
 
 engagement interferes with tlie market, and malti- 
 tudes employ themselves in hawking goods of foreign 
 or domestic manufacture about the countrj' for sale. 
 In this occupation many persons of rank and property 
 employ their slaves, giving them a percentage on the 
 amount or the profit of their sales. The dealings of 
 the Hovas are seldom transactions of barter or ex- 
 change , but usually money purchases . The only coins 
 they use are Spanish dollars, and very recently five- 
 franc French pieces. For all the cattle exported, 
 these silver coins alone are received in payment. The 
 Malagasy have no native currency ; and for ordinary 
 use among themselves, the Spanish dollar is cut into 
 halves, quarters, eighths, and smaller portions, even 
 to the l-72d part of a dollar. The cut pieces of the 
 dollar are weighed in every instance, and a pair of 
 money scales with their appropriate iron weights, are 
 not only considered essential in everj' house, but are 
 often seen thrust into the girdles of the men when em- 
 ployed in their ordinary avocations, Money-changers 
 are a distinct class among the traders, and the rate at 
 which whole dollars and cut silyer are exchanged 
 fluctuates almost daily at the capital and other princi- 
 pal places, as the one or the other are most in demand. 
 In other parts of the island, especially those remote 
 from the capital or the ports visited by shipping, the 
 trade among the inhabitants is carried on to a great 
 extent by exchange, or .barter. , Several attempts 
 have been made by the foreign traders to induce the 
 natives to receive gold coin in payment for cattle and 
 other articles, but hitherto without success. The 
 Hovas are not ignorant of the relative value of gold 
 and silver, but at present seem only to value the 
 former for the manufacture of jewelry and other 
 articles of personal ornament. 
 
 Madeira. The Madeira Isles are a group in the 
 Atlantic Ocean, belonging to Portugal, from the south- 
 west coast of which they are distant 660 miles south- 
 west. They consist of the islands of Madeira and 
 Porto Santo, and the islands called the Desertas, situ- 
 ated between 32° 23' 15" and 33° 7' 50" N. lat., and 
 10° 13' 30" and 16° 38' W. long. The largest island, 
 Madeira, is 31 miles long and 12 miles broad. Popu- 
 lation, 1850, 108,464. Capital, Funchal. It consists 
 of a mass of volcanic rocks, which, in Pico Ruivo, rise 
 to 6056 feet in elevation. From the central mass, 
 steep ridges extend to the coast, where they form pre- 
 cipices of 1000 to 2000 feet in height. The only plains 
 are a small portion of the west coast, and the table- 
 land of Paul de Setra in the interior. The roads are 
 very steep and unfit for carriages. Oxen are theonly 
 beasts of draught, and ponies are used in traveling. 
 Climate remarkably equable, and celebrated for its 
 salubrity, on which account numerous visitors, afflicted 
 with disease of tlie lungs, constantly resort to Madeira. 
 The soil, which on the south side extends 2^ miles 
 inland, is well watered, and extremelj' productive. 
 Sugar, once extensively cultivated, is now neglected. 
 Cofi'ee is grown of superior quality, and the arrow-root 
 is excellent. The orange, banana, and guava, are 
 abundant. Wheat, maize, beans, and barley, are cul- 
 tivated to a small extent, but quite insufficient for 
 home consumption. The failure of the potato, formerly 
 the chief support of the population of the villages and 
 remote districts, has added to the existing distress, 
 and the condition of the lower orders is that of squalid 
 poverty. Madeira was settled by the Portuguese in 
 1431. 
 
 It is said that plants of the vine were convej'ed from 
 Crete to Madeira in 1421, and have since succeeded 
 extremely well. There is considerable difference in 
 the flavor and other qualities of the wines of Madeira ; 
 the best are produced on the south side of the island. 
 The method of cultivation most generally followed is 
 to trench the ground from three to seven and seven to 
 nine feet deep, according to the nature of the soil, and 
 lay a quantity of loose and stony earth at the bottom, 
 
 to prevent the roots from reaching the clayey soil 
 beneath, which would otherwise oppose their growth. 
 The ground is watered three times if the summer has 
 been very dry, the sluices being left open until the 
 ground is pretty well saturated ; the less the ground is 
 watered, the stronger the wine, but the quantitj' is 
 diminished in proportion. The "s^nes are found to 
 bear fruit as high as 2700 feet, but no wine can be 
 made from it. Adjacent to Madeira ie the island of 
 Porto Santo, about six miles long, and two and a half 
 broad. It is high and rocky, composed principally of 
 sand-stone, and a calcareous tuffa of a greenish gray 
 color. The vine is cultivated in considerable quanti- 
 ties, and the soil yields good crops of wheat, Indian 
 corn, barley, and beans. The population is estimated 
 at 1400, and there are 300 militia. It possesses a good 
 roadstead, but the landing-place is bad. The Desertas 
 are small, uninhabited islands, which, with Madeira 
 and Porto Santo, form the group called the Madeiras. 
 The manufactures of Madeira are insignificant ; their 
 chief object being to satisfy some of the simple wants ■ 
 of the poorer classes. Baskets, straw hats, coarse 
 linen and woolen articles, and shoes, are the principal 
 objects. Artificial feathers, flowers, and sweatmeats 
 are made for sale by the nuns. A good d^al of needle- 
 work, embroidery has been executed of late years by 
 the women of Funchal for exportation, and a few fancy 
 articles are made of the iibre of the Agave Americcma. 
 The bulk of the laboring population is employed in ag- 
 ricultural pursuits. Wine has hitherto been the chief 
 article of export, but this branch of trade will soon 
 cease. The rearing of the cochineal insect has been 
 lately undertaken, in the hopes of its supplj-ing the 
 loss of the grape. Many of the coopers employed dur- 
 ing the existence of the wine trade have emigrated ; 
 the rest earn a precarious subsistence. The casks they 
 made possessed repute for excellence of construction. 
 The chief artisans of Funchal at present are boot and 
 shoemakers, cabinet-makers, carpenters, and stone-ma- 
 sOns. The number of merchant ships anchoring 'at 
 Funchal (which is the only foreign port) during 1856 
 was 242, of which 121 were British, and 91 Portuguese. 
 The chief imports are, manufactured goods, iron ware, 
 grain, salt, and timber. In 1856, of grain there was 
 imported 195,765 bushels, principally from the neigh- 
 borihg coast of Africa, and from the Azores. In the 
 same year 27,800 bushels of salt entered. The official 
 returns of the imports of manufactured goods can not 
 be relied on. The total receipts of the custom-house 
 in 1855 amounted to rather more than £17,000. There 
 is no bank on the isla-nd ; the gold and silver coin in 
 circulation is not Portuguese, but British, American, 
 and Spanish. Accounts are made out in rds, imagin- 
 ary coins, 4800 of which are equal by law to the pound 
 sterling. Spanish and American dollars are current, 
 at the value of 1000 reis, or 4s. 2d. British money. 
 Funchal is a coaling station for the British mail steam- 
 ers from England to Brazil and the African coast, 
 which touch here once a month on their outward voy- 
 ages, and again on their retura. The Portuguese and 
 French steamers to Brazil likewise touch here. Be- 
 sides these vessels, two English sailing-packets are 
 continually plying between London and Madeira, and 
 a Portuguese packet-brig to and from Lisbon. 
 
 Commerce of the United States with Poetugal a>'D 
 Madeira in 1856. 
 
 National charfwtor. 
 
 From Portugal. 
 
 Portuguese 
 
 Britisfi 
 
 Swedish 
 
 Danish. 
 
 Prussian 
 
 Bremen 
 
 United States 
 
 From Madeira. 
 
 PortuETueso 
 
 United States 
 
 VesBeU entered. 
 
 Voheelfi cleared. 
 
 No. 
 
 Tomirtpe. 
 
 No. 
 
 Tonflag 
 
 18 
 
 8,T2T 
 
 15 
 
 3,89-3 
 
 S 
 
 2,420 
 
 1 
 
 291 
 
 1 
 
 830 
 
 4 
 
 1,249 
 
 1 
 
 809 
 
 2 
 
 524 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 236 
 
 1 
 
 648 
 
 
 
 
 10,8T9 
 
 
 6,283 
 
 2 
 
 2S4 
 
 S 
 
 STO i 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 390 
 
MAD 
 
 1300 
 
 MAD 
 
 COMMEECE OP THE UNITED STATES 
 
 WITH MADBiaA, FEOM OCTOBER 1, 1820, TO JULY 1, 1856. 
 
 
 Yean ending 
 
 
 Exports. 
 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Wlioraof tiiere wns in Bullion 
 And Specie. 
 
 Toniuige Oedred. 
 
 Domestic. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 TotrJ. 
 
 Toloi. 
 
 Exported. 
 
 Imported. 
 
 American, 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Sept. 80, 1821 
 
 $198,414 
 
 $26,667 
 
 $220,081 
 
 $190,289 
 
 $2,000 
 
 $10,286 
 
 8,082 
 
 
 1822 
 
 186,952 
 
 4,662 
 
 191,614 
 
 188,757 
 
 
 6,600 
 
 6,699 
 
 Ill 
 
 1823 
 
 117,686 
 
 8,976 
 
 121,661 
 
 244,268 
 
 485 
 
 12,363 
 
 4,973 
 
 • ••• 
 
 1824 
 
 815,896 
 
 26,847 
 
 842,248 
 
 247,510 
 
 
 22,271 
 
 8,059 
 
 
 1825 
 
 122,840 
 
 56,326 
 
 178,166 
 
 861,016 
 
 63,060 
 
 850 
 
 5,861 
 
 135 
 
 1826 
 
 119,068 
 
 25,649 
 
 144,607 
 
 224,883 
 
 12,150 
 
 6,200 
 
 4,220 
 
 
 1827 
 
 100,158 
 
 13,281 
 
 118,484 
 
 229,282 
 
 
 21,424 
 
 4,033 
 
 
 1838 
 
 101,948 
 
 9,985 
 
 -111,988 
 
 168,610 
 
 1,167 
 
 7,791 
 
 4,387 
 
 211 
 
 1829 
 
 175,074 
 
 15,089 
 
 190,168 
 
 403,056 
 
 600 
 
 9,660 
 
 6,091 
 
 669 
 
 1880 
 
 Totsl.... 
 
 156,719 
 
 12,858 
 
 168,077 
 
 239.652 
 
 1.6S8 
 
 5,000 
 
 6,080 
 
 
 $1,688,789 
 
 $198,240 
 
 $1,786,979 
 
 $2,497,268 
 
 $70,990 
 
 $100,896 
 
 57,485 
 
 1,126 
 
 Sept SO, 1831 
 
 $171,668 
 
 $5,728 
 
 $177,291 
 
 $177,869 
 
 
 $8,667 
 
 5,168 
 
 
 1882 
 
 145,667 
 
 929 
 
 146,596 
 
 228,818 
 
 
 5,186 
 
 4,638 
 
 124 
 
 1883 
 
 119,841 
 
 16,642 
 
 184,988 
 
 819,849 
 
 $5,482 
 
 
 8,801 
 
 869 
 
 1834 
 
 100,910 
 
 43,695 
 
 144,505 
 
 424,699 
 
 
 2,000 
 
 4,089 
 
 698 
 
 1835 
 
 73,898 
 
 28,595 
 
 102,488 
 
 631,266 
 
 6,674 
 
 2,595 
 
 8,700 
 
 241 
 
 1836 
 
 88,946 
 
 17,893 
 
 66,388 
 
 866,210 
 
 4,011 
 
 95 
 
 2,414 
 
 
 183T 
 
 82,747 
 
 18,522 
 
 101,269 
 
 672,782 
 
 14,498 
 
 
 4,250 
 
 
 
 1838 
 
 86,422 
 
 4,535 
 
 40,957 
 
 866,274 
 
 8,166 
 
 
 8,464 
 
 
 1839 
 
 64,082 
 
 15,046 
 
 79,128 
 
 589,800 
 
 14,143 
 
 
 4,278 
 
 
 1840 
 
 Total.... 
 
 98,819 
 
 22,868 
 
 116,677 
 
 809,524 
 
 14,61? 
 
 8,695 
 
 8,968 
 
 
 $927,889 
 
 $172,848 
 
 $1,100,282 
 
 $3,935,691 
 
 $61,681. 
 
 $22,188 
 
 89,740 
 
 1,427 
 
 Sept 80, 1841 
 
 $107,906 
 
 $20,870 
 
 $128,275 
 
 $229,519 
 
 $19,920 
 
 $6,200 
 
 4,626 
 
 827 
 
 1842 
 
 43,054 
 
 1,980 
 
 44,984 
 
 146,182 
 
 1,822 
 
 100 
 
 2,258 
 
 
 9 mos. 1848 
 
 87,649 
 
 8,866 
 
 41,605 
 
 7,160 
 
 2,606 
 
 
 1,657 
 
 
 June 80, 1844 
 
 44,763 
 
 7,623 
 
 52,286 
 
 22,904 
 
 8,625 
 
 
 2,404 
 
 122 
 
 1846 
 
 69,812 
 
 1,784 
 
 61,096 
 
 168,674 
 
 2,000 
 
 
 2,081 
 
 491 
 
 1846 
 
 60,948 
 
 8,267 
 
 64,200 
 
 127,070 
 
 1,600 
 
 
 8,635 
 
 477 
 
 1847 
 
 105,081 
 
 1,889 
 
 106,420 
 
 96,857 
 
 
 
 ^'^ 
 
 1,046 
 
 1848 
 
 110,842 
 
 7,407 
 
 118,249 
 
 9,432 
 
 592 
 
 
 4,524 
 
 1,444 
 
 1849 
 
 117,878 
 
 759 
 
 118,637 
 
 73,759 
 
 4,800 
 
 
 3,744 
 
 1,678 
 
 1850 
 
 Total.... 
 
 186,874 
 
 6,627 
 
 148,401 
 
 114,729 
 
 868 
 
 
 4,182 
 
 1,879 
 
 $824,251 
 
 $64,802 
 
 $879,053 
 
 $995,286 
 
 $42,883 
 
 $5,800 
 
 82,804 
 
 6,959 
 
 June 80, 1861 
 
 $94,689 
 
 $7,176 
 
 $101,766 
 
 $102,448 
 
 $9,626 
 
 
 8,879 
 
 1,814 
 
 1852 
 
 87,982 
 
 7,480 
 
 95,412 
 
 90,003 
 
 7,000 
 
 
 4,171 
 
 696 
 
 1853 
 
 101,524 
 47,708 
 
 15,574 
 
 117,098 
 47,708 
 
 77,598 
 80,007 
 
 15,902 
 2,000 
 
 
 8,707 
 821 
 
 848 
 
 286 
 
 1S54 
 
 .1865 
 
 48,602 
 
 5,261 
 
 68,768 
 
 25,983 
 
 2,286 
 
 $250 
 
 1,894 
 
 811 
 
 1856 
 
 27,666 
 
 982 
 
 28,587 
 
 19,783 
 
 
 
 
 
 The cereal crops of Madeira arc scarcely equal to 
 one third the consumption ; hence, and owing also to 
 the general poverty of the inhabitants, a decree was 
 passed in 1843 reducing the duties on the leading for- 
 eign imports to one half the duties levied in Portugal. 
 This decree is in force at this time, and, consequently, 
 but half the duties fixed in the tariff of Portugal are 
 now levied on foreign imports into Madeira. In 
 1843 the imports from the United States amounted to 
 $59,900, and the exports from Madeira to the United 
 States to $2750, employing 38 vessels, with an aggre- 
 gate tonnage of 8533 tons. The commerce of this island 
 with foreign nations, and especially with the United 
 States, is declining, and must continue to decline so 
 long as the vines remain diseased, as wine is the only 
 article of export from Madeira. 
 
 See Am. Jour. Science, xxiv., 237 ; North Brit., vii., 
 73 ; North Am. Rev., xlvi., 836 (by J. W. Webstbk). 
 For Madeira Wine, see Wise. 
 
 Madeira Nut, or Persian Walnut (Juglans 
 regia), originally a native of Persia, or the north of 
 China, has been somewhat extensively distributed, and 
 appears to be well adapted to the climate of the middle 
 and southern latitudes of the United States. A tree of 
 the "Titmouse" or "thin-shelled" variety (Juglans 
 regia tenera), about 20 years planted, 45 feet in height, 
 and 15 inches in diameter, standing on the premises of 
 Colonel Peter Force, in the city of Washington, is 
 perfectly hardy, and bears yearly an abundance of ex- 
 cellent nuts. This is considered the most valuable of 
 all the walnuts, as the tree begins to bear in eight or 
 ten years from planting the seed ; and the fruit is very 
 delicate, keeps well, and is rich in oil. In Cashmere, 
 where the walnut is the subject of careful cultivation, 
 there are four varieties : The " Kanak," or wild, the 
 nut of which is diminutive, with a thick shell and 
 scanty kernel; the "Wantu," having a large niit, 
 with a thick and hard shell, a deficient kernel ; the 
 " Denu," also » large nut, with a thick and rather 
 
 hard shell, and a kernel large, good, and easily ex- 
 tracted; and the "Kaghazi," so called from its shell 
 being nearly as thin as paper. The latter, which may 
 be readily broken by the hand, is the largest of all, 
 having a kernel easily extracted, and producing an 
 excellent oil. Its superiority is said to be attributable 
 to its having been originally engrafted, but it is now 
 raised from seeds alone, and does not degenerate. The 
 nuts, after being steeped in water eight days, are plant- 
 ed in the beginning of March, and the shoot generally 
 makes its appearance in about 40 days. If reared by 
 grafts, the process is performed when the plant is five 
 years old. The head being cut off horizontally, at a 
 convenient height, the stock is partially split, or 
 opened, and the scion inserted in a similar manner to 
 that adopted by our cleft method, in grafting the ap- 
 ple 'or pear ; but clay-mortar, worked up with rice- 
 husks, is put round it, and kept from washing away 
 by being enveloped in broad slips of birch-bark. — Pa- 
 tent Office Report, 1855. 
 
 In Cashmere, the walnut-tree begins to fruit, 
 ordinarily, when seven years old; but two or three 
 years more elapse before it is in full bearing. 
 The average annual number of nuts, brought to ma- 
 turity on a single tree, often amounts to 25,000. It 
 has been observed that, after a few seasons of full 
 bearing, the trees fall off in producing fruit, and run, 
 with great luxuriance, to leaf and branch. To this 
 latter condition the Cashmereans apply the appella- 
 tion of " must," and to remedy the evil, cut off all 
 the small branches, bringing the tree to the state of a 
 pollard. The year following, shoots and leaves alone 
 are produced, which are succeeded the next season by 
 an abundant crop of nuts. The cut ends of the 
 branches swell into laiots, or knobs, which are some- 
 what unsightly in the tree, until they are concealed 
 by the growth of the young branches and leaves. 
 When ripe, the fruit of the Wantu walnut is retailed in 
 the city at the rate of about 2 cents a 100. The nuts 
 
MAD 
 
 1301 
 
 MAD 
 
 of the Dunu are sold for about 3 cents per 100 ; and of 
 the Kaghazi, at about 4 cents per 100. It is a com- 
 mon practice for the country people to crack the wal- 
 nuts at home, and carrj' the kernels alone to market, 
 where they are sold to oil-pressers, for extracting their 
 oil. The kernels yield half their weight in oil ; and 
 the other half, which consists of oil-cake, is much val- 
 ued as food for cows in winter, when it is usually ex- 
 changed for its weight of rough rice. About 1,150,000 
 pounds of walnut kernels are annually consigned to 
 the oil-press in Cashmere, producing a large amount 
 of oil and cake, besides a considerable quantitj' eaten 
 by man, or consumed by other modes. Walnut oil, 
 in that country, is preferred to linseed oil, for all the 
 purposes to which the latter is applied. It is employed 
 in cookery; and also for burning in lamps, without 
 much clogging the wick or yielding much smoke. It 
 is exported to Thibet, and brings a considerable profit. 
 By ancient custom, the crop of nuts was equall)' di- 
 vided between the government and the owner of the 
 tree, but at present, the former takes three fourths ; 
 yet, even under this oppression, the cultivation of this 
 product is extended, and Cashmere, in proportion to 
 its surface, produces a much larger quantity of nuts 
 than any other portion of the globe. Estimating the 
 product of each tree at a bushel of nuts, and suppos- 
 ing that it will produce that quantity in 12 or 16 years 
 after planting, and considering that the amount im- 
 ported into this country is valued at least at $100,000 
 per annum, the inducements for its culture by the 
 farmers and planters of the middle and southern 
 States would appear to be sufficiently ample for their 
 immediate attention. — Patent Office Report. 
 
 IN^adras, the principal emporium of the coast of 
 Coromandel, or western shore of the Bay of Bengal; 
 latitude of light-house 13° 5' 10" N., long. 80° 20' E. 
 It is the seat of the government of the second presi- 
 dency of British India, having under it a territory, 
 including the tributary States, of 187,482 square miles, 
 with a population," according to the census of 1850-51, 
 of 27,054,672, paying a gross annual revenue of nearly 
 £4,900,000 sterling. The town is situated in the Car- 
 natic province, a low, sandy, and rather sterile coun- 
 try. It is without port or harbor, Ij-ing close upon 
 the margin of an open roadstead, the shores of which 
 
 are constantly beat by a heavy surf. Besides these 
 disadvantages, a rapid current runs along the coast ; 
 and it is within the sphere of the hurricanes or ty- 
 phoons, by which it is occasionally visited. In everj- 
 respect, indeed, it is a very inconvenient place for 
 trade, and its commerce is consequently greatly infe- 
 rior to that of either Calcutta or Bombay. It has 
 been in the possession of the English above two cen- 
 turies, having been founded by them in 1639, and re- 
 tained ever since. Fort St. George is a strong and 
 handsome fortification, lying, close to the shore. The 
 Black Town of Madras, as it is called, stands to the 
 north and eastward of the fort, from which it is sep- 
 arated by a spacious esplanade. Here reside the na- 
 tive, Armenian, and Portuguese merchants, with 
 many Europeans unconnected with the government. 
 Like most other Indian towns, it is irregular and con- 
 fused, being a mixture of brick and bamboo houses. 
 Madras, like Calcutta and Bombay, is subject to En- 
 glish law ; having a Supreme Court of Judicature, 
 the judges of which are named by the crown, and are 
 altogether independent of the local government and 
 the East India Company. The population is not ex- 
 actljr ascertained, but there are said to be about 400,- 
 000 persons within a radius of 2J miles round Fort St, 
 George. 
 
 Madras is the seat of all the chief government offir 
 ces for the President of the Supreme Court, Boards of 
 revenue, admiralty, education, etc. ; and though hav- 
 ing less foreign trade than the capitals of the other 
 presidencies, its commerce is still considerable, as it 
 is the chief emporium of the Coromandel coast, and 
 trades direct with Great Britain and the other Euro- 
 pean countries, the United States, Ceylon, and south- 
 east Asia. Principal imports are rice and other grains, 
 chiefly from Bengal ; cotton piece goods, twist, and 
 metallic wares from Great Britain ; raw silk, areca, 
 betel, gold dust, spices, and teak timber from Pegu ; 
 spirits and wines, coral beads, horses, drugs, to the 
 total value, in 1851-52, of £1,958,736. Exports of 
 cotton stuffs and wool, indigo, pepper, timber, coffee, 
 and other native produce, amounted in the same year 
 to £3,075,103. The site of the city formed the first 
 territorial acquisition by the British in India, permis- 
 sion to erect a fort here having been obtained in 1639. 
 
 Summary of the External Commerce op Madras by Sea, in 1849 — 60 and 1S50 — 51. 
 
 For the years 1849—60. 
 
 . 
 
 Private trade. 
 
 
 Oompony's trade. 
 
 Qrond total. 
 
 Marolmndlae. 
 
 Treasure. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Murchaudlse. 
 
 Treasure. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Co.'a rupeea. 
 1,82,17,742 
 2,86,88,869 
 
 Co.'s rupees. 
 
 42,86,514 
 
 9,10,427 
 
 Co.'s rupees. 
 1,74,54,266 
 2,45,48,786 
 
 Co.'a rupeea. 
 2,86,589 
 81,944 ■ 
 
 Co.'a rupeea. 
 
 59,70,66o 
 
 Co.'s rupees. 
 2,86,589 
 60,51,944 
 
 Co.'s rupees. 
 1,76,90,795 
 8,06,00,780 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Total 
 
 8,63,66,101 
 
 61,46,941 
 
 4,20,08,042 
 
 8,18,483 . 
 
 59,70;000 
 
 62,88,483 
 
 4,82,91,525 
 
 FortLeycora 1850-61. 
 
 1,84,47,091 
 2,61,22,274 
 
 60,42,437 
 11,97,691 
 
 1,94,89,628 
 2,78,19,965 
 
 97,888 
 1,81,078 
 
 88,ob'66o 
 
 97,888 
 84,81,078 
 
 1,95,87,861 
 8,07,51,088 
 
 Exports 
 
 Total 
 
 8,95,89,866 
 
 72,40,128 
 
 4,68,09,498 
 
 2,28,906 
 
 83,00,000 
 
 85,28,906 
 
 5,08,88,399 
 
 
 In Madras roads, large ^hips moor in from 7 to 9 
 fathoms, with the flagstaff ofi' the fort bearing W.N. 
 W., 2 miles ftom shore. From October to January is 
 generally considered the most unsafe season of the 
 year, in consequence of the prevalence, during that 
 interval, of storms and typhoons. On the 15th of 
 October the flagstaff is struck, and not erected again 
 until the 15th of December ; during which period a ship 
 coming into the roads, or, indeed, anywhere within 
 soundings on the coast of Coromandel (reckoned from 
 Point Palmyras to Ceylon), vitiates her insurance, ac- 
 cording to the conditions of the policies of all insur- 
 ance offices in India. The cargo boats used for cross- 
 ing the surf, called Masmla boats, are large and light ; 
 made of very thin planks sewed together, with straw 
 in the seams instead of caulking, which it is supposed 
 might render them too stiff. When within the influ- 
 ence of the surf, the coxswain stands up, and beats 
 time in great agitation with his voice and feet, while 
 the rowers work their oars backward, until overtaken 
 
 by a strong surf curling up, which sweeps the boat 
 along with frightful violence. Every oar is then plied 
 forward with the utmost vigor to prevent the wave 
 from taldug the boat back as it recedes ; until at 
 length, by a few successive surfs, the boat is thrown 
 high and dry upon the beach. The boats belonging 
 to ships in the roads sometimes proceed to the back of 
 the surf, and wait for the coimtry boats from the beach 
 to come to them. When it is dangerous to have com- 
 munication with the shore, a flag is displayed at the 
 beach-house, which stands near the landing-place, as a 
 caution. The fishermen and lower classes eihployed 
 on the water use a species of floating machine of a 
 very simple construction, named a catamaran. It is 
 formed of 2 or 3 logs of light wood, 8 or 10 feet in 
 length, lashed together, with a small piece of wood 
 inserted between them to serve as a stem-piece. When 
 ready for the water, they hold generally 2 men, who 
 with their paddles impel themselves through the surf, 
 to carry letters, or refreshments in small quantities, 
 
MAG 
 
 1302 
 
 MAG 
 
 to ships when no boat can venture out. They wear 
 a pointed cap made of matting, where they secure the 
 letters, which talie no damage. The men are often 
 washed off the catamaran, which they regain hy swim- 
 ining, unless interrupted by a shark. Medals are 
 given to such catamaran men as distitfguish them- 
 selves by saving persons in danger. 
 
 The limited extent of the trade of Madras as com- 
 pared with that of Calcutta and Bombay, is partly 
 ascribable to the badness of its port or roadstead, the 
 want of any navigable river or other easj' means of 
 communication with the interior, and the backward 
 state of the provinces of which it is the capital, in con- 
 sequence of the heavy and fluctuating land tax to 
 which they are subject. In 1839-40, there arrived at 
 Madras no fewer than 5,426 vessels (including their 
 repeated voj'ages of the aggregate burden of 335,465 
 tons. But by far the greater number of these were of 
 very small burden ; 2,832 being country craft from 
 Bombay, 853 from Ceylon, and 585 from Goa. In the 
 course of the same year 31 vessels arrived from the 
 United Kingdom. — Hamilton's East India Gazetteer ; 
 Geog. Dict.^ art. Madras; Madras Almanac for 1839, 
 1840, and 1845 ; Official Returns of the Trade of Mad- 
 ras^ etc. 
 
 Maelstrom, or Moskoe-Strom, a whirlpool in 
 the North Sea, near the Island Jloskoe. In summer 
 it is but little dangerous, but it is very much so in 
 winter, especially when the north-west wind restrains 
 the reflux of the tide. At such times the whirlpool 
 rages violently so as to be heard several miles, and to 
 engulf small vessels, and even whales, which ap- 
 proach it. See LoFODBN Islands. See also Fba- 
 seb's Mag., x., 267. 
 
 Magellan, or Magalhaens, Straits of, divide 
 the continent of South America from the Island Tierra 
 del Fuego ; the east entrance is formed by Cape de la 
 Virgines, on the mainland, and by Cape del Espiritu 
 Santo (Queen Catharine's Foreland), on one of the 
 largest islands composing Tierra del Fuego. Length 
 nearly 300 miles, extending between lat. 52° 10' and 
 55° S., and long. 68° 20' and 75° W. Navigation 
 difficiflt. Discovered in 1520 by Fernando Magal- 
 haens. Ferdinand De Magellan, or Magalhaens, the 
 discoverer of the straits that bear his name, was by 
 birth a Portuguese. He served with honor in the 
 . East Indies, and in 1510 distinguished himself at the 
 battle of Malacca. He entered into the employment 
 of Charles V., King of Spain, and in conjunction with 
 Buy Folero, formed the bold design of discovering a 
 new passage by the west to the Molucca Islands. On 
 the 20th September, 1519, he sailed from San Lucas, 
 with five ships and 236 men. After many exertions, 
 he induced two of his ships to prosecute the entire 
 voyage ; and entering upon the straits v^hich now bear 
 his name, he soon reached the South Sea. The 
 weather was so uniformly temperate, and the sea so 
 calm, that they called the ocean Pacific. Magellan 
 visited places seen for the first time by Europeans ; 
 and in visiting Matan, the natives gave battle, and 
 Magellan was slain, in the year 1521. But for this he 
 would have been the first circumnavigator of the 
 world, which honor was secured by Cano, who brought 
 his ships home by the East Indies. 
 
 Magnesia (Fr. Magnesie ; Ger. Geiraunte Magne- 
 sia ; It. Magnesia), one of the primitive earths, having 
 a metallic basis. It is not found native in a state of 
 purity,. but is easily prepared. It is inodorous and in- 
 sipid, in the form of a very light, white, soft powder, 
 having a specific gravity of 2-3. It turns to green the 
 more delicate vegetable blues, is infusible, and requires 
 for its solution 2000 parts of water at 60°. See Man- 
 ganese. 
 
 Magnet. Sturmius, in his Epistola, dated at Al- 
 torf, 1682, observes that the attractive quality of the 
 magnet has been taken notice of from time immemo- 
 rial ; but that it was Roger Bacon, of Ilchester, in 
 
 Somersetshire (he died the 17th June, 1294), who first 
 discovered its property of pointing to the north pole. 
 The Italians discovered that it could communicate its 
 virtue to steel or iron. The variation not being always 
 the same was taken notice of by Hevelius, Petil, and 
 others. Flavio Gioja, of Naples, invented or improved 
 the mariner's compass in 1302. The important discov- 
 ery of the inclination or dip of the magnetic needle 
 was made about 1576 (published 1680) by Robert Nor- 
 man, of London. Dr. Gilbert's experiment was made 
 in 1600. Artificial magnets were invented, or rather 
 improved, in 1751. A magnetic clock, invented by Dr. 
 Locke, of Ohio, announced at Washington, Januarj- 5, 
 1849. See Compass. 
 
 Magnolia. The magnolia conspicua, or lily- 
 flowered magnolia, as its name indicates, is a beautiful 
 and showy tree, and distinguishable from all others of 
 the genus by the expanding of the flowers before any 
 of the leaves. A full-gi-own tree, in its native coun- 
 try, is said to attain a height of forty or fifty feet, and 
 it has arrived at nearly the same elevation in Europe 
 and America. The tree was first introduced into En- 
 gland by Sir Joseph Banks, in 1789 ; but it was many 
 years before it attracted much attention, being consid- 
 ered merely as a green-house or conservatoiy plant. 
 Within the last 20 years, it has been discovered to be 
 nearly as liardy as the American magnolias, and is 
 now most extensively cultivated in the nurseries of 
 Britain, continental Europe, and the United States. It 
 flowers freely every year, as a standard in the neigh- 
 borhood of London, New York, and Philadelphia, when 
 the wood has been properly ripened during the preced- 
 ing summer ; and at White Knights, in England ; at 
 Fromont, and various other places in France ; and at 
 Monza, in Italy, and Brooklyn, in New York, it has 
 ripened, seeds from which yoUng plants have been 
 raised. Properties and Uses. — ^Besides the value of 
 the magnolia conspicua as an ornamental plant or tree, 
 the Chinese piclde the flower-buds, after having re- 
 moved their calyxes, and use them for flavoring rice. 
 Medicinally, the seeds are taken in powder, in colds, 
 and inflammations of the chest. It is also regarded as 
 stomachic ; and water, in which it has been steeped, is 
 used for bathing the eyes when inflamed, and for 
 clearing them of gum. 
 
 Geography and History. — The magnolia glauca has 
 the most extensive range, especially near the sea, of 
 any of the genus. It abounds from Massachusetts to 
 Louisiana and Missouri. Its most northern boundary 
 may be considered a sheltered swamp in Manchester, 
 Cape Ann, about 30 miles northerly of Boston. It 
 here attains but a small size, and is frequently, killed 
 to the ground by severe winters. In the maritime 
 parts of the Floridas and lower Louisiana, it is one of 
 the most abundant among the trees which grow in 
 morasses or wet grounds. It is not usually met witli 
 far interior, nor to tlie west of the Alleghanies. In 
 the Caroliuas and Georgia it grows only within the 
 limits of the pine-barrens. This species was intro- 
 duced into England by Ptev. John Banister, who sent 
 it to Bishop Compfon, at Fulham, in 1688. It was 
 soon afterward generally propagated by American 
 seeds, and became known throughout Europe many 
 j-ears before any of the other species. At Woburn 
 Farm, Chertsey, there was formerly a row of these 
 trees 20 feet high, and nearly a centurj' old, wliich 
 frequently ripened their seeds. In France, and south- 
 ern Europe generally, this species is not very abund- 
 ant, from the great heat of the summers, and the 
 general dryness of the air. At Versailles and the 
 Petit Trianon, as well as in Belgium, it has attained 
 the height of 15 feet. In the north of Germany, and 
 in Sweden and Russia, it is a green-house plant. At 
 Monza, in Italy, it is found in all of its varieties. In 
 general, this tree can only be used for ornamental pur- 
 poses, and no collection should be without it. The 
 wood, however, is sometimes employed for maldng 
 
MAH 
 
 1303 
 
 MAI 
 
 joiners' tools ; aftd the bark is also used in some parts 
 of tKe countrj', like that of the cinchuna, in the case of 
 intermittent and remittent fevers. It is aromatic and 
 pungent, apparently more so than the other species. 
 When distilled, it has a peculiar flavor, and an empj-- 
 reumatic smell. In a dry state it affords a little resin. 
 The aroma is volatile, and probably contains an essen- 
 tial oil, or a variety of camphor. The bark, seeds, and 
 cones, are employed in tincture, in chronic rheuma- 
 tism. That from the cones is very bitter, and is some- 
 times used to cure coughs and pSdtoral diseases, and 
 for preventing autumnal fevers. The flowers in a 
 dried state may be used in drawing-rooms for pot 
 poufri, as a substitute for those of the lily of the 
 valley. — Bbowne's Trees of America. 
 
 Mahogany, the wood of a tree (Swietenia Mdhog- 
 ani) growing in the West Indies and Central America. 
 There are two other species of Swietenia found in the 
 East Indies, but they are not much known in this 
 country. Mahogany is one of the most majestic and 
 beautiful of trees : its trtink is often 40 feet in length, 
 £thd 6 feet in diameter ; and it divides into so many 
 massy arms, and throws the shade of its shining green 
 leaves over so vast an extent of surface, that few more 
 magnificent objects are to be met with in the vegetable 
 world. It is abundant in Cuba and Hayti, and it used 
 to be plentiful in Jamaica ; but in the latter island, 
 most of the larger trees, at least in accessible situa- 
 tions, have been cut down. Tlie principal importa- 
 tions into Great Britain are made from Honduras and 
 Campeachy. That which is imported from the islands 
 is called Spanish mahogany ; it is not so large as that 
 from Honduras, being generally in logs from 20 to 26 
 inches square and 10 feet long, while the latter is 
 usually from 2 to 4 feet square and 12 or 14 feet long, 
 but some logs are much larger. Mahogany is a very 
 beautiful and valuable species of wood ; its color is a 
 red brown. Of different shades, and various degrees of 
 brightness ; sometimes yellowish brown ; often very 
 mncli veined and mottled, with darker shades of the 
 same color. The texture is uniform, and the annual 
 rings not very distinct. It has no larger septa ; but 
 the smaller septa are often very visible, with pores 
 between them, which in the Honduras wood are gen- 
 erally empty, but in the Spanish wood are mostly 
 filled \rith a whitish substance. It has neither taste 
 nor smelly shrinks very little, and warps or twists less 
 than any other species of timber. It is very durable 
 when kept dry, but does not last long when exposed 
 to the weather. It is not attacked by worms. Like 
 the pine tribe, the timber is best on dry rocky soils, or 
 in exposed situations. That which is most accessible 
 at Honduras' grows upon moist, low land, and is, gen- 
 erally speaking, decidedly inferior to that brought 
 from Cuba and Haj-ti ; being soft,' coarse, and spongy, 
 while the other is close-grained and hard, of a darker 
 color, and Sometimes strongly figured. Honduras 
 mahogany has, however, the advantage of holding 
 glhe" admirably well ; and is frequently used as a 
 grotmd on which to lay veneers of the finer sorts. 
 
 Not long since, Messrs. Broadwood, the piano-forte 
 manufacturers of London, gave the immense sum of 
 £3000 for three logs of mahogany ! These logs, the 
 produce of a single tree, were each about 15 feet long, 
 and 38 inches square : they were cut into veneers of 
 eight to an inch. The wood was particularly beauti- 
 ful, capable of receiving the highest polish, and, when 
 polished, reflefcting the light in the most varied man- 
 ner, lilte the surface of a crystal ; and, from the wavy 
 form of the pores, offering a different figure, in what- 
 ever direction it was viewed. Dealers in mahogany 
 generally introduce an auger before buying a log ; 
 but, notwithstanding, they are seldom able to decide 
 with much precision as to the quality of the wood, so 
 that there is a good deal of lottery in the trade. The 
 logs for which Messrs. Broadwood gave so high a price 
 were brought to England with a full knowledge of 
 
 their superior worth. Mahogany was used in repair- 
 ing some of Sir Walter Ealeigh's ships at Trinidad, in 
 1597 i but it was not introduced into use in England 
 till 1724. The duty on foreign mahogany used to be 
 £7 lOs. a ton, on Honduras, £1 lOs., and on Jamaicfi 
 mahogany, £4 — ^its effect being to force the consump- 
 tion of the inferior in preference to the superior article. 
 Luckily, however, the dutj- on foreign and colonial 
 mahogany, after being reduced in 1845 to 20s. and 6s, a 
 ton, w.".s wholly repealed in 1845. There has been, in 
 consequence, a very great increase in the consumption 
 of the superior sorts of mahogany for upholsterj' pur- 
 poses, while the cheaper varieties are now largely em- 
 ployed, notwithstanding the difSculties thrown in the 
 way by Lloyd's regulations, in the construction of 
 ships, and in coarser fabrics. In 1840 the imports 
 amounted to 23,115, and in 1852 to 41,090 tons, the 
 re-exports during the latter year being only 2755 tons. 
 Honduras, Cuba, and Hayti, are the great sources of 
 supply ; the timber brought from the first being the 
 cheapest and by far the most abundant. See Teed- 
 gold's Principles of Cm^entry, p. 204 ; Library of En- 
 tertaining Knowledge, volume on Timber-trees and 
 Fruits; Edwards's West Indies, vol. iv., p. 208, ed. 
 1819, etc. ; and the Mahogany Tree, by Messrs. Chal- 
 ONEK and Fleming ; Living Age, xxix., 354. 
 
 The imports of mahoganj' and other woods into the 
 United States for the fiscal year ending June 30tb, 
 1856, were as follows : 
 
 Imports. Slanufnctiired. UmnaDufflctured. 
 
 Cabinet furniture $46,T81 
 
 Ocdav, mahogany, etc 22,30T $440,246 ■ 
 
 Willow 125,808m . 86,554 
 
 Cork ,202,561 9,18Q 
 
 Dye woods 796,802 
 
 Others not specifled 429,915 25,15T 
 
 Total $827,878 $1,807,88? . 
 
 There are several varieties of mahogany, much ad^ 
 mired, and sought after, for the beauty of their figures, 
 and the gradations, of' their colors, which, may be 
 described as follows : 
 
 1. Plais Mahogany. Acajou uni of the Erench, 
 the wood of which is of one color, and equal through- 
 out. 2. Veiny Mahogany. Acajou Mne, French. 
 The wood of this variety is veined longitudinally with 
 the grain, displaying alternately dark and light streaks, 
 continuous, interrupted, or re-appearing. 3. Watered 
 Mahogany. Acajou moirS, French. This variety is 
 known by the transverse waves which exhibit to the 
 eye an effect similar to those of a watered ribbon. 4. 
 Velvet-coed, or Caterpillar Mahogany. Acajou 
 chenille, French. , This variety is distinguished by its 
 whitish lines, accompanied by a figured shade of frag- 
 ments of roseate sprigs, here and there disposed diag-r 
 onally, longitudinally, interrupted, or crossing one an- 
 other. 5. Bikd's-eye Mahogany.^ Acajou-mouchete, 
 French. This variety is besprinkled with little oval 
 knots, which, when duly, proportioned, render the 
 wood half light and half dark. 6. Festooned Ma- 
 hogany. Acajou ronceux, French, This variety offers 
 in its color a mixture of light and shade usually re- 
 sembling sheaves of < wheat, feathers, wreaths, fes- 
 toons, or figures of shrubs. As the wood of mahogany 
 is generally hard and takes a fine polish, it is found to 
 serve better than that of any other tree for cabinet- 
 making, for which purpose it is universally admired. 
 It is very strong, and answers well for beams, joists,, 
 planks, boards, and shingles, for, which it was formerly 
 much used in Jamaica. Its adaptation to ship-building 
 we have already mentioned in the history of this 
 tree.— Browne's Trees of America. 
 
 Maine, the most north-easterly State of the re- 
 public of the United States of America, extends from 
 lat. 43° to 47° 24' K, and between long. 6° and 10° 
 E. from Washington, and contains an area of 85,000 
 square miles. Population in 1790 was 96,540 ; in 
 1800, 161,719; in 1810, 228,705; in 1820, 298,335; in 
 1830, 399,996 ; in 1840, 501,793 ; and in 1850, 683,088. 
 
MAI 
 
 1304 
 
 MAI 
 
 Sebastian Cabot, who was, after the time of Colum- 
 bus, the first European navigator along the coasts of 
 Maine and its vicinity, appears not to have given a 
 name to the countries discovered hy him. The eldest 
 and greatest name in these parts of North America is 
 that of " SaccaJaos" — a name given by the Biscay fish- 
 ermen at first to Newfoundland, and then also to all 
 the countries which they found near this island. On 
 some old maps the name " Baccalaos" — that is to say, 
 the cod-fish country — reaches over a great part of the 
 eastern coast of America, but it appears more particu- 
 larly in the regions of our State of Maine. Stephen 
 Gomez was the first Spanish navigator who discovered 
 (1525) and explored the coasts to the west and to the 
 north of Cape Cod a little more particularly, and we 
 therefore see on the Spanish maps these regions desig- 
 nated with the name of " Tierra de Gomez^^ (Gomez's 
 Land). So, for instance, at first on that of Ribiero 
 (1529), and afterward on many others. jVfter the 
 middle of the 16th century, when Gomez was move 
 and more forgotten, another name was introduced for 
 these regions — that of " Novumbec." "We can not ex- 
 actly point out the occasion at which this name was 
 invented ; but we find it in the latter half of the 16th 
 and in the beginning of the 17th centurj', on nearly all 
 the maps of these regions. The name seems to be of 
 Indian origin, like the name of Kennebec, Quebec, and 
 different others which have hec for the last sj'llable. 
 Perhaps some unknown sailors heard it pronounced by 
 the Indians, and introduced it among the geographers, 
 who were always fond of new names. It was, how- 
 ever, changed and spelled in many different ways : 
 Noruhec, Norombec, Arambec, Norumberge, Norum- 
 berque, Norimbequa, etc. 
 
 The savans of the time supposed that there was in 
 the interior of this northern country a large city of the 
 same name, lilte that old famed " Temistitan^''^ in Mex- 
 ico, and that through this city was running a large 
 broad river, which was also called the River of Norum- 
 berge. ■ It is probable that with this name our Penob- 
 scot Bay and its rivers were designated. They from 
 this, therefore, called the whole country " La Terre de 
 Norumberque" or the coasts of Arambec. 
 
 English Settlers. — At the same time the English 
 introduced here another name, that of Virginia, under 
 which they comprised, since 1584, pretty much the 
 wliole Atlantic coast of North America. Custom and 
 use already introduced verj' soon a division in the 
 Southern and the Northern Virginia coast. The royal 
 patent of 1606, by which the two Virginia companies 
 were established, made this custom legal and official. 
 After this patent the whole section of the country north 
 of the 40th degree of latitude, comprising our Maine, was 
 designated as " Northern Virginia," or also, since some 
 attempts at settlement, " the Northern Plantations," 
 or also " the Second," or " Plymouth Colony," because 
 the king had given this latter name to that particular 
 society of merchants who had taken upon themselves 
 the exploration and settlement of Northern Virginia. 
 In the year 1616 the name of " New England" was in- 
 troduced. The celebrated Captain John Smith was no 
 doubt tlie inventor of it, and Prince Charles approved 
 of it. Smith says this himself in his history of New 
 England, and states that he gave this name, which 
 made some opposition against the neighboring French 
 name of " New France" and the French pretensions ; 
 and secondly, he did it in contraposition to the coun- 
 trj' on the Pacific side of America which was discov- 
 ered by Drake, and named by him New Albion, and 
 which was under the same latitude. 
 
 Sir Fernando Gorges gave, in the year 1636, to 
 the territory between Piscataqua and Kennebec Riv- 
 ers, the name of "New Somersetshire," from the 
 shire in England where ho was born. Sometimes the 
 whole vast region was therefore then called " Somer- 
 setshire ;" and we find, even when the name of Maine 
 was already introduced, once the expression " Maine 
 
 or Somersetshire." In the same -wsff the whole of 
 Maine was also sometimes called " Lacona," from a 
 part of the country to which this name was given for a 
 time. We find on a map by Seller, of the beginning of 
 the 18th centurj', written with great letters, "the 
 Province of Lacona or Maine." The early English 
 settlers on the coast of New England had for Maine 
 the popular name of "the Eastern shore," or "the 
 Eastern country." 
 
 The name Maine was first introduced in the year 
 1639, when King CHiarles I. granted to Sir Fernando 
 Gorges all the land from Piscataqua River to Sagada- 
 hoc, to which tract of land he gave the name " Prov- 
 ince of Maine," "in compliment to the Queen of 
 Charles I. who was a daughter of France, and owned 
 as her private estate the province of Maine in France." 
 This, at least, is the opinion of the first good historian 
 of Maine, Mr. Sullivan. But Sullivan gives no au- 
 thority for this opinion, which has, however, been 
 adopted as a pretty general and popular one. The 
 truth seems to be that it can not be proved that Queen 
 Henrietta Maria had any rights at all in Maine. An 
 old author on Maine observes, " it is very curious that 
 the name of our country has been made shorter by an 
 ' e' than the French Maine." In fact the word is, in 
 old documents, very commonly written " Main " or 
 "Mayn." From this, one coiUd be induced to sup- 
 pose that the name originated in the English expres- 
 sion for terra firma or continent : " Main" or "Main- 
 land." Nearly all the first English trading and fishing 
 establishments along the shore were on the numerous 
 islands of the coast. From there the explorers made 
 excursions " to the Main," to trade with the Indians 
 and to explore the country. There are innumerable 
 allusions, in their traveling reports, to " the Mayn," 
 Could not from this have grown the custom of calling 
 the country " Main ?" From similar reasons and cir- 
 cumstances the north coast of South America is called hy 
 the inhabitants of the Antilles and Caribbean Islands, 
 " Costajlrme^'" or " Tierrajtrme." — J. G. Kohl. 
 
 The name Maine extended at first only a small dis- 
 tance along the coast. By degrees, and in the course 
 of time, in consequence of growing settlements and of 
 many treaties and grants, it was subsequently ex- 
 tended as far east as Penobscot Bay, and at last as far 
 as St. Croix River, and in the year 1819 the " Prov- 
 ince of Maine" was erected into the " State of Maine." 
 There were in this State in 1850, 2,039,696 acres of 
 land improved, and 2,515,797 of unimproved land in 
 farms ; cash value of land in farms, $54,861,748 ; and 
 the value of implements and machinery, $2,284,557. 
 Live Stock. — Horses, 41,721; asses and mules, 45; 
 milch cows, 133,556 ; working oxen, 83,893 ; other 
 cattle, 125,890 ; sheep, 451,577 ; swine, 54,598; value 
 of live stock, $9,705,726. 
 
 Agricultural Products, etc.- — Wheat, 296,259 bushels ; 
 rye, 102,916 ; Indian corn, 1,750,056 ; oats, 2,181,037 ; 
 barley, 151,731 ; buckwheat, 104,523 ; peas and beans, 
 205,541 ; potatoes, 3,436,040 ; value of products of the 
 orchard, $342,865 ; produce of market gardens, $122,- 
 387 ; pounds of butter made, 9,248,811 ; of cheese, 
 2,434,454 ; maple sugar, 93,542 pounds ;" molasses, 
 3,167 gallons ; beeswax and honey, 189,618 pounds ; 
 wool, pounds produced, 1,364,034 ; flax, 17,081 ; silk 
 cocoons, 262 ; hops, 40,120 pounds ; hay, tons of, 755,- 
 889 ; clover seeds, 9,097 bushels ; other grass seeds, 
 9,214 ; flax seed, 680 bushels ; and were made 724 gal- 
 lons of wine ; value of home-made manufactures, 
 $518,599 ; of slaughtered animals, $1,646,773. 
 
 Rivers, Lakes, etc. — It has been estimated that one 
 sixth part of the surface of Maine consists of water. 
 There are numerous lakes, the largest and most noted 
 of which are Moosehead, Sebago, Chesuncook, and 
 Umbagog. A part of the waters of the latter extend 
 into New Hampshire. Some of these lakes are justly 
 celebrated for the picturesque beauties of their scen- 
 ery, A steamboat has been built to ply on the waters 
 
MAI 
 
 1306 
 
 MAI 
 
 of Moosehead Lake. The Kennebec and the Penob- 
 scot are the two most important streams ; the former 
 is navigable to Augusta, and the latter to Bangor. 
 Their shores are adorned with villages, and the inter- 
 vales along their margins are the most fertile and best 
 cultivated in the State. The Saoo, Androscoggin, 
 and St. Croix Rivers enter the Atlantic. St. John, 
 and its confluents, the Walloostook, Allagash, and 
 Aroostook, drain the northern part of the State. The 
 St. John forms a part of the northern part of the State 
 b}' the late treaty of Washington, 'and its waters are 
 open to the free navigation of both nations. The 
 principal bays are Casco, Penobscot, Machias and Pas- 
 samaquoddy. 
 
 Manufaclures. — There were in this State in 1850, 13 
 cotton factories, with a capital invested of $3,347,700, 
 employing 849 males and 3,072 females, producing 33,- 
 108,666 yards of sheeting valued at $2,630,616 ; 45 
 woolen factories, with a capital of $644,200, employ- 
 ing 888 males and 390 females, manufacturing 2,926,- 
 320 yards of cloth, and 1,200 lbs. of yarn, valued at 
 $934,923; 1 establishinent making pig-iron, with a 
 capital of $214,000, employing 71 persons, producing 
 1,484 tons of pig-iron, etc., valued at $36,616 ; 25 es- 
 tablishments, with a capital of $160,100, employing 
 244 persons, and making 3,691 tons of castings, val- 
 ued at $266,000 ; 163 flouring and grist mills, 752 saw 
 
 mills ; 213 tanneries, with a capital of $732,447, em- 
 ploying 780 persons; value of products, $1,620,636; 
 45 printing offices, 4 daily, 3 tri-weekly, 4 semi-week- 
 ly, 43 weekly, and 1 monthly publication ; aggregate 
 number of copies published annually, 4,203,064. Cap- 
 ital invested in manufactures, $14,700,452 ; value of 
 manufactured articles, $24,644,430. 
 
 There were, January 1856, 11 railroads in this State ; 
 494 miles completed and in operation, and 90 miles in 
 course of construction. The only canal in the State 
 is tjie Cumberland and Oxford, 20J miles long, con- 
 necting navigation from Portland to Sebago, and by a 
 lock in Saco Kiver, navigation is extended to Long 
 Pond, 30 miles further. 
 
 The receipts on the principal lines of railroad in 
 Maine, during the last four years, have been as follows : 
 
 
 Length. 1 1868. 
 
 1854. 1 1865. 
 
 lc:.'6 
 
 
 Miles. 
 
 Dollarfl. 
 
 Dollare. 1 Dollare. 
 
 Dollnrg. 
 
 A. and St L 
 
 147 
 
 816,138 
 
 470,647, 552,486 
 
 665,158 
 
 And. and Kennebec . 
 
 65 
 
 164,106 
 
 178,853! 196,342 
 
 212,998 
 
 Androscoggin 
 
 20 
 
 1S,152 
 
 29,396 
 
 Norofiin) 
 
 23,806 
 
 Bangor and Oldtown. 
 
 13 
 
 48,138 
 
 44,889 
 
 46,170 
 
 85,698 
 
 Calais and Baring... 
 
 6 
 
 28,08f 
 
 81,640 
 
 87,172 
 
 39,380 
 
 Ken. and Portland . . 
 
 VH 
 
 177,088 
 
 297,857 
 
 228,064 
 
 223,290 
 
 Penobscot and Ken. . 
 
 55 
 
 New. 
 
 
 
 112,702, 
 
 Portland, S. and P'a. 
 
 61 
 
 262,077 
 
 270,300 277,.502 
 
 264,180] 
 
 There were, January, 1854, 60 banks, with an 
 gate casli capital of $5,913,870. 
 
 aggre- 
 
 FOBEION COUMBBCE 
 
 OF TUB State of Maine 
 
 , FEOM OOTOBEB 1, 1820, 
 
 TO Jrar 1 
 
 1856. 
 
 
 Yenra ending: 
 
 Exportfl, 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Tonnage 
 
 Cleared. 
 
 District Tomiage. 1 
 
 Domestic, 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Totol. 
 
 Total. 
 
 American. 
 
 Foreign, 
 
 Registered. 
 
 Enrolled and 
 Licensed. 
 
 Sept. 80, 1S21........ 
 
 $994,228 
 
 $46,926 
 
 $1,041,148 
 
 $980,294 
 
 111,864 
 
 520 
 
 60,834 
 
 76,138 
 
 1822 
 
 1,018,878 
 
 22,769 
 
 1,086,642 
 
 948,775 
 
 105,880 
 
 4,452 
 
 
 
 1828 
 
 865,046 
 
 80,545 
 
 895,691 
 
 801,644 
 
 70,773 
 
 1,379 
 
 
 
 1824 
 
 870,871 
 
 29,324 
 
 900,195 
 
 768,643 
 
 98,477 
 
 774 
 
 
 
 ■ 1826 
 
 964,664 
 
 66,468 
 
 1,081,127 
 
 1,169,940 
 
 113,331 
 
 3,250 
 
 
 
 1826 
 
 1,001,876 
 
 60,700 
 
 1,062,575 
 
 1,245,235 
 
 115,060 
 
 2,240 
 
 
 
 1827 
 
 1,088,035 
 
 87,099 
 
 1,070,134 
 
 1,383,390 
 
 94,660 
 
 2,896 
 
 
 
 1S28 
 
 1,008,642 
 
 16,875 
 
 1,019,617 
 
 1,246,809 
 
 95,066 
 
 1,786 
 
 
 
 1829 
 
 729,106 
 
 8,726 
 
 787,882 
 
 742,781 
 
 86,718 
 
 2,705 
 
 
 
 1880 
 
 Total 
 
 648,485 
 
 2T,087 
 
 670,522 
 
 672,666 
 
 91,629 
 
 6,165 
 
 
 
 $9,119,770 
 
 $835,518 
 
 $9,455,283 
 
 $9,806,177 
 
 982,448 
 
 26,166 
 
 
 
 Sept, 80, 1881 
 
 $799,748 
 
 $5,825 
 
 $806,578 
 
 $941,407 
 
 61,682 
 
 49,872 
 
 69,763 
 
 93,314 
 
 1832 
 
 907,286 
 
 74,157 
 
 981,448 
 
 1,128,826 
 
 67,128 
 
 64,720 
 
 
 
 1888 
 
 989,187 
 
 80,644 
 
 1,019,881 
 
 1,880,308 
 
 66,488 
 
 98,735 
 
 
 
 1884 
 
 816,277 
 
 18,890 
 
 884,167 
 
 1,060,121 
 
 62,859, 
 
 99,674 
 
 
 
 1885 
 
 1,044,951 
 
 , 14,416 
 
 1,069,867 
 
 883,389 
 
 68,048 
 
 64,081 
 
 
 
 1886 
 
 836,074 
 
 14,912 
 
 850,986 
 
 980,086 
 
 71,155 
 
 74,586 
 
 
 
 1887 
 
 947,278 
 
 8,676 
 
 955,952 
 
 801,404 
 
 81,898 
 
 74,160 
 
 
 
 1838 
 
 915,076 
 
 20,456 
 
 985,582 
 
 899,142 
 
 54,816 
 
 f'^P 
 
 
 
 1889 
 
 878,434 
 
 17,051 
 
 896,486 
 
 982,724 
 
 77,968 
 
 61,097 
 
 
 
 1840 
 
 Total 
 
 1,009,910 
 
 8,359 
 
 1,018,269 
 
 628,762 
 
 82,584 
 
 75,055 
 
 
 
 $9,143,219 
 
 $218,886 
 
 $9,856,605 
 
 $9,630,669 
 
 688,476 
 
 728,645 
 
 
 
 Sept. 80, 1841 
 
 $1,078,688 
 
 $12,982 
 
 $1,091,865 
 
 $700,961 
 
 90,764 
 
 56,679 
 
 116,819 
 
 189,971 
 
 1842 
 
 , 1,048,172 
 
 7i851 
 
 1,050,523 
 
 606,864 
 
 86,827 
 
 68,721 
 
 
 
 9mos., 1848 
 
 680,432 
 
 2,459 
 
 682,891 
 
 260,260 
 
 60,458 
 
 35,974 
 
 
 
 June 80, 1844 
 
 1,164,964 
 
 11,171 
 
 1,176,186 
 
 670,824 
 
 '91,020 
 
 61,929 
 
 
 
 184.5 
 
 1,167,640 
 
 87,465 
 
 1,255,105 
 
 86.5,645 
 
 88,602 
 
 62,901 
 
 
 
 1846 
 
 1,818,099 
 
 10,269 
 
 1,828,868 
 
 787,092 
 
 96,789 
 
 72,058 
 
 
 
 1847 
 
 1,614,071 
 
 20,1.32 
 
 1,684,208 
 
 674,066 
 
 104,169 
 
 69,608 
 
 
 
 1848 
 
 l,987,d06 
 
 20,889 
 
 1,957,895 
 
 795,665 
 
 152,026 
 
 39,448 
 
 
 
 1849 
 
 l,279j898 
 
 7,288 
 
 1,286,681 
 
 721,409 
 
 127,868 
 
 . 66,081 
 
 
 
 1860 
 
 Total 
 
 1,586,818 
 
 29,094 , 
 
 1,665,912 
 
 &96,411 
 
 111,128 
 
 91,014 
 
 
 
 $12,820,228 
 
 $208,550 
 
 $18,028,778 
 
 $6,719,087 
 
 1,009,091 
 
 614,408 
 
 
 
 June 80, 1851 
 
 $1,517,487 
 
 $88,561 
 
 $1,551,438 
 
 $1,176,590 
 
 120,887 
 
 74,854 
 
 857,880 
 
 178,986 
 
 1852 
 
 1,668,274 
 
 49,644 
 
 1,717,818 
 
 1,094,977 
 
 151,.308 
 
 3,8.53 
 
 
 
 1858 
 
 1,761,929 
 
 278,858 
 
 2,040,787 
 
 1,386,689 
 
 179,569 
 
 62,614 
 
 
 .... 
 
 1864 
 
 1,930,081 
 
 669,010 
 
 2,.589,041 
 
 2,361,900 
 
 198,758 
 
 62,627 
 
 
 .... 1 
 
 1855 
 
 2,643,014 
 
 2,808,198 
 
 4,851,207 
 
 2,927,443 
 
 261,885 
 
 62,005 
 
 
 ' 
 
 1856 
 
 2,259,947 
 
 708,094 
 
 2,968,041 
 
 1,940,778 
 
 250,208 
 
 60,787 
 
 
 ....- 1 
 
 1. The principal ports are Portland, city and port of 
 entry, situated on a peninsula at the western extrem- 
 ity of Casco Bay ; lat. (Mount Joy), 43° 39' 62" N., 
 long., 70° 13' 34" W. The harbor is capacious and 
 safe, and among the best on the Atlantic coast. It is 
 protected by islands from storms, seldom obstructed 
 by ice, and has a good entrance. The water is deep 
 enough for vessels of the largest class. The tonnage 
 of the port in 1836, was 136,154 tons. 2. Bath.— On 
 the Kennebec, 12 miles from the ocean, is one of the 
 principal towns of the State, and the largest ship- 
 
 building port in the world. A branch of the Kenne- 
 bec and Portland Railroad connects the city^wiUi 
 Portland. The tonnage of the port is the largest in 
 Maine, and in 1856 amounted to 193,320 tons. 3. Bel- 
 fast. — At the head of Belfast Bay, 30 miles from the 
 ocean, has an excellent harbor, and a considerable 
 trade in lumber and fish. Its chief industry, how- 
 ever, is ship-building. Steamboats ply to Portland 
 and Boston. The tonnage of Belfast, in 1866, was 
 76,812 tons. 4. Bangor, on the Penobscot. Tonnage 
 in 1856, 38,048 tons. 
 
MAL 
 
 1306 
 
 MAL 
 
 Finances of .he State.— The whole amount of tho 
 funded debts of the State, December SI, 1856, was 
 $699,000; of that sum $30,000 became due March 1, 
 1857, and the current expense of the year will be dis- 
 charged, without resorting to other means than the 
 usual tax imposed by the Legislature. No Legisla- 
 ture will be required to provide for the payment of 
 that sum. Eeceipts and disbursements for the year 
 ending December 31, 1856. Eeceipts, balance from 
 year 1865, $39,130 37. From all other sources, ijSti.S,- 
 312,04. Total, $632,442 41. Disbursements, $486,- 
 166. Balance in the treasury, $146,277 41. See 
 North Am. Rev., Iviii., 299 (Sabine), xxxvii., 419 
 (Leonard), lii., 362 (Rand) ; Niles's Reg., xl., 399 
 (H. Clay) ; Hunt's Mag., ii., 313 (Lanjian), xvii., 
 577; Jo. ofSc., xxxvi., 143; Am. Quar. Reg., v., 105, 
 X., 154, xir., 148, xiii., 144; Am. Whig Rev., ii., 262; 
 Z>e Bow, xii., 603 ; New Eng. Mag., ii., 394. 
 
 Maize, or Indian Corn (Fx. Bled deTurguie; 
 Ger. Turkiseh horn, Mays- It. Grano Turco o iSicil- 
 iano ; Sp. Trigo de Indias, Trigo de Turquid), one of 
 the cereal grasses (Zea Mays), supposed to be indigen- 
 ous to South America, being the only species of corn 
 cultivated in the New World previously to its discov- 
 ery. It was introduced into the Continent about the 
 beginning, and into England a little after the middle 
 of the 16th centu^3^ Its culture has spread with as- 
 tonishing rapidity; being now extensively grown in 
 most Asiatic countries, and in all the southern parts 
 of Europe. It has the widest geographical range of 
 all the cerealia, growing luxuriantly at the equator, 
 and as far as the 50th degree of north, and the 40th of 
 south latitude. It has been raised, in England, in 
 nursery gardens near the metropolis, for more than a 
 century ; and recently it has been attempted to raise 
 it in the fields, but with indifferent success. Like 
 other plants that have been long in cultivation, it has 
 an immense number of varieties. The ear consists of 
 about 600 grains, set close together in rows, to the 
 number of 8, 10, or 12. The grains are usually yel- 
 low ; but they are sometimes red, bluish, greenish, 
 or olive-colored, and sometimes striped and variegated. 
 The maize of Virginia is tall and robust, growing 7 or 
 8 feet high ; that of New England is shorter and low- 
 er; and the Indians further up the countrj' had a 
 still smaller sort in common use. The stalk is jointed 
 like the sugar cane. The straw makes excellent fod- 
 der ; and the grain, as a bread corn, is liked by some ; 
 but though it abounds in mucilage, it contains little 
 or no gluten, and is not likely to be much used by 
 those who can procure wheaten or even rj'e bread. 
 See Corn. 
 
 Malachite. Until 1861, so little was known about 
 it, except to mineralogists, that the public knew not 
 whether it was a stone or a composition. The indus- 
 trial history of the substance, however, is exceeding- 
 ly curious. Malachite is a peculiar variety of green 
 carbonate of copper, found in a few localities in Siberia 
 and South Australia. It is softer but heavier than 
 marble, and much more difficult to work. It can rarely 
 be found in masses weighing more than from 10 to 
 20 pounds ; and the finer specimens have a very high 
 value. There is a mine in Siberia, where a mass of 
 malachite, supposed to weigh 600,000 pounds, lies im- 
 bedded at a depth of 280 feet in a copper mine ; and 
 there is every indication that the malachite has been 
 formed by the solidification or petrefaction of a liquid 
 carbonate of copper, on some such principle as the 
 stalactites in the Derbyshire caves. The material 
 breaks so readily, that it is generally pieces of only 
 two or three pounds' weight that can be brought safely 
 
 to light. . , , , 
 
 MM. Demidoff, the owners of this valuable mme, 
 have established a malachite manufactory at St. Pe- 
 tersburg. The production of large doors, or vases, or 
 other articles in this substance, is exceedingly diffi- 
 cult. The fragments of malachite are first sawn into 
 
 thin plates, the thickness of which varies from a twelfth 
 to an eighth of an inch. The cutting is effected by 
 vertical circular saws, controlled 1^' very delicate ma- 
 chinery, and moistened with sand and water. For 
 curved surfaces, the, malachite is cut by bent saws of 
 a peculiar kind, the working of which Is extreraelj' 
 precarious and difficult. The malachite has markings 
 in difli'erent tints of green, which give, to the material 
 no small part of its beauty. . The artistic workman de- 
 termines what convolution or pattern these markings 
 shall present in the -finished article ; and he so selects 
 the veneers or small pieces as to attain that end. The 
 pieces are cut at the edges to join with great nicety ; 
 and to make these joints accord better with the mark- 
 ings, they are often made curved. , The grinding of 
 the edges is eifected by the aid of rapidly-revolving 
 copper wheels. The substance on which the malachite 
 is veneered is generally iron or copper, but sometimes 
 stone or marble. When the pieces have been fixed 
 down with cement, small interstices are filled up with 
 a cement mixed with fragments of malachite, and col- 
 ored with a powder of the same material. After this 
 the surface is grovmd and polished. The price of the 
 raw malachite, in average pieces as brought up from 
 the mine, is about $3 60 to $4 per pound ; but verj' 
 great waste occurs in the working ; and this, coupled 
 with the lengthened time required in the working, 
 will account for the great costliness of doors, vases, 
 etc., made in this material. The malachite doors 
 which occupied so prominent a place in the Great Ex- 
 hibition, London, emploj'ed 30 workmen for a. whole 
 year. 
 
 Malaga, a city and sea-port of Spain, in the king- 
 dom of Granada, in lat. 36° 43J' N., long. 4° 25' 7" 
 W. Population, perhaps, 65,000. Malaga has an 
 excellent harbor. It is protected on its eastern side 
 by a fine mole, full 700 yards in length. At its ex- 
 tremity a light-house has been constructed, furnished 
 with a powerful light, revolving once every minute. 
 At a distance it appears obscured for 45 seconds, when 
 a brilliant flash succeeds for the other 15 seconds. A 
 shoal has grown up round the mole-head ; and the 
 depth of water throughout the harbor is said to be 
 diminishing. Latterly, however, a dredging-machine 
 has been employed to deepen it, by clearing out the 
 mud and accumulating sand. The depth of water at 
 the entrance of the harbor and within the mole is from 
 26 to 30 feet ; and close to the city from 8 to 10 feet. 
 The harbor could easily accommodate more than 450 
 merchant ships : it may be entered with all winds, and 
 affords perfect shelter. Owing to the want of official 
 returns, and to the prevalence of smuggling, which 
 may be said to have annihilated all fair trade, it is not 
 possible to obtain any accurate accounts of the trade 
 of Malaga, or indeed of any Spanish port. The great 
 articles of export are wine and fruits, particularly rais-_ 
 ins and almonds, grapes, figs, and lemons ; there is also 
 a considerable exportation of olive oil, with quantities 
 of brandy, anchovies, cummin-seed, aniseed, barilla, 
 soap, etc. The lead exported from Malaga is brought 
 from Adra. The imports are salt fish, iron hoops, bar 
 iron, and nails ; cotton stuffs, hides, earthenware, etc., 
 with dye stuffs, all sorts of colonial produce ; butter 
 and cheese from Holland and Ireland, linen from Ger- 
 many, etc. The trade with England seems to be 
 diminishing, and that with the United States to be in- 
 creasing. 'This is a consequence, no doubt, of Malaga 
 wine being very little in demand in the former, while 
 it is pretty largely consumed in the latter. The 
 Americans are also the largest consumers of Malaga 
 fruit. See Mabct's Com. Rel. U. 8., voL ii., pp. 63, 
 64, published 1856-7. 
 
 Commerce with the United States. — The following 
 table will show, approximately, to what extent the 
 direct trade between the United States and SpamJias 
 fallen off within the past few years. Most of this trade 
 is carried on through the port of Malaga : 
 
MAL 
 
 1307 
 
 MAL 
 
 Tonnage op American Yessels entered at the Poet 
 OP Malaga in the following T?arb. 
 
 Ypftrs, Tons, 
 
 1846 16,276 
 
 1847 12,288 
 
 1843 15,699 
 
 1849...., 18,652 
 
 Years. ' Tons, 
 
 1850 16,600 
 
 1851 11,918 
 
 1862 12,610 
 
 1868 11,876 
 
 The falling off in tonnage which the above table ex- 
 hibits is, however, perfectly reconcilable with the com- 
 
 parative tables for lS54 and 1832, when we take into 
 consideration the fact, that at least one third of the 
 exports to the United States is carried by privileged 
 vessels ; and even national vessels, notwithstanding 
 the discriminating duty of 10 per cent, to which they 
 are subject in the ports of the United States, partici- 
 pate largely in this carrj'ing trade, for the purpose of 
 returning with cargoes of cotton for Malaga and Barce- 
 lona, or with codfish from Newfoundland. 
 
 Exports from Malaga to tiie United States from 1st January to Ist July, 1854. 
 
 Flogs. 
 
 Wine. 1 KolsiM. 
 
 Figs. 
 
 Al- 
 monds, 
 
 Lemons 
 
 'Load. 
 
 Bed 
 lead. 
 
 Liquorice 
 paste. 
 
 Liquorice 
 root. 
 
 Bird 
 seed. 
 
 Mots. 
 
 Olives. 
 
 Ollvo 
 oil. 
 
 Values. 
 
 United States 
 
 British 
 
 Spanish 
 
 Prussian — , 
 
 Danish 
 
 Tuscan . . 
 
 Total 
 
 1-4 eks 
 2,170 
 125 
 680 
 469 
 200 
 
 Bbls. 
 500 
 100 
 840 
 
 boxes. 
 65,824 
 21,885 
 10,475 
 411 
 
 Ooshs. 
 
 1,269 
 
 441 
 
 Frails. 
 
 1,081 
 
 800 
 
 Uoxes. 
 540 
 184 
 166 
 
 Boxes. 
 
 1,998 
 698 
 
 i76 
 
 Tons. 
 575 
 246 
 294 
 175 
 66 
 276 
 
 710 
 ■"82 
 
 Cases. 
 16 
 46 
 
 '84 
 
 Bundles. 
 1,060 
 
 Bundles 
 789 
 287 
 150 
 391 
 176 
 
 Bales. 
 
 758 
 
 284 
 870 
 150 
 
 Kegs. 
 850 
 
 800 
 
 •• 
 
 ■■ 
 
 1-4 c'lts 
 472 
 276 
 
 160 
 
 Dollors, 
 
 227,653 
 78,767 
 67,283 ■ 
 80,087 
 8,733 
 28,274 
 
 8,644 
 
 940 
 
 88,295 
 
 1,700 
 
 1,881 
 
 840 
 
 2,772 
 
 1,631 
 
 2,006 
 
 96 
 
 1,060 
 
 1,748 
 
 1,613 
 
 1,150 
 
 897 
 
 420,652 
 
 The following extracts arc taken from the commer- 
 cial report of Malaga, dated the 31st of January, 1857, 
 conimunioated to the Department of State : " The im- 
 ports from the United States, which are usually limited 
 to staves by American, and one pr two cargoes of cot- 
 ton by Spanish vessels, have been increased by a few 
 cargoes of ilour and wheat, toward the end of the year, 
 under the late royal decree admitting breadstuffs free 
 of duty until June next ; the approximate value of im- 
 ports of American produce for the last year amounted 
 to $228,030, and of foreign produce from the United 
 States to 32,700, making a total sum of $260,730. The 
 exports to the United States have not been large in 
 qhantity, owing to short crops the past year. The 
 high price of everj' article of exportation, however, 
 brings up the value equal to any former period. The 
 amount, as per proximate returns of American vessels, 
 is $1,240,907, and by foreign vessels $407,360; mak- 
 ing a total sum of $1,648,267. The raisin crop has 
 been very short, the last vintage being estimated at 
 not much over 600,000 boxes of Muscatels. Other de- 
 scriptions of raisins show a still greater decrease, ow- 
 ing to the ceniza, a disease of the vines which has 
 been very general the two last years. The culture of 
 the grape is extending throughout the province ; and 
 the Mnicatel vines would probably yield, in a favorabe 
 season 1,500,000 boxes. Over two thirds of this de- 
 scription have been shipped the last year to the United 
 States : the finer quality is shipped to England and 
 France ; and when very abundant, at low prices, large 
 shipments would be made to Germany and the north 
 of Europe. Prices have ruled very high, averaging $2 
 for M. E., and $2 25 for ordinary layers, for the 
 Americail market ; fine London layers from $3 to $4 
 per box. The slock existing at the end of the year 
 did not exceed 30,000 boxes, about two thirds of which 
 may go to the United States. The various produc- 
 tions of this and the adjoining provinces, for want of 
 good roads and rapid communication in a mountainous 
 country, can not be brought to market so as to com- 
 pete with the same of other countries, consequently 
 they are not increased. Outside of five or eight 
 leagues, little is received, but at such a high cost of 
 transportation that many bulky articles can not be 
 brought at all. Sumac, for instance, is worth, in the 
 interior, from 20 to 26 per arroba, or 25 pounds. The 
 freight of this article to Malaga is more than double 
 the cost. It is considered by chemists of a better 
 quality than the Sicily, but it can not be afforded for 
 the American market, although, notwithstanding the 
 high cost, considerable is shipped to France." 
 
 The following details, extracted from Mr. Inglis's 
 valuable work, entitled " Spain in 1830," contain the 
 fullest and best account we have met with of the trade 
 of Malaga. The authenticity may, we believe, be de- 
 pended upon : 
 
 " Wine. The wines of Malaga are of two sorts, 
 
 Bweet and dry ; and of the former of these there are 
 
 four kinds ; first, the common ' Malaga,' known and 
 exported under that name. In this there is a certain 
 proportion of boiled wine, which is allowed to bum, 
 and which communicates a slightly burnt taste to the 
 ' Malaga.' The grape from which this wine is made is 
 a white grape ; and every pipe of ' Malaga' contains no 
 less than eleven gallons of brandy. Secondly, ' Mount- 
 ain.' This wine is made from the same grape as 
 the other, and, like it, contains coloring matter and 
 brandy ; the only difference is, that for ' Mountain' the 
 grape is allowed to become ripe. Thirdly, ' Lagrimas,' 
 the richest and finest of the sweet wines of Malaga ; 
 the name of which almost explains the manner in 
 which it is made. It is the droppings of the ripe 
 grape hung up, and is obtained without the applica- 
 tion of pressure. The diy wine of Malaga is produced 
 from the same grape as the sweet wine, but pressed 
 when greener. In this wine there is an eighth part 
 more of brandy than in the sweet wine ; no less than 
 l-12th part of the dry Malaga being brandy. The 
 whole produce of the Malaga vineyards is estimated 
 at from 35,000 to 40,000 pipes ; but, owing to the in; 
 creasing stock of old wine in the cellars, it is impos- 
 sible to be precise in this calculation. The exports of 
 all sorts of Malaga wine may be stated at about 27,000 
 pipes. The principal market is the United States and 
 South America; and to these the export is upon the 
 increase. The average price of the wines shipped 
 from Malaga does not exceed $35 per pipe ; but wines 
 are occasionally exported at the price of $170. Many 
 attempts have been made at Malaga to produce sherry, 
 but none with perfect success. The sherry grape has 
 been reared at Malaga upon a soil very similar to that 
 of Xeres ; but the merchants of Malaga have not ven- 
 tured to enter the wine for export. One reason of the 
 very low price of the wines of Malaga is to be found in 
 the cheapness of labor : field labor is only 2J reals a 
 day (10 cents). In the fruit and vintage time it is 
 about double. 
 
 " Fruit. — Next to its wines, the chief export of Ma- 
 laga is fruit, consisting of raisins, almonds, grapes, 
 figs, and lemons ; but of these, raisins are principally 
 exported. I have before me a note of the exports of 
 Malaga for the months of September and October, 
 1830 — ^the chief, though not the sole exporting months 
 — and I find that during that time the export of raisins 
 amounted to 268,845 boxes, and 31,916 smaller pack- 
 ages. Of this quantity 125,334 boxes were entered 
 for the United States ; 45,513 for England ; the re- 
 maining quantity being for France, the West Indies, 
 the Spanish ports. South America, and Holland. The 
 raisins exported from Malaga are of three kinds, mus- 
 catel, bloom or sun raisin, and lexias. The muscatel is 
 the finest raisin in the world. In its preparation no 
 art is used ; the grape is merely placed in the sun, and 
 frequently turned. The bloom or sun raisin is a dif- 
 ferent grape from the muscatel, but its preparation is 
 the same. The lexias acquire this name from the 
 
MAL 
 
 1308 
 
 MAL 
 
 liquor, or ley, in whicli they are* dipped, and which is 
 composed of water, ashes, and oil j these, after being 
 dipped, are also dried in the sun. All muscatel raisins 
 are exported in boxes, and also a part of the bloom 
 raisins. In 1829, the exports of muscatel and bloom 
 raisins were 325,000 boxes of 25 lbs. each; in all, 
 8,125,000 lbs. This quantity is independent of the 
 export of bloom raisins in casks, and of lexias ; the 
 latter amounting to about 30,000 arrobas. The export 
 of raisins to England has fallen off, while that to 
 America has considerably increased. In 1824, 75 
 ships cleared from Malaga for England, with fruit ; in 
 1830, down to the 1st of November, 34 vessels had 
 cleared out. Of the other fruits raised near Malaga, 
 grapes, almonds, and lemons are the most extensively 
 exported. In the months of September and October, 
 1830, 11,612 jars of grapes were shipped for England, 
 6429 for America, and 1650 for Russia. During the 
 satne months, 5335 arrobas of almonds (133,375 lbs.) 
 were shipped for England, this being nearly the whole 
 export. There were also exported during the same 
 period 3749 boxes of lemons for, England, 4201 boxes 
 for Germany, and 840 boxes for Eussia. 
 
 '* Oil. — There is also a large export of oil from Mala- 
 gaj but the export during the latter part of 1830 would 
 be no criterion of the average, because the Greenland 
 whale-fishery having failed, extensive orders had been 
 received from England." 
 
 Money. — Accounts are kept in reals of 34 maravedis 
 vellon. For the coins, and their value, used at Malaga, 
 see Cadiz. 
 
 Weights and Measures. — The weights are the same 
 as those of Cadiz. The arroba or cantara = 4-19 En- 
 glish wine gallons ; the regular pipe of Malaga wine 
 contains 35 arrobas, but is reckoned only at 34 ; a bota 
 of Pedro Ximenes wine = 53| arrobas ; a bota of oil is 
 43, and a pipe 35, arrobas ; the latter weighs about 860 
 lbs. avoirdupois ; u. carga of raisins is 2 baskets, or 
 
 7 arrobas ; a cask contains as much, though only called 
 4 arrobas ; as a last for freight are reckoned~4 betas 
 or 3 pipes of wine or oil ; 4 bales of orange-peel ; 5 
 pipes of Pedro Ximenes wine or oil ; 10 casks of almonds 
 (each about 380*lbs., English); 20 chests of lemons 
 and oranges ; 22 casks of almonds (of 8 arrobas each) ; 
 44 casks of raisins (of 4 arrobas each) ; 88 half casks 
 of raisins ; 50 baskets or 160 jars of raisins. 
 
 Port Charges.- — The port and harbor dues amount, on 
 an English vessel of 300 tons, to about £21 ; on a 
 Spanish vessel of the same burden they would be 
 about £11 10s. 
 
 Warehousing. — Goods may be warehoused for 12 
 months, paying 2 per cent, ad valorem in lieu of all 
 charges ; but at the end of the year thej' must be 
 either entered for consumption or re-shipped. The 2 
 per cent, is charged whether they lie a day or the 
 whole year. See also Townsend's Travels in Spain, 
 vol. iii., pp. 10-42. 
 
 Malmsley See Wine. 
 
 Malt (Ger. Maly; Du. Mout; Fr. Mai, Bledgerme; 
 It. Malto; Sp. Cebada retonada b entallecida; Rus, 
 Solod; Lat. Malturfi). The term malt is applied to 
 designate grain which, being steeped in water, is made 
 to germinate to a certain extent, after which the pro- 
 cess is checked by the application of heat. This 
 evolves the saccharine principle of the grain, which is 
 the essence of malt. The process followed in the 
 manufacture is very simple. Few changes have been 
 made in it ; and it is carried on at this moment very 
 much in the same manner that it was carried on by 
 our ancestors centuries ago. Rice, and almost every 
 species of grain, has been used in malting; but in 
 Europe, and especially in England, malt is prepared 
 almost wholly from barley. It is the principal ingre- 
 dient in the manufacture of beer, and is little used ex- 
 cept in brewing and the distillation of spirits. Its con- 
 sumption in the United States is rapidly increasing. 
 
 Table showing the Consumption of Grain, anb the Production op Malt and Spirituous Liquors, in the 
 
 United States for the Tear 1850. 
 
 StnteB. 
 
 Capital 
 invested. 
 
 Quantities and kinds of grain, 
 
 etc., consumed. 
 
 Hands 
 
 ploj'cd. 
 
 Cluantities of liquors produced. 
 
 Barley. 
 
 Com. 
 
 Rye. 
 
 Oats. 
 
 Apples. 
 
 Molasses 
 
 Hops. 
 
 Ale, etc. 
 
 Whisky A 
 liigh wines. 
 
 Rum. 
 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 1T,0Q0 
 
 7,000 
 
 467,600 
 
 17,000 
 
 , 15,600 
 
 2,635,900 
 
 409,666 
 
 1,719,960 
 
 247,100 
 
 100,916 
 
 21,930 
 
 8,475 
 
 7,160 
 
 BOO 
 
 8,500 
 
 163,895 
 
 66.125 
 
 298,900 
 
 1,262,974 
 
 884,950 
 
 808,400 
 
 139,425 
 
 19,500 
 
 98,700 
 
 7,800 
 
 8,000 
 
 12,000 
 
 Busliela. 
 2,560 
 
 80,000 
 12,800 
 
 2,062,260 
 
 103,700 
 
 650,106 
 
 76,900 
 
 20,000 
 
 10,000 
 fi5,65p 
 3,000 
 124,440 
 830,950 
 118,150 
 98,000 
 82,030 
 
 91,620 
 
 i',66o 
 6,000 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 19,460 
 
 20,660 
 
 1,647,266 
 
 254,000 
 
 1,488,555 
 
 166,100 
 
 250,700 
 
 64,660 
 
 18,100 
 
 20,150 
 
 66l",860 
 
 258,400 
 
 809,200 
 
 8,588,140 
 
 1,417,900 
 
 708,500 
 
 212,800 
 
 61,150 
 
 29,900 
 
 2,000 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 26'66o 
 
 20/100 
 909,067 
 
 58,400 
 517,180 
 
 54,800 
 
 62,680 
 4,700 
 
 2,560 
 
 30^620 
 
 5,480 
 
 24,900 
 
 281,750 
 
 48,700 
 
 48,700 
 
 19,160 
 
 7,200 
 
 9,200 
 
 12,900 
 
 Bushels 
 
 6,707 
 
 24',790 
 460 
 460 
 
 1,500 
 
 19,600 
 1,000 
 2,200 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 60,940 
 
 409,700 
 
 51,200 
 
 5,660 
 
 Hbde. 
 2,000 
 
 ssjiso 
 '"io 
 
 24,500' 
 
 "io 
 "■25 
 
 Tons. 
 
 "i 
 
 29 
 6 
 2 
 681 
 43 
 263 
 25 
 14 
 
 "i6 
 
 18 
 
 "si 
 
 173 
 18 
 80 
 16 
 
 "28 
 
 "'a 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 131 
 
 9 
 
 20 
 
 1,380 
 
 197 
 
 911 
 
 126 
 
 123 
 
 75 
 
 83 
 
 16 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 274 
 
 169 
 
 V9 
 
 1,033 
 
 287 
 
 274 
 
 98 
 
 19 
 
 98 
 
 21 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 "mo 
 
 25,800 
 
 8,900 
 
 m,m 
 
 84,750 
 
 139,581 
 
 26,880 
 
 6,500 
 
 K66o 
 
 19,600 
 
 4^60 
 96,948 
 11,005 
 27,925 
 10,820 
 
 31,820 
 
 "800 
 1,860 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 120^660 
 
 130,660 
 
 9,281,700 
 
 1,260,680 
 
 6,548,810 
 
 737,400 
 
 879,440 
 
 1.58,030 
 
 48,900 
 
 60,450 
 
 1,49V,746 
 
 667,000 
 
 989,400 
 
 11,866,150 
 
 4,639,900 
 
 2,315,000 
 
 690,900 
 
 160,600 
 
 127,000 
 
 42,000 
 
 Gallons. 
 220,000 
 
 8,786,660 
 
 1,200 
 2,483,800 
 
 1,600 
 8,660 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ••■• 
 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 
 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 
 Nprth Carolina. 
 
 Soutli Carolina. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ohio 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 New Mexico Tenit. . . 
 
 Utah Territory 
 
 Dist. of Columbia — 
 Total 
 
 8,834,254 
 
 8,787,195 
 
 11,067,761 2,148,927 
 
 56,617 
 
 526,340 
 
 61,675 11,294 1 6,487 
 
 1,177,924 
 
 42,188,95616,600,500 
 
 Owing to malt liquor having early become the 
 favorite beverage of the people of England, the manu- 
 facture of malt has been carried on in that countrj', 
 for a lengthened period, on a very large scale. In- 
 stead, however, of increasing with the increasing 
 wealth and population of the country, it was nearly 
 stationary for the 100 years ending with 181G. In 
 proof of this we may mention that the quantity of 
 malt that paid duty in England and Wales, at an av- 
 erage of the 12 years ending with 1720, was 24,191,304 
 
 bushels a year ; whereas the annual average quantity 
 that paid duty during the 12 years ending with 1816, 
 was only 23,197,754 bushels. This apparently anom- 
 alous result is probably in some measure to be ac- 
 counted for by the increased consumption of tea and 
 coffee ; but there can not be a question that it is main- 
 Ij" owing to the exorbitant duties with which malt, 
 and the ale or beer manufactured from it, have been 
 loaded, and to the oppressive regulations imposed on 
 the manufacture of malt and the sale of beer. But 
 
MAL 
 
 1309 
 
 MAL 
 
 the public attention being at length forcibly at- 
 tracted to the subject, and the effect of the exor- 
 bitant duties on malt and beer in increasing the con- 
 sumption of ardent spirits having been clearly pointed 
 out (see Edinburg Review, No. 98), the beer duty in 
 Great Britain was repealed in 1830. 
 
 Malta, an island in the Mediterranean, belonging 
 to the British, nearly opposite to the southern extrem- 
 ity of Sicily, from which it is about 54 miles distant. 
 Valetta, the capital, is situated on the north coast of 
 the island, the light-house in the castle of St. Elmo 
 being in lat. 35° 54' 6" N., long. 14° 31' 1" E. 
 Malta is about 20 miles long, and 10 or 12 broad. 
 The island of Gozo, about a fourth part of the size of 
 Malta, lies to the north-west of the latter, at about four 
 miles' distance ; and in the strait between them is the 
 small island of Cumino. In 1847 the population 
 of Malta amounted, excluding the garrison (except the 
 Maltese regiment), to 108,140. The population of 
 Gozo, at the same period, was 15,130 j the total popu- 
 lation of both islands making 123,270. The entire 
 revenue collected in Malta usually amounts to about 
 £100,000 a year, of which about £23,000 is derived from 
 the rent of lands. Valetta, the capital of the island, 
 is defended by almost impregnable fortifications. 
 "These," says Mr. Brydone, "are, indeed, most stu- 
 pendous works. All the boasted catacombs of Rome 
 and Naples are a trifle to the immense excavations 
 that have been made in this little island. The ditches, 
 of a vast size, are all cut out of the solid rook ; these 
 extend for a great many miles, and raise our astonish- 
 ment to think that so small a State has ever been able 
 to make them." (Tour through SicUy and Malta.') 
 Since the island came into the possession of Great 
 Britain, the fortifications have been considerably im- 
 proved ; so that at present it is a place of very great 
 strength. After the capture of Rhodes by the Turks, 
 the Emperor Charles V. made a present of Malta to 
 the Knights of St John of Jerusalem, in whose posses- 
 sion it remained till 1798, when it was taken by the 
 French. It was taken from the latter by the English 
 in 1800, and was definitely ceded to Great Britain in 
 1814. The island consists mostly of a rock, very 
 thinly covered with soil, a good deal of which has been 
 brought, at an immense expense, from Sicily; but 
 being cultivated with the utmost care, it produces ex- 
 cellent fruits, particularly the celebrated Maltese 
 oranges, corn, cotton, with small quantities of indigo, 
 saffron, and sugar. The principal dependence of the 
 inhabitants is on their cotton ; the crop of which, 
 amounting to about 4,000,000 lbs. a year, is partly ex- 
 ported raw, and partly manufactured to the value of 
 from $400,000 to $500,000. The corn raised on. the 
 island is not sufScient to feed the inhabitants for more 
 than five or six months, and, at an average, about 
 100,000 quarters of foreign wheat are required for 
 their use. In addition to corn, cattle, provisions of 
 all sorts, including dried fish, fruits, Spanish peas, etc., 
 are largely imported. The other leading articles of 
 import comprise cottons and most sorts of manufac- 
 tured goods, sugar, coffee, and other colonial products, 
 tobacco, oil, winjs, timber, etc. The trade in com 
 used to be monopolized by government ; and after the 
 monopoly was abandoned, duties on importation, 
 varj'ing, like those in this country, with the price, 
 were imposed. But in 1835 these duties were abol- 
 ished, and the fixed duties on corn entered for con- 
 sumption, specified in the subjoined tarifi^, were sub- 
 stituted in their stead. Malta presents unusual facil- 
 ities, which have not hitherto been taken proper 
 advantage of, for becoming the entrepot of the corn 
 trade of the Mediterranean and Black Sea. Her ware- 
 houses for corn are, like those of Sicily and Barbary, 
 excavated in the rock ; and are, perhaps, the best fit- 
 ted of any in Europe for the safe keeping of com. 
 The wheat lodged in them may be preserved for an 
 indefinite period; and it is affirmed that though it 
 
 should, on being deposited, be affected by the weevil, 
 it is verj' soon freed from that destructive insect. It is 
 not often that com can be brought direct from Odessa, 
 Taganrog, etc., to England, without the risk of being 
 damaged ; but were it brought, in the first instance, 
 to Malta, and bonded there, it might afterward be 
 conveyed in the best order to the English market. 
 Malta is also admirably well suited for becoming a 
 centre of the corn trade of Egypt, Barbary, Italy, etc. 
 During the wars of 1800-1815, particularly during the 
 period when Napoleon's anti-commercial system was 
 in operation, Malta became a great entrep6t for colo- 
 nial and other goods, which were thence conveyed, 
 according as opportunities offered, to the adjacent 
 ports. This commerce ceased with the circumstances 
 that gave it birth ; and for some years after the return 
 of peace, the trade of the island was depressed below 
 its natural level, by the imposition of various oppres- 
 sive discriminating duties. In 1819, this vexatious 
 system was partially obviated ; but it continued to 
 exert a pernicious influence till 1837, when, pursuant 
 to the recommendation of the commissioners of inquiry, 
 the then existing tariffs of customs duties and port 
 charges were wholly abolished, and a new tariff was 
 issued in their stead. It imposed moderate duties, for 
 the sake of revenue only, on a few articles in general 
 demand, without regard to the country whence they 
 came, at the same time that it equalized the tonnage 
 duties, and reduced the warehouse rent on articles in 
 bond to the lowest level. There are some good springs 
 of fresh water. Valetta is partly supplied by water 
 brought by an aqueduct a distance of about six miles, 
 and partly by the rain collected in cisterns. 
 
 flarJor.^The harbor of Valetta is double, and is 
 one of the finest in the world. The city is built on a 
 narrow tongue of land, having the castle and light of 
 St. Elmo at its extremity, and an admirable port on 
 each side. That on the south-eastern side, denom- 
 inated the grand port, is the most frequented. The 
 entrance to it, about 250 fathoms wide, has the formi- 
 dable batteries of St. Elmo on the one hand, and those 
 of fort ■Ricasoli on the other. In entering, it is neces- 
 sary not to come within 50 or 60 fathoms of the former, 
 on account of a spit which projects from it ; but in the 
 rest of the channel there is from 10 to 12 fathoms wa- 
 ter. The port, which runs about If miles inward, has 
 deep water and excellent anchorage throughout ; the 
 largest men-of-war coming close to the quaj's. Port 
 Marsmusceit, on the north-western side of the city, is 
 also a noble harbor. Tiie entrance to it, which is about 
 the same breadth as that of the grand port, is between 
 St. Elmo and Fort Tiqua. In the centre of the basin 
 is an island on which are built a castle and a lazaretto, 
 for the convenience of the ships performing quarantine, 
 by which the port is principally used. Owing to the 
 narrowness of the entrance, and the usual variable- 
 ness of the wind, it is customary for most vessels 
 bound for Valetta to take a pilot on board before en- 
 tering the harbor. 
 
 Olasbifioation op Meeoiiant Vessels which hav^ ar- 
 rived IN Malta during the Tear 1848. 
 
 American 22 
 
 Hanovarlau 1 
 
 Austrian 212 
 
 Belgian 4 
 
 Bremen. 
 
 Danish IT 
 
 Dutch 9 
 
 English 639 
 
 French 802 
 
 Geroaolimit 29 
 
 Greek 826 
 
 Ionian 41 
 
 Lubecese 1 
 
 Maltese 4T8 
 
 Mecklenburg 4 
 
 Moldavian 17 | 
 
 The arrivals of merchant-vessels and ships of war 
 at Malta during the year 1849, were as follows :— Mer- 
 chant-vessels, 3251 ; ships of war (including steamers), 
 340 ; total, 3591. 
 
 Neapolitan . 
 
 Norwegian » 
 
 Ottoman 88 
 
 Prussian 3 
 
 Eoman 11 
 
 Russian 75 
 
 Samiote 11 
 
 Sardinian 164 
 
 Sicilian 224 
 
 Spanish 4 
 
 Swedish 6 
 
 Tunisian 28 
 
 Tuscan 65 
 
 Venetian 2 
 
 Wallachian 4 
 
MAN 
 
 1310 
 
 MAN 
 
 List of Vebseis belonging to the Island of Malta, on 
 
 THE IST OF jANrAUY, 1850, 
 
 
 Ships. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 CrewB. 
 
 Ships 
 
 1 
 
 24 
 
 77 
 1 
 1 
 2 
 1 
 
 12 
 8 
 8 
 1 
 
 65 
 
 381 
 
 T,878 
 
 14,138 
 
 108 
 
 189 
 
 28 
 
 81 
 
 1,109 
 
 531 
 
 679 
 
 28 
 
 720 
 
 18 
 
 828 
 
 777 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 11 
 
 8 
 
 98 
 
 69 
 
 81 
 
 5 
 
 760 
 
 Barks 
 
 Brigs 
 
 
 
 Cutters 
 
 Ketch 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 201 
 
 25,656 
 
 2,168 
 
 
 The central position, excellent port, and great 
 strength of Malta, make it an admirable naval station 
 for the repair and accommodation of the men-of-war 
 and merchant-ships frequenting the Mediterranean, 
 and render its possession of material importance to 
 the British empire. Since Malta-built vessels were 
 admitted into ports of the United Kingdom on the 
 same terms as those of British-built, the trade of shii)- 
 building has materially increased in the island. The 
 Maltese shipwrights are diligent, expert workmen ; 
 and, their wages being moderate, it is a favorable place 
 for careening. Owing to the want of a drj'. dock, all 
 ships above the size of a sloop of war, that require to 
 have their bottoms examined, have to come to England 
 for that purpose. This, surely, should be obviated. 
 Quarantine is strictly enforced at Malta ; but there is 
 every facility for its performance, and the charges are 
 less than at any other port in the Mediterranean. 
 
 Malta is now the centre of a very extensive steam- 
 packet system ; the steamers from England for the 
 Ionian Islands, Constantinople, Alexandria, and other 
 ports of the Levant, touching here. The French 
 
 steamers from these ports usually perform quarantine 
 
 at Malta. 
 
 In 1825, British silver money was intro- 
 duced into Malta ; the Spanish dollar being made legal 
 tender at the rate of 4s. 4d. ; the Sicilian dollar at is. 
 2d. ; and the scudo of Malta, at Is. 8d. 
 
 Weights and Measures. — The pound, or rottolo, com- 
 mercial weight = 30 oncie = 12'216 English grains. 
 Hence 100 rottoli (the cantaro) = 174| lbs. avoirdu- 
 pois, or 79-14 kilog. Merchants usually reckon the 
 cantaro at 175 lbs. The salma of corn, stricken meas- 
 ure = 8221 "Winchester bushels ; heaped measure is 
 reckoned 16 per cent. more. The caffiso, or measure 
 for oil, contains 5J English gallons = 20-818 litres. 
 The barrel is double the caffiso. The Maltese foot = 
 11 l-6th English inches = -2836 metres. The canna = 
 8 palmi = 81-9 English inches = 2-079 metres. Mer- 
 chants usually convert Malta measure into English in 
 the proportion of 3 J palmi to a yard, or 2 2-7th yards 
 to 1 canna. 
 
 Bills on London are usually drawn at 30 and 60 
 days' sight. The deputy commissary general is 
 obliged to grant, at all times, bills on the Treasurj' here 
 for British silver tendered to him, at the rate of a £100 
 bill for ever}' £101 10s. silver, receiving, at the same 
 timej other silver, at a fluctuating rate of exchange. 
 
 Commercial Relations with the United States. — The 
 commercial intercourse of the United States with 
 Malta is dependent, as is that of all other nations, on 
 the regulations and legislative enactments of the 
 mother country. The trade of the United States with 
 this island is not, however, very important, though 
 an examination of the following table will show a per- 
 ceptible increase in the amount of our tonnage, and 
 but little variation in the value of our exports during 
 the years which they embrace : 
 
 COMMEEOE OF THE UNITED StATES WITH MALTA, FEOM OCTOBER 1, 1832, TO JULY 1 
 
 1850. 
 
 years eDcling 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 whereof there was in Bullion 
 and Specie. 
 
 Tonnage Cleared. 
 
 Somesiic, | Foreign. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Exported. 
 
 Imported. 
 
 American. Foreigo. 
 
 Sept. 30, 1833 
 
 1884 
 
 1885 
 
 1836 
 
 18.3T 
 
 18.38 
 
 1889 
 
 1840 
 
 Total.... 
 
 1841 
 
 1842 
 
 9 mos. 1843 
 
 June 80, 1844 
 
 1845 
 
 $60,828 
 37,426 
 
 109,655 
 88,817 
 
 100,805 ' 
 81,956 
 05,870 
 14,610 
 
 $121,248 
 189,892 
 178,866 
 4,0T8 
 84,126 
 45,386 
 
 $50,828 
 87,426 
 230.893 
 178;709 
 274,171 
 86,033 
 99,996 
 59,996 
 
 $31,078 
 49,628 
 81,867 
 34,390 
 35,961 
 10,866 
 24,948 
 28,471 
 
 $381 
 
 $1,482 
 2,470 
 
 1,091 
 2,126 
 
 781 
 1,993 
 
 867 
 1,869 
 
 448 
 
 "m 
 
 TIO 
 
 $499,960 
 
 $27,869 
 11,644 
 6,486 
 9,762 
 12,909 
 28,764 
 26,096 
 88,128 
 51,2.38 
 75,829 
 
 $518,091 
 
 $21,070 
 
 8,261 
 
 11,471 
 
 T,246 
 
 10,927 
 22,541 
 16,955 
 62,784 
 89,051 
 
 $1,018,067 
 
 $48,989 
 19,906 
 17,907 
 16,998 
 12,909 
 84,681 
 47,687 
 49,088 
 118,967 
 114,380 
 
 $258,094 
 
 $l,46t 
 
 7,300 
 
 27 
 
 16 
 
 22,811 
 
 21,689 
 
 "884 
 8,405 
 11,354 
 
 $881 
 
 $8,962 
 
 9,165 
 
 360 
 
 766 
 
 214 
 
 611 
 
 964 
 
 882 
 
 843 
 
 1,812 
 
 3,068 
 
 2,666 
 
 1,471 
 274 
 
 "228 
 
 "t20 
 466 
 
 1846 
 
 1S47 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 
 
 1860 
 
 Total.... 
 
 JnneSO, 1881 
 
 1852 
 
 1S.08 
 
 1864 
 
 1856 
 
 1856 
 
 $277,160 
 
 $64,061 
 96,347 
 16.5,819 
 148,528 
 212,397 
 231,045 
 
 $199,266 
 
 $12,238 
 16,975 
 22,237 
 21,246 
 72,452 
 88,541 
 
 $4T6,406 
 
 $76,299 
 113,322 
 187,556 
 169,773 
 284,849 
 814,586 
 
 $72,846 
 
 $26,167 
 114,864 
 80,058 
 83,695 
 62,616 
 44,224 
 
 $2,66o 
 
 
 12,166 
 
 1,097 
 2,442 
 2,721 
 8,197 
 4,088 
 2,998 
 
 1,673 
 
 746 
 458 
 741 
 802 
 629 
 400 
 
 No spirits or cordials, except rum and spirits, the 
 product of Great Britain or of the British colonies, can 
 be admitted for consumption, if they exceed 9 per cent, 
 over-proof. The following are the lejjal rates for pi- 
 lotage charged on all vessels entering the harbor of 
 Malta :— Vessels of 100 tons burden, .S2 ; 101 to 150, 
 $3 04 ; 151 to 250, $i ; 251 to 350, $5 04 ; 361 and 
 upward, $6. 
 
 Vessels discharging merchandise in the island of 
 Malta, on clearing outward, pay for every ton, or any 
 part thereof, including all port charges, 12 cents. 
 There is a public hospital in Malta, to which British 
 sailors are admitted free of charge. American and 
 
 other foreign sailors are also admitted at a charge of 20 
 cents per diem, the payment of which must be guar- 
 antied by their respective consuls, or by the consign- 
 ees of the vessels to which they belong. 
 
 For trade of, travel in, etc., Malta, see Edin. Rev., 
 vi., 194; North Am. Rev., xxxv., 228 (A. H. Ever- 
 ett), X., 225 (E. Eveeett) ; South. Lit. Mess., x.. 
 728, ix., 86, 163, vii., 830, iv., 780, v., 146; Chr. 
 Exam., ii., 259 (Jas. Walkek) ; Quar. Rev., ix., 1. 
 
 Man, Isle of, is, as every one knows, situated in 
 the Irish Sea, at about an equal distance from En- 
 gland, Scotland, and Ireland. It is about 30 miles 
 long, and 10 or 12 broad. The interior is mountain- 
 
MAN 
 
 1311 
 
 MAN 
 
 ons, and the soil nowhere very productive. Population 
 in 1851, 52,387. This island used to be one of the 
 principal stations of the herring fishery ; but for a 
 considerable period, it has been comparatively deserted 
 by the herring shoals, a circumstance which is not to 
 be regretted ; for the fishery, by withdrawing the at- 
 tention of the inhabitants from agriculture and manu- 
 factures; and leading them to engage in what has 
 usually been a gambling and unproductive business, 
 has been, on the whole, injurious to the island. The 
 steam packets ft'om Glasgow to Liverpool, and from the 
 latter to Belfast, touch at the Isle of Man ; which is, 
 in consequence, largely freiqnented by visitors from 
 these cities, and other parts of the empire, whose in- 
 flux has materially contributed to the improvement of 
 Douglas, the principal port in the island^ i and other 
 towns. The feudal sovereignty of Man was formerty 
 vested in the Earls of Derby, and more recently in the 
 Dukes of Athol, a circumstance which accounts for the 
 fact of the duties on most commodities consunled in 
 the island having been, for a lengthened period, much 
 lower than those on the same commodities when con- 
 sumed Jn' Great Britain. This distinction, which still 
 subsists, has produced a great deal of smuggling, and 
 been in no ordinary degree injurious to the revenue 
 and trade of the empire. The customs revenue col- 
 lected in the Isle of Man in 1852, amounted to £28,- 
 077 ; but from this sum £14,373 was deducted on ac- 
 count of expenses of collection, public worlts, internal 
 government, etc. 
 
 Manchester, a city, parliamentary and municipal 
 borough, and parish of England, county Lancaster. 
 Area of parish, including the borough Salford, 33,553 
 acres. Population, 462,158. Inhabited houses, 63,697. 
 Population in 1801, 110,938 ; in 1841, 353,390 ; in 1851, 
 401,321, of whom 316,213 were in the borough of Man- 
 chester, and 65,108 in that of Salford. The. town 
 stands on a plain, and consists, with Salford, of a dense 
 mass of buildings, extending about two miles from 
 east to west, by somewhat less from north to south, 
 and covering about 3000 acres. It has a branch of the 
 Bank of EnglaM, 5 joint-stock banks, and 5 weekly 
 newspapers. Market, Tuesday, Thursday, and Satur- 
 day. The proximity of an abundance of coal, the im- 
 provements introduced into spinning and weaving ma- 
 chinery by Hughes, A.rkwright, Hargreaves, and 
 Crompton, and the applicaton of steam power, have 
 raised Manchester to its eminence of monopolizing 
 two thirds of the cotton manufacture of Great Britain. 
 Its manufactures are mostly conducted in large mills 
 and factories. Of these in 1853, there were in Man- 
 chester and Salford : 
 
 Cotton spinning. 
 
 Cotton weaving 
 
 Cotton spinning and weaving 
 
 Woolen and worsted spinning { 
 
 and weaving ) 
 
 Silk throwing and small ware 
 
 Flax spinning 
 
 Printworks 
 
 Total 
 
 No. of 
 works. 
 
 85 
 65 
 
 85 
 
 I 233 
 
 Persons 
 imployod. 
 
 6,292 
 
 7,T09 
 
 1T,858 
 
 7,520 
 ],120 
 2,985 
 
 42,264 
 
 1,520 
 1,080 
 4,706 
 
 80 
 
 580 
 198 
 
 Woolen fabrics, machinery, hats, paper, ropes, 
 twine, pins, and numerous other goods, are made in 
 large quantities ; and there are many bleaching and 
 chemical worlcs, and breweries. Annual export val- 
 ued at £12,000,000. Manchester communicates with 
 Birmingham and London bj' the Grand Junction (N. 
 W.) railroad, and by other railroads and canals with 
 Liverpool, Bolton, Preston, Eochdale, Sheffield, etc. 
 
 Manganese (Ger. Braunstein, Glasseise; Du. 
 Bruinsteen ; Fr. Manganese, Magajese, Savon du verre; 
 It. Manganesia ; S^.Manganesia; Lut. Magnesia nigra, 
 Manganesium), a metal which, when pure, is of a 
 grayish white color, like cast-iron, and has a good deal 
 of brilliancy. Its texture is granular; it has neither 
 
 taste nor smell ; it is softer than oast-iron, and may 
 be filed ; its specific gravity is 8, It is very brittle, 
 and can neither be hammered nor drawn out into wire. 
 Its tenacity is unknown. When exposed to the air, it 
 attracts oxygen with considerable rapidity. It soon 
 loses its lustre, and becomes gray, violet, brown, and 
 at last black. These changes take place still more 
 rapidly if the metal be heated in an open vessel. Ores 
 of manganese are common in Devonshire, Somerset- 
 shire, etc. The ore of manganese, known in Derby- 
 shire by the name of black waddi is remarlcable for its 
 spontaneous inflammation with oil. Oxyd of man- 
 ganese is of considerable use ; it is employed in malc- 
 itig oxymuriatic acid, for forming bleaching liquor. 
 It is also used in glazing black earthenware, for giving 
 colors to enamels, and in the manufacture of porcelain. 
 It is the substance generally used by chemists for ob- 
 taining oxygen gas. — Thomson's Chemistry, etc. 
 
 Mangel Wurzel, or Field Beet (Fr. Bette- 
 raves;' Ger. Mangold Wurzel; \t. Bieitola), a mongrel 
 between the red and white beet. It has been largely 
 cultivated in Europe and the United States, partly as 
 food for cattle, and partly to be used in distillation, and 
 in the extraction of sugar. Its culture in Great Britain 
 is very recent ; and Mr. Loudon -questions whether it 
 has any advantages over the turnip for general agri- 
 cultural purposes. The preparation of the soil is ex- 
 actly the same as. for turnips, and immense crops are 
 raised on strong clays. The produce per acre is about 
 the same as that of the Swedish turnip ; it is applied 
 almost entirely to the fattening of stock, and the feed- 
 ing of milch cows. — Loudon's Encg. ofAgr. 
 
 Manger, the space near the hawse holes, bounded 
 on the upper side bj' a partition across the bows, called 
 the manger hoard, to receive the water while it enters 
 the hawse holes and prevent it from flooding the 
 deck. 
 
 Mangle (Fr. Calamd/re; Ger. MangW), this is a 
 well-known machine for smoothing table-cloths, table- 
 napkins, as well as linen and cotton furniture, and 
 much used in hotels. As usually made, it consists of 
 an -oblong rectangular wooden chest, filled with stones, 
 which load it to a degree of pressure that it should ex- 
 ercise upon the two cylinders on which it rests, and 
 which, by rolling backward and forward over the linen 
 spread upon a polished table underneath, render it 
 smooth and level. The moving wheel, being famished 
 with teeth upon both surfaces of its periphery, and 
 having a notch cut out at one part, allows a pinion, 
 uniformly driven in one direction, to act alternately 
 upon its outside and inside, so as to cause the recipro- 
 cating motion of the chest. This elegant and much 
 admired English invention, called the mangle-wheel, 
 has been introduced with great advantage into the ma- 
 chinery' of the textile manufactures. 
 
 Mango (mangos marum, in the Tamul language 
 of India), is a very large fruit-tree, inhabiting the 
 tropical parts of Asia, throughout all which it is as 
 extensively cultivated as the apple and pear-trees are 
 in Europe. Old specimens have been seen with a 
 trunk from 10 to 15 feet in circumference. The fruit 
 is something like a nectarine, but more compressed, 
 longer, and more curved. It contains a large stone, 
 covered with coarse fibres, which lose themsel-^es in 
 the succulent flesh. The wild and inferior varieties 
 of the fruit taste so strongly of tui'pentine as to be 
 wholly unfit for use by Europeans ; but in the fine va- 
 rieties this flavor is replaced by a rich sugary quality, 
 which renders it very delicious. In this country the 
 mango has rarely ripened its fruit, but it is common 
 in the shops in a pickled state. The fruit of the Man- 
 gifera Indica, a tree cultivated in Asia, is also called 
 Tnango. 
 
 Manifest, in commercial navigation, is a docu- 
 ment signed by the master, containing the name or 
 names of the places where the goods on board have 
 been laden, and the place or places for which they are 
 
MAN 
 
 1312 
 
 MAN 
 
 respectively des tinea J tlie name and tonnage of tlie 
 vessel, the name of the master, and the name of the 
 place to which the vessel belongs ; a particular account 
 and description of all the packages on board, with the 
 marks and numbers thereon, the goods contained in 
 such packages, the names of the respective shippers 
 and consignees, as far as such particulars are known to 
 the master, etc. A separate manifest is required for 
 tobacco. The manifest must be made out, dated, and 
 signed by the captain, at the place or places where 
 the goods, or any part of the goods, are taken on 
 board. 
 
 Manilla, the capital of Luconia, the largest of the 
 Philippine Islands, and the principal settlement of the 
 Spaniards in the East, in lat. 14° 36' 8" N., long. 120° 
 53' 30" E. Population about 100,000, of whom from 
 4000 to 5000 may be Europeans. Manilla is built on 
 the shore of a spacious bay of the same name, at the 
 mouth of a river navigable for small vessels a consid- 
 erable way into the interior. The smaller class of 
 ships anchor in Manilla Beads, in 5 fathoms, the north 
 bastion bearing N. 37° E., the fishery stakes at the 
 river's mouth N. 18° E., distant about a mile; but 
 large ships anchor at Cavita, about 3 leagues to the 
 southward, where there is a good harbor, well shel- 
 tered from the west and south-west winds. The arse- 
 nal is at Cavita, which is defended by Fort St. Philip, 
 the strongest fortress on the islands. The city is sur- 
 rounded by a wall and towers, and some of the bas- 
 tions are well furnished with artillery. Though situ- 
 ated within the tropics, the climate of the Philippines 
 
 is sufficientlj' temperate ; the only considerable disad- 
 vantage under which they labor in this respect being 
 tliat the principal part of the group comes within the 
 range of the typhoons. The soil is of verj' different 
 qualities; but for the most part singularly fertile, 
 They are rich in mineral, vegetable, and animal pro- 
 ductions. It is stated in a statistical account of the 
 Philippines, published at Manilla in 1818 and 1819, 
 that the entire population of the islands amounted to 
 2,249,852, of which 1,376,222 belonged to Luconia. 
 There were at the period referred to only 2837 Euro- 
 peans in the islands, and little more than 6000 Chinese. 
 The natives are said to be the most active, bold, and 
 energetic, of any belonging to the eastern Archipelago. 
 "These people," says a most intelligent navigator, 
 "appear in no respect inferior to those of Europe. 
 They cultivate the earth like men of understanding ; 
 are carpenters, joiners, smiths, goldsmiths, weavers, 
 masons, etc. I have walked through their villages, 
 and found them kind, hospitable, and communicative ; 
 and though the Spaniards speak of and treat them 
 with contempt, I perceived that the vices they attrib- 
 uted to the Indians, ought rather to be imputed to the 
 government they have themselves established." — Voy- 
 age de M: D& la Perouse, c. xv. 
 
 The principal articles of export consist of sugar, 
 hemp, indigo, segars, cotton, coffee, rice, sapan-wood, 
 mother-of-pearl, hides, ebony, gold dust, etc. The 
 principal articles of import are stuffs for cloth- 
 ing, iron, hardware, furniture, fire-arms, and ammu- 
 nition, etc. 
 
 Account op tub Quantities and Destination of the Pbodttok Exported peo.w Manilla in 1850. 
 
 To the Conli- To the Auatra- 
 nont of Europo lian colonies, 
 
 ToCluoo, rE.SvT?nd'J»S3- T 
 I Bombky. """l <1>» Faclfle I 
 
 To the 
 United Slates, 
 
 Total. 
 
 77,919 
 
 469,927 
 
 102,181 
 
 124,867 
 
 210 
 
 9,034 
 
 914 
 
 78,439 
 
 
 42,629 
 
 9,015 
 
 96,798 
 
 2,068 
 
 14,801 
 
 8,758 
 
 4,225 
 
 
 4,622 
 
 2,419 
 
 2,955 
 
 U 
 
 1,492 
 
 469 
 
 5,597 
 
 
 Uncert.ain. 
 
 
 4,848 
 
 
 6,068 
 
 
 2,242 
 
 22,975 
 
 87,652 
 
 26,870 
 
 60,000 
 
 Sugar peculs 
 
 Hemp " 
 
 Cordage " 
 
 Segars M. 
 
 Leaf tobacco quintals 
 
 Sapan wood arrobas 
 
 Coffee peculs 
 
 Indigo quintals 
 
 Hides pecnls 
 
 Hide cuttings 
 
 Motliei'-of-pearl shells 
 
 Tortoise-shell catties 
 
 Rice " 
 
 Beche de Mer peculs 
 
 Gold dust .taels 
 
 Camagon(ebony wd.)peculs 
 
 Grass-cloth pieces 
 
 Hats No. 
 
 146,926 
 
 16,078 
 
 96 
 
 10,819 
 
 sVjoes 
 
 165 
 
 269 
 
 8,840 
 
 "820 
 2,081 
 
 235 
 175 
 
 50,880 
 
 6,568 
 
 476 
 
 11,36T 
 
 42,629 
 
 14,4-36 
 
 9,670 
 
 218 
 
 218 
 
 680 
 6,676 
 
 1,213 
 18,252 
 
 8,758 
 12,661 
 
 1,481 
 
 9,400 
 
 1,782 
 9,262 
 
 18,942 
 
 100 
 
 Uncertain, 
 
 1,069 
 
 586 
 
 "665 
 
 Uncertain, 
 
 4,848 
 
 5,068 
 
 794 
 
 500 
 
 6,115 
 
 2,749 
 644 
 
 17, 
 
 ,887 
 250 
 
 260 
 1,912 
 
 29,144 
 
 2,i87 
 1,707 
 
 1,072 
 
 1,467 
 
 650 
 600 
 
 The quantity of rice and paddy shipped to China 
 from the islands can not be ascertained with any de- 
 gree of exactness ; what goes from Manilla is very 
 small, because, before arriving there, it has, by its 
 transport expenses, added to the price at which it is 
 obtainable in the districts where it is produced, which, 
 of course, prevents its being shipped from the capital. 
 Probably, however, about 1,000,000 coyans, each of 
 which, one with another, weighs about a China pecul, 
 or 133J- lbs., may be annually exported. The export 
 is regulated by the supposed scarcity or abundance of 
 food in the country.— M'Mickin's Manilla, p. 270. 
 
 The principal currency of Manilla consists of Spanish 
 dollars, of 8 reals and 96 grains ; but South American 
 dollars are also current. The weights in use are the 
 Spanish pound, which is nearly 2 per cent, heavier than 
 the English; the arroba = 25J English lbs. nearly; 
 the quintal = 102 lbs., and the pecul of 5 arrobas, or IJ 
 cwt. English. The coyan is a measure for rice, etc., 
 varj-ing from 96 to 185 lbs. According to a recent 
 list there are in Manilla 47 Spanish merchants and 11 
 foreign firms. The Spanish merchants have a cham- 
 ber of commerce and a joint-stock insurance society. 
 The United States, France, and Belgium have consuls, 
 and each of the Canton marine insurance companies 
 has an agent here. There are, however, neither fire 
 nor life-oifices nor agents ; nor is any newspaper, price- 
 
 current, or other periodical publication issued in Manil- 
 la. Considering the great fertility and varied produc- 
 tions of the Philippines, and their peculiarly favor- 
 able situation for carrjdng on commerce, the limited 
 extent of their trade, even with its late increase, may 
 excite surprise. This, however, is entirely a conse- 
 quence of the wretched policy of the Spanish govern- 
 ment, which persevered until very recently in exclud- 
 ing ail foreign ships from the ports of the Philippines, 
 confining the trade between them and Mexico and 
 South America to a single ship I Even ships and set- 
 tlers from China were excluded. " Provisions," says 
 La Perouse, " of all kinds are in the greatest abund- 
 ance here, and extremely cheap ; but clothing, Euro- 
 pean hardware, and furniture, bear an excessively high 
 price. The want of competition, together with pro- 
 hibitions and restraints of every kind laid on com- 
 merce, render the productions and merchandise of 
 India and China at least as dear as in Europe !" Hap- 
 pily, however, this miserable policy the effects of 
 which have been admirably depicted by M. De la Pe- 
 rouse, has been materially modified during the last 
 few years. The events of the late war destroyed for 
 ever the old colonial system of Spain ; and the ships 
 of all nations are now freely admitted into Manilla and 
 the other ports in the Philippines. An unprecedented 
 stimulus has, in consequence been given to all sorts of 
 
MAN 
 
 1313 
 
 MAN 
 
 industry ; and its progress will, no doubt, become more ' 
 rapid, according as a mder experience and acquaint- 
 ance with foreigners make the natives better aware of 
 the advantages of commerce and industry, and disa- 
 buses them of the prejudices of which they have been 
 so long the slaves. 
 
 Port Charges, — On foreign vessels, 2 reals per ton, 
 and one half on such as neither load nor unload cargo, 
 besides fees, amounting from $5 to $15, according to 
 the size of the vessel. 
 
 Import Duties. — Spanish commodities by Spanish 
 vessels, pay 3 per cent, ad valorem, and 8 by foreign. 
 Foreign commodities, by foreign vessels, 14 pel cent., 
 and 7 by Spanish ; in general, being 8 per cent, under 
 national flag from Singapore, and 9 from China. 
 Spirits and strong liquors, produce of Spain, by Span- 
 ish vessels, 10 per cent., and 25 for foreign; if they 
 be foreign produce, by Spanish vessels, 30 per cent., 
 and 60 by foreign. Cider and beer, produce of Spain, 
 by Spanish vessels, 3 per cent., and 10 by foreign ; if 
 they be foreign {iroduce, by Spanish vessels, 20, and 
 2'6 foreign. All Spanish wines, by national vessels, 3 
 per cent., and 8 by foreign. Foreign wines, by Span- 
 ish vessels, 40 per cent., and 50 by foreign, except 
 champagne, which pays, by Spanish vessels, 7 per 
 cent., and 14 by foreign. Cotton twist, gray, black, 
 blue, and purple, knives or bolos, such as the natives 
 use, readj'-made clothes, boots, shoes, preserved fruits, 
 confectionery, and vinegar, by Spanish vessels, 20 per 
 cent., and 30 by foreign. British and other foreign 
 cotton and silk manufactures, made in imitation of na- 
 tive cloths, chiefly stripes or checks, of black, blue, 
 and pui^ple' colors. Madras and Bengal gray, white, 
 and printed cottons, towels, table-napkins, and table- 
 cloths, 15 per cent, by Spanish vessels, and 25 by for- 
 eign. Beche de mer, rattans, diamonds, tortoise-shell, 
 mother-of-pearl-shell, and birds' nests, 1 per cent, by 
 Spanish vessels, and 2 by foreign. Machinery of all 
 sorts for the promotion of the industry of the country, 
 cotton twist of red, rose, yellow, and green colors, gold 
 and silver, coined or uncoined, plants and seeds, 
 free. Tropical productions similar to those of the 
 Philippines, also arrack and gunpowder, are prohibited. 
 Opium is only admitted to be deposited for re-exporta- 
 tion. Swords, fowling-pieces, muskets, pistols, and 
 warlike stores may be deposited for re-export, and can 
 not be introduced without the special license of the 
 government; but cannon and dress-swords are ad- 
 mitted. 
 
 Export Duties. — Commodities and produce of everj- 
 description to Spain, by national vessels, pay 1 per 
 cent., and 2 by foreign ; elsewhere, IJ by Spanish ves- 
 sels, and 3 by foreign. Hemp, bj- national vessels, to 
 whatever destination, 1 per cent., and 2 by foreign. 
 Bice, by Spanish vessels, free, and 4J per cent, by for- 
 eign. Manufactured tobacco, and cordage of Manilla 
 hemp, free by all flags. Gold dust, gold in bars, and 
 silver in bars, free. 
 
 Entrepot Duties. — One per cent, ad valorem, and 1 
 per cent, at the exportation, with 1 per cent, more if 
 the commodities should be kept there more than 12 
 months, two years being the longest time allowed 
 for it. 
 
 Port and Custom-house Segulations. — ^Vessels newlj' 
 arrived are not to communicate with the shore until 
 having been visited by the port captain's boat ; and 
 within 30 hours after this visit, a, manifest must be 
 presented, stating packages, marks, and numbers ; but 
 the vessel may retain her cargo 10 days in transit 
 without stating whether for consumption or deposit, 
 and without being obliged to land, or incurring any 
 charge on the same, except gunpowder, pocket-pistols, 
 and forbidden arms. 
 
 Termsfor Sales and Purchases. — Sales and purchases 
 
 made, duty paid, at 3 to 6 months' credit, occasionally 
 
 ■ at 2i per cent, discount for prompt payment, and ex- 
 
 Dorts are bought for cash. See PHiLippiNfi Islands. 
 
 '^ 40 
 
 Manioc, is the Indian name of the nutritious mat- 
 ter of the shrub jatropJia manihot, from which cassava 
 and tapioca are made in the West Indies. 
 
 Manna (Fr.il/onnc; Ger.^ Mannaesche ; It. Manna), 
 the concrete juice of the Eraxinus omus, a species of 
 ash growing in the south of Europe. The juice exudes 
 spontaneously in warm dry weather, and concretes in- 
 to whitish tears ; but the greater part of the manna 
 of commerce is obtained by making incisions in the 
 tree, and gathering the juice in baskets, where it forms 
 irregular masses of a reddish or brownish color, often 
 full of impurities. Manna is imported in chests, prin- 
 cipally from Sicily and Calabria. The best is in ob- 
 long pieces or flakes, moderately dry, friable, light, of a 
 whitish or pale yellow color, and in some degree trans- 
 parent: the inferior kinds are moist unctuous, and 
 brown. It has a slight peculiar odor, and a sweet 
 taste, with some degree of bitterness not very pleasant, 
 and leaving a nauseous impression on the tongue. 
 
 Mantua-maker. The word is supposed by some, 
 and we think rightlj'", to be a corruption from manteau, 
 French. Others assert that a court-dress was early 
 known in England by the name of Mantua, either on 
 account of its having been invented at Mantua, or 
 from the celebrated Manto, in honor of whom that 
 famous citj' was built by her son, Bianor, or Ochnus, 
 about 1000 B.C. — Butler. 
 
 Manufacture, a commodity produced from raw 
 or natural materials, either by the work of the hand 
 or by machinery. 
 
 Manufacturer, one who works up a natural pro- 
 duct into an artiflcial commodity. 
 
 Statement showing the Annual Manufactueeb op the 
 MOST prominent Cofnteies in the Woeld. 
 
 Austrian Wmtpire. 
 
 Spindles 1,500,000 
 
 Avstrian Italy — Atm/ual Prod/uce. 
 
 Silk lbs. 7,000,000 
 
 Eegistered manufactories 11,064 
 
 British Empire, £122,150,000 estimate. 
 
 Cotton £86,000,000 
 
 Woolen 24,000,000 
 
 Iron and hardware 20,000,000 
 
 Leather 18,500,000 
 
 Linen 8,000,000 
 
 Silk 10,000,000 
 
 Glass and earthenware 4,250,000 
 
 Hats. . : 2,400,000 
 
 Paper. 2,000,000 
 
 Watches, jewehies, etc 8,000,000 
 
 Fram.ee, £93,200,000 estimaie. 
 
 Eawsilk £12,000,000 
 
 Woolen 10,600,000 
 
 Linon 10,400,000 
 
 Cotton ". 9,000,000 
 
 Iron, brass, etc 8,600,000 
 
 Eeflned sugar 4,480,000 
 
 Other kinds 88,120,000 
 
 Prussia. 
 
 Number of manufacturing establishments in 
 
 1846. .• 78,469 
 
 Machine spinning 2,608 
 
 Weaving. 2,728 
 
 Connected with weaving. 2,850 
 
 Mills 8T,590 
 
 Metal 12,693 
 
 Other kinds 20,005 
 
 Russian Empire. 
 
 Spindles at St. Petersburg in 1849 348,000 
 
 Prodncing 88J hanks per day. 
 
 Eassian spindles , 700,000 
 
 United States. 
 
 Cotton manufactured a year. lbs. 200,000,000 
 
 Woolen manufactures " 4,398,112 
 
 Produce of manufactures ■ • • $1,020,000,000 
 
 Bofoaria. 
 
 Manufacturing establishments mostly on a 
 small scale. 
 
 Belgvwm. 
 
 Woolen cloth, 1833 £8,000,000 
 
 Spindles, 1846 ■■• *95'SSS 
 
 Eefined sugar exported ms. 1,014,800 
 
 Braail. 
 
 Hides exported -No. 1,768,100 
 
 Cotton " bags 124,408 
 
 Denmark. . 
 
 Sugar produce— Danish colonics tons 8,000 
 
MAN 1314 
 
 MAN 
 
 For want of fuel the conntry is ill adapted 
 for manufactures. In all the cotton faoto- 
 nes there were in use : 
 
 Spinning jennies 
 
 , Looms 
 
 Oreeee. 
 
 Manufacturing industry is conflned to arti- 
 cles for domestic use. 
 Bamfmrg. 
 
 Wool exported, 1849 cwt. 
 
 BoUa/nd. 
 
 Dutch "West Indies— sugar produced. . .tons. 
 Java. " 
 
 Gold and silver coined 1848 
 
 "Woolen and cotton value 
 
 Spindles No. 
 
 Papal States 
 
 Hemp lbs. 
 
 Silk " 
 
 Portugal. 
 
 These are confined to coarse and inferior 
 woolen, common cotton, and linen. 
 
 SarMma. 
 
 Silk lbs. 2 000,000 
 
 Hemp produced £400,000 
 
 1,459 
 1,216 
 
 103,008 
 
 18,000 
 90,000 
 
 £8,901,361 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 181,280 
 
 67,300,000 
 800,000 
 
 The capital invested in the cotton factories 
 is said to be about 
 
 Sweden, and Norway. 
 
 Sweden— Manufactures, 1843 No. 
 
 " Looms 
 
 Value produced 
 
 Twrk&u. 
 
 Salonica, 1845 — Silk produced lbs. 
 
 Brussa, 1848 " 
 
 Two Sicilies. 
 
 Silk....- lbs. 
 
 "Woolen cloth pieces 
 
 Leather bales 
 
 Cotton spindles 
 
 Tarn lbs. 
 
 CMna. 
 
 Silk, Great Brit, 80th June, 1849—60 . .bales 
 
 Silk, Great Britain, July 1, 1850, to May 20, 
 
 1851 bales 
 
 £200,000 
 
 2,49S 
 
 2,861 
 
 £1,748,405 
 
 167,260 
 624,250 
 
 1,200,000 
 70,000 
 8,000 
 29,500 
 
 1,946,000 
 
 161,934 
 19,281 
 
 Colonies: 
 
 MriMsh Possessions — Indies. 
 Cotton exported from India per annum. lbs. 198,328,362 
 
 Coffee to Great Britain in 1860 ewt. 8,846,867 
 
 Sugar " 1,849,690 
 
 „Kum galls. 443,981 
 
 Canada. 
 
 Maple sugar, 1847 lbs. 8,764,848 
 
 Fisheries, 1846 £62,104 
 
 Property movable and Immovable, valued 
 in 1847 at 117,600,000 
 
 Oarpe of Good Bope. 
 
 Alloc, 1842 lbs. 485,574 
 
 Ivory " 12,859 
 
 "Whale oil galls. 11,964 
 
 Wine " 1,216,811 
 
 AustraUa — NewSouVi Wales. 
 
 Wool exported, 1848 lbs. 22,091,481 
 
 ""' - 98,218 
 
 Tallow. cwt. 
 
 Western. 
 
 Wool exported, 1848 lbs. 
 
 Van Di&men's Land. 
 
 Wool exported, 1848 lbs. 
 
 SovXh. 
 
 Wool exported, 1848 lbs. 
 
 Jammca. 
 
 Exported to Great Britain from the West 
 Indies and British Guiana in 1850. 
 
 Sugar cwt. 
 
 Bum.. , 
 
 Coffee Tcwt. 
 
 Cocoa. . 
 Ceylon. 
 
 Coflee exported to the U. Klngd., 1860. . .lbs. 30,a59,909 
 
 Total Cinnamon exported, 1848 " 408,211 
 
 801,965 
 4,956,968 
 2,762,672 
 
 4,686,429 
 8,679,676 
 4,348,690 
 1,987,760 
 
 Sugar, 1848 lbs. 121,261,300 
 
 Sugar exported to Great Brit, in 1850. . . cwt 1,003,296 
 
 Coffee " 20,889 
 
 Eum galls. 24,167 
 
 French Possessions — Bayti. Estimate 1837. 
 
 Sugar. lbs. 30,400,000 
 
 Coffee " 24,870,000 
 
 Cotton " 1,050,000 
 
 Spanish Possessions — Cuba. 
 Coffee exported 1850 lbs. 4,218,235 
 
 Ihitch Possessions — tTa/ea. 
 
 Coffee, 1848 lbs. 
 
 Coffee, 1850 cwt. 
 
 Sugar " 
 
 Cochineal lbs. 
 
 See Leone Levi's Statistical Chart. 
 
 17,353,426 
 
 1,316,961 
 
 1,898,872 
 
 193,196 
 
 Statistics of Manupaotuees in tub United States, in tue Teae 1860. 
 
 states and TerritorieB. 
 
 N..ofe.t^ablI.l.- _^™«-fj- ^ Capital mve,.ed. Val»e of p„d„ct.. C.pI..Uave.t.d. 
 
 Maine 
 
 New Hampshire. . 
 Vermont 
 
 " Fisheries 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 " Fisheries 
 
 New York 
 
 New Jersey. 
 
 " Fisheries 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Maryland 
 
 District of Columbia 
 
 "Virginia 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 South Carolina. 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Florida 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Texas 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 Missouri 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 Iowa 
 
 California 
 
 Minnesota and other Territories. . 
 City of New York 
 
 3,977 
 8,211 
 1,849 
 8,259 
 
 598 
 1,144 
 8,482 
 
 262 
 28,668 
 4,108 
 
 101 
 21,595 
 
 581 
 3,708 
 
 427 
 4,741 
 2,604 
 1,431 
 1,407 
 
 103 
 1,022 
 
 866 
 1,016 
 
 307 
 
 271 
 8,080 
 2,789 
 3,471 
 10,660 
 4,826 
 1,979 
 8,099 
 1,273 
 
 482 
 
 118,656,806 
 12,745,466 
 4,172,552 
 85,856,771 
 
 23,689,397 
 
 184,665',674 
 21,992,186 
 
 87,206,877 
 2,864,607 
 17,326,784 
 
 18,108,«3 
 4,806,463 
 2,809,684 
 
 2,485,078 
 899,784 
 286,899 
 12,408,467 
 4,757,257 
 12,458,786 
 
 9,847,920 
 6,221,.34S 
 8,986,142 
 
 2,098^844 
 
 47,664,694 
 
 $14,700,452 
 18,242,114 
 
 6,001,377 
 83,357,642 
 
 6,582,650 
 
 28,589,897 
 1,986,800 
 
 99,904,405 
 
 22,184,730 
 109,678 
 
 94,473,810 
 2,978,945 
 
 18,108,793 
 
 18,103,798 
 7,262,245 
 6,060,665 
 
 647,060 
 
 6,804,924 
 
 618.288 
 
 888,164 
 
 9,194,999 
 
 7,044,144 
 
 14,236,964 
 
 7,917,818 
 6,448,816 
 6,128,282 
 
 1,266,410 
 17,000,000 
 
 29,407,764 
 
 $24,664,186 
 28,164,603 
 
 8,670,920 
 161,187,145 
 
 6,606,849 
 
 45,110,102 
 
 2,004,488 
 
 237,697,219 
 
 39,718,586 
 
 140,060 
 
 166,044,010 
 
 4,649,296 
 
 29,692,019 
 
 29,592,619 
 
 9,111,245 
 
 7,076,077 
 
 6,704,188 
 
 668,836 
 
 4,464,006 
 
 2,749,888 
 
 7,043,814 
 
 1,202,886 
 
 668,815 
 
 24,250,678 
 
 9,443,701 
 
 28,278,201 
 
 62,110,188 
 
 18,747,063 
 
 10,729,892 
 
 16,671,278 
 
 8,898^542 
 
 60,000,000 
 2,842,000 
 90,882,016 
 
 $7,105,620 
 
 9,262,448 
 
 4,826,440 
 
 41,774,446 
 
 11,726,860 
 
 10,696,136 
 
 13,669,139 
 
 1,801,640 
 
 56,262,779 
 
 11,517,682 
 
 93,275 
 
 81,816,106 
 
 1,589,215 
 
 6,450,284 
 
 1,00.5,775 
 
 11,860,861 
 
 8,888,900 
 
 8,216,970 
 
 2,899,666 
 
 669,490 
 
 2,130.064 
 
 1,797;727 
 
 6,430,699 
 
 424^467 
 
 2,704,405 
 
 8,731,680 
 
 6,946,259 
 
 16,905,267 
 
 4,1.32,043 
 
 8,112,240 
 
 8,186,512 
 
 685,926 
 
 199,645 
 
 11,228,894 
 
 The entire capital invested in tlie various manufac- 
 tures In the "United States, on the 1st of June, 1850— 
 not to include any establishments producing less than 
 the annual value of $500— amounted, in round num- 
 
 bers, according to the Report of the Superintendent 
 of the Census, to $530,000,000 ; value of raw material 
 used and consumed, $550,000,000; amount paid for 
 labor, $240,000,000 ; value of articles manufactured 
 
MAP 
 
 1315 
 
 MAP 
 
 during year, $1,020,300,000 ; number of persons em- 
 ployed, 1,050,000. See United States. 
 
 For "American Manufactures," see JV. A. Rev., 
 XXX., 165 (A. H. Evekett), xvii., 186, 1., 223 (N. 
 Hale), XXXV., 265 ; Niles's Reg., xliv., 204 (J. Q. 
 Adams), xxxii., 237, 332. "Manufactures at the 
 South," see Niles's Reg., xxxv., 135. Of the Uni- 
 ted States, Hunt's ifag., vii., 289 (WALTliK For- 
 ward), xiv., 152, XT., 369 ; De Bow's Rev., ix., 466. 
 Manufacturing System, see For. Quar., viii., 319 
 (Socthet) ; Ed. Rev., Ixxvii., 101, xxxiii., 382. 
 
 Maple Sugar. The State of New York produces 
 more sugar than any other State in the Union, ejcCept 
 Louisiana. ' Tlie whole cane sugar crop of the countrj' 
 in 1850 was as follows ; 
 
 Poynda. 
 South Osrolina.. . . 670,000 
 
 Georgia 1,642,000 
 
 Florida 2,760,000 
 
 Alabama 8,242,000 
 
 Mississippi 888,000 
 
 Louisiana 226,001,000 
 
 Texas 7,861,000 
 
 Tennessee 246,000 
 
 Kentucky 284,000 
 
 Total 247,577,000 
 
 Maple sugar crop. . 64,258,486 
 
 Total sugar crop .281,880,f^86 
 
 Table showing the Productions of Suqak in tue TJ, 
 States in 1860. 
 
 Stolen and Terrllorlcs. 
 
 Maple auger. 
 
 Gene sugar. 
 
 
 Ibi. 
 
 643 
 
 9,830 
 
 50,796 
 
 '"so 
 
 248,904 
 
 2,921,192 
 
 78,407 
 
 487,405 
 
 255 
 
 93,642 
 
 47,740 
 
 795,626 
 
 2,489,794 
 
 178,910 
 
 1,298,868 
 
 2,197 
 
 10,857,484 
 
 27,932 
 
 4,588,209 
 
 2,826,526 
 
 200 
 
 158,557 
 
 6,84'9',857 
 
 1,227,665 
 
 610,976 
 
 2,950 
 
 Hid.. 1000 lb.. 
 87 
 
 ■2,750 
 846 
 
 "io 
 
 226,001 
 
 ■"77 
 
 8 
 
 7,851 
 
 
 
 Florida 
 
 
 Illinois 
 
 
 Iowa 
 
 
 
 Maine 
 
 
 
 
 Missouri 
 
 N. Hampshire 
 
 
 New York 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 Ohio 
 
 
 
 
 Texas. 
 
 
 Tirginia 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 
 
 
 The States which produced 1,000,000 pounds and 
 over of maple sugar in 1850 were as follows : 
 
 Pound.. 
 New Hampshire. . 1,298,863 
 
 Vermont 6,849,257 
 
 New York 10,867,484 
 
 Pennsylvania..... 2,826,524 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Tirginia 1,227,665 
 
 Indiana 2,921,122 
 
 Ohio 4,588,209 
 
 Michigan 2,439,794 
 
 The State of Louisiana produces four fifths of all 
 the sugar crop of the Union, both maple and cane. 
 
 The production of maple depends very much upon 
 the circumstances of the market. Its manufacture is 
 not a regular business, like that of cane, but is prose- 
 cuted or not, very much to suit the convenience of the 
 farming population among whom the sugar orchards 
 lie. Nothing but a very high price of sugar — so high 
 as to make its purchase a severe burden — stimulates a 
 large production of maple. Accordingly we find that 
 from 1850 to 1855 the product of maple sugar in New 
 York State fell from 10,367,484 pounds to 4,935,815 
 pounds — a reduction of more than one half. If the 
 falling off in price from 1850 to 1855 reduced the pro- 
 duction one half, we are inclined to think it not ex- 
 travagant to estimate that the present increased price 
 has doubled the production of 1850, and we accordingly 
 estimate the maple sugar crop of the present year in 
 New York State at 20,000,000 pounds. It is worth 
 not less than 12J cents per pound, making its total 
 value $2,500,000 ! 
 
 Adopting the same estimate, would give the maple 
 sugar crop of the whole Union for the present spring 
 as 68,500,000 pounds, and its value as $8,662,500— 
 making the quantity and value very nearly equal to 
 one half the cane product of last year — and contribut- 
 ing in a very important degree to relieve the last 
 year's deficiency. See Sugar. 
 
 Maple-tree (acer sacchairinum) known as the 
 rock maple, hard maple, bird's-eye maple, sugar 
 maple. The acer eacdiarinuin is one of the most 
 noble and majestic of American trees. In favorable 
 situations it sometimes grows to a height of 70 or 80 
 feet, and from 2 to 4 feet in ' diameter ; but usually it 
 does not exceed an elevation of 50 or 60 feet, and a 
 diameter of 12 or 18 inches. The trunk is generally 
 straight, though often studded with projections and 
 excrescences. In all healthful and vigorous trees, the 
 outward baric is light-colored, by which they may 
 readily be distinguished. When growing in open sit- 
 uations, with room to spread on everj' side, where all 
 its branches are exposed to the free action of light, 
 this tree is an object of great beauty. It somewhat 
 resembles the English oak, in its outline, in the form 
 of its trunk, and disposition of its branches, and in the 
 dense and massy charactOr of its foliage. 
 
 The wood of the acer saccharinum, when newly 
 cut, is white, but after being wrought and exposed for 
 some time to the light, it takes a rosy tinge. Its grain 
 is fine and close, and when polished its lustre is silky. 
 It is very Strong and heavy, but wants the property 
 of durability, for which the English and American 
 white oaks are so highly esteemed. The northern 
 wood, when drj-, weighs 46 pounds to a cubic foot, but 
 that grown south weighs much less. When cut, and 
 properly dried, it makes excellent fuel, which is equally 
 esteemed by some, for that purpose, with the oak and 
 hickory. When exposed to the alternations of moist- 
 ure and drjmess, it soon decays, and for this reason it 
 is not much used in civil and naval architecture. In 
 Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, and further north, 
 where the oak is not plentiful, the timber of this tree 
 is substituted for it, in preference to that of the beech, 
 the birch, or the elm. When perfectlj- seasoned, 
 which requires two or three years, it is used for axle- 
 trees, spokes, runners of common sleds, mill-cogs, and 
 for chairs, and cabinet-work. It is also sometimes 
 used for the frames of houses, keels, and the lower 
 frames of vessels, piles, and foundation pieces for 
 mills, canal locks, and for many other purposes where 
 strength is required, and the work is not exposed to 
 the alternation of moisture and drj'ness. The wood 
 of this tree exhibits several accidental forms in the 
 arrangement of its fibre, of which cabinet-makers 
 take advantage in manufacturing beautiful articles of 
 furniture, such as bedsteads, writing-desks, and other 
 fancy works, and for inlaying mahogany and black 
 wala||^, in ijureaus, piano-fortes, etc. These forms 
 or varieties may be classified and described as 
 follows : 
 
 1. Curled Maple. Erable gris onduU, French. 
 The undulations or medullary rays of this variety, 
 like those of the red-flowered maple, are lustrous, and 
 in one light appear darker, and in another lighter than 
 the rest of the wood. Sometimes the zig-zag lines are 
 crossed by beautifull3'--colored veins ; but, unfortu- 
 nately, the lustre of these shades disappear by long 
 exposure to light and air. 
 
 2. Bird's-eye Maple. Erable mouchete, French. 
 This variety exhibits small whitish spots or eyes, not 
 exceeding a tenth of an inch in diameter, sometimes 
 occurring a little way apart, and at others contigu- 
 ously disposed. The more numerous these spots, the 
 more beautiful and valuable the wood. They are seen 
 only in old trees, which are still sound, and appear to 
 arise from an inflection of the fibres from the centres 
 of their trunks toward the surface across the grain. 
 To obtain the finest effect, the wood should be sawed 
 
MAP 
 
 1316 
 
 MAP 
 
 as nearly as possible in a direction parallel with the 
 concentric circles. 
 
 In addition to the above-named varieties, two other 
 kinds occur in the wms, or excrescences, which grow 
 on the trunk or roots of this tree, and, like them, are 
 covered with bark. The most valuable variety is 
 known by the name of Variegated Maple-knob, or 
 Loupe d'erahle de eouleurs varices, of the French. It 
 presents an assemblage of shades, agreeably disposed, 
 sometimes resembling Arabic characters, which ren- 
 ders the wood very appropriate for fancy works, and 
 from its scarcity It usually commands high prices. 
 The other variety, known by the name of Silver-white 
 Maple-knob, or Loupe d^erdble blanc argente, of the 
 French, exhibits a silvery lustre by the arrangement 
 of its fibres, and is highly prized for the same pur- 
 poses as the preceding, although more common. 
 
 The wood of this species is easily distinguished 
 from that of the red-flowered maple, which it resem- 
 bles in appearance, by its weight and hardness. There 
 is, besides, a very simple and certain test. A few 
 drops of water saturated with copperas (sulphate of 
 iron), being poured upon samples of different woods, 
 that of the sugar maple turns greenish, and the white 
 maple and the red-flowered maple change to a deep 
 blue. The ashes of the sugar maple are rich in the 
 alkaline principle, and it has been asserted that they 
 furnish four fifths of the potash exported from the 
 United States to <Europe. In the forges of Maine, 
 New Hampshire, Vermont, and places further north 
 where this tree grows, its charcoal is preferred to that 
 of anj' other wood ; and it is said to be one fifth heavier 
 than that made from the same species in the middle 
 and southern States. 
 
 The extraction of sugar from this tree is a valuable 
 resource in a new country where it abounds ; but it is 
 obvious that this mode of obtaining sugar is only des- 
 tined for a certain stage in the progress of society, and 
 eventually gives way to the sugar of commerce, pro- 
 duced by cane. For this reason we shall not detail the 
 process of its manufacture, as it can not be regarded 
 as a matter of practical utility. In a country like the 
 United States, intersected by canals, railroads, and 
 other channels of inter-communication, where labor is 
 expensive, and fuel is becoming more and more valua- 
 ble, the manufacture of this article can not fail to be 
 an unprofitable occupation. Besides, the annual draw- 
 age of the sap renders the trees sickly, and causes a 
 premature decay. 
 
 From the great height, extended branches, regular 
 and often pyramidal form, and the rich verdure and 
 cleanliness of the foliage in spring and summer, the 
 sugar maple is accounted as one of our finest shade- 
 trees, and is highly recommended to be planted along 
 streets and avenues, in pastures, and ornamental 
 grounds. And it is no less beautiful in our forest or 
 woodland scenery in autumn, when it puts jp its 
 bright-orange and deep-crimson robes. At first, the 
 extremities of the boughs alone change their color, 
 leaving the internal and more sheltered parts still in 
 their verdure, which "gives to the tree the effect of 
 great depth of shade, and displays advantageously the 
 light, lively coloring of the sprays." Later in the 
 season, on the contrary, when the tints become more 
 and more gorgeous, and the full beams of the sunshine 
 fall upon the large masses of foliage, the warm aad 
 glowing colors of the whole summit possess a great 
 deal of grandeur, and add much to the beauty and 
 efifect in the landscape. 
 
 The wood of the acer eriocarpum, or white maple, is 
 very white when newly cut, and of a fine texture ; but 
 it is softer and lighter than that of any other maple in 
 the United States ; and from the want of strength and 
 durability it is little used. When dry, it weighs 38 
 pounds to a cubic foot, and in seasoning, loses nearly 
 half of its weight. It is sometimes used in cabinet- 
 making, instead of the holly or other light-colored 
 
 wood, for inlaying furniture of mahogany, cherry-tree, 
 and black walnut ; though it is less suitable for this 
 purpose, as it soon changes color by exposure to light. 
 Wooden bowls are also made of it, when that of ash 
 or tulip-tree can not be obtained. The charcoal of this 
 wood is preferred by hatters and dyers to every other, 
 as it affords a heat more uniform, and of longer dura- 
 tion. The sap is in motion earlier in this species than 
 in the sugar maple, beginning to ascend, in the middle 
 States, about the 15th of January ; so that when it is 
 employed for making sugar, the operations are sooner 
 completed. Like the sap of the red-flowered maple, it 
 yields not more than one half of the product of sugar, 
 from a given measure, as that of the acer saccharinum. 
 Its inner bark produces a black precipitate with cop- 
 peras (sulphate of iron), and is sometimes employed in 
 domestic dyeing. 
 
 The wood of the acer rubrum, or red maple, when 
 dry, weighs 44 pounds to a cubic foot, and when green, 
 it is soft, full of aqueous matter, and loses in drying 
 nearly one half of its weight. In this tree, as in others 
 which grow in wet places, the sap-wood bears a large 
 proportion to the heart-wood, the latter of which con- 
 sists of an irregular column, star-like in its transverse 
 section, and occupies the central parts of large trunks, 
 with its points projecting into the -sap-wood. This 
 wood has but little strength, is liable to injury from 
 insects, and ferments, and speedUy decays when ex- 
 posed to the alternation of moisture and dryness. Yet 
 it is solid, and for many purposes is preferred hy 
 workmen to other kinds of wood. It is harder than 
 that of the white maple, and of a finer and closer 
 grain ; hence it is easily wrought in the lathe, and ac- 
 quires, bj^ polishing, a glossy and silky surface. It is 
 principally employed in the manufacture of chairs, 
 saddle-trees, shoe-lasts, ox-yokes, broom-handles, 
 and various other articles of djomestic use. It 
 sometimes happens that, in very old trees, the grain 
 of the wood, instead of following a perpendicular 
 direction, is undulated ; and this variety bears the 
 name of curled maple. This singular arrangement is 
 never found in young trees, nor even in the branches 
 of such as exhibit it in the trunk ; it is also less con- 
 spicuous in the centre of the tree than near the bark. 
 Trees offering this disposition, however, are rare. The 
 serpentine direction of the fibres, which renders this 
 wood diflicult to split and to work, produces, in the 
 hands of a skillful mechanic, the most beautiful effects 
 of light and shade. These effects are rendered more 
 striking, if, after smoothing the surface of the wood 
 with a double-ironed plane, it is rubbed with a little 
 sulphuric acid, and afterward with linseed oil. On 
 examining it attentively, the varying shades are found 
 to be owing entirely to the inflection of the rays of 
 light ; which is more sensibly perceived in viewing it 
 in different du-ections by candle-light. Before mahog- 
 any became generally fashionable in the United States, 
 the best furniture in use was made of the red-flowered 
 maple, and bedsteads are still made of it, which in 
 richness of lustre exceed those of the finest imported 
 woods. But one of the most constant uses to which 
 the curled maple is applied is for the stocks of rifles 
 and fowling-pieces, which, to elegance and lightness, 
 unite toughness and strength, the result of the tortu- 
 ous direction of the fibres. The cellular matter of the 
 inner bark is of a dusky-red. By boiling, it j'ields a 
 purplish colored liquor, which, with the addition of 
 sulphate of iron (copperas), acquires an intense dark 
 blue, or black ; and is sometimes employed as ink by 
 American youth in village schools. For this purpose, 
 however, it is very inappropriate, as it never dries 
 properly, and in damp weather the writing becomes 
 glutinous, and blots. A fluid prepared in a similar 
 manner, by adding sulphate of alumina (common 
 alum), instead of copperas, is also used for dyeing 
 black. The French Canadians make sugar from the 
 sap of this maple, which they call^^ome ; but, as in tho 
 
MAP 
 
 1311 
 
 MAP 
 
 preceding species, tlie product of a given measure is not 
 more than one half as great as that of the sngar maple. 
 
 The acer campestre, or field maple, Is found through- 
 . out the middle States of Europe, and in the north of 
 Asia. According to Pallas, it abounds in New Russia, 
 and about Caucasus. It is common in hedges and 
 thickets in the middle counties and south of England ; 
 but in the northern counties, and in Scotland, it is 
 rare. It is not indigenous to Ireland, and perhaps 
 not to Scotland. The wood of the acer campestre, 
 when allowed to become a tree, and of a proper age, is 
 very compact, possesses a fine grain, sometimes beau- 
 tifully veined, and is susceptible of a high polish. 
 When dry, it weighs 52 pounds to a cubic foot. It 
 makes excellent fuel, and produces charcoal of the 
 best quality, which is sometimes employed in the 
 manufacture of gunpowder. It was celebrated among 
 the ancient Romans for tables ; and Pliny, who has 
 treated at length upon the Irusca and moUuica, the 
 names under which the knobs and excrescences of this 
 tree were known, informs us that cabinet-work of the 
 most costly description was fabricated ftom them. In 
 France and other European countries, it is still ex- 
 tensively used by turners, carvers, and cabinet-makers, 
 and the wood of the roots, which is often knotted and 
 curiously marbled, is wrought into snuff-boxes, pipes, 
 and various other articles of fancy. — Browne's Trees 
 of America. 
 
 Maps and Charts. , They were invented by An- 
 aximander, the Milesian philospher, a disciple of 
 Thales, and the earliest philosophical astronomer on 
 record, 570 n. c. He was also the first who construct- 
 ed spheres. A celestial chart was, it is said, con- 
 structed in China in the 6th century. — Freret. And 
 sea-charts were first brought to England by Barthol- 
 omew Columbus, to illustrate his brother's theory re- 
 specting a western continent, A. d. 1489. The earliest 
 map of England was drawn by George Lily in 1520. 
 Meroator's chart, in which the world was taken as a 
 plane, was invented in 1556. A map of the moon's 
 surface was first drawn at Dantzic in 1647.^ — Haydn. 
 
 Of the Construction and Use of Maps. — In represent- 
 ing the geographical divisions of the earth's surface, 
 two objects are to be kept in view ; on the one hand 
 to exhibit accurately to the eye the relative position of 
 the different countries, and, on the other hand, to give 
 a delineation sufficiently'minute to furnish a distinct 
 knowledge of the necessary details. As a globe has 
 very nearly the exact figure of the earth, the repre- 
 sentation which it affords of the surface fulfills the 
 first of these objects in the most perfect manner ; but 
 to attain the second it would be requisite to enlarge 
 the globe beyond all convenient size. A globe of the 
 ordinary dimensions serves almost no other purpose in 
 this respect but to convey a clear conception of the 
 earth's surface as a whole ; exhibiting the figure, ex- 
 tent, position, and general features of the great conti- 
 nents and islands, with the intervening oceans and 
 seas. To obtain a detailed representation of any part 
 of the earth's surface, geographers have therefore 
 found it necessary to have recourse to maps, in which 
 countries are delineated on a plane, while the mutual 
 proportions of the distance of places are preserved as 
 nearly as possible the same as on the globe. 
 
 For the construction of maps different mathematical 
 hypotheses have been adopted. By one method of 
 construction, that ot projection, the boundaries of coun- 
 tries, and their more remarkable features, are repre- 
 sented according to the rules of perspective, on the 
 supposition of the eye being placed on some point of 
 the sphere, or at some given distance from it, which 
 may be increased indefinitely. Wherever the eye is 
 supposed to be situated,' the representation thus ob- 
 tained answers very well, provided the surface to be 
 represented is of smaU extent, and the point of view, 
 or projecting point, is nearly over the centre ; but 
 when the surface is of great extent, for example, a 
 
 whole hemisphere, those places which are situated near 
 the border of the projection are in all of them much 
 distorted. Another method, that of development, is 
 founded on the supposition that the spherical surface 
 to be represented is a portion of a cone, of which the 
 vertex is situated somewhere in the polar axis pro- 
 duced, and the conical surface is supposed either to 
 touch the sphere in the middle parallel of the map, or 
 to fall within the sphere of the middle parallel, and 
 without it at the extreme parallels. The surface of 
 the cone is then supposed to be spread out into a plane. 
 For the "History and Construction of Maps," see 
 £clec. Sev., xxv., 365 ; same article in Living Age, 
 xxi., 353 ; Smithsonian Annual Report, 1856-7. 
 
 A third method, which depends on the development 
 of a cylindrical surface, is that according to whid 
 maps are so delineated as to have the parallels of lati- 
 tude and circles of longitude respectivelj' represented 
 by parallel straight lines. By this method marini 
 charts are constructed. As the rhumb makes equal 
 angles with every meridian, it necessarily, according 
 to this method of delineation, becomes a straight line. 
 Such a representation of the earth's surface is com- 
 monly called Mercator^s Cliart, although the invention 
 is due to an English mathematician, Edward Wright. 
 These are the three principal methods employed to 
 represent to the eye the several countries on the sur- 
 face of the earth. See Charts and Coast Sdrvey. 
 
 The maps and charts of our country aiid the coasts, 
 besides being of great general interest, are of such 
 importance to the commercial community that any 
 account of the progress made in this direction, 
 should be made known as matter of common in- 
 terest. The United States' Coast Survey have 
 completed the surveys of a large portion of our 
 coast, and, with a view of obtaining the important 
 facts relative to the old surveys of the country, have 
 employed Mr. J. G. Kohl to investigate the earliest 
 records extant of the history of our maps and charts. 
 Mr. Kohl has extended his researches, and in a series 
 of lectures before the Smithsonian Institute (and pub- 
 lished in their last Report), has embodied a general 
 history of the origin of the chartographical art, and 
 from these lectures we make some extracts that have 
 an especial relation to the early history of our own 
 country : The Chartographical Art originated prdba- 
 bly everj^where with travelers by land and sea and 
 their requirements ; all the maps which we see men- 
 tioned in ancient times were probably more or less of 
 this kind; as, for instance, those which the Greeks 
 received from the Phenicians, and which they im- 
 proved upon ; so, too, the maps of the Romans, who 
 scarcely mention any other than travelers' maps, 
 called "itinerariapiota" (painted itineraries), of which 
 a separate class was formed by the " itineraria mariti- 
 ma" (marine itineraries). 
 
 By far the greater part of the maps painted during 
 the middle ages belonged to this class, and more es- 
 pecially to the class of marine maps; because the 
 greatest map-makers of that time, tlie Venetians and 
 other Italians, were also the greatest navigators. 
 Thus we see that the art of map-making particularly 
 flourished among the great trading and navigating 
 nations — ^the Phenicians, Greeks, and Italians. The 
 different classes of chartographical works for which 
 they had names in the middle ages related all of them 
 more or less exclusively to the hydrography of tha 
 sea. Very common, for instance, were the so-called 
 " portulanos," or indicators of harbors. The "isola^ 
 rios" (books of islands) form a very curious sort of 
 composition, also probably designed for the special 
 use of mariners. In these insularies the authors rep- 
 resented and described all the most important islands 
 of the world, which they separated from their sur- 
 rounding continents. From the class of maps, made 
 by conquerors and distributors of land, have grown 
 our official government surveysj which often are very 
 
MAP 
 
 1318 
 
 MAR 
 
 valuable, because they are made -withovit a too great 
 fear of expense. They generally contain the most 
 important information as regards the political divisions 
 of the country, and for the adjustment of boundary 
 questions. Sometimes, being particularly destined 
 for government use, they have not been given to the 
 public, or at least not to any great extent. With re- 
 spect to America we have many most important pub- 
 lications of this character made bt the French and 
 British governments for Canada, by the British Ad- 
 miralty' for nearly every part of America; by the 
 Spanish hydrographical depot in Madrid, for Spanish 
 America, and by the Land Office, Topographical Bu- 
 reau, Coast Survey Office, and other branches of the 
 United States' government, for different parts of the 
 territory of the United States. The governments of 
 Brazil, of New Granada, and other South American 
 States, have likewise caused splendid publications to 
 be made, descriptive of the temtories under their 
 dominion. 
 
 Until the time of Columbus and Gama, nations had 
 no accurate knowledge of the world, except that of 
 their own immediate neighborhood. Hence, for thou- 
 sands of years, the art of constructing maps made but 
 little progress. The maps that were in use at the 
 time of Columbus were not much better than those 
 made for the work of Ptolemy a thousand years be- 
 fore. They do not include a greater extent of coun- 
 try, they exhibit no new facts, nor do they show any 
 greater accuracy in the location of points on the earth's 
 surface. After the discovery of America and the 
 countries bordering on the Pacific Ocean and the In- 
 dian Sea, the extent of the known and habitable 
 world was much increased, and the figure of the con- 
 tinents and the limits of the oceans were more cor- 
 rectly given on the maps. But it was still very long 
 ere the classes of interesting facts represented on the 
 maps were enlarged, and the manner of depicting them 
 improved. 
 
 Water remained for a long time a blank on all the 
 old maps. It was not known that the ocean offers so 
 much variety in color, depth, temperature, and fitness 
 for motion as the dry land itself. The Spaniards 
 knew that some parts of the ocean are rough and bois- 
 terous, and called a certain part "el Golfo de los 
 Cabellos" (the Horse Gulf), and a quiet portion " el 
 Golfo de las Damas" (the Ladies' Gulf). Some of the 
 regular currents of the ocean were also of early dis- 
 coverj-. The Gulf Stream was known as early as 
 1512, or since the first voyage of Ponce de Leon to 
 Florida. We find on many maps, in the neighbor- 
 hood of Florida, legends like the following : " Here 
 the water runs continually to the north." It would 
 have been easier to have designated this by a few 
 strips of color ; and yet it required the inventive ge- 
 nius of Franklin, for it was he who first located defi- 
 nitely the Gulf Stream in our maps. 
 
 The regular trade winds between India and Arabia, 
 with their nature, direction, and changes, were not only 
 known, but daily taken advantage of by navigators 
 for centuries. So too the trade winds of the Atlantic 
 were described, discussed, and used, at least since the 
 time of Columbus. Nevertheless, though there are 
 currents that flow with nearly the same regularity as 
 rivers, no map-maker gave any visible hint respecting 
 them to the navigator to whom he pretended to fur- 
 nish useful charts, until the time of our modern Een- 
 nell's Wind-maps, which are also a very late innova- 
 tion of our century. „ „ „ „ , 
 
 The existence of the banks of Newfoundland was 
 known to the very first discoverers of the eastern 
 coast of North America. Nay, for a long time these 
 banks were the most frequented part of the North 
 American waters, being visited since the year 1504 
 by whole fleets of French, Portuguese, Spanish, and 
 English fishei-men. To have a true conception of their 
 configuration, extent, varj-ing depths, currents, and 
 
 other circumstances, was almost of greater importance 
 for all the navigating nations of Europe than to know 
 the configuration of the coasts of the great continent 
 itself. Yet at a time when the whole east coast of 
 North America was already very well represented on 
 the maps, we see the Georges Bank, Nantucket shoals, 
 and the other great banks, before this coast, either not 
 given at all, or else in a shape so little like reality that 
 it would have been almost better to' leave them oiit 
 altogether. The other qualities of the bottom of the 
 ocean, its deep valleys and lofty mountain ranges, were 
 of course not noticed in an age which did not possess 
 our deep-sea sounding instruments, and which had also 
 no practical occasion for such explorations. This 
 practical interest has existed only since the question 
 has been mooted where we can l&y with safety our 
 electric wires for the connection of the two continents. 
 For this purpose we now explore those hidden recesses, 
 and we may expect that ere long our pictures of the 
 oceans will present as great variety of scenes as do 
 those of the dry land itself. 
 
 We should endeavor to collect and preserve all the 
 old records and charts of our early maritime histor}'. 
 These are valuable to science, and are objects of curi- 
 osity and interest to our merchants, and it should be 
 the object of the Chamber of Commerce to collect and 
 preserve these records of the past. 
 
 Maranham, or Maranhao, a province of Bra- 
 zil, in South America. This name, which is common 
 to the province, the capital, the island on which it 
 stands, the Eiver Meary, and the Amazon, is derived 
 from Marafian, the appellation which the navigator 
 Pinzan first bestowed upon the estuarj' of the Ama- 
 zons, upon finding that its waters did not possess the 
 saline properties of the ocean. It lies beween 1° 20'' 
 and 10° 50' of south latitude, and 45° 10' and 53° 20' 
 of west longitude, being nearly 400 miles in length 
 from north to south, and having an average breadth 
 of about 200 miles. Maranham, or St. Luiz, the capi- 
 tal, is situated on an island of tlie same name of about 
 42 miles in circumference. It forms the south-east 
 side of the Bay of Marcos, having to the eastward 
 the Bay of San Jos6, in latitude 2° 32' south, and long- 
 itude 43° 40' west. It is fertile, and well inhabited, 
 there being, besides the capital, numerous small ham- 
 lets belonging to the natives. Much difficulty is ex- 
 perienced in reaching this island, on account of the 
 rapidity of three rivers at the mouth of which it is situ- 
 ated. The harbor, which is formed by a narrow creek, 
 is of a sufficient depth to admit of merchantmen enter- 
 ing ; but it is so beset with shoals as to require a pilot, 
 and its depth is diminishing. Population about 30,000. 
 Chief public edifices, an episcopal palace, college, hos- 
 pital, theatre, and numerous convents of the Francis- 
 can and Carmelite orders. It is the residence of the 
 governor, and has a lyceum and schools of navigation 
 and commerce. Chief exports, cotton, rice, and sar- 
 saparilla. Chief imports, slaves. The average num- 
 ber of slaves imported between the years 1840 and 1845 
 averaged 5000 annually, for whom a considerable duty 
 was derived. With regard to exports and imports, there 
 are no returns which can be relied on later than the 
 year 1820. From 1815 to 1820, the average number 
 of bags of cotton exported was 68,000. The exports 
 of rice varied during these years from 56,000 to 82,000 
 bags. The other articles sent ont of the country con- 
 sisted of hides, tanned and untanned, sldns, and gums. 
 The entire population of the province amounted, in 
 1821, to 182,000. This province might be made one of 
 great importance, for it possesses vast capabilities ; but 
 as yet it is in an infant or semi-barbarous state. 
 
 Marble (Ger.,Rus.,andLat.J)/aiTOo; Va.Marmer; 
 Ft. Marbre ; It. Marme; Sp. MarmoV),& genus of fos- 
 sils, composed chiefly of lime ; being a bright and 
 beautiful stone, moderately hard, not giving fire with 
 steel, fermenting with and soluble in acid menstrua, 
 and calcining in a slight fire, Dipsenus and Scyllis, 
 
MAR 
 
 1319 
 
 MAE 
 
 statuaries of Crete, were the first artists who sculp- 
 tured marble, and polished their works ; aU statues 
 previously to their time being of wood, 568 B.Ci — Pliny. 
 Marble afterward came into use for statues and the 
 columns and ornaments of fine buildings ; and the edi- 
 fices and monuments of Rome were constructed of, or 
 ornamented with, fine marble. The ruins of Palmyra 
 prove that its magnificent structures, which were 
 cMefly of white marble, were far more extensive and 
 splendid than those of even Home itself. These latter 
 were discovered by some English travelers near Alep- 
 po, A. D. 1678. 
 
 The colors by which marbles are distinguished are 
 almost innumerable. Some are quite black, others, 
 again, are of a snowy white ; some are greenish, others 
 grayish, reddish, bluish, yellowish, etc. ; while some 
 are variegated and spotted with many different colors 
 ^nd shades of colors. The finest solid modern marbles 
 are those of Italy, Blankenburg, France, Flanders and 
 the United States. 
 
 Italy produces a most valuable marble, and its ex- 
 portation makes a considerable branch of her foreign 
 commerce. The black and the milk-white marble of 
 Oarara, in the duchy of Massa, are particularly es- 
 teemed. The marble of Germany, Norway, and Swe- 
 den are very inferior, being mixed with a sort of scaly 
 limestone. Marble is of so hard, and compact, and fine 
 a texture as readily to take a beautiful polish. That 
 most esteemed by statuaries is brought from the island 
 of Pares, in the Archipelago. It was employed by 
 Praxiteles and Piddias, both of whom were natives of 
 that island ; whence also the famous Arundelian mar- 
 bles were brought. The marble of Carara is like- 
 wise in high repute among sculptors. The specific 
 gravity of marble is from 2-700 to 2-800. Black mar- 
 ble owes its color to a slight mixture of iron. 
 Statement showing the Expoets of the Manttfactuees 
 
 op MaEBLB PKOM the tjNITED STATES FOE THE FISCAL 
 
 Yeae ending June 80th, 1856. 
 
 ~ " whither exported. Dollars. 
 
 Turkey In Europe. . 35 
 
 Hayti 1,235 
 
 San Domingo 163 
 
 Mexico 2,056 
 
 Central Eepublio 460 
 
 New Oranada 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Buenos Ayi*es 
 
 ChUl 
 
 Sandwich Islands.. . . 
 
 whither exported. PollnrB. 
 
 Dutch Guiana 50 
 
 England 1,025 
 
 Ireland 60 
 
 Gibraltar. ' 90 
 
 Canada 105,838 
 
 Other Br. N. A. pos. . 10,664 
 British West Indies.. 348 
 British Honduras. ... 39 
 British pos. in Afvita 904 
 British Australia.... 189 
 
 Cuba. 80,884 
 
 Porto Eico, T43 
 
 Madeira 181 
 
 195 
 165 
 270 
 585 
 2,004 
 
 Total 162,876 
 
 Statement snowiNO the Imports of Marble into the 
 ' United States foe the Eisoal Yeae ending June 
 30th, 1856. 
 
 Whence imported. 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Holland 
 
 Belgium 
 
 England 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Malta , 
 
 Canada '. . . 
 
 British East Indies 
 
 France on the Atlantic 
 
 France on the Mediterranean — 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Sardinia 
 
 Tuscany 
 
 Two Sicilies 
 
 China. 
 
 Total 
 
 Manofacturea UnmanufaC' 
 'of. tared. 
 
 17 
 
 8,017 
 
 1,145 
 
 170 
 
 154 
 
 25 
 
 12,487 
 
 '2,767 
 
 11,886 
 
 16,885 
 
 164 
 
 178 
 
 14 
 
 1,841 
 
 8,188 
 
 82,858 
 
 140,848 
 
 $88,054 
 
 $177,967 
 
 Brando divides marble, according to their localities, 
 into classes, each of which contains eight subdivisions : 
 1. Uni-oolored marbles, including only the white and 
 the black. 2. Variegated marbles j those with irregu- 
 lar spots or veins. 3. Madreporio marbles, presenting 
 animal remains in the shape of white or gray spots, 
 with irregularly disposed dots or stars in the centre. 
 4. Shell marbles ; with only a few shells interspersed 
 in the calcareuos base. 5. Lumachella marbles, en- 
 tirely composed of shells, 6, Cipolin marbles, con- 
 
 taining veins of greenish talc. 7. Breccia marbles, 
 formed of a number of angular fragments of different 
 marbles, united by a common cement. 8. Pudding- 
 stone marbles ; a conglomerate of round pieces. 
 
 Of Cutting and Polishmg Marble. — The marble saw 
 is a thin plate of soft iron, continually supplied during 
 its sawing motion, with water and the sharpest sand. 
 The sawing of moderate pieces is performed by hand, 
 but tliat of large slabs is most economically done by a 
 proper mill. 
 
 The first substance used in the polishing process is 
 the sharpest sand, which must be worked with till the 
 surface becomes perfectly flat. Then a second, and 
 even a third sand of increasing fineness is to be ap- 
 plied. The next substance is emery of progressive 
 degrees of fineness, after which tripoli is employed ; 
 and the last polish is given with tin-putty. The body 
 with which the sand is rubbed upon the marble, is 
 usually a plate of iron ; but for the subsequent process, 
 a plate of lead is used with fine sand and emery. The 
 polishing-rnbbers are coarse linen cloths or bagging, 
 wedged tight into an iron planing tool. In every step 
 of the operation, a constant trickling supply of water 
 is required. 
 
 Marbling, the method of preparing and coloring 
 marbled paper. There are several kinds of marbled 
 paper, but the principal difference between them con- 
 sists in the forms in which the colors are laid on the 
 ground ; some being disposed in whirls or circumvo- 
 lutions, others in jagged lengths, and others only in 
 spots of a rounder oval figure. The general manner 
 of managing each kind is, nevertheless, the same, 
 namely, the dipping the paper in a solution of gum- 
 tragacanth, or, as it is commonly called, gum-dragon, 
 over which the colors, previously prepared with ox- 
 gall and spirit of wine, are first spread. 
 
 Marine, a general name for the navy of a king- 
 dom or state, as also for the whole economy of naval 
 affairs, or whatever respects the building, rigging, 
 arming, equipping, navigating, and fighting of ships. 
 It comprehends, likewise, the government of naval 
 armaments, and the state of all the persons employed 
 therein, whether civil or military. 
 
 Marines, or Marine Forces, a body of soldiers 
 raised for the naval service, and trained tp fight either 
 in a naval engagement or in an action on shore. 
 
 Mariner's Compass. The Chinese ascribe the 
 invention of the compass to their Emperor Hong-Ti, 
 who, they say, was a grandson of Noah j and some of 
 their historians refer the invention of it to a later date, 
 1115 B.C. The honor of its discoverj-, though much 
 disputed, is generally given to Flavio de Gioja or 
 Giovia, a native of Amalfi, an ancient commercial 
 city of Naples, a.d. 1302. The variation of the 
 needle was first discovered by Columbus in his voy- 
 ages of discovery, 1492 ; and it was observed in Lon- 
 don in 1580. The dipping-needle was invented by 
 Robert Norman, a compass-maker of Ratcliffe in that 
 year. See Compass ; Am. Jour. Sc, xl., 242. 
 
 Maritime Law. B^^ maritime law is meant the 
 law relating to Iiarbors, ships, and seamen. It forms 
 an important branch of the commercial law of all 
 maritime nations. It is divided into a variety of dif- 
 ferent departments ; such as those with respect to har- 
 bors, the property of ships, the duties and rights of 
 masters and seamen, contracts of affreightment, aver- 
 age, salvage, etc. The reader will find those subjects 
 treated of under their respective heads. 
 
 Sketch of the Progress of Maritime Law. — The earli- 
 est system of maritime law was supplied by the Ehodi- 
 ans, several centuries before the Christian era. The 
 most celebrated authors of antiquity have spoken in 
 high terms of the wisdom of the Ehodian laws j luckily, 
 however, we are not wholly left, in forming our opin- 
 ion upon them, to the vague, commendatory state- 
 ments of Cicero and Strabo. (Cicebo pro Lege 
 Manilliai Strab., lib. xiv.) The laws of Rhodes 
 
MAR 
 
 1320 
 
 MAR 
 
 were adopted by Augustas into the legislation of Eome ; 
 and such was the estimation in which they were held, 
 that the Emperor Antoninus, heing solicited to decide 
 a contested point with fespect to shipping, is reported 
 to have answered, that it ought to be decided by the 
 Rhodian laws, which were of paramount authority in 
 such cases, unless they happened to be directly at 
 variance with some regulation of the Eoman law. — 
 Q^ Ego quidem mundi dominus, lex autem maris legis id 
 Rkodia, qua de rebus nauticis prisscripta est^ judicetur^ 
 guaienus nulla nostrarum legum adversafur. Hoc idem 
 Bivus quoque Augustus judicavit.") The rule of the 
 Ehodian law with respect to average contributions in 
 the event of a sacrifice being made at sea for the safety 
 of the ship and cargo, is expressly laid down in the 
 Digest (lib. xiv.) ; and the most probable conclusion 
 seems to be, that most of the regulations as to mari- 
 time affairs, embodied in the compilations of Justi- 
 nian have been derived from the same source. The 
 regulations as to average adopted by all modern 
 nations, are borrowed, with hardly any alteration, from 
 the Roman, or rather, as we have seen, from the 
 Ehodian law ! — a conclusive proof of the sagacity of 
 those by whom they had been originally framed. The 
 onlj' authentic fragments of the Ehodian law are those 
 in the Digest. The collection entitled Jus navale 
 Hhodlorum, published at Bale in 1561, is now admitted 
 by all critics to be spurious. See ante, pp. 1188-1192. 
 The first modern code of maritime law is said to 
 have been compiled at Amalfi, in Italy, a. city at 
 present in ruins ; but which, besides being early dis- 
 tinguished for its commerce, will be forever famous 
 for the discovery of -the Pandects, and the supposed 
 invention of the mariner's compass. The Amalfitan 
 code is said to have been denominated Tabula Amal- 
 Jitana. But if such a body of law really existed, it 
 is singular that it should never have been published, 
 nor even any extracts from it. M. Pardessus has 
 shown that all the authors who have referred to the 
 Amalfitan code and asserted its existence, have 
 copied the statement of Freccia, in his book De Sul- 
 feudis. (Collection des Loix Mariiimes.} And as 
 Freccia assures us that the Amalfitan code continued 
 to be followed in Naples at the time when he wrote 
 (1570), it is difficult to suppose that it could have eu- 
 tirelj' disappeared; and it seems most probable, as 
 nothing peculiar to it has ever transpired, that it con- 
 sisted principally of the regulations laid down in the 
 Roman law, T^hich, it is known, preserved their ascend- 
 anc}' for a longer period in the south of Italy than any 
 where else. 
 
 But, besides Amalfi, Venice, Marseilles, Pisa, 
 Genoa, Barcelona, Valencia, and other towns of the 
 Mediterranean, were early distinguished for the ex- 
 tent to which they carried commerce and navigation. 
 In the absence of any positive information on the sub- 
 ject, it seems reasonable to suppose that their maritime 
 laws would be principally borrowed from those of 
 Eome, but with such alterations and modifications as 
 might be deemed requisite to accommodate them to the 
 particular views of each state. But whether in this or 
 in some other way, it is certain that various confl.icting 
 regulations were established, which led to much con- 
 fusion and uncertainty ; and the experience of the 
 inconveniences thence' arising, doubtless contributed 
 to the universal adoption of the Consolato del Mare as 
 a code of maritime law. Nothing certain is known as 
 to the origin of this code. Azuni {DroU Maritime de, 
 VEurope, tome i., or rather Jomo, Codice Ferdinando, 
 from whose work a large portion of Azuni's is literally 
 translated) contends, in a verj' able dissertation, that 
 the Pisans are entitled to the glory of having compiled 
 the whole, or at least the greater pari;, of the Consolato 
 del Mare. On the other hand, Don Antonio de Cap- 
 many, in his learned and excellent work on the com- 
 merce of Barcelona {Antiguo Comercio de Barcelona, 
 tome i., pp. 170-183), has endeavored to show that the 
 
 Consolato was compiled at Barcelona j and that it con- 
 tains the rules according to which the consuls, which 
 the Barcelonese had established in foreign places so 
 early as 1268, were to render their, decisions. It is 
 certain that the Consolato was printed for the first time 
 at Barcelona, in 1502 ; and that the early Italian and 
 French editions are translations from the Catalan. 
 Azuni has, indeed, sufficiently proved that the Pisans 
 had a code of maritime laws at a very early period, 
 and that several of the regulations in it are substan- 
 tially the same as those in the Consolato, But it does 
 not appear that the Barcelonese were aware of the 
 regulations of the Pisans, or that the resemblance 
 between them and those in the Consolato is more than 
 accidental ; or may not fairly be ascribed to the con- 
 currence that can hardly fail to obtain among well- 
 informed persons legislating upon the same topics, and 
 influenced by principles and practices derived from 
 the civil law. 
 
 M. Pardessus, in the second volume of his excellent 
 work already referred to, appears to have been suffi- 
 ciently disposed, had there been any grounds to go 
 upon, to set up a claim in favor of Marseilles to the 
 honor of being the birth-place of the Consolato ; but he 
 candidly admits that such a pretension could not be sup- 
 ported, and unwillingly adheres to Capmany's opinion. 
 "Quoique Fran9ais," says he, " quoique portee par 
 des sentimens de reconnoissance, qu'aucun ^vfenement 
 ne sauroit affoiblir, k faire valoir tout ce qui est en fa- 
 vour de Marseilles, je dois reconnoitre franeliement que 
 les probabilit6s I'emportent en favour de Barcelone." 
 — Tome ii. But to whichever city the honor of com- 
 piling the Consolato may be due, there can be no doubt 
 that its antiquity has been greatly exaggerated. It is 
 affirmed, in a preface to the diiferent editions, that it 
 was solemnly accepted, subscribed and promulgated, 
 as a body of maritime law, by the Holy See in 1075, 
 and by the kings of France and other potentates at 
 different periods between 1075 and 1270. But Cap- 
 many, Azuni, and Pardessus, have shewn in the clear- 
 est and most satisfactory manner that the circumstan- 
 ces alluded to in this sketch could not possibly have 
 taken place, and that it is wholly unworthy of atten- 
 tion. The most probable opinion seems to be, that it 
 was compiled, and began to be introduced about the 
 end of the 13th or beginning of the 14th century. 
 And notwithstanding its prolixity, and the want of 
 precision and clearness, the correspondence of the 
 greater number of its rules with the ascertained prin- 
 ciples of justice and public utility, gradually led, with- 
 out the intervention of any agreement, to its adoption 
 as a system of maritime jurisprudence by all the na- 
 tions contiguous to the Mediterranean. It is still of 
 high authority. Casaregis says of it, though perhaps, 
 too strongly, " Consulates maris, in materiis mariti- 
 mis, tanquam universalis consuetudo liahens vim legis, in- 
 violabiliter attendenda est apud omnes provincias et na- 
 tiones." — Disc. 214. 
 
 The collection of sea laws next in celebrity, but an- 
 terior, perhaps, in point of time, is that denominated 
 the Roole des Jugements d'Oleron. There is as much 
 diversity of opinion as to the origin of these laws, as 
 there is with respect to the origin of the Consolato. 
 The prevailing opinion in Great Britain has been, that 
 they were compiled by direction of Queen Eleanor, 
 wife of Henry II., in her quality of Duchess of Gui- 
 enne ; and that they were afterward enlarged and im- 
 proved by her son Richard I., at his return from the 
 Holy Land ; but this statement is now admitted to 
 rest on no good foundation. The most probable theory 
 seems to be, that they are a collection of the rules or 
 practices followed at the principal French ports on 
 the Atlantic, as Bordeaux, Rochelle, St. Malo, etc. 
 They contain, indeed, rules that are essential to all 
 maritime transactions, wherever they may be carried 
 on ; but the references in the code sufficiently prove 
 that it is of French origin. The circumstance of that 
 
MAR 
 
 1321 
 
 MAR 
 
 monarch's' having large possessions in France at the 
 period when the Rules of Oleron were collected; natu- 
 rally facilitated their introduction into England ; and 
 they have long enjoyed a very high degree of authority 
 in that country. " I call them the laws of Oleron," 
 said a great civilian (Sir Leoline Jenkins, Chiirge to the 
 Cinque Ports), "not but that they toe peculiarly 
 enough English, being long since incorporated into 
 the customs and statutes of our admiralties ; but the 
 equity of them is so great, and the use and reason of 
 them so'gfeheral, that they are known and received all 
 the world over by that, rather than by any other 
 name." MoUoj', however, has more correctly, per- 
 haps, said of the laws of Oleron, that " they never 
 Obtained any other or greater force than those of 
 Rhodes formerly did ; that is, they were esteemed for 
 the reason and equity found in them, and applied to 
 the case emergent." — De Jure Maritimo et Navaii. 
 
 A code of maritime law issued by Wisby, in the 
 island of Gothland, in the Baltic, has long enjoySd 
 a high reputation in the north. The date of its com- 
 pilation is uncertain ; but it is coinparatively modem. 
 It is true that some of the northern jurists contend 
 that the laws of Wisby are older than the Rules of 
 Oleron, and that the latter are chiefly copied from the 
 former ! Bat it has been repeatedly shown that there 
 is not so much as the shadow of a foundation for this 
 statement. See Paedessus, Collection, etc., tome i., 
 pp. 425, 462 ; Foreign Quarterly- Review, I^o. 13, art. 
 Ildnseatic League. The laws of Wisby are not cer- 
 tainly older than the latter part of the 14th or begin- 
 ning of the 15th century ; and have obviously been 
 compiled from the Consolato del Mare, the Rules of Ole- 
 ron, and other codes that were then in use. Grotius 
 has spoKen of these laws in the most laudatory man- 
 ner : — " Quce de maritimis ncgotiis," says he, " insulte 
 GofhlandicE hahitatoribus placuerunt, tantuminsehabent, 
 turn equitatis, tarn prudential, ut omnes oceani accolm eo, 
 non tanquam propria, sed velut gentium jure, utantur," — 
 Prolegomejia ad Procopium, p." 64. 
 
 Besides the codes now mentioned, the ordinances of 
 the Hanse Towns, issued in 1597 and 1614, contain a 
 system of laws relating to navigation that is of great 
 authority. The judgments of Damme, the customs of 
 Amsterdam, etc., are also often quoted. A translation 
 of the law of Oleron, Wisby, and the Hanse Towns, 
 is given in the 3d edition of Malynes's Lex Mercatoria, 
 but the edition of them in the worlc of M. Pardessus, 
 referred to in the text, is infinitely superior to every 
 other. But by far the most complete and well-digested 
 system of maritime jurisprudence that has ever ap- 
 peared, is that comprised in the famous Ordonnance de 
 la Marine issued by Louis XIV., in 1681. This excel- 
 lent code was compiled under the direction of M. Col- 
 bert, by individuals of great talent and learning, lifter 
 a careful revision of all the ancient sea laws of France 
 and other countries, and upon consultation with the 
 different parliaments, the courts of admiraltj', and the 
 chambers of commerce, of the different towns. It 
 combines whatever experience and the wisdom of ages 
 had shown to be best in the Roman laws, and in the 
 institutions of the modern maritime states of Europe. 
 In the preface to his treatise on tlie Law of SMpping, 
 Lord Tenterden says : — " If the reader should be of- 
 fended at the frequent references to this ordinance, I 
 must request him to recollect that those references are 
 made to the maritime code of a great commercial na- 
 tion, which has contributed much of its national pros- 
 perity to that code : a code composed in the reign of a 
 politic prince ; undftr the auspices of a wise and en- 
 lightened minister ; by laborious and learned persons, 
 who selected the most valuable principles of all the 
 maritime laws then existing j and' wMoh, in matter, 
 method, and style, is one of the most finished acts of 
 legislation that ever was promulgated." The ordi- 
 nance of 1681 was published in 1760, with a detailed 
 and most elaborate commentary by M. Valin, in 2 vol- 
 
 umes, 4to. . It is impossible which to admire most in 
 this commentarj-, the learning or the sound good sense 
 of the writer. Lord Mansfield was indebted for no 
 inconsiderable portion of his superior knowledge of 
 the principles of maritime Jurisprudence to a careful 
 study of M. Valin's work. 
 
 That part of the Code de Commerce which treats of 
 maritime affairs, insurance, etc., is copied with very 
 little alteration, from the ordinance of 1681. The few 
 changes that have been made are not always improve- 
 ments. No system or code of maritime law has ever 
 been issued by authority in Great Britain. The laws 
 and practices that now obtain among them, in refer- 
 ence to maritime affairs have been founded principally 
 on the practices of merchants, the principles laid down 
 in the civil law, the laws of Oleron and Wisby, the 
 works of distinguished jurisconsults, the judicial de- 
 cisions of their own and foreign countries, etc. A law 
 so constructed has necessarily been in a progressive 
 state of improvement ; and, though still susceptible of 
 amendment, it corresponds, ' at this moment, more 
 nearly,' perhaps, than any other system of maritime 
 law, with those universally recognized principles of 
 justice and general convenience by which the transac- 
 tions of merchants and navigators ought to be regUr 
 lated. The decisions of Lord Mansfield did much to 
 fix the principles, and to improve and perfect the mar- 
 itime law of England; It is also under great obliga- 
 tions to Lord Stowell. The decisions of the latter 
 chiefly, indeed, respect questions of neutrality, grow- 
 ing out of the conflicting pretensioiis of belligerents and 
 neutrals during the late war ; but the principles and 
 doctrines which he unfolds in tresiting those questions, 
 throw a strong aiid steady light on those branches of 
 maritime law. It has occasionally, indeed, been al- 
 leged — and the allegation is probably, in some degree 
 well founded — ^that his lordship has conceded ■ too' 
 much to the claimd of belligerents. Still, however, 
 his judgments must be regarded, allowing for this ex- 
 cusable bias, as among the noblest monuments of judi- 
 cial wisdom of which any country can boast. " They 
 will be contemplated," says Mr. Serjeant Marshall,- 
 " with applause and veneration, as long as depth of 
 learning, soundness of argunient, enlightened wisdom, 
 and the chaste beauties of eldquence, hold any place 
 in the estimation of mankind." — On Insurance, Prelim. 
 Disc. The Treatise of the Law Relative to Merchant 
 Ships and Seamen, by the late Chief Justice of the 
 Court of King's Bench, does credit to the talents, eru- 
 dition, and liberalitj' of its noble and learned author. 
 It gives, within a brief compass, a clear and admirable 
 exposition of the most important branches of our mar- 
 itime law ; and maj' be consulted with equal facility 
 and advantage by the merchant, the general scholar, 
 and the la-HTer. Mr. Serjeant Marshall has entered 
 very fully into some, and has touched upon most points 
 of maritime law, in his work on Insurance; and has 
 discussed them with great learning and sagacity. The 
 works of Mr. Justice Park, Mr. Holt, and a few oth- 
 ers, are also valuable. Of the earlier treatises, the 
 Lex Mercatoria of Malynes is by far the best ; and, 
 considering the period of its publication (1622), is a 
 very extraordinary performence. See North Am. 
 Rev., vi., 323 (J. Story), ii., 218, xiii., 1 (H. Whea- 
 ton); Euia's Mag., xiii., 232, 455, x., 337, ix., 261,- 
 368, 543, xiv., 547, xv., 75^ xxiv., 191. 
 
 The marine law of the United States is the same as 
 the marine law of Europe. It is not the law of a partic- 
 ular country, but the general law of nations ; and Lord 
 Mansfield applied to its universal adoption the express- 
 ive language of Cicero, when speaking of the eternal 
 laws of justice : " Nee erit alia lex Romas, alia Athienis ; 
 alia nunc, alia posthac j sed et omnes gentes, et omni tem- 
 pore una lex et sempiterna, et inmiortalis continebit." 
 
 In treating of this law, we refer to its pacific charac- 
 ter as the law of commerce and navigation in time of 
 peace. The respective rights of belligerents and nou- 
 
MAE 
 
 1322 
 
 MAR 
 
 trals in time of war constitute the code of prize law, 
 and that forms a distinct law of inquiry. When Lord 
 Mansfield mentioned the law-merchant as being a 
 branch of public law, it was because that law did not 
 rest essentially for its character and authority on the 
 positive institutions and local customs of any particu- 
 lar country, but consisted of certain principles of 
 equity, and usages of trade, which general commerce 
 and a common sense of justice had established to regu- 
 late the dealings of merchants and mariners in all the 
 commercial countries of the civilized world. 
 
 In the study and cultivation of maritime law our 
 improvement has been rapid, and our career illustrious, 
 since the adoption of the present Constitution of the 
 United States. The decisions in federal courts, in 
 commercial cases, have done credit to the Intellectual 
 and moral character of the nation, and the admiralty 
 courts in particular have displayed great research and 
 a familiar knowledge of the principles of the marine 
 law of Europe. 
 
 The reports of judicial decisions in the several States, 
 and especially in the States of Massachusetts, New 
 York, and Pennsj'lvania, evince great attention to 
 maritime questions ; and they contain abundant proofs 
 that our courts have been dealing largely with that 
 business of our enterprising and commercial people. 
 Declaration respecting Maritime Law signed by the Pleni- 
 potentiaries of Great Britain^ Austria^ France^ Prus- 
 sia, Hitssia, Sardinia, and Turkey, assembled in 
 Congress at Paris, April 16, 1856 : 
 The plenipotentiaries who signed the Treaty of Par- 
 is, on the 30th of March, 1856, assembled in confer- 
 ence, considering : That maritime law in time of war 
 has long been the subject of deplorable disputes ; that 
 the uncertainty of the law and of the duties in such a 
 matter gives rise to differences of opinion between neu- 
 trals and belligerents which may occasion serious diffi- 
 culties, and even conflicts ; that it is, consequently, 
 advantageous to establish a uniform doctrine on so im- 
 portant a point ; that the plenipotentiaries assembled 
 in Congress at Paris can not better respond to the in- 
 tentions by which their governments are animated, 
 than by seeking to introduce into international rela- 
 tions fixed principles in this respect. The above-men- 
 tioned plenipotentiaries, being duly authorized, resolved 
 to concert among themselves as to the means of attain- 
 ing this object; and having come to an agreement, 
 have adopted the following solemn declarations : 
 
 1. Privateering is, and remains, abolished. 2. The 
 neutral flag covers enemies' goods, with the exception 
 of contraband of war. 3. The neutral goods, with the 
 exception of contraband of war, are not liable to cap- 
 ture under enemy's flag. 4. Blockades, in order to 
 be binding, must be effective ; that is to say, main- 
 tained by a force sufficient really to prevent access to 
 the coast by the enemy. 
 
 The governments of the undersigned plenipoten- 
 tiaries engage to bring the present declaration to the 
 knowledge of the States which have not taken part in 
 the Congress of Paris, and invite them to accede to it. 
 Convinced that the maxims which they now proclaim 
 can not but be received with gratitude by the whole 
 world, the undersigned plenipotentiaries doubt not that 
 the efforts of their governments to obtain the general 
 adoption thereof will be crowned with full success. 
 The present declaration is not, and shall not be bind- 
 ing, except between those powers who have acceded 
 or shall accede to it. 
 
 Done at Paris the 16th of April, 1856. 
 (Signed,) 
 
 BnOL-SCHAUESSTEIN, HATZFELDT, 
 HUBNEK, ORLOFF, 
 
 Walewski, Bbhsnow, 
 
 BOORQDENEY, CAVOUE, 
 
 Clarendon, De Villamabina, 
 
 CIOWLEY, AALI, 
 
 Manteoffel, Mehbjimed Djbmil. 
 
 The United States' Executive, through the Depart- 
 ment of State, commnn,ioated to the French govern- 
 ment its reply in August 1856, viz. : 
 
 These four points are indivisible, because he can not 
 accept the first point — ^the abolition' of privateering. 
 Governor Marcy respectfully proposes, however, two 
 distinct amendments : 
 
 1. Either to add to the Jirst proposition in the " de- 
 claration" of the Congress of Paris — 
 
 "And that the private property of the subjects or 
 citizens of a belligerent on the high seas shall be ex- 
 empted from seizure by public armed vessels of the 
 other belligerents, except it be contraband," or 
 
 2d. To adopt the 2d, 3d, and 4th propositions, with- 
 out the first. 
 
 The' argument contained in the reply of Governor 
 Marcy is historical, argumentative, and forcible. 
 
 It goes to say, that no nation has a right to pre- 
 scribe to another what shall constitute her military 
 or naval force ; and that we can, consistently with 
 our institutions and policy, neither agree not to em- 
 ploy volunteers on land, nor privateers on the high 
 seas. When a nation having a large standing army 
 is threatening a nation with a small standing army, 
 the latter must have recourse to volunteers; and so 
 when a nation with a large nav}', makes war on an- 
 other with an inferior navy, the latter must have re- 
 course to privateers, otherwise the nation with a large 
 navy could employ a portion of her navy to keep the 
 inferior navj' of her enemy in check, and with the 
 rest sweep the commerce of the latter from the ocean. 
 Parity of position could only be reached if the armed 
 cruisers of the superior navy and other national ships 
 of war would forego making captures of the enemy's 
 property on the Iiigh seas, or if the nation with an in- 
 ferior navy armed privateers to inflict as much damage 
 on the commerce of the greater naval power as the 
 latter does on its inferior enemy. The concluding 
 portion of Mr. Marcy's reply is as follows : 
 
 " In discussing the effect of the proposed measure — 
 the Abolition of privateering — a reference to the exist- 
 ing condition of nations is almost unavoidable. An 
 instance will at once present itself in regard to two 
 nations where the commerce of each is about equal, 
 and about equally wide-spread over the world. As 
 commercial powers they approach to an equality, but 
 as naval powers there is great disparity between them. 
 The regular navy of one vastly exceeds that of the 
 other. In case of war between them only an incon- 
 siderable part of the nav}' of the one would be required 
 to prevent that of the other from being used for de- 
 fense or aggression, while the remainder would be de- 
 voted to the unembarrassed employment of destroying 
 the commerce of the weaker in naval strength. The 
 fatal consequence of this great inequality of naval force 
 between two such belligerents would be in part rem- 
 edied by the use of privateers ; in that case, while 
 either might assail the commerce of the other in every 
 sea, they would be obliged to distribute and emploj' 
 their respective navies in the work of protection. This 
 statement only illustrates what would be the case, 
 with some modification, in every war where there 
 may be considerable disparity in the naval strength of 
 the belligerents. 
 
 "History throws much light upon the question. 
 France, at an early period, was without a navj' ; and 
 in her wars with Great Britain and Spain, both naval 
 powers, she resorted, with signal good effect, to pri- 
 vateering, not only for protection, but successful ag- 
 gression. She obtained many privateers from Hol- 
 land, and by this force gained decided advantages on 
 the ocean over her enemy. While in that condition 
 France could hardly have been expected to originate 
 or concur in a proposition to abolish privateering. 
 The condition of many of the smaller States of the 
 world is now, in relation to naval powers, not much 
 unlike that of France in the middle of the 16th century. 
 
MAR 
 
 1323 
 
 MAR 
 
 At a later period, during the reign of Louis XIV., sev- 
 eral expeditions were fitted out by him, composed 
 wholly of privateers, which were most effectively em- 
 ployed in prosecuting hostilities with naval powers. 
 Those who may have at any time a Control on the 
 ocean will be 8t;:ongly tempted to regulate its use in a 
 manner to subserve their own interests and ambitious 
 projects. The ocean is the common property of all 
 nations ; and instead of yielding to a measure which 
 will be liltely to secure to a few — possibly to one — an 
 ascendancy over it, each should pertinaciously retain 
 all the means it possesses to defend the common herit- 
 age. A predominant power upon the ocean is more 
 menacing to the well being of others than such a 
 power on land ; and all are alike interested in resist- 
 ing a measure calculated to facilitate the permanent 
 establishment of such a domination, whether to be 
 wielded by one power or shared among a few others. 
 The injuries lilcely to result from surrendering the do- 
 minion of the seas to one or a few nations which have 
 powerful navies, arise mainly from the practice of sub- 
 jecting private property on the ocean to seizure by bel- 
 ligerents. Justice and humanity demand this practice 
 should be abandoned, and that the rules in relation to 
 such property on land should be extended to it when 
 found upon the high seas. 
 
 " The President, therefore, proposes to add to the first 
 proposition in the ' Declaration' of the Congress at 
 Paris the following words : ' Aud that the private 
 property of the subjects or citizens of the belligerent 
 on the high seas shall be exempted from seizure 
 by public armed vessels of the other belligerent, ex- 
 cept it be contraband.' Thus amended, the govern- 
 ment of the United States will adopt it, together with 
 the other three principles contained in that ' Declara- 
 tion.' I am directed to communicate the approval of 
 the President to the second, third, and fourth propo- 
 sitions, independently of the first, should the amend- 
 ment be unacceptable. The amendment is recom- 
 mended by so many powerful considerations, and the 
 principle which calls for it has so long had the em- 
 phatic sanction of all enlightened nations in military 
 operations on land, that the President is reluctant to 
 believe it will meet with any serious opposition. With- 
 out the proposed modification of the first principle, he 
 can not convince himself that it would be wise or safe 
 to change the existing law in regard to the right of 
 privateering. 
 
 " If the amendment should not be adopted, it will be 
 proper for the United States to have some understand- 
 ing in regard to the treatment of their privateers when 
 they shall have occasion to visit the ports of those 
 powers which are or may become parties to the declara- 
 tion to the Congress at Paris. The United States will, 
 upon the ground of right and comity, claim for them 
 the same consideration to which they are entitled, and 
 which was extended to them under the law of nations, 
 before the attempted modification of it by that Con- 
 
 ' As connected with the subject herein discussed, it is 
 not inappropriate to remark that a due regard to the 
 fair claims of the neutrals would seem to require some 
 modification, if not an abandonment, of the doctrine in 
 relation to contraband trade. Nations which preserve 
 the relations of peace should not be injuriously affect- 
 ed in their commercial intercourse by those which 
 choose to involve themselves in war, provided the citi- 
 zens of such peaceful nations do not compromise their 
 character as neutrals by direct interference with the 
 military operations of the belligerents. The laws of 
 siege and blockade, it is believed, afford all the reme- 
 dies against neutrals that the parties to war can justly 
 claim. These laws interdict all trade with the be- 
 sieged or blockaded places. A further interference 
 with the ordinary pursuits of neutrals, in nowise to 
 blame for an existing state of hostilities, is contrary 
 to the obvious dictates of justice. If this view of the 
 
 subject could be adopted, and practically observed by 
 all civilized nations, the right of search, which has 
 been the source of so much annoyance, and of so many 
 injuries to neutral commerce, would be restricted to 
 such cases only as justified a suspicion of an attempt 
 to trade with places actually in a state of siege oV 
 blockade. 
 
 " Humanity and justice demand that the calamities 
 incident to war should be strictly limited to the belli- 
 gerents themselves, and to those who voluntarily take 
 part with them ; but neutrals, abstaining in good 
 faith from such complicity, ought to be left to pursue 
 their ordinary trade with either belligerent without 
 restrictions in respect to thS articles entering into it. 
 
 " Though the United States do not propose to embar- 
 rass the other pending negotiations relative to the 
 rights of neutrals, by pressing this change in the law 
 of contraband, they will be ready to give it their sanc- 
 tion whenever there is a prospect of its favorable recep- 
 tion by other maritime powers. 
 
 " The undersigned avails himself of this opportunity 
 to renew to the Count de Sartiges the assurance of his 
 high consideration. 
 
 " W. L. Makoy." 
 
 The points here settled are all of them important. 
 Privateering has been the scourge of the ocean — a 
 lawless sort of warfare between belligerents them- 
 selves — a grievous annoyance and damage to neutrals, 
 and a most prolific school of piracj'. Those whose 
 recollection extends back 30 or 40 j^ears remember 
 when the ocean was traversed by pirates, trained for 
 their fiendish business by the long wars of the earlier 
 years of the century. The best men of modern Chris- 
 tendom had never ceased to protest against the sys- 
 tem. Sweden and Holland attempted, in the 17th 
 century, to put an end to the practice, but without 
 effect. The United States and Prussia, in 1785, en- 
 tered into stipulations against privateering, as be- 
 tween themselves, but did not renew the provision. 
 The French Legislature, in 1792, made a similar, but 
 fruitless effort. Privateering was destined to have 
 one license more for perpetrating its atrocities, and 
 shocking the sense of mankind. Jurists lamented the 
 practice, but were forced to acknowledge it a part of 
 the law of nations; and gave up in despair all expecta- 
 tion of an early abandonment of the legalized out- 
 rage. 
 
 When the late war between the United States and 
 Mexico occurred, it was matter of general gratulation 
 that the Circumstances of the case saved the world from 
 the curse of privateering; and much more did the 
 world rejoice, at the commencement of the late Euro- 
 pean war, when England and France announced their 
 intention to grant no letters of marque. With the 
 conclusion of that war — as part of the conclusion, in- 
 deed — we have the solemn compact of the great pow- 
 ers of Europe, that "privateering is, and remains, 
 abolished." It is an important step in the progress 
 of humanity. 
 
 The declaration that " the neutral flag covers ene- 
 mies' goods, with the exception of contraband of war," 
 diminishes greatly the liabilities of the world to future 
 strifes. Until the brealring out of the recent war. 
 Great Britain had steadily maintained the contrary 
 doctrine as the law of nations. The Empress of Rus- 
 sia, in 1780, set forth precisely the doctrine of the late 
 Paris Conference, aud gained the concurrence of most 
 of the States of Europe, and of the government of the 
 United States. Great Britain refused to yield, and 
 the other nations, one after another, submitted to the 
 interpretations of that power. Even Russia herself 
 conceded that point, and in 1801 agreed, by treaty, 
 that an enemy's property was not protected in neutral 
 ships. Jurists, our own with the rest, regarded the 
 question of international law as settled on the British 
 interpretation. The qualified accession of England, in 
 the Declaration of 1854, to the principles of the Armed 
 
MAR 
 
 1324 
 
 MAR 
 
 Neutrality occasioned, therefore, general and gratify- 
 ing surprise. It tlien entered the minds of none, how- 
 ever, that within two years she would make her full 
 accession to those principles, by a compact with those 
 very powers against whom, on tliis same question, she 
 had leveled the broadsides of her fleets. In regard to 
 this particular, Russia is the victorious party, and her 
 triumph is a note of human progress. Turkey, too, 
 has a proud distinction in this declaration, for in set- 
 tling the point that free ships make free goods, she is 
 but publishing anew what she was the first to declare 
 250 years ago. The labors of our own government 
 have been in the same direction through the whole 
 period of cur national history. Our government, 
 while admitting the English rule as to the law of na- 
 tions, has declared that the rule had no foundation in 
 natural right, and in repeated treaties has gained the 
 insertion of the doctrine now proclaimed in Paris. 
 
 The third item in the late Declaration has been less 
 the occasion of differences than the second. The 
 fourth is a conclusive testimony against "paper block- 
 ades." 
 
 Whether our government will " accede'* in form to 
 the points named may be doubted, though every one 
 of them is a concession to principles or usages for 
 which we have contended, and all, it may be hoped, 
 will have our uniform and hearty practical concur- 
 rence. It has been generally the policy of our states- 
 men to keep our government clear from alliances 
 which might, under any circumstances, be embarrass- 
 ing, and that disposition may demand for us, even in 
 this instance, an attitude of independence. However 
 this may be, the moral sense of the nation will accept 
 with thankfulness the results of the Paris Conference, 
 and the Christian will see new foretokenings of that 
 da}-- when nations shall learn war no more. 
 
 Maritime Xioans. The contracts of hottomry 
 and respondentia are maritime loans of a very high 
 and privileged nature, and they are always upheld by 
 the admiralty with a strong hand, when entered into 
 bona fide, and without any suspicion of fraud. The 
 principle on which they are founded and supported is 
 of great antiquity, and penetrates so deeply into it, 
 that Emerigon says its origin can not be traced. It 
 was borrowed by the Romans from the ancient Rho- 
 dians, and it is deeply rooted in the maritime general 
 law of Europe, from which It has been transplanted 
 into the law of this country. The object of hypothe- 
 cation bonds is to procure the necessary supplies for 
 ships which happen to be in distress in foreign ports, 
 where the master and owners are without credit, and 
 in cases in which, if assistance could not be procured 
 by means of such instruments, the vessels and car- 
 goes must be left to perish. The authority of the 
 master to hypothecate the ship and freight, and even 
 the cargo, in a case of necessity, is indisputable. The 
 vital principle of a bottoiury bond is, that it be taken 
 in a case of unprovided necessity when the owner has 
 no i^esources or credit for obtaining necessarj' supplies. 
 If the lender knew that the owner had an empowered 
 consignee or agent in the port, willing to supply his 
 wants, the taking the loan is a fraud ; but if fairly 
 taken under an ignorance of the fact, the courts of 
 admiralty are disposed to uphold such bonds, as neces- 
 sarj' for the support of commerce in its extremities of 
 distress. And if the lender of money on a bottomry 
 or respondentia bond be willing to stake the money 
 upon the safe arrival of the ship or cargo, and to take 
 upon himself, like an insurer, the risk of sea perils, it 
 is laivful, reasonable, and just, that he should be au- 
 thorized to demand and receive an extraordinarj' in- 
 terest, to be agreed upon, and which the lender shall 
 deem commensurate to the hazard he runs. 
 
 A hottomry bond is a loan of money upon the ship 
 or ship and accruing freight, at an extraordinary in- 
 terest, upon maritime risks, to be borne by the lender 
 for a specific voyage, or for a definite period. It is in 
 
 the nature of a mortgage, by which the ship-owner, 
 or the master on his behalf, pledges the ship as a se- 
 curity for the money borrowed, and it covers the freight 
 of the voyage, or during a limited time. A responden- 
 tia bond is a loan upon the pledge of the cargo, though 
 an hj'pothecation of both ship dnd cargo may be made 
 in one bond ; and it amounts at most to an equitable 
 lien on the salvage in case of loss. The condition of 
 the loan is the safe arrival of the subject hypothe- 
 cated, and the entire principle as well as interest is at 
 the risk of the lender during the voyage. The bot- 
 tomry holder undertakes the risk of the voyage as to 
 the enumerated perils, but not as to those which arise 
 from the fault or misconduct of the master or owner. 
 The money is loaned to the borrower, upon condition 
 that if the subject pledged be lost by a peril of the 
 sea, the lender shall not be repaid, except to the ex- 
 tent of what remains, and if the subject arrives safe, 
 or if it shall not have been injured, except by its own 
 defect, or the fault of the master or mariners, the bor- 
 rower must return the sum borrowed, together with 
 the maritime interest agreed upon, and for the repay- 
 ment the person of the borrower is bound, as well as 
 the property pledged. This is the definition of the 
 contract given by Pothier, and it was taken from the 
 Roman laws, and has been adopted by Emerigon, and 
 he says the definition is given in nearly the same 
 terms b}' all the maritime jurists. — Kent's Com. 
 
 Mark, or Marc, a weight used in several parts of 
 Europe, for various commodities, especially gold and 
 silver. In France, the mark was divided into 8 ozs. 
 =^64 drachms=192 deniers or pennyweights=^4,608 
 grains. In Holland, the marlc weight was also called 
 Troy weight, and was equal to that of France. When 
 gold and silver are sold by the mark, it is divided into 
 24 carats. 
 
 The pound, or livre poids de marc, the weight most 
 commonly used in retail dealings throughout France, 
 previous to the Revolution, was equal to 2 marcs, and 
 consequently contained 16 ozs. =182 drachm8=384 
 den. ^9, 216 grains. One kilogramme is nearly equal 
 to 2 livres. Subjoined is a table of livres, poids de 
 marc, from 1 to 10, converted into kilogrammes. Any 
 greater number may be learned by a simple multipli- 
 cation and addition. 
 
 Livres. 
 
 
 Klloe. 
 0-4895 
 
 Livrea. 
 
 
 Kilos. 
 2-9370 
 
 1 
 
 — 
 
 6 
 
 ~ 
 
 2 
 
 — 
 
 0-9790 
 
 7 
 
 — 
 
 8-4265 
 
 8 
 
 — 
 
 1-4635 
 
 8 
 
 = 
 
 8-9160 
 
 4 
 
 ■= 
 
 l-9o80 
 
 9 1 
 
 — 
 
 4-4066 
 
 6 
 
 = 
 
 2-UT5 
 
 10 
 
 = 
 
 4-8951 
 
 Mark, is a term sometimes used for a money of ac- 
 count, and in some countries for a coin. The English 
 mark is ^ds of a pound sterling, or 13s. 4d. ; and the 
 Scotch mark is fds of a pound Scotch. 'The mark 
 Lubs, or Lubec mark, used at Hamburg, is a money 
 of account, equal to 29J cents. See Hambdeg. 
 
 Matket, a public place in a city or town, where 
 provisions are sold. No market is to be kept within 
 7 miles of the city of London ; but all butchers, vict- 
 ualers, etc., may hire stalls and standings in the flesh- 
 raarkets there, and sell meat and other provisions. 
 Everjr person Hvho has a market is entitled to receive 
 toll for the things sold in it ; and by ancient custom, 
 for things Standing in the market, though not sold ; 
 but those who keep a market in any other manner 
 than it is granted, or extort tolls or fees where none 
 are due, forfeit the same. See Fairs. 
 
 Marseilles, a large commercial city and sea-port 
 of France, on the Mediterranean, lat. 43° 17' 49" N;, 
 long. 5° 22^' E. Population, 1851, including sub- 
 urbs, 195,257. The harbor, the access to which is de- 
 fended by several strong fortifidations, is itfthe centre 
 of the city, forming a basis 525 fathoms in length, by 
 about 152 fathoms in breadth. Tlie tide is hardly 
 sensible ; but the depth of water at the entrance to 
 the harbor varies- from 16 to 18 feet, being- lo-frest 
 when the wind is north-west, and highest when it is 
 
MAE 
 
 1325 
 
 MAR 
 
 south-west. Within the basin, the depth of water 
 varies from 12 to 21 feet, being shallowest on the north, 
 and deepest on the south side. Dredging machines 
 are constantly at work to clear out the mud, and to 
 prevent the harljor from filling up. ' Though not ac- 
 cessible to the largest class of ships, SlarseiUesils one 
 of the best and safest ports in the world for moderate- 
 sized merchantmen, of which it will accommodate 
 above 1000. Ships in the basin lie close alongside the 
 quays; and there is every facility for getting them 
 speedily loaded and unloaded. The Isles de Ratton- 
 eau and Pomegues, and the strongly fortified islet or 
 rock of If, lie W.S.W. from the port; the latter, 
 which is the nearest to it, being only IJ miles distant, 
 and not more than f of a mile from the projecting 
 point of land to the south of the city. There is good 
 anchorage ground for men-of;war apd other large 
 ships between the Isles de Battoneau and Pomegues, 
 to the west of the Isle d'If. When coming from the 
 south, it is usual to make the Isle, de Blanier, in lat. 
 43° 11' 54" N.; long. ,5° 13' 59" E. A light-houSe 
 erected on this island is 131 feet high ; the flashes of 
 the light, which is a revolving one,' succeed each other 
 every half minute, and in clear weather it may be 
 seen 7 leagues off. Ships that have made the Isle de 
 Planier, or that of Le Maire, lying east from it about 
 4Jpiile3, steer northerly for the Isle d'If, distant about 
 7 miles from each, andhaving got within J or J a mile 
 of it, heave to for a pilot, who carries them in,to a har- 
 bor ; It iB not, however, obligatory on ships to take a 
 pilot on board; but being o)bliged to pay for one 
 whether they avail themselves of his services or not, 
 they seldom dispense with them. The charge is 4 
 sous per ton in, aiid 2 sous per ton out, for French 
 vessels, and the vessels having reciprocity treaties 
 with France. There is a light-house in the fort St. 
 Jean, on the north side of the entrance of the port. 
 The lazaretto, which is one of the best in Europe, lies 
 a little to the north of the city ; and there is an hos- 
 pital on Eattoneau Island, for individuals whose health 
 is dubious. With the exception of the above charge 
 for pilotage, and the charges for such vessels as per- 
 form quarantine, there are no port charges on ships 
 entering at or clearing out from Marseilles. 
 
 Usages. — As soon as the master has, on his arrival, 
 made his declaration at the Health Office, and received 
 pratique, he is directed to an office close by, called the 
 Patache, where he makes two similar declarations, 
 the one for the captain of the port, and the other for 
 the custom-house; the day and hour of the latter 
 being made is marked, in order to ascertain if the reg- 
 ular manifest of his cargo is delivered at the custom- 
 house within 24 hours after, as required by law. As 
 soon as these declarations are made, the master is ac- 
 costed by one or more public brokers, who alone are 
 authorized by law to enter ships at the custom-house 
 and other public offices, and to interpret, if it be neces- 
 sary, for the master. The broker whom he may select 
 then gives the master all the necessary information 
 respecting the usages of the port as regards the ship 
 and cargo, and goes through all the formalities re- 
 specting them that the law or local regulations require. 
 Independent of the regular manifest which it is usual 
 in all ports for the master to give in to the custom- 
 house, he is here required to give in a full and com- 
 plete list of all the ship's stores, provisions, etc., that 
 he has on board for his own use, and that of his crew ; 
 and he can not be too careful to make this list as cor- 
 rect as possible, as when it is subsequently verified on 
 board by the custom-house and excise officers, any 
 variation subjects the ship to penalties. This is par- 
 ticularly the case with tobacco, which, being a gov- 
 ernment monopoly, is watched with the greatest vigi- 
 lance. All the tobacco on board over that which the 
 crew have in their chests for their own use, must be 
 declared, and any attempt at concealment or smug- 
 gling is visited with heavy fines. When the ship 
 
 sails, the stores, provisions, etc., are again examined, 
 and an excise duty charged on such provisions and 
 otlier excisable articles as maj' have been consumed 
 in the port. No fire or light is allowed on board, and 
 the cooking is all done on shore. Marseilles is a city 
 of great antiquity, and has long enjoyed a very ex- 
 tensive commerce. Havre, partly, no doubt, from its 
 being, as it were, the port of Paris, used to enjoy a 
 greater share of the trade of France ; but, notwith- 
 standing the increased Importance of the former, it 
 has recently been surpassed by Marseilles. The cus- 
 toms duties collected at Havre in 1851, were 26,164,- 
 000 francs, whereas those collected at Marseilles dur- 
 ing the same year amounted to 30,677,000 francs ; 
 having increased to that amount from 25,899,000 francs 
 in 1830. . 
 
 This statement shows conclusively, that the trade 
 of Marseilles is not only increasing, but that it is air 
 ready very extensive. She is the grand emporium of 
 the south of France, and the centre of 9-lOtha of her 
 commerce with the countries on the Mediterranean 
 and Black Sea. The exports consist principally of 
 silk stuffs, wines, brandies, and liquors ; woolens, and 
 linens ; madder, oil, soap, refined sugar, perfumery, 
 stationery, verdigris, and all sorts of colonial pro- 
 ducts. Among the principal imports are sugar, 
 coffee, and other colonial products ; dye stuffs ; com 
 from the Black Sea and the north coast of Africa ; 
 cotton from Egj'pt and America ; coal, linen, thread, 
 and various descriptions of manufactured goods from 
 England ; with hides, wool, tallow, timber, etc. Mar- 
 seilles engrosses almost the whole trade between 
 France and Algiers. She is now also the principal 
 seat of the intercourse carried on by steamers with 
 Malta, Alexandria, and Constantinople ; and besides 
 the steamers employed by the government as packets, 
 she ran upward of 28 steamers belonging to private 
 companies. Mr. Maclaren says that in 1839 most of 
 the latter had English-madfe engines, and English en- 
 gineers ; and that they burnt English coal, which sold 
 here for about 30s. a ton. There belonged to the port, 
 on the 31st of December, 1851, 684 sailing vessels of 
 the burden of 63,577 tons ; and 43 steamers of the 
 burden of 9,505 tons. A joint-stock bank established 
 here in 1835 is said to hiive been exceedingly success- 
 ful. 
 Account of the Shipping wuicii arbivf-d at and dk- 
 
 PAHTBD FBOM MaeSEILLES IN 1847, SPECIFYINO THE 
 COONTRIEB TO WIIICU TUE SlIlPS BELONGED, AND THE 
 
 NrMBEB, Tonnage,, and Cbbws op those belonging 
 
 TO BAOH. 
 
 Conntrtes, 
 
 AirivaU. 
 
 Departures. ! 
 
 Vcsaels. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Vessels 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 242 
 
 2,247 
 
 54 
 
 434 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 16 
 
 19 
 
 770 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 66 
 
 2 
 
 69 
 
 554 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 40 
 
 203 
 
 846 
 
 517 
 
 96 
 
 154 
 
 80 
 
 1 
 
 44,405 
 
 366,562 
 
 16,578 
 
 112,268 
 
 647 
 
 506 
 
 596 
 
 1,688 
 
 2,810 
 
 163;572 
 
 260 
 
 l,22ll 
 
 3,185 
 
 239 
 
 1,109 
 
 127,456 
 
 822 
 
 2,882 
 
 5,086 
 
 68,592 
 
 84,909 
 
 45,718 
 
 24,865 
 
 29,048 
 
 9,322 
 
 170 
 
 280 
 
 2,038 
 
 54 
 
 442 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 18 
 
 23 
 
 771 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 68 
 
 8 
 
 69 
 
 676 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 42 
 
 204 
 
 820 
 
 522 
 
 107 
 
 160 
 
 71 
 
 1 
 
 52,829 
 
 331,853 
 
 16,678 
 
 104,943 
 
 287 
 
 588 
 
 277 
 
 1,947 
 
 2,930 
 
 168,812 
 
 260 
 
 1,220 
 
 8,276 
 
 429 
 
 1,109 
 
 184,817 
 
 822 
 
 2,882 
 
 5,283 
 
 63,096 
 
 88,567 
 
 46,828 
 
 27,617 
 
 80,043 
 
 8,927 
 
 170 
 
 
 
 Austria 
 
 Bi*azil 
 
 
 Chill 
 
 
 Holland 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mecklenburg Schwerin . . . 
 
 
 
 Prussia 
 
 
 ftardinia. 
 
 
 Sweden and Norway 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 6,445 
 
 1,107,389 
 
 6,804 
 
 tl,090,895 
 
 The arrivals and departures in this and the preoed. 
 ing year are considerably above the average, a conse- 
 quence of the great importations of foreign com. '^- 
 
 In 
 
MAR 
 
 1826 
 
 MAE 
 
 1846 the imports of wheat amounted to 1,290,000 quar- 
 ters, and in 1847 to above 2,200,000 quarters. 
 
 We are unable to lay before the reader any veiy 
 recent account of the import and export trade of Mar- 
 seilles. We believe, however, that the value of the 
 first was, in 1853, estimated at about 200,000,000 francs, 
 and that of the exports at about as much. For in- 
 formation as to money, weights, measures, duties, etc., 
 the reader is referred to France and Havre, under 
 which heads he will find an account of the trade of 
 France. 
 
 The trade of Marseilles has been much increased by 
 the occupation of Algiers, she being the grand centre 
 of the intercourse carried on with that country. But 
 independently of this circumstance, Marseilles en- 
 grosses by far the largest share of the extensive com- 
 merce carried on between France and the east coast of 
 Spain, Italy, Greece, and the Levant. See France. 
 
 Martinico, or BJartinique, one of the French 
 "West India Islands, in the windward group, between 
 lat. 14° 24' and 14° 63' N., and long. 60° 50' and 61° 
 18' W. Population, 1860, 121,145. It is mountain- 
 ous, and contains several extinct volcanoes ; the nu- 
 merous small rivers are used to turn sugar-mUls. 
 About one quarter of the surface is covered with dense 
 forests. Soil fertile, but onlj- one fifth of the super- 
 ficies is cultivated. Chief products, sugar, coflfee, and 
 cacao. This island, called by the natives , Madiana, 
 was discovered by the Spaniards in 1493. The French 
 founded a colony on it in 1635. It was taken by the 
 English in 1762, but resigned in 1763 ; they again oc- 
 cupied it from 1794 to 1809, and it was finally given 
 up to France in 1814. The capital of the colon}' is 
 Port Royal, but St. Pierre is the most populous town 
 and the centre of commerce. The island is nearly 
 50 miles in length by about 16 in breadth, and com- 
 prehends an area of 360 square miles. The surface 
 is uneven, and intersected in all parts by steep and 
 rugged rocks. Piton de Corbet, one of the highest, 
 is about 812 feet above the level of the sea. The 
 shape of this calcareous hill resembles a cone, and 
 it is on that account verj' diflBcult of access. The 
 palm-trees with which it is covered, become more lofty 
 and abundant near the summit, and these continually 
 attract the clouds, which occasion noxious damps, and 
 contribute to render it more rugged in appearance, and 
 more dangerous to ascend. There are also two other 
 mountains conspicuous from their elevation, and from 
 these, particularly from the first, descend numerous 
 streams, which irrigate the island. Martinique is 
 better supplied with water, and less exposed to hurri- 
 canes than Guadaloupe, while the productions are 
 nearly the same. Of 75,321 hectares, the superficial 
 area of the island, 17,622 are employed in raising 
 sugar-cane, 3861 in coffee, 719 in cocoa, 491 in cotton, 
 17,191 are pasturage, and 19,997 are woods. The an- 
 nual production is valued at 21,000,000 francs. In 
 1824 the island consumed French products to the val- 
 ue of 16,000,000 francs, and exported to the mother 
 country goods to the amount of 18,000,000 francs. 
 The tonnage engaged in this commerce amounted to 
 33 500 tons. The revenue in 1823, was 4,000,000 
 francs. The commerce of Martinique has continued 
 nearly the same since the period at which the above 
 estimate was made. 
 
 Port Eoyal, the capital and seat of the courts of 
 justice of Martinique, is situated on one of the several 
 bays which indent the island, and possess one of the 
 safest and most capacious harbors in the West Indies, 
 or even in the world. 
 
 The commercial relations of Martinique and Guada- 
 loupe are regulated by the royal decree of February 
 5, 1826, and by such other decrees as have subse- 
 quentlj' been promulgated. Foreign and national 
 ships may import into all open ports of the islands (in 
 Martinique, the ports of St. Pierre, Port Koyal, and 
 Trinit(S; in Guadaloupe, Monle, I-a Basseterre, and 
 
 Poin-^Pitre; and in MariegaUnte, or Grandbourg, 
 the principal town and only port of the island), arti- 
 cles of merchandise enumerated in the following tariff: 
 
 Tariff foe all Flags, National and Foeeign. 
 
 Denomination of mercli. No., weight ormeaaure. Rateofduty. 
 
 Animals, living 10 per ct ad'val. 
 
 Beef, salt 100 kilo3.=220 lbs. $2 80 4-5 
 
 Codfish Aether salt flsh. ' " " 180 1-5 
 
 Indian corn, in groin.. ..lhect.=24-5bush. 87 1-5 
 
 Vegetables, dried " " 64 4-5 
 
 Eloe 220 lbs. 1 80 1-5 
 
 Salt " 98 
 
 Tobacco 7 per ot. ad val. 
 
 Hoop-poles 1,000 il 86 
 
 ^i-' f-fe" lhect.=20gals.. f JSni^'^l'l-lc! 
 
 Stone coal .220 lis. $0 02 
 
 By decree of March 10, 1855, salted provisions 
 (meats) of ever}' description pay only 50 centimes 
 (9'3 cents) per 100 kilogrammes. Wood of all sorts, 
 other than hoop-poles ; tar, pitch, and other extracts 
 of pine, etc. ; hides, with the hair on ,■ forage, green 
 and dry ; table fruits, and seeds, pay 4 per cent, ad 
 valorem. 
 
 No. 2. — Free of Duty. — Ammonia, unpulverized ; 
 animal substances used in medicine and perfumery ; 
 bones and horns of animals ; cassia ; cochineal ; cocoa- 
 shells ; copper ; elephants' teeth ; fats, except of fish ; 
 ginger ; gloves ; gums ; indigo ; Jesuits' bark ; kermes ; 
 lac ; lead ; medicinal balsams, juices, roots, barks, 
 herbs, leaves, and flowers ; mother-of-pearl ; nutmegs ; 
 peltries ; pepper ; potash ; quercitron ; rocou ; rushes 
 and reeds ; seeds hard to be crushed ; skins, dry and un- 
 dressed ; sumach ; tin, unwrought ; tortoise-shell, tur- 
 meric ; vanilla ; vegetables, green ; wax, not worked ; 
 whale fins ; woods, odoriferous, dye, and cabinet. For- 
 eign vessels importing the above enumerated mer- 
 chandise are subjected to no other port charges, light- 
 house and tonnage duties, than are levied on French 
 vessels. All goods not enumerated in the above tar- 
 iff, and imported from foreign countries, either in for- 
 eign or French bottoms, are liable to confiscation. 
 
 The articles enumerated in lists Nos. 1. and 2, as 
 well as all articles imported from France, may be re- 
 exported, duty free, from one colony to another, but 
 only in French vessels ; on condition, however, that 
 the importer of merchandise contained in list No. 1 
 proves that the duties have been discharged in the 
 colony of original importation. Foreign vessels, as 
 well as French, may export, duty free, to foreign 
 countries, articles imported into the two colonies, 
 whether from France or elsewhere ; but these export- 
 ations can only be allowed from the ports opened by 
 the ordinance of February 5, 1826, for the importation 
 of merchandise enumerated in lists 1 and 2. Foreign 
 flour may be imported (if necessity or urgency author- 
 izes the importation) for a fixed duty of $3 94.2 per 
 80 kilogrammes, or 177J lbs. ; but then it can only be 
 done if a special order by the governor permitting the 
 importation has been issued, which allowance will 
 never extend beyond the term of three months. 
 
 Maryland, one of the central United States, lies be- 
 tween 38° and 39° 44' N. lat., and between 75° 10' and 
 79° 21' W. long. It is 196 miles long and 120 broad, 
 containing 11,000 square miles. Population in 1790, 
 319,728 ; in 1800, 348,824 ; in 1810, 380,546 ; in 1820, 
 407,350 i in 1830, 446,913 ; in 1840, 469,232 ; and in 
 1850, 583,035. 
 
 Early History of Maryland. — In the j-ear 1632 King 
 Charles I. gave a charter to Cecilius Calvert, Lord 
 Baltimore, and granted to him a tract of land lying in 
 that peninsula, between the ocean and Chesapeake 
 Bay, and round the northern extremities of that same 
 bay, and ordered this land to be called " Maryland," 
 in honor to the Queen Henrietta Maria, the consort of 
 Charles I. She was of the Catholic religion, like Lord 
 Baltimore himself, and likewise the greater part of 
 the settlers which he carried out. The name appears 
 for the first time in the charter of Maryland of the 20th 
 
MAR 
 
 1321 
 
 MAE 
 
 June, 1632. It ia possible that Lord Baltimore and 
 his associates, in proposing to tlie king tiiat name, liad 
 also at the same time the old Spanish maps of North 
 Amefica before their eyes, on which Chesa{ieake Bay 
 is called " St. Marj-'s Bay" (Sahiade Santa MariH) and 
 that they had a desire to carry back to this bay that 
 old and historical name. It may be a mere accident 
 that the name Maria was as well in modern as in an- 
 cient times applied to the same regions. But what we 
 call accident in history is often secretly linked together 
 by an association of ide^'which escapes our research. 
 Others think that the Calverts and their associates, 
 and their Catholic missionaries, who explored and 
 settled the territorj' of Maryland, thought, in giving 
 this name, exclusively of the Queen Henrietta Maria 
 and not at all of the Holy Virgin. It was among 
 Spaniards and French, and among all Catholic colon- 
 ists and discoverers, very customary to vow a new 
 country or place^ to which they gave a name in honor 
 of some person, at the same time to the protection of 
 that saint whicli bore the same name. They would, 
 for instance, call a place named after Christopher Co- 
 lumbus, not " Christophoro," but " St. Christophoro," 
 because they th6ught at once as well of the man as of 
 his protecting saint. That something similar was 
 going on at the baptism of Maryland seems not un- 
 likely, from the circumstance that the first principal 
 settlement of Maryland was called St. Marj-, and that 
 this settleine'nt,'as well as the surrounding country, is 
 so called to this day. The fact that the old forgotten 
 name Mary, in later times, returned to the same re- 
 gions, appears one of the so-called *' curious coinci- 
 dences in history worthy to be pointed out." — J. G. 
 Kohl. 
 
 Physictd Features, etc. — Eastern Maryland, or that 
 part of the State east of the Chesapeake Bay, is mostly 
 level. The country on the west shore to the head of 
 the tides is similar to the eastern shore ; the soil of 
 this portion is generally fertile, producing wheat, 
 Indian corn, tobacco; etc. Above the tides the surface 
 rises into hills; and the western part attains an ele- 
 vated region, being crossed by the Alleghany Mount- 
 ains. The western part contains much fine land, 
 adapted both to grain and grazing. Extensive beds of 
 coal and iron ore exist. There were in this State in 
 1850, 2,797,905 acres of improved land, and 1,836,445 
 of unimproved land, in farms ; cash value of farms, 
 $87,178,545 ; and the value of implements and ma- 
 chinery, $2,463,443. 
 
 Live Stock. — Horses, 75,684 ; asses and mules, 5644 ; 
 milch cows, 86,859 ; working oxen, 34,135 ; other 
 cattle, 98,595 ; sheep, 177,902 ; swine, 352,911. Value 
 of live stock, $7,997,634. 
 
 Agricultural Products, etc. — ^Wheat, 4,494,680 bush- 
 els ; rye, 226,014 ; Indian com, 11,104,631 ; oats, 
 1,242,151; barley, 745; buckwheat, 108,671 ; peas and 
 beans, 12,816 ; potatoes, 764,939 ; sweet potatoes, 
 208,993. Value of products of the orchard, $164,051. 
 Produce of market gardens, $200,869. Pounds of but- 
 ter made, 3,806,160; of cheese, 3975; maple sugar, 
 47,740 ; molasses, 1430 gallons ; bees' wax and honey, 
 74,802 pounds ; wool, pounds produced, 480,226 ; flax, 
 35,686 ; silk cocoons, 39 ; hops, 1870 j tobacco, 21,407,- 
 497 pounds; hay, tons of, 157,956; clover seeds, 
 15,217 bushels ; other grass seeds, 2561 ; fiax seed, 
 2446 bushels ; and were made 1431 gallons of wine. 
 Value of home-made manufactures, $111,828 ; of 
 slaughtered animals, 1,954,800. 
 
 FOEEIGN COMMEROB OP THE StATB OP MaeyLAND, PEOM OotOBEK 1, 1820, TO JULT 1, 1866, 
 
 
 Yo»ra ending 
 
 ,.>, Exports. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Tonnage cleared. 
 
 District Tonnage. 
 
 Domostic, 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Tolnl. 
 
 Total. 
 
 American. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Registered. 
 
 Enrolled and 
 Licensed, 
 
 Sept. 80, 1821 
 
 $2,714,850 
 
 $1,135,644 
 
 $3,360,894 
 
 $4,070,842 
 
 61,687 
 
 4,677 
 
 .. 46,612, 
 
 80,244 
 
 1822 
 
 3,498,998 
 
 1,089,808 
 
 4,636,796 
 
 4,792,486 
 
 58,790 
 
 9,469 
 
 
 
 1828, 
 
 4,1TS,H2 , 
 
 1,857,116 
 
 6,030,228 
 
 4,946,'! 79 
 
 62,911 
 
 7,615 
 
 
 
 IS24: 
 
 8,549,957 
 
 1,318,276 
 
 4,863,233 
 
 4,651,642 
 
 78,610 
 
 6,017 
 
 
 
 Ig25 
 
 8,092,866 
 
 1,408,989 
 
 4,601,804 
 
 4,761,815 
 
 66,228 
 
 8,846 
 
 
 
 1826 
 
 2,947,352 
 
 1,063,896 
 
 4,010,748 
 
 4,928,569 
 
 62,212 
 
 2,931 
 
 
 
 1827 
 
 8,457,691 
 
 1,058,716 
 
 4,616,406 
 
 4,405,708 
 
 67,430 
 
 4,191 
 
 
 
 1828 
 
 8,107,819 
 
 1,226,608 
 
 4,834,422 
 
 5,629,694 
 
 59,532 
 
 6,631 
 
 
 
 1829 
 
 8,662,278 
 
 1,142,192 
 
 4,804,465 
 
 4,804,135 
 
 64,983 
 
 6,890 , 
 
 .i. .. 
 
 
 1880 
 
 Total.... 
 
 8,076,986 
 
 715,497 
 
 3,791,482 
 
 4,623,866 
 
 ,66,020 
 
 8,S86 
 
 
 
 $83,218,897 
 
 $11,961,081 
 
 $45,289,478 
 
 $47,404,936 
 
 622,403 
 
 66,102 
 
 
 
 Sept. 80, 1831 
 
 $8,780,506 
 
 $578,141 
 
 $4,808,647 
 
 $4,826,577 
 
 '■ 65,870 
 
 10,276 
 
 25,969 
 
 47,953 
 
 1882 
 
 8,016,878 
 
 1,484,045 
 
 4,499,918 
 
 4,629,808 
 
 49,880 
 
 ■16,648 ■ 
 
 .... 
 
 
 1888. 
 
 8,801,014 
 
 761,468 
 
 4,062,467 
 
 6,437,057 
 
 ,47jlSl; 
 
 25,499 
 
 
 
 1884 
 
 3,012,708 
 
 1,156,587 
 
 4,168,246 
 
 4,647,488 
 
 41,702 
 
 17,860 
 
 .... 
 
 
 1835 
 
 3,176,866 
 
 748,368 
 
 8,925,234 
 
 6,647,158 
 
 45,298 ■ 
 
 18,626 
 
 .... 
 
 
 1836 
 
 8,028,916 
 
 646.669 
 
 8,675,475 
 
 7,181,867 
 
 89,416 
 
 ■ 18,607' 
 
 
 
 188T 
 
 8,865,173 
 
 424,744 
 
 8,789,017 
 
 7,867,038 
 
 ,89,196 
 
 , 86,798 
 
 
 
 1888 
 
 4,165,168 
 
 369,407 
 
 4,524,575 
 
 6,701,869 
 
 54,421 
 
 22,685 
 
 
 
 1839 
 
 4,818,169 
 
 263,872 
 
 4,576,561 
 
 6,996,285 
 
 49,298 
 
 19,666 
 
 
 
 1840 
 
 Total.... 
 
 6,496,020 
 
 273,748 
 
 6,768,768 
 
 4,910,746 
 
 67,718 
 
 25,546 
 
 
 
 $86,604,433 
 
 $6,695,874 
 
 $43,299,807 
 
 $57,784,878 
 
 498,979 
 
 209,891 
 
 
 
 Sept. 80,1841 
 
 $4,789,160 
 
 $168,006, 
 
 $4,947,166 
 
 $6,101,818 
 
 63,656 
 
 28,698 
 
 41,936 
 
 64,920 
 
 " ']842 
 
 4,686,607 
 
 269,269 
 
 4,904,766 
 
 4,417,078 
 
 61,447 
 
 21,260 
 
 
 
 9mo8. 1848 
 
 2,820,214 
 
 196,842 
 
 3,015,656 
 
 2,479,132 
 
 41,473 
 
 S'Si 
 
 
 
 June 80,1844 
 
 4,841,950 
 
 291,216 
 
 6,188,166 
 
 8,917,750 
 
 69,834 
 
 21,205 
 
 
 
 1846 
 
 4,946,287 
 
 275,740 
 
 5,221,977 
 
 3,741,804 
 
 69,716 
 
 22,842 
 
 
 
 1846 
 
 6,744,110 
 
 124,946 
 
 6,869i056 
 
 4,042,915 
 
 88,404 
 
 80,887 
 
 
 
 ■184T 
 
 9,632,860 
 
 129,884 
 
 9,762,244 
 
 4,482,814 
 
 114,802 
 
 S^S 
 
 
 
 1848 
 
 7,016,084 
 
 118,748 
 
 7,129,782 
 
 5,348,643 
 
 84^709 
 
 86,221 
 
 
 
 1849 
 
 7,786,695 
 
 218,965 
 
 8,000,660 
 
 4,976,781 
 
 118,276 
 
 81,652 
 
 
 
 1850 
 
 Total.... 
 
 6,639,481 
 
 877,872 
 
 6,967,353 
 
 6,124,201 
 
 89,296 
 
 87,523 
 
 
 
 $59,801,748 
 
 $2,149,977 
 
 $61,961,725 
 
 $45,576,881 
 
 801,618 
 
 295,347 
 
 
 
 June 80,1851 
 
 $6,416,793 
 
 $218,988 
 
 $5,685,786 
 
 $6,650,645 
 
 75,406 
 
 80,883 
 
 95,6T5 
 
 108,869 
 
 1852 
 
 6,514,641 
 
 153,220 
 
 6,667,861 
 
 6,719,986 
 
 83,606 
 
 43,637 
 
 
 
 1853 
 
 7,768,224 
 
 138,235 
 
 7,906,469 
 
 6,330,078 
 
 87,218 
 
 66,378 
 
 
 
 1854 
 
 11,656,250 
 
 127,882 
 
 11,782,632 
 
 6,787,652 
 
 186,524 
 
 64,750 
 
 
 
 1856 
 
 9,882,218 
 
 613,766 
 
 10,395,984 
 
 7,788,943 
 
 111,096 
 
 47,494 
 
 
 
 1856 
 
 10,866,637 
 
 264,761 
 
 11,121,898 
 
 9,119,907 
 
 118,872 
 
 40,489 
 
 
 .... 
 
 The Potomac River, which divides the State from 
 Virginia, is 350 miles long, and navigable about 150 
 miles to Washington city. It is 7J miles wide at its 
 mouth. The great falls are 14 miles above Washing- 
 
 ton ; the perpendicular descent is 76 feet, and the rap- 
 ids extend for several miles up the river, and form a 
 very picturesque view. The Susquehanna ia a large 
 river which enters into the head of Chesapeake Bay in 
 
MAE 
 
 1328 
 
 MAS 
 
 this State. It is IJ miles wide at its mouth, but is 
 navigable only 5 miles, being above that much ob- 
 structed by falls and rapids. The Patapsoo is a small 
 river, navigable, however, 14 miles to Baltimore for 
 ships. The Patuxent is 110 miles long, and is navi- 
 gable for 50 miles for vessels of 250 tons. The other 
 rivers are Elk, Sassafras, Chester, Choptank, Nanti- 
 coke, and Pocomoke. The Chesapeake Bay is 270 miles 
 long, and from 70 to 20 wide, and by its numerous 
 inlets furnishes many fine harbors. 
 
 Manufactures^ etc. — There were in the State in 1850, 
 33 cotton factories, with a capital invested of $2,248,- 
 600, employing 1212 males and 2035 females ; products 
 valued at $2,021,396 ; 43 woolen factories, with a cap- 
 ital of $258,100, employing 264 males and 106 females ; 
 products valued at #319,240 ; 19 establishments making 
 pig iron, with a capital of .f 1,083,500, employing 1351 
 persons, producing 43, 641 tons of pig iron, etc., valuedat 
 $1,048,250 ; 16 establishments, with a capital of $350,- 
 100, employing 761 persons, and making 6244 tons of 
 castings, etc., valued at $685,000 ; 17 establishments, 
 with a capital of $780,650, employing 568 persons, 
 manufacturing 10,000 tons of wrought iron, valued at 
 $771,431 ; 392. flouring and grist mills ; 130 saw mills ; 
 116 tanneries, with a capital of $628,900, employing 
 479 persons ; value of products, $1,103,139 ; 59 print- 
 ing-offices ; 6 daily, 4 tri-weekly, 64 weekly, 1 semi- 
 monthly, and 2 monthly publications. There were in 
 this State (January-, 1856) 3 railroads, with 466 miles 
 of road finished and in operation, and 30 miles in 
 course of construction. The Chesapeake and Ohio 
 Canal, 184 miles long, is mostly in this State. Cap- 
 ital invested in manufactures, $14,753,143 ; value of 
 manufactured articles, $32,477,702. 
 
 The principal places in the State are Baltimore, the 
 metropolis ; Annapolis, the capital ; Havre de Grace, 
 Frederick, Hagersto-vvn, and Cumberland. There were 
 (January, 1864) 25 banks, with an aggregate cash 
 capital of $9,558,409. The exports of Maryland in 
 1852 of domestic produce in American vessels amounted 
 to the value of $4,391,692 ; in foreign vessels, $2,122,- 
 949. Foreign produce in American vessels, $120,129 ; 
 in foreign vessels, $38,091. Total value, $6,667,861. 
 The imports same year in American vessels amounted 
 to $5,620,114 ; in foreign vessels, $1,099,872. Total, 
 $6,719,986. Tonnage, 1852, 201,186. 
 
 For History, Finances, etc., of Maryland, see Am. 
 Quar., ix., 483; Hunt's Mai/., v., 50; Banh. Mag., i., 
 394; Jo. Sc, xxvii., 1; De Bow's Eev., x., 645. 
 
 The principalport is Baltimore, situated on the north 
 side of the Patapsco River, about 14 miles above its 
 entrance into the Chesapeake Bay, in lat. 39° 17' N. , 
 long. 76° 36' W. The harbor is spacious and conve- 
 nient, and the water deep. Its tonnage in 1866 amount- 
 ed to 183,344 tons. In the fiscal year, 1855-6, there 
 were built at this poi-t, 12 ships, 8 barks, 43 schooners, 
 3 sloops, with an aggregate tonnage of 15,393 tons. 
 
 Annapolis, city, port of entry, and capital of Mary- 
 land, on the Chesapeake Bay, at the entrance of Sev- 
 ern River. The State House is remarkable as the 
 building in which the American Congress, during the 
 revolutionary war, held some of its sessions. The 
 Senate Chamber, which witnessed the last scene of the 
 great drama of the Revolution, Washington's resigna- 
 tion of his commission to the Congress, has been pre- 
 served unaltered. The United States' Naval Academy, 
 at Fort Severn, has 7 professors, and 70 midshipmen 
 as students. Tonnage of the port in 1856, was 1332 tons. 
 
 Number of vessels built, and their tonnage, m the 
 State of Marylan d, during the year ending June 30, 1856 : 
 
 District. 
 
 JBaltimore . 
 
 Oxford 
 
 Vieuno 
 
 Snow Hill. 
 
 Annapolis . 
 
 Total.... 
 
 Shipa & 
 tarka. 
 
 12 
 
 Brigs. 
 
 Sloops Sc 
 
 48 
 25 
 
 110 
 
 Total 
 
 No. 
 
 ronnage. 
 
 66 
 25 
 
 15,893 
 
 2,004 
 
 1,920 
 
 46S 
 
 133 
 
 8 I 183 119,918 
 
 Massachusetts, one of the eastern United States, 
 lies between 41° 23' and 42° 52' north lat., and be- 
 tween 69° 30' and 73° 30' west long. It is about 190 
 miles long, with an average breadth of 90 miles, and 
 contains 7250 square miles. Population in 1790 was 
 388,727 ; in 1800, 422,845 ; in 1810, 472,040 ; in 1820, 
 523,287 ; in 1830, 610,408 ; in 1840, 737,699 ; and in 
 1850, 994,499. 
 
 Early History. — The first and most ancient names 
 which were given by historians to the territory of the 
 State of Massachusetts were more or less the same 
 with those of Maine, and we need not repeat them 
 here. The name " La Cote des Almouchiquo*s^^ (the 
 Coast of the Almouchiquois Indians), which the French 
 introduced, and which the Dutch geographers fre- 
 quently changed to " The Land of Almushihosen," cov- 
 ered particularly the whole extent of Massachusetts. 
 This latter name was first introduced by the English 
 navigators and explorers. The word is said to be com- 
 posed of the Indian words Mos (^Arrowhead) and We- 
 tuset {hiir). The pure and correct orthography of the 
 compound word is from this said to be Moswetuset, the 
 hill in the shape of an arrowhead. The king of an 
 Indian tribe is said to have resided on such a hill near 
 the shores of Massachusetts Bay, and his tribe of In- 
 dians received from this, the name ^^ The Indians of 
 Moswetuset. The name is already mentioned by Cap- 
 tain John Smith under the year 1616. He writes it 
 Massachuset. In the early times, the name wa^, how- 
 ever, corrupted in many different ways. Captain Dor- 
 mer writes, in his celebrated letter on his discoveries, 
 Massachusit (1619). In a letter from Plymouth in the 
 year 1629, the name is written Massachidets Bay, and 
 in the patent of Sir Fernando Gorges, repeatedly Mas- 
 sachusiach. In the earliest time of the Plymouth Col- 
 ony this name included only the country round Boston 
 harbor, and the name was principally given to that 
 great bay, of which Boston harbor is a part, and which 
 was called Massachusetts Bay. The first English col- 
 ony or province was therefore not called from the 
 countrj', but from the bay, " The Colony of Massachu- 
 setts Bay" (since 1626). The temtory which this 
 name covered was at first not extensive, but by and 
 \)y it became the greatest name throughout the whole 
 of New England. In the year 1692 the country of the 
 Plymouth Colony was united to it, and for the whole 
 was now introduced the name of " The Province of Mas- 
 sachusetts." So long also as New Hampshire and 
 Maine were united to the mighty Massachusetts, dur- 
 ing the greater part of the 17th and 18th centuries, the 
 geographers, forgetting local names, extended the name 
 of Massachusetts often over the greater half of all the 
 New England seas and countries ; while since 1774 the 
 name " State of Massachusetts" includes the coasts 
 between Merrimack River in the north and Naragan- 
 sett Bay in the south. — J. G. Kohl. 
 
 Physical Features. — This State presents three dis- 
 tinct zones. The first toward the ocean, is a marine 
 allnvion but little elevated above the sea ; it is mostly 
 sandy, and the least fertile and smallest in extent of 
 the three sections. This plain is followed by a fine 
 hilly tract which crosses the State from north to south, 
 elevated in some places 300 feet above the sea ; from 
 these elevations the rivers flow in every direction. 
 The second, or middle zone, includes part of the beau- 
 tiful valley of the Connecticut, and is followed by the 
 mountainous, but highlj' fertile county of Berkshire, 
 which comprises the whole western part of the State. 
 Through Berkshire passes two mountain ranges, the 
 Taghkanic, on the western border of the State and 
 between the Housatonic and Connecticut Rivers, the 
 Green Mountain range here called the Hoosick Mount- 
 ains. Mount Holyoke, near Northampton, is near 
 1200 feet above the level of the sea, and Wachusett 
 Mountain in Princeton, is an elevated peak from 2000 
 to 3000 feet high. Saddle Mountain in the Taghkanic 
 range in the north-west corner of the State is 4000 feet 
 
MAS 
 
 1329 
 
 MAS 
 
 high, and Mount Washington in the same range in the 
 south-west comer of the State, is about 3000 feet high. 
 The valleys of the Connecticut are fertile, as are also 
 those of the Housatonic. There were in this State in 
 1850, 2,183,436 acres of land improved, and 1,222,576 
 of unimproved land in farms ; cash value of farms 
 $109,076,347, and the value of implements and ma- 
 chinery $3,209,584. Live stock— horses, 42,216 ; asses 
 and mules, 34 ; milch cows, 130,099 ; working oxen, 
 46,611; other cattle, 83,284; sheep, 188,651; swine, 
 81,119 ; value of live stock, $9,647,710. 
 
 Agricultural Products, etc. — Wheat 31,211 bushels ; 
 rye, 481,021 ; Indian corn, 2,345,490 ; oats, 1,165,146 ; 
 barley, 112,385 ; buckwheat, 105,895 ; peas and beans, 
 43,709; potatoes, 3,585,384. Value of products of the 
 orchard, $463,995 ; produce of market gardens, $600,- 
 020 ; pounds of butter made, 8,071,370 ; of cheese, 
 7,088,142 ; maple sugar, 795,525 pounds ; molasses, 
 4693 gallons; beeswax and honey, 69,508 pounds; 
 wool, pounds produced, 855,136 ; flax, 1162 ; silk co- 
 coons, 7 ; hops, 121,595 pounds ; tobacco, 138,246 ; hay, 
 tons of, 651,807 ; clover seed, 1002 bushels ; other 
 grass seeds, 5085 ; flax seed, 72 bushels ; and were 
 made 4688 gallons of wine. Value of home-made 
 manufactures, $205,333 ; of slaughtered animals, $2,- 
 500,924. 
 
 The principal rivers are the Connecticut, a noble 
 stream winding for 60 miles across the State. Hou- 
 satonic, which rises in Berkshire county, and flows 
 through the west part of the State, and> Merrimac, 
 which rises in New Hampshire, and has a course of 50 
 miles in the north-east part of the State, and enters 
 the ocean below Newburyport. It is navigable for 
 large vessels to Haverhill, 15 miles. Besides these, 
 there are Nashua, Concord, Taufiton, and Blackstone 
 Eivers. Massachusetts has numerous good harbors. 
 There are several important islands off the south shore 
 of this. State, to which they belong. The largest is Nan- 
 tucket,' 15 miles long and 11 miles broad, and which 
 constitutes a count}' of its own name. Martha's Vine- 
 yard, west of Nantucket is 20 miles long and from 2 to 
 10 miles broad, which, with other small islands, con- 
 stitutes Duke's county. The shores of Massachusetts 
 are diversified bj' some bold promontories and capa- 
 cious bays. Of the latter, Massachusetts Bay, be- 
 tween Cape Ann on the north and Cape Cod on the 
 south, is about 40 miles in breadth. Buzzard's Bay 
 is on the south-west side of Cape Cod, and is 20 miles 
 long. Cape Ann, in the north part of the State, is a 
 rocky promontory 15 miles in length. Cape Cod is a 
 peninsula in the south-east part of the State, extending 
 75 miles long and from 2 to 20 miles broad, with a bend 
 in the middle nearly at right angles. The peninsula 
 of Nahant, a few miles north of the harbor of Boston, 
 is connected with the mainland by Lynn-beach two 
 miles long. It has become, on account of its cool 
 breezes and wild sea views, a place of fashionable re- 
 sort during the summer months. 
 
 There were, January, 1856, 43 railroads, of which 
 1409 miles were finished and in operation, and 48 mUes 
 in course of construction. The Middlesex Canal, 27 
 miles long, connects Boston with Lowell. The Black- 
 stone, and the Hampshire and Hamden Canals are both 
 in disuse. 
 
 The value for the year of the products of industrj-, 
 as found by adding the separate returns throughout 
 the State, is found to be $295,820,681. If allowance 
 lie made for defective and erroneous returns, the Sec- 
 retary thiniss the whole amount would be at least 
 $360,000,000. The returned value without allowance, 
 shows an enormous increase of the productive energy 
 of the State as compared with the previous returns, viz. : 
 
 frodnclion. Population. 
 
 1S8T $86,282,616 700,000 
 
 iiis"" ■ 124,T49,«T 845,000 
 
 isS;; :;!:;!:: : 295,820,681 i,i8s,i28 
 
 That is while the population has increased only 34 
 and 62 per cent, respectively ; the value of the product 
 4P 
 
 of industry (returned) has increased 138 and 242 per 
 cent. The amount of capital invested in manufac- 
 tures and other productions in Massachusetts, is shown 
 to be $120,000,000, and the gross value of products 
 $295,000,000 annually. The number of hands em- 
 ployed is 245,908. The leading products of the State 
 in 1855, and the amount of capital employed in 1845 
 and 1855 are as follows : 
 
 Cotton goods 
 
 Calico.: 
 
 Gootls, bleached and colored 
 
 ■Woolen goods 
 
 Boiled and slit iron, and nails 
 Hollow ware and castings.,.. 
 
 Machinery 
 
 Steam engines and boilers. . . 
 Railroad cars, coaches, etc... 
 
 Glass 
 
 Paper 
 
 Musical instruments 
 
 Watches, chronometers, gold 
 
 and silver ware 
 
 Cordage 
 
 Vessels 
 
 Sugar, refined 
 
 Sperm candles and oil 
 
 Soap and tallow candles . . 
 Chairs and cabinet ware. . 
 
 Leather. 
 
 Boots and shoos 
 
 Straw bonnets 
 
 Bricks 
 
 Alcohol and liquors ....;.. 
 
 Bread . . i 
 
 Clothing; 
 
 Vftluo. 
 1865. . 
 
 Dollai 
 
 26,140,000 
 6,213,000 
 5,111,000 
 
 12,106,000 
 6,512,000 
 8,256,000 
 4,089,000 
 8,265,000 
 2,352,000 
 2,648,000 
 4,141,000 
 2,295,000 
 
 (■2,105,000 
 
 2,478,000 
 4,613,000 
 2,056,000 
 6,818,000 
 7,720,(.00 
 8,969,000 
 12,206,000 
 87,489,000 
 4,905,000 
 2,627,000 
 8,188,000 
 8,692,000 
 9,061,000 
 
 Oapital. Capital. 
 ISeS. 1845. 
 
 Dollars. 
 81,961,000' 
 1,980,000 
 
 669,000 
 7,806,000 
 2,342,000 
 1,618,000 
 2,484,000 
 2,100,000 
 
 960,000 
 1,805,000 
 2,564,000 
 1,280,000 
 
 720,000 
 
 686,000 
 
 1,940,000 
 
 8.58'2i66o 
 1,682,000 
 1,918,000 
 4,380,000 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 17,789,000 
 
 1,401,000 
 
 200,000 
 
 6,604,000 
 
 1,906,000 
 
 718,000 
 
 1,163,000 
 
 127,000 
 
 563,000 
 
 700,000 
 
 1,144,000 
 
 298,000 
 
 126,000 
 
 543,000 
 
 410,66o 
 
 2,451,000 
 
 406,000 
 
 477,000 
 
 1,900,000 
 
 964,000 
 
 640,000 
 
 2,770,000 
 
 The actual expenditures and receipts for 1855 are 
 contrasted with those of 1856 (mostly actual, though' 
 a portion necessarily estimated), and ' with the esti- 
 mates for 1857, in the following table : 
 
 EXPENDITUKES FOR 1855 AND 1856, C0NTKA8TED WITH Es- 
 TLMATES FOB 1857. 
 
 
 1865. 
 
 1866. 
 
 1857. 
 
 Legislative and Executive. 
 
 $470,959 
 
 $512,400 
 
 $481,000 
 
 ^cientldc and Educational . 
 
 19,889 
 
 19,420 
 
 18,360 
 
 Gharitable and Humane. . . 
 
 889,900 
 
 800,000 
 
 803,400 
 
 Military 
 
 78,839 
 
 75,250 
 
 76,000 
 
 Reformatory& Correctional 
 
 238,599 
 
 196,800 
 
 261,650 
 
 Interest 
 
 113,150 
 
 153,900 
 
 136,000 
 
 Public buildings 
 
 150,400 
 
 78,360 
 
 
 Total 
 
 Jl,411,287 
 
 $1,885,620 
 
 $1,276,800 
 
 
 Kkceipts foe 1655 and 18 
 
 56, CONTRA 
 
 STED WITH 
 
 Estimates 
 
 FO 
 
 E 1867. 
 
 
 
 
 1856. 
 
 1866. 
 
 ' 1861. 
 
 Bank tax..'. 
 
 $578,983 
 
 $688,600 
 
 $586,000 
 
 
 428,108 
 1,268 
 
 600,000 
 
 
 
 2,200 
 
 2,000 
 
 
 778 
 16,849 
 
 900 
 16,800 
 
 1,000 
 16,000 
 
 Alien passengers .» 
 
 Western K. E. Sink's Fund 
 Western K. K. Dividend... 
 
 61,897 
 
 61,700 
 
 80,000 
 
 49,892 
 
 49,392 
 
 49,100 
 
 Interest on deposits 
 
 792 
 
 1,500 
 
 1,000 
 
 Hawkers and peddlers 
 
 
 606 
 
 800 
 
 Courts of Insolvency 
 
 
 116 
 
 12,000 
 
 Attorney, SufTolk County. . 
 
 8,n9 
 
 630 
 
 
 Premium and int. on scrip. 
 
 4,803 
 
 12,600 
 
 
 Charles K. & West Bridge.. 
 
 
 9,580 
 
 
 
 2,241 
 
 4,260 
 
 
 State tax of 1866— balance . 
 
 
 
 66,000 
 
 Cash on hand 
 
 18,610 
 
 10,987 
 
 
 
 al,666,425 
 
 $1,452,660 
 
 $TS1,300 j 
 
 
 For Manufactures, Finances, Commerce, etc., of 
 Massachusetts, see North, Am. Rev., 1., 223 (N. Hale), 
 ii., 277 ; Db Bow's Rev., iv., 459, Ixvi., 190 ; Ch. Ex- 
 am., xlii., 294. ' 
 
 Cotton Manhfactuees in Massachusetts in 1865. 
 
 Valno. 
 
 Cotton mills, 294 ■ • • - 
 
 Number of spindles, 1,61 9,527 
 
 Cotton consumed lbs. 105,851,749 ... . 
 
 Cotton cloth yds. 814,996,668 $24,869,2ia 
 
 Unmannftct'd. cotton yam. lbs. 3,821,146 830,546 
 
 Cottonthread lbs. 634,898 286,984 
 
 Cotton batting lbs- 4,825,686 895,874 
 
 Capital invested ., ■ • ' nii" ■ • 81,961,000 
 
 Males employed ... . 11,987 
 Females " ■ .... 22,860 
 
MAS 
 
 1330 
 
 MAS 
 
 In 1860, the total value of cotton manufactures in 
 Massachusetts was $19,712,461 ; in 1855, it was $26,- 
 7fiO,066, an increase of 36 per cent, in a period of five 
 
 years. The capital increaseii in the same period from 
 $28,545,680 to $31,961,000, an increase of only 12 per 
 cent. 
 
 Foreign Commerce of 
 
 riiB State 
 
 OP Massachusetts, from October 1, 1820, to July 1, 1856 
 
 
 Years ending 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Tonnage Cleared. 
 
 Blstrict Tonnage. 1 
 
 Domestic. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Total. 
 
 American. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Registered. 
 
 Enrolled and 
 Licensed, 
 
 Bept. 8Q, 1821 
 
 1822 
 
 1828 
 
 1824 
 
 1825 
 
 1826 
 
 1827 
 
 1828 
 
 1829 
 
 1830 
 
 Total 
 
 Sept 80, 1831 
 
 1882 
 
 1888 
 
 1884 
 
 1835 
 
 1836 
 
 1887 
 
 1838 
 
 1889 
 
 1840 
 
 Total 
 
 Sept 30, 1841 
 
 1842 
 
 9mos., 1848 
 
 June 80, 1844 
 
 1845 
 
 1846 
 
 1847 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 
 
 1860 
 
 Total 
 
 June 30, 1851 
 
 1852 
 
 1853 
 
 1854 
 
 1855 
 
 1856 
 
 $8,638,597 
 4,072,166 
 8,944,985 
 4,088,972 
 4,262,104 
 
 " 3,888,138 
 3,820,349 
 4,096,025 
 3,949,751 
 8,599,962 
 
 $8,846,174 
 8.526.369 
 9,788,264 
 6,895,866 
 7,170,888 
 6,210,724 
 6,604,034 
 4,929,760 
 4,805,186 
 8,613,242 
 
 $12,484,771 
 12,698,625 
 13,688,289 
 10,484,328 
 11,482,987 
 1(1,098,862 
 10,424,888 
 9,025,785 
 8,264,937 
 7,218,194 
 
 $14,826,732 
 18,337,320 
 17,607,160 
 15,878,758 
 16,845,141 
 17,063,482 
 18,870,564 
 15,0711,444 
 12,520,744 
 10,463,644 
 
 129,741 
 135,884, 
 185.040 
 184j962 
 145,972 
 189,746 
 180,056 
 188,999 
 140,187 
 148,124 
 
 1,170 
 6,297 
 8,785 
 4,66T 
 4,943 
 4,819 
 3,951 
 4,819 
 8,335 
 5,176 
 
 196,975 
 
 188,066 
 
 $39,811,039 
 
 $4,027,201 
 4,656,685 
 5,160,684 
 4,672,746 
 6,564,499 
 5,118,196 
 4,871,901 
 6,158,629 
 5,526,456 
 6,268,163 
 
 $66,889,972 
 
 $8,706,662 
 7,887,188 
 4,682,688 
 
 .5,476,074 
 4,479,291 
 .5,267,160 
 4,866,289 
 2,946,838 
 3,749,630 
 8,918,108 
 
 $106,061,011 
 
 $7,783,763 
 
 11,998,768 
 
 9,638,122 
 
 10,148,820 
 
 10,048,790 
 
 10,380,846 
 
 9,728,190 
 
 9,104,862 
 
 9,276,086 
 
 10,186,261 
 
 $160,478,889 
 
 $14,269,066 
 18.118,900 
 19,940,911 
 17,672,129 
 19,800,873 
 25,681,462 
 19,984,668 
 18,800,925 
 19,386,223 
 16,518,858 
 
 1,878,661 
 
 167,630 
 204,289 
 201,097 
 183,681 
 210,021 
 219,057 
 188,821 
 281,386 
 193,378 
 187,996 
 
 47,162 
 
 7,483 
 25,676 
 
 31,785 
 81,299 
 88,167 
 55,648 
 69,689 
 33,995 
 45,l!69 
 58,765 
 
 225,226 
 
 117,460 
 
 $52,009,904 
 
 $7,897,692 
 6,719,115 
 4,430,681 
 6,371,836 
 7,756,896 
 7,887,016 
 9,262,777 
 9,808,887 
 8,174,667 
 8,258,478 
 
 $46,269,108 
 
 $4,089,651 
 3,087,995 
 1,974,520 
 2,724,450 
 2,594,634 
 2,476,1118 
 1,98.1,685 
 4,111,862 
 2,090,195 
 2,423,290 
 
 $98,279,007 
 
 $11,487,843 
 
 9,807,110 
 
 6,41)6,207 
 
 9,096,286 
 
 10,351,080 
 
 10,813,118 , 
 
 11,248,462 
 
 18,419,699 
 
 10,264,862 
 
 10,681,768 
 
 $184,667,505 
 
 $20,818,008 
 ,17,986,4.33 
 16,789,452 
 20,296,007 
 22,781,024 
 24,190,963 
 84,477,008 
 28,647,707 
 24,745,917 
 30,874,684 
 
 1,976,655 
 
 286,876, 
 212,291 
 1.38,295 
 229,281 
 231,096 
 237,384 
 285,800 
 296,888 
 280,187 
 272,278 
 
 892,446 
 
 73,628 
 86,848 
 49,268 
 105,118 
 122,212 
 187,117 
 182,684 
 192,787 
 244,067 
 274,674 
 
 816,580 
 
 229,870 
 
 $75,511,989 
 
 " $9,857,537 
 14,144,001 
 16,896,804 
 17,89.5,788 
 24,412,928 
 26,856,618 
 
 $27,662,891 
 
 $2,495,145 
 2,402,498 
 8,059,972 
 8,542,766 
 3,778,002 
 8,467,247 
 
 $108,074,880 
 
 $12,.852,682 
 16,546,499 
 19,965,276 
 21,438.604 
 28,190,925 
 29,822,860 
 
 $240,607,198 
 
 $32,716,827 
 88,504^789 
 41,867,956 
 43.563,788 
 ■45,118,774 
 43,814,884 
 
 2,869,871 
 
 279,868 
 808,589 
 387,305 
 862,615 
 482,684 
 414,858 
 
 1,418,838 
 
 846,937 
 348,974 
 879,028 
 376,891 
 330,8.50 
 372,213 
 
 604,876 
 
 190,026 
 
 The principal ports are: 1. Boston, lat. 42° 23' N., 
 long. 71° 4' W. The city is situated at the head of a 
 deep bay, on a peninsula, being surrounded on three 
 sides by water. Generally there is sufficient depth of 
 water to enable the largest ships to come up to the 
 citj' at all times of the tide ; and they usually moor 
 alongside of docks where there is perfect safety. The 
 depth of water in the channel varies from 15 to 30 
 feet. It is the great centre of the commerce of New 
 England, and in this capacity receives and distributes 
 one fifth of the whole commercial material of the 
 United States. The tonnage of Boston in 1856 was 
 521,117 tons. See Boston. 2. Salem, citj' and port 
 of entry. It is chiefly built on a tongue of land formed 
 by two inlets from the sea, called North and South 
 Rivers ; over the former are two bridges (one of which 
 is crossed by the railroad), connecting it with Beverly. 
 The harbor has good anchorage ground, but vessels 
 drawing more than 12 or 14 feet of water must be par- 
 tially unloaded before they can come to its wharves. 
 The tonnage of Salem in 1856 was 29,970 tons. 3. 
 Nantucket. Tonnage in 1856, 16,857 tons. 4. New 
 Bedford. 5. Fall River. 6. Newburyport. 7. Glou- 
 cester. 
 
 Co.MiiERCE OF Boston, 1855—56. 
 
 Custom Hoase Foreien 
 
 Years. revenue. arrivals. 
 
 1856 $8,857,024 2,990 
 
 S;;:::;:; 7,773,784 2,956 
 
 Mast, a long piece, or system of pieces, of timber, 
 placed nearly perpendicularly to the keel of a vessel 
 to support the yards or gaffs on which the sails are ex- 
 tended When the mast is one entire piece, it is called 
 a pole-mast ; but in all larger vessels it is composed of 
 several lengths, called lower, top, and top-gallant 
 masts : sometimes a fourth, called a royal mast. The 
 
 method of supporting each mast on the one next below 
 it, is peculiar. On the sides of the lower maat, some feet 
 below the head, are placed checks : on these are fixed 
 horizontally two short pieces of wood, fore and aft, 
 called trestle trees- Across these at right angles are 
 laid, before and abaft the mast, two or more longer 
 and lighter pieces, called cross trees, which give the 
 name to the entire system. On the mast head itself 
 is a cap. The topmast being placed up and down, the 
 fore side of the lower mast is swayed up between the 
 trestle trees, and through the round or foremost hole in 
 the cap. When raised so high that the heel of the top- 
 mast is nearly up to the surface of the cross trees, a 
 piece of iron, called the fid, is put through the hole in 
 the heel for the purpose ; and on this fid, of which the 
 ends are supported on the trestle trees, the topmast 
 rests. When fidded, the topmast is stayed, and the 
 rigging or shrouds set up to the dead eyes in the ends 
 of the cross trees. These dead eyes pull from the 
 lower rigging below, and thus the cross trees serve 
 merely to extend the rigging. The topgallant is suj)- 
 ported in the same manner on the topmast. When the 
 mast is to be taken down, it is first raised to relieve 
 the fid ; which being drawn out, the mast is lowered. 
 The masts are supported by a strong rope, leading 
 forward, called the stay; by others, leading aft on 
 each side of the ship, called, in general, backstays ; 
 and by others abreast, called shrouds, and also breast 
 backstays Large lower masts are composed of pieces, 
 and have for some years been made of several lengths, 
 about a foot or so square, and the whole supported 
 merely by hoops at intervals. The mainmast is near 
 the middle of the vessel, the foremast is that which is 
 nearest the fore part, and the mizzenmast is abaft the 
 mainmast. The old rule for the length of the main 
 
MAS 
 
 1331 
 
 MAS 
 
 lower mast is to take one half the snin of the length of 
 the lower deck and extreme breadth : the foremast is 
 eight ninths of the mainmast, the mizzenmast con- 
 siderably smaller. The topmast is about three fifths 
 of the lower mast. These rules, as well as others for 
 the thicknesses, etc., are merely for convenience, 
 based on no mechanical principle, and are by no 
 means strictly followed. 
 
 Masts are still built up in pieces, but by the aid of 
 marine glue. A joint secured by this glue is less easily 
 separable than the actual fibres of the wood itself. In 
 the great Exhibition of London there were many curious 
 specimens illustrative of the use fif this extraordinary 
 cement. One was a piece of the mast of the ship 
 Curapoa, found inseparable even by the wedge. An- 
 other was part of a mainmast, from which a glued 
 fragment was torn away only after a force of 22 tons 
 had been applied. A third was a block of elm, joined 
 with glue j it was exploded by gunpowder, but the 
 joint did hot yield. Another was an oak cdnuon-ball, 
 made of two glued pieces; it had been fired with 
 eight ounces of powder, but the joint held fast. An- 
 other was a deal block, which broke in the fibres b}' a 
 force of four tons. Others were pieces of masts, in- 
 tended to, show how intensely strong a mast becomes 
 when built up with pieces which are joined by this 
 glue. It is not only a glue : it is also a substitute for 
 pitch. Many vessels have the seams payed or calked 
 with this glue, which is found much more durable for 
 the purpose than ordinary pitch. 
 
 Master, in commercial navigation, the person in- 
 trusted with the care and navigation of the ship. 
 " The master is the confidential servant or ageht of 
 the owners ; and in conformity to the rules and max- 
 ims of law the owners are bound to the performance 
 of every lawful contract made by hinl relative to the 
 usual emplo3'ment of the ship." — Abbott on the Law 
 of Shipping. From this rule of law it follows that the 
 owners are bound to answer for a breach of contract, 
 though committed by the master or mariners against 
 their will, and without their fault. Nor can the ex- 
 pediency of this rule be doubted. The owners, b)"" se- 
 lecting a person as master, hold him forth to tlie pub- 
 lip as worthy of trust and confidence. And in order 
 that this selection may be made with due care, and 
 that all opportunities of fraud and collusion may be 
 obviated, it is indispensable that they should be made 
 responsible for his acts. The master has power to hy- 
 pothecate, o;- pledge, both ship and cargo for necessary 
 repairs executed in foreign ports during the course of 
 the voyage ; but neither the ship nor cargo can be hy- 
 pothecated for repairs executed at home. The master 
 has no lien upon the ship for his w.iges, nor for money 
 advanced by him for stores or repairs. In delivering 
 judgment upon a case of this sort, Lord Mansfeld said : 
 "As to wages, there is no particular contract that the 
 ship should be a pledge ; there is no usage in trade to 
 that purpose ; nor an3' implication from the nature of 
 the dealing. On the contrary, the law has alwaj's 
 considered the captain as contracting personally with 
 the owner ; and the case of the captain has, in that 
 respect, been distinguished from that of all other per- 
 sons belonging to the ship. This rule of law may 
 have its foundation in policy for the benefit of navi- 
 gators ; for, as ships may be making profit and earning 
 ever)', day, it might be attended with great incon- 
 venience, if, on the change of a captain for misbe- 
 havior, or any other reason, he should be entitled to 
 keep the ship till he is paidi Work done for a ship in 
 England is supposed to be done on the personal credit 
 of the employer : in foreign parts the captain may hy- 
 pothecate the ship. The defendant might have told 
 the tradesman, that he only acted as an agent, and 
 tliat they must look to the owner for payment." The 
 master is bound to employ his whole time and atten- 
 tion in the service of his employers, and is not at lib- 
 erty to enter into any engagement for his own benefit 
 
 that may occupy any portion of his time in other con 
 cerns ; and, therefore, if he do so, and the price of such 
 engagement happen te be paid into the hands of his 
 owners, they may retain the money, and he can not 
 recover from them. — Abbott on Shipping. 
 
 Willfully destroying or casting away the ship, or 
 procuring the same to be done by the master or mari^ 
 ners, to the prejudice of the owners, freighters, or in- 
 surers ; running away with the cargo ; and turning 
 pirates ; are offenses punishable by transportation be- 
 yond seas for not less than 15 years, or by imprison- 
 ment for not more than 3 years. After the voyage 
 has been commenced, the master must proceed direct 
 to the place of his destination, without unnecessarily 
 stopping at any intermediate port, or deviating from 
 the shortest course. No such deviation will be sanc- 
 tioned, unless it has been occasioned by stress of 
 weather, the want of necessary repair, avoiding ene- 
 mies or pirates, succoring of ships in distress, sickness 
 of the master or mariners, or the mutinj' of the crew. 
 — Marshall on Insurance. To justify a deviation, 
 the necessity must be real, inevitable, and imperious ; 
 and it must not be prolonged one moment after the ne- 
 cessitj' has ceased. A deviation without such neces- 
 sity vitiates all insurances upon the ship and cargo, 
 and exposes the owners to an action on the part of the 
 freighters. If a ship be captured in consequence of 
 deviation, the merchant is entitled to recover from the 
 owners the prime cost of the goods with shipping 
 chai*ges ; but he is not entitled to more, unless he can 
 show that the goods were enhanced in value beyond the 
 sum above mentioned. If a merchant ship has the 
 misfortune to be attacked by pirates or enemies, the 
 master is bound to do his duty as a man of courage 
 and capacity, and to make the best resistance that the 
 comparative strength of the ship and crew will allow. 
 By the common law, the master has authority over all 
 the mariners on board the ship — it being their duty to 
 obey his commands in all lawful matters relating to 
 the navigation of the ship, and the preservation of good 
 order. But the master should in all cases use his au- 
 thority with moderation, so as to be the father, not the 
 tyrant, of his crew. On his return home he may be 
 called upon by action of law, to answer to a mariner 
 he has either beat or imprisoned during the course of 
 the voyage ; and unless he show sufficient cause for 
 chasti^ng the mariner, and also that the chastisement 
 was reasonable and moderate, he will be found liable 
 in damages. Should the master strike a mariner with- 
 out cause, or use a deadly weapon as an instrument of 
 correction, and death ensue, he will be found guilty, 
 according to the circumstances of the case, either of 
 manslaughter or murder. — Abbott, part ii,, c. 4. The 
 master maj' by force restrain the commission of great 
 crimes : but he has no jurisdiction over the criminaL 
 His business is to secure his person, and to deliver 
 him over to the proper tribunals on his coming to his 
 own country. 
 
 The master must not take on board any contraband 
 goods, by which the ship and other parts of the cargo 
 may be rendered liable to forfeiture and seizure. 
 Neither must he take on board any false or colorable 
 papers, as these might subject the ship to the risk of 
 capture or detention. But it is his duty to procure 
 and keep on board all the papers and documents re- 
 quired for the manifestation of the ship and cargo, by 
 the law of the countries from and to which the ship is 
 bound, as well by the law of nations in general, as 
 by treaties between particular States. These papers 
 and documents can not be dispensed with at any time, 
 and are quite essential to the safe navigation of neutral 
 ships during war. It is customary in bills of lading 
 to insert a clause limiting the responsibility of the 
 master and owners, as foUows : " The act of God, en- 
 emies, fire, and every other dangers and. accidents of 
 the seas, rivers, and navigation, of whatever nature 
 and kind soever, save risk of boats, as far as ships are 
 
MAS 
 
 1332 
 
 MAS 
 
 liable thereto, excepted." When no bill of lading is 
 signed, the master and owners are bound, according to 
 the common law. The most difficult part of the mas- 
 ter's dutj' is when, through the perils of the sea, the' 
 attacks of enemies or pirates, or other unforeseen acci- 
 dents, he is prevented from completing his voyage. If 
 his own ship have suffered from storms, ancPcan not 
 be repaired within a reasonable time, and if the cargo 
 be of a perishable nature, he is at liberty to employ 
 another ship to convey it to the place of destihation. 
 He may do the same if the ship have been wrecked 
 and the cargo saved, or if his own ship be in danger 
 of sinking, and he can get the cargo transferred to an- 
 other ; and in extreme cases he is at liberty to dis- 
 pose of the cargo for the benefit of its owners. The 
 most celebrated maritime codes, and the opinions of 
 the ablest writers, have differed considerably as to 
 these points. According to the Ehodian law (Pand. 1. 
 10, § 1) the captain is released from all his engage- 
 ments, if the ship, by the perils of the sea, and with- 
 out any fault on his part, become incapable of proceed- 
 ing on her voyage. The laws of Oleron (art. 4), and 
 those of Wisby (arts. 16, 37, 55), say that the captain 
 may hire another ship; harmonizing in this respect 
 with the present law of England. The famous French 
 ordinance of 1681 (tit. Bu Fret, art. 11), and the Code 
 du Commerce (art. 296), order the captain to hire an- 
 other ship ; and if he can not procure one, freight is to 
 be due onlyforthat part of the voyage which has been 
 performed (pro rata, itineris peracti). Valin has objected 
 to this article, and states that practically it meant only 
 that the captain must hire another ship if he would 
 earn the whole freight. Emerigon (torn. i. p. 428) 
 holds that the captain, being the agent not only of the 
 owners of the ship, but also of the shippers of the 
 goods on board, is bound, in the absence of both, to 
 use his best endeavors to preserve the goods, and to 
 do whatever, in the circumstances, he thinks will most 
 conduce to the interest of all concerned; or what it 
 may be presumed the shippers would do were they 
 present. This, which seems to be the best and wisest 
 rule, has been laid down by Lords Mansfield and Ten- 
 terden, as stated above, and maj- be regarded as the 
 law of England on this point. 
 
 But to use the words of Lord Chief Justice Tenter- 
 den, " the disposal of the cargo by the master, is a 
 matter that requires the utmost caution on his part. 
 He should always bear in mind that it is his duty to 
 convey it to the place of destination. This is the purpose 
 for which he has been intrusted with it, and this pur- 
 pose he is bound to accomplish by everj- reasonable and 
 practicable method. What, then, is the master to do, 
 if, by any disaster happening in the course of his voy- 
 age, he is unable to carry the goods to the place of 
 destination, or to deliver them there ? To this, as a 
 general question, I apprehend no answer can be given. 
 Every case must depend upon its own 'peculiar circum- 
 stances. The conduct proper to be adopted with 
 respect to perishable goods, will be improper with 
 respect to a cargo not perishable ; one thing may be 
 fit to be done with fish or fruit, and another with tim- 
 ber or iron ; one method may be proper in distant re- 
 gions, another in the vicinity of the merchant ; one in 
 a frequented navigation, another on unfrequented 
 shores. The wreck of the ship is not necessarily fol- 
 lowed by an impossibility of sending forward the 
 goods, and does not, of itself, make their sale a meas- 
 ure of necessity or expedience ; much less can the loss 
 of the season," or of the proper course of the voyage, 
 have this effect. An unexpected interdiction of com- 
 merce, or a sudden war, may defeat the adventure, 
 and oblige the ship to stop in her course ; but neither of 
 these events doth of itself alone make it necessary to 
 sell the cargo at the place to which it may be proper 
 for the ship to resort. In these, and many other cases, 
 the master may be discharged of his obligation to de- 
 liver the cargo at the place of destination ; but it does 
 
 not therefore follow that he is authorized to sell it, or 
 ought to do so. What, then, is he to do ? In gen- 
 eral, it may be said, he is to do that which a wise and 
 prudent man will think most conducive to the ienejit of 
 all concerned. In so doing he may expect to be safe, 
 because the merchant will not have reason to be dis- 
 satisfied ; but what this thing will be, no general rules 
 can teach. Some regard may be allowed to the inter- 
 est of the ship, and of its owners ; but the interest of 
 the cargo must not be sacrificed to it. Transhipment 
 for the place of destination, if it be practicable, is the 
 first object, because that is in furtherance of the origi- 
 nal purpose ; if that be impracticable, return, or a safe 
 deposit, may be expedient. A disadvantageous sale 
 (and almost every sale by the master will be disadvan- 
 tageous) is the last thing he should think of, because 
 it can only be justified by that necessity which super- 
 sedes all human laws." — Law of Shipping, part iii., 
 c. 3. 
 
 The master of a ship is liable for goods of which 
 she is robbed, in part ; and the reason, as Lord Mans- 
 field stated, is, lest room should be given for collusion, 
 and the master should get himself robbed on purpose, 
 in order that he might share in the spoil. The mas- 
 ter is, however, entitled to indemnify himself out of 
 the seamen's wages for losses occasioned by their neg- 
 lect. If any passenger die on board, the master is 
 obliged to take an inventory- of his eflTects ; and if no 
 claim be made for them within a year, the master be- 
 comes proprietor of the goods, but answerable for them 
 to the deceased's legal representatives. Bedding and 
 furniture become the property of the master and mate ; 
 but the clothing must be brought to the deck, and 
 there appraised and distributed among the crew. If a 
 master die, leaving money on board, and tlie mate, be- 
 coming master, improve the money, he shall, on allow- 
 ance being made to him for his trouble, account for 
 both interest and profit. The conditions under which 
 seamen and apprentices are to be taken on board ship, 
 and the obligations of the master with respect to them, 
 are fully set forth in the article Seamen, in this work; 
 and to it also the reader is referred for a statement of 
 the duty of the master with respect to the registrj' of 
 seamen, and the contributions, etc., due to the corpo- 
 ration for the relief of decayed seamen, their widows, 
 etc. For the duties of the master as respects custom- 
 house regulations, see the articles Consuls, Feeicht, 
 Seames, United States, and Inshkance, etc. ; and 
 for a further discussion of this important subject, see 
 the excellent work of Lord Tenterden, On the Law 
 of Shipping ; Parsons On Commercial Law j Kent's 
 Commentaries ; Chitty On Commercial Law, vol. iii. ; 
 and the articles Charter-party, Freight, etc. 
 
 Qualif cations of Masters. Means by Which They 
 Should be Ascertained,- — Considering the important na- 
 ture of the duties which the master of a ship has to 
 perform, it has been customary in some countries to 
 require that all persons, previously to their being 
 nominated to act in that capacity, should imdergo an 
 examination by some public board respecting their 
 knowledge of seamanship, and their possession of the 
 various qualifications necessary to act as masters, and 
 that none should be appointed without their being li- 
 censed by such board or other competent authority. 
 We are inclined to think that this practice is consistent 
 with sound policy. *' The interposition of government 
 in a case of incapacity, is not only absolutely just and 
 necessary, but it is conformable to the highest author- 
 ity. The famous French ordinance of 1681, has the 
 following article : — ' Aucun ne pourra ci-aprfes ctre re^u 
 capitaine, maitre, on patron de navire, qu'il n'ait nav- 
 igu6 pendant cinq ans, et n'ait &t& examine publique- 
 ment sur le fait de la navigation, et trouvS capable par 
 deux anciens maitres, en presence des officiers de I'Ami- 
 raute et du Professeur de I'Hydrographie, s'il y en a dans 
 le lieu.' A like article has been inserted in the Code de 
 Commerce ; (ind in 1825, the French government issued 
 
MAT 
 
 1333 
 
 MAT 
 
 an ordinance specifying, in detail, the qualiflcationB that 
 are necessar}'' before any one can obtain a certificate of 
 his fitness to command a ship, either on a foreign or a 
 coasting voyage ; the persons who are to examine can- 
 didates ; and the rules to be observed in the examination. 
 A similar system has been adopted in Prussia ; and we 
 can not entertain a doubt that it would be of the great- 
 est service'were it introduced into this country. The 
 authority of the master is so very great, and the trust 
 reposed in him, including not merely the ship and 
 goods of his employers, but the lives of the crew and 
 passengers, so very extensive, that it is the bounden 
 duty of the public to provide, in as far as practicable, 
 that it be not committed to ignorant or incapable 
 hands. At present the care of the lives of hundreds 
 of passengers may be committed without check or 
 control of any sort, and without their knowing any 
 thing of the matter, to any incapable blockhead who 
 may be able to prevail on an owner to appoint him to 
 a ship. No doubt it is for the interest of the owner to 
 appoint the best captain he can find ; but he may be 
 unable to form a correct estimate of the qualifications 
 necessary for such a situation ; and, though this were 
 not the case, hundreds of circumstances may conspire 
 to blind his judgment, and to make him select a mas- 
 ter who is really unworthy. Hence the advantage of 
 the preliminary examination by competent parties, 
 which, if made efficient, would certainly afford a pow- 
 erful guaranty against the chance of an unfit person 
 being appointed." 
 
 Mastic, Mastich(Ger.J/asfe'a:; Da.Mastik; Fr. 
 Mastic; It. Masiice; S^. Almastica, Atmaciga; Arab. 
 Ardh). This resinous substance is the produce of the 
 Pistacia Lentiscus^ a native of the Levant, and particu- 
 larly abWdant in the island of Chios. It is obtained 
 by making transverse incisions in the trunks and 
 branches of the trees, whence the mastic slowly ex- 
 udes. About 1500 cwt. are annually exported from 
 Chios, part of which is brought to this country, packed 
 in chests. The best is in the form of dry, brittle, yel- 
 lowish, transparent tears ; it is nearly inodorous, ex- 
 cept when heated, and then it has an agreeable odor ; 
 chewed, it is almost insipid, feeling, at first gritty, and 
 ultimately soft. Its virtues are trifling. — Ainslib's 
 Materia Indica ; . Thomson's Dispensatory. 
 
 Mate, in a merchant ship, the deputy of the master, 
 taking, in his absence, the command. There is some- 
 times only one, and sometimes two, three, or four 
 mates in a merchantman, according to her size— de- 
 nominated first, second, third, etc. mates. The law, 
 however, recognizes only two descriptions of persons 
 in a merchantman — ^the master and mariners ; the 
 mates being included in the latter, and the captain 
 being responsible for their proceedings. In men-of- 
 war, the officers iminediately subordinate to the cap- 
 tain are called lieutenants. But the master, or officer 
 whose peculiar duty it is to take charge of the naviga- 
 tion of the ship, has certain mates under him, termed 
 master's mates, sometimes selected from the midship- 
 men. The boatswain, gunner, carpenter, etc., have 
 each their mates or deputies, taken from the crew. 
 See articles Master, Shipping, and Consiils. 
 
 The mate is the next to the master on board, and 
 upon his death or absence, the mate succeeds, virtute 
 officii, to the care of the ship and the government and 
 management of the crew. He does not cease to be 
 mate in such cases, but has thrown upon him, cumu- 
 latively, the duties of master. He is quasi master, 
 with the same general powers and responsibilities, pro 
 hac vice, and with the preservation of his character and 
 privileges as mate. He may sue in the admiralty for 
 his wages as mate, and is entitled, in that character, 
 to be cured, if sick, at the expense of the ship. The 
 master, and even the consignees, may appoint a sub- 
 stitute in a foreign port, in cases of necessity. Even 
 a supercargo, in cases of necessity, and acting with 
 reasonable discretion, may bind the owner. 
 
 Matches, Lucifer. According to Dr. E. Boett- 
 ger, in Anmden der Ckemie und Pkarmacie, vol. xlvii., 
 p. 334, take phosphorus, four parts ; nitre, ten parts ; 
 fine glue, six parts ; red ochre, or red lead, five parts ; 
 smalt, two parts. Convert the glue with a little water 
 by a gentle heat into a smooth jelly, put it into a 
 slighty warm porcelain mortar to liquefy; rub the 
 phosphorus down through this gelatine at a tempera- 
 ture of about 140° or 150° Fahr. ; add the nitre, then 
 the red powder, and lastlj* the smalt, till the whole 
 forms a uniform' paste. To make writing-paper 
 matches, which burn with a bright flame and diffuse 
 an agreeable odor, moisten each side of the paper with 
 tincture of benzoin, dry it, cut it into slips, and smear 
 one of their ends with a little of the above paste by 
 means of a hair pencil. On rubbing the said end after 
 it is dry against a rough surface, the paper will take 
 fire, without the intervention of sulphur. To form 
 lucifer wood matches, that act without sulphur, melt 
 in a fiat-bottomed tin pan as much white wax as will 
 stand one tenth of an inch deep; take a bundle of 
 wooden matches free from resin, rub their ends against 
 a red-hot iron plate till the wood be slightly charred ; 
 dip them now in the melted wax for a moment, shake 
 them well on taking them out, and finally dip them 
 separately in the viscid paste. When dry, they will 
 kindle readily by friction. 
 
 The Manufacture of Friction Matches. — Among ar- 
 ticles of great demand that have become of import- 
 ance, though apparently insignificant, there is nothing 
 more worthy of notice than the friction or lucifer 
 match. About 20 years ago chemistry abolished the 
 tinder-box ; and the burnt rag which made the tinder 
 went to make paper. Slowly did the invention spread. 
 The use of the match is now so established, that ma- 
 chines are invented to prepare the splints. In New 
 York one match manufactory annually cuts up a large 
 raft of timber for matches. The English matches are 
 generally square, and thus 30,000 splints are cut in a 
 minute. The American matches are round, and the 
 process of shaping being more elaborate, but 4500 splints 
 are cut in a minute. We find that a bundle of 1800 
 thin splints, each 4 inches long, is finally converted 
 into 3600 matches. Without being separate, each end 
 of the bundle is first dipped iuto sulphur — when dry, 
 the splints adhering to each other by means of the 
 sulphur, must be parted by what is called dusting. 
 
 Mats (Du. Matten ; Fr. Nattes ; Ger. Matten ; It. 
 Stuoje, Stoje; Port. Esteiras; Rus. Progoshki; Sp. 
 Esteras), textures composed, for the most part, of flags, 
 reeds, the bark of trees, rushes, grass, rattans, old 
 ropes, etc. In this country niats are used for a great 
 variety of purposes. The coarser sort are very largely 
 emplo3'ed in the packing of furniture and goods ; in 
 the stowage of corn and various other articles on board 
 ship; in horticultural operations,; in covering the 
 floors of churches and other public buildings, etc. 
 The finer sorts are principally emploj^ed in covering 
 the floors of private houses. In Europe, mats are 
 principally manufactured for sale in Kussia, where 
 their production is a prominent branch of national in- 
 dustry. They consist of the bark of the lime or lin- 
 den-tree, and are known in this countr3' by the name 
 of dos^mats. The Russian peasants manufacture this 
 sort of material into shoes, cordage, sacks for com, 
 etc., and employ it in an endless variety of ways. In 
 consequence of the vast quantities of matting that are 
 thus made use of at hoine and sent abroad, the demand 
 for it is immense. It is principally produced in the 
 government of Viatka, Kostroma, and those imme- 
 diately contiguous ; and in the months of May and 
 June, the period when the bark is most easily de- 
 tached from the stem, the villages in the governments 
 in question are almost deserted, the whole population 
 being then in the woods employed in stripping the 
 trees. The academician Koppen, who has carefully 
 investigated this curious subject, estimates the average 
 
MAT 
 
 1334 
 
 MAU 
 
 annual production of mats in European Russia, as fol- 
 lows: 
 
 Government of Pieces. 
 
 JJ^tU 6,000,000 
 
 Kostroma. 4,000,000 
 
 Kasan 1,000,000 
 
 Nijni Novgorod ] ,000,000 
 
 Vologda, Tamboff, Simbirsk, and Penza.. . . 3,000,000 
 
 Total 14,000,000 
 
 Koppen further estimates that about one fourth part 
 of this vast quantity, or 3J millions, are exported, the 
 rest being pt^nsumed at home. It is obvious from 
 these statements that the annual destruction of linden- 
 trees must be quite enormous ; and it may well excitp 
 astonishment that they are not already all but ex- 
 hausted. But whether it be from the rapid growth of 
 the tree, or the vast extent of the forests in which it is 
 found, the gloomy forebodings of Mr. Tooke as to its 
 destruction have not hitherto been realized (_View of 
 Russia, iii., 262), and mats have not become either 
 scarcer or dearer. It is, however, hardly possible to 
 suppose that such should continue to be the case, see- 
 ing the rapid increase of population and of the con- 
 sumption of matting in most parts of the empire. But 
 in the event of its becoming scarcer, the inhabitants 
 will have no difficulty in finding substitutes ; so that 
 we agree in opinion with those who think it would be 
 bad policy to impose any restrictions on this branch of 
 industry, in the view of averting an evil which may 
 never occur ; and which, if it do occur, may be easily 
 obviated. — See Supplement au Journal de Vlnterieur de 
 Petersburg, for 1841. 
 
 Archangel is the principal port for the shipment of 
 mats ; and it appears that at an average of the years 
 1851 and 1852, the export of mats from that port 
 amounted to 615,360 pieces a year. I,arge quantities 
 are also shipped from Petersburg, Riga, and other 
 ports ; and most descriptions of Russian produce sent 
 abroad are packed in mats. Various descriptions of 
 reed mats are extensively manufactured in Spain and 
 Portugal ; some of them being very beautifully varied. 
 In Spain large quantities of matting are made of the 
 Esparto rush. Rush floor mats, and rattan table mats 
 of a very superior description, are brought from China. 
 They should be chosen clean, of a bright clear color, 
 and should, when packed, be thoroughly dry. The 
 mats of the Japanese are soft and elastic, serving them 
 both for carpets and beds ; they are made of a peculiar 
 species of rush cultivated for the purpose. The bags 
 in which sugar is imported from the Mauritius consist 
 of matting formed of the leaves of a tree growing in 
 the island, interwoven in broad strips. They are 
 very strong and durable, and may be washed and 
 cleaned without sustaining any injurj'. Being im- 
 ported in large quantities, they are sold very cheap. 
 (Beside the works already referred to, see Milbtjrn's 
 Oriental Commerce, and the valuable little work en- 
 titled Vegetable Substances, Materials of Mamufactures, 
 published by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful 
 Knowledge, London.) It is probable that mats formed 
 the first sort of woven fabrics produced by man ; and 
 it is worthy of remark that but few savage tribes have 
 been discovered which have not attained to consider- 
 able eminence in their manufacture. On the coast of 
 Guinea and other places in the west of Africa, pieces 
 of fine mat, about a yard long, and of a pretty uniform 
 texture were denominated makJcutes, and formed a 
 sort of money ; the value of commodities being rated 
 and estimated in them.— Moeellet, Prospectus d'un 
 Dictionnaire de Commerce. They enjoj^ed this dis- 
 tinction, no doubt, from their utility, and the great 
 care and labor bestowed on their preparation. There 
 is hardly an island in the South Seas in which the na- 
 tives have not acquired great skill and dexterity in the 
 making of mats. The finer sorts coiisist, generally, of 
 dved reeds or grass ; and have a verj' brilliant appear- 
 
 Maulmain, or Moulmein, a sea-port town of 
 India beyond the Ganges, capital of the British prov- 
 ince of Martaban, at the mouth of the great River 
 Than-lueng, having north the Burmese town of Marta- 
 ban, on the opposite side of the river, and west, the 
 island of Balu, which serves as a natural breakwater 
 to defend the port from the heavy seas that would 
 otherwise be thrown in from the west, 100 mUes S.S.E. 
 of Rangoon, 27 miles N.N.E. of Amherst, lat. 16° 
 30' N., long. 97° 38' E. It was founded in 1825, when 
 the site was selected by Sir A. Campbell as eligible as 
 well for a commercial as a militarj' station. It is about 
 200 feet above the level of the river, and extensive 
 and fertile plains stretch eastward from it toward the 
 mountains. Its port is good, and, from its extensive 
 command of internal navigation, it promises to become 
 a considerable emporium. The principal articles of 
 export are teak-timber and rice ; but there is also a 
 considerable export of tobacco, stick-lac, betel-nut, 
 ivorj', cutch, cocoa-nuts, etc. The imports consist 
 principally of European cotton goods and marine 
 stores. The principal trade of the place has hitherto 
 been carried on with Calcutta, Madras, Rangoon, and 
 Penang ; but in 1837 a direct trade was commenced 
 with London. Owing to the facilitj' with which sup- 
 plies of teak-timber are obtained, ship-building is car- 
 ried on very extensively. The population in 1848 was 
 estimated at about 35,000. The principal article of 
 commerce at Maulmain is teak-timber, with which 
 from 25 to 30 ships annually load for England. The 
 quantity of teak exported to that country from 1840 
 to 1847, and its estimated official value, was as fol- 
 lows: 
 
 Years. 
 
 No. of tons. 
 
 Priee per ton. 
 
 ■ Value. 
 
 1840 
 
 4,962 
 
 E.. 
 26 
 
 12,380 
 
 1841 
 
 6,399 
 
 25 
 
 16,938 
 
 1842 
 
 11,847 
 
 25 
 
 28,717 
 
 1848 
 
 10,528 
 
 80 
 
 81,584 
 
 1844 
 
 14,245 
 
 80 
 
 42,375 
 
 1846 
 
 18,-360 
 
 40 
 
 5.3,442 
 
 1846 
 
 16,7«8 
 
 45 
 
 76,592 
 
 184T 
 
 . 7,873 
 
 ■ 60 
 
 89,865 
 
 Maulmain is a free port, on the same footing as Sing- 
 apore, etc. There is no custom-house, and no duties 
 on sea-borne goods : but foreign sugar, and sugar from 
 Singapore and Malacca, is contraband. The coins in 
 use are the Company's rupee and its subdivisions, the 
 same as are current in Calcutta. The English sove- 
 reign is generally worth 11 rupees, and the Spanish 
 dollar 220 rupees per 100 dollars. The weights are the 
 Madras viss, equal to 3'0G51bs. avoirdupois, or, say, 3|- 
 lbs. ; in this there are 100 ticuls. The Bengal bazaar 
 maund of 82 lbs., is also occasionally used. The meas- 
 ures principally used are called baskets : they are of 
 uncertain size. A basket of cleaned rice is about 65 
 lbs. in weight ; of mixed about 60 lbs. ; paddy 51 lbs. 
 Ship-building is well adapted to the place ;- and some 
 of the finest teak-ships in the world have been built 
 here. There are several dry docks, though not of 
 a very efficient description, for repairing vessels. The 
 British government bought here, during 1847, upward 
 of 5000 tons of teak for the royal docicyards in En- 
 
 The Maulmain Almanac for 1852 contains the follow- 
 ing statements: "The value of the imports by sea 
 into Maulmain during 1850 amounted to 22,57,983 ru- 
 pees, and the exports to 23,32,951 rupees ; while in the 
 first 10 months of 1851 the imports increased in value 
 to 28,78,487, or £287,848, and the exports to 28,79,797 
 or £287,979. The town, which 20 years back con- 
 tained only a few miserable fishing-huts, is thus shown 
 to have a trade of nearly £600,000 a year, which is 
 still increasing. The value of the piece goods imported 
 from Europe during 1851 amounted to £63,229 5 coals, 
 £5408, and iron £1849. Provisions were imported to 
 the extent of £3496, and wines of the value of £492 j 
 military stores £1833, etc. The articles of export pre- 
 
MAU 
 
 1335 
 
 MAU 
 
 sent no remarkable feature of interest, except timber, 
 the value of which in 1850 was ^£55,108, and in the 
 first 10 months of 1861, ^81,561. The town possesses 
 a large and thriving European papulation, and 40 ves- 
 sels, of an aggregate burden of 17,170 tons, have been 
 launched from its dockyard since 18S0. It contains 
 three printing-presses, seven places of public worship 
 (five of which are Protestant), besides eight schools, 
 English and native." 
 
 Mauritius. The Isle of France was discovered by 
 the Portuguese, A. d. 1500, but the Dutch were the 
 first settlers, in 1698. The Mauritius was so called by 
 the Dutch in honor of Prince Maurice ; but it was, first 
 settled by the French in 1720; and is indebted for 
 most part of its prosperity to the skillful management 
 of its governor, the famous M. de la Bourdonnais.i It 
 was taken by the English in 1810, and was definitive- 
 ly ceded to them in 1814. Mauritius is fertile, a con- 
 sidenafble part of the surface being, however, occupied 
 by mountains. Its shape is circular, being about 150 
 miles in circumference. The climate is healthy, but 
 subject to hurricanes. The principal product of the 
 island is sugar, which is now cultivated to the almost 
 total neglect of every thing else ; but it also produces 
 excellent coffee, indigo, and cotton. The blackwood, 
 or ebony, of the Mauritius is very abundant, and of a 
 superior quality. Very little corn or grain of any 
 kind is raised in the island, most articles of provision 
 being imported. Previously to 1825, the sugar and 
 other articles brought to Great Britain from the Mau- 
 ritius were charged with the same duties as the like 
 articles from India ; but in the above-mentioned j'ear 
 this distinction was done away, and it was enacted 
 that all goods of the growth, produce, or manufacture 
 of the Mauritius should, upon importation into any port 
 of the United Kingdom, be subject to the same duties 
 and regulations as the like goods being of the growth, 
 produce, and manufacture of the British colonies in the 
 West Indies ; and that the trade with the Mauritius 
 should be placed as nearly as possible on the same 
 footing as that of the West India Islands. This was a 
 great boon to the Mauritius, and the exports of sugar 
 from it have since rapidly increased. According to 
 Milbum (Oriental Commerce, ii., 668), they amount- 
 ed, in 1812, to about 5,000,000 lbs. In 1818 they 
 amounted to about 8,000,000 lbs. ; and in 1824 to 23,- 
 384,553 lbs- Since 1826 nine tenths of the sugar raised 
 in Mauritius has been shipped for the United Kingdom. 
 
 Sugar Trade— r-The recent removal of the interdic- 
 tion against the importation of coolies into the island 
 of Mauritius has contributed largely to the prosperity 
 of that colony, and materially augmented the sugar re- 
 turns of 1856-57 over those of preceding years. Ad- 
 vices from the island, under date of July 11, refer in 
 glowing terms to the prosperous condition of the sugar 
 planters, and inform us of the gratifj-ing fact — the 
 more< gratifying, inasmuch as the price of sugar has 
 sensibly declined since that date — ^that " just as we 
 are about to harvest the largest crop ever made, and 
 the removal of the interdiction to emigration from In- 
 dia at the same time, has wondferfully improved the 
 position of every landed proprietor, and has placed the 
 colony in a high state of prosperity." In 1856 the 
 shipments were 235,958,460 lbs., amounting in value to 
 $12,483,492, equal to 5-26 cents per pound. From 
 January to Maj' there were shipped 98,445,286 lbs., 
 valued at $6,042,500, or 6'13 cents per pound. The 
 average price in 1856 was $5 26 per 100 lbs. ; and dur- 
 ing the first five months of the present year it rose to 
 $6 13, showing an advance of 87 cents. The ship- 
 ment of the old crop, it was believed, would be brought 
 to a close by the end of July, and would reach nearly 
 220,000,000 lbs., against 235,000,000 lbs. produced in 
 1856i This, however, was the largest crop ever made 
 on the island. The next crop (1857-58) it is estimat- 
 ed will reach 240,000,000 lbs., or 20,000,000 lbs. more 
 than the crop now closed. We annex n statement 
 
 showing the production of sugar in Mauritius during 
 the past seven years : 
 
 Yeara. Foiindn. 
 
 1860—61 116,000,000 
 
 1861—52 186,000,000 
 
 1852—68 160,000,000 
 
 1868—64..; 202,000,000 
 
 Yenra. Ponnda. 
 
 1854—55. 214,000,000 
 
 1866—56 286,000,000 
 
 1866—57 220,000.000 
 
 1857—68. 240,000,000 
 
 About one fourth of the number of mills in the isl- 
 and were already, in (July) in operation, and by the 
 first of August sugar-malung would be general. Some 
 few parcels had reached market, and sold at high 
 prices to complete a cargo to Australia. Thus, for 
 vacuum clairced $9 75 to $10 ; good and fine yellow, 
 $8 75 to $9 25 per cwt. The news from Europe has, 
 however, befor« this time arrested these advancing 
 rates, and our next advices will show a considerable 
 decline. 
 
 With the exception of molasses, ebony, and a few 
 other unimportant articles, sugar is almost the only 
 article of export. The principal imports consist of 
 provisions, particularly grain and flour ; the supply re- 
 quired for the use of the island being almost entirely 
 derived from the Cape of Good Hope, Madagascar, 
 India, Bourbon, etc. Earthenware, macliinery, furni- 
 ture, hardware, piece goodS) wine, etc., are also largely 
 imported. The total declared value of the exports 
 from the United Kingdom to the Mauritius in 1852 
 amounted to £243,045. In 1851 the population of the 
 Mauritius amounted, including military and seamen, to 
 183,506 souls, of whom between 9000 and 10,000 were 
 whites. The population of the Seychelles — small isl- 
 ands dependent on the Mauritius— amounted at the 
 same time to 8000. The emancipation of the slaves 
 was little less injurious to the Mauritius than to the 
 sugar colonies in the West Indies. But, owing to its 
 more convenient situation, vast numbers of hlU-coolies 
 and other laborers from India have been enticed away 
 and imported ; and to this the increase of population 
 and of the exports of sugar are wholly to be ascribed. 
 
 The principal imports froip the United States are 
 beef, pork, butter, cheese, candles, lard, and tobacco. 
 The discriminating duties in favor of British produce 
 and manufactures limit American exports to the arti- 
 cles above enumerated. Ad valorem duty 10 per cent., 
 and specific duties various : On tobacco unmanufac- 
 tured, 6 cents per pound ; manufactured, 8 cents per 
 pound; segars and snuff, 24 cents per pound. All 
 foreign nations enjoy equal commercial privileges. 
 The ports of the Mauritius are Mahebourg, Port Louis, 
 and Sej'chelles Island. 
 
 There is some direct trade between the United 
 States and the Mauritius. Occasionally a cargo of 
 lumber arrives from California, but as yet this trade 
 has not been profitable. 
 
 Mauiy, Mattheixr F. — Lieutenant Maury is a 
 native of Virginia. He received an appointment as 
 midshipman in the navy in 1825, and was ordered to 
 the JJrcmdywine, then fitting out at Washington, to 
 convey the illustrious Lafayette to France. He re- 
 turned home in that vessel, and in the spring of 1826 
 again sailed in her to the Pacific, and was absent about 
 four years, returning in the ViiKennes sloop. Pass- 
 ing his examination, he was again ordered to the Pa- 
 cific station as master of the sloop-of-war Falmouth, 
 From the time of his entrance into the navy he was a 
 close student. He made himself master of the Span- 
 ish tongue, by studying a course of mathematics and 
 navigation in that language. His work on " Naviga- 
 tion" he commenced in the steerage of the Vincennes, 
 and it was completed in the frigate Potomac, to which 
 he was ordered as acting lieutenant, when the 'Fal- 
 mouth was about to return to the United States. 
 When again Lieutenant Mauiy came home, he was 
 regularly promoted to a lieutenancy, and was appointed 
 astronomer to the South Sea Exploring Expedition, 
 under Commander Thomas Ap-Catesby Jones. Soon 
 after that officer gave up the command of the expedi- 
 
MEA 
 
 1336 
 
 MEA 
 
 tioD, Lieutenant Maury retired from it also, and was 
 afterward put in charge of the d6p6t of charts and in- 
 struments which has served as a nucleus for the na- 
 tional observatory and hydrographical ofHce of the 
 United States, of which he now has charge. His la- 
 bors in organizing the observatory were great and 
 efficient, and he was successful in at once putting it 
 on a respectable footing. The investigations of Lieu- 
 tenant Maurj' as to the winds and currents of the 
 ocean, the charts which he has constructed, mapping 
 out better paths and more rapid routes across the track- 
 less depths,, and the incalculable benefits which he has 
 thus bestowed upon the mercantile and marine inter- 
 ests of the world, are well known. See South. Lit. 
 Mess,, vii., 560, ii., 454 ; Hdnt's Mag., xviii., 516. 
 
 Mayagiiez, or Mayaguas. This is the most 
 important port on the island of Porto Rico. It pos- 
 sesses large capital, and contains several costlj' and 
 fine dwellings. Rapidly rebuilt after the great con- 
 flagration, by which it was destroyed in 1841, Maya- 
 giiez has gained in prosperity; having been before 
 that disaster but an inconsiderable village, it has now 
 become the most important city on the island. The 
 surrounding district produces large quantities of cof- 
 fee, though, since 1840, there has been a sensible di- 
 minution in that article. For that year, the exports 
 amounted to 80,000 quintals, while in 1853 they fell to 
 43,500 quintals. The coffee of Maj-agiiez stands in 
 such high repute in America and Germany, that pur- 
 chases are frequently made in advance of the crop. 
 Hence comes also the best sugar of the island, which 
 is mostly imported in American bottoms into the Uni- 
 ted States. In 1853, there arrived 83 American ves- 
 sels, of 13,272 tons, carrying freight to the value of 
 $223,600; and there cleared 76, of 12,680^ tons, taking 
 cargoes worth $460,013. The molasses from this port 
 is always of the best quality, and much sought after 
 bj' American and English shippers. Besides coffee, 
 in 1853 there were exported 165^ hogsheads of rum ; 
 8,221 hogsheads of molasses; 20,766,033 pounds of 
 sugar; but only 4,463 pounds of tobacco, showing a 
 decrease, compared with the preceding j'ear, of over 
 50,000 pounds. There were, besides, 1,000 hogsheads 
 of rum mixed with tabasco pepper (malagueta), a prep- 
 aration constituting now a new and profitable branch 
 of domestic industry. Imports from the United 
 States and England are general^ similar to the im- 
 ports into San Juan. 
 
 Mead, or Metheglin (Ger. Meht, Meth; Du. 
 Meede, Meedrank ; Fr. Hydromel ; It. Idromele ; Eus. 
 Lipez), the ancient, and for a long time, the favorite 
 drink of the northern nations. It is a preparation of 
 honey and water. 
 
 Meal (Ger. Mehl; Du. Meel; Fr. and It. Farine; 
 Sp. Farina; Kus. Muka; Lat. Farina), the edible 
 part of wheat, oats, rye, barley, and pulse of differ- 
 ent kinds, ground into a species of coarse flour. See 
 CoKN, Flouk, Wheat, and Beeadstuffs. 
 
 Measures and Weights. They were invented 
 by Phidion of Argos, 869 Ti.c.^Arund. Marbles. 
 They became general in most countries soon after- 
 ward ; and were very early known in England. Stand- 
 ards of weights and measures were provided for the 
 whole kingdom by the sheriffs of London, 8 Eichard 
 I., A.D. 1197. Standards were again fixed in En- 
 gland, 1257. They were equalized for the United 
 Kingdom in 1825. Measure, in legal and commer- 
 cial sense, denotes a certam quantity or portion of any 
 thing bought, sold, valued, or the like. See Weights 
 and Measdees. 
 
 Meats, Preserved. The interest which has of 
 late attached to the subject of such meats, warrants 
 us in bringing under examination the principles and 
 practice on which this important branch of industry 
 is based. The art itself is of modern invention, and 
 differs in ever}' respect from the old or common modes 
 of preserving animal food. These, as is well known, 
 
 depend on the use of culinary salt, saltpetre, sugar, or 
 similar substances, which, when in solution, do not 
 possess the power of absorbing oxygen gas, and there- 
 fore cut off effectually all access of air to the meat 
 they protect. It might be imagined that water alone 
 would answer this purpose ; but the contrary is the 
 case, for pure water absorbs oxygen, and is, therefore, 
 all the less adapted for preserving meat, in proportion 
 as it is free from saline matter, since it is then so much 
 the more capable of combining with oxygen gas. 
 Thus, snow, which is pure water crystalized, has a pow- 
 er of producing the panary fermentation when mixed 
 with flour ; and this it is able to do in consequence of 
 the large quantity of gaseous oxygen which it con- 
 tains. Similarly, rain water, and especially dew, 
 will bring on the putrefaction of animal matters much 
 sooner than spring water ; and the vulgar prejudice 
 respecting the effect of the moon's rays in accelerating 
 the corruption of meat, is, bej'ond doubt, dependent 
 upon the fact, that during clear moonlight nights, 
 there is always a large deposition of dew ; and this 
 having fallen in a minutely divided state, possesses 
 the largest amount of free oxygen, which pure or dis- 
 tilled water is capable of absorbing from the atmos- 
 phere, and, therefore, has a proportionate power of 
 decomposing — just as it also has of bleaching. Thus 
 far our remarks have been applied solely to raw or 
 uncooked meats ; but the practical bearing of the ob- 
 ject which we have in hand really points to those 
 which are more or less cooked or preserved. It is 
 with reference to provisions of this kind, that a par- 
 liamentary' inquiry is now in progress ; and we can 
 not do better than show the great importance of such 
 a subject to a maritime nation, by stating, that these 
 provisions, when sound, are an absolute preventive of 
 sea-scurvy — a disease said, on good authority, to have 
 destroyed more life, and to have done more damage to 
 commerce, than all the enemies and tempests which 
 shipping ever encountered. We need not go far in 
 search of evidence to prove the fearful havoc caused 
 by this disease ; for we are well furnished by the his- 
 tory of Admiral Anson's memorable expedition, to 
 damage the interests of Spain in the Pacific Ocean, by 
 intercepting the annual treasure-ship or galleon on her 
 return to Europe. In spite of every thing that care 
 and experience could do, Anson tells us that he lost, 
 in all, fully four fifths of his people by scurvy. Of 
 400 men with whom the Centurion departed from 
 England, only 200 lived to reach the island of Juan 
 Fernandez, and no more than 8 of these were capable 
 of doing duty ; and but for a supply of others at St. 
 Helena, there would not have been strength remain- 
 ing to carry the ship to her anchorage. After describ- 
 ing, in the most pathetic manner, the dreadful suffer- 
 ings of his crew, and rejoicing at the improvement 
 caused by the sojourn at Juan Fernandez, the writer 
 concludes — ■" I therefore shall sum up the total of our 
 loss since our departure from England, the better to 
 convey some idea of our past sufferings and our pres- 
 ent strength. We had buried on board the Centu- 
 rion, since leaving St. Helena, 292 men, and had re- 
 maining on board 214. This, will, doubtless, appear 
 a most extraordinary mortality ; but yet, on board 
 the Gloucester (his other ship of war) it had been much 
 greater : for, out of a much smaller crew than ours, 
 they had buried the same number, and had only 82 
 remaining alive. It might," continues Anson, "have 
 been expected that, on board the Tryal (a provision 
 ship), the slaughter would have been most terrible ; 
 but it happened otherwise, for she escaped more favor- 
 ably than the rest, since sha only buried 42, and has 
 now S9 remaining." The real object of the voyage 
 was, however, not yet commenced ; though out of 960 
 men with which the three vessels left England, 626 
 were dead before this time. 
 
 It is almost superfluous to multiply instances of the 
 same kind ; though, in order to demonstrate the great 
 
MEA 
 
 1337 
 
 MED 
 
 utility of preserved meats in the navy, -we shall give 
 two or three other examples. 
 
 In October, 1788, the fleet of Admiral Keppell came 
 into harbor, and, before the end of December, had sent 
 3,600 sick to the hospital at Haslar. In 1779, the 
 Channel fleet under Sir C. Hardy, sent 2,500 to the 
 hospital, and retained more than 1000 on board for 
 want of hospital accommodation. Within 4 months 
 during a subsequent year, 6,064 were sent to Haslar, 
 and Sir H. Hawkins asserts, that, within the space of 
 20 years, to his own knowledge, not less than 10,000 
 men had died of scurvy. When Admiral Geary's 
 fleet returned to Portsmouth, after a 10 weeks' cruise 
 in the Bay of Biscay, 2,400 men were ill of the scur- 
 vy ; and the gross number of admissions Into the hos- 
 pital that year was 11,732, of whom 909 died. Now 
 the highest medical authorities in this kingdom, and 
 also on the continent, have all expressed the opinion 
 that this fearful disease and mortality is altogether 
 caused by the use of salt provisions ; and the evidence 
 of a host of navy surgeons and officers can be adduced 
 to corroborate the truth of this view ; therefore, not 
 only motives of humanity, but also of self-interest, 
 imperatively demand that, wherever unsalted provis- 
 ions can be used, their employment should be insisted 
 on by the voice of the entire nation. Such being the 
 case, it becomes necessary for us to inquire how far 
 the art of preserving unsalted provisions has reached 
 that degree of uniformity, and cei-tainty of result, 
 which alone can warrant their introduction into the 
 navy. — Brande's Diet. 
 
 Meat-Biscuits. — The American meat-biscuits^ now 
 coming extensively, into use, are a kind of preserve 
 differing from most others. The manufacture is lo- 
 cated chiefly at Galveston, Texas. The prairies of 
 that country abound in cattle of good quality, which 
 are procued at so low a price as to justify the manu- 
 facture on the spot, thus saving the expense of trans- 
 porting the useless portion of the meat. The meat- 
 biscuit contains in a concentrated state and portable 
 form all the nutriment of the meat, combined with 
 wheaten or other flour. One pound of this biscuit is 
 said to contain the nutriment or essence of five pounds 
 of good meat ; a 22-gallon cask can contain the con- 
 centrated nutriment of 600 pounds of fresh meat with 
 70 pounds of flour. As compared with corn or flour, 
 the meat-buiscuit is said to be less liable to heating or 
 molding during long voyages, and less subject to 
 the attacks of weevils and other animals. It may 
 be easily presei-ved in all climates, and for a great 
 length of time ; though it is not pretended that it pos- 
 sesses the lasting quality of well-canistered food. The 
 United States' Army in Mexico was supplied with 
 these meat-biscuits ; and their use is rapidly spreading 
 in America. The meat-biscuits are made in the fol- 
 lowing way : — Good beef is selected, and boiled by 
 steam until all the nutritive qualities are extracted. 
 The liquor is strained, allowed to settle, and then 
 evaporated by heat to the consistence of thick treacle ; 
 the fat is skimmed off as it rises. While the liquor is 
 yet hot, flour is added to it, and both are kneaded up 
 into a stiff dough, which may then be rolled, pressed, 
 made into biscuits, and baked. The biscuits are either 
 kept whole or are ground to powder, and are preserved 
 in air-tight cases. For making into soup the pow- 
 dered biscuit is mixed with hot water, and boiled with 
 the addition of salt and other condiments. Professor 
 Lindley, in a lecture before the Society of Arts, ex- 
 pressed an opinion that the meat-biscuit" is one of the 
 most important substances which the exhibition of 
 1851 has brought to our knowledge." 
 
 Meat, Prices of. Prices of Meat and Bread in 
 Cities. The following table of the prices of wheat- 
 bread, beef, veal, and mutton , in 20 cities of the world, 
 near November 15th, 1856, is derived from the report 
 of a society in the city of New York for the improve- 
 ment of the condition of the poor ; the quantity of 
 
 each pound avoirdupois, and the price in cents and 
 hundredths of a cent, American weight and money : 
 
 
 Wheat 
 bread. 
 
 Beef. 
 
 Venl. 
 
 Mutton. 
 
 Borne 
 
 Cu.perlb. 
 
 6-88 
 
 8-70 - 
 
 4-44 
 
 5-46 
 
 4-68 
 
 6-08 
 
 5-44 
 
 4-63 
 
 7-49 
 
 6-68 
 
 5-44 
 
 4-94 
 
 4-68 
 
 8-02 
 
 8-76 
 
 5-08 
 
 8-76 
 
 6-26 
 
 8-28 
 
 400 
 
 Ct«. perib- 
 
 7-28 
 
 11-74 
 
 11-33 
 18-62 , 
 12-90 . 
 12-68 
 12-90 
 12-76 
 14-88 
 10-04 
 
 8-68 
 
 6-69 
 1106 
 10-80 
 
 8-17 
 
 6-58 
 13-28 . 
 14-00 
 11-50 
 10-00 
 
 CtB.perlb. 
 
 16-68 
 14-04 
 13-62 
 15-90 
 15-87 
 13-62 
 12-76 
 17-24 
 18-62 
 12-9S 
 
 8-00 
 11-92 
 10-80 
 
 8-17 
 10-00 
 14-80 ■ 
 14-00 
 1260 
 
 9-80 
 
 eta. perlb- 
 
 9-81 
 18-87 
 13-62 
 12-62 
 12-90 
 12-68 
 18-40 
 12-76 
 14-88 
 
 9-10 
 
 9-70 
 
 8-00 
 11-92 
 ■ 7-18 
 
 8-lT 
 10-00 
 1806 
 18-00 -v 
 18-60 
 10-00 
 
 London 
 
 Paris 
 
 Glasgow 
 
 Liverpool.-. . . . 
 
 Dublin 
 
 Antwerp 
 
 Brussels 
 
 
 
 Oporto 
 
 
 Nice 
 
 Milan 
 
 Constantinople ,... 
 
 New York 
 
 Boston 
 
 Philadelphia 
 
 Cincinnati 
 
 Medals, are pieces of metal, generally in the form 
 of a coin, and impressed with some peculiar stamp, in- 
 tended to commemorate some individual or action. 
 Medals are of very different prices — varying according 
 to their rarity and preservation, the Aneness of the 
 metal, the beauty of the workmanship, etc. 
 
 Mechanics. The time when the simple mechan- 
 ical powers were firfit introduced is so uncertain, and 
 perhaps so little known, that they have been ascribed 
 to the Grecian and other deities of the heathen my- 
 thology — ^for instance, the ax, the wedge, wimble, 
 etc., are said to be the invention of Dsedalus. We 
 know nothing of the machinery by which the immense 
 masses of stone which are found in some of the ancient 
 edifices were moved and elevated. 
 
 Year 
 
 The first writing on mechanics was by Aristotle, 
 
 about ■ B. 0. 820 
 
 The Statera Eom ana invented ^ 
 
 The fundamental property of the lever and other in- 
 struments was demonstrated by Archimedes. . . 205 
 
 The hand-mill, or quern,' was very early in use ; the 
 
 Eomans found one in Yorkshire 
 
 Cattle mills, molca ^jirnientaric^^ were also in use by the 
 
 Eomans, and in parts of Europe 
 
 Saw-mills are said to have been in use at Augsburg, a. n. 1832 
 Theory of the inclined plane iiivestigated by Cardan, 
 
 about :.'. , , . 1540 
 
 Work on Statics, by Stevinus 1586 
 
 Theory of falling bodies, Galileo 1688 
 
 Theory of oscillation, Huygena.; 1647 
 
 taws of collision, WallacR, Wren 1662 
 
 Epicycloidal form of the teeth of .wheels, Eoemer 1675 
 
 Percussion and animal mechanics, Borelll ; he died 1679 
 
 The water-mill was probably invented in Asia; the first 
 that was described was near one of the dwellings of 
 
 Mithridates , b. c. 70 
 
 A water-mill is said to have been erected on the river 
 
 Tiber, at Eome, 50 
 
 Floating mills on the Tiber a. d. 536 
 
 Tide-mills were, many of them, in use in Venice, about 1078 
 Wind-mills were in very general use in the twelfth 
 
 century., . 
 Application of mechanics to astronomy, parallelogism of 
 
 forces, laWs of motion, etc., Newton 1679 
 
 Problem of the catenary with the analysis, Dr. Gregory 1697 
 Spirit level (and many other inventions), by Dr. Hook, 
 
 from 1660 to i 1702 
 
 The Mechanics' Institute in London was formed in ... . 1823 
 Mechanics' Institute in Isfew York formed 1833 
 
 Mediterranean Pass. The nature of this sort 
 of instrument has been described by Mr. Eeeves, in 
 his Treatise on the Law of Shipping^ as follows : — " In 
 the treaties that have been made with the Barbary 
 States, it has been agreed, that the subjects of the King 
 of Great Britain should pass the seas unmolested by 
 the cruisers of those States ; and for better ascertaining 
 what ships and vessels belong to British subjects, it is 
 provided that they shall produce a ^ass under the hand 
 and seal of the Lord High Admiral, or the Lords Com- 
 missioners of the Admiralt}'. In pursuance of these 
 treaties, passes are made out at the Admiralty, con- 
 taining a very few words, written on parchment, with 
 
MED 
 
 1338 
 
 MED 
 
 ornaments at the top, through which a scolloped in- 
 denture is made ; the scolloped tops are sent to Bar- 
 bary ; and being put in possession of their cruisers, 
 the commanders are instructed to suffer all persons to 
 pass who have passes that will fit those scolloped tops, 
 The protection aflforded hy these passes is such, that 
 no ships, which traverse the seas frequented by these 
 rovers, ever fail to furnish themselves with them, 
 whether in the trade of the East Indies, the Levant, 
 Spain, Italy, or anj' part of the Mediterranean ; and 
 from the more particular need of them in the latter, 
 they, no doubt, obtained the name of Mediterranean 
 passe^. For the accommodation of merchants in dis- 
 tant parts, blank passes, signed by the Lords of the 
 Admiralty, are lodged with the governors abroad, and 
 with the British consuls, to be granted to those who 
 comply with the requisites necessary for obtaining 
 them. As this piece of security is derived wholly from 
 the stipulations made by the crown with a foreign 
 power, the entire regulation and management of it has 
 been under the direction of his majesty, who, with the 
 advice of the privy council, has prescribed the terms 
 and conditions on which these passes shall be granted. 
 Among others, are the following : — They are to be 
 granted for none but British-built ships, or ships made 
 free, navigated with a master and three fourths of the 
 mariners British subjects, or foreign Protestants made 
 denizens. Bond is to be given in the sum of £300 if 
 the vessel is under 100 tons, and in £500 if it is of 
 that or more, for delivering up the pass within 12 
 months, unless in the case of ships trading from one 
 foreign port to another ; and such passes need not be 
 returned in less than three years. It has been found 
 expedient, at the conclusion of war, and sometimes 
 during a peace, to recall and cancel all passes that have 
 been issued, and to issue others in a new form. This 
 has been done for two reasons. 1st. That these use- 
 ful instruments, by various means, either accidental or 
 fraudulent, came into the hands of foreigners, who, 
 under cover of them, carried on in security a trade 
 which otherwise w^ould belong to British subjects, and 
 which had been purchased by the crown, at the ex- 
 pense of keeping up this sort of alliance. 2d. That 
 the Barbary States complained that, adhering to the 
 rule of fitting the other part of the indenture to the 
 passes, they were obliged to suflTer ships to pass that 
 did not belong to British subjects." We have thought 
 it right to give this explanation, though, since the oc- 
 cupation of Algiers by the French, and the disappear- 
 ance of the corsairs of the other Barbarj'' powers, Med- 
 iterranean passes have fallen into disuse. 
 
 Mediterranean Sea {Mare Internum), an in- 
 land sea inclosed by Asia on the east, Africa on the 
 south, and Europe on the north, and communicates 
 with the Atlantic by the Strait of Gibraltar on the 
 west, situated between lat. 30^ 20'' and 43° north, and 
 long. 6° and 37° 30' east. Within this space is in- 
 cluded the Tyrhennian, Ionian, and Adriatic Seas, and 
 the Sea of the Grecian Archipelago. The Sea of Mar^ 
 mora, the Black Sea, and the Sea of Azov, which com- 
 municate with it by the Strait of the Dardanelles, are 
 considered as separate seas. The principal rivers 
 which flow into the Mediterranean are the Ebro, Ehone, 
 Arno, and the Tiber in Europe, and the Nile in Africa. 
 The principal islands are Sicily (which divides the 
 Mediterranean into an eastern and western portion), 
 Cyprus, Crete, Malta, and the Ionian Islands in the 
 east, and Sardinia, Corsica, and the Balearic Islands 
 in the west. The most important gulfs are Taranto 
 in Italy, Lepanto in Greece, Syrtis and Cabes iu Bar- 
 bary, in the eastern portion ; and Valencia in Spain, 
 Lyon in France, Genoa in Italy, and Tunis in Africa, 
 in the west. The winds of this ^ea are very variable ; 
 the tides are little felt, and very irregular. Fish is 
 abundant in the Mediterranean, especially tunny, 
 anchovies, pilchards, and mackerel, and the finest co- 
 ral, sponge, and ambergris, are procured. The Med- ! 
 
 iterraneaii was called by the Hebre-ws "the Great 
 Sea." The Phenicians are the first people known to 
 have extended their commerce along its coasts; the 
 Greeks afterward disputed it with them. After the 
 destruction of Carthage, the Homans were sole mas- 
 ters of its shores ; in the middle ages, the Venetians 
 monopolized its commerce, and at present, England, 
 by the possession of Gibraltar, Malta, and the Ionian 
 Islands, possesses the greatest influence on its destinies. 
 See Gibraltar. 
 
 It is estimated that three times as much water as 
 the Mediterranean receives from its rivers is evap- 
 orated from its surface. Vide article Physical Geo- 
 graphy, Encyclopcedia Britannica. This may be an 
 over estimate, but the fact that evaporation from it is 
 in excess of the precipitation, is made obvious by the 
 current which the Atlantic sends into it through the 
 Straits of Gibraltar ; and the difi^erence, we may rest 
 assured, whether it be much or little, is carried off to 
 modify climate elsewhere — to refresh with showers and 
 make fruitful some other parts of the earth. The great 
 inland basin of Asia, in which are Aral and the Caspian 
 Seas, is situated on the route which this hypothesis re- 
 quires these thirst}-- winds from south-east trade-wind 
 Africa and America to take ; and so scant of vapor are 
 these winds when they arrive in this basin that they 
 have no moisture to leave behind ; just as much as 
 they pour down they take up again and carry ofi". We 
 know that the volume of water returned by the rivers, 
 the rains and the dews, into the whole ocean, is ex- 
 actly" equal to the volume which the whole ocean gives 
 back to the atmosphere ; as far as our knowledge ex- 
 tends, the level of each of these two seas is as perma^ 
 nent as that of the great ocean itself. Therefore, the 
 volume of water discharged by rivers, the rains, and 
 the dews, into these two seas, is exactly equal to the 
 volume which these two seas give back as vapor to the 
 atmosphere. — Maury, Phj/s. Geog. 
 
 Commerce of the Mediterranean. — The United States* 
 Consul at Trieste communicates to the Department of 
 State, the following details as to increased steam nav- 
 igation with the southern ports of the Mediterranean : 
 "The project of establishing steam communication 
 with the Mediterranean has long been a favorite one 
 with a respectable class of merchants in the At- 
 lantic States ; and, if I am not mistaken, the exper- 
 iment of a line to Genoa was tried some years ago, 
 but without success. There is every prospect of the 
 accomplishment of this important object, under the 
 immediate patronage of the Austrian government. It 
 is, in fact, proposed to construct three first-class steam- 
 ships of 3200 tons, builder's measurement, and 1000 
 horse-power, to run between Trieste and New York, 
 making 15 trips each way per annum, and touching at 
 Corfu, Malta, Algiers, Cadiz, and Lisbon. The ves- 
 sels would carry the mails, passengers, and goods from 
 the East, received by the Lloyd's steamers and those of 
 the Oriental Steam Navigation Company, and probably 
 those of the greater part of the cities and ports of the 
 Mediterranean, to the United States, and vice versa. 
 The running time west, from Trieste to New York, 
 would be 20 days and 14 hours ; and east, from New 
 York to Trieste, 19 daj'S 5 hours, including stoppages. 
 The steamers would be built in New York, but sail 
 under the Austrian flag. The originator of this en- 
 terprise is Mr. Loosey, the Austrian consul-general at 
 New York — a gentleman of great experience, who has 
 resided for the past 12 years in the United States. I 
 am credibly informed, also, that the new minister of 
 finance, Baron de Bruck, warmly favors the scheme. 
 He was formerly, indeed, a leading merchant in 
 Trieste, and the founder of the Austrian Lloyd's Steam 
 Navigation Company. If the project succeeds, its ef- 
 fect upon the commercial and political relations of the 
 United States and southern Europe must be very 
 great. AVhile it will prove a stimulus to exertion, by 
 opening new channels for the industry' of the Old 
 
MED 
 
 1339 
 
 MED 
 
 World, it must .necessarily increase the demand for 
 the precious and abundant raw material and manufac- 
 tures of the United States. 
 
 " The amount of goods exported direct from Trieste 
 to the city of New York, during the years 1860, 1851, 
 1852, and 1853, amounted to $2,085,282; and the 
 amount of imports during the same years, from New 
 York direct, amounted to $1,550,515. The amount of 
 imports during the year 1852, from the ports of Philr 
 adelphia, Boston, SavanAah, Richmond, Baltimore, 
 Mobile and New Orleans, amounted to $1,628,700. 
 But it would be very unfair to take these figures as 
 any criterion of the business of the future. Thjs 
 country had then but partially recovered from tlje 
 financial and political embarrassments of 1848-9, and 
 confidence, without which commerce necessarily dwin- 
 dles, had not been firmly established ; whilethe means 
 of internal communication and transportation were 
 comparatively limited, , Even now the success of this 
 steamship, project depends, in a great measure, upon 
 the completion of the balance of 60 miles of railway 
 betwioeji Trieste and Vienna — the last link in the chain 
 which connects Trieste with the principal cities of Eu- 
 rope. Tins work is, however, in a state of forward- 
 ness, and will, probably, be finished in the course of a 
 twelvemonth." See Teibste and Turkey. 
 
 Commerae of the United States with the Ports of the 
 Mediterranean. — ^The trade of the United States with 
 the countiies on the Mediterranean and in the Levant, 
 is very irregular, and not yet developed. The statis- 
 tics which we possess are of some value. MacQregor 
 gives the best report on general commerce, and speaks, 
 in regard to the Mediterranean trade in 1842, as fol- 
 lows: 
 
 " The commerce of the United States to the ports of 
 the Mediterranean and Adriatic, consists chiefiy in the 
 export of cotton, sugar, dried and salt fish, whale-oil, 
 etc., which are shipped to Trieste and other Austrian 
 ports. The American ships take home in exchange 
 winea and other manufactured articles. To Spain, 
 the United States export cotton and other produce, 
 for which they take wines, etc." 
 
 A few words, with some statistics, will suffice to 
 show the condition of American commerce. Since 
 that time this commerce has increased, and in some 
 respects received a considerable impulse, but on the 
 whole it presents nothing of much greater Importance. 
 The causes are clear : the Americans have paid, until 
 now, very little attention to this important trade j 
 they are not enough acquainted with it, while their 
 successful rivals are thoroughly conversant in its 
 sources, 'Chances, and necessities. English and French 
 merchants have, so far, the control of commerce in 
 these important regions ; they have agencies and 
 branch houses — English, French, and Austrian steam- 
 ers running in the Mediterranean regularly from port 
 to port ; while the Americans have not a single agency, 
 and not one of their numerous steamers, such as nav- 
 igate the ocean, the Pacific, and numerous rivers, are 
 to be found in the Mediterranean and Adiiatic. Not- 
 withstanding the passiveness of American commerce in 
 these regions, it is still progressive, as the following 
 statistics will show : 
 
 The exports and imports of the United States, in 
 the year 1842, were as follows : 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 Malta. 
 
 France on the Medlter. 
 
 Spain 
 
 Italy 
 
 Sicily. 
 
 Trieste 
 
 Turkey 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Domeatfc Foreign | 
 produce, produce. | 
 
 $46e,93T 
 11,644 
 
 1,674,750 
 221,898 
 616,675 
 287,861 
 708,179 
 125,451 
 
 $116,961 
 
 8,261 
 
 73,863 
 
 16,578 
 
 804,940 
 
 195,797 
 
 136,526 
 
 76,516 
 
 19,905 
 1,748,43? 
 238,476 
 820,617 
 483,658 
 884,7i)5 
 202,086 
 
 Imports. 
 
 $12,268 
 
 7,860 
 
 , 963,678 
 
 I,06.'!,e4D 
 
 987,628 
 
 689,419 
 
 413,210 
 
 870,248 
 
 From Tuscany and Sardinia we have no reports of 
 1842. The ejqjorts from Morocco to the United States 
 
 for the same year was $98, 500. In 1853 they amounted 
 to $84,000, all of which were in foreign bottoms. 
 The same in the year 1854, was : 
 
 Gibraltar ■ . , . 
 
 Malta. ,j. ..;. 
 
 France do tho Medlter. 
 
 Spain 
 
 Italy 
 
 Sicily 
 
 Sardinia , 
 
 Tuscany 
 
 Trieste & oth. Aus. ports 
 jTurkey 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Domestic Foreign 
 produce, produce. 
 
 $446,445 
 
 148,628 
 
 1,218,786 
 
 3,212,368 
 
 1,586,827 
 
 246,161 
 
 188,3(16 
 
 11,785 
 
 1,697,819 
 
 219,496 
 
 Total. 
 
 $81,827; $S27 
 21,246 169, 
 201,3741,420, 
 
 81,040 
 165,439 
 
 18,900 
 2,020 
 
 37,082 
 206,290 
 
 3,243, 
 
 1,751 
 
 260 
 
 190, 
 
 48, 
 
 1,908, 
 
 105,702] 826,198 
 
 Imports. 
 
 $69,678 
 
 2,889,372 
 
 1,579,074 
 
 971,074 
 
 969i800 
 
 86,676 
 
 1,162,717 
 
 741,919 
 
 808,114 
 
 From these figures it can be seen that the com- 
 merce in question has, as it regards some States, 
 greatly increased. The most remarkable is that of 
 Spain, in the Mediterranean. The export to that 
 country has augmented 13 times. Also an important 
 increase is seen in Malta, Italy, Trieste, and Turkey. 
 The commerce of France, however, on the Mediterra- 
 nean, diminished considerably, also that of Sicily. 
 From both these reports we learn also, that the com- 
 merceof the United States in the Mediterranean has not 
 been developed in such an admirable manner as with 
 other transatlantic countries, to which numerous mail 
 lines and other steamers are running. What influence 
 these communications have on trade and commerce, 
 the comparison between the trade of France on the 
 Mediterranean, and of France on the Atlantic, shows : 
 
 Export to, and Import op, tup. United States iw tub 
 Yeae 1854, FEOM France. 
 
 .Atlantic. S^editerrnneAii. 
 
 Export— Domestic prod. . . $29,749,466 $1,218,786 
 Foreign "... 978,865 201,874 
 
 Total $30,727,821 $1,420,160 
 
 Import 32,892,021 2,889,872 
 
 The commerce in the first direction, where - the 
 steam-line exists from Havre to New York, shows 
 $63,013,842 ; and the commerce between the United 
 States and France on the Mediterranean, where no 
 steam communication exists, was only $4,309,532. 
 The difference is enormous ! Marseilles is much he- 
 hind Havre, which, by its direct steam communication 
 with New York, attracted the greatest part of com- 
 merce. See France. 
 
 Let us take, now, a view of the countries on the 
 Mediterranean in general. All depend for the expe- 
 dition of their letters upon the English post-offices, if 
 they do not prefer to send them via Trieste, Ostend, 
 and Liverpool ;■ for in both cases the postages are very 
 high and expensive, and, as the letters have to pass 
 through several different offices, the loss of time is, in 
 both ways, very great. These difficulties, and we 
 might add nuisances, have an influence in keeping the 
 commerce back, and to them it is chiefly attributable 
 that the commerce of these countries with the United 
 States hasi progressed no faster. Mr. Baker, who 
 lived for several years as American consul in the Med- 
 iterranean, and observed pretty closely the great pro- 
 gress of commerce between these parts of the globe, 
 hinted to his countrymen, several times, to pay more 
 attention to the Mediterranean trade. 
 
 "Thousands, on both sides of the Mediterrranean," 
 says Mr. Baker, "prefer American to other produce. 
 Especially are flour and rice highly prized. The com- 
 merce with dried and salted fish is profitable. The 
 greatest part of the staves and lumber which are used 
 on the shores of Spain, are mostly imported from the 
 United States. Also other produce, such as biscuit, 
 different kinds of oats, sperm-oil, spermaceti candles, 
 lard and provisions, find here ready and good markets. 
 The port of Malaga is much frequented by American 
 vessels ; the same may be said of Barcelona, the great 
 emporium of Spanish wines and brandies, where 
 American import articles find good sale. But very 
 
MED 
 
 1340 
 
 MED 
 
 few American vessels visit Cartagena, Alicante, and 
 Valencia, where American produce would be salable, 
 with profit. 
 
 The cargoes which American ships take up in those 
 places are mostly brandies, red and white wines, sills; 
 goods, shawls, cloths, woolen goods, paper, laces, saf- 
 fron, nuts, raisins, and other dried fruits, olives, etc. 
 As to the commerce with France, only Marseilles par- 
 ticipates in it, and this very little, in comparison with 
 the great trade with the United States. The advan- 
 tages of Havre have already been stated. Of com- 
 mercial ports, we name also Genoa, Leghorn and 
 Messina. The old plan to connect Genoa, by a regu- 
 lar steamship line, with New York, has now been taken 
 up anew, and will soon be in readiness. This connec- 
 tion is expected to give a powerful impulse to the 
 Italian commerce, and also to awaken greater interest 
 on the part of the Americans, Until now the Italian 
 commerce with the United States has not been of much 
 importance, compared with what it would be, had it 
 frequent and regular communication. Of American 
 articles, there are sugars of Louisiana and Cuba, as, 
 also, American grain, highly appreciated, imported by 
 Genoa, and again shipped to the Levant and other 
 smaller ports. On the other hand, the articles im- 
 ported from Genoa are many, and in the United States 
 in fair demand. They consist in fresh and dried fruits, 
 olive-oil, soap, silk goods, damasks, velvets, linen, 
 gloves, ribbons, liquors, prepared marble, etc. Amer- 
 ican articles for export to Genoa, are indigo, d3'e-roots, 
 honey, provisions, butter, etc. Rosin and pitch are 
 bought freely in Genoa, and re-sold to other smaller 
 ports in the Mediterranean. 
 
 The commerce of the United States with Tuscany 
 presents interesting features. Tuscany exported, in 
 the year 1854, to the United States, a value of 
 merchandise of $1,152,717 — much more than Trieste 
 and the other Austrian ports together. The United 
 States exported to Tuscany, of her own and foreign 
 produce, not more than $48,767. This small figure is 
 more remarkable, as American produce is in fair de- 
 mand at Leghorn. For Sicily, the ports of Palermo 
 and Messina are the most prominent. From these are 
 exported to the United States, wines, fruits, extracts, 
 oils, brandies, argols, tongues, sardines, prepared 
 marble, senna, cantharides, soap, leeches, etc. The 
 Americans export there stockfish, salted and dried 
 meat, sugar, zinc, lead, indigo, cochineal, dye woods, 
 cotton, cocoa, coffee, flour, tobacco, etc. The com- 
 merce of Sicily is important. England has, however, 
 as will be seen, the lion's part. 
 
 As MaoGregor relates, the import in Sicily was, in 
 the year 1844, £744,630 ; the export, £1,035,026. The 
 whole commerce with the exterior, £1,779,656. Of 
 this the United States exported only £58,489, and 
 imported from there, £224,988. In the year 1854, 
 the United States exported to Sicily only $260,051 
 (£52,000) ; and imported from there, $959,300 (£191,- 
 860), which shows a decrease on both sides. This de- 
 crease is a peculiar fact, if we consider the quantity 
 and quality of the articles there consumed. It can 
 only be explained by the great activity of England, 
 and the little attention paid to this quarter by Ameri- 
 cans. Busied with the great commercial projects on 
 the Atlantic, and culture in the interior, they have not 
 yet found time to pay more attention to this commerce, 
 and not being much posted up in the market prices in 
 Sicily, they ignore partly the importance of that 
 trade. 
 
 It is now time to act with energy. The energy 
 will not be missed, while the communication with the 
 Mediterranean will be facilitated and trade increased. 
 The commerce of the United States with Trieste and 
 other Austrian ports, is not satisfactory to the great 
 wants m the trans-Atlantic markets, nor to the sales of 
 Austrian manufactures, which are considered of very 
 good quality. Cloths, woolen goods, linen and silk 
 
 goods, can be had from Austria, at cheap prices and in 
 fair quality. Nevertheless, the import of the said 
 articles, in 1853, was $73,964,237. Other Austrian 
 articles would also find good market here, by a regular 
 and quick communication. 
 
 As to the Austrian ships, very few sail into the At- 
 lantic. In the year 1854 only four Austrian ships 
 came to the United States. Considering the passivity 
 with which the commerce with the United States is 
 regarded, it will not surprise us that so little is done 
 between them. "What has been~exported from Austria 
 to the United States, during 1854, via Trieste, and 
 other Austrian ports, was not more than $741,919 ; in 
 fact a great sum compared to the many good indus- 
 trial articles, and its navigation, as also its ports, of 
 which especially Trieste and the world-renowned 
 Venice seem to be called to play a great part in the 
 future commerce of the United States. The export of 
 the United States to Trieste is much larger than their 
 import from Austria, and was, in the year 1854, not 
 less than $1,903,609. 
 
 The direct commerce of the United States with Tur- 
 key is fixed by the following data : to Turkey, the 
 United States exported, in 1854, merchandise in value 
 of $325,198 ; importing from there $803,714. This is a 
 very poor trade, if we consider the means of both par- 
 ties. This trade is in its first development and will 
 soon be increased, if the Americans will take hold of 
 it with their usual enterprise. Greece and the Ionian 
 Islands are entirely forgotten by the Americans ; no 
 direct commerce is carried on from there to the United 
 States. 
 
 Mr. Baker says, " The commerce with the Morea 
 would be of the greatest importance to the Americans, 
 if the}' would only attempt and explore it. The great 
 quantity of produce would easily procure re-cargo to 
 American vessels. The demand for zinc, lead, etc., 
 is permanent, also of fish ; rice, flour, and other Amer- 
 ican produce, would find easy market. The same," 
 says Mr. Baker, " of the Ionian Islands, where a good 
 trade would result." 
 
 Indirect Commerce. — As to the indirect commerce of 
 the United States to the Mediterranean, there are very 
 meagre data. The total export of the United States in 
 1854, to all ports in the Mediterranean, of goods not 
 produced in the United States, was only $953,417. 
 These foreign productions consist in coffee, tea, cocoa, 
 leather, skins, pepper, rum, dye-woods, sugar from 
 Cuba, segars, cochineal, and honey. 
 
 As to the American indirect import from those coun- 
 tries, it is diflicult to find it out. The lists of naviga- 
 tion give only the direct trade ; and at the nominations 
 of the value of importation from the States on the 
 Mediterranean, no port is named from where sent. 
 
 England, which has the greatest trade with the 
 Mediterranean ports, and which is from there extended 
 in all directions, keeps no direct ship communication 
 from there to the United States. Of the 8508 British 
 ships, tonnage 1,748,380, which came, in 1854, to the 
 United States, not more than 820 tons were from Gib- 
 raltar ; not one single ton from Malta ! The cause is 
 natural. England finds it more in her interest to do 
 the commercial trading with the Mediterranean and 
 Levantine produce to the United States, not directly, 
 but from Liverpool and other ports. The advantage 
 of this proceeding is easily explained. 
 
 The English merchants receive, through Liverpool, 
 regular reports by the Collins and Cunard steamers, of 
 the standing of the trans- Atlantic markets. This puts 
 them in the way to use there all the chances offering 
 to dispose of their rich stocks of Mediterranean produce 
 with advantage, to the United States. The same is 
 the case in other ports of the European continent, 
 which follow the same policy. In this way consider- 
 able quantities of red and white wines, fruits, drugs, 
 and other produce of the Mediterranean, come by indi- 
 rect commerce to America. 
 
MED 
 
 1341 
 
 MEL 
 
 We take, for example, the corinthes, which are ex- 
 ported from Zante and Corfu to England, and other 
 European ports, from where they are sent to the 
 United States in small quantities. It is the same with 
 other articles, to countries where the Americans have 
 no direct communication. In addition to the ports 
 already named, we can add, under the same category, 
 the rich islands of the Turkish dominions in Europe 
 and Asia, viz. : Cyprus, Rhodes, Candia, Samos, Mj'- 
 tilene. Even from ports regularly visited by Amer- 
 ican vessels, goods are sent indirectly to the United 
 States, Tliis is the consequence of the isolation in 
 which the United States are placed, in relation to 
 those ports. In Smyrna, the large storing place of 
 the produce in the Levant, where merchants of all na- 
 tions have a counting-room, there is no American. It 
 is the same in other ports of the Mediterranean, the 
 Adriatic, and Levant. This isolation is advantageous 
 to the indirect intercourse of the English and French 
 with the United States ; both are in the fortunate situ- 
 ation to turn the chances of both hemispheres to their 
 advantage. Mr. Balcer, in speaking of the commerce 
 of the United States with the French dominions in 
 Africa, viz., Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli, and Morocco, 
 says : '* It would be very profitable for our commerce 
 if the Americans would engage in this branch ; they 
 would convince themselves, verj' soon, that such an 
 undertaking would be very profitable. This advice 
 has not been followed up to this time ; at least there 
 are no statistics that there have been any imports from 
 there. These are almost exclusively African, and 
 mentioned only in general terms, without branches of 
 commerce in these dominions." 
 
 The American export to Africa in general, in the 
 year 1854, amounted to $1,804,729 ; the imports to 
 $1,386,560 ; of which proportion, $47,708 and $30,007 
 belong to Madeira, Teneriffe, and other Canarian 
 Islands, $20,417 and $39,598; Cape of Good Hope, 
 $299,958 and $448,903. There is no data for the other 
 African territories. According to late disclosures, there 
 are considerable numbers of vessels which leave Amer- 
 ican ports to embark secretly in the slave-trade, land 
 them at Cuba, and import a considerable quantity of 
 goods from Africa. Americans can buy many kinds 
 of African produce from the great caravans of the 
 Mecca pilgrims, which traverse Africa in its greatest 
 extremitj' to the Mediterranean. 
 
 From the above, it will be seen that the Americans 
 appear in the Mediterranean as well as in the Levant 
 as far less than a mercantile power of the first class. 
 And it is but too plain that these great and rich terri- 
 tories, for hundreds of j'ears the centre of shipping 
 and commerce of well-advised nsrtions, are, by the 
 Americans, very much neglected. England and France 
 are in opposition with steamers and manufactures on 
 the Mediterranean, Adriatic, and Levant. The mail 
 lines of Cunard, Collins, Bremen, and Havre, are 
 not sufficient for our steam commerce with Europe, 
 and a Mediterranean line, alone, will be found to an- 
 swer the interests of American commerce. And 
 through all this, the great project of the Pacific Rail- 
 road and Marine Telegraph across the Atlantic will the 
 sooner be brought to completion. It is to be hoped 
 that Trieste and the Austrian commercial community 
 in general, will not allow such progressive movements 
 to pass without considering that the same which has 
 been done by the small city of Bremen, can be_ done 
 by Trieste, with its powerful resources. Bremen can 
 give satisfactory proof of the importance of a steam 
 communication with the New World. Bremen has 
 exported in 1854, not less than $14,643,927. Bremen 
 is much ahead of Hamburg, on account of its steam 
 communication with New York, as its exports in 1854 
 were only $2,322,971. Trieste would have double the 
 advantage ; it would have all the direct commerce with 
 Austria, and the indirect connection with the Mediter- 
 ranean and the New World. The project is great, but 
 
 promises well-paying results. It can be developed by 
 a direct, regular, and quick connection with New 
 York. It is also well to mention, that Austria would, 
 by these means, come into a more productive relation- 
 ship with the Orient, as the commerce of Austria can 
 look to a very prosperous future, on account of the 
 Marine Telegraph from Sardinia to Constantinople 
 and Alexandria, as the connection of the Mediter- 
 ranean and the Red Sea. — Nautical Magazine, For 
 Commerce, etc., of the Mediterranean, see Ed, Rev., 
 vi., 478 ; HniTT's Mag,, vi., 201 ; Eraser, zxvii, 377 ; 
 Quair. Sev,, Ixxv., 280 ; same article in Eclectic, v., 
 83 ; Living Age, v., 361. 
 
 Melbourne, the capital of the British colony of 
 Victoria, formerly Port Philip, in Australia, occupy- 
 ing the south-east portion of f:hat continent, stretching 
 through 9° of longitude, from Cape Howe on the east 
 to the Glenelg River on the west. The town is situat- 
 ed on the north bank of the Yarra-Yarra River, about 
 nine miles, following its windings, from its mouth, in 
 the basin of Port Philip, latitude 37° 49' 5" S., long. 
 144° 58' 35" E. It was founded in 1837, and ex- 
 tends along the banks of the river. In 1851 it had a 
 population of 23,000 ; and such has been the immigra- 
 tion consequent on the discovery of the gold-fields, 
 that, including suburbs, it had on the 24th of April, 
 1854, 71,188 inhabitants. A considerable portion, how- 
 ever, of this immense population is to be regarded as 
 migratory only, and as residing in town merely till 
 their ultimate destination has been decided upon. 
 This sudden increase of population raised house rent 
 to an unparalleled height \ and for some considerable 
 time a large proportion of the population was not 
 housed, but encamped under tents. But partly through 
 the extraordinary stimulus which was thus given to 
 building, and partly through the mercantile failures 
 consequent to the overtrading of 1853 and 1854, there 
 has been a'verj' heavy fall of rents, which- do not now 
 (1855) exceed half their amount in 1852. The site of 
 the town is unfortunate ; for the river being obstruct- 
 ed by a bar and shallows, it is not .generally navigable 
 for vessels of more than 60 tons burden ; and it has 
 the further disadvantage of being low, and liable to be 
 flooded by the overflowing of the river during the wet 
 season. It has been proposed to facilitate the trade 
 of the town by removing the bar at the mouth of the 
 river, and deepening its channel : but this would be a 
 very expensive undertaking^ and one of which the 
 success would be not a little doubtful. The excava- 
 tion of a ship canal from the deep water in the bay to 
 Melbourne has also been proposed ; and it probably 
 would be the preferable plan ; but, in the mean time, a 
 railway has been commenced, and is in progress to the 
 bay, which, when completed, as is probably the case, 
 will obviate many of the inconveniences which are 
 now experienced. It seems, however, not unlikely 
 that the trade of the town, and the greater part, per- 
 haps, of its population, will ultimately centre at Wil- 
 liamstown, a village a few miles distant, on a head- 
 land extending into the bay, opposite to which all 
 large vessels coming to Melbourne are obliged to an- 
 chor. The principal objection to Williamstown is the 
 scarcity and bad quality of the fresh water ; but this 
 serious defect might, perhaps, be obviated by sinking 
 wells, or by conveying hither a suppty of water from 
 some of the adjacent streams. Nothing can more 
 striltingly illustrate the present unfavorable situation 
 of the town for commercial purposes, and the extraor- 
 dmaty state of things which was lately prevalent 
 there, than the fact that while the ordinary charge for 
 the freight of goods from England to Melbourne Roads 
 was in November, 1853, £3 10s. a ton, it was £b to the 
 quays. 
 
 There are very few goods or articles exported from 
 the colony to the United States. The principal articles 
 have been gum, in small quantities, a few hides, and 
 some bones. With the exception of gold, on which 
 
MEL 
 
 1342 
 
 MEL 
 
 there is a duty of 60 cents per ounce (2s. 6d.), none are 
 liable to duty. 
 
 iMPpBIS, EXPOETS, AKD POPFL^TIOIT OF THE CoioNY OP 
 ViCTOEti PE0.M 1839 TO 1853, BOTH INOLDSIVE. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Importa. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Total of 
 external 
 trade. 
 
 Popiilntl<}D, 
 average 
 of year. . 
 
 1889 
 
 £205,000 
 
 892,000 
 
 886,000 
 
 264,000 
 
 188,000 
 
 151,000 
 
 248,000 
 
 816,000 
 
 433,000 
 
 '874,000 
 
 480,000 
 
 745,000 
 
 1,056,437 
 
 4,048,896 
 
 15,842,637 
 
 16,557,404 
 
 £78,000 
 
 ' 165,000 
 
 189,000 
 
 204,000 
 
 278,010 
 
 257,000 
 
 464,000 
 
 425,000 
 
 669,000 
 
 675,000 
 
 , 756,000 
 
 1,042,000 
 
 1.423,909 
 
 7,461,.549 
 
 8,946,096 
 
 10,109,292 
 
 £288,000' 
 
 ' rmn ■ 
 
 1S40 
 
 
 1841 
 
 ,474,000 
 
 , 46^,goo 
 
 461,000 
 
 408,000 
 
 712,000 
 
 41,000, 
 
 1,107,000 
 
 1,049,000 
 
 1,285,000 
 
 1,787,000 
 
 2,4S0,346 
 
 11,495,445 
 
 24,788,783 
 
 26,666,696 
 
 , 14,000 
 19,000 
 22,000 
 24,000 
 28,000 
 34,000 
 
 '- 42,000 
 50,000 
 60,000 
 70,000 
 90,000 
 180,000 
 
 232,600 
 
 1842 
 
 1843 
 
 1844 
 
 1845 
 
 1846 
 
 1847 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 
 
 1850 
 
 1851 
 
 1852 
 
 1853 
 
 1834 
 
 
 The foUov^ing statement exhibits the quantity of 
 gold exported from the several ports in Australia in 
 each year from the commencement df the gold discov- 
 eries to the end of the year 1855 ; the exports chiefly 
 destined for Great Britain and colonial possessions : 
 
 Go!d exported from New South Wales. 
 
 Qoantity. 
 
 Value. 
 
 1851 29th May to 31st Dec; 
 1852 
 
 Oz. dwts. grs. 
 144,120 17 16 
 962,873 16 19 
 548,062 19 21 
 237,910 13 23 
 • 64,884 14 3 
 
 $2,841,680 
 18,000,880 
 8,905,855 
 3,866,045 
 1,046,250 
 
 1853 
 
 1854 
 
 1865 
 
 Total 
 
 
 $84,160,710 
 
 
 
 Gold exported from Victoria. 
 
 QoanUtj. 
 
 Value. 
 
 1851 
 
 Oz. dwta. grs. 
 145,137 3 12 
 1,988,526 10 18 
 2,497,723 15 16 
 2,144,699 9 19 
 2,575,746 4 17 
 
 $2,19.3,886 
 80.678,640 
 43,322,646 
 41,277,750 
 56,519,900 
 
 1862 
 
 1853 
 
 1864 
 
 1855 
 
 Total 
 
 $174,292,820 
 
 Av'ge during last 4 years 
 
 
 $43,573,205 
 
 
 To the preceding statement "vve annex an official 
 return of all the gold coined at the mint in Great 
 Britain each year from January 1, 1846, to December 
 31, 1855: 
 
 Gold coined in Great Britain in — 
 
 1846 $21,674,556 
 
 1S47 25,792.200 
 
 1848 12,259,995 
 
 1849 10,889,775 
 
 18,50 7,454,181 
 
 18,51 22,002,055 
 
 1852 43,711,851 
 
 1863 $59,761,955 
 
 1854 20,760,916 
 
 1865 46,043,816 
 
 Total... $269,350,299 
 
 Average $26,935,029 
 
 For further details, see the Articles Colonies, 
 PKECiotrs Metals, and California. Here, as in 
 other parts of Australia, wool, down to the discovery 
 of the gold fields, was the principal article of produce 
 and export. And it is seen from the following state- 
 ment that its exportation went on increasing down to 
 the present j-ear. 
 
 AnoOUNT OP THE 'Wool. SntPPED DUEING THE TeAES END- 
 AOOOOHT oil- ^^^ ^^^^ OOTOISEE, 1863, 1854. 
 
 18S3. 1854. 
 
 Melbourne ?,870T31 
 
 Geelong '-"".M" 
 
 Portland ?'ol?'oj- 
 
 PortMry l«,8to 
 
 Port Albert 336,830 
 
 lbs. 
 
 11,104,180 
 
 5,6*f,400 
 
 4,162,482 
 
 1,456,300 
 
 232,876 
 
 22,598,688 
 
 
 ExpoBTS OP ViCTOEiA, 1845-1868. 
 
 
 Years. 
 
 Produce of 
 '■ Victoria. 
 
 Britisli 
 
 Produce of 
 
 Britisli 
 Colonies. 
 
 Produce of 
 foreign 
 states. 
 
 Totals. 
 
 184^ 
 
 ■1846 
 1847' 
 ,1848 
 1849 
 1860 
 1861 
 1852. 
 1853 
 
 £461,792 
 
 '409;8!8 
 
 652,182 
 
 657,919, 
 
 737,067 
 
 1,022,0S4 
 
 1,882,267 
 
 7,387,925 
 
 10,430,964 
 
 £8,479 
 
 10,162 
 
 t 13,450 
 
 18,210 
 
 13,072 
 
 12,943 
 
 29,638 . 
 
 . 64,898 
 
 241,094 
 
 £100 
 
 vie 
 
 721 
 
 195 
 2,107 
 6,434 
 24,880 
 
 £8,226 
 6,286 
 2,989 
 2,064 
 4,466 
 6,592 
 9,002 
 62,292 
 
 865,165 
 
 £463,697 
 
 425,201 
 
 668,511 
 
 671,,359 
 
 765,326 
 
 1,041,796 
 
 1,422,909 
 
 7,461,649 
 
 11,061,643 
 
 Population of census 30tli April, 1854, 232,000 show- 
 ing that, exclusive of the excess of imraigrahts over 
 emigrants hj sea, the population had gained 17,253 by 
 overland arrivals and other causes. 
 
 Account op the Numbee and Tonnage of the Ships 
 
 ENTERED InWAED IN THE PORTS OP VICTORIA IN 1861, 
 1862, AND 1S53, SPECIFYING THK COUNTRIES TO WHICH 
 THEV BELONGED, AND THE NUMBEE AND TONhAGB OP 
 . THOSE BKLONGENG TO EACH. 
 
 
 1851. . 
 
 , ■ 185S. 
 
 1883. 1 
 
 
 Sl;i])B. . Tons. 
 
 Shl|..s. l-'^oiifl. 
 
 Ship.. 
 
 Tons, 
 
 U. Kingdom... 
 British colonies 
 United States.. 
 Other for. states 
 
 95 
 591 
 
 8 
 23 
 
 64,621 
 
 67,136 
 
 746 
 
 6,924 
 
 251 
 
 1,364 
 
 13 
 
 29 
 
 168,919 
 
 225,446 
 
 6,820 
 
 8,031 
 
 680 
 
 1,740 
 119 
 105 
 
 284,719 
 351,066 
 63,988 
 81,700 
 
 Totals 
 
 712 
 
 129,426 
 
 1,657 1408.216 
 
 2,594 
 
 721,473 
 
 Total 21,966,104 
 
 A continuous high price of wool in the English 
 markets will afiford great encouragement to the set- 
 tlers to struggle with these two tendencies so greatly 
 deteriorative to our wool ; and the manufacturers of 
 Great Britain will have to afford that encouragement, 
 or they must graduaUy teach themselves to look else- 
 where for a supply. 
 
 Scale (j/' Commercial Charges adopted at a Special Geti- 
 eral Meeting of the Melbourne Chamber of Commerce, 
 lith May, 1854. 
 
 Commissions. — On cash payments, when not in funds, 
 5 per cent. ; on cash payments when in funds, 2^ per 
 cent. ; on purchase and shipment of gold dust, 1 per 
 cent. ; on purchase and shipment of gold dust, if 
 drawn against, 2^ per cent. 
 
 On the amount of invoice in either case. 
 On purchase and shipment of merchandise and 
 on other purchases when not iu funds, 5 per cent. ; 
 on purchase and shipment of merchandise and on 
 other purchases when in funds, 2J per cent. ; on pri- 
 vate sales, including the purchase of bills for remit- 
 tance, 5 per cent. ; on guaranty of sales, including 
 remittances, 5 per cent. ; on goods received for sale 
 and reshipped, and on consignments of merchandise 
 withiirawn, on invoice value, 1\ per cent. ; on debts, 
 rents, and other accounts collected, recovered, and re- 
 mitted, 5 per cent. ; on granting of letters of credit, 2J 
 per cent. ; on letters of credit acted upon, an additional 
 charge of 2J per cent. ; on freight or charter procured 
 for vessels, and freight or passage-money collected, 5 
 per cent. ; on freight paid at port of departure, 2^ per 
 cent. ; on ships' disbursements and outfits when not in 
 funds, 5 per cent. \ on ships' disbursements and outfits 
 when in funds, 2J per cent. ; on guaranty of captains' 
 drafts on owners, taken for balance of ships' disburse- 
 ments, 5 per cent. ; on money obtained on bottomry or 
 respondentia, 5 per cent. ; on insurance effected, or or- 
 ders written for insurance, on the assured value, \ per 
 cent. ; on insurance losses, partial or total, settled, or 
 on premiums recovered, 5 per cent. 
 
 All sales of goods understood to be guarantied, un- 
 less there be special orders to the contrarj-. 
 
 Guaranty on security for contracts, 5 per cent. ; 
 acting as trustee on assignments, 6 per cent. ; on ad- 
 vances on produce for shipment, 2J per cent. 
 
 Auctioneers' commission and brokerage to be charged 
 when incurred. 
 
 Advances and current accounts not liquidated at the 
 end of the season, March 31st, the balance to be charged 
 as a fresh advance, subject to a commission of 5 per 
 cent. 
 
 Iwterest.—Oxi. advances for duty , freight, and lighter- 
 age, and on amounts occurring per annum, 10 per cent. 
 Cliarges. — For passing accounts with the govern- 
 ment for emigrant ships, i£21 ; for entering ship in- 
 ward at the custom-house, when the original port of 
 departure is Australia, Van Clemen's Land, or New 
 Zealand, £1 2s.; for clearing ship outward, when 
 
MEM 
 
 1843 
 
 MEM 
 
 the port of destination Is Australia, Van Diemen's 
 Land, or New Zealand^ £1 2s. j for entering ship in- 
 ward from other ports, £a 5s. ; for clearing ship out- 
 ward, £6 5s.; for attending delivery of cargo from 
 lighters, and giving noticei to consignees, 16s. per day j 
 fee foreachi surveyor within the city, £X Is. ; fee for 
 survey of hatches and stowage of cargo, £1 Is. ; fee 
 for survey of hull of vessel^ S.h 5s. ; on wool, for re- 
 ceiving, weighing, marking, and delivering, id. per 
 load ; in addition. to the tare on wool, an allowance for 
 draft of 1 lb. per owt. 
 
 PiLOTAOK Kates at Melbocene, 1866. 
 
 
 ,„ .,. 
 
 Ssillng 
 VeneT. 
 
 StesB- 
 
 Moi- 
 imuin. 
 
 Mini- 
 tnum. 
 
 From without the Heads to Mel- 
 , bourne or Q-eelong, and moe 
 
 «6/*6(2,. per ton 
 
 Ffem within the Heads to' Mel- 
 bourne or G-eelong, and mce 
 
 ^6/-8d, per ton ,; 
 
 Int? or out of Port Albert, p. ton 
 Into or out of all other ports — 
 Between Melbourne & Geelong. 
 
 g. d. 
 .1 8 
 
 U 9 
 
 .'9 
 
 6 
 6 
 
 >. d. 
 
 10 
 6 
 
 o,:6^ 
 
 a 4 
 4 
 
 100 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 40 
 40 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 The above rates include two rembvcs by the pilots.' , 
 
 Exemptions. — All ships belonging to heripnajesty, all 
 ships outfitting to or, refitting from the Ssheries, all 
 ships employed in the coasting trs^de, all ships regu- 
 larly trading between any port pf Yictpri^ and of any 
 of the colonies of New South Wales, Van Dierapn's 
 Land, New Zealand, West, and South Australia, (the 
 
 master of such ship holding a certidcate from the Pilot 
 Board that he is competent to act as pilot to such 
 trader), unless the services of a pilot shall have been 
 actually received ; and all ships not having actually 
 received the services of a pilot. 
 
 The basin of port Philip, which receives the Yarra- 
 Yarra, and other rivers, is a large circular hay, or inlet 
 of the sea, whence the colony derived its former name. 
 It has a narrow entrance, not more than If miles in 
 width, partly occupied with rocks and shoals. A light- 
 house has been erected near the extremity of Point 
 Lonsdale, nearthe west side of the entrance, lat. 88° 
 16' S., long. 140° 40' E., and another on Point Gelli- 
 brand, near the head of the bay, between Williams- 
 town and' the month of the Yarra^Yarra Eiver, lat. 37° 
 52' S., long. 144° 55' E. The bay is about 40 miles 
 in depth from south to north, and where widest is 
 aboiit.40 miles from east to west. Jt is said to cover 
 an area of above 800 square miles, and might accom- 
 modate al^ the navies of allthe countries' in the world. 
 The whole trade of the colony, which is already very 
 extensive, and is increasing with extraordinary ra- 
 pidity, is at . present ^carried on from this basin. And 
 from its advantageous situation, and its stretching so 
 far inland, it is probable it will always continue to en- 
 gross the largest share of the trade, though, no doubt, 
 it will be parti}**, ^so, carried on from other ports. 
 Geelong, at the head of a deep bay on the west side 
 of the basin, has a large population, and a very con- 
 sideralile trade. 
 
 COMMKEOB OP THE UNITED STATES WITH AuSTEALIA, PKOM OpTOBEE 1, 1887, TO JOLY 1, 1856. 
 
 Yaara ending 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Impoyli. . 
 
 'wlioreof there was in Bullion 
 t and Specie. 
 
 Tonnage Cleared. 
 
 Domestic. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Exported. 
 
 Imported. 
 
 Ameriean. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Bept.30, 1838 
 
 1889.....:.. 
 1840 1 
 
 Total. .. 
 
 1341..... . 
 
 1842 
 
 9 mos. 1848 : 
 
 June 80, 1844 
 
 1845.. 
 
 1846 
 
 1847 
 
 Total.... 
 
 Juno 80, 1852 
 
 1S5S 
 
 1864 
 
 1855 
 
 18ij6 
 
 $33,646 
 
 6,790 
 
 84,847 
 
 $816 . 
 $6,022 
 
 $84,362 
 
 6,790 
 
 90,869 
 
 $30,588 
 58,344 
 122,141 
 
 
 
 620 
 1,063 
 1,363 
 
 
 $126,183 
 
 $68,784 
 52,651 
 67,805 
 
 .. 29,667 
 
 33,289 
 
 $6,838 
 $112,657 
 11,282 ' 
 "790 
 
 $182,021 
 
 $176,841 
 62,651 
 69,087 
 
 , 29,667 
 70,311 
 
 ■ 48,783 
 88,289 
 
 $211,028 
 
 $86,706 
 28,698 
 44,910 
 
 "m 
 
 $101,621 
 
 6,720 
 
 
 $87,125 
 
 8,041 
 
 V,787 
 590 
 415 
 
 
 $855,600 
 
 $196,551 
 4,148,828 
 2i999',685 
 2,708,048 
 4,909,925 
 
 $124,579 
 
 $11,71? 
 188,174 
 149,444 
 820,506 
 126,047 
 
 $480,079 
 
 $208,267 
 4,287',002 
 8,149,079 
 8,028.549 
 5,084,972 
 
 $160,431 
 
 $214,262 
 228,693 
 184,462 
 
 $108,341 
 
 $7,498 
 
 8,112 
 
 $87,125 
 
 $197,681 
 10^960 
 
 2,792 
 
 9,318 
 56,944 
 39,421 
 43,853 
 42,865 
 
 17,016 
 13,084 
 4.989 
 2,479 
 4,722 
 
 Memel, a commercial town of east Prussia, lat. 
 of light-house 55° 43' 7" N., long. 21° 6' 2" E. Pop- 
 ulation, in 1846, 9400. Memel is situated on the north- 
 east side of the great baj', denominated the Currische 
 Haf, near its junction with the Baltic. It is, conse- 
 quently, the principal entrepSt of the countrj' traversed 
 -by the Niemen, and as such enjoys a prettj' extensive 
 commerce. Tlie harbor of Memel is laTge and safe ; 
 but the bai- at the mouth of the Currische Haf has sel- 
 dom more than 17 feet water, and sometimes not more 
 than 13 or 14 feet ; so that ships drawing more than 16 
 feet water are frequently obliged to load and unload a 
 part of their cargoes in the roads, where the anchorage 
 is but indifferent, particularly when the wind is north or 
 north-west. A light-house, originally 75, but now 100 
 feet in height, has been erected on the north-east side 
 of the entrance to the harbor. The light, which is 
 fixed and powerful, may he distinguished in clear 
 weather at more than 20 miles' distance. The outer 
 buoy lies in 6 fathoms water, about a mile without the 
 light-house, which bears from it south-east by east f 
 east. The channel thence to the harbor is marked by 
 white buoys on the north, and red on the south side. 
 Three beacons to the north of the town, when brought 
 into a line, lead directly into the harbor. Inasmuch, 
 however, as the channel is subject to frequent changes. 
 
 both in depth and direction, it is always prudent, on 
 arriving at the outer buoy, to heave-to for a pilot ; but 
 this is not obligatory ; and the Prussian authorities 
 have issued directions for ships entering without a 
 pilot, which may be found in Nokie's Sailing Direc- 
 tions for the Cattegat and Baltic, p. 36. Timber forms 
 the principal article of export ; for though that of 
 Dantzio be considered better, it is generally cheaper, 
 and almost always more abundant, at Memel. Here, 
 as at Dantzic, the best qualitj' of all sorts of wood ar 
 tides is called kkron, or crown, the 2d, brack, and the 
 3d, bracks brack. Large quantities of hemp and flax 
 are also exported, as are bristles, hides, linseed (the 
 finest for crushing brought to England), wax, pitch, 
 tar, etc. The exports of grain are sometimes very 
 considerable. The wheat of Lithuania is reckoned 
 the best. All flax and hemp shipped from Memel 
 must be bracked, or assorted, by sworn selectors. See 
 Flax and Hemp. The imports consist principally of 
 salt, herrings, coffee, sugar, spices, dye-woods, tobac- 
 co, tea, iron, cotton stuffs and yam, cutlery, wine, etc. 
 Merchants at Memel generally send their bills to 
 Konigsberg to be sold, charging their correspondents 
 with 1 per cent, for bank commission, postages, etc. 
 The navigation generally closes about the latter end 
 of December, and opens about the middle of March, 
 
MER 
 
 1344 
 
 MER 
 
 Mercantile Agency System, U. S.— The Mer- 
 cantile Agency is a name applied to various houses in 
 the leading cities of the United States, and in Montreal 
 and London. The principal object of the Agency is to 
 supply, to annual subscribers, information respecting 
 the character, capacity, and pecuniary condition of 
 persons asking credit. The valuable services it has 
 rendered to the domestic trade of the country-, as a 
 check upon our credit system, are acknowledged by 
 the mercantile community. Its history, together with 
 an explanation of its mode of operation, may not be 
 without interest to the general reader and foreign 
 merchant. 
 
 The Agency was first established in 1841 in the city 
 of New York, by Mr. Lewis Tappan, and was conduct- 
 ed by him, upon a comparatively limited scale, until 
 1846, when Mr. Benjamin Douglass became bis coad- 
 jutor, and assumed the chief management. Front this 
 time the business increased rapidly, and assumed a 
 permanent and recognized position among the mercan- 
 tile institutions of the country. 
 
 Our limits will not permit us to trace, step by step, 
 the growth of the Agency, or to dwell upon the per- 
 sonal aspects of its history. Founded upon the inter- 
 ests of merchants, and conducted from the beginning 
 by men of ability, capacity' for work, high character, 
 and thorough knowledge of the wants of mercantile 
 business, its progress has been uninterrupted. From 
 New York it has extended its branches and associate 
 oihces to seventeen other cities, viz. ; Philadelphia, 
 Boston, Montreal, Baltimore, Richmond, Petersburg, 
 Charleston, New Orleans, Pittsburgh, Cleveland, Cin- 
 cinnati, Chicago, Milwaukie, Dubuque, St. Louis, De- 
 troit, and London, England. All these branches are 
 under the direction of the proprietors at New York, and 
 are governed by uniform rules. Adaily interchange 
 of information facilitates the answering of the inquiries 
 of the respective subscribers for all parts of the country. 
 
 It is obvious that the gigantic labor of reporting the 
 business men of Canada and the United States could 
 not be performed by any one office, nor could the ex- 
 pense be borne by the merchants of any one city. It 
 is performed by means of their system of branch ofhces, 
 each supported by the subscriptions of the merchants, 
 bankers, and manufacturers of the city in which it is 
 located. The district allotted to each office is the 
 country'' of which its city is the centre of trade. For 
 instance, the Boston office reports that portion of the 
 New England States of which it has the chief trade ; 
 the Dubuque, the greater part of Iowa; the Milwau- 
 kie, Wisconsin; the Charleston, South Carolina and 
 Georgia ; while the Ohio Valley is divided between the 
 offices at Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, and LouisA'ille. 
 
 This subdivision of labor is the means of securing a 
 minuteness and accuracy of reports, which, to anyone 
 unacquainted with the machinery of the Agency, is 
 very great. The operations of a branch office do not 
 embrace a large extent of country. They are usually 
 limited to the 150 or 200 counties, the majority of 
 whose traders buy their goods chiefly at the city where 
 it is established. In each of these counties the princi- 
 pal of the office secures one, two, three, or more corre- 
 spondents, the number varying with the population, 
 and the division of the local trade among towns. These 
 correspondents are selected for their integrity, long 
 residence in the county, general acquaintance, business 
 experience, and judgment. Their duties are to advise 
 the Agency promptly, by letter or telegraph, of every 
 change affecting the standing or responsibility of 
 traders ; to notify it of suits, protests, mortgages, 
 losses by fire, indorsements, or otherwise ; to answer 
 all special inquiries addressed to them by any of the 
 associate offices ; and to revise before each trade sea- 
 son, or oftener if required, the previous reports of ev- 
 ery trader in the county, noting any change for the bet- 
 ter or worse. No report is considered full unless it 
 embraces, in regard to each trader, his business, the 
 
 length of time he has pursued it, his success or the 
 contrary, his age, character, habits, capacity, means, 
 prospects, property out of business, real estate, judg- 
 ments, mortgages, or other liens upon his property. 
 The greatest care is taken in selecting the agents, who 
 famish the bulk of the information to the Agency. 
 Their integrity of character, freedom from prejudice, 
 and from any entangling connections with mercantile 
 men, which might bias them in their reports, their 
 social position, influence, and opportunities for know- 
 ing thoroughly the men they are reporting, are all 
 taken carefully into consideration, and the very great 
 success and expansion of the business is, we have lit- 
 tle doubt, to be attributed, in a great measure, to the 
 judgment and careful discrimination which has been 
 exercised in this particular. Nevertheless, after all 
 this care in the selection of the agents, prudence would 
 seem to require some check upon them. This is done 
 by traveling agents who are sent through the country, 
 and who report the traders upon their own resources, 
 and generally without any knowledge of what the 
 local agent has previously' reported. Their reports 
 are compared carefully with those of the local agent, 
 and any discrepancy thoroughly investigated. Again, 
 much information of a most valuable character is de- 
 rived from special correspondents, as bank cashiers, 
 insurance agents, notaries puldic, sheriffs, and others, 
 whose official position gives them peculiar opportuni- 
 ties of knowing not only the resources and cliaracter 
 of business men, but also the degree of promptness 
 with which they meet their business obligations. An- 
 other source of information is that afforded by mer- 
 chants themselves, who frequently make " statements" 
 of their own affairs from their books. These are given 
 under their own signature, with the avowed purpose 
 of having them used by the Agency as a basis for 
 credit. The leading facts contained in such "state- 
 ments" are of course always made matter of special in- 
 vestigation. As, for instance, a merchant in his "state- 
 ment" says he owns a farm or a number of town lots, 
 in a certain county, worth a certain sum. The records 
 of the county are examined to see if any such property 
 stands in his name ; the estimate he puts upon it is 
 compared with that given by persons acquainted with 
 the value of property in that locality ; and, lastly, a 
 careful examination is made to ascertain if any incum- 
 brance exists against it not mentioned in the volun- 
 tar3'-statement of the merchant. All the other facts in 
 his statement are scrutinized in like manner, and it is 
 thus subjected to a very searching analysis. Picports 
 obtained with the care thus exhibited, and from such 
 a variety of sources, roust certainly approach as near 
 perfection as is practicable under any circumstances. 
 
 The records of each office are arranged according to 
 counties. Each partnership and individual name is 
 indexed for convenience of reference on inquiry being 
 made by subscribers. The reports coming in daily are _ 
 copied without delay in the book for the county to 
 which they refer, and transmitted by mail or express 
 to the next or central office. All unfavorable informa- 
 tion is promptly copied on .slips, and sent simultaneous- 
 ly to all the offices whose subscribers' interests are 
 probably involved therein. Serious embarrassments, 
 assignments, and failures, are telegraphed. The mass 
 of information thus contributed by the branches to the 
 central office passes into the hands of the chief clerk, 
 is distributed by him to the heads of departments, by 
 them in their turn parceled out among the clerks, and 
 by these last recorded and indexed in the proper books. 
 The records of the New York office of the Mercantile 
 Agency contain the aggregate knowledge of traders 
 possessed by the seventeen most extensive mercantile 
 communities in North America. 
 
 A comparison of the system of the Mercantile Agen- 
 cy with that of the " Commercial Traveler," which it 
 superseded, is much to the advantage of the former, as 
 regards the item of cost as well as information. From 
 
MER 
 
 1345 
 
 MER 
 
 a large dry-goods house wo learn that, in old times, its 
 expenses for travelers counted by thousands, and that 
 it T^as, to a vexatious extent, in the power of clerks, 
 who were anxions to make sales, and whose good opin- 
 ion was too often won by civilities than by respdnsi- 
 bilitj'. Now it holds an efficient check Upon its sales- 
 men, who travel not to choose customers, but to make 
 collections, and obtain orders. 
 
 It has been urged as an objection' to the Agency that 
 it is sect'it in its operations, and that to the casual ob- 
 server it partakes of the nature of a system of eispion- 
 age, seeminglj' at variance with that candor and love 
 of open dealing so Characteristic of our commercial 
 usages. This objection, with the expliinations herein 
 given, will appear utterly futile. It is necessarily of a 
 confidential, and, to a certain extent, of a secret nature, 
 because such cotnmunications must always be so. 
 What merchant, banker, or president of an insurance 
 company, who asked for and received such informa- 
 tion as' that kept bythd AgCncJ^J- f rom a business cor- 
 
 respondent, would think of using it in any other" way 
 than as confidential, and to be kept strictly secret? 
 What would his correspondent say if his communica- 
 tions were used as though they were not so regarded ? 
 Who would give such information, however pure the 
 inquirer's motive might be, unless he were assured that 
 he could implicitly rely upon this ? 
 
 The principal Mercantile Agency established in 
 the United States is that in the city of New York. 
 Branches and associate offices are at all the following 
 points : New York, Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, 
 Cincinnati, Louisville, St. Louis^New Orleans, Charles- 
 ton, Pittsburgh, Richmond, Chicago, Cleveland, Ohio; 
 Detroit, Michigan ; Dnbuque, Iowa ; Milwankie, Wis- 
 consin; Montreal, Canada East; London, England. 
 
 [It is proper to add that the editors do not entirely 
 coincide with the writer of the above as to the merits 
 of the Mercantile Agency system, but insert the article 
 as being valuable and reliable as to statements and 
 statistics. — Eds. Cj)c. of Com.'] 
 
 STATISTITS of BAIilKllTrPTOY IN TUB TjNITKD STATES FOB THE Y^BAi 185T. 
 
 I 
 
 New York City, New York* . 
 
 Albliily ' ...: ... 
 
 Buffalo....... i..: '. 
 
 Oswego ,.,...,......, 
 
 Rochester 
 
 Syracuse 
 
 Troy 
 
 Utica 
 
 Balance of the State 
 
 Boston, MaBsachusetts 
 
 Balance of the State 
 
 Philadelphia, Pennsylvania . 
 Pittsbturgh , 
 
 Balance of the State. ...... 
 
 Chicago, Illinois. .......'.... 
 
 Balance of the State.. . . .. . 
 
 Cincinnati, Ohio 
 
 Cleveland 
 
 Balance ,6f the State 
 
 New Orleans, Louisiana. .. . . 
 
 Balance of the State 
 
 St. Louis, Missouri 
 
 Balance of the State 
 
 Providence, Rhode Island 
 
 Balance of the State 
 
 Baltimore, Maryland 
 
 Balance of the State 
 
 Detroit, Michigan 
 
 Balance of the State 
 
 Dubuque, Jpwa 
 
 Balance of the State 
 
 Louisville, Kentucky 
 
 Balance of the State.. 
 
 Charleston, South Carolina 
 
 Balance of the State. . . , 
 
 Territories . , 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Bichmond, Virginia 
 
 ' Balance of the State 
 
 Milff aukie, Wisconsin 
 
 Balatu^e of the State 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 New Jersey. 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 Maine 
 
 ^ew Hampshire 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Delaware and. District of Columbia. 
 
 Arkansas . 
 
 Alabama • 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Florida 
 
 Texas 
 
 Total United States 
 
 Toronto, Canada West 
 
 Balance of Canada West 
 
 Montreal, Canada East 
 
 Balance of Canada East 
 
 Nova Scotia and New Brunswick , . , 
 
 Total British Provinces 
 
 Total United States and British Prov. 
 
 stores. 
 
 13,864 
 
 ■ *721 
 
 T03 
 
 iOi 
 
 408 
 
 305 
 
 891 
 
 298 
 
 15,875 
 
 4,374 
 
 10,257 
 
 7,404 
 
 1,374 
 
 13.526 
 
 1^350 
 
 11,459 
 
 l2,518 
 
 K50 
 
 15,748' 
 
 2,230 
 
 1,607 
 1,680 
 4,851 
 1,100 
 
 566 
 1,970 
 3,368 
 
 649 
 3,706 
 
 408 
 4,308 
 1,080 
 6,715 
 
 900 
 ,2,538 
 1,697 
 7,337 
 1,583 
 7,781 
 
 683 
 8,757 
 3,233 
 4,433 
 4,209 
 4,912 
 2,700 
 1,962 
 5.839 
 2,727 
 
 1,179 
 
 2,235 
 
 4,387 
 
 783 
 
 2,447 
 
 204,061 
 
 383 
 
 3,444 
 
 909 
 
 1,764 
 
 1,797 
 
 8,303 
 
 812,364 
 
 Failures. 
 
 916 
 
 36 
 
 72 
 
 13 
 
 31 
 
 29 
 
 24 
 
 20 
 
 447 
 
 263 
 
 230 
 
 269 
 
 ^26 
 IIT 
 199 
 96 
 30 
 220 
 53 
 
 49 
 29 
 £5 
 4 
 58 
 41 
 84 
 98 
 36 
 
 108 
 19 
 31 
 31 
 24 
 03 
 
 189 
 30 
 90 
 19 
 
 101 
 62 
 86 
 61 
 81 
 70 
 67 
 32 
 20 
 
 16 
 11 
 40 
 7 
 16 
 
 4937 
 25 
 
 109 
 15 
 15 
 
 186 
 
 6123 
 
 $135,129,000 
 
 838,000 
 
 4,224,000 
 
 161,000 
 
 850,000 
 
 436,000 
 
 1,607,000 
 
 585,000 
 
 . 6,783,000 
 
 41,-010,000 
 
 2,611,000 
 
 82,964,000 
 
 1,188,000 
 
 2,283,000 
 
 6,672,000 
 
 2,766,000 
 
 3,898,00,0 
 
 613,000 
 
 2,367,000 
 
 0,285,000 
 
 246,000 
 
 6,522,000 
 
 438,000 
 
 4,564,000 
 
 105,000 
 
 8,206,000 
 
 725,000 
 
 1,614,000 
 
 1,004,000 
 
 785,000 
 
 1,333,000 
 
 757,000 
 
 1,007,000 
 
 922,000 
 
 806,000 
 
 1,706,000 
 
 1,686,000 
 
 781,000 
 
 982,000 
 
 380,000 
 
 1,244,000 
 
 1,171,000 
 
 1,142,000 
 
 1,129,000 
 
 1,060,000 
 
 928,000 
 
 473,000 
 
 925,000 
 
 261,000 
 
 309,000 
 
 296,000 
 445,000 
 712,000 
 250,000 
 393,000 
 
 $291,760,000 
 2,714,000 
 2,172,000 
 528,000 
 1,267,000 
 1,876,000 
 
 $8,061,000 
 
 $299,801,000 
 
 Ordinary Failures. 
 
 600 
 
 18 
 
 53 
 
 12' 
 
 27 
 
 22 
 
 12 
 
 9 
 
 378 
 
 212 
 
 203 
 
 165 
 
 22 
 
 204 
 
 82 
 
 149 
 
 09 
 
 24 
 
 178 
 
 36 
 
 25 
 17 
 22 
 3 
 39 
 37 
 24 
 71 
 21 
 79 
 12 
 24 
 23 
 20 
 46 
 114 
 22 
 70 
 14 
 92 
 42 
 72 
 50 
 71 
 60 
 49 
 21 
 18 
 
 14 
 10 
 28 
 5 
 12 
 
 3703 
 17 
 73 
 12 
 13 
 21 
 
 136 
 
 3839 
 
 Liabilities. 
 
 $83,951,000 
 480,000 
 2,795,000(, 
 156,000" 
 707,000 
 ,268,000 
 682,000 
 ,376,000,. 
 
 5,565; bob' 
 
 32,256,'0i)0 
 
 1,711,000 
 
 16,9S6,000 
 
 9i8,000 
 
 2,005,000 
 
 4,571,000 
 
 2,033,000 
 
 ,2,887,000 
 
 390,000 
 
 - 1,742,000 
 
 4,388,000 
 
 26,000 
 
 8,586,000 
 247,000 
 
 2,136,000 
 60,000 
 
 2,472,000 
 708,500 
 
 1,199,000 
 722,000 
 463,000 
 
 1,059,000 
 412,000 
 496,000 
 812,000 
 246,000 
 
 1,302,000 
 
 1,411,000 
 694,000 
 749,000 
 812,000 
 
 1,160,000 
 668,000 
 836,000 
 995,000 
 832,000 
 776,000 
 382,000 
 681,000 
 258,000 
 
 285,000 
 
 265,000 
 435,000 
 018,000 
 220,000 
 353,000 
 
 $192,305,600 
 
 1,270,000 
 
 1,631,000 
 
 446,000 
 
 66,000 
 
 1,863,000 
 
 $4,775,000 
 
 $197,080,500 
 
 How tna&y have, ar- ^ 
 ranged witli Creditor^, 
 And at what Average. 
 
 218, average 51 ctB. 
 
 ] 0, average 42 cts. 
 
 [1 13, average 43 cte. 
 
 8, average 48' eta. 
 
 4, average 31 cts. 
 
 3, average 48 cts. 
 
 5, average 47 cts. 
 
 182, average 48 cts. 
 
 ,63,, average 54 cts. 
 23, average 47 cts. 
 
 11, average 54 cts. 
 
 64, average 48 cts. 
 10, average 47 cts. 
 
 8, average 55 cts. 
 fl amounting to 
 \$18,000, pays 50 c. 
 
 4, average 50 cts. 
 
 12, average 40 cts. 
 17, average 44 cts. 
 
 13, average 41 cts. 
 4, average 44 cts. 
 
 8, average 42' cts. 
 
 15, average 49 cts. 
 3, average 58 cts. 
 
 3, average 73 cts. 
 
 1 amounting to 
 over $100,000, will 
 ! pay nearly all. 
 
 2, average 50 cts. 
 
 8, average 52 cts. 
 
 8, average 58 cts. 
 8, average 45 cts. 
 4, average 52 cts. 
 8, average 36 cts. 
 3, average 50 cts. 
 
 4Q 
 
 Includes Brooklyn and 'Williamsburg. 
 
MER 
 
 1346 
 
 MER 
 
 Mercantile La'W. Among the ancient Eomans, 
 trade and manufactures were accounted degrading and 
 dishonorable employments ; and what was done in that 
 waj' was performed by slaves. None who had been 
 employed in trade, or whose father had been a slave, 
 could be chosen into the senate ; and no senator, or 
 father of a senator, could, by law, keep a bark above 
 a certain small burden, in order, no doubt, to prevent 
 his engaging in commerce. The Comorists likewise 
 despised trade ; and at the Council of Melfi it was 
 solemnlj' determined that none could exercise any 
 traffic, nor follow the profession of the law, with a safe 
 conscience. 
 
 Th^se notions, however, were singular, and very 
 different from the poliej* which has ever prevailed in 
 England. According to a law of Athelstan, if any 
 merchant made three voyages on his own account be- 
 yond the British Channel, or narrow seas, he was en- 
 titled to the privilege of a Thane ;- and it is especially 
 provided by Magna Charta (c. 30), that all merchants, 
 unless publiclj' prohibited beforehand, shall have safe 
 conduct to depart from, to come into, or to tarry in 
 and go through the realm, for the exercise of mer- 
 chandise, without any unreasonable imposts, except in 
 time of war ; and that if a war breaks out with an- 
 other country, the merchants of that place shall be 
 attafihed, but in their person only, till the king is in- 
 formed how our merchants are treated in the land 
 with whicli we are at war ; and if our merchants are 
 secure, theirs shall be so too. Upon this Montesquieu 
 remarks, with admiration, that the English have made 
 the protection of foreign merchants one of the articles 
 of their national liberty ; and also that the English 
 know much better than any other people on earth how 
 to value at the same time these three things, religion, 
 liberty^ and xjommerce. These, indeed, are the com- 
 mon rights of mankind. They are also inseparably 
 connected together ; and as liberty, is the life of com- 
 merce, so commerce is in its turn the parent of man's 
 advantages, moral and physical, personal, and political. 
 Its protection and encouragement are now, therefore, 
 an established principle of the law of nations. 
 
 Trade and commerce being thus the immediate off- 
 spring of natural libertj-, the lex mercatoria, or the law 
 of merchants, is less a branch of this or that system 
 of municipal law, than the law of nations, or that uni- 
 versal law which reason teaches all men. It is, if one 
 may so call it, an ambnlatorj' system of civil law, not 
 confined to any one place or locality, but attaching to 
 the persons of men in all their commercial transac- 
 tions throughout the world ; the customof merchants 
 being ^verj'wliere acknowledged, as their persons and 
 property are by the law of nations everywhere pro- 
 tected. 
 
 Thus, not to enter here at large into all the details 
 of mercantile law, which will be found in other parts 
 of this work, divers sorts of writing used among mer- 
 chants and trading people in commercial transactions, 
 are sustained in our courts, after the example of other 
 States, although not executed with all the formalities 
 of common deeds. Missive letters, in re mercatoria, 
 are valid, although not holograph, and commissions 
 from merchant to merchant, though not signed before 
 witnesses ; nor do fitted accounts among merchants, 
 in mercantile matters, require the writer's name or 
 witnesses. But of aU obligations, bills of exchange, 
 which owe their origin to merchants, are .the most 
 favored. The risks and accidents of trade have also 
 caused particular favor to be extended to persons en- 
 Kaged therein, who have fallen into bankruptcy ; pro- 
 ^sion being made by statute for their entire discharge 
 on their surrendering their effects to their creditors. 
 See Laws of CeinMEBOE. , , , . , 
 
 Mercator Gerard, one of the most celebrated 
 geographers of his time, was born at Rupelmonde, m 
 1512. He applied himself with such industry to ge- 
 ography and mathematics that he is said to have fre- 
 
 quently forgotten to eat and drink. The Emperor 
 Charles V. had n particular esteem for him, and the 
 Duke de Juliers made him his cosmographer. He 
 composed a chronology, some geographical tables, and 
 an atlas, having engraved and colored the maps him- 
 self. He died in 1594. His method of laying down 
 charts is still used, and bears the name of Mercator's 
 Charts. 
 
 Mercator's Charts. The true inventor of these 
 charts is said to have been a Mr. Wright, who made 
 several voyages ; and in his absence Mercator pub- 
 lished the charts in his own name, 1556. — Pardon. 
 They are, however, now confidently ascribed to Mer- 
 cator's own ingenuity. In these charts the meridians 
 and parallels of latitude cut each other at right an- 
 gles, and are both represented by straight lines, en- 
 larging the degrees of latitude as they recede from the 
 equator. 
 
 Mercator's Chart, or Projection, is a representation 
 of the sphere on a plane, in which the meridians are 
 represented by equidistant parallel straight lines, and 
 the parallels of latitude also by straight lines perpen- 
 dicular to the meridians. This projection," which is uni- 
 versally adopted for nautical charts, by reason of the 
 facilities which it affords in navigation from the cir- 
 cumstance that the rhumb, or sailing course between 
 two points, is represented by a straight line, was in- 
 vented by Gerard Mercator (his true name was Kauff- 
 man, of which Mercator is the Latin equivalent), a 
 native of Rupelmonde, in East Flanders, bom in the 
 year 1512. But, though Mercator gave his name to 
 the projection, it does not appear that he knew the law 
 according to which the distance of the parallels from 
 the equator increases. The true principles of the con- 
 struction were found by Edward Wright, of Caius Col- 
 lege, Cambridge, who explained them in his treatise, 
 entitled The Correction of certain E-rrors in Navigation, 
 published in 1599, and are as follows : Suppose one of 
 the meridians on the globe to be divided into minutes 
 of a degree ; one of these, taken at any parallel of lati- 
 tude, will be to a minute of longitude, taken on that 
 parallel, as the radius of the equator to the radius of the 
 parallel ; that is, as radius to the cosine of the latitude, 
 or as the secant of the latitude to radius. This pro- 
 portion holds true on the map in this sense, that if a 
 minute of the equator be taken as the unit of a scale, 
 and that unit be considered as the radius of the tables, 
 then the representation of a minute of latitude will be 
 expressed by the number in the trigonometrical tables 
 which is the secant of that latitude. Hence, in the 
 map, while the degrees of longitude are all equal, the 
 degrees of latitude marked on the meridian form a 
 scale of which the distances go on increasing from the 
 equator toward the poles, each being (approximately) 
 the sum of the secants of all the minutes of latitude 
 in the degree. The numbers resulting from the addi- 
 tion of the secants of the successive minutes, reckoned 
 from the equator, form a scale of meridional parts, 
 which is given in all books of navigation. The very 
 remarkable property of this projection, namely, that 
 the divisions of the meridian are analogous to the ex- 
 cesses of the logarithmic tangents of half the respective 
 latitudes augmented by 45°, above the logarithm of 
 the radius, was discovered by Bond about the year 
 1645 ; but was first demonstrated by James Gregory, in 
 his Exercitationes Mathematical, published in 1668.— 
 Uke's Bid. 
 
 Mercator's Sailing is that which is performed 
 by Mercator's charts. 
 
 Merchant, a person who buys and sells commodi- 
 ties in gross, or deals in exchanges, or one who traffics 
 in the way of commerce, either by importation or ex- 
 portation. The merchants of London and Amsterdam 
 were accounted the most enterprising and richest in 
 the world. An attempt was made by Queen Anne's 
 ministry to exclude merchants from sitting in the 
 House of Commons, in 1711 ; but it failed. The Mer- 
 
MER 
 
 1347 
 
 MER 
 
 chant Adventurer's Society was established by the 
 Duke of Brabant in 1296. It extended to England in 
 Edward Ill.'a reign, and was formed into an English 
 corporation in 1564. — Haydn. 
 
 Laws of Merchants. — The laws controlling merchants 
 and commercial transactions are numerous, and are 
 treated of in detail in the article Laws of Commerce. 
 As an analysis of these laws, it may be stated, that 
 most of the European and American countries have 
 left uncontrolled the free action of the merchant. In 
 Lubec every merchant is required to be a citizen. 
 Kuesia has established numerous restrictions. The 
 body of merchants are divided into three guilds or 
 classes, to which none but Russian subjects or denizens 
 (t. e. naturalized foreigners) may belong. In each 
 guild a certain tax is imposed, and a determinate 
 amount of capital is required ; also, the nature and 
 extent of the commercial operations permitted have 
 proportioned limitations. Nearly every countrj', ex- 
 cept Great Britain, France, and the TJnited States, 
 prescribes the enrollment in a public register of com- 
 merce, of the name of the merchant, the nature of his 
 business, the name of each partner of the firm, and 
 the dormant partners included in the firm and com- 
 pany, the power conferred on any party to act per 
 procuration, and every particular connected with the 
 formation and dissolution of the partnership. In some 
 countries these details must be published in the gazette 
 and newspapers. This register is either established at 
 the tribunals of commerce or at the civil courts. Every 
 publicity is given to such enrollments ; and any per- 
 son, by paying a small fee, may obtain extracts from 
 them. The parties interdicted from engaging in trade 
 are, with a few exceptions,'onl3' those who are labor- 
 ing under a civil disqualification. 
 
 General RegulatioTis. — ^The institutions of guilds or 
 privileged companies are of Roman origin. Traces of 
 them still exist in London and in Scotland ; but the 
 convivial meetings in which are expended the grants, 
 which, in ancient times, they received from govern- 
 ment, are the only evidences of periodical revival. 
 The word " guild" was originally applied to a society 
 of merchants, as by the statutes of the guild in 1283, 
 and by the statute of William, c. 35, but out of them 
 arose all the different corporations of craftsmen. A 
 decree, arbitral, promulgated in Edinburg, dated from 
 " Halyruldhouse, thetwenty-twadayof Apryl, the yeir 
 of God, one thousand foure hundred fourscore three 
 years," thus expresses the union of merchants and 
 craftsmen in the guildry : " Toward the lang contro- 
 versies for the guildrie, it is finally, with common 
 consent, appoyntit, agreit, and concludit, that als weil 
 craftsmen as merchants sail be received and admitted 
 gUd brether, and the ane not to be refusit nor seclndit 
 therefra mair the uther, they being burgesses of the 
 burgh, als met and qualified thairfore ; and that gild- 
 brether to have liberty to use merchandice ;" and by 
 the same decree it is ordered, " That na manner of 
 person be gufferit to use merchandice or occupy the 
 hardiewark of any free craft within this burgh, or yet 
 to exerce the liberty and priviledge of the said burgh 
 without he be burgess and freeman of the same." 
 This decree was ratified in Parliament; and, there- 
 fore, after this period, the general right of the original 
 guilding, or society of merchants of the realm, was 
 abridged so far that they could not trade in Edinburg 
 unless they were admitted as burgesses. The com- 
 mercial regulations of Lubec are still founded on the 
 same system; the merchants are divided into nine 
 companies and colleges, and administrators, all of 
 which bear the stamp of antiquity. Russia, besides 
 the forming of merchants into guilds, divides com- 
 merce into various branches, and specifies what com- 
 mercial operations include, with some notices of 
 commerce with patent. France determines what are 
 acts of trade with regard to the competency of tribu- 
 nals of commerce. Holland, Wurtemburg, and a few 
 
 other countries, have similar determinations of what is 
 comprised in commercial operations. 
 
 Who may he Parties to Mercantile Contracts. — It was 
 once the doctrine of the English courts, that the law- 
 merchant did not apply to any contracts between par- 
 ties who were not merchants. But this view has 
 passed away ; and it has long been a well-established^ 
 rule in that oountrj' as well as this, that the law mer- 
 chant applies to mercantile contracts, such as nego- 
 tiable notes, bills of lading, charter parties, policies of 
 marine insurance, and the like, whoever may be the 
 parties to them. All mercantile transactions begin 
 and end in contracts of some kind — express or implied, 
 executed or to be executed ; and the first element of 
 every contract is the existence of parties capable of 
 contracting. Generally, all persons may bind them- 
 selves by contract. Whoever would resist a claim or 
 action founded on his contract, on ground of incapacity, 
 must make this out. See Parson's Mercantile Law. 
 
 Minors. — By the English law, a minor can not con- 
 tract commercial engagements ; j'et he may act as a 
 partner, and perform other functions for beneficial 
 purposes, without being liable for contracts entered 
 into during his minority. In Scotland, a minor may 
 become a trader ; and when he holds himself out as a 
 major, he becomes responsible. In France, minors, 
 by being emancipated, may engage in trade previous 
 to the 18th year of their age, when authorized by a 
 registered act, either of their parents or famUy coun- 
 cil, or by civil authorities. They are allowed, in this 
 case, to pledge or mortgage their estates. Similar 
 principles are adopted in Spain, Portugal, Prussia, 
 etc., etc. 
 
 The age at which minority ceases, is : In England, 
 Scotland, British Colonies, United States, Hungary, 
 Roman States, France, Normandy, Two Sicilies, etc., 
 21 3'ears ; in Mauritius, British Guiana, 24 j'ears ; in 
 Cape of Good Hope, Cej-lon, Holland, 25 years ; in 
 Gumsey, Jersey (Coutume of Normandy), 20 years. 
 
 Married Females. — In London, a married female 
 maj' engage in trade as a feme sole, but she must trade 
 within the city, and on her account ; she is, therefore, 
 liable to be a bankrupt. In England she may engage 
 in trade when authorized by her husband, but she is 
 not responsible. Her endorsement, acceptance, nego- 
 tiation of bills of exchange, are null, and no action 
 can be maintained against her. The husband is liable 
 for the debts contracted by her in a separate trade. 
 In Scotland, parties may settle, by marriage contract, 
 their several rights and interests. * A married female 
 can not act by or for herself. 
 
 In France, Spain, Portugal, Prussia, and Sardinia, 
 the authoritj' of the husband is necessarj- for her en- 
 gaging in trade. Her property by dowry, and that 
 held in common, are responsible for the obligations 
 she contracts with reference to trade. The authority 
 of the husband ought to be made public, as also the 
 revocation of the same. In America, the common law 
 of England is generally retained, with some exception, 
 in Pennsylvania, Louisiana, and South Carolina. In 
 Lower Canada and St. Lucia, same as the Coutume 
 of Paris ; and in .the Mauritius it is regulated by the 
 civil code. In Malta, a married woman may engage 
 in trade with the consent of her husband, but she can 
 not be imprisoned for debt. In Lubec, married fe- 
 males must receive the authority of the Senate for 
 opening a shop. In Wallachia, a married female can 
 not engage in trade without a marriage contract. 
 
 Aliens. — In Great Britain, United States and Amer- 
 ica generally, aliens enjoy the same privileges as na- 
 tives with regard to trade. In France they enjoy the 
 greatest liberty, and the same rights as the natives. ■ 
 In Russia and Sweden, a variety of provisions are en- 
 acted with regard to aliens, but a restriction prevails 
 in all. In Spain and Portugal, aliens not naturalized 
 maj- engage in trade, but they are established accord- 
 ing to existing treatises with their respective govern- 
 
MER 
 
 1348 
 
 MER 
 
 ments. In Lubec, the restrictions on foreigners are 
 extended even to deny them the power of establishing 
 themselves as residents, without the authority of the 
 tribunal of judicial police. See Levi's Com. Law. 
 
 Mercury, or Quicksilver (Fr. Vif argent; Ger. 
 Quidcsilber; It. Argentovwop Sp. Azogue; Eus. Rtut; 
 Lat. Bydrargyrum ; Arab. Zibakh ; Hind. Parah ; Sans. 
 Pdrada), This metal was known in the remotest 
 ages, and seems to have been emploj'ed by the ancients 
 in gilding, and separating gold from other bodies, just 
 as it is by the moderns. Its color is white, and similar 
 to that of silver ; hence the names of hydrargyrum, ar~ 
 gentum mvum, quicksilver, by which it has been kuo-wn 
 in all ages. It has no taste or smell. It possesses a 
 good deal of brilliancy ; and when its surface is not 
 tarnished, it makes a verj' good mirror. Specific grav- 
 ity 13'568. It differs from all other metals in being 
 always fluid, unless when subject to a degree of cold 
 equal to — 39 °, when it becomes solid. The congelation 
 of mercury was first observed in 1759. — Thomson's 
 Chemistry. Mercury is found in various parts of the 
 world. Among the principal mines are those of Alma^ 
 den, near Cordova, in Spain; Idria, in Carniola; 
 Wolfstein and Morsfteld, in the Palatinate ; Guanca- 
 velica, in Peru, etc. Most of the ores of mercurj' 
 are readily distinguished from those of any other 
 metal ; in the first variety, globules of the metal are 
 seen attached to or just starting on the surface, which 
 is at once a sufficient criterion, mercury being unlike 
 every other metal ; in the second, by the fine white 
 color, and the action of the blow-pipe, which sublimes 
 the mercury and leaves the silver behind ; the third, 
 by its beautiful deep red tint, varj^ing from cochineal 
 to scarlet red, excepting in those termed hepatic cin- 
 nabars, which are generally of a lead gray ; ■ the 
 fourth, by its gray color, its partial solubility in wa- 
 ter, and its complete volatilization by heat, emitting at 
 the same time an arsenical odor. Before the blow- 
 pipe, these varieties burn with a blue flame and sul- 
 phurous odor, leaving more or less residue behind 
 them, and which maj' consist of earthy matter, as silex 
 and alumina, together with the oxyds of iron and cop- 
 per. — Joyce's Chem. Min. 
 
 Mercury is often adulterated by the admixture of 
 lead, bismuth, zinc, and tin. When the metal quickly 
 loses its lustre, is covered with a film, or is loss fluid 
 and mobile than usual, or does not readilj' divide into 
 round globules, there is reason to suspect its purit}'. 
 Our supplies of mercury are derived almost -whollj' 
 from Spain. The imports usually amount to from 
 2,000,000 to 3,000,000 lbs., of which about 300,000 lbs. 
 are retained for home consumption, the surplus being 
 exported to South America, France, the East Indies', 
 etc. The exports of quicksilver from Spain in 1848 
 amounted to 48,868 quintals, of which nearly 40,000 
 quintals were furnished by the mines of Almaden. 
 The province of Idria, in Austria, has also some rather 
 productive quicksilver mines. And the produce of 
 this metal in California, and other parts of in South 
 America, is said to be already considerable, and to be 
 increasing. There are two sulphurets of mercurj' ; the 
 black or ethiops mineral, and the red or cinnabar. 
 When mercury and sulphur are triturated together in 
 a mortar, the former gradually disappears, and the 
 whole assumes the form of a black powder, denomi- 
 nated ethiops mineral. If this powder be heated red- 
 hot, it sublimes ; and on a proper vessel being placed 
 to receive it, a cake is obtained, of a fine red color, 
 which is called cinnabar. This cake, when reduced to 
 powder is well known in commerce by the name otmr- 
 milion. Cinnabar may be prepared in various other 
 ■ waj-s. Calomel, or protochloride of mercury {mercu- 
 rius dulcis) is the most useful of all the preparations ob- 
 tained from it. It is in the form of a dull white, semi- 
 transparent mass, having a specific gravity of 7-176. 
 It is more generally emplcyfed, and with better effect, 
 than almost any other remedy in the whole range of 
 
 materia medica. Besides its uses in medicine, mercury 
 is extensivelj'' employed in the amalgamation of the 
 noble metals, in water^gilding, the making of vermil- 
 ion, the silvering of looking-glasses, the making of 
 barometers and thermometers, etc. For the imports 
 of mercury into the United States, see Quicksilveb, 
 
 Meridian, in geography, a great circle supposed 
 to be drawn through any part of the surface of the 
 earth and the two poles, and to which the, sun is al- 
 waj's perpendicular at noon. In astronomy, this circle 
 is supposed to be in the heavens, and exactly perpen- 
 dicular to the terrestrial one. 
 
 Meridional Distance, in navigation, is the same with 
 departure, or easting and westing, being the difference 
 of longitude^ between the meridian under which the 
 ship now is, and any other meridian which she was un- 
 der before. Meridional parts, miles, or minutes, i^ navi- 
 gation, are theparts by which the meridians in a Merca- 
 tor's chart increase as the parallels of latitude decrease. 
 
 Meridian, First. The meridian from which longi- 
 tudes are reckoned. The choice of the first meridian 
 is entirely , arbitrary ; and most nations reckon the 
 longitudes from their capital, . or, meridian passing 
 through their principal observatories. Thus, in En- 
 glish works, the longitude is reckoned from Green- 
 wich; in French, from Paris; in Eussian, from St. 
 Petersburg, etc. Ptolemy emplpyed the Canary Isl- 
 ands, the French formerly reckoned from Ferro, and 
 the Dutch from the Peak of Tcneriflfe. Mercator 
 chose the Island Del Corvo. See Longitude. 
 
 Meridian Line. A line traced on the surface, of ,the 
 earth, coinciding with the intersection of the meridian 
 of the place with the sensible horizon. ■ 
 
 Meridian of a Globe, or the Brass Meridian, is a 
 graduated circular ring, within which the globe is sus- 
 pended and revolves, and by means of which it is con- 
 nected with the frame bearing the horizontal scale. 
 Meridian lines are also traced on the globe itself, usually 
 at 15° distance, or a difference of longitude correspond- 
 ing to an hour of time. It is probable that these, with 
 the parallels of latitude, suggested . to Descartes, the 
 idea of co-ordinates, which he applied so successfully 
 to connect algebra with geometry. 
 
 Merino Sheep. A breed of sheep till lately pe- 
 culiar to Spain, but now reared, in Saxony, England, 
 and more particulafly in Australia, chiefly for the su- 
 perior fineness of their wool. The word m^ino signi- 
 fies overseer of pasture lands, and is applied tp this 
 breed of sheep, because in Spain they are kept in im- 
 mense flocks, under a system of shepherds, with a 
 chief as a head, and with a general right of pasturage 
 all over the kingdom. The best flocks of Spanish me- 
 rinos are found in Leon and Castile : of the Saxon va- 
 riet}', at Stolpen and Eochsberg ; but merinos are to 
 be found in North America, the Cape of Good Hope, 
 and, above all, in New South Wales, which promises 
 to be one of the principal wool-growing countries in 
 the world. See Wool. 
 
 Merschaum (Ger. ; Eng. sea-froth ; Fr. Ecume de 
 Mer Magnesie carionaiee silicifere), is a white mineral, 
 of a somewhat earthy appearance, always soft, but dry 
 to the touch, and adhering to the tongue. Specific 
 gravity 2-6 to 3-4 ; affords water by calcination ; fuses 
 with difficulty at the blow-pipe into a white enamel, 
 and is acted upon by acids. It consists, according to 
 Klaproth, of silica, 41-5 ; magnesia, 18'25 ; water 
 and carbonic acid, 39. Other analysts give silica 50, 
 magnesia, 25, water 25. It occurs in veins of kidney- 
 shaped nodules, among rocks of serpentine, at Egribos, 
 in the Island of Negropont, Eski-Schehir, in Anatolia, 
 Brussa, at the foot of Mount Olympus, at Baldissero, 
 in Piedmont, in the serpentine veins of Cornwall, etc. 
 When first dug up, it is soft and greasy, and lathers 
 like soap ; and is on that account used by the Tartars in 
 washing their linen. The well known Turkey tobacco- 
 pipes are made from it, by a process analogous to that 
 for making pottery-ware. The bowls of the pipes, 
 
MES 
 
 1349 
 
 MEX 
 
 when imported into Germany, are prepared for sale by 
 soaking them first in tallow, then in wax, and finally 
 by polishing them with share-grass. 
 
 Messina, Zancte and Messana, a city and sea-port 
 of Sicily capital of a province on the Strait of Messina, 
 eight miles north-west from Seggio. Latitude of 
 light-house 38° 11' 10" N., long. 15° 34' 1" E. Pop- 
 ulation 83,772. It is built on the west side of a noble 
 harbor, inclbsed by old walls ; has wide, handsome 
 streets, paved with lava, and lined with white stone 
 houses. The port, defended by several fortifications, 
 is formed by a long curved tongue of land, projecting 
 north-east from the main land, and then bending west- 
 ward in the form of a sicMe, whence its ancient Greek 
 name. It is about four miles in circumference, has 
 deep water throughout, and large vessels can load and 
 unload clCse to the quays. The trade is considerable. 
 The exports comprise oranges and lemons, silk, olive- 
 oil, wine a^d spirits, linseed, salt, fish, etc. The im- 
 ports consist of ttolonial produce, cotton and woolen 
 fabrics, hardware, and other manufactured goods. It 
 has an active tunny and other fisheries, and manufac- 
 tures of damasks and satins. Population of the prov- 
 ince in 1851, 349,484. The Strait of Messina iFero di 
 Messina'), separates Sicily from South Italy, and unites 
 two basins of the Mediterranean. Length, north to 
 south, 22 miles ; breadth, 10 miles to 2J miled at its 
 north extremity, between the Faro Tower, Sicily, and 
 the Rock of Scylla. No bottom has been reached in 
 it with 200 fathoms of line. On its shores are the cities 
 of Eeggio and Messina, opposite which latter is the 
 whirlpool of Charybdis. 
 
 A treaty of reciprocity between the United States 
 and the Two Sicilies was concluded on the 1st of De- 
 cember, 1845, and ratified on the 1st of June, 1846. 
 The terms of the treaty are faithfully adhered to, inas- 
 much as the citizens of the United States are treated 
 in the same manner as the subjects of the Two Sici- 
 lies. The commercial intercourse of the United States 
 is dependent solely on the regulations of the mother 
 country : the existing regulations are neither tempo- 
 rary nor fixed to a definite period, but permanent. 
 There are no privileges permitted to the commerce of 
 other nations which are denied to the United States. 
 There are restrictions imposed on commerce of others 
 which have not treaties 6f commerce with the Sicilian 
 go't-erhment, as to be seen in the custom-house regula- 
 tiohs. All goods imported by privileged vessels have 
 a per centage allowed of 10 per cent, on the import 
 duty, and the vessels themselves enjoy all the privi- 
 leges and exemptions of national vessels, except the 
 coasting trade. The few articles shipped to the United 
 States, on which an export duty is paid, are brim- 
 stone, oil, and linen rags ; if shipped by American or 
 Neapolitan vessels to the' United ' States they enjoy a 
 drawback of 10 per cent, on the export duty. The 
 port charges consist of the tonnage duty and some 
 small charges in the police, the custom-house, and the 
 health-office. The tonnage duty is 8 Sicilian grains, 
 or 4 Neapolitan bajocs per ton, which is equal to 3f 
 American cents. The small charges amount to nearly 
 the same, consequently the whole port charges are 
 from 7J to 8 cents. United States' currency, per ton. 
 Pilotage is $5 for a vessel of any size. The trans- 
 shipment of goods in vessels belonging to the United 
 States is not permitted for another port in the kingdom 
 of the Two Sicilies, although it is allowed for foreign 
 ports without any privilege or restriction. United 
 States' vessels may complete their cargoes in one or 
 more ports of this kingdom, or on the Island of Sicily, 
 without being subject to pay the tonnage duty more 
 than once. The moneys, weights, and measures known 
 and in common use at the different ports are not thei 
 same as those established by the supreme law of the 
 mother country ; and they are even at variance in the 
 ports of Messina, Catania, and SjTacuse.— Com. Sel. 
 U. a., 1856^7. 
 
 Metalliqnes, a kind of Austrian stock, so called 
 because the interest is paid in the precious metals, and 
 not, like the interest of other stocks, in paper money. 
 The name was afterward used in Russia and other 
 countries, for stocks of a similar kind. — E. A. 
 
 Mexico. Discovered in a. d. 1518. It was con- 
 quered by the Spaniards under Cortez, whose name is 
 infamous on account of hie cruelties to the vanquished, 
 A. D. 1521. The mint of Mexico, the richest in the 
 world, was begun in 1535. This country, like other 
 States in the New World, has recovered its independ- 
 ence. Iturbide made emperor. May, 1822. Mexican 
 constitution proclaimed by the president, Vittoria, 
 October, 1823. Iturbide shot, July 19, 1824. Treaty 
 of commerce with Great 'Britain ratified, April, 1825. 
 Titles suppressed, Maj', 1826. The expulsion of the 
 Spaniards decreed, March, 1829. Spanish expedition 
 against Mexico surrendered, September 26, 1839. Mex- 
 iota revolution ; the president Guerrero deposed, De^ 
 ceraber 32, 1829. The independence of Mexico, pre- 
 viously recognized by the great European powers, also 
 recognized by the Emperor of Brazil, June, 1830. Civil 
 war between Bustamente and Santa Anna, 1832. Santa 
 Anna elected president, March, 1834. Declaration of 
 war against France, November 30, 1838. Castle of 
 San Juan de UUoa taken' by the French, November,' 
 27, 1838. This war terminated March 9, 1839. Civil 
 war, with change of leaders at various times. Santa 
 Anna displaced Bustamente again, October 6, 1841, 
 Insurrection of General Paredes against Santa Anna, 
 November 5, 1844 ; succeeds without bloodshed, and 
 Herrera made president, December, 1844. Paredes 
 overturns Herrera, December, 1845. War with the 
 United States, 1846; Mexicans defeated at Palo Alto, 
 May 8, 1846, and subsequently at Matamorasi Santa 
 Fe captured, August 23, and Monterey September 24, 
 1846. Mexican Congress authorized their govern- 
 ment to raise $15,000,000 for the war against the 
 United States, upon tlie mortgage or sale of church 
 property, January, 8, 1847. Battle of Buena Vista, 
 February 22, 1847. Vera Cruz surrendered to General 
 Scott, March 29, 1847. Battle of Cerro Gordo, April 
 18. General Paredes landed at Vera Cruz in disguise, 
 August 14, 1847. B4ttles of Contreras and Churubus- 
 co, August 20, 1847 ; of Chepultepec, September 12. 
 Surrender of City of Mexico to American General 
 Scott, September 14, 1847. Treaty of peace with the 
 United States ratified at Queretaro, May 30, 1848. 
 Mexico evacuated by the American troops, June 12. 
 Paredes excites a revolt at at Guanaxuato, June 15. 
 Herrera becomes president, July 6. Bustamente de- 
 feats Paredes, July 18. Vera Cruz surrendered by 
 the United States, August 1. Signer de la Rosa first 
 Mexican minister to the United States after the war, 
 presented his credentials, December 2, 1848. See 
 Mayeb'3 Mexico ; Poinsett's Notes on Mexico ; De 
 Bow's Rev., ii., 27, 165 (J. R. Poinsett), v., 401 ; 
 North Am. Rev., xliii., 226 (Judge Bullard), xx., 77 
 (J. Sparks) ; Host's Mag., x., 118 (B. Mayer), xv., 
 250, xvi., 455. 
 
 The territor)- constituting the republic of Mexico 
 has an area of 855,964-49 square miles, and forms, in 
 its political divisions, 21 States, a Federal District, and 
 three Territories. The population has somewhat aug- 
 mented since the time of its independence^ and the 
 census (Tejada's) of 1850 states its position and num- 
 bers as follows : — No two authorities agree as to the 
 area and population of Mexico. 
 
 Area ia 1821. 
 
 PopulatioQ In 
 1851. 
 
 CededtoUSby j^^a in 1852.» 
 treaty of 1848. 
 Sg. leagues, Sq, leagues, Sq, leagues, 
 
 216,012-27 109,944-SO 106,067-4T 7,659,919 
 
 , * By tie treaty of Dec, 80, 1858, defining tnpre accurately 
 the boundary between Mexico and the United States, tuadir 
 tional territory was ceded to tlie latter, for the conaiSeratlOii 
 of $10,000,000, 
 
 More recent returns would indicate a greater in- 
 crease of the white than other classes of population ; 
 
MEX 
 
 1350 
 
 MEX 
 
 but it is probably explained by the fact that certain 
 literary acquirements define color, and that successful 
 efforts have been made to advance the common educa- 
 tion in many of the States. A census stated to have 
 been taken in 1854, makes some very slight alterations 
 ia the preceding table. It raises the population to 
 7,853,394. 
 
 Along the eastern declivity of the Cordillera of the 
 Andes, from 3000 to 4000 feet above the leyel of the 
 sea, grow the coffee and tobacco, both of unusual ex- 
 cellence ; but the coffee is heavilj' burdened with the 
 internal taxes of the States, and the sale of tobacco is 
 a monopoly of the government ; so that, with these 
 restrictions upon them, their cultivation languishes. 
 Prom this elevation to the sea is the country of cane, 
 of the product of which little is at present exported. 
 Cochineal, which has greatly diminished in quantity 
 within the past few years, has become of little im- 
 portance. Wheat, the growth of the table-lands, is 
 equal to the best in the world, and, when not abso- 
 lutely forbidden, a heavj' duty rests upon the imported 
 article, which, unless in times of scarcity', is equal to 
 a prohibition. The lands of the people of the hot 
 and temperate climates are chiefly taxed with this 
 great difference; and, in consequence, the flour is 
 brought to them, often a distance of 200 miles, on 
 mule-back, instead of being received at a fair and 
 cheaper rate from abroad, b}^ the sea. This weight 
 falls heavily upon the State of Vera Cruz, and exists 
 for the benefit of the proprietors of the wheat-fields, 
 principally of Puebla ; but force and wealth prove 
 ever to abide with the latter State, in every attempt to 
 obtain relief. Nor do the burden and vexation stop 
 here. Notwithstanding the exemption seemingly 
 given to the imported article from other than the fed- 
 eral duties, the owner has often to pay other sums at 
 the ports of entry, in the nature of municipal duties, 
 and at every remove from State to State. 
 
 Maize, although indigenous to the table-lands, and 
 growing in every climate of the republic, is rarely to 
 be found at a low price anywhere ; and this, not from 
 anj'' failing of industry or a want of knowledge in its 
 cultivation, but from droughts that continue, at times, 
 for years, and sometimes until districts are half de- 
 populated. Even in the fertile valley of Mexico, 
 about the capital itself, corn usually bears a price of 
 about ^2 the bushel. The cotton, wherever it has 
 been attempted to be raised, has been materially and 
 discouragingly affected by insects ; and the article is 
 yearly the subject of special licenses to individuals, 
 to be introduced at Vera Cruz at rates lower than 
 those designated by the tariff, to supply the calls of 
 cotton manufactories. The vine and the olive have 
 been attempted to be cultivated since the revolt from 
 Spain, but with poor, or only partial success. The 
 price of the maguey, both in its natural state as pulque, 
 and as the distilled liquor made from it, mescal, is an 
 important item in the economy of considerable terri- 
 tories, but of no consideration ia commerce. The 
 pith of some varieties of the plant, baked like a pota- 
 to, is, in many places, the food for nearly the year 
 round of the half-wild tribes of the sierras ; and the 
 spirituous extract is the inebriating draught that keeps 
 a large portion of the population about the cities and 
 towns where it can be raised or bought, in a state of 
 wretchedness and phj'sical destitution. 
 
 The principal manufactures of Mexico are sugar 
 and rum, aloes, wine, and brandy, earthen and stone 
 ware, glass, paper, and tissues of cotton, wool, and 
 silk. M. Lerdo de Tejada estimates the entire value 
 of the manufactures of all kinds in Mexico, annually, 
 at $80,000,000 to $90,000,000. 
 
 The production of gold and silver in the republic 
 has arrived at a state of great prosperity ; but the in- 
 adequate supply of quicksilver is felt as a considera- 
 ble obstacle to the still greater development of the 
 mineral wealth of Mexico. 
 
 Manufactures. — The principal products of Mexican 
 industry are brandy, and sugar made from cane, mes- 
 cal, made from the juice of the maguey, oil, wine, and 
 brandy made from grapes, earthen and glass wares, 
 paper and spun and woven cotton, silk and woolen. 
 Sugar is made in mills on all the estates where the 
 cane is cultivated, and which are found chiefly in the 
 States of Vera Cruz, Tabasco, Yucatan, Mexico, Guer- 
 rero, Michoacan and Guadalajara ; and brandy by stills 
 ia most of them. Although the ancient and imper- 
 fect system is generally pursued, some improvements 
 have begun to be introduced, of which may be cited 
 the apparatus lately put up on the hacienda of La 
 Puga, near Topic, that of San Carlos, in the Caiieda 
 of Cuautla, and in Silva, four leagues from San Juan 
 Bautista de Tabasco, for sugar-making and distilling 
 brandy. For the making of oil there are already in 
 the capital 49 mills, besides those in Taoubaya, Toluca 
 and Puebla. Not only oil is made in them from olives, 
 which nearlj'' supplies the consumption, but from ajon- 
 jote, linseed, rape-seed, colwort, higuerola, almonds, 
 cacahuate, small nuts, and finally from calves' and 
 pigs' feet, etc., to oil wheels and machinery With 
 respect to grape- wine and brandy, although there were 
 vineyards in several States, they are manufactured 
 only in those of Guanajuato, Coahuila, Lower Califor- 
 nia, Sonora, and Chihuahua, from the last of which 
 are annually made more than 600 barrels of brandy, 
 300 of wine, and 200 tierces of raisins. For the manu- 
 facture of earthen vessels of all kinds there are estab- 
 lishments in the republic, where they are made with 
 much skill, the best in Mexico, Guanajuato, and Gua- 
 dalajara. In fine pottery, great improvements have 
 been recently made in Puebla, where the business has 
 been carried on from very remote times, in Salamanca, 
 in the state of Guanajuato, and lately in the capital 
 a manufactory excels all the rest. There are four es- 
 tablishments for plain glass in the capital, and the 
 States of Mexico and Puebla, the product of which ex- 
 ceeds the consumption. There are eight paper mills in 
 the Federal District, and the States of Mexico, Puebla 
 and Jalisco, which not only supply the demand for the 
 press, but for other purposes, particularly writing- 
 paper equal to that of other countries. The scarcity 
 of linen rags requires most of the paper to be made 
 of cotton, though some is made of linen, and also of 
 the filaments of the maguey. Although many hand- 
 wheel looms are used in making cotton fabrics, as re- 
 bozos, mantas and other ordinary articles, there are 62 
 large establishments moved by machinery, in the Fed- 
 eral District, and the States of CoahuUa, Durango, 
 Jalisco, Puebla, Mexico, Queretaro, and Vera Cruz. 
 Although some pretty fine linens are made in them, 
 they are but few, the chief part being hilazas and 
 mantas, which in 1845 amounted to 3,000,000 pounds 
 of the hUazas and 1,000,000 pieces of the latter. The 
 manufactory of rebozos in the city of Zamora in the 
 State of Morelia, is worthy of particular notice. For 
 woolen fabrics, besides the numerous shops in which 
 are manufactured ordinary cloths and various common 
 articles, there are seen large establishments in the dis- 
 trict and the States of Mexico, Queretaro, Zacatecas 
 and the territory of Hoxcala, in which are made 
 cloths, cassimeres, carpets, baize, etc., which compete 
 with those imported, both in quality and in price. In 
 spinning and winding silk, more than 60 hand ma- 
 chines are in the capital, Puebla and Guadalajara, and 
 the products are preferred to the foreign. In the cap- 
 ital is a machine by horse-power, on the French plan, 
 which can spin above 100 lbs. a day. About 40,000 
 lbs. are estimated to be spun in Mexico annually. 
 The only woven silk yet made are some rebozos and 
 bands. All kinds of fancy trimmings are made in 
 Mexico, as buttons, cords, braids, and many orna- 
 ments of cotton, wool, and silk ; and the best factorj' 
 is that of the Hopicio for the poor in the capital, 
 where they are as well made as in Europe. Gold and 
 
MEX 
 
 1351 
 
 MEX 
 
 silver thread of all kinds are made, and bugles, span- 
 gles, galloon, cords and belts of silver and gold, and 
 bells of silver and copper. Oil-cloths are made, of 
 qualities and patterns equal to foreign. Many other 
 minor articles are also manufactured, to a considera- 
 ble amount annually. Au establishment for stearine 
 candles has been commenced, under an exclusive priv- 
 ilege. According to the estimates of Seflor Quiros in 
 1817, this branch of products amounted to $16,011.818 ; 
 they are now, probably, not less than $80,000,000 or 
 $90,000,000. 
 
 Mineral Resources of Mexico. — In a period of 27 
 years, from 1825 to 1851, both inclusive, the average 
 value of the precious metals annually exported was 
 $9,481,0i2, as appears from a recent work of Miguel 
 Lerdo de Tejada, " Comercio de Mixico des de la Con- 
 quista hasta hoy" which gives the following table of 
 the amounts legally exported in coin and otherwise, 
 daring the period designated : 
 
 Years. Valiio. 
 
 1825 ; |3,702,44T 
 
 1826 6,847,795 
 
 1627 9,669,428 
 
 1828 12,887,288 
 
 From July, 1829, to Juno, 1830 12,022,812 
 
 1830 " 1831 10,534,974 
 
 " 1831 " 1832 7,280,808 
 
 1882 " 1833 14,160,146 
 
 " 1833 " 1834 18,587,759 
 
 " 1884 " 1885 8,062,213 
 
 " 1885 " 1886 12,706,471 
 
 " 1886 " 1837 8,471,826 
 
 " 1837 " 1833 4,459,745 
 
 1839 11,625,148 
 
 1840 6,402,185 
 
 1841 11,661,491 
 
 1842 8,611,656 
 
 1848 10,645,683 
 
 1844 11,6151,296 
 
 1845.- 11,830,901 
 
 1846 9,687,829 
 
 18,47 888,195 
 
 From January, 1848, to June, 1S49 10,994,788 
 
 From July, 1849, to June, 1850 12,166,806 
 
 1850 " 1851 8,608,081 
 
 AfTgregate $237,026,061 
 
 Average 9,481,042 
 
 It is believed that immense quantities of sulphur, 
 sufficient, it is stated, to supply the manufacturing 
 wants of the whole world, are to be found in the State 
 of Puebla. A late Mexican paper says, in reference 
 to these sulphur-beds: "The volcano of Popocata- 
 petl is no uncertain or cliance enterprise. It possesses 
 a real and certain treasure, and that treasure is the 
 inexhaustible amount of pure sulphur which is spring- 
 ing up ever}' day in infinite abundance from its bow- 
 els." The Sigh newspaper, published in Mexico, 
 says : " The United States consume annually, in manu- 
 factures, sulphuric acid to the amount of the enormous 
 sum of $18,000,000 to $22,000,000 ; and, perhaps, it 
 would not be out of the waj' to estimate the imports 
 of sulphur into Great Britain at nearly the same 
 amount. In these two countries alone, we should 
 And a market for over $30,000,000 worth annually. 
 The price of sulphur is now at about $50 per ton, in the 
 English and American markets, for the article brought 
 from Vesuvius and the sulphur-beds of Italy. The 
 article from Popocatapetl would, of course, command 
 a higher price, from its superiority. * * * The 
 supply in Vesuvius is limited, while that of Popoca- 
 tapetl would find little diminution by the labor of a 
 centurj'." There seems to be no doubt of the exist- 
 ence of incalculable quantities of pure sulphur in the 
 vicinity of this volcano. From observations actually 
 made, and estimates formed on the spot, by scientific 
 ofHcers, it is believed that the sulphur thrown up and 
 hardened may be set down at millions of millions of 
 arrobas. The government of Mexico has already 
 given attention to this subject. The stipulations by 
 which commercial relations between the United States 
 and the republic of Mexico are regulated are found in 
 the treaty of April 5, 1831, and that of May 30, 1848 ; 
 the latter known as the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. 
 
 Article 3d of the latter treaty provides that all tho 
 custom-houses then in possession of officers of tho 
 United States should be immediately restored to the 
 Mexican authorities, together with all bonds and evi- 
 dences of debt for duties on imports and exports not 
 fallen due; and further, that all duties collected at 
 such custom-houses by the United States' officers, from 
 and after the ratification of the treaty, shall, after de- 
 ducting the cost of collection, be delivered over to the 
 Mexican government, at the city of Mexico, within 
 three months after the exchange of ratifications. 
 
 Articles 6 and 7 relate to the navigation of the Gulf 
 of California, the Rivers Colorado and Eio Bravo del 
 Norte (annulled by 4th article of the treaty of De- 
 cember 30, 1853, ratified and exchanged 30th June, 
 1834). Article 17 revives treaty of 1831 for 8 years, 
 with the usual stipulation of 12 months' notice by 
 either party desirous of terminating the same. From 
 the treaty of 1831 the "additional article" is ex- 
 cepted, and also such stipulations as are incompati- 
 ble with the treaty of 1848. Article 20 continues in 
 force, for 60 days after the ratification of the treaty, 
 the tariff established by the United States at ports 
 and places occupied by their forces. Article 21 pro- 
 vides for the appointment of commissioners or arbitra- 
 tors to settle any disagi'eements which may hereafter 
 arise between the two governments concerning the 
 political or commercial relations of the two countries. 
 Article 22 prescribes rules and proceedings to be fol- 
 lowed, should a war unhappily break out between the 
 two republics, and covenants pvotection, etc., for the 
 citizens of each residing in the other ; and also pro- 
 vides that this article shall not be annulled under the 
 pretense that war dissolves all treaties, or under any 
 other pretense whatever. 
 
 The treaty of 1831, revived by the 17th article of 
 the treaty of 1848, secures to the citizens of each 
 country, in the territory of the other, equal footing 
 with the citizens and subjects of all foreign nations, 
 and provides that neither country shall grant any 
 particular favor to other nations in respect of com- 
 merce and navigation, that shall not immediately 
 become common to the other party ; no higher or 
 other duties, imposts, or fees whatsoever, to be paid 
 by the citizens or vessels of either country in the ports 
 of the other, than are, or may be, paid by the citizens 
 or vessels of the most favored nation ; all merchan- 
 dise, the produce, growth, or manufacture of either 
 country, imported into the other, to be subject to no 
 higher or other duties than similar importations from 
 any other foreign country ; no export duties or pro- 
 hibitions to be prescribed by either country, that shall 
 not equally apply to all other foreign nations ; the 
 vessels of both countries, in the ports of either, to be 
 placed on the footing of national vessels, as respects 
 tonnage duties, light or harbor dues, pilotage, salvage 
 in case of damage or shipwreck, or any other local 
 charges, the coasting trade being reserved by each of 
 the high contracting parties to its own vessels, respect- 
 ively ; the duties on imports and exports of articles, 
 the grovrth, produce, or manufacture of either coun- 
 try, to or from the ports of the other, to be the same, 
 whether such importations or exportations take place 
 in vessels of the United States or of Mexico ; all 
 merchants, captains, commanders of vessels, and other 
 citizens of either country, to have full Kberty to man- 
 age, themselves, their own afiairs, or choose their own 
 brokers, factors, agents, or interpreters in the ports, 
 tad territories of the other. The fourth section of the 
 34th article saves from the operation of this treaty aU 
 former or existing treaties with other sovereign States, 
 or powers. 
 
 Measures of Weight. — The largest measore for 
 brandy, wine, and other liquors, is the jarva. which 
 contains 18 cuartUlos, of 1 pound, or 16 ounces of dis- 
 tilled water at the temperature of its greatest density. 
 Brandy barrels are distinguished into medidos and 
 
MEX 
 
 1352 
 
 MEX 
 
 redoudos. The former contain 262 cuartillos, and the 
 latter 160. The redoudo barrel of wme contains 150 
 cuartillos. Oil is bought and sold at wholesale by 
 weight; but at retail a particular cuartillo is used, 
 containing 17 ounces and 9 drachms of distilled water. 
 For olive oU the same cuartillo is used as for brandy, 
 wines, etc. At the mines the marco is used for gold 
 and silver. The gold marco is divided into 50 castil- 
 lauos, of 8 tomines of 12 grains. The silver marco 
 has 8 ochoods, of 6 tomines of 12 grains. Assayers, 
 to determine the purity of these two metals, use. the 
 same marco. For gold, the castellano is divided into 
 24 quUates, of 4 granos de ley, each grano equivalent 
 to 60 in weight. For silver, the marco is divided- into 
 12 dineros of 24 granos de ley, each grano being equiv- 
 alent to 16 in weight. Lapidaries, for the assay of 
 precious stones, use the quilate, which is the tenth of 
 an ounce. Apothecaries use the libra medicinal, 
 which is divided into 12 common ounces of eight 
 drachms, of 3 scruples, of 24 granos. 
 
 Money in Circulation.- — Baron Humboldt calculated, 
 in 1803, the value of the money accumulated in Mex- 
 ico to be $65,000,000 or ^56,000,000 ; which sum com- 
 pared with the population then existing in New Spain, 
 corresponded in proportion to $10 for each inhabitant. 
 Taking this calculation for a basis, and considering 
 the prosperity in mining from that time to this, there 
 is no hazard in 8a3dng that the value of the money now 
 in the republic, notwithstanding the great exportation 
 past and present, amounts to $90,000,000 or $100,000,- 
 000. Although this sum is, doubtless, sufficient for 
 all the operations of the interior trade, which is verj' 
 small, as well in agriculture as in manufactures and 
 commerce, the circumstance of the greater part being 
 confined to a few hands on the one side, and on the 
 other the want of confidence, causes the frequent 
 scarcity of the money in circulation, causing the rare 
 phenomena of a country which produces gold and sil- 
 ver so abundantly, paying a higher interest on money 
 than in countries not j^ielding it. 
 
 The geographical position of the States and Terri- 
 tories of Mexico is thus defined: 1. Eastern or Gulf 
 Coast. — The States of Yucatan, Chiapas, Tabasco, 
 Vera Cruz, and Tamaulipas. 2. Western or Pacific 
 Coo«*.— The States of Oajaca, Puebla, and Territory 
 of Tlascala ; State of Mexico, and I'ederal District ; 
 States of Michoaoauj Jalisco, and Territory of Colima ; 
 States of Sinaloa, Sonora, Guerreoro, and .Territory 
 of Lower California. 3. Interior.— The States of 
 Queretaro, Guanajuato, Zacatecas, San Luis Potosi, 
 New Leon, Coahuila, Durango, and Chihuahua. 
 
 ywcatore.— The State of Yucatan occupies the great- 
 er portion of the peninsula which bounds the southern 
 edge of the Gulf of Mexico. It comprises an area of 
 about 52,947 square miles, and contains a population 
 of 680,948. 
 
 The principal productions of Yucatan are maize, 
 cotton, rice, tobacco, pepper, sugar-cane, dye-woods, 
 hides, and soap. Foreign trade with Yucatan is dis- 
 tributed between the United States, France, England, 
 Spain, and other countries. The proportions may be 
 estimated from the following table, showing the value 
 of imports into Yucatan during the year 1850, from 
 each of the countries above designated : Spain, 1,950,000 
 francs; England, 1,400,000 francs; United States, 
 1 000 000 francs j France, 225,000 francs ; other coun- 
 tries, 925,000 francs ; total, 5,500,000 francs, or $1,023,- 
 
 000- /. u J 
 
 The principal ports in Yucatan are Campeche and 
 Sisal, both open to foreign commerce. In the former, 
 the water is so shallow that vessels are obliged to an- 
 chor some considerable distance from the town of 
 Campeche, and discharge and take m cargoes by 
 means of lighters and canoes. Sisal possesses a deeper 
 port than Campeche, but it is more exposed to the 
 north winds, which prevaU in the Gulf of Mexico 
 from October to April. It is the dfipot for the import 
 
 and export trade of Merida, the capital of Yucatan, 
 and for all merchandise transported to or from the in- 
 terior of the State. Campeche attained, under the an- 
 cient rule, a high degree of .commercial prosperity. It 
 enjoyed a monopoly of all the imports and exports of 
 the province ; but since the independence of Mexico, 
 its commerce has declined — a result brought about by 
 the opening of other ports to general trade, as well as 
 by its difficulties with the central government, and 
 the fearful ravages of epidemics, by which, in one 
 year, fully two fifths of its population were car- 
 ried ofl^. 
 
 Chiapas. — The State of Chiapas possesses but little 
 commercial interest. It was incorporated into the, ter- 
 ritory of Mexico in 1833, forming, before that year, a 
 portion of the territory of Guatemala. Its produc- 
 tions are com, cocoa, sugar, tobacco, indigo (of the 
 very finest quality, but in small quantities), tropical 
 fruits, and timber of almost every variety'. Like 
 Yucatan, this State derives its chief interest from the 
 ancient remains of a former advanced civilization 
 within its territories, bearing date long anterior to the 
 Spanish conquest. The ruins of Palenque, in Chiapas, 
 and of Uxmal and Chichen, in Yucatan, are, perhaps, 
 the most wonderful of all that have been discovered 
 hitherto on the western continent. 
 
 Tabasco. — Tabasco, the smallest State of the con- 
 federacy, was, previous to the revolution, a province 
 belonging to the intendency of Vera Cruz. Its prin- 
 cipal productions are cocoa, coffee, pepper, sugar, tam- 
 arinds, arrow-root, palmetto, and some tobacco. Its 
 capital. Villa de San Juan Bautista, lies about 70 miles 
 from the Gulf, and is reached by vessels of light 
 draught. Its commerce is chiefly carried on with the 
 adjoining States and with Guatemala. 
 
 Vera Craz.-^The State of Vera Cruz lies under the 
 burning sky of the tropics, and is comprised within a 
 long, but somewhat narrow, strip of territory along 
 the Gulf of Mexico, running from the mouth of the 
 Tampico River in the north, to the Guasacualco and 
 the boundaries of Tabasco on the south. It contains 
 an area of 3199"50 square leagues, and a population of 
 264,725* inhabitants. The port of Vera Cruz lies in 
 19° 11' 52" N. lat., and 98° 29' 19" W. long, from 
 Paris, on a sandy plain, interspersed with marshes, 
 which bound the Gulf of Mexico. From the month 
 of May to that of November, the usual period during 
 which the northers cease blowing, the unhealthiness 
 of Vera Cruz is proverbial. The principal productions 
 of the State of Vera Cruz are tobacco, cofi'ee, sugar, 
 cotton, com, barley, wheat, jalap, sarsaparilla, vanilla, 
 mahogany, ebony, dye-woods, and ever)' variety of 
 tropical fruit. The port of Vera Cruz supplies a great 
 part of the republic, and is considered by far the most 
 important shipping point on either coast. Foreign ves- 
 sels are allowed to introduce goods and effects from 
 foreign countries only, and they are permitted to enter 
 but one port for discharge ; they may then proceed, in 
 baUast, to any other port in the republic for the pur- 
 pose of taking in cargoes of the produce of the coun- 
 try. During the year 1852 there arrived at the port 
 of Vera Cruz, from all foreign countries, 173 vessels, 
 with an aggregate of 21,958-23 tons. The total value 
 of merchandise exported, including gold and silver, 
 was $10,449,070 05. Of the vessels named, there were 
 49 American, measuring 6234-15 tons. ■ The character 
 or value of their inward cargoes is not given in the 
 United States' consular returns, but the import duties 
 are stated to have amounted to $159,301 20. Amount 
 of silver exported, $353,287; of gold, $55,884; other 
 products, $205,150; total value of homeward cargoes, 
 $614,822. 
 
 During the same j-ear there arrived from Great 
 Britain 38 vessels, with an aggregate of 2665'22 tons. 
 Total amount of exports, $9,175,763 82, of which silver 
 
 • A census taken In 1854 raises this number to 274,886. 
 
MEX 
 
 1353 
 
 MEX 
 
 covered $8,565,359 32, and 'gold $47,962. France holda 
 the next rank in the trade of Vera Cruz. The number 
 of French vessels arrived in 1852 tras 28, of 6717 tons. 
 Inward cargoes not ascertained. Outward, total value 
 $421,935; of which, silver $118,921, gold $45,554. 
 Number of Spanish vessels arrived at Vera Cruz 
 during the year 1852, 26, with an aggregate of 3211-67 
 ton's. Total value of cargoes exported $141,287, chiefly 
 silver and gold. The residue of the foreign trade of 
 this porty during the same year, was distributed be- 
 tween 32 vessels j with an aggregate of 4139 tons, car- 
 rying, respectively, the Belgian, Danish, Hanoverian, 
 Mexican, Portuguese, Sardinian,' and Venezuelan flags. 
 From Hamburg thete were 8 vessels, exporting a total 
 value of $23,196; 
 
 During the prevalence of the northers, the port of 
 Vera Cruz is considered to be very unsafe. In 1846 
 the United States' brig-of-war Somers was lost in 
 sight of'the citj', making the third United States' 
 national vessel lost during that season, in the Gulf of 
 Mexico. A norther generally continues two or three 
 days. "It comes on," says a publication elicited hy 
 the loss of the Somers, " gradually, so that the mari- 
 ner who is unaccustomed to navigate the Gulf of Mex- 
 ico is often unsuspicious of danger, and flatters himself 
 with the idea that the ' stiff' breeze' which impels his 
 vessel onward will soon carry her to her port of desti- 
 nation. And so it does, but not in safety ; for the 
 ' stiff breeze' freshens into a gale, and the gale into a 
 hurricane; and, at length, the vessel strikes on one 
 of the rocks with which the harbor of Vera Cruz is 
 studded. In that harbor the anchorage ground is, 
 perhaps, the worst in the world. At Vera Cruz no 
 number of anchors hardly will ' keep a vessel from 
 going ashore in a norther. All that the captain of a 
 vessel can do, under such circumstances, is to slip his 
 anchors and stand out to sea immediately. Vessels 
 of war, even those belonging to friendly powers, are 
 not alldwed by the Mexican government to enter the 
 harbor of Vera Cruz. They always anchor at Sacri- 
 ficios, a barren Island at the entrance of the harbor. 
 At Sacriflcios the anchorage is pretty good. Mexican 
 men-of-war, when there are any such in the harbor of 
 Vera Cruz, are always moored to rings set in the walls 
 of the castle of St. Juah de Ulloa, and, by that means, 
 are secured from the eff'ects of a norther." The official 
 account of the loss of the Somers, bearing date De- 
 cember 12, 1846, is on file in the Navj' Department, 
 and cojitains many valuable suggessions relative to the 
 dangers to which navigation is exposed in the Gulf of 
 Mexico. 
 
 TamauUpas. — This State is hounded north by the 
 State of Texas ; north-west by the Mexican State of 
 Coahuila ; on the west bj' the States of New Leon, 
 San Luis Potosi, and Vera Cruz ; and on the east by 
 the Gilf of Mexico. In breadth it varies from 12 to 
 55 leagues. This State has more than 350 miles in 
 length of sea-coast, and is fringed with lagoons vary- 
 ing from 4 to 18 miles in width, divided from the gulf 
 by a bank of sand. The shallowness of the shores 
 along the coast, and the dangerous .bars which choke 
 the mouth of the rivers, render the navigation difficult 
 and dangerous for vessels of almost all classes. Pop- 
 ulation in 1850, 110,074 ; though the census of 1854 
 gives but 100,064. The chief productions of this State 
 are similar to those found in the State of Vera Cruz. 
 The coasting and foreign trade is conducted principally 
 in the ports of Tampico de Tamaulipas and Matamoras. 
 From these places large quantities of European and 
 North American manufactures enter the middle and 
 northern States of the republic. Queretaro, San Luis, 
 Nuevo Leon, Coahuila, Zacatecas, Jalisco, Durango, 
 Chihuahua, and Sonorai, receive most of their foreign 
 supplies from these points. Tampico de Tamaulipas, 
 on the northern bank of the Panuco, is the principal 
 commercial port of this State. Its bar is dangerous, 
 and its harbor considered unsafe. The town is situated 
 
 in the midst of extensive marshes, and can not be w^ 
 preached by large vessels. Its foreign commerce is 
 represented as increasing (vide Mayer's Mexico, vol. 
 ii., p. 206), though a consBlar return from that port, 
 bearing date February 17, 1854, says that the trade 
 with the- United States is on the decrease, owing to 
 "high rirtea of duties, both impost and consumption; 
 as also circulation and mimicipal>." i 
 
 Tampico exports hides, sarsaparilla, goat-skins, 
 fustic, vanilla, wool, jerked beef, and Mejdcan hemp. 
 Tampico is the outlet of the metals and other produc- 
 tions of San Luis Potosi, Guanajuato, Zacatecas, and 
 Durango, cdnsidered to betheriehest mining districts 
 in Mexico. The foreign trade of Tampico during the 
 year ending December Slj 1852, was as follows : Total 
 value of inward cargoes, $1,228,948 ; total value of 
 ontward' cargoes, $3,266,634; ■ total 'foreign trade, 
 $4,495,582. • ■, 
 
 Total' number of American vessels included in. the 
 above, 22, with an aggregate of 2267 tons. Value of 
 inward cargoes, $196,936 ; value of outward cargoes, 
 $237,944; total trade in American Vessels, $434,880. 
 Total number of British vessels, 17 ; aggregate ton- 
 nage not ascertaihed. Of these, 14 belonged to the 
 British Koyal Mail Steamship Company, and 3 were 
 sailing vessels. Total value of inward cargoes (ex- 
 clusive of 1000 flasks of quicksilver, value not ascer- 
 tained),' $287,500; total valUe of outward cargoes, 
 $2,928,418 ; total trade- in British vessels, $3,215,918. 
 Total number of French vessels, 9, of 1,315 tons. 
 Total value of inward cargoes, $398,000 ; total value 
 of outward cargoes, $2080;; total trade in French ves- 
 sels, $400,080. Total number of Spanish vessels, 7, 
 of 728 tons. Total value of inward cargoes, $139,300 ; 
 total value of outward cargoes, $50,176 ; total value 
 of trade' in Spanish vessels, $189,476. 
 
 The- residue of the trade at the port of Tampico, 
 during 1852, was distributed between Sardinia, Ham- 
 burg, Holland, and Mexico. Matamoras lies on the 
 right bank of the Eio Grande, or Rio Bravo del Norte, 
 at' the distance of nearly 30 miles from its mouth. For 
 purposes of navigation, this river is, perhaps, the most 
 important in Mexico, and has proved navigable by 
 steamers for a considerable distance into the interior. 
 Recent returns from this port are not at hand, but the 
 general trade of Matamoras is not of much import- 
 ance. The following facts relative to its trade are de- 
 rived from French official returns: Imports into the 
 port of Matamoras consist chiefly of breadstu6fs, spices, 
 provisions, and cloths, from New Orleans ; exports, of 
 specie, hides, and wool. In 1844 there entered 33 
 vessels, of 2054 tons, floating inward cargoes of the 
 value of 1,633,000 francs, and outward about an equal 
 amount. Two thirds of all commercial operations at 
 this port are under the American flag. In 1841 com- 
 mercial movements with the United States reached the 
 sum of 23,000,000 francs— 12,000,000 for inward, and 
 11,000, OOOi for ' outward cargoes. Of the imports, 
 British merchandise imported in American bottoms 
 reached 5,000,000, while Apierican produce and manu- 
 factures amounted to only 2^500,000. French merchan- 
 dise in American bottoms figured as high as 1,300,000 
 francs, and German 1,080,000. Cotton cloths (mostly 
 British) reached, in this trade,' 5,136,000 francs. The 
 export trade to the United States during this year 
 covered 9,000,000 francs in specior and over 2,000,000 
 in hides. 
 
 Chihuahua. — The principal port in this State is El 
 Paso del Norte, lying on the right bank of the Rio 
 Grande. " The position of this town is an important 
 one, inasmuch as the road by it is the onlj' practicable 
 one for wagons leading from Santa F6 to Chihuahua.'' 
 — Mater's Mexico. The valley of El Paso is the most 
 fertile in Mexico, producing maize, wheat, and almost 
 every variety of frtiits. The commerce of the United 
 States with this port has decreased since 1851, not half 
 the amount of merchandise having been imported from 
 
MEX 
 
 1354 
 
 MEX 
 
 the United States ia 1852 as in 1850 and in 1851. Tliis 
 decline is attributed to the failure of tlie crops in the 
 State of Chihuahua, and the high duties, which amount 
 almost to a prohibition. Mexican and foreign mer- 
 chants send to the United States -wine and brandy, 
 manufactured in the El Paso valley, and sugar, soap, 
 rebosas,- saddles, bridles, leather, segars, mats, and 
 fruits, amounting annually to about $70,000. 
 
 Oojaca. — This State has a sea-coast on the Pacific 
 extending 118 leagues, and comprises an area of about 
 4150 square leagues, containing a population of 525,101 
 inhabitants. The fertility of soil and richness of pro- 
 ductions render this State, in a commercial aspect, one 
 of the most important in Mexico. There is not, how- 
 ever, any port open to foreign commerce on this part 
 of the Pacific, from the boundary line of Guatemala to 
 Acapulco, a distance of nearly 900 miles. The coast- 
 ing trade is nearly nominal, although the State pos- 
 sesses nine sea-ports or anchorages, namely : Tehuan- 
 tepec, Huatulco, Escondido, Chacahua, and Jamiltepec. 
 Com, cotton, coffee, sugar, cocoa, vanilla, tobacco, 
 cochineal, wax, honey, and indigo, are the staple pro- 
 ductions. The indigo crop; produced in the depart- 
 ment of Tehuantepec, is estimated at 500 garrones, of 
 175 pounds each, and that in the valley of Sonola at 
 600 garrones, making the whole crop of indigo equal to 
 192,500 pounds. The price paid to planters is 62-^ 
 cents to $1 per pound. ■ From a message of the Gov- 
 ernor of Oajaca to the National Congress, it appears 
 that, during the 17 months previous to March 1, 1854, 
 the crop of cochineal produced in the State of Oajaca 
 reached as high as 1,248,550 pounds. The price usu- 
 ally ranges from 50 cents to 76 cents per lb., according 
 to quality. This State possesses, also, considerable 
 mineral wealth. There are, at present, silver mines 
 worked, 4 ; not worked, 3 ; gold mines worked, 5 ; 
 lead mines, 1. Annual product of all the mines, 
 $352,000 ; annual products of iron mines, 244,000 
 pounds. On both sides of the Isthmus of Tehuante- 
 pec great quantities of mahogany and other cabinet 
 woods, gums, etc., are produced. The cocoa raised in 
 some parts of this State is of so superior a quality. 
 
 that, while the country belonged to Spain, it was re- 
 served for the royal family. It still has a deserved 
 reputation. 
 
 Guerrero. — ^This State comprises the districts of Aca- 
 pulco, Chilapa, Tasco, and Tlapa, and the municipality 
 of Coyucan. Its principal port is Acapulco, so spacious 
 and secure that 500 vessels can lie at anchor in it with 
 perfect safety. The trade of Acapulco is inconsider- 
 able ; the foreign vessels entering the port being 
 either freighted with coals for the Pacific Mail Steam- 
 ship Company, or in distress — ^the former being com- 
 pelled to clear in ballast. By decree dated February 
 4, 1854, the Supreme Government made a reduction in 
 the tonnage dues upon all vessels arriving in that 
 port laden with coal, and consigned to any steamboat 
 company having a d^pot of coals in the harbor, viz. : 
 50 cents per ton, instead of $1 50, as formerly. Dur- 
 ing the year 1853, there entered the port of Acapulco 
 81 American steamships, of 107,007 tons; 8 sailing 
 vessels (ships) carrying 4,369 tons ; 1 bark, and 2 
 schooners. Besides Acapulco, there are other ports on 
 the Pacific coast open to foreign trade ; but the De- 
 partment is not in possession of information respecting 
 them. They possess, however, no commercial import- 
 ance. The other States of Mexico, being either in 
 the interior of the republic, or possessing no ports 
 open to foreign commerce, are not deemed of sufficient 
 commercial consideration to demand separate notice. 
 Returning to the general commerce of Mexico with for- 
 eign nations, particularly with the United States, it is 
 found that the principal articles of importation from the 
 latter to that country are, machinery, articles of iron, 
 small wares, linen, woolen, and cotton cloths ; silks, 
 flour (when not prohibited), raw cotton, timber for the 
 construction of houses, prepared medicines, household 
 furniture, vehicles, harnesses, horses, salt meats, 
 sperm, paper, marble and other stone. 
 
 The imports into the United States from Mexico 
 consist, principally, of gold, silver, dyewoods, dye- 
 stuffs, hides, skins of sheep, cattle, and other produc- 
 tions of less value. The following statement shows 
 a decrease in the importance of our commerce. 
 
 CoMMuncE or the TJnitbd States with Mexico, from Octobee 1, 1824, to JitLY 1 
 
 , 1856. 
 
 
 Yenrfl ending 
 
 Exports. 
 
 ImportB. 
 
 Whereof there was in Bullion 
 and Specie. 
 
 Tonnage Cleared. 
 
 Domestic. | Foreign. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Export. 
 
 Import, 
 
 American. Foreign. 
 
 Sept. 30, 1836 
 
 1826 
 
 1827 
 
 1828 
 
 1829 
 
 1830 
 
 Total.... 
 
 Sept. SO, 1831 
 
 1882 
 
 1833 
 
 1834 
 
 1885 
 
 1836 
 
 1887 
 
 1838 
 
 1839 
 
 1840 
 
 Total.... 
 
 Sept. 80. 1841 
 
 1842 
 
 9m0S. 1848 
 
 June 80, 1844 
 
 1846 
 
 1346 
 
 1847 
 
 , 184S 
 
 1849... 
 
 1850 
 
 Total.... 
 
 June 80, 1851 
 
 1862 
 
 1853 
 
 1854 
 
 1855 
 
 1866 
 
 $951,040 
 1,024,275 
 886,907 
 522,016 
 495,626 
 986,764 
 
 $6,619,104 
 5,256,776 
 8,286,360 
 2,864,468 
 1,836,625 
 8,851,694 
 
 $6,470,144 
 6,281,050 
 4,178,257 
 2,886,484 
 2,831,161 
 4,887,468 
 
 $4,044,647 
 8,916,198 
 5,281,867 
 4,814,268 
 5,026,761 
 5,235,241 
 
 $199,946 
 
 1,500 
 
 800 
 
 4,860 
 
 4,640 
 
 $2,603,108 
 2,860,409 
 4,006,265 
 8,853,880 
 4,844,946 
 4,703,716 
 
 20,487 
 23,526 
 28,494 
 26,870 
 21,682 
 27,296 
 
 2,618 
 2,462 
 2,123 
 8,181 
 4,719 
 8,551 
 
 $4,865,628 
 
 $1,091,489 
 
 845,777 
 
 1,649,814 
 
 1,192,646 
 
 8,016,612 
 
 1,500,689 
 
 989,613 
 
 1,040,906 
 
 816,660 
 
 969,933 
 
 $22,118,916 
 
 $5,086,729 
 2,621,764 
 8,768,777 
 4,072,407 
 6,012,609 
 4,640,996 
 2,940,710 
 1,123,191 
 1,970,702 
 1,546,408 
 
 $26,979,644 
 
 $6,178,218 
 8,467,541 
 5,408,091 
 5,266,063 
 9,029,221 
 6,041,686 
 8,880,828 
 2,164,097 
 2,787,862 
 2,615,341 
 
 $28,268,972 
 
 $6,166,746 
 4,293,954 
 5,462,818 
 8,066,068 
 9,490,446 
 5,615,819 
 6,654,002 
 8,600,709 
 3,127,163 
 4,176,001 
 
 $211,786 
 
 $24,210 
 1,600 
 1,410 
 
 8,395 
 
 22,782 
 4,200 
 
 $22,871,814 
 
 $4,464,184 
 8,626,704 
 4,692,892 
 7,204,517 
 8,848,181 
 4,637,418 
 4,660,978 
 2,689,426 
 2,273,548 
 8,458,892 
 
 148,864 
 
 22,808 
 24,111. 
 30,548 
 26,604 
 44,4.58 
 27,278 
 17,602 
 11,838 
 17,816 
 13,848 
 
 18,644 
 
 10.019 
 9,864 
 4,859 
 6,082 
 
 11,169 
 4,588 
 4,018 
 2,725 
 6,620 
 8.025 
 
 $13,063,694 
 
 $886,618 
 
 969,371 
 
 907,745 
 
 1,292,762 
 
 784,164 
 
 901,383 
 
 636,641 
 
 2,095,485 
 
 1,047,999 
 
 1,498,791 
 
 $83,678,288 
 
 $1,150,107 
 564,862 
 564,192 
 602,081 
 868,177 
 629,847 
 166,787 
 1,962,951 
 1,042,869 
 514,036 
 
 $46,786,882 
 
 $2,086,620 
 1,534,283 
 1,471,987 
 1,794,883 
 1,152,831 
 1,581,180 
 692,428 
 4,058,486 
 2,090,868 
 2,012,827 
 
 $54,642,715 
 
 $.3,284,957 
 1,996,696 
 2,782,406 
 2,887,002 
 1,702,936 
 1,836,621 
 746,818 
 1,631,247 
 2,216,719 
 2,185,366 
 
 $62,647 
 
 $6,204 
 8,680 
 
 11,826 
 6,000 
 
 I'iio 
 
 6,290 
 
 $46,841,690 
 
 $1,938,083 
 
 1,342,817 
 
 2,176,663 
 
 1,780,267 
 
 956,407 
 
 698,658 
 
 828,008 
 
 860,146 
 
 1,528,225 
 
 1,560,166 
 
 234,196 
 
 14,018 
 15,912 
 22,727 
 22,636 
 16,962 
 14,224 
 10,716 
 62,088 
 29,820 
 24,518 
 
 60,914 
 
 4,935 
 1,226 
 2,360 
 1,804 
 4,500 
 8,964 
 2,165 
 4,626 
 10,140 
 80,104 
 
 $10,920,784 
 
 $1,014,690 
 1,406,.372 
 2,629,770 
 2,091,870 
 2,253;868 
 2,464,942 
 
 $7,454,909 
 
 $567,093 
 878,657 
 
 1,029,064 
 
 1,043,616 
 669,486 
 
 1,237,297 
 
 $18,375,698 
 
 $1,581,783 
 2,284,929 
 8,558,824 
 8,185,486 
 2,922,804 
 8,702.289 
 
 $20,669,768 
 
 $1,804,779 
 1,649,206 
 2,167,985 
 8,463,190 
 2,882,880 
 8,568,681 
 
 $40,489 
 
 $V,26o 
 
 450 
 
 $13,169,386 
 
 $1,083,998 
 1,098,942 
 1,411,885 
 2,526,834 
 1,978,080 
 2,714,928 
 
 288,606 
 
 81,019 
 22,719 
 80,810 
 29,763 
 41,458 
 47,129 
 
 66,714 
 
 20,146 
 17,974 
 15,804 
 15,178 
 10,423 
 7,106 
 
MEX 
 
 1355 
 
 MEX 
 
 This exhibit may be relied upon, having been made 
 up from official reports on " Commerce and Navigation." 
 It will be perceived that the commerce between the 
 two countries decreased during the 30 years embraced 
 in the above table. In 1854: it experienced considerable 
 activity, exceeding in value the totals of 1850, but not 
 reaching those of 1840, and.stUl further below those of 
 1830. The value of imports in 1854, as already given, 
 was $3,463,190; and of exports, $3,135,486; making 
 a total of $6,598,676— being $91,666 less than for the 
 year 1840, and $3,474,023 less than for 1830. The im- 
 portations from Great Britain into Mexico may be 
 illustrated from a report made by order of Parliament. 
 For a period of seven years, from 1840 to 1846, both 
 included, the sum total of the value of the imports 
 was $82,246,705, making an average value of nearly 
 $12,000,000 per annum. The principal articles of im- 
 port were as follows : drugs, haberdasher}', and wear- 
 ing apparel, arms and ammunition, malt liquors, 
 printed books, manufactures of brass and copper, fur- 
 niture, carriages, coals, cordage, manufactures of cot- 
 ton, earthenware of all , kinds, glass wares, hardware 
 and cutlery, hats, iron and steel in bars, manufactured 
 lead, prepared skins, harnesses and saddles, manufac- 
 tures of flax, machinery and machines, and musical 
 instruments. Of these articles, the manufactures of 
 cotton rank highest ; the estimated value of the im- 
 portation for the seven years amounting to more than 
 $57,000,000, while that of manufactures of linen (which 
 comes next in order of value) was more than $12,000,- 
 000, leaving only some $12,000,000 or $13,000,000 as 
 the aggregate value of all the other imports from Great 
 Britain into Mexico. The character and value of mer- 
 chandise entering into the commercial movement of 
 Mexico with France may be exemplifled by those of 
 the year 1851, as exhibited from the data furnished by 
 the official returns of France. The reason of the ship- 
 ments thither of the precipus metals being in so small 
 amounts, is, that the estchange with England can 
 always be more conveniently arranged than with that 
 country. 
 
 DoscHption of mercli. 
 
 Manufs. of Silk $1, 
 
 " cotton . . 
 
 " wool 
 
 " glass — 
 
 Eiigi'avings,b'ks,etc 
 
 "Wines 
 
 Arms 
 
 Manl^. of metal.... 
 
 Haberdashery, etc. 
 
 Eabbit & bare sk's. 
 
 Mecb. & oth. tools. 
 
 Dressed skins 
 
 Cutlery 
 
 Fish, pickled, etc.. 
 
 Artificial flowers & 
 fancy goods 
 
 Bplrite and liqueurs 
 
 Maoufs. of flax and 
 hemp 
 
 Volnea. 
 
 ,249,088 
 
 644,184 
 
 626,447 
 
 828,588 
 
 278,066 
 
 246,693 
 
 231,419 
 
 179,830 
 
 126,649 
 
 604,216 
 
 108,040 
 
 67,017 
 
 66,851 
 
 66,646 
 
 47,810 
 47,267 
 
 45,921 
 
 Descrtption of merch. 
 
 Perfumery 
 
 Precious stones 
 
 Clocks and watches. 
 
 Canines, etc 
 
 Jewelry 
 
 Furniture 
 
 Mactiines and ma- 
 chinery 
 
 Musical instruments. 
 
 Stearine oil . 
 
 Medicines 
 
 Iron and. steel 
 
 Prepared skins 
 
 Silk (raw & manuf). 
 
 Toys 
 
 Olive-oil 
 
 Umbrellas and para- 
 sols, silk 
 
 Sundries 
 
 Valuea. 
 $42,95T 
 411,000 
 39,943 
 82,680 
 85,558 
 32,581 
 
 25,541 
 28,008 
 21,675 
 19,867 
 19,747 
 19,298 
 15,861 
 15,078 
 13,976 
 
 13,525 
 
 The importation to Mexico from Germany consists 
 principally of linen textures, such as Silesian linen, 
 creas, etc., etc. ; to which are added, in smaller quan- 
 tities, some chintzes, muslins, silk handkerchiefs, 
 cloths, cassimeres, crystals, plain glass, fine and com- 
 mon hardware, arms, carriages, furniture, and pianos. 
 
 The quantities of linen exported from Hamburg and 
 Bremen to Vera Cruz and Tampico, during the years 
 designated, were as follows : 
 
 Statement showing the Valttes of Imports fkou Ham- 
 BUEG AND Bremen into the Ports of Vera Cettz 
 AND Tampico, with the Numbers of Vessels en- 
 gaged DURING THE TeAES SPECIFIED. 
 
 Yen™. 
 
 No 
 
 of veasol£ from 
 
 Valuea of uierch 
 as per invoice. 
 
 Hamburg. 
 
 Bremon. 
 
 Both ports. 
 
 1887 
 
 1838 
 
 18.39 
 
 1840 
 
 1841 
 
 Aesrroffate.. . . 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 11 
 
 14 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 8 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 '2 
 
 1 
 
 'i 
 
 $1,466,000 
 1,760,000 
 1,970,800 
 1,760,000 
 1,485,200 
 
 $8,482,000 
 
 At. an' lvalue 
 
 
 
 
 1,686,400 
 
 
 
 
 Statement Exhibiting tub amount of Import Duties 
 collected at the Port op Vera Cruz during the 
 Four Years ending with 1854, as compiled from the 
 Cubtom-House Books of that Poet, 
 
 Years. 
 
 Tariff. 
 
 Averia iroposts. 
 
 Mole tax. 
 
 Totals. 
 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Seilars. 
 
 Dollar.. 
 
 Dollars. . 
 
 1851.... 
 
 1,954,888 87 
 
 485,912 14 
 
 110,607 13 
 
 2,500,907 64 
 
 1852.... 
 
 2,915,691 89 
 
 200,988 40 
 
 106,548 88 
 
 3,228,128 12 
 
 1863.'... 
 
 2,464,728 08 
 
 242,676 82 
 
 124,770 96 
 
 2,822,170-85 
 
 1854.... 
 
 2,688,686 74 
 
 278,614 94 
 
 114,489 27 
 
 2,981,640 96 
 
 Aggreg'e 
 
 9,918,889 53 
 
 1,168,092 30 
 
 456,415 6811,537,847 56 
 
 Average. 
 
 2,478,834 m 289,523 07i 114,108 92' 2,88i;961 89 
 
 The foregoing is exclusive of city and hospital con- 
 tributions, and inteirnacion, or internal duty, levied 
 upon the same goods when dispatched to the interior. 
 
 The commerce of Mexico is coniined to the reception 
 of foreign goods sufficient for the necessities or luxury 
 of a verj' small class of the population, for Vvhich is 
 given in exchange a large portion of the products of 
 the mines, and some few products of the soil. As the 
 yield of the mines is estimated only at $26,000,000 an- 
 nually, the amount of commerce can not much exceed 
 that sum. The total number of Mexican merchant 
 vessels, all of which are small, does not exceed 50, and 
 of these more than half belong to the merchants of 
 Tucatan. 
 
 The following account of the trade and commerce of 
 the republic for the year 1851-52 is compiled from 
 the official-returns : 
 
 Vera Cruz. . 
 
 Tampico 
 
 Campeachy. 
 
 Sisal 
 
 Tabasco 
 
 Acapulco... 
 Manzanilla. . 
 San Bias... . 
 
 Mazatlau 
 
 Altata 
 
 Guayamas.. 
 Total..., 
 
 Total. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 ■7,704 
 
 6,992 
 
 4,2.39 
 
 3,739 
 
 181,380 
 
 1,402 
 
 80,321 
 
 80,762 
 
 1,168 
 
 4,885 
 
 266,692 
 
 FasspngeiB. 
 
 Arrived.' Departed, 
 
 1,429 
 
 178 
 
 4,975 
 
 48 
 
 81 
 
 31,242 
 
 11 
 
 4,863 
 
 5,095 
 
 ■81 
 
 718 
 
 48,816 
 
 1,846 
 
 126 
 
 1 
 
 95 
 
 21 
 
 28,540 
 
 K920 
 
 5,000 
 
 9 
 
 85 
 
 40,168 
 
 Kinds of linen. 
 
 Silesian 
 
 Creas 
 
 Euanes 
 
 Bretanas — 
 Estopillas. . . 
 LIstados.... 
 Osnabruck.. 
 Cascrlllas... 
 Canamazos. . 
 Coties 
 
 Pieces. 
 
 116,220 
 
 29,566 
 
 1,978 
 
 12,796 
 
 7,177 
 
 7,568 
 
 2,949 
 
 10,862 
 
 8,885 
 
 758 
 
 Pieces. 
 
 59,188 
 
 20,764 
 1,165 
 
 11,022 
 7,160 
 
 10,442 
 1,046 
 4,164 
 1,154 
 1,966 
 
 1841. 
 
 Pieces. 
 
 52,854 
 
 19,654 
 
 1,470 
 
 4,160 
 
 5,888 
 
 2,325 
 
 150 
 
 200 
 
 1,880 
 
 1,559 
 
 Of the vessels arriving, 68 belonged to Mexico, 435 
 to the United States, 108 to England, 69 to France, 
 60 to Spain, 13 to Hamburg, 24 to Peru, 5 to Belgium, 
 8 to Bremen, and 1 each to Portugal, Nicaragua, 
 Sweden, Hanover, and Venezuela. 
 
 Among the arrivals were 219 steamers, viz., 145 at 
 Acapulco, 7 at Vera Cruz, 4 at Tampico, 27 at San 
 Bias, 35 at Mazatlan, and 1 at Guayamas. Of these, 
 145 were United States' vessels. 
 
 Of the classes of vessels, beside steamers, there were 
 55 frigates (vessels of war), 114 barks, 165 brigs, 63 
 hermaphrodite brigs, 135 schooners, and 68 pilot boats. 
 
 The chief coasting trade of the republic, on the 
 Gulf of Mexico, is performed by schooners between 
 Tampico, Tuspan, Sisal, Campeclie, Tabasco, Minatit- 
 lan, Alvarado,,and Tlacotalpan. For this trade, a few 
 vessels exist of about a hundred tons burden, built at 
 Campeche, and are equal to American vessels of lilce 
 quality in respect to capacity, sailing properties, and 
 durabUitj-. National vessels make voyages only to 
 the ports of New Orleans and Cuba ; and in the year 
 1852 only seven sail were thus employed, and the 
 amount of coasting in the same time was very small. 
 There appears to be no increase in this trade, nor in 
 the building of vessels. The commerce with foreign 
 
MEX 
 
 1S56 
 
 MIC 
 
 countries is reported recently to have decreased ; and 
 with the United States, in particular, to be on the de- 
 cline.^ The cause of this change is considered to be 
 the high rates of duties, both on imports and exports, 
 and the additional charges, local as well as internal. 
 It is known that the 'late President of Mexico (Santa 
 Anna), a short time before his abdication, had granted 
 privileges and special concessions to certain European 
 houses for the introduction of foreign merchandise on 
 the Pacific coast, at from 25 to 30 per cent, less tham 
 the regular impost by the established tariff: As this 
 involved a palpable violation of the treaty between 
 the United States and Mexico, the American minister 
 to that country, under date of April 10, 1855, protested 
 against such privileges and special concessions. Un- 
 der such a system, American merchants were reduced 
 to the necessity of witnessing the products of the Unit- 
 ed States contributing to the fortunes of European 
 merchants ; while they were denied the right, notwith- 
 standing' treaty stipulations, of importing similar mer- 
 chandise on the same terms, under a penalty of confis- 
 cation, and a fine to the extent of the market value of 
 the cargoes at the place of importation. 
 
 The Principal Ports are Acapulco, lat. 16° 50' 30" 
 north, long. 90° 46' west, the best sea-port on the 
 western coast of Mexico, and is capable of containing 
 a large navy with perfect safety. Tampico, a consid- 
 erable commercial port on the eastern coast of Mexico, 
 in lat. 22° 15' 30" north, lon^. 97° 52' west. The 
 shifting of the bar at the mouth of the river, and the 
 shallowness of the water on it, which is sometimes un- 
 der 8 feet and rarely above 15 feet, are serious obstacles 
 to the growth of the port. Vessels that can not enter 
 the port, load and unload by means of lighters, moor- 
 ing outside the bar, so that in event of a gale from the 
 north, they can readily get to sea. Vera Cruz, the 
 principal sea-port on the eastern coast of Mexico, lat. 
 19° 11' 62" north, long. 96° 8' 45" west. The har- 
 bor lies between the town and the island of San Juan 
 de UUoa, about 2400 feet wide ; it is insecure, the an- 
 chorage being very bad, and no vessel is safe unless 
 made fast to iron rings fixed into the wall of the castle 
 on the island, and even then accidents sometimes oc- 
 cur. Guaymas, a sea-port town of Sonota, on the 
 Gulf of California, at the mouth of a considerable 
 river, lat. 27° 55' north, long. 110° 16' west. It is 
 neither large nor well built, but its harbor is the best 
 on the western coast of Mexico, and it has an active 
 and increasing trade. 
 
 New Ports Open far Foreign Trade. — Guaymas, Ca- 
 margo, Mier, Piedraa-negras, Monterey, Laredo, Ton- 
 aid, Zapaluta, Guatzacoalcos, La Ventosa. 
 
 Tonnage Duties and Port Charges at Vera Cruz. — On 
 foreign ships and national vessels from foreign ports, 
 per ton (the Mexican ton is 12 per cent, less than that 
 of the United States), $1 50 ; fees of captain of the 
 port, $3 50 ; water dues (Mexican vessels in the coast- 
 ing trade pay OJ cents per ton, as water tax, but are 
 
 for entering and clearing, $8 50 ; pilotage, either waj', 
 per foot, ®2 50 ; pilot-boat, with four or six oars, $8 ; 
 bills of health, if required, $4 ; to consul of country 
 where destined, $4 ; visit of health officer, $2. Wharf- 
 age and municipal dues are very insignificant. The 
 moneys, weights, and measures, in use in Mexico, are 
 the same as those of Spain. At the port of Tampico, 
 the dues and charges are quite the same a« at Vera 
 Cruz. Hospital dues at the former port are $10. 
 
 Tariff Jiegulations.^-Tbe tarifi^ regulations of Mex- 
 ico have been subject to frequent changes of late. The 
 rates established by the tariffs of 1845, 1855, and 1856, 
 will be found in the Comparative Tariffs issued by the 
 State Department, Part II. The details of the tariff 
 of January 81, 18S6, are as follows : 
 
 Charges on Vessels. — Tonnage, $1 per ton ; free of 
 tonnage, if in ballast to load logwood, specie, etc. ; or 
 if bringing coal for the Mexican deposits ; or if only 
 bringing passengers or mails. 
 
 Prohibitions: — Brandy, of sugar-cane ; and all other 
 except that made out of grape — excepting gin, rum, 
 and others named in the tariff, in bottles, or jars ; su- 
 gars, of all kinds ; rice ; buttons. With the Mexican or 
 foreign arms ; coffee ; wax, made up in candles ; ob- 
 scene pamphlets, books, etc. ; flour of wheat, except 
 at Acapulco, Yucatan, Tampico, MatamaraSj and the 
 custom-houses of the northern frontier. For regula- 
 tions, see Comparative Tariffs, Part II. Boots, shoes, 
 slippers of leather with soles ; rein-bitts and spurs of 
 Mexican fashion ; books prohibited by competent au- 
 thority ; lard, subject to the same exceptions (omitting 
 Acapulco) as flour; saddles, and appurtenances of 
 Mexican fashion ; playing-cards, of Mexican fashion ; 
 scarfs, Mexican fashion, of all kinds ; speckled or 
 printed textures imitating the same ; wheat, and all 
 kinds of grain and seeds ; blankets, woolen or cotton, 
 or mixed, excepting coverlets and bed-coverings of 
 piqu6, without seams. 
 
 Additional Duty to Tariff. — 1. Municipal duty wUl 
 will be 12-J cents on each package of 8 arrobas weight, 
 payable at the time of importation. 2. For improve- 
 ment of the country, 20 per cent, on the import duty. 
 3. International duty, 10 per cent, on importation dutj', 
 payable at the time of sending the goods to the inte- 
 rior. 4. Contra regisiro, is 20 per cent, on import, 
 payable at the final place where goods are sent. 5, 
 Amortization duty of the public debt liquidated and 
 consolidated : this duty will be 25 per cent, on the import 
 duty, and be payable in full at the General Treasurj' 
 Department of the nation, with bonds of the public debt 
 liquidated and consolidated. 
 
 Export Duty. — On coin and wrought gold, 1\ per 
 cent. ; on coined silver, 3|- per cent. ; on silver barsj 
 stamped by mint, 7 per cent. All the remaining goods, 
 products, and national manufactures, not specified, 
 may be exported without paj-lng any duty. 
 
 All laws, decrees, circulars and orders, which are in 
 conflict with this tariff, directly or indirectly, will cease 
 exempt from tonnage duty), ISJ cents ; stamped paper immediately after publication of the present new one. 
 Pbo Fobma Invoice trNDEK New Takiff op Januaby 81st, 1S56. 
 
 T^mnU-e of the foUowlna goods shipped by (he subsaHber for Captain. ..,,«» the consignment 
 
 Iweotee oj imjomminy^ yui, ^^^j^^tg of the port of Vera Ci-ua {Memco\ whither this vessel is bomd. 
 
 P. M.E 
 
 Number of 
 packages. 
 
 1 to 10. 
 
 10 (ten). 
 
 GrosB weight 
 of each. 
 
 1 (one) quin- 
 tal. 
 
 Description of 
 packngcB. 
 
 Toial not weight of 
 
 each which pay 
 
 by weight. 
 
 Bales of 
 common 
 
 Total moasiirement 
 by length of goods 
 which pay by meas- 
 urement. 
 
 Widlh of goods 
 
 exceediog one 
 
 vara.* 
 
 100,000 (one hun 
 dred thousand) 
 yards. 
 
 1 (one) yard. 
 
 Class of goods 
 Bpecificd, 
 
 White 
 ordinary 
 cotton. 
 
 New Yoek, (date.) 
 * 100 yards Engljsh are equal to 109 11-100 Mexican. 
 
 (Signature). 
 
 In this manner all invoices are to be made out, spe- 
 cifying every one of its packages. The total number 
 of paclcages to be specified in wbrds also.— Com. HebOr- 
 tions. U, 8. 
 
 Michigan, a north-western State of the republic, 
 lies between lat. 41° 43' and 48° north, and between 
 82° 25'' and 90° 34' west from Greenwich, or 5° 24' 
 and 13° 33' west from "Washington, It consists of 
 
MIC 
 
 1357 
 
 MIC 
 
 two peninsulas, and contains h6,2i3 square miles. 
 Population in 1810, -was 4528 ; in 1820, 9448 ; in 1830, 
 31,639 ; in 1840, 212,276 ; and in 1850, 397,654. i 
 
 Physical Features, etc. — The surface of the lower, or 
 soiithera' peninsula is generally level, having few el- 
 evations which may be denominated hills. The inte- 
 rior i« gently undulating, rising gradually from the 
 lakes to the centre of the peninsula. This central re- 
 gion may be regarded as a table land, elevated about 
 300 feet above the level of the lakes, covered with fine 
 forests of timber,' oak plains, and prairies. Along the 
 eastern shore of take Michigan are sand-hills, thrown 
 up by the winds into fantastic forms generally quite 
 barren and naked'.'' The part lying between Lake Hu- 
 ron and Saginaw Bay is low and swampy. No part of 
 the United States is better supplied with fish, aquatic 
 fowl and game. 
 
 There were; in'this State, in T850, 1,929,110 acres of 
 land improved ; and 2,454,780 acres of unimproved in 
 farms ; cash value of farms, $51,872,446, and the value 
 of implements and machinery, $2,891,371. Live stock 
 — horses, 58,S06 ; asses and mules, 70 ; milch cows, 
 99,676; working oxen, 55,350{; other cattle, 119,471; 
 theep, 746,435 ; swine, 205,847 ; value of live stock, 
 $8,008,734, ' I ,,„.'■ ' 
 
 Agricultural Products,, etc. — Wheat, 4,925, 888.. bush- 
 els;- rye, 105,871 ; Indian corn; 5,641,420; oats, 2,866,r 
 056 ; barley, 75,249 ; buckwheat,, 472,917 ; peas and 
 beans, 74,264; potatoes, 2,359,^97 ; sweet potatoes, 
 1177; valine of products of the'orcharfl, $132,650; 
 produce of market girdens, $14,738 ; pounds of butter 
 made 7,065,878; of cheese, 1,011,492; maple sugar, 
 2,439,794 ; molasses, 19,823 gallons ; beeswax and 
 honey, 359,232 ; . wool, pounds produced, 2,043,283 \ 
 flax, 7152 ;, silk cocoons, .108 ; hops, 10,663 pounds ; of 
 tobacco, 1245; hay,i tons of, 404,934; clover seeds^ 
 16,989 bushels ; other grass seeds,. 9^85 ; flax seed, 519 
 bushels ; and were made, 1654| gallons of wine ; value 
 of home-made manufactures $340,947 ; of slaughtered 
 animals $1,328,327. ' i 
 
 Of the northern peninsula, Mr. Schoolcraft says : — 
 " Portions of it are the mere dfevelopement of sublime 
 scenerj' which pertains to that comparati)?ely, elevated 
 portion of the continent. Mountains and lakes, plains, 
 rivers, and forests, spread over it with a boldness 'of 
 outline which may be said to constitute almost a pecu- 
 liar type of North Amefican Geography. This flivls- 
 ion embraces the mineral region. It is of little value 
 for the uses of agricultilre. The interior abounds in 
 small lakes. On the shore of Lake Superior are several 
 large bays and good harbors. Recent explorations 
 here have discovered immense deports Of rich copper 
 ore ; on the southern shore of Lake Superior is a series 
 of lofty bluffs and isolated rocks, having the appear- 
 ance of ruins, tottering walls, and caverns. La Cha- 
 pelle, or the Arched Rock, is a beautiful specimen of this 
 character, as are the Pictured Hocks, etc. There are 
 also several picturesque cascades." 
 
 The southern peninsula of Michigan is drained by 
 several large rivers and numerous smaller streams, 
 which, rising in the interior, pass off in easterly, 
 westerly, and northerly directions into the lakes. Eai- 
 sin and Huron Elvers flow into Lake Erie, Rouge River 
 into Detroit Strait, Clinton and Black Rivers into the 
 Strait of St. Clair, Saginaw River formed by the junc- 
 tion of Titibawasse, Flint, and Cass Rivers enters Sag- 
 inaw Bay. Thunder 13ay, Cheboigan River, and 
 some smaller streams fall into Lake Huron. St. Jo- 
 seph, Grand, Kalamazoo, and Maskegon Rivers flow 
 into Lake Michigan. Many small lakes of pure water, 
 stocked with fiah of fine quality, are found in the in- 
 terior. This State borders on four of the great lakes, 
 viz. Erie, Huron, Michigan, and Superior. The prin- 
 cipal rivers of the upper peninsula are Ontonagon, 
 Huron, Menomonee, Montreal, St. Mary, Eagle, Ce- 
 dar White Fish, Black, Sturgeon, Rapid, and Manis- 
 tie. The principal islands are Drummond, Sugar, St. 
 
 Joseph, Bois Blanc, Mackinaw, Manitou, and Beaver 
 Island, in Lakes Huron and Michigan; Isle Eoyale 
 and the Apostles, in Lake Superior. 
 
 Manufactures, efc. — There were in this State in 1850, 
 15 woolen factories, with a capital of $94,000, ,employing 
 73 males and 51 females, manufacturing 141,570 yards 
 of cloth, valued at $&0,242 ; 1 establishment making pig 
 iron, with a capital of $15,000, employing 25 persons, 
 producing 660 tons of pig iron, etc., valued at $21,000; 
 63 establishments with a capital of $196,450,' employing 
 337 persons, and making 2070 tons of castings, etc., 
 valued at $279,697 ; 231 Souring and grist mills, 477 
 saw mills, 45 tanneries'; 57 printing ofiices, 58 njews- 
 papSrs, 3 daily, 2 semi-weekly, 47 .weekly, 2 semi- 
 monthly, and 3 monthly publications. Aggregate 
 number of copies published, 3,247,736.. Capital in- 
 vested in manufactures, $5,764,646 ; value of manu- 
 factured articles, $10,407,285. ' There were, January, 
 1856, 590 miles of railroad in operation. 
 
 The principal places in the State are Detroit, the 
 metropolis, Mohroe, Ann Arbor, Ypsilanti, Adrian, 
 Jackson, Marshall, Kalamazoo, Lansing, the ,capjtal, 
 St. 1 Josephs, Mackinac, Grand Haven,- and Sault Stj 
 Marie, there were in 1854, 6 banks and 1 branch, 
 with an aggregate capital of $1,084,718. , Exports 
 (1852) in American . vessels, of ^omestie produce, to 
 the value of $100,436 ; in-foreign vessels-; $31,930; ot 
 foreign produce In American vessels, $4338 ; in foreign 
 vessels, $8448. Total yalue, $146,142. Imports in 
 American i vessels, $191,976 ; foreign vessels, $4264. 
 Total value, $196,240. Tonnage, 1853, 4,591,284. 
 
 The shipments from Detroit were as follows : 
 
 •■ " ' .1854. . ' 1855. 
 
 riour ;..bb]8. 837,148 640,893 
 
 ■Wheat:....'.. I,... ..bush. S9T,169 787,830 
 
 Indian corn " 587,489 629,895 
 
 White Fish.— One of the largest and most important 
 items In the commerce of Detroit, is the trade in white 
 fish. From the head of Lake Erie to the head of Lake 
 Superior, including Jjake Michigan, during the fall 
 and spring montlis, \ th^ fisheries form an important 
 tiranch of our westerii commerce. But probably there 
 is no place of the same area along our lakes and rivers 
 which is so valuabW in'' this particular, as the river 
 contiguous to this citj'. ' From Fighting Island, to the 
 northern point of Belle Isle, a distance of 17 miles, 
 there is one complete fishery, from which large num- 
 bers of fish are yearlj' taken. The cost of taking them, 
 ■when the run is fine, is verj' light, and fishermen realize 
 large pipfits. ,Ttiey are known through all the States, 
 and are esteemed among the choicest delicacies to be 
 had in any market. The large demand creates a corres- 
 ponding valuation, and in everj' city they have become 
 the first brand of fish sought. The river fish are gen- 
 erally larger, fatter, and better flavored than those of 
 the lakes, and are, therefore, always in greater de- 
 mand, and alwaj's command better prices. In New 
 York, Boston, New Orleans, and even San Francisco, 
 the Detroit River white fish are eagerly sought for. 
 
 The season of 1855 was a remarkably good one. At 
 the fisheries (about 60 in number), between Fighting 
 Island and ' Belle Isle, over 7000 barrels, or some 
 700,000 fish, have been taken. About half of these 
 have been sold fresh, at an average of 11 cents each, 
 bringing in a revenue of $3850. The remaining por- 
 tions are mostly held by the fishermen until naviga- 
 tion shall open to them the southern and eastern trade. 
 These 3500 barrels, when sold, will nett the holders 
 about $30,000, or in the neighborhood of $8 or $9 per 
 barrel. From the fisheries upon Belle Isle about 7000 
 fish were taken, a majority of which were sold fresh. 
 The remainder of them were caught below the city, 
 mostly upon the American side of the river. 
 
 The method of catching fish here in the river differs 
 somewhat from the means adopted for lake fishing. 
 There gill-nets are the principal agency employed, 
 while seines are the instruments here used. 
 
MIC 
 
 1358 
 
 MIL 
 
 The number of barrels caught aimually in the lake 
 "■"'^ Is nearly as follows : 
 
 BbU. 
 
 LakeErie 8,000 
 
 Detroit Eiyer 7,000 
 
 Total 43,000 
 
 i<aKe Snpenor. 8,000 
 
 Lake Michigsu 15,000 
 
 Lake Huron 14,000 
 
 These are sold at an average price of $11 per barrel, 
 the aggregate amount of sales being $462,000, or nearlv 
 $500,000. Probably one sixth of all the fish caught 
 in Lakes Michigan, Huron, and Superior, are trout i 
 the remainder being white fish. They are commonly 
 caught by gill-nets, set some 10 miles distant from the 
 shore. Large quantities of the fish are taken from 
 the Detroit Hirer, which they ascend from Lake Erie 
 to spawn. On their return to the lake they are cap- 
 tured. The number of fisheries in the river is 50. 
 
 In some of the rivers that flow into the lakes, enor- 
 
 mous quantities of pickerel are caught. Not less than 
 1000 barrels are taken annually from Fox River, Wis- 
 consin ; from Saginaw River, Michigan, 1500 barrels ; 
 St. Clair River, Michigan, 1500 ; Maumee River, 
 Ohio, 3000 barrels, and an equal quantity of bass, mul- 
 let, etc., making a total of 10,000 barrels, which are 
 sold for $8 50 per barrel, or $85,000 in the aggregate. 
 The annual product of the lakes and tributary' rivers 
 is thus shown : 
 
 BbU. Value. 
 
 TheLakes 85,000 $388,000 
 
 Detroit Eiver ' 7,000 77,000 
 
 Other rivers 10,000 86,000 
 
 Total 52,000 $547,000 
 
 See Hunt's Maff., vi., 333, xix., 19 (J. E. "Wil- 
 liams), xxii., 131. 
 
 FOEEIGN CCMMEEOB OF THE STATE OP MlOHIOAN, PEOM OCTOBER 1, 1S2C 
 
 , TO July 1, 1856. 
 
 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Tonnflge Cleared. 
 
 District Tonnage. | 
 
 Years ending 
 
 Domestic. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Total. 
 
 TolsL 
 
 American. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Registered. 
 
 Enrolled and 
 Licensed. 
 
 Sept 30, 1821 
 
 $58,290 
 
 
 $53,290 
 
 $29,076 
 
 
 
 302 
 
 304 
 
 1822 
 
 694 
 
 
 694 
 
 18,377 
 
 
 
 
 
 1823 
 
 1,010 
 
 
 1,010 
 
 2,169 
 
 
 
 
 
 1824 
 
 
 
 
 1,886 
 
 
 
 
 
 1825 
 
 
 
 
 6,695 
 
 
 
 
 
 1826 
 
 1,320 
 
 
 1,820 
 
 8,774 
 
 
 
 
 
 1827 
 
 
 
 
 8,440 
 
 
 
 
 
 1839 
 
 
 
 
 2,957 
 
 
 
 
 
 1330 
 
 Total 
 
 1,588 
 
 
 1,588 
 
 21,815 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 
 $57,902 
 
 
 $67,902 
 
 $88,679 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 
 Sept 80, 1831 
 
 $12,892 
 
 
 $12,392 
 
 $27,299 
 
 43 
 
 
 
 1,202 
 
 18.33 
 
 9,234 
 
 
 9,234 
 
 22,648 
 
 
 
 
 
 18.38 
 
 9,054 
 
 
 9,054 
 
 63,876 
 
 644 
 
 210 
 
 
 
 18.34 
 
 86,021 
 
 
 86,021 
 
 106,202 
 
 2,707 
 
 216 
 
 
 
 1835 
 
 63,480 
 
 $1,850 
 
 64.&30 
 
 180,629 
 
 1.680 
 
 639 
 
 
 
 1886 
 
 57,181 
 
 4,060 
 
 61,231 
 
 502,287 
 
 760 
 
 808 
 
 
 
 1837 
 
 69,790 
 
 
 69,790 
 
 
 1,879 
 
 8,258 
 
 
 
 1838 
 
 126,660 
 
 
 126,060 
 
 266,662 
 
 1,480 
 
 1,548 
 
 
 
 1889..- 
 
 183,805 
 
 
 188,.305 
 
 176,221 
 
 8,708 
 
 1,986 
 
 
 
 1840 
 
 Total 
 
 162,229 
 
 
 162,229 
 
 133,610 
 
 4,786 
 
 6,870 
 
 
 
 $678,846 
 
 $5,400 
 
 $688,746 
 
 $1,424,434 
 
 17,737 
 
 14,964 
 
 
 
 Sept 80, 1841 
 
 $88,639 
 
 
 $88,529 
 
 $1.37,800 
 
 875 
 
 4,734 
 
 
 11,624 
 
 1842 
 
 262,229 
 
 
 262,229 
 
 80,784 
 
 1,714 
 
 4,640 
 
 
 
 9 mos., 1843 
 
 262,994 
 
 
 262,994 
 
 76,870 
 
 489 
 
 1,607 
 
 
 
 June 80, 1844 
 
 298,901 
 
 
 293,901 
 
 120,678 
 
 18 
 
 5,757 
 
 
 
 1345 
 
 251,220 
 
 
 251,220 
 
 41,952 
 
 1,807 
 
 8,642 
 
 
 
 1846 
 
 251,890 
 
 
 251,890 
 
 ■ 164,928 
 
 640 
 
 27,920 
 
 
 
 1647 
 
 98,795 
 
 
 93,795 
 
 37,603 
 
 440 
 
 36,171 
 
 
 
 1848 
 
 111,194 
 
 $4-41 
 
 111,685 
 
 115,760 
 
 180,800 
 
 87,614 
 
 
 
 1849 
 
 127,844 
 
 6,007 
 
 132,861 
 
 98,141 
 
 83,919 
 
 90,606 
 
 
 
 1850 
 
 Total 
 
 132,045 
 
 
 183,045 
 
 144,102 
 
 7,982 
 
 46,719 
 
 
 
 $1,875,641 
 
 $5,443 
 
 $1,881,089 
 
 $1,008,118 
 
 223,684 
 
 814,209 
 
 
 
 June 80, 1861 
 
 $188,448 
 
 $7,978 
 
 $191,426 
 
 $182,146 
 
 7,255 
 
 45,102 
 
 
 41,774 
 
 1852 
 
 182,866 
 
 12,786 
 
 146,152 
 
 198,240 
 
 4,884 
 
 65,097 
 
 
 
 1853 
 
 295,809 
 
 67,876 
 
 363,635 
 
 211,2.30 
 
 J,006 
 
 
 
 
 1854 
 
 405,181 
 
 29,314 
 
 484,495 
 
 204,286 
 
 •9,405 
 
 22,790 
 
 
 
 1855 
 
 626,825 
 
 41,266 
 
 568,091 
 
 281,879 
 
 24,416 
 
 88,196 
 
 
 
 1856 
 
 895,624 
 
 85,404 
 
 981,028 
 
 880,668 
 
 22,072 
 
 
 
 
 The principal port is Detroit, a large and flourishing 
 city on the Detroit River, opposite Windsor, the ter- 
 minus of the Great Western (Canada) EaUroad, which 
 here connects by ferry with the Michigan Central 
 Railroad, together formmg a convenient line between 
 Niagara and Chicago. It is also the south-western ter- 
 mmus of the Detroit and Milwaukee Railroad ; and a 
 line (the Detroit and Toledo Railroad) is now in prog- 
 ress to connect with the raUroads centering at Toledo. 
 It has one of the finest harbors in the United States, 
 and is admirably adapted for commerce. It has also 
 extensive manufactures, chiefly machinery, agricul- 
 tural implements, etc., and a large trade in lumber. 
 On the whole, it is a most flourishing place, and ranks 
 as the first city of the State. Population in I80D, 
 50 448 Detroit was founded in 1760 by the French, 
 and was for many years the State capital. Twenty- 
 five years ago it had only 2000 inhabitants. The ton- 
 nage of Detroit in 1856was 58,688 tons. 
 
 Port Huron.— Xto^n at the mouth of Black River, 
 on the St. Clair, and two miles south of Lake Huron. 
 It has a large lumber business and fine general trade. 
 
 Microscopes. Invented nearly at the same time 
 in Italy and Holland, A. D. 1621. Those with double 
 glasses were made at the period when the law of re- 
 fraction was discovered, about 1624. The honor of this 
 invention is awarded to Drebel and Torricelli. Solar 
 microscopes were invented by Dr. Hooke. In En- 
 gland, great improvements were made in the micro- 
 scope by Henry Baker, F.E.S., who wrote two treat- 
 ises upon it about 1763. — Biog. Diet. 
 
 Mile (Lat. miUe passuum, a thousand paces). The 
 Roman pace being five feet, and a Roman foot being 
 equal to 11'62 modern English inches, it follows that 
 the ancient Roman mile was equivalent to 1614 En- 
 glish yards, or very nearly ll-12ths of an English stat- 
 ute mile. The English statute mile was defined (inci- 
 dentally, it would seem) by an act passed in the 35th 
 year of the reign of Queen Elizabeth, by which persons 
 were forbidden to build within three miles of London ; 
 and the mile was declared to be 8 furlongs of 40 perch- 
 es of lej feet each. The statute mile is, therefore, 1760 
 yards, or 5280 feet. See Weights and Measures. 
 
 The mile is used as an itinerary measure in almost 
 
MIL 
 
 1369 
 
 MIN 
 
 all oonntries of Europe, particularly those -which were 
 formerly under the sway of the Eomans ; but it is very 
 difficult to conjecture the cause which has given rise 
 to the great diversity of its values. It has been sup, 
 posed that in some countries the Eoman mile was con- 
 founded with the ancient Celtic league. The following 
 table shows the length, in statute mUes of 1760 yards, 
 of the modern mile, and also the leagues of various 
 countries in English yards : 
 
 Mile of different Nations. 
 
 English y'd«. 
 
 Irish mile 8,038 
 
 Italian 2,025 
 
 Lithuanian 9,784 
 
 Oldenburg 10,820 
 
 Persian Parasang. 6,086 
 
 Polish (short mile) . . . 6,095 
 
 " (longmilG).... 8,101 
 
 Portuguese Icguos... 6,T60 
 
 Prussian mile 8,468 
 
 Eoman (ancient) 1,618 
 
 " (modern) 2,085 
 
 Russian versts 1,167 
 
 gaxon uilo 9,905 
 
 Scotch 1,984 
 
 BUeBian 7,088 
 
 Spanish legnas, legal.. 4,630 
 
 " " com.. 7,416 
 
 Snatlan mile 10,125 
 
 Swedish 11,704 
 
 Swiss 9,166 
 
 Turkey berries 1,821 
 
 Westphalian mile .... 12,155 
 
 Eugllslt y'da. 
 
 Arabian mile 2,148 
 
 Bohemian 10,187 
 
 Brabant 6,082 
 
 Burgundy 6,183 
 
 Chinese ills 628 
 
 Danish mile 8,244 
 
 English 1,760 
 
 English (geog.) 2,025 
 
 Eng. (geog.) leagues.. 6,075 
 
 Flemish 6,869 
 
 French art. leagues. . . 4,860 
 
 " marine " ... 6,075 
 
 " legal leagues, 
 
 of 2,000 tolses 4,268 
 
 German miles (geog.). 8,100 
 
 " " (rong),. 10,126 
 
 " " (short.) 6,859 
 
 Hamburg mile 8,244 
 
 Hanover 11,.'559 
 
 Hesae 10,647 
 
 Dutch 6,895 
 
 Hungarian 9,113 
 
 Milford-Haven, a harbor of England, on a basin 
 or deep inlet of the Atlantic, on the coast of South 
 Wales, county Pembrolie, forming one of the best ports 
 in the British dominions. Latitude of St. Anne's 
 Heads, the , north-western extremity of the entrance, 
 and on which are three light-houses, with fixed lights, 
 51° 41' N., long. 50° 10' 25" W. Length of haven 
 about 15 miles ; average breadth, 2 miles. It is com- 
 pletely land-locked, has deep water, and the whole 
 shipping of the empire might ride here as safely as in 
 doclt, in any weather ; while the access is easy, and 
 the egress can be accomplished, by aid of the strong 
 ebb, even in head winds. It has for some time been a 
 favorite scheme with the southern States to have a line 
 of steamers between this port and Norfolk, Virginia, 
 and thereby secure a portion of the importing and car- 
 rjdng trade now absorbed by the ports of New York 
 and Boston. 
 
 Milk (Fr. Lait; It. Latte; Lat. Lac), a fluid se- 
 creted by the female of all those animals denominated 
 mammalia, and evidently intended for the nourish- 
 ment of her offspring. The milk of every animal has 
 certain peculiarities which distinguish it from all other 
 milk. But the animal whose milk is most used by 
 man, and with which, consequently, we are best ac- 
 quainted, is the cow. The external character of all 
 milk is that of a white opaque fluid, having a sweet- 
 ish taste, and a specific gravity somewhat greater 
 than that of water. Wlien allowed to remain at rest, 
 it separates into 2 parts ; a thick whitish fluid called 
 cream, collecting in a thin stratum over its surface, 
 and a more dense watery body, remaining below. 
 Milk which has stood for some time after the separa- 
 tion of the cream, becomes acescent, and then coagu- 
 lates. When the coagulum is pressed gently, a serous 
 fluid is forced out, and there remains the caseous part 
 of the milk, or pure cheese. Butter, one of the most 
 valuable animal products, is solidified cream, and is 
 obtained artificiallj' by cliuming. Milk has always 
 been a favorite food of most European nations, and 
 especially of the British. Lacte et came vivunt, says 
 Caesar of our ancestors ; and the same articles still 
 continue to form a large part of our subsistence. See 
 articles Bdtteb, Chebsk, Dairy. 
 
 Millet (Ger. Hirae; Fr. Millet, Mil; It. Miglio, 
 PanicastreUo ; Sp. Mijo ; Lat. Milium, Panicum milia- 
 ceum). There are 3 distinct species of millet ; the 
 Polish millet, the common or German millet, and the 
 Indian millet. It is cultivated as a species of grain ; 
 
 and is sometimes emploj'ed to feed poultr}', and as a 
 substitute for rice. The Indian millet grows to a 
 large size ; but the autumns in England are seldom 
 drj- and warm enough to allow of its being cultivated 
 here. — Loudon's Encyc. of Agriculture. 
 
 Milliner. Defined by Shalcspeare and Johnson 
 as a seller of ribbons and dresses for women, a very 
 ancient occupation ; the term is supposed to be derived 
 from Milan. There arc men-milliners, and the adop- 
 tion of such a trade by the male sex has been strongly 
 and justly censured. In 1810, men-milliners and 
 other classes of an epicene character were very strong- 
 ly censured in the Society of Arts. Young females 
 are employed at all seasons, and in all weathers, to 
 carry bandboxes through the streets, exposed to the 
 insolence of libertines, and the perils of vicious exam- 
 ple, while the perfumed coxcomb [" He was perfumed 
 like a milliner." — Shakspeajre^ measures ribbons safe- 
 1}^ at home, or folds gauzes, and lisps the while in 
 lady phrases to females 6f distinction. — Butler. 
 
 Mill-stones (Ger. MHUsteine; Fr. Pierres meit- 
 lih'es ; It. Mole macine ; Sp. Mudas de Molino ; Kus. 
 Schernowoi kamen), the large circular stones, which, 
 when put in motion by machinerj', grind com and 
 other articles. The diameter of common mill-stones 
 is from 5 to 7 feet, and their thicliiness varies from 12 
 to 18 inches. These stones have been principally im- 
 ported from Rouen and other parts of France ; the 
 burr-stones of that country being supposed to be more 
 durable than our own. The island of Milo, in the 
 Archipelago, furnishes mill-stones of a very excellent 
 quality. They are exported to Greece, Italy, and 
 other countries on the Mediterranean, where they are 
 employed in grinding the hard wheat, or grano duro, 
 used in the manufacture of macaroni, vermicelli, etc. 
 The quarries are wrought on account of government, 
 and the stones sold at moderate prices fixed by a 
 tariff, which, however, leaves a handsome profit to the 
 State. — ToDRNBFORT, Voyage au Levant; Stkong's 
 Greece. The stones used by millers are of various 
 sizes, according to the intensity of moving power ob- 
 tainable. Technically, the two stones are called the 
 runner and the bedder ; and the operation of " liang- 
 ing a runner," or adjusting the upper stone over the 
 lower, is one of some delicacy ; since not only must 
 the two be rigorously parallel, but the distance be- 
 tween them must depend on the fineness of the flour 
 to be produced and on the rapidity with which the up- 
 per stone rotates. Other things being equal, the 
 greater the velocity, the closer must the stones be to- 
 gether, else the centrifugal force would drive away 
 the corn unground or half-ground. 
 
 Mineral Pitch, Maitha. A solid, softish bitu- 
 men. Sp. gr. about 1'5. 
 
 . Mineral Tar. The bituminous substance called 
 petroleum. It is brown, viscid, and unctuous. Its 
 specific gravity is 0"88. It is found in Britain, and 
 on the continent of Europe, in the West Indies (Bar- 
 badoes tar), and in Persia. It may be resolved by 
 distillation into naphtha and petroleum. . 
 
 Mines (_Mine, Fr. ; Mwyn, or Mwn, Welsh), a sub- 
 terraneous work or excavation for obtaining metals, 
 metallic ores, or other mineral substances. 
 
 Statistics showing the Pkoditctions of the Mines of 
 tue i'ainoipal couhteies in tub wobld. 
 
 Austrian Empire. 
 
 Iron— Average produce cwt. 80,000,000 £8,000,000 
 
 Coal quintals. 4,289,841 
 
 Copper " 44,800 
 
 Gold marcs 5,600 
 
 Silver '• 94,195 
 
 Jiusaian JEm^re. 
 
 Silver lbs. 17,500 £50,000 
 
 Copper tons 13,000 1,200,000 
 
 Tin " 5,500 550,000 
 
 Lead " 50,000 1,000,000 
 
 Iron " 1,850,000 9,000,000 
 
 Coal, 1850 " 38,000,000 19,000,000 
 
 Salt, alum, etc 1,500,000 
 
MIN 
 
 1360 
 
 MIN 
 
 'France. 
 
 Annual value of minerals £19,TT9 870 
 
 Coal produce, 1845..; .' tons m<,m 
 
 ■ : " 600,000 
 
 " 898,000 
 
 Pis iron, 
 Salt, 
 
 Prussia. 
 
 Value, 1849. £o,29»,4.30 
 
 ilTOcluoe of mines 1,513,177 
 
 Produce of lounaeries 8,562,262 
 
 Zinc owt. 2,674,861 
 
 Copper ,.,. " , 7f)3,95i 
 
 Coal tons 18,197,182 
 
 Peat " 8,773,222 
 
 Bar and pig iron " 200j000 
 
 Jiussian Empire. 
 
 Gold, 1849 lbs., T1,T11 
 
 Fine gold £3,350,728 
 
 „ Iron.... tons 160,000 
 
 United States. 
 
 Bee article United Siatks. 
 
 Bo/oaria. 
 
 Iron,1847., tons 15,000 
 
 Copper refined cwts. 11,012 
 
 Iron, manufactured, 1850 tons ' 230j000 
 
 Coal " '4,500,000 
 
 Bra&il. 
 
 Gold and silyer produced in 1850 iu the old 
 
 Americau mines. £7,000,000 
 
 Penmarjh. 
 
 Iron tons 13,000 
 
 Egypt- 
 There is an iron foundery, and they are able 
 to cast 50 cwt. of iron per day, employing 
 50 cwt. of coal. 
 
 Oreeoe. 
 
 Insignificant quantities of minerals are ex- 
 tracted. 
 
 Hamburff. 
 
 Zinc exported, 1849 cwts, 271,633 
 
 Holland. 
 
 There are large engineering establishments. 
 
 M&xAco. 
 
 Fare gold marcs 7,000 
 
 Papal States. 
 
 Bariron., lbs. 2,000,000 
 
 Cream of tartar " 750,000 
 
 Sulphur. " 4,000,000 
 
 Portuffal. 
 
 Sardinia. ' ' 
 
 Salt lbs. 8,000,000 
 
 Iron tofis 22,000 
 
 Spain. 
 
 Value— Estimated produce £3,08,000 
 
 Irou ! tons 18,000 
 
 Sweden and Jforway. 
 
 Sweden, 1843 to 1 84T— Average. 
 
 Oast iron tons, • 156,907 
 
 Bariron ,,.. " 86,218 
 
 Steelwares " 10,618 
 
 Silver o2. 774 
 
 Copper 1 cwts. 21,793 
 
 Brass. " 1,572 
 
 Turkey. 
 
 Two Si<ytties. 
 
 Sulphur exported from Sicily, 1847 .... cwts. 1,618,858 
 a„™o„ ' .. 147.000 
 
 Bumac. . 
 
 OMna. 
 Colonies : 
 
 British Possessions — Indies. 
 Canada. 
 
 White pine, 1846 pieces 404,690.... feet 24,698,260 
 
 Eedpine " 141,705.... " 6,287,i!43 
 
 Oak. " 68,102.... " 2,639,754 
 
 Elm " 97,204,... " 8,472,808 
 
 Property assessed, 1847 .' £8,507,001 
 
 Cape of (rood Sope. 
 AiistraMa — Neiw South Wales. 
 
 Coal, 1848 tons 45,447 
 
 Gold mines at Bathurst. 
 Western — Van jyiemen's La/nd. 
 
 Copper ore exported, 1848 tons 10,681 
 
 Jamaica. 
 
 .tons 81,782 
 
 Moflirititis. 
 
 French Possessions— Ba/yll. 
 
 Copper mines. 
 Spanish Possessions— ^Cvtia. 
 
 Copper ore exported, 1848 
 
 Butch Possessions— JamOt. 
 
 Tin exported, 1849 ....■..-.. •. Its. 8,695,855 
 
 ^inim. The smallest liquid measare^ generally 
 regarded as about equal to one drop. The fluid 
 drachm is divided into 60 minims. 
 
 Minnesota, a north-western Territorj' of the Unit- 
 ed States of America, lies between lat. 42' 30' and 
 49° N., and long. 91°' and 103R 5" W. Area, 141,839 
 square miles. Population, 1850, whites, 6,038 ; col- 
 ored, 39; total, 6,077 ; in 1857 estimated at 150,000. 
 
 Physical Features. — Minnesota is an elevated table- 
 land, with a surface but little varied, being mostly a 
 rolling , prairie, abounding with lakes of pure water, 
 and streams which flow in all directions, excepting to- 
 ward the west. The soil is a fertile, sandy loam, easily 
 cultivated, and well adapted to agricultural purposes. 
 The Mississippi Rivet rises centrally in the Territory, 
 in Itasca Lake, a beautiful sheet of water. The river 
 flows first in an eastern, thence in a southern direc- 
 tion, to the confines of the Territory, in its course to 
 the ocean. It is also drained by the Missouri and its 
 numerous tributaries, the Red River of the North, 
 whose waters pass off to Hudson Bay, and the St. 
 Louis entering Lake Superior on the eastern border of 
 the Territory. Forests of pine and other valuable 
 woods for timber, border the principal streams, and 
 lead and copper ore have been found to some extent, 
 and iron ore on the shore of Late Superior. There 
 were in the Territory in 1850, 6,035 acres of improved 
 land, and 28,846 acres of tinimproved land in farms. 
 Cash value of farms, $161,948 ; and the value of 
 implements and machinery, $15,981. Live Stocic. — 
 Horses, 860 ; asses and mules, 14 ; milch cows, 607 ; 
 working oxen, 655; other cattle, 740; sheep, 80; 
 swine, 734. Value of live stock, 92,859. Agricul- 
 tural Products.^— Wheat, 1,401 bushels produced; rye, 
 125 ; Indian com, 16,725 ; oats, 30,582 ; bariey, 1,216 ; 
 buckwheat, 515. Value of the products of market 
 gardens, $160 ; pounds of butter made, 1,100 lbs. ; 
 maple sugar, 2,950 ; beeswax and honey, 80 ; tons of 
 hay, 2,019; potatoes, 21,146 bushels; wool, 85 lbs.; 
 sweet potatoes, 200 ; peas and beans, 10,002. Value 
 of slaughtered aninlale, .?2,480. The common travel- 
 ing roadB and military roads are the only improve- 
 ments yet constructed. The route of the great North- 
 ern Pacific railroad has been explored across the 
 Territorj^ CongresSj'in May 1856, appropriated over 
 1,000,000 acres for the construction of railroads. 
 
 The French were the first Europeans to explore the 
 region now comprised- in Minnesota, <and the Missis- 
 sippi River was explored by the 'Jesuit fathers, even 
 beyond the Falls of ' St. Anthony, at h very early 
 period. The first American > ndlitary post was estab- 
 lished here in 1819, and called Fort Snelling. This 
 county has formed a part of several territorial govern- 
 ments : the last were Iowa and Wisconsin. It was 
 formed into a Territory with its present name (in 1849), 
 which it derives from the original Indian name of St. 
 Peter's River. 
 
 Mint. Athelstan first enacted regulations for the 
 government of the mint, about a.d. 928. There were 
 several provincial mints under the control of that of 
 London. Stow says the mint was kept by Italians, 
 the English being ignorant of the art of coining, 7 
 Edward I., 1278. The operators were formed into a 
 corporation by the charter of King Edward III., in 
 which condition it consisted of the warden, master, 
 comptroller, assay-master, workers, coiners, and sub- 
 ordinates. The first entry of gold brought to the 
 mint for coinage, occurs 18 Edward III., 1343. Tin 
 was coined by Charles II., 1684 ; and gun-metal and 
 pewter by his successor, James. Between 1806 and 
 1810, grants amounting to £262,000 were made by 
 Parliament for the erection of the present fine struct- 
 ure in London. The new constitution of the mint, 
 founded on the report of the Honorable Mr. Wellesley 
 Pole, took eflFect in 1815. The master is now the chief 
 officer. 
 
 The general appropriation bill makes provision for 
 
MIR 
 
 1361 
 
 MIS 
 
 the expenses of the mint and branches of the United 
 States for the fiscal year, to the following effect : 
 
 Mint at Philadelphia $177,200 
 
 " New Orleans 68,200 
 
 " Charlotte, N. 0. lljeoo 
 
 " Dahlonega, Ga 10,880 
 
 '* Ban Franciaoo 277,800 
 
 " New York Assay Office 62,200 
 
 Congress loses sight of the fact that the coinage of 
 the branches at New Orleans, Dahlonega, and Char- 
 lotte, could be easily dispensed with, and with decided 
 advantage to the Treasury. Those branches were es- 
 tablished at periods when the bulk of American gold 
 was produced in the southern Atlantic States. Now 
 the supplies are mainly from California, and the ex- 
 penses at the three branches named are a dead weight 
 upon the Treasury. The coinage at Dahlonega and 
 Charlotte, particularly, is too trifling to render either 
 necessarj- or expedient any farther operations there. 
 The coinage at each place last year, and the appropri- 
 ations for the coming year, are as follows : 
 
 Coinage — 186S, EzpensBB— 1866. 
 
 Philadelphia $12,045,762 98 $177,200 
 
 New Orleans 2,868.600 00 68,200 
 
 Dahlonega 116,778 50 10,880 
 
 Charlotte 217,985 50 11,600 
 
 San Francisco 21,121,752 48 277,800 
 
 NowTork Assay Office. 20,441,818 68 62,200 
 
 Total $56,812,782 99 $602,880 
 
 The coinage at Philadelphia, in 1855, was suspended 
 for several months, in order to make extensive im- 
 provements, and to make the building, for the first 
 time, fire proof. The coinage of the parent mint has 
 of late years been over 50,000,000 annually. The 
 above statement will, however, show that the coinage 
 at New Orleans costs nearly 3 per cent., Dahlonega 9 
 per cent, and Charlotte over 5 per cent. A Eeport of 
 the Committee on Commerce, in 1850, demonstrated 
 that the actual cost of coinage for a series of years was 
 as follows : 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 At Philadelphia 2-28 
 
 New Orleans 6'68 
 
 Charlotte 9-00 
 
 Dahlonega 9'97 
 
 This, be it remembered, was when the coinage at 
 the southern branches was more than double what it 
 now is — the production of gold in that region being 
 either actually less, or its profits less. The coinage 
 at the three southern branches has now dwindled down 
 to such small sums as to demand the closer attention 
 of the government, and indicates the expediency of 
 cessation at all those points. The following is a sum- 
 mary of the gold of domestic production for each year, 
 1850—1855 : 
 
 Years. 
 
 New Orleans. 
 
 Clmrlotte. 
 
 Dahloncgn. 
 
 1850 
 
 $4,580,021 
 
 $320,289 
 
 $247,698 
 
 1851 
 
 8,770,722 
 
 816,061 
 
 379,809 
 
 1862 
 
 8,777,784 
 
 480,900 
 
 476,789 
 
 1853 
 
 2,006,678 
 
 806,167 
 
 462,290 
 
 1854 
 
 981,511 
 
 218,606 
 
 280,225 
 
 1855 
 
 411,517 
 
 216,988 
 
 116,652 
 
 Thus the production of gold which was at the two 
 small branches $567,000 in the year 1850, has gradu- 
 ally become reduced to $333,000, and in order to main- 
 tain the show of coinage at these two points, an annual 
 expenditure of $22,000 is by Congress deemed expe- 
 dient, when the same work could be done at Philadel- 
 phia for $6000. Since 1838, the gross product of the 
 gold mines of North Carolina, as far as indicated by 
 the mint returns was $4,238,236, and of Georgia $5,- 
 686,864; total, $9,925,100; and the aggregate ex- 
 pense of maintaining them $22,000 annually, or about 
 $400,000 for the whole period. See Coinage. 
 
 Mirage (Fr.), an optical Ulusion very common 
 at sea, and especially in high latitudes, and sometimes 
 also witnessed on land, particularly in Egypt and Per- 
 sia, and on the margin of rivers and lakes, or on the 
 sea-shore. It arises from unequal ' refraction in the 
 4R 
 
 Ipwer strata of the atmosphere, and causes remote 
 objects to be seen double, as if reflected in a mirror, 
 or to appear as if suspended in the air. When the 
 effect is confined to apparent elevation, the English 
 sailors call it looming; when inverted images are 
 formed, the Italians give it the name of Fata Morgana 
 (see the term). Ships in the whale fisheries are often 
 descried, and sometimes known, by means of the mi- 
 rage, at considerable distances. Captain Scoresby 
 recognized his father's ship at the distance of more 
 than 30 miles, and consequently when below the hori- 
 zon, by its inverted image in the air, though he did 
 not previously know that it was cruising in that part 
 of the fisher)'. The mathematical theory of the phe- 
 nomenon is given by Biot, in the Memoires de Vlnstl- 
 tutfoi 1809. See also Caddington's Optics; Biot's 
 Traite de Physique, tome iii. ; Bbbwster's Optics, 
 Cahinef Cydopadia^ 
 
 Mississippi, one of the southern United States, 
 is situated between 30° 10' and 35° N. lat., and be- 
 tween 80° 30' and 81° 35' W. long. It is 339 miles 
 long from north to south, and 160 broad, containing 
 47,151 square miles. Population in 1816 was 45,929 , 
 in 1820, 75,448 ; in 1830, 136,806 ; in 1840, 375,651 ; 
 and in 1850, 606,555. 
 
 The tract of land which now belongs to the present 
 State of Mississippi was in olden times comprised 
 under all those different ancient and general names 
 under which the whole northern shore of the Mexican 
 Gulf became known to Europe. In the year 1798 the 
 name of the river was for the first time given to a Ter- 
 ritory, and the great "Mississippi Territory" was 
 erected, which included also the present State of Ala- 
 bama. In the year 1817 the eastern portion of this 
 Territory was separated from it and received the name 
 of Territory of Alabama, while the western portion, 
 with a very limited sea-shore (from Pearl River to 
 Grande Bay), was admitted into the Union as the 
 State of Mississippi. 
 
 The southern part of the State, for about 100 miles 
 from the Gulf of Mexico, is mostly » sandy, level 
 pine forest, interspersed with cj'press swamps, open 
 prairies, and inundated marshes, and a few hills of a 
 moderate elevation. This region is generallj' healthy, 
 and by cultivation produces cotton, Indian com, su- 
 gar, indigo, etc. As you proceed further north, the 
 country becomes more elevated and agreeablj' diver- 
 sified, and the soil is a deep rich mold, producing 
 abundantly cotton, Indian com, sweet potatoes, indigo, 
 peaches, melons, and grapes. The natural growth of 
 timber consists of poplar, hickorj', black walnut, sugar- 
 maple, cotton-wood, magnolia, lime, and sassafras. 
 The country in the north of the State is healthy and 
 productive, and the lands watered by the Yazoo 
 through its whole course in the north-west are very 
 fertile. 
 
 There were in this State in 1850, 3,444,358 acres of 
 land improved, and 7,046,061 of unimproved land in 
 farms; cash value of farms, $54,738,634, and the 
 value of implements and machinery, $5,762,927. 
 
 Live Stock. — Horses, 115,460 ; asses and mules, 
 54,547 ; milch cows, 214,231 ; working oxen, 83,485 ; 
 other cattle, 436,254 j sheep, 304,929 ; swine, 1,582,- 
 734. Value of live stock, $19,403,662. 
 
 Agricultural Products, etc. — Wheat, 137,990 bushels ; 
 170, 9,606 ; Indian com, 22,446,552 ; oats, 1,503,288 ; 
 barley, 228; buckwheat, 1121; peas and beans, 1,072,- 
 757; potatoes, 261,482; sweet potatoes, 4,741,795; 
 rice, 2,719,856 pounds. Value of products of the or- 
 chard, $50,405 ; produce of market gardens, $46,250. 
 Pounds of butter made, 4,346,234; of cheese, 21,191; 
 sugar, hogsheads of, 388; molasses, 18,318 gallons; 
 beeswax and honey, 397,460 pounds ; wool, pounds 
 produced, 559,619; cotton, 484,293; flax, 665; silk 
 cocoons, 2 ; hops, 473 ; pounds tobacco, 49,960 ; hay, 
 tons of, 12,504; hemp, 7 tons; clover seeds, 84 bush- 
 els ; other grass seeds, 533 ; flax seed, 26 bushels ; and 
 
MIS 
 
 1862 
 
 MIS 
 
 were made 407 gallons of wine. Value of home-made 
 manufactures, $1,164,020; of slaughtered animals, 
 $3,636,582. 
 
 The Mississippi River, with its various windings, 
 forms the entire western boundary of the State, and 
 its margin consists of inundated swamps, covered 
 with a large growth of timber. Back of this the sur- 
 face suddenly rises into what are called bluffs, and be- 
 hind them the country is a moderatel}' elevated table 
 land with a diversified surface. Cotton is the princi- 
 pal production of the State. The Yazoo is the largest 
 river that has its whole course in the State. It rises 
 in the north-west part, and after a course of 250 miles, 
 enters the Mississippi. The Pascagoula Eiver, after 
 a course of 250 miles, enters the Gulf of Mexico. At 
 its mouth it widens into a bay. It is navigable for a 
 considerable distance for small vessels. The Big 
 Black River, after a course of 200 miles, enters the 
 Mississippi just above Grand Gulf. It has a boat nav- 
 igation of 50 miles. Pearl River rises in the central 
 part of the State, and passing through it to the south, 
 forming in its lower part the boundary between this 
 State and Louisiana, enters Lake Borgne. Its naviga- 
 tion is much impeded by sand bars and obstructions 
 of timber. The Homochitto is a considerable river 
 which enters the Mississippi. Beside these, there are 
 a few other small rivers and creeks. A chain of low, 
 sandy islands, six or seven miles from the shore, 
 enclose several bays or sounds, the largest of which 
 are Mississippi Sound, Pascagoula Sound, and Lake 
 Borgne. 
 
 Manufactures, etc. — There were in the State in 1850, 
 2 cotton factories, with a capital invested of $38,000, 
 employing 19 males and 17 females, producing 171,000 
 pounds of yam, valued at $30,500; 8 establishments, 
 with a capital of $100,000, employing 112 persons, 
 and making 924 tons of castings, etc., valued at $117,- 
 400 ; 157 flouring and grist mills, 266 saw mills, 130 
 tanneries, 53 printing offices, 56 newspapers, 2 tri- 
 weekly, 2 semi-weekly, and 52 weekly publications. 
 Capital invested in manufactures, $1,835,895 ; value 
 of manufactured articles, $2,962,038. There were, 
 January, 1856, 10 railroads in the State, 87 miles com- 
 pleted and in operation. 
 
 The principal places in the State are Jackson, the 
 capital, Natchez, Grand Gulf, Washington, Vicks- 
 burg, Columbus, Aberdeen, and Holly Springs. On 
 the 1st of January, 1854, there was one bank, with a 
 capital of $240,000. Total tonnage of the State, 1853, 
 2,509,000 tons. 
 
 DiKEOT FOEEMN COMMEEOB OK THE BtAOT OF MISSISSIPPI. 
 Years. Eiporta. Importu. 
 
 1826 SIO'S 
 
 1886 6,650 
 
 , 183T $304,831 
 
 June 80, 1854 to June 30, 1850 4,888 
 
 1851andl852 »J21 
 
 These returns are very incomplete, and only include 
 the direct commerce. Most of the imports for Missis- 
 sippi are entered in the port of New Orleans. 
 
 Mississippi River, the largest river of North 
 America; and in length of navigable tributaries, and 
 in extent of facilities afforded to commerce, the great- 
 est river in the world. 
 
 Discovery of the Mississippi.— There seems to be 
 little doubt that Pinedo, the Captain of Garay, saw 
 for the first time the mouth of the Mississippi when he 
 accomplished, in the year 1519, his first circumnaviga- 
 tion of the whole Mexican Gulf. We have no special 
 report of Pinedo's proceedings. But on the few maps 
 or sketches of the Mexican Gulf which were made m 
 Spain soon after Pinedo's return (of the years 1520, 
 1521, and 1529), there is to be found, near the centre 
 of the northern gulf shore, a large inlet called Mar 
 pequefia" (the little sea), and a mighty river leading 
 into it called " Rio del Espiritu ^^ff^^^SoB-ihero 
 on his large and accurate map (of 1 629) which he 
 made for the Emperor Charles Y., has this bay and 
 
 the mouth of the river already under 29° north lati- 
 tude, which is very remarkable, because it is the true 
 latitude of the Mississippi month, and because it 
 nearly decides the question that not Mobile Bay, as 
 some have supposed, but the Mississippi, was indicated 
 by it. Nobody could have made this discovery, given 
 these names, and brought home the news of it, but 
 Pinedo, Since that time the " Mar pequefia" and the 
 great Eiver " Del Espiritu Santo" appear on the old 
 maps. We can trace and follow them on the Spanish 
 maps through the whole of the 16th centurj-, and find 
 them always, with some slight variations, in the mid- 
 dle part of the northern gulf shore, and generally un- 
 der the latitude from 29° to 30° north. 
 
 It is thought that with the name " Mar pequefia" is 
 meant that great bay which is included between the 
 projecting promontories formed by the Mississippi 
 passes and the northern gulf shore, and for which we 
 have no general name. The Mississippi passes must 
 have appeared to the old Spanish navigators as very 
 dangerous and difficult of approach. And very often 
 they put the name of the Holy Cross to Capes of this 
 description. 
 
 The second traveler after Pinedo who saw and 
 crossed the Mississippi was no doubt Cabepa de Vaca 
 and his companions, between the years 1530-1535. 
 From Cambe9a de Vaca's report, it is evident that his 
 commander, Nar%'aez, and his companions, got lost 
 about Mobile or Perdido Bay, or somewhere else not 
 very far to the east of the Mississippi. Once, he says, 
 they believed themselves to have arrived at the " Bay 
 of Espiritu Santo, near the Mississippi." Afterward 
 Cabecfa and his followers wandered westward in the 
 direction of New Mexico ; so they must have crossed 
 the Mississippi. But that is all we can say. He men- 
 tions so inany great rivers in his report, that we can 
 not recognize among them the true "Rio Grande," 
 the Mississippi. 
 
 De iSoio.— Fernando de Soto was the third discoverer 
 and principal old Spanish explorer of the Mississippi. 
 He arrived at its borders, in the neighborhood of the 
 so-called Chioasaw bluffs, 1542, and ascended and de- 
 scended the river, which in the reports of his expe- 
 ditions is generally only called " Rio Grande," up and 
 down. He died on the shore of the river, and was 
 buried near its waters somewhere about the mouth of 
 the Arkansas River. De Soto's successor, Moscoso, 
 carried the rest of the Spanish army, in the year 1543, 
 down the whole river, and he was the first commander 
 who sailed from the mouth of the river into the sea. 
 Which of the passes it was can not be made out. Bi- 
 edma, one of the writers on De Soto and Moscoso, and 
 one of their companions, states, however, that the river 
 had different mouths and branches. In one of the 
 reports on De Soto's expedition (by Garcilasso de la 
 Vega) it is said that the Indian name of the great 
 river was " Chucagua." Probably, in consequence of 
 this, the geographers put sometimes on their maps the 
 name " Chucagua" to the river. Generally, however, 
 the old name of " Rio del Espiritu Santo" (River of the 
 Holy Ghost) prevailed after De Soto for a long time. 
 One of the historians of De Soto, the so-called " Por- 
 tuguese gentleman of Elvas," sometimes calls it "the 
 Great River of Guachoya." Guachoya was one of the 
 places along the river where De Soto encamped. " In 
 Guachoya," says Garcilasso, " the great river is called 
 ' Tamallseu ;' in Nilco, ' Tapala ;' in Co9a, ' Mico ;' at 
 the port or mouth it is called ' Ri.' " 
 
 Luna. — In the year 1557 the Governor, Luna, was 
 sent to Pensacola Bay, and from thence, -nith his cap- 
 tains and men, made many inroads into the interior 
 toward the north and west. It is very possible, though 
 it is nowhere exactly stated, that some of his men also 
 got as far east as the Mississippi. 
 
 Marquette and La Salle.— The French Marquette 
 (1673) and soon after him the Sieur de la Salle (1682) 
 re-discovered the Mississippi, and saw a greater part 
 
MIS 
 
 1363 
 
 MIS 
 
 of the river than was erer seen before theni. De la 
 Salle was, after Mosooso (1543), the first who sailed 
 (1682) down the whole river to its mouth, and entered 
 the Mexican Gulf. He explored in boats the whole 
 delta of the passes, and saw, without however naming 
 them, all the {)rincipal passes. A little above the di- 
 viding point of the passes he erected a monument with 
 the arms of France. This was on the 8th of April, 
 1682. On the 7th of the same month he had ex- 
 plored the principal branches of the river and seen the 
 sea. He observed also the latitude of this place ; but 
 there is a great diversity about the results of his ob- 
 aer-vations. Some say that he observed the latitude 
 27'' north, as, for instance, that remarkable document 
 of the taking possession of the country at the mouth 
 of the river by La Salle. Also, Barcia says that La 
 Salle observed the latitude of the mouth between 
 27° and 28° north latitude, " though," he adds, " some 
 heard La Salle say that the mouth was between 28° 
 and 29° north latitude." After this. La Salle as- 
 cended the stream again to the north. 
 
 Fatlier Marquette (1672) was the person who 
 introduced for the first time into geography the In- 
 dian name of the river, " Mississippi." He, how- 
 ever, gave to it at the same time the Christian or 
 French name *' JRiviere de Conception" La Salle 
 seems to have ratified this latter name. He called 
 the river, after tlie great French minister, " Rmiere 
 de Colbemt." On some maps even the whole upper 
 Mississippi country is called " La Oolbertie" (Col- 
 bert's land). .The name Kiviere Colbert may be called 
 La Salle's name for the Mississippi. It seems, how- 
 ever, soon to have given way to tiie Indian name Mis- 
 sissippi, which really was already longer known to 
 the European missionaries, and which was already 
 oftener adopted in books and in commerce than those 
 new inventions of the European discoverers. 
 
 Tonti. — The next man after De la Salle who came 
 down the Mississippi was tha Sieur de Touti, or Tonty, 
 who had already accompanied La Salle on his first 
 navigation. De Tonti had heard that La Salle had 
 set out from France to the mouth of the river, and he 
 came, m the year 1685, down to meet him at the shores 
 of the Gulf. He arrived there during "the Holy 
 Week" (Easter) of 1686, but did not find La Salle, who 
 had reached the coast of Texas instead of that of the 
 Mississippi passes. 
 
 Origin of the Name. — " One of the names of the river 
 under which Iberville, in 1699, had heard it called," 
 says Charlevoix, " was Malhonchia." But the name 
 Mississippi seems already then to have been quite 
 common. At least the first journal written in this 
 colony— that of Captain Sauvol (1699, 1700)— uses 
 always the name Mississippi, and not once that of 
 Eiviere Colbert. In the year 1712 an attempt was 
 made to give the river still another name. The great 
 King of France himself ordered, in the letters patent 
 to Crozat, that the great river " heretofore called 
 Mississippi" shouldhenceforward.be called " iSmere 
 St. Louis." But this name, newly sent out from 
 France by royal authority, did not keep its ground 
 against the old long-ago adopted Indian name. Char- 
 levoix, who traveled along the river in 1721-22, and 
 published his work in 1744, never uses it. He always 
 calls it "Mississippi" or " Micissipi." Into general 
 use the name Eiviere St. Louis has certainly not come ; 
 but on maps made by royal geographers or great sa- 
 vans like D'Anville, we find it still used in the year 
 1732, though always besides the name Mississippi. 
 
 The name " Mississippi" is an Ojibbeway word, 
 which the first discoverers of that stream heard pro- 
 nounced in their missions round Lake Superior. Ac- 
 cording to some, its meaning is "the Great Water," 
 Others, for instance the Reverend Bishop Baraga, ex- 
 plain it as "rivers," or "waters from all sides." 
 
 The French authors generally write "Missisipi;" 
 Spanish authors have always "Misisipi." We now 
 
 double every consonant in it, and write "Mississippi," 
 in which word, I have no doubt, some letters could be 
 spared. — J. 6 Kohl. 
 
 Description. — Its extreme source, according to the 
 explorations of Schoolcraft, July 13, 1832, is Itaska 
 Lake, 47° 10' N. lat., and 95° 64' W. long., at an ele- 
 vation of 1500 feet, and the distance of 3160 miles 
 above the Gulf of Mexico. Itaska Lake is a beautiful 
 sheet of water, lying among hUls surmounted by 
 pines. The outlet of the lake is 10 or 12 feet broad, 
 and from 12 to 18 inches deep. Its course is then 
 northwardly and north-eastwardly, and it passes 
 through Lakes Irving and Travers, and then east- 
 wardly and south-eastwardly, and through some small 
 lakes, to Lake Cass. This lake is of considerable ex- 
 tent, and contains a large island, 182 miles below its 
 source, and its surface is elevated 1330 feet above the 
 Gulf of Mexico. Its course is west to Lake Winnipec, 
 then soUth-West, through Little Winnipec Lake, until 
 it receives Leech Lake Fork, the outlet of a consider- 
 able lake of the same name. The most northern point 
 attained by the river is a few minutes short of 48° ; 
 it then pursues a winding course eastwardly, passing 
 through some small lal^es, until it attains a southward- 
 ly direction. The average descent of the Mississippi, 
 from its source to its entrance into the Gulf of Mexico, 
 is a fraction over five inches per mile. The region 
 about the source of the Mississippi is an elevated table 
 land, abounding in small lakes of pure water, and fed 
 chiefly by springs. 
 Extent op Steam Navigation on the Eivers, Bayous, 
 
 ETC., connected WITH THE MISSISSIPPI BY CHANNELS 
 NAVIGABLE FOR SteAMEEB, 16,674 MiLES. 
 
 Mississippi and Branches, Bayotis, etc. 
 
 Miles. 
 
 Mississippi, proper 2,000 
 
 St. Orojx 80 
 
 St. Peteir's 1,120 
 
 Chippeway 70 
 
 Black 60 
 
 ■Wisconsin 180 
 
 Eoofc 260 
 
 Iowa 110 
 
 Cedar 60 
 
 Des Moines 250 
 
 Illinois 245 
 
 Maremeo 60 
 
 Kaskaskia 150 
 
 BigMuddy 5 
 
 Obion 60 
 
 Forked Deer 195 
 
 BigHatchu 75 
 
 StFrancis 800 
 
 mite 500 
 
 BigBlack 60 
 
 Missouri and Branches. 
 
 Alilee. 
 
 Missouri, proper 1,800 
 
 ToUow Stone 800 
 
 Platte or Nebraska '40 
 
 160 
 
 Miles. 
 
 Spring 50 
 
 Arkansas (navigable at 
 
 high -water, 850 m.). . ' 600 
 
 Canadian 60 
 
 Neosho 60 
 
 Yazoo 800 
 
 Tallahatohee 800 
 
 Tallabusha 80 
 
 Big Sunflower 70 
 
 Little Sunflower. 150 
 
 BigBlack 90 
 
 Bayou de Glaze, 140 
 
 " Care 40 
 
 " Eouge 60 
 
 " LaFonrchi 12 
 
 " Plaquemine 96 
 
 " Teche 12 
 
 Grand River 
 
 Bayou Sorrell 13 
 
 " Chien 6 
 
 Miles. 
 
 275 
 
 Grande . .'.'.' .".'.'.. .' .'-'.. 100 
 
 Big Sioux 150 
 
 Ohio and Branohes. 
 
 Milos. 
 
 Ohio, proper 1,000 
 
 AUeghanv 200 
 
 Monongahela 60 
 
 Muskingum 70 
 
 Kanawha 65 
 
 BigSandy. 50 
 
 Scioto 50 
 
 Miles. 
 
 Kentucky 62 
 
 SaltEiver. 35 
 
 Green 150 
 
 Barren 80 
 
 "Wabash 400 
 
 Cumberland 400 
 
 Tennessee 7i?J 
 
 Eed Eivee and Branches. 
 
 Miles. 
 
 Eed Eiver,' proper 1,500 
 
 Washita. 875 
 
 Saline 100 
 
 Little Missouri 50 
 
 Bayou d'Arbonne, 60 
 
 " Bartholomew. . . 150 
 
 " Bojuf 150 
 
 " Macon 175 
 
 " Louis 80 
 
 Anies. 
 
 Tensas 150 
 
 Lake Bistenaw 60 
 
 Lake Coddo 75 
 
 Sulphur Fork 100 
 
 Little Eiver 65 
 
 Kiamchi 40 
 
 Boggy 40 
 
 Bayou Pierre 150 
 
 Atohafalaya 860 
 
 The average width of the Mississippi below the Mis- 
 souri is about a mile ; but the large rivers which en- 
 ter it greatly increase its depth. Its medial current 
 is about four miles an hour. At the head of the delta, 
 the depth is from 75 to 80 feet ; at New Orleans it is 
 
MIS 
 
 1364 
 
 MIS 
 
 100. At the distance of 105 miles below New Orleans, 
 by the course of the river, but 90 in a direct course, 
 this majestic river enters the Gulf of Mexico by sev- 
 eral mouths, the principal of which are called the Ba- 
 lize, or North-east Pass, in 29° 08' 30' N. lat., and 
 89 01 24" W. long. Draining a country of over 
 1,000,000 square miles in extent, it would naturally 
 be expected that its spring floods would be vast ; and 
 in consequence of them, it overflows its banl^s at that 
 season to a great extent. From the sources to the 
 mouth of the Missouri, the flood commences in March, 
 and does not subside before the last of May, at an av- 
 erage height of 15 feet. From the Missouri to the 
 Ohio it rises 25 feet, and below the Ohio, for a great 
 distance, 50 feet. At every flood it overspreads a 
 country, chieflj' on its western side, from 10 to 30 
 miles wide, 550 miles from its mouth. This river is 
 extremely winding in its course ; and sometimes a 
 bend will occur of 30 miles in extent, in which the 
 distance across the necl^ will not exceed a mile. This 
 circumstance undoubtedly impedes the current, and 
 thus favors navigation. 
 
 There are three light-houses at the passes, and one 
 at the head of the South Pass, viz. : the one at the 
 north-east is a fixed light, elevated 78 feet above the 
 surface of the Gulf, and visible 13^ nautical miles ; at 
 the South Pass is a revolving light, on a tower of 54 
 feet above the sea ; at the south-west pass is a fixed 
 light, elevated 60 feet above the surface of the Gulf, 
 and visible 12 nautical miles ; and one with a fixed 
 light at the head of the South Pass, built of iron irr 
 1852 : it shows a fixed light. 
 
 The acquisition of Louisiana and Florida by the 
 United States having included within their boundarj- 
 the whole river from its source to the Gulf of Mexico, 
 and the stipulation in the treatj- of 1783, securing to 
 British subjects a right to participate in its navigation, 
 not having been renewed by the Treaty of Ghent, in 
 1814, the right of navigating the Mississippi is now 
 vested exclusively in the United States. — Wheaton's 
 International Law, p. 258. 
 
 " The right of the United States to participate with 
 Spain in the navigation of the River Mississippi, was 
 rested by the American government on the sentiment 
 written in deep characters on' the heart of man, that 
 the ocean is free to all men, and its rivers to all their 
 inhabitants. This natural right was found to be uni- 
 versally acknowledged and protected in all tracts of 
 country, united under the same political society, by 
 laying the navigable rivers open to all their inhabit- 
 ants. When these rivers enter the limits of another 
 society, if the right of the upper inhabitants to de- 
 scend the stream was in any case obstructed, it was 
 an act of force by a stronger society against a weaker, 
 condemned by the judgment of mankind. The then 
 recent case of the attempt of the Emperor Joseph II., 
 to open the navigation of the Scheldt from Antwerp to 
 the sea, was considered as a striking proof of the gen- 
 eral union of sentiment on this point, as it was be- 
 lieved that Amsterdam had scarcely an advocate out 
 of Holland, and even there her pretensions were ad- 
 vocated on the ground of treaties, and not of natural 
 right. This sentiment of right in favor of the upper 
 inhabitants must become stronger in the proportion 
 which their extent of country bears to the lower. 
 The United States held 600,000 square miles of inhab- 
 itable territory on the Mississippi and its branches, 
 and this river with its branches afforded many thou- 
 sands of miles of navigable waters penetrating this 
 territory in all its parts. The inhabitable territory of 
 Spain below their boundary, and bordering on the 
 river, which alone could pretend any fear of bemg m- 
 commoded by their use of the river, was not the thou- 
 sandth part of that extent. This vast portion of the 
 territory of the United States had no other outlet for 
 its productions, and these productions were of the 
 bulkiest kind. And, in truth, their passage down the 
 
 river might not only be innocent, as to the Spanish 
 subjects on the river, but would not fail to enrich them 
 far beyond their actual condition. The real interests, 
 then, of the inhabitants, upper and lower, concurred 
 in fact, with their respective rights." — Wheaton's 
 International Law, pp. 258, 259. 
 
 Missouri, one of the western United States, is 
 situated between 36° and 40° 36' N. lat., and between 
 89° and 95° 30' W. long. It is 287 miles long, and 
 230 broad, containing 65,037 square miles. Popula- 
 tion in 1810 was 19,833 ; in 1820, 66,586 ; in 1830, 140,- 
 074 ; in 1840, 383,702 ; and in 1850, 682,043. 
 
 Physical Features, etc. — This State presents a great 
 variety of surface and soil. Alluvial or bottom land 
 is found on the margin of the rivers ; receding from 
 them the land rises in some places gently, and in 
 others very abruptly, into elevated barrens or rocky 
 ridges. In the interior, bottoms and barrens, naked 
 hills and prairies, heavy forests and streams of water, 
 may often be seen at one view, presenting a diversi- 
 fied and beautiful landscape. The south-east part of 
 the State has a very extensive tract of low, marshy 
 country, abounding in lakes, and liable to inundations. 
 Back of this a hilly country extends as far as the 
 Osage River. This section is rich in minerals. The 
 lead region covers an area of more than 3,000 square 
 miles. In St. Francis county is the celebrated " Iron 
 Mountain," elevated 300 feet above the surrounding 
 plain, and 1^ miles across its summit, and 80 per cent, 
 of its mass pure iron. Five miles distant is the Pilot 
 Knob, BOO feet high, and with a base a mile and a half 
 in circumference of the same species of rich ore. Be- 
 tween the Osage and Missouri Rivers is a tract of 
 country very fertile, and agreeably diversified with 
 woodland and prairie, and abounding with coal, salt, 
 etc. The country north of the Missouri is emphati- 
 cally "the garden of the West." There is no part of 
 the world where a greater extent of countrj' can be 
 traversed more easily when in its natural state. The 
 surface is for the most part delightfully undulating, 
 and variegated, sometimes rising into picturesque 
 hills, then stretching away into a sea of prairies, oc- 
 casionally interspersed with shady groves and shining 
 streams. 
 
 There were in this State in 1850, 2,938,425 acres of 
 land improved, and 6,794,245 of unimproved land in 
 farms; cash value of farms, $63,225,543, and the 
 value of implements and machinery, ^3,981,525. Live 
 Stock. — Horses, 225,319; asses and mules, 41,667; 
 milch cows, 230,169 ; working oxen, 112,168 ; other 
 cattle, 449,173 ; sheep, 762,511 ; swine, 1,702,625 ; val- 
 ue of live stock, $19,887,580. 
 
 Agricultural Products, etc. — -Wheat, 2,981,652 ; rye, 
 44,268; Indian corn, 36,214,537 ; oats, 5,278,079 ; bar- 
 ley, 9,631 ; buckwheat, 23,641 ; peas and beans, 46,- 
 017 ; potatoes, 939,006 ; sweet potatoes, 335,505 ; rice, 
 700 pounds; value of the product of the orchard, 
 $514,711 ; produce of market gardens, $99,454 ; pounds 
 of butter made, 7,834,359 ; of cheese, 203,572 ; maple 
 sugar, 178,910 ; molasses, 5,636 gallons ; beeswax and 
 honey, 1,328,972 pounds ; wool, 1,627,164 pounds pro- 
 duced ; flax, 527,160 ; silk cocoons, 186 ; hops, 4,130 ; 
 tobacco, 17,113,784 ; hay, 116,925 tons ; hemp, 16,028 
 tons ; clover seeds, 619 bushels ; other grass seeds, 
 4,346; flax seed, 13,696; and were made 10,563 gal- 
 lons of wine. Value of home-made manufactures, 
 $1,674,705 ; of slaughtered animals, $3,367,100. The 
 Mississippi winds along the entire eastern boundarj' 
 of the State for a distance of 400 miles, and receives 
 in its course the waters of the Great Missouri, which 
 indeed deserves to be regarded as the main stream. 
 Through the central and richest part of the State the 
 Missouri rolls its immense volume of water, being nav- 
 igable for five months in the year for steamboats 1,800 
 miles from its entrance into the Mississippi. The La 
 Mine, Osage, and Gasconade on the south, and the 
 Grand and Chariton on the north side, are navigable 
 
MIS 
 
 1365 
 
 MOB 
 
 tribtttaries of the Missouri. Maramec Eirer runs 
 tlirough the mineral district, is a navigable stream, 
 and enters the Mississippi 18 miles below St. Louis. 
 Salt River, which is also navigable, enters the Missis- 
 sippi 85 miles above the Missouri. The White and 
 St. Francis drain the south-east, and the tributaries 
 of Neosha the south- west part of the State. 
 
 Manufactures, etc. — There were in the State in 1850, 
 2 cotton factories, with a capital invested of $102,000, 
 employing 75 males and 80 females, producing articles 
 valued at $142,900 ; 1 woolen factoiy, with a capital 
 of $20,000, employing 15 males and 10 females, manu- 
 facturing 12,000 yards of cloth, and 6,000 pairs blank- 
 ets, valued at $56,000 ; 5 establishments making pig 
 iron, with a capital of $619,000, employing 334 per- 
 sons, and producing 19,250 tons of pig iron, etc., val- 
 ued at $314,600 ; 6 establishments, with a capital of 
 $187,000, employing 297 persons, and making 5,200 
 tons of castings, etc., valued at $336,495; 2 establish- 
 ments, with a capital of $42,100, employing 101 per- 
 sons, manufacturing 963 tons of wrought iron, valued 
 at $68,700 ; 75 flouring and grist mills, 338 saw mills, 
 210 tanneries ; 56 printing offices, 5 daily, 4 tri and 
 semi-weekly, 45 weekly, and 7 monthly publications. 
 Capital invested in manufactures, $9,194,999 ; value 
 of manufactured articles, $24,250,578. 
 
 The principal places in this State are St. Louis, Jef- 
 ferson City, the capital, St. Charles, Palmyra, Colum- 
 bia, Liberty and Lexington. There were in January, 
 1854, 1 bank with 5 branches, with a cash capital of 
 $1,215,405. There were 6 railroads in the State ; 50 
 miles of road completed, and 963 in the coui'se of con- 
 struction. Tonnage, 1853, 46,441 tons. 
 Dlrbot Foreign Commekoe op the State of Missouki. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 From October 1st, 1832, to October 1st, 1 840 $82,598 
 
 " " 1840, to July Ist, 1850.. 1,024,411 
 
 " July Ist, 1850, to July 1st, 1855 2,898,180 
 
 District tonnage enrolled and licensed, 34,065 tons. 
 The returns of the foreign commerce are very incom- 
 plete, and only include the direct exports. 
 
 [The following statement exhibits a rapid increase 
 in the population of Missouri for the years mentioned : 
 
 POPITLATION. 
 
 1850 682,907 
 
 1852 722,371 
 
 1856 900,000 
 
 The statement below shows a most gratifying ad- 
 vancement in the number, quantity, and value of the 
 chief objects of taxation in the State. The years 
 mentioned are selected merely for the reason that the 
 aggregates for those years are the most accessible, 
 without making laborious additions. Any other pe- 
 riods would exhibit the same flattering results : 
 
 Y(ar.. 
 
 PoUs. 
 
 Land. 
 
 Personal 
 properly. 
 
 
 
 Acres. 
 
 Vnliie. 
 
 Value. 
 
 1849.... 
 
 88,798 
 
 8,803,608 
 
 $81,512,000 
 
 $7,730,000 
 
 1850.... 
 
 85,546 
 
 9,611,251 
 
 86,099,000 
 
 10,797,000 
 
 1858.... 
 
 97,470 
 
 11,286,485 
 
 51,740,000 
 
 19,021,000 
 
 1854.... 
 
 102,958 
 
 12,901,237 
 
 67,744,000 
 
 22,974,000 
 
 1855.... 
 
 106,150 
 
 15,890,884 
 
 79,010,000 
 
 24,842,000 
 
 1856.... 
 
 121,483 
 
 18,653,128 
 
 89,702,000 
 
 80,846,000 
 
 For mineral resources, etc., of Missouri, see North 
 Amer. Rev., xlviii., 514 (W. G. Eliot) ; Hunt's 
 Mag., viii., 535 (C. C. Whittlesey), xiii., 222, xv., 
 28, xvi., 177. 
 
 Missouri, a large river in the United States, rises 
 in the Kocky Mountains, and takes its name after the 
 union of three branches, denominated Jeflferson, Gal- 
 latin, and Madison, in 45° 10' N. lat., and 110° AY. 
 long. The spring sources of Missouri, and those of 
 the Columbia, which flows west to the Pacific, are not 
 more than a mile apart. At the distance of 411 miles 
 from the extreme point of navigation of its head 
 branches, the Missouri passes through the Kocky 
 Mountains by what is denominated the Gates. For a 
 distance of six miles the rocks rise perpendicularly 
 from the water's edge to the height of nearly 1200 
 
 feet, and the river is only 150 yards wide. 110 miles 
 below this and 521 miles from its source, are the Great 
 Falls, 2,575 miles above its entrance into the Missis- 
 sippi. The river descends 357 feet in 18 miles, by a 
 succession of falls. Th^ Yellowstone River, 800 yards 
 wide at its mouth, enters the Missouri from south-west 
 1211 miles from its source and 1,880 from its mouth. 
 The Missouri enters the Mississippi 3,096 miles from 
 its source, which, added to 1395 miles, the distance to 
 the Gulf of Mexico, makes the whole length 4,491 
 miles. Through this whole length there is no serious 
 impediment to navigation except the Great Falls. 
 The principal tributaries are navigable from 100 to 
 500 miles. See Mississippi Rivek. The Missouri 
 through the greater part of its course is rapid and 
 turbid, and about a mile in width. The plat or valley 
 of its banks is exceedingly fertile and from 5 to 25 
 miles wide on each side. 
 
 Mobile, city, port of entry, and capital of Mobile 
 county, Alabama, 200 miles south-west of Montgom- 
 ery, 217 miles south by west of Tuscaloosa, 170 miles 
 east north-east of New Orleans, 55 miles west by north 
 of Pensaoola. Mobile is situated on the west side of 
 a river of the same name, at its entrance into Mo- 
 bile Bay, 30 miles north Mobile Point, at the mouth of 
 the bay, and at the commencement of the Mobile and 
 Ohio railroad. Lat. 30° 41' 26" N., long. 88° 1' 
 29" W. from Greenwich, England. Population, 1830, 
 3,194 J 1840, 12,672 ; 1850, 20,515 ; 1854, 25,000. Mo- 
 bile is situated on a beautiful and extended plain, 
 elevated 15 feet above the highest tides, open to re- 
 freshing breezes from the bay, and commanding a 
 beautiful prospect. It is lighted with gas, and sup- 
 plied with pure water brought from "the spring" near 
 Spring Hill, a distance of 8 miles, and distributed 
 throughout the city in iron pipes. The entrance to 
 Mobile Bay is between Mobile Point on the east, and 
 Dauphin Island on the west, about 3J miles apart, 
 the deepest channel having 15 feet water at low ebb ; 
 but vessels drawing more than 8 or 9 feet water can 
 not, owing to a shoal in the bay, reach the town ex- 
 cept at high water. A light-house erected on the 
 point, lat. 30° 16' N., long. 88° 32' W., exhibits a 
 fixed light elevated 55 feet above the level of the sea. 
 Vessels drawing more than 8 feet water pass up Span- 
 ish River, 6 miles, around a marshy island into Mobile 
 River, and then drop down to the city. It is, next to 
 New Orleans, the greatest cotton mart of the South : 
 681,000 bales were exported in the year 1855. The 
 exports amount to from $12,000,000 to $16,000,000 
 annually. Tonnage of the port 1853, 176,949. It is 
 defended by Fort Morgan, formerly Fort Bowyer, sit- 
 uated on a long, low, sandy point at the mouth of the 
 bay, 30 miles below the city. Near Dauphin Island 
 is the anchorage for large class vessels, where may be 
 seen at times a fleet of 50 or 60 sail. It was surren- 
 dered to the Americans by Spain in 1813, chartered as 
 a town in 1814, incorporated as a city in 1819. It has 
 suffered severelj' bj' fire : 170 buildings were burned 
 in 1827, and 600 in 1839. But it has been rebuilt, 
 with additional beautj- and convenience. 
 
 Statement of the Value of Imports and Duties at the 
 Poet of Mobile for the Tear 1856, and for the 
 First and Second Quarters of 1867. 
 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Duties. 
 
 Dutiable. 
 
 Free. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1st quarter, 1S66 
 
 2d " 
 8d " 
 4th " 
 
 Total, 1856 
 
 " 1855 
 
 " 1854 
 
 1st quarter, 1857 
 
 2d " 
 
 Total 6 months. . . 
 
 $94,642 
 
 862,287 
 
 26,028 
 
 197,882 
 
 $111,746 
 
 86,503 
 
 60,056 
 
 6,400 
 
 $206,288 
 488,790 
 86,079 
 208,7.32 
 
 $28,256 
 
 93,063 
 
 7,661 
 
 66,671 
 
 
 
 $934,889 
 441,529 
 869,622 
 
 $180,656 
 
 62,283 
 
 184,878 
 
 $151,062 
 31,169 
 
 $170,751 
 
 $821,818 
 81,169 
 
 $40,964 
 11,545 
 
 
 .... j$8S2,972 
 
 $62,608 
 
MOB 
 
 1366 
 
 MOB 
 
 roEBIGN EXPOKM FROM THE POBT OF MOBILE FOE THE 
 
 Year 1856, and for the first six Months of 185T. 
 
 Ist quarter, 1856. . 
 2d " » .. 
 
 3d " 
 4th " " .. 
 
 Total, 1856... 
 " 1856... 
 " 1854... 
 
 Ist quarter, 1857.. 
 2d " " .. 
 
 Total, 6 months.. 
 
 $5,861,249 
 
 8,130,613 
 
 286,880 
 
 1,776,972 
 
 3,837,187 
 8,999,964 
 
 In foreign 
 vessels. 
 
 $5,094,144 
 
 8,385,928 
 
 446,287 
 
 845,962 
 
 Tolal. 
 
 $10,645,393 
 
 6,516,540 
 
 732,517 
 
 2,122,984 
 
 $19,917,884 
 16,813,006 
 15,962,221 
 
 $4,660,847 $12,887,584 
 883,036 4,882,999 
 
 17,720,638 
 
 Cotton Crop of South Alabama for TwEKTy-EiGirr 
 Tears. 
 
 Table of Entries and Clearances of Vessels at thb 
 Poet of Mobile (exolusite of Steamers and othee 
 
 CRAFT NAVIGATING THE ElTERS AND BayI, FOE THE 
 
 Year endinq June SOtu, 1867 
 
 Character. 
 
 American. . 
 
 Foreign . . . 
 
 Coastwise. . 
 
 Total.... 
 
 Vessels 
 
 Entries. 
 
 68 
 656 
 
 706 
 
 Tons. 
 
 60,663 
 49,756 
 
 247,084 
 
 S67,408| 13,236 
 
 Crew. 
 
 "zioal 
 
 1,418 
 9,780 
 
 Vessels 
 
 Clearances. 
 
 187' 
 
 52 
 
 217 
 
 Tone. 1 Crew. 
 
 sioSf 
 
 1,268 
 2,254 
 
 111,866 
 44,881 
 71,618 
 
 227,860; 6,608 
 
 Exports of Cotton to Foreign Ports, with the Weight 
 and Value attached, for the Year ending August 
 31st, 1857. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Crop. 
 
 Increase 
 
 Annual 
 
 decrease. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Crop. 
 
 Annual 
 increase 
 
 Annual 
 decrease 
 
 
 Bales. 
 
 Bales. 
 
 Bales, 
 
 
 
 
 
 1880 
 
 102,684 
 
 22,865 
 
 
 1844 
 
 468,126 
 
 
 14,506 
 
 1831 
 
 113,076 
 
 10,891 
 
 
 1845 
 
 617,55( 
 
 49424 
 
 
 1832 
 
 125,605 
 
 12,68( 
 
 
 1846 
 
 421,66£ 
 
 
 95,881 
 
 1888 
 
 129,866 
 
 8,761 
 
 
 1847 
 
 322,516 
 
 
 69,158 
 
 1884 
 
 149,518 
 
 20,147 
 
 
 1848 
 
 438,324 
 
 116,80f 
 
 
 1886 
 
 197,847 
 
 48,a34 
 
 
 1849 
 
 817,846 
 
 79,522 
 
 
 
 237,590 
 
 89,743 
 
 
 1860 
 
 350,297 
 
 
 167,649 
 
 1837 
 
 232,685 
 
 
 4,906 
 
 1351 
 
 461,697 
 
 101,400 
 
 
 1888 
 
 809,807 
 
 77,122 
 
 
 1852 
 
 649,772 
 
 98,075 
 
 
 1839 
 
 251,742 
 
 
 58,065 
 
 1868 
 
 546,514 
 
 
 3,258 
 
 1840 
 
 445,725 
 
 198,983 
 
 
 1854 
 
 538,110 
 
 
 8,404 
 
 1841 
 
 817,642 
 
 
 126,083 
 
 18.55 
 
 464,695 
 
 
 88,515 
 
 
 317,815 
 
 678 
 
 
 1856 
 
 569,788 
 
 205,143 
 
 
 1843 
 
 482,681 
 
 164,816 
 
 
 1857 
 
 508,177 
 
 
 156,561 
 
 B-'Ues. Pounds. 
 
 Gt. Britain, in Am. vessels 
 " Brit. " 
 " 8w. " 
 Total to Great Britain 
 
 France, in Amer. vessels. . . 
 " " Bard. 
 Total to France 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Eussia 
 
 Holland . . , . , 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Spain 
 
 Total to other for. ports 
 Total foreign... 
 
 128,712 
 81,148 
 1,371 
 
 64,684,487 
 
 41,252,609 
 
 696,486 
 
 211,281 106,430,632 
 
 84,695 
 145 
 
 84,840 
 
 2,297 
 2,068 
 2,545 
 8,190 
 1,470 
 1,128 
 1,226 
 
 42,789,533 
 72,994 
 
 $13,664,216 
 
 $5,294,014 
 9,614 
 
 42,862,627 
 
 1,157,501 
 
 1,038,260 
 
 1,305,476 
 
 4,145,060 
 
 750,544 
 
 570,838 
 
 611,112 
 
 $6,308,028 
 
 $161,424 
 
 122,825 
 
 166,676 
 
 645,984 
 
 91,186 
 
 74,200 
 
 86,464 
 
 18,918 I 9,578,781 | $1,238,648 
 814,989 153,921,840 |$20,206,491 
 
 COMPAEATIVE ViEW OF THE ExPOETS OP CoiTON FR03I 
 
 Mobile for Four Tears, commencing 1st September. 
 
 Forte. 
 
 1 1956— fi7. I 1855—56, 
 
 Liverpool 
 
 Hull 
 
 Glasgow and Greenock . 
 
 Cowesand a market 
 
 Total to Great Britain 
 
 Havre 
 
 Eochelle, etc 
 
 Marseilles and Dieppe . . 
 Total to France . . , 
 
 Bales. 
 
 196,865 
 4,774 
 8,059 
 6,633 
 
 211,231 
 
 132 
 145 
 
 Amstordam&Botterdam 
 
 Antwerp 
 
 Hamb'g,Breraen,Bt.Pet. 
 Stockholm, Ghent, etc. . 
 iGibraltar and Barcelona 
 
 Havana, etc 
 
 G-enoa, Trieste, etc. . 
 
 Other ports 
 
 Total to oth. for. ports 
 
 New York 
 
 Bcston 
 
 Providence 
 
 Philadelphia 
 
 Baltimore 
 
 New Orleans 
 
 Other ports 
 
 Total coastwise . 
 
 Grand total 
 
 REOAinTULATION. 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 France 
 
 Other foreign ports 
 
 [ Total foreign 
 
 ' Total United States... 
 
 Grand total 
 
 84,840 
 
 1,470 
 2,297 
 10,785 
 2,068 
 1,225 
 
 23,736 
 47,412 
 22,932 
 6,581 
 5,898 
 60,086 
 2,610 
 
 174,055 
 
 489,044 
 
 211,231 
 
 84,810 
 18,918 
 
 814,989 
 174,oa 
 
 489,044 
 
 Bales. 
 340,812 
 
 5,188 
 5,695 
 
 851,690 
 
 94,012 
 
 804 
 
 1,946 
 
 96,262 
 
 956 
 
 9,901 
 
 10,779 
 
 7,381 
 
 5,017 
 
 8,650 
 
 1854—55. ' 1853—54. 
 
 Bales. 
 213,616 
 
 1,682 
 
 215,243 
 
 110,074 
 1,016 
 
 Bftles. 
 
 227,462 
 8,768 
 
 111,090 
 
 2,900 
 2,.589 
 1,560 
 
 3,777 
 
 1,989 
 
 1,268 
 
 37,083 13,973 
 
 28,492 
 66,807 
 17,672 
 2,976 
 4,548 
 78,707 
 8,685 
 196,286 
 
 681,821 
 
 861,690 
 96,262 
 87,083 
 
 196,286 
 
 681,821 
 
 80,955 
 26,953 
 15,875 
 1,813 
 8,304 
 82,087 
 1,800 
 
 231,280 
 76,827 
 
 Stock op Cotton at the Port of Mobile in 1 
 Warehouses, and on Shipboard, August 31st, 
 
 planter's Ship 
 
 mark. marked. 
 
 Bales. Bales. 
 
 i actor's press and warehouses 987 2,477 
 
 Shipper's " " .... 659 219 
 
 Alabama " " 196 
 
 Selma warehouse 14 
 
 Pickeries, stores, etc 13 .... 
 
 Arrived by railroad 26 
 
 Total 1,795 2,696 
 
 Arrived since 13 
 
 1857. 
 
 Total stock, Aug. 31, 1867... 1,8( 
 
 2,696 
 
 4,604 
 
 Comparative Imports of the following Staple Articles 
 INTO the Port of Mobile for five Years. 
 
 Artlcl 
 
 es. 
 
 Bagging . . 
 
 . .pieces 
 
 Bale rope, . 
 
 . . ..coils 
 
 Bacon 
 
 ....hhds 
 
 Coffee 
 
 ...sacks 
 
 Corn 
 
 *' 
 
 Flour 
 
 ...bbls. 
 
 Hay 
 
 . . .bales 
 
 Lard 
 
 ...kegs 
 
 Lime 
 
 . . .bbls. 
 
 Molasses . . 
 
 ... *' 
 
 Oats 
 
 . . .sacks 
 
 Potatoes . . 
 
 ...bbls. 
 
 Fork 
 
 
 Rice 
 
 ..tierces 
 
 Salt 
 
 
 !<ugar 
 
 ...hhds. 
 
 Whisky... 
 
 ...bbls. 
 
 143,432 
 
 73,530 
 
 81,998 
 
 14,108 
 
 23,100 
 
 7,607 
 
 29,896 
 
 17,695 
 
 18,""" 
 
 2,1 
 
 172,015 
 
 6,188 
 
 81,244 
 
 7,570 
 25,808 
 
 23,938 
 81,697 
 16,929 
 28,936 
 101,225 
 41.1 
 17,858 
 22,088 
 14,632 
 
 12,099 
 12,446 
 11,421 
 139,901 
 7,481 
 19,702 
 
 1856-1. 1865—6. 1 1854—5. 1863—1. 1852—3. 
 
 82,731 
 21,415 
 
 23,176 
 38,899 
 12,626 
 38,666 
 43,436 
 69,073 
 13,556 
 16,692 
 
 6,790 
 17,695 
 88,912 
 19,308 
 19,944 
 
 1,961 
 
 21,063 
 21,662 
 17,744 
 20,678 
 
 189,029 
 62,057 
 25,101 
 16,788 
 11,953 
 30,799 
 60,426 
 23,261 
 14,700 
 2,349 
 
 169,681 
 8,898 
 24,695 
 
 22,327 
 24,107 
 13,227 
 84,608 
 92,104 
 64,444 
 22,880 
 
 19,681 
 48,896 
 21,844 
 16,841 
 
 1,399 
 128,266 
 
 8,362 
 21,754 
 
 Comparative View op the Stocks of the following 
 Staple Articles to Date at Mobile, foe six Years. 
 
 6,087 
 3,894 
 1,526 I 
 8,406 I 
 
 100 
 5.709 
 
 413 ! 
 9,094 
 
 85,414 
 48,230 
 28,406 
 5,047 
 8,921 
 64,666 
 2,931 
 
 112,792 178,505 
 
 453,103 515,666 
 
 215,248 
 111,090 
 13,978 
 
 231,230 
 76,827 
 29,094 
 
 840,811 387,151 
 112,792 178,505 
 
 453,108 1515,666 
 
 Articles. 
 
 Tging pieces 
 
 Bale rope... .coils 
 
 Bacon hhds. 
 
 Cotton bales 
 
 Coffee sacks 
 
 Corn 
 
 Flour bbls. 
 
 Hay bales 
 
 Lard kegs 
 
 Lime bb] 
 
 Molasses " 
 
 Oats sacks 
 
 Potatoes bbls. 
 
 Pork " 
 
 Rice tierces 
 
 Salt sacks 
 
 Sugar hhds. 
 
 Whisky bbls. 
 
 Candles boxes 
 
 5, 
 
 4,946 
 
 706 
 
 4,504 
 
 6,602 
 
 6,729 
 
 2,063 
 
 2,680 
 
 1,171 
 
 550 
 
 314 
 
 4, 
 
 807 
 
 943 
 
 601 
 
 47,149 
 
 274 
 
 7,079 
 
 23,78 
 
 8,696 
 l,f- 
 507 
 5,006 
 4,164 
 2,277 
 
 2,r" 
 l,i 
 
 1,000 
 
 1,117 
 
 794 
 
 43 
 
 461 
 
 146 
 
 *22,666 
 
 883 
 
 8,551 
 
 1,668 
 
 5,053 
 4,290 
 
 422 
 28,619 
 1,197 
 6,630 
 1,863 
 2,130 
 1,427 
 3,166 
 
 845 
 2,824 
 
 323 
 
 243 
 
 72 
 
 10,706 
 
 310 
 1,916 
 1,865 
 
 1854. 
 
 3,013 
 8,374 
 
 454 
 29,278 
 1,476 
 7,434 
 1,843 
 8,492 
 
 858 
 
 1,650 
 
 2,156 
 
 4,677 
 
 89 
 
 580 
 
 224 
 23,174 
 
 605 
 2,083 
 1,530 
 
 1853. 
 
 8,788 
 7;602 
 
 273 
 7,516 
 8,9.32 
 9,665 
 Iv 
 2,994 
 
 520 
 3,113 
 1,286 
 1,163 
 
 174 
 
 403 
 
 43 
 
 14,383 
 
 673 
 8,498 
 
 882 
 
 1,852 
 
 2,290 
 
 666 
 
 2,319 
 
 1,455 
 
 1,900 
 
 629 
 
 2,172 
 
 518 
 
 2,175 
 
 793 
 
 818 
 
 179 
 
 515 
 
 23 
 
 3,537 
 
 113 
 
 * Including 8,800 bags French and 700 of Turk's Island. 
 
 Exports of Cotton from Mobile from 1846 to 1851, com- 
 mencing Septe.mber Ist. 
 
 Ports. 
 
 Great Britain.. 
 
 France 
 
 Other for. ports 
 
 Total foreign.! 
 
 TotalU. 8.. 
 
 Grand total. 
 
MOB 
 
 1367 
 
 MOC 
 
 Tariff of Charges on Cotton at Mobile, — The proprie- 
 tors of the several presses and warehouses at Mobile, 
 have adopted the foUowing uniform tariff of charges 
 on cotton : Factor's storage on cotton for the season, 
 20 cents per bale ; compressing cotton, 50 cents per 
 bale J extra ropes on compressed cotton, each 6^ cents 
 per bale; labor on ship marlced cotton, 5 cents per 
 bale ; drayage, compressed cotton, 5 cents per bale j 
 wharfage, compressed cotton, 5 cents per bale ; stor- 
 age on cotton going coastwise, per weeli, 6 cents per 
 bale ; turning out and re-storing cotton, 5 cents per 
 bale ; arranging, 3 cents per bale. 
 
 Alabama Finances, — The Comptroller and Treasurer 
 of this State have published the biennial reports for 
 the fiscal year ending September 30, 1856, which show 
 a total of receipts into the treasury, from all sources, 
 
 of 1798,008 46 ; of which sum $616,863 15 was on the 
 assessment of taxes for the year 1855, ; the balance, 
 $81,145 31, making up the first sum, was derived from 
 taxes of 1844, 1847, 1861, 1853, 1864, from State Bank 
 branches, bonus from Stock Sanks, Marietta and Ohio 
 Eailroad, 16th section fund, and 2 and 8 per cent, 
 funds, etc. The above sum of receipts, $798,008 46, 
 with the balance in the treasury, September 30, 1855, 
 of $1,192,652 96, makes $1,990,656 42. The disburse- 
 ments for the year ending 30th September last, amount 
 to $486,867 52, of which $158,552 21 were paid for ed- 
 ucational purposes, $100,000 to Bank Commissioner, 
 $61,745 50 to pay members of the Legislature, etc., 
 $26,350 87 to insane hospital, and the balance to the 
 judiciary, university fund, etc., etc. There was in 
 the treasury on September 30, 1846, $1,503,788 90. 
 
 Foreign Commerce 
 
 3F THE State op Alabama, from Ootobeb 1, 1820, to July 1, 1866. 
 
 
 Years ending 
 
 Bxports. 
 
 Importo. 
 
 Tonnage cleared. 
 
 District Tonnage. 
 
 DomeiUc. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 TptjI. 
 
 Total. 
 
 American. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Registered. 
 
 Enrolled and 
 Incensed. 
 
 Sept. 80, 1821...;..'.. 
 
 1822 
 
 1823 
 
 1824........ 
 
 1825 
 
 1826 ; 
 
 1827 
 
 1828 ; 
 
 1829 
 
 1880 
 
 Total.... 
 
 Sept. 80,1881 
 
 1832 
 
 1833 
 
 1834 
 
 1886 
 
 1886 
 
 1887 
 
 1888 
 
 1839 
 
 1840 
 
 Total.... 
 
 Sept. 80,1841 
 
 1842 
 
 9mos. 1848 
 
 June 80,1844 
 
 1845 
 
 1846 
 
 1847 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 
 
 1860 
 
 Total.... 
 
 June 80, 1861 
 
 1863 
 
 1368 
 
 1S54 
 
 1865 
 
 , 1866 
 
 : $108,960 
 
 209,748 
 
 202,887 
 
 467,726 
 
 69i;897 
 
 1,618,701 
 
 1,880,770 
 
 1,174,787 
 
 1,679,886 
 
 8,291,826 
 
 $3^662 
 788 
 
 8,411 
 46,694 
 
 7,322 
 14,578 
 
 8,129 
 
 $108,«60 
 
 209,748 
 
 202,887 
 
 460,727 
 
 692,685 
 
 . 1,827,112 
 
 1,876,864 
 
 1,182,.'>69 
 
 1,698,968 
 
 2,294,964 
 
 $86,421 
 128,770 
 91,604 
 118,411 
 179.664 
 201,909 
 171,909 
 238,720 
 144,823 
 
 2,187 
 6,847 
 9;896 
 16,086 
 18,696 
 15,859 
 14,494 
 22,277 
 
 '86 
 
 1,449 
 884 
 1,807 
 8,078 
 4,765 
 4,963 
 4,059 
 
 614 
 
 6,576 
 
 $9,666,136 
 
 $2,412,862 
 2,738,664 
 4,628,221 
 6,664,047 
 7,672,128 
 
 11,188,788 
 9,652,910 
 9,688,049 
 
 10,338,159 
 
 12,«64,694 
 
 $88,269 
 
 $1,082 
 2,888 
 6,740 
 6,750 
 2,564 
 
 878 
 6,898 
 
 196 
 
 $9,749,404 
 
 $2,418,894 
 2,786,887 
 4,527,961 
 6,670,797 
 7,674,692 
 
 11,184,166 
 9,668,808 
 9,688,244 
 
 10,838,169 
 
 12,854,694 
 
 $1,299,121 
 
 $224,486 
 806,846 
 266,918 
 895,861 
 526,956 
 661,618 
 609,885 
 624,648 
 895,201 
 574,651 
 
 102,982 
 
 14,707 
 18,764 
 29,067 
 29,272 
 82,796 
 
 68ls22 
 27,191 
 48,286 
 94,561 
 
 20,976 
 
 10,958 
 12,834 
 9,286 
 10,614 
 12,665 
 17,867 
 10,726 
 11,996 
 17,006 
 28,552 
 
 2,186 
 
 8,925 
 
 $76,622,412 
 
 $10,969,826 
 9,966,676 
 11,167,460 
 9,906,195 
 10,615,274 
 6,260,817 
 9,054,630 
 11,920,698 
 12,823,725 
 10,644,868 
 
 $25,890 
 $11,446 
 
 1,459 
 22,954 
 
 7^656 
 
 $76,647,802 
 
 $10,931,271 
 
 9,966,676 
 
 11,157,460 
 
 9,907,654 
 
 10,688,228 
 
 5,260,317 
 
 9,064,680 
 
 11,927,749 
 
 12,828,725 
 
 10,644,858 
 
 $4,978,917 
 
 $630,819 
 863,871 
 860,665 
 442,818 
 478,491 
 259,607 
 890,161 
 419,.396 
 667,147 
 865,362 
 
 838,796 
 
 47,481 
 61,247 
 79,107 
 47,097 
 80,032 
 46,044 
 28,108 
 67,674 
 76,628 
 82,268 
 
 186,643 
 
 85,795 
 88,095 
 66,900 
 63,983 
 62,491 
 61,007 
 48,136 
 49,859 
 74,698 
 80,717 
 
 5,589 
 
 10,125 
 
 $102,118,608 
 
 $18,628,824 
 17,888,681 
 16,786,918 
 18,911,612 
 14,270,665 
 28,726,215 
 
 $42,914 
 $2;i28 
 
 7,955 
 
 tl02,161,5l7 
 
 $18,528,824 
 17,886,704 
 16,786,918 
 18,911,612 
 14,270,666 
 28,784,170 
 
 $4,768,827 
 
 $413,446 
 688,882 
 809,662 
 726,610 
 619,964 
 798,614 
 
 650,476 
 
 68,747 
 91,067 
 79,568 
 60,004 
 100,750 
 122,409 
 
 646,080 
 
 62,613 
 72,068 
 64,122 
 68,494 
 44,865 
 90,809 
 
 8,678 
 
 18,749 
 
 Mobile Bay, Alabama, — The bay sets up from the 
 Gulf of Mexico, and is 30 miles long, and on an aver- 
 age 12 miles broad. It communicates with the gulf 
 bj' two straits, one on each side of Dauphin Island. 
 The strait on the west side will not admit of vessels 
 drawing more than 5 feet water ; that on the east side, 
 between the island and Mobile !Point, has 22 feet water, 
 and the channel passes within a few yards of the point. 
 There is a bar across the bay, near its upper end, which 
 has only 11 feet water. The Mobile Point light-hous^ 
 is on the east side of the entrance into Mobile Bay. 
 Lat. 30° 13' 48" north, long, 88° 00' 30" west. 
 Shows a revolving light, elevated 57 feet above the 
 level of the sea, and visible for a distance of 12 nauti- 
 cal miles. Three miles southrwest of Mobile Point, 
 is Sand Island light, lat. 30° 11' 18" north, long. 88° 
 02' west. Shows ^ fixed light, elevated 54 feet above 
 the sea, and is visible for a distance of 12 nautical 
 nules. Within the bay, a little south of the city of 
 Mobile, is the Choctaw Point light-house ; it shows a 
 fixed light, elevated 54 feet above the suriioe of the 
 bay, and is visible for a distance of 11 nautical miles. 
 
 Mocha, the principal port in the Red Sea fre- 
 quented by Europeans, in that part of Arabia called 
 Yemen, about 40 miles to the north of the Strait of 
 Bab-el-mandeb, lat. 13° 19' 30" north, long. 43° 20' 
 east. Population variously estimated ; but may, per- 
 haps, amount to from 5000 to 7000. It is encircled 
 with walls, and indifferently fortified. Its appearance 
 from the sea is imposing. Mocha is situated on the 
 margin of a dry sa^dy plain. It is built close to the 
 shore, between two points of land which project and 
 form a bay. Vessels drawing from 10 to 12 feet water 
 may anchor within this bay at about a mile from the 
 town ; but large ships anchor without the bay in the 
 roads, in 5 or 7 fathoms water — the grand mosque 
 bearing east south-east, and the fort to the south of 
 the town south by east, distant about two miles from 
 the shore. The great article of export from Mocha is 
 coffee, which is universally admitted to he of the finest 
 quality. It is not possible to form any verj' accurate 
 estimate of the quantity exported ; but we believe it 
 may be taken at 10,000 tons, or perhaps more. The 
 greater portion is sent to Djidda and Suez j but there 
 
MOG 
 
 1368 
 
 MOI 
 
 is a pretty large export to Bombaj'', and other parts of 
 India, whence some is sent to Europe ; occasional!}', 
 however, the exports from Mocha and Hodeida, direct 
 from Europe, are very considerable. Besides coffee, the 
 principal articles of export are, dates, adjoue, or paste 
 made of dates, myrrh, gum Arabic, olibanum, senna 
 (cassia senna), sharks' iins, tragacanth, horns and hides 
 of the rhinoceros, balm of Gilead, ivory, gold dust, 
 civet, aloes, sagapenum, etc. The principal articles 
 of import are, rice, piece goods, iron, and hardware, 
 etc. The ivorj', gold dust, and civet, met with at 
 Mocha, are brought from the opposite coast of Abys- 
 sinia, whence are also brought slaves, ghee, etc. 
 The greater part of the foreign trade of Mocha is 
 transacted by the Banians ; and it is much safer to 
 deal with them than with either Turks or Arabs. Eu- 
 ropeans paj' a duty of 3 per cent, ad valorem on all 
 goods imported by them from Europe, India, or China ; 
 the duty being levied on the amount of the sales. 
 The buyer pays brokerage, coolie and boat-hire. All 
 kinds of foreign goods are sold on credit, and the pay- 
 ment is made by three instalments, or at a certain day, 
 according as may have been agreed on. Coffee is always 
 paid for in ready money. On the sale of other goods, 
 the produce of the country, a credit is given ; or if 
 ready money be paid, a discount is allowed at the rate 
 of 9 per cent. When goods are discharging the master 
 must furnish the custom-house officer with a manifest, 
 or account of the marks, numbers, and contents of 
 each package. He then opens two or three bales taken 
 at random ; and if they correspond with the account 
 delivered, no further examination is made ; but if they 
 do not correspond, the whole bales are opened, and 
 double duty is charged upon the excess. The quanti- 
 ties being thus ascertained, their value is learned from 
 the account of sales rendered by the seller, and the duty 
 charged accordingly. In this respect there is nothing 
 to object to at Mocha ; but a good deal of extortion is 
 practiced in the exaction of port charges, presents, etc., 
 which may, however, be defeated by proper firmness. 
 The port charges on ships, or three-mast vessels, may 
 amount to about 400 Mocha dollars, and those on brigs 
 to about half as much. Provisions are plentiful and 
 cheap ; but water is dear ; that in the vicinity being 
 brackish and imwholesome, whatever is used for drink- 
 ing, by all but the poorest persons, is brought from 
 Mosa, about 20 miles off. Fish are abundant and 
 cheap, but not very good. 
 
 lAogadore, a sea-port town on the west coast of 
 Morocco, lat. 31° 50' north, long. 9° 20' west. Pop- 
 ulation about 10,000. It is indifferently fortified ; the 
 country in the immediate vicinity is low, flat, sandy, 
 and unproductive. Water is scarce and rather dear ; 
 being either rain-water collected and preserved in cis- 
 terns, or brought from a river about IJ miles distant. 
 The port is formed by a small island lying to the south- 
 ward of the town ; but as there is not more than 10 or 12 
 feet water in it at ebb tide, large ships anchor without, 
 the long battery bearing east, distant IJ miles. The 
 principal imports are English woolen and cotton stuffs 
 and hardware, German linens, tin, copper, earthen- 
 ware, mirrors, glass, sugar, pepper, paper, and a vari- 
 ety of other articles. The exports principally consist 
 of sweet and bitter almonds, gum Arabic, and other 
 gums, beeswax, cow and calf skins, ivory, ostrich 
 feathers, gold dust, olive oil, dates, etc. 
 
 " The duties levied on imported articles are not paid 
 in money, but in kind, and on English manufactures, 
 army and navy cloth, brass, copper, tea, and sugar, 
 and in fact. In all cases, with few exceptions, are rated 
 at 20 per cent., or a fifth part of the goods, whatever 
 they may be, that are landed. This primitive mode 
 of business is also accompanied by disadvantages, and 
 assists, in conjunction with the high tariff, to cripple 
 any endeavors attempted to bring the Barbary States 
 in closer mercantile alliance with ourselves." It is to 
 be hoped that the government of Morocco may become 
 
 alive to the mischievous consequences of this system. 
 Nothing would do so much to promote industry and civ- 
 ilization in the country, as the effectual reduction, or 
 rather the total repeal, of the existing duties on exports. 
 
 Mohair (Ger. Mohr; Fr. Moire; It. Moerro ; Sp. 
 Mue, Muer), the hair of a variety of the common goat, 
 famous for being soft and fine as silk, and of a silvery 
 whiteness. It is not produced anywhere but in the 
 vicinity of Angora, in Asia Minor. The exportation 
 of this valuable and beautiful article, unless in the 
 shape of yarn, was formerly prohibited ; but it may 
 now be exported unspun. The production, prepara- 
 tion, and sale of mohair have long engrossed the prin- 
 cipal attention of the inhabitants of Angora ; and it 
 used to form an important article of Venetian com- 
 merce. It is manufactured into camlets and other ex- 
 pensive stuffs. Hitherto but little has been imported 
 into England. See, for further particulars, Toukse- 
 POET, Voyage du Levant and Urquhart on Turkey and 
 its Resources. 
 
 Moire Antique. In an ordinary woven goods 
 the threads cross each other at right angles ; the long 
 threads forming the warp, and the short threads the 
 weft. According as the fabric is of high quality, so 
 do these threads intersect in a regular and equable 
 quality ; but be it as good as it may, there are always 
 some irregularities ; they may escape the eye, but they 
 become apparent in a singular waj-. If good silk be 
 wrapped tightlj' and carelessly round a roller, it may 
 become moire much against the inclination of the pos- 
 sessor; it will have acquired an irregular kind of glossing 
 in some parts rather than in others ; and this irregular 
 glossing, when viewed from a little distance, presents 
 somewhat of the appearance of moire, or watering — 
 who knows ? Perhaps an accident to a piece of rolled 
 silk suggested the first idea of watering as a distinct 
 mode of adornment to silken goods ? Such accidents 
 have frequently occurred in the history of manufac- 
 tures. However, accident or no accident, watered 
 silks have long been in use, both in this country and 
 in France. If a pattern be engraved upon one cylin- 
 der in relief, and a similar pattern on another cylin- 
 der, in sunken devices ; and if one of these be heated 
 from within, and if a piece of silk or velvet be drawn 
 between the cylinders, then will the silk or velvet ac- 
 quire an embossed pattern, because some parts of the 
 surface are more pressed, and are consequently more 
 glossy than the rest. Numerous varieties of this pro- 
 cess are employed in the preparation of fancy goods. 
 But this is not exactly watering. For this process two 
 layers of silk are laid face to face, and are pressed 
 tightly between rollers. What follows? However 
 close the threads may be, there are still interstices be- 
 tween them ; they follow each other in ridge and hol- 
 low fashion throughout the length and breadth of the 
 piece. Now, if the slightest iiTegularity exists in 
 the pressure, some of the threads become pressed in 
 particular parts more than others ; and the over- 
 pressed portions present a greater gloss, a greater 
 power of reflecting light than the rest. The more ca- 
 priciously these proportions distribute themselves, the 
 more undulatory and cloudy will be the result. We 
 do not say that the actual process is nothing more than 
 this, but that this is the basis on which the whole is 
 founded. The goods may be sprinkled with water pre- 
 viously or not ; the rollers may be both heated or both 
 cold, or one heated and one cold ; the rollers may be 
 plain or variously indented ; they may move smoothly 
 over each other or may have a slight lateral move- 
 ment — ^how these variations of method would produce 
 variations of effect every one will see. The adjective 
 "antique" is most likely given to the silks thus pro- 
 duced from their resemblance to the tabby silk dresses 
 worn in former times. It is chiefly produced in 
 France ; but in Spitalflelds, England, its weavers and 
 moireurs combined, have lately copied the art so clev- 
 erly as actually to excel the French. But Spitalfields 
 
MOL 
 
 1369 
 
 MOL 
 
 guards its secret as sedulously as the magician in a 
 fairy tale guards the captive princess in the castle, 
 and will not let the world have a peep at their 
 doings. 
 
 Molasses, or Melasses (Fr. Strop de Sucre, Mi- 
 lasses ; Ger. Syrup ; It. Mielazzo di zucchero ; Sp. Miel 
 de azucar, Chancaca; Port. Melasso, Assucar liquido ; 
 Eus. Patoha sachamaja), the uncrystallizable part of 
 the juice of the sugar cane, separated from the sugar 
 during its manufacture. It is of a brown or blade 
 color, thick, and viscid; has a peculiar odor, and a 
 sweet empyreumatic taste. About 8 gallons of proof 
 spirit may, it is said, be obtained from a cwt. of mo- 
 lasses, sucli as has recently been imported j but this 
 depends, of course, wholly on the richness of the mo- 
 lasses. Part of the refuse that remains, after refining 
 muscovado sugar, is a sweet syrup, which, as well as 
 the syrup that remains after boiling molasses to obtain 
 bastards, is called treacle. But the treacle obtained 
 from the former is always preferred to that obtained 
 from the latter, and fetches 50 cents per cwt. more. 
 Molasses is sometimes used in preparing the coarser 
 sort of preserves ; and on the European continent 
 it is extensively used in the manufacture of to- 
 bacco. The following statistics show the foreign 
 trade of the United States' in molasses, and also show 
 the receipts to the foreign and home of this staple. 
 The last table shows the average value of the different 
 kinds of molasses at the port of New Yorlcfortwo j'ears: 
 
 Annual Statement showing the Import, Export, Stock, 
 AND Estimated Consumption of Molasses in the 
 United States (exclusive of California and Ore- 
 gon), for the Year ending December 31st, 1856. 
 
 Received at New York from 
 
 Cuia 
 
 Porto Rico 
 
 Barbadocs 
 
 Trinidad, P. S 
 
 Demerara 
 
 St. Kitts 
 
 Antigua 
 
 St. Croix 
 
 Nassau, N. P 
 
 Other foi-eign ports 
 
 Total receipts of foreign direct. 
 
 Lonlsiaua 
 
 Other coastwise ports 
 
 Total receipts 
 
 Add stooki Jan. lat, 1856 
 
 Total supply 
 
 Deduct expoi-t and inland shipmt^nts 1 
 to Canada. J 
 
 Deduct stock, Jan. 1st, 1857 
 
 Take n from this port for consumption 
 
 Hhdi. 
 
 Tierces. BaiTela. 
 
 89,610 
 
 14,563 
 
 1,456 
 
 1,04T 
 
 189 
 
 196 
 
 85 
 
 29 
 
 141 
 
 99 
 
 57,414 
 
 64,943 
 281 
 
 65,224 
 
 8,705 
 324 
 
 4,039 
 128 
 471 
 
 8S6' 
 
 791 
 84, 
 
 T,164 
 86,868 
 12,998 
 
 4,538 
 
 14l 
 
 6.5,530 
 217 
 
 !,26e 92 1,1 
 
 62,968 
 1,798 
 
 4,560 
 
 56,747 
 
 68,909 
 100 
 
 61,170 4,66068,809 
 
 Gallons. Gallons. 
 
 Containing. 9,818,923 foreign Imptd. dlr. 6,906,176 
 
 Total eonsump,, 1855 12,876,434 " " " 5,936,878 
 
 Decrease, 1856 . . 8,067,511 
 
 Increase, 1856 969,297 
 
 Received at New York (185fi) from 
 
 Hhd.. 
 
 Tierces. 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 Cuba 
 
 42,188 
 
 6,818 
 
 404 
 
 108 
 
 8,870 
 263 
 
 ■■■'5 
 
 7,194 
 28T 
 
 '"31 
 
 
 
 Port Spain, Trinidad 
 
 
 
 
 
 124 
 
 Total receipts of foreign direct. . 
 
 49,642 
 
 980 
 
 21,168 
 
 4,138 
 865 
 476 
 
 7,512 
 94,878 
 7,124 
 
 Other coastwise ports .. , 
 
 
 71,780 
 276 
 
 4,979 
 
 109,519 
 8,730 
 
 Add stock, Jan. 1st, 1865 
 
 72,056 
 4,581 
 
 4,979 
 175 
 
 118,289 
 879 
 
 Dodnct export and inland ship- 1 
 meats to Canada f 
 
 Deduct stock, Jan. 1st, 1856 
 
 Taken from this port for cousurap. 
 
 67,475 
 281 
 
 4,804 
 14 
 
 112,.360 
 217 
 
 67,194 1 4,790 1 112,1481 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 Containing 12,876,434 foreign imptd. dlr. 
 
 Total eonsump., 1854 11,742,030 " " " 
 
 Gallons. 
 5,986,878 
 6,4S9,27S 
 
 Increase, 1865.. 1,184,404 447,605 
 
 Keoeipts of Foreign Molasses in the United Statm, 
 FOR THE Tear ending December SIst, 1856. 
 
 Ports. 
 
 Hhds. 
 
 Tierces. 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 
 57,414 
 
 41,782 
 
 1,111 
 
 2,696 
 
 88,376 
 
 11,626 
 
 6,486 
 
 2,947 
 
 17,.819 
 1,618 
 6,360 
 
 161 
 
 10,521 
 
 4,089 
 
 8,268 
 
 118 
 
 138 
 
 2,951 
 
 61 
 
 219 
 
 278 
 
 1,891 
 56 
 850 
 
 746 
 
 7,164 
 
 1,605 
 
 50 
 
 547 
 
 2,617 
 
 871 
 
 269 
 
 449 
 
 893 
 
 3 
 
 1,130 
 
 1,170 
 
 886 
 
 Boston — from Cuba 
 
 
 " " Porto Eioo, etc 
 
 Portland — IVom Cuba etc... 
 
 New Haven — ^from Porto Eico, etc. . 
 
 Gloucester & Providence— fm. Cuba 
 
 Newburyport, Salem, Bristol, War- 
 ren, and other eastern ports— > 
 from Cuba, Surinam, etc 
 
 Philadelphia--from Cuba 
 
 " " Porto Eico, etc, . 
 Baltimore— fm. Cuba, Porto Eico,eto. 
 New Orleans — ft-om Cuba, 
 
 Savannah, Charleston, and other 1 
 southern ports— fm. Cuba, etc. J 
 Total receipts 
 
 193,.304 
 1,701 
 
 18,610 
 84 
 
 16,403 
 57 
 
 Add stock at all ports, Jan. 1, 1866 . . 
 
 196,005 
 8,746 
 
 18,644 
 1,538 
 
 16,460 
 8,649 
 
 Deduct exports and shipments 
 inland to Canada, from all V 
 tlie ports, in 1856 
 
 Ded. stock at all ports, Jan. 1, 1867 
 
 186,269 
 6,266 
 
 12,106 
 
 12,811 
 
 Total consumption of foreign 
 
 178,008 
 
 12,106 1 12,811 [ 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 Containing 28,014,878 
 
 Add crop of Louisiana, Texas, Florida, etc,, of "1 
 
 1865—56, the most of which came to market ,„ ,„. „„„ 
 in 1856, and assuming the stock of this de- f lo."""*."'™ 
 scription, 1st Jan., of each year, to be equal J 
 
 Would make the total consumption in 1856. 89,608,878 
 Total consumption in 1865 47,266,085 
 
 Decrease in 1866 7,657,207 
 
 Eeoeipts op Foreign Molasses in the United States, 
 FOR THE Tear ending December 818t, 1865. 
 
 Ports. 
 
 New York 
 
 Boston — ^from Cuba 
 
 '^ " Surinam 
 
 " " Porto Rico 
 
 " " from other for. ports. . 
 
 Portland — from Cuba, etc 
 
 Providence — from Cuba, etc 
 
 New Haven — from Porto Rico, etc. . 
 Newburyport, Gloucester, Salem,] 
 Bristol, Warren, R.I., and other ( 
 eastern ports — from Cuba, { 
 
 Porto Rico, Surinam, etc J 
 
 Philadelphia — from Cuba 
 
 " " Porto Rico, etc.. 
 
 Baltimore— fr. Cuba, Porto Rico, etc. 
 
 New Orleans — from Cuba 
 
 Savannah— ftora Cuba, etc 1 
 
 Charleston — from Cuha, etc y 
 
 Other southern ports— from Cuba. ) I 
 
 Total receipts " 
 
 Add stock at all the ports, Jan. 1855 
 
 Total supply i 
 
 Deduct exports and shipments 1 1 
 inland to Canada, from all J- 
 the ports, in 1855 j ' 
 
 Flhds. Tierces. { Barrels. 
 
 49,642 
 
 52,423 
 
 1,' 
 
 663 
 
 29,147 
 
 2,891 
 
 16,056 
 
 9,668 
 
 11, 
 
 570 
 2,618 
 
 186,625 
 5,051 
 
 191,676 
 7,831 
 
 4,138 
 4,376 
 
 2,692 
 7 
 
 192 
 114 
 
 258 
 
 ]S,4liT 
 
 13,407 
 486 
 
 Ded. stock at all ports, Jan. 1, 1866 
 
 Total consumption of foreign 182,14412,948 114,166 
 
 1 188,8451 12,982 
 1,701 I 84 
 
 7,612 
 
 1,897 
 
 60 
 
 897 
 90 
 
 976 
 
 62 
 
 181 
 
 2,251 
 
 759 
 
 15,828 
 
 16,528 
 1,806 
 
 14,228 
 57 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 Containing. 23,538,428 
 
 Add crop of Louisiana, Texos, Florida, "I 
 
 etc., of 1854r-65, the most of which Gallon.. 
 
 came to market in 1855, and assum- > 24,119,742 
 
 ing the^ stock of this description, 1st 
 
 Jan., of each year to be equal . 
 jess export of domestic, not include 
 in above statement of shipments. 
 
 887,080 
 
 . 28,782,662 
 
 Would make the whole consumption in 1856. 47.266,085 
 Total consumption in 1851 66,493,019 
 
 Decrease in 1856 9,226,984 
 
 It will be seen by the foregoing statistics, that the 
 receipts of foreign molasses in the United States for 
 the year ending December 31, 1856, were 25,035,724 
 gallons, against total receipts in 1855 of 24,162,446 
 gallons, and the total consumption of this description 
 in 1856 was 23,014,878 gallons, against a consumption 
 
MOL 
 
 1370 
 
 MON 
 
 of foreign in 1855 of 23,533,423 gallons, being a de- 
 crease in the consumption of foreign in 1856, as com- 
 pared witli 1855, of 2-20 per cent., wliile tlie total 
 consumption of foreign and domestic in 1856 was 39,- 
 608,878 gallons, against a consumption in 1855 of 
 47,266,085 gallons, being a falling off in 1856 of 
 7,657,207 gallons, or the large decrease of 16'20 per cent. 
 
 The consumption of all kinds in 1856, as shown, was 
 16-20 per cent, less than that of 1855, while that of 
 1855 was 16J per cent, smaller than the consumption 
 of 1854. This continued large decrease is attributable, 
 ii^a great measure, to the rapid decline in the yield of 
 Louisiana cane. The following table shows the aver- 
 age value of molasses in New York for two years. 
 
 
 Molasses.- Its Average Value at New Tokk tor Two Teaks. 
 
 
 
 Months. 
 
 
 1866. 
 
 
 
 1866. 
 
 
 New Orlesn.. 
 
 Potto Rico. 
 
 Cuba Muscov. 
 
 Cuba Clayed. 
 
 New Orleans. 
 
 Porto Rico. 
 
 Cuba Muscov. 
 
 Cuba Clayed. 
 
 
 Cents. 
 
 24—28 
 
 25—28 
 
 28— 27i 
 
 28—82 
 
 27—38 
 
 27—83 
 
 29—83 
 
 83—37 
 
 34— S8i 
 
 8T-89 
 
 86—33 
 
 86-40 
 
 Cents. 
 24—80 
 26—82 
 25—32 
 25—82 
 2.5—82 
 26—82 
 28—83 
 82—86 
 84—39 
 37—89 
 85-40 
 40^3 
 
 Centfl. 
 
 23—27 
 
 24—27 
 
 22— 2T 
 
 28—28 
 
 26—30 
 
 26—30' 
 
 21—30 
 
 29—83 
 
 81—36 
 
 85—87 
 
 84-88 
 
 40—48 
 
 Cents.' 
 22—25 
 28 —25 
 20-22 
 21—23 
 28 —26 
 26 —26 
 25}— 27 
 28}— 81 
 80 —84 
 84—85 
 83— 3T 
 80 -42 
 
 Cents. 
 45—49 
 41—46 
 40^6 
 42—47 
 46—48 
 47—52 
 50—64 
 5^-66 
 54—56 
 54—56 
 55—60 
 70—80 
 
 Cents. 
 41^ 
 48—44 
 43-44 
 87-^5 
 89—45 
 40—46 
 45—50 
 48—48 
 48—48 
 45-53 
 60—60 
 66—60 
 
 Cents. 
 41—18 
 
 85—42 
 34—38 
 82—88 
 82—88 
 87-42 
 41^5 
 42—46 
 40—15 
 42—48 
 47-62 
 48-55 
 
 Cents. 
 
 42—.. 
 83-40 
 33—86 
 80—34 
 80—82 
 84—36 
 88^0 
 87-^0 
 87-40 
 89-41 
 40-42 
 49—.. 
 
 
 March 
 
 April 
 
 
 June 
 
 Jnlv 
 
 
 September 
 
 November 
 
 December.. 
 
 Average for the y'r 
 
 82 
 
 821 
 
 30} 
 
 28J 
 
 52 
 
 461 
 
 41| 
 
 .38 
 
 Statement showing the Domestic Espoet of Molasses 
 FROM THE United States foe the Year ending June 
 ■ SOth, 1856. 
 
 Whither exported. 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 Value. 
 
 
 16,98T 
 
 411,048 
 6,671 
 2,265 
 1,995 
 41 
 4,028 
 511 
 10,769 
 
 $4,076 
 
 140,886 
 
 2,854 
 
 667 
 
 746 
 
 25 
 
 1,499 
 
 276 
 
 4,102 
 
 Canada 
 
 Other British N. Amer. pes 
 
 British West Indies 
 
 
 
 
 Ohili 
 
 Whale Fisheries 
 
 Total 
 
 454,815 
 
 $164,680 
 
 
 Statement showing the Foreign Exports of Molasses 
 FROM the United States for the Year ending June 
 30th, ISOiJ. 
 
 Whither exported. 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Russian possessions in N. Amer. . 
 
 600 
 
 16,784 
 
 2,103 
 
 1,079,837 
 
 108,989 
 
 26,418 
 
 2,188 
 
 75 
 
 480 
 
 1,282 
 
 22,000 
 
 6,989 
 
 $862 
 
 4,818 
 
 720 
 
 251,300 
 
 81,694 
 
 7,709 
 
 734 
 
 80 
 
 139 
 
 360 
 
 6,500 
 
 2,814 
 
 
 
 Other British North Amer. pos... 
 
 French North American pos 
 
 French West Indies 
 
 Madeira. , 
 
 Ports in Africa 
 
 Hayti 
 
 Chili 
 
 Whale Fisheries 
 
 Total 
 
 1,261,140 
 
 $806,180 
 
 From warehouse,,.^ 
 
 Not from warehouse 
 
 966,818 
 294,322 
 
 $232,580 
 73,600 
 
 Statement showing tub Imports of Molasses into the 
 United States for the Year ending June 80tii. 1856. 
 
 Whence Imported. 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 Danish West Indies. 
 Dutch West Indies. . 
 
 Dutch Guiana.. 
 
 Dutch East Indies 
 
 England 
 
 Canada 
 
 Other British North Amer. pos. . 
 
 British West Indies 
 
 British East Indies 
 
 British Guiana 
 
 French West Indies 
 
 Spain on the Mediterranean 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Porto Kleo 
 
 Central Eepubllo 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Sandwich Islands 
 
 Total 
 
 5,970 
 
 26,123 
 
 782,319 
 
 80 
 
 1,282 
 
 810 
 
 85,489 
 
 782,022 
 
 265 
 
 65,277 
 
 8,704 
 
 1,094 
 
 19,452,8.54 
 
 2,521,946 
 
 11,084 
 
 82 
 
 88,488 
 
 Value. 
 
 $968 
 
 3,760 
 
 94,232 
 
 4 
 
 89 
 
 106 
 
 8,635 
 
 154,299 
 
 47 
 
 12,419 
 
 1,007 
 
 164 
 
 8,510,609 
 
 536,687 
 
 1,910 
 
 10 
 
 10,882 
 
 3,617,674 : $4,884,668 
 
 See ScQAK. 
 
 Mole, in architecture, a massive work formed of 
 large stones laid in the sea by means of coffer dams, 
 extended either in a right line or an arc of a circle, 
 before a port, which it serves to close ; to defend the 
 vessels in port from the impetuosity of the waves, and 
 
 to prevent the passage of ships without leave. It is 
 frequently fortified. Mole ]^ sometimes used to sig- 
 nify the harbor itself, which it serves to form or defend. 
 Money. When the division of labor was first in- 
 troduced, commodities were directly bartered for each 
 other. Tliose, for example, who had a surplus of corn, 
 and were in want of wine, endeavored to find out those 
 who were in the opposite circumstances, or who had a 
 surplus of wine and wanted corn, and then exchanged 
 the one for the other. It is obvious, however, that the 
 power of changing, and, consequentlj'', of dividing 
 emploj'ments, must have been subjected to perpetual 
 interruptions, so long as it was restricted to mere 
 barter. A carries produce to market, and B is desirous 
 to purchase it ; but the produce belonging to B is not 
 suitable for A. C, again, would like to buy B's pro- 
 duce, but B is already fully supplied with the equiva- 
 lent C has to offer. In such cases — and they must be 
 of a constant occurrence wherever money is not intro- 
 duced — ^no direct exchange could take place between 
 the parties ; and it might be very difficult to bring it 
 about indirectly. The difficulties that would arise on 
 such occasions, and the devices that would be adopted 
 to overcome them, have been verj' well illustrated by 
 Colonel Torrens, in his work on the Production of 
 Wealthy p. 291. The extreme inconvenience attending 
 such situations must early have forced themselves on 
 the attention of every one. Efforts would, in conse- 
 quence, be made to avoid them ; and it would speedily 
 appear that the best or rather the only way in which 
 this could be effected, was to exchange either the 
 whole or a part of one's surplus produce for some com- 
 modity of known value, and in general demand ; and 
 which, consequently, few persons would be inclined to 
 refuse to accept as an equivalent for whatever they 
 had to dispose of. After this commodity had begun to 
 be employed as a means of exchanging other com- 
 modities, individuals would become willing to purchase 
 a greater quantity' of it than might be required to pay 
 for the products they were desirous of immediately 
 obtaining ; knowing that should they, at any future 
 period, want a further supply either of these or other 
 articles, they would be able readil}' to procure them 
 in exchange for this universally desired commodity. 
 Though at first circulating slowly and with difficulty, 
 it would, as the advantages arising from its use were 
 better appreciated, begin to pass freely from hand to 
 hand. Its value, as compared with other things, 
 would thus come to be universally known ; and it 
 would at last be used, not only as the common medium 
 of exchange, but as a standard by which to measure 
 the value of other things. Now this commodity, 
 whatever it may be, is money. 
 
MON 
 
 1311 
 
 MON 
 
 An infinite rariety of commodities have been Used 
 as money in different countries and periods. But none 
 can be advantageously used as such, unless it possess 
 several very peculiar qualities. The slightest reflec- 
 tion on the purposes to which it is applied, must, in- 
 deed, be suilicient to convince everj' one that it is 
 indispensable, or, at least, exceedingly desirable, that 
 the commodity selected to serve as money should (1) be 
 divisible into the smallest portions ; (2) that it should 
 admit of being kept for an indefinite period without 
 deteriorating ; (8) that it should, by possessing great 
 value in small bulk, be capable of being easily trans- 
 ported from place to place ; (4) that one piece of money, 
 of a certain denomihation, should always be equal, in 
 magnitude and quality, to everj* other piece of money of 
 the same denomination ; and (5) that its value should be 
 comparatively steady, or as little subject to variation 
 as possible. Without the^^j-s* of these qualities, or the 
 capacity of being divided into portions of every differ- 
 ent magnitude and value, money, it is evident, would 
 be of almost no nse, and could only be exchanged for 
 the few commodities that might happen to be of the 
 same value as its indivisible portions, or as whole mul- 
 tiples of them ; without the second, or the capacity of 
 being kept or hoarded without deteriorating, no one 
 would choose to exchange commodities for money, ex- 
 cept only when he expected to be able speedily to re- 
 exchange that money for something else ; without the 
 third,' or facilitj' of transportation, money could not 
 be conveniently used in transactions between places at 
 any considerable distance ; without they&BrtA, or perfect 
 sameness, it would be extremely diificult to appreci- 
 ate the value of different pieces of money ; and with- 
 out the Jlftk quality, or comparative steadiness of 
 value, money could not serve as a standard by which 
 to measure the value of other commodities ; and no 
 one would be disposed to exchange the produce of his 
 industry for an article that might shortly decline con- 
 siderably in its power of purchasing. 
 
 The union of the different qualities of comparative 
 steadiness of value, divisibility, durability, facilitj' of 
 transportation, and perfect sameness, in the precious 
 metals, doubtless formed the irresistible reason that has 
 induced everj' civilized community to employ them as 
 money. The value of gold and silver is certainly not in 
 variable, but generally speaking it changes only by slow 
 degrees : they are divisible into any number of parts, 
 and have the singular property of being easily reunited, 
 by means of fusion, without loss ; they do not deterio- 
 rate by being kept ; and from their firm and compact 
 texture, they are very difficult to wear. Their cost 
 of production, especially that of gold, is so consider- 
 able, that they possess great value in small bulk, and 
 can, of course, be transported with comparative facility ; 
 and an ounce of pure gold or silver taken from the 
 mines in any quarter of the world, is precisely equal, 
 in point of quality, to an ounce of pure gold or silver 
 dug from the mines in any other quarter. No won- 
 der, therefore, when all the qualities necessary to con- 
 stitute money are possessed in so eminent a degree by 
 the precious metals, that they have been used as such, 
 in civilized societies, from a very remote era, " They 
 became universal money," as Turgot has observed, 
 '* not in consequence of any arbitrary agreement among 
 men, or of the intervention of any law, but by the na- 
 ture and force of things." When first used as money, 
 the precious metals were in an unfashioned state, in bars 
 or ingots. The parties having agreed about the quan- 
 tity of metal to be given for a commodity, that quantity 
 was then weighed off. But this, it is plain, must have 
 been a tedious and troublesome process. Undoubted- 
 ly, however, the greatest obstacle that would be expe- 
 rienced in early ages to the use of gold and aHver as 
 money, would be found to consist in the difficulty of 
 determining the degree of their purity with sufficient 
 precision ; aaid the discover}- of some means by which 
 their weight and fineness might be readily and cor- 
 
 rectly ascertained, would be felt to be indispensable 
 to their extensive use as money. Fortunately these 
 means were not long in being discovered. The fabri- 
 cation of coins, or the practice of impressing pieces 
 of the precious metals with a stamp indicating theii 
 weight and purity, belongs to the remotest antiquity. 
 GouGET, De rOrigiTie des Loix, etc., tome i., p. 269. 
 And it may safely be affirmed, that there have been 
 very few inventions of greater utility, or that have 
 done more to accelerate the progress of improvement. 
 
 It is material, however, to observe, that the intro- 
 duction and use of coined money make no change 
 whatever in the principle on which exchanges were 
 previously conducted. The coinage saves the trouble 
 of weighing and assaying gold and silver, but it does 
 nothing more. It declares the weight and purity of 
 the metal in a coin ; but the v(due of that metal or 
 coin is in all cases determined by precisely the same 
 principles which determine the value of other com- 
 modities, and would be as little affected by being re- 
 coined with a new denomination, as the burden of a 
 ship by a change of her name. Inaccurate notions 
 with respect to the influence of coinage seem to have 
 given rise to the opinion so long entertained, that coins 
 were merely the signs of values ! But it is clear they 
 have no more claim to this designation than bars, of 
 iron or copper, Sacks of wheat, or any other com- 
 modity. They change for other things, because they 
 are desirable articles, and are possessed of real intrin- 
 sic value. A draft, check, or bill may not improperly', 
 perhaps, be regarded as the sign of the money to be 
 given for it. But that money is nothing but a com- 
 modity ; it is not a sign — it is a thing signified. 
 
 Money, however, is not merely the universal equiv- 
 alent, or m&rchandise handle, used by society : it is also 
 the standard used to compare the values of all sorts of 
 products ; and the stipulations in the great bulk of 
 contracts and deeds, as to the delivery and disposal of 
 propertj-, have all reference to, and are commonly ex- 
 pressed in, quantities of money. It is plainly, there- 
 fore, of the utmost importance that its value should be 
 preserved as invariable as possible. Owing, however, 
 to improvements in the arts, the exhaustion of old 
 mines, and the discovery of new ones, the value of the 
 precious metals is necessarily inconstant ; though, 
 if we except the effects produced in the 16th century 
 by the discovery of the American mines, it does not 
 appear to have varied so much at other times as might 
 have been anticipated. Great mischief has, however, 
 been repeatedly occasioned by the changes that have 
 been made in most countries in the weight, and some- 
 times also in the purity, of coins ; and since the impol- 
 icy of these changes has been recognized, similar, and 
 perhaps stiU more extensive, discords have sprung 
 from the improper use of substitutes for coins. It is, 
 indeed, quite obvious, that no change can take place 
 in the value of money without proportionally affecting 
 the pecuniarj- conditions in all contracts and agree- 
 ments. Much, however, of the influence of a change 
 depends on its direction. An increase in the value of 
 mone3' is uniformly more prej udicial, in a public point of 
 view, than its diminution ; the latter, though injurious 
 to individuals, may sometimes be productive of nation- 
 al advantage ; but such can never be the case with the 
 former. See Principles of Political Economy, by Mc- 
 CuLLOOH, 3d ed., pp. 510-615. 
 
 No certain estimate can ever be formed of the quan- 
 tity of money required to conduct the business of any 
 country j this quantity being, in all cases, determine4 
 by the value of money itself, the services it has to per- 
 form, and the devices used for economizing its em- 
 ployment. Generally, however, it is very considerable ; 
 and when it consists wholly of gold and silver, it oc- 
 casions a verj' heavy expense. There can, indeed,, be 
 no doubt that the wish to lessen this expense hasbeen 
 one of the chief causes that have led all Civilized and 
 commercial nations to fabricate a portion of their 
 
MON 
 
 13Y2 
 
 MON 
 
 money of some less valuable material. Of the various 
 substitutes resorted to for this purpose, paper is, in all 
 respects, the most eligible. Its employment seems to 
 have grown naturall}' out of the circumstances inci- 
 dent to an advancing society. When government be- 
 comes sufficiently powerful and intelligent to enforce 
 the observance of contracts, individuals possessed of 
 written promises from others that they will pay certain 
 sums at certain specified periods, begin to assign them 
 to those to whom they are indebted ; and when the 
 subscribers are persons of fortune, and of whose solv- 
 ency no doubt can be entertained, their obligations are 
 readily accepted in payment of debts. But when the 
 circulation of promises or bills in this way has contin- 
 ued for a while, individuals begin to perceive that 
 they may derive a, profit by issuing them in such a 
 form as to fit them for being readilj' used as a substi- 
 tute for money in the ordinary transactions of life. 
 Hence the origin of bank notes. An individual in 
 whose wealth and discretion the public have confi- 
 dence, being applied to for a loan, say $5000, grants 
 the applicant his bill or note, payable on demand, for 
 that sum. Now, as this note passes, in consequence 
 of the confidence placed in the issuer, currently from 
 hand to hand as cash, it is quite as useful to the bor- 
 rower as if it had been gold ; and supposing that the 
 rate of interest is 5 per cent., it will yield, so long as 
 it continues to circulate, a revenue of $250 dollars a 
 year to the issuer. A banker who issues notes, coins, 
 as it were, his credit. He derives the same revenue 
 from the loan of his written promise to pay a certain 
 sum, that he could derive from the loan of the sum 
 itself, or* of an equivalent amount of produce! And 
 while he thus increases his own income, he, at the 
 same time, contributes to increase the wealth of the 
 public. The cheapest species of currency being sub- 
 stituted in the place of that which is most expensive, 
 the superfluous coins are either used in the arts or are 
 exported in exchange for raw materials or manufac- 
 tured goods, by the use of which both wealth and en- 
 joyments are increased. Ever since the introduction 
 of bills, almost all great commercial transactions have 
 been carried on by means of paper only. Notes are 
 also used to a very great extent in the ordinary busi- 
 ness of society; and while they are readibly ex- 
 changeable, at the pleasure of the holder, for coins, or 
 for the precise quantities of gold or silver they profess 
 to represent, their value is maintained on a par with 
 the value of these metals ; and all injurious fluctua- 
 tions in the value of money are as effectuallj'' avoided 
 as if it consisted wholly of the precious metals. 
 
 In common mercantile language, the party who ex- 
 changes money for a commodity is said to buy ; the 
 party who exchanges a commodity for money being 
 said to sell. Price, unless where the contrary is dis- 
 tinctly mentioned, always means the value of a com- 
 modity estimated or rated in money. For a further 
 account of metallic money, see the article Coin. 
 
 See Bankers' Mag., v., 309, 384, ii.< 1, 641 ; Hunt's 
 Mag.^ i., 50 (C. F. Adams); Ed. Rev., x., 284, xiii., 
 35, xxxiii., 568; West. Rev., ix., 99 ; De Bow's Mgv., 
 vi., 243, vii., 501. 
 
 Monopoly. By this term is usually meant a 
 grant by competent authority, conveying to some one 
 individual, or number of individuals, the sole right of 
 buying, selling, making, importing, exporting, etc., 
 some one commodity, or set of commodities. Such 
 grants were very common previously to the accession 
 of the house of Stuart, and were carried to h very 
 oppressive and injurious extent during the reign of 
 Queen Elizabeth. Commercial monopolies reached to 
 such a height in England, that Parliament petitioned 
 against them, and they were in consequence mostly 
 abolished about the close of Elizabeth's reign, 1602. 
 They were further suppressed, as being contrary to 
 law, 19 James I., 1622 ; and were totally abolished, 
 and it was decreed that none should be in future cre- 
 
 ated, as was previously the custom, by royal patent, 
 16 Charles I., 1640. — Anderson's History of Com- 
 merce. The grievance became at length so insupport- 
 able, that, notwithstanding the opposition of govern- 
 ment, which looked upon the power of granting 
 monopolies as a very valuable part of the prerogative, 
 they were abolished by the famous act of 1624. The 
 act of James I. declared that all monopolies, grants, 
 Jletters patent for the sole buying, selling, and making 
 of goods and manufactures, shall be null and void. 
 It excepts patents for 14 j^ears for the sole working or 
 making of any new manufactures within the realm, 
 to the true and first inventors of such manufactures, 
 provided the}- be not contrary to law, nor mischievous 
 to the State. It also excepts grants by act of Parlia- 
 ment to any corporation, company, or society, for the 
 enlargement of trade, and letters patent concerning 
 the making of gunpowder, etc. This act eff'ectuallj' 
 secured the freedom of industry in Great Britain ; and 
 has done more, perhaps, to excite the spirit of inven- 
 tion and industr}-, and to accelerate the progress of 
 wealth, than any other in the statute book. 
 
 Monsoons (from the Malay mussin, season), 
 periodical trade winds, which blow six months in one 
 direction, and the rest of the year in an opposite one. 
 They prevail in the Indian Ocean north of the 10th 
 degree of south latitude. From April to October a 
 violent south-west wind blows, accompanied with 
 rain, and from October to April, a gentle dry north- 
 east breeze prevails. The change of the winds or the 
 breaking up of the monsoons, as it is called, is accom- 
 panied by storms and hurricanes. These periodical 
 currents of winds do not reach very high, as their prog- 
 ress is arrested by mountains of a moderate height. 
 
 Monsoons are, for the most part, formed of trade- 
 winds. "When at stated seasons of the )'ear a trade- 
 wind is deflected in its regular course from one quad- 
 rant to another, or drawn in by overheated districts, 
 it is regarded as a monsoon. Thus the African mon- 
 soons of the Atlantic, the monsoons of the Gulf of 
 Mexico, and the Central American monsoons of the 
 Pacific, are, for the most part, formed of the trade- 
 winds, which are turned back or deflected to restore 
 the equilibrium which the over-heated plains of Af- 
 rica, Utah, Texas, and New Mexico have disturbed. 
 When the monsoons prevail for five months at a time, 
 for it takes about a month for them to change and be- 
 come settled, then both they and the trade-winds, 
 which they replace, are called monsoons. The north- 
 east and the south-west monsoons of the Indian Ocean 
 afford' an example of this kind. A force is exerted 
 upon the north-east trade-winds of that sea by the 
 disturbance which the heat of summer creates in the 
 atmosphere over the interior plains of Asia, which is 
 more than sufficient to neutralize the forces which 
 cause those winds to blow as trade-winds ; it arrests 
 them ; and were it not for the peculiar conditions of 
 the land about that ocean, what are now called the 
 north-east monsoons would blow the year round ; there 
 would be no south-wpst monsoons there ; and the 
 north-east winds, being perpetual, would become, all 
 the year, what in reality for several months they are, 
 viz., north-east trade-winds. 
 
 As long ago as 1831, Dove maintained that the 
 south-west monsoon was the south-east trade-wind 
 rushing forward to fill the vacant places over the 
 northern deserts. Dove admits the proofs of this to 
 be indirect, and acknowledges the difficulty of finding 
 out and demonstrating the problem. — Annalen der 
 Physik, No. 94. Translated by Dr. Rosengarten foi 
 the American Journal of Science, vol. xx., GO. 
 
 The north-east and south-east trade-winds meet, we 
 know, near the equator, where they produce the belt 
 of equatorial calms. All vessels that pass from one 
 system of trade-winds to the other have to cross this 
 calm belt. Sometimes they clear it in a few hours. 
 Sometimes tliey are delayed in it for weeks ; and the 
 
MON 
 
 1373 
 
 MON 
 
 calm is so still and the rain so copious that the fresh 
 water is sometimes found standing in pools on the sea. 
 If it be true, as Dove maintains, that the south-west 
 monsoons of the Indian Ocean are the south-east 
 
 when the force that is calling in and driving the mon- 
 soons from the south-west finally gains the ascendant. 
 They then blow steadily until late in September, when 
 the north-east trade-wind forces begin again to assert 
 
 trade-winds of that sea pressing up toward the desert their ascendency and to renew the conflict on this side 
 
 regions of Asia, then a vessel bound hence to Calcutta, 
 for instiince, and entering the Indian Ocean at the 
 time of the south-west monsoon, should find no belt of 
 equatorial calms there at all, but, on the contrary, she 
 should find the south-east trade-wind to haul more and 
 more to the south, until finally, without having crossed 
 any belt of equatorial calms, she would find her sails 
 trimmed to the south-west monsoon. In like manner, 
 Jansen rpaintains that the north-west monsoon is a 
 similar deflection of the north-east trade-wind. 
 
 The Desert of Gobi and the arid wastes of Asia are 
 the cause of the monsoons of the Indian Ocean. When 
 the sun is north of the equator, the force of his rays, 
 heating down upon these wide and thirsty plains, is 
 sucli as to cause the vast superincumbent body of air 
 to. expand and ascend. Consequently, there is an in- 
 draught of air from the surrounding regions to supply 
 the ascending column. The air that is going to feed 
 the north-east trades is thus ari'ested, drawn in, heated, 
 and caused to ascend; and so, the north-east trade- 
 winds are first wealcened, tlien '* Icilled," and after- 
 ward drawn into the vortex of ascending air over the 
 burning sands of the deserts ; on the other liand, the 
 south-east trade-wind, failing, when it arrives at the 
 place where the equatorial Doldrums were wont to be, 
 to meet with them or any opposing force from the 
 north-east trades, are drawn over into the northern 
 hemisphere. Going now from the equator toward the 
 poles, their tendency is to obey the forces of diurnal 
 rotation, as well as those of the indraught for the 
 heated plains, and thus the south-east trades become 
 south-west monsoons. In this view, the '" equatorial 
 Doldrums" of the Indian Ocean are transferred, as it 
 were, during the south-west monsoons, to the deserts 
 of central Asia. It may be aslted.by some, saying. 
 Since we can not always tally the air, how do we know 
 that these south-west monsoons are the south-east 
 trades of the Indian Ocean ? The replj' is. We infer 
 that they are, because in co-ordinating for the Pilot 
 Chart of that sea we have found no belt of calms be- 
 tween tlie south-east trades and the south-west monsoons^ 
 but a gradual change, so to speak, of the one wind 
 into the other. Thus, confining ourselves to August 
 — one of the south-west-monsoon months — and to the 
 strip of ocean between 85° and 90° east, the investi- 
 gation gives as follows for calms and winds in the 
 field between: 10° S. and 5° S. 133 observations, 
 wind south-east. ■ 5° S. and 102 observations, B calms, 
 wind south. 5° ST. 99 observations, 3 calms, wind 
 south-west. 5° N. and 10° N. 77 observations, wind 
 south-west. These monsoons do not, as we are gen- 
 erally taught to suppose, commence or end at the 
 same time all over the Indian Ocean. In the first 
 field below Calcutta, i. e., between the land and 20° 
 N., the north-east trade-winds, toward the latter part 
 of January, begin their conflict with the south-west 
 monsoons. The conflict rages in February, and by 
 March the south-west monsoons in that " field" are 
 considered to have regularly set in. They now remain 
 the dominant wind for upward of six months, and un- 
 til some time in the early part of September. The 
 north-east monsoons or trades now renew the conflict, 
 which is carried on with more and more vigor until 
 the latter part of November, when they obtain the as- 
 cendenc}', and prevail until the latter part of January, 
 when, as before stated, the south-west monsoons com- 
 mence their annual struggle for the mastery. In the 
 next field below, i. e., between 15° and 20° N. lat., 
 the north-east monsoons begin to grow light and vari- 
 able, and to have conflicts with the south-west in 
 February. The period of this conflict, or change, as 
 it is called, frequently lasts until some time in March, 
 
 through October, by which time the north-east trades 
 or monsoons become the prevailing winds. Thus, hy 
 going 200 or 300 miles further from the supposed 
 place of heat and rarefaction that give rise to this 
 system of winds, the duration of the north-east mon- 
 soons is prolonged nearly a month ; for in this " field" 
 they prevail from November to January inclusive, 
 three months, while the south-west last from about the 
 middle of March to the middle of September, say six 
 months. In the next field below, i. c, between the 
 parallels of 10° and 15° the south-west monsoons 
 blow about five months, perhaps not quite so long ; 
 they do not commence as early, nor blow so late as in 
 the " field" above. They begin the conflict with the 
 north-east trade-wind forces in the latter part of 
 March, and gain the ascendent in May. They then 
 prevail till October, when the north-east trade-wind 
 forces, escaping from the heated plains of the interior, 
 begin to renew the annual combat which is to get 
 them the victory. They soon achieve it, and main- 
 tain the mastery undisputed till the last of March or 
 first of April. — Maury, Phys. Geog. of the Sea. 
 
 Changing of the Monsoons. — Lieutenant Jansen thus 
 describes this phenomenon : "We have seen that the 
 calms, which precede the sea-breeze generally continue 
 longer, and are accompanied with an upward motion 
 of the air ; that, on the contrary, those which precede 
 the land-breeze are, in the Java Sea, generally of 
 shorter duration, accompanied by a heavy atmosphere, 
 and that there is also an evident difference between 
 the conversion of the land-breeze into the sea-breeze, 
 and of the latter into the former. Even as the calms 
 vary, so there appears to be a marked difference be- 
 tween the changing of the monsoons in the spring and 
 in the autumn iu the Java Sea. As soon as the sun 
 has crossed the equator, and its vertical rays begin to 
 play more and more perpendicularly upon the northern 
 hemisphere, the inland plains of Asia, North Africa, 
 and of North America are so heated as to give birth to 
 the south-west monsoons in the China Sea, in the 
 North Indian Ocean, in the North Atlantic, and upon 
 the west coast of Central America ; then the north-west 
 monsoon disappears from the East Indian Archipelago, 
 and gives place to the south-east trade-wind, which is 
 known as the east monsoon, just as the north-west 
 wind, which prevails during the southern summer, is 
 called the west monsoon. This is the only monsoon 
 which is found in the southern hemisphere, while in 
 the northern hemisphere the north-east trade-wind 
 blows in the Chiua Sea and in the Indian Ocean ; in 
 the East Indian Archipelago the west monsoon pre- 
 vails ; and here, when the south-east trade blows as 
 the east monsoon, we find the south-west monsoon in 
 the adjacent seas of the northern hemisphere. Gen- 
 erally the westerly monsoons blow during the summer 
 months of the hemisphere wherein they are found. 
 As the land-breeze daily destroys in miniature the 
 regular flow of the trade-wind, so does the latter the 
 west monsoon in larger measure, and observations will 
 be able to decide whether monthly disturbances do not 
 also take place. In the Java Sea, during the month 
 of February, the west monsoon blows strong almost 
 continually ; in March it blows intermittingly, and 
 with hard squalls ; but in April the squalls become 
 less frequent and less severe. Now the changing 
 commences ; all at once gusts begin to spring up from 
 the east: they are often followed by calms. The 
 clouds which crowd themselves upon the clear sky 
 give warning of the combat in the upper air which 
 the currents there are about to wage with each other," 
 IVEontevideo, a sea-port, and the capital of the 
 Kepublic of Uruguay, on the north bank of the Eio de 
 
MON 
 
 1374 
 
 MON 
 
 la Plata, lat. 34° 54' W S., long. 56° 13' 18'' W. 
 The population, -vvhicli is variously estimated, may 
 probably be about 12,000. The town is built in the 
 form of an amphitheatre, on a regular plan, and is 
 ■well fortified. It has suffered much from the various 
 revolutions to which it has been subject during the 
 last 30 years. Montevideo is situated 2° 3' 33" "W. 
 of Cape St, Mary, the northern limit of the embou- 
 chure of the La Plata. Vessels from the north bound 
 to Montevideo generally make this cape, entering the 
 river between it and the small island of Lobos, in from 
 14 to 17 fathoms. The course is thence nearly west 
 to the Isle of Flores, on which is a lighf^house 112 feet 
 above the level of the sea, with a revolving light. 
 From Flores to Montevideo is 16 miles in a direct line, 
 and the course west by south by compass. A light- 
 house, 475 feet above the level of the sea, has been 
 erected on the summit of the Montevideo, whence the 
 town has its name. The latter is built on a projecting 
 tongue of land, the port being on its south side. This, 
 which is the best on the La Plata, is a large circular 
 
 basin, open to the south-west. Generally the water is 
 shallow, not exceeding from 14 to 19 feet ; but the 
 bottom being soft mud, vessels are seldom damaged by 
 grounding. It should, however, be observed that the 
 depth of water in the harbor, as well as throughout 
 the whole of the Rio de la Plata, depends very much on 
 the direction and strength of the winds. The south- 
 west wind, called pamperos, blows right into the Bay 
 of Montevideo with much force, not unfrequently 
 causing a rise of a fathom or more in the depth of 
 water ! But it rarely occasions much damage to ves- 
 sels properly moored with anchors to the south-west, 
 south-east, and one to the north. (Blumt's Amenca7i 
 Pilot, edit. 1867 ; Coulier sur les Phares, etc.) Mon- 
 tevideo has a considerable commerce. The great 
 articles of export consist of animal products, or of 
 hides, beef, tallow, hair, bones, grease, wool, etc. 
 The imports principally consist of British cottons, 
 woolens, and hardware, flour, wine and spirits, linens, 
 sugar, tobacco, boots and shoes, salt, etc. The follow- 
 table shows the exports from these ports for five }'"ears : 
 
 Account op siindky 
 
 Exports from Buenos 
 
 Ayres and Montevideo 
 
 IN THE FOLLOWING TeaRS. 
 
 v..„™ 1 1'ty "^id Baited 
 
 Horse hides. 
 
 Horse hiiir. 
 
 Wool. 
 
 Sheep skins. 
 
 Niilrhi skins. 
 
 Tallow and 
 
 Horns, 
 
 1888 
 
 No. 
 1,218,101 
 1,262,463 
 1,818,827 
 8,652,983 
 2,980,040 
 
 No. 
 
 64,596 
 
 49,798 
 
 48,804 
 
 177,508 
 
 140,865 
 
 Arroba.<. 
 80,536 
 49,832 
 61,101 
 177,095 
 115,811 
 
 Arrobua. 
 
 199,059 
 
 72,062 
 
 96,611 
 
 959,067 
 
 616,798 
 
 Dozens. 
 58,965 
 16,804 
 10,881 
 211,694 
 102,424 
 
 Dozens. 
 
 71,745 
 21,839 
 12,540 
 97,904 
 97,623 • 
 
 Arrobas. 
 314,288 
 407,892 
 878,474 
 1,222,086 
 611,735 
 
 No. 
 1,080,000 
 1,199,000 
 1,142,086 
 2,687,972 
 2,18.3,919 
 
 1889 
 
 1840 
 
 1841 
 
 1342 
 
 Duties on Imports^ in National or Foreign Vessels^ at 
 Montivideo. — 1. Machinery, agricultural implements, 
 instruments used in the arts and sciences, books, 
 prints, and maps, free. 2. Silk, raw and wrought, 
 laces, blonde, gold and silver embroidery, watches, 
 jewelry, saltpetre, plaster of Paris, coal, timber, cot- 
 ton fringe, and wooden hoops, 5 per cent. 3. Powder, 
 pitch, tar, rosin, and naval stores, 13 per cent. 4. All 
 raw materials, and manufactured articles, not included 
 in the preceding enumeration, 15 per cent. 5. Sugar, 
 Paraguay and China teas, cocoa, cassia lignea, and 
 cinnamon, spices, drugs, and provisions in general, 20 
 per cent. 6. Furniture, pictures, looking-glasses, 
 musical instruments, all sorts of carriages, carts, etc., 
 and harness, saddles, horses' furniture (excepting 
 horse cloths of the manufacture of the adjacent prov- 
 inces, which pay 15 per cent.), ready-made clothes, 
 boots and shoes, liqueurs, brandy, wine, vinegar, ale 
 and porter, cider, tobacco, and soap, 25 per cent. Salt, 
 2 reals the fanego, say lid. per 290 pounds. 7. Hides 
 of all classes, hair, horns, tallow, silver and gold, in 
 bullion or coin, free. A small charge is made for 
 warehousing and porterage on passing through the 
 custom-house. Goods may be bonded for an indefi- 
 nite period, during which time they are subject to a 
 moderate warehouse rent. Foreign flour pays as fol- 
 lows : $8 per barrel, when wheat is worth $2 to $3 
 per fanega, about 224 pounds; $6 per barrel, when 
 wheat is worth $3 to $5 ; $4, when wheat is worth ©5 
 to $7 ; $2, when wheat is worth $7 to $9 ; $1, when 
 wheat exceeds $9. Wheat: ^3 per fanega, when 
 wheat is worth $2 to ^3 per fanega ; $2, when wheat 
 is worth $3 to f G ; $1, when wheat is worth $6 to 
 $10; nothing, when wheat is worth above $10 per 
 fanega ; goods transhipped, or shipped out of bond, 
 pay 2 per cent. Foreign goods, shipped in vessels of 
 less than 150 tons burden, for ports of the Uruguay 
 and Paraguay, pay only 1 per cent. 8. All goods 
 imported, paying duties, are subject to pay an ad- 
 ditional 1 per cent, to the consulado ; J per cent, to 
 the hospital ; and for the extinction of copper money, 
 1 per cent additional on all goods that pay 6 per 
 cent. (This has, much to the honor of the author- 
 ities and people, been already accomplished ; but the 
 duty is maintained for general purposes.) On all 
 goods that pay 13, 15, and 20 per cent., 3 per cent. 
 On all goods that pay 25 per cent., 5 per cent. On 
 flour, 10 per cent. On wheat, 3 per cent. 
 
 Duties on Exports^ in National or Foreign Vessels. — 
 Ox and cow hides, 2 reals, 25 centesimos, for recon- 
 nidor valuations of ©1, and 1 per cent, consulado. 
 Horse hides, 1 real for reconnidor, on valuations of 5 
 reals for reconnidor each, and 1 per cent, consulado. 
 All other produce of the country pays 4 per cent, on 
 the market value, and 1 per cent, consulado. Jerked 
 and salt beef, pork, etc. ; also all foreign goods that 
 have paid the import duty, free. Gold and silver, 
 coined or in bullion, 1 per cent. 
 
 Port Charges.— TonntLgQ from beyond sea, foreign 
 vessels, 3 reals ; national vessels, 2 reals. During 
 loading and unloading, both classes pay $1 per day. 
 Pratique, with pilot, foreign vessels, $8 ; national ves- 
 sels, $4. Boat, with pilot, foreign vessels, $2 ; na- 
 tional vessels, $2. Without pilot, foreign vessels, $4 ; 
 national vessels, $2. National and foreign vessels 
 that neither discharge nor load cargo, and that do not 
 remain more than six days, pay nothing ; those that 
 remain in the harbor more than six days pay one third 
 of the above tonnage dues. National vessels, and 
 vessels belonging to the provinces of Buenos Ayres, 
 employed within the River Platte, called coasting, pay 
 for a license for each voyage, if 3 to 7 tons, 4 reals ; 8 
 to 15 tons, 10 reals, or $1 02 ; 16 to 30 tons, 18 reals, 
 or $2 02 ; 31 to 45 tons, 26 reals, or $3 02 ; 46 to 60 
 tons, 30 reals, or $3 06 ; 61 to 80 tons, 38 reals, or 
 $4 06 ; 81 to 100 tons, 46 reals, or $5 06 ; 101 and 
 above, 54 reals, or $6 06. 
 
 Hospital Dues, — National and foreign vessels, sailing 
 for a foreign port beyond sea or in the Eiver Platte, 
 pay $2 for the vessel, 4 reals for the captain, 2 reals 
 for each seaman, $1 for each passenger. 
 
 Pilotage from Montevideo to Buenos Ayres to be 
 paid in Montevideo. If the draught of water do not 
 exceed 9 feet, Burgos measure, $50 ; 9 to 10 feet, .560 ; 
 10 to 11 feet, $70 ; 11 to 12 feet, $80 ; 12 to 13 feet, 
 $100 ; 13 to 14 feet, $120 ; 14 to 16 feet, $140 ; 15 to 
 16 feet, $160 ; 16 to 17 feet, $190 ; 17 to 18 feet, $220. 
 
 Moneys^ Weights^ and Measures. — Paper money there 
 is none. Current money, the Brazilian patacon and 
 Spanish dollar; they pass for 960 centesimos. 100 
 cents make a real ; 800 cents, or 8 reals, make a dol- 
 lar ; 960 cents, or 9 reals 60 cents, make IJ current 
 dollar, or 1 hard doUar or patacon. Weights and 
 measures same as those of Spain; for which, see 
 Cadiz. 
 
 As regards the commerce of the United States with 
 
MON 
 
 137S 
 
 MON 
 
 Montevideo, we find it has much diminished of late 
 years, which may be attributed to the late civil war of 
 nine years' duration. The interior of the country, 
 which formerly abounded in homed cattle, is now 
 without a sufficiency to supply the " Estanciaa" for 
 breeding those useful animals, millions of them having 
 been destroyed for their hides alone in the course of 
 the war before mentioned, by the troops of Generals 
 Eozas and Oribe ; and the consequence is, that little 
 or no produce comes in from the countrj'. Vessels 
 from the United States with thgir outward cargoes 
 proceed onward to Buenos Ayres, where they find 
 return cargoes, which are easily obtained. Capitalists 
 of late have turned their attention to agriculture, par- 
 ticularly to the cultivation of wheat and Indian com, 
 which flourish here in a high degree ; and in the course 
 of a few years this country will, probably, be enabled 
 to supply Brazil with the article of flour in abundance, 
 in exchange for coffee, sugar, tobacco, etc, articles of 
 vast consumption. Tliere is a fine opening here for a 
 steam mill, for the grinding of wheat and com, none 
 as yet (September, 1854) having been introduced into 
 this country, and it is worthy the attention of some of 
 the enterprising citizens of the United States. Wind, 
 and horse power for mills, are the only means used at 
 present throughout the country ; and although its 
 streams of water are innumerable, that power has not 
 been brought into action. The manufactures consist 
 chieflj' of soap, tallow candles, chocolate, and leather, 
 the latter of very inferior quality, which may be at- 
 tributed to the species of baric used in tanning. Steam 
 navigation on the Rio de la Plata, and its tributaries, 
 is gradually increasing. There are two steamers run- 
 ning regularly between this city and Buenos Ayres, 
 and others to the Parana and Uruguay Rivers, carry- 
 ing freight and passengers ; however, it may be con- 
 sidered as yet in its infancy. The very high price of 
 fuel is a serious obstacle to steam navigation in this 
 quarter, as no coal mines are found here, and the coal 
 used comes from England and the United States, at a 
 very dear rate, and, in consequence, the steamers have 
 not realized so profitable a business as was anticipated. 
 
 Port Charges on Foreign Vessels at the Rate of 800 
 Reis to the Montevidean Dollar. — ^PUotage inward, f 10 j 
 mooring, $4 ; tonnage duty, 300 reis per ton (say on 
 150, if not more), $43 06 ; free of entry, if to discharge, 
 $8 ; stamps for ditto, $12 ; custom-house officer $1 per 
 day while discharging and loading, say for 30 days, 
 $30; stamps, in case of loading, and on being dis- 
 patched, $25 04 ; hospital fees, from $4 to $6, accord- 
 ing to the number of hands on board the vessel, $5 ; 
 pilot to Franquia, $4 ; bill of health, $4 04 ; escribano's 
 fees, if for balance of cargo, $8, or if the vessel lade 
 here, $12. Spanish 127 to 1000 reis, or $158 06 at 
 800 reis. Vessels are allowed to lay 12 days from ar- 
 rival without entering at the custom-house, and may 
 land samples, so as to dispose of a part or the whole of 
 their cargoes. 
 
 Montreal, a citj' and river port of entrj-, Canada 
 East, and the largest and most populous city and chief 
 seat of commerce of British America. Situated on 
 the left banlc of the St. Lawrence, 142 miles in a direct 
 line south-west of Quebec. Lat. 45° 30' north, long. 
 73° 25' west. Population, 1840, 27,297; in 1852, 
 57,716 ; 1854, 65,000. The site is not so commanding 
 as that of Quebec, but it is in everj' other respect su- 
 perior to that city. The position of Montreal, at the 
 head of the ship navigation of the St. Lawrence, and 
 near its confluence with the Ottawa, as well as its sit- 
 uation with respect to the city of New Yorls, necessa- 
 rily makes it one of the greatest emporiums of Can- 
 ada. The harbor, though not large, is secure,and ves- 
 sels drawing 15 feet water, may lie close to the shore. 
 Its general depth is from 3 to 4| fathoms. Its chief 
 disadvantage consists in the rapid St. Mary, about one 
 mile below the city wharves, which vessels often find 
 it difficult to stem, without the aid of steam-tugs. To 
 
 obviate the obstructions in the navigation above Mon- 
 treal, the Lachine Canal, 9 miles long, 20 feet wide, 
 and 5 feet deep, was undertalsen in 1821, and completed 
 at an expense of £130,000. The communication with 
 the opposite side of tlie river is carried on by several 
 steam and other vessels ; and during the summer a 
 regular steamboat communication is kept up with Que- 
 bec. At this season vast rafts of timber come down 
 and pass the city of Quebec ; and scows, batteaux of 
 about six tons, and Durham boats bring to Montreal 
 the produce of Upper Canada. Neither is the trade of 
 Montreal suspended in winter, like that of Quebec. 
 Numerous sledges may be seen coming in from all di- 
 rections with agricultural produce, frozen carcases of 
 beef and pork, firewood and other articles. Montreal 
 is the centre of the commerce between Canada and the 
 United States, carried on by Lake Champlain and the 
 Hudson, and not only is it the depot of all the adja- 
 cent country, but most of the business done in Quebec 
 is carried on by branches from the Montreal houses. 
 See Exports of Canada, p. 853. The imports in 1853, 
 amounted to £3,603,696, and the net amount of duties, 
 £447,089. In the same year, 4885 vessels entered the 
 port, of 491,928 tons burden. The wharves of this citj- 
 are constructed in a manner unequaled upon this con- 
 tinent ; the entire line of which is over two miles in 
 length, and considerable additions (to meet the rapidly 
 increasing trade of the city) will be speedily com- 
 menced. The Lachine Canal, with its locks and ba- 
 sins, is another of those public works of whicli the 
 city may well be proud. The Champlain and St. 
 Lawrence Railroad, commences at Brewsterville, op- 
 posite the city and connects with the lines to New 
 York and Boston, at Rouse's Point, a distance of 43 
 miles. This road is now completed and the cars run 
 daily. The Lachine Railroad connects the city, by a 
 line of road 9 miles in length, with the village of that 
 name. The continuation of this road from Caughna/- 
 waga till it connects with the Ogdensburg Road at 
 Moers, is now complete, and the whole line is known 
 as the Montreal and New York Railroad. The St. 
 Lawrence and Atlantic Railroad, connecting Montreal 
 with the city of Portland, a distance of 292 mUes, is 
 now complete. A line from Quebec to Melbourne, a 
 distance of 100 miles, is also in course of construction, 
 and will be completed in 1854. The Grand Trunk 
 Railroad to connect Montreal with Kingston, Toronto, 
 etc., is now in course of construction. The entire 
 length of the road from Trois Pistoles to Sarnia, will 
 be 1112 miles, and it will probably be completed in 
 1856. The Montreal and Bytown Railroad will pass 
 through a fine district of country', and is in progress 
 of construction. The length will be about 121 miles, 
 and will be opened in 1856. The Victoria Bridge. — 
 This splendid and useful structure is to cross the St. 
 Lawrence from Point St. Charles to the south shore, 
 a total length of 9437 feet, or somewhat over a mile 
 and three quarters. It is to be built on the tubular 
 principle, and will have a track for railroad cars in the 
 centre, while on the outside of the tube there will be 
 a balcony on each side, with a foot path for passengers. 
 The bridge will rest on 24 piers and two abutments of 
 limestone masonry, the centre span being 330 feet 
 long, and 60 feet high from summer water level. The 
 iron used in its construction will be the best boiler 
 plate T iron, and the total cost of the work is to be 
 £1,500,000 sterling, or $7,500,000. Formerly this city 
 was the head-quarters of the fur-trade, but its interest 
 in it has greatly declined. It has establishments for 
 the manufacture of cotton goods, India rubber, steam 
 engines, railroad cars, axes, etc., cast iron founderies, 
 distilleries, breweries, soap, candle, and tobacco manu- 
 factories, several ship-building establishments, etc. ; 
 various articles of hardware, linseed oil, floor-cloth, 
 etc., are made in the city. The markets are abund- 
 antly supplied with flesh, fish, poultry, fruit, veget- 
 ables, etc. About three fourths of the population are 
 
MON 
 
 IS16 
 
 MON 
 
 of French descent, the remainder consisting prin- 
 cipally of emigrants from Great Britain. 
 
 A letter from the United States' Consul at Mon- 
 treal, dated October 9, 1855, remarks :— " Since my 
 last communication, the only material alteration be- 
 tween the trade of the two countries has been the rat- 
 ification and adoption of the reciprocity treaty, which 
 has proved, so far, at least, as has come under mj- ob- 
 servation, highly satisfactory to the provincial govern- 
 ment, and to the people of Canada at large ; and there 
 is every appearance of its increasing in usefulness, to 
 this countrj' at least. It is, if I may be allowed to 
 use the expression, commercially speaking, tanta- 
 mount to annexation ; while its beneficial effects have 
 shown themselves in the increased value of farms and 
 landed estates on this side of the line, and I am in- 
 duced to believe, by careful observation, that there 
 has been a corresponding advantage received by the 
 
 United States, particularly the larger sea-port towns. 
 This treaty has been instrumental in doing much for 
 the advantage of the canying trade, by conveying the 
 products of this province over the railroads and canals 
 of the Union, thereby placing Canada and the lower 
 provinces, so far as their trade is concerned, in the 
 position of one of the States of the Union. There has 
 been, since my last communication, hitherto alluded 
 to, but one enactment on the part of the Canadian 
 government in relation to the trade between the Unit- 
 ed States and Canada, which was to the effect that the 
 governor in council had abolished the duty levied up- 
 on the original packages, containing products of the 
 United States imported into this province, under the 
 provisions of the reciprocity treaty." 
 
 The following figures will show the comparative 
 importance of the trade of the principal cities of 
 Canada : 
 
 CITIES. 
 
 IMPORTS. 
 
 
 EXPORTS. 
 
 
 DUTIES COLLECTED. 1 
 
 1863. 
 
 18.M. 
 
 1855. 
 
 1863. 
 
 1854. 
 
 1855. 
 
 1853. 
 
 1854. 1 1855. 1 
 
 Quebec 
 
 Montreal . . 
 Toronto 
 
 £1,141,595 
 3,881,640 
 1,165,056 
 
 £1,754,820 
 8,816,082 
 1,862,706 
 
 £782,656 
 8,061,061 
 1,401,454 
 
 £2,248,468 
 
 1,888,728 
 
 221,490 
 
 £2,611,767 
 572,514 
 278,040 
 
 £1,558,702 
 476,650 
 404,105 
 
 £128,454 
 449,102 
 156,083 
 
 £179,189 
 478,608 
 172,576 
 
 £74,807 
 310,219 
 162,686 
 
 The St. Lawrence, however, with all its acknowl- 
 edged capacity, is not without its drawbacks. Fore- 
 most was the long winter, which sealed its waters 
 during six months of the year ; and next may be 
 classed the dangers of a navigation of 700 miles be- 
 tween Belle Isle and Quebec. There were other cir- 
 cumstances which threatened that commercial pros- 
 perity which once appeared to be the undoubted ap- 
 panage of the most convenient port of this large river 
 ■ — using the term "most convenient" in reference to 
 hreadstuffs, the chief produce of the West, and to manu- 
 factured goods, the chief article in demand by the West. 
 The principal of these was the discovery that the most 
 fertile lands lay beyond the barrier formed by Niagara. 
 Hence, the population which would otherwise, in the 
 natural order, have filled up the nearest land first, was 
 tempted to the shores of Lake Erie and the country 
 Ij-ing between that lake and the head waters of the Mis- 
 sissippi. It has been in this region that the great em- 
 igrant population has chiefly established itself, leaving 
 the less fruitful shores of the St. Lawrence and Lake 
 Ontario comparatively bare of inhabitants. 
 
 Imports to the Port of Montreal. — In 18i5, £2,614,- 
 911 ; 1846, £2,303,908 ; 1855, £3,093,145 ; 1856, £3,- 
 993,000. The export trade generallj' has received a 
 great impetus during the past J'ear, owing in part, no 
 doubt, to the establishment of the ocean steam line. 
 The exports from Montreal for the first three quarters 
 of the year 1855 were but £333,610 ; for the year 1856 
 they have amounted to £716,475, or more than double. 
 
 The population of the city is steadily increasing, and 
 it is believed that at no former period was its trade and 
 general business on a more healthy footing. In 1800, 
 the population was 9O0O ; 1816, 16,000 ; 1825, 22,000 ; 
 1831, 27,297; 1851, 57,715; 1856, 75,000, at a very 
 moderate estimate. 
 
 Begulcdionsin JJ'orae.— Merchandise shall not be un- 
 laden in Canadian ports except after due entrj', at 
 places designated for that purpose, under penalty of 
 forfeiture. Merchandise shall not be imported except 
 into some port at which a custom-house is established, 
 under penalty of forfeiture of vessel and goods, if under 
 the value of $1000 ; if above that sum, they shall be 
 retained as security for the payment of that amount, 
 
 Banks connected with Montreal. — Montreal being a 
 large commercial centre, tlie banking facilities afforded 
 to the business community are on an extended scale. 
 The banks of Canada have been, on the whole, pru- 
 dently and judiciously managed, and have proved re- 
 munerative to the shareholders, while there has ye,t 
 been no instance of the stoppage of a Canadian bank. 
 The names and capital of the banks carrying on their 
 business in Montreal are here given, selected from the 
 official statement, with a statement of whether the 
 oflSce be a head office or agenc}'. These banks all, 
 with one exception, transact business under Canadian 
 charters, and their stockholders are liable in double 
 the amount of their shares. The bank of British North 
 America holds a royal charter, the head office being in 
 London, but the principal colonial office is in Montreal. 
 Banks acting under Chakter. — 1866. 
 
 Name of Bank. Cnpitnl sulhorked Cajilal 
 
 by act, paid up. 
 
 City B'k of Montreal, principal office. $1,200,000 $1,047,000 
 
 Bank of Montreal, principal office ... 6,000,000 6,278,000 
 
 Commercial Bank of Canada, agency. 4,000,000 2,970,000 
 
 Bank of Upper Canada, agency 4,000,000 2,698,000 
 
 Banque du Peuple, principal office. . . 800,000 795,000 
 
 Molson's Bank, principal office 1,000,000 324,000 
 
 Bank of British North America 6,000,000 6,000,000 
 
 A Comparative Statement of the principal Articles 
 IMPORTED into Canada duri.ng the eleven Months 
 ENDED Dece.mber ISth, 1865 AND 1856. 
 
 Goods paying specific duty. £1,835,910 
 
 " " 20 per cent 67,451 
 
 12} and 16 per cent 6,228,683 
 
 " " 2i to 6 per cent 719,159 
 
 Free goods 2,997,941 
 
 Total £10,896,096 
 
 The countries from which these imports came : 
 
 Great Britain £4,653,288 
 
 British North America. 263,143 
 
 BritlBb West Indies 4,403 
 
 United States 5,676,127 
 
 Other foreign countries 404,1 S3 
 
 The total amount of duty collected during the year 
 1856 was £1,127,220. 
 
 The following is a comparative statement of imports, 
 exhibiting in contrast the value of, and amounts of 
 duties collected on, goods entered for consumption in 
 Canada during the years 1863, 1854, 1855, and 1856. 
 
 Whenco imported. 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 N. Amor. Colonies. 
 
 West Indies 
 
 United States 
 
 0th. for, countries. 
 Total 
 
 1852. 
 
 Va 
 
 1864. 
 
 ue. 
 
 1856. 
 
 1866. 
 
 1853. 
 
 Du 
 1851, 
 
 ly. 
 
 1855. 
 
 186S. 
 
 £4,622,280 
 
 158,164 
 
 869 
 
 2,945,536 
 
 268,507 
 
 £5,740,832 
 
 163,778 
 
 668 
 
 8,888,274 
 
 838,777 
 
 £3,825,866 
 
 216,496 
 
 3,633 
 
 5,207,169 
 
 268,477 
 
 £4,663,283 
 
 258,143 
 
 4,403 
 
 6,676,127 
 
 404,183 
 
 ■ £1,028,670 
 
 £1,224,751 
 
 £381,445 
 
 £1,127,220 
 
 £7,99.6,859 
 
 £10,182,881 
 
 £9,021,.542 1 £10,896,096 
 
 £1,028,676 £1,224,761 
 
 £881,445 
 
 £1,127,220 
 
MOR 
 
 1S11 
 
 MOR 
 
 The following is a comparative statement of exports 
 from the province of Canada for three years : 
 
 1 ISM. 1855. 
 
 1866. 
 
 Produce of the mine 
 
 " " sea 
 
 " forest 
 
 Animals and their product^ 
 
 ^ricultural products 
 
 Manufactures 
 
 Other articles 
 
 £74,780 
 
 87,427 
 
 2,496,341 
 
 208,818 
 
 1,829,040 
 
 64,160 
 
 11,246 
 
 £31,458 
 
 114,980 
 1,986,980 
 
 398,796 
 8,267,599 
 
 119,019 
 17,140 
 
 £41,411 
 114,086 
 2,60070 
 641,014 
 8,743,068 
 98,407 
 10,799 
 
 Total value of exports. 
 
 Talue of ships built at 1 
 
 Quebec j 
 
 Estimated amount of ex- 
 ports, short returned at ]■ 
 inland ports 
 
 £4,760,264 
 562,062 
 
 442,470 
 
 £5,926,976 
 
 804,886 
 
 816,268 
 
 £7,148,749 
 808,269 
 
 628,725 
 
 Grand total of exports . 
 
 £5,764,7971 £7,047,116 
 
 £8,011,764 
 
 The following is a compatativft statement of the 
 value of imports and exports of Canada during the 
 years 1855 and 1856 : 
 
 Exports. Imports. Total. 
 
 1885 £7,047,115 £9,021,542 £16;068,65T 
 
 1866 8,011,754' 10,896,096 18,907(861 
 
 Increase of the commerce of 
 1866 over 1866 £2,889,198 or 17-67 per ct. 
 
 The nett comparative revenue from custom duties 
 for the past five years, after deducting cost of collec- 
 tion, return duties, and balances, is as follows : 
 
 1862, £706,814 
 
 1858 986,597 
 
 1864 1,168,018' 
 
 1856 £818,819 
 
 1866 1,028,905 
 
 The following is a statement of the tonnage inward 
 and outward, showing the amount of coasting and 
 ferriage on Canadian inland waters, and the inter- 
 course by inland navigation between Canada and the 
 United States during the year 1856 : 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Totaloutward 6,046,888 
 
 " inward 6,199,829 
 
 Total 12,246,667 
 
 The following is a subdivision of this grand total : 
 
 Canadian steam... 6,287,897 11 Amcrtean steam. . . 4,768,826 
 " sail 880,726 II " sail 846,218 
 
 The following tables exhtlrft the number of vessels 
 entered outward for sea, their tonnage, number of men 
 employed, and the countries whence they came, during 
 the year 1856, and the two preceding years : 
 
 Ysors. 
 
 Totnls. 
 
 Great Britain. | Britisb colonies. 
 
 United States. 
 
 Other foreign countries. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Men. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Number, | Tom. 
 
 1856 
 
 1855 
 
 1854 
 
 1,632 
 1,219 
 
 2,018 
 
 678,648 
 
 461,241 
 
 , ,781,W5 
 
 19,880 
 15,814 
 26,286 
 
 1,004 
 
 760 
 
 1,587 
 
 586,808 
 412,782 
 787,768 
 
 480 
 888 
 487 
 
 28,628 
 27,645 
 87,778 
 
 37 
 24 
 
 18 
 
 8,678 
 8,000 
 1,401 
 
 41 
 50 
 29 
 
 6,147 
 7,914 
 4,808 
 
 The following is the statement of tlie same inward: 
 
 ' Years. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Great Britain. Britlsli colonies. 
 
 United States. 
 
 Other forelg-n cowntrleB.I 
 
 Number, j Tons. Mm. 
 
 Number, j Tons. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 1866 
 
 1866. 
 
 1854..... 
 
 1,494 650,678 
 1,168 419,653, 
 1,890 705,842 
 
 18,976 
 14,262 
 24,401 
 
 641 
 
 528 
 1,051 
 
 358,626 
 279,986 
 501,488 
 
 608 
 424 
 499 
 
 47,196 
 60,730 
 58,828 
 
 71 
 80 
 188 
 
 82,849 
 38,706 
 86,401 
 
 247 
 
 141 
 207 
 
 112;022 
 50431 
 64^28 
 
 The number of steamers built in Canada in 1856 
 was 22 ; their tonnage 3755. Sail vessels 26 ; their 
 tonnage 41,584. Total number of vessels built 148 ; 
 their tonnage 45,339. 
 
 Summary/ of the Regulations in force at tke different 
 Ports in Canada, — Merchandise shall not be unladen, 
 except after due entrj-; at places designated for that 
 purpose, under penalty of forfeiture. Merchandise 
 shall not be brought or imported into the province, 
 whether by sea, land, coastwise, or by inland naviga- 
 tion, whether dutiable or not, except into some port or 
 place at which a custom-house is or may be established, 
 under penalty of forfeiture of vessel and goods, if 
 under the value of $1000 ; if above that sum, then 
 
 the vessel and goods shall be retained as security for 
 the payment of that amount. This applies, mutatis 
 mutandis, to goods brought into the province, by land, 
 in carriages or other vehicles. Other regulations 
 have reference, principally, to frontier smuggling, 
 and to the duties and powers of the officers charged 
 with its prevention. They convey no general com- 
 mercial information, and are, therefore, omitted. Most 
 of the articles on which a discrimination in favor of 
 importations from Great Britain exists, are embraced 
 in the third article ("schedule") of the Eeciprocity 
 Treaty. The foregoing regulations, etc., apply, with 
 some slight modifications, to all the other colonial pos- 
 sessions of Great Britain in North America. 
 
 Commerce of the TjNrrED States with Canada, prom July 1, 1848, to July 1, 1856. 
 
 Years ending 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Wliereof there was la Bullion 
 and Specie. 
 
 Tonnage Cleared. . 
 
 ComoBt^, 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Exported. 
 
 Imported. 
 
 American. 
 
 Eoroign.. 
 
 June 30, 1849 
 
 1850 
 
 Total.... 
 
 1881 
 
 June 80, 1862 
 
 1S88 
 
 1864 
 
 1855 
 
 18.56........ 
 
 $2,820,827 
 4,641,451 
 
 $1,914,401 
 1,289,870 
 
 $4,284,728 
 6,980,821 
 
 $1,481,082 
 4,288,470 
 
 $181,500. 
 
 $417,880 
 420,369 
 
 890,204 
 919,515 
 
 563,910 
 456,627 
 
 $6,961,778 
 
 $6,886,884 
 4,004,968 
 4,006,812 
 
 10.610,873 
 9,980,764 
 
 16,194,788 
 
 $8,208,771 
 
 $2,098,806 
 2,712,097 
 3,828,887 
 6,790,3-33 
 8,769,680 
 5,688,463 
 
 $10,166,649 
 
 $7,929,140 
 6,717,064 
 ,,,7,829,099 
 : 17,800,706 
 18,720,344 
 20,888,241 
 
 $8,766,662 
 
 $4,986,471 
 
 4,889,969 
 
 6,278,116 
 
 6,721,689 
 
 12,182,814 
 
 17,488,197 
 
 $131,600 
 
 $284,801 
 166,850 
 617,009 
 444,477 
 
 $848,749 
 
 $1,868,727 
 588,959 
 964,219 
 75,000 
 
 1,809,719. 
 
 • 927,01-3 
 768,945 
 
 1,062,086 
 880,941 
 890i017 
 
 1,113,784 
 
 1,020,437 
 
 516,883 
 689,846 
 784,029 
 648,239 
 908,502 
 1,212,698 
 
 Moor, in navigiition, signifies generally to fix a 
 vessel by two anchors in nearly opposite directions, so 
 that she rides by either in certain winds, or partly by 
 both in other winds. Also, to secure a vessel to 
 weights or chains, sunk in harbors for the purpose. 
 These weights are called mooring bioc&s, and the whole 
 apparatus, moorings. 
 
 Morocco, or Maroquin (Ger. Saffiam ; Fr. Ma- 
 roquin; It. Marrocehino ; Sp. Marroqui ; Bus. 5a/fa»), 
 a fine kind of leather prepared of the skins of goats, 
 imported from the Levant, Barbaiy, Spain, Flanders, 
 etc. It is red, black, green, yellow, etc. It is ex- 
 tensively used in the binding of books. See Leather. 
 4S 
 
 Morocco. In Africa generally, barbarism, with 
 all its atteadant evils — ignorance, superstition, and 
 cruelty — still characterize not only the several govern- 
 ments, but most of the countries of Africa, if we 
 except Egypt, the European settlements, and the 
 republic of Liberia. Balbi, the distinguished Vene- 
 tian geographer, in his great work, Balance Politique 
 du Glohe, remarks ; " The title of African statistics 
 maybe rejected as absurd;" and, hence, he persisted 
 for a long time in liis determination of excluding Af- 
 rica, Oceanica, and the greater part of Asia, from cob- 
 sideration. Since Balbi composed his work, however, 
 civilization has made encouraging progress ia soma 
 
MOR 
 
 1S78 
 
 MOR 
 
 portions of western Africa. Point Gallenas has been 
 brought within the limits, and under the humanizing 
 influences, of a young, vigoroiis, and Christian repub- 
 lic. Where the slave factories once stood, pulpits are 
 now erected ; and savage tribes, and barbarous chiefs, 
 instead of warring with each other for human plunder, 
 have cast away the implements of carnage, and now 
 seek a common protection in the plow and the gospel. 
 Geographically, Macgregor divides Africa into seven 
 great regions ; 
 
 1st. The region of the Nile, under which may be 
 comprised Egypt, Nubia, and Kardafan. 2d. The re- 
 gion of the north, situated between the Mediterranean 
 and the great desert of Sahara, and extending from 
 Egypt west to the Atlantic, generally known as the 
 States of Barbarj' — namely, Morocco, Tunis, and Tri- 
 poli. The soil and climate of this region are eminently 
 favorable to the culture and growth of the choicest 
 productions. 3d. The third region comprehends the 
 vast desert of Sahara, west from Fezzan and Darfour 
 to the Atlantic, and south from the Barbary States to 
 Senegambia, Soudan, and Bornou. 4th. The fourth 
 region comprehends Nigritia, or western Africa, ex- 
 tending from the south boundary of the western des- 
 ert to the south boundary of Benguela, in about lati- 
 tude 16° south, including the republic of Liberia. 
 5th. The fifth region comprehends the Cape of Good 
 Hope colony ; the country of the CaflFres and Hotten- 
 tots ; and the extensive dry desert coast north of the 
 Hottentot countr}', to Benguela, and the great un- 
 known southern desert. 6th. The sixth region, or 
 eastern Africa, extending along the sea-coast, and to 
 an unknown inland limit, from Delagoa Bay, in lati- 
 tude 26° south, to the frontiers of Abyssinia. 7th. 
 The seventh region comprehends the States of Abys- 
 sinia and Somaula, extending from Cape Ras-asser, or 
 Guardafo, to Zeylah, and along the Red Sea to the 
 territories of the Pacha of Egypt. 
 
 Of the seven divisions thus givm by Macgregor, 
 the 1st, 4th, 5th, and 6th, only, possess any commer- 
 cial importance: the first, comprising the Barbary 
 States ; the fourth, the republic of Liberia ; the fifth, 
 the colony of Good Hope (some account of which will 
 be found in the Digest of British Colonial Posses- 
 sions) ; and the sixth, the African possessions of the 
 Sultan of Muscat, including the Island of Zanzi- 
 bar. 
 
 Barbary States. — Under the collective denomina- 
 tion of Barbarj' States, are grouped together the coun- 
 tries which form the northern coast of Africa, viz. : 
 Morocco, Tunis, and Tripoli. Prior to the submission 
 of Algeria to the French arms, this division was also 
 comprehended under the same general name. Being 
 now a French colony, it is included in the Digest of 
 French Colonial Possessions. 
 
 Empire of Morocco. — Morocco is one of the most 
 powerful of the Barbarj' States, and comprises an area 
 of 220,000 square miles, with a population estimated 
 at 8,500,000. Although agriculture Is in the most 
 backward state, the soil yields, in great abundance 
 and of the finest quality, wheat, barley, maize, olives, 
 hemp, and cotton ; and lemons, grapes, figs, oranges, 
 almonds, and various fruits are grown in the greatest 
 profusion. The sugar-cane, the tobacco-plant, and 
 the date-tree thrive wherever they are cultivated. 
 Under a liberal government, and with ordinary indus- 
 try, Morocco could be made one of the most produc- 
 tive countries in the world. Islamism, however, 
 wherever it extends, spreads its withering blight over 
 every branch of industrial improvement. _ Among the 
 varied physical resources are mines of iron, tin, cop- 
 per, antimony, and salt ; the last of which only ap- 
 pear to be worked. Two treaties of peace, friendship, 
 etc., and for the security of persons and propertj', 
 have been concluded by the United States with Mo- 
 rocco ; the former bearing date January, 1787, and the 
 latter, September, 1836. The principal stipulations 
 
 relating to trade and commerce, in the treaty of 1836, 
 are embodied in the following summary : 
 
 Article 8. If any vessel of the United States shall 
 meet with a disaster at sea, and put into one of our 
 ports to repair, she shall be at liberty to land and re- 
 load her cargo without paying any duty whatever. 
 14. The commerce with the United States shall be on 
 the same footing as is the commerce with Spain, or as 
 that with the most favored nation for the time being ; 
 and their citizens shall be respected and esteemed, and 
 have full liberty to pass and repass our country and 
 sea-ports whenever they please, without interruption. 
 16. Merchants of both countries shall employ onlj- 
 such interpreters and such other persons to assist them 
 in their business as they shall think proper. No com- 
 mander of a vessel shall transport his cargo on board 
 another vessel ; he shall not be detained in port longer 
 than he may think proper ; and all persons employed 
 in loading or unloading goods, or in any other labor 
 whatever, shall be paid at the customary rates, not 
 more and not less. 17. Merchants shall not be com- 
 pelled to buy or sell anj' kind of goods but such as 
 thej', shall think proper, and may buj' and sell all sorts 
 of merchandise but such as are prohibited to the other 
 Christian nations. 18. All goods shall be weighed 
 and examined before they are sent on board ; and, to 
 avoid all detention of vessels, no examination shall 
 afterward be made, unless it shall first be proved that 
 contraband goods have been sent on board ; in which 
 case the persons who took the contraband goods on 
 board shall be punished according to the usage and 
 custom of the country, and no other person whatever 
 shall be injured, nor shall the ship or cargo incur any 
 penaltj' or damage whatever. 19. No vessel shall be 
 detained in port on anj' pretense whatever, nor be 
 obliged to take on board any article without the con- 
 sent of the commander, who shall be at full libertj' to 
 agree for the freight of any goods he takes on board. 
 ■The treatj' to continue in force 50 j'ears, with the usual 
 12 months' notice after the expiration of that period. 
 
 The principal ports of Morocco are Mogadore, on 
 the Atlantic, with a safe harbor for vessels of 150 tons ; 
 Tangier, Tetuan, Dar al Baida, Mazagan, SafE, Ra- 
 bat, and Laroche. The import duties are often arbi- 
 tr.irilj' raised, and frequentlj' corruptly levied. With 
 the exception of cochineal, coffee, cotton, iron, raw 
 silk, sugars, and tea, on which articles there are spec- 
 ified duties, and tobacco, which can be sold only to 
 the temporary assignees of the emperor's monopolj', 
 a general duty of 10 per cent, is levied on all imports. 
 When t\ms sold, it is admitted free ; the price of the 
 monopoly varjdng according to the number of bid- 
 ders, but usually reaching as high as ^100,000. The 
 assignee realizes from nett sales about $180,000. Be- 
 sides tobacco, the sultan reserves the monopoly of 
 brimstone, gunpowder, and lead. Every article en- 
 tering into the export trade of Morocco is subject to 
 arbitrarj', and frequentlj' oppressive duties. On 
 leeches and cork-bark the sultan retains the monopo- 
 ly, which is annually sold to the highest bidder, and 
 sometimes adds to the sultan's revenue as much as 
 $100,000 per annum. If we compare this large 
 amount with the total value of these articles annually 
 exported, viz. : leeches $120,000, cork-bark |110,000 
 (about 50 per cent, of which is paid for the monopoly), 
 it can be seen at once how much th^ trade in these 
 articles is affected bj' these burdensome internal taxes. 
 Morocco maintains an extensive trade with the inte- 
 rior of Africa bj' caravans, the principal of which 
 usuallj' accompanies the pilgrims across the whole con- 
 tinent of Africa to the Red Sea, and the tomb of Mo- 
 hammed, and Mecca. The value of the investments in 
 this caravan has been usually estimated at $2,000,000. 
 The caravans trading with the interior depart from 
 Tetuan, Morocco, and Fez, and meet at Tafilet, in or- 
 der to cross together the great desert of Sahara. The 
 trade between the United States and the empire of 
 
MOR 
 
 1379 
 
 MOR 
 
 Morocco is principally indirect, through the ports of 
 Marseilles and Gibraltar, and is conducted for the 
 most part in French and British hottoms. It is sug- 
 gested to the Department of State, by the United 
 States' consul at Tangier, that this carrying trade could 
 he secured to American vessels if our import duties on 
 produce in general of Morocco, especially on coarse 
 wool, were reduced to the same standard that rules in 
 England. In 1863 the carrying export trade of the 
 United States to Morocco, amounting to $84,000, was 
 entirely effected in foreign vessels. In 1852, of the 
 474 vessels of all sizes, measuring an aggregate of 
 30,426 tons, engaged in the foreign trade of the em- 
 pire, there were but four American vessels, measuring 
 in all 1,100 tons. The imports into the United States 
 from Morocco consist of coarse wool, gums, skins, 
 ostrich feathers, etc. The exports from the United 
 States to Morocco are raw cotton, coarse domestics, 
 brown sugar, rice, and tobacco. The latter article is 
 supplied almost exclusively from the United States. 
 
 In 1848 the maritime commerce of Morocco reached 
 16,046,979 franca ($2,798,738), viz. : 
 
 ImportB. Exports. 
 
 Francs. Francs. 
 
 Merchandise 8,747,504 6,689,275 
 
 268,800 356,400 
 
 Total 9,001,304 
 
 6,046,675 
 
 In this general movement the returns assign to the 
 port of Mogadore amounts as follows ; Imports, 2,281,- 
 038 francs ; exports, 2,584,804 francs ; total, 4,865,842 
 francs. See Mogadore, ante, p. 1368. 
 
 This leaves 10,181,137 francs for the other ports — 
 Mazagan, Tangier, Tetuan, Dar al Baida, Laroche, 
 and Rabat. 
 
 For the purpose of comparison, the general move- 
 ments for 1847 are given as follows : Imports, 7,077,- 
 208 francs ; exports, 6,910,946 francs ; total, 13,988,- 
 154 francs. 
 
 Compared with 1846, these figures show a diminu- 
 tion of 390,547 francs ; but when compared with the 
 returns for 1848, they exhibit an increase of 1,058,826 
 francs, exclusively on imports. The diminution prin- 
 cipally affects the trade with France ; thus, in 1847, 
 the trade of this country with Morocco amounted to 
 2,314.154 francs— (imports 520,965, exports 1,793,189) 
 —while in 1848 it fell to 1,656,886 francs—<imports 
 404,906, and exports 1,251,480) — showing a decrease 
 of 657,768 francs. With every other country engaged 
 in this trade there was an augmentation in 1848, both 
 in imports and exports. In one article, rather suspi- 
 ciously called "Americanos," England largely aug- 
 mented her export trade to Morocco — the whole 
 .in9rease in 1848 being upward of $1,600,000. This 
 description of merchandise is thus explained in an 
 official dispatch transmitted to the Department of 
 State from Tangier : " Throughout the whole empire, 
 from the sultan down to the lowest subject, the article 
 which we call ' coarse domestics' is used under the 
 appellation of Ajtiericanos. It is the principal article 
 of import, and is an imitation, by the manufacturers 
 of Manchester, England, of the coarse domestics of 
 Massachusetts. * * * * * n took with the 
 Moors, who were so enthusiastic in their praise of it, 
 that the English manufacturers dispatched an agent to 
 this country to examine and report on the fabric, and 
 the probable demand. They then set to work to 
 
 manufacture an article in every respect similar ; and, 
 stealing the name, they managed to undersell our 
 countrymen and monopolize the market." The tabu- 
 lar statements that follow, giving a condensed view 
 of the trade and navigation of Morocco, are brought 
 down to the latest period for which authentic data are 
 accessible. They are compiled from French official 
 publications : 
 
 Tabulab Statement exhibiting the Trade of Mokocoo 
 foe 1848, co.mfabed with 1847. 
 
 Forts. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. ! 
 
 1847. K 1S4S. . 
 
 1841. , 1848. ] 
 
 Tangier 
 
 Tetuan 
 
 Laroche 
 
 Kabat..: 
 
 Dar al Balda.. 
 
 Mazagan 
 
 Mogaaoro 
 
 Total 
 
 Francs. 
 
 1,695,000 
 
 1,086,000 
 
 661,000 
 
 988,000. 
 
 375,000 
 
 340,000 
 
 2,086,000 
 
 Francs. 
 2,904,000 
 
 1,829,000 
 
 1,187,000 
 
 229,000 
 
 428,000 
 
 148,000 
 
 2,281,000 
 
 Francs. . 
 
 1,102,000 
 636,000 
 320,000 
 648,000 
 
 1,167,000 
 817,000 
 
 2,880,000 
 
 oggoggg. 
 
 7,077,000 
 
 9,001,000 
 
 6,910,000 
 
 6,048,000 1 
 
 Official returns give to England the principal share 
 of this trade — an advantage which she enjoys, partly 
 because of the proximity of Gibraltar, but mainly be- 
 cause she monopolizes the large bulk of the carrying 
 trade between the United States and Morocco. 
 
 The imports, these , j'ears, consisted of cottons 
 (^Americanos') and woolen cloths, raw silk, iron, steel, 
 copper and lead, sugar, coffee, grains, drugs, hard- 
 wares, tea, and specie ; the exports were wool, hides 
 and skins, leeches, gum, olive-oil, Morocco leather, 
 and ostrich feathers* Tlie general commerce of the 
 Mediterranean in 1854 increased materially over that 
 of 1853 ; the increase was chiefly with Spain, Morocco, 
 Sardinia, the United States, and Tuscany. 
 
 Navigation. — The following table exhibits the navi- 
 gation of the ports of Morocco in 1860 : 
 
 Nationality. No. of vessels. 
 
 England 612 
 
 France .- 157 
 
 Spain 49 
 
 Portugal. 
 Turkey. . 
 
 Other countries. 
 
 14 
 18 
 
 Total 877 69,155 
 
 The principal imports are cotton goods of all kinds, 
 cloth, silk stuffs, velvets, copper, iron, steel, hard- 
 ware, cochineal, indigo, and other dyes, tea, coffee, 
 sulphur, paper, glass, beads, rum, etc. The exports 
 consist in hides, wax, wool, leeches, dates, almonds, 
 oranges, and other fruit, bark, flax, durra, woolen 
 sashes, haicks, Moorish slippers, etc. 
 
 The following table exhibits the values of this trade 
 during a period of five years ending with 1856 : 
 
 Years. 
 
 imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1862 
 
 1863 
 
 1884 
 
 1865 , 
 
 1866 
 
 Total... 
 
 Average 
 
 $396,260 
 416,966 
 636,245 
 662,120 
 677,880 
 
 $859,230 
 882,150 
 222,080 
 265,750 
 886,820 
 
 $764,490 
 799,115 
 858,325 
 917,870 . 
 
 1,064,160 
 
 $2,788,420 
 
 $1,605,530- 
 
 $4,393,950 
 
 $557,684 
 
 $321,106 
 
 $878,790 
 
 That our commercial readers may see the share 
 which Great Britain holds in the trade of Tangier, we 
 subjoin a tabular statement showing the navigation of 
 this port during the same period, distuignisliing the 
 number and tonnage of British vessels : 
 
 Years. 
 
 Entered. 
 
 
 
 Cleared. 
 
 
 . 1 
 
 Britlali ships, 1 Foreign ships. 
 
 
 British sMpa, 
 
 Foreign ships. 
 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 VoHsels. I Tons. 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tons; 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Vessels. | Tons. 
 
 1852.... 
 1858.... 
 1854.... 
 1865.... 
 1856,... 
 Total.' 
 Average 
 
 159 
 176 
 187 
 153 
 203 
 
 4,699 
 
 7,261 
 
 12,846 
 
 12,397 
 
 10,883 
 
 102 
 174 
 128 
 90 
 110 
 
 2,896 
 8,858 
 6,934 
 3,213 
 4,780 
 
 261 
 850 
 265 
 243 
 313 
 
 7,495 
 15,614 
 18,780 
 15,610 
 16,668 
 
 159 
 
 176 
 
 186 
 163 
 207 
 
 4,699 
 7,261 
 12,826 
 12,897 
 10,934 
 
 100 
 172 
 123 
 87 
 110 
 
 2,844 
 8,191 
 6,934 
 3,188 
 4,780 ! 
 
 259 
 848 
 264 
 240 
 31T 
 
 7,448 
 15,462 
 18,760 
 15,635 
 15,714 
 
 828 
 
 47,986 
 
 604 
 
 25,176 
 
 1,432 1 73,162 
 
 831 
 
 48,017 
 
 597 
 
 24,887 
 
 1,428 
 
 72,904 
 
 165 
 
 9,597 
 
 121 
 
 5,085 
 
 286 1 14,682 
 
 166 
 
 9,608 
 
 119 
 
 4,977 
 
 285 
 
 14,580 
 
MOR 
 
 1380 
 
 MOR 
 
 In 1853 the commercial movements at tlie port of 
 Mogadore reached, imports and exports united, 10,592,- 
 245 francs ; of which imports covered 4,984,220 francs, 
 and exports 6,608,025 francs. In 1852 the total was 
 only 6,920,525 francs ; of which, for imports, there 
 were 3,267,175 francs, and for exports 3,653,350 
 francs. There was, therefore, an increase in 1853 of, 
 imports 1,717,045 francs, exports 1,954,675, making a 
 total of 3,671,720 francs. 
 
 Navigation returns show that 57 vessels entered, 
 measuring, in all, 7483 tons, viz. : England, 37 ; 
 France, 9 ; Portugal, 2 ; Belgium, 1 ; Spain, 1 ; other 
 nations, 7. 
 
 The trade of this port (Mogadore) in 1854 exhibits a 
 total value of 5,946,095 francs ; of which there Was 
 for imports 2,810,045 francs, and for exports 3,136,050 
 francs. 
 
 Natiqation or Morocco in 1843, compared with that 
 OF 1847. 
 
 VeflselB 
 Years. . ■ ^ Total Tonnage. 
 
 1848. 
 1847.. 
 
 Entared. 
 297 
 816 
 
 Cleared. 
 
 225 
 
 297 
 
 23,846 
 32,484 
 
 Decrease in 1348. 19 72 9,088 
 
 The general foreign commerce of the empire in 
 1849 and 1850 is shown by the following state- 
 ment : 
 
 Years. Imports. Exports. Total. 
 
 1849 $2,106,200 $1,688,200 $3,789,400 
 
 1850 1,822,800 1,688,200 3,506,000 
 
 The commerce for these years was thus distributed 
 between the ports of Morocco : 
 
 Porte. 
 
 Imports. 1 Exports. | 
 
 1849. 
 
 1860. 1 1849. 1 1850. | 
 
 Tangier 
 
 Tetuan 
 
 Laroche 
 
 Rabat 
 
 Francs. 
 2,136,000 
 
 2,497,000 
 983,000 
 
 1,887,000 
 
 716,000 
 
 68,000 
 
 2,756,000 
 
 Francs. 
 
 1,614,000 
 528,000 
 616,000 
 
 1,804,000 
 840,000 
 495,000 
 
 8,323,0(10 
 
 Francs. 
 1,549,000 
 1,116,000 
 
 332,000 
 
 477,000 
 1,625,000 
 
 848,000 
 2,970,000 
 
 Francs. 
 1,048,000 
 
 517,000 
 
 856,000 
 1,146,000 
 1,116,000 
 
 410,000 
 8,792,000 
 
 Dar al Baida.... 
 
 Mazagau 
 
 Mogadore 
 
 Total 
 
 10,588,000 
 
 9,114,000 
 
 8,416,000 
 
 8,884,000 
 
 The following tabular statement shows the countries 
 which participated in the trade of 1850 : 
 
 CountrlcB. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 $1,803,800 
 
 896,600 
 48,200 
 47,400 
 
 14,600 
 3,800 
 
 $976,400 
 621,800 
 87,400 
 7,800 
 28,000 
 11,800 
 
 $2,286,200 
 1,017,400 
 85,600 
 55,200 
 28,000 
 26,800 
 8,800 
 
 
 Spain 
 
 
 
 
 Austria 
 
 Total 
 
 $1,822,800 
 
 $1,688,200 il;S.60B.000 1 
 
 
 
 
 The principal ports of Morocco are Tangier, Tetuan, 
 Laroche, Rabat, Dar al Baida, Mazagan, and Moga- 
 dore. The town of Tangier occupies an eminence at 
 the western extremity of a capacious bay, within the 
 limits of the Straits of Gibraltar, and nearly opposite 
 to the Spanish town of Tarifa. The peculiar advan- 
 tages of its situation render it the most frequented 
 port of Morocco. The town contains 900 houses, and 
 about 8500 inhabitants— consisting of 6000 Moors, 2200 
 Jews, and 340 Christians. The inhabitants are, com- 
 paratively speaking, civilized and tolerant. Chris- 
 tians are treated with greater respect, and Jews with 
 less severity, than in any other part of the empire — 
 privileges for which they are indebted partly to the 
 presence of the chief representatives of foreign pow- 
 ers and partly to the liberality of the present able 
 and energetic Pasha, Sid Mohamed Ben Abd-el- 
 Maleck. 
 
 Port Charges. — The port charges and dues are sim^ 
 ply for anchorage, and vary from $2 to $25, with a 
 gratuity to the port captain of from $2 to $4. This 
 gratuity secures the services of this officer in obtain- 
 ing abundant provisions and other supplies for the 
 vessel, free of duty. The anchorag* dues, a,i above. 
 
 range between the two extremes, according to the 
 friendly or unfriendly terms which may subsist be- 
 tween the local authorities and the consul of the na- 
 tion the flag of which the vessel may bear. — Com. 
 Bel. U. S. 
 
 Consular Regulations with the United States. — It is 
 stipulated by the 19th and the three following articles 
 of the treaty concluded between the United States and 
 Morocco, October 1, 1837, that if any of the citizens 
 of the United States, or any persons nnder their pro- 
 tection, shall have any dispute with each other, the 
 consul shall decide between the parties ; and whenever 
 the consul shall require any aid or assistance from the 
 government of Morocco to enforce his decisions, it 
 shall be immediately rendered to him. If a citizen 
 of the United States should kill or wound a Moor, or, 
 on the contrarj', if a Moor shall kill or wound a citi- 
 zen of the United States, the law of the country shall 
 take place, and equal justice shall be rendered, the 
 consul assisting at the trial; and if any delinquent 
 shall make his escape, the consul shall not be answer- 
 able for him in any manner whatever. If an Amer- 
 ican citizen shall die in Morocco, and no will shall 
 appear, the consul shall take possession of his effects ; 
 and if there shall be no consul, the effects shall be de- 
 posited in the hands of some person worthy of trust, 
 untU the party shall appear who has a right to de- 
 mand them ; but if the heir to the person deceased be 
 present, the property shall be delivered to him without 
 interruption ; and if a will shall appear, the property 
 shall descend agreeably to that will, as soon as the 
 consul shall declare the validity thereof. The consul 
 of the United States is permitted to reside in any sea- 
 port of the dominions of the emperor of Morocco that 
 he shall think proper ; and he shall be respected, and 
 enjoy all the privileges which the consuls of any other 
 nation enjoy ; and if any of the citizens of the United 
 States shall contract any debts or engagements, the 
 consul shall not be in any manner answerable for 
 them, unless he shall have given a promise in writing 
 for the payment or fulfillment thereof ; without which 
 promise in writing no application to him for any re- 
 dress shaU be made. 
 
 Mortgage. A mortgage is a conveyance or trans- 
 fer of real or personal estate to secure the grantee or 
 assignee the payment of some debt or the performance 
 of some agreement, with a condition or understanding 
 that, in case of the debt being paid, or the agreement 
 being performed, within a certain time, and in the 
 specified manner, the conveyance or assignment shall 
 be void, and the land or personal property revert to, or 
 rather, still belong to the mortgager. The English, 
 and so the American mortgage of land, is mostly bor- 
 rowed from the civil law (see Kent's Commentaries, 
 vol. iv., part iv., lect. Ivii. ; Brown's Civil Law, vol. 
 i., p. 200), or, at least, many of the rules and inci- 
 dents of the Roman hypotheca, coincide with ours rela- 
 ting to mortgages. The essential characteristic of a 
 mortgage, however, according to the import and defi- 
 nition of the term, must be the same in all countries, 
 namely, that the property conveyed or transferred, 
 whether real or personal, shall not absolutely go, and 
 belong to the grantee or assignee, in case the debt in- 
 tended to be secured shall be paid, or the contract, 
 whatever it may be, intended to be guarantied, shall 
 be performed within the time and terms agreed upon. 
 The rules and incidents of such a hypothecation will, 
 therefore, have some resemblance under all codes of 
 laws. There is no limitation of the kind of debts or 
 contracts, the payment or performance of which may 
 be secured by mortgage, for all legal ones may be so 
 guarantied. What will be a sufficient conveyance of 
 the property, whether real or personal, will again de- 
 pend on the laws of the place. A conveyance of land, 
 for instance, must, in most countries, be made in writ- 
 ing, and with certain formalities. So, in England, the 
 right of property in a ship must appear by a bill of 
 
MOR 
 
 1381 
 
 MOS 
 
 sale. Whatever these rules are by •which the abso- 
 lute transfer of property is regulated, they will equally 
 apply to a conveyance or assignment by way of hy- 
 pothecation. As real estate is usually required by the 
 laws to be conveyed by written documents, and, ac- 
 cording to the laws of most places, these conveyances 
 are evidenced by public records of the instruments by 
 which they are made, there is no necessity of an open, 
 visible possession of the estate by the grantee, that 
 the public may take notice of the grant, for they may 
 find the evidence of it at the office of public record. 
 The case is not the same with personal property, the 
 title to which is usuallj- confirmed and established to 
 the purchaser by a delivery of the article into his pos- 
 session. In respect to all chattels, of which manual 
 possession and transfer from place to place is practica- 
 ble, the delivery by the vender, and actual possession 
 by the purchaser, are very material circumstances in 
 establishing the right of property in the latter. It is, 
 indeed, laid down as a maxim of the English, and also 
 of the American law, that movables can not be validly 
 sold or mortgaged without a delivery actual, or con- 
 structive, to the purchaser or mortgagee, and a posses- 
 sion by him. But this rule is ver}^ much modified and 
 relaxed ; not that a delivery to and a possession by 
 the vendee and mortgagee are not considered requisite 
 to establish his title, but a very liberal interpretation 
 has been put upon circumstances showing a con- 
 structive delivery and possession. The object and 
 policy of the law is to leave the movable, just as it 
 does land, to be used either by the mortgager or mort- 
 gagee, without affecting their mutual rights and obli- 
 gations as to the property in the thing, as far as this 
 indulgence can be carried without leading other per- 
 sons into a misapprehension, and exposing them to 
 fraud and imposition in giving credit to the mortgager, 
 upon the supposition of his being the absolute owner 
 of the property hypothecated. The various rules and 
 distinctions by which the mortgage of chattels is regu- 
 lated in this respect, constitute an essental part of the 
 law upon this subject. But, after all, we may lay it 
 down as an essential doctrine, that a mortgaged chat- 
 tel must be in possession of the mortgagee, in order 
 to render his title secure ; and when the mortgager 
 has, bj' the law, been permitted still to use the thing, 
 it is only in cases where his possession is, in legal con- 
 struction, that of the mortgagee. 
 
 The most material consideration relating to mortga^r 
 ges, whether of lands or chattels, is the effect of the 
 non-performance of the condition by the mortgager. 
 This will depend, it is true, in part, upon the terms of 
 the contract of hypothecation or mortgage. If it be 
 agreed between the parties, that in case of non-per- 
 formance of the condition of the hypothecation, the 
 mortgagee shall sell the thing hypothecated, whether 
 land or goods, and account to the mortgager for the 
 proceeds in satisfaction of the debt, or discharge of the 
 obligation, intended to be secured, and pay over the 
 surplus, if any, this is all that justice or the law can 
 demand, and this is, in effect, what the law aims at 
 where the parties do not make an}' such stipulation ; 
 but, on the contrary, agree, either expressly or im- 
 pliedlj', that, in case of a non-performance of the con- 
 dition, the thing mortgaged shall be absolutely and 
 immediately forfeited ' to the mortgagee, without any 
 right on the part of the mortgager to redeem it, or to 
 call upon the mortgagee to sell it and account with him 
 for the proceeds. Thus, in the common form of mort- 
 gaging land, it is convej'ed to the mortgagee with a 
 provision that unless he shall pay a certain debt, or do 
 a certain thing within a time specified, the conveyance 
 shall be void. According to the literal construction, 
 therefore, if this condition is not complied with, the 
 thing henceforth belongs absolutely to the mortgagee. 
 But here the law steps in and controls the agreement, 
 and attempts to prevent it from operating as a penalty 
 or forfeiture, at the same time giving it all its force as a 
 
 security or guaranty. For this purpose, diiTefent modes 
 are adopted in different codes of laws, all of which agree 
 in applying the value of the thing mortgaged, in satis- 
 faction and discharge of the debt or obligation ihtended 
 to be secured j so that by all the codes justice is done, if 
 there is no surplus value. But if there be a surplus 
 value, some of the codes will reach it, and others not, 
 and the same code will reach it in regard to one kind of 
 pledge, mortgage, or hypothecation, and not another. 
 For example, by the English and American law, if a 
 debtor pledges bills of exchange, or any personal prop- 
 erty for a debt, to an amount exceeding its value, the 
 creditor must account forthe proceeds, and pay over the 
 surplus to the debtoi' ; but in England, and so in some 
 of the United States, if the debtor mortgages lands, 
 of which the creditor takes possession for breach of 
 condition, the debtor has three years to redeem it, af- 
 ter which time the land is absolutely gone, though 
 twice the amount of the debt in value. The law, in this 
 case, supposes three years to be time enough to allow 
 the debtor to redeem it, in case of an excess of value 
 of the land ; and this supposition is not wholly unrea^ 
 sonable, since the debtor has all that time to sell the 
 land if he can get more than the amount of the debt 
 for it. The civil law, as more generally administered, 
 where it has been made the basis of modern codes, and 
 so the laws of many of the United States adopt a dif- 
 ferent mode, prescribing an appraisement of the mort- 
 gaged land, and providing that it may be sold by auc- 
 tion, if two thirds of the appraised value is bid for it, 
 and the proceeds of the sale are applied in satisfaction 
 of the debtor obligation guarantied by the mortgage, 
 and the surplus, if any, paid over to the debtor. — ^E. A. 
 
 SAoss. Iceland Moss (Cetraria Islandicd), a species 
 of lichen, a native of the mountainous heaths and 
 vroods in the Alpine parts of Scotland, and of the As- 
 turias, in Spain, as well as in Iceland and the north of 
 Germany. It grows to a height of only two or three 
 inches, and has rather a rugged, bushy appearance, and 
 doubtless would thrive, and perhaps with profit, in the 
 northern parts of the United States, particularly in 
 Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, northern New York, 
 Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine. In Iceland 
 and Lapland, this plant is used as an article of diet, 
 being boiled in broth or milk, after being freed from its 
 bitterness by repeated maceration in water ; or dried 
 and made into bread. The dried plant diflFers but lit- 
 tle from its appearance in a recent state. Medicinally, 
 it is tonic and demulcent. The decoction, as ordered 
 in the pharmacopseias, is so bitter as to prevent many 
 persons from taking it ; and when deprived of its dis- 
 agreeable taste, it can only be viewed as a demulcent, 
 and is hardly equal in its effects to linseed, quince- 
 seed, and marsh-mallows. It certainly does not cure 
 phthisis pulmonalis ; but in the last stage of that dis- 
 ease, when solid food is oppressive, and the diarrhcea 
 appears to be kept up by the acrid contents of the 
 stomach and bowels, it has appeared to check the lat- 
 ter, and to impart both vigor and nourishment to the 
 digestive organs. — Patent Office Sep. See Iceland. 
 
 Mosaic Gold. For the composition of this pecu- 
 liar alloy of copper and zinc, called also Or-molu, 
 Messrs. Parker and Hamilton obtained a patent in No- 
 vember, 1825. Equal quantities of copper and zinc 
 are to be '* melted at the lowest temperature that cop- 
 per will fuse," which being stirred together so as to 
 produce a perfect admixture of the metals, a further 
 quantity of zinc is added in small portions, until the 
 alloy in the melting-pot becomes of the color required. 
 If the temperature of the copper be too high, a portion 
 of the zinc will fly off in vapor, and the result will be 
 merely spelter or hard solder ; but if the operation be 
 carried on at as low a heat as possible, the alloy will 
 assume first a brassy yellow color; then, by the intro- 
 duction of small portions of zinc, it will take a purple 
 or violet hue, and will ultimately become perfectly 
 white ; which is the appearance of the proper compound 
 
MUL 
 
 1382 
 
 MUL 
 
 in its fused state. This alloy may be poured into 
 ingots, ; but as it is difficult to preserve its character 
 when re-melted, it should be cast directly into the fig- 
 ured molds. The patentees claim the exclusive right 
 of compounding a metal consisting of from 52 to 55 
 parts of zinc out of 100. Mosaic gold, the aurum mu- 
 sivum of the old chemists, is a sulphuret of tin. 
 
 Mosaic {Mosaique, Fr. ; Mosaisch, Germ). There 
 are several kinds of mosaic, but all of them consist in 
 imbedding fragments of diflferent colored substances, 
 usually glass or stones, in a cement, so as to produce 
 the effect of a picture. The beautiful chapel of Saint 
 Lawrence, in Florence, which contains the tombs of the 
 Medici, has been greatly admired by artists, on ac- 
 count of the vast multitude of precious marbles, jas- 
 pers, agates, avanturines, malachites, etc., applied in 
 mosaic, upon its walls. The detailed discussion of 
 this subject belongs to a treatise upon the fine arts. 
 
 Mosquito Coast, Mosquitia. The limits of 
 this pseudo Central American State, Mosquitia or the 
 Mosquito Coast, are so indefinite, and its extent inland 
 so imperfectly ascertained, that scarcely more of a re- 
 liable character can be said respecting it physically, 
 than politically or commercially. It is supposed to 
 extend from Cape Honduras to the mouth of the River 
 San Juan, having west the States of Honduras and 
 Nicaragua, and north and east the Caribbean Sea, and 
 to embrace about 26,000 square miles. The Mosquito 
 Indians, its native and almost only inhabitants, are 
 represented as an active and daring race, never brought 
 under submission by the Spaniards. The San Juan 
 River is claimed as its south boundary. Its capital is 
 Blewfields, and it contains several other small villages, 
 inhabited chiefly by native Indians and some few 
 British colonists. The country is fertile, and, under 
 proper cultivation, would produce cocoa, cotton, sugar, 
 indigo, vanilla, and logwood ; but, until some change 
 takes place either in the mode of cultivation, or the form 
 of government, its resources have but small chance for 
 development. See Honduras. 
 
 Mother of Pearl {Nacre de Perles, Fr. ; Perlen 
 mutter, Germ.) is the hard, silverj^ brilliant internal 
 layer of several kinds of shells, particularlj' oysters, 
 which is often variegated with changing purple and 
 azure colors. The large oysters of the Indian seas 
 alone secrete this coat of suificient thickness to ren- 
 der their shells available to the purposes of manu- 
 facturers. The genus of shell fish called pentadince 
 furnishes the finest pearls, as well as mother of pearl ; 
 it is found in greatest perfection round the coasts of 
 Ceylon, near Ormus in the Persian Gulf, at Cape 
 Comorin, and among some of the Australian seas. 
 The brilliant hues of mother of pearl do not depend 
 upon the nature of the substance, but upon its struc- 
 ture. The microscopic wrinkles or furrows which run 
 across the surface of every slice, act upon the reflected 
 light in such a way as to produce the chromatic efifect ; 
 for Sir David Brewster has shown, that if we take, 
 with very fine black wax, or with the fusible alloy of 
 D'Arcet, an impression of mother of pearl, it will pos- 
 sess the irridescent appearance. Mother of pearl is 
 very delicate to work, but it may be fashioned by 
 saws, files, and drills, with the aid sometimes of a cor- 
 rosive acid, such as the dilute sulphuric or muriatic ; 
 and it is polished by colcothar of vitriol. 
 
 Mozambique, a fortified maritime city, and the 
 capital of the Portuguese possessions in eastern Africa, 
 on an island at the entrance of Mesaril Bay, an inlet 
 of the Mozambique Channel, 5J miles broad, and 6 
 miles in length, and receiving 3 small rivers, its en- 
 trance being sheltered also by the islands St. George 
 and St. Jago, which help to bound its harbor. Mozam- 
 bique Island, in lat. 15° 2' S., long. 40° 48' E., is 
 about IJ miles in length, low, and of coral formation. 
 
 Mulberry. Soil, Situation, Propagation, etc. — 
 The moms nigra, or black mulberry-tree, will grow in 
 almost any soil or situation that is tolerably dry, and 
 
 in any climate not much colder than most parts of 
 Britain and the United States. It is very easily prop- 
 agated by truncheons or pieces of the branches, eight 
 or nine feet in length, and of any thickness, being 
 planted half their depth in tolerably good soil ; when 
 they will bear fruit the following year. As it is ex- 
 tremely tenacious of life, every part of the root, trunk, 
 boughs, and branches may be converted into plants by 
 separation; the rootlets, and small shoots or sprays, 
 being made into cuttings, the larger boughs into 
 stakes, the arms into truncheons, and the trunk, stool, 
 and roots, being cut into fragments, leaving a portion 
 of the bark on each, and planting them after the Ital- 
 ian mode of propagating the olive-tree. The mulberry 
 may also be increased from seeds, by layers, or by 
 grafting and budding. This tree, from its slowness of 
 putting out its leaves, being rarely injured b}' spring 
 frosts, and its leaves being seldom or never devoured 
 by any insect, except the silkworm, and never touched 
 with mildew, very seldom fails to produce a good crop 
 of fruit. This fruit, however, though excellent, and 
 exceedingly wholesome, does not keep, and is so far 
 troublesome, that it is only good when it is quite ripe, 
 and is best when it is suffered to fall from the tree 
 itself. For this reason, mulberrj'-trees are generallj'' 
 planted on a lawn or grass-plot, to prevent the fruit 
 that falls from being injured by the gravel or dirt. 
 This practice, however, is objectionable, as no tree, 
 perhaps, receives more benefit from the spade and the 
 dunghill than the mulberry, and it ought, therefore, 
 to be frequently dug about the roots, and occasionally 
 assisted with manure. The ground under the tree 
 should be kept free from weeds throughout the sum- 
 mer, particularly when the fruit is ripening, as the 
 reflected light and heat from the bare surface of the 
 soil is thus increased. In a cool, moist climate, like 
 that of Britain, the fruit is also very fine if the tree be 
 trained as an espalier, with the reflection of the south 
 side of a building or wall. As a standard tree, whether 
 for ornament or fruit, the mulberry requires very little 
 pruning or attention of any kind, other than that 
 which is given above. As it increases in age, it in- 
 creases in productiveness, and in full-grown trees the 
 fruit is much larger and better flavored than in those 
 which are young. 
 
 Properties and Uses. — The wood of the moms nigra 
 is less compact than even that of the white mul- 
 berry, and when perfectly dry, weighs only about 40 
 pounds to a cubic foot. It is said to be durable, and 
 has been employed in England for various purposes of 
 carpentry, for hoops, bows, wheels, 'and even ribs for 
 small vessels, instead of oak. In France, this wood is 
 considered of but little value, except for fuel. In 
 some parts of Spain, in Sicily, and in Persia, the leaves 
 of this species are said to be preferred to those of the 
 white mulberry for the food of silkworms. The leaves 
 are also eaten by cattle, sheep, and goats. The roots 
 have an acrid, bitter taste, and are considered as an 
 excellent vermifuge, when taken, in powder, in doses 
 of half a drachm. i?he tree, in everj' part, contains a 
 milky juice, which, being coagulated, is found to 
 form a coarse kind of elastic gum. The fruit of this 
 tree is of an agreeable acid and aromatic flavor, and is 
 eaten raw, as a dessert, or may be formed into an 
 agreeable preserve ,• and Evelyn says that, mixed with 
 the juice of cider apples, it makes a very strong and 
 agreeable wine. Dr. Clarke observes, that he saw 
 some Greeks, in the Crimea, employed in distilling 
 brandy from mulberries ; which he describes as " a 
 weak but palatable spirit, as clear as water." A wine 
 is also made from it in France ; but it requires to be 
 drunk immediately, as it very soon becomes acid. 
 The fruit, when ripe, is regarded as cooling and laxa- 
 tive, allaying thirst, and being grateful In cases of 
 fever. When made into a syrup, it is considered ex- 
 cellent for a sore throat. Like the strawberry and 
 raspberry, it is said to undergo the acetous fermenta- 
 
MUL 
 
 1383 
 
 MUL 
 
 tlon in the stomacli, and therefore may be safely eaten 
 by persons afflicted with the rheumatism or gout. All 
 kinds of poultry are excessively fond of this fruit, and 
 devour it with avidity, whenever within their reach. 
 
 Insects and Diseases. — The leaves of the moms alba, 
 or white mulberry-tree, are believed to be eaten by no 
 other insect but the silkworm (bombyx man). M. Pul- 
 lein, howeve'r, made experiments with various kinds of 
 insects, but they all rejected the mulberry leaf for 
 food, except " a green worm, about an inch long, and 
 as thick as an oat straw." Although he found it upon 
 a mulberry, it was his belief that it was not peculiar to 
 that tree alone, but found its way there by accident. 
 The white mulberrj', however, is attacked by numer- 
 ous diseases, occasioned partly, no doubt, by the un- 
 natural manner in which it is treated, by being 
 stripped of its foliage. One of these diseases is brought 
 on by any sudden check given to the transpiration of 
 the leaves, which turn yellow, and fall off, shortly 
 after causing the tree to die. Another Is the death of 
 the roots, which is accompanied by the formation on 
 them of parasitic fungi. The leaves are also apt to be 
 attacked with honej--dew, mildew, rust, and other dis- 
 eases, which render them unfit for the food of the silk- 
 worm. Those leaves covered with honey-dew may be 
 washed, and, when thoroughly dry, may be given to 
 the insects without injury; but the other diseased 
 leaves should be thrown away. If leaves covered 
 with honey-dew are employed without washing, they 
 cause dysentery and death to the worms. As it is not 
 our intention to treat of the whole art of the fearing 
 and management of the silkworm, we are compelled to 
 refer the reader to a " Treatise on the origin and Pro- 
 gressive Tmprovelneni of the Silk Manufacture" being 
 the 22d volume of the London Cabinet Cyclopasdia ; 
 also to the work of Count Dandolo, entitled '^ Dell' 
 Arte di govemare i Bacchi da Seta;" Kenkick's 
 '^American Silk-Grower's Guide;" and to most of the 
 agricultural journals of the day. 
 
 Properties and Uses. — The wood of the morus alba, 
 when dry, weighs 44 pounds to a cubic foot. In 
 France, the principal uses of that of the trunk, is for 
 various purposes of turnery, and carpentry, and for 
 the making of wine-casks, for which it is highly valued, 
 as it is said to impart an agreeable violet-like flavor to 
 white wines. The branches are used for vine-props, 
 posts and rails to rural fencfes, and for fuel. The bark 
 may be converted into linen of the fineness of silk. 
 For this purpose the young wood is gathered in August, 
 during the second ascent of the sap, and immersed for 
 three or four da3''s in still water. It is then taken out, 
 at sunset, spread on the grass, and returned to the 
 water at sunrise. After repeating this process daily 
 for some time, it is finally taken out, dried, and pre- 
 pared like flax. The bark is also used like that of the 
 European lime-tree, for making bast for mats, etc. 
 The bark, and more especially the leaves of the white 
 mulberry, abound in a milky juice, which is found to 
 possess more or less of the properties of caoutohouc, 
 according to the climate in which the tree is grown. 
 It is doubtless owing to this property in the leaves of 
 the mulberry, that the cocoons of the silkworm have 
 so much more tenacity of fibre than those of any other 
 insect that feeds on the leaves of trees. Hence, also, 
 the silk, like the tobacco and wine of warm climates, 
 and of poor, dry soils, is always superior to that pro- 
 duced in colder climates, and from rich and moist 
 soils. To verify this opinion, we quote the following 
 very judicious observations from the " Journal d' Agri- 
 culture de Pays-Bas," which will not only show the 
 impracticability of profitably raising silk in the higher 
 latitudes, but will serve as an infallible guide in the 
 choice of a soil and climate for this species of agricul- 
 ture : " The mulberry-tree is found in different cli- 
 mates ; but the juice of the leaves grown in the north 
 is much less suitable for the production of good silk, 
 than that of the leaves of the south. In this respect. 
 
 mulberry leaves and silk differ as much as wines, ac- 
 cording to the climate and soil in which they are 
 produced. In general, every climate and soil that 
 will grow good wheat will produce large, succulent 
 mulberry leaves ; but these leaves will, in many cases, 
 be too nutritive ; that is, they will have too much sap, 
 and too much substance and succulenoy. The wild 
 mulberry, with small leaves, answers better, for such 
 a soil, than the grafted mulberry, with large leaves. 
 A general rule, and one to be depended on, is, that the 
 mulberr}-, to produce the best silk, requires the same 
 soil and exposure that the vine does to produce the 
 best wine. Experience has proved that silkworms 
 nourished by leaves gathered from a dry soil, succeed 
 much better, produce more cocoons, and are less sub- 
 ject to those diseases, which destroy them, than those 
 which have been nourished by leaves produced by an 
 extremel}' rich soil." The fruit of the white mulberry 
 is less acid than that of the black species, and that of 
 some of the varieties, particularly of the morus a. muU 
 ticaulis, is used for making robs and syrups, and is 
 said to be remarkably good to eat, in warm climates. 
 
 The perfect wood of the moims rubra, or red mul- 
 berry-tree, which is fine-grained and compact, though 
 light, is of a yellowish hue, approaching to lemon-color. 
 It possesses strength and solidity ; and, when properly 
 seasoned, it is almost as durable as that of locust, to 
 which, by many persons, it is esteemed equal. In the 
 dockyards at Philadelphia, Baltimore, and the more 
 southern ports, it is employed in the construction of both 
 the upper and lower frames of vessels, for knees, floor- 
 timbers, etc. ; and is preferred to every other kind of 
 wood for trenails, except that of the locust. In Charles- 
 ton, South Carolina, it is sometimes selected for the 
 ribs of large boats. It is also used in the parts of the 
 countrj' where it abounds, for the posts of rural fences, 
 which, from their durability, are as much esteemed as 
 those of the lodust. As the leaves of this species are 
 thick, rough, and hairy, while young, they are im- 
 proper for the food of silkworms, which feed with ad- 
 vantage, in a cold climate, only on the morus alba, or 
 some of its varieties. The red mulberry is well de- 
 serving of cultivation, both from its thick and shady 
 foliage, and the agreeable flavor of its dark-red fruit. 
 
 The wood of the paper mulberry, which is soft, 
 spongy, and brittle, is of little value except for fuel. 
 The leaves are too rough and coarse, in their texture, 
 for the food of silkworms ; but they are found to be 
 excellent fodder for cattle ; and as the tree will grow 
 rapidly in almost every soil, and throws out numerous 
 tufts of leaves, it has been suggested that it might be 
 valuable to cultivate, in some situations and climates, 
 for that purpose. The juice of this tree is sufiiciently 
 tenacious to be used in China as a glue, either in gild- 
 ing leather or paper. The finest and whitest cloth 
 worn by the inhabitants of Otaheite, and of the Sand- 
 wich Islands, is made of its bark. But the principal 
 use, however, to which this tree appears to be applied, 
 is for the manufacture of paper. The following is an 
 abridgment of Ksempfer's account of. the process of 
 making this article in Japan, as quoted from the fifth 
 volume of the London " Penny Cyclopiedia :" " The 
 br.\nches of the current year, being cut into pieces 
 about a yard long, are boiled until the bark shrinks 
 from the wood, which is taken out, and thrown away ; 
 and the bark, being dried, is preserved till wanted. 
 In order to make paper, it is soaked for three or four 
 hours in water ; after which, the external skin (epider- 
 mis), and the green internal coat, are scraped off, and 
 the strongest and finest pieces are selected ; the pro- 
 duce of the j'ounger shoots being of an inferior quality. 
 If any very old portions present themselves, they are, 
 on the other hand, rejected as too coarse. AH knotty 
 parts, and every thing which might impair the beauty 
 of the paper, are also removed. The chosen bark is 
 boiled in a lixivium till its downy fibres can be sepa- 
 rated by a touch of the finger. The pulp, so produced, 
 
MTJS 
 
 1384 
 
 MU8 
 
 is then agitated in water till it reaemblea tufts of tow. 
 If not sufiSciently boiled, the paper will be coarse, 
 though spongy ; if too much, it will be white, indeed, 
 but deficient in strength and solidity. Upon the 
 various degrees and modes of washing the pulp, much 
 also depends as to the quality and beauty of the paper. 
 Mucilage obtained from boiling rice, or from a root 
 called oreni, one of the mallow tribe, is afterward 
 added to the pulp. The paper is finished much after 
 the European mode, except that stalks of rushes are 
 used, instead of brass wires." The article thus made, 
 constitutes the India or China paper used by engrav- 
 ers for taking proofs, and by. chemists for filters. — 
 Browne's Trees of America. 
 
 Munjeet, a species of Xutia tineiorum, or madder, 
 produced in Nepaul, and in various districts of India. 
 That which is brought to England is imported from 
 Calcutta, and is cultivated in the high lands about 
 Natpore in Purnea. The roots are long and slender, 
 aad when broken appear of a red color. It is used in 
 dj-eing ; the red which it produces being, though some- 
 what peculiar, nearly the same as that produced by 
 European madder. Dr. Bancroft says that the color 
 which it imparts to cotton and linen is not so durable 
 as that of madder ; but that upon wool or woolen cloth 
 its color is brighter and livelier ; and, when proper 
 mordants are used, nearly, perhaps quite, as perma- 
 nent. — Permanent Colors, vol. ii., p. 279. The best 
 munjeet is in pieces about the bigness of a small quiU, 
 clean and firm, breaking short, and not pipy or chafij-. 
 Its smell somewhat resembles liquorice root. 
 
 Muriatic or Hydrochloric Acid; anciently 
 marine acid, and spirit of salt. (Acide hydrocMorique, 
 aud Chlorhydrigue, Er. ; Satzsaiire, Germ.) This acid 
 is now extracted from sea-salt, by the action of sul- 
 phuric acid and a moderate heat ; but it was originally 
 obtained from the salt by exposing a mixture of it and 
 of common clay to ignition in an earthen retort. The 
 acid gas which exhales, is rapidly condensed by water. 
 100 cubic inches of water are capable of absorbing no 
 less than 48,000 cubic inches of the acid gag, whereby 
 the liquid acquires a specific gravity of 1'2109 ; and a 
 volume of 142 cubic inches. The muriatic acid of 
 commerce has usually a yellowish tinge, but when 
 chemically pure it is colorless. It fumes strongly in 
 the air, emitting a corrosive vapor of a peculiar smell. 
 The characteristic test of muriatic acid in the most 
 dilute state, is nitrate of silver, which causes a curd}' 
 precipitate of chlorid of silver. 
 
 Muscat, a city aud seaport situated on the east 
 coast of Arabia, about 96 miles N. W. of Cape Eassel- 
 gate (Eas-el-had), in lat. 23° 38' N., long. 58° 37J' E. 
 Population uncertain ; but estimated by Lieutenant 
 Wellsted at 40,000, which we incline to think beyond 
 the mark. There are more Banians here than in any 
 other city in Arabia. There are among them some 
 very extensive merchants, who engross almost the 
 whole pearl trade of the Persian Gulf, ami the supply 
 of com from India. The negro slaves are numerous, 
 and are generally stout, well made, and active. The 
 harbor, which is the best on this part of the Arabic 
 coast, opens to the north, and is shaped like a horse- 
 shoe. It is bounded on the west and south by the 
 loftj^ projecting shores of the mainland, and on the 
 east by Muscat Island, a ridge of rocks from 200 to 
 300 feet high. The town stands on a sandy beach at 
 the south end or bottom of the cove or harbor, about 
 1^ miles from its mouth. The depth of water near 
 the town varies from three to four and five fathoms. 
 Ships at anchor are exposed to the north and north- 
 west winds ; but as the anchorage is everywhere 
 good, accidents are of verj' rare occurrence. The har- 
 bor is protected by some pretty strong forts. Vessels 
 are not allowed to enter after dusk, nor to leave be- 
 fore sunrise. If the usual signal be made for a pilot, 
 one will come off, but not otherwise. It is best to 
 make them attend till the vessel be secured, as they 
 
 have excellent boats for carrying out warp anchors. 
 Muscat is a place of considerable importance, being at 
 once the key to, and commanding the trade of, the 
 Persian Gulf. The dominions of the imaum, or prince, 
 are extensive, and his government is more liberal and 
 intelligent than any other in Arabia or Persia. The 
 town, situated at the bottom of a high hill, is ill-built 
 and filthy ; and, during th e months of July and August, 
 is one of the hottest inhabited places in the world. The 
 country in the immediate vicinity of the town is ex- 
 tremely barren,; but it improves as it recedes from the 
 shore. Dates and wheat, particularly the first, are the 
 principal articles of produce. The , dates of this part 
 of Arabia are held in high estimation, and are largely 
 exported, those of Bushire, and Bussorah being im- 
 ported in their stead. A date tree is valued at from 
 $7 to $10, and its annual produce at from $1 to $1^. 
 An estate is said to be worth 2,000, 8,000, 4,000 date 
 trees, according to the number it possesses. 
 
 But the place. derives its whole importance from the 
 commerce and navigation of which it is the centre. 
 The imaum has some large ships of war, and his sub- 
 j.ect.s possess some of the finest trading vessels to be 
 met with in the Indian seas. The part of Arabia ad- 
 joining to Muscat is too poor to have anj' very con- 
 siderable direct trade ; but, owing to its favorable sit- 
 uation, the backward state of the country round the 
 Persian Gulf, and the superiority of its ships and sea- 
 men, Muscat has become an important eMrep6t, and 
 has an extensive transit and carrying trade. Most 
 European ships bound for Bussorah and Bushire touch 
 at it ; and more than half the trade of the Persian 
 Gulf is carried on in ships belonging to its merchants. 
 (See BosHiKE.) But, exclusive of the ports on the 
 gulf, and the south and west coasts of Arabia, ships 
 under the flag of the imaum trade to all the ports of 
 British India, to Singapore, Java, the Mauritius, the 
 east coast of Africa, etc. The pearl trade of the Per- 
 sian frulf is now, also, wholly centered at Muscat. 
 Ail merchandize passing up the gulf on Arab bottoms 
 pays a duty of one half per cent, to the imaum. He 
 also rents the islands of Ormuz and Kishmee, the port 
 of Gombroon, and some sulphur mines, from the Per- 
 sian government. In the magazines of Muscat may 
 be found every species of produce imported into or ex- 
 ported from the Persian Gulf. Various articles are 
 also imported for the use of the surrounding country, 
 and for the internal consumption of Arabia. Among 
 these, the principal are rice, sugar, cofi^ee from Mocha, 
 cotton and cotton cloth, cocoanuts, wood for building, 
 slaves from Zanguebar, dates from Bushire and Bus- 
 sorah, etc. Payment for these is chiefly made in specie 
 and pearls ; but they also export drugs of various de- 
 scriptions, ivory, gums, hides, ostrich feathers, hordes, 
 sharks' fins, a sort of earthen jars, called martuban, to 
 Tranquebar, dried fish, an esteemed sweetmeat called 
 hulwah, and a few other articles. The markets of 
 Muscat are abundantly supplied with all sorts of pro- 
 vision. Beef, mutton, and vegetables of good quality 
 may be had at all times, and reasonably cheap. The 
 bay literally swarms with the greatest variety of most 
 excellent fish. Water is excellent, and is conveyed 
 to the beach in such a manner that the casks of a 
 vessel may be filled in her boats while afloat. Fire- 
 wood is also abundant, and is cheaper than at Bom- 
 bay. A duty of five per cent, is laid on imports, all 
 exports being duty freei. The entire value of the im- 
 ports has been estimated at £900,000. 
 
 Money, Weights, and Measures. — -Accounts here arc 
 kept in goz and mamoodies : 20 goz = 1 mamoody 
 and 20 mamoodies = 1 dollar. All Persian, Turkish, 
 and Indian coins, as well as French and German 
 crowns, and Spanish dollars, are met with ; their value 
 fluctuating with the demand ; and they are generally 
 sold by weight. The weights are, the cncha and 
 maund ; 24 cuchas = 1 maund = 8 lbs. 12 oz. avoirdu- 
 pois. Niebuhr thinks that Muscat occupies the site 
 
MU8 
 
 1385 
 
 MUS 
 
 of the MoBca of Arrian and other Greek -writers 
 {Voyage en AraUe, toI. ii., p. 71, ed. Amst. 1780) ; a 
 conjecture which seems to be confirmed, not merely Iby 
 the resemblance of the name, but also hy the terms 
 applied by Arrian to Mosca being sufficiently descrip- 
 tive of Muscat ; and as the port is bounded on all sides 
 by rocks, it must now present almost the same appear- 
 ance as in antiquity. Dr. Vincent, however, though 
 he speaks doubtfully on the subject, is inclined to 
 place Mosca to the west of Cape Kasselgate. — Com- 
 merce and Navigation of the Ancients, vol. ii., pp. 344- 
 347. For further particulars, besides the authorities 
 above referred to, see Hamilton's New Account of the 
 East Indies, vol. i., p. 63 ; Frazer's Journey to Kho- 
 rasan, pp. 5-19 ; Wellsted's Travels in Arabia, i., 
 pp. 14-25. The longitude given above is that of Ar- 
 rowsmith's Chart of the Persian Gulf. 
 
 ComTnerce with the United States.— The Sultan of 
 Muscat concluded' a treaty with the United States, 
 September 21, 1833, and it took effect June 24, 1837, 
 the day on which the President of the United States 
 made his proclamation. Its stipulations establish per- 
 petual peace between the two countries, and open the 
 ports of each to the vessels and citizens of the other, 
 with unrestricted liberty of trade, reserving in the isl- 
 and of Zanzibar the sale of muskets, powder, and ball 
 to the government only, but leaving the trade in these 
 articles in all other ports of the sultan's dominions free 
 from every restriction. The treaty further stipulates 
 that vessels of the United States entering any port 
 within the sultan's dominions shall pay no more than 
 five per cent, duties on the cargoes landed, which shall 
 be in full of all import and export duties, tonnage, 
 license to trade, pilotage, anchorage, or any other 
 charge whatsoever ; that no charge shall be made on 
 that part of the cargo which may remain on board 
 and be re-exported ; that no charge shall be made on 
 any vessel of the United States which may enter any 
 of the saltan's ports for the purpose of refitting, or for 
 refreshments, or to inquire the state of the market. It 
 is further stipulated that the American citizen shall 
 pay no other duties on export or import, tonnage, li- 
 cense to trade, or other charge whatsoever, than the 
 citizens of the most favored nation shall pay ; and 
 similar equality in the ports of the United States is 
 extended to the vessels and citizens of the saltan. 
 
 In the report to the Department of State, of the 
 agent by whom this treaty was negotiated, the follow- 
 ing paragraphs occur : " The Sultan of Muscat is a 
 very powerful prince. He possesses a more efficient 
 naval force than all the native princes combined, from 
 the Cape of Good Hope to Japan. His resources are 
 more than adequate to his wants. They are derived 
 from commerce, running himself a great number of 
 merchant vessels ; from duties on foreign merchandize ; 
 and from tribute-money and presents received from 
 various princes ; all of which produce a large sum. 
 His possessions in Africa stretch from Cape Delgado 
 to Cape Guardafui, and from Cape Aden, in Arabia, 
 to Ras el Hand ; they extend along the northern coast 
 of Aman to the entrance of the Persian Gulf; and he 
 claims also the sea^coast and islands within the Persian 
 Gulf, including the Bahrein Islands, and the pearl- 
 fisherv contiguous to them, with the northern coast of 
 the gulf, as low down as Scindy. * * * In Africa 
 he owns the ports of Monghow, or Mongallow, Lyndy, 
 Quiloab (Keelwah), Melinda, Larmo, Patta, Brava, 
 Magadosha (alias Mogadore), and the valuable islands 
 of Monfeca, Zanzibar, Pemba, Socotra (Socotera)," 
 etc. 
 
 The exports from the African part of his dominions 
 are gum-copal, aloes, gum-arabic, columbo-root, and a 
 gi'eat variety of other drugs, ivory, tortoise-shell, 
 rhinoceros' horns, hides, beeswax, cocoanut-oil, rice, 
 millet, etc. From Muscat the exports are wheat, 
 raisins, di'Ugs, dates, salt, dried fish, etc. It is esti- 
 mated that seven-eighths of all the ivorj' imported in- , 
 
 to the United States, and all the copal of the finest 
 quality, are from the island of Zanzibar. To this 
 place all the goods collected for this large trade are 
 imported, and sold to the Banians and Hindoos at six 
 months' credit. The United States supply by far the 
 most important goods for all the coast trade, viz. : 
 Lowell manufactured sheetings and shirtings. Other 
 goods in demand for the coast trade are powder, mus- 
 kets, brass-wire, glasS-beads, and India rubber goods. 
 The currency of Muscat differs materially from that 
 of the Persian Gulf or Africa, and, with its weights 
 and measures, is peculiar to the country. The Spanish 
 dollar is current, and the Spanish doubloon varies in 
 value from $14 to $16. See Zanzibar. 
 
 Muscat, Imamat of, an extensive and powerful 
 State of Arabia, comprising the eastern portion of that 
 peninsula, its authority also extending over its south- 
 east coast nearly as far as Aden, and over parts of the 
 coast of Persia on the Persian Gulf, and that of east 
 Africa from the equator south to Cape Delgado. Area 
 and population not ascertained. Besides Muscat, the 
 capital, this dominion comprises the towns of Rostak, 
 Muttra in Arabia, and Juba, Melinda, Mombas, Maga- 
 doxo, Bravah, Quiloa and Lyndy in Africa, with the 
 islands Zanzibar, Socotra, etc., and it has an active 
 trade with all the adjacent countries, and with British 
 India. The imaum has a patriarchal and despotic 
 sway, and the most efficient naval force of any native 
 prince from the Cape of Good Hope to Japan. — Mus- 
 cat or Mascua (probably the Mosca of Arrian), a forti- 
 fied maritime city of east Arabia, capital above domin- 
 ion, on a peninsula in the Arabian Sea, lat. 23° 37' 
 N., long. 58° 35' E. Population estimated at 40,000 
 to 50,000. It is surrounded by heights all strongly 
 fortified. Tlie harbor of the city is well sheltered, 
 and has deep water. Muscat is the grand emporium 
 of east Arabia, and the key to the entrance of the 
 Persian Gulf. Imports estimated $4,500,000 in value 
 annually, and consist chiefly of almonds, aloes, assa- 
 fcetida, gum ammoniac, sulphur, nitre, gum copal, 
 frankincense, coffee, pearls, ivory, horns, hides, wax 
 from Persia and Africa, most of which are re-exported 
 to India and the East ; the returns thence being made 
 in British and India cotton goods, shawls, China 
 manufactures. Large quantities of dates, as also 
 wheat, horses, salt, and dried fish, are among the prin- 
 cipal exports. The port is usually touched at by ves- 
 sels going up the Persian Gulf. Though the country 
 around it is sterile, a plentiful supply of provisions 
 may generally be obtained at Muscat. 
 
 Commercial Relations with the United States.- — The 
 treaty made by the United States in 1837, with the 
 Sultan of Muscat has been duly observed, and a very 
 friendlj' disposition shown by the authorities to all 
 Americans. The present existing commercial regu- 
 lations are fixed and permanent. There are no privi- 
 leges permitted to other nations which are denied to 
 our own. There are no port charges or other dues 
 levied on vessels of the United States. There is no 
 drawback of duties ; merchandise from one vessel to 
 another, or landed for re-shipment, must pay a duty 
 of 5 per cent. The German crowtfj and pice, and pic, 
 from the East India Company's possessions, are the 
 only currency. The number of pice for a German 
 crown (better known in these countries as the black 
 dollar) varies, according to the supply, from 116 to 
 128. At this present time, 120 pice are given for one 
 black dollar, and 3 pic make one pice. Spanish and 
 Mexican dollars are worth no more, and do not circu- 
 late freely. They are purchased for the Bombay 
 market, usuallj' at a premium of 2 to 3 per cent, at 
 the commencement of the south-west monsoon, in 
 April, and also near its close, in September, and find 
 their way from thence to China. American half eagles 
 are worth $5 ; English sovereigns, $4.75 ; Spanish 
 and Portuguese doubloons, $16 ; Spanish quarters and 
 eighths pass freely at 25 and 12J cents, and American 
 
MUS 
 
 1386 
 
 MYR 
 
 dimes and half dimes at 10 and 5 cents. Merchan- 
 dise is bought and sold for dollars and cents. 
 
 Ivory, — This article varies greatly in price, accord- 
 ing to qualitj' and size. Th^ superior kinds, and 
 largest and best, are sent to the United States. In 
 lots, average weight 70 lbs. and upward, $iO to $44 
 per frasla of 35 lbs. Ivory, 50 to 60 lbs. average 
 weight, f37 to $40 per frasla. Tortoise shell per 
 pound, of 3 lbs. English, $2 to $5. Gum copal, per 
 frasla of 35 lbs. English, $5 to $7. Hides, per conge 
 of 20 lbs., $10 to $15 per conge. Cloves, per frasla 
 of 35 lbs., $1.75 to $2.50. 
 
 Commissions usually charged, 2\ per cent. As for 
 freights and insurance, there are no rates to the United 
 States. Cargoes imported from the United States are 
 invariably sold at 6 months' credit. If cash is wanted 
 for a sale, a discount is made of 4^ per cent, for 6 
 months. As for exchange, the captains of whale ships 
 draw upon their owners for the cash they require, and 
 the usual charge is 20 per cent. Duties, 5 per cent. 
 on all cargo landed. No duties on exports to the 
 United States. There are no internal taxes of any 
 kind paid by the people of this island directly. The 
 sultan's revenue is derived from duties on all articles 
 of commerce brought from the neighboring coast. Red 
 Sea, Aden, Persian Gulf, Bombay, and the Malabar 
 coast. The negro slaves are almost the only common 
 laborers, and receive per day about 12J cents, or $2.50 
 to $3 per month. The higher order of servants to 
 oversee the work in preparing and shipping cargoes 
 are paid from $7.50 to $10 per month. Native work- 
 men in the various branches of mechanic industrj^ 
 receive about $5 to $7 per month. 
 
 No steamers are owned or built here, and there are 
 no facilities for ship-building, or even repairing, to any 
 extent. The sultan has a few ships-of-war built 
 either at Bombay or at places on the coast of Malabar. 
 They are manned by slaves and ofiicered by Arabs. 
 The only vessels owned here by natives are called 
 dows^ and seem to answer the purpose very well, but 
 are the rudest kind of ship possible to conceive of, and 
 never undertake to get to any place against the mon- 
 soon. They sail fast, and are of very peculiar con- 
 struction, Zanzibar is a large, fertile, and populous 
 island, and the favorite residence of the sultan, who 
 is far superior to his brother princes in intelligence, 
 and has a disposition to introduce improvements into 
 his dominions. But his subjects, like all Arabs, are 
 far behind other nations, and despise all improvement. 
 Cloves are produced upon this island in large quanti- 
 ties, and tlie annual increase is considerable. All 
 other articles of export are brought from other places. 
 See Com. Rd., U. S., vol. iii., 1866-57, pp. 367-368. 
 
 Musk (Fr. Muse; Ger. Bisam; 'Da. Mushua ; It. 
 Muzchio ; Sp. Almizele ; Eus. Muscus ; Arab, and Pers. 
 Mishk) is obtained from a species of deer (Moschus 
 moschiferus) inhabiting the Alpine mountains of the 
 east of Asia. The musk is found in a small bag under 
 the belly. Musk is in grains concreted together, dry, 
 yet slightly unctuous, and free from grittiness when 
 rubbed between the fingers or chewed. It has a pe- 
 culiar, aromatic, and extremely powerful and durable 
 odor ; the taste is bitterish and heavy ; and the color 
 deep brown, with a shade of red. It is imported into 
 England from China in caddies containing from 60 to 
 100 oz. each ; but an inferior kind is brought from 
 Bengal, and a still baser sort from Russia. The best 
 s that which is in the natural follicle or pod. Being 
 a very high-priced article, it is often adulterated. 
 That which is mixed with the animal's blood may be 
 discovered by the largeness of the lumps or clots. It 
 is sometimes mixed with a dark, highly colored, friable 
 earth ; but this appears to the touch to be of a more 
 crumbling texture, and is harder as well as heavier 
 
 than genuine musk. 20 cwt. of musk are allowed to a 
 ton. It was not permitted to be brought home in the 
 China shipsi belonging to the East India Company. — 
 Thomson's Dispensatortj ; Milboen's Orient. Com. 
 
 Muslin (Gei. Musselin, Nesseltuch; Du. Neteldoeh; 
 Fr. Moussdine; It. MoussoUna; Sp. Moselina; Rus. 
 Kissea) is derived from the word mousale or mouseln, a 
 name given to it in India, where large quantities are 
 made. It is a fine thin sort of cotton cloth, with a 
 downy nap on the surface. Formerly all muslins were 
 imported from tlie East ; but now they are manufac- 
 tured in immense quantities at Manchester, Glasgow, 
 etc., of a fineness and durability which rival those of 
 India, at the same time that they are veiy considerablj*" 
 cheaper. See Cotton. 
 
 Mustard (Ger. Mustert, Sen/; Fr. Moutarde ; It, 
 Mostarda; Sp. Mostaza; Rus. Gorlschiza; Lat. Sina- 
 pis; Arab. Khlrdal; Hind. lidi^, a plant (Sinapis) of 
 which there are several species. It is a native of Eu- 
 rope, and is now naturalized, and a common weed in 
 some parts of the United States. It is besides very 
 commonly cultivated for the salte of the seeds, which, 
 when powdered and mixed with vinegar, form a well 
 known pungent condiment in daily use. The root is 
 annual ; the stem three or four feet high ; the lower 
 leaves are lyrate, and the upper ones landolato and en- 
 tire. The flowers are small and yellow. It belongs 
 to the natural family crucifercBj and is known by the 
 smooth four-cornered pods which are pressed close to 
 the stem. Table mustard, mixed with warm water, 
 and taken in considerable quantities, acts as an emetic, 
 and as such is so much the more valuable from its 
 being always at hand. The white mustard (^S. cdbd) 
 is mQder than the preceding, and on this account is 
 more agreeable to some palates. — E. A. 
 
 Mutiny of the Bounty. Memorable mutiny 
 on board the Bouniy armed ship returning from Ota- 
 heite with bread fruit. The mutineers put their cap- 
 tain, Bligh, and 19 men, into an open boat near 
 Annamooka, one of the Friendly Islands, April 28, 
 1789, and they reached the island of Timor, south of 
 the Moluccas, in June, after a perilous voyage of 
 nearly 4000 miles, in which their preservation was 
 next to miraculous. The mutineers were tried Sep- 
 tember 15, 1792, when six were condemned, of whom 
 three were executed. 
 
 Myrobalans are the dried fruits of different va- 
 rieties of terminalia. The fruit, varying from the size 
 of an olive to that of a. gall-nut, consists of a white 
 pentangular nut, covered by a substance about two 
 lines in thickness. The latter, which is the only val- 
 uable part, is mucilaginous and highly astringent; 
 and being separated from the nut is emploj'ed, witli 
 the best effect, both by dyers and tanners, especially 
 by the latter. It produces with iron a strong, durable, 
 black dye and ink ; and with alum, a very full, thougli 
 dark, brownish yellow. The imports vary consider- 
 ably. — Bancroft On Permanent Colors, i., 351, etc. 
 
 Myrrh (Ger. Myrrlien ; Du. Mtrrhe ; Fr. Mi/rrhe ; 
 It. and Sp. Mirra ; Lat. Myrrha; Arab. Murr), a res- 
 inous substance, the produce of an unknown tree 
 growing in Arabia and Abyssinia. It is imported in 
 chests, each containing from one to two cwt, Abys- 
 sinian myrrh comes to us through the East Indies, 
 while that produced in Arabia is brought by the way 
 of Turkey. It has a peculiar, rather fragrant, odor, 
 and a bitter aromatic taste. It is in small irregularly 
 shaped pieces, which can hardly be called tears. Good 
 myrrh is translucent, of a reddish yellow color, brittle, 
 breaking with a resinous fracture, and easily pulver- 
 ized. Its specific gravity is 1"36. When it is opaque, 
 mixed with impurities, and either white, or of a dark 
 I color approaching nearlj' to black, with a disagreeable 
 [ odor, it should be rejected. — ^Thomson's Dispensaiory. 
 
NAN 
 
 1387 
 
 NAN 
 
 N. 
 
 Nails (Ger. Nagel, Spiker; Du. Spylcers; Fr. 
 Clous; It. Chiodi, Chiovi, Aguti; Sp. Clavos ; Ru3. 
 Gwosdi) are small spikes of iron, brass, etc., which, 
 being driven into ■wood, serve to bind several pieces 
 together, or to fasten something upon them. The con- 
 sumption of nails is immense ; and the aggregate value 
 of those annually produced is very large. 
 
 Statement showing the Domestic Exports of Iron 
 Nails from the United States, fob the Tear end- 
 ing June 30th, 1856. 
 
 DistrlctB. 
 
 Passaraaquoddy 
 
 Portland and Falmouth. . 
 
 Bangor 
 
 PortsEuoath 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Newburyport 
 
 Gloucester 
 
 Salem 
 
 Boston and Oharlestown . 
 
 Fall Elver 
 
 New Bedford 
 
 Providence 
 
 Bristol and Wai-ren 
 
 Newport 
 
 New London 
 
 Genosee 
 
 Oswego 
 
 Niagara 
 
 Buffalo Greek 
 
 Oswogatohio 
 
 New York 
 
 Philadelphia 
 
 Baltimore 
 
 Richmond 
 
 "Wilmington 
 
 Charleston 
 
 Savannah 
 
 New Orleans 
 
 Cuyahoga 
 
 Detroit 
 
 San Francisco 
 
 Total 
 
 188,900 
 
 20,094 
 
 12,000 
 
 100 
 
 7,000 
 
 8,000 
 
 1,200 
 
 86,900 
 
 2,778,100 
 
 2,600 
 
 28,600 
 
 40,000 
 
 67,700 
 
 10,000 
 
 7,581 
 
 14,211 
 
 887,841 
 
 60,740 
 
 65,700 
 
 48,822 
 
 1,880,172 
 
 882,950 
 
 109,650 
 
 16,600 
 
 5,000 
 
 1,000 
 
 2,600 
 
 9,926 
 
 10,800 
 
 16,700 
 
 91,290 
 
 5,736,580 
 
 804 
 
 600 
 
 5 
 
 48 
 
 1,66s 
 
 102,697 
 
 100 
 
 960 
 
 1,550 
 
 2,988 
 
 400 
 
 791 
 
 743 
 
 21,424 
 
 1,240 
 
 2,629 
 
 2,152 
 
 60,860 
 
 14,446 
 
 4,.')18 
 
 650 
 
 200 
 
 43 
 
 110 
 
 707 
 
 471 
 
 007 
 
 6,683 
 
 Statement showing the Imports op Iron Nails, Spikes, 
 AND Taoks, into tue United States, for the Year 
 ENDING June SOth, 1856. 
 
 Ponnda. 
 
 Passamaquoddy 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Boston andCharlestown, 
 
 Oswego 
 
 Oswegatchie 
 
 New York 
 
 Cape Vincent 
 
 Philadelphia 
 
 Baltimore 
 
 Charleston 
 
 Savannah 
 
 Mobile 
 
 New Orleans 
 
 Detroit 
 
 Chicago 
 
 San Francisco 
 
 Total 
 
 6,200 
 
 10,100 
 
 ^,212 
 
 220 
 
 10 
 
 1,881,029 
 
 1,200 
 
 92,416 
 
 54,475 
 
 17,673 
 
 8,644 
 
 4,700 
 
 115,837 
 
 10 
 
 8, -370 
 
 19,700 
 
 Value, 
 
 $158 
 
 1,071 
 
 11,624 
 
 18 
 
 1 
 
 78,508 
 
 61 
 
 12,015 
 
 6,486 
 
 1,577 
 
 875 
 
 694 
 
 18,698 
 
 2 
 
 77 
 
 1,619 
 
 .| 2,292,696 | $127,879 
 
 See Iron and Hardware. 
 
 Naiig^sacki, a sea-port town on the south-west 
 coast of the island of Ximo, one of the Japanese islands, 
 being, according to Krusentem, in lat. 32° 43' 40" N., 
 long. 130° 11' 47" E. The harbor extends N. E. and 
 S.W. about 2J leagues, being, in most places, less than 
 a mile in width. Ships lie in 5 or 6 fathoms water, 
 within a gunshot of the town, near the middle of the 
 bay where they are protected from all winds. 
 
 Nankeen or Nankin (Ger. Nanking ; Du. Nanr- 
 Tdngz Itnnen ; Fr. Toile Nankin ; It. Nanquino ; Span. 
 NaTiquincC)^ a species of cotton cloth in extensive use 
 in this country. It takes its name from Nanking, in 
 China, a European corruption of Kyang-ning, the cap- 
 ital of the extensive province of Kyang-nan, where it 
 is principally produced, and which also furnishes the 
 greater part of the green teas. In the East, the man- 
 
 ufacture is wholly confined to China. The cloth is 
 usually of a yellowish, though occasionally it is of a 
 blue color, and of different degrees of fineness ; the 
 broad pieces called " the Company's nankeens," are 
 generally of a better quality than the narrow ones, and 
 are most esteemed. The color, whether yellow or blue, 
 is given to the cloth by dyeing ; for though yellow cot- 
 ton wool be raised in the East, the cloth made from it 
 is too glaring. The nankeens brought to England 
 come under the general denomination of piece goods. 
 They are mostly made into trowsers and waistcoats for 
 gentlemen's wear during summer, ladies' pelisses, etc. 
 In some of the more southern .parts of Europe, the 
 warmer parts of Asia and America, and the British 
 settlements in Africa, nankeen is worn bj- both sexes 
 all the year round, and constitutes the principal article 
 of attire. Latterly, however, they have become un- 
 fashionable in this country, and their importation has, 
 in consequence, all but ceased. See atticle Oamtos. 
 
 Nankin, or Nanking ("court of the South"), 
 a city, and the ancient capital of China, capital of the 
 province of Kiangsu, near the Yang-tze-Kiang, about 
 90 miles from its mouth. Lat. 32° 2' N., long. 118° 
 49' E. Population estimated at 400,000. Its ancient 
 walls can be traced over hill and dale for 35 miles, but 
 Nankin has so greatly declined since the transference 
 of the seat of empire to Pekin by Kublai-khan in the 
 13th century, that the modem walls are of much less 
 extent, and the city scarcely occupies one eighth part 
 of the surface inclosed by them, and it is commanded 
 by hills especially on the east, and otherwise ill-calcu- 
 lated for defense. Principal objects of interest are 
 the famous porcelain tower of 9 storites and 200 feet in 
 height, completed in 1432 at a cost, as stated, of about 
 $3,500,000 ; and the " tomb of kings" (supposed to be 
 of the Ming dynasty, A.D. 1328 to 1621), leading to 
 .which is a fine-paved road with an avenue of gigantic 
 armed figures. Tho governor's palace, and an ob- 
 servatory, are worthy of notice. Here are important 
 manufactures of crape, satin of the finest quality, pa- 
 per, artificial flowers, China or Indian ink, and nan- 
 keen, which hence derives its name, but is also made 
 throughout the whole province. It is the centre of a 
 very extensive trade, and by the great canal which 
 crosses the Yang-tze-kiang, about 60- miles eastward, 
 it communicates directly with Pekin, to which city a 
 good deal of fish is sent hence, among other arti- 
 cles. It is also the place of a grand viceroy, with 
 authority over the Eiang provinces, of a great mili- 
 tary d6p6t, and the chief seat of literature in the em- 
 pire. 
 
 Nantes, a large commercial city and sea-port of 
 France, on the Loire, about 34 miles from its mouth, in 
 lat. 47° 13' 6" N., long. 1° 32' 44" VT. Population, 
 in 1851, 96,362. Vessels drawing 18 and 19 feet water 
 come up to Paimboeuf, about 24 miles lower down the 
 river ; but no vessel, drawing more than 11 or 12 feet 
 can come up to the city, unless at high water a day or 
 two before y«^^ and change. There are three entrances 
 to the Loire. The first and most generally frequented 
 is between the bank called Le Four and Point Croisic ; 
 there is a second between Le Four and the bank called 
 LaSanche; and the third, which in southerly winds 
 is much resorted to, between the latter and the rocks 
 called La Couronne. The navigation, which is naturally 
 rather difficult, has been much facilitated by the erec- 
 tion of light-houses and beacons. Of the former, one 
 has been recently constructed on the north part of Le 
 Four, about a league from Croisic, in lat- 47° 17' 53" 
 N., long. 2° 38' 3" W. It is 56 feet high. The light 
 is a revolving one ; the flash, which continues for 7 
 seconds, being succeeded by a dark interval of 63 see- 
 
NAN 
 
 1388 
 
 NAP 
 
 onds. Two light-houses, called the AiguiUon lights, 
 stand on the north side of the river, near its mouth ; 
 the lower light, adjoining Point de Levi, being in lat. 
 47° 14' 33" N., long. 2° 15' 46" W. The light is 
 fixed, and is 111 feet above the level of the sea. The 
 upper AiguiUon light, situated about a mile N. 31° E. 
 from the lower, is 127 feet high ; it also is a fixed light, 
 varied, however, by a flash every 3 minutes. A beacon 
 tower, called the Turk, is erected on the southernmost 
 extremity of La Blanche ; the course for vessels enter- 
 ing between it and La Couronne, is to bring the Aguil- 
 lon lights in one. The depth of water on the bar at the 
 mouth of the river varies from 2 to 2|- fathoms. At 
 springs the rise is 14, and at neaps 7 or 8 feet. High 
 water at full and change 3|- hours. 
 
 Her situation renders Nantes the emporium of all 
 the rich and extensive country traversed by the Loire, 
 so that she has a pretty considerable import and export 
 trade, particularly with the "West Indies. The exports 
 consist of all sorts of French produce, but principally 
 of brandy, wine and vinegar, sillt, woolen and linen 
 goods, refined sugar, wheat, rye, biscuits, etc. The 
 principal imports are sugar, coffee, and other colonial 
 products, cotton, indigo, timber, hemp, etc. Nantes 
 is a considerable entrepot for the commerce of salt, 
 large quantities being made in the Department, prin- 
 cipall}- at Noirmutiers and Croisic. During the time 
 that the slave trade was carried on, Nantes was more 
 extensively engaged in it than any other French port. 
 The custom duties of Nantes, exclusive of those on 
 salt, produced, in 1851, 10,817,000 francs; she, being 
 in this respect inferior only to Marseilles, Havre, and 
 Bordeaux. There belonged to the port, except river 
 craft, coasters, and steamers, on the 31st December, 
 1851, 569 ships, of the burden of 68,121 tons. 
 
 The port charges levied on vessels of the United 
 States are the same, and no more than the port charges 
 levied on French vessels, except the tonnage duty, 
 which is 94 cents per ton register, the same as the 
 French vessels pay in the United States. The tran- 
 shipment in vessels of the United States of goods is 
 permitted to any port, except from a French port to an- 
 other French port, which would be considered as a coast- 
 ing trade ; and no vessels of any nation whatsoever are al- 
 lowed to do that trade, except the Spanish vessels, Spain 
 having an ancient treaty with France to that effect. 
 Amount and Chaeaoter of the Port Charges levied 
 ON American Vessels and French Yessbls at the 
 Port of Nantes, the Vfbsel being supposed to be 
 
 OF A BURDEN OF 299 TONS PEE EkGISTER, AND DRAW- 
 ING 11 Peet American. 
 
 Port chargeB. 
 
 Saoitary hoard at St. Nazaire 
 
 Entry of the vessel 
 
 Pilotage from Belle He to Palmbffiuf . 
 Pilotage from PaimlXEUf to Nantes... 
 
 Tonnage duty 
 
 Elver dues. 
 
 Consular fees 
 
 Sixty tons of stone ballast, at 1-25 fr. . 
 Pilotage from Nantes, to PaimboBuf. . . 
 
 Pilotage from Palmbceuf to sea 
 
 ClearaBCes out 
 
 Brokerage on 361 tons delivered, at ) 
 50 centimes J 
 
 Franca, 
 
 64 85 
 12 00 
 113 62 
 60 55 
 
 47 'io 
 
 75' 00 
 49 55 
 85 10 
 12 00 
 
 180 50 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 8 54 
 
 2 28 
 
 21 66 
 
 11 53 
 
 287 00 
 
 8 97 
 4 00 
 
 14 28 
 
 9 44 
 
 but by a pilot. Every vessel is boarded at St. Nazaiie, 
 and if she bas a foul bill of health, or disease on -board, 
 is instructed where to go. Jtiver Dues on vessels as- 
 cending from Palmbceuf to Nantes are about l^d. per 
 ton. At Paimbceuf, and below it, none are levied. If 
 a vessel under sail causes damage to another that is 
 properly moored, she must pay all the expenses of re- 
 pairs ; if to a vessel at single anchor (unless inten- 
 tionally done) or under sail, the expense of the repairs 
 of both are added together, and each pays a moiety. 
 The same rule is enforced if damage be caused by one 
 vessel properly moored driving on board another in 
 the same situation ; but if either were riding at single 
 anchor, the one properly moored is indemnified ; if both 
 were at single anchor, both bear the loss alike. 
 
 ISTaples, a large city and sea-port in the south of 
 Italy, the capital of the kingdom of the same name, 
 the light-house being in lat. 40° 50' 12^' N., long. 14° 
 14^ 15'^ E. Population, in 1851, 416,475. Naples is 
 well situated for commerce ; but the policj' of the gov- 
 ernment has hitherto been most unfavorable to its 
 growth, and has confined it within comparatively nar- 
 row limits. The Bay of Naples is spacious, and is 
 celebrated for its picturesque views. The harbor is 
 formed hy a mole, built nearly in the form of the letter 
 L, having a light-house on its elbow. Within the 
 mole there is from 3 to 4 fathoms water, the ground 
 being soft. The water in the bay is deep, and there is 
 no bar ; it is, however, a good deal exposed to the 
 south-westerly winds; and to guard against their 
 effects, vessels lying in the bay moor with open hawse 
 in that direction. There is no obligation to take a 
 pilot on board, but it is usual to take one the first time 
 that a ship anchors within the mole. The light-house 
 has a revolving light. The period of revolution is 2 
 minutes, during the first of which the full strength of 
 the light is continued, and during the second minute 
 its brilliancy rapidly decreases. The height of the 
 light is 161 feet above the sea, and it is visible at the 
 distance of 18 or 20 miles. At the extremity of the 
 mole is a low fixed light to guide vessels round its head. 
 
 expokts from the continental states of the two 
 Sicilies, by Land and by Sea, in National and 
 Foreign Vessels, in each Year from 1840 to 1850, . 
 BOTH inclusive. 
 
 Years. 
 
 By land. 
 
 By.... 
 
 
 1 
 
 In national 
 
 In foreign 
 
 Total vnluea. 
 
 
 
 veBsels. 
 
 veaseia. 
 
 
 
 
 I>ucaU. 
 
 Diicata. 
 
 Ducats. 
 
 Steriine. 
 
 1840 
 
 461,595 
 
 7,229,289 
 
 4,037,278 
 
 11,728,112 
 
 1,9,54,685 
 
 1841 
 
 726,837 
 
 7,362,093 
 
 6,628,616 
 
 13,607,046 
 
 2,267,841 
 
 1842 
 
 363,168 
 
 9,624,804 
 
 8,989,862 
 
 18,876,324 
 
 2,312,720 
 
 1843 
 
 835,679 
 
 7,825,160 
 
 2,644,298 
 
 10,366,137 
 
 1,726,856 
 
 1844 
 
 298,890 
 
 6,844,870 
 
 2,828,166 
 
 9.971,416 
 
 1,661,903- 
 
 1845 
 
 275,961 
 
 9,984,751 
 
 2,441,927 
 
 13,702,689 
 
 2,283,778 
 
 1346 
 
 276,606 
 
 11,176,164 
 
 2,897,324 
 
 14,850,084 
 
 2,391,681 
 
 1847 
 
 887,900 
 
 8,671,310 
 
 8,148,556 
 
 12,102,766 
 
 2,017,128 
 
 1848 
 
 262,700 
 
 6,503,695 
 
 8,164,883 
 
 9,980,678 
 
 1,655,118 
 
 1849 
 
 251,546 
 
 8,661,960 
 
 4,962,591 
 
 13,776,096 
 
 2,296,016 
 
 1850 
 
 429,828 
 
 9,489,948 
 
 4,840,629 
 
 U,760,420| 2,460,070 
 
 Pilotage. — ^Vessels under 80 tons (if French or as- 
 similated by treaty) are not obliged to talce a pilot at 
 sea, but must have one for the river. The rates, 
 which are fixed by law, are paid by the foot from the 
 sea to Paimbceuf, and from thence to Nantes for all 
 vessels under 80 tons. Above 80 tons, they are per 
 ton. The master of a vessel bound to Paimbceuf or 
 Nantes has merely to give a note to the pilot stating 
 where the pilot boarded him, where he left him, the 
 name and draught of water of his vessel in English 
 feet. The note will be deposited at the pilot's office, 
 and the pilotage be received from the ship's broker.' 
 No foreign vessel, however small, can be removed 
 from one anchorage to another, or to or from a qua}', 
 
 The exports principally consist of the products of 
 the adjacent countr}'. Of these, silk is the most im- 
 portant. Olive oil is also a most important article ; 
 but it is principally supplied by Gallipoli, a town in 
 the Terra d'Otrauto, whence it is commonly called 
 Gallipoli oil. The entire exports of oil from the king- 
 dom of Naples have been estimated at about 200,000 
 salme, or 36,333 tons, a year, which, taking its mean 
 value when exported at $100 per ton, is equivalent to 
 the annual sum of $3,633,300. See Olive Oil. The 
 other articles of export are wool, wine, brandy, dried 
 fruits, red and white argol, tallow, liquorice, gloves, 
 madder, hemp, linseed, cream of tartar, boues, lamb 
 and kid skins, oak and chestnut staves, rags, saffron, 
 etc. There is a great variety in the Neapolitan wines. 
 The most esteemed is the lacrima Christi, a red lus- 
 cious wine, better known in England by name than in 
 reality, the first growths being confined to a small 
 quantity only, which is chiefly reserved for the royal 
 
NAP 
 
 1389 
 
 NAP 
 
 cellars. There are, however, large quantities of sec- 
 ond-rate -wines produced in the vicinity of Naples, 
 such as those of Pozzuoli, Isohia, Nola, etc., which 
 are sold under the name of lacrima Christi, and are 
 largely exported. Several parts of Calabria produce 
 sweet wines of superior quality. — Henderson's An- 
 cient and Modeiti Wines, p. 239. The price of wine 
 at Naples depends entirely on the abundance of the 
 vintage. The imports consist principally of cottons 
 .and cotton twist, hardware, iron and tin, woolens, 
 sugar, coifee, indigo, spices, etc. Naples is a good 
 market for pilchards, and it requires a large supply of 
 dried and barreled cod. 
 
 " The existing regulations as to commercial inter- 
 course with the United States- appear iixed. When 
 our treaty, however, shall expire, if not renewed, a 
 change may follow, as well for tonnage dues as for 
 the additional 10 per cent, on the duties of merchan- 
 dise. I know of no privileges permitted to the com- 
 merce of other nations which are denied to the United 
 States, nor are there any restrictions on the commerce 
 of other nations and not on the United States. The 
 amount and character of the port charges and other 
 dues levied on vessels of the United States are as fol- 
 lows : On entry. — Tonnage, 4 grains, or 3 and one fifth 
 cents per ton, when there is a treaty ; without treaty 
 and indirect voyage, 40 grains, or 32 cents per ton. 
 Light money, $1 ; presentation of manifest, $1 ; cus- 
 tom-house visit, 80 cents ; liquidation of manifest and 
 boletta, 35 cents ; customary pieselit, 60 cents. Total 
 amount on entrj', except tonnage, $3.75. On clear- 
 ance. — Biglietto of departure, $1 ; bill of health, $1 ; 
 roll of police, 25 cents j roll of port, 25 cents ; usual 
 present, 60 cents ; " spedizionieri," or broker's com- 
 pensation, $2. Making a total amount on clearance 
 of $5.10. National vessels pay the same, but the 
 presents are greater by them. The health officer has 
 for granting pratique oh arrival $5. Should the ves- 
 sel be subject to quarantine, the charges increase 
 according to circumstances, and still more so when 
 sent to Visita to perform it. Transhipment in vessels 
 of the United States of goods, either to another port in 
 the kingdom or to a foreign port is prohibited, as well as 
 in other vessels, except the Neapolitan steamboats. 
 It is allowed by favor when the manifest, on arrival, 
 specifies the goods and the port to which they are in- 
 tended to be transhipped. 
 
 "Exports from this port have been put on board 
 free of any dut}^, at prices as follows : Eefined airgols, 
 at 20 cents per pound ; refined yellow pink, at 23 cents 
 per jiound ; cream tartar, at 25 cents per pound ; lic- 
 orice paste (Corigliano) at 16 cents per pound ; licor- 
 ice, Baracco and other, at 15 to 15J cents per pound ; 
 olive oil, in casks, at 78 cents per gallon ; oranges, per 
 box, $2.20 to $2.26; lemons, $3 to $3.20; filberts, 
 4 J cents per pound; walnuts, 5 cents per pound. 
 There have been exported during the year, from the 
 first of July last, about 60,000 lbs. of sewing silks — 
 first, second, and third qualities — at $4.20, $3.80, and 
 $3.60 per lb. of 16 oz. ; also about 25,000 lbs. of such 
 silks, raw or undyed, at $3 per lb. of 16 oz. These 
 are shipped by steamers for Marseilles or Liverpool 
 for the most part. In like indirect way are also sent 
 clay pipes with reed tubes, of little value, musical 
 strings, coral and lava ornaments, but no prices can 
 be quoted, as their value depends on the bcautj^ of the 
 article and the execution of the work. Between 
 wholesale and retail prices there may be a difference 
 of about 10 per cent. Five or six foreign vessels 
 (Neapolitan and English) have loaded in part with 
 oranges and lemons for the United States, and gone to 
 Sicily to fill up, or first take a part cargo in Sicily and 
 fill up here. About 20,000 boxes are shipped in the 
 year from this port, but the prices vary continually ; 
 they are now double what they were in the begmning 
 of the season."— Com. Bel. U. S., 1856-7. 
 
 Commercial Policy. — The policy of the Neapolitan 
 
 government with respect to commerce was for a len~gth- 
 ened period the most objectionable that can well be 
 imagined. Articles, whether of import or of export, 
 were burdened, alike, with oppressive duties and re- 
 strictions ; and even the warehousing of foreign goods 
 could hardly be said to be permitted. Of late, how- 
 ever, we are glad to observe, the administration ap- 
 pears to have become alive to the injurious influence of 
 this filo de se system, and has given its sanction to sev- 
 eral measures of a comparatively liberal character. 
 
 The duties on imports have also undergone various 
 modifications. Those on fish, sugar, and other colo- 
 nial products, have been reduced fully a half. But 
 we submit in illustration of these changes the follow- 
 ing statement of the old and new rates of duty on cer- 
 tain articles : 
 
 Herrings cantar gross 
 
 Codfish , " 
 
 Cocoa " 
 
 Coffee " 
 
 Camphor, raw " 
 
 " , refined rottolo 
 
 Ciunamon, In sorts " 
 
 Cassia lignea, of any sort. , . cantar 
 
 Cloves ' 
 
 Nutmegs rottolo 
 
 PeppoT " 
 
 Pilchards, etc cantar gross 
 
 Stockfish " 
 
 Sugar,'an7 kind, in powder " 
 
 " " in loaves " 
 
 Yauilln; " 
 
 Old duty. 
 
 Now duty. 
 
 5 51 
 
 8 
 
 5 7 
 
 8 20 
 
 16 50 
 
 8 
 
 24 T5 
 
 12 
 
 85 
 
 24 
 
 1 12 
 
 70 
 
 1 54 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 80 
 
 TT 
 
 80 
 
 1 64 
 
 80 
 
 826 
 
 7 
 
 2 4T 
 
 1 20 
 
 4 68 
 
 8 
 
 22 
 
 10 
 
 83 
 
 15 
 
 2 78 ' 
 
 1 80 
 
 We have no doubt that the beneficial influence of 
 these wise and liberal measures will lead to further 
 changes. The duties on iron, with those on cottons, 
 woolens, and other descriptions of manufactured goods, 
 are a great deal too high. These duties were imposed 
 partlj' for the sake of revenue, and partly in the view 
 of encouraging domestic manufactures ; but they have 
 not accomplished either object. See Two Sicilies 
 and Italy. 
 
 IQ'aphtha. A limpid bitumen, which exudes from 
 the earth upon the shores of the Caspian and some 
 other eastern countries. Near the village of Amiano, 
 in the State of Parma, there exists a spring which 
 yields this substance in sufficient quantity to illumi- 
 nate the city of Genoa, for which purpose it is em- 
 ployed. It has a peculiar odor, and generally a yellow 
 color, but may be rendered colorless by distillation. 
 Its specific gravity is about 0.75. It boils at about 
 160°. It is highly inflammable, burning with a white 
 smoky flame. It appears to be a compound of 36 of 
 carbon with 6 of hydrogen, and is therefore a pure 
 hydro-carbon. A liquid very similar to mineral naph- 
 tha is obtained by the distillation of coal tar. It has 
 sometimes been used in lamps, but is apt to smoke. 
 This variety of naphtha is in great request as a solv- 
 ent for caoutchouc. 
 
 Napier, John, Baron of Mercbiston. Cel- 
 ebrated as the inventor of Logarithms. Bom 1550, 
 and educated at the university of St. Andrews. On 
 returning from his travels, in 1574, his learning and 
 accomplishments attracted great attention, and would 
 have raised him to the highest offices of State; but, 
 declining all civil employment, he devoted himself to 
 scientific researches and to theology. In 1614 he pnb- 
 lished his Logarithmorum Canonis Description To Na- 
 pier science is indebted for considerable improvements 
 in spherical trigonometry, etc. He is principally cel- 
 ebrated, however, by his Rabiology and Promptuary 
 of Multiplication, or instruments and tables for the 
 more easy performance of great arithmetical opera- 
 tions, connected with which were the rods of ivory, 
 etc., known as Napier^s bones. In addition to his 
 scientific treatises, he wrote several works on theolo- 
 gical subjects. He died in 1617, in his 68th year, and 
 was buried in the cathedral of St. Giles, at Edinburgh. 
 
NAT 
 
 1390 
 
 NAV 
 
 Narro^7S, The, a channel between Long Island 
 and Staten Island, connecting New York Bay with 
 the Atlantic, nine miles south of New York. The 
 channel is 1905 yards wide, and is well defended by 
 forts and batteries. 
 
 Natal, a colonial possession of Great Britain, on 
 the south-east coast of Africa, between lat. 27° 40' 
 and 30° 40' S., and long. 29° and 31° 10' E., having 
 south-east the Indian Ocean, west, the Draltenberg, 
 or Kahlamba Mountains, separating it from the terri- 
 tory between the Orange and Vaal Elvers, recentl}' 
 annexed to the Cape Colony ; and north-east the Buf- 
 falo and Tugela Elvers, dividing it from the Zooloo 
 country. Estimated area, 18,000 square miles. Pop- 
 ulation uncertain. Surface undulating, well watered, 
 and mostly covered with tall grass. Timber in the 
 interior grows only in clumps, but the sea-coast is 
 bordered by a belt of mangroves. Climate most 
 healthy, and the soil is reported to be far more fertile 
 than in the Cape Colony. Cotton and indigo grow 
 wild, and the former has been produced for esporta- 
 tion, of the finest quality. Sugar, coffee, wheat, oats, 
 beans, and tobacco, are important crops. Superior coal 
 has been found in the interior ; building stone is found 
 all over its surface, and iron ore is abundant. Butter, 
 com, hides, ivory, tallow, tobacco, cotton, and wool, 
 were latelj' among the cliief exports. Value of ex- 
 ports in 1851, $15,000. Imports same year, valued at 
 $280,000. The territory, which is a dependency of 
 the Cape of Good Hope, is administered by a lieuten- 
 ant-governor, assisted by an executive and a legisla- 
 tive council. 
 
 It is subdivided into the districts D'Urban, Pieter- 
 maritzburg, Umvoti, Impafane, Upper Tugela, and 
 Umzinzate, exclusive of a tract in the south, hitherto 
 without an established magistracy. Pietermaritz- 
 burg, the capital, is 50 miles inland from Port Natal, 
 which is near the centre of the coast line. This col- 
 on}' derives its name from the fact of its having been 
 discovered on Christmas day (1498), by the Portu- 
 guese. It was revisited in 1575 by order of King 
 Sebastian. 
 
 National Debt. The first mention of parlia- 
 mentarj' security for a debt of the English nation, oc- 
 curs in the reign of Henry VI. The present national 
 debt commenced in the reign of "William III. It had 
 amounted, in the year 1697, to about five millions 
 sterling, and the debt was then thought to be of alarm- 
 ing magnitude. 
 1702, On the accession of Queen Anne, the deht 
 
 amounted to £14,000,000 
 
 1714, On the aooeasion of Geo. 1 64,000,000 
 
 1749, Geo. II. ; after the Spanish war. 78,000,000 
 
 1763, Geo. III. ; end of the 7 years' war 139,000,000 
 
 1786, Three years after the American war 268,000,000 
 
 1798, The civli and foreign war 462,000,000 
 
 1802, Close of the Fronob revolutionary war 571,000,000 
 
 1814, Close of the war against Bonaparte 865,000,000 
 
 1817, "When the Irish and English exchequers 
 
 wore consolidated 843,282,477 
 
 1830, Total am't of the funded and unfunded debt 840,184,022 
 
 1840, Total amount of ditto 789,578,000 
 
 1845, Funded debt 768,789,000 
 
 1857, " " 780,000,000 
 
 The national debt of the United States originated 
 in consequence of the expenses incurred during the 
 revolutionary war, and amounted in the year 1791 to 
 about $75,000,000. The revenue of the government 
 enabled it to curtail the debt until the year 1812, when 
 it was only $45,000,000. The w^r with England in 
 1812-16, added largely to this debt, the loans neces- 
 sary for war expenditures being raised at a considerable 
 loss. At the end of the war the debt was over $103,- 
 000,000. This was rapidly curtailed, and by the year 
 1835 was fully liquidated, besides an appropriation of 
 several millions of surplus revenue to the individual 
 States. In 1839, the revenue was less than the expen- 
 diture, and another debt was created which had been 
 nearly liquidated up to the year 1845, when the war 
 with Mexico rendered further loans necessary. The 
 
 Years. 
 
 Debt— TJ. S. 
 
 1824 
 
 $90,269,778 
 
 1825 
 
 83,788,438 
 
 1826 
 
 81,054,060 
 
 1827. 
 
 73,987,857 
 
 1828 
 
 67,475,044 
 
 1829 
 
 58,421,414 
 
 IKW 
 
 48,666,406 
 
 1881 
 
 89,12.3,192 
 
 1882. 
 
 24,822,285 
 
 1883. . . . 
 
 7,001,699 
 4,760,082 
 
 1834. 
 
 1885 
 
 37,733 
 
 1836 
 
 87,518 
 
 1887 
 
 1,878,224 
 
 1838. . 
 
 4,867,660 
 11,983,738 
 
 1889 
 
 1840 
 
 5,126,078 
 
 1841 
 
 6,737,398 
 
 1842 
 
 16,028,486 
 
 1843 
 
 26,898,9.53 
 
 1844 
 
 26,148,996 
 
 1645 
 
 16,801,647 
 
 1846 
 
 24,256,495 
 
 1847 
 
 45,659,669 
 
 1848 
 
 65,804,450 
 
 1849 
 
 64,704,693 
 
 1860 
 
 64,228,288 
 
 :&5i 
 
 62,560,895 
 
 1852 
 
 47,660,395 
 
 1858 
 
 56,836,157 
 
 1854 
 
 44,975,466 
 
 1855 
 
 89,969,731 
 
 lB56(Nov.l5) 
 
 80,968,909 
 
 progress of the national debt from 1791 to 1857 was aa 
 follows : 
 
 Years. Debt— U. S. 
 
 1791 $75,463,476 
 
 1792 77,227,924 
 
 1793 80,362,634 
 
 1794 78,427,405 
 
 1795. 80,741,587 
 
 1796 88,762,172 
 
 1797. 82,064,479 
 
 1798 79,228,529 
 
 1799 78,408,670 
 
 1800 82,976,294 
 
 1801 88,038,051 
 
 1802 80,712,682 
 
 1808 77,064,686 
 
 1804 86,427,121 
 
 1805 82,812,150 
 
 1806. 75,728,271 
 
 1807 69,218,399 
 
 1808. 66,196,818 
 
 1809 57,028,192 
 
 1810 53,173;2ir 
 
 1811 48,006,588 
 
 1812 46,209,788 
 
 1S18 55,962,828 
 
 1814 81,487,846 
 
 1815 99,888,660 
 
 1816 127,884,934 
 
 1817 123,491,965 
 
 1318 108,466,684 
 
 1819 96,629,643 
 
 1830. 91,016,566 
 
 1821 89,987,428 
 
 1822 93,546,677 I 
 
 1838 90,876,877 
 
 Eor funded debts of various European nations, see 
 article Eceope, p. 622. 
 
 Naval Architecture. In the small space we 
 can assign to this subject we shall merely endeavor 
 to convey a general notion of the principles and pro- 
 cess of construction. Ships are built in different 
 forms, according to the service they are intended for, 
 and tile burdens they have to carry. It is in men-of- 
 war, which, besides possessing in an eminent degree 
 the general qualities of a ship, have to support a heavy 
 armament of cannon, and which are destined to severe 
 and long-continued service, that the principles of con- 
 struction have been carried to the greatest perfection. 
 The form of the ship, her strength, or the scantling 
 necessarj' for the services required of her, are, from our 
 imperfect knowledge of hydrodynamics, the results of 
 experience alone. When a ship is to be buUt, her form 
 is projected in three different planes perpendicular to 
 each other. 
 
 1st. The sheer draught, which is the side view, or 
 projection on the plane of the keel. On this are laid 
 off the length, the heights of all the parts from the 
 keel, the position and rake of the stem and stempost, 
 the principal frames or timbers of the sides, the ports, 
 decks, channels, place of the greatest breadth or mid- 
 ship frame, stations of the masts, etc. The frames be- 
 fore the midship frame are distinguished by letters; 
 abaft it, by numbers. The midsMp frame is not exactly 
 in the middle of tlie length, but rather be-fore it. 
 
 2d. The iody plan, or end view. This shows the 
 contour of the sides of the ship at certain points of her 
 length, and since the two sides are exactly alike, the 
 left half represents the vertical sections in the after 
 part of the body, and the right-hand half those in the 
 fore part. The base of the projection is the midship, 
 or largest section, called also the dead fiat, within which 
 the other sections are delineated. On this are exhib- 
 ited also the beams of the decks. 
 
 3. The horizontal or floor plane, called also the ludf 
 breadth plan. The base of this is the section made by 
 the horizontal surface of the water and the outside 
 surface of the ship, and is called the upper water line, 
 or load water line. If the ship now be supposed to be 
 lightened- uniformly, she will exhibit another water 
 line, and thus any number of like parallel sections at 
 equal distances down to the keel. On this projection 
 the water lines appear as curves, on the sheer draught 
 as straight lines parallel to the keel. These three sec- 
 
NAV 
 
 1391 
 
 NAV 
 
 tiona correspond to each other upon the same scale, and 
 any point in one is immediately referable to the other 
 two projections. The several parts are drawn from 
 these plans in their full size on the floor of the mold- 
 loft, and worked from the molds or model so taken. 
 
 The place in which the ship is built is called a slip. 
 In the middle, and leading to the water, is a row of 
 piles of stout pieces of wood called the blocks, having 
 a declivity towards the water of about one inch in one 
 foot. On these the keel, which is of elm, is laid, and 
 its component lengths scarfed together. Under the 
 keel is placed the false keel for defence. At the end 
 farthest from the water is raised the stem, which is, in 
 fact, the keel continued upwards. Inside the stem, 
 and just above the keel, is the apron, a curved timber 
 connecting both. On each side of the upper part of 
 the stem is fixed an upright timber ; these are called 
 the knight heads, and the bowsprit lies between them. 
 At the other end of the keel is the sternpost, at which 
 the planking finishes abaft, and on which the rudder 
 is hung. Inside (or before this) are the irmerpost and 
 other pieces for strength. Upon the keel is fixed a 
 laj'er of timber of the same breadth, and rising for- 
 ward and aft, called the dead wood ; on this are placed 
 the floor timbers ; these consist of one which crosses 
 the keel to which it is coaked, and the two parts of a 
 like timber firmly joining it, and projecting beyond its 
 ends. The several pieces are got into their places by 
 shifting shears. 
 
 ThQ frames consist of pairs of timbers composed of 
 pieces of different lengths, joining the floor timbers, 
 and carried upwards. The length joining the floors is 
 called the first futtock, the next the second f uttock, 
 and so on, ending In the top timhers. The pairs are 
 bolted by iron bolts, and of late adjacent pairs have 
 been thus connected. The frames are supported tem- 
 porarily by being fixed to the cross spalls, long fir 
 planks laid horizontally about the height of the gun 
 deck. Those frames whose planes are perpendicular to 
 the keel are called square frames ; at the head and 
 stem these planes incline toward the extremities, and 
 are called cant frames. These divisions of the ship are 
 called, accordingly, square and cant bodies. When the 
 framing has assumed its form the ribands are fixed ; 
 these are thick, narrow planks at wide intervals, ex- 
 tending the length of the vessel, marking the direction 
 of the planks ; they are firmly shored, and removed 
 when tlie planking comes on. The ribaTid lines appear 
 on the half breadth plan as diagonal lines. Upon the 
 keel, and over the floor timbers, to which it is scored, 
 is laid the kelson, which is, in fact, a second keel over 
 the first. The stern of square-aterned ships is formed 
 upon the tmng transom, the uppermost of the horizontal 
 pieces of timber, called transoms, crossing the stem- 
 post inside. The wing transom is secured to the tim- 
 bers of the side by a strong horizontal knee. When 
 the framing is complete, the outside planking is laid 
 on. The wales, thick planks above the water, are first 
 secured to the ribs. The clamps are thick planks in- 
 side, to support the ends of the beams of the decks. 
 The beams support the decks, rest on the clamps, and 
 are secured to the side by knees. The breast hooks are 
 strong curved pieces of timber crossing the stem, and 
 joining the bows. The deck hooks are the same, being 
 at the decks. The crutches answer a like purpose 
 beloW in the after part. The port sills are the upper 
 and lower edges of the ports. The spirketting is the 
 plank of the side between the water way and the port 
 sill. The chain wales are thick planks of the outside 
 to receive the chains and preventer-bolts for the support 
 of the rigging. The foot waling, or ceiling, is the plank 
 lining the inside of the ship below. The limber boards 
 are short, thick pieces of wood resting against the kel- 
 , son for the convenience of keeping a clear passage to 
 the well. The knee of the head, also called the cut- 
 water, is the projecting part of the head ; it is secured 
 to the bows by knees called cheeks. 
 
 
 In order to bend wood into the necessary curvature, 
 it is steamed in places for the purpose. When the 
 planking is all complete, the ship is caulked and 
 painted. The fastenings of timber are efl'ected by 
 bolts, treenails, or coaks. The present method of 
 framing ships-of-war is chiefly due to Sir Robert Sep- 
 pings. We shall describe it here generally ; for par- 
 ticulars, see the Phil. Trams., 1814, and the published 
 reports on the subject. As the timbers or ribs can not 
 be procured entire, or of the proper curvature, various 
 methods have been used for joining the 
 several pieces together. A method 
 used till lately consisted of an angular 
 chock C, fastened by treenails to the 
 ends A B of the timbers. By this plan 
 all stress upon the joint; in whatever 
 direction, falls on the treenails ; and 
 when the chock decays, no support is 
 afforded in any sense whatever. At present the square 
 ends. A' B', are brought together, while a cook C', or 
 small oak cylinder, is letintQ each. 
 
 By this plan the two face^ resist any effort by press- 
 ure from without to close the timbers, and the coak 
 itself resists the effort (perpendicular to this last) to 
 make one timber glide past the other by the whole force 
 necessary' to cut it off flush with the section. In the 
 single case of lifting one face exactly perpendicularly 
 off the other, the coak offers no resistance ; this effort, 
 which is that produced by the strain of the rigging on 
 the sides, is opposed by other numerous connections. 
 The method is very ancient, being used in the construc- 
 tion of the pillars in the temple at Balbec ; the ad- 
 vantages of its application to ship-building is seen in 
 the frames, which undergo no change of form while 
 hoisting into their places. The efficiency of iflie plan, 
 however, does not appear in a single length, but in 
 the system of frames, each joining of which is placed 
 near the middle of the next piece. 
 
 A shelf piece, coaked and bolted to the timbers or 
 ribs, and resting on short vertical pieces 
 of timber called chocks, and sometimes 
 scored to the ribs, is carried like a hoop 
 entirely round the ship. On this the 
 beam ends are coaked^-, and over these 
 again is laid a strong water way scored to 
 the beams, and coaked. Besides these the beam end 
 is clasped by two arms of an iron knee, of which the 
 third, which is vertical, is bolted to the chock. The 
 shelf binds firmly the ends and sides of the ship to- 
 gether, and resists like an arch all external pressure. 
 The spaces between the timbers below are filled up by 
 dry wood driven in tight, and caulked, thus rendering 
 the bottom solid and water-tight, independently of the 
 planking. One of the, most important improvements 
 is the diagonal framework below. Instead of the 
 former planking in the hold are placed braces, crossing 
 the ribs, to which they are coaked, at an angle of 45 ° ; 
 those in the fore body incline (or rake) aft, and those 
 in the after body forward. They butt against the kel- 
 son, and extend nearly to the water ; they are in gen- 
 eral placed under every other beam, but closer at the 
 extremities. 
 
 Longitudinal pieces of timber are laid nearly paral- 
 lel to the keel over the heads or joinings of the timbers, 
 and bolted through ; these, crossing the diagonals, 
 form a series of rhomboidal figures, across. which, in- 
 side, are firmly driven trusses, lying the opposite way 
 from the diagonals ; these are bolted through, and, 
 when necessary, are further tightened by driving in 
 thin iron plates at the ends. The diagonals act by the 
 tension of the fibres, the trusses by the thrust, and the 
 whole thus resists every effort to change the figure of 
 the ship. The system was first put into complete prac- 
 tice in the Tremendous, 74, in 1810 ; which ship evinced, 
 in several severe trials, a firmness and dryness not 
 known before. M. C. Dupin has shown (Phil. Trans., 
 1817) that the principle of diagonal framing had Bug- 
 
NAV 
 
 1392 
 
 NAV 
 
 gested itself, and been tried by several French en- 
 gineers, but as often abandoned. The merit, there- 
 fore, of Sir E. Seppings, in reducing to practice a 
 system which to others had been attended with in- 
 superable difficulties, more than compensates the want 
 of novelty in the idea itself. The ancient square, 
 massive, but weak stems, have been replaced by Sir 
 R. Seppings \>y round stems, corresponding in con- 
 struction, and therefore in strength, to the bow. 
 These have again undergone various alterations, tend- 
 ing to combine the strength of the new with the im- 
 posing appearance of the former stem. It is only now 
 by contrasting the solid and immovable frame with the 
 former weak and unconnected structure, that we can 
 fuUj' perceive the inefficiency of the ancient construc- 
 tion. The timbers, instead of forming an independ- 
 ent system, were often supported in part by the plank- 
 ing itself, as is the case in boats. The masts, resting 
 only upon their steps, instead of strong platforms 
 which diffuse the pressure on all sides, and pressed 
 downwards by their weight, and by the enormous strain 
 of the rigging, arising from the wind on the sails, 
 forced the keel down, and made the ship leaky. The 
 timbers and framework, being at right angles, with- 
 out mutual support, the whole stress of the ship came 
 on the fastenings ; and, lastly, the safety of the ship 
 depended entirely upon that of the outside plank, the 
 part most exposed to injury. 
 
 The planks of the decks have also sometimes been 
 placed diagonally ; and lately iron diagonal straps have 
 been added to the upper works inside. The extremi- 
 ties being unsupported below by the water droop, or 
 the ship hogs, a three-decker formerly drooped at once, 
 on being launched, nine inches at each end, which in- 
 creased 'with her length of service ; at present, such a 
 ship droops only 3^ inches, which, when the materials 
 are set, suffers little or no increase. Exposure to 
 moisture being a cause of the decay of timber, build- 
 ing undercover has long been practiced. This also 
 protects the men from the weather. The wood usually 
 employed in ship-building is oak. Elm, which does 
 not split readily, is employed for the keel, and for the 
 caps. East India teak, a very heavy durable wood, 
 which does not shrink, nor is liable to splinter from 
 shot, is now verj' much used. African teak is also 
 much used. Fir is used for light works, masts, etc. 
 The bottoms of ships are liable to become covered with 
 weeds and shells, and to be eaten through by worms. 
 To prevent these evils, the bottoms were formerly 
 covered with a thin sheathing of wood, which was re- 
 placed when worn. Lead has also been used. Ships 
 are now sheathed almost universally with thin sheets 
 of copper. 
 
 For further information on this subject, reference 
 may be made to the following works : Bouguer, 
 Traite du Navire ; Clairbois, TraiU Elementaire, etc. ; 
 Chapman's Naval Archit., with Notes by Dr. Inman ; 
 Steel's Elemenio, with an Appendix, by J. Knowlbs, 
 F.R.S. ; FiNCSAsi^a Outlm£S of Ship-hullding ; the ar- 
 ticle " Ship-building" in the new edition of the ^nct/. 
 Britannica. 
 
 Naval Courts are tribunals established as occa- 
 sion may require, either on the high seas or in foreign 
 parts, or at home, for inquiring into and dealing with 
 various matters pertaining to maritime affairs. 
 
 Naval Stores. The principal of these are tar, 
 pitch, rosin and turpentine, though other articles used 
 in building and equipping vessels are sometimes in- 
 cluded. The United States are so abundantly supplied 
 with naval stores, that notwithstanding she is more 
 extensively employed in ship-building than any other 
 nation, she exports naval stores in large quantities. 
 
 Naval Stokes exported feom tue United States to 
 Great Britain, 
 
 Year 1848 $536,739 I Tear 1862 $945,224 
 
 " 1849 724,630 " 1858 1,099,682 
 
 " 1850 911,281 " 1854 1,565,683 
 
 " 1851 761,403 1 " 1865 1,183,866 
 
 Statement suowing the Exports of Naval Stores pro.m 
 TUE United States for tub Tear ending June SOth- 
 1866. 
 
 Whithor exported. 
 
 Prussia 
 
 Sweden and Noi-way. . 
 
 Danish West Indies.. . . 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Other Gorman ports. .. 
 
 Holland 
 
 Dutch West Indies 
 
 Dutch Guiana 
 
 Dutch East Indies 
 
 Belgium 
 
 England 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Ireland 
 
 Gibraltar. 
 
 Malta 
 
 Canada 
 
 Other British N. Amer. pes. 
 
 British "West Indies 
 
 British Honduras 
 
 British Guiana 
 
 British Possess, in Africa 
 
 British Australia 
 
 British East Indies 
 
 France on the Atlantic. . . . 
 
 France on the Mediter 
 
 French North Amor. poss. 
 
 French West Indies 
 
 French Guiana. 
 
 Spain on the Atlantic 
 
 Spain on the Mediterranean 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Porto Kico. 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Madeira 
 
 Cape de Verd Islands — 
 
 Azores 
 
 Sardinia 
 
 Tuscany 
 
 Two Sicilies 
 
 Austria 
 
 Austrian possess, in Italy 
 
 Turkey in Europe 
 
 Turkey in Asia 
 
 Other ports in Africa 
 
 Hayti 
 
 San Domingo 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Central Republic. 
 
 New Granada. 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Uruguay 
 
 Buenos Ayres 
 
 Chili 
 
 Peru 
 
 Ecuador 
 
 Sandwich Islands 
 
 China 
 
 Whale Fisheries 
 
 Total 
 
 Tor aad pi tch. Rosla & turpentine. 
 
 Barrels, 
 "516 
 
 80 
 
 62 
 
 834 
 
 631 
 
 26;5i8 
 9,717 
 
 "m 
 
 1,919 
 
 8,957 
 
 12,653 
 
 2,476 
 
 283 
 
 746 
 
 657 
 
 1,140 
 
 8,968 
 
 "'ieo 
 
 216 
 808 
 102 
 600 
 816 
 
 8,912 
 292 
 
 1,051 
 
 35 
 
 66 
 
 300 
 
 268 
 50 
 460 
 898 
 653 
 182 
 
 941 
 
 8S0 
 
 6T8 
 
 100 
 
 4O0 
 
 1,166 
 
 1,041 
 
 49 
 
 Dollars. 
 1,694 
 
 164 
 144 
 667 
 
 72,872 
 29,288 
 
 V,762 
 
 4,896 
 
 18,398 
 
 27,088 
 
 5,949 
 
 683 
 
 1,887 
 
 1,380 
 
 2,886 
 
 21,697 
 
 "870 
 550 
 
 1,674 
 818 
 
 1,729 
 
 2,580 
 
 10,769 
 
 7.35 
 
 2,887 
 
 96 
 
 172 
 
 496 
 
 575 
 
 125 
 1,087 
 2,141 
 1,681 
 
 496 
 2,043 
 
 123 
 2,539 
 1,005 
 1,851 
 
 212 
 
 950 
 2,784 
 2,684 
 
 147 
 
 1,860 4,808 
 8ll 142 
 
 Barrels, 
 
 4,227 
 
 1,075 
 
 168 
 
 16,358 
 
 16,894 
 
 m 
 
 87,9T9 
 
 "'io 
 
 757 
 
 68,867 
 
 257,248 
 
 22,576 
 
 2,626 
 
 786 
 
 2,590 
 
 6,878 
 
 3,290 
 
 320 
 
 996 
 6,118 
 4,946 
 
 6 1 — 
 llillS 
 
 1,000 
 8T6 
 615 
 22 
 
 1,643 
 100 
 
 2,737 
 1,240 
 1,729 
 2,204 
 2,923 
 824 
 9.59 
 
 226 
 1,608 
 17,181 
 2,675 
 1,465 
 2,269 
 2,080 
 
 "'so 
 
 374 
 
 87,765 235,487| 624,799 1,222,066 
 
 Dollars, 
 
 8,096 
 
 1,715 
 
 890 
 
 28,813 
 
 27,962 
 
 172 
 
 70,038 
 
 ""14 
 
 1,S96 
 
 128,368 
 
 702,872 
 
 50,309 
 
 4,773 
 
 1,! 
 
 4,911 
 
 26,665 
 
 7,174 
 
 557 
 
 1,984 
 10,467 
 
 9,548 
 10,276 
 32,418 
 
 "802 
 
 b'oio 
 
 1,416 
 2, 
 
 55 
 
 8,082 
 
 281 
 
 6,480 
 4,.388 
 1,994 
 8,287 
 8,692 
 5,466 
 1,526 
 1,971 
 715 
 
 "780 
 
 "641 
 8,718 
 81,230 
 4,48T 
 2,469 
 4,542 
 4,631 
 
 "257 
 
 Navigation (Lat. navis, a ship), is that branch 
 of science by which the mariner is taught to conduct 
 his ship from one part or place to another. To un- 
 derstand the principles of navigation, and their prac- 
 tical application, it is necessary that the mariner should 
 be acquainted with the form and magnitude of the 
 earth, the relative situations of the lines conceived to 
 be drawn on its surface, and have charts of the coasts 
 and maps of the harbors which he may have occasion 
 to visit. He must also understand the use of the in- 
 struments by which the direction in which a ship is 
 steered, and the distance which she sails, are ascer- 
 tained ; and be able to deduce from the data supplied 
 by such instruments the situation of his ship at any 
 time, and to find the direction and distance of any place 
 to which it may be required that the ship should be 
 taken. A curve passing through any two places on 
 the earth, and cutting every intervening meridian at 
 the same angle, is called a rhumb Ime; the angle 
 which such a curve makes with each meridian is called 
 the course between any two places through which the 
 curve passes ; and the arc of that curve intercepted 
 between any two places is called their nautical distance. 
 This distance is more than that measured on the arc 
 of a great circle passing through the two places, uu- 
 
NAV 
 
 1393 
 
 NAV 
 
 less both places are on the same meridian, or both on 
 the equator, when the rhumb line and great circle co- 
 incide. The difference of latitude between any two 
 places is an arc of a meridian intercepted between the 
 parallels of latitude on which the places are situated ; 
 and the difference of longitude is the arc of the equator, 
 or the angle at the pole included between the meridians 
 of the places. Hence, when the latitudes or the lon- 
 gitudes of two places are of the same denomination 
 with respect to north or south, east or west, the differ- 
 ence is found by subtracting the less from the greater ; 
 but when of different denominations, what is called 
 their difference Is found by taking their sum. See 
 Latitcdb, Lonoitdde. 
 
 Navigation owes its origin to the Phenicians, 
 about 1500 B.C. The first laws of navigation origin- 
 ated with the Khodians, 916 b.c The first account we 
 have of any considerable voyage is that of the Phe- 
 nicians sailing round Africa, 604 B.C. — Blair. On the 
 destruction of Thebes by Alexander the Great, 335 b.c. 
 its commerce passed to Alexandria, and subsequently 
 the Romans became the chief masters of commerce. 
 It passed successively from the Venetians, Genoese, 
 and Hanse Towns, to the Portuguese and Spaniards ; 
 and from these to the English and Dutch. — ^Haydn. 
 
 Plane charts and mariners^ compass used about. ...&. u. 1420 
 
 Yariatiou of the compass discovered by Columbus 1492 
 
 That the oblique rhumb lines arc spirals, discovered by 
 
 Nonius 158T 
 
 First treatise on navigation 1545 
 
 The log first mentioned by Bourne 1577 
 
 Mercatoi-'s chart 1599 
 
 Davis's quadrant, or backstatf, for measuring angles, ab't 1600 
 Logarithmic tables applied to navigation by Gunter. . . . 1620 
 
 Middle latitude sailing introduced 1628 
 
 Mensuration of a degree, Norwood 1631 
 
 Iladloy's quadrant 1731 
 
 Harrison's time-keeper used 1764 
 
 Nautical almanac first published 1767 
 
 Barlow's theory of the deviation of the compass 1820 
 
 See Compass, Latitude, Longtitudb, etc. 
 
 Navigation La'ws. These laws form an im- 
 portant branch of maritime law. In this country they 
 are understood to comprise the various acts that have 
 been passed, defining the way in which ships are to be 
 manned, the peculiar privileges enjoyed by them, and 
 the conditions under whicli foreign ships shall be al- 
 lowed to engage in the trade of the countr)', either as 
 importers or exporters of commodities, or as carriers of 
 commodities from one part of the country to another. 
 
 Sketch of the History and Principles of the Navigation 
 Laws. — The origin of the navigation laws of England, 
 which are the foundation of ours, may be traced to the 
 reign of Richard II., or perhaps to a still more remote 
 period. But, as no intelligible account of the varying 
 and contradictory enactments framed at so distant an 
 epoch could be compressed within any reasonable space, 
 it is sufficient to observe, that in the reign of Henry 
 VII., two of the leading principles of the navigation 
 law were distinctly recognized, in the prohibition of 
 the importation of certain commodities, unless im- 
 ported in ships belonging to English owners, and 
 manned by English seamen. In the early part of the 
 reign of Elizabeth (5 Eliz. c. 5), foreign ships were 
 excluded from the iisheries and coasting trade. The 
 republican Parliament gave a great extension to the 
 navigation laws, by the act of 1650, which prohibited 
 all ships, of all foreign nations whatever, from trading 
 with the plantations in America, without having pre- 
 viously obtained a license. These acts were, however, 
 rather intended to regulate the trade between the dif- 
 ferent ports and dependencies of the empire, than to 
 regulate intercourse with foreigners. But in the fol- 
 lowing year (9th of October, 1651), the republican 
 Parliament passed the famous Act of Navigation. This 
 act had a double object. It was intended not only to 
 promote British navigation, hut also to strike a deci- 
 sive blow at the naval power of the Dutch, who then 
 engrossed almost the whole carrying trade of the world, 
 and against whom various circumstances had conspired 
 4T 
 
 to incense the English. The act in question declared, 
 that no goods or commodities whatever, of the growth, 
 production or manufacture of Asia, Africa or America, 
 should be imported either into England or Ireland, or 
 any of the plantations, except in ships belonging to 
 English subjects, and of which the master and the 
 greater number of the crew were also English. Hav- 
 ing thus secured the import trade of Asia, Africa and 
 America, to the English ship-owners, the act went on 
 to secure to them, as far as that was possible, the im- 
 port trade of Europe. For this purpose, it further 
 enacted, that no goods of the growth, production, or 
 manufacture of any country in Europe, should be im- 
 ported into Great Britain, except in British ships, or 
 in such ships as were the real property of the people of the 
 country or place in which the goods . wera produced, or 
 from which they could only be, or most usually were, ex- 
 ported. The latter part of the clause was entirely 
 leveled against the Dutch, who had but little native 
 produce to export, and whose ships were principally 
 employed in carrying the produce of other countries to 
 foreign markets. Such were the leading provisions of 
 this famous act. They were adopted by the' regal 
 government which succeeded Cromwell, and form the 
 basis of the act of the 12th Car. 2, which continued, to 
 a very recent period, to be the rule by which naval in- 
 tercourse' with other countries was mainly regulated \ 
 and has been pompously designated the Charta Marl- 
 tima of England I 
 
 American View of iJte Rights of Navigation. — The 
 liberty of passage to be enjoyed by one nation through 
 the dominions of another, was treated by the most em- 
 inent writers on public law, as a qualified, occasional 
 exception to the paramount rights of property. They 
 made no distraction between the right of passage by 
 a river, flowing from the possessions of one nation 
 througli those of another, to the ocean, and^the same 
 right to be enjoyed by means of any highway', whether 
 of land or water, generally accessible to the inhabit- 
 ants of the earth. The right of passage, then, must 
 hold good for other purposes, besides those of trade ; 
 for objects of war as well as for those of peace ; for all 
 nations, no less than for any nation in particular, and 
 be attached to artificial as well as to natural highways. 
 The principle could not, therefore, be insisted on by 
 the American government, unless it was prepared to 
 apply the same principle by reciprocity, in favor of 
 British subjects, to the navigation of the Mississippi 
 and the Hudson, access to which from Canada might 
 be obtained by a few miles of land carriage, or by the 
 artificial communication created by the canals of New 
 York and Ohio. Hence the necessity wiich has been 
 felt by the writers on public law, of controlling the 
 operation of a principle so extensive and dangerous, by 
 restricting the right of transit to purposes of innocent 
 utility, to be exclusively determined bj' the local sov- 
 ereign. Hence the right in question is termed by 
 them an imperfect right. But there was nothing in 
 these writers, or in the stipulations of the treaties of 
 Vienna, respecting the navigation of the great rivers 
 of Germany, to countenance the American doctrine of 
 an absolute natural right. These stipulations were 
 the result of mutual consent, founded on considerations 
 of mutual interest growing out of the relative situation 
 of the different States concerned in this navigation. 
 The same observation would applj' to the -various con- 
 ventional regulations which had been at different per- 
 iods applied to the navigation of the River Mississippi. 
 As to any supposed right derived from the simultan- 
 eous acquisition of the St. Lawrence by the British 
 and American people, it could not be allowed to have 
 survived the treaty of 1783, by which the independence 
 of the United States was acknowledged, and a parti- 
 tion of the British dominions in North America was 
 made between the new government and that of the 
 mother country. 
 
 This argument, it was replied, on the part of tli 
 
NAV 
 
 1394 
 
 NAV 
 
 United States, that, if the St. Lawrence were regarded 
 as a strait connecting navigable seas, as it ought proba- 
 bly to be, there would be less controversy. The prin- 
 ciple on which the right to navigate straits depends, is, 
 that they are accessorial to those seas which they unite, 
 and the right of navigating which is not exclusive, 
 but common to all nations ; the right to navigate the 
 seas drawing after it that of passing the straits. The 
 United States and Great Britain have between them 
 the exclusive right of na\'igating the lakes. The St. 
 Lawrence connects them with the ocean. The right 
 to navigate both (the lakes and the ocean), includes 
 that of passing from one to the other througli the nat- 
 ural link. Was it then reasonable or just that one of 
 the two co-proprietors of the lakes should altogether 
 exclude his associate from the use of a common boun- 
 ty of nature, necessary to the full enjoyment of them ? 
 The distinction between the right of passage, claimed 
 by one nation through the territories of another, on 
 land, and that on navigable water, though not always 
 clearly marked by the writers on public law, has a 
 manifest existence in the nature of things. In the 
 former case, the passage can hardly ever take place, 
 especially if it be of numerous bodies, without some 
 detriment or inconvenience to the State whose terri- 
 torj' is traversed. But in the case of a passage on 
 water no such injurj' is sustained. The American 
 government did not mean to contend for any princi- 
 ple, the benefit of which, in analogous circumstances, 
 it would deny to Great Britain. If, therefore, in' the 
 further progress of discovery, a connection should be 
 developed between the Mississippi and Upper Canada, 
 similar to that which exists between the United States 
 and the St. Lawrence, the American government 
 would be always ready to appl}', in respect to the 
 Mississippi, the same principles it contended for in re- 
 spect to the St. Lawrence, But the case of rivers, 
 which rise and debouch altogether within the limits 
 of the same nation, ought not to be confounded with 
 those which, having their sources and navigable por- 
 tions of their streams in States above, finally dis- 
 charge themselves within the limits of other States 
 below. In the former case, the question as to open- 
 ing the navigation to other nations, depended upon 
 the same considerations which might influence the 
 regulation of other commercial intercourse with for- 
 eign States, and was to be exclusively determined by 
 the local sovereign. But in respect to the latter the 
 free navigation of the river was a natural right in the 
 upper inhabitants, of which they could not be entire- 
 ly deprived by the arbitrary caprice of the lower State. 
 Nor was the fact of subjecting the use of this right to 
 treaty regulations, as was proposed at Vienna to be 
 done in respect to the navigation of the European 
 rivers, sufficient to prove that the origin of the right 
 was conventional, and not natural. It often happened 
 to be highly convenient, if not sometimes indispensa- 
 ble, to avoid controversies, by prescribing certain rules 
 for the enjoyment of a natural right. The law of na- 
 ture, though sufficiently intelligible in its great out- 
 lines and general purposes, does not always reach 
 every minute detail which is called for by the compli- 
 cated wants and varieties of modern navigation and 
 commerce. Hence the right of navigating the ocean 
 Itself, in many instances, principally incident to a 
 state of war, is subjected, by innumerable treaties, 
 to various regulations. These regulations— the trans- 
 actions of Vienna, and other analogous stipulations-- 
 should be regarded only as the spontaneous homage of 
 man to the permanent Lawgiver of the universe, by 
 delivering his great works from the artificial shackles 
 and selfish contrivances to which they have been arbi- 
 trarily and unjustly subjected.— Wheatos's Interna- 
 tional Law, pp. 263-266.— [nis cUpter m Mb. Whea- 
 Tos's workfurnidies the best view, in brief, of the nghts 
 of navigation of the St. Lawrence, the Mississippi, the 
 Rhine, and of the rights of Territory.— Eds. C. of G.] 
 
 Laws of trade and navigation can not affect for- 
 eigners, beyond the territorial limits of the State, but 
 they are binding upon its citizens, wherever they may 
 be. Thus, offenses against the laws of a State, pro- 
 hibiting or regulating any particular traffic, may bo 
 punished by its tribunals, when committed by its citi- 
 zens, in whatever place ; but if committed by foreign- 
 ers, such offenses can only be thus punished when 
 committed within the territory of the State, or on 
 board of its vessels, in some place not within the juris- 
 diction of any other State.— Wheaton, Int. Law, p. 
 175. 
 
 Claims to Portions of the Sea upon the Ground of Pre- 
 scription. — Besides those bays, gulfs, straits, . mouths 
 of rivers, and estuaries which are inclosed by capes 
 and headlands belonging to the territorj' of the State, 
 a jurisdiction and right of property over certain other 
 portions of the sea have been claimed by different na- 
 tions, on the ground of immemorial use. Such, for 
 example, was the sovereignty formerly claimed by the 
 republic of Venice over the Adriatic. The maritime 
 supremacy claimed by Great Britain over what are 
 called the Narrow Seas, has generally been asserted 
 merely by requiring certain honors to the British flag 
 in those seas, which have been rendered or refused by 
 other nations, according to circumstances, but the 
 claim itself has never been sanctioned by general ac- 
 quiescence. Straits are passages communicating from 
 one sea to another. If the navigation of the two seas 
 thus connected, is free, the navigation of the channel 
 by which they are connected ought also to be free. 
 Even if such strait be bounded on both sides by the 
 territory' of the same sovereign, and is at the same 
 time so narrow as to be commanded by cannon shot 
 from both shores, the exclusive territorial jurisdiction 
 of that sovereign over such strait is controlled by the 
 right of other nations to communicate with the seas 
 thus connected. 
 
 Such right maj^, however, be modified by special 
 compact, adopting those regulations which are indis- 
 pensably necessarj^ to the security of the State whose 
 interior waters thus form the channel of communica- 
 tion between different seas, the navigation of which 
 is free to other nations. Thus the passage of the 
 strait may remain free to the private merchant vessels 
 of those nations having a right to navigate the seas it 
 connects, while it is shut to all foreign armed ships in 
 time of peace. — Wheaton's Int. Law, pp. 238-240. 
 
 Navigation of tite Mississippi. — By the treaty of 
 peace concluded at Paris in 1768, between Erance, 
 Spain, and Great Britain, the province of Canada was 
 ceded to Great Britain by France, and that of Florida 
 to the same power hy Spain, and the boundary be- 
 tween the French and British possessions in North 
 America was ascertained by a line drawn through the 
 middle of the Kiver Mississippi, from its source to the 
 Iberville, and from thence through the latter river and 
 the lakes of Maurepas and Pontchartrain to the sea. 
 The right of navigating .the Mississippi was at the 
 same time secured to the subjects of Great Britain 
 from its source to the sea, and the passages in and out 
 of its mouth, without being stopped or visited, or sub- 
 jected to the payment of any duty whatsoever. The 
 province of Louisiana was soon afterward ceded by 
 France to Spain ; and hy the treaty of Paris, 1783, 
 Florida was retroceded to Spain by Great Britain. 
 The independence of the United States was acknowl- 
 edged, and the right of navigating the Mississippi was 
 secured to the citizens of the United States and the 
 subjects of Great Britain by the separate treaty be- 
 tween these powers. But Spain, having thus become 
 possessed of both banks of the Mississippi at its mouth, 
 and a considerable distance above its mouth, claimed 
 its exclusive navigation below the point where the 
 southern boundary of the United States struck the 
 river. 
 
 This claim was resisted, and the right to participate 
 
NAV 
 
 1395 
 
 NAV 
 
 in the navigation of tlie river from its source to the 
 sea was insisted on by the United States, under the 
 treaties of 1763 and 1783, as well as by the law of 
 nature and nations. The dispute was terminated by 
 the treaty of San Lorenzo el Real, in 1795, by the 4th 
 article of which his Catholic majesty agreed that the 
 navigation of the Mississippi, in its whole breadth, from 
 its source to the ocean, should be free to the citizens of 
 the United States ; and by the 22d article thej- were 
 permitted to deposit their goods at the port of New 
 Orleans, and to export them from thence, without 
 paying any other duty than the hire of the warehouses. 
 The subsequent acquisition of Louisiana and Florida 
 by the United States having included within their ter- 
 ritorj- the whole river from its source to the Gulf of 
 Mexico, and the stipulation in the treaty of 1783, se- 
 curing to British subjects a right to participate in its 
 navigation, not having been renewed by the treaty of 
 Ghent in 1814, the right of navigating the Mississippi 
 is now vested exclusively in the United States. — 
 Wheaton's I}a. Law, pp. 257, 258. The navigation 
 of the continuous waters of the United States and 
 Canada is provided for in the following articles of the 
 treatj' of June 5, 1854, The third article, whose oper- 
 ation may be affected at the will of the American gov- 
 ernment, by a suspension of this privilege, as stipu- 
 lated in the fourth article, on the part of Great Britain, 
 provides for a reciprocal trade, free of duty, between 
 the United States and the British colonies, in the 
 articles of their respective growth and produce, as 
 enumerated in the schedule thereto annexed. 
 
 " It is agreed that the citizens and inhabitants of the 
 United States shall have the right to navigate the 
 River St. Lawrence aud the canals in Canada, used as 
 the means of communicating between the Great Lakes 
 and the Atlantic Ocean, with their vessels, boats, and 
 crafts, as fully and freely as the subjects of her Bri- 
 tannic majesty, subject only to the same tolls and other 
 assessments as now are, or may hereafter be, exacted 
 of her majesty's said subjects ; it being understood, 
 however, that the British government retains the right 
 of suspending this privilege on giving due notice 
 thereof to the government of the United States. It is 
 further agreed, that if at any time the British govern- 
 ment should exercise the said reserved right, the gov- 
 ernment of the United States shall have the right of 
 suspending, if it think flt, the operation of article 3, of 
 the present treaty, in so far as the province of Canada is 
 affected thereby, for so long as the suspension of the free 
 navigation of the River St. Lawrence or the canals 
 may continue. It is farther agreed that British sub- 
 jects shall have the right freely to navigate Lake 
 Michigan with their vessels, boats, and crafts, so long 
 as the privilege of navigating the River St. Lawrence, 
 secured to Americans by the above clause of the pres- 
 ent article, shall continue ; and the government of 
 the United States further engages to urge upon the 
 State governments to secure to the subjects of her 
 Britannic majesty the use of the several State canals, 
 on terms of equality with the inhabitants of the United 
 States."— Whbaton's Int. Law, pp. 266, 267. [A full 
 understanding of this svAject, and of the able views of 
 Mb. WHEATOjSf, can he had only by a careful reading 
 of his elaborate and highly-prized work on International 
 Law.— Em. C. of C] 
 
 Navigators' Islands, a group of islands in the 
 southern Pacific Ocean, remarkable for their extent, 
 fertility, and population. They are about 10 in num- 
 ber, and are situated between 169° and 172° 30' W. 
 long., and from lat. 13° 25' to an uncertain boundary 
 southward. When seen from the ocean, they present 
 a lofty appearance, and are mountainous, but neither 
 surrounded with a low border nor inclosed by reefs, 
 like the Society Islands. The first discovery of these 
 islands was made in 1722, by Eoggewin and Banman, 
 who fell in with the easternmost of the number ; while 
 Bougainville, in 1768, added another ; and Porouse, in 
 
 1787, discovered the two westernmost, which are the 
 largest, being more than 40 miles in length. The last 
 navigator was informed of three more to the southward. 
 The whole group was visited in 1791 by Captain Ed- 
 wards. The inhabitants are a stout and well-made 
 race, of the ordinary height of 6 feet 9 or 11 inches. 
 They are altogether savage in their manners, which 
 are said to be remarkably indecent. They are also of 
 the most ferocious disposition. The least dispute be- 
 tween them is followed by blows ,from clubs, sticks, 
 or paddles, and is often attended with the loss of life. 
 They are very ingenious, and fashion their work dex- 
 terously with hatchets shaped like adzes, and made of 
 very fine and compact basalts. With these they finish 
 works in wood, and give them so high a polish that 
 they appear to be coated with the finest varnish. 
 They also manufacture a species of cloth which pos- 
 sesses great strength and pliability, and is well calcu- 
 lated for the sails of canoes. The name of Navigators' 
 Islands w^s bestowed by Bougainville, from the prac- 
 tice whieh prevails among the inhabitants of continu- 
 ally traveling in canoes. We have no data upon 
 which we can calculate the amount of the population, 
 but it must be considerable, considering that these 
 islands are among the most fertile in the South Seas. 
 
 Navy Department. The Navy Department was 
 cijpated by an act of Congress, 30th April, 1798, and is 
 under the direction of the Secretary of the Navy. The 
 Department conducts its business in several bureaux, 
 namely, the Bureau of Docks and Navy Yards ; the 
 Bureau of Ordnance and Hydrography ; the Bureau of 
 Construction, Equipments, and Repairs ; the Bureau of 
 Provisions and Clothing; the Bureau of Medicine and 
 Surgical Instruments, etc. ; and the National Observa- 
 tory at Washington is under the charge of this Depart- 
 ment. The ministerial duties of these several bureaux 
 were formerly exercised by a Board of Navy Com- 
 missioners. 
 
 Secretaries of the Navy. —George Cabot, Mass., May 
 3, 1798; Benjamin Stoddard, Md., May 21, 1798; 
 Robert Smith, Md., January 26, 1802 ; Jacob Crownin- 
 shield, Mass., March 2, 1805 ; Paul Hamilton, S. C, 
 March 7, 1809 ; WUliam Jones, Penn., January 12, 
 1813 ; Benjamin W. Crowninshield, Mass., December 
 17, 1814; Smith Thompson, N. Y., November 30, 
 1818 ; Samuel L. Southard, N. J., December 9, 1823 ; 
 John Branch, N. C, March 9, 1829 ; Levi Woodbury, 
 N. H., August, 1831 ; Mahlon Dickerson, N. J., 
 June 30, 1834 ; James K. Paulding, N. Y., June 30, 
 1838 ; George E. Badger, N. C, March 6, 1841 ; Abel 
 P. Upshur, Va., September IB, 1841 ; David Henshaw, 
 Mass., July 24, 1843 ; Thomas W. Gilmer, Va., Feb- 
 ruary 15, 1844 ; John Y. Mason, Va., March 14, 1844 ; 
 George Bancroft, Mass., March 10, 1845; John Y. 
 Mason, Va., 1846 ; William B. Preston, Va., March 7, 
 1849 ; William, A. Graham, Nl C, July 20, 1850 ; 
 James C. Dobbin, N. C, March 5, 1853 ; Isaac 
 Touoey, Conn., March, 1857. 
 
 Navy Yards of the United States. — Portsmouth, 
 Charlestown, Brooklyn, Philadelphia, Washington, 
 Gosport, Pensacola. 
 
 Navy Dry Docks. — Charlestown, Brooklyn, N. Y., 
 Pensacola, Gosport, 
 
 United States' Navy Squadrons. — East Indian, Pa- 
 cific, African, Brazilian, Mediterranean, Home (West 
 Indies). 
 
 Navy Hospitals. — Chelsea, Mass., New York, Ports- 
 mouth, Va., Pensacola. 
 
 Naval Magaeines. — Charlestown, Mass., New York, 
 Washington, Norfolk, Pensacola. 
 
 National Observatory, Washington ; Naval Acade- 
 my, Annapolis ; Naval Asylum, Philadelphia. 
 
 Navy. The first fleet of galleys, like those of the 
 Danes, was built by Alfred, a.d. 897. In the time of 
 -Henry VIII. the British navy consisted of 1 ship of 
 1200 tons, 2 of 800 tons, and 6 or 7 smaller ; the larg 
 est was called the Great Harry. Elizabeth's fleet at 
 
NES 
 
 1396 
 
 NET 
 
 the time of the Spanish Armada, in 1588, consisted of 
 only 28 vessels, none larger than frigates. James I. 
 added 10 ships of 1400 tons each, and 64 guns, the 
 largest then ever built. — Gibson's Camden. 
 Account of the Pkogeessive Inoheabe op the Royal 
 
 NilVY OF Bnslahd feom Henkv VIIFs Keign to the 
 
 close of the Wak, 1814. 
 
 Yeai-. 
 
 Ships. 
 
 Torts. 
 
 Men voted. 
 
 Navy estimate. 
 
 1521 
 
 16 
 
 T,260 
 
 
 no account, 
 
 1678 
 
 24 
 
 10,606 
 
 6,700 
 
 ■ ti 
 
 1603. 
 
 42' 
 
 17,055 
 
 8,346 
 
 
 1658 
 
 167 
 
 57,000 
 
 21,910 
 
 " 
 
 1688 
 
 178 
 
 101,892 
 
 43,000 
 
 " 
 
 1702 
 
 272 
 
 159,030 
 
 40,000 
 
 £1,066,915 
 
 1T60 
 
 412 
 
 321,184 
 
 70,000 
 
 8,227,148 
 
 1793 
 
 498 
 
 438,226 
 
 45,000 
 
 5,525,881 
 
 1800 
 
 T67 
 
 668,744 
 
 186,000 
 
 13,422,837 
 
 1808 
 
 869 
 
 892,800 
 
 148,800 
 
 17,496,047 
 
 1814 
 
 901 
 
 966,000 
 
 146,000 
 
 18,786,609 
 
 Neap, or Neep Tides, are the lowest );ides, be- 
 ing those which are produced when the attraftions of 
 the sun and moon on the waters of the ocean are ex- 
 erted in directions perpendicular to each other. When 
 the two forces act m the same or exactly opposite 
 directions, the spring or highest tides are produced. 
 The neap tides take place about four or five days be- 
 fore the new and full moons. See Tides. 
 
 Needles. They make a considerable article of com- 
 merce, as well as of home trade in England. German 
 and Hungarian steel is of most repute for needles. 
 The first that were made in England were fabricated 
 in Cheapside, London, in the time of the sanguinary 
 Marj-, by a negro from Spain ; but, as he would not 
 impart the secret, it was lost at his death, and not re- 
 covered again till 1566, in the reign of Elizabeth, when 
 EUas Growse, a German, taught the art to the English, 
 who have since brought it to the highest degree of 
 perfection. — Stowe. The family of the Greenings, an- 
 cestors of Lord Dorchester, established a needle manu- 
 factory in Bucks about this time. — Anderson. 
 
 Needles are made from the best steel, reduced by a 
 wire-drawing machine to the suitable diameter. The 
 manufacture is supposed to have originated in Spain, 
 and to have been introduced into England about the 
 year 1565, by Elias Krause, or Growse, who then set- 
 tled in London. Dr. Ure, in his Dictionary of Arts, 
 states that "the construction of a needle requires 
 about 120 operations ; but they are rapidly and unin- 
 terruptedly successive. A child can trim the eyes of 
 4000 needles per hour. When we survey a manufac- 
 ture of this kind, we can not fail to observe that the 
 diversity of operations which the needles undergo 
 bears the impress of great mechanical refinement. In 
 the arts, to divide labor is to abridge it ; to multiply 
 operations is to simplify them ; and to attach an opera- 
 tive exclusively to one process, is to render him much 
 more economical and productive." — E. A. 
 
 Statement showing the Impohts of Needles into the 
 UNtTEi> States for the Year ending June 80tii, 1856. 
 
 Portland and Palmouth $276 
 
 Boston and Charlestown 36,089 
 
 New York 202,264 
 
 Philadelphia. 5.5™ 
 
 Baltimoi-e °29 
 
 Charleston 126 
 
 New Orleans 93rf 
 
 San Francisco ™' 
 
 Total .$246,060 
 
 Nests, Esculent. A species of nests built by 
 swallows peculiar to the Indian Islands, and very 
 much esteemed in China and other parts of the world. 
 These nests resemble in form those of other swallows ; 
 they are formed of a viscid substance, and in external 
 appearance as well as consistence are not unlike fibrate 
 ill-concocted isinglass. Esculent nests are principally 
 found in Java, in caverns usually situated on the sea- 
 coast. Nothing satisfactory is known as to the sub- 
 stance of which these nests are composed. 
 
 Net (Fr. Filet, reseau ; Ger. Nets), is s textile 
 fabric of knotted meshes for catching fish and other 
 purposes. Each mesh should be so secured as to be 
 incapable of enlargement or diminution. The French 
 government offered in 1802 a prize of 10,000 francs to 
 the person who should invent a machine for making 
 nets upon automatic principles, and adjudged it to M. 
 Buron, who presented his mechanical invention to the 
 Conservatoire des Arts Metiers, It does not appear, 
 however, that this machine has accomplished the ob- 
 ject in view ; for no establishment was ever mounted 
 to carrj' it into execution. Nets are usually made by 
 the fishermen and their families during the periods of 
 leisure. The formation of a mesh is too simple » 
 matter to require description in this dictionary. 
 
 Nett (It. netto, pure), that which remains of a 
 weight, quantity, etc., after making certain deduc- 
 tions. Thus, in mercantile language, the nett weight 
 is the weight of any article after deducting tare and 
 tret ; nett projits, income, etc., is the absolute profit or 
 income, after deducting expenses, interest, etc. It is 
 opposed to gross (britto). 
 
 Nettings, in a ship, a sort of grates made of 
 small ropes seized together with rope-yarn, or twine, 
 and fixed upon the quarters and in the tops. They 
 are sometimes stretched upon the ledges from the 
 waist-trees to the roof-trees, from the top of the fore- 
 castle to the poop, and sometimes are laid in the waist 
 of a ship to serve instead of gratings. 
 
 Netherlands (Kingdom of -the), or Holland 
 (Du. Konlngrijk der Nederlanden ; Fr. Royaum£ des Pas 
 Bos), a State of western Europe, on the German 
 Ocean (capital Amsterdam), composed of the Nether- 
 lands proper, or the ancient republic of the Seven 
 United Provinces, and part of the Duchy of Limburg, 
 situated between lat. 60° 43' and 53° 21' N., and long. 
 3° 24' and 7° 12' E., bounded east by Hanover and 
 Prussia, south b}' Belgium and the Grand Duchy of 
 Luxemburg (the south-east portion of which is held 
 by the King of the Netherlands), and west and north 
 by the German Ocean. Extent and population as 
 follows : 
 
 Provinces. 
 
 Alea in geog. 
 miles. 
 
 Population 
 in ISSi!. 
 
 Scl^ools. 
 1851. 
 
 Brabant (North) 
 
 93-895 
 92-720 
 56-276 
 46-188 
 81-688 
 25-244 
 59-689 
 60-680 
 41-707 
 43-529 
 40100 
 
 408,687 
 883,S94 
 684,698 
 506,006 
 163,818 
 158,946 
 265,916 
 224,778 
 196,264 
 86,785 
 210,276 
 
 408 
 400 
 460 
 580 
 165 
 153 
 855 
 233 
 246 
 140 
 210 
 
 Holland (South) 
 
 
 
 Utrecht 
 
 
 
 
 
 Limburg— Duchy. 
 
 Grand Dnchy of Luxem- 
 burg, Dec. 8l8t. 1851. . . 
 Total 
 
 598-905 
 46 600 
 
 8,168,006 
 194,619 
 
 3,295 
 Attendance. 
 
 801,015 
 
 689-916 
 
 8,862,625 
 
 
 
 The leading features of the new navigation laws of 
 the Netherlands may be gathered from the following 
 summary: 1. Unconditional repeal of discriminating 
 favors granted to the Dutch flag, by suppression of the 
 rules allowing to this flag preference above foreign flags, 
 2. Conditional similarity of flag in the navigation to and 
 from the Netherlands' colonies. 3. Stipulations by law 
 concerning the 'trade and navigation in the colonies of 
 the realm carried on by other nations. 4. Repeal of 
 interdiction to grant Netherlands registers to foreign- 
 built vessels, by their admittance for registry (natural- 
 ization) at a duty of 4 per cent, of their value. 5. Dimin- 
 ishing of import duties on principal materials for ship- 
 building. 6. Suspension of the shipping duties on the 
 Rhine and Yssel. 7. Total abolition of transit duties. 
 
 Public revenue, in 1853, 71,685,772 florins, of which 
 amount nearly half is raised by direct taxation and 
 excise duties. Expenditure, 70,086,078 florins. Na- 
 tional debt, 1,206,493,330 florins. The marine force in 
 
NET 
 
 1397 
 
 NET 
 
 actual service on 1st July, 1862, comprised 6087 nien, 
 exclusive of those in the colonies. The merchant 
 marine is comprised of 2000 vessels, aggregate Ijurden 
 20,000 lasts. The following, table shows the extent 
 and population of the colonial possessions of the king- 
 dom of the ^Netheirlande in 1849 : 
 
 Colonies. 
 
 Area In ' 
 geog. miles. 
 
 Popalivtion 
 ,l!il849. 
 
 Asia. 
 
 2,444-? 
 
 2,200-6 
 455-6 
 476-0 
 
 2,558-4 
 6768 
 852-8 
 856-0 
 148-6 
 244-3 
 
 2,561-8 
 
 6,567-8 
 
 2,149-9 
 478-9 
 
 1,267-2 
 
 1,129-7 
 411-8 
 
 1,042-6 
 191-6 
 
 8,210-0 
 
 98,875 
 
 82,900 
 272,000 
 
 60,000 
 100,000 
 
 48,000 
 
 804,076 
 
 811,100 
 
 1,669,000 
 
 277,508 
 
 188,000 
 
 97,829 
 
 165,765, 
 
 1,057,800 
 
 1,105,000 
 
 200,000 
 
 Sumatra, ^est coast 
 
 
 
 
 
 Assahan,Eatoe, Bara, Sirda, Delli, etc. 
 Banca 
 
 Ebio 
 
 
 
 " Soutb and east coast 
 
 Macassar, Celebes 
 
 
 
 Ternate 
 
 Bftuda 
 
 Timor 
 
 Lombock, 
 
 
 Total 
 
 28,928-2 
 
 2,812-6 
 17-4 
 
 500-0 
 
 16,478,187 
 
 64,270 
 26,811 
 
 100,000 
 
 America. 
 
 Cui'agoa and St. ISustache 
 
 Africa. 
 Coast of Guinea 
 
 Grand total 
 
 82,258-1 , 
 
 16,668,718 
 
 The Netherlands is a name, "which, for several cen- 
 turies, was applied to the countries now forming the 
 kingdoms of Belgium, and the Netherlands, and part 
 of the north of France (Departments Nord and Pas- 
 de-Calais). This country belonged almost entirelj- to 
 Charles V. United to Jranche-Comt^, it fomed the 
 circle of Burgundy. From this seven of the north 
 provinces separated themselves in 1579, and formed 
 the republic of Holland, or the Seven United Prov- 
 inces. Part of the low counti-y was conquered by 
 Louis XIV., and called the French Netherlands ; the 
 rest, first under the dominion of Spain, passed in 1714 
 to that of Austria, and was called Spanish Nether- 
 lands, Austrian Netherlands, or Belgium. 
 
 The fisheries formed the origin of prosperity in the 
 Netherlands, and the herrings prepared by the Dutch 
 still maintain their superiority. In 1842, 1603 boats, 
 manned by 8280 men, were employed in this fishery. 
 The whale fishery in the Sea of Spitzbergen has been 
 profitably carried on since the 16th century. The 
 manufacturing industry of the country is very active, 
 Holland having long been celebrated for its linens, 
 velvets, and paper ; and during the 17th and 18th cen- 
 turies, its typography enjoyed a well-merited reputa- 
 tion. The absence of cold, and the prevalence of 
 strong winds, have led to the adoption of the wind- 
 mill as a motive power, and it is universally employed 
 in all kinds of work. The chief manufactures are 
 linen of the finest quality, woolens, silks, and velvets, 
 paper, leather, cordage, hats, ribbons, saltpetre, and 
 tobacco. Tho manufacture of cotton has been recentlj' 
 introduced. There are numerous distilleries of " Ge- 
 neva" (rather jenever, from the juniper berry, with 
 which the gin is flavored), or " Hollands," and exten- 
 sive bleach fields', brick and tile works. Holland 
 presents the appearance of an immense net-work of 
 canals, which form the usual access not only to towns 
 and villages, but even tO' private mansions. The most 
 important is that of North Hollaiid,' between Amster- 
 dam and the Helder, the finest work of the kind in 
 Europe, 50 miles in length, 125 feet broad at the sur- 
 face, and 21 feet in depth. By means of this import- 
 ant work, ships bound for- Amsterdam avoid the danger 
 and delay of navigating the Zuyder Zee ; it is spacious 
 enough to admit 2 frigates abreast. Since not only 
 
 Uje surface but the bed of many of the canals is above 
 the level of the land, the drainage of the poldera or 
 meadows, throiigh which they pass,, is, an object of 
 great solicitude; it is efi«cted by. means of pumps 
 wotked by wind-mills, h). a country where human 
 industry is engaged in, a continual struggle with the 
 sea, from the domains of which it has been conquered, 
 the management of dykes, canals, and ro^ds,, is a spe- 
 cial object of attention on the part of the government. 
 The roads,, which are always formed on, tbe dykes and 
 bordered by canals, are excellent. In 1849 lines of 
 railroad were completed from Amsterdam west to 
 Harlem, and south to Leyden, the Hague, and Rotter- 
 dam, and south and east by Utrecht to Amhem. The 
 principal imports consist of colonial products and 
 manufactured goods, corn, wines, cotton, wool, and 
 leather, valued in 1861 at 303,993,224 florins. Chief 
 exports are butter, cheese, dried fish, gin, the manu- 
 factures of the country, and colonial produce ; valued 
 at 242,744,806 florins. 
 
 A letter from the United States' consul at the Hague 
 gives the annexed information, under date of July 20, 
 1855 : " The second Chamber has, by a vote of 43 to 7, 
 passed the bill abolishing the tonnage dues. The de- 
 ficit in the revenues, caused by this bill, is calculated 
 at 500,000 francs a year, and is to be covered by an 
 additional excise duty on refined sugar, which has 
 also been passed by the Chamber. The abolition of 
 the tonnage dues, and of the still more vexatious malt 
 tax, has been hailed throughout the countrj' with joy 
 as an indication of a progressive policy, to which the 
 present ministry has appeared but little inclined till 
 now." 
 
 COMMEEOB oy TUB Netiieelands IN 1854. 
 
 CouQtries, 
 
 Australia 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Oalifornia. 
 
 China 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Curacoa 
 
 Denmark. . . : 
 
 France 
 
 Greenland, etc 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 Hamburg. 
 
 Hanover and Oldenburg 
 
 Java, etc 
 
 Canary Islands ; . . 
 
 Papal States — 
 
 Coast of Guinea 
 
 Lubec 
 
 Mecklenburg. 
 
 Naples and Sicily 
 
 United States. 
 
 Norway ., , 
 
 Austria 
 
 Philippine Islands. 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Bussia (on Baltic & White i 
 Eassia (on the Black Sea) . . , 
 
 Sardinia 
 
 Spain : 
 
 America, except U. S 
 
 Surinam 
 
 German Customs' Union.... 
 
 Tuscany 
 
 Turkey^ Greece, etc 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Other ports.. 
 
 Total ,...'. 
 
 Year precedilig 
 
 Difference 
 
 Imports. 
 
 41,446,556 
 1,240,888 
 1,162,682 
 
 56V,96o 
 
 2,461,486 
 
 185,614 
 
 8,968,715 
 
 12,171,902 
 
 9,526 
 
 99,761,865 
 
 6,759,602 
 
 6,488,825 
 
 74,388,228 
 
 2,772,244 
 
 422,i85 
 
 88,669 
 
 69,846 
 
 2,002,691 
 
 7,546,048 
 
 4,824,728 
 
 974,310 
 
 179,816 
 
 743,689 
 
 7,510,808 
 
 1,748,629 
 
 264,157 
 
 1,127,687 
 
 429,488' 
 
 4,384,095 
 
 68,819,497 
 
 676,222 
 
 778,998 
 
 1,125,047 
 
 115,101 
 
 856,484,519 
 321,051,729 
 
 85,432,790 
 
 Exportfi. 
 
 FlorinB. 
 
 479,511 
 
 30,469,426 
 
 ■ 221,586 
 
 778,660 
 
 61,904 
 
 68,094 
 
 244,861 
 
 267,819 
 
 1,190,010 
 
 18,074,686 
 
 75,194,278 
 
 9,824,688 
 
 2,587,857 
 
 29,402,129 
 
 242,628 
 
 854,884 
 
 617,116 
 
 16,623 
 
 77,665 
 
 8,805,610 
 
 5,136,928 
 
 844,948 
 
 3,802,120 
 
 508,587 
 87,448 
 
 2,92i5'7'46 
 785,680 
 822,955 
 
 1,501,934 
 116,485,236 
 
 2,769,146 
 
 8,772,605 
 579,805 
 
 808,780,801 
 272,801,666 
 
 85,979,186 
 
 SniPpiNG iif 1864 AND 1355. 
 
 Vcsseb. 
 
 Entered. 
 
 Cleared. | 
 
 tfo. 
 
 Tods. 
 
 No. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Loaded (1854).. 
 
 Inballa^t 
 
 Total in 1854. 
 
 7,128 
 414 
 
 1,154,460 
 89,682 
 
 4,638 
 8,291 
 
 822,785 
 461,896 
 
 7,502 
 
 1,244,132 
 
 7,324 
 
 1,284,681 
 
 Loaded (1355). ; 
 
 In ballast 
 
 Total in 1355. 
 
 7,788 
 469 
 
 1,308,450 
 81,098 
 
 4,242 
 4,203 
 
 810,126 
 688,544 
 
 8,257 
 
 1,334,543 
 
 8,446 
 
 1,443,670 
 
NEU 
 
 1398 
 
 NEU 
 
 ^Neutrals. Of the General RigUs and Duties of 
 Neutral Nations. — The rights and duties which belong 
 to a state of neutrality form a very interesting title in 
 the code of international law. They ought to be ob- 
 jects of particular study in this country, inasmuch as 
 it is our true policy to cherish a spirit of peace, and 
 to keep ourselves free from those political connections 
 which would tend to draw us into the vortex of Eu- 
 ropean contests. A nation that maintains a firm and 
 scrupulously impartial neutrality, and commands the 
 respect of all other nations by its prudence, justice, 
 and good faith, has the best chance to preserve unim- 
 paired the blessings of its commerce, the freedom of 
 its institutions, and the prosperity of its resources. 
 Belligerent nations are interested in the support of the 
 just rights of neutrals, for the intercourse which is 
 kept up by means of their commerce contributes 
 greatly to mitigate the evils of war. The public law 
 of Europe has established the principle, that, in time 
 of war, countries not parties to the war, nor interpos- 
 ing in it, shall not be materially affected by its action ; 
 but/ they shall be permitted to caiT}' on their accus- 
 tomed trade, under the few necessary restrictions 
 which we shall hereafter consider. 
 
 A neutral has a right to pursue his ordinary com- 
 merce, and he may become the carrier of the enemy's 
 goods, without being subject to any confiscation of the 
 ship, or of the neutral articles on board; though not 
 without the risk of having the voyage interrupted by 
 the seizure of the hostile property. As the neutral 
 has a right to carrj'' the property of enemies in his own 
 vessel, so, on the other hand, his own property is in- 
 violable, though it be found in the vessels of enemies. 
 But the general inviolability of the neutral character 
 goes further than merely the protection of neutral 
 property. It protects the property of the belligerents 
 when within the neutral jurisdiction. It is not lawful 
 to make neutral territorj'- the scene of hostility, or to 
 attack an enemy while within it ; and if the enemy 
 be attacked, or any capture made, under neutral pro- 
 tection, the neutral is bound to redress the injury, and 
 effect restitution. The books are full of cases recog- 
 niziag this principle of neutrality, — Kent's Com, 
 
 Prizes brought into Neutral Ports. — A neutral has no 
 right to inquire into the validity of a capture, except 
 in cases in which the rights of neutral jurisdiction were 
 violated 5 and, in such cases, the neutral power will 
 restore the property, if found in the hands of the 
 offender, and within its jurisdiction, regardless of any 
 sentence of condemnation by a court of a belligerous 
 captor. It belongs solel}'" to the neutral government 
 to raise the objection to a capture and title, founded 
 on the violation of neutral rights. The adverse belli- 
 gerent has no right to complain when the prize is 
 duly libeled before a competent court. If any com- 
 plaint is to be made on the part of the captured, it 
 must be by his government to the neutral government, 
 for a fraudulent, or unworthy, or unnecessary submis- 
 sion to a violation of its territory, and such submis- 
 sion will naturally provoke retaliation. — Jhid. 
 
 Arming in Neutral Ports. — The government of the 
 United States was warranted, by the law and practice 
 of nations, in the declarations made in 1793, of the 
 rules of neutrality, which were particularly recognized 
 as necessary to be observed by the belligerent powers, 
 in their intercourse with this country. These rules 
 were, that the original arming or equipping of vessels 
 in our ports, by any of the powers at war, for military 
 service, was unlawful; and no such vessel was en- 
 titled to an asylum in our ports. The equipment by 
 them of government vessels of war, in matters of 
 which, if done to other vessels, would be applicable 
 equally to commerce or war, was lawful. The equip- 
 ment by them of vessels fitted for merchandise and 
 war, and applicable to either, was lawful ; but if it 
 were of a nature solely applicable to war it was un- 
 lawful. And if the armed vessel of one nation should 
 
 depart from our jurisdiction, no armed vessel, being 
 within the same, and belonging to an adverse belli- 
 gerent power, should depart until 24 hours after the 
 former, without being deemed to have violated the 
 law of nations. — Ibid, 
 
 Prizes in Neutral Ports. — Though a belligerent ves- 
 sel may not enter within neutral jurisdiction for hos- 
 tile purposes, she may, consistently with a state of 
 neutrality, until prohibited by the neutral power, 
 bring her prize into a neutral port, and sell it. The 
 neutral power is, however, at liberty to refuse this 
 privilege, provided the refusal be made, as the privi- 
 lege ought to be granted to both parties, or to neither. 
 The United States, while a neutral power, frequently 
 asserted the right to prohibit, at discretion, the sale 
 within their ports of prizes brought in by the bellige- 
 rents ; and the sale of French prizes was allowed as 
 an indulgence merely, until it interfered with the 
 treaty of England of 1794, in respect to prizes made 
 by privateers. — Ibid. 
 
 Neutral Property/ in an Enemy''s Vessel, — It is also a 
 principle of the law of nations relative to neutral 
 rights that the effects of neuti'als, found on board of 
 enemy's vessels, shall be free ; and it is a right as 
 fully and firmlj- settled as the other, though, like that, 
 it is often changed by positive agreement. 
 
 The two distinct propositions, that enemy's goods 
 found on board a neutral ship may lawfully be seized 
 as prize of war, and that the goods of a neutral found 
 on board of an enemy's vessel were to be restored, 
 have been explicitly incorporated into the jurispru- 
 dence of the United States, and declared by the Su- 
 preme Court to be founded in the law of nations. 
 The rule, as it was observed by the court, rested on 
 the simple and intelligible principle, that war gave a 
 full right to capture the goods of an enemy, but gave 
 no right to capture the goods of a friend. 
 
 The neutral flag constituted no protection to enemy's 
 property, and the belligerent flag communicated no 
 hostile character to neutral property. The character 
 of the property depended upon the fact of ownership, 
 and not upon the character of the vehicle in which it 
 is found. — Ibid. 
 
 Of Restrictions upon Neutral Trade. — The principal 
 restriction which the law of nations jmposes on the 
 trade of neutrals, is the prohibition to furnish the bel- 
 ligerent parties with warlike stores, and other articles 
 which are directly auxiliary to warlike purposes. 
 Such goods are denominated contraband of war ; but 
 in the attempt to define them, the authorities vary, or 
 are deficient in precision, and the subject has long been 
 a fruitful source of dispute between neutral and belli- 
 gerent nations. 
 
 Contraband of War. — In the time of Grotius, some 
 persons contended for the rigor of war, and others for 
 the freedom of commerce. As neutral nations are 
 willing to seize the opportunity which war presents, of 
 becaming carriers for the belligerent powers, it is nat- 
 ural that they should desire to diminish the list of 
 contraband as much as possible. Grotius distinguishes 
 between things which are useful only in war, as arms 
 and ammunition, and things which serve merely for 
 pleasure, and things which are of a mixed nature, and 
 useful both in peace and war. He agrees with other 
 writers in prohibiting neutrals from carrying articles 
 of the first kind to the enemy, as well as in permitting 
 the second kind to be carried. As to articles of the 
 third class, which are of indiscriminate use in peace 
 and war, as money, provisions, ships and naval stores, 
 he says that they are sometimes lawful articles of neu- 
 tral commerce, and sometimes not ; and the question 
 will depend upon circumstances existiog at the time. 
 
 Law of Blockades. — A neutral may also forfeit the 
 immunities of his national character by violations of 
 blockade ; and among the rights of belligerents, there 
 is none more clear and incontrovertible, or more just 
 and necessary in the application, than that which gives 
 
NEU 
 
 1399 
 
 NEU 
 
 rise to the law of blockade. Bynkershoeck says, it is 
 founded on the principles of natural reason, as well as 
 on the usage of nations ; and Grotius considers the 
 cariying of supplies to a besieged town, or a blockaded 
 port, as an offense exceedingly aggravated and injur- 
 ious. They both agree that a neutral may be dealt 
 with severely ; and Vattel says he may be treated as 
 an enemy. The law of blockade is, however, so harsh 
 and severe in its operation, that, in order to apply it, 
 the fact of the actual blockade must be established by 
 clear and unequivocal evidence ; and the neutral must 
 have had due previous notice of its existence ; and the 
 squadron allotted for the purposes of its execution 
 must be competent to cut off all communication with 
 the interdicted place or port ; and the neutral must 
 have been guilty of some act of violation, either by 
 going in, or attempting to enter, or by coming out with 
 a cargo laden after the commencement of the blockade. 
 The failure of either of the points requisite to establish 
 the existence of a legal blockade, amounts to an entire 
 defeasance of the measure, even though the notification 
 of the blockade had issued from the authority of the 
 government itself. 
 
 Right of Search at Sea, — In order to enforce the 
 rights of belligerent nations against the delinquencies 
 of neutrals, and to ascertain the real as well as as- 
 sumed character of all vessels on the high seas, the law 
 of nations arms tliem with the practical power of visit- 
 ation and search. The duty of self-preservation gives 
 to belligerent nations this right. It is founded upon 
 necessity, and is strictly and exclusively a war right, 
 and does not rightfully exist in time of peace, unless 
 conceded by treaty. AH writers upon the law of na- 
 tions, and the highest authorities, acknowledge the 
 right in time of war as resting on sound principles of 
 public jurisprudence, and upon the institutes and prac- 
 tice of all great maritime powers. And if, upon 
 mal<:ing the search, the vessel be found employed in 
 contraband trade, or in carrying enemy's property, or 
 troops, or dispatches, she is liable to be taken and 
 brought in for adjudication before a prize court. 
 
 Neutral nations have frequently been disposed to 
 question and resist the exercise of this right. This 
 was particularly the case with the Baltic confederacy, 
 during the American war, and with the convention of 
 the Baltic powers in 1801. The right of search was 
 denied, and the flag of the State was declared to be a 
 substitute for all documentarj- and other proof, and to 
 exclude all right of search. Those powers armed for 
 the purpose of defending their neutral pretensions ; 
 and England did not hesitate to consider it as an at- 
 tempt to introduce, by force, a new code of maritime 
 law, inconsistent with her belligerent rights, and hos- 
 tile to her interests, and one which would go to extin- 
 guish the right of maritime capture. The attempt was 
 speedily frustrated and abandoned, and the right of 
 search has, since that time, been considered incontro- 
 vertible. 
 
 This right of search is confined to private merchant 
 vessels, and does not apply to public ships of war. 
 Their immunity from the exercise of any civil or crim- 
 inal jurisdiction but that of the sovereign power to 
 wliich they belong, is uniformly asserted, claimed and 
 conceded. A contrarj' doctrine is not to be found in 
 any jurist or writer on the law of nations, or admitted 
 in any treaty ; and every act to the contrarj^ has been 
 promptly met and condemned. 
 
 Neutral Documents. — A neutral is bound, not only 
 to submit to search, but to have his vessel duly fur- 
 nished with the genuine documents requisite to support 
 her neutral character. The most material of these 
 documents are, the register, passport or sea letter, 
 muster-roll, log-book, charter-party, invoice and bill 
 of lading. The want of some of these papers is strong 
 presumptive evidence against the ship's neutrality ; 
 yet the want of any one of them is not absolutely con- 
 clusive. " Si aliquid ex solemnibus deficiat, cum egui- 
 
 tas poscit subveniendum eat" The concealment of 
 papers material for the preservation of the neutral 
 character, justifies a, capture and carrying into port 
 for adjudication, though it does not absolutely require 
 a condemnation. It is good ground to refuse cost and 
 damages on restitution, or to refuse further proof to 
 relieve the obscurity of the case, where the cause la- 
 bored under heavy doubts, and there was prima facie 
 ground for condemnation independent of the conceal- 
 ment. 
 
 The spoliation of papers is a still more aggravated 
 and inflamed circumstance of suspicion. That fact 
 may exclude further proof, and be suflicient to infer 
 guilt ; but it does not in England, as it does by the 
 maritime law of other countries, create an absolute 
 presumption juris et de jure ; and yet, a case that es- 
 capes with such a brand upon it, is saved so as by fire. 
 The Supreme Court of the United States has followed 
 the less rigorous English rule, and held that the spolia- 
 tion of papers was not, of itself, sufScient ground for 
 condemnation, and that it was a circumstance open for 
 explanation, for it may have arisen from accident, ne- 
 cessitj', or superior force. — Kent's Comm,, vol. i. See 
 Wheaton's International Law. 
 
 Neutral Trade. — The present position of the United 
 States in regard to neutrals may be learned from the 
 following extract : 
 
 " Soon after the commencement of the late war in 
 Europe, this government submitted to the consideration 
 of all maritime nations two principles for the security 
 of neutral commerce ; one, that the neutral flag should 
 cover enemy's goods, except articles contraband of 
 war ; and the other, that neutral property on board 
 merchant vessels of belligerents should be exempt 
 from condemnation, with the exception of contraband 
 articles. These were not presented as new rules of 
 international law, having been generally claimed b}' 
 neutrals, though not always admitted by belligerents. 
 One of the parties to the war (Russia), as well as sev- 
 eral neutral powers, promptly acceded to these propo- 
 sitions ; and the two other principal belligerents. Great 
 Britain and France, having consented to observe them 
 for the present occasion, a favorable opportunity seem- 
 ed to be presented for obtaining a general recognition 
 of them both in Europe and America. 
 
 "But Great Britain and France, in common with 
 most of the States of Europe, whUe forbearing to re- 
 ject, did not affirmatively act Upon the overtures of the 
 United States. ^ 
 
 " While the question was in this position, the rep- 
 resentatives of Russia, Frasnce, Great Britain, Austria, 
 Prussia, Sardinia, and Turkey, assembled at Pai-is, 
 took into consideration the subject of maritime rights, 
 and put forth a declaration containing the two prin- 
 ciples which this government had submitted nearly two 
 years before to the consideration of maritime powers, 
 and adding thereto the following propositions : ' Pri- 
 vateering is and remains abolished,' and ' Blockades, 
 in order to be binding, must be efiective, that is to say, 
 maintained by a force, sufficient really to prevent ac- 
 cess to the coast of the enemy ;' and to the declara- 
 tion thus composed of four points, two of which had 
 already been proposed by the United States, this gov- 
 ernment has been invited to accede bj- all the powers 
 represented at Paris, except Great Britain and Tur- 
 key. To the last of the two additional propositions — 
 that in relation to blockades — ^there can certainly be no 
 objection. It is merely the definition of what shall 
 constitute the effectual investment of a blockaded 
 place, a definition for which this government has al- 
 ways contended, claiming indemnity for losses where 
 a practical violation of the rule thus defined has been 
 injurious to our commerce. As to the remaining ar- 
 ticle of the declaration of the conference of Paris, ' that 
 privateering is and remains abolished,' I certainly can 
 not ascribe to the powers represented in the confer- 
 ence of Paris any but liberal and philanthropic views 
 
NEV 
 
 1400 
 
 NEW 
 
 in the attempt to change the unquestionable rule of 
 maritime law in regard to privateering. Their propo- 
 sition was doubtless intended to imply approval of the 
 principle that private property upon the ocean, al- 
 though it might belong to the citizens of a belligerent 
 State, should be exempted from capture ; and had that 
 proposition been so framed as to give full effect to the 
 principle, it would have received my ready assent on 
 behalf of the United States. But the measure pro- 
 posed is inadequate to that purpose. It is true that if 
 adopted, private property upon the ocean would be 
 withdrawn from one mode of plunder, but left exposed, 
 meanwhile, to another mode, which could be used with 
 increased effectiveness. The aggressive capacity of 
 great naval powers would be therefore augmented, 
 while the defensive ability of others would be reduced. 
 Though the surrender of the means of prosecuting 
 hostilities by employing privateers, as proposed by the 
 conference of Paris, is mutual in terms, yet, in prac- 
 tical effect, it would be the relinquishment of a right 
 of little value to one class of States, but of essential 
 importance to another and a far larger class. It ought 
 not to have been anticipated that a measure, so inade- 
 quate to the accomplishment of the proposed object, 
 and so unequal in its operation, would receive the as- 
 sent of all maritime powers. Private property would 
 be still left to the depredations of the public armed 
 cruisers. 
 
 " I have expressed a readiness, on the part of this 
 government, to accede to all the principles contained 
 in the declaration of the conference of Paris, provided 
 that relating to the abandonment of privateering can 
 be so amended as to effect the object for which, as is 
 presumed, it was intended, the immunity of private 
 property on the ocean from hostile capture. To effect 
 this object, it is proposed to add to the declaration ' that 
 privateering is and remains abolished,' the following 
 amendment : ' And that the private property of sub- 
 jects and citizens of a belligerent on the high seas shall 
 be exempt from seizure by the public armed vessels of 
 the other belligerent except it be contraband.' This 
 amendment has been presented not only to the powers 
 which have asked our assent to the declaration to abol- 
 ish privateering, but to all Other maritime States. Thus 
 far it has not been rejected by any, and is favorably 
 entertained by aU which have made any communica- 
 tion in repl}''. 
 
 " Several of the governments, regarding with favor 
 the proposition of the United States, have delayed 
 definite action upon it*only for the purpose of consult- 
 ing with others, parties to the conference of Paris. I 
 have the satisfaction of stating, however, that the Em- 
 peror of Russia has entirely and explicitly approved 
 of that modification,* and will co-operate in endeavor- 
 ing to obtain the assent of other powers ; and that as- 
 surances of a similar purport have been received in 
 relation to the disposition of the Emperor of the 
 French. 
 
 " The present aspect of this important subject allows 
 us to cherish the hope that a principle so humane in its 
 character, so just and equal in its operation, so essen- 
 tial to the prosperity of commercial nations, and so 
 consonant to the sentiments of this enlightened period 
 of the world, will command the approbation of all mari- 
 time powers, and thus be incorporated into the code of 
 international \a.yf ."—Message President United States, 
 Dec, , 1856. See Maritime Law, Navigation Laws. 
 
 Nevis, a "West India island, belonging to Great 
 Britain, leeward group, in lat. 17° 10' N., long, 62° 
 40' W., separated from the south end of St. Christo- 
 pher's by a channel two miles across. Area about 20 
 square miles. Population in 1851, 10,200. Shape cir- 
 cular; the surface rises to a central peak 2,500 feet in 
 elevation. Soil generally fertile, and in 1841, the to- 
 tal produce exported amounted in value to £17,455, 
 sugar standing for £15,527. Total value of imports in 
 1841, £23,728. The legislature is composed of the ad- 
 
 ministrator of the government, a legislative council, 
 and a house of assembly of 15 members. Salarj' of 
 administrator, £500. The island consists of 5 parishes. 
 Charlestown, the capital, is at its south-west extrem- 
 ity. Public revenue in 1845, £4,566. A letter from 
 the United States' consul, dated December 5, 1855, 
 says : " The legislature of Nevis has passed a law, to 
 go into operation on the 1st of March ensuing, remov- 
 ing all duties on imports, exports, and tonnage duties 
 on vessels, thereby creating a free port! The conse- 
 quence will be that the commercial intercourse with 
 the United States will be very considerable." 
 
 Ne"W Bedford, a port of entry in Massachusetts, 
 55 miles south of Boston, 28 east of Newport, 49 south- 
 east of Providence, 226 east of New York, 434 from 
 Washington ; in 41° 38' 10'^ N. lat., and 70° 65^ 16'^ 
 E. long. Population in 1830, 7,692 ; in 1840, 12,087 ; 
 in 1850, 16,443 ; in 1851, 18,044 ; and in 1854, 20,000. 
 There are 33 manufactories of all sorts ; the most im- 
 portant of which are, 15 for oil and candles, the product of 
 the whale fisherj'^ ; one large cotton factor}-, called the 
 Wamsutta mill, propelled by steam, containing 12,500 
 spindles, 288 looms, emploj-ing 230 hands, and turns 
 out daily 4,800 yards of cotton cloth, which has ob- 
 tained several medals for its superior quality ; one 
 cordage factory, with an invested capital of $75,000, 
 emploj'ing 100 hands, and producing annually 1,000 
 tons of cordage, celebrated for being of the best qual- 
 ity; a large paper-hanging manufactory which turns 
 out 400,000 rolls of paper annually ; also a rivet fac- 
 tor}' worked by steam, and two iron founderies ; four 
 printing offices, issuing two daily, three weekly, and 
 one monthy publication ; and 186 mercantile stores. 
 There are two marine railways, one of them capable of 
 taking up large ships. Railroad cars leave three times 
 daily for Boston and Providence, and every afternoon 
 for Fall Kiver and Stonington to connect with steam- 
 boats at those places running to New York. The whale 
 fishery is the principal business which is carried on at 
 New Bedford, and has been the means chiefly of build- 
 ing it up to its present importance in population and 
 wealth. As early as 1764, small sloops of 40 to 60 tons 
 burden were fitted out to cruise, during the summer 
 months, off the Capes of Virginia and Hatteras for 
 sperm whales ; taking care to return to port before the 
 equinoctical gales commenced ; the blubber was brought 
 into port and tried out on shore. Gradually the voy- 
 ages were extended in larger vessels to the Bay of 
 Mexico, and about the West India Islands, thence to 
 the Azores, and Cape de Verd Islands, and coast of 
 Guinea. In 1791, a ship called the Rebecca, was fitted 
 out for a whaling voyage to the Pacific Ocean ; this 
 ship was the first American whaler that ever entered 
 that ocean in pursuit of whales ; her voyage was suc- 
 cessful. From these small beginnings, the whale fish- 
 ery has steadil}"" increased to its present importance, 
 with the exception of the interruption of the revolu- 
 tionary war, and of the war of 1812 with Great Britain, 
 until New Bedford has become the greatest whaling 
 port in the world. Her ships now circumnavigate the 
 globe, and explore every ocean and sea from the Arc- 
 tic to the Antarctic in pursuit of whales. The number 
 of vessels employed in the whale fisher}' from the 
 United States at this time, 1852, is 620, their tonnage, 
 193,990, of which there are belonging to the district 
 of New Bedford, 372 vessels, emplo}'ing upwards of 
 10,000 seamen. There were entered into the United 
 States, during the year 1851, of sperm oil, 99,591 bbls. ; 
 of right whale oil, 328,483 bbls. ; of whalebone, 
 3,916,500 lbs. ; amounting in value to $10,028,089, of 
 which there were imported into the district of New 
 Bedford, of sperm oil, 60,465 bbls. ; of right whale 
 oil, 175,460 bbls. ; of whalebone, 2,473,500 lbs. ; 
 amounting in value to $5,781,118 ; of which value, 
 about $5,000,000 was brought into the port of New 
 Bedford. The average length of the voyages of the 
 right whale ships are 36 months ; sperm whale ships 
 
NEW 
 
 1401 
 
 NEW 
 
 44 months. New Bedford is the great nurserj' ,fpr 
 seamen in the United States. See article On.. 
 
 Ne'W Bruns^vick, a British province, east coast 
 of North America, lat. 45° 5' to 48° 40' N., long. 63° 
 50' to 68° W. ; bounded west by the State of Maine ; 
 north-west Lower Canada, from ,whlch it is separated 
 by the Eiver Restigouche ; north,. Bay of Chaleurs ; 
 east, Gulf of St. Lawrence and Northumberland Strait, 
 the latter sep^ating it from Prince Ediyard Island ; 
 and south, the Bay of Fundy, and part of NoTa Sco- 
 tia. Its coast-line is about 500 miles in length, inter- 
 rupted only at the point of junction with Nova Scotia, 
 where an isthmus of not more than 10 miles in breadth 
 connects the two provinces, and separates the waters 
 of Northumberland Strait from those of the Bay of 
 Fundy, which it is proposed to unite by means of a 
 canal. The most remarkable bays and harbors are 
 Bathurst Bay, on the north coast ; Miramichi Bay, on 
 the east coast ; Passamaquoddy Bay, and St. John 
 harbor, on the south coast. There are, besides these 
 larger indentations, numerous smaller harbors, particu- 
 larly on the south portion of the east coast. , Area., 
 27,704 square miles. 
 
 The population of tMs province is principally com- 
 posed of British settlers and their descendants. The 
 remnant, of French extraction, are settled around the 
 Bay of Ohaleura. There is still a few of the aborigines 
 left, consisting of the Micmacs, Melicites, and others, 
 amounting in 1851 to 1,116 persons. 
 
 Physical Features^ etc. — -The general surface of the 
 countr}** presents a series of bold, undulations, some- 
 times rising into mountains, or continuous ridges of 
 high land. The latter are seldom of any considerable 
 height ; but their precipitous acclivities, sharp outline, 
 and deep ravines, give them an alpine and picturesque 
 character that finely and strikingly contrasts with the 
 rich valleys and sheltered plains which alternate with 
 the more rugged scenery. The shores of the Gulf of 
 St. Lawrence and Northumberland Strait, however, 
 present different and far less pleasing features. There 
 the land, for about 12 miles inland, is low and sandy, 
 covered with trees of a stunted growth, and skirted 
 with extensive marshes, large deep morasses, and long 
 sand beaches. Along the shores of the Bay of Cha^ 
 leurs and the Gulf of St. Lawrence, gray sandstone 
 and gray clay-slate predominate, with detached rocks 
 of granite, quartz, and ironstone ; on the south coast, 
 limestone, graywacke, clay-slate, with sandstone, in- 
 terrupted occasionally by gneiss, trap, and granite. 
 Specimens of amethyst, cornelian, jasper, etc., have 
 been picked up in various places. Coal is plentiful, 
 and iron ore abundant ; the former is said to extend 
 over 10,000 square miles, or above one third part of 
 the whole area of the province. 
 
 New Brunswick is drained by numerous rivers and 
 small streams, the principal of which is the St. John, 
 navigable for vessels of 50 tons to Fredericton. The 
 next river in importance is the Miramichi, which rises 
 near the west limits of the territory, whence it flows 
 north-east, and falls into Miramichi Bay, on the east 
 coast, about lat. 47° 5' N., long. 64° 53' W. ; its 
 whole course is upward of 110 miles, it is navigable for 
 nearly 40 miles, and admits vessels of 600 or 700 tons. 
 The Eestigouohe is the next considerable river ; it forms 
 the north-west limit of the province, and falls into the 
 head of the Bay of Chaleur, after a course of about 
 100 miles. There are a number of small lakes in New 
 Brunswick, particularly in the northern part, but none 
 of any Considerable size. In the south there are a 
 few somewhat larger, the most important of which are 
 Grand Lake, 20 miles long, by about 5 miles broad ; 
 and Washedemoak Lake, about 20 miles long, by 2 
 miles broad — both lying between St. John and Freder- 
 icton. 
 
 Manufactures, etc. — There were in the province in 
 1851, 52 woolen factories, employing 96 persons ; 261 
 grist mills, employing 366 persons; 584 saw mills. 
 
 employing 4,302 persons ; , 125 tanneries, employing 
 255 persons ; 11 founderies, employing 242 persons ; 8 
 breweries ; 52 weaving and carding establishments (5,- 
 475 hand looms), employing 96 persons ; 96 of various 
 manufacturing establishments, employing 9^3 persons. 
 Goals raised, 2,482 tons ; iron smelted, 810 ; lime 
 burnt, 35,599 casks ; grindstones quarried, 58,849 ; 
 gypsum, 5,465 tons quarried. 
 
 Products.— C\oth, 622,237 3-ards; and 100,975 gal- 
 lons malt liquor. Value of boots and shoes made, 
 £89,367 ; leather, i:45,165 ; chairs, cabinet ware, and 
 wood ware, £33,977; candles, £19,860; soap, £18,562 • 
 hats, £6,360 ; iron castings, £20,025. 
 
 The principal places are St. John, the metropolis, 
 and Fredericton, the capital. There were in 1854 sev- 
 eral railroads in course of construction ; 5 banks, ag- 
 gregate capital, £337,500 ; a savings' institution, and 
 4 insurance companies. 
 
 Fisheries of New Brunswick. — There were French 
 fishing establishments in that part of Acadia now 
 known as New Brunswick, as early as 1638. The 
 English succeeded to these at the treaty of Utrecht, 
 in 1713 ; but they do not seem to have formed many 
 others until after the cession of Canada, in 1763.* 
 Among the first, I suppose, was that of Lieutenant 
 Walker, of the royal navy, in the Bay of Chaleurs, 
 which was extensive, controlling the fur and fish trade 
 of that region for several years. There were similar 
 settlements on the Eiver St. John ; but from the esti- 
 mates of Mr. Grant, made in 1764, at the request of 
 the Eev. Dr. Stiles, the whole population of British 
 origin could not have exceeded 1000. 
 
 At the peace of 1783, several thousand " Tories," or 
 loyalists, compelled to abandon their native land, set- 
 tled in New Brunswick, and transferred thither the 
 jurisprudence, the social and political institutions of 
 " the old thirteen ;" and, the 3'ear following, were 
 allowed to organize a separate colonial government. 
 Like those who went to that part of Acadia still called 
 Nova Scotia, many of the loyalists were gentlemen of 
 education, eminent private virtue, and distinguished 
 consideration. Some obtained offices of honor and 
 emolument ; others adopted agricultural pursuits ; and 
 another class, fixing their abodes on islands and the 
 shores of the main land, resolved to earn their support 
 on the sea. Of the latter description, several, though 
 compelled to toil and exposure in open fishing boats, 
 had been persons of note and property. But, ruined 
 by the confiscation laws of the Whigs, or by the gen- 
 eral disasters of a civil war, they resorted to the hook 
 and line to relieve the pressure of immediate want, 
 indulging the hope of " better times," and more con- 
 genial avocations. Few, however, abandoned the em- 
 ployment, and their children, trained to it from earlj' 
 youth, and acquiring fishermen's habits, succeeded to 
 boats, fishing-gear, and smoke-houses, as their onlj- 
 inheritance, and continue it at the present day. I 
 have often met with common boat fishermen of this 
 lineage, whose earnings were hardly suflicient to pro- 
 cure thQ absolute necessaries of life. 
 
 The fisheries of New Brunswick are prosecuted with 
 neither skill nor vigor. The apparent exports, small 
 as are the statistics, do not indicate their real condi- 
 tion ; since it is certain, that of the products of the 
 sea shipped to other countries, a part is first imported 
 from Nova Scotia, and form a proportion of the ex- 
 ports of that colony, f The number of vessels sent to 
 Labradoi; and other distant fishing grounds is never 
 large, .and often almost nominal. The cod-fisher^' in 
 the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the Bay ,of Chaleurs is 
 
 * The French built two forts on the River St. John prior 
 to the peace of Utrecht (1T13), which they repaired in 17M, 
 although the country had been ceded to England quite half 
 a cenfcnry. 
 
 t The imports into St. John from Nova Scotia for three 
 months only (July 10 to October 10) of the year 18B2, were 
 7,861 quintals of dried fish, 860 barrels of mackerel, 2,423 
 barrels of herring, and other pickled fish. 
 
NEW 
 
 1402 
 
 NEW 
 
 not as extensive as might be reasonably expected from 
 the long experience of the inhabitants there, and the 
 general safety and productiveness of the harbors and 
 indentatiois of the coast. 
 
 The same remarks need slight qualification when 
 applied to the Bay of Fundy, and its principal branch, 
 the Bay of Passamaquoddy. Cameron's, Doggett's, 
 Drake's, Woodward's, Money, and M'hale Coves ; Dark 
 Harbor, Long's Eddy, Grand Harbor, and Long, Duck, 
 Nantucket, and Kent's Islands, which are all in the 
 group of islands known as " Grand Menan," afford 
 excellent facilities for catching and curing cod, 
 pollock, and herring, in large quantities. In the 
 waters that surround Campo Bello, Ueer, and Indian 
 Islands, as well as in those that wash Bean's, Adams's, 
 Parker's, Minister's, Hardwood, and Fish Islands, and 
 along the coast between L'Etite Passage and Point 
 Lepreau, embracing Mace's and Back Bays, Bliss' 
 Island, Seely's Cove, Crow, Beaver, and Deadman's 
 Harbors, the advantages for fishing are verj' good. 
 Every place here mentioned is within a few hours' sail 
 of the frontier ports of Maine, and many of them are 
 within cannon-shot distance of the shores of the 
 United States. The fishermen of both countries meet 
 on the same fishing grounds ; borrow and lend " bait ;" 
 ask after each other's "woman'"* at home; naiTate 
 the wonderful cures of the last-discovered remedy for 
 the "reumatis;" complain of the " scacity" offish, 
 and the low price of " ile ;" discourse about "flat- 
 hooped flour;" and generally conduct toward one 
 another as friends and brethren, owing allegiance to 
 one government. Indeed, the observation of quite 25 
 years authorizes me to say that the colonists always 
 agree far better with the Americans than with each 
 other. Our countrymen are not often considered in- 
 terlopers when they leave the fishing grounds nearest 
 home and visit those of Grand Menan ; but the fish- 
 ermen of Campo Bello, and the other islands on the 
 British side of the Passamaquoddy, are sometimes 
 roughly accosted and " twitted" when ihey venture to 
 take the same liberty. Frequent attempts have been 
 made to disturb the friendly relations which have gen- 
 erally existed between the people of the two flags, but 
 without success. The efforts of officious individuals, 
 and of functionaries of the colonial government, have 
 been alike disregarded. The captains of the British 
 ships-of-war on the station, gentlemen in their feel- 
 ings, have steadily refused to stoop to wage a petty 
 warfare against the American boats that cross the 
 imaginary boundary line in the waters of the Passa- 
 maquoddy, though, of course, they have always obeyed 
 their instructions. Yet, in the spirit of Nelson, who 
 looked at the signal he meant to disobey with his 
 blind eye, they have never been able to see a " Yan- 
 kee," or to distinguish one from a subject of her maj- 
 esty. Some of them — as I remember the stories of 
 by-gone years — admitting the necessity of driving off 
 the aggressors, have asked, " How are we to know 
 them— are they marked V Others, sending their 
 barges into the fleet of boats, have directed that " all 
 who say they are Americans must be told to go to their 
 own side of the line ;" but, strangely enough, the un- 
 broken silence of the fishermen to whom the question 
 was propounded afforded proof that all were " Blue- 
 noses." Still others, satisfying themselves, by peer- 
 ing through glasses from their quarter-deck, that all 
 the boats in sight mitst belong to the islands in New 
 Brunswick, have thought the sending of barges to 
 inquire a needless ceremony. One, in 1840 — the cap-, 
 tain of the Ringdove— \u his official report, recom- 
 mended that "every British boat should have a 
 license ; otherwise," said he, " it is Impossible to dis- 
 criminate them from Americans." 
 
 Those who seek to put an end to this state of things, 
 whatever their motives, do not take into the account 
 
 • Tliey thus speak of their wives. 
 
 that the instant they shall accomplish their object, 
 border strifes will follow of necessity. Before renew- 
 ing their eflbrts, they may be kindlj'' asked to consider 
 that harmony and good-fellowship between the inhab- 
 itants of frontier settlements are indispensable, and 
 far better securities against the marauder's torch and 
 bludgeon than armed ships or bodies of troops. The 
 produce of the boat-fishery of the Baj' of Fundy, and 
 of the Passamaquoddy, is not only small in value, but 
 generallj' inferior in quality. An increase of this 
 fisherj', under present circumstances, is not desirable. 
 The fishermen dress and cure the cod, pollock, hake, 
 and haddock — the kinds usually dried — in a slovenly 
 manner. 
 
 It is stated in an official document that in 1850, at 
 the different fishing-stations mentioned as within these 
 bays, there were employed 62 vessels of 1,268 tons, 
 344 open boats, 55 weirs, and 1,337 men, in catching 
 and curing the several kinds of fish just referred to ; 
 and that the value of the products of the various 
 branches of the fishery were £33,080 currency, or 
 ®132,320. These facts show that the fishermen re- 
 ceived a miserable pittance for their toil ; since, with- 
 out allowing for the use and depreciation of the capi- 
 tal invested in the vessels, boats, weirs, nets, and 
 other fishing-gear, they earned for the year less than 
 !|100 each. "We may lament that men who pursue 
 their avocation both day and night, 'mid rains and 
 gales, are so poorly rewarded. We may lament, too, 
 that the people of Grand Menan, falling short of those 
 of Campo Bello, West Isles, and the parishes on the 
 coast of the main land, earn even less than the aver- 
 age. But, what then ? The fault is their own ; en- 
 tirely so. They may, if they will, produce as sweet 
 and as well-cured pollock and cod as do their brethren 
 of Barrington, and as good colored and flavored smok- 
 ed herring as do those of Digby, and obtain prices to 
 correspond with the quality. 
 
 The general poverty among them is not to be attri- 
 buted entirely or principally, as they aver, to the occa- 
 sional loss of boats and nets, nor to glutted markets 
 and bad seasons, nor to the interlopers who visit their 
 fishing grounds, but to their own want of industrj-, 
 thrift, cleanliness, and honesty. The few " who work 
 it right," acquire property, and enjoy the entire confi- 
 dence of the dealers, command credit for supplies, and 
 high prices for their commodities when offered for sale. 
 
 It remains to speak of the fisheries of the Bay of 
 Chaleurs, and of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The 
 county of Eestigouche borders on Canada, and the 
 counties of Gloucester, Northumberland, and Kent, 
 are favorably situated for adventures in these waters. 
 The fishing grounds are safe, and generally close to 
 the shores ; and those near Caraquet, in Gloucester, 
 are much frequented by boats from Gaspfe, and owned 
 by residents of Canada. Since 1835, the catch of both 
 cod and herring by the fishermen of Restigouche and 
 Northumberland has fallen off more than half, and in 
 Kent has nearly become extinct. But the inhabitants 
 of the port of Caraquet, availing themselves of the 
 advantages of their position, have actuallj' produced a 
 large portion of the dried cod exported from the colo- 
 ny for some years. These four counties are more re- 
 mote from the capital of New Brunswick, and from 
 the markets of the United States, than the county of 
 Charlotte, which embraces Grand Menan, and the 
 other islands in the Bay of Fundy (where the fish ^e 
 so badly cured), and the attention of the people is 
 divided between several branches of industry ; but 
 fishing, as an occasional and irregular employment 
 merely, has commonly proved a source of profit, or at 
 least has afforded a fair reward for the labor and capi- 
 tal devoted to it. The fish shipped at Caraquet are 
 in much better repute than those caught in the Bay of 
 Fundy, and the remark is true of the produce of the 
 Bay of Chaleurs and St. Lawrence fisheries generally. 
 It may be presumed that there the herring does not 
 
NEW 
 
 1403 
 
 NEW 
 
 "become rotten before salting;" that, when sold as 
 the "gibbed" article, it is not packed withont taking 
 out the entrails; and that the cod is ■washed after 
 being split, and not salted and put in " kinch" in all its 
 blood and dirt. — Sabine's American Fisheries. 
 
 The following statement exhibits the value of im- 
 ports and exports to and from the United States and 
 New Brunswick during the years 1849 and 1850 : 
 
 Exports to New Brunswick. 
 Imports from " 
 
 1849, 
 
 .. $1,822,810 
 . . 257,910 
 
 1850. 
 
 $1,810,740 
 887,000 
 
 The following abstract of the trade between the 
 United States and the port of St. John, New Bruns- 
 wick, shows the number of 'ships and tonnage entered 
 inward, and the value of imports at that port during 
 the year ending 31st December, 1851 : Vessels in- 
 ward : 605 vessels, of an aggregate tonnage of 166,962 
 tons ; value of imports, $1,458,205. Vessels outward: 
 859 vessels, of an aggregate tonnage of 64,344 tons ; 
 value of exports, $312,895. 
 
 The United States export to New Brunswick, prin- 
 cipally, books and stationery, Indian com, flour, 
 wheat, lumber, salted provisions, rice, coal, tobacco, 
 timber, and various kinds of manufactured goods, and 
 ' merchandise ; and receive, in return, timber of differ- 
 ent kinds (except pitch-pine, oak, locust, hickory, and 
 black walnut), lumber, staves, laths, shingles, spars, 
 and fish. Coal and timber being classed among the 
 staples of both countries, an examination has been in- 
 stituted with a view to ascertain the probable effect of 
 the Reciprocity Treaty on the trade in these articles 
 between the United States and New Brunswick. To 
 meet this inquiry, it is necessary- to know whether the 
 coals and timber of New Brunswick and the United 
 States are similar in character and kind, or whether 
 they differ in both, and in the uses to which they are 
 applied; each having their own peculiar advantages 
 for certain purposes. 
 
 Dr. Jackson, an American geologist of ability, in a 
 sketch " of the early historj' and of the present state 
 of our Icnowledge of the geology, etc., of Nova Scotia 
 and New Brunswick," referring to the mineral pro- 
 ductions of these provinces, says : " The coals of Nova 
 Scotia are of various kinds, and are wholly different 
 from those of the United States ; at least, they differ 
 from all the coals which are found on the eastern side 
 of the Apalachian Mountains, so that they do not enter 
 into competition with the coals obtained from mines 
 in the United States, which supply our coast." In a 
 subsequent part of this essay Dr. Jackson remarks, in 
 substance, that recent explorations in New Brunswick 
 have brought to light a beautiful and before unknown 
 varietj- of highly bituminous coal, containing 60 per 
 cent, of gas-making bitumen and 40 per cent, of coke. 
 This coal is a new variety, particularly adapted to the 
 uses of the gas-house ; and it is represented by Dr. 
 Jackson as the very material wanted by gas-manu- 
 facturers to enrich the products of our semi-bituminous 
 coals of Marj'land and Virginia. In the formation of 
 gas, this New Brunswick production can not be used 
 alone, but is mixed with other coals, in the proportion 
 of from one fifth to one third ; and thus gives the best 
 material that can be obtained. It also gives greater 
 value to the coke of our more ash-bearing coals. If 
 these facts are to be relied upon (and they are support- 
 ed by high authority), it follows that the importation 
 of the New Brunswick coal into the United States, so 
 far from interfering with the sale of our own coals, 
 would contribute, in a great measure, to make availa- 
 ble, in the manufacture of gas, much of those which 
 would otherwise be unsuitable for that purpose. With 
 these distinctive characters and different applications, 
 the coals of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia will 
 always be required, whatever maybethesupply of our 
 own mines of Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia. 
 Indeed, the mine near Richmond, Virginia, is the only 
 one in the United States that furnishes bituminous coal 
 
 that will fully serve in the place of the coals of Nova 
 Scotia. 
 
 From the imports and exports of timber Ijetween the 
 United States and New Brunswick, it will be seen that 
 New Brunswick imports from the United States large 
 quantities of pitch-pine, oak, locust, hickory, and 
 black walnut, none of wliich are found in that prov- 
 ince; while the United States receives, in return, 
 boards, scantling, deals, various kinds of lumber, and 
 fish. The interchange of these products must be 
 greatly increased under a system which relieves them 
 from all import duties. — U. S. Com. Bel. 
 
 Ne'woastle. The following information is from 
 the United States' consul at Newcastle in answer to a 
 circular issued by the State Department : " In this 
 port there are no privileges that British or any other 
 vessels have which American vessels have not to the 
 same extent ; but there are restrictions and extra 
 charges at this port on the vessels of some other na- 
 tions that have not treaties of reciprocity with En- 
 gland, viz., France, Two Sicilies, and Portugal. 
 French vessels, taking cargoes to, or bringing them 
 from, any place but France proper, are subject to 
 double the ordinary light-house dues ; also, to double 
 harbor lights, double Eamsgate dues ; and in case the 
 vessel loads coals or grindstones, instead of paying 4 
 cents, or 2d., per chaldron town dues, as the vessels of 
 nations in reciprocity, 16 cents, or 8d., per chaldron, is 
 charged. When the vessel goes to any place but 
 France proper, such vessels also pay 12 cents, or 6d., 
 per foot extra pilotage. Vessels belonging to the Two 
 SicUies are subject to the same extra charges. Ves- 
 sels belonging to Portugal have the additional privi- 
 lege of taking cargoes to or from their own colonies on 
 the same terms as to Portugal proper, but to or from 
 any other country they are subject to the above extra 
 charges. There are, also, other nations, such as some 
 of the South American States, whose vessels are sub- 
 ject to these extra charges, but such vessels never 
 visit this port. These extra local dues are, neverthe- 
 less, pa3'able by all foreign vessels coming to this port, 
 but the British government satisfy these claims on the 
 vessels of nations in reciprocity. 
 
 " The port charges on vessels of the United States 
 are the same as on British vessels. Annexed are par- 
 ticulars of the charges on a vessel of 400 tons register, 
 carrying 200 chaldrons, or 530 tons, of coals and 60 
 tons of other goods. Vessels belonging to the United 
 States (by a law passed this (1854) session of Parlia- 
 ment) are allowed to' carry goods of any kind coast- 
 wise without any restriction, and with every privilege 
 that British vessels enjoy. 
 
 List of Cleaeing Chabges at tub Poet of Newcastle, 
 ouaeoed on an american vessel of foue hundeed 
 Tons eegistbe, caeeying Two Hundred Cualdkokb 
 OF Coals and Sixty Tons of otuee Goods. 
 
 Charges. 
 
 U. S. currency. I Sterling. 
 
 Low lights 
 
 Life boats (once a year). . 
 
 Pier dues 
 
 Night office 
 
 Brlndlington pier 
 
 "Whitby pier 
 
 River watch 
 
 Kamsgato 
 
 Trinity lights . 
 
 Towordues[|'»[|°: 
 
 Total. 
 
 $0 61 
 78 
 
 8 on 
 
 48 
 
 1 21 
 
 2 OH 
 2 02t 
 4 84" 
 
 54 55i 
 8 07 
 77 
 
 $88 39 
 
 £0 2 8 
 
 8 
 18 
 
 " If the vessel bring ballast, there is an additional 
 charge on it of Is. 6d., or about 36 cents, per ton on 
 the ballast. Sea pilotage, in winter. Is. 6d. ; and in 
 summer, Is. 3d. per foot. Towage, according to dis- 
 tance, from 6s. to £3. 
 
 " Insurances are mostly effected in the States ; the 
 rate here runs from 2J to 5 per cent., according to 
 season and class of vessel. Freights from §4 84, or 
 20s., to $7 74, or 32s., per ton, according to clrcum- 
 
NEW 
 
 1404 
 
 NEW 
 
 stances. Commission for purchasing is Msually 2J,per 
 cent. Sales are made eitlier bj' direct correspondence 
 or tlirougli agents resident liere. Terms vary, witli 
 tlie articles', from 2 to 4 months. Bills, and a various 
 discount for cash, are the ordinary terms. There is 
 no export duty payable on goods to the United States. 
 There are no internal taxes levied on any of the com- 
 modities mentioned, either in a crude, partially manu- 
 factured, or wholly complete state," 
 
 Newfoundland, Colony of, is in lat. 46° 40' 
 and 51° 39' N., and long. 52° 44' and 59° 31' W. 
 Area, 85,913 square miles. Extreme length, about 
 420 miles, and extreme breadth, about 300 miles. 
 
 Newfoundland is an island Ij'ing on the north-east 
 side of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and is bounded on the 
 whole east sliore by the Atlantic Ocean, on the north- 
 west and north b}' the Strait of BeUeisle, which separates 
 it from Labrador, on the west by the Gulf of St. Law- 
 rence, and on the south-west it approaches at Cape 
 Ray toward Cape Breton, so as to form the main en- 
 trance from the Atlantic into the St. Laivrence. Cap- 
 ital, St. John's. The island is of a somewhat triangular 
 form, but without any approach to regularity, each of 
 its sides being broken into numerous bays, harbors, 
 creeks, and estuaries. Its perimeter is not less than 
 1000 miles, l^'rom the sea it has a wild and sterile ap- 
 pearance, and its general character is that of a rugged, 
 and, for the most part, a barren country'. Hills and 
 valleys continually succeed each other, the former 
 never rising into mountains, and the latter rarely ex- 
 panding into plains. Of various character, the hills 
 sometimes form long, flat-topped ridges, and are oc- 
 casionally rounded and isolated, with sharp peaks and 
 craggy precipices. The valleys vary also from gently 
 sloping depressions to rugged and abrupt ravines. The 
 sea-cliffs are bold and lofty, with deep water to their 
 bases ; and the rough character of the country is in- 
 creased by the exi.stence of vast boulders scattered 
 over it. This uneven surface is naturally distin- 
 guished into woods, marshes, and barrens. The 
 " woods" are spread over the whole country wherever 
 there is any water-course, and are even found crown- 
 ing the summits, and near the sea-coast are especially 
 luxuriant. The trees consist principally of pine, 
 spruce, flr, larch (or hackmatack), and birch ; in some 
 districts the mountain ash, the alder, the aspen, and a 
 few others are found. Most of the wood is of small 
 and stunted growth, although the character of the 
 trees is greatly varied in this respect according to soil 
 and situation, and in small groups wood of fair growth 
 and length may be found. The open tracts are gener- 
 ally called " marshes." These are not necessarily low, 
 or even level lands, but are frequently at a considera- 
 ble height above the sea,, and have often an undulating 
 surface. They are open tracts, covered with moss, 
 sometimes to the depth of several feet. This thick 
 coating of moss is precisely like a great sponge spread 
 over the country. At the melting of the snow, it be- 
 comes thoroughly saturated. Numerous small holes 
 and pools, and in the lower parts small sluggish 
 brooks or gullies are met with. But in most cases 
 the surface is sufficiently eligible for drainage, and 
 when the moss is stripped off, dry ground or bare rock 
 is generally found beneath. The " ban-ens" occupy 
 the summits of the hills and ridges, and other elevated 
 and exposed tracts. They are covered with a thin 
 and scrubby vegetation, consisting of berry-bearing 
 plants, and dwarf bushes of various kinds. Bare 
 patches of gravel and boulders, and crumbling frag- 
 ments of rock are frequently met with upon the barrens, 
 which are generally altogether destitute of vegetable 
 soil. These different tracts are none of them of great 
 extent ; woods, marshes, and barrens frequently alter- 
 nating. 
 
 Not the least remarkable features of the island are 
 its lakes and ponds. These are found in every direc- 
 tion, and in almost every situation, not only in the 
 
 valleys, but on the highlands, and even in the hollows 
 of the summits, and on the very tops of the hills. 
 They vtivy in size from pool? of 50 yards in diameter 
 to lakes 30 miles i^ length, and from 4 to 5 miles wide. 
 The number exceeding 2 miles in extent amount to 
 several hundreds, wliile those of smaller size are abso- 
 lutely countless. 
 
 But with all this lake surface, there are few large 
 water-courses ; yet this absence of any thing which 
 can be called a navigable river is readilj' explained. 
 The character of the natural surface, indeed, is such 
 that it absorbs every new accession of moisture from 
 rain and melted snow, and only parts with it again by 
 evaporation or a slow drainage into the ponds, the 
 overflow of which is the only supply the brooks have. 
 Thus there is never formed a current sufficiently pow- 
 erful to dig out a deep channel, or to breach opposing 
 barriers. The area covered by fresh water has been 
 estimated at one third the whole island, and this 
 large proportion will not probably be found exag- 
 gerated. 
 
 The coast of Labrador is also included in the gov- 
 ernment of Newfoundland, to which it was annexed 
 in 1808. It has a sea-coast of about 100 miles, and is 
 frequented during the summer season by more than 
 20,000 fishermen. This vast countiy, inhospitable in 
 climate and uninviting, is inhabited by Esquimaux 
 and Moravian missionaries, in all numbering some 
 8000 or 10,000 souls. Situate in a severe and gloomy 
 climate, and producing nothing that can support hu- 
 man life, this is one of the most barren and desolate 
 of countries. But, as if in compensation for these dis- 
 advantages, the sea in its vicinitj' teems with fish, and 
 thus thousands of hardy adventurers are drawn to its 
 rugged shores, and their industry and enterprise amply 
 rewarded. The sea in this locality indeed forms the 
 most valuable fisher)' in the world. In no part the 
 mainland of Labrador exceeds the height of 500 feet 
 above the sea, and is often much lower, as are all the 
 islands, except Great and Little Mecatina. Both are 
 of granite roclt, and almost bare of trees ; and there 
 are many ponds of dark bog water, frequented by 
 water-fowl and fiocks of Labrador curlew. The coasts 
 are beset with islands and rocks, sometimes so intri- 
 cate as to forbid navigation. Tliere are, however, sev- 
 eral harbors fit for large vessels, and which may be 
 safely entered. The Strait of Belleisle, which sepa- 
 rates the two parts of the government, is about 50 
 miles long and 12 wide. It is deep, but its passage is 
 not considered a safe one, owing to its currents. There 
 are no harbors on that part of the Newfoundland coast 
 which faces this strait, and few on the opposite coast. 
 During the winter months the resident population of 
 European descent scarcely numbers 800 souls, and 
 manj' of these have intermarried with the Esquimaux. 
 The few widely scattered families reside at the estab- 
 lishments for sea and salmon fishing and for fur- 
 trading. Seals and salmon are very plentiful, and 
 the latter are of a large and superior description. The 
 furs of Labrador are very valuable, and consist of fox, 
 otter, sable, lynx, bear, wolf, deer, ermine, hare, etc. 
 The Canadian partridge and the ptarmigan are also 
 plentiful. The "egging" business employs a large 
 number of small schooners. The eggs obtained are 
 chiefly those of the murr, but the eggs of puffins, gan- 
 nets, gulls, eider ducks, and cormorants, are also col- 
 lected. Halifax is the principal market for these, 
 although no small quantity is disposed of at Boston 
 and other United States' ports. Feathers are also ex- 
 tensively collected on the coasts and islt^nds. 
 
 The average size of Newfoundland vessels is about 
 IBO tons. The chief coasting trade consists in carry- 
 ing provisions and supplies for the fishery, and bring- 
 ing back the proceeds of the voyage. 
 
 Newfoundland proper is divided into nine districts, 
 the population of which, in 1845, the last census year, 
 was as follows : 
 
Mew 
 
 1405 
 
 NEW 
 
 Electoral Districts. 
 
 Twillingate and Fogo . . 
 
 Bonavista Bay 
 
 Trinity Bay 
 
 Conception Bay. 
 
 St. John's 
 
 Ferryland 
 
 Placentia and St Mary's 
 
 Burin 
 
 Fortune Bay 
 
 Total 
 
 8,771 
 8,943 
 4,689 
 14,899 
 18,177 
 2,418 
 8,578 
 2,485 
 8,109 
 
 62,064 
 
 F<3DUllc9, 
 
 8,284 
 4,112 
 18,127 
 12,019 
 1,967 
 2,895 
 1,873 
 1,991 
 
 44,231 
 
 6,744 
 7,227 
 8,801 
 28;029' 
 26,196 
 4,870 
 6,478 
 4',858 
 6,100 
 
 96,295 
 
 The po^mlatjondf Newfoundland at various periods, 
 from 1806, has bfeen as foUo-ws : in 1806 it was 26,505 ; 
 in 1816, 52,672; in 1828, 52,157; in 1825, 55,719; in 
 1828, 60,088 ; in 1832, 69,280 ; in 1836, 73,705 ; and in 
 1845, as above stated. Tlie population in 1851 was es- 
 timated at 101,600 souls. 
 
 Tlie chief statistics of the agricultural condition of the 
 colony, as gleaned from the census of 1845, are exhib- 
 ited in the subjoined table, showing the disposition of 
 land, number of live stock, and agricultural products : 
 
 Ekctorul Dlatrlcts. 
 
 Lund In 
 cultivation. 
 
 Loud to 
 posBCsaion. 
 
 Live stock owned. 
 
 Agricultural products. 
 
 Horses. 
 
 Cattle. 
 
 Sheep. 
 
 ■ples. 1 
 
 Goats. 
 
 Potatoes. 
 
 Grata. 
 
 Hay, etc. 
 
 Twillingate and Fogo. . . 
 Bonavista Bav.. ...;.... 
 
 Aorea. 
 
 i406 
 
 612 
 
 1,070 
 
 8,798 
 
 19,099 
 
 1,202 
 
 2,200 
 
 1,047 
 
 211 
 
 Acre.. 
 
 691 
 
 803 
 
 1,478 
 
 8,876 
 
 63,777 
 
 -?,270 
 
 4,274 
 
 1,581 
 
 826 
 
 9 
 108 . 
 287 
 1,820 
 
 993 
 860 
 475 
 170 
 9 
 
 276 
 
 970 
 
 1,988 
 
 . . 1,576 
 
 1,607 
 1,206 
 8,281 
 1,772 
 678 
 
 569 
 1,804 
 
 795 
 2,710 
 
 Bushels. 
 18,632 
 25,971 
 29,628 
 
 162,378 
 
 48,548 
 23,586 
 28,759 
 11,081 
 2,067 
 
 14 
 
 272 
 
 8 
 
 6,798 
 
 3,4.'!6 
 
 §56 
 
 588 
 
 20 
 
 8 
 
 52 
 
 857 
 
 518 
 
 2,829 
 
 4,318 
 913 
 
 1,578 
 777 
 176 
 
 
 Conception Bay 
 
 228 
 815 
 1,983 
 127 
 489 
 
 677 ' 
 129 
 618 
 101 
 
 ,85 
 
 1,125 
 276 
 226 
 
 8 
 7 
 
 Ferjiyland 
 
 Placeptia and St, Mary's 
 
 
 Total 
 
 29,646 
 
 88,423 
 
 4,261 
 
 18,810 
 
 
 
 
 341,160 
 
 11,695 
 
 11,008 
 
 The manufactures of the colony are very limited, 
 and consist only of the following establishments : at 
 St. John's, 2 corn, 1 saw, and 1 bona mill, 1 iron 
 foundery, and 1 brewery. The city has gas and water 
 works. At Brigus, Conception Bay, there is 1 corn 
 mill ; at Harbor Grace, 1 corn mill and gas-works ; in 
 Trinity Bay, 1 sfiw jniU ; and at Green Bay 2 saw 
 mills. These are all that are noted. 
 
 As before stated, the chief wealth of the colony con- 
 sists in its fisheries. The extent and value of these will 
 be best appreciated by perusal of the statistical returns. 
 In 1845 the number of fishing-boats, etc., was as 
 follows : boats from 4 to 15 quintals, 8092 ; boats from 
 15 to 30 quintals, 1025 ; boats from 30 quintals and 
 upward, 972 ; cod seines, 879 ; and seal nets, 4568. 
 
 The value of property employed in the fisheries, on 
 an average of four years, ending in 1849, has thus 
 been stated : 
 
 841 vessels engaged in the seal fishery $1,028,000 
 
 80 i", " coasting & cod-fishery ,, ,80,000 
 
 10,089 Mats engaged in the cod-flshery 756,676 
 
 Stages, fish-houses, and flukes 125,000 
 
 4,668 nets of all descriptions 68,600 
 
 879c9dseines 110,000 
 
 Vats for making seal-oil 2.50,000 
 
 Fishing implemoiits and casks for liver. . 150,0 00 
 
 Total $2,563,175 
 
 The value of the annual products of the colony 
 during the same average period is thus stated : 
 
 949,169 quintals fish exported $2,610,000 
 
 4,010 tierces of salmon 60,500 
 
 14,475 barrels of herrings „**'^S'' 
 
 608,446 seal-skins 254,000 
 
 6,200 tons of soal-oil ., 850,000 
 
 8,990 tons of cod-oil 526,000 
 
 Faelandskins J 6,000 
 
 Bait sold to tlie French 59,750 
 
 1 Value of agricultural prodnoe .... 1,011,770 
 
 Fuol.....^..., 800,000. 
 
 Game, venison, and wild-fowl 40,000 
 
 Timber; boards, staves, hoops, etc. 260,000 
 
 Fresh fish used by inhabitants — 125,000 
 
 Salted " " " ••• 1^6,000 
 
 Oil consumed by " ... 42,500 
 
 Total $6,352,020 
 
 The outfit for the seal-fishery in 1851 and 1852 is 
 shown in the subjoined table : 
 
 St. John's 
 
 Harbor Grace 
 
 Spaniard's Bay,-etc..L', 
 Oar,bonear.. . .i, — f.>. . , 
 Brigus, Cupids, Port I 
 
 do Grave, etc j 
 
 Trinity and Catalina. . 
 New Perlican 4: Hants 
 
 Harbor 
 
 Greenspond, etc 
 
 Bay Bulls, Aquaforte 
 
 and Eenews. 
 
 9,200 
 
 6,949 
 
 489 
 
 8,408 
 
 6,309 
 
 2,673 
 
 927 
 
 1,740 
 
 8,480 
 
 2,398 
 
 192 
 
 1,226 
 
 2,019 
 
 999 
 
 867 
 
 696 
 
 15 
 
 Tons. 
 
 10^18 
 
 6,120 
 
 671 
 
 8,344 
 
 6,407 
 
 2,494; 
 
 2871 
 
 1,137; 
 
 2,45C' 
 
 The chief foreign trade of Newfoundland vessels is 
 with England, Scotland, Ireland, Spain, Portugal, 
 Hamburg, Brazil, the West Indies, United States, 
 and British North America. The time occupied on 
 the voyage to Europe and back is from six to eight 
 weeks. ToGreat Britain the cargo, generally,Js oil, 
 and to the other European countries dried codfish. A 
 voyage to the West Indies, and back requires about 
 nine weeks. The outward cargo is dried cod and 
 pickled fish, and the inward cargo West India produce. 
 Vessels from the West Indies sometimes return by the 
 United States, bringing flour and provisions. Vessels 
 proceeding to Brazil with dried fish generally go from 
 thence to Europe with cotton, sugars, etc., and on 
 their return to this consulate bring manufactured goods 
 from Great Britain. This voyage occupies them from 
 three to four months. The trade with the United 
 States and Canada is almost exclusively in the im- 
 portation of provisions. American vessels could he 
 advantageously employed in the foreign trade, particu- 
 larly in carrying breadstufis, provisions, etc., to this 
 colony, and dried fish hence to the West Indies, etc. 
 
 The following table exhibits the quantity and value 
 of the products of the fisheries exported for the eleven 
 years ending 1851 : 
 
 Years. 
 
 Dried fish. 1 Oils. 
 
 Seal skins. 
 
 Salmon. 
 
 Herrtogs. 
 
 Quintals. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 Value. 
 
 No. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Tierces. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 Value. 
 
 1840 
 
 1841 
 
 1842 
 
 1818 
 
 1844 
 
 1845 
 
 1847..... 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 
 
 1850 
 
 1851 
 
 916,795 
 
 1,009,725 
 
 1,007,930 
 
 936,202 
 
 862,162 
 
 1,000,333 
 
 a87,973 
 
 920,366 
 
 1,175,167 
 
 1,089,182 
 
 1,017,674 
 
 £67«,245 
 606,014 
 561,960 
 632,194 
 482480 
 636,990 
 489,940 
 491,924 
 688,723 
 632,969 
 498,014 
 
 8,206,683 
 2,678,674 
 2,262,031 
 8,111,312 
 8,606,863 
 2,219,801 
 2,224,288 
 2,610,820 
 2,282,496 
 2,686,300 
 2,744,910 
 
 £805,197 
 266,882 
 28-3,813 
 385,975 
 816,690 
 243,640 
 229,172 
 860,579 
 213,742 
 809,928 
 819,977 
 
 681,885 
 417,115 
 344,688 
 651,370 
 635,620 
 352,202 
 486,881 
 . 521,004 
 306,072 
 440,328 
 511,630 
 
 £39,408 
 29,961 
 23,200 
 40,497 
 89,648 
 40,128 
 46,230 
 58,426 
 88,780 
 66,350 
 76,596 
 
 8,396 
 
 3,642 
 4,715 
 , 4,058 
 8,758 
 3,645 
 4,917 
 8,322 
 6,911 
 4,600 
 4,025 
 
 £12,939 
 
 12,302 
 
 13,078 
 
 12,216 
 
 11,945 
 
 12,794 
 
 9,732 
 
 6,597 
 
 10,315 
 
 9,200 
 
 12,024 
 
 9,965 
 18,889 
 
 9,649 
 18,410 
 20,903 
 
 9,908 
 13,872 
 11,471 
 19,556 
 86,269 
 
 6,861 
 7,119 
 4,670 
 6,065 
 
 11,234 
 5,111 
 7,644 
 5,671 
 9,779 
 
 13,261 
 
NEW 
 
 1406 
 
 NEW 
 
 The annexed is an account of the vessels and ton- 1 cleared outward, of the colony of Nowfoundland, in the 
 uage, both British and foreign, entered inward, and | year ending 6th January, 1862 : 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 Jersey and Guernsey 
 
 Spain 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Germany 
 
 Naples 
 
 Sardinia 
 
 Roman States 
 
 Tuscany 
 
 Azores 
 
 Sicily 
 
 Zante 
 
 Madeira 
 
 British N. Amer. Colonies. 
 
 United States 
 
 13i-itish West Indies 
 
 Spanish "West Indies 
 
 Danish "West Indies 
 
 Brazil 
 
 St. Pierre (French) 
 
 Total 
 
 Foreign vesaele. 
 
 BritUIi vessels. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Forei^ vessels. 
 
 200 
 
 "il 
 72 
 76 
 6 
 
 663 
 121 
 
 21 
 
 29,514 
 
 1,445 
 11,021 
 9,429 
 1,122 
 5,738 
 487 
 121 
 
 . 49,842 
 14,692 
 8,487 
 2,326 
 
 1,661 
 694 
 
 '36 
 1 
 
 11 
 19 
 
 486 
 
 4,426 
 
 76 
 
 474 
 
 1,239 
 
 608 
 1,907 
 
 2,478 
 
 120 
 11 
 
 8 
 18 
 90 
 
 1 
 
 80 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 564 
 
 81 
 
 71 
 
 16 
 
 1 
 
 16,117 
 
 1,159 
 
 451 
 
 2,178 
 
 11,608 
 
 lOT 
 
 3,860 
 
 "646 
 
 1,158 
 
 94 
 
 126 
 
 165 
 
 62 
 
 56,866 
 
 8,041 
 
 10,219 
 
 1,920 
 
 188 
 
 8,841 
 
 180,929 
 
 82 
 
 11,588 
 
 1,027 
 
 86 
 1 
 
 16 
 'i 
 
 117,778 I 79 
 
 149 
 76 
 
 1,947 
 
 1,514 
 818 
 186 
 179 
 200 
 
 1,292 
 
 11,112 
 
 Making an aggregate of 1265 vessels, and 142,467 
 tons (manned by 8465 men), entered, and a total of 
 1106 vessels, and 128,890 tons (with 7741 men), 
 cleared. From this exhibit it will he seen that the 
 arrivals from the United States greatly exceed the de- 
 partures for this country, thereby showing the bal- 
 ance of trade to be strongly against this colony. 
 
 The entrances and clearances for the past four years 
 have been as follows : 
 
 Yea™. 
 
 Entered. 
 
 Cleared. | 
 
 Vessels. 1 Tons. 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 1849 
 
 1850 
 1351 
 1862 
 
 1,166 
 1,220 
 1,232 
 1,265 
 
 132,383 
 183,228 
 187,465 
 142,467 
 
 1,074 
 1,087 
 1,084 
 1,106 
 
 126,648 
 108,795 
 141,578 
 128,890 
 
 The statistics of ship-building for a series of years 
 exhibit the following results : 
 
 Ycftrs. 
 1844. 
 1845. 
 1846. 
 1847. 
 
 26 
 82 
 81 
 17 
 
 Tons. 
 
 1,281 
 
 1,607 
 
 1,723 
 
 854 
 
 Years. 
 1848. 
 1849. 
 1850. 
 1861. 
 
 19 
 
 30 
 80 
 
 38 
 
 Tons. 
 794 
 
 1,054 
 1,497 
 1,806 
 
 Ships owned and registered in the colony, on the 
 31st December, 1851 : ships, 830 ; tons, 52,078. 
 
 The total value of the commerce of the colony for 
 the past five years, ending 5th January, 1852, has been 
 as exhibited in the following table : 
 
 Years. 
 
 Value of imports. 
 
 Value of exports. 
 
 Total value. 
 
 1847 
 
 184S 
 
 1849 
 
 £843,409 
 769,628 
 770,190 
 807,816 
 948,191 
 
 £806,605 
 887,581 
 876,667 
 976,770 
 959,751 
 
 £1,750,014 
 1.657,209 
 1,646,757 
 1,848,086 
 1,902,942 
 
 1860 
 
 1851 
 
 COMPAKATIYE BtATEMF-NT OF THE EeVENUE AND EXPENDI- 
 TUKRS IN THE TeARS 1849, 1S50, AND 1851. 
 
 I 
 
 Imperii cus- } 
 toms duties j 
 
 Colonial duties 
 
 Light dues . . 
 
 From other 
 sources 
 
 Totals 
 
 Expenditure 
 
 £3,538 5 8 
 
 52,796 2 6 
 
 1,698 7 9 
 
 11,332 9 2 
 
 £69,405 5 
 66,202 2 
 
 £59,831 19 
 2,390 16 11 
 
 5,142 8 
 
 £66,915 3 11 
 71,307 1 5 
 
 £74,205 4 1 
 
 2,467 13 8 
 
 8,722 11 5 
 
 £80,895 14 2 
 
 75,770 6 1 
 
 Total Amounts received and paid for tjie Tear end- 
 ing 31st Decembkr, 1851. 
 
 keoeipts for the tear. 
 
 Customs revenue £74,205 4 1 
 
 Light dues 2,467 18 8 
 
 Eentfund 1,601 8 4 
 
 Licensefund 849 9 
 
 Fees from public oflacers 772 2 4 
 
 From N. A. clergy, estimate BOO 
 
 Total £80,895 14 2 
 
 expenditures FOR THE YEAK 1851. 
 
 Civil department £5,990 
 
 Customs establishment 4,892 18 10 
 
 Judicial department, etc 6,304 10 7 
 
 Police and magistracy 5,828 10 
 
 Ecclesiastical department. 500 
 
 Legislative " 4,126 ^^ 6 
 
 Printing and stationery 545 4 g 
 
 Jail expenses 687 4 
 
 Coroners 230 12 1 
 
 Fuelandlight 510 4 3 
 
 Eepairs of court-houses, etc 509 16 5 
 
 '' government buildings. 245 1 8 
 
 Belief of the poor. 6,829 18 10 
 
 Koada and bridges 6,765 13 10 
 
 Postage and incidentals 107 12 2 
 
 Public institutions 475 
 
 Education 7,74S 5 
 
 Light houses 2,823 18 6 
 
 Registration of voters go 
 
 Interest on loans 5,783 10 5 
 
 Pensions I6I 4 
 
 Crown lands act 231 11 2 
 
 Loans paid ofiF 6,730 
 
 St. John's rebuilding acts 2,881 16 10 
 
 Ferries and packets ^ . 619 10 
 
 Postal act 155 18 7 
 
 Electric telegraph 688 1 9 
 
 Harbor G-race streets acts 836 13 4 
 
 St. John's burying ground 602 
 
 Steam communication 500 
 
 Miscellaneous 2,884 18 8 
 
 Total £75,770 5 1 
 
 The Labrador coast, as before observed, is the resort 
 of a large number of fisHermen. Since the treaty of 
 Paris, this fishery has increased more than sixfold. 
 No accurate account of the products can be ascer- 
 tained, but the following is considered, to be an approx- 
 imation. The salmon fisheries average annually 
 about 30,000 tierces. The herring fisheries are also 
 very large, and the seal fisheries are equal in value to 
 those of Newfoundland. The imports of Labrador 
 have bqen estimated by the authorities of Newfound- 
 land at $600,000 per annum, and the following is an 
 approximation to the value of the exports : 
 
 American vessels $480,000 
 
 Nova Scotia vessels 480000 
 
 Canada vessels 144^000 
 
 Vessels owned or chartered by English and Jersey 
 
 houses having establishments on the coast 480,000 
 
 Vessels owned or chartered by the people of New- 
 foundland 1,200,000 
 
 Total $2,784,000 
 
 The total exports, however, are by some persons 
 estimated at $4,000,000. 
 
 [Authorities: Official Abstract of Census, 1845; 
 Return showing the Value of Articles, etc., imported, 
 and the Neufoundland Almanac for 1853, furnished b}- 
 Hon, James Crowdy, Colonial Secretar}' ; Martin's 
 
NEW 
 
 1407 
 
 NEW 
 
 aritish Colonies (London edit.) ; Andrews's Report on 
 Colonial and Lake Commerce (U. S. Sen. Doc. 112, 
 part viii., p. 573) ; Report of ike Committee (Canada) to 
 prepare a Statement of the Population, Income, Expend- 
 iture, and D^t of the Provinces of British North Amer- 
 ica (June, 1853), etc., etc.] 
 
 Trade with the United States. — The great staple of 
 this colony is derived from its extensive fisheries. An 
 elaborate and interesting account of these may be 
 found in Mr. Andrews's Keport on Canada, etc., al- 
 ready referred to. 
 
 18£0. 18S1. 
 
 Imports fl-om Newfoundland into 0. S. . . $68,370 $92,220 
 Exports to Newfoundland from U. S 767,550 954,266 
 
 The trade of Newfoundland with other countries 
 than the United States, particularly with Spain, Por- 
 tugal, Italy, and the Brazils, is much more extensive, 
 in proportion to its commercial capabilities, than is 
 that of any other North American colony. The heavy 
 balance against that Island, in its trade with the 
 United States, may suggest a reason why it seeks a 
 European market for so large a portion of its products. 
 The United States export to Newfoundland, beef, pork, 
 pitch and tar, corn-meal, flour, rice, tobacco, and gen- 
 eral merchandise. It may he seen from the following 
 table that flour and pork amount to fully three fourths 
 of the total exports from this country to Newfoundland. 
 
 Comparative Statement exhibiting the Quantities and Values op the Peincipal Articles imported into the 
 Port op St. John's, N.P., from the United States op AmbrIoa, during the Tears 1868, 1854, and 1855. 
 
 Description of goods. 
 
 Apothecaries' ware 
 
 Bacon and hams cwts. 
 
 Beef, salted bbls, 
 
 Bread owtB. 
 
 Butter 
 
 Candles lbs. 
 
 Coffee cwts. 
 
 Indian corn bush. 
 
 Indian meal bbls. 
 
 Flour " 
 
 Hardware and cutlery 
 
 Leather and leather wares 
 
 Molasses galls, 
 
 Pork, salted bbls. 
 
 Bum galls. 
 
 Tea lbs. 
 
 Tobacco, manufactured 
 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 Total 
 
 Cluantity. 
 
 Value. 
 
 229 
 
 679 
 
 7,910 
 
 1,649 
 
 84,903 
 
 210 
 
 725 
 
 8,036 
 
 55,117 
 
 12,630 
 
 9,289 
 
 14,231 
 
 90,678 
 
 $997 08 
 
 8,0B2 01 
 
 6,868 44 
 
 29,857 68 
 
 27,688 72 
 
 11,104 28 
 
 2,789 08 
 
 603 12 
 
 84,640 00 
 
 279,865 00 
 
 682 00 
 
 18,246 10 
 
 8,410 00 
 
 128,860 00 
 
 9,724 20 
 
 25,077 44 
 
 46,413 25 
 
 88,563 50 
 
 661,801 90 
 
 Quantity. | Value. 
 
 810 
 
 866 
 
 9,849 
 
 1,547 
 
 74,183 
 
 262 
 
 8,683 
 
 11,493 
 
 61,493 
 
 11,369 
 13,984 
 169,753 
 
 $1,252 13 
 
 3,516 62 
 
 10,412 62 
 
 58,476 48 
 
 26,952 10. 
 
 10,685 62 
 
 3,261 44 
 
 8,816 44 
 
 65,303 68 
 
 423,405 00 
 
 1,186 20 
 
 13,516 25 
 
 10,867 00 
 
 146,832 88 
 
 7.468 36 
 
 46,480 00 
 
 35,729 25 
 
 24,437 61 
 
 887,048 48 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Value. 
 
 255 
 1,028 
 
 6,896 
 
 2,552 
 
 116,104 
 
 265 
 
 7,812 
 
 15,146 
 
 76,347 
 
 5,617 
 15,012 
 
 2,213 
 42,716 
 
 $1,291 84 
 
 4,190 00 
 
 11,760 00 
 
 89,105 00 
 
 89,686 00 
 
 17,407 88 
 
 3,350 38 
 
 9,160 00 
 
 88,685 00 
 
 841,628 60 
 
 6,479 80 
 
 20,887 25 
 
 2,210 00 
 
 287,040 00 
 
 1,205 48 
 
 10,826 00 
 
 36,381 60 
 
 38,160 81 
 
 I 1,407,788 54 
 
 Statement exhibiting the Articles made free by the 
 Keoiprocity Treaty, tub Value of such imported, 
 and the Amount op Duties paid thereon, during 
 THE Fiscal Year ending June 80, 1854. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 Rate of 
 
 diity 
 per cent 
 
 Grain, Sour, and breadstuffs.. 
 
 Animals, free < 
 
 " dutiable 
 
 Frosh, smoked, and salted meat 
 
 Cotton-wool, free 
 
 Seeds, plants, sbrnbs, etc., free. 
 " " " dutiable 
 
 Vegetables 
 
 Undried fruits 
 
 Dried " 
 
 Fish of all kinds 
 
 Products of fisb, and of all ) 
 I other creaturoslivingin the V 
 
 water. ) 
 
 Poultry 
 
 'Hides and skins 
 
 Furs, undressed 
 
 Tails, undressed 
 
 Unwrongbt stone 
 
 TJn wrought marble 
 
 Butter.....-.!; 
 
 Cheese 
 
 Tallow 
 
 Lard 
 
 Horns 
 
 Manures 
 
 Ores of metals, free 
 
 " " dutiable 
 
 Coal 
 
 Pitch, tar, and turpentine 
 
 Ashes , 
 
 Fire and other wood 
 
 All other wood 
 
 Pelts 
 
 Wool 
 
 Fish oil 
 
 Eice 
 
 Broom corn 
 
 Bark 
 
 Gypsum, ground 
 
 '^ ungronnd, free 
 
 Grindstones 
 
 Dye stnfiS 
 
 Semp, flax, tow, unmanuf 'd. 
 Tobacco, unmanufactured. . . 
 
 Total. 
 
 Value of a: 
 tides. 
 
 20 
 
 $8,906,073 
 
 76,406 
 
 226,642 
 
 5,184 
 
 126 
 
 18,210 
 
 665 
 
 102,806 
 
 18 
 
 18,692 
 
 901,671 
 
 1,016 
 
 6,600 
 
 34,729 
 
 18,920 
 
 8 
 
 10,768 
 
 4 
 
 126,811 
 
 127 
 
 37 
 
 887 
 
 1,421 
 
 18,790 
 
 616 
 
 254,775 
 
 76 
 
 4,441 
 
 728,688 
 
 674,061 
 
 24,639 
 
 69,182 
 
 110,402 
 
 978 
 
 358 
 
 118,312 
 
 28,266 
 
 14,717 
 
 2,9i5 
 12,696 
 
 $781,214 
 
 46,128 
 1,036 
 
 111 
 
 20,661 
 
 2,738 
 
 6 
 
 180,884 
 
 1,100 
 1,736 
 1,892 
 1 
 1,075 
 
 25,862 
 
 38 
 
 8 
 
 167 
 
 71 
 
 108 
 
 76,482 
 
 16 
 
 888 
 
 218,606 
 
 114,810 
 
 4,927 
 
 20,764 
 
 22,080 
 
 195 
 70 
 
 1,163 
 785 
 
 874 
 634 
 
 $7,398,858 ;$1,624,677 
 
 Staple Articles op Produce, and their Quantities, 
 
 EXPORTED FROM TUB POKT OF 8t. John'B, NEWFOUND- 
 LAND, TO THE United States of America, in the 
 Years 1853, 1864, and 1865. 
 
 Description of goods. 
 
 Fish, cod quintals 
 
 " salmon tierces 
 
 herring bbls. 
 
 Oil, seal tuns 
 
 " cod " 
 
 Skins, seal No. 
 
 21,386 
 
 1,350 
 
 8,810 
 
 6 
 
 836 
 
 6,00 
 
 18S4. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 14,862 
 
 1,070 
 
 967 
 
 5 
 
 41 
 
 less. 
 
 60,267 
 
 2,145 
 
 3,040 
 
 28 
 
 187 
 
 Number and Tonnage of United States' Vessels arriv- 
 ing AT AND CLEARING FROM THE PORT OF St. Joun'S, 
 DURING THE YeaHS 1863, 1864, AND 1855. 
 
 Entered. Cleared. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 185S 10 
 
 1864 18 
 
 1855 42 
 
 Tons. 
 1,802 
 3,170 
 9,107 
 
 10 
 11 
 42 
 
 Tons. 
 1,802 
 2,858 
 9,107 
 
 " Article 3. It is agreed that the articles enumer- 
 ated in the schedule hereunto annexed [the preceding 
 list], being the growth and produce of the aforesaid 
 British colonies, or of the United States, shall he ad- 
 mitted into each country, respectively, free of duty." 
 The colonics referred to in the foregoing articles are, 
 Canada, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince 
 Edward's Island. With respect to Newfoundland, ar- 
 ticle 6 provides as follows : " And it is hereby further 
 agreed, that the provisions and stipulations of the fore- 
 going articles shall extend to the island of Newfound- 
 land, so far as they are applicable to that colony. 
 But, if the imperial Parliament, the provincial Par- 
 liament of Newfoundland, or the United States, shall 
 not embrace in their laws, enacted for carrj'ing this 
 treaty into effect, the colony of Newfoundland, then 
 this article shall be of no effect ; but the omission to 
 make provision by law to give it effect, by either of 
 the legislative bodies aforesaid, shall not in any way 
 impair the remaining articles of tliis treaty." This 
 treaty is limited to ten years, with the usual notice of 
 12 months by either of the high contracting parties who 
 majr wish to terminate the same. Date of exchange 
 of ratifications of the treaty above referred to, Sep- 
 tember 9, 1854. Date of President's proclamation of 
 
NEW 
 
 1408 
 
 NEW 
 
 the same, September 11, 1854. Date of its acceptance 
 by Canada, 23d September, 1854 ; by New Brunswick, 
 11th November, 1854; by Nova Scotia, December 15, 
 1854 ; by Prince Edward's Island, 11th October, 1854 ; 
 and by Newfoundland, 14th November, 1855.— Z7. S. 
 Com. Digest, 1856. See Hunt's Mer. Mag.^ x., 380 ; 
 Feasek, xxxii., 740; Eclec. Rev., xiii., 316. 
 
 "New Granada is the most important of the three 
 republics into which the South American republic of 
 Colombia resolved itself at the dissolution of that con- 
 federation in 1831. Till 1810 it was '■ vice-royalty 
 under the Spanish crown, but subsequentlj' a part of 
 the republic of Colombia, the middle and western por- 
 tions of which it now embraces. New Granada is 
 bounded on the north hy the Caribbean Sea, on the 
 east by the republic of Venezuela, on the south-east 
 by Brazilian Guiana, on the south by the republic of 
 Ecuador, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean. It 
 lies mostly between the equator and 12° N. lat., and 
 between 70° and 83° "W. long. Area about 480,000 
 square miles. 
 
 The llanos or plains of the Orinoco extend over the 
 entire tract, stretching away to the western banks of 
 the Orinoco and to the Cassiquiare, between the Rio 
 Negro on the south, and the Rio Apure on the north. 
 As far south as the Vichada, the northern part is a 
 complete level, averaging only 300 feet above sea-level 
 near the mountains, whence it gradually, but almost 
 imperceptibly, declines toward the Orinoco. With the 
 exception of a few palms that occur at great intervals 
 all over the plain, and some low bushy trees along the 
 rivers, this district Is quite destitute of trees. During 
 the rainy season, which is from April till November, 
 rain falls in. torrents, accompanied with fearful thun- 
 der-storms, which usually occur between two and four 
 o'clock in the afternoon ; but the contrast is very 
 striking in December, January and February, when a 
 cloud never crosses the sky. This immense plain is 
 not at all fit for cultivation ; but innumerable herds of 
 cattle and horses find abundant pasture on it during 
 the rainy season, though they suffer much during the 
 dry months, from November till April. The wet sea- 
 sou is, on an average, 8° Fahr. hotter than the dry, 
 and the mean annual temperature is 80° Fahr. 
 
 The principal rivers of New Granada are the Mag- 
 dalena and Cauca, which run their whole course within 
 the territory of the republic, taking their rise in the An- 
 des near the southern frontier, and after flowing nearly 
 the entire length of the country from south to north, 
 unite in one channel, and discharge their combined 
 waters through a delta, by three channels, into the 
 Caribbean Sea, about W, long. 75°. Besides these 
 two principal streams, a large number of the tribu- 
 taries of the Orinoco, having their sources in the dif- 
 ferent ranges of the Andes, drain the Uanos-of the east. 
 Of these, the piincipal are the Apure, Meta, Vichada, 
 Guaviare, Rio Negro and Japura, on the mutual boun- 
 dary with Ecuador. The lakes of New Granada are 
 inconsiderable ; the most celebrated is the Guatavita, 
 not far from the city of Bogota, into which, it is af- 
 firmed, large treasures were thrown by the natives 
 during the Spanish invasion and conquests. 
 
 The mineral riches of New Granada are consider- 
 able, and mostly occur in the western declivity of the 
 three chains of the Andes. They consist of salt-rock, 
 lead, iron, copper, mercury, platinum, silver, and gold. 
 Along all the central and western declivity of the 
 Andes gold is found, and is obtained by washing the 
 sand of the rivers, as well as that on the sides 
 and foot of some hills. It is found on the plateaux of 
 Cucuta and Girona in the eastern Andes, where silver 
 also is obtained in considerable quantity. There are 
 also some very rich mines in the mountain region be- 
 tween the Rios Cauca and Magdalena, north of N. lat. 
 5^°. Platinum is found in the western declivity of 
 the western Andes, and mercury in the valley of 
 Santa Rosa, near Antioquia, and near the Pass of 
 
 Quindiu in the central Andes. Copper is found in 
 the eastern Andes, near Pamplona, and north of 
 Tunja. Iron and coal occur in the mountains border- 
 ing on the table-lands of Bogota, and lead in various 
 parts of the eastern Andes. In some mountains north- 
 east of Bogota large masses of rock-salt are found, and 
 it is worked by the government. Large quantities of 
 salt are furnished also by salt-springs in the same 
 mountains.' 
 
 From the great diversity of surface, soil, and cli- 
 mate of New Granada, the natural productions are ex- 
 tremely varied, embracing almost everj' variety found 
 in the temperate as well as in the tropical zone. The 
 chief objects of culture over the table-lands of Bogota, 
 and the district north of it, along the western slopes of 
 the eastern range, are the cereals as in Europe, the 
 aracacha-root, and potatoes ; but in the river-vallej'-s, 
 and on the coast-plains, maize is the chief grain culti- 
 vated, with rice, sweet potatoes, and plantains. As 
 articles of commerce, are cultivated coffee, cotton, co- 
 coa, tobacco, some sugar, and indigo. The forests 
 abound with numerous kinds of useful timber trees ; 
 but those converted into articles of export are the log- 
 wood, Brazil, Nicaragua, and fustic trees, which grow 
 most abundantly in the forests of the Santa Marta 
 chain. The balsam of Tolu, so named from a village 
 near Cartagena, is collected largely on the banks of 
 •the Rio Sinu, and ipecacuanha on those of the Rio 
 Magdalena ; cinchona, or Peruvian bark, is obtained in 
 large quantities in the region of the Sierra de Santa 
 Marta, as well as in several other places ; cochineal of 
 the finest quality is procured from the banks of the So- 
 gamozo. Previous to the discover}' of this countrj^ by 
 Europeans, horses and cattle were unknown in these 
 regions ; but now tasajo, or jerked beef, and hides, as 
 articles of commerce, are furnished by the immense 
 herds of cattle which the llanos support ; and mules, 
 horses, and cattle are exported to the West Indies. 
 
 The population of New Granada are descendants of 
 the Spaniards who have settled there during the three 
 last centuries, and some of the native tribes intermixed 
 with a few negroes. Very different degrees of civil- 
 ization are found among the native tribes. Before the 
 invasion of the Spaniards, those of the table-lands 
 along the eastern^ndes had organized a political sj's- 
 tem, and made some progress in the simpler arts of 
 civilization.- These, with the Indians in the valley of 
 the upper Magdalena, are still the best husbandmen 
 in the republic. Between the Pacific and the western 
 Andes, nearly all the population are descendants of the 
 aboriginal native tribes, whose progress in the arts of 
 civilized life is very small, and almost exclusively 
 owing to the few Spanish priests scattered among them 
 as missionaries. None but the descendants of Euro- 
 peans dwell in the treeless llanos ; and their occupation 
 is the care of the herds of mules, hors^, and cattle. 
 Wandering Indians, still in a very barbarous state, 
 occupy the southern wooded portion of the llanos. The 
 numbers of the respective races occupying New Gran- 
 ada have been estimated by Hubner as follows : — 
 
 White Caucasians 450,000 
 
 Native civilized Americans 301,000 
 
 Negroes 80,000 
 
 Metis (descendants of Spaniards and natives) 999,000 
 
 Mulattoes 283,000 
 
 Samoyes 120,000 
 
 Zambos (in Magdalena) 100,000 
 
 Quadrones 80,000 
 
 Total estimated population in 1853, 2,863,000 
 Agriculture holds the first place in the industry of 
 New Granada. Rice, cotton, tobacco, cocoa, sugar, 
 and tropical fruits, are among the productions of the 
 coast region ; while the elevated plains yield maize, 
 wheat, and all the products of a temperate zone. The 
 cultivation of the soil, however, is carried on very 
 carelessly ; and reclaimed land bears but a. small pro- 
 portion to the whole. On the llanos toward the Ori- 
 noco, almost the sole occupation of the people is the 
 
NEW 
 
 1409 
 
 NEW 
 
 rearing of cattle and horses. Agriculture is chiefly in 
 the hands of the converted Indians, who manifest a 
 very decided predilection for these labors of peace. 
 Manufacturing industr}' is of so little importance that 
 it can hardly be said to exist in the republic. It is 
 limited to home-made coarse woolens and cottons, 
 adapted for the use of the lower classes only. At Bo- 
 gota, the capital, and the other principal towns, indeed, 
 straw hats, carpets, and some other articles are made, 
 but in no case does the native industry become com- 
 mensurate with the demands of the country, so that 
 nearly all manufactured goods in use are imported. 
 Mining is carried on, but only to a very inconsiderable 
 degree. There is a silver mine at Santa Ana, in Bo- 
 gota, the only one now worked ; and gold is col- 
 lected in a few localities. Emeralds, diamonds, and 
 pearls, are also obtained. The salt mines of Zipaquira 
 are, however, extensively worked. With the excep- 
 tion of this last, the mining business of the country is 
 left entirely to the poor and ignorant. 
 
 The principal ports of New Granada are — on the 
 Caribbean Sea, Santa Marta, Cartagena, Chagres, Kio 
 de la Hacha, and Portobello ; on the Pacific, Panama 
 and Buenaventura. Steamers now navigate the Mag- 
 dalena ; and the only railway in the country is that 
 from Aspinwall to Panama. 
 
 Christopher Columbus discovered terra firma in 
 1498, and, during his fourth voyage, on the 2d of No- 
 vember,- 1502, found Chagres and the Bay of Limones, 
 called also Navy Bay. Different governments have 
 been established throughout the Granadian territory, 
 while Spanish colonies ; a vice-royalty was at length 
 formed in 1732, of what are now the republics of New 
 Granada and Ecuador. In 1810, New Granada sepa- 
 rated herself from the Spanish monarchy, and main- 
 tained a constant war until 1824, when the Spanish 
 armj' wag Conquered by the republican, of which two 
 thirds consisted of Colombians. Bolivar, the most 
 distinguished leader of the- Spanish-American revolu- 
 tion, was the first proposer of the union of Venezuela 
 and New Granada, in 1818 ; and when the Congress 
 of Angostura met, early in 1819, the fundamental law 
 was enacted which established Colombia, on the 17th of 
 December of that year. Venezuela separated herself 
 in November, 1829, and Ecuador in May, 1830 ; and 
 the central part of Colombia instituted itself the re- 
 public of New Granada on the 21st of November, 1831. 
 In 1832, the constitution of the State was sanctioned, 
 under the form of a democratic republican government, 
 by dividing the supreme power into the executive, 
 legislative, and judicial, under a central regimen, but 
 giving to the provinces a municipal corporation, that 
 each section might legislate in its local affairs. The 
 republic was divided into provinces, these into can- 
 tons, and the cantons into parochial districts. The 
 State recognized no Rational religion ; but has declared 
 that it will pay for the Catholic worship, and protect 
 Granadians in its exercise. The law of Colombia, 
 which attributed to itself the law of patronage exer- 
 cised by Spain, has continued in vigor to the present 
 time. The republic was first divided into 18 provinces ; 
 and they have since been increased to 35. The con- 
 stitution of, 1832 was reformed in 1843, without any 
 variation in the foi^m of government. 
 
 Commercial relations between the United States and 
 New Granada are regulated by treaty of December 12, 
 1846, proclaimed June 12, 1848. The following sum- 
 mary presents the principal commercial features of this 
 treaty : 
 
 There shall be a perfect, firm, and inviolable peace 
 and friendship between the two republics. No favors 
 to be granted by either party to other nations, which 
 shall not become common to the other. Mutual bene- 
 fits in trade and residence to be equally enjoyed. The 
 coasting trade reserved by each country to its own 
 flag. Equalization of duties granted by each country 
 on vessels and their cargoes. The privileges respecting 
 4U 
 
 drawbacks equalized to the flag of each in the ports of 
 either. Importations and exportations of articles, the 
 produce or manufacture of either country, into or from 
 the other, equalized as to duties with similar importa- 
 tions and exportations of any other foreign country. 
 All prohibitions as to articles of import or export to be 
 equal in each country as respects the flag of the other ; 
 the three preceding stipulations to apply, whether the 
 vessels proceed from their own ports or from foreign 
 ports, respectively. The citizens of either country to 
 be free to manage their own business, as well with re- 
 spect to shipping and its incidents, as to purchases, 
 sales, etc., in the country of the other ; and this privi- 
 lege to be enjoyed personally or by agents — they being 
 in all these cases treated as citizens or subjects of the 
 most favored nation. In case of embargoes, detention 
 of vessels, etc., for public or private uses, full in- 
 demnity to be allowed. The vessels of either party 
 seeking refuge in the ports of the other to be pro- 
 tected. Vessels captured by pirates to be delivered 
 up to the owners. Assistance to be given in cases of 
 shipwreck, etc., in the ports of each to the vessels of 
 the other, in the same manner as to the national flag. 
 Citizens of either countrj' authorized to dispose of their 
 personal goods and real estate within the jurisdiction 
 of the other, by sale, donation, testament, or other- 
 wise ; and their representatives, being Citizens of the 
 other country, to succeed to their said personal goods 
 or real estate, whether by testament or ab intestato^ 
 and to take possession thereof, either by themselves or 
 others acting for them, and to dispose of the same at 
 their will, paying onlj^ such dues as the inhabitants of 
 the country are subject to in like cases. Protection to 
 persons and propert)^ formally guarantied, whether 
 such persons are transient or dwellers in the territories 
 under the juiisdiction of either party, respectively ; 
 and access to the legal tribunals of each countrj^, free 
 and unrestricted, granted to the citizens of the other, 
 on the same terms as to the native or other citizens of 
 such country. Liberty of conscience and the free and 
 unrestricted rites of burial guarantied. Both parties 
 at liberty to trade with those at enmity with the other, 
 Free ships to make free goods, contraband of war ex- 
 cepted. Enemy's property, to be protected by a neu- 
 tral flag, must be shipped within two months aftej 
 declaration of war. Articles contraband of war speci- 
 fied. Blockade defined to be the besieging or blockad- 
 ing of those places only which are actually attacked by 
 a belligerent force capable of preventing the entry of 
 the neutral. All contraband articles liable to confisca- 
 tion. In case of blockade, vessels to be turned away, 
 but not detained. Vessels entering before blockade 
 may quit unmolested. During a visit at sea, armed 
 vessels to remain out of cannon-shot. In case of war, 
 sea-letters, certificates of cargo, etc., to be furnished, 
 showing to whom the property belongs. In case of 
 war between the two nations, merchants allowed time 
 (6 months to those residing in ports, and 12 months to 
 those residing in the interior) to arrange their business, 
 transport theii* effects, etc. Citizens of other occupa- 
 tions, who may be established in the territories of the 
 United States or of New Granada, to be respected and 
 maintained in the full enjoyment of their personal 
 liberty and propertj"-, this protection being dependent 
 on their conduct. No confiscation of debts, etc., in the 
 event of war. Citizens of the United States, their 
 vessels and merchandise, placed on the same footing 
 as those of New Granada in the ports of Panama. 
 Eight of transit across the Isthmus of Panama guaran- 
 tied to citizens of the United States, and no other 
 or higher tolls to be exacted from them than from 
 citizens of New Granada. The United States guaranties 
 to New Granada the perfect neutrality of the Isthmus. 
 Citizens to be held personally responsible for infring- 
 ing an}- articles of the treaty ; but reprisals not to be 
 authorized, nor war declared, until justice, has been 
 demanded and refused. 
 
NEW 
 
 1410 
 
 NEW 
 
 An additional article provides that the two republics 
 will hold and admit as national ships, of one or the 
 other, all those that shall be provided by their respec- 
 tive goveraments with a patent issued according to its 
 laws. The treat)-- to continue in force twenty years 
 from the date of its ratification, and after that period 
 the usual twelve months' notice required. The navi- 
 gation and tariff regulations of New Granada are 
 marked by a spirit of liberality, though the foreign 
 commerce of the republic has not, as yet, attained any 
 considerable importance. The commerce of the United 
 States, however, with that republic, is thought to la- 
 bor under some disadvantages, as appears from the 
 following extract from a late consular return : *' Our 
 commerce, by treaty, is put on the footing of the most 
 favored nations. But this is nominal only ; for, in the 
 list of dutiable articles, those supplied by the United 
 States are taxed at a higher rate than such as come 
 from England, France, and Germany. I can not now 
 give you many instances ; but my recollection is, that 
 flour, bacon, and provisions generally, as well as com- 
 mon hats, boots, and shoes, may be enumerated. The 
 articles mainly produced by the United States being 
 taxed at a higher rate than articles produced by En- 
 gland, etc., etc., creating a practical discrimination 
 against us, necessarily operates as a double injury in 
 the exchange for the products of this country. * * * 
 These matters should be corrected, and there should be 
 a stipulation inserted in the treat}'' (should a new 
 treaty be entered into) prohibiting the provinces from 
 adding any tax, direct or indirect, except, perhaps, to 
 enforce honajide inspection." 
 
 The principal commercial ports of New Granada are 
 Santa Martha, Cartagena, and Panama; the aggre- 
 gate trade of which ports, for the year 1852, is given 
 in the following statement : 
 
 GoMMKRCB OF New Granada, 1852. 
 
 Principal ports. 
 
 Entered. | Cleared. | 
 
 Slilps. 
 
 Tom. 
 
 Ships. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Cartagena 
 
 St. Martha 
 
 Panama 
 
 Total 
 
 114 
 B9 
 812 
 
 14,.371 
 
 4,16T 
 
 148,899 
 
 109 
 48 
 297 
 
 18,784 
 
 4,127 
 
 138,a36 
 
 485 
 
 16li,42? 
 
 454 
 
 161,697 
 
 Value entered. Value cleared. 
 
 Cartagena. . . . 881,946 livr. sterl. 99,207 livr. sterl. 
 Bt. Martha.... 84,734 " 15,993 " 
 
 Panama 302,868,000 francs. 2,476,009 " 
 
 The subjoined analysis of this statement will show 
 the distribution of the commerce of New Granada for 
 the year specified : 
 
 Per cent, 
 
 England and colonies 80*&i 
 
 France. 7-42 
 
 United States 4-28 
 
 Curacoa 2'54 
 
 St. Thomas 2-31 
 
 Sardinia 0-68 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Cuba 0-50 
 
 Holland 0'49 
 
 Hanse Towns 0-40 
 
 Mexico 0-27 
 
 Spain 0-28 
 
 Nicaragua O'lO 
 
 The imports, during the same year, consisted of 
 printed, dyed, and white cottons, calicoes, and other 
 similar tissues ; silks, linens, woolens, hardware, fur- 
 niture, manufactures of metals, medicinal drugs, wines, 
 spirits, flour, and provisions generally. The chief ar- 
 ticle of export was gold, of which the amount for this 
 year was about $1,000,000. 
 
 A comparison of exports for a number of years ex- 
 hibits the fact, that the quantity of gold exported has 
 cither remained stationary or slightly diminished. 
 The cause is not found in any deficiency in the auri- 
 ferous resources of the country, as the mines of Antio- 
 quia, and those in the countrj- along the Pacific, on 
 the Rio Zulia and the Rio Hacha, contain large quan- 
 tities of the precious metals ; but the difiiculties 
 attending the transportation of heavy machinery, in- 
 dispensable in working the mines of Antioquia, seem 
 te be insuperable, beyond a certain weight. Until 
 good roads shall have been established, and the mines 
 thereby rendered more accessible, but little improve- 
 
 ment in the mining industry of this region (the richest 
 in New Granada) can be expected. 
 
 Large quantities of gold, in ingots and dust, enter 
 into the clandestine trade of the republic, of which no 
 account can be taken in the official returns. 
 
 Next to gold, tobacco is the most important article 
 in the export trade of New Granada, and its most pro- 
 ductive staple. The soil, in many parts of the repub- 
 lic, is peculiarly adapted to the growth of tobacco, and 
 its production might be made a source of the principal 
 agricultural wealth of the State, under a different S3''S- 
 tem of properly regulated industry. The quantity 
 exported in 1848 exceeded that of the preceding year 
 by 35 per cent. ; and the returns for several preceding 
 years exhibit a regular, though not so large, augment- 
 ation. 
 
 Cabinet-maker's wood and dye-stuffs rank next in 
 the exports of the country. In 1848, they amounted 
 in value to $161,500. The large bulk of these products 
 is sent to the United States, in part exchange for pro- 
 visions, cotton goods, furniture, medicinal drugs, and 
 sundries. Excellent coffee and cocoa are raised, chiefly 
 in the valley of Cucuta ; whence transported to Mara- 
 caibo, in Venezuela, they enter into the returns of 
 Venezuelan exports. 
 
 In addition to these products of New Granada, a 
 new species of bark' has recently been discovered, 
 which promises to become a valuable article of com- 
 merce. A letter from a mercantile house in London 
 to a correspondent in New Granada, written in 1845, 
 sayBi "We imported last year 17,000 seroons (ham- 
 pers or baskets) of New Granada and 500 seroons of Bo- 
 livian, bark. The New Granada all sold ; but the 
 Bolivian being held for a monopolj' price, is still in 
 the market — proving that this kind has very little de- 
 mand." 
 
 Delondre, in his new work on quinine barks, gives 
 an analysis of a New Granadian bark containing quite 
 as much quinine as Bolivian calisaya. If the calisaya of 
 Santa F6, or fusagasuga and pitaya barks of New 
 Granada, had been introduced into the market before 
 the Bolivian, there would be no question about the 
 quality of the alkaloids they yield. 
 
 There seems a probability that this New Granadian 
 bark will soon enter largely into the export trade of 
 that countr}'. The chemical test to which it has been 
 subjected in England, has already stamped it as a val- 
 uable acquisition to the materia medica ; and the per- 
 iodical scarcity of quinine, which sometimes raises that 
 article to a most exorbitant price, will render it still 
 more popular. In reference to this bark, and other 
 valuable products of New Granada, a report submitted 
 in July, 1850, to the French government, rcl.ttive to 
 the commercial movements of France in New Granada, 
 says : '' Formerly, that republic had no other equiva- 
 lent to offer, in exchange for foreign merchandise, than 
 the gold of its mines." The abolition, in 1853, of the 
 monopoly of tobacco, however, has given a new stim- 
 ulus to agricultural industrj', and attracted numbers 
 to the cultivation of that article. This agricultural 
 movement is not the only benefit accruing to New 
 Granada from the suppression of this monopoly. In 
 bringing the capitalists of tlie country in contact with 
 foreign merchants, it has taught them to appreciate 
 better than formerly the immense wealth to be found 
 in the soil of the republic. Thus, quinquina, which 
 has remained almost imknown since the departure of 
 the Spaniards, has been a second time discovered in 
 1853, and has already entered into their exports, and 
 will soon become a considerable article among the 
 staples of New Granada. The cultivation of cocoa, 
 formerl}' limited to the consumption of the country, 
 has also been largely extended, and is now become an 
 article of export. 
 
 The navigation laws of New Granada, by a decree 
 of the Senate and Chamber of Representatives of that 
 republic, bearing date May 27, 1853, a translation of 
 
NEW 
 
 1411 
 
 NEW 
 
 which is subjoined, undergo some modifications in fa- 
 vor of foreign commerce, as follows : 
 
 Article 1. The following ports and territories of 
 the province of Choco shall be free for all nations in 
 th,e world, from January 1, 1854, for twenty yearS : 
 
 1. The ports of the Atlantic and the territory wa- 
 tered by tlie River Atrato, from its mouth to its con- 
 fluence with the River Guito, comprehended between 
 the western chain of the Andes and that branch of it 
 toward the eastward which separates said province 
 from that of Antrlo-Chin. 
 
 2. The ports of the I'acific and the territory watered 
 by the River San Juan, from its embouchuroj as far as 
 the city of Navita, contained between tlie above- 
 mentioned chain of the Andes and that branch of it 
 which separates it toward the southward from the pro- 
 vince of Buenaventura. 
 
 Art. 2. Consequently, no custom-houses can be 
 established in said ports and territories within the time 
 specified ; nor can any duties be levied, save those of 
 toll, passage, and excise, corresponding to the muni- 
 cipal revenues, and in conformity with the existing 
 laws. 
 
 Art. 3. In order to recover the duties on importa- 
 tion of foreign merchandise which may be introduced 
 for the consumption of the interior of the rest of the 
 province, and other provinces of the republic, there 
 shall be established two custom-houses, one in tlie city 
 of Quibdo, and the other in the city of Navita, with 
 necessary officers, etc., etc. 
 
 Art. 4. The executive power is authorized, when 
 it deems it indispensable for weighty motives of public 
 convenience, to assign other ports for custom-Iionses 
 than those expressed in this law ; in which case, the 
 maritime ports expressed in article 1, and the territory 
 comprised between the coasts and the spot on which 
 such cu.'itom-houses shall be fixed, alone can enjoy 
 freedom. 
 
 Another decree of similar importance to the interests 
 of foreign commerce was published in the official paper 
 of the New Granadian government of the 20th of July, 
 1856, in virtue of legislative authority, declaring Car- 
 tagena a free port for the commerce of all nations, from 
 the 1st of September ensuing. By this decree, how- 
 ever, vessels will continue to pay tonnage duty, con- 
 formable to the law of the 25th of June last in relation 
 tq that subject, The exemption from import duties is 
 circumscribed to the walled portion of tlie 'city, and 
 hence does not apply to goods carried to the outside 
 villages of Cabrero, Bocagrande, Espinal, and Manga 
 i Pie do la Popa. Counterfeit money, and Spanish, 
 Colombian, and Granadian money, under the standard 
 of 0.900, as well as copper not sold for the use of the 
 republic, are prohibited ; also, rum, and its compounds, 
 so long as the legislature shall not decree the free man- 
 ufacture and sale of that article. Vessels must ex- 
 hibit the usual papers on entering the port ; and when a 
 vessel is only going to leave a part of her cargo, the 
 captain must, within twenty-four hours, present a 
 manifest of what he intends to land, and what to leave 
 on board. If the vessel come in search of a marltet, 
 and not for the determined purpose of landing her 
 goods, the captain will be allowed forty-eight hours to 
 present a manifest of what he intends to land and what 
 to retain on board. If the vessel come in ballast, a 
 manifest will not be required, but the visiting officer 
 will satisfy himself that such is tlie state of the vessel. 
 A vessel from another port of the republic, or from a 
 port of a nation in which, by virtue of stipulations en- 
 tered into with this republic, by treaty or convention, 
 merchandise put on board in the ports of such nation 
 must be accompanied by bills of lading, will be re- 
 quired to produce bills of lading for articles which may 
 have been shipped in said ports, and a general manifest 
 for the remainder of the cargo not embraced in such 
 bill. The captain or supercargo not fulfilling these 
 regulations must leave port immediately ; first paying 
 
 tonnage duty, unless exempted from such payment by 
 the law of the 25th of June, before cited. Vessels car- 
 rying a mail, and steam or sailing packets, shall be 
 visited at anj' hour of the day or night, and in like 
 manner their goods and the baggage of their passen- 
 gers may be landed. A custom-house officer will board 
 vessels at Bocachica. When the vessel contains goods 
 subject to import duties, the hatchways, etc., shall be 
 closed and sealed by the commanding revenue officer, 
 packets being excepted from this regulation ; after 
 which formality, the custom-house officers will retire, 
 leaving a suitable guard, which shall be relieved daily. 
 The seals on the hatches, etc., are not to be broken, 
 except by the commanding officer who placed them 
 there, or hy his deputy. The decree embraces a num- 
 ber of additional provisions in relation to the discharge 
 of cargo, custom-house inspection, re-exportation, etc., 
 etc., and is accompanied by an explanatory note from 
 the Secretary of the Treasury of New Granada. 
 
 The coasting trade of New Granada is open to all 
 foreign vessels, but only foreign steamers are permit- 
 ted to navigate the rivers of the republic. This is an 
 important privilege to foreign vessels, and one which 
 is destined to stimulate American enterprise in this 
 neighboring republic. When the repairs of the canal 
 connecting the harbor of Cartagena with the Magda- 
 lena, now in progress, under the superintendence of an 
 American engineer, shall have been completed, the 
 internal trade of New Granada will be the means of 
 developing more fully its great resources, and bringing 
 to' marlcet the tobacco, India rubber, quinia, hides, 
 corn, cocoa, coffee, sugar, etc., the production of which 
 can be increased to an incredible extent. When this 
 canal shall have been completed, Cartagena will be- 
 come the great emporium of New Granada— at least of 
 20 of the principal agricultural provinces, containing a 
 population of 1,628,471 inhabitants. The present 
 tariff regulations of New Granada, to be found in Part 
 II., have been in force since May 1, 1856 ; but by a 
 late act of Congress, the manumission duty of 20 per 
 cent, is to be suppressed, and, in lieu, the additional 
 dutj- of 25 per cent, on the total amount of the import 
 duty is to be increased to 50 per cent. The port regu- 
 lations of New Granada are such as are deemed neces- 
 sary, as well in view of the general convenience and 
 safet}^ of vessels, as to answer proper police and harbor 
 discipline. Places are pointed out into which all rub- 
 bish, etc., is to be thrown. Ballast is to be taken in 
 and thrown out under written authority of proper of- 
 ficers. Cannon are not to be fired without permission 
 of the captain of the port. At Cartagena, it is for- 
 bidden to sound the upper or interior channels of the 
 port, or to have any communication with the shore 
 between eight o'clock at night and five o'clock in the 
 morning. It is also forbidden to disembaric any indi- 
 vidual before the visits of the officers of customs and 
 captain of the port. For the violation of any of these 
 regulations, fines are imposed, varying from 10 to 40 
 dollars, according to tlie nature of the case. 
 
 There are no quarantine regulations at anj' of the 
 ports of New Granada, and consequently no bills of 
 health are required. No light or hospital money is 
 levied. No local impost is charged. At the port of 
 Savanilla there is a water-tax upon all vessels arriving 
 there of $i each, imposed by the provincial legislature. 
 Pilots are emploj'ed and paid by government. Their 
 duty is to visit all vessels requiring their assistance, 
 and all vessels coming from a foreign port are required 
 to pay the full fees, whether they take on board a 
 pilot or not. The fee is $11, in -and out. There is 
 also a fee of $6 40 to be paid to the captain of the port 
 on visiting the vessel, and $1 60 for the interpreter. 
 With the exception of the interpreter's fee, this amount 
 is also levied on New Granadian vessels. By a decree 
 of the Congress of New Granada, bearing date June 
 19, 1856, which, like that of July 20, already given, 
 comes to hand as these sheets go to press, new regu- 
 
NEW 
 
 1412 
 
 NEW 
 
 lations respecting tonnage dues are established, of 
 which a translation is given as follows : " Tonnage 
 dues, port dues, pilotage, and visit fees, shall be the 
 same in all the ports of the republic, including the free 
 ports of the Isthmus of Panama, Cartagena, Choco, 
 Buenaventura, and Tumaco, and the following sums 
 shall be collected : 1. Every vessel under 100 tons 
 shall pay 40 cents per Granadian ton for her capacity. 
 2. Every vessel exceeding 100 tons shall paj- 40 cents 
 per ton for the first 100 tons, and 20 cents per ton for 
 each ton over the same. 3. Tonnage dues shall only 
 be paid at the first port at which a vessel touches, pro- 
 ceeding from foreign countries : vessels proceeding 
 from one port to another in the republic shall not pay 
 tonnage dues. 4. War vessels of the country, or of 
 friendly nations, and transports assimilated to them, 
 which may touch at the ports of the republic, shall not 
 pay tonnage dues. 5. The executive may exempt 
 from tonnage dues, and permit to coast, sail or steam 
 vessels that agree to convey the mails between the 
 ports of the republic, and caiTy such correspondence 
 gratis as may be entrusted to them. Those that do not 
 agree to this, shall pay tonnage dues, cash, in hard dol- 
 lars of the country. 6. Vessels arriving in ballast, or 
 which load in New Granada, shall not pay tonnage 
 dues ; neither shall those chartered to bring immi- 
 grants to the republic, when the number of the same 
 exceeds 50. Tonnage dues shall be charged at the 
 Isthmus ports from the 1st September next ; the pro- 
 duct shall be divided equally between the State and 
 general government." — Com. Bel. U. S., vol. iii., 1857. 
 Since Januarj' 1, 1850, Panama, and all the other 
 ports on the Isthmus, have been free — Aspinwall, of 
 course, included. The only duties levied at these free 
 ports are navigation dues, as above given ; from 
 which, however, the vessels in the service of the Pan- 
 ama railroad at Aspinwall are exempt by charter. 
 In February, 1856, Panama was erected into an inde- 
 pendent State, with the power vested in the legislature 
 to establish custom-houses, or, in other words, to abol- 
 ish the existing freedom of its ports. It is not very 
 likely, however, that the new State will be disposed to 
 take any legislative action by which the existing fran- 
 chise of Aspinwall would be abolished, or even abridged. 
 This new State has now become the principal centre of 
 commercial interest in this republic. In 1852 there 
 entered and cleared at its Pacific port (the port of Pan- 
 ama) 609 vessels, measuring an aggregate of 277,735 
 tons, of which 312 entered floating cargoes, including 
 
 specie, to the value of $60,473,000 ; and there cleared 
 297 vessels, with cargoes valued at nearly $500,000. 
 In this movement, the number of vessels under the 
 American ilag was 159, measuring an aggregate of 
 163,113 tons ; under the British flag, 138 vessels, 
 measuring in all 83,070 tons ; and under the French 
 flag, 20 vessels, with an aggregate of 5836 tons. The 
 freights under the United States' flag were valued at 
 $51,935,000 ; those under the British, at $8,000,000 ; 
 and the remainder of the total given above was dis- 
 tributed between the South American, French, and 
 other European flags. The American and British 
 freights included the gold dust brought down from 
 California by the steamers for the former, and the sil- 
 ver brought up the coast for the latter, in neither case 
 including the large amounts in the hands of passen- 
 gers. See Panama. 
 
 The total amount of gold and silver which passed 
 through Panama in transit in 1853 was $52,037,785. 
 The countries whence this sum was exported, and the 
 amounts from each, are given as follows ; 
 
 California $42,627,352 
 
 Mexico 2.765,000 
 
 Peru and Ohili 6,584,876 
 
 Australia ,60,557 
 
 Total $52,087,785 
 
 The total number of passengers who crossed the 
 Isthmus the same year was 23,690, of whom 13,937 
 came from California, and 9753 were proceeding to 
 that countr}'. In 1855 the total number of passengers 
 that crossed the Isthmus was 28,704. Of this num- 
 ber there came from California 10,015, and there pro- 
 ceeded to that State 16,289, all in American steamers ; 
 by the British steamers there came from Europe IBOO 
 passengers, and there proceeded to Europe 1100. The 
 transit of gold and silver the same year amounted to 
 $40,407,907. This amount was brought from the fnl- 
 lowing points : 
 
 San Francisco $31,671,815 
 
 Chili and Peru 6,854,673 
 
 Mexico 1,867,961 
 
 Panama 518,558 
 
 Total $40,407,907 
 
 The total exports of New Granada, during the year 
 ending December 31, 1853, amounted to $30,849,595 
 65. Of this aggregate amount, Cartagena exported 
 $17,913,146; Cucnta, $4,153,898; Guanapalo, $14,- 
 312 ; Rio Hacha, $628,069 40 ; SavanilU, $8,105 728 
 25 ; Tumaco, $34,442. 
 
 COMMEECE OF THR UNITED StATHS WITH NeW GbANADA, FEOM OCTOBER 1, 1840, TO JULY 1, 1856. 
 
 Years ending 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Whereof tiore was In Bullion 
 
 and Specie. 
 
 Tonnage Cleared. 
 
 Domestic. 
 
 Foreign, 
 
 Totdl. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Exported. 
 
 Imported. 
 
 Auierican. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Sept. 80, 1841 
 
 1842 
 
 9 mos. 1843 
 
 June 80, 1844 
 
 1846 
 
 1846 
 
 1847 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 
 
 1860 
 
 Total.... 
 
 18.51 
 
 June 80, 1862 
 
 1858 
 
 1854 
 
 1856 
 
 1856 
 
 $60,562 
 57;863 
 72,009 
 75,621 
 48,717 
 61,849 
 68,655 
 79,165 
 244,460 
 970,619 
 
 $59,873 
 46,861 
 89,944 
 49,225 
 80,'i60 
 24,095 
 19,405 
 4.5,488 
 58,824 
 
 285,600 
 
 $110,435 
 103,724 
 161,968 
 124,846 
 78,977 
 75,944 
 73,060 
 124,603 
 297,784 
 1,256,219 
 
 $144,117 
 176.216 
 116,733 
 189,616 
 171,921 
 67,043 
 156,654 
 213,296 
 158,960 
 691,992 
 
 $14,153 
 2,480 
 
 19,600 
 62,077 
 273,000 
 
 $42,432 
 41,584 
 89,714 
 62,605 
 47,389 
 82,100 
 75,179 
 77,600 
 62,562 
 
 480,089 
 
 633 
 
 1,615 
 
 1,245 
 
 1,691 
 
 1,562 
 
 1,069 
 
 565 
 
 733 
 
 25,094 
 
 121,753 
 
 722 
 161 
 
 "298 
 784 
 1,567 
 1,354 
 6,2:37 
 
 $1,704,020 
 
 $2,607,701 
 
 1,293,236 
 
 753,891 
 
 85.5,254 
 
 892,24.5 
 
 1,444,843 
 
 $703,525 
 
 $.538,121 
 217,558 
 103,079 
 82,052 
 169,800 
 166,549 
 
 $2,407,545 
 
 $8,040,822 
 
 1,61.5,794 
 
 856,470 
 
 987,306 
 
 1,062,045 
 
 1,611,392 
 
 $1,988,543 
 
 $695,606 
 760,527 
 653,528 
 1,478,620 
 1,799,672 
 2,825,019 
 
 $860,710 
 
 $65,895 
 
 50,461 
 
 8,462 
 
 2,017 
 
 278,864 
 
 257,474 
 
 $911,104 
 
 $495,758 
 456,744 
 295,956 
 885,022 
 478,943 
 282,490 
 
 156,800 
 
 206,890 
 183,875 
 205.602 
 170.460 
 121,568 
 129,513 
 
 11,063 
 
 12,535 
 6,163 
 
 3,ato 
 
 1,164 
 1,663 
 1,312 
 
 Principal Ports. — Chagres, a sea-port town of New 
 Granada, Central America, on the northern coast of 
 the Isthmus of Panama, at the mouth of the Chagres 
 Kiver, on the Caribbean Sea. Latitude of fort San 
 Lorenzo 9° 18' 6" N., long. 79° 59' 2" W. It is a 
 mere collection of huts, with a harbor only for vessels 
 drawing 10 or 12 feet of water ; but it has frequent 
 traffic with Panama, and is sometimes resorted to by 
 
 shipping from the United States, Cartagena, and the 
 British West Indies. 
 
 Panama, a city and sea-port town of New Granada, 
 on the Pacific, 38 miles south-east of Chagres, lat. 8° 
 56' N., long. 79° 31' 2" W. Population estimated at 
 7000. It stands on a rocky peninsula, projecting into 
 the Bay of Panama, and has an imposing aspect from 
 the sea. Its streets are well ventilated, and it ia said 
 
NEW 
 
 1413 
 
 NEW 
 
 to be cleaner than most Spanish American cities. It 
 is encircled by irregular and not very strong fortifica- 
 tions, constructed at different periods. The houses 
 are partlj' of wood, straw, and other fragile materials. 
 The tides dally rise and fall from 20 to 27 feet, so that 
 it is peculiarly well fitted for the repair and building 
 of ships. The Panama railroad has one of its termini 
 here, and another at Aspinwall, on Manzanilla Island, 
 Navy Bay. Trains take about four hours in passing 
 from sea to sea. See Panama. 
 
 Cartagena, or Carthagena, a strongly-fortified city 
 and seaport of New Granada, South America, of which 
 republic it is the chief naval arsenal, capital of the 
 province, on a sandy peninsula in the Caribbean Sea. 
 Lat. of the dome 10° 25' 36" N., long. 75° 34' W. 
 Population, 10,000, nine tenths of whom are a mixed 
 black race. Its excellent port is defended by two 
 forts, and is the only harbor on the north coast of New 
 Granada adapted for repairing vessels. Cartagena is 
 the principal d£p6t for the produce of the provinces 
 watered by the Cauca and Magdalena Elvers, and is 
 connected with the Magdalena by a canal, i It exports 
 sugarj cotton, coffee, tobacco, hides, specie, bullion, 
 etc. Under the Spaniards, this city was the seat of a 
 captain-general,, and one of the three tribunals of the 
 Inquisition in America. It was the first town that 
 proclaimed independence, and in 1815 endured a most 
 vigorous siege, and was subdued only by famine. 
 Population of the province, 103,783. 
 
 New Hampshire. It is situated between lat. 
 42° 41' and 45° 11' N., and 70° 40' and 72° 30' W. 
 long. It contains 8,030 square miles. 
 
 Popuktion in 1790, was 141,885 ; in 1800, 138,858 ; 
 in 1810, 214,460 ; in 1820, 244,161 ; in 1830, 269,328 ; 
 in 1840, 284.574 ; and in 1850, 317,864. 
 
 EaxUf History, — John Mason, one of the first emi- 
 nent settlers of the north-eastern coast of New En- 
 gland, having agreed with Sir Ferdinando Georges to 
 make the Piscataqua the division line between them, 
 
 took subsequently from the Plymouth Council a pa^ 
 tent of what lies between that river and Merrimack, 
 and he called that tract of land "New Hampshire," 
 because he had been Governor of Portsmouth, in 
 Hampshire, in England. 
 
 In the year 1680 New Hampshire separated from 
 the province of Massachusetts, and was established as 
 an independent royal province. It was afterward 
 united again with Massachusetts, but in 1749 finally 
 separated, and has existed since that time as an inde- 
 pendent community, first under the name of " the Prov- 
 ince of New Hampshire" and since 1776 under that of 
 " the State of New Hajnpshire." 
 
 The Connecticut Elver has its source in the high- 
 lands, on the n^rth border of the State, and its west 
 branch forms the boundary line between New Hamp- 
 shire and Canada to within one mile of the 45th degree 
 of north latitude. Its general course is south b}' west, 
 and dividing New Hampshire and Vermont it passes 
 through the western part of Massachusetts, and the 
 central part of Connecticut, where it enters Long Is- 
 land Sound. Merrimack Elver, the Pemigewassit 
 branch, rises near the Notch in the White Mountains, 
 and is joined by the Winnipiseogee, 70 miles below the 
 source of the former. It here takes the name of Mer- 
 rimack. The Androscoggin and Saco Eivers rise and 
 have a jpart of their course in this State. 
 
 Granite is plentiful throughout the State, and also 
 marble and limestone. Iron ore, zinc, tin, lead, and 
 copper exist, some of which have been worked to ad- 
 vantage. 
 
 There were in this State in 1850, 2,251,488 acres of 
 land improved, and 1,140,926 of unimproved land in 
 farms. Cash value of farms, $55,245,997, and the 
 value of implements and machinery, $2,314,125. Live 
 Stock. — Horses, 34,233; asses and mules, 19; milch 
 cows, 94,277 ; working oxen, 59,027 ; other cattle, 
 114,606 ; sheep, 384,756 ; swine, 63,487 ; value of live 
 stock, $8,871,901. 
 
 Foreign Commbrcb op tub State op New HAMPSmaE, feom October 1,/1820, to July 1, 1856. 
 
 Years ending 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Tonnage Cleared. 
 
 District Tonnage. 1 
 
 Domestic. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Total. 
 
 American. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Registered. 
 
 Enrolled and 
 Licensed. 
 
 Sept 30, 1821 
 
 $180,129 
 
 $80,686 
 
 $260,765 
 
 $860,021 
 
 8,237 
 
 
 17,467 
 
 6,282 
 
 1822 
 
 188,882 
 
 10,817 
 
 199,699 
 
 880,052 
 
 8,846 
 
 
 
 
 1823 
 
 182,946 
 
 54,760 
 
 287,705 
 
 871,770 
 
 7,668 
 
 
 
 
 1834 
 
 178,508 
 
 6,876 
 
 185,888 
 
 245,618 
 
 8,048 
 
 
 
 
 1825 
 
 181,840 
 
 16,840 
 
 198,680 
 
 881,244 
 
 ; 7,566 
 
 4,691 
 
 
 
 1826 
 
 160,682 
 
 16,898 
 
 167,075 
 
 848,609 
 
 7,177 
 
 
 
 
 1827 
 
 155,580 
 
 21,818 
 
 177,898 
 
 802,211 
 
 6,849 
 
 
 
 
 1828 
 
 116,947 
 
 8,486 
 
 124,488 
 
 ■ 299,849 
 
 5,894 
 
 
 
 
 1829 
 
 98,264 
 
 7,476 
 
 105,740 
 
 179,889 
 
 6,748 
 
 
 
 
 1380 
 
 Total 
 
 98,499 
 
 2,685 
 
 96,184 
 
 180,828 
 
 4,632 
 
 
 
 
 $1,526,278 
 
 $226,786 
 
 $1,758,062 
 
 $2,889,986 
 
 71,060 
 
 4,691 
 
 
 
 Sept. 80, 1831 
 
 $109,456 
 
 $1,766 
 
 $111,222 
 
 , $146,205 
 
 4,326 
 
 
 8,790 
 
 5,910 
 
 1882 
 
 115,582 
 
 
 116,682 
 
 . 116,171 
 
 4,777 
 
 260 
 
 
 
 1838 
 
 145,355 
 
 9^903 
 
 . 165,258 
 
 167,754 
 
 6,002 
 
 
 
 
 1884 
 
 79,666 
 
 1,214 
 
 80,870 . 
 
 ' 118,695 
 
 4,380 
 
 78 
 
 
 
 
 1886 
 
 76,076 
 
 6,605 
 
 .81,681 
 
 71,514 . 
 
 3,877 
 
 119 
 
 
 
 1886 
 
 15,016 
 
 506 
 
 15,620 
 
 63,912 
 
 2,486 
 
 574 
 
 
 
 18ST 
 
 26,000 
 
 8,641 
 
 84,641 
 
 81,650 
 
 2,575 
 
 429 
 
 
 
 1888 
 
 56,108 
 
 18,567 
 
 74,670 
 
 169,985 
 
 11,191 
 
 1,615 
 
 
 
 1889 
 
 74,914 
 
 7,080 
 
 81,944 
 
 50,665 
 
 3,849 
 
 678 
 
 
 
 1840 
 
 Total 
 
 20,761 
 
 218 
 
 20,979 
 
 , 114,647 
 
 1,925 
 
 2,989 
 
 
 
 $717,918 
 
 $54,449 
 
 $772,867 
 
 «1,1,00,098 
 
 45,288 
 
 6,682 
 
 
 
 Sept 80, 1841 
 
 $10,261 
 
 $87 
 
 $10,848 
 
 $78,701 
 
 1,476 
 
 2,330 
 
 17,871 
 
 7,363 
 
 1842 
 
 28,419 
 
 128 
 
 28,547 
 
 60,481 
 
 1,241 
 
 3,612 
 
 
 
 9mos., 1848 
 
 44,669 
 
 116 
 
 44,774 
 
 8,289 
 
 1,018 
 
 2,256 
 
 
 
 June 80, 1844 
 
 5,9!»4 
 
 690 
 
 6,684 
 
 81,420 
 
 201 
 
 4,515 
 
 
 
 1846 
 
 2,874 
 
 10 
 
 2,884 
 
 22.689 
 
 169 
 
 2,849 
 
 
 
 1846 
 
 4,997 
 
 76 
 
 , 6,072 
 
 15,485 
 
 893 
 
 8,418 
 
 
 
 184T 
 
 1,407 
 
 ^288 
 
 , 1,690 
 
 16,935 
 
 281 
 
 1,671 
 
 
 
 1848 
 
 7,807 
 
 486 
 
 ■ , 8,243 
 
 61,808 
 
 8,229 
 
 2,689 
 
 
 
 1849 
 
 5,852 
 
 26 
 
 6,878 
 
 64,851 
 
 1,023 
 
 6,819 
 
 
 
 1860 
 
 Total 
 
 8,722 
 
 205 
 
 ' ■8(927 
 
 49,079 
 
 682 
 
 7,531 
 
 
 
 $120,492 
 
 $2,065 
 
 $122,547 
 
 $408,733 
 
 10,162 
 
 86,635 
 
 
 
 June 80, 1651 
 
 $4,949 
 
 
 $4,949 
 
 $58,028 ■ 
 
 2,386 
 
 5,807 
 
 17,849 
 
 7,578 
 
 1852 
 
 67,204 
 
 $2,254 
 
 69,458 
 
 88,318 
 
 2,284 
 
 6,182 
 
 
 
 1858 
 
 1,126 
 
 
 1,126 
 
 32,608 
 
 846 
 
 3,692 
 
 
 
 1854 
 
 918 
 
 118 
 
 1,081 
 
 34,505 
 
 1,648 
 
 2,519 
 
 
 
 1855 
 
 1,628 
 
 
 1,528 
 
 17,786 
 
 2,405 
 
 3,061 
 
 
 
 1856 
 
 6,168 
 
 107 
 
 6,278 
 
 24,889 
 
 2,268 
 
 8,479 
 
 
 
NEW 
 
 1414 
 
 NEW 
 
 Manufactures^ etc. — There were in the State in 1850, 
 43 cotton factories, with a capital invested of $10,974,- 
 700, employing 2,915 males and 9,235 females, pro- 
 ducing sheetings valued at $8,861,749; 91 woolen 
 factories, with a capital of $2,547,500, employing 873 
 males, and 1,021 females, manufacturing 9,712,840 
 yards of cloth, and 165,200 lbs. of yarn, valued at $2,- 
 439,967 ; 1 establishment with a capital of $4,000, em- 
 ploying 30 persons, producing 200 tons of pig iron, 
 etc., valued at $17,200 ; 26 establishments With a cap- 
 ital of $232,700, employing 374 persons, and making 
 5,764 tons of castings, etc., valued at $371,710 ; 2 es- 
 tablishments with a capital of $4,000, employing 6 
 persons, manufacturing 110 tons of wrought iron val- 
 ued at $10,400; 178 flouring and grist mills, 80 saw 
 mills, 165 tanneries, with a capital of $441,975, em- 
 ploying 513 persons ; 40 printing offices, 2 daily, 36 
 weekly, 1 semi-monthly, and 2 monthly newspapers. 
 Capital invested in manufactures, $18,242,114 ; value 
 of manufactured articles, $23,160,503. 
 
 Affrietdiural Products^ etc. — Wheat, 185,658 bush- 
 els ; rj-e, 183,117 ; Indian com, 1,573,670 ; oats, 973,- 
 381 ; barleji-, 70,256 ; buckwheat, 65,265 ; peas and 
 beans, 70,856; potatoes, 4,304,919; value of products 
 of the orchard, $248,563; produce of market gardens, 
 $56,810 ; pounds of butter made, 6,977,056; of cheese, 
 3,196,563; maple sugar, 1,294,863; molasses, 9,811 
 gallons ; beeswax and honey, 117,140 pounds ; wool, 
 1,108,476; flax, 7652 ; silk cocoons, 4,191; hops, 257,- 
 174 ; tobacco, 50 ; hay, tons of, 598,854 ; clover seeds, 
 829 bushels ; other grass seeds, 8,071 ; flax seed, 189; 
 and were made 344 gallons of wine. Value of home- 
 made manufactures, $393,455 ; of slaughtered ani- 
 mals, $1,522,873. 
 
 Principal Port. — Portsmouth is the only sea-port in 
 the State. It is situated on the south side of the Pis- 
 cataqua River, on a peninsula, three miles from the 
 sea, lat. 43° 40'. N., long. 70° 45' W. The harbor is 
 one of the best in the world ; it has 42 feet water at 
 low tide through the whole channel, and the current 
 is sufficient to prevent it from freezing. The United 
 States' Navj' Yard is located on an island near the 
 main bank of the river. The city has valuable manu- 
 factures and a large foreign and country trade, and 
 being intersected b}' the line of railroads between Bos- 
 ton and Portland is connected thereby with all the 
 New England and Canada towns ; a railroad also ex- 
 tends to Concord. The tonnage of Portsmouth in 
 1856, was 34,590 tons. 
 
 The principal places in this State are Concord, the 
 capital, Manchester, Portsmouth, Dover, Exeter and 
 Nashua. There were in 1856, 15 railroads, with 660 
 miles of track completed and in operation, and 24 in 
 course of construction. The only canals are those 
 facilitating the navigation of the Merrimack Eiver. 
 
 For commerce, resources, etc., of New Hampshire, 
 see Hunt's Merch. Maff., iv., 346; Am. Jo. Science, 
 xlix., 27 ; Am. Quar. Reg., xiii., 170 ; North Am. Rev., 
 xviii., 33. 
 
 New Jersey lies between 38° 55' and 41° 24' 
 N. lat., and between 73° 59' and 75° 29' W. long. It 
 is 163 miles long and 52 broad, and containing 6,851 
 square miles. 
 
 Population in 1790, was 184,189 ; in 1800, 211,149 ; 
 in 1810, 245,592 ; in 1820, 277,575 ; in 1830, 320,779 ; 
 in 1840, 373,306 ; and in 1850, 489,555. 
 
 Marly History, of New Jersey.— The shore and ter- 
 ritory of the present State of New Jersey were at first, 
 since 1006, a part of the great English province of 
 northern Virginia ; and then (since about 1621) it was 
 considered (at least by the Dutch) as a part of their 
 New Netherlands. 
 
 The English, however, always claimed the country ; 
 and in the year 1048 Sir Edmund Ploydon and some 
 English gentlemen received a charter and grant of a 
 great tract of country "lying midway between New 
 England and Maryland," to which the name of Nezo 
 
 Albion was given. This is the first English name 
 which this country received. The charter had, how- 
 ever, no great consequences. The Dutch remained in 
 possession, and the name New Albion was forgotten. 
 
 When the English conquered the New Netherlands 
 for the Duke of York, all this land was included in 
 the large territory given to the Duke of York. But 
 the Duke of York very soon sold (as early as the year 
 1664) that part of his grant which was lying between 
 Delaware and Hudson's River to Sir George Carteret 
 and John Lord Berkeley. The grant which he gave 
 to them is dated on the 24th of June, 1664. The 
 country received at once the name of New Jersey, in 
 compliment of Sir George Carteret, whose ancestors 
 came from the Island of Jersey, and who was himself 
 Governor of the Island of New Jersey. ' 
 
 The Hudson and Delaware Rivers flow on the east- 
 em and western sides of this State. The Raritan is 
 navigable 17 miles to New Brunswick, and it enters 
 Raritan Bay ; the Passaic is navigable for small ves- 
 sels for about 15 mUes, and enters into Newark Bay ; 
 the Hackensack, navigable 15 miles, also enters New- 
 ark Ba}'. Great Egg Harbor River, navigable 20 
 miles for small craft, passes through a bay of the same 
 name and enters into the Atlantic, 'fhe principal 
 bays are Newark and Raritan. Delaware Bay is on 
 its south-eastern border. It has two important capes, 
 viz., Cape May on Delaware Bay, and Sandy Hook at 
 the entrance of the Bay of New York. It contains 
 quarries of good building stone, valuable mines of 
 zinc and of iron, and in the south parts, beds of marl. 
 
 The principal places in this State are Trenton, the 
 capital, Princeton, New Brunswick, Ruhway, Eliza- 
 bethtown, Jersey City, Hoboken, Paterson, Hacken- 
 sack, Morristown, South Amboy, Freehold, Burlington, 
 and Camden. There were in the State, July, 1857, 
 38 banks with a paid capital of $5,147,741; The total 
 tonnage of the State, Januar)', 1853, amounted to 93,- 
 300 tons. 
 
 The northern part of the State is mountainous, being 
 crossed by a branch of the Alleghany Ridge ; the mid- 
 dle portion is agreeably diversified by hills and val- 
 leys ; while the southern part is level, sandy, and 
 mostly covered with pines and a scanty growth of 
 shrub oaks. The northern and middle portions of the 
 State have a fertile soil. 
 
 There were in the State in 1850, 1,767,991 a(ires of 
 improved land, ^nd 984,955 of unimproved in farms. 
 Cash value of farms $120,237,511 ; and the value of 
 implements and machinery $4,425,503. Live Stock. — 
 Horses, 63,955 ; asses and mules, 4,089 ; milch cows, 
 118,736 ; workmg oxen, 12,070 ; other cattle, 80,455 ; 
 sheep, 160,488 ; swine, 250,370 ; value of live stock, 
 $10,679,291. 
 
 Agricultural Products, etc. — ^Wheat, 1,601,190 bush- 
 els produced; rj'e, 1,255,578 ; Indian com, 8,759,704 ; 
 oats, 3,378,063; barley, 6,492; buckwheat, 878,934; 
 peas and beans, 14,174; potatoes, 3,207,236; sweet 
 potatoes, 508,015 ; value of products of the orchard, 
 $607,278; produce of market gardens, $475,242; lbs. 
 of butter made, 9,487,210; of cheese, 365,756; maple 
 sugar, 2,197 ; molasses, 954 gallons ; beeswax and 
 honey, 156,694 lbs. ; wool, 375,396 ; flax, 182,965 ; 
 silk cocoons, 23 ; hops, 2,133 ; tobacco, 310 ; hay, 435,- 
 950 tons ; clover seed, 28,280 bushels ; other grass 
 seeds, 63,051; flax seed, 16,625; and were made, 1,- 
 811 gallons of wine ; value of home-made manufac- 
 tures, $112,781 ; of slaughtered animals, $2,638,552. 
 
 Manufactures, etc. — There were in the State in 1850, 
 29 cotton factories with a capital invested of $1,691,- 
 000, employing 739 males and 1,299 females, produ- 
 cing 8,122,580 yards of sheeting, etc., and 2,000,000 
 pounds of 3'arn valued at $1,289,648 ; 51 woolen fac- 
 tories with a capital invested of $410,650, employing 
 407 males and 137 females, manufacturing 771,100 
 yards of cloth, etc., valued at $784,772; 9 establish- 
 ments making pig iron, with a capital invested of 
 
NEW 
 
 1415 
 
 (NEW 
 
 $967,000, employing 600 persons, producing 24,031 of 
 pi^ iron, etc. ; entire value Of prodncts $917,000 ; 45 
 establishments with a capital of $593,250, employing 
 803 persons, making 10,259 tons of castings, valued at 
 $686,430 ; 58 establishments with a capital of $1,016,^ 
 848, employing 593 persons, manufacturing 8,162 tons 
 of wrought iron valued at $629,273 ; 391 flouring and 
 grist mills ; 75 'printing Offices, 61 nei^spapers, 8 daily, 
 
 50 weeklyj and 3 monthly pnblications. Capital in- 
 vested in manufactures, $22^184,710 J value of manu- 
 factured articles,! $39,134,614i The Delaware and 
 Raritan Canal, 42 miles long, and the Morris, 102 miles 
 long, are the canals in this Stijte. There were, Jan- 
 uary 1, 1856, 11 railroads with an aggregate length of 
 504 miles in' operation, and 29 miles in course of cou- 
 struction. The State of New Jersey has no public debt. 
 
 FpilEIGN 
 
 Commerce of 
 
 THE State 
 
 of New Jersey, prom Ootobee Ij 1820i to Jdlt 1, 1866. 
 
 
 Years ending 
 
 , Exports. . , j Importe. J^ Tflnnft^^ cleared. 
 
 District Tonnage. j 
 
 Domestic. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Total. 
 
 ^ Total. 
 
 American. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Registered; 
 
 Enrolled and, 
 Liccnbed. 
 
 Sept. SO, 1821 
 
 1822... 
 
 1828 
 
 1824 
 
 1825; 
 
 1826 
 
 1827 
 
 1828 
 
 1829 
 
 1830 
 
 Total.... 
 
 Sept. 80,1831 ...'... 
 
 'l882 
 
 18-38 
 
 1884 
 
 1836 
 
 1886 
 
 1837 
 
 1838 
 
 1889 
 
 1840........ 
 
 Total.... 
 
 Sept; 80,1841....'...; 
 
 1842 ,,.. 
 
 9mos. 1843 
 
 June 80, IS44;....... 
 
 1646'........ 
 
 1846 
 
 1847 
 
 1848.; 
 
 1849 
 
 1860 
 
 ' Total.... 
 
 June 30,1851 
 
 1852 
 
 1868 
 
 1864 
 
 185S. 
 
 1856 
 
 :-h 
 
 $83,618 ' 
 88,551 1 
 26,064 
 ■ 28,989 ' 
 48,980" 
 80,859 
 26,627 
 
 1,892 
 
 8,022 
 
 8,224 
 
 $98 
 
 's'238 
 7,106 
 
 "ioo 
 
 ' $88,711 
 
 ,, 88,661, 
 
 26,064 
 
 28,989 
 
 47,218 
 
 ,87,965 
 
 25,627 
 
 ^1,892 
 
 ' 8,022 
 
 8,824 
 
 $17,606 
 
 ' 637,518 1 
 27,688 ' 
 
 888!49,7 ' 
 
 786',247! 
 18,444 
 
 231 
 
 2,302 
 
 1,298 
 
 1,463 
 
 1,667 
 
 1,658 
 
 933 
 
 180 
 
 414' 
 
 627, 
 
 'sn 
 
 207 
 
 34,043 
 
 $290,821 
 
 $11,430 
 58,991 
 80,853 
 8,181 
 66,863 
 88,769 
 19,640 
 
 : 28,010 . 
 78,434 
 14,888 
 
 $10,537 
 
 $V;868 
 1,900 
 
 7,678 
 24,040 
 24,577 
 
 19,645 
 1,198 
 
 $301,863 
 
 32,763 
 8,181 
 74,041 
 62,809 
 44,217 
 , , 28,010 
 98,079 
 16,076 
 
 $2,684,999 
 
 ' $Tb;460 
 
 "170' ' 
 
 4,492, 
 
 18,982 
 
 24,263 
 
 69,152' 
 
 1,700 
 
 4,182 
 
 19,209 
 
 ' 10,718 
 
 708 
 782 
 
 1,424 
 790 
 
 2,837 
 
 8,076 
 427 
 990 
 
 8,904 
 726 
 
 571 
 
 'soo 
 
 '236 
 
 9;662 
 
 ■347 
 
 1,264 
 
 80,978 
 
 $350,604 
 
 ii $19,166 
 
 ,„ 64.931 
 
 , 8,088 
 
 '18,839 
 
 'ifik 
 
 18,428 
 
 62 
 
 855 
 
 1,655 
 
 $86,836 
 
 , ,5,976 
 2,588 
 4,800 
 
 "760 
 
 $437,340 
 
 $19,166 
 
 70,907 
 
 10,621 
 
 ' 18,189 
 
 4,087 
 
 19,128 
 
 62 
 
 863 
 
 1,655 
 
 $212,560 
 
 $2,815 
 145 
 
 iV^CTO 
 829 
 685 
 4,837 
 1,835 
 4,263 
 1,494 
 
 16,158 
 
 2,789 
 
 2,301 
 
 130 
 
 609 
 
 'isi 
 
 552 
 
 'iso 
 
 10,835 
 
 'eis 
 
 220 
 428 
 981 
 
 842 
 
 .... 
 
 52,'r62 
 
 • -^ ■ 
 
 $180,606 
 
 $189 
 1,488 
 1,854 
 2,225, 
 187 
 890 
 
 $18,572 
 
 $144,178 
 
 $189 
 1,488 
 1,854 
 2,225 
 687 
 890 
 
 34,018 
 
 $1,111 
 2,491 . 
 3;539 
 8,971 
 1,473 
 2,788 
 
 6,662 , 
 
 2,244 
 
 928 
 
 '1,398. 
 
 2,631 
 
 2,029 
 
 ' 606 
 
 608 
 
 877 
 
 88,618 
 
 Principal Ports. — Jersey City is a flourishing city at 
 the mouth of the Hudson River, opposite New York 
 city, and is the terminus of the southern railroad 
 travel, and also of the New York and Erie Railroad 
 and of the Morris Canal. Though a separate muni- 
 cipality, it may be considered as a suburb of the great 
 metropolis, with which it connects by several terries. 
 It is a place of considerable manufacturing industry, 
 •ship-building, and commerce, and it is the American 
 station of the Cunard line of New York and Liverpool 
 steamships. 
 
 Paterson is situated immediately below the falls of 
 tlie Passaic River, 17 miles from New York. It ranks 
 next to Newark in manufactures, and is the third city 
 in the State as to population; Its prihcijial products 
 are cotton and silk goods, locomotives, riiachinery, 
 paper, etc. On the opposite side of the river is the 
 manufacturing town of Manchester, Paterson com- 
 municates with New York bj' the Paterson and Hud- 
 son Railroad and Morris Canal. 
 
 The other towns of note are Newark, New Bruns- 
 wick, Camderi, Trenton, and Princeton. 
 
 Ne'W IiOndon, Connecticut, is situated on the 
 Thames River, 3 miles frdm the ocean, 60 miles east 
 of New Haven by railroad. Its harbor is one of the 
 best in the United States, but is seldom visited by for- 
 eign vessels. Tlie whale fisheries constitute its main 
 interest, and it has also a large coasting trade. Sev- 
 eral railroads connect it with the interior, New 
 York, and Boston, and regular steamboats ply to and 
 
 from New York. The tonnage in 1856, was 40,371 
 tons. Population in 1830, 4350 ; in 1864, 10,000. 
 
 New Mexico, a Territory of the United States 
 of America, lies between lat. 32° 30' and 38° 32' N., 
 and long. 103° and 116° W. from Greenwich, En- 
 gland. Area, 210,744 square miles. 
 
 New Mexico is a mountainous country, with an ex- 
 tensive valley in the middle, running from north to 
 south, and formed by the Mia del Norte. The valley 
 is generally about 20 miles wide, and bordered on the 
 east and west by mountain chains, continuations of 
 the Rocky Mountains, which have received here dif- 
 ferent names, as Sierra Blanca, de los Organos, Os- 
 cura, on the easterrtside, and Sierra de los GruUas, de 
 los Mimbres, toward the west. The height of the 
 mountains south of Sante F6 is from 6000 to 8000 feet^ 
 while near Sante F6, and in the more northern regions, 
 some snow-covered peaks rise from 10,000 to 12,000 
 feet above the sea. The mountains are principally 
 composed of igneous rocks, as granitej sienite, diorite, 
 basalt, etc. On the higher elevations^ excellent pine 
 timber grows ; on the lower, cedars, and sometimes 
 oak ; in the valley of Hio del Norte, mezquite. The 
 main artery of New Mexico is the Rio del Norte. Its 
 head waters were explored in 1807 by Captain Pike, 
 between 37° and 38° N. latitude; but its highest 
 sources are supposed to be about 2° further north in 
 the Rocky Mountains, near the head waters of the 
 Arkansas and the Rio Grande (of the Colorado of the 
 west). Following a generally southern direetion, it 
 
NEW 
 
 1416 
 
 NEW 
 
 runs through New Mexico, where its principal afflu- 
 ent is the Rio Chamas from the west, and winds its 
 way then in a south-eastern direction along the bor- 
 ders of Chihuahua, Coahuila, and Tamaulipas, to the 
 Gulf of Mexico, in 25° 56' N. lat. Its tributaries 
 below El Paso, are the Pecos, from the north ; the 
 Conchos, Salado, Alamo, and San Juan, from the 
 south. The whole course of the river, in a straight 
 line, would be near 1,200 miles ; but by the meander- 
 ing of its lower half, it runs at least 2,000 miles from 
 the region of perpetual snows to the almost tropical 
 climate of the Gulf. The elevation of the river above 
 the sea near Albuquerque is about 4,800 feet; at el 
 Paso del Norte, about 3,800 ; and at Kej^nosa (between 
 300 and 400 miles from its mouth), about 170 feet. 
 The fall of its water between Albuquerque and el 
 Paso, is from 2 to 3 feet in a mile, and below Reynosa 
 1 foot in 2 miles. The fall of the river is seldom used 
 as a motive power, except for some flour mills, which 
 are of tenor worked by mules than water. The princi- 
 pal advantage which is at present derived from the 
 river, is for agriculture, by their well-mau4ged sys- 
 tem of irrigation. As to its navigation in New Mex- 
 ico, even canoes could not be used, except perhaps 
 during Ma)-- or June, when the river is in its highest 
 state from the melting of the snows in the mountains. 
 The river is entirely too shallow, and interrupted by 
 too many sand-bars, to promise any thing for naviga- 
 tion. On the southern portion of the river, the recent 
 exploration by Captain Sterling, of the United States' 
 steamer Major Brown, has proved that steamboats 
 may ascend from the Gulf as far as Laredo, a distance 
 of 700 miles. Although the steamboat used did not 
 draw over two feet of water, yet the explorers of that 
 region express their opinion, that " by spending some 
 $100,000 in a proper improvement of the river above 
 Mier, boats drawing four feet could readily ply be- 
 tween the mouth of the Rio Grande and Laredo." 
 
 There were in this Territory in 1850, 166,201 acres 
 of land improved, and 124,370 of unimproved land in 
 farms. Cash value of farms $1,653,952, and the value 
 of implements and machinery $77,960. Live Stock. — 
 Horses, 5,079; asses and mules, 8,654; milch cows, 
 10,635; working oxen, 12,257; other cattle, 10,085; 
 sheep, 377,271 ; swine, 7,314; value of live stock, $1,- 
 494,629. 
 
 Agricultural Products, e^c— Wheat, 196,516 bushels 
 produced ; Indian com, 365,411 ; oats, 5 ; barley, 5 ; 
 buckwheat, 100 ; peas and beans, 15,688 ; potatoes, 3 ; 
 value of products of the orchard, $8,231 ; produce of 
 the market gardens, $6,679 ; pounds of butter made, 
 111 ; of cheese, 5,848 ; molasses, 4,236 gallons ; bees- 
 wax and honey, 2 pounds ; wool, 32,901 ; hops, 50 ; 
 tobacco, 8,467 ; and w^ere made, 2,363 gallons of wine ; 
 value of home-made manufactures, $6,033 ; of slaught- 
 ered animals, $82,125. 
 
 Besides agriculture, the inhabitants of New Mexico 
 pay a great deal of attention to the raising of stock, as 
 horses, mules, cattle, sheep, and goats. Their stock is 
 all rather of a small size, because they care verj' lit- 
 tle for the improvement of the breed ; but it increases 
 very fast, and as no feeding in stables is needed in the 
 winter, it gives them very little trouble. There are 
 large tracts of land too distant from the water-courses 
 to be cultivated, or in too mountainous parts, which 
 afford, nevertheless, excellent pasturage for millions 
 of stock during the whole year ; but unfortunately the 
 raising of the stock has been crippled by the invasions 
 of the hostile Indians, who consider themselves secret 
 partners in the business, and annually take their share 
 away. 
 
 A third, much neglected branch of industry in New 
 Mexico, are the mines. A great many now deserted 
 mining places in New Mexico, prove that mining was 
 pursued with greater zeal in the old Spanish times 
 than since, which may be accounted for in various 
 ways, as the want of capital, want of knowledge in 
 
 mining, but especially the unsettled state of the conn- 
 ' try and the avarice of its arbitrarj"- rulers. The mount- 
 ainous parts of New Mexico are very rich in gold, cop- 
 per, iron, and silver. Gold seems to be found to a 
 large extent in all the mountains near Santa Fe, south 
 of it in a distance of about 100 miles, as far as Gran 
 Quivira, and north for about 120 miles up to the River 
 Sangre de Cristo. Throughout this whole region, 
 gold dust has been abundantly found by the poorer 
 classes of Mexicans, who occupy themselves with the 
 washing of this metal out of the mountain streams. 
 At present, the old and new Place?', near Santa Fe, 
 have attracted most attention, and not only gold 
 washes, but some gold mines, too, are worked there. 
 They are the onl^'" gold mines worked now in New 
 Mexico. Several rich silver mines were, in Spanish 
 times, worked at Avo, at Cerrillos, and in the Nambe 
 Mountains, but none at present. Copper is foundln 
 abundance throughout the country, but principally at 
 las Tijeras, Jemas, Abiquiu, Gaudelupita de Mora, etc. 
 There is but one copper mine worked at present south 
 of the placers. Iron, though also abundantly found, 
 is entirel}' overlooked. Coal has been discovered in 
 different localities, as in the Raton Mountains, near 
 the village of Jemez, south-west of Santa Fe, and in 
 a place south of the placers. Gypsum, common and 
 selenite, are found ; most extensive layers of it exist 
 in the mountains near Algodones, on the Rio del 
 Norte, and in the neighborhood of the celebrated " Sa^ 
 linas." It is used as common lime for whitewashing, 
 and the crystalline or selenite instead of window- 
 glass. 
 
 Santa F6 is the capital of the Territory. There 
 were in 1850, 3 printing offices in the Territory, issu- 
 ing a weekly and a tri-monthly, and a monthly publi- 
 cation. In the same year there were 1 academy, with 
 40 pupils ; 146 Roman Catholic churches. Total 
 amount of church propert}' valued at $188,200. 
 
 The climate of New Mexico is of course verj' differ- 
 ent in the higher, mountainous parts, from the lower 
 valley of the Rio del Norte ; but generally taken, it is 
 temperate, uniform, and healthy. The summer heat 
 in the valley of the river will sometimes rise to nearly 
 100*^ Fahrenheit, but the nights are always cool and 
 pleasant. The winters are long and severe ; the higher 
 mountains are always covered with snow, and ice and 
 snow are common in Santa Fe ; but Rio del Norte is 
 never frozen with ice thick enough to admit the pass- 
 age of horses and carriages, as was formerly believed. 
 The sky is generally clear, and the atmosphere dry. 
 Between July and October, rain falls ; but the rainy 
 seasons are here not so constant and regular as in the 
 southern States. Disease seems to be verj' little 
 known, except some inflammations and typhoidal 
 fevers in the winter season. 
 
 Of the history of New Mexico we authentically 
 know but little. The Spaniards, it seems, received 
 the first information in regard to it, in 1581, from a 
 party of adventurers, commanded by Captain Fran- 
 cisco de Levya Bonillo, who, finding the aboriginal 
 inhabitants and the mineral wealth of the country to 
 be similar to those of Mexico, called it ^ew Mex- 
 ico. In the year 1594, the Count de Monterey, then 
 viceroy of Mexico, sent Juan de Oriate, of Zacatecas, 
 to take formal possession of the country, in the name 
 of Spain, and to establish colonies, missions, and pres- 
 idios (forts). They found many Indian tribes, which 
 they succeeded in Christianizing in the usual Spanish 
 way, with sword in hand, and made them slaves. 
 The villages of the Christianized Indians were called 
 Pueblos, in opposition to the wild and roving tribes 
 that refused such favors. Many towns, of which only 
 ruins exist now, were established at that time ; many 
 mines were worked, and the occupation of the country 
 seemed secure, when, in 1680, a general insurrection 
 of all the Indian tribes broke out, and the Spaniards, 
 who were quite unsuspecting and unprepared, were 
 
NEW 
 
 1417 
 
 NEW 
 
 massacred almost to a man. The Governor of New 
 Mexico, Don Antonio de Otermin, after a hard strug- 
 gle, retreated from Santa Fe, and marched as far south 
 as Paso del Norte, where he and his followers met 
 with some friendly Indians, made a stand, and laid 
 the foundation of the town of that name. The war 
 with the Indians lasted 10 years, when the Spaniards 
 reconquered the whole country. Subsequently, sev- 
 eral insurrections have taken place, none, however, 
 have been so disastrous as tlie iirst, but the deep ran- 
 cor of the Indian race against the white, has contin- 
 ued to the present time. There has grown up a 
 hatred between the Indians and the Mexicans, never 
 to be subdued but with the extinction of the race. 
 
 Santa F6 was taken by General Kearney, Septem- 
 ber 8, 1846, and the Territorj' war ceded to the United 
 States by the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, February, 
 1848, and the present territorial government estab- 
 lished in 1850. The legislative assembly consists of a 
 council of 13 members, elected for 2 years, and a house 
 of representatives, of 26 members, elected for 1 year. 
 Governor appointed by the President of the United 
 States for 4 years. Everj' free white inhabitant, 21 
 years of age, and a citizen of the United States, is a 
 legal voter. 
 
 New Orleans, the capital of Louisiana, one of 
 the United States, on the eastern bank of the Missis- 
 sippi, about 105 miles from its mouth, lat. 29° 57' 45" 
 N., long. 90° 9' W. Population, in 1850, 119,461. 
 The new-built streets are broad, intersecting each 
 other at right angles ; and the houses are mostly of 
 brick. It is the grand emporium of all the vast tracts 
 traversed by the Mississippi, the Missouri, and their 
 tributary streams, enjoying a greater command of in- 
 ternal navigation than any other city, either of the Old 
 or New World. Civilization has hitherto struck its 
 roots, and begun to flourish only in some compara- 
 tively small portions of the immense territories of 
 whicli New Orleans is the sea^port ; and yet its prog- 
 ress has been rapid beyond all precedent. It appears 
 from the accounts printed by order of Congress, that 
 during the year ended the 30th June, 1852; the value 
 of the native American produce exported from this 
 city amounted to $48,808,169, while the value of that 
 exported from New York was $74,042,581. With re- 
 spect to imports, the case is materially different ; the 
 value of those of New Orleans, in the year just men- 
 tioned, being only $12,057,724, whereas those of New 
 York amounted to $132,329,306. It is believed by 
 manj', seeing how rapidly settlements are forming in 
 the " West,'' that New Orleans must, at no very dis- 
 tant period, exceed every other city of America, as 
 well in the magnitude of its imports as of its exports ; 
 and, considering the boundless extent and extraordi- 
 nary fertility of the uncultivated and unoccupied basins 
 of the Mississippi and Missouri, the anticipations of 
 those who contend that New Orleans is destined to be- 
 come the greatest emporium, not of America only, but 
 of the world, will not appear very unreasonable. 
 Steam navigation has been of incalculable service to 
 this port, and, indeed, to the whole of the valley of 
 the Mississippi, The voyage up the Mississippi, that 
 used formerly to be so difficult and tedious, is now 
 performed in commodious steam packets with ease, ce- 
 lerity, and comfort. *' There have been counted," saj'S 
 Mr. Flint, "in the. harbor, 1500 flat-boats at a time. 
 Steam-boats are arriving and departing every hour ; 
 and it is not uncommon to see 50 lying together in the 
 harbor. A forest of masts is constantly seen along the 
 levee, except in the sultry months. There are often 
 5000 or 6000 boatmen from the upper country here at a 
 time ; and we have known 30 vessels advertised to- 
 gether for Liverpool and Havre. Tie intercourse with 
 the Havana and Vera Cruz is great, and constantly 
 increasing." As a shipping port. New Orleans now 
 ranks third in the Union ; being in this respect infe- 
 rior only to New York and Boston. Vessels of the 
 
 largest burden may navigate the ri^'^r several hun« 
 dreds of'miles above the city. The aggregate burden 
 of the shipping belonging to the port, on the 30th June, 
 1852, amounted to 266,013 tons; of which 162,637 were 
 employed in steam navigation. In the year ending 
 31st August, 1852, the arrivals of steamers, principally 
 from the interior, were 2784. The depth of water in 
 the river opposite to New Orleans is, at a medium, 
 about 70 feet ; and it maintains soundings of SO feet 
 till within a mile of its confluence with the sea. Be- 
 sides three or four of inferior consequence, the Missis- 
 sippi has four principal passes or outlets. In the 
 south-east, or main pass, at Balize, the water on the 
 bar, at ordinary tides, does not exceed 12, feet; and as 
 the rise of tides in the Gulf of Mexico is not more 
 than 2 or 2 J feet, vessels drawing much, water can 
 not make their waj' from the ocean to New Orleans. 
 The unhealthiness of the climate is the great draw- 
 back on New Orleans. This probably arises from the 
 low and marshy situation of the city and surrounding 
 countrj'', which is iUnder the . level of the Mississippi, 
 being protected from inundation by an artificial levee 
 or mound, varing from 5 to 30 feet in height, and ex- 
 tending along the bank of the river a distance of 100 
 miles. The unhealthy season includes July, August, 
 and September ; during which period the yellow fever 
 often makes dreadful havoc, particularly among the 
 poorer classes of immigrants .from the North and from 
 Europe. Latterly, great effbrts have been made to 
 improve the health of the city, by supplying it abun- 
 dantly with water, paving the streets, removing 
 wooden sewers, and replacing them with others of 
 stone, etc. Many places, where water used to stag- 
 nate, have been filled up ; and large tracts of swampj' 
 ground contiguous to the town have been drained. 
 And as such works will no doubt be prosecuted on a 
 still larger scale, according to the increase of commerce 
 and population, it is to be hoped that the ravagesof fever 
 may be materially abated, though the situation of the 
 city excludes, any very strong expectation of its ever 
 being rendered quite free from this .dreadful scourge. 
 It has latterly been proposed to bring earth from the 
 upper parts of the Mississippi, and to employ it in 
 forming a site for a new city raised some feet, above the 
 level of the. river. It is .believed that this would be 
 the most likely means to guard against fever ; and the 
 object in view is of such paramount importance, that 
 the expense of the scheme should be reckoned a very 
 inferior matter. 
 
 Several cotton presses are among the most imposing 
 structures in the city. The Orleans cotton press is on 
 ground 632 feet long and 308 wide, which is nearly 
 covered with buildings. It contains a centre building, 
 three stories high, surmounted by a cupola, which af- 
 fords a fine view of the citj-. The wings are two sto- 
 ries high, and very extensive. It presses, on an av- 
 erage, 150,000 bales of cotton annually, but its capacity 
 is much greater. There are other cotton presses. 
 Several of the banks have fine buildings, and some of 
 -the hotels are magnificent. Two of these hotola cost 
 $600,000 each. The United States' branch mint has 
 an edifice, 282 feet longj and 108, feet deep, with two 
 wings 29 by 81 feet, the whole, three stories high, 
 which cost $182,000, The city is supplied with water 
 raised by powerful steam-engines from the Mississippi 
 Elver into a reservoir constructed on an artificial 
 mound, 21 feet high at its base. The reservoir ^s 250 
 feet square, built of brick, and plastered with hy- 
 draulic cement. It is divided into four conipartnjentg, 
 to allow the water to settle before it is diiStribatsd.,over 
 the city in cast-iron pipes, which are laid to the aggre- 
 gate length of 18 miles, The water works belonged to 
 the Commercial Bank, and cost $722,004. . 'The city 
 lighted with g»s. . A draining company, with a capital 
 of $64,000, has two steam-engines for drftuiing the 
 marshes of 35 miles in extent between the city, and 
 Lake Pontchartrain. There are in the city a.^iftted 
 
NEW 
 
 1418 
 
 NEW 
 
 States* land office, several public and private banks, 
 having a large capital, and several insurance com- 
 panies, with commensurate capitals. 
 
 The manufacturing establishments of this city are 
 comprised under the head of furnaces, founderies, 
 machine shops, sugar refineries, cotton factories, dis- 
 tilleries, tobacco factories, saw mills, etc. The whole 
 employed a capital in 1850 of ^2,962,060, and manu- 
 factured articles valued at $4,462, 944; since which 
 tinle the increase has been very rapid, and in 1854 
 were estimated to have doubled the amounts of 1850. 
 
 On the right bank of the river, and opposite to New 
 Orleans, connected by a steam ferry, is Algiers ; and 
 adjoining, the suburb of Macdonough, where are the 
 United States' Marine Hospital and many pleasant 
 residences. Algiers contains several large machine 
 shops, iron founderies, and^ ship-building establish- 
 ments. 
 
 There are steam and sailing packet lines to all the 
 large sea-port cities, sailing weeklj-. Also, steam 
 packets weekly to Vera Cruz and other ports in the 
 Gulf. 
 
 For commercial purposes, New Orleans occupies a 
 very superior and commanding situation. It is the 
 natural entrepot for supplies destined to all parts of 
 the Mississippi valley, as well as the depot for those 
 products of that salubrious region which seek a market 
 seaward. By means of the Mississippi River and its 
 tributaries, an inland trade is opened to her grasp, the 
 magnitude of which has never been equaled. Steam- 
 ers may leave her wharves and proceed on voyages of 
 several thousand miles without breaking bulk. The 
 Mississippi and its affluents are flanked on either side 
 by extensive territories, unsurpassed in richness of 
 soil, which readily yield a harvest to the labors of the 
 agriculturist, whether it be of sugar, com, or cotton. 
 These are the principal staples of the valley, and the 
 receipts of each of their products at New Orleans are 
 rapidly increasing. Heretofore, the river has been 
 the only channel depended upon for their transporta- 
 tion. Several lines of railroad are in process of con- 
 struction now, however, to facilitate the transportation 
 of cotton and sugar produced at a distance from the 
 river, to market, and thus enlarge the area of production. 
 These bulky products will not bear an extensive land 
 carriage by the old mode, and result in wealth to the 
 producer; but the construction of railroads for their 
 cheap transit to the river even, will not only change the 
 prospects of the interior planters for the better, but will 
 add greatlj' to the wealth and commerce of New Orleans, 
 which is eminently a place of exchange and distribution. 
 It is the great d6p6t of the south-western plantations, 
 where cotton and sugar crops are bought and sold 
 while still in the field, or "advanced" upon prospect- 
 ively if necessary. It has also an extensive trade 
 with Texas, Mexico, and the Gulf ports, as well as a 
 very heavy foreign export trade. She has, besides, a 
 large coasting trade with Atlantic ports, the value of 
 which can only be known generally by its results. 
 Her commercial life m.a.y be said to date after the ces- 
 sion of Louisiana to the United States, in 1803, as pre- 
 vious to that, her commerce was insignificant ; and 
 yet, in this short period of about 40 years, she already 
 ranks as the fourth city of the world for the magni- 
 tude and value of her commerce. The facilities and 
 convenience of transacting business at New Orleans 
 are fully equal to, and in many respects superior to 
 those of any other place. It is the centre of immense 
 exchange operations, and any amount of funds can at 
 all times be obtained at the shortest nqtice under good 
 letters of credit, and bills negotiated with great readi- 
 ness and facility on any prominent point in the United 
 States, or any of the commercial cities of western 
 Europe ; and the banking institutions afford all reason- 
 able accommodations to the local wants and trade of 
 the city. Some European cities can show more 
 splendid quays or magnificent docks for the accommo- 
 
 dation of shipping, and the landing and loading of car- 
 goes, far exceeding in appearance and durability any 
 thing of the kind in New Orleans, but in no way supe- 
 rior in point of actual convenience to the unpretending 
 wharves of the city. As is generally known, the sur- 
 face of the alluvial soil of Louisiana, including, of 
 course, the site of the city, is considerably below the 
 river in ordinary stages of high water, and the country 
 is protected from inundation by a raised and solid em- 
 bankment called the " levee,'* extending on both sides 
 of the river below, and a great distance above the cit}'. 
 Outside of the levee the bank of the river is called the 
 "batture," which in many places is increasing from 
 the continual alluvial deposits, while in other places 
 the river has what is called " a falling bank,*' and the 
 water gradually encroaches on the land. In the for- 
 mer case the levee is advanced as the batture increases, 
 and this has been the case in a large portion of the 
 front of New Orleans, where, in some parts, the levee 
 has, in the last 25 years, advanced fully 1000 feet; 
 and the front warehouses now stand for a long extent 
 that distance from the water, affording a splendid space 
 for the vast bulk of produce that is annually landed 
 and shipped. The wharves are constructed . outside 
 the levee on massive piles, driven with a heavy iron 
 ram into the mud, and extending over the river into 
 the water sufficiently deep to admit the heaviest 
 steamboats and ships to lie up against them ; heavy 
 sleepers connect the piles at their tops, and on these 
 piles the platform is laid, of thick planking, the edges 
 of which are separated about one inch, to prevent the 
 accumulation of diit, which falls through these inter- 
 stices into the river flowing below, and in five minutes 
 after the heaviest storm the whole surface is in perfect 
 condition to receive any description of merchandize. 
 These wharves are thus planked back till they join the 
 crown of the levee, in some places 150 to 200 feet, 
 which is made firm and solid by a constant coating of 
 shells, and always kept in good order. One of these 
 wharves presents an unbroken front on the river of 
 1500 feet, and others 600 to 800 feet, and in the busi- 
 ness season it is usual to see these fronts entirely occu- 
 pied with steamboats lying bow on, and each with her 
 stage rigged out to the wharf, actively engaged in 
 loading or unloading. The wharves intended for sea- 
 going vessels are detached from each other with an in- 
 tervening dock, and each wharf accommodates a tier 
 of vessels, which, unlike the steamboats are moored 
 up and down the river, one outside the other, three, 
 four, and five tiers deep, with a broad, common stage 
 communicating with the levee, and extending on the 
 bulwarks of the vessel to the outside one ; the timber, 
 plank, and all the conveniences for this staging, being 
 furnished by the city, who even also supply tarpaul- 
 ins to protect the goods in case of rain. 
 
 New Orleans was founded by the French in 1717. 
 In 1762 it was conveyed to the Spanish, who, in 1800, 
 re-conveyed it to the French, and in 1803 it was in- 
 cluded in the purchase of Louisiana by the United 
 States. On January 8th, 1815, the British under 
 General Packenham made an attack on the city, ap- 
 proaching it through Lake Borgne, but were signally 
 defeated by the Americans under General Jackson. 
 The British loss in killed and wounded was 3000 men, 
 and General Packenham was killed ; the Americans lost 
 only 7 men killed and 6 wounded. In 1718 Bienville, 
 at that time governor of the province, selected the 
 present site of New Orleans, but owing to difficulties 
 he had to encounter, it was not located until 1722. In 
 1727 the Jesuits arrived and were located in a tract of 
 land, on a portion of which St. Charles Hotel now 
 stands. In 1763 they were compelled to quit Louisi- 
 ana by an order from Pope Clement XIII, , and all 
 their property confiscated, then estimated to be worth 
 $180,000, which is now worth over $20,000,000. In 
 1769 the first case of yellow fever known, was intro- 
 duced by a British slaver with a cargo from Africa. 
 
NEW 
 
 1419 
 
 NEW 
 
 In 1778 Le Monilew, the first newspaper, was pub- 
 lished ; there are now 12 dailies and as many weekly 
 papers published. In 1810 the first street was paved 
 in New Orleans. At this time such was the state of 
 
 York. In 1825 the grounds above Canal-street and 
 below Esplanade-street were principally plantations. 
 
 The following statistics give a complete view of the 
 trade of this great and growing emporium . Its prepon- 
 
 the streets after a rain, that sleds were used to drag ' derance in shipment of cotton is as decided as that of 
 cotton, which paid $1 a bale. In 1834 gas and \ Manchester in its manufacture : for further information 
 water were introduced. The present area of the city '• refer to* articles. Cotton, Cottou Manupactdrb, 
 is not far from 40 square miles, double the size of New Gkbat Britain, LonislANA, United States. 
 
 ExFOKTS OP Cotton and Tobaooo raoM New Orleans for Six Tears, ooMMENCiNG September 1, and endino 
 
 August 81. 
 
 WhUlier oxported. 
 
 Liverpool 
 
 London. ..!:.....' [ 
 
 GIasgow,Greonock,etc. 
 Cowes, l^'almouth, etc. 
 
 Cork. Belfast, etc 
 
 Havre 
 
 Bordeaux 
 
 Marseill^iS 
 
 Nante8,0ette, & Uouen. 
 
 Amsterdam 
 
 Rotterdam and Ghent 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Antwerp, etc 
 
 Hamburg ; 
 
 Gottunb'g & Stockholm 
 Spain, Gibraltar, etc. 
 
 Mexico, 6tc..: 
 
 Genoa. Trieste, etc... 
 St. Petersburg, etc. . . 
 Other foreign ports. . . 
 
 Now York 
 
 Boston.. 
 
 Providence, K. I 
 
 Philadelphia 
 
 Baltimore 
 
 Portainouth 
 
 Other coastwise ports. 
 
 Western States 
 
 Total 
 
 ,llK0AriTUI.ATION. 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 France 
 
 North of Europe 
 
 S. Europe, Mexico, etc. 
 
 Coastwise 
 
 Total 
 
 Balei 
 721,111 
 
 13,930 
 
 D,494 
 
 8,9011 
 
 24T,481 
 
 . a,8S6 
 
 ■ 2,838 
 
 5,46.S 
 
 4,8.<!0 
 
 6,786 
 
 55,885 
 
 15,089 
 
 11,500 
 
 19,294 
 
 53,680 
 
 17,787 
 
 53,332 
 
 43,666 
 
 . 50,653 
 
 153,183 
 
 4,090 
 
 18,979 
 
 1,255 
 
 '"94 
 
 1,516,921 
 
 749,485 
 258,163 
 156,460 
 129,619 
 223,204 
 
 1,.')16,921 
 
 931,541 
 
 26,018 
 
 8,605 
 
 20,458 
 
 227,152 
 
 2,811 
 
 8,819 
 
 6,1182 
 
 7,807 
 
 ■ 6,400 
 
 ■68,283 
 
 18,147 
 
 21,882 
 
 20,167 
 
 88,174 
 
 17,291 
 
 78,847 
 
 80,584 
 
 61,340 
 
 151,469 
 
 2,834 
 
 10,632 
 8,178 
 1,540 
 1,212 
 
 1,795,028 
 
 986,622 
 244,314 
 162,673 
 173,812 
 222,100 
 
 Bulus. 
 
 702,641 
 
 ■ 833 
 
 8,621 
 
 8,460 
 
 1,873 
 
 163,650 
 
 1,814 
 
 3,486 
 
 4,873 
 
 1,875 
 
 1,907 
 
 29,451 
 
 7,877 
 
 5,661 
 
 15,861 
 
 47,164 
 
 18,787 
 
 69,9p9 
 118,675 
 1,458 
 8,105 
 4,070 
 
 '"60 
 
 1,270,364 
 
 717,328 
 178,323 
 62,632 
 109,164 
 202,817 
 
 l,793,023;l,270,264 
 
 1853—54, I ISSi— 53. I 1861—52, 
 
 BjiliiS 
 
 779,021 
 
 12,831 
 
 16,611 
 
 6,253 
 
 185,254 
 
 1,285 
 
 2,019 
 
 5,013 
 
 4,211 
 
 1,810 
 
 82,849 
 
 9,010 
 
 23,709 
 
 13,152 
 
 68,796 
 
 24,935 
 
 52,240 
 
 9,684 
 
 5S,i6S 
 113,851 
 
 iifihi 
 
 4,067 
 
 2,189 
 
 253 
 
 1,429,180 
 
 818,736 
 193,571 
 93,.375 
 135,971 
 192,527 
 
 1,429,180 
 
 50 
 89,767 
 12,484 
 
 202,957 
 
 2,317 
 
 6,098 
 
 1,164 
 
 1,375 
 
 1,982 
 
 14,621 
 
 22,2.32 
 
 10,531 
 
 7,1 
 
 51,448 
 
 20,693 
 
 '76,902 
 
 87,602 
 
 78,643 
 151,580 
 16,028 
 19,862 
 6,126 
 
 ' '8.37 
 1,200 
 
 Biiles. 
 761,172 
 
 I'l'.ioo 
 
 7,211 
 
 2,159 
 
 183,064 
 
 1,.364 
 
 4,308 
 
 7,: — 
 
 259 
 
 1,607 
 
 10,243 
 
 24,562 
 
 17,694 
 
 ' 6,634 
 
 :47,fi45 
 
 11,919 
 
 75,09S 
 
 15,046 
 
 lo'l',938 
 
 128,629 
 
 4,561 
 
 15,594 
 
 4,745 
 
 ' "45 
 
 ' i,2oo 
 
 1,486,316 
 
 922,086 
 211, .526 
 96,636 
 149,038 
 266,696 
 
 772,242 
 196,254 
 75,960 
 134,667 
 256,712 
 
 1,644,981 
 
 1,485,816 
 
 Uhdx. 
 6,164 
 5,179 
 
 "108 
 
 "148 
 
 ■ 14 
 
 623 
 
 10,667 
 
 ■8,725 
 
 "i21 
 4,671 
 
 '6J457 
 
 '8^587 
 6,245 
 1,446 
 
 "843 
 
 Hhdf. 
 2,981 
 4,600 
 
 3,844 
 
 194 
 
 1,904 
 
 "660 
 8,240 
 8,747 
 
 ""828 
 14,279 
 
 "4^472 
 
 4^824 
 7,176 
 1,408 
 
 '410 
 
 "162 
 59,074 
 
 11,446 
 1,238 
 15,130 
 18,665 
 
 60,131 
 
 7,631 
 5,942 
 18,370 
 23,076 
 9,156 
 
 1854—55. 1853—54. 
 
 Ilh(i.. 
 5,272 
 7,571 
 
 ""649 
 
 "8',430 
 8,066 
 6,661 
 
 "ioo 
 
 '6,298 
 
 2,492 
 
 46 
 
 904 
 
 7,618 
 
 '4,947 
 
 "8',7i4 
 
 6,019 
 
 739 
 
 "439 
 108 
 
 '"97 
 
 6410r 
 
 13,892 
 18,147 
 
 9,247 
 15,867 
 
 7,447 
 
 59,074 64,100 
 
 Hhdi. 
 6,360 
 5,048 
 
 "573 
 
 6;767 
 2,817 
 4,428 
 
 "624 
 
 644 
 
 7,970 
 
 8,926 
 
 "'768 
 6,282 
 
 '1,128 
 
 '2,479 
 4,318 
 
 190 
 50 
 
 83,043 
 
 11,981 
 12,447 
 18,932 
 9,889 
 4,794 
 
 1852—53. 1851—62. 
 
 Hbda. 
 9,458 
 
 610 
 
 'l',483 
 
 169 
 
 1,267 
 
 "soo 
 
 282 
 
 15,053 
 
 4,084 
 
 125 
 
 414 
 
 10,175 
 
 'l",966 
 2,647 
 
 7,281 
 1,331 
 
 124 
 "147 
 
 64,075 
 
 16,150 
 2,908 
 20,798 
 14,698 
 9,521 
 
 Hhils. 
 7,844 
 5,197 
 
 9,066 
 1,916 
 2,976 
 
 "l",i57 
 
 222 
 
 16,615 
 
 7,613 
 
 475 
 
 1,229 
 
 7,662 
 
 l"l',i84 
 8,688 
 
 131847 
 1,941 
 
 98,716 
 
 14,023- 
 18,948 
 26,814, 
 21,781 
 17,199 
 
 Comparative Eates of Fbbigut, on Cotton and Tobacco, to Liverpool, Havee^ and N^w 
 
 baou Month foe tub past Two Years. 
 
 58,043 I 64,075 | 98,715 | 
 
 TOBK, ON THE IST OF 
 
 Montlia. 
 
 Cotton, per pound. 
 
 Tobacco, per hogshead. , | 
 
 1856—51. 
 
 1865-56. ' 
 
 1856-51, 
 
 1865—66, , . j 
 
 LWsrponl, 
 
 H»vro, 
 
 Now York 
 
 Liverpool. 
 
 Havre. 
 
 New York 
 
 Liverpool. 
 
 Hnvr.. 
 
 New York 
 
 Liverpool. 
 
 Havre, 
 
 New York 
 
 
 Peiico. 
 
 Cunte. 
 
 Cents, 
 
 Pence, ■ 
 
 Centfl. 
 
 Conte. 
 
 a. d. 
 
 
 
 s. d. 
 
 
 
 September 
 
 3-8 
 
 
 8-8 
 
 8-4 
 
 1 1-2 
 
 1 
 
 42 6 
 
 
 $8 50 
 
 
 $12 50 
 
 $10 00 
 
 October. 
 
 1-2 
 
 
 7-16 
 
 7-8 
 
 1 7-8 
 
 1 
 
 42 6 
 
 
 5 00 
 
 
 
 
 
 November.... 
 
 15-82 
 
 
 1-2 
 
 7-8 
 
 1 8-4 
 
 8^ 
 
 45 
 
 
 5 00 
 
 
 
 
 12 00 
 
 
 17-32 
 
 1 1-16 
 
 1-2 
 
 1-2 
 
 1 
 
 1-2 
 
 42 6 
 
 
 5 00 
 
 
 
 12 00 
 
 780 
 
 January 
 
 .9-16 
 
 1 8-16 
 
 9-16 
 
 3-4 
 
 1 1-2 
 
 1-2, 
 
 65 
 
 
 7 75 
 
 
 
 
 7 76 
 
 , February 
 
 , 9-16 
 
 1 8-16 
 
 9-16 
 
 1-2 
 
 1 1-16 
 
 9-16 
 
 .... 
 
 
 7 75 
 
 
 
 
 760 
 
 March 
 
 15-82 
 
 
 1-2 
 
 5-8 
 
 1 1-4 
 
 8^ 
 
 40 
 
 
 7 75 
 
 
 
 
 8 60 
 
 April 
 
 5-16 
 
 . 8-16 
 
 . 5-16 
 
 11-82 
 
 7-16 
 
 8^ 
 7-16 
 5-8 
 8-4 
 1 
 
 8-8 
 
 1-4 
 
 8-16 
 
 8-16 
 
 5-16 
 
 6-8 
 5-16 
 11-82 
 1^ 
 7-16 
 
 1 \-A 
 5-8 
 8-4 
 05-5 
 
 8^ 
 7-16 
 8-8 
 1-4 
 8-8 
 
 85 
 27 6 
 80 
 80 
 ' 35 
 
 
 6 00 
 2 60 
 2 50 
 2 60 
 8 50 
 
 
 
 
 3 50 
 5 75 
 
 4 75 
 
 3 50 
 
 4 60 
 
 Miy 
 
 
 85 
 80 
 
 July 
 
 August 
 
 S 
 
 7 6 
 
 Comparative Peices of Middling to fair Cotton at 
 New Orleans, on the Fibst Day of eaoii Month 
 
 DCBING a period OF FiVE YbABS, TOGETHER WITH THE 
 
 Total Eeobipts at New Orleans and the Total 
 Crops of the United States, 
 
 Months, 
 
 September. . 
 
 October. 
 
 November. . 
 December. . 
 January — 
 Febra'ary... 
 
 March 
 
 April 
 
 May 
 
 June 
 
 July. 
 
 August 
 
 Eeeetpts atN.O. 
 Crop 
 
 1856—51, 
 
 Cents, 
 11 —13 
 118-13 
 llj— 18i 
 llj— 18 
 111-18 
 12J— 13J 
 12}— 13j 
 13J— 14i 
 18J— 15 
 181-15 
 14 — 
 15- 
 
 gtioj 
 
 81— lOi 
 9 —Hi 
 Si-lOi 
 8|— 101 
 9i— 11 
 9J— 11 
 
 lOf- 
 
 lOi— 
 
 105— 
 
 lOj— 
 
 Bales. 
 1,813,247 
 2,985,0008,627,84612, 
 
 Bales. 
 
 1,759,293 
 ',627,r ^ 
 
 1854—55. I 1863—54. 
 
 Cents. 
 81— 
 81- 
 3i-10i 
 
 8j— lor 
 8-10: 
 
 8 —10 
 
 8 —10 
 
 8|- 
 
 '^ 
 103— 
 
 9|- 
 9i-. 
 
 Cents, 
 10} 
 lOi 
 
 8J 
 
 9} 
 
 7» 
 8} 
 Si 
 
 Jlnlea. Bales. 
 
 1,234,7681,440,779 
 ~,847,8S9;2,930,027 
 
 Cents. 
 
 9}— 11 
 
 9i— 11 
 
 98—10} 
 
 8|-10| 
 
 8J- 
 
 8f- 
 
 8j- 
 
 9J— 
 
 9;— 
 10 — 
 
 93- 
 10 — 
 
 Bales. 
 1,664,364 
 8,220,000 
 
 COMPAEATIVB ARBiyALB, , EXPORTS, AND STOCKS OF CoTTON 
 
 AND Tobacco at New Orleans, foe Ten Years, 
 FROM 1st September each Year, 
 
 Years. 
 
 Cotton, 
 
 Tobacco. 1 
 
 Arrivals. 
 
 Exports, 
 
 Stocks. 
 
 Arrivals. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Stocks, 
 
 
 Bales. 
 
 . Bales, 
 
 Balsa., 
 
 Hhds. 
 
 Hhds. 
 
 Hhds. 
 
 1856—57 
 
 1,613,247 
 
 1,516,921 
 
 7,32l 
 
 55,067 
 
 50,181 
 
 18,711 
 
 1855—56 
 
 1,769,298 
 
 1,796,023 
 
 6,995 
 
 56,090 
 
 59.074 
 
 9,125 
 
 1854—55 
 
 1,284,766 
 
 1,270,264 
 
 89,426 
 
 68,848 
 
 64,100 
 
 M,65a 
 
 1853-54 
 
 1,440,778 
 
 1,429,180 
 
 24,121 
 
 48,905 
 
 53,043 
 
 24,045 
 
 1852—58 
 
 1,664,864 
 
 1,644,981 
 
 10,522 
 
 76,010 
 
 64,075 
 
 29,166 
 
 1861—52 
 
 1,429,183 
 
 1,435,816 
 
 9,758 
 
 89,675 
 
 9.3,716 
 
 18,381 
 
 1860—51 
 
 998,036 
 
 997,468 
 
 15,890 
 
 64,080 
 
 64,501 
 
 23,871 
 
 1849-50 
 
 837,723 
 
 838,691 
 
 16,612 
 
 60,304 
 
 57,965 
 
 14,842 
 
 1848-49 
 
 1,142,332 
 
 1,167,303 
 
 15,480 
 
 52,.335 
 
 82,896 
 
 13,298 
 
 1847—48 1,213,8051,201,8971 37,401 156,882 
 
 60,864 
 
 14,851 
 
 Commerce of New Orleans. — The following tables, 
 which we have compiled from our records, present 
 some leading facts connected with the commercial 
 progress of this city, and will be found valuable for 
 future reference by the readers of this work : 
 
NEW 
 
 1420 
 
 NEW 
 
 Statement of the Keoeipts and Exports of Cotton and 
 ToBAcoo at the Port op Mew Orleans in bach Year, 
 FROM 1822-23 to 1856-57, a Period of Thirty-five Tears. 
 
 Receipts. I Export 
 
 BnlBj, 
 
 161,959 
 
 Balm. 
 
 171,872 
 
 141,624 
 
 148,813 
 
 206,853 
 
 208,914 
 
 249,881 
 
 259,681 
 
 836,573 
 
 826,516 
 
 295,853 
 
 804,073 
 
 268,639 
 
 867,786 
 
 362,9TT 
 
 851,287 
 
 429,392 
 
 423,942 
 
 845,646 
 
 868,104 
 
 408,888 
 
 410,624 
 
 467,984 
 
 461,026 
 
 686,172 
 
 636,991 
 
 496,442 
 
 490,495 
 
 605,813 
 
 588,969 
 
 742,720 
 
 783,818 
 
 678,514 
 
 579,179 
 
 964,446 
 
 949,820 
 
 822,870 
 
 821,288 
 
 740,156 
 
 749,267 
 
 1,089,642 
 
 1,088,870 
 
 910,854 
 
 896,876 
 
 979,288 
 
 984,616 
 
 1,058,633 
 
 1,054,867 
 
 740,669 
 
 724,508 
 
 1,218,805 
 
 1,201,807 
 
 1,142,882 
 
 1,167,803 
 
 837,723 
 
 838,691 
 
 995,036 
 
 997,468 
 
 1,429,188 
 
 1,486,815 
 
 1,664,864 
 
 1,644,981 
 
 1,440,779 
 
 1,420,180 
 
 1,284,768 
 
 1,270,264 
 
 1,759,298 
 
 1,795,028 
 
 1,513,247 
 
 1,616,921 
 
 1822—28 
 1828—24 
 1824—25 
 1826-,26 
 1826—27 
 1827—23 
 1828—29 
 1829—80 
 1830—81 
 18S1— 82 
 1&32— 88 
 1683-84 
 1884—35 
 1885—86 
 1836—87 
 1887—88 
 1833-89 
 1389—40 
 1840-41 
 1841—42 
 1842-^8 
 1848—44 
 1844—46 
 1846—46 
 1846—47 
 1847—18 
 1848^9 
 1849—50 
 1850—51 
 1861—52 
 1862—58 
 1863—64 
 1864—55 
 1865—56 
 1856—57 
 Total ..I 27,201,866 | 27,181,859 
 
 Exports. 
 
 16,292 
 
 25,262 
 
 17,759 
 
 18,242 
 
 29,631 
 
 29,448 
 
 24,637 
 
 82,438 
 
 82,098 
 
 81,174 
 
 20,627 
 
 25,871 
 
 86,059 
 
 50,655 
 
 28,501 
 
 87,638 
 
 28,153 
 
 43,827 
 
 58,170 
 
 67,556 
 
 92,609 
 
 82,4.36 
 
 71,498 
 
 72,896 
 
 66,633 
 
 66,832 
 
 63,3.36 
 
 60,804 
 
 64,0.30 
 
 89,675 
 
 75,010 
 
 43,905 
 
 68,848 
 
 56,090 
 
 55,067 
 
 1,642,431 
 
 Hhds. 
 • 23,624 
 26,910 
 16,849 
 18,231 
 26,640 
 85,093 
 25,288 
 23,028 
 83,872 
 85,066 
 28,687 
 26,210 
 38,301 
 41,604 
 85,821 
 85,655 
 30,852 
 40,436 
 54,667 
 68,068 
 39,891 
 81,249 
 68,679 
 62,045 
 50,876 
 60,864 
 52,396 
 57,965 
 54,501 
 98,715 
 64,076 
 53,048 
 64,100 
 59,074 
 50,181 
 
 OOMPABATIVE PrtOES OP FloUR, ON THE iBT OP EAOn 
 
 Month FOE Five Years. 
 
 Months, 
 
 September. . 
 
 October 
 
 November. . 
 December. . 
 
 •January 
 
 February. . . 
 
 March 
 
 April 
 
 May 
 
 June 
 
 July 
 
 August 
 
 1856—57. 18fi5— 66. 1854—55. 1863—64. 1852—63. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 6!-63 
 
 n-rl 
 
 65—7 
 
 7— 7i 
 
 85—61 
 
 6-61 
 
 6i— 6? 
 6i— 6i 
 
 Dollure. 
 
 7i-7i 
 
 ri-7f 
 
 83— Si 
 
 8|— 9 
 8 —Si 
 Si-8J 
 
 6;— 7;- 
 
 7 —7,', 
 ■H 
 . H 
 6 — 6} 
 6}— 6{ 
 
 L 
 
 Dollai 
 
 7J— 8i 
 61-7 
 
 8i— 9 
 
 H~n 
 
 S\— 9J 
 
 91— n 
 
 10?— 11 
 9i-9J 
 8 — 8j 
 7J— 8 
 
 Dollars. 
 5i-6i 
 6.|-6J 
 6—7 
 6|— 6i 
 
 6 —6^ 
 7i-7i 
 
 7 — 7i 
 
 6 -6i 
 6;-7i 
 
 7 —7i 
 6i-7 
 61-8J 
 
 4-^1 
 4S— 4| 
 4J— 5 
 4'— 5i 
 4i— 5 
 4—48 
 3J^I 
 
 4;— 6 
 6i-6} 
 
 Comparative Prices op Ooen, Sacks, at New Orleans 
 
 ON THE IST op EACH MoNTIl, FOR i'lVE YeaRS. 
 
 1,625,581 
 
 Upon the supposition that the average value of cot- 
 ton and tobacco for the 35 j'ears above stated may be 
 fairly estimated at $40 per bale for the former, and 
 $70 per hogshead for the latter, it would give a total 
 value for these two articles alone of $1,203,048,310. 
 
 Imports op Specie at New Orleans, por Twelve Years, 
 FROM 1st September to 81st August. 
 
 Tfenrs. Value. 
 
 1866—67. $6,600,015 
 
 1865—66. 4,91.3,540 
 
 1854—55. 8,746,087 
 
 1868—64. 6,967,056 
 
 1362—58 7,865,226 
 
 1851—62 6,278,628 
 
 Years. Value. 
 
 1860—61 $7,987,119 
 
 1849—50 3,792,662 
 
 1348-49 2,501,260 
 
 1847—48 1,845,308 
 
 1846—47 6,680,060 
 
 1845-46 1,872,071 
 
 " Months. 
 
 September. . 
 October. . . . . 
 November. . 
 December... 
 
 January 
 
 February.. . 
 
 March 
 
 April 
 
 May 
 
 June 
 
 July 
 
 August 
 
 1866—57. 1856—56. 1854—65. 1863—54. 1862—53. 
 
 Cents. 
 70 — 90 
 60 — 76 
 65 — 70 
 63 — 65 
 59 — 61 
 
 106 —110 
 62i— 70 
 62 — 75 
 70 — 78 
 
 100 -110 
 75 — 86 
 70 — 86 
 
 Cents. 
 
 70—75 
 
 60—68 
 
 66—75 
 
 85—90 
 
 66 
 
 66—72 
 
 48—54 
 
 48—53 
 
 48—43 
 
 64—67 
 
 46—50 
 
 68—72 
 
 CentB. 
 70— 85 
 60— 80 
 76— 87J 
 36— 90 
 87— 90 
 98— 95 
 90— 92 
 94— 97 
 100—120 
 96—115 
 711— 88 
 75— 95 
 
 Cents. 
 68—65 
 68—69 
 66—70 
 57—66 
 60—70 
 80—90 
 60—70 
 62—61 
 58—65 
 62—60 
 45—68 
 50—60 
 
 Cents. 
 
 62—68 
 
 58—62 
 
 56— 60| 
 
 66—1 
 
 52—531 
 
 42—54 
 
 85^6 
 
 84—46 
 
 44—50 
 
 4S— 52 
 
 60—60 
 
 66—76 
 
 Comparative Rates op Exchange on London, Paris, 
 AND New York, at New Okleans, on the 1st of 
 EAcn Month por Three Years. (60 Day Bills.) 
 
 Months. 
 
 1SS6-57. 
 
 1865—66. 
 
 1854—56. ] 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 1 
 
 a- 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 ■= 
 
 ^ 
 
 •a 
 
 ■E 
 
 i 
 
 •a 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 lu 
 
 Ss 
 
 
 pn.. 
 
 per « 
 
 dis. 
 
 pm. 
 
 per ». 
 
 <u«. 
 
 Tim. 
 
 per ». 
 
 dls. 
 
 Sept.... 
 
 9+ 
 
 6 20 
 
 ^ 
 
 »f 
 
 5 15 
 
 2 
 
 !)+ 
 
 5 16 
 
 It 
 
 October. 
 
 9 
 
 5 22 
 
 s 
 
 5 20 
 
 2 
 
 9f 
 
 5 1? 
 
 1+ 
 
 Noveta. 
 
 HI, 
 
 5 25 
 
 2 
 
 7? 
 
 6 80 
 
 2+ 
 
 9+ 
 
 6 12 
 
 U 
 
 Decern. 
 
 7i 
 
 5 27 
 
 2+ 
 
 7 
 
 6 26 
 
 2* 
 
 «+ 
 
 5 16 
 
 2i 
 
 January 
 
 7| 
 
 b 80 
 
 il 
 
 7} 
 
 6 311 
 
 n 
 
 7 
 
 6 2a 
 
 2 
 
 Feb 
 
 7 
 
 b 80 
 
 6* 
 
 6 85 
 
 n 
 
 7 
 
 5 26 
 
 2 
 
 March.. 
 
 n 
 
 6 27 
 
 •a 
 
 8 
 
 6 25 
 
 2 
 
 K+ 
 
 6 24 
 
 2 
 
 April... 
 
 8* 
 
 6 25 
 
 
 8 
 
 6 25 
 
 2 
 
 n 
 
 5 19 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 May.... 
 
 9J 
 
 5 17 
 
 
 9 
 
 6 19 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 5 12 
 
 June.... 
 
 9i 
 
 5 12 
 
 
 9 
 
 5 2(1 
 
 !■ 
 
 10+ 
 
 6 07 
 
 i 
 
 ■July.... 
 
 10 
 
 5 211 
 
 
 9 
 
 5 15 
 
 1 
 
 10* 
 
 5 07 
 
 1 
 
 August. 
 
 n 
 
 5 16 
 
 It 
 
 9 
 
 6 15 
 
 li 
 
 9i 
 
 5 10 
 
 Si 
 
 Exports of Sugar and Molasses prom New Orleans, por Three Years (up the Kiver excepted), from Sep- 
 tember 1st, 1364, TO August 818T, 1857. 
 
 Whither exported. 
 
 New York 
 
 Philadelphia 
 
 Charleston, S. C 
 
 Savannah 
 
 Providence & Bristol, E.I. 
 
 Boston ; 
 
 Baltimore 
 
 Norfolk, Bichmond and ) 
 
 Petersburg, Va j 
 
 Alexandria, D. C 
 
 Mobile 
 
 Apalachicola & Fensacola. 
 
 Other ports 
 
 Total 
 
 Hhds. 
 337 
 
 66 
 171 
 
 88 
 
 630 
 60S 
 
 5,060 
 
 589 
 
 1,944 
 
 9,-872 
 
 Barrels. 
 40 
 
 22 
 
 578 
 
 1,870 
 
 2,526 I 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 6,917 
 1,134 
 1,880 
 840 
 50 
 1,226 
 1,372 
 
 6,662 
 1,076 
 2,777 
 
 Sugar. 
 
 Hhds. 
 
 14,479 
 
 2,840 
 
 8,683 
 
 759 
 
 "439 
 11,380 
 
 4,618 
 
 499 
 7,698 
 1,161 
 8,469 
 
 24,666 1 51,018 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 8,433 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 54 
 
 417 
 1,410 
 
 Banol<. 
 46,745 
 10,863 
 12,982 
 4,001 
 1,201 
 12,227 
 16,784 
 
 6,037 
 
 691 
 20,208 
 8,872 
 9,606 
 
 Hhds. 
 74,970 
 14,352 
 6,018 
 864 
 5 
 2,664 
 14,446 
 
 6,424 
 
 343 
 7,070 
 
 784 
 2,118 
 
 5,838 I 
 
 1142,967 1129,487 
 
 6,116 
 320 
 10 
 6 
 214 
 148 
 866 
 
 226 
 2,566 
 
 10,466 
 
 204 
 
 266 
 
 Barrels, 
 107,462 
 20,788 
 17,829 
 6,047 
 1,273 
 25,608 
 21,866 
 
 11,180 
 
 749 
 
 26,846 
 
 8,016 
 
 16,940 
 
 257,444 
 
 Comparative Prices op Sugar and Molasses at New Orleans, on the First op each Month, for Five Years. 
 
 Sugar. 
 
 1866—57. I 1865—66. 
 
 I 1853—64. I 1852—53. 
 
 I 
 
 1866—57. 
 
 1855—56. 
 
 1854—65. I 1858—54. 
 
 185:2-53. 
 
 September. , 
 
 October. 
 
 November. . 
 December. . 
 
 January. 
 
 February. .. 
 
 March 
 
 April 
 
 May 
 
 June 
 
 July 
 
 AuKust 
 
 Cents. 
 
 6i-9i 
 
 Si— lOj- 
 8i— 101- 
 8i— lOi 
 71— lOJ 
 7i-llS 
 7 —11} 
 7-llJ 
 71—12 
 9;— 12 
 9;— 12 
 10.1—11 
 
 Cents. 
 6 — 7J 
 
 4 —3 
 
 H-U 
 6 —8 
 6 -8 
 4i-S5 
 4 —3}. 
 4 — 8i 
 4.1—9 
 6 —9} 
 5i-9i 
 
 2i— 41 
 8 — 6J- 
 
 3 —5} 
 2S— 5 
 2i-^f 
 2^-4} 
 8—5 
 2j— Si 
 
 4 —6 
 4—6} 
 4—6} 
 85—6} 
 
 Oent,s. 
 31—5; 
 2|— 6 
 
 2}— 6 
 
 1J-4J 
 
 1-^ 
 1 —ii 
 1 —5 
 
 li-6} 
 8}-3t 
 
 Cents. 
 
 8}-61 
 
 3;-7 
 
 24—6} 
 24—5} 
 2;— 6} 
 8-5} 
 3 —.5} 
 2 J— 5 
 
 ^-5l 
 
 2i_5 
 2f— 5 
 3} — 6 
 
 Cents. 
 80 -^ 
 30 —45 
 50 —56 
 57 —59 
 60}— 68 
 68 —62} 
 
 63 —68 
 45 —68 
 60 —62 
 
 64 —67 
 47 —68 
 47 —68 
 
 Cents. 
 23—32} 
 22—30 
 24—31 
 27—80 
 87-^0 
 80—35 
 38—34} 
 80— .35 
 30—37} 
 85—4.3} 
 85—48 
 80—45 
 
 Cents. 
 
 S —13 
 
 9 —13} 
 
 10 —24 
 
 12 —18 
 14 —16} 
 
 13 -17} 
 16}— 19V 
 12}-20 
 
 Cents. 
 13 —20 
 
 13 —20 
 20 —22} 
 
 12 —13} 
 
 13 -13 
 12}— IS 
 12 —17} 
 
 9 —16} 
 9 -13 
 8 — llj 
 7—11 
 8 —18 
 
 Cents. 
 
 16—28 
 
 18—28 
 
 25—26 
 
 2.S— 28} 
 
 17—22 
 
 21—24} 
 
 18—24} 
 
 17—24 
 
 1.5—20 
 
 14—22 
 
 11—20} 
 
 18--19 
 
NEW 
 
 1421 
 
 NEW 
 
 Exports of Floitb, Pokk, Baoow, Laed, Beef, 'WinsKY, akd Coew, fok Two Tkaks, fkom Sept. 1 to Aro. 81. 
 
 Porta. 
 
 ISSe— 67. 1 1866—66. 1 
 
 Flour. 
 
 Pork. 1 Bacon. 
 
 Lard. 
 
 Beef. jWhl.ky| Corn. 
 
 Flour. 
 
 Fork. 
 
 BOCOD. 
 
 Lard. 
 
 Beef. 
 
 Whisky 
 
 Corn. 
 
 Now York 
 
 BarrelB. 
 141,494 
 241,466 
 
 14l',i42 
 
 72,768 
 17,274 
 290,776 
 
 Bni-rela, 
 
 46,628 
 58,725 
 
 8,847 
 
 18,874 
 
 16,968 
 
 1,420 
 
 4,722 
 
 Ciuk>. 
 2,979 
 2,728 
 
 25'e81 
 
 4,716 
 
 1,740 
 
 Mi 
 
 Kcgi. 
 
 188,658 
 67,808 
 
 1,480 
 17,941 
 158,611 
 186,090 
 49,758 
 
 Barrel.. 
 
 5,627 
 10,867 
 
 "366 
 
 1,229 
 
 814 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 1,956 
 
 8,925 
 
 849 
 
 856 
 
 46,884 
 
 ■]',68S 
 
 Sacks. 
 
 26,087 
 
 55,822 
 
 204'668 
 260,641 
 59,786 
 115,236 
 
 Barrels. 
 181,591 
 200,179 
 
 108^686 
 
 99,862 
 
 8,947 
 
 185,177 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 60,682 
 52,624 
 
 80,707 
 9,863 
 2,653 
 
 17,688 
 
 Cosks. 
 4,124 
 4,878 
 
 24,648 
 
 1,990 
 
 1,488 
 
 442 
 
 154f7'88 
 
 122,216 
 
 1,688 
 
 26^851 
 180,624 
 212,771 
 
 94,534 
 
 BarrelB. 
 14,147 
 
 13,998 
 
 1,846 
 
 4,949 
 
 236 
 
 1,604 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 1,762 
 
 4,454 
 
 67 
 
 187 
 
 51,402 
 
 "754 
 
 Saoks. 
 77,906 
 196,660 
 5,049 
 
 118^262 
 
 1,174,874 
 
 5,076 
 
 104,749 
 
 Philadelphia 
 
 Other coast ports. . 
 Great Britain 
 
 Other foreign ports 
 Total 
 
 
 88,447 
 
 648,866 
 
 18,726 
 
 60,068 
 
 711,628 
 
 
 178,682 
 
 37,015 
 
 742,817 
 
 86,179 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 •-"'-•I 
 
 In the above the exports to Mobile, etc., via the Pontchartain Eailroad and New Canal, are included. 
 
 Imports into New Orleans, fkom tub iNTisEiOB, for Ten Years, from the 1st September to the 81st August 
 
 IN EACH Tear. 
 
 Artblej. 
 
 1866-67. 
 
 1866-66. 
 
 1864-55, 
 
 1863-64, 
 
 1852-53. 
 
 1861-62. 
 
 1860-61. 
 
 1849-60. 
 
 1848-49. 
 
 1847-48. 
 
 Apples 
 
 ...bbls. 
 
 86,612 
 
 62,449 
 
 32,628 
 
 47,451 
 
 48,828 
 
 20,886 
 
 54,808 
 
 87,244 
 
 54,987 
 
 89,618 
 
 Bacon. ..asst. cask?, etc. 
 
 89,127 
 
 86,454 
 
 40,787 
 
 87,664 
 
 50,347 
 
 46,734 
 
 48,602 
 
 88,386 
 
 82,066 
 
 45,119 
 
 " bbls 
 
 . & bxs. 
 
 8,856 
 
 2,732 
 
 3,492 
 
 9,981 
 
 4,009 
 
 8,626 
 
 9,274 
 
 28,941 
 
 82,156 
 
 
 " hams 
 
 ..hhds. 
 
 82,S04 
 
 28,751 
 
 31,371 
 
 82,165 
 
 42,866 
 
 38,488 
 
 44,476 
 
 19,886 
 
 19,831 
 
 18,589 
 
 " in bulk... 
 
 . . . .lbs. 
 
 7,660 
 
 173,760 
 
 282,920 
 
 121,000 
 
 134,800 
 
 281,280 
 
 235,000 
 
 209,045 
 
 217,000 
 
 831,140 
 
 Bagging 
 
 .pieces 
 
 82,028 
 
 88,905 
 
 40,576 
 
 46.263 
 
 64,144 
 
 60,044 
 
 72,304 
 
 58,321 
 
 72,941 
 
 77,682 
 
 Bale rope 
 
 ...coils 
 
 112,846 
 
 101,881 
 
 95,336 
 
 102,274 
 
 121,558 
 
 90,272 
 
 107,224 
 
 86,104 
 
 9.3,822 
 
 74,825 
 
 Beans 
 
 ...bbls 
 
 8,189 
 
 6,758 
 
 4,690 
 
 13,469 
 
 9,494 
 
 6,696 
 
 4,280 
 
 9,807 
 
 13,157 
 
 20,485 
 
 Butter 
 
 . . .kegs 
 
 82,346 
 
 88,119 
 
 8.3,874 
 
 47,649 
 
 44,444 
 
 44,786 
 
 54,967 
 
 51,058 
 
 67,972 
 
 45,213 
 
 " 
 
 ...bbls 
 
 1,060 
 
 1,826 
 
 1,017 
 
 1,934 
 
 2,184 
 
 1,776 
 
 2,720 
 
 1,772 
 
 2,144 
 
 1,166 
 
 iBeeswax 
 
 . .. " 
 
 87 
 
 ISO 
 
 141 
 
 161 
 
 194 
 
 171 
 
 28C 
 
 867 
 
 481 
 
 698 
 
 Beef. .lbs. & tcs. 
 
 80,958 
 
 6Ii059 
 
 41,687 
 
 40,011 
 
 73,791 
 
 52,860 
 
 43,066 
 
 66,271 
 
 70,690 
 
 50,26C 
 
 " dried...... 
 
 ....lbs. 
 
 80,880 
 
 19,010 
 
 23,850 
 
 81,601 
 
 13,900 
 
 26,100 
 
 15,800 
 
 48,219 
 
 20,800 
 
 56,100 
 
 Bulfalo robes... 
 Cotton. 
 
 .. .pcks. 
 
 80 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 IV 
 
 1,300 
 
 156 
 
 358 
 
 28 
 
 14 
 
 La. and Miss . 
 
 ...bales 
 
 1,063,385 
 
 1,170,693 
 
 865,699 
 
 961,,526 
 
 1,186,172 
 
 967,679 
 
 618,156 
 
 474,411 
 
 811,206 
 
 888.144 
 
 Lake 
 
 
 4,187 
 
 4,652 
 
 4,126 
 
 19,239 
 266,594 
 
 21,614 
 828,176. 
 
 18,202 
 304,158 
 
 14,899 
 236,821 
 
 10,902 
 249,688 
 
 15,781 
 
 13,784 
 227,601 
 
 M. Ala. and Tenn 
 
 277,646 
 
 379,484 
 
 286,758 
 
 217,078 
 
 
 
 80,938 
 
 102.164 
 
 75,259 
 
 107,666 
 
 96,082 
 
 85,430 
 21,760 
 15,606 
 4,807 
 
 62,798 
 
 44,890 
 
 46,738 
 
 64,294 
 
 
 18,996 
 
 87,081 
 
 16.823 
 
 83,798 
 
 28,996 
 
 ■ 18,061 
 
 17,501 
 
 9,889 
 
 
 Mobile 
 
 41,040 
 
 36,642 
 
 16,764 
 
 31,008 
 
 S8,.324 
 
 24,478 
 11,091 
 
 23,647 
 
 26,326 
 
 10,857 
 4,208 
 
 Florida 
 
 4,703 
 
 5,186 
 
 4,147 
 
 9,368 
 
 7,866 
 
 10,601 
 
 6,066 
 
 Texas 
 
 17,603 
 
 23,601 
 
 16,690 
 
 21,680 
 
 14,686 
 
 14 546 
 
 9,3,52 
 
 6,0.18 
 
 11,366 
 
 10,1107 
 
 
 . . .bbls. 
 
 866 
 14,719 
 
 240 
 41,924 
 
 225 
 10,701 
 
 356 
 
 48,404 
 
 1,788 
 17,620 
 
 2,614 
 168,008 
 
 8,662 
 42,526 
 
 6,187 
 42,T19 
 
 12,097 
 296,711 
 
 47,548 
 609,683 
 
 " in ears 
 
 
 " shelled 
 
 ..sacks 
 
 1,487,051 
 
 1,990,995 
 
 1,110,446 
 
 1,740,267 
 
 1,226,031 
 
 1,397,182 
 
 1,298,9,32 
 
 1,114,897 
 
 1,706,812 
 
 1,083,465 
 
 Cheese 
 
 ...bxs. 
 
 48,9T9 
 
 42,652 
 
 46,245 
 
 58,182 
 
 89.497 
 
 72,441 
 
 78,894 
 
 62,809 
 
 .54,287 
 
 62,362 
 
 Candles 
 
 . .boxes 
 
 74,391 
 
 82,398 
 
 56,888 
 
 72,299 
 
 68,796 
 
 58,986 
 
 80,748 
 
 65,306 
 
 28,862 
 
 16,760 
 
 Cider 
 
 . . .bbls. 
 
 17 
 
 69 
 
 14 
 
 88 
 
 36 
 
 3O0 
 
 246 
 
 903 
 
 1,189 
 
 844 
 
 Coal, Western.. 
 
 
 1,770,000 
 
 987,000 
 
 1,018,00C 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 700,000 
 
 860,000 
 
 700,000 
 
 600,000 
 
 815,000 
 
 820,000 
 
 
 *' 
 
 255 
 
 286 
 
 897 
 
 2,701 
 
 256 
 
 a36 
 
 2,685 
 
 934 
 
 469 
 
 886 
 
 Dried apples — 
 
 » 
 
 875 
 
 2,760 
 
 855 
 
 4,649 
 
 1,979 
 
 46S 
 
 4,168 
 
 666 
 
 2,496 
 
 1,178 
 
 
 
 261 
 
 2.30 
 
 281 
 
 192 
 
 1,279 
 
 619 
 
 204 
 
 217 
 
 1,188 
 
 4,898 
 
 Flour 
 
 ...bbls. 
 
 1,290,597 
 
 1,120,97"! 
 
 678,111 
 
 874,266 
 
 808,672 
 
 927,212 
 
 941,106 
 
 591,986 
 
 1,013,177 
 
 706,958 
 
 Furs hhds. bxs. bdls. 
 
 ],74C 
 
 1,03C 
 
 602 
 
 1,046 
 
 780 
 
 2,186 
 
 1,289 
 
 444 
 
 20c 
 
 411 
 
 Feathers 
 
 ....bags 
 
 828 
 
 776 
 
 1,076 
 
 1,377 
 
 2,042 
 
 2,066 
 
 8,646 
 
 6,900 
 
 8,989 
 
 2,594 
 
 
 . .boxes 
 
 30,858 
 
 30,826 
 
 16,384 
 
 24,857 
 
 13,408 
 
 19,251 
 
 16,428 
 
 4,387 
 
 576 
 
 4,260 
 
 Hemp 
 
 ...bales 
 
 18,008 
 
 16,816 
 
 81,385 
 
 19,992 
 
 17,648 
 
 17,149 
 
 2,5,116 
 
 84,792 
 
 19,856 
 
 . 21,584 
 
 Hides 
 
 
 1,66,546 
 69,861 
 
 161,481 
 146,787 
 
 84,298 
 78,271 
 
 112,489 
 72,664 
 
 101,460 
 175,000 
 
 128,687 
 53,434 
 
 140,388 
 48,281 
 
 48,542 
 66,253 
 
 80,670 
 64,241 
 
 47,662 
 61,984 
 
 Hay 
 
 ...bales 
 
 Iron, pig 
 
 , . .tons 
 
 77 
 
 832 
 
 17 
 
 515 
 
 121 
 
 62 
 
 162 
 
 20 
 
 418 
 
 701 
 
 Lard 
 
 ..hhds. 
 
 i 
 
 4 
 
 104 
 
 
 107 
 
 57 
 
 
 215 
 
 790 
 
 469 
 
 " tcs. &bbls. 
 
 108,027 
 
 110,713 
 
 144,036 
 
 133,065 
 
 118,136 
 
 125,496 
 
 116,570 
 
 223,019 
 
 214,862 
 
 . 216,f81 
 
 
 . . . kegs 
 
 98,869 
 28,809 
 
 88,790 
 16,551 
 
 98,326 
 19,288 
 
 110,477 
 21,890 
 
 169,672 
 83,833 
 
 167,639 
 42,805 
 
 151,981 
 87,738 
 
 802,866 
 32,060 
 
 276,485 
 10,410 
 
 808.661 
 . 14;920 
 
 Lime, Western. 
 
 ...bbfi. 
 
 Lead 
 
 pigs 
 
 18,291 
 
 80,624 
 
 70,514 
 
 74,296 
 
 210,287 
 
 267,664 
 
 326,606 
 
 416,400 
 
 603,567 
 
 ...606,966 
 
 " bar 
 
 ...kegs. 
 
 866 
 
 341 
 
 801 
 
 210 
 
 157 
 
 1,136 
 
 629 
 
 681 
 
 949 
 
 737 
 
 " white 
 
 
 85 
 
 65 
 
 269 
 
 544 
 
 726 
 
 1,866 
 
 1,930 
 
 5,979 
 
 7,796 
 
 9,208 
 
 Molasses 
 
 ...bbls. 
 
 84,169 
 
 288,811 
 
 810,716 
 
 841,470 
 
 254,626 
 
 288,928 
 
 184,488 
 
 189,818 
 
 155,807 
 
 169,460 
 
 Oats bbls, 
 
 & sacks 
 
 893,171 
 
 637,1811 
 
 489,976 
 
 586,451 
 
 446,956 
 
 463,273 
 
 479,741 
 
 825,796 
 
 266,559 
 
 467,217 
 
 
 . . .bbls. 
 
 14,670 
 
 14,477 
 
 11,665 
 
 22,898 
 
 17,713 
 
 17,184 
 
 14,279 
 
 13,024 
 
 6,898 
 
 7,960 
 
 Oil, linseed 
 
 (b 
 
 10 
 959 
 
 163 
 1,620 
 
 348 
 2,617 
 
 589 
 2,4.38 
 
 503 
 4,742 
 
 768 
 4,291 
 
 178 
 4,146 
 
 1,093 
 2,091 
 
 1,409 
 . . 2,628 
 
 2,837 
 1,199 
 
 " castor 
 
 » 
 
 " lavd 
 
 " 
 
 8,074 
 
 10,881 
 
 13,382 
 
 14,296 
 
 14,686 
 
 14,114 
 
 17,157 
 
 14,712 
 
 8,842 
 
 5,401 
 
 Pickles kegs & " 
 
 , 118 
 
 197 
 
 266 
 
 467 
 
 617 
 
 331 
 
 893 
 
 243 
 
 639 
 
 505 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 u 
 
 T4,li'8 
 
 182,656 
 
 70,589 
 
 206,278 
 
 204,327 
 
 228,095 
 
 162,922 
 
 166,003 
 
 146,116 
 
 151,861 
 
 Pork tc; 
 
 . & " 
 
 243,228 
 
 277,341 
 
 276,.393 
 
 249,188 
 
 816,592 
 
 276,606 
 
 825,008 
 
 548,694 
 
 550,648 
 
 856,480 
 
 
 . .boxes 
 
 10,924 
 
 6,823 
 
 7,468 
 
 16,206 
 
 2,074 
 
 308 
 
 1,980 
 
 15,695 
 
 13,279 
 
 
 u 
 
 . ..hhds. 
 
 2,872 
 
 2,898 
 
 8,067 
 
 1,750 
 
 2,547 
 
 2,478 
 
 1,231 
 
 18,968 
 
 18,499 
 
 14,201 
 
 " ill bulk.... 
 
 . . . .lbs 
 
 3,417,840 
 
 T,480,S84 
 
 6,263,660 
 
 12,646,600 
 
 12,985,810 
 
 8,800,000 
 
 10,518,896 
 
 15,802,431 
 
 10,278,680 
 
 18,564,430 
 
 
 ...bbls. 
 
 1,786 
 
 1,687 
 
 1,216 
 
 1,770 
 
 1,140 
 
 406 
 
 334 
 
 804 
 
 1,883 
 
 8,492 
 
 Packing yarn. . . 
 
 . . .reels 
 
 1,485 
 
 8,314 
 
 1,723 
 
 2,443 
 
 2,811 
 
 2,098 
 
 4,190 
 
 i'l?^ 
 
 2,211 
 
 8,883 
 
 
 794 
 
 406 
 
 493 
 
 805 
 
 425 
 
 998 
 
 1,119 
 
 1,376 
 
 1,801 
 
 1,361 
 
 Shot 
 
 
 2,745 
 
 8,396 
 
 8,435 
 
 8,676 
 
 2,283 
 
 2,704 
 
 2,044 
 
 4,435 
 
 4;877 
 
 6,268 
 
 Sugar 
 
 . .hhds. 
 
 62,46! 
 
 15.5,819 
 
 189,742 
 
 274,906 
 
 186,001 
 
 141,046 
 
 125,766 
 
 148,912 
 
 125,,592 
 
 128,112 
 
 ...bbls. 
 
 8,995 
 
 8,526 
 
 18,176 
 
 12,245 
 
 10,694 
 
 11,213 
 
 18,675 
 
 ^If.^ 
 
 6,879 
 
 
 
 ..boxes 
 
 9,536 
 
 -10,287 
 
 7,788 
 
 9,173 
 
 ^■^JJ 
 
 6,308 
 
 9,484 
 
 9,930 
 
 6,620 
 
 6,580 
 
 Shingles 
 
 M 
 
 6,000 
 
 5,000 
 
 1,906 
 
 8,126 
 
 36 
 
 40 
 
 60 
 
 70 
 
 80 
 
 60 
 
 M 
 
 7,000 
 
 4,647 
 
 4,000 
 
 2,600 
 
 6,000 
 
 7,319 
 
 9,000 
 
 6,000 
 
 8,800 
 
 2,000 
 
 Tallow 
 
 ...bbls. 
 
 965 
 65,067 
 
 1,195 
 56,090 
 
 711 
 58,348 
 
 871 
 48,905 
 
 1,318 
 75,010 
 
 1,807 
 89,665 
 
 6,164 
 64,080 
 
 4,862 
 60,804 
 
 5,622 
 62,886 
 
 4,357 
 55,882 
 
 
 . .hhds. 
 
 " chew.. 
 
 ..boxes 
 
 3,261 
 
 8,599 
 
 4,153 
 
 4,617 
 
 10,386 
 
 4,779 
 
 ^11)^ 
 
 2,821 
 
 2,815 
 
 6,890 
 
 
 . ..bales 
 
 151 
 2,982 
 
 109 
 3,658 
 
 62 
 3,249 
 
 3,847 
 
 74 
 4,529 
 
 162 
 2,841 
 
 220 
 8,156 
 
 2,118 
 
 2,067 
 
 118 
 2,264 
 
 Twlno 
 
 bundles 
 
 Whisky 
 
 Wheat bbls. 
 
 ...bbls. 
 
 179,164 
 
 148,758 
 
 108,864 
 
 128,925 
 
 133,515 
 
 146,362 
 
 167,741 
 
 117,758 
 
 129,029 
 
 186,888' 
 
 & sacks 
 
 775,962 
 
 869,524 
 
 31,288 
 
 184,943 
 
 47,288 
 
 64,918 
 
 88,797 
 
 57,603 
 
 238,911 
 
 149,181| 
 
NEW 
 
 1422 
 
 NEW 
 
 EXPOKTS OF SCOAK FKOM Nkw OeLEAKS, FEOM TIIE TeAB 
 1884 TO 1856 INCLUSIVE. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Exported to 
 Alkntic ports. 
 
 Exported to 
 WcBtern States. 
 
 First receipt of new orop. 
 
 18.34 
 
 1835.... 
 
 1836 : 
 
 1887 
 
 1833 
 
 1839 
 
 1840 
 
 1841 
 
 1842 
 
 1843 
 
 1844 
 
 1S46 
 
 1846 
 
 1847 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 
 
 1860 
 
 1851 
 
 1S62 
 
 1858 
 
 1864 
 
 1855 
 
 Total... 
 
 HUds. 
 46,500 
 1,500 
 26,800 
 24,600 
 26,500 
 43,600 
 83,500 
 28,000 
 63,000 
 84,000 
 101,000 
 79,000 
 46,600 
 84,000 
 90,000 
 90,000 
 46,000 
 42,000 
 82,000 
 166,000 
 122,000 
 39,133 
 
 Hhds. 
 44,600 
 
 23,500 
 
 35.000 
 
 32,500 
 
 82,500 
 
 58,000 
 
 46,500 
 
 50,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 52,000 
 
 70,000 
 
 76,000 
 
 70,000 
 
 115,000 
 
 108,000 
 
 126,000 
 
 123,000 
 
 149,000 
 
 206,000 
 
 185,000 
 
 14-3,000 
 
 181,027 
 
 October 16. 
 
 November 6. 
 
 1. 
 
 1. 
 
 October 17. 
 
 " 13. 
 
 " 14. 
 
 " 13. 
 
 " 12. 
 
 " 22. 
 
 " 3. 
 
 " 4. 
 
 7. 
 
 2. 
 
 " 6. 
 
 " 11. 
 
 " 17. 
 
 " 19. 
 
 9. 
 
 " 6. 
 
 " 4. 
 
 " 10. 
 
 1,316,033 
 
 1,934,527 
 
 Comparative Prices Of Miosa and Prime Pork, at N. 0., 
 
 PER BABEBL, ON TUE IST OF EACH MONTU, FOR TwO TeARS. 
 
 Months. 
 
 1856-57. 
 
 1865-56. 
 
 Moss, 1 Prime. 
 
 Mess. 1 Prime. 
 
 September 
 
 October 
 
 November 
 
 December 
 
 January 
 
 February 
 
 llollurj. 
 
 194—20 
 21 —214 
 21 —214 
 —20 
 13 -184 
 21 —214 
 
 21 —214 
 22,-2.34 
 
 22 —23 
 28,f— 244 
 2.34—24 
 284—28; 
 
 Doliiirs. 
 18—19 
 
 16 —164 
 174—18 
 184- 
 13 —184 
 18 —184 
 174—19 
 174—19 
 174—184 
 
 Uollaru. 
 
 20 —204 
 
 20 —21 
 
 21 —22 
 19 —20 
 164-16 
 164—17 
 154—16 
 164— 16 J 
 16 —164 
 174— 
 
 19 —194 
 
 20 —20, J 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 174- 
 174- 
 174— 
 184- 
 15- 
 
 144^ 
 124—13 
 18 —184 
 14;— 154 
 16 — 
 16 — 
 
 April 
 
 May 
 
 
 July 
 
 August 
 
 Value op Peoduce of tub Inteuior. 
 
 1856—57. 
 
 Cotton 
 
 Sugar 
 
 Tobacco 
 
 Flour 
 
 Folk 
 
 Lard 
 
 Lead 
 
 .vfolasses 
 
 Bacon 
 
 Corn 
 
 Whisky 
 
 Wlicat 
 
 Bagsing 
 
 IScof 
 
 Hemp 
 
 Bale rope 
 
 Buttt-r 
 
 Hay 
 
 Hides 
 
 Coal 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 Staves 
 
 Tiillow 
 
 Feathers 
 
 Oats 
 
 Corn meal .... 
 Other articles. 
 Total 
 
 Dolljvrs. 
 
 86,265,079 
 
 8,137,860 
 
 11,978,645 
 
 9,084,179 
 
 6,859,287 
 
 4,262,968 
 
 91,465 
 
 2,63.).809 
 
 6,772,341 
 
 2,.i:i3,2:37 
 
 2,329,182 
 
 2,.327,886 
 
 512,448 
 
 484,686 
 
 390,090 
 
 1,123,460 
 
 860,650 
 
 296,805 
 
 579,411 
 
 1,150,600 
 
 185,832 
 
 46.1,000 
 
 23,9.60 
 
 41,160 
 
 629,078 
 
 4,280 
 
 9,5.57,967 
 
 153,061,369 
 
 DciJlurs. 
 
 70,871,720 
 
 16,199,890 
 
 8,072,775 
 
 8,407,806 
 
 5,584,505 
 
 8,331,278 
 
 409,940 
 
 4,532,242 
 
 4,670,368 
 
 8,020,031 
 
 1,785,036 
 
 2,782,476 
 
 610,290 
 
 824,289 
 
 504,540 
 
 1,018,310 
 
 8!)6,065 
 
 612,350 
 
 464,298 
 
 444,150 
 
 456,390 
 
 2-32,850 
 
 32,263 
 
 32,676 
 
 637,180 
 
 960 
 
 8,838,412 
 
 144,256,081 
 
 1854-55. 
 
 Dollar-. 
 
 51,390,720 
 
 18,025,020 
 
 7,215,195 
 
 5,663,166 
 
 4,980,6,57 
 
 4,092,630 
 
 869,290 
 
 4,2,58,000 
 
 4,993,164 
 
 2,4112,440 
 
 1,806,2-iS 
 
 87,006 
 
 608,670 
 
 610,414 
 
 940,1150 
 
 667,852 
 
 267,623 
 
 866,370 
 
 139,670 
 
 659,9110 
 
 176,343 
 
 183,000 
 
 2 1, -330 
 
 80,184 
 
 649,972 
 
 1,013 
 
 7,360,001 
 
 ■TrU(i6"328" 
 
 Years. Total value. Year.^. Total value. 
 
 18,53— 54.-... $115,.386,793 1846-47.... $90,033,2.51 
 1862— ,53. .. 134233,735 1845—46.... 77.193.464 
 1351— ,53 ... 108,061,703 1844—46.... 67,196,122 
 1850-51.... 106,924,'i83 1843-44.... 60,094,716 
 18-49—60 ... 96,897,873 1842—48.... 63,782,054 
 1843_49.... 81,989,692 1841—42.... 46,716,046 
 18-17-43.... 79,779,151 
 From the above table it results that the total value 
 of all the products received at this port from the, in- 
 terior from September 1, 1841, to September 1, 1857, u. 
 period of 16 years, amounts to $1,526,652,970. 
 
 The following is a statement of the imports at New- 
 Orleans, for the last four fiscal years : 
 
 1 Year ending 
 ! June 1853. 
 
 Year endingl Year ending 
 June 1854. 1 June 1855. 
 
 Year ending 
 June 1856. 
 
 Dutiable 
 
 Dollars. 
 8,019,029 
 4,272,262 
 1,362,832 
 
 Dollars. 
 8,272,449 
 8,876,573 
 2,268,128, 
 
 Dollars. 
 6,939,0(12 
 4,297,170 
 1,687,436 
 
 Dollura. 
 
 8,990,688 
 6,417,695 
 1,776,148 
 
 BulllDn& specie 
 Total 
 
 13,054,118 
 
 14,302,860 
 
 12,928,608 
 
 17,183,827 
 
 ■Value of Pkoduce of tub Inteeior. — A Table showing 
 THE Reckipts of the Principal Abtioles feom tub 
 Interior, uueing the Year ending August 31st, 1857, 
 with their estimated Aveeage and Total Value. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Average 
 price. 
 
 I Value. 
 
 Apples bbls. 86,612 
 
 Bacon, assorted. . .bbds. & csks. 39,137 
 
 '^ " bo.\es S,r 
 
 " hams hhds.&tcs.i 82,804 
 
 " in bulk lbs. 7,660 
 
 Bagging pieces 32,028 
 
 Bale rope coils 112,346 
 
 Beans bbls. 8,189 
 
 Butter kegs & flrkins 32,346 
 
 " bbls. 1,060 
 
 Beeswax " 87 
 
 Beef " 29,307 
 
 tierces 1,651 
 
 dried Jbs. 80,880 
 
 Cotton bales 1,613,247 
 
 Corn meal bbis. 866 
 
 ■ in ear " 14,719 
 
 shelled sacks 1,487,051 
 
 Cheese boxes 48.97 
 
 Candles " 74,891 
 
 Cider bbls. 17 
 
 Co.il, western '■ 1 ,770,000 
 
 Dried apples & peaches. . . " 630 
 
 Feathers bags 823 
 
 Flaxseed.... tierces 261 
 
 Flour bbls. 1,290,697 
 
 Furs hhds., bundles & boxes 1,740 
 
 Glassware packages 30,859 
 
 Hemp bales 13,008 
 
 Hides No. 166,546 
 
 Hay bales 69,861 
 
 Iron, pig tons 77 
 
 Lard bbls. & tierces 103,027 
 
 Lard kegs 98,859 
 
 Leather. bundles 5,184 
 
 Lime, western ^bbls 28,309 
 
 Lead pigs 18,291 
 
 bar kegs & boxes 865 
 
 white kegs 86 
 
 Molasses (estimated crop) galls 4,882.330 
 
 Oats bbls & sacks 898,171 
 
 Onions bbls. 14,670 
 
 Oil, linseed " 10 
 
 castor " 966 
 
 lard " 8,074 
 
 Potatoes " 74,1.33 
 
 Pork tierces & bbls. 243,228 
 
 " boxes 10,924 
 
 " hhds. 2,872 
 
 " in bulk lbs. 8,417,840 
 
 Porter and ale bbls. 1,788 
 
 Packing yarn reels 1,435 
 
 Hum bbls. 436 
 
 Skins, deer packs 794 
 
 Shingles M 6,000 
 
 Shot kegs 2,746 
 
 So p boxes 9,538 
 
 Staves M 7,000 
 
 Sugar (estimated crop). . .hhds. 73,976 
 
 Spanish moss b^lcs 8,476 
 
 Tallow bbls. 905 
 
 .Tobacco, loaf. hhds. 47,867 
 
 " strips " 5,850 
 
 " stems " 1,360 
 
 " cliewlng. kegs A: boxes 3,261 
 
 Twine bundles & boxes 3,132 
 
 Vinegar bbls. 1,)564 
 
 Whisky " 179,164 
 
 Wheat bbls & sacks 775,962 
 
 Other various articles, est'm'd at 
 
 Total v.alne 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 5 00 
 100 00 
 
 46 00 
 75 00 
 
 10 
 16 00 
 10 00 
 8 00 
 10 00 
 35 00 
 60 00 
 15 00 
 25 00 
 
 13 
 67 00 
 
 6 00 
 1 25 
 1 75 
 5 00 
 8 00 
 
 5 00 
 65 
 
 8 00 
 60 00 
 12 00 
 
 7 00 
 
 '5'6o 
 80 00 
 
 8 60 
 
 6 00 
 
 85 00 
 
 86 00 
 
 7 00 
 
 87 60 
 1 75 
 
 5 00 
 21 26 
 
 6 85 
 55 
 
 1 60 
 5 00 
 
 40 00 
 60 00 
 
 45 00 
 
 2 50 
 20 00 
 
 46 00 
 80 00 
 
 Dollars, 
 
 183,060] 
 
 8,912,700 
 
 898,475 
 
 2,460,300 
 
 768 
 
 612,418 
 
 1,123,460 
 
 25,112 
 
 823,450 
 
 87,100 
 
 4,850 
 
 489,605 
 
 41276 
 
 8,706 
 
 86,265.079 
 
 4,280 
 
 18,898 
 
 2,514.889 
 
 '244,895 
 
 696,128 
 
 .86 
 
 1,160,500 
 
 6,040 
 
 41,150 
 
 8,182 
 
 9,084,179 
 
 600,000 
 
 154,295 
 
 890,090 
 
 579.411 
 
 296;305 
 
 2,695 
 
 8,606,945 
 
 657,018 
 
 194,400 
 
 49,540 
 
 91,465 
 
 7,756 
 
 454 
 
 2,686,309 
 
 629,078 
 
 78,860 
 
 400 
 
 67,860 
 
 868,880 
 
 185,332 
 
 4,864,560 
 
 491,680 
 
 229,760 
 
 273,837 
 
 17,830 
 
 8,010 
 
 13,050 
 
 2.3,820 
 
 18,000 
 
 74,116 
 
 33,162 
 
 465,000 
 
 8,187,860 
 
 264,260 
 
 28,950 
 
 10,062,070 
 
 1,765.000 
 
 35,050 
 
 81,525 
 
 37,584 
 
 8,124 
 
 2,329,133 
 
 3,827,886 
 
 6^00,000 
 
 . . . . 158,061,369, 
 
 Receipts and Stocks of Hay at the Poet of New Or- 
 leans, FEOii SEPrEsnjBE 1st, 1866, to August 3l8i; 1857. 
 
 1856-57. 1855-66. 
 
 Stockonhand, Sept 1, (all ■W-estern). 32,720 5,000 
 
 Receipts, Northern and Eastern 38,848 21,888 
 
 -Western 69,361 146,787 
 
 Total 180,924 
 
 17.3,076 
 
 Increase in total supply 7,349 
 
 " Northern and Eastern 67,505 
 Decrease iu -Western 87,376 
 
 173,075 
 
NEW 
 
 14i23 
 
 NEW 
 
 lifONTlILT AbBITALB OE 
 
 Ships, 
 
 BiiBKS, Bbios, 
 
 SOHOONBRS, AND 
 TO AOOUST 81 
 
 Steaubo'atb, 
 
 FOB TUEBB TbABS, 
 
 IBOM SePTBMBBB 1 
 
 MontliB. '■ ' ' 
 
 - • - 185fi-61. 
 
 1855-56. 
 
 18S4-6B. 1 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 s 
 
 ■ J 
 
 1 
 
 n 
 
 t 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 21" 
 80 
 89 
 84 
 49 
 89 
 42 
 40 
 84 
 25 
 28 
 18 
 
 
 •s 
 
 
 1 
 (0 
 
 1 
 
 ■i 
 
 1 
 CO 
 
 •1 
 
 1 
 
 in 
 
 September. ;. 
 
 Octbl)er. ...... 
 
 85 
 6B 
 
 100 
 89, 
 94 
 96 
 
 n 
 
 T4 
 43 
 25 
 11 
 20 
 729 
 
 18 
 28 
 86 
 44 
 32 
 48 
 28 
 20 
 82 
 25 
 11 
 9 
 
 9 
 19 
 
 22 
 22 
 23 
 28 
 85 
 21 
 ,18 
 21 
 12 
 6 
 
 16 
 82 
 81 
 26 
 59 
 48 
 70 
 50 
 43 
 84 
 20 
 12 
 
 10 
 16 
 
 IT 
 16 
 23 
 16 
 24 
 28 
 23 
 28 
 13 
 10 
 
 83 
 154 
 
 206 
 
 226 
 
 234 
 188 
 104 
 128 
 67 
 57 
 
 181 
 284 
 279 
 881 
 253 
 287 
 298 
 250 
 225 
 210 
 129 
 
 27 
 99 
 
 184 
 90 
 
 130 
 62 
 80 
 
 104 
 48 
 68 
 27 
 
 18 
 
 29 
 51 
 40 
 59 
 24 
 84 
 42 
 18 
 84 
 9,1 
 
 12 
 25 
 42 
 84 
 27 
 26 
 22 
 24 
 IT 
 15 
 14 
 6 
 
 14 
 20 
 28 
 23 
 22 
 17 
 23 
 20 
 19 
 21 
 19 
 13 
 
 87 158 
 208 204 
 2S9 291 
 22] 862 
 287 296 
 165 2ST 
 201 865 
 280 811 
 181 270 
 168 1S6 
 109 165 
 
 5T 9T 
 2,143 2,966 
 
 28 
 119 
 89 
 94 
 T6 
 81 
 65 
 79 
 50 
 41 
 14 
 11 
 731 
 
 7 
 25 
 34 
 86 
 81 
 27 
 18 
 22 
 21 
 16 
 
 7 
 11 
 255 
 
 8 
 11 
 17 
 19 
 18 
 20 
 17 
 14 
 14 
 14 
 14 
 14 
 180 
 
 21 
 16 
 44 
 49 
 68 
 48 
 44 
 41 
 42 
 25 
 14 
 19 
 426 
 
 16 
 16 
 IT 
 20 
 22 
 22 
 28 
 22 
 19 
 19 
 16 
 14 
 225 
 
 75 
 187 
 201 
 218 
 209 
 198 
 157 
 ITS 
 146 
 115 
 64 
 69 
 
 118 
 187 
 220 
 284 
 856 
 271 
 268 
 
 es2 
 
 259 
 190 
 186 
 142 
 
 November......';." 
 
 December 
 
 February" 
 
 March..... . 
 
 April 
 
 May 
 
 
 July 
 
 August 
 
 118j 10 10 
 
 Total 
 
 821 
 
 231 
 
 441 
 
 212 
 
 1,9341 2.745874 
 
 875 
 
 261 
 
 899 
 
 284 
 
 1,817 2,76Sl 
 
 Monthly Arritala oe 
 
 Flatboats 
 
 KOR 
 
 riiE 
 
 PAST 
 
 Season. 
 
 Months. 
 
 
 
 j 
 
 • 
 1 
 
 ■i 
 
 J; 
 
 a 
 
 B 
 
 a 
 
 s 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 i. 
 
 
 1 
 
 September. . . 
 
 
 
 , . 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 2 
 
 October. 
 
 2 
 
 •\ 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 6 
 
 November... 
 
 •S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 December, .. 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 9 
 
 January 
 
 16 
 
 4 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 86 
 
 Fcbrnary 
 
 18 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 26 
 
 March 
 
 17 
 
 9 
 
 20 
 
 2 
 
 46 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 1 
 
 121 
 
 April 
 
 May 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 18 
 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 50 
 
 7 
 5 
 
 4 
 2 
 
 40 
 15 
 
 1 
 
 20 
 24 
 
 1 
 
 
 11 
 16 
 
 
 84 
 62 
 
 
 July 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 71 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 17 
 
 
 10 
 18 
 
 
 14 
 
 17 
 20 
 94 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 42 
 51 
 491 
 
 August 
 
 Total 
 
 34 
 
 186 
 
 8 
 
 119 
 
 12 
 
 3T iMPOR'ra OF tJOFPEE, KUGAR, AND SALT, FOR 
 
 ♦YEAiiS, FROM September 1 to August 81. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 Coffoe— Cuba, etc bags 
 
 " —Rio '■ 
 
 Sugar — Cuba bxs, & bbls. 
 
 ' —Cuba bhils. 
 
 ' —Brazil, etc bxs. & bags 
 
 Molasses— Cuba hbds. & tcs. 
 
 " —Cuba bbls. 
 
 Salt— Uverpool sacks 
 
 —Turk's Island, etc, . .bushels 
 
 1866-61, 1855—56, 1 1854—65, 
 
 10,885 
 
 886,982 
 
 81.665 
 
 6,689 
 
 n 
 
 440.908 
 
 29,8671 
 
 21,894 
 
 8,806 
 
 24,453 
 
 29,531 
 
 1,0.61,190,1,038,284 
 
 592.778| 785,2821 
 
 122 
 1,6G8 
 
 341,138 
 
 20,111 
 
 443 
 
 "ii4 
 
 2,261 
 
 603.298 
 
 New Orleans Levee Dues.— The subjoined ordinance, 
 passed by the Common Council of the city and ap- 
 proved by the mayor. May 28, 1852, is now in force : 
 
 An Ordinamce to Regulate the Levee and Wharfage 
 Dues on Ships and Vessels arriving from Sea, and on 
 Steamboats, Flats, Barges, cte.— Article 1. That from 
 and after the passage of this ordinance the levee or 
 wharfage rates on ships or other sail vessels, steam- 
 ships, steamboats, flats, barges, and other craft, shall 
 be fixed as follows : On all ships or sail vessels of 
 1,000 and under, 25 cents per ton. Excess of tonnage 
 over 1,000 tons, 20 cents per ton. On all steamships, 
 17^ cents per ton. On all steamboats of 1,000 tons 
 and under, 15 cents per ton. Excess of tonnage over 
 1,000 tons, 10 cents per ton ; provided, the boats ar- 
 riving and departing more than once each week, shall 
 pay only two thirds of these rates. On each flatboat 
 not measuring over 80 feet, $10. On each flatboat 
 measuring 80 to 100 feet, $12. On each flatboat 
 measuring over 100 feet, $15. On each barge more 
 than 70 feet long, $12. On each barge less than 70 
 feet long, and not exceeding 15 tons burden, $8. On 
 each steamboat hull used as a barge, $25. On each 
 scow and coastwise pirogue, $2. For every flatboat, 
 barge, or other vessel, not including steamboats, em- 
 ployed in the transportation of brick, lumber, or other 
 building materials, or in bringing produce from this 
 and neighboring parishes to this city, and measuring 
 not over 25 tons, the levee and wharfage dues shall be 
 $30 per annum. From 25 to 50 tons, $60 per annum. 
 Over 50 and not exceeding 75 tons, $80 per annum. 
 Over 75 and not exceeding 100 tons, $125 per annum. 
 Over 100 tons, $200 per annum. 
 
 Article 2. Every proprietor of any small craft of 
 the description above-mentioned, who shall desire, to 
 enjoy the privilege accorded by the present ordinance, 
 must applj- to the treasurer of the city of New Orleans 
 for the purpose of obtaining a license, approved by the 
 maj'or, and countersigned by the controller, which li- 
 cense shall specify the number or name of such craft, 
 which shall be painted in a conspicuous place on tho 
 side of the said craft. 
 
 Article 3. Hereafter it shall not be lawful for any 
 pirogue, flatboat, barge, boat, or keelboat, to remain 
 in port longer than eight days, under the same pro- 
 visions and penalties contained in Article 3, of an or- 
 dinance of the General Council, approved May ?0, 
 1843. 
 
 Article 4. That the payment of the levee dues on 
 ships or sail vessels, steamships, and steamboats, shall 
 be exacted and collected by the collectors of levee dues, 
 and an extra duty of one third these rates shall be 
 paid by all sail vessels or steamships which may re- 
 main in port over two months, the same to be recov- 
 ered at the commencement of the third month ; and if 
 over four months, an additional duty of one third these 
 rates. Steamboats shall be entitled to remain thirty 
 daj'S in port after payment of the dues. AH over 
 thirty days to pay an additional dutj' of $2 per day. 
 
 Article 5. That all vessels now in port, and that 
 have paid a dailj' or weekly wharfage, shall be al- 
 lowed (and the collectors are hereby authorized) to 
 deduct the amount so paid from the rates now to be , 
 collected. All ordinances or parts of ordinances con- 
 flicting with the foregoing be, and the same are here- 
 hy, repealed. 
 
 Taeifp op Commeeoial Ciiabges and Rates adopted ]it 
 
 tub New Orleans Ciiamueb op Commerce, in 1846 
 and 1848, and amended Mat 10, 1852. 
 Cowmission on Sales. 
 Sugar, cotton, tobacco, lead, flour, and other 
 
 products of the soli ?i per cent* 
 
 Domestic manufactures, aud all foreign mer- 
 chandise 6 ** 
 
 Guaranty of sales on time ', 2| " 
 
 Purchase and shipment of merchandise or pro- 
 duce, 2i " 
 
 Sales or purchase of stock and bullion 1 " 
 
 Collecting and remitting dividends 1 " 
 
 Selling vessels or steamboats 2^ " 
 
 Purchasing " 5 " 
 
 Procuring freights 6 " 
 
 CollecSng freights from foreign ports 2^ " 
 
 Coastwise 5 *' 
 
 Outfits and dishursements 2^ " 
 
 Eifecting insurance _• - • i *' 
 
 Adjusting or collecting insurance or other claims 
 
 without litigation 2^ " 
 
 With litigation ■■: 5 " 
 
 Purchasing and remitting drafts, or receiving or 
 paying money on whicli no other commission 
 
 has been charged ; 1 " 
 
 If bills remitted are guaranteed, in addition. . . . 1^ " 
 Bills and notes remitted, for collection protested 
 
 and returned y 1 '* 
 
 Landing, custody, and re-shipping merchandise 
 
 or produce from vessels in distress 3 " 
 
 Ditto, bullion or specie 1 " 
 
 A<liu6tlng and collecting general average 6 " 
 
NEW 1424 
 
 Commiemn on Sales — continued. 
 
 Consignments of merchandise irtthdrawn or re 
 sliipped per order, on acoonnt of advances and 
 responsibilities— full commission. 
 
 On the surplus amount of invoices of such con- 
 signments, deducting advances and liabilities 
 —half commission. 
 
 Drawing, Indorsing, or negotiating foreign bills 
 of exchange. 1^ " 
 
 Ditto, on domestic bills of exchange 1 " 
 
 Receiving, entering, and re-shipping merchan- 
 dise to a foreign port — on ainount of invoice. . 1 '* 
 
 On amount of advances, charges, and liabilities 
 on same 2| *' 
 
 For drawing, accepting, negotiating, or indorsing 
 notes or drafts without funds, produce, or bills 
 of lading in hand '2i " 
 
 On cash advances in all cases 2^ " 
 
 For entering and bonding merchandise for the 
 interior — on amount of duties, freight, and 
 charges (besides the regular charge for for- 
 warding) 21- " 
 
 Agency for steamboats — according to special con- 
 tract 
 The foregoing rates to be exclusive of brokerage and charges 
 
 already incurred. 
 
 Receiving and Forwarding Sfe/rcha.ndise, e^climve of CJuirges 
 actually incurred. 
 
 60 c 
 
 BO 
 
 20 
 
 10 
 
 26 
 
 m 
 
 5 
 15 
 
 Sugar, molasses, and tobacco per hhd. 
 
 Cotton per bale 
 
 Hemp *^ 
 
 Moss " 
 
 Provisions or bacon per hhd. 
 
 " " per tierce 
 
 Porlc, beef, lard, taUow per bbi. 
 
 Box pork per box 
 
 Flour, grain, and other dry barrels 5 
 
 Lard, nails, and shot per keg 2^ 
 
 Lead per pig 1 
 
 Corn, wheat, beans, oats, and other grain, per hag 3 
 
 Liquids. 
 
 Pipes and hogsheads 
 
 Half pipes and tierces 
 
 Quarter casks and barrels 
 
 Whisky per bbl. 
 
 Oils 
 
 50 cents. 
 25 
 
 m " 
 
 10 " 
 
 12i •• 
 
 Storage and Labor per Month, 
 
 Cotton and wool per bale 
 
 Tobacco per hhd. 
 
 Hemp, per bale not exceeding 300 lbs. 
 ■ " ■ ■■ 4S0 " 
 
 000 " 
 800 " 
 
 Moss .per bale 
 
 Bagging and rope 
 
 Peltries 
 
 Hides each 
 
 Lead per pig 
 
 Hollow ware per ton 
 
 Bar iron and 9aBtingB 
 
 Railroad Iron and pig iron 
 
 Bacon and provisions per hhd, 
 
 Pork, beef, lard, tallow, etc.. per bbl. 
 
 Molasses, oil, and whisky. 
 
 Flour 
 
 Lard per keg 
 
 Sugar and molasses per hhd. 
 
 " Havana per box 
 
 Corn, wheat, oats, and other 
 
 grain per hag 
 
 Coffee, spices, etc. 
 Salt.. 
 
 Candles, soap, wine, fish, raisins, oils, 
 sweetmeats, segars, etc., per box or 
 
 basket 
 
 Ditto, in half boxes 
 
 Nails ?■=;[ ?'=S 
 
 Drv ffoods not exceeding 10 feet 
 
 ' S " 20 " 
 
 "30 
 .'.'..'.. " over 30 
 
 Crockery per cask or crate 
 
 " half cask or halt crate 
 
 Hardware per cask 
 
 u per tierce 
 
 " \ per bbl. 
 
 Liquids per pipe or hhd. 
 
 " per half pipe or tierce 
 
 " per quarter cask or bbl. 
 
 Claret per cask 
 
 Qunny bags per bale 
 
 India bagging. 
 
 Centa. 
 
 20 
 
 50 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 25 
 
 10 
 
 05 
 
 10 
 
 Oli 
 
 01 
 125 
 
 TB 
 
 60 
 
 25 
 
 08 
 
 10 
 
 05 
 
 03i 
 
 m 
 
 04 
 05 
 03 
 
 04 
 03 
 03 
 15 
 20 
 25 
 40 
 30 
 15 
 40 
 20 
 10 
 40 
 25 
 10 
 20 
 10 
 15 
 
 iSecond at 
 
 after. 
 
 Cents. 
 10 
 25 
 OT 
 10 
 15 
 18 
 06 
 03 
 OT 
 01 
 01 
 T5 
 60 
 25 
 28 
 06 
 08 
 04 
 03 
 25 
 10 
 
 03 
 03 
 03 
 
 02 
 01 
 02 
 10 
 15 
 20 
 25 
 20 
 10 
 28 
 15 
 03 
 30 
 18 
 OS 
 15 
 08 
 10 
 
 NEW 
 
 Sundries. 
 BoxeB, bales, cases, trunks, and other packages, 
 
 dry goods 10—50 cents. 
 
 Earthen and hardware per package 25 — 50 " 
 
 Bar-iron and castings per ton T5 " 
 
 Railroad iron and pig iron , 50 " 
 
 Hollow ware 150 ' ' 
 
 Soap, candles, wines, etc per box 5 "■ 
 
 Coffee, spices, etc per bag 6 " 
 
 Gunpowder per keg 25 " 
 
 Salt per sack 3 *' 
 
 Wheat and rye.. 
 Corn.. . 
 Oats.... 
 
 Weight of Grain per Bushel. 
 
 60 
 56 
 
 lbs. 
 
 Lard, butter, cheese, tallow, *stearine, sugar, rice, actual tare. 
 Coflfee in bags 2 per cent. 
 
 For commerce, etc., of New Orleans, see Bankers' 
 Magazine^ ii., iii., iv. ; Hunt's Mer. Mag., iv., v., vi., 
 vii., ix., xi., xiii., xv., xxv., etc. ; De Bow's Rev.^ 
 ii., 53 (by W. L. Hodge), iii., 39, 235, 112 (by S. 
 J. Peters), vi., 433, viii., i., xi., 387,474, vii., 412, 
 X., 505. 
 
 New South "Wales. Prior to 1836, official re- 
 turns exhibit no evidence of anj' trade between the 
 United States and New South. Wales. In that year 
 six American vessels entered the harbor of Sydney 
 with freights valued at $69,510, and caiTying home 
 staples and other colonial produce to the amount of 
 $92,970. From that period to 1850 but little advance 
 was made either in the import or export trade with 
 that colony ; the highest return being that for 1841, 
 which shows the following summary : 
 
 Vessels from the United States entered the ports of 
 New South Wales, in 1841, 13 ; tonnage, 4,754. 
 
 Trade With the United States. 
 
 Imports from U. S $176,410 
 
 Exports to U. S 24,1S5 
 
 1852. 
 
 $148,450 
 25,405 
 
 1853. 
 $1,093,975 
 15,140 
 
 The principal imports from the United States to 
 New South Wales are : Apparel, bags and sacks, but- 
 ter and cheese, candles (tallow and sperm), carts and 
 wagons, coffee, preserves, drugs and medicines, salt 
 fish, flour and bread, fruits, furniture, glassware, oats, 
 rice, and barley, hardware and ironmongery, ice, lea- 
 ther manufactures, linens, provisions, spirits (chiefly 
 rum and whisky), stationery and books, sugar, tobac- 
 co, woodenware, watches and clocks, and wine. The 
 principal exports to the United States from New South 
 Wales are : Coals and coke, lard, etc. The leading 
 staple of New South Wales is wool ; but it can not be 
 imported into the United States advantageously, while 
 it is admitted free into British ports. The total ex- 
 ports of wool from New South Wales during the four 
 years ending with 1853, were 66,984,938 pounds, valued 
 in the colony at $16,465,320. 
 
 Newspapers, publications in numbers, consist- 
 ing commonly of single sheets, and published at short 
 and stated intervals, conveying intelligence of passing 
 events. It is foreign to the purpose of this work to 
 consider the moral and political effects produced by 
 newspapers ; of the extent of their influence there is 
 no doubt, even among those who differ widely as to its 
 effect. Their utility to commerce is, however, un- 
 questionable. The advertisements or notices which 
 they circulate, the variety of facts and infonnation 
 they contain as to the supply and demand of commodi- 
 ties in all quarters of the world, their prices, and the 
 regulations by which they are affected, render news- 
 papers indispensable to commercial men, supersede a 
 great mass of epistolarj' correspondence, raise mer- 
 chants in remote places toward an equality, in point 
 of information, with those in the great marts, and 
 wonderfully quicken all the movements of commerce. 
 But newspapers themselves have become an important 
 commercial article. 
 
 The first newspaper pnhlished in England, which 
 might truly be considered as a vehicle of general iu- 
 
NEW 
 
 1425 
 
 NEW 
 
 formation, was established by Sir Roger L'Estrange, 
 in 1663 ; it was entitled the Public Intelliffencer, and 
 continued nearly three years, when it ceased on the 
 appearance of the Gazette. A publication, with few 
 claims however to the character of a newspaper, had 
 previously appeared ; it was called the English Mer- 
 cury^ and came out under the authority of Queen 
 Elizabeth, so early as 1588, the period of the Spanish 
 Armada. An early copy of this paper is dated Jul)' 
 23, in that year. In the reign of James I., 1622, ap- 
 peared the London WeeUy Courani, and in the year 
 1643 (the period of the civil war) were printed a va- 
 riety of publications, certainly in no respect entitled 
 to the name of newspapers, of which the following 
 were the titles : 
 
 England's Memorable Accidents, The Kingdom's 
 Intelligencer, The Diurnal of Certain Passages in 
 Parliament, The Mercnrius Aulicus, The Scotch In- 
 telligencer, The Parliament's Scout, The Parliament's 
 Scout's Discovery, or Certain Information, The Mer- 
 curius Civicus, or London's Intelligencer, The Coun- 
 try's Complaint, etc., The Weekly Account, Mercurius 
 Britannicus. 
 
 A paper called the London Gazette was published 
 August 22, 1642. The London Gazette of the existing 
 series, was published first at Oxford, the court being 
 there on account of the plague, November 7, 1665, and 
 afterward at London, February 6, 1666. The printing 
 of newspapers and pamphlets was prohibited 31 Charles 
 I., 1680. — Salmon's Chron. Newspapers were first 
 stamped in 1713. Number of the stamps issued in 
 England : 
 
 Year. No. 
 
 1T58 7,411,T5T 
 
 ITGO 9,404,790 
 
 1774 12,800,000 
 
 1790 14,036,689 
 
 1800 16,084,905 
 
 1810 20,173,887 
 
 1820 24,862,186 
 
 Yenr. No. 
 
 1825 26,950,698 
 
 1880. 80,188,741 
 
 1885 82,874,652 
 
 1840. 49,088,884 
 
 1848 66,448,977 
 
 1849 76,569,286 
 
 The total number of newspapers published in the 
 United Kingdom in 1849 was 603, viz. : 160 in London, 
 232 in the English provinces, 117 in Ireland, and 94 in 
 Scotland. The number of advertisements inserted in 
 the London newspapers in 1849 was 886,108, paying a 
 gross duty of £66,458 2s. ; in the English provincial 
 newspapers, 834,729, yielding to the crown a revenue 
 of £62,604 13s. 6d. ; in the Irish papers, 220,524, pay- 
 ing £11,026 4s. ; and in the Scotch papers, 240,911, 
 paying in duty £18,075 16s. 6d. 
 
 Newspapers^ etc, in the United States. — The Boston 
 News Letter was established in 1704, whi9h was con- 
 tinued till 1774 ; the second was the Boston Gazette, 
 1719 ; the third the American Weekly Mercury, at 
 Philadelphia, started -one day after the last. First 
 New York Gazette, in 1725; first newspaper in the 
 Carolinas, at Charleston, 1731-2 ; first Rhode Island 
 Gazette, at Newport, 1732 ; first Virginia Gazette, at 
 Williamsburg, in 1736. In 1775 there were in all the 
 colonies 37 newspapers ; in 1810, in the United States, 
 358 ; in 1828, 802 ; in 1839, 1555, and in 1850, 2526. 
 
 Newspapers in France. — The first was the Gazette de 
 Fi-ance, established by Eenairdot, in 1631, and contin- 
 ued with few interruptions till 1827, when it ceased and 
 another paper assumed its name. The Moniteur, com- 
 menced in 1789, has been since 1800 the official journal 
 of the government. The Constitutionelle and the Jour- 
 nal des Debats have long had the largest circulation. 
 There were 374 newspapers published in France in 
 1832. See Periodical Liteeatceet. 
 
 Newspapers, Irish. — The first Irish newspaper was 
 Pce's Occurrences, published in 1700. Faulknek's 
 Journal was established by George Faulkner, "a man 
 celebrated for the goodness of his heart, and the weak- 
 ness of his head," in 1728. — Supplement to Swift. The 
 oldest of the existing Dublin newspapers is the Free- 
 man's Journal, founded by the patriot, Dr. Lucas, about 
 the year 1755. — Westm. Sev., January, 1830. The Lim- 
 4X 
 
 erich Chronicle, the oldest of the provincial prints, was 
 established in 1768. — Idem. 
 
 Notices of Newspapers, — The history of newspapers, 
 and of periodical literature in general, remains to be 
 written ; and were the task executed by an individual 
 of competent abilitj', and with due care, it would be a 
 most interesting and important work. It appears, 
 from the researches of Mr. Chalmers, that the first 
 newspaper published in modem Europe made its ap- 
 pearance at Venice in 1636 ; but the jealousy of the 
 government would not allow of its being printed ; so 
 that, for many years, it was circulated in manuscript ! 
 It would seem that newspapers were first issued in 
 England by authority during the alarm occasioned by 
 the approach of the Armada to her shores ; in order, as 
 was stated, by giving real information, to allay the 
 general anxiety, and to hinder the dissemination of 
 false and exaggerated statements. From this era, 
 newspapers, of one sort or other, have, with a few in- 
 termissions, generally appeared in London, some- 
 times at regular, and sometimes at irregular intervals. 
 During the civil wars, both parties had their news- 
 papers. The earliest newspaper published in Scotland 
 made its appearance under the auspices of Cromwell 
 in 1652. The Caledonian Mercury was, however, the 
 first of the Scotch newspapers of native manufacture ; 
 it made its appearance at Edinburg, under the title of 
 Mercurius Caledonius, in 1660 ; but its publication was 
 soon afterward interrupted. In 1715 a newspaper was, 
 for the first time, attempted in Glasgow. 
 
 To Boston belongs the honor of establishing the 
 first newspaper in North America. It was issued in 
 the year 1690. It was deposited in the State Paper 
 Office, in London, and stopped by the government. 
 It was of the size of an ordinary sheet of letter paper. 
 One copy of it alone was known to be in existence, 
 and that it was that shared the luckless fate above- 
 named. The first regular paper that was issued was 
 also of Boston. Its title was the News Letter, its date 
 was 1704, and it was printed by John Allen, in Pud- 
 ding Lane. We have seen some of its early numbers, 
 and they are peculiar. Its latest news from England 
 was dated one hundred and twenty days previously, 
 and consisted of a speech of Queen Anne to Parlia^ 
 ment. An advertisement informs us that the mail 
 between Boston and New York set out once a fort- 
 night. Negro men, women, and children were adver- 
 tised for sale, and an urgent appeal appeared in one, 
 calling upon a female who had stolen a piece of fine 
 lace, valued at 14 shillings a yard ; and upon, another 
 who had conveyed a piece of fine calico from its 
 proper destination, under her riding-hood, to return 
 the same or sufier exposure in the newspapers. For 
 74 years this paper continued in existence as the lead- 
 ing Tory paper. About these diays, the revolutionarj' 
 straggle drawing near, the Boston Gazette was issued 
 at Watertown as the organ of the patriots. When 
 the war broke out, there were 37 newspapers being 
 published in the United States ; eight of them were 
 committed to the interests of the British, and five 
 others were brought over to the government side. 
 
 Old Papers. — The Worcester Spy, published im 1770, 
 is the oldest existing paper of Massachusetts. There 
 are copies extant of the Albany Journal, or the Mont- 
 gomery, Washington, and ColuiMa Intelligencer, printed 
 in 1788. It was issued semi-weekly, at a subscription 
 price of 12 shillings per annum. Its size was about 
 11 by 13 inches. Charles K. and George Webster& 
 Co. were its publishers. Its leading article is an ex- 
 tract from a letter from Philadelphia, dated Februarj' 
 20, as follows : "On Saturday last, upon the arrival 
 of the news of the ratification of the Federal Consti- 
 tution l)y the powerful State of Massachusetts, the 
 bells of Christ Church were rung, and congratnlations 
 of joy have appeared in every part of the city for 
 several days." The " latest news from Europe" is 
 made a feature of the sheet ; it bears date December 
 
NEW 
 
 1426 
 
 NEW 
 
 1787, by which it would appear that it took some 
 three months to cross the water. 
 
 New York and her Newspapers. — The position which 
 this city sustains, as compared with any other city of 
 the world, in the number and circulation of her jour- 
 nals, can be adjudged b}^ a glance at the following 
 table, which gives the supposed number of newspapers 
 in the world, 1852—56 : 
 
 10 
 14 
 
 Austria 
 
 Africa 
 
 Asia SO 
 
 Great Britain and 
 Ireland 500 
 
 KuSBia and Poly- 
 nesia 60 
 
 Belgium 65 
 
 Denmark 85 
 
 Germanic States.. 350 
 
 Portugal 26 
 
 Spain 24 
 
 United States 2,800 
 
 Of these, New Yorlc alone issues 122 sheets, as fol- 
 lows : secular journals, daily, morning, 8 ; evening, 
 6 ; semi-weekh', 2 ; weekly, 59 ; German dailies, 3 ; 
 weeklies, 8 ; French daily, 1 ; Spanish weeklies, 2 ; 
 Welsh, 3 ; of religious weeklies, there are 29 sheets. 
 It is difficult to obtain a correct estimate of the pres- 
 ent circulation of so many papers. Of the daily pa- 
 pers, at least 250,000 copies must be circulated ; while 
 13 religious weeklies are spread before 150,000 sub- 
 scribers. 
 
 The whole number of newspapers and periodical 
 publications in the United States on the 1st of June, 
 1852, amounted, according to the official returns, to 
 about 2,800. Of these, 2,494 were fully reported upon, 
 
 while the particulars with respect to the others were 
 in part estimated. 
 
 From these returns, etc., it appears that the aggre- 
 gate circidation of papers and other publications was 
 about 5,000,000 ; and that the entire number of copies 
 printed annually, in the United States, amounted to 
 about 422,600,000. The following table shows the 
 number of daily, weekly, monthlj', and other issues, 
 with the aggregate circulation of each class : 
 
 
 No. 
 
 Circulation . 
 
 JNo. of copies 
 printed aimnally 
 
 Daily Journals 
 
 350 
 
 150 
 
 125 
 
 2,000 
 
 50 
 100 
 
 25 
 
 760,000 
 
 76,000 
 
 80,000 
 
 2,875,000 
 
 800,000 
 
 900,000 
 
 20,000 
 
 285,000,000 
 
 11,700,000 
 
 8,820,000 
 
 149,800,000 
 
 7,200,000 
 
 10,800,000 
 
 80,000 
 
 
 Weekly. 
 
 
 Monthly 
 
 Quarterly 
 
 Total 
 
 2,800 
 
 6,000,000 
 
 422,600,000 
 
 
 Four hundred and twenty-four journals were issued 
 in the New England States ; 876 in the Middle States ; 
 716 in the Southern States ; and 784 in the Western 
 States. Of the whole 2,800 publications, about 2,200 
 were newspapers, properly so called ; the residue being 
 scientific, religious, and educational journals. The 
 average circulation of the mere papers was 1,785. 
 There was one publication for every 7,161 free inhabi- 
 tants in the United States and Territories. The fol- 
 lowing sununarj' is based on the official returns : 
 
 
 
 Newspapbbb and Periodicals Published in the United States 
 
 IN 1850. 
 
 
 
 Statea A Territories. 
 
 Daily. 
 
 Tri-weeitly and 
 semi-weekly. 
 
 Weelily. 
 
 Semi-montlily. 
 
 Montlily. 
 
 Quarterly. 
 
 Aggregate. 1 
 
 
 No. copies 
 
 
 No. copies 
 
 
 No. copies 
 
 
 No. copies 
 
 
 No. copies 
 
 
 No. copies 
 ptintedan- 
 
 
 No. copies 
 
 
 No. 
 
 printed annu- 
 
 No. 
 
 printed an- 
 
 No. 
 
 printed nnnu- 
 
 
 printed an- 
 
 
 printedan- 
 
 No. 
 
 No, 
 
 printed annu- 
 
 
 
 nlly. 
 
 
 nually. 
 
 
 ally. 
 
 
 nually. 
 
 
 nually. 
 
 
 nnaliy. 
 
 
 ally. 
 
 Alabama 
 
 « 
 
 869,201 
 
 5 
 
 266,500 
 
 48 
 
 1,509,040 
 
 1 
 
 18,000 
 
 .. 
 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 2,662,741 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 877,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 877,000 
 
 California 
 
 4 
 
 626,O0C 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 186,200 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 761,200 
 
 Dist Columbia.. 
 
 5 
 
 6,149,196 
 
 6 
 
 1,208,610 
 
 8 
 
 3,769,428 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 IS 
 
 11,127,236 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 7 
 
 1,752,80C 
 
 4 
 
 374,400 
 
 80 
 
 2,117,282 
 
 . 
 
 
 i 
 
 6,66o 
 
 2 
 
 8,800 
 
 4(i 
 
 4,267,982 
 
 Delaware 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 62,400 
 
 V 
 
 358,800 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 421,200 
 
 Florida 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 81,200 
 
 9 
 
 288,600 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 819,800 
 
 Georgia 
 
 fi 
 
 1,086,00C 
 
 8 
 
 146,380 
 
 37 
 
 2,609,776 
 
 6 
 
 228,600 
 
 
 
 
 
 51 
 
 4,070,866 
 
 Illinois 
 
 8 
 9 
 
 1,120,000 
 1,153,000 
 
 4 
 2 
 
 214,500 
 196,000 
 
 84 
 96 
 
 8,676,986 
 2,920,786 
 
 3 
 1 
 
 48,200 
 48,000 
 
 V 
 
 147,200 
 
 1 
 
 900 
 
 107 
 107 
 
 6,102,276 
 4,816,828 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Iowa 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 577,200 
 
 25 
 
 923,000 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 12,600 
 
 
 
 29 
 
 1,612,800 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 9 
 
 2,248,684 
 
 ■I 
 
 1,126,280 
 
 88 
 
 8,053,024 
 
 8 
 
 160^950 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 62 
 
 6,682,8881 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 11 
 
 9,947,140 
 
 6 
 
 676,000 
 
 SV 
 
 1,646,684 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 146,400 
 
 
 
 66 
 
 12,416,224 
 
 Maine 
 
 4 
 
 964,04C 
 
 5 
 
 802,900 
 
 89 
 
 2,906,124 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 30,000 
 
 
 
 49 
 
 4,203,064 
 
 Maryland 
 
 6 
 
 16,806,500 
 
 4 
 
 499,700 
 
 54 
 
 8,166,124 
 
 i 
 
 48,000 
 
 8 
 
 92,400 
 
 
 
 6f 
 
 19,612,724 
 
 Massachusetts. . . 
 
 22 
 
 40,498,444 
 
 16 
 
 2,421,016 
 
 126 
 
 20,871,104 
 
 8 
 
 61,800 
 
 29 
 
 1,867,200 
 
 
 24,000 
 
 209 
 
 64,820,664 
 
 Michigan 
 
 8 
 
 1,262,000 
 
 2 
 
 62,000 
 
 47 
 
 1,685,736 
 
 8 
 
 134,400 
 
 8 
 
 128,600 
 
 
 
 ba 
 
 8,247,786 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 246,440 
 
 46 
 
 1,507,064 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 bo 
 
 1,752,504 
 
 Missouri 
 
 6 
 
 8,380,400 
 
 4 
 
 278,000 
 
 46 
 
 2,406,660 
 
 
 
 'l 
 
 185,600 
 
 
 
 61 
 
 6,195,560 
 
 N. Hampshire.. 
 
 
 
 
 
 ab 
 
 3,538,162 
 
 i 
 
 15,600 
 
 2 
 
 13,800 
 
 
 
 86 
 
 8,067,552 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 6 
 
 2,175,850 
 
 
 
 43 
 
 1,900,288 
 
 2 
 
 23,040 
 
 
 
 
 
 51 
 
 4,098,678 
 
 New Tork 
 
 .■>1 
 
 63,928,686 
 
 21 
 
 8,892,460 
 
 308 
 
 39,206,920 
 
 9 
 
 1,704,000 
 
 86 
 
 6,629,808 
 
 
 24,600 
 
 m 
 
 116,886,478 
 
 North Carolina.. 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 414,810 
 
 40 
 
 1,580,204 
 
 6 
 
 76,060 
 
 
 
 
 
 51 
 
 2,020,564 
 
 Ohio 
 
 26 
 24 
 
 14,285,683 
 60,416,788 
 
 10 
 8 
 
 1,047,930 
 140,400 
 
 201 
 261 
 
 18,334,204 
 27,869,884 
 
 23 
 19 
 
 1,781,640 
 6,972,000 
 
 
 
 
 24^660 
 T,600 
 
 261 
 310 
 
 80,478,407 
 84,898,672 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Ehode Island... 
 
 6 
 
 1,768,450 
 
 2 
 
 26,200 
 
 12 
 
 963,300 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 It 
 
 2,766,96( 
 
 South Carolina.. 
 
 T 
 
 5,070,600 
 
 6 
 
 549,250 
 
 27 
 
 1,413,880 
 
 6 
 
 102,600 
 
 
 
 
 • 9,600 
 
 46 
 
 7,146,98( 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 8 
 
 4,407,666 
 
 2 
 
 266,240 
 
 36 
 
 2,189,644 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 127,200 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 6,940,75( 
 
 Texas 
 
 
 
 b 
 
 525,400 
 
 29 
 
 771,524 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■64 
 
 1,296,924 
 
 
 2 
 
 172,150 
 
 1 
 
 228,800 
 
 80 
 
 2,142,712 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 24,060 
 
 
 
 85 
 
 2,667,662 
 
 Virginia 
 
 15 
 
 4,992,350 
 
 12 
 
 1,416,660 
 
 5b 
 
 2,618,568 
 
 3 
 
 267,600 
 
 1 
 
 24,000 
 
 
 '4^600 
 
 81 
 
 9,223,0« 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 6 
 
 1,058,245 
 
 4 
 
 198,250 
 
 8b 
 
 1,895,992 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 18,000 
 
 
 
 46 
 
 2,665,487 
 
 Minnesota Terri. 
 
 
 
 
 .. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 N. Mexico " 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 20,800 
 
 i 
 
 18,66o 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 88,80( 
 
 Oregon " 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 68,968 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 68,968 
 
 Utah " 
 Total 
 
 
 
 
 
 "i;902 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 254 
 
 235,119,966146 ,17,876,816 
 
 158,120,708 
 
 95 
 
 11,708,480 
 
 100 
 
 8,387,808 
 
 19 
 
 103,500 
 
 2,526426,409,978 
 
 FUBLIOATIONS AND THEIR OlEOULATION IN THE PRINCIPAL CiTIES IN 1850. 
 
 aues. 
 
 States. 
 
 Fubllcatlons. Annual circuIaUon 
 
 Average circula- 
 tion. 
 
 Annual circulation 
 
 to each white 
 
 Inhabitant. 
 
 Alhftiiv 
 
 New York 
 
 8 
 
 81 
 
 118 
 
 12 
 
 16,060,460 
 
 20,711,100 
 
 54,482,644 
 
 5,675,800 
 
 1,886,952 
 
 8,768,200 
 
 8,186,633 
 
 1,002,000 
 
 1,260,860 
 
 78,747,600 
 
 4,890,030 
 
 48,467,240 
 
 2,006,307 
 668,100 
 482,147 
 472,983 
 110,997 
 224,441 
 188,660 
 250,500 
 625,608 
 757,138 
 271,668 
 960,142 
 
 321 
 14T 
 404 
 
 284 
 64 
 
 78 
 88 
 7T 
 
 
 Maryland 
 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 Chicago 
 
 Illinois 
 
 17 
 
 Ohio 
 
 89 
 28 
 4 
 18 
 104 
 18 
 61 
 
 
 ■R'p.ntiickv 
 
 
 
 126 
 
 Npw Tork iNew Tork 
 
 167 
 66 
 
 125 
 
 
 Philadelphia 
 
 
 
 
NEW 
 
 1427 
 
 NEW 
 
 See Am. Aim., 1835, 98, 266; N. Br. Rev., ii., 154, 
 xiii., 86 ; N.Am. Rev., Ivi., 229 (C. C. Fblton) ; For. 
 Quar., XXX., 197, xxxi., 182, 250; Liv. Age, iv., 730 ; 
 Westm. Rev., x., 216, 466, ii., 194, xii., 69, xxv., 264; 
 Southern Lit, Mess., vli., 690 ; Fraser, xxxiii., 674, 
 iv., 127, 310, xiii., 620 ; Bern. Rev., xxiv., 219 ; Ed. 
 Rev., Ixi., 96. 
 
 Neyr Style. Ordered to be used in England in 
 1751 ; and the next year eleven days were left out of 
 the calendar — the Bd of September, 1752, being reck- 
 oned as the 14th — so as to Inake it agree with the Gre- 
 gorian Calendar, which see, and also article Calen- 
 dar. In the year A.D. 200, there was no difference of 
 styles ; but there had arisen a difference of eleven days 
 Ijfctween the old and the new style, the latter being so 
 much beforehand with the fonner: so that when a 
 person using the old style dates the 1st of May, those 
 who employ the new, reckon the 12th. From this va- 
 riation in the computation of time, wa may easily ac- 
 count for the difference of many dates concerning his- 
 torical facts and biographical notices. — ^M. 
 
 NevT York, one of the United States of America, 
 situated between 40° 30' and 45° 01' N. lat., and be- 
 tween 71° 50' and 79° 56' W. long., and contains an 
 area of 46,000 square miles. The population in 1790 
 was 340,120 ; in 1800, 586,050 ; in 1810, 959,049 ; in 
 1820, 1,372,812 ; in 1830, 1,«13,508 ; in 1840, 2,428,921 ; 
 and in 1850, 3,097,394. 
 
 Barli/ Eistory of New Torh State. — The Spaniards 
 comprised the territory of the present State of New 
 York under their great name of Florida, and desig- 
 nated it also on their maps of the sixteenth century 
 particularlj' as the " Tierra de Stephen Gomez," or 
 shorter " Tierra de Gomez," because Gomez (1525) was 
 for a long time the only Spanish navigator who was 
 known to have explored especially these coasts. The 
 English comprised it since 1585 under the name Vir- 
 ginia, and since 1606 under the name of Northern Vir- 
 ginia, or the Northern Colony. Since 1616 they con- 
 sidered it as a part of New England, which name took 
 the place of the old name of Northern Virginia, and 
 went down like this as far south as the fdrtieth degree 
 of north latitude. The Dutch began soon after the 
 discovery of Hudson (1609) to call it "NieuwNeder- 
 landt" (the New Netherlands). This name maj' al- 
 ready have been in use for some time, but it occurs for 
 the first time in a public document in the year 1614. 
 Thej' also sometimes called it "Nieuw Holland." It 
 is on maps also sometimes called " New Belgium." 
 They at first gave to it very extensive boundaries, as 
 far east as Cape Cod, including the whole Barnstable 
 peninsula, and south as far as the Delaware River and 
 beyond it. With these limits we find it represented on 
 many old Dutch maps. The southern limit on the 
 Delaware River remained pretty much imchanged on 
 the Dutch maps. Not so the eastern boundary. On 
 later maps we see this advancing only as far as Nas- 
 sau Bay, Rhode Island. Since 1630 or 1635 the maps 
 have it only as far as the Connecticut River, where at 
 this time the English had already arrived with their 
 plantations. When, in the year 1664, the English 
 conquered the whole country, it was named the 
 "Province of New York," in honor of James, Duke 
 of York, brother of Charles II. It lost in the same 
 year a part of its coast by the grant wliich the Duke 
 of York made to a company of gentlemen who founded 
 the province of New Jersey, between the lower Hud- 
 son and the Delaware Bay. — J. G. Kohl. 
 
 When the province became, in 1776, a State, the 
 name remained unchanged, and also the limits along 
 the coast. 
 
 Physical Features. — This State is divided into three 
 unequal parts, by two great valleys, viz. : 1st. The 
 valley of the Hudson, including the depression in 
 which Lake Champlain is situated, or, more properly, 
 the valleys of the Hudson and Champlain united. 2d. 
 The valleys of the Mohawk, and Oneida Lake, and 
 
 Oswego River, united. The eastern division is a long 
 narrow belt, extending from New York island to the 
 head of Lake Champlain. Its eastern limits are the 
 borders of Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont, 
 with a slope westward to the Hudson, traversed longi- 
 tudinally by several narrow valleys. This division 
 comprehends the western slope of the Taghkanic 
 mountains, which form the water-shed that separates 
 the waters flowing into the Hudson, from those which 
 flow into Long Island Sound. The north division of 
 the State is traversed by the Clinton range. There 
 are several subordinate ranges connected with this 
 group. It begins at Little Falls, in the valley of the 
 Mohawk, and pursues a north-east course across the 
 country to Trembleau Point, oil the west shore of Lake 
 Champlain. There are numerous lofty peaks which 
 formed a remarkable group, and have been styled the 
 Adirondack mountains. Mount Marcy, the highest of 
 the range, attains to an elevation of 5,467 feet above 
 the sea. This ridge presents the water-shed of the 
 region dividing the waters of the Hudson, or those 
 which flow south into the Atlantic, from those which 
 flow into the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The south division 
 is situated between Lake Ontario and the Mohawk, 
 and the Hudson valleys and Pennsylvania. It rises 
 with a gradual ascent until it reaches its maximum 
 height near the southern boundary of the State. The 
 south-eastern part of this division is comprised in three 
 ranges, viz., the Highlands, broken through by the 
 Hudson, the Shawangunk, and the Catskill. There 
 were in this State in 1850, 12,408,964 acres of land im- 
 proved, and 6,710,120 of unimproved laud in farms. 
 Cash value of farms, $554,656,642, and the value of 
 implements and machinery was $22,084,926. Live 
 Stock. — Horses, 447,014 ; asses and mules, 963 ; milch 
 cows, 931,324; working oxen, 178,909; other cattle, 
 767,406 ; sheep, 3,453,241 ; swine, 1,018,252 ; value of 
 live stock, $73,570,499. 
 
 Agricultural Products, etc.- — ^Wheat, 13,121,498 bush- 
 els; rye, 4,148,182; Indian com, 17,858,400; oats, 
 26,552,814; peas and beans, 741,546 ; barley, 3,585,059; 
 buckwheat, 3,183,955 ; potatoes, 15,368,368 ; sweet 
 potatoes, 5,629; value of products of the orchard, 
 $1,761,950; produce of market gardens, $912,047; 
 pounds of butter made, 79,766,094 ; of cheese, 40,741,- 
 413 ; maple sugar, 10,357,484 ; molasses, 56,539 gal- 
 lons ; beeswax and hone)'', 1,755,830 pounds ; wool, 
 10,071,301 pounds produced ; flax, 940,577 ; silk co- 
 coons, 1,774; hops, 2,536,299 pounds; tobacco, 83,189 ; 
 haj-, 3,728, 797 tons; hemp, 4 tons ; clover seedj 88,222 
 bushels ; other grass seeds, 96,493 ; flax seed, 57,963 ; 
 and were made 9,172 gallons of wine ; value of home- 
 made manufactures, $1,280,333 ; of slaughtered ani- 
 mals, $13,573,883. 
 
 The principal rivers are the Hudson, 3^4 miles long, 
 navigable 156 miles to Troy. The Mohawk, 135 miles 
 long, which enters the Hudson a little above Ttoy ; 
 the Genesee, 125 miles long, which enters Lake On- 
 tario, having at Rochester, 5 miles from its mouth, 2 
 falls of 96 and 75 feet. Black River, which rises 
 near the sources of the Hudson, and flows 120 miles 
 into Lake Ontario ; the Saranac, 65 miles long, enter- 
 ing Lake Champlain at Plattsburg ; the Oswegatchie, 
 100 miles long, flowing into the St. Lawrence ; the 
 Oswego, proceeding 40 miles from Oneida Lake into 
 Lake Ontario ; the An Sable, rising in the Adirondack 
 mountains, and having a course of 75 miles to Lake 
 Champlain. The majestic St. Lawrence forms a part 
 of the northern boundary of the State. The head 
 branches of the Susquehanna, the Alleghany, and the 
 Delaware, rise in this State. Besides Lakes Ontario 
 and Erie on the north, and Champlain on the east, 
 which are but partly within it, there are wholly within 
 the State manj' picturesque sheets of water, viz.. 
 Lakes George, Oneida, Skaneateles, Owasco, Cayuga, 
 Seneca, Crooked Lake, Canandaigua, and Chautauque. 
 The islands belongmgto New York are — ^Long- Island, 
 
NEW 
 
 1428 
 
 NEW 
 
 120 miles long from west to east, with an average 
 width of about 15 miles, within whose waters on the 
 east are Fisher's, Shelter, Robin's, and some other isl- 
 ands. Staten Island, south-west of the harbor of New 
 York, 18 miles long, and 8 wide. Manhattan Island, 
 on which the city of New York stands, 13 J miles long, 
 and about 1| wide at an average breadth. Grand 
 Island, in Niagara River, 12 miles long, and from 2 to 
 7 wide, and extending to within a short distance of the 
 Falls. The harbor of New York is one of the iinest in 
 the United States. On the bar at Sandy Hook it has 
 a depth of from, 21 to 27 feet. Sag Harbor on the east, 
 and Brooklyn on the west end of Long Island, have 
 good harbors ; Sackett's Harbor has a good natural, 
 and Oswego a good artificial harbor on Lake Ontario. 
 Buffalo and Dunkirk are harbors on Lake Erie. 
 
 Manufactures. — There were in the State in 1850, 118 
 cotton factories, with a capital invested of $5,554,320, 
 emploj-ing 3,377 males and 5,499 females, producing 
 59,532 yards of sheetings, etc., and 5,308,661 pounds 
 of yarn, valued at $5,019,323 ; 263 woolen factories, 
 with a capital invested of $3,944,090, employing 3,500 
 males and 2,645 females, manufacturing 7,124,600 
 yards of cloth, etc., valued at $6,442,869 ; 28 carpet 
 factories, employing a capital of $802,175 ; 29 estab- 
 lishments making pig iron, with a capital invested of 
 $727,500, employing 934 persons, producing 23,022 tons 
 of pig iron, etc., valued at $1,067,572 ; 323 establish- 
 ments, with a capital of $4,622,482, employing 5,925 
 persons, and making 104,588 tons of castings, etc., 
 valued at $5,921,980 ; 60 establishments, with a cap- 
 ital of $1,131,300, employing 1,037 persons, manufac- 
 turing 13,636 tons of wrought iron, valued at $1,423,- 
 968 ; 1,442 flouring and grist mills ; 4,599 saw mills ; 
 942 tanneries ; 550 printing offices ; 458 newspapers, 
 viz., 54 daily, 13 tri-weekly, 13 semi-weekly, 313 
 weekly, 13 semi-monthly, 25 monthly, and 3 quarterly 
 publications. Capital invested in manufactures, $99,- 
 904,405; value of manufactured articles, $237,699,361. 
 
 The principal places in the State are New York, the 
 metropolis, Albany, the capital, Troy, Brooklyn, New- 
 burgh, Poughkeepsie, Hudson, Saratoga Springs, 
 Plattsburg, Schenectady, Utica, Syracuse, Auburn, 
 Geneva, Rochester, Buffalo, Lockport, Oswego, and 
 Ithaca. There were, January, 1856, 32 railroads, with 
 2,794 miles of road finished and in operation. There is 
 in this State the greatest extent of canal navigation 
 within any State or couutr}'' on the face of the earth, 
 forming an aggregate of 787 miles. See Canals and 
 Railbo'ads. There were, January, 1856, 287 banks, 
 and 1 branch, with a paid capital of $86,890,000. 
 
 Canals. — The canals of New York were the chief 
 element of her early prosperity, and we give a short 
 history of them, and their present commercial import- 
 ance. 
 
 From 1814 till 1817, the subject of the canal was 
 warmly discussed in the legislature by the friends and 
 opponents of the internal improvement system ; and 
 the act authorizing the construction of the canal was 
 finally passed in 1817, by a vote of 18 to 9 in the 
 Senate. The first contract was made on the 27th of 
 June, 1817, and the 4th of July was celebrated by 
 breaking ground at Rome for the construction of the 
 canal. Buffalo then had a population of less than 2,000. 
 Notwithstanding the vast benefits conferred upon the 
 State by De Witt Clinton in his vigorous efforts to 
 bring about a system of internal improvements, he was 
 removed in 1824 from the office of canal commissioner, 
 by a vote of 21 to 3 in the Senate, and 61 to 34 in the 
 Assembly. In 1826, a report on canals was made, 
 written by Mr. Marcy, afterward governor, in which 
 he said : 
 
 "From the views taken by the commissioners, it 
 appears reasonable to indulge the hope that within the 
 space of 10 years the canal debt may be extinguished ; 
 and thi.i copious stream of revenue, yielding, accordmg 
 to the most moderate estimates, an annual income of 
 
 more than $1,000,000, may be turned into the treasury, 
 and the government be thereby enabled to remove from 
 the people the burden of taxation, to diffuse the bles- 
 sings of education in a more abundant manner than at 
 present, and to carry forward this State with increas- 
 ing progress, in its career of general prosperity." 
 
 In 1826, Governor Clinton congratulated the legis- 
 lature on the completion of the water communication 
 between the lakes of the West and the Atlantic Ocean, 
 affording an " inland navigation unparalleled in the 
 experience of mankind." It was in this year (1826) 
 that the first act for a railroad was passed by the Leg- 
 islature of New York, being the road from Albany to 
 Schenectady, 16 miles in length. This road was not 
 completed for. several years. 
 
 In 1827, Governor Clinton called the attention of 
 the legislature to the subject of internal improvements 
 by the general government. The project of the Ches- 
 apeake and Ohio Canal was then before Congress, and 
 the aid of the government was given in behalf of that 
 then considered great work. Governor Clinton ob- 
 served : " It has become a question of great moment, 
 whether the general government has power, with or 
 without the consent of the State governments, to con- 
 struct canals and roads in their territories, and whether 
 such power, if not alreadj' vested, ought not to be 
 granted. * * * \ thinlc it due to a sense of duty 
 and a spirit of frankness, to say, that my opinion is 
 equally hostile to its possession or exercise by, or its 
 investment in, the national authorities." See Canals. 
 
 Rtoer and Canal Navigation. — The subjoined tables 
 show the date of the opening and closing of the Hud- 
 son River and Erie Canal for a period of 15 years, and 
 tjbe number of days they were open each year. 
 Hudson Kiver. 
 
 RLver opened. 
 
 1842, February 4 
 1848, April 18 
 
 1844, March 18 
 
 1845, February 24 
 
 1846, Mirch 18 
 
 1847, April 7 
 
 1848, March 22 
 
 1849, '• 19 
 
 1850, " 10 
 
 1851, February 25 
 
 1852, March 28 
 
 1853, " 23 
 1864, " 17 
 
 1855, " 21 
 
 1856, April 10 
 
 November 
 December 
 
 17 
 14 
 23 
 21 
 8 
 20 
 19 
 
 Dayfl open. 
 
 242 
 
 278 
 283 
 275 
 268 
 292 
 
 298 
 270 
 2T4 
 
 Erie Canal, 
 
 Canal opened. 
 
 Canal dosed. 
 
 Daya open. 
 
 1842, April 
 1848, Mlay 
 
 20 
 
 November 28 
 
 222 
 
 1 
 
 80 
 
 214 
 
 1844, April 
 
 18 
 
 26 
 
 222 
 
 1845, " 
 
 15 
 
 29 
 
 228 
 
 1846, " 
 
 16 
 
 25 
 
 224 
 
 1847, May 
 
 1 
 
 " 80 
 
 214 
 
 1848, " 
 
 1 
 
 December 9 
 
 228 
 
 1849, " 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 219 
 
 18B0, April 
 
 22 
 
 11 
 
 284 
 
 1851, " 
 
 15 
 
 " 5 
 
 285 
 
 1852, " 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 289 
 
 1858, " 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 245 
 
 1854, May 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 217 
 
 1855, " 
 
 1 
 
 " 10 
 
 224 
 
 1856, " 
 
 8 
 
 " 
 
 
 The average cost of railroads has been as follows : 
 
 Total cost. Per mile. 
 
 30 roaas in New York $80,000,000 $46,844 
 
 88 " Massachusetts 60,000,000 44,4S2 
 
 12 " tbo South and TVest 60,000,000 45,658 
 
 The number of railroads, including branches, now 
 in progress in the United States, is 372. The miles in 
 operation are 13,586; the miles in progress, 10,828; 
 and the amount now expended is $400,000,000--the 
 average cost being $30,000 per mile. The average 
 cost of the whole 2,579 miles being about $35,000 per 
 mile. The amount expended on the canals of the 
 United States is about $150,000,000. 
 
 The New York Canals. — The Annual Report of the 
 Canal Auditor of this State, for 1856-7, has been com- 
 
NEW 
 
 1429 
 
 NEW 
 
 municated to the Senate. The revenue for the past 
 year has been greater and the expenses less than for 
 the year 1865. The foUowmg comparative statement 
 shows the difference in the receipts and payments be- 
 tween the two years : 
 
 ' 1865. 18E6. 
 
 Tolls reoeived $2,639,792 12 $2,T4B,1S3 40 
 
 FaymentB by superintendents, and 
 
 to repair-contractors 788,78141 606,932 88 
 
 PaymentBto canal conuniBsioners 
 
 for repairs 82,279 82 62,473 78 
 
 Payments to collectors, weigh- 
 
 masters, and inspectors 79,846 49 82,623 88 
 
 Refunding tolls, salaries, etc 38,884 40 34,608 36 
 
 $989,792 12 $786,633 40 
 
 The whole amount of tolls received is $2,748,212 
 
 , Which amount is composed as follows ; 
 
 Toll on hoata and passengers '. . . . 193,997 
 
 " products of the forest $399,658 
 
 " products of animals ' 27,947 
 
 " vegetable food 1,262,599 
 
 '* other agncultural products 3,261 
 
 " manufactures 120,462 
 
 " merchandise 585,391 
 
 " other articles 164,400 
 
 2,554,215 
 
 $?,748,212 
 
 Tlie whole amount of tonnage transported on the 
 ; canals during the last season of navigation, as- 
 cending and descending, was $4,116,083 
 
 And is composed as .follows : 
 
 Products of theforest 1,478,674 
 
 Products of animals $33,826 
 
 Vegetable food 1,153,894 
 
 Other agricultural products 4,953 1,192,073 
 
 Manufactures 284,901 
 
 Merchandise 870,758 
 
 Other articles 789,076 
 
 $4,116,082 
 The value of such tonnage is as follows : 
 
 Products of the forest $10,211,383 
 
 Products of animals $7,456,433 e 
 
 Tegetable food 42,596,226 
 
 Other agricultural products 977,794 51,030,453 
 
 Manufactures 10,308,419 
 
 Merchandise 135,691,816 
 
 Other articles. 11,084,991 
 
 , Total $218,327,062 
 
 Tons. 
 The total amount of freight, or number of tons 
 carried one mile during the last season of nav- 
 igation, was 592,000,603 
 
 The total movement of the several classes com- 
 posing such total tonnage is as follows : 
 
 Products of the forest. 149,734,516 
 
 Products of animals 6,755,676 
 
 Vegetable food 250,425,916 
 
 Other agricultural products 930,750 258,118,341 
 
 Manufactures 28,409,663 
 
 Merchandise 85,428,158 
 
 Other articles 70,318,625 
 
 Total. 592,009,663 
 
 The whole amount of tonnage received at tide 
 water by way of the Erie Canal from western 
 States and Canada during the last season of 
 navigation, was 1,212,550 tons. The whole 
 amount of tonnage arriving at tide water, the 
 produce of this State, during the same period, 
 was 374,580 tons. The whole number of bar- 
 rels of flour arriving at tide water through the 
 canals, during the last season of navigation, 
 
 was... 1,130,509 
 
 The whole number of bushels of wheat arriving 
 during the same period, was 11,776,832, wiiich 
 turned into flour, calculating. five, bushels to 
 the barrel, would make ' , 2,355,266 
 
 Total in barrels. 3,485,775 
 
 The whole number of bushels of corn arriving at 
 tide water during the same period, was 9,687,148. 
 The total number of new boats registered during the 
 last year, is 364, with a total tonnage of 38,990, mak- 
 ing an average tonnage of 107 "4. 
 • The number of lockages at Alexander's loclc, for 
 the season, was 31,223, and the greatest number of 
 lockages at any one lock, was 37,969, at lock No. 46, 
 Frankfort. 
 
 Comparing the season of 1855 with that of 1856, it 
 shows a decrease in revenue of ©56,871, and an increase 
 
 in tonnage of 93,465, divided among the different ar- 
 ticles, as follows : 
 
 Tons. Tom, 
 
 Products of the forest — decreased 69,260 
 
 " animals " 14,866 
 
 Other agricultural products " 626 
 
 Merchandise *^ 8,644 
 
 Vegetable food— increased 160,729 
 
 Manufactures " 3,028 
 
 Other articles " 6,012 
 
 75,294 
 
 Increase. . 
 
 108,759 
 
 93,465 
 
 The increase in lockages at Alexander's lock is 350. 
 
 In flour and wheat comprised in the returns of veget- 
 able food, there has been an increase on tonnage the 
 past year of 112,537 tons, and an increase of tolls of 
 $160,694. In com and oats there has been an increase 
 during the same period of 28,669 tons, and an increase 
 in tolls of $7,691. Under the head of " Products of 
 the forest," there was an increase in tonnage upon 
 shingles, boards, and scantling, as compared with 1855, 
 of 32,163 tons, and a decreased tonnage upon timber, 
 staves, and wood, of 97,705 tons, and an increase in 
 pot and pearl ashes of 9,615 tons. Under the head of 
 " Other articles," there was an increase in the tonnage 
 of mineral coal, for the same period, of 77,668 tons, 
 and an increase in sundries of 15,823 tons. 
 
 Statement No. 47, appended to the report, shows the 
 tons and description of freight carried on the New York 
 Central and New York and Erie Eailroads, ending 30th 
 September, 1863, 1854, 1856, and 1856, and on the New 
 York Canals during the seasons of navigation the same 
 years. 
 
 Thus three lines of freight transit, it is well known, 
 take all the carriage which passes through the State 
 between New York and the Hudson Kiver and the 
 West, including a considerable portion of Upper Cana- 
 da. It may with justice be said they are all of them 
 competing lines of transport for what is termed 
 "through freight," and two of them are virtually 
 competing lines for both through and way freight. 
 
 The ascertained results presented by these tables 
 are interesting, and worthy of much reflection. They 
 not only show the steady and progressive increased 
 carriage and movement by railway, and the steady and 
 progressive decreased carriage and movement by canal, 
 but they also show the description of freight wherein 
 the carriage by railroads exceeds that of the canal. 
 
 Tons Cnrried. 
 
 Railroad. Cnral. Total. 
 
 1853 991,031 4,257,853 6,238,892 
 
 1854 1,293,853 4,165,802 5,459,716 
 
 1855 1,512,121 4,022,816 6,534,738 
 
 1856 1,719,327 4,116,082 5,885,409 
 
 This statement shows an increase of more than 
 700,000 tons in 4 years by rail, and a loss of 131,771 
 tons to the canal in the same time. 
 
 Total Movement. 
 
 Canal. Total. 
 
 700,889,933 856,717,805 
 
 668,369,044 880,635,168 
 
 619,170,651 869,480,485 
 
 592,009,603 921,201,327 
 
 Railroad. 
 
 1853 166,327,872 
 
 1854 „ 211,976,114 
 
 1855 250.279,834 
 
 1856 329,191,724 
 
 The total movement by railway in 1853 was not 
 quite one fifth of that by the canals. In 1854, it was 
 nearly one third — nearly one half in 1865, and it was 
 quite three fifths in 1856. At this rate of progression 
 on the part of the railroads, and of loss by the canals, 
 the total movement of freight on those two railroads 
 will be equal to that of the canals in about 3 years 
 from this time, if not sooner. 
 
 The aggregate of the total movement has increased 
 on the railroads from 1853 to 1856, 164,483,622, and the 
 loss to the canal has been 108,380,330. 
 
 The annexed tables show why it is that with an in- 
 creased tonnage in 1866 of 93,465 over 1855, the total 
 movement should be 27,171,048 less. This increase in 
 the number of tons carried was on short distances ; 
 
NEW 
 
 1430 
 
 NEW 
 
 otherwise an increase in the receipts of tolls would 
 have been the result. 
 
 But this statement also exhibits the amount of 
 freight earnings on these railroads, and tolls received 
 on the canals, including the tolls on boats and passen- 
 gers during the above period, together with these total 
 movements. These comparative statements show the 
 rapid and successful progress of the former, and the 
 immobility of the latter : 
 
 1853. Froierht and Tolls. 
 
 N.Y. Cen.K.E., tons moved ImUe, $54,801,.550 1,838,830 
 N.Y. and Erie E.R., " 101,626,633 2,63T,2U 
 
 Canals, " 700,389,933 3,204,T18 
 
 Total $856,717,305 
 
 1854. 
 
 N.Y. Cen. E.R., tons moved 1 mile, $81,163,080 
 N.Y. and Erie E.R., " 130,808,031 
 
 Canals, " 668,659,044 
 
 7,580,762 
 
 2,479,820 
 3,369,590 
 2,773,566 
 
 Total $889,635,158 
 
 1855. 
 
 N.Y. Cen. E. E , tons moved 1 mile, $99,605,836 
 N.Y. and Erie R.K., " 150,673,998 
 
 Canals, " 619,170,651 
 
 8,633,976 
 
 3,189,60.^ 
 3,653,002 
 2,806,077 
 
 Total $869,450,485 
 
 1856. 
 N.Y. Cen. E.B., tons movedl mile, $145,783,678 
 N.Y. and Erie E.E., " 183,468,046 
 
 Canals, " 592,009,603 
 
 9,647,692 
 
 4,328,041 
 4,545,782 
 2,748,212 
 
 Total $921,201,327 11,632,035 
 
 This statement also shows the total tonnage of 
 freight on these roads for 1855 and 1856 separately from 
 other tabular calculations, from which it appears the 
 increase on through freight in one year was 182,358 
 tons, and on way 14,847 tons. 
 
 The operations of these roads, for the year ending 
 September 30, 1855, were as follows : 
 
 «™^- "Sut 
 
 freiKlt. 
 
 Total 
 number. 
 
 Total 
 moven^ent 
 or mileage. 
 
 ToUb at 
 
 canal ratea 
 
 in 1855. 
 
 1855. 
 
 N. Y. & Erie. . 
 
 N. Y. Central.. 
 
 Total 
 
 Tons. 
 
 155,469 
 156,194 
 
 Tona. 
 
 686,586 
 618,879 
 
 Tona. 
 842,055 
 670,078 
 
 160,873,993 
 99,606,836 
 
 $549,185 
 
 487,019 
 
 311,663 
 
 1,200,465 
 
 1,512,128 
 
 249,279,884 
 
 $986,204 
 
 1866. 
 
 N. Y. Central.. 
 N. Y. & Erie. . 
 
 25.3,238 
 
 622,824 
 Not 
 
 776,112 
 reported 
 
 145,783,678 
 
 $491,451 
 
 3,073,993 
 
 85-86 
 
 2,866,388 
 
 74-19 
 
 2,955,697 
 
 69-51 
 
 2,647,438 
 
 61-15 
 
 2,610,420 
 
 64-89 
 
 2,654,215 
 
 62-06 
 
 The New York and Erie Kailroad received on 
 through freight in 1855, $1,461,419 18, equal to $9 40 
 per ton, on the quantity transported, and in the same 
 year the New York Central received $1,289,706 97 on 
 through freight, which gives an average of $8 25 7-10 
 per ton on the amount carried. 
 
 The comparative tabular statement herewith sub- 
 mitted is a condensed view of the total tonnage and 
 receipts of toll on all the canals on the different descrip- 
 tions of property carried, for the period of six years : 
 
 Year. Tona carried. Tolls received. Av. por ton, 
 
 1851 3,532,733 " 
 
 1863 3,863,442 
 
 1863 4,247,853 
 
 1854 4,165,863 
 
 1865 4,022,617 
 
 1856 4,116,082 
 
 The receipts of toll above given are upon the prop- 
 erty carried exclusive of the tolls on boats and passen- 
 gers, and the average must be affected by the rates of 
 toll charged and received, and the distance that prop- 
 erty or freight is transported on the canals. The 
 average of 1851 on the tonnage of 1856 would give 
 $3,542,178 of tolls. The Auditor is satisfied that the 
 rates of toll as arranged in 1851 may be imposed on most 
 of the property transported on the canals without any 
 injury to trade, if the legislature will interpose its con- 
 stitutional authority to protect the trade of the canals. 
 
 The canal debt of 1846, to which the annual Sink- 
 ing Fund of $1,700,000 is applicable and constitution- 
 .ally pledged, was, on the 30th September, 1856, $13,- 
 223,704 33, the annual interest of which, payable 
 quarter yearly, amounts to $792,193 28, and $5,739,- 
 024 76 of this debt are for loans made upon the credit 
 
 of this Sinking Fund to supply the deficiencies which 
 existed in that fund, to pay the debt as it fell due after 
 1847. Former financial officers of the State have esti- 
 mated that the Sinking Funds established by article 7, 
 section 1, of the Constitution, would be ample to meet 
 all the charges upon them from year to year, and 
 finally to liquidate the Canal debt, of $16,944,816 57 
 outstanding on the 30th of September, 1846, in 18 
 3'ears and 3 months, with a surplus of $95,333 48 on 
 the 1st of January, 1865, when it was assumed the 
 whole of the debt would be paid. 
 
 Canal Debt.— Statement showing tub Amount of Pein- 
 oiPAL and Interest actually payable in each Yeae, 
 
 TOGETHER WITH THE EeSULTS OP THE SINKING FUND, 
 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION, AET. 7, SeO. 1, FROM SEP- 
 TEMBER 80th, 1856; ALSO the Amount of Surplus on 
 September 80th, of eaoh Year, and the Amount of 
 Annual Interest on the same at Five per Cent. 
 PER Annum. 
 
 Year. 
 
 1856 surplus 
 
 1857.. 
 
 1853.. 
 
 1369.. 
 
 I860.. 
 
 1861.. 
 
 1862.. 
 
 1868.. 
 
 1364.. 
 
 1865.. 
 
 1866.. 
 
 1367. . 
 
 1368.. 
 
 1869.. 
 
 1870.. 
 
 1371.. 
 
 1872, . 
 
 1873.. 
 
 1874, Jan. 1st 
 
 .:> 
 Total debt, prin- 
 cipal & interest 
 Surplus on Jan, 
 1st, 1374 
 
 Principal 
 
 payaljle. 
 
 $3,058,605 
 
 943^100 
 
 2,182,974 
 
 900,000 
 
 4o'o,66o 
 
 1,789,024 
 
 4,000,000 
 
 $18,228,704 
 
 Total 
 
 principal and 
 
 intoreet. 
 
 $692,193 
 
 8,713,666 
 
 639,268 
 
 1,468,216 
 
 2,583,649 
 
 1,268,841 
 
 828,341 
 
 722,841 
 
 2,017, 
 
 200,000 
 
 200,000 
 
 200,000 
 
 200,000 
 
 200,000 
 
 200,000 
 
 200,000 
 
 200,000 
 
 4,050,000 
 
 $18,972,198 
 181,937 
 
 $19,154,180 
 
 Surplua on 
 Sept. 30th, of 
 each year. 
 
 Interest on 
 surplua In 
 each year. 
 
 $1,259,901 
 2,330,703 
 484,672 
 1,617,148 
 1,929,784 
 1,142,628 
 1,641,418 
 3,096,142 
 4,227,558 
 4,121.656 
 4,127,788 
 4,134,126 
 4,140,a31 
 4,147,872 
 4,155,266 
 4,163,029 
 4,171,181 
 4,179,740 
 181,937 
 
 Interest on ] 
 em-plus J 
 
 $62,995 
 
 116,586 
 
 21,733 
 
 80,857 
 
 96,489 
 
 57,181 
 
 82,070 
 
 154,767 
 
 211,377 
 
 206,082 
 
 206,336 
 
 206,706 
 
 207,041 
 
 207,898 
 
 207,763 
 
 209,151 
 
 203,659 
 
 53,246 
 
 $2,594,278 
 
 The following statement shows the tonnage of all the 
 canals of the State from 1850 to 1855, inclusive, the 
 total movement in the years stated, and the total value 
 of all the property carried on the canals in each year. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Tola! tonnage. 
 
 Total movement. 
 
 Total value of 
 property carried. 
 
 1860 
 
 3,076,617 
 
 
 $156,897,929 
 
 1851 
 
 2,538,788 
 
 
 159,981,801 
 
 1862 
 
 8,862,441 
 
 602,800,818 
 
 196,603,617 
 
 1863 
 
 4,247,868 
 
 700,389,983 
 
 207,179,570 
 
 1854 
 
 4,166,862 
 
 668,659,044 
 
 210,284,812 
 
 1855 
 
 4,022,617 
 
 619,170,651 
 
 204,890,147 
 
 The two lines of railway in the State, which, dur- 
 ing the season of canal navigation, most effectually 
 and seriously compete with the canals in the transport 
 of freight, are the New York and Erie and the New 
 York Central Eailroads. The operations of these 
 lines in the transportation of freight during the years 
 stated below, show a stea-dy and progressive increase. 
 
 The largest amount of tolls in any fiscal year was 
 in 1851, when the receipts were $3,703,999 34 ; and 
 the per centage of the cost of collection on the gross 
 amount received was $2 03. This was before the re- 
 peal of the laws imposing tolls on freight transported 
 on certain railroads, and the consequent reduction of 
 tolls on the canals, to enable the State to compete for 
 the carrying trade. In 1851 the tonnage of all the 
 canals was 3,682,733. The tonnage of all the canals 
 in 1855, was 4,022,617 ; 439,884 more than in 1851 ; 
 while the tolls were only $2,632,906 11, being $1,071,- 
 093 23 less. The tonnage of 1855, at the rates of toll 
 as they were fixed in 1851, would have j-ielded about 
 $4,108,000, or about $1,536,000 more than were ac- 
 tually received ; the verj' natural and perfectly legit- 
 imate results of a policy adopted by the State before 
 it was prepared by the completion of the enlargement 
 to encounter an active and vigorous competition. 
 
NEW^ 
 
 1431 
 
 NEW 
 
 Table below shows the amount of the new debt 
 created since 1846, the interest of which is paid by the 
 General Fund ; the specific objects for which the sev- 
 eral stocks were issued, and the date of redemption of 
 each, followed by a recapitulation of the whole canal 
 debt of the State : 
 
 OAMAL DEBT. 
 
 6's due lat July, 18T2 $2,2eS0,000 
 
 6' s " IbI; January, 18T3 1,000,000 
 
 6'8 " lBtJuly,18T3 1,280,000 
 
 fi's " Ist November, 18T3 2,280,000 
 
 6's " iBt October, 1874 2,280,000 
 
 $9,000,000 
 1,800,000 
 
 800,000 
 
 Total debt for the enlargement 
 and completion of the canals 
 
 6's due 1st July, 18T8 
 
 8's " 1st January, 1874, to provide for defi- 
 ciencies to pay the interest and redeem the 
 principal 
 
 $11,000,000 
 
 KEOAPITDLATION OF THE CANAL DEBT. 
 
 To pay the interest and redeem the principal 
 under Article 7, Section 1, of the Constitu- 
 tion $13,328,704 33 
 
 To pay the interest and redeem the principal 
 under Article 7, Section 3, of the Constitu- 
 tion 11,000,000 00 
 
 The interest paid by the General Fund. 442 885 49 
 
 Total debt 1st January, 1857 $24,666,289 82 
 
 Of the debt paying interest there was held on the 
 30th September, 1856 : 
 
 On the United States' account $18,992,280 82 
 
 On foreign account 3,424,000 00 
 
 Total canal debt to 30th September, 1866 $22,416,289 82 
 
 The interest on the debt is a fraction over 5.51 per cent. 
 
 On the 1st of July, 1888, there will be re- 
 deemed by the Sinking Fund under Bectlon 
 one, all the live per cent, stocks then falling 
 due, say $3,058,605 34 
 
 The new debt will probably fee increased by 
 a resort to the credit of the Sinking Fund 
 under § 3, on the 30th September, 1858 818,839 44 
 
 Decrease in aggregate of canal debt $2,239,765 90 
 
 If the surplus of the canal revenues during the cur- 
 rent fiscal year shall not be sufficient to meet the 
 whole annual contribution of $350,000 to the General 
 Fund Debt Sinking Fund, the deficiency should be 
 made up from the receipts from taxes transferred to 
 the Canal Fund during the year. 
 
 The premiums on loans constitute quite an import- 
 ant item of receipts to the State. 
 
 PEEMriJMS ON LOANS. 
 
 The premiums received and paid into the treasury 
 on loans made since the 1st of January, 1854, have 
 been as stated below : 
 
 On loan of June 22, 1854, of $1,000,000 
 
 1,250,000 
 1,000,000 
 1,250,000 
 1,600,000 C. R. 
 1,250,000 
 
 $175,706 25 
 167,246 82 
 131,380 00 
 234,500 00 
 D. 289,405 00 
 204,811 80 
 
 Aug. 31, 
 " Feb. 22, 1858, of 
 
 " June 21, " 
 
 " June 20, " 
 
 " Oct. 24, 
 
 On loans to supply deficiencies 
 in Sinking Funds, December 
 
 18, 18BS (6 per cent) 4,600,000 
 
 On E. and C. loan, March 25, 
 1886 1,000,000 
 
 Aggregate to September 30, 1886 $1,376,439 53 
 
 On the 18th October, 1886, a loan of $1,250,- 
 000 for E. and C. was made at a premium 
 of 171,386 80 
 
 31,981 20 
 170 709 00 
 
 Total of premiums $1,846,826 02 
 
 OF THE COST FOE ESLAEGEMENT AND COMPLETION, 
 
 The late State Engineer and Surveyor, Hon. 
 John T. Clark, in his report to the Legisla- 
 ture in 1886, estimated ^e cost of complet- 
 ing all the canals, after the 31st of Decem- 
 ber, 18.53, including 10 per cent, for contin- 
 gencies, the cost of engineering and land 
 damages, at $13,131,808 74 
 
 To this cost he applied the constitutional 
 loans, under § 3, article 7 9,000,000 00 
 
 And estimated a deficiency of $4,131,808 74 
 
 which is a pretty large addition to any estimate here- 
 
 tofore given by the engineers of the total cost of en- 
 largement and completion. 
 
 Trade and Tormage of the Canals. — From the tables 
 furnished the Auditor of the Canal Department we 
 compile the annexed statement of the trade and ton- 
 nage of the canals for the year 1866. The tables, olj- 
 tained from the same source, of the movement for the 
 years 1854 and 1855, are also published, for the pur- 
 pose of giving a comparison in both value and quan- 
 tity with the business of 1856. The statement will 
 be found of much interest. 
 
 It will be found that in the products of the forest 
 the Eeport of 1856, compared with that of 1855, pre- 
 sents an increase' in the articles of furs and peltry, 
 timber and ashes, while in the other articles there is a 
 large decrease, both in value and quantity. Compar- 
 ing the same products with those of 1854, the increase 
 is in the articles of furs, shingles, and ashes, both as 
 to value and quantity. 
 
 Under the head of agriculture the receipts of 1856 
 show a large increase in some important articles, such 
 as pork, wheat, rye, com meal, barley, oats, peas and 
 beans, potatoes, dried fruit and hops. In other arti- 
 cles, under the same head, there is a large deficiency ; 
 sucli as beef, bacon, cheese, butter, wool, lard, etc. 
 The products under the same head, compared with 
 those of 1854, show a different exhibit from those of 
 1855, There is a large deficiency in pork, beef, ba- 
 con, lard, wool, com, corn meal, and clover seed; 
 while in the articles of cheese, butter, hides, wheat, 
 rye, barley, oats, bran, and ship-stuff, peas and beans, 
 potatoes, dried fruit, and flax seed, there is an in- 
 crease. 
 
 The first constitution of New Torfc was adopted by 
 the Provincial Congress, April 20th, 1777, was rati- 
 fied by the State Legislature July 26th, 1788, and was 
 somewhat amended in 1801. On the third Tuesday of 
 June, 1821, a convention called by the Legislature 
 met at Albany, and having made a revision of the con- 
 stitution, the same was ratified by the people in De- 
 cember following. The third and present constitution 
 was adopted in convention at Albany, October 9th, 
 1846, was ratified by the people on the ensuing 2d No- 
 vember, and went into operation January 1, 1847. 
 Among the provisions of the existing constitution are 
 these : — A sinking fund to pay the State Canal Debt 
 shall be thus formed : fi*om the surplus revenues of 
 the State canals from June 1, 1846, to June 1, 1855, 
 $1,300,000, annually ; from June 1, 1855, thencefor- 
 ward, $1,700,000, annually, including $300,000 then 
 to be borrowed until the debt is wholly paid. After 
 thus appropriating there shall be annually set apart 
 $350,000 out of the surplus canal revenues from June 
 1, 1846, until the canal debt is paid ; and after said pay- 
 ment, then $1,500,000 annually, which appropriations 
 shall form a sinking fund to pay the general fund debt 
 of the State. After thus appropriating, $200,000 or less 
 shall be annually paid from the surplus canal revenues 
 to the State treasury for general State expenses. And 
 the remainder of the surplus canal revenues shall be 
 applied to the completion of the canals. If the above 
 sinking funds are insufficient to satisfy the creditors of 
 the State, equitable taxes shall be laid. * * * The 
 credit of the State shall not be loaned to any individual 
 corporation. To meet casual deficits, the State may 
 contract debts not exceeding $1,000,000. Other debts 
 may be contracted if submitted by the Legislature to 
 the people, with provisions for payment by direct tax- 
 ation, and ratified by the people. * * * Corpo- 
 rations are to be formed under general laws, except 
 those for municipal purposes. Municipal corporations 
 are to be restricted by the Legislature in their power 
 of taxation and contracting debts. Stockholders in 
 banks are individually responsible for the debts of their 
 corporation to the amount of their shares of stock. * * 
 The capitals of the common school literature and 
 United States deposit funds are inviolate. 
 
NEW 
 
 1432 
 
 -NEW 
 
 The aggregate statement shows an increase in the 
 down tonnage in 1856 over 1855 of 200,844 tons, and a 
 decrease in value of $2,674,537. 
 
 In respect to the upward movement, there is an in- 
 crease of tonnage in 1856 over 1855 of 115,346 tons, 
 and in value of $30,687,844. 
 
 Statement showing the Total Quantity and Estimated Value of each Article which came to the Hudson 
 RivEE ON all the Cahals, dueing the Years 1864, 1855, and 1856. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 The Forest. 
 
 Fur and peltry. lbs. 
 
 Products of wood. 
 
 Boards and scantling ft. 
 
 Shingles M. 
 
 Timber ou. ft. 
 
 Staves ^..Ibs. 
 
 "Wood cords 
 
 Ashes, pot and pearl bbls. 
 
 Agriculture. 
 
 ProducU ofa/nMnaU. 
 
 Pork bbls. 
 
 Beef " 
 
 Bacon lbs. 
 
 Butter " 
 
 Hides " 
 
 Wool " 
 
 Lard, tallow, and lard oil.... " 
 Vegetaile food. 
 
 Flour bbls. 
 
 Wheat bush. 
 
 Eye " 
 
 Corn " 
 
 Corn meal bbls. 
 
 Barley bush. 
 
 Oats " 
 
 Bran and ship stuff lbs. 
 
 Peas and beans bush. 
 
 Potatoes " 
 
 Dried fruit lbs. 
 
 AU other agriculfcU products. 
 
 Cotton lbs. 
 
 Unmanufactured tobacco ... " 
 
 Hemp " 
 
 Clover and grass seed " 
 
 Flaxseed " 
 
 Hops " 
 
 Manufactures, 
 
 Domestic spirits galls. 
 
 Oil meal and cake lbs. 
 
 Leather " 
 
 Furniture '* 
 
 Bar and pig lead " 
 
 Pig iron., " 
 
 Bloom and bar iron " 
 
 Castings and iron ware " 
 
 Domestic woolens '' 
 
 " cottons " 
 
 " salt " 
 
 Foreign salt " 
 
 Merchandise " 
 
 Other Articles. 
 
 Live cattle, hogs and sheep. lbs. 
 
 Stone, lime and clay. " 
 
 Gypsum " 
 
 Mineral coal " 
 
 Copper ore " 
 
 Sundries " 
 
 622,478,855 
 
 25,836 
 
 4,456,039 
 
 182,061,491 
 
 16,270 
 
 141,846 
 
 63,068 
 
 18,826,306 
 
 6,675,169 
 
 2,854,193 
 
 201,976 
 
 8,129,387 
 
 16,808,210 
 
 1,249,458 
 3,623,794 
 
 225,862 
 12,876,4.»t 
 
 178,417 
 
 1,949,279 
 
 5,.353,121 
 
 17,014,526 
 
 170,746 
 
 626,489 
 
 78.3,812 
 6,634,056 
 2,267,924 
 943,018 
 181,851 
 914,018 
 
 2,088,721 
 
 18,622,756 
 
 6,217,273 
 
 770,941 
 
 860,778 
 
 11,915.564 
 
 18,676;715 
 
 1,786,878 
 
 305,872 
 
 1,310,675 
 
 8,806,087 
 
 1,248,490 
 
 81,488,000 
 
 167,520 
 
 187,611,277 
 
 16,199,939 
 
 111,171,940 
 
 8,575,190 
 
 201,984,314 
 
 $85,887 
 
 8,315,426 
 124,674 
 927,968 
 882,320 
 88,246 
 969,549 
 
 $1,729,926 
 
 524,681 
 
 1,648,298 
 
 61.3,406 
 
 563,016 
 
 81,2.34 
 
 l,091,8-35 
 
 1,718,783 
 
 11,434,807 
 
 7,047,670 
 
 278,770 
 
 10,648,306 
 
 774,292 
 
 2,188,158 
 
 2,676,667 
 
 191,222 
 
 250,621 
 
 407,132 
 
 50,869 
 
 71,949 
 
 1,191,496 
 
 156,756 
 
 84,286 
 
 4,587 
 
 822,699 
 
 778,865 
 
 885,879 
 
 1,292,365 
 
 77,094 
 
 68,681 
 
 182,709 
 
 461,103 
 
 60,024 
 
 271,166 
 
 873,155 
 
 64,186 
 
 80,936 
 
 5,316,528 
 
 $5,026 
 902,008 
 80,400 
 461,510 
 798,190 
 4,088,686 
 
 45,718 
 
 421,776,769 
 
 71,888 
 
 3,189,446 
 
 199,787,285 
 10,199 
 12,075 
 
 60,422 
 57,188 
 9,619,657 
 9,507,128 
 4,241,085 
 451,282 
 4,824,945 
 9,458,458 
 
 1,290,149 
 
 5,426,285 
 
 777,584 
 
 9,348,776 
 
 2,343 
 
 1,674,429 
 
 4,607,982 
 
 44,036,652 
 
 90,723 
 
 689,043 
 
 323,410 
 
 96,874 
 2,844,842 
 443,323 
 592,484 
 426,352 
 260,473 
 
 11,148,467 
 
 7,453,919 
 
 72,440 
 
 2,780,819 
 
 81,668,238 
 
 15,060,440 
 
 1,512,256 
 
 320,248 
 
 1,106,198 
 
 6,065,004 
 
 67,800 
 
 83,112,000 
 
 125,600 
 
 166,877,268 
 
 6,877,246 
 
 36,066,040 
 
 2.32,618 
 
 149,420,905 
 
 $16,827 
 
 283,808 
 646,822 
 889,116 
 68,580 
 862,260 
 
 $1,408,234 
 668,783 
 951,411 
 960,422 
 855,292 
 96,552 
 1,49.3,566 
 
 12,685,082 
 
 11,602,977 
 
 971,874 
 
 9,126,671 
 
 11,221 
 
 2,216,479 
 
 2,276,912 
 
 440,867 
 
 222,786 
 
 480,248 
 
 31,963 
 
 10,846 
 312,760 
 82,207 
 88,28T 
 13,742 
 50,104 
 
 649,142 
 
 242,189 
 
 1,908,579 
 
 124,124 
 
 194,622 
 
 558,822 
 
 423,250 
 
 49,958 
 
 77,706 
 
 116,454 
 
 87,900 
 
 891 
 
 6,899,969 
 
 $6,336 
 1,029,728 
 
 27,510 
 107,496 
 
 57,586 
 5,739,528 
 
 90,000 
 
 888,680,400 
 
 67,160 
 
 8,891,700 
 
 166,566,000 
 
 9,804 
 
 60,647 
 
 81,018 
 47,080 
 6,868,000 
 6,152,000 
 8,462,000 
 514,000 
 2,828,400 
 6,726,000 
 
 1,120,509 
 
 11,786,332 
 
 1,285,636 
 
 9,687,714 
 
 14,851 
 
 2,182,832 
 
 6,060,812 
 
 40,952,000 
 
 1,146,266 
 
 870,738 
 
 738,000 
 
 184,000 
 1,166,000 
 74,000 
 648,000 
 638,000 
 876,000 
 
 8,769,150 
 
 10,660,000 
 
 4,678,000 
 
 716,000 
 
 506,000 
 
 58,496,000 
 
 12,288,000 
 
 2,134,000 
 
 842,000 
 
 1,682,000 
 
 3,726,000 
 
 210,000 
 
 27,146,000 
 
 816,000 
 118,760,000 
 1,322,000 
 54,158,000 
 9,816,000 
 43,262,000 
 
 $117,910 
 
 6,460,647 
 216,734 
 680,569 
 744,696 
 49,070 
 
 2,177,370 
 
 $1,703,427 
 822,101 
 686,497 
 658,558 
 726,497 
 112,194 
 942,862 
 807,205 
 
 8,581,804 
 
 20,517,169 
 
 1,092,716 
 
 6,281,909 
 
 32,486 
 
 2,499,428 
 
 2,485,516 
 
 864,948 
 
 654,895 
 
 487,326 
 
 73,799 
 
 20,074 
 288,149 
 5,688 
 76,773 
 23,494 
 87,807 
 
 817,080 
 
 170,425 
 
 1,936,200 
 
 71,647 
 
 87,918 
 
 792,a2 
 
 833,892 
 
 85,242 
 
 824,616 
 
 395,668 
 
 18,623 
 
 1,054 
 
 6,297,788 
 
 $12,628 
 167,649 
 2,644 
 135,397 
 419,609 
 8,497,701 
 
 Statement showing the Aggregate in Tons and the Aggregate Value of the Property which came to the 
 Hudson River on all the Canals, during the Years 1854, 1865, and 1856, under the Divisions as specified 
 in the arotb Table. 
 
 Value. 
 
 1854. 
 
 1856. 
 
 1866. 1 
 
 Tons. : Value. 
 1 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Value, 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Value. 
 
 
 1,132,921 
 728,540 
 43,129 
 15,774 
 284,782 
 
 $11,618,509 
 44,626,405 
 4,031,003 
 5,316,628 
 6,285,820 
 
 884,663 
 
 787,682 
 
 46,273 
 
 16,656 
 
 $10,698,483 
 
 48,067,269 
 
 4,284,619 
 
 6.889.959 
 
 858,771 
 1,028,417 
 60,454 
 14,078 
 176,754 
 
 $10,446,885 
 49,822,812 
 4,484,271 
 5,297,788 
 4,286,828 
 
 
 
 
 other articles 
 
 188,511 7,080,941 
 
 
 2,155,146 
 
 $71,728,265 
 
 1,922,625 1I176_961.271 
 
 2,123,469 
 
 $74,286,734 
 
 
 
 
 
 Statement aiio-ffiNGTHEAGQEEaATE Qxtantity and Value 
 OP THE PnoPBRTT wiiicn went up the Canals dur- 
 ing THE Years 1855 and 1856. 
 
 186S. 1856. 
 
 Tons 685,597 650,948 
 
 Value $118,443,363 $184,181,70T 
 
 Statement showing the Aggregate Quantity and Value 
 OP the Propeety left by and went up the Canals 
 
 DURING THE TeARS 1855 AND 1856. 
 
 1855. 1856. Increase. 
 
 Tons 2,690,743 2,774,412 83,669 
 
 Value. $190,405,134 $208,418,441 $18,018,307 
 
NEW 
 
 1433 
 
 NEW 
 
 FoBXiGN Couuebce: 01 
 
 THE State 
 
 OP New Toek, teosi OoTonEa 1, 1820, to JraT 1, 1856. 
 
 
 
 1 ' 
 
 Exports. 
 
 1 ImporU. ! Tonnage 
 
 leered. 
 
 District Tonnnge. 
 
 Yeora ending 
 
 Domeatlo. 
 
 Foreign, 
 
 Total. 
 
 Total. 
 
 AmeilcaD. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Registered. 
 
 £;nro}led end 
 Licensed. 
 
 Sept. 80, 1821 „, 
 
 , $7,896,605, 
 
 $6,264,818 
 
 $18,160,918 
 
 $28,629,246 
 
 158,W4 
 
 10,720 
 
 118,750 
 
 130,416 
 
 1832.......; 
 
 10,987,167 
 
 6,118,815 
 
 17,100,482 
 
 35,445,628 
 
 185,666 
 
 17,784 
 
 
 
 
 1828 '. 
 
 11,862,995 
 
 7,675,995 
 
 19,088,990 
 
 29,421,849 
 
 192,521 
 
 wt 
 
 
 
 
 1824 
 
 18,528,654 
 
 9,868,480 
 
 22,897484 
 
 .86,118,728 
 
 -, 233,271 
 
 . 18,143, 
 
 
 
 
 ,1825 
 
 . 20,651,658 
 
 14,607,708 
 
 85,269,261 
 
 , 49,639,174 
 
 255,878 
 
 , 19,351 
 
 
 
 
 1826 
 
 11,496,719 
 
 10,451,072 
 
 21,947,791 
 
 88,115,680 
 
 214,664 
 
 21,865 
 
 
 
 
 182t: 
 
 • 18,920,627 
 
 9,918,510 
 
 28,884,187 
 
 88,719,644 
 
 289,968 
 
 ' 88,876 
 
 
 
 
 1828 
 
 12,862,015 
 
 10,415,634 
 
 22,777,649 
 
 -. 41,927,792 
 
 , WMS' 
 
 42,378 
 
 
 
 
 1829 
 
 12,036,561 
 
 8,082,450, 
 
 20,119,011 
 
 34,743,807 
 
 i . 319,674 
 
 82,355 
 
 
 
 
 1880,...,... 
 ;, ^ ■ Total,... 
 
 18,618,278 
 
 6,079,705 
 
 19,697,988 
 
 86,624,070 
 
 229,841 
 
 ,' 86,574 
 
 
 
 
 $127,861,179 
 
 $87,912,177 
 
 $218,888,856 
 
 $368,875,568, 
 
 ?,185,270 
 
 , 256,592 
 
 
 
 Sept. 80, 1881 
 
 $15,726,118 
 
 $9,809,026 
 
 $25,636,144 
 
 • $57,077,417 
 
 254;881 
 
 ^72,444 
 
 180,982 
 
 169,906 
 
 ■ 1882 
 
 15,057,250 
 
 10,943,695 
 
 26,000,945 
 
 , 58,214,402 
 
 , 242,749 , 
 
 101,967 
 
 
 
 1883 
 
 15,411,296 
 
 9,988,821 
 
 25,896,117 
 
 55,918,449 
 
 884,175 
 
 158,666 
 
 
 
 
 1834 
 
 18,849,469 
 
 11,662,545 
 
 26,512,014 
 
 78,188,594 
 
 861,606 
 
 238,660 
 
 
 
 
 1835 
 
 21.707,867 
 
 8,637,897 
 
 80,845,264 
 
 88,191,306 
 
 589,866 
 
 848,078 
 
 
 
 
 1886 
 
 19,816,620 
 
 9,104,118 
 
 28,920,688 
 
 118,258,416 
 
 477,524 
 
 866,591 
 
 
 
 
 188T 
 
 16,088,969 
 
 , 11,264,450 
 
 27,388,419 
 
 79,801,722 
 
 488,003 
 
 404,784 
 
 
 
 
 1888 
 
 16,482,488 
 
 6,576,088 
 
 28,008,471 
 
 68,458,206 
 
 615,789 
 
 828,768 
 
 
 
 
 1889 
 
 28,296,996 
 
 9,971,104 
 
 88,268,099 
 
 99,882,488 
 
 569,786 
 
 380,666 
 
 
 
 
 1840 
 
 Total.... 
 
 : 22,676,609 
 
 11,587,471 
 
 84,264,080 
 
 ; 60,440,750 
 
 518,202 
 
 848,114 
 
 
 
 
 $180,058,526 
 
 $99,529,665 
 
 $279,688,191 
 
 $758,931,699 
 
 4,846,976 
 
 2,673,628 
 
 
 
 
 Sept. 80, 1841 
 
 $24,279,608 
 
 $8,860,225 
 
 $83,189,838 
 
 $75,718,426 
 
 6(io,807 
 
 865,241 
 
 287,957 
 
 248,696 
 
 1842 
 
 20,789,286 
 
 6,837,492 
 
 27,576,778 
 
 67,875,604 
 
 556,939 
 
 840,520 
 
 
 
 9mo8. 1848 
 
 18,448,284 
 
 8,319,480 
 
 16,762,664 
 
 ' 81,866,540 
 
 881,281 
 
 174,374 
 
 
 
 June 80, 1844 
 
 26,009,177 
 
 6,862,868 
 
 , 82,861,540 
 
 , 65,079,516 
 
 978,818 
 
 414,635 
 
 
 
 1845 
 
 26,929,904 
 
 10,246,894 
 
 86,175,298 
 
 70,909,085 
 
 926,280 
 
 414,683 
 
 
 
 1846,.., ':'.:•. 
 
 ■ 29,685866 
 
 7,849,547 
 
 ' 86,985,413 
 
 74,264,283 
 
 1,120,944 
 
 426,942 
 
 
 
 184T.,, ■;',... 
 
 1 -44,81 6,480 • 
 
 ' 5j027,888 
 
 ' 49,844,863 
 
 : 84,167,862 
 
 1,040,840 
 
 488,755 
 
 
 
 1848 !. 
 
 88,771,209 
 
 ,14,679,948 
 
 ; 58,851,157 
 
 94,525,141 
 
 1,004,316 
 
 705,873 
 
 
 
 .1849........ 
 
 86,788,215 
 
 9,224,885, 
 
 45,963,100 
 
 93,667,869 
 
 1,358,648 
 
 784,514 
 
 
 
 1850 :. 
 
 Total '.,;i 
 
 41,502,800 
 
 11,^09,989 
 
 52,712,789 
 
 111,123,524 
 
 1,411,557 
 
 787,589 
 
 
 
 $301,815,779 
 
 $83,607,166 
 
 $385;822,985 
 
 $757,571,840 
 
 9,379,470 
 
 4,851,671 
 
 
 
 June 80,1861 
 
 $68,104,542 
 
 $17,902,477 
 
 . $86,007,019 
 
 $141,546,533 
 
 1,688,818 
 
 878,319 
 
 518,676 
 
 522,439 
 
 1852....,,.. 
 
 74,042,581 
 
 18,441,875 
 
 , 87,484,456 
 
 132,329,306 
 
 1,570,927 
 
 906,793 
 
 
 
 1853, .;...;. 
 
 66,080,355 
 
 12,175,985 
 
 78,206,290 
 
 178,270,999 
 
 1,959,902 
 
 1,084,742 
 
 
 
 1854 ■. 
 
 106,651,740 
 
 16,982,906 
 
 122,584,646 
 
 196,427,983 
 
 1,918,817 
 
 1,085,164 
 
 
 
 1855....;-,.. 
 
 96,414,808 
 
 17,816,480 
 
 118,781,288 
 
 164,776,611 
 
 1,861,683 
 
 1,140,197 
 
 
 
 1856,.., 
 
 ,109,848,509 
 
 , 9,262,991 
 
 . 119,111,600 
 
 ,210,163,454 
 
 2,186,877 
 
 1,885,577 
 
 
 
 HoMANS Foreign Commerce of the United States, 
 
 For New York Canals, see Iforth Am. Rev., xiv., 
 230, xxix., 500, xi., 129, xiv., 543. For Trade, Com- 
 merce, Debts, etc., of New York, see Hunt's Mer. 
 Mag., xviii., 243, xxiii., 610, xxiv., xxv. (by A. C. 
 Flago) ; Banker's Maga2ine,yu.,-vi\\.,iT!.., x., xi. Min- 
 eral Resources, see N. Y. JRev., iv., 71, v., 477, viii., 
 103; Am. Jo. Science, xxxix., 95, xl., 73, xlii., 227, 
 xlvi., 143, xlviii., 296, i. (N. S.), 43, iii., 57, 164. 
 
 As our limits prevent our giving full statistics of 
 many important elements of commerce, we refer to 
 these subjects under their proper heads. For par- 
 ticujar information, see articles Emigkation, Ton- 
 nage, New Yoke City, Banking, Commerce, 
 TabIpp, Shipping, Railroads, Canals, and Uni- 
 ted States. 
 
 New York, the capital of the State of that name, 
 and the commercial metropolis of the United States, on 
 the southern extremitj' of Manhattan Island, at the 
 point of confluence 6f the Hudson River, which sepa- 
 rates Manhattan from New Jersey, with East River, 
 which separates it from Long Island, in lat. 40° 42' N., 
 and long. 74° 8' W. New York Bay, or inner harbor, 
 is one of the most capacious ahd finest in the world ; 
 it is completely land4ocked, and affords the best an- 
 chorage. The entrance to the bay through the Nar- 
 rows is extremely beautiful. On each side, the shore, 
 though wooded down to the. water's edge, is thickly 
 studded with farms, villages, and countrj' seats. At 
 the upper end are seen the spires of the city ; and in 
 the distance the bold precipitous banks of the Hudson. 
 From New York to the bar between Sandy Hook Point 
 and Schrj'er's Island (the division between the outer 
 bay or harbor and the Atlantic) is about 17 miles. 
 Fortifications have been erected at the Narrows, Gov- 
 ernor's Island, and other places, for the defense of the 
 city and shipping. 
 
 Manhattan was first discovered and explored by 
 Hendrick Hudson in 1609, Hudson ascended the 
 
 river which now bearb his name as far as the present 
 site of Albany. The ship in which he made the voy- 
 age from Holland was of about 80 tons burden, and 
 called the Half Moon. In 1610 a ship was sent by the 
 Amsterdam merchants to trade with Indians for furs, 
 etc. In 1613 a small fort was erected, and four houses 
 were built, under the superintendence of Hendrick 
 Corstiaensen, who explored the bay and the several 
 inlets, creeks, etc. But no permanent settlement 
 seems to have been made until about 1625, on the 
 south point of the island. After the formation of the 
 Dutch West India Company, they took immediate 
 measures for establishing a permanent colony. Under 
 their fostering care, bonweries, or farms, were soon 
 taken up, a substantial fort erected, and the dwellings 
 of the colonists clustered around it. In 1652 it was 
 incorporated under the name of New Amsterdam, and 
 was governed by 2 burgomasters, 5 schepens, and a 
 schout or sheriff, and continued in their possession 
 until 1664, when it was taken by the English, and the 
 name changed to New York. In 1673 it was retaken 
 by the Dutch, and called New Orange, but they held 
 possession only one year, when it was again occupied 
 by the English, and continued in their possession until 
 the period of the Revolution. The assessors' valuation 
 of property in the city, in 1688, was about $320,000. 
 In 1690 a congress of the commissioners of the several 
 colonies was held at New York. In 1694 there were 
 60 ships, 25 sloops, and 40 boats, belonging to the city. 
 In 1696 Trinity Church was built. This building was 
 burned in 1776. In 1725 the first newspaper was pub- 
 lished in this State, 
 
 In 1699 it contained 6000 inhabitants. In 1774, pre- 
 viously to the commencement of the War of Inde- 
 pendence, the population amounted to 22,750. During 
 the war the population continued stationary ; but since 
 1783 its increase had been quite extraordinary. In 
 1790 the population amounted to 83,131; in 1800 to 
 60,489 J in 1820, to 128,706 ; in 1830, to above 213,000 ; 
 
NEW 
 
 1434 
 
 NEW 
 
 in 1840, to 312,710 ; and in 1850, to 515,507. This, 
 however, is exclusive of the population of Brookljii, 
 which, in 1850, amounted to 96,838, and is as much a 
 part of New York as Birkenhead is of Liverpool. 
 Originally the houses were mostly of wood, and the 
 streets narrow and confined. In these particulars, 
 however, a vast improvement has taken place daring 
 the last half century ; most part of the old houses 
 having been pulled down and rebuilt with brick. The 
 new streets, which are broad, and intersect each other 
 at right angles, are well paved and lighted. Broad- 
 way, the principal street, is one of the largest and 
 finest in the world. Many of the public buildings are 
 commodious and elegant. The pools, that were form- 
 erly abundant in the city and its vicinity, have been 
 completelj' filled up ; a measure that has done much to 
 improve the health of the population. In respect of 
 cleanliness, however, New York, though much im- 
 proved, is still rather deficient. Formerly there was 
 hardly such a thing as a sink or common sewer in the 
 whole city ; the night soil and filth were collected in 
 the pits, of which there was one in every house, and 
 being conveyed to the nearest quays, were thrown into 
 the water; and as these were made of timber, with 
 many projections, a great deal of filth was retained 
 about them, producing, in hot weather, an abominable 
 stench. But in these respects a great amendment has 
 been effected ; and the deficiency of water, under 
 which the city formerly labored, has been completely 
 obviated by the construction of the Croton Aqueduct, 
 about 40^ miles in length, a work worthy of being 
 ranked with the noblest of the old Soman aque- 
 ducts. 
 
 New York is indebted, for her wonderful increase, 
 to her admirable situation, which has rendered her the 
 greatest emporium of the New World. The rise of the 
 tide is about 6 feet, and even at ebb there are 21 feet 
 water on the bar ; and the water in the outer and inner 
 bays, and in the river, is so deep th.at ships of the 
 largest burden lie close to the quays, and may proceed 
 to a great distance up the river. The navigation of the 
 bay is rarely impeded by ice. The great strength of 
 the tide, and the vicinity of the ocean, keep it gener- 
 ally open, even when the Chesapeake and Delaware 
 Bays are frozen over. The influence of the tides is 
 felt in the Hudson as far as Troy, 160 miles above 
 New York, affording peculiar facilities for its naviga- 
 tion. Those natural advantages have been vastly ex- 
 tended by a system of canals, which has connected the 
 Hudson not merely with Lake Ontario and Lake Erie, 
 but with the Ohio Eiver, and consequently with the 
 Mississippi and the Gulf of Mexico ! So prodigious a 
 command of internal navigation is not enjoyed by any 
 other city, with the exception of New Orleans ; but 
 the readier access to the port of New York, the great 
 salubrity of the climate, and her situation, will secure 
 her hereafter the preponderance. 
 
 New York Harbor. — In April, 1857, Professor Bache, 
 of the United States' Coast Survey, furnished the Life 
 Saving Association with his Sailing Directions foir 
 Sandy Hook and its Approaches from Sea, of which 
 6000 copies have been printed in pamphlet form. A 
 portion of these has been placed in the hands of the 
 dealers in nautical instruments in the following ports 
 for gratuitous distribution to captains of vessels, 
 namely. New York, Portland, Me., Portsmouth, N. H., 
 Boston, Mass., Philadelphia, Baltimore, Savannah, Mo- 
 bile, New Orleans, Norfolk, Charleston, and a supply 
 of these pamphlets, for the like purpose, has been 
 forwarded to the United States' consuls in Cork, 
 Dublin, Belfast, Bristol, Cardiff, Hull, Sunderland, 
 Portsmouth, Southampton, Glasgow, Dundee, Liver- 
 pool, London, Havre, Marseilles, Antwerp, Bremen, 
 Hamburg, Amsterdam, Rotterdam, and Havana. 
 
 Hange Lights from East End ofGednet/'s Channel, be- 
 tween Sandy Hook and Flynn's Knoll.— Two fixed lights 
 located near Point Comfort, New Jersey. The front 
 
 light will be exhibited from a lantern on the keeper's 
 dwelling, which is located near the beach, and painted 
 white, with the top of the lantern black. The rear 
 light is located three quarters of a mile distant from 
 the front one, and will be exhibited from a tower 
 painted white, with the head of it and lantern black. 
 The keeper's dwelling is north of it and painted white. 
 The front light is 40, and the rear one 76 feet above 
 the mean level of the sea, and should be seen, under 
 ordinary state of the atmosphere, outside the bar. 
 During the day the front building can be readily 
 recognized from other buildings in the vicinity by the 
 lantern on its centre, and the rear one by the lantern 
 of the tower being projected on the sky above the 
 trees. 
 
 Main Ship Channel Range Lights, — Two fixed lights 
 located on the New Jersey shore, west of Highlands 
 of Navesink. The fi'out light will be exhibited from 
 a tower near the beach, painted with 2 white and 1 
 red horizontal bands, and the roof of the lantern also 
 of the latter color. The keeper's dwelling is west of 
 the tower, and painted white. The rear light is located 
 on the north side of Chappel Hill, IJ miles distant 
 from the front light, and will be exhibited from a 
 lantern on the keeper's dwelling. The dwelling is 
 painted white, and the top of the lantern red. The 
 front light is 60, and the rear one 224 feet above the 
 mean level of the sea, and both should be seen, under 
 ordinary state of the atmosphere, the length of the 
 range line. During the day they can be readily 
 recognized by the shape and colors of the towers of 
 the front light, and by the lantern of the keeper's 
 dwelling, and isolated portions of the rear one. It is 
 about 1 mile east of Pigeon Hill. 
 
 Swash Channel Mange Lights. — Two fixed lights lo- 
 cated on Staten Island, New York. The front light 
 will be exhibited from a tower near the site of the 
 " Old Elm Tree" Beacon, painted with 2 white and 1 
 red horizontal bands, and the roof of the lantern also of 
 the latter color. The keeper's dwelling is south of the 
 tower, and painted white. The rear light is located on 
 a hill, near New Dorp, about 1^ miles from the front 
 light, and will be exhibited from a lantern on the 
 keeper's dwelling. The dwelling is painted white, and 
 the top of the lantern red. The front light is 59 feet, 
 and the rear light 189 feet above the mean level of the 
 sea ; and both should be seen, under ordinary state of 
 the atmosphere, well outside of the bar at Sandy 
 Hook. During the day they can be readily recognized 
 by the shape of the tower, and colors of the front 
 light, and by the lantern on the dwelling, and isolated 
 position of the rear one. 
 
 Sailing Directions. — Masters of vessels intending to 
 enter by Gedney's Channel around the south-west Spit 
 Buoy, should run on a north-west half west course 
 from the light-vessel for the black and white perpen- 
 dicular-striped Nun Buoy at the outside of Gedney's 
 Channel, and from it west by north through the chan- 
 nel, keeping between the buoys, until the range lights 
 near Point Comfort, New Jersey, are in one, when 
 haul up for them, and continue upon the range until 
 the two main channel lights are brought in range, which 
 will also be shown by the main light at Sandy Hook, 
 being a little open to the southward of the West 
 Beacon. From this point the Main Ship Channel range 
 will take them up clear of the "West Bank" and 
 Craven's Shoal. Masters of vessels intending to pass 
 through the Swash Channel, can bring the lights in 
 range outside the bar, and run for them, until the Red 
 Can Buoj', No. 8 (which marks the upper middle), is 
 passed, or until the Main Ship Channel range is on, 
 when haul up on that range until clear of the " West 
 Bank." Vessels drawing more than 17 feet should 
 not be taken through this channel on the range line 
 at low water. A foot more water may be carried 
 through this channel, after crossing the bar, by keep- 
 ing a little to starboard, and opening the front light 
 
NEW 
 
 1435 
 
 NEW 
 
 clear of the rear one. The Swash Channel range 
 line indicates, by the most recent survey, 18 feet at 
 low water. 
 
 There are 57 banks in the city of New York, with 
 an aggregate capital of $60,000,000, 8 marine insur- 
 ance companies, and 60 fire insurance companies, with 
 an aggregate capital of $20,000,000 ; besides 8 life in- 
 surance companies. There are 16 savings' banks, and 
 15 markets. 
 
 COMPAEATIVE VaLTTE OF EbAL AND PERSONAL ESTATE OF 
 
 TKB City and County of New Toek, and Amounts 
 KAiSED BY Tax, from the Tear 1844 to 1856. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Real eetate. 
 
 FcrBomtl oatate. 
 
 TOXSB. 
 
 1844 , 
 
 $171,987,591 
 
 $64,789,562 
 
 $1,988,818 
 
 1845 
 
 177,207,990 
 
 62,787,627 
 
 2,096,191 
 
 1846 ..,. 
 
 188,480,584 
 
 61,471,470 
 
 2,526,146 
 
 1847 
 
 187,818,886 
 193,029,076 
 
 69,887,918 
 
 2,581,776 
 
 1848 
 
 61,164,447 
 
 2,715,610 
 
 1849 
 
 197,741,919 ' 
 
 58,465,224 
 
 8,006,762 
 
 1850 
 
 207,142,676 
 
 73,919,240 
 
 8,2811,085 
 
 18S1 
 
 227,016,856 
 
 93,095,001 
 
 2,924,455 
 
 1862 
 
 258,278,884 
 
 68,490,042 
 
 8,880,511 
 
 1858 
 
 294,687,296 
 
 118,994,187 
 
 6,066,698 
 
 1854 
 
 880,300,896 
 
 131,721,388 
 
 4,845,886 
 
 1855 
 
 836,975,866 
 
 150,022,312 
 
 6,848,822 
 
 1856 
 
 840,972,098 
 
 170,774,898 
 
 7,075,425 
 
 Manufactures.— The manufactures of New York ab- 
 sorb a large amount of capital. The amount employed 
 in 1850 was $34,232,822, and the value of articles 
 manufactured was $105,218,308. The number of es- 
 tablishments was 3387, employing 53,703 males, and 
 29,917 females. 
 
 Eetubns of tiTe Pbodttctive Establishments of the City 
 OF New Tokk.— Census of 1860. 
 
 Wai^a. 
 
 First 
 
 Sooopd 
 
 Third 
 
 Fourth . . 
 
 Fifth......... 
 
 Sixth 
 
 Seventh 
 
 Eighth 
 
 Ninth 
 
 Tenth.. .;..., 
 
 HloTenth 
 
 Twelfth 
 
 Thirteenth.. 
 Fourteenth . 
 Fifteenth... 
 Sixteenth . . . 
 Seventeenth. 
 Eighteenth . 
 Nineteenth. . 
 Total.... 
 
 No. of 
 manufactur- 
 ing eatabfi. 
 
 137 
 
 861 
 
 9 
 
 189 
 
 83 
 166 
 422 
 233 
 189 
 
 96 
 149 
 
 19 
 172 
 
 72 
 
 93 
 129 
 145 
 199 
 
 94 
 
 Capital 
 invested. 
 
 $1,013,600 
 
 12,672,996 
 
 607,000 
 
 1,638,800 
 
 1,227,562 
 
 1,125,880 
 
 8,498,275 
 
 861,890 
 
 798,800 
 
 307,700 
 
 2,061,850 
 
 841,550 
 
 299,110 
 
 965,700 
 
 1,045,550 
 
 8,280,880 
 
 892,400 
 
 1,227,780 
 
 884.600 
 
 3,887 I 
 
 No. of 
 
 lianda 
 
 employed. 
 
 Annual 
 products. 
 
 9,707 
 35,704 
 
 060 
 2,895 
 2,146 
 4,040 
 5,947 
 2,735 
 2,444 
 1,035 
 4,434 
 
 420 
 1,281 
 1,560 
 1,176 
 2,763 
 1,835 
 2,618 
 
 670 
 
 $8,906,837 
 31,810,642 
 1,801,700 
 4,885,211 
 4,478,214 
 8,822,191 
 9,641,088 
 4,080,484 
 2,883,180 
 1,678,422 
 20,056,409 
 520,500 
 2,073,628 
 1,546,927 
 1,376,818 
 4,368,176 
 2,579,812 
 2,920,760 
 1,293,860 
 
 83,620 l$105,218,808 
 
 The Croton aqueduct commences at the Croton 
 Eiver, 5 miles from the Hudson, in Westchester 
 county. The dam is 250 feet long, 70 feet wide at the 
 bottom, and 7 at the top, and 40 feet high, built of 
 stone and cement. It creates a pond 5 miles long, 
 covering a surface of 400 acres, and containing 500,- 
 000,000 gallons of water. From the dam the aqueduct 
 proceeds ; sometimes tunneling through solid rocks, 
 crossing valleys by embankments, and brooks by cul- 
 verts, until it reaches Harlem Eiver, a distance of 33 
 miles. It is built of stone, brick, and cement, arched 
 over and under, 6 feet 3 inches wide at bottom, 7 feet 
 8 inches at top of the side walls, and 8 feet 5 inches 
 high ; has a descent of 13J inches per mile, and will 
 discharge 60,000,000 of gallons every 24 hours. It 
 crosses the Harlem Kiver on a magnificent bridge of 
 stone, 1450 feet long, with 14 piers ; 8 of them bearing 
 arches of 80 feet span, and 7 others of 50 feet span, 114 
 feet above tide-water at the top. The reoeivuig reser- 
 voir at Eighty-sixth-street, 38 miles from the Croton 
 dam, covers 36 acres, and holds 150,000,000 of gallons. 
 The distributing reservoir, on Murray's Hill, at Forti- 
 eth-street, covers 4 acres, and is constructed of stone 
 and cement, 45 feet high above the street, and holds 
 20,000,000 of gallons. Thence the water is distributed 
 over the city in iron pipes, laid so deep under ground 
 
 as to be secure from frost. The whole cost of the 
 work has been about $13,000,000. The water is of the 
 purest kind of river water. There are laid below the 
 distributing reservoir in Fortieth-street, more than 200 
 miles of pipe, from 6 to 36 inches in diameter. See 
 Aqdeduots. There are not more than four cities in 
 Europe larger than New York, viz., London, Paris, 
 Constantinople, and St. Petersburg. 
 Statement showing the Amount of Taxes, and Objects 
 
 FOR WUIOIl they WEEE LEVIED, IN THE CiTY AND COUNTT 
 
 OF New Toek, foe the Teaes 1860, 1862, 1854, and 
 
 Heads of accounts. 
 
 U50. 
 
 Aims-house 
 
 Aqueduct repairs 
 
 " construction. . 
 
 Battery enlargement 
 
 Board of health 
 
 City Inspector's depart 
 
 Coroners' fees 
 
 Cleaning docks and slips 
 Comity' contlngcneles. 
 Common Council, pay 
 
 of members. 
 
 Contingent expenses 
 
 of Common Council. , 
 
 Docks *fe 8lips(new work) 
 
 " repairs . 
 
 Donations 
 
 Election expenses... 
 Errors and delinquencies 
 
 Fire department 
 
 Int. oh revenue bonds. . . 
 •' assessment bonds 
 
 Intestate estates 
 
 Lands and places 
 
 Lands purchased for 
 
 assessments 
 
 Markets 
 
 Mayoralty fees 
 
 Officers' fees 
 
 Police and fire telegraph 
 
 Printing '. .. . 
 
 Repairs and supplies. 
 
 Rents 
 
 Real estate 
 
 " expenses . 
 
 Roads and avenues.. . 
 
 " 8th avenue . . . 
 
 Stationery 
 
 Sunken ves'Is, (remov'g) 
 Sewers (repVg&.clean'g) 
 
 Salaries 
 
 Statistical tables C. A. } 
 
 department J 
 
 Water pipes andlaying 
 
 Cleaning streets 1 
 
 Street exp'ns & rep'rs. j 
 Com. schools (for State) 
 " (for City).. 
 
 Commis'ners of Record. 
 Buildins; loan stock, 
 
 Nos. 2 and3 
 
 Indexing records, Co. 
 
 offices 
 
 Judges Supreme Court 
 Lighting lamp district. . 
 N. Y. S. Lunatic Asylum 
 '■' Juvenile " 
 ' Asyl. for Idiots 
 Institution for Blind. . . 
 " for Deaf & Dumb 
 
 Police 
 
 PuhUc education stock. 
 
 State mill tax 
 
 Washington squ. iron ) 
 
 railing stock J 
 
 Water loan interest 
 
 Arrearages of prev. years 
 Blasting Diamond Reef. 
 Repairing County jail. . . 
 Monument, j M^or- 1 
 
 General Worth f 
 
 Grooving Broadway 
 
 Paving Bowery and ) 
 Chatham-street .:.. f 
 Grading 10th avenue — 
 Ward maps & surveys ) 
 for Tax Commis'rs.. ) 
 Surg, departm't of police 
 Central park interest. . 
 Society for relief of 
 juvenile delinquents 
 Total tax levied... 
 
 Dollars. 
 400,000 
 .20,000 
 8,000 
 
 idfiiso 
 io,66o 
 
 8,000 
 
 100,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 80,000 
 46,000 
 15,000 
 8,000 
 8,000 
 40,000 
 90,000 
 
 8,(J6o 
 5,000 
 
 6,000 
 
 125 
 
 80,000 
 
 ' 26,o6o 
 50,000 
 2,000 
 15,000 
 10,000 
 80,000 
 
 9,66o 
 ib^ooo 
 
 200,000 
 
 140,000 
 
 200,000 
 
 8,144 
 267,969 
 
 60,000 
 
 135,000 
 127 
 
 720 
 
 2,080 
 
 492,000 
 
 148^043 
 
 5,000 
 
 186 689 
 280,941 
 
 Bollare. 
 890,000 
 30,000 
 
 20^660 
 10,000 
 60,000 
 12,000 
 10,000 
 120,000 
 
 26,000 
 
 15,000 
 12,000 
 8,000 
 70,000 
 76,000 
 
 8,m 
 
 15,000 
 
 80,000 
 
 7,000 
 
 150 
 
 85,000 
 
 4«',66o 
 
 60,000 
 8,000 
 30,000 
 50,000 
 40,000 
 7,500 
 20,000 
 2,000 
 12,000 
 225,000 
 
 310,000 
 
 185,641 
 502,816 
 
 50,000 
 
 200,000 
 
 720 
 
 2,960 
 
 540,000 
 
 175,863 
 5,000 
 
 18,833 
 
 .3,230,1808,378,335 
 
 Dollars, 
 427,000 
 
 22,000 
 
 25,600 
 10:000 
 75,500 
 16,000 
 6,000 
 120,000 
 
 81,888 
 
 10,000 
 
 166,000 
 60,000 
 5,000 
 28,000 
 6,000 
 65,000 
 130,000 
 
 '8,660 
 15,000 
 
 8,000 
 
 160 
 
 85,000 
 
 75,000 
 
 135,000 
 
 3,600 
 
 26,000 
 ' 30,000 
 . 50,000 
 
 16,000 
 
 20,000 
 2,000 
 
 16,000 
 260,000 
 
 1,601)' 
 
 128,000 
 140,000 
 260,000 
 74,742 
 668,814 
 
 50,000 
 
 5,654 
 
 3,376 
 
 321,406 
 
 467 
 
 4,1 
 
 2,080 
 2,640 
 
 872,716 
 12,449 
 
 810,225 
 
 128,770 
 
 Dollars. 
 925,000 
 
 85,000 
 
 40,000 
 8,815 
 
 18,000 
 6,000 
 
 70,000 
 
 86,000 
 
 7,500 
 
 100,000 
 20,000 
 10,000 
 20,000 
 5,000 
 81,000 
 
 220,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 8,000 
 
 16,600 
 
 7,000 
 
 160 
 
 20,000 
 
 5,000 
 
 85,000 
 
 182,000 
 
 20,000 
 
 26,000 
 
 50.000 
 
 6o;ooo 
 
 13,660 
 
 2,000 
 
 24,000 
 
 869,200 
 
 1,500 
 
 166,700 
 259,224 
 60,000 
 126,117 
 ,028,854 
 160,000 
 
 50,000 
 
 4,600 
 
 896,367 
 
 800 
 
 40,000 
 
 120 
 
 2,240 
 
 2,700 
 
 828,600 
 
 12,857 
 
 608,826 
 
 415,983 
 36,600 
 6,000 
 
 28,500 
 
 50,000 
 
 76,000 
 
 18,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 5,000 
 162,422 
 
 4,000 
 
 4,841,2567,075,426 
 
NEW 
 
 1436 
 
 NEW 
 
 ElLATlTE Valot: 
 
 IF THE Real and Peksonal Estaii; in the Out and Ooustt or New Toek, as assessed in 1865 
 AND 1856. 
 
 Wards. 
 
 AssessmeDts, 1856. 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 Increase. 
 
 Tolol. 
 
 B. Estats. 
 
 p. Estote. 
 
 R. Estate. 
 
 P. Estate. 
 
 186S. 
 
 1866. 
 
 R. Estate. 
 
 t. Estate. 
 
 Increase. 
 
 Decrenso. 
 
 1 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 85,975,260 
 
 22,448,157 
 
 21,746,650 
 
 9,878,890 
 
 18,865,300 
 
 9,506,650 
 
 12,476,958 
 
 16,261,500 
 
 13,767,700 
 
 8,144,400 
 
 7,564,700 
 
 8,491,485 
 
 5,098,991 
 
 9,875,300 
 
 25,857,860 
 
 14,874,850 
 
 15,562,400 
 
 31,986,206 
 
 9,892,986 
 
 18,986,500 
 
 21,796,375 
 
 10,590,129 
 
 Dollars. 
 65,177,896 
 6,118,680 
 8,420,022 
 1,(;44,430 
 2,150,658 
 1,700,857 
 8,185,616 
 1,823,7-26 
 
 Dollars. 
 87,192,680 
 22,787,925 
 22,723,288 
 
 9,449,070 
 14,282,460 
 
 9,567.814 
 12,574;698 
 16.162.969 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 60,089,018 
 
 6.778,172 
 
 9;841,6S1 
 
 1,753,646 
 
 1,968,992 
 
 1,630,422 
 
 8,828,166 
 
 2,907,368 
 
 3,081,875 
 
 1,083,484 
 
 847,845 
 
 758,076 
 
 515,100 
 
 2,254,428 
 
 21,991,129 
 
 8,636,588 
 
 5,725,786 
 
 16,992,442 
 
 1,560,000 
 
 1,019,260 
 
 6,586,092 
 
 730,675 
 
 18,600,265 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 91,158,146 
 
 27,566,787 
 
 80,165,672 
 
 11,023,320 
 
 16,015,858 
 
 11,206,907 
 
 16,661,474 
 
 17,086,226 
 
 16,870,564 
 
 9,265.785 
 
 8,086:687 
 
 9,897,2.36 
 
 5,834,655 
 
 12,194,946 
 
 46,899,897 
 
 17,474,660 
 
 20,860,630 
 
 46,232,3,55 
 
 9,529,936 
 
 14,881,700 
 
 26,834,075 
 
 11,828,806 
 
 14,491,530 
 
 Dollors. 
 
 97,281,698 
 
 29,661,097 
 
 32,064,919 
 
 11,207,616 
 
 16,236,442 
 
 11,097,746 
 
 15,902,864 
 
 19,070,327 
 
 16,980,875 
 
 9,364,984 
 
 8,481,346 
 
 8,149,360 
 
 6,636,600 
 
 12,615,828 
 
 47,682,629 
 
 19,104,788 
 
 21,547,115 
 
 49,946,792 
 
 9,601,188 
 
 15,324,200 
 
 27,611,117 
 
 10,969,697 
 
 18,600,265 
 
 Dollars. 
 1,217,380 
 
 889,768 
 977,688 
 
 70,180 
 417,150 
 
 60,774 
 
 98,740 
 901,469 
 181,300 
 187,100 
 
 69,800 
 
 67^466 
 886,100 
 834,160 
 698,850 
 258,979 
 1,018,145 
 
 868,450 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 4,911,116 
 
 1,654,542 
 
 921,60£ 
 
 114,116 
 
 142^650 
 
 1,083,642 
 
 479,011 
 
 825,357 
 
 1,949,682 
 936,788 
 927,500 
 
 2,696,292 
 
 1,428,000 
 574,060 
 
 1,548,392 
 
 4,108,786 
 
 Dollars. 
 6,128,446 
 1,994,810 
 1,899,246 
 184,295 
 220,589 
 
 24V,890 
 1,985,101 
 610,811 
 99,199 
 394,667 
 
 82b'877 
 
 2,283,282 
 
 1,680,138 
 
 1,186,486 
 
 8,714,487 
 
 71,247 
 
 942,600 
 
 777,042 
 
 4,108,786 
 
 Dollan. 
 
 109;961 
 
 1,247^875 
 198,166 
 
 868^607 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 2,602,864 18.899.000 
 
 10 
 
 1,121,385 
 
 621,987 
 
 905,800 
 
 740,664 
 
 2,319,645 
 
 20,042,047 
 
 2,602,800 
 
 4,798,230 
 
 14,296,150 
 
 187,000 
 
 455,200 
 
 5,087,700 
 
 738,176 
 
 14,491,630 
 
 8,281,600 
 
 7,6.34,000 
 
 7,391,285 
 
 5,121,400 
 
 10,261,400 
 
 25,691,600 
 
 15.665,200 
 
 15,821,879 
 
 83,954,860 
 
 8,041,183 
 
 14,804,960 
 
 21,035,025 
 
 10,289,022 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 Non-residents... 
 Total 
 
 887,038,526 
 
 150 022 812 340.971 408 
 
 172 967 781 4fl7.nfi0 R38 
 
 513 939 279 7 nnr SiSl^. 9n fiflT 14A'9ft 799 S41 1 913 7991 
 
 Less decrease . 
 Total Increase. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' ' ' ' 
 
 1,913,799 
 
 
 
 .... 
 
 26,878,441 
 
 
 The general results are : 
 
 Total valuation in county $618,989,279 
 
 " " Lamp districts 499,122,165 
 
 " " South of Forty-second St..... 486,682,864 
 
 Permanent City Debt bedeemablb frou the Sinking 
 PuND. Januaey 1st, 1857. 
 
 Redeetnable. 
 5 per cent. Water Stock Jan. 1, 1858 
 
 $8,000,000 
 
 2,500,000 
 
 8,000,000 
 
 266,600 
 
 29,100 
 
 2,147,000 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 990,488 
 
 402,768 
 
 75,000 
 
 115,000 
 
 716,200 
 
 ..Jan. 1, 1860 
 
 5 " " " Nov. 1,1870 
 
 6 " " " Julvl2, 1876 
 
 5 " " " NewEeser'r.Oct. 1,1875 
 
 5 '• " " Nov, 1,1880 
 
 6 & 6 " Oroton Water Stock Feb. 1, 1890 
 
 7 " Water Loan, No. 8 Feb. 1, 1857 
 
 5 " Fire Indemnity May 10, 1868 
 
 5 " Building Loan, No. 3 ....Nov. 1,1870 
 
 5 " " " No. 4 Nov. 1,1873 
 
 5 " Central Park Fund July 1,1898 
 
 Total amount, January 1st, 1857 $14,280,166 
 
 Less 
 AmountSf Corporation Stocks held by 
 the Commissioners of the Sinking 
 Fund on account of the Kedemp- 
 
 tion of City Debt $4,525,478 
 
 Kcvenne and Assessment Bonds 417,000 
 
 Bonds and Mortgages taken on sale of 
 
 real estate 925,716 
 
 $5,868,194 
 
 Actual amount of Permanent Debt, Jan. 1, 1857 $8,861,961 
 which is a decrease of $44,210 as compared with the 
 amount of debt, January 1st, 1856. 
 
 Funded Debt op the City, eedeemable from Taxation, 
 Janoaky 1st, 1857. 
 
 Payable. 
 
 per cent. Pub. Building Stock,No. 3,. Nov. 1, 1857 
 ^ ■■ " II ° li ■ » " 1858 
 
 $50,000 
 60,000 
 
 Stocks for Docks and Blips 
 
 Public Education Stock. . . .May 1, 1878 
 
 1859 
 
 60,000 
 
 1860 
 
 60,000 
 
 1861 
 
 50,000 
 
 1862 
 
 60,000 
 
 1863 
 
 60,000 
 
 1864 
 
 50,000 
 
 1865 
 
 60,000 
 
 1866 
 
 60,000 
 
 1867 
 
 60,000 
 
 1868 
 
 60,000 
 
 1869 
 
 60,000 
 
 1870 
 
 50,000 
 
 1871 
 
 60,000 
 
 1872 
 
 50,000 
 
 1873 
 
 50,000 
 
 1874 
 
 60,000 
 
 1875 
 
 50,000 
 
 1876 
 
 60,000 
 
 1878 
 
 154,000 
 
 Total amount payable from taxation, Jan, 1, 1857 $1,154,000 
 
 Funded Debt kedeemablb from Obnteal Paek Assess- 
 ments. Januaey IST, 1S57. 
 6 per cent. Central Park Assessment Fund Stock, 
 
 payable February 5th, 1859. $1,600,000 
 
 Total amt. of Central Park Assessment Fund Stock $1,600,000 
 
 The Chamber of Commerce of the State of New 
 York holds its meetings monthly, for the consideration 
 of those questions having a direct bearing npon the 
 commerce of the city and state. Hitherto this body 
 has published no annual reports, ivhereby the com- 
 merce of the state could be illustrated for the benefit 
 of its citizens. It is now proposed however to supply 
 this want, and to adopt such measures as will secure 
 at an early day suitable rooms for the use of the mem- 
 bers, with the use of a reference librarj'-, and such for- 
 eign commercial journals as will enable the commit- 
 tees to publish to the world an annual report at the 
 close of each year, illustrating the commercial opera- 
 tions, not only of this city and state, but of the union. 
 
 Commerce. — The magnitude of the commerce of the 
 city of New York will be best explained by the statis- 
 tics showing the exports and imports for a series of 
 years. We refer to the article State of New York 
 for an exhibit of the commerce of the State (and which 
 has its principal entrepot in the city of New York) for 
 a series of years extending from 1821 to 1856. 
 
 Among the imports, the great increase in hides, 
 liquor, railroad iron, sugar, tea, and dry goods will be 
 noticed. There has been a decrease in the importation 
 of watches, hardware, and cutlery. Among the ex- 
 ports, the most important articles which have increased 
 are flour, wheat, pork, hams, and bacon. The decrease 
 has been principally in cotton, com, beef, butter, 
 cheese, naval stores, sperm-oil, and India-rubber 
 goods. 
 
 iMPOaTS INTO THE POHT OP NbW YoeK FOE THE LaST 
 QUAKTEE OP THE FiSOAL YeAES ENDING JuNE 80, 1855, 
 
 1856, AND 1857, 
 
 
 1865. 
 
 185S. 
 
 18BT. 
 
 Dutiable goods 
 
 Free " 
 
 Total ent, for con.. 
 "Warehoused 
 
 Total mdse. ent... 
 Specie and bullion. . . 
 
 Total Imports 
 
 Withd'n fr. w'house. 
 Add ent. for con 
 
 $22,446,581 
 3,644,646 
 
 $89,441,328 
 6,661,169 
 
 $19,078,444 
 8,687,604 
 
 $26,091,226 
 6,475,210 
 
 $45,092,497 
 10,861,685 
 
 $22,666,048 
 80,216,709 
 
 $82,666,436 
 
 183,818 
 
 $32,749,754 
 
 $55,944,028 
 486,626 
 
 $62,882,757 
 2,879,602 
 
 $56,480,664 
 
 $56,262,259 
 
 $4,901,772 
 26,091,226 
 
 $4,672,796 
 45,092,497 
 
 $6,830,681 
 22,666,048 
 
 Total put on m'ket 
 
 $80,992,998 
 
 $49,766,298 
 
 $27,996,645 
 
NEW 
 
 1487 
 
 NEW 
 
 ExpOBTs FBOii New Toek to Foebign Poets fob the seteeax Months of the Fibgal Yeas ending June SOth, 186T. 
 
 July. 
 
 August 
 
 September. 
 
 October. ^ . 
 
 Kovember. 
 
 Becomber >.. 
 
 January 1867 
 
 February 
 
 March 
 
 April 
 
 May. 
 
 Juae 
 
 Total, 1856— 5T 
 " 18S6— 66 
 " 1854—65 
 " 1868—54 
 
 Domestic 
 metchandLao, 
 
 Foreign 
 
 merchatidiBet 
 
 datiable. 
 
 Foreign 
 
 merchandise, 
 
 free. 
 
 Total 
 mercliandlae. 
 
 Specie. 
 
 Total esportB. 
 
 .1S56 
 
 $6,901,273 
 
 I.- 6,412,838 
 
 7,045,202 
 
 : 6,129,887 
 
 7,641,695 
 
 8,246,468 
 
 4,548,842 
 
 6,899,202 
 
 . 7,904,481 
 
 6,162,160 
 
 6,046,648 
 
 6,895,812 
 
 $108,617 
 211,993 
 -509,752 
 180,577 
 202,093 
 467i501 
 /183,408 
 368,878 
 628,080 
 814,143 
 
 512,849 
 
 $75,928,842 
 76,026,244 
 52,602,406 
 66,821,035 
 
 $22,428 
 
 88,242 
 
 67,825 
 
 71,981 
 
 55,662 
 
 188,148 
 
 151,920 
 
 175,706 
 
 486,380 
 
 195,642 
 
 169,451 
 
 782,028 
 
 $8,982,280 
 8,207,710 
 5,686,788 
 6,168,816 
 
 $2,898,908 
 3,752,804 
 4,084,887 
 1,339,978 
 
 $7,082,812 
 6,918,068 
 7,622,279 
 6,883,846 
 7,799,860 
 8,897,112 
 4,884,170 
 5,988,786 
 9,017,891 . 
 5,671,945 
 6,510,933 
 6,639,789 
 
 $7,771,901 
 ,8,202,058 
 ■ 8,788,547 
 4,996,660 
 2,965,889 
 1,779,181 
 1,807,946 
 1,881,726 
 2,174,965 
 8,854,805 
 5,789,266 
 7,939,354 
 
 $14,804,218 
 
 9,115,116 
 11,360,326 
 11,329,005 
 10,765,189 
 10,676,293 
 
 6,192,116 . 
 
 7,770,512 
 11,192,866 
 
 8,026,750 
 12,300,199 
 14,579,148 
 
 $82,359,975 
 79,986,758 
 62,828,581 
 72,824,824 
 
 $46,942,243 
 22,580,991 
 38,068,384 
 84,804,241 
 
 $128,102,218 
 102,667,749 
 100,881,915 
 107,129,065 
 
 The heavy warehousing of goods during the past 
 thtee months, to secure the benefit of the new tariff, 
 will not escape observation. The import of merchan- 
 dise is more than $3,000,000 less than in the corre- 
 sponding three months of 1856, but a nearly equal 
 total import is made up of specie and bullion. 
 
 The annexed statement exhibits the value of certain 
 articles imported into and exported from this port dur- 
 ing the year 1856, compared with 1855 : 
 
 COMMEROB OF TIIK PoKT OF NeW YoEK. 
 
 Value of Impukts and Exports. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Cigars 
 
 Coffee 
 
 Hardware and cutlery. 
 
 Hides. 
 
 Lead. 
 
 Liquor 
 
 ' Molasses 
 
 J iBallroad iron.. 
 
 . Atftel and Iron 
 
 .Sugar. 
 
 Tin.. 
 
 Tobacco.. . 
 Matches . . . 
 
 Winoa 
 
 'Dry goods. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Cotton 
 
 Flour 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Corn 
 
 Eye 
 
 Beef 
 
 Pork 
 
 Hams, bacon and shoulders.. 
 
 Butter 
 
 Cheese 
 
 Lard 
 
 Sugar. 
 
 Tea 
 
 Cofifee 
 
 Etce 
 
 Tobacco 
 
 Naval stores 
 
 Sperm oil 
 
 Oilcake 
 
 "Whalebone '.. 
 
 India rubber goods 
 
 Purs and skin's 
 
 $1,869,167 
 5,718,861 
 4,169,462 
 4,892,588 
 1,454,788 
 1,809,856 
 
 ' 820,630 
 440,769 
 4,492,204 
 7,840,046 
 4,481,879 
 2,940,475 
 661,458 
 8,820,184 
 1,414,081 
 
 65,446,452 
 
 16,620,010 
 
 10,762,574 
 
 5,686,571 
 
 5,795,999 
 
 689,876 
 1,648,295' 
 
 882,842 
 1,480,451 
 
 188,609 
 
 836;695 
 1,457,007 
 
 549,888 
 
 652,894 
 1,885,592 
 
 829,668 
 2,430,758 
 2,996,580 
 1,508,961 
 
 436,656 
 
 688,698 
 1,695,768 
 
 248,784 
 
 $2,070,928 
 6,565,216 
 2,956,000 
 6,975,000 
 2,081,730 
 2,662,000 
 1,317,242 
 8,076,059 
 6,512,000 
 
 14,586,965 
 4,022,918 
 4,106,375 
 805,862 
 2,684,536 
 2,000,000 
 
 92,206,952 
 
 10,858,182 
 14,981,928 
 16,800,042 
 
 2,948,900 
 885.946 
 896,979 
 
 2,170,809 
 
 2,568,194 
 76,987 
 885,263 
 
 1,404,237 
 170,633 
 198,500 
 481,278 
 711,066 
 
 2,286,213 
 
 1,496,869 
 892,104 
 805,762 
 
 1,001,670 
 200,000 
 267,994 
 
 Exports from New York to Foeeign Ports, for the 
 last Quarter op the Fiscal Years ending June 
 80th, 1855, 1866, and 1857. 
 
 
 1855. 
 
 1860. 
 
 1861. 
 
 Domestic merchandise 
 
 B^oreign mdse., dutiable 
 
 " free 
 
 Total merchandise, . . 
 Specie 
 
 $13,873,540 
 
 1,857,362 
 
 892,028 
 
 $19,066,095 
 899,588 
 284,663 
 
 *16,584,115 
 
 1,121,581 
 
 927,770 
 
 $15,627,930 
 12,495,692 
 
 $20,250,346 
 8,236,278 
 
 $18,688,416 
 17,088,426 
 
 Total 
 
 $28,128,622 $29,086,619 
 
 $36,716,841 
 
 The figures above given for the last three months, 
 although presenting many points of comparison with 
 the same time in 1856, show little or nothing more, in 
 comparison with those of 1855, than a steady increase, 
 except perhaps, in specie, in which the increase is rel- 
 atively large. 
 
 Value of Articles of Merchandise, of Domestic Growth 
 and Manufactueb, exported from New Yoee, in 
 THE Year ending December 31, 1855. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Alcohol gallons 
 
 Apples. .barrels 
 
 Ashes, pot and pearl. tons] 
 
 Bacon .,. , . .lbs. 
 
 Bai-k, oak ] 
 
 Beef, salt barrels 
 
 Beef, salt tierces 
 
 Beeswax lbs. 
 
 Biscuit or shipbread.. .bbl8.&kegs 
 
 Bricks, common 
 
 Butter... lbs. 
 
 Candles. 
 
 Cheese 
 
 Clover seed 
 
 Coal,anthracite&bituminous. . tons 
 
 Copper ore, pig, pipe tSo sheet. 
 
 Cordage & cables lbs. 
 
 Corn, shelled bush. 
 
 Corn meal bbls. 
 
 Cotton balee 
 
 Cotton, goods, printed or colored.. 
 " uncolored 
 
 Earthenware 
 
 Flour. bbls. 
 
 Ginseng lbs. 
 
 Hemp, common " 
 
 Hides No. 
 
 Hogs, live " 
 
 Hops lbs. 
 
 Horses. No. 
 
 Iron cast^gs & oth. manufs. of iron 
 
 Lard lbs. 
 
 Leather " 
 
 Lumber, pine, hemlock, poplar, 1 
 oak, maple, black walnut and y 
 
 cherry ) 
 
 classes gala. 
 
 OiUard " 
 
 " linseed 
 
 Onions. 
 
 Faint, mineral 
 
 Pork tierces 
 
 bblB. 
 
 Potatoes, common 
 
 Rice tierces 
 
 bbls. 
 
 Eosin " 
 
 Kum gals. 
 
 Eye bush. 
 
 Eye meal bbls. 
 
 Sheep and lambs No. 
 
 Snuff lbs. 
 
 Spirits of turpentine gala. 
 
 Staves and heading M. 
 
 Sugar cane lbs. 
 
 Tailow lbs. 
 
 Tar and pitch bbls. 
 
 Tobacco, leaf, hhds. 
 
 " strips bales 
 
 " stems coses 
 
 " chewing lbs. 
 
 Vinegar gals. 
 
 Wheat. bush. 
 
 Whisky gals. 
 
 Total 
 
 28,170 
 
 2,460 
 
 8,395 
 
 17,224,923 
 
 37,046 
 157,400 
 65,379 
 
 1,088^070 
 1,706,036 
 6,128,960 
 
 16,266 
 
 986^660 
 
 3,806,989 
 
 58,185 
 
 278,674 
 
 990,563 
 
 72,740 
 
 60,400 
 
 27,764 
 
 4 
 
 1,592,286 
 
 110 
 
 8,694,720 
 914,757 
 
 29,478 
 
 38,240 
 90,786 
 26,687 
 
 2,997 
 
 148,004 
 
 22,590 
 
 18,628 
 
 11,591 
 
 505,950 
 
 1,414,255 
 
 650,000 
 
 20,100 
 
 1,781 
 
 14,880 
 
 1,619,649 
 
 19,512 
 
 577,686 
 
 1,964,718 
 
 60,467 
 
 6,868 
 
 8,514 
 
 5,244 
 
 6,426,021 
 
 25,815 
 
 8,465,284 
 
 56,826 
 
 Valne. 
 
 $15,388 
 
 9,275 
 
 489,739 
 
 1,521,263 
 
 88,646 
 
 !■ 1,370,880 
 
 42,989 
 
 214,701 
 
 19,068 
 
 220,897 
 
 320,696 
 
 654,839 
 
 17,781 
 
 91,404 
 
 547,651 
 
 127,565 
 
 8,811.245 
 
 297449 
 
 12,057,905 
 
 149,863 
 
 1,878,429 
 
 8,841 
 
 9,018,673 
 
 38,876 
 
 6,546 
 
 117,782 
 
 35 
 
 419,520 
 
 20,080 
 
 1,250,450 
 
 963,798 
 
 156,769 
 
 686,174 
 
 8,464 
 76,454 
 23,646 
 21,950 
 
 2,517,165 
 
 50,111 
 
 612,466 
 
 1,214,574 
 
 684,684 
 
 824,885 
 
 133,881 
 
 11,817 
 
 1,424 
 
 776,359 
 
 1,324,596 
 
 85,784 
 
 289,680 
 
 192,408 
 
 1,080,615 
 
 934,106 
 
 8,281 
 
 6,953,398 
 
 36,614 
 
 $53,756,887 
 
 Large as was the export of specie for the fiscal year, 
 it is less than $9,000,000 in excess of 1854r-55, The 
 export of domestic produce is a trifle larger than last 
 year, with prices averaging about the same — cotton 
 and provisions being higher, and breadstufFs lower. 
 
NEW 
 
 1438 
 
 NEW 
 
 lupoKTS nrro the Port of New Tore from Foreign Ports for the several Months of the Fiscal Tbak ending 
 
 June 80, 1857. 
 
 Months. 
 
 Dutiable 
 goods. 
 
 Free goods. 
 
 Total for con- i Ware- 
 sumption, Iioused. 
 
 Totai mdse. 
 entered. 
 
 Specie and 
 buUion. 
 
 Total import. 
 
 Witlidrawn 
 
 from 
 wareliouse. 
 
 Total put on 
 mnrliet. 
 
 July 1856 
 
 A-Ugaet 
 
 $19,288,885 
 18,376,986 
 10,934,4.36 
 9,932,001 
 9,730,429 
 7,930,499 
 15,300,034 
 18,608,913 
 12,250,467 
 11,165,680 
 5,451,191 
 2,471,723 
 
 $1,280,854 
 1,308,790 
 1,026,208 
 
 961,781 
 1,079,524 
 1,141,628 
 
 850,928 
 2,447,839 
 2,338,879 
 
 955,428 
 1,674,810 
 
 957,866 
 
 $20,669,739 $4,917,669 
 19,679,776, 4,186,716 
 11,960,648 8,264,622 
 10,898,782 2,836,781 
 
 $25,487,408 
 23,816,492 
 16,226,265 
 13,780,.563 
 14,128,795 
 11,768,368 
 18,120,223 
 24,500,748 
 20,067,163 
 20,279,100 
 17,684,422 
 14,969,225 
 
 $238,918 
 
 108,178 
 
 84,097 
 
 96,029 
 
 821,760 
 
 246,876 
 
 886,509 
 
 ■ 1,023,711 
 
 1,061,838 
 
 939,218 
 
 1,070,883 
 
 369,901 
 
 $25,726,826 
 23,919,665 
 16,809,862 
 13,825,692 
 14,450,545 
 12,015,244 
 19,006,782 
 25,524,469 
 21,123,496 
 21,218,318 
 18,705,266 
 16,889,126 
 
 $2,187,887 
 . 2,534,732 
 8,467,564 
 3,273,982 
 1,725,.544 
 1,626,650 
 2,673,768 
 2,601,696 
 2,689,223 
 2,287,315 
 2,262,178 
 781,099 
 
 $22,757,076 
 22,214,608 
 16,418,207 
 14,167,764 
 12,655,497 
 10,697,777 
 18,824,712 
 23,458,448 
 17,228,059 
 14,898,273 
 9,888,174 
 4,210,188 
 
 Beptember 
 
 November 
 
 Deoomber 
 
 January. 1867 
 
 February 
 
 March 
 
 10,809,968 
 9,072,127 
 16,150,957 
 20,956,762 
 14,588,886 
 12,110,968 
 7,126,001 
 8,429,089 
 
 8,318,842 
 2,696,241 
 1,969,266 
 3,548,996 
 5,478,327 
 8,163,142 
 10,608,421 
 11,640,186 
 
 April 
 
 May 
 
 June 
 
 Total, 1866—57. 
 " 1855-56. 
 " 1864—65. 
 " 1858—54. 
 
 $141,830,088 
 150,088,122 
 107,029,210 
 147,929,241 
 
 $16,018,630 
 17,432,102 
 14,280,259 
 12,791,065 
 
 $157,848,618 
 167,520,224 
 121,269,460 
 160,720,296 
 
 $62,879,169 
 29,508,426 
 82,022,396 
 27,417,160 
 
 $219,727,772 
 197,028,660 
 15-3,281,856 
 188,187,456 
 
 $6,441,343 
 1,126,097 
 1,163,661 
 2,987,048 
 
 $236,169,120 
 198,164,747 
 164,605,526 
 191,074,604 
 
 $27,960,070 
 21,934,180 
 23,501,421 
 19,876,445 
 
 $185,298,683 
 189,464,354 
 144,860,887 
 180,696,741 
 
 It will be seen from the above that the value of 
 goods put upon the market falls short of the total value 
 of the import of merchandise, about $34,600,000, and 
 we have good reason to set down the value of goods in 
 bond July 1, 1856, at ^10,000,000 at least, making the 
 total value of goods in bond July 1, 1857, about $45,- 
 000,000, which is $6,000,000 or $7,000,000 greater than 
 was to have been expected from such reports as we 
 have had from time to time. "We must not forget to 
 place to the credit of the 3'ear, an importation of specie 
 and bullion of $6,500,000 against a little more than 
 $1,000,000 the previous year. The total import of 
 merchandise is $22,000,000 in excess of the previous 
 year, and it is not a flattering fact, that we have been 
 importing most freely, when it was evident that stocks 
 were accumulating. The merchant can not devote a 
 few hours more profitably, than in a careful scrutiny 
 of the above tables. 
 
 The extent to which goods have been warehoused, 
 caused the cash receipts at the custom-house to fall 
 below those of last year, as is shown in the following : 
 
 Cabu Duties received at this Port during tdb Fiscal 
 Tear ending June 30tu, 1857, compared with the 
 two previous Tears. 
 
 Montlie. 
 
 1854—55. 
 
 1855—66. 1856-57. 
 
 July 
 
 $2,045,745 
 2,214,629 
 8,439,493 
 2,402,115 
 1,761,023 
 1,605,720 
 2,660,033 
 2,666,165 
 2,363,086 
 1,994,711 
 2,400,483 
 2,316,465 
 
 $8,787,342 $6,441,.544 
 4,290,764 6,288,899 
 8,548,379 3,702,185 
 8,829,196 8,891,281 
 2,171,708 2,774,846 
 2,984,942 2,831,970 
 8,688,655 4,537,878 
 8,576,919 fi.iirz.'in 
 
 
 September 
 
 November 
 
 December 
 
 
 
 4,382,107 
 8,918,885 
 8,457,154 
 8,527,425 
 
 3,752,185 
 
 8,801,607 
 
 1,907,290 
 
 677,811 
 
 April 
 
 May 
 
 June 
 
 Total ;$30,668,872 |$42,628,480 
 
 142,278,446 
 
 The final result of this expansion, if continued, will 
 be the loss of credit, and, as a consequence, a reduc- 
 tion — not, however, until we shall have endured all 
 the penalties incident to banliruptcy. With the real- 
 ization of the present prospect, good crops, and the 
 continued development of the manufactures of our 
 country, we can expect prosperity, if we can only 
 avoid the evil of excessive consumption, and, as a con- 
 sequence, importation of foreign manufactures. We 
 have prepared a statement showing the exports of 
 France, Great Britain, and the United States for a pe- 
 riod extending from 1847 to 1856, inclusive. This 
 statement enables ua to compare the increase in ex- 
 ports, and consequently in wealth, of the three princi- 
 pal maritime countries in the world. With regard to 
 the increase of wealth, a country is in a similar po- 
 sition to an individual. The exports of one are equiv- 
 alent to the income of the other ; and the imports of 
 one, on the other hand, are equivalent to the expenses 
 of the other. In the case of this country, the ad valo- 
 rem tariff prevents us from obtaining a correct valua- 
 tion of the imports, in order to obtain the exact differ- 
 ence, or, in other words, the increase of wealth, 
 
 through the foreign commerce of the country. We 
 may, however, judge in a measure from the character 
 of the imports of the probable gain of wealth. If they 
 are luxuries instead of necessaries, or manufactures 
 that could be home-made, instead of the products for- 
 eign to our soil and climate, we may justly put that 
 nation down on the extravagant list. And this is the 
 position of the United States. In the period of 10 
 years below given, the increase of exports to the 
 United States has been equal to 107 per cent. ; the in- 
 crease of imports has been (for the same period) equal 
 to 114 per cent. Showing that even with our enor- 
 mous productive powers, and the great wants of 
 Europe, our exports have not kept pace with our de- 
 mand for luxuries. We are apt to congratulate our- 
 selves on the unequaled growth of our country, and its 
 commerce. Of the former we have reason ; but of the 
 latter, the figures do not prove our statements. In 
 the last 10 years the exports of the United States have 
 increased 107 percent, while the increase in the ex- 
 ports of France for the same period is equal to 130 per 
 cent. ; and the increase in the exports of Great Britain 
 for the same period is equal to 93 per cent. 
 
 Statement showing, separately, the total exports of 
 domestic produce of France, Great Britain, and the 
 United States for the past 10 years : 
 
 Year. 
 
 France. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 United States. 
 
 1847 
 
 $140,000,000 
 
 $293,000,000 
 
 $158,000,000 
 
 1848 
 
 185,000,000 
 
 263,000,000 
 
 154,000,000 
 
 1849 
 
 185,000,000 
 
 815,000,000 
 
 145,000,000 
 
 1850 
 
 211,000,000 
 
 859,000,000 
 
 152,000,000 
 
 1861 
 
 228,000,000 
 
 370,000,000 
 
 218,000,000 
 
 1852 
 
 806,000,000 
 
 893,000,000 
 
 210,000,000 
 
 1853 
 
 245,000,000 
 
 49.3,000,000 
 
 231,000,000 
 
 1854 
 
 280,000,000 
 
 488,000,000 
 
 278,000,000 
 
 1855 
 
 808,000,000 
 
 475,000,000 
 
 276,000,000 
 
 1856 
 
 825,000,000* 
 
 575,000,000 
 
 826,000,000 
 
 *T]stimated. 
 
 The exports of a countrj' are the best exponent of 
 its commercial prosperity, and in a measure it is in a 
 direct ratio. For although the profit which is made on 
 the articles exported may vary according as they are 
 the natural products of the soil, or manufactures, the 
 raw material of which is the growth of another coun- 
 try, 3'et there are other allowances to be made which 
 compensate for this diflference. It is evident, there- 
 fore, that any financial troubles we may have must be 
 the result of our extravagant imports. These we have 
 shown to have increased more rapidly than our ex- 
 ports, even with the valuation of our imports by an 
 ad valorem tariff. The correction to be applied, if we 
 wish to continue prosperous, is self-evident ; and this 
 correction will, under our present course, become ere 
 long a necessity. A nation's balance-sheet is equival- 
 ent to the relation of receipts and expenditures with an 
 individual ; and national bankruptcy will surely follow 
 when the imports, for along series of years, are greater 
 than the exports. 
 
 The exports of domestic cottons from the port of 
 New York to foreign ports, for three years past, has 
 been as follows : 
 
NEW 
 
 1439 
 
 NEW 
 
 . Exported to. 
 
 1854. 
 
 18611. 
 Packages. 
 
 18SS. 
 Paoliagea. 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Dntch West Indies 
 
 1,718 
 
 806 
 
 3 
 
 147 
 
 903 
 
 69 
 
 208 
 
 64 
 
 112 
 
 2,682 
 
 988 
 
 1,445 
 
 48 
 
 809 
 
 276 
 
 1,007 
 
 629 
 
 12,436 
 
 560 
 
 2,972 
 
 387 
 
 6 
 
 ■284 
 
 499 
 
 1,143 
 
 411' 
 
 16 
 
 181 
 
 2,764 
 
 1,694 
 
 . 468 
 
 495 
 
 1,152 
 
 401 
 
 1,824 
 
 1,908 
 
 11,929 
 
 251 
 
 4,897 
 
 161 
 
 10 
 
 ' 427 
 
 880 
 
 151 
 
 228 
 
 25 
 
 949 
 
 3,766 
 
 886 
 
 590 
 
 190 
 
 16S 
 
 160 
 
 1,874 
 
 2,060 
 
 17,674 
 
 267 
 
 Swedish West Indies 
 
 Danish West Indies 
 
 British West Indies 
 
 Spanish West Indies 
 
 
 British North America 
 
 New Granada .... 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 
 
 West, coast of South America'. . 
 Honduvas 
 
 Africa 
 
 Australia 
 
 
 All others 
 
 Total 
 
 24,280 
 
 , 27,585 
 
 34,782 
 
 
 Maritime Advancement. — ^We doubt whether the pro- 
 gress of this country as a maritime power, and of this 
 city as a commercial emporium, can be more clearly 
 demonstrated than in the subjoined simple tables ; the 
 fiyst showing the tonnage of the shipping that entered 
 this port from foreign ports, for a number of years, 
 commencing with 1821 : 
 
 Yoare. 
 
 Home. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Total Tonnage. 
 
 1821 
 
 1826 
 
 1880 
 
 1836 
 
 1840 
 
 1846 
 
 1846 
 
 1847 
 
 184S 
 
 1849 
 
 1860 
 
 1851 
 
 1862 
 
 1868 
 
 1854 
 
 1855 
 
 $156,788 
 
 269,625 
 
 255,691 
 
 873,465 
 
 409,468 
 
 472,492 
 
 496,761 
 
 606,483 
 
 657,795 
 
 784,009 
 
 807,580 
 
 1,144,485 
 
 1,281,951 
 
 1,821,674 ' 
 
 1,442,278 
 
 1,310,267 
 
 $16,240 
 20,655 
 26,821 
 90,999 
 118,186 
 140,868 
 185,404 
 838,637 
 ,867,821 
 414,096 
 441,757 
 479,569 
 478,087 
 491,581 
 477,085 
 202,000 
 
 $171,968 
 
 230,180 
 
 281,612 
 
 464,464 
 
 027,693 
 
 618,850 
 
 682,165 
 
 989,020 
 
 1,025,116 
 
 1,148,105 
 
 1,249,837 
 
 1,624,052 
 
 1,709,988 
 
 1,818,266 
 
 1.919,818 
 
 i;512,257 
 
 Tlie increase in the total tonnage from 1821 to 1851, 
 thirty years, was nearly ten-fold. The increase in 
 American tonnage during the same period, was more 
 than seven-fold. The increase in foreign tonnage was 
 nearly thirty-to\A. — about 2,900 per cent. This ex- 
 plains, more clearly than anjr other fact, the cause of 
 the growing interest felt by European governments in 
 the affairs of this country. The great falling oif in the 
 foreign tonnage in 1864, in comparison with several 
 years immediately preceding, was doubtless mainlj*' 
 in consequence of the Eastern war, which employed, 
 not only the Cunard steamers running to this port, but 
 a vast amount of British shipping of all descriptions, as 
 Vessels built at the Poet of New Toek, inolttdino the 
 
 GtEEENPOIST. 
 
 transports. The inactivity in freights hence was also 
 potent in influence. There is no reason to doubt that, 
 with the return of peace, the foreign shipping entering 
 this port yearly, will equal, if not surpass in tonnage, 
 any former year. 
 
 The above table shows only the extent of the trade 
 of this city with foreign ports, "the coasting trade 
 since 1847 is shown, partially, in the following. But 
 it must be remembered, that coasting vessels to or 
 from ports north of the northern boundary of Georgia, 
 are not compelled to enter or clear, unless distilled 
 spirits are of the cargo. It will at' once be seen that 
 this exhibit of the trade of this city coastwise is far 
 from being complete. The same fact will also explain 
 the disparity between the tonnage entered and cleared : 
 
 Years. Entered, Cleared. 
 
 1848 402,143 806,983 
 
 1849 424,976 895,689 
 
 1850 489,896 1,020,070 
 
 1851 466,642 1,214,922 
 
 1862 497,540 1,373,762 
 
 1853 607,581 1,810,697 
 
 1854 648,482 1,499,968 
 
 1866 , 614,046 1,878,889 
 
 But the increase in tonnage is not alone remarkable. 
 It is a common observation that the largest ships of 
 20 years ago did not exceed in tonnage the ordinary 
 coasters of the present day. Then, a ship of 700 or 
 800 tons was a wonderful achievement of capital and 
 mechanism. Now, ships of more than 2,000 tons have 
 ceased to be regarded as out of the ordinary course. 
 The following is a statement of the number of vessels, 
 foreign and American, that entered this port in the 
 years indicated, their total and average tonnage. The 
 statement of the entries for 1855, shows a diminution 
 in the average tonnage of foreign vessels, to below 
 that of 1840 ; which makes it quite clear that the di- 
 minished tonnage of the year was, as we have said, 
 caused mainly by the use of a great number of large 
 ships for purposes incident to the war between the 
 Allies and Bussia. From 1835 to 1854, the American 
 tonnage increased about four-fold, but the number of 
 ships increased only about 70 per cent., the average 
 tonnage about 117 per cent., exceeding the average 
 foreign tonnage about 60 per cent. 
 
 Yeara. 
 
 American. 
 
 Foreign. 1 
 
 No. of 
 veasela. 
 
 Total 
 tonnage. 
 
 Average 
 tonnage. 
 
 No. of 
 vesaela. 
 
 Total 
 tonnage. 
 
 Average 
 tonnage. 
 
 1836 
 1840 
 1845 
 1860 
 1854 
 1855 
 
 1,544 
 1,447 
 1,484 
 1,892 
 2,636 
 2,487 
 
 373,465 
 409,468 
 472,492 
 807,580 
 1,442,278 
 1,310,257 
 
 245 
 
 280 
 
 ■ 319 
 
 427 
 
 547 
 527 
 
 471 
 470 
 526 
 1,461 
 1,411 
 904 
 
 90,999 
 118,186 
 140,868 
 441,757 
 477,086 
 202,000 
 
 198 
 268 
 267 
 804 
 883 
 223 
 
 Ship-yards of Brooklyn, WiLLiAMSBTrBG, akd 
 
 Claas. 
 
 Launched in the years 
 
 On the stocks at the close of the years 
 
 1864. 
 
 185S. 
 
 1856. 
 
 ,854. 
 
 1865. 
 
 1866. 1 
 
 Steamships 
 
 0th. steam vess. 
 Ships 
 
 No. 
 19 
 23 
 80 
 15 
 21 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 24,600 
 6,967 
 
 89,880 
 6,151 
 6,292 
 
 No. 
 
 4 
 4 
 6 
 10 
 18 
 
 Tonnage. 
 11,100 
 2,200 
 9,180 
 4,651 
 3,785 
 
 No. 
 16 
 5 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 13 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 18,900 
 1,900 
 
 12,560 
 6,300 
 2,820 
 
 No. 
 
 13 
 1 
 6 
 2 
 4 
 
 Tonnage. 
 9,200 
 600 
 8,200 
 1,000 
 1,133 
 
 No. 
 
 2 
 2 
 6 
 4 
 8 
 
 Tonnage. 
 9,000 
 1,160 
 8,150 
 2,800 
 1,120 
 
 No. 
 
 6 
 3 
 
 4 
 3 
 
 2,750 
 
 2,160 
 
 660 
 
 Barks and brigs. 
 
 Schooners, etc. . . 
 
 Total 
 
 108 
 
 81,320 
 
 87 
 
 29,867 
 
 56 
 
 42,470 
 
 16 
 
 20,088 
 
 17 
 
 21,720 
 
 16 
 
 13,000 
 
 We give two tables, arranged from the report on 
 Commerce and Navigation, showing the complete com- 
 merce of the port of New York, and specifying the 
 destination of all vessels when outward bound, or the 
 countrj' from whence thej' arrived when inward 
 bound; also showing their nationality. This table 
 enables ns to see at a glance the distribution of the 
 commerce of New York, and gives a clear exhibit of 
 our relations to other countries in regard to favorable 
 or unfavorable tariffs, and shows some very curious 
 statistics. In our trade to England, four fifths of the 
 tonnage belongs to the United States, showing that 
 we have a fair field for enterprise ; while to the 
 
 British North American possessions we have less than 
 one fourth, showing that we are inferior in enterprise 
 to our neighbors, or thej' have some tariff advantage. 
 We absorb four fifths of the carrying trade to France, 
 while to the northern European countries we have but 
 an equal amount. The carrying trade to South Amer- 
 ica goes almost entirely in American bottoms. The 
 Cuba trade is 95 per cent, in American vessels, while 
 to Portugal only about one third ; shoiving that the 
 tariff is in favor of that country. To Hamburg we 
 have less than one fifth ; which is probably owing 
 partly to more economy practiced by the Dutch, and 
 lower wages. 
 
NEW 
 
 1440 
 
 NEW 
 
 Statement exhibiting the Number and Tonnage op 
 
 -aMEBIOAN AND FOREIGN VESSELS WHICH ENTBEED INTO 
 
 THE District op New York, and the Oountries 
 
 PBOM which they ARRIVED, DURING THE FiBOAL YeAR 
 
 ENDING June 80th, 1856. 
 
 Arrived from 
 
 Sweden&Norw'y 
 Swed. "W. Indies 
 DaniahW. Indies 
 Hamburg. . . 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Other Ger. ports 
 Holland......... 
 
 Dutch W. Indies 
 Dutch E. Indies. 
 Belgium .... 
 
 England 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Ireland 
 
 Gibraltar. 
 
 Malta 
 
 Canada 
 
 OtherB.N.A. pos. 
 British W. Indies 
 British Honduras 
 British Guiana.. 
 Br.poss. in Africa 
 British Australia 
 British E. Indies 
 France on Atjan. 
 France on Med, . 
 Fr. N, Amev.pos. 
 Fr. West Indies. 
 Spain on Atlantic 
 Spain on Medit.. 
 Canary Islands.. 
 Philippine Isls... 
 
 CMba 
 
 Porto Kico 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Madeira 
 
 Cape do Verd.... 
 
 Azores 
 
 Sardinia. 
 
 Tuscany 
 
 Papal States.. .. 
 
 Two Sicilies. 
 
 Austria 
 
 Turkey in Asia. . 
 
 Egypt 
 
 0th, ports Africa 
 
 Hayti 
 
 San Domingo 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Central Republic 
 New Granada. 
 Yenezuela.. .. 
 
 Bi-azil 
 
 Uruguay, 
 
 Buenos Ayres. 
 
 Chili 
 
 Peru 
 
 Sandwich. Islands 
 
 China 
 
 Total.... 
 
 The greater increase of the commerce of New York 
 over the other cities, is shown by the tables from the 
 annual report on commerce and navigation. The 
 tonnage built during the year ending June 30, 1856, in 
 all the States, was 469,393 tons, the leading States 
 ranging as follows : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 StnlBi. 
 
 S. 
 
 S, 
 
 2 
 
 ^1 
 
 1 
 
 •5 
 
 Tons. 
 
 
 a 
 
 x 
 
 a 
 
 °i 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Maine 
 
 1,W 
 
 TO 
 
 R4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 SI6 
 
 149,90T'83 
 
 Massachusetts. 
 
 84 
 
 10 
 
 35 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 184 
 
 80,834-38 
 
 New York.... 
 
 U 
 
 1 
 
 8T 
 
 ISl 
 
 2V 
 
 3U6 
 
 76,801-12 
 
 ill others 
 
 Total 
 
 38 
 
 17 
 
 843 
 
 313 
 
 186 
 
 94V 
 
 162,851-00 
 
 306 
 
 103 
 
 549 
 
 479 
 
 221 
 
 1,703 
 
 469,893-78 
 
 Maine, it appears from this, builds an amount of ton- 
 nage nearly as large as Massachusetts and New York 
 together, and also nearly as large an amount as all the 
 other States of the Union, omitting Massachusetts and 
 New York ; so that there Is built on the coast of Maine 
 almost one third of the aggregate tonnage of the Union. 
 Probably, leaving out of view steamships, canal boats, 
 and river craft, Maine builds fully one half of the ton- 
 nage of the Union. 
 
 Taking the leading sMp-o-dming States, we have the 
 following result as to tonnage owned : 
 
 „ ^ Tons, 
 
 NewTork 1,508,808 
 
 Massachusetts 891,860 
 
 Maine 780,170 
 
 Total 8,180,888 
 
 June 80, 1856. June 30, 1866. 
 
 Tons, 
 
 1,464,216 
 
 979,205 
 
 806,699 
 
 8,250,020 
 8,180,388 
 
 Tons. 
 Inc.. 44,687 
 Bec..87,845 
 Dec..26,429 
 
 Decrease in the year 1865 69,687 
 
 The following table shows the relative amount of 
 tonnage owned in the large ports which have over 
 50,000 tons registered at the custom-house of the dis- 
 trict : 
 
 New York 
 
 Boston 
 
 Philadelphia... 
 
 Baltimore 
 
 Bath > 
 
 New Orleans... 
 Waldohorough . 
 New Bedford. . . 
 
 Portland 
 
 Buffalo 
 
 Chicago 
 
 Cleveland 
 
 Detroit 
 
 Belfast 
 
 Barnstable 
 
 Charleston 
 
 San Francisco. . . 
 Cuyahoga. 
 
 June 30, 1856. 
 
 1,S 
 
 Tons. 
 ,328,086 
 521,117 
 197,228 
 188,344 
 193,.320 
 163,308 
 166,873 
 163,000 
 136,154 
 89,929 
 57,407 
 60,919 
 68,688 
 76,612 
 68,186 
 69,128 
 80,760 
 60,916 
 
 June 30, 1856. 
 
 Tons. 
 1,228,284 
 
 546,268 
 294,806 
 188,108 
 176,268 
 200,836 
 148,896 
 169,986 
 187,317 
 76,962 
 50,972 
 51,678 
 66,058 
 70,762 
 80,615 
 66,419 
 87,842 
 
 The most remarkable decline is that shown in Phil- 
 adelphia. New York exhibits the greatest increase 
 of tonnage, according to these returns. 
 
 Of tonnage employed in steam navigation, New 
 York stands at the head by a large amount. The 
 figures are as as follows : 
 
 New York State 156,736 
 
 New Orleans 51 751 
 
 St Louis ; ; 38J45 
 
 Pittsburg. 87,606 
 
 Rates of Cosimissions eecommended by the Chambbb op 
 
 COM.MEEOE, TO BE CHAKGED WIIEEE KO ESPEESS AqEEE- 
 MENT TO THE COM-EEAE-r EXISTS. 
 
 BcmkiTig. 
 
 On purchase of stocks, honds, and all kinds of 
 securities, including the drawing of bills for 
 the payment of same x per cent 
 
 On sale of stocks, bonds, and all kinds of secari- 
 ties, including remittances in bills and guar- 
 anty \ u 
 
 On purchase of sale of specie and bullion | " 
 
 Remittances in bills of exchange ^ " 
 
 Remittances in bills of e.Tchange, with guaranty. 1 " 
 
 Drawing or endorsing bills of exchange 1 " 
 
 Collecting dividends on stocks, bonds, or other 
 
 securities 1 a 
 
 Collecting interest on bonds and mortgages 1 " 
 
 Receiving and paying moneys on which no other 
 
 commission is received ; ^ it 
 
 Procuring acceptance of bills of exchange pay- 
 able in foreign countries i " 
 
 On issuing letters of credit to travelers, exclusive 
 
 of foreign hankers' charge 1 *» 
 
 Where bills of exchange are remitted for col- 
 lection, and returned under protest for the 
 non-acceptance, or non-payment, the same 
 commissions are to be charged as though they 
 were duly accepted and paid. 
 
 General BuHnesa. 
 
 For sales of foreign merchandise 6 " 
 
 On domestic merchandise 2^ " 
 
 Guaranty , /_ 2* " 
 
 On purchase and shipment of merchandise, on 
 
 cost and charges, with funds in bond 2| " 
 
 Collecting delayed and litigated accounts 5 " 
 
 Effecting marine insurance, on amount insured. ^ " 
 No amount to be charged for effecting insurance 
 
 on property consigned. 
 Lariding and re-shipping goods from vessels in 
 
 distress, on value of invoice 2^ *' 
 
 Landing and re-shipping, on specie and bullion. . i " 
 Receiving and forwarding merchandise entered 
 at custom-house, on invoice value 1 per cent , 
 
 and on expenses incurred 2^ " 
 
 On consignments of merchandise withdrawn or 
 re-shipped, full commissions are to be charged, 
 to the extent of advances or responsibilities in- 
 
NIC 
 
 1441 
 
 NIC 
 
 Oeneral Business. 
 curred, and one half commissioa on the resi- 
 due of the value. 
 On giving honda that passengers will not hecorae 
 a btirden on the city, on the amount of the 
 
 bonds 2} per cent. 
 
 The risk of loss by robbery, fireXunless insurance 
 be ordered), theft, popular tumult, and all 
 other unavoidable occurrences, is in all cases 
 to be borne by the owners of the goods, pro- 
 vided due diligence has been exercised in the 
 care of them. 
 
 Shipping. 
 
 On purchase or sale of vessels 2J " 
 
 Disbursements and outfit of vessels 2^ " 
 
 Procuring freight and passengers for Europe, , 
 
 East Indies, and in American vessels 2^ " 
 
 Do. do. in foreign vessels 5 " 
 
 Do. do. coastwise 5 '^ 
 
 Collecting freight H " 
 
 Collecting insurance losses of all kinds 2i " 
 
 Chartering vessels, on amount of freight, actual 
 or estimated, to be considered as due when the 
 
 charter-parties are signed 2^ ^^ 
 
 But no charter to be considered binding till 
 a memorandum, or one of the copies of the 
 charter has been signed. 
 On giving bonds for vessels under attachment in 
 
 litigated cases, on amount of liability 2^ ** 
 
 The foregoing commissions to be exclusive of brokerage, 
 and every charge actually incurred. 
 
 Nicaragua, San Juan de. A sest-port tcvrn at 
 tlie inoutli of tlie river of the same name, State of 
 Costa Ki'ca, on the west shore of the Caribbean Sea, 
 lat. 10° 65' N., long. 83° 43' W. The port is excel- 
 lent, and is considered the best on this part of the 
 coast. Till latelj", the town was quite inconsiderable, 
 and consisted of little else than a cluster of huts ; but 
 latterly it has no doubt been improved. 
 
 This place has risen into importance from its being 
 at the western extremity of a proposed line of water 
 communication between the Caribbean Sea and the 
 Pacific Ocean. This line is to consist partly of the Eiver 
 San Juan, flowing from the Lake of Nicaragua east to 
 the sea at San Juan, partly of the lake, and partly of a 
 canal to be constructed from the latter to the Pacific 
 Ocean. This project has been often mooted ; but the 
 discoverj' of the extraordinary mineral riches of Cali- 
 fornia, and the consequent emigration to and inter- 
 course with that country, have given it an incomparably 
 greater interest than it formerly possessed. The coun- 
 try appears to present greater facilities for effecting 
 this great work, than any other part of Central Amer- 
 ica, except the Isthmus of Darien or Panama. The 
 River San Juan, about 90 miles in length, is said to 
 have been occasionally navigable throughout its entire 
 course for sea-going vessels, till the Spaniards, to pro- 
 tect themselves from the attacks of the buccaneerSj 
 sunk vessels loaded with stone in its bed. In conse- 
 quence of the interruption thus given to the stream, a 
 considerable portion of the water was carried off by a 
 new channel called the Rio Colorado. — ChevalieRj 
 L'Isthme de Pcmama, etc., p. 84. The San Juan is 
 still, however, navigated, though with much difficult)', 
 in the rainy season, by steamers and other vessels 
 drawing little water. 
 
 The lake itself has deep water throughout, and is 
 adapted for ships of the largest burden. The distance 
 between its south-western shore and the Gulf of Pap: 
 gayo, on the Pacific, is only 29,880 j'ards, or 15 J miles ; 
 and though the intervening country' be laid down in 
 many maps as mountainous, the greatest actual height 
 of any part of it above the level of the lake is only 19 
 feet ; at least, such is the result given by a series of 
 347 levels, about 100 yards apart, taken in 1781. — 
 Thompson's Guatemala, Append., pp. 512-520. The 
 surface of the lake, is 128 feet 3 inches (English) above 
 the level of the Pacific ; an ascent which might be 
 overcome by a succession of locks. The difference in 
 the level of the two oceans, formerly supposed to be so 
 serious an obstacle to the undertaking, is said by Hum- 
 boldt not to exceed 20, or, at most, 22 feet. (Nouv. 
 Espqigne, i., 223, ed. .1825.) At its western extremity, 
 4Y 
 
 the Lake of Nicaragua is connected by j, small river, 
 the Tipitapa, with the Lake of Leon or Managua. 
 The latter, 55 miles in length by nearly 30 in breadth, 
 is also said to have deep water throughout. And the 
 plan which appears to be at present preferred is, to 
 make the channel uniting these two lakes navigable, 
 and to excavate a canal from the latter to the port of 
 Realejo, on the Pacific. Mr. , Squier, late chargi des 
 affaires of the United States at Nicaragua, has pub- 
 lished the following statements in regard to this route. 
 
 Length of the route by Lake Nicaragua, etc., across 
 the American Continent, from the Atlantic to the Pa- 
 cific Oceans ; Eiver San Juan, 90 miles ; Lake Nicara- 
 gua, necessary to be traversed, 110 miles; Eiver 
 Tipitapa, 18 miles ; Lake Managua or Leon, 55 miles ; 
 from Lake Managua to Realejo, 40 miles ; total, 303 
 miles. Height of the various lakes to be passed, and 
 the elevations of land : height of Lake Licaragua, 147 
 feet 9 inches above Atlantic, 128 feet 3 Inches above 
 Pacific; height of Lake Managua, 176 feet 5 inches 
 above Atlantic, 156 feet 11 inches above Pacific ; high- 
 est point of land to be passed, 231 feet 11 inches above 
 Atlantic, 212 feet 5 inches above Pacific. 
 
 The River San Juan reaches the ocean by several 
 mouths. The divergence takes place about 20 miles 
 from the sea, forming a low delta, penetrated by nu- 
 merous canals, or, as they are called on the lower Mis- 
 sissippi, iayous, and lagunas. The principal branch is 
 the Colorado, which carries off at least two thirds of 
 the water of the river, and which empties into the 
 ocean some 10 or 15 miles to the southward of the port. 
 There is an almost impassable bar at the entrance, which 
 would preclude the ascent of vessels, even if the depth 
 of water above permitted of their proceeding after it 
 was passed. The little steamer Ones, nevertheless, 
 after repeated trials, succeeded in passing. There is 
 another small channel called the Tauro, which reaches 
 the sea midway between the port and the mouth of the 
 Colorado. The branch emptying into the harbor, the 
 one through which the ascending and descending boats 
 pass, carries off only about one third of the water of 
 the river. It, too, has a bar at the mouth, i. 6., at its 
 point of debouchure into the harbor, upon which, at 
 low tide, there axe but three or four feet of water. 
 This jiassed, the bed of the river is wide, and studded 
 with Iqw islands ; but excepting in the channel, which 
 is narrow and crooked, the water is very shallow. It 
 has been suggested that the Colorado branch might be 
 dammed, and a' greater column of water thrown into 
 the other, or San Juan branch. But the suggestion 
 can only be made by those who are wholly unac- 
 quainted with the subject. Allowing it to be possible 
 to build a dam, the stream would probably find a new 
 channel to the sea ; or, if it took the direction of the 
 harbor, fill it up during the first rainy season with 
 sand, or at once destroy the sandy barriers which now 
 protect and form it. It can not be made navigable for 
 ships or vessels of any kind, except of the lightest 
 draught, by any practicable system of improvements. 
 The boats used upon the river for carrying freight and 
 passengers are exaggerated canoes, called bongos. 
 Some are hollowed from a single tree, but the better 
 varieties are built, with some degree of skill, from the 
 timber of the cedrO, a verj' light and durable kind of 
 wood, which grows abundantly about the lakes. The 
 largest of these carry from 8 to 10 tons, and draw 2 or 
 3 feet of water when loaded. They are long, and 
 rather deep and narrow, and have, when fully manned, 
 from 8 to 12 oarsmen, who drive the boats by means 
 of long sweeps and setting-poles. Sails are seldom, if 
 ever, used, except upon the lake. The masts are un- 
 shipped and left at the head of the river in descending, 
 and resumed again in returning. These boats have a 
 small space near the stern called the " chopa,^' covered 
 with a board roof, a thatch of palm leaves, or with 
 hides, which is assigned to the passengers. 'The rest 
 of the boat is open, and the oarsmen, or, as they call 
 
NIC 
 
 1442 
 
 NIG 
 
 themselves ^narineros (sailors), are without protection, 
 and sleep upon their benches at night, covered only 
 with their blankets, and with the gunwale of the boat 
 for a common pillow. The captain, or patron, is the 
 steersman, and occupies a narrow deck at the stern, 
 called the pineta, upon which he also sleeps, coiling 
 himself up in a knot, if the boat is small and the pine- 
 ta narrow. The freight, if liable to damage from ex- 
 posure, is covered with raw hides, which, between sun 
 and rain, soon diffuse an odor very unlike the perfumes 
 which are said to load the breezes of Araby the Blest. 
 The usual freightage from San Juan to Granada — 
 a distance of 160 or 170 miles — is from 30 to 60 cents 
 per cwt. ; if the articles are bulky, it is more. The 
 boatmen are paid from seven to eight dollars the trip, 
 down from Grenada and back, which usually occupies 
 from twenty to thirty days, although with proper man- 
 agement it might be made in less time. Time, hoiv- 
 ever, in these regions is not regarded as of much im- 
 portance, and every thing is done very leisurely. 
 
 Nicaragua, a Republic of Central America. It ex- 
 tends from lat. 10° 45' to 13° 20' N., at the Bay of Con- 
 chagua, on the Pacific Ocean, long. 83° 40' to 87° 40' 
 W. ; having west the Pacific Ocean, east the Caribbean 
 Sea, and part of the so-called Mosquito territory, nortli 
 the State of Honduras and San Salvador, and South 
 Costa Rica. Area about 49,000 square miles. The Re- 
 public is divided into five Departments, each of which 
 has several judicial districts, as follows : 
 
 Departments. 
 
 Pop. 
 
 Districts. 
 
 
 20,000 
 
 95,000 
 
 90,000 
 40,000 
 12,000 
 
 Kivas or Nicaragua. 
 e AcayopaorChontales, 
 } Granada, Masaga, 
 ( and Managua. 
 
 Leon and Chinandega. 
 
 Matagalpa. 
 
 Segovia. 
 
 Oriental 
 
 
 Septentrional of Matagalpa 
 
 Septentrional of Sego\ia . . 
 
 Total 
 
 24T,000 
 
 
 The population here given la the results arrived at, 
 in round numbers, by a census attempted in 1846. It 
 was only partially successful, as the people supposed it 
 preliminary to some military conscription, or new tax. 
 The principal towns of the State, with their estimated 
 population, are as follows ; 
 
 Puebla Nueva 2,900 
 
 Nagorote 1,800 
 
 Souci 2,500 
 
 Managua 12,000 
 
 MaBsaya 15,090 
 
 Granada 10,000 
 
 Nicaragua 8,000 
 
 Segovia 8,000 
 
 Matagalpa 2,000 
 
 Leon (the capital), in 
 eluding Subtiava. . . 25,000 
 
 Chinandega 11,000 
 
 Chinandego Viejo 3,000 
 
 Eealejo 1,000 
 
 Chichigalpa 2,800 
 
 Posultega 900 
 
 Telica 1,000 
 
 SomotlUo 2,000 
 
 "Villa Neuva 1,000 
 
 It is a singular fact that the females greatly exceed 
 the males in number. In the Department Occidental, 
 according to the census, the proportions were as three 
 to two! The civilized Indians, and those of Spanish 
 and negro stocks crossed with them, constitute the mass 
 of the population. The individuals of pure European 
 extraction constitute but a small part of the whole, 
 and are more than equaled in number by those of pure 
 negro blood. The entire population may be divided as 
 follows: Whites, 20,000; uegroes, 15J000; Indians, 
 80,000 ; mixed, 130,000.— Total, 250,000. Most of these 
 live in towns, many of them going two, four, and six 
 miles daily to labor in the fields, starting before day 
 and returning at night. The plantations, "haciendas," 
 " hattos," '* ranches," and " chacras", are scattered pret- 
 ty equally over the country, and are reached by paths 
 so obscure as almost wholly to escape the notice of 
 travelers, who, passing through what appears to be a 
 continual forest from one town to another, are liable to 
 fall into the error of supposing the country almost 
 wholly uninhabited. Their dwellings are usually of 
 canes, thatched with palm, many of them open at the 
 sides, and with no other floor but the bare earth, the 
 occupation of which is stoutly contested by pigs, calves, 
 fowls, and children. These fragile structures, so equa- 
 ble and mild is the climate, are adequate to such pro- 
 
 tection as the natives are accustomed to consider neces- 
 sary. Some of tliem are more pretending, and have 
 the canes plastered over and whitewashed, with tile 
 roofs, and other improvements ; and there are a few, 
 belonging to large proprietors, which are exceedingly 
 neat and comfortable, approaching nearer our ideas of 
 habitations for human beings. A large part of the 
 dwellings in the towns are much of the same character. 
 The residences of the better classes, however, are built 
 of adobes, are of one story, and inclose large courts, 
 which are entered under archways, often constructed 
 with great beauty. The court-yard has generally a 
 number of shade trees, usually orange, making the cor- 
 ridors, upon which all the rooms open, exceedingly 
 pleasant. 
 
 In October, 1855, Walker, an adventurer from Cal- 
 ifornia, landed in Nicaragua with a force of one hun- 
 dred and fifty men, and being favored by part of the 
 inhabitants, succeeded in efl^ecting a revolution. From 
 this time until 1857 he held possession of the country, 
 though with varied success, against all forces brought 
 against him. In 1857, his expected reinforcements 
 from the United States failing to arrive, he was forced 
 to retreat, and with an almost total loss of his army, 
 and finally had to accept the oficr of the United States 
 sloop St. Mary to convey himself and command to the 
 United States. 
 
 Unfortunately, agriculture is at a very low ebb, and 
 but a small portion of this valuable land is made avail- 
 able. The productions are indigo, of which from 800 
 to 1000 zeroons are manufactured yearly ; sugar, coffee, 
 cacao, and cotton — the last of superior quality, and 
 formerly raised in large quantities ; Indian corn, rice, 
 beans, and plantains, the staple food of the people, are 
 raised in abundance ; wheat, also, is grown in the 
 mountainous and cooler parts of the country. Fruits, 
 of various kinds, are plentiful, including excellent 
 oranges and lemons. One of the principal sources of 
 wealth consists in cattle, of which there are great num- 
 bers in all parts, particularly in the districts on the 
 eastern side of the lake, where extensive and excellent 
 pasturage is met with. The chief exports of the State 
 are indigo, Nicaragua wood, and hides. The executive 
 has the title of Supreme Director, with two counselors, 
 a legislative chamber and senate. From the reports of 
 the Minister of Finance, it was estimated that the re- 
 ceipts into the State Treasury for the year ending 30th 
 June, 1851, would amount to $122,682, and the ex- 
 penses to $173,646, leaving a deficit of $50,946. This, 
 added to the standing debt of the State, $523,905, makes 
 a total debt of $574,869. 
 
 Commerce with the United States. — On the 19th'day 
 of April, 1850, a treaty was concluded between the 
 United States and Great Britain, in respect to a pro- 
 posed ship-canal between the Atlantic and the Pa- 
 cific, by which both governments stipulate and de- 
 clare that " neither the one nor the other will ever 
 obtain or maintain for itself any exclusive control 
 over the said ship-canal." The 8th article further 
 stipulates that the two governments shall "extend 
 their protection, by treaty stipulations, to any other 
 practicable communications, whether by canal or rail- 
 way, across the isthmus which connects North and 
 South America, and especially to the inter-oceanic com- 
 munications, should the same prove to be practicable, 
 whether by canal or railway, which are now proposed 
 to be established by the way of Tehuantepec or Pan- 
 ama." This treaty contains other stipulations relative 
 to the Mosquito coast. Central America generally, etc., 
 but nothing of commercial interest. General informa- 
 tion respecting the Central American States is exceed- 
 ingly limited ; though, both for its productions and its 
 geographical position, the country is one of great in- 
 terest and importance. It abounds in all the precious 
 and useful minerals, and produces almost spontaneous- 
 ly the varied and luxuriant staples of the tropics. It 
 has been termed the portage or stepping-stone between 
 
NIC 
 
 1443 
 
 , NIL 
 
 the commerce of Europe and Eastern Asia, and between 
 the Atlantic and the Pacific possessions of the United 
 States ; and on this account is now the scene of active 
 operations for facilitating its transit. Of the many 
 routes by which the passage is deemed practicable, 
 that by the way of the Kio San Juan and Lalies Nic- 
 aragua and Leon is said to be the most so ; and here, 
 therefore, the great inter-oceanic canal may, it is 
 thought, be eventually constructed. The routes vary 
 in length from 133 to 279 miles. By these routes, in 
 comparison with the older ones, the distance from New 
 York to Canton will bo reduced from 17,100 to 12,600 
 miles I to Calcutta, from 16,000 to 14,000 ; and to Sin- 
 gapore, from 15,800 to 13,000 ; while from England to 
 those places the distance will be materially increased. 
 " In a commercial point of view, therefore," says a late 
 statistical publication, from which these facts are glean- 
 ed, '* England'Can care but little about the canal as pro- 
 posed, since without it her advantages are much supe- 
 rior to those of the United States in the Asiatic trade." 
 The t^ade with the United States has been decreasing 
 for a, number of years, as is shown by the following: 
 
 Exports to Imports from 
 Uoited'Stntes. United states. 
 
 Total trade from 1830 to 1S40. ..$2,037,000.. .$2,609,000 
 " " " 1840 to 1850. .. 1,268,000... 964,000 
 
 Nioaragua, or Peach Wood (Ger. Nicaragalwk, 
 Bluiholiz; Bu. Bloe^haut; Fi'., £ois de jSanff, BoU de 
 Nicaragua; It. Legno sanguigno; ,Sp. Palo de sangre; 
 Port. }'ao sanguinho), a tree of the saine genus {Ccesai- 
 pinia) as the Brazil and sapan wood ; but the species 
 has not been exactly ascertained. It grows principal- 
 ly in the vicinity of the lake of Nicaragua, whence its 
 name. It is said by Dy- Bancroft to be. almost as red 
 and heavy as the true Brazil wood, but it does not 
 commonly aftbrd more than a third part, in quantity, 
 of the color of the latter ; and even this is rather less 
 durable and less beautiful, though dyed with the same 
 mordants. Nicaragua, or peach woods, differ greatly 
 in their quality as well as price,; one sort being so de- 
 ficient in coloring matter that six pounds of it will only 
 dye as much wool or cloth as one pound of Brazil-wood, 
 while another variety of it will produce nearly half the 
 effect of an equal quantity of Brazil-wood, and will sell 
 proportionally dear. — Bancroft on Colors, vol. ii. 
 
 Nickel, a scarce metal, which occurs always in com- 
 bination with other metals, from which it is exceeding- 
 ly difficult to separate it. When pure, it is of a fine 
 white color resembling silver. It is rather softer than 
 iron ; its specific gravity, when cast, is 8'279 ; when 
 hammered, 8'932. It is malleable, and may without 
 difficulty be hammered into plates not exceeding one 
 hundredth part of an inch in thickness. It is attract- 
 ed by the magnet, and is not altered by exposure to the 
 air, nor by being kept under water. It is employed in 
 potteries, and in the manufacture of porcelain. — Thom- 
 son's Chemistry. The cobalt ores are commonly em- 
 ployed in the extraction of nickel, and they are now 
 treated by the method of Wohler to effect the separation 
 of the two metals. The arsenic is expelled by roasting 
 the powdered speise, first by itself, next with the addi- 
 tion of charcoal powder, till the garlic smell be no longer 
 perceived. The residuum is to be mixed with three 
 parts of sulphur and one of potash, melted in a cruci- 
 ble with a gentle heat, and the product being edulco- 
 rated with water, leaves a power of metallic lustre, 
 which is a sulphuret of nickel free from arsenic ; while 
 the arsenic associated with the sulphur, and combined 
 with the resulting sulphuret of potassium, remains dis- 
 solved. Should any arsenic still be found in the sul- 
 phuret, as may happen if the first roasting heat was 
 too great, the above process must be repeated. The 
 sulphuret must be finally washed, dissolved in concen- 
 trated sulphuric acid, with the addition of a little ni- 
 tric, the metal must be precipitated by a carbonated al- 
 kali, and the carbonate reduced with charcoal. Nickel 
 forms twelve per cent, of the new cent authorized by 
 Congress in 1867. 
 
 Since the manufacture of German silver or Argen- 
 tan became an object of commercial importance, a great 
 deal of attention has been bestowed upon nickel by 
 mineralogists, chemists, and nickel-workers, and its 
 extraction from its ores has been undertaken upon a 
 considerable scale. It is sparingly found, and in com- 
 paratively few localities, and even in those it is usually 
 associated with cobalt. In consequence of its rarity it 
 is generally classed among the precious metals. It is, 
 when pure, almost as white as silver, and both ductile 
 and malleable, either when hot or cold. It may be 
 made into mariners' compasses, being susceptible of 
 magnetism. It does not oxidize or rust by contact 
 with air, and only melts, when pure, at an intense heat. 
 It makes other metals harder and brittle when alloy- 
 ed with them. . The nickel used for alloys is usually 
 obtained from what the Germans call Kuffer Nickel or 
 Copper Nickel, which is an arseniuret or compound of 
 arsenic with nickel, which is hard and has a metallic 
 lustre of a coppered color inclining to brown or gray, 
 and displaying all the hues of the rainbow. It con- 
 tains 56 parts of arsenic and 44 of nickel, when pure, 
 but usually contains a little iron, lead, sulphur, and 
 antimony. 
 
 The Chinese probably first made use of nickel ; their 
 white copper, or pack-fong, contains about 32 nickel, 40 
 copper, 25 zinc, and 3 iron ; but the proportions vary 
 more or less. The composition known as British plate 
 is an alloy of nickel, the ores from which the Birming- 
 ham people extract it being imported principally from 
 Norway and Hungary. In Saxony they produce twen- 
 ty thousand pounds of nickel a year, and in Prussia 
 about nine thousand pounds. In Germany they make 
 it into German silver, and in this country our Mint is 
 busily engaged in making it into money. 
 
 Nickel is obtained at Chatham, in Connecticut ; also 
 in Missouri, in the chrome mines of Maryland and 
 Pennsylvania, and in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania. 
 
 Nile (Nilus), a great river of East Africa, formed by 
 the union of the Bahr-el-Aiiad (White Eiver) and the 
 Bahr-el-Azrch (Blue Eiver). The first, which is re- 
 garded as the true Nile, is supposed to rise on the east- 
 ern edge of the table-land of East Africa, about lat. 
 2° S., long. 34° E., hut its source is unknown. Ex- 
 peditions sent by the Pacha of Egypt in 1840-2 traced 
 it to lat. 4° 42' N., in long. 30° 58' E. Here the nav- 
 igation was interrupted by a ledge of rock; it flows 
 generally north, with a width of from one to two milep, 
 and joins the Bahr-el-Azrek at Khartum, in Nubia (lat. 
 15° 37' N.). The second rises in Abyssinia, in lat. 10° 
 69' 26" N., long. 36° 55' 39" E. It flows north 55 
 miles, Tvhen it enters Lake Dembeah on the south- 
 west ; emerging from the lake on the southeast, it flows 
 in the form of a curve, first south, then west and north- 
 west, traversing in its course several mountain chains, 
 and descending by numerous falls into the plains of 
 Nubia, where it passes Sennaar. Its confluence with 
 the Bahr-el-Abiad forms the Nile, which from this 
 point flows northeast, north, and northwest past Hal- 
 fay, Shendy, and Berber to lat. 19° 20', where it turns 
 to the southwest, forming a wide curve called the Great 
 Bend. In lat. 18° it again turns northward, and con- 
 tinues in a northerly direction past Dongola, Girgeh, 
 Siout, and Cairo to its mouth, near Assouan ; and from 
 the junction of its head streams to its delta its basin is 
 formed by two parallel chains of mountains, which in 
 some places close upon it and form rapids, and in oth- 
 ers open up and leave fine plains between them and the 
 river. It forms the first cataract (in ascending) near 
 Essouan, lat. 24° 10' N., the second being in lat. 21° 
 62' 20" N., and the third in lat. 19° 40' N. Its banks 
 are generally elevated in Nubia ; they are less so in 
 Middle Egypt, and absolutely flat in the Delta. From 
 Essouan to the sea the average fall is two inches to a 
 mile, and its mean velocity is about three miles an hour. 
 Its length from supposed source, following its bends to 
 the sea, is about 3000 miles (direct distance 2300 miles). 
 
NIN 
 
 1444 
 
 NOE 
 
 The delta of the Nile commences in lat. 30° 7' N., where 
 its waters spread out into numerous streams in the form 
 of a triangle, extending at i ts base on the Mediterranean 
 over a space of 120 miles ; the two principal mouths are 
 the west, or Rosetta branch, and the east, or Damietta 
 branch. The others are the Bourlos and Dibe mouths. 
 The system of the Nile is an anomaly among rivers ; in 
 ascending its course no affluent is met with for 1400 
 miles, the first being the Atbaia in Nubia, which joins 
 it on the right, 27 miles south of Berber. It is the 
 only great tropical river which, by its periodical inun- 
 dations, fertilizes a country surrounded throughout a 
 great part of its course by sandy deserts. The waters 
 begin to rise in June, and they subside in September. 
 — See Egypt. From time immemorial the Egj-ptians 
 have made use of canals for the purpose of extending 
 the inundations. The rise of the Nile appears due to 
 the periodical rains which fall in the tropical regions 
 of Africa from June to September. In Upper Egypt 
 the swelling of the river amounts to about 30 feet, and 
 at Cairo to 24 feet, perpendicular. 
 
 Ning-po, a city of China, province of Che-kiang, 
 and one of the Ave ports recently opened to foreign trade, 
 on the Takia, or Ning-po River, the mouth of which is 
 directly opposite Chusan, 95 miles east-southeast of 
 Hang-chow-foo, on a tongue of land at the influx of 
 an affluent into the river, here crossed by a bridge of 
 boats; lat. 29° 54' N., long. 121° 32' 30" E. Popula- 
 tion estimated at between 200,000 and 300,000. The 
 city, six miles in circumference, inclosed by walls 25 feet 
 in height, and entered by six gates, is surrounded bj' a 
 fine plain covered with villages and water-courses. It 
 has well-supplied shops, a temple of large size, hexag- 
 onal tower 150 feet high ; a missionary hospital, open- 
 ed in 1843 ; an active trade in junk-building, and a 
 large manufacture of silks for export to Japan. It has 
 been reported that about 670 junks come to it annu- 
 ally from Shang-tung and Leao-tong with oil, provi- 
 sions, fruits, caps, cordage, horns, drugs, rice, and silk ; 
 560 from Fo-kien and Hai-nan with sugar, alum, pep- 
 per, black tea, indigo, salt, rice, and dye-woods ; from 
 Canton and the Straits some vessels ; and from the in- 
 terior about 4000 small craft yearly ; the total imports 
 being estimated at $7,650,000 annually. It exports 
 large quantities of wood and charcoal to Shang-hai, the 
 trade of which port it has crippled, from being by sev- 
 eral days nearer to the green-tea districts. It ivas taken 
 by the British, without resistance, in 1841, when was 
 captured a ponderous bell, now in the British Museum. 
 
 Nitric Acid, Aquafortis (Fr., Acide Nitrique; 
 Germ., Salpetersaiire'), exists, in combination with the 
 bases potash, soda, lime, magnesia, in both;the min- 
 eral and vegetable kingdoms. This acid is never found 
 insulated. It was distilled from saltpetre so long ago 
 as the 13th century by igniting that salt, mixed with 
 copperas or clay, in a retort. Nitric acid is generated 
 when a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen gases, confined 
 over water or an alkaline solution, has a series of elec- 
 trical explosions passed through it. In this way the 
 salubrious atmosphere may be converted into corrosive 
 aquafortis. When a little hydrogen is introduced into 
 the mixed, gases, standing over water, the chemical 
 agency of the electricity becomes more intense, and the 
 acid is more rapidly formed from its elements, with the 
 production of some nitrate of ammonia. 
 
 Noble, an ancient money of account, containing six 
 shillings and eightpence sterling, or in United States 
 currency equivalent to one dollar and sixty cents. 
 
 North America lies between the 16th degree of 
 north latitude and the Arctic Ocean. It is more ir- 
 regular in form than South America, but of greater 
 uniform breadth, larger in area, and more deeply in- 
 dented with gulfs, bays, and inlets. Two extensive el- 
 evations or mountain ridges extend near and parallel, 
 the one to its east and the other to its west coast. Be- 
 tween these is a vast plain, the largest in the world, 
 stretching from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic 
 
 Ocean. In this plain are situated the great lakes of 
 North America, and through it fiow the rivers Missis- 
 sippi, the Mackenzie, and the St. Lawrence, the one 
 forming a southern, the other a northern, and the third 
 an eastern drain for its superfluous waters. Its coast 
 indentations and inlets are Baffin's Bay and Hudson's 
 Bay on the north ; the Gulf of St. Lawrence on the east 
 coast ; the Gulf of Mexico on the south ; the Gulfs of 
 California and Georgia, and Cook's Inlet, on the west. 
 The coast of North America is very extensive, extend- 
 ing in an irregular line from Davis's Strait to the Flor- 
 ida Channel about 4800 miles, and from the latter along 
 the inland sea to Tehuantepec about 3000. The whole 
 length on the Pacific side to BehJing's Strait is about 
 10,000 miles. The extent of the- north and northeast 
 shores can not probably be less tlian 3000 miles. The 
 entire extent will thus be 22,800 miles. The most re- 
 markable physical characteristics of North America 
 are its sandy deserts, treeless steppes, and prairies; 
 the first stretch along the base of the Rocky Mountains 
 to the 41st degree of north latitude, having an average 
 breadth of 200 to 500 miles.' The steppes form another 
 cheerless and extensive region in the northern part 
 of the continent. . The prairies or savannas, peculiar 
 characteristics of North America, are chiefly in the 
 Mississippi Valley. They consist of extensive and 
 generally irregular tracts without trees, covered in the 
 spring with bright verdure, intermingled with fragrant 
 flowers. A vast extent is also occupied by forests, 
 comprising probably not less than 600,000 square 
 miles. 
 
 Mountains. — Of these there are four principal sys- 
 tems in North America : the Oregon or Rocky Mount- 
 ains — a continuation of the Andes — the Sierra Nevada 
 or Snowy Mountains of California, merging in its pas- 
 sage northward into the coast range, and the Allegha- 
 nies or Appalachian range, extending northeast paral- 
 lel with the coast. The Rocky Mountain range is a 
 continuation of the Andes, forming the elevated table- 
 land passing centrally through Mexico ; thence trend- 
 ing north, divide the waters entering the Pacific and 
 Atlantic Oceans, and continue to the Arctic coast. 
 Several peaks rise above the line of perpetual snows. 
 The Sierra Nevada of California and coast range ex- 
 tend nearly parallel with the Rocky Mountain range, 
 and are connected Avith the latter by several transverse 
 ridges. The Alleghany range stretches along the east- 
 ern portion of the continent. It rises in the gently 
 undulating ridge dividing the waters of the Tennessee 
 from those flowing into the Mississippi and the Gulf 
 of Mexico, and trending aci-css the country in the 
 same general direction from southwest to the north- 
 east, terminates in the headland of Gaspb. 
 
 Rivers and Lakes. — The principal rivers are the Mis- 
 sissippi, with its affluent the Missouri, and the St. 
 Lawrence. The first is the largest river in North 
 America, and one of the greatest on the earth, occupy- 
 ing, with its tributaries, the whole of the southern por- 
 tion of the great central basin of North America. It 
 has its origin in the junction of streams formed on the 
 eastern declivity of the- Rock}' Mountains, between 
 lat. 42° and 50° N., and enters into the sea in the 
 Gulf of Mexico in lat. 29° N. Its whole course, which 
 is from north to south, is calculated to exceed 4400 
 miles. The St. Lawrence rises under the name of the 
 St. Louis, in lat. 47° 45' N., long. 93° W. ; entering 
 Lake Superior, it flows a southeast and a northeast 
 course, and enters the Gulf of St. Lawrence at Cape 
 Gaspfe, where it has expanded to one hundred miles in 
 width. The Mackenzie issues from the Great Slave 
 Lake, from which it flows nearly due north, and enters 
 the Arctic Sea, lat. 69° 10' N. In the number and 
 magnitude of its lakes North America is unequaled. 
 They form one of its most noted features, and in con- 
 junction with its rivers present a medium of commer- 
 cial intercour.sc ^vhoUy unsurpassed. The principal 
 are Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Onta- 
 
NOE 
 
 1445 
 
 NOR 
 
 rio, which together cover an area of 100,000 square 
 miles. Following the chain of lakes which crosses the 
 country in a northwestern direction, there occur Lakes 
 Winnipeg, Woolaston, Deer Lake, Athabasca, Great 
 Slave Lake, and Great Bear Lake. The Great Salt 
 Lake in Utah, and Mono Lake and Lake Chapola in 
 Mexico. • There are, besides these, many smaller yet 
 considerable bodies of water, viz., St. Clair, midway 
 between Lakes Huron and Erie; the Lake of the 
 Woods, between Lakes Superior and Winnipeg ; Nep- 
 pissing, Simcoe, Champlain, and many others of lesser 
 magnitude. 
 
 Islands. — In the Atlantic Ocean the principal are 
 Newfoundland, Anticosti, Prince Edward Island, and 
 Cape Breton, all lying at the embouchure of the St. 
 Lawrence; Nantucket, Long Island; the Bahama Isl- 
 ands, off the coast of the Carolinas; and the Colum- 
 bian Archipelago, comprising the islands of Cuba, 
 Hayti, Jamaica, Porto Kico, Santa Cruz, Antigua, 
 Guadaloupe, Martinique, St. Lucia, Barbadoes, St. Vin- 
 cent, Tobago, Trinidad, and other small islands. On the 
 nortliwest coast the principal are the California group ; 
 Vancouver, Queen Charlotte, Prince of Wales, Sitka, 
 and Admiralty Islands ; and on the extreme northwest 
 the Aleutian group. In the Arctic Ocean there are a 
 vast number of islands of which but little is yet known. 
 Geology, Mineralogy, etc. — ^A remarkable analogy ex- 
 ists in the structure of the land in North America and 
 Central and Northern Europe. Gneiss, mica, schist; 
 and granite prevail in wide areas in the Alleghanies, 
 on the Atlantic slope and the northern latitude of the 
 American continent, and in the high and middle lati- 
 tudes the Silurian strata extend over 2000 miles. Crys- 
 talline and Silurian rocks form the substratum of Mex- 
 ico, for the most part covered with Plutonic and volcan- 
 ic formations and secondary limestone. The Eocky 
 Mountains are mostly Silurian, except the eastern 
 ridge, which is of stratified crystalline rocks, amygda- 
 loid, ^nd ancient volcanic productions. The coast 
 range has the same character, with immense tracts of 
 volcanic rocks, both ancient and modern, especially ob- 
 sidian. In North America volcanic action is entirely 
 confined to the coast and high land along the Pacific. 
 The principal minerals are gold, silver, copper, iron, 
 lead, and coal. The first three are found in greatest 
 abundance in Mexico, where there are nearly 3000 
 mines of gold and silver alone. Since 1848 the great 
 field for gold gathering has been California, where large 
 quantities have been obtained, and both silver and 
 quicksilver have been found to abound. The sil- 
 ver supplied by the Mexican veins is extracted from a 
 great variety of minerals, pure or native silver being 
 of comparatively rare occurrence. The principal de- 
 posits of gold in the United States besides California 
 occur in the primary rocks of the southeastern decliv- 
 
 ity of the Alleghanies. The coal-fields are of prodig- 
 ious extent, the Appalachian stretching without in- 
 terruption 720 miles, with a maximum breadth of 280, 
 and occupying an area of 63,000 square miles. The 
 Pittsburg seam, ten feet thick, exposed on the banks 
 of the Monongahela, extends horizontally 225 miles in 
 length and 100 in breadth, and covers an area of 14,000 
 square miles. Besides the coal-fields named, there 
 are various others of great extent in different parts of 
 North America, including New Brunswick, Nova Scor 
 tia, and Vancouver Island. Iron is also extensively 
 worked. Salt is widely diffused throughout the conti- 
 nent. 
 
 Climate. — The predominating character of the cli- 
 mate of North America is intense cold, although in 
 some parts an oppressive heat prevails during a por- 
 tion of the summer. Above the 50th degree of latitude 
 the cold is so severe as to render the country all but 
 uninhabitable, while frosts occasionally occur as low 
 down as the 30th degree of latitude. In winter a keen 
 and piercing northwest wind prevails throughout all 
 North America, adding greatly to the rigor of the 
 northern climate, and carrying its chilling influence 
 into the more southerlj' regions. The transitions from 
 cold to hot, or from winter to summer, are very sud- 
 den, especially in Canada. Among the causes of a 
 lower temperature than obtains in Western Europe 
 may be mentioned the small portion of the continent 
 lying in the torrid zone, the Rocky Mountain range, 
 and also the Sierra Nevada mountains near the Pacific 
 Ocean, prevent the warm winds from the Pacific pene- 
 trating the interior ; the great expansion of the land 
 north and northeast, and the almost level plain in those 
 directions^ allow full scope for the piercing Arctic 
 blasts. The narrowness of the Gulf Stream, and the 
 prevailing winds taking the same general, course, car- 
 ry away from this continent the hot circumambient 
 air, a source of warmth to Western Europe ; and the 
 cold polar oceanic current brings down the icebergs of 
 Spitzbergen and Greenland to the shores of Labrador 
 and Newfoundland. 
 
 The territorial limits of the United States include 
 that portion of the continent of North America, ex- 
 tending from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean, which 
 is bounded by the British possessions on the north, and 
 by the Gulf of Mexico and the Mexican Kepublic on 
 the South. „ 
 
 The superficial area of the Union, according to a 
 computation made by the Topographical Bureau at the 
 close of 1853, and subsequently reviewed and amend- 
 ed, amoimted on the first of January, 1854, to two mill- 
 ions nine hundred and thirty-six thousand, one hundred 
 j and sixty-six square miles, being somewhat more than 
 one third of the area of the continent of North Amer- 
 lica. 
 
 Area of Nobth Auebioa, exolttsivb op tub West Indies. 
 
 Territory. 
 
 I Square Milea. [ Square MUes. 
 
 United States, as ascertained by the Topograpliical Burebu , 
 
 SNew Britain* 
 Upper and Lower Canadaf 
 Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Cape Breton, &c. . 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Central America 
 
 Kusaian America:]: 
 
 DanlBh America (Greenland)^ 
 
 Total square miles 
 
 2,598,837 
 346,860 
 104,T01 
 
 2,936,166 
 
 3,060,398 
 
 1,038,834 
 
 208,651 
 
 394,000 
 
 380,000 
 
 I 8,002,94911 
 
 * According to Balbi's estimate of the area of North America. Another estimate gives New Britain but 1,800,000 square 
 miles. 
 
 t M'CulIoch. The late Canadian census gives 242,482 square miles as the area over which jurisdiction is actually extended. 
 
 t Guibert gives 962,500 Iciloraetres carrSs, or 3T1,611 square miles. ■ . - 
 
 5 Greenland, from present information, would appear to be a trilateral island, 1600 miles long and 600 miles in its great- 
 est breadth. Its area, therefore, can not be greater than we state above, s Guibert gives the area of Danish America 3861 
 square miles, and M'CuUoch only 170, meaning only that portion which has been explored. 
 
 D The area of the continent of North America is variously estimated by geographers at from five to seven millions of square 
 miles. Guyot (" Earth and Man") estimates it at 6,472,000, and that of Europe at 2,688,000, exclusively of islands. 
 
 The treaty of 1854 with Mexico settles the bounda- 
 ries of the two republics as follows : " Eetaining the 
 same dividing-line between the two Califomias as al- 
 
 ready defined and established according to the 6th ar- 
 ticle of the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, the limits 
 between the two Bepublics shall be as follows : Begin- 
 
NOR 
 
 1446 
 
 NOR 
 
 ning in the Gulf of Mexico, three leagues from land, 
 opposite the mouth of the Eio Grande, as provided in 
 the 5th article of the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ; 
 thence, as defined in the said article, up the middle of 
 that river to the point where the parallel of 31° 47' 
 north latitude crosses the same ; thence due west one 
 hundred miles; thence south to the parallel of 31° 20' 
 north latitude ; thence along the said parallel of 31° 
 20' to the 11th meridian of longitude west of Green- 
 wich ; thence in a straight line to a point on the Colo- 
 rado Kiver, twenty English miles below the junction 
 of the Gila and Colorado Rivers ; thence up the middle 
 of the said River Colorado, until it intersects the pres- 
 ent line between the United States and Mexico." 
 
 For early history, etc., of North America, see New 
 England Magazine^ vii. 169; Christian Review^ xiv. 610; 
 North American Review, Ixxiii. 210 (F. Bovven). 
 
 North Carolina lies between 33° 60' and 36° 30' 
 N. lat., and between 75° 45' and 84° W. long, from 
 Greenwich, and between 6° 20' W., and 1° 33' E. long, 
 from Washington. Area, 45,500 square miles. Pop- 
 ulation in 1790, 393,754; in 1800, 478,103; in 1810, 
 555,500; in 1820, 638,829; in 1830, 738,470; in 1840, 
 753,419 ; and in 1850, 868,903. 
 
 Physical Features, etc. — Along the entire coast of 
 this State there is a ridge of sand separated from the 
 main land in some places by narrow, and in other 
 places by broad sounds and bays. The passages or 
 inlets through it are shallow and dangerous, Ocracoke 
 Inlet being the only one through which vessels pass. 
 Capes Hatteras and Lookout are projecting points in 
 this belt, and off them, particularly the former, is the 
 most dangerous navigation on the coast of the United 
 States. Cape Fear is on an island off the mouth of 
 Cape Fear River. For 60 or 80 miles from the shore 
 the country is level, the streams sluggish, and there 
 are many swamps and marshes. The soil is sandy and 
 poor, excepting on the margins of the streams, where 
 
 it is frequently very fertile. The natural growth of 
 this region is mostly the pitch-pine. This tree affords 
 tar, pitch, turpentine, and lumber, which constitute an 
 important part of the exports of the State. In the 
 swamps rice of a fine quality is raised. Back of the 
 flat country, and extending to the lower falls of the 
 river.i, is a lielt of land about 40 miles wide, of a mod- 
 erately uneven surface ; a sandy soil, and of which the 
 pitch-pine is the prevailing natural growth. 
 
 Throughout the State Indian corn is raised, and in 
 some parts considerable cotton. In the low country, 
 grapes, plums, blackberries, and strawberries grow 
 spontaneously ; and on the intervales canes grow lux- 
 uriantly, the leaves of which continuing green during 
 winter furnish food for cattle. In the elevated country, 
 oak, walnut, lime, and cherry trees of a large growth 
 abound. Principal minerals coal, iron, and gold. It 
 is the only State in the Union where every article 
 enumerated in the census is produced. 
 
 Rivers. — The principal rivers are the Chowan, 400 
 miles long, navigable for small vessels 30 miles ; Roan- 
 oke, Pamlico, navigable for 30 miles ; Tar, Neuse, Cape 
 Fear, the largest river in the State, 280 miles long, with 
 eleven feet of water to Wilmington ; the Yadkin, which 
 forms a part of the Great Pedee in South Carolina. 
 
 The principal places in the State are, Raleigh the 
 capital. Newborn, AVilmington, Fayetteville, Edenton, 
 JSlizabeth City, Beaufort, and Charlotte. On January 
 1st, 1850, there were three railroads, with 631 miles of 
 track finished and in operation. Exports, 1852, valued 
 at $576,397. Imports, same year, $300,488. Ton- 
 nage of the State, 1853, 56,375 tons. The first per- 
 manent settlement in tliis State was on the eastern 
 bank of the Chowan River, about 1660, by emigrants, 
 who, in consequence of religious persecution, fled from 
 Nansemond, Virginia. The constitution of the United 
 States was adopted in convention November 27th, 
 1789. Yeas, 193; nays, 75. 
 
 COMMEEOE OP TUE STATE OF NOUTU (JABOLINA (BHOWINO ALSO TUB DiSTEIOT TONNAGE IN 1821, 1831, 1841, AND 1851) 
 
 FEOM Oct. 1, 182U, to July 1, 185(i. 
 
 Years ending 
 
 Sept. 30,1821 
 
 1822 
 
 1833 
 
 18 '4 
 
 IS.'b 
 
 ]8J(i 
 
 1S2T 
 
 1828 
 
 1829 
 
 1830 
 
 Total. . . 
 
 Sept 30, 1831 
 
 1832 
 
 1833 
 
 1834 
 
 1835 
 
 1836 
 
 1837 
 
 1838 
 
 1839 
 
 1840 
 
 Total. . . 
 
 Sept. 30,1841 
 
 1842 
 
 9 moB., 1843" 
 
 June 30, 1844 
 
 1845 
 
 1848 
 
 184T 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 
 
 1860 
 
 Total. . . 
 
 June 30, 1851. 
 
 1852 
 
 1853 
 
 1854 
 
 1855 
 
 1856 
 
 Domeatic. 
 
 $400,944 
 685,961 
 482,417 
 688,733 
 553,390 
 581,740 
 447,086 
 522,498 
 564,606 
 3B8.550 
 
 $6,126,816 
 
 $340,973 
 338,246 
 432,986 
 471,406 
 319,327 
 428,415 
 548,876 
 644,962 
 426,934 
 387,484 
 
 $4,289,599 
 
 $383,056 
 344,650 
 
 ■ 171,069 
 298,401 
 379,960 
 414,398 
 284,919 
 340,028 
 270,076 
 416,601 
 
 $3,303,088 
 
 $426,748 
 672,276 
 314,142 
 391,897 
 433,818 
 376,174 
 
 Exporta. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 2161 
 
 1243 
 
 783 
 
 $4183 
 
 $167 
 
 3796 
 
 49 
 
 271 
 992 
 
 $9629 
 
 $4347 
 4123 
 
 Totol. 
 
 $4no,944 
 885,951 
 482,417 
 5S8.733 
 653, .590 
 581,740 
 449,237 
 523,747 
 664,506 
 399.833 
 
 $5,129,998 
 
 $341,140 
 342,041 
 433^035 
 471,406 
 319,327 
 429,851 
 651,795 
 545,223 
 427,926 
 387,484 
 
 $4,249,228 
 
 $333,056 
 344,650 
 171,099 
 298,401 
 379,960 
 414.398 
 284,919 
 340,028 
 270,076 
 416,501 
 
 $8,303,088 
 
 $431,095 
 576,899 
 814,142 
 391,897 
 433,818 
 376,174 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Total. 
 
 $200,673 
 258,761 
 183,953 
 465,836 
 811,308 
 867,545 
 276,7^1 
 268,615 
 283,347 
 221,902 
 
 $3,838,826 
 
 $196,356 
 215,184 
 198,758 
 222,472 
 241,981 
 197,116 
 271,623 
 290,405 
 229,233 
 262,533 
 
 $2,316,660 
 
 $220,360 
 187,404 
 110,976 
 209,142 
 230,470 
 242,859 
 142,384 
 195,814 
 113,146 
 323,602 
 
 $1,976,247 
 
 $206,931 
 300.488 
 271,238 
 312,633 
 243,083 
 274,960 
 
 Tonnage Clei 
 
 American. 
 
 37.343 
 30 860 
 24,716 
 40,440 
 41,139 
 48.683 
 36,683 
 44,060 
 51,«42 
 36,692 
 
 391,968 
 
 30,450 
 26,272 
 37,604 
 36,041 
 82,543 
 31,864 
 38,685 
 20,541 
 48,545 
 88,130 
 
 855,577 
 
 39,828 
 88,118 
 30,411 
 35,476 
 39,767 
 38,471 
 81,357 
 87,383 
 26,030 
 80,739 
 
 847,600 
 
 28,420 
 40,0.38 
 29,292 
 26,581 
 30,729 
 27,674 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 109 
 1,208 
 
 968 
 4,447 
 3,454 
 8,568 
 8,164 
 1,352 
 1,512 
 1,772 
 
 21,554 
 
 1,990 
 3,412 
 4,935 
 4,483 
 8,278 
 6,963 
 4,646 
 8,496 
 7,895 
 8,029 
 
 43,126 
 
 3,134 
 2,593 
 1,292 
 4,068 
 6,170 
 3,791 
 2,449 
 4,322 
 3,880 
 11,493 
 
 42,247 
 
 13,963 
 13,061 
 3,011 
 5,£S1 
 4,918 
 4,237 
 
 District Tonnngo. 
 
 Registered. 
 
 13,376 
 
 Enroilodanti 
 Licensed. 
 
 19,693 
 
 10,922 
 
 12,799 
 
 32,988 
 
 Nine months to June 30, and fiscal year begins July 1, 1343. 
 
NOR 
 
 1447 
 
 NOR 
 
 Principal Ports, — Beaufort, afc the mouth of Newport 
 River, is famotis as possessing the finest harbor on the 
 southern Atlantic sea-boarcl. It will be the eastern 
 terminus of the Atlantic and North Carolina railroad, 
 which, when built, will open to its commerce an im- 
 mense interior region, hitherto isolated from the coast. 
 The impediment in the growth of this place up to this 
 time has been in the want of internal facilities for 
 commerce. The tonnage of Beaufort, in 1866, was 
 1991 tons. Wilmington, city, port of entry, pituated 
 on the left bank of Cape Fear River, just below the con- 
 fluence of the northeast and northwest branches, j\bout 
 thirty-live miles from the sea. It is well situated for 
 trade, but the location is accounted unhealtliy. The 
 harbor admits vessels of 300 tons, but the entrance has 
 a dangerous shoal. Opposite the town are two islands, 
 dividing the river into three channels. They afford the 
 finest rice-fields in the State. In 1819, two hundred 
 buildings were destroyed by fire, a loss of $1,000,000. 
 The tonnage in 1856 was 21,420 tons.— See' AV//i 
 Amerzcan ^erie^?,' xxiv. 168; xii. 216 (J. Sparks); 
 American Journal of Science^ xiii. 83G; Southern Re- 
 vieio^ i. 235; De Bow's Review^ ii. 30, 105. 
 
 Worth'west Passage. The attempt to discover 
 a northwest passage was made by a Portuguese named 
 Cortereal, about a.d. 1500. It was attempted by the 
 English in 1653; and the project was greatly encour- 
 aged by Queen Elizabeth in 1585, in which* year a 
 compahy was associated in London, and was called the 
 "Fellowship for the Discovery of the Northwest Pas- 
 sage." From 1745 until 1818,' Parliament offered 
 £20,000 for this discovery. In 1818^ the reward was 
 modified by proposing that £5000 should be paid when 
 either 110", 120°, or 130° W. long, should be passed: 
 one of which payments was made to Sir E. Parry. 
 For their labors in the voyages enumerated inthc list 
 helow, Parry, Franklin, Ross, Back, and Kichardson, 
 were knighted. The honor of completing the north- 
 west passage is due to Captain M'Clure, who sailed in 
 the Investigator in company with Commodore CoUinson 
 in the Enterprise^ in search of Sir John Franklin, 
 January 20, 1850. On September 6 he discovered 
 high land, which he named Baring's Land ; on the 9th 
 other land, which he named after Prince Albert; on 
 the 30th the ship was frozen in. Entertaining a strong 
 conviction that the waters in which the Investigator 
 then lay communicated with Barrow's Straits, he set 
 out on October 21, with a few men in a sledge, to test 
 his views. On October 26 he reached Point Russel 
 (73° 31' N. lat. il4° 14' W. long.), where from an ele- 
 vation of 600 feet he saw Parry or Melville Sound be- 
 neath them. The strait connecting the Pacific and 
 Atlantic Oceans he named aftfer the Prince of Wales. 
 The Investigator was the first ship which traversed the 
 Polar Sea from Behring's Straits to Baring Island. 
 Intelligence of this discovery was brought to England 
 by Commodore Inglefield, and the admiralty chart was 
 published October 14, 1853. Captain M'Clure returned 
 to England September, 1854. On June 19, 1855, a 
 select committee of the House of Commons was ap- 
 pointed, on' the motion of Mr. W. Mackinnon, to con- 
 sider the claims of M'Clure and his companions. Sir 
 G. Back, Sir James Ross, Sir R. T. Murchison, and 
 Captains M'Clure, Kellett, and Collinson, were ex- 
 amined. The report was received July 20, in which 
 the committee recommend that £5000 be paid to 
 Captain M'Clure, and £5000 be distributed between the 
 officers and crew. 
 
 1553. Sir Hugh Willoughby*8 expedition to find a norfch-nrest 
 passage to China, sailed from the Thames, May 30. 
 
 1576. Sir Martin Frobisher's attempt to find a northw'eBb pas- 
 sage to China. < 
 
 1585. Captain Davis's expedition to find a north-west passage. 
 
 1694 Barentz's expedition. ., 
 
 1602. Weymouth and knight's. 
 
 1610. Hudson's voyages; the last undertaken (seeflwdson's 
 Baij.) 
 
 1612. Sir Thomas Button's 
 
 1616. Baffin's See BaffiTCa Bay. 
 
 1631. Foxe's expedition. 
 
 [A number of enterprises undertaken by various countries 
 
 followed.] 
 1742. Middletoa's expedition, 
 1746. Moore's and Smith's.' 
 1769. Hearne'B land expedition. 
 1773. Captain Phipps, afterward lord Mulgrave, his expedi- 
 
 , tion. 
 1776. Captain Cook ^n the Resolution and Discovery^ July. 
 1783. Mackenzie's expedition. 
 1790. Captain Duncan's voyage. 
 1795. The Biseovery, Captain Vancouver, returned from' a 
 
 voyagd of survey and discovery on the northwest 
 
 coast of America, September 24, 
 1815. Lieutenant Kotzebue's expedition, October. . .,. 
 
 1818, Captain Buchan's and LieutenantFranklin's expeditioi* 
 
 in the DoroiAea and 2Ve«£,. 
 
 1818. Captain Ross and Lieutenant Parry, in the IscCbella ai^d 
 
 Alexar^der. 
 
 1819. Lieutenants Parry and Liddon, iri the ^ecZa and Gri- 
 
 per^ May 4. 
 
 1820. They return to Leith, November 8. 
 
 1821. ' Captains Parry and Lyon, in ih-Q Fury and Becla, 
 May 8. 
 
 1824. Captain Parry' s third expedition ,wlth the Hecla, May 8. 
 
 1825. Captains Franklin and Lyon, after having attempted a 
 
 land expedition, again sail from Liverpool, Feb, 16. 
 
 1827. Captaih !Parry, again in fhsHecla, sails from Deptfofd, 
 March 26. ' 
 
 1827. And returns, October 6. 
 
 1833. Captain Ross, arriveij at Hull, on his return from his 
 ax'ctic expedition, aff:er an absence of four years, and 
 when all hope of his return had been nearly aban- 
 doned, Octotjer 18. 
 
 1835. Captain Back and his companions arrived at Liverpool 
 
 from their perilous Arctic Land Expedition, aftei* 
 having visited the Great Fish River, and examined 
 its course to the Polar Seas, September 8. 
 
 1836. Captain Back sailed from Chatham in command of His 
 
 Majesty's ship Terrpr, on an exploring adventure^ to 
 "VVager River. [Captain Back, in the month of De- 
 cember, 1835, wa^ awarded, by the Greographical So- 
 ciety, the king's annual premium for his polar dis- 
 coveries and enterprise, June 21.] 
 
 1839. Dease and Simpson travei-ae the intervening space bet- 
 tween the discoveries of Ross and Parry, and establish 
 that there is a northwest passage, October, 
 
 1845. Sir John Franklin and Captain Crpzier, in the JBreims 
 and Terror, leave England, May 24. 
 
 1849. Captain Ross returned from an unsuccessful expedition 
 
 in search of Franklin. 
 
 1850. Another expedition (one sent, out by Lady Franklin) in 
 
 search of Sir Johh Franklin, consisting pf two vessels, 
 
 sailed from England, April-May. 
 1850. Still another, consisting of two vessels, the Advance and 
 
 Rescue:, liberally purchased for the purpose by Henry 
 
 Grinnell, a New! York merchant, and manned at 
 
 Govei'nment cost from the XJnited States nAvy, under 
 , command of Lieutenant De Haven, sailed from New 
 
 York, May. 
 1850. Commanders Collinson and M'Clure, in the Enterprise 
 ' and Investigator, sailed eastward in search of Sir 
 
 John Franklin, January 20. 
 1850. Northwest Passage discovered by M'Clure, October 26. 
 1853. The second American Arctic Expedition left New, York 
 , in search of Sir John Franklin, and for the purposes 
 
 of science, May 81. 
 1855. M'Clure returned to England in October,. 1854, and Col- \ 
 
 linson in May. ! < " 
 
 — Bee American Journal of Science, x. 138 (Isaac Lea); 
 North American Review, Ixix. 1. (Force); Hunt's 
 M€rehcmt''s Magazine, iii. 52 ; Edinburgh Review^ xxx. ' 
 1, xlviii. 423; AmeHcan Quarterly, iii. 50^; Quarterly 
 Review, xvi, 145, xxi. 213, xxv. 175, xxx. 231, Ivi. 1. 
 
 Norway, kingdom of (Swed. Norrige, Ger. iVbr-j 
 wegeji), a country of Northern Europe, united to the 
 crown of Sweden, and forming the northwestern part? 
 of the Scandinavian peninsula, capital Christiana. It. 
 extends from Cape Lindesnaes, lat. :67° 57' 8", to the; 
 North Cape^ lat. 71° 10' 3" N., and between long. 4^ 50'- 
 and 31° 15' E. The mountains of Norway contain rich! 
 minerals ; but, from the difficulty of transport and the' 
 want of fuel, mining industry is but little developed. 
 The only mines in operation are those of silver, edpper,i 
 iron, cobalt, and chrome. The chief product is iron, 
 
NOR 
 
 1448 
 
 NOR 
 
 the mines of -which are situated mostly in the Gulf of 
 Christiana; the silver mine of Konsberg is at present 
 one of the richest in Europe, and, next to the copper 
 mine of Eoraas, the most important in the kingdom. 
 
 Manufactures, properly so called, scarcely exist in 
 Norway. Brandj' distilleries and saw-mills are the 
 only extensive branches of industry ; next to these are 
 forges and metal founderies, the produce of which is ex- 
 ported in a raw state, except what is used in the manu- 
 facture of arms at Konigsberg, and in the manufactures 
 of iron ware and nails. The manufacture of cloth, 
 linen, and cotton, as well as the preparation of skins 
 and leather, are almost entirely domestic. The other 
 manufactures comprise those of glass, paper, oil, gun- 
 powder, soap, tobacco, and sugar refining. The princi- 
 pal forests are in the interior ; the timber is felled in 
 autumn and winter, and is conveyed over the snow to 
 the coast. Holland is now the chief market for Nor- 
 wegian timber. Fish is exported from all the towns 
 on the west coast, but Bergen is the chief enti'epot. 
 The most important branches of this trade are dried 
 fish and salted herrings. The export of mineral prod- 
 ucts is less than might be expected, from the number 
 of mines ; the principal are iron, copper, and silver. 
 The chief imports are salt, grain, and colonial produce. 
 Commerce in the interior of the country is greatly im- 
 peded for want of means of communication ; none of 
 the rivers are navigable except near their mouths. 
 Good roads exist only between the towns of the south 
 coast and the principal valleys in Nordland and Fin- 
 mark; the usual communication is by sea. Among 
 the numerous islands on the west coast, there are vio- 
 lent and irregular currents, which render the coast navi- 
 gation dangerous. Among these is the celebrated Mael- 
 strom, or Moskena3s-Strom, the danger from which has 
 been greatly exaggerated, since it can at nearly all 
 times be passed over even by open boats. Regular 
 communications have successively been established be- 
 tween the principal towns of the coast from Christiana 
 to Hammerfest, and steam vessels ply in the Gulf of 
 Christiana, and on the lakes of Miosen and Tyriflord. 
 Norway has a national discount bank, established 1817, 
 which has the exclusive right of issuing paper money. 
 Commerce op Nobwat in 1853. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Entered. 
 
 Cleared. 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Commercial 
 
 lostes.* 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 ConiDiercio] 
 lastes. 
 
 
 569 
 
 063 
 
 291 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 3,578 
 
 123 
 
 83 
 
 107 
 
 66 
 
 249 
 
 1,010 
 
 61 
 
 2,077 
 
 941 
 
 72 
 
 149 
 
 "4 
 
 6 
 
 'e 
 
 '3 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 "i 
 2 
 
 26 
 
 8,772 
 
 11,768 
 
 6,564 
 
 157 
 
 191 
 
 47,49T 
 3,621 
 3,613 
 3,899 
 1,655 
 5,566 
 
 62,980 
 
 2,666 
 
 130,244 
 
 63,673 
 4,160 
 9,367 
 
 ■3OT 
 
 883 
 
 372 
 
 6i7 
 218 
 
 565 
 
 ire 
 
 304 
 753 
 
 872 
 
 805 
 
 345 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 3.533 
 
 57 
 
 19 
 
 92 
 
 28 
 
 254 
 
 1,010 
 
 61 
 
 1,848 
 
 1,183 
 
 128 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 6T 
 
 11 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 29 
 38 
 
 57 
 
 26.984 
 
 17,271 
 
 6 531 
 
 206 
 
 60 
 
 46,247 
 
 1,667 
 
 565 
 
 1,761 
 
 616 
 
 5,703 
 
 63,064 
 
 2,168 
 
 126,900 
 
 74,771 
 
 5,502 
 
 220 
 
 35 
 
 T3 
 
 49 
 
 563 
 
 158 
 
 198 
 
 9,631 
 
 1,261 
 
 242 
 
 179 
 
 222 
 
 198 
 
 1,571 
 1,045 
 3,964 
 
 
 
 Mecklenberg 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Oldenburg 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 Great Britain .... 
 
 Spain 
 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 Boman States 
 
 The Two Sicilies . 
 
 Turkey 
 
 Brit. Am. Coloines 
 XJ. S. of America. . 
 Cuba 
 
 West Indies 
 
 Brazil 
 
 
 Trinidad 
 
 Java. . . . 
 
 Baltic Sea 
 
 Ports northwest... 
 
 Portg southwest . . 
 
 Total 
 
 10,106 
 4,24T 
 5,859 
 
 364,094 
 101,605 
 263,489 
 
 10,450 
 
 9,989 
 
 461 
 
 399,663 
 
 363,799 
 
 35,863 
 
 Of which loaded. 
 
 were inbal'st 
 
 ' Lasted two tons. 
 
 Owing to the difficulty of transport, all the seats of 
 industry, and the only towns, are on the coast, and 
 chiefly on the Gulf of Christiana. Ship-building is 
 actively carried on in the ports. In the Middle Ages, 
 the commerce of Norway consisted exclusively in the 
 exportation of fish, and this is still the most important 
 article of trade. Next to this is the export of timber, 
 which was commenced by the Dutch in the sixteenth 
 century; and, lastly, the products of the njiues and 
 metal forges. The timber exported annually amounts 
 to 200,000 lastes, value 1,685,000 specie dollars, 
 
 Norway possesses nearly the same natural advant- 
 ages as Sweden. The inhabitants are chiefly employed 
 in the breeding of horses, sheep, goats, and the rein- 
 deer ; cultivating small farms, fishing, mining, and such 
 other occupations as a country rich in its forests and 
 minerals, and enjoying a favorable position for com- 
 merce, usually affords. Historians represent the an- 
 cient navigation and trade of Norway as being in a 
 highly flourishing condition, especially when its towns, 
 in the twelfth century, joined the Hanseatic League. 
 As early as 1217, England concluded a treaty (the first 
 she ever made with a foreign power) with Norway, 
 stipulating an entire reciprocity of trade between the 
 two countries. The trade of Norway has always con- 
 sisted of the interchange of the produce of her forests, 
 of her copper and iron mines, and of her fisheries, for 
 such articles as she required from foreign countries. 
 The principal sea-ports are Bergen, Trondheim, Chris- 
 tiana, Hammerfest, and its outport Wardcehuus. Den- 
 mark occupies the first rank in the foreign trade of Nor- 
 way. So much of its trade passes through the ports of 
 this country, particularly Altona, that Denmark may 
 be justly considered the commercial entrepot of Norway. 
 Its commercial relations "with nearly all the countries 
 of Europe are conducted through these ports ; and it was 
 not until during the recent troubles in the duchies of 
 Denmark that Norway manifested any disposition to 
 export direct from the producing country. The mari- 
 time industry of the Norwegians constitutes the com- 
 mercial bond which unites them with Denmark. Swe- 
 den, on the other hand, being separated from the more 
 populous and industrious divisions of Norway by 
 mountainous and sterile territories, necessarily con- 
 fines her commercial relations with the sister king- 
 dom to the southern frontier or the coast; and, as 
 their principal productions are generally similar, these 
 relations are not susceptible of any great develop- 
 ment. 
 
 The Planse Towns have long been the principal en- 
 trepots for the commercial movements of the north of 
 Europe. The relations of Hamburg with Norway are, 
 even at this day, considerable ; but for the past few 
 years they have been stationary, with rather a de- 
 creasing tendency. With England, on the other hand, 
 the trade of Norway is becoming more important every 
 year. This is mainly owing to the liberal commercial 
 system of the former country, under which Norway is 
 enabled to compete with British colonial possessions, in 
 America, in supplying the British markets with the 
 varied productions of her forests. France and Holland 
 chiefly import into the markets of Norway colonial or 
 raw produce; but neither of these countries find, in 
 Norwegian markets, a profitable exchange for their 
 manufactures: Holland, because she has but few: and 
 France, for the reason that her works of art and taste 
 are too costly, and perhaps not very well adapted to 
 meet the wants of a people whose cold and inhospitable 
 climate, as well as their maritime occupations, would 
 seem to demand the coarser qualities of manufactures. 
 From official documents recently published, it appears 
 that in 1848 the population of Norway was 1,200,000 
 souls; their merchant marine counted 3400 vessels, 
 measuring an aggregate of 240,000 tons, and employing 
 16,600 persons as officers and crews. This would give 
 to Norway one vessel for every 352 inhabitants, and 
 make every seventy-third subject a sailor. At the 
 
NOR 
 
 1449 
 
 NOR 
 
 same period, the total merchant marine of France con- 
 sisted of 14,235 vessels, measuring an aggregate of 
 070,000 tons. 
 
 With the United States the trade of Norway is chiefly 
 indirect. Tobacco and cotton are the principal articles 
 of American produce which enter into the consumption 
 and manufaotiires of the Norwegians. The restrictive 
 character of the tariff of Norway, however, lilce that of 
 her sister kingdom, and the fallacious principles on 
 which her fiscal and commercial legislation has been so 
 long maintained, must ever prove an insuperable ob- 
 stacle to the expansion of her foreign trade, and the 
 consequent development of her vast internal resources. 
 So long as Norway adheres to the now generallj* obso- 
 lete idea that tlie best way to raise revenue and relieve 
 the land-owner is to levy high duties on all goods im- 
 ported into the country, so long will her relations with 
 foreign countries be limited to the exchange of such 
 articles of necessity as can not be elsewhere procured. 
 The decline which her iron trade has experienced during 
 the few years past, both in England and the United 
 States, will necessarily compel the government of Swe- 
 den and Norway to look for a market in France ; and 
 it is understood that the latter government is not averse 
 to such amelioration of her tariff as will open her mark- 
 ets to this great staple of Sweden and Norway, by a 
 material reduction of her present seventy per cent, duty 
 on iron. The only equivalent, however, which could 
 satisfy France for so liberal a concession would be a 
 total change in the Swedish and Norwegian tariflfe, by 
 which her own manufactures could enter the ports of 
 the united kingdom, and find a profitable as well as a 
 ready market. Nor could such a change in any man- 
 ner have an injurious effect upon the manufacturing 
 industry of either of these countries, as the great de- 
 mand would be for such heavy and coarse manufac- 
 tures as are most needed in so northern a latitude, and 
 which never have been, and perhaps never will be, suc- 
 cessfully manufactured in Sweden or Norway — at least, 
 to any extent approximating the great consumption of 
 the kingdom. Such a result would extend its "benefits 
 to other countries besides France; and if, in addition 
 to a remodification of the Swedish and Norwegian tar- 
 iffs in respect of manufactures, the present exorbitant 
 cent-per-cent. duties on American tobacco were liberal- 
 ly reduced, the trade between the United States and 
 Sweden and Norway would be materially benefited, 
 and exports and imports, direct between the two coun- 
 tries, largely augmented, 
 
 The'Norwegian tariff differs, in many essential par- 
 ticulars, from that of Sweden. Its range is consider- 
 ably lower, and, owing to this fact, and to the advant- 
 ages resulting from different weights, it will be found 
 (for instance) that tobacco blades may be imported into 
 Norway at a rate nearly 33.3 per cent, less than into 
 Sweden. The oppressive system of fictitious valuation, 
 in practice in the Swedish custom-houses, is unknown 
 in the sister kingdom ; and, besides, greater considera- 
 tion is shown to the poorer inhabitants of remote prov- 
 inces. At Brodo and Trounsoe, in the northern part 
 of Norway, many articles are admitted at half rates of 
 duty ; and at Hammerfest and other remote ports the 
 duty is altogether remitted. This consideration is not 
 shown to the inhabitants of far-off provinces in Sweden ; 
 indeed, in districts no farther off than Dalecarlia many 
 necessaries of life, which the country can not supply to 
 them, must be purchased, if at all, by the poorer peas- 
 antry, with the additional costs of inland transportation 
 and the coast navigation of the Gulf of Bothnia: The 
 tariff now in operation came in force on January 1, 1855, 
 and will expire on the 31st December, 1857. The du- 
 ties on tobacco have been raised nearly to the level of 
 those of Sweden. The latter, upon tobacco blades, is 
 still one cent per pound higher. The augmentation of 
 the duty on this staple of the United States was, doubt- 
 less, designed as an additional argument in any negotia- 
 tions which might be proposed by the government of 
 
 Sweden and Norway relative to the iron duties of the 
 United States. 
 
 The following brief summary is presented of the new 
 tariff. It will show the duties levied on certain Amer- 
 ican produce by the old and new Norwegian tariffs : 
 
 Tobacco. — (Stem and blade), raised from 5 to 6 skil- 
 lings per lb. The skilling is nearly equivalent to one 
 cent, 
 
 /Jice.— Unchanged ; namely, 80 skillings per barrel 
 (in husk), or 1^ skillings per 1 L). , without husk or ground. 
 
 Cotton. — Raw, unchanged; one -half skilling per 
 pound. 
 
 Maize, mground.—Lovrerei from 72 skillings to 16 
 skillings per toende (barrel of nearly four bushels). 
 
 Make, ground. — Lowered from 16 skillings to 7i skil- 
 lings per lispund (17'6 lbs. avoirdupois). 
 
 Wheat. — Unchanged; 72 skillings per barrel (to- 
 ende). 
 
 Flour. — 16 skillings per lispund. 
 
 The principal ports of Norway are Christiana, Ber- 
 gen, and liammerfest, or Alten Hammerfest, the chief 
 port of Finmark. Christiana is a deep sea-port, hav- 
 ing at all seasons from six to seven fathoms depth of 
 water close to the quay. It is the capital of Norway, 
 and has some few fabrics of woolen, glass, hardware, 
 soap, leather, cordage, tobacco, etc. The deals of this 
 port have ever been celebrated. Its trade has flour- 
 ished as far back as 1792, in which year the number of 
 ships arrived was 521, of which 518 cleared with car- 
 goes of deals, Bergen has a safe and deep harbor close 
 to the town, but a pilot is necessary for vessels enter- 
 ing or departing, on account of the numerous rocks. 
 It has a few manufactories of tobacco and earthen-ware, 
 several rope-works and distilleries, ship-yards, forges, 
 and other establishments of ordinary handicraft. Its 
 fisheries, however, are its chief resource, and its foreign 
 trade is principally confined to Hamburg. Hammerfest 
 has an extensive trade, chiefly with England, through 
 the port -of Hamburg. Its exports are copper, dried 
 stock-fish, salted fish, fish-oil, rein-deer skins, buckskins, 
 walrus hides and teeth, feathers, fox and other skins, 
 etc. Finmark has always enjoyed a high degree of 
 commercial prosperity. Its revenues exceed its ex- 
 penditures by upward of two millions of dollars. Its 
 chief wealth depends upon its fisheries, a source of re- 
 munerative industry that never fails. For centuries 
 back, observes Macgregor, not a single example can 
 be given of a total failure. The value of these fisheries 
 may be estimated from the fact that in five years, end- 
 ing with 1844, the produce of cod, seth, and halibut was 
 about 500,000 tons, and 20,000 barrels of oil, independ- 
 ently of what was taken by the Russians. 
 
 Coarse cottons and woolens are well adapted for the 
 markets of Norway, more especially of Finmark ; but 
 the commercial privileges reserved to Russia, by treaty, 
 have hitherto secured to that power the monopoly of 
 this trade. Her linens, raven's-duck, and various other 
 manufactures, are admitted free into Finmark ; while 
 duties, varying from 50 to 100 per cent, on the cost 
 price, are interposed ion similar manufactures of other 
 foreign countries. 
 
 Were cottons and woolens admitted even at a moder- 
 ate duty, American and British manufactures of that 
 description would soon supersede the almost general 
 use of Russian fabrics. 
 
 The present condition of the trade of Norway may 
 be gathered from the following summary: Number of 
 vessels from all countries entered in 1850, 8542, meas- 
 uring in the aggregate 1,174,501 tons ; of these there 
 were Norwegian, 5318 vessels, of 881,320 tons. From 
 the United States there arrived but nine vessels — seven 
 carrying 2654 tons of merchandise, and two being in 
 ballast — all under the Norwegian flag. The principal 
 countries of departure of nearly all the others were En- 
 gland, Holland, and Prussia. 
 
 During the same year, there cleared from Norwegian 
 ports 8479 vessels, measuring 1,182,332 tons. Of these 
 
NOT 
 
 1450 
 
 NOT 
 
 there were destined for the United States 31 vessels, 
 floating 13,178 tons of merchandise ; 30 being under the 
 Norwegian flag, and one being foreign. From these 
 figures, it will be seen that there aiTived from Norway 
 in the United States 31 vessels, carrying 13,178 tons of 
 Norwegian products, against nine cleared from the 
 United States for Norway with American products to 
 the amount of 2654 tons ; or a difference of 22 vessels 
 and 10,524 tons of merchandise against the United 
 States in the direct trade with Norway. The restric- 
 tive tariff' regulations of the latter country will readily 
 account for this great inequality. In 1850, Norway 
 imported upward of 1,700,000 lbs, of cotton. In 1852, 
 the total importation of cotton amounted in value to 
 1,927,560 francs; viz.: from Great Britain, 1,071,200 
 francs ; from the United States, 650,700 francs ; from 
 other places, 205,660 francs ; making a total of 1,927,560 
 francs, or $266,236 40. In 1850, there were imported 
 into Norway 3,000,000 lbs. of tobacco, 8,000,000 lbs. of 
 sugar, 6,500,000 lbs. of cofliee. During the same year 
 the effective merchant, marine of Norway consisted of — 
 
 Veisols of 
 
 Number 
 of Vessels. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Crews. 
 
 Under 23 tons 
 
 From 28 tons to 71 
 
 From 71 tons to 177... 
 From 177 tons to 354. . 
 From 354 tons and over 
 
 Totalin 1853 
 
 Total in 1838 
 
 Total In 1835 
 
 816 
 1301 
 617 
 489 
 475 
 
 13,282 
 
 69,292 
 
 66 671 
 
 128,379 
 
 235,677 
 
 1,766 
 4,286 
 3,476 
 3,976 
 5,635 
 
 8698 
 
 503.301 
 
 19,037 
 
 2427 
 
 212,242 
 
 12,985 
 
 2272 
 
 150,918 
 
 11.279 
 
 For the comparative statement of the commerce of the 
 United States with Sweden and Norway^ exhibiting the 
 value of exports to and imports from each country^ and 
 the tonnage of American and of Swedish and Norwegian 
 vessels arricing from and departing to each country^ 
 during the years designated^ see Sweden. — Edinburgh 
 Revieiv, Ixv. 21, xxii. 145, xxiii. 79 ; Westminster lie- 
 view, xxvii. 16i; North British Review, ix. 39; Quar- 
 ierltj Review, ii. 104 ; Fraser, xxiii. 478 ; American Quar- 
 terly Register, xiv. 119 (Rev. Dr. Baird); Hunt's JJ/er- 
 chanVs Magazine, xvi. 138. 
 
 Notaries Public. The origin of that class of 
 public officers now called notaries public may be 
 traced as far back as the ancient Eoman Republic, 
 although their functions now are diftereut. We 
 find, at the time of the Republic, scribce and Ubrarii, 
 who were public secretaries. The private secretaries 
 were called exceptores, and also notarii, if they were 
 short-hand writers, which service was frequently per- 
 formed by slaves. The public secretaries were those 
 whom the authorities of state appointed and paid to 
 assist them in their duties of office, and they appear to 
 have corresponded to our present actuaries and secre- 
 taries. It does not appear, however, that legal docu- 
 ments wci'e drawn up by public functionaries resem- 
 bling- our notaries public. During the Empire the pub- 
 lic secretaries increased both in number and import- 
 ance. They appear to have been secretaries working 
 in the cabinet of the Emperor, in distinct departments, 
 and they had an overseer, called jnagister scriniorum. 
 Distinct, however, from these persons were those Avho 
 may he compared to our present notaries public, and 
 who were called tabeUiones. It seems that what even 
 at the present day may be seen in Italian cities was al- 
 ready customary in the early days of ancient Rome ; 
 namely, that in the public market-place, or forum, 
 scribes offered their services to persons who wanted to 
 have letters written or documents drawn up. 
 
 This class of persons were called tabeUiones f or enses, 
 or personce publicce. They occupied themselves with 
 drawing up legal instruments and documents, and oth- 
 er writings (libelli) or statements, to be presented to the 
 courts of law, or other authorities of state. It appears, 
 from ji " constitution" of Diocletian, that a tariff of 
 fees was established for them. The number of tabel- 
 Uonea constantly increased. They then formed them- 
 
 selves into a guild or corporation (schola), under a pre- 
 siding officer called primicerius. Thfi state authorities 
 began, more and more, to exercise surveillance over 
 them, which even went so far that the magistrates de- 
 termined whether a person should be admitted into, or 
 aii unworthy person he removed from, this guild of ta- 
 belliones. These persons prepared all kinds of legal 
 documents and papers, but they still carried on their 
 business in the public market-place. It was soon found 
 necessary, for judicial purposes, to define by law what 
 should be the requisites of such notarial acts and writ- 
 ings to make them legal evidence. It had become a 
 usage, in important matters, to have witnesses also at- 
 test the papers drawn up by these public scribes or ta- 
 beUiones, and it was finally required by law that three 
 witnesses should attest a document, in case the princi- 
 pals could write, and five witnesses if the parties could 
 not write. It was, moreover, required that the notary 
 (tabellio) should be present in person at the drawing up 
 of the document, and also affix his signature and the 
 date of execution. 
 
 During the Empire another class of officers, called 
 iahularii, came up in the cities. Their functions resem- 
 bled somewhat our archivaries and auditors. They 
 also made out certain documents, and these bore some- 
 times the names both of a tabeUio and a tabularius; 
 but at a later period both names are used as s^nony- 
 mous. Under the Frankish kings Roman institutions 
 were imitated. In the imperial bureaux the emperors 
 needed and employed persons for drawing up docu- 
 ments and countersigning them. These officers were 
 called referendarii, cancellarii, and notarii. The chief 
 of these officers was called archinotarius or summus no- 
 tarius, but at a later period canctUamus, as a more hon- 
 orable title. The Frankish kings, as early as the year 
 803, appointed these officers, and issued laws to pre- 
 vent the abuse of their power. It became later the 
 sole prerogative of the kings to appoint these notaries, 
 but by degrees the Popes of Rome also assumed the 
 same right ; and we find in documents notaries named 
 who were appointed by princes and bishops, and even 
 by cloisters. The legal powers of notaries during the 
 Middle Ages, and their condition as a distinct class of 
 officers, are distinctly seen in the Italian cities. They 
 acted either by authority of the Emperor or that of 
 the Pope, and were engaged for drawing all the vari- 
 ous legal documents, and especially last wills and test- 
 aments, which were received in all the courts of law 
 as full proof. They were formed into a guild, called 
 collegium, and had their own prefects, called consules. 
 A candidate for admission into this college had to un- 
 dergo an examination. Minute and strict rules for 
 the drawing up of instruments, and their attestation, 
 were prescribed. The study of notarial functions was 
 reduced to rules, and notarial schools were established 
 in many cities. 
 
 Notaries came to be regarded at an early period as 
 a kind of judges (^judex chartularius), and a practice 
 grew up among them of inserting in bonds, or other 
 documents of indebtedness, a power for the creditor of 
 taking out execution, by application to the court, in 
 case of non-fulfillment of the contract, which laid the 
 foundation of the so-called "executory process," which 
 prevails still in the Civil Law countries, and which 
 corresponds somewhat to the warrant of attorney to 
 confess judgment in the English law. "We shall see 
 that the foreign law on bills of exchange on the Con- 
 tinent of Europe gives this right of "executory proc- 
 ess" to the creditor of these mercantile instruments, 
 and thus strengthens the security of the creditor. 
 
 France.- — In France the notaries have always played 
 an, important part in her judicial institutions, and the}' 
 do so still. The king regarded it as his prerogative to 
 appoint them, but the popes also arrogated this power, 
 and the lords of provinces (seigneurs') assumed it like- 
 wise. They were regarded there &sjuge ordiTiaire, and 
 inserted in their documents this executory power or 
 
NDT 
 
 1451 
 
 NOT 
 
 summary execution (execution puree). The basis of the 
 present rights and duties of notaries in France was 
 laid by the law of 1791, which recognized no longer 
 any royal notaries, but only notaries public, appointed 
 by the general government. The law of the eleventh 
 year of the Republic recognized them as public officers, 
 appointed for the purpose of drawing up all papers and 
 contracts which, either according to express laws or 
 the will of parties, are to have the effect of public doc- 
 uments, and of fixing the dates thereof, of holding in 
 safe-keeping these acts, and of making out copies of 
 them for the use of the parties concerned. All docu- 
 ments made out in the presence of two notaries, or of 
 one notary and two witnesses, and attested by them, re- 
 ceive full credence in all the courts of law, and are ex- 
 ecutory throughout the land. The original (mimite) 
 of the act remains in the hands of the notary, and 
 copies are allowed to be given only to the interested 
 parties, unless specially empowered by the courts 
 The law points out many cases in which the presence 
 of a notary and his attestation of instruments are es- 
 sential ; e. g., with testaments, donations, marriage 
 contracts, protests, etc. In most cases it is left to the 
 choice of parties to employ a notary in the making out 
 of instruments and documents. But the courts often 
 appoint them, to undertake the part of mediatorin some 
 judicial proceedings ; for instance, in cases of divorce, 
 or in making out inventories, or in dividing and dis- 
 tributing property and estates, or in taking and mak- 
 ing up accounts, like the Masters in Chancery in En- 
 glish law. The notaries are appointed for life, and can 
 be removed only by a judicial decision, ^y their of- 
 ficial position they become the advisers in families and 
 the conjidants of them. They become the mediators in 
 dispiites between tlie parties, and particularly in regu- 
 lating and settling estates, and in the distribution of 
 property. 
 
 The law of the seventh year of the Republic requires 
 that all acts and documents made out by notaries be 
 registered within ten days, the lees for which are very 
 high. Hence it often happens that the notary must 
 advance the money for the registration, and this obliges 
 him to have sums of money always at his disposal. 
 Thus notaries have gradually come to deal in money 
 affairs in general, by loaning and investing money, and 
 procuring money for borrowers. Hence it is that per- 
 sons of property intrust their money and property to 
 the hands of notaries, as being the fittest persons to in- 
 vest it safely and advantageously. The great influence 
 which they thereby must acquire in families and in all 
 classes of society is manifest ; and this great power 
 could not but lead to great abuses. An ordinance of 
 1843 prohibited notaries, under heavy penalties, from 
 entering into stock sl)eculations, from acting as money- 
 brokers, from investing money intrusted to them in 
 their own names, etc. The requisites for becoming a 
 notary in France are, that the candidate be a French 
 citizen, twenty-five years of age, and that he has served 
 as clerk with a notary for six years. But no man with- 
 out property can expect to obtain a place as notary, be- 
 cause he is obliged to buj', often for an enormous price 
 (which in Paris often amounts to from 200,000 to 
 300,000 francs, in smaller towns to 100,000 francs, 
 and in small communes to 10,000 francs), from a no- 
 tary who is about to retire, or from the heirs of a de- 
 ceased notary, a study-room or office (etude), with the 
 acts and documents belonging to it ; for without such 
 an office the mere appointment of notary is of little 
 value. There are also established b}' law in France 
 notarial chambers, which consist of a number of depu- 
 ties, chosen by the notaries, who regulate the discipline 
 among them, decide on the admission of candidates, ad- 
 just disputes which may arise among themselves, and 
 hear and decide on the complaints of third persons 
 against notaries, and the punishments of delinquent no- 
 taries. 
 
 Holy. — In Italy the French system of notaries has 
 
 been followed in its main features. In Germany, how- 
 ever, the notaries occupy but a subordinate position in 
 most states, and it has been now almost generally es- 
 tablished by law that only persons who have studied 
 law for several years can be appointed as notarie's. 
 
 Englcmd. — In England, notaries were known as pub- 
 lic officers before the Norman Conquest, and at a very 
 early period they were employed to attest arid authen- 
 ticate instruments of moment and solemnity. But 
 whatever their duties and functions may have been in 
 former times, at present they are described to be, by 
 Richard Brooke, in his treatise on the office of a notary 
 public of England, as follows : " In England a notary 
 is a public officer of the civil and canon law, who de- 
 rives his faculty or authority to practice from the 
 Court of Faculties of the Archbishop of Canterbury, in 
 London, the chief officer of which is the Master of, the 
 Faculties, to whom applications are made for the ad- 
 mission, or removal under any special circumstances, 
 of notaries. In the Institutes of the Laws of England 
 the Court of Faculties is stated to be ' a court, although 
 it holdeth no plea of controversie (like the Court of 
 Audience next before). It belongeth to the archbish- 
 op, and his officer is called Magisier ad Facultaiesy^ 
 The functions and powers of a notary in England are, 
 to draw and prepare deeds relating to real and person- 
 al property, to note and protest bills of exchange, to 
 prepare acts of honor, to authenticate and certify ex- 
 amined copies of documents, to prepare and attest in- 
 struments going abroad, to receive the affidavits or 
 declarations of mariners and masters of ships, and to 
 draw up their protests, and to solemnize all other no- 
 tarial acts. "The expression notarial act," says Mr. 
 Broolte,'"is one which has a technical meaning, and 
 it seems generally considered to signify the act of au- 
 thenticating or certifying some document or circum- 
 stance by a written instrument, under the signature 
 and official seal of a notary, or of authenticating or 
 certifying as a notary some fact or circumstance by a 
 written instrument, under his signature only." The 
 English notaries ha«e always considered themselves 
 entitled to administer oaths, affidavits, and affirma- 
 tions, as within the powers and functions of a notary ; 
 and the act of 5th and 6th William IV. has placed it 
 beyond dispute. The requisitions for admission to the 
 Faculty of Notaries in England are, an apprenticeship 
 or clerkship of five years with a notary, a certificate 
 from two notaries certifying to the candidate's skill 
 and probity, and that he is a proper person to become 
 a' notary. Upon due proof of these facts, the Master 
 of Faculties will admit him upon his taking the pre- 
 scribed oaths, which are the oath of allegiance, the 
 oath of supremacy, the oath of due service under the 
 articles of clerkship and for the faithful exercise of the 
 office of notary. A notary is liable to be struck off the 
 Roll of F'aculties for any malpractice or misconduct in 
 his office, on a complaint made to the Master of the 
 Faculties, and supported by affidavit or other proof. 
 
 United States. — In the United States the duties and 
 functions of notaries resemble those of the same officers 
 in England. They are appointed by the respective 
 governors of the States for a limited number ofyears, 
 or during good behavior, and derive their powers by 
 the statute laws of the States ; and in cases where these 
 laws do not specify their powers — as, for instance, in 
 Massachusetts — it must be presumed that all the pow- 
 ers which, by general usage, the custom of merchants, 
 and law of nations are generally exercised by these 
 officers, are also vested in them. We may state their 
 general and customary functions to be, to demand ac- 
 ceptance and payment of foreign and inland bills of 
 exchange and promissory notes, and to protest the 
 same for non-acceptance and non-payment; to note 
 and di"aw up ship protests, and all other protests which 
 are customary according to the usage of merchants ; 
 and to exercise such other powers and duties as by the 
 law of nations, and according to commercial usage, or 
 
NOT 
 
 1452 
 
 NOV 
 
 by the laws of any other state, government, or coun- 
 try, may be performed by notaries public. But al- 
 though notaries public are generally considered as ac- 
 credited officers in other countries, and affidavits sworn 
 before and instruments authenticated by them are re- 
 ceived in evidence in foreign courts, it is required by 
 foreign courts that the consuls of the respective foreign 
 states in which the document is to be used certify to 
 the fact that the person whose signature and seal are 
 affixed is a notary public duly appointed. This is, 
 however, not necessary in a protest for the non-accept- 
 ance or non-payment of a bill of exchange. The laws 
 of the diJierent States of the Union, in some instances, 
 give some peculiar powers to their notaries, and hence 
 the laws of each State must be consulted in regard to 
 them. The principal functions of an American notary 
 arc, to protest bills of exchange and promissory notes 
 on their being dishonored, and, as a part of this func- 
 tion, to present and demand payment of these mercan- 
 tile instruments. Although the notaries with us gen- 
 erally give notice of the dishonor of bills and notes to 
 antecedent parties, it is not their dutj' to do so, unless 
 made ao by statute, or they undertake so to do as a 
 part of their duty; and then they are liable for any 
 negligence in the discharge of this duty. — See Manual 
 for Natalies, 8vo. pp. 220, New York, 1857. 
 
 Notes, Promissory. Hee Basking and BASKfs. 
 
 Nova Scotia (Fr. Acadia), a British province, 
 forming a peninsula, counected with the main land by 
 an isthmus only 8 miles broad, having the Bay of Fun- 
 dy on the one side, and Northumberland Strait on the 
 other. It lies, including Cape Breton Island, between 
 lat. 43° 25' and 4G° N., and long. 59° 45' and 66° 30' 
 W. , and is bounded north by Northumberland Strait, 
 which separates it from Prince Edward Island, north- 
 east by the Gut of Canseau, flowing between it and the 
 island of Cape Breton (which forms a part of the gov- 
 ernment of Nova Scotia), south and southeast by the 
 Atlantic Ocean, west by the Bay of Fundy, and north- 
 west by New Brunswick. Area, 18,746 square miles. 
 
 Its southeast coast is remarkable for the number and 
 capacity of its harbors, there being no fewer than twelve 
 ports capable of receiving ships of the line, and four- 
 teen of sufficient depth for merchantmen, between Hal- 
 ifax and Cape Canseau, a distance of not more than 
 110 miles. The surface of Nova Scotia seldom rises to 
 a height exceeding 000 feet above the level of the sea. 
 A ridge of high land extends through the peninsula in' 
 a direction east to west, and, with less prominent hills 
 and undulations, gives a pleasing variety to the scen- 
 ery. The principal rivers of the province are the An- 
 napolis and Shubenecadie ; the latter rises in Grand 
 Lake, Halifax County, and, after a rapid and circui- 
 tous course of over 50 miles, enters Cobequid Bay ; b}' 
 means of a canal this river forms a navigable commu- 
 nication from Halifax harbor to the Bay of Fundy. It 
 is navigable for some distance. The rise and fall of 
 the tide at the mouth is about 50 feet. The Annapo- 
 lis, after a course of 75 miles, in which it receives the 
 waters of Moose and Bear rivers, enters Annapolis Bay. 
 It is navigable for large vessels 20 miles above Annap- 
 olis. At Pictou, the East, West, and Middle rivers, all 
 three navigable for large vessels, enter the harbor. 
 The Avon receives the waters of the St. Croix, Ken- 
 netcook, and several others, and empties itself into the 
 Bay of Mines ; it is navigable to Windsor. The La 
 Have, Mersey, and Medway; the Shelburne (which 
 forms the fine harbor of that name) ; the Clyde, one 
 of the most beautiful streams of Nova Scotia ; the Tus- 
 ket and its numerous tributaries ; the St. Mary, which, 
 at its embouchure, forms the fine harbor of St. Mary; 
 the Maccau, Nappau, and Gaspereau ; the Musquedo- 
 boit. Sale, and Jordan ; these form but a few of numer- 
 ous streams of Nova Scotia. The tide rises with as- 
 tonishing rapidity in the Bay of Mines to the height 
 of 75 feet, while on the south shore and in the Gulf of 
 St. Lawrence it does not rise more than 6 feet. There 
 
 are but few large lakes ; the largest is Lake Bosignol, 
 about 30 miles in length ; Lake George is another sheet 
 of water of considerable size, and the entire peninsula is 
 dotted over with innumerable small lakes. The mines 
 and minerals of Nova Scotia, though but imperfectly 
 explored, are known to be valuable. Granite, trap, 
 and clay-slate rocks predominate. The most abundant 
 variety is the gray granite, which prevails along the 
 shore, and is well adapted for mill-stones. Clay slate, 
 of fine quality, is of extensive formation in the eastern 
 section of the province, and gray wacke slate along both 
 shores of Chedabucto Bay. Several extensive and beau- 
 tiful grottoes are to be found on different parts of the 
 coast ; and grindstones of superior quality are obtained 
 from a stratum of sandstone, found between the coal 
 and limestone. Coal, and iron in combination with it, 
 abounds in many places. Copper ore also exists, but 
 the attempts to work it have been hitherto unsuccess- 
 ful ; gypsum is plentiful, and furnishes an active and 
 prolitable trade. The soils of Nova Scotia are various ; 
 along the south shore the granite forms the basis, ex- 
 tending in many places 20 miles into the interior. 
 This region is the least fertile, but there are elsewhere 
 extensive alluvial tracts producing the most abundant 
 crops. Many fine fertile districts, also, are met with 
 on the north coast, along the banks of rivers and the 
 heads of bays. The climate of Nova Scotia is affected 
 by its almost insular position, and is characterized by 
 a remarkable saUlbritJ^ The springs are tedious, but 
 the summer heats being for a brief season excessive, 
 vegetation is singularly rapid, and the autumn is de- 
 lightful. The thermometer ranges from 18° to 70°. 
 It is estimated that about 7,000,000 acres are still cov- 
 ered with primeval forests. There were in this prov- 
 ince in 1851, 40,012 acres of diked land, and 799,310 
 acres of other improved land. 
 
 Live Stock. — Horses, 28,789; neat cattle, 156,857; 
 milch cows, 86,856 ; sheep, 282,180; swine, 51,583. 
 
 Agricultural Products, etc. — Wheat, 297,157 bushels 
 produced ; rye, 61,438 ; Indian corn, 37,475 ; oats, 
 1,384,437 ; peas and beans, 21,638 ; barley, 196,097 ; 
 buckwheat, 170,810; potatoes, 1,986,789; pounds of 
 butter made, 3,613,890; of cheese, 652,069; of maple 
 sugar, 110,441 ; hay, 287,837 tons made ; grass seeds, 
 3686 bushels; and were made 89,976 gallons of malt 
 and distilled liquors. Nova Scotia, however, does not 
 yet supply her population with bread, even in good 
 seasons ; large importations of fine flour being yearly 
 made from the United States. The apple orchards of 
 the western counties are very productive. Apples and 
 cider are annually exported, and the domestic supply 
 is cheap and abundant. Cattle and sheep are raised 
 in considerable numbers, and are exported both to New 
 Brunswick and Newfoundland; but the breeds are in- 
 ferioi', and little attention is paid to their improvement. 
 The cod and haddock fisheries are actively prosecuted 
 all along the south coast. Mackerel and herrings are 
 also taken in great quantities ; but the salmon fishing 
 has greatly fallen off, from the erection of grist and 
 saw mills on the streams. The fisheries employed, in 
 1851, 812 vessels, with an aggregate of 43,333 tons, 
 manned by 3681 men, and 5161 boats, manned by 6713 
 men ; the catch amounted to 1669 barrels of salmon, 
 3536 of shad, 100,047 of mackerel, 53,200 of herrings, 
 and 543 barrels of alewives ; total value of fisheries, 
 £217,220; and there were manufactured 189,250 bar- 
 rels of fish-oi!, valued at £17,754. Several attempts 
 have been made to prosecute the whale and seal fish- 
 eries, but hitherto with no great success. The manu- 
 factures of Nova Scotia are yet but very limited. Coarse 
 cloths, called *' homespuns," are made, and are gener- 
 ally worn by the farmers, fishermen, etc. There were 
 in this province, in 1861, 81 woolen factories, employ- 
 ing 119 persons, and 11,096 hand-looms, producing 
 119,698 vards of fulled cloth, 790,104 yards not fulled, 
 and 219,352 yards flannel ; total value, £36,178; 9 iron 
 founderies,employingl38persons,makingcas tings, etc., 
 
NOV 
 
 1453 
 
 NOV 
 
 to the amount of £8121 ; 398 grist-mills, 1153 saw-mills, 
 237 tanneries, and 10 factories moved by steam power, 
 gash value of agricultural implements manufactured, 
 £16,610. 
 
 The houses of Nova Scotia are mostly constructed 
 of timber, excepting in Halifax and the larger towns, 
 where some good stone and brick houses are to bo 
 seen ; yet stone for building abounds in the province 
 — granite of the finest quality on the south coast, free- 
 stone all along the north shore, and excellent slate in 
 the central region. 
 
 The foreign trade of Nova Scotia was very limited 
 previous to 1824 ; since that period it has extended to 
 the Baltic, Mediterranean, China, Mauritius, East In- 
 dies, the Brazils, and the Havana. The total amount 
 of imports at Halifax and the oatports, in 1852, was 
 $5,309,894, of which $1,445,043 were from the United 
 States. The exports during the same period amount- 
 ed to $3,925,227, of which $941,607 were to the United 
 States. Of these the principal articles were — mack- 
 erel, valued at $280,145; salmon, $30,030; other fish, 
 dry and picliled, $218,693 ; skins and furs, $8165 ; mo- 
 ■ lasses, $8625 ; potatoes, $4152 ; sugar, $3000 ; covd- 
 wood, $33,990 ; coals, Pictou, $151,215 ; coals, Sidney, 
 $35,983; gypsum, $32,823; freestone and grindstones, 
 $4500 ; oil, fish, $48,915. The number of vessels that 
 entered and cleared during the year were, 72 to Great 
 Britain; 1757 to British colonies ; 11,429 to the United 
 States ; other countries, 158. Total tonnage, 383,400 
 tons. 
 
 The population of Nova Scotia is now chiefly com- 
 posed of the descendants of the English, Irish, and the 
 Scoitch. The western and midland counties are prin- 
 cipally occupied by the descendants of the loyalists, 
 mostly of English extraction. The county of Limen- 
 - burgh is inhabited by a race sprung from a body of 
 «' German and Swiss Protestants who emigrated from 
 • Rotterdam in 1753. There are also several settlements 
 of French Acadians. The Indians are slill a distinct 
 people, but there arc only a few hundreds of them left 
 in the province. 
 
 The following statement exhibits the description 
 and value of imports and exports to and from the 
 United States and Nova Scotia, during the years 1852 
 and 1858, respectively. For the convenience of calcu- 
 lationthe £ is estimated at $5 : 
 
 Imports from Nova Scotia, 1852. — Coal, fish, gyp- 
 sum, lumber and plank, staves, spars, etc., wood and 
 bark, potatoes, turnips, miscellaneous. Total value, 
 $1,289,246. 
 
 Exports to Nova Scotia. — Beef, pork, books and sta- 
 tionery, bread and biscuit, burning fluid, corn, corn 
 meal, cotton manufactures, drugs and medicines, flour 
 (of rye and wheat), hardware, rice, tobacco, wheat, 
 miscellaneous. Total value, $1,789,216. Showing a 
 balance in favor of the United States of |449,970. 
 
 Imports from Nova Scotia, 1863. — Principal articles 
 the same as in 1852. Total value, $1,389,731. 
 
 Exports to Nova Scotia. — Principal articles the same 
 as for 1852. Total value, $2,079,646. 
 
 The preceding tables exhibit the course of trade be- 
 tween the United States and Nova Scotia during the 
 periods indicated. The following are introduced to 
 show the proportionate value of supplies furnished to 
 that province by the United States, compared with the 
 value of imports from the mother country, from 1849 
 to 1853, both years inclusive : 
 
 Yenrs. 
 
 Groat Brit&in. 
 
 United Slates. | 
 
 Importa from. 
 
 Expoits to. 
 
 Importa from. 
 
 Exports to. 
 
 1849 
 18S0 
 1861 
 1852 
 1853 
 .Total. 
 
 $1,489,615 
 1,892,020 
 2,133,085 
 2,137,661 
 2,358,240 
 
 $260,785 
 262,945 
 142,245 
 313,380 
 511,630 
 
 $1,764,785 
 1,612,576 
 1,390,065 
 1,739,220 
 2,079,547 
 
 $894,425 
 
 988,065 
 
 736,425 
 
 1,289,250 
 
 1,389,763 
 
 $10,010,571 1 $1,491,015 
 
 $8,687,092 
 
 $6,297,943 
 
 Totaltrade of Great Britain with Nova Scotia ... $11 , 501 . 586 
 United States '• " "... 13,836,040 
 
 A glance at the preceding tables will suggest the 
 inferences which they are designed to convey. 
 
 In reference to the coal trade of Nova Scotia, Con- 
 sul General Andrews, in his report on the " Trade and 
 Commerce of the British North American Colonies," 
 says : " The principal exportation of coals from Nova 
 Scotia and Cape Breton is to ports in Massachusetts 
 and Ilhode Island, with a small quantity to New York. 
 Many American vessels in this trade, especially since 
 the change in the navigation laws, obtain freights for 
 Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, the French island of St. 
 Peter, Prince Edward's Island, and the New Bruns- 
 wick ports on the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and load with 
 coal as their return cargo. One hundred chaldrons 
 of coal, Pictou measure, are equal to 120 chaldrons, 
 Boston measure. The usual freight from Pictou to 
 Boston is $2 75 per chaldron, Boston measure. To 
 this must be added insurance, 2 per cent., and commis- 
 sion, 2i percent. Anthracite coal does not exist in 
 any of the colonies; and. they bid fair to become con- 
 sumers of Penns3'lvania anthracite, the importation of 
 which has already commenced to some extent in New 
 Brunswick for steamboats and founderies. Under lib- 
 eral arrangements on both sides, the consumption of 
 anthracite coal would greatly increase in the colonies, 
 and even in Nova Scotia, it being for many purposes 
 better fitted and more economical than the bituminous 
 coal of that colony." 
 
 Cord or firewood is largely exported from the ports 
 along the coast to the United States, at a cost last year 
 of $2 per cord. This year none has been shipped for 
 less than $2 50, and latterly $3 per cord ; retail price 
 at Halifax, 1853, $3 50 to |3 60; 1854, $4 to $4 60. 
 Wood knees for ship-building have been shipped in 
 some quantities at $2 each for sizes averaging eight 
 inches, and a reduction of 20 cents for each inch under, 
 and a like addition for each inch over, the average. 
 Sawed lumber, in small quantities, has been shipped, 
 but none prior to 30th June, 1854. Many cargoes of 
 potatoes were shipped from the western ports, costing 
 from 40 to 60 cents per bushel. 
 
 Insurance during the year to ports from Virginia to 
 Maine average one per cent. ; a half per cent, addition- 
 al is charged in the winter months to Pennsylvania 
 and farther south. Freights to ports from Maine to 
 Virginia range from 25 to 50 cents per barrel. A com- 
 mission of 2-J- per cent, is usually charged. 
 
 The usual mode of selling is by private contract on 
 terms generally of three months' credit ; sometimes a 
 longer credit is allowed; cash payments only when 
 specially provided for. Public auction is a favorite 
 mode at this port. Brokers are sometimes used, but 
 it is an exception to the usual mode. 
 
 The par of exchange is H per cent. ; the Mexican 
 and Spanish dollar being current by an act of the pro- 
 vincial Legislature (chapter 83 Eevised Statutes), at 
 5s. 2id, or $1 4 J each. The rate of exchange with the 
 United States during the year ranges from 2 to 3i per 
 cent. There are no internal taxes. 
 
 Remuneration for personal services in commerce and 
 trade ranges from £40 to £150 per annum. Mechan- 
 ics, say house carpenters, joiners, etc., from July 1, 
 1853, to June 1, 1854, ninety cents to a dollar per day ; 
 after June 1, 1854, they received $1 50 a day. Ship- 
 wrights, to December 1, 1853, $1 50; from December 
 1, 1853, to 1st July, 1854, $1 75 to $2 per day. Day 
 laborers, up to June 1, 1854, were paid 60, and some- 
 times 70 cents a day. Since the 1st June, 1854, they 
 have received $1 a day. — See North American Review, 
 xix. 127 (J. Sparks), xxx. 121 (C. W. Upham) ; West- 
 minster Review, xix. 300 ; Atnerican Journal of Science, 
 xiv. 306, XV. 132, 301, xxx. 330. 
 
 Nova Zembla (properly Novaia Zemlia, "new 
 land"), an insular region in the Arctic Ocean, consid- 
 ered to be comprised in Europe, and dependent on the 
 Russian government of Archangel, between lat. 70° 30' 
 and 76° 30' N., and long. 52° and 66° E. Length es- 
 
NUT 
 
 1454 
 
 NUT 
 
 timated at 470 miles, and average breadth at 56 miles. 
 It consists of two islands, separated by the channel 
 Matotshkin-shar. Surface on the western side rises 
 generally to 2000 feet, and in some places to from 3200 
 to 3500 feet above the sea; but the eastern shores 
 are comparatively low and barren. Black clay-slate 
 and limestone are the principal constituent rocks, as 
 in the Ural chain, of which Nova Zembla may be con- 
 sidered an insular continuation. Its coasts are fre- 
 quented by walrus hunters in summer, but nowhere 
 permanently inhabited. Subterranean stone laby- 
 rinths of great antiquity have been discovered here. 
 
 Nut, or Hazel-nut (Germ. Haselmisse ; Fr. Noi- 
 settes, Avelines ; It. Naccinole, Avelane ; Sp. Avellanas ; 
 Port. Amliaas; Lat. Avellanm), the fruit of different 
 species of Cori/li, or hazels. The kernels have a mild, 
 farinaceous, oily taste, agreeable to most palates. A 
 kind of chocolate has been prepared from them ; and 
 they have sometimes been made into bread. The ex- 
 pressed oil of hazel-nuts is little inferior to that of 
 almonds. Besides those raised at home, we import 
 nuts from different parts of France, Portugal, and 
 Spain, but principally from the latter. The Spanish 
 nuts in the higliest estimation, though sold under the 
 name of Barcelona nuts, are not really shipped at that 
 city, but at Tarragona, a little more to the south. Mr. 
 Inglis says that the annual average export of nuts from 
 Tarragona is from 25,000 to 30,000 bags, of four to the 
 ton. 
 
 X7uts (Ground) (^Arachis hypogoid), known in 
 French commerce as " arachldes" in America as pea- 
 nuts, and in Africa as Mandubim, the fruit of a papili- 
 onaceous plant, rising to the height of about 15 inch- 
 es, being very like the field pea, with yellow flowers. 
 The branches, after flowering, bend down till they 
 touch the ground, into which they work themselves, 
 and upon them grow the pods that contain the nuts. 
 When the nuts are ripe the plant dies. It is then 
 pulled up, and the nuts which adhere to the twigs 
 are collected. The pods, which are of an elongated 
 figure, about three quarters of an inch in length, and 
 lialf an inch in circumference, and brittle, usuall}' con- 
 tain two nuts, but sometimes only one, and very rare- 
 ly three. They are elliptical at one end and flattened 
 at the other. Ground-nuts are grown in light, sandy 
 soils in most tropical countries. They have been 
 used as food from time immemorial in Africa, India, 
 Brazil, and other parts both of South and North Amer- 
 ica. The best are raised on the banks of the River Gam- 
 bia, where they are extensively grown in large fields, 
 the ground being prepared for their reception by the 
 natives after the rude fashion of the country. The 
 plant is very prolific; it is also said to be highly ex- 
 haustive of the soil, though this is perhaps questionable. 
 Ground-nuts yield large quantities of oil; and with- 
 in the last 20 years they have begun to be grown in 
 Africa as an article of commerce, and are now largely 
 exported for crushing. A mill for expressing oil from 
 them was constructed in London in 1835. But the 
 French Government having a few years after imposed 
 high duties on most descriptions of oil seeds, the oil- 
 crushers of Marseilles and other towns endeavored to 
 find out seeds not included in the tarifl", or less heavily 
 taxed than the others. They were thus led to import 
 "arachides or ground-nuts, which they found to answer 
 extremely well. France has, in consequence, become 
 the great market for this peculiar product. The ex- 
 ports from the Gambia, which in 1835 did not exceed 
 47 tons, had increased in 1851 to not less than about 
 12,000 tons. Of this quantity about 800 tons went to 
 the United States (where they are eaten at dessert, 
 roasted, as are chestnuts elsewhere), 700 tons to En- 
 gland, and the rest to France, principally to Marseilles. 
 The total imports of arachides into France in 1851 
 amounted, according to the official returns, to 16,472,562 
 kilogrammes, or 16,180 tons. 
 
 Nuts are also exported from the Kio Grande, the 
 
 Rio Nunez, and from Sierra Leone, and the adjoining 
 
 rivers. And though there are no accounts of the ex- 
 act quantities sent from each, it is believed that their 
 aggregate amount is fully equal to the exports from 
 the Gambia. Within the last three or four years con- 
 siderable quantities have been shipped from the Senegal 
 River. The oil expressed from the nuts differs in quality 
 and price according to the care with which it is refined. 
 That made in London, which is equal to fine olive oil, 
 sold, in 1853, at from £60 to £62 a ton. In France the 
 oil is principally used in the manufacture of soap ; and 
 being inferior to the former, is only worth from £45 to 
 £48 a ton. Besides being used for the like purposes 
 as other oil in food, in the woolen manufacture, and in 
 lamps, the oil of ground-nuts is said to be especially well 
 fitted for lubricating heavy machinery, including the 
 locomotive engines on railways. The IBelgians use it 
 for this latter purpose in preference to all other oils. 
 Ground-nuts are worth at present (September, 1863) 
 from 380 francs to 390 francs per 1000 kilogrammes (a 
 ton) in Marseilles ; £13 155. a ton in London ; and from 
 £9 to £10 a ton delivered to a French ship in the Gam- 
 bia. Sierra Leone nuts bring from £1 to £2 less than 
 those from the Gambia. 
 
 Nutmeg (Ger. Mushatennusse ; Du. Mushadt; Fr. 
 Muscades, Noix muscades ; It. Noce muscada ; Sp. Mos- 
 cada ; Arab. Jawzalteib ; Sans. Jdtiphala ; Malay, Buah- 
 pala), the fruit of the genuine nutmeg-tree (^Myristica 
 Moschata), a native of the Moluccas, but which has 
 been transplanted to Sumatra, Penang, etc. An infe- 
 rior and long-shaped nutmeg is common in Borneo; 
 but the fruit nowhere attains to the same perfection as 
 in the Moluccas. Of the several varieties of the tree, 
 that denominated the Queen Nutmeg, Avhich bears a 
 small, round fruit, is the best. The kernel, or proper 
 nutmeg, is of a roundish oval form, marked on the out- 
 side with many vermicular furrows, within of a fleshy, 
 farinaceous substance, variegated whitish and bay. 
 Nutmegs are frequently punctured and boiled, in order 
 to obtain the essential oil, the orifice being afterward 
 closed; but the fraud is easily detected by the light- 
 ness of the nutmeg. — Thomson's Dispensatm-y ; Ains- 
 lie's Materia Indica. Nutmegs should be chosen 
 large, round, heavy, and firm, of a lightish gray color 
 on the outside, and the inside beautifully marbled, of 
 a strong fragrant smell, warm aromatic taste, and a 
 fiat, oily body. They are very suiiject to be worm- 
 eaten. The best manner of packing them is in dry 
 chunam. The oblong kind, and the smaller ones, 
 should be rejected. 15 cwt. are allowed to a ton. — 
 Milbuen's Orient. Com. The dried produce of a nut- 
 meg-tree consists of nutmeg, mace (which see'), and 
 shell. Supposing the whole produce to be divided into 
 100 parts, there are 13^- of mace, 33J- of shell, and 53^ 
 of nutmeg. In the ancient commerce, and down to 
 the establishment of the Dutch monopoly, nutmegs 
 were always sold and exported in the shell. The na- 
 tives, whenever the commerce is left to their manage- 
 ment, continue the practice, which is strongly recom- 
 mended by Mr. Crawfurd. — Eastern Archipelago, vol. 
 iii. p. 396. 
 
 The jealous policy of the Dutch has reduced the 
 trade in nutmegs to a mere trifle, compared to what it 
 would otherwise have been. They have, in so far at 
 least as it was possible, exerted themselves to exterm- 
 inate the nutmeg plants every where except in Banda. 
 The aboriginal inhabitants of this island have been ex- 
 patriated, and the land parceled among settlers from 
 Holland, under the name ot parh-Iceepers. These per- 
 sons have about 2000 slaves, who cultivate and prepare 
 the nutmegs. The prices paid by the cultivator are 
 all fixed by Government ; and it deserves to be men- 
 tioned, as affording one of the most striking illustra- 
 tions of the ruinous effects of monopoly, that the fixed 
 price which the Government is now obliged to pay for 
 nutmegs is five times greater than the price at which 
 they bought them when the trade was free! We can not 
 
NUT 
 
 1455 
 
 OAK 
 
 conceive how so enlightened and liberal a Government 
 as that of Holland should continue to tolerate such 
 scandalous abuses, more especially since it has estab- 
 lished a free system in Amboyna, Java, and its other 
 possessions. M. Temminck estimates the produce of 
 the Banda Islands at about 600,000 pounds of nutmegs, 
 and 160,000 pounds of mace. — Possessions NeerlandaUes 
 dans I'Inde Archipelagi^e, iii. 283. During the period 
 that the English had possession of the Spice Islands, 
 nutmeg plants were carried to Penang, Bencoolen, and 
 some of the West India islands. In the latter they 
 have altogether failed, at least as far as respects any 
 useful purpose ; but very good nutmegs, and in consid- 
 erable quantities, are now raised at Penang and Ben- 
 coolen. Mr. Crawfurd, however, alleges that the cost 
 of bringing them to market is there so high, that the 
 restoration of a free culture in the native country of 
 the nutmeg would instantly destroy this unstable and 
 factitious branch of industry. — Eastern A rchipelago, vol. 
 iii. p. 409. See American Journal of Science, xii. 322. 
 
 Statement showing the Lmpoets of Nutmegs into tub 
 United States foe the Yeab ending June 30, 1856. 
 
 Whence importod. 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Holland 
 
 Dutch West Indies 
 
 Dutch East Indies 
 
 Belgium 
 
 England 
 
 British West Indies 
 
 British East Indies 
 
 France on the Atlantic . 
 
 Hayii 
 
 China 
 
 Total. 
 
 Pounde. 
 
 1,27!) 
 
 $851 
 
 269,203 
 
 163,589 
 
 3,970 
 
 1,908 
 
 37,613 
 
 18.530 
 
 11,473 
 
 5,554 
 
 07,923 
 
 41,TC5 
 
 456 
 
 15T 
 
 193,831 
 
 88,556 
 
 18,598 
 
 9,941 
 
 115 
 
 CI 
 
 400 
 
 233 
 
 694,818 $328,133 
 
 Nutria, or Neutria, the commercial names for 
 the skins of Myopotamus Bonaritnsis (Commerson), the 
 Coupon of Molina, and the Quoiya of D'Azara. In 
 France, the sltins were, and perhaps still are, sold un- 
 der the name of racoonda; but in England they are 
 imported as nutria skins — deriving their appellation 
 most probably from some supposed similarity of the 
 animal which produces tliem, in appearance and hab- 
 its, to the otter, the Spanish name for which is nutria. 
 Indeed, Molina speaks of the coypou as a species of wa- 
 ter rat, of tile size and color of the otter. Nutria fur 
 is largely used in the hat manufacture, and has be- 
 come within the last 16 or 20 years an article of very 
 considerable commercial importance. The imports 
 
 fluctuate considerably. In 1841 they amounted to 
 ljl25,212 skins ; but in some years they are much less ; 
 and in 1840 amounted to only 242,733. Those entered 
 for home consumption pay a duty of Is. per 100 .skins. 
 They are principally brought from the Eio de la Plata. 
 — See Fur Trade. 
 
 The coypou or quoiya is a native of South America, 
 very common in the provinces of Chili, Buenos Ayres, 
 and Tucuman, but more rare in Paraguay. In size it 
 is less than the beaver, which it resembles in many 
 points. The head is large and depressed, the ears 
 small and rounded, the neck stout and short, the muz- 
 zle sharper than that of the beaver, and the whiskers 
 very long and stiff. There are, as in the beaver, two 
 incisor teeth, and eighteen molar, above and below — 
 twehty teeth in all. The limbs are short. The fore 
 feet have each five fingers not webbed, the thumb be- 
 'ing very small : the hind feet have the same number 
 of toes; the great toe and tliree next toes being joined 
 by a web which extends to their ends, and the little 
 toe being free, but edged with a membrane on its inner 
 side. The nails are compressed, long, crooked, and 
 sharp. The tail, unlike that of the beaver, is long, 
 round, and hairy; but the hairs are not numerous, and 
 permit the scaly texture of the skin in this part to be 
 seen. The bade is of a brownish red, which becomes 
 redder on the flanks ; the belly is of a dirty red. The 
 edges of the lips and extremity of the muzzle are white. 
 Like the beaver, the coypou is furnished witli two 
 kinds of fur ; viz., the long, ruddy hair wliich gives 
 the tone of color, and the brownish ash-colored fur at 
 its base, which, lilie the down of the beaver, is of much 
 importance in hat-making, and the cause of the ani- 
 mal's commercial value. The coypou is easily domes- 
 ticated, and its manners' in captivity are very mild. 
 
 Nux Vomica (Fr. Noix Vomique; Hind. Kaach- 
 la), the fruit of a ^species of StrycJmos, growing in va- 
 rious places in the East Indies. The fruit is about the 
 size of an orange, covered with a smooth, crustaceous, 
 yellow bark, and filled with a fleshy pulp, in which are 
 imbedded several orbicular, flatted seeds, about three 
 quarters of an inch in diameter. Nux vomica is ino- 
 dorous, and has a very bitter, acrid taste, which re- 
 mains long on the palate. It is known as a very vir- 
 ulent poison. A suspicion has, however, been enter- 
 tained that it has been used in porter breweries; but 
 its introduction into them is prohibited under heavy 
 penalties. — Thomson's Dispensatory, etc. 
 
 o. 
 
 Oak (Ger. Eiche; Du. Eih; Dan. Eeg; Swed. Eh; 
 Fr. Clime ; It. Quercia ; Sp. Eoble, Carhallo ; Port. Bo- 
 Ue, CarballiO ; Kuss. Dub ; Pol. J)ai ; Lat. Qjiercus ; 
 Arab. Baalu(). There are several varieties of this val- 
 uable tree ; but the common English oak (Ciuercus ro- 
 bur) claims precedence of every other. The knotty 
 oak of England, the " unwedgeable and gnarled oak," 
 as Shakspeare called it, when cut down at a proper age 
 (from 50 to 70 years), is the best timber known. Some 
 timber is harder, some more difficult to rend, and some 
 less capable of being broken across, but none contains 
 all the three qualities in so great and equal propor- 
 tions ; and thus, for at once supporting a weight, re- 
 sisting a strain, and not splintering by a cannon shot, 
 the timber of the oak is superior to every other. 
 
 A fine oak is one of the most picturesque of trees ; 
 it conveys to the mind associations of great strength, 
 and of all but endless duration. It stands up against 
 the blast, and does not take, like other trees, a twisted 
 form from the action of the winds. Except the Cedar 
 of Lebanon, no tree is so remarkable for the stoutness 
 of its limbs ; they do not exactly spring from the trunk, 
 but divide from it ; and thus it is sometimes difficult 
 to know which is stem and which is branch. The 
 twisted branches of the oak, too, add greatly to its 
 
 beauty; and the horizontal direction of its boughs, 
 spreading over a large surface, completes the idea of 
 its sovereignty over all tlie trees of the forest. Even 
 a decayed oak, such as that described by Spenser : 
 
 " dry and dead. 
 
 Still clad with reliques of its trophies old. 
 Lifting to heaven its aged, hoary head, 
 Wliose foot on earth has got but feeble hold," 
 
 is strikingly beautiful. To such an oak Lucan com- 
 pared Pompey in his decline : 
 
 "Quails frugifero quercus sublimis in agro 
 Exuvius veteres populi, sacrataque gestans 
 Dona ducum ; nee jam validis radicibuB hKrens, 
 Pondere fixa suo est ; nudosqne per aera ramoa 
 Effundens, trunco, non frondibus, efiicit umbram. 
 At quamvis primo nutet casura sub Euro, 
 Tot circum silvae firmo se rohore toUant, 
 Sola tamen colitur."— (Lib. i. lin. 136.) 
 
 The oak is raised from acorns, sown either where the 
 oak is to stand, or in a nursery, whence the young trees 
 are transplanted. The color of oak wood is a fine 
 brown, and is familiar to every one ; it is of different 
 shades ; that inclined to red is the most inferior. The 
 larger transverse septa are in general very distinct, 
 producing beautiful flowers when cut obliquely. Where 
 
OAK 
 
 1456 
 
 OAT 
 
 the septa are small, and not very distinct, the wood is 
 much the strongest. The texture is alternatelj' com- 
 pact and porous ; the compact part of the annual ring 
 being of the darkest color, and in irregular dots sur- 
 rounded by open pores, producing beautiful dark veins 
 in some kinds, particularly pollard oaks. Oak timber 
 has a particular smell, and the taste is slightly astrin- 
 gent. It contains gallic acid, aud is blackened by con- 
 tact with iron when it is damp. The young wood of 
 English oak is very tough, often cross-grained, and 
 difficult to work. Foreign wood, and that of old trees, 
 is more brittle and workable. Oak warps and twists 
 much in drying, and, in seasoning, shrinks about 
 l-32d of its width. Oak of a good quality is more du- 
 rable than any other wood that attains a like size. 
 Vitruvius says it is of eternal duration when driven 
 into the earth : it is extremely durable in water ; and 
 in a dry state it has been known to last nearly 1000 
 years. The more compact it is, and the smaller the 
 pores are, the longer it will last. 
 
 Remarkahle Oaki. — The oldest oak in England stands 
 in the most ancient park, belonging to the Duke of 
 Portland. It is called the Parliament Oak, for it is 
 said that Edward I. held a Parliament under its branch- 
 es. It is supposed to be 1500 years old. Another re- 
 markable oak is at Welbeck Abbey, in Nottingham- 
 shire, which is famous for its oaks. This tree is called 
 "The Duke's Walking-stick." It is 112 feet high. 
 Three others of these noble trees claim attention for 
 their extraordinary size and longevity, of which the 
 Greeudale Oak is the largest. Through its trunk a 
 coach road is cut, and its branches cover a space of 700 
 square yards. The Two Porters, standing near one 
 of the park entrances, are each 100 feet high ; the 
 third is called the Seven Sisters, from its having seven 
 stems rising 90 feet in height from the trunk. The 
 Cathorpe Oak, in Yorkshire, is noted as being tlie larg- 
 est oak in England. Its girth is 78 feet. — The Half 
 Holiday. 
 
 The supply of oak timber in this country is plentiful, 
 but not inexhaustible, and care should be taken to pre- 
 serve the forests, and, by a judicious use of the timber, 
 avoid the great waste that has been going on ; for 
 upon a supply of this lumber depends, in a measure, 
 our success as a maritime nation. Though some prej- 
 udice has existed in Europe against the quality of our 
 oak timber, it is now conceded by all to be unsurpassed. 
 By means of the Mississippi Eiver and its tributaries 
 we are enabled to use with advantage the oak forest on 
 the western slope of the AUeghanies, and even in the 
 forest of Michigan, and the AVest will soon be a rival 
 to the East in ship-building. Kentucky especially 
 abounds in the finest oak forests, as yet unmolested, 
 but destined to add greatly to our wealth. — See Ship 
 and Ship Building. 
 
 Gall-nut Oak (Quercus infectoria), a native of Per- 
 sia, Asia Minor, Arabia, Egypt, Morocco, and Alge- 
 ria, in its natural habitat, is an evergreen shrub, with 
 a very crooked stem, and seldom attains six feet in 
 height. From the circumstance of its growing near 
 Paris, where it bears the winter quite well in the open 
 air, though losing its leaves in the autumn, it doubt- 
 less would be adapted to the climate of our Middle and 
 Southern States. On this shrub is found the well- 
 known "gall-nuts" of commerce, which are extensive- 
 ly used in the manufacture of writing-ink and in dye- 
 ing. These excrescences are the product of the gall-fly 
 (Ci/nips scriptorum), a small insect of a dale-brown col- 
 or, which may often be found inclosed in the galls sold 
 in the shops of the druggists, collected before the fly 
 had made its escape. There are two kinds of gall-nuts 
 known in commerce; those which still contain the in- 
 sect, and are known in the trade under the names 
 of "Black," "Blue," or "Green" galls, termed yerly 
 by the natives of the country in which they are col- 
 lected ; and those from which the insect has escaped, 
 and which are called " White" galls. The latter con- 
 
 tain not more than two-thirds of the astringent quali- 
 ties of the former, and are of a pale-brown or whitish 
 color, being not so heavy and less compact. 
 
 The ^E</il'/ps, or Valonia Oak (Quercus ajgilops), is 
 indigenous to the islands of the Archipelago, and, in- 
 deed, to all Greece, and often grows to a heiglit of lifty 
 or sixty feet. It is perfectly hardy in the climate of 
 England, from which it may be inferred that it also 
 would grow in favorable localities in our JUiddle and 
 Southern States. The cups and acorns of this tree are 
 annually conveyed to Europe, where they are in great 
 demand for tanning, and are believed to contain more 
 tannin than any other vegetable, in proportion to their 
 bulk. These acorns, which are commonly called " Va- 
 lonia," form a very considerable article of export of 
 the jMorea and the Levant, being worth in England 
 from $C0 to $70 a ton. The more substance there is 
 in the husks, or cups, of these acorns the better. They 
 are of p, bright-drab color, which they pi'eserve as long 
 as they are kept dry ; but dampness inj ures them, as 
 tliey turn black, and become impaired, both in quality 
 and strength. A kind of gall is found on this tree 
 somewliat similar to that on the Quercus infectoria, and 
 which is employed for the same purposes. These galls 
 are rugose, of an angular form, and are either the fruit 
 itself, distorted by the puncture of the insect (Cynips 
 quercus calycis), or merely the scaly cup which is en- 
 larged into a gall. 
 
 Oa^um, the substance into which old ropes are re- 
 duced when they are untwisted, loosened, and drawn 
 asunder. It is principally used in calking the seams, 
 tree-nails, and bends of a ship, for stopping or prevent- 
 ing leaks. 
 
 Oar, a long piece of timber, long at one end, and 
 round or square at the other, used to make a vessel ad- 
 vance upon the water. The flat part, which is dipped 
 into the water, is called the hlade, and that which is 
 within the board is termed the Inom, whose extremity, 
 being small enough to be grasped by the rowers, is 
 called the handle. To push the boat or vessel forward 
 by means of this instrument, the rowers turn their 
 backs forward, and, dipping the blade of the oar in the 
 water, pull the handle forward, so that the blade, at the 
 same time, may move aft in the water. But, since the 
 blade can not be so moved without striking the water, 
 this impulsion is the same as if the water were to strike 
 the blade from the stern toward the head ; the vessel is 
 therefore necessarily moved according to the direction. 
 Hence it follows that it will advance with the greater 
 rapidity by as much as the oar strikes the water more 
 forcibly ; consequently, an oar acts upon the side of a 
 boat or vessel like a lever of the second class, whose 
 fulcrum is the station upon which the oar rests on the 
 boat's gunwale. 
 
 Oats (Ger. Ilafer; Du. Haver; Dan. Havre; Swed. 
 Hafre;'Fr.Avoine; It. Vena, Avena ; Sp. Avena; Port. 
 Avea; Buss. Owes; Pol. Owies), a species of grain, the 
 Avena saliva of botanists. There arc innumerable va- 
 rieties of this grain. It is the hardiest of all the cereal 
 grasses, growing luxuriantly in cold northern climates, 
 and in coarse mountainous districts, where neitherwheat 
 nor barley can be advantageously cultivated. It thrives 
 best, and is, indeed, chiefly raised, in northern lati- 
 tudes; being but little known in the south of Europe. 
 In Scotland it forms a large part of the food of the peo- 
 ple, and is far more generally cultivated than any other 
 species of grain. There are four leading varieties of 
 this grain cultivated; viz., white, black, gray, and 
 brown or red oats. The sub-varieties of the white 
 are numerous. That denominated the potato oat is 
 at present almost the only one raised on land in a 
 good state of cultivation in the north of England and 
 the south of Scotland, and usually brings a higher 
 price in the London market than any other variety. 
 It was accidentally discovered growing in a field of 
 potatoes in Cumberland in 1788 ; and from the prod- 
 uce of that single stalk has been obtained the stock 
 
OAT 
 
 1457 
 
 OCE 
 
 now in general cultivation. Blade and gray oats are 
 little cultivated, except in some places in the north of 
 Scotland. The red oat is chiefly confined to Chesh- 
 ire, Derbyshire, and Staffordshire. A species of na- 
 ked oats, provincially called pillar, is raised in Corn- 
 wall. — Loudon's Encychp&dia uf Agriculture; Bkowk's 
 Rural Economy. 
 
 The oat, when considered in connection witli the 
 artificial grasses and the nourishment and improve- 
 ment it affords to live stock, may be regarded as one 
 of the most important crops we produce. Its history 
 is highly interesting, from the circumstance that, wliile 
 in many portions of Europe, when ground into meal, 
 it forms an important aliment for man, one sort at least 
 has been cultivated from the days of Pliny on account 
 of its superior fitness as an article of diet for the sick. 
 The country of its origin is somewhat uncertain, though 
 the most common variety is said to be indigenous to 
 the island of Juan Fernandez. Another oat, resem- 
 bling the cultivated varietj-, is also found growing 
 wild in California. This plant was introduced into the 
 North American colonies soon after their settlement 
 by the English. It was sown by Gosnold, on the Eliz- 
 abetli Islands, in 1G02; cultivated in Newfoundland in 
 1622, and in Virginia, by Berkeley, prior to 1648. 
 
 The oat is a hardy grain, and is suited to climates 
 too hot and too cold either for wheat or rye. Indeed, 
 its flexibility is so great, that it is cultivated with suc- 
 cess in Bengal, as low as latitude 25 degrees north, but 
 refuses to yield profitable crops as we approach the 
 equator. It flourishes remarlcably well when due re- 
 gard is paid to the selection of varieties, throughout 
 the inhabited parts of Europe, the northern and central 
 portions of Asia, Australia, Southern and Northern Afri- 
 ca, the cultivated regions of nearly all North America, 
 and a largo portion of South America. 
 
 In this country the growth of the oat is confined 
 principally to theMiddle, Western, andNorthern States. 
 The varieties cultivated are the common white, the 
 black, the gray, the imperial, the Hopetown, the, Po- 
 lish, the Egyptian, and the potato oat. The yield of 
 the common varieties varies from forty to ninety bush- 
 els and tipward per acre, weighing from twenty-five to 
 fifty pounds to the busliel. The Egyptian oat is culti- 
 vated south of Tennessee, which, after being sown in 
 autumn and fed off by stock in winter and spring, 
 yields from ten to twenty bushels per acre. In the 
 manufacture of malt and spirituous liquors oats enter 
 but lightly, and their consumption for this purpose 
 does not exceed sixty tliousand bushels annually in 
 the United States. It will be seen by the following 
 exhibit that New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Virginia, 
 and Illinois are the largest producers of oats, and in 
 the order in which they are here placed. 
 
 PUODUOTION OF OaTS IN THE I'nITED STATES DnRINQ THE 
 
 Year JS5f). 
 
 Stntes And Torri- 
 loriefl. 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 California 
 
 Columljia, D. of 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Florida. 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 T.onisiana 
 
 Maine 
 
 Mainland ; 
 
 MaEsachuBctts . . 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Oats, 
 BusLela. 
 
 2,965,696 
 656,183 
 
 8,134 
 
 1,253,T38 
 
 604,518 
 
 66,&S6 
 3,820,044 
 10,087,241 
 5,655,014 
 1,524,345 
 8,201,311 
 
 89,637 
 2,181,037 
 2,242,151 
 1,165,146 
 2,866,05a 
 1,603,288 
 
 states and Terri- 
 tories. 
 
 Missouri 
 
 N. Hampshire. 
 New Jersey . . . 
 
 New York 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Pennsylvania. . 
 Khode Island. . 
 South Carolina 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Texas 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Virginia 
 
 Wisconsin .... 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 New Mexico. .. 
 
 Oregon 
 
 Utah 
 
 Total buBhels|146,678,890 
 
 5,278,079 
 
 973,581 
 
 3,318,063 
 
 26,552,814 
 
 4,052,078 
 
 13,472,742 
 
 21,538,156 
 
 215,232 
 
 2,322,155 
 
 7,703,086 
 
 199,017 
 
 2,307,784 
 
 10,179,144 
 
 3,414,672 
 
 30,682 
 
 6 
 
 61,214 
 
 10,900 
 
 The oat, like rye, never has entered much into our 
 foreign commerce, as the domestic consumption has al- 
 ways been nearly equal to the quantity produced. The 
 aniiual average exports, for several years -preceding 
 4Z 
 
 1817, were seventy thousand bushels. By the Census 
 returns of 1840, it will be seen that the total produce 
 of the United States was 123,000,000 bushels ; of 1850, 
 146,678,890 bushels.— UnUed States Patent Office Meport. 
 
 A few years since the oat crop of the Western States 
 sold at 30 or 40 cents per bushel. At the present time 
 (October, 1866), owing to the larger numljer of horses 
 employed in the West and the East, the price is steady 
 at 40 to 60 cents in the West ; and 45 to 50 cents in the 
 States of New England and New York. 
 
 Observatories. The first is supposed to have 
 been on the top of the temple of Belus, at Babylon. 
 On the tomb of Osymandias, in Egypt, was another, 
 and it contained a golden circle 200 feet in diameter: 
 that at Benares was at least as ancient as these. The 
 first in authentic history was at Alexandria, about 300 
 B.C. The first in modern times was at Cassel, 1561. 
 The Royal Observatory at Greenwich was founded by 
 Charles II. a.d. 1675 ; and from the meridian of Green- 
 wich all English astronomers make their calculations. 
 
 A.n. 
 
 First modern meridional iDstrument, by Copernicus 1540 
 
 First observatory at Cassel 1561 
 
 Tycho Bralie's, at Uranibourg 1576 
 
 Astronomical torfer at Copenhagen 1657 
 
 Royal (French). 1667 
 
 Royal Observatory at Greenwich 1675 
 
 ObsGivatory at; Nuremberg 1678 
 
 At Utrecht 1 690 
 
 Berlin, erected under Leibnitz's direction 1711 
 
 At Bologna 1714 
 
 At Petersburg 17-5 
 
 Oxford, Dr.Eadcliffe 1772 
 
 Dublin, Dr. Andrews 1783 
 
 Cambridge, England 1824 
 
 Observatories in the United States. 
 
 Yale College, New Haven, Conn 1828-1830 
 
 Williams' College, Massachusetts 1836-1837 
 
 Western Reserve College, Hudson, Ohio 1837-1838 
 
 Military Academy, West Point, New York 1837-1838 
 
 High School, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 1840-1842 
 
 National Observatory, Washington, D. C 1842-1844 
 
 Georgetown College Observatory, D, C 1843-1844 
 
 Cincinnati Observatory, Ohio 1843-1844 
 
 Cambridge Observatory, Massachusetts 1845-1847 
 
 Sharon Observatory, near Philadelphia, Penn. . . . 1845-1846 
 
 Tuscaloosa Observatory, Alabama 1843 
 
 Lewis M. Rutherford'sObBei-vatory, New York City .... 
 
 Dartmouth College Observatory, New Hampshire 
 
 Amherst College, Observatory, Massachusetts 
 
 Shelbyville, Kentucky 
 
 Dudley Obseivatory, Albany, New York 1855-185C 
 
 — See Christian Jieview,v. 89; North American Review, 
 viii. 205, Ixix. 143 (B. A. Gobld); American Journal 
 of Science, xlvii. 88, xii. N. S. 295 ; Edinburgh Review, 
 xci. 159 ; Southern Literary Messenger, xiv. 4 (Lieuten- 
 ant Mauby), XV. 304; Professor LooMis's "Recent 
 Progress of Astronomy," New York, 1850. 
 
 Ocean (Gr. uKeavos.") In Geographj', the vast 
 body of water which surrounds the continents, and is 
 the receptacle of all their running waters. It is divided 
 by geographers into five great basins ; viz., the Pacific 
 Ocean (so called by reason of its comparative stillness), 
 which separates Asia from America, and is the largest 
 of all the basins; 2. The Atlantic Ocean, which has 
 Europe and Africa on its eastern shore, and America 
 on its western; 3. The Indian Ocean, which washes 
 the south of Asia, and the ^outh-eastern coast of Africa ; 
 4. The Arctic Ocean, which surrounds the north pole ; 
 and, 5. The Antarctic, which surrounds the south pole. 
 Other sni#ller portions of the great connected body of 
 water are called seas, of which the Mediterranean, the 
 German, the Baltic, and Black seas, are the most con- 
 siderable. The superficial extent of the several great 
 basins is not known with any certainty, nor, indeed, 
 can their limits be exactly defined. From the nearest 
 estimation that can be made of the extent of the con- 
 tinents and principal islands, it is supposed that near- 
 ly three-fourths of the whole surface of the globe are 
 covered by water. The Pacific Ocean alone exceeds 
 the whole surface of the dry land. 
 
 Depth of the Ocean. — If the superficial extent of the 
 ocean can not be easily ascertained, it will readily 
 
OCE 
 
 1458 
 
 OCE 
 
 be supposed that its depth is a problem of much great- 
 er difficulty. The bottom appears, wherever it has 
 been reached by the sounding-line, to have similar in- 
 equalities to those of the surface of the land : hence 
 the depth must be extremely various ; and it might 
 be supposed from analogy that the greatest depth of 
 the ocean is at least equai to the height of the highest 
 mountains above its surface. Lord Mulgrave found 
 no bottom in the North Atlantic Ocean with a sound- 
 ing-line of 4680 feet, and Mr. Scoresby sounded to the 
 depth of 7200 feet without the lead touching the 
 ground. These experiments are not altogether to be 
 depended on for the determination of such great depths ; 
 for, the pressure becoming very great, the lead may be 
 drawn out of the perpendicular direction by currents, 
 of which it may encounter more than one, flowing in 
 different directions. Over a great portion of the At- 
 lantic and Pacific oceans no bottom has been found. 
 The depth of the ocean, in general, and the form of the 
 bed on which it rolls, can not, therefore, be determined 
 by experiment. The mathematical theory of the os- 
 cillations of fluids has, however, thrown some light on 
 the subject. Laplace demonstrated that the difference 
 which is indicated by observation between the height 
 of two consecutive tides depends on the law of the 
 depth of the sea, and that, but for the influence of 
 accessory circumstances, it would disappear altogeth- 
 er if the depth were constant. It follows, therefore, 
 that, since the difference between the consecutive 
 tides is extremely small, the depth of the sea, taking 
 in a large extent of ocean, must be nearly uniform ; 
 that is to say, there must be a certain mean depth from 
 which the variations are not considerable. — Mec. Ce- 
 leste, book xiii. 
 
 Level of the Ocean. — Were it not for the disturbing 
 actions of the sun and moon, and of the winds, the 
 level of the ocean would be every where the same, and 
 its surface would have the form determined by the 
 attraction of the whole mass of the earth, combined 
 with the centrifugal force belonging to its velocity of 
 rotation ; that is to say, the surface would be that of 
 an oblate spheroid of revolution. This uniformity, 
 however, can never be established. The tide at every 
 instant is at different heights in different parts of the 
 ocean ; and therefore the form of the surface, within 
 the limits of the rise and fall of the tides, is variable. 
 But even if we neglect the alternate rise and fall of the 
 water which constitutes the tides, and take the sur- 
 face of the ocean at its mean height, it is found by 
 accurate leveling that all its parts do not coincide with 
 the surface of the same spheroid. Gulfs and inland 
 seas, wliich communicate with the ocean by narrow 
 openings, are affected acccording to their position with 
 regard to the prevailing winds. The level of the Red 
 Sea was found, by the French engineers in Egypt, to 
 bo 32 i feet higher than that of the Mediterranean, 
 which is supposed to be a little lower than the ocean. 
 Humboldt concluded, from observations made on the 
 Isthmus of Panama, that the waters of the Gulf of 
 Mexico are about two feet higher than those of the 
 Pacific Ocean. The Baltic and Black seas rise in 
 spring from the great quantity of river water poured 
 into them, and are lowered in summer by the Joint 
 effects of a small supply and increased evaporation. 
 
 Cohr of the Ocean. — The usual color of the ocean is 
 a bluish green, of a darker tint at a distance from land, 
 and clearer toward the shores. According to Mr. 
 Scoresby, the hue of the Greenland Sea varies from 
 ultramarine blue to olive green, and from the purest 
 transparency to great opacity. The surface of the 
 Mediterranean, in its upper part, is said to have at 
 times a purple tint. In the Gulf of Guinea the sea 
 sometimes appears white ; about the Maldive Islands 
 black ; and near California it has a reddish appearance. 
 Various causes co-operate to produce this diversity of 
 tint. The prevailing blue color may be ascribed to 
 the greater refrangibility of the blue rays of light, 
 
 which, by reason of that property, pass in greatest 
 abundance through the water. The other colors are 
 ascribed to the existence of vast numbers of minute 
 animalcula; ; to marine vegetables at or near the sur- 
 face ; to the color of the soil, the infusion of earthy 
 substances ; and very frequently the tint is modified 
 by the aspect of the sky. The phosphorescent or 
 shining appearance of the ocean, which is a common 
 phenomenon; is also ascribed to animalculse, and to 
 semi-putrescent matter diffused through the water. 
 
 Temperature of the Oceara.— Water being a slow con- 
 ductor of heat, the temperature of the ocean is much 
 more uniform than that of the atmosphere. - At a cer- 
 tain distance from the equator, it follows, though not 
 very closely, the mean temperature of the correspond- 
 ing latitudes, the solar action being greatly modified 
 by the existence of currents which convey the tem- 
 perature of one region to another; so that at any 
 place the temperature of the water depends, in some 
 measure, on the direction of the currents. 1\'ithin the 
 tropics the mean temperature at the surface is about 
 80° of Fahrenheit, and generally ranges between 77° 
 and 84°. At great depths the temperature is probably 
 nearly the same under every latitude. In the torrid 
 zone it is found to diminish with the depth ; in the 
 polar seas it increases with the depth ; and aboiU the 
 latitude of 70° it is nearly constant at all depths. But 
 the small number of observations which have yet been 
 made on this subject do not indicate any uniform law, 
 according to which the variations of temperature at dif- 
 ferent depths is regulated. 
 
 Saltness of the Ocean. — The ocean holds in solution 
 a variety of saline matters, of which by far the most 
 abundant is common salt, constituting, in general, 
 about two-thirds of the whole. The saltness of sea- 
 water at particular places is influenced by temporary 
 causes — storms, for example ; as well as by the neigh- 
 borhood of large rivers, and permanent accumulations 
 of ice. A series of experiments on this subject were 
 made some years ago by the late Dr. Marcet, and the 
 following are the general conclusions which he deduced 
 from them: 1. That the Southern Ocean contains more 
 salt than the Northern Ocean, in the ratio of 1-02919 to 
 1'02757. 2. That the mean specific gravity of sea- 
 water near the equator is 1*02777. 3. That there is 
 no notable diflference between sea-water under differ- 
 ent meridians. 4. That there is no satisfactory evi- 
 dence that the sea at great depths is more salt than at 
 the surface. 5. That the sea, in general, contains more 
 salt where it is deepest, and that its saltness is always 
 diminished in the vicinity of large masses of ice. 6. 
 Tliat small inland seas, though communicating with 
 the ocean, are much less salt than the ocean. 7. That 
 the Mediterranean contains rather larger proportions 
 of salt than the ocean. — Philosophical Transacti^ms, 
 1819; Pkout's Bridgewater Treatise; Brande's Dic- 
 tionary. The peculiar bitter taste of sea-water does 
 not appear to belong to it beyond a certain depth, and 
 is ascribed to the vegetable and animal matter held in 
 a state of decomposition near the surface. — See Tides, 
 Atlantic Ocean, Gulf Stkeam, and Soundings; 
 Massachusetts Quarterly, ii. 308 ; American Journal of 
 Science, v. 128, v. N. S. 41 ; Foreign Quarterly, xiv. 3()U. 
 Oceanica. Geographers have divided '■ Ocean- 
 ica" into three distinct portions; viz., JIalaysia, Aus- 
 tralasia, and Polynesia. So comparatively little is 
 known of its component parts, that it is only possible 
 to state the statistics of such countries as most fre- 
 quently come under the notice of civilized nations, and 
 this is done in the annexed accounts : 
 
 I. Malaysia. — This portion includes most of the isl- 
 ands of the Indian Archipelago, and has its name from 
 the fact that the Malay race are its most prominent 
 inhabitants. Malaysia is naturally composed of five 
 grand divisions. 
 
 1. Sumatra, Java, Bali, Sumbawa, and about two- 
 thirds of the western portion of Borneo as far as 116° 
 
OCE 
 
 1459 
 
 ODE 
 
 E. long. ; 2. Celebes, with the smaller islands about its 
 coast, and the eastern, portion of Borneo up to 3° N. 
 lat. ; 3. The Spice Islands ; 4. The Soo-loo Archipela- 
 go, Mindanao, and the northeast corner of Borneo ; 
 and, 5. The Philippine Islands. 
 
 These several divisions are peculiar in physical 
 formation, in climate, productions, and inhabitants. 
 
 II. Austraiasia extends from 1° N. to 55° S. lat., 
 and from 112° to 180° E. long., and its components are, 
 Australia or New Holland, Van Diemen's Land, New 
 Zealand, Papua or New Guinea, New Britain, New 
 Ireland, the Arru Islands, Solomon Islands, New Cale- 
 donia, New Hebrides, Queen Charlotte's Islands, New 
 Hanover, Admiralty Islands, and many smaller islands 
 scattered over the intervening seas. 
 
 III. Polynesia includes the numerous groups of isl- 
 ands scattered over the Pacific between Asia, Malay- 
 sia, and Australasia on the west and southwest, and 
 the western coast of America. The following is the 
 most approved classification of these groups : the Be- 
 nin or Arzobispo Islands, the Ladrone or Marian Isl- 
 ands, the Caroline Islands, the Feejee Islands, the 
 Tonga or Friendly Islands, Navigator's or Samoa Isl- 
 ands, Cook's or the Hervey Islands, the Society, Geor- 
 gian, and Low Islands, tlie Austral Islands, the Mar- 
 quesas and Washington Islands, the Hawaiian or Sand- 
 wich Islands, the Kermadec Isles, and scattered and 
 isolated islands, among which are Gambier Islands, 
 Pitcairn Island, etc., etc. The Malaysian, with the 
 exception of the Philippine Islands, belong chiefly to 
 Holland, and, according to the latest official reports, 
 the following are the statistics of the Dutch posses- 
 sions ; The superficies of Netherlands India is 27,892 
 square geographical, or 36,887 American miles. The 
 population of Java and Madura, exclusive of the army, 
 is 9,584,130; viz., Europeans, etc., 16,409; Chinese, 
 119,481 ; other easterns, 27,687 ; and natives, 9,420,553. 
 Sumatra has 3,430,000 inhabitants ; Banka and depend- 
 encies, 50,000 ; Rhio and dependencies, 70,000 ; Bor- 
 neo and dependencies, 1,200,000 ; Celebes, 300,000 ; Mo- 
 lucca Islands and dependencies, 718,500 ; Timor and 
 dependencies, 800,000; Bali and Limbok, 1,205,000. 
 Total, 10,473,500. Total population of Dutch India, 
 20,057,630. Great Britain is the first power in Ajistrai- 
 asia. The statistics of the following colonies refer to 
 the commencement of the year 1851 : 
 
 same throughout America and throughout the world. 
 In 1853 the islands were visited by small-pox, and 
 about 6000 died of the epidemic. A new census was 
 taken at the commencement of 1854. The extent of 
 the cultivation of sugar in these islands is shown in 
 the annexed table : 
 
 Popula- 
 tion. 
 
 New South Wales. . 192,000 j 
 
 Victoria; T7,360 | 
 
 South Australia .. . 6T,430 
 
 West Australia 5,886 
 
 Van Diemen's Land] 70,130 
 
 Vnlue of 
 Imports. 
 
 2,0TS,.S38 
 
 845,572 
 
 52,351 
 
 1,232,272 
 
 Value of 
 Exporfa. 
 
 2,339,580 
 
 670,816 
 
 22,134 
 
 1,172,530 
 
 Tonnage 
 onteroa. 
 
 234,215 
 
 80,533 
 15,983 
 203,081 
 
 Of the exports, as above, the following is the value 
 of wool from each colony in 1850 : New Soutli Wales 
 and Victoria, £1,614,241 ; South Australia, .£131,730 ; 
 West Australia, £15,482 ; and Van Diemen's Land, 
 £451,203. The value of minerals, chiefly copper, from 
 South Australia in the same year was £362,568. Since 
 the above returns gold has been discovered in Austra- 
 lia, and the fields have been more productive than 
 those of California. The quantity yielded in the year 
 ending 30th December, 1852, was 3,998,321 ounces, val- 
 ued at over £16,000,000, or $75,000,000. The popula- 
 tion and every interest has increased, and perhaps 
 doubled, under the stimulating influence of this show- 
 er of gold. Among the islands of Polynesia the Sand- 
 wich Islands hold the first rank, whether viewed in re- 
 lation to iheir position, products, population, or civil- 
 ization. The population in January, 1849, was 80,641. 
 The excess of deaths over births in 1848 had been 6465, 
 or 8 per cent. About 10,000 died of measles and hoop- 
 ing-cough in 1847-'8. At this rate of mortality the 
 population in 1860 would be 32,224 ; in 1870, 14,073 ; 
 in 1830, 6134 ; in 1890, 2667 ; and in 1900, only 1162. 
 In 1950 the Hawaiian race would be extinct. Such is 
 the influence of civilization on aboriginal races — the 
 
 Lihue 
 
 Koloa 
 
 Houahula, Maui. . 
 Makawuo, *' . . 
 
 Hana 
 
 Waimea, Hawaii . 
 
 Hilo 
 
 Total . 
 
 Acres CiiUi7ai«cl. 
 
 200 
 240 
 250 
 325 
 46 
 60 
 640 
 
 1650 
 
 _1B63^ 
 
 "680 
 660 
 300 
 BOO 
 ISO 
 60 
 640 
 
 2760 
 
 Average yield per acre, 2000 lbs. ; average value, five 
 cents per lb. 
 
 The Polynman of 29 th January, 1853, referring to 
 the year just passed, furnishes the following relating 
 to the commerce of these islands : 
 
 ^^ Imparts, — There is a large falling ofi' in the value 
 and amount of goods imported for consumption. The 
 value of goods imported, as compared with previous 
 years, is as follows : 
 
 ISSO. 1851. 1862. 
 
 $1,036,058 70 $1,823,821 63 $759,868 64 
 
 — giving as an average of imports for three years, 
 $1,206,249. 
 
 " Erports. — The following comparison of some of the 
 staple exports for the islands with those of former 
 years shows at a glance that the exports for 1852 do 
 not equal those of 1850, though a large gain on those 
 of 1851 is apparent. 
 
 staples. 
 
 1850. 
 
 1851. 
 
 1862. 
 
 Sugar 
 
 pounds. 
 
 750,>i38 
 
 721.030 
 
 729,677 
 
 Syrup .... 
 
 gallons. 
 
 75,577 
 
 60,111 
 
 86,875 
 
 Molasses.. 
 
 " 
 
 63,855 
 
 13,631 
 
 40,000 
 
 Coffee 
 
 pounds. 
 
 208,428 
 
 37,190 
 
 117,210 
 
 Salt 
 
 bushes. 
 
 7,652 
 
 3,769 
 
 7,118 
 
 " The custom-house receipts in 1850 amounted to 
 $121,506 73 ; in 1851, to $160,602 19 ; and in 1852, to 
 $113,091 93 ; the receipts of the latter year thus show- 
 ing a decrease of $47,510 26 as compared with 1851, 
 and of $7414 80 as compared with 1850. The number 
 of merchant-vessels that visited the islands in 1850 
 was 469 ; in 1851, 446 ; and in 1852, 235. It is impos- 
 sible," adds the Polynesian, " to give the number of 
 ' whalers' that have visited the islands in 1852, but the 
 number is about 300, which is much more than the 
 number in 1851 or 1850. It may be added here, in re- 
 gard to the number of merchant-vessels in 1850 and 
 1851, that a large proportion of them were small ves- 
 sels engaged in the potato trade, while in 1852 the ves- 
 sels have been generally of a larger class. Another 
 reason for the large number given in 1850 and 1851 
 was the fact that vessels more generally then touched 
 at several ports, which would increase the number in 
 the custom-house returns, though in fact it should not. 
 The ports being now more generally known, vessels for 
 produce go directly to the port where they can obtain 
 their cargoes." In a commercial point of view, as an 
 entrepot between the western coast of America and 
 Eastern Asia, these islands are of the greatest import- 
 ance ; and in view of the vast commerce now spring- 
 ing up in the Pacific, and which will eventually revo- 
 lutionize the trade of the world, it is possible that the 
 United States may see fit to accept the offer to annex 
 them to the national territory. Already the question has 
 been before Congress. — American Statistical Annual. 
 
 Odessa, a flourishing sea-port of Southern Russia, 
 on the northwest coast of the Black Sea, between the 
 rivers Dneister and Bug, in lat. 46° 28' 54" N., long. 
 30° 43' 22" E. Population in 1850, 78,000. The found- 
 ations of Odessa were laid so lately as 1792, by order 
 of the Empress Catharine, after the peace of Jassy. It 
 was intended to serve as an entrepot for the commerce 
 of the Russian dominions on the Black Sea and the Sea 
 
ODE 
 
 1460 
 
 ODE 
 
 of Azof, and has in a great measure answered the ex- 
 pectations of its founders. By an imperial ukase, dated 
 the 7th of February, 1817, it was declared a free port, 
 and the inhabitants exempted from taxation for thirty 
 years ; since which period its increase has been ex- 
 tremely rapid. The bay or roadstead of Odessa is ex- 
 tensive, the water deep, and the anchorage good, the 
 bottom being fine sand and gravel ; it is, however, ex- 
 posed to the southeasterly wind, which renders it less 
 safe in winter. The port, which is artificial, being 
 formed by two moles, one of which projects to a con- 
 siderable distance into, the sea, is fitted to contain 
 about 300 ships. It has also the advantage of deep 
 water. There is a convenient lazaretto, on the model 
 of that of Marseilles. The want of fresh water used to 
 be the greatest disadvantage under which the inhabit- 
 ants labored ; but this has been obviated by the con- 
 struction of a canal, which, conveys an abundant sup- 
 ply of water into the town. There are no trees in the 
 vicinity, which has, in consequence, a bleak and arid 
 appearance. 
 
 Light-houses. — A light-house has been erected on 
 Cape Fontan, about G4 nautical miles south of Odessa. 
 The light, which formerly revolved, is now fixed, and 
 is about 203 (Russian) feet above the level of the sea. 
 At the distance of eleven leagues S.E. by E. J E. from 
 Odessa, on the north end of the long, narrow, low isl- 
 and of Tendra, a light-house has been erected, of great 
 use to ships approaching Odessa from the south or west. 
 The lantern is elevated 92^ (Russian) feet above the 
 level of the sea. It consists of three reflecting lights, 
 suspended in the form of a triangle, revolving in the 
 space of four minutes, so that each lamp arrives at its 
 maximum of brilliancy after an interval of one minute, 
 twenty seconds. Being also of a red color, this light 
 is readily distinguished from Fontan light, and the oth- 
 er lights in the Black Sea. In foggy weather a bell is 
 kept ringing. — Coulter sur Us Phares, 2d ed. ; Nokkie's 
 Sailing Directions for the Mediterranean and Blach 
 Seas, etc. Not being at the mouth of any great river, 
 nor having any considerable manufactures, Odessa is 
 not a port for the exportation of what may be called 
 articles of native growth ; but in consequence of her 
 convenient situation, excellent port, and the privileges 
 she enjoys, she is, as already remarked, the emporium 
 where most part of the produce of Southern Russia des- 
 tined for foreign countries is collected for exportation, 
 and where most part of the foreign articles required 
 for home consumption are primarily imported. The 
 shallowness of the water at Taganrog, and the short 
 period during which the Sea of Azof is navigable, tend 
 to hinder foreign vessels of considerable burden from 
 entering the Strait of Yenikale, and occasion the ship- 
 ment of a considerable portion of the produce brought 
 down the Don in lighters to Caffa and Odessa, espe- 
 cially the latter. All the products brought down the 
 Dniester, the Bug, and the Dnieper are exported from 
 Odessa ; but owing to the difficult navigation of the 
 first and last mentioned rivers, by far the greater part 
 of the corn brought to Odessa from Podolia, the 
 Ukraine, etc., is conveyed to the town in carts drawn 
 by oxen. The roads traversed by these carts are only 
 practicable at certain seasons of the year ; and nothing 
 would contribute so much to increase the commerce of 
 the port, and the prosperity' of Southern Russia, as the 
 opening of improved communications with the interior, 
 whether by removing obstructions in the channels of 
 the rivers, constructing canals, or railways, or good 
 common roads. Among the articles of export from 
 Odessa, corn, especially wheat, occupies, as every one 
 knows, the highest rank; but tallow is also an im- 
 portant article ; and next to it are linseed, wool, hides, 
 copper, wax, caviar, potash, beef, furs, cordage, sail- 
 cloth, tar, butter, isinglass, etc. 
 
 Forts of the Blach Sea, the Sea of Azof, and the Crim- 
 ea. — The importance of the Black Sea as a channel of 
 Russian commerce will be easily understood by cast- 
 
 ing an eye over the map of Southern Kussia, and trac- 
 ing the rich and extensive regions which are tributary 
 to its various ports. The Danube and its branches, 
 the Dniester, the Bug, Dnieper, Don, and several 
 lesser rivers, empty their waters into the Black Sea. 
 Odessa is situated on a bay, 30 miles from the mouth 
 of the Dniester, and 60 from that of the River Dnieper. 
 The bay is secure and accessible, and seldom closed by 
 ice. The port is protected by two moles, each extend- 
 ing 315 fathoms, and raised 7^ feet above the surface 
 of the sea; and, thus formed, it will afford ample pro- 
 tection to two hundred large-sized vessels, j^kerman 
 is situated near the Black Sea, on the lagoon on the 
 Dnieper. It is the principal outlet of the produce of 
 Galicia, Podolia, and Bessarabia. The lagoon, or li- 
 man, on which Akerman is situated, is said to pro- 
 duce annually 7,000,000 poods (232,000,000 pounds) 
 of salt. The port is, however, too shallow for vessels 
 drawing over seven feet of water. Kherson, Nicola- 
 ief, and Sevastopol are the remaining principal ports 
 of these seas. 
 
 The following table exhibits the tonnage of Odessa 
 in 1852 : 
 
 Nationality. 
 
 Entered. 
 
 Cleared. . | 
 
 Vassal.. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 England 
 
 Austria 
 
 Belgium 
 
 France 
 
 Greece 
 
 Holland 
 
 Ionian Islands . 
 
 20S 
 
 198 
 
 1 
 
 42 
 
 162 
 12 
 14 
 27 
 
 172 
 90 
 10 
 43 
 97 
 
 6S,601 
 
 68,731 
 
 2S0 
 
 7,028 
 
 43,3!;5 
 
 2,633 
 
 2,891 
 
 7,024 
 
 43,628 
 
 20,412 
 
 3,5iT 
 
 8,300 
 
 20,317 
 
 225 
 
 206 
 
 2 
 
 42 
 
 150 
 12 
 13 
 26 
 
 J 07 
 88 
 11 
 SO 
 
 113 
 
 03,175 
 
 71,591 
 
 442 
 
 7,028 
 
 40,272 
 
 2,640 
 
 2,919 
 
 6,690 
 
 J8,T92 
 
 'J2,6D5 
 
 4,300 
 
 11,332 
 
 30,109 
 
 Sardinia 
 
 Sweden, etc. .. . 
 
 Tuscany 
 
 Turkey 
 
 Others 
 
 Total In 1S52 . . 
 Total in 1S5I . . 
 Increase in 1852 
 
 1076 
 620 
 
 296,797 
 172,179 
 
 1145 
 048 
 
 317,.801 
 177,133 
 
 453 
 
 124,618 1 437 | 140,063 | 
 
 The preceding table exhibits a total of 2221 vessels 
 (entered and cleared), with an aggregate of 014,598 
 tons, being an increase over 1851 of 950 vessels, with 
 an aggregate of 265,286 tons. If to the figures given 
 in the table is added the coasting trade, viz., 2804 ves- 
 sels, with an aggregate tonnage of 418,436, the total 
 navigation of the port of Odessa, in 1852, will amount 
 to 4525 vessels, with an aggregate of 1,033,034 tons. 
 An analysis of the table gives to Austria the first 
 rank in the navigation of this port. Total tonnage 
 entered and cleared, 614,598 tons : Austria, 140,322 
 tons. England holds the second rank, viz., 137,776 
 tons; then Sardinia, 92,420 tons ; Greece, 8.3,637 tons; 
 Sweden, 43,017 tons. The augmentation in 1852 over 
 
 1851 gives Austria 66,878 tons more ; England, 61,534 
 tons more'; Sardinia, 38,977 tons more; and Greece, 
 13,577 tons more. The steam navigation of Odessa is 
 maintained by the two lines of Constantinople and the 
 Danube. The first makes thirty-six voyages (between 
 the two points), and the second eighteen, annually. 
 The Constantinople line conveyed, in 1852, 1214 pas- 
 sengers ; that of the Danube, 995 ; making a total for 
 both lines of 2209 passengers. The first of these trans- 
 ported to Odessa merchandise and specie amounting 
 to 5,411,520 francs, and the other 359,620 francs. 
 There was exported to Constantinople by the first 
 line merchandise valued at 1,669,108 francs; and to 
 the ports of the Danube, by the other, merchandise 
 to the amount of 637,796 francs. Government steam- 
 ers keep up the communication between the ports of 
 Kherson, Nicolaief, the Crimea, and the Caucasus. In 
 
 1852 they made ninety-five voyages from these differ- 
 ent points to Odessa, transporting passengers and mer- 
 chandise. 
 
 The different steamers which make Odessa their 
 starting-point made, in 1852, 149 voyages, transport- 
 ing 20,905 passengers, and merchandise to the amount 
 of 10,705,768 francs, equal to |2,000,000 nearly. 
 
ODE 
 
 1461 
 
 ODE 
 
 COMMEROB OF ODESSA. 
 
 
 1852. 
 
 1851, 
 
 Exports 
 
 Imports 
 
 Total, Francs 
 
 Francs. 
 103,452,410 
 38,180,066 
 
 FraocB; 
 63,203,024 
 29,886,800 
 
 139,642,476 
 
 83,089,8-24 
 
 The principal exports were : 
 
 Grains, value 6:),T56,S26 francs. 
 
 Wool, " 17,044,716 " 
 
 Linseed, " 7,969,580 " 
 
 Tallow, " 1,927,296 " 
 
 Tlie principal imports in 1851-'52 were : raw cotton 
 and cotton yarns, olive-oil, dye-stuffs, drugs, metals, 
 wines, and sugar. In 1853 the total value of the for- 
 eign trade of Odessa was $25,953,807, viz. : exports, 
 $18,583,293; imports, $7,370,514. Grains constituted 
 the chief export in 1853. Thus, of the $26,000,000 
 (in round numbers), grains amounted in value to 
 $13,000,000 ; linseed, wool, tallow, and cordage covered 
 $6,000,000. In 1854 this immense trade must have 
 been completely paralyzed, as an official notification 
 was published at Odessa on 3d March, 1854, prohibit- 
 ing the exportation of grains of all l^inds, from all ports 
 of the Blaclc and Azof Seas, until the 1st of September 
 following. This prohibition, however, is now removed ; 
 and official returns, wlien received, will show how far 
 the blocliade of the Russian ports by the allied powers 
 affected the trade of the Black Sea. By declaration 
 published at St. Petersburg 7th [19th] April, 1856, all 
 the mercantile harbors of Russia are open to the mer- 
 chant vessels of neutral countries. 
 
 The total value of the trade of the ports of the Sea 
 of Azof (Taganrog, Kertch, Rostoff, Mariopol, and 
 Berdiansk), was, in 1851 : imports, 6,902,000 francs ; 
 exports, 27,182,000 francs. 
 
 The imports were chiefly from Turkey, the Two Sil- 
 lies, Ionian Islands, France, and Greece. The exports 
 were destined to Turkey, England, Sardinia, Tuscany, 
 Ionian Islands, and France. The total value of the 
 trade at the commercial ports of the Crimea (Eupato- 
 ria, Balaklava, Theodosia, and Kertch), in 1852, was : 
 imports (including specie), 1,092,500 francs; exports, 
 654,500 francs. Total, 1,747,000 francs. 
 
 Compared with 1851, the imports increased 12 per 
 cent., and exports decreased nearly 60 per cent. Im- 
 ports consisted of cottons, raw cotton, coals, oil, and 
 fruits; exports, of wool, raw hides, butter, caviar, and 
 grains. — United States Commercial Melaiions. 
 
 The United States Consul, under date of July 1, 
 1854, communicates the following information : There 
 exists a treaty of commerce between the United States 
 and the Imperial Russian government, which was con- 
 cluded at St. Petersburg on the 6th [18th] December, 
 in the year 1832, and was ratified at Washington on 
 the 11th May, 1833, to which the Russian government 
 abides with strictness. The city and port of Odessa 
 was declared as porto-franco by a decree of the imperial 
 government in the year 1823, which was put into exe- 
 cution only on the 15th August, in the year 1824, by 
 which the importation of all kinds of merchandise was 
 allowed, on paying only one-fifth of the entire duty 
 paid in other ports of this empire ; and this one-fifth 
 duty was employed to defray the annual expenditure 
 for the benefit of this city, such as pavements, foot- 
 paths, repairing streets, lights, government buildings, 
 and for the expenses of all the local administrations. 
 The importation of all kinds of merchandise is allowed, 
 even those articles which are prohibited at all other 
 ports of the empire, but they are not allowed to be 
 transported into the interior from hence, as tea, refined 
 sugars, strong spirits, cloths — black and green — ^print- 
 ed cottons, silks, and wools. These articles are to be 
 consumed at Odessa. The term of these privileges for 
 Odessa expired in the year 1849, but his majesty the 
 emperor, wishing to favor this city, granted a pro- 
 longation of the same privileges for a period of five 
 years, which ends on the 14th August, 1854. During 
 Ibis last period the duty was augmented ; instead of 
 
 one-fifth, it is now twtf-fifths of the entire duty on the 
 import of any kind of merchandise, with the exception 
 of tobacco, rum, and other strong spirits, on which the 
 entire duty is paid, as at all other ports of Russia. Re- 
 fined sugars, tea, and wines, have to pay three-fifths 
 of the entire duty, one-fifth of which is destined for ex- 
 penses of this city, and the remainder in favor of gov- 
 ernment. There does not exist at this port any privi- 
 lege granted to any nation, in any way, which is de- 
 nied to citizens of the United States. The only restric- 
 tion existing at Odessa is on ships under French and 
 Neapolitan colors, they not being allowed to import 
 any merchandise from foreign countries to Russia, un- 
 less paying 50 per cent, more on the import duty, in 
 comparison to Americans, or ships of other nations. 
 This difference on French and Neapolitan vessels ex- 
 ists by the commercial treaties between the respective 
 powers, by which it is also prohibited for Rn.ssian ves- 
 sels to import to France or to Naples merchandise from 
 foreign ports not Russian produce, as the cargo must 
 be, and from a Russian port. There are no differences 
 in the charges, or any other dues, on ships of the Unit- 
 ed States and Russian vessels. A Russian vessel of 
 150 lasts (equal to 300 tons) pays the same charges as 
 an American of the same size. The following affords 
 a comparative statement : 
 
 Lasts, 160, at 17-100 per last S. E. 25 50= $19 18 
 
 Lightdues 7 16= 5 38 
 
 Quarantine dues, custom-house charges 
 andfees 2000= 15 04 
 
 The tonnage and light dues are a fixed charge, and 
 established by law ; the quarantine and custom-house 
 dues are not so. The amount of the latter charges is 
 generally paid partly for stamp paper, fees, and other 
 trifles, which reaches the sum above stated, and which 
 every one pays without opposition, as it is the custom 
 and has been for many years past, and by which means 
 business is greatly facilitated. It is prohibited by law 
 to reship merchandise from one ship to another, even 
 if the merchandise reshipped be destined for another 
 Russian port, and no matter under what colors it is 
 brought to this port. The merchandise, before rcship- 
 ment, must first be landed and visited by the custom- 
 house authorities, and the whole amount of duty paid, 
 before permission can be obtained for such merchan- 
 dise to be shipped and transported to another Russian 
 port. But if such merchandise be destined for a for- 
 eign port, it has to be landed, and after being visited 
 by the custom-house officers, a certificate to that effect 
 is given to the shippers of the cargo, allowing the re- 
 shipment and exportation to a foreign port. All for- 
 eign, as well as American vessels are allowed to share 
 in the coasting trade from one Russian port to another 
 in the Black Sea or the Sea of Azof. The current coin, 
 weights, measures, etc., ar*e the same at Odessa as at 
 St. Petersburg. The value of a silver ruble is 75,-y^^ 
 cents of an Amencan dollar; one pood weight is 36 
 English pounds; one arshine measures 28 English 
 inches ; one chetwert of wheat is 6t English bushels. 
 
 The only cargo exported from hence for America 
 since the 1st of July, 1853, consisted of common washed 
 wool, 505 bales, weighing 5972 poods, 23 pounds ; and 
 linseed, 1200 chetwerts — the whole shipped on board 
 of an American bark, of 380 tons, bound for New York, 
 and cleared from hence on the 10th November, 1853. 
 The duty on the cargo amounted to 342'80 silver rubles, 
 or ©257 80, being on the linseed alone, as there is no 
 duty on the exportation of wools. No insurances have 
 ever taken place here for the United States, but the 
 general custom is to insure in England for America. 
 The custom in purchasing any kind of merchandise for 
 exportation at this place is to pay ready cash, and 
 without any discount whatever; but in the sale of 
 colonial and other goods imported from abroad some- 
 times a credit of six or eight months is gi'anted to the 
 buyers. There is no established rate of exchange here 
 for the United States, but the value of the dollar is 
 
ODE 
 
 1462 
 
 OFF 
 
 nominal at IJ silver ruble. The amount of duty paid 
 liere on merchandise exported for America during the 
 last period amounts to ^257 ; but no import duty was 
 paid here, as no merchandise arrived from America. 
 There is no duty levied in Russia by government on 
 produce exported in its new state, or partly manufac- 
 tured, or entirely so ; the onlj' existing duty is on raw 
 sugars, on which the refiners of Russia pay an excise 
 to government of -^^ silver rubles per pood on the re- 
 fined sugars, or 45y^Jo- cents in American currency. 
 Laborers are generally paid here by the day, and, the 
 I'ate not being fixed, fluctuates according to the wants 
 of such men — rising from -j^^ to one silver ruble per 
 day, or from 22^ to 75 cents per day, American cur- 
 rency. 
 
 A tribunal of commerce was established at Odessa 
 in 1824, whose jurisdiction extends over all disputes 
 connected with trade. There is no appeal from its de- 
 cisions except to the Senate. There are twelve sworn 
 brokers, approved and licensed by the Tribunal of Com- 
 merce, who have deputies appointed by themselves. 
 They register all transactions, and receive ^ per cent, 
 from each party as commission. There is a discount 
 or loan bank, established in 1828, and marine and fire 
 insurance societies. Most articles of provision are 
 cheap ; and fish, which costs next to nothing, is excel- 
 lent. Fuel, however, is scarce and dear. Within the 
 last thirty years, the Merino breed of sheep has been 
 extensively introduced into the governments of Tauri- 
 da, Cherson, and Ekaterinoslov, so that there has been 
 not only a great increase in the quantity, but also a 
 very decided improvement in the quality, of the wool 
 exported. Corn Trade. — Theprincipal trade of Odessa 
 is with Constantinople, Smyrna, and other towns in 
 the Levant, Naples, Leghorn, Genoa, Marseilles, etc. 
 " It is generally stated," says Mr. Jacob QMemoir on 
 the Trade of the Block Sea, in the Appendix to the oc- 
 tavo edition of Tracts on the Com Trade), "that the 
 supply of Constantinople requires annually 100,000 
 quarters of Black Sea wheat. The Greek Islands 
 scarcely, on the average of years, produce sufficient 
 wheat for their own consumption, and in some years 
 require a large supply, which is furnished partly from 
 the neighboring continent, and partly from the Black 
 Sea. The Asiatic coasts of the Turldsh Empire, espe- 
 cially in Anatolia, are nearly in the same predicament. 
 At times the market of Smyrna is Very favorable for 
 the sale of the corn of Southern Russia. The islands 
 of Malta and Gozo produce only about half as much 
 corn as the 120,000 inhabitants require. Sicily, though 
 it has greatly declined from its ancient productiveness, 
 has still a quantity of grain to spare for the less fruit- 
 ful parts of Italy in most years, and its wheat enters 
 into competition with that of the Black Sea, in the 
 ports of Naples, Genoa, and Leghorn. There are few 
 years in which Tuscany grows a sufficiency of wheat ; 
 and its chief port, Leghorn, being one of those in which 
 ships can unload their cargoes of corn, without being 
 detained to perform quarantine, has been at all times 
 a place of deposit for the wheat of the Black Sea. A 
 market at some price may always be found there, as 
 the capitalists are disposed to purchase, relying on the 
 uncertain productiveness of some adjacent country, in 
 which they may realize a profit at no great distance. 
 Genoa, lilte Leghorn, is a port where wheat can be un- 
 loaded within the bounds of the lazaretto. The coun- 
 try around it yields but little wheat ; and at some pe- 
 riods it enjoys a trade in that article even as far as 
 Sunderland. This internal demand, and the chance 
 of advantageous re-exportation, induces much trade in 
 corn. There is said to be seldom less than 100,000 
 quarters in store at the two ports of Genoa and Leg- 
 horn, and at some periods a far greater quantity. Nice, 
 though not having the same advantageous quarantine 
 regulations, and, consequently, not being a dip6t for 
 corn beyond its own demand, from the sterile soil that 
 ■surrounds it, requires every year a large importation 
 
 of wheat. That of Sicily and Odessa creates a compe- 
 tition in its port, and the government draws a revenue 
 by imposing a heavy duty on both. Though the corn 
 laws of France have kept the ports closed against the 
 introduction of foreign corn for domestic use, yet it is 
 allowed to be bonded for re-exportation. From the 
 frequent local and partial scarcities which occur on the 
 eastern coast of Spain, at which periods wheat is al- 
 lowed to be lawfully imported, and, it is said, from the 
 facility of its introduction- by contraband when not le- 
 gally allowed, Marseilles has been a great depot for the 
 wheat of the Black Sea. From thence, as also from 
 Gibraltar, where there is generally some in store, it 
 can easily be transported to Spain, to Sardinia, to Cor- 
 sica, to Tunis, to Tripoli, or wherever scarcity has cre- 
 ated a beneficial market. The coasts of Barbary, 
 though often having a Surplus of wheat, much of which 
 occasionally assists to feed Portugal, in some seasons 
 have been affected with most deficient harvests. This 
 was recently the case in a remarkable degree. Tripoli 
 and Tunis experienced, in the year 1820, a harvest 
 most miserably short, and were supplied from other 
 countries." The warehouse rent of corn at Odessa is 
 from eight to tea copecks per chetwert per month. M. 
 De Hagemeister supposes that Turkey and the differ- 
 ent ports of the Mediterranean require, at an average, 
 an annual supply of 1,400,000 clietwerts, or about 
 1,050,000 quarters, of which 1,000,000 chetwerts, or 
 750,000 quarters, are furnished by Southern Russia, and 
 principally shipped from Odessa. Wallachia and Mol- 
 davia are both very fertile in corn ; and were tranquil- 
 lity and good order introduced into them, and the free 
 navigation of the Danube secured, Galacz and BrailofF 
 would be two of the principal European grain-shipping 
 ports. — See the excellent Report of Hagemeistek 
 on the Trade of the Black Sea, p. 96-114, Engl. Trans. 
 Exclusive of corn, the otlier articles mentioned as be- 
 ing exported from Odessa find their way to the differ- 
 ent markets in the Mediterranean. Those shipped for 
 Turkey are iron, tallow, sail-cloth, cordage, anchors 
 for ships of war, butter, etc. The exports to Italy and 
 other European countries are similar. The importa- 
 tion of all foreign articles into the Russian dominions 
 on the Black Sea and the Sea of Azof is confined to 
 Odessa, Theodosia or Kaffa, and Taganrog. The im- 
 port trade is, however, of inferior importance when 
 compared with the export trade. The principal ar- 
 ticles are sugar and coffee, dye-woods, wine and bran- 
 dy, cotton stuffs and yarn, woolen and silk manufac- 
 tures, spices, cutlery; oranges, lemons, figs, and other 
 fruit ; lemon-juice, oil, tin and tin plates, dried fruits, 
 paper, silk, specie, etc. 
 
 Odessa, in addition to its great and rapidly increas- 
 ing trade with Constantinople and the countries on the 
 Mediterranean, had, before the war of 1854-1855, a con- 
 siderable trade with Redout-kal6 at the mouth of the 
 Phasis, and with Trebizond and several ports on the 
 south coast of the Black Sea. Georgian and Arme- 
 nian merchants are already considerable purchasers at 
 the Leipsic and other German fairs, and civilization is 
 beginning to strike its roots throughout all the extens- 
 ive countries between the Black Sea and the Caspian. 
 It is ijrobable that at no very remote period the Pha- 
 sis will be frequented by British ships ; and that mer- 
 chants, without any enchantress to aid them, and de- 
 pending only on the superior cheapness and excellence 
 of their goods, will be hospitably received in the an- 
 cient Colchis, and bear away a richer prize than fell to 
 the lot of Jason and his compeers.— /See Russia. 
 
 Ofi^g, or OflBn, in Nautical language, that part 
 of the sea, a good distance from shore, where there is 
 deep water and no need of a pilot to conduct the ship. 
 Thus if a ship from shore be seen sailing out to sea- 
 ward, they saj', " She stands for the ofiing ;" and if a 
 ship, having the shore near her, have another a good 
 way without or beyond her, toward the sea, they say, 
 " That ship is in the offing." 
 
OHI 
 
 1463 
 
 OHI 
 
 Ohio, one of the United States, lies between lat. 
 38° SO' and 42° N., and between long. 80° 35' and 84° 
 47' W. It is 210 miles long from north to south, and 
 200 miles broad. Area, 39,964 square miles. The 
 population in 1790 was 3000 ; in 1800, 45,365 ; in 1810, 
 230,760; in 1820, 581,434; in 1830, 937,637; in 1840, 
 1,519,467 ; and in 1850, 1,980,408. The land in the 
 interior of the State and bordering on Lake Erie is 
 generally level, and in some places marshy. From 
 one quarter to one third of the State, comprehend- 
 ing the eastern and southeastern parts, bordering on 
 the Ohio River, is generally hilly and broljen, but in 
 no part mountainous. On the margin of the Ohio 
 Kiver and several of its tributaries are alluvial lands 
 of great fertility. The valleys of the Scioto and the 
 Great and Little Miami are the most extensive sections 
 of level, rich, and fertile lands in the State. At the 
 head of the Muskingum River are prairies of considera- 
 ble extent, some of which are wet, though generally dry 
 and fertile. The height of land which divides the wa- 
 ters which fall into the Ohio from those which fall into 
 Lake Erie is the most marshy of any in the State, 
 while the land on the margin of the rivers is generally 
 dry. Wheat may be regarded as the staple produc- 
 tion of the State, though Indian corn and other grains 
 are largely cultivated. It is rich in mineral wealth, 
 iron, coal, limestone, marble, and superior building 
 stone, grind-stones, etc. There are many valuable 
 salt springs. There were in this State in 1850, 9,861,493 
 acres of land improved, and 8,146,000 of unimproved 
 land in farms ; cash value of farms, $358,758,603; and 
 the value of implements and machinery, $12,750,585. 
 Live Stock — horses, 463,397; asses and mules, 3423; 
 milch cows, 544,499 ; working oxen, 65,381 ; other cat- 
 tle, 749,067 ; sheep, 3,942,929 ; swine, 1,964,770. Value 
 of live stock, $44,121,741. 
 
 Agricultural Products, etc. — Wheat, 14,487,351 bush- 
 els; rye, 425,918; Indian corn, 59,078,695; oats, 
 13,472,742; barley, 354,358 ; buckwheat, 638,060 ; peas 
 and beans, 60,168 ; potatoes, 5,057,769 ; sweet potatoes, 
 187,991. Value of products of the orchard, $695,921 ; 
 of the market - gardens, $214,004. Pounds of butter 
 made, 34,449,379 ; of cheese, 20,819,542 ; maple sugar, 
 4,588,209 ; molasses, 197,308 gallons ; beeswax and 
 honey, 804,275 pounds; wool produced, 10,196,371; 
 flax,"446,932; silk cocoons, 1552 ; hops, 63,731 ; tobac- 
 co, 10,454,449; hay, tons of, 1,433,142; hemp, 150; 
 clover-seeds, 103,197 bushels ; other grass seeds, 37,310 ; 
 fiax-seed, 188,880; and were made, 48,207 gallons of 
 wine. Value of home-made manufactures, $1,712,196 ; 
 of slaughtered animals, $7,439,243. 
 
 Rivers, etc. — The Ohio River, which gives name to 
 the State, washes its entire southern border. This 
 river is 1004 miles long from Pittsburg to its mouth, by 
 its various windings, though it is only 614 in a direct 
 line. — See Ohio River. The Muskingum, the largest 
 river which flows entirely in this State, is formed by 
 the junction of the Tuscarawas and Walhonding riv- 
 ers, and enters the Ohio at Marietta. It is navigable 
 for boats 100 miles. The Scioto, the second river in 
 magnitude, flowing entirely within the State, is about 
 200 miles long, and enters the Ohio at Portsmouth. 
 Its largest branch is the Whetstone, or Olentangy, 
 which joins it immediately above Columbus. It is 
 navigable for boats 130 miles. The Great Miami, a 
 rapid river in the western part of the State, is 100 
 miles long, and enters the Ohio in the southwest cor- 
 ner of the State. The Little Miami has a course of 
 seventy miles, and enters the Ohio seven miles above 
 Cincinnati. The Maumee, 100 miles long, rises in In- 
 diana, runs through the northwest part of the State, 
 and enters Lake Erie at Maumee Bay. It is naviga- 
 ble for steamboats to Perrysburg, eighteen miles from 
 the lake, and above the rapids is hoatable for a consid- 
 erable distance. The Sandusky rises in the northern 
 part of the State, and, after a course of about eighty 
 miles, enters Sandusky Bay, and thence into Lake Erie. 
 
 The Cuyahoga rises in the north part of the State, and 
 after a curved course of sixty miles, enters Lake Erie 
 at Cleveland. It has a number of falls, which furnish 
 valuable mill seats. Besides these there are Huron, 
 Vermilion, Black, Grand, and Ashtabula rivers, which 
 enter Lake Erie. 
 
 The principal places are Cincinnati, the metropolis ; 
 Columbus, the Capital; Cleveland, Sandusky, Day- 
 Ion, Springfield, Zanesville, Marietta, and Portsmouth. 
 There were in February, 1^54, sixty-eight banks, with 
 a paid capital of $8,718,366; in January, 1856, forty- 
 six railroads, of which 2725 miles of track were finisli- 
 ed and in operation, and 1578 in course of construction. 
 Tonnage of the State in 1853, 25,632 tons. 
 
 Manufactures, etc. — There were in the State in 1850 
 eight cotton factories, with a capital invested of 
 $297,000, employing 132 males and 269 females, pro- 
 ducing 280,000 yards of sheetings, etc., and 443,000 
 pounds of yarn, valued at $394,700; 130 woolen facto- 
 ries, with a capital of $870,220, employing 903 males and 
 298 females, manufacturing 1,374,087 j'ards of cloth, 
 and 65,000 pounds of yarn, valued at $l,ill,027 ; thirty- 
 five establishments making pig-iron, with a capital of 
 $1,503,000, employing 2415 persons, producing 52,658 
 tons of pig-iron, etc., and the entire value of products, 
 $1,255,850; 183 establishments, with a capital of 
 $2,063,650, employing 2758 persons, and making 37,399 
 tons of iron castings, etc., valued at $3,069,350 ; eleven 
 establishments, with a capital of $620,800, employing 
 708 persons, manufacturing 14,416 tons of wrought iron, 
 valued at $1,076,192; 1082 flouring and grist-mills; 
 1730 saw-mills; 243 printing-offices, 302 newspapers, 
 twenty-eight daily, six tri-weekly, four semi-weekly, 
 222 weekly, seven semi-monthly, twenty monthly, and 
 one yearly publication. Capital invested in manufac- 
 tures, $28,612,136 ; value of manufactured articles, 
 $61,915,036. — See Pork for further information. 
 
 Educational Estdbliskments, etc, — The University of 
 Ohio at Athens, the Miami University at Oxford, 
 Franklin College at New Athens, the Western Reserve 
 College at Hudson, Kenyon College at Gambler, Gran- 
 ville College at Granvillo, Marietta College at Mariet- 
 ta, Oberlin College at Oberlin, St. Xavier at Cincin- 
 nati, Ohio Wesleyan University at Delaware, Witten- 
 berg College at Springfield, Willoughby University at 
 Willoughby, Lane Theological Seminary at Cincin- 
 nati. There are also theological departments at Ken- 
 yon, Western Reserve at Hudson, Granville at Gran- 
 ville, Oberlin at Oberlin, Wittenberg at Springfield, 
 and a seminary of the Associate Reformed Church at 
 Oxford, Western Reserve Medical College at Cleve- 
 land, Medical College of Ohio at Cincinnati, Medical 
 College (Homeopathic) at Cleveland, Starling Medical 
 College at Columbus, and Cincinnati Law College at 
 Cincinnati. The whole having, in 1850, 3621 students. 
 There were also 206 academies, 5052 pupils; 11,661 
 schools, 484,153 scholars ; 352 libraries — aggregate 
 number of volumes, 186,826. School fund, $304,474. 
 
 The first permanent settlement in Ohio was made 
 in 1788 at Marietta. In 1802 Ohio was admitted into 
 the Union. 
 
 The progress of banking in the State of Ohio is 
 shown in the following summary : 
 
 year. 
 
 Number of Banks. 
 
 Capital. 
 
 1805 
 
 1 
 
 $200,000 
 
 1811 
 
 4 
 
 895,000 
 
 1815 
 
 12 
 
 1,484,000 
 
 1816 
 
 21 
 
 2,061,000 
 
 1820 
 
 20 
 
 1,797,000 
 
 1835 
 
 24 
 
 6,819,000 
 
 1838 
 
 33 
 
 9,247,000 ' 
 
 1S40 
 
 ST 
 
 10,597,000 
 
 1845 
 
 8 
 
 2,171,000 , . 
 
 1850 
 
 56 
 
 7,129,000 
 
 1S66 
 
 60 
 
 6,995,900 
 
 186T 
 
 54 
 
 5,898,000- ' 
 
 The free-banking law of Ohio was adopted iii the year 
 1851, and forms at present a part of the banking sys- 
 tem in operation. 
 
OHI 
 
 1464 
 
 OHI 
 
 FOEEIGN COMMEEOE OP THE STATE OP OhiO (8HOWTNO ALSO THE DiSTEIOT TONNAGE IN 1821, 1831, 1811, AND 1851) 
 
 FROM OCTOBEB 1, 182D, tO JtTLY 1, 1866. 
 
 Yeflre ending 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Impoits. 
 
 Tonnage Cleared. | District Tonnage. 
 
 Domestic. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Tot«i. 
 
 American. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 RegUt.red.l'^S"^',^-'' 
 
 Sept. 30,1821 
 
 18?2 
 
 1323 
 
 13?4 
 
 1325 
 
 1826 
 
 1827 
 
 1828 
 
 1829 
 
 1330 
 
 Total. . . 
 
 Sept 30, 1831 
 
 1832 
 
 1833 
 
 1834 
 
 1835 
 
 1836 
 
 1337 
 
 1833 
 
 1339 
 
 1340 
 
 Total. . . 
 
 Sept. 80,1841 
 
 1842 
 
 9 mos., 1343» 
 
 June 30, 1844 
 
 1845 
 
 1843 
 
 1847 
 
 1348 
 
 1349 
 
 1850 
 
 Total. . . 
 
 June 30, 1861 
 
 1852 
 
 1863 
 
 1864 
 
 1855 
 
 1866 
 
 $i06 
 
 i',8io 
 
 2,004 
 
 
 $105 
 
 isio 
 
 2004 
 
 $12 
 190 
 161 
 
 "293 
 
 162 
 
 "si 
 
 '369 
 "56 
 
 "49 
 
 331 
 
 716 
 
 $3,919 
 
 $14,728 
 
 58,394 
 
 225,644 
 
 241.451 
 
 97,061 
 
 3,718 
 
 132,844 
 
 139,827 
 
 96,864 
 
 991,954 
 
 $140 
 
 $3,019 
 
 $1^,723 
 68,394 
 226,544 
 241,451 
 97,201 
 3,718 
 132,844 
 139,827 
 95 854 
 991,954 
 
 $818 
 
 $617 
 12,392 
 
 8,353 
 19,767 
 
 9,808 
 10,960 
 17,747 
 1-^,895 
 19,280 
 
 4,916 
 
 458 
 
 91 
 269 
 2,041 
 2,999 
 2,166 
 105 
 4,249 
 1,141 
 4 716 
 8,708 
 
 49 
 
 138 
 1,341 
 4,125 
 3,756 
 4,371 
 
 2,r43 
 
 4,658 
 2,438 
 1,987 
 3,265 
 
 120 
 
 1622 
 
 $2,001,375 
 
 $793,114 
 399,786 
 120,103 
 643,856 
 321,114 
 352,630 
 778,944 
 147,599 
 149.724 
 217,632 
 
 $140 
 
 $ioo 
 
 $2,001,515 
 
 $793,114 
 899,786 
 120,108 
 543,856 
 3',1,114 
 353 630 
 778,944 
 147,599 
 149,724 
 217,632 
 
 $116,734 
 
 $11,318 
 
 13,051 
 
 10,774 
 
 36 015 
 
 73,196 
 
 102,714 
 
 90,681 
 
 Xe6,726 
 
 149,839 
 
 582,504 
 
 26,486 
 
 9,600 
 14,890 
 1,245 
 2,663 
 6,324 
 6,222 
 7,144 
 7,065 
 6,957 
 15,485 
 
 28,922 
 
 2,624 
 8,596 
 6,170 
 
 14,162 
 1,201 
 4,831 
 
 10,223 
 6,853 
 9,821 
 
 18,322 
 
 
 25,111 
 
 $4,324,407 
 
 $395,195 
 353,514 
 158,418 
 743,004 
 847,143 
 
 1,045,052 
 
 $100 
 $1530 
 
 $4,324,507 
 
 $396,125 
 363,514 
 158.418 
 744,634 
 847,143 
 
 1,045,052 
 
 $1,261,908 
 
 $686,331 
 932,216 
 847,760 
 7911,082 
 010,656 
 463,473 
 
 77,635 
 
 18,720 
 14,844 
 22,630 
 87,054 
 26,359 
 28,252 
 
 80,803 
 
 11,866 
 il,222 
 9,939 
 18,234 
 18,890 
 42,676 
 
 
 68,352 
 
 * Nine months to June 30, and fiscal year begins July 1, 1843. 
 
 FtNANOEB OF THE STATE Or OhIO. 
 
 Fiscal Yeats. 
 
 Foreign and 
 
 Domestic State 
 
 Debt. 
 
 Annual Interest 
 on State 
 Debt. 
 
 Taxable Property 
 of State, Real 
 and Personal. 
 
 Gross 
 Eevenncs of 
 
 State. 
 
 Gross 
 
 Ezpenditnres of 
 
 State. 
 
 1833 
 
 1834 
 
 1835 
 
 $4,750,000 
 
 4,891,66J 
 
 4,979.237 
 
 6,857,833 
 
 6,136,616 
 
 6,905,790 
 
 10,030,162 
 
 14,012,230 
 
 15,673,354 
 
 16,947,325 
 
 13,663,321 
 
 19,276,751 
 
 19,2,51,180 
 
 19,246.002 
 
 19,233,847 
 
 19,173,223 
 
 19,026,200 
 
 13,744,694 
 
 16,.534,893 
 
 16 620,768 
 
 15,218,129 
 
 14,5;4,3S6 
 
 14,008,225 
 
 14,008,274 
 
 $235,000 
 
 293.500 
 
 294757 
 
 351,470 
 
 368,190 
 
 414,343 
 
 601,809 
 
 770,322 
 
 934,401 
 
 1,016,839 
 
 1,120,099 
 
 1,167,444 
 
 1,140,706 
 
 1,164,260 
 
 1,163,609 
 
 1,169,693 
 
 1,147,861 
 
 1,124,536 
 
 923,343 
 
 919,496 
 
 901,191 
 
 359,1596 
 
 825,963 
 
 829,253 ' 
 
 ,$78.0UI,.526 
 75,6r3,312 
 94,438,016 
 85,812,382 
 91,591,745 
 106,963,018 
 111,224,197 
 119,037,661 
 128 353.657 
 132,343:835 
 133,663,794 
 1,36,142,666 
 144,160,469 
 160,293,132 
 409,897,379 
 419,897,236 
 429,665,629 
 439,876.340 
 462,148,620 
 507 531,911 
 693,396,848 
 866,939,982 
 860 677,354 
 820,661,037 
 
 $268,739 
 
 261,326 
 
 201,766 
 
 301,059 
 
 327,868 
 
 451.767 
 
 655,905 
 
 306,498 
 
 255 832 
 
 292,224 
 
 328,270 
 
 371,963 
 
 1 533,466 
 
 2,0S1,3S4 
 
 2,614,735 
 
 2,473 702 
 
 2,511,119 
 
 2,536 553 
 
 2,378 656 
 
 3,016,403 
 
 2,865,907 
 
 3,715,103 
 
 3.631,173 
 
 3 583,353 
 
 $288,739 
 
 277.949 
 
 236.365 
 
 269.660 
 
 287,660 
 
 324,702 
 
 632,828 
 
 296,090 
 
 192,279 
 
 227,863 
 
 238,462 
 
 239.141 
 
 1,869:937 
 
 2,038.027 
 
 2,357,606 
 
 2,137,194 
 
 2,383,135 
 
 2,961,551 
 
 2,6r6,369 
 
 2,736,060 
 
 2,696,118 
 
 3 893,253 
 
 3,512,844 
 
 3,712,206 
 
 1336 
 
 1837 
 
 1838 
 
 1839 
 
 1840 
 
 1841 
 
 1842 
 
 1843 
 
 1844 
 
 1346 
 
 1846 
 
 184T 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 
 
 1850 
 
 1861 
 
 1852 
 
 1863 
 
 18.54 
 
 1855 
 
 1856 
 
 Cincinnati, the metropolis of Oliio, capital of Hamil- 
 ton county, and one of the leading commercial places 
 west of the Alleghany Mountains. It is situated on 
 the right bank of the Ohio River, 455 miles below Pitts- 
 burg, 1648 miles above New Orleans, and 502 miles 
 from Washington. It is the largest city of the Mis- 
 sissippi Valley, north of New Orleans, and the fifth in 
 population in'the United States. Population in 1800, 
 760; in 1810, 2540; in 1830, 24,831; in 1840, 40,338; 
 in 1845, 65,000; in 1850, 116,438; in 1853, 160,141. 
 The Ohio River at Cincinnati is 1800 feet, or about one- 
 third of a mile wide, and its mean annual range from 
 low to high water is about fifty feet ; the extreme range 
 may be about ten feet more. Depressions are gener- 
 
 ally in August, September, and October, and the great- 
 est rise in December, March, May, and June. The up- 
 ward navigation is in winter very rarely suspended by 
 floating ice, and in some winters not at all. Its cur- 
 rent at its mean height is about three miles an hour ; 
 when higher, or rising, it is more ; and when very low, 
 it does not exceed two miles. Cleveland, Toledo, and 
 Sandusky, on Lake Erie, export largely in grain, lum- 
 ber, and manufactured goods. — See North Americcm 
 Review, Ixiii. 320 (Hii.dreth), xxii. 459 (Sparks), 
 xlvii. 1 (J. H. Perkins), xlix. 69; Atnerican Journal 
 of Science, xlv. 12; De Bow's/SeOTCW, iii. 129; Banh- 
 ers' Magazine, 1856; 'Rvs'i's Merclumls' Magazine, xxi. 
 389. 
 
OHI 
 
 1465 
 
 OIL 
 
 Ohio, a large river of the United States, formed 
 by the confluence of the Alleghany from the north and 
 the Monongahela from the soath at Pittsburg, in the 
 western part of Pennsylvania, lat. 40° 32' N. and long. 
 80° 2' W., at the height of 1138 feet above tide-water 
 in the Atlantic. It proceeds in a direction west-south- 
 west, dividing the states of Virginia and Kentiicliy on 
 the south from Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois on the north, 
 and enters the Mississippi in lat. 37° N. and long. 88° 
 68' W. Its length from Pittsburg to its mouth, by the 
 course of the river, is 948 miles; but the distance in a 
 direct course is only 614 miles. It has a descent, in 
 its whole course, of 395 feet, making an average de- 
 scent of not quite five inches in a mile. The width of 
 the Ohio varies from 400 to 1400 yards ; its average 
 width is 534 yards, opposite to Cincinnati, which is 
 about equidistant from Pittsburg to its confluence with 
 the Mississippi, where it is about 900 yards wide. The 
 great valley drained by this river contains over 218,000 
 square miles, and a population of over 5,000,000, which 
 is rapidly increasing. There are no considerable falls 
 in this river excepting at Louisville, Kentucky, where 
 it descends 22^ feet in two miles. These falls have 
 been obviated by a canal around them, which admits 
 of tho passage of the largest steamboats ; but boats as- 
 cend and descend these rapids, when the water is high. 
 The current of the Ohio, when low, does not exceed two 
 miles an hour ; when at a mean height, three miles ; and 
 when higher and rising, four or five miles. The higli- 
 est water occurs in December, March, May, and June j 
 and the lowest in August, September, and October. 
 The average difference between high and low water is 
 40 feet ; its extreme range on record, 64 feet (at Cincin- 
 nati). During eight or ten weeks in the winter, the 
 navigation is obstructed by floating ice. Of the two 
 confluents which form the Ohio, the Alleghany is the 
 most important, being navigable for boats 260 miles to 
 Olean, New York, and will hereafter, by means of the 
 Genesee Valley Canal, terminating at this place, and 
 extending to the Erie Canal, form an important com- 
 munication between the city of New York and the 
 West. The principal tributaries of the Ohio on the 
 north are the Beaver, Muskingum, Scioto, the two 
 Miamis, Whitewater, and Wabash ; those on the south 
 are the Kanawha, Sandy, Licking, Kentucliy, Green, 
 Cumberland, and Tennessee. Some of these are navi- 
 gable at high water to a great extent by boats and 
 steamboats. The Tennessee is navigable by boats for 
 lOOO miles; the Cumberland is navigable for steam- 
 boats to Nashville, and for keel-boats 300 miles fur- 
 ther ; the Wabash is navigable for 200 miles ; Green 
 Kiver, 200 miles; Kentucky, ISO; Great Kanawha, 64 
 miles, to the salt works. Tl^e Ohio, with its tributa- 
 ries, has 5000 miles of navigable waters. 
 
 Tlie whole fall of the Ohio from Pittsburg to Cairo 
 is estimated at 425 feet, and the distance is 977 miles. 
 The average fall per mile is therefore less than five 
 inches. The fall of the River Thames is greater than 
 this, being an average of nearly seven inches per mile 
 for one hundred and eighty miles. Indeed few rivers 
 of equal length and volume of water have so few falls 
 or rapids impeding navigation as the Ohio. 
 
 Its fall, however, is not distributed equally over its 
 whole course, as the following table will show : 
 
 
 Distance. 
 
 Foil. 
 
 Averages. 
 
 
 Miles. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Indies. 
 
 From Pittsburg to Wheeling. . 
 
 88 
 
 79 
 
 10-77 
 
 From Wheeling to Cincinnati. 
 
 3T4 
 
 188 
 
 6 
 
 From CincinDati to Louisville. 
 
 165 
 
 85 
 
 4-2 
 
 From Louisville to Falls 
 
 3 
 
 27 
 
 100 
 
 From Falls to JLvansvillo 
 
 169 
 
 33 
 
 2-85 
 
 From Evanaville to Cairo 
 
 IST 
 
 45 
 
 2-9 
 
 From this table it will be seen that were it necessary 
 to " canalize" the whole river, from its mouth to Pitts- 
 burg, it would be the most magnificent channel of trade 
 on the face of the globe. No canal was ever construct- 
 ed, and probably none could be constructed, of equal 
 length, with comparatively as little lockage as this. 
 
 The Erie Canal has about five times the lockage in pro- 
 portion to its length; and the Pennsylvania Canal, from 
 Pittsburg to Johnstown, has more than ten times as 
 much. But it should be remembered that it will be 
 unnecessary, for the purpose of making this great im- 
 provement, to overcome all this fall of 425 feet by 
 means of looks and dams. A large part of this whole 
 descent is due to the gentle flow of the river, through 
 the long pools which make up the most of its distance, 
 and which, in their natural condition, afford a suffi- 
 cient depth of water at all seasons of the year for the 
 purposes of navigation. What proportion of this whole 
 fall of 425 feet is thus due to these pools, which need 
 no improvement, we are unable to determine ; but it 
 must be a very considerable proportion of it, and would 
 leave a comparatively small aggregate to be overcome 
 by locks and dams or wing dams. It would be un- 
 necessary to construct these dams so high as to flow 
 back the water from one to the other, but only to rise 
 from one of these pools to another, or perhaps, in some 
 cases, to unite one or more of them in one. To reduce 
 the whole river to a series of long levels, as in the con- 
 struction of canals, would not be required, and indeed 
 would be liable to grave objections on the score of 
 health. A depth of about five feet at the lowest stage 
 of water would be all that would be necessary to ren- 
 der the Ohio the most important channel of commerce 
 in the world. This depth could be had without affect- 
 ing unfavorably the healthfulness of the river, and 
 would be enough for the first class of steamers which 
 now ply on the river. 
 
 The volume of water in this stream, in an improved 
 condition, would be ample, for ten or eleven months in 
 the year, to meet the wants of a commerce lai-ge enough 
 to tax to the utmost the capacity of ten canals equal 
 to the Erie when enlarged ; and so favorable is the 
 climate, that the obstructions from ice would be of 
 very short duration, if, jndeed, such impediments would 
 ever occur. It is well known that the Monongahela 
 suffers less inconvenience from ice, in its present con- 
 dition, than it did before it was improved by locks and 
 dams, and no good reason can be given why the same 
 results would not follow the improved navigation of 
 the Ohio. That the growing demands of trade in the 
 Great West will imperatively require this great work 
 to be speedily accomplished, no man who has at all 
 considered this subject can for one moment doubt. 
 Saying nothing of the great staples of agriculture, 
 which already seek our Eastern cities through the 
 valley of the Ohio, and which will continue to increase 
 in a ratio that will almost defy computation, there 
 are immense resources of undeveloped mineral wealth, 
 whose tonnage will soon exceed that of all the trafiic 
 now done upon the river, and upon all the railroads 
 running nearly parallel with it through the Western 
 States. The vast treasures of coal, iron, and salt, are 
 there in store for the scores of millions which will soon 
 inhabit the rich valley of the Ohio. But admitting 
 that the river, when improved by locks and dams, 
 would impose a heavy expense for lockage, still the 
 actual expense of na\'igation would be far less than is 
 now imposed upon it, in consequence of the ruinous de- 
 lays and disruptions of business, arising from the sud- 
 den rise and fall of the river. Though subjected to 
 tolls at the locks, the certainty and regularity with 
 which steamers could make their trips would more 
 than compensate this expense. The whole system of 
 passage and freight would be systematized, and in the 
 aggregate rendered far less expensive and hazardous. 
 Indeed, in whatever light this grand scheme may be 
 viewed, it is matter of surprise that public attention 
 has not been fully dii-ected to it before, and that states- 
 men should not long ago have urged its paramount 
 importance upon the attention of Congress. — See article 
 Mississippi River. 
 
 Oil (Fr. Huile; Germ. Oel; It. Olie; Lat. Oleum; 
 Kuss. Mash; Sp. Aceite'). The term ml is applied to 
 
OIL 
 
 1466 
 
 OIL 
 
 designate a number of unctuous liquors, which, when 
 dropped upon paper, sink into it, and make it seem 
 semi-transparent, or give it what is called a. greasy 
 stain. These bodies are very numerous, and have been 
 in common use from time immemorial. Chemists have 
 divided them into two classes ; namely, volatile and 
 Jixed oils. Oil was used for burning in lamps as early 
 as the epoch of Abraham, about 1921 B.C. It was the 
 staple commodity of Attica, and a jar full was the prize 
 at the Panathentean games. It was the custom of the 
 Jews to anoint with oil persons appointed to high 
 offices, as the priests and kings, Psalm cxxxiii. 2 ; 1 
 Sam. X. 1, xvi. 13. The anointing with this liquid 
 seems also to have been reckoned a necessary ingre- 
 dient in a festival dress, Ruth^ iii. 3. The fact that oil, 
 if passed through red-hot iron pipes, will be resolved 
 into a combustible gas, was long known to chemists ; 
 and after the process of lighting by coal-gas was made 
 apparent, Messrs. Taylor and Martineau contrived ap- 
 paratus for producing oil-gas on a large scale. — Haydn. 
 
 We borrow from Dr. Thomas Thomson the following 
 statement with respect to these bodies : 
 
 I. Volatile Oils, called also essential oils^ are dis- 
 tinguished by the following properties : 1. Liquid, oft- 
 en almost as liquid as water, sometimes viscid ; 2. Very 
 combustible ; 3. An acrid taste and a strong fragrant 
 odor ; 4. Volatilized at a temperature not higher than 
 212'^ ; 5. Soluble in alcohol, and imperfectly in water ; 
 6. Evaporate without leaving any stain on paper. By 
 this last test it is easy to discover whether they have 
 been adulterated with any of the fixed oils. Let a drop 
 of the volatile oil fall upon a sheet of writing-paper, 
 and then apply a gentle heat to it ; if it evaporates 
 without leaving any stain upon the paper, the oil is 
 pure ; but if it leaves a stain upon the paper, it has 
 been contaminated with some fixed oil or other. Vol- 
 atile oils are almost all obtained from vegetables, and 
 they exist in every part of plants — the root, the bark, 
 the wood, the leaves, the flower, and even the fruit, 
 though they are never found in the substance of the 
 cotyledons ; whereas the fixed oils, on the contrary, are 
 almost always contained in these bodies. When the 
 volatile oils are contained in great abundance in plants, 
 they are sometimes obtained by simple expression. 
 This is the case with oil of oranges, of lemons and ber- 
 gamot : but in general they can only be obtained by 
 distillation. The part of the plant containing the oil 
 is put into a still with a quantity of water, which is 
 distilled off by the application of a moderate heat. 
 The oil comes over along with the water, and swims 
 upon its surface in the receiver. By this process are 
 obtained the oils of peppermint, thyme, lavender, and 
 a great many others, which are prepared and employed 
 by the perfumer. Others are procured by the distilla- 
 tion of resinous bodies. This is the case in particular 
 with oil of turpentine, which is obtained by distilling 
 a kind of resinous juice, called turpentine, that exudes 
 from the juniper. Volatile oils are exceedingly numer- 
 ous. They have been long known ; but as their use in 
 chemistry is but limited, they have not hitherto been 
 subjected to an accurate chemical investigation. They 
 differ greatly in their properties from each other, but it is 
 impossible at present to give a detailed account of each. 
 
 1. The greater number of volatile oils are liquid; 
 many, indeed, are as limpid as water, and have none 
 of that appearance which we usually consider oily. 
 This is the case with the following ; namely, oil of 
 turpentine, oranges, lemons, bergamot, roses. Oth- 
 ers have the oily viscidity. It varies in them in all 
 degrees. This is the case with the oils of mace, car- 
 damom, sassafras, cloves, cinnamon. Others have the 
 property of becoming solid. This is the case with the 
 oils of parsley, fennel, anise seed, balm. Others crystal- 
 ize by slow evaporation. This is the case with oil of 
 thyme, peppermint, marjoram. The oil of nutmegs 
 has usually the consistence of butter. This is the case 
 also with the oils of hops and of pepper. 2. The color 
 
 of the volatile oils is as various as their other prop- 
 erties. A great number are limpid and colorless; as 
 oil of turpentine, lavender, rosemary, savine, anise 
 seed: some are yellow; as spike, bergamot: some are 
 brown ; as thyme, savory, wormwood : others blue ; as 
 camomile, motherwort : others green ; as milfoil, pep- 
 per, hops, parsley, wormwood, cajeput, juniper, sage, 
 valerian : others, though at first colorless, become yel- 
 low or brown by age ; as cloves, cinnamon, sassafras. 
 3. The odors are so various as to defy all description. 
 It is sufficient to say, that all the fragrance of the 
 vegetable kingdom resides in volatile oils. Their 
 taste is acrid, hot, and exceedingly unpleasant. 4. 
 Their specific gravity varies very considerably, not 
 only in different oils, but even in the same oil in dif- 
 ferent circumstances. When the volatile oils are heat- 
 ed in the open air, they evaporate readily, and without 
 alteration difRise their peculiar odors all around ; but 
 there is a considerable difference between the different 
 oils in this respect. When distilled in close vessels, 
 they do not so readily assume the form of vapor. Hence 
 they lose their odor, become darker in color, and are 
 partly decomposed. Oils do not seem very susceptible 
 of assuming the gaseous form, unless some other sub- 
 stance, as water, be present. 
 
 II. Fixed Oils are distinguished by the following 
 charactei's : 1. Liquid, or easily become so when ex- 
 posed to a gentle heat ; 2. An unctuous feel ; 3. Very 
 combustible; 4. A mild ta^te ; 5. Boiling point not 
 under 600° ; 6. Insoluble in water, and nearly so in 
 alcohol ; 7. Leave a greasy stain upon paper. 
 
 These oils, which are called fat or expressed oils, are 
 numerous, and are obtained partly from animals and 
 partly from vegetables, by simple expression. As in- 
 stances, may be mentioned whale oil or train oil, obtain- 
 ed from the blubber of the whale andfrom cod: olive oil, 
 obtained from the fruit of the olive ; linseed oil and al- 
 mond oil, obtained from linseed and almond kernels. 
 Fixed oils may also be extracted from poppy seeds, hemp 
 seeds, beech mast, and many other vegetable substances. 
 
 All these oils differ from each other in several par- 
 ticulars, but have also many particulars in common. 
 
 1. Fixed oil is usually a liquid with a certain de- 
 gree of viscidity, adhering to*the sides of the glass 
 vessels in which it is contained, and forming streaks. 
 It is never perfectly transparent ; has always a cer- 
 tain degree of color, most usually yellowish or green- 
 ish ; its taste is sweet, or nearly insipid. When fresh 
 it has little or no smell. 
 
 There exist also in the vegetable kingdom a con- 
 siderable number of bodies which, at the ordinary tem- 
 perature of the atmosphere, are solid, and have hither- 
 to been considered as fixed oils. Palm oil may be 
 mentioned as an example. The various substances 
 used in India and Africa as substitutes for butter, and 
 as unguents, may likewise be mentioned. 
 
 2. AH the fixed oils hitherto examined are lighter 
 than water, but they diflfer greatly from one another 
 in specific gravity. The same diflference is observable 
 in different samples of the same oil. Fixed oil, when 
 in the state of vapor, takes fire on the approach of an 
 ignited body, and burns with a yellowish white flame. 
 It is upon this principle that candles and lamps bum. 
 The tallow or oil is first converted into a state of vapor 
 in the wick ; it then takes fire, and supplies a sufficient 
 quantity of heat to convert more oil into vapor; and 
 this process goes on while any oil remains. The wick 
 is necessary to present a sufBciently small quantity 
 of oil at once for the heat to act upon. If the heat 
 were great enough to keep the whole oil at a tempera- 
 ture of 600°, no wick would be necessary, as is obvious 
 from oil catching fire spontaneously when it has been 
 raised to that temperature. When oil is used in this 
 manner, either in the open air or in contact with oxy- 
 gen gas, the only new products obtained are icaier and 
 carbonic acid. The drying oils are used as the vehi- 
 cle of paints and varnishes. Linseed, nut, poppy, and 
 
OIL 
 
 1467 
 
 OIL 
 
 hemp-seed oils belong to this class. These oils in 
 their natural state possess the property of drying oils, 
 but imperfectly. To prepare them for the use of the 
 painter and varnish maker, they are boiled for some 
 time in an iron pot, and sometimes burned till they 
 become viscid. Whtn they burn for some time, their 
 unctuous quality is much more completely destroyed 
 than by any method that has been practiced. Hence 
 it is followed frequently in preparing the drying oils 
 for varnishes, and always for printers' ink, which re- 
 quires to be as free as possible from ,aU unctuosity. 
 Nut oil has been found preferable to all other oils for 
 printers' ink ; though the dark color which it acquires 
 during boiling renders it not so proper for red ink as 
 for black. Linseed oil is considered as next after nut 
 oil in this respect. Other oils can not be employed, 
 because they can not be sufficiently freed from their 
 unctuosity. Ink made with them would be apt to 
 come off and smear the paper while in the hands of the 
 bookbinder, or even to spread beyond the mark of the 
 types and stain the paper yellow. 
 
 The kind of oil used for burning in lamps varies, in 
 different parts of the world, with the sources of supply. 
 Whale oil is used in Great Britain, but seal oil, fish 
 oil, and oils obtained from seeds by pressure are also 
 
 largely consumed. In Paris the oils of rape-seed and 
 of poppy-seed are used; and in the sputh of France, 
 and in Italy, an inferior kind of olive oil, and also the 
 oil of the earth-nut, are employed. In the latter 
 country a lamp oil is expressed from grape-stones. In 
 Piedmont walnut oil is common ; oil of sesamum-seed 
 is burned on the eastern and southern coasts of the 
 Mediterranean ; while in tropical countries cocoa-nut 
 oil, which is solid in the climate of Great Britain, is 
 generally used. In China, the Camellia okifera is 
 cultivated for the sake of the oil obtained from its 
 seeds ; also a shrub, Croton, sebiferum, the fruit of which 
 yields a useful oil. In consequence of the deficient 
 supply of tallow during the late war with Russia, in- 
 quiries have been set on foot in various parts of the 
 world as to the seeds and other vegetable products 
 from which oil may be obtained, and the result of 
 these inquiries has already shown that many oil-yield- 
 ing substances, not before known in commerce, exist. 
 The export of oils from the East Indies, especially 
 gingdly, has greatly increased. Pistachio-nut oil is 
 becoming common, as is also , ground-nut oil from 
 Africa. AH these oils are used for burning in lamps. 
 The following is a list of the plants which yield the 
 ordinary unctuous oils of commerce : 
 
 Specific QrHTity 
 
 Liniim uBitatiBBimum et perenne D. 
 
 Corylus avellana) jj 
 
 Juglans regia ) 
 
 Papaver somniferum D. 
 
 Cannabis satira D. 
 
 SeBamum orientale G. 
 
 Olea Europea Cr. 
 
 Amygdalus communis G. 
 
 Gnilandina mohringa G. 
 
 Cucui'bita pepo, and melapcpo D. 
 
 FaguB silvatica G. 
 
 SinapiB nigra et arvensis G. 
 
 HelianthuB annuus et perennis P. 
 
 BrasBica napns et campeBtris G. 
 
 HicinuB communis D. 
 
 Nicotiana tabacum et rustica D. 
 
 Prunus domestica G. 
 
 Vitis Tinifera D. 
 
 Theobroma cacao G. 
 
 Cocos nucifera G. 
 
 Cocua butyracea vel avoira elais G. 
 
 Laui'ua nobilis G. 
 
 AvachiB bypogffia G. 
 
 Yateria indica G. 
 
 HesperiB matronalis D. 
 
 Myagrum sativa D. 
 
 Reseda luteola D. 
 
 Lepidium sativum D. 
 
 Atropa' belladonna D. 
 
 Gosaypium Barbadense D. 
 
 Brasslca campestris oleifera G. 
 
 Brassica praecox ^. G. 
 
 KaplianuB sativtis oleifer G. 
 
 PrunuB cerasus G. 
 
 Pyrus mains G. 
 
 Euonymus Europffius G. 
 
 CornUB Banguinea G. 
 
 CypernB escnlenta G. 
 
 HyosciamuB niger G. 
 
 iEsculus hippocastanum G. 
 
 Pinus abies D. 
 
 Linseed oil . 
 Nut oil 
 
 Poppy oil 
 
 H6mp oil 
 
 Oil of seBamum 
 
 Olive oil 
 
 Almond oil 
 
 Oil of behen or ben 
 
 Cucumber oil 
 
 Beech oil 
 
 Oil of mustard 
 
 Oil of sunflower 
 
 Bape-seed oil 
 
 Castor oil 
 
 Tobacco-seed oil 
 
 Plum-kernel oil 
 
 Grape-seed oil 
 
 Butter of cacao 
 
 Cocoa-nut Qll 
 
 Palm oil 
 
 Laurel oil 
 
 Ground-nut oil 
 
 Piney tallow 
 
 Oil of Julienne 
 
 Oil of camelina 
 
 Oil of weld-seed 
 
 Oil of garden cresses 
 
 Oil of deadly night-shade 
 
 Cotton-seed oil 
 
 Colza oil 
 
 Summer rape-seed oil 
 
 Oil of radish -seed 
 
 Cheny-Btone oil 
 
 Apple-seed oil 
 
 Spindle-tree oil 
 
 Cornil-berry tree oil 
 
 Oil of the roots of cyper grass. 
 
 Henbane-seed oil 
 
 Horse-chestnut oil 
 
 Pinetop oil 
 
 0-9347 
 
 0-9260 
 
 0-9243 
 0-92T6 
 
 0-9ii6 
 9180 
 
 0'-9231 
 0-9225 
 0-9160 
 0-9262 
 0-9136 
 0-9611 
 0-9232 
 0-912T 
 0-9202 
 0-892 
 
 0-968 
 
 0-926 
 
 0-9281 
 
 0-9252 
 
 0-9358 
 
 0-9240 
 
 0-9250 
 
 0-6 136 
 0-9139 
 0-918T 
 0-9239 
 
 0-9380 
 
 0-9180 
 0-9130 
 0-92T 
 0-285 
 
 Candia. — A fair crop or yield of olive oil is estimated 
 at two million gallons, and two and a half millions an 
 abundant crop. Although immense numbers of olive- 
 trees were cut down during the " Greek war" and the 
 civil commotion in 1840, the population is still insuffi- 
 cient to attend to them, and the only culture they re- 
 ceive is slightly plowing the ground on which they 
 stand. The fruit is allowed to drop from the tree, 
 when it is collected by women and children, who re- 
 ceive for their trouble one-third the quantity they col- 
 lect ; if the crop is abundant, generally one quarter is 
 lost for want of hands to collect it. In the district of 
 Opokero the fruit is beaten from the trees, evidently 
 to its injury, for it is smaller in that section than in 
 any other part of the island. The fruit is collected in 
 heaps and taken to a wooden mill of very primitive 
 and rough construction, operated by four men. The 
 oil from the first pressure belongs to the owner of the 
 
 olives, out of which the government receives one-tenth ; 
 the mass is again pressed, and one-third quantity, in 
 comparison with the first pressure, is obtained, al- 
 though of an inferior quality ; this is divided into 
 tenths, one of which belongs to the government, two 
 divided among the workmen, and the remainder be- 
 longs to the owner of the mill. 
 
 WHALE OIL. 
 Statement of the Quantities of Oil and Bone tran- 
 shipped AT the Sandwich Islands- in 1854. 
 
 To whfit Country. 
 
 Sanson. 
 
 Spenn Oil. 
 
 Whole on. 
 
 Bone. 
 
 ' 
 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 United States 
 
 Spring 
 
 49,361 
 
 25T.380 
 
 28,765 
 
 do. 
 
 Fall. 
 
 60,449 
 
 l,2q8,366 
 
 752,889 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 46,6T4 
 
 104.760 
 
 654,241 
 
 Bremen 
 
 do. 
 
 
 -10,244 
 
 26,588 
 
 Havre 
 
 Total, 1854 
 
 do. 
 
 
 25,172 
 
 , 46,810 
 
 
 156,484 
 
 1,665.921 
 
 1,506,445 
 
 do. 1853 
 
 
 175,396 
 
 3,TST,348 . 
 
 2,020.264 
 
OIL 
 
 1468 
 
 OIL 
 
 Impoetations op Speem and Whale Oil and "Whalebone 
 INTO THE United States in 1856. 
 
 1 Sperm Oil. | Whole Oil. 
 
 Whalebone. 
 
 New Bedford 
 
 Barrela. 
 
 62,886 
 
 6,696 
 
 1,02T 
 
 1,24T 
 
 9T9 
 
 298 
 
 BarrelB. 
 
 81,-1 82 
 
 9,648 
 
 1,309 
 
 334 
 
 368 
 
 32 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 1,06T,600 
 
 26,300 
 
 8,400 
 
 1,500 
 
 Dartmouth 
 
 Weatport 
 
 Mattapoisett 
 
 Sippican 
 
 Dl.s. of New Bedford. 
 
 62,12T 
 880 
 SOT 
 238 
 1,22T 
 6,016 
 889 
 480 
 379 
 231 
 141 
 60 
 3,073 
 TOO 
 961 
 121 
 220 
 664 
 675 
 
 2,'083 
 
 93,564 
 
 140 
 
 2,477 
 
 890 
 
 6,171 
 
 7,364 
 
 2,806 
 
 889 
 
 342 
 
 219 
 
 144 
 
 1,944 
 
 11,909 
 
 31,808 
 6,146 
 6,307 
 4,037 
 160 
 2,596 
 
 18,997 
 
 1,128,800 
 1,000 
 
 18,400 
 
 2,000 
 
 104,300 
 
 57,600 
 4,000 
 3,600 
 
 28,500 
 1,200 
 
 iiVeVo 
 
 109,000 
 
 249,900 
 69,000 
 44,500 
 32,200 
 4,000 
 27,000 
 
 691,200 
 
 
 Holmes's Hole 
 
 Edgartown 
 
 Nantucket 
 
 Provincetown 
 
 Boston 
 
 Salem 
 
 Beverly 
 
 Fall Kiver 
 
 
 Newport 
 
 New London 
 
 Stonington 
 
 Sag Harbor 
 
 Greenport 
 
 Cold Spring 
 
 New York 
 
 Total for 1853. . . . 
 
 80,941 
 
 19T,890 
 
 2,692,700 
 
 iMPOaXB OF EAOU MONTH OP 185G. 
 
 January, no arrivals . 
 
 February 
 
 March 
 
 April 
 
 May 
 
 June 
 
 July 
 
 August , 
 
 September 
 
 October 
 
 November 
 
 December 
 
 Total . 
 
 BarrelB. 
 
 2,'739 
 
 3,0T4 
 
 9,832 
 
 18,328 
 
 12,820 
 
 13,051 
 
 6,677 
 
 5,094 
 
 3,487 
 
 4.8D7 
 
 2,036 
 
 80,941 
 
 whale Oil. I Whnlehone. 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 3,'284 
 
 20,967 
 
 49,350 
 
 62,246 
 
 37,059 
 
 13,583 
 
 8,116 
 
 8,304 
 
 2,090 
 
 1,862 
 
 885 
 
 197,890 
 
 Founds. 
 
 48,300 
 678,900 
 838,600 
 418,300 
 324,800 
 162,000 
 
 43,900 
 
 38,800 
 8,200 
 
 30,500 
 
 2,592,700 
 
 In addition to tlie above there have been imported 
 into the port of Boston from St. John's, Newfoundland, 
 3129 barrels seal oil, 124 barrels whale oil, and 20 bar- 
 rels sperm oil. 
 
 The following table gives a summary of the impor- 
 tations of oil and bone into the United States for the 
 past sixteen years : 
 
 Year.. 
 
 Sperm Oil. 
 
 Whole oil. 
 
 Whalebone. 
 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Imports for 1841 . . 
 
 151,304 
 
 2.iT,348 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 1842 . . 
 
 166,637 
 
 161,041 
 
 1,600,000 
 
 1S43 . . 
 
 166,985 
 
 206,727 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 1844.. 
 
 189.534 
 
 262,047 
 
 2,632,445 
 
 1845.. 
 
 157,917 
 
 272,730 
 
 3,167,142 
 
 1840 . . 
 
 95,217 
 
 207,493 
 
 2,270,939 
 
 1847 . . 
 
 120,763 
 
 313,150 
 
 3,841,680 
 
 184S . . 
 
 10T,976 
 
 280,656 
 
 2,003,000 
 
 1849 . . 
 
 100,944 
 
 248,492 
 
 2,281,100 
 
 1860 . . 
 
 92,892 
 
 200,608 
 
 2,869,200 
 
 " 1851 . . 
 
 99,591 
 
 328,483 
 
 3,916,500 
 
 1862 . . 
 
 T8,8T2 
 
 84,211 
 
 1,269,900 
 
 1863 . . 
 
 103, OTT 
 
 260.114 
 
 6,6.->2,300 
 
 1854 . . 
 
 T6,696 
 
 819,837 
 
 3,445.200 
 
 " 1865 . . 
 
 T2,649 
 
 184,015 
 
 2,707,500 
 
 1856 . . 
 
 80,941 
 
 197,890 
 
 2,692,700 
 
 Statement of the aveeage Prices op Speum and Whale 
 
 OlT. AND WHAI-EBONE FOE SIXTEEN YEAES PAST, AT NEW 
 
 VoBK AND New Bedfoe.i>. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Sperm Oil. 
 
 Whale Oil. 
 
 Whalebone, 
 
 
 100c. 
 
 94 
 
 73 
 
 63 
 
 90i 
 
 ^8 
 
 87J 
 lOOf 
 108 9-10 
 120 7-10 
 127i 
 123f 
 1241 
 14H 
 177 2-10 
 162 
 
 30*0. 
 
 31i 
 
 33J 
 
 an 
 
 3H 
 
 32} 
 
 331 
 "36 
 
 39 9-10 
 
 49 6-10 
 
 46 6-16 
 
 68t 
 
 58i 
 
 68i 
 
 71 3-10 
 ,79} 
 
 19c. 
 
 191 
 
 23 
 
 35* 
 
 40 
 
 33f 
 
 34 
 
 30i 
 
 31 8-10 
 
 34 4-10 
 
 34J- 
 
 50t 
 
 34* 
 
 89 1-6 
 
 46J- 
 
 58 
 
 1842 
 
 
 1S44 
 
 
 1R46 
 
 1847 
 
 184S 
 
 1849 
 
 1850 
 
 1851 
 
 1S53 
 
 1853 
 
 1854 
 
 1855 
 
 1850 
 
 NORTH PACIFIC FISHEEY. 
 Table showing the N-ombee of Ships enoaged in tub 
 
 NOETH l^ACIFIO FlSnEBY FOE THE LAST FIFTEEN YEAES, 
 AND THE AVEEAGE QUANTITY OF OIL TAKEN. 
 
 Yean. 
 
 1841. . 
 1842. . 
 1843.. 
 1844.. 
 1845.. 
 1846. . 
 1847. . 
 1848.. 
 1849.. 
 1860. , 
 1851.. 
 1852.. 
 1853. . 
 1864. . 
 1855. . 
 
 Shi ps. 
 Number. 
 
 20 
 
 29 
 108 
 170 
 263 
 292 
 177 
 169 
 155 
 144 
 138 
 288 
 238 
 232 
 217 
 
 Average. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 1412 
 
 28,200 
 
 1627 
 
 47,200 
 
 1349 
 
 146 800 
 
 1628 
 
 269.570 
 
 963 
 
 260,600 
 
 160 
 
 253 800 
 
 1059 
 
 187.443 
 
 1164 
 
 185,266 
 
 1334 
 
 2l 6.S50 
 
 1692 
 
 243,618 
 
 626 
 
 86,360 
 
 1343 
 
 373,450 
 
 912 
 
 218,136 
 
 7r4 
 
 184,063 
 
 873 
 
 189,679 
 
 In 1856 about 181 ships cruised in the Northern 
 Seas, two of which were lost, and three have not been 
 reported during the season. 
 
 United States Vessels employed in the Whale Fisn- 
 EEY, Janttaky 1, 1S57. 
 
 
 Ships 
 
 and 
 
 Barks. 
 
 Brigs. 
 
 Schooners. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 New Bedford 
 
 Fairhaven 
 
 Westport 
 
 Dartmouth 
 
 Mattapoisett 
 
 Sippican 
 
 "Wareham 
 
 Dis. of New Bedford 
 
 Sandwich 
 
 Falmouth 
 
 Holmes's Hole 
 
 Edgartown 
 
 Nantucket 
 
 Provincetown 
 
 Beverly 
 
 Lynn 
 
 Orleans 
 
 Fall River 
 
 329 
 
 47 
 14 
 10 
 12 
 
 i 
 
 '4 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 8 
 
 111,364 
 
 16,666 
 
 3.963 
 
 2,700 
 
 3,530 
 
 319 
 
 374 
 
 413 
 
 3 
 3 
 
 14 
 
 38 
 5 
 2 
 1 
 1 
 8 
 
 16 
 1 
 4 
 
 50 
 6 
 6 
 
 14 
 9 
 5 
 
 9 
 1 
 
 i 
 i 
 
 2 
 '2 
 
 - '4 
 '2 
 
 6 
 
 '3 
 
 2 
 15 
 
 ii 
 
 138,926 
 
 165 
 
 1,106 
 
 1,219 
 
 4 956 
 
 13. 020 
 
 2,785 
 
 452 
 
 823 
 
 616 
 
 715 
 
 6,048 
 
 298 
 
 1,206 
 
 18,999 
 
 1,840 
 
 1,949 
 
 5,261 
 
 2,652 
 
 2,129 
 
 
 Providence 
 
 Newport 
 
 New London 
 
 Mystic 
 
 Stonington 
 
 Sag Harbor 
 
 Greenport 
 
 Cold Spring 
 
 Total Jan. 1, 1857 . 
 
 513 
 
 22 
 
 40 
 
 204,209 
 
 Showing an addition of eight ships, one brig, and 
 eleven schooners, with an addition in the aggregate 
 tonnage of 6068 tons. 
 
 Of the above are owned in the State of— 
 
 
 Ships 
 
 and 
 
 Barks. 
 
 Brigs. 
 
 Schooners. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 New York 
 
 483 
 20 
 63 
 28 
 
 16 
 
 '4 
 
 2 
 
 27 
 
 ii 
 
 2 
 
 164,832 
 6 647 
 22,788 
 10,042 
 
 Total 
 
 693 
 
 22 
 
 40 
 
 204,208 
 
 The number of vessels and amount of tonnage em- 
 ployed in the Whale Fishery since 1844 has been as 
 follows : 
 
 
 =a-j 
 
 
 
 
 
 Brigs. 
 
 Schooners. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 January 1, 1844 
 
 695 
 
 41 
 
 9 
 
 200,147 
 
 1845 ... . 
 
 643 
 
 36 
 
 17 
 
 218,666 
 
 1846 .... 
 
 678 
 
 36 
 
 22 
 
 233,189 
 
 1847 .... 
 
 670 
 
 31 
 
 21 
 
 230,218 
 
 1848.... 
 
 621 
 
 22 
 
 16 
 
 210,063 
 
 " 1849 .... 
 
 58r 
 
 21 
 
 12 
 
 196,112 
 
 " 1850.... 
 
 510 
 
 20 
 
 13 
 
 171,484 
 
 " 1851.... 
 
 .502 
 
 24 
 
 17 
 
 171,971 
 
 1852.... 
 
 558 
 
 27 
 
 35 
 
 193,990 
 
 18.')3.... 
 
 699 
 
 30 
 
 32 
 
 206,286 
 
 1854 .... 
 
 602 
 
 28 
 
 38 
 
 208,399 
 
 " 1855 .... 
 
 .584 
 
 20 
 
 34 
 
 199,842 
 
 1866 .... 
 
 585 
 
 21 
 
 29 
 
 199,141 
 
 — -lYew Bedford ShippiTig List. 
 
OIL 
 
 1469 
 
 OIL 
 
 EXPOBTB OF DOMESTIO OiLB FttOM THE UNITED StATBB FOB THE FISCAL YEAE ENDING 
 
 Juke 30, 
 
 1858. 
 
 Whitlier Exported- 
 
 . Spennaceti, 
 
 Whale and other Fish. ] 
 
 Lard Oil. 
 
 Oil Cake. 
 
 GsllwiB. 
 
 Dalian. 
 
 GallqDS. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 GalloDB. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Russian Fossesaions in North America 
 
 100 
 2,620, 
 6,704 
 
 l',402 
 80 
 390 
 
 "674 
 
 "i20 
 1,659 
 467,372 
 13.880 
 17,950 
 6,609 
 
 "900 
 
 18,215 
 
 "168 
 853 
 
 "iso 
 
 2,917 
 ■ ■ '28 
 
 176 
 6,040 
 11,170 
 
 3,100 
 164 
 
 860 
 
 i',297 
 
 "255 
 
 3,242 
 
 853,920 
 
 26,173 
 
 21,049 
 
 8,800 
 
 'l',228 
 
 32',640 
 
 "S69 
 1,248 
 
 ■375 
 
 5,861 
 
 '"48 
 
 60 
 'l',284 
 
 i',7i8 
 
 l'6',482 
 3,303 
 
 '2,865 
 2,716 
 
 13'l',266 
 
 24,867 
 
 177,693 
 
 11,737 
 
 8,715 
 
 1,676 
 
 561 
 
 21,160 
 
 4,601 
 
 90,886 
 
 '2,523 
 
 12'3',7S4 
 
 4,443 
 
 63 
 
 3,113 
 
 2,166 
 
 "892 
 
 1,269 
 
 . 80 
 
 1,874 
 
 7,587 
 
 338 
 
 15 
 
 646,694' 
 
 120 
 i',661 
 
 1,462 
 
 '9,020 
 2,13T 
 
 '2,324 
 2,237 
 
 9'7',839 
 
 18,817 
 
 170,810 
 
 9,722 
 
 4,880 
 
 1,609 
 
 562 
 
 14,779 
 3,586 
 
 66,714 
 
 '2,100 
 
 98,890 
 
 3,537 
 
 70 
 
 2,889 
 
 1,904 
 
 "070 
 1,089 
 
 .-,71 
 1,784 
 6,479 
 
 843 
 3 
 
 '"81 
 
 "m 
 
 4,942 
 5,000 
 
 "120 
 
 '4,160 
 
 25,177 
 
 49,383 
 
 9,064 
 
 2,376 
 
 11,402 
 
 2,996 
 
 606 
 
 940 
 
 ■"40 
 
 ■"/il 
 4,288 
 4,093 
 
 ■"61 
 
 1,606 
 
 40 
 
 5,151 
 
 776 
 
 . 80 
 
 76,944 
 
 1,283 
 
 '"79 
 "684 
 
 '3,864 
 
 4,772 
 
 "162- 
 
 '3,926 
 22,026 
 40,822 
 
 9,749 
 
 2,392 
 10,484 
 
 2,679 
 607 
 
 1,038 
 
 '"« 
 
 "'43 
 4,248 
 3,128 
 
 '"52 
 
 1,413 
 
 43 
 
 6,027 
 
 704 
 
 84 
 
 42,777 
 
 1,257 
 
 '2,977 
 .... 
 
 1,07'4'.258 
 
 10,798 
 
 980 
 
 32 
 
 44,038 
 
 160 
 
 '2,350 
 300 
 
 '1,632 
 61 
 
 Sweden and Norway 
 
 Swedish West Indies 
 
 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 
 Holland 
 
 Dutch West Indies 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Other Britifih North American Possessions . 
 
 
 British Possessions in Africa 
 
 
 British East Indies 
 
 
 French North American Possessions 
 
 
 
 Porto Rico 
 
 
 Hayti 
 
 Central Republic 
 
 New Granada 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Chili 
 
 Sandwich Irtands ; . . . , 
 
 Total year lS55-'63 
 
 540,784 
 
 $977,005 
 
 $526,338 
 
 212,262 
 
 $161,282 
 
 $1,138,970 
 
 Statement showing 
 
 THE iMrORTS 
 
 OF Oils 
 
 INTO THE United States foe 
 
 THE YEAB ending JitN 
 
 E 30, 1856. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Rape seed 
 
 
 
 Neat's-fool 
 
 Essen- 
 
 Olive, 
 
 Olive, 
 
 
 Cnetor. 
 
 Linseed. 
 
 
 Falm. 
 
 and other 
 
 tial 
 
 in 
 
 in 
 
 whence Imported. 
 
 
 
 
 Hemp seed. 
 
 
 
 animal. 
 
 Oils. 
 
 Casks. 
 
 Bottles. 
 VallTe. 
 
 Gallons-l Valuo. 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Gulls. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 Value. 1 Value. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Value. 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 
 ? 
 
 
 » 
 
 
 « 
 
 « 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 * 
 
 Danish West Indies .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,615 
 
 675 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 
 
 885 
 
 737 
 
 26,618 
 
 13,294 
 
 
 
 
 8,064 
 
 
 3,009 
 
 Br'emeri 
 
 
 
 
 
 120 
 
 153 
 
 
 
 
 13,037 
 
 
 
 Holland 
 
 
 
 8,480 
 
 6,242 
 
 95 
 
 66 
 
 
 
 
 1,669 
 
 
 
 Dutch East Indies 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 6S1 
 
 805 
 
 
 
 46 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 
 1,020 
 
 
 
 
 55 585 
 
 42 139 
 
 1,691,265 
 55 
 
 1,048.910 
 61 
 
 15,127 
 
 6,191 
 
 28,471 
 
 11,912 
 
 
 21,258 
 
 6,255 
 
 4,230 
 
 Scotland 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ireland 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Malta 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6,910 
 
 
 Canada 
 
 
 
 45 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 244 
 
 10 
 
 22 
 
 286 
 
 Other British N. A. Poss. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 British Poss. in Africa . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 208,026 
 
 77 707 
 
 
 
 
 
 Other ports in Africa . . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 910,559 
 
 325,752 
 
 27 
 
 
 
 
 British Australia 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 British East Indies 
 
 8T,315 53,337 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3,791 
 
 
 
 France on the Atlantic . . 
 
 
 
 11,478 
 
 7,796 
 
 11,423 
 
 
 1,437 
 
 
 
 
 
 12,281 
 
 811 
 
 53,451 
 
 France on the Med'n 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 13,680 
 
 18,668 
 
 249,708 
 
 Spain on the Atlantic . . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 767 
 
 ll.S'll 
 
 
 Spain on the Med'n 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 13,381 
 
 833 
 
 Cuba 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 85 
 
 939 
 
 1,701 
 
 Porto Rico 
 
 80 
 
 64 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6,'643 
 
 ""2 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Sardinia 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 534 
 
 5 916 
 
 37,162 
 
 Tuscany 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 726 
 
 6,033 
 
 25,934 
 
 Two Sicilies 
 
 
 . . • • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 17,356 
 
 13,3'J3 
 
 3B3 
 
 Austria 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4,689 
 
 
 77 
 
 Turkey in Europe 
 
 
 ... * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3,467 
 
 
 Turkey in A^ia 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 832 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 26 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 " "3 
 
 186 
 
 
 '"20 
 
 197 
 
 20,312 
 
 
 ■ ' '10 
 
 
 ""■4 
 
 650 
 
 Brazil 
 
 China 
 
 Whale Fisheries 
 
 Total 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 322 
 
 82 
 
 
 
 
 
 143,681 
 
 96,371 
 
 1,712,208 
 
 1,063,771 
 
 53,429 
 
 26,156 
 
 1,149,647 
 
 416,317 
 
 276 1119,438 
 
 94,163|376,356 
 
 An instance of the demand for oil is manifest in the 
 palm-oil trade with the west coast of Africa. A few 
 years ago — probably less than fifteen — palm oil, in 
 the west of Africa, was worth a dollar a gallon, and 
 a late account from that region says not one thousand 
 gallons left the country in a year. Now the traffic 
 in that article with Great Britain alone amounts to 
 
 700,000 gallons a year, at an average of thirty-three 
 cents a gallon ; and with the United States as much 
 more. For lubricating machineiy, particularly in 
 steam factories and on railroads in, Great Britain, this 
 oil is used more than any or all other articles, being 
 both cheaper and better. There is now a monthly line 
 of steamers from Southampton to the west coast of Af- 
 
OLI 
 
 1470 
 
 OLI 
 
 rica, the Madeira and Canary Isles. Bristol has fift)-- 
 four ships in the trade with that coast ; Liverpool 
 thirtj'-five ; and the entire number from Great Britain, 
 both steamers and sailing vessels, is not less than one 
 hundred. Some of these are ships of 1000 tons burden. 
 President Roberts, of Liberia, says twenty ship-loads 
 of palm oil go from Monrovia every year. The import 
 of oils into the United States has been as follows : 
 
 
 1850. 
 
 1855. 
 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 Value. 
 
 GsUoiK. 
 
 Valiis. 
 
 Whale 
 
 39,669 
 
 $12,864 
 
 103,394 
 
 $36,297 
 
 Olive 
 
 91,600 
 
 65,787 
 
 126,478 
 
 88,646 
 
 OlivG in bot. 
 
 
 
 38,696 
 
 316,164 
 
 Linseed .... 
 
 1,163,64T 
 
 487,920 
 
 1,243,036 
 
 776,077 
 
 Rape-seed . . 
 
 136 
 
 69 
 
 45,381 
 
 26,668 
 
 Palm 
 
 
 
 767,784 
 
 295,211 
 
 Neat's-foot. . 
 Total 
 
 
 
 6, -.84 
 
 2,899 
 
 1,295,052 
 
 $566,630 
 
 2,380,052 
 
 $1,641,962 
 
 Increase . . . 
 
 
 
 1,036,000 
 
 985,332 
 
 The table does not include the domestic catch of 
 whales, but only the whale oil imported mostly from 
 the British Possessions and China. The olive oil in 
 bottles has been estimated in gallons, and is mostly of 
 French origin. The linseed is almost altogether En- 
 glish. — See Olive Oil. 
 
 Benzole, or Coal Oil, is a new discovery of producing 
 oil from certain kinds of bituminous coal. At Clover- 
 port, Kentucky, on the Ohio Eiver, are extensive new 
 works, running twelve retorts night and day, consum- 
 ing from eight to ten tons of coal every twenty-four 
 hours, and producing 750 gallons of crude oil. Ee-dis- 
 tilled, this quantity yields 600 gallons of refined oils; 
 viz., 125 gallons of benzole, 75 of naphtha, 225 of lubri- 
 cating oil, and 175 of oil for illuminating purposes. 
 Benzole readily sells at $1 50 per gallon ; lubricating 
 oil at $1 25; naphtha and burning at eighty cents. 
 Preparations are making at Cloverport for the manu- 
 facture of a beautiful semi-transparent candle from the 
 substance called " paraffine," resembling spermaceti, 
 and which is formed in pearly crystals in the dark oils 
 of the last distillations after they have cooled. The 
 paraffine, as remarked by Professor Silliman, Jun., 
 does not exist ready formed in the original crude prod- 
 uct, but is a result of the high temperature employed 
 in the process of distillation, by which the elements 
 are newly arranged. It derives its name from the un- 
 alterable nature of the substance under the most pow- 
 erful chemical agent. The residuum from the last dis- 
 tillation makes the first quality of asphaltum, used for 
 
 smearing vaults, etc., now imported and sold at thirty 
 doUax-s per ton. 
 
 Oil-painting. Painting in which the medium for 
 using the colors is oil. It is said to have been un- 
 known to the ancients, and not used earlier than the 
 fourteenth century ; its invention being attributed to 
 John Van Eyck, sometimes called John of Bruges. 
 By him it was supposed to have been imparted to one 
 Antonio da Messina, who tirst brought it to Venice. 
 Giovanni Bellini, by a stratagem, got possession of the 
 secret from him, and then made it publicly known. 
 Oil-painting has the advantages, above all other 
 modes, of affording great delicacy of execution, a union 
 and insensible blending of the colors, and, above all, 
 that of imparting great force to its effects. The vari- 
 ous colors chiefly used in oil-painting are white-lead, 
 Cremnitz white, chrome, king's yellow, Naples and pat- 
 ent yellow, the ochres, Dutch pink, terra da Sienna, 
 yellow lake, verriiilion, red-lead, Indian and Venetian 
 red, the several sorts of lake, brown pink, Vandyke 
 brown, burned and unburned umber, ultramarine, 
 Prussian and Antwerp blue, ivory black, blue black, 
 asphaltum. The principal oils are those extracted 
 from the poppy, nut, and linseed. With the latter, 
 driers are introduced. — See Paints. 
 
 Oldenburg, a state of Germany, in the northwest, 
 with the title of Grand Duchy, composed of three sep- 
 arate portions : 1st. The Duchy of Oldenburg, which 
 forms eight-ninths of the territory'. It is surrounded 
 by Hanover on the east, south, and west, and bounded 
 north by the North Sea; capital, Oldenburg; 2d. The 
 Principality of Liibeck, or Eutin, inclosed in the Duchy 
 of Holstein (Denmark) ; and, 3d. The Principality of 
 Birkenfeld, between Khenish Prussia and Holstein 
 Homburg; capital, Birkenfeld. Area, 2421 square 
 miles. Population in 1852, 281,92.3. Oldenburg lies 
 in the basin of the North Sea, and is entirely flat. 
 Soil in general fertile, but in several places are extens- 
 ive sand dunes and marshes. Corn raised insufiicient 
 for consumption. Pasturage excellent ; horses, cattle, 
 and sheep extensively reared. Manufactures confined 
 to linen-weaving and coarse woolens. Revenue (esti- 
 mated), 1854, 891,000 thalers; expenses, 979,000 tha- 
 lers; public debt, 1,600,000 thalers. Oldenburg, the 
 capital, is situated at the conflux of the Hunte with 
 the Haaren, which here forms o, small port, eighty 
 miles west-southwest of Hamburg. Population, 7829. 
 It is the residence of the Grand Duke. Population of 
 circle in 1852, 39,453. 
 
 COMSIEKCE OF OLBENTJimG IN 1S54 AKD 1856. 
 
 
 Entered. 
 
 Cleared. | 
 
 Number. 
 
 Tonnoge. 
 
 Eqnipment. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Equipment. 
 5,9r4 
 11.761 
 
 
 867 
 
 6871 
 
 65,611 
 
 77,385 
 
 5,869 
 13,677 
 
 898 
 5364 
 
 OS 075 
 65,159 
 
 Coasting vessels 
 
 Total in 1S64 
 
 7738 
 
 5653 
 
 2080 
 
 142,896 
 
 84,124 
 58,772 
 
 19,446 
 
 12,699 
 6,847 
 
 0862 
 
 6054 
 1808 
 
 133,234 
 
 79,782 
 51,452 
 
 17,766 
 
 11,464 
 6,291 
 
 
 Foreign 
 
 Total in 1855 
 
 69.56 
 
 131,991 
 
 17,613 
 
 6030 
 
 121,760 
 
 15,791 
 
 
 Olibanum (Fr. Encens ; Ger. Weiranch ; It. Oliba- 
 no ; Arab. Loohan), a gum-resin, the produce of a large 
 tree (Libanus tkuriferd) growing in Arabia and India. 
 It is imported in chests, containing each about one cwt., 
 from the Levant and India ; the best comes from the 
 former, and is the produce of Arabia. Good olibanum 
 is in semi-transparent tears, of a pink color, brittle, 
 and adhesive when warm. When burned, the odor is 
 very agreeable ; its taste is bitterish, and somewhat 
 pungent and aromatic ; it flames for a long time with 
 a steady, clear light, which is not easily extinguished, 
 leaving behind a black (not, as has been said, a whitish) 
 ash. Olibanum is the frankincense (thvs) of the an- 
 cients, and was extensively used by them in sacrifices. 
 — Pliny, Nat. Hist. It has also been used in the cere- 
 monies of the Greek and Roman churches. — Ainslie's 
 Materia Tndica; Thomson's Chemistry; Kippingii, 
 Antiq. Rom. 
 
 Olive, Olives (Fr. Olives ; Ger. Oliven ; It. Viive, 
 Olive; Sp. Aceitunas; Port. Azeitonas ; Lat. Olivce), a 
 fruit yielding a large quantity of oil, the produce of the 
 Olea, or olive-tree. The wild olive is indigenous to 
 Syria, Greece, and Africa, on the lower slopes of Mount 
 Atlas. The cultivated species grows spontaneously 
 in Syria, and is easilj' reared in Spain, Italy, and the 
 south of France. It has even been raised in the open 
 air in England, but its fruit is said not to have ripen- 
 ed. The fruit is a smooth, oval plum, about three- 
 quarters of an inch in length, and half an inch in di- 
 ameter; of a deep violet color when ripe, whitish and 
 fleshy within, bitter and nauseous, but replete with a 
 bland oil ; covering an oblong, pointed, rough nut. 
 Olives intended for preservation are gathered before 
 they are ripe. In pickling, the object is to remove 
 their bitterness, and to preserve them green, by im- 
 pregnating them with a brine of aromatized sea-salt ; 
 
OLI 
 
 14Y1 
 
 OLI 
 
 for this purpose various methods are employed. The 
 wood of the olive-tree is beautifully veined, and has an 
 agreeable smell. It is in great esteem with cabinet- 
 makers, on account of the fine polish of which it is sus- 
 ceptible. 
 
 Olive Oil (_Ger. Baumol; ¥i. lluUe d'olives ; It. Olio 
 d'uliva; Sp. Aceite de aceUunas; Lat. Oleum olivarum). 
 The olive-tree is principally cultivated for the salie of 
 its oil. This is an insipid, inodorous, pale greenish- 
 yellow colored, viscid fluid, unctuous to the feel, in- 
 flammable, incapable of combining with water, and 
 nearly insoluble in alcohol. It is the lightest of all the 
 fixed oils ; and is largely used, particularly in Greece, 
 Italy, Spain, and France, as an article of food, and in 
 medicine and the arts. It is also very extensively 
 used in England, particularly in the woolen manufac- 
 ture. The ripe fruit is gathered in November, and im- 
 mediately bruised in a mill, the stones of which are set 
 so wide as not to crush the liemel. The pulp is then 
 subjected to the press in bags made of rushes ; and by 
 means of a gentle pressure, the best, or virgin oil, flows 
 first ; a second, and afterward a third, quality of oil is 
 obtained by moistening the residuum, brealting the 
 kernels, etc., and increasing the pressure. When the 
 fruit is not sufficiently ripe, the recent oil has a bitter- 
 ish taste ; and when too ripe, it is fatty. After the oil 
 has been drawn it deposits a white, fibrous, and albu- 
 minous matter; but when this deposition has taken 
 place, if it be put into clean glass flasks, it undergoes 
 no further alteration ; the common oil can not, how- 
 ever, be preserved in casks above one and a half or two 
 years. It is sometimes adulterated by the admixture 
 of poppy oil. — Thomson's Dispensatary. The best ol- 
 ive oil is said to be made in the vicinity of Aix, in 
 France. That which is brought from Leghorn, in chests 
 containing thirty bottles, or four English gallons, is also 
 very superior ; it is known in our markets by the name 
 of Florence oil, and is used mostly for culinary pur- 
 poses. Olive oil is the principal article of export from 
 the kingdom of Naples. — See Naples. Apulia and 
 Calabria are the provinces most celebrated for its pro- 
 duction. The Apulian is the best, and is preferred by 
 the woolen manufacturers, by whom it is extensively 
 used. By far the largest portion of the olive oil brought 
 to England is in general imported from Italy, princi- 
 pally from Gallipoli, on the east coast of tlie Gulf of 
 Tavanto (which see), whence it is commonly known by 
 the name of Gallipoli oil. But besides Italy, Spain, 
 Turkey, the Ionian Islands,' etc., send us large quan- 
 tities. 
 
 Oil Trade of Naples. — The oils of the kingdom 
 of Naples are produced in Apulia, from Bari to its 
 soutliern extremity, the Capo di Leuca, a district com- 
 prising the territories which export from Gallipoli and 
 Taranto ; and in Calabria from Rossano, on the Gulf 
 of Taranto, across to Gioja. The whole coast from 
 Gjoja as far as Gaeta is covered with olive-trees. 
 They are also abundant in the Abruzzi and the Terra 
 di Lavora ; but Apulia and Calabria furnish by far the 
 greatest quantity of oil. The principal magazines, or 
 caricatori, for oil, are at Gallipoli and Gioja. Gal- 
 lipoli supplies England, Holland, the north of Europe, 
 aiid, in short, all those countries that require the most 
 perfectly purified oil. It is clarified to the highest de- 
 gree by merely keeping it in cisterns hollowed out of 
 the rock on which the town is built. The voyages it 
 has to perform being long, it is put into casks so well 
 constructed that it frequently arrives at Petersburg in 
 the heat of summer without the least waste or leakage 
 — an advantage attributed to the seasoning of the 
 staves, which, before they are put together, are well 
 soaked In sea-water. 
 
 The oil received into the cisterns in Gallipoli, either 
 belongs to the proprietor, who buys it of the planter, or 
 is received in deposit on account of some other party, 
 who gets a receipt (biglielto di maggazino) specifying the 
 quantity of the oil received on his account, its quality, 
 
 etc. Depositors pay at the rate of 20 grani a year for. 
 every salma of oil to the party holding it in deposit, 
 and who is bound to account for it. The caricatori of 
 Bari and Monopoli furnish oils for the consumption of 
 Upper Italy and Germany, through the medium of 
 Venice and Trieste. They also draw supplies from 
 Brindisi and Otranto. The caricatori of Taranto, of 
 Eastern Calabria or Retromarina, and of Western Ca- 
 labria, the principal of which is Gioja, furnish supplies 
 for Marseilles, etc. But the caricatori now mentioned, 
 having no conveniences for clarification, produce only ( 
 the thick oils used for soap-making. The oils of Sici- 
 ly, like those of Tunis, are too thin to be used singly in 
 the making of soap ; and, being used only for mixing, 
 are less valuable than most others. A full crop of oil 
 in the province of Terra d'Otranto is supposed to yield 
 about 300,000 salme, or 41,666 tuns. To facilitate trans- 
 actions, orders or cedules are circulated, representing 
 quantities of oil deposited in the provincial caricatori. 
 These orders are negotiable, like bills of exchange, and 
 are indorsed by the intermediate holder, who receives 
 their value in cash, without, however, becoming liable 
 for their due satisfaction. The only responsible par- 
 ties are the drawer and drawee. The latter is obliged 
 to deliver the oil at sight of the order, or to hold it at 
 the bearer's disposal, till, the 10th of November for the 
 caricatori of Apulia, and till the 31st of December for 
 those of Calabria. If the contract be for time, that is, 
 from one year to another, the oil is usually placed at 
 the purchaser's command on the 1st of March. Pur- 
 chases for time are eftected by means of a contract, 
 wherein the vendor undertakes to deliver the oil by 
 the end of January, on receiving payment of the mon- 
 ey ; but tlie oil, as observed above, is not really at the 
 purchaser's disposal before the beginning of March. 
 Hence, in time bargains, the payment of the money 
 precedes the delivery of the oil moi'e than a month : 
 scarce an instance is on record of an engagement of 
 this sort having been broken, and the order is as read- 
 ily negotiable as any other security. In purchases of 
 oil at command, payment likewise precedes the deliv- 
 ery of the article ; but in this case the advance is con- 
 fined to the five days necessary to transmit the order 
 to the caricatore where the oil is kept for delivery. The 
 oil remains in the caricatore under the care and respons- 
 ibility of the vendor, to be delivered on demand to the 
 bearer of the order, free of all costs and charges what- 
 ever for the first year ; but for every successive 3"ear 
 from 25 to 30 grains per salma are charged for keeping, 
 and for renewal of warranty. (We are indebted for 
 these details to a very valuable Report by Mr. Steel, 
 British vice-consul at Gallipoli, and to a brochure of 
 M. Millenet, entitled Coup de (Eil sur le Mogaume de 
 Naples. Naples, 1832.) For the trade in Olive oil, see 
 article Oils. 
 
 Olive-tree. The wood of the olive is heavy, com- 
 pact, fine-grained, and brilliant. The sap-wood is 
 white and soft, and the heart-wood hard, brittle, and 
 of a reddish or yellowish tint, with the pith nearly ef- 
 faced, as in the box. It is employed by cablnet-malc- 
 ers to inlay the finer species of wood, which are con- 
 trasted with it in color, and to form light articles of 
 ornament, such as dressing-cases, snuff-boxes, etc. The 
 wood of the roots, which is agreeably marbled, is pre- 
 ferred to that of the trunk. On account of its hard- 
 ness and durability, the wood of this tree was ancient- 
 ly used for the hinges of doors ; and, before metal be- 
 came common, it was selected by the Greeks for the 
 images of their gods. From its resinous and oleagin- 
 ous nature, the wood of this tree is exceedingly com- 
 bustible, and burns as well before as after it is dried. 
 There exudes from its wood a gum, which is sometimes 
 sold for gum-elemi. There is also extracted from this 
 tree a substance called olivine. The bark contains a 
 bitter principle, and is regarded as tonic and febrifu- 
 gal. The leaves are astringent. 
 
 The olives are first bruised by a mill-stone, suffi- 
 
OMN 
 
 1472 
 
 OPA 
 
 ciently hard as not to break the kernels, and are then 
 put into sacks of coarse linen, feather-grass, or of wool, 
 and subjected to heavy pressure, by -which means the 
 most fluid and the best liquor is forced out, and is call- 
 ed virgin oil. It is received into vessels half filled with 
 "vvater, from 'vvhieh it is skimmed, and put into tubs, 
 barrels, and bottles for use. Several coarser kinds of 
 oil are afterward obtained, by adding hot water to the 
 bruised fruit. The best olive oil is of a bright pale- 
 amber color, without smell, and bland to the taste. 
 Kept warm, it becomes rancid, and at 38° Fahr. it 
 congeals. It is of the same nature as all mild ex- 
 pressed vegetable oils ; of these the most fluid are pre- 
 ferred, and hence the oils of olives and of almonds are 
 those chiefly used in medicine. One of the most es- 
 teemed kinds of oil is that produced at Aix {Huiled^Aix 
 en Provence). Florence oil is also a fine kind, imported 
 from Leghorn in flasks surrounded by a kind of net- 
 work, formed of the leaves of amonocotyledonousplant. 
 These are the kinds of olive oil in most frequent use at 
 the table for salads (hence they are called Salad oils). 
 Lucca oil is imported in jars holding about nineteen 
 gallons each. Genoa oil is a fine kind. Gallipoli oil 
 is imported in casks, and constitutes the largest por- 
 tion of the olive oil imported into England, Sicily oil 
 is of an inferior quality. Spanish oil is the worst. 
 The foot deposited by olive oil is used for oiling ma- 
 chinerj'', under the name of Droppings of Sweet oil. 
 
 Another important advantage afforded by this tree 
 is its fruit in a pickled state. It is gathered unripe, 
 and sufl^ered to steep in water for some days, and is aft- 
 erward put into a lye of water and barilla, or kali, with 
 the ashes of olive-stones, or with lime. It is then put 
 up in earthen bottles, or in barrels, with salt and water, 
 and in this state is ready for use. Olives are eaten be- 
 fore, as well as after meals, and are believed to excite 
 appetite and promote digestion. The finest kind of 
 prepared fruit is known in commerce by the name of 
 PichoUnes, after one Picholini, an Italian, who first dis- 
 covered the art of pickling olives. The fruit of the 
 olive is of a pleasant taste, and is eaten by the mod- 
 ern Greeks during Lent, in its ripe state, without any 
 preparation, except with the addition of a little pep- 
 per, salt, and oil. From the value of its products, in 
 a commercial point of view, aside from other consider- 
 ations, the culture of the olive strongly claims the at- 
 tention of the American agriculturist, and the trial 
 should be made in every place where its failure is not 
 certain, and for this purpose young grafted trees of 
 hard}' and choice varieties should be obtained from 
 Europe, and the formation of nurseries immediately 
 begun. A portion of Texas, Louisiana, the islands of 
 Georgia, and chosen exposures of the interior of the 
 last-named State, as well as of some of the Western 
 States, California, or of Oregon, ivill be the scene of 
 this species of culture, if ever attended with success in 
 North America. — Browne's Trees of America. 
 
 Omnium, a term used at the English Stock Ex- 
 change, to express the aggregate value of the different 
 stocks in which a loan is now usually funded. Thus, 
 in the English loan of £36,000,000 contracted for in 
 June, 1815, the omnium consisted of £130 3 per cent, re- 
 duced annuities, £44 3 per cent, consols, and £10 4 per 
 cent, annuities, for each £100 subscribed. The loan 
 was contracted for on the 14th of June, when the prices 
 of the above stocks were— 3 per cent, reduced, 54; 3 
 per cent, consols, 65; 4 per cents., 70; hence the par- 
 cels of stock given for £100 advanced, were worth — 
 
 £ a. d. 
 
 £180 reduced, at .54 70 4 
 
 £44 consols, at 55 24 4 
 
 £10 4 per cents., at TO .TOO 
 
 Together lOi 8 O" 
 
 ivhich would be the value of the omnium, or £1 8s. 
 per cent, premium, independently of any discount for 
 prompt payment. 
 
 Onion (Ger. Zwiebel; Fr. Oignon; It. Oipolla; Sp. 
 
 Ceholla; Russ. Luh), a well-known bulbous plapt (^Alli- 
 um Cepa, Linn.) cultivated all over Europe and the U, 
 States for culinary purposes. The Strasburg, Span- 
 ish, and Portuguese varieties are the most esteemed. 
 
 Ontario, a lake of New York and Canada, eastern- 
 most and smallest in extent of the five great lakes of 
 North America. It is between 43° 10' and 44° N. lat., 
 and between 76° and 88° W. long. It receives Niagara 
 River, the great outlet of the upper lakes, in its south- 
 western part, and has its outlet by the St. Lawrence 
 River in its northeastern part, in which, immediately 
 below the lake, is the cluster denominated the "Thou- 
 sand Islands." Its shape approaches to a long and 
 narrow ellipse, being 190 miles long, and 55 ivide in its 
 widest part, and about 480 miles in circumference. It 
 is in some places over 600 feet deep, so that its bottom 
 is considerably below the level of the Atlantic. Its sur- 
 face is 330 feet below the level of Lake Erie, and 134^ 
 feet above tide-water. In every part it has sufficient 
 depth of water for the largest vessels. It has many 
 good harbors, and is rarely frozen excepting in shallow 
 parts near the shore. The principal rivers which enter 
 it from the southern side are the Genesee, Oswego, and 
 Black rivers, and a large number of creeks. The Bay 
 of Quinte is a long and irregular body of water on its 
 eastern part, which receives a considerable river, the 
 outlet of several small lakes, and Burlington Bay is in 
 its western part. Both these bays are in Canada. It 
 has several important places on its shores, the princi- 
 pal of which are Kingston, Toronto, and Coburg, in 
 Canada; and Oswego, Sackett's Harbor, Port Genesee, 
 or Charlotte, in the United States. It is subject to 
 violent storms aud heavy swells. It is connected with 
 the Erie Canal by the Oswego Canal, and from thence 
 the Erie Canal forms a navigable communication with 
 the Hudson River, a distance of 209 miles; and much 
 of the trade of New York for the West passes through 
 it and through the Welland Canal, which is 28 miles 
 long, with 27 locks, and admits the passage of the 
 largest vessels whicii navigate the lakes. This canal 
 commences at Sherbroke, near the mouth of Grand 
 River, on Lake Erie, and terminates at Port Dalhou- 
 sie, on Lake Ontario, nine miles west of Niagara vil- 
 lage. Its entrance being a considerable distance west 
 of the outlet of Lake Erie, it is open earlier than the 
 Erie Canal at Buffalo, where the ice often accumulates 
 in the spring. The Rideau Canal forms a navigable 
 communication with the Ottawa River, 12G miles. It 
 has 15 light-houses on the American shore, and 13 on 
 the Canadian side. — See Lakes, Commerce of. 
 
 Onyz (Ger. Onyx; Fr. Onix^ Onice; Sp. Onique; 
 Lat. Onyx), Any stone exhibiting layers of two or 
 more colors strongly contrasted is called an onyx, as 
 banded jasper, chalcedony, etc., but more particularly 
 the latter, when it is marked with white, and stratified 
 with opaque and translucent lines. But the Oriental 
 onyx is considered a substance consisting of two or 
 more layers or bands of distinct and difterent colors. 
 A sard, or sardoine, having a layer of white upon it, 
 would be called an onyx; and according to the num- 
 ber of layers it would be distinguished as an onyx with 
 three or more bands. Some of the antique engravings 
 are upon onyxes of four bands. — Mawe's Treatise vn 
 Diamonds, etc. 
 
 Opal (Ger. Opal; Fr. Opale; It. Opalo ; Sp. Opalo, 
 Piedra iris; Port. Opala; Lat. Opalus), a stone, of which 
 there are several varieties, found in different parts of 
 Europe, particularly in Hungary, and in the East In- 
 dies, etc. When first dug out of the earth it is soft, 
 but it hardens and diminishes in bulk by exposure to 
 the air. The opal is always amorphous ; fracture con- 
 choidal ; commonly somewhat transparent. Hardness 
 varies considerably. Specific gravity from 1"958 to 
 2-54. The lowness of its specific gravity in some cases 
 is to be ascribed to accidental cavities which the stone 
 contains. These are sometimes filled with drops of 
 water. Some specimens of opal have the property of 
 
OPI 
 
 1473 
 
 OPI 
 
 emitting various colored rays, witli a particular efful- 
 gency, when placed between the eye and the light. 
 The opals which possess this property are distinguish- 
 ed bylapidaries by the epithet Oriental; and often, by 
 mineralogists, by the epithet ndbilis. This property 
 rendered the stoue much esteemed by the ancients. — 
 Thomson's Chemistry; see also Puny, Hist. JVat. lib, 
 xxxvii. 0, 6, where there are some very curious details 
 as to this stone. 
 
 Opium (Ger. JI/oAresa_/!; Vr. Opium; It. Oppio; Sp. 
 and Port. Opio; Lat. Opium; Arab. JJfyoon; Hind. 
 Ufeem; Turk. Madjoon), the concrete juice of the white 
 poppy (Papaver somniferum), which is most probably a 
 native of Asia, though now found growing wild in the 
 southern parts of Eiirope, and even in England. Opium 
 is chiefly prepared in India, Turkey, and Persia ; but 
 the white poppy is extensively cultivated in France 
 and other parts of Europe, on account of its capsules, 
 and, of the useful bland oil obtained from its seeds. It 
 has also been cultivated, and opiutn made, in En- 
 gland ; but there is very little probability of its ever 
 being raised here to any considerable extent. The 
 poppy is an annual plant, with a stalk rising to the 
 height of three or four feet; its leaves resemble those 
 of the lettuce, and its flower has the appearance of a 
 tulip. When at its full growth, an incision is made 
 in the top of the plant, from which there issues a 
 white milky juice, which soon hardens, and is scraped 
 off the plants, and wrought into cakes. In India, these 
 are covered with the petals of the plant to prevent their 
 sticking together, and in this situation are dried, and 
 packed in chests lined with hides and covered with 
 gunny, each containing forty cakes, and weighing two 
 maunds, or 149^ lbs. ; they are exported in this state 
 to the places where the opium Is consumed. Turkey 
 opium is in flat pieces, covered with leaves, and the 
 reddish capsules of some species of ?*umear, which is 
 considered an indication of its goodness, as the inferior 
 kinds have none of these capsules adhering to them. 
 According to Dr. A. T. Thomson, Turkey opium has a 
 peculiar strong, heavy, narcotic odor, and a bitter taste, 
 accompanied by a sensation of acrid heat, or biting on 
 the tongue and lips, if it be well chewed. Its color, 
 when good, is a reddish brown, or fawn color ; its tex- 
 ture compact and uniform. Its specific gravity is 1'336. 
 When soft, it is tenacious ; but when long exposed to 
 the air, it becomes hard, breaks with a uniform shin- 
 ing fracture, is pulverulent, and aflbrds a, yellowish 
 blown powder. East Indian opium has a strong em- 
 pyreumatio smell, but not much of the peculiar nar- 
 cotic, heavy odor of the Turkey opium ; the taste is 
 more bitter, and equally nauseous, but it has less acri- 
 mony. It agrees with the Turkey opium in other sensi- 
 ble qualities, except that its color is blacker, and its 
 texture less plastic, although it is as tenacious. Good 
 Turkey opium has been found to yield nearly three 
 times the quantity of morphia., or of the peculiar prin- 
 ciple of the drug, that is yielded by East Indian opi- 
 um. Opium is regarded as bad when it is very soft, 
 greasy, light, friable, of an intensely black color, or mix- 
 ed with many impurities. A weak or empyreumatic 
 odor, a slightly bitter or acrid, or a sweetish taste, or 
 the power of marking a brown or black continuous 
 streak when drawn across paper, are all symptoms of 
 inferior opium. — Dispensatory. The raising of opium 
 is a very hazardous business ; the poppy being a deli- 
 cate plant, peculiarly liable to injury from Insects, 
 wind, hail, or unseasonable rain. The produce seldom 
 agrees with the true average, hut commonly runs in 
 extremes ; while one cultivator is disappointed, another 
 reaps immense gain. One season does not pay the la- 
 bor of the culture ; another, peculiarly fortunate, en- 
 riches all the cultivators. This circumstance is well 
 suited to allure man, ever confident of good fortune. — 
 Colebrooke's Husbandry nf Bengal. 
 
 The Opium Trade. — This drug is chiefly grown in 
 British India, where it has long been a strict monop- 
 6A 
 
 oly of tho government, and also in Persia and Turkey. 
 It was first imported into China by the Portuguese ; 
 but up to the year 1768 the whole quantity imported 
 did not exceed from 100 to 200 chests annually. The 
 East India Company commenced its importation in 
 mS-'i; and in 1780 small depots for its sale were 
 established a little south of Macao. The trade con- 
 tinued to increase rapidly from India until 1794, when 
 large English ships found it profitable to anchor near 
 Whampoa, for fifteen months at a time, selling opium. 
 In 1800 its sale had risen to about 2000 chests ; but re- 
 cently its further importation into Cliina was prohib- 
 ited. Since that period the smuggler succeeds the le- 
 gal importer ; and although the importation is no lon- 
 ger conducted in the vessels of the East India Company, 
 it is extensively cultivated under their monopoly, and 
 sold by them to private traders, by whom it is intro- 
 duced into the prohibited markets of China. 
 
 Consumption and Trade of Opium in China. — Opium 
 is pretty extensively used, both as a masticatory and 
 in smoking, in Turkey and India; but its great con- 
 sumption is in China and the surrounding countries, 
 where the habit of smoking it has become almost uni- 
 versal. The Chinese boil or seethe the crude opium ; 
 and by this process the impurities, resinous and gum- 
 my matter, are separated, and the remaining extract 
 only is reserved for use. Thus prepared, the drug loses 
 its ordinarj' strong and offensive aromatic odor, and 
 has even a fragrant and agreeable perfume. A small 
 ball of it, inserted in a large wooden pipe with some 
 combustible matter, is lighted, and the amateur pro- 
 ceeds to inhale four or five whiffs, when he lies down 
 and resigns himself to his dreams, which are said to 
 have no inconsiderable rosemblance to the sensations 
 produced by inhaling the oxyd of azote. Those who 
 do not carry the indulgence to excess do not, it is said, 
 experience any bad effects from it. Nine-tenths of the 
 supplies of opium for the consumption of China have 
 always been derived from India, a comparatively small 
 quantity only being derived from Turkey. The trade 
 has always been contraband, the introduction of the 
 drug having been prohibited by the Chinese govern- 
 ment. Until about 1810 the trade had not attracted 
 much attention, or become of any very great import- 
 ance, but it has since been very greatly extended, and 
 has been since 1828 of first-rate consequence. The 
 trade was at first carried on at Whampoa, about fifteen 
 miles below Canton ; next at Macao, whence it was 
 di'iven by the exactions of the Portuguese ; and there- 
 after in the Bay of Lintin. Here the opium is kept on 
 board ships, commonly called receiving ships, of which 
 there are often ten or twelve lying together at anchor. 
 But latterly the trade has been carried on all along the 
 southeast coast of China, by means of a species of fast- 
 sailing vessels called "clippers," built expressly for 
 the trade and strongly armed. The sales are mostly 
 effected by the English and American agents in Can- 
 ton, who give orders for the delivery of the opium ; 
 which, on producing the order, is handed over to the 
 Chinese smuggler, who comes along side at night to re- 
 ceive it. Frequently, however, the smuggler purchases 
 the opium on his own account, paying for it on the spot 
 in silver ; it being a rule of the trade, never departed 
 from, to receive the money before the drug is delivered. 
 During the first ten years of the present century the 
 exports of opium from India to China averaged about 
 2500 chests, of 149J- pounds each. But after the intro- 
 duction of Malwa opium into the markets of Bombay 
 and Calcutta, the exports began rapidly to increase. 
 
 According to the Friend ^ India of Calcutta, Octo- 
 ber, 1855, the opium sales for the five preceding years 
 were as follows : 
 
 1849-'50. . .Chests sold, 35,383 Proceeds, 3S,432,000 Es. 
 
 1S50-'51... " 34,409.... " 32,260,000 " 
 
 16S2 ... " 33,561.... " 3T,245,000 " 
 
 1853 ... " 39,463 " 38,348,1)00 " 
 
 1854 ... " 48,319.... " 36,721,000 " 
 The price paid to the cultivator is about Ks. 240 a chest. 
 
OPI 
 
 1474 
 
 OPI 
 
 An Accottnt of tjhe Quantities and Peices (ESOLmiKG 
 Fkactions) of the dipfebent Species of East India 
 Opittm imported into China fkom the Season 1816-1817, 
 DOWN TO THE Season 1837-1838, wuen the Teadb was 
 
 INTEEETTPTED. 
 
 From April Istto March 3lBt. 
 
 Number of 
 Cliesta. 
 
 Value in 
 Dollars. 
 
 181G '17 
 
 3,210 
 3,080 
 4,580 
 4 600 
 4;770 
 4,628 
 6,822 
 7,082 
 8,665 
 9,621 
 9,969 
 9,635 
 13,132 
 14,000 
 18,760 
 13,503 
 23,670 
 19,786 
 16.514 
 16,785 
 21,009 
 20,049 
 
 3,657,000 
 3,904,260 
 4,15J,260 
 6,683 200 
 8,400,800 
 8,314,600 
 7,988.930 
 8,615,100 
 7,679,625 
 7,608,205 
 9,610,086 
 10,425.075 
 12,63.%118 
 12,067,157 
 11,9(4,263 
 10,931,606 
 16,323,769 
 13,066,640 
 9,655,010 
 10,539,878 
 14,287,330 
 10,883,157 
 
 1817 'J8 
 
 181S '19 
 
 1819 '20 
 
 
 1821 '22 
 
 
 
 1824^'26 
 
 1825-'26 
 
 
 1827 '28 
 
 
 1829 '30 
 
 1830^'31 
 
 1831 '32 
 
 1832 '33 
 
 1833 '34 
 
 1834^'35 
 
 1835 '36 
 
 1830 '37 . 
 
 1837 '38 
 
 
 Confiscation of Opium in 1839. — Opium has always 
 been prohibited in China, and consequently its impor- 
 tation has always been looked upon as a smuggling 
 speculation. There would seem, however, to be good 
 grounds for thinking that the prohibition of the impor- 
 tation of opium was all along intended to be more ap- 
 parent than real. At all events, it is certain that the 
 trade grew gradually up, from a small beginning, to 
 be one of great extent and value; and it is contradic- 
 tory and absurd to suppose that thi.s should have been 
 the case had it encountered any considerable opposi- 
 tion from the Chinese authorities. But the truth is, 
 that these functionaries, instead of opposing the trade, 
 or even merely conniving at it, were parties to its being 
 openly carried on, and received certain regulated and 
 large fees on all the opium that was imported. It has 
 even been alleged that a part of these fees found its 
 way into the Imperial treasury at Pekin, though that 
 is more doubtful. The appetite for the drug increased 
 with the increasing means of gratifying it ; and there 
 appeared to be no assignable limits to the quantity 
 that might be disposed of in the empire. The rapid 
 extension of the trade seems at length to have drawn 
 the attention of the court of Pekin to the subject. We 
 doubt, however, notwithstanding what has been al- 
 leged to the contrary, whether a sense of the injurious 
 consequences of the use of the drug had much to do 
 in the matter. This, indeed, is a part of the subject as 
 to which there exists a great deal of misapprehension ; 
 and we are well assured that, provided it be not car- 
 ried to excess, the use of opium is not more injurious 
 than that of wine, brandy, or other stimulants. The 
 alarm of the Chinese government was probably not so 
 much about the health or morals of its subjects as 
 about their bullion ! They are still haunted by the 
 same visionary fears of being drained of a due supply 
 of gold and silver, that formerly haunted the people of 
 this country. The imports of opium having increased 
 so rapidly as to be no longer balanced by the exports 
 of tea and silk, sycee silver began also to be exported ! 
 The paternal government of Pekin might have tolerated 
 what are called the demoralizing effects of opium with 
 stoical indifference, but the exportation of silver was 
 not a thing to be endured. It is, however, only fair 
 to state that the Chinese statesmen are not all of the 
 school of Mun and Gee, and that some of them appear 
 to have taken an enlightened view of the question, and 
 to have emancipated themselves from the prejudices 
 that still influence the majority of their colleagues. 
 The, statesmen in question contended that, whether the 
 use of the drug were injurious or not, the taste for it 
 was too deeply seated and too widely diffused to admit 
 of its effectual prohibition ; and they, therefore, pro- 
 
 posed that its importation should be legalized, subject- 
 ing it, at the same time, to a heavy duty. There can 
 not be a doubt that this was the proper mode of deal- 
 ing with the subject. In the end, however, the gov- 
 ernment of Pekin, influenced by unfounded theories 
 as to the mischievous effect of the export of the precious 
 metals, came to a different conclusion, and resolved to 
 put a stop to the traffic. No sooner had this resolu- 
 tion been adopted, than a most extraordinary change 
 appears to have taken place in the conduct of the Chi- 
 nese authorities ; and their usual caution seems to have 
 wholly deserted them. They now became as precipi- 
 tate and violent as they had previously been slow and 
 circumspect; and resolved at all hazards to attempt 
 forcibly to put down the trade. To accomplish this, 
 all foreigners were, in March, 1839, prohibited from 
 leaving Canton ; and compulsory measures were at the 
 same time resorted to for compelling them to deliver 
 up the opium in their possession. How the affair 
 might have ended, had the English at Canton been 
 left to the exercise of their own judgment in this crisis, 
 it is impossible to say; but we have been assured by 
 those on whose statements we are disposed to rely, that 
 they would most probably have succeeded in getting 
 out of it with comparatively little loss. Instead, how- 
 ever, of acting for themselves, they had to act in obe- 
 dience to the orders of Mr. Elliot, chief superintendent 
 of the British trade in Canton ; and he, while under 
 constraint, occasioned by confinement to the factory, 
 commanded all the opium belonging to British subjects 
 to be given up to him for delivery to the Chinese au- 
 thorities; declaring, at the same time, that "failing 
 the surrender of the said opium," the British govern- 
 ment should be free " of all measures of responsibility 
 or liability in respect of British-owned opium." 
 
 We do not presume to offer any opinion as to the 
 necessity or policy of this proceeding on the part of the 
 superintendent; but in consequence thereof, and of 
 the unjustifiable proceedings of the Chinese, above 
 20,000 chests of opium were delivered up to Mr. Elliot 
 by British subjects, and by him to the Chinese authori- 
 ties ; and the latter, not satisfied with the possession 
 of the opium, which it was their duty to have placed 
 in a state of security till the matters with respect to it 
 should be arranged, immediately proceeded to destroy 
 it ! Having succeeded thus far, the Chinese next in- 
 sisted that the foreign merchants should subscribe a 
 bond, pledging themselves not to import opium into 
 any part of China ; or that, if they did, they were to 
 be justly liable to the penalty of death. But this con- 
 dition being refused, and no arrangement having been 
 come to, Mr. Elliot suspended the trade on the 22d of 
 May. Our readers do not require to be told that a 
 war with China grew out of these extraordinary pro- 
 ceedings. 
 
 Indemnify for the Opium destroyed in China. — The 
 question as to the amount of the compensation that 
 should be awarded to the parties who delivered up the 
 opium to the superintendent in China has since at- 
 tracted considerable attention. The merchants con- 
 tended that they were entitled to its cost, or to the 
 price at -which it had been invoiced to them, or to 
 above £2,300,000. It is, however, admitted on all 
 hands that the price of opium is exceedingly fluctu- 
 ating, and that it is influenced in a very high degree 
 by variations in the facilities for smuggling into China. 
 And it was contended by government, that such were 
 the obstacles thrown in the way of its clandestine im- 
 portation when the delivery was made in 1839, that the 
 price of opium had fallen to less than half its invoice 
 cost, and that supposing the merchants had retained it, 
 they must "necessarily have sustained -i very heavy 
 loss. Having taken this view of the matter, govern- 
 ment proposed that indemnity should be made at the 
 rate of £64 per chest (£1,250,000 in all), being (though 
 little more than half the sum claimed) considerably 
 above the current price of opium in Canton previously 
 
OPI 
 
 1475 
 
 OPI 
 
 to its being delivered up. As might haye been ex- 
 pected, this decision was much found fault with. On 
 the whole, however, we think it eminently fair and 
 reasonable. No one doubts, thpugh not a pound of the 
 opium had been delivered up to Captain Elliot, that 
 its owners must, in consequence of the increased diffi- 
 culties in the way of its. sale, have lost heavily ; and, 
 under the circumstances, we see no ground for contend- 
 ing that government was bound, because their agent 
 had interfered, to place the merchants in a better posi- 
 tion than they would have been in but for that inter- 
 ference. All that they could justly require was, that 
 it should not be permitted to injure theni. 
 
 ^CuUivatwn of Opium in India — Monopo^-^IUventte, 
 etc. — Opium is produced in Bengal, principally in the 
 provinces of Bahar and Benares, in parts of Bombay, 
 and in Malwa, in, Central India. In Bengal the pro- 
 ductionof opium is a monopoly, np person being al- 
 lowed to grow the poppy except on account of govern- 
 ment. Thelatter make advances to the cultivators, wlio 
 deliver the entire produce into theit hands at a fixed 
 price of about 3s. 6d. per lb. It is afterward sold by the 
 Company for about lis. per lb., so that the profit of the 
 latter amounts to about 7«. 6d, per lb. Opium may be 
 grown and manufactured in Bombay; but it is sub- 
 jected to the same high duty that is imposed on opium 
 imported into the Presidenoyi The objectof this high 
 duty is to "discourage its production." Government 
 purchase what little is produced in Bombay, supplying 
 through licensed dealers all that is required for home 
 consumption. The poppy is extensively cultivated in 
 Malwa, in Central India, and yields aJatge revenue. 
 Down to 1831, it was produced under a monopoly. 
 But in that year the business was thrown open to the 
 public, and the revenue collected by imposing a duty 
 on the opium when passing through the Company's 
 territories to Bombay. The capture of Scinde, by 
 closing the route for the smuggling of opium through 
 Kurachee to the Portuguese settlements of Demaun, 
 etc., enabled a large addition to be made to the transit 
 duty on Malwa opium, which was raised in 1847 to 400 
 rupees per chest, aifording a revenue to government of 
 about 5s. Sd. per lb. — (We have borrowed these au- 
 thentic details from the Official Papers relative to In- 
 dia, p. 73-75, published in 1853.) No one doubts that 
 opium is an excellent subject for taxation; and the 
 higher the rate to which the duty on it can be raised 
 without encouraging smuggling, so much the better. 
 But a great deal has been said for and against the sys- 
 tem under which the opium revenue is raised in Ben- 
 gal and other parts of India ; and perhaps it might be 
 the better policy to open the culture of the plant to the 
 unfettered competition of the public, imposing a high 
 duty on the drug when grown or when exported. 
 Without, however, entering on the discussion of this 
 difficult question, we may shortly observe that the 
 monopoly does not appear to have the consequences 
 stated by Mr. Colebrooke ; who tells us (Htishtmdry of 
 B&ngat^ p. 118) that, except in a few situations that 
 are peculiarly favorable, its culture is unprofitable ; 
 and that the peasants engage in it with reluctance, 
 being tempted thereto only by the advances made by 
 the government agents. But if such were the case for- 
 merly, it would seem that circumstances have changed 
 in the interval; for it appears from the official ac- 
 counts that the production of Bengal opium, which 
 amounted to 17,858 chests of 160 lbs. each in 1840-'41, 
 had increased to about 36,000 chests in 1848-'-19. The 
 number of chests of Malwa opium (140 lbs. each) ex- 
 ported from Bombay during the same period has con- 
 tinued pretty stationary at about 16,000 a year. The 
 whole, or nearly the whole, of this immense supply of 
 above 50,000 chests, is sent to China. Latterly it has 
 produced to the government of India a clear revenue 
 of considerably more than JE3,000,000 sterling a year. 
 
 It is very doubtful whether the use of opium, when 
 taken in moderate quantities, be so injurious as has 
 
 been represented. That it may, like spirits and wine, 
 be abused, is abundantly certain ; but it has not been 
 shown that it is more liable to abuse than either of 
 these articles. And the, Chinese, by whom it is prin- 
 cipally consumed, are a highly industrious, sober, fru- 
 gal people. 
 
 It is computed that, had China no silk nor teas to 
 give in part payment for the opium consumed in the 
 Celestial empire, the drain of specie during the last 
 30 years would have amounted to $600,000,000. It is 
 stated in a memorial presented to the Emperor of Chi- 
 na, on the subject of the opium trade, that the drain 
 from the imperial treasury, to supply this destructive 
 luxury, was, i 
 
 Prom 18-29 to 1831 $24,000,000 
 
 " 1831 to 1834 28,000,000 
 
 " 1834tol888 40,000,000 
 
 The latter sum, it is stated, is about the average 
 annual outlay at the present time ; and it is considered 
 by an Intelligent commercial correspondent at Macao 
 quite problematical whether the Chinese would have 
 taken more cotton goods and other imports from the 
 United States and England, had they not expended 
 so much for opium. The profits of the East India 
 Company, who are entitled to whatever of credit or 
 discredit may attach to keeping up this lucrative trade 
 in opium, are stated at $18,000,000 per annum. If the 
 company succeed in opening new markets for the drug 
 (and it is represented that they are establishing retail 
 shops all over the Indian empire), they will be amply 
 reimbursed for their diminished importations into Chi- 
 na, since the importation of Turkish opium in Ameri- 
 can bottoms has so considerably iiiterfered with their 
 previously almost exclusive monopoly of this trade. 
 It should be added, that the importation of opium into 
 China, though illegal, is openly tolerated by the Chi- 
 nese officials, and no difficulty is experienced in finding 
 cash customers for any quantity imported. From 200 
 chests in 1756, when the trade was legal, the importa- 
 tion has risen to from 70,000 to 80,000 chests per an- 
 num in 1856, when its introduction is prohibited bj' 
 law. The value of opium imported in 1756 was about 
 $1,000,000 ; the value at the present day has risen to 
 $40,000,000. The basis of foreign exchange with Chi- 
 na is as follows : General imports, opium (which makes 
 about 30 per cent, of the whole), bullion and specie, or 
 drafts on London. — Commercial Relations of the United 
 States, 1856-'57. 
 
 Cultivation in the United States.— A variety of the 
 " Common" or "Opium Poppy" (Papaver somniferum), 
 indigenous to the warm and temperate parts of Europe 
 and Asia, from Portugal to Japan, and especially cul- 
 tivated in China, India, Turkey, Egypt, and in the 
 Morea, has been introduced into the United States, 
 and has proved itself susceptible of easy cultivation 
 on very rich soils, and is well adapted to the climate 
 of the Middle and Southern States. The flowers of the 
 " White Poppy" (Papaver s. alba), the variety with 
 which the experiment was made, may be either entire- 
 ly white or red, or may be fringed with purple, rose, 
 or lilac, variegated and edged with the same colors, 
 but never occur blue nor yellow, nor mixed with these 
 colors, each petal being generally marked at the bot- 
 tom with a black or purple spot. The seeds are black 
 in the plants having purple flowers, and light-colored 
 in those which are white ; although the seeds of the 
 latter, when of spontaneous growth, are sometimes 
 black. The largest heads, which are employed for 
 medical or domestic use, are obtained from the single- 
 flowered kind, not only for the purpose of extracting 
 opium, but also on account of the bland, esculent oil 
 that is expressed from the seeds, which are simply 
 elnulsive, and contain none of the narcotic principle. 
 For the latter purpose, if no other, its culture in this 
 country is worthy of attention. 
 
 With regard to the cultivation of this plant, with 
 the view of obtaining opium, there can be but little 
 
OPO 
 
 1476 
 
 OPO 
 
 doubt that our clear sky, fervid summer sun, and heavy 
 dews would greatly favor the production of this article ; 
 but how far these circumstances, in connection with 
 American ingenuity in devising improved methods for 
 its extraction, would allow ns to compete with the 
 cheapness of labor in the East, can only be determined 
 by actual trial. Certainly it is an object worthy of 
 public encouragement, as the annual amount of opium 
 Imported into the United States is valued at upward 
 of $407,000, a considerable portion of which might be 
 saved, and thereby add to our resources. Besides, if 
 we were to raise a surplus, it could be sent to China 
 in exchange for tea. The successful cultivation of the 
 plant, however, requires the provision of good soil, 
 appropriate manure, and careful management. The 
 strength of the juice, according to Dr. Butler, of Brit- 
 ish India, depends much upon the quantity of moist- 
 ure of the climate. A deficiency even of dew prevents 
 the proper flow of the peculiar narcotic, milky juice, 
 which abounds in almost every part of the plant, while 
 an excess, besides washing otf this milk, causes addi- 
 tional mischief, by separating the soluble from the in- 
 soluble parts of this drug. This not only deteriorates 
 its quality, but increases the quantity of moisture, 
 which must afterward be got rid of. 
 
 Statement showing the Imposts of Opium into the 
 United States fob tue Year ending June 30, 1856. 
 
 whence Imported. 
 
 PoundB. 
 
 Value. 
 
 England ., 
 
 British East Indies 
 
 113,i)30 
 
 1,01)0 
 
 65 
 
 1,810 
 
 9,46T 
 
 32,062 
 
 $272,608 
 
 4,626 
 
 100 
 
 2,656 
 
 26.558 
 
 179,368 
 
 Sardinia 
 
 Austria 
 
 Turkey in Asia 
 
 China 
 
 
 167,814 
 
 $485,846 
 
 
 Besides the works previously referred to, we have 
 consulted, in compiling this article, Ainslie's Materia 
 Indica; Mileurn's Oriental Commerce; Wilkinson's 
 Commerce of Bengal (J. R. M'Culloch) ; American 
 Almanac, 1841, p. 63 ; Patent Office Report, 1853 ; 
 Hunt's Merchants' Magazine, ii. 386, iv. 9 (F. Whar- 
 ton), xxiii. 28, 147 ; Eclectic Review, vi. 458 ; Fraser, 
 xxi. 365 ; Niles' Register, xxiii. 249 ; China War and 
 Opium Trade ; Commercial Relations of the United States, 
 1856. 
 
 Opoponaz (Ger. Opoponax; Fr. Opapanax; It. 
 Opoptmasso ; Sp. Opopanaca ; Arab. Jawesheer), a gum- 
 resin obtained from the Pastinaca Opoponax, a species 
 of parsnep. It is a native of the south of Europe and 
 Asia Minor. The stem rises to the height of four or 
 five feet, with a thick branched yellow-colored root. 
 The roots being wounded, a milky juice flows from 
 them, which, being dried in the sun, is the opoponax 
 of the shops. It is in lumps of a reddish yellow color, 
 and white within. Smell peculiar. Taste bitter and 
 acrid. Specific gravity, 1-622. It is imported from 
 Turkey. Being used only to a small extent in medi- 
 cine, the consumption is inconsiderable.— Thomson's 
 Chemistry ; Ainslie's Materia Indica. 
 
 Oporto, or Porto, a large city and sea-port of 
 Portugal, on the north bank of the Douro, about two 
 miles from its mouth, lat. 41° 10' 30" N., long. 80° 37' 
 18" W. It is a beautifully situated, well-built city, 
 and is supposed to contain, including the suburbs of 
 Villanora and Gaya, on the opposite bank of the river, 
 about 80,000 inhabitants. The harbor of Oporto is a 
 bar harbor, and can only be entered, at least by ves- 
 sels of considerable burden, at high water; and it is 
 seldom at any time practicable for vessels drawing 
 more than si.xteen feet. On the north side of the en- 
 trance is the castle of St. Joao de Foz, whence a ledge 
 of rocks, some of which are at all times above water, 
 extends in a southwest direction. The outermost of 
 these rocks, named Filgueira, which is always visible, 
 is left on the left or larboard side on entering. Cabe- 
 delo Point, forming the southern extremity of the en- 
 trance, is low and sandy. The bar being liable, from 
 
 the action of the tides, and of sudden swellings or fresh- 
 es in the river, to perpetual alterations, it is exceeding- 
 ly dangerous for any vessel to attempt crossing it with- 
 out a pilot. Pilots are always on the alert, and ready 
 to ofier their services when a vessel comes in sight, 
 unless the weather be so bad that they can not go oiF. 
 On some few occasions of this sort, vessels have been 
 detained for three weeks off the port, without having 
 an opportunity of entering. The chapel of St. Cath- 
 erine in a line with that of St. Michael leads over the 
 bar. The ordinary rise of spring tides is from ten to 
 twelve feet, and of neaps from six to eight feet. A 
 light-house with a revolving light, having the lantern 
 220 feet above the level of the sea, is erected on rising 
 ground about 600 yards north-northwest of St. Joao de 
 Foz. The swellings of the river, ov freshes, as they 
 are called, most commonly occur in spring, and are 
 caused by heavy rain, and by the melting of the snow 
 on the mountains. The rise of water at such times is 
 frequently as much as forty feet ; and the rapidity and 
 force of the current are so ver}' great, that no depend- 
 ence can be placed on anchors in the stream. Fortu- 
 nately, 3. fresh never occurs without previous warning ; 
 and it is then the practice to moor with a cable made 
 fast to trees, or stone pillars erected on the shore for 
 that purpose. — For further information as to the har- 
 bor of Oporto, see Pukdy's Sailing Directions for the 
 Bay of Biscay. 
 
 Oporto is the emporium of a large portion of the 
 kingdom of Portugal, and enjoys a pretty considerable 
 foreign commerce. The well-known red wine, denom- 
 inated Port, from its being exclusively shipped at this 
 city, forms by far the largest article of export. The 
 exports vary in different years, from about 26,000 to 
 above 40,000 pipes. England is much the largest con- 
 sumer of port. The high discriminating duties on 
 French wine originally' introduced port into the Brit- 
 ish markets, and gave it a preference to which, though 
 an excellent wine, it had no just title ; this preference 
 first generated, and its long continuance has since so 
 confirmed the taste for port among the great bulk of 
 the population, that it bids fair to maintain its ascend- 
 ency as an after-dinner wine, notwithstanding the 
 equalization of the duties. At an average of the nine 
 years ending with 1851, there were shipped from Opor- 
 to for England 22,861 pipes a year. Next to England, 
 Brazil, Eussia, and the north of Europe are the prin- 
 cipal consumers of port ; but it appears, from the sub- 
 joined account, that the total exports to them do not 
 amount to a half of those sent to England. The other 
 exports are oil, oranges, and other fruits, wool, refined 
 sugar, cream of tartar, shumac, leather, cork, etc. The 
 imports are corn, rice, beef, salt fish, and other articles 
 of provision ; sugar, coffee, etc., from Brazil ; cotton 
 and woolen goods, hardware, fin plates, etc., from En- 
 gland ; hemp, flax, and deals, from the Baltic, etc. Be- 
 sides the British manufactured goods imported into 
 Portugal for the use of the natives, a considerable quan- 
 tity is destined for the consumption of Spain ; being 
 smuggled into that country through Braganza and 
 other towns on the frontier. 
 
 Vessels entered and cleared at Oporto in the Voo- 
 N0.MI0 Year 1854-'55. 
 
 Ve«r» Bud 
 
 Montha. 
 
 VeflBelfl Entered. 
 
 VesaelB Cleared. | 
 
 Nntloual. 
 
 For'n. Tons. 
 
 National. 
 
 For'n. 1 Tone. ] 
 
 1854. 
 
 July 
 
 August . . . 
 September 
 October .. 
 November 
 December 
 
 1855. 
 January . . 
 February . 
 March.... 
 
 April 
 
 May 
 
 June .... 
 
 SI 
 98 
 101 
 5T 
 72 
 42 
 
 75 
 1 
 36 
 80 
 104 
 78 
 
 S6 
 34 
 26 
 19 
 21 
 21 
 
 32 
 3 
 
 43 
 61 
 42 
 
 27 
 
 10,906 
 14,046 
 12,i 27 
 
 8,132 
 10.272 
 
 9,166 
 
 11,548 
 622 
 13,363 
 13,676 
 16,024 
 11,002 
 
 74 
 92 
 89 
 80 
 75 
 89 
 
 66 
 
 6 
 
 40 
 
 52 
 
 S6 
 88 
 
 29 
 31 
 38 
 19 
 14 
 26 
 
 23 
 3 
 89 
 45 
 42 
 36 
 
 10,656 
 13.313 
 15,269 
 9,442 
 9 657 
 9,356 
 
 10,338 
 692 
 11,950 
 11,0.54 
 10,763 
 14,449 
 
 Total .. 
 
 825 
 
 356 
 
 131,483] 786 
 
 344 
 
 126,S38 
 
OEA 
 
 1477 
 
 ORA 
 
 Exportation op Wine and Brandt in tite Economic 
 Ykah 1854- 55,— (12 canadaB = 1 almude = 3*64 gallons.) 
 
 
 Pipes. 
 
 Ainu. 
 
 Ciiiif. 
 
 Wine — iHt equality, for porta in Europe, . . 
 
 32,298 
 
 18 
 
 11 
 
 " " " out of Europe 
 
 1,386 
 
 10 
 
 U 
 
 " "out of thet 
 Kingdom and islandej* 
 
 249 
 
 11 
 
 9 
 
 " 2d quality, for ports out of Europe 
 
 1,740 
 
 15 
 
 V 
 
 Brandy— Istquality, for porta in Europe. . . 
 
 4 
 
 
 10 
 
 " " " outofEurope 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 " " " out of the) 
 
 Kingdom and islands/ 
 
 Total 
 
 17 
 
 19 
 
 
 
 36, 697 1 12 
 
 9 
 
 Total gaUons 3,275,969. 
 
 Quantity of Poht Wine exported feom Opoeto in 1855, 
 and the Cofnteies to wuioh expoeted. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Pipes. 
 
 Alms. 
 
 Cans. 
 
 Brazil 
 
 3,044 
 
 103 
 
 605 
 
 436 
 
 683 
 
 27 
 
 26,765 
 
 1,0T6 
 
 "266 
 317 
 288 
 189 
 
 12 
 20 
 
 20 
 12 
 16 
 13 
 11 
 
 13 
 15 
 3 
 6 
 14 
 19 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 6 
 1 
 9 
 8 
 11 
 10 
 3 
 6 
 8 
 S 
 2 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 United States 
 
 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Spain 
 
 
 Russia 
 
 Portugal and possesBions 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Newfoundland 
 
 Total 
 
 34,386 
 
 12 
 
 11 
 
 Total gallons 3,153,906.-0. D. 
 
 Oranges (Ger. Pomeranzen; Du. Orangen; Fr. Or- 
 anges ; 1 1. Mektrance ; Sp. Narcmjas ,■ Russ. Fomsvanezii ; 
 Hind, Narunge ; Malay, Simao-manis), the fruit of the 
 orange-tree. The common or sweet orange (Citrus 
 sinensis, or Citrus nobilis), and the Seville, or bitter or- 
 ange (Citrus aurantium), are natives of China ; and the 
 Portuguese are entitled to the honor of having trans- 
 ferred the plant to other countries. Particular species 
 of Citrus seem to be indigenous to various Eastern coun- 
 tries ; but the birth-place of the proper orange may be 
 distinctly traced to China. It is now to be found in 
 our green-houses. Oranges are imported in chests and 
 boxes, packed separately in paper. The best come 
 from the Azores, Spain, and Cuba ; very good ones are 
 also brought from Portugal, Italy, Malta, South Amer- 
 ica, an Jy)ther places. 
 
 The orange trade carried on by this country is of con- 
 siderable value and importance. Oranges are not 
 much more expensive than most of our superior do- 
 mestic fruits, while they are, perhaps, the most refresh- 
 ing and wholesome of those of warmer climates. 
 
 The Citrus aurantium, or golden-fruited orange-tree, 
 under favorable circumstances, usually attains a height 
 of twenty-five or thirty feet, and is graceful in aU its 
 parts. The trunk is upright, and branches into a reg- 
 ular or symmetrical head. The bark of the twigs is of 
 a soft and almost translucent green, while that of the 
 trunk and older branches is of a delicate ash-gray. The 
 leaves are moderately large, beautifully shaped, of a 
 fine healthy green, and shining on the upper sides, 
 while the under sides have a slight appearance of down. 
 The flowers occur in little clusters on the sides of the 
 branches, are pleasing in their form, of a delicate white 
 in the sweet oranges, and in the more acid varieties 
 slightly tinged with pink. In some plants they have 
 a. more powerful odor, and are, for the moment, more 
 rich ; but in the orange-grove there is a fragrance in 
 the aroma which never satiates nor offends ; and as 
 the tree is at one and the same time in all stages of its 
 bearing — in flower, in fruit just set, and in golden fruit, 
 inviting the " hand to pull and the palate to taste" — it 
 is hardly possible to conceive or imagine any object 
 mora delightful. There is something, too, peculiar in 
 the orjranization of the fruit of this tree. Its rind, or 
 external covering, is of a spongy texture, containing 
 but little juice or sap of any kind in its substance ; but 
 the external surface is covered, or tnberculated with 
 little glands, which secrete an acrid, volatile oil, very 
 
 inflammable, and of a strong, pungent taste. The in- 
 terior of the fruit is usually divided into from nine to 
 twelve carpels or cells, which contain the pulp, seeds, 
 and juice, and are united by a whitish pellicle or leath- 
 ery skin, radiating from the centre to the rind, and 
 may easily be separated without wasting the juice. 
 The seeds are solitary or several, and are attached to 
 the inner angle of the carpel, and in some varieties are 
 entirely wanting. 
 
 The wood of the orange-tree, when dry, weighs forty, 
 four pounds to a cubic foot, is hard, compact, flexible, 
 slightly odoriferous, and is susceptible of being pol- 
 ished. When recently cut, it is of a yellowish hue, 
 but in the course of time it fades. From its scarcity 
 and small size, it is but little employed in the arts, the 
 only particular uses to which it is applied being to 
 make boxes, dressing-cases, and other articles of fancy ; 
 and in Florida, considerable quantities of straight, 
 young shoots are cut, and shipped in bundles, to be 
 made into walking-canes. ' 
 
 The fruit of the orange may be obtained fresh in 
 any region of the globe, and at almost cverj' season of 
 the year. The aromatic oil and the rind preserve it 
 from the effects both of heat and of cold ; and the ac- 
 ridity of the former renders it proof against the attacks 
 of insects. It is true that oranges decay, like other 
 fruit ; but that does not happen for a long time, if the 
 rind remains uninjured, and they are kept from hu- 
 midity, and so ventilated as not to ferment. With re- 
 gard to the quality of this fruit in various places, there 
 appears to be a diversity of opinion. Some consider 
 those of Malta the best ; others those of St. Michael's ; 
 while others prefer those of Bahia, Havana, or of St. 
 Augustine. 
 
 The Maltese oranges are usually large, the rind thick 
 and spongy, and the glands which secrete the volatile 
 oil are prominent. The pulp is red and delicious, al- 
 though sometimes there is a trace of bitterness in their 
 taste. They are shipped in boxes of an irregular size, 
 and are generally packed in shavings or saw-dust. 
 
 The St. Michael's oranges are of a small size, the rind 
 is thin and smooth, the glands small, which secrete but 
 little volatile oil, the pulp light-colored, and of a de- 
 licious, sugary taste. They are put up in boxes of three 
 hundred and fifty to four hundred, with each fruit en- 
 veloped in paper, or in the husks of maize. 
 
 The celebrated Navel oranges of Bahia are of diffi- 
 cult transport to Europe and the United.States, in con- 
 sequence of the length of the voyage, and of the hu- 
 midity and warmth of the climate through which they 
 have to pass. If they are gathered green, however, 
 and suspended in the air above deck, or at the stern of 
 the vessel, in netting, they will endure through the 
 voyage. 
 
 The Havana oranges are usually of a good size, with 
 a moderately rough rind, and a pulp well filled with 
 delicious juice. From the shortness of the voj'age to 
 any of the American markets, they may be safely trans- 
 ported during the winter months. The fruit is ripe in 
 Cuba at the end of October, and is usually shipped in 
 barrels of two hundred and fifty to four hundred fruits 
 in each, put up loosely, without any envelopes. 
 
 The St, Augustine oranges are superior, both in size 
 and quality, to those of Cuba or the Mediterranean. 
 They resemble those of Havana in flavor, but are much 
 larger, and bring from twenty to thirty per cent, more 
 in the New York and Boston markets. Of the smaller 
 sizes, it requires about three hundred fruits to fill a 
 barrel, but of the largest ones only one hundred are 
 necessary. 
 
 In Europe, the Valencia oranges are eagerly sought 
 after, on account of their early appearance, large size, 
 and beautiful color. They are put up in boxes of two 
 hundred and twenty to two hundred and forty fruits in 
 each, enveloped in brown paper. 
 
 The Sicilian oranges, and those of the south of Italy, 
 may be regarded as nearly of the same quality. They 
 
ORA 
 
 1478 
 
 ORE 
 
 are of a medium size, with a fine color, and are rather 
 acid in their flavor. Those shipped from Messina are 
 put up in boxes of two hundred to two hundred and 
 ten fruits in each, and those of Palermo, which mature 
 later, are shipped in boxes of three hundred or more 
 fruits in each. The oranges of Reggio ripen very early, 
 so much so, that it is not unusual to send them away by 
 the 20th of October. They are packed in boxes of two 
 hundred and forty fruits in each, and, like most of the 
 oranges of the Mediterranean, are enveloped in paper. 
 
 The Provence oranges come to great perfection, and 
 may be classed with those of Genoa. Along the River 
 Var, they have two harvests of the orange, the first 
 commencing from the 10th to the 15th of November, 
 when the fruit begins to turn, and continues till the 
 4th of December; the second begins about the 10th of 
 January, and is prolonged nearly to the end of Febru- 
 ary. They are put up in boxes of one hundred and 
 twenty to three hundred and sixty fruits in each, ac- 
 cording to their size and qualities. 
 
 With the Seville oranges may be classed those of 
 Faro, St, Ubes, Oporto, Andalusia, Malaga, and the 
 bitter oranges of Cuba and Florida. This fruit is usu- 
 ally of a good size, of a beautiful color, but unfit to 
 eat, on account of its bitter flavor. Those shipped 
 from Seville are put up in large boxes, of one thou- 
 sand fruits in each ; while those of Faro and St. Ubes 
 are badly packed in cases of three hundred to three 
 hundred and fifty in each. Those of Spain and Portu- 
 gal iire principally carried to England and the Baltic, 
 and are employed in cookery, and in the manufacture 
 of cordials and other aromatic liquors. The essential 
 product of the fi-uit is in the rind or peel ; it is cut into 
 quarters, separated from the pulp, and caused to be 
 quickly dried. It is used in Holland in aromatizing 
 a liquor called curagoa. — Browne's Trees of America. 
 Importations op Oeanges, Lemons, other gkeen Fetiit, 
 
 AND rEEBEBVED FeTTIT, INTO THE UNITED STATES DUKING 
 
 THE fis.:;al Year ending June 30, 1856, 
 
 Whence imported. 
 
 Swedieh West Indies. . . , 
 
 Danish AVest Indies 
 
 Hambuig 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Holland 
 
 Dutch Guiana 
 
 Dutch East Indies 
 
 England 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Canada 
 
 British N. A. PosBessions. 
 
 British West Indies 
 
 British Honduras 
 
 British Guiana 
 
 British Australia 
 
 British East Indies 
 
 France on the Atlantic . . 
 France on the Mediter'h. 
 
 French West Indies 
 
 French Guiana 
 
 Spain on the Atlantic . . . 
 Spain on the Mediter'n . . 
 
 Philippine Islands 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Porto Rico 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Madeira 
 
 Azores 
 
 Sardinia 
 
 Tuscany 
 
 Two Sicilies 
 
 Austiia ■ 
 
 Turkey in Asia 
 
 Africa 
 
 Hayti 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Central Republic 
 
 New Granada 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Chili 
 
 Sandwich Islands 
 
 Japan 
 
 China 
 
 Whale Fisheries 
 
 C^nnges, 
 
 Lemoils, 
 
 and Limee. 
 
 Total. 
 
 290 
 ' 1*12 
 
 9,9S1 
 14 
 
 5,012 
 
 23 
 
 TO 
 
 52 
 
 51,546 
 
 35^520 
 
 2,113 
 
 185 
 
 6,468 
 
 10,1!15 
 
 1,T12 
 
 4ST,341 
 
 32 
 
 90 
 
 1,203 
 
 9 
 
 83 
 
 "2T1 
 
 2,709 
 
 916 
 
 336 
 
 24,3T2 
 
 :0,6T0 
 
 $4,641 
 
 "iil 
 
 165 
 
 45 
 
 01 
 28,462 
 T,2S0 
 
 812 
 865 
 
 1,421 
 
 65,255 
 
 860 
 
 34 
 1,054 
 1,271 
 2,367 
 ■ 45 
 3 
 1,155 
 1,213 
 
 "155 
 1,146 
 
 $117,889 
 
 $193 
 
 10 
 
 710 
 
 233 
 
 16 
 
 66 
 
 80 
 
 725 
 
 ' 96 
 
 13 
 
 12 
 
 238 
 
 9 
 
 40,740 
 
 1,386 
 
 13 
 
 1,357 
 
 436 
 
 1,530 
 
 9 
 
 8,030 
 
 141 
 
 112 
 
 2,791 
 
 57,498 
 
 1,408 
 
 90 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 270 
 
 22 
 
 13 
 
 41 
 
 101 
 
 "543 
 10,454 
 
 $124,480 
 
 Orchilla Weed, Orohella, or Archil (Ger. Or- 
 seille; ¥v. Orseille; It. Oricello, Orcella; Sp. Orchilla), 
 a whitish lichen (^Lichen orcella) found in the Isle of 
 Portland ; but that which is used is imported from the 
 Canary and Cape de Verd Islands, Madeira, Barbara', 
 and the Levant. From it is obtained the archil, or 
 orchal, of commerce, which yields a rich purple tinc- 
 ture, fugitive, indeed, but extremely beautiful. The 
 preparation of orchilla was long a secret, known only 
 to the Florentines and Hollanders ; but it is now ex- 
 tensively manufactured in England. Orchil is gen- 
 erally sold in the form of cakes, but sometimes in 
 that of moist pulp ; it is extensively used by dyers ; 
 and in times of scarcity the weed or lichen has sold as 
 high as £1000 per ton ! — Thomson's Dupensatory. 
 
 Ordinary, in Nautical language, denotes the estab- 
 lishment of the persons employed by government to 
 take charge of the ships of war which are laid up in the 
 several harbors. These are principally composed of 
 the warrant officers of the ships, as the gunner, boat- 
 swain, carpenter, deputy purser, and cook. There is, 
 besides, enrolled in the list of the ordinary a crew of 
 laborers, who pass from ship to ship occasionally, to 
 pump, moor, move, and clean them, whenever it is 
 necessary. The term 07'dinary is also applied some- 
 times to the ships themselves, and it is likewise used 
 to distinguish the inferior sailors from the most expert 
 and diligent. The latter are rated able on the navy 
 books, and have higher pay than those who are rated 
 as ^yrdinary. 
 
 Oregon, territory. United States of America, bor- 
 dering the Pacific coast, lies between the parallels of 
 42° and 46° 10' N. lat., and west of the Rocky Mount- 
 ains. Area, 210,000 square miles. Much of this terri- 
 tory is mountainous, but it abounds in fertile valleys. 
 It forms three sections, separated from each other by 
 nearly parallel ridges, and following the general di- 
 rection of the coast line. These several sections have 
 each distinct characteristics of- soil, productions, and 
 climate. The division extending from the Pacific coast 
 to the Cascade range has a genial climate throughout 
 the year. The valley of the Willamette is exceeding- 
 ly fertile, the intervales and prairies form the best of 
 farming lands, and the uplands afford good pasturage, 
 and abound with valuable timber; and there is much 
 fertile land bordering the Shastl and Umpqua rivers. 
 The division between the Cascade range and the Blue 
 Mountains has generally a light sandy soil, but with 
 many valleys of rich alluvion ; altogether said to be a 
 fine grazing region. The portion lying west of the 
 Rocky Mountains and east of the Blue Mountains, in 
 extent full one half of the territory, is mostly a rocky 
 and rough country, with some few narrow valleys of 
 great fertility. In the southern portion of the terri- 
 tory gold has been extensively found. There were in 
 Oregon and Washington territories in 1850, 132,857 
 acres of land improved, and 299,951 of unimproved 
 land in farms. Cash value of farms, $2,849,170; and 
 the value of implements and machinery, $183,423. Live 
 Stock : Horses, 8056 ; asses and mules, 420 ; milch cows, 
 9427; working oxen, 8114 ; other cattle, 24,188 ; sheep, 
 15,382 ; swine, 30,235. Value of live stock, 1,876,189. 
 
 Agricultural Products, etc. — Wheat, 211,943 bushels; 
 rj'e, 106 i Indian corn, 2918 ; oats, 61,214 ; peas and 
 beans, G566; potatoes, 91,326 ; valueof products of the 
 orchard, $1271; produce of market gardens, $90,241; 
 pounds of butter made, 211,464; of cheese, 36,980; 
 molasses, 24 gallons ; wool, 29,686 pounds produced ; 
 flax, 640; tobacco, 325; hay, tons of, 373; clover and 
 other grass seeds, 26 bushels. Value of slaughtered 
 animals, $164,530.— See Census Returns, 1850. 
 
 The Columbia forms its north boundary for a dis- 
 tance of 300 miles, and the east part is almost entirely 
 drained by the south branch, called Saptin or Lewis 
 River, and its tributaries ; a very small portion only in 
 the southeast corner is drained by the head sources of 
 the Rio Colorado, here called Green RLver ; and also by 
 
ORG 
 
 1479 
 
 OEP 
 
 the Bear Kiver of Great Salt Lake; Umatillah,' John 
 Days, and Willamette rivers enter the Columbia Kiver 
 on the south ; and the Shastl or Rogue, Umpqua, Se- 
 quatchie, Yaquina, Kilamook, and several small streams 
 enter the Pacific on the west. The principal places 
 are Salem, the capital, Portland, at the head of navi- 
 gation, Oregon city, and Astoria. The principal arti- 
 cles of export are lumber and agricultural produce. 
 Tonnage in 1853, 1063 tons. There were in the terri- 
 tory in 1850, thirty-seven saw-mills employed in the 
 manufacture of lumber. The fisheries of Oregon are 
 important and valuable. The rivers abound with 
 salmon, especially the Columbia and the Willamette, 
 which are takeii in large quantities below the fall. 
 The hunting and trapping of the fur-bearing animals 
 has given employment to a great number of persons, 
 and the rivers and coasts abound with wild fowls. The 
 governor is appointed by the President of the United 
 States for four years. The Legislative Assembly is 
 composed of a council of nine members, elected for 
 three years, and a House of Representatives of eighteen 
 members, elected annually. The elective franchise is 
 enjoyed by every free white male inhabitant twenty- 
 one years of age, and a citizen of the United States. 
 
 On the 7th of May, 1792, Captain Robert Graj', in 
 the ship Columbia, of Bostpn, discovered and entered 
 the Columbia River ; to which he gave the name of 
 his vessel. He was the first person that established 
 the fact pf the existence of this great river, and this 
 gives to the United States the right of discovery. In 
 180-t-'5, Captains Lewis and Clarke, under the direction 
 of the government of the United States, explored the 
 country from the mouth of the Missouri to the mouth 
 of the Columbia, and spent the winter of 1805-6 at 
 the mouth of the Columbia. This exploration of the 
 River Columbia, the first ever made, constitutes an- 
 other ground of the claim of the United States to the 
 country. In 1808, the Missouri Fur Company, at St. 
 Louis, established a , trading post beyond the Rocky 
 Mountains, pn the head-waters of Lewis River, the 
 first ever fonned on any of the waters of the Columbia, 
 In 1810, the Pacific ^ur Company, under John Jacob 
 Astor, of New York, was formed ; and in 1811, they 
 founded Astoria, at the mouth of the Columbia, as the 
 principal trading post, and proceeded to establish others 
 in the interior. A little later in the same year, the 
 Northwest Company sent a detachment to form estab- 
 lishments on the Columbia ; but when they arrived at 
 the mouth of the river, they found the post occupied. 
 In consequence of the exposure of Astoria by the war 
 of 1813, the post was sold out to the Northwest Com- 
 pany. At the close of the war, Astoria was restored, 
 by order of the British government, to its original 
 founders, agreeably to the first article of the Treaty of 
 Ghent ; but Britain still persisted in claiming this ter- 
 ritory, south to the 42d degree of latitude, until 1845. 
 In 1821, the Hudson's Bay and Northwest Company, 
 who had previously been rivals, were united, and since 
 that time have greatly extended their establishments 
 in the region of Oregon. It was held in joint occu- 
 pancy until the treaty of 1845, when Britain gave up 
 all claims south of tjie 49th parallel of north latitude. 
 It was organized with a territorial government in 1848. 
 The portion now the Territory of Washington was set 
 off by an act of Congress, March, 1853. 
 
 FoBEiGN Imposts anb Expobts of Oeegon. 
 
 YBOrs. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 ToQQAge Cleared. | 
 
 nomestic. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Tolol. 
 
 Amerioan. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 18M 
 1S56 
 1S56 
 
 $42,T0T 
 
 123,612 
 
 6,234 
 
 $120 
 
 $42.8 ;t 
 
 123.612 
 6,234 
 
 $48,932 
 
 9.666 
 
 2,T24 
 
 TT2 
 1663 
 888 
 
 231 
 
 Organs. The invention of the organ is attributed 
 to Archimedes, about 220 B.C. ; but the fact does not 
 rest on sufficient authority. It is also attributed to 
 one Ctesibius, a barber of Alexandria, about 100 e.c. 
 The organ was brought to Europe from the Greek em- 
 
 pire, and was first applied to religious devotions in 
 churches in a.d. 658. — Bellarmine. Organs werS 
 used in the Western churches by Pope Vitalianus in 
 658. — ^Ammonids. It is affirmed that the organ was 
 known in France in the time of Louis I., 815, when 
 one was constructed by an Italian priest. St. Jerome 
 mentions an organ with twelve pairs of bellows, which 
 might have been heard a mile ofi^; and another at Je- 
 rusalem which might have been heard on the Mount 
 of Olives. The organ at Haerlem is one of the largest 
 in Europe ; it has 60 stops and 8000 pipes. At Seville 
 is one with 100 stops and 5300 pipes. The organ at 
 Amsterdam has a set of pipes that imitate a chorus of 
 human voices. 
 
 OrgoL See Abgol. 
 
 Orinoco, one of the principal rivers of South Amer- 
 ica, ranking in size and importance immediately after 
 the Amazon and Plata, north of which former its ba- 
 sin lies. It rises in the Sierra Nevada, Venezuelan 
 Guiana, winds successively west, north, and east, 
 through the centre of the Venezuelan territory, and 
 enters the Atlantic by numerous mouths, in lat. 8° 40' 
 N., and long. 61° W. Total course estimated at 1600 
 miles, for more than the latter half of which, or to the 
 rapidsof Atures, it is uninterruptedly navigable. Area 
 of its basin, 252,000 square miles. It receives numer- 
 ous large affluents, principal the Meta and Apure, 
 each having a navigable stream of 500 miles, the Gua- 
 viara and Caroni. By the Cassiquiare it has a singu- 
 lar navigable communication with the Rio Negro and 
 Amazon ; and in the upper part of its course are sev- 
 eral large cataracts and long rapids. At 200 leagues 
 from the ocean, its breadth is about three miles ; and at 
 the city of Bolivar, between 250 and 300 miles from its 
 mouths, to which place the tide reaches, it is four 
 miles across, and, when lowest, 65 fathoms deep. About 
 100 miles from the ocean, it separates into a delta of 
 numerous mouthsi. It rises gradually from March to 
 September, yearly, usually from 60 to 70 feet, but in 
 one narrow place to 120 feet. Its banks are clothed 
 with dense forests, which, like its waters, abound with 
 animal life. Like all great rivers, its upper waters 
 separate into several branches, and it doe^ not appear 
 that the main source has been ascertained with any 
 degree of certainty. , According to La Cruz d'Olme- 
 dilla, it issues from a small lake called Ypava, situated 
 in north latitude 5° 5', whence, by a bend of a spiral 
 form, it enters the Lake Parima ; but although the ex- 
 istence of this sheet of water has been determined, 
 doubts are entertained whether it may not owe its ori- 
 gin only to the temporary overflowing of the river. 
 From this lake it is said to issue by two mouths ; and 
 after a very circuitous route of upward of fifteen hun- 
 dred miles, including its windings, it flows into the At- 
 lantic Ocean, opposite the island of Trinidad, by about 
 fifty mouths, seven of which are navigable. The 
 Grand Boca, or principal mouth, which is six leagues 
 wide, is southeast of Trinidad, in lat. 8" 30' N., and 
 long. 59° 50' W. 
 
 Orpiment (Ger. Operment; Fr. Orpiment; It. Or- 
 pimento; Sp. Oropimente ; Lat. AuHpigmentUTiC)^ the 
 name usually given to sulphuret of arsenic; When 
 artificially prepared, it is in the form of a fine yellowj 
 colored powder ; but it is found native in many parts 
 of the world, particularly in Bohemia, Turkey, China, 
 and Ava. It is exported from the last two in consid- 
 erable quantities, and is known in the East by the 
 name of hartal. Native orpiment is composed of thin 
 plates of a lively gold color, intermixed with pieces 
 of a vermilion red, of a shattery foliaceous texture, 
 flexible, soft to the touch like talc, and sparkling 
 when broken, Specific gravity, 3-45. The inferior 
 kinds are of a dead yellow, inclining to green, and 
 want the bright appearance of the best specimens. 
 Its principal use is as a coloring drug among painters, 
 bookbinders, etc. — Thomson's Chemistry ; Milbdrn's 
 Orient. Comm. 
 
OES 
 
 1480 
 
 OYS 
 
 Orsedew, Orsidue, Manbeim or Dutch Gold 
 (Ger. Flittergold ; Du. Klatergoud ; Fr. Oripeau, Oli- 
 quant ; It. Orpello ; Sp. Oropel), an inferior sort of gold 
 leaf, prepared of copper and zinc. It is sometimes 
 called leaf brass. It is principally manufactured in 
 Manheim. 
 
 Ostrich Feathers. See Feathees. 
 
 Osvrego. Oswego is one of the most thriving cit- 
 ies in the Union. With a population of 20,000, it does 
 as much business as manj' cities of twice its popula- 
 tion. The Welland Canal has given it advantages 
 over even Buffalo, and hence its trade grows enor- 
 mously. Its increase has been so steady that it will 
 continue to grow with every improvement in the West- 
 ern States. 
 
 The receipts of flour and grain by lake for three sea- 
 sons are given as follows : 
 
 
 1854. 
 
 1855. 
 
 1856. 
 
 Flour, barrels 
 
 167,267 
 
 224,643 
 
 102,920 
 
 GRAIN. 1 
 
 Wheat, bushels 
 
 2,492,333 
 
 2,632,274 
 
 43,215 
 
 101,436 
 
 349 
 
 323,296 
 
 5,365,783 
 2,800,909 
 281,021 
 172,216 
 61,160 
 228,097 
 
 8,282,398 
 
 2,530,211 
 
 389,503 
 
 110,019 
 
 41,416 
 
 109,769 
 
 
 Barley, " 
 
 Peas, " 
 
 Oats, " 
 
 Totals , 
 
 . By converting the flour into 
 wheat, afc 5 bushels per 
 barrel, the amount would 
 be .'..... 
 
 Totals 
 
 5,492,908 
 836,336 
 
 8,969,176 
 1,123,215 
 
 12,632,305 
 514,660 
 
 6,429,238 
 
 10,092,301 
 
 13,146,956 
 
 Showing an increase in 1856 of 6,717,717 bushels over 
 1854;, and 3,064,564 bushels over 1855. 
 
 The annual review of its commerce for 1856 says, of 
 the grain warehouses of Oswego, " There are ten ele- 
 vators, which are capable of elevating in the aggregate 
 over 37,000 bushels of grain per hour, and storage room 
 for over two million ftusAefe." This is about the same 
 as Milwaukee. There are in Oswego sixteen mills, 
 with eighty-six run of stone, capable of manufacturing 
 8600 barrels of flour a day, or over 1,800,000 barrels in 
 a year. 
 
 Out of Trim, the state of a ship when she is not 
 properly balanced for the purposes of navigation, which 
 may be occasioned by a defection in the rigging or in 
 the stowage of the hold. 
 
 Outrigger, a strong beam of timber, of which 
 there are several, fixed upon the side of a ship, and 
 projecting from it, in order to secure the masts in the 
 act of careening, by counteracting the strain they suf- 
 fer from the effort of the careening tackles, which, be- 
 ing applied to the mast>.head, draw it downward, so as 
 to act upon the vessel with the power of a lever, whose 
 fulcrum is in her centre of gravity. Outrigger is also 
 a small boom, occasionally used in the top to give ad- 
 ditional security to the top-mast. 
 
 Owners of Ships. The ownership or title to a 
 ship can be acquired in several ways, as by purchase, 
 building, or capture. In regard to the first, it is gen- 
 erally done by a bill of sale, of which there are two 
 kinds : the first is where the ship passes from the 
 builder to the first purchaser, and is called the grand 
 bill of sale ; the second is where the owner of the ship 
 not being the builder, transfers his interest to another 
 purchaser. Upon the death of the owner, his inter- 
 ests devolve upon his executors or his personal repre- 
 sentatives. Special conditions may be introduced 
 which may vest the property in the purchaser, al- 
 though the property may not have been completed, 
 such as a payment of a certain part of the purchase- 
 money, when a part of the vessel has been completed ; 
 and he may insist upon the completion of that vessel, 
 and the builder can not require him to accept any oth- 
 
 er. — Abbot. A ship's boat does not constitute a part 
 of a vessel's tackle, apparel, furniture, etc. 
 
 Property in ships is sometimes acquired by capture. 
 During war ships and private ships having letters of 
 marque, are entitled to make prizes. But before the 
 captors acquire a legal title to such prizes, it is neces- 
 sary that they should be condemned in the admiralt}' 
 or other court constituted for that purpose. When this 
 is done, the captors are considered to he in the same 
 situation, with respect to them, as if they had built 
 or purchased them. — See articles Peivateeks, Li;t- 
 TEES OF Maeque, Peizes, and Ships and Shippisg. 
 
 Oyster, a well-known edible shell-fish, belonging 
 to the genus ostrea, occurring in most parts of the 
 world. The European oyster ((9. eilulis), which forms 
 a considerable article of trade on the coasts of England 
 and France, is taken by dredging, after which the ani- 
 mals are placed in pits formed for the purpose, fur- 
 nished with sluices, through which, at spring tides, the 
 water is suffered to flow. In these receptacles they 
 acquire the green tinge so remarkable in the European 
 oyster, and which is considered as adding to their 
 value. This color, whicli at one time was supposed to 
 be owing to some mineral impregnation, has recently 
 been ascertained to arise from the confervaij and other 
 marine vegetable matter, on which the animal feeds. 
 The oysters brought to the different markets in the 
 United States are furnished by several species, which 
 it is extremely difficult to discriminate, and are known 
 among the venders and epicures of this food by ap- 
 pellations derived from the places from whence they 
 are brought. The business of taking these shell-fish 
 employs a great many hands, and no inconsiderable 
 amount of tonnage. In many places oysters are 
 planted, as it is called ; that is, large artificial beds are 
 formed in favorable situations, where they are per- 
 mitted to fatten and increase. The breeding-time of 
 oysters is in April or May, from which time to Jul}' or 
 August the oysters are said to be sick or in the milk. 
 This is known by the appearance of a milky substance 
 in the gills. Oysters attain a size fit for the table in 
 about a year and a half, and are in their prime at three 
 years of age ; though what the natural term of their 
 lives may be, it is difiicult, if not impossible, to determ- 
 ine with any degree of accuracy. Many curious dis- 
 cussions have arisen as to whether oysters possessed 
 the faculty of locomotion. It is well known that, in 
 general, they are firmly attached to stones or to each 
 other ; and it has been stated, and generally believed, 
 that they were not endowed with any powers of chang- 
 ing their position. From the observations and experi- 
 ments of naturalists, however, it appears that they can 
 move from place to place by suddenly closing their 
 shells, and thus ejecting the water contained between 
 them with sufficient force to throw themselves back- 
 ward, or in a lateral direction. Oysters form the basis 
 of many culinary preparations, but are much more 
 digestible in their raw state than after any mode of 
 cooking them, as this process, in a great measure, de- 
 prives them of the nourishing animal jelly, which forms 
 so large a portion of their substance. The shell of the 
 oyster is composed of carbonate of lime and animal 
 matter, and was at one time supposed to possess pecul- 
 iar medical properties; but analysis has shown that 
 the only advantage of these animal carbonates of lime 
 over those from the mineral kingdom arises from their 
 containing no admixture of any metallic substance. 
 The lime obtained from the calcination of oyster-shells, 
 though exceedingly pure and white, is better suited for 
 work which does not require great tenacity, as for 
 plastering rooms, than for the common purposes of 
 building, as it does not form as hard a compound with 
 sand as the mineral limes. 
 
PAC 
 
 1481 
 
 PAC 
 
 P. 
 
 Pacific Ocean, a vast wateiy expanse extending 
 from the Arctic to tlie Antarctic circle, througli 127° 
 of lat., and between America on the east, and Asia, the 
 Malay Archipelago, and Australia on the west. In its 
 widest part, at the equator, it is 10,000 miles across; 
 it narrows especially toward the north, where it com- 
 municates with the Arctic Ocean by Behring's Strait ; 
 and, including the Indian Ocean, it contains upward 
 of 70,000,000 of square miles, or more than all the dry 
 land on the globe. Its coast line on the American side, 
 though generally bold, is very little broken by inlets ; 
 on the Asiatic side it is very irregular ; and the Cel- 
 ebes, China, and Yellow seas, with the seas of Japan, 
 Okhotsk, and Kamtschatka, are inlets of this ocean. 
 It is studded with a great number of island groups, the 
 piincipal of which, proceeding from west to east, are the 
 Ladrones, Carolines, Solomon, Queen Charlotte's, New 
 Hebrides, Feejee, Friendly, Society, Low, Marquesas, 
 Sandwich, and Galapagos islands, and New Zealand, 
 besides a vast multitude of solitary islands, reefs, and 
 sand banks. The great equatorial current of this 
 ocean originates in the Antarctic drift current, which 
 flows north along the shores of South America, and 
 then west through the Pacific, where it occupies the 
 entire space between the tropics. Strong land cur- 
 rents sweep round the shores of East Australia and 
 Japan. The northeast trade-wind prevails uninter- 
 ruptedly between lat. 6° and 23° N. ; the southeast 
 trade-wind commonly blows from the equator to lat. 
 26° S. ; between them is the region of calms, extending 
 over 5°, and varying in position according to the' sea- 
 son. Greatest equatorial temperature of Pacific 88°'5 
 Fahr. In lat. 56° 26' the temperature of the sea 
 4 throughout its depth is 39°-5 Fahr. This ocean be- 
 came first known to Europeans in 1513 ; it received its 
 name from Magalhaens, who sailed across it in 1621. 
 In the 18th century its different parts were explored by 
 Behring, Anson, Byron, Bougainville, Cook, Vancou- 
 ver, Broughton, La Perouse, etc. In the present cen- 
 tury by D'Entrecasteaux, Krusenstern, Beechey, Fitz- 
 roy, D'Urville, Wilkes, and Sir James Boss. 
 
 Current of the Pacific. — Lieutenant Bent, of the Unit- 
 ed States navy, recently read a paper before the Geo- 
 graphical and Statistical Society of New York, of which 
 the following is an abstract, upon " the great ocean cur- 
 rent of the Pacific," corresponding with the Gulf Stream 
 of the Atlantic, The Japanese have known it for many 
 years, and call it the Kurosino, or Black Stream, from 
 its dark blue color compared with that of the adjacent 
 ocean. The fountain from which this stream springs 
 is the great equatorial current of the Pacific, which in 
 magnitude is in proportion to the vast extent of that 
 ocean, when compared with the Atlantic. Extending 
 from the tropic of Cancer on the north, to Capricorn, 
 in all probability, on the south, it has a width of nearly 
 three thousand miles. With a velocity of from twenty 
 to sixty miles per day, it sweeps to the westward in 
 uninterrupted grandeur around three-eighths of the cir- 
 cumference of the globe, until, diverted by the continent 
 pf Asia, and split into innumerable streams by the Pol- 
 ynesian Islands, it spreads the genial influence of its 
 warmth over regions of the earth, some of which, now 
 teeming in prolific abundance, would otherwise be but 
 barren wastes. One of the most remarkable of these 
 off-shoots is the Kuro-Suro, or Japan Stream, which, 
 separated from the parent country by the Bashee Isl- 
 ands and south end of Formosa, where its strength 
 and character are as decidedly marked as those of the 
 Gulf Stream on the coast of Florida. This northward- 
 ly course continues to the parallel of 26° N., when it 
 bears off to the northward and eastward, washing the 
 whole southeastern coast of Japan as far as the Straits 
 of Sangar, and increasing in strength as it advances, 
 until reaching the chain of islands to the southward of 
 
 the Gulf of Yedo, where its maximum velocity, as shown 
 by our observations, is 80 miles per day. Its average 
 strength from the south end of Formosa to the Straits 
 of Sangar is found to be from 35 to 40 miles per twen- 
 ty-four hours at all seasons that we traversed it. — Sci- 
 entifte Annual, 1857. 
 
 The Pacific Trade of the United States.— The whole 
 number of arrivals in the United States from ports in 
 the Pacific during the year 1856 were 69 ; and in 1855, 
 146. 
 
 Talcahuana 3 
 
 Valparaiso 3 
 
 Caldera, Chili 
 
 Tongoy, Chili 2 
 
 AT BOSTON. 
 
 Honolulu, via N. London. . 1 
 
 Iquique 1 
 
 Peru Blanca 1 
 
 Total for 1856 14 
 
 Totalinl855 18 
 
 AT NEW TOaK. 
 
 Callao 10 I Arica 1 
 
 California 3 Caldera 1 
 
 Honolulu 4 I Callao via Valencia 1 
 
 Total in 1S58. 
 " " 1855 . 
 
 20 
 
 AT BALTIMORE. 
 
 Callao 14 1 Coquimbo 1 
 
 Valparaiso :. 1 | Tongoy, Chili 1 
 
 Total in 18B6 17 
 
 " "1856 48 
 
 AT pniLADELBHIA. 
 
 Callao 10 I Iquique 1 
 
 Total inlS56 11 
 
 " "18S5 10 
 
 AT NOEFOLK. 
 
 Callao 6 Total in 1856 6 
 
 Total in 1865 19 
 
 Boston, 14; New York, 20; Baltimore, 17; Philadel- 
 phia, 11 ; Norfolk, 6 ; New London, 1. Total, 69. 
 
 Whole number of clearances for the Pacific in 1855 
 were 237 ; and in 1856, 261, of which there were cleared 
 
 FEOM BOSTON EOE 
 
 W. C. Central America 
 
 via Philadelphia 1 
 
 Guayaquil 2 
 
 Valparaiso via St. John . 1 
 
 Callao via Liverpool 3 
 
 Valparaiso via Liberia . . 1 
 
 Panama via New York . . 1 
 
 Arica 1 
 
 Australia via Richmond . 2 
 
 Tahiti 1 
 
 Total for 1S56 108 
 
 95 
 
 California 
 
 Australia 
 
 Valparaiso 
 
 Honolulu 
 
 Callao 
 
 California via N. York. . 
 
 Australia via St. John . . 
 
 *' " London... 
 
 New South Wales 
 
 Callao via London 
 
 W. C. Central America . 
 Total for 1855 
 
 FEOM NEW TOKK FOE 
 
 California 73 
 
 Australia 19 
 
 Valparaiso 12 
 
 New South Wales 6 
 
 Hobart Town >. 1 
 
 W. C. Central America . 2 
 
 Honolulu , 1 
 
 Iquique 1 
 
 Panama 2 
 
 Acapulco 1 
 
 Total for 1866 i]7 
 
 " " 1856 113 
 
 EEO&l BALTIMORE FOE 
 
 W. C. Central America. . . 4 1 Valparaiso 1 
 
 California 2 Valparaiso via Eio 1 
 
 Acapulco 2 I Arica 1 
 
 Total for 1866 11 
 
 " " 1856 7 
 
 Boston, 108 ; New York, 117 ; Baltimore, 11 ; Philadel- 
 phia, 6 ; New London, 2 ; Bangor, 1 ; Charleston, S. C.j 
 1 ; Providence, 1 ; Portland, 1 ; Savannah, 1 ; Salem, 
 1 ; New Orleans. 2. Total, 251. 
 
 Package, Scavage, Baillage, and Portage, 
 were duties charged in the port of London on the 
 goods imported and exported by aliens, or by denizens 
 being the sons of aliens. During the Dark Ages it was 
 usual to lay higher duties upon the goods imported or 
 exported by aliens, whether in British or foreign ships, 
 than were laid on similar goods when imported or ex- 
 ported by natives. But according as sounder and 
 more enlarged principles prevailed, this illiberal dis- 
 
PAC 
 
 1482 
 
 PAL 
 
 tinction was gradually modified, and was at length 
 •wholly abolished, in so far at least as it was of a public 
 character, by the act of 24 Geo. III. The duties thus 
 preserved to the city were not very heavy; but the 
 principle on whicii thej' were imposed was exceedingly 
 objectionable, and their collection was attended with a 
 great deal of trouble and inconvenience. Not being 
 levied in other places, they operated to the prejudice 
 of the trade of the metropolis. The act 3 and 4 Will. 
 IV. c. 66, authorized the Lords of the Treasury to pur- 
 chase up the duties in question from the city. This 
 was done at an expense of about i!140,000, and the 
 duties were abolished. 
 
 Packet, in Navigation, meant originally a vessel 
 appointed by government to carry the mails between 
 the mother country and foreign countries or her own 
 dependencies. It is now used as nearly synonymous 
 with an ordinary vessel, chiefly of small burden, that 
 freights goods or passengers. — See New Tokk, Pas- 
 sengers, and Post-office. 
 
 Pack - horse, a horse employed to carry goods 
 on its back in bundles, called packages or packs. In 
 countries not yet intersected by regular roads this is 
 the only mode of transporting goods from one part to 
 another. In Britain, horses were formerlj' employed 
 for this purpose, but for these carts and wagons are 
 now substituted. In Spain, mules and asses are still 
 so employed, and in Asia and Africa camels and drom- 
 edaries. 
 
 Padang. This settlement lies on the west coast 
 of Sumatra, and receives its imports almost exclusive- 
 ly from Java. It has no direct importations from 
 foreign countries. Port, harbor, and other commercial 
 regulations the same as at Java, to the government of 
 which island Padang is subordinate. Under the oper- 
 ation of high tariff' duties, especially on American cot- 
 ton goods, the trade between the United States and 
 Padang is insignificant. 
 
 Painter. In Naval language, a rope used to fasten 
 a boat either along side of the ship to which it belongs, 
 or to some wharf, quay, etc., as occasion requires. 
 
 Paints. The coloring substances or pigments used 
 in the arts. The following are some of the principal 
 pigments and coloring substances included in the com- 
 mercial name of Paints, and coloring substances : 
 
 Asphaltum, 
 
 Lead, red and w] 
 
 ite. 
 
 Bronze Powders, 
 
 Mineral White, 
 
 
 Brunswick Green, 
 
 Ochre, 
 
 
 .Brunswick Blue, 
 
 OxydofZine, etc 
 
 
 British Lustre, 
 
 Plumbago, 
 
 
 Chalk, 
 
 Pumice-stone, 
 
 
 Carmine, 
 
 Painter's Colors, 
 
 
 Dry Ochre, 
 
 Paints In Oil, 
 
 
 Emery, 
 
 Putty Oil, 
 
 
 Emerald Green, 
 
 Paris Green, 
 
 
 Gum Damar, 
 
 Shellac, 
 
 
 Gum Sandrac, 
 
 Ultramarine, 
 
 
 Gum Animi, 
 
 Vermilion, 
 
 
 Gum Copal, 
 
 Venetian Red, 
 
 
 Ivory Black, 
 
 Verdigris, 
 
 
 Lustre, 
 
 White Oiyd of Zinc, 
 
 Litharge, 
 
 Whiting and Par 
 
 s White, 
 
 Lampblack, 
 
 Zinc Paint. 
 
 
 Impoutb of Paints into the 
 
 United States foe 
 
 THE Yeae 
 
 ENDING JV 
 
 NE 30, 1856. 
 
 
 
 Dry 
 Ochre. 
 
 Bed and 
 
 WhitinfT 
 
 Whence Imported. 
 
 White 
 Loud. 
 
 nnd Pnri. 
 White. 
 
 
 Vol«e. 
 
 Value 
 
 Vnlue. 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 
 $n 
 
 
 
 $2,820 
 
 3118 
 
 284 
 
 T02 
 
 136,631 
 
 $577 
 21,748 
 
 Holland 
 
 
 England 
 
 Scotland 
 
 
 95 
 
 
 
 15,622 
 
 19 
 3,234 
 
 1,498 
 
 France on the Atlantic . . . 
 
 France on the Mediter'n . . 
 
 453 
 
 960 
 
 ..... 
 
 Spain on the Atlantic 
 
 
 2,585 
 
 
 Spain on the Mediter'n . . . 
 
 
 29,290 
 
 
 Tuscany 
 
 1,923 
 
 
 
 Two Sicilies 
 
 Total 
 
 21,5 
 
 
 
 $21,033 
 
 $174,125 
 
 $23,823 
 
 Exports of Paints of Fokeign MANTrrAOTUEE feom the 
 United States fob the Yeab ending June 30, 1856. 
 
 Whither Eiported. 
 
 Dry 
 Ochre. 
 
 Red and 
 White 
 ' Lend. 
 
 Whiting 
 
 and Faiu 
 
 While. 
 
 England 
 
 Value. 
 $4950 
 
 '"s 
 
 Value. 
 
 $1430 
 
 3223 
 
 1025 
 
 24 
 
 '127 
 62 
 
 Value. 
 $568 
 
 OtherBritishN. A. Poss.. 
 Hayti 
 
 San Domingo 
 
 Sandwich Islands 
 
 Total 
 
 ¥4968 
 
 $5891 
 
 $598 
 
 ExpoETS OF Paints AMn Vaenisii of Domestic Manitfao- 
 
 TUEE FEOM THE UNITED STATES FOE TUB YEAE ENDING 
 
 JmtE 30, 1856. 
 
 Whither Exported. Value. 
 
 Sweden and Norway $1,261 
 
 Danish West Indies., 4, J86 
 
 Hamburg . 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Holland 
 
 Dutch Guiana. 
 
 Belgium 
 
 England 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Gibraltar. , 
 
 400 
 
 862 
 
 90 
 
 278 
 
 216 
 
 4,659 
 
 382 
 
 10 
 
 Canada 106,578 
 
 Other British North American Possessions . . . 
 
 British West Indies 
 
 British Honduras 
 
 British Guiana 
 
 British Possessions in Africa 
 
 Other ports in Africa 
 
 British Australia 
 
 British East Indies 
 
 France on the Atlantic 
 
 France on the Mediterranean 
 
 French North American Possessions . 
 Philippine Islands . 
 
 5,012 
 
 2.(184 
 
 ■5:>2 
 
 843 
 
 2,077 
 
 1,430 
 
 1,355 
 
 529 
 
 8,770 
 
 104 
 
 834 
 
 580 
 
 Cuba , 13,983 
 
 Porto Rico . 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Cape de Verd Islands 
 
 "Two Sicilies 
 
 Austrian PossesBions in Italy 
 
 Ilayti 
 
 San Domingo 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Central Republic 
 
 New Granada 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Uruguay, or Gisplatine Republic. 
 Btienos Ayres. 
 
 671 
 
 591 
 
 43 
 
 71 
 
 50 
 
 4,220 
 
 46 
 
 9,618 
 
 135 
 
 6.958 
 
 4,218 
 
 2.449 
 
 1,999 
 
 4 079 
 
 Chili 13,376 
 
 Peru. 
 
 Etluador 
 
 Sandwich Islands. 
 
 China 
 
 'Whale Fisheries.. 
 
 3,632 
 
 150 
 
 4,471 
 
 6,745 
 
 5E3 
 
 Total value $217,179 
 
 Palermo (anciently Panonnus), a large city and 
 sea-port, the capital of the noble island of Sicily, on 
 the north coast of which it is situated, the light-house 
 being in lat. 38° 8' 15" N., long. 13° 21' 56" E. Pop- 
 ulation, 170,000. The Bay of Palermo is about live 
 miles in depth, the city being situated on its southwest 
 shore. A fine mole, fully a quarter of a mile in length, 
 having a light-house and battery at its extremity, pro- 
 jects in a southerly direction from the arsensal into 
 nine or ten fathoms water, forming a convenient port, 
 capable of containing a great number of vessels. This 
 immense work cost about £1,000,000 sterling in its 
 construction ; but the light-house, though a splendid 
 structure, is said to be very ill lighted. There is an 
 inner port, which is reserved for the use of the arsenal. 
 Ships that do not mean to go within the mole may an- 
 chor about half a mile from it, in from sixteen to twen- 
 ty-three fathoms, the mole light bearing N.W. J W. 
 A heavy sea sometimes rolls into the bay, but no dan- 
 ger need be apprehended by ships properly found in 
 anchors and chain cables. In going into the bay, it is 
 necessary to Iceep clear of the nets of the tunny fishery, 
 for these are so strong and well moored as to be capa- 
 ble of arresting a ship under sail. — Smyth's SicUy, p. 
 70, and Append, p. 4. 
 
 Imports and ExpoHs. — The great articles of export 
 
PAL 
 
 1483 
 
 PAL 
 
 from Sicily are, olivooil, grain, particularly -wheat and 
 barley, silk, brimstone, wine and brandy, barilla, lem- 
 ons and oranges, lemon juice, manna, shumac, linseed, 
 fruit, salted fish, and salt ; with argol, liquorice, pum- 
 ice-stone, i-ags, skins, honey, cotton wool, saffron, etc. 
 
 Abtioles Expobted from and Imported iwro Palebmo in 
 1S62. 
 
 ArticleB. 
 
 Quantities;) ValueB. 
 
 Arguls and tiream of tartar. 
 
 Brimstone 
 
 Cantharidea 
 
 Cbeeses 
 
 Coi*n, grain, and pulse.' 
 
 EssonceB 
 
 £'isli, salted 
 
 Fruits, dry and picked . . . . 
 
 Oranges and lemons 
 
 Linseed. 
 
 Liquorice paste 
 
 Manna 
 
 Oils, olive 
 
 Shumac 
 
 Skins... 
 
 "Wine arid spirits. 
 
 Other articles 
 
 Total . ..'..'. 
 
 Quart^Vs. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Cwt. 
 
 Boxes. 
 Quarters.' 
 
 ' Gwt. 1 
 
 Gallons. 
 Cwt. 
 
 Number. 
 Gallons. 
 Value. 
 
 £ 
 
 T,6S8 
 
 .133,886 
 
 5 
 
 188 
 
 ■ 2,160 
 
 29,420 
 
 3,4T6 
 
 2,143 
 
 409,631 
 
 4,41T 
 
 14,229 
 
 3,656 
 
 139,910 
 
 S1,T96 
 
 283,634 
 
 30,100 
 
 197,856 
 
 £11,T4« 
 
 22,21T 
 ,60 
 BOO 
 
 4;i 
 
 20,5T8 
 
 4,450 
 
 2,726 
 
 10D,S()3 
 
 '8,834 
 
 25,532 
 
 34,140 
 
 21,745 
 
 15.897 
 
 369,378 
 
 834 
 
 22,984 
 
 32,000 
 
 698,744 
 
 Cocoa Cwt. 
 
 Coffee ; ^- 
 
 Indigo — 
 
 Pepper — . 
 
 Rum Gallons. 
 
 Spices Cwt. 
 
 Sugars 4 — 
 
 Tea Pounds. 
 
 Woods Cwt 
 
 Cottons Packages. 
 
 -Cotton yarn ....» Cwt. 
 
 Cptton and line^ , f ^ckages. 
 
 Cotton and wool — 
 
 Earthen-'ware and glass. .'. . — 
 
 .Fancy goods — 
 
 Hardware — 
 
 Linens — 
 
 Silks _ 
 
 Woolens w .'. . . . — 
 
 Copper , .,^.... Cwt. 
 
 poala Tons. 
 
 Deal boards ... Number. 
 
 Drugs and colors Packages, 
 
 Fish, cod ' Cwt 
 
 Plerrlngs Barrels, 
 
 Hemp Cwt. 
 
 Hides — 
 
 .Iron — 
 
 Lead r • • ' . — 
 
 Leather — 
 
 Pitch and tar Barrels. 
 
 Saltpetre Cwt 
 
 Stationery and books Packages, 
 
 Steel Cwt. 
 
 Tin in bars — 
 
 Tin in plates — 
 
 Tobacco ,' — 
 
 Wax — 
 
 Wool — 
 
 Other articles Value, 
 
 Total . 
 
 £ 
 
 409 
 
 4,4T6 
 
 66 
 
 2,208 
 
 1,600 
 
 63 
 
 11,944 
 
 300 
 
 2,600 
 
 834 
 
 7,199 
 
 30 
 
 66 
 
 1,: 
 
 100 
 
 463 
 
 75 
 
 161 
 
 504 
 
 008 
 
 10,000 
 
 1,016,197 
 
 1,271 
 
 7,750 
 
 86 
 
 476 
 
 8,049 
 
 11,496 
 
 4,900 
 
 226 
 
 539 
 
 444 
 
 146 
 
 1,600 
 
 320 
 
 925 
 
 16,850 
 
 2,672 
 
 207 
 
 :ei,045 
 11,200 
 
 1,!"" 
 
 4,476 
 
 23,902 
 
 1,680 
 
 41,400 
 
 65,082 
 
 ;2,250 
 
 4,480 
 
 41,940 
 
 4,000 
 
 13,840 
 
 6,000 
 
 16,100 
 
 50,300 
 
 2,835 
 
 10,600 
 
 50,850 
 
 12,710 
 
 5,813 
 
 170 
 
 1,904 
 
 48,281 
 
 6,748 
 
 3,775 
 
 4,440 
 
 l,OlS 
 
 ■ 898 
 
 2,140 
 
 1,500 
 
 1,600 
 
 2,082 
 
 63,400 
 
 18,704 
 
 2,850 
 
 85,000 
 
 606.083 
 
 Wheat is largely exported. It is of amixed quality, 
 hard, and is generally sold from the public magazines, 
 or caricatori, by measure, without weight. But the 
 best hard wheat, grown in the neighborhood of Paler- 
 mo, Is sold by the salma of 272 rottoli=476 lbs. En- 
 glish ; the difference between weight and measure be- 
 ing made good by the seller or buyer, as the case may 
 be. Wine is principally shipped from Marsala ; lem- 
 ons, oranges, and leinon-juioe from Messina; salt from 
 Trapani ; and barilla from the southern coast. But 
 all the articles to be found on the coast may, for the 
 most part, be had at Palermo; unless, however, the 
 quantity required be small, it is usually best to ship 
 them from the outports, the expense of their convey- 
 ance to Palermo being very heavy. The crops of ba- 
 rilla and shumac come to market in August ; but brim- 
 stone, salt, oil, wine, rags, etc., may generally be had 
 all the year round. The iirst shipments of lemons and 
 oranges may be made in the beginning of November. 
 
 Purchases of produce are always paid for in cash, gen- 
 erally half on making the purchase, and the other half 
 on delivery, when in Palermo, and on receiving order 
 for delivery, on the coast. Tlie imports consist of cot- 
 ton )-arn, wool, and stuffs ; sugar, coffee, cocoa, dye 
 stuffs, iron, earthen-ware, spices, tin, hides, Newfound- 
 land cod, timber for building, etc. The best of the old 
 accounts of the trade of Sicily that we have met with 
 is contained in Swinburne's Travels in the Two Sieilies, 
 4to ed., vol. ii, p. 401-413. 
 
 Palm (Lat, palma, tlie hamd). An ancient measure 
 of length taken from the extent of the band. There 
 were two different palms; one corresponding to the 
 length of the hand, and the other to the breadth. 
 The Roman palm was about eight and a half English 
 inches. The English palm is understood to be three 
 inches. 
 
 Palm Oil (Ger. Palmol; Fr. Huile depalme, Huile 
 de Senegal; It. Olio dipabna-; Sp. Aceite de pcjmd) is 
 obtained from the fruit of several species of palms, but 
 especially from that of the Elais Guineensis, growing 
 on the west coast of Africa, to the south of Eemando 
 Po, and in Brazil, When imported, the oil is about 
 the consistence of butter, of a yellowish color, and 
 scarcely any particular taste ; by long keeping it be- 
 comes rancid, loses its color, which fades to a dirty 
 white, and in this state is to be rejected. It is some- 
 times imitated with hog's lard, colored with turmeric, 
 and scented with Florentine iris root. The inhabit- 
 ants of the coast of Guinea employ palm oil for the 
 same purposes that we do butter. Our supplies of 
 palm oil are almost wholly derived from the west coast 
 of Africa, of which it is the staple article of export, — 
 Lewis's Materia Medica ; Thomson's Dispensatory. 
 
 Candles are made of pahn oil and cocoa-nut oil, of 
 which many thousand tons per annum are now em- 
 ployed. ■■ This modern substitution of vegetable fat for 
 animal fat is remarkable. It is bringing Central Af- 
 rica into intimate commercial relations with civilized 
 countries. The palm oil is liquid in Africa, but it as- 
 sumes a solid state in a colder climate. The casks con- 
 taining it have steam forced into them, by which the 
 oil is melted and made to flow out; and the oil is then 
 purified and bleached to various degrees of whiteness, 
 according to the purpose to which it is to be applied. 
 The whitened cakes of palm oil are cut into slices by a 
 machine ; the slices are deposited on mats of cocoa-nut 
 fibre ; the mats are piled in heaps, with iron plates be- 
 tween them ; the heaps are placed in hydraulic presses, 
 where intense pressure brings the palm oil to the state 
 of dry, thin cakes. After a little more purification, the 
 palm oil is fitted for melting, previous to the making 
 of candles. 
 
 Imposts of Palm Oil into tue United States fob the 
 Year ending June 30, 1856. 
 
 DiBtricId imported into. 
 
 I Gallons. 
 
 Salem and'Beverlyi ." 
 
 Boston and Charlestown . 
 
 New Bedford '. 
 
 New London 
 
 Stonlngton 
 
 New York 
 
 Baltimore 
 
 Mobile 
 
 Total '. 
 
 666,078 
 
 76,064 
 
 322 
 
 4,853 
 
 4,073 
 
 397,662 
 
 650 
 
 40 
 
 1,149,517 
 
 Value. 
 
 $238,417 
 
 25,102 
 
 83 
 
 2,079 
 
 1.507 
 
 148,894 
 
 186 
 
 60 
 
 $416,317 
 
 Palms, called by Linnssus, from their noble and 
 stately appearance, the princes of the vegetable king- 
 dom, are a natural order of arborescent endogens, chiefly 
 inhabiting the tropics, distinguished by their fleshy, 
 colorless, six-parted flowers, inclosed within spathes ; 
 their minute embryo, lying in the midst of albumen, 
 and remote from the hilum ; and rigid, plaited or pin- 
 nated inarticulated leaves, sometimes called fronds. 
 Wine, oil, flax, flour, sugar, and salt, says Humboldt, 
 are the produce of this trilie ; to which Von Martins 
 adds thread, utensils, weapons, food, and habitations. 
 The most common species is the cocoa-nut. Their 
 wounded stems, or spathes, yield in abundance a sac- 
 
PAM 
 
 1484 
 
 PAN 
 
 charine fluid, known in India by tlie name of toddy. 
 Tlie succulent rind of the date is a most nutritious as 
 well as agreeable fruit. Sago is yielded by the inte- 
 rior of the trunks of nearly all, except Areca catechu, 
 the well-known pisanff, or betel-nut. The fruit of the 
 latter species is remarkable for its narcotic or intoxi- 
 cating power. The common canes or ratans of the 
 shops are the flexible stems of species of the genus 
 Calamus. 
 
 Pampas. The name given to one of the great sys- 
 tems of South American plains,which can scarcely', with 
 propriety, be called deserts, ina.smuch as they are cover- 
 ed with luxuriant herbage, and inhabited by vast herds 
 of wild cattle and droves of horses. The region of the 
 Pampas forms the basins of the Paraguay and La Pla- 
 ta, and includes the vast plains of Buenos Ayres, ex- 
 tending from the foot of the eastern ridge of the Andes 
 to the " sea-like Plata," and stretching southward into 
 the deserts of Patagonia. — Traill's Physical Geog- 
 raphy. See Quarterly Review, xxxv., 114 (Robert 
 Sohthey). 
 
 Pamphlet, a small book, usually printed in the oc- 
 tavo or duodecimo form, and stitched with paper cov- 
 er, popularly understood to comprise from fifty to two 
 hundred pages. 
 
 Fauama, a city and sea-port of New Granada, on 
 the Pacific, thirty-eight miles southeast from Chagres, 
 lat. 8° 66' N. ; long. 79° 31' 2" W. Population, 7000. 
 It stands on a rocky peninsula, projecting into the Bay 
 of Panama, and has an imposing aspect from the sea. 
 Its streets are well ventilated, and it is said to be clean- 
 er than most Spanish-American cities. It is encircled 
 by irregular and not very strong fortifications, construct- 
 ed at different periods. The houses are partly of wood, 
 straw, and other fragile materials ; but many are sub- 
 stantially built of stone, the larger having court-yards, 
 or patios, in the old Spanish style ; and no doubt it has 
 been much improved within the last two or three 
 years. Its roadstead is one of the finest in the world. 
 There are a number of islands a short distance from 
 the main land, which afibrd secure anchorage for ships 
 of any burden, and from which supplies of provisions, 
 including excellent water, may easily be obtained. 
 The tides daily rise and fall from twenty to twenty- 
 seven feet, so that it is peculiarly well fitted for the re- 
 pair and building of ships. Previously to 1740, when 
 the trade with the Pacific first began to be carried on 
 round Cape Horn, Panama was the principal entre- 
 pot of trade between Europe and AVestern America. 
 From that period, however, it fell ofi^; and its decay 
 was peculiarly rapid after the independence of South 
 America, and the opening of the other ports of the Pa- 
 cific. But since the occupation of California by the 
 Americans, and especially since the discovery of the 
 auriferous deposits in that country, it has again rapid- 
 ly increased. And now that a railway is carried across 
 the isthmus, it will in all probability attain to great- 
 er commercial distinction than ever. In the course of 
 the year 1855 as many as twelve steamers were em- 
 ployed in the trade between Panama and San Fran- 
 cisco. 
 
 There is a treaty of commerce between the United 
 States and Neiv Granada, the terms of which are com- 
 plied with by New Granada, but are sometimes broken 
 by the local government of the province, which placed 
 a tax upon passenger-carrying vessels, at the rate of 
 one dollar for each passenger, which has been recently 
 annulled by the supreme government of New Granada. 
 The commercial intercourse of the United States is 
 alone dependent on the regulations made by the gen- 
 eral government of New Granada, which latter, by an 
 act of Congress, has made Panama and other ports on 
 the isthmus free ports of entry since the 1st of Janu- 
 ary, 1850. There are no privileges permitted to the 
 commerce of other nations which are denied to the 
 United States, and there are no restrictions imposed 
 on the commerce of other nations other than what are 
 
 imposed upon that of the United States. The sum of 
 $6 40 is collected from each American vessel ; viz., 
 $4 80 to the captain of the port, and $1 60 to the inter- 
 preter. The same charge is made against New Gra- 
 nadian vessels, except the interpreter's fee. The trans- 
 shipment of goods from one port to another in New 
 Granada, or to a foreign country, by United States 
 ships, is permitted without restrictions. The currency 
 of this country, by a recent law, is established at ten 
 dimes to the dollar. The weights and measures are 
 the same as used in France, but as yet are not brought 
 into use in this country. 'The French silver, by a law 
 of New Granada, is made a legal tender at the rate of 
 twenty cents to the one-franc piece, although, com- 
 pared with the value of United States silver, it would 
 only be worth 18-6 cents. New Granada does not ex- 
 port any thing from here other than a very few hides, 
 and the imports of the United States to this place con- 
 sist only of coal and provisions for the steamers which 
 carry passengers to and from the isthmus. The laborer 
 in this consular jurisdiction receives from two to three 
 dollars per day ; mechanics from six to eight dollars 
 per day ; and clerks from $1600 to $3000 per annum. 
 There are no price-current sheets published in this con- 
 sular jurisdiction. — Commercial Relations vfthe United 
 States. 
 
 Panama, or Darien (Isthmus of), connects 
 North (or rather Central) and South America, and is 
 comprised in the republic of New Granada, sec. Isth- 
 mus, forming a province between lat. 9° and 10° N., and 
 long. 77° 30' and 81° \Y., having north the Caribbean 
 Sea and Gulf of Darien, and south the Gulf of Panama. 
 Length, west to east, about 200 miles, average breadth 
 40 miles, but in long. 79° it is narrowed to less than 
 30, miles. Surface undulating, the hill chains which 
 extend through the isthmus, uniting the mountain sys- 
 tems of Central and South America, are, near Panama, 
 not more than 260 feet above the level of the Pacific. 
 A great quantity of rain falls ; in the months of July, 
 August, and September it rains incessantly. Soil very 
 fertile; products comprise fine timber, in gi'eat vari- 
 ety, fruits, rice, maize, sugar-cane, cotTee, cocoa, caout- 
 chouc, vanilla, dyes, drugs, hides, limestone. On its 
 north coast are Aspinwall (colony), Puerto-Bello, and 
 Chagres ; on its south side is Panama. A connection 
 between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans has been pro- 
 posed at different points of Central America; viz., at 
 Tehuantepec, at Cbiquimula, at Nicaragua, and at the 
 narrowest part, where a railroad has been constructed 
 between Aspinwall and Panama. 
 
 Passage across the Isthmus of Panama w Banen. — 
 Latterly, or since the discovery of the mineral riches 
 of California, the isthmus has become a great thorough- 
 fare, vast numbers of individuals having crossed from 
 the port of Chagres on the Caribbean Sea to Panama 
 on the Pacific Ocean, and conversely. The port of 
 Chagres is within the mouth of the river of that name, 
 in lat. 9° 18' 6" N., long. 79° 59' 2" W. A bar at the 
 mouth of the river has only from 10 feet to 12 feet 
 water, though within the bar the river deepens to from 
 four to six fathoms. It is probable that the bar might 
 be deepened without much difiiculty, and a canal might 
 be cut from the bottom of the Bay of Manzanilla to the 
 river, from which it is onlj' three miles distant. A 
 short while ago the town (if so it might be called) was 
 a mere cluster of huts, unhealthy, and without any ac- 
 commodation for passengers. But having latterly be- 
 come one of the starting-points in the nearest and short- 
 est route from the east to California, it has been consid- 
 erably improved. A joint-stock company was formed 
 in New York for the construction of a railway from or 
 near Chagres, at the bottom of Manzanilla Bay, to 
 Panama, a distance of about 34 or 35 miles. This rail- 
 w^ay has been completed, and is now in operation. The 
 undertaking reflects great credit on American enter- 
 prise and perseverance. The difficulties to be over- 
 come were of a very formidable description, partly from 
 
PAN 
 
 1485 
 
 PAN 
 
 the nature of the ground, which not unfrequently con- 
 sisted of deep marshes, but more from the luxuriance 
 and strength of the vegetation through which it was 
 necessary to penetrate, and the heat, moisture, and un- 
 hcalthiness of the climate. Unluckily, the desire to 
 accomplish their task in the shortest time and at the 
 least expense, tempted the engineers to execute the 
 work in a very superficial manner, substituting bridges, 
 viaducts, pillars, etc., of wood for those of stone, mortar, 
 and iron. In a country where the decomposition of 
 vegetable matter is so very rapid this was as false and 
 spurious a species of economy as can well be imagined. 
 Already several miles of the railway have had to be 
 repaired, or rather reconstructed, by the substitution 
 of lignum vitm and other hai'd woods for the softer ones 
 that were first used. This, however, will do little more 
 than palliate the evil ; and there can be no doubt that 
 eventually stone and iron bridges and viaducts will 
 have to be used instead of wooden ones every where 
 along the line. Trains take about four hours in pass- 
 ing from sea to sea; but were the railway properly 
 finished, the passage might be performed in less than 
 half that time. A station, called Aspinwall, has been 
 erected on Manzanilla Island, in the Caribbean Sea. 
 But it is extremely unhealthy, and there is little pros- 
 pect of its ever becoming a place of much importance. 
 — ToMES's Panama liailroad, New York, 1855, passim. 
 But supposing (which is not the case) that this rail- 
 way were every thing that could be desired, still it is 
 plain that the grand desideratum is the carrying across 
 the isthmus of a water communication between the 
 Atlantic and Pacific oceans. We do not mean by this 
 a canal suitable only for coasters, or vessels of com- 
 paratively small burden. Such a channel would be of 
 little use, except to the countries contiguous to its ter- 
 mini. What is really wanted is a canal that will ad- 
 mit ships of the largest burden, and bound on the 
 longest voyages. The advantages that would result 
 from having the isthmus perforated by such a channel 
 can not be easily exaggerated. No other project that 
 appears to be within the limits of possibility, perhaps 
 not even the carrying of a ship canal across the Isth- 
 mus of Suez, would give so great a stimulus to com- 
 merce and navigation. It would remove the barrier 
 which renders the navigation between the eastern and 
 western coasts of America so tedious and difficult. 
 And, by doing this, it would enable ships from Europe 
 to reach the latter and the Pacific in less than half the 
 time they do at present, while it would greatly facili- 
 tate the voyage to Australia and China. 
 
 And a grand project of this sort is on foot. It is 
 proposed to cut a canal that shall admit ships of 1000 
 tons burden and upward, between Porto Escoces (lat. 
 8° 5' N., long. 77° 21' W.), near Point Caledonia, in 
 the Gulf of Darien, on the Caribbean Sea, and the Eio 
 Savana, which falls into the Gulf of San Miguel, on the 
 Pacific. The intervening space (about 38 or 40 miles) 
 is said to be comparatively flat ; the ports at each ex- 
 tremity are easy of access, and have deep water ; and 
 it is proposed that the canal should be constructed 
 throughout on the same level, and have no locks. The 
 cost of the project is estimated at from 12 to 15 millions 
 sterling. And considering the vast importance of such 
 a work to the United States, to England, and, indeed, 
 to all maritime nations, this expense, heavj' as it may 
 appear, should be reckoned a subordinate matter. Were 
 the country through which it is to pass in the possession 
 of England or the United States, it would most prob- 
 ably have been undertaken. But the unsettled state 
 of Central America, and the knotty questions that 
 might eventually arise as to the property and manage- 
 ment of the canal, are serious obstacles to its being 
 proceeded with. — See, for ample details on this inter- 
 esting subject, the work of Dr. Cdllen, entitled Isth- 
 mus of Darien Ship Canal. 
 
 The route by which the railroad passes is in every 
 respect the most desirable for this purpose, and the 
 
 means by which the character of the country could be 
 best known, as far as its topography and the features 
 essential to the object in view Could be seen. It was, 
 in fact, the direct means for the accomplishment of the 
 purpose. It is supposed that the canal will be united 
 with the waters of the Pacific on either side of the city, 
 and that a channel might be dredged to the depth of 
 thirty feet, to meet the navigable waters for ships of 
 large draught. The bay then expands intq an ample 
 harbor, where the winds are said never to blow with 
 violence, sufficiently comprehensive for the commerce 
 of the world, and studded with islands, convenient for 
 all the great purposes that the condition of things 
 would call for, by the construction of a canal through 
 the isthmus. 
 
 The isthmus itself seems to present no serious ob- 
 stacle to science for the construction of a canal. The 
 whole extent, from the Atlantic to the Pacific, is made 
 up of swamps, hills, and plains ; and the highest point 
 of land where the railroad passes is not more than 286 
 feet above the level of the sea. On the whole route, 
 most if not all the hills through which the canal would 
 pass would be required for embankments over the plains 
 and swamps ; and there are no insuperable obstacles to 
 piercing the highest part, so as conveniently to make 
 the waters of the Chagres, Obispo, and Eio Grande 
 available for the wants of a canal. In a climate less 
 unfavorable to the white man, the question of " feasi- 
 bility" would not be raised. It seems to be conceded, 
 from experience, that the African race alone persist- 
 ently labor in this climate. A few thousand of free 
 blacks might be obtained from the West India Islands ; 
 but this resource would be inadequate, as was experi- 
 enced by the operations on the Panama Road. The 
 want of men to labor would seem to be the great ob- 
 stacle to the successful accomplishment of a work of so 
 much magnitude. 
 
 On the Atlantic side the canal would enter the Bay 
 of Aspinwall. In approaching this point, it would 
 pass a few miles from the Chagres, and enter the bay 
 near the River Mindi. Here, it will be seen, as in the 
 Bay of Panama, extensive dredging for a channel to 
 meet the deep water would be necessary. The bay 
 expands for the distance of about five miles, between 
 two headlands, and is open to the sea. A breakwater 
 would be necessary here. With such an one as would 
 afford the necessary protection against the ocean swell, 
 the Bay of Aspinwall, like the Bay of Panama, would 
 aflbrd ample room for the commerce of Europe as well 
 as America ; and in contemplating these two bays with 
 the eye of a seaman, and in reference to the great work 
 in question, it would look as though nature had pro- 
 vided them for the especial convenience of mail in his 
 laborious undertakings in the extension of commerce, 
 and a place where all nations may meet, in their varied 
 pursuits on the great highway of the ocean. In a work 
 like that of a canal through the Isthmus of Darien, it 
 is to be supposed that the requirements of commerce 
 and navigation, in its most extended application, would 
 alone be considered ; and, taking this lor a standard, a 
 canal two hundred feet wide and thirty feet deep would 
 seem to be the appropriate dimensions. With such an 
 avenue from the Atlantic, the stormy and distant seas 
 of the South would be abandoned by Europe as well as 
 America, and we should meet there on neutral ground, 
 pursuing with a common purpose the paths of peace 
 and industry, which by its means, we may suppose, 
 would effect a moral revolution such as the world has 
 never known, and surpassing in importance that which 
 would be effected in the revolution of the commercial 
 world. 
 
 Appended is a paper submitted by Colonel G. M. 
 Totten, containing dimensions and other data for the 
 proposed ship-canal across the Isthmus of Panama : 
 
 Dimensions and other Data of the proposed Ship-Canal 
 across the Isthmus of Panama. — Length from shore to 
 shore, 45i miles. Length from five fathoms water 
 
PAP 
 
 1486 
 
 PAP 
 
 in Navy Bay, on the Atlantic, to three fathoms wa- 
 ter in Panama Bay, on the Pacific, 484 miles. The 
 prisin of water to be 150 feet wide at the bottom, 270 
 feet wide at surface, and 31 feet deep. The locks to 
 be 400 feet in clear length of chamber, and 90 feet in 
 clear width. The, summit level will be 150 feet above 
 mean tide of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. The 
 summit cut will be about four miles long. The deep- 
 est cutting on this level will be 136 feet, and the aver- 
 age depth of the cut will be 49 feet. The River Chagres 
 yields an ample supply of water for the canal at all 
 seasons of the year. The summit level will be sup- 
 plied by a feeder about twenty-four miles long, which 
 will tap. the River Chagres about twenty-rone miles 
 above the town of Cruces, where the level of the river 
 is about one hundred and eighty-five feet above mean 
 tide, and about thirty-five feet above the summit level. 
 The cost of this canal, including the requisite harbor 
 improvements ateach end, will not exceed $80,000,000. 
 — Commodore PAnLDiNo's Report to the Navy Depart- 
 ment, United States, 1867. 
 
 The following figures will show the comparative dis- 
 tances from New York to San Francisco of the four 
 routes, exclusive of the land travel : 
 
 Rout«a. 
 
 DistBDce on 
 AtJantLc. 
 
 Distance on 
 Pacific. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Panama , 
 
 Miles. 
 2892 
 2403 
 2102 
 2278 
 
 Miles. 
 3765 
 2964 
 2S65 
 2305 
 
 Miles. 
 6147 
 5367 
 4967 
 4681 
 
 Nicaragua 
 
 Honduras 
 
 Teliuan tepee 
 
 The several transit distances, and the total distances 
 from New York to San Francisco, are shown by the fol- 
 lowing table: 
 
 Routes. 
 
 TraiiBit Distances. 
 
 Total Distances. 
 
 
 Miles. 
 
 61 
 13T 
 161 
 
 Miles. 
 6198 
 B604 
 B128 
 
 
 
 Tehuantepec 
 
 236 
 
 
 
 4817 
 
 Papal States. This portion of Italy comprises 
 an area of 17,210 square miles, and contained in 1860 
 a population of 3,006,771 inhabitants. The chief pro- 
 ductions of the Papal States are wheat, maize, pulse, 
 hemp, wine, oil, and tobacco. There are numerous 
 mines of iron, lead, sulphur, alum, vitriol, and other 
 volcanic products ; but, with the exception of the sul- 
 phur mines near Rimini, they are unproductive. The 
 quantity of this article annually manufactured amounts 
 to about 84,000,000 pounds. The manufactures of the 
 Papal States comprise silks, leather, gloves, paper, mu- 
 sical strings, iron and glass ware, a few cotton goods 
 -'(at Rome), crape and sausages (at Bologna), and cord- 
 age, soap, cream of tartar, and glue. There is no di- 
 rect trade between the United States and the Papal 
 States — the latter deriving their supplies of cotton, 
 sugar, coffee, cocoa, rum, etc., from the ports of Genoa 
 and Trieste. The foreign commerce of these states is 
 conducted chiefly through the ports of Ancona and 
 Civita Vecohia — the former with the western shores 
 of the Adriatic, and the latter with the Mediterra- 
 nean ports. The celebrated Roman cement is export- 
 ed from the port of Civita Tecchia. 
 
 Foreign Trade.— In 1850, the foreign trade of Anco- 
 na represented $4,464,000, viz., imports, $2,976,000 ; 
 exports, $1,488,000. This trade was distributed be- 
 tween Austria, England, and its dependencies in Eu- 
 rope, those countries appropriating more than three- 
 fourths of the whole. During the same year the for- 
 eign trade of Civita Vecchia amounted to $3,821,928 ; 
 viz., imports, $2,929,314; exports, $892,614. The 
 countries participating in this trade were France, Sar- 
 dinia, England, Holland, and the Two Sicilies. The 
 whole foreign commerce of the Papal States in 1850 
 amounted to $19,208,680 ; and in 1851 to $20,454,240. 
 All foreign vessels are permitted to engage in the 
 coasting trade of the States on the payment of the fol- 
 
 lowing dues : Anchorage, on French, Austrian, and 
 American vessels, three bajocchi per .ton — about three 
 cents. Foreign vessels putting into harbor, either for 
 anchorage or through stress of weather, pay half of the 
 above-named duty. — See Italy. 
 
 Clearance Duty. — For each vessel of from 1 to 149 
 tons, ten bajocchi (ten cents) ; and for 150 tons and up- 
 ward, twenty bajocchi (twenty cents). No vessels en- 
 joy an exemption from the custom-house duties on 
 imports and exports. These duties have recently un- 
 dergone several reductions, applicable chiefly to arti- 
 cles of necessity ; on articles of luxury, in which sugar 
 is included, the duties have been proportionably raised. 
 — Commercial Relations of the United States. 
 
 Paper (Ger. and Du, Papier; Fr. Papier; It. Carta; 
 Sp. Papel; Russ. Bumaga; Lat. Charta; Arab. Kartas; 
 Pers. Kaghas). This highly useful substance is, as 
 every one knows, thin, flexible, of different colors, but 
 most commonly white, being used for writing and 
 printing upon, and for various other purposes. It is 
 manufactured of vegetable matter reduced to a sort of 
 pulp. The term paper is derived from the Greek 
 word TraTTvpog, papyrus, the name of the plant on 
 the inner bark of which (Liber, fHpTiO^, whence our 
 word booh") the ancients used to write. Paper is made 
 up into sheets, quires, and reams, each quire consisting 
 of twenty-four sheets, and each ream of twenty quires. 
 
 Historical Sketch of Paper. Difference between an- 
 cient and modern Paper. — Some of those learned and 
 ingenious persons who have investigated the arts of 
 the ancient world have expressed their surprise that 
 the Greeks and Romans, though they possessed an im- 
 mense number of books, and approached very near to 
 printing in the stamping of words anddetters, and sim- 
 ilar devices, should not have discovered the art ; the 
 first jude attempts at typography being sufficiently 
 obvious, though much time and contrivance have been 
 required to bring the process to its present state of 
 perfection. But they should rather, perhaps, have 
 wondered that the more civilized nations of antiquity 
 did not invent paper, an invention which, it may easi- 
 ly be shown, necessarily preceded that of printing. 
 But this was an exceedingly difficult task ; the more 
 so, that the vast importance of paper could not be ap- 
 preciated, or even imagined, till after it had been gen- 
 erally introduced. At first, the memory of important 
 events appears to have been handed down by inscrip- 
 tions cut on rocks, pillars of stone or marble, and the 
 walls of edifices; and this primitive usage is still re- 
 tained in the monuments in our churches and ceme- 
 teries. In a later, though still very remote age, men 
 were accustomed to write upon portable surfaces of va- 
 rious kinds. Every body knows that the Decalogue 
 was written upon tables of stone ; and Joshua wrote a 
 copy of the law upon the like materials. — Josh. c. viii., 
 V. 32. The Greeks and Romans engraved laws, treat- 
 ies, contracts, and other important documents, on plates 
 of brass ; and it is stated that a fire which broke out in 
 the Capitol, in the reign of Vespasian, consumed above 
 3000 such bronze muniments. — Nouveau Traite de 
 Diplomatique, i. 451. But exclusive of plates of this 
 sort, which were necessarily inconvenient, costly, and 
 quite unfit for ordinary use, thin and. flexible plates of 
 lead and other metals (Job, c. xix., v. 23, 24), thin 
 pieces of wood, skins, parchment, linen, and a variety 
 of similar substances, were used in writing. Cheaper 
 materials, such as the leaves and bark of trees, palms, 
 etc., were also used from a very remote period for the 
 same purpose ; but leaves (xapTat, ohartce") being, when 
 dry, apt to split in the direction of the fibres, it was 
 found to be necessaiy, in preparing them for writing, 
 to glue them together, so that the fibres might cross 
 each other in opposite directions. The texture of the 
 leaf, or sheet, if we may so call it, is thus greatly 
 strengthened; and when it has been smoothed, pol- 
 ished, and fitted for use, it is less inconvenient and 
 better looking than might be supposed. Such, in 
 
PAP 
 
 1487 
 
 PAP 
 
 fact, ia the principle on wliicli tiie paper of the ancients 
 was formed. This, however, which was called Charta 
 Egyptiaca, from the place of its manufacture, did not 
 consist of leaves, but of the inner bark of the famous 
 reed or rush, the Cyperus Papyrus, found along the 
 banks of the Nile, or rather in the pools and ditches 
 which communicate with the river. The ancients ap- 
 plied this useful plant to an immense variety of pur- 
 poses; but here we shall only notice that from which 
 it has acquired an immortality of renown. The inner 
 bark having been divided by a needle or other sharp 
 instrument into very thin and broad layers or fila- 
 ments, portions of these were placed side by side lon- 
 gitudinally, and glued together at the ends ; another 
 portion being glued cross-wise on the bad<:s of the lat- 
 ter, to give the page tho requisite strength. Pliny 
 and other writers have described the process (Hist. 
 Nat. lib. xiii. c. 11, 12, 13), which has been further 
 elucidated by Hardouin and other commentators. But 
 the fullest and ablest discussion of this curious subject 
 is contained in the very learned and elaborate worlt, 
 the Nouveau Traiti de Diplomatique (i. p. 448-524), 
 where the most interesting particulars respecting the 
 history and manufacture of papyrus, as well as of the 
 greater number of the other 'writing materials used in 
 antiquity, have been collected and set in the clearest 
 point of view. — See also the Dictionnaire- Diplomatise 
 of De Vaines, art. Papier, ii. 165-174. Bruce has 
 given a summary of the authorities in the seventh vol- 
 ume of the octavo edition of his Travels ; and, not sat- 
 isfied with this, he attempted to make paper from the 
 papjTus, in which, not being very successful, he im- 
 putes his failure to errors in the statements of Pliny; 
 not reflecting that, had he endeavored, trusting to 
 written directions, without experience and traditional 
 art, to make modem paper, or even a pair of shoes, he 
 would most probably have been equally infelicitous. 
 Egypt enjoyed for a lengthened period a natural mo- 
 nopoly of this valuable article, and even attempted, in 
 anticipation of a later policy, by prohibiting the growth 
 of the papyrus, except in certain localities, and limit- 
 ing its supply, to sell its produce at an artificially en- 
 hanced price! — Ameilhon, Commerce des Egyptians, p. 
 238. But this policy ceased on the conquest of Egypt 
 by the Romans, who, having imported the plant into 
 Borne, succeeded in preparing from it a very superior 
 article. Pliny enumerates the various kinds of paper, 
 from the coarsest, which was used, like our brown pa- 
 per, for packing, to the most expensive and finest. 
 The latter, which was made of the innermost filaments, 
 was of a snowy whiteness ; and when properly dressed 
 and polished, was easily written upon. The consump- 
 tion was very considerable ; and being, after the foun- 
 dation of Alexandria, principally made in that city, it 
 formed an important article in her commerce, and fur- 
 nished employment for many workmen and much cap- 
 ital. Flavins Vopiscus relates that, in the third cen- 
 tury, the tyrant Firmus used to say there was so much 
 paper there, and so large a quantity of the glue or size 
 used in its preparation, that he could maintain an 
 army with it : " Tantum hcAuisse de chartis, ut publice 
 s(Bpe diceret, exercitum se alere posse papyrd et glutinS." 
 We may doubt whether the value of the paper at pres- 
 ent belonging to any single city would do the like. 
 Charta Egyptiaca is very ancient, having, notwith- 
 standing the assertion of Varro and Pliny to the con- 
 trary (^Hist. Nat. lib. xiii. cap. 11), been in common 
 use long before the age of Alexander. This is evident 
 from the statement of Herodotus, who, though he lived 
 about a century before that conqueror, tells us that in 
 former times, when papyrus was scarce, the lonians 
 wrote on the skins of goats and sheep, and that that 
 practice continued to be customary among several bar- 
 barous nations. — Lib. v. cap. 58. 
 
 Though white, smooth, durable, and not ill adapted 
 for writing, ancient paper was not suited for the print- 
 er ; by reason of the closeness of the grain, it would 
 
 not have received the ink from types more kindly than 
 shavings of wood, and such like materials; and its 
 texture was so very brittle that it would have shivered 
 to pieces under the press. It was, in truth, an inarti- 
 ficial mass (" viscera nivea virentium kerbarum^^, no 
 great invention or ingenuity being discovered in its 
 preparation. Modern paper, on the other hand, is 
 wholly artificial; and the contrivances for its manu- 
 facture are marvelous alike for the sagacity evinced in 
 their design and their practical efficiency. Like the 
 paper of antiquity, it is formed of the filaments of va- 
 rious sorts of vegetable substances, derived principally 
 from the tearing to pieces or pounding cotton and lin- 
 en rags, and similar materials, mixed with water. 
 This process is called beating them into pulp ; and 
 when examined with a microscope, the floating fila- 
 ments are found to be wellfitted for adhering togeth- 
 er, being jagged and rough, and mixed in every possi- 
 ble way. A portion of this mixture or pulp being, 
 wlien properly prepared, poured upon moulds or sieves 
 of fine woven wire, the water is drained off, and the 
 suspended fibres falling to the bottom, form a layer or 
 sheet, which, being consolidated by pressure and dried, 
 becomes paper, its strength and goodness depending, 
 of course, in a great measure, on the quality of the 
 rag or other material of which it iS' made. Paper 
 used-to be manufactured by dipping sieves or frames 
 into the pulp, the portion of filaments so lifted up 
 forming the sheet of paper. But the application of 
 rotary motion to the manufacture has effected a total 
 change in the mode in which it was carried on : in- 
 stead of dipping the sieves or frames into the cistern 
 of pulp, a circular web, or round towel of woven wire, 
 revolves horizontally under the vessel (technically 
 called the vat); receives the deposit, conveys it away, 
 and, by an adjustment of extraordinary delicacy, trans- 
 fers it uninjured, though as fragile as a. wet cobweb, 
 to a similar revolving towel of felt ; thus an endless 
 web of paper is .spun, as long, at least, as the machine 
 continues to move and pulp is supplied. 
 
 The pervious and spongy texture of paper make it 
 readily imbibe and retain the ink impressed on it by 
 types in printing, and by the pen in writing ; its tough- 
 ness hinders it from being easily torn ; and, in a well- 
 bound book, under favorable circumstances, its dura- 
 tion is indefinite, and, for all practical purposes, etern- 
 al! It is true that legal documents are sometimes 
 written or printed on parchment, which is less liable 
 to be torn or injured by rubbing ; the luxury of typog- 
 raphy occasionally, also, exhibits a few impressions of 
 a splendid work upon vellum ; and it is further true 
 that these substances were used for writing upon by 
 the ancients ;' but they are necessarily expensive, and 
 the cost of either far exceeds the means of the great 
 majority of book buyers — so that it would be altogeth- 
 er unprofitable to cast types, to construct presses, and 
 to incur the various and heavy charges of an establish- 
 ment for printing, unless we possessed a cheaper ma- 
 terial on which to print. Almost all the more ancient 
 and valuable existing Greek and Latin manuscripts 
 are written either on parchment or vellum, but gener- 
 ally on the latter. It is singular, however, that while 
 such is the case, all or almost all the very old charters 
 and diplomas are written on papyrus. Indeed, the 
 learned authors of the Nouveau Traiti de Diplomatique 
 afiirm that no parchment charter has been discovered 
 anterior to the sixth century. 
 
 It appears to be sufiiciently established that paper, 
 fabricated like that now in use, of cotton and other 
 vegetable materials, and of sillt, has been manufac- 
 tured in China from <t very remote epoch. — Nouveaii 
 Traite de Diplomatique. The Arab historians state 
 that similar paper was manufiietured in Mecca in the 
 beginning of the eighth century (Andres, Origine e 
 Progressi d' Ogni Leiteratura, and Gibbon, ix. 379); 
 and mpst probably the mode of its production was then 
 also known to the Greeks. It appears to have been 
 
PAP 
 
 1488 
 
 PAP 
 
 soon after introduced into Europe, but it is doubtful 
 whether this were done by the Arabians or Greelis. 
 The mode of fabricating paper from cotton and other 
 vegetable materials being once discovered, its fabrica- 
 tion from linen rags was a comparatively easy, and in 
 Europe, where cotton was then extremely scarce, an 
 all but necessary step. It is singular, however, that 
 we have no positive information either as to the coun- 
 try where, or the epoch when, paper from rags began to 
 be manufactured in Europe. Mais on ne pent reculer 
 son invention plus tai'd, quCau Treizieme siede, ni son 
 vsage ordinaire au-ddh du Quatorzieme. — Nouveau 
 Traite, etc., i. 524. In fact, Egyptian paper, or pa- 
 per made of papyrus in the manner described above, 
 continued to be partially employed down to the mid- 
 dle of the eleventh century, though parchment was 
 then the principal material used in writing. It is cu- 
 rious to observe how very shortly the introduction of 
 paper preceded the invention of printing, to which, 
 indeed, as already seen, it was an indispensable pre- 
 liminary. Muratori attributes the ignorance of the 
 barbarous ages principally to the scarcity and high 
 price of paper, and the superior intelligence of modern 
 times to its abundance and cheapness. — Andkes, i. 
 200. And whatever opinion may be entertained as 
 to the first part of this statement, there can be no 
 question that the latter is perfectlj' well founded. 
 
 Hot only are we in the dark as to the history of mod- 
 ern paper, but we are unable to make any very satis- 
 factory conjectural estimate of the mode in which it was 
 invented. It is all but certain that the invention must 
 have been suggested by accident, or by observing the 
 effects produced by the accidental drying of triturated 
 vegetable matter, or in some such way ; and that the 
 hint thus afforded was gradually improved upon. It 
 is not possible to imagine that the invention should 
 have been wholly the result of design ; for we can not 
 conceive how any one without any previous knowledge 
 should have proposed to himself to produce paper by 
 pounding rags, or other vegetable matter, mixing the 
 mass in water, and then pressing and drying the de- 
 posit. But, without indulging in unprofitable conjec- 
 tures, it is at all events certain that, however and by 
 whomsoever discovered, no invention has been of great- 
 er importance. Charim usu maxime humanitas vitm 
 constet et memoria. — Pliny, //is*. Nat. lib. xiii. cap. 
 11. The processes by which the most worthless and 
 vilest materials are converted into such admirable sub- 
 stances as paper and glass are probably the greatest 
 triumphs of human talent and ingenuity. They have 
 more than realized the dreams of the alchemists, and 
 have been incomparably more advantageous than if we 
 had become acquainted with a means of transmuting 
 the inferior metals into gold. 
 
 In 1813, Dr. Colquhoun estimated the value of pa- 
 per annually produced in Great Britain at .£2,000,000 ; 
 but Mr. Stevenson, an incomparably better authority 
 upon such subjects, estimated it at only half this sum. 
 From information obtained from those engaged in the 
 trade, we incline to think that the total annual value 
 of the paper manufactured in the United Kingdom, ex- 
 clusive of the duty, may at present amount to about 
 £1,600,000 or £1,700,000. There are about 700 paper- 
 mills in England, and from 70 to 80 in Scotland. The 
 number in Ireland is but inconsiderable. Of these 
 mills, we believe, very few have lately been unemploy- 
 ed. It was formerly customary to collect the rags used 
 in the manufacture into large heaps, in order that, by 
 their heating andfermenta^ion, they might be the more 
 easily reduced to filaments. But this injured the rags ; 
 and it is now the practice to tear them to pieces, with- 
 out any such preparation, by powerful machines con- 
 structed for the purpose. During the present century 
 this manufacture has been signally promoted by the 
 combined influence of science, ingenuity, and mechan- 
 ical skill. These have been successfully exerted in 
 the preparation of the pulp ; the conversion of the pulp 
 
 into paper, and the provision of materials ; and in 
 none has their influence been more remarkable than in 
 the last. This is evident from the fact that, while the 
 manufacture has been more than doubled since 1820, 
 the demand for Continental rags and other foreign ma- 
 terials has actually been reduced within that time, in 
 consequence of the immense home supply we derive 
 from substances previously regarded as worthless, and 
 treated as refuse. The sweepings of cotton and <flax 
 mills, owing to the grease and dirt with which they are 
 mixed up, were, until within these few years, of no val- 
 ue whatever, except as manure. The chemical and 
 mechanical processes by which these materials are pu- 
 rified, whitened, and made available for the production 
 of paper, without their strength being impaired, are 
 not only exceedingly interesting in themselves, but are 
 of great national importance ; and, by I'educing the cost 
 of paper, have done ten times more to lower the price 
 of books, and diffuse literature, than all the efforts of 
 all the societies that ever existed. 
 
 The first idea of a machine for converting pulp into 
 paper originated in France, the inventor being an in- 
 genious workman of the name of Louis Eobert. A 
 model of this machine was brought to England by M. 
 Leger Didot ; and though at first it was far from giv- 
 ing an assurance of success, it sufficed to induce En- 
 glish capitalists and engineers, particularly Mr. Don- 
 kin, to follow up the scheme ; and in the course of a 
 few 3'ears they brought it to a high degree of perfec- 
 tion. 
 
 The following tabular statement exhibits the aggre- 
 gate quantities, values, and prices per pound of rags 
 imported into the United States from all countries, dis- 
 tinguishing in a separate column the quantities received 
 from Italy during a period of ten consecutive years, 
 from 1846 to 1856 ; 
 
 Yeara. 
 
 Kags import- 
 ed from al] 
 Countries 
 
 Rags 
 importsd 
 from Italy. 
 
 ^ifiS'" 
 
 Price 
 
 per 
 
 Found, 
 
 1846 
 
 Pounds 
 9,897,706 
 8,154,886 
 17,014,587 
 14,941,236 
 20,696,875 
 26,094,701 
 18,288,458 
 22,766,000 
 32,616,753 
 40,013,516 
 
 Founds. 
 8,002,865 
 
 6,529,284 
 13,803,030 
 11,009,608 
 15,861,266 
 18,612,673 
 12,220,579 
 14,171,292 
 24,240,999 
 23,948,612 
 
 Dollars. 
 385,020 
 304,177 
 626,130 
 524,437 
 747,157 
 902,876 
 622,870 
 985,465 
 1,C07,826 
 1,2:4,418 
 
 Cents. 
 3-89 
 3 73 
 3C.8 
 2-51 
 3-61 
 3 -40 
 3 12 
 4-31 
 3-i9 
 3 06 
 
 1847 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 
 
 1850 
 
 1851 
 
 1852 
 
 1853 
 
 1854 
 
 1855 
 
 Aggregate 
 
 Ann. average . 
 
 209,883,718148,300,165 
 20,988,3711 14,830,015i 
 
 $7,328,721 
 732,872 
 
 
 From the preceding table it will be seen that during 
 the decennial period ending with 1855 the aggregate 
 quantity of rags imported in to the United States from all 
 parts was 206,631,954 lbs., while the aggregate quan- 
 tity received from Italy reached as high as 148,300,155 
 lbs. The annual average for the period designated will, 
 however, furnish a more statistical basis for ascertain- 
 ing the relative importance of Italy compared with all 
 other countries as the principal source of supply upon 
 which the United States must rely, with any degree 
 of certainty, for an article the consumption of which 
 is so rapidly increasing there ; even during the past 
 year, an alarming deficiency of the manufactured ma- 
 terial was seriously apprehended by the conductors 
 of our periodical and newspaper journals. The aver- 
 age annual quantity imported into the United States 
 from all countries during the period designated was 
 20,988,371 lbs. ; the average annual quantity received 
 from Italy was 14,830,015 lbs. Thus it is shown that 
 instead of one-fifth Italy actually furnishes nearly 
 two-thirds of all the rags imported into the United 
 States. — See Eags. 
 
 The consumption of paper in the United States is 
 equal to that of France and England combined. In 
 other words, the 28,000,000 inhabitants of the United 
 States consume as much paper as the 64,000,000 in- 
 habitants of France and England. This is very near- 
 
PAP 
 
 1489 
 
 PAP 
 
 ly correct. The statistics, however, will prove inter- 
 esting. The number of paper-mills in operation in 
 England in 1835 was 750, and the annual value of the 
 paper manufactured reached as high as $6,000,000. 
 At that period, however, the manufacture of paper was 
 burdened with an excise duty amounting to more than 
 three times as much as the total wages of the hands 
 employed in making it, and the quantity annually pro- 
 duced did not exceed 50,000,000 lbs. of first-class and 
 16,000,000 lbs. of second-class paper, requiring a sup- 
 ply of about 100,000,000 lbs. of rags. 
 
 Improvements in machinery and mode of manufac- 
 ture, and the application of steam, have reduced the 
 number of mills in Great Britain and Ireland to 380, 
 according to the latest statistical returns; while the 
 quantity of rags annually consumed has risen to 
 201,G00]^000 lbs., or over 100 per cent. We have com- 
 piled from a recent, though in this country a rare 
 Dublin publication on statistics, the following tabular 
 statement, showing the quantity of paper manufac- 
 tured, consumed, and exported in Great Britain for a 
 period of nine years, ending -with 1854 : 
 
 COMPABATIVK STATEMENT SHOWING THE QUANTITIES OF 
 PaPBE MAN0FAOTTTUEI>, CONSUMED, AND EXPOHTEO IN 
 
 Gbeat Beitain from 1840 TO 1854. 
 
 
 PouiidB of Paper 
 
 Pounds of Pnper re- 
 
 Pounds of Paper 
 
 Yoa™. 
 
 manufactured 
 
 tained foT ConsHmption 
 
 exported from 
 
 
 in Oreat Britain. 
 
 in Great Britain. 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 1646 
 
 12T,400,001) 
 
 122,600,000 
 
 4,836,000 
 
 184T 
 
 131,900,000 
 
 116,100,000 
 
 6,852,000 
 
 1843 
 
 121,800,000 
 
 116,600,000 
 
 . 5,180,000 
 
 1843 
 
 132,100,000 
 
 128,100,000 
 
 6,966,000 
 
 1850 
 
 141,000,000 
 
 183;200,000 
 
 7,T63,0D0 
 
 1851 
 
 1^0,900,000 
 
 142,500,000 
 
 8,305,000 
 
 1852 
 
 164,400,000 
 
 14T,100,000 
 
 T,328,000 
 
 1853 
 
 1T7,600,000 
 
 164,300,000 
 
 13,296,000 
 
 1854 
 
 1TT,800,000 
 
 161,TOO„000 
 
 16,112,000 
 
 France turns into paper annually about 235,200,000 
 lbs. of rags, producing about 156,800,000 lbs. of paper. 
 In the United States there are 750 paper-mills, which 
 work, up each year about 405,000,000 lbs. of rags. As- 
 suming (the usual estimate) that li lb. of rags yields 1 
 lb. of paper, we have the following comparative state- 
 ment for the United States, and France and Great Brit- 
 ain combined: 
 
 
 Founds of 
 
 RagB aDnually 
 
 consumed. 
 
 Pounds of 
 Paper annually 
 manufactured. 
 
 Pounds of 
 
 Paper per 
 
 Capita. 
 
 United States 
 
 Great Britain andt 
 Prance combinedf 
 
 406,000,OUO 
 436,800,000 
 
 2TO,000,000 
 291,200,000 
 
 10 80 
 
 4-55 
 
 From this statement it appears that the United 
 States consumes 31,800,000 lbs. of rags, and manufac- 
 tures 21,200,000 lbs. of paper, less than Great Britain 
 and France combined, while the quantity of paper 
 manufactured per capita of the population of the for- 
 mer is more than double that assigned to the combined 
 population of the two latter. The quantitj' of paper 
 imported in Great Britain and France and added to 
 
 the stock for consumption might vary slightly, but not 
 materially, the above results. The preceding sl;ate- 
 ment, however, omits the quantities annually imported 
 and exported by each of the countries respectively, 
 items without which no calculation as to consumption 
 can be accurately made. The importation of paper of 
 all kinds into France in 1853 did not exceed 337,104 
 lbs., while the exports amounted to 17,053,657 lbs. 
 This gives an excess of exports over imports to be 
 supplied from the stock of domestic manufacture, of 
 16,716,553 lbs. Deduct this from 156,800,000 lbs., the 
 quantity manufactured, and we have left for consump- 
 tion 140,083,447 lbs., or 3'89 Ibs.^er capita of the pop- 
 ulation. 
 
 During the same year there were imported into En- 
 gland, according to the Report on Trade and Naviga- 
 tion, 909,250 lbs. of paper. The report gives this quan- 
 tity for the last six months of the year only ; assuming 
 that the importation during the first six months was 
 equal to that for the last as above given, and the total 
 importation would reach, say 200,000 lbs. The quan- 
 tity exported, we have seen, was 13,296,874 lbs., leav- 
 ing an excess of exports over imports of 13,696,874 lbs. 
 Recent and important improvements have been made, 
 by the use of refuse tanned leather, bark of the cotton- 
 stalk, pulp from the fibres of endogenous plants, as raw 
 materials for the manufacture of paper. — Scientific Ann, 
 
 EXPOETS OF PaPBE AND STATIONERY OP DOMEBTIO MaNU- 
 FAOTUEE FEOM TIIE UNITED STATES FOB THE YeaE ENDING 
 
 June 30, 1866. 
 
 Wlitther Exported. Value. 
 
 Russia on the Baltic and North Seas $300 
 
 Eussian PosBessionB in North America 614 
 
 Danish West Indies 1,56T 
 
 Bremen 330 
 
 Dutch West Indies 568 
 
 England 290 
 
 Canada 63,632 
 
 Other British North American Possessions 20,6T8 
 
 British West Indies 3,832 
 
 British Honduras 262 
 
 British Guiana 2,869 
 
 British Possessions in Africa 364 
 
 British Australia 1,645 
 
 British East Indies 180 
 
 Fi'ance on the Atlantic 1,260 
 
 Cuba 43,186 
 
 Porlo Rico 5,624 
 
 Cape de Verd Islands 124 
 
 Other ports in Africa 54T 
 
 Hayti 3,059 
 
 San Domingo 49 
 
 Mexico 10,965 
 
 Central Republic 713 
 
 Neiv Granada T,l£6 
 
 Venezuela 11,068 
 
 Brazil . 
 
 Uruguay, or Gisplatine Republic 
 
 Buenos Ayres, or Argentine Republic , 
 
 Chili 
 
 Peru 
 
 Sandwich Islands 
 
 China 
 
 9,295 
 
 2,T5T 
 1,533 
 4,330 
 3,391 
 
 Total value $203,013 
 
 Impoets OF Papek and Manufactueeb OP Papee into the United States fob the Ybab ending June 30, 1856. 
 
 whence imported. 
 
 Pnpier 
 Mnche 
 Articles. 
 
 Paper 
 Hangings. 
 
 Paper Boxes 
 ■and Fancy 
 
 Pfiper and 
 Manufac- 
 tures of. 
 
 Blank 
 Boolie. 
 
 Writing 
 Paper. 
 
 Sheatliiiig 
 Paper. 
 
 Playing 
 Cards. 
 
 l-Iainburg 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Holland 
 
 Belgium 
 
 England 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 Cailada 
 
 British West Indies 
 
 British East Indies 
 
 France on the Atlantic 
 
 France on the Mediterranean. 
 Spain on the Mediterranean. . 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Sardinia 
 
 Tuscany 
 
 New Granada 
 
 Chili 
 
 Peru ; 
 
 China 
 
 $7T1 
 
 6,469 
 
 52 
 
 288 
 
 9,285 
 
 ""49 
 
 9,187 
 
 $1,441 
 1,474 
 4,604 
 3,006 
 
 66,650 
 
 161,360 
 
 $630 
 6,405 
 
 ' Ml 
 
 7,412 
 
 75 
 
 ' ' '10 
 
 " " "1 2 
 21,328 
 
 100 
 287 
 
 17,482 
 4,984 
 2.430 
 
 62,647 
 449 
 
 19 
 
 34,519 
 
 13 
 
 205 
 8,886 
 
 6,076 
 
 954 
 
 2 
 
 141 
 
 6,361 
 
 $3,361 
 14,777 
 
 711 
 72,410 
 68,868 
 
 867 
 
 ' ' Y 5 
 12 
 
 102,354 
 
 i,133 
 1,211 
 5,492 
 
 ' ' 93 
 
 44 
 
 $5530 
 
 489 
 
 33 
 
 2,516 
 
 2,845 
 "433 
 
 876 
 
 Total value . 
 
 $26,061 
 
 i,87T 
 
 $36,700 
 
 $135,167 
 
 $12,940 
 
 $5530 
 
 $10,577 
 
 6B 
 
PAP 
 
 1490 
 
 PAR 
 
 Paper Boxes. — The manufacture of boxes from paper, 
 or Kather pasteboard, has become a very large one, 
 from the custom of so many manufacturers selling their 
 goods in these boxes. It is said that in Paris four 
 thousand persons are employed in this trade alone. 
 The trade is divided into six branches. The first com- 
 prises the most elaborately-finished and ornamented 
 boxes, for the display of artificial tlowers, rich velvets, 
 ribbons, silks, trimmings, medals, miniatures, and cor- 
 beilles for wedding presents. The second class con- 
 sists of boxes and small ornaments for confectioners. 
 The third kind are used for packing toys and trinkets 
 of small size. The fourth kind are for perfumery, fans, 
 gloves, etc. The fifth comprises large boxes for shawls 
 and ribbons for exportation. The sixth are pill-boxes, 
 wafer-boxes, and others of the smallest kind. The 
 French productions in this department of manufactures 
 are superior to any other in neatness of execution and 
 taste of ornamentation. 
 
 Chinese Paper. — The Chinese make a filamentous 
 kind of paper much superior to ancient papyrus ; it 
 obtains in England the name of rice-paper ; but sufln- 
 cient is now known of it to show that this is by no 
 means a correct designation. Dr, Livingstone intro- 
 duced Chinese rice-paper in England about half a cen- 
 tury ago ; it had great favor as a material for artificial 
 flowers. It was many years afterward that informa- 
 tion was obtained concerning the mode adopted by the 
 Chinese, in making these small but very expensive 
 sheets of paper. There is a leguminous plant growing 
 in China and India, the stem of which is cut into pieces 
 eight or ten inches in length ; and these are cut by the 
 Chinese into one continuous spiral film, on the same 
 principle as the modern mode of veneer cutting, but by 
 the dexterous use of hand-tools. These laminas, being 
 spread out and pressed flat, form thin sheets, which, 
 after being dyed and otherwise prepared, constitute the 
 rice-paper of the Chinese. 
 
 The same ingenious people make paper of bamboo. 
 The bamboo stems, when about three or four inches 
 thick, are cut into pieces four or five inches long. 
 These, when softened in water, are washed, cut into 
 filaments, dried and bleached in the sun, boiled, beaten 
 to a pulp, and made into thin sheets of paper. This 
 is truly paper, which the former examples are not ; 
 and the art must have made a considerable advance 
 before such a method could have suggested itself. 
 
 Paper-hangings. — Stamped paper for this purpose 
 was first made in Spain and Holland about a.d. 1555. 
 Made of velvet and floss for hanging apartments, about 
 1020. The manufacture of this kind of paper rapidly 
 improved in Great Britain from early in the eighteenth 
 century; and it has now been brought to great perfec- 
 tion. Since this -important and elegant substitute for 
 the ancient *' hangings" of tapestry or cloth came into 
 use about 200 years ago, the manufacture has under- 
 gone a gradual succession of improvements, and has 
 now reached a high state of beauty and perfection. 
 The patterns on these papers are sometimes produced 
 by stencil plates, but more commonly by blocks, each 
 color being laid on by a separate block cut in wood or 
 metal upon a plain or tinted ground. The patterns 
 are sometimes printed in varnish or size, and gilt or 
 copper leaf applied ; or bisulphuret-of tin (aurum musi- 
 num) is dusted over so as to adhere to the pattern ; and 
 in what are called Jhci papers, dyed wools minced into 
 powder are similarly applied. Powdered steatite, or 
 French chalk, is used to produce the peculiar gloss 
 known under the name of satin. Striped papers are 
 sometimes made by passing the paper rapidly under a 
 trough, which has parallel slits in its bottom through 
 which the color is delivered; and a number of other 
 very ingenious and beautiful contrivances have lately 
 been applied in this important branch of art. The in- 
 vention of the paper machine, by which any length of 
 paper may be obtained, eflfected a great change in 
 paper-hangings, which could formerly only be printed 
 
 upon separate sheets, and were much more inconven- 
 ient to print as well as to apply to the walls. 
 
 Papier-mtache, a name given to articles manu- 
 factured of the pulp of paper, or of old paper ground up 
 into a pulp, bleached, if necessary, and moulded into 
 various forms. This article has lately been used upon 
 an extensive scale for the manufacture of mouldings, 
 rosettes, and other architectural ornaments ; pilasters, 
 capitals, and even figures as large as life, have .also 
 been made of it. It is lighter, more durable, and less 
 brittle and liable to damage than plaster, and admits 
 of being colored, gilt, or otherwise ornamented. An- 
 other article sometimes goes under the same name 
 which is more like pasteboard, consisting of sheets of 
 paper pasted or glued and powerfully pressed together, 
 so as to acquire, when dry, the hardness of board, and 
 yet to admit, while moist, of curvature and flexure: tea- 
 trays, waiters, snuff-boxes, and similar articles are thus 
 prepared, and afterward carefully covered by Japan 
 or other varnishes, and often beautifully ornamented 
 by figures or landscapes and other devices, etc., occa- 
 sionally inlaid with mother of pearl. A mixture of 
 sulphate of iron, quicklime, and glue, or white of egg, 
 with the pulp for papier-mache, renders it to a greater 
 extent water-proof; and the further addition of borax 
 and phosphate of soda contributes to make it almost 
 fire-proof. The chief papier-mache manufactory in 
 England is that of Bielefeld, in Wellington Street, 
 Strand, who has recently published a concise history 
 of the manufacture, embellished with numerous illus- 
 trations. There are manufactories of papier-mache 
 goods now established in Massachusetts. For the im- 
 ports of articles of papier-mache, see Paper. 
 
 Para, or Belem, a sea-port city of Brazil, capital 
 of the province, 70 miles from the Atlantic, latitude of 
 Fort St. Pedro 1° 28' S., long. 48° .30' 5" W. Population 
 estimated at 10,000, mostly of European descent. It 
 stands on elevated ground, on the south shore of the Bay 
 of Guajuara, on the right bank of the Para, or Tocan- 
 tins, and has a fine appearance from the river. Chief 
 edifices, the governor's palace, cathedral, several other 
 churches, convents, barracks, arsenal, episcopal palace 
 and seminary, formerly a Jesuits' college; a prison, 
 and an unfinished theatre. Vessels of large draft can 
 lie near the city, and the cocoa, caoutchouc, isinglass, 
 rice, and drugs, exported from Brazil are chiefly from 
 Para. It has also a trade in cotton, vanilla, annatto, 
 dye-woods, honey, wax, and a great variety of other 
 vegetable and animal products. The trade is mostly 
 with Liverpool, London, Barbadoes, Cayenne, and the 
 North American and other Brazilian ports. The River 
 Para, bounding the island of Marajo southward, extends 
 between long. 48° 10' and 60° 40' W., receives the To- 
 cantins and Annapu from the south, and is connected 
 northwestward with the Amazon. 
 
 Para enjoys an advantage possessed by no other sea- 
 port town in Brazil — that of an unobstructed intercourse 
 by water with the interior. The commercial resources 
 of this province, and the admirable trading position 
 of the city, are unsurpassed ; but inhabitants are want- 
 ing to develop these elements of commerce and civili- 
 zation. In 1840, some American citizens established 
 several saw-mills at Maguery, in the vicinity of Para ; 
 but whether they met with ±)etter success than did 
 the Glasgow merchants, whose property to the amount 
 of $350,000 was pillaged in the same place during a 
 revolt in 1835, has not been ascertained. The cotton 
 of Para has been highly prized. Caoutchouc, the use 
 of which was first discovered in 1735 b}^ French acade- 
 micians sent to Brazil to make astronomical -observa- 
 tions, is abundant, and is extensively manufactured 
 into shoes, etc. "Were this article admitted into the 
 United .States, as in England, free of duty, it would 
 become one of the staple exports to this country. A 
 well-informed American merchant, residing at Para, 
 addressed a letter on this subject to one of the officers 
 of Lieutenant Herndon's expedition to the Amazon, 
 
PAE 
 
 1491 
 
 PAE 
 
 urging the disadvantages under which American com- 
 merce labors, as compared with that of Great Britain, 
 in the caoutchouc trade. — See " Letter from the Secre- 
 tary of the Treasury, transmitting copy of circular let- 
 ter and replies thereto, in reference to the Tariff, 
 March 8, 1854." This article is now becoming the 
 chief staple of the province of Para ; and so various 
 and multiform are the uses to which it is applicable, 
 both in the arts and in domestic economy — so import- 
 ant as an article of commerce has it already become, 
 that, even against the import duty of 10 per cent, in 
 the United States, it constitutes almost 50 per cent, of 
 our trade with Para. The following statement ex- 
 hibits the quantities of India-rubber imported from 
 Para into the United States during the years desig- 
 nated : 
 
 Pounds. Value. 
 
 1S60 1,600,000 
 
 1851 3,330,000 
 
 1855 2,T40,000 $1,660,000 
 
 The exports from Para to foreign countries consist 
 of caoutchouc, cotton, rice, castor-oil, copaiva, anise- 
 seed oil, cocoa, cloves, cinnamon, hides, horns, isin- 
 glass, Peruvian bark, etc. From 1816 to 1827, the ex- 
 ports from this province averaged annually $850,131. 
 The following summar}' exhibits the total trade of 
 Para for 1845: Inward — Vessels, 69; tonnage, 11,136; 
 value of cargoes, $495,940 ; of which there entered 
 from the United States : Vessels, 28 ; tonnage, 3920 ; 
 value of cargoes, $236,200. Cleared to all countries — 
 Vessels, 70 ; tonnage, 11,445 ; value of cargoes, $737,- 
 525. To the United States — ^Vessels, 27 ; tonnage, 
 3628 ; value of cargoes, $261,620. In this province, 
 the sugar and coftee plantations do not produce suffi- 
 cient for home consumption, and supplies are usually 
 imported from the neighboring provinces. The im- 
 ports from foreign countries consist of cotton goods, 
 silks, hardware, wines, spirits, salt, flour, salt provi- 
 sions, gunpowder, etc. The only manufactures are 
 ordinary cotton cloths for sacks and hammocks, and 
 India-rubber shoes ; but these manufactures seem not 
 to thrive, from a want of skill to direct them. 
 
 Total Ntjmbee of Vessels, with their Tonnage, en- 
 
 OAGES IN TnE TBADE BETWEEN PaEA AND FoEEIGN 
 COUNTEIEB, AND VaLUE OP EXPOKTS AND ImPOETS, ETC., 
 
 IN 1843 AND 1850. 
 
 1848. 
 
 VeeseU. 
 
 Tom. 
 
 Francs. 
 
 Entered 
 
 Cleared 
 
 18E0. 
 
 Entered 
 
 (;icared 
 
 83 
 83 
 
 96 
 
 92 
 
 12,828 
 12,029 
 
 16,877 
 16,433 
 
 Imports, 3,205,000 
 Exports, 4,881,000 
 
 Imports, 5,109,000 
 Exports, 7,462,000 
 
 Staple Peoduotions op Paea, relatively oonsideeed, 
 wiTu respect to the Quantities annually Exported; 
 
 Caoutchouc 33,600 arrobas. 
 
 Cocoa 200,000 " 
 
 Cotton 6,120 " 
 
 Hides 15,500 pieces. 
 
 Copaiva 0,300 pots. 
 
 Eice 130,000 arrobas. 
 
 Rice in tlie husk 26,000 alquieres. 
 
 Sugar 21,S30 arrobas. 
 
 India-rubber shoes 192,000 pairs. 
 
 The above are the leading exports from Para ; but, 
 besides these, the province produces various kinds of 
 timber admirably adapted for ship-building purposes, 
 and a great variety of textile plants, medicinal drugs, 
 and dye-woods of the richest qualities. The present 
 population of Para is about 205,000, though the prov- 
 ince is said to be capable of maintaining some millions 
 of inhabitants. With such a population, its natural 
 resources might be more fully developed, and Para 
 thus placed, in point of position and commercial im- 
 portance, in the very first rank of Brazilian ports.— 
 Commercial Relations with the United States. 
 
 Paraguay, a republic or consulship of South Amer- 
 ica, extends from lat. 21° to 27° 20' S., and long. 54° to 
 58° 40' W. The space thus inclosed forms a very com- 
 pact territory, nearly in the shape of a parallelogram, 
 about 430 miles long, north to south, with an average 
 
 breadth of about 200 miles, and contains an area of 
 about 86,000 square miles. Population 300,000. Capi- 
 tal, Asuncion. The name Paraguay at one time was 
 used in a very extensive sense, so as to include the 
 whole of the immense regions of South America, be- 
 tween lat. 16° S., and the Strait of Magellan, and be- 
 tween Chili and Peruon the west, and Brazil on the 
 east, now confined to the republic properly so called. 
 On the north the limits of this state with Brazil are 
 not definitely settled, but in other directions it has the 
 advantage of great natural boundaries ; the Parana on 
 the east and south, and its tributary the Paraguay on 
 the west. The whole surface thus belongs to the ba- 
 sins of these two rivers, a mountain range of consider- 
 able elevation stretching between them north to south, 
 so as to form their water-shed, and send the drainage 
 in opposite directions, but nearly in equal portions. 
 The distance of the water-shed from the river scarcely 
 any where exceeds 100 miles, and hence the tributaries 
 by which the drainage is conveyed are more remark- 
 able for their number than their magnitude. By far 
 the largest is the Tibimari, whicli, owing to an eastern 
 bend in the water-shed, has its course considerably 
 prolonged, and being augmented by several large afflu- 
 ents from the north, becomes a noble stream before it 
 reaches the Paraguay. The surface is mountainous 
 in the centre, and also in the nortiieast, where a rami- 
 fication, known by the name of thcSierra de Maracay, 
 or Cordillera de Maracara, breaks ofi' from the central 
 chain, and proceeding east to the banks of the Parana, 
 interrupts the navigation of that river, and forms one 
 of the most remarkable cataracts in the world. 
 
 Paraguay is one of the finest countries in the world. 
 It is almost inclosed by rivers, and the interior is also 
 bountifully watered. The exterior waters are naviga- 
 ble, and constitute the great avenues which are des- 
 tined to become the highways of the commerce of a 
 magnificent interior oountiy. Unlike the open coun- 
 tries surrounding it, Paraguay is well wooded, and 
 among its trees are many valuable in the arts and 
 manufactures. It also abounds in medicinal prod- 
 ucts, as rhubarb, sarsaparilla, jalap, sassafras, dragon's 
 blood, copaiva, nux vomica, liquorice, ginger, etc., all 
 of the finest quality. Of dye-stuffs, too, there is an im- 
 mense variety ; as cochineal, indigo, vegetable vermil- 
 ion, saffron, etc. Many of the forest trees yield valu- 
 able gums, and they comprise some of the most deli- 
 cious perfumes and incense that can be imagined. 
 Others, again, are like amber, hard, brittle, and insolu- 
 ble in water. The seringa, or rubber-tree, the product 
 of which is now almost a monopoly with Para, and also 
 the palosanto, which produces the gum guiacum, crowd 
 the forests, and the sweet-flavored vanilla is abundant. 
 Upon the hills the celebrated yerba mat6 flourishes 
 luxuriantly. The cultivated products are sugar-cane, 
 cotton, tobacco, rice, mandioca, Indian corn, etc. On 
 the plains thousands of cattle range, and large quanti- 
 ties of hides, hair, horns, bones, tallow, etc., are lost for 
 want of transportation. The country is not celebrated 
 for its minerals ; but in all that constitutes an agricul- 
 tural countrj', rich lands, a fine climate, and abundance 
 of water, it has no equal. Hitherto, however, it has 
 been shut out from the world by the arbitrary will of 
 despotism; and its future commerce can only be meas- 
 ured from its resources and facilities. The recent revo- 
 lutions in the states of the Plata have opened the 
 magnificent rivers of this country, and there is certain- 
 ly no further impediment to commercial enterprise. 
 
 This state, formerly a province of Buenos Ayres, 
 withdrew from the connection in 1811, and the Span- 
 ish-American revolution breaking out about that date 
 secured it from molestation. The policy of its rulers 
 has been the exclusion of foreigners from the country, 
 and under Dr. Francia, so celebrated in connection 
 with its annals, the utmost despotism was exercised. 
 The tyrant dying in 1840 the government was changed 
 in its character, and a more liberal policy obtained, 
 
PAR 
 
 1492 
 
 PAR 
 
 and ultimately it has become In form an elecrive re- 
 public. As early as 1842, Paraguay acceded to the 
 opening of its rivers to foreign commerce ; but until the 
 OTerthrow of Rosas, the tyrant of Buenos Ayres, who 
 exercised authority over the estuary of the Plata, 
 the concession was of no value. The successors of 
 Rosas have now fully conceded free ingress and egress 
 with the sea. These important revolutions in the 
 policy of the two countries will eventuate in the de- 
 velopment of the vast resources of the southeastern and 
 middle portions of South America — co5ntries which are 
 unsurpassed in agricultural wealth and valuable com- 
 mercial staples. For further information, see Ameri- 
 can Statistical Annual; AmeHcan Whig Review, vi. 245 
 (U. S. Consul HopKiss) ; North A merican Review, xxvi. 
 444 (A. H. Everett) ; Dublin University, xii. 474 ; 
 Quarterly Review, xxvi. 277. 
 
 The commercial policy of Paraguay, however, is not 
 of that liberal character to attract foreign merchants 
 to its ports. In addition to the expense of purchasing 
 stamped paper, by means of which every official trans- 
 action in the republic is conducted, and without which 
 foreign merchants can not enter the markets, the in- 
 ternal taxes are such as to discourage eflbrts to develop 
 the resources of the country, and, as a consequence, to 
 oppress its commercial industry. The aggregate of 
 these taxes bearing specially upon commerce is stated 
 to amount to 26 per cent, on the value of every article 
 sent to market. They consist of diezmos (tithes), 10 per 
 cent. ; export duty, 10 per cent. ; and on rent of lands 
 (almost wholly owned by the state, and fixed at a high 
 valuation) 6 per cent. If to this be added an import duty 
 of 20 per cent, on almost every article which tlie United 
 States could send to the markets of Paraguay, it can be 
 readily comprehended why the name of this republic 
 does not appear among those of other foreign nations the 
 details of whose commerce are minutely set forth in the 
 annual Report on Commerce and Navigation, prepared 
 by the Department of the Treasury of theUnited States. 
 The " stamps," to which allusion has been made, are di- 
 vided into eight classes : those of the first class cost 25 
 cents; of thb second, 371 cents; of the third, $1; of 
 the fourth, $2; of the iifth, $6; of the sixth, $8 ; of 
 the seventh, $16 ; of the eighth, $26. Permission to 
 discharge or to load a vessel of 21 tons, or 2000 tons, can 
 only be obtained on a stamp of this last description ; so 
 that to unload a cargo valued at $100 will cost $26— 
 all the same as if it were worth $100,000 ; and in like 
 manner as to taking cargo on board. The foreign 
 trade of Paraguay is conducted chiefly through the 
 ports of the Argentine Confederation, especially that 
 of Buenos Ayres, and those of the Republic of Uruguay. 
 The exports consist of yerba mat6 (with which the 
 hills of the country are literally covered), tobacco, 
 cigars, woods, hides, hair, leather, molasses, rum, white 
 starch, mandioca, peanuts, beans, and oranges; of 
 which latter article not less than 30,000 bushels are 
 said to be exported per month. The exports from the 
 United States which would most readily find a market 
 in Paraguay are cotton domestics, calicoes, plain cloths, 
 clocks, boots and shoes, gunpowder and shot, saddlery, 
 and agricultural implements. 
 
 If the navigation of the River Vermejo, an affluent 
 of the Paraguav, were opened to foreign commerce, or 
 were even permitted to the Argentine flag, the United 
 States would, it is believed, soon enjoy the entire for- 
 eign trade of the upper provinces of the Argentine Con- 
 federation. This privilege, however, is refused by the 
 government of Paraguay, notwithstanding the Eiver 
 Vermejo, in its entire course, lies within the territories 
 of the sister republic. Hitherto a selfish and illiberal 
 policy excluded foreign vessels from the port of Albu- 
 querque, a place 1600 miles above Asuncion, the capital 
 of Paraguay, in the Brazilian province of Matto Grosso, 
 which the government of that empire has declared open 
 to the commerce of the world. Brazilian vessels were 
 not permitted to descend the Eiver Paraguay, which 
 
 takes its rise in this province, nor are foreign vessels 
 allowed to ascend higher than the city of Asuncion; 
 thus cutting off all trade with the richest portions of 
 Bolivia and the fertile province of Matto Qrosso, in 
 Brazil. The claim of Paraguay to exercise jurisdiction 
 over both banks of this river, by prohibiting its navi- 
 gation above Asuncion, and by closing the navigation 
 of the Vermejo, both to the citizens of the Argentine 
 Republic and to foreigners, has never been admitted. 
 
 A treaty between Paraguay and Brazil was duly 
 signed and ratified June 14, 1856, by which it is stipu- 
 lated that the waters of the Upper Paraguay shall 
 henceforth be open to general navigation and com- 
 merce. This will bring not only the produce of the 
 Brazilian province of Matto Grosso, but also the agri- 
 cultural and mineral wealth of Bolivia, to an Atlantic 
 market The value of these mineral resources may be 
 inferred from the fact that there are stated to exist in 
 this region upward of a thousand valuable mines un- 
 worked, it having been found impossible hitherto to 
 convey machinery thither, across the mountains, from 
 the Pacific coast. A highway to the spot is now open- 
 ed from the Atlantic, as broad as the Mississippi, and 
 equally accessible. The rich province of Matto Grosso, 
 with its diamonds, gold, silver, and copper, is also 
 brought in connection with the good and contiguous 
 sea-ports, Buenos Ayres and Montevideo, by the Para- 
 guay Eiver; and Cujaba, its capital, in the centre of 
 the mining districts, can easily be reached from Asun- 
 cion. Dianantino, about two hundred miles from Cu- 
 jaba, sends its produce to Santarem, on the Amazon, 
 and thence to Para. This tedious and circuitous route 
 is now superseded, as the Paraguay connects these 
 markets with the estuary of the Plata. A Paraguayan 
 journal, " La Nacional," of August 11, 1858, publishes 
 the subjoined regulations: "All vessels from foreign 
 ports to the Brazilian ports above shall take pilots at 
 Asuncion, Concepcion, the junction of the Apa, and 
 Olimpo. The vessels that descend that river from the 
 upper Paraguay are obliged to take pilots from Olimpo, 
 the junction of the Apa, and Concepcion; and the 
 wages of the said pilots are to be agreed upon at the 
 captain of tlie port's bureau in Asuncion." 
 
 In 1853, the United States steamer Water Witch, 
 of 400 tons burden, and nine feet draught, was dis- 
 patched, under the command of Lieutenant Thomas J. 
 Page, to make an exploration and survey of the tribu- 
 taries of the River La Plata. The results of this ex- 
 pedition will, doubtless, contribute in an eminent de- 
 gree to the advancement of commerce and the promo- 
 tion of science. The navigation of the Paraguay 
 River, whicli empties into the Parana at the distance 
 from Buenos Ayres of 800 miles, was extended to the 
 parallel of 18° south latitude; making the entire dis- 
 tance of the rivers Parana and Paraguay, through 
 which this small sea-steamer had passed from Buenos 
 Ayres to Corumba (an interior military post of Brazil), 
 equal to about 1700 miles. There is no doubt that the 
 navigation of the Paraguay, during the season of high 
 water, could have been carried by the Water Witch to 
 a still greater extent ; but at the time of this explora- 
 tion any further ascent was prohibited by Brazil. 
 Permission was, however, subsequently granted by the 
 imperial government, but refused by that of Paraguay. 
 The expedition was thus restricted to a more limited 
 exploration of the upper waters of this river than had 
 been anticipated. It is to be hoped that the time is 
 not far distant when all such prohibitions will be re- 
 moved, and this interesting region of unknown country 
 brought to the knowledge Gf the world. 
 
 The navigation of the Paraguay has thus been ex- 
 tended beyond Asuncion, to the distance of 650 miles. 
 This fact has induced the Brazilian government to 
 avail itself of this important channel of communication, 
 by steam, with her northwestern province, Matto Grasso, 
 in which is found the most valuable diamond region 
 of the empire. 
 
PAR 
 
 1493 
 
 PAR 
 
 An expedition was dispatched by the French gor- 
 emment, a few years since, for the exploration of the 
 Parana and Paraguay rivers ; and the following pas- 
 sage is translated from a report made in March, 1856, 
 by Captain Picard, to whose charge it had been com- 
 mitted ; " When we consider the excellent means of 
 communication which nature has opened to the prov- 
 inces of the Argentine Confederation and the Republic 
 of Paraguay, we can not but regret to see them unem- 
 ployed and deserted. The absence of population, con- 
 tinual civil war, and the administrative policy of Para- 
 guay, have, so far, been the chief obstacles to progress. 
 Let us indulge the hope that the day is not distant 
 when the aspect of things will change, and these mag- 
 nificent countries will flourish under the blessings of a 
 more advanced civilization." 
 
 Paraguay can hardly be said to possess* a merchant 
 marine. In 1851 there were distributed, between the 
 two ports of Asuncion and Villa del Pilar, 12 vessels, 
 averaging each about 42 tons. In 1852 there were 11 
 of the same description, and in 1853 only 9. Besides 
 these, there is one brig belonging to the government, 
 which is said to monopolize almost exclusively the 
 commerce of the state. The foreign vessels engaged 
 in the trade of Paraguay in 1852 were 81, with an 
 aggregate of 4582 tons, from the Argentine provinces 
 south, below the Paraguay River, and three American 
 vessels, tonnage not known. All these vessels trade 
 with the ports of Asuncion and Villa del Pilar, which, 
 with the port of Encarnacion, on the Parana, were alone 
 open to foreign commerce. There is no treaty between 
 the United States and Paraguay. With England a 
 treaty was ratified November 2, 1853, by the second 
 article of which the Republic of Paraguay concedes to 
 the merchant flag of Great Britain the free navigation 
 of the River Paraguay as far as Asuncion, the capital 
 of the republic, and of the right side of the Parana, 
 from where it belongs to her, as far as the city of En- 
 carnacion. It stipulates, also, that British subjects 
 shall be at liberty, with their ships and cargoes, freely 
 and securely to come to, and to leave, all the places 
 and ports of the said tenitories ; hire houses and ware- 
 houses ; and trade in all kinds of produce, manufac- 
 tures, and merchandise of lawful commerce, subject to 
 the usages and established customs of the country: 
 also, that they may discharge the whole or part of 
 their cargo at the ports of Pilar and where commerce 
 with other nations may be permitted, or proceed with 
 the whole orpart of their cargo to the port of Asuncion, 
 according as the captain, owner, or other duly author- 
 ized person shall deem expedient ; and that, in the same 
 manner, shall be treated and considered such Paraguay- 
 an citizens as shall arrive at the ports of Great Britain 
 with cargoes in Paraguayan or British vessels. 
 
 There is an American company established in Para- 
 guay/ under a charter from the State of Rhode Island, 
 which- has been engaged in commercial operations for 
 some time, under the title of " The United States and 
 Paraguay Navigation Company." The chief object of 
 this company is to introduce steam navigation on the 
 rivers of Paraguay ; but how far it has progressed in 
 the accomplishment of this object, information is not 
 at hand. The only direct trade, however, yet opened 
 between ithe United States and this republic consists 
 of some shipments of cigars and samples of wood made 
 by this company. All other articles of Paraguayan 
 produce which reach the United States come through 
 the ports of Buenos Ayies or Montevideo, and are in- 
 cluded in the custom-house returns to the Treasury 
 Department of exports from the republics to which 
 these places respectively belong, i 
 
 Thegnvernment of Paraguay puts forth no statistics 
 relative to the commercial movements of the republic, 
 and it is said to be quite impossible to obtain informa- 
 tion on the subject from its administrative officials. 
 Complete commercial statistics, which may he viewed 
 a,s strictly accurate, can not,.therefore, be looked for m 
 
 this Digest ; but the subjoiried statements, derived from 
 a Memoir prepared in 1853 by M. L. Geofroy, an attach^ 
 of the mission extraordinary sent by France to the 
 Plata and Paraguay, are, no doubt, reliable, so far as 
 
 they extend. 
 
 ExrOETS OF ASFNOION FROM JtJLT, 1851, TO DeOEMBEB 31, 
 
 1362. 
 Tobaeoo— 229,000 arrobas, at 12 reals (or $1 50) 
 
 per arroba of 25 pounds , ;..,..,. $343,500 
 
 Yerbamat^— lT5,000arroba8,at20Tealsperarroba 437,600 
 
 Hides— Dry, 100,000, at 10 reals each 125,000 
 
 " Tanned, 35,000, at $3 each 105,000 
 
 Wood— Cedar, 60,000 yards, at 4 reals 25,000 
 
 " Cabinet, asloop-loadof7000to8000 arrobas 6,000 
 
 Hair— 600 quintals, at $8 per quintal 4,800 
 
 Sweetmeats — 20,000 arrobas, at 6 reals per arroba. 15,000 
 
 Cigars— 2,000,000, at $2 per 1000 4,000 
 
 250,000, at $6 per 1000 (in boxes of 100) . . 1,250 
 
 Sundry products — White wax, rum, molasses (eey- 
 eral cargoes), common wood (Urunday and La- 
 pacho), several cargoes of oranges, maize,'pulEC, ^ 
 etc.; cotton, 1,500 arrobas; tiger-skins, ^0, at 
 $2 each ; India rubber, otter-skins, hammocks, 
 
 baskets, etc. ; fringed napkins, lace, etc.. ,' 27,800 
 
 Total $1,094,850 
 
 It is believed that the above total might be increased 
 at least one-third, could exact statements be obtained. 
 If we add the export duties of 10 and 6 per cent, on the 
 articles exported — ^yerba and wood, which are govern- 
 ment monopolies, and are exempt from duty, being ex- 
 cepted, and which would amount toabout $70, 000 — and 
 $20,000 in silver, exported in contraband, and $10,000 
 for sundry charges — we have $1,500,000, or an amount 
 equal to the value of imports during the same period. 
 Indeed, such is the scarcity of money in circulation, 
 that the trade is necessarily one of barter ; so that the 
 figures which represent the value of imports may also, 
 generally, give the value of exports. 
 
 Measures. — The arroba equals 25 lbs. ; the cubic vara 
 about 20i- cubic feet ; the pesada 36 lbs. ; the almude 
 about three-fourths of a bushel ; the asumbre about one 
 quart; the frasco about half a gallon; the fanega about 
 four bushels. It may be observed, that these denomi- 
 nations, of weight and measure represent different quan- 
 tities in different countries, and even in the same coun- 
 tries, as regards different articles. 
 Impobtb and ExPoaTS op Asdnoion vron 1851 to 1854. 
 
 Ycara. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. ' 
 
 ■ ■ Totttl. ■ ' 
 
 Duties paid. 
 
 1851 
 1852 
 1853 
 1854 
 
 No data, 
 
 $540,15') 
 
 406,638 
 
 585,523 
 
 $341,380 
 474,499 
 691,932 . 
 777,457 
 
 No data. 
 
 $1,014,849 ■ 
 
 1,098,620 
 
 1,362,980 
 
 No data, 
 
 $123,276 
 
 56,564 
 
 123,289 
 
 Among the importations of 1854, tissues and wines 
 hold the first rank, or, rather, they constitute four- 
 fifths of the total value of imports.. 
 
 Navigaticm,. — Transportation by land being extreme- 
 ly difficult, 1 the commercial movements already ana- 
 lyzed were eflFected by water — by the Paraguay, an 
 i^uent of the Parana. From the opening of the port 
 of Asuncion in July, 1851, to December, 1852, there ar- 
 rived about 120 sloops, of 6000 arrobas, on an average, 
 for each. A cargo of 7000 arrobas equals 60 tons, 
 which would give an average of from 40 to 80 tons for 
 each vessel. From January 1, to February 28, 1853, 
 there arrived at Asuncion 30 Sardinian vessels. These 
 vessels, the owners of which, or the greater part of 
 them, were Sardinians, sailed under the Uruguayan or 
 Paraguayan flag. There arrived also, up to March 10, 
 1853, at this port, 19 sloops. - In 1854 there arrived 
 160 merchant vessels, averaging each 50 tons burden. 
 Of these, 2 were British, 31 were under the flagof the're- 
 public, 116 belonged to the Argentine Confederation; 
 and 11 to Uruguay. 
 
 The customs tariff of Paraguay, now in force in 
 that republic, is that promulgated by a decree given 
 at Asuncion, January 2, 1846. — Commercial Relatiom 
 efthe United States. 
 
 Parallels of Latitude, on the Terrestrial Sphere; 
 are small circles parallel to the equator; but in the 
 Celestial Sphere they are parallel to the epliptic. 
 
PAR 
 
 1494 
 
 PAR 
 
 Paramaribo, the capital town of Dutch Guiana, 
 on the west banls; of the Surinam, iive miles from its 
 mouth in the Atlantic, lat. 5° 49' N., long. 55° 22' W. 
 Estimated population, 20,000, mostly blacks. It is 
 regularly and wuU built ; streets unpaved, but orna- 
 mented with rows of tamarind and orange trees ; and 
 it has Lutheran, Calvinistic, Roman Catholic, and En- 
 glish churches, Portuguese and German-Jewish syna- 
 gogues, and is the centre of the trade of the colony. 
 Fort Zeelandia, north of the town, is the residence of 
 the governor. In a, hospital for lepers, on the right 
 bank of the Coppename, 450 patients are maintained 
 at the expense of the colony. The Kwatta Canal, be- 
 gun in 1846, is the first public work executed by free 
 laborers. 
 
 Paramo (sometimes rendered, though incorrect- 
 ly, by desert or heath). The name given in South 
 America to a mountainous district covered with stunt- 
 ed trees, exposed to the winds, and in which a damp 
 cold perpetually prevails. Under the torrid zone the 
 Paramos are generally from 10,000 to 12,000 feet in 
 height. Snow often falls on them, but remains only 
 a few hours ; in which respect they are distinguished 
 from the Nevados, which enter the limits of perpetual 
 snow. The Paramos are almost constantly enveloped 
 in a cold, thick fog ; so that when a thick, small rain 
 falls, accompanied with a depression of the tempera- 
 ture, they say at Bogota, or at Mexico, cae un para- 
 mito. Hence has been formed the provincial word em- 
 paraniarse — to be as cold as if one were on a paramo. 
 — Hu.meoldt's Pers. Nar. ii. p. 252. 
 
 Parasang, a Persian measure of length ; accord- 
 ing to Herodotus, equal to 30 stadia, and (reckoning 
 eight stadia to the English mile) equal to 3i English 
 miles. The length of the parasang was reckoned dif- 
 ferently by different authors j and such are the dis- 
 crepant estimates of the ancients that some have as- 
 signed it the length of 60 stadia. The word is supposed 
 to be derived from the Persian sen^, signifying a stoTie. 
 
 Parcel, a term indifferently applied to small pack- 
 ages of wares, and to large lots of goods. In this lat- 
 ter sense, 20 hogsheads of sugar or more, if bought at 
 one price, or in a single lot, are denominated "a parcel 
 of sugar." 
 
 Parcels, Bill of, an account of the items compos- 
 ing a parcel. 
 
 Parchment and Vellum. The former consists 
 of the skins of sheep and goats, and the latter of those 
 of calves, prepared in such a manner as to render them 
 suitable for being written upon, for covering books, 
 and other purposes. The consumption of these articles 
 is very considerable. In this and most other countries 
 it is customary to use them instead of paper in the 
 drawing up of a great variety of deeds and other legal 
 instruments. They are also extensively used, espe- 
 cially in Italy, in the binding of books. The finest 
 copies of the magnificent classics which issued from 
 the Dutch presses in the 17th century, and the early 
 part of the 18th, were all bound in vellum. Parch- 
 ment is coarser than vellum, and not so well adapted 
 for writing upon. The qualities of both articles differ 
 very widely; so much so that the best parchment is 
 preferable to inferior or even middling vellum. The 
 goodness of each depends partly on the quality of the 
 sluns of which they are made, and partly, and indeed 
 in a very high degree, on the care and skill with which 
 they are manufactured. 
 
 The history of these articles is involved in some ob- 
 scurity. Varro and Pliny {Hist. Nat. lib. xiii. cap. 
 11), who have been generally followed, state that they 
 were originally manufactured at Pergamus, in Asia 
 Minor, the capital city of Eumenes II., one of Alex- 
 ander's successors, during the reign of that prince; 
 and that parchment owes to this circumstance its clas- 
 sical name of charta Pergamena. But there seems to be 
 little if any foundation for this statement. We have 
 seen, in the preceding article on paper, that Herodotus, 
 
 who flourished rather more than a century before Alex- 
 ander the Great, states distinctly that, previously to 
 his era, when paper (charta Egyptiaca) was scarce, 
 the lonians were accustomed to write on the skins of 
 sheep and goats, and that that practice was tlien fol- 
 lowed (viz., in his time) by several barbarous nations. 
 — Lib. v. cap. 58. And it is all but certain, seeing 
 that the practice of writing on skins had been in use 
 for at least i\ centuries, and probably much more, pre- 
 viously to the era of Eumenes, that their preparation 
 would, in the course of that lengthened period, be so 
 much improved as to render them little diH^rent from 
 parcliment. It is probable, indeed, that their manu- 
 facture may have been improved in Pergamus; but 
 we incline to think that parchment owes its name rath- 
 er to the extensive demand for it in that city, in con- 
 sequence of Eumenes having amassed a large and val- 
 uable library, than to any thing else. He was, in fact, 
 compelled to use parchment and vellum in the copying 
 of books, as his contemporary Ptolem}- Philadelphus 
 had prohibited the exportation of paper. — Pliny, uhi 
 supra. The scarcity of parchment during the Middle 
 Ages, and in antecedent times, led to the practice of 
 obliterating the writing on old parchments, by rubbing 
 them with pumice-stone, immersing them in boiling 
 water, and such like devices ; and there can be no man- 
 ner of doubt that the prevalence of this practice has 
 been most injurious to literature, and that it has most 
 probably occasioned the total destruction of some of 
 the noblest chefs-ifmuvre of antiquity. In the Middle 
 Ages, these were erased that room might be made for 
 some worthless treatise on scholastic theologj' or logic ! 
 Sometimes, however, it happens that the ancient writ- 
 ing is not so much obliterated but that it may still be 
 read; and to that circumstance the recent discovery 
 of a portion of Cicero's treatise Be Republica is to be 
 ascribed. It had been effaced to malce room for a 
 commentary of St. Augustine on the Psalms. Parch- 
 ments that have been erased in this way are called 
 Palimpsests (from Tra/l/r, again, and ijjau, to efface or 
 clean), or repeatedly cleaned parchments ; because they 
 have been repeatedly cleaned, renewed, or prepared for 
 writing upon. If the learned world is ever to be grat- 
 ified by the recovery of the lost comedies of Menander, 
 or the lost books of Polybius, Livy, and Tacitus, it will 
 most probably be by finding them under some homily or 
 such like trash. — Nouveau Traite de diplomatique ; JDcm 
 de Values. 
 
 Paris (anc. Lutetia Parisiorum), the capital of 
 France, and, after London, the largest and most popu- 
 lous city in Europe; lat. (observatory) 48° 50' 12" N., 
 long. 79° 23' 02" E. from the national observatory, 
 Washington, and long. 2° 20' 30" E. from London. 
 Population in 1851, 1,021,530. Situated 193 feet above 
 the level of the sea, on both sides and on two islands 
 of the Seine, 111 miles from its mouth. It has recent- 
 ly, and at the expense of about ©100,000,000, been sur- 
 rounded with fortifications, consisting of a wall 33 feet 
 in height, bastioned and terraced, lined with a fosse 
 about 20 feet deep, and embracing both banks of the 
 Seine, with a continuous inclosure, and of outworks 
 composed of 14 detached forts. These fortifications 
 take in much of the suburbs, and even of the surround- 
 ing countrj'; but the proper limits of the town are 
 traced by an interior wall, erected at a much earlier 
 date, for fiscal purposes. In. this wall are 50 gates or 
 barriers, which form the proper entrances of Paris, and 
 at which the octroi, or duties on goods brought into it, 
 are levied. Many of these barriers are magnificent 
 structures. Among others may be specified the Bar- 
 rifere de Neuilly, consisting of two pavilions, and hav- 
 ing in front the splendid triumphal arch De I'Etoile ; 
 the BarriVes de Vincennes, de St. Martin, de Fontaine- 
 bleau, de Eeuilly, de Chartres, and de Passy. Out- 
 side the barriers and their connecting wall is a large 
 zone, finely planted, which nearly makes the circuit 
 of the town, and forms an excellent, though not very 
 
PAR 
 
 1495 
 
 PAR 
 
 much frequented, promenade. It receives the name of 
 Outer Boulevards, to distinguish them from the Inner 
 Boulevards, which form a similar internal zone, con- 
 sisting, in their finest parts, of a magnificent central 
 thoroughfare, bounded on cither side with a double row 
 of trees, under which a broad and elevated pathway 
 has been formed, and lined by elegant shops and man- 
 sions, the whole forming a scene of animated gayety 
 and splendor which no other capital in Europe can 
 equal. 
 
 The Seine traverses the city in a west-northwest di- 
 rection, and has a medium breadth of about 450 feet, 
 nearly one-third less than that of the Thames at Lon- 
 don. It is shallow, and navigable only by barges and 
 small steamers. Its quays are built of solid masonry, 
 and form largo terraces, with a roadway in the centre, 
 and a footpath on either side, generally planted. They 
 extend about 11 miles, and, in addition to the splendid 
 walks which they afford, serve the important purpose 
 of protecting the lower parts of the city from inunda- 
 tions, from wliich, previously to these erections, it oft- 
 en suffered. The number of bridges is twenty-seven, 
 all of stone, with the exception of seven suspension 
 bridges, three of a combination of stone and iron, and 
 one of wood. 
 
 Manvfactwes and Trade. — The government possess- 
 es only two properly manufacturing establishments — 
 that known by the name of the Gobelins, celebrated for 
 its tapestry and carpets, made, however, not for sale, 
 but the supply of the palaces, and for presents; andthat 
 of tobacco, which the government holds as a monopoly, 
 and carries on in a vast establishment on the south side 
 of the Seine, producing about a fifth of all the snufFused 
 in the kingdom, and yielding an annual profit estima- 
 ted at $14,000,000. In the other branches, which are 
 free, the most important manufactures are articles of 
 jewelry and precious metals ; ebony and ivory trink- 
 ets, fine hardware, paper-hangings, saddlery, and other 
 articles in leather ; cabinet-work, carriages, various ar- 
 ticles of dress, silk and woolen tissues, particularly 
 shawls and carpets ; lace, embroidery, artificial flow- 
 ers, combs, machines, mathematical and optical instru- 
 ments, types, books, engravings, refined sugar, chemic- 
 al products, etc. The value of all the industrial prod- 
 ucts of Paris in 1847 was, after a very careful investi- 
 gation, estimated at $292,725,670. In 1848, during the 
 turmoil of the last revolution, they fell to less than one 
 half of what they were before. The value of the ex- 
 ports, composed almost entirely of the above articles 
 of manufacture, was declared at the custom-house of 
 Paris to amountin value, in 1850, to $11,095,945. The 
 estimated revenue of the city for 1852 was $9,303,630 ; 
 and the expenditure $9,703,630.— /See article France. 
 For commerce, etc., of Paris, see Hunt's Merchants' 
 Magazine^ xviii. 60 ; Quarterly Review^ Ixxviii. 146 ; 
 Lining Age, ii. 404, xiii. 219 ; Foreign Quarterly, xxxi. 
 182 ; Edinburgh Review, Ixxxv. 39 ; Comm. Rel. XJ. S. 
 
 The commercial intercourse between the United 
 States and this consular district depends on the regu- 
 lations of the custom laws of the empire, and on the 
 local legislation of the city of Paris, by which octroi 
 duties are levied on many articles brought into the 
 city, whether foreign or domestic, but especially on 
 spirits and articles of subsistence. These regulations 
 are fixed, and rest only on the contingency of altera- 
 tion by legislative enactment. There are some privi- 
 leges accorded to Spain by ancient treaties which will 
 be found set forth in the Code des Douanes, Code Mari- 
 time, and the Tarifdes Droits. We are not aware of any 
 privileges accorded to the commerce of other nations 
 and denied to the United States, or of any important 
 restrictions. The books referred to above give full 
 information, in tabular statements, on this question. 
 The transhipment of goods belongs to the coasting 
 trade, and, by law, only French vessels are entitled to 
 engage in this trade. Full information will be found 
 upon this point in the Code Maritime, 
 
 Rates of insurance, by steamers, on goods, i toli per cent. 
 " " by ships, " 1 to 1^ ** 
 
 *' " by steamers, valuables, S to | " 
 
 " *' by ships, " I to 1 " 
 
 GommisBiona for shipping 3 firancs each package. 
 
 CommiBsions for purchaBlng in large 
 quantities 3 per cent. 
 
 CommiBsions for purchasing in Bmall 
 quantities 5 " 
 
 Average rate of exchange between New York 
 and Paris 513} francs. 
 
 Sales of goods are made upon cash or upon orders, 
 with credits from thirty dajs to six months. Com- 
 mission houses are in the habit of advancing for many 
 of their customers. — See Tarif des Droits, Regulations 
 des Douanes, and Statistique Industriel. 
 
 Parrel. In Naval language, the collar of greased 
 rope, or trucks, by which the yard is confined to the 
 mast, while it slides up and down it. 
 
 Partnership. A partnership is an agreement be- 
 tween two or more to share in the profit and loss of 
 the use and application of their capital, labor, and 
 skill, in some lawful business, whether one supplies 
 capital, and another skill and labor, or each both labor 
 and capital. The benefits of a union of the means 
 and advantages of different persons for the conduct of 
 a branch of business, in many instances, are too obvious 
 and common to need illustration. A partnership is 
 not constituted merelj' by an interest of different par.^ 
 ties in the same thing, but it depends on a participa- 
 tion of profits and joint liability to loss. And yet 
 there are some exceptions to this rule, for it has been 
 held that seamen shipping on shares in a shipping 
 voyage are not copartners with the owners. And so, 
 where a certain share or commission is allowed to a 
 clerk or agent, depending on the success of the busi- 
 ness or amount of profits, in addition to his other com- 
 pensation, it has been held, in many cases, not to make 
 him a. copartner. It is difficult to point out the cri- 
 terion by which cases of this description are distin- 
 guished from those of copartnership ; and some of them 
 look more like an exception of cases which strictly 
 come witliin the definition of copartnership. A ques- 
 tion has been made whether joint owners of a ship are 
 copartners, and the general doctrine is that they are 
 not so ; and yet it is generally held that each one is 
 liable for the whole amount of repairs and expenditures 
 in the navigation of the ship ; but still the ownership 
 is not joint, for, in the case of the decease of one, the 
 property in the whole ship does not survive to the 
 others, as would be the case if it were partnership 
 propertj-, but the property is held in common, each 
 part-owner having a distinct title to his share; and 
 one part-owner can not, merely as such, convey a title 
 to the whole ship, or to any share except his own. As 
 to the share of each partner in the profits, or his lia- 
 bility for losses, if there is no agreement on this sub- 
 ject, all the partners stand upon an equal footing. 
 
 As to the objects of copartnership, they are not con- 
 fined to commerce, though most frequent in that branch 
 of industry, but may embrace manufacturing, the car- 
 rying on of any mechanic art, agriculture, the practice 
 of law or medicine, and, in short, every lawful branch 
 of business. Copartnership is more usually formed by 
 a written agreement ; and by some codes and in re- 
 gard to certain copartnerships, formal stipulations are 
 required by law in order to constitute a copartnership. 
 This is not a general rule, however, for in many branches 
 of business parties may agree orally for a participation 
 in profit and loss. These associations are divided into 
 different classes, distinguished by their objects, and the 
 extent of the liability of each partner. The £oman 
 law allowed of general copartnerships, extending the 
 community of property, and joint profit and loss, not 
 only to the business pursued, but also to all acquisitions 
 by either party, whether by legacy, inheritance, gift, 
 or as the fruits of industry. By that law, and so by 
 the laws of France, Spain, Louisiana, and other codes 
 derived from the Koman law, a man and his wife may 
 
PAK 
 
 1496 
 
 PAE 
 
 be copartners ; and, in making tlie marriage contract, 
 the kind and extent of copartnership is agreed upon, 
 the form of the stipulation for this purpose being par- 
 ticularly pointed out by the French code. It was be- 
 tween the parties to the marriage contract that the 
 general copartnerships above-mentioned were most 
 frequently formed. In this respect, however, the Soman 
 law, and those codes derived principallj* from it, leave 
 the parties at liberty to agree upon a universal copart- 
 nership or a limited one, or a separate property. 
 
 Copartnerships are usually confined to the prosecu- 
 tion of a particular branch of business, and it very 
 often happens that each copartner is concerned in other 
 branches. The term general copartnership is also ap- 
 plied to one formed for trade generally, or business 
 generally, without limitations ; but where the joint in- 
 terest extends only to a particular concern, as, for in- 
 stance, the freighting of a ship, it is called a special 
 copartnership. And so a partnership is called special 
 when the parties enter into stipulations modifying and 
 restraining the right and powers of the members, in- 
 stead of leaving them to the operation of the laws gen- 
 erally applicable to such associations ; and this is the 
 usual meaning of such copartnerships. Another de- 
 scription is that of limited copartnerships, in which one 
 or more partners put in a certain amount of capital, 
 which is liable for the contracts of the firm ; but be- 
 yond this the partj' or parties are not liable. This 
 sort of partnership is particularly provided for in the 
 French code, and is not unfrequent in France. It is a 
 very useful provision of the law that allows of such 
 associations, for it enables persons of fortune, and re- 
 tired from business, to put a part of their capital at 
 risk in trade, without risking their whole property; 
 and it accordingly operates very favorably upon the 
 enterprise of the community; for a young man who 
 has only his talents and industry to put into a concern 
 can thus more easily obtain the capital necessary to 
 give his activity and enterprise scope, and every com- 
 munity ought to open all practicable channels for the 
 intellectual and physical exertions of its members. 
 This species of copartnership has accordingly been par- 
 tially introduced into the United States, being provided 
 for in the code of Louisiana, which is modeled on the 
 French code, and having been introduced also into the 
 laws of New York by a statute, the provisions of which 
 were closely copied from the French code — the first in- 
 stance (as Chancellor Kent remarks in his Comment- 
 aries) in which any other foreign law than the English 
 had been adopted in the particular structure and pro- 
 visions of an American statute, in those States of whose 
 codes the English law is the basis. This species of 
 partnerships has also been authorized by statute in 
 Massachusetts, Ehode Island, Connecticut, Vermont, 
 New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, South Carolina, 
 Georgia, Alabama, Florida, Mississippi, Indiana, and 
 Michigan. We will now proceed to a more extended 
 account of limited partnerships. 
 
 The condition of a limited partnership is that the 
 name of the person whose liubility is thus limited must 
 be used in the firm, and particular provisions are made 
 as to paying in the amount of capital stipulated ; and 
 another suitable provision in such case is the provision 
 for some registry by which it may appear to those who 
 wish to make the inquiry what amount such partner 
 pays in. Some partnerships are secret; that is, some 
 one agrees, upon tei-ms, to share profits with ostensible 
 partners without any notice to the public of his being 
 a member of the firm. Each partner has a joint inter- 
 est in the whole personal property, and, unless the 
 articles stipulate otherwise, may transfer it. 
 
 Each partner may also bind the whole firm by his 
 contract made in the course of the business of the firm, 
 unless it be otherwise agreed between them ; and even 
 when it is otherwise agreed, still, if a party with whom 
 a partner contracts has a legal right, from the manner 
 in which the joint afl'airs are managed, to presume that 
 
 a partner is authorized to contract for and to bind his 
 
 copartners in regard to the subject of any contract, the 
 firm will be bound by such contract. But if the party 
 contracted with has notice that, by the articles of co- 
 partnership, a partner has not authority to make a con- 
 tract, the company will not be bound by it. So if a 
 partner contracts, in the partnership name, in a manner 
 which the party contracted with knows is not within 
 the business of the firm — as if he makes a negotiable 
 note in the name of the firm for his own separate debt 
 — the contract will not bind the firm to the party thus 
 contracted with ; but still, if this contract, being trans- 
 ferable in its nature, and holding out on the face of it 
 the responsibility of the whole firm, is negotiated to 
 those who have no notice that the paper was made for 
 the private accommodation of the partner who signed 
 the partnership name, the company will be bound in 
 respect to such assignee ; that is, the firm having given 
 notice to the world that they are copartners in a certain 
 branch of business, every one has a right to presume 
 that all acts done by each of them in regard to it are 
 authorized by the terms of their contract, or the circum- 
 stances of the case, unless he has notice to the contrary. 
 But certain acts are not authorized by the general 
 powers of copartners, and those no one partner can be 
 presumed to have power to do; as, for instance, one 
 partner is not merely, as such, authorized to make a 
 deed in the name of the other, or to act as his attorney ; 
 and he can not, accordingly, convey land belonging to 
 the members of the company ; for, though it may have 
 been acquired and paid for with the property of the 
 firm, yet when acquired, it belongs to the members in 
 common, if the title be in them all, and each member 
 can himself convey only his share ; and in order to the 
 conveyance of that of another, he must be specially 
 empowered. But a partner may release a debt due to 
 the firm if it be done fairly, and without collusion be- 
 tween him and the debtor. It has been held, however, 
 that one partner can not by deed submit a question to 
 arbitration. A partnership may be dissolved by its 
 own limitation, the death, bankruptcy, or insanity of 
 a member, or by the breaking out of a war between the 
 countries to which the members belong. 
 
 A question is also made whether a member may dis- 
 solve the copartnership voluntarily before the time for 
 which it was formed expires, and the opinion seems to 
 be that he may do so by giving sufficient notice to this 
 effect ; and this seems to be necessarily incident to new 
 associations ; for, though he would, in such case, be 
 answerable to his copartners for the breach of his agree- 
 ment, yet it would be exceedingly inconvenient if a 
 partner were irrevocably bound to give his copartners 
 the right of his credit, and of disposing of bis property, 
 after all his confidence in them had ceased. In case 
 of mismanagement by any partner having charge of 
 the partnership efi'ects, so that the other partners are 
 liable to be materially injured, they may make appli- 
 cation to a Court of Chancery to appoint a receiver to 
 take charge of the concerns of the company, and wind 
 up its affairs, in case the partnership has already been 
 dissolved, or in case there appears sufficient reason to 
 dissolve it. But where there is no ground for such ap- 
 plication to a Court of Chancery, and the company is 
 dissolved by the death of one partner, the joint prop- 
 erty will survive to the other partner, who may dispose 
 of it, and collect and pay the debts of the concern, and 
 will be liable to account to the personal representatives 
 of the deceased partner for his proportion of the surplus 
 property. In case of the decease of a partner, his per- 
 sonal representatives do not become copartners with 
 the surviving partners, but the afi^airs of the concern 
 must be settled with reference to the time of the death 
 of the deceased partner. — E. A. 
 
 Limited Partnership in New Yorh. ■ — 1. According to 
 the Eevised Statutes of the State of New York, limited 
 partnership for transaction of any mercantile, mechan- 
 ical, or manufacturing business within the State may 
 
PAR 
 
 1497 
 
 PAR 
 
 be forjnod of two or move persons ; but the provisions 
 of the act will not authorize any such partnership for 
 the purpose of banking or maldng insurance. 2. Such 
 partnerships may consist of one or more persons, who 
 shall be called general partners, and who shall be joint- 
 ly and severally responsible, as general partners now 
 are by law; and one or more persons who shall con- 
 tribute, in actual cash payments, a specific sum as cap- 
 ital to the common stock, who shall be called special 
 partners, and who shall not be liable for the debts of 
 the partnership beyond the fund so contributed by him 
 or them to the capital. 3, The general partners only 
 shall be authorized to transact business and sign for 
 the partnership, and to bind the same. 4. The persons 
 desirous of forming such' partnership shall make, and 
 severally sign, a certificate, which shall contain : I. The 
 name or firm under which such partnership is to be con- 
 ducted. II, The general nature of the business to be 
 transacted. III. The names of all the general and 
 special partners interested therein, distinguishing which 
 are general and which are special partners, and their 
 respective places of residence. IV. The amount of cap- 
 ital which each special partner shall have contributed 
 to the common stock. V. Tlie period at which the 
 partnership is to commence, and the period at which it 
 shall terminate. 6. The certificate shall be aclcnowl- 
 cdged by the several persons signing the same, before 
 the Chancellor, a Justice of the Supreme Court, a Cir- 
 cuit Judge, or a Judge of the County Courts ; and such 
 acknowledgment shall be made and certified in tlie 
 same manner as the acknowledgment of conveyance of 
 land. 6. The certificate so acknowledged and certified 
 shall be filed in the office of the clerk of the county 
 in which the principal place of business of the partner- 
 ship shall be situated, and shall also be recorded by 
 him at large in a book to be kept for the purpose, open 
 to public inspection. If the partnership shall have 
 places of business situated in different counties, a tran- 
 script of the certificate, and of the aclmowledgnient 
 thereof, duly certified by the clerk in whose office it 
 shall be filed, under his official seal, shall be filed and 
 recorded in like manner in the office of the clerk of ev- 
 ery such county. 7. At the time of filing the original 
 certificate, with the evidence of the acknowledgment 
 thereof, as before described, an affidavit of one or more 
 of the general partners shall also be filed in the same 
 office, stating that the sums specified in the certificate 
 to have been contributed by each of the special part- 
 ners to the common stock have been actually and in 
 good faith paid in cash. 8. No such partnership shall 
 be deemed to have been formed until a certificate shall 
 have been made, acknowledged, filed, and recorded, nor 
 until an affidavit shall have been filed, as above direct- 
 ed ; and if any false statement be made in such certifi- 
 cate or affidavit, all the persons interested in such part- 
 nership shall be liable for all the engagements thereof 
 as general partners. 9. The partners shall publish the 
 terms of the partnership, when registered, for at least 
 six weeks immediately after such registry, in two news- 
 papers, to be designated by the clerk of the county in 
 which such registry shall be made, and to be publish- 
 ed in the senate district in which their businesss shall 
 be carried on ; and if such publication be not made, 
 the partnership shall be deemed general. 10. Affida- 
 vits of the publication of such notice, by the printers 
 of the newspapers in which the same shall be publish- 
 ed, may be filed with the clerk directing "the same, and 
 sliall.be evidence of the facts therein contained. 11. 
 Every renewal or continuance of such partnership be- 
 yond the time originally fixed for its duration shall 
 be certified, acknowledged, and recorded, and an affi- 
 davit of a general partner be made and filed, and no- 
 tice be given in the manner herein required for its orig- 
 inal formation ; and every such partnership \vhich'shaH 
 be otherwise renewed or continued shall be deemed a 
 general partnership. 12. Every alteration which shall 
 be made in the names of the partners, in the nature of 
 
 the business, or in the capital or shares thereof, or in 
 any other matter specifiied in the original certificate^ 
 shall be deemed a dissolution of the partnership ; and 
 every such partnership which shall in any manner be 
 carried on after any such alteration shall have been 
 made, shall be deemed a general partnership, unless 
 renewed as a special partnership, according to the pro- 
 visions of last section. 13. The business of the part- 
 nership shall be conducted under a firm, in which the 
 names of the general partners only shall be inserted, 
 without the addition of the word " Company," or any 
 other general term ; and if the name of any special part- 
 ner shall be used in such firm, with his privity, he shall 
 be deemed a general partner. 14. Suits in relation to 
 the business of the partnership may be brought and 
 conducted by and against the general partners, in the 
 same manner as if there were no special partners. 15. 
 No part of the sum which any special partner shall 
 have contributed to the capital stock shall be with- 
 drawn by him, or paid and transferred to him, in the 
 shape of dividends, profits, or otherwise, at any time 
 during the continuance of the partnership ; but any 
 partner may annually receive lawful interest on the 
 sum so contributed by him, if the payment of such in- 
 terest shall not reduce the original amount of such cap- 
 ital ; and if, after the payment of such interest, any 
 profits shall remain to be divided, he may also receive 
 his portion of such profits. 16. If it shall appear that, 
 by the payment of interest or j>rofit3 to any special 
 partner, the original capital has been reduced, the part- 
 ner receiving the same shall be bound to restore the 
 amount necessary to make good his share of capital 
 with interest. 17. A special partner may, from time 
 to time, examine into the state and progress of the 
 partnership concerns, and may advise as to their man- 
 agement ; but he shall not transact any business on ac- 
 count of the partnership, nor be employed for that pur- 
 pose as agent, attorney, or otherwise. If he shall in- 
 terfere contrary to these provisions, he shall be deemed 
 a general partner. 18. The general partners shall be 
 liable to account to each other, and to the special part- 
 ners, for their management of the concern, both in law 
 and equity, as other partners now are by law. 19. 
 Every partner who shall be guilty of any fraud in the 
 affairs of the partnership shall be liable civilly to the 
 party injured to the extent of the damage, and shall 
 also be liable to an indictment for a misdemeanor, pun- 
 ishable by fine or Imprisonment, or both, in the discre- 
 tion of the court by which he shall be tried. 20. Ev- 
 ery sale, assignment, or transfer of any of the property 
 or effects of such partnership, made by such partner- 
 ship when insolvent, or in contemplation of insolvency, 
 or after, or in contemplation of the insolvency of any 
 partner, with the intent of giving a preference to any 
 creditor of such partnership or insolvent partner, over 
 other creditors of sucli partnership, and every judg- 
 ment conferred, lien created, or security given by sudi 
 partnership under the like circumstances, and with the 
 like intent, shall be void, as against the creditors of 
 such partnership. 21. Every such sale, assignment, 
 or transfer of any of the pi'operty or effects of a gener- 
 al or special partner, made by such general or special 
 partner when insolvent, or in contemplation of insolv- 
 ency, or after, or in contemplation of the insolvency 
 of the partnership, with the intent of giving to any 
 creditor of his own, or of the parnership, a preference 
 over creditors of the partnership, and every judgment 
 conferred, lien created, or security given by any sUCh 
 partner under the like circumstances, and with the like 
 intent, shall be void, as against the creditors of the 
 partnership. 22. Every special partner who shall vio- 
 late any provision of the two last preceding sections, 
 and who shall concur in and assent to any such viola- 
 tion by the 'partnership, or by any individual partnei-, 
 shall be liable as a general partner. 23. In case of the 
 insolvency or bankruptcj' of the partnership, no special 
 partner shall, under any circumstances, be allowed to 
 
PAR 
 
 1498 
 
 PAR 
 
 claim as a creditor until the claims of all the other 
 creditors of the partnership shall be satisfied. 24. No 
 dissolution of such partnership by the acts of the par- 
 ties shall take place previous to the time specified in 
 the certificate of its formation, or in the certificate of 
 its renewal, until a notice of such dissolution shall have 
 been filed and recorded in the clerk's office in which the 
 original certificate was recorded, and published once in 
 each "week for four weeks in a newspaper printed in 
 each of the counties where the partnership may have 
 places of business, and in the State papers. — Leone 
 Levi's CommeTcial Laio of the World. 
 
 Analysis of the general Law of Partnerships. — Part- 
 nership in Great Britain is a. contract entirely free, 
 and subject to no formalities ; it belongs to the parties 
 themselves to regulate the conditions ; the law is mere- 
 ly circumscribed in protecting the rights of third par- 
 ties, and to see them respected. Partnership in com- 
 mon law is divided into three classes — universal, gener- 
 al, and limited or special. They are also divided into 
 private partnerships and public companies. Public 
 companies are divided into unincorporated companies 
 or associations, and incorporated companies, and cor- 
 porations chartered by government. By the law of 
 Scotland partnerships are divided into ordinary part- 
 nerships, joint-stock companies, and public companies. 
 In the first the firm is a distinct person at law, and the 
 partners, although jointly and severally liable for all 
 the debts and contracts of the firm, are so as guaran- 
 tors of the firm. This is general partnership. Special 
 partnership is one contracted for a particular branch 
 of business. 
 
 There are principles connected with the law which 
 are identical in every country ; namely, that all mem- 
 bers of an ostensible partnership, or in collective name, 
 are responsible in solidum ; but differences appear in 
 points regarding the continuation or cessation of part- 
 nership after the decease of one of the partners. 'Thus 
 in Prussia or Frankfort, the heirs continue the partner- 
 ship until the end of the year, and if they do not give 
 notice of their retirement, or if they are not excluded 
 by the other partners, they do not cease to form part 
 of it. 
 
 In France partnership ends of full right at the in- 
 stant of the death of a partner, unless by contrary 
 agreement this last regulation has been generally 
 adopted. It is the same for that by which the profits 
 distributed among partners are not to be returned to 
 the partnership fund, whatever may happen afterward, 
 unless there be fraud, and the provision is added, that 
 a partner who brings in only his labor can not, in any 
 case, return the dividends which he has received. 
 
 Almost every legislation except that of Great Brit- 
 ain recognizes the existence of three kinds of commer- 
 cial partnerships. 1st. Ostensible partnerships (in 
 collective name) ; 2d. Partnerships ire commaBdJ/e; 3d. 
 Anonymous partnerships. 
 
 The Portuguese code specifies each kind of partner- 
 ship, indicating their rules at some length. In eCfect, 
 besides the partnership anonymous, dormant, or secret, 
 and in collective name, that of capital and labor is made 
 prominent ; in this case the partner with capital alone 
 is responsible beyond his investment, in consequence 
 of which the law" characterizes this association as ir- 
 rcffular. Then come partnerships in participation, with 
 limited or unlimited capital, called Parceria, either for 
 an indivisible object, or for a determinate end; but in 
 all cases it is necessary that it should refer to a com- 
 mercial operation, and that there be at least one mer- 
 chant either dormant or ostensible. There are m this 
 code some regulations worthy of being noted ; namely, 
 that a contract which would free the provider of funds 
 from all obligations, when he has a share in the profits, 
 is null but then he becomes an interested party, and 
 not a partner. A contract is declared usurious which 
 should allow to a lender of money the profits besides 
 the interests, without subjecting him to the losses, 
 
 which is very proper and just; because the principle 
 of equality ought to govern, above all, matters of part- 
 nership ; consequently this last clause ought to be an- 
 nulled if it existed. In general, a minor, even not a 
 trader, may .not be a partner ; but he has power to 
 make use of the privilege of restitution in case of loss. 
 If, at his coming of age, he has not declared that he 
 wishes to retire, he becomes responsible for all further 
 acts of the partnership. 
 
 It is most essential in partnership in collective name 
 that the partners should all be responsible in solidum. 
 In this the Dutch code is equal in all points to the 
 French code ; but the former code contains a deroga- 
 tion from this rule surprising at first, because it says 
 that a collective partner who has become commandi- 
 taire is not responsible in solidum. The reason of this 
 extraordinary regulation is founded upon the usage 
 which permits the continuation of ancient commercial 
 houses, known under the names of their founders, al- 
 though these have still their capital invested in them ; 
 true it is that third parties ought to have been ac- 
 quainted with it by the liquidation of the preceding 
 house, or by the publication of the dissolution. 
 
 In the Spanish code there is a regulation diflerent 
 from any other legislation in matter of constitution 
 of anonymous partnerships, by subjecting the articles, 
 not to the examination of the government, but of the 
 tribunals of commerce. The Spanish code and that of 
 Portugal prescribe a measure the same as that of the 
 Code Napoleon, which consists in making interests to 
 run in full right, on the investments of the partners, 
 from the day in which they ought to be made. With 
 regard to the nomination of managers of partnership, 
 in France the law has no provision for it. In "Wur- 
 temberg and in Spain, when the manager is nominated 
 by the articles, it is allowed, should his action be in- 
 jurious to the interests of the company, to add an- 
 other member. In Eussia it is prohibited to confer by 
 the articles the management of the partnership on cer- 
 tain parties for all its duration and without a renewal. 
 All legislation is silent upon the interests of the 
 capital invested by the shareholders. It is, in fact, 
 clear that an investment of funds in a partnership is 
 not an employment, but a sum bestowed for mere oper- 
 ations, and which can only allow to raise suras on the 
 realized profits, either every year, or at the time when 
 balance-sheets are drawn up according to law, or at 
 any other time, periodical or not. But in Hungary the 
 commanditaires" improperly called partners, because 
 they are then only considered as lenders of money, may 
 stipulate for interests beyond the legal rate which the 
 otlier partners ought to pay, even if they should suffer 
 losses. It is the same in Prussia. 
 
 With regard to the emission of shares and their 
 transference,, the Hungarian code contains very "im- 
 portant regulations. It says that all persons may buy 
 shares, but it proscribes shares to the bearer — a regu- 
 lation which was reproduced in the Russian code and 
 in the Wiirtemberg code. It says also that no invest- 
 ment of capital can be made nor interests claimed be- 
 fore the constitution of the partnership, and that only 
 when all shares are disposed of the shareholders may 
 establish the articles. Lastly, there is the remarkable 
 regulation, that when the majority of shareholders 
 have voted for a change or modification in the arti- 
 cles, of a nature to alter the object of the partnership, 
 the minority have power to retire. 
 
 The Bussian code prescribes several very curious 
 measures. The sale of shares, or promises of shares 
 on credit, is prohibited. A portion of the profits must 
 be taken to constitute a reserve fund ; the unreclaimed 
 dividend, after ten years, is united to the social fund, 
 or may be divided among the other shareholders. 
 Lastly, if the directors are divided in their delibera- 
 tions, the dissenting minority may exact that mention 
 be made of their opinion in the verbal process. The 
 same code indicates the mode of terminating disputes : 
 
PAR 
 
 1499 
 
 PAS 
 
 between shareholders or directors they may, with their 
 consent, be decided by the general meeting, or by ar- 
 bitrators ; when third parties are concerned, it stands 
 always with the tribunal of arbitrament to decide as a 
 forced jurisdiction. In France the same clause is 
 equally precise. But various modern legislations in- 
 serted regulations against this mode ; thus the code of 
 Wiirtemberg permits parties to derogate from it; the 
 Hungarian code says that disputes among partners 
 shall be brought before the Tribunal of Commerce ; and 
 if it regards bills of exchange, or in case of insolvency, 
 the}- shall be af^'udicated upon by the ordinary tribu- 
 nals. The liOmbardo-Venetian code does not repro- 
 duce the section of the French code, called On Disputes 
 among Partners. The recent codes of Nassau and Sar- 
 dinia do not contain any regulation on this matter. 
 In England, when a reference is depending, made, or 
 determined, it may be a bar ; but the agreement of the 
 parlies does not oust either courts of law or equity, as 
 the former will not allow their jurisdiction to be oust- 
 ed by any private arrangement, and equity will not 
 decree a specific performance thereof. 
 
 The law of merchants differs from the common law 
 in the power of binding a partner by deed. 
 
 Lord ICenyon said, in Harrison v. Jackson, 7 S. R. 
 210 : " The law on merchants is part of the law of the 
 land, and in mercantile transactions it never was 
 doubted but that one partner might bind the rest. 
 But the power of binding each other by deed is now 
 for the first time insisted on. A general partnership 
 agi'eement, though under seal, does not authorize the 
 partners to execute deeds for each other, unless a par- 
 ticular power be given for that purpose. Yet in com- 
 nlon law a partner has power to bind his copartner by 
 deed'." 
 
 Although, in the words of Hobart, C. J., " The 
 custom of merchants is part of the common law of the 
 United Kingdom, of which the judges ought to take 
 notice ; and if any doubt arise to them about their cus- 
 tom, they may send for the merchants to know their 
 custom, as they may send for the citizens to know their 
 law ;" yet, on the other hand, Lord Holt says, " We 
 take notice of the laws of merchants that are general, 
 not of those that are particular usages." — See Westmin- 
 ster Review^ xx. 58 ; American Quarterhj Review^ xix. 
 48 ; Hunt's Merchants^ Magazine^ xxiv. GG, xxxiii. 
 457, XXXV. 720. See also Leone Levi's Commercial 
 Law of the World, 4to. London, 1854 ; and Kent's 
 Commentaries, vol. iii. 
 
 Partners of the Masts, the wood-work round 
 the mast at the deck, to strengthen and support the 
 deck against the pressure of the mast. The term is 
 also applied to the similar supports round the capstan 
 and pumps. 
 
 Partridge Wood, » variegated wood imported 
 from Martinique ; it is said to be the produce of the 
 Heisteria coccinea. 
 
 Passengers, in Commercial navigation, are indi- 
 viduals conveyed for hire from one place to another 
 on board ship. Passage ships are those peculiarly ap- 
 propriated to the conveyance of passengers. Passage 
 ships are generally placed under certain regulations ; 
 and the extent to which emigration is now carried 
 renders it of the utmost importance that these regula- 
 tions should be carefully compiled. The greater num- 
 ber of emigrants are in humble life : few among them 
 know any thing of ships, or of the pi-ecautions neces- 
 sary to insure a safe and comfortable voyage ; they are 
 also, for the most part, poor, and exceedingly anxious 
 to economize, so that they seldom hesitate to embark 
 in any ship, bowever unfit for the convej'ance of pas- 
 sengers, or inadequately furnished with provisions, if 
 It be cheap. Unprincipled masters and owners have 
 not been slow to take advantage of this ; and in order 
 to prevent the frauds that would otherwise be practiced 
 on the unwary, it lias been found indispensable to lay 
 down some general regulations as to the number of 
 
 passengers to be taken on board ships as compared 
 with their tonnage, the quantity of water and provi- 
 sions as compared with the passengers, etc. But this 
 is no very easy task. If the limitations be too strict, 
 that is, if comparatively few passengers may be car- 
 ried, or if the stock of provisions to be put on board be 
 either unnecessarily large or expensive, the cost of em- 
 igration is proportionally enhanced, and an artificial 
 and serious impediment is thrown in the way of what 
 should be made as easy as possible, consistent with se- 
 curity. But, on the other hand, if too many passen- 
 gers be allowed, their health is liable to suffer; and 
 should the supplj^ of provisions be inadequate, or the 
 quality bad, the most serious consequences may ensue. 
 
 In some respects passengers may be considered as a 
 portion of the crew. They may be called on by the 
 master or commander of the ship, in case of imminent 
 danger either from tempest or enemies, to lend their 
 assistance for the general safety ; and in the event of 
 their declining, may be punished for disobedience. 
 This principle has been recognized in several cases ; 
 but as the authority arises out of the necessity of the 
 case, it must be exercised strictly within the limits of 
 that necessity. — Boi/ce v. Badclijfe, 1 Campbell, 58, A 
 passenger is not, however, bound to remain on board 
 the ship in the hour of danger, but may quit it if he 
 have an opportunity; and he is not required to take 
 upon himself any responsibility as to the conduct of the 
 ship. If he incur any responsibility, and perform ex- 
 traordinary services in relieving a vessel in distress, he 
 is entitled to a corresponding reward. The goods of 
 passengers contribute to general average. — Abbott tm 
 the Law of Shipping. 
 
 Passenger Act of the United States. — It is made the 
 dutj- of the Secretary of State, by the second para- 
 graph of the 18th section of the act approved 3d of 
 March, 1855, to give notice, in the ports of Europe 
 and elsewhere, of the provisions of the act to regulate 
 the carriage of passengers in steamships and other 
 vessels. 
 
 The special attention of United States consular offi- 
 cers is called to this act, and also to the instructions 
 which have been issued by the Treasury Department 
 in reference. to it. It will be observed that, while this 
 act prescribes spaces of certain clear superficial feet of 
 deck to each passenger (other than cabin passengers), 
 it moreover fixes a maximum, by restricting the num- 
 ber of such passengers allowed to be carried in any 
 such vessel in the proportion of one to every two tons 
 of said vessel's tonnage measurement, excluding chil- 
 dren under the age of one year in the computation, and 
 computing two children over one and under eight years 
 of age as one passenger. It follows, that though a ves- 
 sel might afford clear spaces of the dimensions indica- 
 ted for a greater number of passengers than one to ev- 
 ery two tons of her tonnage measurement, yet if the 
 number shall exceed that allowed by her tonnage meas- 
 urement the penalties imposed by the law would at- 
 tach ; or if her tonnage measurement should allow a 
 greater number of passengers than according to the 
 clear spaces prescribed by law she could carry, yet if 
 tlie number shall exceed that allowed by the clear 
 spaces prescribed by law the penalties imposed by the 
 law would equally attach. In other words, the one 
 rule, as to the number of passengers a vessel is entitled 
 to carry, is a limitation upon the other. The tonnage 
 of each vessel, according to custom-house measure- 
 ment, must, therefore, be ascertained, as well as the 
 measurement of the spaces allotted to passengers, in 
 order to determine the number of passengers she is en- 
 titled to carry. 
 
 In order to determine the number of passengers a 
 vessel is entitled to carry in accordance with the spaces 
 prescribed by this act, the height between decks must 
 be measured, not from the bottom edge of the carlines 
 or deck beams, but from the under surface of the upper 
 deck to the top floor below ; and no space shall be con- 
 
PAS 
 
 1500 
 
 PAS 
 
 sidered available for passengers that has not, when 
 measured in this manner, the height called for by the 
 law, as the case may be ; nor shall any space in the 
 vessel of a less width than four feet be measured ; pro- 
 vided, however, if the vessel shall, in accordance with 
 the provisions of the first section of this act, cari-y any 
 portion of her cargo, or any other article or articles, on 
 any of the decks, cabins, or other places appropriated 
 for the use of passengers, in lockers or inclosures pre- 
 pared for the purpose, the height between decks shall 
 be measured from the bottom edge of the carlines, or 
 deck beams, to the upper surface of said lockers or in- 
 closed spaces, which shall be deemed and taken to be 
 the deck or platform from which measurement shall be 
 made for all the purposes of this act, and the spaces 
 occupied by said lockers or inclosed spaces shall be de- 
 ducted from the spaces allowable for the use of passen- 
 gers. For example : the spaces in the main and poop 
 decks, or platforms, and in the deck houses, if any there 
 be, will be 16 X 6=96 feet; lower deck, 18 X 6=108 feet; 
 two-deck vessels, 14 X 7 ^ = 105 feet. The encumbering 
 by merchandise or stores, not the personal baggage of 
 the passengers, except in lockers or inclosures prepared 
 for the purpose, of any part of the space occupied by 
 the passengers, will vitiate the whole space, unless the 
 part so encumbered be separated from that so occupied 
 by a substantial bulkhead. The deck or platform must 
 be of a permanent nature, Hush, and impervious to the 
 water. 
 
 Passport, a warrant of protection and authority 
 to travel, granted to persons moving from place to 
 place by the competent officer. The word appears to 
 be derived from the maritime usage of some Continent- 
 al countries of giving similar authorities from the ad- 
 miral of a naval station to vessels leaving harbors 
 within his jurisdiction. As passports are not required 
 in our own country, the only species known to our trav- 
 elers is that of foreign passports, which, for traveling 
 on the continent of Europe, are usually made out by 
 the resident minister or consul of the country he in- 
 tends Jirst to visit, or by the State Department. They 
 are subject to visa, or inspection, by the proper author- 
 ities at the place where the traveler disembarks, and 
 also at other places where he may reach, according to 
 the police regulations of each particular country, and 
 on passing the frontiers of states. Austria is, we be- 
 lieve, the only European state which at this time re- 
 quires absolutely the visa of an embassador or minister 
 of her own for travelers entering her domains by land. 
 In France, and in many Continental countries, home 
 passports are necessary for the native traveler. Ac- 
 cording to the letter of the French law (since 179G), a 
 Frenchman can not pass the limits of the canton in 
 which he is domiciled without a passport ; but in prac- 
 tice it is not required within the extent of the depart- 
 ment. Legally speaking, the strict formalities of an 
 internal passport in France require the direction of a 
 journey to be specified, and its exact execution attest- 
 ed by the i-isas and signatures of the police authorities 
 at every place mentioned in it ; and these laws are, 
 from their severity, so incapable of complete execution, 
 that it is a common saying that no man but a rogue is 
 ever entirely era regie with respect to his passport, sus- 
 picious characters being usually the most particular in 
 their attention to formalities, for fear of detention. A 
 Frenchman traveling without a properly-authenticated 
 passport is liable to arrest and detention for a period 
 not exceeding a month. The fees fixed in France are 
 two francs for a passport to travel at home, and ten to 
 go abroad. 
 
 By the twenty-first section of the act of August 18, 
 1856, the Secretary of State of the United States is au- 
 thorized to grant and issue passports, and cause pass- 
 ports to be granted, issued, and verified in foreign coun- 
 tries by such diplomatic or consular ofiicers of the Unit- 
 ed States, and under such rales as the President .shall 
 designate and prescribe, for and on behalf of the Unit- 
 
 ed States, and no other person shall grant, issue, or 
 verify any such passport; nor shall any passport be 
 granted or issued to or verified for any Other persons 
 than citizens of the United States ; nor shall any 
 charge be made for granting, issuing, or verifjing any 
 passport,' except in a foreign country ; and in any case 
 the fee allowed therefor shall not exceed the sum of one 
 dollar, nor shall any such charge be made for more than 
 one such verification in any foreign country ; and if anj' 
 -person acting or claiming to act in any office or capac- 
 ity under the United States, or any of the States of the 
 United States, who shall not be lawfully authorized so 
 to do, shall grant, issue, or verify any passport, or oth- 
 er instrument in the nature of a passport, to or for anj' 
 citizen of the United States, or to or for any person 
 claiming to be or designated as such in such passport 
 or verification ; or if any consular officer who shall be 
 authorized to grant, issue, or verify passports, shall 
 knowingly and willingly grant, issue, or verify any 
 such passport to or for any person not a citizen of the 
 United States, the person so offending shall be deemed 
 and taken to be guilty of a misdemeanor, and on con- 
 viction thereof shall be imprisoned not exceeding one 
 year, or fined in a sum not to exceed five hundred dol- 
 lars, or both ; and may be charged, proceeded against, 
 tried, convicted, and dealt with therefor in the district 
 where he maj' be arrested or in custody. It is likewise 
 made the duty of all persons who shall be authorized, 
 pursuant to the provisions of the act, to grant, issue, 
 or verify passports, to make return of the same to the 
 Secretary of State ; and such returns shall specify the 
 names and all other particulars of the persons to whom 
 the same shall be granted, issued, or verified, as em- 
 braced in such passport. 
 
 From the foregoing provisions of the act it will be 
 seen that passports can only be issued by the Secretary 
 of State, and such diplomatic and consular officers of 
 the United States in foreign countries as he may ex- 
 pressly authorize, and they can be granted to citizens 
 of the United States only. Passports will be granted 
 by the Secretary of State, and by the diplomatic repre- 
 sentatives of the United States in foreign countries, 
 free of charge ; but when issued by a consul general or 
 consul, the fee of one dollar, as prescribed in these in- 
 structions, is to be collected in every case. As pass- 
 ports granted by the Secretary of State secure to the 
 bearers facilities from foreign governments not accord- 
 ed to those issued by diplomatic officers, consuls gen- 
 eral, or consuls, it will always be to the interest of 
 travelers to procure their passports before leaving the 
 United States, and this course is earnestly recommend- 
 ed by the Department of State. In any country where 
 there is a diplomatic representative of the United 
 States, no consul general or consul is authorized to is- 
 sue passports, except in the absence of such represent- 
 ative from the place of his legation. Whenever he 
 may be so absent, authority' is given to consuls general 
 and consuls only to issue passports ; but in all cases 
 the said consuls general or consuls, as the case may be, 
 will report to the Department of State the names of the 
 persons to whom passports have been issued by them, 
 together with the evidence of their being citizens of 
 the United States, and a copy of the same report will 
 be forwarded to the legation of the United States, if 
 there be any in the country. In case there should be 
 no diplomatic representative accredited to the country 
 in which a consul general or consul may reside, then 
 these officers are authorized to grant passports, having 
 regard to the general instructions to consular officers 
 in reference thereto; they will transmit, in all cases, 
 to the Department of State the information in regard 
 to citizenship required by this section. 
 
 Whenever a foreign government shall require the 
 visa of a passport of any citizen of the United States, 
 it shall be given by the consular officer of the United 
 States at the place where it is demanded, and he shall, 
 for each passport so visaed, collect and account for the 
 
PAS 
 
 1501 
 
 PAT 
 
 fee prescribed in these instructions, noting on the pass- 
 port that this has been done ; and no charge shall there- 
 after be made by any officer of the United States for 
 any visa of that passport in the same country. Pass- 
 ports are granted upon the ground of international 
 courtesy, and as affording evidencei to the diplomatic 
 and other agents in foreign flouotries that the bearer 
 thereof is a citizen of the United States, and entitled 
 to full protection as such. A passport, in proper form, 
 must contain a description of the bearer, with his sig- 
 nature ; it must also request all whom it may concern 
 to permit the bearer thereof, being a citizen of the 
 United States, safely and, freely to pass, and, in case 
 of neled, to give him all lawful aid and protection while 
 80 doing. It must be signed by the diplomatic repre- 
 sentative, consul general, or consul, and sealed with 
 the seal of the legation or consulate. Consuls general 
 and consuls are expressly instructed that when an ap- 
 plication is made for a passport by a native citizenof 
 the United States, before granting it, the applicant 
 must file in the consulate an affidavit stating that fact^ 
 and also his age and place of birth ; this must be sign- 
 ed and sworn to by himself and one other citizen of the 
 United States named 'therein, to whom he is personal- 
 ly known, and to the best of whose knowledge and be- 
 lief the declaration made by him is true. If. the appli- 
 cant be a naturalized citizen, a passport can only be 
 granted upon his exhibiting a certificate of naturaliza- 
 tion, or a certified copy thereof; an authenticated copy 
 of which must be transmitted by the consul general or 
 consul to the Department of State. When the appli- 
 cant is accompanied by his wife, children) or servants, 
 or by feqiales under his protection, it.will.be sufficient 
 to state the names and ages of such persons and their 
 relationship to the applicant. 
 
 UNITED STATES CONSULAR PASSPORT. 
 
 Consulate of the United States of Ameeioa, 
 
 To all to Yrhom these presents shall come, greeting: 
 
 I, the undersigned, consul of tlie United 
 States of America for ■- — , and the de- 
 pendencies thereof, hereby request all 
 whom it may concern, to permit safely and 
 
 freely to pass, , a. citizen of the 
 
 United States, and in case of need to give 
 him all lawful aid and protection. 
 Given under my hand and the seal of the 
 
 consulate, at , this day 
 
 of . ■, A,D. 18 — , and in the 
 
 '■ '^ year of the independence of the 
 United States . 
 
 Age, yearfl, 
 
 Stnture, 
 
 Forehend, 
 
 Eyes, 
 
 Nose, 
 
 Mouth, 
 
 Chin, 
 
 Hoir, 
 
 ComplexioD, 
 
 Face, ' 
 
 Paste (Fr. pate). In Gem Sculpture, a prepara- 
 tion of glass, calcined crystal, lead, and other ingredi- 
 ents, for imitating gems. This art was well known to 
 the ancients, and, after being long lost, was restored, 
 at the end of the fifteenth century, by a Milanese paint- 
 er. Some modern artists have succeeded in obtaining 
 a composition possessing a hard, fine, and brilliant 
 lustre or appearance ; hut pastes, or mock diamonds, as 
 they are called, depend most for brilliancy on the art 
 displayed in setting the foil or tinsel behind them. 
 Several recipes have been given by M. Fontanien; 
 but the most useful, and that generally employed for 
 the production of artificial diamonds, is the following : 
 Take of litharge 20 parts, of silex 12, of nitre 4, of 
 borax 4, and of white arsenic 2 parts. These ingredi- 
 ents are to be well mixed together in a crucible and 
 melted ; the fused metal is thrown into water ; and 
 should any of the lead employed be reduced to the 
 metallic state, it becomes separated by this process, 
 and the glass is remelted for use. For the finer kinds, 
 rock crystal is used instead of flint or sand, as it occurs 
 in a much purer state ; ;'. e., more free from the admix- 
 ture of metallic oxyds, which give to vitreous com- 
 pounds their different colors. In place of the above, 
 
 Loysel recommends the following ingredients to form 
 ai compound having the same specific gravity as the 
 Oriental diamond, and on. this account considered su- 
 perior, as it more nearly approaches the gem with re- 
 gard to its refractive and dispersive powers ; but, like 
 the former, it requires to be kept for some two or three 
 days in a fused state, in order to expel the superabund- 
 ant alkali and to perfect the refining. A moderate de- 
 gree of heat fuses it. The following is its composition : 
 Take of white sand purified by being washed, first in 
 muriatic acid and afterward in pure water until all 
 traces, of acid are removed, 100 parts ; red oxyd of lead 
 (minium) 150 parts ; calcined potash 30 to 35 parts ; 
 calcined borax 10 ; and oxyd of arsenic 1 part. — See 
 tii& Polytechnic Journal for July, 1841. The term 
 paste is also applied to the earthy mixture for pottery 
 and porcelain ; also to dough, and to the solution of 
 starch or wheat flour, made by first mixing it with a 
 proper portion of cold water, and then adding boiling 
 water under constant stirring, so as to form an even 
 solution. Alum is often added to paste to strengthen 
 it. — Bbande's Diotionqry, • __ 
 
 Pastel (Lat. paetilljis). In painting, a crayon 
 formed with any color and gum water, for painting on 
 paper or parchment. The great defect of this mode of 
 painting is its want of durability. 
 
 Patents. A patent, according to the definition of 
 Mr. Philps, is a grant by the State of the exclusive 
 privilege of making, using, and vending, and author- 
 izing others to make,, use, and vend, an invention. 
 
 The first act of Congress on this subject was passed 
 April 10th, 1790, and it authorized the Secretary of 
 State, the Secretary of War, and the Attorney General, 
 or any two of them, to grant patents for such new in- 
 ventions and discoveries as they should deem sufiicient- 
 ly useful and important. That act extended equally 
 to- aliens, and the board exercised the power of refus- 
 ing patents for want of novelty or utility. This act 
 was repealed, and a new act passed on the 21st Febru- 
 arj', 1793. It confined patents to the citizens of the 
 United States, and they were to be granted by the 
 Secretary of State, subject to the revision, of the At- 
 torney General. The act gave no power to the Secre- 
 tary of State to refuse a patent for want of novelty or 
 usefulness, and the granting of the patent became a 
 mere ministerial duty. The privilege of suing out a 
 patent was, by the act of 17th April, 1800, extended to 
 aliens of two years' residence in the United States. 
 The act of July 13th, 1832, only required the alien to 
 be a resident at the time of the application, and to 
 have declared his intention, according to law, to be- 
 come a citizen. 
 
 But as every person was entitled to take out a pat- 
 ent, on complying with the prescribed terms, without 
 any material inquiry, at least at the Patent Office, re- 
 specting the usefulness and importance of the invention 
 or improvement, a great many worthless and fraudu- 
 lent patents were issued, and the value of the privilege 
 was degraded, and in a great degree destroyed. It be- 
 came necessary to give a new organization to the Pat- 
 ent Office, and to elevate its character, and confer upon 
 it more ef&cient power. This was done by the act of 
 Congress of July 4th, 1836, which repealed all former 
 laws on the subject, and re-enacted the patent system 
 with essential improvements. A Patent Office is now 
 attached to the Interior Department, and acommissioner 
 of patents appointed. Applications for patents are to 
 be made in writing to the commissioner, by any per- 
 sons having discovered or invented any new and use- 
 ful art, machine, manufacture, or composition of mat- 
 ter, or any new and useful improvement on any art, 
 machine, manufacture, or composition of matter, not 
 knowp or used by others before his discovery or inven- 
 tion thereof, and not at the time of his application for 
 a patent in public use or on sale, with his consent or 
 allowance, as the inventor or discoverer. The appli- 
 cant must deliver a ^vritten description of his invention 
 
PAT 
 
 1502 
 
 PAT 
 
 or discovery, and of the manner and process of making, 
 constructing, using and compounding the same, in full, 
 clear, and exact terms, avoiding unnecessary prolixity, 
 so as to enable any person skilled in the art or science 
 to which it appertains, or is most nearly connected, to 
 make, construct, compound, and use the same ; and he 
 must, in the case of a machine, fully explain the prin- 
 ciple and the application of it, by which it may be dis- 
 tinguished from other inventions; and he must par- 
 ticularly specify the part, improvement, or combination 
 which he claims as his own invention or discovery. 
 He must accompany the same with drawings and writ- 
 ten references, where the nature of the case admits of 
 drawings or specimens of ingredients, and of the com- 
 position of matter sufficient in quantity for the purpose 
 of experiment, where the invention or discovery is of a 
 composition of matter. He must likewise furnish a 
 model of his invention, in cases which admit of repre- 
 sentation by model. The applicant also must make 
 oath or affirmation that he believes he is the original 
 and first inventor or discoverer of the art, machine, 
 composition, or improvement for which he solicits a 
 patent, and that he does not know or believe that the 
 same was ever before known or used, and he must fur- 
 ther state of what country he is a citizen. 
 
 If the applicant be a citizen, or an alien of one 3'ear's 
 residence, he is to pay to the Treasury of the United 
 States §30; and if a British subject, $500; and all 
 other applicants, $300. The original and true invent- 
 or is not to be deprived of the right to a patent for his 
 invention, by reason of his having previously taken 
 out letters patent therefor in a foreign country, and the 
 same having been published at any time within six 
 months next preceding the filing of his specification 
 and drawing. The executors and administrators of 
 persons dying before a patent is taken out, may apply 
 and take it out in trust for the heirs or devisees, on due 
 compliance with the terms of the statute. Patents are 
 assignable, and may be granted in whole or in part by 
 ■vvriting, to be recorded in the Patent Office. If invalid 
 by reason of defective specifications, or by claiming too 
 much, the patent may be surrendered, and a now pat- 
 ent taken out for the unexpired period, provided the 
 error did not arise from any fraudulent intention. If 
 the patentee be an alien, he forfeits his exchisive right, 
 if he fails for eighteen months from the date of the pat- 
 ent to continue on sale to the public on reasonable 
 terms the invention or discovery covered by the pat- 
 ent. The patentee does not lose his patent if it satis- 
 factorily appears to the court, that at the time of his 
 application he believed himself to be the first inventor 
 or discoverer of the thing patented, though the inven- 
 tion or discovery, or any part thereof, had been before 
 known or used in a foreign country ; provided it does 
 not appear that the same, or any substantial part 
 thereof, had before been patented or described in any 
 printed publication. 
 
 These are the principal existing statute provisions 
 on the subject, and though the act of Congress of 1836 
 has made considerable alterations in the pre-existing 
 laws respecting the organization of the Patent Office, 
 and the limitations on the granting of patents, yet the 
 essential and established doctrines concerning patents 
 heretofore declared in the decisions of the courts re- 
 main unaffected. The act of 1793 declared that sim- 
 ply changing the foi-m or the proportions of any ma- 
 chine or composition of matter in any degree was not 
 a discovery. And also, that the person who liad dis- 
 covered an improvement in the principle of any ma- 
 chine, or in the process of any composition of matter, 
 might obtain a patent for such improvement, but that 
 ho could not thereby make, use, or vend the original 
 discovery, nor could the first inventor use the improve- 
 merit. These declaratory provisions are omitted in 
 the law of 1836, and I presume the constraction was 
 considered to be necessarily the same without the pro- 
 vision. In an age distinguished for an active and ar- 
 
 dent spirit of improvement in the arts of agriculture 
 and manufactures, and in the machinery of every kind 
 applied to their use, the doctrine of patent rights has 
 attracted much discussion, and become a subject of 
 deep interest both here and in Europe, — Kent's Com- 
 mentaries, vol. ii. p, 438 ; Ddkl.ip's Digest Laws XT. S. 
 
 Patras, or Patrasso, a sea-port in the northwest 
 corner of the Morea, near the entrance of the Gulf of 
 Lepanto, lat. 38° 14' 25" N., long. 21° 46' 20" E. 
 Population variously estimated from 7000 to 8000. 
 The port lies a little to the northward of the town ; but 
 the part fronting it is unsafe, and exposed to heavy 
 seas, particularly in winter. Vessels, therefore, go a 
 little farther up the gulf, where there is a mole or quay, 
 and where they can lie close to the wharf. Patras has 
 a more extensive trade than any other port of Greece. 
 The principal exports are currants, oil, valonia, wine, 
 raw silk, raw cotton, wool, skins, wax, etc. Of these, 
 currants are by far the most important. The fruit is 
 larger, and freer from sand and gravel, than that of the 
 Ionian Islands. They are shipped in casks of various 
 sizes ; but as the weight of the cask is included in that 
 of the fruit, it is said to be, for the most part, heavier 
 and stronger than necessary. Morea currants are pre- 
 ferred in most countries, except England ; but there 
 the currants of Zante are held in equal, or perhaps 
 greater, estimation. The export of currants from Pa- 
 tras may average from 70,000 to 80,000 cwts. a year; 
 but the produce of the crop varies extremely in difll^r- 
 ent seasons. Latterly the culture of currants in the 
 Morea has been very greatly extended. Owing to the 
 increase of their quantity, their price has been much 
 reduced. But their cultivation would notwithstand- 
 ing be extremely profitable were it not for the extraor- 
 dinary risks by which it is attended. It is seldom, in- 
 deed, that (he entire crop can be housed without seri- 
 ous damage ; and very frequently it is all but entirely 
 lost. This was the case with the crop of 1852, the loss 
 of which occasioned much distress. The crops of oil, 
 the next great article of export from Patras, are, if 
 possible, still more fluctuating than those of currants. 
 The imports at Patras, as at the other Greek ports, 
 consist principally of sugar, coffee, and other colonial 
 products ; plain and printed cotton stuffs, woolen goods, 
 salted fish, iron, tin plates, hardware, coal, cordage, 
 hemp, deals, etc. Imported articles are brought prin- 
 cipally from the Ionian Islands, Malta, Venice, Leg- 
 horn, Marseilles, and Trieste ; but, from the want of 
 authentic details, it is quite impossible to form any ac- 
 curate estimate of their amount either as respects Pa- 
 tras or any other Greek port. 
 
 Commerce. — The Greeks have particularly distin- 
 guished themselves by the spirit and success with 
 which they have engaged in naval and mercantile en- 
 terprises. Their commerce, next to their freedom, was 
 the grand source of the prosperity of Athens, Corinth, 
 and other Greek cities of antiqiuty. And in this re- 
 spect the modern Greeks have been no unsuccessful 
 imitators of their illustrious progenitors. The great 
 articles of export from Greece consist of currants, silk, 
 figs, wool, olive oil, valonia, wine, sponge, wax, to- 
 bacco, etc. ; the principal imports being manufactured 
 cotton and woolen goods, corn, with a great variety of 
 subordinate articles, principally from England, but 
 partly also from France and 'Germany. The mercan- 
 tile navy of "Greece was estimated in 1850 at 4000 ves- 
 sels, of the aggregate Tjurden of 150,000 tons, employ- 
 ing about 30,000 seamen. The Greeks have, in fact, 
 attained to the distinction of being the carriers, factors, 
 and traders of the Levant. 
 
 The advantage resulting to Greece from her being 
 the seat of extensive trade is not so great as might 
 have been anticipated. The import and export trade 
 of the country is subjected to many troublesome regu- 
 lations ; there are no roads, which, however, are less 
 wanted here than in most other countries. Manufac- 
 tures on a large scale can not be said to exist, the bulk 
 
PAT 
 
 1503 
 
 PAW 
 
 of the population, but little removed from barbarism, 
 using only those made at home; agriculture is also 
 in the most backward condition, and is almost wholly 
 carried on under the metayer system. Still, however, 
 some improvements are taking place, especially in the 
 islands ; and it is probable that the progress toward a 
 better state of things will be gradually accelerated. It 
 is deeply to be regretted that Candia, or Crete, was 
 not either added to the new kingdom of Greece, or 
 made independent. We can not help considering it as 
 disgraceful to the Christian nations of Europe, that 
 this famous island, where European civilization first 
 struck its roots, should be consigned to the barbarians 
 by whom it is now laid waste. It is as well entitled 
 to the favorable consideration of England, France, and 
 Kussia, as any part of Continental Greece ; and we 
 hope tiiat measures may yet be devised for rescuing it 
 from the atrocious deapotiem by which it has been so 
 long weighed down. — See Greece. For Commerce, 
 etc., of Modern Greece, see Lioing Age, ii. 557 ; Niles's 
 Register, xxv. 342 (Daniel Weesteu's Speech); 
 Hunt's Merchants' Magazine, vii. 109 ; De Bow's He- 
 view, xiii. 134; Democratic Review, viii. 204 (George 
 
 Sn.MNEB). 
 
 Patterns are specimens or samples of commodities, 
 transmitted by manufacturers to their correspondents, 
 or carried from town to town by travelers, in search of 
 orders. 
 
 Pa-wnbrokers and Pawnbroking. A pawn- 
 broker is a species of banlter, who advances money, at 
 a certain rate of interest, upon security of goods depos- 
 ited in his hands ; having power to sell the goods, if 
 the principal sum and the interest thereon be not paid 
 within a specified time. The origin of borrowing 
 money by means of pledges deposited with lenders is 
 referred, as a regular trade, to Perousa, in Italy, about 
 A.i). 1458 ; and soon afterward in England. The busi- 
 ness of pawnbrokers was regulated 30 Geo. II., 1756. 
 Licenses were issued 24 Geo. III., 1783. In London 
 there arc 334 pawnbrokers ; and in England, exclu- 
 sively of London, 1127. 
 
 Advantages and Disadvantages of Pawribrohing, — Th^ 
 practice of impledging or pawning goods, in order to 
 raise loans, is one that must necessarily always exist in 
 civilized societies, and is in many cases productive of 
 advantage to the parties. But it is a practice that is 
 extremely liable to abuse. By far tiie largest propor- 
 tion of the bona fide borrowers of money on pawn con- 
 sist of the lowest and most indigent classes; and were 
 the lenders not subjected to any species of regulation, 
 advantage might be taken (as, indeed, it is frequently 
 taken, in despite of every precaution) of their necessi- 
 ties, to subject them to tlie most grievous extortion. 
 But, besides those whose wants compel them to resort 
 to pawnbrokers, there is another class, who have re- 
 course to them in order to get rid of the property they 
 have unlawfully acquired. Not only, therefore, are 
 pawnbrokers instrumental in relieving the pressing and 
 urgent necessities of the poor, but they may also, even 
 without intending it, become the most efficient allies 
 of thieves and swindlers, by affording them ready and 
 convenient outlets for the disposal of their ill-gotten 
 gains. The policy of giving legislative protection to 
 a business so liable to abuse has been doubted by many. 
 But though it were suppressed by law, it would always 
 really exist. An individual po.ssessed of propertv 
 which he may neither be able nor willing to dispose 
 of, may be reduced to a stateof extreme difficulty ; and 
 in such case, what can be more convenient or advan- 
 tageous for him than to get a loan upon a deposit of 
 such property, under condition that if he repay the 
 loan and the interest upon it within a certain period, 
 the property will be returned? It is said, indeed, that 
 the facilities of raising money in this way foster habits 
 of imprudence ; that the first resort for aid to a pawn- 
 broker almost always leads to a second ; and that it is 
 impossible so to regulate the business as to prevent 
 
 the ignorant and the necessitous from being plundered. 
 That this statement, though exaggerated, is to a cer- 
 tain extent true, no one can deny. On the other hand, 
 however, the capacity of obtaining supplies on deposits 
 of goods, by affording the means of meeting pressing 
 exigencies, in so far tends to prevent crime, and to pro- 
 mote the security of property ; and it would seem as 
 if the desire to redeem property in pawn would be one 
 of the most powerful motives to industry and economy. 
 At the same time, too, it must be borne in mind tliat 
 it is not possible, do what you will, to prevent those 
 who are poor and uninstructed from borrowing ; and 
 that they must in all cases obtain loans at a great 
 sacrifice, and be liab'le to be impos.ed upon. But the 
 fair presumption is, that there is less chance of any 
 improper advantage being talcen of them by a licensed 
 pawnbroker than by a private and irresponsible indi- 
 vidual. Although, however, the business had all the 
 inconveniences, without any portion whatever of the 
 gdod which really belongs to it, it would be to no pur- 
 pose to attempt its suppression. It is visionary to im- 
 agine that those who have property will submit to be 
 reduced to the extremity of want, without endeavoring 
 to raise money upon it. Any attempt to put down 
 pawnbroking would merely drive respectable persons 
 from the trade, and throw it entirely into the hands of 
 those who have neither property nor character to lose. 
 And hence the object of a wise Legislature ought not 
 to be to abolish what must always exist, but to en- 
 deavor, so far at least as is possible, to free it from 
 abuse, by enacting such regulations as may appear to 
 be best calculated to prevent the ignorant and the un- 
 wary from becoming the pre}' of swindlers, and to fa- 
 cilitate the discovery of stolen property. 
 
 Obligations under which Pawnbrokers should beplaced. 
 — For this purpose it seems indispensable that the in- 
 terest charged by pawnbrokers should be limited ; that 
 they should be obliged to give a receipt for the articles 
 pledged, and to retain them for a reasonable time be- 
 fore selling them ; that the sale, when it does take 
 place, should be by public auction, or in such a way as 
 may give the articles the best chance for being sold at 
 a fair price ; and that the excess of price, if there be 
 any, after deducting the amount advanced, and the in- 
 terest and expenses of sale, should be paid over to the 
 original owner of the goods. To prevent pawnbrokers 
 from becoming the receivers of stolen goods, they should 
 be liable to penalties for making advances to any indi- 
 vidual unable to give a satisfactory account of the mode 
 in which he became possessed of the property he is de- 
 sirous to pawn ; the officers of police should at all times 
 have free access to tlieir premises ; and they should be 
 obliged carefully to describe and advertise the property 
 they offer for sale. 
 
 Law as to Patcnbrokers.-^It may appear singular 
 that pawnbrokers sliould hardly have been named in 
 any legislative enactment till after the middle of last 
 century. It was enacted by the 30 Geo. II. that a dupli^ 
 cate or receipt should be given for goods pawned, and 
 that such as were pawned for any sum less than £10 
 might be recovered any time within two years on pay- 
 ment of the principal and interest ; but the rate of in- 
 terest was not fixed. 
 
 Of the pledge of Mortgage and Chattels. — There is a 
 material distinction to be noticed between a pledge and 
 a mortgage. A pledge, or pawn, is a deposit of goods 
 redeemable on -certain terms, and either with or with- 
 out a fixed period of redemption. Delivery accompa- 
 nies a pledge, and is essential to its validity. The gen- 
 eral property does not pass, as in the case of a mortgage, 
 and the pawnee has only a special property. If no 
 time of redemption be fixed by the contract, the pawn- 
 er may redeem at any time ; and though a day of pay- 
 ment be fixed, he may redeem after the day. He has 
 his whole lifetime to redeem, provided the pawnee does 
 not call upon him to redeem, as he has a right to do at 
 any time, in his discretion, if no time for redemption 
 
PAW 
 
 1604 
 
 FEA 
 
 be fixed ; and if no such call be made, the representa- 
 tives of the pawner may redeem after his death. As 
 early as the time of Glanville, these just and plain 
 principles of the law of pledges were essentially recog- 
 nized, and it was declared, that if the pledge was not 
 redeemed by the time appointed, the creditor might 
 have recourse to the law, and compel the pawner to re- 
 deem by a given day, or be forever foreclosed and 
 barred of his right. And if no time of redemption was 
 fixed, the creditor might call upon the debtor at any 
 time, by legal process, to redeem or lose his pledge. 
 The distinction between a pawn and mortgage of chat- 
 tels is equally well settled in the English and Ameri- 
 can law ; and a mortgage of goods differs from a pledge 
 and pawn in this, that the former is a conveyance of 
 the title upon condition, and it becomes an absolute 
 interest at law, if not redeemed by a given time, and 
 it may be valid in certain cases without actual delivery. 
 According to the civil law, a pledge coiild not be sold 
 without judicial sanction, unless there was a, special 
 agreement to this effect ; and this is, doubtless, the law 
 at this day in most parts of Europe. The French Civil 
 Code has adopted the law of Constantine, by which 
 even an agreement at the time of the original contract 
 of loan, that if the debtor did not pay at the day, the 
 pledge should be absolutely forfeited, and become the 
 property of the creditor, was declared to be void. While 
 on this subject of pledges^ it may be proper further to 
 observe, that the pawnee, by bill in chancery, may bar 
 the debtor's right of redemption and have the chattels 
 sold. This has been done frequently in the case of 
 stock bonds, plate, or other personal property pledged 
 for the payment of debt. But without any bill to re- 
 deem, the creditor, on a pledge or mortgage of chattels, 
 may sell at auction, on giving reasonable opportunity 
 to the debtor to redeem, and apprising him of the time 
 and place of sale; and this is the more convenient and 
 usual practice. While the debtor's rightin the pledge 
 remains unextinguished, his interest is liable to be sold 
 on execution; and the purchaser, like any other pur- 
 chaser or assignee of the interest of the pawner, suc- 
 ceeds to all his rights, and becomes entitled to redeem. 
 - — See Kent's Commentaries j vol. iv. 
 
 Itah/, France, etc. — The practice of advancing money 
 to the poor, either with or without interest, seems to 
 have been occasionally followed in antiquity. — Beck- 
 MANN, vol. iii. But the first public establishments of 
 this sort were founded in Italy, uuder the name of 
 Monti di Fieta^ in the 14th and 15th centuries. As it 
 was soon found to be impossible to procure the means 
 of supporting such establishments from voluntary con- 
 tributions, a bull for allowing interest to bo charged 
 upon the loans made to the poor was issued by Leo X. 
 in 1521. These establishments, though differing in 
 many respects, have universally for their object to pro- 
 tect the needy from the risk of being plundered by the 
 irresponsible individuals to whom their necessities 
 might oblige them to resort, by accommodating them 
 with loans on comparatively reasonable terms. And 
 though their practice has not, in all instances, corre- 
 sponded with the professions they have made, there 
 seems no reason to doubt that they have been, speaking 
 generally, of essential service to the poor. From Italy 
 these establishments have gradually spread over the 
 Continent. The Mont dePiete^ in Paris, was established 
 by a royal ordinance in 1777 ; and after being destroyed 
 by the Kevolution, was again opened in 1797. In 1804 
 it obtained a monopoly of the business of pawnbroking 
 in the capital. Loans are made by this establishment 
 upon deposits of such goods as can be preserved, to the 
 amount of two-thirds of the estimated value of all goods 
 other than gold and silver, and to four-fifths of the value 
 of the latter. No loan is for less than 3 francs. The ad- 
 vances are made for a year, but the borrower may re- 
 new the engagement. Interest is fixed at the rate of 
 one per cent, per month. 
 
 The Mont de Piete has generally in deposit from 
 
 600,000 to 650,000 articles, worth from twelve million 
 to thirteen million francs* The expense of manage- 
 ment amounts to from 60 to 65 centimes for each arti- 
 cle ; so that a loan of 3 francs never defrays the ex- 
 penses it occasions, and the profits are wholly derived 
 from those that exceed 5 francs. At an average the 
 profits amount to about 280,000 francs, of which only 
 about 155,000 are derived from loans upon deposit, 
 about 125,000 being the produce of other funds at the 
 disposal of the company. In some respects, particu- 
 larly the lowness of interest upon small loans, and the 
 greater vigilance exercised with respect to the recep- 
 tion of stolen goods, the Mo/it de Piete has an advant- 
 age over the pawnbroking establishments in this coun- 
 try. It may be doubted, however, whether it is, on 
 the whole, so well fitted to attain its objects. The lim- 
 itation of the loans to 3 francs would be felt to be a 
 serious grievance here, and it can hardly be otherwise 
 in France; nor is it to be supposed that the servants 
 of a great public establishment "vvill be so ready to as- 
 sist poor persons, having none but- inferior articles to 
 offer in security, as private individuals anxious to get 
 business. And such, in point of fact, is found to be 
 the case, not in Paris only, but in all those parts of the 
 Continent where the business of pawnbroking is con- 
 fined to a few establishments. And hence, though the 
 question be not free from difficulty, it would seem that, 
 were the modifications already suggested adopted, our 
 system would be the best of any. For further inform- 
 ation with respect to this curious and interesting sub- 
 ject, the reader is referred to the Ti^aite de la Bicnfai- 
 sance Puhlique of Degerando, iii, 1-55; besides giv- 
 ing a succinct historical notice of Monts de Piite, the 
 learned author has discussed most part of the knotty 
 questions connected with the proper organization of 
 these establishments, and with their influence on socie- 
 ty, with equal sagacity and ability. — See Banters' 
 Magazine, New York, August, 1850, p. 170; August, 
 1852, p. 124 (Sir F. Head), Standard Lib. Cv. Lon- 
 don, 1849. 
 
 Peach-tree (-.4 mygdalus persica'). It is not certain 
 in what part of the globe the peach-tree was originally 
 produced; for although we have early accounts of its 
 being brought to Europe fi'om Persia, it does not follow 
 from thence that it was one of the natural productions 
 of that country. Pliny relates that it had been stated 
 to have possessed venomous qualities, and that its fruit 
 was sent into Egypt by the kings of Persia, by way of 
 revenge, to poison the natives ; but he treats this storj' 
 as a mere fable, and considers it the most harmless fruit 
 in the world ; that it had the most juice, and the least 
 smell of any fruit, and yet caused thirst to those who 
 ate of it. He expressly states that it was imported by 
 the Komans from Persia ; but whether it was indige- 
 nous to that countr}"^, or sent thither from a region still 
 nearer to the equator, we have no information. He 
 adds that it was not long since peaches were known in 
 Rome, and that there was great difficulty in rearing 
 them. He also informs us that this tree was brought 
 from Egypt to the Isle of Rhodes, where it could never 
 be made to produce fruit ; and from thence to Italy. 
 He says, moreover, that it was not a common fruit 
 either in Greece or Natolia. No mention, however, is 
 made of it by Cato. Pownall, in his Roman Prov- 
 inces, makes it a Phocsean importation to Marseilles ; 
 and evidently it was cultivated in France at an early 
 period, as Columella, in his account of this fruit, says : 
 "Those of small size to ripen make great haste ; 
 Such as great Gaul bestows, observes due time 
 And season, not too early, nor too late." 
 The peach is said to have been first cultivated in 
 Britain about the middle of the 16th century. Gerard 
 describes several varieties of it as growing in his gar- 
 den, in 1597. Tusser mentions it in his list of fruits in 
 1577 ; and in all probability it was introduced when 
 the Romans had possession of that country. 
 
 The peach was introduced into North America by 
 
PEA 
 
 1505 
 
 PEA 
 
 the first European settlers, probably toward the close 
 of the 16th or early iu the 17th century, where it is 
 cultivated in extensive plantations, which often grow 
 with such luxuriance as to resemble forests of other 
 trees. In New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Mary- 
 land, Virginia, and several other States, much atten- 
 tion is paid to its culture, and the fruit is of an excel- 
 lent quality. It is no uncommon circumstance for a 
 planter to possess a peach orchard containing one thou- 
 sand or more of standard trees. It is only in the Mid- 
 dle States of the Union where this fruit arrives at the 
 greatest perfection. In favorable seasons, it matures 
 in the open air as far north as Maine, New Hampshire, 
 Vermont, and the Falls of Niagara ; bat its pulp is not 
 so delicious as when grown some degrees farther sooth ; 
 it is also trained against walls at Montreal and Toron- 
 to, in Canada, where, in some seasons, fruit of a fine 
 quality is obtained. In the Carolinas, Georgia, and 
 Florida, the trees make much foliage and wood; still 
 if well cultivated and properly pruned, the fruit grows 
 to a large size, and is juicy and well flavored. On the 
 Mississippi, particularly in Louisiana, which lies in the 
 same latitude as that part of Asia where this species is 
 indigenous, it grows spontaneously, but is regarded as 
 of foreign origin, having been introduced from Spain 
 before that river was explored by the French. In the 
 vicinity of Boston, Salem, New York, Philadelphia, 
 and other populous cities of the United States, the 
 peach is reared against walls and in hot-houses by 
 numerous opulent citizens, and fruit of a large size and 
 fine quality is produced. In some other parts of the 
 American continent it also readily grows, and in great 
 abundance. Sir Francis Head, in his Rough Notes, 
 speaks in raptures of the beauty and luxuriance of this 
 fruit, which was scattered over the corn-fields in the 
 neighborhood of Mendoza, on the east side of the An- 
 des ; and the same traveler noticed dried peaches used 
 as an article of food on the more elevated parts of 
 those mountains, to which they must have been car- 
 ried from the plains below. On the banks of Rio de 
 la Plata, from Montevideo to Buenos Ayres, we have 
 seen peach-trees growing spontaneously in the great- 
 est perfection, and in such abundance as to form a con- 
 siderable portion of the fuel of the provinces in which 
 they grew. The fruit there is of a fine quality, large 
 quantities of which are annually dried for domestic 
 use, and the chief part of the remainder is consumed 
 by cattle, or is suffered to decay upon the ground. 
 
 The wood of the peach-tree is hard, compact, of a 
 roseate hue, and is susceptible of a fine polish ; but 
 owing to ils inferior size and comparative scarcity, it 
 is but little used in the arts, or for fuel, except in coun- 
 tries where other kinds of wood are rare. When ob- 
 tained, however, of suitable dimensions, it may be em- 
 ployed for similar purposes as that of the almond. A 
 color may also be extracted from it called rose-pinh. 
 Its leaves yield, by distillation, a volatile oil of a yel- 
 low color, containing hydrocyanic acid. Its bark, blos- 
 soms, and kernels of the fruit, also possess the same 
 poisonous property. From the quantity of gum and 
 sugar contained in the delicious pulp, the peach is nu- 
 tritious, and is employed as a dessert, both fresh and 
 preserved. From the malic acid contained in its juice, 
 it is slightly refrigerant, and if eaten in moderate quan- 
 tities it is generally considered as wholesome; but if 
 taken too freely it is liable to disorder the bowels. 
 When stewed with £ugar, it may be given as a mild 
 relaxative to convalescents. The kernels may be used 
 for the same purpose as those of the bitter almond. 
 The leaves are sometimes employed by the cook, the 
 liquorist, and the confectioner, for flavoring, and they 
 have also been substituted for Chinese tea; but, as 
 fatal consequences have sometimes followed these uses, 
 they should be looked upon with precaution. The 
 preservation of peaches, plums, cherries, apricots, and 
 other kinds of fruit in sirup occupies a prominent rank 
 in the industry and commerce of Franco and of Ma- 
 5C 
 
 jorca, and doubtless could be profitably carried on in 
 those parts of the United States where these fruits are 
 cultivated in abundance. To those who are desirous 
 of entering into the business on an extensive scale, we 
 would recommend the Nouveav, Manuel du Limonor- 
 dier, du Glacier, du CSocolatier, et da ConJUeur, par 
 MM. Cardelli, Lionnet-C16mandot, et Julia de Fonte- 
 nelle, published at Paris in 1838 ; or, what would be 
 still better, the employment of an intelligent confiseur 
 who is practically acquainted with all its manipula^ 
 tions. — Browne's Trees of America. 
 
 Peak, a name given to the upper comer of those 
 sails which are extended by a gaff, or by a yard which 
 crosses the mast obliquely, as the mizzen-yard of a 
 ship, the main-yard of a bylander, etc. The upper ex- 
 tremity of these yards andigafi's is also denominated 
 the peak. 
 
 Fear-tree (Pyrus Communis). The common pear- 
 tree is indigenous to Europe, Western Asia, the Hima- 
 layas, and to China ; but not to Africa nor America. 
 It is found wild in most of the counties of Britain, as 
 far north as Forfarshire ; on the continent of Europe, 
 from Sweden to the Mediterranean ; and in Asia, as 
 far east as China and Japan. It is always found on a 
 dry soil, and more frequently on plains than on hills 
 or mountains ; and solitary, or in small groups, rather 
 than in woods and forests. The varieties cultivated 
 for their fruit succeed both in the temperate and 
 transition zones of the two hemispheres, and it has 
 been remarked that this tree, as well as the apple and 
 the cherry, will grow in the open air wherever the 
 oak will thrive. 
 
 The wood of the common pear-tree is heavy, strong, 
 compact, of a fine grain, and slightly tinged with red. 
 In common with tliat of all the Rosacese, it is liable to 
 have its natural color changed by steeping in water, 
 which, therefore, ought to be avoided when intended 
 for particular purposes in the arts. When green, it 
 weighs nearly eighty pounds to a cubic foot, and from 
 forty-nine to fifty-three pounds when dry. According 
 to Du Hamel, it is, next to the true service (^Pyrus 
 sorbus), the best wood that can be emploj'ed in wood- 
 engraving, for which purpose, however, it is far in- 
 ferior to that of the box. Yet it is allowed to be very 
 hard and homogeneous, easy to cut, and, when perfect- 
 ly dry, is not liable either to crack or warp. For the 
 coarser kinds of engraving, such as large plans or dia- 
 grams, show-bills, etc., it serves a very good purpose. 
 When it can be obtained, in Europe, it is much used 
 by turners and pattern-makers; also for joiners' tools; 
 and, as it can readily be stained, it is sometimes made 
 into various articles, dyed black, in imitation of ebony. 
 As fuel, the wood of this tree is excellent, producing 
 a vivid and durable flame, accompanied by an intense 
 heat. According to Withering, the leaves afford a 
 3'ellow dye, and may be employed to impart a greenish 
 shade to blue cloths. But the most important uses of 
 the pear-tree are those -which arise from its fruit. 
 When ripe, it is employed at the table as a dessert, 
 either raw, stewed, or preserved in sirup, and occa- 
 sionally it is used in tarts. In most of the countries 
 where it grows this fruit is very generally dried in 
 ovens, or in the sun, in which state, when stewed, it is 
 excellent, either as a substitute for puddings and pies, 
 or as forming part of the dessert. 
 
 Another purpose to which the pear is applied is for 
 
 iking perry. It is extensively cultivated for this 
 object in various parts of Britain, France, and Ger- 
 many, where the trees are sometimes planted in rows 
 eighteen or twenty yards apart, in order to admit a 
 free access of light and air. Perry is made in the same 
 manner as cider. The pears should be gathered before 
 they begin to fall, and should be ground as soon after, 
 as possible. Should the perry not be sufiiciently clear, 
 when racked off, it may be fined in the usual manner 
 of clarifying cider, by isinglass, in the proportion of 
 about half an ounce to a barrel. The kinds of pears 
 
PEA 
 
 1506 
 
 PEA 
 
 used for making this liquor in Herefordshire are such 
 as have an austere juice, as the " Squash," the " Old- 
 field," the " Barland," the " Huff-cap," the " Sack," the 
 " Red," and th9 " Longland" varieties. Pears -were 
 considered by the Romans as an antidote to the effect 
 of eating poisonous mushrooms ; and up to the present 
 time perry is said to be the best remedy that can 'be 
 employed for the same purpose. In Britain and France 
 an agreeable wine is made from a mixture of crab- 
 apples and pears, which in the latter country is called 
 piguette. Pears, in general, produce flatulency, and 
 consequently are uniit for weak stomachs ; but when 
 they are quite ripe, and contain a sweet juice, they 
 seldom prove noxious, unless eaten to excess. Pears 
 that are to be kept for winter use should hang as long 
 on the trees as the state of the weather will admit. 
 They should then be kept in heaps, in an open, dry 
 situation, for about ten days, then wiped with a dry 
 woolen cloth, and, lastly, packed up close from the air 
 and moisture. But to keep the fruit in its greatest 
 perfection, small earthen jars may be selected about 
 the size of the pear, which should be packed separate- 
 ly, in clean oat chaff or wheaten bran, then tied down 
 with oiled paper or skin, and cemented tight with wax 
 or pitch. These jars should then be packed in a cask, 
 chest, or some other secure place, with their bottoms 
 upward, where they should remain until required for 
 use. — Browne's Trees of America. 
 
 Pearl-ash. See Potash. 
 
 Pearls (Du. Paarlen; Fr. Perles; Ger. Perlen; It. 
 Perh ; Lat. Margantce ; Russ. Shempisdmg^ PerliX ; Sp. 
 Perlas; Arab. Looloo; Cyng. Mootoo; Hind. Mooiie). 
 are well-known globular concretions found in several 
 species of shell-fish, but particularly the mother-of-pearl 
 oyster (Concha vmrgaritifera^ Linn.). Pearls should be 
 chosen round, of a bright, translucent, silvery white- 
 ness, free from stains and roughness. Having these 
 qualities, the largest are of course the most valuable. 
 The larger ones have frequently the shape of a pear ; 
 and when these are otherwise perfect, they are in great 
 demand for ear-rings. Ceylon pearls are most esteem- 
 ed in England. The formation of the pearl has em- 
 barrassed both ancient and modern naturalists to ex- 
 plain, and has given occasion to a number of vain and 
 absurd hypotheses. M. Reaumur, in 1717, alleged that 
 pearls are formed lilce other stones in animals. An an- 
 cient pearl was valued by Pliny at £80,000 sterling. 
 One which was brought, in 1574, to Philip IT., of the 
 size of a pigeon's egg, was valued at 14,400 ducats, equal 
 to £13,996. A pearl spoken of by Boetius, named the 
 Incomparable^ weighed thirty carats, equal to five pen- 
 nyweights, and was about tlie size of a muscadine pear. 
 The pearl mentioned by Tavernier as being in posses- 
 sion of the Emperor of Persia was purchased of an Arab 
 in 1633, and is valued at a sum equal to £110,400.— 
 Haydn. 
 
 Value q/" Prarfs.— Pearls were in the highest possi- 
 ble estimati9n in ancient Rome, and bore an enormous 
 price. Principium culmenque omnium, rerumpi-etii, mar- 
 garitce tenent.—PhisY, Hist. Nat. Their price in mod- 
 ern times has very much declined; partly, no doubt, 
 from changes of manners and fashions, but more prob- 
 ably from the admirable imitations of pearls that may 
 be obtained at a very low price. According to Mr. 
 Milburn, a handsome necklace of Ceylon pearls, small- 
 er than a large pea, costs from £170 to £300 ; but one 
 of pearls about the size of peppercorns may be had for 
 £15. The pearls in the former sell at a guinea each, 
 and those in the latter at about Is. 6d. When the 
 pearls dwindle to the size of small shot, they are de- 
 nominated seed pearls, and are of little value. They 
 are mostly sent to China. One of the most remarka- 
 ble pearls of whicli we have any authentic account was 
 bought by Tavernier at Catifa, in Arabia, a fishery fa- 
 mous in the days of Pliny, for the enormous sum of 
 £110,000 ! It "is pear-shaped, regular, and without 
 blemish. The diameter is -63 inch at the largest part. 
 
 and the length from two to three inches. Much dif- 
 ference of opinion has existed among naturalists with 
 respect to the production of pearls in the oyster ; but 
 it seems now to be generally believed that it is the re- 
 sult of disease, and is formed in the same manner as 
 bezoar (see Bezoar), pearls, like it, consisting of suc- 
 cessive coats spread with perfect regularity round a 
 foreign nucleus. In fact, the Chinese throw into a spe- 
 cies of shell-fish (mytilus cygneus, or swan muscle), when 
 it opens, five or six very minute mother-of-pearl beads 
 strung on a thread ; and in the course of a year they 
 are found covered with a pearly crust, which perfectly 
 resembles the real pearl. — Mii.bukn's Oriental Com- 
 merce ; Ain.slie's Materia Indica. 
 
 Pearl Fisheries. — The pearl 03'ster is fished in various 
 parts of the world, particularly on the west coast of 
 Ceylon ; at Tuticoreen, in the province of Tinnevelley, 
 on the coast of Coromandel ; at the Bahrein Islands, 
 in the Gulf of Persia; at (he Sooloo Islands; off the 
 coast of Algiers; off St. Margarita, or Pearl Islands, 
 in the "West Indies, and other places on the coast of 
 Colombia ; and in the Bay of Panama, in the South 
 Sea. Pearls have sometimes been found on the Scotch 
 coast, and in various other places. The pearl fishery 
 of Tuticoreen is monopolized by the East India Com- 
 pany, and that of Ceylon by government. But these 
 monopolies are of no value ; as in neither case does the 
 sum for which the fishery is let equal the 'expenses in- 
 curred in guarding, surveying, and managing the 
 banks. It is, therefore, sufficiently obvious that this 
 system ought to be abolished, and every one allowed 
 to fish on paying a moderate license duty. The fear 
 of exhausting the banks is quite ludicrous. The fish- 
 ery would be abandoned as unprofitable long before the 
 breed of oysters had been injuriously diminished ; and 
 in a few years it would be as productive as ever. Be- 
 sides giving fresh life to the fisherj', the abolition of the 
 monopoly would put an end to some v^ry oppressive 
 regulations enacted by the Dutch more than a century 
 ago. 
 
 Persian Gulf. — The most extensive pearl fisheries 
 are those on the several banks not far distant from the 
 island of Bahrein, on the west side of the Persian 
 Gulf, in lat. 26° 50' N., long. 51° 10' E. ; but pearl 
 oysters are found along the whole of the Arabian 
 coast, and round almost all the islands of the Gulf. 
 Such as are fished in the sea near the islands of Kar- 
 rak and Corgo contain pearls said to be of a superior 
 color and description. They are formed of eight lay- 
 ers or folds, while others have only five, but the water 
 is too deep to make fishing for them either very profit- 
 able or easy. Besides, the entire monopoly of the 
 fishery is in the hands of the Slieik of Bushire, who 
 seems to consider these islands as his immediate prop- 
 crtj'. "The fishing season is divided into two portions 
 — the one called the short and cold, the other the long 
 and hot. In the cooler weatlier of the month of June, 
 diving is practiced along the coast in shallow water ; 
 but it is not until the intensely hot months of July, 
 August, and September, that the Bahrein banks are 
 much frequented. The water on them is about seven 
 fathoms deep, and the divers are much inconvenienced 
 when it is cold ; indeed, they can do little when it is 
 not as warm as the air, and it frequently becomes even 
 more so in the hottest months of the summer. "When 
 they dive, they compress the nostrils tightly with a 
 small piece of horn, which keeps the water out, and 
 stuff their ears with beeswax for the same purpose. 
 They attach a net to their waists, to contain the oys- 
 ters ; and aid tlicir descent by means of a stone, Avhich 
 they hold by a rope attached to a boat, and shake it 
 when they wish to be drawn up. From what I could 
 learn, two minutes may be considered as rather above 
 the average time of their remaining under water. Al- 
 though severe labor, and very exhausting at the time, 
 diving is not considered particularly injurious to the 
 constitution; oven old men practice it. A person 
 
PEA 
 
 1507 
 
 PEA 
 
 usually dives from twelve to fifteen times a day in 
 favorable weather; but when otherwise, three or four 
 times only. The work is performed on an empty 
 stomach. When the diver becomes fatigued, he goes 
 to sleep, and does not eat until he has slept some time. 
 At Bahrein alone the annual amount produced by the 
 pearl fishery may be reckoned at from £200,000 to 
 X240,000. If to this the purchases made by the Bah- 
 rein merchants or agents at Aboottabee Sharga, Bas-ul 
 Khyniack, etc., be added, which may amount to half 
 as much more; there will be a total of about £300,000 
 or £360,000 ; but this is calculated to iuclude the whole 
 pearl trade of the Gulf ; for it is believed that all tlie 
 principal merchants of India, Arabia, and Persia who 
 deal in pearls make their purchases, through agents, 
 at Bahrein. I have not admitted in the above esti- 
 mate much more than oTie-sixth of the amount somo 
 native merchants have stated it to be, as a good deal 
 seemed to be matter of guess or opinion, and it is dif- 
 ficult to get at facts. My own estimate is in some 
 measure checked by the estimated profits of the small 
 boats. But even the sura which I have estimated is 
 an enormous annual value for an article found in other 
 parts of the world as well as here, and which is never 
 used in its best and most valuable state except as an 
 ornament. Large quantities of the seed pearls are 
 used throughout Asia in the composition of majoons, 
 or electuaries, to form which all kinds of precious 
 stones are occasionally mixed, after being pounded, 
 excepting, indeed, diamonds ; these being, considered, 
 from their hardness, as utterly indigestible. The ma- 
 joon in which there is a, large quantity of pearls, is 
 much sought for and valued, on account of its supposed 
 stimulating and restorative qualities. The Bahrein 
 pearl fishery boats are reckoned to amount to about 
 1500, and the trade is in the hands of merchants, some 
 of whom possess considerable capital. They bear hard 
 on the producers or fishers, and even those who make 
 the greatest exertions in diving, hardly have food to 
 eat. The merchant advances some money to the fish- 
 ermen at cent, per cent., and a portion of dates, rice, 
 and other necessary articles, all at the supplier's own 
 price ; he also lets a boat to them, for which he gets 
 one share of the gross profits of all that is fished ; and, 
 finally, he purchases the pearls nearly at his own 
 price, for the unhappy fishermen are generally in his 
 debt, and therefore at his mercy." — Manuscript Notes 
 communicated by Major D. Wilson, latepolitical Resident 
 at Bushire. 
 
 The fishery at Algiers was farmed by an English 
 association in 1826, but we are ignorant of their suc- 
 cess. The pearl fisheries on the coast of Colombia 
 were at one time of very great value. In 1587 up- 
 ward of 697 lbs. of pearls are said to have been im- 
 ported into Seville. Philip II. had one from St. Mar- 
 garita which weighed 250 carats, and was valued at 
 150,000 dollars. But for many years past the Colom- 
 bian pearl fisheries have been of comparatively little 
 importance. During the mania for joint-stock com- 
 panies, in 1825, two were formed ; one, on a large 
 scale, for prosecuting the pearl fishery on the coast of 
 Colombia ; and another, on a smaller scale, for prose- 
 cuting it in the Bay of Panama and the Pacific. Both 
 were abandoned in 1826. The best fishery ground is 
 said to be in from six to eight fathoms water. The 
 divers continue under water from a minute to a minute 
 and a half, or at most two minutes. They have a 
 sack or bag fastened to the neck, in which they bring 
 up the oysters. The exertion is extremely violent; 
 and the divers are unhealthy and short-lived. — For 
 further information, see Host's Merchants' Magazine, 
 xviii. 565. 
 
 Pearl shells, commonly called Mother-of-pearl shells, 
 are imported from various parts of the East, and con- 
 sist principally of the shells of the pearl oyster from 
 the Gulf of Persia and other places, particularly fl^e 
 Sooloo Islands, situate between Borneo and the Philip- 
 
 pines the shores of which aflbrd the largest and finest 
 shells hitherto discovered. On the iuside the shell is 
 beautifully polished, and of the whiteness and water 
 of pearl itself: it has the same lustre on the outside, 
 after the external laminse have been removed. Moth- 
 er-of-pearl shells are extensively used in the arts, 
 particularly in inlaid work, and in the manufacture 
 of handles for knives, buttons, toys, snuff-boxes, etc. 
 The Chinese manufacture them Into beads, fish, count- 
 ers, spoons, etc. ; giving them a finish to which Euro- 
 pean artists have not been able to attain. Shells for 
 the European market should be chosen of the largest 
 size, of a beautiful pearly lustre, thick and even, and 
 free from stains. Reject such as are small, cracked or 
 broken, or have lumps on them. When stowed loose 
 as dunnage, they are sometimes allowed to pass free 
 of freight. — Milboen's Oriental Commerce. The im- 
 ports during the three years ending with 1842 amount- 
 ed, at an average, to about 950,000 lbs. a year. 
 
 Artificial Pearls. — These are small globules or pear- 
 shaped spheroids of thin glass, perforated with two 
 opposite holes, through which they are strung, and 
 mounted into necklaces, etc., like real pearl ornaments. 
 They must not only be white and brilliant, but exhibit 
 the iridescent reflections of mother-of-pearl. The liquor 
 employed to imitate the pearly lustre is called the 
 essence of the East (essence d' Orien(), which is prepared 
 by throwing into water of ammonia the brilliant 
 scales, or rather the lameUce, separated by washing and 
 friction, of the scales of a small river fish, the blay, 
 called in French ahlette. These scales digested in am- 
 monia, having acquired a degree of softness and flexi- 
 bility which allow of their application to- the inner 
 surfaces of the glass globules, they are introduced by 
 suction of the liquor containing them in suspension. 
 The ammonia is volatilized in the act of drying the 
 globules. It is said that some manufacturers employ 
 ammonia merely to prevent the alteration of the scales ; 
 that when they wish to make use of them, they sus- 
 pend them in a well-clarified solution of isinglass, then 
 pour a drop of the mixture into each bead, and spread 
 it round the inner surface. It is doubtful whether, by 
 this method, the same lustre and play of colors can bo 
 obtained as by the former. It seems, moreover, to be 
 of importance for the success of the imitation, that the 
 globules be formed of a bluish, opalescent, very thin 
 glass, containing but little potash and oxyd of lead. 
 In every manufactory of artificial pearls there must be 
 some workmen possessed of great experience and dex- 
 terity. The French are supposed to excel in this in- 
 genious branch of industrj'. False pearls were invented 
 in the time of Catherine de Medicis, by a person of the 
 name of Jaquin. They are made of small globules of 
 glass, blown by the ordinary lamp. The pearly lustre 
 is communicated by introducing by means of a blow- 
 pipe a small quantity of nacreous substances obtained 
 from the surface of the scale of a small fish very com- 
 mon in the Seine and the Khine, and also in the Thames. 
 This substance preserved with sal ammoniac in a liquid 
 state is commonly sold under the name of " Oriental 
 essence." After having covered the inside of the pearl 
 with this liquid, a coating of wax is added, which is 
 colored to the required shade. The manufacture of 
 pearls is principally carried on in the department of 
 the Seine in France. There are also manufactories in 
 Germany and Italy, but to a small extent. In Ger- 
 many, or rather Saxony, a cheap but inferior quality 
 is manufactured. The globe of glass forming the pearl 
 in inferior ones being very thin, and coated with wax, 
 they break on the slightest pressure. They are known 
 by the name of German fish pearls. Italy also manu- 
 factures pearls by a method borrowed from the Chinese ; 
 they are known under the name of Roman pearls, and 
 a very good imitation of natural ones : they have on 
 their outside a coating of the nacreous liquid. The 
 Chinese pearls are made of a kind of gum, and are 
 covered likewise with the same liquid. In the year 
 
PEA 
 
 1508 
 
 PEA 
 
 1834 a French artisan discovered an opaline glass of a 
 nacreous or pearly color, very heavy and fusible, ivhich 
 gave to the beads the different weights and varied forms 
 found among real pearls : gum instead of wax is now 
 used to fill them, by which they attain a high degree 
 of transparency, and the glassy appearance has been 
 lately obviated by the use of the vapor of by dro-fluoric 
 acid. This acts in such a manner as to deaden the sur- 
 face, and remove its otherwise glaring look. — Uke's 
 Dictionary. 
 
 Peas (Ger. Erbsen; Fr. Pais; It, Pisdli, Bisi; Sp. 
 Pesoles, Guisantes ; Russ. GorocJi). The pea is one of 
 the most esteemed of the leguminous or pulse plants. 
 There are many varieties ; but the common garden pea 
 (JPisum sativum}, and the common gray or field pea 
 (Pisum arvense), are the most generally cultivated; 
 being reared in large quantities in all parts of the 
 country. But since the introduction of the drill hus- 
 bandry, the culture of the pea as a field-crop has been 
 to a considerable extent superseded by the bean. Some- 
 times, however, it is drilled along with the latter ; for, 
 being a climbing plant, it attaches itself to the bean, 
 so as to admit the ground being hoed, at the same time 
 that the free admission of air about its roots promotes 
 its growth. It is not possible to frame any estimate 
 of the consumption of peas. The field pea is now hard- 
 ly ever manufactured into meal for the purpose of be- 
 ing made into bread, as was formerly the case in many 
 parts of the country ; but there is reason to think that 
 the garden pea is now more extensively used than ever. 
 — Loudon'.s Encyclopedia oj" Agriculture ; Brown oti 
 Rural Affairs. 
 
 Various kinds of pulse, from the facility ^v•ith which 
 they are produced in almost every country of the globe, 
 and the highly nutritive properties which they usually 
 possess, have been a favorite food for man and animals 
 among all nations, and in every age of the world. 
 Thus we find that the Athenians employed sodden 
 beans in their feasts dedicated to Apollo, and that the 
 Romans presented them as an oblation in their solemn 
 sacrifice called Fabaria. Pliny informs us that they 
 offered bean-meal cakes to certain gods and goddesses 
 in these ancient rites and ceremonies; and Lempriere 
 states that bacon was added to beans in the offerings 
 to Cama, not so much to gratify the palate of that god- 
 dess as to represent the simplicitj' of their ancestors. 
 The bean came originally from the East, and was culti- 
 vated in Egypt and Barbary in the earliest ages of 
 which we have any records. It was brought into 
 Spain and Portugal in the early part of the eighth cen- 
 tury, whence some of the best varieties were introduced 
 into other parts of Europe, and finally into the United 
 States. The first beans introduced from Europe into 
 the British North American colonies were by Captain 
 Gosnold, in 1602, who planted them on the Elizabeth 
 Islands, near the coast of Massachusetts, where they 
 flourished well. They were also cultivated in New- 
 foundland as early as 1622 ; in New Netherlands in 
 lG4-t ; and in Virginia prior to 1648. French, Indian, 
 or kidney beans were extensively cultivated by the 
 Indians of New York and New England long before 
 their settlement by the whites; and both beans and 
 peas (calavances), of various hues, were cultivated by 
 the natives of Virginia prior to the first lauding of 
 Captain John Smith. Among these were embraced 
 the celebrated cow-pea (JPhaseohs'), or Indian pea, at 
 present so extensively cultivated at the South for feed- 
 ing stock, as well as for the purposes of making into fod- 
 der, and for plowing under, like clover, as a fallow crop. 
 The varieties of beans at present cultivated in the 
 United States, as field and garden crops, are too nu- 
 merous to admit of repetition in this report. For field 
 culture, the common small white, the red-eyed China, 
 the turtle-soup, the Mohawk, and the refugee are pre- 
 ferred; for garden culture, the Mohawk, the early 
 six-weeks, the early Valentine, the yellow six- 
 weeks, the black Valentine, the royal white kidney, 
 
 the Carolina, or Sewee, the cranberry, the London hor- 
 ticultural, and the Dutch case-knife. The yield usu- 
 ally varies from thirty to sixty bushels per acre, weigh- 
 ing sixty-three pounds to the bushel. The common 
 pea is supposed to have been indigenous to the South 
 of Europe, and was cultivated both by the Greeks and 
 Romans. Its introduction into the British North 
 American colonies probably dates back to the early 
 periods of their settlement by Europeans, as it is enu- 
 merated in several instances among the cultivated 
 products of this country by our early historians. The 
 cultivation of the pea as a field crop is principally 
 confined to the Middle, Eastern, and Western States, 
 the varieties of which are distinguished as the early 
 and the late ripening. The early varieties are gener- 
 ally small and dark-colored, among which the gray 
 and grass are the most common. The yield varies 
 from twenty-five to forty bushels per acre, weighing 
 sixty-four pounds to the bushel. The mari-ow-fats are 
 among the richest of the field peas, which are much 
 preferred for good lands. The small yellow are thought 
 to be best for poorer soils. A very prolific " bush pea" 
 is cultivated in the Southern States, bearing pods six 
 or seven inches in length, which hang in clusters, and 
 are filled with fine white peas, much esteemed for the 
 table, either green or dry. The amount of peas ex- 
 ported from Savannah in 1755 was 400 bushels; in 
 1770, 601 bushels; from Charleston, in 1754, 9162 
 bushels ; from North Carolina, in 1753, 10,000 bushels ; 
 annually from' Virginia, before the Revolution, 5000 
 bushels ; annually from the United States, twenty 
 3'ears preceding 1817, 90,000 bushels. The amount of 
 beans annually exported during the last-named period, 
 from 30,000 to 40,000 bushels.— Patem* Office Report. 
 
 Peat, a well-known inflammable substance, em- 
 ployed in many parts of the world as fuel. There are 
 two species of peat. The first is a yellowish brown or 
 black peat, found in moorish grounds in Scotland, Hol- 
 land, and Germany. When fresh, it is of a viscid con- 
 sistence, but hardens by exposure to the air. It con- 
 sists, according to Kirwan, of clay mixed with calca- 
 reous earth and pyrites ; sometimes, also, it contains 
 common salt. While soft, it is formed into oblong 
 pieces for fuel, after the pyritaceous and stony matters 
 are separated from it. By distillation, it yields water, 
 acid, oil, and volatile alkali, the ashes containing a 
 small proportion of fixed alkali, and being either white 
 or red, according to the proportion of pyrites contained 
 in the substance. The oil which is obtained from peat 
 has a very pungent taste, and an empyreumatic smell, 
 less fetid than that of animal substances, but more so 
 than that of mineral bitumens. It congeals in the cold 
 into a pitchy mass, which liquefies in a small heat ; it 
 readily catches fire from a candle, but burns less vehe- 
 mently than other oils, and immediately goes out upon 
 removing the external flame ; and in rectified spirit 
 of wine it dissolves almost totally into a dark, brown- 
 ish red liquor. The second species is found near New- 
 bury, in Berkshire. In the Philosophical Transactions 
 for the year 1757, we have an account of this species, 
 the substance of which is as follows : Peat is a compo- 
 sition of the branches, twigs, leaves, and roots of trees, 
 with grass, straw, plants, and weeds, which having lain 
 long in water, is formed into a mass soft enough to be 
 cut through with a sharp spade. The color is a black- 
 ish brown, and it is used in many places for fuel. There 
 is a stratum of this peat on each side of the Kennet, 
 near Newbury, in Berks, which is from about a quar- 
 ter to half a mile in width, and many miles in length. 
 The depth below the surface of the ground is from one 
 foot to eight. Great numbers of entire trees are found 
 lying irregularly in the true peat. These are chiefly 
 oaks, alders, willows, and firs, and appear to have been 
 torn up by the roots ; many horses' heads, and bones 
 of several kinds of deer, the horns of the antelope, the 
 heads and tusks of boars, and the heads of beavers, are 
 also found imbedded in it. 
 
PEC 
 
 1509 
 
 PEN 
 
 Feck, a dry measure for grain, pulse, etc. The 
 standard, or imperial peclt, contains two gallons, or 
 554'55 cubic inclies. Four peclts malce a bushel^ and 
 four bushels a coomb. — See Weights and Measures. 
 
 Peculation, the term, in the Roman law, for the 
 embezzlement of public money belonging either to the 
 government or to communities. Vnier peculation, also, 
 was comprised the adulteration of goldj silveir, or any 
 metal belonging to government. Connected with it, 
 by a law of the dictator, Cajsar, were the crimen de re~ 
 nduie (if a person had received public money for a par- 
 ticular purpose, and did not apply it for the same), and 
 the sacfileffium (the theft or misappropriation of money 
 or other things sacred to a god). In most governments 
 the embezzlement of public money by public officers is 
 severely punished. Peculation and treason were, by 
 the French charter of 1814, the only crimes for which 
 a minister was impeachable. — E. A. 
 
 Pellitory, the root of a perennial plant (_Anthemi$ 
 pyrethrum), a. native of the Levant, Barbary, and the 
 south of Europe. The root is long, tapering, about the 
 thicleness of the finger, with a brownish cuticle. It is 
 imported packed in bales, sometimes mixed with other 
 roots, from which, however, it is easily distinguished. 
 It is inodorous. When chewed, it seems at first to be 
 insipid, but after a few seconds it excites a glowing 
 heat, and a pricking sensation on the tongue and lips, 
 which remains for 10 or 12 minutes. The pieces break 
 with a short, resinous fracture -, the transverse section 
 presenting a thick, brown bark, studded with black, 
 shining points, and a pale yellow radiated inside. It 
 is used in medicine as a stimulant; — Thomson's Die- 
 pensatory. 
 
 Peltry is the name given to the skins of different 
 kinds of wild animals found in high northern latitudes, 
 particularly in North America, such as the beaver, sa- 
 ble, wolf, bear, etc. When the skins of such animals 
 have received no preparation they are termed peltry ; 
 but when the inner side has 'been tanned by an alumin- 
 ous process they are denominated^rs. 
 
 Pencils (Ger. Pinsel; Du. Pinseelen ; Fr. Pinceaux; 
 It. Pennelli; Sp. Pinceles). The word pencil is used 
 in two senses. It signifies either a small hair brush 
 employed by painters in oil and water colors — they are 
 of various kinds, and made of various materials, some 
 being formed of the bristles of the boar and others of 
 camel's hair, the down of swans, etc. — or a slender cyl- 
 inder, of black-lead or plumbago, either naked or in^ 
 closed in a wooden case, for drawing black lines upon 
 paper. The last sort, which is the one to be consider- 
 ed here, corresponds nearly to the French term crayon, 
 though this includes also pencils made of differently- 
 colored earthy compositions. The best black-lead pen- 
 oils of this country are formed of slender parallelepi- 
 peds, cut out by a saw from sound pieces of plurabagd, 
 which have been previously calcined in close vessels at 
 a bright red heat. These parallelepipeds are generally 
 inclosed in cases made of cedar wood, though of late 
 years they are also used alone, in peculiar pencil-cases, 
 under the name of ever-pointed pencils, provided with 
 an iron wire and screw, to protrude a minute portion 
 of the plumbago beyond the tubular metallic case, in 
 proportion as it is wanted. 
 
 Pendant, or Pennant, a sort of long and narrow 
 banner displayed from the mast-head of a ship-of-war, 
 and usually terminating in two ends or points, called 
 the swallovfs taU, It denotes that the vessel is in act- 
 ual service. Broad pendant is a kind of flag termin- 
 ating in one or two points, used to distinguish the chief 
 of a squadron. Pendant is also a short piece of rope, 
 fixed on each side, under the shrouds, upon the heads 
 of the main and foremasts. 
 
 Penknives (Germ. Federmesser; Fr, Canifi; It. 
 Tempermi; Sp. Carta plumaa), small knives, too well 
 known to need any particular description, used in mak- 
 ing and mending pens. The best penknives are man- 
 ufactured in London and Sheffield. 
 
 Fennsyltrania, one of the central United States, 
 lies between 39° 43' and 42° N. lat., and between 74° 
 and 80° 40' W. long. It is 307 miles long and 160 
 broad, containing 47,000 square miles. Population in 
 1790 was 434,373; in 1800, 602,545; in 1810, 810,091; 
 in 1820, 1,049,313; in 1830, 1,347,672; in 1810, 
 1,724,033 ; and in 1850, 2,311,786. The Alleghany 
 Mountains cross the State from southwest to northeast, 
 and there are many smaller ranges on each side of the 
 principal ridge and parallel to it. The southeastern 
 and northwestern parts of the State are either level or 
 moderately hilly. The soil is generally fertile, and 
 much of it is of a superior quality ; the best land on 
 the southeast is on both sides of the Susquehanna. Be- 
 tween the head-waters of the Alleghany and Lake Erie 
 the soil is very fertile. The ahthraeite coal region is 
 immense. The Mauch Chunk, Schuylkill, and Lyken's 
 Valley coal-field extends from the Lehigh Eiver across 
 the head-waters of the Schuylkill, and is 65 miles in 
 length, with an average breadth of five miles. The 
 Lackawanna coal-field extends from Carbondale, on the 
 Lackawannock, to 10 miles below Wilkesbarre, on the 
 Susquehanna. The Shamokin field has been less ex- 
 plored. Iron ore exists in nearly every county, and 
 in the vicinity of Pittsburgh vast quantities are manu- 
 factured. Beds of copper and lead exist, and quarries 
 of marble and building-stone abound. There are in 
 the south part valuable mineral springs. There were 
 in the State, in 1850, 8,628,619 acres of improved and 
 6,294,728 acres of unimproved land in farms ; cash val- 
 ue of farms, $407,876,099 ; and the value of implements 
 and machinery, $14,722,541. Live Stock. — Horses, 
 350,398; asses and mules, 2259; milch cows, 530,224; 
 working oxen, 61,527 ; other cattle, 562,195 ; sheep, 
 1,822,357; swine, 1,040,366; total value of live stock, 
 $41,500,053. ' ' ' 
 
 Early History of Penmylnania. — The territoiy of tliis 
 State was, before the year 1681, for the greater part 
 comprised under the name Northei'n Virginia, and after 
 1616 under the name of New England. When Penn, 
 in the year 1681, obtained from Charles II. a grant of 
 a great tract of land, between 40° and 42° N. lat., he 
 himself wished to give to it the name of New Wales; 
 but the king, against Penn's wish, called it, in honor 
 of Penn, Pennsylvania, The name is to be found for 
 the first time in the King's charter of the 4th of March, 
 of the year 1681. In the year 1682 Penn, desirous of 
 approaching his province to the sea-coast, bought from 
 the Duke of York the whole tract of land and settle- 
 ments along the west side of Delaware Bay, the so- 
 called three lower counties. This tract of land remain- 
 ed, however, in connection with Pennsylvania only un- 
 til the year 1776, when the inhabitants of these lands 
 declared themselves independent and founded the State 
 of Delaware. By this the State of Pennsylvania was 
 again excluded from the sea-coasts, and as a nearly en- 
 tirely inland State the history of its limits is not of a 
 great interest for our hydrographical researches. — J. 
 G. Kohl. 
 
 The Delaware River washes the entire eastern bor- 
 der of the State, and is navigable for ships to Philadel- 
 phia. The Lehigh, after a course of 75 miles, enters it 
 at Easton. The Schuylkill, 130 miles long, unites with 
 it six miles below Philadelphia. The Susquehanna is 
 a large river, which rises in New York, flows south 
 through this State, and enters the Chesapeake Bay in 
 Maryland. It is much obstructed by falls and rapids. 
 The Juniata rises among the Alleghany Mountains, 
 and, after a course of 180 miles, enters the Susquehan- 
 na 11 miles above Harrisburg. The Alleghany Eiver, 
 400 miles long, from the north, and the Monongahela, 
 300 miles long, unite at Pittsburgh, and form the Ohio. 
 The Youghiogheny is a small river which flows into the 
 Monongahela. ' 
 
 Agricultural Products.— Wheat, 15,367,691 bushels ; 
 rye, 4,805,160 bushels; Indian com, 19,835,214 bush- 
 els; oats, 21,538,156 bushels; barley, 165,584 bushels ; 
 
PEN 
 
 1510 
 
 PEN 
 
 buckwheat, 2,193,692 bushels ; peas and beans, 55,231 
 bushels; potatoes, 5,980,732 bushels; sweet potatoes, 
 52,172 bushels. Value of products of the orchard, 
 $723,389 ; produce of market gardens, $688,714. Pounds 
 of butter made, 39,878,418 ; of cheese, 2,505,03i ; ma- 
 ple sugar, 2,320,525; molasses, 50,652 gallons; bees- 
 wax and honey, 839,509 pounds ; wool, pounds pro- 
 duced, 4,481,570 ; flax, 530,307 ; silk cocoons, 285 ; hops, 
 22,088 ; tobacco, 912,651 ; hay, tons of, 1,842,970 ; hemp, 
 44 tons; clover seeds, 126,030 bushels; other grass 
 seeds, 53,913 bushels ; flax seed, 41,728 bushels ; and 
 were made, 25,590 gallons of wine. Value of home- 
 made manufactures, $749,132 : value of slaughtered an- 
 imals, $8,219,848.— C«mus Eejiovt, 1850. 
 
 Manvfactures. — There were in the State in 1850, 136 
 cotton factories, with a capital invested of $4,671,015, 
 employing 4283 males and 4374 females, producing 
 59,532,000 yards of sheeting, etc. ; 5,308,561 pounds 
 of yarn, valued at $5,812,126 ; 254 woolen factories, 
 with a capital invested of $1,776,268, employing 1747 
 males and 753 females, manufacturing articles valued 
 at $2,703,409 ; 178 establishments making pig iron, 
 with a capital invested of $8,357,525, employing 9264 
 persons, producing 322,752 tons pig iron, etc., valued 
 at $6,170,625 ; 320 establishments, with a capital of 
 13,422,924, employing 4783 persons, and making 67,810 
 tons of castings, etc., valued at |6,354,881 ; 131 estab- 
 lishments, with a capital of $7,620,066, employing 6771 
 persons, manufacturing 182,606 tons of wrought iron, 
 valued at $8,902,907; 2380 flouring and grist mills, 
 2936 saw mills, 1540 tanneries ; 103 printing-oflices, 
 328 newspapers, 25 daily, three tri-weekly, one semi- 
 weekly, 275 weekly, eight semi-monthly, 12 monthly, 
 and two quarterly publications. Capital invested in 
 manufactures, $91,463,21P; value of manufactured ar- 
 ticles, $154,944,698. 
 
 Canals. — The State of Pennsylvania as early as the 
 
 FOEBIGN COMMEBCE OF THE STATE OF PENNSYLVANIA FEOM OCTOBER 1, 1820, to -July 1, 1856, SHOWING ALSO THE ClS- 
 TEIOT Tonnage in 1821, 1831, 1841, and 1861, 
 
 year 1791 initiated a system of inland water commu- 
 nication. William Penn, it is said, first conceived the 
 idea. In 1792 two companies were formed, to build 
 the Schuylkill and Susquehanna, and Delaware and 
 Schuylkill canals. They constructed fifteen miles and 
 abandoned the work. In 1821 the enterprise was re- 
 newed, and completed in 1827, when other works were 
 started, and nearly all the present canals authorized 
 and tlieir routes surveyed. The State has now 848 
 miles of canals, which cost $24,168,000, according to an 
 estimate considered to be under rather than above the 
 mark. Private companies have built 485 miles of ca- 
 nal, costing $21,955,000. The State has therefore 
 1333 miles of canal, costing upward of $46,000,000. Be- 
 sides these it has 2164 miles of railroad, which cost some 
 $58,000,000. The totals of these important improve- 
 ments added together, make 3497 miles, and their cost 
 foots up $104,000,000. Their value to the State is not 
 represented by their cost, for without them Pennsyl- 
 vania would be a wilderness. They unite her to the 
 Great West, to the southern part of our State, and to 
 the great metropolis ; and enable her to send her coal 
 and iron to distant marts, enriching her beyond es- 
 timate. 
 
 The following is presented as a comparison of the 
 anthracite coal trade of Pennsylvania for two years : 
 
 Eeadiug Eailroad 
 
 Schuylkill Navigation Co. 
 
 Pine Grove 
 
 Little Schuylkill 
 
 Lehigh 
 
 Lackawanoa 
 
 Wyoming 
 
 Shamokin 
 
 Lyken's Valley 
 
 Scranton 
 
 Total 
 
 I8ts. 
 
 Tona. 
 
 2,218,292 
 
 1,115,263 
 
 1( 5.656 
 
 437,550 
 
 1,274,986 
 
 1,062,595 
 
 653,000 
 
 122,600 
 
 112,000 
 
 6,626,288 
 
 1» 
 
 Tons. 
 
 2,148,903 
 
 1,169,286 
 
 170,154 
 
 454,514 
 
 l,36i,382 
 
 1,167,513 
 
 510,000 
 
 126,600 
 
 100,000 
 
 50,000 
 
 7,258,891 
 
 Yeara ending 
 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Tonnage 
 
 cleared. 
 
 District Tonnage. 1 
 
 Domeatic 
 
 Foreign, 
 
 Total. 
 
 Total. 
 
 American. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Registered. 
 
 Enrolled and 
 Licensed. 
 
 Sept. 30,1821 
 
 $2,882,387 
 
 $4,859,380 
 
 $7,331,767 
 
 $5,168,922 
 
 69,436 
 
 3,641 
 
 59,295 
 
 25,081 
 
 1832 
 
 8,575,147 
 
 5,472,655 
 
 9,047,802 
 
 11,874,170 
 
 70,846 
 
 5.745 
 
 
 
 1823 
 
 3,139,809 
 
 6,477,383 
 
 9,617,192 
 
 13,696,770 
 
 76,630 
 
 5 293 
 
 
 
 1824 
 
 3,182,694 
 
 6,182,199 
 
 9,864 893 
 
 11.866,581 
 
 76,681 
 
 5,625 
 
 
 
 1826 
 
 8,886,133 
 
 7,833,848 
 
 11,269.981 
 
 15,041,797 
 
 82 436 
 
 2,366 
 
 
 
 1826 
 
 8,158,711 
 
 5,178,011 
 
 8,3.31,722 
 
 13..551,779 
 
 69,444 
 
 4 445 
 
 
 
 183T 
 
 3,891,296 
 
 4,184,537 
 
 7,675,833 
 
 11,212,935 
 
 68,753 
 
 4,097 
 
 
 
 1828 
 
 8,116,001 
 
 2,985,479 
 
 6,051,430 
 
 12,884,408 
 
 61,819 
 
 6,880 
 
 
 
 1829 
 
 2,617,152 
 
 1,472,783 
 
 4,089,935 
 
 10,100,162 
 
 62,841 
 
 4,625 
 
 
 
 1830 
 
 Total. . . 
 
 2,924,462 
 
 1,367,841 
 
 4,291,793 
 
 8,702,122 
 
 63,022 
 
 4,870 
 
 
 
 $31,873,782 
 
 $45,158,616 
 
 $77,032,398 
 
 $117,088,686 
 
 690,867 
 
 46,616 
 
 
 
 Sept. 30,1831 
 
 $3,524,302 
 
 $1,919,411 
 
 $5,613,713 
 
 $12,124,083 
 
 65,149 
 
 7,5-6 
 
 51,293 
 
 29,226 
 
 1832 
 
 2,008,991 
 
 1,5J7,075 
 
 3,516,066 
 
 10,678,388 
 
 46,726 
 
 14,131 
 
 
 
 1833 
 
 2,671,300 
 
 1,407,661 
 
 4,078,951 
 
 10,461,250 
 
 49,109 
 
 22,378 
 
 
 
 1834 
 
 2,031,803 
 
 1,957.943 
 
 3,989,746 
 
 10,479,268 
 
 46,411 
 
 16,286 
 
 
 
 1835 
 
 2,416 099 
 
 1,323,176 
 
 8,7S9,276 
 
 12,389,937 
 
 57,088 
 
 10,936 
 
 
 
 1836 
 
 2,627,651 
 
 1,343,904 
 
 3,971,555 
 
 16,063,233 
 
 49,670 
 
 14,849 
 
 
 
 1837 
 
 2,665,712 
 
 1,276.887 
 
 3,841 699 
 
 11,680,111 
 
 45,185 
 
 18,284 
 
 
 
 1838 
 
 2,481,643 
 
 995,608 
 
 8.477,151 
 
 9,360,371 
 
 75.842 
 
 8,369 
 
 
 
 1839 
 
 4,148,i!ll 
 
 1,151,204 
 
 6,269,415 
 
 15,(150,715 
 
 64,318 
 
 13,381 
 
 
 
 1840 
 
 Total... 
 
 5,736,456 
 
 1,083,689 
 
 6,820,145 
 
 8,464,882 
 
 72,288 
 
 11,340 
 
 
 
 $30,282,068 
 
 $13,966,648 
 
 $44,247,616 
 
 $115,747,208 
 
 571,i86 
 
 1S6,9S9 
 
 
 
 Sept. 80,1841 
 
 $4,404,863 
 
 $747,638 
 
 $5, 15. ',601 
 
 $10,346 6"8 
 
 74,201 
 
 9,322 
 
 82,267 
 
 67,046 
 
 1842 
 
 3,293,814 
 
 476,918 
 
 3,770,727 
 
 7,385 863 
 
 65,208 
 
 13,712 
 
 
 
 9mo8., 1843« 
 
 2,071,945 
 
 283,003 
 
 2,3.54,948 
 
 2,7611,630 
 
 41,573 
 
 5,899 
 
 
 
 June 30, 1844 
 
 3,265,0!;7 
 
 270,229 
 
 3 635,266 
 
 7,217,^67 
 
 70,660 
 
 8,627 
 
 
 
 1845 
 
 8,129,678 
 
 444,685 
 
 8.674,363 
 
 8,151,227 
 
 68,271 
 
 12,987 , 
 
 
 
 1840 
 
 4,157,918 
 
 598,087 
 
 4 761,005 
 
 7,989.896 
 
 77,272 
 
 7,627 
 
 
 
 184T 
 
 8,263,311 
 
 281,080 
 
 8,644,391 
 
 9,587,516 
 
 107,930 
 
 35,213 
 
 
 
 1848 
 
 5,428,309 
 
 3l!4 0:4 
 
 5,782,333 
 
 12,147,584 
 
 77,870 
 
 20,218 
 
 .... 
 
 
 1849 
 
 4 350,872 
 
 4i2,64T 
 
 5,343,421 
 
 10,645,600 
 
 93,3;:2 
 
 27,005 
 
 
 
 1850 
 
 Total. . . 
 
 4,049,464 
 
 452,142 
 
 4,601,606 
 
 12,066,154 
 
 81,276 
 
 30,342 
 
 
 
 $42,915,201 
 
 $4,345,350 
 
 $47,280,661 
 
 $88,305,830 
 
 752,673 
 
 170,952 
 
 
 
 June 30, 1851 
 
 $5,101,969 
 
 $284,067 
 
 $5,356,036 
 
 $14,165,701 
 
 102,128 
 
 38,061 
 
 09,4- 8 
 
 214,948 
 
 IS.W 
 
 5,522,449 
 
 306,122 
 
 5,828 571 
 
 14.786,917 
 
 90,951 
 
 48,f81 
 
 
 
 1853 
 
 6,255,229 
 
 272,767 
 
 6 5-7,996 
 
 18,834,410 
 
 101,029 
 
 50,056 
 
 
 
 1854 
 
 9,846,810 
 
 257,606 
 
 10,104,416 
 
 21,359,306 
 
 120,640 
 
 53 667 
 
 
 
 1S55 
 
 6,685,126 
 
 289,213 
 
 6,274,338 
 
 15,309,936 
 
 114,208 
 
 35,720 
 
 
 
 1850 
 
 7,048,408 
 
 189,164 
 
 7,232,572 
 
 16,690,045 
 
 112,087 
 
 31,245 
 
 
 
 • Nine months to June 30, and fiscal year begins July 1, 1843, 
 
PEN 
 
 1511 
 
 PEN 
 
 Philadelphia, near the confluence of the rivers Dela- 
 ware and Schuylkill, in lat. 39° 57' N., long. 75° 10' 
 W., and near the head of the Delaware Bay. Vessels 
 of the largest burden ascend the river as far as New- 
 castle, but those drawing above 18 or 20 feet of water 
 can not reach Philadelphia, on account of a bar a lit- 
 tle below the city. The entrance to the magnificent 
 bay formed by the embouchure of the Delaware has 
 Cape May ou the north, and Cape Henlopen on its 
 south side. The commerce of Philadelphia has not 
 kept pace with her growth in other respects, especially 
 in manufactures. The tonnage in 1856 was 197,228 
 tons. — See Philadelphia. 
 
 Erie, port of entry, is beautifully situated on Presque 
 Isle Bay, on Lake Erie, covers one mile square, and 
 has one of the best harbors on the lake, the channel or 
 entrance to which has lately been much improved ; the 
 water is from 11 to 20 feet deep, and the largest steam- 
 boats enter without difficulty. There is a light-house 
 on the west side of the entrance of Presque Isle Bay, 
 lat. 42° 8' 14" N. I shows a fixed light, elevated 93 feet 
 above the surface of the lake, and visible for a distance 
 of Hi miles. The beacon, is on the east side of the 
 bay ; visible 84 miles. — For further information of the 
 commerce and resources of Pennsylvania, see Banlcevs' 
 Magazine, New York, 1851-1856; North American Re- 
 view, xlii. 241 (C. Cdshino); Hunt's Merchants' Mag- 
 azine, X. 308, xii. 237 ; De Bow's Review, xii. 476. 
 See also articles Delaware Eivek — Coal — Canals 
 and Railroads. 
 
 Fenny, formerly a silver, but now a copper coin. 
 This was the first silver coin struck in England by our 
 Saxon ancestors, being the 240th part of their pound ; so 
 that its weight was about 22^ grains Troy. Camden 
 derives the word from the Latin, pecunia, money. The 
 ancient English penny, penig, or pening, was the first 
 silver coin struck in England, nay, the only one cur- 
 rent among our Saxon ancestors, as is agreed by Cam- 
 den, Spelman, Hickes, and others. The penny was 
 equal in weight to our threepence ; five of them made 
 one shilling or scilling Saxon, and 30 a mark or man- 
 cuse, equal to 7s. 6<i. Till the time of King Edward 
 the First, the penny was struck with a cross, so deeply 
 indented into it that it might be easily broken, and 
 parted, on occasion, into two parts, which were tiience 
 called haif-pennies, or into^wr, Avhich were caWzA four- 
 things, or farthings. But that prince coined it without 
 indenture, instead of which he first struck round half- 
 pence and farthings. He also reduced the weight of a 
 penny to a standard, ordering that it should weigh 32 
 grains of wheat, taken out of the middle of the ear. 
 This penny was called the penny sterling; and, as 20 
 of these pence were to weigh an ounce, the penny thus 
 became a weight as well as a coin. The penny ster- 
 ling was long disused as a coin, and was scarcely known, 
 except as a money of account, containing the twelfth 
 part of a shilling ; but latterly it has been introduced 
 into the British current coin. — See Post-office. 
 
 To ascertain the, as yet unknown, quality of the 
 metal in the old British penny, the chief assayers in 
 Philadelphia were addressed, to procure information 
 from books of reference or actual assay. The answer 
 decided : " The ancients intended fine silver and pure 
 gold in their coins, refined them as well as they could, 
 and issued them for fine metal. But the old silver 
 pennies of Britain are now so few and expensive — one 
 in the mint collection cost seven dollars — we can not 
 afford to assay them." As this point was essential for 
 accurate calculation, Mr. DuBois added, in a postscript, 
 " Since writing the above I have assayed a silver pen- 
 ny of William the Conqueror. It gives a fineness of 
 •950 thousandths, and contains gold equal to -009^^ 
 thousandths." This trial shows an alloy of some base 
 metal exceeding '040 thousandths ('0404) contained in 
 the silver penny, diminishing its standard in that de- 
 gree from one of perfect purity. " The Mint remedy" 
 of the United States, regarded to be a necessary allow- 
 
 ance for casual deviations in the quality of silver pieces, 
 can not exceed -003 thousandths, instead of -040, on 
 each side the standard. It is not now proposed at 
 mints to have the coins of the highest quality, but the 
 rule or standard of purity, ordered by law, must be 
 exact, both in fine metal and alloy. By recent proof 
 with wheat corn measure, the weight of the old penny 
 mai/ have varied from five grains in the red to eight 
 grains in the white wheat. The modern " allowance" 
 for variation in quantity is one-fourth or one-half a 
 grain, in a coin approaching the value of the Anglo- 
 Norman penny. "The silver penny of old time — the 
 only money except rings known to the native Britons 
 — was at once a coin, a weight, and a measure. Its 
 character of purity checked and ruled the values of all 
 moneys, weights, and measures represented by or de- 
 duced from it. Such values do not depend solely on 
 weight nor solely upon fineness, but on their combined 
 powers, the product of both. 'The keystone of the so- 
 called "system" of 1266 was conceived to be "the 
 weight of the silver penny sterling." But defective 
 qnality caused this "keystone" to crumble. The super- 
 structure erected upon such foundation failed, because 
 metallurgical irregularitj' was not checked by metrical 
 exactness.. The measures were .faulty throughout — 
 " weighed in the balances, they yfeTQboth foimd want- 
 ing." The bases for calculation in this ancient scale 
 being inaccurate, no truth could be elicited by any in- 
 crease of numbers-r-or quantities in progression. Some 
 of the silver pennies of the early Britons were nearly 
 divided by the impression of a cross, through the mid- 
 dle on the reverse, so they could be broken into half- 
 pennies, and again into quarters, called " fourthings," 
 or farthings. This practice of simple division had 
 continued until silver half-pennies and farthings were 
 specially coined by King John, in 1185— first in Ire- 
 land, where his principal Mint was. During the latter 
 part of the reign of Henry the Third, of England, " a 
 penny" of fine gold was ordered of the value of twenty 
 pennies of silver. The word "penny" had its deriva- 
 tion from the French ■" denier," the " denarius" of the 
 Latins. The French title, shortened into " denny" by 
 the Normans, was easily changed on the English tongue 
 to "penny" — at that time a common term for money 
 in general, of whatever metal it might be. Golden 
 deniers, coined sparingly in France, bearing the figure 
 of a lamb, were called deniers d'agneau, or moutons 
 d'or. During, the reigns of the early Norman kings, 
 their, rents, though reserved in money, were answer- 
 ed in cattle, corn, and other provisions, because money 
 was then scarce among the people. Coins of gold, 
 named " nobles d'or," were first issued from the British 
 Mint by Edward the Third, in 1344 ; but with so much 
 difficulty that it was thought necessary to order by 
 law, "no one should be obliged, to receive them." It 
 was decided to prove the standard of the silver penny 
 of our remote ancestry, by the approval of English and 
 other contemporaries, in wheat com grains from "the 
 Old North State of Carolina." Six different growths 
 of the crop of 1856, intended for seed and consumption, 
 selected in October from two prominent varieties, the 
 red and the white, choosing grains of average quality, 
 but perfect fullness, were antagonized by a penny- 
 weight Troy of the purest silver, specially prepared 
 from solution, for assays of gold. No two samples of 
 thirty-two wheat corn grains were found of the same 
 weight. Of early red — May wheat-^from thirty-eight 
 to forty and forty-three corns were required to balance 
 the silverpiece, while of white wheatfrom twenty-eight 
 to thirty-five and thirty-six grains effected the same 
 purpose, showing a disproportion equal to fifteen wheat 
 grains in the six parcels ; that is, from twenty-eight 
 to forty-three corns — a deviation in the value of a sil- 
 ver ponny equivalent to nearly one half the standard 
 weight. An act of Henry the Third, in 1266, explains 
 the primitive initials of these ancient British, Gallic, 
 and German standards, to all which one common deri. 
 
PEN 
 
 1512 
 
 PEP 
 
 vation is imputed. " By consent of the whole realm, 
 the measure of the king waa made, that is to say, an 
 English penny of silver, called a sterling, round, and 
 without any clipping, shall weigh thirty-two wheat 
 corns, taken from the middle of the ear. And twenty 
 pence of silver do make one ounce. And twelve ounces 
 of silver do make one pound. And eight pounds of 
 silver do make a gallon of wine. And eight gallons 
 of wine do make a London bushel, which is the eighth 
 part of a quarter." This general arrangement for 
 money weights and measures was that of the Eastern 
 nations, by which Europe had been overrun. The 
 term "easterlin" of the Norman French was trans- 
 muted on the English tongue, first to "easterling," and 
 finally to "sterling." — Report of Dr. J. H. Gibbon, 
 United States Mint, North Carolina. See Pound. 
 
 Penny-Post. First set up in London and its sub- 
 urbs by a Mr. Murray, upholsterer; a.d. 1681. Mr. 
 Murray afterward assigned his interest in the under- 
 taking to Mr. Dockwra, a merchant, 1G83; but on a trial 
 at the King's Bench bar in the reign of Charles IL, was 
 adjudged to belong to the Duke of York as a branch of 
 the general post, and was thereupon annexed to the 
 revenue of the crown. — Dklaune, 1690. This institu- 
 tion was considerably improved in and round London, 
 July, 1794, et seq., and was made a twopenny-post. A 
 penny-post was first set up in Dublin in 1774. — See 
 Post-office. 
 
 Pennyweight, a Troy weight, containing twenty- 
 four grains, each grain weighing a grain of wheat, 
 gathered out of the middle of the ear and well dried. 
 The name took its rise from the circumstance that this 
 was anciently the weight of one of our silver pennies. 
 
 Pens (Fr. Plumes a ecrire ,- Ger. Schreihfedern ; It. 
 Penne da Scrivere ; Russ. Pera Stwoli), well-known in- 
 struments for writing, usually formed of the quills of 
 the goose, swan, or some other bird. Metallic pens 
 have been occasionally employed for a lengthened 
 period ; but it is only within these few 3''ears that they 
 have been extensively introduced. They are now, 
 however, manufactured in. vast quantities, and of an 
 immense variety of forms. But though they have 
 superseded to a' very considerable extent the use of 
 quills, and have some peculiar advantages, it does rtot 
 appear possible to give them the elasticity of the quill, 
 nor to fit them so well for quick and easy writing on 
 common descriptions of paper. Quills are said to have 
 been first used for pens in a.d. 553 ; but some say not 
 before 635. Quills are for the most part plucked with 
 great cruelty from living geese ; and all persons, from 
 convenience, economy, and feeling, ought to prefer 
 metallic pens, which came into use in 1830. — Phillips. 
 
 For the manufacture of steel pens the best metal, 
 made from Dannemora or hoop (l) iron, is selected and 
 laminated into slips about three feet long and four 
 inches broad, of a thickness corresponding to the de- 
 sired stiffness and flexibility of the pens. These slips 
 are subjected to the action of a stamping-press, some- 
 what similar to that for making buttons. The point 
 destined for the nib is next introduced into an appro- 
 priate gauged hole of a little machine, and pressed into 
 the semi-cylindrical shape; where it is also pierced 
 with the middle slit, and the lateral ones, provided the 
 latter are to be given. The pens are now cleaned, by 
 being tossed about among each other, in a tin cylinder, 
 about three feet long, and nine inches in diameter; 
 which is suspended at each end upon joints to two 
 cranks, formed one on each of two shafts. The cylin- 
 der, by the rotation of a fly-wheel, acting upon the 
 crank-shafts, is made to describe such revolutions as 
 agitate the pens in all directions, and polish them by 
 mutual attrition. In the course of four hours several 
 thousand pens may be finished upon this machine. 
 When steel pens have been punched out of the softened 
 sheet of steel by the appropriate tool, fashioned in the 
 desired form, and hardened by ignition in an oven and 
 sudden quenching in cold water, they are best tempered 
 
 by being heated to the requisite spring elasticity in an 
 oil bath. The heat of this bath is usually judged of 
 by the appearance to the eye ; but this point should be 
 correctly determined by a thermometer, according to 
 the scale ; and then the pens would acquire a definite 
 degree of flexibility or stifll^ess, adapted to the wants 
 and wishes of the consumers. They are at present 
 tempered too often at random. 
 
 Impoets of Metallic Pens into the United States foe 
 
 TUE Fiscal Yeab ending June 30, 1656. 
 
 Whence imported. Value. 
 
 Bremen $472 
 
 England 113,DS7 
 
 France 3,i)-'0 
 
 New Granada 70 
 
 Total value $116,155 
 
 Pepper (Fr. Poivre; Ger. Pfeffer; Du. Pcpei- ; It. 
 Pepe ; Sp. Pimienta ,- Russ. Perez ,- Lat. Piper), tlie berry 
 or fruit of different species of plants, having an aro- 
 matic, extremely hot, pungent taste, used in seasoning, 
 etc. The following sorts of pepper are met with in 
 commerce: Ulach Pepper (Fr. Poivre; Ger. Schwarzen 
 pfeffer; It. Pepe negro; Sp. Pimienia; Sans. Mercha; 
 Hind. Gol-mirch; Malay, Lada; Jav. Mariha), the 
 fruit of a creeping plant {Piper nigrvTrC), one of the 
 pepper genus, of which there are upward of 80 species. 
 It is cultivated extensively in India, Siam, the Eastern 
 islands, etc. It requires the support of other trees, to 
 which It readily adheres. It climbs to the height of 
 20 feet, but is said to bear best when restrained to the 
 height of 12 feet. It begins to produce at about the 
 third year, and is in perfection at the seventh; con- 
 tinues in this state for three or four years; and declines 
 for about as many more, until it ceases to be worth 
 keeping. The fruit grows abundantly from all the 
 branches, in long small clusters of from 20 to 50 grains ; 
 when ripe, it is of a bright red color. After being 
 ga'thered, it is spread on mats in the sun, when it loses 
 its red color, and becomes black and shriveled as we 
 see it. The grains are separated from the stalks bj' 
 hand rubbing. That which has been gathered at the 
 proper period shrivels the least; but if plucked too 
 soon, it will become broken and dusty in its removal 
 from place to place. The vino produces two crops in 
 the year; but the seasons are subject to great irregu- 
 larities. Pepper should be chosen of a pungent aro- 
 matic odor, an extremely hot and acrid taste, in large 
 grains, firm, sound, and with few wrinkles — for of these 
 it always has some. Reject that which is shriveled, 
 or small grained, or which on being rubbed will break 
 to pieces. In point of quality, the pepper of Malabar 
 is usually reckoned the best; but there is no material 
 difference between it and that of Sumatra, and the 
 other islands. In the market of Bengal, where they 
 meet on equal terms, the produce of Malabar is gener- 
 ally about two per cent, higher than the other. In 
 Europe there is generally a difference of ^d. per lb. in 
 favor of Malabar ; but in China they are held in equal 
 estimation. Black pepper sold ground is said to be 
 often adulterated with burned crust of bread. 
 
 White Pepper is made by blanching the finest grains 
 of the common black pepper by steeping them for a 
 while in water, and then gently rubbing them, so as to 
 remove the dark outer coat. It is milder than the 
 other, and is much prized by the Chinese ; but very 
 little is imported into England. 
 
 Cayenne Pepper is the produce of several varieties of 
 the Capsicvm, an annual plant, a native of both the 
 Indies. The best is brought from the West Indies 
 ready prepared, and is made from the Capsicum hacca' 
 turn (bird pepper). It has an aromatic, extremely pun- 
 gent, acrimonious taste, setting the mouth, as it were, 
 on fire, and the impression remaining long on the pal- 
 ate. It is sometimes adulterated with muriate of soda; 
 and sometimes with a very deleterious substance, the 
 red oxyd of lead ; but this fraud may be detected by 
 its weight, and by chemical tests. 
 
 Long Pepper.- — This species is the produce of a peren- 
 
PEP 
 
 1513 
 
 PEP 
 
 nial (Piper longum), a native of Malabar and Bengal. 
 The fruit is hottest in its immature state, and is there- 
 fore gathered while green, and dried in the sun. It is 
 imported in entire spikes, which are about one and a 
 half inch long. It has a weak aromatic odor, an in- 
 tensely fiery, pungent taste, and a dark gray color. 
 The root of long pepper is a favorite medicine among 
 the Hindoos. The quantities of the last three species 
 of pepper imported are quite inconsiderable. — Mil- 
 burn's Oriental Commerce ; Ainslie's Materia Indica ; 
 Thomson's Dispensatory, etc. 
 
 Trade in. Pepper. — Pepper is extensively used, all 
 over Europe and the East, as a condiment. It was 
 originally imported into England by way of the Le- 
 vant ; and for many years after the establishment of 
 the East India Company it formed the most important 
 article of their imports. In nothing has the beneficial 
 effect of opening the Indian trade been so unequivo- 
 cally displayed as in the instance of pepper. The pri- 
 vate traders have resorted to new markets, and dis- 
 covered new sources of supply, which had hitherto been 
 wholly unexplored ; so that there has been not only a 
 very great increase in the quantity of pepper brought 
 to market, but also a very great fall in its price, which 
 does not now exceed a third part of what it amounted 
 to in 1814 ! 
 
 Supply of Pepper. — The following instructive details 
 with respect to the supply of pepper are taken from the 
 Sinffapwe Chronicle, to which they were contributed by 
 John Crawfurd, Esq., than whom there can be no more 
 competent authority as to such subjects. Of all the 
 products of the Eastern islands, and of the countries 
 immediately in their neighborliood, in demand among 
 strangers, black pepper is the most important, both in 
 value and quantity. The pepper countries extend 
 from about the long, of 96° to that of 115° E., beyond 
 which no pepper is to be found ; and they reach from 
 5° S. lat. to about 12° N., where it again ceases. 
 Within these limits we have Sumatra, Borneo, the 
 Malayan peninsula, and certain countries lying on the 
 east coast of the Gulf of Siam. The whole produce of 
 the island of Sumatra is estimated not to fall short of 
 168,000 piculs of 133i lbs. each ; the southwest coast 
 being said to produce 150,000, and the northeast coast 
 J8,000 piculs. The pepper ports on the northeast coast 
 of Sumatra are Lankat and Delli, with Sardang. The 
 first two produce 16,000 piculs, and the latter 3000 an- 
 nually. The cultivation is carried on by the Batta 
 nation in the interior. The ports on the southwest 
 coast, and the amount of their produce, as given in a 
 recent estimate, are as follows ; viz., port and district 
 of Trumah, 40,000 ; district of Pulo Dua, 4000 ; ditto 
 of Cluat, 30,000; coast from Tampat Tuan to Susu, 
 38,000; port of Susu, 1000; Kualla Batta, 20,000; 
 Analabu, 2000 ; districts to the north of Analabu, 
 20,000; making in all, 150,000 piculs. Here it is of 
 importance to remark that the culture and production 
 are extremely fluctuating. During the last pepper 
 season, there obtained cargoes on the west coast of 
 Sumatra, 27 American ships, six country traders, four 
 large French ships, besides the ships belonging to the 
 East India Company, which generally take away 500 
 tons. Nearly the whole of this trade is in the hands 
 of Europeans or Americans ; the pepper finds its way 
 to Europe, to America, and in a small proportion to 
 China. The northeast coast of Sumatra, from Pedier 
 down to the Carimons, is estimated, as already men- 
 tioned, to produce 18,000 piculs. Prince of Wales 
 Island is the principal d^6t for this, from whence the 
 greatest part is exported to India and China. The 
 produce of Prince of Wales Island itself is about 15,000 
 piculs. Of the islands at the month of the Straits of 
 Malacca and Singapore, Bingtang, on which Rhio is 
 situated, and a(^jacent islands, produce 10,000 piculs ; 
 and Lingga about 2000. A large proportion of this is 
 brought to Singapore, which exported last year about 
 21,000 piculs; some part to Bengal and China, but 
 
 principally to Europe direct, in free traders. The west 
 coast of the Malayan peninsula produces no pepper, 
 with the exception of about 4000 piculs afforded by the 
 territory of Malacca. On the east coast of the penin- 
 sula, the production of pepper is very considerable. 
 The ports of Patani and Calantan — chiefly the latter 
 — ^yield about 16,000 piculs annually, and Tringanu 
 about 8000. A portion of this is brought to Singapore 
 and Penang ; but we believe the greater proportion 
 goes direct to China in junks, of which three large 
 ones frequent Tringanu annually, and one Calantan. 
 The Americans, too, occasionally visit these ports. In 
 the year 1821, three vessels of considerable burden ob- 
 tained cargoes. The east coast of the Gulf of Siam, 
 from the lat. of 10J-° to that of 12i° N., afl'ords an ex- 
 tensive produce of pepper. This coast is scarcely 
 known, even by name, to the traders of Europe. The 
 principal ports here are Chantibun, Tungyai, Pong- 
 som, and Kampop — the first two being under the 
 dominion of Siam, and the latter under that of Kam- 
 boja. The whole produce is estimated at not less than 
 60,000 piculs ; 40,000 of which are brought at once to 
 the capital of Siam as tribute to the king, and the 
 whole finds its way to China in junks. It remains 
 only to estimate the produce of the island of Borneo. 
 The wliole produce of Borneo is estimated at about 
 20,000 piculs ; of which a large share is carried to 
 China direct in junks, some by Portuguese vessels ; and 
 about 7000 piculs are now annually brought by the 
 native craft of the country itself to Singapore in the 
 course of that free trade which is happily flourishing 
 at this settlement. The data which have been stated 
 will enable us to estimate the whole production of the 
 Malayan Archipelago, including that of the peninsula 
 of Malacca, and that of the east coast of the Gulf of 
 Siam, at 308,000 piculs ; and as there is no other part 
 of the world that affords pepper, excepting the western 
 coast of the peninsula of India, and this affords but 
 30,000 piculs, or less than one-tenth part of what the 
 places we have enumerated produce, we have, accord- 
 ingly, at one view the whole production of the earth, 
 being 338,000 piculs, or 45,066,666 lbs. av^oirdupois. 
 The average price of pepper has been lately about nine 
 Spanish dollars a picul ; so that the whole value drawn 
 into India from Europe, China, and the New World, 
 on account of this single commodity, is 3,042,000 dol- 
 lars. The quantity given in this statement may ap- 
 pear enormous ; but if meted out to the whole popula- 
 tion of the globe, or to 1,000,000,000 of people, it would 
 be found that the average annual consumption of an 
 individual would amount to no more than 323 grains. 
 Mr. Crawfurd has more recently supplied a. revised 
 estimate of the annual production of pepper as follows : 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Sumatra (west coaBt) 20,000,000 
 
 " (eastcoast) 8,000,000 
 
 Islands in the Straits of Malacca S,GOO,000 
 
 Malay peninsula 3,733,833 
 
 Borneo 2,666,66T 
 
 Siam 8,000,000 
 
 Malabar 4.060,000 
 
 Total 50,000,000 
 
 Impohts op Pbppee into tub United States for tue 
 Yeae ending juwe 30th, 1856. 
 
 Whence imported. 
 
 Pepper, 
 
 tliiclt. 
 
 Pepper, red. | 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Vivlue. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Value. 
 
 
 640 
 
 $36 
 
 
 
 Holland 
 
 TTT^iii 
 
 38,964 
 
 919 
 
 $60 
 
 Dutch WCBt Indies 
 
 Dutch East Indies 
 
 2,292,271 
 
 103,967 
 
 nVsk 
 
 1133 
 
 
 9,224 
 
 653 
 
 4,250 
 703 
 
 208 
 110 
 
 British West Indies. . . . 
 
 British Poss. in Africa. . 
 
 
 
 23,337 
 
 771 
 
 British East Indies .... 
 
 3,628,961 
 
 169,130 
 
 5,466 
 
 416 
 
 France on the Atlantic . 
 
 60 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 Spain on the Atlantic. . . 
 
 
 
 531 
 
 31 
 
 Spain on the Mediter'n . 
 
 .... 
 
 .... 
 
 83,144 
 
 1353 
 
 
 1,282 
 27,164 
 
 197 
 557 
 
 790 
 
 ■74 
 
 Ports in Africa 
 
 
 '566 
 
 ■"29 
 
 si'.Vbs 
 
 1687 
 
 China 
 
 Total 
 
 6,787,809 
 
 $318.6>2 
 
 118,741 
 
 $5849 
 
PEE 
 
 1514 
 
 PER 
 
 Perch, or Rod, a long measure, 16^ feet in length. — 
 See ^\'iciGiiTS and Measdkes. 
 
 Ferfume (Fr. ■parfmn), a term used to denote the 
 volatile effluvia from any body affecting the organ of 
 smelling, or the substance emitting those effluvia. 
 Perfumes were in general use among the ancients (see 
 the Quarterly Review, vol. xxiii.) ; and in France, Ger- 
 many, Spain, and Portugal, and even, thotfgh not to 
 so considerable an extent, in England, they are regard- 
 ed almost as necessaries. In general they are made 
 of musk, ambergris, civet, rose, and cedar woods, or- 
 ange flowers, jessamines, jonquils, tuberoses, and other 
 odoriferous flowers. Aromatic drugs, such as storax, 
 frankincense, benzoin, cloves, etc., enter into the com- 
 position of a perfume ; and many perfumes are com- 
 posed of aromatic herbs or leaves, as lavender, mar- 
 joram, sage, thyme, etc. 
 
 Perfumery. Many of the wares coming under 
 this name were known to the ancients, and the Scrip- 
 tures abound with instances of the use of incenses and 
 perfumes. No such trade as a perfumer was known in 
 Scotland in 1763. — Ckeech. A stamp tax was laid on 
 various articles of perfumery in England, and the vend- 
 er was obliged to take out a license, in 1786. At the 
 corner of Beaufort Buildings, in the Strand, resided 
 Lilly the perfumer, mentionedin the Spectator. — Leigh. 
 
 Some of the most exquisite of perfumes are obtained 
 from the most offensive substances. In olden times 
 the most delicate perfumes were distilled from flowers, 
 whose names they bore ; but chemistry has shown how 
 to obtain them from other sources. To give ont; ex- 
 ample, a peculiarly fetid oil, called fusel-oil, is formed 
 during the making of brandj' and whisk}^. Now this 
 loathsome oil, by a particular mode of treatment, is 
 made to yield the fragrant oil of pears ; by another 
 process, oil of apples; and by others, oil oft/rapes and 
 oil of cognac. Tlie oil of pine-apples is produced from 
 sugar and putrid cheese. The oil of hitter almonds is a 
 resultant fronr aquafortis and the offensive oils from 
 gas tar. The dainty eau de millejkurs is made from 
 the drainage of cow-houses. And in all these cases, 
 there is not the same kind of fraud which is practiced 
 in ordinary adulterations ; for though the perfumes are 
 not actually, in the present state of things, produced 
 from the flowers and fruits ■which give them their 
 names, yet fhey are really identical, or nearlj' so, in 
 chemical composition with the original perfumes; na- 
 ture mixes the ingredients in one case, man in the 
 other, but the ingredients are the same. The passion 
 for perfumes is increasing. British India and Europe 
 consume about 150,000 gallons of handkerchief odors 
 yearl}' ; and the English revenue from eau de Cologne 
 is about 8000 pounds sterling a year. The total reve- 
 nue from imported perfumes in England is estimated 
 at about £40,000- sterling per annum. The largest 
 revenues of the estates on the borders of the Mediter- 
 ranean are those which proceed from the sale of the 
 orange blossoms and Parma violets. The house of 
 Faguer, 83 Rue do Richelieu, and many of the other 
 perfumers of Paris, pay a yearh- sum, varying from 
 10 to 30,000 francs, to the proprietors, for their whole 
 crop of orange blossoms or violets. The Jleurs de citri- 
 onnier ofFar/uer is one of the favorite and most delight- 
 ful odors used for scenting the pocket handkerchief. 
 
 Periodical Publications. These, as the name 
 implies, are publications which appear at fixed periods 
 or stated intervals, and consequently include news- 
 papers, monthly and other magazines, quarterly re- 
 views, and journals, and all such books as appear at 
 monthly or other intervals. But the term " periodical 
 publications" is usually understood in a more confined 
 sense, or as comprising only magazines and such polit- 
 ical, literary, and scientific journals as appear at regu- 
 lar intervals, without including newspapers or works 
 published in parts. Even when thus restricted, this 
 is a very extensive and important department of litera- 
 ture. No doubt a vast deal of trash gets into print by 
 
 the agency of magazines that might not otherwise see 
 the light; but most part of these publications contain 
 at the same time some superior articles ; and a few are 
 ably conducted and embrace a wide range of topics. 
 Since the establishment of the Edinburgh Review in 
 1802, the quarterly journals, especially those that em- 
 brace politics and literature, have risen to great emi- 
 nence, and have had a powerful influence over the pub- 
 lic mind. At present, however, and for some time 
 past, the influence of this class of journals has been de- 
 clining. An ably conducted daily paper is, at tliis 
 moment, by far the most powerful engine the press can 
 bring into the field. — .See Newspapers. For further 
 information refer to American Almanac, 1835, p. D7, 256, 
 1836, p. 92 ; North American Review, xxxix. 277 (J. G. 
 Palfkey) ; Southern Literary Messenger, ii. 393 ; West- 
 minster Review, i. 206, ii. 463; Edinburgh Review, 
 xxxviii. 349; American Quarterly Observer, iii. 135. 
 
 Pernambuoo Province. This is one of the most 
 im])Ortant provinces in Brazil. It abounds with many 
 good harbors, and possesses an exceedingly fertile soil. 
 Its chief staples are sugar, cotton, and hides. Of these 
 its average annual exports from 1840 to 1845 were as 
 follows : Sugar, 34,177 tons ; cotton, 32,279 bags (160 
 lbs. each) ; hides, 72,500. The city of Pernambuco 
 maintains the third rank in the empire. There are in 
 this province about six hundred " eugenhos," or sugar 
 estates, each covering about one square league. On 
 each engenho are produced annually about fifty cases 
 of white, and five of brown, or muscovado sugar— or 
 forty tons of the former, and four and a half tons of 
 th? latter — equal to about 24,000 tons of white, and 
 2550 tons of brown, for the whole province. The prov- 
 ince is estimated to be capable of yielding 896,800 tons 
 of white, and 40,800 tons of muscovado sugar. Im- 
 ports from the United States consist chiefly of cotton 
 domestics. Fabrics of this kind, thirty yards in length, 
 and twenty-seven to twenty-eight inches in width, are 
 in demand, and bring much better prices than similar 
 goods from England. Of late years tlie manufacturers 
 of Lancashire have imitated these cloths, and have 
 succeeded in sharing the advantages which the Amer- 
 ican article had secured. In printed cottons Manches- 
 ter and Glasgow almost monopolize the markets of 
 Pernambuco. The quality as well as the cheapness of 
 their goods have secured this privilege. The import- 
 ation of butter, hitherto almost exclusively in the 
 hands of the French, might be advantageously shared 
 by the citizens of the United States. 
 
 In 1840 the French imported 4160i firkins. 
 
 " 1841 " " 5549 
 
 " 1843 " " 6060 
 
 " 1843 " " T981 " 
 
 " 1844 " " 8962 
 
 In 1840 were Imported from Great Britain 4437 " 
 
 " 1S41 " " 3889 " 
 
 " 1842 " " 3249 
 
 " 1843 " " 4022 " 
 
 " 1S44 " " 3610 
 
 The production of cotton has diminished, owing 
 mainly to the expense attending its transportation to 
 market ; but the production of sugar has increased. 
 From 1828 to 1831, the average annual export was 
 1,607,389 arrobas, and in the years 1841 to 1844 it was 
 augmented to 2,083,212 arrobas ; being an annual in- 
 crease of 475,823 arrobas, or 6797-^ tons. The num- 
 ber of hides exported during the two periods of four 
 years above-named increased in a still greater ratio 
 than sugar. From 1828 to 1831 the annual average 
 export was 60,272 hides ; and during the latter four 
 years, from 1841 to 1844, the same average augmented 
 to 122,573 hides per annum ; showing an annual in- 
 crease of 62,301 hides. It has already been observed 
 that if the export duty levied upon the produce of 
 Brazil transmitted to foreign ports were modified or 
 repealed, a vast augmentation in agricultural produc- 
 tions would unquestionably follow. While an export 
 duty of ten per cent, on tho weekly average price of 
 
PER 
 
 1515 
 
 PER 
 
 sugar continues, and a similar duty on cotton, coffee, 
 tobacco, rum, hides, and, witli one or two unimportant 
 exceptions, on all other articles produced in the coun- 
 try, the producing interests must remain crippled, and 
 exportations either continue to be stationary or de- 
 crease. The cotton and sugar-growing districts suffer 
 most under these heavy taxes upon their industry and 
 capital. The planters are obliged to carry cotton and 
 sugar to Pernambuco by horse conveyance, a distance 
 of from twenty to one hundred leagues, during the dry 
 season, when food and water are difficult to be obtain- 
 ed. These charges are such, in addition to those im- 
 posed by law, that when the planter reaches market 
 his cotton hardly yields him net four cents per lb. 
 And so with his sugar, and all other heavy produce. 
 
 The navigation and trade of Pernambuco in 18i5 
 stood as follows : Inward from all nations — ^Vessels, 
 242 ; toi^nage, 49,796 ; value of cargoes, |4,136,075. 
 Of which from the United States : Vessels, 35 ; ton- 
 nage, 6117 ; value of cargoes, |602,075. Outward to 
 all nations — Vessels, 226 ; tonnage, 48,639 ; value of 
 cargoes, $4,567,870. Of which to the United States : 
 Vessels, 19; tonnage, 3216 ; value of cargoes, $283,460. 
 During the year 1845 two United States vessels went 
 south with cargoes ; two were sold, and four remained 
 in port. This will, to a certain extent, account for the 
 difference between the values of imports and exports 
 to and from the United States, as above shown. 
 
 The vessels from the United States imported as fol- 
 lows : 
 
 Cottons 1018 packages. 
 
 Silks 3 " 
 
 Woolens and Bilks : 1 " 
 
 Floiu- 24,918 barrels. 
 
 Do 648 half-barrels. 
 
 And on return voyage home, exported — 
 
 Sugar 9,104 barrels. 
 
 Do 23,410 bags. 
 
 Total quantity of sugar produced and entered in the 
 market of Pernambuco in the years 1844 and 1845 : 
 
 In 1844 An-obas, 2,146,688= Pounds, 68,604,027 
 
 In 1845 " 2,466,824= " 78,906,371 
 
 Of which were sent, in 1845, to the United States, 
 184,417 arrobas 26 lbs. = (at 32 lbs. to arroba) 5,901,344 
 lbs. 
 
 Hides. — Total number exported to all countries : In 
 1844, 124,074 ; in 1845, 163,935. Of which to the Unit- 
 ed States, 10,888. 
 
 Total Kxvoktb of Cotton, Sttoab, anp Hides from Per- 
 
 NAMltUCO from 1828 TO 1S45, BOTH INCLUSIVE. 
 
 ye«r«. 
 
 Cotton. 
 
 Sugor 
 
 Hides. 
 
 1328 ' 
 
 7u"f85 
 64,820 
 61,161 
 58,187 
 31,520 
 58,564 
 42,799 
 52,142 
 62,83i 
 43,847 
 60,648 
 39,173 
 35,849 
 26,990 
 21,357 
 35,905 
 41,385 
 26,662 
 
 Arrobes. 
 1,460,628 
 
 1,463,333 
 1,706614 
 1,799,98J 
 1,518,300 
 1,301,012 
 854,088 
 1,388,858 
 1,828,392 
 1,456,420 - 
 1,760,380 
 1,878,676 
 2,191,093 
 2,261,699 
 1,906,936 
 2,017,522 
 2,146,683 
 2,566,824 
 
 Number. 
 52,444 
 46,573 
 65,489 
 76,584 
 66,666 
 84,743 
 86,350 
 91,492 
 90,701 
 93,771 
 106,851 
 111,053 
 132,993 
 136,494 
 125,296 
 104,428 
 124.074 
 163,936 
 
 1829 
 
 1830 
 
 1831 
 
 1832 
 
 1833 
 
 1834 
 
 1835 
 
 1836 
 
 1837 
 
 1S3S 
 
 1339 
 
 1840 
 
 1841 
 
 1842 
 
 1843 
 
 1844 
 
 1845 
 
 Number of vessels to and from the United States in 
 Pernambuco in 1846 : Vessels, 117, of 30,801 tons. 
 
 Value of Imports from and Exports to all Countries. 
 
 184S. 1646. 
 
 Imports Franca, 24,567,000 17,936,000 
 
 Exports " 20,327,000 19,861,000 
 
 Value of imports and exports from the United States 
 in 1846 : Imports, 1,928,000 francs ; exports, 641,000 
 francs ; total, 2,569,000 francs. 
 
 Prouuots exported to all Countries in 1846, compared 
 with 1S47, IN Francs. 
 
 Yeare. 
 
 Sugar. 
 
 Hiilea. 
 
 CoUot) 
 
 Tntia 
 
 1816 
 
 1847 
 
 15,107,000 
 17,478,000 
 
 2,750,000 
 1,124,000 
 
 1,055,000 
 1,836,000 
 
 044,0011 
 83,000 
 
 From the preceding table it will be seen that the 
 market at Pernambuco was more brisk in 1847 than 
 during the preceding year. Sugar is the leading arti- 
 cle in this market, and is exported to England, Trieste, 
 Genoa, Portugal, the north of Europe, and to the Unit- 
 ed States. The total exports of sugar from Brazil are 
 thus distributed throughout the ports of the empire. 
 The exports for 1846 are taken as a basis for calculation : 
 
 
 KUo. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Bahia 
 
 62,447,000 
 
 40,570,000 
 
 8,244,000 
 
 137,383,400 
 
 ■ 8^264,000 
 
 9,892,8 )0 
 
 Pernambuco 
 
 Total kilo, and pounds. 
 
 111,261,000 
 
 VS6,530,2UO 
 
 Export of Sugar fkom Pebxamkuoo from lfi52 to 1854. 
 
 Exported to 
 
 1851-'52. 
 
 ni852.-53 
 
 lS53-'54 
 
 
 Toes. 
 11,338 
 
 iJ94 
 2,277 
 1,416 
 1,726 
 r. 315 
 3. 02 
 
 B.sn 
 
 0,535 
 
 2,584 
 
 584 
 
 6^274 
 
 Tons 
 15,096 
 
 "855 
 5,799 
 2,046 
 4,824 
 6,979 
 4,744 
 4, 053 
 10,487 
 3,048 
 1,349 
 
 Tons 
 18,505 
 l,'z7S 
 
 308 
 2.7,'>6 
 1,663 
 2,.'i45 
 2,426 
 B.044 
 2,675 
 2,7iS 
 4,205 
 1,901 
 
 428 
 6,09S 
 
 France— Nantes 
 
 " Havre 
 
 " Marseilles . ... 
 
 Northern Europe 
 
 Genoa 
 
 Trieste 
 
 Gibraltar (for a market) , 
 Portugal and posBessions 
 
 La Plata 
 
 
 Australia 
 
 Brazilian ports 
 
 Total 
 
 47,SB0 
 
 64,h39 
 
 50,549 
 
 The sugar produced in the province of Pernambuco 
 amounts to about 80,000 tons a 3'ear, of which 60,000 
 are exported to foreign countries, 5000 coastwise, and 
 15,000 are retained for home consumption. There are 
 about 1000 eugenhos or sugar estates, 257 of which 
 have been established within the last ten years. The}' 
 average in extent about two square miles, and their 
 crops vary from 200 tons as a maximum to 30 as a 
 minimum ; or at an average of about 75 tons each. 
 Very few eugenhos possess 150 slaves, and the small- 
 est not more than 10 or 12 ; the average number of 
 slaves employed' on each eugenho is about 50, so that 
 50,000 may be said to be here employed in sugar culti- 
 vation. They are badly treated and hard worked. 
 
 Pernambuco has many of the privileges of a sov- 
 ereign state ; it has its own president, provincial and 
 municipal chambers, levies a portion of its own taxes, 
 and maintains a militia which can not be removed 
 from the province. It sends four senators and fifteen 
 representatives to the imperial government — elected, 
 the former for life, and the latter for four years, by al- 
 most universal but indirect suffrage. The imperial 
 revenue levied within the province in 1849-'50 amount- 
 ed to £542,423 ; in 1850-'51 to £690,626 ; and as these 
 sums are derived chiefly from imports and exports, and 
 no additional duties have been imposed, the increase is 
 a proof of its commercial prosperitj'. The details of 
 the latter year's general revenue were as follows : 
 
 Duties upon imports £426,1 05 
 
 Duties upon exports 61,705 
 
 Port charges 7,rS3 
 
 Post-office, crown lands, etc 34,737 
 
 Extraordinaries 1,066 
 
 Deposits for charities, restitution unclaimed estates 3,573 
 
 Remittance of funds to the imperial treasuiy 155,354 
 
 Total £690,526 
 
 In 1841 the receipt of imperial taxes from the prov- 
 ince of Pernambuco amounted to only £273,852 lis. '2d. ; 
 so that in the course of ten years it has nearly trebled. 
 Provincial taxes are levied upon sugar, coffee, tobacco, 
 cattle, horses, spirits, passports, licenses for potteries, 
 saw-mills, cigar shops, auctions, etc. ; upon houses, leg- 
 acies, inheritances, slaves, the tolls of bridges, etc., etc. 
 •Total amount in 1850-'51, £173,997 bs. The municipal 
 
PER 
 
 1516 
 
 PER 
 
 taxes are derived from the stamping of weights and 
 measures, licenses to public houses, and places of en- 
 tertainment, etc. They amounted in 1850-51 to 
 123,650 reals, or £12,506 lis. 3d., making the total 
 taxation of the province as follows : 
 
 Imperial taies i8'jn,iS26 
 
 Provincial 173,997 
 
 Municipal _ 1 2,508 
 
 Total £877,080 
 
 Of these sums nearly two-thirds are expended by 
 the imperial government ; and to this is chiefly to be 
 attributed the many attempts which have been made 
 by Pernambnco to free herself from the imperial con- 
 nection ; and if the weight of a country's taxation may 
 be judged of by its relation to the number of its inhali- 
 itants, the province of Pernambnco isas heavily taxed 
 as most European states. The population of the prov- 
 ince of Pernambuco amounted, according to the last 
 census, to 606,936; of these 143,102 are white, and 
 463,834 colored ; viz., 4078 Indians, 322,685 mulattoes, 
 and 137,071 blacks . 506,702 were free, and 106,234 are 
 slaves ; 315,749 males, and 291,157 females. But the 
 population must have increased considerably of late 
 years. 
 
 Pernambuco, a city and sea-port of Brazil, infe- 
 rior only to Eio Janeiro and Bahia in commercial im- 
 portance 1 capital of the province of its own name, on 
 the Atlantic, at the mouth of the Capabaribe, 210 miles 
 northeast from Bahia ; latitude of light-house, 8° 3 
 25" S. ; longitude, 34° 52' W. Population estimated 
 in 1852 at 100,000. It consists of the separate towns 
 of Olinda, Recife, Boa- Vista, and St. Antonio ; the first 
 of which is on the main land, and the others lie south 
 from it on a succession of low sandy banks, separated 
 by salt-water creeks and different arms of the river, 
 but connected with each other by two bridges. Recife, 
 or Pernambuco proper, the most southerly, about four 
 miles southwest from Olinda, is defended by the prin- 
 cipal forts, and comprises the dock-yard and the large 
 merchants' warehouses. In St. Antonio are the gov- 
 ernor's palace, formerly the Jesuits' convent ; the treas- 
 ury, town-hall, prison, barracks, with convents, church- 
 es, and several good squares. A long embankment 
 connects this town with the main land. Boa- Vista is 
 extensive, but irregularly laid out ; it has one hand- 
 some street, and comprises the residences of many of 
 the richer inhabitants of the city, with gardens, vari- 
 ous churches and convents, etc. Olinda, though beau- 
 tifully situated, is in a state of decay, having been de- 
 serted by many of its population for Recife and the 
 other parts of the city. The Iiarbor of Pernambuco is 
 defended from the swell of the ocean by an extensive 
 reef (reci/e), which, according to Koster, continues along 
 the whole coast from Maranham, at a variable distance 
 from the shore, and has numberless breaks, through 
 which ships approach the land. This reef, which is 
 said to be of coral, " is scarcely sixteen feet broad at 
 top ; it slopes otf more rapidly than the Plymouth 
 breakwater, to a great depth on the outside, and is per- 
 pendicular within to many fathoms." — Graham, in 
 Modem Traveler, xxx., 228. This natural breakwater 
 forms the harbor ; for though at high-water the waves 
 beat over it, they strike the quays and buildings of the 
 town with diminished force. Along the sandy neck of 
 land between Olinda and Boa-Vista, however, which is 
 not covered by the reef, the surf is very violent ; but 
 the harbor itself is quite safe for vessels that are well- 
 found and well-moored. It consists of two parts — the 
 Poco, capable of receiving vessels of 400 tons and up- 
 ward, entered across a bar on which there are from 
 seventeen to thirty feet of water, and the Mosquciras, 
 much better protected than the former, but on the bar 
 of which there are but seven feet of water at ebb-tide. 
 Vessels trading with Pernambuco should not, however, 
 draw more than from ten to twelve feet of water. — 
 Blunt's American Coast Pilot, 519. The harbor is de- 
 fended by several strong military works, the principal 
 
 being the stone forts of Do Buraco and Do Brum. The 
 light-house, on a reef at the entrance to the harbor, has 
 a revolving light.— <See Province of Perkambuco ; 
 cUso Brazil. 
 
 Foreign vessels are not allowed to engage in the 
 coasting trade, but they can load here for any foreign 
 port. Vessels from the United States can discharge 
 part of their cargo, and, if desired, they can proceed on 
 with the remainder to Bahia, Rio de Janeiro, etc. 
 
 Tliere are no insurance offices here, all business of 
 that kind being done cither in the United States or En- 
 gland. With funds in hand, a commission of 24 per 
 cent, is charged. Vessels are generally chartered both 
 ways, arriving with flour, the charterer stipulating for 
 a return cargo of sugar. Vessels coming out on their 
 own account have been chartered hack this season as 
 low as 60 cents a bag of 160 Ihs. Usually, however, 
 the freight ranges from 80 cents to $1 per bag. There 
 is no business done in exchange between this port and 
 the United States, except the few whalers' drafts that 
 are purchased at from two to twelve per cent, discount. 
 The value of the milreis is governed by the state of ex- 
 change on England. The principal articles imported 
 from the United States are flour and tea. The former 
 pays a duty of 3 milreis ($1 50) per barrel, and the lat- 
 ter pays 600 reis (30 cents) per lb. ; hams pay 60 reis (3 
 cents) per lb. ; tobacco pays 180 reis (9 cents) per lb. 
 Sugar and hides are the only articles of export worth 
 mentioning. Sugar pays an export duty of eight per 
 cent. The export duty on hides is ten per cent, on a 
 valuation fixed weekly bj' a committee appointed for 
 the purpose. The only articles on which this govern- 
 ment levies a consumers' tax are, all spirituous and 
 malt liquors, cigars, tobacco, soap, and snuff'. Wines 
 and liquors pay 1^ cents a Canada (1^ gallons) ; 56 
 cents, in addition to this, is levied on each pipe for what 
 the decree terms *' charitable purposes.*' Cigars pay 
 56 cents per 1000 ; tobacco, 1 cent per lb. ; soap, 1^ cents 
 per lb. This tax affects the United States only in to- 
 bacco and snuff. — Consular ReiurTisforihe United States, 
 1854. 
 
 Perry, a fermented liquor made from pears, in the 
 same manner as cider from apples. The pears best 
 fitted for producing this liquor are exceedingly harsh 
 and tart ; but it is itself pleasant and wholesome. — See 
 Cider; Pears. 
 
 Peru, a republic of South America, between lat. 3'^ 
 25- and 21° 48' S., and long. 68° and 81° 20' W. Area, 
 520,000 square miles. Peru is bounded north by Ecua- 
 dor, east by Brazil, southeast and south by Bolivia, 
 and west by the Pacific Ocean. Its coast reaches from 
 the mouth of the Rio Tumbez to that of the Loa, 1240 
 miles ; capital, Lima. All the mountains of Peru form 
 part of the great chain (cordillera) of the Andes. From 
 Porco, in Bolivia, it is separated into two chain? — that 
 of Ancumar, which runs from the east between the prov- 
 inces of Carabaya and Azangaro, in the department of 
 Puno, and that which runs to the west through Tacna, 
 Moquegua, and Arequipa. Both reunite afterward near 
 the city of Cusco, and again separate, the one running 
 to the east of the provinces of Huanta and Tarma, and 
 the other to the west of those of Castrovireyna, Huan- 
 cavelica, and Huarochiri, reuniting themselves again 
 in Pasco. From Pasco three chains detach themselves 
 ^-the eastern between the Rio Guallaga and the Pa- 
 chitea, the central one between the Guallaga and the 
 Upper Maranon, and the western one between the lat- 
 ter and the coast of Trujillo and Paita. These several 
 chains reunite in the province of Loja, in Ecuador. 
 The direction of these chains of mountains determines 
 the great valleys of the interior of Peru. The lakes 
 most notable in Peru are those of Titicaca, between the 
 departments of Puno and La Paz, the latter in Bolivia ; 
 of Uraos to the south of the city of Cuzco; of Pleyes 
 or Junin; and of Lauricocha, in the department of 
 Junin. Lake Titicaca has a periphery of ninety leagues, 
 and that of Junin of ten leagues. The other two are 
 
PER 
 
 1517 
 
 PEE 
 
 smaller. In that of Lauricocha the Bio Marafion has 
 its birth ; in that of Junin, the Rio Jauja, which runs 
 into the Ucayali ; and in that of Titicaca, the Desagua- 
 dero (anglice, oatlef), which empties into the Lake of 
 Paria, in the Republic of Bolivia. The rivers of Peru 
 iiow, some to the Pacific Ocean, others into the Ama- 
 zon, and others into Lake Titicaca. Those that empty 
 into the Pacific are the Tumbez, Chira, Sechura, Je- 
 quitepeque, Saiia,Viru, Santa, Patavilca, Huaura,Chil- 
 lon, liimac, Mala, Canete, Pesco, Ocoiia, Camana, Quil- 
 ca, Tambo, and Loa ; and those flowing to the Amazon 
 are the Tungaragua or Marafion, which takes the name 
 of Amazon at its confluence with the Ucayali, the Gu- 
 allaga, the Ucayali (formed by the rivers Fachitea, 
 Apurimac, and Beni), and the Rio Yavari. The min- 
 eral resources of Peru, like those of Mexico, are inex- 
 haustible. The very name of the country is associated 
 in the mind with ideas of gold and silver. Besides the 
 precious metals, however, the country produces copper, 
 tin, iron, coal, saltpetre, etc., in abundance — the latter, 
 under the name of nitrate of soda, has become an im- 
 portant export. The agricultural staples of the coun- 
 try are sugar, rice, tobacco, etc., which grow in the 
 warmer situations ; the vine, wheat, etc., in the mild- 
 er. Potatoes are cultivated in all parts. Maize is cul- 
 tivated, and is the common diet of the people. Medic- 
 inal plants, drugs, and dye-stuffs form a large part of 
 the exports, and some of the hard woods abound in the 
 forests. The Cinchpna, or Peruvian bark, is indigen- 
 ous to the country : it grows at the elevation of 10,000 
 or 12,000 feet, and abounds moat in the northern prov- 
 inces. Among the wild animals of Peru are the puma, 
 the uturunca (a species of tiger), the acumari (a black 
 bear), and great varieties of deer, wild bears, armadil- 
 los, etc. The llama, alpaca, guanaco, vicuna, etc., are 
 the most valuable animals. Four varieties of condor 
 are indigenous. Of acclimated animals the sheep has 
 succeeded best, and goats, hogs, etc., thrive well. In 
 the mountains cattle and horses find a congenial cli- 
 mate, but on the coast speedily pine and die away. 
 The wool of Peru is among the best in the markets. 
 ' The political divisions of Peru consist of eleven depart- 
 ments, and two provinces called " littorales." The de- 
 partments are subdivided into sixty-one provinces, the 
 provinces into districts, and these into pai'ishes. The 
 government, civil and economical, of each department 
 is in charge of a Prefect, dependent directly on the 
 President of the Republic; that of the provinces is in 
 charge of Sub-prefects, dependent on the Prefects ; that 
 of the districts is in charge of Governors, and that of 
 parishes is in charge of Sub-governors. The depart- 
 ments and the population in 1852 were as follows : 
 
 DepartmeDts. Population. CapitftlB. 
 
 Amazonas 43.0T4 .... Chachapoyas. 
 
 Ancach 319,145 liuaraz. 
 
 Arequipa 319 336 .... Arequipa. 
 
 Ayacucho 132,921 .... Huamanga. 
 
 Cuzco 349,718 Cusco. 
 
 Huancavelica TO.llT . . . . Hiiancavelica. 
 
 Junin 222,949 Cerro de Pasco. 
 
 Libertad 266,683 Trujillo. 
 
 Lima 560,801 Lima. 
 
 Moquegua 61,432 .... Taena. 
 
 Puno 285,661 Puno. 
 
 Provincia Littoral de Oallao 8,455 
 
 Provincia Littoral dePiura. T6.332 
 
 Total population 2,106,492 
 
 The most eastern parts of the departments of Ama- 
 zonas, Junin, Ayacucho, and Cuzco have not been well 
 explored, and are inhabited by diverse tribes of savage 
 Indians, for whose civilization different missions have 
 been established, and to whom belongs entirely all the 
 territory to the east of the Ucayali, and where the Pre- 
 fects of the departments above-named do not exercise 
 their authority. 
 
 Peru is an integral republic. The Constitution, 
 which was finally settled in 1839, recognizes legisla- 
 tive, judicial, and executive powers entirely separate 
 and independent of each other. The legislative power 
 is vested in a Senate and Assembly, chosen by the peo- 
 
 ple through electoral colleges ; the deputies are appor- 
 tioned in the ratio of one to every 20,000 inhabitants. 
 The judioiarj'is appointedby the President, and judges 
 are not removable except for cause. The Constitution 
 provides for sub-judiciaries, having separate qualifica- 
 tions, for departments, districts, towns, and parishes. 
 The executive power is delegated to a President, whose 
 term is six years. There is no Vice-president, but the 
 President of the Executive Council supplies the place 
 of President in case of the removal, inability, or death 
 of that officer. The Council consists of the Ministers 
 and members of the Senate. The established religion 
 is the Roman Catholic. The Church is presided over 
 by an Arch bishop 'and several suffragans. It is im- 
 mensely rich. The Inquisition has been entirely abol- 
 ished throughout the Republic. 
 
 Peru was conquered in 1532 by the Spaniards, under 
 Pizarro and Alraagro, and remained a colony of Spain 
 for nearly three hundred years. The independence of 
 the country was proclaimed at Lima, 28th July, 1821. 
 Since that period the following parties have exercised 
 supreme power ■• General San Martin, to 21st Septem- 
 ber, 1822 ; thence a " Junta Gubernativa," composed 
 of General Lamar and Sefiors Salazar-y-Baquijano and 
 Alvarado ; thence General Don Jose de la Riva Ague- 
 ro, as President, to July, 1823 ; thence Jose Bernardo 
 Tagle ; thence General Simon Bolivar, to July, 1835 ; 
 thence a " Council of Government," to the end of 1826 ; 
 thence General Bolivar, as President ; thence General 
 Lamar, as Constitutional President, to June, 1829 ; 
 thence General Gamarra, to 1833 ; thence General Or- 
 begoso ; thence General Salaberry, as " Supreme 
 Chief," to 1836 ; thence General Santa Cruz, to 20th 
 January, 1839 ; thence General Gamarra, to Novem- 
 ber, 1841 ; thence Seiior Menendez, to August, 1842 ; 
 thence Vidal, Figuerola, and Vivanco, successively, to 
 1844 ; thence Menendez (restored), to 1st April, 1845 ; 
 thence General Ramon Castilla, to 1st April, 1851 ; and 
 thence General Rufino Echenique, the present President. 
 
 The following is a statement of tlie public debt of 
 Peru, as given by Sefior E. Escobar de Bedoj-a, attache 
 to the Legation of Peru at Paris, 26th October, 1853 : 
 
 Loans on the fours-and-a-half in 
 
 England $13,000,000 £2,600,000 
 
 Loans on the three per cents, in En- 
 gland 8,800,000 1,TOO,000 
 
 Interior debt 23,200,000 
 
 DebttoChili 2,000,000 
 
 Debt to the Republics of Old Co- 
 lumbia 8,600,000 
 
 Total $50,300,000 
 
 The deposits of Chincha alone are worth three hundred 
 millions of dollars (piastres). The Chincha and Lobos 
 Islands, off the coasts of Peru, are of immense value to 
 the country, on account of their guano deposits. This 
 substance is the most potent of fertilizers, and until 
 lately the islands above-named were the only sources 
 whence it was derived. According to a report made 
 by Seiior Villa in 1842, the deposits in these islands 
 were estimated to be 46,632,280 tons. Assuming the 
 consumption to be 300,000 tons a year, valued at $20 a 
 ton, it would produce $6,000,000 annuallj-, and require 
 160 years for its total consumption. This resource has 
 been an efiicient aid to the national treasury, and has 
 made Peru the most apparently prosperous of all the 
 South American republics. The exports in 1852 
 amounted to 220,500 tons— 32,000 of which went to the 
 United States, and the remainder to France and En- 
 gland. — See article Guano. 
 
 According to a treaty between Peru and the United 
 States signed July, 1857, it is agreed that the permis- 
 sion to the whale ships of the United States by the 
 treaty of 1851, to barter or sell their supplies and goods 
 to the value of two hundred dollars, ad valorem, with- 
 out being obliged to pay port or tonnage dues or othef 
 imposts, should not be understood to comprehend every 
 kind of merchandise without limitation, but those only' 
 that whale ships are usually provided with for their long 
 
PER 
 
 1518 
 
 PER 
 
 vovages. That in the said exemption from duties of 
 every Icind are included the following articles in addi- 
 tion to the produce of their fishery, viz., white unbleach- 
 ed domestics, white bleached domestics, "wide cotton 
 cloths, blue drills, twilled cottons, shirting stripes, tick- 
 ing, cotton, prints, shirtings, sailors' clothing of all 
 kinds, soap, slush, boots, shoes, and brogans, axes, 
 hatchets, biscuit of every kind, flour, lard, butter, rum, 
 beef, pork, spermaceti and composition candles, can- 
 vas, rope, tobacco. 
 
 The principal ports of Peru are Paita, San Jos6, 
 Huanchaco, Callao, Islay, Arica, and Iquique. These 
 are ports of entry for foreign commerce. There are 
 other ports open to the coasting trade, and for the ex- 
 portation of the produce of the country. These are 
 Ylo, Chala, Pisco, Huacho, Casma, Pacasmayo, and 
 Tumbez, and the small harbors of Sethura, Samano, 
 Santa, Supe, Huarmes, Echenique, Chancay, Ancon, 
 Cerro, Azul, Chinca, Cancato, Nasca, Quilca, Cocotea, 
 Morro de Sama, and Pisaque. 
 
 The commercial relations of the United States with 
 Peru are regulated by the treaty already cited, bear- 
 ing date July 26, 1851, and by such decrees and orders 
 as are issued from time to time by the Supreme Gov- 
 ernment of that republic. The treaty guarantees en- 
 tire liberty of commerce and navigation, and perfect 
 reciprocity between the flags of the two countries in the 
 ports of the other. 
 
 The trade between the two nations (Peruvian guano 
 excepted) is not, however, very extensive, as appears 
 from the ofiicial returns of the United States Treasury 
 Department. Before entering into the details of the 
 commerce between the United States and Peru, the fol- 
 lowing summary of the general foreign trade of that re- 
 public is given, with a view to show the relative rank 
 held by the United States and other nations in that 
 trade. The figures are derived from the official returns 
 of the Peruvian government for the years 1851 from all 
 nations, and in 1851 and 1853 from the United States. 
 — See Commercial Jielations of United States. 
 
 Impoets into Ferxt in 1851-1853. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 1851. 
 
 1861. 
 
 1853. 
 
 Textiles of silk 
 
 Textiles of linen 
 
 Textiles of cotton 
 
 Textiles of wool 
 
 Gold and silver ware.. 
 
 $758,075 
 234,743 
 
 2,264,343 
 
 2,403,846 
 360,373 
 30,570 
 523,546 
 146,896 
 105,663 
 176,869 
 
 2,408,552 
 
 $1,106 
 
 13,086 
 
 262,667 
 
 11,004 
 
 32,422 
 
 614 
 
 58,900 
 
 11,606 
 
 34,200 
 
 2,626 
 
 89,903 
 
 .... 
 
 $232 
 
 6,0C5 
 
 268,190 
 
 730 
 
 270 
 
 64 
 
 115,600 
 
 10,495 
 
 49,901 
 
 1,615 
 
 132,300 
 
 618 
 
 Provisions 
 
 
 "Wines and liquors 
 
 Ready-made clothing. . 
 Total, 3 years . . . 
 
 $9,447,465 
 
 $518,042 
 
 $586,024 
 
 Kebtjm:^ of Impoets feom all Nations by Poets. 
 
 Porta. 
 
 1851. 
 
 1853. 
 
 Callao 
 
 $6,317,926 
 891,698 
 1,376,492 
 336,228 
 236,439 
 288,678 
 
 $6,076,474 
 860,170 
 1,454,353 
 236,746 
 180,738 
 263,918 
 26,494 
 
 
 Islay 
 
 
 
 Paita 
 
 
 Total 
 
 $9,447,465 
 
 $9,087,898 
 
 ExrOETS FEOM FeRU TO THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 1851. 
 
 1852. 
 
 1853. 
 
 
 $7,440 
 
 41,364 
 
 231 
 
 '5,'9'7a 
 
 190 
 
 1,722,196 
 
 20,736 
 
 4,104 
 
 '3,'o'48 
 
 3i,'i60 
 
 $6,800 
 
 30 
 
 1,031 
 
 13,665 
 75 
 
 1,038,'2'80 
 17,724 
 57,579 
 16,000 
 
 38,900 
 23,604 
 
 ii'8'40 
 
 2;C81' 
 
 600 
 
 5,643 
 
 4,7i3,'660 
 69,020 
 
 '8,'6'44 
 
 85,'204 
 1,088 
 
 CaBcarilla 
 
 Hides 
 
 
 
 Fruits 
 
 Wool 
 
 Gold 
 
 Silver 
 
 Saltpetre 
 
 Provisions 
 
 Total, 3 years, . 
 
 $1,836,440 
 
 $1,263,748 
 
 $4,898,380 
 
 KECAPITXJLATION of FoKEIGN COMIOSCB OF FeeU FOE 
 THREE VEAES. 
 
 Yean. 
 
 Importa. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 1851 
 
 1862 
 
 1853 
 
 $9,447,4«5 
 9,316,242 
 
 9,087,838 
 
 $18,085,716 
 10,173,216 
 16,883,630 
 
 Total 
 
 $27,&51,606 
 
 $40,142,662 
 
 Balance of foreign trade in favor of Peru, during 
 these three years, $12,290,956 ; making an annual aver- 
 age in favor of Peru of $4,096,985. The number of 
 vessels employed in the steam navigation of Peru is : 
 six steamships belonging to the British mail line, 
 which ply semi-monthly between Valparaiso and Pan- 
 ama. The aggregate tonnage of these six steamers 
 is 3506 tons. There Is also a seventh steamer of 500 
 tons on the same line. One Peruvian steamer, of 250 
 tons burden, coasts regularly between Callao and Val- 
 paraiso. The two latter are screw-propellers; the other 
 six have paddle-wheels. The merchant marine of Peru 
 in 1852 consisted of nine ships, with an aggregate of 
 3194 tons ; ten barks, measuring in all 4156 tons ; and 
 eight brigs, of 1681 tons ; making a total of twentv- 
 seven vessels, with an aggregate of 9081 tons. The total 
 number of Peruvian vessels employed in the coasting 
 trade during the same year was 141, with an aggre- 
 gate of 14,705 tons. The number of seamen engaged 
 in this service is about 4000, of which 2] 50 are natives, 
 and 285 citizens of the United States — 1250 being em- 
 ployed in the foreign trade, and 2750 in the coasting 
 trade. The tables on next page, transcribed from 
 French official authorities (the dollars having been re- 
 duced to francs' by multiplying by 6), exhibit in detail 
 the general import and export trade of Peru in 1853. 
 
 Callao is the chief port in Peru for foreign com- 
 merce. The aggregate tonnage of Peruvian vessels, 
 belonging to and employed in foreign trade at Callao, 
 in 1852, was 67 vessels, measuring an aggregate of 
 15,031 tons ; in the coasting trade the number of ves- 
 sels was 181, with a tonnage of 17,705 tons ; making 
 a total of 248 vessels, and 32,736 tons. Besides the 
 above, there were employed, during the same year, at 
 the port of Pisco, six vessels of 4200 tons aggregate ; 
 and at the port of Huacho (both ports being in the con- 
 sular district of Callao), eight vessels, witli an aggre- 
 gate of 400 tons ; making a total in both ports of 1600 
 tons. The total number of Peruvian vessels which en- 
 tered at Callao (in foreign trade) in 1862 was 150, 
 with a tonnage of 19,478 tons ; and the number cleared, 
 157 vessels, with a tonnage of 19,326 tons. The num- 
 ber and tonnage of United States vessels which entered 
 Callao during the same year was: vessels, 69; tonnage, 
 27,360 tons; and the number and tonnage of those 
 cleared was : vessels, 56 ; tonnage, 23,660 tons. The 
 following comparative table shows the rank which the 
 United States held, relatively with other foreign na- 
 tions, in the navigation of this port in 1852, including 
 British mail steamships : 
 
 NntioDality, 
 
 United States. 
 
 English 
 
 French 
 
 Spanish 
 
 Italian 
 
 German 
 
 Chilian 
 
 Others 
 
 Entered. 
 
 Cleared. | 
 
 Veisols. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 69 
 
 27,360 
 
 56 
 
 23,600 
 
 210 
 
 108,000 
 
 260 
 
 151,000 
 
 43 
 
 16,000 
 
 39 
 
 16,200 
 
 9 
 
 3,600 
 
 11 
 
 4.000 
 
 17 
 
 6.530 
 
 20 
 
 8,100 
 
 36 
 
 13,800 
 
 30 
 
 12,400 
 
 40 
 
 4,400 
 
 40 
 
 4,400 
 
 20 
 
 4,000 
 
 20 
 
 600 
 
 The following statement exhibits the number and 
 tonnage of United States vessels which entered at Cal- 
 lao during the years specified : 
 
 1852. 
 1853. 
 18134. 
 
 63 
 235 
 240 
 
 27,360 
 160.821 
 168,538 
 
 The general features of commercial transactions at 
 Callao, and at the ports of Peru generally, are set forth 
 in a communication of late date from the consul of the 
 
PER 
 
 1519 
 
 PEE 
 
 Natuke and Valdb, in Feanos, of geneeal 
 
 Meeobandise imported 
 
 into and EXPOKTBI) 
 
 FB0.M Peeu in 1853. 
 
 IMPOSTS OP LSADINO ABTICLE9— ANB THE TOTAL VALUES OF ALL IMPORTS^LfBANCS]. j 
 
 CountTiea from 
 wMch. 
 
 Silk 
 Goods. 
 
 Linen 
 Qoods. 
 
 Cotton 
 Goods 
 
 Woolen 
 Goods. 
 
 Jewelry. 
 
 Wesrintt 
 Apparel. 
 
 Furniture. 
 
 Provisions 
 nod Spices. 
 
 Totsl 
 
 Germany 
 
 IlngUnd , 
 
 Central America 
 
 Australia .. 
 
 Bolivia , 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Buenos Ayr66 . . 
 
 China 
 
 Chili 4 . . 
 
 841,098 
 
 2,25^ 
 C20',i45 
 
 1 69,755 
 
 V,i60 
 l,t2T,000 
 
 111,1:55 
 
 2,825 
 
 41,620 
 1,190,456 
 
 2,600 
 
 30,026 
 
 111.935 
 
 29,130 
 
 29,660 
 
 11,177,930 
 
 18,769 
 
 l,S4d,S53 
 743,670 
 519,005 
 
 ' '1,135 
 
 4,532',6i0 
 
 3,680 
 
 1,592,325 
 
 S38,410 
 
 "216 
 
 319,230 
 
 ■'320 
 7,800 
 
 9,890 
 
 1,S61 
 
 486,9^5 
 
 6,295 
 
 140,170 
 "510 
 
 151,415 
 
 i',660 
 
 1,200 
 
 3,090 
 
 421,010 
 
 12,540 
 
 610,155 
 
 71,390 
 
 249,505 
 274,015 
 139,360 
 
 2,435 
 
 178|86S 
 
 "155 
 
 '2,250 
 
 167,670 
 
 2,487,365 
 
 5'6^2io 
 , 4,980 
 678,000 
 112,385 
 
 11,065 
 
 6'2',365 
 "460 
 
 54,385 
 
 23,081,465 
 
 385,525 . 
 
 686 
 
 155 
 
 126,940 
 
 67,910 
 
 1,447,480 , 
 
 3,270,035 
 
 320 
 
 811,836 
 
 984,140 
 
 2,930,120 
 
 9,418,906 
 
 2,431,6C5 
 
 1,910 , 
 
 214,515 
 
 ■ 75 
 
 ' 214,100 
 
 400 
 
 6,635 
 
 5J0 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Spain 
 
 Equador 
 
 United States . . 
 
 italnliurg 
 
 Holland :...... 
 
 Italy 
 
 Mexico 
 
 New Granada . . 
 
 Paraguay 
 
 Prussia 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Total francs. . 
 
 3,3T6.285 1 1,434,725 
 
 13,801.5011 
 
 6,466,640 
 
 972,490 
 
 890,256 1 1,246,860 
 
 3,651,400 
 
 45,489,470 
 
 expohtb of leading aeticlks— ano the totals of all exports for TBB VBAB 1853 [FRANCS]. 1 
 
 Countries to 
 wliioh. 
 
 Cascanlla 
 Bsrk. 
 
 CockineiU. 
 
 Hides 1 1 Guano. 
 
 Wool. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Slher. 
 
 Saltpetre. . 
 
 Total. 
 
 Germany 
 
 England 
 
 West Indies...'. 
 
 Bolivia : 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Chili 
 
 China 
 
 254,'650 
 
 69,200 
 11,T60 
 T,200 
 
 66,935 
 5,'260 
 
 39,360 
 
 ' 675 
 
 13,405. 
 
 2,845 
 
 6,250 
 
 ■750 
 
 25,089,300 
 1,321,200 
 
 294,525 
 
 920,475 
 
 23,668,300 
 2,112,976 
 
 176,400 
 490,275 
 
 2,543',600 
 
 S45,i6o 
 660 
 
 l,2i:6,475 
 
 57,970 
 6,510 
 61,000 
 26,945 
 
 28',660 
 11,900 
 
 343'775 
 12,700 
 
 10,861,680 
 
 188,580 
 38 J, 005 
 
 '.54,730 
 
 9,070 
 
 43,220 
 
 ^,646,905 
 
 ' ']",'730 
 
 ' '3','000 
 
 138,405 
 4,010,118 
 
 l'7,6i5 
 
 TO, 660 
 141,205 
 
 42'6',620 
 
 1,189,210 
 
 1,010,220 
 
 122,500 
 
 111,125 
 
 18'2',785 
 
 138,405 
 
 44,o:;4,l35 
 
 1,821,200 
 
 57,970 
 
 134,535 
 
 2,487,185 
 
 703,470 
 
 70,000 
 
 1,144,970 
 
 41,415 
 
 24,491,890 
 
 7,208,030 
 
 1,074,070 
 
 122,500 
 
 303,675 
 
 400,276 
 
 177,450 
 
 248,025 
 
 182,788 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Spain 
 
 Equador.. 
 
 United, States .. 
 
 Prance 
 
 Hamburg '. 
 
 Holland 
 
 Italy 
 
 Mauritius 
 
 Mexico 
 
 New Granada . . 
 
 Sweden ,. . 
 
 Total francs. . 
 
 882,710 
 
 73,185 
 
 86,665 1 63,883,450 
 
 2,889,250 
 
 1,765,895 
 
 15,083.SS.5 
 
 7,419,100 
 
 84,401,885 
 
 United States at that port, as follows : " The most val- 
 uable of the articles Imported into this consulate are 
 assorted merchandises from England, France, Italy, the 
 United States, Chili, Spain, and Equador; viz., Cot- 
 ton, linens, silks, wines, hardware, etc. From the 
 United States, domestic cottons, furniture, lumber, pro- 
 visons, etc. The export trade of Peru consists chiefly 
 of guano, which is sent to England, the United States, 
 France, and Spain, and in smaller quantities to Italy, 
 India, and the West Indies. The export was forced 
 during the revolution, and a diminution has taken place 
 under the present government, owing to over-supplies 
 in Europe and the United States, and a wish on the 
 part of Peru to raise the price of this article abroad to 
 its consumers. It is valued on board the ships at the 
 islands where laden at $5 per ton — that is, at the cost 
 attending its shipment. The average rate of freights 
 to the United States during the year past (1855) has 
 been $22 per ton of 2240 lbs. This much of the prod- 
 uct of guano goes into the hands of our ship-owners, 
 who carry nearly all of it to the United States, and part 
 of it to other places, from Gallao and the Chincha Isl- 
 ands. No prohibitions exist, in fact, upon imports ; but 
 arms and munitions of war are difficult of introduction 
 during revolutions. Powder is strictly prohibited. 
 The general trade regulations are liberal. Goods lie in 
 bond at the option of the merchant ; paying only, aft- 
 er the first month, storage and labor, until entered for 
 consumption, or else exported abroad, and then no 
 charges further. There are at present no differential 
 or discriminating duties on any foreign vessels or goods. 
 A quarantine exists in the case of coolies from China, 
 who usually arrive sick ; and this district, during the 
 last three years, has become subject to fatal epidemic 
 fevers, etc. United States capital is employed in the 
 
 ice trade, and in repairing ships ; in the humbler trades, 
 and in commerce, and upon the public works. The 
 English at present enjoy the largest share of the im- 
 port and export trade; but the activity and intelli- 
 gence of all commercial nations are occupied in seeking 
 a share, and the tendency is gradually toward a more 
 equal participation. 
 
 Crude wools are largely exported ; but the high duty 
 on them in the United States throws nearly all that 
 trade into Europe, mostly to England, where wool is 
 free under the tariff. Of late they have been paying 
 good profits. This remark applies also to the barks 
 of Peru, and to copper. The bar silver exported all 
 goes to England, because there is no direct steam com- 
 munication witli the United States. Some supplies 
 of wheat, flour, and other agricultural products begin 
 to be imported into this consular district from Califor- 
 nia, such as barley, potatoes, etc. ; and about 2500 
 flasks of quicksilver, valued at nearly $100,000, have' 
 been imported during this last quarter. Whale ships, 
 while cruising, call at times for refreshi;ients, and to 
 change their crews. The agricultural industry of the 
 country has been obstructed by the liberation of the 
 slaves in 1855, to replace whom Chinese coolies are 
 being imported. Such laborers are also now being 
 employed by the government at the Chincha guano 
 islands, near Pisco. The army of Peru employs about 
 7000 Cholo half-breed Indian soldiers, the tendency of 
 which polity is to hinder population. There is a per- 
 ceptible increase in the number of Americans in this 
 consulate — seamen, artisans, and tradesmen, who come 
 to reside. Nitrate of soda is largely exported — at 
 least a million and a half of quintals annuiilly, valued 
 at $2 per 100 lbs. ; a considerable part of which goes 
 to the United States. Dry and salted hides, and straw 
 
PER 
 
 1520 
 
 PER 
 
 hats, are exported in small quantities. The circulating 
 currency of Peru, representing silver, and now the only 
 money in common use, is below the nominal standard 
 about three-eighths, or 37i per cent. The rate of ex- 
 change fluctuates from five to fifteen per cent, on the 
 dollar. The dollar of Peru, in invoices of export to 
 the United States, is now usually valued at from 80 to 
 85 cents of United States currency. The Peruvian 
 dollar, of pure silver, not in circulation, is worth about 
 87i cents of United States currency. Gold coins of 
 Peru are not now seen in common use. Patriot doub- 
 loons pass current at $17, and of late are worth 3 per 
 cent, premium, and but few to be obtained." 
 
 Paita. — The chief staples of export from the port of 
 Paita are straw (Panama) hats and Peruvian bark. 
 The exports consist chiefly of cotton manufactures, 
 of iron, and assorted sundries. The oflicial navigation 
 returns for this port, for a period later than 1852, are 
 not at hand. There entered from all foreign nations 
 in that year 185 vessels, with an aggregate of 61,624 
 tons ; of which there were from the United States 42 
 vessels, measuring an aggregate of 10,256 tons. The 
 direct trade between the United States and this port is 
 limited, owing to the facilities afforded in the coasting 
 trade between this point and Callao. 
 
 Arica. — The staple exports from the port of Arica 
 are tin, copper ore, Peruvian barli, and alpaca wool. 
 With the exception of the latter, all these exports are 
 of Bolivian produce. Indeed, the port of Arica is mere- 
 ly a transit port for Bolivian produce and trade. Ow- 
 ing, however, to some misunderstanding between the 
 governments of Peru and Bolivia, which resulted in 
 the imposition by the former, in 1853, of 40 per cent, 
 duty on the produce of the latter passing through this 
 port, this transit trade is now conducted through the 
 port of Cobija (Port La Mar), the only port open for 
 foreign commerce in Bolivia. The imports from the 
 United States are cotton domestics, blue drills, chairs, 
 and shoes, on which last-named article a duty of 40 
 per cent, is levied. 
 
 Iguigue. — This port possesses a harbor safe and com- 
 modious, and is well protected by the island of Iquique 
 from the heavy swells which, in the winter season, set 
 in from the southwest. With the exception of a few 
 months during the late revolution in Peru, up to the 
 month of July, 1855, when it was declared a puerto 
 mai/or, Iquique ranked as a puerto menor, with some 
 extra privileges. The province of Iquique is the great 
 centre of the nitrate of soda trade, and to this article 
 alone it owes its present position. Out of a population 
 of about 15,000 four-fifths are more or less interested in 
 this trade. At the works, the nitrate of soda varies in 
 value from 81^ cents to $1 06|- per quintal. The rate 
 of carriage to the coast varies from 68J cents to 93^ 
 cents per quintal. The average rate paid for the ar- 
 ticle placed on the beach is $1 75 per quintal ; and this 
 price gives the makers a profit of 9f cents per quintal. 
 Nitrate of soda is always sold deliverable alongside 
 the ship's launch, outside the surf. The merchant has 
 to bag and embarit it, which costs him about 21-f cents 
 per quintal. Selling it, therefore, at $1 87^, would 
 yield hira a profit of 15| cents per quintal. 
 
 Nitrate of soda is used in the manufacture of sul- 
 phuric and nitric acids, and as a fertilizer. Between 
 1820 and 1830, attempts were made to export it to the 
 United States and England, but the cargoes were un- 
 salable. Soon afterward, however, its value became 
 known, and at this time the quantity annually ex- 
 ported reaches nearly 1,500,000 quintals, valued at 
 about |1 25 to $2 per 100 lbs. The following state- 
 ment will show the total amount of nitrate of soda ex- 
 ported since 1830, when the trade began ; 
 
 1830 to 1834, Inclusive Quintals. 361,385 
 
 lS35tol839, " " 761,349 
 
 1840 to 1844, " " 1,592,306 
 
 1846 to 1849, " " 2,060,6f5 
 
 1850tolS64, " " 3,260,473 
 
 Total " 8.036,108 
 
 Quantities of Nitsate or Soda, in QtriNTiLS, expoktkd 
 
 FEOM 1850 TO 1854, BOTH INCLUSIVE, AND THE COUNTEIES 
 TO WHICH ESPOBTED. 
 
 Countries. 1 1850. | 1861. | 1662. 
 
 1853. 
 
 1864. 
 
 Australia 
 
 Belgium 
 
 California 
 
 Chili 
 
 4,996 
 8T,827 
 33,630 
 304,459 
 40,64-2 
 10,054 
 
 25,130 
 3,542 
 
 510,879 
 
 6,'447 
 
 3,180 
 
 164,331 
 
 44,671 
 
 271,137 
 
 26,912 
 
 7,399 
 
 33,V36 
 9,709 
 3,178 
 
 89,807 
 5,9,907 
 
 8,346 
 60,561 
 44,627 
 360,703 
 
 T,S79 
 
 4,700 
 38,436 
 2,287 
 6,0C0 
 29,647 
 663,276 
 
 12,000 
 150,423 
 188,253 
 406,391 
 
 i6,'2o'o 
 
 16,138 
 
 68,662 
 
 i,495 
 
 23,065 
 
 866,532 
 
 7,000 
 
 5,242 
 14,085 
 96 446 
 89,609 
 431,638 
 14,631 
 
 48,555 
 
 1,198 
 11,418 
 
 France 
 
 Germany 
 
 Great Britain. 
 Holland 
 
 Spain 
 
 Sweden 
 
 United States. 
 "West Indies . . 
 Peru (North) . 
 For orders . . . 
 Total. . . . 
 
 719,879 
 
 Before Iquique was constituted a puerto mayor, 
 foreign vessels from any foreign port could call and 
 anchor, provided their cargoes consisted of nothing but 
 the following articles ; Peas, beans, lentils, Indian com, 
 wheat, barley, nuts, raisins, almonds, cocoa-nuts, flour, 
 bran, biscuit, macaroni, frangallo, chococa, dried pota- 
 toes, fat, butter, tallow, lard, jerked beef, cheese, live 
 and dead stock, salted meats, and all kinds of vegeta- 
 bles and roots, candles and soap, fire-wood, timber for 
 building, coals, bricks, iron, steel, nails, tools for mines, 
 empty sacks, twine, machines for making nitrate or 
 distilling water. It is now open to general commerce, 
 and will necessarily become a port of much import- 
 ance. Being the most windward of the Peruvian ports, 
 vessels proceeding from the south, having other goods 
 on board than those above specified, were obliged to go 
 to Arica, the first puerto mayor, and, after dispatch- 
 ing at the custom-house there, beat back again to Iqui- 
 que, at a cost of from five to fifteen days' sailing. 'The 
 consequence of this restriction was, that but few ves- 
 sels entered this port ^\ith cargoes direct from foreign 
 countries. Another advantage to be derived from mak- 
 ing Iquique a puerto mayor is, that it will open a transit 
 trade into Bolivia, and thus render this port an entre- 
 pot for an extensive trade with that republic. The 
 distance to Potosi is much less — less, it is stated by 
 three or four days' journey, than by the way of Cobija. 
 The mules would only have to travel fifteen leagues 
 without water, and the pass in the Cordillera is equal- 
 ly as favorable fcs by the latter route. 
 
 Tumbez. — No vessels except whale ships are allowed 
 to enter at this port. The privileges to which Amer- 
 ican whalers are entitled by the twelfth article of the 
 treaty of Peru with the United States, have already 
 lieen stated. The market of Tumbez is supplied chiefly 
 by American whale ships, which usually import small 
 quantities of American manufactured goods, flour, etc. 
 Other foreign whale ships must conform to the general 
 regulations of commerce, which allow them to anchor, 
 provided they have on board only the products of the 
 fishery, provisions and supplies necessary for the use 
 of the vessel and crew, and to sell oil and candles to 
 any amoimt, in exchange for provisions, free of import 
 duty. The following summary exhibits the number 
 and tonnage of American whaling vessels which ar- 
 rived at the port of Tumbez, from August, 1852, to 
 June 30th, 1855 : 
 
 Years, 
 
 Number of VesaelB. 
 
 Tods. 
 
 1852 
 
 28 
 57 
 64 
 82 
 
 7,717 
 17,379 
 19,042 
 
 9,740 
 
 1863 
 
 1854 
 
 If 55 (first six monthfi). 
 
 — United States Commercial Relations. 
 
 No deposits of guano which will at all compare 
 with those of Peru seem as yet to have been discov- 
 ered, although most extensive explorations have been 
 prosecuted ; nor has science yet succeeded, though in- 
 ventive skill has been tasked to the utmost, in manu- 
 facturing a substitute which would supersede the use or 
 lower the price of the Peruvian fertilizer. — See Guano. 
 
PER 
 
 1521 
 
 PEE 
 
 COMMEBOE OF THE UNITED StATEB mTH PeETT FROM OOTOBEB 1, 1824, TO JlTLT 1, 1856. 
 
 Yean ending 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Whereof ttiere was in 1 
 Bullion and Specie. | 
 
 Tonnage cleared. 
 
 Domestic. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 ToUl. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Export. 
 
 Import. 
 
 JUnerican. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Sept. 30,1825 
 
 1826 
 
 1821 
 
 1828 
 
 1839 
 
 1830 
 
 Total... 
 
 Sept. 30, 1831 
 
 1333 
 
 1833 
 
 1884 
 
 1835 
 
 1836 
 
 1837 
 
 1838 
 
 1839 
 
 1840 
 
 Total. . . 
 
 ■Sept. 80, 1841 
 
 1842 
 
 »moB., 1843* 
 
 June 30, 1844 
 
 1815 
 
 1846 
 
 1847 
 
 184S 
 
 1841 
 
 1850 
 
 Total... 
 
 June 30, 1831 ; 
 
 1852 
 
 1853 
 
 1854 
 
 1856 
 
 1856 
 
 '$359,854 
 
 278,734 
 
 203,944 
 
 159,889 
 
 91,542 
 
 32,400 
 
 $374,944 
 231,175 
 
 70,077 
 100,555 
 119,616 
 
 39,408 
 
 $734,71)8 
 509,899 
 273,021 
 259,944 
 211,167 
 71,808 
 
 $346,883 
 795,194 
 
 1,038,462 
 943.199 
 
 1,004,458 
 972,884 
 
 $5666 
 
 $323,167 
 408,623 
 665,788 
 629,350 
 602,079 
 591,521 
 
 2,919 
 3,171 
 2,454 
 2,814 
 749 
 732 
 
 
 $1,124,858 
 
 $8,560 
 7,126 
 
 42,767 
 
 99,75'7 
 163,868 
 
 $936,774 
 
 $7,616 
 10,884 
 
 16,'696 
 
 ■ 918 
 11,601 
 29,531 
 
 $2,060,627 
 
 $16,176 
 17,960 
 
 68,863 
 
 ' 918 
 111,358 
 203,399 
 
 $5,098,080 
 
 $917,788 
 720,088 
 654,630 
 618,412 
 
 1,118,278 
 165,831 
 909,418 
 633,437 
 242,813 
 4.38,495 
 
 $5000 
 
 $3,220,517 
 
 $331,711 
 165,122 
 182,813 
 363,381 
 669,877 
 
 38,208 
 440,109 
 164,375 
 
 87,696 
 146,521 
 
 . 12,339 
 
 623 
 72 
 73 
 
 685 
 
 l'22i 
 
 1,6T4 
 
 1,019 
 
 667 
 
 
 $322,078 
 
 $14,'06'3 
 33,424 
 
 192,978 
 
 134,618 
 
 93,195 
 
 263,939 
 
 $86,696 
 
 $2,754 
 
 34,'559 
 16,781 
 18,041 
 16,789 
 
 $408,674 
 
 $16,807 
 33,424 
 
 227,587 
 141,849 
 111,236 
 
 275,728 
 
 $6,409,200 
 
 $524,376 
 204,768 
 135,663 
 184,424 
 336,112 
 252,599 
 396,223 
 817,759 
 446,953 
 170,753 
 
 :::; 
 
 ■■$2,489,717 
 
 $129,161 
 14,380 
 34,441 
 21,839 
 18,221 
 9,500 
 32,620 
 67,991 
 17,408 
 3,250 
 
 6,i;34 
 
 ■446 
 
 404 
 
 735 
 
 291 
 
 1,208 
 
 2,782 
 
 6,611 
 
 10,3?2 
 
 ■532 
 1,419 
 2,291 
 7,340 
 
 $717,307 
 
 $249,760 
 333,794 
 6.57,316 
 661,707 
 756,823 
 
 1,163,232 
 
 $83,874 
 
 $23,388 
 22,048 
 40,261 
 33,443 
 
 114,223 
 84,991 
 
 $806,081 
 
 $272,098 
 355,842 
 697,577 
 685,155 
 870,546 
 
 1,244,223 
 
 $2,969,580 
 
 $94,783 
 694.892 
 173;441 
 1,005,406 
 697,618 
 217,769 
 
 $344 
 3660 
 
 5000 
 7600 
 
 $338,711 
 
 '$975 
 16,679 
 
 21,769 
 
 18,920 
 6,179 
 68,246 
 
 121,825 
 85,151 
 51,561 
 
 11,612 
 
 18,519 
 11,331 
 37,410 
 36,685 
 26,377 
 20,107 
 
 * Nine months to Jane 30, and the fiscal year from this time hegins July 1. 
 
 A treaty of friendship, commerce, and navigation 
 exists between tiie United States and tlie Republic of 
 Peru, tlie terms of which treaty are adhered to in good 
 faith at the ports of Peru ; and although questions some- 
 times arise in police cases regarding seamen belonging 
 to American vessels, the authorities assist readily in ar- 
 ranging such questions as they occur. The present ex- 
 isting regulations are fixed and definite as regards com- 
 merce. Changes in parts of these regulations are made 
 by decrees issued by the President and Congress, when 
 that body is in session, and by the President and Coun- 
 cil of State during the recess of Congress, as required 
 by the public exigencies. At present (August, 1855) 
 the government is undergoing the process of a revision 
 of its fundamental laws, now being made by a conven- 
 tion of deputies elected from all sections of the country, 
 and holding its sessions in the hall of Congress at the 
 city of Lima. There are no privileges permitted to the 
 commerce of other nations which are denied or not al- 
 lowed to the United States. There are no restrictions 
 imposed on the commerce of other nations and not on 
 that of the United States. But a line of eight fine 
 British steamers, carrying the mails and running be- 
 tween the ports of Panama and Talcahuano, under the 
 provisions of a postal convention existing between Great 
 Britain and Peru, are exempted from all tonnage du- 
 ties and port charges whatsoever in the ports of Peru, 
 in consideration for the transmission of the mails of Peru 
 to and from the various ports of Peru at which they 
 touch in mailing passages to and from Talcahuano and 
 Panama, The whaling vessels of the United States, 
 also, are allowed certain privileges in the port of Tum- 
 bez and all the open ports of Peru, in virtue of the 
 treaty now existing. Some question has been made by 
 Peru as to whether this privilege should allow whale 
 ships to avail themselves of its provisions in one port 
 only, while on a cruise, or at each or any port or ports, 
 and every time they visit such port or other port or 
 ports of Peru. The amount of the port charges made 
 upon tlie vessels of the United States in the ports of 
 Peru is as follows, naraelv : Tonnage dutv, 26 cents per 
 ■ .■) D 
 
 ton ; anchorage fee, $8 on vessels to Callao only ; anch- 
 orage fee on vessels to Callao and the Chincha Isl- 
 ands is $4 more, making $12 ; inspector's fee, $4 25 ; 
 custom-house fee, $i 25. The various stamped papers 
 cost from $5 to $12, according to the operations made 
 by the vessel. There are no light-house dues nor any 
 light-houses, and no hospital money is exacted. The 
 tonnage duty is only payable in one port, and only 
 once in six months. There are no pilots nor anj' pilot 
 s}'stem in Peni^the nature of the ports rendering pi- 
 lots unnecessary. National vessels that measure less 
 thant200 tons do not pay any tonnage duty, but pay 
 the other port charges. National vessels over 200 tons 
 register pay 25 cents per ton, being the same duty that 
 the vessels of all nations are made subject to. The 
 line of eight British mail steamers is exempted from 
 all port charges whatsoever, under the conditions of 
 the postal convention now existing between Great 
 Britain and Peru. The transhipment of goods is per- 
 mitted in the vessels of the United States, either to an- 
 other port in Peru or to a foreign port. This privilege 
 is allowed also to the vessels of all nations. By the 
 Beglamento de Commerdo for 1852, the latest yet pub- 
 lished, it is allowed to vessels of all nations to take 
 coastwise, from one open port (mayor) to another, any 
 foreign goods in bond; that is, which have not paid 
 duty ; for example, from Avica or Isly to Callao. It 
 is also allowed to take the productions of Peru, and 
 any foreign merchandise free of duty, in the same man- 
 ner, from any port to another port or ports in Peru. 
 All vessels may go loaded with free goods, and the pro- 
 ductions of Peru, not only from one open port to an- 
 other, but from an open port to a minor port (menor), 
 or from a minor port to an open port (mayor), or in 
 any manner. Vessels of all nations are permitted to 
 go to the port Iquique, to load with nitrate of soda and 
 other articles, and also to proceed from Callao to the 
 Chincha Islands to load with guano. 
 
 The moneys, weights, and measures, known and in 
 common use in Peru, are those of Spain, having re- 
 mained the same as when Peru was a colony of Spain. 
 
PER 
 
 1522 
 
 PHI 
 
 The difference between the vara and the yard in the 
 custom-house is eight per cent, additional, the vara 
 being about 33 inches of the English yard of 36 inches. 
 The gross and dozen are the same as in the United 
 States. The gallon of oil, of wine, and of spirits, are 
 each taken at 7i pounds to the gallon. The fanega is 
 an arbitrary ideal measure, and is regulated by weight ; 
 namely, one fanega of wheat is 135 pounds ; one fa- 
 nega of millet is 130 pounds ; one fanega of beans is 
 182 pounds ; one fanega of peas is 182 pounds ; one fa- 
 nega of corn is 156 pounds ; one fanega of Lima beans 
 is 156 pounds; one fanega of tallow is 130 pounds. 
 But these measures do not come into use in foreign in- 
 tercourse, or in any large transactions. There is no 
 measure of bulk in use, such as a bushel or a gallon ; 
 articles measured in bushels or in gallons in the United 
 States are sold by the pound or quintal of 100 pounds 
 in Peru, The difference between the pound and quin- 
 tal (of 100 pounds) of Peru and those quantities in the 
 United States is two per cent., the pound of Spain and 
 Peru being two per cent, heavier than the pound avoir 
 dupois of the United States and England. 
 
 Insurance to the United States, one and a half to 
 two per cent. Freight, $20 to $30 per ton of 2240 
 pounds, guano, delivered; and the same price on 40 
 cubic feet measurenient of other articles. Commission, 
 two and a half to five per cent, on the invoice. Cash 
 in all cases on exports. Average rate of exchange, 
 five to seven per cent, premium for a bill on the United 
 States, and eight to ten per cent, on United States cur- 
 rency. The true par of exchange is : Specie, six to 
 ten per cent, premium ; by exchange, six to seven per 
 cent. Bills, six to seven per cent, premium ; by the 
 curi'cncy, ten per cent. No duty is charged on mer- 
 chandise exported. No internal or other taxes are 
 levied on exports. Guano belongs to the government 
 and people of Peru, and is sold by itself. 
 
 PeIOEB or EXPOETS. 
 Articlea. WholesWe Price. 
 
 Guano from the Chincha 
 
 Islands Per ton of 2240 Its. 
 
 Nitrate of soda, a sort of ' 
 
 saltpetre Per 100 lbs $1 25 
 
 Hides, ox and cow Each 3 00 
 
 Bark, Peruvian Per 100 lbs 40 60 
 
 Tin, block " 13 00 
 
 Hats, straw Dozen 12 00, etc. 
 
 Horns, ox and cow 1000 20 00 
 
 Wool, sheep's 100 lbs 12 00 
 
 Chocolate " 1400 
 
 Vanilla Pound 6 00 to $T 00 
 
 Balsam " 1 BO 
 
 Peruvian Bark. The trees yielding Peruvian 
 bark, which grow at an elevation of 7000 to 8000 feet 
 on the Andes, have for a long series of years been felled 
 for the sake of their bark, and no pains were taken to 
 replace them. Fears have been naturally entertained 
 that ere long the supply of bark, and consequently of 
 quinine, would fail. Efforts have consequently been 
 made to transplant the tree into countries where it is 
 supposed the climate would be suitable. Dr. Eoyle 
 has taken measures for introducing Cinchona Calisaya, 
 or the yellow-bark tree, into the higher regions of In- 
 dia ; and of late years the Dutch government have em- 
 ploj-ed Mr. Hasskarl to transport plants of various spe- 
 cies of cinchona from South America to Java and oth- 
 er parts of the Dutch East Indies. These attempts 
 have been successful ; and the reports in regard to the 
 growth of the plant are such as to lead to the expecta- 
 tion that ere long the Peruvian bark trees will be 
 scattered over extensive districts, and will thus be 
 saved from destruction.— i'dm. New Phil. Journ.,J^o. 9. 
 Fe-vrter (Gei:Zinn,Zinngeisserzmn; Fv.Etain,- It. 
 Stagm; Sp. Estano,- Peltre ; Russ. Olowo),- a. factitious 
 metal used in making plates, dishes, and other domes- 
 tic utensils. It is a compound, the basis of which is 
 tin. The best sort consists of tin alloyed with about 
 one-twentieth or less of copper, or other metallic bod- 
 ies, as the experience of the workmen has shown to be 
 most conducive to the improvement of its hardness and 
 
 color, such as lead, zinc, bismuth, and antimony. There 
 are three sorts'of pewter, distinguished by the names 
 of plate, trifle, and ley pewter. The first was formerly 
 much used for plates and dishes ; of the second are made 
 the pints, quarts, and other measures for beer ; and of 
 the le3' -pewter, wine measures and large measures. A 
 fine pewter is made, according to Aiken, by fusing to- 
 gether 100 parts of tin, 8 of antimony, 1 of bismuth, and 
 4 of copper. The use of these additions to tin is to 
 harden it and preserve its color; and a good pewter, 
 when clean and polished, has a silvery lustre, and does 
 not readily tarnish. Common pewter, of which meas- 
 ures and pewter pots are made, is an alloy of lead and 
 tin. 
 
 Philadelphia, the metropolis of Pennsylvania, and 
 the second city in the United States of America in pop- 
 ulation and in manufactures, is in lat. 39° 66' 39" N., 
 and long. 75° 10' 54" W., ISO miles from Washington, 
 and 87 from New York. Population in 1800 was 70,287 ; 
 in 1810, 96,287; in 1820, 119,325; in 1830, 167,325; in 
 1840, 258,037; in 1850, 408,762; and in 1854. 480,000. 
 It is situated between the Delaware and Schuylkill 
 rivers, five miles above their junction, and extends 
 from the one to the other. The rivers bounding it lie 
 about two miles apart in the narrowest place. The 
 city is 100 miles distant from the ocean by the course 
 of the Delaware. Its principal harbor is on the east, 
 or Delaware River side, where ships come up, and its 
 foreign commerce centres. Philadelphia has an ex- 
 tensive foreign, and a still greater domestic trade ; by 
 means of railroads and canals it possesses facilities for 
 communication with a great extent of country. The 
 city is built upon a plain rising gradually from the 
 Delaware on the east, and the Schujdkill on the west, 
 to the height of about 65 feet above the surface of the 
 rivers at highest water. The portion most densely ' 
 built upon has an outline of about ten miles, and ex- 
 tends along the Delaware River five miles. Philadel- 
 phia is laid out with great regularity, the streets, with 
 but few exceptions, crossing each other at right angles. 
 High Street, extending from river to river, and Broad 
 Street, which extends south and north from Penn 
 Square, are very wide and spacious thoroughfares ; 
 the other streets are, many of them, neat and cleanly 
 kept. The public buildings are generally tasty and 
 well built edifices, and the private residences have a 
 neat and cheerful appearance. It was surveyed and 
 laid out in 1682 by Thomas Holmes; the ground se- 
 lected was claimed by three Swedes by the name of 
 Swenson, who held a title to it obtained of the Dutch 
 Governor of New York in 1664. This claim was pur- 
 ■chased by Penn. — Harper's and fJiipincoti's Gazetteers. 
 Manufactures. — This branch of the industry of Phil- 
 adelphia is very important both as regards value and 
 extent. The vicinity abounds with water-power of great 
 magnitude, and coal is obtained at an easy and cheap 
 rate, so that steam can be applied as a motive power 
 to a great advantage over other places, and which has 
 been made extensively available. Machinery, locomo- 
 tives, hardware, sugar-refining, cordage, and a variety 
 of wares are produced here. — Census Report^ 1850, 
 
 Capital invested, the Number of Hands employed, and 
 TUB Value of the ankual Pkodtjot of this Eeanch of 
 Industry, in tue City and Coitnty of I'iiiladelphia 
 
 DDEING THE YeAI; ENDING JUNE 30, 1850. 
 
 Dititricts. 
 
 Capital 
 inveBted. 
 
 Philadelphia City. . 
 Northern Liberties. 
 
 Spring Garden 
 
 Kensington 
 
 South wark 
 
 MoyamenBing 
 
 Townships, etc. . . . 
 Total 
 
 *13,207,6,5 
 3,922,251 
 2,913,415 
 3,755,711 
 2,171,065 
 530,364 
 7,237,380 
 
 $33,737,911 
 
 Hnnds empl'd. 
 
 Malon. 
 
 17,020 
 4,463 
 4,3-:6 
 6,7?B 
 2,080 
 1,970 
 6,705 
 
 Pem. 
 
 9046 
 
 1181 
 854 
 
 IS^O 
 167 
 568 
 
 2377 
 
 Annual 
 Producta. 
 
 $26,809,265 
 7,073,023 
 5,376,781 
 
 10,083,904 
 3,734,730 
 1,293,201 
 
 10,237,308 
 
 59,106 |$64,114,112 
 
 Coal Trade, eic— The coal trade during the year 1853 
 amounted in value to over $16,000,000, and the quan- 
 tity brought to market about 6,000,000 tons. The 
 
PHI 
 
 1523 
 
 PHI 
 
 commerce of Philadelphia is rapidly on the increase, 
 amounting in value the same year to $14,500,000, and 
 employing a tonnage of 252,451 tons. In 1854 there 
 was a line of first-class steamships and four lines of sail- 
 ing-vessels plying betweettithis port and Liverpool; 
 two steamships to Charleston, South Carolina ; one to 
 Richmond, Virginia, via Norfolk and Petersburg ; one 
 to Boston; one to Hartford; two to Now York; and 
 one to Baltimore. These vessels were substantial and 
 well built, and most of them constructed in this city. 
 The total number of steamships, ships, barks, brigs, 
 schooners, barges, etc., entering the port during the 
 year 1856, was 27,044. — See Coal ; Coinage. 
 
 The following railroads centre here : The .Camden 
 and Amboy ; Philadelphia and Trenton, connecting 
 with the New Jersey ; the Camden and Atlantic ; Phil- 
 adelphia and Germantown; Philadelphia, Beading, and 
 Pottsville ; the Great Central Railroad of Pennsylva- 
 nia, with its extensive connections; Phila.delphia and 
 Westchester ; Philadelphia, Wilmington, and Balti- 
 more, etc. The Schuylkill Navigation Canal, 108 miles 
 long, extends to Port Carbon ; and the Chesapeake and 
 Delaware Canal, 14 miles long, extending from the Del- 
 aware Eiver at Delaware city to Back Creek, Mary- 
 land. These great arteries of traffic contribute much 
 to the trade of Philadelphia. 
 
 The city, as consolidated by the act of January, 1854, 
 embraces a territory 23^ miles long, and 5^ average 
 breadth, coextensive with the county. It is divided 
 into 24 wards, and is governed by a maj'or, elected for 
 two years, a select council of 24 members for the, same 
 period, and a common council of 72 members, elected 
 annually. 
 
 Philadelphia was first surveyed and regulated in 
 1682. It had previously been in possession of the 
 Swedes, some of whom came into the country border- 
 ing, on Delaware Bay as early as 1627. It was named 
 after a qity in Asia Minor, and the plan is said to have 
 been suggested by that of ancient Babylon, and ac- 
 cording to the original design of William Penn, its 
 original founder and proprietor, was designed to have 
 equaled that ancient capital in extent; but the idea 
 was soon abandoned, and the charter of 17Q1 restricted 
 it to the boundaries of the late city proper. Penn's 
 country residence was at Pennsburg Manor, above 
 Bristol, in which was a large Hall of Audience, where 
 he held treaties with the Indians; and the oak arm- 
 chair in which he sat is now in the Pennsylvania Hos- 
 pital. The first Congress assembled in Philadelphia 
 September 5th, 1774, and adopted a declaration of 
 rights ; on July 4th, 1776, the Declaration of Independ- 
 ence ; in the autumn of 1776 retired to Baltimore ; Sep- 
 tember 26th, 1777, the city fell into the hands of the 
 British, who occupied it until the 18th of June follow- 
 ing. May 17th, 1787, a convention met here, and in 
 September 17th, following, agreed on a Constitution for 
 the United States, when it became the seat of Govern- 
 ment of the United States until 1800. 
 
 Harbor, Light-houses, Pilotage, etc. — Vessels of the 
 largest burden ascend the river as far as Newcastle, 
 but those drawing above 18 or 20 feet water can not 
 reach Philadelphia on account of a bar a little below 
 the city. The entrance to the magnificent baj' formed 
 by the embouchure of the Delaware, has Cape May on 
 its north, and Cape Henlopen on its south side. The 
 former, in lat. 38° 57' N., long. 75° 47' 45" W., is a 
 sandy headland, rising about 12 feet above the level 
 of the sea. It has recently been surmounted by a 
 light-house 60 feet in height. The light revolves once 
 a minute ; an eclipse of 50 seconds being succeeded by 
 a brilliant flash of 10 seconds. It is seen in clear weath- 
 er from 20 to 25 miles off. Cape Henlopen, marking 
 the southern boundary of the bay, is in lat. 38° 47' N., 
 long. 75° 4' 45" W. A little south from it is a hill, 
 elevated about 60 feet feet above the level of the sea ; 
 and on it is erected a light-house 72 feet in height, fur- 
 nished with a powerful ^ed light visible in clear weath- 
 
 er ten leagues ofl'. To the north of this principal light, 
 and close to the extremity of the Cape, a second light- 
 house has been constructed, 36 feet above the level of 
 the sea, which is also furnished with & fixed light, which 
 may be seen about six leagues off'. The channel for 
 large ships is between Cape Henlopen and the banks 
 called the Overfalls. The navigation is, however, a 
 little difiicult, and it is compulsory on ships to take 
 pilots. The latter frequently board them at sea ; but, 
 if not, as soon as a ship comes between the Capes, she 
 must hoist the signal for a pilot, and heave to as soon 
 as one offers to come on board. 
 
 FHILAIlELruIA TO THE OCEAN. — DISTANCES, IN STATUTE 
 
 Miles, fkom PniLADELrniA (Maeket ^tkeet Whabf) 
 TO THE Capes, ky thb tjsdat. Steamboat Channel, as 
 laid down on the chart of the delaware by the 
 United States Coast Stjbvey. 
 
 From Philadelphia (Market Street Wharf) to Miles 
 
 Fort Mitttin landing (broad off in channel) 8 3-8 
 
 Chester landing '* '* 16 5-8 
 
 Marcus Hook landing " ** 20 1-4 
 
 Quarryvilie " " " 24 3-4 
 
 Dupolit's " " " 26 8-8 
 
 Wilmington, by the Christiana, to bridge 31 3-4 
 
 New Castle, railroad wharf (broad oif in cliannel) ... 34 
 
 Delaware City landing " " ... 89 6-8 
 
 Reedy Island " " ... 441-4 
 
 Port Penn landing 44 7-8 
 
 Liston's Tree (broad off in channel) 51 3-10 
 
 Listen's Point '* " 51 5-8 
 
 Duck Creek Light (broad off in channel) 65 3-8 
 
 Bombay Hook Point " " 60 9-10 
 
 Buoy of the Middle Tl 9-16 
 
 Ledge Light Boat T6 1-4 
 
 Buoy of the Lower (qr.) 83 5-8 
 
 Brandywine Ligbt-house 89 9-16 
 
 Buoy of the Brown 93 1-16 
 
 Breakwater 102 3-8 
 
 Cape Henlopen 102 5-8 
 
 Cape May landing, by channel east of Pea Patch. . . C6 
 
 Exports of Breadstuffs. — The annexed statement 
 shows the quantity and value of breadstuffs exported 
 from Philadelphia to foreign ports during 1855 and 
 1856: 
 
 
 1866. 
 
 1356. j 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Flour BaiTels. 
 
 ■.!18,197 
 
 $1,962,618 
 
 343,335 
 
 $2,400,11B 
 
 Corn meal " 
 
 £6,108 
 
 435,204 
 
 91,249 
 
 290,400 
 
 Kyemeal. " 
 
 12,T57 
 
 86,238 
 
 16,298 
 
 68,612 
 
 Wheat . . . Bushels. 
 
 226,071 
 
 451,921 
 
 662,338 
 
 1,049,777 
 
 Com " 
 
 686,262 
 
 683,782 
 
 1,098,521 
 
 > 711,999 
 
 Rye, Oats, etc 
 
 Total 
 
 
 57,807 
 
 
 282,435 
 
 
 $3,677,607 
 
 
 $4,763,386 
 
 These figures show a marked difference in the prices 
 of breadstuffs in the years specified, as follows : 
 
 
 Average Price 1855. | Average Price 1856. | 
 
 Flour 
 
 Com Meal . . . 
 
 Rye Meal 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Com 
 
 $8 93J- per barrel. 
 4 57^ " 
 6 76 
 
 1 99J per bushel. 
 !l9i 
 
 $6 99 per barrel. 
 
 3 18t 
 
 4 21 
 
 1 5^f per bushel 
 64} 
 
 It will be observed also that, had the articles enu- 
 merated brought the prices in 1856 that were paid for 
 them in 1855, the value of breadstuflTs exported in 
 1856 would have aggregated $6,123,216 instead of 
 $4,753,336, the real cost. 
 
 Receipts of Cattle in Philadelphia. — The following 
 tabular statement presents the number of cattle re- 
 ceived here during each of the last twelve years, with 
 the exception of the large number brought in by butcli- 
 ers, of which no account can be obtained: 
 
 Years. 
 
 Beeves. 
 
 Cows. 
 
 Swine. 
 26,455 
 
 sheep. 
 
 Total. 
 
 ]845 
 
 51,298 
 
 18 8-6 
 
 56,r48 
 
 183,608 
 
 1846 
 
 47,5no 
 
 14 480 
 
 18,670 
 
 55,810 
 
 136,460 
 
 1847 
 
 511.270 
 
 16 700 
 
 22,410 
 
 67,800 
 
 147,220 
 
 1848 
 
 67,211 
 
 14,108 
 
 47,690 
 
 76,820 
 
 205,829 
 
 1841 
 
 68,120 
 
 14,820 
 
 46,700 
 
 77,110 
 
 206,250 
 
 1850 
 
 68,750 
 
 115,120 
 
 46,900 
 
 82,500 
 
 213,270 
 
 1851 
 
 69,100 
 
 16,400 
 
 46,700 
 
 83,000 
 
 215.200 
 
 1852 
 
 71,200 
 
 14,420 
 
 49,200 
 
 81.200 
 
 216,020 
 
 1S68 
 
 71,900 
 
 15,100 
 
 63,300 
 
 72,300 
 
 212,600 
 
 1854 
 
 73,400 
 
 15,350 
 
 78,000 
 
 61,000 
 
 227,760 
 
 1855 
 
 65,200 
 
 11,530 
 
 65,300 
 
 182,500 
 
 264,530 
 
 1666 
 
 61,978 
 
 12,900 
 
 103,350 
 
 240,700 
 
 418,928 
 
PHI 
 
 1524 
 
 PHI 
 
 The following table shows the measurement of grain, 1 last sixteen years. This statement, of course, does not 
 s'eeds, salt, and coal, in Philadelphia, annually, for the | include all the receipts of grain, seeds, etc., at this port. 
 
 Yenn. 
 
 Wheal. 
 
 Com. 
 
 Rye. 
 
 Barley. 
 
 Oab. 
 
 Seeds. 
 
 Beans. 
 
 Bil. Coal. 
 
 Salt. 
 
 1841 
 
 467,243} 
 
 781,2784 
 
 51,371} 
 
 44,336 
 
 167 508} 
 
 19,704} 
 
 3040} 
 
 118,lf8 
 
 3:6,132 
 
 1842 
 
 462,770 
 
 4)2,951 
 
 36 334 
 
 35,978} 
 
 194,'.!08 
 
 28,198} 
 
 1616} 
 
 9,068 
 
 151-,250 
 
 1843 
 
 484,384S 
 
 618,671} 
 
 08,013} 
 
 20,012 
 
 372,713} 
 
 27,7734 
 
 1680} 
 
 131,909 
 
 174.134} 
 
 1844 
 
 626,667J 
 
 640,459 
 
 95,227} 
 
 68,600 
 
 376,578} 
 
 42,368 
 
 1402} 
 
 17,000 
 
 217,815} 
 
 1845 
 
 792.502} 
 
 768,486} 
 
 86,357} 
 
 46,630} 
 
 357,677} 
 
 31,434 
 
 3930} 
 
 261.838 
 
 146.451 
 
 1846 
 
 983,923 
 
 666,178 
 
 30,829 
 
 40,339 
 
 350,942 
 
 15,864 
 
 S895 
 
 348,261 
 
 237,463 
 
 1847 
 
 947,5-8 
 
 1,093,264 
 
 78,972 
 
 38,210 . 
 
 369,171 
 
 7,528 
 
 676 
 
 268,760 
 
 246,438 
 
 1848 
 
 723,lj:-4} 
 
 1,802,318} 
 
 46,900} 
 
 62,634} 
 
 327,733} 
 
 9,770S 
 
 459 
 
 357,827 
 
 200,474 
 
 1S4) 
 
 945.465 
 
 1,283,092 
 
 64,446 
 
 27,642 
 
 424,316 
 
 7,690 
 
 1270 
 
 235,092 
 
 451,157 
 
 1850 
 
 1,103,2 ;C 
 
 1,168,636 
 
 63,905 
 
 70.2C8 
 
 401,396 
 
 5,261 
 
 1803 
 
 100,395 
 
 ■ 178,712 
 
 1831 
 
 1,051,083 
 
 1,378,491 
 
 89,219 
 
 41,459 
 
 359,066 
 
 3,706 
 
 253 
 
 E5S,S02 
 
 242,917 
 
 1832 
 
 97r,544i 
 
 799,199} 
 
 59,637 
 
 37,119 
 
 427,533 
 
 23,774 
 
 
 61,767 
 
 168,096 
 
 - 1853 
 
 950,333} 
 
 967,614} 
 
 49,963 
 
 31,250 
 
 406,529 
 
 11541 
 
 
 
 17,870 
 
 1854 
 
 731,333 
 
 1,182,1^8 
 
 41,496} 
 
 39,705 
 
 272,940 
 
 18,040 
 
 
 600 
 
 6 814 
 
 1855 
 
 1,040,096 
 
 1,433,458 
 
 147,889 
 
 31,918 
 
 686,924 
 
 410 
 
 
 6,504 
 
 
 1856 
 
 1,051,591 
 
 l,801,n92 
 
 233,389 
 
 84,962 
 
 466,640 
 
 029 
 
 
 
 
 Impoetatiow of Hides at PnlLADELpniA. 
 
 1S31 . 
 
 1832 . 
 
 1833 . 
 1834. 
 
 1837 . 
 
 1838 . 
 
 1839 . 
 
 1840 . 
 
 1841 . 
 
 1842 . 
 18:3 . 
 
 1844 . 
 
 1845 . 
 
 1846 . 
 
 1847 . 
 18-18 . 
 1849. 
 1S50 . 
 1851 . 
 1853 . 
 1853. 
 1854. 
 1855. 
 1856 . 
 
 Foreign. | Coastwise. 
 
 132. 
 
 173,761 
 
 63.4S5 
 
 93,691 
 
 127,057 
 
 95,853 
 
 124.208 
 
 127.526 
 
 143 440 
 
 123,074 
 
 84,609 
 
 127,63-2 
 
 90,726 
 
 51.815 
 
 76 139 
 
 52,414 
 
 102 698 
 
 103,882 
 
 134.225 
 
 130,154 
 
 119,977 
 
 174 5,7 
 
 156,102 
 
 109,755 
 
 No return. 
 61,060 
 84,693 
 61,879 
 20.166 
 29,372 
 23,906 
 13,060 
 14,084 
 19,670 
 
 9,370 
 19,0' 2 
 
 8,r;65 
 17,742 
 75,818 
 72.300 
 88,284 
 47,791 
 35,7-27 
 37,154 
 24,434 
 10,451 
 12,300 
 
 9 399 
 
 Total. 
 
 132,492 
 224 821 
 148,078 
 14.5,576 
 147,233 
 125,225 
 148,113 
 140,676 
 157,624 
 143,244 
 93,979 
 146,724 
 99,280 
 69,657 
 151.957 
 124,714 
 190,928 
 151,673 
 169,952 
 167,308 
 144,411 
 186,048 
 168,402 
 119,164 
 
 FoaElGN I-IlPES IMPOETEJ) IMTO Fui-LADELPHIA IN 1S56. 
 
 
 Number. 
 
 Bales. 
 
 Buenos Ayres and Laguayra 
 
 79,829 
 
 13,215 
 
 4,772 
 
 6,640 
 
 
 
 Africa 
 
 
 103,356 
 9,399 
 
 "50 
 
 3S'l 
 
 
 Total coastwise 
 
 The following is the aggregate exports from Phila- 
 delphia to foreign ports in 1856 : 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Domestic. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Swedish West Indies . . 
 Danish "West Indies . . . 
 British East Indies 
 
 $81,372 
 
 66,911 
 
 578 
 
 26,097 
 
 S4,415 
 
 3,853,212 
 
 3,972 
 
 349,323 
 
 793,087 
 
 742 622 
 
 134 589 
 
 28,494 
 
 1.260 
 
 18,636 
 
 79,430 
 
 14,000 
 
 617,947 
 450,031 
 105,101 
 102,065 
 131,279 
 
 6,360 
 41,5'8 
 10,568 
 13,767 
 
 $3,410 
 
 416 
 
 2,632 
 
 18,006 
 21,786 
 
 8,931 
 21,911 
 
 6,399 
 
 '290 
 
 '152 
 1,490 
 
 62,914 
 2,3:4 
 6,029 
 4,817 
 
 19,178 
 7,947 
 
 $8-1,783 
 
 67,327 
 
 3,010 
 
 26,007 
 
 34,-415 
 
 3,877,278 
 
 25,763 
 
 358,S64 
 
 814,998 
 
 740.021 
 
 134,689 
 
 28,784 
 
 1,260 
 
 18,847 
 
 80,920 
 
 14,000 
 
 617,974 
 
 512,945 
 
 107.425 
 
 108,084 
 
 136,096 
 
 19,178 
 
 7,947 
 
 6,360 
 
 41,518 
 
 10,668 
 
 13,767 
 
 
 
 
 Other Br. N. A. Colonies 
 
 British West Indies . . . 
 
 British Guiana 
 
 Africa 
 
 French West Indies . . . 
 Porto Kico 
 
 Hayti 
 
 Central Republic and 
 New Granada 
 
 
 B. Ayres & Montevideo 
 Sandwich Islands 
 
 Colombian ports 
 
 
 Holland 
 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 Total 
 
 $7,711,285 
 
 $188,692 
 
 $7,899,977 
 
 The following is a comparative statement of some 
 of the principal articles of produce exported from the 
 port of Philadelphia to foreign ports for the years 
 
 Flour, barrels 
 
 Wheat, bushels 
 
 Corn, bushels 
 
 Corn meal, barrels 
 
 Rye meal, " 
 
 Rye, bushels 
 
 Ship-bread, barrels 
 
 Rice, tierces 
 
 Beef, tierces and barrels. 
 .Pork, " " " . 
 
 Butter, pounds 
 
 Cheese, " 
 
 Naval stores, barrels 
 
 Oil, gallons 
 
 Peas and beans, bushels . . 
 
 Lard, pounds 
 
 Coal, tons 
 
 Tallow, pounds 
 
 Candles, " 
 
 Bacon, " 
 Bark, hhds. 
 
 220,1 79 
 
 206 069 
 
 685,807 
 
 98,973 
 
 13,460 
 
 45,762 
 
 2I,85« 
 
 2,122 
 
 6 615 
 
 7,872 
 
 344,682 
 
 389,604 
 
 23,083 
 
 39,lt9 
 
 1,906,793 
 
 19,935 
 
 705,700 
 
 6S4 514 
 
 1,039,001 
 
 4,210,616 
 
 651 
 
 1856. 
 
 342,038 
 
 684,092 
 
 1,067,283 
 
 92,6C3 
 
 15,307 
 
 238.363 
 
 26,426 
 
 4 537 
 
 7,6-5 
 
 11,141 
 
 4:9 608 
 
 989.7(12 
 
 14,517 
 
 61.305 
 
 10,423 
 
 1,934,686 
 
 13,387 
 
 391,463 
 
 709,146 
 
 1,2,56.086 
 
 4,988,716 
 
 1,373 
 
 Cash SutKs. — The following is an official staten;ent 
 of the amount of cash duties received at the custom- 
 house at this port during the past three j'ears : 
 
 Months. 
 
 January 
 
 February . . . 
 
 March 
 
 April 
 
 May 
 
 June 
 
 July 
 
 August 
 
 September. . 
 October . . . . 
 November . . 
 December . . 
 Total 
 
 1854. 
 
 $53'i,292 
 825,193 
 316,833 
 379,471 
 328 422 
 304,754 
 436.163 
 601,153 
 325,077 
 257,1.37 
 215,615 
 100,944 
 
 $4,368,515 
 
 1855. 
 
 $337,437 
 280,.S' 6 
 340,916 
 258,1 83 
 225, C88 
 249,445 
 311,649 
 441,422 
 275,033 
 216,0 8 
 311.693 
 235.202 
 
 1856. 
 
 $214,848 
 64,904 
 673.002 
 33.5,236 
 433,623 
 376,420 
 472,879 
 533,499 
 846,613 
 285,1 3S 
 243,162 
 271,943 
 
 $3,353,617 I $4,301,123 
 
 The following is an official statement of the value 
 of exports from the district of Philadelphia from 1791 
 to 1816. For subsequent trade see ante, p. 1510. 
 
 1791 
 
 1792 
 
 
 1793 
 
 
 17:4 
 
 
 17r;5 
 
 
 i7rG 
 
 
 1797 
 
 
 1798 
 
 
 1799 
 
 
 1800 
 
 
 1801 
 
 
 1802 
 
 
 1S03 
 
 $3,604,496 
 
 18-4 
 
 6,851,444 
 
 1805 
 
 9,397,012 
 
 1836 
 
 13,809,389 
 
 1807 
 
 12,065,128 
 
 1808 
 
 2,946,808 
 
 1809 
 
 4,810,883 
 
 1810 
 
 6,241,764 
 
 1811 
 
 3,865,670 
 
 1813 
 
 1,313,293 
 
 1813 
 
 327,494 
 
 1814 
 
 
 1816 
 
 1,024,368 
 
 1816 
 
 2,709,917 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Total.... $68,657,861 
 
 Domestic. 
 
 $3,436,093 
 
 3,820 662 
 
 6,158,836 
 
 6.643,092 
 
 11.618,260 
 
 17,513,866 
 
 11,446,291 
 
 8,918,463 
 
 12,431,967 
 
 11,949,679 
 
 17,438,193 
 
 12,677,475 
 
 7,625 710 
 
 11,030,167 
 
 13,762,252 
 
 17,574,702 
 
 16,864,744 
 
 4,013,330 
 
 9,049.241 
 
 10,9n3,3r8 
 
 6,691,447 
 
 4,661,457 
 
 3,249,628 
 
 S,669'65l 
 4,486,329 
 
 $237,220,818 
 
 $3,436,093 
 
 3,820,662 
 
 6.958,830 
 
 6,643,012 
 
 11,518,260 
 
 17,513,866 
 
 11,446.291 
 
 8,915,463 
 
 12,431,r67 
 
 11,94'1,679 
 
 17.438,193 
 
 12,677,475 
 
 11,030,206 
 
 17,881,601 
 
 23.159,264 
 
 31,334.091 
 
 28,919 872 
 
 6,r60,133 
 
 13,860,124 
 
 17,235,162 
 
 9.560,117 
 
 5,973,750 
 
 3,877,117 
 
 4,693,919 
 7,196,246 
 
 $317,081,474 
 
PHI 
 
 1525 
 
 PHI 
 
 Account shovMng thb Numbek op Vessels, disckimim- 
 
 ATINO BETWEEN AeEIVALS FOEBIGN AND OOASTWIGE; 
 WlllOn ENTEKEU THE I'OBT OF I'niLADELPUIA FBOU THE 
 IST OP JaNUAKY, I8'i5, TO THK IST OP Janttaey, 1840. 
 
 Yean. 
 
 Foreign, 
 
 Coastwise. 
 
 Total, 
 
 1825 
 
 1826 
 
 484 ■ 
 , 482 
 469 
 4BD 
 3r4 
 415 
 3C6 
 428 
 474 
 430 
 429 
 421 
 409 
 464 
 621 
 
 1,195 
 1,195 
 1,320 
 1,24T 
 2,210 
 S,28T 
 8,202 
 2,849 
 2,5T3 
 2,686 
 3,5T3 
 8,T64 
 T,7T6 
 10,860 
 11,188 
 
 1,679 
 1,677 
 1,789 
 1,697 
 2,584 
 8,702 
 3,658 
 3,277 
 3,047 
 3,116 
 4,002 
 4,185 
 8,185 
 11,324 
 11,709 
 
 182T 
 
 1328 .., 
 
 1S29 
 
 1830 
 
 18:31 
 
 1832 
 
 1833 
 
 1834 
 
 183S 
 
 1836 
 
 lesT 
 
 1838 
 
 1839 
 
 ABRTVAL of VeBBELB at the POBT of PlIILADELPniA DUE- 
 INO TUB Yeaes 1848, 1849, AHD 1850. 
 
 HhlpB : 
 
 Barks 
 
 Brigs 
 
 SchooDers. . 
 
 Sloa]is 
 
 Steamerf),.. 
 
 Bai-{;es 
 
 Boats 
 
 Total. 
 
 184S. 
 
 101 
 
 G52 
 
 9C5 
 
 B,907 
 
 8,629 
 
 464 
 
 3,265 
 
 8,800 
 
 24,483 
 
 : 115 
 . S25 
 
 SS3 
 6,480 
 4,486 
 
 661 
 3,686 
 8,528 
 
 25,169 
 
 1S50. 
 
 106 
 342 
 834 
 7,681 
 5,200 
 1,043 
 3,850 
 8,4S0 
 
 27,655 
 
 COMPABATIVE STATEMBNT OF TUB NtTMBEB OP VeBBELB, 
 FOEEICrN AND OOASTWIBE, WUICn nAVB AEBIVED AT 
 PllILAJ>ELPlIIA DUBING FIVB YeABS. 
 
 Total in 1852 25,163 
 
 Total in 1853 311,120 
 
 Total in 1854 29,001 
 
 Total in 1855 30,223 
 
 Total ill 1856 27,044 
 
 The following are abstracts of the vessels entered 
 and cleared at the port of Philadelphia, from and to 
 foreign ports, during the year ending June 30th, 1856 ; 
 from which it appears that the total number of vessels 
 entered under the American flag during the year was 
 452, and the tonnage 198,253 tons, being an increase 
 of 32 vessels and 8432 tons over the 3'ear 1855. The 
 total number of vessels entered under foreign flags was 
 125, and the tonnage 37,69G tons, an increase of 10 ves- 
 sels and 17,497 tons over 1855 ; making a total increase 
 over the preceding year of 42 vessels and 25,929 tons. 
 The total number of vessels cleared under the Ameri- 
 can flag was 304, and the tonnage 110,581 tons, u. de- 
 crease of 22 vessels and 7849 tonnage under 1855; and 
 the total number of yessels cleared under foreign flags 
 was 127, and the tonnage 38,409 tons, an increase of 
 nine vessels and 18,362 tons, making a total decrease 
 from that of the preceding year of 13 vessels, and an in- 
 crease of 513 tons. See Penssylvania. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Flag, American. 
 
 No. of 
 
 Ton- 
 nage. 
 
 V Flag, Foreign, 
 
 No. of 
 Vessels, 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Flag, American. 
 
 No. of 
 
 VesBols. 
 
 Ton- 
 nage. 
 
 Flag, Foreifen. 
 
 No. of 
 Vessels. 
 
 Ton- 
 nage. 
 
 Swedish West IndieB. . . . 
 
 Danish West Indies 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Holland 
 
 England 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Ireland 
 
 BrUish N. A. Possessions. 
 
 British West Indies 
 
 British Honduras 
 
 British Guiana 
 
 Biitish Poss, iu Africa . . 
 
 British East Indies 
 
 France on the Atlantic . . 
 France on the Mediter'n. 
 Spain on the Mediter'n.. 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Porto Kico 
 
 Cape de Verds 
 
 Azores 
 
 Sardinia 
 
 Tuscany 
 
 Sicily 
 
 Hayti 
 
 Mexico 
 
 New Granada 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Chili 
 
 Peru 
 
 Ecuador 
 
 Total 
 
 2S7 
 404 
 
 1 
 
 367 
 
 68 
 
 60,847 
 
 2 
 
 526 
 
 1 
 
 795 
 
 5S 
 
 10,193 
 
 87 
 
 8,772 
 
 1 
 
 170 
 
 1 
 
 412 
 
 2 
 
 370 
 
 1 
 
 1,3.50 
 
 8 
 
 2,666 
 
 1 
 
 886 
 
 1 
 
 ]7r 
 
 133 
 
 30,076 
 
 11 
 
 2,5.3 
 
 1 
 
 197 
 
 1 
 
 118 
 
 1 
 
 574 
 
 5 
 
 1,982 
 
 16 
 
 5,124 
 
 16 
 
 2,943 
 
 1 
 
 213 
 
 1 
 
 233 
 
 81 
 
 6,153 
 
 32 
 
 8,054 
 
 1 
 
 604 
 
 11 
 
 13,236 
 
 8 
 
 825 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 1 
 19 
 
 26 
 
 28 
 
 191 
 
 2,382 
 
 134 
 
 21,057 
 
 2,'659 
 2,470 
 2,603 
 
 752 
 
 ' 325 
 
 1,!)6S 
 
 928 
 
 1G8 
 
 ' 319 
 
 1,837 
 
 isa 
 
 136 
 
 218 
 
 453 160,557 I 125 37,696 
 
 Swedish West Indies 
 
 Danish West Indies 
 
 Hamburg — 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Holland : 
 
 Dutch West Indies 
 
 Belgium 
 
 England 
 
 Scotland , 
 
 Ireland 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 Canada 
 
 Other British N. A. Poss. 
 
 British West Indies 
 
 British Guiana 
 
 British Poss. in Africa . . 
 
 British East Indies , 
 
 France on the Atlantic . . 
 France on the Med'n. . . . 
 
 French West Indies 
 
 Philippine Islands 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Porto Rico 
 
 Madeira 
 
 Hayti 
 
 Central Republic 
 
 New Granada 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Uruguay 
 
 Buenos Ayres '. 
 
 Total 
 
 1 
 
 46 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 19 
 
 55 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 32 
 ' 8 
 
 1, 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 25 
 
 1,409 
 
 738 
 
 500 
 
 '451 
 
 42,036 
 
 330 
 
 2,631 
 193 
 
 1,435 
 
 6,116 
 11.736 
 
 2,114 
 370 
 731 
 
 1,043 
 
 537 
 
 240 
 
 847 
 
 19,703 
 
 ' 6':8 
 107 
 
 1,243 
 3.5 
 139 
 
 6,727 
 
 6,228 
 443 
 
 1,868 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 1 
 17 
 1 
 9 
 
 "i 
 
 58 
 19 
 1 
 
 618 
 
 251 
 
 1,626 
 
 218 
 
 94 
 
 299 
 
 20,1-; 5 
 
 £83 
 
 3,148 
 
 ' 335 
 
 7,176 
 
 1,816 
 
 118 
 
 1,178 
 
 ' 175 
 
 "684 
 
 304 110,581 
 
 127 38,4(10 
 
 Fbilippiue Islands, a large and important group 
 in tlie Asiatic Archipelago, forming Its northern divi- 
 sion, and next to Cuba the most valuable colonial pos- 
 session of Spain, chiefly between lat. 5° 32' and 19° 38' 
 N., and long. 117° and 127° E., having north and east 
 the Pacific Ocean, west the China Sea, and south the 
 seas of Sooloo and Celebes. There are at least 1200 isl- 
 ands, great and small. Principal islands, Luzon, Min- 
 dano, and Palawan, with Mindoro, Panay, Marindique, 
 Kegros, Zebu, Bohol, Leyte, Samar, Masbate, and many 
 'of less size. Total area estimated at 120,000 square 
 miles. The Spanish dominion is stated to extend over 
 only 52,148 sq. miles. Population, in 1850, 3,815,878, 
 consisting of Europeans, native whites, the Papuan ne- 
 gro race, and independent tribes, Malay Indians, half 
 castes, and Chinese. The islands are of volcanic for- 
 mation, and contain a chain of active volcanoes. Earth- 
 quakes also are of frequent occurrence. The group 
 is within the range of the monsoons, and violent hur- 
 ricanes are common. From May to September the 
 
 western coasts are deluged with rain, while the October 
 monsoon brings rain to the eastern coasts, at other sea- 
 sons dry. The high temperature and abundance of 
 moisture produce a luxuriant vegetation ; so that they 
 are capable of yielding all kinds of colonial, and prob- 
 ably European produce. Rice, millet, maize, sugar, 
 indigo, hemp, tobacco, coflee, and cotton, are raised ; 
 and sago, cocoa-nuts, bananas, cinamon, betel, numer- 
 ous fine fruits, and timber for ship-building are among 
 the products. Buffaloes and most of the domestic ani- 
 mals common in Europe are reared. There are no pre- 
 daceous quadrupeds ; the cayman is found in the rivers. 
 Pearls, pearl-oyster shell, the sea-slug, edible birds' 
 nests., and sapan-wood,.are important articles of ex- 
 port hence to China. Domestic weaving is pretty gen- 
 erally carried on by the females, and straw hats, cigar 
 cases, and earthen- wares, are made ; but the chief man- 
 ufacture is that of " Government Manilla" cigars, which 
 occupies 2000 hands at a roj'al factory in Manilla. The 
 wretched colonial policy of Old Spain excluded all for- 
 
PHI 
 
 1526 
 
 PHI 
 
 eign ships and Chinese settlers from these islands, and 
 the trade with the Spanish dominion in America was 
 also confined to that conducted annually by a single 
 ship. But such restrictions -have vanished since the 
 revolution, and the colony is now making commensu- 
 rate progress toward prosperity. In 1842, 149 ships, 
 aggregate burden 46,869 tons, entered, and 162 do., 
 burden 50,226, cleared, at the different ports. Imports 
 amounted in value to £900,080, one-third from England, 
 and more than another third from China, the United 
 States, and British India. Exports amounted in value 
 to £974,160, chiefly sent to England, Spain, the United 
 States, China, and Australia. Manilla (which see) is 
 the principal seat of the trade, and also the seat of the 
 government, it being the residence of the captain gen- 
 eral. In each of th'elarger islands is a lieutenant gov- 
 ernor ; and each of the 30 provinces, governed by an 
 alcalde, is divided into pueblos, or communes. The 
 Roman Catholic religion has been extensively diffused 
 among the Malay population. Public revenue is derived 
 chiefly from duties on exports and imports, the tobac- 
 co monopoly, and a capitation tax, which in 1837 was 
 paid by 1,305,142 adults, of whom 901,924 belonged to 
 the island Luzon. Armed force amounts to about 7000 
 men, one-tenth Spaniards, and the rest Malays. These 
 islands were discovered by Magalhaens in 1521, and 
 settled by the Spaniards in the reign of Philip II., after 
 whom the}^ were named. 
 
 The commercial intercourse generally is under the 
 laws and regulations of the mother country, but, in fact, 
 is in some degree dependent upon the local authority, 
 the power being with the governor to order the depart- 
 ure from the colony of any person who may become ob- 
 noxious to himself or his government. The regulations 
 are fixed for an indefinite time ; amendments are con- 
 stantly proposed, and, for several years past, a total 
 revision of the tariff of duties on foreign produce has 
 been, from time to time, discussed. Any such changes, 
 though they may be proposed and discussed in Manilla, 
 can only be made law by the home government. In 
 fact, the reins are held very tightly in Madrid, and the 
 governor general is constantly made to feel his depend- 
 ence upon the minister in power. Citizens of the Unit- 
 ed States enjoy the privileges of all other foreigners. 
 There is no distinction made in the privileges or re- 
 strictions permitted or imposed on the commerce of 
 foreign nations. The port charges consist of tonnage 
 dues, river-cleaning dues, and light dues. The ton- 
 nage dues are 25 cents per ton register, if the vessel 
 discharges or takes in cargo ; and one-half, or 12i cents 
 per ton, if she departs without having broke bulk 
 or received cargo. A vessel may land specie without 
 being subjected to the full dues. The river dues, for 
 the support of a mud-boat, are : on a vessel discharg- 
 ing and loading any cargo, 6^ cents per ton ; entering 
 in ballast and sailing with cargo, or vice versa, 3J cents 
 per ton ; entering with cargo and sailing with same, 
 3J- cents per ton ; entering and sailing in ballast, no- 
 thing. The light dues are, on all foreign vessels, 6i 
 cents per ton register. Spanish vessels pay one half 
 these rates. The transhipment of goods is strictly pro- 
 hibited. In order to efiect a transhipment, the goods 
 must be entered in deposit, actually brought on shore 
 to the custom-house, and then shipped under fresh doc- 
 uments from deposit. There is but one port, this of 
 Manilla, open to foreign shipping, and foreigners are 
 excluded from all internal and coasting trade. 
 
 The moneys, weights, and measures in common use 
 in Manilla are authorized by the laws of Spain, but 
 can not be said to correspond with those of the mother 
 country, inasmuch as in Spain the weight and meas- 
 ures are not the same throughout the kingdom. The 
 moneys current here are specie only. Of gold, the 
 doubloon of Spain, Mexico, and the republics of South 
 America, of full weight, is current at $16. The small- 
 er coins— halves, quarters, and eighths — at their pro- 
 portionate value. Of silver, the dollar of Spain, Mex- 
 
 ico, and the other South American republics, of full 
 weight, is current at $1 United States currency. The 
 relative smaller coins pass at their relative value. Cop- 
 per coin is of three sizes ; 1 cuarto, 2 cuartos, and 4 
 cuartos ; 160 cuartos are equal to a dollar. Accounts 
 are kept by Spanish merchants in dollars, reals, and 
 cuartos ; 20 cuartos equal 1 real ; 8 reals equal 1 dollar. 
 Foreigners generally keep their accounts in dollars and 
 cents. The value of these coins is about the same in 
 the United States as here ; but not being fixed by the 
 United States laws, there is a fluctuation which can 
 not be reduced to regular limits. 
 
 The weights in common use are piculs, quintals, ar- 
 robas, and pounds. The pound is about li per cent, 
 heavier than that of the United States. 25 pounds 
 equal 1 arroba, or, at the United States standard, about 
 25^ pounds; 4 arrobas=l quintal = 101J lbs.; 5i ar- 
 robas = l picul=140 lbs. The measures are long meas- 
 ure — inches, feet, yards,, fathoms, miles, and leagues. 
 12 inches make 1 foot ; 3 feet make one yard ; 2 j'ards 
 make 1 fathom ; 1111 fathoms and 6 inches make 1 
 mile ; 3 miles make one league. The yard (or vara) in 
 use here is about 33 inches of the United States. Grain 
 is usually sold in the country by the cavan. 4 apa- 
 tanes equal 1 chupo ; 8 chupos equal 1 ganto ; 25 
 gantos equal 1 cavan. These differ, however, in the 
 different provinces. In Manilla, a cavan of rice weigh * 
 127 lbs. ; of coffee, about 62 lbs. ; of wheat, about 150 
 lbs. A tinaja of oil contains 16 gantos ; of wine, 17 
 gantos. 
 
 The rate of insurance to the United States from Ma- 
 nilla is charged 3 to Si per cent. ; but little is done, 
 however, there being but one local insurance office with 
 a trifling capital, the policies issued by which contain 
 so many exceptions as to make them of very little value. 
 The shipments of produce to the United States are cov- 
 ered by insurance made in the United States or in En- 
 gland. Freights A'ary constantly, being governed by 
 the supply of tonnage and quantity of produce waiting 
 shipment. At present, $20 per ton of 40 cubic feet of 
 hemp and other measurement goods, and $12 or $13 
 per ton of 2240 pounds of sugar, are current. These are 
 considered full rates. Commission is charged 2J per 
 cent, on all purchases for the United States. "When a 
 broker is employed he is paid a brokerage commission 
 of 6J^ cents per picul on hemp, 6^ per picul on sugar, 
 3^ cents per picul on rice, and on other articles as may 
 be agreed upon. All articles of produce are bought for 
 cash, and paid for on deUver}^ Oftentimes payment 
 is made in part before delivery, and in the hemp trade 
 the advances made are very large. The rate of ex- 
 change between this and the United States is not quoted, 
 there being no transactions in the regular course of 
 trade. All exchange tranactions per American account 
 (and the greater portion of the exports to the United 
 States is paid for in bills) are made through England, 
 bills being drawn here on London bankers, by virtue 
 of credits granted by the bankers themselves in Lon- 
 don, or by their agents in the United States. The 
 average rate of exchange during the past year has been, 
 for bills on London, drawn at six months' sight, 5s. 
 Oid. per dollar. The par of exchange is about 4s. 2d., 
 the same as in the United States ; the currency in silver 
 being about equivalent that of one country with the 
 other. The dollar current here, being of the Mexican 
 and South American currency, is worth one hundred 
 cents in the United States. • 
 
 Duties on exports are, on hemp, 2 per cent. ; on tor- 
 toise shell, mother-of-pearl shell, and ratans, 1 per 
 cent, (these three articles last named are, in fact, not 
 productions of this island, but brought from the Sooloo 
 Islands, and pay 1 per cent, import duty) ; all other ar- 
 ticles, 3 per cent. On all imports direct from the Unit- 
 ed States, 14 per cent. There are no internal taxes of 
 any kind on produce. The rates of wages in agricul- 
 tural pursuits are very low, generally paid in produce 
 sufficing for the subsistence of the laborer, and difficult 
 
PHI 
 
 1527 
 
 PHI 
 
 to be reduced to a money standard. Artisans obtain 
 50 cents per day, and if expert worltmen as high as $1, 
 or even $1 50 per day. Laborers in and about Manilla, 
 25 cents to STJ cents per day. On board ships in the 
 bay they are paid 62^- cents per day. At these rates 
 labor is much dearer than in the Atlantic cities of the 
 United States — the quantity and quality of the work 
 done by a Manilla workman comparing very unfavora^ 
 bly with that of a man In New York. — See Makilla, 
 Spain. For further information refer to Quarterlt/ Re- 
 view, vii. 235, xvii. 630, xxxv. 323. 
 
 The chief exports from Manilla (the seat of govern- 
 ment, and the chief port of the islands) are hemp, su- 
 gar, sapan-wood, cigars, cordage, indigo, coffee, rice, 
 hides, mother-of-pearl shell, almaciga, grass-cloth, and 
 tortoise-shell. The principal imports are cotton fab- 
 rics, silks, woolens, haberdashery, drugs, clocks, jew- 
 elry, etc. 
 
 Tli'e leading exports to the United StaVes in 1844 were : 
 
 Sugar francs l,080,nOO = $205,200 
 
 Coffee " 149,000= 23,310 
 
 Hemp " 1,444,000=274,360 
 
 Indigo " 384,000= 72,960 
 
 Hides " 108,000= 20,520 
 
 IMPOETS AND EXPORTS OP THB PniLIPPIrfE ISLAHDS IN 
 1844. 
 
 CountrleB 
 
 China ;.. 
 
 England 
 
 Singapore 
 
 United States 
 
 Spain 
 
 Java and Molucca . 
 
 Australia 
 
 East Indies 
 
 France. 
 
 Soulon Isles 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Hanse Towns 
 
 Cape of Good Hope 
 South America .... 
 
 Total francs 
 
 Dols. at 19 c. per fr 
 
 Importe. ) Eiportg, 
 
 PrancB 
 
 8,944,000- 
 
 4,234,000 
 
 4,375,000 
 
 1,122,000 
 
 1,018,000. 
 
 1,119,000 
 
 349,000 
 
 146,000 
 
 290,000 
 
 340,000 
 
 109,000 
 
 32,000 
 
 267,000 
 
 23,000 
 
 22,368,000 
 4,249,920 
 
 Franca, 
 
 6,8S3,000 
 
 2,759,000 
 
 476,000 
 
 8,335,000 
 
 2,970,000 
 
 620,000 
 
 925,000 
 
 98J,000 
 
 461,000 
 
 281,000 
 
 304,000 
 
 330,000 
 
 19,333,000 
 3,673,270 
 
 Total. 
 
 Francs, 
 
 14,827,000 
 
 6,993,000 
 
 4,851,000 
 
 4,457,000 
 
 3,988,000 
 
 1,739,000 
 
 1,274,000 
 
 1,135,000 
 
 751,000 
 
 621,000 
 
 413,000 
 
 362,000 
 
 267,000 
 
 23,000 
 
 41,701,000 
 7,923,190 
 
 Imports. — National commerce, $125,011; foreign 
 commerce, $3,176,325 ; imports for deposit, $718,631. 
 
 Expm-ts. — National commerce, $3,834,069 ; foreign 
 commerce, $338,204; exports from deposit, $436,638. 
 Total imports, $4,019,967 ; total exports, $4,608,911. 
 
 The Manilla picul is estimated at 133^ lbs. 
 
 Quantities op Hemp and Suoae exported peom Manilla to the United States and Eusope, eespectively, feom 
 
 1844 TO 1853. 
 
 HEMP. 1 
 
 
 1844. 1S45, 
 
 1846, 
 
 184T. 
 
 1848, 
 
 1849. 
 
 18S0. 
 
 1861. 
 
 1852. 
 
 1853, 
 
 To the United States. 
 To Europe ; 
 
 89,132 
 5,934 
 
 i;5,288 
 7,202 
 
 92,696 
 16,500 
 
 100,285 
 16,739 
 
 123,010 
 20,643 
 
 113,404 
 39,948 
 
 102,194 
 21,216 
 
 143,133 
 30,806 
 
 220,514 
 27,743 
 
 204 684 
 16,934 
 
 PlculB[133Hbs.each] 
 
 95,066 
 
 102,490 
 
 109,196 
 
 117,024 
 
 143,683 
 
 163,352 
 
 123,410 
 
 173,938 
 
 248,257 
 
 221,618 
 
 SUOAE, 1 
 
 To the United States. 
 To Europe 
 
 90,1116 
 127,420 
 
 72,100 
 103,000 
 
 35,050 
 176,203 
 
 91,4b5 
 111,447 
 
 77,3.J0 
 63,402 
 
 89,122 
 184,839 
 
 78 480 
 211,774 
 
 116,412 
 127,7;8 
 
 li3,140 
 123,'r!i2 
 i6S,'932" 
 
 194 15.6 
 198,922 
 
 Piculs[133i lbs. each] 
 
 217,826 
 
 175,100 
 
 211,268 
 
 2112,832 
 
 145,738 
 
 273,961 
 
 290,254 
 
 244,137 
 
 393,117 
 
 The average price of hemp at Manilla is from $7 
 to $7 06i per picul, though in 1854-55 it ascended as 
 high as $10, owing to the Eastern war. The average 
 ■price of sugar is $3 37^. 
 
 The preceding table shows that the quantity of hemp 
 exported from Manilla to the United States in 1853 
 amounted to 204,584 piouls=27,277,866 pounds; and 
 the quantity of sugar to 194,195 piculs = 25,892,667 
 pounds. The following condensed summary exhibits 
 the total export trade from Manilla to the United States 
 during the same year: Hemp, 204,584 piculs ; sugar, 
 194,195 piculs; indigo, 9050 quintals; sapan-wood, 
 8602 piculs ; coffee, 1724 piculs ; mother-of-pearl shell, 
 712 piculs; hide cuttings, 3291 piculs; ratans, 763 
 piculs ; hides, 4,886 piculs , grass-cloth, 19,598 piculs ; 
 gum almaciga, 2556 piculs ; tortoise-shell, 214 catties ; 
 cigars, 148 thousand. The merchandise above speci- 
 fied was floated in 41 vessels ; of which 21 cleared for 
 New York, 17 for Boston, 2 for Salem, and 1 for Phil- 
 adelphia. The preceding summary exhibits the gen- 
 eral character of the imports into the United States 
 from the Philippine Islands. In the ofiicial reports 
 published at Manilla the trade with San Francisco is 
 given separately from that with the United States. 
 During the year under review (1853), the exports to 
 California consisted of: Sugar, 3976 piculs ; coflise, 7546 
 piculs; rice, 16,876 piculs; cordage, 2285 piculs; ci- 
 gars, 812 thousand; paddy, 2949 cavanas; panocha, 
 1818 baskets ; Indian corn, 8922 lbs. ; garlic, 46 piculs ; 
 lime, 78 cavanas ; hats, 1200. The total exports from 
 Manilla to all countries in 1863 were: Sugar, 566,371 
 •piculs; hemp, 222,689 piculs; sapan-wood, 31,963 pic- 
 uls; rice, 303,902 piculs; cordage, 12,119 piculs; cof- 
 fee, 18,080 piculs ; cigars, 79,311 thousand ; indigo, 9123 
 quintals; mother-of-pearl, 2040 piculs ; hides, 5874 pic- 
 uls ; hide cuttings, 3697 piculs. In cotton goods (the 
 principal import of the Philippine Islands) England 
 and the United States are the chief competitors. 
 
 Formerly, if the master of a vessel touching at these 
 islands desired to ship native sailors, he was obliged to 
 give his bond for their return to Manilla This, it is 
 
 obvious, was but a mere matter of form, and hence 
 but few of the sailors thus taken away ever returned. 
 After the discovery of gold in California, it was found 
 extremely difficult to procure sailors at any of the Ma- 
 layian islands ; and this difficulty was increased by a 
 new regulation at the Philippines, which requires the 
 consignee to sign the captain's bond for the return of , 
 such sailors as should be shipped at Manilla This the 
 consignees are, in most cases, unwilling to do. Hence 
 the trade between the United States and the Philip- 
 pines remains so long stationary. For a number of 
 years the United States has enjoyed about one fifth of 
 the entire trade of the islands. Were this difficulty in 
 regard to the employment of native sailors removed, 
 this one fifth of the trade v/ould in a short time ascend 
 to one half. 
 
 In ship-building at Manilla, the timber used is all the 
 growth of the country. The timbers and knees are of 
 " niolare ;" planking above water is of " mangachapuy," 
 and below of " banaba" in the northern provinces, and 
 "batitinan" in the south; deck beams, molare,' or 
 " dougon ;" keel of dougon, and waterways of the 
 same. All these woods are very excellent, and, if well 
 seasoned before using, are ver}' durable. The molare 
 is a hard, close-grained, strong wood, but is very heavy ; 
 dougon is next in value, and the mangachapuy ranks 
 third. There are many other kinds of wood which are 
 used, according to the caprice of builders. The cost 
 where grown is trifling, but if brought to Manilla the 
 addition of freight makes it expensive. The preserva- 
 tion or seasoning of ship-timber is not attended to here ; 
 and there are no depositories of ship-timber, properly 
 speaking, though it may always be had in sufiicient 
 quantities for repairs to vessels frequenting the isl- 
 ands. 
 
 Port-charges. — Vessels arriving in ballast, and not 
 breaking bulk, pay 12^ cents per ton (register tonnage). 
 If cargo is landed or stripped, 25 cents per ton. Mnd- 
 machihe, 6i cents per ton ; light-house dues, 6^ cents 
 per ton. Spanish vessels pay only one half of the 
 above rates. — United States Commercial Relations. 
 
PHO 
 
 1528 
 
 PIL 
 
 COMMEEnE OP THE L'NITED STATES WITH MANII^LA AKD PHILIPPINE ISLANDB, FBOM OCTOBES 1, 1820, TO JULT 1, 1856. 
 
 Years ending 
 
 Sept. 30,1821 
 
 1822 
 
 1823 
 
 1824, . . . . 
 1825: . . . . 
 
 1826 
 
 182T 
 
 1828 
 
 1829 
 
 1830 
 
 Total, 
 
 Sept. 30,1831 
 
 1832... , 
 
 1833 
 
 1834 
 
 1835 
 
 1836 
 
 1837 
 
 1838 
 
 1839 
 
 1840... 
 Total, 
 
 Sept. 80,1841.... 
 
 1842 
 
 9 mos., 1843». . . 
 June 30, 1844 
 
 1845 
 
 1846 
 
 184T 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 
 
 1850 
 
 Total, 
 
 June 30, 1851 
 
 1852... , 
 
 1853 
 
 1854 
 
 1865.... 
 1856.... 
 
 Exporte. 
 
 $1,353 
 
 6,'449 
 
 8,958 
 
 23,169 
 
 14,133 
 
 19,"914 
 10,802 
 39,129 
 
 $122,913 
 
 $15,994 
 
 20,906 
 
 1,021 
 
 3,662 
 
 38,94T 
 
 T,361 
 
 93,'214 
 98,653 
 90,539 
 
 $3T0,24T 
 
 $T5,450 
 
 235,732 
 
 67,743 
 
 91,769 
 
 119,263 
 
 100,964 
 
 32,480 
 
 36.949 
 
 137,868 
 
 16,817 
 
 $905,026 
 
 $125,544 
 
 211,791 
 
 64,375 
 
 27,852 
 
 94,20.", 
 
 204 6C8 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Total. 
 
 $209,964 
 
 11,799 
 
 41,275 
 
 210,662 
 
 185,554 
 
 6S,20T 
 
 14U838 
 66,430 
 64,539 
 
 $980,168 
 
 $16,830 
 
 113,414 
 
 8,376 
 
 12,257 
 
 60,152 
 
 52,672 
 
 149^303 
 38,255 
 30,927 
 
 $472,186 
 
 $187,336 
 
 100,444 
 
 64,435 
 
 131,288 
 
 35,315 
 
 9,285 
 
 44,760 
 
 13,643 
 
 8,669 
 
 1,460 
 
 $586,466 
 
 $T,000 
 9,927 
 1,000 
 46,653 
 83,708 
 64,639 
 
 $211,323 
 11,799 
 46,724 
 219,630 
 208,723 
 72,340 
 
 16l',752 
 77,232 
 93,668 
 
 $1,103,081 
 
 $32,824 
 
 134,320 
 
 9,397 
 
 16,919 
 
 89,099 
 
 60,033 
 
 242,617 
 136,808 
 121,516 
 
 $842,433 
 
 $262,786 
 
 336,176 
 
 112,178 
 
 222,997 
 
 164,678 
 
 110,239 
 
 77,240 
 
 60,492 
 
 146 637 
 
 18,267 
 
 $1,491,490 
 
 $132,544 
 221,718 
 65 375 
 74 502 
 177,911 
 296,357 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Total 
 
 $114,861 
 
 158',286 
 153,472 
 229,871 
 348,378 
 160,813 
 60,381 
 209,206 
 384,887 
 
 $1,809,651 
 
 $348,995 
 332,230 
 604,498 
 283,685 
 413,815 
 803,330 
 
 1,346,435 
 386,528 
 876,477 
 460,251 
 
 Whorvof there Ivas in 
 Bullion and Specie. 
 
 Export. [ Import. 
 
 $190,000 
 
 136,000 
 122,600 
 80,000 
 
 i6i,'ooo 
 
 20,082 
 
 $5,746,244 
 
 $733,906 
 
 772,372 
 
 409,290 
 
 724,811 
 
 633,059 
 
 866,866 
 
 494,066 
 
 1,197,027 
 
 1,127,114 
 
 1,336,866 
 
 $8,294,367 
 
 $1,254,638 
 1,622,646 
 2,465,C83 
 2,965,282 
 2,867,441 - 
 2,926,870 
 
 $3,000 
 68,000 
 
 48,000 
 16,000 
 
 148,460 
 36,200 
 30,000 
 
 $3,000 
 30,600 
 12,215 
 26,685 
 
 16,248 
 
 $1,220 
 114 
 
 465 
 i,026 
 
 $338,660 
 
 $166,344 
 94,536 
 48,0ri6 
 129,335 
 31,200 
 9,008 
 44,760 
 10,332 
 
 $532,621 
 $2,200 
 
 42,522 
 li3,420 
 127,393 
 
 $2,825 
 
 Tonnage cleared. 
 
 American, 
 63r~ 
 370 
 370 
 604 
 3,067 
 724 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 119 
 
 7,828 
 
 24T 
 
 1,286 
 
 9''4 
 
 222 
 
 1,972 
 
 1,008 
 
 I'.iso 
 
 1,674 
 
 8119 
 
 5,182 
 4,423 
 
 $18,li6 
 
 192 
 523 
 
 109,435 
 
 * Nine months to June 30, and fiscal year begins July 1, 1843. 
 
 2592 
 
 4805 
 6362 
 21103 
 843 
 600 
 3li3 
 
 Fliosphorus, a substance of a light amber color, 
 and seini-transparent ; but, when carefully prepared, 
 nearly colorless and transparent. When kept some 
 time, it becomes opaque externally, and has then a 
 great resemblance to white wax. It may be cut with 
 a knife, or twisted to pieces with the fingers. It is in- 
 soluble in water; its specific gravity is 1'77. When 
 exposed to the atmosphere, it emits a white smoke, and 
 is luminous in the dark. When heated to 148° it takes 
 fire, and burns with a very bright flame. When phos- 
 phorus is inflamed in oxygen, the light and heat are 
 incomparably more intense — the former dazzling the 
 eye, and the latter cracking the glass vessel. — Thom- 
 son's Chemistry. 
 
 Piano - forte. Invented by J. C Schroeder, of 
 Dresden, in 1717. He presented a model of his inven- 
 tion to the court of Saxony; and some time after, G. 
 Silverman, a musical-instrument maker, began to man- 
 ufacture piano-fortes with considerable success The 
 invention has also been ascribed to an instrument- 
 maker of Florence, The square piano-forte was first 
 made by Freiderica, an organ-builder of Saxony, about 
 1768. Piano-fortes were made in London by M. Zum- 
 pie, a German, 1766, and have been since greatly im- 
 proved by others here. They are now extensively 
 manufactured in Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Bal- 
 timore, Albany, Buffalo, Cincinnati, Chicago, and St. 
 Louis, and other cities of the United States.— For " Or- 
 igin of the Piano-forte" see Wesiminster Review, xxxii. 
 306. 
 
 Piastres, or Dollars, Spanish and American sil- 
 ver coins in very extensive circulation. They are 
 used in, Spain, Ita'ly, Turkey, South America, the East 
 Indies, etc., varying in value in every country. — <S«e 
 Coins. 
 
 Pickles are various kinds of vegetables and fruits 
 preserved in vinegar. The substances are first well 
 cleaned with water, then steeped for some time in brine, 
 
 and afterward transferred to bottles, which are filled up 
 with good vinegar. Certain fruits, like walnuts, re- 
 quire to be pickled with scalding-hot vinegar ; others, 
 as red-cabbage, with cold vinegar ; but onions, to pre- 
 serve their whiteness, with distilled vinegar. Wood 
 vinegar is never used by the principal pickle-manufac- 
 turers, but the best malt or white-wine vinegar. No. 
 22 or 24. Kitchener says that, by parboiling the 
 pickles in brine, they will be ready in half the time of 
 what they require when done cold. Cabbage, howev- 
 er, cauliflowers, and such articles, would thereby be- 
 come flabby, and lose that ciispness which many peo- 
 ple relish. When removed from the brine, they should 
 be cooled, drained, and even dried, before being put 
 into the vinegar. To assist the preservation of pick- 
 les, a portion of salt is also added, and likewise, to give 
 flavor, various spice^, such as long pepper, black pep- 
 pei-, white pepper, allspice, ginger, cloves, mace, gar- 
 lic, mustard, horseradish, shallots, capsicum. When 
 tlie spices are bruised they are most efficacious, but 
 they are apt to render the pickle turbid and discolored. 
 The flavoring ingredients of Indian pickle are CuiTy 
 powder mixed with a large proportion of mustard and 
 garlic Green peaches are said to make the best imi- 
 tation of the Indian mango. 
 
 Pilchards, fishes closely resembling the common 
 herring, but smaller, and at the same time thicker and 
 rounder. They are rarely found on the British shores, 
 except on the coasts of Cornwall and Devon, particu- 
 larly the former, where they are taken in great num- 
 bers from the middle of July to the end of November, 
 or even the middle of December. It is a saying of the 
 Cornish fishermen, that the pilchard is the least fish in 
 size, most in number, and greatest for gain, taken from 
 the sea. 
 
 Pilchard Fishery. — This is carried on along the Brit- 
 ish coasts of Cornwall and Devon, from the Bolt Head 
 in the latter, round by the Land's End to Padstow and 
 
PIL 
 
 1529 
 
 PIL 
 
 Bossiney in the former. Its principal seats are St. 
 Ives, Mount's Bay, and Mevagissey. The fish usually 
 make their appearance in vast shoals in the carl}- part 
 of July, and disappear about the middle of October ; 
 but they sometimes reappear in large quantities in No- 
 vember and December. They are taken either by seines 
 or by drift-nets, but pi-incipally, perhaps, by the for- 
 mer. A seine is a net, varying from 200 to 300 fath- 
 oms in length, and from 10 to Hi feet in depth, hav- 
 ing cork buoys on one edge and lead weights on the 
 other. • Three boats are attached to each seine, viz., a 
 boat (seine-ioaf) of about 15 tons burden, for carrying 
 the seine ; another {follower^) of about the same size, to 
 assist in mooring it ; and a smaller boat Qarker) for 
 general purposes. The number of hands employed in 
 these three boats varies from about 13 to 18, but may 
 be taken at an average at about 16. When the shoals 
 of fish come so near the shore that the water is about 
 the depth of the seine, it is employed to encircle them ; 
 the fishermen being directed to the proper place for 
 casting or shooting the nets by persons (huers) station- 
 ed for that purpose on the cliS^ and in the boats. The 
 practice is to row the boat with the seine on board 
 gently round the shoal; and the seine being, at the 
 same time, thrown gradually into the water, assumes, 
 by means of its buoys and weights, a vertical position, its 
 loaded edge being at the bottom, and the other floating 
 on the surface. Its two ends are then fastened togeth- 
 er, and, being brought into a convenient situation, it 
 is moored by small anchors or grapnels; sometimes, 
 however, one or two smaller seines are employed to as- 
 sist in securing the fish. At low water the inclosed 
 fish are taken out by a tuck-net, and carried to the 
 shore. A single seine has been known to inclose at 
 once as many as 4200 hogsheads (1200 tons) of fish! 
 But this was the greatest quantity ever taken, and it is 
 but seldom that as many as 1200 hogsheads are caught 
 at a time. The " take," in fact, depends on so many 
 accidental circumstances, that while one seine may 
 catch and cure in a. season from 1000 to 2000 hogs- 
 heads, others in the neighborhood may not get a sin- 
 gle fish. In some places the tides are so strong as to 
 break the seines and set the fish at liberty. When the 
 quantity inclosed is large, it requires several days to 
 take them out, as they must not be removed in greater 
 numbers than those who salt them can conveniently 
 manage. Drift-nets are usually about half a mile in 
 length, by about 4^ fathoms in depth ; they are shot in 
 the open sea, and entangle the fish in their meshes in 
 the same waj' as the herring-nets. The fish thus taken 
 are said to be superior to those taken by the seine, 
 though it be doubtful, from their being strangled in 
 the nets, whether they are so good for curing. As soon 
 as the fish are brought on shore, they are carried to 
 cellars or warehouses, where they are piled in large 
 heaps, having a sufficient quantity of salt interspersed 
 between the layers. Having remained in this state 
 for about 35 days, they are, after being carefully washed 
 and cleaned, packed in hogsheads, each containing, at 
 an average, about 2600 fish ; they are then subjected 
 to a pressure sufiioient to extract the oil, of which each 
 hogshead yields, provided the fish be caught in sum- 
 mer, about three gallons ; but those that are taken late 
 in the season do not yield above half this quantity. 
 This oil usually sells for from 12 to 15 per cent, un- 
 der the price of brown seal oil. The broken and re- 
 fuse fish and salt are sold to the farmers, and are used 
 is manure with excellent effect. The skimmings which 
 float on the water, in which the pilchards are washed 
 are called dregs, and are chiefly sold as grease for ma- 
 chinery. The fresh fish in a hogshead of pilchards 
 weigh about 6 cwt., and the salt about 3i^ cwt. ; but 
 the weight of the hogshead when cured and pressed is 
 reduced to about 4^ cwt. ; including the weight of the 
 cask, from 20 to 24 lbs. Four-fifths of the persons em- 
 ployed on shorp in the salting, curing, packing, etc., of 
 the" fish are women. — Dr. Paeis's Guide to Mount's Bat/. 
 
 Pilots and Pilotage. The name of pilot or steers- 
 man is applied either to a particular officer, serving on 
 board a ship during the course of a voyage, and having 
 charge of the helm and the ship's route ; or to a person 
 taken on board at any particular place, for the purpose 
 of conducting a ship through a river, road, or channel, 
 or from or into a port. Masters and mates of mer- 
 chant vessels, after having passed an examination be- 
 fore legally constituted authorities, and possessing a 
 certificate to that efi'ect, may pilot their own vessels 
 within the prescribed limits for which they have passed, 
 without being liable to any penalty. In all other cases, 
 when a master is by law subject to a penalty for not 
 taking a pilot, he is bound to do so when he has the 
 opportunity ; and after the pilot is taken on board, the 
 master has no longer any command of the ship, nor is 
 he responsible for the management of her while she 
 continues in the district for which the pilot is author- 
 ized to act. When beyond that district, the master 
 again resumes the government of the vessel, the pilot 
 being then no longer liable, although for his own con- 
 venience he may still remain on board. In such case 
 he is only to be considered as a passenger, and is not 
 entitled to any remuneration for whatever service he 
 may choose to perform on the voyage, beyorfd that for 
 which he was originally engaged ; but should he re- 
 main on board at the request of the master, he is en- 
 titled, besides his pilotage, to a further remuneration 
 per day or per month, according to the rules of the re- 
 spective ports, from the day when he has passed the 
 limits of his license to the day of his return to the port 
 from which he was taken on board. If a master of a 
 vessel in any district within which pilots are appointed 
 to act (usually denominated "Pilots' Water") should, 
 except under the circumstances before stated, refuse 
 the service of a pilot offering to come on board, he 
 immediately renders himself liable to his owners, 
 freighters, or insurers for any damage that may occur 
 to the vessel or cargo, arising from the want of such 
 service. When the law does not compel a master to 
 take a pilot on board, and he nevertheless, of his own 
 discretion, chooses to do so, the pilot is considered to 
 be the servant of the owners, who under such circum- 
 stances would be responsible to strangers for the man- 
 agement of the ship during the time he continued in 
 charge. If the master at a foreign port attempt to ob- 
 tain a pilot and fail, and then, in the exercise of his 
 best discretion, endeavor to enter the port and fail, the 
 insurer is not discharged. If the vessel approach a 
 port in the night, he must make signals for a pilot, and 
 wait a reasonable time for one ; and if he attempt to 
 enter the port without one, except in case of extreme 
 necessity, the insurers are discharged. Pilotage con- 
 stitutes a lien upon the vessel, and may be prosecuted 
 in admiralty. But the pilot must be employed by 
 some person rightfully In possession of the vessel. A 
 pilot can not recover for piloting into an enemy's port. 
 
 Great Britain. — Undermost charter parties, with the 
 exception of those made for vessels in the coal trade in 
 England, the charge for pilotage is paid by the charter- 
 ers. Many ports enjoy separate and distinct jurisdic- 
 tions for the appointment and government of pilots, and 
 the regulations of the rates of pilotage. These jurisdic- 
 tions are exercised by corporations and other bodies, the 
 privileges of which have been granted either by ancient 
 charters or by parliamentary. Among the many cor- 
 porations so established, the most important are those 
 of the Trinity House of Deptford Strand, whose juris- 
 diction is the most extensive; and of the Trinity 
 Houses of Hull and Newcastle. The bodies are au- 
 thorized within their districts to determine the qualifi- 
 cations of pilots, license them, make regulation^ for 
 their government, fix and alter pilotage rates, and ar- 
 range the limits of the pilotage districts, subject, how-- 
 ever, to the special provisions contained in the Mer- 
 chants' Shipping Act of 1854. The regulations of which 
 are given in summary, as follows : 
 
PIL 
 
 1530 
 
 PIL 
 
 It is questionable whether the Trinity House may 
 revoite a pilot's license without hearing him ; but if, 
 after hearing him, it revolie his license, its decision is 
 binding. The application of the Merchants' Shipping 
 Act of 1854 applies only to the United Kingdom. 
 
 Powers of Pilotage A utkoriiies. — Every pilotage au- 
 thority shall retain all powers and jurisdiction which 
 it now possesses, so far, and only so far, as they are 
 consistent with the provision of the general act. Every 
 pilotage authority has the power to exempt ships from 
 being compelled to employ pilots ; also to license pilots ; 
 to make regulations as to pilot-boats; to make regu- 
 lations for the government of pilots ; to alter rates of 
 pilotage ; to limit pilotage districts — all being within 
 their district. 
 
 Power of Appeal to Board, of Trade, — If the greater 
 number of qualified pilots belonging to any port, or the 
 local marine board, or any number of owners of ships, 
 masters or insurers, consider themselves aggrieved by 
 any regulations enforced by the pilotage authority, they 
 may appeal to the Board of Trade ; and the consequent 
 decision shall be deemed conclusive. 
 
 Spam. — No one can be a pilot or officer of a merchant 
 ship without having obtained a license. In case of 
 decease, absence, or illness of the captain, the pilot 
 takes his place, and incurs all his responsibilitj'. The 
 pilot .can not change the course, unless the captain 
 agrees to it. In case of difference of opinion, the pilot 
 shall explain his reasons to the other officers ; and if 
 the captain persists in his orders, the pilot shall enter 
 his protest in the navigation book. 
 
 Mussia. — The pilot should look after the vessel, the 
 embarkation and debarkation of merchandise, keep a 
 registry of all that passes on board and of the observa- 
 tions. He owes obedience only to the captain, and 
 should never quit the vessel when the captain is absent 
 unless forced to do so. 
 
 Portugal. — The pilot who from ignorance, negligence, 
 or design, loses, or exposes a vessel to damage, is bound 
 to repair her, and is liable to be revoked and pursued 
 by criminal process. 
 
 United States. — An act of Congress authorizes all 
 States to make their own pilotage laws, and questions 
 under these laws are cognizable in the State courts. 
 No one can act as pilot, and claim the compensation 
 allowed by law for the service, unless duly appointed. 
 And he should always have with him his commission, 
 which usually designates the largest vessel he maj' pi- 
 lot, or that which draws the most water. If a pilot 
 offers himself to a ship that has no pilot, and is enter- 
 ing or leaving a harbor, and has not reached certain 
 geographical limits, the ship must pay him pilotage 
 fees, whether his services are accepted or not. As soon 
 as the pilot stands on deck he has command of the 
 ship. But it remains the master's duty and power, in 
 case of obvious and certain disability, or dangerous ig- 
 norance or error, to disobey the pilot, and dispossess 
 him of his authority. If a ship neglect to take a pilot 
 when it should and can do so, the owners will be an- 
 swerable in damages to shippers and others for any 
 loss which may be caused by such neglect or refusal. 
 Pilots are answerable for any damage resulting from 
 their own negligence or default, and have been held 
 strictly to this liability. The owner is also liable on 
 general principles for the default of the pilot, who is 
 his servant. 
 
 The laws passed by the United States concerning 
 pilots are comprehended in the following: August 7, 
 1789 — " That all pilots in the bays, inlets, rivers, har- 
 bors, and ports of the United States shall continue to 
 be regulated in conformity with the existing laws of 
 the States respectively wherein such pilots may be, or 
 with such laws as the States may respectively here- 
 after enact for the purpose, until further provision shall 
 be made by Congress." March 2, 1837—" That it shall 
 be lawful for the master or commander of any vessel 
 coming into or going out of any port situated upon 
 
 waters which are the boundary between two States, (o 
 employ any pilot duly licensed or authorized by the 
 laws of either of the States bounded on the said wa- 
 ters, to pilot said vessels to or from said port ; any law, 
 usage, or custom to the contrary notwithstanding." 
 
 Maine.- — Pilots are appointed bj' the Governor and 
 Council upon the recommendation of a majority of the 
 ship-owners and masters in the port for which they are 
 appointed. Bonds are required to the amount of $5000 
 for the faithful discharge of the duties, and the pilots 
 are liable for damages from neglect or unskillfulness. 
 Any master may pilot his own vessel. 
 
 New Hampshire. — The appointment of pilots is the 
 same as in Maine. Pilots must fake charge of vessels 
 drawing over nine feet, except coasting vessels. Bonds 
 for $1000 are required for a faithful performance of 
 duties. Masters may pilot their vessels when outward 
 bound, and pay no pilotage. But vessels inward bound 
 must pay half pilotage if they refuse a pilot, unless the 
 vessel be within the light-house before a pilot offers, in 
 which case no pilotage is due unless a pilot is employ- 
 ed. The Governor and Council regulate the fees for 
 pilotage, and suspend or remove pilots for misconduct. 
 
 Massachusetts. — The Governor appoints pilots, ex- 
 cept for the ports of Boston, where two commissioners, 
 and New Bedford, where five commissioners, have the 
 appointing power. The pilots give bonds for $2000 
 for the faithful performance of their duties. All ves- 
 sels, except fishing-vessels and coasting vessels of less 
 than two hundred tons, and vessels trading within the 
 State limits, -are bound to employ pilots or pay full pi- 
 lotage, unless no pilots offer before vessels have arrived 
 within the following limits : viz., within the chops of 
 the harbors of Salem, Marblehcad, or Gloucester; with- 
 in the garnet of Plymouth harbor, or within the bar of 
 any barrel harbor, or within the entrance of Boston 
 harbor, being a line drawn from Harding Rocks to the 
 Outer Graves, and thence to Nahant Head. In such 
 case the master ma}' refuse pilot. 
 
 New i'ork. — In this State, Sandy Hook pilots are 
 appointed and regulated by the Pilot Commissioner's, 
 who are chosen by the Underwriters and Chamber of 
 Commerce. Hell Gate pilots are appointed by the 
 Governor, and subject to the regulations of the Port 
 ^yardens. 
 
 The rates of pilotage in and out of New York are as 
 follows : For vessels drawing 
 
 14 feet or less. . . Inward, $2 44 . . Outward, $t 81 per foot. 
 )4to18feet.... " 300 .. " 2 12}- " 
 
 15 to 21 feet.... " 3 69 .. " 2 T6 
 
 21 feet or^ore . " 431}^.. " BlBi " 
 
 New Jersey. — Sandy Hook pilots for the ports of 
 Jersey City, Newark, and Perth Amboy are appointed 
 by commissioners. The regulations do not differ ma- 
 terially from those enacted in regard to the New York 
 pilots. 
 
 Pennsylvania. — Pilots for Philadelphia are appoint- 
 ed by a Board of Wardens. There are three classes 
 of pilots : the first for vessels of any description ; the 
 second for vessels drawing less than twelve feet; the 
 third for vessels drawing less than nine feet. Unli- 
 censed pilots are subject to fine and imprisonment. 
 New Jersey and Delaware pilots have power to act 
 without a. special license. The first qualified pilot 
 that offers is entitled to take charge of the vessel. A 
 second or third grade pilot may act unless a superior 
 pilot offers before the vessel passes Reedy Island. 
 Coasting vessels pay no half pilotage. 
 
 Delaware. — Ve.=;sels of 75 tons and upward, unless 
 owned in Delaware, must take a pilot or pay half pi- 
 lotage. 
 
 Maryland. — Pilots for the Chesapeake Bay are ap- 
 pointed by a Pilot Board. Pilots are divided into the 
 same classes as in Pennsylvania. Pilots must take 
 the nearest vessel to shore, or in the most distress. 
 Foreign vessels must take a pilot, if one ofifers, or pay 
 full pilotage. 
 
PIM 
 
 1531 
 
 PIN 
 
 Virginia. — Pilots are appointed by a Board. Pilots 
 are divided into three classes', as in Pennsylvania. Ves- 
 sels other than coasters must take a pilot or pay full 
 pilotage. 
 
 Nortk Carolina. — Pilots are appointed by commis- 
 sioners for each port. Vessels pay full pilotage when 
 refusing a pilot. 
 
 South Cor-oKna.— Pilots are appointed by commis- 
 sioners. Pilots who bring vessels into port are enti- 
 tled to carry them out. Vessels pay full pilotage to 
 the first pilot offering, whether his services are accept- 
 ed or not. 
 
 Alabama. — Pilots are licensed by the harbor-master 
 and port wardens. Vessels pay half pilotage, if pilot 
 is not accepted, 
 
 Louisiana. — The harbor-master and port warden of 
 New Orleans appoint pilots. There are no river pilots. 
 Vessels pay half pilotage to the pilot if his services are 
 not accepted. If the Balize, or regular pilots, carry 
 the vessel to New Orleans, the compensation is a mat- 
 ter of agreement. / 
 
 Florida. — Pilots are appointed by Pilot Commis- 
 sioners. Vessels pay half pilotage, refusing a pilot, if 
 outward bound, and full pilotage when inward bound. 
 — See Kent's Commentaries, vol. iii. ; Parsons's Mer- 
 cantile Law; Mercantile and Maritime Guide; Blunt's 
 Shipmaster's Assistant, 
 
 Pimento, Allspice, or Jamaica Pepper (Fr. 
 Poivre de Jamaique ; Gc&r. Nelhenpfejfer ; It. Pimenti), 
 the fruit of the Mt/rtus pimenta, a beautiful tree whicli 
 grows in great plenty on the hills on the north side of 
 Jamaica. The berries are spherical, and, when ripe, 
 of ji black or dark purple color. But, as the pulp is in 
 this state moist and glutinous, the berries are plucked 
 when green ; and being exposed in the sun to dry, they 
 lose their green color, and become of a reddish brown. 
 They are packed in bags and hogsheads for the Euro- 
 pean market. The more fragiant and smaller they 
 are, the better are they accounted. They have an ar- 
 omatic, agreeable odor, resembling that of a mixture 
 of cinnamon, cloves, and nutmegs, with the warm, pun- 
 gent taste of the clove. Pimento is used in medicine, 
 but its principal use is in tlie seasoning of soups and 
 otlierdishes. "The returns," says Mr, Bryan EdWards, 
 "from a pimento walk in a favorable season are pro- 
 digious. A single tree has been known to yield 150 
 pounds of the raw fruit, or 100 pounds of the dried 
 spice, there being commonly a loss in weight of one- 
 third in curing ; but this, like many other of the minor 
 productions, is exceedingly uncertain, and perhaps a 
 very plenteous crop occurs but once in five years. The 
 price in the market, as may be supposed, fluctuates ac- 
 cordingly ; but its average for Some years past may be 
 set down at 14 cents per pound," — Vol. ii. p. 372, ed. 
 1819. 
 
 Imports of Pimento into the United States for tue 
 Year ending June 30tii, 1856, . 
 
 whence imported. 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 British N, A, PosseBGions 
 Jiritish West Indies , , , 
 Spain on the Mediter'n 
 
 Cubn 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Totals 
 
 Pounds, 
 
 91,519 
 
 16,714 
 
 4,716,309 
 
 375 
 15,741 
 63,311 
 
 979 
 
 4,906,028 
 
 Vntao, 
 
 1,225 
 337,e47 
 
 36 
 l,ni7 
 3,781 
 
 64 
 
 $352,022 
 
 Fin, in Commerce, a little necessary instrument, 
 made of brass wire, chiefly used by women in adjust- 
 ing their dress. When the wire is received in the man- 
 ufactory, it is wound off from one wheel to another, 
 and passed through a circle of a smaller diameter in a 
 piece of iron. Being thus reduced to its proper size, 
 it is straightened by drawing it between iron pins fix- 
 ed in a board in a zigzag manner. It is afterward cut 
 into lengths of about four yards, and then into smaller 
 pieces, every length being sufficient for six pins. Each 
 end of these is ground to a point by boys, each of 
 whom sits with two small grindstones before him. 
 
 turned by a wheel. Taking up a handful, he applies 
 the wires to the coarsest of the two stones, moving 
 them round, that the points may not become flat. He 
 then gives them a smoother and a sharper point on the 
 other stone, A lad of twelve years of age can point 
 16,000 in an hour. When the wire is pointed a pin is 
 taken off from each end, till it is cut into six pieces. 
 The head is made solid by the present process ; but by 
 the old method it is a separate piece, and is made as 
 follows : One piece of wire is with rapidity drawn 
 round another, and the interior one being drawn out, 
 leaves a hollow tube between the circumvolutions. It 
 is then cut by shears, every two turns of the wire form- 
 ing one head. These are softened by throwing them 
 into iron pans, and placing them in a furnace till they 
 are red hot. As soon as they are cold they are distrilj- 
 uted to children, who sit with anvils and hammers be- 
 fore them. These they work with their feet, by means 
 of a lathe. Tliey take up one of the lengths, and 
 thrust the blunt end into a quantity of heads which 
 lie before them ; then catcliing one at the extremity, 
 they apply it immediately to the anvil and hammer, 
 and by a motion or two of the foot the point and head 
 are fixed together, in much less time than can be de- 
 scribed, and with a dexterity that can only be acquired 
 by practice. The pins are thrown info a copper, con- 
 taining a solution of tin and wine lees. Here they re- 
 main for some time, and when taken^ out their brass 
 color has become changed to a dull white. In order 
 to give them a polish, they are now put into a tub con- 
 taining a quantity of bran, which is set in motion by 
 turning a shaft that runs through its centre ; and thus, 
 by means of friction, the pins become entirely briglit. 
 They are now separated from the bran, which is per. 
 formed by a mode exactly similar to the winnowing 
 of corn ; the bran flying off, and leaving the pin behind 
 it fit for sale. — E. A. 
 
 The manufacture of pins was commenced in the 
 United States between 1812 and 1820. Among the 
 first established were these at Bellevue and Greenwich, 
 New York. Mr. Lemuel William Wright, of Massa- 
 chusetts, obtained patents in the United States and in 
 England, and commenced the manufacture at Lam- 
 beth, London. John J. Howe obtained patents in 
 18S2-1834, in the United States and in England, and 
 established the Howe Manufacturing Company in New 
 York, which was afterward removed to Birmingham, 
 Connecticut. Mr. Samuel Slocum obtained another 
 patent, and in 1838 established a manufactory of pins 
 at Poughkeepsie, New York. The "American Pin 
 Company" has been established for some years at Wa- 
 terbury, Connecticut, and is the leading manufactory 
 of the kind in the United States. The improvements 
 produced in the Unitcid States have been for several 
 years adopted in England and other parts of Europe. 
 — See American Journal of Science, xxxviii. 209 ; 
 Hunt's Merchants' Magazine, xxv, 641 ; Economy of 
 Manufactures, by Babbage, 
 
 Value op Imports op Pins into the United States for 
 tue Year ending June 3Cth, 1S56, 
 
 Whence imported, ""'S' '° '"'"=.'" 
 
 ^ and otliorwiso. 
 
 Hamburg $204 
 
 Bremen 327 
 
 Belgium 2,446 
 
 Etiglftnd '.'. 33,243 
 
 Scotland 35 
 
 France on the Atlantic , 3.995 
 
 Total value $40,255 
 
 Pinchbeck (Ger, Tomback; Dn, Tombah;Yv. Tarn- 
 hac, Similor; It. Tomhaceo; Sp. Tambac, Tumbaga), a 
 name given to one of the many imitations of gold. 
 By melting zinc in various proportions with copper or 
 brass, some allo3's result, the colors of which approach 
 more or less to that of gold. This composition is fre- 
 quently emplo^'ed as a substitute for gold, in the form- 
 ation of watch-cases, and various othet articles of a 
 like description. Pinchbeck is sometimes called Tarn- 
 baOj and sometimes Similor, and Peiit-or. 
 
PIN 
 
 1532 
 
 PIN 
 
 Pine, or Fir, a species of forest tree, next, if not 
 superior, to the oak, in point of utility and value. 
 There are above twenty species of pine. They do not 
 bear flat leaves, but a species of spines, ■which, how- 
 ever, are real leaves. They are mostly, though not all, 
 evergreens j but the appearance of the tree, as well as 
 the quality of the timber, varies with the species, and 
 also with the situation in which it grows. Generally 
 speaking, the timber is hardest and best in exposed 
 cold situations, and where its growth is slow. 
 
 Scotch pine (Pinus sylvestris) is a native of the Scotch 
 mountains, and of most northern parts of Europe ; be- 
 ing common in Russia, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, 
 and Lapland. It is straight, abruptly branched, ris- 
 ing in favorable situations to the height of eighty or 
 ninety feet, and being from three to four feet in diam- 
 eter. It is at perfection when seventy or eighty years 
 old. The color of the wood differs considerably ; it is 
 generally of a reddish yellow, or of a honey yellow, of 
 various degrees of brightness. It has no larger trans- 
 verse septa, and it has a strong reshious odor and taste. 
 In the best timber the annual rings are thin, not ex- 
 ceeding -fLth of an inch in thickness ; the dark parts 
 of the rings of a bright reddish color ; the wood hard 
 and dry to the feel, neither leaving a woolly surface 
 after the saw, nor filling its teeth with resin. The best 
 Norway is the finest of this kind, and the best Riga 
 and Memel are not much inferior. The inferior sorts 
 have thick annual rings ; in some the dark parts of the 
 ring are of a honey yellow, the wood heavy, and filled 
 with a soft resinous matter, feels clammy, and chokes 
 the saw. Timber of this kind is not durable, nor fit 
 for bearing strains. In some inferior. species the wood 
 is spongy, contains less resinous matter, and presents 
 a woolly surface after the saw. Swedish timber is oft- 
 en of this kind. Scotch fir is the most durable of the 
 pine species. It was the opinion of the celebrated Mr. 
 Brindley, "that red Riga deal, or pine wood, would 
 endure as long as oak in all situations." Its lightness 
 and stiffness render it superior to any other material 
 for beams, girders, joists, rafters, etc. It is much used 
 in joiners' work, as it is more easily wrought, stands 
 better, is much cheaper, and is nearly, if not quite, as 
 durable as oak. Scotch fir is exported from Norway 
 and Sweden, under the name of red~wood. Norwa}' ex- 
 ports no trees above eighteen inches diameter, conse- 
 quently there is much sap-wood ; but the heart-"\vood 
 is both stronger and more durable than that of larger 
 trees from other situations. Riga exports a consider- 
 able quantity under the name of masts and spars : 
 pieces from eighteen to twenty-five inches diameter are 
 called maets, and are usually seventy or eighty feet in 
 length ; those of less than eighteen inches diameter are 
 called /pars. Yellow deals and planks are imported from 
 various parts of Norway, Sweden, Prussia, Russia, etc. 
 Tar, pitch, and turpentine are obtained from the Scotch 
 fir. — See these titles. 'When the tree has attained to a 
 proper age it is not injured by the extraction of these 
 products. 
 
 Spruce Pine. — Of this there are three species — the 
 Norway spi-uce, or Pinus abies ; white spruce, or Pinus 
 alba ; and black spruce, or Pinus nigra. These are no- 
 ble trees, rising in straight stems from 150 to 200 feet 
 in height. They yield the timber known by the name 
 of -white fr, or deal, from its always being imported in 
 deals or planks. Deals imported from Christiana are 
 in the highest estimation. — &e Chkistiana. The 
 trees are usually cut into three lengths, generally of 
 about twelve feet each, and are afterward cut into 
 deals by saw-mills, each length yielding three deals. 
 The Norway spruce thrives very well in Britain, and 
 produces timber little inferior to the foreign ; it is 
 somewhat softer, and the knots are extremely hard. 
 The white spruce, or Pinus alba, is brought from Brit- 
 ish North America. The wood is not so resinous as 
 the Norway spruce ; it is tougher, lighter, and more li- 
 able to twist in drying. Tho black spruce, or Pinus 
 
 nigra, is also an American tree ; but it is not much im- 
 ported into England. The black and white spruce de- 
 rive their names from the color of the bark, the wood 
 of both being of the same color. The color of spruce 
 fir, or white deal, is yellowish or brownish white ; the 
 hard part of the annual ring a darker shade of the same 
 color. It often has a, silky lustre, especially in the 
 American and British grown kinds. Each annual ring 
 consists of two parts ; the one hard, the other softer. 
 The knots are generally very hard. The clear and 
 straight-grained kinds are often tough, but not very 
 difficult to work, and stand extremely well when prop- 
 erly seasoned. White deal, as imported, shrinks about 
 TjJjyth part in becoming quite drj'. 
 
 Weymouth Pine, or White Pine {Pinus strolus), is a 
 native of North America. It is one of the largest and 
 most useful of the American trees, and makes excellent 
 masts; but it is not durable, nor fit for large timbers, 
 being very subject to dry-rot. It has a peculiar odor. 
 
 The commercial value of pine is greater than that 
 of any other wood, and it forms a large proportion of 
 the lumber trade. The Northeastern States are sup- 
 plied principally by Maine. The Middle States obtain 
 their supplies from Michigan, New York, and Western 
 Pennfiylvania ; the Northwestern States from Western 
 Pennsylvania, Virginia, and Wisconsin. — See Lhmbee 
 Trade. 
 
 Larch {Pinus larix). There are three species of this 
 valuable tree — one European, and two American. The 
 variety from the Italian Alps is the most esteemed, and 
 has lately been extensively introduced into plantations 
 in Great Britain. It is a straight and lofty tree, of 
 rapid growth. A tree seventy-nine years of age was 
 cut down at Blair Athol in 1817, which contained 252 
 cubic feet of timber ; and one of eighty years of age, at 
 Dunkeld, measured 300 cubic feet. The mean size of 
 the trunk of the larch may be taken at 45 feet in length, 
 and 33 inches diameter. The wood of the European 
 larch is generally of a honey yellow color, the hard 
 part of the annual rings of a redder cast ; sometimes it 
 is brownish white. In common with the other species 
 of pine, each annual ring consists of a hard and a soft 
 part. It generally has a silky lustre; its color is 
 browner than that of the Scotch pine, and it is much 
 tougher. It is more difficult to work than Riga or 
 Memel timber, but the surface is better when once it is 
 obtained. It bears driving bolts and nails better than 
 any other species of resinous wood. When perfectly 
 dry it stands well, but it warps much in seasoning. It 
 is in all situations extremely durable. It is useful for 
 every purpose of building, whether external or intern- 
 al: it makes excellent ship timber, masts, boats, posts, 
 rails, and furniture. It is peculiarly adapted for floor- 
 ing boards, in situations where there is much wear, and 
 for stair-cases ; in the latter, its fine color, when rubbed 
 with oil, is much preferable to that of the black oaken 
 stair-cases to be seen in some old mansions. It is well 
 adapted for doors, shutters, and the like ; and, from the 
 beautiful color of its wood when varnished, painting is 
 not necessary. — (We have abstracted these particulars 
 from Mr. Tr.KDGOLD's excellent work. The Principles 
 of Carpentry, p. 209-217.) 
 
 Pine-apple, or Ananas, though a tropical fruit, 
 is now extensively cultivated in hot-houses and gardens, 
 and is well known to every one. When of a good sort 
 and healthy, it is the most luscious, and perhaps the 
 best fruit that is produced ; and, when carefully culti- 
 vated, is superior, in point of quality, to that produced 
 in the West Indies. 
 
 Pink, a vessel masted and rigged like other ships, 
 only that this is built with a round stern, the bends 
 and ribs compassing so that her ribs bulge out very 
 much. This renders the pinks difficult to be boarded, 
 and also enables them to carry great burdens, for which 
 purpose they are often used. 
 
 Pinnace, a small vessel used at sea, with a square 
 stern, having sails and oars, and carrying three masts, 
 
PIN 
 
 1533 
 
 PIR 
 
 chiefly employed to obtain intelligence, and to land 
 men, etc. One of the boats of a man-of-war, used to 
 carry the officers to and from the shore, is also called 
 the pinnace. 
 
 Pint, a measure used chiefly in the measuring of 
 liquids. The word is High Dutch, and signities a lit- 
 tle measure of wine. The English pint used to be of 
 two sorts : the one for wine, the other for beer and ale. 
 Two pints make a quart ; two quarts a pottle ; two pot- 
 tles a gallon, etc. The pint, imperial liquid measure, 
 contains 34 '659 cubic inches. 
 
 Pipe, a wine measure, usually containing 105 (very 
 nearly) imperial, or 126 wine gallons. Two pipes, or 
 210 imperial gallons, make a tun. But, in practice, 
 the size of the pipe varies according to the description 
 of wine it contains. Thus a pipe of port contains 138 
 wine gallons ; of sherry, 130 ; of Lisbon and Bucellas, 
 140 ; of Madeira, 110 ; and of Vidonia, 120. The pipe of 
 port, it is to be observed, is seldom accurately 138 gal- 
 lons, and it is usual to charge what the vessel actually 
 contains. 
 
 Pipe-olay, a species of clay abounding in Devon- 
 shire, and other parts of England, employed in the 
 manufacture of various sorts of earthen-ware, and in 
 bleaching. 
 
 Pipes, Amber (in Turkey). Prussia is almost 
 the only country by which amber is furnished for or- 
 namental purposes. M. Von Roy, an amber merchant, 
 of Dantzig, is said to have been twenty-five years col- 
 lecting the splendid specimens which he now possesses. 
 The most extensive use of this elegant material is for 
 the manufacture of the mouth-pieces of meerschaum 
 pipes and hookahs. Up to the present day amber 
 mouth-pieces continue in great request in the East, 
 where they fetch very high prices ; and almost all the 
 Prussian amber is sold to the Turks for manufacturing. 
 There were in the Turkish department of the Exhibi- 
 tion four amber mouth-pieces for pipes, which were col- 
 lectively worth XIOOO. It may serve in some measure 
 to explain the peculiar favor which amber is held in 
 by the Turks, that there is a current belief that amber 
 is incapable of transmitting infection ; it is deemed a 
 mark of politeness to hand an amber pipe to a stranger. 
 
 Meerschaums. — The clay of which these are made is 
 procured chiefly in Asia Minor, but also in Spain, 
 Greece, and Moravia. The manufacture of pipes from 
 the clay is carried on with especial care at Vienna and 
 Pesth. The meerschaum is soaked in a liquefied com- 
 position of wax, oil, and fat, the absorption of which 
 occasions the colors assumed b}' the pipe after smok- 
 ing. Occasionally the bowls are artificially stained 
 by dipping them in a solution of copperas and other 
 substances before'tlie application of the wax composi- 
 tion. The carving of the bowls is often difficult work, 
 owing to the occurrence of a kind of clay mixed up with 
 and harder than the meerschaum. The large quantity 
 of parings left in roughing out the bowls would entail 
 considerable loss, unless some process had been devised 
 for using them. This has been done ; the parings are 
 employed in making the kind of meerschaum bowls 
 called massa-bowls. The parings are ground to a fine 
 powder, boiled in water, and moulded into blocks, with 
 or without the addition of clay. The blocks are allow- 
 ed to dry, and then a pipe-bowl is fashioned from each. 
 These bowls are distinguished from the real meer- 
 schaum chiefly by being rather heavier. Meerschaum 
 ■ bowls have been produced so large and so elaborately 
 carved as to be valued at five hundred dollars each. 
 
 Piracy consists in committing those acts of robbery 
 and violence upon the seas that, if committed upon land, 
 would amount to a felony. Pirates hold no commission 
 or delegated authority from any sovereign or state, em- 
 powering them to attack others. They can, therefore, 
 be only regarded in the light of robbers or assassins. 
 Thej' are, as Cicero has truly stated, the common ene- 
 mies of all (communes hostes omnium') ; and the law of na- 
 tions gives to every one the right to pursue and exterm- 
 
 inate them without any previous declaration of war; 
 but it is not allowed to kill them without trial, except 
 in battle. Those who surrender, or are taken prison- 
 ers, must be brought before the proper magistrates, and 
 dealt with according to law. By the aneient common 
 law of England, piracy, if committed by a subject, was 
 held to be a species of treason, being contrary to his 
 natural allegiance ; and, by an alien, to be felony only ; 
 but since the statute of treasons (25 Edw. III. c. 2) it 
 is held to be only felony in a subject. Formerlj' this 
 offense was only cognizable by the admiralty courts, 
 which proceed by the rules of the civil law; but it be- 
 ing inconsistent with the liberties of the nation that 
 any man's life should be taken away unless by the judg- 
 ment of his peers, the statute 28 Hen. VIII. c. 15, es- 
 tablished a new jurisdiction for this purpose, which pro- 
 ceeds according to the course of common law. It was 
 formerly a question whether the Algerines, and other 
 African states, should be considered pirates ; but, how- 
 ever exceptionable their conduct might have been on 
 many occasions, and however hostile their policy might 
 be to the interests of humanity, still, as they had been 
 subjected to what may be called regular governments, 
 and had been admitted to enter into treaties with other 
 powers, they could not be treated as pirates. Pirates 
 having no right to make conquests, or to seize upon 
 what belongs to others, capture by them does not di- 
 vest the owner of his property. At an early period of 
 English history a law was made for the restitution of 
 property taken by pirates, if found within the realm, 
 whether belonging to strangers or Englishmen; but 
 any foreigner suing upon this statute must prove that 
 at the time of the capture his own sovereign and the 
 sovereign of the captor were in mutual amity ; for it is 
 held that piracy can not be committed by the subjects 
 of states at war with each other. Piracy was almost 
 universally practiced in the Heroic Ages. Instead of 
 being esteemed infamous, it was supposed to be honor- 
 able. — Latrocinium maris fflori(E hahthaiur. — Justini A>', 
 lib. xliii. Menelaus, in the Odyssey, does not hesi- 
 tate to inform his guests, who admired his riches, that 
 they were the fruit of his piratical expeditions (lib. 
 iv. ver. 90) ; and such, indeed, was the way in which 
 most of the Greek princes amassed great wealth. — Go- 
 GUET, Oingin of Laws. The prevalence of this piratic- 
 al spirit in these early ages may, perhaps, be explain- 
 ed by the infinite number of small, independent states 
 into which the country was divided, and the violent 
 animosity constantly subsisting among them. In this 
 way ferocious and predatory habits were universally 
 diffused and kept alive ; and it is not to be supposed 
 that those who were at all times liable to be attacked 
 by hosts of enemies should very accurately examine 
 the grounds upon which they attacked others. Ac- 
 cording, however, as a more improved system of gov- 
 ernment grew up, Greece, and a few states, as Athens, 
 Corinth, etc., had attained to distinction by their na- 
 val power, piracy was made a capital offense ; but 
 though repressed, it was never entirely put down. Ci- 
 licia was at all times the great strong-hold of the pirates 
 of antiquity ; and in consequence of the decline of the 
 maritime forces of Athens, Rhodes, etc., which had kept 
 them in check, they increased so much in numbers and 
 audacity as to insult the majesty of Rome herself; so 
 that it became necessary to send Pompey against them, 
 with a large fleet and army, and more extensive pow- 
 ers than had been ever previously conferred on any 
 Roman general. 
 
 During the anarchy of the Middle Ages, when every 
 baron considered himself a sort of independent prince, 
 entitled to make war on others, piracy was universally 
 practiced. The famous Hanseatic League was formed 
 chiefly for the purpose of protecting the ships of the 
 confederated cities from the attacks of the pirates by 
 which the Baltic was then infested. The nuisance was 
 not finally abated in Europe till the feudal system had 
 been subverted, and the ascendency of the law every 
 
PIR 
 
 1534 
 
 PIS 
 
 where secured. In more modern times, some of the 
 smaller West India islands have been the great resort 
 of pirates ; latterly, however, they have been driven 
 from most of their haunts in that quarter. They are 
 still not unfrequently met with in the Indian seas east 
 of Sumatra. — M'Cui-loch's Com. Diet. 
 
 Piracy is robbery, or a forcible depredation on the 
 high seas, without lawful authority, and done aninw 
 furandi^ and in the spirit and intention of universal 
 hostility. It is the same offense at sea with robbery 
 on land ; and all the writers on the law of nations, and 
 on the maritime law of Europe, agree in this definition 
 of piracy. Pirates have been regarded by all civilized 
 nations as the enemies of the human race, and the most 
 atrocious violators of the universal law of society. They 
 are every where pursued and punished with death ; and 
 the severity with which the law has animadverted upon 
 this crime arises from its enormity and danger, the cru- 
 elty that accompanies it, the necessity of checking it, 
 the difficulty of detection, and the facility with which 
 robberies may be'committed upon pacific traders in the 
 solitudes of the ocean. Every nation has a right to 
 attack and exterminate them without any declaration 
 of war ; for though pirates may form a loose and tem- 
 porary' association among themselves, and re-establish 
 in some degree those laws of justice which they have 
 violated with the rest of the world, yet they are not 
 considered as a national body, or entitled to the laws of 
 war, as one of the community of nations. They acquire 
 no rights by conquest; and the law of nations, and the 
 municipal law of every country, authorize the true 
 owner to reclaim his property' taken by pirates, where- 
 ever it can be found, and they do not recognize any 
 title to be derived from an act of piracy. The princi- 
 ple that a pirails ei latronibus capta dominium non mu- 
 tant, is the received opinion of ancient civilians and 
 modern writers on general jurisprudence, and the same 
 doctrine was maintained in the English courts of com- 
 mon law prior to the great modern improvements made 
 in the science of the law of nations. 
 
 By the Constitution of the United States, Congress 
 is authorized to define and punish piracies and felonies 
 committed on the high seas, and offenses against the 
 law of nations. In pursuance of the authority it was 
 declared, by the act of Congress of April 30, 1790, c. 
 9, sec. 8, that murder or robbery committed on the high 
 seas, or in any river, harbor, or bay, out of the juris- 
 diction of any particular state, or any other oftense, 
 which, if committed within the body of a county, would, 
 by the laws of the United States, be punishable with 
 death, should be adjudged to be piracy or felony, and 
 punishable with death. It was further declared, that 
 if any captain or mariner should piratically or feloni- 
 ously run away with any vessel, or any goods or mer- 
 chandise to the value of fifty dollars, or should yield 
 up any such vessel voluntarily to pirates ; or if any 
 seaman should forcibly endeavor to hinder his com- 
 mander from defending the ship or goods committed to 
 his trust, or should make a revolt in the ship, every 
 such offender should be adjudged a pirate and felon, 
 and be punishable with death And by the act of 
 March 3, 1819, c 76, sec. 5, Congress declared, that if 
 any such person on the high seas should commit the 
 crime of piracy as defined by the law of nations, he should, 
 on conviction, suffer death. This act was but temporary 
 in its limitation, and has expired ; but it was again 
 declared, and essentially to the same effect, by the act 
 of Congress, 15th of May, 1820, c. 113, sec. 3, that if 
 any person upon the high seas, or in any open road- 
 stead or bay or river, where the sea ebbs and flows, 
 commits the crime of robbery, in or upon any vessel, 
 or the lading thereof, or the crew, he shall be adjudged 
 a pirate. So if any person, engaged in any piratical 
 enterprise, or belonging to the crew of any piratical 
 vessel, should land and commit robbery on shore, such 
 an off'ender shall also be adjudged a pirate. The stat- 
 ute in this respect seems to be only declaratory of the 
 
 law of nations ; and upon the doctrine of the case of 
 Lind u. Kodney, such plunder and robbery ashore by 
 the crew, and with the aid of vessels, is a marine case, 
 and of admiralty jurisdiction. The statute further de- 
 clared, that the above provision was not to be con- 
 strued to deprive any particular State of its jurisdiction 
 over such offenses when committed within the body of 
 a county, or to authorize the courts of the United States 
 to try any such offenders, after conviction or acquit- 
 tance, for the same offense in a State court. 
 
 There can be no doubt of the right of Congress to 
 pass laws punishing pirates, though they may be for- 
 eigners, and may have committed no particular oftense 
 against the United States. It is of no importance, for 
 the purpose of giving jurisdiction, on whom or when a 
 piratical act has been committed. A pirate, who is 
 one by the law of nations, may be tried and punished 
 in any country where he may be found, for he is re- 
 puted to be out of the protection of all laws and privi- 
 leges. The statute of any government may declare an 
 oftense committed on board its own vessels to be pira- 
 cy, and such offense will be punishable exclusively by 
 the nation which passes the statute. But piracy, un- 
 der the law of nations, is an offense against all nations, 
 and punishable fay all. — Kent's Commentaries, vol i. 
 
 Liability of Insurers.. — There can be no piracy or 
 robbery without violence; but this is not necessary to 
 constitute the crime of theft. Piracy and robbery are 
 most usually committed by strangers to the ship ; they 
 may, however, be committed by the crew; and the in- 
 surers are answerable for such a loss, unless it arise 
 from the fault of the owner. If theft be committed 
 by the crew, we should still hold the insurers liable. 
 This may be doubtful; but insurers regard it as at 
 least possible, and provide against it by the phrase, 
 "assailing thieves." This excludes theft without vi- 
 olence, and perhaps all theft by those lawfully on 
 board the vessel, as a part of the ship's company. If, 
 after shipwreck, the property is stolen, the insurers are 
 liable, and would probably be so if there were no in- 
 surance against theft, if this was a direct effect of the 
 wrecking. — Paesons'3 Mercantile Law. The subjects 
 of pirates and piracy have been discussed in the follow- 
 ing works • NiLES's Register, xviii. 275, xxxii. 302, xx. 
 59, xxvii. 891, xxv. 157, xxvii. 138. xxiii. 211 ; Hunt's 
 Merchants' Magazine, xiii. 450, 526, xiv. 39 ; Edinburgh 
 Review, Ixviii 33, xxvi. 449 ; Littell's Museum, xxv. 
 337, xxvi. 266. 
 
 Pistachia, or Pistachio Nuts (Ger. Pistaschen ; 
 Du. Pistasjes; Fr Pistaches; It. Pistacchi, Fastucchi; 
 Sp. Alfocigos; Lat. Pistaciai), the fruit of the Pistac/ija 
 vera, .a kind of turpentine-tree. It grows naturally in 
 Arabia, Persia, and Syria ; also in Sicily, whence the 
 nuts are annually brought to us. They are oblong and 
 pointed, about the size and shape of a filbert, including 
 a kernel of a pale greenish color, covered with a yel- 
 lowish or reddish skin. They have a pleasant, sweet- 
 ish, unctuous taste, resembling that of sweet almonds ; 
 their principal difference from which consists in their 
 having a greater degree of sweetness, accompanied with 
 a light grateful flavor, and in being more oily. Pis- 
 tachias imported from the East are superior to those 
 raised in Europe. — Lewis's Materia Med. 
 
 Pistols. These are the smallest sort of fire-arms, 
 carried sometimes on the saddle-bow, sometimes in a 
 girdle round the waist, sometimes in the pocket, etc.— 
 Pardon. The pistol was first used by the cavalry of 
 England, in 1444. 
 
 The manufacture of guns and pistols in the United 
 States has become an active one. Colt's Revolvers 
 have acquired a reputation throughout Europe and 
 South America, as well as the United States. His 
 principal factory is located near Hartford, Connecticut. 
 " It is so well ordered, so complete, so striking in its 
 results, that all engaged in manufacture may learn 
 something from it; it is in itself one large machine, 
 well oiled too, which takes in at one end a shapeless 
 
PIS 
 
 1535 
 
 PIT 
 
 lump of iron, and a piece of wood, and puts out at the 
 other a ■beautifully finished arm which you may load 
 and fire six balls from separately in three-quarters of a 
 minute, after a certain amount of practice. In each 
 pistol there are fifty-three distinct pieces, including 
 fourteen screws, and for the formation of these forty 
 or forty-lire separate machines oo-operatej hammering, 
 milling, cutting, drilling, punching, rifling, and shav- 
 ing; all put into motion by a gallon of water ' in a vio- 
 lent perspiration ;' in other words, a twenty-horse power 
 steam-engine. Some of the machines are especially 
 beautiful : look at that for rifling the barrels, for ex- 
 ample, with the brush to Iteep the cutters clean; and 
 the one near it for drilling the six chambers around 
 the central boring in the solid cylinderj where accuracy 
 is so indispensable. That regular irregularity, the ec- 
 centric, plays an important part in this, as it does in 
 the hammering-machine below — the machine patented 
 by Eider. In one week they turned out 525 perfect 
 pistols here, and there are the means for making 800 
 or 900 a week, if it were necessary to do so." — London 
 Builder. 
 
 Pistols were first used by the Germans. Bellay 
 mentions them in the year 1544. In the time of Fran- 
 cis I. and under Henry II. the German horsemen, des 
 reiterSj were called pistoliers. The derivation of this 
 tenn is uncertain. Frisch conjectures that it may 
 have arisen from pistillo or stiopo, because pistols used 
 to have large knobs on the handles. Daniel and others 
 think that the name comes from Fistojaj in Tuscany, 
 where they were first manufactured: He says he saw 
 an old pistol that, with the exception of the ramrod, 
 was all iron. During the latter part of the last cen- 
 tury many ingenious persons directed their attention 
 to the improvement of fire-arms, with a view to sim- 
 plify their construction, to render them more effective, 
 and to combine safety with celerity in firing. One of 
 the most marked advancements was effected by Mr. 
 Henry Nock, and patented by him In England in 1787. 
 Previous to this the breeching or plug of a gun was a 
 solid lump of iron, screwed into one end of the barrel, 
 the touch-hole being drilled through the side of the 
 baiTcl above it. Another most marked improvement 
 was the introduction and adaptation of fulminating 
 po4vder, for igniting the charge in the chamber of the 
 breech ; and for whiuli the Eev. Mr. Forsyth obtained 
 a patent in Great Britain, in 1807. The perfection 
 of a proper fulminating powder was long a matter of 
 great difficulty. Other changes were suggested, but 
 not of a practical kind. One made by Mr. E. H. Col- 
 lier, of Boston, Massachusetts, in 1818 ; and another 
 by Mr. Wheeler, of Boston, in 1819. 
 
 The first valuable improvements made by Colonel 
 Samuel Colt, of Connecticut, in the construction of the 
 pistol, were made public in the year 1835. The original 
 conception of Colonel Colt in regard to fire-arms was 
 the combination of a number of long barrels to rotate 
 upon a spindle, by the act of cocking the lock, in the 
 same manner that they have since been made by others 
 who claim to have originated the plan ; but as objec- 
 tions arose from the weiglit and buUc of the arm, in his 
 study to obviate them, the idea of a single barrel and 
 a chambered breech suggested itself to him. Al- 
 though without the pecuniary means of then practi- 
 cally testing his convictions, he made a small wooden 
 model of his conception, which he possesses at tlie 
 present day. He then assiduously pursued his calling 
 as a scientific lecturer, and from its rewards procured 
 the aid to manufacture specimen arms, which in their 
 practical results exceeded even his most sanguine ex- 
 pectations; and in 1835 he received his first patent 
 from the Government of the United States. 
 
 Colonel Colt's first manufactory of fire-arms was 
 located at Paterson, New Jersey, in the year 1836, 
 with a capital of $300,000. This continued in opera- 
 tion until the year 1842, when it was relinquished as 
 unprofitable. The Florida war of 1837-'38 created a 
 
 demand for, and gave practical demonstration of the 
 great value of, the repeating fire-arms patented by 
 him. They were also used with great effect in the 
 Texan revolution and war ; and afterward in the war 
 with Mexico (184G-'47), when a contract was made by 
 him witlt the government for the supply of one thou- 
 sand of the improved arms. A temporary manufactory 
 was established for this purpose at Whitneyville, Con- 
 necticut. This was succeeded by the present extensive 
 factory at or near Hartford, on the Connecticut River, 
 which was finished and in successful operation in the 
 year 1855, with a capital of $1,260,000. These build- 
 ings present a front of 500 feet. The repeating princi- 
 ple has also been successfully applied by Colonel Colt 
 to rifles and carbines, several varieties of which are 
 constantly in the course of completion In the armory. 
 Lately the demand for the sporting rifle has increased 
 wonderfully, which increase will, no doubt, be much 
 augmented as their superiority is more generally prac- 
 tically demonstrated by our hardy backwoodsmen ; 
 and the day is not distant when Regiments of riflemen 
 will be equipped with Colt's revolvers. 
 
 Within the last year still another style of pistol has 
 been introduced. It is called " Colt's new Model," and 
 bj' some it is preferred to either of the others. Un- 
 doubtedly this is a matter of fancy with the party using 
 the arm, as in some cases individuals yet prefer Colt's 
 first to any arm that was ever manufactured. ' The 
 arms are of several sizes, and weigh as follows : 
 
 Pouods. Ounces. 
 
 The military rifle, barrel 36 inches, fit- j h^ \ g 
 
 ted with improved bayonet J 
 
 Sporting rifle, barrel from l8 to GO | g 
 
 Inches, average J 
 
 The army or holBter pistol 4 4 
 
 The navy or belt pistol 2 6 
 
 The pocket pistol, barrel 6 inches 1 12 
 
 The pocket pistol, barrel 5 inches 1 10 
 
 The pocket pistol, barrel 4 iaclies 1 S 
 
 These are kinds that are constantly in the course of 
 construction ; of course many other varieties are made 
 by special order. 
 
 Of the improved pistol, over 138,000 had been manu- 
 factured here up to January, 1857. Nearly eight hun- 
 dred men are ordinarily employed in this work alone. 
 This result is the fruit of a market for arms, not con- 
 fined to the United States, but extending over both 
 the Americas ; more or less to the Indies, East and 
 West; to Egypt — even to distant Australia; to remote 
 Asiatic tribes assembled at the great fairs of Novgo- 
 rod ; and over Europe generally, but especially to En- 
 gland. Here the arms of Colonel Colt, first introduced 
 in splendid style through the World's Fair, were warm- 
 ly welcomed, and led to the speedy establishment in 
 London of an extensive armory for their manufacture, 
 and to their rapid adoption into the British army and 
 naval service. — United /States Marjazine, March, 1857. 
 See FiKE-ARMS. 
 
 Pitoairn's Island. A small solitary island in 
 the Pacific Ocean, seen by Coolc in 1773, and noted for 
 being colonized by ten mutineers from the ship Bounty, 
 Captain Bligh, in 1789, from which time till 1814 
 they (or rather their descendants) remained here un- 
 known. Soil fertile, but porous, and rather defective 
 in water; well wooded, and climate healthful; ther- 
 mometer ranging from 59" to 89° Fahr. Prevailing 
 winds southwest and east-southeast, but it is beyond 
 the limits of the regular trade-winds. It is surrounded^ 
 by rocky shores, and has only one accessible landing- 
 place at Bounty Bay. The cocoa-nut, plantain, ba- 
 nana, and bread-fruit trees flourish, hibiscus, or cloth 
 tree, banyan-tree, orange, and others ; and the potato, 
 sweetpotato,yams, water-melohs, pumpkin, faro, sugar- 
 cane, ginger, turmeric, tobacco, tea-plant, and maize, 
 are cultivated. The island contained no indigenous 
 quadrupeds, but gbats, hogs, and poultry have been 
 imported. In 1790 this island was resorted to by the 
 mutineers of the Bounty, consisting of nine British 
 sailors, six native Tahitiau men, and twelve women. 
 
PIT 
 
 1536 
 
 PLA 
 
 In consequence of various discords and massacres, at 
 the end of ten years there remained only one English- 
 man, Adams, the Tahitian females, and nineteen chil- 
 dren, their offspring. Under the superintendence of 
 this man the children were educated and trained up to 
 habits of industry and morality. In 1825 Captain 
 Beechey found a most interesting and intelligent colony 
 of sixty-six persons. In 1831, by the somewhat im- 
 prudent sanction of the British government, the colony, 
 numbering eighty-seven persons, was transferred to 
 Tahiti. After remaining five months there, and losing 
 twelve of their number by death, the colony, at their 
 own solicitation, were again reinstated in their native 
 island. In 1849 the population amounted to 75 males 
 and 74 females, in all 149 ; of these, three were En- 
 glishmen, one a native Tahitian woman, the only re- 
 maining female of the original migration, and the re- 
 mainder were natives of the island. They live chiefly 
 on yams, potatoes, and other vegetables, which they 
 raise by their own labor. From the remains of burial- 
 grounds, the island would appear to have been occu- 
 pied by inhabitants at a period antecedent to the visit 
 of the mutineers of the Bounty. It was seen by Car- 
 teret in 1767, and named by him after oneof his officers. 
 
 Pitch (Ger. Peek; Fr. Poix, Brai; It. Pece; Sp. 
 Pez , Russ. Smola (jvstaja), the residuum which remains 
 on inspissating tar, or boiling it down to dryness. It 
 is extensively used in ship-building, and for other pur- 
 poses. — See Naval Stores. 
 
 Pittsburgh, city, port of entry, and capital of Alle- 
 ghany county, Pennsylvania, is situated at the conflux 
 of the Alleghany and Monongahela rivers, where they 
 form the Ohio, which is here a quarter of a mile wide. 
 It is in 40° 32' N. lat., and 80° 2' W. long,, 357 m. via 
 Pennsylvania Railroad from Philadelphia, 247 west- 
 northwest of Harrisburg, 226 from Washington, D. C, 
 and 2044 above New Orleans by the course of the river. 
 Population in 1810, 4768; in 1820, 7248; in 1830, 
 12,668 ; in 1840, 21,115 ; in 1850, 46,601 ; in 1854, the 
 city and immediate vicinity estimated at 110,000. It 
 was originally laid out on the northeast bank of the 
 Monongahela, after the model of Philadelphia, with 
 streets running parallel with the rivers, and others 
 crossing them at right angles. The streets on the 
 Alleghany are laid out on a similar plan, and hence a 
 short distance from the Alleghany the old and new 
 streets meet in oblique directions. The Alleghany 
 River is spanned by three bridges, which, with several 
 steam ferries, connect the city with the suburbs. The 
 Pennsylvania Canal crosses the river by an aqueduct, 
 and there is a suspension-bridge over the Monongahela. 
 
 As a manufacturing city, Pittsburgh is second in the 
 State only to Philadelphia. In 1850 it had thirteen 
 rolling-mills, with a capital of $5,000,000, employing 
 2500 hands, consuming 60,000 tons of pig metal, and 
 producing annually bar iron and nails to the value of 
 $4,000,000 ; thirty large founderies, with an aggregate 
 capital of $2,000,000, and 2500 hands, using 20,000 tons 
 of pig iron, and yielding articles valued at $2,000,000 
 annually ; two establishments for manufacturing locks, 
 latches, coffee-mills, scales, and other iron casting, em- 
 ploying 500 hands, and a capital of $200,000, using 
 1200 tons metal, and producing annually to the value 
 of $3,000,000; five large cotton factories — capital 
 $1,500,000, hands 1500, cotton consumed 15,000 bales, 
 and products valued at upward of $1,500,000 annually; 
 eight flint-glass manufactories — capital $300,000, hands 
 500, and producing various articles of glass, in the man- 
 ufacture of which 150 tons lead and 200 tons of pearlash 
 are used,' to the value of $400,000 annually ; seven 
 phial furnaces and eleven window-glass factories — capi- 
 tal $250,000, hands 600, and annual products $600,000 ; 
 one soda-ash factory, employing 75 hands, and pro- 
 ducing annually 1500 tons ; one copper-smelting Ijouse, 
 producing 600 tons refined copper annually, valued at 
 $380 per ton ; one rolling-mill, producing annually 300 
 tons sheathing and brazier's copper; five white-lead 
 
 factories — capital $150,000, hands 60, and producing 
 150,000 kegs annually, worth $200,000. There are also 
 a number of manufactories of the smaller sizes of iron, 
 several extensive manufactories of axes, hatchets, 
 spring-steel, steel springs, axles, anvils, vices, mills, 
 cross-cut and other saws, gun barrels, shovels, spades, 
 forks, hoes, cut tacks, brads, etc. The products of the 
 manufactures in the aggregate are valued at between 
 $50,000,000 and $60,000,000 annually. There are con- 
 sumed about 12,000,000 bushels of coal annually, worth 
 $600,000, and an equal quantity is exported from the 
 city, giving employment constantly to 4000 hands. 
 
 Plains. In Geography, the general term for all 
 those parts of the dry land which can not properly be 
 called mountainous, and which compose by far the 
 greater part of the earth's surface. Plains have differ- 
 ent physical appearances according to their geograph- 
 ical position, and the peculiar characteristics of each 
 have procured for them different names ; thus we have 
 the steppes of Asia, the deserts of Africa, the pampas 
 of South America, and the prairies or savannas of 
 North America. See these different terms. 
 
 Plane, a forest tree, of which there are two species ; 
 the Oriental plane (^Platanus Orientalis), and the Occi- 
 dental plane {Platanus Occidenialis}. The Oriental 
 plane is a native of the Levant, and other Eastern 
 countries, and is considered one of the finest of trees. 
 It grows to about 60 feet in height, and has been known 
 to exceed eight feet in diameter. Its wood is much 
 like beech, but more figured, and is used for furniture 
 and such like articles. The Occidental plane is a na- 
 tive of North America, and is one of the largest of the 
 American trees, being sometimes more than 12 feet in 
 diameter. The wood of the Occidental plane is harder 
 than that of the Oriental. It is very durable in ^^ ater. 
 The tree known by the name of plane in England is 
 the sycamore, or great maple {Acer pseudo-pliitanus'). 
 It is a large tree, grows quickly, and stands the sea- 
 spray better than most trees. The timber is very close 
 and compact, easily wrought, and not liable either to 
 splinter or warp. It is generally of a brownish white 
 or yellowish white color, and sometimes it is A'ery beau- 
 tifully curled and mottled. In this state it takes a line 
 polish, and bears varnishing well. It is chiefly used 
 in the manufacture of saddle-trees, wooden dishes, ^d 
 a vaiiety of articles of furniture and machinery. "When 
 kept dry, and protected from worms, it is pretty dura- 
 ble ; but it is quite as liable as beech to be attacked by 
 them. — Teedgoi-d, p. 196. 
 
 Plane Sailing, in Navigation, is the art of de- 
 termining the ship's place, on the supposition that she 
 is moving on a plane, or that the surface of the- ocean 
 is plane instead of being spherical. On account of the 
 magnitude of the terrestrial radius, this supposition may 
 be adopted for short distances without leading to great 
 errors; and it affords great facilities in calculation, for 
 the place of the ship is found by the solution of a right- 
 angled plane triangle. The part of tiie meridian be- 
 tween the ship and the parallel of latitude of the place 
 whence she departed forms the perpendicular of the 
 triangle ; the distance on the parallel between the place 
 of departure and the foot of the perpendicular is the 
 base of the triangle (technically called the departure) ; 
 and the distance sailed is the hypothenuse. The angle 
 at the ship is called the course, and the other acute 
 angle the complement of the course. Now, of these 
 four things, the perpendicular, the departure, the dis- 
 tance sailed, and the course, any two being given, the 
 triangle can be laid down on the chart, and all the 
 other parts of it found. — See Navigation. 
 
 Plants (Ger. and Du. Planken; Da. Planter; Sw. 
 Plankor ; Fr. Planches, Bordages ; Russ. ToUtiile olosht), 
 thick strong boards, cut from various kinds of wood, 
 especially oak and pine. Planks are usually of the 
 thickness of from 1 inch to 4. They are exported in 
 large quantities from the northern parts of Europe, par- 
 ticularl}' from the ports of Christiana, Dantzic, Arch- 
 
PLA 
 
 1537 
 
 PLA 
 
 angel, Petersburg, Narva, Revel, Eiga, and Memel, as 
 well as from several parts of North America. — See 
 Lumber Trade. 
 
 Plantain, or Banana, the pulpy fruit of the Musa 
 paradisiaca, an herbaceous plant, extensively cultivated 
 in most inter-tropical countries, but especially in Mex- 
 ico. It is not, lilte most other fruits, used merely 
 as an occasional luxury, but is rather an established 
 article of subsistence. Being long and fextensively 
 cultivated, it has diverged into numerous varieties, the 
 fruit of which differs materially in size, flavor, and 
 color. That of some is not above two or three inches 
 long, while that of others is not much short of a foot ; 
 some sorts are sweet, and of a flavor not unlike nor in- 
 ferior to that of a good mellow pear ; but the larger 
 kind are, for the most part, coarse and farinaceous. 
 The latter are either used fresh or dried in the sun, in 
 which latter state they are occasionally ground into 
 meal and made into bread. In Mexico the sweeter 
 sorts are frequently pressed and dried, as figs are in 
 Europe ; and, while they are not very inferior to the 
 last-mentioned fruit, they are infinitely cheaper. " I 
 doubt," says M. Humboldt, " whether there be any 
 other plant that produces so great a quantity of nutri- 
 tive substance in so small a space. Eight or nine 
 months after the sucker is planted, it begins to develop 
 its cluster. The fruit mfty be gathered in the tenth 
 and eleventh month. When the stalk is cut, there is 
 always found, among the numerous shoots that have 
 taken root, a spront (pimpoUo), which, being 2-3cl3 the 
 height of>its parent plant, bears fruit three months 
 later. Thus a plantation of bananas perpetuates itself, 
 without requiring any care on the part of man, further 
 than to cut the stalks when the fruit has ripened, and 
 to stir the earth gently once or twice a year about the 
 roots. A piece of ground of 100 square metres of sur- 
 face will contain from 30 to 40 plants. During the 
 course of a year this same piece of ground, reckoning 
 the weight of the cluster at from 15 to 20 kilog. only, 
 will yield 2000 kilog., or more than 4000 lbs., of nutri- 
 tive substance. What a difference between this prod- 
 uct and that of the cereal grasses in most parts of Eu- 
 rope ! The same extent of land planted with wheat 
 would not produce above 30 lbs., and not more than 
 90 lbs. of potatoes. Hence the product of the banana 
 is to that of wheat as 133 to 1, and to that of potatoes 
 as 44 to 1." — J<Jssai sur la Nouvelle Espagne. The ba- 
 nana forms a principal part of the food of the peo- 
 ple of Mexico ; and the apathy and indolence of the 
 natives in the tierras calienies^ or hot regions, has been 
 ascribed, and probably with good reason, to the facility 
 with which it supplies them with subsistence. It is by 
 no means in such extensive use in tropical Asia, and 
 comes nowhere in it into competition with corn as an 
 article of food. 
 
 Plaster, or Plaister, in building, a composition 
 of lime, sometimes with sand, or other substance, to 
 parget or cover the nudities of building. 
 
 Plaster of Paris, a preparation of several species of 
 gypsum dug near Montmartre, a village in the neigh- 
 borhood of Paris, and hence the name. The best sort 
 is hard, white, shining, and marbly, being known by 
 the name ol plastersfone, or parget of Montmartre. It 
 will neither give fire with steel, nor ferment with aqua- 
 fortis ; but it calcines very freely and readily into a 
 fine plaster, the use of which in building and casting 
 statues is well known. 
 
 Plata (Rio De La), or the Plate River, one 
 of the great rivers, or rather a great estuary of South 
 America, in the Argentine Republic, formed by the 
 junction of the Parana and Uruguay rivers, in lat. 34° 
 S., long. 58° 30' W., its basin lying south of those of 
 the' Amazon, Tocantins, and San Francisco, and its 
 numerous tributaries draining most part of the Plata, 
 Paraguay, and Uruguay territories, with considerable 
 portions of Bolivia and Brazil. The estuary resulting 
 from their union is 200 miles in length northwest to 
 5E 
 
 southeast, and where it joins the Atlantic Ocean, is 
 170 miles across (between Maldonado and Cape St.' 
 Antonio); its centre being about lat. 35° 30' S., long. 
 5G° W. Its muddy waters can be traced in the ocean 
 200 miles from its mouth. The total length of the 
 Plata and the Paraguay has been estimated at nearly 
 2500 miles ; and from the ocean to the island of Apipe 
 in the Parana, at least 1250 miles, there is a continuous 
 and safe navigation for vessels of 300 tons. The Agua- 
 pehy, an afiluent of the Paraguay near, lat. 15° 40' S., 
 long. 59° 20' W., is separated only by a portage of three 
 miles from the Alegre, a tributary of the Guapore, and 
 were a canal to be made to connect the two streams, a 
 complete system of internal navigation throughout 
 nearly all South America would exist. — See Para- 
 guay. 
 
 Plate, the denomination usually given to gold and 
 silver wrought into articles of household furniture. It 
 appears from Porter's Progress of ihe Nation, iii. 25, 
 that the annual consumption of silver plate has in- 
 creased from about 800,000 oz. at the commencement of 
 the century, to about 1,050,000 oz. at present. Most 
 persons may, perhaps, be inclined to think that this is 
 not so great an increase as might have beeri antici- 
 pated from the increase of wealth and population. But 
 it should be borne in mind that this account refers only 
 to articles of standard silver and gold, and that the 
 great consumption of the precious metals consists in 
 plated and gilt articles, which are now made of a very 
 superior quality. Owing also to the fact of old plate 
 being held in the greatest estimation, but little of it is 
 melted down to be remanufaotured, so thAt the princi- 
 pal consumption is by new families. — See Gold and 
 Precious Metals. 
 
 Platina, a metal which, in respect of scarcity, beau- 
 ty, ductility, and indestructibility, is hardly inferior to 
 gold, was unknown in Europe till about the middle of 
 last century, when it began to be imported in small 
 quantities from South America. It has since been dis- 
 covered in Estremadura in Spain, and more recently 
 in the Ural Mountains in Asiatic Russia, where it is 
 now raised in very considerable quantities. Platina 
 is of a white color, like silver, but not so bright, and 
 has no taste or smell. Its hardness is intermediate 
 between copper and iron. Its specific gravity is about 
 21-5, that of gold being 19'3; so that it is'the heaviest 
 body with which we are acquainted. It is exceedingly 
 ductile and malleable ; it may be hammered out into 
 very thin plates, and drawn into ■wires not exceeding 
 l-1940th of an inch in diameter. In these properties it 
 is probably inferior to gold, but it seems to surpass all 
 the other metals. Its tenacity is such, that a wire of 
 platina 0'078 inch in diameter is capable of supporting 
 a weight of 274'31 lbs. avoirdupois without breaking. 
 It is one of the most infusible of all metals ; but pieces 
 of it may be welded together without difficulty when 
 heated to whiteness. It is not in the smallest degree 
 altered by the action of air or water. — Thomson's 
 (Jhemistry. The late Dr. WoUaston discovered a meth- 
 od effusing platina, and, consequently, of rendering it 
 easily available in the arts. The Russians have with- 
 in these few years issued platina coins of the value of 
 3, 6, and 20 silver roubles. Platina first began to be 
 an object of attention in Russia in 1824, when 1 pood 
 33 lbs. were collected. In 1836 the produce amounted 
 to 138 poods 42 lbs. In 1831 a piece of native platina 
 was discovered at Demidoff's gold mines, weighing 
 29 lbs. 2^ zolt. — Official Statements published by the 
 Russian government. 
 
 Plating. The art of covering copper and other 
 metals with silver or gold: it is effected in various 
 ways. Sometimes the silver is attached to and rolled 
 outwith the copper by pressure; sometimes the one metal 
 is precipitated from its solutions upon the other ; and 
 of late manufacturers have availed themselves of elec- 
 tro-chemical decomposition for the purpose. 
 
 Platinum (so called from the Spanish word plata, 
 
PLA 
 
 1538 
 
 POI 
 
 silver, on account of its color), a metal of a -white 
 color, exceedingly ductile, malleable, and difficult of 
 fusion. It is the heaviest substance known, its spe- 
 cific gravity being 21'5. It undergoes no change from 
 air or moisture, and is not attacked by any of the 
 pure acids ; it is dissolved by chlorine and nitro-muri- 
 atic acid, and is oxydized at high temperatures by pure 
 potassa and lithla. It is only found in South America 
 and in the Uralian Mountains : it is usually in small 
 grains of a metallic lustre, associated or combined with 
 palladium, rhodium, iridium, and osmium; and with 
 Copper, iron, lead, titanium, chromium, gold, and silver ; 
 it is also usually mixed with alluvial sand. The par- 
 ticles are seldom so large as a small pea, but sometimes 
 lumps have been found of the size of a hazel-nut to 
 that of a pigeon's egg. In 1826, it was first discovered 
 in a vein associated with gold by Boussingault, in the 
 province of Antioquia, in South America. When a 
 perfectly clean surface of platinum is presented to a 
 mixture of hydrogen and oxj'gen gas, it has the extraor- 
 dinary property of causing them to combine so as to 
 form water, and often with such rapidity as to render 
 the metal red hot: spongy plaHnumj as it is usually 
 called, obtained by heating the ammonio-muriate of 
 platinum, is most effective in producing this extraor- 
 dinary result; and a jet of hydrogeii directed upon 
 it may be inflamed by the metal thus ignited, a prop- 
 erty which has been applied to the construction of con- 
 venient instruments for procuring alight. The equiva- 
 lent of platinum is about 98. It is precipitated from its 
 nitro-muriatic solution by sal ammoniac, which throws 
 it down in the form of a yellow powder, composed of 
 bichloride of platinum and sal ammoniac. 
 
 Platting, slips of bast, cane, straw, etc., woven or 
 plaited for making into hats, etc. 
 
 Plumbago. See Black-lead. 
 
 Plums, the fruit of the Prunus domesiica, are too 
 well known to require any description. They were 
 introduced into England in the 15th century, and are 
 cultivated in all parts of the country. There are said 
 to be nearly 300 varieties of plums. 
 
 Plum-tree (^Prunus domesticd). The Prunus domes- 
 iica appears to be more widely diffused in its original 
 locality than the apricot. It is believed to be indig- 
 enous to the south of Kussia, Caucasus, the Hima- 
 layas, and to many parts of Europe. In England, and 
 in some parts of the United States, it is sometimes 
 found in hedges, but never truly wild. This species 
 and many of its varieties are cultivated for ornament, 
 or their fruit, in all the temperate countries of the 
 habitable globe. Faulkner, in his Kensington, makes 
 the plum a native of Asia, and an introduction into 
 Europe of the Crusaders. Gough, in his British To- 
 pography, says that Lord Cromwell introduced the 
 Perdrigon plum into England in the time of Henry 
 VII. The introduction of this tree into the United 
 States dates back to the earliest periods of their settle- 
 ments. Several valuable and interesting varieties 
 have originated in this country, among which the 
 Bolmar or Washington plum stands conspicuous. The 
 parent tree is said to have been purchased in a market 
 in New York, about the end of the last century. It 
 remained barren for several years, till, during a violent 
 storm of thunder, the entire trunk was severed to the 
 earth by lightning, and destroyed. The part remain- 
 ing in the ground afterward threw up several vigorous 
 shoots, which were allowed to remain and finally pro- 
 duce fruit. Trees of this variety were first sent to En- 
 gland in 1819, to Mr. Kobert Barclay, of Bury Hill[; 
 and several others were sent to the London Horticul- 
 tural Society in 1821, by Dr. Hosack, of New York. 
 The wood of the Prunus domestica is hard, close, com- 
 pact, beautifully veined, and susceptible of a fine 
 polish. When dry, it weighs from forty to fifty pounds 
 to a cubic foot, according to the age and growth of the 
 tree. Its texture is silky, and when washed with 
 lime-water its color is heightened, and may be pre- 
 
 served by the application of varnish or wax.. Unfor- 
 tunately for this tree, its wood is sometimes rotten at 
 the heart. In France and Germany it is much sought 
 after by turners, cabinet-makers, and the manufactur- 
 ers of musical instrument?. The leaves are sometimes 
 given to cattle for forage. The use of the fruit in do- 
 mestic economy for dessert, and for making tarts and 
 puddings, is well known. In France plums are prin- 
 cipally used dry or preserved, and enter extensively 
 into commerce. The kinds usually employed for pre- 
 serving are the Brignole, the prune d'Ast, the Perdri- 
 gon blanc, the prune d'Agen, and the Ste. Catherine. 
 In warm countries plums or prunes are dried on, 
 hurdles by solar heat; but in cold climates artificial 
 heat is employed ; the fruit being exposed to the heat 
 of an oven and to that of the sun on alternate days. 
 Table prunes are prepared from the larger kinds "of 
 pluiiis, as the green-gage, and Ste. Catherine; tho^ 
 employed in medicine from the Ste. Julienne. , , The 
 former have a very sweet and agreeable taste, and 
 the latter are somewhat austere. Fresh, ripe plums, 
 taken in moderate quantities, are regarded as nutritive 
 and wholesome ; but in large quantities thej' readily 
 disorder the bowels ; and when, immature, they still 
 more easily excite ill efl'ects. The medicinal prunes 
 are employed as an agreeable, mild laxative for chil- 
 dren, and are given during convalescence from febrile 
 and inflammatory disorders in adults. — Browne's 
 Trees of America.' 
 
 Plush (Fr. Panne, Peluche; Germ. Wollsammet, 
 PliiscK) is a textile fabric, having a sort of velvet nap 
 or shag upon one side. It is composed regularly of a 
 woof , of a single woolen thread, and a two-fold warp, 
 the bne wool of two threads twisted, the other goat's 
 01* camel's hair. There are also several sorts of plush 
 made entirely of worsted. It is manufactured, like 
 velvet, in a loom with three treadles; two of which 
 separate and depress the woolen warp, and the third 
 raises the hair-warp, whereupon the weaver, throwing 
 the shuttle, passes the woof between the woolen and 
 hair warp ; afterward, laying a brass broach or needle 
 under that of the hair, he cuts it with a knife (see 
 Fustian) destined for that use, running its fine, slen- 
 der point along in the hollow of the guide-broach, to 
 the end of a piece extended upon a table. Thus the 
 surface of the plush receives its velvety appearance. 
 This stuff is also made of cotton and silk. 
 
 Pl3rmouth, a sea-port of England, on the east side 
 of a peninsula between the rivers Plym and Tamar, at 
 the head of Plymouth Sound ; latitude of Mount Wise, 
 60° 22' N., long. 4° 10' 2" W. The port of Plymouth 
 is distinguished for its capacity and security; it is 
 capable of containing 2000 sail, and is one of the best 
 harbors in the world. It consists of three divisions: 
 Suttonport, adjoining the town ; Catwater, formed by 
 an estuary of the Plym ; and the Bay of Hamoaze. At 
 the mouth of these harbors the great bay of Plymouth 
 Sound forms an excellent roadstead, which is now com- 
 pletely secure by the erection of the breakwater across 
 the entrance. This is an isolated mole at the entrance 
 of the Sound 5100 feet long, and opposing a barrier to 
 the heavy swell of the Atlantic. The Sound is three 
 miles long and four miles wide, and forms the harbor 
 of Davenport and Plymouth. 
 
 Point net is a style of lace formerly much in vogue, 
 but now superseded by the bobbin-net manufacture. — 
 See Lace. 
 
 Points of the Compass. In Geography and 
 Navigation, the points of division of the circle repre- 
 senting the horizon, or of the compass card over which 
 the magnetic needle is suspended. A diameter of the 
 circle being drawn to represent the meridian, or north 
 and south directions, and another at right angles to it 
 to represent the directions east and west, the circle is 
 thus divided into four quarters, each of which is sub- 
 divided into eight equal parts, so that the whole circle 
 is divided into thirty-two equal parts ; and the points 
 
POL 
 
 1539 
 
 POL 
 
 o£ division are tenj^efl the poiats.of Iks' compass. Each 
 has a, pai'ticulai; name, indicating its place with refer- 
 ence to th? four principal or ca/rdinal points ; namelj'^ .the 
 north, south, east,, and west points. — See Compass. 
 
 Polar Sea, North. We are now able to draw 
 with nearly geographical accuracy the boundaries of 
 tl)e North Polar Sea., A very large portion of the 
 nortliprn sbpr/es of Europe, Asia, and America, which 
 circumscribe it, liave been visited, and the position of 
 most pf their bays, Jieadlands, and rivers, geographic- 
 ally ascertained. By casting our eye over the North 
 tpjar chart, it will be seen that the Polar Sea of tliat 
 hemisphere is an immense circular basin, which com- 
 miipivatei^ with the two great oceansof the world — the 
 Atlantic and, the , Pacific — by two channeU, the one 
 separating America, from, Europe, aAd the other Amer- 
 ica from Asia. It will be seen that few points of the 
 <;9as,ts of Europe and Asia, which occupy a full half of 
 tljs.circijmscribing circle, extend much beyond the 70th 
 parallel of latitude ; and all these points i have been 
 passed by water, though at different .points andby dif- 
 ferent pepspns, with the single exception of the Cape 
 Qeyero Vaatochnoi, which, on the charts is made to 
 es^Ufi to the latitude. 75i°. The northern coast of 
 America, with., Old Greenland, and the two channels 
 above mentioned, complete the circle, America extend- 
 ing about aO° of longitude, or juat two ninths of the 
 w^le circle ;, and of this portion the whole coast has 
 now been ascertained, with the exception of that part 
 which lias between Cape Turnagain of Franklin, and 
 the lanji at the bottom of Prince Regent's Inlet, which 
 tjie gentlemen of the Hudson's Bay Company are now 
 (i83,8) exploring. : This being accomplished, we shall 
 have the whole line of the northern coast of America 
 completed. We niay, therefore,, state that the aver- 
 age of the degree of latitude of this coast is about the 
 same as, or rather lower than, that of Europe and Asia, 
 and the extent of the North Polar Sea may be consid- 
 ered as about 2400 geographical miles in diameter, or 
 7200 in circumference. The interior or central parts 
 of this sea are very little known. Several islands are 
 scattered over its southei'n extremities, the largest of 
 which is ,01d Greenland, whose northern limit has not 
 yet been passed; the others are, Spitzbergen, Nova 
 Zembla, the islands of Lialcnov, or, as some have been 
 pleased to call them, New Siberia ; the North Georgian 
 Islands of Parry, and those which form the western 
 lands of Baffin's Bay, to which may be added the Boo- 
 thia Felix of Eqss, which there is no doubt is an isl- 
 and. Besides these, there are a number of small allu- 
 vial islands, formed at the mouths of the several rivers 
 of the two continents ; but whether any, or what num- 
 ber of islands may pxist nearer to the Pole, we must 
 of course remain ignorant till the Polar Sea has been 
 further explored. 
 
 For the little which is known of this sea, we are in- 
 debted to that spirit of discovery wliich showed itself 
 immediately after a passage to the East Indies had 
 been effected round the Cape of Good Hope ; not so 
 much, it is true, for the sake of geographical discovery 
 as that of shortening the passage by sea to the eastern 
 parts of the world. It was obvious that if a ship could 
 proceed from the Atlantic to the Pacific on a great cir- 
 cle of the sphere, or nearly so, the distance, compared 
 with the circuitous passage round Southern Africa or 
 Southern America, would be prodigiously shortened. 
 The voyage of Columbus had that object ; but it was 
 soon discovered that, from the Straits of Magelhaens 
 to the Gulf of St. Lawrence there was an uninterrupt- 
 ed continuity of land. Of the northern regions the 
 information obtained has been scanty and discouraging 
 for such an enterprise. One of the Scandinavian pi- 
 rates had, indeed, been driven by stress of weather, as 
 early as the middle of the 9th century, upon an island 
 to the northwest, to which, from its appearance, he 
 gave the name of Snowland, which was afterward 
 changed to that of Iceland, by the leader of the Nor- 
 
 wegian col6nists who took refuge on that inhospitable 
 spot.] but it was not till more than a century after this 
 that Eric Eanda discovered the southern part of Old 
 Greenland, and there are grounds for believing that in 
 the year 1001 some of these colonists discovered New- 
 foundland and the coast of Labrador. 
 
 Of the South Polar Sea little or nothing may be said 
 to be known. Captain Cook, in the years 1773 and 
 1774, crossed the antarctic circle in _^»e places only; in 
 longitude 39 J v. east, where he advanced to latitude 
 G7i°, and met with fields and detached piecfes of ice; 
 in longitudes 101°_and 110° ivest, between which he 
 proceeded to latitude 71° 10' south, the farthest prog- 
 ress made, by him toward the South Pole, where he 
 was stopped,' or at least deemed it prudent to return, 
 on account of the fields and mountains of ice which 
 were scattered over the surface of the sea ; and in lon- 
 gitudes 136" and 148° west, between which he descend- 
 ed to latitude 68°, and Saw many floating ice islands. 
 There are, therefore, still remaining about 340 degrees 
 of longitude in which the antarctic circle has not been 
 crossed, and full half the circumference of the globe 
 which has not been visited lower to the southward thsh 
 the parallel of 60° south latitude. - • ' 
 
 Mr. Weddell, a master in the navy, proceeded some 
 three degrees farther south than Cook ; and since that, 
 two ships of Mr. Enderby discovered a long tract of 
 land, the extent of which they did not determine. 
 
 There was little doubt of the existence of high land 
 in the South Polar Sea, though Cook discovered none 
 beyond the Southern Thule, or Sandwich Land, on the 
 parallel of G0°. Without high, precipitous land, those 
 large icebergs which he met with floating among the 
 fields of ice could not have been formed j the hummochs 
 of ice, occasioned by the' agitation of the sea, and the 
 meeting of thefdds or Jhws in opposite directions, sel- 
 dom rise to the height of twelve or fifteen feet above 
 the surface. The Russians, indeed, on a recent voyage 
 of discovery, are said to have fallen in with many isl- 
 ands about the 70th parallel of latitude. They also 
 circumnavigated the Sandwich Land, which was left 
 undetermined by Cook, and conjectured that it might 
 be a part of the great Southern Continent, which occu- 
 pied so much attention of the geographers and philos- 
 ophers of the last century. This idea was renewed by 
 the recent discovery of a very considerable extent of 
 land to the southward of Cape Horn, in latitude 63°, 
 and seen extending from longitude 55° to 65° west. 
 As the eastern extremity had not been seen, and the 
 winding of the coast was to northeast, it was conjec- 
 tured that it might unite with the Southern Thule of 
 Cook, and form the long-sought-for Southern Conti- 
 nent. It is said, however, that the Russians have also 
 circumnavigated this land, and that it is composed of 
 a great cluster of islands. 
 
 The land in question has been called South Shetland, 
 but it is no new discovery. In the account of the voy- 
 age of the jive ships of Rotterdam^ under the command 
 of Jacob Hahn and Simon de Cordes, to the South 
 Seas, in the year 1599, it is stated that, on approaching 
 the Strait of Magelhaens, the yacht commanded by 
 Dirk Gherritz was separated from all the other ships, 
 and was carried by tempestuous weather to the south 
 of the Strait, to 64° south latitude, where they discov- 
 ered a high country, with mountains, which were cov- 
 ered with snow, like the land of Norway. This land 
 of Gherritz was marked on some of the old charts, but 
 discontinued on the more modern ones, from the uncer- 
 tainty of its position with regard to longitude. There 
 can be no doubt of its identity with the modem South 
 Shetland. It answered to the description of the mount- 
 ains of Norway, covered with snow, and is wholly bar- 
 ren, having neither tree nor shrub of any kind. It' is 
 unnecessary to say that it is uninhabited, there being 
 no such people in the southern hemisphere as the Es- 
 quimaux ; and it may be remarked, that no human be- 
 ings are fonnd in the Southern Ocean below the 55th 
 
POL 
 
 1540 
 
 POM 
 
 parallel of latitude, aud none beyond the 50th, except 
 on Patagonia arid Tierra del Fuego. On the shores, 
 the seals and sea-horses, which had remained from the 
 Creation undisturbed, were so numerous, that on the 
 first notice of the rediscovery, a whole fleet of vessels 
 from England and North America crowded thither on 
 speculation; but the loss of several from tempestuous 
 weather, and a dangerous navigation, and the destruc- 
 tion and alarm of the objects of their cupidity, will 
 probably cause it, for some time at least, to remain as 
 much a land of desolation as it had been before. 
 
 For an account of Polar Sea expeditions, see Arctic 
 Ocean. Refer to Parry's Voyages; Franklin's A'a:- 
 pediiionSj etc. ; Aviericati Journed of Science^ xvi. 124; 
 Westminster Review, xxxi. 273 ; ATnerican Quarterly Re- 
 iiiew, iv. 215 ; Blackwood's Magazine, ii. 363, iv. 157 ; 
 Echdie Magazine, xii. 43, xx. 60, xix. 414; Edinburgh 
 Review, xlviii. 423, Ixi. 223, Ixiii. 151 ; Quarterly Re- 
 view, xxviii. 372, xxxvii. 523, xxxviii. 335, Ivi. 151, 
 Ixvi. 218; North British Review, xvi. 236, xxiv. 193, 
 275, 463, xxxi. 2!)1, xxxvi. 45, 241 ; Living Age, xxv. 
 18, xxvi. 572, XX. 289 ; Fkaser's Magazine, xxxviii. 
 603 ; De Bow's Review, xiii. 1. 
 
 Policy of Insurance, or Assurance, of ships, 
 is a contract or convention by which a person takes 
 upon himself the risks of a sea-voj'age, obliging him- 
 self to make good, in part or in whole, the losses and 
 damages that may befall the vessel, its equipage, tack- 
 le, victualing, lading, etc., either from tempests, ship- 
 wrecks, pirates, fire, war, reprisals, in consideration of 
 a certain sum, more or less according to the risk ; which 
 sum is paid down to the assurer by the assiu'ee upon 
 his signing the policy. — See Insurance. 
 
 Polynesia (" many islands") includes the multi- 
 tude of islands scattered over the Pacific Ocean, and 
 comprehends a belt chiefly within 30° on each side of 
 the equator, and from longitude 135° E. to 135° W. 
 Including New Zealand, the boundary extends south 
 of the equator to lat. 47° S. The islands are distrib- 
 uted into numerous groups, and these groups, of an 
 elongated form, have a general direction from north- 
 west to southeast, and are composed of one or more 
 larger islands, and numerous smaller ones. The prin- 
 cipal groups to the north of the equator are the Pe- 
 lew, Ladrone, or Mariano, Caroline, Eadack, Marshall, 
 Gilbert, and Sandwich Islands. South of the equator 
 are New Ireland, New Hebrides, New Britain, Feejec, 
 Friendly, Navigator's, Solomon's, Society, Mendana or 
 Marquesas, Low Archipelago, Cook's, Austral, and oth- 
 er minor groups, besides numerous detached islands, as 
 Easter and Pitcaiin islands. With the exception of 
 Hawaii, the largest island of Polynesia, the most con- 
 siderable of the others range from 20 to 60 and 100 
 miles in circumference, while many do not exceed a 
 mile or two in length. These islands are all, more or 
 less, of coral formation ; the Low Archipelago, Society 
 Islands, Marshall, and Carolines, presenting the regular 
 atoll form, with circular reefs and lagoons. The Friend- 
 ly, New Hebrides, Solomon's, and Sandwich Islands, 
 present fringed reefs, and have active volcanoes ; sum- 
 mits of mountains varying from 2000 to 13,000 feet. In 
 the lower coral islands the elevations do not exceed 
 500 feet. In the atoll coral islands, Darwin has sup- 
 posed that a depression of surface is taking place, and 
 that the volcanic islands are either stationary or ris- 
 ing. From the great predominance of ocean, the tem- 
 perature of Polynesia is comparatively moderate, the 
 climate delightful and salubrious. Mean annual tem- 
 perature of Sandwich Islands 77° ; temperature of So- 
 ciety Islands, 70°, to 80°, and rarely 90°, Fahrenheit. 
 The southeast tropical winds generally prevail, but 
 northwest and southwest winds are not uncommon. 
 Hurricanes are rare, and earthquakes slight and not of 
 frequent occurrence. The refreshing coolness of the 
 trade-winds, and a regular but not excessive supply of 
 moisture, are favorable to a luxuriant vegetation. Soil 
 in the valleys and in the ri\'er courses a rich volcanic 
 
 mould ; on the mountains less fertile. Both vegetable 
 and animal productions are limited as to number of 
 species. In the islands of the middle and eastern di- 
 visions not more than 500 species of plants are found. 
 This number increases toward the west and northwest. 
 The bread-fruit, peculiar to this region, the cocoa, ba- 
 nana, plantain, banyan, sugar-cane, yam, and cotton- 
 plant, paper-mulberry, and a species of chestnut, are 
 indigenous. Other trees and plants of tropical climates 
 have been introduced and flourish ; and arrow-root, 
 sweet potatoes, the common potato, and maize, are now 
 reared abundantly. There are several timber trees, 
 especially sandal-wood, a few spices, and ornamental 
 flowers, which, however, have little odor or decided 
 color. The islands were all remarkably deficient in 
 animals, thus indicating their isolated and compara- 
 tively recent origin. Turtles resort in great numbers 
 to many localities, and fish are plentiful on the coasts. 
 Several species of whales, the cachalot or sperm whale. 
 Cape whale, humpback, and blackfish, are peculiar to 
 the seas of the Pacific, and their capture has been the 
 chief inducementforshipsvisitingthese regions. Oxen 
 have been introduced from New South Wales, and thrive 
 well; and horses from South America. The natives 
 of Polynesia are in general a well-formed, tall, active, 
 and intelligent people. There are two distinct races, 
 one apparently of Malay origin, by far the most nu- 
 merous and intellectual, and spread over all Central 
 and Eastern Polynesia, and speaking one common lan- 
 guage, though varying in dialects. The other a negro 
 or Papuan race, with negro features and color, and 
 crisped mop-like hair, growing in separate tufts, speak- 
 ing a distinct language, and exhibiting an intellect of 
 an inferior grade, probably the first settlei's of the isl- 
 ands, and now confined to the western part of Polynesia, 
 and inhabiting partly or wholly New Guinea, New 
 Britain, New Ireland, the Solomon Islands, Ncav Cal- 
 edonia, New Hebrides, and part of the Ladrone Isl- 
 ands. Some of the western islands, as the Ladrones, 
 were discovered by Magelhaens in 1521, the Marquesas 
 by Mendana in 1596 ; but it was not till 1767 that Wal- 
 lis, and subsequently Cook, explored and described the 
 leading islands of this region. Soon after this, mis- 
 sionaries began to settle in the islands, and after many 
 discouragements at last have succeeded in promoting 
 Christianity and civilization in some of the princi- 
 pal islands; though cannibalism and savage ferocity 
 still prevail in the majority. The population of these 
 islands varies continually from wars, migrations, and 
 occasional pestilence. 'Tahiti and some others, when 
 first discovered, were conjectured to be greatly more 
 populous than at present, but no proper data exist for 
 affording even an approximation to the real numbei-p. 
 Probably the population of the whole of Polynesia 
 does not exceed one million or one million and a half 
 — Harper's Gazetteer. 
 
 Pomegranate (Ger. Granatapfel; Fr. Grenades; 
 It. Granaii, Melagrani ; Sp. Granadas'), tlic fruit of the 
 pomegranate-tree (Punica granatuni). This tree, which 
 grows to the height of 15 or 20 feet, appears to be a 
 native of Persia, whence it has been conveyed, on the 
 one side, to Southern Europe, and on the other to the 
 tropical parts of Asia, and eventually to the New World. 
 The fruit is a pulpy, many-seeded berry, the size of an 
 orange, covered witli a thick, brown, coriaceous rind. 
 The pulp has a reddish color, and a pleasant sub-acid 
 taste. Tlie value of the fruit depends on the small- 
 ness of the seed and the largeness of the pulp. The 
 finest, called by the Persians hadana, or seedless, is 
 imported into India from Cabul and Candahar, where 
 the pomegranate grows in perfection. The tree thrives 
 all the way to the equator ; but within the tropics the 
 fruit is hardly fit for use. The pomegranates brought 
 to market from the south of Europe and the West In- 
 dies are very inferior to those of Persia. 
 
 The Punica granatum is a tree, in magnitude and 
 ligneous character,. bearing considerable resemblance 
 
PON 
 
 1541 
 
 POP 
 
 to the common hawthorn. In -a wild state it fonns a 
 thorny bush; but when cultivated in gardens and in 
 plantations, under favorable circumstances, it often at- 
 tains a height of 15 or 20 feet. 
 
 The Punica granatum is indigenous to Barbary, Per- 
 sia, Japan, and various parts of Asia; and has long 
 been naturalized in the south of Europe, the West In- 
 dies, Mexico, and in South America. In the Hima- 
 layas, Mr. Eoyle informs us that the pomegranate 
 grows wild, and also that it is planted near villages. 
 It forms quite a wood in Mazanderan, whence the dried 
 seeds are exported for medical use. Tlie famous seed- 
 less pomegranates are grown in the rich gardens lying 
 under the snowy hills near the River Caubul. They 
 are also described as delicious about Hadgiabad, and 
 throughout Persia. "Though grown in most parts of 
 India," says Mr. Eoyle, " large quantities, of superior 
 quality, are yearly brought down by the northern mer- 
 chants from Caubul, Cashmere, and Boodurwar." The 
 pomegranate-tree, which partakes of the antiquity of 
 the vine, the fig, and the olive — and which, in point of 
 utility, is numbered with the grain-bearing plants, and 
 with, honey, all constituting the principal food of the 
 Eastern nations, in the early stages of civilization — 
 must possess no small degree of historical interest. It 
 is mentioned by Theophrastus under the name of roa; 
 the Phoenicians called it sida; the Greeks otjtinos; and 
 the Romans, according to Pliny, malus punica. 
 
 The general diffusion of the pomegranate through- 
 out the climates suited to its growth, implies that it 
 possesses highly valuable properties. In hot coun- 
 tries its utility is incontestable ; for its juice is most 
 grateful to the palate, and assuages thirst in a degree 
 quite peculiar to it, from its pleasant acid — an acid so 
 soft that it may, in truth, be said to be "full of melt- 
 ing sweetness," as Moore expresses himself. The pulp, 
 however, which incloses the seeds, is sometimes acid, 
 sometimes sweet; and in some cases vinous, astrin- 
 gent, and always refreshing. A sirup is made from 
 the pulp by the druggists, as well as from the dried 
 flowers, which is employed as an astringent and deter- 
 gent. The rind of the fruit, on account of its astrin- 
 gent properties, is sometimes employed in materia jned- 
 ica, as well as in the veterinary art. It has also been 
 used as a substitute for galls, in the manufacture of 
 black ink, and is said to be still employed in some 
 parts of Germany in dyeing leather red, in imitation 
 of morocco. In the Himalayas, Mr. Royle informs us, 
 the rind of the fruit, called tmspal^ " being very astrin- 
 gent, is used in medicine, as well as in dyeing. The 
 employment by the natives of India of the bark of 
 the root for the expulsion of the tape-worm, being now 
 well known, since the subject was communicated by 
 Drs. Hamilton and Fleming, is a remarkable instance 
 of the oblivion into which even a valuable medicine 
 may fall, as this property was well known to Dioscori- 
 des." Lord Bacon recommends the juice of pomegran- 
 ates as good for liver complaints ; and Dr. Woodville 
 says it is preferable to that of oranges in cases of fever. 
 From the flowers, with the addition of alum, there may 
 be obtained a fine red ink. The flowers, also, were for- 
 merly used to dye cloth a light red. — Browne's Trees 
 of America. 
 
 Ponce. See Porto Rico. 
 
 Pondioherry. The name of Pondicheny is made 
 to include all the French possessions in India, because 
 it is the most considerable of them. It is situated on 
 the Coromandel coast of Hindostan, in latitude 11° 57' 
 N. Its population in 1836 was 52,127, of whom 69G 
 were Europeans. The French possessions in India 
 comprise also Chandarnagore, Karikal, in the Carnat- 
 ic; Mah^i in Malibar; Yanaon, in Orissa; with the 
 territory attached to each. These have a total popu- 
 lation of 166,000, of whom 1000 are whites. The prod- 
 ucts are rice, grain, cocoa-nuts, betel, indigo, tobacco, 
 and cotton. The annual value of the imports is about 
 $373,000, and of the exports about $1,200,000. The 
 
 trade, nearly all being at Pondicherry, is with the Cor- 
 omandel coast. Isle of Bourbon, the Mauritius, and 
 Senegal. Pondicherry would have been a commercial 
 point of great magnitude but for the changes of owner- 
 ship, occasioned by the frequent wars of France and 
 England. The law of the 17th May, 1826, provides 
 that the distinction between the French and foreign 
 factories in India shall be suppressed in the tariff, and 
 that merchandise from any of these settlements shall 
 pay no other duties than are imposed on the same ar- 
 ticles brought from the French settlements. 
 
 Poplar (Ger. Pappel, Pappelhaum; Du. Popelier; 
 Fr. Pevplier; It. Pioppa; Sp. Alaim; Lat. Populus). 
 Of the poplar {Populus of botanists) there are about 15 
 species described. In most favorable situations the 
 white poplar grows with great rapidity, sometimes 
 sending forth shoots 16 feet long in a single/season. 
 The wood is soft, and not very durable unless kept 
 dry; but it is liglit, not apt either to swell or shrink, 
 and easily wrought. The Lombardy poplar grows 
 rapidly, and shoots in a complete spire to a great 
 height; its timber does not dift'er materially from that 
 of the white poplar. It is very light,, and is therefore 
 well adapted for the manufacture of packing-cases. 
 None of the species is fit for large timbers. — Teed- 
 gold's Principles of Carpentry; Vegetable /Substances^ 
 lAhrary of ErUertaimng Knowledge. 
 
 Population. It would be quite inconsistent with 
 the objects and limits of this work to attempt giving 
 in this place any explanation of the laws which regu- 
 late the progress of population. However, as it is fre- 
 quently of importance in commercial questions, and in 
 others affecting commercial interests, to be able to com- 
 pare the consumption of an article with the population, 
 we believe we shall gratify our readers by laying be- 
 fore them the following Table, showing the compara- 
 tive population of the principal commercial countries 
 of the world : 
 
 Austrian Empire, 1842. 
 British Empire 
 
 France, 1846 . 
 
 Prussia, 1849 
 
 Russian Empire, 1S4C. 
 
 United States, 1851. 
 
 Bavaria, 184T . 
 
 Belgium, 1S49. 
 Brazil, 1850 . . . 
 
 Denmark, 1845. 
 
 Population. 
 
 35,T30,112 
 
 Austria. 
 
 Hungary 
 
 Lombardy and Venice. . 
 
 21,435,325 
 England and Wales. . . . 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Islands in British seas. . 
 
 Ireland 
 
 Colonies.. 5,224,4TT 
 
 North America 
 
 West Indies 
 
 Africa 
 
 Australia 
 
 Asia 
 
 Europe 
 
 35,400,486 
 Colonies, 1841, T33,496. 
 
 Asia 
 
 Africa and Algeria 
 
 West Indies 
 
 N. and S. America 
 
 Australia 
 
 16,331,18T 
 
 Protestants 
 
 Catholics 
 
 Jews 
 
 66,008,315 
 
 European Russia 
 
 Siberia 
 
 Trans-Caucasian 
 
 American 
 
 Poland 
 
 Finland 
 
 23,674,706 
 
 White 
 
 Free colored 
 
 Slave colored 
 
 4,519,526 
 
 Catholics 
 
 Protestants 
 
 Jews 
 
 4,359,090 
 
 5,180,000 
 
 now 6 to 7,000,000 
 
 2,266,497 
 
 Denmark proper 
 
 Duchies 
 
 Colonies 
 
 23,062,561 
 7,864,262 
 4,803,23,9 
 
 17,905,831 
 
 2,870,784 
 
 142,916 
 
 6,515,794 
 
 2,181,270 
 900,882 
 411,468 
 469,000 
 
 1,551,860 
 411,463 
 
 I viz. : 
 167,790 
 
 23,348 
 20,200 
 
 9,835,583 
 
 6,045,292 
 
 214,867 
 
 54,092,300 
 3,937,000 
 2,643,000 
 61,000 
 4,857,700 
 1,412,316 
 
 19,656,202 
 
 418,573 
 3,600,931 
 
 3,060,694 
 
 1,181,216 
 
 59,288 
 
 1,407,747 
 888,750 
 118,491 
 
POK 
 
 1542 
 
 FOE 
 
 Countr ies. 
 
 %)lJt 
 
 Greece 
 
 Hamburg '. 
 
 Holland, 1849 
 
 Mexico, 1837 
 
 Papal States, lS43 . . . 
 Portugal, 1841 
 
 Sardinia, 1838 
 
 Spain, 1838 
 
 Sweden & Tjorway, 1846. 
 
 Turkey ,- . . . 
 
 Two Sicilies, 1845 . . . v. j 
 China :'. 
 
 COLONIES. 
 
 BriMsh Possessions. 
 Indies 
 
 Canada, 1848 
 
 Cape of Good Hope 
 
 Australia, 1848 
 
 New South "Wales 
 
 Western, 1848 
 
 Van Diemeu's Land, 1850 
 
 South, 1849 
 
 Jamaica, 1850 
 
 Ceylon, 1843 
 
 Mauritius, 1846 
 
 French Possessions. 
 
 Hayti 
 
 Spanish Possessions. 
 Cuba, 1850 
 
 Dutch Possessions. 
 Java .\ .'. . 
 
 Population. 
 
 1,927,000 
 
 63T,TO0 
 
 188,064 
 
 3,241,990 
 
 Colonies 21,786,700 
 
 7,657,000 
 2,908, lis 
 3,412,500 
 
 Possessions 1,722,140 
 
 Azores, 330,50ft 
 
 InAfrica 706,610 
 
 In Asia 381,720 
 
 China and Oceanica. i . . 323,310 
 4,650,368 ■ 
 
 Continent 4,125,735 
 
 Me of Sardinia 524,633 
 
 12,386,841 
 
 Colonies , 3,717,433 
 
 4,645,007 
 
 Sweden 8,316,536 
 
 Norway . : 1,328,471 
 
 , .35,,350,000 
 
 Europe . , , 15,600,000 
 
 Asia .' 16,050,000 
 
 Egypt, Tripoli, Tunis. . 3,800,000 
 ! " 8,428,316 
 
 >faplefl 6,382,706 
 
 Sicily , 2,040,610 
 
 367,0(10,000 
 Uncertain.' 
 
 151,316,120 
 
 British States 98,785,862 
 
 .Native States 52,569,061 
 
 Foreign States 171,217 
 
 1,481,626 
 
 Eastern 768,304 
 
 Western 723,292 
 
 163,116 
 
 '212,000 
 
 4,622 
 
 80,000 
 
 46,907 
 
 . 400,000 
 
 1,442,062 
 
 161,089 
 
 700,000 
 
 1,400,000 
 
 9,600,000 
 
 For disquisitions on the laiv of population, see writ- 
 ings of Malthus, Godwin, A. H. Everett, Gkay, 
 SadlEk, Th9Rnton', Doubleday. The subject of 
 population is discussed in the following periodicals : 
 Westminster Review, lii. 153, xlvii. 100, Ivii. 468 ; Quar- 
 terly Rev. xlv. 97, xxvi. 148, syii. 369, liii. 30 ; Bank- 
 ers' Mag., New York, iii. 457, 528 (J. H. Ale.xander) ; 
 North Am.Rev.\ii\u. 370 (Bowen), xxxiii. 1 (A. H. Ev- 
 erett), xvii. ,288 (E. Everett), xxiv. 218 (Sparks), 
 XV. 289; Hunt's Merchants* Magazine, vii. 241, 337, 
 629, viii. 240, 330 (Tucker) ; Edinburgh Review, xvi. 
 464, XXXV. 862, li. 297, lii. 504, Ixxxv. 85 ; Monthly 
 Review, ciii. 80 ; Blackwoop'8 Magazine, xxviii. 109, 
 xxix. 392, xxi. 377 ; , British Quarterly Review, iv. 115 ; 
 American Almanac, 1837, 1848 ; Benwcraiic Review, 
 xxi. 397 (A. H. Everett), xvii. 297, 379, 438 (Tuck- 
 er), xxii, 11. , 
 
 Porcelain, or China 'Ware, a very fine species 
 of earthen-ware. The first .specimens of this fabric 
 were brought to Europe from China and Japan. The 
 best Chinese porcelain is of .a very fine texture, white, 
 semi-transparent, and sometimes beautifully colored 
 and gilt; is ihfusible, and not subject to break by the 
 sudden application of heat or cold. The Chinese term 
 for the article is ise-Jd. But the Portuguese, by whom 
 it was first brought in considerable quantities into Eu- 
 rope, bestowed on it the name of porcelain, from par- 
 cella, a cup. Common earthen-ware, sometimes of a 
 very good quality, is manufactured in Canton, Fokien, 
 and several other provinces of China. But it is a cu- 
 rious fact that the beautiful porcelain imported into 
 Europe is made only in the town of Kingtesing, in the 
 province of Kyangsi. Its manufacture is fully de- 
 
 scribed by Duhalde, in his account of China; under the 
 head "Porcelain and China-ware.^' The porcelain 'of 
 Japan is decidedly inferior to that Of China; very lit- 
 tle is imported, and it is valued only as a curiosity. 
 After porcelain began to be imported, its beaiity soon 
 brought it into great request, notwithstanding its high 
 price, as an ornament for the houses and tables of the 
 rich and the great. The emulation of European artists 
 was in consequencei excited. Very little information 
 was, however, obtained as to the mode of manufactur- 
 ing porcelain till the early part of last century, when 
 the process, was developed in' a letter from a French 
 Jesuit in China, who had found means to make him- 
 self prettyi well acquainted with the subject. The 
 knowledge that thus transpired, and the investigations 
 of Eeaumur and other chemists, prepared the way for 
 the establishment of the manufacture in Europe:' It 
 was first commenced at Dresden; which has been fa- 
 mous ever since for the beauty of its prodactions ; but 
 the finegt and most magnificent specimens of European 
 china have been produced at Sevres, in France, in the 
 factory carried on at the expense of the French gov- 
 ernment. 
 
 British Porcelain Munvfacture. — This, though unable 
 to boast of such fine specimens of costly workmanship 
 as have been produced at Sfevree and Dresden, is of 
 much greater national importance. Instead of exclu- 
 sively applying themselves to the manufacture of arti- 
 cles fitted only for the consumption of the rich, the 
 artists of England have exerted themselves in prefer- 
 ence to produce China-ware suitable for the middle 
 classes ; and have succeeded in producing articles at 
 once excellent in quality, elegant in form, and cheap. 
 We are principally indebted for the improvements 
 made in this important manufacture to the genius and 
 enterprise of the late Mr. Josiah Wedgwood. This ex- 
 traordinary man owed none of his success to fortuitous 
 circumstances. Devoting his mind to patient investi- 
 gation, and sparing neither pains nor expense in ac- 
 complishing his aims, he gathered round him artists 
 of talent from diflerent countries, and drew upon the 
 stores of science for aid in -pursuing the objects of his 
 praiseworthy ambition. The early and signal pros- 
 perity that attended his efforts served only as an in- 
 centive to urge him forward to new exertions, and as 
 means for calling forth an d encouraging talent in others, 
 in a manner calculated to promote the welfare of his 
 country. Previously to his time, the potteries of Staf- 
 fordshire produced only inferior fabrics, flimsy as to 
 their materials, and void of taste in their forms and 
 ornaments ; the best among them being only wretched 
 imitations of the grotesque and unmeaning scenes and 
 figures portrayed on the porcelain of China. But such 
 have been the efi'ects resulting fr<Sm the exertions and 
 example of this one individual, that the wares of that 
 district are now not only brought into general use in 
 England, to the exclusion of all foreign goods, which 
 had been largely, imported, but English potterj' has 
 ,since teen sought for and celebrated throughout the 
 ci'vilized world, and adopted even in places where the 
 art was previously practiced. An intelligent foreigner, 
 M. Faujas de St. Fond, writing on this subject, says : 
 " Its excellent workmanship, its solidity, the advant- 
 age which it possesses of sustaining the action of fire, 
 its fine glaze impenetrable to acids, the beauty and 
 convenience of its form, and the cheapness of its price, 
 have given rise to a commerce so active and so univers- 
 al, that, in traveling from Paris to Petersburg, from 
 Amsterdam to the farthest part of Sweden, and from 
 Dunkirk to the extremity of the south of France, one 
 is served at every inn upon English ware. Spain, 
 Portugal, and Italy are supplied with it; and vessels 
 are loaded with it for both the Indies and the conti- 
 nent of America." — See the quotation in the A ccounf 
 of the Porcelain Manufacture, p. 16, in Lardnee's Cy- 
 clopcedia. For the statistical details with respect to the 
 manufacture,' see the article Earthen-'waee. The 
 
POE 
 
 1543 
 
 FOR 
 
 British porcelain manufacture is principally carried on 
 at the potteries in Stafibrdshlre, and at Worcester, 
 Derby, Colebrooli Dale, and other places. 
 
 Mun'hme Cups. — It was long a prevalent opinion 
 among modern critics that the vasa murrhina^ so fa- 
 mous in Roman history, were formed of porcelain. 
 Pdmpey was the first who bi:oUght them to Eome from 
 the East, about 64 years before the Christian era. 
 They were used as drinking-cups, and fetclied enor- 
 mous prices ; Nero having given, according to the com- 
 mon metltod of interpreting, £58,000 for a single cup ! 
 The extravagance of the purchaser may, in this in- 
 stance, be supposed to have increase^ the price ; so 
 that tliD degree' of estimatibn in whicli these dtips were 
 held may be mote accurately inferred from the fact 
 that, of all the rich spoils of Alexandria, Augustus was 
 content to select One for his, share.— Suetonius, lib. ii. 
 c. 71. Pliny (lib. xxxvii. c. 2) says they were made 
 in' Persia, particularly in Karamania. But those who 
 contend they were China-ware, chiefly found ou the 
 following line of Propertius : ' 
 
 Murrheulue in Parthi^ pqcula ooota fooib. — Lib. iv. 
 In despite, however, of this apparently decisive au- 
 thority, Le Bland and Larcher have. In two very 
 lejirned dissertations (^Mimoir^s de Littirat..ioTfi. xliii.), 
 which Dr. Kobertaon has declared are quite satisfac- 
 tory, endeavored tp prove that the vasa murrhina were 
 formed of transparent stone, dug out of the earth in 
 some Eastern provinces, and that they ^vere imitated in 
 vessels of colored glass.^KoijERTSos's Disqvidtion on 
 India, noto 39. Dr. Vincent (Commerce and Navigation 
 of the Ancients, vol. ii. p. 723) inclines to the opposite 
 opinion ; but the weight of authority is evidently on 
 the other side. At all events, it is plain that iif the 
 niurrhine cups were really porcelain, it had been ex- 
 c§^dif)gly scarce at Rome, as their jirice would other- 
 . wise have been cppiparatively moderate. But it is 
 most probable that the ancients were wholly unac- 
 quainted with this article ; which, indeed, was but lit- 
 tle Itnown in Europe till aftgr the discovery of the 
 route to India by the Cape of Good, Hope. For some 
 further details on this question, see Kippisgii, Antiq. 
 Rom, lib. iv. c. 3. — See Americqin Journal of Science, 
 xxvi. 233; American Monthly Review, ii. 117. 
 
 FOEEIQK IMPOBTATIONS AKD ExPOBTATIONS, DOMESTIC EX- 
 PORTS OP THE MAMinrAOTtniEs OP China, I^oecelain, 
 Earthen and Stone Ware, of the United States. 
 
 Yen™. 
 
 ForeigD 
 Importations. 
 
 Foreign 
 Exports. 
 
 DomoBtie 
 Exports. 
 
 1840 
 
 1841 
 
 igia I . 
 
 $2,070.2.S1 
 1,530,450 
 1,657,961 
 638 036 
 1,633,482 
 2,439,515 
 2,625,349 
 2,242,241 
 2,332,996 
 2,261,331 
 2,601,393 
 3,340,622 
 3,444,095 
 3,173,182 
 4.137,091 
 3,717,670 
 3,347,884 
 
 $03,754 
 51,670 
 
 37,ono 
 
 26,338 
 27,289 
 22,701 
 03,403 
 32,690 
 36,148 
 39,948 
 42,261 
 41,109 
 23,834 
 16.138 
 65,926 
 73,092 
 40,091 
 
 $10,909 
 
 6,737 
 
 . 7,618 
 
 2,907 
 
 4,684 
 
 7,3S3 
 
 6,621 
 
 4,768 
 
 8,612 
 
 10,632 
 
 16,644 
 
 23,096 
 
 18.310, 
 
 63,085 
 
 33,867 
 
 32,119 
 
 66,696 
 
 1843 
 
 l^t 
 
 1846 
 
 1847 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 
 
 1850 ....;... 
 
 1851 
 
 1652 
 
 1853 
 
 1864i 
 
 1865 
 
 1866 
 
 Average 
 
 $2,526,772 
 
 $40,723 
 
 •$18,4!0 
 
 In doiiseqnence bf a change in the fiscal year in 1843, 
 but nine months are represented in that year. 
 
 Pork, the flesh of the hog. Salted and picltled 
 pork forms a considerable article bf export to the "West 
 Indies aiid other places. 
 
 The exports of pork from the U. States for the year 
 ending June 30, 1857, were from the following ports : 
 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 Value. 
 
 
 22,782 
 64 466 
 12,213 
 44,389 
 
 $479,339 
 
 1,190,375 
 
 226,376 
 
 909,777 
 
 
 
 Other ports 
 
 
 143,860 
 
 $2,806 867 
 
 
 TABLB EXIIIUITING THE QtJANTITIEB ANP VaLTJE OV PoKK, 
 
 Baoon, and LabD exported eeom the United States 
 TO Oeeat Beitain, feom 1830 to 1855, both ^ eaes in- 
 
 CLtrSIVB. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Pork. 
 
 Hams and Bacon. 
 
 Lard. 
 
 Value 
 
 
 
 Pounds 
 
 ' Pounds, 
 
 DoUars 
 
 1830 
 
 2,200 
 
 1,646 
 
 
 20,833 
 
 1831 
 
 130 
 
 ' 2,805 
 
 
 1,833 
 
 1832 
 
 / 2,706 
 
 002 
 
 
 39,378 
 
 1833 
 
 921 
 
 '■ 7,430 
 
 600 
 
 10,1.97 
 
 1834 
 
 
 - 4,094 
 
 .... 
 
 498 
 
 1836 
 
 12 
 
 ,1,816 
 
 .... 
 
 345 
 
 1836 
 
 
 11,461 
 
 
 1,293 
 
 1837 
 
 
 „ 400 
 
 
 40 
 
 1838 
 
 
 607 ' 
 
 
 88 
 
 1839 
 
 10 
 
 150 
 
 
 .241 
 
 1840 
 
 
 l,b61 
 
 
 ■?15 
 
 1841 
 
 4,769 ' 
 
 26,394 
 
 444,306 
 
 80,8T9 
 
 1842 
 
 i6,900 
 
 160,274 
 
 3,430,732 
 
 337,028 
 
 1843 
 
 3,230 
 
 656,328 
 
 4,509,484 
 
 306,293 
 
 1844 
 
 10,280 
 
 360,189 
 
 8,970,806 
 
 043,705 
 
 1846 
 
 14,140 
 
 B6,907 
 
 6 687,075 
 
 4,7,066 
 
 1846 
 
 13,001 
 
 630,026 
 
 8,211,389 
 
 768,226 
 
 1847 
 
 73,940 , 
 
 14,367,106 
 
 17,798,770 
 
 3,471,697 
 
 I8« 
 
 8T,760 
 
 29,218,462 
 68',166,465 
 
 27,763,841 
 
 6,283,259 , 
 
 1849 
 
 111,385 ' 
 
 31,388,265 
 
 0,482,194 
 
 1850 
 
 44,631 
 
 37,377,709 
 
 31,693,591 
 
 4,381,989 ■ 
 
 1851 
 
 9,i58 
 
 14,729,109 
 
 0,633,788 
 
 1,587.351 
 
 1852 
 
 1,632 
 
 3,207,993 
 
 8,976,124 
 
 1,075,299. 
 
 1863 
 
 l'r,156 
 
 18,297; 379 
 
 9,726,186 
 
 2,239,094 
 
 1854 
 
 43,664 
 
 88,8;0|737 
 
 ■ 26,716,141 
 
 6,193;894 ' 
 
 1866 
 
 '61,663 
 
 30,240,161 
 
 15,849,923 
 
 8,916,120 
 
 * 6679 tierces ^^ere also exported in 1856. 
 
 Exports Of Pork from the IJnited States for tiie Ybar 
 ' ending 'June' 30, 1858. 
 
 ' whither exported. 
 
 Sweden and Norway .... 
 Swedish West Indies. . . . 
 
 Danish West Indies 
 
 Hamburg . ., 
 
 llremen ; 
 
 Holland 
 
 Dutch West Indies 
 
 Dutch Guiana ,. 
 
 Duteli East Indies 
 
 Belgium 
 
 England 
 
 Sbotland , 
 
 Cribraltar ..,..,., 
 
 Malta. .'....' 
 
 Canada . . J I.. 
 
 Other' BriUBh N. A. Poss. 
 
 Britisli West' Indies 
 
 British Honduras 
 
 British Guiana ^ ....;.. . 
 Biitlsh Po.sB. in Africa . . 
 Other p.orts in Afilca . . . 
 
 British Australia 
 
 New Zealand 
 
 British East Indies 
 
 France on the Atlantic. . 
 France on the Mediter'n . 
 French 1^. A. Possessions 
 
 'French "West Indies 
 
 French Guiana 
 
 Spain on the Atlantic . . . 
 Spain on the Mediter'n. . 
 
 Canary Islands 
 
 Philippine Islands 
 
 Cilba ..., 
 
 Porto Kico 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Cape de Verd Islands . . . 
 
 Sardinia 
 
 Austrian Poss. in Italy . . 
 
 Turkey in Europe 
 
 Ilayti 
 
 San Domingo . . ; 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Central Republic, . . . 
 
 New Granada 
 
 Venezuela ' 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Chili 
 
 Peru 
 
 Sandwich Islands 
 
 China 
 
 Whale Fisheries 
 
 Total. 
 
 Tierces. Barrels 
 
 4326 
 
 60 
 
 185 
 
 2,429 
 
 32 
 
 170 
 
 48 
 
 339 
 
 l,7iJ7 
 
 25 
 
 1,491 
 
 27,832 
 
 724 
 
 235 
 
 362 
 
 50;613 
 
 30,865' 
 
 ,23,9ii0 
 
 4,428 
 
 11,7'28 
 
 ■ 656 
 
 63T 
 
 1,973 
 
 387 
 
 155 
 
 39,129 
 
 33,755 
 
 4!3 
 
 605 
 
 621 
 
 42 
 
 10 
 
 30 
 
 75 
 
 4,321 
 
 3,715 
 
 14 
 
 20 
 
 3,204 
 
 24 
 
 8,264 
 
 17,887 
 
 33 
 
 "270 
 
 2,094 
 
 375 
 
 83 
 
 2,773 
 
 235 
 
 458 
 
 3,818 
 
 1.541 
 
 44S4 I 274,lj0.i 
 
 Voluo 
 
 .$975 
 
 ^,634 
 
 40,743 
 
 62(1 
 
 2,819 
 
 745 
 
 4.361 
 
 33,049 
 
 413 
 
 24,886 
 
 641,890 
 
 11,654 
 
 ,, 3,078 
 
 7,144 
 
 897,116 
 
 531,880 
 
 416,20911 
 
 71,558 
 
 185,429 
 
 •■ 9,707 
 
 10,497 
 
 ,61,147 
 
 6,100 
 
 2,481 
 
 594,138 
 
 679,820 
 
 7,715 
 
 9,027 
 
 12,745 
 
 021 
 
 146 
 
 540 
 
 1,176 
 
 77,715 
 
 06,820 
 
 219 
 
 307 
 
 51,553 
 
 323 
 
 60,063 
 
 341,038 
 
 735 
 
 60 
 
 3,977 
 
 34,873 
 
 0,401 
 
 1,868 
 
 44,440 
 
 4,686 
 
 t,824 
 
 46,83» 
 
 26,663 
 
 $5,029,940 
 
 — See Pkovisions. 
 
 Pork Trade of the West. — The Cincinnati Price Cur- 
 rent contains returns of the pork trade from all the 
 principal points in the West for the seasons of 18o5-'56, 
 
POK 
 
 1544 
 
 POR 
 
 and 1856-'o7. The following is a recapitulation by 
 States of the number of hogs packed : 
 
 Stoles. 
 
 1865-'56. 
 
 1866-'67. 
 
 Ohio 
 
 633,697 
 428,334 
 482,531 
 481,268 
 189,904 
 172,378 
 63,400 
 39,000 
 
 483,048 
 349,212 
 316,629 
 363,202 
 148,244 
 105,322 
 42,811 
 16,000 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Missouri 
 
 Iowa 
 
 ■Wisconsin 
 
 
 2,489,.602 
 1,818,468 
 
 1,818,468 
 
 Total deflciency,185T. 
 
 671,034 
 
 Port, a liax'bor, river, or haven, formed either by 
 nature or art to receive and shelter shipping from the 
 storms and waves of the open sea. Artificial ports are 
 those which are either formed by throwiui? a strong 
 mound or rampart across the harbor's mouth to some 
 island or rock, or erecting two long barriers, which 
 stretch from the land on each side like arms or the 
 horns of a crescent, and nearly inclose the haven. The 
 former of these are called mole-heads, and the latter 
 pie7's. 
 
 Port is also a name given on some occasions to the 
 larboard or left side of the ship, as in the following in- 
 stances. Thus it is said, "The ship heels to port;" 
 that is, stoops or inclines to the larboard side. " Top 
 the yard to port," the order to make the larboard ex- 
 tremity of a yard higher than the other. "Port the 
 helm," the order to put the helm over the larboard side 
 the vessel. In all these senses this phrase appears 
 intended to prevent any mistakes happening from the 
 similarity of sounds i n the ^vords starboard and larboard, 
 particularly when they relate to the helm, where a mis- 
 apprehension might be attended with very dangerous 
 consequences. 
 
 Ports, the embrasures or openings in the side of a 
 ship of war, wherein the artillery is ranged in battery 
 upon the decks above and below\ 
 
 Port-au-Prince, the capital of Hayti, or St. Do- 
 mingo, in lat. 18° 33' 42'' N., long. 72° 27' 11" "W. 
 Population variously estimated, probably from 18,000 
 to 20,000. It is situated on the west coast of the 
 island, at the bottom of a large and deep gulf. It was 
 founded in 1749; since which, with, few intervals, it 
 lias been the capital of French St. Domingo, as it is 
 now of the entire island. It is partially fortified; the 
 Iiarbor being protected by a battery on a small island 
 at a little distance from the shore. The country round 
 is low and marshy ; and the heat in the summer months 
 being excessive, the climate is then exceedingly nn- 
 liealthy. The buildings are principally of wood, and 
 seldom exceed two stories in height. The entrance to 
 the harbor is between White Island and the southern 
 shore. The depth of water varies from about 18 feet 
 at ebb to about 21 feet at full tide. It is customary, 
 but not compulsory, to employ a pilot in entering the 
 harbor. They arc always on the look-out. Ships 
 moor head and stern, at from 100 to 500 yards from 
 shore; loading and unloading by means of boats, as 
 there are neither docks nor qua3''s to assist these opera- 
 tions. The harbor is perfectly safe, except during 
 hurricanes, which may be expected from August to 
 November. The commerce of Port-au-Prince is car- 
 ried on by various classes of persons. The imports 
 from Europe and America are principally consigned to 
 European and North American commission houses, be- 
 sides a few Haytien establishments. The capital is 
 one of the ports to which foreign merchants .are con- 
 fined by the law of patents ; but they are restricted by 
 heavy penalties to a wholesale business with Haytiens, 
 and to a minimum amount of goods. Of course they 
 can not deal with the consumers, but with the native 
 retailers, who are chiefly women, styled ' ' merchandes ;" 
 these employ hucksters, also women, who traverse the 
 country, attend the markets, and give an account of 
 their transactions to their employers, either every even- 
 
 ing, once a week, or once a month, according to their 
 character for integrity. 
 
 This city, being the capital of the empire, centralizes 
 the large buUc of Haytien foreign commerce. It is 
 true that less than a third of the vessels engaged in 
 this foreign commerce depart from its ports with full 
 cargoes ; but this is owing to the fact that it is unable 
 to supply sufficient exports, and the laws of Hayti per- 
 mit foreign vessels, after unloading at the first port, to 
 proceed to others to make up their cargoes. The gen- 
 eral navigation from 1846 to 1850 comprised, arrivals 
 and departures, 1448 vessels, with an aggregate of 
 219,810 tons, or an annual average of 290 vessels of 
 43,962 tons. The flags which enter into the foreign 
 trade of this port are, the United States, French, En- 
 glish, Danish, Belgian, Hamburgian, and Bremen. 
 Notwithstanding the great efforts made by Great Brit- 
 ain and France in 1847 and 1848 to ameliorate the com- 
 mercial and agricultural condition of Hayti, its general 
 commerce, during the five years ending with 1850, de- 
 clined at least thirty-three per cent, when compared 
 with the preceding five years. Its European com- 
 merce, more especially, is yearly declining, while its 
 general trade with the United States has largelj' in- 
 creased. The number of American vessels entered and 
 cleared during the last six months of 1854 was lz2, 
 with an average of 200 tons each. Total value of car- 
 goes inward, $488,530, consisting chiefly of provisions, 
 lumber, and dry goods. Cargoes homeward consisted 
 of logwood, coffee, and hemp, the value of which is 
 omitted in the official returns. Assuming tlie naviga- 
 tion between the United States and this port to have 
 been as active the first six months of 1854 as the last, 
 the figures for the whole year would stand thus : Total 
 number of American vessels entered and cleared at 
 Port-au-Prince in 1854, 244. Official returns give as 
 the total for 1852, 210; 1851, 189; which shows an in- 
 crease for each successive year. — Commercial Pelations' 
 of the United States. 
 
 Port Aux Cayes, a sea-port of Hayti, is one of 
 the most important of the empire. In 1850 there en- 
 tered and cleared 372 vessels, measuring an aggregate 
 of 50,574 tons. The city is generally reputed one of 
 the most progressive in the island, and is the capital 
 of the southern peninsula of Hayti j the best irrigated 
 and most fertile province in the empire. Here, as in 
 the other ports, the United States holds the first com- 
 mercial rank. The chief imports from the United 
 States are provisions, of which the consumption is 
 heavy. During the past two or three years American 
 merchants have also imported domestic cottons and 
 manufactures of cotton, generally in such quantities, 
 and with such success, as to have alreadj' disheartened all 
 foreign competition. The French authority {Commerce 
 Exterieur') says, in reference to this singular success of 
 American merchants in this as in the other markets 
 of Hayti: "This species of merchandise (American 
 cottons) is in high repute for its excellent quality. It 
 is superior to that manufactured in England, and is 
 sold at a lower figure." France supplies a small quan- 
 tity of wines, oils, and fabrics of Marseilles and Paris. 
 Coasters plying between St. Thomas, Cura^oa, and 
 Jamaica, import small packages of European wares, 
 and some provisions, for which thej' generally find a 
 ready market. The quantity of coffee annually ex- 
 ported from Aux Cayes is estimated at between four 
 and five million pounds. During good seasons this 
 figure rises to six million pounds. In this total, how- 
 ever, are included considerable quantities imported 
 coastwise from the neighboring ports. The district 
 proper of Aux Cayes supplies but little coffee, the 
 principal article of culture being the sugar-cane, the 
 produceof which, first converted into sirup, then manu- 
 factured into rum, tafia, etc., supplies the greater part 
 of the island with spirituous liquors. Campeche-wood 
 (logwood), the produce of which is considerable, sup- 
 plies an export trade of 20,000,000 lbs. 
 
FOR 
 
 1545 
 
 FOR 
 
 Imports into Aux Cayes, 1850. — From the United 
 States, $266,106; Great Britain, $246,480; France, 
 $39,432; Hanse Towns, $29,574; other countries, 
 $9858 : total, $591,510. 
 
 Porte, the Sublime. The official title of the 
 government of the Ottoman empire : said to bo derived 
 from a gate of the palace at Broussa, the original me- 
 tropolis of that empire, called Bab Humayoor, the sub- 
 lime gate. 
 
 Porter, a liquor brewed from malt, part of which 
 has been more highly dried than that used for ale. It 
 is hopped in the same way as ale ; and its deep color is 
 Anally given to it either by burned sugar, which usually 
 goes imder the name ot.coloring, or, more legitimately, 
 by roasted or parched malt. Porter was first brewed 
 in 1722. The malt liquor previously drunk consisted 
 of three kinds — ale, beer, and " twopenny ;" and a mix- 
 ture of either of these kinds was a favorite beverage 
 under the name of "half-and-half;" or a mixture was 
 drunk called " three threads," consisting of equal por- 
 tions of each of the above kinds of liquor, for a draught 
 of which the publican had to go to three different casks. 
 About 1722, Harwood, a London brewer, commenced 
 brewing a malt liquor which was intended to unite 
 the flavors of ale and beer, or ale, beer, and " two- 
 penny ;" and, having succeeded, he called his liquor 
 "entire," or "entire butt," a name intended to inti- 
 mate that it was drawn from one cask or butt only. 
 A mixture of ale or porter, drawn from different casks, 
 is veiy commonly drunk in London at the present time. 
 Harwood's liquor obtained the name of porter from its 
 consumption bj' porters and laborers. From 1722 to 
 1761, the retail price of porter in London was 3d. per 
 pot, when it was raised to 3id., at which it continued 
 till 1790. It has never been higher than 6d. 
 
 Porter's Anchor. This anchor is an English pat- 
 ent, and is extensively used at Southampton, and oth- 
 er English ports. Its peculiarity consists in giving to 
 the arms and flukes a freedom of motion round a pivot 
 or fulcrum at the end of the shank, thus departing at 
 once from the rigidity usually observed in the construc- 
 tion of anchors. The arms and flukes are forged wholly 
 independent of the shank, and have a hole drilled trans- 
 versely through the centre for the reception of the iron 
 bolt which connects them with the shank. The efifect 
 of this construction of a swivel anchor is, that when 
 one fluke enters the ground, the other necessarily falls 
 down upon the shank, thereby avoiding the danger in- 
 cident to the upward projection of a sharp point. The 
 objects designed to be attained by this new construe, 
 tion are said to be mainly the two following : the avoid- 
 ance of the consequence of what is called " fouling," by 
 the cable passing over the exposed fluke of the anchor 
 when the vessel is swinging in a side way ; and the 
 avoidance of injurj' to the vessel itself in the event of 
 falling on her anchor. 
 
 Porters and Porterage. Porters are persons em- 
 ployed to carry messages or parcels, etc. — See Cah- 
 
 HIEKS. 
 
 Portland, city, port of entry, and capital, Cumber- 
 land county, Maine, is situated on a peninsula at the 
 western extremity of Casco Bay, 60 miles south-south- 
 west of Augusta. It is 105 miles from Boston, via the 
 Eastern Kailroad, and 111 via Boston and Maine, and 
 294 from Montreal, via the Atlantic and St. Lawrence 
 Railroad, and the Kennebec and Portland, and the An- 
 droscoggin and Kennebec, connecting it with Augusta 
 and with Waterville. Lat. (Mount Joy), 43° 39' 52" 
 N., and long. 70° 13' 34" W. from Greenwich, and 7° 
 49' 14" E. from Washington. Population in 1800,3677; 
 in 1810, 7169; in 1820, 11,581; in 1830,12,601; in 18J0, 
 15,318 ; in 1850, 20,815 ; and in 1854, 25,000. The pen- 
 insula projects eastwardly into the bay about three 
 miles, and has an average width of three-fourths of a 
 mile, forming throughout its entire length an eleva- 
 ted ridge, which, inland, rises into considerable hills, 
 presenting a very beautiful appearance. There were 
 
 in 1866 seven banks, with an aggregate capital of 
 $2,000,000 ; an insurance office ; an extensive estab- 
 lishment making locomotives and railroad cars, em- 
 ploying 175 persons ; three iron founderies, three brass 
 founderies, six machine shops, thi'ee edge-tool factories, 
 a chain-cable factory, an extensive sperm-oil factory, 
 two plane factories, two piano-forte factories, two tan- 
 neries, six lumber-yards, five ship-building establish- 
 ments, 295 stores of various kinds, and many manu- 
 factures of small wares; ten printing-offices, issuing 
 two daily, two tri-weekly, nine weekly, and one semi- 
 monthly publication. Capital emploj'ed in manufac- 
 tures in 1850, $761,850; value of manufactured arti- 
 cles, $2,153,290. 
 
 The harbor is capacious and safe, and among the 
 best in the United States, It is protected by islands 
 from the violence of storms, is seldom obstructed by 
 ice, has- a good entrance, and is defended bj' forts 
 Preble and Scammel, the former garrisoned by United 
 States artillerj'. At the eastern extremity of the city 
 is a tower, 70 feet high, erected for the purpose of ob- 
 serving vessels at sea, and furnished with signals. 
 The harbor is connected by the Cumberland and Ox- 
 ford Canal, 20^ miles long, with Sebago Pond, and 
 thence with Long Pond, etc. The Atlantic and St. 
 Lawrence Kailroad, or, as it is now called in Canada, 
 the Grand Trunk Railroad, was commenced in 1844, 
 and is now complete to Montreal. Through this ave- 
 nue pass a large proportion of the products of the 
 North and West for shipment to Europe and else- 
 where. The foreign commerce of the city is chiefly 
 with the West Indies and Europe. Its chief exports 
 are lumber, ice, fish, provisions, etc. The coasting 
 trade is principally with Boston, and during the sum- 
 mer a steamboat plies daily to that city. Tonnage in 
 1853, 104,350 tons. Portland was formerly a port of 
 Falmouth, and 130 houses, constituting two-thirds of 
 the village, were burned by the British in October, 
 1775. It was incorporated under its present name in 
 1786, and received a city charter in 1832. It was for- 
 merly the capital of the State of Maine. 
 
 Port Iiouis, or North-west Port, the capital of 
 the Mauritius, at the bottom of a triangular bay, the 
 entrance to which is rather difficult, in lat. 20° 9' 56'' 
 S., long. 57" 28' 41" E. Every vessel approaching the 
 harbor must hoist her flag and fire two guns ; if in the 
 night, a light must be shown, when a pilot comes on 
 board and steers the ship to the entrance of the port. 
 It is a very convenient port for careening and repair- 
 ing, but provisions of all sorts are dear. In the hur- 
 ricane months the anchorage in Port Louis is not good, 
 and it can then only accommodate a very few vessels. 
 The houses are low, and principally built of wood. The 
 town and harbor are pretty strongly fortified. Almost 
 all the foreign trade of the island is carried on here. 
 
 Porto Rico (^San Juan de), the capital of the val- 
 uable Spanish island of the same name, on the north 
 side of the island, on a peninsula joined to the main 
 land by a narrow isthmus, lat. 18° 29' 10" N., long. 
 06°7'2"W. The fortifications are very strong. The 
 town, which stands on a pretty steep declivity, is well 
 built, clean, and contains nearly 30,000 inhabitants. 
 
 Harbor. — The harbor of Porto Rico has a striking 
 resemblance to that of Havana, to which it is but lit- 
 tle inferior. The entranbe to it, about 300 fathoms in 
 width, has the Moro Castle on its east side, and is de- 
 fended on the west side by forts erected on two small 
 islands. Within, the harbor expands into a capacious 
 basin, the depth of water vai-ying from five to six and 
 seven fathoms. On the side opposite to the town there 
 are extensive sand banks ; but the entrance to the port, 
 as well as the port itself, is unobstructed by any bar or 
 shallow. 
 
 Porto Rico, Tdand of, lies in the same latitude as 
 Jamaica. Though the spiallest of the greater Antilles, 
 it is of very considerable size. Its form is that of a 
 parallelogram, being about 110 miles in length from 
 
FOR 
 
 1546 
 
 FOR 
 
 east to west, with a mean breadth of about 38, contain- 
 ing an area of 3750 square miles. Surface pleasantly 
 diversified with hills and valleys ; soil generally fer- 
 tile. It has, however, suffered much from hurricanes; 
 those of 1742 and 1825 having been particularly de- 
 structive. Since the breaking up of the old Spanish 
 colonial system, the progress of Porto Rico has hardly 
 been less rapid than that of Cuba. Her population, 
 which in 1778 was estimated at 80,650, amounted, ac- 
 cording to a census taken in 1836, to 357,086, of whom 
 188,869 were whites, and only 41,818 slaves. It is ob- 
 vious from this statement that a large proportion of 
 the free inhabitants are colored ; but the law knows 
 no distinction between the white and the colored roiu- 
 rier , and this circumstance, as well as the whites be- 
 ing in the habit of freely intermixing with people of 
 color, has prevented the growth of those prejudices and 
 deep-rooted antipathies that pre\-ail between the white 
 and the black and colored population in the United 
 States, and in the English and French islands. The 
 population is now (1853) probably above 600,000. 
 
 Porto Rico was discovered by Columbus in 1493, at 
 which period it is said to have had a population of 
 800,000 souls. In 1509 it was invaded by the Span- 
 iards from St. Domingo, and in a few years the na- 
 tives were exterminated. The island was explored 
 and conquered by Ponce de Leon, the discoverer of 
 Florida, while prosecuting his voyage in search of the 
 fountain of perpetual youth. Although, during the 
 past fifteen years, agriculture has made great progress 
 on theisland of Porto Rico, there yet remains, owing 
 chiefly to the want of labor and good roads, a consid- 
 erable portion of it uncultivated. Immense plains, 
 which, if planted with the sugar-cane, would reward 
 labor most bountifully, are yet lying untouched by the 
 hand of civilization or culture, because canals are want- 
 ing, through which the water by which they are now 
 inundated could be drawn off. The island abounds in 
 excellent timber, but as yet it has yielded no profit to 
 the inhabitants. There are also different kinds of the 
 more valuable woods for cabinet-makers, such as the 
 acajou, polysander, etc. ; but they still repose undis- 
 turbed amidst the ravines of the mountains. A rem- 
 edy for these evils might be found in immigration; 
 but it has ever been the policy of the government to 
 discourage the introduction and settlement of foreign- 
 ers. The laws to that end have been particularlj' se- 
 vere in regard to all foreigners, especially to those not 
 professing the Roman Catholic religion. Every for- 
 eigner arriving in Porto Rico is compelled, before land- 
 ing, to give some responsible resident as surety for his 
 good behavior. After six months he must either dom- 
 iciliate or leave the island. Should he select the for- 
 mer alternative, he must embrace the Roman Catholic 
 faith, the only religion tolerated. An intelligent trav- 
 eler, who lived for some time on the island, gives the 
 following information relative to the laws under which 
 foreigners could become denizens : 
 
 " Previous to the year 1828 strangers were required 
 to produce the most undoubted evidence of being Ro- 
 man Catholics, in order to become domiciled ; and hav- 
 ing satisfied the authorities on this point, they were fur- 
 ther obliged, after five years' residence, to becortie nat- 
 uralized. Before a stranger would be permitted to 
 land, he must give security for good political and mor- 
 al conduct ; and supposing that he could gratify the 
 requirements of the law in all these particulars, such 
 were the jealousy and illiberality of the government, 
 that few could be induced to remain in a country where 
 no prospect of success appeared. In 1828, however, the 
 leniency and more liberal policy of Don Miguel La 
 Tone, the Captain-general, by relaxing the rigor of 
 former requirements, contributed greatly in removing 
 the impediments to the settlement of foreigners on the 
 island. La Tone strictly carried out the spirit of the 
 Jieal Cedule of 1815, having for its object the encour- 
 agement of agriculture and commerce in the Spanish 
 
 colonies. Thus the dotnicilio was procured by paying 
 a trifling sum of money, and by the applicant comply- 
 ing with certain formalities. A considerable immi- 
 gration was the immediate effect of these measures of 
 La Tone. Lured by the superior fertility of the soil, 
 and the liberal policy Of his administration, planters 
 from the neighboring islands of St. Croix and St. 
 Thomas sold their estates, and brought their capital 
 and slaves into Porto Rico. Their example was fol- 
 lowed by several planters from the windward British 
 and French islands. Thus seconded by foreign enter- 
 prise and foreign Capital, the island has continued to 
 prosper in a most extraoMinary degree since 1828. 
 But notwithstanding this rapid improvement, and the 
 continued augmentation of its staple exports, this im- 
 provement would have been greater, and the exports 
 considerlably larger, but for the oppressive duties upon 
 all articles of necessary consumption^ and the frequent 
 heavy exadtitms made by the government toward the sup- 
 port of the war in Spain. These causes, by diminish- 
 ing the profits of the planters, have prevented them 
 from extending their estates. Hence the progress 
 which has been made in the cultivation of the soil is 
 due rather to the continued influx of new settlers with 
 their important capital, than to the prosperity or in- 
 creased industry of the old." 
 
 The slave population is almost the only producing 
 power on the island ; but this is so totally inadequate 
 to the wants of the planters, that they are frequently 
 obliged to procure additional help from Cuba. This, 
 however, greatly augments their expenses, since a ro- 
 bust and good-working slave, who in Porto Rico may 
 be valued at §350,' can not be purchased in Cuba for 
 less than $600, ' Sugar and coffee are the staple pro- 
 ductions; while tobacco, hides, woods, cotton, fruit, 
 and rum form also a part, though' io no considerable 
 extent, of the exports. Tobacco is cultivated entirely 
 by free labor. The five principal commercial ports of 
 PortO' Rico are San Juan (the capital of the island), 
 Arecibo, Mayaguez, Ponce, and Guayama. 
 
 San Juan, or St. John. — Although possessing a mag- 
 nificent port, considered one of the best on the island, 
 San Juan is not the fii-st commercial place, as the prod- 
 ucts exported thence are of a very inferior quality. 
 Of the sugar shipped from this port, as well as from 
 the other ports of the island, the United States re- 
 ceive more than two-thirds of the whole. But a small 
 quantity goes to England, and also, though rarely, to 
 France. From the United States are imported cod- 
 fish and other salt fish ; salt meat, boards, lumber, 
 hoops, staves, and butter; from England, boilers for 
 the manufacture of sugar, machinery, small quantities 
 of iron, and' heavy supplies of earthen-ware. Spanish 
 vessels take in cargoes at St. Thomas, and discharge 
 at San Juan,- thereby avoiding the duty applicable to 
 all vessels from all other adjacent foreign ports, in the 
 ports of Porto Rico. Generally speaking, the whole 
 island of St. Thomas is but a great entrep6t of Euro- 
 pean and American manufactures destined for the mark- 
 ets of Cuba and Porto Rico — a fact shown by the large 
 amount of importations from St. Thomas into both these 
 islands. The exports from San Juan in 1853 consisted 
 of 11,369,304 pounds of sugar; 6803 hogsheads of mo- 
 lasses ; 376 hogsheads of rum ; and 910,966 pounds of 
 coffee. It is to be Tegretted that the port of San Juan, 
 one of the best and safest of the island, should be kept 
 in so deplorable a condition. Six or seven years ago, 
 a vessel drawing 16 to 18 feet water could take in a full 
 cargo at the wharf; at present, a ship of the same ton- 
 nage can receive only three-fourths of her cargo, and is 
 compelled to leave the wharf in order to get into water 
 deep enough to take in the balance. 
 
 Arecibo, or Areibo. — During the last eight years the 
 commercial condition of this port has been highly pros- 
 perous. The imports and exports have greatly in- 
 creased ; splendid mansions have been erected, and 
 several commercial houses' established. The harbor. 
 
BOB 
 
 1547 
 
 FOR 
 
 however, is so totally unprotected that vessels are com- 
 pelled to anchor in a, very wide berth, and frequently, 
 during the prevalence of north winds, are forced to re- 
 tire from the shore and put out to sea. 'I'hey some- 
 times receive cargoes ihder sail, without casting anch- 
 or. Accidents arc, in consequence, so frequent, that 
 seldom does a year pass without having to record the 
 loss of one or more vessels. Imports are nearly the 
 same as at San Juan ; the expprts comprise about 10,000 
 hogsheads of sugar, 3000 of molasses, 1000 of rum, li,000 
 to 16,000 quintals of coflTee, and a considerable quantity 
 of timber' for Spain, to be used in the Spaifish ship- 
 yards. Arecibo also, exports considerable quantities 
 of .tobacco to Germany, the United Stales, and Cuba, 
 amounting in the whole to about 2,500,000 pounds. 
 
 Mayagiiez, or Mayaguas. — This is the most import- 
 ant port on the island. It possesses large capital, and 
 contains several costly and fine dwellings. Rapidly 
 rebuilt after the, great conflagration by which it was 
 destroyed in 1841, Mayagiiez has gained in prosperity ; 
 having been before that disaster but an inconsiderable 
 village, it has now become the most important city on 
 th^ island. XIio- surrounding district produces, large 
 quantities of coffee, though since 1840 there has been 
 a sensible diminution in that article. For that year 
 th^ exports amounted to 80,000 quintals, while in 1853 
 they fell to 43,500 quintals. .The coffee of Mayaguez 
 stands in such high repute in America and Germany 
 that purchases are frequently made in advance of the 
 crop. Hence comes al^o the best sugar of tJie island, 
 iv.hich is mostly imported in Ameriijan bottoms into 
 the United Stat^s^ ,,in ISoSi there arrived 83 American 
 vessels, of 13,272 tons, carrying freight to, the value of 
 $223,600.; aB(l there .cleared 76, pf l?,(?SOi^ tons, taking 
 cargoes worth $46,0,013. .,Tlie molasses from tIus.port 
 is always of tjie best quality, and much, sought after by 
 American and {English shippers. , Besides coffee, in 
 1853 there were exported 165.^, hogsheads of rum, 8221 
 hogsheads of molasses, 20,766,033 pounds of sugar, hut 
 only 4463 pounds of tobacco, showing a decrease, com- 
 pared with the preceding year, of over 50,000 pounds. 
 There were, besides, 1000 hogsheads of rum mixed with 
 tahasoo pepper (makgueta), a preparation ,constituting 
 now a new and profitable branch of domestic industry. 
 Imports from the United States and England are gen- 
 erally similar to the imports into San Juan. . Within 
 the past few years a considerable number of planters, 
 of moderate capital, have engaged in the cultivation 
 of cocoa' with perfect success. A few quintals of it 
 sold. to Spanish merchants have found a ready appre- 
 ciation at Barcelona, and the article is considered equal 
 to the cocoa of Caraccas. It is quite probable that, in 
 the course of a few years, cocoa will be largely export- 
 ed from Mayagiiez, and thus supply the deficit caused 
 by the diminution in the exportation of cofffee. In ad- 
 dition to the products already specified, Mayaguez ex- 
 ports also considerable quantities of oranges, citrons, 
 and other fruits to the United States. 
 
 Ponce. — This port is almost as important, in a com- 
 mercial point of view, as Mayagiiez. In 1853 it export- 
 ed even more sugar and molasses than the latter. But 
 the Jong droughts frequently destroy entire crops — no 
 rain falling, oftentimes, for five or sijf successive months. 
 Notwithstanding, by dint of incessant labor, and by 
 means of artificial irrigation, the industrious planter 
 often succeeds in partially overcoming this drawback, 
 and in securing a passable harvest. Like MayagQez, 
 Ponce possesses some few vessels, which make regular 
 voyages- to and frorti Spain. In 1853 the exports con- 
 sisted pf 27,804,269 pounds of sugar, 13,161 hogsheads 
 of molasses, 1,876,249 pounds of coffee, 72 hogsheads 
 of rum, and some hides. This trade employed 90 ves- 
 sels front the United States, carrying 15,616 tons, and 
 entering with cargoes of the value of f 173,168; and 80 
 vessels of 15,208 tons, clearing with cargoes in value 
 $684,662. 
 
 Guayama. — The drought, which affects this district 
 
 even more severely than Ponce, is the chief cause of 
 its commercial decadence. Many of the inhabitants 
 have abandoned their establishments, and gone with 
 their slaves to seek, in the interior of the island, a cli- 
 mate more congenial to the culture of the sugar-cane. 
 The sugar of Guayama shows a fine grain and good 
 color for refinery. In 1853 there entered the port 85 
 American vessels, having an aggregate of, 46,471 tons, 
 importing in value $255,153; and cleared 83, of 14,873 
 tons, exporting a value of $492,338. The total exports 
 of sugar during^the same year were 21,920,611 pounds : 
 of molasses, 11,618 hogsheads; of coffee, 306,683 pounds; 
 and of tobacco, 101,862 pounds. 
 
 Mayagiiez, Ponce, and Guayama are the three places 
 oil the island which possess the greatest number of 
 steam-engines, and machines for the manufacture of 
 sugar. This remark applies in a special manner to 
 Mayaguez, the climate of which is particularly favora- 
 ble to the development of labor. In 1850 there were 
 put up here ten machines of from 10 to 16 horse-power 
 each. The exportation of rum is not in proportion to 
 that pf sugar, owing to the large consumption of that 
 article on the island. 
 
 Among the secondary ports of the island, Aguadilla 
 and Humacao are the most considerable. In 1853 the 
 former exported 8,092,302 pounds of sugar, 2,438,788 
 pounds of coffee, 649 hogsheads of molasses, and 469,956 
 pounds of tobacco. The latter, in the same year, ex- 
 ported 4,183,233 pounds of sugar, 100,000 pounds of 
 coffee, 1676 hogsheads of molasses, land only 11,220 
 pounds of tobacco, against 28,300 the preceding year. 
 The great bulk of the coffee shipped from these two 
 ports goes to Trieste, Genoa, and Hamburg. Ger- 
 many also takes, from these ports a considerable quan- 
 tity of tobacco. 
 
 Fajardo and Naguaba have some trade with the 
 French West Indies, with St. Thomas and St. Croix, 
 consisting, chiefly in an exchange of live animals and 
 provisions for the imports from those islands. Their 
 sugar, however, amounting annually to about 5000 
 hogsheads, is almost exclusively sent to the United 
 States. 
 
 Sugar. — Previously to 1820 scarcely enough sugar 
 was produced for the consumption of the island. Ac- 
 cording to ofiicial statements, the quantity exported 
 from all parts of the island of Porto Eico in 1839 
 amounted to 69,245,783 pounds, valued at $2,423,602; 
 while in 1853 the quantity of sugar exported amount- 
 ed to 110,605,859 pounds, valued, at $3,318,175, show- 
 ing an increase in fourteen years of over fifty per cent. 
 The United States alone received in 1853 74,710,336 
 pounds, valued at $2,244,309, or over two-thirds of the 
 wliole quantity exported. 
 
 Co/ee.— The quantity exported in 1839 was 8,538,362 
 lbs., valued at $853,000 ; and in 1849, 8,615,311 lbs., 
 valued at $516,918. In 1853 it amounted to 11,580,604 
 lbs., valued at $694,836. Despite this seeming in- 
 crease, it. is a well-known fact that the cultivation of 
 coffee is on the decline. The Hanseatic cities receive 
 nearly one half of the whole exportation of coffee, while 
 the United States take but an inconsiderable quantity. 
 
 Molasses.— r\n 1839 there were exported 3,311, 719| 
 gallons, of the. value of 1496,759,; in 1849, 4,328,1354 
 gallons, valued at,$649,220 ; and in 1853, 46,6304 hogs- 
 heads, valued at $466,307. The United States re- 
 ceived of the quantity exported in 1853 to the value of 
 $363,612, nearly three-fourths of the total exportation. 
 
 Cotton. — The cultivation of cotton declines yearly, 
 and has become at this time insignificant. In 1839 
 there were exported 1,183,973 lbs., valued at $189,435 ; 
 while in 1853 the whole amount did not exceed 280,565 
 lbs., valued at $28,056. 
 
 Rum. — The value of rum exported in 1839 was 
 $16,241 ; and in 1853, $17,106. The exportation of 
 this article bears no proportion to that of molasses, as 
 rum is immoderately consumed by the common people 
 on the island. 
 
POE 
 
 1548 
 
 FOR 
 
 Vaittes of the peincipal Aetioleb imported into Poeto Rico, 1846-1653. — [Made up from the "Balanzas Generalee."] 
 
 1648. 
 
 1849. 
 
 1850. 
 
 1851. 
 
 1852. 
 
 1863. 
 
 Olive oil. 
 Liquids. . 
 Meats . . . 
 
 Fruits, etc 
 
 Eice 
 
 Cereals, etc 
 
 Lard and butter 
 
 Cheese 
 
 Pish 
 
 Other edibles 
 
 Cottons 
 
 Woolens 
 
 Linens 
 
 Silks 
 
 Tobacco 
 
 Skins and peltries 
 
 Wood 
 
 Metal 
 
 Glass 
 
 Iron nails 
 
 Iron ware 
 
 Machines, and parts thereof,(_ 
 
 for sugar manufactories j 
 
 Agricultural implements 
 
 Soap 
 
 Medicines 
 
 Furniture 
 
 Perfumeiy 
 
 Candles 
 
 Gold and silver 
 
 $86,019 50 
 
 193,638 94 
 
 71,712 40 
 
 5,U6T 42 
 
 32,139 56 
 
 38,580 26 
 
 5;.S,96S 91 
 
 84,149 12 
 
 27,314 76 
 
 306 902 00 
 
 116,986 63 
 
 521,310 87 
 
 62,031 OS 
 
 308,446 65 
 
 68,C40 44 
 
 199,929 18 
 
 72,403 63 
 
 233,360 00 
 
 26,126 60 
 
 12,024 9T 
 
 36.505 36 
 
 19,05J 48 
 
 9,855 12 
 
 22,174 06 
 127,431 30 
 83,209 82 
 61,338 02 
 12,438 15 
 46,662 15 
 234,116 00 
 
 $99,289 50 
 
 187,260 70 
 
 96,375 29 
 
 6,460 50 
 
 27,S38 98 
 
 40,598 31 
 
 580,415 98 
 
 80,733 93 
 
 25,196 73 
 
 364 488 41 
 
 112,706 09 
 
 765,287 33 
 
 49,2:,1 34 
 
 4'I5,699 03 
 
 01,578 08 
 
 143,120 94 
 
 58,030 8T 
 
 211,196.12 
 
 32,033 ?A 
 
 151.63 04 
 
 58,276 68 
 
 23,738 58 
 
 28,839 28 
 
 22,781 25 
 134 339 (10 
 33 C6T 40 
 44 173 47 
 18,306 61 
 16,806 63 
 612,165 00 
 
 Total. 
 
 $89,197 16 
 
 228,132 07 
 
 83,278 73 
 
 14,667 40 
 
 29,153 19 
 
 48,987 37 
 
 688,859 82 
 
 88,158 34 
 
 30,6..T 76 
 
 436,990 91 
 
 116,620 52 
 
 651,105 34 
 
 47,244 04 
 
 310,130 17 
 
 62,186 03 
 
 185.581) 84 
 
 85,049 14 
 
 316,291 80 
 
 24,619 34 
 
 20,829 16 
 
 68,170 54 
 
 35,4C3 97 
 
 24,tS3 44 
 
 23.582 3S 
 112,438 76 
 31,955 fS 
 44,f4B 02 
 15,028 08 
 62,678 40 
 740,062 50 
 
 $79,259 70 
 
 236,431 00 
 
 92,607 11 
 
 14,895 22 
 
 50,672 74 
 
 46.809 78 
 
 1.000,319 92 
 
 ■ 74,071 74 
 
 45,888 60 
 
 381,208 61 
 
 164,037 40 
 
 6-5,63514 
 
 50,534 36 
 
 253,582 22 
 
 8 645 38 
 
 922,056 45 
 
 121,449 16 
 
 337,1 88 60 
 
 35.446 71 
 
 14,7i7 11 
 
 51,273 36 
 
 42,446 57 
 
 27,789 16 
 
 43,122 67 
 156 884 00 
 20,874 79 
 45,756 27 
 17,3E5 00 
 65,287 32 
 763.476 25 
 
 $99,932 63 
 
 340,868 n 
 
 91,724 16 
 
 •15,533 18 
 
 50.021 56 
 
 146,498 68 
 
 1,193,123 23 
 
 91,668 76 
 
 67,014 68 
 
 402,232 21 
 
 166,031 64 
 
 599,201 82 
 
 48,744 18 
 
 267,459 22 
 
 93,880 46 
 
 138,440 21 
 
 134,141 93 
 
 254,947 98 
 
 71,738 fS 
 
 32,167 23 
 
 42,294 86 
 
 65,179 66 
 
 21.166 48 
 
 89,706 05 
 215,940 35 
 30,617 66 
 84,488 03 
 
 35.167 60 
 68,946 92 
 
 392,281 OO 
 
 $4,463,751 ( 
 
 $1,181,588 89 $5,222,029 98 
 
 6,073,870 02 
 
 $6,298,395 65 
 
 $122,707 00 
 
 242,993 68 
 
 67,218 67 
 
 10,657 34 
 
 43,340 01 
 
 83,265 75 
 
 692,701 40 
 
 69,578 30 
 
 33.837 50 
 
 343,0r3 02 
 
 13.5,732 06 
 
 677.841 81 
 
 76,777 62 
 
 352,494 05 
 
 76,496 07 
 
 124,37156 
 
 100 400 23 
 
 216,867 15 
 
 33,(174 23 
 
 26,273 74 
 
 39,741 36 
 
 36,383 21 
 
 15,207 52 
 
 38,013 91 
 97,312 10 
 36.192 61 
 84,568 64 
 26.029 0(T 
 48,017 38 
 _T38,630_76_ 
 $6,335,910 36 
 
 The "Balanza" gives this sum as $107,257 34, which is an error. 
 
 Previously to 1815, Porto Rico, being excUuJed from 
 all direct intercourse -with other countries, excepting 
 Old Spain, was either stationary or but slowly pro- 
 gressive, the entire value of the exports in that year 
 having amounted to only 65,274 dollars ! But at that 
 epoch a royal decree appeared, which exempted the 
 trade between Spain and the Spanish colonies and Por- 
 to Rico from all duties for fifteen years ; and she was 
 then also permitted to carry on a free trade, under rea- 
 
 sonable duties, with other countries. In consequence 
 principally of these wise and liberal measures, but 
 partly also of a considerable immigration of rich 
 Spanish colonists from South America, Porto Rico has 
 latterly made rapid progress. Great improvements 
 have been effected in the police and internal adminis- 
 tration, and roads have been constructed in all parts of 
 the island. The exports of domestic produce from the 
 U. S. for the fiscal year 1856-'57 were $1,78.3,429. 
 
 Genekal compakative Statement of the Amoiint ani> Chaeacter of the Commerce of Porto Rico feom 18-18 to 
 
 1863. — [From the "Balanzas Generales."] 
 
 , Tears. 
 
 IMPOHTATION INTO PORTO KICO. 
 
 EXPORTATION FROM PORTO RICO. | 
 
 National 
 Products. 
 
 Foreign Products. 
 
 Total Imports. 
 
 For the na- 
 tional Trade. 
 
 For the foreign Trade. 
 
 Total Exports. 
 
 In Spanish 
 
 Vessels (gen- 
 
 eniUyJ. 
 
 In Spanish 
 Vessels. 
 
 In foreign 
 Vessels. 
 
 In Spanish 
 VesBels (gen- 
 erally). 
 
 In Spanish 
 Vessels. 
 
 In foreign 
 Vessels. 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 
 
 1860 
 
 1851 
 
 1852 
 
 1853 
 
 $1,148,070 
 1,011,000 
 1,3.53,961 
 1,512,717 
 2,030,947 
 1,411,094 
 
 $1,7!'3,370 
 2,319.032 
 1,87:1,483 
 2,210,062 
 2,122,784 
 2,184,375 
 
 $1..6' 8,301 
 1,651.650 
 1,98.5,679 
 2,321,089 
 2,144,663 
 1,730,630 
 
 $4,469,751 
 4,881,583 
 5,222.029 
 6,073,870 
 6,288,305 
 5,335,910 
 
 $600,820 
 464,128 
 283,916 
 662,451 
 409,618 
 440,406 
 
 $';3e 816 
 237,823 
 271,860 
 280 840 
 349,718 
 335,080 
 
 $4,695,500 
 4,700,419 
 5,821.542 
 4,918.682 
 3,8!3,002 
 4,523,831 
 
 $5,685,136 
 5.4C2.3T1 
 6,877,319 
 5,761.974 
 4,652,339 
 5,299,327 
 
 AwoTiNT OF Duties received, the NuMnEtt of Vessels entered and cleared, and the respectite Tonkage or the 
 SAME AT roKTO lUco.— [From tlie ■■• Balanzas Generales."] 
 
 Years. 
 
 Duties received. 
 
 Vessels entered. 
 
 Vessels cleared. | 
 
 On Imports. 
 
 On Exports. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 1848. . . . 
 
 $379,374 
 
 $164,864 
 
 $1,034,239 
 
 1066 
 
 118.910 
 
 1129 
 
 123,260 
 
 1849. . . . 
 
 922,608 
 
 169.698 
 
 1,082,307 
 
 1095 
 
 124,851 
 
 1126 
 
 120..573 
 
 18.50. . . . 
 
 1,011,472 
 
 177,529 
 
 1,183,001 
 
 1206 
 
 132,040 
 
 1179 
 
 181,767 
 
 1851.... 
 
 1,041525 
 
 24,833 
 
 1,069,418 
 
 1324 
 
 160 586 
 
 1209 
 
 154.042 
 
 1852. . . . 
 
 1,228.095 
 
 31,077 
 
 1,259,173 
 
 1452 
 
 175,836 
 
 1S62 
 
 168,766 
 
 1863. . . . 
 
 1,020,246 
 
 31,641 
 
 1,051,887 
 
 1338 
 
 151,603 
 
 1225 
 
 154,867 
 
 The tonnage of American vessels arriving in 1853 at 
 Porto Rico amounted to 67,180, or nearly one half of 
 the total tonnage of the island, double that of all the 
 Spanish, and nearly triple that of all the English ves- 
 
 sels. The ports mostly visited by American vessels- 
 were : MayagQez, 97 vessels ; Ponce, 69 vessels ; Guay- 
 ama, 50 vessels ; and Porto Rico (San Juan), 45 ves- 
 sels. 
 
 Quantities of the rRiNciPAi. Prouucts of Pokto Rtco, 1848-1853. 
 
 Years. 
 1843 
 
 Aguardiente. 
 
 Cotton. 
 
 Coffes. 
 
 Sugar. 
 
 Hides. 
 
 Tobacco. 
 
 Molasses. 
 
 Black Cattle. 
 
 Hogsheads. 
 981J 
 
 Pounds. 
 182.457 
 
 Pounds. 
 9,613,074 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 101,2 8,754 
 
 Ponndt. 
 745 880 
 
 Pounds. 
 2.457,419 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 3.867.474 
 
 Head. 
 4372 
 
 1849 
 
 mil 
 
 304,0.52 
 
 8.61.5,311 
 
 100,742,517j- 
 
 519,07ni 
 
 2,430,.540} 
 
 4,328,135} 
 
 3700 
 
 18.50 
 
 5T>i 
 
 241.574t 
 
 11,783,684 
 
 112,129,432 
 
 544 7"2 
 
 2,973,308 
 
 4,905,313 
 
 4376 
 
 1851 
 
 S47J 
 
 366,!581 
 
 12,111,971 
 
 118,416,304 
 
 632 706 
 
 6,478 084 
 
 4,827.658 
 
 6063 
 
 1862 
 
 ]13i 
 
 218,792 
 
 11,370.763 
 
 93 631,396 
 
 508,820 
 
 5.605.739 
 
 3,3.57,900 
 
 6220 
 
 1853 
 
 C4SJ- 
 
 280,605 
 
 11,580,604 
 
 110,605.859 
 
 507,251 
 
 3,703.457 
 
 4.896,228 
 
 6019 
 
 The foreign Antilles, and among them especially St. 
 Thomas and St. Croix, have the largest amount of the 
 imports into Porto Rico. Indeed, the former, as al- 
 
 ready observed, may be considered merely as an en- 
 trepot for European and American manufactures, serv- 
 ing the Spanish merchants, from its proximity to the 
 
FOR 
 
 1549 
 
 FOR 
 
 Spanish West Indies, as a market for all the merchan- 
 dise. It will be seen that the United States occupy 
 the first rank as regards the amount of exports, taking 
 more than one half of the total exportations. They 
 receive two-thirds of all the sugar, and three-fourths 
 of all the molasses exported ; these being the principal 
 articles entering into the export trade of Porto Rico; 
 The exportation to the United States amounted in 1853 
 to $2,340,000, chiefly for sugar and molasses. Spain 
 holds the second rank in importations into, and only 
 the fourth as respects exportations from, Porto Rico ; 
 since the foreign Antilles import more into the island, 
 and the United States, England, and the Hanseatic 
 cities take more from it, than does Spain, despite all 
 differential duties in her favor, both as respects ship- 
 ping and trade. 
 
 Tonnnge Duties. — Ships entering the ports of the isl- 
 and of Porto Rico will pay, if foreign, $1 the ton ; if 
 national, 37i cents the ton, as per register. National 
 vessels bringing full cargoes of coals •will pay no ton- 
 
 nage duties, although the number of tons be less than 
 indicated by their register ; foreign vessels will, how- 
 ever, pay 50 cents per ton, in compliance with the royal 
 decree of December 23, 1848. But whenever a ship, 
 either national or foreign, brings other cargo besides 
 coals, no matter whether the coals be equal to, or more 
 than, the amount of her tonnage, she will pay the ton- 
 nage duty in accordance with said decree. Vessels 
 loaded with coals only arc exempted from local duties, 
 with the single exception of the fee ($23) to the cap- 
 tain of the port for entering and clearing. National 
 or foreign vessels entering the ports will pay, in addi- 
 tion to the duties specified, 12^ cents per ton, as per 
 register, for the purpose of deepening the harbor. 
 Vessels arriving in the harbor of San Juan, under 
 whatever circumstances, or for whatever purpose, will 
 pay 12J cents per ton for dredging and keeping the 
 port navigable. National vessels to or from the island 
 of St. Thomas will pay, at whatever port, the tonnage 
 I duties applicable to the flag. 
 
 CoMT?AnATivB Statement of the Commeboe between tue Uniteb States and Pobto llioo, and other Spanish West 
 Indies (EXCErT Cuba), exuiuitino tde Value op Kxpoets to and Impokts from each Country, and the Tonnage 
 OF American amd foreign Vessels arriving from and departing to eacu Country, ducinq the Years desig- 
 nated. 
 
 yoam. 
 
 COMMBSCB. 
 
 MAVIQATION. ] 
 
 Value of Ex 
 Domcatic 
 
 port3 from United States. 
 
 Value of Imports 
 into the 
 
 American Tonnage. 
 
 Foreign Tonnage. | 
 
 Foreign 
 
 Totol. 
 
 Entered the 
 
 Cleared from tlie 
 
 Entered the 
 
 Cleared from the 
 
 
 Protluco. 
 
 Produce. 
 
 United States. 
 
 United States. 
 
 United States. 
 
 United SUtes. 
 
 United States. 
 
 I84& 
 
 $688,149, 
 
 S20,7T5 
 
 $708,924 
 
 $2;0ii6,26S 
 
 61,160 
 
 28,675 
 
 629 
 
 632 
 
 1816 
 
 6T5,441 
 
 25,905 
 
 701,346 
 
 2,277,110 
 
 51,284 
 
 30,056 
 
 487 
 
 1373 
 
 184T 
 
 B2S,0T9 
 
 33,E85 
 
 859,064 
 
 2,141,929 
 
 38.063 
 
 26,767 
 
 1,746 
 
 1879 
 
 1S43 
 
 801, 732. 
 
 37,012 
 
 838,734 
 
 2,106,296 
 
 45,438 
 
 35,241 
 
 518 
 
 1150 
 
 .1849 
 
 623,292 
 
 33,234 
 
 656,536 
 
 1,964,861 
 
 47,584 
 
 25,870 
 
 2,192 
 
 3898 
 
 ■ 1860 
 
 816,062 
 
 93,591 
 
 909,658 
 
 2,067,866 
 
 41,768 
 
 30,744 
 
 1 3,074 
 
 3108 
 
 1S51 . 
 
 961,4:0 
 
 57,209 
 
 1,018,619 
 
 2,480,829 
 
 48,336 
 
 30,320 
 
 7,874 
 
 6013 
 
 1862 
 
 1,015,583 
 
 09,542 
 
 1,055,105 
 
 3,001,223 
 
 68,885 
 
 35,010 
 
 12,061 
 
 5514 
 
 I 18S3 
 
 ■ 810,411 
 
 54,143 
 
 864,554 
 
 2,SnO,936 
 
 47,838 
 
 30,8(5 
 
 16,844 
 
 9429 
 
 1854 ,: 
 
 990,886 
 
 60 9.17 
 
 1,051,888 
 
 2,850,363 
 
 52,228 
 
 31,014 
 
 8,710 
 
 8528 
 
 1S55 
 
 1,144,681 
 
 88,937 
 
 1,183,518 
 
 2,475,91)8 
 
 43,249 
 
 34,190 
 
 7,830 
 
 5592 
 
 American V(;ssels entering ports in the islands of 
 Cuba and Porto Rico in ballast are not subjected to 
 the paj'inent of any tonnage duty whatever ; and Amer- 
 ican vessels entering the ports in the islands of Cuba 
 and Porto Rico, with cargoes of any description of mer- 
 chandise whatsoever, are exempted from any charge of 
 tonnage duty, if such vessels export or convey there- 
 from cargoes of molasses taken in at said ports. Ex- 
 emption, therefore, from the liability to tonnage duty 
 of Spanish vessels coming from ports in the islands of 
 Cuba and Porto Rico is extendeil to such vessels arriv- 
 ing iR ports of the United States, either in ballast or 
 laden with molasses taken in at any of the said ports, 
 together with such quantity of fresh fruit, the produc- 
 tion of said islands, as may be deemed by the collector 
 and naval officer, under the provisions of the forty-fifth 
 section of the act of 2d March, 1799, to be admissible 
 as surplus stores : provided the said vessels depart 
 from the United States in ballast, or with their car- 
 goes of molasses, or cargoes of the staple productions 
 of the United States. — See Commercial Relations with 
 the United States; Manual for United States Consuls; 
 Turnbull's Cuba and Pm-to Rico ; Hunt's Merchants' 
 Magazine^ x. 327. 
 
 Portsmouth, a sea-port of England, in the English 
 Channel, on the western side of the island of Portsea, 
 at the mouth of the bay called Portsmouth Harbor, 
 lat. 50° 47' N., long. 1° 6' W. Portsmouth Harbor 
 excels every other in Great Britain in depth, capacious- 
 ness, and security. At its entrance the harbor is very 
 narrow, but soon expands into a great width. Every 
 where the anchorage is good, the depth sufficient for 
 ships of any size, and in extent almost sufficient to 
 contain the whole English navy. The roadstead of 
 Spithead, between Portsmouth and the Isle of Wight, 
 can contain 1000 sail with security. Ship-building and 
 other manufactures are carried on to a considerable ex- 
 tent. The cod and other fisheries are actively prose- 
 cuted, and Portsmouth has considerable foreign and 
 
 coasting trade. The tonnage of the port in 1853 was 
 26,645 tons. 
 
 Portugal (^Lusitania), a country of southwestern Eu- 
 rope, forming the western portion of the Iberian pen- 
 insula, and situated between lat. 36° 57' and 42° 8' N., 
 and long. 6° 15' and 9° 32' W., bounded east and north 
 by Spain, south and west by the Atlantic Ocean. Cap- 
 ital, Lisbon. Length, north to south, 368 miles ; 
 breadth, 80 to 140 miles ; and there are few passable , 
 roads. Wheat, barley, oats, flax, and henip are culti- 
 vated in the elevated tracts ; rice in the lowlands ; ol- 
 ives, oranges, lemons, citrons, figs, and almonds in the 
 central and southern provinces; and at the southern 
 extremity, the American aloe, the date, and other trop- 
 ical plants. The cultivation of the vine is the most 
 important branch of Industry, and the produce of the 
 vineyards watered by the upper Douro, termed poH, is 
 the staple export. There are extensive forests of oak. 
 in the north, chestnut in the centre, and the sea-pine, 
 kermes, and cork in the south. The olive oil is of in- 
 ferior quality. Mules and asses are the chief beasts of 
 burden ; oxen are used for draught in the provinces. 
 Cattle and s^ieep are reared in considerable numbers, 
 but the wool is not of fine quality. Goats and hogs 
 are numerous, and fish abound in the rivers and on the 
 coasts. Iron, marble, and salt are the chief mineral 
 products ; the mines of tin, lead, and antimony are not 
 worked. There are numerous salt marshes on the 
 coast, and 200 mineral springs are enumerated. The 
 manufactures are very limited, chiefly arms and porce- 
 lain at Lisbon, v?oolens at Portalegre and Fundao, cot- 
 ton-spinning at Thomar, jewelrj' and trinkets at Lis- 
 bon and Oporto, glass at Marinha-Granne, paper at 
 Alemquer, silks at Braganza and at Campo-Grande, 
 near Lisbon. Lisbon, the capital of Portugal, is the 
 principal port, and is situated on the north bank of the 
 River Tagus, the observatory of the fort being in lat. 
 38° 42' 24" N., long. 9° 5' 50" W. Population, about 
 240,000. The harbor, or rather road, of Lisbon is one 
 
?0E 
 
 1550 
 
 FOR 
 
 of the finest in the world, and the qiUaj'S are at once 
 conveiiient, and heautiful. Fort St. Julian marks the 
 northern entrance of the Tagus. It is built on a steep, 
 projecting rock. There is a light-house in the centre, 
 120 feet above the level of the sea. At the mouth of 
 the Tagus are two large banks, called, the. North and 
 South Ca,chops. There are two channels for entering 
 the river — the north or little, and the south or great 
 channel. On the middle of the South Cachpp, about 
 1 J mile from Fort St. Julian, is the Bugio fort and light- 
 house, the latter being CG feet in height. The least 
 depth of water in the north channel, on the bar, is four 
 fathoms, and in the south six. , The only danger in 
 entering the port arises from the strength of the tide, 
 the ebb running down at the rate of seven miles an 
 hour ; and after heavy rains the difficulty of entering 
 is considerably augmented. The trade of the country 
 is mostly conducted by the English and other, foreign- 
 ers. The population and extent of Portugal are shown 
 by the following statistics, taken in 1854 : 
 
 Population 3,500,000 
 
 Extent in square miles - 34,500 
 
 Communes 260 
 
 The great fountain of wealth in Portugal is in its 
 vineyards ; and yet, under the system of political econ- 
 omy practiced by the government of that kingdom, 
 wine can not be either grown, made, or exported, ex- 
 cept under heavy restrictions and imposts. Until with- 
 in the past few years, there was not sufficient corn 
 grown in the few agricultural districts for the necessi- 
 ties of the country ; still, corn is classed among its sta^ 
 pies, and its importation from foreign countries pro- 
 hibited, Unless when, from any cause, the home sup- 
 plies are inadequate to meet the demands for consump- 
 tion. The following official return exhibits the entire 
 agricultural resources of Portugal for the year 1851, 
 and, with the exception of corn, the supply of which is 
 constantly fluctuating, may be regarded as a fair index 
 of the average yearly agricultural wealth of this king- 
 dom : 
 
 Articlea. 
 
 Corn 
 
 Beans (pulse).. 
 
 Rice 
 
 Salt 
 
 Walnuts, filberts, aliiionds,! 
 
 and chestnuts ) 
 
 Figs 
 
 Carob beans 
 
 Oranges and lemons 
 
 Cattle 
 
 Wine (Maduro e verde) 
 
 Alto-Douro port 
 
 Olive oil 
 
 Wool 
 
 Silk 
 
 Honey 
 
 Beeswax 
 
 Moiofe . 
 
 Arobas . 
 
 Thousand . . 
 
 Heads 
 
 Pipes 
 
 Arobaft . 
 Potmds. 
 Arobas . 
 
 1,139,737 
 178 812 
 . 12,262 
 466,166 
 
 37,640 
 
 338,700 
 243,160 
 360,000 
 5,782,712 
 787,809' 
 100,000 
 43,682 
 33T,5S9 
 315,140 
 59,137 
 26,616 
 
 The moio is equivalent to 22-39 bushels. The aroba 
 eqraais 32 lbs. 
 
 In 1831 Portugal imported 553,740 alquieres (each 
 equal to 32 lbs.) of grain ; between 1846 and 1851 she 
 exported, as appears from her official statistics, about 
 1,800,000 alquieres from Caminha, and about 4,000,000 
 alquieres from Vianna ; making a total of nearly 
 6,000,000 alquieres, or 1,000,000 alquieres per annum ; 
 or an exportation of about twice as much as she for- 
 merly imported. With this brief reference to the nat- 
 ural capabilities and agricultural resources of Portu- 
 gal, the laws and regulations under which that king- 
 dom conducts its foreign commerce, the character and 
 extent of that commerce, and the description of mer- 
 chandise which constitutes the leading articles of ex- 
 change, especially between Portugal and the United 
 States, will next be considered. For a long period the 
 commercial relations of the United States with Portu- 
 gal were regulated by such acts of legislation as the 
 Portuguese government thought proper to adopt, with 
 no other check than the countervailing legislation of 
 the United States. Under this system the direct trade 
 
 between the two countries in national vessels, laden 
 with the produce and manufactures of either, was al- 
 lowed on terms of full reciprocity ; but, the indirect 
 trade was, fettered by discriminations and restrictions, 
 and by the countervailing duties to which they gave 
 rise, until the treaty of commerce and navigation en- 
 tered into between the two countries in, 1840 placed 
 their trade on a basis of entire reciprocity. This treaty 
 stipulates that vessels of either country arriving in the 
 ports of the other shall be put on the footing of nation- 
 al vessels ; that no other or higher duties shall be lev- 
 ied on the produce or manufactures of either country, 
 when imported into the other, than on similar produce, 
 etc., of other foreign countries ; that the same duties 
 shall be levied on such importations, whether in Amer- 
 ican or Portuguese vessels ; that all favors granted by 
 either party to other nations shall become common to 
 both ; and that American vessels shall pay no higher 
 duties of export in the ports of Portugal than national 
 vessels. This treaty is declared to be in force for six 
 years, and further, until the end of one year after ei- 
 ther party shall have given notice to the other to term- 
 inate the same : no such notice having been given by 
 either party, cbmm'efcial relations between tte two 
 countries are still governed by its provisions. 
 
 Under the stipulation equalizing American and Port- 
 uguese vessels with respect to Sirect importations, the 
 American flag enjoyed, during a brief period after the 
 ratification of the treaty, special advantages over the 
 vessels of other foreign nations. This was the result 
 0^ a law passed by the Cortes in 1837 (before the treaty 
 was adopted), by which a deduction of fifteen per cent, 
 on all diities was allowed on merdhandise imported in 
 national bottoms. This measure, although it had given 
 a .great impulse to the national shipping of Portugal, 
 and largely augmented importations in American bot- 
 toms, was found to exercise a disastrous effect on the 
 public treasury, diminishing the revenue from that 
 source about $300,000 annually. It was consequently 
 abolished ; and after the 15th January, 1842, all for- 
 eign vessels were equalized, in this respect, with the 
 national flag. Notwithstanding Portugal possesses 
 natural advantages and resources which might enable 
 her to rank among the most important trading coun- 
 tries in Europe, her commerce with foreign nations, 
 and particularly with the United States, has dwindled 
 down to the mere shadow of what it- was in former 
 times; nor can much hope be indulged of a speedy 
 commercial regeneration of this kingdom so lopg aa 
 her present restrictive and prohibitory regulations ex- 
 ist, and her unsurpassed natural resources remain un- 
 der their present partial and imperfect system of de- 
 velopment. The dismemberment of Brazil from the 
 kingdom of Portugal (1820) would seem to mark the 
 period of the greatest decline in her commerce with the 
 United States. This can be best illustrated by giving 
 the official returns for t-vvo equal periods preceding and 
 following this event, and contrasting the results. 
 
 ExpoKTS fhom TnE United States to Poetugaj. aud De- 
 pendencies, 1810-1832. 
 
 Yearn. 
 
 Amount. 
 
 Yeara. 
 
 AmouDt. 
 
 1810 
 
 1811 
 
 1812 
 
 1813 
 
 1814 
 
 1815 
 
 1816 
 
 1817 
 
 1818 
 
 1819 
 
 1820 
 
 Total . . . 
 
 $7,679,210 
 
 11,466,150 
 
 9,399,620 
 
 10,6879,28 
 
 591,069 
 
 2,281,101 
 
 2,270,389 
 
 1,834,823 
 
 2,8-8,177 
 
 2,263,680 
 
 1,325,751 
 
 1822 
 
 1823 
 
 1824....... 
 
 1825 
 
 1826 
 
 1827 
 
 1828 
 
 1829 
 
 1830 
 
 1831 
 
 1832 
 
 Total . . . 
 
 $427,000 
 246,648 
 518,836 
 408,160 
 313,553 
 357,370 
 291,614 
 32-2,911 
 279,799 
 294,383 
 296,218 
 
 $82,696,298 
 
 $8,756,492 
 
 Showing a falling off in the total amounts, during 
 the eleven years compared, of $48,941,806, or, in the 
 average annual amounts, of $4,449,255. It is proper, 
 however, to remark, that the trade with Brazil absorbed 
 more than a moiety of the total amount of the exports 
 from 1810 to 1820. The general trade of Portugal with 
 
FOR 
 
 1551 
 
 all foreign countries lias also declined during the past 
 half century, in a ratio of nearly one-third in exports 
 and one half in Imports. This will be seen from the 
 following comparison of imports and exports, for a se- 
 ries of years within the above-named period: 
 
 FOR 
 
 Yeaw. 
 
 IjnTiorts. 
 
 Exportlf 
 
 Toto! 
 
 181)1 
 
 $M, 171,780 
 
 $31,379,730 
 
 $55,651,610 
 
 1816 
 
 22,337,430 
 
 20,223,385 
 
 . 4:1,.'>60,815 , 
 
 1830 
 
 16,194,600 
 
 13,085,000 
 
 29,279,500' 
 
 1844 
 
 12,282,530 
 
 8,225,665 
 
 20,508,196 
 
 1848 
 
 13,507,210 ■ 
 
 10,679,430 
 
 24,186,640' 
 
 Navigation Eettihns of Poetuqal foe the Yeae 1852, 
 
 
 
 Countrlea. 
 
 Arrivals. 
 
 ToDnage | Crew. 
 
 clearances. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Crew. 
 
 Portugal 
 
 England 
 
 5447 
 
 1145 
 
 917 
 
 219 
 
 136 
 
 68 
 
 90 
 
 286 
 
 315,7i.8 
 169,637 
 11,306 
 40,328 
 37,647 
 11,741 
 9,840 
 57,246 
 
 45,349 
 
 11,265 
 
 6,287 
 
 2,107 
 
 2,699 
 
 791 
 
 621 
 
 3,391 
 
 6777 
 
 1223 
 
 952 
 
 ,21t. 
 
 125., 
 
 95 
 
 88 
 
 810 
 
 319,834 
 
 196,074 
 
 10,695 
 
 . 42,446 
 
 34,925 
 
 11,684 
 
 8,709 
 
 60,125 
 
 45,762 
 
 13,803 
 
 5,381 
 
 2,088 
 
 2,532 
 
 780 
 
 610 
 
 3,194 
 
 
 
 
 
 Aufitria : 
 
 Total 
 
 8338 j 613,383 
 
 7i,6au 
 
 8T87 
 
 685,492 
 
 74,200 
 
 
 COMMEEOE IN 1862 AND 1853 
 
 
 Yean. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 1852 
 
 Francs. 
 33,200,570 . 
 30,346,660 
 
 PrancB. 
 13,179,875 
 21,902,8J2 
 
 1853 
 
 The wines which, at the exportation of 1853, were 
 valued at 6,186,680 francs, were not put in the account 
 of the crop of 1852. The imports of wine from'Madeira 
 into the United States for the fiscal year ending June 
 30, 1856, were 23,649 gallons; and from Portugal, 
 62, 533, gallons. 
 
 It thus appears that in 1818 the exports from Portu- 
 gal to all nations were only about one-third, and the 
 imports from all nations about one half of the amount 
 of exports and imports in 1801, or half a century ago. 
 The general movements of trade between the United 
 States and Portugal have varied so little during the 
 past twenty years that they may' be regarded as sta- 
 tionary, at least so long as the existing commercial 
 regulations remain unchanged in lioth countries, . Dur- 
 ing the past y?ar, however, the government of Portu- 
 gal has manifested some disposition to review and mod- 
 ify its entire system of commercial policy ; and the good 
 effects that have already succeeded the initiatory meas- 
 ures to this end, already adapted, will, it is believed, 
 encourage it to remove altogether the onerous restric- 
 tions which have so long fettered its trade with foreign 
 nations. In 1853 the export duty on wine was materi- 
 ally reduced, and equalized to all nations (a discrimin- 
 ation having been made, before that period, between 
 exports to Europe and America) ; and the effect of this 
 first step toward a more liberal policy is evidenced in 
 the increased exportation of that great staple in 1853 
 over the preceding year, to an amount exceeding three- 
 fourths of the Vhole. " This will be seen from the fol- 
 lowing table. The pipe is estimated at the United 
 States custom-house at about 113^ gallons : 
 Exports op Wine, Beandy, etc., feom the Poet of 
 
 OrOETO IN THE YeaES 1852 AJJD 1853. 
 
 Countrios. 
 
 Great Britain . . 
 United States . . 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Australia 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Canada 
 
 Rusijia 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Newfoundland . 
 
 Prussia 
 
 Franco 
 
 Holland 
 
 Spain 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Total. 
 
 1652. 
 
 Pipes. 
 
 19,219 
 
 4,462 
 
 2,833 
 
 2,001 
 
 917 
 
 902 
 
 373 
 
 260 
 
 156 
 
 119 
 
 16 
 
 21 
 
 2 
 
 238 
 
 31,499 
 
 Oiiintries. 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 Australia 
 
 United States 
 
 Canada 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Brazil 
 
 RuBEia 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Portuguese poss'ns, 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Newfoundland 
 
 Prussia 
 
 France 
 
 Holland 
 
 Spain 
 
 Total 
 
 1653. 
 
 46,834 
 
 2,531 
 
 1,658 
 
 1,002 
 
 923 
 
 T43 
 
 581 
 
 455 
 
 357 
 
 232 
 
 216 
 
 163 
 
 114 
 
 16 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 65,813 
 
 Exports in 1858 55,813 pipca 
 
 1852 31,499 " 
 
 Excess in 1853 over 1852 24,314 " 
 
 The subjoined statements of the commerce and nav- 
 igation of Oporto during the Portuguese financial year 
 
 1854-'55, and the movenjients in wines aiid brandy the 
 same period, are made up from returns of the United 
 States consul at that port. 
 
 Altetations lately made in the Portuguese Tariff (1853). 
 — Broadcloths have been reduced 12 per cent. Kaw 
 silk now pays only two-fifths of the former duty. On 
 satins, gros-do-Naples, etc., a reduction of nearly 54 per 
 cent, has been made. Flax has been raised to 42 cents 
 per quintal of 128 poilnds, being an advance of 200 per 
 cent. In linens, and goods of cotton and linen, as well 
 as woolens, no great alteration has been made. In 
 gray Cloths and white shirtings there has been a re- 
 duction of about 12, per cent. Ale pays about one- 
 third of the old duties. Wine, which heretofore paid 
 an import duty of about $266 per pipe, has been re- 
 duced to about one-fifth of that amount. The export 
 duty on port has been reduced and equalized to all the 
 world. Piands, which formerly paid from $48 to $192 
 each, according to size, now pay $24 each, regardless 
 of size, l^'ormerly, no tea could be imported except in 
 national vessels ; the duty being, from Portuguese ter- 
 ritories, about Is. S)d. English (42 cents), and from oth- 
 er parts is. 3d. per pound, equal to $1 02. Now tea 
 may be imported indirectly, in national or foreign bot- 
 toms ; Portuguese vessels still enjoying the usual dis- 
 criminations over foreig^i vessels engaged in the intli- 
 rect trade. It is believed that Portugal has no treaty 
 with any nation equalizing foreign vessel^ to national 
 vessels in the indirect trade. If so, all foreign flags 
 are equally subject, with those of the United States, 
 to an additional duty of 20 per cent, when importing 
 goods not the produce of the country to which they be- 
 long. The dhief difiiculty which foreign merchants 
 have to encounter, in selecting a cargo for the Portu- 
 guese market, arises from the complicated and almost 
 Unintelligible terms in which the tariff of that country 
 estimates the value of merchandise. Cottons, linens, 
 and in many instances, even fluids, are estimated by 
 the pound ; and, owing to the great variety of specific 
 articles under any particular genus, and the great dif- 
 ference in their respective prices, it were next to im- 
 possible to say, even approximately, what duty is as- 
 signed to all or any of the descriptions of merchandise 
 which usually make up a mixed cargo. Cotton, for 
 instance, is thus classed in the tariff of 1852: raw, per 
 101 pounds, 24 cents (which is plain enough); manu^ 
 factured, from 6 cents to 70 cents per pound (which 
 is not). Should an American merchant desire to ship 
 to Lisbon or Oporto a cargo of such Ameiican produce 
 as would be most likely to find a ready market in ex- 
 change for the wines or fruits of Portugal, he would 
 naturally turn to the Portuguese tariff, to ascertain the 
 import duty on such descriptions of merchandise as he 
 could most profitably send. The article of cotton man- 
 ufactures, it has been shown, would probably afford 
 some exercise to his skill ; but let him select a cargo 
 of tobacco. The Portuguese tariff informs him that it 
 is admitted only when sold to government contractors ; 
 tut he is left in the dark with respect to the precise 
 duty to which it is subject. If he has a correspondent 
 
FOR 
 
 1552 
 
 FOE 
 
 at Oporto or Lislion, lip will inform him that the duty 
 on tobacco is arbitrary, and depentls on the terms of 
 the particular bargain ho may make with the govern- 
 ment contractors, after liis cargo shall have reached 
 port. , 
 
 This complex classification of the Portuguese tariff 
 induced some British merchants, a few j'ears since, to 
 
 malte the attempt to reduce to a fixed value the actual 
 duties levied on some of tlio leading imports into Port- 
 ugal from foreign couiHries. Below is the result of 
 tlieir calculations, as respects some articles of cotton 
 manufacture. The duties, in Portuguese money, are 
 given in reas, the milrea being equal to 1000 7-eas, or 
 $112. 
 
 -h 
 
 Articles. 
 
 Duties in Port- 
 
 Knte 
 
 ngiieae Money. 
 
 per Cent. 
 
 56 
 
 30 
 
 80 
 
 4T 
 
 400 
 
 
 TO 
 
 23 
 
 200 
 
 63 
 
 400 
 
 93 
 
 ICO 
 
 29 
 
 200 
 
 56 
 
 400 
 
 fS 
 
 Cotton twist, etc., imdei- 40, per pound 
 
 Cotton bleached or dyed, under 40, per pound 
 
 Wick of candles, under 40, per pound 
 
 "White cottons with glazed tinisli, 15 threads, etc., per pound 
 
 Cottons woven witli dyed threads, up to 16, per pound 
 
 Cotton dresscB, shawls, or handkereliiefs, to IG threads, per pound 
 
 White cambrics, ?1 threads or upward, per pound 
 
 Colored cambric dyed in the piece, per pound 
 
 Colored cambric in shawls, handkerchiefs, dresses, or other shapes, per pound. 
 
 The duties on the different descriptions of cotton 
 goods vary from IG (on colored velveteens) to 96 (on 
 striped naiilcecns, plain) per cent. Notwithstanding 
 the enormous duties ou cottons "which the above table 
 indicates, the manufactures of Portugal, of this descrip- 
 tion of merchandise, are confined to some coarse and 
 very inferior description of "woolens, and a few common 
 cottons and linens. Still, while that scale of duties 
 continues, cotton tissues can never become a profitable 
 medium of exchange between the two countries. There 
 is no reason, ho"\vever, why the United States could 
 
 not compete with Brazil in supplying the markets of 
 Portugal with sugar, rice, rum, timber, and other arti- 
 cles which have been heretofore chiefly imported from 
 that eountr}'. The rice of Carolina is far superior to 
 Brazilian, and yet Portugal consumes annually of the 
 latter upward of 40,000,000 pounds. Brazil supplies 
 the Portuguese market annually with sugar to the 
 amount of from one and a half to two millions of dol- 
 lars. Both these articles can now be exported from 
 the United States to Portugal on the same terms as 
 from Brazil. 
 
 COMMEECE OF TUE UNITED STATES 
 
 WITH POETTJGAL FKOM OCTOBER 1, 1820, TO JtlXY 1, 1856. 
 
 
 Years CDdiDg 
 
 Exporta. 
 
 Imports, 
 
 Whoreofthere wnaiii 
 Bullion and Specie. 
 
 Tonnage cleared. 
 
 Domeatic. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Export. 
 
 Import. 
 
 Anioriefln. ( 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Sept. 30,1821 
 
 $147,726 
 
 $06 
 
 $147,7,.2 
 
 $356,116 
 
 
 $140,775 
 
 .5,100 
 
 
 1822 
 
 102 '.'o5 
 
 18,555 
 300 
 
 121 490 
 
 42.i 660 
 
 $14,000 
 
 800 
 
 3 459 
 
 
 1S23 
 
 48,077 
 
 43,377 
 
 l8I,o:)4 
 
 13 087 
 
 1,.170 
 
 i,osi 
 
 1824 
 
 77,255 
 
 6,163 
 
 82,423 
 
 243,304 
 
 190 
 
 23,746 
 
 .3,441 
 
 162 
 
 1825 
 
 110,015 
 
 2,8-'4 
 
 112,839 
 
 221,073 
 
 
 16,109 
 
 3,241 
 
 723 
 
 1S--6 
 
 69,045 
 
 538 
 
 100,483 
 
 349,989 
 
 
 09.605 
 
 6,486 
 
 
 1821 
 
 116,108 
 
 220 
 
 110,323 
 
 208,001 
 
 14.000 
 
 81, .564 
 
 4,138 
 
 
 1S28 
 
 77,010 
 
 1,164 
 
 78,174 
 
 112,659 
 
 
 2,600 
 
 3.453 
 
 61T 
 
 1829 
 
 42,088 
 
 628 
 
 42,716 
 
 237,r51 
 
 
 13,r85 
 
 2,397 
 
 
 1830 
 
 Total... 
 
 43,403 
 
 1,800 
 
 45,211 
 
 165321 
 
 
 8,154 
 
 2,243 
 
 184 
 
 $864,562 
 
 $31,260 
 
 $81,5,828 
 
 $2,666,663 
 
 $28,190 
 
 $28,),465 
 
 35,423 
 
 2,757 
 
 Sept. 30, 1831 
 
 $39,149 
 
 $2,350 
 
 $41,5^6 
 
 $124 446 
 
 
 $4,746 
 
 1,698 
 
 
 1832 
 
 28 262 
 
 800 
 
 23, .56 3 
 
 123,816 
 
 
 1,000 
 
 1.177 
 
 coo 
 
 1833 
 
 73.313 
 
 6,330 
 
 78,643 
 
 170,189 
 
 $4,100 
 
 4,005 
 
 2,188 
 
 1,026 
 
 1834 
 
 42,642 
 
 ]6,,5S3 
 
 59,125 
 
 215,399 
 
 
 11,013, 
 
 2 023 
 
 656 
 
 1885 
 
 162,703 
 
 107,803 ■ 
 
 270,305 
 
 647,974 
 
 18,260 
 
 27,S9') 
 
 6,637 
 
 659 
 
 1836 
 
 33,S35 
 
 13,247 
 
 51,582 
 
 276,273 
 
 3,531 
 
 990 
 
 1,434 
 
 1,290 
 
 1S3T 
 
 124,:.:37 
 
 17,072 
 
 141,409 
 
 187,043 
 
 
 15,440 
 
 3,226 
 
 10,407 
 
 1838 
 
 67,976 
 
 8,033 
 
 76,063 
 
 296,864 
 
 9,000 
 
 22,577 
 
 2,922 
 
 1,041 
 
 1839 
 
 51,711 
 
 6,093 
 
 6.5,804 
 
 .'■iS7,778 
 
 6,000 
 
 17,177 
 
 8,061 
 
 2,085 
 
 1840 
 
 Total... 
 
 97,341 
 
 5,724 
 
 108,065 
 
 223.SS4 
 
 
 3,053 
 
 3,851 
 
 637 
 
 $733,603 
 
 $182,400 
 
 $116,063 
 
 ,$2, 7.53,) 71) 
 
 $40,891 
 
 $109,086 
 
 ■,;7,',IC3 
 
 18,251 
 
 Sept. 80, 1841 
 
 $114,443 
 
 $7,321 
 
 $121,764 
 
 $286,568 
 
 
 $25,667 
 
 4,891 
 
 728 
 
 1842 
 
 73,728 
 
 1,388 
 
 74,111 
 
 142 687 
 
 
 5,646 
 
 3,305 
 
 7B7 
 
 Omos., 1843* 
 
 59,0t6 
 
 1,.')3S 
 
 60,634 
 
 46,713 
 
 
 612 
 
 2.557 
 
 643 
 
 June 30, 1844 
 
 99,553 
 
 3,565 
 
 108,118 
 
 199,705 
 
 
 r..880 
 
 6 743 
 
 172 
 
 1845 
 
 124,850 
 
 5,419 
 
 129,769 
 
 296,908 
 
 
 7,216 
 
 5,893 
 
 990 
 
 1846 
 
 96,316 
 
 8,153 
 
 104,769 
 
 878.269 
 
 $3,500 
 
 
 4,815 
 
 1,874 
 
 1847 
 
 56,893 
 
 1,335 
 
 68,228 
 
 283,330 
 
 
 2, .372 
 
 2,537 
 
 1883 
 
 1843 
 
 112,260 
 
 2,r81 
 
 115,544 
 
 214,783 
 
 
 3,944 
 
 5,842 
 
 5.418 
 
 1840 
 
 169,721 
 
 6,273 
 
 175,994 
 
 322,230 
 
 
 510 
 
 4,837 
 
 6,023 
 
 1850 
 
 Total... 
 
 172,678 
 
 6,236 
 
 178,214 
 
 839,763 
 
 
 
 2,976 
 
 7,531 
 24,949 
 
 $1,078,033 
 
 $48,612 
 
 $1,121,846 
 
 $2,510,826 
 
 $2,600 
 
 $49,547 
 
 43,216 
 
 June SO, 1851 '. . 
 
 $167,342 
 
 $4,990 
 
 $172,338 
 
 $867,.543 
 260,864 
 
 .... 
 
 
 2.4T0 
 
 5,176 
 
 18.53 
 
 234,064 
 
 4,129 
 
 238,193 
 
 
 $850 
 
 6.397 
 
 6,333 
 
 1853 
 
 223,651 
 
 26,5.52 
 
 250,208 
 
 411,166 
 
 $3,000 
 
 
 6 476 
 
 3,690 
 
 1854 
 
 127,150 
 
 23,715 
 
 150,885 
 
 243 512 
 
 200 
 
 
 2,866 
 
 6,094 
 
 1855 
 
 270,716 
 
 24,867 
 
 295,583 
 
 186,067 
 
 
 
 6,670 
 
 9,ro3 
 
 1816 
 
 344,098 
 
 34,101 
 
 378,199 
 
 287,160 
 
 330 
 
 
 6,232 
 
 6,743 
 
 Nine months to June 30, ahd the fiscal year from this time begins July 1. 
 
 The tonnage employed in the above trade was : 
 
 
 1853, 
 
 18S4. 
 
 1865. 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 8,790 
 14,669 
 
 Tons. 
 4,020 
 
 10,106 
 
 Tons. 
 12,083 
 16,373 
 
 Foreign 
 
 Total 
 
 23,469 
 
 14,126 
 
 28,4.55 
 
 The exports from the United States to Portugal con- 
 siBt of whale oil, whalebone, sperm candles, staves and 
 
 headings, beef, porlc, rice, tobacco, linseed oil, soap, 
 nails, manufactures of iron, and sundries. The im- 
 ports, as talien from the United States Treasury re- 
 turns, are wool, wines, vinegar, dried fruit, salt, corks 
 and cork-tree bark, marble, sheet and bar lead, copper, 
 and sundries. 
 
 The exports from the United States to Portugal for 
 the fiscal year 1856-57 included $56,439 of unmanufac- 
 tured cotton, and $121,359 of tobacco. 
 
FOR 
 
 1553 
 
 POS 
 
 The tonnage of the coasting-vessels employed hi the 
 coasting-trade of Brazil varies from 40 to 420 tons 
 each. Foreign vessels are not allowed to participate 
 in the coasting-trade. We annex a Table showing the 
 number and tonnage of vessels employed in the coast- 
 ing-trade of Portugal in 1852. 
 
 Forte. 
 
 Oporto 
 
 Viana 
 
 Figueira 
 
 Aveiro 
 
 (jaminha 
 
 Villa de Conde . 
 Eapozende 
 
 Number of Veeaele. 
 
 35S 
 
 128 
 
 103 
 
 153 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 36.613 
 
 8,271 
 15,050 
 T,910 
 1,412 
 '101 
 120 
 
 Foreign vessels are allowed to enter into the foreign 
 trade, and pay the same tonnage dues as those bearing 
 the flag of Portugal, to wit: Vessels of the United 
 States under the treaty of 26lh of August, 1840; also 
 the vessels of the following countries under difl'erent 
 treaties and conventions, Dutch, Danish, British, Prus- 
 sian, Swedish and Norwegian, Russian, Brazilian, 
 Belgian, Hanse Towns, French, Papal States, and 
 Hanoverian. The indirect trade is, however, except- 
 ed. Goods not the product of the country from which 
 the vessel sails are liable to an extra duty of 20 per 
 cent, when brought to Portugal in foreign ships. 
 
 POKT DITES, ETC. Eja,. Cents. 
 
 Sailing in ballast, or not fully laden, per ton . . . 250 := 28 
 Laden with salt, olive oil, or wine, produce of 
 
 Portugal 50= 6S-5 
 
 Laden with other pi'oduce of Portugal 150 = 16 4-5 
 
 In all cases when re-exporting foreign goods. . . 250 = 28 
 Entering in ballast, and sailing in ballast (ex- 
 cept in cases of distress) 250 = 28 
 
 "With full cargo of grain, produce of Portugal. . 250 =; 28 
 
 With wine, salt, or olive oil ." 250 = 28 
 
 With other Portuguese produce 100 = 11 1-5 
 
 Contribution to remove the bar in the port of 
 Oporto 100 = 11 1-5 
 
 An additional tax of 15 per cent, on the amount of 
 tonnage and bar-dues is also exacted in Oporto. Un- 
 der treaty, American vessels are equalized with na- 
 tional vessels as to these duties. Contributions for the 
 exchange building, five reas = one half cent, nearly. 
 Steamers pay two-fifths less tonnage dues than sailing 
 vessels. The contribution for the bar is the same for 
 both. Every captain of a merchant-vessel Is bound to 
 have two manifests of the same tenor, signed by him- 
 self, and certified by the Portuguese consul or vice- 
 consul at the port of departure. Goods omitted in his 
 manifest, or of a different description, have to pay a 
 sum equal to the value of the goods. Goods admissi- 
 ble being omitted, a fine equal to double the amount 
 of the duties, and custom-house charges and imposts. 
 — United States Commercial jRelations. 
 
 Portuguese /Settlements, — The Portuguese have nu- 
 merous settlements in Western Africa, situated on the 
 Eiver Caches, the St. Domingo, and the Eio Grande. 
 The chief settlement in Guinea is on the island of Lo- 
 ando ; and in Benguela, that of St. Philip. There is 
 some trade carried on between the United States and 
 these settlements, especially at Loando. The exports 
 from the United States to this point consist of domes- 
 tic cottons, flour, and specie; imports to the United 
 States, gum-copal, palm-oil, ivory, hides, etc. The 
 following summary, exhibiting the general trade be- 
 tween tlie United States and Loando, during the first 
 six months of 1854, is derived from a consular return : 
 Number of American vessels arrived and cleared, 10, 
 with an aggregate of 2218 tons. Value of cargoes in- 
 ward, $G5,000 ; discharged at Loando, $43,000. Value 
 of cargoes outward, $22,000. 
 
 From a return of later date, the trade between the 
 United States and Loando, for the last three months 
 of 1855 appears to have been carried on by five Amer- 
 ican vessels, of some 200 tons each — three of them be- 
 longing to Salem, Massachusetts, and two to New York. 
 Their cargoes inward, landed, consisted of dry goods, 
 flour, rum, etc., to the value of $124,200; the total value 
 of inward cargoes being $61,500 ; and their cargoes 
 5F 
 
 outward, of palm-oil, gnin-copal, ivory, copper ore, etc., 
 to the value of $07,100. Each of these vessels touched 
 at Ambriz. Indeed, vessels trading to Loando usual- 
 ly touch at Ambriz and Ambrizette, where they have 
 agents, to whose consignment they land part of their 
 cargoes, and take in such produce as may be in wait- 
 ing. They then touch at Loando, and leave part of 
 their remaining cargoes ; then they make for Bengue- 
 la, where they usually remain from 40 to 60 days, to 
 close their sales, and take on board gum-copal- and 
 ivory. On their homeward voyage they again touch 
 at Ambriz and Loando, at which places they complete 
 their cargoes of gums, palm-oil, ivory, hides, and coffee. 
 At Ambriz there are now two American, two En- 
 glish, one French, and a number of Portuguese facto- 
 ries. Heretofore the only duty paid at this port was 
 a small tribute to the native king, for the privilege of 
 trading. Recent movements indicate a design on the 
 part of the Portuguese government to establish a reg- 
 ular custom-house, and charge import and export du- 
 ties. The claim of Portugal is predicated on its alleged 
 title to some copper mines in the interior, which can 
 be reached only through this port. The little kingdom 
 of Ambriz is too weak to resist the pretensions of the 
 Portuguese ; and however novel this claim may appear 
 to more civilized nations than the little negro kingdom 
 of Ambriz, there is official information to the eflfect 
 that, instead of free trade. United States commerce 
 will probably hereafter encounter at this point the 
 burdensome restrictions of Portuguese commercial leg- 
 islation. 
 
 The once flourishing and vast colonies of the Portu- 
 guese were, before the year 1850, reduced to the follow- 
 ing territories : 
 
 Population 
 ISLANDS. in 1850. 
 
 Madeira and Porto Santo 108,464 
 
 Eastern Azores 97,330 
 
 Central 69,387 
 
 Western 68.391 
 
 343,572 
 AFEICA. 
 
 Cape Verd Islands , 86,738 
 
 Coast of Guinea, Bissao, etc 4,270 
 
 St. Thomas, Princes, etc 12,753 
 
 Angola, Benguela, and dependencies 589,127 
 
 Mozambique and dependencies 300,000 
 
 9!12,S88 
 ASIA. 
 
 Goa, Saluto, Bardez, etc. (new conquests) . 363,783 
 
 Town of Damao 33.169 
 
 Town of Diu 10,765 
 
 407,712 
 OCEANIA AND CHINA. 
 
 Macao 29,587 
 
 Islands of Timor, Solor, etc 918,300 
 
 947,881 
 
 Foi' commerce, etc., of Portugal, refer to Balbi's 
 -Eisay on Portugal; Bkoughton's Letters on Portugal; 
 Hodge's Portuguese Expeditions ; Miss Pardoe's Let- 
 ters ; Hunt's Merchants' Magazine, Ix. 366 (Whar- 
 ton); Quarterly Review, xli. 184 (Southey); Ameri- 
 can Annual Register, viii. 213 (J. Q. Adams). On the 
 wine country of Portugal, see Frasek's Magazine, 
 xxxvi. 302. 
 
 Postage — Post-ofBoe. Postage is the duty or 
 charge imposed on letters or parcels conveyed by post ; 
 the post-office being the establishment by which such 
 letters or parcels are conveyed. We propose, in the 
 present article, to divide and treat the subject under 
 the following heads : 
 
 I. Sketch of early Postal Affairs. II. The first Na- 
 tional Post-office. III. The British Post-ofiice. IV. 
 Introduction of cheap Postage. V. Postal Statistics, 
 and Rates of Postage in other Countries. VI. Histo- 
 ry of the United States Post-office. VII. The present 
 Condition and future Prospects of the United States 
 Post-office. 
 
 The post-office, as it exists to-day, is essentially a 
 modern institution. Some writers have traced the 
 origin of the Post to a very early period in the polit- 
 
POS 
 
 1554 
 
 POS 
 
 ical history of the -world. They find the origin of the 
 word post in the Latin ^osiViis, as applied to the postal 
 couriers who were placed or posted at certain intervals 
 or stations on the route over which letters or messages 
 were conveyed. Herodotus, Xenophon, and other an- 
 cient historians, speak of postal couriers that were em- 
 ployed hy kings, rulers, and commanders of armies. 
 In Persia, in the time of Cyrus, stations were kept at 
 regular intervals along the principal highways of tlie 
 country, and messages were forwarded for the govern- 
 ment by couriers, who acted as post-riders. In the 
 Eoman empire, in the time of Juliijs Cajsar, and during 
 the reign of Augustus, a similar method of communi- 
 cation was kept up between the central government 
 and the principal military stations. Marco Polo tells 
 us, and his narrative is confirmed by other travelers, 
 that Kublai Khan, the Emperor of Tartary, had regu- 
 lar post establishments throughout his vast empire. 
 This was in the 13th century. In his narrative we 
 find the following, which is particularly interesting, as 
 giving an account of a regular post among a compara- 
 tively barbarous people, that was quite equal to the 
 postal establishments of many modern Christian na- 
 tions : " From the citj' of Kanbalu there are many 
 roads leading to the different provinces, and upon each 
 of these, that is to say, upon every great high road, at 
 the distance of 25 or SO miles, accordingly as the towns 
 happen to be situated, there are stations, witli houses 
 of accommodation for travelers, called yamb or post- 
 houses." [TliesO' are mansiones equorum ; in the Chi- 
 nese language tcJian, and in the Persian r}iarhileh.'] 
 " These are large and handsome buildings, having 
 well-furnished apartments, hung with silk, and provid- 
 ed with every thing suitable to persons o'f rank. Even 
 kings may be lodged at these stations in a becoming 
 manner, as every article required may be obtained from 
 the towns and strong^places in the vicinity ; and for 
 some of them the court makes regular provision. At 
 each station 400 good horses are kept in constant read- 
 iness, in order that all messengers going and coming 
 upon the business of the Grand Khan, and all embas- 
 sadors may iiave relays, and, leaving their jaded horses, 
 be supplied with fresh ones. Even in mountainous 
 districts, remote from the great roads, where there are 
 no villages, and the towns are far distant from each 
 other, his majesty has equally caused buildings of the 
 same kind to be erected, furnished with every thing 
 necessary, and provided with the usual establishment 
 of horses. He sends people to dwell upon the spot, in 
 order to cultivate the land, and attend to the service 
 of the post ; by which means large villages are formed. 
 In consequence of these regulations, embassadors to 
 the court and royal messengers go and return through 
 every province and kingdom of the empire with the 
 greatest convenience and facility." 
 
 This is a pictm-e of a very complete postal establish- 
 ment. The Incas of Peru, in the 16th century, had a 
 similar system of postal couriers to keep up communi- 
 cation between different parts of the country. There 
 was a system of postal communication in France as 
 early as the time of Charlemagne, and used principal- 
 ly for the conveyance of government dispatches. Lou- 
 is XI. also employed postal couriers. "A permanent 
 establishment of messengers for the conveyance of lel^ 
 ters was attached to the University of Paris from the 
 beginning of the 13th century, and indeed was not abol- 
 ished until the year 1719, long after a general post had 
 been settled in ]?rance. Other universities were simi- 
 larly provided. Sometimes powerful or opulent indi- 
 viduals established posts for mercantile purposes, and 
 the convenience of a particular district." — Encyclopedia 
 Britannica. The date of the first regular post estab- 
 lishment in modern time was not far from the year 
 1497. There is a general coincidence in point of time 
 of a number of leading discoveries, conquests, inven- 
 tions, and improvements. Printing was invented in 
 1441. Constantinople was taken liy the Ottomans, 
 
 the Greeks driven from the East, and the Turkish em- 
 pire founded in 1463. Postal couriers were employed 
 in Great Britain as early as 1464. Printing was intro- 
 duced into England in 1474. The kingdom of Spain 
 was established by the union of Aragon and Castile, 
 in 1479. The Cape of Good Hope was discovered in 
 1486, and America in 1492. The post-office was estab- 
 lished in Germany about the year 1497. Africa was 
 circumnavigated in 1498. The Reformation com- 
 menced in 1517. A sj-stem of punctuation by marks 
 and pauses was introduced in 1520. Hungary was 
 united to Austria in 1521. Magellan completed the 
 first circumnavigation of the globe in 1522. The as- 
 tronomical system of Copernicus was proclaimed in 
 1532. In India, as early as 1570, a system of foot-posts 
 was established by Akbar, the head of the Mogul em- 
 pire. Indian runners, noted for their speed, were em- 
 ployed, and one messenger, without relief, we are told, 
 would often travel from 80 to 90 miles in a day. 
 
 II. The first National I'ost-nffice. — The first regular 
 post-office was established by Maximilian, emperor of 
 Germany, near the close of the 15th century — about 
 the year 1497. At the head of this post establishment 
 the emperor placed Francis, prince of Thurn and Taxis, 
 the first postmaster-general mentioned in history. This 
 establishment, originally started like all other govern- 
 ment posts as a general errand-boy and raessage-bearer 
 of government, soon became a powerful monopoly, and 
 claimed the sole right of transmitting the correspond- 
 ence of the people. From the time of its foundation to 
 the present day the German post establishment has 
 been held as a hereditary fief or property by the 
 princes of the house of Thurn and Taxis. It has been 
 a subject of frequent discussion wliether postal business 
 should be entirely carried on by government. There 
 are arguments on both sides, and many against it can 
 be found in the history of this German postal union. 
 The Catholic religion being the religion of the state, 
 Protestants made frequent and just complaints against' 
 the suppression and violation of correspondence in the 
 cause of political tyranny and religious intolerance. 
 We are informed that this was one of the direct causes 
 of the Thirty Years' War. Lamoral, prince of Thurn 
 and Taxis, a military leader (Catholic) as well as post-' 
 master-general, by the assistance of his allies defeated 
 and dispersed the Protestant Union under Frederick, 
 the Elector Palatine. This was followed by the " Mas- 
 sacre of Prague," the " horrible persecution of all mal- 
 contents," the " banishment of thirty thousand Protest- 
 ant families, and the total suppression of the Protestant 
 religion." In this work the post-oflSce was used as a 
 machine for annoj'ance, espionage, persecution and war- 
 like conquest. The very same postal concern is this 
 day a stumbling-block and a serious impediment in the 
 way of cheap postage between nations on the west — 
 France, Great Britain and the United States — and peo- 
 ple living in the eastern part of Europe. But the 
 house of Thurn and Taxis own the post, pocket large 
 profits, are deaf to all considerations of public good, 
 and insist on the very highest paying (transit) rates 
 of postage. 
 
 III. Tlie British Post-office.— The Post-office of Great 
 Britain, at once the most efiicient, economical, and prof- 
 itable of modern times, has a most interesting history. 
 We find mention of postal couriers employed by gov- 
 ernment as early as the reign of King John. He sum- 
 moned his barons to form the Parliament by issuing 
 "letters patent." During this reign state accounts 
 exhibit frequent items of charge for the carriage of 
 letters. In the time of Edward II., there were fixed 
 posts or stations whore horses were kept for post-riders. 
 In 1481, Edward IV., during his wars with Scotland, 
 established, as stated by Gale, certain posts, twenty 
 miles apart, where the riders relieved one another, and 
 in this way conveyed letters one hundred miles a day. 
 Long before there was any account of a national post- 
 oflBce, we meet with the superscription of letters, 
 
POS 
 
 1555 
 
 POS 
 
 " haste, poste haste." In 1581, during the reign of 
 Elizabeth, Camden states that Thomas Bandolph was 
 chief postmaster of Kugland, but nothing is mentioned 
 as to his functions as a tronsmitter of letters. 
 
 Among the early records of postal affairs in Great 
 Britain are various accounts of the violation of letters, 
 particularly in the reign of Henry VIII. The English 
 embassador at the Court of James V., King of Scot- 
 land (Sir Ralph Sadler), gives numerous instances of 
 the violation of letters by Cardinal Beaton. . One mes- 
 senger, a soldier from Berwick-on-Tweed, was employed 
 to relieve the courier from the south on his way to Edin- 
 burgh, with dispatches for tlie embassador. He was 
 called " the post." While on the way, he fell into the 
 bands of Beaton's emissaries, and they seized the let- 
 ters that were addressed io Sir Kalph Sadler, and re- 
 fused to give them up. They were finally delivered, 
 after they had been kept some days, and opened; 
 " which," as Sir Balph says, " being in cipher, they 
 had kept the longer to prove their cunning in the de- 
 ciphering of them, which (as I credibly am informed) 
 they could do." Aletter from the Earl of Angus, **Sir 
 George Douglas hath to convey by post, and will, as 
 he hath written to me, ride himself therewith to Ber- 
 wick, because he dare trust no other man to carry it." 
 He adds, "it is much ado to convey letters safely in 
 this country." One messenger of King Henry was 
 taken by the cardinal's party, who " threatened to hang 
 him with all his letters about his -neck." But on two 
 notable occasions' the wily cardinal — the Pope's legatus 
 a latere in Scotland — had the tables turned upon him. 
 One of his own couriers was shipwrecked and oast 
 ashore near Bamborough Castle, was captured, and by 
 the cardinal's letters found on him, it appeared that 
 he (" through the authority of the Bishop of Rome") 
 (the Pope) intended to get all power, spiritual and 
 temporal, from the King of Scotland, while professing 
 to be his friend. King Henry reported this to King 
 James through his embassador. When he heard it, 
 the incensed monarch said, " whatsoever he he in Scot- 
 land that we may know, doth not his duty both in the 
 execution of God's laws above all, and also in the min- 
 istration of indifferent justice to our lieges; by God," 
 quoth he, "if we ma)' know him, we shall not lett to 
 punish him, be he spiritual or temporah" 
 
 The last notable act of this kind was when Cardinal 
 Beaton sent Norman Leslie, son of the Earl of Rothes, 
 and others, to Edinburgh, from his strong-hold at St. 
 Andrews. Suspecting foul play, they " fingered the 
 packet," and found they were the bearers of their own 
 death-warrants. They returned by night, and at a very 
 early hour in the morning, while the draw-bridge of the 
 castle was lowered, rushed in and stabbed the cardinal 
 in his own room. The journals and correspondence 
 of tliis period contain various other instances of the 
 violation of correspondence. The earliest mention of 
 a postmaster, who had the charge of correspondence, 
 and whose duties and privileges were defined, was in 
 the reign of James I. of England. He was charged 
 with " the sole taking up, sending and conveying of 
 all packets and letters into foreign parts." The oflice 
 was filled by Mathew le Quester, and by Mathew le 
 Quester, his son. In 1635 King Chai'les issued a proc- 
 lamation " for settling of the letter-office of England 
 and Scotland." " This," says an English writer, " may 
 properly be regarded as the origin of the British Post- 
 oflSoe." By royal command, Thomas Witherings, Esq., 
 was Postmaster-general. Posts were established from 
 London to the Continent, and to Scotland and Ireland. 
 In 1644 the Parliament made Edmund Prideaux Post- 
 master-general, and he established a weekly mail. 
 Cromwell made important improvements. He had 
 an act passed " to settle the postage of England, Scot- 
 land, and Ireland." By this it was enacted that "there 
 shall be one General Post-office, and one officer styled 
 the Postmaster-general of England, and the comptrol- 
 ler of the Post-ofSce." This officer was to have the 
 
 "horsing" of all persons "riding in post." The rates 
 of postaige were fixed, and all other persons forbidden 
 to " set up or imploy any foot-posts, horse-posts, or 
 pacquet-boats." The postage of a letter eighty miles 
 from London was two pence sterling; above that dis- 
 tance, in England, three pence ; to Scotland, four pence ; 
 and to Ireland, six pence. Double letters were double 
 these rates. The post-riders were required to ride seven 
 miles an hour in summer and five in winter. Crom- 
 well farmed the post-office out for £10,000 a year; and 
 on the restoration of Charles II., in 1660, the office was 
 rented for £21,500 a year. In 1663 the entire profits 
 were settled on the king's brother, the Duke of York 
 (afterward King James II.), and his heirs male. In 
 1685, by an order in council, a post-office was estab- 
 lished on this continent "for the better correspondence 
 between the colonies of America," 
 
 During the ftign of James II., William Dockwra set 
 up a local system of letter and parcel distribution in 
 London. He was allowed to continue it for several 
 years, until it proved profitable, and then his local let- 
 ter system was seized under pretense that it encroached 
 upon the royal prerogative.- In the more modern his- 
 tory of the post-office there are parallel cases. In 1688 
 an act was passed for the establishment of a General 
 Post-office in Scotland. In 1698 King William made 
 a grant of the whole revenues of this office to Sir Robert 
 Sinclair, with a subsidy besides of £300 a year. Even 
 at this rate Sir Robert found it a losing business, and 
 threw it up. In 1710 (9 Anne, ch. 10) an act was 
 passed that may be considered the charter of the Brit- 
 ish Post-office. This act established a General Post- 
 office throughout Great Britain and Ireland, the North 
 American colonies, and the West Indies. It was all 
 put under the control of one officer, styled her Majes- 
 ty's Postmaster-general. The act provided for one 
 chief letter-office in Edinburgh, one in Dublin, one in 
 New York, and others in the West Indies. For a con- 
 siderable period after the act of 1710, there were no 
 relays of post-horses, one man or boy, and a horse, ac- 
 complishing an entire journey like the one from Aber- 
 deen to Edinburgh, traveling by day and stopping at 
 night. Up to 1763 there was only a tri-weeMy mail 
 from London to Edinburgh. That year the -trips were 
 increased to five times a week. The time required for 
 the mail-coach to go between the two cities was from 
 eighty-two to eighty-five hours. Until 1788, there was 
 no direct mail from London to Glasgow. It is in- 
 structive to note the progress in the income of the 
 British post-office for a period of two hundred years. 
 The net and gross income of the British post-office at 
 dififerent periods will be seen in\the following table, 
 the last column giving the gross income in United 
 States currency, reckoning five dollars to the pound 
 sterling : 
 
 1653. . 
 1663., 
 16S5. , 
 1696. , 
 ITll. , 
 1T54., 
 1T60. . 
 1T70., 
 1T80. . 
 1790.. 
 ISOO.. 
 1810. . 
 1820. . 
 1830. , 
 1840. . 
 18J5.. 
 1850. . 
 1855.. 
 1856. . 
 
 Net Revenue. 
 
 Gross Roceiptfl 
 
 £10,000 
 
 .... 
 
 21,600 
 
 .... 
 
 65,000 
 
 
 6T,222 
 
 £90,440 
 
 90,223 
 
 111,426 
 
 9T,365 
 
 210,663 
 
 83,493 
 
 230,146 
 
 156,062 
 
 305,015 
 
 136,409 
 
 418,862 
 
 331,179 
 
 571^863 
 
 720,981 
 
 1,083,950 
 
 1,138,889 
 
 1,855,748 
 
 1,385,493 
 
 2,191.56i 
 
 1,804,020 
 
 2,265,481 
 
 600,789 
 
 1,359,466 
 
 761,983 
 
 1,887,676 
 
 803,898 
 
 2,264,684 
 
 1,066,056 
 
 2,716,420 , 
 
 1,207,726 
 
 2.867,954 
 
 $462,200 
 657,130 
 1,053,315 
 1,150,730 
 1,525,075 
 2,094,310 
 2,859,815 
 .5,419,750 
 9,278 730 
 
 10,957,810e..j I 
 
 11,327,405,1, 
 - .6,797,330 
 
 9,487,SS0' ' 
 ' 11,823,420 
 
 18,582,100. 
 
 14,389,770 
 
 The first year of penny postage was in 1840. ' 
 
 To give the different rates of postage that have been 
 
 levied at various periods since the act of Queen Anne 
 
 would require a long tabular statement. In 1710 the 
 
 charge for a single letter from London to Edinburgh, 
 
POS 
 
 1556 
 
 POS 
 
 and from London to Dublin, was sixpence. In En- 
 gland the rates were three, or four pence, according to 
 distance ; in Scotland, two, three, or four pence, and in 
 Ireland two or four pence. The rates were altered, 
 and generally increased in amount and also in number, 
 in each of the three kingdoms — and without uniformity 
 in either two— in 1765, 1784, 1797, 1801, 1805, and 1812, 
 and in Ireland in 1813 and 1814. From two or three 
 rates in 1710, they went on increasing in number until 
 they reached the climax of absurdity and inconven- 
 ience in twelve different rates in England and Scot- 
 land, in 1812, and thirteen rates in Ireland, in 1814. 
 In Scotland, in 1813, an additional half-penny was lev- 
 ied on all letters that were conveyed in mail-coaches. 
 These absurd, complicated, troublesome, and multifari- 
 ous rates of postage remained on the statute hooks un- 
 til they were blown from existence by the reduction 
 of all rates to one uniform charge of a penny, through 
 the exertions of Mr. Rowland Hill, in 1840. 
 
 The next great improvement in the mail service of 
 Great Britain was the introduction of mail coaches, in 
 1784. This was principally accomplished by the ex- 
 ertions of Mr. John Palmer. Like most new improve- 
 ments, it was the project of an outsider, Mr. Palmer not 
 being an officer of the post-office, but the manager of 
 a provincial theatre. That extraordinary fatality usual 
 in such cases took possession of nearly all prominent 
 officials ; and the Postmaster-general, members of Par- 
 liament, and other dignitaries, denounced the scheme as 
 preposterous, undignified, and impracticable. The pro- 
 jector was pronounced a visionary zealot, and as unre- 
 liable as a madman. It appeared to Mr. Palmer that 
 when passenger coaches traveled regularly over the 
 principal roads at a much more rapid rate than the 
 horse-posts usually did, the mails could, with ad- 
 vantage, be transported by them. At this day we can 
 scarcely see tangible grounds for a violent opposition 
 to a plan to adopt the swiftest and most reliable con- 
 veyance for the mails, except in that official jealousy, 
 ■which never bears a rival near the throne, or that re- 
 sents the assumption of an outsider in presuming to 
 know any thing better than the servant of routine who 
 is paid to carry^ on a concern that he feels no interest 
 in improving. The mails were transferred to stage- 
 coaches, all the opponents of the plan were put to 
 shame, and Mr. John Palmer received from the Treas- 
 ury the sum of £50,000, and an annuity of £3000 a 
 year for life, for the benefits he had conferred on the 
 nation in augmenting the national income, and in- 
 creasing the facilities for correspondence. 
 
 IV. Introductionof Cheap Postage. — Mr. Rowland Hill, 
 an English country gentleman, in no way connected 
 with the government or the Post-office, set to work, in 
 1836, to devise a plan to effect some permanent im- 
 provements in the regulation and management of the 
 postal establishment. He found, by referring to the 
 official records of the Post-office Department, that while 
 the population, the business of the country, and all 
 branches of the national income (the post excepted) 
 had greatly increased during the preceding twenty 
 years, the revenue and business of the post-office had, 
 with some fluctuations, actually decreased. He com- 
 pared the postal income to the revenue derived from 
 stage-coaches, a branch of business that afforded a good 
 index to the prosperity of the country. The following 
 table exhibits at one view a comparison of the revenue 
 from stage-coaches, with the net postal income ; and a 
 column showing what the net revenue of the post- 
 office would have been in 1835 had the receipts kept 
 pace with the revenue fi'om coaches : 
 
 
 
 Increase 
 
 Net 
 
 Revenue 
 
 Com. 
 
 Y»ar». 
 
 
 
 Post-office 
 
 
 parative 
 
 
 coaches. 
 
 Cent. 
 
 Revenue. 
 
 have been. 
 
 
 1815 
 
 £m.m\ 
 
 
 £1,567,291 
 
 £1,657,29] 
 
 
 182fl 
 
 2T3.4T7 
 
 25 
 
 1,479,547 
 
 1.946.000 
 
 £466,45.3 
 
 182B 
 
 sn'j.cal 
 
 G6 
 
 1,670,219 
 
 2,585,000 
 
 914,781 
 
 IS-O 
 
 418 608 
 
 92 
 
 1,,517,963 
 
 2,990,000 
 
 1,472,048 
 
 1835 
 
 498,497 
 
 128 
 
 1,540,800 
 
 3,650,000 
 
 2,009,700 
 
 Believing that the legitimate demand for the con- 
 veyance of letters and distribution of correspondence 
 had increased as fast as that for the conveyance of per- 
 sons and parcels, it was evident that, in effect, there was 
 a loss in post-office revenue, amounting to £2,000,000. 
 These facts and others were first submitted privately 
 to the government, and in 1837 to the public, in a 
 pamphlet, entitled "Post-office Reform, its Importance 
 and Practicability." It was received with greatfavor, 
 and in a short time passed through three editions. The 
 author came to the following conclusions: He demon- 
 strated clearly that the actual cost of conveying a let- 
 ter by coach in the mail from London to Edinburgh — 
 400 miles — was onlj"- one-thirty-sixth part of a penny. 
 It must be evident that the actual difference of ex- 
 pense between transporting a letter one mile and de- 
 livering it, and carrying one four hundred miles to be 
 delivered, did not justify a different rate of charge. 
 He came to the conclusion that the large cost of dis- 
 tributing letters was the result of complex arrange- 
 ments in the post-office, arising from many rates of 
 postage. That these complex arrangements would be 
 avoided if postage were charged, without regard to dis- 
 tance, at a UNIFORM rate. That all letters should be 
 charged by weight, those reckoned as single letters 
 that did not exceed half an ounce each. That the uni- 
 form charge for letters, including their delivery, should 
 be one penny. That this rate of charge would afford 
 the greatest facilities to the public, put a stop to cor- 
 respondence through private channels, and eventually 
 prove the most profitable to the government. That 
 with the simplicity and economy of arrangement at-, 
 tending the uniform charge of a penny, there would be 
 but little more expense attending a four-fold increase 
 of coiTespendence than there was with the then numer^ 
 ous rates of postage. That the effect of a uniform penny 
 rate would be to increase correspondence *'in all prob- 
 ability at least five-and-a-quarter fold." [In 1856 the 
 number of letters in the kingdom (478,393,803) had in- 
 creased more than six-fold beyond the number in 1839 
 (then 75,907,572), the last year of the old rates.] That 
 thenecessary cost of primary distribution, instead of be- 
 ing 84 hundredths of a penny, as it was under the nu- 
 merous rates of postage, would only be 32 hundredths 
 of a penny, the difference, 52. hundredths of a penny, 
 arising from the expensiveness of the arrangements, 
 the excessive charges, and the consequent restriction of 
 correspondence. That the secondary distribution of let- 
 ters (the delivery) ought to be untaxed, so as not in any 
 degree to interfere with the simplicit}' of arrangements 
 attending a uniform and low rate. 
 
 A verification of Mr. Hill's predictions, almost 
 amounting to prophecy, has been established by the 
 working of the system. In his pamphlet, published in 
 1837, he predicted that the increase of correspondence, 
 and the attendant economy of management that would 
 result from a uniform rate of a penny, " would afford a 
 probable net revenue" — that is, in a reasonable time — 
 "of £1,278,000." In 1856 the net revenue was exact- 
 ly £1,208,725. One statement will show the great 
 economy of management under a uniform rate of post- 
 age. Taking the cost of carrying on the British postal 
 establishment (transportation excepted) in 1837, before 
 there was uniform postage, and in 1854 (with the luii- 
 form charge of a penny), and looking also at the num- 
 ber of letters at each period, we can see what the hand- 
 ling, sorting, distribution, and delivery amounts to per 
 hundred or per thousand letters. The following is the 
 official record: 
 
 v».,™ 1 Expense of Number of 1 Expense of eacli 
 """'■ 1 Diatribntion. Lellers. | 1000 Letters. 
 
 1839 1 $;,5i3,332 
 
 1854 1 3.233,195 
 
 82,470,596" $30 
 443.649,301 7 
 
 This number included both franked and paid letters. 
 Omitting free letters, the number was 75,207,572. 
 
 By the efforts of Mr. Wallace, JI. P. for Greenock, 
 Lord Ashburton, and others, a parliamentary commit- 
 
POS 
 
 1557 
 
 POS 
 
 tee was appointed: and after numerous sittings, and 
 the examination of nearly a hundred witnesses from 
 all classes and ranks of society, they made their report 
 in two formidable blue-books, giving the entire testi- 
 mony, and a great mass of official statistical informa- 
 tion. It is a fact worth mentioning in this place that 
 all great postal improvements, both in Great Britain 
 and the United States, were commenced, carried on, 
 and prosecuted to a successful termination, by citizens 
 entirely unconnected with the postal establishment. 
 So far from deriving aid from those who would be sup- 
 posed to possess the ability and disposition to afford it 
 — viz., those in the post-office — they have uniformly 
 opposed ail reforms. It was singularly true in the 
 present inquiry. "It was found, by the commission, 
 to be a matter of the greatest difficulty to extract from 
 the post-office any information necessary for the elu- 
 cidation of the inquiry." " Not only has the post-of- 
 fice been utterly barren of improvement itself, but its 
 weight is thrown into the opposite scale." " When- 
 ever the post-office attempted to give facts and esti- 
 mates to combat Mr. Hill" — to quote from an eminent 
 writer — " it was found that Mr. Hill was always right, 
 and the post-office always wrong." A Chancellor of 
 the Exchequer described the "gentlemen of the post- 
 office" as " unwilling horses." Petitions to the num- 
 ber of 320, from 262 different places, and bearing over 
 I I 38,000 names, were sent to Parliament, asking for the 
 adoption of Mr. Hill's plan. In 1839 franking was 
 abolished, and an act passed authorizing the lords of 
 the Treasury to adopt a uniform rate of one penny on 
 all single letters, without regard to distance. The pen- 
 ny postage went into operation on the 5th day of Jan- 
 uary, 1840. 
 
 The official reports of the Post-office, showing the 
 revenue and expenditure, and the amount of corre- 
 spondence, comprise the best eulogy of the principle of 
 the uniform penny rate. It is no disparagement to 
 Mr. Bowland Hill to say that, while he was once in 
 favor of prepayment of postage being compulsory, he 
 has long since receded from that idea. Prepayment is 
 not, and never has been, compulsory in Great Britain, 
 all letters being forwarded to the persons addressed, 
 whether prepaid or not, with the exception of letters 
 weighing over four ounces ; and these, if not prepaid, 
 are at once opened and returned to the writer. Letters 
 not prepaid are charged double ; and such letters, if re- 
 fused or not delivered, are returned to the writer from 
 the Returned-letter office, and the double postage then 
 due may be collected by compulsory process. B3' this 
 means the distribution of circulars and advertising 
 sheets through the mails, without prepayment, is ef- 
 fectually prevented. In Great Britain it is customary 
 to refuse all unpaid matter unless a name or the hand- 
 writing on the outside shows who the sender is ; and 
 so near universal is prepayment of all postage, that 
 more than 98^ per cent, of all letters have their postage 
 paid before mailing. 
 
 In Great Britain there is no Dead-letter office, and 
 there are no " dead" letters. There is a "Eeturned- 
 letter office," and all letters, and even papers and 
 printed packages, that have not, for any reason, been 
 delivered are at once opened or examined, and, where 
 possible, returned to the senders. When the name is 
 printed or written on the outside of the letter, or im- 
 pressed in the seal, or where a coat of arms or device 
 reveals the writer, the letter or package is returned un- 
 opened. As there is a letter delivery by carriers daily, 
 or several times a day, at almost every post-office and 
 post village, refused, misdirected, or other " stray" let- 
 ters are at once known, and, by the above regulations, 
 almost all letters that in other countries (and partic- 
 ularly in the United States) would be pronounced 
 ")lead," and condemned to a hopeless imprisonment 
 for months, and then, perhaps, to be burned, are here 
 sent back to the writers and rightful owners, and usu- 
 ally in less than a week from the day they are mailed. 
 
 The practice now is to dispatch every letter on the day 
 it is received at the Returned-letter office. The last 
 annual report (1857) says ; " By recent arrangements, 
 returned letters are sent back to the writers much more 
 quickly than formerly ; every such letter (except from 
 abroad) being now opened [where necessary], redirect- 
 ed and reposted on the day of its arrival at the Re- 
 turned-letter office. The number of letters returned 
 to the writers last year (1856), owing to failure in the 
 attempts to deliver them, was nearly the same as in 
 the previous year — viz., about 2,400,000, or about 1 in 
 200 of the whole number of letters posted. Owing to 
 the same cause, about 550,000 newspapers, also, were 
 undelivered, being about 1 in 129 of the whole number." 
 
 In the case of letters that can not be delivered, even 
 though by the fault of the writers, the British post-of- 
 fice is supposed to be just as much the servant of the 
 people as in the case of letters when originally mailed 
 and correctly addressed, and every such letter is looked 
 upon as a piece of property, to be sent to the person 
 addressed, when possible, and when not, returned to 
 the owner. All letters and packages that are prepaid, 
 when returned, are delivered to the senders without 
 any charge ; and when not prepaid, double postage is 
 exacted. With such system, simplicity, and facility 
 is the returning of letters carried on, that each clerk re- 
 turns two hundred per day. 
 
 The principle and operation of the British Penny- 
 postage system is this : A minimum rate of postage is 
 sought for that shall not be an exorbitant charge for 
 the smallest packages the shortest distances, and this 
 postage is paid by a stamp. Now the object is to make 
 this stamp cover as large a number and variety of pack- 
 ages — written and prinled — as possible. Each letter 
 is called a " single" letter that does not exceed half an 
 ounce in weight, and each package of printed matter — 
 newspapers, circulars, hand-bills, pamphlets, or books 
 — done up open at the ends or sides, is considered " sin- 
 gle" up to four ounces. Here is the value, conven- 
 ience, simplicity, and utility of uniform postage, both 
 to the public at large, and to those who handle, sort, 
 rate, and attend to the letters and mails. Drop-let- 
 ters, or more properly local letters — for they are not 
 permitted to "drop" and become "dead" — and all lo- 
 cal mail matter, is charged at the same rate as those 
 that are transported five hundred miles. The conse- 
 quence is readily seen. The penny stamp covers al- 
 most all — more than nineteen-twentieths — the packages 
 that are mailed. A letter not weighing over half an 
 ounce, local or otherwise, a newspaper, pamphlet,' or 
 other printed package, not weighing over a quarter of 
 a pound, have the postage prepaid by the all-powerful, 
 all-convenient, universal, uniform penny stamp. Then 
 in larger packages the rates are not cut up so fine as 
 to be inconvenient to either the citizen or the postmas- 
 ter. Letters from half an ounce to an ounce are two 
 postages, and after the first ounce each ounce or frac- 
 tion of an ounce in excess is reckoned as two postages. 
 In printed matter, after the first half pound, the reck- 
 oning is made by half pounds; each half pound, or 
 fraction of a half pound, being charged two postages 
 — two pence. All the items in this simplicity and uni- 
 formitj'' of arrangement save a vast amount of time and 
 trouble to the people, and the clerks and postmasters, in 
 a nation that writes and sends by mail annually near- 
 ly six hundred million letters and printed packages, 
 particularlj' as each letter and printed package has to 
 go through from four to eight diflferent processes or op- 
 erations in the hands of the citizen, and from fifteen to 
 twenty after it gets into the post-office. Would any 
 other system but one that combines so much wisdom, 
 economy, convenience, simplicity, uniformity, and util- 
 ity, bring nearly six hundred million letters and pack- 
 ages through the post-office in a single year? A 
 record of the business, and the revenues and corre- 
 spondence of the post-ofiice of the kingdom for a few 
 years, will do something toward answering the question. 
 
POS 
 
 1558 
 
 POS 
 
 STATISTICS OP THE BRITISH POST-OFFICE.— [BedMced to United States Currency.y 
 
 Revenfe, Expenses, Numbee op Lettees. and Ndmbeb akd Amoitnt op Money Oedees in the United Kingdom, 
 dtteinq a seeie6 of years, commencing -witii 1815, ant) ending "with 1856. 
 
 Ye&ra. 
 
 1825 
 1835 
 1836 
 1837 
 1888 
 1839 
 1840 
 1841 
 1842 
 1848 
 1844 
 1846 
 1846 
 184T, 
 1848, 
 1843 
 1850, 
 1851, 
 1852. 
 1853 
 1851 
 1S55, 
 1856. 
 
 Groaa 
 Keceiptfi. 
 
 $ii;619,175~ 
 11,343,088 
 11,216,489 
 11,763,012 
 11,668,690 
 11,731,390 
 11,953,818 
 6,797,332 
 7,497,093 
 7,890,729 
 8,104,338 
 8,625,339 
 9,437,883 
 9,819,287 
 10,905,084 
 10,718,400 
 10,826,749 
 11,323,421 
 12,110,841 
 12,171,634 
 12,872,039 
 13,509,313 
 IS 582,100 
 14,339,770 
 
 ExpeoEea. 
 
 $3,523,195 
 3,286,800 
 3,482,866 
 3,608,699 
 3,436,508 
 3,433,841 
 3,784,997 
 4,293,385 
 4,690,845 
 4,887,522 
 4,903,252 
 4,925,553 
 5,627,971 
 5,693,726 
 5,982,600 
 7,016,253 
 6,622,814 
 7,303,928 
 6,620,818 
 6,719,,'>36 
 7,003,329 
 7,6S2,781 
 8,256.820 
 8,301,145 
 
 $8,095,880 
 8,056,2; 8 
 7,733,603 
 8,144,313 
 8,262,122 
 8,297,549 
 8,168,821 
 2,503,947 
 2,806,248 
 3,003,207 
 3,201,086 
 3,599,786 
 3,809,912 
 4,125,561 
 4,922,484 
 3.702,147 
 4,203,935 
 4,019,4r3 
 6,290,028 
 6,452, OS'8 
 6,868,640 
 5,976,632 
 6,326,280 
 6,038,626 
 
 75,907,512 
 168,768,344 
 196,500,191 
 208,434,451 
 220,450,306 
 242,091,684 
 271,410,789 
 299,586,762 
 322,146,243 
 328.830.184 
 337,399,]!;9 
 347,06<),071 
 S60.C47,187 
 379.501 ,4;)9 
 410,817,489 
 443,649,001 
 466,216,176 
 478,393,803 
 
 Number of 
 Money Ordera. 
 
 188,921 
 5S7,7£7 
 1,562,845 
 2,111,980 
 2,501,528 
 2,806,803 
 3,176.126 
 3 615,079 
 4,031,185 
 4,203.651 
 4,248 891 
 4,439,713 
 4,C6I,025 
 4,947,8-6 
 5,216,290 
 5,466,244 
 6,807,412 
 6,178,t82 
 
 Amouat of 
 Money Ordera. 
 
 $1,56.5,623 
 4 804878 
 15,637,.'i38 
 21.686 889 
 26 564,204 
 28,476,977 
 32,06l),8.15 
 35,355,184 
 39,515,886 
 40,760.475 
 40,763,219 
 42,4T2,4r3 
 44,402,104 
 47.1'.)1,389 
 49,580,978 
 52,312,1 59 
 65.046 395 
 59,027,810 
 
 The money columns give the amounts in United 
 States currency, calculating five dollars to the pound 
 sterling. It will be seen that the gross and net reve- 
 nue of the post-office for twenty years, from 1815 to 
 1835, actually declined. Then there were twelve or 
 fourteen rates of postage for letters, averaging about 
 six and a half pence sterling (13 cents) a letter. With 
 a reduction to the uniform rate of a penny — less than 
 one-sixth of the former rates^ — the postal revenue more 
 than recoveredin eleven years, while the number of let- 
 ters sent by mail annually increased from 75,907,572 
 in 1839, to 478,393,803 in 1866. The remittances of 
 money, in money orders, increased from a million and 
 a half in 1839, to fifty-nine millions in 1856. To make 
 a direct comparison between the use of the post-office 
 in Great Britain and in the United States, it may be 
 stated that, after a careful estimate, the number of let- 
 ters sent through the post-ofiice in this countrj' since 
 1789, to 1856, inclusive — a period of sixty-seven j'ears 
 — ^has been 1,652,104,648, while in Great Britain, in the 
 years 1853, 1854, 1855, and 1856, the number of letters 
 was 1,789,076,769; or more in that country in four 
 years, with low and uniform postage, than in this 
 country since the formation of the government, now 
 nearly three-quarters of a century ! During ten years 
 — from 1847 to 1856, inclusive — the population of Lon- 
 don alone sent by post 920,527,039 letters, or more 
 than in the entire United States during the same peri- 
 
 od ; the latter numbering 888,527,549 ! But in Great 
 Britain there was one uniform rate for letters, and one 
 uniform scale by weight for printed matter, while in 
 tliis country there are three rates of postage on letters, 
 and on printed matter, from a small newspaper to a 
 large boolc, the number of rates is almost one thou- 
 sand! Under the post-offlce system of Great Britain 
 there is a free-letter delivery, a safe way of remitting 
 money by money orders, that is used to the extent of 
 about sixty millions a year, and one low rate of post- 
 age that brings an annual income of over fourteen mil- 
 lions of dollars. In the United States the postage is 
 higher; there is no uniformity, no letter delivery, and 
 no money order system, and our population scarcely 
 pay seven millions in postage. The people of Great 
 Britain can scarcely one half of them read or write, 
 and yet they write and send by mail almost 500,000,000 
 letters in a year. 
 
 The population of the United States, numbering just 
 about the same as Great Britain, and nearly all able to 
 read and write, only write and send by mail 131,000,000 
 letters in a year. Are further facts and illustrations 
 necessary to show the superiority of the British postal 
 system, or the relative merits of the " uniform postage" 
 and the "complex postage" systems? 
 
 The correspondence betweefl Great Britain and sev- 
 eral of her colonies, and foreign countries, for the.year 
 1856, will be seen in the following table : 
 
 Estimated numeee op Lettebs, Newspapeeb, and Books between Gebat Beitain and certain Colonies and 
 
 POEElGN Countries. 
 
 Africa, West coast of 
 
 Australia 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Brazils 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Canada 
 
 Ceylon • • ■ ■ 
 
 East Indies; viz., Bombay, Calcutta, Madras, 
 
 Aden, Penang, and Singapore 
 
 France 
 
 German Postal Union 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Holland 
 
 Hong Kong 
 
 Mauritius : 
 
 Mediterranean, including Malta, Alexandria, and 
 
 Ionian Islands ■■ • 
 
 Spain and Portugal: viz., Lisbon, Oporto, and 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 Sweden • • . • > 
 
 United States 
 
 West Indies and Pacific 
 
 28,800 
 913,733 
 3.5,811 
 
 66,252 
 
 67,166 
 368,584 
 
 28,722 
 
 610,482 
 
 2,184,916 
 
 911,967 
 
 386,445 
 
 233,682 
 
 72,622 
 
 20,730 
 
 234,780 
 
 171,846 
 
 26,015 
 
 1,733,745 
 
 322,716 
 
 28,836 
 
 « 
 
 260,61:4 
 80,0T0 
 49,538 
 
 396,915 
 87,542 
 
 647,800 
 
 2,021,610 
 635,145 
 257,649 
 179,827 
 78,228 
 16,!)30 
 
 175,086 
 
 164,088 
 
 17.253 
 
 1,547,064 
 
 281,700 
 
 Inwnrd 
 
 end 
 
 OntwaTd. 
 
 51,036 
 
 676,375 
 
 146,328 
 
 100.7C4 
 
 756, K'9 
 
 66,264 
 
 1,268,283 
 
 4,206 526 
 1,547,102 
 043,094 
 413,459 
 151,760 
 37,260 
 
 409,842 
 
 035,934 
 
 43,268 
 
 3,280,799 
 
 604,416 
 
 Newepapers 
 and IBooks 
 Outwflrd. 
 
 22,884 
 
 1,342,466 
 
 202,740 
 
 123,408 
 
 19,608 
 908,058 
 114,084 
 
 979,068 
 718,296 
 586,968 
 149,592 
 
 81.636 
 105,930 
 
 43,164 
 
 75,402 
 
 4,7T6 
 
 1,063,584 
 
 572,412 
 
 NewBpapora 
 and Booka 
 Inward. 
 
 185460 
 00,084 
 
 424,410 
 22,122 
 
 220,687 
 
 614,304 
 184,880 
 127 868 
 44,808 
 51,228 
 26,260 
 
 9,420 
 
 4,860 
 
 3,264 
 872,664 
 122,496 
 
 Inward 
 
 and 
 OotwBrd. 
 
 27,516 
 
 383,200 
 183,492 
 
 1,332,444 
 130,206 
 
 1,190,755 
 
 1,332.600 
 771,348 
 277,460 
 156,444 
 165,158 
 60,414 
 
 102,222 
 
 80,262 
 
 8,040 
 
 1,936,248 
 
 694,908 
 
POS 
 
 1559 
 
 POS 
 
 The total amount of correspondence in each of the I in London for seventeen years, is exhibited in the fol» 
 three kingdoms, as well as the local and other letters | lowing table: , 
 
 NUHBES, AS HEABLT AB CAN BE ASO&BTAINBD, OF 0UA.ttGBABLE LSTTEBS DELIVEBED IN GbEAT BbITAIN IN TIIE YeAB 
 XMMEDIATBZ.T PBBOKDINQ THE FIRST OENEBAL BEDUOTION OF POSTAaE, ON THE StH OF DeOEMUEB, 1S39, AN1> IS EA0I3 
 
 COMPLETE Yeae SUBSEQUENT THERETO.— [/-VanfeMf or i^ree ietfers marfced *.] 
 
 
 By 
 
 LoDdoQ District 
 
 Locilitiaa 
 
 Total in 
 
 Total 
 
 Total" 
 
 Tolal 
 
 
 Yeiini. 
 
 Country 
 
 flXclUHlvo of 
 
 in London 
 
 England and 
 Wales. 
 
 In 
 
 in 
 
 in United 
 
 
 
 Offioea. 
 
 Local Lflttera, 
 
 DUtrict. 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 Scotland. 
 
 Kingdom. 
 
 previous Year. 
 
 163:» 
 
 
 
 .... 
 
 69,982 630 8,301.1104 
 
 7,623.148 
 
 75,907,573 
 
 
 1839 
 
 
 
 
 •5,172,284 
 
 •1,054,608 
 
 *336, 32 
 
 •6,563,034 
 
 
 1840 
 
 88,071,308 
 
 28,559,835 
 
 20,372,383 
 
 13^,003,535 
 
 18,210,643 
 
 18,554,167 
 
 168,768,344 
 
 132i 
 
 1841 
 
 103,395,677 
 
 27.906.7i2 
 
 23,108,722 
 
 154,471,121 
 
 20,794,297 
 
 21,234 773 
 
 196,500,191 
 
 16i 
 
 1842 
 
 111,116.433 
 
 29.385,282 
 
 23.389,942 
 
 163,890,713 
 
 23,338,164 
 
 22,215,583 
 
 208,4.34,461 
 
 16, 
 
 1843 
 
 117,704,474 
 
 30,9n8,743 
 
 24,881,410 
 
 173,4:14 027 
 
 23,482,463 
 
 23,473,216 
 
 220,48;i.306 
 
 5} 
 
 1844 
 
 129,0.0. 023 
 
 33,575 936 
 
 26 980,460 
 
 18,),652,41!) 
 
 25,937,188 
 
 26,502,1177 
 
 242,091,654 
 
 9* 
 
 1845 
 
 147,2:7,431 
 
 36,0'.i7,711 
 
 31^828,486 
 
 214,1.'>3.628 
 
 28,587,993 
 
 28,669,168 
 
 271,410.789 
 
 12 
 
 1816 
 
 162,621,024 
 
 39,993,081 
 
 33,261,050 
 
 236,878,755 
 
 32,673,947 
 
 31,136,060 
 
 299,586 762 
 
 lOJ 
 
 184T 
 
 175,023,407 
 
 43,757,540 
 
 34,63 1,817 
 
 253,411,764 
 
 35,473,316 
 
 33,261,103 
 
 332,146,343 
 
 li 
 
 1848 
 
 180,716,102 
 
 45,991,153 
 
 83,673,747 
 
 260,380,00i 
 
 .34,887,431 
 
 ii3.563,101 
 
 328,830,184 
 
 2 
 
 1849 
 
 187 382,S29 
 
 45,845,683 
 
 33,960,318 
 
 267,188 410 
 
 35.4u3,ill3 
 
 34,746 876 
 
 837,399,199 
 
 2J- 
 
 1850 
 
 192,608,628 
 
 44,856,170 
 
 38 887 814 
 
 1:76,252 642 
 
 35,388 8 6 
 
 35 427,534 
 
 347,060,071 
 
 2i 
 
 1851 
 
 199,746,304 
 
 47,819,499 
 
 40,685,952 
 
 588,161,755 
 
 35,1,8^,783 
 
 36 612,649 
 
 360.647,187 
 
 4 
 
 1852 
 
 212,633,733 
 
 51,171,433 
 
 40,403,307 
 
 304 208,363 
 
 37,449,953 
 
 37,843.183 
 
 379,601,499 
 
 Si 
 
 1853 
 
 232,504,177 
 
 54,402,0 '3 
 
 42,816 314 
 
 329,722,514 
 
 40,419,065 
 
 40,675,310 
 
 410,817 433 
 
 Si 
 
 1854 
 
 254,923,067 
 
 57,186,159 
 
 46,191,561 
 
 358,300 6 16 
 
 41,234 696 
 
 44,114,009 
 
 443,649(301 
 
 8 
 
 1855 
 
 263,037,837 
 
 59,647,543 
 
 45 844,!- 63 
 
 36S 580.340 
 
 41,832,834 
 
 45 86.),0I2 
 
 456,216,176 
 
 31 
 
 1856 
 
 ■ 275,453,824 
 
 64,961,321 
 
 47,894,71.8 
 
 SS8.309.853 
 
 41,851,0118 
 
 48.232,943 
 
 4T8,3!3,80S 
 
 4i 
 
 Postal Statibtiob or Twenty-five leading Cities and Towns of Great Britain, giving the number op Persons 
 
 EMPLOYED, AND TUE POSTAL llETENUE, 1-OOAL EXPENSES, AND MONEY REMITTED IN MONEY ORDERS. 
 
 Cities. 
 
 London 
 
 Liverpool ....... 
 
 Manchester 
 
 Glasgow 
 
 Edinburgh 
 
 Dublin 
 
 Birraingiiam.. . . 
 
 Bristol 
 
 Leeds 
 
 Newctistle 
 
 Hull 
 
 Sheffield 
 
 Bath 
 
 Bradford 
 
 Belfast 
 
 Exeter 
 
 Norwich 
 
 Southampton . . . 
 Nottingham . . . . 
 Aberdeen..^ — 
 Portsmouth '..... 
 
 Plymouth 
 
 Wolverhampton 
 
 Derby 
 
 Leicester 
 
 Population. 
 
 2,302,336 
 
 .376,955 
 
 316,213 
 
 339,097 
 
 100,303 
 
 268,361 
 
 233,841 
 
 137,328 
 
 273,613 
 
 87,784 
 
 84.690 
 
 136,310 
 
 54,240 
 
 149.543 
 
 100,300 
 
 40,688 
 
 68,195 
 
 36,305 
 
 57,407 
 
 71,973 
 
 72,096 
 
 52,221 
 
 119,748 
 
 40,609 
 
 60,534 
 
 1397 
 
 141 
 
 160 
 
 123 
 
 83 
 
 124 
 
 90 
 
 119 
 
 98 
 
 61 
 
 67 
 
 46 
 
 82 
 
 37 
 
 39 
 
 60 
 
 81 
 
 64 
 
 53 
 
 60 
 
 13 
 
 39 
 
 33 
 
 44 
 
 27 
 
 1385 
 82 
 123 
 134 
 74 
 109 
 04 
 63 
 42 
 25 
 46 
 22 
 47 
 25 
 20 
 30 
 41 
 24 
 28 
 20 
 16 
 19 
 14 
 
 Local 
 Expenses. 
 
 ;e216,658 
 
 14,029 
 
 13,765 
 
 10,096 
 
 11,043 
 
 19,930 
 
 7,364 
 
 6,168 
 
 5,133 
 
 2,983 
 
 3,900 
 
 2,642 
 
 3,366 
 
 1,866 
 
 1,869 
 
 2,807 
 
 2,883 
 
 2,614 
 
 2,206 
 
 1,707 
 
 1,637 
 
 1,767 
 
 1,336 
 
 2,171 
 
 1,649 
 
 Postal ROTenuo. 
 
 11T,S38 
 
 X834,937 
 
 92,842 
 
 100.379 
 
 78121 
 
 86 "301 
 
 57,788 
 
 63 441 
 
 41,922 
 
 86,370 
 
 43.4^9 
 
 65,103 
 
 36,695 
 
 S8 849 
 
 28,510 
 
 29,967 
 
 10,525 
 
 21,433 
 
 18,434 
 
 19,647 
 
 16,575 
 
 16,960 
 
 14,609 
 
 14,783 
 
 13,765 
 
 14,384 
 
 11,824 
 
 13,138 
 
 10,352 
 
 13,122 
 
 10,118 
 
 11,915 
 
 11,223 
 
 11,870 
 
 12,228 
 
 11,585 
 
 10,528 , 
 
 11,366 
 
 10,918 
 
 11.130 
 
 10,858 ' 
 
 10,804 
 
 10,197 
 
 10,221 
 
 8,086 
 
 8,780 
 
 8,202 
 
 8,653 
 
 7,227 
 
 7,853 
 
 Money Orders. , 
 
 Issued, 
 
 X2, 302,230 
 353,646 
 326,029 
 153,810 
 128,271 
 266.043 
 192,448 
 132,477 
 110,435 
 97,330 
 97,192 
 83,604 
 78,264 
 45,033 
 41,506 
 05 899 
 50,832 
 76,901 
 80,727 
 32,603 
 90,558 
 64,115 
 50,213 
 40,448 
 47,689 
 
 Pnid;^ 
 
 £3,336,679 
 
 360,874 
 336,809 
 193,199 
 205,383 
 210,553 
 305,374 
 208,289 
 140,329 
 83,303 
 118,395 
 93,487 
 73,997 
 41,328 
 44,375 
 77;395 
 61,737 
 70,714 
 66,701 
 43,426 
 70,043 
 67,649 
 33,437 
 43,194 
 45,783 
 
 The rate of letter-postage between Great Britain and 
 each of her colonies — over forty in number — is six- 
 pence sterling, except to the Cape of Good Hope, Na- 
 tal, Labuan, Gambia, Island of Ascension, X'alldand 
 Islands, arid Vancouver's Island. A book-post, for the 
 transmission of every species of printed matter, has 
 also been established with the most of the colonies. The 
 above table exhibits at one view the population, an- 
 nual postal revenue, local post expenses — ^for rent of 
 post-offices, salaries, etc., not transportation — amount 
 of money remitted by money orders in a year, together 
 ■with (second column of figures) the number of clerlts, 
 postmasters, sub-postmasters, and letter-receivers, and 
 (third column) the number of town and rural letter-car- 
 riers in (and around) twenty-five of the leading cities 
 and towns of Great Britain. The population is from 
 the census of 1851, the local expenses and number of 
 persons employed, for the year 1854, the monej' orders 
 for 1856, and the postal revenue for both 1855 and 
 1856. 
 
 The British money order system is one of the most 
 important adjuncts to the Post-office. This was first 
 started as a private enterprise by certain officers of 
 the post-office, in the year 1792. The commission 
 charged was eight-pence to the pound sterling, malting 
 the whole business complicated and expensive. The 
 consequence was, it aflbrded little profit to the project- 
 ors, sind but very trifling accommodation to the pub- 
 lic. The three ofljcers engaged in it received less than 
 
 two hundred pounds sterling each, in annual profits, 
 the entire commissions amounting in a year to less 
 than four thousand pounds. August 13th, 1838, the 
 monej'-order office was attached to the post-office, and 
 the officers compensated for their rights. At first the 
 commissions were put at six-pence sterling for all or- 
 ders less than two pounds, and one and six-pence for 
 orders between two and five pounds. These comniis- 
 sions were reduced on the 20th of November, 1840, to 
 six-pence and three-pence respectively. No order is 
 granted for more than five pounds. The number of 
 persons employed in the money-order office at first "was 
 three. This was in 1838. In 1841 there were thirty- 
 seven, and now in the money-order office in London 
 alone there are nearly two hundred. We have seen in 
 a table on a previous page [1558] the vast increase 
 in the money-order business in the kingdom. In 1839 
 the number of orders "was less than two hundred 
 thousand, and the amount of money emitted about 
 $1,570,000. In 1856 the number of orders had in- 
 creased to over six millions in number, and the amount 
 in a year to about sixty million dollars. The money 
 order is a draft from one postmaster on another, and is 
 paid at sight, in specie, to the person in whose favor it 
 is drawn. It is as safe as a duplicate bank check be- 
 fore it is endorsed, and if proper care is used in remit- 
 ting it; if it gets lost or stolen, it will be impossible 
 for any but the rightful owner to obtain the money 
 on it, even by committing forgej-y, as a casual finder 
 
POS 
 
 1560 
 
 POS 
 
 will not know the name of the person in whose favor it 
 is drawn. It is safe to say that not one money order 
 in five hundred thousand gets appropriated by the 
 wrong person. All post-offices are not money-order 
 offices. 
 
 There are in the United Kingdom 10,866 post-offices. 
 Of these 845 are head post-offices, and 10,021 sub-post- 
 offices. The number of post-offices where money or- 
 ders are bought and sold'is 2095. The net profit on 
 money orders during several years was as follows : In 
 1849, £322 ; in 1851, £7437 ; in 1854, £16,167 ; and in 
 1856, £22,674. The commissions averaged less than 
 one per cent. 
 
 One vast superiority of the British Post-office con- 
 sists in the facilities for rapid delivery and local distri- 
 bution in cities and towns. The postage on each local 
 letter being one penny, the same as for letters the lon- 
 gest distance, there is a very large profit on the local 
 distribution of letters, admitting that the carriers deliv- 
 er every thing "free" that comes from other places. 
 The clear profits on the local distribution of letters in 
 London alone, after deducting the entire expense of 
 letter-carriers, receivers, and mail-men, is over $900,000 
 a year. It will then be seen that the term " free-let- 
 ter delivery" is a misnomer. By the figures in a ta- 
 ble on a previous page it will be seen that the num- 
 ber of local letters in London annually is over forty- 
 seven millions. The machinery for the local distribu- 
 tion of letters in London consists of about 1400 letter- 
 carriers, one or two score of mail-men, with horse and 
 cart, and about 500 sub-postmasters and letter-receiv- 
 ers. In all the densely populated parts of London 
 there are hourly deliveries through the day, and more 
 than four-fifths of the first morning delivery is accom- 
 plished between the hours of seven and a quarter past 
 nine. More than one half is done before nine o'clock. 
 In addition to the '"receiving-houses," where stamps 
 can be purchased and letters can be posted at all houi'S 
 of night and day, there are now in use a large number 
 of "letter-pillars" of cast iron. These convenient re- 
 ceptacles of letters have given great satisfaction, and 
 are rapidly coming into use in cities, towns, and coun- 
 try districts. There is but one assignable cause for the 
 extensive use, large income, and great profit, of the 
 British Post-office. The charges are simple, uniform, 
 and low ; the accommodations numerous, and the de- 
 liveries rapid and punctual. The estimated number! 
 
 of book packages that passed through the British Post- 
 office in 1856 was 3,000,000, the newspapers 71,000,000, 
 and the letters 478,393,803, being a total number of 
 552,393,803 packages. This is probably one half of 
 the entire number sent by mail in the civilized world. 
 fha personnel of the Post-office of the United King- 
 dom is as follows : 
 
 Postmaster-general, Duke of Argyle 1 
 
 Secretary of the Post-office, Kowland Hill, Esij 1 
 
 Assistant secretaries 2 
 
 Secretaries for Scotland and Ireland 3 
 
 Surveyors 15 
 
 Heads of Departments, etc 19 
 
 Mail guards ,, ,\ 204 
 
 Werks 1,6 13 
 
 Letter-carriers and messengers 10,427 
 
 Postmasters and receivers 10,8(36 
 
 Total 23,130 
 
 The expenses of the British Post-office for 1856 were 
 as follows : 
 Salaries, wages, etc ^1909,094 
 
 Hereditary pensions 
 
 Buildings 
 
 Mail conveyance by railway, .. 
 Conveyance by coaches, etc. . . 
 
 Conveyance by water 
 
 Manufacture of postage stamps 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 29,310 
 33.330 
 376,363 
 162,837 
 14,309 
 26.164 
 10S,8-22 
 
 Total il,6(j0,2i!9 
 
 It is an invariable rule in the British Post-office that 
 all persons appointed shall be of a suitable age, and 
 shall submit to a rigid examination, to see if they pos- 
 sess the necessary qualifications. Letter-carriers and 
 sorters must be between the ages of 17 and 27 at the 
 date of their original appointment, and shall undergo 
 an examination by a physician to see if they possess 
 the requisite health and strength.^ "Wages and salaries 
 are not exorbitant, but none are discharged except for 
 some fault or dereliction of duty; and after a certain 
 number of years of faithful service, they are permitted 
 to retire on a pension, amounting to from one third to 
 two thirds of their salary, according to the length of 
 time they have served. 
 
 We will close our account of the post-offices of Great 
 Britain b}' giving the revenue and expenditure, the 
 rates of postage, and the various improvements intro- 
 duced into the post-offices of the principal British col- 
 onies since the introduction of the penny postage into 
 England in 1840. The revenue and expenses in each 
 case are for 1854, except for Canada, which is for 1855. 
 
 datura and Date of Improyements. t 
 
 Rate or Rates of 
 Letter Postage. 
 
 Expeoses. 
 
 Barbadoes 
 
 Canada .' 
 
 Ceylon 
 
 Gold coast 
 
 India 
 
 Jamaica t 
 
 Mauritius 
 
 New Brunswick 
 
 Newfoundland 
 
 New South "Wales 
 
 New Zealand 
 
 Nova Scotia 
 
 Prince Edward's Island. 
 
 South Australia 
 
 Tasmania 
 
 Trinidad 
 
 "Victoria 
 
 "Western Australia 
 
 Inland post (1852), uniform postage and stamps. 
 
 Reduced postage (1851) and postage stamps 
 
 Reduced postage (1846) 
 
 Post established in 1853 
 
 Uniform postage and postage stamps (1854-'55) . 
 
 Charge by weight instead of pieces (1S43) 
 
 District post-offices and postage stamps 
 
 Reduced postage and postage stamps (1851) 
 
 Inland posts (1852), and uniform postage (1853). 
 Reduced postage and postage stamps (1851-54) . 
 
 Uniform postage and postage stamps 
 
 Reduced postage and postage stamps (1851-'56) . 
 
 Uniform postage (1851) 
 
 Uniform postage (1854) 
 
 Reduced postage and postage stamps (lS51-'53) . 
 
 Uniform postage and postage stamps (1851) 
 
 Reduced rates and postage stamps (1850) 
 
 Reduced postage and postage stamps (1852~'54) . 
 
 1 to 5 
 
 2, 3, 6, 9, and 12 
 
 12, 18, and 24 
 
 H 
 
 8, 12, 16, 20, and 24 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 2 and 4 
 
 4 
 
 li and 6 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 2 and 4 
 
 2 
 4 and 8 
 2 and 4 
 
 $6,225 
 
 387,5:5 
 
 85,855 
 
 1,376,835 
 
 65,040 
 
 2,915 
 
 40,650 
 
 1,810 
 
 120,635 
 
 11,045 
 
 27,830 
 
 4,715 
 
 37,385 
 
 40,990 
 
 7,665 
 
 334,745 
 
 7,180 
 
 $9,750 
 510,485 
 42,975 
 
 1,615,220 
 
 59,410 
 
 4,900 
 
 51,1£5 
 
 3,620 
 
 261,665 
 
 ll,r60 
 
 19,505 
 
 10,455 
 
 47,790 
 
 81,455 
 
 9,235 
 
 729,330 
 
 10,205 
 
 Total. 
 
 $i, 507,445 
 
 $3,439,215 
 
 Nearly or quite all of the improvements introduced 
 into the colonial post-offices appear to be the direct re- 
 sult of the success of the penny postage in Great Brit- 
 ain. It will be seen that many of them cling to the 
 old absurdity of a number of rates, all entailing great 
 inconvenience on every person that mails a letter, and 
 greatly multiplying the operations and increasing the 
 labor and expense in the post-offices. 
 
 "V". Postal Statistics, and Rates of Postage in other 
 Countries. — There are certain peculiarities and features 
 of interest in many of the Continental post-offices of Eu- 
 
 rope that deserve notice, leaving the prominent statis- 
 tics to be given in tabular form. In the German Post- 
 al Union, in Prussia, Switzerland, Spain, and some 
 other countries, the post-office undertakes the carriage 
 of passengers and small parcels as well as letters and 
 mail matter. In this species of traffic the government 
 does not hold an absolute monopoly, but, like stage 
 proprietors that get the mail contract, they are ena- 
 bled to, hold an undue competition with all outsiders, 
 resulting from their advantages as mail carriers. In 
 nearly all the Continental cities the government post 
 
POS 
 
 1561 
 
 POS 
 
 makes the delivery of letters a part of the postal busi- 
 ness. 
 
 The absurdities in some of the postal systems of the 
 Continental states consist generally of a varied scale of 
 charges, and the adoption of so low a standard of weight 
 as to make a great deal of useless labor in the rating 
 of letters, besides putting other states that enter into 
 postal relations with them to serious inconvenience. 
 The half-ounce scale for letters is in use in the United 
 States, Peru, New Granada, Equador, Brazil, Great 
 Britain, Spain, Holland, Denmark, Iceland, Prussia, 
 Austria, Baden, Bavaria, Franlifort - on - the - Maine, 
 Hamburg, Hanover, Lubeck, Saxony, Wflrtemberg, 
 and sixteen British colonies. The quarter-ounce scale 
 is used only in France, Switzerland, Sardinia, and Tus- 
 cany ; while a weight equivalent to one-third or three- 
 eighths of an ounce is used in Portugal, Belgium, and 
 Brunswick. Russia, Chili, and Bremen, adopt the 
 ounce scale for single letters, Sweden a weight that is 
 equivalent to about five-eightlis of an ounce, and the 
 Kingdom of Naples still uses the old plan of charging 
 by the sheet. The half-ounce scale being in such ex- 
 tensive use, is it too much to expect that the time may 
 soon come when all the principal commercial nations 
 will adopt that standard, without waiting for a uniform 
 system of weights and measures ? France is the prin- 
 cipal nation now in the way of such an arrangement. 
 By insisting on a quarter-ounce scale for foreign let- 
 ters, that government puts the public and the postal 
 authorities of other nations to great inconvenience, and 
 there is nothing gained by it. Such a rate can be 
 adopted as will prove remunerative, and bj' having a 
 scale reducible to greater convenience and simplicity, 
 mUch labor is saved. To see this in the most striking 
 light, let us look at the former rates in use a few years 
 ago in Spain. Domestic letters were considered sin- 
 gle up to six-sixteenths of an ounce, and the postage 
 charged was one real (5 cents), with the addition of 
 one cent for each eighth of an ounce beyond the weight 
 considered as single. Then all letters sent to the 
 
 Spanish islands were considered single up to ^ue-six- 
 teenths of an ounce, and charged thirty-five cents, with 
 the addition of ten cents for every sixteenth of an 
 ounce beyond! Is not this excessive fineness as ab- 
 surd — except in degree — as it would be to weigh and 
 reckon by the single grain ? This old absurdity and 
 inconvenience in weighing and rating letters in Spain 
 has been swept away by the adoption of the regular 
 half-ounce scale. In Great Britain, up to two ounces, 
 there are but three rates of postage for letters, while in 
 the United States there are nine rates. When will the 
 convenience and economy of simplicity in the arrange- 
 ment of matters having such a vast detail as postal 
 operations be clearly understood by the nations? Let 
 us loolc at one fact. There are passing through the 
 British Post-office in a year, in round numbers, five 
 hundred million (500,000,000) letters, and each one of 
 these, in the various processes of sorting, rating, stamp- 
 ing, mailing, and delivery, goes through not far from 
 twenty (not less) distinct processes, besides what is 
 done in bulk, like weighing and transportation. This 
 is by the employes of the Post-office, independent of 
 all the care and labor of the public in considering the 
 various charges, rates, weights, and adjustment of dif- 
 ferences. Here, then, are ten thousand million — let us 
 see how it will look in figures, 10,000,000,000— different 
 and distinct handlings and processes of separate letters, 
 each of them consuming and requiring more or less 
 time, toil, talent, and care ; and every useless or need- 
 ed operation, turn, or thought, bestowed on a letter in 
 its passage through the mail in Great Britain entails 
 at once an additional five hundred million (500,000,000) 
 processes or operations on the postal laborers annual- 
 ly ! Will those who make laws for tlie post-office think 
 of these things ? Will it, need it, any longer be a mat- 
 ter of wonder that the annual correspondence of Great 
 Britain has increased from 75 million letters to about 
 300 millions ; that it is all done for a penny a letter, 
 and that about one half of the revenue from this source 
 is clear profit ? 
 
 Postal Revenue and Expenses of different Nations at diffeeent Peihodb, togethee with the Nttmbee of Rates 
 OF Postage on single Lettebs, with those Rates at the peebbnt Time (as weak as it can be stated fbom an 
 examination of official Reports), all Sums being given in United States (Jureenoy ; the Kates of Postage 
 IN Cents, and the Revenue and Expenses in noLLABS. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Latter 
 Postage. 
 
 Number 
 of Rates. 
 
 Date. 
 
 FoBtal 
 Revenue. 
 
 Postal 
 Expenses. 
 
 Date. 
 
 Postal 
 Revenue. 
 
 Postal 
 Expenses. 
 
 Austria 
 
 Centa. 
 2} to 7i- 
 2J to 7} 
 2J-to5 
 2 to 4 
 3i 
 
 2 to 3 
 UtoS 
 5 
 2 
 
 12 to 30 
 2 to 4 
 
 1 to7} 
 2 
 
 .2ito7} 
 3 
 
 2 to 6 
 Free 
 2i to li 
 2 to 4 
 
 8 to 12 
 
 21 to 3 
 
 6 to 48 
 
 2i 
 
 2J to 7} 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 lto4f 
 
 5 
 
 2 to 10 
 
 1 toS 
 
 n 
 
 ItolO 
 
 lto4 
 
 3 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 2 ■ 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 S 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 1841 
 1841 
 1842 
 1S43 
 1842 
 
 1843 
 
 isii 
 
 1847 
 
 isio 
 
 1851 
 1819 
 1849 
 
 is^^o 
 
 1861 
 
 1843 
 1843 
 1860 
 1849 
 1844 
 1839 
 1860 
 1839 
 1840 
 
 $3,153 400 
 468,570 
 354,170 
 693,095 
 50,980 
 
 88,745 
 
 397,730 
 
 10,659,'l35 
 
 7,797,332 
 39,730, 
 178,810 
 662,735 
 
 83,330 
 63,630 
 
 5,6i6,'l30 
 3,3:;7,746 
 
 5,580 
 
 588,780 
 1.271,000 
 
 '260,000 
 1,035,730 
 
 152,976 
 4,543,522 
 
 $3,086,345 
 346,570 
 
 303,060 
 82,405 
 
 64,316 
 
 271,019 
 
 7,095,465 
 
 4,293,885 
 
 16,536 
 
 62,360 
 
 199,635 
 
 54,550 
 
 4,479,220 
 1,309,940 
 335,190 
 338,185 
 763,000 
 226,600 
 886,130 
 79,6' 6 
 4,718,236 
 
 1853 
 1852 
 1853 
 1862 
 1851 
 1853 
 1862 
 1653 
 1853 
 1852 
 1852 
 
 1850 
 1853 
 1862 
 1852 
 
 1862 
 
 is53 
 1853 
 1852 
 1863 
 1863 
 1862 
 1852 
 1853 
 1853 
 1853 
 1853 
 1852 
 1856 
 1852 
 
 $4,534,025 
 
 481,815 
 
 338,240 
 
 700,355 
 
 114.385 
 
 5,000 
 
 105,960 
 
 70,4' 5 
 
 354,816 
 
 12,476 
 
 9,321,900 
 
 14,339,770 
 
 41,045 
 
 167,96) 
 
 576,085 
 
 22,'085 
 
 101,625 
 61,806 
 3S,C00 
 
 184,500 
 6,427,980 
 3, 855,4! 10 
 
 643,530 
 
 667,885 
 1,631,850 
 
 331,440 
 1,302,925 
 
 225,845 
 7,6?0.S22 
 
 384 860 
 
 $4,199,300 
 374,615 
 
 332,'340 
 151,510 
 
 2,6 ;o 
 
 74, -,00 
 
 48,588 
 
 352,025 
 
 11,140 
 
 6,623,925 
 
 8,36i,'l45 
 
 15,310 
 
 60,200 
 
 311,305 
 
 13,105 
 
 66,600 
 
 88,000 
 
 133.875 
 
 6,665 6 5 
 
 2,419 8 
 
 393,935 
 
 4.53,570 
 
 1,041,150 
 
 3'3,r40 
 
 962,420 
 
 142.416 
 
 10,407,868 
 
 371,435 
 
 
 Bavaria 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Bruns>rick 
 
 Chili 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Equador 
 
 France 
 
 Frankfort 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Hanover 
 
 -Holland 
 
 Iceland 
 
 Lubeck 
 
 l!faples 
 
 Oldenburg 
 
 Peru 
 
 Portugal 
 
 
 
 Saxony 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Tuscany 
 
 United States 
 
 Wurtemberg 
 
 Nearly all of the European (continental) nations 
 make it a part of their postal business to transport pas- 
 sengers and parcels as well as mails. In consequence 
 of this arrangement, an accurate comparison of the 
 
 financial results of the different postal systems can not 
 be given. The total annual revenue of the post-offices 
 on the Continent of Europe, at the latest dates given 
 above, amounted to $32,409,405 — probably one third 
 
POS 
 
 1562 
 
 POS 
 
 of tills being for goods and passengers — and the total 
 annual expenses to $24,362,450. The post-offices of 
 South America had an annual revenue of $368,890, 
 with expenses to the amount of $249,235. If we as- 
 sume that one gross third of the postal revenue and 
 expenses on the Continent of Europe are on account of 
 passenger and parcel traffic, we shall be able to make 
 the following summary statement of the postal affairs 
 of different nations and different parts of the world; 
 the figures standing exclusively for the legitimate post- 
 al traffic — letters, papers, and printed documents : 
 
 Nations. | Revenue. 
 
 Expenses. 
 
 
 $14,33D,T70 
 2,«7,420 
 7,6-20,822 
 
 $8,301,146 
 3,146,230 
 10.407 868 
 
 
 United States 
 
 Total 
 
 Continental Europe ., 
 
 $24,458,012 
 
 $21,606,270 
 
 336,890 
 
 $21,855,243 
 
 $16,241,633 
 
 249,235 
 
 Total 
 
 $21,943,160 
 
 $16,4;.0,868 
 
 $46,401,172 
 
 $88,346,111 
 
 
 If we add to the above the one third of the postal 
 revenue of European countries that ivas deducted for 
 pared and passenger traffic, vre shall have the sum of 
 $57,204,307 as the total annual revenue of all the post- 
 offices in the world (that we have given above), and 
 $46,466,928 as the total annual expenses. Of the le- 
 gitimate postal traffic — -letters and printed matter — 
 more than one half of the revenue is in the United 
 States, Great Britain, and the British colonies. 
 
 A fair estimate of the amount of letter correspond- 
 ence mny be arrived at by the following calculation: 
 The rates of postage in Great Britain being much low- 
 
 er than in most other countries, we may assume that 
 one dollar of revenue in that country represents as 
 many letters as two dollars throughout the rest of the 
 world. The annual postal revenue of Great Britain is 
 $14,339,770; of the British Colonies, $2,497,420; and of 
 the rest of the world, $29,563,982. From this we con- 
 clude that the correspondence by mail in Great Britain 
 and the British colonies amounts to rather more than 
 the correspondence in all the other nations referred 
 to. The correspondence through British post-offices 
 amounts to about 500,000,000 letters annually, and — 
 including this number — in all the nations under con- 
 sideration, not far from 1,000,000,000. In this calcu- 
 lation, of course, we do not include China, Turkey, and 
 other countries, of which no statistics are given. Of 
 the fifty-one nations and colonies mentioned in the pre- 
 ceding and a former table (page 1560), thirty-six adopt 
 the half-ounce scale for letters. Ten of the nations 
 and nine British colonies have uniform postage, while 
 in one only (Iceland) the postage is free, the entire ex- 
 pense being defra.yed from the national treasury. 
 
 The following table has been compiled to show the 
 actual and comparative amount of money paid in post- 
 ages in each of seven different countries, during the 
 same year (1853), along with the population, and col- 
 umns, also, showing the cost of each thousand letters, 
 together with the number of letters in a year, the num- 
 ber for each thousand persons, and the money paid an- 
 nually (on the average) by each thousand persons. The 
 last line gives the same statistics for Great Britain for 
 1839, the year before the penny postage was established. 
 Except this last, the statistics are all for the year 1853 : 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Population, 
 
 Postal 
 Revenue. 
 
 Postal 
 
 Expenses. 
 
 Revenue per 
 1000 Persons. 
 
 Lettera per 
 1000 Persons. 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Holland 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Spain 
 
 l-'rance 
 
 United States 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 Great Britain, 1839 . 
 
 2.392,740 
 3,066,591 
 4,426.202 
 13,936;218 
 3.5,783,170 
 23,191,876 
 27,833,501 
 20,988,910 
 
 $447,572 
 288,162 
 756,648 
 1,261,761 
 9,321,900 
 5,i'40,724 
 12,872,039 
 11,96S,31S 
 
 $341,028 
 166,784 
 327,118 
 1,095,398 
 6,823,925 
 7,982,757 
 7,003,399 
 8,784,997 
 
 19,773,6-^5 
 13,849.863 
 11,621,955 
 30,775,686 
 150,01)0,000 
 102,189,148 
 410,817,489 
 82,470,696 
 
 22 
 66 
 42 
 02 
 58 
 81 
 145 
 
 $187 
 94 
 171 
 94 
 260 
 256 
 462 
 443 
 
 8,239 
 4,367 
 2,003 
 2,209 
 4,192 
 4,404 
 14,760 
 8,055 
 
 In those countries where the post-office engages in 
 passenger and parcel traffic, the revenue has, in the 
 above table, been given only for the letters and mail 
 matter. 
 
 VI. History of the United States Post-office. — Having 
 taken a rapid survey of the postal affairs of other coun- 
 tries and other times, we will glance at the progress 
 and condition of the post-office in the United States. 
 Probably the earliest mention of a legal post in the 
 British colonies of North America is found in the Gen- 
 eral Court records of Massachusetts in 1639. We find 
 it there recorded as follows : " It is ordered that notice 
 be given, that Richard Fairbanks,, his house in Boston, 
 is the place appointed for all letters which are brought 
 from beyond the seas, or are to be sent thither, are to be 
 left with him ; and he is to take care that they are to 
 be delivered or sent according to the directions; and 
 he is allowed for every letter Id., and must answer all 
 miscarriages through his own neglect in this kind, pro- 
 vided that no man be compelled to having his own let- 
 ters except he please." In 1667, in consecjuence of the 
 uncertainty and loss attending correspondence, a peti- 
 tion was signed by some twenty persons, " To the 
 Honorable General Court, now sitting in Boston.'' That 
 petition set forth tliat "several of us being sensible of 
 the loss of letters, whereby merchants, especially with 
 their friends and employers in foreign parts, are great- 
 ly damnified ; many times the letters are imputed and 
 thrown upon the exchange, so that those who will 
 may take them up ; no person, without some satisfac- 
 tion, being willing to trouble their houses therewith," 
 etc., etc. They then request that the honorable court 
 " will depute some mete person to take in and convey 
 letters according to directions." After due delibera- 
 tion, they did " make choice of Mr. John Hayward, the 
 
 scrivener, to be the man." There are no records to 
 show how long John Hayward kept his office, or what 
 amount of business he did. In 1057, the colony of Vir- 
 ginia passed a law requiring each plantation to provide 
 a messenger to convey the government dispatches as 
 they arrived, each planter in succession sending a mes- 
 senger to the next, and so on to the final destination. 
 The penalty- for neglecting this duty was a hogshead 
 of tobacco. In 1672 Governor Lovelace, of New York, 
 established " a post to goe monthly" from New York 
 pity to Boston and back. This purported to be in obe- 
 dience to his Majesty's commands, " who enjoynes all 
 his subjects in their distinct colonys to enter into a 
 strict allyance and correspondency with each other, as 
 likewise for the advancement of negotiation, trade, and 
 civill commerce, and for the speedy intelligence and 
 dispatch of affayres." It gave notice that a messenger 
 "would start on the first of January, 1673, and that 
 "If any, therefore, have any small letters or portable 
 goods to be conveyed to Hartford, Conneclicott, Bos- 
 ton, or any other parts on the road, they shall be care- 
 fully delivered according to the directions, by a sworne 
 messenger and post, who is purposely employed in that 
 afFayre. In the interim, those that bee disposed to 
 send letters, lett them bring them to the Secretary's 
 office, where, in a lockt box, they shall be preserved 
 till the messenger calls for them. All persons paying 
 the post before the bagg be sealed up." The mails at 
 this period did not appear to have a very rapid transit. 
 The post-riders set out from New York and Boston 
 simultaneously, on Monday morning, and on the Sat- 
 urday evening following, they met at the half-way 
 house, Saybrook, Connecticut, where they exchanged 
 mails, and each wended his way back, arriving on 
 Saturday of the following week. At the present time, 
 
POS 
 
 1563 
 
 POS 
 
 instead of two weeks being required, ivnd a semi- 
 monthly mail only, the mails are transported between 
 Boston and New Yorlc three times a day, each way, in 
 from eight to eleven hours; two weeks being ample 
 time to convey the mails from New York to Copen- 
 hagen, Denmark, to Marseilles, Berlin, Vienna, or 
 Trieste. It is siirewdly suspected that the fatherly 
 care exhibited by King Charles for a mail service, and 
 a "strict allyance and correspondency" between the 
 American colonies, was with an eye to the profits, 
 which all went to a member of the royal family. 
 
 In 1683 William Penn established a post-o6fice in 
 Pennsylvania, and appointed Henry Waddy postmas- 
 ter. The mails were sent to the principal towns in 
 Pennsylvania, and to the neighboring colonies, once a 
 week, the times of departure |being regularly published 
 "on the meeting-house door and other public places." 
 Postal affairs in the colonies received marked attention 
 in England, in 1685, on the accession of King James, 
 who owned the Post, and put the profits in his own 
 privy purse, and an order in council was made "for 
 the better correspondence between the Colonies of 
 America." In 1686 an order was made in New York 
 that all letters coming from beyond sea should be de- 
 livered at the custom-house. The postage was " four- 
 pence half-penny for a single letter, and nine-pence for 
 every packett or double letter," " one half of the money 
 to be given to the poor," under the direction of the 
 Captain-general and the Council, and the other half 
 to the oMcers of the custom-house. 
 
 In 1691-'32 Thomas Neal, by letters patent, was ap- 
 pointed Postmaster-general, with authority to erect 
 post-offices in the American colonies. It appears, how- 
 ever, that he did not act himself, but appointed Col 
 onel- Andrew Hamilton, of New Jersey, Postmaster- 
 general for all the colonies. In 1692, by the recom- 
 mendation of Colonel Hamilton, the Common Council 
 established a post-office in New York city. It was lo- 
 cated in Broadway, apposite the end of Beaver Street. 
 The rates of postage were, for eighty miles or under, 
 four-pence half-penny ; from New York to Philadelphia, 
 nine-pence ; and to Virginia, twelve-pence. The ex- 
 pense, however, was found greatly to exceed the in- 
 come. For ten years there was no regular Post further 
 east than Boston, or further west than Philadelphia. 
 [Lord Cornbury wrote home, in 1704, saying " there is 
 no other Post upon all this continent. If I have any 
 letter to send to Virginia or to Maryland, I must either 
 send an express, who is often retarded for want of 
 boats to cross those great rivers they must go over, or 
 else for want of horses ; or else I must send them by 
 some passengers who are going thither. The least I 
 have known any express to take hence to Virginia has 
 been three weeks," At this period the mail was car- 
 ried twice a month in stage-coaches, between Boston 
 and New York and Philadelphia ; and from New York 
 to Albany by a foot-post, once a month. In 1732 a 
 General Post-office was established in Virginia, and a 
 post-office in each county. In 1736 there was a week- 
 ly mail from Philadelphia to New York and Boston. 
 In 1737 Colonel Spottswood, formerly Governor of 
 yirginia, appears to have been Postmaster-general, 
 and he appointed Benjamin Franklin postmaster at 
 Philadelphia. The following is an advertisement from 
 Franklin's newspaper at this period : 
 
 " October 27, 1737. — Notice is hereby given, that the 
 Post-office qfPhUadelphiu. is now Jeept at B, Franklin's, 
 in Starlcet Street, and that Henry Pratt is appointed riding 
 postmaster for all- stages between PhUaMphia and New- 
 port, in Virginia, iOho sets out about the beginning of each 
 month, and returns in tvieiMj-faar days, by whom gentle- 
 men, merchants, and others, may have their letters care- 
 fully conveyed, and business faithfully transacted, he haor 
 ing given good security for the same to the Honorable Col- 
 onel Spottswood, Postmaster-general of all his Majesty's 
 dominions in America" 
 
 Colonel Spottswood died in 1753, and the home 
 
 government appointed Franklin as his successor, and 
 he held the office for twenty-one years, till 1774j when 
 the difficulties occurring between the colonies and the 
 mother country, Franklin was unceremoniously turned 
 out of office. He sympathired too strongly with the 
 people of the colonies in their wrongs, hardships, and 
 oppressions to be a fit instrument of the crown. He 
 is not the last or the only instance of a postmaster 
 losing his office for political opinions. During Frank- 
 lin's administration of the Colonial Posts, numerous 
 improvements were made. At one time he took his 
 own conveyance, and, in company with his daughter, 
 made a journey of several hundred miles, visiting all 
 the principal post-offices in Pennsylvania, New Jersey, 
 New York, and New England. With that attention to 
 details which always marks the man of large business 
 capacity, he set about making numerous reforms in the 
 administration of the Post. He had as associate or 
 assistant, Mr. William Hunter. By the term's of their 
 appointment they were to have six hundred pounds a 
 year, provided they could get it! Franklih, in giving 
 an account of the Post-office during his administration 
 of its aflairs, after he had been turned out of the office 
 by George the Third, makes the following pithy sum- 
 mary: 
 
 " The American Post-office had hitherto (i. e., before 
 1753) never paid any thing to that of Britain. We 
 were to have six hundred pounds a year between us, 
 if we could make that sum out of the profits of the 
 office. To do this, a variety of improvements were 
 necessary; some of these were inevitably, in the be- 
 ginning, expensive; so that in the first four years the 
 office became above nine hundred pounds in debt to 
 us. But it soon after began to repay us ; and before I 
 was displaced by a freak of the minister's, we had 
 brought it to yield three times as much clear revenue 
 to the crown as the Post-office in Ireland. Since that 
 imprudent transaction, they have received from it — 
 not one farthing !" 
 
 The practice of sending newspapers in exchange, 
 free, dates from Franklin's administration of the Colo- 
 nial Post-office. He was editor and publisher of a 
 newspaper, and he received his exchanges free, and 
 accorded the satae privilege to other journals. The 
 philosopher undoubtedly soon recovered his eq'uanimity 
 after that "frealt of the minister's," for though he suf- 
 fered official decapitation, he was soon after reinstated 
 in office by a more competent authority, being unani- 
 mously appointed Postmaster-genisral of the United 
 Colonies by the Continental Congress. In 1776 he 
 vacated the office, on being appointed embassador to 
 France. On the 7th of November of that year, Kichard 
 Bache was appointed to the office. He held the place 
 for a little over five years, and on the 28th of Januaiy, 
 1782, Ebenezer Hazard was appointed Postmaster-gen- 
 eral, and remained in office until the adoption of the 
 Constitution, in 1789, when Samuel Osgood was ap- 
 pointed. The different incumbents of the office of 
 Postmaster-general since the Revolutionary war broke 
 out were as follows : 
 
 Benjamin Franklin, in 1775 ; Richard Bache, 1776 ; 
 Ebenezer Hazard, 1782 ; Samuel Osgood, 1789 ; Timo- 
 thy Pickering, 1791 ; Joseph Habersham, 1705 ; Gid- 
 eon Granger, 1802; Return J. Meigs, 1814; John 
 M'Lean, 1823; William T. Barrj', 1829; Amos Ken- 
 dall, 1835; John M. Niles, 1840; Francis Granger, 
 March, 1841 ; Charles A. Wickliffe, Septenvber, 1841 ; 
 Cave Johnson, 1845; Jacob Collamer, 1849; Nathan 
 K. Hall, 1850; Samuel D. Hubbard, 1852; James 
 Campbell, 1853 ; and Aaron V. Brown, in 1857. 
 
 The rates of postage from 1776 to 1816 were from 7 
 to 33 cents, according to distance. In 1816 the rates 
 were fixed by-act of Congress at 6i, 10, 12}, 18i, and 
 25 cents for each single letter, according to distance. 
 These rates remained till the act of 1845, which estab- 
 lished the half-ounce scale for single letters, and fixed 
 the rates at five and ten cents. 
 
POS 
 
 1564 
 
 POS 
 
 The act of March 3, 1851, established the following 
 rates: one cent for drop letters, three cents for all 
 single letters (half ounce), for every distance not over 
 three thousand miles, when prepaid, and five cents if 
 not prepaid ; and double these rates when over three 
 thousand miles. The law of 1855 fixed the rates at 
 one cent for drop letters, three cents for letters all dis- 
 tances under three thousand miles, and ten cents when 
 over that distance, and all to be prepaid, or retained 
 and sent to the dead-letter otfice. This law went into 
 operation, as far as it was found practicable, on the first 
 of April, 1855. After the first of January, 1856, all 
 letters were required to be prepaid by stamps. In 
 March, 186G, a law was passed making prepayment 
 compulsory on all transient printed matter ; and this 
 law went into eft'ect on the 1st of April, 1866. The in- 
 conveniences and inconsistencies of the law making 
 prepayment compulsory are numerous. At an expense 
 of less than one hundred thousand dollars, nearly all 
 letters might be returned to the writers in a brief period 
 
 of time after they fail or miscarry. The usage of our 
 government is in strong contrast to that of Great Brit- 
 ain, where all dead or returned letters are sent to their 
 writers at once. 
 
 It is instructive to observe the progress of our postal 
 correspondence beyond the increase of population and 
 the augmentation of almost all other national and do- 
 mestic transactions. During each period of ten years, 
 from 1790 to 1850, the average increase of the popula- 
 tion of the country has been 34 per cent., the exports 
 42 per cent., the expenses of government 95 per cent., 
 Post-office revenue 120 per cent., and correspondence 
 by mail 140 per cent. Thus, while the population of 
 the country has increased in sixty years seven-fold, 
 letter correspondence has increased four hundred and 
 forty fold, or sixty-three times as fast as the popula- 
 tion. In 1790, the letters sent by mail in the Unit- 
 ed Stales were estimated at 265,545; and in 1856, 
 131,450,409. The following table gives, for a period 
 of sixt_A-seven years, the leading items : 
 
 Statistics op the United States Post-office. 
 
 Yoare. 
 
 Poet- 
 oHlces. 
 
 Mllei of 
 FoBt-ronds. 
 
 Expense of 
 TronsportaUon. 
 
 Total 
 Expenses. 
 
 Keren uo. 
 
 Number of 
 Letters. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Letters for 
 each Person. 
 
 1790 
 
 75 
 
 1,875 
 
 $22,081 
 
 $33,140 
 
 $37,935 
 
 205,816 
 
 3,f30,0U0 
 
 0067 
 
 
 89 
 
 1,E05 
 
 23,2:,3 
 
 36,697 
 
 40,294 
 
 3 4,058 
 
 
 
 1TJ2 
 
 195 
 
 5,642 
 
 32,731 
 
 E4531 
 
 67,444 
 
 473,108 
 
 
 
 no3 
 
 209 
 
 6,642 
 
 44734 
 
 72 040 
 
 104747 
 
 733,229 
 
 
 
 1T94 
 
 460 
 
 11,184 
 
 53,005 
 
 89,973 
 
 128,947 
 
 902,629 
 
 
 
 na,, 
 
 453 
 
 13.207 
 
 75,369 
 
 117,893 
 
 160,630 
 
 1,124340 
 
 
 
 n% 
 
 408 
 
 13,207 
 
 81,483 
 
 131,672 
 
 ir5,{)67 
 
 1,305,409 
 
 
 
 170T 
 
 554 
 
 16,180 
 
 89,382 
 
 150,114 
 
 213,9r8 
 
 l,497,f80 
 
 
 
 ITOS 
 
 039 
 
 10,180 
 
 107,014 
 
 179,084 
 
 232,977 
 
 1,630,839 
 
 
 
 1799 
 
 C77 
 
 16,180 
 
 109 475 
 
 183,038 
 
 264,840 
 
 1,883,922 
 
 
 
 18,0 
 
 C03 
 
 20S17 
 
 128,044 
 
 213,994 
 
 280,804 
 
 1,6C5,0£8 
 
 5,306,000 
 
 0-370 
 
 1801 
 
 1,026 
 
 22,309 
 
 152,450 
 
 255,151 
 
 320,443 
 
 2,243,101 
 
 
 
 1803 
 
 1,114 
 
 25,315 
 
 174,071 
 
 281,910 
 
 327,045 
 
 2,289,315 
 
 
 
 1S03 
 
 1,268 
 
 25,315 
 
 206,110 
 
 322,304 
 
 351.623 
 
 2,462,701 
 
 
 
 1804 
 
 1.406 
 
 29,666 
 
 205 656 
 
 337.602 
 
 889,450 
 
 2,726,150 
 
 
 
 18::5 
 
 1,558 
 
 31, ore 
 
 239,636 
 
 377,307 
 
 421,373 
 
 2,949,651 
 
 
 
 1806 
 
 1,710 
 
 33,431 
 
 209,033 
 
 417,284 
 
 440,100 
 
 3,122,742 
 
 
 
 ISOT 
 
 1,S43 
 
 3:;,755 
 
 292,761 
 
 458,885 
 
 478,768 
 
 3,351,341 
 
 
 
 1SS8 
 
 1,144 
 
 34,035 
 
 305,499 
 
 402,828 
 
 460,504 
 
 3,223,948 
 
 
 
 1809 
 
 2.(12 
 
 34,035 
 
 332,917 
 
 493,012 
 
 686,634 
 
 3,640,438 
 
 
 
 1810 
 
 2.3"0 
 
 36 406 
 
 327,966 
 
 4:6,C69 
 
 551,684 
 
 3,801,783 
 
 7,240,000 
 
 0-633 
 
 1-yi 
 
 1812 
 
 2,-403 
 
 30,406 
 
 319,160 
 
 499,099 
 
 587,247 
 
 4,110,729 
 
 
 
 2 CIO 
 
 39,373 
 
 340,626 
 
 640,165 
 
 619,208 
 
 4,544,456 
 
 
 
 1813 
 
 2,740 
 
 3:1,540 
 
 438,589 
 
 681,012 
 
 703,155 
 
 4,022,085 
 
 
 
 181-4 
 
 2,870 
 
 41,736 
 
 476,C03 
 
 727,120 
 
 730,370 
 
 6,112,590 
 
 
 1 
 
 1815 
 
 3,000 
 
 43,C60 
 
 487,779 
 
 748,121 
 
 1,043,0C6 
 
 7,301,465 
 
 
 
 ISiC 
 
 3,200 
 
 48,1170 
 
 521,070 
 
 804,022 
 
 901,783 
 
 6,732,474 
 
 
 
 1817 
 
 3 469 
 
 51.000 
 
 639,189 
 
 910,616 
 
 1,002,973 
 
 8,023,784 
 
 
 
 1S18 
 
 3.C18 
 
 69,473 
 
 604011 
 
 1,036,832 
 
 1,130,5:35 
 
 9,041,830 
 
 
 
 1819 
 
 4,0 iO 
 
 67,530 
 
 717,881 
 
 1,117,601 
 
 1,204,737 
 
 9,637,890 
 
 
 
 1820 
 
 4,500 
 
 72,492 
 
 782,4 5 
 
 1,160,9£6 
 
 1,111,9^7 
 
 8,895,415 
 
 9,638,000 
 
 0-923 
 
 1821 
 
 4,650 
 
 78 303 
 
 815.081 
 
 1,182,928 
 
 1,066,653 
 
 8,463,264 
 
 
 
 1822 
 
 4,799 
 
 83,763 
 
 73S6i-8 
 
 1,107,673 
 
 i,n7,4i;o 
 
 8,€39,920 
 
 
 
 18:3 
 
 6,043 
 
 84,800 
 
 767,464 
 
 1,10.1,886 
 
 1,114 345 
 
 8.914,700 
 
 
 
 18:4 
 
 5,182 
 
 84 860 
 
 763,939 
 
 1,109,199 
 
 1,150,812 
 
 9,254,496 
 
 
 
 1825 
 
 5,077 
 
 94,061 
 
 785,040 
 
 1,200,684 
 
 1,262,001 
 
 10,016,483 
 
 
 
 1820 
 
 6,150 
 
 94,052 
 
 885,100 
 
 1,309,316 
 
 1,368,417 
 
 11,110,380 
 
 
 
 16C7 
 
 7,003 
 
 105,330 
 
 943,345 
 
 1,373,289 
 
 1,473,661 
 
 11,768,408 
 
 
 
 1S2S 
 
 7,061 
 
 114.536 
 
 1,080,312 
 
 1,623,338 
 
 1,598,134 
 
 12,785,073 
 
 
 
 1823 
 
 8,f,50 
 
 114,780 
 
 1,163,616 
 
 1,782,133 
 
 1,707,41,5 
 
 13,069,344 
 
 
 
 1830 
 
 8,450 
 
 115,176 
 
 1,27401.9 
 
 1,933,708 
 
 1,850,683 
 
 13,804004 
 
 12,860,000 
 
 1073 
 
 1831 
 
 8,630 
 
 116,000 
 
 1,252,226 
 
 1,936,123 
 
 1,997,812 
 
 17,980,308 
 
 
 
 1832 
 
 9,205 
 
 104,467 
 
 1,482,507 
 
 2,200,172 
 
 2,283.570 
 
 20,327,130 
 
 
 
 1S33 
 
 10,127 
 
 119,916 
 
 1,894,688 
 
 2,930,415 
 
 2,610,638 
 
 23,548,843 
 
 
 
 lS3t 
 
 io,(:93 
 
 112,600 
 
 1,922,431 
 
 2,890,691 
 
 2,823,707 
 
 25,448,308 
 
 
 
 1S8S 
 
 10,770 
 
 112,774 
 
 1,719,007 
 
 2,757,350 
 
 2,993,557 
 
 20.r42,013 
 
 
 
 1836 
 
 11,0.)1 
 
 118,264 
 
 1,638,053 
 
 2,755,624 
 
 3,398,455 
 
 30.580,005 
 
 
 
 1837 
 
 11,767 
 
 141,242 
 
 2,081,786 
 
 3 303.428 
 
 4,100,615 
 
 36,005,445 
 
 
 
 1838 
 
 12,519 
 
 134 8.8 
 
 S,131,30S 
 
 4,631,837 
 
 4235,078 
 
 38,115,702 
 
 
 
 1S39 
 
 12,780 
 
 133,9 9 
 
 3,301,923 
 
 4054,718 
 
 4477,614 
 
 40.298,.526 
 
 
 
 1840 
 
 13,4r,8 
 
 15.5,739 
 
 3,213,043 
 
 4,718,230 
 
 4643,522 
 
 40,891,6r8 
 
 17,069,000 
 
 2-395 
 
 1S41 
 
 13,778 
 
 155,026 
 
 3,034,814 
 
 4,499,638 
 
 4,407,726 
 
 39.669,534 
 
 
 
 1842 
 
 13 733 
 
 149,733 
 
 4,192,196 
 
 5,674763 
 
 6,029,607 
 
 46,265,503 
 
 
 
 1843 
 
 13,814 
 
 142,295 
 
 2,582,512 
 
 4374754 
 
 4,296,225 
 
 38,066,025 
 
 
 
 1844 
 
 14,103 
 
 144687 
 
 2,982,947 
 
 4296,513 
 
 4237,288 
 
 38,135,592 
 
 
 
 1345 
 
 14,188 
 
 143,940 
 
 2,8' 8,630 
 
 4320,732 
 
 4 439,842 
 
 39,558,978 
 
 
 
 1S4« 
 
 14,601 
 
 149,079 
 
 2,597,455 
 
 4,084,332 
 
 4,089,090 
 
 41,879 781 
 
 
 
 18-17 
 
 16,146 
 
 153,818 
 
 2,470.466 
 
 3,971,276 
 
 4013,447 
 
 47,586,757 
 
 
 
 184S 
 
 16, 159 
 
 163,208 
 
 2,448,766 
 
 4,326,859 
 
 4161,078 
 
 62,364.819 
 
 
 
 1S49 
 
 16,747 
 
 107,703 
 
 2,4911,0 8 
 
 4,479,049 
 
 4 705,176 
 
 00,150,802 
 
 
 
 1850 
 
 18,417 
 
 178.672 
 
 3,095,074 
 
 6,212,1' 63 
 
 6,652,971 
 
 69,426,463 
 
 23,192,000 
 
 2-994 
 
 1851 
 
 19,796 
 
 196,290 
 
 4016,588 
 
 6,024 666 
 
 6,727,867 
 
 83,262,735 
 
 
 
 1852 
 
 20 901 
 
 214284 
 
 4,136,907 
 
 7.108,469 
 
 6,823,982 
 
 95,790,524 
 
 
 
 1853 
 
 22 320 
 
 217,743 
 
 4,7i9,055 
 
 7,932,757 
 
 5,!'40,724 
 
 102,139,148 
 
 
 
 1S64 
 
 23.548 
 
 219,135 
 
 4,925 786 
 
 8,877,4 '4 
 
 6,683,637 
 
 119,634,413 
 
 
 
 1855 
 
 24 410 
 
 227,908 
 
 6 076 335 
 
 9,168.342 
 
 7,885,177 
 
 126,728,425 
 
 
 
 1806 
 
 Total 
 
 26,505 
 
 239.042 
 
 6,765,039 
 
 10,407.868 
 
 7,620,823 
 
 131,460,409 
 
 28.000,000 
 
 4-695 
 
 
 
 $99,2CB,389 
 
 $165,406,624 
 
 $148,887,649 
 
 1,653,104,648 
 
 
POS 
 
 1565 
 
 POS 
 
 The total number of mail routes on the 30tU of June, 
 1856, was 7972, and the number of contractors 6372. 
 The length of routes and annual amount of transporta- 
 tion stand as follows : 
 
 Kind of Service. 
 
 Length ol 
 Boutee. 
 
 Annuel 
 Transportation. 
 
 Cost 
 per Mile. 
 
 
 Milee. 
 14,951 
 20,323 
 60,453 
 163,915 
 
 Miles. 
 4,240,170 
 21,8011,296 
 19,114,991 
 26.143,440 
 
 CIS. M. 
 
 20 3 
 
 10 6 
 
 7 
 
 59 
 
 
 
 Inferior grades 
 
 Total miles. . . 
 
 23J,642 
 
 71,3J7,8J7 
 
 
 The revenue and expenditures of the Post-office, and 
 the iteWs of which they were composed, for the years 
 1855 and 1856, were as follows : 
 
 ExPBNDITtJKES OP THE UNITED STATES POST-OFFIOE. 
 
 Transportation of tlie malls .. 
 Compensation to postmasters. 
 
 Pay of post-oliice clerks 
 
 Pay of letter-carriers 
 
 Depredations and special agents 
 Sliip, steamboat, and way letters 
 
 Advertising 
 
 Blanks .' 
 
 Mail bags 
 
 Mail locks, keys, and stamps 
 
 Wrapping-paper 
 
 Postage stamps 
 
 Stamped envelopes 
 
 OlAce furniture 
 
 Official letters 
 
 Repayment for dead letters. . 
 Postage stamps redeemed . . . 
 
 Patent padlock 
 
 Miscellaneous payments 
 
 Balance paid Great Britain . . 
 
 Balance.paid Bremen 
 
 Balance'due Great Britain. . . 
 
 Balance due Bremen 
 
 Bad debts 
 
 Total expenses. , 
 
 $6,076,335 
 
 2,135,335 
 
 702,617 
 
 143,313 
 
 64,454 
 
 18,766 
 
 75,46T 
 
 91,138 
 
 53,080 
 
 16,173 
 
 46,467 
 
 11,904 
 
 40,635 
 
 6,250 
 
 66 
 
 7 
 
 19 
 
 6,000 
 
 168,011 
 
 303,800 
 
 13,465 
 
 70,523 
 
 6,130 
 
 $10,044,995 
 
 1856. 
 
 $8,766,640 
 
 2,102,891 
 
 768,081 
 
 163,915 
 
 63,502 
 
 17,613 
 
 64,603 
 
 48,5J3 
 
 48,916 
 
 11,687 
 
 31,637 
 
 26,706 
 
 64,680 
 
 5,290 
 
 200,080 
 
 23,849 
 8,638 
 2,583 
 
 $10,407,868 
 
 tries, are the following : In the first place, several pop- 
 ular fallacies have been engendered and kept up by 
 official post-office reports. Again, the official heads of 
 this important department, for the last fifteen years, 
 have almost invariably thrown their official and per- 
 sonal influence against all the great improvements urg- 
 ently demanded by the people; and in carrying out 
 this opposition, several of these officers have exhibited 
 an unwarrantable interference with the legislation of 
 the countrj". All of the principal improvements have 
 been accomplished, not through their aid, but in the 
 face o( their opposition. The annual reports of the 
 Postmaster-general, since 1852, have declared and at- 
 tempted to prove that the legitimate revenue of the 
 Post-office has been less than its legitimate expendi- 
 tures, while the contrary has been the fact, as must be 
 evident when we have a complete view of the prem- 
 ises. The true state of tlie case is — and this is the im- 
 portant matter that has been overlooked— the Post-of- 
 fice has performed a large amount of labor, and conse- 
 quently been put to great expense, without any clear 
 record or any adequate return. 
 
 The payment for and on account of letters and docu- 
 ments transported and delivered by the Post-office for 
 the government — the sum of $700,000 — is entirely in- 
 adequate to the service performed. To show the 
 amount of "franked" matter sent from Washington 
 alone, the following items were given in an official 
 statement from the postmaster of Wasliington City to 
 the Post-office Committee of the House of Representa- 
 tives, as the amount of that description of mail matter 
 for one month — January, 1854. 
 
 Feeb Mail Mattee moai Wabhimqton for one Month. 
 
 Kevende of the United States Post-office. 
 
 Letter postage 
 
 Stamps sold 
 
 Postage on printed matter 
 
 Letter carriers 
 
 Dead letters 
 
 Kegistered letters 
 
 Pines 
 
 Emoluments returned 
 
 Extra compensation overcharged 
 
 Balance due by Prussia 
 
 Miscellaneous receipts 
 
 Appropriation for gov'nt postage 
 Total revenue 
 
 1855. 
 
 $3,234,650 
 
 2,511,318 
 
 633,928 
 
 143,313 
 
 4,976 
 
 "35 
 
 ■ 77,903 
 
 23,330 
 
 69,694 
 
 7,783 
 
 700,000 
 
 $7,411,830 
 
 1856. 
 
 $1,751,767 
 
 4,235,446 
 
 633,748 
 
 163,916 
 
 8,SS3 
 
 31,466 
 
 TO 
 
 74,800 
 
 14,715 
 
 6,5J3 
 
 700,000 
 
 $7,6.!0,S22 
 
 VII. Tkepresent Condition ajidjuture Prospects of the 
 United States Post-office. — From the official figures given 
 previously, we see that while the correspondence by mail 
 and the postal revenue actually decreased during twen- 
 ty years of liigh postage in Great Britain — ending with 
 1835 — the revenue and correspondence both, from the 
 date of low and uniform postage, in 1840, has greatly 
 increased — the latter six hundred per cent. The vast 
 economy in the management of the Post-office in that 
 country is seen in the fact that while the correspond- 
 ence increased from 75 millions of letters in 1840, to 
 478 millions in 1856 — at least six-fold — the expense was 
 but little more than doubled. Had it been deemed 
 necessary, but few figures would have been required to 
 show clearly — what was demonstrated by Mr. Rowland 
 Hill — that the slight diminution in the net revenue of 
 the Post-office in Great Britain, consequent to the great 
 reduction of postage in 1840, was far more than made 
 up to the national treasury, during each and every year 
 thereafter, in other branches of national income, and 
 all from the direct and sole cause of the activity and 
 prosperity of all business interests, engendered by a 
 reduction in the rates of postage. We believe, and are 
 confident tliat it is susceptible of a clear demonstration, 
 that the principal reasons why our Post-office has not 
 kept pace with the advancing spirit of the ago, and 
 been made as efficient as the post in several other coun- 
 
 
 WeiBht. 
 
 Postage. 
 
 Letters from members of Congress 
 
 Documents " '* 
 
 Founds. 
 
 3,416 
 693,508 
 
 7,065 
 111,002 
 
 $4,664 
 
 110,961 
 
 6,782 
 
 11,100 
 
 Newspapers (numbering 1,110,020) 
 
 Total for one month (prepaid rates) . . 
 For twelve months '* " . . 
 Postage for twelve months, if not prepaid 
 
 815,021 
 9,780,243 
 
 $133,507 
 1,602,087 
 3,153,350 
 
 The newspapers were not counted, but weighed ; and 
 as the newspapers of the country average about one 
 and a half ounces each, these have been considered as 
 averaging ten papers to a ^ound. The postmaster ex- 
 pressed it as his opinion that the free matter during 
 that month, of whicli he gave the results, was less than 
 the average quantity. The amount given would make 
 about 5000 tons of " free" matter in a year, from the 
 post-office of the city of Washington alone ; or an aver- 
 age for each weelt-day of fifteen tons. Looldng at this 
 $1,602,087 due by government at prepaid rates, for 
 the postage on free matter, outward only, from the city 
 of Washington alone, in a year, it would be a very 
 moderate estimate that should put the postage of the 
 government, at the rate the citizen pays, at $2,5oO,000 
 annually. If we look at the revenue and expenses of 
 the Post-office for ten years, and see what appropria- 
 tions were made for the free matter transported for gov- 
 ernment, we sliall see whether the Post-office actually 
 supported itself or not. 
 
 years. 
 
 Postal 
 Expenses. 
 
 Revenue 
 
 from 
 Postngoa. 
 
 Appropria. 
 
 tlOIlS tUflt 
 
 were made. 
 
 AppropKo- 
 tions that 
 should havo 
 been made. 
 
 1S47. . . . 
 
 $3,971,li75 
 
 $3,703,999 
 
 $300,443 
 
 $J,5UU,00J 
 
 1848.... 
 
 4,326,850 
 
 4,101,078 
 
 
 2,5no,ooo 
 
 1849. . . . 
 
 4,479,049 
 
 4,505,176 
 
 200,000 
 
 2,500,000 
 
 1850.... 
 
 5,212,95J 
 
 5,352,971 
 
 200,000 
 
 2,600,000 
 
 1851.... 
 
 6,0;4,563 
 
 6,i51,973 
 
 875,S8D 
 
 2,500,000 
 
 1853.... 
 
 7,103,463 
 
 6,082,537 
 
 1,741,445 
 
 2,500,000 
 
 1853.... 
 
 7,E83,75T 
 
 5,240,724 
 
 700,000 
 
 2,600,000 
 
 1854.... 
 
 8,5:7,424 
 
 6,983,637 
 
 700,000 
 
 2,500,000 
 
 1855.... 
 
 10,044,9;;o 
 
 6,711,830 
 
 700,000 
 
 2,500,000 
 
 1866. . . . 
 Total.. 
 
 10,407,868 
 
 6,920,822 
 
 700,000 
 
 2,500,000 
 
 $68,136,197 
 
 $54,014,653 
 
 $5,026,782 
 
 $26,000,000 
 
 That the Post-office did not support itself from the 
 postage paid by citizens during the last ten years, and 
 
POS 
 
 1566 
 
 POS 
 
 also support the burden of all the "franked" matter 
 thrown on It by government, is evident from the above 
 figures. The "official" statement is, that the entire 
 postal revenue for ten years was $59,641,434, and the 
 expenditures $68,136,197 ; therefore there was a " de- 
 ficiency," showing that the Post-offlce did not support 
 itself by $8,494,763. But the reality is this. At the 
 rates of postage now levied, the cost of transporting 
 and delivering the letters and documents for the citi- 
 zens and the government, for ten years, was as follows : 
 Postage due and paid by citizens for ten years. . $51,014,652 
 Postage due (but not all paid) by government. . . 25,000,ou0 
 
 Total !iiTu,014,(i62 
 
 Expenses of the Post-office for ten years 6S.136,iyT 
 
 Post-office earnings exceeded the expenses' by.. . $lu,8i 8,455 
 It is clearly evident that any attempt to show wheth- 
 er our Post-office supports itself under the present laws, 
 regulations, rates of postage and management, must 
 begin by showing what are its legitimate expenses and 
 what its legitimate income. The theory and practice 
 of our law-makers is in strong contrast to the action of 
 the members of the British Parliament in 1839 and 
 1840, at the time of the agitation and adoption of the 
 penny postage. They at once abolished and renounced 
 the franking privilege, on the principle that officers of 
 the government could as well afford to pay their own 
 postage as private citizens ; that they were in that case 
 put to far less trouble to frank and send documents for 
 others, and that all postage necessary for carrying on 
 the business of the government should be charged to 
 the Treasury, like all otlier national or government ex- 
 _penses. In reality, we do not know the amount of ex- 
 penses and burdens that fall on the Post-office, and yet 
 the head of that Department has taken upon himself to 
 say that its income is not sufficient for its legitimate 
 support. If a merchant or man of business were to 
 know the precise amount of income that he actually 
 received, while he was ignorant of a large portion of 
 his expenditures, would he, or could he, conduct and 
 manage bis affairs with prudence, judgment, and econ- 
 omy? It is a parallel case with our Post-office, bur- 
 dened as it is annually with five thousand tons of 
 franked matter. 
 
 The history of our Post-office for the last sixteen 
 years discloses the following facts: Letter postage has 
 been reduced from a scale of five rates, running from 
 six to twenty-five cents, and averaging, perhaps, thir- 
 teen or fourteen cents a letter ; first (in 1845) to five 
 and ten, and next (in 1851) to three, five, and six cents, 
 and lastly (in 1855) to three and ten cents ; and yet 
 there has been no sensible diminution of the postal re- 
 ceipts, taking one year with another. Taking the 
 yearly increase of the postal revenue for a number of 
 years before the first reduction as a criterion, the re- 
 ceipts of the Post-office in 1855 and 1856 were as large, 
 if not, larger than they would have been under the old 
 ^ateaV And yet the postage on each separate letter 
 averages less than one third the charge previous to 
 1845. By the side of that fact it may be stated here 
 that in the postal history of all nations there is no in- 
 stance on record where a reduction of postage, however 
 great, has been followed bj' any permanent reduction 
 of the postal revenue. In public as in private affairs, 
 the inhabitants of a country extend their patronage 
 just in proportion to the business and economical fa- 
 cilities afforded them. 
 
 After the successful introduction of penny postage 
 into Great Britain in 1840, the citizens of the United 
 States commenced holding public meetings and peti- 
 tioning Congress for a reduction of rates, and other post- 
 al improvements. The pressure and agitation were kept 
 up from 1841 to 1845, and duritig that period the Post- 
 master-general — the Hon. Charles A. Wicklitfe— used 
 every exertion, and brought every influence, official 
 and personal, to defeat the measure. With all this 
 uncalled-for interference with the wishes of the people 
 and the legislation of the country by an executive of- 
 
 ficer, the bill reducing postage to the two rates of five 
 and ten cents was passed, and went into operation in 
 1845. The incumbent of this office from 1853 to 1867 
 — James Campbell — made every possible effort not 
 only to defeat the wishes of the people in having the 
 rates of postage reduced and made uniform, but to raise 
 the then existing prepaid rate of letter postage from 
 three to five cents, and to double all the rates on printed 
 matter. These measures were introduced in a bill, at 
 the solicitation of the Postmaster-general, by the chair- 
 man of the House Committee, and at once defeated, re- 
 ceiving only the small minority of thirty-six votes. 
 
 The efforts made by the Postmaster-general to raise 
 the rates were successful in increasing the postage from 
 six to ten cents on all letters that are transported over 
 3000 miles. 
 
 It may be uncharitable to hint that our statesmen 
 have heretofore paid so little attention to the postal 
 subject as to be unacquainted with its details, though 
 it is unquestionably true that this branch of govern- 
 ment has not received the attention that its importance 
 demands. In examining the postal subject we can not 
 arrive at correct results by any system of generaliza- 
 tion, or by wholesale comparisons. It is a question of 
 detail, of calculation, and of fact, in which certain car- 
 dinal principles can not be ignored or lost sight of. It 
 is true that the people of Great Britain write many 
 more letters than the people of the United States ; and 
 it is equally true that this is the consequence of receiv- 
 ing a far greater amount of postal accommodation for 
 the money they pay. It is eminently true that the 
 large and profitable amount of correspondence passing 
 through the British Post-office is the direct result of 
 low and uniform postage, combined with the great fa- 
 cilities for collecting, distributing, and delivering let- 
 ters and other mail matter in cities and large towns. 
 While we have populous cities with varied interests 
 that require an immense local correspondence, our 
 postal affairs are conducted in the same manner that 
 they were in the first years of the Republic. Except 
 by the labors of private parties, who are allowed to de- 
 liver letters from the post-office, and levy a tax for the 
 service, or to set up private post-offices of their own, 
 for the collection and distribution of mail matter, we 
 have hardly an improvement or facilitj' for distributing 
 letters in cities to-day that did not exist seventy years 
 ago. People who write letters may carry or send them 
 to the post-office, and those to whom they are addressed 
 have the privilege of calling for the same and taking 
 them out. Except through and by the labors of the 
 private postman and carriers, we, as a people, seem to 
 be aware that the greatest want and the most profita- 
 ble field for postal facilities is in and about our large 
 cities and towns. In the country the distance between 
 post-offices may be reckoned by miles, but in large 
 cities the legitimate wants of the people are not met 
 except by having deliveries many times a day, and 
 places for obtaining stamps and mailing letters at every 
 one or two hundred j'ards. The relative postal wants 
 of the residents of different city and country districts, 
 and the extent to which those wants are met, in this 
 country and in Great Britain, may be seen by the fig- 
 ures representing the average number of letters written 
 by each person in a j'ear, in the various localities. 1 he 
 figures relating to the annual correspondence in this 
 country are in whole numbers and decimals. 
 
 COEBESPONDENOE IN THE UhiTED STATES. 
 
 Letfen 
 DiiTereDt Localities. per FerEon, 
 
 aonually. 
 
 Country districts at the South 1*6 
 
 Country districts at the North 3-5 
 
 Country districts throughout the Union 3-3 
 
 All of the Southern States 2-9 
 
 AUofthe Northern States 6'1 
 
 Throughout the United States 4-9 
 
 City of New Orleans 19-T 
 
 City of Cincinnati 21-2 
 
 City of New York 300 
 
 City of Boston 40 8 
 
POS 
 
 1567 
 
 POS 
 
 These figures are not supposed to be exact, but they 
 are a very near approximation to the precise number, 
 arrived at by a close calculation, based on the relative 
 population and postal income. The following state- 
 ment exhibits the annual correspondence per person — 
 in whole numbers — in different localities in Great 
 Britain : 
 
 CollTtEBPONnmJCE IN Gkeat Bmtain. 
 
 Lettara 
 Different Localities. per FcifioQ, 
 
 BnDuoUy. 
 
 Country districts of the Kingdom 8 
 
 Throughout the Kingdom 17 
 
 England alone 23 
 
 Average in cities 45 
 
 In London 48 
 
 In Manchester 57 
 
 These results are very different from what wo see 
 in this country. They all go to establish one clear, 
 indisputable fact. They prove beyond question (hat 
 the peoplp of cities write from five to twenty times as 
 
 many letters as the residents of country districts. And 
 as we know that a very large portion of the inhabitants 
 of cities and towns are minors, paupers, vagrants, and 
 ignorant persons, it is clear that the adult male busi^ 
 ness population have occasion to write from a hundred 
 to a thousand letters each per annum. We know, from 
 the habits and wants of the population in rural dis- 
 tricts, that the adult persons who are engaged in agri- 
 cultural and mechanical pursuits do not usually carry 
 on one-fortieth part as much correspondence as the 
 mercantile classes in cities. Bearing these facts in 
 mind, and remembering that there are from six to 
 twelve deliveries a day in all parts of London, ■with 
 over five hundred receiving houses and letter-pillars 
 where letters can be mailed — averaging one for every 
 second block or square throughout the city — bearing 
 these facts in mind, we need not be surprised at the 
 widely different results in that country and this, as 
 conveyed in the following authentic figures : 
 
 AiraiTAL NUMBEK OP LetTEES IN DIFFERENT LOOALITIEB. 
 
 Years. 
 
 London Local 
 Lettera. 
 
 London MaU 
 Lelteis. 
 
 Total London 
 Letters. 
 
 Total In the 
 United States. 
 
 Total in 
 Great Britain. 
 
 1847 
 
 34,630,817 
 
 33,672,747 
 
 33,960,398 
 
 38,887,841 
 
 40,685,952 
 
 40,403,207 ' 
 
 42,816,314 
 
 46,191,669 
 
 45,844,963 
 
 47,894,708 
 
 48,757,510 
 45,991,163 
 45,846,683 
 44,866,170 
 47,819,409 
 51,171,423 
 154,402(023 
 57,186,18:) 
 89,647,549 
 64,r61,321 
 
 78,888,357 
 79,663,900 
 79,806,081 
 83,744,014 
 88,405,451 
 91,674,630 
 97,218,387 
 103,877,728 
 105,492,512 
 112,856,029 
 
 47,585,757 
 62,364,819 
 60,159,862 
 69,426,452 
 88,252,735 
 95,7C0,524 
 102,139,148 
 119,634,418 
 126,723,425 
 131,450,409 
 
 3^2,146,243 
 328,830,184 
 337,399,199 
 347,069,071 
 360,647,187 
 379,501,499 
 410,817,489 
 443,649,301 
 456,216,176 
 478,893,803 
 
 1848 . 
 
 184D 
 
 1660 
 
 1851 ; 
 
 1882 
 
 1863 
 
 1854 
 
 1855 
 
 1856 
 
 Total 
 
 404,885,519 
 
 515,688,620 
 
 920,527,039 
 
 888,527,519 
 
 3,864,670,152 
 
 We see by the above that the people of London alone 
 (less than two and a half millions) have written and 
 sent through the post more letters in the last ten years 
 than all the people in the United States, whUe the pop- 
 ulation of Great Britain — about the same as in the 
 United States — have written almost five times as many 
 as the .people of this country. We must seek for a so- 
 lution of this in the far greater postal facilities in the 
 United Kingdom, particularly in cities, than in this 
 country. See the gigantic results of a good local post 
 in London. There are almost one half as maiy letters 
 written and mailed in London, for distribution in the 
 city (local letters, see first column in the preceding ta- 
 ble), as are written in a year by all the people in Amer- 
 ica ! Could vve get at the results of our local distribu- 
 tion of letters, we should find that the number of let- 
 ters written in our cities, and distributed by the gov- 
 ernment post in the place where written — "drop let- 
 ters," as we very appropriately call them — we should 
 find that they were only about one-fortieth or one-fif- 
 tieth part as many as in the cities of Great Britain. 
 In other words, the active business population of our 
 cities write about as many letters to go through the 
 mails to a distance, as the same population do of that 
 class of letters in cities in England ; but of local let- 
 ters, for distribution in the city where they are writ- 
 ten, only about one-fortieth part as many. 
 
 It is as easily shown that the local correspondence 
 of cities is much more profitable to the Post-office than 
 correspondence that is conveyed hundreds of miles, as 
 it is to demonstrate that the correspondence of cities is 
 of more importance and of greater amount than the 
 correspondence of rural districts. The whole secret of 
 accommodating the people with, a good city post, and 
 making it profitable at the same time, consists in hav- 
 
 ing our means adapted to our wants. The mails are 
 sent over the routes between New York and Boston 
 three times a day, twice a day from New York to Wash- 
 ington, once a day from Charleston to New Orleans, 
 once a week between some small country villages, once 
 a fortnight from New York to San Francisco, and once 
 a month from Missouri to Great Salt Lake City. By 
 the very same rule, and for the same reasons, there 
 should be a local distribution of letters in large cities 
 like New York,' Boston, and Philadelphia, from six to 
 twelve times a day. The very term "free-letter de^ 
 livery," as applied to the local distribution of letters in 
 English cities, is a misnomer. It does not exist, nor 
 is it asked for in this country. The local distribu- 
 tion of letters in the cities and towns of Great Britain 
 amounts to just this : One uniform rate of postage is 
 fixed on all single letters — local and otherwise — with- 
 out regard to distance, and this postage — one penny 
 sterling — pays for transporting the letter to the end of 
 the route; and this, in cities and towns, means to the 
 door of the person addressed. It unquestionably costs 
 a shade less to circulate and deliver letters in a city — 
 those that are mailed there for delivery — than it does 
 to transport them hundreds of miles, and then deliver 
 them. The actual result is this : the large number of lo- 
 cal letters in cities, at the postage of one penny for each, 
 pays all the expense of collection and delivery — wages 
 of receiyers, mail-men and letter carriers — while these 
 persons collect and deliver all letters that are to go 
 and that come from out of town, without any extra 
 charge, and then the profit on these local letters alone 
 — admitting that the letters from a distance are de- 
 li vered " free" — is very large. The following table, 
 made up from the official report of the year 1854, needs 
 no explanation : 
 
 Local Cokrespondenoe in certain Cities in Gkevt Britain, with the Expense op Collection and Delivery. 
 
 Loudon 
 
 Liverpool . . . 
 Manchester . 
 
 Dublin 
 
 Edinburgh. . 
 
 Bristol 
 
 Total.. 
 
 Number of 
 
 Letters in the 
 
 Mails. 
 
 57,186,159 
 9,145,802 
 
 10,088,656 
 6,592,SS4 
 4,208,09^ 
 4.384,416 
 
 91,605,861 
 
 Local Clrcula- 
 
 tibitor* 
 Drop Letters, 
 
 46,191,669. 
 7,390,042 
 8,149,560 
 5,329,134 
 8,401,670 
 3,543,816 
 
 74,005,791 
 
 Gross Revenue 
 from Local 
 Circulation. 
 
 $1,385,747 
 221,701 
 244,487 
 169,874 
 102,050 
 106,314 
 
 $2,220,173 
 
 Wages of 
 Letter carriei? 
 and Receivers. 
 
 $761,610 
 27,036 
 38.225 
 88,940 
 20,060 
 15,855 
 
 $901,82^ 
 
 Net ProSt 
 
 on Local 
 
 Circnlation. 
 
 $824,037 
 194,666 
 206,262 
 120,934 
 81,990 
 90,459 
 
 $1,S18,34S 
 
POS 
 
 1568 
 
 POS 
 
 The total number of letter receivers and letter car- 
 riers in tlie United Kingdom, in ISoi, with tlie gross 
 amount of their salaries, was as follows : 
 
 
 Number. 
 
 Salartea. 
 
 Letter receivers in the Kingdom . . . 
 Letter caiTiers in cities and towns. . 
 
 Letter carriers in rural districts 
 
 Total 
 
 4,280 
 4,3C5 
 4,326 
 
 $-:36,T42 
 804,575 
 001,420 
 
 13,000 
 
 $1,64^.077 
 
 Looking at the results in the two tables given above, 
 we find that the money received for postage on the 
 local letters, in six cities only, amounted to a larger 
 sum than the entire cost of letter carriers and letter 
 receivers throughout the united Kingdom of Great Brit- 
 ain and Ireland ! And we may mention, in this con- 
 nection, that the rural letter carriers penetrate all the 
 country districts of Great Britain, the carriers in their 
 •walks going from three to six miles from every village 
 post-oftice, at least once a day. 
 
 The gigantic results shown in the English. Post-office 
 are due to three or four simple principles. There is 
 one uniform rate of postage on all single letters — those 
 weighing not to exceed half an ounce — and this same 
 rate also pays tlie postage on all parcels of printed 
 matter — done up in packages open at the ends — so that 
 with one kind of stamp the citizen prepays more than 
 nineteen-twentieths of all the packages he puts in the 
 post-office. There is in every city and village a letter 
 delivery by carriers, from two to twelve times a day, 
 with convenient places at every one or two hundred 
 yards for posting letters and parcels. There is a sys- 
 tem of remitting money by mail, through money orders 
 or drafts, for small sums, between all the principal post- 
 offices ; and the money-order business, like the uniform 
 postage, is based on so simple and economical a system, 
 and is carried on "with such satisfactory results, that 
 there is combined the greatest convenience and small- 
 est cost to the citizen, and the largest economy of man- 
 agement to the Post-office officials. 
 
 It is useless to say that the business of collecting and 
 distributing letters in a city in Europe is any different 
 process, and involves any different principles, from that 
 of distributing letters here ; for it is not true. And 
 certainl}'', so far as correspondence is concerned, our 
 social and commercial wants are like those of the resi- 
 dents of London, Manchester, Paris, and Berlin. Could 
 we get at the amount of letter distribution done by pri- 
 vate parties in our large cities, it would be found that 
 there is a far greater correspondence carried on outside 
 of, than through the post. And yet there is no regu- 
 larity, uniformity, safety, or system, and with all the 
 multifarious appliances, we are wretchedly served, as 
 every one knows. Philadelphia has reported through 
 the government Post-office a less correspondence — or 
 at least a smaller postal revenue — in proportion to popu- 
 lation, than any other large city in America. There a 
 private individual carries on a very profitable and ex- 
 tensive system of city letter distribution. The fact is, 
 and it can not be disguised, that our Post-office, being 
 an exclusive government functiop, for long distances, 
 should not allow private parties to carry it on for 
 short distances in cities. We either want an efficient 
 uniform government Post-office over the entire coun 
 try, or it should be abolished altogether, or thrown 
 open to private parties. We make the Post-office per- 
 form nearly three million dollars' worth of labor for the 
 government, and appropriate for the same out of the 
 Treasury less than a quarter of that sum, and then the 
 government allows private parties to step in and set 
 up a post in the very localities where a good postal es- 
 tablishment is most needed, and where it can be made 
 the most profitable. With any thing like a critical 
 examination of our postal establishment, and to a per- 
 son of any sagacity, it is clearly evident that in the 
 localities where a post is most needed— large cities— 
 and where it would pay the best, there our post is most 
 notoriously inefficient. The postal establishment labors 
 under the following prominent disadvantages : 
 
 First. It performs a large amount of service for the 
 government without adequate compensation. Second. 
 There is not a uniform rate of postage, and the labor 
 and expense of conducting the postal business is there- 
 by greatl}"" increased. Third. The correspondence of 
 the country has never been stimulated and increased 
 by low and uniform postage and the best postal facili- 
 ties. Fourth. Our local correspondence in cities — 
 the most profitable business of the postal establish- 
 ment, when on a correct basis — labors under every dis- 
 advantage, being the cause, and justly, of constant com- 
 plaint on the part of the citizens. Fifth. In all the 
 large cities, in consequence of the irregularity, uncer- 
 tainty, and inconveniences of the National Post-office, 
 private posts carry off a large share of the business. 
 
 If the above premises are correct, the remedies are 
 neither hard to find or difficult to carry out. Find the 
 amount of matter that is sent "free" by government 
 departments, officers and members of Congress, and 
 have a sum paid or appropriated from some quarter 
 sufficient to meet it. Then make one rate of postage, 
 so low that it will not be exorbitant for single letters 
 and the smallest packages for the shortest distances, 
 and let this rate^ pay as many descriptions and sizes 
 of written and printed packets as possible. Abolish 
 all private posts in cities, and make a government 
 post that is adequate to the wants of the citizens. It 
 'may be safely promised that a convenient, reliable, 
 economical, punctual, and rapid distribution of letters 
 in our cities will meet with all that encouragement and 
 that extensive use that attends a good post in Europe- 
 an cities. Send all letters and printed packages — per- 
 haps up to a certain amount, say four or eight post- 
 ages in one parcel, as is done in Great Britain — wheth- 
 er they are prepaid or not, and if not prepaid, charge 
 double postage. Make a money-order system for re- 
 mitting money in sums not exceeding twenty or twen- 
 ty-five dollars ; at first between all the larger offices, 
 extending it as it becomes known and understood. Ke- 
 turn all " dead" and refused letters to the writers, and 
 enforce the payment of such postages as have not been 
 prepaid. 
 
 The question of the most profitable rate or rates of 
 postage may be discussed and examined for years, and 
 we are forced to one conclusion ; and that is, that there 
 is no convenient, economical, or just sj'stem without 
 UNIFORMITY. The truth is, several of our rates of 
 postage are too low, not allowing a fair compensation, 
 and others are too high. Our rate of one cent for drop 
 letters or local letters, one cent for printed circulars, 
 and one cent for transient newspapers, are all too low. 
 They are not compensating; and if raised to two cents, 
 the charge would not be considered high, provided all 
 letters of half an ounce weight, and printed packages 
 up to four ounces, could be sent an}' and every dis- 
 tance for the same sum. We want a two-cent rate of 
 postage, with a two-cent postage stamp, and a total 
 abolition of all of the one-cent rates and stamps, and 
 the three-cent rates and stamps. It should be the 
 minimum; that is, noletterortransient package should 
 be mailed or sent the shortest distance for less than this 
 sum. We would pay with this two-cent stamp our 
 city or drop letters — and that should include delivery 
 by a carrier, as carriers should work for salaries, and 
 deliver everything in cities without extra charge — our 
 letters for all distances in the United States, all circu- 
 lars, and all packages of printed matter, up to four 
 ounces in weight, that are done up open at the ends. 
 Is it not reasonable to suppose that there would be a 
 sufficient increase in letters for city circulation, and to 
 go to a. distance, along with the increase of price of 
 postage on drop letters, on printed circulars, and on 
 transient newspapers, to make up for the loss on the 
 three-cent letters, and the few letters that now pay ten 
 cents? And we must bear in mind that one of the 
 greatest arguments for a uniform rate of postage is the 
 simplicity, economy, and cheapness that it eftects in 
 
POS 
 
 1569 
 
 POS 
 
 carrying on the postal business. Twice the number 
 of workers, with a change to a uniform rate, will suf- 
 fice for an increase of letters six-fold. We have giv- 
 en the exact official figures, showing that the mere 
 handling, sorting, diatributipn, and delivery of letters 
 (all expenses except tfanspo'rtation) in Great Britain 
 
 amounted to thirty dollars for each thousand letters, 
 when there were several rates ; and but seven dollars 
 —less than one-fourth what it cost formerly — with a 
 uniform postage. UNiFORimTr of postage is the first 
 requisite of the British, as it is of every other postal 
 system where it has been tried. 
 
 
 
 PosTAii Statistics of the dipfeeent States, 
 
 
 
 
 ^' Statea. 
 
 Postal- 
 
 Revenue, 
 
 1856. 
 
 Revenue 
 per 1000 
 Persbna. 
 
 Number 
 ' of Letters, 
 - -isse 
 
 Letlore 
 
 per WOO, 
 
 1858. 
 
 Postal 
 
 Expenses, 
 
 1866. 
 
 Proportion 
 of Expenses 
 to Boceipta. 
 
 Postal Revenue, 
 with (rovemmedt 
 Postage added. 
 
 Proportion 
 of Erponsea 
 to Recoipts. 
 
 . Coet 
 
 per 1 
 Letter. 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 ifiew York 
 
 $657,659 
 
 180,924 
 
 1,436,100 
 
 265,019 
 
 62,513 
 117,415 
 100,000 
 156,188 
 
 96,689 
 149,076 
 333,020 
 1.52,710 
 531,220 
 451,707 
 107,738 
 171,410 
 
 14,046 
 
 33,97i) 
 
 - $412 
 
 ;, 476 
 
 411 
 
 791 
 
 375 
 
 350 
 
 30a 
 
 307 
 
 ■■29T' 
 
 271 
 
 ,268;: 
 
 245 
 
 232 
 
 ■204 
 
 ■ 188 
 
 149 
 
 343 
 
 162 
 
 11,862,071 
 3,889,997 
 
 29,2,59,943 
 2,769,864 
 1,274,287 
 2,392,283 
 2,037,450 
 3,182,164 
 1,968,980 
 8,049,530 
 6,797,870 
 3,111,403 
 
 12,045,863 
 
 9,208,843 
 
 2,195,117 
 
 3,492,409 
 
 140,812 
 
 67i;933 
 
 10,028 
 9,700 . 
 8,432 
 8,265 
 7,630 
 7,141 
 6,209 
 6,253 
 ■6;058 
 5,625 
 5,463 
 4,f87 
 4,737 
 4,154 
 .3,852 
 3,037 
 8,681 
 3,310 
 
 $835,983 
 175,181 
 
 1,087,316 
 208,714 
 89,544 
 163,813 
 ,99,943 
 ^32,837 
 117,831 
 170,369 
 553,887 
 170,745 
 623,796 
 670,995 
 182,386 
 303,973 
 33,175 
 112,205 
 
 09 
 
 93 
 
 72 
 
 101 
 
 63 
 
 ' 131 
 
 100 
 
 149 
 
 124 
 
 - 114 
 
 166 . 
 
 112, 
 
 89 
 
 161' ■ 
 
 . • .123 . ' 
 
 ,177, 
 
 272 
 
 840 
 
 $769,290 
 
 268,380 
 
 1,981,100 
 
 365,514 
 
 86,277 
 
 161,973 
 
 187,960 
 
 215,464 
 
 138,314 
 
 • 206,478 
 
 460,259 
 
 210,664 
 
 815,538 
 
 623,153 
 
 . 143,634 
 
 , 236,482 
 
 19,876 
 
 ■ 45,495 ' 
 
 50 
 66 
 52 
 74 
 48 
 95 
 72 
 
 108 
 89 
 83 
 
 120 
 81 
 64 
 
 108 
 
 83 
 
 . 129 
 
 190 
 
 247 
 
 c. m. 
 
 1 5 
 
 2 
 1 6 
 
 4 3 
 
 1 4 
 
 2 9 
 2 2 
 8 2 
 2 7 
 
 2 5 
 30 
 24 
 
 1 9 
 
 3 2 
 
 2 7 
 
 3 9 
 
 5 9 
 74 
 
 
 Ehode Island 
 
 lOlVfl. .,*..., ,r 
 
 New Hampsbire 
 
 Vermont ...-;'.'.-.' 
 
 JW-^PJ^H,,' 
 
 Maine. 
 
 ^Pennsylvania 
 
 OMoj 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 Indiana , 
 
 Pacific TerritoHes . . 
 
 Other Teniloi'iea. . . 
 
 Total, North 
 
 DistrlQt of Columhia 
 
 $4,087,583 
 
 43,731 
 
 187,104 
 163,879 
 
 19,648 
 
 20,058 
 
 141,765 
 
 140,070 
 
 , 218,090 
 
 68,005 
 lb9,225 
 
 91,803 
 •121,808 
 
 74444 
 
 27,832 
 101,485 
 
 71,887 
 
 $309 
 
 T41 ^ 
 
 2J2 
 ■ 273 
 2,02 
 181 
 168 
 leO" 
 144 
 
 m 
 
 131 
 130 
 111 
 ,llt 
 IJO 
 83 
 78 
 
 98,850,374 
 
 ,,, 831,000 
 
 3.812,166 
 
 ,/'8,332,854 
 
 . , 400,320 
 
 "408,674 
 
 2;88S,466 
 
 ' 2,853,868 
 
 -4,443,494 
 
 1,385,674 
 
 ' ■2,225,414 
 
 1,870,449 
 
 -. 2,471,601 
 
 ,1,616,766 
 
 567,(166 
 
 ■ 2,067,716 
 
 1,464,668 
 
 6,124 
 
 15,101. 
 
 6,956 
 5,665 
 4,127 
 8,681 
 8,484 
 3,052 
 2,936 
 2,771 
 2;665 
 
 .«;640 
 2,274 
 2,^57 
 2,240 , 
 1,893 
 1,689 
 
 $5,186,653 
 
 38,16a 
 
 263,471 
 
 871,411 
 
 19,477 
 
 1P5;8,6,6 
 
 287,373 
 
 326,4TO 
 
 413,993 
 
 251,533 
 
 324,868 
 
 270,437 
 
 ; 224,422 
 
 , 243,708 
 
 234,177 
 
 ' 198,103 
 
 206,068 
 
 104 
 
 87 
 
 141 
 227 
 100 
 , 527 
 203 
 233 
 
 ■ 19a 
 
 870 
 297 
 294 
 185 
 834 
 842 
 195 
 28T 
 
 $6,880,377 
 
 60,326 
 
 258,109 ■ 
 225,657 
 
 27,108 
 
 27,670 
 195,565 
 133,226 
 300,8^5 
 
 93,812 
 150,675 
 126,643 
 167,843 
 103,702 
 
 38,894 
 139,998 
 
 99,168 
 
 75 
 
 03 
 
 102 
 166 
 72 
 382 
 147 
 169 
 137 
 26S 
 216 
 214 
 184 
 242 
 610 
 141 
 203 
 
 2 8 
 
 1 9 
 
 8 1 
 6 0- 
 22 
 
 11 5 
 
 44 
 
 ■ 51 
 
 ,41 
 80 
 
 6 5 
 4 
 40 
 
 7 3 
 18,3 
 
 42 
 6 4 
 
 
 
 Florida 
 
 
 
 Virginia , 
 
 texas , . 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 MiseisBippi . ^ 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 Total, -eouth 
 
 Grand total 
 
 $l,6Sa,3U3 
 
 $144 
 
 81,709,035] 2;835 
 
 l$3,'746,318 
 
 241 
 
 $2,146,919 
 
 174 
 
 52 
 
 6,687,02l 
 
 244 
 
 131,450,40:ij 4,875 | 8,971,132 
 
 126 
 
 9,1 87,623 
 
 99 
 
 3 0' 
 
 ..I By distributing $2,50O,00Cli-the supposed cost of 
 transporting the "franlced" matter for government, in- 
 stead of $700,000; the sum now paid^among the differ- 
 ent States, in the proportions of theif present postal 
 revenue,, the revenue of each State would then be as 
 seen in the last column but two. In the column of 
 postal expenses the complete amount of expenses is 
 not quite all stated, but all is^given that is set down 
 under the, head of each State, in the official Eeport of 
 the Department. If the entire sum were given, it! 
 would not alter this comparative statement, or much 
 affect the' general result. We see by this — the last 
 column but one — that only 60 per cent.- of the postal 
 revenue of Massachusetts is used in expenses for that 
 State, 62 per cent, in New Yorit, and so on with the 
 old, the thicltly-settled, and the commercial States, 
 while in Texas $268 is expended for every $100 re- 
 ceived, and in Arkansas $610 to $100 of revenue. The 
 sums here given as the expenses of each State are not 
 supposed to be the exact amounts required for all the 
 postal expenses within the State — as sometimes a mail 
 route runs through several States, and the expenses of 
 mail transportation over it all falls on or is set down to 
 the State where the route commences. But as't'hese 
 routes generally commence at the East or North,' and 
 run West or Southwest, the largest show of expenses is 
 made in the States farthest east. We do not claim as a 
 literal fact that the entire expense of each letter mailed 
 in the State of Massachusetts (see last column of table) 
 amounts, on the average, to one cent five mills, and those 
 in Arkansas to just eighteen cents three mills ; but it is a 
 fact that when the amount of correspondence, the post- 
 al revenue, and the postal expenses of each and every 
 State are all fairly considered, the proportion of money 
 56 
 
 received in postage iii each Sta(:e is, to each letter 
 "mailed in that State, as here given; We know that 
 letters starting in New Yorii sometimes go to Arkansas,, 
 Texas, Florida, or New Mexico, and we do not claim 
 that the exact proportion of money due on each letter 
 mailed in ea6h State can be clearly adjusted, and should 
 be chargfed to each citizen residing in the State.. But 
 — ,and here lies one great argument for a uniform and 
 a LOW rate of postage — we do know, by the preceding 
 authentic figures, that the expense of transporting and 
 distributing letters differs very widely in each State ; 
 and the general rule is, that the newer, the more sparse- 
 ly settled, and the less commercial the State, the larger 
 the proportion of expenses to receipts. To illustrate 
 this In a very striking light, let us comparethe postal 
 expenses and I'edeipts, and the amount of correspond- 
 ence in the two States of New York and Massachusetts, 
 with the amount in all of the Southern States and the 
 region west of the Mississippi River. They stand as 
 follows : 
 
 Localities. 
 
 New 'Yort and Massa- X 
 chusetts .,' f 
 
 Southern States and west) 
 of Mississippi River. . . J 
 
 (iumber of 
 Letters. 
 
 40,622, 
 37,689,41' 
 
 ,014$: 
 
 Postal 
 Revenue.. 
 
 !3,753,S90 
 2,739.277 
 
 Postal, 
 Rxpenses. 
 
 $1,423,305 
 4,018,780 
 
 While the amount of correspondence, and the postal 
 revenue in New York and Massachusetts, exceed all 
 south of the Potomac and Ohio, and west of the Missis- 
 sippi, the expenses are less than one-third'. Again-, 
 let us divide the Union into three sections, calling them 
 the Northeast, the Middle, and the Southwestern sec- 
 tions, and see the comparative amount of revenue, ex- 
 penses, letters, cost per 10,000 letters, and per mngle 
 
POS 
 
 1570 
 
 POS 
 
 letter. The Northeast section comprises New England, 
 New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania ; the Middle 
 section, from Delaware to the southern boundary of 
 Virginia and Tennessee, and west to the Mississippi, 
 
 including also Missouri and California; the South- 
 west section includes the balance, the Gulf States, the 
 Territories, Iowa, Arkansas, and Texas. This is the 
 record : 
 
 Sections of tho Uoion. 
 
 Postftl Reveaufl. 
 
 Number of Letlere. 
 
 Postal Expenses. 
 
 Cost per 10,000 Letters. 
 
 Stngle Letter 
 
 
 3,296,633 
 
 2,478,161 
 
 813,928 
 
 67,145,120 
 47,861,212 
 16,444,077 
 
 $2,682,681 - 
 3,798,537 
 2,489,914 
 
 $400 
 794 
 1514 
 
 c. m. 
 1 8 
 3 3 
 6 7 
 
 
 Southwest section 
 
 
 6,773,094 
 S,292,089 
 
 115,006,332 
 64,305,289 
 
 6,481,218 
 6,288,451 
 
 664 
 978 
 
 2 4 
 4 1 
 
 Last two 
 
 Grand total 
 
 6,587,622 
 
 131,450,409 
 
 8,t71,13a 
 
 682 
 
 3 
 
 From these facts we see and know that the expense 
 of transporting and distributing letters is not in pro- 
 portion to the distance they are carried. We see that 
 all of the letters circulated from Maine, on the east, to 
 Tennessee and Missouri, throughout our northeastern 
 and middle sections, involve an average expense — 
 transportation and every thing included — of two cents 
 four mills a letter. It costs more to send and take 
 care of a letter that goes iifty or a hundred miles in 
 Florida, Arkansas, or Texas, than it does to take one 
 from Portland, Maine, to Memphis, from Boston to St. 
 Louis, or from New York to New Orleans. 
 
 Now our Southern brethren will do us the credit to 
 believe that we propose nothing sectional, nothing nar- 
 row, and nothing partial. Eveiy single fact, figure, 
 and circumstance goes to prove, beyond all cavil, that 
 correspondence is carried on to a far greater extent in 
 the thickly-settled social and commercial districts of 
 the North and East, than at the South and West. The 
 people in these districts write the largest share of the 
 letters, and pay by far the largest share of the postage, 
 while with them postal expenses are comparatively 
 light. Were there two nations placed in the relative 
 positions of New York and New England on the one 
 hand, and Mississippi, Louisiana, and the States of the 
 South and Southwest on the other, the one could have 
 a self-supporting mail system, at a uniform rate of 
 postage, not to exceed one-quarter what would be re- 
 quired in the other. In the State of New York alone 
 are written annually 29,259,943 letters, while in all 
 of the States south of the Potomac and Ohio Kivers, 
 Missouri, Arkansas, and Texas included, the number 
 is but 31,709,035. The city of New York alone con- 
 tributes one-tenth of the postal revenue of the nation, 
 and writes one-tenth of the letters, being a larger pro- 
 portion than is contributed by every State that borders 
 on the Gulf of Mexico. 
 
 These are facts, and they are not held up as a re- 
 proach, but to illustrate the iinancial condition of our 
 postal system, and to show that a good, an active, and 
 an economical postal establishment is of vast import- 
 ance in large towns, cities, and thickly-settled and 
 V commercial districts. The people in those localities 
 where many letters are written, where correspondence 
 is the life-blood of the commercial and social sj'stem, 
 feel that they have a right to ask that a postal system 
 shall be adapted to the wants of those on whom its 
 support principally falls. We, as a people residing in 
 cities and thickly-settled States, ask for not one sin- 
 gle privilege or one charge for service that is not to be 
 accorded to the lonely settler of New Mexico or the 
 planter of Texas, under the same circumstances, but 
 we do ask for a uniform rate of letter postage of just 
 two cents for all distances ; and the facts given in this 
 article — and they challenge examination for their gen- 
 eral correctness— these facts clearly prove, beyond a 
 doubt, that this rate will be ample to defray the ex- 
 penses of all, except, perhaps, in some forest frontiers 
 or thinly-settled regions; and there any extra ex- 
 pense — if there is any — should fall on the entire treas- 
 ury of the nation, instead of being levied as a partial, 
 a special, and an unjust tax on the industrious active 
 classes, who make extensive use of the post-office. _ 
 
 We want and need a convenient number of receiving- 
 houses and letter-pillars in our cities, after the plan of 
 
 the distribution sy.stem in England. These "receiv- 
 ing-houses" do not require to be sub-post-offices, or 
 offices for the delivery of letters, but only for the re- 
 ception of letters and the sale of stamps. Under these 
 circumstances, a very small salary and a small com- 
 mission on the sale of stamps, is sufficient to compen- 
 sate the receiver. 
 
 The rights of the citizen are not attended to in this 
 country in the management cf " dead letters." In 
 this case we have only to look at the satisfactory- and 
 just method adopted in Great Britain. There there 
 is no "Dead-letter Office," but there is a "Retumed- 
 letter Office." Letters are not reported " dead" except 
 they are anonymous, or when, from other circum- 
 stances, the owner can not be found. There, with the 
 great bulk of the letters, a rapid and secure method 
 of returning "miscarried" letters to the writers is 
 adopted, by means of which every letter is returned on 
 the very day it arrives at the Keturned-letter Office. 
 It is done so expeditiously, that a clerk returns 200 
 per day, and 1200 in a week. At this rate all of our 
 "dead letters" could be returned, at a cost to the na- 
 tion of less than one hundred thousand dollars. With 
 a system of letter delivery in cities and towns, the re- 
 fused or miscarried letters could usually be sent to the 
 Department and returned to the writers, in from one to 
 three weeks of the date of mailing. In England, let- 
 ters that miscarry usually get back to the writers 
 within a week of the date of mailing. Oftentimes 
 these dead or miscarried letters would be of great ad- 
 vantage to the writer, particularly in informing him 
 that his letter had not reached its destination. On the 
 face of it would be written usually, as is practiced in 
 England,' the cause of its non-delivery. 
 
 Any person who will give it an examination will 
 see that we have at this time a most troublesome, per- 
 plexing, and absurd system of rates; and it must, we 
 think,, be quite as clear that, in a financial and econom- 
 ical point of view, our proposed scale of rates is satis- 
 factory, simple, economical, and adapted to our wants. 
 — See Banlcers' Magazine^ New York, vol. vii., Novem- 
 ber and December, 1857. On the United States Post- 
 age System, refer to New Englander, vi. 393 (Le avitt), 
 i. 392 (Bacon) ; Hunt's Merchants' Magazine, ix. 436, 
 ii. 622 (F. 0. J. Smith), x. 250 (W. B. Maclay), x. 
 27 (J. M. Whitos), ii. 253 (B. Bates) ; Niles's Reg- 
 ister, xxxvi. xxxvii, and years 1830, 1834, 1835 ; Dem- 
 ocratic Review, vi. 177 ; De Bow's Review, iii., v., xii ; 
 Foreign Postal System, refer to Fkaser, xviii. 250 ; 
 New England, vi. 163 ; Westminster Review, xx. 411, 
 xxix. 225, xxxiii. 491 ; Quarterly Review, Ixxxvii. 37, 
 Ixiv. 282 ; Foreign Quarterly, xiii. 397 ; British and 
 Foreign Review, viii. 461 ; Living Age, ii. 407 ; EdiU' 
 burgh Review, Ixx. 86. 
 
 Post Entry. When goods are weighed or meas- 
 ured, and the merchant has got an account thereof at 
 the custom-house, and finds his entry, already made, 
 too small, he must make &post or additional entry for 
 the surplusage, in the same manner as the iirst was 
 done. As a merchant is alwaj's in time, prior to the 
 clearing of the vessel, to make his post, he should take 
 care not to over-enter, to avoid as well the advance, as 
 the trouble of getting back the overplus. However, 
 if this be the case, and an over-entry has been made, 
 and more paid or bonded for customs than the goods 
 
POT 
 
 1571 
 
 POT 
 
 really landed amount to, the land-waiter and surveyor 
 must signify the same, upon oath made, and subscribed 
 by the person so over-entered, that neither he, nor any 
 other person, to his knowledge, had any of the said 
 goods over-entered on board the said ship, or any 
 where landed the same without payment of custom ; 
 which oath must be attested by the collector or con- 
 troller, or their deputies, who then compute the duties, 
 and set down on the back of the certificate, first in 
 words at length, and then in figures, the several sums 
 to be paid. 
 
 Potash (Da. Potaske; Fr. Pofasse; Ger. Pottaschej 
 It. Potassu ; Vo\. Potasz ; Rass. PotascK). If vegetables 
 be burned, the ashes lixiviated, and the solution boiled 
 to dryness in iron vessels, the mass left behind is the 
 potash of commerce — the impure carbonate of potass 
 of chemists. It is intensely alkaline, solid, and color- 
 ed brown by the admixture of a small portion of vege- 
 table inflammable matter, which generally becomes 
 moist. When potash is calcined in a reverberatory 
 furnace, the coloring matter is destroyed, it assumes a 
 spongy texture, and a whitish pearly lustre ; whence 
 it is denominated pearlaeh. The latter generally con- 
 tains from 60 to 83 or 84 per cent, of pure carbonate of 
 potass. The ashes of those vegetables only which grow 
 at a distance from the sea are employed in the manu- 
 facture of potitsh. Herbaceous plants yield the largest 
 portion, and shrubs more than trees. It is principal- 
 ly manufactured in America, Russia, and Poland, the 
 vast forests of which furnish an inexhaustible supply 
 of ashes. 
 
 In some portions of the United States and Canada, 
 where timber is an incumbrance upon the soil, it is 
 felled, piled up in pyramids, and burned, solely with a 
 view to the manufacture of potashes. The ashes are 
 put into wooden cisterns, having a plug at the bottom 
 of one of the sides under a false bottom ; a moderate 
 quantity of water is then poured on the mass, and some 
 quicklime is stirred in. After standing for a few 
 hours, so as to take up the soluble matter, the clear 
 liquor is drawn ofl", evaporated to dryness in iron pots, 
 and finally fused at a red heat into compact masses, 
 which are gray on the outside and pink-colored within. 
 Pearlash is prepared by calcining potashes upon a 
 reverberatory hearth, till the whole carbonaceous mat- 
 ter, and the greater part of the sulphur, be dissipated ; 
 then lixiviating the mass in a cistern having a false 
 bottom covered with straw, evaporating the clear lye 
 to dryness in flat iron pans, and stirring it toward the 
 end into white lumpy granulations. All kinds of vege- 
 tables do not yield the same proportion of potassa. 
 The more succulent the plant, the more does it afford; 
 for it is only in the juices that the vegetable salts re- 
 side, which are converted by incineration into alkaline 
 matter. Herbaceous weeds are more productive of 
 potash than the graminiferons species, or shrubs, and 
 these than trees ; and for a like reason twigs and leaves 
 are more productive than timber. But plants in all 
 cases are richest in alkaline salts when they have ar- 
 rived at maturity. The soil in which they grow also 
 influences the quantity of saline matter. 
 
 The foUomng table exhibits the average product in 
 potassa of several plants, according to the researches 
 of Yauquelin, Pertuis, Kirwan, and De Saussure : 
 
 In 1000 parts. Potassa. 
 
 Pine or fir 0*45 
 
 Poplar. 0T5 
 
 Trefoil 075 
 
 Beechwood 1-45 
 
 Oak 1-63 
 
 Boxwood 2-26 
 
 VBIlow 285 
 
 Elm and maple 3*90 
 
 Wheat straw 3-90 
 
 Barb of oak twigs 4'20 
 
 Thistles 6-00 
 
 Flax stems 5 00 
 
 Small rushes 5-08 
 
 Vine shoots 5*60 
 
 Barley straw 6'80 
 
 In 1000 parts. Potassa. 
 
 Dry beech bark 600 
 
 Fem 6-26 
 
 Large rush 7-22 
 
 Stalk of maize 17-60 
 
 Beanstalks 20-00 
 
 Bastard chamomile (Xti- 
 tJi^mia coluUt, Liun.) 19-60 
 
 Sunflower stalks 20-00 
 
 Common nettle ..:.... 25-03 
 
 •Vetch plant 27-50 
 
 Thistles in full growth 36-37 
 Dry straw of wheat be- 
 fore earing 47-00 
 
 Wormwood 73-00 
 
 Fumitory 79-00 
 
 Stalks of tobacco, potatoes, chestnuts, chestnut 
 husks, broom, heath, furze, tansy, sorrel, vine leaves, 
 beet leaves, orach, and many other plants, abound in 
 potash salts. In Burgundy, the well-known cendres 
 graveUes are made by incinerating the lees of wine 
 pressed into cakes, and dried in the sun : the ashes con- 
 tain fully 16 per cent, of potassa, 
 
 ExpoETS OP Pot and Peabi. Ashks feom the Uni-fed 
 States poe tue Year ending June 30, 1856. 
 
 Exported from 
 
 Tods 
 
 Value, 
 
 Portlaud 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 21 
 
 3332 
 
 $118 
 
 85 
 
 2,647 
 
 426,583 
 
 
 Boston 
 
 New York 
 
 Total 
 
 3355 
 
 $-129,428 
 
 Potatoes (Ger. Kartoffeln; Du. Aar-dappden ; Fr. 
 Potnmes de terre ; It. Patate, Pomi di tet-ra ; Sp. Pataias 
 manckegas; Kuss. Jabloki semlenne)^ the roots of the 
 Solanum tuberosum, of innumerable varieties, and too 
 well known to require any description. 
 
 Historical Notice. — The common English or Irish 
 potato (Solanum tuberosum), so extensively cultivated 
 throughout most of the temperate countries of the 
 civilized globe, contributing, as it does, to the necessi- 
 ties of a large portion of the human race, as well as to 
 the nourishment and fattening of stock, is regarded as 
 of but little less importance in our national economy 
 than maize, wheat, or rice. It has been found in an 
 indigenous state in Chili, on the mountains near Val- 
 paraiso and Mendoza; also near Montevideo, Lima, 
 Quito, as well as in Santa F6 de Bogota, and more re- 
 cently in Mexico, on the flanks of the Orizaba. 
 
 The history of this plant, in connection with that 
 of the sweet potato, is involved in obscurity, as the ac- 
 counts of their introduction into Europe are somewhat 
 conflicting, and often they appear to be confounded 
 with one another. The common kind was doubtless 
 introduced into Spain in the early part of the 16th 
 century, from the neighborhood of Quito, where as 
 well as in all Spanish countries, the tubers are known 
 AS papas. The first published account of it we find on 
 record is in La Oronica del Peru, by Pedro de Cieca, 
 printed at Seville in 1553, in which it is described, 
 and illustrated by an engraving. From Spain it ap- 
 pears to have found its way into Italy, where it assumed 
 the same name as the truffle. It was received by 
 Clusius, at Vienna, in 1598, in whose time it spread 
 rapidly in the south of Europe, and even into Germany. 
 To England it is said to have found its way by a dif- 
 ferent route,! hftving been brought from Virginia by 
 Raleigh's colonists in 1686, which would seem improb- 
 able, as it was unknown in North America at that 
 time, either wild or cultivated ; and, besides, Gough, 
 in his edition of Camden's Britannm, says it was first 
 planted by Sir Walter Raleigh on his estate at Youg- 
 hall, near Cork, and that it was cultivated in Ireland 
 before its value was known in England. Gerard, in 
 his Herbal, published in 1597, gives a figure of this 
 plant, under the name of Batata Virginiana, to distin- 
 guish it from the sweet potato. Batata edulis, and rec- 
 ommends the root to be eaten as a " delicate dish," 
 but not as a common food. " The sweet potato," says 
 Sir Joseph Banks, '' was used in England as a delicacy 
 long before the introduction of our potatoes ; it was 
 imported in considerable quantities from Spain and the 
 Canaries, and was supposed to possess the power of re- 
 storing decayed vigor." It is related that the common 
 potato was accidentally introduced into England from 
 Ireland at a period somewhat earlier than that noticed 
 by Gerard, in consequence of the wrecking of a vessel 
 on the coast of Lancashire, which had a quantity on 
 board. In 1663, the Royal Society of England took 
 measures for encouraging the cultivation of this vege- 
 table, with the view of preventing famine. Notwith- 
 standing its utility as a food became better known, 
 no high character was attached to it ; and the writers 
 on gardening toward the end of the 17th century, 
 
POT 
 
 1572 
 
 POT 
 
 a hundred years or more after its introduction, treated 
 of it rather indifferently. "They are much used in 
 Ireland and America as bread," saj'S one author, " and 
 may be propagated with advantage to poor people." 
 The famous nurserymen, London and Wise, did not 
 consider it worthy of notice in their Complete Gardener, 
 published in 1719. But its use gradually spread, as 
 ita excellences became better understood. It was near 
 the middle of the last century before it was general- 
 ly known either in Britain or North America, since 
 which it has been most extensively cultivated. The 
 period of the introduction of the common potato into 
 the British North American colonies is not precisely 
 known. 
 
 The culture of this plant extends through the whole 
 of Europe, a large portion of Asia, Australia, the south- 
 ern and northern parts of Africa, and the adjacent isl- 
 ands. On the American continent, with the exception 
 of some sections of the torrid zone, the culture of this 
 root extends from Labrador on the east, and Nootka 
 Sound on the west, to Cape Horn. It resists more ef- 
 fectually than the cereals the frosts of the North. In 
 this country it is principally confined to the Northern, 
 Middle, and Western States, where, from the coolness 
 of the climate, it acquires a farinaceous consistence 
 highly conducive to the support of animal life, it has 
 never been extensively cultivated in Florida, Alabama, 
 Mississippi, nor Louisiana — perhaps from the greater 
 facility of raising the sweet potato, its more tropical 
 rival. Its perfection, however, depends as much upon 
 the soil as on the climate in which it grows; for in the 
 red loam on the banks of Bayou Boeuf, in Louisiana, 
 where the land is new, it is stated that tubers are pro- 
 duced as large, savory, and as free from water as any 
 raised in other parts of the world. The same may be 
 said of those grown at Bermuda, Madeira, the Cana- 
 ries, and numerous other ocean isles. The chief vari- 
 eties cultivated in the Northern States are the Carter, 
 the kidneys, the pink-eyes, the Mercer, the orange, the 
 Sault St. Marie, the Merino, and the Western red ; in 
 the Middle and Western States, the Mercer, the long 
 red or Merino, the oj'ange, and the Western red. The 
 yield varies from 60 to 400 bushels and upward per 
 acre, but generally it is below 200 bushels. Within 
 the last ten years an alarming disease, or " rot," has 
 attacked the tubers of this plant about the time they 
 are iaWy grown. It has not only appeared ia nearly 
 every part of our own country, but has spread dismay 
 at times throughout Great Britain and Ireland, and 
 has been felt more or less seriously in every quarter 
 of the globe. To the greater uncertainty attending its 
 cultivation of late years, from this cause, must be at- 
 tributed the deficiency of the crop of 1849 as compared 
 with that of 1839. This is one of the four agricultural 
 products which, by the present census, appears smaller 
 than it was ten years since. 
 
 Sweet Potato. — The sweet potato {Batata edulis) is a 
 native of the East Indies, and of intertropical America, 
 a.nd was the " potato" of the old English writers in the 
 early part of the 14fh centurj'. It was doubtless in- 
 troduced into Carolina, Georgia, and Virginia, soon aft- 
 er their settlement by the Europeans, being mentioned 
 as one of the cultivated products of those colonies as 
 early as the year 1648. It grows in excessive abund- 
 ance throughout the Southern States, and as far north 
 as New Jersey and the southern part of Michigan. 
 The varieties cultivated are the purple, the red, the 
 3'ellow, and the white, the former of which is confined 
 to the South. The amount of sweet potatoes exported 
 from South Carolina in 1747-48 was 700 bushels ; that 
 of the common potato exported from the United States 
 in 1820-'21, 90,889 bushels ; in 1830-'31, 112,875 bush- 
 els ; in 1840-'41, 136,095 bushels ; in 1850-'51, 106,342 
 bushels. According to the census returns of 1840, the 
 quantity of potatoes of all sorts raised in the Union 
 was 108,298,060 bushels; of 1850, 104,055,989 bushels, 
 of which 38,269,196 bushels were sweet. 
 
 OOMPABATIVB PeoDITOTION OF POT-ATOBS IN TUB. UmITED 
 
 States in tub Yj::aii8 1840 and 1850. 
 
 states and Territories. 
 
 Irisll snd'Sweet Potfttoes 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Arkansas .' . . . . 
 
 California 
 
 Columbia, District of. . 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Florida 
 
 Georgia 
 
 minois. 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Maine. 
 
 Maryland 
 
 MaBsachusetts 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 MisAuri '....! 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 New York , , . . . 
 
 North. Carolina 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Texas 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Virginia 
 
 "Wisconsin 
 
 Minnesota Territory.. . 
 New Mexico Territory. 
 Oregon Territory , . . . , 
 
 titih Territory ... 
 
 Total 
 
 1S50. 
 
 Bushels. 
 1,T08 356 
 293,608 
 
 12,035 
 3,414,238 
 
 200.712 
 
 264.617 
 1,291..W6 
 2,028,620 
 1,525,794 
 
 2S4 063 
 1,065,(185 
 
 834 341 
 10,392, '/SO 
 1,036.433 
 5,385.662 
 2,109,205 
 1,630,100 
 
 783,768 
 6.206,606 
 2,072,069 
 80,123,614 
 2,609,239 
 6,805,021 
 9,S36 663 
 , 911.973 
 2,698,313 
 1,904,370 
 
 8,869,751 
 
 2,944,660 
 
 419,608 
 
 108,158,100 105,146 044 
 
 .Bushels. 
 5„721,206 
 ' !;81.f81 
 10,292 
 31,789 
 2,68!l,8iiC 
 
 806,985 
 
 706,0154 
 7,213,807 
 2,672,2i4 
 2,28'.,048 
 
 282.363 
 2,490,606 
 l,524,tS.'> 
 3,436.C40 
 
 973,932 
 3,5S6,3S4 
 2,361,074 
 5,003,277 
 1,274,611 
 4,304,919 
 3,715,251 
 15 403,997 
 5,716,027 
 6,245,760 
 6,082,904 
 . 661,029 
 44T3,S63 
 3,846,660 
 1,426,803- 
 4,951,014 
 3,130,567' 
 1,402,966 
 
 21,345 
 . , , 3 
 
 91,320 
 
 44 028 
 
 Expoets OP Potatoes from the United States foe the 
 Yeae ending June 30, 1855. 
 
 whither exported. 
 
 Kiissian Possessions in N. America.. 
 
 Swedish West Indies., 
 
 Danish West Indies 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Dutch West Indies 
 
 Dutch Guiana 
 
 England 
 
 Canada 
 
 Other British North American Poss. . 
 
 British West Indies 
 
 British Honduras 
 
 British Guiana 
 
 French West Indies 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Porto Kico 
 
 Madeira 
 
 Turkey in Asia 
 
 Ports in Africa 
 
 llayti 
 
 San Domingo 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Central Republic 
 
 New Granada 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Chili 
 
 Peru 
 
 Sandwich iKlandB 
 
 China 
 
 Whale Fisheries 
 
 Total. 
 
 Barrelr. [ Value. 
 
 40 
 
 5 
 
 1,164 
 
 1 
 
 490 
 
 SO 
 
 7 
 
 5,164 
 
 230 
 
 17,240 
 
 182 
 
 3,072 
 
 939 
 
 43,262 
 
 5,183 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 20 
 
 184 
 
 125 
 
 TIO 
 
 162 
 
 629 
 
 CS2 
 
 130 
 
 200 
 
 9E6 
 
 COl 
 
 82,512 
 
 10 
 
 2,707 
 
 2 
 
 1,08S 
 
 137 
 
 16 
 
 6,600 
 
 82S 
 
 32,910 
 
 446 
 
 6,035 
 
 1,785 
 
 82,906 
 
 9,115 
 
 260 
 
 200 
 
 3* 
 
 434 
 
 249 
 
 1,577 
 
 378 
 
 1,347 
 
 1,S!2 
 
 142 
 
 600 
 
 1,237 
 
 1,361 
 
 Impoets oi'' Potatoes into the United f. tates foe the 
 Year ending June 30, 1860, 
 
 Whence injported. 
 
 Swedish West Indies . . . 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Holland 
 
 England 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Ireland 
 
 British West Indies 
 
 France on the Atlantic . 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Peru 
 
 Sandwicli Islands 
 
 China 
 
 Whale Fisheries 
 
 Total. 
 
 to 
 
 150 
 
 r50 
 
 74 
 
 1,862 
 
 3C6 
 
 4,269 
 
 44,633 
 
 710 
 
 110 
 
 27 
 
 6,413 
 
 12,788 
 
 22 
 
 605 
 
 $71,218 
 
POT 
 
 1373 
 
 PRE 
 
 Fotomao River, in Maryland and Virginia, rises 
 in two branches, tlie north and the south, in and near 
 the Alleghany Mountains, and forms, through nearly 
 its whole, course, the boundary between Virginia and 
 Maryland. It is. about 300 miles long,' and enters 
 Chesapeake Bay between Point Looljput and: Smith's 
 Point by a mouth ten miles, wide. At Alexandria it is 
 a mile and a quarter wide, 290 n^lcs from the ocean. 
 It is navigable for ships of the line to the navy-yard 
 in Washington, 300 miles from the sea, and three miles 
 below th^* head of tide-water. Above this it is ob- 
 structed by numerous falls and rapids. — See Mary- 
 land, Chesapeake 
 
 Pound (I^at. pondus, ■weight'), a rteasure of weight. 
 In Ilriglahd two different pounds are used — ^^tlie pound 
 avoirdupois, and the pound Troy. The pound avoir- 
 dupois weighs 7O0O grains Troy, and the pound Troy 
 o76(i grains.ij The former is divided into 16 ounces, 
 and the latter into 12. The pound sterling was in Sax> 
 on times, about a.d. G71, a pound Troy of silver, and a 
 shilling was its twentieth part ; consequently the lat- 
 ter was three times as large as it is at present. — 
 Peach AM. Tlie value of the Roman pondo is not pre- 
 ciselj' known, though some suppose it was equivalent 
 to aij Attic mina^ or £3 4«. Id. Our avoirdupois weight 
 (avoir dw poids)' cutxia from the French, and contains 
 sixteen ounces ; it is in proportion to our Troy weight 
 as seventeen to fourteen; — Chambers ; see also lianh- 
 ers' Magazine, December, 1857, 456-457. An old pound 
 weight of geographical significance, named Easteiiing, 
 divided into twelve ounces, was in use among the An- 
 glb-SaStoiis some centuries 'before the Norman Conquest; 
 The same weight, called the Tower, and the Moneyers' 
 pound, was styled by early French writers the Roman 
 atfd the Rochelle pound j, also known among the Ger- 
 mans as the Cologne pound. A si'mple system of ex- 
 change, by ■ft'hich a pound of silver money, in tale, was 
 made to equal a pound in gross weight, had been ar- 
 ranged by Charles the Great, in France, toward the 
 end of the eighth century. In Britain, under the First 
 William, of Norrtiandy, an ordinance declared, "The 
 weights and measures throughout the kingdom shall 
 remain as our worthy predecessors have established." 
 Queen Elizabeth ordered the ounce of silver, in En- 
 gland, to be ciit into sixty pennies ; so that the penny 
 formerly the twentieth of an ounce, thenceforth became 
 the sixtietli part !' From the termination of Queen 
 Elizabeth's reign the coinage of English silver has gen- 
 erally retained a purity of '925 thousandths, called the 
 " Sterling Standard." Another pound weight, also di- 
 vided into twelve ounces, had been brought from Cai- 
 ro, in Egypt, to Troyes of Champagne, in France, dur- 
 ing tlie Crusades. Carried into Ehgland by foreign 
 goldsmiths, Lombard merchants, possibly from Venice-, 
 about the year 1496, it gradually superseded the old 
 Eftsterling weights, and found access into the British 
 Mint, by decision of Henry VIII. In 1543 this king 
 b^gan to debase the fineness of the silver coins, and 
 also reduced their standard weight. The British stat- 
 ute of 1266 established two common measures for mon- 
 ey, weights, dry and wet quantities, with presumed 
 consent of the people and approval by' the king, whicli 
 seem to render "wheat and silver money the two 
 weights of the balance, the natural tests and staridards 
 of each other." Unfortunately for such decision, nei- 
 ther wheat corn grains nor silver are by nature exact 
 weights suited for a standard, " a rule by which other 
 things may be correctly compared, adjusted, and val- 
 ued." The accredited proportions of these old meas- 
 ures being accessible, an attempt has been made to test 
 their quantities. ' Edward IV., in 1461, struck agold 
 coin of the value of ten shillings, named an "angelj" 
 because such an image was represented upon the face 
 of it, with the likeness of a ship on the reverse. Hen- 
 ry IV. (1488 to 1509) introduced " the sovereign," or 
 "rose noble," of gold; . " The guinea," designed to be 
 of the value of twenty shillings, but requiring subse- 
 
 quent correction, was not ordained till 'the reign of 
 Charles II. in England, , In 1821 a committee of thd 
 Royal Society, to whom the matter had been referreff,- 
 proposed, and it was so decided, by act of George IV., 
 in 1824-, Isti That the parliamentary standard yard,' 
 made by Bird, in 1760, be henceforth the legal stand- 
 ard of the British empire ; 2d. That the pai-liamentary 
 standard Trey potind "weight, made in 1758, continue 
 unaltered; 3d. That seven thousand grains be de- 
 clared to constitute the pound-weight avoirdupois, 
 now called the British imperial pound. By act of 
 Congress of the United States, in 1828, " the brass' 
 Troy pound weight, procured by the Minister of the 
 United States, at London,, in the year 1827, for-the use 
 of the Mmt, shall b& ike standard of the Mint of the 
 United States, conformably to which the coinagb there- 
 of shall be regulated." , Yet we possess three several 
 standing weights for coinage accounts, each one derived 
 from, a distinct uHitari/ measure taken from as many dif' 
 ferent nations. .1st. AVc have a Troy standard for quan- 
 ifties, from Britain ; 2d. A metrical standard for quali- 
 ties, from France ; 3d. An avoirdupois standard for 
 proportions,, from Spain. Tlie sole remnant retained 
 from the original scale of the mother Country 'being 
 the Troj" ounce; now divided aiid multiplied decinuiUy. 
 — Report of Dr. J. H. Gibbon of the United States 
 Mint, North Carolina, ^ce Penny. 
 
 Pratique. The writing or license of this name was 
 originally addressed by the Soutlaern nations to the 
 ports of Italy to which vessels were bound, and signi- 
 lied that the ghip so licensed came from a pldce or 
 country in a' health}' state, and no way infected With 
 the plague or other contagious disease. The pratique 
 is now called a bill of health, and is still of the same 
 intent and import. — -ASHE. - 
 
 Precious Metals, a' des^nati'on frequently ap- 
 plied to gold and silver. We have given, under the 
 articles Golt>' and' Silver, a short account of each 
 metal; and we now propose laying before the reader 
 some details with respect to their supply and coftsump-' 
 tion. To enter fully ihto'this interesting and difficult' 
 subject would require a long essay^ or rather a large 
 volume. Mr. Jacob published in 1831 an "Historical 
 Inquiry into the Production and Consumption of the 
 Precious Metals," in which he takes up the subject at 
 the earliest period, and continues it to the above epoch. 
 And though far from being so learned, complete, or sat-' 
 isfactory asmight have been expected, this ^'ork con- 
 tains'a good deal of valuable information, anddeserves 
 the attention of those who take an interest in such in- 
 quiries. But within the last live or six years the sub- 
 ject has acquired an interest and ' importance with 
 which it was not previously invested. ' 
 
 Supplj/ <f the Precious Metals. — Since the discov- 
 ery of America, the far greater part of the supplies of 
 gold and silver have been derived frbm that continent. 
 Previously to the publication of Humboldt's ' great 
 work, " Essai Politique sur la Nouvelle Espar/ne," sever- 
 al estimates, some of them framed'by individuals of 
 great intelligence, were in circulation, of the quantities' 
 of gold and silver imported from Artieriba. They, how-' 
 ever, differed widely from each other, and iVere all 
 framed from' comparatively limited sources of informa- 
 tion. Humboldt brought these estimates together as 
 follows : 
 
 Autlioffi. 
 
 Epocba. 
 
 Dollara. 
 
 
 1492-1734 
 1482-1628 
 1492-,15!,5 
 1519-1617 
 1492-4780 
 1493-.1T75 
 1 763-17 jT 
 1724-1800 
 
 1492-1776 
 
 B,.'536,0O0,O0O 
 1,600,000,000 
 2,000,000,000 
 1,636,000,000 
 0,164,000,000 
 8,800-,000,000 
 ?04,()pO,!0OO 
 1,000,000,000 
 
 5,072,000(000 
 
 
 
 
 Itiynal .\' 
 
 
 Gerboux , 
 
 The Author of the Recherchcs\ 
 sur le Commerce, Amster-t 
 dam, 1T7!) ) 
 
 -Bssai sur la Nonvelle Bspagne, tome iii. 
 But these have been wholly superseded byithe more 
 
PEE 
 
 1574 
 
 PRE 
 
 extensive and laborious investigations of Humboldt. 
 This illustrious traveler, besides being acquainted irith 
 all that had been written on the subject, and having 
 ready access to olKcial sources of information unitnown 
 to the writers already alluded to, was well versed in 
 the theory and practice of mining, and critically ex- 
 amined several of the most celebrated mines. He was, 
 therefore, incomparably better qualified for forming 
 correct conclusions as to the past and present produc- 
 tiveness of the mines than any of those who had hither- 
 to speculated on the subject. His statements have, in- 
 deed, been accused of exaggeration ; and we incline to 
 think that there are grounds for believing that this 
 charge is, in some measure, well founded, particularly 
 as respects the accounts of the profits made by mining, 
 and of the extent to which the supplies of the precious 
 metals may be increased. But this criticism applies, 
 if at all, in a very inferior degree to the accounts Hum- 
 boldt has given of the total produce of the mines, and 
 
 the exports to Europe. And making every allowance 
 for the imperfection inseparable from such investiga- 
 tions, it is still true that the statements in question, 
 and the inquiries on which they are founded, are among 
 the most valuable contributions that have been made 
 to statistical science. According to Humboldt, the an- 
 nual average supplies of the precious metals derived 
 from America have been as follows : 
 
 Dollan B Year 
 at an Average. 
 
 From 1492 to 1500 260,000 
 
 " 1500 to 1645 3,000,000 
 
 " 1646 to 1600 11,000,000 
 
 " 1000 to 1700 16,000,000 
 
 " 1700 to 1750 22,500,000 
 
 " 1750 to 1803 85,300,000 
 
 — Easai sur la Nouvelle Espagnc^ iii. 
 
 The following is Humboldt's estimate of the annual 
 produce of the mines of America at the commencement 
 of the 19th century :* 
 
 Political Divisions. 
 
 Vice. royalty of New Spain. . . . 
 
 Vice-royalty of Peru 
 
 Captain-generalship of Chili. . 
 Vice-royalty of Buenos Ayres . 
 Vice-royalty of New Granada . 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Total 
 
 Kilogs. 
 
 1,60!) 
 782 
 
 2,807 
 506 
 
 4,714 
 
 6,573 
 
 17,291 
 
 Maries of 
 Castile. 
 
 2,338,220 
 611,090 
 29,700 
 481,830 
 
 3,460,840 
 
 Klloga. 
 
 537,612 
 
 140,478 
 
 6,827 
 
 110,704 
 
 7a5,5Sl 
 
 Value of the 
 
 Gold and SUver 
 
 in Dollars. 
 
 23,000,000 
 6,240,000 
 2,000,000 
 4,860,000 
 2,900,000 
 4,360,000 
 
 43,500,000 
 
 Humboldt further estimated the annual produce of 
 the European mines of Hungary, Saxony, etc., and 
 those of Northern Asia, at the same period, at about 
 £1,000,000 more. The quantity of gold produced in 
 America at the beginning of the century was to the 
 quantity of silver as 1 to 46 ; in Europe the proportions 
 were as 1 to 40. The value of equal quantities of gold 
 and silver were then in the proportion of 15 or 15^ to 
 1. From 1800 to 1810 the yield of the American mines 
 continued to increase ; and their produce, and that of 
 the European and Russian mines, was then probably 
 rather above than below $55,000,000. But in the last- 
 mentioned year the contest began which terminated in 
 the dissolution of the connection between Spain and 
 her American colonies. The convulsions and inse- 
 curity arising out of this struggle — the proscription of 
 the old Spanish families, to whom the mines principal- 
 ly belonged, who repaired, with the wrecks of their 
 fortunes, some to Cuba, some to Spain, and some to 
 Bordeaux and the south of France — caused the aban- 
 donment of several of the mines, and an extraordinar;j; 
 falling off in the amount of their produce. There are 
 no means of estimating the precise extent of this de- 
 cline ; but according to Jacob, who collected and com- 
 pared all the existing information on the subject, the 
 total average produce of the American mines, inclusive 
 of Brazil, during the twenty years ending with 1829, 
 may be estimated at $20,000,000 a year ; being less 
 than half their produce at the beginning of the cen- 
 tury! — Jacob on Precious Metals. It has, however, 
 been supposed that Jacob rather exaggerated the fall- 
 ing off. And, at all events, the supplies of bullion ob- 
 tained from iUexico and South America began, soon 
 after the publication of his work (1831), to increase ; 
 and, notwithstanding the anarchy to which they have 
 continued to be a prey, that increase has been main- 
 tained down to the year 1853. It appears from the 
 returns sent home by the British consuls that the coin- 
 age of gold and silver in the Mexican mints amounted 
 in 1847 to $16,923,948, and in 1848 to $19,506,754. But 
 it is well known that considerable quantities of these 
 metals are raised and exported from Mexico without 
 being brought to the mints to be coined. And taking 
 this item into account, we shall not, perhaps, be very 
 wide of the mark if we estimate the entire produce of 
 the Mexican mines in 1847 and 1848 at about 19 and 
 21i millions of dollars, of which from 17 to 20^ millions 
 were in silver. In 1842, Mr. B. H. Wilson, consul in 
 
 Peru, estimated the produce of the Peruvian mines at 
 about $5,210,000 a year. — Parliamentary Paper, No. 
 476, Session 1843. And it has since increased to 
 $6,500,000 or $7,000,000. The produce of the Bolivian 
 mines is usually estimated at about half the produce 
 of those of Peru. In 1850 the produce of the Chilian 
 mines, according to the official retunis, amounted to 
 $7,020,671. — Annuaire de VEconomie Politique, 1853, 
 
 Birkmyre's estimate of the production of the precious 
 metals in 1846 and 1850, the most elaborate and val- 
 uable of any hitherto published, appeared in the Lon- 
 don Times of the 19th May, 1851. We subjoin some 
 of its principal portions. 
 
 " The quantities of gold and silver produced at the 
 under-mentioned epochs were: 
 
 " In 1801 the quantity of pure gold produced in 
 America was 46,331 lbs. ; in Europe and Northern Asia 
 (exclusive of Cliina and Japan), 4,916 lbs. ; total prod- 
 uce, 51,247 lbs.=55,910 lbs. British standard gold= 
 ,£2,612,200. 
 
 " In 1846 the quantity of pure gold produced in 
 Anierica was 25,503 lbs. ; in Europe, Africa, and Asia 
 (exclusive of China and Japan), 89,171 lbs. ; total prod- 
 uce, 114,674 lbs.=125,108 lbs. British standard gold= 
 X5,846,721. 
 
 " In 1850 the quantity of pure gold produced in 
 America was 261,731 lbs. ; in Europe, Africa, and Asia 
 (exclusive of China and Japan), 104,219 lbs. ; total 
 produce, 365,950 lbs. =399,247 lbs. British standard 
 gold= £18,654,322. 
 
 *' The above quantities are probably less than the 
 actual production. The duties on gold in Eussia on 
 the produce of the private mines are heavy, varying 
 from 12 to 24 per cent. ; in Austria they amount to 10 
 per cent., in Brazil to 5 per cent., and are understood 
 to lead to a great deal of smuggling. In other coun- 
 tries, such as the United States, where there are no du- 
 ties, the gold and silver stated in the table are only the 
 quantities brought to the mints to be coined, there be- 
 ing no means of determining the quantity used in jew- 
 elry and other arts and manufactures." 
 
 The exhaustion of the precious metals in manufac- 
 tures and the arts throughout Europe and the United 
 States probably exceeds the ordinary estimates. It is 
 known that in England alone the weekly consumption 
 of fine gold is equivalent to GOO ounces — used largely in 
 gilding metals by the electrotype and the water-gild- 
 ing processes. 
 
PEE 
 
 1575 
 
 PKE 
 
 COMPAKATITE TABt.X,'enOWIKG TIIB ANITOAI. PBODCOE (APPBOXIMATE CaMULATION) IM VAtlfE OF FINE GOLn AND SlL- 
 TER FOE 1846 AND 1850, THE FZBST BEING TWO YeaEB BEFORE THE DISCOVERY OF THE EIOII DEPOSITS OF Gt>LD IN CAL- 
 IKOBNIA; THE LATTER TWO YEABB AFTEB THE DISCOVERY, 
 
 CouDtries. 
 
 California 
 
 United States 
 
 Mexico 
 
 New Grenada 
 
 Peru 
 
 Bolivia 
 
 Chili 
 
 Biazil 
 
 Total of North and South America. 
 
 £237, 
 249,' 
 252, 
 96, 
 60, 
 145, 
 259, 
 
 Russia 
 
 Norway 
 
 North Germany 
 
 Saxony, 1 
 
 Austria 
 
 Piedmont 
 
 Spain 
 
 United Kingdom 
 
 Africa 
 
 Borneo 
 
 Ava 
 
 Malacca 
 
 Sumatra 
 
 Annara or Tonquin 
 
 Various countries* 
 
 Total of Europe, Afilca, and Asia.. 
 
 Total of North and South America. 
 
 Grand total. 
 
 £1,301,560 
 
 £3,414,427 
 
 '"357 
 
 282,760 
 17,841 
 
 203,900 
 305,900 
 100,000 
 72,240 
 68,719 
 30,586 
 60,975 
 
 £4,545,19-^ 
 1,301,560 
 
 £5,846,752 
 
 £1,864 
 
 3,457,020 
 
 42,929 
 
 1,000,688 
 
 460,191 
 
 297,029 
 
 2,003 
 
 £239,230 
 
 3,706,773 
 
 , 295,336 
 
 1,096,824 
 
 520,648 
 
 442,614 
 
 261,8T4 
 
 £5,261,619 
 
 £167,831 
 
 32,346 
 
 138,022 
 
 198,200 
 
 282,664 
 
 7 444 
 
 227',499 
 
 109,689 
 
 1,056 
 
 1,684 
 
 617 
 
 374 
 
 830 
 
 , 53,460 
 
 33,000 
 
 £1,251,306 
 5,261,619 
 
 £6,515,925 
 
 £6,563,179 
 
 £3,682,253 
 
 32,316 
 
 188,379 
 
 198,200 
 
 565,404 
 
 25,285 
 
 229,997 
 
 109,989 
 
 204,956 
 
 807,484 
 
 100,517 
 
 72,614 
 
 64,049 
 
 84,046 
 
 83,975 
 
 £5,799,498 
 6,683,179 
 
 £12,362,677 
 
 £12,000,000 
 115,430 
 882,901 
 252.407 
 96,241 
 60,357 
 145,685 
 289,068 
 
 £62,068 
 
 11,444 
 
 5,883,388 
 
 42,929 
 
 1,000,583 
 
 460,191 
 
 297,029 
 
 2,227 
 
 £12,062,088 
 126,874 
 
 6,766,234 
 296,386 
 
 1,096,824 
 520,648 
 442,614 
 231,295 
 
 £13,341,989 
 
 £4,175,860 
 
 '"357 
 
 288,708 
 
 17,841 
 
 2,498 
 
 203,900 
 805,860 
 100,000 
 72,240 
 63,719 
 30,585 
 60,975 
 
 £7,259,SJ4 
 
 £171,817 
 
 35,607 
 
 138,022 
 
 198,200 
 
 286,971 
 
 7,444 
 
 440,210 
 
 160,000 
 
 1.056 
 
 1,551 
 
 617 
 
 374 
 
 830 
 
 53,460 
 
 83,000 
 
 £20,001,813 
 
 £4,347,477 
 
 35.607 
 
 138,379 
 
 198,200 
 
 575,679 
 
 25,286 
 
 442,708 
 
 160,000 
 
 204,966 
 
 307,484 
 
 100,517 
 
 7^,614 
 
 64,049 
 
 84,046 
 
 83,975 
 
 £5,312,533 
 13,341,989 
 
 £1,628,592 
 7,259,824 
 
 £6,840,975 
 20,601,813 
 
 £18,654,522 
 
 £8,788,416 
 
 * Exclusive of China and Japan, which produce large quantities of gold and silver, the amount of which is quite un- 
 known t.0 Europeans. 
 
 Some small portion of the quantities exported to 
 Egypt was probably detained in that country or for- 
 warded to Australia. But by far the greater part, 
 perhaps not less than nineteen-twentieths of the whole, 
 was destined for, and went to, India. But although 
 India did not, for several years prior to 1850, derive 
 any considerable supply of bullion from Europe, she 
 drew during that period large supplies from China. 
 This was a consequence of tlie vast increase in the im- 
 portations of opium Into the latter. With the excep- 
 tion of tea and silk, China has few native products, 
 other than the precious metals, fit for foreign markets. 
 And the exports of the former being not much more 
 than sufficient to pay for the products sent to her from 
 Europe and America, a very considerable part of the 
 cotton and opium imported from India is paid for in 
 bullion, the increased exports of which are said to have 
 latterly brought serious difficulties. It appears, for ex- 
 ample, that at an average of the seventeen years end- 
 ing with 1850-51, the annual valne of the merchandise 
 exported from India to China amounted to £4,664,400 
 a 3'ear, and that of the merchandise imported to only 
 £643,210, leaving a balance of no less than £3,921,190 
 a year to be paid in bullion, and in drafts on London 
 and other places indebted to China. The following 
 table, which is deduced from the account compiled by 
 the Indian custom-house, shows the balance between 
 the importation and exportation of treasure into and 
 from India, for 17 years, 1831-51. Since 1851 this cur- 
 rent of goldand silverfroni Europe has largely increased, 
 swelling the hoards of treasure in China and India. 
 
 Account of the Imports and Exports of Treabttbe into 
 AND FROM India during each of the 17 Years ending 
 
 WITH 1S50-'61. 
 
 4 Yeais. 
 
 Jmporta. 
 
 ExporlB. 
 
 Excess of Imports. 
 
 1834-'G5 
 
 £1,81.3,023 
 
 £194,741 
 
 £1,698,282 
 
 1 835-' 30 
 
 2,146,466 
 
 108,109 
 
 2,038,353- 
 
 1836-'37 
 
 2,036,167 
 
 263,934 
 
 1,772,283 
 
 1837-'38 
 
 2,610,101 
 
 340,666 
 
 2,299,445 
 
 lS38-'39 
 
 3,010,929 
 
 347,906 
 
 2,663,014 
 
 1839-'40 
 
 1,945,264 
 
 470,623 
 
 1,474,741 
 
 lSia-'41 
 
 1,786,263 
 
 306,486 
 
 1,419,767 
 
 1841-'42 
 
 1,841,336 
 
 616,076 
 
 1,326,259 
 
 1842-43 
 
 3,443,292 
 
 215,797 
 
 3,227,496 
 
 lS43-'44 
 
 4,794,678 
 
 746,076 
 
 4,048,602 
 
 1844-'45 
 
 8,762,472 
 
 1,106,840 
 
 2,645,632 
 
 1845-46 
 
 2.495,659 
 
 816,028 
 
 1.679,931' 
 
 1846-'47 
 
 2,939,922 
 
 713,870 
 
 2,226,052 
 
 1847-'48 
 
 1,973,391 
 
 1,426,038 
 2,639,743 
 
 547,3E3 
 
 1848-'49 
 
 4,204,503 
 
 1,664,760 
 
 ]S49-'50 
 
 3.896,807 
 
 971,244 
 
 2,426,562 
 
 ]850-'61 
 
 3,811,809 
 
 811,289 
 
 3,270,620 
 
 Total excess of imports £30,427,905 
 
 Average annual excess of imports 2.142,818 
 
 Now it appears from this table that the imports of 
 bullion into India during the seventeen years ending 
 with 1850-'51, exceeded the exports by the gross sum 
 of £36,427,905, being at the rate of £2,142,818 a year. 
 The following tables show the countries from which 
 the bullion imported into India during the four years 
 ending with 1850-'51 was derived, and those to which 
 the bullion exported was sent. 
 
 The accumulations of gold from California and Aus- 
 tralia have created, a strong desire for India and China 
 goods, for which specie must be paid in lieu of domestic 
 goods or produce from England or the United States. 
 
 Treabttee imported into India from 1847-'48 to 1853-'61. 
 
 When from. 
 
 1S47-'4S. 
 
 1848-'49. 
 
 ■ 1849-'50. 
 
 1850-'51. 
 
 
 £58,649 
 12,689 
 84,850 
 
 335,268 
 
 67^424 
 
 1,086,843 
 
 2,099 
 
 siisJi 
 
 42,634 
 
 294,004 
 
 141 
 
 4,980 
 
 £36,834 
 
 14,496 ' 
 
 18,125 
 
 356,810 
 
 200 
 
 66,867 
 
 3,109,002 
 
 I62I53I 
 54,402 
 330,919 
 622 
 24,096 
 1,200 
 
 £26,690 
 
 16,435 
 
 6,949 
 
 465,189 
 
 1,119 
 
 109,145 
 
 2,.'!26,917 
 
 "867 
 
 86,691 
 
 84,902 
 
 239,694 
 
 62 
 
 32,156 
 
 £503,030 
 
 13,054 
 
 9,736 
 
 472,092 
 
 2,814 
 
 871,368 
 
 1,845,284 
 
 18,378 
 
 138,824 
 76,306 
 149,216 
 
 2lbi853 
 68 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ceylon 
 
 China 
 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Pegu , 
 
 
 
 
 .. Sumatra 
 
 Total , 
 
 £1,973,391 
 
 £4,204,503 
 
 £3,396,807 
 
 £3,811,809 
 
PRE 
 
 1576 
 
 PBE 
 
 • Tbeabitke expokted peom India fbom ]847-'48 to JS60-'51.- 
 
 United Kingdom 
 
 Africa 
 
 America 
 
 Arabian and Persian Gulfs 
 
 Batavia and Java 
 
 (Jape of Good Hope 
 
 Ceylon 
 
 China 
 
 France ,- 
 
 Java 
 
 Mauritius and Bourbon 
 
 Malta and Gibraltar 
 
 New South Wales. 
 
 Pegu 
 
 Eenang, Singapore, and Malacca . 
 
 Son'meanee 
 
 Suez - . 
 
 Total. 
 
 181T-'48. 
 
 X706,659 
 T,892 
 5,450 
 
 ST,152 
 
 290,908 
 
 n2,32S 
 
 '"31 
 89,134 
 '33,296 
 
 £1.426,038 
 
 £1,493, 
 
 15, 
 
 2, 
 
 68, 
 
 V, 
 081, 
 
 ,804 
 ,406 
 ,235 
 
 ,2T0 
 
 ,047 
 
 ,717 
 
 52§ 
 
 64 
 
 ,094 
 
 400 
 300 
 ,1C4 
 ,398 
 
 78,258 
 
 i:2,f:3;i,743 
 
 £118,488 
 10,221 
 
 60,460 
 
 "hi 
 
 361,828 
 
 60,061 
 
 6,000 
 
 80 
 
 219,583 
 
 80,238 
 
 28,684 
 
 IBS 
 
 24,266 
 
 £!.T1,244 
 
 1850-'51. 
 
 £10,163 
 
 9,511 
 
 700 
 
 46,060 
 
 2,186 
 
 700 
 
 262,288 
 
 21,000 
 
 25,244 
 
 "iob 
 
 142,404 
 26,242 , 
 
 4,692 
 
 £541,289 
 
 It appears from t^ese tables that China furnished 
 two-thirds or more of all the bullion imported into In- 
 dia during the four years ending with 18u0-'51 ; and 
 that till the last-mentioned year the imports from Eu- 
 rope were quite inconsiderable, and greatly exceeded 
 by the exports to it. China, indeed, has been long 
 known to be both an importer and an exporter of bull- 
 ion. But it is only within the last few years, or since 
 the importations of opium became so immense, that 
 her exports of bullion have become so very large as to 
 make them productive of much inconvenience. The 
 imports of bullion into India from the United States 
 have, till recently, been too inconsiderable to deserve 
 notice. A direct intercourse has now been commenced 
 between San Francisco and the eastern hemisphere ; 
 but hitherto all shipments of bullion to India and Chi- 
 na on American account have been made through Lon- 
 don. During the year ending the 30th June, 1852, the 
 Americans sent gold and silver to the amount of 
 $32,127,379 to Englalnd. But though the value of 
 their imports from India and China during that year 
 amounted to $14,818,991, while that of their exports 
 thither amounted to only $3,267,675, they did not send 
 to either a single dollar or a single dollar's worth of 
 gold or silver direct from America. — Report on Com- 
 merce and Navigation of ihe Uniled /States for 1852, p. 
 36, et seq. 
 
 But under such circumstances there will be a corre- 
 sponding increase of demand in India for the bullion 
 of Australia and America. Indeed, the probability 
 seems to be, from the late extraordinary importation 
 of bullion from Europe, that the supply from China 
 and elsewhere, notwithstandingiits magnitude, had not 
 sufficed fully to meet the wants of India. And inde- 
 pendent of this circumstance, it is plain that a slight 
 fall in the value of bullion in pther countries would 
 render it a still more advantageous article of export 
 to India. And taking the vast extent and population 
 of the peninsula into account, and the habit, univers- 
 ally prevalent in it, of hoarding the precious metals, 
 it is impossible to say, supposing the treasure-current 
 to continue to set in an easterly direction, how great a 
 quantity of bullion might be thrown upon the markets 
 of India and the adjacent countries before any very 
 sensible reduction of its value was manifested. It is 
 difficult satisfactorily to account for the extraordinary- 
 exportation of bullion to India in 1850-52. Most 
 probably it has been ovrfng partly to circumstances 
 connected with the demand for'it in India, and partly 
 to those peculiar to its supply in England and the 
 United States. A certain portion (about $15,000,000) 
 of the annual imports from India and China consists 
 of remittances on account of the East India Company's 
 home charges. But independently of this item, the 
 imports of Indian and Chinese goods into England and 
 the United States have latterly been so very great, 
 that they have left a balance to be defrayed by the 
 export of specie. Most probably, also, the occupation 
 of the Punjab has occasioned a demand for additional 
 supplies of currency for that province, while consider- 
 
 able quantities would be wanted for the Burmese ex- 
 pedition. The refusal to receive gold in payment of 
 revenue, though its influence has been exaggerated, 
 has no doubt contributed to bring about the same re- 
 sult, or to increase the demand for silver in India. 
 And it further appears that the balances of treasure 
 belonging to the Indian government in its different 
 treasuries throughout India have lately increased to 
 an inconvenient extent, or to about 16 millions ster- 
 ling, when from 8 to 10 millions would suffice for ev- 
 ery purpose of regularity and security. But measures- 
 are now (1853) in progress connected with the liquida- 
 tion of a portion of the Indian debt which will set free 
 a considerable portion of this surplus treasure ; and 
 will thus have the double effect of diminishing or stop- 
 ping the demand for silver in India, and of enabling 
 the country to avail itself of the services of the capital 
 which has been abstracted from the great work of pro- 
 duction. — See an able article in the Economist, 3d De- 
 cember, 1853. It would also seem that while circum- 
 stances were occurring in India which account for the 
 origin of the drain for bullion to that quarter and its 
 continuance, there was simultaneously an excess of 
 silver in America and Europe, occasioned by the sub- 
 stitution of gold for that metal in the currencies of the 
 United States and of France: And such being the 
 case, the renewed exportation of bullion to the East 
 appears to be sufficiently accounted for, and to have 
 been almost a matter of course. 
 
 In addition to the increased product in the Amer- 
 ican >nines, there has been within the last twenty years 
 an extraordinary increase in the produce of the Kusso- 
 Asiatic mines and washings, or rather of the latter. In 
 1830, for example, the produce of the Siberian gold 
 washings was estimated at only 5J poods ; whereas it 
 had increased in 1840 to above 240 poods, and in 1847 
 to no fewer than 1363 poods. In addition to the wash- 
 ings the Ural mines yield from 310 to 320 poods gold. 
 The produce from both sources amouiited in 1847, ac- 
 cording to the official returns, to 1741 pflods. But it 
 has not been so great since, being in 
 
 1S4S 1726 poods. 
 
 1849 '. 1587 "" 
 
 1860 1485 " I 
 
 1851 1432 " 
 
 The official authorities ascribe this falling off to the 
 exhaustion of the deposits, and the unskillfulness of 
 those engaged in the business. But it is doubtful 
 whether the falling off be not more apparent than real, 
 and whether it be not occasioned by the enormous taxes 
 which have been imposed of late years on the gold ob- 
 tained from the washings. The principal taxvaries 
 according to the produce, being 5 per cent, on wash- 
 ings that yield from 1 to 2 poods per annum, increas- 
 ing by various steps till it amounts to 82 per cent, on 
 those which yield 50 poods. And there are other du- 
 ties which, though less in amount, are of the same op- 
 pressive character. 
 
 These exorbitant duties have, no doubt, tended to 
 lessen the produce of the washings. It is, however, 
 
PRE 
 
 1577 
 
 PEE 
 
 all but certain that their principal effect haa been to 
 defeat themselves by tempting the pai'ties concemecl to 
 adopt every means by which they might be evaded ; and 
 the notorioua corruption of the Russian revenue officers 
 renders this comparatively easy. PerhapSj under the 
 circumstances, we may not be! far wrong in supposing 
 that from a third part to a half of the produce of' the 
 washings is exempted from the duty. But taking it at 
 a third, and supposing the taxed produce of the wash- 
 ings to have amounted in 1851 to 1117 poods^ the real 
 produce would be 1489 poods ; to which if we add 315 
 poods fdr the produce of the mines of the Oural, the 
 aggregate total would amount to 1804 poods. And this, 
 equal to 72,160 lbs. Troy, makes over $18^905,000. 
 , There has also been of late a considerable increase 
 in the yield of the Spanish mines, which is at present 
 supposed to amount to from $2,250,000 to $2,500,000 a 
 year. Including the silver raised in Russia and else- 
 where, and that obtained from the refining" of lead, 
 the produce of which in the United Kingdom exceeds 
 $1,000,000 a year (see Lead), the total annual produc- 
 tion of the precious metals in Europe may be roughly 
 estimated at about $7,500,000. On the whole, there- 
 fore, it would seem (excluding the produce of the Cal- 
 ifornian and Australian gold fields) that the aggregate 
 production, of' the precious metals in Europe, Amer- 
 ica, and Asiatic Russia, may : be supposed to have 
 amounted in 1850-'51 (and it is probably about the 
 same at present, 1853) to $70,425,000, being about 
 $l5,000,000greater than their production in 1810,-when 
 the American mines had attained their maximum de- 
 gree of productiveness. Notwithstanding the large ad- 
 dition made to the supply of gold by the Siberian wash- 
 ings, it appears to have been nearly balanced by the 
 excess of silver produced in America and elsewhere. 
 And the old proportion of about 16 to 1 between the 
 values of gold and silver does not appear to have been 
 sensibly afi'ected previously to the discovery of the au- 
 riferous deposits in California and Australia. 
 
 "Supplies of Gold frmn California and Australia. — But 
 the discovery of these deposits threatens to bring about 
 a most material change in the real, and perhaps also 
 in the comparative values of the precious metals ; and 
 is, indeed, among the most remarkable events of which 
 economical history has preserved any account. The 
 gold is found in the debris of the quartz rocks in which 
 it had been imbedded, sometimes in grains and flakes, 
 and sometimes in lumps (nuggets), of varying, but oc- 
 casionally of considerable magnitude. In some locali- 
 ties it is comparatively abundant; and the yield, both 
 in California and Australia, is quite unprecedented, and 
 such as would not previously have been conceived pos- 
 sible. The Californian deposits were discovered late 
 in May or early in June, 1848 ; and notwithstanding 
 the remoteness of the country, and the fact of its being 
 almost destitute of inhabitants, above 5000 persons were 
 attracted to the spot by the end of the season, who are 
 supposed to have realized above ^5,000,000j The news 
 of the discovery and of tlie unexampled richness of the 
 gold fields haying spread on all sides with electrical 
 rapidity, occasioned an extraordinarj' influx of immi- 
 grants from most parts of the world' into California. 
 The supplies of gold attained to an unexampled mag- 
 nitude ; cities rose in the wilderness as if by enchant- 
 ment ; the great Bay of San Francisco, -which had 
 hitherto been entirely desertedj was crowded with ships 
 and steamers from the most distant countries; and 
 California is now one of the States of the Union, with 
 a population of from 250,000 to 300,000.— /See articles 
 Gold, Calipobitia, and Prices, for the production of 
 gold up tp the present time. 
 
 In addition to the regular shipments, very large 
 amounts, of which no account is takeui are conveyed 
 away from California by parties returning to Mexico, 
 to the Eastern States, Europe, and China. Of these 
 various estimates have been made; but the prevalent 
 opinion in the best-informed quarters seem to be that. 
 
 ■When they are included; and allowance is also made for 
 the quantity retained at home, the total yield of gold in 
 California in 1852 may be moderately reckoned at from 
 $40,000,000 to $50,000,000. 
 
 But vast as it certainly is, this production is exceed- 
 ed by that of Australia. The deposits in the latter 
 were not discovered till 1851. And thej' are so very 
 rich, and the influx of immigrants has been so extraor- 
 dinary, that the gold fields of Victoria only are esti- 
 mated to have prttduced in 1852 nofewer than 4,247,657 
 oz., which, taken at the rate of $18 an oz., gives a gross 
 amount of $76,457,826— (Statement by Mr. Khhll, of 
 Melbourne) ; to which, adding $15,000,000 for the esti- 
 mated produce of the Sydney or New South Wales gold 
 fields, the total prdduce of the continent vtill amount to 
 $91,457,820. On the whole, therefore, the present an- 
 nual supply of gold and silver may be estimated at 
 about X47,000,000 or $209,905,000; viz., 
 
 America (except California) $43,5()0,00p 
 
 Europe : T,5do;boo " 
 
 RusBO-Asiatic proTlnces .-. ' 18,905,000 ' 
 
 California 45,000,000, r 
 
 Australia ,95,000,0 00 
 
 Total '. . . $209,U05,000 
 
 Consumption of the Precious Metals. — In order to form 
 a reasonable conjecture in regard to the probable in- 
 fluence of this vast supplj' of the precious metals, it is 
 necessary to inquire into their nses and probable con- 
 sumption. And this inquiry, we regret to say, is still 
 more difficult, and more likely to' be infected with 
 qrrors, than the inquiry in regard to their production. 
 The precious metals are used as coin or currency to 
 facilitate exchanges; as wealth which may be con- 
 veniently kept or hoarded ; and they arc used in tho 
 arts, as plate, in gilding, etc. The quantities employ- 
 ed, in these functions are. very large indeed. They 
 vary, however, in different countries and periods with 
 the circumstances peculiar to each ; such, for example, 
 as the. greater or less abundance of paper money, and 
 the degree in which the use of coins is lessened by the 
 various devices resorted to for economizing currency ; 
 the fashion, as to plate and furniture; the feeling of 
 security at the time ; and a number of other circum- 
 stances, all liable to great and sometimes sudden 
 changes. The gold and silver employed in Great Brit- 
 ain as currency, and in the customary reserves in the 
 bands of the bankers, is supposed to amount to at least 
 $200,000,000. In France the precious metals employ- 
 ed in the same way probably amount to double that 
 sum, or to $400,000,000. The amount in the United 
 States employed for the same purposes may be stated 
 at $276,000,000.' And we believe that we may estimate 
 the entire sum employed as currency in Europe, Amer- 
 ica (North; and South), Australia, the Cape of Good 
 Hope, and Algeria, at about $1,900,000,000. It would 
 be inconsistent with the objects of this article, and with 
 the limits within which it must be confined, to engage 
 in a discussion of the numerous, and often conflicting, 
 statements and details on which this estimate has been 
 founded. Some information with respect to it may be 
 found in Chevalier's valuable treatise Be la Monnaie 
 (p. 326, etc.), Paris, 1850 ; in Stirling's Gold Discoveries, 
 p. 182 ; in the learned and excellent tract of Tegoborski, 
 Essai de la Dic&uverte des Giles Auriferes en Calif omie 
 et en Australie, etc., p. 65; and in a host of other pub- 
 lications. The precious metals in circulation in Russia 
 in the early part of 1851 were estimated in the Peters- 
 burg Gazette (October 12, 1852) at 326,000,000 roubles; 
 equal, at 80 cents per rouble, to $260,000,000. The 
 greater part (190,000,000 roubles) of this currency con- 
 isisted of gold. Now, supposing this sum to be em- 
 ployed, as above stated, as currency, we have first to 
 inquire into its probable wear and tear and loss, and 
 then into the probable rate of its increase. And tak- 
 ing' into account the extraordinary extension of navi- 
 gation, and the proportional risk of loss from shipwreck 
 and other casualties, we are disposed to think that the 
 
PRE 
 
 1578 
 
 PEE 
 
 annual wear and tear and loss of coin may be estimated 
 at about IJ- per cent, of the entire mass of the cur- 
 rency, which, talking the latter at$l,900, 000,000, would 
 amount to $28,500,000 a year. It is difficult to form 
 any probable estimate of the rate at which the bullion 
 used as currency may be liliely to increase, supposing 
 its value not to fall off. But considering the extreme- 
 ly rapid increase of refinement and population in most 
 parts of the civilized world, and especially in America 
 and Australia, we scarcely think that we shall be ex- 
 aggerating if we estimate this increase at 3 per cent. ; 
 which on $1,900,000,000 would amount to $57,000,000 
 a year. It is impossible, however, supposing this esti- 
 mate not to be very wide of the marlc at present, to 
 conjecture how long the currency will go on increasing 
 in this ratio. It may, indeed, be safely taken for 
 granted that the sphere of civilization and commerce 
 is destined rapidly to expand. But their expansion 
 will, no doubt, be accompanied with various contriv- 
 ances for economizing the use of metallic money, so 
 that tlie quantity of it in circulation can hardly be 
 supposed to increase for any very lengthened period 
 at the rate stated above. If it did, it would absorb 
 an immense supply of gold. In barbarous countries, 
 and in those entering on the career of civilization, 
 the coins atloat may increase at the rate of 3 or 5 per 
 cent., or more. But in countries which are more ad- 
 vanced its increase will be less, perhaps, than even 1 
 per cent. 
 
 It is equally difficult to acquire any satisfactory in- 
 formation in regard to the quantity of bullion con- 
 sumed in the arts. Jacob estimated its amount in 
 Europe and America, in 1830, at about $29,500,000 a 
 year. This estimate was in various respects wide of 
 the mark, and it was, on the whole, considerably 
 under the true amount. And supposing the consump- 
 tion of the precious metals in the arts to have amount- 
 ed to 324" or 35 million dollars in 1830, it must now be 
 much greater. There has every where, but more es- 
 pecially in England, America, Germany, and Russia, 
 been an extraordinary increase of population and 
 wealth during the last twenty-seven years. And the 
 taste for plate, splendid furniture, and luxurious ac- 
 commodations of all sorts, has certainly increased in 
 at least an equal degree. It is well known that specu- 
 lators and those who rapidly attain to affluence are the 
 principal buyers of plate and other costly articles. And 
 taking these and otiier circumstances into account, we 
 are disposed to conclude that the expenditure of bullion 
 in the arts in Europe, America, and Australia can not 
 at present (1853) be under, if it do not exceed, 70 mill- 
 ion dollars a year. But of this a portion, estimated 
 at about one-fifth or 20 per cent., is supposed to be ob- 
 tained from the fusion of old plate, the burning of lace, 
 picture frames, etc. And hence, if we deduct from the 
 70 million dollars used in the arts 20 per cent, for the 
 old bullion, we have $56,000,000 for the total quantity 
 of the supplies from the mines annually disposed of in 
 this way ; a considerable portion of which, including 
 that used in the gilding of rooms, books, harness, but- 
 tons, etc., can never be again recovered or applied to 
 any useful purpose. This quantity, however great it 
 may appear to be, will be increased with the increase 
 of population, and the spread of refinement and the 
 arts ; and it will also be certainly increased by any 
 thing like a considerable fall in the value of bullion. 
 Hence it would appear, putting these items together, 
 that the regular annual consumption of bullion as cur- 
 rency and in the arts amounts to about $141,500,000; 
 viz.. 
 
 Wear and tear, and loss of coin $28,500,000 
 
 Increase of currency .57,000,000 
 
 Used in the arts 53,000,000 
 
 Total $141,500,000 
 
 It may be said, perhaps, that these estimates must 
 be exaggerated, inasmuch as the sum which, it appears 
 from them, is annually consumed exceeds the entire 
 
 produce of the mines previously to the supplies from 
 California and Australia. But while we admit the 
 fact to be as stated, we deny the inference which is at- 
 tempted to be drawn from it. The truth is, that while 
 the discovery of the Californian and Australian deposits 
 has added in so great a degree to the supply of bullion, 
 it has also added verj' largely to its consumption. It 
 has given an unparalleled stimulus to emigration and 
 commerce. The rise of wages and prices consequent 
 on these extraordinary mutations, and on the increased 
 exports of produce which they have occasioned, is mak- 
 ing itself felt in the United States as well as in Europe ; 
 and here, consequently, as well as there, a greater sup- 
 ply of bullion will be required to serve as currency. 
 And while this influence is operating on the one hand, 
 on the other the swarms o( parvenus who are returning 
 from the gold fields, with pockets stuffed with the prod- 
 uce of all sorts of successful adventures, are every 
 where contributing to increase the demand for all sorts 
 of things, but especially for plate, jewelry, and other 
 ostentatious finery. 
 
 Exportation of Gold and Silver to the East. — Besides 
 the countries already mentioned, there is a vast portion 
 of the earth's surface, including Turkey in Asia, Persia, 
 Hindustan, China, and other Eastern territories, into 
 which bullion has been largely imported from the re- 
 motest era. Humboldt estimated that, of the entire 
 produce of the American mines at the beginning of this 
 century, amounting, as already seen, to $43,500,000, 
 no less than $25,500,000 were sent to Asia, $17,500,000 
 by the Cape of Good Hope, $4,000,000 by the Levant, 
 and $4,000,000 through the Eussian frontier. Probably, 
 however, this estimate was a good deal beyond the 
 mark. " Humboldt, cela n'est plus douteux, estimait 
 trop haut la valeur de I'or et de I'argent, qui s'6coulai- 
 ent au commencement de ce sifecle d'Europe en Asie, et 
 portaient trop has la d6perdition qu'ils 6prouvaient, 
 dans la meme temps, par le frottement et leur conver- 
 sion en objets d'orfevrerie et de bijouterie." — Dupuy' 
 node de la Monnaie^ etc., i. p. 35. There is no longer, 
 we believe, any doubt in regard to the accuracy of the 
 latter part of this statement ; and it is pretty generally 
 supposed that the first part is also well founded. But 
 some years ago this immense drain began to diminish, 
 and in 1832 and 1833 it actually set in an opposite di- 
 rection. Since then it has fluctuated, sometimes in- 
 clining to the one side, and sometimes to the other. 
 With the exception, however, of the bullion received 
 by Englandin payment of the $21,000, 000 due by China, 
 under the treaty of 1842, there was not for some years 
 any very decided movement of bullion from Europe to 
 the East, or from the East to Europe, though, on the 
 whole, the imports into the latter appear to have ex- 
 ceeded the exports; at least, this was certainly the 
 case during the five years from 1844-45 to 1848-49, 
 both inclusive. But very recently, or within the last 
 four years (1850-53) the drain for bullion for the East 
 has set in with renewed force ; so much so, that in 1852 
 no fewer than 12,655,393 oz. silver were shipped from 
 the United Kingdom for India and Egypt. 
 
 This continued process of export of gold and silver is 
 attributed by some writers to the excessive use of paper 
 money, whereby the latter supersedes in commercial 
 channels the use of the former. " There can be no 
 doubt that the ultimate effect of a purely specie cur- 
 rency (or a paper currency based entirely on specie) 
 would be in the highest degree beneficial to all departs 
 ments of industry and enterprise. It is a currency that 
 can not fluctuate. It may expand with the increased 
 quantity of the precious metals, but there is hardly a 
 possibility of its contracting; and its expansion must 
 take place by the operation of causes which operate 
 equally throughout the civilized world." — North Amer- 
 ican Review, January, 1858. 
 
 The following table shows the export of coin and 
 bullion from Great Britain to the East during each of 
 the 10 years ending with 1852. 
 
PKE 
 
 1579 
 
 PRE 
 
 4V ACOOHMT OF THE QUAMTITIES OF GOLI> AND StLVEB, HESPEOTIVBLT, EXPORTED TO INDIA, CHINA, AND EgtPT, PKOM 
 GEEAT BkITAIN, DUWNG each op the TEN YEAES ending "WITH 185:*, DIBTINGUISHING BETWEEN BeITIBH AND FOEEIOK 
 
 Coin, and dbtween Coin and Bullion. 
 
 - 
 
 Vwrs. 
 
 BntiBh 
 
 Foreign i Total 
 
 Brituh 
 
 Foreign 
 Silver Coin. 
 
 Silver 
 
 Total 
 
 
 Gold Coin. 
 
 Gold Coin. 1 of Gold. 
 
 Silver Coin. 
 
 Bulbon. 
 
 of Silver. 
 
 
 
 Oancn'i 
 
 Oiincfls. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 OnQcea. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Ounces 
 
 
 1843 
 
 1844 
 1845 
 
 T,877 
 
 6,944 
 
 115 
 
 
 7,877 
 
 6,944 
 
 115 
 
 18,180 
 
 122,450 
 
 333,779 
 
 494,409 
 
 
 1816 
 
 • 2,518 
 
 
 2,518 
 
 .... 
 
 800 
 
 
 800 
 
 To the British FoBsessiona in 
 
 1847 
 
 2,014 
 
 ... 
 
 2,014 
 
 .... 
 
 359 
 
 
 353 
 
 India ' 
 
 1848 
 
 1,208 
 6B1 
 
 
 1,208 
 651 
 
 1,287 
 
 12,850 
 
 
 14,137 
 
 
 1849 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1850 
 
 9,628 
 
 
 9,628 
 
 920 
 
 198,826 
 
 134,000 
 
 328,746 
 
 
 1851 
 
 5,165 
 
 
 5,165 
 
 
 137,620 
 
 145,833 
 
 283,483 
 
 
 1852 
 
 16,856 
 
 
 16,356 
 
 77,000 
 
 626,864 
 
 879.893 
 
 1,083,747 
 
 
 1843 
 1844 
 1845 
 
 
 
 
 
 661,2r,7 
 263,828 
 187,614 
 
 
 661,297 
 263,828 
 187,614 
 
 
 1846 
 1850 
 
 i,'9l"7 
 
 
 i,917 
 
 ■'60 
 
 26,406 
 62,000 
 
 
 26,406 
 62,060 
 
 
 
 1851 
 
 34 
 
 
 34 
 
 .... 
 
 33,800 
 
 8,600 
 
 47,300 
 
 
 1852 
 
 
 
 
 800 
 
 
 
 800 
 
 
 " 1848 
 
 2,600 
 
 
 2,500 
 
 
 15,000 
 
 .... 
 
 15,000 
 
 
 1844 
 
 40 
 
 
 40 
 
 40,000 
 
 600 
 
 .... 
 
 40,000 
 
 
 1846 
 
 250 
 
 
 263 
 
 4,200 
 
 7,000 
 
 
 11,200 
 
 
 1846 
 
 3,186 
 
 
 3,186 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1847 
 1848 
 
 12,546 
 2,420 
 
 200 
 
 12,740 
 2,420 
 
 2,600 
 
 9,000 
 
 
 ii,'6bo 
 
 
 
 1849 
 
 921 
 
 
 921 
 
 14,000 
 
 40,000 
 
 
 54,000 
 
 
 1850 
 
 13,919 
 
 
 13,919 
 
 105,280 
 
 141.177 
 
 145,'4S3 
 
 391,945 
 
 
 1851 
 
 70,437 
 
 
 70,437 
 
 126,420 
 
 2,319,688 
 
 3,808,289 
 
 6,254,31.7 
 
 
 ^ 1852 
 
 62,341 
 
 152 
 
 62,493 
 
 140,783 
 
 8,S5ll|^13 
 
 2,580,240 
 
 11,611,030 
 
 GOLD, SILVER, AND BANK-NOTES IN THE U. S. 
 
 Statement op the Amount op Gold and Silveb bttpposed 
 to he in Ciuoulation, op tub Amount bupposed to be 
 IN THE Banks, of tub whole Amount supposed to be in 
 
 TUB COUNTEY, and OP TUB AMOUNT OF BaNK-NOTES IN 
 CIECULATION IN DIFFERENT YbAES, ACCORDING TO THE 
 
 Authorities quoted in tue Foot-notes. 
 
 
 <§pecie In 
 Circulntion. 
 
 Specie 
 
 Total of 
 
 Bank-notes 
 
 Yeera. 
 
 in the 
 Banks. 
 
 Specie in the 
 Countrj'. 
 
 in 
 
 Circulation. 
 
 
 MUlions. 
 
 MUUons. 
 
 MUhons. 
 
 Millions. 
 
 1790" 
 
 .... 
 
 .... 
 
 9 
 
 2i 
 
 1791* 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 9 
 
 1792' 
 
 
 .... 
 
 18 
 
 lU 
 
 ]793' 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 n 
 
 1794" 
 
 .... 
 
 
 21t 
 
 11-6 
 
 1795' 
 
 .... 
 
 
 19 
 
 11 
 
 1796" 
 
 
 
 16t 
 
 m 
 
 1797* 
 
 .... 
 
 
 16 
 
 10 
 
 1798" 
 
 • . . • 
 
 .... 
 
 14 
 
 9 
 
 1799* 
 
 .... 
 
 .... 
 
 17 
 
 10 
 
 1800* 
 
 
 
 171 
 
 10} 
 
 1801* 
 
 
 
 17 
 
 11 
 
 1802* 
 
 .... 
 
 .... 
 
 16^ 
 
 10 
 
 1803* 
 
 .... 
 
 
 16 
 
 11 
 
 1804* 
 
 .... 
 
 
 m 
 
 14 
 
 1806* 
 
 .... 
 
 
 18 
 
 15 
 
 1806* 
 
 
 
 18i 
 
 17 
 
 1807* 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 18 
 
 ISUt 
 
 
 15-4 
 
 .... 
 
 28 to 30 
 
 lS15t 
 
 
 17 
 
 
 45 to 47 
 
 1816t 
 
 1i 
 
 19 
 
 26} 
 
 08 to 70 
 
 1820t. 
 
 
 19 8 
 
 
 44 '8 
 
 1830t 
 
 10 
 
 221 
 
 321 
 
 61 
 
 1834* 
 
 
 
 .... 
 
 94 
 
 18355 
 
 
 
 
 103 
 
 183611 
 
 25 
 
 41 
 
 65 
 
 140 
 
 183111 . . 1 . . 
 
 35 
 
 38 
 
 73 
 
 149 
 
 183811 
 
 62i 
 
 35 
 
 sn 
 
 116 
 
 lS39t 
 
 42 
 
 45 
 
 87 
 
 135 
 
 I840II 
 
 60 
 
 S3 
 
 83 
 
 107 
 
 1841**.... 
 
 35 to 45 
 
 35 
 
 70 to 80 
 
 107 
 
 1842 
 
 
 2S-4 
 
 
 83-7 
 
 1843 
 
 
 33 J 
 
 
 68-6 
 
 1844tt.... 
 
 50 
 
 60 
 
 100 
 
 75 
 
 18«Jt ;... 
 
 52 
 
 44 
 
 (16 
 
 90 
 
 1846tt.... 
 
 55 
 
 42 
 
 97 
 
 105} 
 
 184Ttt .... 
 
 85 
 
 33 
 
 120 
 
 105} 
 
 1848tt .... 
 
 66 
 
 43 
 
 112 
 
 128} 
 
 1849Jt.... 
 
 77 
 
 43 
 
 120 
 
 114-7 
 
 18S0S.... 
 
 109 
 
 45 
 
 154 
 
 131 
 
 ]851tt .... 
 
 138 
 
 48 
 
 186 
 
 155 
 
 1852tt.... 
 
 .... 
 
 
 204 
 
 
 1863tt .... 
 
 ,, 
 
 
 236 
 
 ' 
 
 18.Wt.... 
 
 191 
 
 69 
 
 250 
 
 • 204 6 
 
 ]865tt .... 
 
 .... 
 
 64 
 
 .... 
 
 187 
 
 .AuxnoBiTiKS.— * BioDQiT. t Gauatin, t Congression- 
 al Keports. i Treaswry Report I WooDBUEy. It Hazaed, 
 Comviercial Begieter. ** Gocge, Journal of BankinQ. 
 tt HxTNT, MerchaniA* Magazine. U EBtimates. 
 
 The amounts of specie in the banks and of bank- 
 notes in circulation from 1835 to 1855, inclusive, have 
 
 been taken from the annual treasury reports on the 
 condition of the banks. The amount of specie sup- 
 posed to be in circulation in different years is accord- 
 ing to the authorities quoted. The estimates are from 
 Doc. 34 (p. 280), appended to the Report on Finances 
 of December 4, 1854, except that for 1855, wliich has 
 been completed from data more lately received. 
 Amount of Coinage of Golb and Silvek bv tub United 
 States Mint. 
 Vrom January 1, 1794 Amount. 
 
 to Dccemier 31, 1830 $37,096,112 90 
 
 1831 - 3,889,87000 
 
 1832 3,377,43500 
 
 1833 8,737,550 00 
 
 1834 7,369,272 00 
 
 1835 6,629,17800 
 
 1836 7,741,80000 
 
 1837 3,244,31500 
 
 •1838 4,124,81500 
 
 1839 3,474,39600 
 
 1840 3,402,98000 
 
 1841 2,217,97250 
 
 1842 4,158,920 50 
 
 To June 30, 1843 12,026,037 50 
 
 1844 7,663,78000 
 
 1845 6,629,64750 
 
 1846 6,692,76750 
 
 1847 22,595,835 00 
 
 1848 6,815,56250 
 
 1849 11,122,711 60 
 
 1850 33,847,838 60 
 
 1851 63,383,889 50 
 
 1852 67,846,69760 
 
 1863 64,291 ,477 94 
 
 1854 60,713,865 47 
 
 1855 41,060,30293 
 
 1856 52,479,116 40 
 
 Total $537,537,066 64 
 
 We give annexed a statement showing the move- 
 ment of specie from the United States since the year 
 1820; also the amount that goes to England. It should 
 be noticed that we do not send our specie to England to 
 pay debts to that country, for the balance of trade be- 
 tween the two countries froml820 to 1856 was $5,000,000 
 in favor of the United States. We send through En- 
 gland specie to pay our excessive importations of for- 
 eign manufactured goods from the Continent, and to 
 pay for teas and other foreign productions. The aggre- 
 gate loss of specie to this country in the decades since 
 1820 has been as follows : 
 
 Gain. Loss. 
 
 From the year 1820 to 1830 $2,528,840 
 
 " " " 1830 " 1840 $50,629,403 
 
 " " " 1840 " 1850 21,895,235 
 
 " " " 1860 " 1856 213,122,045 
 
 $^37,545,129 
 
 Deduct gain from 1830 to 1840. . . 60,629,4 03 
 
 Aggregate loss $186,915,726 
 
PEE 
 
 1580 
 
 PEE 
 
 Statement biiowinq tee Exports from and Impoets into 
 
 OF tiPBCIB FB.OM TUB UmITED STA-TES (UI6TINGtJIBUING 
 TUB I'.XPOET.i TO AND ImPOKTS FROM ENGLAND) FROM OC- 
 TOBER 1, 1820 TO Jtjlt 1, 1857, 
 
 
 
 Imjiorts 
 
 Totnl Ex- 
 
 Totnl Im. 
 
 Year ending 
 
 Bngland. 
 
 from 
 England. 
 
 porta from 
 the U. S. 
 
 ports into - 
 tho p. 3. 
 
 Sept. 30,1821.. 
 
 1,933,006 
 
 645,529 
 
 10,473,069 
 
 S,064''89O 
 
 1822,. 
 
 ■ 790,218 
 
 9;l,920 
 
 10 810,180 
 
 3,G69-,846 
 
 1S23.. 
 
 305,632 
 
 282,822 
 
 6,372,937 
 
 5,0;.7,896 
 
 18J4. . 
 
 ■ 312,112 
 
 149,104 
 
 7,014,552 
 
 3,379,836 
 
 1326.. 
 
 303,266 
 
 82,888 
 
 8.932 034 
 
 6.169,766 
 
 1826.. 
 
 698,07? 
 
 122,216 
 
 4,704 633 
 
 6,880,966 
 
 ISiT.. 
 
 200,101 
 
 . 34,111 
 
 8,014,830 
 
 8,151,180 
 
 1S28.. 
 
 2,662,209 
 
 20,972 
 
 8,243,470 
 
 7,439,741 
 
 18J9.. 
 
 6T3,833 
 
 39,826 
 
 4,924,420 
 
 7,403.612 
 
 1830.. 
 Total 
 
 ■ 112,220 
 
 1^,231 
 
 2,178,773 
 
 8,156,1,64 
 
 .8,247,342 
 
 1,6^1,679 
 
 71,673,4^'4 
 
 6J,144,645 
 
 Sept. 30, 1831. . 
 
 ■1,615,643 
 
 130,830 
 
 9.014,931 
 
 7,306,946 
 
 1832.. 
 
 1,112,293 
 
 83,683 
 
 5,1656.84'J 
 
 5,907.504 
 
 1833.. 
 
 244 
 
 31,903 
 
 2,611,701 
 
 7,070,363 
 
 1834. . 
 
 270 
 
 B;S05,613 
 
 2,076,758 
 
 17,911;632 
 
 1835.. 
 
 . 33,037 
 
 '1(303,438 
 
 477.775 
 
 13,131,447 
 
 183G. . 
 
 . . 2,503 
 
 2,382,920 
 
 4,324,336 
 
 13,400,831 
 
 1S3T.. 
 
 1,833,070 
 
 , 110,299 
 
 5,976,24:) 
 
 10,516,414 
 
 1838.. 
 
 10,185 
 
 9,009,346 
 
 3,508,446 
 
 17,747,116 
 
 183SI.. 
 
 3,103,490 
 
 1,4!0,092 
 
 8,776,743 
 
 6 606.176 
 
 1S40.. 
 Total 
 
 4.383,780 
 
 803.306 
 
 8,417,014 
 
 8,882,813 
 
 12,100,527 
 
 21,027,386 
 
 66,839,823 
 
 107,469,2^6 
 
 Septal, 1841.. 
 
 3,018,137 
 
 •880,530 
 
 10,034.332 
 
 4 988,633 
 
 1S42.. 
 
 1,702,743 
 
 205 919 
 
 4,813,539 
 
 4 087,016 
 
 9 raos., 1S43". 
 
 400 
 
 14,305,714 
 
 1,620,791 
 
 22.390,559, 
 
 June DO, 1841.. 
 
 85,706 
 
 1,131,959 
 
 5,454,214 
 
 5,830,429 
 
 1845. . 
 
 3,673,137 
 
 180,828 
 
 8,606,495 
 
 4,070,242 
 
 184r.. . 
 
 973',110 
 
 482,711 
 
 3,905,268 
 
 3,777,732 
 
 184T.. 
 
 8,065 
 
 19,312,930 
 
 1,907,024 
 
 24,121;289 
 
 184S.. 
 
 9,313,033 
 
 1,916,9.52 
 
 15,841,616 
 
 6,360,224 
 
 1849.. 
 
 70i,o:i7 
 
 2,671,792 
 
 5,404,643 
 
 6,651,240 
 
 1850. . 
 Total 
 
 2,634,185 
 
 527,266 
 
 7,622,994 
 
 4,628,792 
 
 22,078;20S 
 
 41,816,601 
 
 65,010,921 
 
 86,906,156 
 
 June 30, 1851.; 
 
 17,090.081 
 
 1,098,667 
 
 29,472,76-3 
 
 6,453,632 
 
 ]85>2. . 
 
 34,302,284 
 
 1,487,484 
 
 42,674,135 
 
 5,605,044 
 
 1853.. 
 
 18,631,900 
 
 284,799 
 
 27,486,875 
 
 4,201,38? 
 
 1854. . 
 
 27,926,263 
 
 85,156 
 
 41,281,604 
 
 6,763 5S7 
 
 1865.. 
 
 47.,95S,016 
 
 , 107,404 
 
 56,247,343 
 
 3,069,812 
 
 1856.. 
 
 34,J6},062 
 
 .. 421,971 
 
 45,746,485 
 
 4,207,632 
 
 185T.. 
 
 60,890,2651 4,069,064 
 
 69,136,922 
 
 12,461,799 
 
 * Nine months to June 80, and the fidcal year from this 
 time begins July 1. 
 
 Burying of Gold and Silver. — It is singular that, in 
 estimating the consumption of gold and silver, Jacob 
 did not males any. allusion to the practice which has 
 uniformly prevailed in all countries harassed by intes- 
 tine commotions, or exposed to foreign invasion, of 
 burying treasure in tlie earth. Of the hoards so de- 
 posited, a very considerable portion has been altogeth- 
 er lost ; and there can bo no doubt that this has been 
 one of the principal means by whicli the stoclt of the 
 precious metals has been Itept down to its present level. 
 Every one is aware that during the Middle Ages treas- 
 ure-trove, or money dug from the ground by chance 
 finders, belonged, to the Crown, and formed no incon- 
 siderable part of the royal revenue of England and oth- 
 er countries. The practice has always prevailed in 
 Turlcey, Persia, India, China, and generally in all parts 
 of the East. The extortion practiced on the inhabit- 
 ants, and the want of all security, make tliem look 
 upon the money they have hidden as their only wealth, 
 the only thing which they can really call their own. 
 " In India," says Mr. Luke Scrafton, " the Hindoos 
 bury their liioney under ground, often with such se- 
 crecy as not to trust their own children with the knowl- 
 edge of it ; and it is amazing what they will suffer 
 rather than betray it. When their tyrants have tried 
 all manner of corporal punishments on them, they 
 threaten to defile them ;' but even that often fails ; for, 
 resentment prevailing over the love of life, they fre- 
 quently rip up their bowels, or poison themselves, and 
 carry the secret to their graves. And the sums lost in 
 this manner in some measure account why the silver 
 of India does not appear' to increase, though there are 
 such quantities continually coming into it, and none 
 going out." — On the Government of .Hindostan, p. 16, 
 
 etc. ; see also Beeniek, Voyage de Mogol, Amsterdam, 
 1710, 1. p. 209. 
 
 The comparative security now enjoyed by the Hin- 
 doos must latterly have lessened this, practice. But a 
 habit so prevalent and so deeply rooted is not easily 
 eradicated; and thongli the illegal exactions of their 
 rulers be curbed or put an end to, there is in many 
 parts of India a great deal of robbery and insecurity. 
 At all events, the practice of burying treasure is still 
 very general in it; and at this moment it prevails to 
 agreat extent throughout all the vast countries whicli 
 stretch from the Adriatiq to the Chinese Sea. We 
 have been assured by persons well qualified to form 
 an opinion that the stimulus given to the burying of 
 treasure by the intestine commotions now prevalent in 
 China must have already occasioned the disappearance 
 of full 20; or 25 millions sterling! And the previous 
 statements confirm in some measure this estimate. But 
 we must not imagine that the burying of treasure is 
 confined to the East. Wherever property is insecure, 
 it is iiivariabl}' resorted to. Wakefield tells us that 
 it used to he common in Ireland (Account of Ireland, 
 i. 593) ; and we are informed that it continues to this 
 daj' to be pretty prevalent in that country. It has al- 
 ways been acted on to a considerable extent in Russia, 
 Germany, Italy, and France ; and in the latter, during 
 the revolutionarj' anarchy, immense sums were buried, 
 of which it is abundantly certain a large proportion will 
 never be resuscitated. The wars and convulsions by 
 which Europe was desolated for more than 20 years 
 made the practice be carried to a great lieight in all 
 parts of the Continent, and withdrew in this way from 
 circulation a very considerable part of the increased 
 produce of the mines. — Storch, Economie Politique, i. 
 221, Paris, 1823. And large sums are still, no doubt, 
 disposed of in the same way. 
 
 General Remarhs. — These statements, how imperfect 
 soever, are sufficient to show that the field over wliich 
 the precious metals are spread is so immense, and the 
 demand for theih so great and various, and fo likely to 
 increase, that it is not easy to iinagine that their value 
 can be speedily reduced, at least in any sensible degree. 
 Nevertheless, if we be waiTanted in estimating as above 
 the present supply at $235,000,000 a year, and their 
 consuiiiption (including an allowance for the increas- 
 ing stock of coin) at $141,500,000 a year, it would be 
 idle to suppose that this excess of $93,506,000 beyond 
 the existing demand should be speedily balanced, or 
 that it should not in the end occasion a serious decline 
 in their value. But much, or rather every thing, will 
 depend on the continuance of the supply ; and here we 
 have nothing to go upon but the merest conjecture. 
 The probability, indeed, would seem to be that the 
 supply both from California and Australia will increase 
 for some considerable time to come. Vast, however, as 
 is the area over which the gold deposits are scattered 
 in these countries, still there can be little or no doubt 
 that they will gradually be exhausted. The popula- 
 tion attracted to the " diggings" is already so great, 
 while (in Australia, at all events) it is increasing so 
 rapidly, and is so thoroughly imbued with the auri 
 sacra fames^ that it bids fair in no very long time to 
 rifle all the ricliest beds. And supposing that they 
 are either wholly, or to a considerable degree, exhaust- 
 ed, it may be doubtful whether the gold obtained by a 
 more laborious search, or by crushing quartz rocks, will 
 yield more than a reasonable profit on the capital em- 
 ployed, if so much. 
 
 In all speculations in regard to the probable future 
 supply of gold it should be carefully borne in mind 
 that any considerable fall in its value would unavoid- 
 ably check its production, and, consequently, tend to 
 lessen or prevent its further fall. It is plain, for ex- 
 ample, that a decline of 10 per cent, in the value of 
 gold would, cceteris paribus, occasion the abandonment 
 of all those mines, diggings, washings, etc., which only 
 yield a net profit of that amount. SVo are aware that, ' 
 
PKE 
 
 1581 
 
 PKE 
 
 owing to the produclioa of goW, as at present carried 
 on, having more of a gambling character than pertains 
 to moat branched of Industry, the prtBoiple now stated 
 would not operate so speedily as might perhaps hi an- 
 ticipated. But of its^ .nltinate operatitm there cAu be 
 noquestioli. , Andit raayj therefore, he laid down that 
 any reduction! in thevalue of gold whichis notaceojn- 
 panied by a corresponding improvement in the methods 
 of its production inevitably tends to correct itself, or to 
 check or hinder its further reduction. > It isidle,. there- 
 fore, .where so much is uncertain, andindeedi altogether 
 unknown, to attempt to draw any conclusions entitled 
 to much attention with respect to the pr0l)able future 
 supply of the precious metals. Bufr^t^posiug it to go 
 on for a few years as at present, or not nioteriallyto de» 
 cline, and thatjtheir value is in consequence gradually 
 reduced, therte ia no good ground for apprehending that 
 this reduction will have any injurious, results. If it 
 take place, it will bo Slow, and will not suddenly affect 
 the incomes, or the position of individuals." And wo 
 have elsewhere endeavored to show that the changes 
 which, under these conditions, may be, ultimately ef- 
 fected hy a decline in the value of bullion,! will-, jni a 
 national poiTit of view, be eminently desirable: and ben- 
 eficial. — Treatise on Toxaiiotiylii ed., p. 375t-387; see 
 ,also an able article in the, jlOTfiWca-w Reeiem for Octo- 
 ber, 1862. We have seen nothing, to induce ns to 
 change or modify in any degree this opinion. Some 
 stress has been lafd on the circumstance of the sums 
 payable under life insurances, falling liu value with a 
 deoreasedn the value of money. But the great major- 
 ity- of people, are, and all may be, insured in mutual 
 insurance offices, and may provide by proper invest- 
 ments against loss. . No fall within : the compass-of 
 probability is likely seriously to affect the existing 
 race of annuitants. And those who are now buying 
 annuities know what they ttiay expect, and their heirs 
 will have them only to blame if they, do not guard 
 against probable contingencies. ?.'•,'-. 
 
 •Subatitution of Gold for Silver,. — The production of 
 gold has very largely; increased since 1848, as com- 
 pared with that of silver ; and if this state of tilings go 
 on, the value of silver, measured in gold,'Can hardly 
 fail gradually to rise. But it is by no. means clear that 
 it will go on. The suppliea of silver are, increasing in 
 most parts of the world, particularly in Mexico'and 
 Europe. And the jincrcased supplies of quicksilver ob- 
 tained from California and other places will powerfully 
 contribute still further to augment thesupplies of silver. 
 It is also to be observed that a comparatively incon- 
 siderable rise in the valfce of silver as compared with 
 gold is sufficient, unless prevented by , legislative, -en- 
 actments, to make the latter be used iu preference to 
 the former in the currency of those countries in which 
 both metals are legal tender. Hitherto both gold and 
 silver coins have beem legal tender in the -United 
 .States, France, and some other countries. But When 
 ^uch is the case the value of the coins in respect to each 
 Other has to be fixed bj' authority, that is, it has to be 
 enacted, that debts may be discharged , by payments 
 either of gold or silver money at the rate of so many 
 dollars to th^ eagle, fi'ancs to the Napoleon d'or, shil- 
 lings to the sovereign, and so on, as laid down in the 
 Mint valuations of the different countries. And we 
 have already explained (art. Coins) that, however cor- 
 rect at the periods when they are made, these valua- 
 tions speedily become incorrect; and that whenever 
 such is the case, it is for every body's advantage to 
 make all payments in the metal which happens to be 
 overvalued as compared , with the other. And hence 
 (as seen in the article referred to) the use of gold as 
 raopey in preference to silver in England, and of silver 
 in preference to gold in France and the United States. 
 
 In accordance with these statements, it would seem 
 that the change which has taken place in the relative 
 values of gold and silver, though not very appreciable, 
 is quite enough to make the former be employed in- 
 
 stead of the latter in all countries where tbey are 
 equally legal tenderv In 1849, for example, the gold 
 coined in Francfe amounted to only 27,109,560 francs, 
 whereas in 1851 it amounted to 285,237,280 francs! 
 In the United States the coinage of gold hasincreased in 
 a somewhat similar ratio, having risen fi-om $9,007,761 
 in 1849 to.,$62|614,492 in 1861, and to $52,846,187 in 
 1852, ,. There is, therefore, every probability that in 
 no long time gold coin will be used in these two coun- 
 tries in all considerable payments which are not ef- 
 fected by means, of notes or checks^ ' This substitution 
 of goldifor silver, whileit materially enlarges the field 
 for the employment of the former, proportionally nar- 
 rows that fortlie employment of the, latter. And 
 hence a very considerable permanent increase may be 
 made to the comparative supply of gold without its 
 value, measured .-in. silver, being materially affected. 
 In the end, no doubt, the values of both metals will be 
 proportioned, independently of variations of demand, 
 to the respective costs of their production. But before 
 this. equalisation, can. take place, they must be dis- 
 tributed among the various countries of the world ac- 
 icording to the circumstances peculiar, to each, includ- 
 ing therein the novel conditions of their supply. 
 
 In Holland and India that substitution of gold for 
 silver coin, which is talking place in the United States 
 and Franco, has been- hindered by the intervention of 
 government, which has declared that silver only shall 
 be legal tender. , In Holland this was efifected by laws 
 passed in 1847 and 1849, and in, India by enactments 
 in 1835 and lS62i The value of the gold coin that was 
 consequently liberated in, Holland has been estimated 
 at; about 172,000,000, florins, a considerable portion of 
 which has. been absorbed in the. new gold currency of 
 France, We may add that the additional quantity of 
 silver required through the cessation of gold as cur- 
 rency for the supply of , the Ejutcli. mints, slightly af- 
 fected the price of the former,, which afterward fell to 
 nearly its old level. , f .,, 
 
 , ,In India, where wages have always been very low, 
 the great bulk of the coin in circulation has consisted 
 of silvei^ ; and in 1835 il; was made the only legal ten- 
 der. But though npt legal tender, golA^ coins con- 
 tinued to circulate in India ; and a proclamation issued 
 in 1841 directed them to he received at the public treas- 
 uries-. . Little .attention was, paid to this measure at the 
 time.; but after the discovery of the gold. deposits in 
 Australia, it became obvious, if gold coins continued 
 to be received bythe public departments,, that event- 
 ually none else would be paid into them ;- and that'sil- 
 ver would cease to be employed except in petty pay- 
 ments. This contingency appears to have alarmed the 
 government; and notice was accordingly given on (he 
 22d of December, 1852, that from and after t!ie 1st of 
 January next (1863) gold -coins would not be received 
 on account of taxes or other ])ayments due to the pub- 
 lic. I Silver has, consequently, again become in fact, as 
 well as in law, the sole legal tender of India. A good 
 deal of controversy has taken place in regard to this 
 measure. It is plain, however, that by continuing to 
 act on the proclamation of 1841, government woidd 
 have practically set aside the law of 1835, which made 
 silver the only legal tender; and would thus have 
 made itself responsible for all the losses that might 
 in consequence have resulted to individuals, while it 
 would also: have become liable to the risk of having 
 its own revenues reduced by the anticipated fall in the 
 value of gold. No doubt, therefore, the repeal of the 
 proclamation referred to was consistent with good faith, 
 and in some degree also with sound policy. At the 
 same time, we regret that the situation of affairs in In- 
 dia should have been such as to require that an at- 
 tempt should be made to exclude gold from the circu- 
 lation. Most likely it would otherwise have absorbed 
 considerable supplies of that metal ; and wc incline to 
 think, for the reasons previously stated, that it will do 
 so, notwithstanding its exclusion from the public treas- 
 
PEE 
 
 1582 
 
 PKI 
 
 nry. In other respects the change would have been of 
 little practical importance. There are extremely few 
 persons in India, as compared with those in England 
 and most European countries, who would have suf- 
 fered by a fall in the value of money ; and government 
 could have readily indemnified itself for any loss it 
 might thereby have incurred. A further substitution of 
 gold for silver will also be probably brought about by 
 using gold coins of less value than formerly. In most 
 countries, for example, gold might be advantageously 
 coined into one-dollar pieces. It would be inconven- 
 ient, perhaps, to have gold coins worth less than this ; 
 but of this value their employment would be beneficial 
 as well by economizing the use of silver as by their 
 being more convenient and easily carried about. 
 
 The lessened demand for silver in Europe and the 
 United States, and the greater demand for it in India, 
 arising out of the circumstances now and previously 
 adverted to, have contributed to that immense expor- 
 tation of silver to the East to which we have already 
 called the reader's attention. But there are no satis- 
 factory reasons for thinking, unless some fresh changes 
 talce place in the circumstances under which gold and 
 silver are produced, that this exportation of silver will 
 be of long continuance. It is difficult, indeed, to say 
 how great a quantity of silver might be imported into 
 India without sensibly affecting its value there ; but 
 the increase of its value in Europe, arising from the 
 diminution of its supply, will eventually hinder its 
 being sent elsewhere. 
 
 The apprehensions that were formerly so very preva- 
 lent, even among those who should have Icnown bet- 
 ter, in regard to an immediate and heavy fall in the 
 value of gold have now in great measure subsided. 
 It appears to be now pretty generallj' admitted that 
 if a fall should take place, it will only manifest itself 
 by slow degrees ; and this conclusion would appear to 
 be pretty well founded. 
 
 The supplies of gold from Australia have fallen off 
 very gi'eatly since 1852. In proof of this we subjoin a 
 statement by Mr. KhuU, of Melbourne, showing the 
 
 Comparative Prodtjce of the Gold Fields of Victoria 
 IN 1852, 1853, AND 1854. 
 
 1852 
 1863 
 1854 
 
 AscertAined Unrecorded Total 
 Ounces. Ounces Ounces, 
 
 3,15D,322 
 2,2T4,162 
 1,831,434 
 
 1,088,325 
 810,190 
 361,204 
 
 4,24T,65T 
 3,0B0,.342 
 2,192,699 
 
 Price 
 per oz 
 
 70s. 
 76s. 
 
 £14,860,799 
 
 11,688,782 
 
 8,770,796 
 
 Now supposing that the supplies from the gold fields 
 of New South Wales and other parts raised the total 
 produce of Australian gold in 1854 to $50,000,000, still 
 that would be little more than half the estimated prod- 
 uce ($96,000,000) of 1852; a decline which would go 
 far to check any downward tendency, if such there were, 
 in the value of gold. It is affirmed, indeed, in com- 
 munications from Victoria, that the produce of the gold 
 fields in the current year (1855) will exceed their prod- 
 uce In 1854. This, however, is doubtful ; but suppos- 
 ing it to be the case, and that their produce should 
 amount to $50,000,000, still that would be nearly 
 $25,000,000 below its amount in 1852. And though it 
 be quite impossible to say whether the yield of the 
 current year (1855) is destined to increase or fall off in 
 time to come, our anticipations are rather in favor of 
 a decline. The great excitement of the gold fields has 
 already pretty well subsided, both in Australia and 
 California, they are found to be a lottery with many 
 great prizes, but in which notwithstanding the blanks 
 very largely predominate. The probability, indeed, 
 seems to be that the deposits of stream gold will in no 
 lengthened period be comparatively exhausted ; and 
 that gold in future will have to be principally obtained 
 by the crushing of quartz rocks, an employment which 
 is rarely found.to be productive of more than ordinary 
 profits. The supply of silver from Mexico is now 
 (1855) supposed to amount to from $28,000,000 to 
 $30,000,000 a year. On the other hand, however, the 
 
 supply of the precious metals from Bussia has de- 
 creased. 
 
 On the whole, it may be concluded that at present no 
 decline need be expected in the value of the precious 
 metals. On the contrary, an increase of their value 
 would seem to be more probable. Most likely, howev- 
 er, it will continue about stationary till it begins to be 
 influenced by some new combination of circumstances. 
 — See article Prices. Refer also to California, 
 Gold, Banks, Coinage; siso Banhrrs' Magazine, vols. 
 iii. (the last essay on the subject by Bakon Humboldt), 
 iv. V. vi. vii. viii. ix. x. xi. xii.. New York, 1848-1857. 
 
 Premium. See Insurance. 
 
 Press, the Printing. This great engine was of 
 rude construction from the period of the discovery of 
 the art of printing, up to the close of the 18th centuiy, 
 when manj' improvements were made. William Cax- 
 ton, a mercer of London, had a press set up at West- 
 minster, 1471. — Stowe's Chronicle. The Earl of Stan- 
 hope's presses were in general use in 1806. The print- 
 ing-machine was invented by Koenig in 1811, and 
 Applegath's followed. The Columbian press of Cly- 
 mer was produced in 1814 ; and the Albion press, an 
 improvement on this last, came into use a few years 
 after. Printing by means of steam-machinery was 
 first executed in England at the Times office, London, 
 on Monday, November 28, 1814. Cowper's and Apple- 
 gath's rollers for distributing the ink upon the types 
 were brought into use in 1817. Vast improvements 
 have been made in the United States within a few 
 years, both in hand and steam presses. The most 
 celebrated manufacturers probably are R. Hoe & Co., 
 of New York. Their largest presses for newspapers 
 are capable of throwing off over 20,000 sheets per hour, 
 which is so much in advance of any presses in Europe 
 that they have supplied orders from Paris. The presses 
 of Seth Adams & Co., of Boston, are perhaps the best 
 in the world for book printing. See article Books. 
 
 Press-gang, the name given in England to a de- 
 tachment of seamen, who (under the command of a 
 lieutenant) are empowered, in time of war, to take any 
 sea-faring men, and oblige them to serve on board the 
 king's ships. 
 
 Press of Sail, signifies as much sail as the then 
 state of the wind, etc., will permit a ship to carry. 
 
 Prices. By the price of a commodity is meant its 
 value estimated in money, or simply the quantity of 
 money for which it will exchange. The price of a com- 
 modity rises when it fetches more, and falls when it 
 fetches less money. 
 
 1. Price of freely-produced Commodities.' — The ex- 
 changeable value of commodities — that is, their power 
 of exchanging for or buying other commodities — de- 
 pends, at any given period, partly on the comparative 
 facility of their production, and partly on the relation 
 of the supply and demand. If any two or more com- 
 modities respectively required the same outlay of cap- 
 ital and labor to bring them to market, and if the sup- 
 ply of each were adjusted exactly according to the ef- 
 fectual demand — that is, were they all in sufficient 
 abundance, and no more, to supply the wants of those 
 able and willing to pay the outlay upon them, and the 
 ordinary rate of profit at the time — they would each 
 fetch the same price, or exchange for the same quantity 
 of any other commodity. But if any single commodity 
 should happen to require less or more capital and labor 
 for its production, while the quantity required to pro- 
 duce the others continued stationary, its value, as com- 
 pared with them, would, in the first case, fall : and in 
 the second, rise; and, supposing the cost of its produc- 
 tion not to vary, its value might be increased by a fall- 
 ing off in the supply, or by an increase of demand, and 
 conversely. But it is of importance to bear in mind 
 that all variations of price arising from any dispropor- 
 tion in the supply and demand of such commodities as 
 may h^ freely produced in indefinite quantities are tern- 
 parary only ; while those that are occasioned by changes 
 
PRI 
 
 1583 
 
 PRI 
 
 in the cost of their production are permanent, at least 
 as much so as the cause in which they originate, A 
 general mourning occasions a transient rise in the price 
 of black cloth ; but supposing that the fashion of wear- 
 ing black were to continue, ifs price would not perma- 
 nently vary ; for those who previously manufactured 
 blue and brown cloths, etc., would henceforth manu- 
 facture only black cloth ; and the supply being in this 
 way Increased to the same extent as the demand, the 
 price would settle at its old level. Hence the import- 
 ance of distinguishing between a variation of price 
 originating in a change of fashion or other accidental 
 circumstance — such, for example, as a deficient harvest 
 — and a variation occasioned by some change in the 
 cost of production. In the former case, prices will, at 
 no distant period, revert to their old level; in the lat- 
 ter the variation will be lasting. When the ^rice of a 
 freely produced commodity rises or falls, such variation 
 may evidently be occasioned either by something af- 
 fecting its value, or by something affecting the value 
 of money, But when the generality of commodities 
 rise or fall, the fair presumption is that the change is 
 not in them, but in the money with which they are 
 compared. This conclusion does not, however, apply in 
 all cases ; and we believe that most part of that fall in 
 the price of commodities, which has taken place since 
 the peace, and which has been so generally ascribed to 
 a rise in the value of money, occasioned by a decline in 
 the productiveness of the mines, has been caused by 
 the increased productiveness of industry, arising from 
 the abolition of oppressive restraints on commerce, the 
 opening of new and more abundant sources of supply, 
 and the discovery of new means and improved methods 
 of production. 
 
 'i. Price of monopolized Commodities. — Exclusive, 
 however, of the commodities now alluded to, there is a 
 considerable class whose producers or holders enjoy 
 either an absolute or a partial monopoly of the supply. 
 When such is the case, prices depend entirely or prin- 
 cipally on the proportion between the supply and de- 
 mand, and are not liable to be influenced, or only in a 
 secondary degree, by changes in the cost of production. 
 Antique statues and gems ; the pictures of the great 
 mapters ; wines of a peculiar flavor, produced in small 
 quantities, in particular situations; and a few other 
 articles, exist under what may be called absolute mo- 
 nopolies ; their supply can not be increased ; and their 
 price must, therefore, depend entirely on the competi- 
 tion of those who may wish to buy them, without be- 
 ing in the slightest degree influenced by the cost of 
 their production. Monopolies are sometimes establish- 
 ed bj' law ; as when the power to supply the market 
 with a particular article is made over to one individual 
 or society of individuals, without any limitation of the 
 price at which It may be sold ; which, of course, enables 
 those possessed of the monopoly to exact the highest 
 price for it that the competition of the buyers will af- 
 ford, though such price may exceed the cost of produc- 
 tion in any conceivable degree. Monopolies of this 
 sort used to be common in England, particularly in the 
 reign of Elizabeth ; but they were finally abolished by 
 the famous act of the 21 Jac. I. o. 3 — an act which, by 
 establishing the freedom of competition in all busi- 
 nesses carried on at home, has been, productive cf the 
 greatest advantage. — See Monopoly. The com laws 
 establish a partial monopoly of the supply of Great 
 Britain with corn in favor of the ajgriculturists ; but, 
 as competition is carried to as great an extent in agri- 
 culture as in any other business, this monopoly does 
 not enable them to obtain a higher price for their 
 produce than is suflicient to pay the expenses of its 
 production, though, owing to the peculiar circumstances 
 under which England is placed, this price is higher 
 than the price in the surrounding countries. Hence it 
 results that the monopoly is injurious to the public, 
 without being of any advantage to those engaged in 
 the business of agriculture. Neither, indeed, can it 
 
 be truly said to be advantageous to the landlords. The 
 rights conveyed by patents sometimes establish a valu- 
 able monopoly ; for they enable the , inventors of im- 
 proved methods of production to maintain, during the 
 continuance of the patent, the price of the article at a 
 level which may be much higher than is required to 
 aftbrd them the ordinary rate of profit. This advant- 
 age, however, by stimulating invention, and exciting 
 to new discoveries, of which it is the natural and ap- 
 propriate reward, instead of being injurious, is bene- 
 ficial to the public. There are also partial monopo- 
 lies, depending upon situation, connection, fashion, etc. 
 These and other Inappreciable circumstances some- 
 times occasion a difference of 30 per cent, or more in 
 the price of the same article in shops not very distant 
 from each other. Generally speaking, the supply of 
 monopolized commodities is less liable to vary than the 
 supply of those which are freely produced ; and their 
 prices are commonly more steady. But there are vari- 
 ous exceptions to this rule, and of these the corn mo- 
 nopoly is one. The great variations in the harvests of 
 particular countries, and their average equality through- 
 out the world, exposes a nation which shuts foreign corn 
 out of its ports to destructive vicissitudes of price, from 
 which it would enjoy a comparative exemption were the 
 ports open. Sometimes the expiration of a monopoly — a 
 patent, for example — has occasioned a sudden and ex- 
 traordinary increase of supplj', and consequent fall of 
 price ; entailing, of course, a serious loss on the holders 
 of large stocks of goods produced under the monopoly, 
 
 8, New Sources of Supply. — The effects on prices 
 produced by the opening of new markets, or new sources 
 of supply, are familiar to every one. The fall that 
 has taken place in the price of pepper, and of most 
 sorts of commodities brought from Europe from the 
 East, since the opening of the trade in 1814, is a con- 
 spicuous proof of what is now stated. 
 
 4. iT^uence of War on Prices. — The effect of war 
 in obstructing the ordinary channels of commercial in- 
 tercourse, and occasioning extreme fluctuations in the 
 supply and price of commodities, is well known. In 
 this respect, however, the latter part of the French war 
 is, perhaps, entitled to a pre-eminence. England then 
 dealt with an enemy who had extended his sway over 
 most part of the. Continent ; and who endeavored, by 
 every means in his power, to shut us out of the Conti- 
 nental markets. Mr. Tooke has given, in his elaborate 
 and valuable work on High and Low Prices, a variety 
 of details which strikingly illustrate the effect that the 
 regulations then adopted by the belligerent powers had 
 on prices, "Amongthemeans,"saysMr. Tooke, "de- 
 vised by the ingenuity and enterprise of adventurers 
 to elude or overcome the obstacles presented by the 
 decrees of the enemy, one in particular, which was re- 
 sorted to on an extensive scale, deserves mention, as 
 illustrating in a striking manner the degree in which 
 those lObstacles were calculated to increase the cost to 
 the consumer. Several vessels laden with sugar, coffee, 
 tobacco, cotton twist, and other valuable commodities, 
 were dispatched from England, at verj- high rates of 
 freight and insurance, to Salonica, where the goods 
 were landed, and thence conveyed on mules and horses 
 through Seryia and Hungary to Vienna, for the pur- 
 pose of being distributed over Germany, and possibly 
 into France, Thus it might happen that the inhabit- 
 ants of that part of the Continent most contiguous to 
 this country could not receive their supplies from ns 
 without an expense of conveyance equivalent to what 
 it would be if they were removed to the distance of a 
 sea-voyage twice round the globe, but not subject to 
 fiscal and political regulations." And in consequence 
 of these, and other causes of the same sort, Mr. Tooke 
 mentions that the price of sugar in France, and other 
 parts of the Continent, during the latter years of the 
 war, was as high as 5». and 6s. a pound ; that coffee 
 rose to 7s., indigo to 18s., and so on. But the sums 
 charged for freight and insurance were the most ex- 
 
PRI 
 
 1584 
 
 PKI 
 
 traordinary. Mr. Tooke states that he has known in- 
 stances in which the license, freight, and other charges 
 on account of a vessel of about 100 tons burden, mak- 
 ing a voyage from Calais to London and back, have 
 amounted to the almost incredible sum of £50,000 ! A 
 ship, of which the whole cost and outfit did not amount 
 to £4000, earned during the latter period of the war a 
 gross freight of £80|000 on a voyage from Bordeaux to 
 London and back ! The freight of indigo from London 
 to the Continent does not at present exceed Id. a pound ; 
 whereas it amounted, at the period referred to, to about 
 4s. Qd.—Iiigh and Law Prices, 2d ed. p. 212; 
 
 5: Irifiuence of Taxes on Prices. — It is unnecessary to 
 dilate on a topic so familiar to every one. When a 
 tax is laid on a commodity, its price necessarily rises 
 in a corresponding proportion ; for otherwise the pro- 
 ducers would not obtain the ordinary rate of profit, and 
 would, of course, withdraw from the business. The 
 rise in the price of several of the articles in the annex- 
 ed table is principally to be ascribed to the increase of 
 taxation. These statements will probably suffice to 
 give our readers a general idea of the principles which 
 determine the value of commodities. To go deeper 
 into the subject would involve us in discussions that 
 belong to political economy, and are among the mOst 
 intricate in that science. The influence of speculation 
 ■ on prices must not, however, be passed over in a work 
 of this sort. 
 
 6. Influence of Speculation on Prices. — It very rarely 
 happens that either the actual supply of any species 
 ^f produce in extensive demand, or the intensity of 1 
 that demand^ can be exactjy measured*. Every trans- 
 action in which an individual buys produce in order to 
 sell it again, is, in fact, a speculation. The buyer an- 
 ticipates that the demand for the article he has pur- 
 chased will be such, at some future period, either more 
 or less distant, that he will be able to dispose of it with 
 a profit; and the success of the speculation depends, it 
 is evident, on the skill with which he has estimated 
 the circumstances that must determine the future price 
 of the commodity. It follows, therefore, that in all 
 highly coihmercial countries, where merchants are pos- 
 sessed of large capitals, and where they are left to be 
 guided in the use of them by their own discretion and 
 foresight, the prices of commodities will frequently be 
 very much influenced, not merely by the actual occur- 
 rence of changes in the accustomed relation of the sup- 
 ply and demand, but by the anticipation of such changes. 
 It is the business of the merchant to acquaint himself 
 with every circumstance affecting the particular de- 
 scription of commodities in which he deals. He en- 
 deavors to obtain, by means of an extensive correspond- 
 ence, the earliest and most authentic information with 
 respect to every thing that may affect their supply or 
 demand, or the cost of their production; and if he 
 learned that the suppl)' of an article had failed, or that, 
 owing to changes of fashion, or to the opening of new 
 channels of commerce, the demand for it had been in- 
 creased, he would most likely be disposed to become a 
 buj-er, in anticipation of profiting by the rise of price, 
 which, under the circumstances of the case, could hard- 
 ly fail of taking place; or, if he were a holder of (he 
 article, he would refuse to part with it, unless for a 
 higher price than he would previously have accepted. 
 If the intelligence received by the merchant had been 
 of a contrary description — if, for example, he had learn- 
 ed that the article was now produced with greater facili- 
 ty , or that there was a falling off' in the demand for it, 
 caused by a change of fashion, or by the shutting up 
 of some of the markets to which it had previously been 
 admitted— he would have acted differently: in this case 
 he would have anticipated a fall of prices, and would 
 either have declined purchasing the article, except at 
 a reduced rate, or have endeavored to get rid of it, sup- 
 posing him to be a holder, by offering it at a lower price. 
 In consequence of these operations, the prices of com- 
 modities, in diflferent places and periods, are brought 
 
 comparatively near to equalit}'. All abrupt transi- 
 tions, from scarcity to abundance, and from abundance 
 to scarcity, are avoided ; an excess in one case is made 
 to balance a deficiency in another, and ^he siipph' is 
 distributed with a degree of steadiness and' regularity 
 that could hardly have been deemed attainable. 
 
 It is obvious, from what has now been stated, that 
 those who indiscriminatelj- condemn all sorts of spec- 
 ulative engagements have never reflected on the cir 
 cumstances incident to the prosecution of every under- 
 taking. In truth and reality they are all speculations. 
 TheirundCrtakers must look forward to periods more 
 or less distant; and their success depends entirely on 
 the sagacity with which they have estimated the prob- 
 ability of certain events occurring,- and the influence 
 which 'they have ascribed' to- fhetn. Speculation is, 
 therefore, really only another name for foresight ; and 
 thbugh fortunes have sometimes b^en made b}- a lucky 
 hit, the character of a successful speculator is, in the 
 vast majority of instances, due to him only who has 
 skillfully devised the means of effdtting the end he had 
 in view, artd who has outstripped his competitors in 
 the judgment with which he has looked into futuritj', 
 and appreciated the operation of causes producing dis- 
 tant eff'ects. Even in the "securest businesses, such as 
 agriculture and manufactures, thei-c is, and must be, 
 a great deal of speculation. An uWlooked-for change 
 of season frequently disappoints the apparently reason- 
 able expectations of those who undertake the former; 
 while the equally capricious variations of fashion have 
 to be encountered' by those engaged in the latter ; and 
 each is, besides, liable to be afl'ected by legislative en- 
 actments, by new discoveries in the arts, and bj' an 
 endless variety of circumstances -which it is always 
 very difficult, and sometimes quite impossible, to fore- 
 see. On the whole, indeed, the gains of the undertak- 
 ers are so adjuStedthat those -who carry them on ob- 
 tain, at an average, the common and ordinary rate of 
 profit. But the inequality in the gains of individuals 
 is most commonly very great' ; and while the superior 
 tact, industry, or good fortune of some enable them to 
 realize large fortunes, the want of discernment, the less 
 vigilant attention, or the bad fortune of others, fre- 
 quently reduces them from the situation of capitalists 
 to that of laborers. 
 
 The great cotton Speculation of 1825 took its rise 
 partly and- chiefly from a supposed deficiency in the 
 supply of cotton,, partly from an idea that there was a 
 greatly increased detnand for raw cotton in this coun- 
 try and the Continent, arid partly from a belief that 
 the stoclcg on hand were unusually low. Kow it is ob- 
 vious that the success' of those who embarked in this 
 speculation depended entirely on two circumstances: 
 y'lz.^Jirst^ that tliey-Avei-e right in the fundamental sup- 
 position on which the whole speculation rested, that 
 the supply of cotton was no longer commensurate with 
 the demand ; and, second, that their competition did not 
 raise the price so high as.to diminish the consumption 
 by the manufacturers in too great a degree to enable 
 them to take oft' the quahtity to be actuallj' brought to 
 market. If the merchants had been well founded in 
 their suppositions, and if their competition had not 
 raised the price of cotton too high, the speculation 
 would certainly have been successful. But, instead 
 of being well founded, the hypothesis on which the 
 whole thing rested was perfectly visionary. There 
 was no deficiency in the supply of cotton, but, on the 
 contrary, a great superabundance ; and though there 
 had been such a deficiency, the excess to which the 
 price was carried must have checked consumption so 
 much as to occasibn a serious decline. The falling off 
 in the imports of cotton from America in 1824 seems 
 to have been the source of the delusion. It was sup- 
 posed that this falling off was not accidental, but that 
 it was a consequence of the price of cotton having been 
 for a aeries of years so low as to be inadequate to de- 
 fray the expenses of its cultivation. Ine result showed 
 
PKI 
 
 1385 
 
 PEI 
 
 that this calculation was most erroneous. And be- 
 sides, in entering on the speculation, no attention was 
 paid to Egypt and Italy — countries from which only 
 about 1,400,000 lbs. of cotton were obtained in 1824, but 
 from which no less than 23,800,000 lbs. were obtained 
 in 1826! This unlooked-for importation was of itself 
 almost enough to overturn the combination of the spec- 
 ulators ; and, coupled with the increased importation 
 from America and other countries, actually occasioned 
 a heavy glut of the market. 
 
 The risk to which merchants are exposed when they 
 either sell off any commodity at a reduced price in an- 
 ticipation of a fall, or buy at an advanced price in an- 
 ticipation of a future rise, is a consequence principallj' 
 of the extreme difficulty of ascertaining the true state 
 of the fact with respect to the grounds on which an 
 abundant or a deficient supply, or an increasing or de- 
 creasing demand, may be expected. Rules can here 
 be of no service ; every thing depends upon the talent, 
 tact, and knowledge of the party. The questions to be 
 solved are all practical ones, varying in every case from 
 each other ; the skill of the merchant being evinced by 
 the mode in which he conducts his business under such 
 circumstances, or by his sagacity in discovering com 
 ing events, and appreciating their character and the 
 extent of their influence. Priority, but, above all, ac 
 curacy of intelligence, is in sucli cases of the utmost 
 consequence. Without well-authenticated data to go 
 upon, every step taken may only lead to error. The 
 instances, indeed, in which speculations, apparently 
 contrived with the greatest judgment, have ended in 
 bankruptcy and ruin, from a deficiency in this essential 
 requisite, are so very numerous, that every one must be 
 acquainted with them. Hence the importance of se- 
 lecting acute and cautious correspondents ; and hence 
 also, the necessity of maturely weighing their reports, 
 and of endeavoring, by the aid of information gleaned 
 from every authentic accessible source, to ascertain 
 how far they may be depended upon. When a few 
 leading merchants purchase in anticipation of an ad- 
 vance, or sell in anticipation of a fall, the speculation 
 is often pushed beyond all reasonable limits by the op- 
 erations of those who are influenced by imitation only, 
 arid who have never, perhaps, reflected for a moment 
 on the grounds on which a variation of price is antici- 
 pated. In speculation, as in most other things, one 
 individual derives confidence from another. Such an 
 one purchases or sells, not because he has any really 
 accurate information as to the state of the demand and 
 supply, but because some one else has done so before 
 him. The original impulse is thus rapidly extended; 
 and even those who are satisfied that a speculation, in 
 anticipation of a rise of prices, is unsafe, and that there 
 will be a recoil, not unfrequently adventure, in the ex- 
 j)ectation that they will be able to withdraw before the 
 recoil has begun. 
 
 It may, we believe, speaking generally, be laid down' 
 as a sound practical rule to avoid having any thing to 
 do with a speculation in which many have already en- 
 gaged. The competition of the speculators seldom fails 
 speedily to render an adventure that might have been 
 originally safe extremely hazardous. If a commodity 
 happen to be at an unusually reduced price in any par- 
 ticular market, it will rise the moment that different 
 buyers appear in the field ; and supposing, on the oth- 
 er hand, that it is fetching an unusually high price, it 
 will fall, perhaps, far below the cost of production, as 
 soon as supplies begin to be poured in by different 
 merchants. Whatever, therefore, may be the success 
 of those who originate a speculation, those who enter 
 into it at an advanced period are almost sure to lose. 
 To have been preceded by others ought not, in such 
 matters, to inspire confidence ; on the contrary, it 
 ought, unless there be something special in the case, 
 to induce every considerate person to decline interfer- 
 ing wjth it. The maintenance of the freedom of inter- 
 course between different countries, and the more gen- 
 5H 
 
 eral diffusion of sound instruction, seem to be the only 
 means by which those miscalculations, that are often 
 productive of great national as well as private loss, can 
 be either obviated or mitigated. The effects conse- 
 quent to such improvident speculations being always 
 far more injurious to the parties engaged in them than 
 to any other class, the presumption is that they will 
 diminish, both in frequency and force, according as the 
 true principles of commerce come to be better under- 
 stood. But, whatever inconvenience may occasionally 
 flow from them, it is abundantly plain that, instead of 
 being lessened, it would be very much increased, were 
 any restraints imposed on the freedom of adventure. 
 When the attention of many individuals is directed to 
 the same line of speculation — when they prosecute it 
 as a business, and are responsible in their own private 
 fortunes for any eiTors they may commit — they acquire 
 a knowledge of the various circumstances influencing 
 prices, and give by their combinations a steadiness to 
 them which it is easy to see could not be attained by 
 any other means. It is material, too, to bear in mind, 
 as was previously stated, that many, perhaps it might 
 be said most, of those who press so eagerly into the 
 market when any new channel of commerce is opened, 
 or when any considerable rise of price is^anticipated, 
 are not merchants, but persons engaged in other busi- 
 nesses, or living, perhaps, on fixed, incomes, who spec- 
 ulate in the hope of suddenly increasing their fortune. 
 This tendency to gambling seldom fails to break out - 
 upon such occasions ; but fortunately these are only of 
 comparatively rare occurrence ; and in the ordinary 
 course of affairs, mercantile speculations are left to be 
 conducted by those who are familiar with business, and 
 Who, in exerting themselves to equalize the variations 
 of price caused by variations of climate and of seasons, 
 and to distribute the supply of produce proportionally 
 to the effective demand, and with so much providence 
 that it may not at any time be wholly exhausted, per- 
 form functions that are in the highest degree important 
 and beneficial. They are, it is true, actuated only by 
 a desire to advance their own interests ; but the results 
 of tlieir operations are not less advantageous than those 
 of the agriculturist who gives greater fertility to the 
 soil, or of the mechanist who invents new and more 
 powerful machines. 
 
 Those desirous of detailed information as to the prices 
 of commodities in Great Britain, in remoter ages, may 
 consult the elaborate tables in the 3d volume of SiK F. 
 M. Eden's work on the Poor; and the 4th volume of 
 Macpherson's Annals of Commerce. Arbuthnot's 
 Tables of Ancient Coins, Weights, Measures, Prices, etc., 
 are well known ; but the statements are not much to 
 be depended upon. The Traite de Metrologie of M. 
 Paucton, 4to, Paris, 1780, is the best work on this 
 curious and difficult subject. See also volumes v. vi. 
 TooKE on Prices, London, 1857; Hunt's Merchants' 
 Magazine, iii. 305 (Hii..dketh) ; Quarterly ReviefB, xxix. 
 214; American Almanac, 1836, 101; Bankers* Maga- 
 zine, New York, 1857, 91-94. 
 
 " Considerable uneasiness begins to prevail in Paris at the 
 enormous rise that has taken place within the last two years 
 in the prices of food and lodging. It is not only that this 
 state of things drives away the crowds who a few years ago 
 used to resort to Paris to economize, and who spent im.- 
 mense sums in that capital, but, what is of far more import- 
 ance in a social and political point of view, it creates suffer- 
 ing, and, conseauently, discontent among the working classeB. 
 In all the capitals of Europe, there has been of late a similar 
 tendency to an increase in prices, partly nused, no doubt, by 
 the uncertainty created by the late war, and by the with- 
 drawal of large numbers of able-bodied men from the ordinary 
 pursuits of agriculture and industry, to swell the ranks of the 
 standing armies kept up by the four great military monarch- 
 ies of France, Kussia, Austria, and Prussia. Perhaps, also, 
 the speculative habits of the present generation have had 
 some share in producing this result" 
 
 The above is from a late London paper. The same 
 remark is pertinent to new circumstances in the United 
 States. The advanced prices charged for all commodi- 
 
PRI 
 
 1586 
 
 PKI 
 
 ties where labor is involved in their production, and 
 where new machinery and new appliances can not be 
 \jsed, are unerring results of an increased volume of 
 the precious metals. According to estimates made by 
 statistical writers who have examined the subject crit- 
 icallj', the increase of the piecious metals during the 
 six years, 1851-1856, is fully one-third of that existing 
 in the world at the end of the year 1860. 
 
 The product of gold in California is thus stated in 
 round numbers; 
 
 Voars. 
 
 Export, 
 
 Marginal Addition. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1848-' 4'J . . . 
 
 $8,060,000 
 
 $806,000 
 
 $8,866,000 
 
 ISSO 
 
 25,000,000 
 
 2,500,000 
 
 27,600,000 
 
 1851 
 
 41,250,000 
 
 4,125,000 
 
 45,876,000 
 
 1862 
 
 58,500,000 
 
 6,850,000 
 
 04,350,000 
 
 1863 
 
 62,500,000 
 
 6,2.50,000 
 
 03,760,000 
 
 1864 
 
 70,600,000 
 
 7,060,000 
 
 77,550,000 
 
 1855 
 
 6T, 000, 000 
 
 6,700,000 
 
 73,700,000 
 
 18B6 
 
 Total... 
 
 70,000,000 
 
 7,000,000 
 
 77,000,000 
 
 $402,810,000 
 
 $40,281,000 
 
 $443,091,000 
 
 Product of gold in California and Australia com- 
 bined; 
 
 Years. 
 
 Export. 
 
 Marginal Addition. 
 
 Total. 
 
 lS48-'49 .. 
 
 $8,060,000 
 
 $806,000 
 
 $8,866,000 
 
 1850 
 
 28,000,000 
 
 2,500,000 
 
 27,600,000 
 
 1861 
 
 r 45,760,000 
 
 4,576,000 
 
 50,336,000 
 
 1852......' 
 
 107,175,000 
 
 10,717,600 
 
 117,8'12,.500 
 
 18S3' 
 
 112,725,000 
 
 11,272,600 
 
 123,997,500 
 
 1654 
 
 115,640,000 
 
 11,504,000 
 
 127,204,000 
 
 18.55 
 
 124,506,000 
 
 12,450,500 
 
 137,021,500 
 
 1S5G 
 
 Total . . 
 
 , 133,715,000 
 
 13,371,500 
 
 147,086,800 
 
 $672,(:40,0n0 
 
 $67,264,000 
 
 $789,904,000 
 
 At the same time, the rate of interest has increased 
 from an average one ot 3 and SJ- to 6 and 7 per cent. ; 
 and the active demand for capital throughout Europe, 
 in support of heavy undertakings abroad and at home, 
 will probably maintain the current rates for some 
 years to come. We see no present indications of a 
 plethora of capital. 
 
 "We think it will appear that a greater rise, pro rata, 
 has taken place in prices within this short period. In 
 our own country, the prices of market produce, labor, 
 and materials requiring labor for their produclion, have 
 all increased from thirty to lifty, and in some instances 
 to one hundred per cent. In articles of food in the 
 London markets, the changes in prices between 1851- 
 1857 are shown in the following summary, which we 
 take from " Tooke's HiMory of Prices, during the 
 years 1848-185G," just published in London: 
 
 Articles. 
 
 Coffee 
 
 Sugar 
 
 Kum, Jamaica . . 
 
 Tobacco 
 
 Butter 
 
 Beef (8 lbs.) . . . . 
 Beef, prime . . . . 
 
 Mutton 
 
 Mutton, prime. . 
 
 Pork 
 
 Silk, raw, lbs. .. 
 
 Flax, tons 
 
 Wool (240 lbs.) . 
 
 Logwood 
 
 Seal oil 
 
 Olive oil 
 
 Palm oil 
 
 Tallow ._. 
 
 Leather, lbs. . . . 
 Saltpetre, cwt. . . 
 
 Ashes, Pearl 
 
 Copper 
 
 Iron, tons 
 
 Iron, Swedish . . 
 
 Lead, tons 
 
 Steel, Swedisli . . 
 Tin, tons 
 
 January, 1S51. 
 
 44 
 80 
 9 
 
 38 
 £14 
 
 53 (l58s. 
 26 ai&n. 
 26 a32d. 
 4i a lOd. 
 78 oSOs. 
 
 28 a 80 
 32 a 30 
 34 a 43 
 
 a 40 
 42 
 17s. 
 a 46 
 a — 
 
 70 a 80s. 
 £37 a — 
 
 43 n — 
 
 29 a — 
 80j a — 
 12 aiZd. 
 27J a 29 is. 
 30i a 31 
 
 £84 a — 
 '■ia 6 
 llf ffl — 
 nia— 
 15 ffl— 
 84 a — 
 
 January, 1854. 
 
 83 a 0:ls. 
 
 21 aC5s. 
 
 42 aiM. 
 Ua Bd. 
 
 104 a — 
 
 42 a 40 
 48 a 50 
 4S a 61 
 50 «63 
 i! aU 
 
 35 (J 52 
 15J a 16 
 
 110 a — 
 
 43 (I — 
 03 a — 
 43 a — 
 60 a — 
 15 a 2,) 
 27 a 31 
 29 a — 
 
 126 a — 
 
 ti}a — 
 
 125 a — 
 
 23ia — 
 
 174 a — 
 
 126 a — 
 
 Feb 1857 
 
 58 07 
 
 36 a 40 
 44 a 46 
 
 Soil 
 112(1 — 
 40 46 
 48o50 
 48 a 52 
 64 a 58 
 44 a 52 
 16 a 25 
 62 a — 
 
 37 a — 
 llOo — 
 
 60 o — 
 
 61 o — 
 47 a — 
 
 62 o — 
 24oSl 
 37 a 46 
 45a — 
 
 135 a — 
 
 9a — 
 
 15 a — 
 
 23 o — 
 
 20 a — 
 
 143 a — 
 
 These facts are important, as demonstrating the 
 progressive advance of prices according to the increased 
 bulk of precious metals. The same result occurred in 
 the century following the discovery of gold in America 
 (1500-1600), although the increased production was far 
 less than it is now. Kents, wages, family supplies, 
 labor generally — all advanced fully one hundred per 
 
 cent. ; and the probability is that an equal (or greatet) 
 ratio of increase will take place between 1850 and 1860. 
 It is true that the present accumulation of precious 
 metals is diffused among a much larger population and 
 over a more extended region of country than in the 
 16th or 17th centuries; but similar causes will produce 
 similar results, and labor will secure for itself a remu- 
 neration commensurate with the increased expenses of 
 living. 
 
 Fluctuations in Prices. — Mr. Tooke, an English writer 
 of some celebrity, has lately added two volumes on the 
 prices of 1848-1856. From these volumes (published 
 in London in 1857) we extract the following summary 
 view of the changes in prices since the discoveries of 
 gold in California ; 
 
 Summary of Conclusions with Reference to the Prices 
 of Commodities and State of Trade, 1848-56. — Without 
 attempting to include in a summary of conclusions all 
 the inferences which arise from the survey of the past 
 few years, we present the following statements as set- 
 ting forth those results which are best establi.shed and 
 most important, viz. : That as regards the great ar- 
 ticles of import, such as colonial and tropical produce 
 and commodities largely employed in this country as 
 raw materials of manufacture, the course of prices 
 during the nine years, 1848-'56, may be described in 
 general terms, as follows, viz. : During 1848 and 1849 
 there was a genera], and, in several important in- 
 stances, a strong tendency to lower prices; (hat in 
 1850, partly in consequence of larger consumption and 
 partly in consequence of actual or apprehended failures 
 of supply, prices sensibly, and, in some cases, mate- 
 rially advanced; that in 1851 there was again an ex- 
 tensive and severe decline, attributable almost wholl}' 
 to excess of supply; that in 1852 there was a manifest 
 tendency toward recovery ; that in the first nine months 
 of 1853 the upward tendency of the previous year 
 reached its highest point, establishing and maintaining 
 for nine months a range of prices considerably higher 
 than had prevailed for a long period; that from tlie 
 autumn of 1853 to the close of 1854, there was a sensi- 
 ble reaction from the previous high rates, except as re- 
 gards some of the articles immediatelj' affected by oper- 
 ations, or the commissariat consumption of the war ; 
 and that in 1855 and 1866 the markets were quiet and 
 firm, exhibiting only such fluctuations as arose out of 
 ordinary changes in supply and demand. In a future 
 part we shall inquire how far the fluctuations of prices 
 now referred to were connected with the influx of the 
 new gold. 
 
 That the first effects of the California discoveries of 
 1848 were felt in England in 1850 and 1851, and mani- 
 fested themselves in the increased demand for British 
 and foreign articles suitable for the export trade to the 
 United States; that the same effects were still more 
 sensibly felt in the course of 1852; that in 1853 the 
 consumption of British goods in California and the 
 United States generally had become so large and rapid 
 as to counteract almost entirely, as regards England, 
 any prejudicial effect upon the balance of trade of the 
 vast imports of grain, rendered necessary by the seri- 
 ous failure in these islands of the harvest of 1853 ; that 
 the same large American demand for British exports 
 continued through 1854 and 1855, and had prevail- 
 ed through 1856, interrupted but casually by the ex- 
 tensive failures and discredit which prevailed in the 
 United States and California during portions of the 
 years 1854 and 1855 ; and that, as the general result 
 of the trade between England and the United States 
 since 1850, the absorption of British exports either in 
 California itself or in those regions of the North 
 American continent to which the supplies of California 
 gold are chiefly sent in the first instance, has increased 
 so rapidly as to render necessary a constant and large 
 transmission of the precious metals from America to 
 England. 
 
 That the effects of the Australian discoveries of the 
 
PRI 
 
 1587 
 
 PEI 
 
 summer of 1851 were felt in this countrj' in a striking 
 manner early in the following year (1852), manifesting 
 themselves in a sudden and large' expansion of the 
 stream of emigration from these islands, and in a sud- 
 den and largo expansion in the shipment of nearly all 
 descriptions of commodities ; that the demand for ships 
 hence arising could not, in the then condition of the 
 mercantile mariiie, be readily supplied; ana the con- 
 sequence was an enormous increase of the rates of 
 freight, and a demand for new ships so urgent, that 
 considerably higher wages were at once conceded in all 
 the ship-building trades; that the same urgent de- 
 mands for Australia continued in the early part of 
 1853, were considerably moderated in 1854, still more 
 reduced in 1865, but in 1856 were again marked by 
 considerable activity. That the movement for higher 
 wages successfully commenced in the autumn of 1852 ; 
 in the ship-building trades became almost universal in 
 the first half of 1853 ; and previous to September, in 
 that year, had led to a very general addition of from 
 12 to 20 per cent, to the wages current in 1851 ; but 
 that the effect of the bad harvest of 1853, the war of 
 1851-'55, and the glut of the' Australian markets, was 
 to produce a considerable reaction from this advance, 
 especially in the factory districts. That the first and 
 immediate effect of the high prices of colonial and other 
 imported articles in 1852 and 1853, and of the high 
 prices and large demand for manufactured goods in the 
 same years, was to occasion vigorous efforts and a large 
 expenditure of capital, with a view to opening up, new 
 fields of supply, and creating extended means of pro- 
 duction ; and that it is principally to the operation of 
 these causes that the steady and frequently declining 
 course of prices since 1853 is to be attributed. 
 
 That as far as trustworthy evidence can be obtained, 
 there are no facts in the experience of the last nine years 
 which justify the conclusion that in England the fluctu- 
 ation of prices, the course of trade, or the increased de- 
 mand for goods arising out of the large exports to 
 America and Australia, wei'e immediately preceded by 
 or connected with changes in the amount of the aggre 
 gate outstanding circulation of bank-notes. In other 
 words, all the evidence available to us points distinctly 
 and uniformly to the conclusion that the fluctuations 
 of the bank-note circulation were determined and regu- 
 lated by the consequences flowing from previous appli- 
 cations of capital and credit in particular modes. That 
 further, in a great number of specific instances, it can 
 be shown conclusively that fluctuations of price of the 
 most important kind, and in the largest markets of 
 England, took place either without the occurrence of 
 any change whatever in the bank-note circulation or 
 contemporaneously with the occuirence of a change the 
 precise opposite of that which on a prion grounds, or 
 on the grounds on which the currency theory is built, 
 would have been expected to precede or accompany the 
 particular alteration in the markets. 
 
 That neither is there any such coincidence between 
 variations in the rate of interest and variations in the 
 markets for produce, as to justify tlie inference of a 
 direct connection between them in the relation of cause 
 and effect. That the first effect of the gpld discoveries 
 on the financial condition of England was the remark- 
 able and prolonged depression in the rates of interest 
 and discount, which prevailed during the twelvemonth 
 preceding the spring of 1853 ; that this effect on the 
 rate of interest was the immediate consequence of an 
 excessive accumulation, principally in the Bank of En- 
 gland, of the early remittances from California and 
 Australia; and that the influence produced by these 
 accumulations on opinion and credit was greatly ex- 
 tended and aggravated by the maintenance at the Bank 
 of England of a rate of discount so low as 2 per cent., 
 from April, 1852, to January, 1853. That the rise of 
 the rate of discount which commenced in January, 
 1853, and has been maintained during the subsequent 
 three years, is to be traced in its origin and continu- 
 
 ance to extended demand for capital for the purpose of 
 new, distant, and costly enterprises, directed either to 
 the construction of public works, to the extension of 
 old and introduction of new processes, or to the ex- 
 ploration of new fields for the supply of commodities; 
 and that, so far as we can judge from recent experi- 
 ence, the absorption of capital for these and other ob- 
 jects becomes more rapid and extensive with every suc- 
 ceeding year. 
 
 That the interruption to the trade of Eilgland occa- 
 sioned by theKussian war of 1854-*66 was compara- 
 tively slight, and for four reasons, viz. : 1. Because the 
 theatre of war was in a remote part of the east of Eu- 
 rope ; 2. Because the enemy had practically no navy 
 that could molest our commerce ; 3. Because the raw 
 materials previously obtained from Russia still con- 
 tinued to arrive through neutral ports or were readily 
 replaced by imports from India and elsewhere; and 
 4-, lastly, because the invention of the telegraph, tlie 
 existence of steam, and the enormous resources of our 
 mercantile marine and postal services, enable us to 
 accomplish in a few weeks' operations what, at the 
 commencement of the century, would have occupied a 
 long series of months.' That further, in addition to 
 and far more powerful than any of the five causes just 
 enumerated, was the effect of the continued influx of 
 gold during 1854 and 1855 — but especially during the 
 latter portion of 1855, in averting from England and 
 from France the extreme financial pressure and peril 
 which, in the absence of that influx, must inevitably 
 have been produced by the necessity of providing large 
 and constant remittances of gold to the seat of war ; 
 and must inevitably have placed entirely out of ques- 
 tion the maintenance of the restrictions of the Bank 
 Chart Act of 1844, and perhaps have even imperiled 
 the maintenance of the act of 1819. 
 
 That during the 3'ears 1848 and 1849, and part of 
 1850, the losses and discredit which fell with crushing 
 force on a large portion of the middle classes involved 
 in the railway expenditure, did, beyond question, pro- 
 duce some important effect in limiting the consumption 
 of' commodities. That, on the other hand, it was a 
 direct consequence of the railway expenditure of the 
 years 1848, 1849, and 1850, that the working classes 
 were provided with fair employment during a period 
 of interrupted trade, and it was also a direct conse- 
 quence of the cheapnesss of food, and the low range of 
 general prices which prevailed to the year 1852, that 
 the working classes were able to command, by means 
 of their wages, a larger amount of sustenance and com- 
 fort tlian had been within their reach probably at any 
 former period of the century. — Tooke's History of 
 Prices, 1867. 
 
 Price-current, a list or enumeration of the vari- 
 ous articles of merchandise, with their prices, the du- 
 ties (if any) payable thereon when imported or ex- 
 ported, with the drawbacks occasionally allowed upon 
 their exportation, etc. Lists of this description are 
 published periodically, generally once or twice a weeic, 
 in most great commercial cities and towns. — For ex- 
 amples, see the articles Genoa, Havke, Trieste, etc. 
 in this work. 
 
 Pride of China. The 3feUa azedarach, or Pride 
 of China, is supposed to have been originally a native 
 of Persia, where it was known as long ago as the year 
 980, b}' Avicenna, an Arabian physician, who noticed 
 the venomous principle which resides in its fruit; but 
 some botanists are of the opinion that it is also indig- 
 enous to Florida and the United States, or at least has 
 become so from habit; for it is found there growing 
 wild in the forests, and attains its fullest magnitude. 
 It is propagated for ornament or use in all the warm 
 countries of the civilized world. It is also cultivated 
 in conservatories in the temperate and colder parts of 
 Europe and America, and even there it often flowers, 
 and ripens its fruit. 
 
 Properties and Uses. — The wood of the azedarach is 
 
PRI 
 
 1588 
 
 PRI 
 
 of a reddish color, ana is organized in the distribution 
 of its fibres similar to those of the ash. It is sufficient- 
 ly strong and durable to be employed in civil archi- 
 tecture, and is adapted to various uses in the mechanic 
 arts. It has already been employed for pulleys, which 
 in Europe are usually made of elm, and in America of 
 ash. It is said to make good fuel. The fleshy part 
 of the fruit, like that of the olive, yields a fixed oil, 
 which is bitter, and is considered as anthelmintic, and 
 a narcotic stimulant. The leaves are universally used 
 in India for poultices, and both the flowers and seeds 
 are stimulant. The berries, though said by the Ara- 
 bian physician, Avicenna, to be poisonous, and the 
 pulp of which was mixed with grease, for the purpose 
 of killing rats and dogs, are often eaten b^^ children in 
 the South without injurious eflfects. According to Mr. 
 Koyle, however, the fruit is considered as poisonous 
 when used in large doses. The bark of the root, when 
 green, has a bitter, nauseous taste, yielding its virtues 
 to boiling water, and may be employed as a cathartic 
 or emetic, and is considered as an eflicient vermifuge, 
 and also may be used with advantage in interraittents. 
 In Persia, an ointment is made, for the cure of some 
 cutaneous eruptions, by mulling the leaves with lard. 
 It is also said that a kind of toddy is obtained by fer- 
 menting the sap of young and vigorous trees. The 
 nuts are often bored by monks, and strung into beads. 
 Hence the names of Bead-tree^ and Paternostri di San 
 Dommico.' — Browne's Trees of America. 
 
 Primage and Average. Primage is a charge in 
 addition to the freight. It was originally intended as 
 a gratuity to the captain for his particular care of the 
 goods, and is sometimes called hat-money ; but it now 
 belongs to the owners or freighters by charter-party 
 of the vessel, unless by special agreement the whole or 
 portion of it is assigned to the captain. It is collected 
 with the freight. The rate or manner of making this 
 charge depends chiefly upon the custom of the depart- 
 ment of trade in which the ship is engaged. Very 
 commonly it is a rate, as 5, 10, or even 16 per cent., 
 upon the amount of the freight. In some trades it is 
 a rate per hogshead, etc., and in some cases it Is not 
 allowed, the word primage being canceled or omitted, 
 and the words in full being added to the stipulated rate 
 of the freight, aa has been noticed in speaking of the 
 forms of bills of lading. The average referred to in 
 the bill of lading is the liability to general contribu- 
 tion for making good any damage which has been oc- 
 casioned by any step necessary for general preserva- 
 tion. This forms what is called a "general average," 
 and the notice of it is introduced into the bill of lading 
 to avoid any doubt as to liability on the part of the 
 consignee or claimant of the goods. — See Insdeance — 
 Ships, and Shipping. 
 
 Prince Edward Island. I^at. N. 46° and 47° 
 10'; long. W. 62° and 66°; area, 2134 square miles; 
 length about 135 miles ; and breadth from 4 to 34 miles. 
 
 The island of Prince Edward, formerly called St. 
 John's, is situated in a recess, on the west side of the 
 Gulf of St. Lawrence, and is separated from New 
 Brunswick and Nova Scotia by the Strait of Nor- 
 thumberland, which at its narrowest part is only nine 
 miles wide. Capital, Charlotte-Town. The colony 
 is divided into three counties: viz., Queen's, 15,426; 
 Prince, 15,142; King's, 32,111; and its total popula- 
 tion in 1848 was 62,678. 
 
 The population at several periods was as follows : 
 
 1802 20,671 
 
 1822 22,600 
 
 ]8'7 28,266 
 
 1833 .'...;; 32,176 
 
 1841 47,033 
 
 1848 : 62,678 
 
 The quantity of arable land under cultivation was 
 215,389 acres ; and the whole quantity of land occupied 
 was as follows : Held in fee-simple by occupants, 280,649 
 acres ; under lease, 330,293 acres ; by written demise. 
 
 31,312 acres ; by verbal agreement, 38,786 acres ; and 
 by squatters, 65,434 acres. The crops represented in 
 the census of the same year consisted of: wheat, 219,787 
 bushels; barley, 75,521 bushels; oats, 746,383 bushels ; 
 potatoes, 731,575 bushels; turnips, 153,933 bushels; 
 clover-seed, 14,900 pounds ; and hay, 45,128 tons. The 
 live-stock on the island was as follows : Horses, 12,845 ; 
 neat cattle, 49,810; sheep, 92,876; and hogs, 19,683. 
 The industrial establishments were embraced under the 
 following branches: 13 breweries and distilleries, 116 
 grist-mills, 27 carding-mills, 139 saw-mills, and 246 
 threshing-machines. The commerce of the island iu 
 1851 is exhibited in the following abstract : 
 
 Exports, including 89 vessels, 15,721 tons, at $16 
 per ton; 1,4S7,629 feet, nnd 6316 pieces, Ijonrds 
 and deals; shingles, 220,772 M; oats. 365,695 
 bushels ; cattle, 363 head ; dried fish, 7687 
 quintals; pickled fish, 3624 barrels; oysters, 
 4377 bushels ; and a variety of other products, 
 as timber, scantling, knees, etc., valued in all 
 
 $607,889 
 
 Imports, including ship-chandlery, which 
 is exported again in the building and 
 rigging of ships, and not estimated in 
 the value of the shipping $538,735 
 
 Less — say for ship-chandlery 62, 884 475, S71 
 
 Total commerce $l,tj83,260 
 
 The shipping employed in this commerce was as fol- 
 lows: 
 
 Great Britain.... 
 British colonies . 
 Unit:ed States. . . . 
 Other countries. . 
 
 Total in 1851 . 
 
 Total in 1850 . 
 
 18 
 
 470 
 
 43 
 
 2 
 
 533 
 657 
 
 4,140 
 
 18,042 
 
 2,724 
 
 87 
 
 24,9S3 
 25,017 
 
 488 
 86 
 
 2 
 
 621 
 638 
 
 Ton e. ' 
 
 m95r 
 
 25,374 
 
 5,427 
 
 71 
 
 4J,S23 
 40,322 
 
 The number of seamen inward, in 1850, was 2082, 
 and in 1861, 2370; outward, in 1850, 2301; and in 
 1851, 8631. 
 
 The following compares the value of the imports and 
 exports for three years : 
 
 
 1849. 
 
 1850. 1 1851. 
 
 Imports 
 
 Exports 
 
 Total 
 
 $676,040 
 292,775 
 
 $630,475 
 325,968 
 
 $475,871 
 607,389 
 
 $868,815 1 $1:56,464 | $1,083,260 
 
 The exports of 1851 include the value of vessels sold 
 to Great Britain and Newfoundland, amounting to 
 $251,536, which is not included in either 1849 or 1850. 
 In 1849 there were built in the colon}' 88 vessels, 15,902 
 tons ; and in 1850, 93 vessels, 14,891 tons, valued at |10 
 per ton. The total value of articles, the gi'owth, produce, 
 or manufacture of the United States, imported in 1851, 
 was $77,858, the whole of which, except to the value 
 of $3200, were carried in British bottoms. In 1860 
 the value of the same description of articles imported 
 was only $42,113. The wide difference between the 
 two years arises from the fact that in 1851 the duties 
 on imports were greatly reduced from the rates of the 
 preceding year. With the high rates of duties of 1850, 
 only $6420 was received on articles of American pro- 
 duction ; while in 1851, with diminished rates, the du- 
 ties were increased to $14,020. The articles exported 
 to the United States in 1851 wore as follows : Barley, 
 17,929 bushels ; boards and planks, 12,000 feet ; iron, 
 60 cwt. ; cattle, 9 head ; firewood, 20 cords ; dry fish, 
 650 quintals ; pickled fish, 1786 barrels ; hard wood, 74 
 tons; horses, 3; hackmatack knees, 2216 ; oats, 222,109 
 bushels; potatoes, 45,942 bushels; turnips, S090 bush- 
 els ; and wool, 1700 pounds. The value of the fore- 
 going, with the value of sundry other articles not 
 enumerated, amounted together to $119,236. The 
 value of similar articles exported in 1850 was only 
 $65,886. On the 31st December, 1850, the number of 
 vessels owned and registered in Prince Edward Is- 
 land was 310, of the burden of 27,932 tons. On the 
 31st December, 1861, the vessels owned and registered 
 numbered 323, of the burden of 31,410 tons. Prince 
 
PRI 
 
 1589 
 
 PEI 
 
 Edward Island has valuable fisberies in the Gulf of 
 St. Lawrence, and in the Strait. 
 
 Prince Edward Island is chiefly an agricultural col- 
 ony. Ship-building, however, is carried on to a consid- 
 erable extent , and new ships have already become a 
 prominent article of export. In the years 1849, 1850, 
 and 1851, there were built in the island, for sale in 
 Great Britain, Newfoundland, or wherever else they 
 might find a profitable market, 270 vessels, with an 
 aggregate of 45,946 tons ; giving an annual average 
 of 90 vessels, and 15,315 tons. 
 
 
 1849. 
 
 1850. 1 1861. 1 
 
 Exports to United States . . 
 Imports from United States 
 
 $32,411) 
 82,580 
 
 $55,385 
 41(603 
 
 $119,280 
 TT,858 
 
 Tonnage in 1850. 
 
 Veawli. 
 
 •turn. 
 
 
 84 
 49 
 43 
 
 8(i 
 
 2578 
 403S 
 2724 
 542T 
 
 Cleared for United States 
 
 Entered in 1851 
 
 Cleared in 1861 
 
 The difference between the imports from the United 
 States in 1850 and 1851 ($36,255) is accounted for by 
 the reduction of the duties on imports by colonial act, 
 the high duties up to 1851 affecting, to a large extent, 
 the trade with the United States. This reduction of 
 the tariff of Prince Edward Island not only augment- 
 ed the exports from the United States, but produced 
 a corresponding increase in the imports from that isl- 
 and. Thus, in 1850, the value of exports from Prince 
 Edward Island to the United States was $55,385 ; in 
 1851 it amounted to $119,286. The trade between the 
 United States and this island being now comparatively 
 free, a still greater increase than that exhibited above 
 may be annually expected. 
 
 The revenue, expenditures, and public debt of the 
 colony,'in 1851, were as follows: 
 
 Revenue. — Customs and imports, £17,769 18s. lid. ; 
 fines and forfeitures, £110 5s, Id. ; interest on bonds, 
 £161 2s. Oid. ; post-office, £999 2s. i\d. ; land assess- 
 ments, £2165 Is. 7d. ; registers, £159 6s. 2i(i. ; licenses, 
 j£i59 lOs. ; seizures, £44 9s. 8rf. ; and fees from Sec- 
 retary's office, £299 15s. M. Total, £22,538 14s. 9id., 
 being an average per head of 7s. 2id., or of the net 
 customs alq,ne, the average per head was bs.6\d. 
 
 Jixpendiiures. — Legislature, £1912 4s. 4Jd. ; educa- 
 tion, £2351 14s. lOd. ; agricultural societies, £450 ; 
 miscellaneous, £752 3«. 8id.; post-office, £1539 lOs. 
 3(2. ; salaries, £3145 lis. Ili2. ; compensation to gov- 
 ernment officers, £774 16s, ; public postages, £55 19s. 
 3d. ; crown prosecutions, £793 14s. Hd. ; board of 
 health, £421 15s. lid. ; fish bounties, £370 18s. 9d. ; 
 provincial building, £540 15s. 8d. ; inquest and shadiac 
 packes, £116 lis. 7id. ; printing and stationery, £794 
 4s. 2 id. ; apprehension of deserters, £378 14s. 2d. ; in- 
 terest on liabilitips and debentures, £1626 4s/ ; draw- 
 backs, £220 16s. iid. ; sundry fees, etc., £173 12s. lid ; 
 roads, bridges, and wharves, £6978 3s. 2d. ; jails, £610 
 lis. 8id. ; small disbursements, £86 7s. 2id. ; markets, 
 £50ls,8ii. ; light-house, £176 17s. Hid. ; public works, 
 £787 6s. 3d. ; and buoys and beacons,£65 Os. 8d. Total, 
 £24,173 10s. Hid., showing a surplus of expenditures 
 amounting to £1634 16s. 2d. The public debt amount- 
 ed, In the year above stated, to £17,938.— Andkews's 
 Report on Colonial and Lake Trade (Sen. Doc. 112), 
 1852-53 ; MLvrtin's J3ritish Colonies (London edition) ; 
 Report of a Committee (Canadian) on the Income, Ex- 
 penditure, and Debt of British North America (11th 
 June, 1853) ; U. S. Comm. Bel, etc. 
 
 Printed Goods. The art of calico-printing is of 
 considerable antiquity, and there exist specimens of 
 Egyptian cotton dyed by figured blocks many hundred 
 years old. A similar process has been resorted to even 
 in the Santlwich Islands, where they use a large leaf 
 as a substitute for the block. — See /art. Cottoj^. The 
 copyright of designs secured in England by 2 Vic.,1839. 
 
 Friating. See Pbess, Ijooks, and Newspapeks. 
 
 Prints, impressions on paper, or some other sub- 
 stance, of engravings on copper, steel, wood, stone, 
 etc., representing some particular subject or composi- 
 tion. Prints, like paintings, embrace every variety 
 of subject; and differ very widely in the manner in 
 which they are engraved. Their prices vary accord- 
 ing to the style of the engraving, the fineness of its 
 execution, the goodness of the impression, its rarity, 
 etc. The art seems to have taken Its rise in the 16th 
 century. 
 
 Fiisage, or Butlerage, was a right of taking two 
 tuns of wine from every ship importing into England 
 twenty tuns or more ; which was changed by Edward I. 
 into a duty of 2s. for every tun imported by merchant 
 strangers, and called butlerage, because paid to the 
 king's butler. The term is now fallen into disuse. — 
 Blackstone. 
 
 Privateering. In order to encourage privateer- 
 ing, it is usual to allow the owners of private anned 
 vessels to appropriate to themselves the property, or a 
 large portion of the property, they may capture, and to 
 afford them and the crew other facilities and rewards 
 for honorable and successful efforts. This depends 
 upon the municipal regulations of each particular pow- 
 er ; and as a necessary precaution against abuse, the 
 owners of privateers are required, by the ordinances of 
 the commercial states, to give adequate security that 
 they will conduct the cruise according to the laws and 
 usages of war and the instructions of the government, 
 and that they will regard the rights of neutrals, and 
 bring their prizes in for adjudication. These checks 
 are essential to the character and safety of maritime 
 nations. Privateering, under all the restrictions which 
 have been adopted, is very liable to abuse. The ob- 
 ject is not fame or chivalric warfare, but plunder and 
 profit. The discipline of the crews is not apt to be of 
 the highest order, and privateers are often guilty of 
 enormous excesses, and become the scourge of neutral 
 commerce. They are sometimes manned and officered 
 by foreigners, having no permanent connection with 
 the country or interest in its cause. This was a com- 
 plaint made by the United States in 1819, in relaltion 
 to irregularities and acts of atrocity committed by pri- 
 vate armed vessels sailing under the flag of Buenos 
 Ayres. Under the best regulations, the business tends 
 strongly to blunt the sense of private right, and to 
 nourish a lawless and fierce spirit of rapacity. Efforts 
 have been made from time to time to abolish the prac- 
 tice. In the treaty of amity and commerce between 
 Bussia and the United States in 1785, it was stipulated 
 that in case of war neither party should grant commis- 
 sions to any private armed vessels to attack the com- 
 merce of the other. But the spirit and policy of mari- 
 time warfare will not permit such generous provisions 
 to prevail. That provision was not renewed with the 
 renewal of the treaty. A similar attempt to put an 
 end to the practice was made in the a^eement between 
 Sweden and Holland in 1675, but the agreement was 
 not performed. The French Legislature, soon after the 
 breaking out of the war with Austria in 1792, passed a 
 decree for the total suppression of privateering, but that 
 was a transitory act, and it was soon swept away in the 
 tempest of the revolution. The efforts to stop the prac- 
 tice have been very feeble and fruitless, notwithstand- 
 ing that enlightened and enlarged considerations of 
 national policy have shown it to be for the general 
 benefit of mankind to surrender the licentious practice, 
 and to obstruct as little as possible the freedom and 
 security of commercial intercourse among the nations. 
 — Kent's Commentaries. The reader is referred to the 
 North American Review, x. 166 (J. Galuson) ; Niles's 
 Register, xiv. 129, xvi. Sup. 29 ; De Bow's Review, i. 
 516. See also Maritime Law, ante, 1321, et seq. 
 
 Letters of Marque and Reprisal "are grantable by 
 the law of nations, whenever the subjects of one state 
 are oppressed and injured by those of another, and jus- 
 tice is denied by that state to which the oppressor be- 
 
PEI 
 
 1590 
 
 PRI 
 
 longs." — Chitty's Comm. Law, vol. iii. page 604. 
 Before granting letters of marque, government is di- 
 rected by the 5 Hen. V. c. 7, to require that satisfac- 
 tion be made to the party aggrieved ; and in the event 
 of such satisfaction not being made within a reasona- 
 ble period, letters of marque and reprisal may be is- 
 sued, authorizing the aggrieved party to attack and 
 seize the property of the aggressor nation, without haz- 
 ard of being condemned as a robber or pirate. Such 
 letters are Kbw only issued to the owners or captains 
 of privateers during war, or when war has been de- 
 termined upon. They may be revoked at the pleasure 
 of the sovereign ; and when hostilities terminate, they 
 cease to have any effect. Letters of marque and re- 
 prisal were first issued in England by Edward I., for 
 the seizure of the enemy's vessels, and for reprisal and 
 retaliation upon the enemy on the sea. — Eymeb's For- 
 dera. They were first granted in 1295. — Baicek's 
 Chron, They are usually granted in time of war to 
 private armed ships, and do great michief to the com- 
 merce of belligerent nations. — Powc^, 
 
 Privateers, ships of war fitted out by private indi- 
 viduals, to annoy and plunder the public enemy. But 
 before commencing their operations, it is indispensable 
 that they obtain letters of marque and reprisal from the 
 government whose subjects they are, authorizing them 
 to commit hostilities, and that they conform strictly to 
 the rules laid down for the regulation of their conduct. 
 All private individuals attacking others at sea, unless 
 empowered by letters of marque, are to be considered 
 pirates, and may be treated as such either by those 
 they attack or by their own government. 
 
 Policy of Privalcering.- — The policy of this system is 
 very questionable. It seems to be a remnant of that 
 species of private war exercised by all individuals in 
 early ages, but which gradually disappears as society 
 advances. In wars carried on by land, the property 
 of the peaceable inhabitants who take no part in the 
 operations of the armies is uniformly protected ; and it 
 is difficult to discover any solid grounds why the same 
 rule should not be followed at sea. Privateers rarely 
 attack ships of war. Their object is merely to plunder 
 and destroy merchantmen. They cause an infinite 
 deal of mischief to individuals, and aggravate all the 
 miseries of war, without having the slightest influence 
 on the result of the contest. Experience has also 
 shown that it is not possible, whatever precautions 
 may be adopted, to prevent the greatest abuses from 
 being perpetrated by privateers. The wish to amass 
 plunder is the only principle by which they are actu- 
 ated ; and such being the case, it would be idle to sup- 
 pose that they should be very scrupulous about ab- 
 staining from excesses. A system of this sort, if it be 
 ever useful, can be so only to nations who have little 
 trade, and who may expect to enrich themselves dur- 
 ing war by fitting out privateers to plunder the mer- 
 chant ships of their enemies. In all other cases it 
 seems to be productive only of mischief; though it is, 
 of course, most injurious to those states that have the 
 greatest mercantile navy. Instead, therefore, of en- 
 couraging the practice of privateering, we think that a 
 due regard, to the rights and interests of humanity 
 would suggest to the great powers the expediency of 
 abolishing it altogether. A few efforts have, indeed, 
 been already made toward this desirable object. Thus 
 it was stipulated in the treaty between Sweden and 
 the United Provinces, in 1675, that neither party 
 should, in any future war, grant letters of marque 
 against the other. In 1767 Russia abstained from 
 licensing privateers; and in the treaty between the 
 United States and Prussia, in 1785, a stipulation was 
 inserted as to privateers, similar to that in the treaty 
 between Sweden and the United Provinces in 1675. 
 But nothing short of a convention and agreement to 
 that effect among the great powers will be able to effect 
 this desirable object. — Martens, Essai concemant les 
 Armateurs, 1794. See Maritime Law, p. 1322, etc. 
 
 Prize. Any thing captured by a belligerent using 
 the right of war : in common language, only ships thus 
 captured, with the property taken in them, are so called. 
 Prizes taken in war are condemned by the proper judi- 
 cature in the courts of the captors ; such condemnation 
 is held to divest the title of the proprietor and confer 
 a new ownership. In order to give jurisdiction to a 
 court of prize, it is deemed necessary, by the law of 
 nations, that the property captured should be in pos- 
 session of the captors in their own ports, those of an 
 ally, or of a neutral ; but no belligerent power has a 
 right to capture in the ports of a neutral country, or 
 within a marine league of her shores; nor does a cap- 
 ture made there render the adjudication valid. Sub- 
 ject to capture is hostile property, i. e., the property 
 of persons domiciled in a hostile country, and neutral 
 property contraband of war. — See Contrabasd. 
 
 Prize Money. — The money arising from captures made 
 upon the enemy is divided into eight equal parts, and is 
 equally distributed by order of government, thus : Cap- 
 tai^ to have three-eighths, unless under the direction 
 of a flag ofiicer, who in that case is to have one of the 
 said three-eighths ; captains of marines and land for- 
 ces, sea lieutenants, etc., one-eighth ; lieutenants of 
 marines, gunners, admirals' secretaries, etc., one-eighth; 
 midshipmen, captain's clerk, etc., one-eighth ; ordinary 
 and able seamen, marines, etc., two-eighths. — See 
 Privateers and Letters of Marque. 
 
 Prizes. — The right to all captures vests primarily in 
 the sovereign, and no individual can have any interest 
 in a prize, whether made by a public or private armed 
 vessel, but what he receives under the grant of the 
 state. This is a general principle of public jurispru- 
 dence, bcUo parta cedunt reipvblicm, and the distribu- 
 tion of the proceeds of prizes depends upon the regula- 
 tions of each state ; and unless the local laws have oth- 
 erwise provided, the prizes vest in the sovereign. But 
 the general practice, under the laws and ordinances of 
 the belligerent governments, is to distribute the pro- 
 ceeds of captured property, when duly passed upon 
 and condemned as prize (and whether captured by 
 public or private commissioned vessels), among the cap- 
 tors, as a reward for bravery, and a stimulus to exer- 
 tion. When a prize is taken at sea, it must be brought 
 with due care into some convenient port, for adjudica- 
 tion by a competent court ; though, strictly speaking, 
 as between the belligerent parties, the title passes, and 
 is vested when the capture is complete, and that was 
 formerly held to be complete and perfect when the bat- 
 tle was over, and the spesreciiperandi'wsis gone. Gro- 
 tius and many other writers, and some marine ordi- 
 nances, as those of Louis XIV., and of Congress dur- 
 ing the American war, made twenty-four hours' quiet 
 possession by the enemy the test of title by capture. 
 Bynkershoeck says that such a rule is repugnant to 
 the laws and customs of Holland ; and he insists that 
 a firm possession at any time vests the property in 
 the captor, and that ships and goods brought infra 
 prcesidia do most clearly change the property. But 
 by the modern usage of nations, neither the twenty- 
 four hours' possession, nor the bringing the prize infra 
 prcesidia, is sufficient to change the property in the case 
 of a maritime capture. A judicial inquiry must pass 
 upon the case, and the present enlightened practice of 
 commercial nations has subjected all such captures to 
 the scrutiny of judicial tribunals, as the only sure way 
 to furnish due proof that the seizure was lawful. The 
 property is not changed in favor of neutral vendee or 
 recaptor, so as to bar the original owner, until a regu- 
 lar sentence of condemnation has been pronounced by 
 some court of competent jurisdiction belonging to the 
 sovereign of the captor ; and the purchaser must be 
 able to show documentary evidence of that fact to sup- 
 port his title. Until the capture becomes invested 
 with the character of prize by a sentence of condemna- 
 tion, the right of property is in abeyance, or in a state 
 of legal sequestration. It can not be alienated or dis- 
 
PKO 
 
 1591 
 
 PRO 
 
 posed of, but the possession of it by the government of 
 the captor is a trust for the benelit of tliose who may 
 be ultimately entitled. This salutary rule, and one so 
 necessary to check irregular conduct and individual 
 outrage, has been long established in the English ad- 
 miralty, and it is now every where recognized as the 
 law and practice of nations. 
 
 The condemnation must be pronounced by a prize 
 court of the government of the captor, sitting either in 
 the countiy of the captor or of his ally. The prize 
 court ofan ally can not condemn. Prize or no prize, 
 is a question belonging exclusively to the courts of the 
 country of the captor. The reason of this rule is said 
 to be, that the sovereign of the captors has a right to 
 inspect their behavior, for he is answerable to other 
 states for the acts of the captor. The prize court of 
 the captor may sit in the territory of the ally, but it is 
 not lawful for such a court to act in a neutral territory 
 Neutral ports are not intended to be auxiliary to the 
 operations of the power of war ; and the law of nations 
 has clearly ordained that a prize court of a belligerent 
 captor can not exercise jurisdiction in a neutral coun- 
 try. This prohibition rests not merely on the unfit- 
 ness and danger of making neutral ports the theatre 
 of hostile proceedings, but it stands on the ground of 
 the usage of nations. It was for some time supposed 
 that a prize court, though sitting in the country of its 
 own sovereign, or of his ally, had no jurisdiction over 
 prizes lying in a neutral port, because the court wanted 
 that possession which was deemed essential to the ex- 
 ercise of a jurisdiction in a proceeding in rem. The 
 principle was admitted to be correct by Sir William 
 Scott, in the ease of the ffenrick and Maria, and he 
 acted upon it in a prior case. But he considered that 
 the English admiralty had gone too far in supporting 
 condemnations in England, of prizes abroad in a neu- 
 tral port, to permit him to recall the vicious practice 
 of the court to the acknowledged principle; and the 
 English rule is now definitively settled, agreeably to the 
 old usage and the practice of otlier nations. The Su- 
 preme Court of the United States has followed the En- 
 glish rule, and it has held valid the condemnations, by 
 a belligerent court, of prizes carriedinto a neutral port, 
 and remaining there. This was deemed the most con- 
 venient practice for neutrals, as well as for the parties 
 at war; and though the prize was, in fact, within a 
 neutral jurisdiction, it was still to be deemed under the 
 control, or sub potestate, of the captor. — Kent's Com- 
 meitlarieSj vol. i. 
 
 Froa, a narrow canoe about thirty feet long by three 
 feet wide, used in the Ladrone Islands. The lee side 
 is fiat, being the mere longitudinal section of the com- 
 mon form, and the head and stern exactly alike. A 
 slight frame-work projects several feet to windward, 
 bearing a small block of wood like a canoe ; this float 
 supports the vessel from oversetting to that side, as 
 she would otherwise do, and the frame-work affords 
 support for a weight acting against the pressure of the 
 sail. The vessel is steered by the paddle at either end, 
 and moves with great velocity either backward or for- 
 ward, being adapted to a side wind in running between 
 two places. The sail is mat, with a boom, upon one 
 mast. Proa is also the name for large boats used by 
 the Malays, propelled both by oars and sails. 
 
 Produce, Production. See articles Wheat, 
 Floor, etc. 
 
 Promissory Notes. A promissory note may be 
 defined to be a written engagement by one person to pay 
 another person, therein named, absolutely and uncon- 
 ditionally, a certain sum of money at a time specified 
 therein. The definition given by Mr. Justice Black- 
 stone is, that promissory notes, or notes of hand, are a 
 plain and direct engagement in writing to pay a sum 
 specified at a time limited therein, to a person therein 
 named, or sometimes to his order, or often to the bear- 
 er at large. Perhaps this definition may be thought 
 faulty in not stating that the engagement is to be ab- 
 
 solute and unconditional. Mr. Justice Bayley more 
 succinctly states, that a promissory note is a written 
 promise for the payment of money at all events. Mr. 
 Chancellor Kent follows the definition of Mr. Justice 
 Bayley; and perhaps each is open to the objection that, 
 while it seeks brevity, it is incomplete, as it does not 
 state that the promise is made by one person to pay 
 the money to another person specified. Although a 
 promissory note is, in contemplation of law, entitled to 
 all the privileges belonging to such an instrument by 
 the Commercial Law, as well as by the Common Law, 
 without being negotiable, yet it is the latter quality 
 which gives it its principal importance and value in 
 modern times, and makes it a circulating credit, so ex- 
 tensively useful and so generally resorted to in the 
 commerce of the world. Promissory notes are now 
 generally made negotiable, by being stated therein to 
 be payable to A or order, or to the order of A, or to 
 A or bearer, or to the bearer generally. Perhaps the 
 silent but steady progress in England, from the simple 
 use of the non-negotiable notes, before the reign of 
 Queen Anne, to the present almost universal negotia^ 
 bility of such instruments in our day, can not be better 
 expressed than by referring to the language of Black- 
 stone, where he adverts to the fact that promissory 
 notes are payable " to a person therein named," and 
 then cautiously adds, or "sometimes to his own order, 
 or oftener to the bearer." The reverse language might 
 be far more justly used in the present day ; and it might 
 be correctly stated that promissory notes are now gen- 
 erally negotiable by being payable to order, or to the 
 bearer ; and that they are rarely limited to be payable 
 only to a particular person named therein. We may 
 add in this connection, that the person who makes the 
 note is called the maker, and the person to whom it is 
 payable is called the payee ; and when it is negotiable 
 by indorsement, and is indorsed by the payee, he is 
 called the indorser, and the person to whom the inter- 
 est is transferred by the indorsement is called the in- 
 dorsee. Every indorsee is of course deemed the hold- 
 er, and so is every person who, by a transfer of a note 
 payable to the bearer, becomes entitled thereto. The 
 Scottish law seems precisely coincident with the En- 
 glish law as to promissory notes, except so far as re- 
 spects the remedial process thereon ; there being some 
 peculiar privileges annexed thereto in Scotland. 
 
 It seems scarcely necessary to point out the distinc- 
 tion between bills of exchange and promissory notes in 
 their general structure and character. In a bill of ex- 
 change there are ordinarily three original parties, the 
 drawer, the payee, and the drawee, who, after accept- 
 ance, becomes the acceptor. In a promissory note 
 there are but two original parties, the maker and the 
 payee. In a bill of exchange, the acceptor is the pri- 
 mary debtor in the contemplation of law to the payee ; 
 and the drawer is but collaterally liable. In a prom- 
 issory note, the maker is, in contemplation of law, the 
 primary debtor. If a note be negotiable, and is in- 
 dorsed by the payee, then there occurs a striking re- 
 semblance in the relations of the parties upon both in- 
 struments, although they are not in all respects iden- 
 tical. The indorser of a note stands in the same rela- 
 tion to the subsequent parties as the drawer of a bill, 
 and the maker of the note is under the same liabilities 
 as the acceptor of a bill. 
 
 The origin of promissory notes is quite as obscure 
 as that of bills of exchange. There is no doubt that 
 promissory notes in writing (chirogrnpha) were well 
 known and in use among the Romans. Of this we 
 have an instance in the Digest: ab Aula Augerio Gains 
 Seius muiuam guandam quaniiiaiem accepit hoc chiro- 
 grapho : ille scripsii, me accepisse, et accepi ab illo mu- 
 iuos et numeraios decern ; quos ei reddam kalendis illis 
 proximis cum suis usuris placitis intemos : Qucero, an ex 
 eo instrumento vsurm peti possini, et quce ? Modestintts 
 respondit, si non appareat de quibus usuris conveniio facia 
 ait, peti eas non posse. But this instrument never seems 
 
PRO 
 
 1592 
 
 PRO 
 
 to have been known as a negotiable instrument among 
 the Komana, or as a general medium used in purchases 
 and sales, with that superadded quality ; but its nego- 
 tiability seems to be exclusively the invention of mod- 
 ern times. Probably the origin of negotiable promis- 
 sory notes is somewhat later than that of bills of ex- 
 change, and grew out of the same general causes as the 
 latter, viz., to facilitate the operations of commerce, 
 and to extend the negotiability of debts, Mr. Kyd's 
 remarks on this subject seem at once well founded and 
 satisfactory, at least as conjectures. "As commerce," 
 says he, " advanced in its progress, the multiplicity of 
 its concerns required, in many instances, a less compli- 
 cated mode of payment than by bills of exchange, A 
 trader, whose situation and circumstances rendered 
 credit from the merchant or manufacturer, who sup- 
 plied him with goods, absolutely necessary, might have 
 so limited a connection with tiie commercial world at 
 large that he could not easily furnish his creditor with 
 a bill of exchange on another man. But his own re- 
 sponsibility might be such that his simple promise of 
 payment, reduced to writing for the purpose of evi- 
 dence, might be accepted with equal conhdence as a 
 bill on another trader. Hence, it may reasonably be 
 conjectured, promissory notes were at first introduced." 
 Undoubtedly negotiable promissory notes weie well 
 known upon the continent of Europe long before their 
 introduction into England. They were probably first 
 brought into use in England about the middle of the 
 17th century, although Lord Holt has been thought to 
 assign to them a somewhat later origin. They seem 
 at first to have been called bills of debt, or bills of 
 credit, indifferently. Indeed, as Lord Mansfield has 
 observed, there seems much confusion in the " Reports" 
 in the times of King William and Queen Anne, so that 
 it is difficult, without consulting the records, to ascer- 
 tain whether the action arose upon a bill or note, as 
 the words " bill" and " note" were used promiscuously. 
 There was a long struggle in Westminster Hall as to 
 the question whether promissory notes were negotiable 
 or not at the Common Law, for there could be no doubt 
 that they were by the Law Merchant, at least as recog- 
 nized upon the continent of Europe. Lord Holt most 
 strenuously, and with a pride of opinion not altogether 
 reconcilable with his sound sense and generally com- 
 prehensive views, maintained the negative. Tlie con- 
 troversy was finally ended by the statute of 3 and 4 
 Anne, ch. 9 (1705), (made perpetual by the statute of 
 7 Anne, ch. 25, sec. 3,) which, after reciting that prom- 
 issory notes had been held not negotiable, proceeded to 
 enact, " That all notes in writing, made and signed by 
 any person or persons, body politic or corporate, or by 
 the servant or agent of any corporation, banker, gold- 
 smith, merchant, or trader, who is usually intrusted 
 by him, her, or them, to sign such promissory notes for 
 him, her, or them, whereby such person or persons, 
 body politic and corporate, hisi her, or their servant or 
 agent as aforesaid, doth or shall promise to pay to any 
 other person or persons, body politic and corporate, his, 
 her, or their order, or unto bearer, any sum of money 
 mentioned in such note, shall be taken and construed 
 to he, by virtue thereof, due and payable to any such 
 person or persons, body politic and corporate, to whom 
 the same is made payable; and also every such note 
 payable to any person or persons, body politic and cor- 
 porate, his, her, or their order, shall be assignable or 
 indorsable over, in the same manner as inland bills of 
 exchange are or may be, according to the custom of 
 merchants ; and that the person or persons, body poli- 
 tic and corporate, to whom such sum of money is or 
 shall be by such note made payable, shall and may 
 maintain an action for the same, in such manner as he, 
 she, or they might do upon any inland bills of exchange, 
 made or drawn according to the custom of merchants, 
 against the person or persons, body politic and corpo- 
 rate, who, or whose servant or agent as aforesaid, signed 
 the same ; and that any person or persons, body politic 
 
 and corporate, to whom such note, that is payable to 
 any person or persons, body politic and corporate, his, 
 her, or their order, is indorsed or assigned, or the mon- 
 ey therein mentioned ordered to be paid by indorse- 
 ment thereon, shall and may maintain his, her, or their 
 action for such sum of money, either against the per- 
 son or persons, body politic and corporate, who, or 
 whose servant or agent as aforesaid, signed such note, 
 or against any of the persons that indorsed the same, 
 in like manner as in cases of inland bills of exchange." 
 In most of the States of America this statute has been 
 either expressly adopted by statute, or recognized as 
 part of their Common Law. A few only have deemed 
 it inapplicable to their situation; and in some States 
 the circulation of promissory notes still remains clogged 
 with positive restrictions or practical difficulties, which 
 greatly impede their use, and value, and circulation. 
 Most, if not all commercial nations, have annexed cer- 
 tain privileges, benefits, and advantages to promissory 
 notes, as they have to bills of exchange, in order to 
 promote public confidence in them, and thus to insure 
 their circulation as a medium of pecuniary commercial 
 transactions. In England and America they partake 
 in a very high degree of the character of specialties, 
 and are deemed to import prima facie^ to be founded 
 upon a valuable consideration, and may be generally 
 declared on without specially stating what the partic- 
 ular consideration is; in which circumstance they dif- 
 fer from other unsealed contracts, whether written or 
 unwritten. Between the original parties the consider- 
 ation may indeed, as a matter of defense, be inquired 
 into. But where they are negotiable, and in the pos- 
 session of a bona Jide holder for a valuable considera- 
 tion, without any notice of any inherent infirmit}'^ or 
 vice in their original concoction, they are binding upon 
 the antecedent parties, and the consideration is not in- 
 quirable into, and becomes immaterial. In Scotland 
 they are entitled to all the privileges of bills of ex- 
 change, among which, besides the common privileges 
 in England and America, is the privilege of a summai-j- 
 process to enforce payment upon their dishonor, difter- 
 ing from the ordinary process. The like summary 
 process is given by the' French law. [And a similar 
 statute has recently been enacted in England.] Hei- 
 neccius, in the passages already referred to, states that 
 they are indorsable like bills of exchange, and are sub- 
 ject to the law of prescription, and, in case of dishonor, 
 are open to the same process and mode of execution as 
 bills of exchange,' — Stoky on Promissory/ Notes. See 
 Bills of Exchange and Exchange. 
 
 Promontory (Latin pro, and mons, a movntain'). 
 In Geography^ a point of land, whether high or low is 
 indifferent, projecting into the soa. — See Cape. 
 
 Protection, in Commercial legislation, means the 
 protecting or bolstering up of certain branches of do- 
 mestic industry by prohibiting the importation of the 
 produce of such branches from abroad, or loading it, 
 when imported, with heavy duties. This policy was 
 at one time universally prevalent. But its extremely 
 injurious influence having been demonstrated over and 
 over again, it has been abandoned by all intelligent 
 statesmen. And notwithstanding the powerful inter- 
 ests by which it was supported, it has nearly disap- 
 peared from our legislation; and it will, no doubt, 
 eventually disappear from the legislation of all coun- 
 tries. 
 
 Providence, city, the principal port of entry, and 
 semi-capital of Hhode Island ; situated in 41° 49' 22" 
 N. lat., and 71° 24' 48'" W. long, from Greenwich, and 
 1° 23' 24" E. lon^. from Washington. It is 30 miles 
 north of Newport, 42 miles south-southwest from Bos- 
 ton, 70 miles east of Hartford, 173 miles east of New 
 York, and 396 from Washington. Population in 1820, 
 11,767; in 1830,16,832; in 1840,23,171; in 1850,41,513; 
 in 1854, 60,000. In i>oint of population and wealth 
 Providence is the second cit}' in New England. Its 
 present limits contain about nine square miles. The 
 
PRO 
 
 1593 
 
 PRU 
 
 compact portion of the city is built on both aides of 
 the Providence River, over which are constructed two 
 broad and substantial woodSn bridges, above which 
 the river expands into a broad and beautiful cove. 
 
 There are in Providence 26 banks, with an aggre- 
 gate capital of $10,419,690; a savings-bank ; three in- 
 surance companies, with a capital of $390,000, besides 
 several mutual insurance companies without specified 
 capital. The manufactures of Providence are extens- 
 ive. The city also contained in 1857, 73 steam-engines, 
 and within 100 rods of the city line are 12 or 15 more, 
 that for all practical purposes belong here ; 56 jewel- 
 ry establishments, employing 1400 hands, and yield- 
 ing an annual product of $2,771,600; three bleach- 
 ing and dyeing works, employing 350 hands, and fin- 
 ishing 60,980,000 yards of goods ; 22 manufactories of 
 machinery, steam-engines, boilers, castings, etc., em- 
 ploying 2062 hands ; 9460 tons of coal ; 11,095 tons of 
 pig-iron ; 9801 tons of other iron, and producing annu- 
 ally 33,800 stoves, 9,000,000 pounds of nails and spikes, 
 80 steam-engines, 220 boilers, 3,584,000 pounds of nuts, 
 etc., and other articles to the total value of $2,561,000 ; 
 two screw factories, that yield an annual product of 
 $1,086,000 ; two butt factories, that produce $235,000, 
 and a great variety of smaller manufactories, yielding 
 together an annual product of |17,400,000. 
 
 Providence possesses great commercial facilities, 
 which have been well improved. The harbor, at the 
 head of Narritganset Bay, 33 miles from the ocean, is 
 spacious, and has sufficient depth of water for the 
 largest ships. Somewhat more than 100 vessels be- 
 long to the port. The registered tonnage in 1853 was 
 16,361 tons. Two lines of packets ply regularly to 
 New York, two to Albany, one to Philadelphia, and 
 one to Baltimore. A railroad 41 miles long extends 
 from Providence to Boston, with which it i^ connected. 
 
 Provisions. Under this term, taken in its most 
 extensive sense, in reference to man, may be comprised 
 all those articles used as food by the inhabitants of this 
 and other countries ; but commercially it is understood 
 to comprise only fl-esh and salted butchers' meat, hams 
 and bacon, butter and cheese, eggs, and a few other 
 articles. 
 
 Value of Live Stock, aooobding to the Censttb of 1850, 
 OF THE United States. 
 
 states and Territotiea. 
 
 Alabama : 
 
 Arkaniias. 
 
 California 
 
 Columbia, District of. . 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 Belaware 
 
 Florida ...'.. 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Indiana 
 
 lows. '. 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Maine 
 
 Maryland '. 
 
 Massacbusetts 
 
 Miclugiin 
 
 Miaslsslppl 
 
 Missouri 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 New York , 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Pennsylvania ', 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Texas 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Virginia 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 Minnesota Territory . . 
 New Mexico Territoiy. 
 
 Oregon Territory 
 
 Utah Territory 
 
 Swine. 
 
 1,1)04,540 
 
 836,727 
 
 2,776 
 
 1,635 
 
 76,4T2 
 
 56,261 
 
 209,463 
 
 2,168,617 
 
 1,916, SIOT 
 
 2,263,776 
 
 323,247 
 
 2,891,103 
 
 597,301 
 
 54,598 
 
 352,911 
 
 81.119 
 
 206,847 
 
 1,582,734 
 
 1,702,625 
 
 63,487 
 
 250.370 
 
 1,018,252 
 
 1,812,813 
 
 1,964,770 
 
 1,040,366 
 
 , 19,509 
 
 1,068,503 
 
 3,104,800 
 
 692,022 
 
 66,296 
 
 1,829,843 
 
 169,276 
 
 734 
 
 7,314 
 
 30,235 
 
 914 
 
 Value of 
 Live Steele. 
 
 ,$21,690,000 
 
 6,647,000 
 
 3,351,000 
 
 71,000 
 
 7,467,000 
 
 1,849,000 
 
 2,880,000 
 
 26,728,000 
 
 24,209,000 
 
 22,478,000 
 
 3,689,000 
 
 29,661,000 
 
 ll,lfi2,000 
 
 9,705,000 
 
 7,997,000 
 
 9,647,000 
 
 8,005,000 
 
 19,403,000 
 
 19,887,000 
 
 8,871,000 
 
 10(679,000 
 
 73,670,000 
 
 17,717,000 
 
 44,121,000 
 
 41,500.000 
 
 1,532,000 
 
 15,060,000 
 
 29,078,000 
 
 10,412,000 
 
 12,643,000 
 
 33,656,000 
 
 4,897,000 
 
 92,000 
 
 1,414,000 
 
 1,876,000 
 
 646,000 
 
 Vftluo of 
 
 AntDials 
 
 alaughteied. 
 
 $4,823,000 
 1,163,000 
 
 107,000 
 
 9,000 
 
 2,202,000 
 
 373,000 
 
 614,000 
 6,339,000 
 4,972,000 
 6,507,000 
 
 821,000 
 6,462,000 
 1,458,000 
 1,046,000 
 1,954,000 
 2,500,000 
 1,328,000 
 3,636,000 
 3,367,000 
 1.522,000 
 2;638,000 
 13,573,000 
 6,767,000 
 7,439,000 
 8,219,000 
 
 «67,000 
 3,502,000 
 6,401,000 
 1,116,000 
 1,861,000 
 7,602,000 
 
 920,000 
 2,000 
 82,000 
 
 164,000 
 67,000 
 
 Prunes and Prunelloes, a species of dried plums, 
 of which there are many varieties. The finest are im- 
 ported from France, in the south of which this fruit is 
 very abundant. The best prunes are packed in ham- 
 pers or baskets made of white osiers, weighing from 
 six to ten pounds each ; the second quality in quarters, 
 and the third in puncheons. 
 
 Prussia (one of the Zoll- Vereiri). The Prussian ter- 
 ritory is not much more than two-fifths of the size of 
 that of Austria, and the larger portion of it lies within 
 the limits of the great and comparatively barren plain 
 which extends from the Bohemian and Carpathian 
 Mountains to the Baltic Sea. The smalltr and more 
 fertile part of the Prussian territory, called the Grand 
 Duchy of the Lower Rhine, lies in the lower part of the 
 basin of that river, and is separated from the main 
 body of the kingdom by the intervention of Hanover, 
 Saxony, and other German states. There are, besides, 
 several smaller districts scattered in the h^art of Ger- 
 many; and with a territory thus scattered and dis- 
 jointed, the ranlc of Prussia as a great state has been 
 sustained chiefly through the superiority of her intern- 
 al organization, and the wary, temporizing, and even 
 shuffling policy of her government, forced upon them, 
 indeed, by the defenselessness of a kingdom without 
 natural frontiers, or physical centrality, or a people 
 united by language, and national feeling, and interest. 
 Agriculture is the chief occupation of the people ; but 
 in the Rhenish provinces the cotton, and in Silesia the 
 linen manufactures, are carried on to a great and in- 
 creasing extent. Prussia necessarily maintains a large 
 standing army, but has no naval power; the king, 
 however, has recently purchased the port of Jahdc 
 from the Grand Duke of Oldenburg for the purpose 
 of a naval station, and has begun the formation of a 
 fleet. The kingdom was till recently an absolute mon- 
 archy, but has now received a Constitution. 
 
 The first treaty of amity and commerce between the 
 United States and Prussia was negotiated in 1785. 
 This was renewed in 1799, and expired in 1815. In 
 1828 a new treaty was concluded between the two gov- 
 ernments, which is still in force. Under the former 
 treaties the vessels of tlie two high contracting parties 
 were reciprocally allowed to import the goods which 
 were of the produce or manufacture of their respective 
 nations. The latter treaty, however, stipulates entire 
 reciprocity and freedom of commerce. The vessels of 
 each nation are allowed to import into the other the 
 productions of their own or of any other country'. The 
 direct trade between the United States and Prussia is, 
 however, very inconsiderable. There is scarcely any 
 article of American production demanded in Prussia, 
 except tobacco, rice, and raw cotton ; nor is there any 
 bulky article of Prussian produce wanted in the Amer- 
 ican markets. 
 
 Vessels entered and oleaeed. ' ^ 
 
 —See articles Bacon, Pork, Wheat, Flour, etc. 
 
 Entered loaded 
 
 Of.hich,. ere .{-«--; 
 
 Entered in "ballaBt 
 
 Cleared loaded 
 
 rt, 1-1, (national 
 
 Of winch were -jf^^^jg^^ 
 
 Cleared in ballast 
 
 Number, 
 
 "4794" 
 
 2612 
 2936 
 6576 
 
 3768 
 981 
 
 Tonnage. 
 414,803, 
 211,648- 
 203,166 
 274,750 
 6SB,663 
 277,923 
 307,740 
 88,443 
 
 ISSS. 
 
 Number. 
 
 "5T34~ 
 2316 
 8118 
 
 biii 
 
 2597 
 3526 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 511,661 
 244,160 
 267,501 
 
 000,2B4 
 272,289 
 327,965 
 
 IMPOBTS AND EXPORTS TO AND FEOM THE UNITED StATIEB 
 AND PnnSSIA, FEO.M 1850 TO 1855, BOTH INCLUSIVE. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Value of Imports 
 into United States. 
 
 Value of Eiporta 
 from United Statee. 
 
 1850 
 
 $27,469 
 20.542 1 
 
 21,263 
 47,875 
 47,773 
 237,814 
 
 ,$98,036 
 85,913 
 93,386 
 28,717 
 
 31,266 
 
 
 
 
 |g54 
 
 1855 
 
 The following statement exhibits the value of ex- 
 
PEU 
 
 1594 
 
 PEU 
 
 ports, tlio produce and manufacture of Prussia, to the I to 1855, both inclusive, specifying the places at which 
 United States during a period of live years, from 1851 | said exports were shipped for the United States : 
 
 Years. 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 lA— 
 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 Hamburg. 
 
 Bremen. 
 
 Holland. 
 
 France. 
 
 Belgium. 
 
 England. 
 
 1851* 
 
 $47,969 
 239,843 
 373,930 
 175,021 
 2G4,714 
 
 $474,791 
 1,410,705 
 1,566,973 
 1,071,689 
 1,982,313 
 
 $15,387 
 47,746 
 21,279 
 14,614 
 67,314 
 
 $933,284 
 1,648,972 
 1,801,435 
 1,059,116 
 1,926,249 
 
 $197,746 
 442,620 
 420,169 
 393,717 
 840,604 
 
 $286,008 
 1,616,848 
 1,614,685 
 1,201,134 
 1,942,463 
 
 $1,955,185 
 5,4I'6,734 
 5,71 7,421 
 S,975,2?0 
 7,024,562t 
 
 1852 
 
 1853 . . 
 
 1S54* 
 
 1853 
 
 * These returns are for the port of New York only, and for six months. The Department is not in possession of the req- 
 uisite data to exhibit the general trade for these years. The other years, however, show the genei;al_anniial_value of the 
 
 indirect trade. 
 
 With Great Britain and France, Prussia maintains 
 an active and annually increasing commercial inter- 
 course. This trade is chiefly conducted through the 
 port of Stettin. In 1852 the general navigation of 
 this port "vvas as follows ; 
 
 Vessels entered the Poet op Stettin in 1852. 
 
 Prom England 280 
 
 " France 20 
 
 '^ United States 5 
 
 '^ Russia 15 
 
 " Denmark 30 
 
 " Mediterranean 20 
 
 Total number of vessels entered 370 
 
 Vessels oleaeed feom the Poet or Stettin in 1852. 
 
 For England 180 
 
 '' France 50 
 
 *' Denmark 30 
 
 " Russia 25 
 
 " Belgium 3 
 
 " Sweden 4 
 
 " Norway 10 
 
 " Holland _0 
 
 Total number cleared 308 
 
 From the United States the imports into this port 
 are: rice, ashes, rosin and turpentine, and whale-oil; 
 thougli, owing to its high price within the past few 
 years, the^ article last named has almost ceased to be 
 imported from the United States. Sugar has also dis- 
 appeared from the list of imports, for the reason that 
 the refineries in the Baltic ports chiefly use beet-root 
 sugar. 
 
 The value of imports from the United States into 
 this port for the years 1851, 1852, and 1853, and the 
 duties levied thereon, are thus given in Prussian offi- 
 cial reports : 
 
 1851 $329,870— Amount of duty $26,160 
 
 1862 134,310 " 13,270 
 
 1853 79,883 " 5,920 
 
 The port of Memel is also the centre of no inconsid- 
 erable share of the direct trade between the United 
 States and Prussia. From 1st July to 31st December, 
 
 1854, there entered this port from the United States, 
 in the direct trade, five vessels, measuring an aggre- 
 gate tonnage of 2505 tons, and floating 8171 bales of 
 cotton, valued at $411,500. Outward cargoes consisted 
 of hemp, rope, canvas, yarn, mats, bags, and leather. 
 
 At the port of Konigsberg tliere arrived from the 
 United States from 1st July, 1854, to 1st January, 
 
 1855, seven American vessels, floating cargoes in value 
 $898,000— namely, 9680 bales of cotton, 1700 gallons 
 of oil, and 3600 boxes of sugar. Outward cargoes con- 
 sisted of hemp, yam, bristles, feathers, raven's-duck, 
 cordage, horse-hair, soap, and tallow, to the aggregate 
 value of $730,000. 
 
 The general foreign trade of this port is considera- 
 ble. Its exports consist of grain, woolens, silks, soap, 
 starch, fealing-wax, and refined sugar. Its imports, 
 however, largely exceed in value its exports. The 
 former in 1861 amounted to about 6,000,000 thalers, 
 while the latter only reached a little over 4,000,000. i 
 
 The harbor of Konigsberg admits small vessels only; 
 large ships land at Pillau, which is also the port of 
 Elbing and Braunsberg. 
 
 Dantzic is the only remaining port of Prussia in 
 which foreign trade is conducted. It is situated on 
 the loft bank of the Vistula, three and a half miles 
 
 t This includes $905, via Rotterdam, 
 from its outlet at Weichselmunde, and is accessible to 
 vessels drawing from eiglit to nine feet water. Larger 
 vessels lie in the Neufahrwasser, at the mouth of the 
 river, or in the roads, which afford good anchorage for 
 vessels of any burden. Its exports consist of wheat, 
 rye, barley, oats, peas, flour, linseed, rape-seed, biscuit, 
 provisions, ashes, zinc, bones, timber, staves, hemp, 
 flax, linens, wool, etc. The imports comprise woolen 
 and silken stuffs, and other manufactured goods ; colo- 
 nial products, dyes, wine, oil, spice, fruit, salt, and furs. 
 
 At Stettin, port dues are : Tonnage duty, 14 silver 
 groschen per last, laden, and one half only if in ballast. 
 This would be about 16*1 cents per ton if laden, and 
 8'05 cents per ton if in ballast. Pilotage dues, 2^- tha- 
 lers per 25 lasts, and 15 silver groschen for every 10 
 lasts upward. This equals $1 72^ per 50 tons, and 
 3ii cents per every 20 tons upward. 
 
 Port Rerjulaiions. — The following regulations apply 
 to all the Prussian ports: On a ship arriving in the 
 road or port, the master must submit to the police 
 regulations of the port, which are made known to him 
 or the officer in command ; the master is then required 
 to proceed to the custom-house and deliver a complete 
 manifest oftthe cargo. This manifest or general decla- 
 ration is required to state clearly if the whole cargo is 
 to be entered at the port, and the part, if any, which is 
 to be carried farther in the ship ; that part to be stated 
 under a special head. The merchandise, as per bills 
 of lading, is then entered regularly. The statements 
 for entry are to be drawn up, specifying the descrip- 
 tion, weight, measure, or quantity, agreeably to a zoU- 
 tariff for the payment of duties. Excepting various 
 articles imported in an unpacked state, the following 
 measures are to be adopted : For beer in casks, tuns of 
 100 Prussian quarts ; for wines, branny, and vinegar, 
 in casks (eimers) of 60 Prussian quarts ; for herrings, 
 barrels; for burned chalk, tuns of 4 Prussian bushels; 
 for all other packed articles, centners of 110 pounds 
 gross weight. If there be several packages of similar 
 articles, and each package contains an equal quantity, 
 they may be entered together, according to their num- 
 ber and size, and with a general statement of the con- 
 tents. If the contents of the packages vary, it will be 
 necessary to specify the contents of each. The luggage 
 of passengers must be noted as such in the manifest.^ 
 If it consist of usual traveling luggage, it will be suffi- 
 cient to state the several boxes or parcels ; but if it in- 
 clude goods, these must be stated according to number 
 and description. The personal property of the master, 
 with the exception of provisions, must be stated like 
 other goods, but omitting the declaration to a con- 
 signee; and it must also be stated in the declaration 
 what are the articles which are not in the ship's hold. 
 A form is presented to the master to fill up as his re- 
 port. It must be filled up exactly according to this 
 form, and written clearly in the German language. 
 This declaration is binding on the master, and each 
 error that may be discovered on the unlading, or on 
 examination, subjects him to a penalty stated in the 
 customs laws. If the master has not a report with 
 him, he may have one prepared in the port by a cus- 
 toms officer ; in which case he delivers all his papers 
 to the officer, who stamps and numbers them, the last 
 number being marked as such. The master, at the 
 same time, informs the ofiicer of the goods or luggage 
 
PEU 
 
 1595 
 
 PEU 
 
 belonging to himself or to passengers, if there be no 
 account of the same ; the officer makes out a list there- 
 of, which is signed by the master, and returned, in 
 order to be inserted in the report. If the report has to 
 be prepared on shore, it must be delivered to the cus- 
 toms officers within 24 hours after the arrival of the 
 ship in the road ; if not, possession will be taken of the 
 ship at the master's expense. Customs officers may 
 take possession of the ship at once, free of expense. It 
 is required of the master to procure the necessary in- 
 formation for the report, in the arranged manner, on 
 receipt of the cargo. If he does not so prepare him- 
 self, the customs officers assume the whole direction of 
 landing the cargo, according to the regular instructions 
 in such cases. Respecting the ship's provisions, if they 
 consist of articles which pay a consumption duty, a 
 separate report is required in duplicate : one is return- 
 ed to the master after revision, in order that he may 
 take on board an equal quantity of similar provisions 
 Vhen he sails. If he fails in this, or if the sailing is 
 delayed beyond a twelvemonth, the consumption duty 
 must be paid on the provisions remaining on hand. 
 The master is, however, at liberty to deposit the pro- 
 visions at the custom-house until he sails, subject to 
 the consumption duty if not taken away. Articles 
 not properly fonning a part of the cargo are so con- 
 sidered if they undoubtedly appertain to the ship's in- 
 ventory, and are articles for the use of the voyoge. 
 Articles. which are not considered as such, are to pay 
 duty if thej' be subject to a consumption tax ; or they 
 may be landed, in order to be deposited in the custom- 
 house. If a vessel remains in the road, and does not 
 enter the port, and only discharges the cargo into light- 
 ers, the consumption of provisions in the road is duty 
 free. A report of the provisions is sufficient, and no 
 further control over the same is observed, except in 
 
 particular cases when considered necessary. If the 
 master is bound for another destination, and only en- 
 ters the harbor through distress, then a general inspec- 
 tion is only made, in order that no part, of the cargo 
 may be disposed of. A report, however, is to be made 
 of the cargo. In cases of shipwreck, on the salvage of 
 the cargo, the kind and quantity is ascertained, with 
 the assistance of the regular officers, and the cargo 
 shall be placed in security until further directions are 
 issued. The cargo of vessels which winter in Prussian 
 ports must be declared without unnecessary delaj', in 
 as far as the ship's papers and the knowledge of the 
 master afford information. An inspection of the outer 
 parts and decks of the vessel, and the stores or articles 
 thereon, takes place at once, and the ports or hatch- i 
 ways of the ship's hold are then locked. Until the 
 declaration, inspection, and locking up of the vessel 
 take place, it is watched at the expense of the captain ; 
 which guarding, in particular cases, may continue as 
 long as the customs officers may consider necessary. 
 Ships which only anchor in the roads, and do not enter 
 the port, are not considered within the control of the 
 customs officers ; they must not, however, hold inter- 
 course with the shore or the port, without delivering a 
 report and their papers. If the ship remain in the 
 roads longer than 24 hours after the declaration is 
 made, without entering or proceeding to unload, unless 
 the one or the other be prevented by stress of weather, 
 then an officer repairs to the ship, examines the decks, 
 etc., and locks up the hatches, etc., of the hold. To 
 the officers who are on service on board the vessel, 
 proper maintenance is to be allowed, the same as is af- 
 forded to travelers of the trading class. The following 
 table exhibits the foreign commerce of the United States 
 with Prussia for 37 years, giving the domestic and for- 
 eign exports, the imports, and tonnage. 
 
 COMMEEOE or THE UNITED STATES WITH PecBSIA FROM OCTOBEtt 1, 1820, TO JULY ] 
 
 , 1857. 
 
 
 Years eoding 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 whereof there was ID 
 Bullion and Specie. 
 
 Tonnage cleared I 
 
 Domestic. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Export. 
 
 Import. 
 
 ■ American. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Sept. 30,1821 
 
 — 
 
 
 .... 
 
 $1,399 
 
 
 
 
 
 1822 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1823 
 
 $T,268 
 
 $668 
 
 $7,836 
 
 
 
 
 120 
 
 
 1824 
 
 5,163 
 
 
 5,163 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1825 
 
 4,918 
 
 1'2,650 
 
 17,668 
 
 ■ 21,250 
 
 
 
 
 ■ 217 
 
 1826 
 
 15,129 
 
 3,421 
 
 18,550 
 
 107,615 
 
 
 
 ' sis 
 
 
 182T 
 
 8,515 
 
 .... 
 
 8,515 
 
 39,758 
 
 
 f 
 
 156 
 
 
 1S2S 
 
 15,430 
 
 
 15,430 
 
 136,064 
 
 
 
 lit 
 
 
 1829 
 
 14,411 
 
 
 14,411 
 
 22,935 
 
 
 
 188 
 
 
 1830 
 
 Total. . . 
 
 16,501 
 
 
 ld,501 
 
 16,605 
 
 
 
 232 
 
 
 $8T,335 
 
 $16,639 
 
 $103,974 
 
 $345,626 
 
 
 
 1126 
 
 217 
 
 Sept. 30, 1831 
 
 $2T,043 
 
 
 $27,043 
 
 ' $50,970 
 
 
 
 387 
 
 
 1832 
 
 11,116 
 
 
 11,116 
 
 21,927 
 
 
 
 179 
 
 
 1833 
 
 12,812 
 
 
 12,812- 
 
 124,570 
 
 
 
 
 
 1834 
 
 15,300 
 
 $3,510 
 
 18,810 
 
 14045 
 
 
 
 
 . 399 
 
 1835 
 
 53,063 
 
 2,632 
 
 55,745 
 
 33,543 
 
 
 
 239 
 
 
 1836 
 
 66,410 
 
 
 66,410 
 
 81,;i01 
 
 
 
 
 1,177 
 
 1837 
 
 106,553 
 
 33,427 
 
 139,985 
 
 497,829 
 
 
 
 . , 
 
 4,6-25 
 
 1838 
 
 65,661 
 
 19,283 
 
 84,944 
 
 6,629 
 
 
 
 240 
 
 1,433 
 
 1839 
 
 29,313 
 
 43,600 
 
 72,813 
 
 70,412 
 
 
 
 816 
 
 1,234 
 
 1840 
 
 Total... 
 
 43,353 
 
 43,115 
 
 86,468 
 
 59,.'i04 
 
 
 
 506 
 
 1,677 
 
 $430,629 
 
 $145,517 
 
 $576,146 
 
 $971,530 
 
 
 
 2367 
 
 10,346 
 
 Sept. 30, 1841 
 
 $149,211 
 
 $26,765 
 
 $175,976 
 
 $36,119 
 
 
 
 547 
 
 3,343 
 
 1842 
 
 149,141 
 
 7,547 
 
 156,688 
 
 18.193 
 
 
 
 
 2,063 
 
 9mos., 1843" 
 
 223,039 
 
 18, 3.30 
 
 240,369 
 
 
 
 
 2173 
 
 1,905 
 
 June 30, 1844 
 
 194>606 
 
 . , 23,968 
 
 218,574 
 
 12,609 
 
 
 
 164 
 
 6,009 
 
 1845 
 
 564, dot 
 
 , 65,114 
 
 637,121 
 
 31,083 
 
 
 
 947 
 
 9,521 
 
 1846 
 
 '3S6,210 
 
 39,645 
 
 435,855 
 
 31,584 
 
 
 
 1176 
 
 7,275 
 
 184T 
 
 132,269 
 
 19,907 
 
 202,166 
 
 7,608 
 
 
 .... ^ 
 
 
 5,127 
 
 184S 
 
 145,074 
 
 15,835 
 
 160,459 
 
 22,817 
 
 
 
 .. .'. 
 
 S,750 
 
 1S4!) 
 
 34,703 
 
 9,616 
 
 44,219 
 
 17,687 
 
 
 
 240 
 
 606 
 
 1850 
 
 Total. . . 
 
 70,646 
 
 27,991 
 
 98,636 
 
 27,469 
 
 
 
 
 4,887 
 
 $2,045,896 
 
 $254,168 
 
 $2,300,063 
 
 $205,167 
 
 
 
 5247 
 
 43,485 
 
 June 30, 1851 
 
 $80,469 
 
 $5,444 
 
 $85,913 
 
 $20,542 
 
 
 
 184 
 
 1,635 
 
 1852 
 
 93,233 
 
 153 
 
 93,386 
 
 21,263 
 
 
 
 2S5 
 
 1,558 
 
 1853 
 
 26,911 
 
 1,806 
 
 28,717 
 
 47,876 
 
 
 
 
 293^ 
 
 1854 
 
 
 
 
 47,773 
 
 
 
 .... 
 
 295 
 
 1855 
 
 20,466 
 
 10,800 
 
 31,266 
 
 337,814 
 
 
 
 
 1,174 
 
 ia56 
 
 70,367 
 
 9,395 
 
 79,762 
 
 101,169 
 
 
 
 208 
 
 1,327 
 
 1337 
 
 80,788 
 
 14,311 
 
 45,099 
 
 66.127 
 
 
 
 949 ' 
 
 1,334 
 
 — See article Zoll-Verein for a general account of the foreign commerce. 
 
 • Nine months to June 80, and the fiscal year from this time begins July 1. 
 
PEU 
 
 1596 
 
 PRU 
 
 Prussian Blue, or Frussiate of Iron (Ger. 
 Serhnerblau; i'r. Bleu de Frusse , li. Azuri'O Prussiano , 
 Sp. Azulde Prussia; Euss. Lasar Bexlinskaja), a beau- 
 tiful deep blue powder, accidentally discovered at Ber- 
 lin in 1710. It is of considerable importance in the 
 arts, being extensively used by painters ; it is manu- 
 factured in this country. Many attempts have been 
 made to render Prussian blue available for the dyeing 
 of broad-cloths, but without much success. The diffi- 
 culty is to diffuse the color equally over the surface; 
 for, "from its extraordinary vivacity and lustre, the 
 slightest inequalities strike and offend the eye. Prus- 
 sian blue resists the air and sun extremely well ; but 
 it can not be used in the dyeing of cottons, or any sort 
 of stuff that is to be washed with soap, as the alkali 
 contained in the soap readily dissolves and separates 
 the coloring matter. — Bancroft on Colors. Blue is 
 a favorite color with the Chinese, and in 1810-'ll the 
 imports of Prussian blue into Canton from England 
 amounted to 1899 piculs, or 253,200 lbs. But for some 
 j-ears past the Chinese have not imported a single 
 pound weight. The cause of the cessation of the trade 
 deserves to be mentioned. A common Chinese sailor, 
 who came to England in an East Indiaman, having 
 frequented a manufactory where the drug was prepared, 
 learned the art of makingit ; and on his return to China 
 he established a similar work there, with such success 
 that the whole empire is now amply supplied with 
 native Prussian blue ! The West has derived many 
 important arts from the East ; but we incline to think 
 that this is the iirst well-authenticated instance of any 
 art having ever been carried from the West to the East 
 by a native of the latter. But in all that respects in- 
 dustry, ingenuity, and invention, the Chinese are in- 
 comparably superior to every other people to the east 
 of the Indus. 
 
 Prussian or German Commercial Union. 
 Next to the efforts of the Prussian government to dif- 
 fuse the blessings of education, their efforts to intro- 
 duce a free commercial system into Germany consti- 
 tute their best claim to the gratitude aiid esteem of 
 their own subjects, and of the world. Germany, as 
 every one knows, is divided into a vast number of in- 
 dependent, and mostly petty states. Until a very re- 
 cent period, every one of these states had its own cus- 
 tom-houses, and its own tariff and revenue laws ; which 
 frequently differed very widely indeed from those of 
 its neighbors. The internal trade of the country was, 
 in consequence, subjected to all those vexatious and 
 ruinous restrictions that are usually laid on the inter- 
 course between distant and independent states. Each 
 petty state endeavored either to procure a revenue for 
 itself, or to advance its own industry, bj' taxing or 
 prohibiting the productions of those by which it was 
 surrounded ; and customs ofi^cers and lines of custom- 
 houses were spread all over the country ! Instead of 
 being reciprocal and dependent, every thing was sepa- 
 rate, independent, and hostile: the commodities ad- 
 mitted into Hesse were prohibited in Baden, and those 
 prohibited in Wirtemberg were admitted into Bavaria. 
 It is admitted that nothing contributes so much to 
 the growth of industry and wealth in modern times as 
 the perfect freedom of internal industry, and that inti- 
 mate correspondence among the various parts of the 
 country which renders each the best market for the 
 produce of the other. How different would have been 
 our present condition had each county been an independ- 
 ent state, jealous of those around it, and anxious to 
 exalt itself at their expense ! But, until within these 
 few years, this was the exact condition of Germany ; 
 and, considering the extraordinary obstacles such a 
 state of things opposes to the progress of manufactures, 
 commerce, and civilization, the wonder is, not that 
 they are comparatively backward in that country, but 
 that they should be so far advanced as they really are. 
 But, thanks to the intelligence and perseverance of 
 Prussia, this anti-social system has been well-nigh sup- 
 
 and the most perfect freedom of commerce 
 established among the great bulk of the Germanic na- 
 tions. The disadvantages of the old system had long 
 been seen and deplored by -well-informed men ; but so 
 many interests had grown up under its protection, and 
 so many deep-rooted prejudices were enlisted in its 
 favor, that its overthrow seemed to be hopeless, or, at 
 all events, exceedingly distant. The address and reso- 
 lution of the Prussian government, however, triumph- 
 ed over every obstacle. Being fully impressed with a 
 strong sense of the many advantages that would result 
 to Prussia and Germany from the introduction of i 
 free system of internal intercourse, the}- pursued the 
 measures necessary to bring it about with an earnest- 
 ness that produced conviction, and with a determina- 
 tion, couie qui coute, to carry their point. 
 
 The first treaties in furtherance of this object were 
 negotiated by Prussia with the principalities of Schwarz- 
 burg-Sondershausen and Schwarzburg-Kudolstadt, in 
 1818 and 1819, on the principle that there should be a 
 perfect freedom of commerce between these countries 
 and Prussia; that the duties on importation, exporta- 
 tion, and transit, in Prussia and the principalities, 
 should be identical ; that these should be charged 
 along the frontier of the dominions of the contracting 
 parties ; and that each should participate in the prod- 
 uce of such duties, in proportion to its population. 
 All the treaties subsequently entered into have been 
 founded on this fair and equitable principle ; the only 
 exceptions to the perfect freedom of trade in all the 
 countries comprised within the league or tariff alliance 
 being confined, iirst, to articles constituting state mo- 
 nopolies, as salt and cards, in Prussia ; 2d, to articles 
 of native produce, burdened with a different rate of 
 duty on consumption in one state from what they pay 
 in another ; and, 3d, to articles produced under patents 
 conferring on the patentees certain privileges in the 
 dominions of the states granting the patents. With 
 these exceptions, which are not very important, the 
 most perfect freedom of commerce exists among the 
 allied states. Since 1818, when the foundations of the 
 alliance were laid, it has progressively extended, till it 
 now comprises more than three-fourths of the Germanic 
 states, exclusive of Austria. Ducal Hesse joined the 
 alliance in 1828, and Electoral Hesse in 1831 ; the king- 
 doms of Bavaria, Saxony, and Wirtemberg joined it 
 afterward, as have Baden, Nassau, and almost all the 
 smaller states by which it had not been previously 
 joined, with the exception of Mecklcnburg-Schwerin 
 and Mecklenburg-Strelitz. But these, with Hanover, 
 will be very shortly included in the league. In 1852 
 the tariff alliance comprised — 
 
 Prussia 
 
 Luxemburg 
 
 Bavaria and her detached territories . . . . 
 
 Saxony (Kingdom of) 
 
 Wirtemberg and the two Hohenzollems. 
 
 HcEse (Electoral) 
 
 Hesse (Duchy) and Homturgh 
 
 The Thnringian States 
 
 Baden (Duchy of) 
 
 Brunswick (Duchy of) 
 
 Nassau 
 
 Frankfort 
 
 Totals. 
 
 ermftn 
 
 PopulaUon 
 
 Mu"«. 
 
 in 1849 
 
 518S 
 
 16,669,153 
 
 4T 
 
 189,783 
 
 1396 
 
 4 526.650 
 
 272 
 
 1,894,431 
 
 884 
 
 ],Slt5 558 
 
 203 
 
 7,731,584 
 
 154 
 
 862,917 
 
 23T 
 
 1,014,954 
 
 2T6 
 
 1,360,599 
 
 63 
 
 247,070 
 
 85 
 
 426.686 
 
 2 
 
 71,678 
 
 830T 
 
 29,800,063 
 
 Throughout the whole extent of this immense coun- 
 try, from Aix-la-Chapelle, on the confines of the Neth- 
 erlands, eastward to Tilsit, on the confines of Russia, 
 and from Stettin and Dantzic, southward to Switzer- 
 land and Bohemia, there is nothing to interrupt the 
 freedom of commerce. A commodity, whether for con- 
 sumption or transit, that has once passed the frontier 
 of the league, may be subsequently conveyed, without 
 let or hinderance, throughout its whole extent. In- 
 stead of being confined within the narrow precincts of 
 their own territories, the products of each separate 
 country of the alliance may be sent to every one else ; 
 
PEU 
 
 1597 
 
 PEU 
 
 so that each may apply itself, in preference, to those 
 departments in which it has some natural or acquired 
 advantage; and each has to depend for its success, not 
 on the miserable resource of customs regulations, but 
 on its skill and industry. The competition thence 
 arising is most? salutary ; and, should the peace of 
 Europe be preserved, we run little risk in saying that 
 all sorts of industry will make more progress among 
 the states comprised within the tariff alliance, during 
 the next ten years, than they did during the half cen- 
 tury previous to its being organized. An assembly of 
 representatives from the allied states meets annuall}^ 
 to hear complaints, adjust difficulties, and make such 
 new enactments as may seem to be required. The 
 Fr)issian tariff has been adapted, with certain modifi- 
 cations. The duties are received into a common treas- 
 ;iry, and are apportioned according to the population 
 of each of the allied states. In addition to its other 
 advantages, the new system has reduced the cost of 
 collecting the duties to a mere trifle, compared with its 
 former amount ; and has enabled hundreds of custom- 
 houses, and thousands of customs officers, to be em- 
 ployed in the different departments of industry. The 
 existing discrepancy in the weights and measures used 
 in different parts of Germany occasions considerable 
 inconvenience; and we are glad to observe that the 
 equalization of weights and measures, and their reduc- 
 tion to a common standard in all the allied states, is 
 declared to be one of the objects of the league. It is 
 also expressly provided that tlie tolls, or other charges 
 in lieu thereof, shall in all cases, whether they belong 
 to the public or to private individuals, be limited to 
 the ^uiys required to keep the roads in a proper state of 
 repair; and that the tolls existing in Prussia shall be 
 considered as the highest that are to be levied, and 
 shall not in any case be exceeded. 
 
 We are able to lay before the reader the following 
 extract from a work printed by order of the House of 
 Representatives, giving an account of the objects to 
 be attained by the Prussian Commercial League: 
 "Prussia," it is there said, "has evidentlj' taken the 
 lead in this wise and important measure, to which the 
 smaller states have gradually acceded. The whole 
 commercial policy of this enlightened power has been 
 distinguished for its liberality, being founded on the 
 desire of placing her intercourse with all nations on 
 the basis of reciprocity. The commercial league of 
 Germany is intended to carry out this principle, and 
 not to be directed, as has been supposed, against any 
 particular nation ; as it is well known that Prussia, in 
 her treaties with maritime powers, has invariably 
 adopted the system of reciprocity, to whatever extent 
 those with whom she negotiates are willing to carry it. 
 The establishment of this community of commercial 
 interests forms a part of the fundamental compact by 
 which the new Germanic Confederation was created, 
 after the dissolution of the Confederation of the Khine ; 
 to be subsequently adopted, however, at the option of 
 such of the co-states as should choose to accede to it. 
 Its effects can not fail to promote commerce, and every 
 other branch of industry, as it removes all those vexa- 
 tious and endless difficulties which previously obstruct- 
 ed the freedom of intercourse. Navigable rivers and 
 highways are now opened to the unfettered use of the 
 German people ; the custom and toll houses, with their 
 officers and barriers, have been withdrawn from the in- 
 terior, and the whole intercommunication resembles 
 that of the subjects of any one of the states within its 
 own territories. To these benefits may be added the 
 assured prospect of improvement in the finances of the 
 great and smaller sovereignties composing the league. 
 This advantage will grow out of the simplicity or uni- 
 ty of the new system, a saving in the cost of collec- 
 tion, and from the increased consumption which renova- 
 ted industry and progressive prosperity so invariably 
 cause." — Digest of Customs Laws, vol. iii. p. 227. 
 
 Prussian Duty on Cottons. — The duty on cotton goods 
 
 being that in which we are most interested, we have 
 taken some pains to ascertain its real influence. This 
 dut}' amounts to 50 rix dollars per Prussian quintal on 
 all cotton goods, without respect to quality or price ; 
 and, taking the quintal at 113 lbs. avoirdupois, and the 
 rix dollar at 3s., it is equal to £7 Ws, per 113 lbs. 
 Now we have learned from statements obligingly fur- 
 nished to us by a large wholesale house in the city, 
 1st. That a quintal (113 lbs.) of coarse shirting, worth 
 4d. per yard, contains 497 yards ; it consequently costs 
 j£8 6si, and the Prussian or tariff alliance duty of £7 
 10s. on it'is, therefore, equivalent to an ad valorem duty 
 of 90 per cent. 2d. That a quintal of superior shirting, 
 worth Is. a yard, contains 457'65 yards ; it consequent- 
 ly costs £22 17s. Id., making the Prussian duty on 
 such goods 32i per cent. 3d. That a quintal o( printed 
 cottons, worth Is. 6d. a yard, contains 633 yards; it 
 consequently costs £47 9s., making the Prussian duty 
 on such goods 151 per cent. 4th. That a quintal of 
 fne printed cottons, worth 2s. Gd. sl yard, contains 678 
 yards; it consequently costs £84 15s., making the 
 Prussian duty on such goods 8| per cent. It is plain, 
 therefore, that, except on the coarsest and cheapest 
 species of goods, the Prussian or tariff alliance duty is 
 very far from being oppressive ; and, as the value of 
 coarse goods is principally dependent on the cost of the 
 raw cotton and the wages of labor, being but little in- 
 fluenced by superiority of machinery, it is not very 
 probable that we should export them largely to Prus- 
 sia, even were the duty materially redqqed. No doubt, 
 however, it would conduce greatly to the interests of 
 the people comprised within the league, though we do 
 not know that it would sensibly affect us, were the duty 
 assessed on an ad valorem principle, and made 20 or 30 
 per cent, on all goods ; and we should think that this 
 might be done without any material difficulty. The 
 subjoined translation of the more important clauses of 
 the customs treaty of the 22d of March, 1833, sets the 
 principles ou which the alliance is founded in a clear 
 point of view. 
 
 Customs Treaty, concluded the 22d March, 1833, be- 
 tween the Kings of Bavaria and Wirtemberg, on the 
 one part ; and the King of Prussia, the Prince Electoral 
 Co-regent of Hesse, and the Grand Duke of Hesse on 
 the other part. 
 
 I. The existing customs unions between the states 
 above named shall henceforth constitute a general 
 Union, united by a common system of customs and 
 commerce, embracing all the countries which are com- 
 prised therein. 
 
 II. In this general reunion are also comprised the 
 states which have already adhered, either for the whole 
 of their territory, or for a part, to the system of customs 
 and commerce of one or other of the contracting states, 
 having regard to their special relations, founded upon 
 the conventions of adhesion concluded with the states 
 which have intervened. 
 
 III. But there will remain excluded from the general 
 reunion the parts separated from the countries of the 
 contracting states which, because of their situation, are 
 not yet included either in the reunion of the Bavarian 
 or Wirtemberg customs, nor in those of Prussia and 
 Hesse. Nevertheless, the regulations now in force to 
 facilitate the commerce of these territories with the 
 principal country will be maintained. Other favors of 
 this kind can not be accorded withoilt the unanimous 
 consent of the contracting states. 
 
 IV. In the contracting states there shall be estab- 
 lished uniform laws for the duties of import, of ex- 
 port, and of transit, except such modifications as, with- 
 out injurj' to the common object, result necessarily from 
 the particular legislation of each contracting state, or 
 from local interests. Thus, exceptions and, modifica- 
 tions to the common tariff may take place, as to rates 
 of duties of entry, of export, and of transit (according 
 as the direction of the routes of commerce may require), 
 established upon articles recognized as of minor conse- 
 
PRU 
 
 1598 
 
 PRU 
 
 quetice in extensive commerce ; provided always, that 
 these modifications be preferred by separate states, and 
 that they shall not be disadvantageous to the general 
 interests of the Association. The administration of 
 the duties of import, export, and transit, as well as the 
 organization of the authorities which are engaged 
 therein, in all the states of the Association, shall be 
 established upon a uniform footing, having regard, 
 however, to the particular relations existing in those 
 countries. The laws and ordinances which, according 
 to those principles, ought to be uniform in the contract- 
 ing states, and which are to constitute the law of the 
 tariff and the .regulations of the customs, shall be con- 
 sidered as an integral part of the present treaty, and 
 shall be published at the same time. 
 
 V. There can neither be alterations, nor additions, 
 nor exceptions, to the acts above mentioned (Article 
 IV.), but by the unanimous consent of all the contract- 
 ing parties, and in the form required for the making 
 (confection') of tlie laws. The preceding applies equal- 
 ly to all the ordinances which would establish, for the 
 administration of the cusloms, dispositions entirely 
 different. 
 
 VI. Liberty of commerce, and community of the re- 
 ceipts of customs, as regulated by the following article, 
 will commence simultaneously with the operation of 
 the pi'esent treaty. 
 
 VII. Dating from this epoch, all duties of import, 
 of export, and of transit shall cease on the common 
 frontier of (he Bavaro-Wirtemberg and Prusso-Hessian 
 customs reunions. All articles of free commerce in one 
 of those territories may be imported freely and without 
 duty into all the others, except only as follows : 
 
 A. Articles monopolized by the states (playing-cards 
 and salt) conformable to Articles IX. and X. 
 
 B. Indigenous articles, now subject in the interior 
 of the contracting states to different duties, or excepted 
 from all duty in one state, and imported into another, 
 and ivhich according to article II. ought consequently 
 to be subject to a duty of compensation, 
 
 I'inallj', C. Articles which, without prejudice to pat- 
 ent rights or conceded privileges in one of the contract- 
 ing states, can not be imitated or imported, and ought 
 consequently to be excluded during the existence of the 
 patents and privileges from importation into the state 
 which has granted them. t 
 
 VIII. Notwithstanding the freedom of commerce, 
 and the exemption from duties, established by Article 
 VII., tlie transport of articles of commerce, subject by 
 the common tariff to duties of import or export on the 
 frontiers of the Association, can not take place between 
 the states of Bavaria and Wirtemberg, and the states 
 of Prussia, of Electoral Hesse, or of Grand Ducal 
 Hesse, and reciprocally, except by the public roads, 
 military routes, and navigable rivers. For this pur- 
 pose there shall be established on the interior fron- 
 tiers common bureaus of verification, to which the con- 
 ductors of merchandise must, on exhibiting their li- 
 censes, declare what are the articles which they arc 
 employed to transport from one territory to another. 
 This disposition will not be applicable to retail com- 
 merce in raw materials, nor to the petty commerce of 
 the frontiers or the fairs, nor to the effects of travelers. 
 Process for the verification of merchandise will go no 
 farther than is required for security of the duties of 
 compensation. — See Article VII. 
 
 XIII. The contracting parties reciprocally renew 
 their adhesion to the principle that the tolls, or other 
 charges in lieu thereof, shall only be sufficient to de- 
 fray the expense of maintenance and repairs of the 
 roads, whether the tax be for the state or for private 
 rights. It was thus that has been approved the sup- 
 plement to the duty of customs, created in Bavaria 
 and Wirtemberg, to replace the duty of tolls, paving, 
 causeways, bridges, and generally of all analogous 
 taxes. The tolls, etc., now existing in Prussia, ac- 
 cording to the general tariff of 1828, shall be consider- 
 
 ed as the highest rates, and shall not be exceeded in 
 any of the contracting states. In accordance with 
 the principle thus announced, the individual duty for 
 closing the gates of cities shall be abolished ; as also 
 the duty of paving of causeways, wh^'c it still exists ; 
 and all paved roads will be considered as causeways of 
 a description liable only to the duty on causeways es- 
 tablished by the general tariff. 
 
 XIV. The contracting governments agree to unite 
 their efforts to Introduce into the states a uniform sys- 
 tem of coins, weights, and measures ; to commence im- 
 mediately the requisite negotiations for this purpose ; 
 and, subsequently, to direct their efforts toward the 
 adoption of uniform custom-house weights. The con- 
 tracting states, in the impossibility of establishing this 
 unifonnity before this treaty goes into operation, agree, 
 for facilitating the forwarding of merchandise where 
 it has not already been done, to revise their tariff as to 
 weights and measures, assuming for a basis the tariffs 
 of the other contracting states. They will cause such 
 modifiications to be published, for the government of 
 the public and of their custom-house bureaus. The 
 common tariff (Article IV.) shall be divided into two 
 principal divisions, according to the system of weights, 
 measures, and monej'S of Bavaria, and that of Prussia. 
 The declaration of the weights and measures of arficles 
 subject to duty shall, in Prussia, be according to Prus- 
 sian weights and measures ; in Bavaria and "Wirtem- 
 berg, according to those of Bavaria ; and in the two 
 Hesses, according to the weights and measures there 
 legall}' established. In expediting custom-house acts, 
 the quantity of merchandise must be expressed accord- 
 ing to the two principal divisions of the common tariff. 
 Until the contracting states agree upon a system of 
 common money, the payment of duties in each state 
 shall be made in the same currency as in use for pay- 
 ment of its other taxes. But from the present time, 
 the gold and silver coins of all the contracting states, 
 with the exception of small money (sheidemunze'), shall 
 be received into all the bureaus of receipt of the Asso- 
 ciation ; and for this purpose tables of value shall be 
 publislied. 
 
 XV. The duties of navigation upon the rivers, com- 
 prising therein those whicli apply to vessels, sliall al- 
 ways be mutually acquitted according to the acts of 
 the Congress of Vienna, or of special conventions, upon 
 all the rivers to which these regulations apply, unless 
 other determinations be adopted in tliis respect. The 
 contracting states agree to enter without delay into ne- 
 gotiations for that which particularly regards the nav- 
 igation upon the Rhine and the neighboring streams, 
 in order to effect an arrangement by which the import, 
 export, and transit of the productions of all the states 
 of the Union upon said streams shall be, if not abso- 
 lutely free, at least relieved as far as possible from du- 
 ties of navigation, under the reserve of charges of rc- 
 connoissance. All the advantages granted by one state 
 of tlic Union to its subjects, in the exercise of the nav- 
 igation upon said streams, shall extend equally to the 
 navigation of the other associated states. Upon the 
 other streams to which neither the acts of the Congress 
 of Vienna, nor any other treaties apply, the duties of 
 navigation shall be according to the special regulations 
 of the governments interested. Nevertheless, the sub- 
 jects of the contracting states, their merchandise and 
 vessels, shall throughout be tr&ated on those streams 
 with perfect equality. 
 
 XVI. Dating from the day on which the general 
 custom-house regulations of the Union shall come into 
 operation, the duties of public stores (etapes), and of 
 transhipments (umschlagnechte), which still exist in 
 the territories belonging to the Association, shall cease, 
 and no one shall be liable to forced delay, nor to the 
 discharging and storage of his merchandise, except in 
 cases authorized by the common regulations of the 
 customs or navigation. 
 
 XVII. No duties shall be claimed for canals, locks, 
 
PKU 
 
 1599 
 
 PKU 
 
 ■bridges, ferries, cranes, weighing, and storage ; and tlie 
 establishments destined to facilitate commerce shall not 
 be allowed rent, except when actually used. Charges 
 can not be increased ; and the subjects of the other con- 
 tracting states shall be on a perfect equality with the 
 subjects of the countries having those establishments. 
 If the establishments for weighing and cranes are only 
 used by the custom-houses, no charge shall be made, 
 if the articles have been previously weighed at a cus- 
 tom-house. 
 
 XVIII. The contracting states engage to continue 
 tlieir common efforts for the encouragement of indus- 
 try by the adoption of uniform regulations, so that the 
 subjects of each state may enjoy, as extensively as pps- 
 sible, the privilege of seeking work and occupation in 
 every other state. From the coming into operation 
 of the present treaty, the subjects of any one of the con- 
 tracting states, trading or seeking employ in the terri- 
 tory of any other of those states, shall not be subject 
 to any impost which does not equally affect the native 
 similarly employed. Manufacturers and merchants who 
 are only making purcha^s for their trade, or travelers 
 who have no goods with them, but simply patterns for 
 the purpose of soliciting commissions, shall not, when 
 thus employed, have any duty to pay in another state, 
 if authorized to carry on such commerce in the state 
 where they have their domicile ; or if employed in the 
 service of native manufacturers or merchants. When 
 trading in tlie markets and fairs, or when they are sell- 
 ing the produce of the soil and fabrics, in any one of 
 the states of the Association, the subjects of tlie other 
 contracting states shall be treated in all respects as 
 subjects of the same states. 
 
 XIX. The sea-ports of Prussia shall be open for com- 
 merce to all the subjects of the states of the Union, on 
 payment of the same duties as are paid by Prussian 
 subjects, and the consuls of the several states in the 
 sea-ports or places of foreign commerce , shall be bound, 
 in oases of need, to assist with their advice and support 
 the subjects of the other contracting states. 
 
 XX. To protect against contraband their common 
 custom-house system, and to insure the regular pay- 
 ment of the duty of consumption in the interior, the 
 contracting states have concluded a reciprocal cartel, 
 which shall be enforced as soon as possible, but at the 
 farthest at the same time witli the present treaty. 
 
 XXI. The community of receipts of the contracting 
 states, stipulated by the present treaty, shall compre- 
 liend the product of duties of entry, of export, and of 
 transit, in the Prussian states, the kingdoms of Bava- 
 ria and Wirtemberg, the Electorate, and the Grand 
 Duchy of Hesse, comprising therein those countries 
 which have down to the present time acceded to the 
 custom-house system of the contracting states. The 
 following are excluded from the community of receipts, 
 and remain reserved for the particular benefit of the 
 respective governments : 1. The imposts collected in 
 the interior of each state on indigenous products, com- 
 prising therein the compensatory duties reserved in 
 Article XI. 2. The toll on rivers, to which are appli- 
 cable the regulations of the acts of the Congress of Vien- 
 na, or special conventions. — Article XV. 3. Duties of 
 paving, of causeways, of bridges, of ferries, of canals, of 
 locks and ports, charges of weighing and storage, as 
 well as similar receipts, whatever may be their name. 
 4. The fines and confiscations which, beyond the part 
 allowed to informers, remain the property of each gov- 
 ernment throughout its territory. 
 
 XXII. The produce of the duties received into the 
 common treasury shall be divided among the states of 
 the Association, in proportion to the population which 
 may be found in the Union, subject to deduction, 1st. 
 Of the expenses specified in Article XXX. ; 2d. Of the 
 restitution of erroneous receipts: 3d. Of the restora- 
 tion of duties and diminutions made in consequence 
 of special common conventions. The population of 
 every state wliich has entered or may enter into the 
 
 Association, by treaty with one or other of the contract- 
 ing states, Tinder the engagement made by the latter, 
 to make an annual contribution for the participation of 
 the former to the common revenue of the customs, shall 
 be added to the population of the states whicli make 
 this contribution. There shall be made every three 
 years, dating from a period to be hereafter fixed, an 
 exact enumeration of the population of the associated 
 states : the states shall reciprocally communicate the 
 results thereof. 
 
 XXIII. All restitutions of duties not authorized by 
 the legislation of the customs shall remain charged to 
 the treasury of the government which shall have grant- 
 ed it. Conventions, hereafter to be concluded, will 
 regulate in what cases similar restitution may be ac- 
 corded. 
 
 XXIV. In conformity with the object of this asso- 
 ciation of customs tending to facilitate a freer and more 
 natural commercial intercourse, the favors accorded 
 for the payment of custom-house duties at certain 
 places in wliich fairs are held, especially the privileges 
 of abatement (rahat pnvUeffien), can not be extended 
 to those states of the Association where they do not 
 exist ; on tlie contrary, they shall be restricted and 
 abolished as far as possible, regard being ha,d to the 
 means of subsistence of the places heretofore favored, 
 and to tlie commercial relations which they have with 
 foreigners ; but others can on no account be granted 
 without the general consent of the contracting parties. 
 
 XXXIII. There shall every year, on the 1st day of 
 June, be an assembly of plenipotentiaries of the gov- 
 ernments of the Union empowered genei'ally to delib- 
 erate ; and each state may send thither a duly author- 
 ized representative. The plenipotentiaries will choose 
 fi'om among themselves a president, who, however, 
 shall have no pre-eminence over the other members. 
 The first assembly shall be held at Munich. At the close 
 of each annual assembly, the place of next meeting will 
 be determined, having reference .to the nature of those 
 subjects which will then come under discussion. 
 
 XXXIV. The assembly of plenipotentiaries will have 
 under its consideration the following subjects : A. To 
 consider the complaints which ma}' have arisen in any 
 of the states of the Association concerning the execu- 
 tion of the general treaty, of special conventions, of the 
 law, and of custom-house regulations ; also of the tar- 
 iff, when these shall not have been adjusted during the 
 year by correspondence between the different ministers. 
 B. The definite reparation among the states of the 
 Union of the total common receipts, based upon the 
 observations made by the superior authorities, and ver- 
 ified by the central bureau^ as may be rendered neces- 
 sary by the common interest. C. To deliberate upon 
 propositions and suggestions made by the governments 
 for the perfection of the administration. D. Discus- 
 sions upon alterations, demanded by any of the con- 
 tracting states, in the laws, tariffs, and custom-house 
 regulations, as well as in the organization of the ad- 
 ministration, and in general upon the development and 
 perfection of the general system of customs and com- 
 merce 
 
 XXXV. If, in the course of the year, when the plen- 
 ipotentiaries are not in session, extraordinary incidents 
 should occur, which require prompt decision on thepart 
 of the states of the Union, the cojitracting parties will 
 consult upon these through their diplomatic agents, or 
 they will order an extra sitting of their plenipoten- 
 tiaries. 
 
 Recent Changes in ihe German Customs Union.- — The 
 discussions in tlie assemblies of the League have, espe- 
 cially of late years, been a good deal influenced by po- 
 litical considerations. A league, denominated the 
 Steur-Verein, had been formed in opposition to, or in 
 rivalry with, the Prussian League, by Hanover, Old- 
 enburg, and Brunswick. It was evident, however, in- 
 asmuch as the interests of these and the other German 
 states were identical, that it would be a great public ad- 
 
PYR 
 
 1600 
 
 PYK 
 
 vantage were these associations merged into one. But 
 owing to political, commercial, and financial jealousies, 
 this desirable object "was of very difficult attainnient. 
 Happily, however, these difficulties have been sur- 
 mounted ; and a treaty negotiated between Hanover 
 and Prussia, on the 7th of September, 1851, provided 
 for the incorporation, from the 1st of January, 1854, of 
 the former kingdom, and the other states included in the 
 Steuer-Verein, with the Prussian Union. Some mod- 
 ifications have been introduced by the treaty into the 
 basis of the League, but they are of little importance, 
 'except the to parties immediately interested. 
 ' Treaty with Austria. — More recently a great deal of 
 discussion has taken place between Prussia and the sub- 
 ordinate Gerjiian states on the one hand, and Austria on 
 the other, in regard to the formation of a Customs Asso- 
 ciation Avhich should include the latter j and in order to 
 pave the way for this desirable consummation, Austria 
 issued a new tariff on the 25th of November, 1851, in 
 which she made many important modifications in the 
 prohibitive system on which she had previously acted, 
 at the same time that she established a free commercial 
 intercourse between Hungary (which had previously a 
 separate customs establishment) and the other states of 
 the empire. And though this wise and liberal meas- 
 
 ure has not yet led to the incorporation of Austria into • 
 the Customs Union, it has led to the conclusion of an 
 extremely important commercial treaty between Aus- 
 tria and Prussia, dated the 19th of February, 1853. 
 The contracting parties engage to suppress, with a few 
 specified exceptions, a?/ prohibitions against importing 
 the products of the one into the territories of the other; 
 they next establish a complete freedom of trade between 
 the two countries in all articles of raw produce ; and 
 they further stipulate that the duties to be imposed on 
 manufactured products shall be moderate and reasona- 
 ble. It has a variety of other clauses, all of which 
 iiave a liberal character. The duration of the treaty 
 is limited to 12 years ; but we have little doubt, should 
 peace be preserved, that the advantages of which it will 
 be productive will be so many and so great, that long 
 before the expiration of 12 years its provisions will be 
 still further liberalized, and that it will lay the founda- 
 tions of a lasting intercourse, of which we can neither 
 foresee the extent nor the beneficial influence. 
 
 In consequence of these and other changes the duties 
 in the tariff of the German Customs Union have under- 
 gone many modifications. But except on coarse and 
 heavy goods, they continue, speaking generally, to be 
 moderate. "We subjoin 
 
 An Account showing the Peoportion of the Revenues of the Geeman CrsTOMS Union eaised in tue diffeeekt 
 States in 1S51, and tue Distribution tueueof, accobding to tiieib Population, from the official Ketuens, puu- 
 LiSQEi> AT Berlin in 1853. 
 
 states. 
 
 
 Import 
 
 Diilioe. 
 
 
 Export.and 
 
 Transit 
 Puties pay- 
 able to each 
 
 Stale. 
 
 Import, Export, 
 
 and Transit 
 Duties pnynhic 
 to each Stnte 
 
 Population, ' 
 
 Amount of 
 B'oa Kece.pU. 
 
 Amount of 
 not Receipt. 
 
 for 
 Diatributton. 
 
 Amount payable 
 
 to each Stnto 
 
 according to ita 
 
 Population 
 
 
 16,669,153 
 
 18J,783 
 
 ■ 4,526,650 
 
 1,894,431 
 
 1,806,658 
 
 1,360,699 
 
 731,584 
 
 862,917 
 
 1,014,064 
 
 247,070 
 
 425,686 
 
 Tllnlors * 
 
 16,572,929 
 
 77,114 
 
 1,210,639 
 
 2,119.847 
 
 848,527 
 
 653,625 
 
 433,046 
 
 412,803 
 
 391,793 
 
 390,143 
 
 74,829 
 
 861,492 
 
 Tliniera. 
 
 14,347,476 
 
 t 10,445 
 
 904,991 
 
 1,995,287 
 
 330,;;37 
 
 353,482 
 
 342,256 
 
 402,501 
 
 391,793 
 
 229,523 
 
 71,310 
 
 636,384 
 
 Tlialera. 
 
 11,211,383 
 
 127,645 
 
 3,044,546 
 
 1,274,161 
 
 1,214,387 
 
 915,115 
 
 492,051 
 
 580,383 
 
 682,640 
 
 166,178 
 
 286,309 
 
 Tbniers. 
 244,203 
 
 2,241 
 53,403 
 29,736 
 21,325 
 16,070 
 
 8,641 
 10,192 
 16.931 
 
 3,634 
 
 5,028 
 
 Thalera. 
 
 11.455,586 
 
 120,686 
 
 3,098,009 
 
 1,303.897 
 
 1,235.712 
 
 931,185 
 
 500,692 
 
 590,.5T5 
 
 698,571 
 
 169,709 
 
 291,309 
 
 Luxem'burg 
 
 
 AVirtemberg 
 
 
 
 Thuringian States 
 
 
 Frankfortt 
 
 ^^otal 
 
 20,728,336 
 
 22,645,687 
 tLesB 
 
 20,005,240 
 10,445t 
 
 19,994,796 
 
 410,364 
 
 20,406,159 
 
 
 19,994,795 
 
 * The tlialer, 69 cents American currency, t Frankfort is regulated by a specific arrangement, and not by population, 
 i A special payment by Prussia, on account of the Unidn. 
 
 Pumioe-stone (Ger. Simstein ; Fr. Pierre pauce ; 
 It. Pietra pomice ; Sp. Piedra pormz ; Lat. Pumex), a 
 light, spongy, vitreous stone, found usually in the 
 neighborhood of volcanoes. It is used for polishing 
 metals and marble, and smoothing the surface of wood 
 and pasteboard. It is said to form a good glaze for 
 pottery. The lighter pumice-stones swim on water, 
 their specific gravity not exceeding -914. The island 
 of Lipari, in the Mediterranean, is chiefly formed of 
 pumice-stone, and may be said to be the magazine 
 whence all Europe is supplied with this useful article. 
 There are several species of pumice-stones, but those 
 only that are light and spongy are exported. 
 
 Puncheon, a measure of capacity for liquids, con- 
 taining eighty-four gallons, or one-third of a tun. 
 
 Putchook. An article of this name is imported 
 in considerable quantities from the northwest coast of 
 India into China, and is regularly quoted in the Can- 
 ton price-currents. It iS the root of a plant that grows 
 abundantly in Sindo. When burned, it yields a fine 
 smoke, and a grateful and diffusive smell. The Chi- 
 nese beat it into a fine powder, which they burn as in- 
 cense in the temples of their gods.— Hamilton's New 
 A ccount of the East Indies. 
 
 Pyroiigneous Acid (Gr. Trop; Lat. lignum, 
 wood:). This term is generally applied to the acid 
 liquor which passes over along with tar and gaseous 
 products when wood is subjected to destructive distil- 
 
 lation. This acid liquor is an impure vinegar, from 
 which acetic acid is obtained as follows ; The pyroiig- 
 neous acid, freed from tar, is saturated with chalk or 
 powdered slaked lime, filtered and evaporated, by 
 which an impure acetate of lime is obtained ; this is 
 gently heated, so as to destroy part of its empyreumat- 
 ic matter without decomposing the acetic acid ; it is 
 then mixed with sulphate of soda, which yields, by 
 double decomposition, sulphate of lime and acetate of 
 soda ; the acetate of soda is filtered off the sulphate of 
 lime, evaporated, heated, and redissolved and crystal- 
 lized. In this way a pure crystallized acetate of soda 
 is, by proper management, obtained, which is mixed 
 in a retort or still with a proper proportion of sulphu- 
 ric acid, and a gentle heat applied, which causes the 
 strong acetic acid to distill over, and sulphate of soda 
 remains behind. This acetic acid is in a high state of 
 concentration ; it is lowered by the addition of water, 
 and if intended for the table or for domestic use, as a 
 substitute for other forms of vinegar, it is usually col- 
 ored with a little burned sugar. The charcoal which 
 is the residue of this distillation of wood is of an ex- 
 cellent quality — that employed in the manufacture of 
 gunpowder is thus prepared. This manufacture of 
 vinegar is now carried on upon a very large scale, and 
 the greater part of the vinegar used for domestic pur- 
 poses and in the arts, In many of which it is largely 
 consumed, is derived from this source. 
 
QUA 
 
 1601 
 
 QUA 
 
 a. 
 
 Quadrans, in English nvmey, the fourth part of a 
 penny. Before the reign ofEdwardl., the smallest coin 
 was a sterling^ or penny marked with a cross, by the 
 guidance of wliich a penny might be cut into halves for a 
 half-penny, or into quarters, or four parts, for farthings. 
 But, to avoid the fraud of unequal cuttings, that king 
 afterward coined half-rpence and farthings in distinct 
 round pieces. - > 
 
 QuaicUant, in Geometry, the arch of a, circle, con- 
 taining 90°j or the fourth part of the entire periphery. 
 
 Quadrant also denotes a mathematical instrumentj 
 of great use in astronomy and navigation, for taking 
 the altitudes of the sun an d stars; as also for taking an- 
 gles in sur'^eying. This instrument is variously con- 
 trived, and furnished with different apparatus, accord- 
 ing to the various uses it is intended for; but they all 
 have this in common, that they consist of a quarter of 
 a circle, the limb of which is divided into 90 degrees. 
 Some have a plummet suspended from the centre, and 
 are furnished with sights to look through. The prin- 
 cipal and most useful quadrants are the common sur- 
 veying quadrant, astronomical quadrant, Adams's 
 quadrant. Cole's quadrant, Gunter's quadrant, Had- 
 ley's quadrant, horodiotioal quadrant, Sutton's or Col- 
 lins's quadrant, and the sinical quadrant. 
 
 Quarantine, a regulation by wliich all communi- 
 cation witli individuals, ships, or goods, arriving from 
 ' places infected with the plague, or other contagious 
 disease, or supposed to be peculiarly liable to suchrin- 
 fection, is interdicted for a certain defmite period. The 
 term is derived from the Italian yaarania, forty, it being 
 generally supposed that if no infectious disease brqak 
 out within 40 days, or si.-c weeks, no danger need be 
 apprehended from the free admission of the individu- 
 als under quarantine. During this period, too, all the 
 goods, clothes, etc., that miglit be supposed capable of 
 retaining the infection are subjected to a process of pu- 
 rification. This last operation, which is a most im- 
 portant part of the quarantine system, iS' performed ei- 
 ther on board ship, or in establishments deuominated 
 
 Policy of Quarantine^ — The regulations as tO! quaran- 
 tine are entirely precautionary ; they have their origin 
 in the belief that .various diseases, but especially the 
 plague, are contagious; and supposing such to be the 
 case, the propriety of subjecting those coming from an 
 infected or suspected place to a probation is obvious. 
 Indeed, no government could, until the belief in ques- 
 tion be proved to be ill-founded, abstain from enforcing 
 precautionary measures, without rendering itself liable 
 to the charge of having culpably neglected one of its 
 most important duties — that of providing, by every 
 means in its power, for the safety of its subjects. Lat- 
 terly, however, it has been contended that the plague 
 is never imported — that it is always indigenous ; orig- 
 inating in some peculiar state of the atmosphere, or in 
 something peculiar in the condition of the people ; and 
 that, consequently, quarantine regulations merely im- 
 pose a heavy burden on commerce, without being of 
 any real utility. But though there does not seem to 
 be any reason for doubting that infectious diseases have 
 originated in the way described, the fact that they have, 
 in innumerable instances, been carried from one place 
 to another, seems to be established beyond all question. 
 Even if the evidence as to the importation of infectious 
 diseases were less decisive than it is, or the opinions 
 of medical men more divided. It would not warrant the 
 repeal of the restraints on the intercourse with suspect- 
 ed ports. This is not a matter in which innovations 
 should be rashlj* introduced ; wherever there is doubt, 
 it is proper to incline to the side of security. In some 
 cases; perhaps, quarantine regulations have been car- 
 ried to a needless extent; but they have more fre- 
 quently, we believe, been improperly relaxed. 
 5 I 
 
 Institution of Quarantine. — The notion that the plague 
 was imported from the East into Europe seems to have 
 prevailed in all 'ages. But it would appear that the 
 Venetians were the first who endeavored to guard 
 against its introduction from abroad, by obliging ships 
 and individuals from suspected places to perform quar- 
 antine. The regulations upon this subject were, it is 
 most probable, issued for the first time in 1484. — Beck- 
 MANN, History of Inventions. They have since been 
 gradually adopted in every other country. Their in- 
 troduction into England was comparatively late. Vari- 
 ous, preventive regulations had been previously enact- 
 ed, but quarantine was not sj-stematioally enforced till 
 after the alarm ocoasioned by the dreadful plague at 
 Marseilles in 1720. The regulations then adopted were 
 made conformably to the suggestion of the celebrated 
 Dr. Mead, in his famous ** Discourse concerning Pesti- 
 lential Contagion." 
 
 Lazarettos or Pest-Jiouses are establishments con- 
 structed to facilitate the performance of quarantine, 
 and particularly the purification of goods. Thej- have 
 usually a port in wliich ships from a suspected place 
 may anchor; and, when (perfeot, are' provided with 
 lodgings for the crews and passengers, where the sick 
 may be separated from the healthy ; and with ware- 
 hoiises, where the goods may be deposited ; all inter- 
 course between the lazaretto and the surrounding poun- 
 trj' being, of course, interdicted, except hy permission 
 of the authorities. The lazarettos of Leghorn, Genoa, 
 and Marseilles are the most complete of any in Europe. 
 The facilities they afford to navigation are very great ; 
 for, as ships from suspected places may discharge their 
 cargoes in the lazaretto, they are not detained longer 
 than they would be were there no quarantine regula- 
 tions. The goods deposited in the lazaretto, being in- 
 spected by the proper officers, and purified, are then 
 admitted into the market. 
 
 Bills of Health. — The period of quarantine varies, as 
 respects ships coming from the same place, according 
 to the nature of their bills of health. These are docu- 
 ments, or certificates, signed by the consul or other com- 
 petent authority in the place which the ship has left, 
 describing its state of health at the time of her clearing 
 out. A clean bill imports that at the time of her sail- 
 ing no infectious disorder was known to exist. A sus- 
 pected, or, as it is more commonly called, a touched 
 bill, imports that rumors were afloat of an infectious 
 disorder, but that it had not actually appeared. Afoul 
 bill, or the absence ff clean hills, imports that the place 
 was infected when the vessel sailed. The duration of 
 the quarantine is regulated by the nature of these in- 
 struments. They seem to have been first issued in the 
 Mediterranean ports in 1665, and are obviously of great 
 importance. 
 
 By an act of Congress passed February 25, 1799, re- 
 specting quarantine and health laws, it is provided that 
 the quarantines and other restraints required by the 
 health laws of any State, respecting any vessel arriv- 
 ing in or bound to any port or district, shall be duly 
 observed bj- the officers of the revenue of the United 
 States, and by the masters and crews of the revenue 
 cutters, and by the military officers stationed upon the 
 sea-coast ; and all such officers of the United States 
 are required faithfully to aid in the execution of such 
 laws. The secretary is authorized, when a conformity 
 to the quarantine and health laws requires it, to prolong 
 the terms limited for the entry of vessels, and the re- 
 port or entry of their cargoes, and to varj' or dispense 
 with any other regulations applicable to such reports 
 or entries, provided that no State is thus enabled to 
 collect a duty of tonnage or import without the con- 
 sent of Congress, and provided that no part of the car- 
 go be taken out or unladen otherwise than as by law 
 is allowed. When, by the health laws of any State, 
 
QUA 
 
 1602 
 
 QUE 
 
 any vessel arriving witliin a collection district is pro- 
 hibited from coming to the port of entry or delivery for 
 such district, and it is required by such health laws that 
 the cargo of such vessel may be unladen at some oth- 
 er place, the collector, after due report to him of the 
 whole of such cargo, may grant his special permit for 
 imlading, under the care of the surveyor, or one or more 
 inspectors, at some other place where such health laws 
 permit, and upon the conditions which shall be direct- 
 ed by the Secretary of tlie Treasury, or which such col- 
 lector may judge expedient for the security of the pub- 
 lic revenue ; provided that all the articles so unladen 
 shall be deposited at the risk of the parties concerned 
 in such warehouses or inclosures as the collector shall 
 designate, there to remain under the joint custody of 
 such collector and of the owner, or person having 
 charge of such vessel, until the same be entirely dis- 
 charged, and until the goods so deposited may be safely 
 removed, without conti'avening such health laws. And 
 when such removal may be allowed, the collector hav- 
 ing charge of such goods may grant permits to the re- 
 spective owners or consignees, their factors or agents, 
 to receive all goods which shall be entered, and where- 
 of the duties accruing shall be secured upon the pay- 
 ment by them of a reasonable rate of storage, which 
 shall be fixed by the Secretary of the Treasury. 
 
 Suitable warehouses, with wharves and inclosures, 
 are provided, where goods may be unladen and depos- 
 ited for any vessel subject to a quarantine, pursuant to 
 the health laws. AVhen, by the prevalence of any con- 
 tagious or epidemical disease in or near the port of 
 entry for any collection district, it shall become dan- 
 gerous or inconvenient for the officers of the revenue to 
 discharge their respective offices at such port, the sec- 
 retary, or, in his absence, the controller, may author- 
 ize the removal of the collector, and the other officers 
 employed in his department, to any other more con- 
 venient place within or near to such collection district, 
 where such officers may exercise the same authority, 
 and are liable to the same duties, according to existing 
 circumstances, as in such lawful port or district ; and 
 of such removal public notice must be given. — Blunt's 
 Shipmasters' Assistant. 
 
 The quarantine laws of the different States are too 
 voluminous to give in detail, and therefore there is here 
 annexed only a synopsis of the quarantine laws in force 
 in New York city. 
 
 It is the duty of the pilots to hail all vessels enter- 
 ing into the port of New York, and find whether they 
 are subject to quarantine ; and if they are, to bring 
 them to anchor in the quarantine grounds; also, to 
 prevent any violation of the quarantine regulations 
 while they have charge of a vessel, such as communi- 
 cation between a vessel subject to quarantine and the 
 shore, etc., and to report all infringements of regula- 
 tions to the health officer. 
 
 Vessels arriving at the port of New York are subject 
 to quarantine as follows : 1st. All vessels direct from, 
 or touching at any place where yellow fever, bilious 
 malignant, or other pestilential or infectious fever ex- 
 isted at the time of their departure, or on board of 
 which, during the voyage, any case of such fever has 
 occurred, arriving between the 31st day of May and the 
 1st day of October, shall remain at quarantine for at 
 least 30 days after arrival, and at least 20 days after 
 cargo has been discharged, and shall perform such fur- 
 ther quarantine as the health officer shall prescribe. 
 2d. All vessels arriving between the 1st day of April 
 and the 1st day of November, exclusive of the above- 
 specified ; all vessels from a foreign port, on board of 
 which, during the voyage, or while at the port of depart- 
 ure, any person has been sick, or from any place in the 
 ordinary passage from which they pass south of Cape 
 Henlopen, arriving between the 31st day of May and 
 the 16th day of October ; and all vessels from any place 
 (including islands) in Asia, Africa, or the Mediterra^ 
 nean, or from any of the West Indian, Bahama, Ber- 
 
 muda, or Western Islands, or from any place in Amer- 
 ica, in the ordinary passage from which they pass south 
 of Georgia, arriving between the 1st day of April and 
 the 1st day of November, are subject to quarantine and 
 other regulations, as the health officer may prescribe. 
 The health officer must board every vessel subject to 
 quarantine or visitation imraediatelj' on her arrival, 
 and make his examination. 
 
 The powers of the Board of Health are ample to pro- 
 tect the port. The regulations are similar to those gen- 
 erally adopted, and include a fine of 62000, and impris- 
 onment of twelve months, to any master or crew of a 
 vessel that shall refuse to submit to quarantine, and 
 also a fine of S500 and imprisonment for any violation 
 of quarantine. 
 
 Quarter, the fourth part of any thing. As a term 
 of weight it denotes the fourth of a hundred weight, 
 or 28 pounds ; as a dry measure it signifies the fourth of 
 a chaldron. 
 
 Quarter, that part of a ship's side which lies toward 
 the stern, or is comprehended between the aftmost end 
 of the main chains and the sides of the stern, where it 
 is terminated by the quarter pieces. 
 
 Quarter of a Point, in Navigation, is the fourth 
 part of the distance between two cardinal points, which 
 is 2° 48'. 
 
 Quarter Days. The days usually regarded in En- 
 gland and most Continental countries (but not in Scot- 
 land) as beginning the four quarters of the year. They 
 are, 1. Lady Day (25th of March); 2. Midsummer Day 
 (June 24tli) ; B. Michaelmas Day (September 29th) ; 
 and, 4. Cliristmas Day (December 25th). 
 
 Quarter Deck. The portion of the uppermost 
 deck of a ship between the main and mizen masts. 
 This is the "parade" in men-of-war. 
 
 Quarter Master, in the Navi/, an inferior officer 
 appointed to assist the mates in their several duties. 
 
 Quarters imply the several stations where the offi- 
 cers and crew of a ship of war are posted in time of 
 action. 
 
 Quassia (Ger. Quassienhok ; Fr. Bois de quassie ; 
 Sp. Leno de quassia'), a beautiful tall tree {Quassia 
 amara), growing in North and South America and the 
 West Indies. The wood is of a pale yellow color, and 
 inodorous. Taste intenselj- bitter. It affords to wa- 
 ter an intensely bitter decoction, which is occasionally 
 used in medicine, and was formerly substituted by some 
 brewers for hops, but is now prohibited under severe 
 penalties. It aflbrds a safe and efficacious fly-water 
 or poison for flies. It is believed that it would suc- 
 ceed well in our Southern States, and form a valuable 
 addition to our forests. 
 
 Quebec, the capital of Canada, and of the Brit- 
 ish possessions in North America, on the northwest 
 bank of the Eiver St. Lawrence, about 340 miles from 
 its mouth, in lat. 46° 48' 49" N., long. 71° 10' 45" W. 
 Population in 1850, 40,233. Quebec is situated on a 
 ridge, or promontory, formed by the St. Lawrence on 
 the south and west, and the Eiver St. Charles on the 
 east. The extremity of this headland, called Cape 
 Diamond, is about 345 feet above the level of the wa- 
 ter, and on it the citadel is built. The town extends 
 from the citadel, principally in a northeast direction, 
 down to the water ; and is, from the difference of eleva- 
 tion, divided into the upper and lower towns. The 
 fortifications, which are very strong, extend across the 
 peninsula, the circuit within them being about two 
 and three quarter miles. From their situation many 
 of the streets are uneven ; they are also, for the most 
 part, narrow ; but they are either well paved or Mac- 
 adamized. The greater number of the houses are built 
 of stone, with shingle roofs. Some of the public build- 
 ings are elegant, and well adapted for their purposes. 
 The harbor, or basin, lies between the town and the 
 island of Orleans. It is safe and commodious : the 
 water is about 28 fathoms deep, with a tide rising from 
 17 to 18 feet ; and at springs from 23 to 25 ditto. Que- 
 
QUE 
 
 1603 
 
 QUE 
 
 Baltic timber, the imports into Great Britain from 
 Canada and other parts of British America of red-pine, 
 and of pine and spruce planks, especially the latter, 
 have of late very largely increased. Excepting tim- 
 ber, furs and ashes are the most important articles sent 
 from Canada. A considerable part of the corn and 
 flour exported from Quebec is the growth of the United 
 States. The principal articles of import into Canada 
 consist of corn, cottons, woolens, silk, and other manu- 
 factured goods ; glass ware, spirits and wines, iron and 
 hardware, sugar and tea, etc. The total value of the 
 imports into Canada (of which, however, by far the 
 largest portion goes to Montreal) in 1848 amounted to 
 £2,107,164 currency (24s. id. currenc3'=20«. sterling). 
 Declared value of British produce and manufactures 
 exported to Canada in 1851, £2,451,534. It is mate- 
 rial, however, to bear in mind that littlo more than 
 half the imports are paid for by the exports ; they are, 
 in fact, principallj- paid for by the Treasury at home, 
 and are to be regarded as the means sent out by En- 
 gland to pay the troops and meet the other heavy ex- 
 penses she has to incur in the preservation of this un- 
 profitable colony. 
 
 Account of the Numbee of Vessels and tiieie Tonnage 
 wrncn aerivet) at the Pokt of Quebec, including 
 
 THOSE BOUND FOE MONTEEAL, AND FEOM SEA, FEOM 1840 
 TO 1855 INCLUSIVE. 
 
 bee was founded by the French in 1608. In 1629 it 
 was taken by the English ; but was restored in 1632. 
 It was again taken by the English under General 
 Wolfe, who fell in the engagement, in 1759 ; and was 
 finally ceded to England by the treaty of Paris in 1763. 
 The rapid increase of population in, and of emigration 
 to. Upper Canada has occasioned a proportional increase 
 of intercourse between Quebec and Montreal, and the 
 Canadian ports on Lakes Ontario, Erie, etc. The first 
 steamboat that plied on the St. Lawrence was launched 
 in 1812; but there are now a, great many steamers, 
 some of them of large burden, employed in the convey- 
 ance of goods and passengers between Quebec and 
 Montreal ; and in the trade between Quebec and Hali- 
 fax, in Nova Scotia. And by means of the Kideau and 
 Welland canals, an uninterrupted line of steam com- 
 munication is formed between the Atlantic and Am- 
 hurstburg, one of the remote settlements of Upper 
 Canada, a distance of more than 1500 miles ; which is 
 now extended through Lake Huron to the western ex- 
 tremity of Lake Superior, about 700 miles beyond Am- 
 hurstburg ; giving to Quebec a command of internal 
 navigation inferior only to that of New Orleans. The 
 navigation at Quebec closes at the end of November or 
 beginning of December, and opens in April. Below 
 Quebec the river is seldom frozen over ; but the masses 
 of floating ice, kept in constant agitation by the flux 
 and reflux of the tide, render navigation impracticable. 
 The waters of the St. Lawrence are very pure ; and in 
 point of depth and magnitude it is one of the noblest 
 rivers in the world. — BoncHETTB's British Dominions 
 in America. Quebec is a free warehousing port. 
 The trade of Quebec is very extensive. It en- 
 ■ grosses, with Montreal, almost the entire trade of the 
 province with the mother country, the West Indies, 
 etc. Great numbers of emigrants leave England for 
 Canada; but the larger number subsequently re-emi- 
 grate to the United States. It has a regular inter- 
 course, by means of steamers, with Montreal and oth- 
 er ports higher up the St. Lawrence, and with Hali- 
 fax and other ports on the Atlantic. Still, however, 
 it must not be forgotten that in so far as the United 
 Kingdom is concerned, the trade with Canada and 
 Quebec is, in some degree, forced and factitious, and 
 has not been a source of profit, but the reverse. In 
 former j'ears it was, in fact, mainly a consequence of 
 the discriminating duties laid in British ports on tim- 
 ber from the north of Europe ; and but for this prepos- 
 terous arrangement, the trade between Great Britain 
 and Quebec would have been extremely unimportant. 
 Now, however, some branches of the trade appear to 
 have acquired a solid footing; and notwithstanding 
 the reduction of the discriminating duties in favor of 
 
 Statement showing the Coins chiefly in use in the Bbitibh Noeth Ameeioan Colonies, with theie Values in the 
 EEspECTivE Colonies, in Halifax Cueeency (Feaotions omitted). 
 
 Yonre. 
 
 V8>!0ls. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 1846 
 
 1448 
 
 1173 
 
 1044 
 
 1064 
 
 1479 
 
 1185 ' 
 
 1C55 
 
 1188 
 
 1316 
 
 677 
 
 907 
 
 673,104 
 474,646 
 426,968 
 431,053 
 434,291 
 596,934 
 464,102 
 632,617 
 680,323 
 340,449 
 471,444 
 
 1847 
 
 184S 
 
 1849 
 
 18.50 
 
 1861 
 
 1862 
 
 1853 
 
 1854 
 
 1865 
 
 1856 
 
 
 Among the arrivals in 1856 were the following for- 
 eign vessels : 38 Norwegian, aggregate tonnage, 17,730 
 tons ; 15 United States, 8596 tons ; 8 German, 3015 
 tons ; 6 Prussian, 2056 tons. The total from all coun- 
 tries was 74 vessels, 34,824 tons. 
 
 Value of the Expoets and Imports op Qeebeo and 
 monteeal. 
 
 Coins. 
 
 GOLD. 
 
 British sovereign , 
 
 British guinea 
 
 American eagle, coined before July 1, 1834 
 
 Ditto, coined since 
 
 Spanish milled doubloons 
 
 aiLTBR. 
 
 British crown (half-crown in proportion) 
 
 Shilling'Caixpence in proportion) 
 
 French crown 
 
 French half-crown 
 
 American dollar 
 
 Spanish milled dollar 
 
 South American dollar 
 
 Mexican dollar (coined in 1331, 1832, or 1833) . 
 
 Fistareen 
 
 French five-franc piece 
 
 Enstom 
 (Lower) 
 Canada. 
 
 .. d. 
 
 2 2 
 
 3 4 
 10 
 10 
 14 6 
 
 6 
 1 
 
 8 
 2 
 5 
 6 
 5 
 6 
 
 1 
 6 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 4 8 
 
 Woatera 
 (Upper) 
 Cnnaaa. 
 
 £ i. d. 
 14 4 
 
 16 6 
 2 13 4 
 
 2 10 
 
 3 14 6 
 
 6 
 13 
 6 6 
 
 Nova 
 Scotia. 
 
 £ I. d. 
 16 
 
 2 10 
 4 
 
 5 
 6 
 6 
 
 New 
 BrunS' 
 wici. 
 
 £ I. d. 
 
 12 3 
 
 13 4 
 
 2'i6'o 
 
 3 16 6 
 
 6 
 5 
 6 
 
 New- 
 found- 
 land, 
 
 6 
 12 
 
 6 
 6 
 
 Prince Edward Inland. 
 
 Island 
 Currency. 
 
 £ .. d. 
 1 10 
 
 7 6 
 16 
 
 6 3 
 6 3 
 6 3 
 
 Halifax 
 Currency. 
 
 2 10 
 
 6 6 
 Oil 
 
 60 
 5 
 60 
 
 Paper Currency. — There is no established govern- 
 ment bank in the province ; but there are several pri- 
 vate chartered banks, of which the Quebec Bank is the 
 principal. — For a complete account of the trade of the 
 Provinces, see Canada and Montreal. 
 
 Quercitron Bark. The bark of the Quercus ni- 
 gra, or American oak : it is a highlj- valuable dye-stuff 
 and is used in the production of some of the most dura- 
 ble yellows. — For a more full account of this dye-stuflF 
 see articles Dyes and Oak. 
 
QUI 
 
 1604 
 
 QUI 
 
 Quicksilver, or Mercury, one of the metals, and 
 so fusible that it can not be reduced to a solid state but 
 at a degree of cold equal to forty below zero of Fahren- 
 heit's thermometer. Its use in refining silver was dis- 
 covered A.D. 1540. There are mines of it in various 
 parts, the chief of which are at Almadur or Almeida, 
 in Spain, and at Udria, in Carniola, in Germany, dis- 
 covered by accident in 1497. A mine was discovered 
 at Ceylon in 1797. Quicksilver was congealed in 
 winter at St. Petersburg in 1759. It was congealed in 
 England by a chemical process, without snow or ice, 
 by Mr. Walker, in 1787. — See Meecuey. For notices 
 of quicksilver mines, see American Journal of Science, 
 xxviii. 219 ; Hunt's Merchants' Magazini, xviii. 108. 
 
 The exports of quicksilver from California, the pro- 
 duction of the California mines, for three years, were 
 as follows, allowing the flasks to hold 75 pounds at a 
 value of 50 cents a pound : 
 
 Youis. 
 
 Pl8«k>. 
 
 Value. 
 
 1853 
 
 1864 
 
 1855 
 
 18,800 
 20,063 
 28,91T 
 22,179 
 
 $705,000 
 788,112 
 
 1,084,387 
 831,724 
 
 1856 
 
 The exports of quicksilver of domestic production 
 from the United States, for the year 1856, amounted to 
 $831,724, and was solelj' from the port of San Fran- 
 cisco. 'The exports of foreign quicksilver amounted to 
 $16,011 of which $15,589 was from New York. The 
 imports of quicksilver for the same time amounted to 
 $3625, of which $2649 was into New Orleans, and the 
 production of the mines of Mexico. 
 
 Quicksilver is found in the largest quantities in 
 Spain and California. Almaden, in Spain, has long 
 been famed for its mines of this metal, which, accord- 
 ing to Bowles, are the richest in their produce. In 
 China quicksilver is chiefly used in the manufacture 
 of vermilion and other articles of commerce. 
 
 The quantity of quicksilver produced from the New 
 Almaden mines, Santa Clara count)', California, is 
 about 100 bottles per month, or nearly 1,000,000 pounds 
 per annum. The other quicksilver mines worthy of 
 note are, one at Huancavelica, in Peru ; in Hungary, 
 Transylvania, and the district of Deux Fonts, in Ger- 
 many. There is a mine of cinnabar near Alicante, and 
 another not far from San Felipe, in Spain. Mercury 
 has also been found in China and Japan ; and though 
 the amount of the produce is unknown, it is believed 
 to be considerable. 
 
 According to Dumas, the following mines yield an- 
 nually as follows : Almaden, in Spain, from 2,700,000 to 
 3,456, 000 pounds avoirdupois ; Idria, 648,000 to 1, 080,000 
 pounds ; Hungary and Transylvania, 75,600 to 97,200 
 pounds; Deux Fonts, 43,200 to 54, 000 pounds; Palatine, 
 19,440 to 21,600 pounds; Huancavelica, 324,000 pounds. 
 The total annual product, including California,..can not 
 be less than from 6,500,000 to 7,000,000 pounds. 
 
 Quills (Fr. Plumes a ecrire ; Ger. Posen, Feder hiel; 
 It. Penne de scrivere ; Russ. Stivoli; Sp. Canones para 
 escribir), the hard and strong feather of the wings of 
 geese, ostriches, swans, turkeys, crows, etc., used in 
 writing. They are classified according to the order in 
 which they are fixed in the wing, the second and third 
 quills being the best. Crow quills are chiefly used for 
 drawing. The goodness of quills is judged partly by 
 the size of the barrels, but more by the weight ; hence 
 the denomination of quills of 14, 15, etc., loths per mille, 
 each mille consisting of 1200 quills. The quills of the 
 porcupine are much employed by the Indians in North 
 America as personal ornaments ; the quills are dyed, 
 and the colors appear to be durable ; they are applied 
 both to articles of dress and household furniture. 
 
 Quince-tree. The common quince (Cydonia vul- 
 garis') is a low tree, seldom exceeding fifteen or twenty 
 feet in height, with a crooked stem, and tortuous, ram- 
 bling branches. The bark is smooth and brown, ap- 
 proaching to black. The leaves are rotmdish or ovate ; 
 dusky green above, and whitish underneath. The flow- 
 ers, which put forth in England by the middle of April, 
 and in the middle and' northern parts of the United 
 States in May and June, are large, with the petals pale 
 red or white, and the sepals of the! same length as the 
 petals. The flowers are succeeded by'large fruit of a 
 globular, oblong, or pear-shaped form, of a rich yellow 
 or orange color, when ripe, of an austere taste, and 
 emitting a peculiar and rather pleasant smell. 
 
 Geography and History. — The quince is supposed to 
 have been originally a native of Sidon, a city of ancient 
 Crete, now the island of Candia ; but it is much more 
 proba:ble that it was only first brought into notice in 
 that city. It is considered at present as indigenous 
 to the south of France, 'particularly on the borders of 
 the Garonne, and to Germany, on the banksof the Dan- 
 ube. By some the tree is thought to be indigenous 
 to Britain ; and Phillips states, in his Pomarium £rp- 
 taimicum, that quinces grow in such abundance in some 
 parts of the Wealds of Sussex, as to enable private 
 families to make quince wine in quantities of from one 
 hundred to two hundred gallons in a season. 
 
 The quince was known to the Greeks and Romans, 
 and both nations held it in high estimation. Columel- 
 la says, " Quinces not only yield pleasure, but health." 
 He speaks of three kinds^the'*'Struthian," the "Must 
 Quince," and the " Orange Quince." Pliny mentions 
 many kinds, some growing wild in Italy, and others in 
 cultivation, so large that tjiey weighed the boughs on 
 which they grew down to the groimd. He also says 
 that some were of a green, and others of a golden color, 
 the latter of which were called chrysoniela. The onlj- 
 kind that was eaten raw he states to have been raised 
 by grafting the large quince upon the stock of a small 
 variety, called strutUa. "All kinds of this fruit," 
 continues he, " are grown in boxes, and placed within 
 the waiting-chambers of our great personages, in which 
 men wait to salute these personages as they come forth 
 every morning." It appears from the same author that 
 quinces were used to decorate the images of the gods, 
 which were placed in sleeping-chambers, round the 
 beds ; whence it follows that the Romans did not think 
 that there was an}' thing either injurious or unpleasant 
 in their smell. He gives directions for pi'eserving the 
 fruit, by excluding the air from them, or boiling them 
 in honey ; or by plunging them in boiling honey, a 
 practice in use with this and other fruits in Genoa at 
 the present day. He also writes much on the medici- 
 nal qualities of this fruit. " Quinces," says he, *' when 
 eaten raw, if quite ripe, arc good for those who spit 
 blood, or are troubled with hemorrhage." The juice 
 of raw quinces he states to be a sovereign remedy for 
 the swollen spleen, the dropsy, and difficulty of taking 
 breath, particularly to those who can not conveniently 
 breathe except when in an upright position. The flow- 
 ers of the quince, either fresh or dried, he tells us, are 
 good for inflamed eyes. The root of the tree was used, 
 not only as a medicine, but as a charm against scrofula. 
 
 The wood of the quince, when found of sufficient di- 
 mensions, is applied to the purposes of turnery ; but 
 from its small size this tree is almost entirelj' cultiva- 
 ted for its fruit, or as stocks on which to graft the mount- 
 ain ash and the pear. In France, however, this tree is 
 sometimes grown for hedges. The fruit is seldom eat- 
 en by itself, but is generally preserved in sirup, or is 
 made into marmalade, or is mixed with apples in tarts. 
 — Browne's Trees of America. 
 
EAG 
 
 1605 
 
 KAI 
 
 R. 
 
 Rags (Du. Lmvpen, Vodden; Fr. Chiffes, Chiffons, 
 Drapeaux, Di-iUea ; Ger. Lumpen ; It. Strasci, Strazze ; 
 Euss. Trepje; Sp. Tropos, Harapos), shreds or fragments 
 of worn linen, woolen, or cotton cloth. Though com- 
 monly held in little estimation, rags are of great im- 
 portance in the arts, being used for Vitrious purposes, 
 but especially in the manufacture of paper, most of 
 ■which is entirely prepared from them. As the mode 
 in which rags are collected musti be well known to 
 every one, the following statements apply only to the 
 trade in foreign rags. 
 
 Woolen Bags. — Woolen and linen rags arc imported 
 in considerable quantities from the continent of Europe, 
 particularly from Italy and Sicily. Woolen rags are 
 chiefly used for manure in England, especially in the 
 culture of hops ; but rags of loose texture, and not too 
 much worn or decayed, are unraveled and mixed up 
 with fresh wool in the making of yarn — a practice more 
 favorable to the cheapness than to the strength and 
 durability of the fabrics into which this old wool is in- 
 troduced. 
 
 Linen Rags are principally imported from Bostock, 
 Bremen, Plamburg^ Leghorn, Great Britain, Ancona, 
 Messina, Palermo, and Trieste. Their export from 
 Holland, Belgium, France, Spain, and Portugal, is 
 strictly prohibited. Theimported rags are coarser and 
 inferior in appearance to the English; but, being al- 
 most exclusively, lineny they are stronger, and bear a 
 price disproportionedi to the apparent difference in 
 quality : this disproportion has been materially aug- 
 mented since the introduction of the process of boiling 
 the rags in ley, and afterward bleaching them with 
 chlorine, has rendered foreign rags lit; for making fine 
 paper, and indeed, in some respects, preferable for that 
 purpose, by their aftbrding greater strength of texture 
 combined with equal whiteness of color. There is con- 
 siderable variety in the appearance of rags from differ- 
 ent ports; but in general those from tlie north of Eu- 
 rope are darker and stronger than those from the Medi- 
 terranean ports. The latter are chiefly the remains of 
 outer garmente, and have become whitened by exposure 
 to the sun and air; but since the improvements in 
 bleaching, this does not enhance their value. 
 
 Import of Raqb- into the United States foe the Ye ak 
 , . EKDINO Jtjne 30, 1857. 
 
 whence imported. 
 
 S\rQdeu and Norway 
 
 Swedish West Indies 
 
 DftiiiBh West Indies 
 
 Hamljurg 
 
 Bremen L 
 
 Dutdi We§t Indies 
 
 Kngiand .' 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Malta '. . 
 
 British North American Poss. . 
 
 British West Indies 
 
 British Guiana 
 
 France on the Atlantic; v 
 
 Ganai7 Islands 
 
 Cuba ,••<.". 
 
 Portugal ' ' 
 
 Sardinia 
 
 Tuscany 
 
 Papal States. 
 
 Two Sicilies 
 
 Austria 
 
 Austrian Possessions in Italy. . 
 
 Turkey in Europe 
 
 Turkey in Asia 
 
 Egypt..; :.... 
 
 Hayti 
 
 New Granada 
 
 Brazil ....,..., 
 
 Uruguay, or Cisplatin'e Repub. 
 BuenosAyres, or Argentine Rep. 
 
 ChUi 
 
 China 
 
 Total, lS56-'57 
 
 " 1S56-B6.... , 
 
 Increase 
 
 PoUDdB, 
 
 20,800 
 
 990 
 
 25,984 
 
 1,011,763 
 
 208,895 
 
 1T6 
 
 5,055,315 
 
 356,984 
 
 230,876 
 
 1,020 
 
 429,050 
 
 1,940 
 
 60,423 
 
 6,BT6 
 
 721,135 
 
 6,700 
 
 1,573,2(7 
 
 18,907,207 
 
 422,950 
 
 6,163,180 
 
 2,726,081 
 
 260,966 
 
 44,075 
 
 2,307,781 
 
 3,821,055 
 
 25,130 
 
 638 
 
 mi 
 
 60,071 
 
 91,813 
 
 48,387 
 
 600 
 
 44.682,030 
 38,727,017 
 
 5,855,063 
 
 Vttlue. 
 
 $J20 
 
 10 
 
 853 
 
 30,807 
 
 6,471 
 
 1^7,560 
 
 9,30S 
 
 6,139 
 
 22 
 
 10,549 
 
 52 
 
 2,991 
 
 178 
 
 18,733 
 
 211 
 
 61,309 
 
 655,559 
 
 15,030 
 
 212,293 
 
 87,700 
 
 11,008 
 
 596 
 
 68,428 
 
 97,970 
 
 377 
 
 26 
 
 10 
 
 1,266 
 
 1,705 
 
 747 
 
 4 
 
 $1,448,126 
 1,239,168 
 
 $208,067 
 
 Railroad, or Tramroad, a species of road having 
 tracks or ways formed of iron, stone, or other solid 
 material, on which the wheels of the carriages passing 
 along it run. The object in constructing such roads 
 is, by diminishing the friction, to make a less amount 
 of power adequate either to impel a carriage with a 
 greater velocity, or to urge forward a greater load. 
 The essential requisites of a railroad are two or more 
 smooth parallel surfaces for the wheels to run upon, 
 and formed and placed in such relation as to give the 
 maximum strength and safety with the minimum fric- 
 tion. The friction on a perfectly level railroad, prop- 
 erly constructed, is estimated to amount to from one- 
 tenth to one-seventh only of the friction on an ordinary 
 level road ; so that, supposing the same force to be ap- 
 plied in both cases, it would move a weight from 10 to 
 7 times as great on the former as on the latter. But 
 if there be a very moderate ascent, such as one foot in 
 fifty, which in an ordinary road would hardly be per- 
 ceived, a great increase of power on the railroad is re- 
 quired to overcome the resistance that is thus occa- 
 sioned. The reason is, that the ordinary load on a 
 level railroad is about seven times as great as on a com- 
 mon turnpike road;, so that when the force of gravity 
 is brought into operation by an ascending plane, its 
 opposing power, being proportioned to the load, is seven 
 times as great as on a common road. Hence the vast 
 importance of having railroads either level or as near- 
 ly so as possible. It is also of great importance that 
 railroads should be straight or at least free from any 
 abrupt curves. Carriages being kept on the road by 
 fltmges on the wheels, it is obvious that, where the 
 curves are quick, the friction on the sides of the rails, 
 and consequent retardation, must be very great. 
 
 The great success, rapid extension, and present neces- 
 , sity of railroads, are in consequence of the appreciation 
 of the value of time and saving of labor, which are the 
 characteristics of the present age. , Distance is now 
 measured by the time consumed in its passage ; and 
 the saving of cost in the carriage of goods is the aggre- 
 gate of the saving in time and the saving in labor. 
 We can not in the scope of this article give more than 
 a summary of the history of railroads, and the statis- 
 tics necessary to show the present condition and prog- 
 ress of railroads. 
 
 The aim and advantage of railroads may be stated 
 concisely to be, to obtain with the minimum expendi- 
 ture of power the maximum result of speed, draught, 
 and safety in the carriage of passengers and freight. 
 To show how this can be done would be to illustrate 
 the whole science of railroad engineering, and does not 
 come within the compass of this work: It will be suf- 
 ficient to show the improvement over the age before 
 railroads, and the progress since the invention of rail- 
 roads, we have made np to this time. Ist. As to 
 speed. In 1804 a locomotive was constructed in Wales, 
 that performed the unprecedented feat of drawing ten 
 tons on a tramroad at the rate of five miles an hour. 
 Wood on railroads, in 1825, says: "Nothing can do more 
 harm to the adoption of railroads than the promulga- 
 tion of such nonsense as that we shall see locomotive 
 engines traveling at the rate of 12, 16, 18, and 20 miles 
 per hour." Eitchie on railways, in 1846, says :" An ex- 
 press train on the Great Western Railway, drawing 59 
 tons, has traveled for three hours at the rate of 63 miles 
 per hour." And we know that the speed of 100 miles 
 per hour has been obtained several times in the past 
 few years. In 1778 a contract was made to establisli 
 a coach for passengers between Edinburgh and Glas- 
 gow, a distance of 44 miles. The coach was drawn by 
 six horses, and the journey between the-two places, to 
 and fro, was completed in six days. Even so recently 
 as the year 1760, the stage-coach from Edinburgh to 
 Glasgow took 36 hours to make the journey. In the 
 
EAI 
 
 1606 
 
 EAI 
 
 year 1849 the same journey was made, by a route 
 three miles longer, in one hour and a half. In the 
 year 1763 there was but one stage-coach between Edin- 
 burgh and London. This started once a month from 
 each of these cities. It took a fortnight to perform the 
 journey. At the same epoch the journey between 
 London and York required four days. In 1835 there 
 were seven coaches started daily between London and 
 Edinburgh, which performed the journey in 48 hours. 
 In 1849 the same journey was performed by railway in 
 twelve hours. 
 
 2d. The great increase of draught, or decrease of 
 friction, needs but brief illustration. It is stated as a 
 result of experiments on the Massachusetts railroads, 
 that the cost of merchandise transportation is3'095cents 
 per ton per mile, with an average speed of ten miles an 
 hour. The average cost of transportation of heavy 
 merchandise on the improved Macadamized roads of 
 England is 27 cents per mile, with an average speed 
 of three miles per hour. We see, therefore, that the 
 cost of transportation on railroads has been reduced to 
 11^ per cent, of the cost of transportation on improved 
 turnpikes, while the speed has been increased 233 per 
 cent, at the same time. 3d. As to the increase of safe- 
 ty. On the French railroads, 212 miles in length, of 
 1,889,718 passengers, who traveled 316,945 miles in the 
 first half of 1843, not one was either killed or wounded, 
 and only three servants injured. Comparing this with 
 the traveling by horse coaches in the same region, we 
 find that in seven years, from 1834 to 1840, 74 persons 
 were killed, and 2073 were wounded. According to 
 Dr. Lardner, the chances of a passenger meeting with 
 a fatal accident in traveling one mile on a railroad are 
 65,363j735 to 1. And again, the chances of his meeting 
 with bodily injury in the same distance are 8,612,486 
 to 1 ; and also that 360,036,923 passengers must travel 
 one mile in order to cause the death of one railroad em- 
 ploye. On comparing the safety of railroad travel- 
 ing on the roads of New York with those of Great Brit- 
 ain, it is found that for the last four years there were a 
 greater number of passengers killed and a less number 
 injured upon the roads of New York, in proportion to 
 the number carried, than upon those of Great Britain. 
 In New York one passenger was killed out of every 
 1,262,165 who traveled, one either injured or killed out 
 of every 341,125. One passenger was killed for every 
 47,164,426 miles traveled, and one was either injured 
 or killed for every 12,747,142 miles traveled. Ex- 
 cluding all the accidents growing out of the imprudence 
 and fault of the passengers themselves, it appears that 
 one was killed out of every 6,310,828 who traveled, and 
 one was either injured or killed out of every 664,300. 
 Excluding the accidents caused by their own careless- 
 ness or imprudence, there was but one passenger killed 
 for every 235,822,132 miles traveled, and but one either 
 injured or killed for every 24,823,382 miles traveled. 
 A vast number more lives would have been lost if the 
 same number of passengers had been conveyed the 
 same number of miles in one-horse wagons or in the 
 old-fashioned four-horse coaches. 
 
 "There be three things which make a nation great 
 and prosperous — a fertile soil, busy work-shops, and 
 easy conveyance of men and things from one place to 
 another." — Bacon. And we can form some estimate 
 from the foregoing, of what share railroads have had in 
 giving us one of these three elements of prosperity. 
 
 History. — ^Wooden railways were employed as a sub- 
 stitute for common roads, in the colonies of England 
 early in the 17th century.— Eitchie on, Railways, p. 19. 
 The earliest record of their existence is in the life of 
 the Lord-keeper North, wherein it appears that about 
 the year 1670 they were used at Newcastle-on-Tyne, 
 for transporting coal from the mines to the river, and 
 enabled one horse to draw from four to five chaldrons. 
 Subsequently these plates were covered with iron ; but 
 the introduction of rails wholly of iron seems not to 
 have taken place till 1768. — Hoknblower's Report to 
 
 House of Commons in, 1811. A projection or flange on 
 the outer side of the rails kept the wheels of the car- 
 riages upon them. They were called "Tramroads;" 
 and the objections to them were the great amount of 
 friction against the side flange and the wood surface of 
 the plate. 
 
 In 1789 was constructed the first public railway in 
 England, at Loughborough, by Mr. William Jessop ; 
 and he introduced cast iron edge-rails, and wheels with 
 the flanges cast upon them instead of on the rail. 
 Tramroads were, however, in use up to 1808. The 
 first railroad built in the United States was in 1827, 
 from Quincy to a point on Massachusetts Baj', three 
 miles in length, for the purpose of conveying granite to 
 Boston from the quarries of Quincy. The rails used 
 were of wood. The first passenger railroad was the 
 first 13 miles of the Baltimore and Ohio in 1830, from 
 Baltimore to Elkridge. 
 
 Rails. — " In 1803 malleable iron rails were first tried, 
 but not approved of. In 1808 they were introduced 
 into some coal works of Cumberland, and used with 
 complete success." — Gillespie on Railways. 
 
 Since then they have been formed of a great variety 
 of shapes. The principal are, 1st. The flat rail used on 
 branch coal-roads and on roads where horse-power is 
 used, and where economy is considered essential. 2d. 
 The rail called the "fish-bellied," from the rounded 
 profile of its under side. The form of this rail is in- 
 dicated by theory as almost perfect for strength ; but 
 on account of the unsteadiness, from requiring a high 
 support, it is now generally abandoned. 3d. The XI 
 rail, or inverted U. This rail is admirably adapted 
 for strength and security, but is more complex for 
 rolling than the rail commonly in use, namely, the T 
 rail inverted, iL ; and has only been used to a moder- 
 ate extent, and principally in England. 4th. The in- 
 verted H rail, so called, but more like an I in foim. 
 This form was found by Professor Barlow to possess the 
 maximum strength from a given quantity of material. 
 This rail is used in England, but has been found to be 
 deficient in stability. The T (inverted) rail is the 
 one generally used in this country; and for the fa- 
 cility in rolling, strength, and stability, is decidedly 
 the iest form. The weight commonly used is about 60 
 pounds to the yard ; but a heavier rail is more econom- 
 ical in the end ; and the weight of rails has been in- 
 creasing from 35 pounds, the weight first used, to that 
 of sixty pounds to the yard. 
 
 Eails were first laid on stone sleepers or blocks, as 
 giving the most solid support ; but this plan has gradu- 
 ally been abandoned, as the want of elasticity was the 
 cause of a rapid destruction to the rolling stock. Lon- 
 gitudinal sleepers of wood were also tried ; but after 
 much practical experience, the present form of trans- 
 verse wooden sleepers, laid on broken stone or gravel 
 bed, was adopted as the best foundation, and is now in 
 common use. 
 
 Locomotives. — ^After a full trial of horse-power and 
 stationary steam-engines, the plan of an engine, and 
 which the present locomotive is in many respects only 
 an improvement of, was invented. There has been 
 some controversy as to who .should have the credit of 
 the invention. It appears, however, that in 1759 Dr. 
 Robinson, then a student in the University of Glas- 
 gow, suggested to Watt the application of the steam- 
 engine to wheel-carriages; and in 1782, Murdoch, to 
 whom Trevithick was a pupil, made a model of a 
 steam-carriage. In 1784 Watt described such an appli- 
 cation in his patent. 
 
 In 1801 Oliver Evans, of Philadelphia, moved a 
 steam dredging-machine a mile and a half on wheels 
 turned by its own engine. In 1802 Eichard Trevi- 
 thick, in conjunction with Andrew Vivian, both Corn- 
 wall engineers, huilt and took out the^ra^ patent for a 
 locomotive; and in 1804 Eichard Trevithick built a 
 second locomotive, which on a road in South Wales 
 drew ten tons at the rate of five miles an hour. It 
 
EAI 
 
 1607 
 
 EAI 
 
 was many years, however, before any improvement 
 took place, owing chiefly to the imaginmy difficalty of 
 getting the locomotive wheels to " bite," or keep from 
 slipping on the rails. Great ingenuity was brought 
 to task to remedy this imaginary evil ; and in 1812 a 
 rail with racks or sockets was laid, and an engine with 
 teeth to fit in the rack was built. In 1813 an engine 
 with hind legs was invented to prevent the slipping. 
 All these contrivances were, however, shown to be use- 
 less by the discovery in 1814, by actual experiment, 
 that no friction was needed. And in this same year 
 the first really successful locomotive was invented by 
 George Stephenson, which ran six miles an hour, and 
 drew 30 tons. Little progress was made from this 
 time until 1829, when liobert Stephenson constructed 
 the "Rocket" engine, which on trial ran with an 
 average speed of 15 miles an hour, and with a maxi- 
 mum speed of 29^ miles an hour. Since that time 
 locomotives have been built to run over one hundred 
 miles an hour, and to draw a train of cars up an in- 
 clined plane of 500 feet to the mile. The performances 
 of a modern locomotive, in fact, are among the most 
 wonderful of all mechanisms. 
 
 Railroad Managemeitt. — Although one of the most 
 powerful elements in our prosperity, and in fact now a 
 necessitj-, it can not be denied that railroads generally 
 have been failures considered as profitable investments 
 to the stockholders. The business of our railroads is 
 ample to make them good investment ; and therefore 
 there can be but one cause for so general a failure; 
 namely, uni'smuTierative tariffs. Occasional instances 
 of bad management have taken place, but it is obvious 
 that this can not be the cause of so general a failure. 
 The gold discoveries of California and Australia have 
 advanced the prices of labor, fuel, etc., from 30 to 50 
 per cent., and, consequently, the expenditures of rail- 
 roads in a similar ratio. During this time there has 
 been no corresponding increase in the tariffs of our 
 railroads. This, in connection with the fact that the 
 depreciation of the rails, rolling stock, etc., have not 
 been sufficiently allowed for, explain the cause; and 
 make a remedy obvious. To show the authority for 
 this statement, we give the expenditures, etc., on rail- 
 roads at different periods since their first practical 
 adoption. These show that there was a gradual de- 
 crease to 1845, and since that time an increase in ex- 
 penditures. 
 
 The annual cost of maintaining in operation a well- 
 managed road is almost 1^ cents for each ton per mile 
 carried over it, and 41 cents for each mile run by all 
 the engines, besides $500 for each mile of road. If it 
 be likewise a passenger road, there is to be added three- 
 fourths of a cent per mile for each passenger carried. — 
 Charles Ellkt, Jan., Civil Engineer, Franklin Insti- 
 tute, 1842. 
 
 The complete average expense per train per mile of 
 running on the principal roads was estimated 
 
 In the United States, in 183S,* at 100 cents. 
 
 In England, 1840t 72 " 
 
 Utica and Schenectady Railroad, 1839 to 1841 115 " 
 
 Western Eailroad (Massachusetts), 1840 to 1844 . . 71 " 
 Average of Massachusetts railroads, 1845 65 '^ 
 
 OPEnATIONS OP THE RaILEOADS OF MABSAcncSETTS FEOM 
 1846 TO 1855. 
 
 1846., 
 1847., 
 1848., 
 1849. , 
 1850. 
 1851., 
 1863., 
 1853. , 
 1864.. 
 1856., 
 
 73 
 75 
 76 
 76 
 
 74 
 76 
 77 
 82 
 98 
 105 
 
 ' Chevalier db Gebsti7eb. 
 
 t Professor Vignoles. 
 
 It will be seen from this statement that the expenses 
 have been steadily increasing since 1845. To exhibit 
 this more plainly, wo give a table showing the gross 
 receipts and expenses, and also the net receipts of the 
 Massachusetts railroads for ten years. 
 
 
 Total ReCBipta 
 
 Total ExpeoBCB 
 
 Net Receipts 
 
 
 Eei Mile ran. 
 
 per Mile run. 
 
 per Mile run. 
 
 
 tcu. 
 
 « eta. 
 
 Centa. 
 
 1846 
 
 1 56 
 
 7D 
 
 83 
 
 1847 
 
 1 55 
 
 75 
 
 81 
 
 1843 
 
 1 50 
 
 76 
 
 74 
 
 1849 
 
 1 51 
 
 76 
 
 75 
 
 1850 
 
 1 63 
 
 74 
 
 78 
 
 1851 
 
 1 80 
 
 76 
 
 74 
 
 1852 
 
 1 44 
 
 77 
 
 C7 
 
 1853 
 
 1 5J 
 
 82 
 
 70 
 
 1854 
 
 1 57 
 
 98 
 
 53 
 
 18S6 
 
 1 69 
 
 1 05 
 
 64/ 
 
 From this it will be seen that the gross receipts (or 
 tariff) increased only "08 per cent, in ten years, while 
 the net receipts decreased 23 per cent. ; and the ex- 
 penses increased 44 per cent. This comparison holds 
 equally true with many of our railroads. 
 
 The following facts regarding eight of the principal 
 railroads of Massachusetts are developed by reports to 
 the Legislature : 
 
 1. The cost of passenger transportation is 1-062 cents 
 per passenger per mile. 2. The cost of merchandise 
 transportation is 3'096 cents per ton per mile. 3. In 
 passenger transportation $41'98 per cent, of the receipts 
 therefrom are absorbed in expenses. 4. In merchan- 
 dise transportation $89'52 per cent, of the receipts 
 therefrom are absorbed in expenses. 5. The expenses 
 of railroads are almost invariably determined by the 
 weight carried over the rails. For instance — the East- 
 ern road, upon which passenger traffic predominates, is 
 operated at an expense of $3670 per mile of the length 
 of the road ; while the Lowell, upon which merchan- 
 dise traffic predominates, is operated at an expense of 
 $12,478. 6. The cost of renewals of iron upon rail- 
 roads is an infallible index of the magnitude of ex- 
 penses. For the preceding reasons, the cost of that 
 item on the Eastern road is but $390 per mile of the 
 length of the road, while upon the Western it is $1399. 
 7. Of the expenses of railroads, thirty per cent, are 
 absorbed in maintenance of way, or road bed ; twenty 
 per cent, in fuel and oil ; twenty per cent, in repair of 
 engines, tenders, and cars; ten per cent, in special 
 freight expenses ; and the remainder in passenger, in- 
 cidental, and miscellaneous expenses. 8. The weight 
 of the engines, tenders, and cars upon passenger trains 
 is nine-fold greater than the weight of the passengers. 
 9. The weight of the engines, tenders, and cars upon 
 freight trains, is scarcely one fold greater than the 
 weight of the merchandise. 10. For cheapness, rail- 
 roads can not compete with canals, in transportation 
 of heavy descriptions of merchandise ; the cost of carrj'- 
 ing merchandise upon the Erie Canal ranges from two 
 to sixteen mills per ton per mile ; while upon sixteen 
 of the principal railways of New York and Massachu- 
 setts the cost of carrying merchandise ranges from 
 thirteen to sixty-five mills per ton per mile. 
 
 It being granted that the present tariffs are too low, 
 the remedy, or how to make railroads more profitable, is 
 the chief point. We extract from a paper written by 
 Charles EUet, Jun. civil engineer, which elucidates a 
 good system. 
 
 1st. Every road should form its own tariff of tolls, 
 based upon its own trade. 
 
 2d. In arranging the tariff^, let the first step he to ascer- 
 tain the true cost of transportation upon the particular 
 road for which the tariff is intended. The actual cost of 
 transportation is clearly the minimum limit of admissi- 
 ble reductions in favor of those objects of transporta- 
 tion which are deemed, from motives of policy, most 
 worthy of special encouragement. There may be, and 
 ought to be, material discriminations in every tariff; 
 but no article ought to be conveyed for less than the 
 actual cost of its transportation, fairly made out from 
 the proper experience of the line. Having determined 
 the true cost of transportation, and adopted that as a 
 minimum charge, below which the toll on no article 
 
EAI 
 
 1608 
 
 EAI 
 
 shall be suffered to fall, the company will be secured 
 against one frequent source of immense extravagance 
 ■ — that of carrying freight for nothing^ or less than noth- 
 ing. With this Information in hand, it is practicable 
 to construct a tarijf of expenses, which should in every 
 case precede the adoption of a tariff of charges. 
 
 3d. The next step in the process should beta ascertain 
 the highest charge which each article will hear. 
 
 4th. The true charge fiyr each article and each position, 
 it must be apparent, will be found somewhere between the 
 actual cost of transportation and the prohibitory charge. 
 The next step in the construction of a toll-sheet should 
 then be to form a third tariff, by adding together, for 
 each article and each position, the cost of transporta- 
 tion and the prohibitory charge, and talting half their 
 sum as a near approximation to that charge which will 
 yield the greatest net revenue. Yet there is no fact 
 better susceptible of the strictest mathematical demon- 
 stration than this, that the charges which will yield the 
 maximum net revenue on railroads doing a miscellaneous 
 business must he from one to two cents per ton per mile 
 greater than that which will produce the maximum gross 
 revenue. If, then, a company aims to obtain the greatest 
 possible gross revenue, it can only succeed by a great 
 sacrifice of dividends. In fact, the gross revenue may 
 be enormous, and yet be insufficient to pay their ex- 
 penses. 
 
 Railway Legislation. — Nothwithstanding the vast ad- 
 vantages which the opening of so many new and im- 
 proved lines of communication have conferred on the 
 country, we can not help thinking that these advant- 
 ages might have been much greater, and that, in the 
 instance of railway legislation, the public interests have 
 been overlooked to a degree that is not very excusable. 
 It is, we admit, no easy matter to decide how far the 
 interference of government should be carried in matters 
 of this sort. But, at all events, this much is obvious, 
 that when government is called upon to pass an act 
 authorizing private parties to execute a railwaj' or 
 other public work, it is bound to provide, in as far as 
 practicable, that the public interests shall not be preju- 
 diced by such act, and that it should be framed so that 
 it should not, either when passed, or at any future 
 period, stand in the way of the public advantage. We 
 believe, however, that a little consideration will serve 
 to satisfy most persons that this Important principle 
 has, in the case of railways, and indeed of most de- 
 scriptions of public works, ijeen, in this country, all 
 but wholly neglected. 
 
 Within a few years past the railway interest has be- 
 come one of the most important in this countrj', not 
 only on account of the large pecuniary inS'estraents 
 which have been made therein, but also on account of 
 the effect which its development has had in increasing 
 the value and changing the relations of property, trade, 
 and commerce, and in modifying the social conditions 
 of our people. These varied interests, and the new 
 circumstances which have been called into existence 
 by the vast and rapid expansion of the railway system, 
 have required additional legal enactments from time 
 to time, but the same supervision and restraints of law 
 which are considered necessary to guard and protect 
 other public interests have not been imposed upon this 
 one to an extent commensurate with its increasing im- 
 portance. The railroad corporations, in which there 
 is a larger investment than in the banks, over which 
 the law exercises supervision, are permitted to control 
 an immense amount of capital, and interests of the 
 greatest magnitude, with no other check than is afford- 
 ed by an annual statement of their affairs, notoriously 
 incorrect, and in many cases made so systematically, 
 for the purpose of concealing from the stockholders and 
 the public violations of law and want of fidelity to 
 their trusts. 
 
 One of the best guarantees for the faithful perform- 
 ance of duty that can be given to the public and the 
 stockholders by railroad managers is to render, at fre- 
 
 quent intervals, full and accurate statements of the re- 
 sults of the operations of the works, and the manner in 
 which these oificers have discharged their trusts. It is 
 not difficult to demonstrate that the publication of such 
 ample statements does not, in the long run, injure the 
 interests of any corporation, and that it is the most 
 certain security against malversation in the adminis- 
 tration of its affairs. 
 
 Under the General Kailroad Act of 1850 each of the 
 railroad corporations in the State of New York is re- 
 quired to make an annual report to the State Engineer 
 and Surveyor in the form prescribed, showing its finan- 
 cial condition and cost, its length, and other charac- 
 teristics ; the business done during the year and the 
 expense thereof, a statement of the receipts and pay- 
 ments, and a list of accidents which have occurred in- 
 volving injury to life or limb ; and this officer is re- 
 quired to arrange the information thus furnished, and 
 submit it, together with the reports, to the Legislature. 
 — Report of the New York State Engineer, 1855. 
 
 Austrian Railroads. — The government of Austria 
 has at length conceded to a public company all the 
 railways that have been completed, and those which 
 are to be constructed, in the Lombardo-Venetian terri- 
 tories, and the Central Italian Railway. The lines al- 
 ready completed by the state are as follows : 
 
 Kilometrea. 
 
 Venice to Coccaglio '.i04 
 
 Milan to Como 45 
 
 Milan to Treviglio 32 
 
 Verona to Mantna 06 
 
 Mestre toCasarsa 04 
 
 Coccaglio to Bergamo 20 
 
 Total 43T 
 
 The railways to be constructed are as follows : 
 
 Kilometres. 
 
 Bergamo to Monza 37 
 
 Bergamo to Lecco 30 
 
 Milan to Buffalora 32 
 
 Milan to Fiacenza and Pavia 86 
 
 Milan to Cesto Calende 55 
 
 Kailroad round Milan 6 
 
 Mantna to Borgoforte 20 
 
 Casarsa to Nebresina 80 
 
 Total 365 
 
 The length of railways completed is equal to 373 En- 
 glish miles, and the length of those to be constructed 
 is equal to about 223 English miles. The Central Ital- 
 ian Railway concession is for 280 kilometres, so that 
 the entire concession, when complete, will comprise 
 about 680 English miles of railway. The state grants 
 to the company the free use of the line from Nebresina 
 to Trieste, with the joint use of the terminus at Trieste. 
 The company is to pay to the state for the finished rail- 
 ways 60,000,000 francs, or £2,400,000; this sum is to 
 be paid in six installments within a period of six years, 
 or at the rate of about £400,000 per annum. Should 
 the net profits at the enA of this term exceed 7 per 
 cent., the company will have to pay an additional sum 
 to the Austrian government of 16,500,000 francs, or 
 £660,000. The Austrian government guarantees 5 per 
 cent, on the whole capital required, which is estimated 
 at about 250,000,000 francs, or £10,000,000. For the 
 Central Italian Eailroad, the company has a guarantee 
 of 6,500,000 francs per annum, or more than 6^ per 
 cent, on the capital. 
 
 Of the railways in operation, in progress, and con- 
 templated in Eastern Europe, a brief notice will suffice. 
 Russia, carried along by the tide of public opinion 
 in Europe, found herself compelled, by a due regard to 
 the interests of her people, to consecrate a part of her 
 exertions and her capital to the construction of the 
 new lines of communication. An attempt was first 
 made to attract private capitalists to these projects, 
 and special advantages were offered to companies who 
 might be disposed to undertake the construction of the 
 lines of railway contemplated in Russia. The emperor, 
 besides guaranteeing to the shareholders a minimum 
 profit of i per cent., proposed to give them gratuitous- 
 ly all the lands of the state thi-ough which the rail- 
 
RA.I 
 
 1609 
 
 EAI 
 
 ways should pass, and to place at their disposal, also, 
 gratuitously, the timber and raw materials necessary 
 for the way and works which might be found upon the 
 spot. It was further proposed to permit the importa- 
 tion of rails and the rolling stock free of duty. Rus- 
 sian proprietors also spontaneously came forward, and 
 not only agreed to grant such portion of their land as 
 the railways might pass through gratuitously, but fur- 
 ther to dispossess themselves temporarily of their serfs, 
 and surrender them to the use of the companies on the 
 sole condition that they should be properly supported 
 while employed. 
 
 By a special ukase, dated February 13, 1842, it was 
 decreed that the railway which was to unite the two 
 capitals of St. Petersburg and Moscow should be con- 
 structed exclusively at the expense of the state, in 
 order to retain in the hands of the government, and in 
 the general interest of the people, a line of communica- 
 tion so important to the industry and the internal com- 
 merce of the empire. The local proprietors equally 
 agreed to surrender to government gratuitously the 
 lands necessary for the works of this line. 
 
 The system of railways oontemplat^d in Eussia is 
 composed of five principal trunk lines, one of which, 
 connecting Warsaw with Cracow, is completed and in 
 operation : the length of this line is 168 miles. The 
 second will connect Warsaw with St. Petersburg : the 
 extent of this would be, when executed, 683 miles. The 
 third will connect St. Petersburg with Moscow ; this 
 line is in active progress : its length will be about 400 
 miles. Besides these, authorization was given to a 
 company, by a ukise dated July, 1843, to construct a 
 railway for the transport of goods between the Wolga 
 and the Don, the length of which would be 105 miles. 
 In the actual execution of this magnificent system of 
 railway communication, no considerable progress has 
 been j'et made, with the exception of the line already 
 mentioned between Warsaw and Cracow. 
 
 A short line of railway connecting St. Petersburg 
 with TsarkoS-so^la, having ah aiialogy to the Green- 
 wich and Richmond lines, which diverge from London, 
 and the Versailles and St. Germain lines from Paris, 
 was completed and opened for traffic in April, 1838. 
 The traffic on this line has hitherto amounted to about 
 seven hundred passengers per day. 
 
 The railway connecting the Don and the Wolga was 
 opened for traffic >in 1846 ; but this line is exclusively 
 for merchandise^ and is worked bj' horses. 
 
 In southern Russia a line of railway is projected be- 
 tween Kief and Odessa, the surveys of which have been 
 made by Belgian engineers ; but no progress in its con- 
 struction has yet been effected. A railway has been 
 projected also between St. Petersburg and Cronstadt, 
 and another between St. Petersburg and Baltishport, 
 in Esthonia, to be constructed and worked by a com- 
 pany with a guarantee of 4 per cent, by the govern- 
 ment. 
 
 In Italy a few short lines of railway onlj- have been 
 executed, connecting the chief states with neighboring 
 places. They are as follows : 
 
 ' Milea. 
 
 Naples to Portici, opened Octobev, 1S3D 5 
 
 Pcytici to Castleraare, with branch to Nocera. . . 21i 
 
 Naples to Capua 23^ 
 
 Milan to Treviglio '. IS 
 
 Milan to Monza 12 
 
 Venice to Viceiiza 40 
 
 Leghorn to Pisa 12f 
 
 Florence to EmpoH, Ponte Dera, Pisa, and Sienna . . 
 
 Pisa to Lucca and San Salvador 
 
 Florence to Prato lOJ 
 
 In the kingdom of Sardinia railways exist as yet 
 only in prospect. It is intended to carry two lines 
 from Turin, one directed on Genoa by Alexandria, and 
 the other on Milan by»Vercelli and Novara. The 
 political distractions, however, of the last two years 
 have suspended these projects. 
 
 Railroads in Spain.- — From returns lately made in 
 Spain to the government concerning the railways 
 conceded and at work in that country in 1856, it ap-, 
 pears that the whole of the lines open to the public, 
 including that from Madrid to Saragossa, conceded to 
 the Spanish Credit Mobilier, give a length of 1955 kilo- 
 metres (1222 miles). In the Concession granted to that 
 Company, of the two sections of the railroad from Madrid 
 to Valladolid, and from Burgos to the frontier of France, 
 the first section will leave Madrid, pass by Avila, Are- 
 volo and Medina del Campo, and will stop at Vallado- 
 lid, where it will join the section already traced out 
 from Valladolid to Burgos. 
 
 Railroads in Prussia. — The subjoined' is an account 
 of the progress of railroads in Prussia since 1849. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Length in 
 MDes. 
 
 ' ' ' Ontloy in 
 million DoHoTB. 
 
 Overv 
 
 ■hole Lon^th. 
 
 Receipts. 
 
 Average Profit 
 per Cent. 
 
 Pftesengers. 
 
 100 lbs. Morchnndise. 
 
 PnBsengera. 
 
 Mercliandise. 
 
 1849 
 
 1821 
 
 101 
 
 129,416 
 
 1,057,021 
 
 $3,7U8,'J27 
 
 $3,545,4'iT 
 
 3 -Si 
 
 1850 
 
 1871 
 
 106 
 
 146,273 
 
 1,331,894 
 
 4,420,172 
 
 4,308,229 
 
 405 
 
 ISSl 
 
 . 1982 
 
 112 
 
 148,680 
 
 1,604,325 
 
 4,622,980 
 
 4,968,859 
 
 609 
 
 1S52 
 
 2186 
 
 126 
 
 147.81 T 
 
 2,171,019 
 
 4,566,734 
 
 6,511,396 
 
 6-75 
 
 1853 
 
 2326 
 
 135 
 
 1 144,397 
 
 2,637,401 
 
 5,488,866 
 
 7,821,685 
 
 5-76 
 
 1854 
 
 2326 
 
 ''vUl 
 
 137,164 
 
 2,039,084 
 
 5,712,136 
 
 9,977,251 
 
 6-79 
 
 1856 
 
 2394 
 
 146 
 
 143,784 
 
 3,646,960 
 
 5,959,814 
 
 12,205,623 
 
 6-41 
 
 The number of passengers has remained stationary 
 since 1849, while the receipts for passenger trade have 
 increased only in proportion to the length of road. 
 The amount of merchandise transported has, on the 
 contrary, inci'eased three-and-a-half fold ; and while in 
 1819 the receipts on merchandise did not equal the re- 
 ceipts from passengers, they amounted in 1855 to more 
 than double the receipts from passenger transport. In 
 1849, 384,788,585 hundred pounds were transported 
 over every mile of road ; in 1855 were transported 
 1,742,066,452 hundred pounds. While the roads have 
 scarcely increased one-third in aggregate length, the 
 transport of merchandise has increased iive-fold. . 
 
 The lengths above attributed to Prussian roads ex- 
 tend in some cases beyond the Prussian borders. At 
 the end of 1854 there were 2230 miles of railroad in 
 Prussia. At the end of 1855 there were 2313 miles. 
 During the year 1856 about 270 miles of road were 
 opened in Prussia, so that at present in the whole 
 Prussian state there is one mile of railroad to every 
 nine and two thirds square miles. This, however, 
 varies in different provinces — amounting in Rhineland 
 and Westphalia to 5-5 ; in Silesia to 7'2 ; in Branden- 
 
 burg and Saxony to 7-5; in Pomeratiia,- Prussia, and 
 Poland, to 22*6 square miles for every mile of railroad. 
 There are already commenced, and to be completed in 
 12 years, 2650 miles, so that in 12 j'ears Prussia will 
 contain at least 5230 miles of railroad, or one mile for 
 every 4-3 square miles. There will then be one mile 
 of railroad to every 2-3 square miles in Rhineland and 
 Westphalia, to every 4 square miles in Silesia, to 
 every 4 square miles in Brandenburg and Saxony, and 
 to every 10 square miles in Pomerania, Posen, and 
 Prussia.! The cost of building these new roads is esti- 
 mated at about $168,000,000, or $14,000,000 yearly. 
 
 Railroads in France. — We extract the following re- 
 port on the condition and progress of railroads in 
 France during the year 1856, submitted to the Emperor 
 by M. A. Rouher, chief of the Department of Agricul- 
 ture, Commerce, and Public Works : 
 
 "A r6sum6 of these figures, which indicate the great 
 increase of public confidence, also exhibits the fact that 
 the construction of the net-work of railroads in France 
 has cost, to this period, 3,080,000,000 francs,* of which 
 
 (The franc equals 18'6 cents. 
 
EAI 
 
 1610 
 
 EAI 
 
 2,419,000,000 fell upon the companies, and 661,000,000 
 ■was contributed hy the state. Of this aggregate 
 amount there appears for the years 1855 and 1856 the 
 enormous sum of 919,000,000 francs. 
 
 "The net receipts, which in 18i7 were raised to 
 22,000 francs per kilometre,* suddenly fell in 1848 to 
 13J600 francs; hut since 1852, notwithstanding double 
 tracks were laid, their marked increase is shown by the 
 following figures : 
 
 In 1852 21,600 francs per kilometre. 
 
 "1853.! 24,009 " 
 
 "1854 26,400 " " 
 
 ** These returns experienced in 1855 an exceptional 
 augmentation, owing to the Universal Exhibition or 
 World's Fair. They reached 30,300 francs ; and if the 
 amount did not reach that figure the present year 
 (1856), the increase over 1854 is not the less progress- 
 ive ; for the returns for the first three quarters show 
 the net amount of 28,000 francs, at the very lowest, per 
 kilometre. 
 
 "Statement exhibiting the Cost of Eaileoads ik Fkajtoe 
 I'KOM 1823 to 1351 
 
 
 Actual Cosl^ 1 
 
 To the 
 State. 
 
 To tie 
 Companies. 
 
 Total. 
 
 From 1823 to 1829 . . 
 
 " 1830 to 1841.. 
 ' " 1842 to 1847.. 
 
 " 1843 to 1851 . . 
 
 " 1853 to 1854 . . 
 In 185.J 
 
 Francs. 
 
 3,223,740 
 278,653,677 
 298,417,147 
 51,187,751 
 55,200,000 
 20,286,000 
 
 Franca. 
 
 3,300,000 
 172,097,753 
 509,411,555 
 198,711,038 
 646,690,064 
 430,406,485 
 4-53,6C9,713 
 
 Franca. 
 3,300,000 
 
 175,326,493 
 787,965,232 
 497,128,236 
 097,877,815 
 435,606,485 
 478,855,713 
 
 1111850 
 
 Total 
 
 706,873,315 
 
 2.419. 1S6.65S 
 
 3,126,059,973 
 45,566,000 
 
 Less receipts inl 
 
 1855-'58 i" 
 
 General total 
 
 45,566,000 
 
 061.:!08,316;2,419,186,65S 
 
 3,080,494,973 
 
 " It may be interesting and instructive to show as 
 well the proportions in which the expenses are dis- 
 tributed between the principal periods into which the 
 past thirty-four years have been divided, as the share 
 contributed by the state during the same periods. 
 The years which elapsed between 1823 and 1830 were, 
 as respects railroads, an epoch of experiments and 
 trials, to which the companies devoted an annual aver- 
 age of 470,000 francs, the state furnishing no contri- 
 bution. 
 
 " During the twelve years which succeeded the rev- 
 olution of July, the indecision in regard to the sj'stem 
 upon which railroads were to be constructed, and the 
 small share of confidence which these new speculations 
 inspired, paralyzed the progress of development. Thus 
 the expenses on the part of the companies did not ex- 
 ceed an annual average of over 14,330,000 francs, while 
 the amount which fell upon the state on a similar 
 average was but 270,000 francs. The law of June 11, 
 1842, gave the first impetus to railroad enterprises. 
 I'rom 1812 to 1847 the annual average expense was 
 85,000,000 francs for the companies, and 46,400,000 for 
 the state. From 1848 to the month of December, 1851, 
 owing to the political disturbances, which reached even 
 the sources of credit, the annual average expenses of the 
 company sunk to 30,000,000 francs, while the amount 
 which fell upon the state was raised to 75,000,000 each 
 year. Since 1852, however, when legitimate confi- 
 dence was again restored, and new institutions had in- 
 spired in France security and hope in the future, a new 
 order of things commenced. The annual expenses of 
 the company augmented in a remarkable degree, hav- 
 ing risen to the average of 216,000,000 francs. The 
 demands upon the treasury diminished no less rapidly, 
 having been reduced by receipts and reimbursements 
 to the annual sum of 17,000,000 francs. 
 
 " Finally, under the healthy influence of the general 
 prosperity and credit, the expenses of the companies 
 reached, in the year 1855, 430,000,000 francs, and in 
 1866, 458,000,000 francs; while those of the state were 
 
 The kilometer equals about five furlongs. 
 
 reduced by reimbursements to not more than 30,000,000 
 for both years. The resume of these figures, which are 
 themselves the indices of the public confidence, shows 
 that the net-work of railroads in France has cost, up 
 to the present period, 3,080,000,000 francs, of which 
 the state paid 661,000,000 francs, and the companies 
 2,419,000,000. To this aggregate amount the years 
 1855 and 1856 alone contributed the enormous amount 
 of 919,000,000 francs. 
 
 "The entire length of this net-work of railroads at 
 the commencement of 1867 is 11,250 kilometres; or 
 opened, 6600 ; in progress of completion, 4750. 
 
 " Length to be completed in the next ten years : 
 
 1857 968 kilometres. 
 
 1858. 
 18S9. 
 1860. 
 1861.. 
 1863, . 
 1863. . 
 1864. . 
 1865. , 
 1866.. 
 
 818 
 1197 
 234 
 648 
 83 
 300 
 236 
 
 866 
 
 Total length in progress of completion... 4750 '* 
 
 The following are the last returns of the gross re- 
 ceipts of the principal French railways from November 
 11 to November 17, compared with the corresponding 
 week last year : 
 
 RaUroada. 
 
 Northern 
 
 Westeru 
 
 Orleans 
 
 Strasburg 
 
 Montereau 
 
 Lyons , 
 
 Lyons to Mediterranean. 
 
 Grand Central 
 
 Southern 
 
 1856. 
 
 Fronca. 
 I,074,a72 
 
 616,000 
 1,050,070 
 
 734,620 
 
 835,769 
 619,361 
 
 76,213 
 
 1866. 
 
 Francs. 
 907,627 
 703,113 
 1,187,942 
 744,800 
 42,885 
 932,170 
 6T5,00T 
 43,291 
 220,452 
 
 Progress of Railroad Building in France and Germa- 
 ny. — In Germany the first railroad was opened in the 
 year 1828, and two years later in France. The follow- 
 ing table exhibits the number of geographical miles in 
 operation in both countries since 1828 : 
 
 Years. 
 
 France. 
 
 Germany. 
 
 Yeara. 
 
 France. 
 
 Germany. 
 
 
 MUes. 
 
 Miles. 
 
 
 Milea. 
 
 Miles. 
 
 1828 
 
 
 9 
 
 1814 
 
 109 
 
 322 
 
 1830 
 
 11 
 
 9 
 
 1816 
 
 109 
 
 41 B 
 
 1833 
 
 10 
 
 17 
 
 1840 
 
 133 
 
 519 
 
 1833 
 
 30 
 
 IT 
 
 1847 
 
 210 
 
 739 
 
 1835 
 
 36 
 
 18 
 
 1S4S 
 
 236 
 
 830 
 
 1830 
 
 36 
 
 27 
 
 1849 
 
 366 
 
 919 
 
 1837 
 
 39 
 
 80 
 
 1850 
 
 3^5 
 
 992 
 
 1838 
 
 39 
 
 61 
 
 1851 
 
 460 
 
 1035 
 
 1839 
 
 45 
 
 78 
 
 18.52 
 
 601 
 
 1099 
 
 1340 
 
 55 
 
 108 
 
 1853 
 
 532 
 
 1176 
 
 1841 
 
 74 
 
 164 
 
 1864 
 
 612 
 
 1223 
 
 1842 
 
 74 
 
 201 
 
 1865 
 
 733 
 
 12T4 
 
 1843 
 
 109 
 
 251 
 
 
 
 
 No two countries have the same weights and meas- 
 ures, though the same name to designate them may be 
 used in many countries. Take the mile measure, for 
 instance; in England and the United States a mile 
 means 1760 yards ; in the Netherlands it is 1093 yards ; 
 while in Germany it is 10,120 yards, or nearly si-s: En- 
 glish miles ; in France it is 3025 yards ; the Scotch 
 mile is 2472 yards, and the Swedish mile 11,700 yards. 
 
 Railways of Great Britain.— On the 31st of Decem- 
 ber, 1856, the 8506 miles of railway in the United King- 
 dom had actually cost in money 309 millions sterling, 
 and that large sum had been obtained as follows : viz.. 
 
 Millions 
 Sterling. 
 
 Ordinary shares 174 
 
 Preference shares 67 
 
 281 
 
 Loans raised _78 
 
 309 
 
 The average rate of interest paid on the preference 
 
 share capital was £5 1.3s. per cent, per annum ; on the 
 
 loans raised, that is on debenture debt, £4 13s. per 
 
 cent, per annum ; and on the ordinary share capital, 
 
EAI 
 
 1611 
 
 RAI 
 
 £3 2». 6d. per cent, per annum. The total gro83 re- 
 ceipts of the railways of the United Kingdom in 1856 
 were twenty-three millions sterling, or something ap- 
 proaching the Interest of the national debt. The end 
 is now rapidly approaching of the era of railway mak- 
 ing. It has been going on for twenty years with amaz- 
 ing vigor, and it has covered Great Britain with a sys- 
 tem of public roads which, for extent, perfection, utility, 
 and rapidity of execution, leave far behind the achieve- 
 ments of any other nation except the United States, 
 or any other age in the same space of time. 
 
 The following table shows the number of railway 
 acts passed in each session of Parliament since 1846, 
 together with the length of new lines and amount of 
 capital authorized by those acts : 
 
 Yenrs. 
 
 Number of 
 
 KoUwny 
 
 Acts. 
 
 Leogth of 
 
 Lino 
 authoTlKOd. 
 
 Amount of Money 
 authorized 
 to be raised. 
 
 1846 '. 
 
 184T 
 
 1848 
 
 270 
 190 
 85 
 34 
 34 
 61 
 51 
 108 
 71 
 73 
 
 Miles. 
 
 4538 
 
 1350 
 
 371 
 
 16 
 
 8 
 
 136 
 
 244 
 
 940 
 
 482 
 
 363 
 
 £132,617,368 
 
 39,460,128 
 
 15,274,237 
 
 3,911,331 
 
 4,115,632 
 
 9,553,275 
 
 4,333,834 
 
 15,617,601 
 
 9,211,602 
 
 9,192,038 
 
 1849 
 
 1850 
 
 1851 
 
 1S52 
 
 1853 
 
 1854 
 
 1865 
 
 Of the 73 acts passed in 1855, 53 had reference to 
 the construction of worlcs ; the length of new lines au- 
 tliorized by these 53 acts was as follows: viz., 196 
 miles in England and Wales, 76 miles in Scotland, and 
 91 miles in Ireland. 
 
 The lines authorized in England and Wales were 
 chiefly extensions or branches connected with railways 
 already authorized. The most important were the 
 following : 
 
 The extension of the East Kent Railway, from Can- 
 
 terbury to Dover. By this line direct railway com- 
 munication will be afforded between Dover and the 
 naval and military arsenals in North Kent, as also a 
 shorter line between Dover and the metropolis, than is 
 afforded by the Southeastern Railway. The Newtown 
 and Oswestry Railway deserves notice, as forming a 
 link in a line of railway communication which will 
 probably eventually connect the manufacturing dis- 
 tricts with Milford Haven. The Carlisle and Silloth 
 Bay Railway is an extension of the Port Carlisle Rail- 
 way to a new harbor on the Solway Frith. 
 
 Among the lines authorized in Scotland may be no- 
 ticed the Glasgow, Dumbarton, and Helensburg Kail- 
 way, proposed to be constructed along the north bank 
 of the Clyde from Glasgow to Helensburg, and the 
 Banff, Macduff, and Turiff Railway. The remaining 
 lines were merely short branch lines in connection with 
 existing railways. 
 
 In Ireland were authorized an extension of the Dun- 
 dalk and Enniskillen Railway to Cavan, and of the 
 Ulster Railway to Monaghan. The Belfast and County 
 Down Railway Company was authorized to make a 
 line to connect Downpatrick with Belfast. A few oth- 
 er short branch lines were also authorized. 
 
 Devehjmient of Railway Communication. — The total 
 length of line authorized by Parliament down to the 
 end of 1855 amounted to 14,346 miles ; but of this 1495 
 miles have been abandoned by subsequent acts or by 
 warrant under the authority of the commissioners of 
 railways, and consequently there remain 15,851 miles 
 for which the parliamentary powers which were ob- 
 tained have not been repealed. Of these 8280 miles 
 were open at the end of 1855 ; 4571 miles, having re- 
 ceived the authority of Parliament, remain unopened. 
 The following table exhibits for each year since 1843 
 the proportions of railways authorized, opened, and 
 abandoned under the authority of Parliament : 
 
 Table showing TnE Length of Eailwat avthorized psEViotrs to the end op 1843, and in BAcn succeeding Yeae, opened 
 port Tkapfio during bach Yeae, and tub Pkopobtion bemaining to be completed at tue end of 1855 ; also, sdowing 
 
 TUB total LenGTII OF KAILWAY OPENED FOE TsAFPIO IN EACH Yeae SINCE 1843. 
 
 LENGTH OP LINB OPBNSD. 
 
 k 
 SO 
 
 111 
 
 ■s|i . 
 
 m 
 
 hi 
 
 .SI'S .-si 
 ■Sg-S'-Sj 
 
 Mi 
 
 Yenro. 
 
 If 
 
 3 
 
 i 
 
 . 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 s 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 IS 
 S 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 §■ 
 % 
 
 bo 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 II 
 
 
 iill 
 
 g.3fiS-S 
 
 ti 
 
 
 0. 
 
 a 
 
 " 
 
 H 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 n 
 
 » 
 
 " 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 " 
 
 ^ 
 
 ij 
 
 o 
 
 hj 
 
 ^4 
 
 Of HneH authorizctl 
 
 Mis. 
 
 Mlfl. 
 
 Mb. 
 
 MlB. 
 
 Mis. 
 
 Mis. 
 
 Mis. 
 
 Mis. 
 
 Mis. 
 
 Mis. 
 
 Mis, 
 
 Mis. 
 
 Mis. 
 
 Mis. 
 
 Miles. 
 
 Miles. 
 
 Miles. 
 
 MlH. 
 
 prev. to Dec 1843 
 
 20S6 
 
 204 
 
 131 
 
 16 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2390 
 
 2,390 
 
 
 2,3''0 
 
 
 
 nK44 
 
 
 
 15!t 
 
 366 
 
 142 
 
 11H 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 792 
 
 805 
 
 , . 
 
 805 
 
 IH 
 
 
 1845 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 224 
 
 673 
 
 604 
 
 !!11 
 
 213 
 
 65 
 
 106 
 
 122 
 
 60 
 
 26 
 
 2300 
 
 2,700 
 
 66 
 
 2,e44 
 
 344 
 
 
 18411 
 
 
 
 
 
 84 
 
 4n.s 
 
 501 
 
 a7» 
 
 122 
 
 2S8 
 
 179 
 
 121 
 
 22 
 
 2099 
 
 4,538 
 
 989 
 
 3,549 
 
 1450 
 
 
 1847 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 56 
 
 45 
 
 26 
 
 71 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 29 
 
 22 
 
 276 
 
 1,354 
 
 438 
 
 916 
 
 64U 
 
 
 1848 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 7 
 
 16 
 
 . , 
 
 11 
 
 
 41 
 
 871 
 
 7 
 
 364 
 
 323 
 
 Of lines au- 
 
 1849 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, 
 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 16 
 
 
 16 
 
 13 
 
 thorized in' 
 
 1850 
 1851 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •• 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 15 
 
 23 
 
 1 
 
 15 
 
 24 
 
 7 
 77 
 
 8 
 135 
 
 
 8 
 135 
 
 1 
 ,58 
 
 
 18,52 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 106 
 
 21 
 
 149 
 
 244 
 
 2 
 
 242 
 
 1)3 
 
 
 ISSli 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 35 
 
 8S 
 
 123 
 
 940 
 
 1 
 
 E39 
 
 816 
 
 
 1854 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 23 
 
 23 
 
 482 
 
 2 
 
 480 
 
 4,57 
 
 
 J855 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 363 
 
 
 863 
 
 363 
 
 Total 
 
 2036 
 
 2U4 
 
 2;!6 
 
 608 
 
 803 
 
 1182 
 
 86tJ 6-5 
 
 260 
 
 446 
 
 350 1 368 
 
 226 S2S0 
 
 14,340 
 
 1,4S6 
 
 12,851 
 
 4571 
 
 
 
 
 Railways opened to piisKenger traffic belonging to private it 
 
 idividualB, but 
 
 
 17 
 
 IT 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 243 S2il7 
 
 
 
 
 
 From the foregoing table we see that there was a 
 general increase in the number of miles opened from the 
 year 1844 to the year 1848, when the number reached 
 the maximum. From the year 1848 there was a de- 
 crease, which, though not regular, is sufficiently so to 
 show that Great Britain was approximating toward a 
 completed system. The average numberof miles opened 
 in the twelve years from 1844 to 1855 inclusive, was 
 690, which is much less than the average number built 
 in the United States during the same period. 
 
 This length of line is distributed throughout the 
 United Kingdom as follows : 
 
 
 S 
 
 ■a 
 
 e 
 
 SS 
 
 .sig 
 
 
 It;? 
 
 
 STS 
 
 
 3|2 
 
 
 
 g' 
 
 
 g o^ 
 
 ^.5..- 
 
 
 ;^5 
 
 
 3S 
 
 sis" 
 
 ^■^i 
 
 CoonttieL 
 
 ■zs 
 
 
 •wR 
 
 Jis 
 
 r^" 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 fj 
 
 
 •&S 
 
 ■&■%% 
 
 III 
 
 
 so 
 
 s-= 
 
 so 
 
 g-ao 
 
 
 iJ 
 
 >i , 
 
 .4 
 
 J 
 
 t- 
 
 
 MUes. 
 
 MUes. 
 
 Miles. 
 
 Miles. 
 
 MUes. 
 
 England and "Wales. . 
 
 6114 
 
 96 
 
 6210 
 
 3-76 
 
 9,436 
 
 
 1043 
 89T 
 
 40 
 90 
 
 1083 
 987 
 
 453 
 837 
 
 1,641 
 1,824 
 
 Ireland 
 
 Total 
 
 8054 
 
 226 
 
 8280 
 
 4571 
 
 12,851 
 
RAI 
 
 1612 
 
 KAI 
 
 With respect to 2284 miles out of the 4571 miles 
 for which parliamentary powers have been obtained, 
 and which have not yet been opened, the powers for 
 the compulsory purchase of the land and the comple- 
 tion of the works have expired. The proportion in 
 which this is distributed through the several years is 
 shown in the following table : 
 
 Table showing tue Peoportion of Railway not open 
 Fou Tbat-fio, authorized previous to the end op 1843 
 
 AMD IN EACH BUBBEtJirENT "i'EAR, AND WUICH HAVE NOT 
 BEEN ABANDONED BY SUBSEQUENT AOT6; AND THE l^BO- 
 PORTION AS TO WHICH THE TiME ALLOWED FOE THE COM- 
 PULSORY Purchase of Land and for the Completion of 
 
 AVORKS HAS EXPIRED WITHOUT THE KaILWAYB BEING COM- 
 PLETED, DOWN TO THE END OF 1855. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M'm 
 
 -S 11-53.2 II . 
 
 Years. 
 
 
 ength of Line author 
 nnd not. abandoned 
 suhsequent Acts, w 
 woa not open for Tr 
 on Decomber 31, 1855 
 
 ength of Line upon w 
 tlio powerg for com 
 fcory purchnse of L 
 nnd completion of W 
 had expired without 
 Railway being opene 
 December 81, 1855. 
 
 Bilwnya for the const 
 tion of which Pa 
 mentftry powers exist 
 
 
 
 ►J ■ 
 
 J 
 
 K ■ • 
 
 
 
 MUes. 
 
 MUes. 
 
 HUei. 
 
 Of lines autborized pre- 
 
 
 
 
 
 vious to December, . . 
 
 1843 
 
 
 
 
 
 riS44 
 
 13 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 1845 
 
 344 
 
 253 
 
 91 
 
 
 1,840 
 
 1400 
 
 1134 
 
 316 
 
 
 1R47 
 
 640 
 
 607 
 
 73 
 
 
 1,848 
 
 S23 
 
 2,57 
 
 66 
 
 Of lines authorized in - 
 
 1849 
 1850 
 
 13 
 1 
 
 13 
 
 "i 
 
 
 1851 
 
 68 
 
 3 
 
 55 
 
 
 1851. 
 
 93 
 
 a 
 
 49 
 
 
 18.53 
 
 816 
 
 
 816 
 
 
 18.54 
 
 457 
 
 
 467 
 
 Total 
 
 J 855 
 
 303 
 
 
 363 
 
 4571 
 
 2284 
 
 2287 
 
 Upon 213 miles out of the 2287 miles for the con- 
 struction of which parliamentary powers exist, the 
 powers for the compulsory purchase of the land have 
 been allowed to expire without having been exercised ; 
 and this increases, therefore, the number of miles 
 which it is not probable will ever be made to 2497 
 miles. 
 
 The total amount of money authorized to be raised 
 by railway companies, by shares and on loan, to the 
 end of 1855, amounted to X374,971,966, of which 
 £297,583,284 had been raised, leaving £77,388,682 to 
 be raised. There are no means of ascertaining how 
 much of this sum is apportioned to the miles of rail- 
 way for which parliamentai-y powers have expired, 
 but it may be assumed approximately that from 
 £30,000,000 to £40,000,000 of this amount would have 
 
 been applied to those portions of railway, and that it 
 will not, therefore, be now raised. 
 
 Of the 8297 miles open for traiBc on the 31st of De- 
 cember. 1855, the proportion constructed on the narrow 
 gauge, broad gauge, mixed gauge, and Irish gauge," is 
 as follows : 
 
 
 Narrow 
 Gauge. 
 
 Broad 
 Gauge. 
 
 Mixed 
 Gauge! 
 
 Irish 
 Gauge. 
 
 Total. 
 
 In England . . . 
 In Scotland . . . 
 
 In Ireland 
 
 Total 
 
 .Miles. 
 
 5345 
 
 1092 
 
 8 
 
 Miles. 
 067 
 
 Miles. ■ 
 200 
 
 MilSs. 
 
 979 
 
 Miles. 
 6218 
 1092 
 987 
 
 6145 ■ 1 667 
 
 206 
 
 UTS 
 
 8297 
 
 And by the following table is shown the length of 
 lines open for traffic at the same dates : 
 
 
 Number of 
 
 Companies 
 
 having 
 
 single Lines. 
 
 Narrow 
 
 Gauge. 
 
 Broad 
 
 Gfliige: 
 
 Mixed 
 Gauge. 
 
 Irish 
 Gauge! 
 
 Total, 
 
 In England 
 
 In Scotland 
 
 In Ireland. 
 
 Total.. 
 
 85 
 
 20 
 21 
 
 Miles. 
 
 101:4 
 
 iSl 
 
 2 
 
 Miles. 
 209 
 
 Miles. 
 72" 
 
 Miles. 
 668 
 
 Miles. 
 
 1.545 
 264 
 570 
 
 126 
 
 13Z0 1 209 
 
 72 
 
 668 
 
 2160 
 
 * Thirty-nine miles of this length is laid with a second 
 line on a narrow gauge. 
 
 From the above details it appears that the length of 
 new lines opened for traffic during the year 1855, in- 
 cluding 17. miles of line belonging to private individ- 
 uals, amounted to 243 miles; of these, 235 miles Avere 
 laid with only one line of rails. 
 
 Of the lines opened in 1855, the following are those 
 which appear to be the most important, viz. : 
 
 The Hereford, Koss, and Gloucester Eaihvay, a broad- 
 gauge line, -which affords to Hereford a more direct 
 communication with the metropolis than it previously 
 possessed. 
 
 The Wimbledon and Croydon Eailway, which affords 
 a communication to the south of London, between the 
 London and Southwestern and the Southeastern Rail- 
 ways, and provides another link in the line of railway 
 communication which encircles the metropolis. 
 
 The length of new line reported to be in course of 
 construction on the 30th of June, 1855, was 880 miles ; 
 of these about 170 miles were opened before the 31st 
 of December, 1855. 
 
 With the view of affording some measure of the 
 comparative progress of railway enterprise, the follow- 
 ing table has been prepared, showing the number of 
 miles of railway in course of construction in each year 
 since 1848, and the number of persons employed there- 
 on, together with the amount of money received, and 
 the number of miles of railway opened during the 
 vear : 
 
 Yenrs. 
 
 Lines in conree of Construction. 
 
 During 
 Year. 
 
 Money raised 
 by Shares 
 and Loans. 
 
 Miles of Kailway 
 
 opened during 
 
 the Year. 
 
 Miles. 
 
 1 Number of 
 ■ Persons 
 employed. 
 
 Average Number 
 eniplojed 
 per Mile. 
 
 Mnv 1 1S48 
 
 2958 
 1604 
 ' 864 
 734 . 
 738 
 682 
 889 
 880 
 
 188,177 
 ■ 108.816 . 
 58,884 
 42,906 , 
 36,935 . 
 37,764 
 45,401 
 38,646 
 
 63 6 
 63-0 
 68-16 
 68-49 
 48-69 
 65 30 
 , 61-07 
 43 80 
 
 isio 
 
 1859 
 1851 
 1852 
 1853 
 1S5t 
 1865 
 
 £29,674,719 
 10,622,967 
 
 7,970,151 
 15,924,783 
 
 9,153,885 
 12,452,374 
 11,514 490 
 
 869 
 6-25 
 269 
 446 
 350 
 36S 
 f43 
 
 
 .Tiinf 29 1850 ■■ 
 
 
 TiiTiP ^0 IR'i^ 1 . 
 
 TiiTip ^0 1853 ■ 
 
 June 30, 1854 
 
 June 30, 1865 
 
 The number of persons employed on the 30th of 
 June, 1855, upon the railways in course of construction 
 amounted to 38,546, being on the average 43-8 per 
 mile. It will be seen from this table that the average 
 number of persons employed per mile has gradually de- 
 creased since 1849. This may be ascribed to improve- 
 ments and the employment of Steam-power in railway 
 construction. 
 
 The length of line open for traffic in the United 
 Kingdom on the 30th of June, 1855, was 8116 miles, 
 and the number of persons employed thereon amount- 
 ed to 97,952 persons, or 12-07 per mile. This, as ap- 
 pears from the following table, is a larger number per 
 mile than has been employed in any year since 1848. 
 
 The increase in the number of rniles for the -whole pe- 
 riod of eight years, is 98 per cent. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Linos open for Traffic. , 1 
 
 Miles, 
 
 Number .of 
 
 Persons 
 employed. 
 
 Average 
 Number 
 
 Stations. . 1 
 
 Number. 
 
 Number 
 
 per Mile. 
 
 During 1848 
 " 1849 
 " 1850 
 " 1851 
 " 1852 
 " 1853 
 " 1854 
 " 1855 
 
 4252 
 6447 
 6308 
 6698 
 7076 
 7512 
 7808 
 8116 
 
 62.688 
 55,968 
 60.325 
 63,666 
 67,601 
 80,409 
 90,409 
 97,952 
 
 12 3 
 10-2 
 9-53 
 9-49 
 955 
 ■ 10-7 
 11-59 
 12-07 
 
 1321 
 1850 
 2030 
 2197 
 2253 
 2463 
 2410 
 2798 
 
 -31 
 •83 
 -82 
 -31 
 ■31 
 •32 
 ■30 
 -84 
 
 -Report of tlie Board of Trade. 
 
RAI 
 
 1613 
 
 EAI 
 
 , ENGLISn liAILWAT T 
 
 HAFFJO. 
 
 
 1 1856. 
 
 1856. 1 Increiwe. | 
 
 Total receipts ion 
 gaoas,,pai|fengers,J- 
 malls, etc ) 
 
 length' (if railways) 
 opbn ibr traffic, > 
 
 -.miles ) 
 
 Average receipt vm 
 mile open during^ 
 the year ) 
 
 £21,123,315 
 
 8,240 
 
 £2,663 
 
 £22,9S6,500 
 
 8,760 
 
 £2,t50 
 
 £1,672,185 
 620 
 £91 
 
 'JTJipre is> tUus.sppii j:Q. b^ a;i inqtease, .nqt only in the 
 amount received, but alsp fa thalengtli of railway, and 
 this 1)83, been tprsuch an exfept thatth^ receipts per 
 niil,e are likewise greater ; and although the later week- 
 ly returns for 1856 .^id,, not ?ho\»r so large an, Jpcreage, 
 over those, of 1855 as those of the earlier portion of the 
 y^af exl^ibited, ther?. .is. still reason to hppe. ,tUat ,r^iU 
 •way property Hh?is,nowr oyercome many , of , the- difficul- 
 ties, b}' which it was b^ssl;, and that it wiU .hencefort)i 
 yield ^ return piore cqqvnensu^ate with the advantages 
 it has conferred upou the public than has hitherto 
 l^e^n th,e.c^se. 
 
 Among the, benefits derived from railways London 
 may reckon the, increased importation, and diminished 
 price of fuel, which have been tfee consequence of the 
 better development, as shown by the following return 
 of railway coal traffic ; . i- ■ •■ 
 
 -i ^,,1 Coals beougut to.Londoi^ by Eail. '-) >-,- 
 
 1855. 1S5S. Increnae, ... 
 
 Tons. Tons. Tons. 
 
 1,137,835 1,246,299 ....:... 108,464 
 
 But the value of railways in this rS^peSt' Will h& better 
 appreciated if the quautities broughtin that way are 
 contrasted with those brouglit by other means of con- 
 veyance, fot during the same period we find that the 
 canal coal traffic only amounted to 
 
 1855. 
 
 1856. 
 Tonaj 
 «,651 25,401, 
 
 Increase. 
 Tona. ' 
 . 760 
 
 1856. iDcrenee. 
 
 TODB. TODB. 
 
 3,100,322 834,464 
 
 And that the whole amount of sea-borne coals brought 
 into London in those years did not exceed 
 
 1855. 
 Tons. 
 3,016,868 .... 
 
 from which it appeai;s that the railway cpal traffic 
 now b?ars a very large proportion to, |;he ^n^pprtation 
 by sea, and that during 1856 lite.increase by rail was 
 greater, thsin in 1855, although thpre was, not then )i(ie 
 competition, for purposes of \yar, in freights which had 
 previously existed ; while the canal traffic is so small 
 as scarcely to deserve nptioe. 
 
 "the result, as shown by the following table, is that 
 passengers and goods have changed places as the chief 
 elements in the gross earnings. The early railway 
 managers expected — and with reason — that with the 
 railways, as with the coaches, the passengers would be 
 the wain resource, and so they were for a few years. 
 
 But for the last four years, and the more rapidly' as 
 tlie. lines open have eixtonded, the goods traffic has 
 shot ahead, and year by year has left the passenger 
 traffic behind. 
 
 ENGLAND AND "WALES. 
 EiGUT Yeaes, 1849-56.— Geoss Receipts, pee Mile open. 
 
 FROM BACH- CLASS OF PabBENGEKS, ANI? ALSO 
 
 THE Ke- 
 
 - CEiPTS PEE- Mile fok Goods. 
 
 
 
 Miles 
 open. 
 
 Yean. 
 
 Passengers. 
 
 Qoods. 
 
 ' Total 
 per Mile. 
 
 1st. 
 
 Id. 
 
 3d. 
 £. 
 
 Total. • 
 
 Number. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 435{i 
 
 1849 
 
 406 
 
 018 
 
 331 
 
 12.55 
 
 1090 
 
 2L45 
 
 49U8 
 
 18150 
 
 3.S0 
 
 4V8 
 
 321 
 
 Hi 9 
 
 1117 
 
 2316 
 
 5217 
 
 1861 
 
 424 
 
 521 
 
 378 
 
 1330 
 
 1168 
 
 2488 
 
 B477 
 
 1853 
 
 .^79 
 
 471 
 
 350 
 
 12i0 
 
 10^7 
 
 2467 
 
 5730 
 
 1853 
 
 403 
 
 474 
 
 37S 
 
 1379 
 
 1415 
 
 26!!4 
 
 5962 
 
 1864 
 
 406 
 
 486 
 
 407 
 
 1324 
 
 l.>:84 
 
 2908 
 
 61C5 
 
 1855 
 
 400 
 
 4i2 
 
 423 
 
 13:5 
 
 1653 ■ 
 
 2978 
 
 68:i2 
 
 1856 
 
 411 
 
 476' 
 
 418 
 
 1364 
 
 1756 
 
 3120 
 
 * These tahles include al66 a foarth-clasS return, excfept in 
 the years 1849 and 1850. . . ; • ■ > ■ 
 
 ' But this is not all ; for when we come to look closely 
 into the passenger traffic i'tself, ive find the same con- 
 tinuous and confirmed tendency in the common to 
 supersede in impdrtance the dear kinds of service. The 
 receipts from first-dla'ss fares have barely maintained 
 the level at which they stood eight yeart ago. The 
 receipts from second-class fares have' seriously fallen 
 off; namely, froitt £518 per mile in 1849 in the 4355 
 miles open, to ^£476 per mile in 1856, with' 6332 miles 
 open. But with the third-class fares a precisely oppo- 
 site class of changes has taken place. With scarcely 
 a single exception of consequence during the eight 
 years, the receipt per mile from third-class fares has 
 gone on increasing, until, in 1856, the receipt of £448 
 pef mile is quite 33 per cent, above receipt of £831 per 
 mile in 1849. The percentage proportions to the total 
 passenger traffic iii 1849 and 1856 of the receipts, per 
 mile of the three 'classes of fares, were as follows, viz. : 
 
 -.yoors. 1 First Class. | Second Claai. | Third Class. :| 
 
 1849.'. 
 
 ■1856 
 
 Per Cent. 
 S2 
 33 
 
 i'or Cent, Per Cent. 
 41 27 
 35 S3 
 
 While, therefore, in .1849 the conimon .kipda of pas- 
 senger service contributecl a little more than. a fourth 
 part, of the total passenger receipts, that proportion 
 had been raised to quite a thifd pai;t in 1856 ; the first-i 
 class proportion remaining the same, but the second- 
 class proportion , jEalling from 41 to 35 pei; cent. , 
 
 But there is more evidence to be adduced. 
 
 We have seen in the foregoing table the gross results 
 per mile of railway open. Let us now examine some- 
 what more in detail the relation between those larger 
 results and the rate of faces aijd average payment by 
 each person conveyed, and these further details will be 
 found in the following table, but extending to the five 
 years 1852-'56 : 
 
 
 Five Yeaes, 1882-'56.— Details of the aveeaqe Eeoeipts foe 
 
 Pasbengee Teaffio. 
 
 
 Years. 
 
 First Class. 
 
 < Seooad Class. 
 
 ■ Third Class. | Total. | 
 
 Average 
 Payment. 
 
 Averacfa 
 per Mfle. 
 
 Average 
 Parent. 
 
 Average 
 per Mile. 
 
 Average 
 Payment. 
 
 Average 
 per Mile. 
 
 Average 
 Payment. 
 
 Average 
 per Mile. 
 
 1852 
 
 d. 
 
 64-96 
 8130 
 47-28 
 43-88 
 48-30 
 
 d. 
 2-11 
 2-13 
 2-10 
 2-09 
 2-07 
 
 'd. ' 
 22^32 
 20-40 
 20-88 
 20-16 
 20-45 
 
 d. 
 
 ' 1-4S 
 1,-44 
 1-42 
 1-43 
 1-44 
 
 d. 
 12-48 
 
 12-43 
 
 12-48 
 12-00 
 11-66 
 
 d. 
 87 
 
 0-86 
 0-65 
 86 
 0-88 
 
 d. 
 21-36 
 20-40 
 19-92 
 19-20 
 18-74 
 
 d. 
 135 
 1-33 
 1-29 
 1-28 
 1-22 
 
 1853 
 
 1854 . 
 
 3855 . 
 
 1836 
 
 
 
 
 Note. — In the above table the columns of "Average Payment per Passenger" represent the total average sums paid in 
 each year by each of the passengers conveyed. The columns of "Average Fare per Mile per Passenger'* reduce the larger 
 columns to a more convenient mileagement. 
 
 We find here that the first-class fares have fallen 
 from i'lld. per mile in 1852 to 2-07d. per mile in 1856, 
 and average payments of each passenger conveyed 
 from 54'96d. in 1852 to 43'BOd. in 1856 ; but in connec- 
 tion with these reduced fares and smaller individual 
 payments, we have already seen that the earnings per 
 mile open have somewhat risen, comparing 1856 with 
 1852. 
 
 In the second class the fares have risen slightly — 
 that is, from l-iSd. in 1852 to l-44<i. in 1856; and the 
 average payments have slightly fallen from 22-32d. to 
 20"45d., but the average earnings per mile have re- 
 mained almost unchanged. 
 
 In the third class the fares have fallen, and so have 
 the individual payments ; but the earnings, as we have 
 already seen, have increased largely. 
 
EAI 
 
 1614 
 
 KAI 
 
 Wo may venture, then, to infer that, so far as the 
 evidence before us applies, three general conclusions 
 seem to be justified at this stage of the inquiry, and 
 these conclusions are : 
 
 1st. That the revenue of railways during the last 
 eight years — that is, during the period since the rail- 
 way system had arrived at maturity in England and 
 Wales — has been derived year by year in a larger pro- 
 portion from common as distinguished from dearer 
 kinds of service, and especially in the rapid relative 
 growth of goods traffic. 
 
 2d. That during the same period a precisely simi- 
 lar result has taken place in the passenger traffic by 
 increase of receipts from third-class passengers, and 
 the decline or non-increase of receipts from first and 
 second class passengers. 
 
 3d. That as regards nearly all classes of passengers, 
 the increase of passenger traffic per raile of railway 
 has been accompanied by a reduction in the rates of 
 fares, and also by a reduction in the average payments 
 of each person conveyed ; in other words, a larger rev- 
 enue has been obtained by means of smaller individual 
 contributions. . 
 
 Railroads in Canada. — The gigantic railwaj' enter- 
 prises now in progress in Canada are intended to em- 
 brace a railway system traversing nearly the entire 
 length of the province from east to west, witli branch 
 feeders running into the main-trunk line, and carrying 
 off traffic to the leading American cities and Atlantic 
 sea-board. 
 
 Besides the government aid to this complete railway 
 system through Canada, these undertakings are under- 
 stood to receive substantial support from United States 
 interests, the great Western country, as well as the 
 northeastern States of the Union, being directly in- 
 terested in the success of these Canadian lines ; more 
 expeditious routes between the agricultural districts of 
 the West and their centres of trade being opened up 
 by them. One of the most valuable features of these 
 railways to Canada will be their affiarding the province 
 increased facilities of trade during winter, and uninter- 
 rupted communication with ocean traffic when inland 
 navigation is closed. 
 
 The most important line of this comprehensive rail- 
 way system is the Grand Trunk railway. The entire 
 length of this line, when completed, will be 1112 miles. 
 Its eastern terminus is at Trois Pistoles, in Lower 
 Canada. Thence upward it proceeds along the south 
 shore of the St. Lawrence, passing opposite to Quebec, 
 and, continuing thus westward, reaches Montreal. Be- 
 fore reaching Montreal, the line eftects a junction at 
 Richmond, in the eastern townships, with a line of 
 railway to Portland, on the Atlantic, in the State of 
 Maine. The part of the line between Montreal and 
 Portland, a distance of 292 miles, is now open. The 
 communication between Portland and Quebec was 
 opened in 1854. 
 
 At Montreal, one of the most stupendous structures 
 of modern times will carry the railway across the Eiver 
 St. Lawrence, which is here two miles in width. This 
 gigantic undertaking is now in course of construction, 
 under the superintendence of Mr. Robert Stephenson, 
 whose name is associated with the well-known Britan- 
 nia tubular bridge. The Victoria tubular bridge of 
 Canada will, however, far surpass Mr. Stephenson's 
 earlier work. The total span of the arches will be 
 6168 feet, besides piers on either side, running into the 
 river, each about half a mile long. The span of the 
 centre arch is 360 feet. The number of arches is 25, 
 and, with the exception of the centre one, each has a 
 span of 242 feet. The tube, which is of iron, is 25 feet 
 high and 18 feet wide. The other parts of the work, 
 including the half mile of piers on either side, are 
 wholly of solid masonry. The height from the water 
 level of the river to the floor of the iron tube will be 
 60 feet. In order to impart some idea of the strength 
 of this stupendous work, it may be mentioned that 
 
 each buttress is calculated to resist the pressure of 
 70,000 tons of iee. The estimated cost of the Victoria 
 tubular bridge is stated to be $7,000,000. 
 
 From Montreal the Grand Trunk line follows the 
 north bank of the St. Lawrence, touching the towns 
 of Cornwall, Prescott, and Brockville, to the city of 
 Kingston, on Lake Ontario. This distance from 
 Montreal to Kingston is about 180 miles, about 120 of 
 which, from Montreal to Prescott, was opened in Oc- 
 tober, 1855. 
 
 A branch line of 55 miles, connected with this part 
 of the main trunk, was fully completed during 1854, 
 from Bytown to Prescott, opposite to the American 
 port of Ogdensburg, where an important connection 
 has been formed with United States lines of rail- 
 way. Another line of about 80 miles was also con- 
 structed in connection with this section of the Grand 
 Trunk from Montreal to Kingston. This is one from 
 Bytown to Montreal, following the course of the Otta- 
 wa, and joining the Grand Trunk at Vaudreil, close to 
 the Ottawa, and to the junction of that river with the 
 St. Lawrence. 
 
 The Grand Trunk line, proceeding westward from 
 Kingston, skirts the shores of Lake Ontario, passing 
 the Bay of Quinte, through the towns of Belleville, 
 Cobourg, and Port Hope to Toronto, the capital of 
 Upper Canada. The length of this section of the line, 
 from Kingston to Toronto, is about 200 miles; the 
 length of the line from Montreal to Toronto being 380 
 miles. 
 
 A branch of this section of the Grand Trunk from 
 Kingston to Toronto, extending to 30 miles from Co- 
 bourg to the town of Peterborough, on the Eiver Otana- 
 bee, was opened during the year 1856. Another line 
 is also in construction from Belleville to Peterborough. 
 The most important line branching from this main 
 section of the Grand Trunk, 45 miles of which are al- 
 ready open, is that from Toronto northward, passing 
 Lake Simcoe, and thence continuing to the great Geor- 
 gian Bay, on Lake Huron. From Toronto the Grand 
 Trunk railway proceeds directly westward through the 
 fertile peninsula of Upper Canada, passing the towns 
 of Guelph and Stratford, and terminating at the flour- 
 ishing town of Sarnia, at the head of the Eiver St. 
 Clair and southeastern extremity of Lake Huron. 
 The entire length of the Grand Trunk line, which is 
 now being pushed toward completion, namely, that 
 from St. Thomas, 40 miles below Quebec, to Guelph, in 
 Upper Canada, was completed in September, 1856. 
 The remaining portions of the system will not be so act- 
 ively proceeded with. The direct distance from Trois 
 Pistoles to Sarnia is 850 miles. 
 
 At Toronto another important railway system com- 
 mences, known as the Great Western. This railway 
 commences from a joint station at Toronto in connec- 
 tion with the Grand Trunk railway, and skirts the 
 head of Lake Ontario to Hamilton, a distance of 45 
 miles. It thence proceeds westward through the heart 
 of the settled parts of the great peninsula, situated be- 
 tween the lakes Ontario, Erie, and Huron, passing 
 through Brantford, London, and Chatham, and term- 
 inates at Windsor, on the Eiver Detroit, directly op- 
 posite to the American city of Detroit, in the State of 
 Michigan. At this point an important connection 
 takes place with United States railways. 
 
 The Great Western line, besides its terminus at 
 Hamilton, diverges to the Falls of Niagara. The 
 Great Western railway is now open from Windsor to 
 Hamilton and Niagara Falls, a distance of 220 miles. 
 That portion of it from Hamilton to Toronto, 45 miles 
 in length, was opened in the year 1854. 
 
 We have now (returning to Lower Canada) to men- 
 tion the St. Lawrence and Champlain railway, which 
 connects the south bank of the St. Lawrence, opposite 
 to Montreal, with the head of Lalic Champlain, at 
 Eouae's Point, a distance of 45 miles. At House's 
 Point this railway connects with the system of railways 
 
RAI 
 
 1615 
 
 EAI 
 
 to Albany, Boston, New York, and other parts of the 
 United States. The Plattsburg railway commences at 
 Canghnawaga, on the south shore of the St. Lawrence, 
 opposite to Lachine, and runs to the town of Platts- 
 burg, on Lake Champlain, a distance of 28 miles. The 
 Montreal and Lachine railway, a short line of D miles, 
 connects the city of Montreal with the upper part of 
 the island at the village of Lachine. This railway, as 
 also a portion of the St. Lawrence and Champlain line, 
 have been in active operation for several years. 
 
 The average cost of the construction of railways in 
 Canada will be about $47,500 per mile. The average 
 fares are from two to three cents per mile, according to 
 distance of journey. The electric telegraphs in Canada 
 convey messages at much more moderate charges than 
 in England. 
 
 The control of the Post-office of Canada was trans- 
 ferred from imperial to colonial authorities in 1861. 
 Railhoads in Canada. — 1857. 
 
 N«m.ofE«ad. ^a'^ 
 
 Buffalo and Lake Huron (Buffalo to Paris) 84 
 
 Champlain and St Lawrence (Rouse's Pt to Montreal) 44 
 
 Colionrg and Peterborough 28 
 
 Erie and Ontario (Niagara Palls to Chippewa) 16 
 
 Grand Trunk. For Portland District, see Maine. 
 
 Montreal District 143 
 
 Quebec District (Richmond to Quebec) fl6 
 
 Brockvillo and Toronto Districts 333 
 
 Toronto and Sarnia District !)1 
 
 St. Thomas Branch 49 
 
 Great Western (Niagara Palls to Detroit) 230 
 
 Guelph Branch IT 
 
 Toronto Branch (Hamilton to Toronto) 38 
 
 Montreal and New York (Montreal to Mooer's Jimc.) 42 
 Plattsburg and Montreal (Mooer's Junction to Platts.) 20 
 Ontario, Simcoe, and Huron (Toronto to Collingwood) 95 
 
 Ottawa and Prescott (Prescott to Bytown) 54 
 
 Other roads 32 
 
 Total 1412 
 
 United States. — To give a complete history of the 
 railroad .system of the United States would exceed our 
 limits of space. We therefore confine ourselves to a 
 brief summary of the history, with the statistics neces- 
 sary to show the present condition of the railroads in 
 the United States. 
 
 The first railroad constructed in the United States 
 was the Quincy road, built in 1827. The first passenger 
 railroad was the Baltimore and Ohio, which was opened 
 with horse power for fifteen miles in 1830. The Mo- 
 hawlc and Hudson river road was opened for public 
 travel with horse power in the summer of 1831. Loco- 
 motives were first used in this country in 1831, on the 
 Mohawk and Hudson railroad, and in 1832 upon the 
 Baltimore and Ohio, and on the South Carolina rail- 
 road. In 1828 there were but three miles of railroad 
 in the United States ; now there are twenty-five thou- 
 sand miles ! 
 
 The superstructure of some of our first railroads was 
 made by placing a thin flat bar of iron on longitudinal 
 timbers, which rested on stone blocks, protected from 
 displacement by frost by filling the trenches below 
 them with small broken stone. In some cases the iron 
 bar was placed on continuous stone sills. 
 
 The first change made in the rails used was the sub- 
 stitution of bars of greater thickness ; then succeeded 
 the T rail, of nearly the present form, weighing fifty 
 pounds per lineal yard, resting on longitudinal sills ; 
 subsequently the weight of iron rail was successively 
 increased to sixty, seventy, and seventy-five pounds ; 
 cross-ties were used, which were placed on longitudinal 
 sills, and finally these sills were removed and gravel 
 ballasting suljstituted. The first cars used were coach 
 bodies of the ordinary form, placed on four-wheeled 
 frames; afterward the bodies were enlarged and the 
 form changed, and finally the bodies were adapted to 
 contain sixty passengers, placed on two separate trucks 
 attached loosely to the bodies, so as to permit them 
 separately to adapt themselves to the curves and in- 
 equalities of the track. The motive power at first was 
 horses, and on steep inclinations stationary steam pow- 
 
 er. The first locomotive engine used weighed but six 
 tons, and these have been successively increased to ten, 
 sixteen, twenty, and twenty-six tons, while on some 
 of the freighting roads engines of forty tons weight 
 (including the tenders) have been introduced. The 
 foregoing list of changes shows how imperfect a machine 
 the railroad was when many of them in this country 
 were first commenced, and how many radical changes 
 have been necessary in the construction of their ways 
 and works. The present state of perfection in the 
 machine renders it probable that new substitutions of 
 its important and expensive parts will annually become 
 more rare, but yet it may be safely assumed that some 
 expenses of this character will continue to accrue and 
 must be provided for in estimating the cost of our rail- 
 roads or their value as an investment. — Jieport of the 
 New York State Engineer, 1855. 
 
 In the conception and construction of our system of 
 railroads there was no well-digested plan in regard to 
 the position of the principal termini, or the route for 
 the trunk lines, or the mutual relation of the main 
 lines to each other. The result is that the system is 
 imperfect as a whole, though admirable in many of its 
 parts. "We have many roads built only in rivalry to 
 others ; some parallel, others having the same termini. 
 The same expenditure properly directed would have 
 given us a complete system, with fewer miles construct- 
 ed, but of a more durable character. The want of plan 
 is in consequence of our system having been built by 
 States not separated by topographical divisions, and by 
 private companies having a view more to immediate 
 profit than to the future success of and connection with 
 the system. One of the greatest resulting evils is the 
 constant break of gauge, which makes necessary the 
 frequent transhipment of both passengers and freight ; 
 thereby increasing cost and delay. The gauges in 
 common use comprise from 4 feet 8^ inches, the chance 
 width of the first " tram wagon," which the first " tram- 
 roads" were made to fit; to 4 feet 10, 6 and 6 feet, all 
 empirical gauges ; and each having respective merits 
 which were advocated by their introducers. Whatev- 
 er may have been these claims, it is unfortunate that 
 one was not universally agreed upon ; and there is no 
 risk in asserting that even at this late date the saving 
 in time to passengers and in injury to freight during 
 five years would be more than an equivalent for the 
 cost of all necessary changes in the rolling stock, and 
 superstructure consequent on the adoption of a common 
 gauge. Our railroads have been so much indebted to 
 fortuitous circumstances for their position and relation 
 to each other, that the principal claim to a system that 
 we can advance is based on topographical divisions. 
 And having this division in view, we will proceed to 
 describe briefly our railroads as a system. 
 
 The objects to be gained by our first railroads were 
 to open an outlet from the fertile regions of the West, 
 and to get access to the interior as a marlvct for the 
 manufactures of the sea-board. The principal results 
 are the four great trunk lines, which are the boast of 
 the country, and which have done more to develop the 
 West and enrich the East than was dreamed by the 
 "enthusiasts" who were followers of De Witt Clinton. 
 Two of the four trunk lines, the New York and Erie, and 
 the New York Central railroads, directed their first slow 
 course to the great American chain of lakes, expect- 
 ing to be content to end there, and not to enter into a 
 contest with an inland sea. But with the aid of the 
 frosts of winter, they found themselves fit rivals, and 
 have extended their lines with such vigor, that the 
 branches of these trunk lines have tapped'the Missis- 
 sippi, and are hastening on to the Pacific. Their con- 
 nection with every town and hamlet in the Mississippi 
 valley is the best foundation for a continuation of the 
 progressive prosperity of New York. The other two 
 lines, the Pennsylvania Central and the Baltimore and 
 Ohio railroads, had no further aim than to pass the 
 barrier of the Alleghanies, and then receive their pros- 
 
RAI 
 
 1616 
 
 KAI 
 
 perity from the Ohio Eiver. But a river that, accord- 
 ing to John Kandolph, "was dry half the year, and 
 frozen the other half," was not a dependence ; and now 
 even the Mississippi River is not a satisfying end. We 
 can briefly say that these four trunk lines, with their 
 direct connections, constitute the Northern, half of the 
 sj'stem. The other single roads, not connections, north 
 of a line of the Ohio vallej-, however important in them- 
 selves, are only local roads. South of the line of the 
 Ohio valley, the Virginia Central and the Charleston 
 and Memphis railroads, with their direct connections, 
 constitute a similar portion of the Southern half of the 
 railroad system. The remaining East and West trunk 
 linf to be described is the one from New York city, in 
 a direct line west. , This railroad, now nearly com- 
 pleted, is almost a necessity to tlie passenger traflftc, 
 being the shortest route west from New York city. 
 These roads, in conveying the produce of the interior to 
 the sea-board, and in opening the West for settlement, 
 form a much more important part of the system than 
 the roads running north and south, and haying as their 
 principal business the interchange of the products of 
 the North and South. The roads, running nortlx and 
 south, are divided by the Alleghany Mountains. The 
 eastern half is made up of a trunk road and its branches, 
 running parallel to the sea-coast from Bangor to Mobile, 
 having at present but one short break in Alabama. 
 The freight business of these roads is necessarily lim- 
 ited, and confined principally to costly freight, as the 
 coasting trade is the natural carrier of heavy freight. 
 The passenger business is the .princisal source of profit ; 
 and as these roads run through the most populous sec- 
 tions of the country, they have ampie employment. The 
 trunk road west of the Alleghany Mountains is made up 
 of the lUingis Central and other roads in the Mississippi 
 valley, converging to the mouth of the Ohio Kiver, added 
 to the yet unfinished trunk road from the mouth of the 
 Ohio to Mobile and New Orleans. These roads until 
 lately have not been necessary, as the Mississippi and 
 branches have generally afforded all the internal com- 
 munication necessary. The interchange of the produc- 
 tions of the South and West, and giving rapid communi- 
 cation over the "West, make these roads now a necessity. 
 We can see then, that, notwithstanding thewantof unity 
 of action from the first, the system is gradually becom- 
 ing more perfect, and that the completion of the trunk 
 lines running west to the Pacific will not let us lose the 
 proud boast that we can now truly make of having the 
 noblest system of internal improvement in the world. 
 New York State. — The following exhibit of the con- 
 dition of the railroads in New Y^ork State is in part a 
 synopsis of the report made to the New York Legisla- 
 ture in 1855 by the state engineer, and contains many 
 important suggestions in regard to the future manage- 
 ment of our railroads, coupled with much valuable in- 
 formation as to the condition of the state system. 
 
 The returns of the railroad corporations of New York 
 State do not comply with thelaw in stating the amount 
 of depreciation of the works and rolling stocl:;. The 
 returns of the railroads of Massachusetts, in most cases, 
 show a small allowance made for the depreciation of 
 the iron rails, engines, and cars. It is contended by 
 many skillful managers that if the works and rolling 
 stock are kept in thorough repair, they are in as good 
 condition at the end of each year as they were at the 
 end of the preceding year, and therefore that there can 
 be no depreciation. The difficulty lies in determining 
 the/aci whether the repairs have been kept up in this 
 thorough manner. The expense for repairs of iron 
 rails, after allowing for the value of the old material, 
 is equal to the cost of an entire renewal once in four- 
 teen years ; that for cross-ties to a renewal once in eight 
 years ; for wooden bridges once in ten years ; and for 
 wooden stations once in thirty years. This deteriora- 
 tion may be represented in another form, by stating it 
 as equal to from 2 to 4 per cent, annually on the whole 
 cost of the road. 
 
 Railroads are also subject to one item of expense 
 which is rarely directly stated : viz., the necessary 
 substitution of improvements in the way and works 
 before the original ones have been worn out by use. 
 The railroad, considered as a machine, is of recent in- 
 vention. Its power, capacity, and endurance have not 
 even yet been fully ascertained. As the two former 
 are developed, the substitution of improved forms for 
 increasing its efficiency, either in capacity, speed, or 
 economy, becomes necessary, and these substitutions 
 are more extensive than they are in other machines of 
 older date or use. 
 
 The returns of the railroad corporations show con- 
 tinued large additions every year to the construction 
 account of even our oldest and best built roads. The re- 
 ported increase of cost during the year 1855 was chiefly 
 in consequence of an extension of the double track, a 
 larger equipment, and station facilities for the accom- 
 modation of the increased freight traffic. The increase 
 of the cost of the road on the New York and Erie 
 was 20 per cent, during the years 1854, 1855, and on 
 the Central it was greater than 25 per cent, dur- 
 ing the same period. The reported earnings and net 
 earnings of these roads have increased bj" a much 
 larger percentage than the cost of the roads as above 
 stated, while the reported expenses of operating have 
 increased by about the same percentage as the earn- 
 ings. The freight earnings have increased more tlian 
 the passenger earnings ; but the average receipts per 
 ton per mile were less in the year 1855 than the preced- 
 ing one, especially on the Central road, although the 
 rates of charges have been increased on both roads. 
 The average receipts per ton per mile for the year 1855, 
 were two and a half cents on the Erie, and a little 
 more than three cents on the Central, while the aver- 
 age the preceding year on the latter was nearly three 
 and a half cents. The freight tariff has been nearly 
 alike on each of these roads for the last two years; it 
 is, therefore, evident that the business of the Erie road 
 embraces a larger portion than that of the Central of 
 those articles which pay the least rates, and that the 
 latter road has been performing a much larger propor- 
 tion of its business at low rates this year than former- 
 ly. On comparing the reported receipts, expenses, and 
 business of our three principal freighting roads, it will 
 be seen that the passenger business on the Erie is re- 
 ported as giving a net profit of 47 per cent., with an 
 average charge of one and seven-tenths cents per pas- 
 senger per mile ; on the Central, a net profit of 44 per 
 cent., and a charge of one and nine-tenths cents, and 
 on the Northern Railroad a net profit of two per cent., 
 with an average charge of two and seven-eighths cents 
 per passenger per mile ; and that the freight business 
 on the first is reported as giving a net profit of 51 per 
 cent., with an average charge of two and six-tenths 
 cents per ton per mile ; on the second a net profit of 48 
 per cent., with an average charge of three and seven- 
 tenths cents J and on the third a net profit of 34 per 
 cent., with an average charge of two and one-fourth 
 cents per ton per mile. The character of the business, 
 the grades, and other circumstances of these several 
 roads, do not furnish any sufficient reason for these 
 discrepancies. The actual cost of transportation upon 
 railroads will probably never be accurately determ- 
 ined from their reports, until they have been run a few 
 years with the construction account closed, and no 
 money borrowed. The expenses of operating the road , 
 as stated in the reports, are about one and a quarter 
 cents per ton per mile on the Erie, and one and six- 
 tenths cents on the Central; but, as before stated, 
 these reports do not show accurately the cost of this 
 service. More reliable testimony on this subject is 
 afforded by the recent action of the railroad conven- 
 tions. At the one held at New York, embracing the 
 officers of the four great lines between the Atlantic and 
 the West, a joint report was submitted by the super- 
 intendents of the several roads, in which they state 
 
BAI 
 
 1617 
 
 RAI 
 
 fliRt ''experience has. proved tha(i the lowest ratet at 
 which ordinary freight can be carried to pay interest 
 and expenses will average about two cents per ton per 
 niile for heavy agricultural products, three cents for 
 groceries, and four cents for dry goods." At a subse- 
 quent convention . ot the. railroad companies of Ohio 
 and Indiana, similar rates wereadopted. The above 
 charges applied to the business of our two grest lines 
 wouM yield an average of.a little less than ti)r?e cents 
 per, ton per mile, ^ind would serve to show that some 
 of the business done on each of ^hese roads does not 
 even pay "interest and expenses." Sufficient inform- 
 ation has been elicited from -the railroads of this and 
 pther States, from the actions of the conventions, and 
 from other sources of information, to warrant the be- 
 lief that a considerable portion, of the freighting busi- 
 ness now done by our railroads- yields no profit at the 
 present rates, when due allowance is made for the in- 
 crease of capital which it requires for the in<)(;e*sed 
 wear and depreciation of the works, and for the oc- 
 cupation of the track to the injury of the other busi- 
 ness. 
 
 The reports of the year 1835 show an increased ex- 
 pense in operating the roads, over that of the preced- 
 ing year. An examination of the reports of a number 
 of railroads in New England and elsewhere, shows, for 
 the last five ye^rs, an annual increase in= their qost of 
 from 2 to 5 per cent, per annum ; an inscrease in their 
 receipts of froi^ 12 to 20'per cent. ; and an inc^i'ease in 
 their expenses of from 20 to 40 per cent, per annum. 
 
 Deductions from the reports of the railroads in the 
 State of New York,,.],6155,,h^ye- been injide, ^Ijowiijg 
 the comparative cost of construction, of maintenance, 
 and of operating each of the roads of the State^ and 
 have been arranged as follows: 
 
 The total length of road-known tobe in opera- 
 tion in New Yock in 1855 was 2T23J miles. 
 
 In addition to which there is of second track in 
 
 ' operation ..,. 803 " 
 
 Maki ngi a total length of track in operation .. .,. o526i " 
 The wli<)le length of completed and projected 
 roads ,.,...,.,., 443S " 
 
 The capital stock, as by charters, of 64 roads 
 
 . '(44?6 miles), is , ;......■.;■ $114,102,200 00 
 
 T6c ampurit' of the above subscribed 844972,597 00 
 
 The amount of capital stock, paid- in on 63 
 
 loads (4400 miles) ...'.:;.'.;. 69,473,488 52 
 
 The amount of fuijded debt of 68 roads 68.530,997 42 
 
 The amount of floating debt - d-o.- - 8,804,818 43 
 
 The expenditures on the roads which are completed 
 are as follows : 
 
 For grading and maaomy.lS road8,1623i miles $20,742,690 21 
 
 For bridging 16 roads, 1628i mile.^ 1,902,424 8T 
 
 i?or superatructure, il roads, 2106}' miles.' ... 26,731,876 67 
 
 For grading, bridging, and superstructure, 21 
 roads, 2106i miles 63,822,911 21 
 
 For station buildings, engine houses and 
 shopsi 22 roads, 2127} miles., ,...,.....,. ... . 5,042,750 87 
 
 For land damages and fences, 22 roads, 2^127^ 
 miles 
 
 For locomotives, IT roads, 20581 miles 
 
 For cars (of all kinds), 19 roads, 2110i miles. 
 
 For enginGeringand'agencles,'23 roads, 2188f 
 miles -.....; 
 
 Total expenditure for construction and equip- 
 ment, 2340i miles 116,637,193 73 
 
 The expenditure for the construction and 
 equipment of 28 roads (1600 miles), which 
 are in progress and partly completed, in- 
 cluding those which reported in 1855, but 
 
 . not in 1856 . . '. 13,112,451 29 
 
 The number of locomotives in use is 668 
 
 do. J),assenger and emigrant cars 1008 
 
 do. . freight and baggage cars 7808 
 
 The miles run by the passenger trains "a run. . ofroad. 
 
 for the year was 7,024,190 on 2437 
 
 Miles run by freight trains for the year. 4,368,677 on 2411 
 
 Total milfes run by trains 11,392,867 on 2487 
 
 Numberofpassengerscarriedinthecars 12,369,449 on 2437 
 Number of .miles, traveled by all the. 
 
 ^ passengers 479,025,821 on 2437 
 
 Number of tons of freight carried in the 
 
 cars 2,959,362 on 2437 
 
 Number of miles, or total movement of. 
 
 fieight one mUe 801,707,961 on 2376 
 
 5K 
 
 9,127,830 92 
 6,748,722 83 
 6,726,243 12 
 
 3,396,962 66 
 
 Expense of i;aaiataining the roads on 21 roads, 
 
 2229 miles 
 
 Viz. : chargeable to . passenger business, 
 
 1923 miles ... . 
 
 chargeable to freight business, 1915 
 miles 
 
 Expense of repairs of maqhinery am 19 roads, 
 
 msfl miles . ..,^. ............ 1 , $1 
 
 ."Viz, : chargeable to passenger business, 
 
 2066miles ,;,., 
 
 chs^rgeable to freight business, 2043 
 mues , ", , ; 
 
 !,604,041 96 
 
 1,144,260 96 
 
 953,991 OS 
 
 ,901,412 74 
 .833,277 63 
 901,451 48 
 
 Cost of operating the road on 20 roads, 2181 
 
 miles J $5,802,563 88 
 
 Viz, : chargeable to passenger business, 
 
 16 roads, 2074 miles 2,686,179 74 
 
 chargeable to freight business on 15 
 roads, 2066 miles 2,815,266 46 
 
 Beceipts from passengers on 19 roads, 2189 
 miles'. 
 
 Keceipts H'om freight, on 19 roads, 2189 miles 
 Keceipts from other sources.lS roads, 2lYl miles 
 
 Total receipts on 19.roa^s,,21S9 miles $18,129,197 43 
 
 Payments for transportation expenses, 18 roads, 
 2171 miles 
 
 Payments for interest on debts on 21 roads, 
 2206 miles 
 
 I'ayments for dividends on 6 roads, 1388 miles 
 Total payments , 
 
 $8,922,419 63 
 
 -8,271,012 85 
 
 G3'>,T66 10 
 
 $10,314,414 44 
 
 3,940,360 23 
 
 2.237,416 06 
 
 $16,49z,990 73 
 
 The average cost of construction and equipment per 
 mile of road on those railroads which have reported 
 these items has been as follows : 
 
 Grading and masonry on 19 roads, 1623J' miles . , $12,778 49 
 
 Bridging 19 " 1623i " ,. 1,17198 
 
 Superstructure 21 " 2106} " ,, 12,699 00 
 Grading, bridging, and superstructure on 21 roads, 
 
 21065^ miles 30,463 49 
 
 Station buildings, engine houses, and shops pn 22 
 
 roads, 2127} miles. .- 2,370 27 
 
 Land damages and fences on 22 roads, 2127} miles 4,290,17 
 
 Locomotives 17 " 20581 " 2,T92 3B 
 
 Cars of all kinds 19 " 21101 " 3,186 66 
 
 Engineering and agencies, 23 " 2188} " 1,094 79 
 The total-average expenditure for Wotistructidn and 
 
 equipment on 25 roads, S340i miles long, was . , 49,359 05 
 
 The average cost per mile of a single track is as fol- 
 lows : 
 
 Grading, masonry, and bridges on 19 roads, 2340i 
 
 miles $9,676 37 
 
 Superstructures on 21 roads, 2823 miles 9,469 48 
 
 Grading, bridges, and superstructure on 21 roads, 
 
 2823} miles 22,604 18 
 
 Station^ engine houses, and shops on 22 roads, 
 
 2948}- miles ,• 1,772 80 
 
 Land and fencing on 22 roails, 2844}- miles 3,208 41 
 
 Engineering and agencies ott 23 roads, 2963} miles 1,145 94 
 Tlie total average expenditure for construction and 
 equipment on 25 roads, with 3142f miles of 
 track, was 36,769 45 
 
 There is one; locomotive for every 3 J miles of road in 
 use. There is one passenger or emigrant car for every 
 2i miles. There is one freight or baggage car for every 
 32-1 00th mile. The average mileage of the passengers 
 for each mile run by the train is 69. The distance 
 traveled by each passenger is 39i miles ; or, if we ex- 
 clude the Harlem road, the travel on which is princi- 
 pally in the city of New York, 51 miles. The speed 
 of the express trains, when in motion, per hour, is 36 
 miles. The number of tons of freight for each mile 
 run by the trains is 71. The distance each ton of 
 freight was moved, 107 miles. The speed of the freight 
 trains when in motion, per hour, is 16 miles. The 
 weight of the freight trains, exclusive of the freight, is 
 175 tons. 
 
 The proportions of the tonnage of. each description 
 of freight carried on nineteen roads, 3228 mUes, are as 
 follows : 
 
 Of the product of the forest. 14 per ct. of the whole tonnage. 
 
 " " animals . . 15} " " 
 
 Vegetable food 22 " " 
 
 Qther agricultural products. 4 " " 
 
 Maniifactures 12 " " 
 
 Merchandise '. . . 12} ** " 
 
 Unclassified articles 20 " *' 
 
RAI 
 
 1618 
 
 KAI 
 
 AvEEAGE Cost of the Maintenance of Way pee Mile of 
 
 KOAD.* 
 
 
 Totol. 
 
 Charged to the Busi- 1 
 nesR of 1 
 
 Pasfleogera. 
 
 Freight. 
 
 T35l'6T 
 
 140 00 
 
 2216 
 
 ■■ 7 72 
 
 64 37 
 
 Repairs of road-bed 
 
 Iron used for do 
 
 $816 43 
 
 277 54 
 
 55 62 
 
 19 01 
 
 114 36 
 
 $453 43 
 83 22 
 27 48 
 1172 
 64 51 
 
 Repairs of buildings 
 
 " fences and gates 
 Taxes 
 
 Total 
 
 $1123 40 
 
 $536 04 
 
 $4B6 09 
 
 Ateeagb Cost op Repaies of Machineby pee Mile of 
 
 liOAD. 
 
 
 Totol. 
 
 Charged to tho Business of | 
 
 Passengers. 
 
 Freight. 
 
 , Repairs of engines 
 
 " cars 
 
 $427 53 
 
 353 58 
 
 36 42 
 
 05 55 
 
 $237 84 
 
 145 20 
 
 18 59 
 
 37 72 
 
 $191 07 
 
 206 66 
 
 16 48 
 
 28 88 
 
 Oil and waste, 
 
 Total 
 
 $923 41 
 
 $434 52 
 
 $438 01 
 
 
 A-VT3EAGF. Cost op opeeating pee Mile op Road, 
 
 Office expenses and stationery 
 
 Agents and clerks 
 
 Labor, loading, and unloading 
 Porters, watchmen, and) 
 
 switchmen / 
 
 Wood and water station at-\ 
 
 tendance j 
 
 Conductors, baggage and ^ 
 
 hrakemen / 
 
 Enginemen and firemen 
 
 Fuel, cost and labor of pre-) 
 
 paring / 
 
 Oil und waste for engines .... 
 
 " " cars 
 
 Loss and damage to goods) 
 
 and baggage ) 
 
 Damages for injuries to person 
 
 " to property and cattle 
 
 General superintendence . . 
 
 Contingencies 
 
 Total 
 
 $50 28 
 248 40 
 213 49 
 
 41 69 
 
 27172 
 
 263 09 
 
 732 60 
 
 89 27 
 05 02 
 
 46 40 
 
 36 06 
 
 12 36 
 
 66 
 
 408 16 
 
 $2648~66 
 
 Charged to the Busi- 
 ness of 
 
 FreighT 
 
 Passengers. 
 p59f 
 116 81 
 
 25 51 
 
 146 39 
 
 140 73 
 
 395 23 
 
 49 68 
 33 65 
 
 6 74 
 
 30 94 
 
 6 71 
 
 28 97 
 
 24218 
 
 $26 08 
 122 07 
 
 187 45 
 
 16 34 
 
 122 34 
 
 122 61 
 
 202 12 
 
 30 63 
 8140 
 
 40 33 
 
 13 65 
 
 8 22 
 
 30 64 
 
 199 01 
 
 $1212 90 
 
 AVBBAGB COBT OP MAINTENANCE OP "WAT PEE MiLE EUN BY 
 THE TeAINB. 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 charged to the Business of | 
 
 Passengers. 
 
 Freight. 
 
 Repairs of road-bed 
 
 Iron for . " 
 
 Repairs of buildings . . . 
 
 Cente. 
 
 16 -78 
 4 -87 
 1-16 
 0-39 
 2-31 
 
 Cents. 
 
 15-86 
 3-50 
 0-90 
 0-41 
 2-25 
 
 Cents. 
 
 18-23 
 0-40 
 1-15 
 0-40 
 2 81 
 
 
 Total 
 
 22-63 
 
 20-S2 
 
 25-70 
 
 
 Ateeaqe Cost of Kepaieb of Maohineey pee Hilb ktjn 
 
 BY the TeAINS. 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 Charged to the Business of | 
 
 Passengers. 
 
 Freight 
 
 Repairs of engines 
 
 Cents. 
 8-71 
 7-10 
 0-65 
 
 1-18 
 
 Contj. 
 
 7-84 
 4-89 
 0-64 
 0-97 
 
 Cents. 
 
 9-92 
 10-92 
 
 0-75 
 
 1-81 
 
 " tools 
 
 Total 
 
 17 52 
 
 13-44 
 
 22-25 
 
 
 Aveeage Cost of Maintenance op AVat pee Pabsenqee 
 AND PEE Ton Feeigut caeeied one Mile. 
 
 Repairs of road-bed . . 
 Iron for " 
 
 Repairs of buildings . 
 
 " fences 
 
 Taxes 
 
 Total . 
 
 Total. 
 
 Mills. 
 
 2-40 
 0-82 
 0-16 
 0-05 
 0-34 
 
 3-37 
 
 (!)harged to the Business of 
 
 Pnseengeis. 
 
 MUls. 
 2-14 
 0-69 
 0-13 
 06 
 0-31 
 
 2-88 
 
 Freight. 
 Mills. 
 2-41 
 0-71 
 0-15 
 0-05 
 0-37 
 
 3-41 
 
 * Many of the roads do not give complete returns of the 
 various items of oost of maintenance of way, repaij'S of ma- 
 chinery, and operating. The average cost of each item is 
 made up from those roads only which have reported that 
 item, which will account for the apparent discrepancies be- 
 tween the averages of the total cost and the sum of averages 
 of the cost of each item. 
 
 aveeaqb cobt op opeeating pee mile ettn by the 
 Teains. 
 
 office expenses and stationery . 
 
 Agents and clerks - 
 
 Labor, loading and unloading , 
 
 Wood and water station attend- 
 ance 
 
 Porters, watchmen, and switch- 
 men 
 
 Conductors, baggage and brake- 
 men 
 
 Enginemen and firemen 
 
 Fuel, cost and labor of preparing. 
 
 Oil and waste for engines 
 
 " " cars 
 
 Loss and damages to goods and) 
 baggage / 
 
 Damages for injuries to persons. . 
 " to property and cattle ,. 
 
 General superintendence 
 
 Contingencies 
 
 Total 
 
 Total. 
 
 Cente. 
 1-02 
 4-8J 
 3-72 
 
 1-27 
 3-37 
 
 644 
 
 5-46 
 14-44 
 1-84 
 1-37 
 
 0-92 
 
 0-69 
 0-25 
 1-30 
 8-17 
 
 53-48 
 
 charged to the 
 Business of 
 
 Passepgers. ; Freight. 
 
 Cents. 
 0-85 
 3-82 
 2-52 
 
 1-39 
 3-04 
 
 4-82 
 
 4-64 
 
 13 -02 
 
 1-68 
 
 1-16 
 
 0-18 
 
 0-78 
 0-13 
 0-90 
 7-47 
 
 43-06 
 
 1-30 
 6-29 
 9-48 
 
 1-06 
 2-94 
 
 6-32 
 
 6-33 
 
 15-65 
 
 1-S6 
 
 1-66 
 
 2-08 
 
 0-38 
 0-43 
 1-48 
 6-64 
 68-46' 
 
 AvEEAOE Cost op Repairs op Machinery pee Pabbenger 
 AND PEE Ton of Feeight oaeeied one Mile. 
 
 Repairs of engines . 
 
 " cars . . . . 
 
 " tools 
 
 Oil and waste 
 
 Total 
 
 Total. 
 
 I Charged to the Business of 
 
 Mills. 
 1-27 
 1-02 
 0-09 
 0-16 
 
 Passengers, j Freight. 
 
 2-64 
 
 Mills. 
 
 Mills 
 
 1-17 
 
 1-38 
 
 0-73 
 
 1-46 
 
 O-08 
 
 0-10 
 
 0-14 
 
 0-18 
 
 3-OT 
 
 Ateeage Cost of OPEEATrNo per Passengee and pee 
 Ton OF Feeight caeeiei* one Mile. 
 
 Office expenses and stationery . . 
 
 Agents and clerks 
 
 Labor, loading and unloading . 
 
 Porters, "watchmen, and switch- 
 men 
 
 Wood and water station attend- 
 ance 
 
 Conductors, baggage and brake- 
 men J 
 
 Enginemen and firemen 
 
 Fuel, cost and labor of preparing 
 
 Oil and waste of engines ....... 
 
 cars 
 
 Loss and damage to goods and\ 
 baggage . . . .' ) 
 
 Damages for injuries to persons. . 
 " to property and cattle . 
 
 General superintendence 
 
 Contingencies . ■. 
 
 Total ...:.: 
 
 Total. 
 
 Mills. 
 0-15 
 0-71 
 0-57 
 
 0-45 
 0-18 
 
 7-64 
 
 Charged to the 
 
 Pftfisengers. Freight. 
 
 Mills. 
 0-12 
 0-56 
 02 
 
 0-45 
 
 0-78 
 
 0-68 
 
 0-88 
 
 2-08 
 
 1-92 
 
 2-13 
 
 0-25 
 
 0-24 
 
 0-25 
 
 0-20 
 
 0-17 
 
 0-72 
 
 O-IS 
 
 0-03 
 
 0-28 
 
 0-09 
 
 0-11 
 
 0-05 
 
 0-04 
 
 0-02 
 
 0-06 
 
 0-18 
 
 0-13 
 
 0-20 
 
 0-56 
 
 0-01 
 
 85 
 
 Mills. 
 
 OIT 
 0S6 
 1-29 
 
 0-39 
 
 (j-3t> I 8 64 
 
 Tke average receipts per mile of road were : 
 
 Passengers $4, 074 16 
 
 Freight 3,776 72 
 
 Other sources 427 2S 
 
 $8,278 17 
 And the expenses $4,710 14 
 
 From this we see that the expenses were 56 per 
 cent, of the gross receipts, which is below the average 
 throughout the country. 
 
 The expenses of operating the road were 57 per cent, 
 of the whole receipts. 
 
 The average receipts per mile run by the trains were 
 as follows : 
 
 From passengers $1 32 
 
 freight 2 02 
 
 otlier sources 1 67 
 
 And of the expenses $0 97 
 
 The average receipts per passenger per mile Avere 1'95 cents. 
 
 Per ton of freight 2-79 " 
 
 Per passenger or per ton 2-38 " 
 
 Expenses 1"38 '' 
 
 On 16 roads, 2252i miles long, the number of ^ 
 
 passengers carried, as reported, was 12,256,714 
 
 The actual number of travelers was probably 
 
 about 10,000,009 
 
 The number of miles traveled on same roads was 477,611,422 
 
EAI 
 
 1619 
 
 KAI 
 
 Comparison of the Returns o/severalliailroads, — From 
 the statistics of the net income and general economy 
 of the principal railroads in New York and Massachu- 
 setts, we can elucidate man}' facts of the greatest im- 
 portance in railroad management. Among these may 
 be noticed the following : The average number of pas- 
 sengers and the number of tons of freight carried each 
 mile run is the same ; that is, on an average there are 
 daily carried an equal number of passengers and freight 
 an equal distance on the road. The largest number of 
 passengers carried each mile run is by the Hudson 
 Eiver Railroad, which has as a rival the best naviga- 
 ble river in the world. The largest number of tons 
 carried per mile run is by the New York and Erie Bail- 
 road, which is the principal through freight road for 
 the products of the West ; and this road also shows the 
 largest net income per mile. The ratio between the 
 total receipts per mile and the net income per mile is 
 far from being constant, or the last from being depend- 
 ent on the first. There is, however, a relation between 
 the net income per mile of a road and the expenses per 
 mile ; that is, the net income per mile of a railroad 
 bears a very nearly constant ratio to an inverse of the 
 
 expenses per mile run ; thereby making it evident that, 
 ceteribus paribus, the interests of the stockholder are ad- 
 vanced more by reducing the expenses per mile run, 
 than by increasing the business of the road. The re- 
 ceipts for passengers or freight carried per mile is given 
 by adding the expenses and the net income carried per 
 mile. It is shown from this comparison that on an 
 average the net income from passengers carried per 
 mile is 50 per cent, of the receipts, or equal to the ex- 
 penses ; while the net income from freight is only 34 
 per cent, of the expenses. From this we see that the 
 tariff of freight should be increased 16 per cent., that 
 it shall be in a just proportion to the passenger tariff. 
 
 The tables also show that the net income from pas- 
 sengers and mails per mile run is generally greater on 
 the Massachusetts railroads than on the New York 
 railroads, and that the net income from freight per ton 
 per mile is greater on the New York railroads. The 
 general tariffs are not materially different in the two 
 States, but the expenses of freight are fully 60 per cent, 
 greater in Massachusetts than in New York. The net 
 Income per mile is the greatest on the New York and 
 Erie Bailroad, which is a freight road. 
 
 Statistics of the Income and Economy of the fkinoipal Eaileoads in New Yoek and MASsAonusETTs. 
 
 Companies. 
 
 Length 
 in Miles. 
 
 Receipts from 
 PassengeTB, 
 Mails, etc. 
 
 Becelpts from 
 . Pre^ghJ. 
 
 Total 
 Keceipts. 
 
 Passengers 
 .carried 
 
 encli Mile 
 . run. 
 
 Tons of 
 
 Freight 
 
 carried each 
 
 Mile run. 
 
 Net Income 
 from Piissen- 
 gers, Mails, etc. 
 
 
 6S2 
 464 
 144 
 133 
 119 
 100 
 
 97 
 
 92 
 
 69 
 155 • 
 
 55 
 
 28 
 
 87 
 
 68 
 
 83 
 
 93 
 
 - $3,438,514 
 
 1,990,369 
 1,283,841 
 605,084 
 149,980 
 67,981 
 168,181 
 137,917 
 647,397 
 838,971- 
 329,156 
 175,240 
 427,137 
 813,754 
 560,935 
 473,753 
 
 $2,479,821 
 , 3,369,590 
 464,145 
 337,311 
 44C(144 
 6,6,176 
 222,796 
 116,863 
 405,499 
 924,973 
 214,694 
 267,252 
 ■ 222,519 
 390,885 
 297,446 
 105,445 
 
 . $6,918,336 
 5,359,959 
 1,763,986 
 942,395 
 690,124 
 123,157 
 330,977 
 254,770 
 962,796 
 1,763,844 
 643,750 
 442,492 
 649,056 
 704,639 
 858,381 
 579,198 
 
 77 
 65 
 127 
 29 
 29 
 21 
 37 
 
 26 , 
 79 
 87 
 65 
 57 
 63 
 61 
 69 
 62 
 
 68 
 89 
 55 
 
 39 
 74 
 S3 
 85 
 62 
 56 
 49 
 47 
 66 
 37 
 53 
 58 
 35 
 
 $1,050,652 
 
 1,039,809 
 
 465,298 
 
 191,420 
 
 29,084 
 
 29,646 
 
 79.834 
 
 35,630 
 
 303,571 
 
 573,746 
 
 194,723 
 
 39,648 
 
 189,814 
 
 146,679 
 
 385,083 
 
 294,S:6 
 
 New York and Erie 
 
 
 
 Ogdensburg 
 
 Buffalo, Corning, and New York. 
 
 Buffalo and New York City 
 
 Western 
 
 
 
 Old Colony and Fall River 
 
 
 Eastern 
 
 Totals and averages 
 
 2379 
 
 $11,514,200 
 
 $10,314,449 
 
 $21,828,649 
 
 67 
 
 67 
 
 $5,048,423 
 
 Compflniea. 
 
 Xet Income 
 from Freight/ 
 
 Total 
 net Income. 
 
 Total 
 Receipts 
 
 Net 
 Income 
 
 &. 
 
 Ratio of net In- 
 come to Receipts 
 from Passengers, 
 Mails, etc. 
 
 Ratio of net 
 
 Income to 
 
 Receipts 
 
 from Freight. 
 
 Net Income 
 
 from Passengers, 
 
 Mails etc., 
 
 per Mile run. 
 
 
 $1,179,642 
 
 1,682,483 
 
 127,937 
 
 133,248 
 
 144.766 
 
 21,107 
 
 91,385 
 
 16,400 
 
 54,796 
 
 144,951 
 
 17,662 
 
 79,917 
 
 $2,830,294 
 
 2,722,351 
 
 693,236 
 
 324,668 
 
 170,859 
 
 50,762 
 
 171,219 
 
 52,030 
 
 358,367 
 
 720,703 
 
 210,285 
 
 119,466 
 
 $10,170 
 
 11,573 
 
 12,180 
 
 7,086. 
 
 4,959 
 
 1,231 
 
 4,030 
 
 2,856 
 
 13,809 
 
 11,398 
 
 9,879 
 
 16,803 
 
 7,467 
 
 10,333 
 
 10,343 
 
 6,228 
 
 $4863 
 5867 
 4119 
 2441 
 1436 
 
 607 
 1765 
 
 466 
 5194 
 4650 
 3823 
 4266 
 
 Per Cent, 
 ■48, 
 ■53 
 ■36 
 •32 
 ■19 
 ■44 
 ■48 
 •26 
 ■66 
 ■63 
 ■69 
 •23 
 ■44 
 ■46 
 ■69 
 ■62 
 
 Per Cent. 
 ■48 
 ■50 
 •28 
 -39 
 ■33 
 •38 
 ■41 
 •14 
 •14 
 ■16 . 
 •08 
 •30 
 
 Cents. 
 77 
 69 
 77 
 26 
 19 
 24 
 52 
 13 
 90 
 79 
 85 
 24 
 67 
 52 
 94 
 96 
 
 N6W York and Erie 
 
 
 
 
 Buffalo, Corning, and New York. 
 
 Buffalo and New York City 
 
 
 
 
 Old Colony and Fall River 
 
 Fitchburg 
 
 
 Eastern 
 
 Totals and averages 
 
 $3,555,153 
 
 $9,203,575 
 
 $9,176 
 
 $3868 
 
 ■49 
 
 ■34 
 
 70 
 
 Companies. 
 
 Net Income 
 
 from 
 
 Freight per 
 
 Mife mi. 
 
 Expenses of 
 Passengers, 
 Mails, etc., 
 carried one 
 Mile. 
 
 Net Income 
 from Paseen- 
 gers, Mail, 
 etc., earned 
 one Mile. 
 
 Expenses 
 of Freight 
 per Ton 
 
 one Mile. 
 
 Net Income 
 from Freight 
 
 per Ton 
 
 carried one 
 
 MUo. 
 
 Net Income 
 
 from Pasaen. 
 
 gers, MaUs, 
 
 etc., per 
 
 Mile run. 
 
 Net Income ' 
 
 from 
 
 Freight per 
 
 each Mile 
 
 run. 
 
 New York Central 
 
 tots. 
 99 
 
 116 
 46 
 62 
 64 
 38 
 94 
 26 
 25 
 22 
 16 
 63 
 
 Cents. 
 
 1^091 
 
 •983 
 
 1^086 
 
 1^901 
 
 2 •811 
 
 1^487 
 
 1^574 
 
 1^586 
 
 ■923 
 
 ■924 
 
 1-121 
 
 1-471 
 
 1-322 
 
 •971 
 
 •618 
 
 1116 
 
 Ceib. 
 
 1-007 
 
 1-076 
 
 -606 
 
 -881 
 
 -676 
 
 1-161 
 
 l-4''3 
 
 -563 
 
 1-150 
 
 2 009 
 
 1^623 
 
 •429 
 
 1^058 
 
 ■841 
 
 1^352 
 
 1^839 
 
 Cents. 
 1^602 
 r290 
 1-853 
 2 042 
 1-501 
 1-S66 
 1-603 
 2-442 
 2-909 
 2-416 
 8-807 
 2-278 
 6-510 
 3-979 
 8-363 
 4-165 
 
 Cents. 
 
 1-463 
 
 1-286 
 
 •706 
 
 1-334 
 
 T35 
 
 1-166 
 
 1-114 
 
 -339 
 
 -4.54 
 
 -449 
 
 ■339 
 
 ■972 
 
 Cents. 
 77 
 69 
 
 77 
 25 
 19 
 24 
 62 
 13 
 90 
 75 
 28 
 24 
 67 
 52 
 94 
 96 
 
 »Cla. 
 
 99 
 115 
 
 46 
 
 53 
 
 54 
 
 38 
 
 94 
 
 26 
 
 25 
 
 22 ., 
 
 16 
 
 63 
 
 
 
 
 Buffalo, Corning, and New York . 
 
 BuflFalo and New York City 
 
 
 
 
 Old Colony and Fall River 
 
 Fitchbiire 
 
 
 Eastern 
 
 Totals and averages 
 
 66 
 
 1^098' 
 
 1.068 
 
 1-880 
 
 •990 
 
 70 
 
 66 
 
RAI 
 
 1620 
 
 EAI 
 
 
 
 
 Opebationb of the 
 
 EAII.B0AJ)& op MASSAOmjSETTB 
 
 FSOU 
 
 1846 
 
 TO 1866. 
 
 
 
 
 Years. 
 
 Namber of Number 
 
 Cost. 
 
 Number of Miles run. | 
 
 "Total 
 BefltiptB 
 per Mile 
 
 Total 
 . Expenses 
 per ilVIe 
 
 Net Income 
 per Mile 
 
 Knilwayl • 
 in 
 
 of Milei, 
 ia 
 
 By 
 
 Passengex 
 
 By 
 , Freight 
 
 By 
 other 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 operatioB. 
 
 operation. 
 
 
 Trains. 
 
 Trains. 
 
 Trains. 
 
 run. 1 run. 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 »CtB. 
 
 tCts. 
 
 Cents. 
 
 1846, 
 
 1« 
 
 622 
 
 $27,084,927 
 
 1,435,737 
 
 74P,547 
 
 ,145,708 
 
 . 2,839,484 
 
 1 56 
 
 73 
 
 83 
 
 - 184T 
 
 18 
 
 715 
 
 32,796,363 
 
 1,789,038 
 
 ,1,^81,432 
 
 206,6T3 
 
 3,177.143 
 
 155 
 
 75 
 
 81 
 
 l348 
 
 21 
 
 787 
 
 41,392,632 
 
 2,112,496 
 
 1,'220,819 
 
 261,772 
 
 3,5P8,089 
 
 1 60 
 
 70 
 
 74 
 
 1819 
 
 27 
 
 945 
 
 46,12\768 
 
 2,330,891 
 
 1,243,739 
 
 282,122 
 
 3.806.752 
 
 1,61 
 
 76 
 
 75 
 
 1850 
 
 32 
 
 1092 
 
 60.SB9,45a 
 
 '2,807>6U 
 
 ,, 1.327,046 
 
 281,168 
 
 4,216,8^6, 
 
 152 
 
 74 
 
 78 
 
 1851 
 
 36 
 
 1142 
 
 52.595,888 
 
 2,760,888 
 
 i;589;5M, 
 
 203,067 
 
 , 4,399,3X0 
 
 160 
 
 76 
 
 74 
 
 1852 
 
 36 
 
 1150 
 
 58,076,013 
 
 2,997,022 
 
 1?9,171 
 
 4,785,783 
 
 144 
 
 77 
 
 67 
 
 1853 
 
 83 
 
 1164 
 
 64,914,506 
 
 3,186,957 
 
 l,T9Si64* 
 
 241,338 
 
 6,i8o,840 
 
 1 52 
 
 82 
 
 70 
 
 1854 
 
 37 
 
 1194 
 
 67,095,498 
 
 3,314,459 
 
 1,962,108 
 
 254.447 
 
 . 5i631,0ai 
 
 167 
 
 98 
 
 .59 
 
 1855 
 
 31 
 
 1273 
 
 60,339,391 
 
 3,115,401 
 
 , 2,041.834 
 
 2'2S.181 
 
 6,385,416 
 
 169 
 
 1 05 64 
 
 Years. 
 
 I»Beeipts, 
 
 Expenses. 
 
 Net Income. 
 
 From 
 Pasaenge;:B, 
 
 From 
 MerchandiBe ' 
 andjGri.™!, 
 
 From 
 
 Mails, 
 
 Rents, etc. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Of 
 Eoad-bed. 
 
 Of MoUve 
 Power. 
 
 Miscellaneous. 
 
 Totftl. 
 
 1846 
 
 $2,0I8,1()3 
 
 $1,467;969| 
 
 »»m 
 
 $8,842,171 
 
 $313,798 
 
 $331,662 
 
 $1,059,604 
 
 $1,696,676 
 
 $1.9^5,5 6 
 2,61 2,079 
 
 184T 
 
 2,609,784 
 
 ¥^^'^S 
 
 1S^'*S 
 
 4,904,53? 
 
 480,040 
 
 438,088 
 
 1,434,790 
 
 2,372,432 
 
 1848 
 
 2,849,722 
 
 2,335,407 
 
 220,725 
 
 5,4115,845 
 
 4S4,009 
 
 ■498,656 
 
 1,754.419 
 
 2,741,604 
 
 2 6G6.411 
 
 1849 
 
 3,033,701 
 
 '2,411,307 
 
 252i991 
 
 6,741,799 
 
 579,430 
 
 630,949 
 
 1,679,013 
 
 2,890.8)8 
 
 2,850 981 
 3,3116,788 
 
 1850 
 
 3,404,948 
 
 2,608,766 
 
 896), 537 , 
 
 , 6,419,^? 
 
 67S,6T3, 
 
 485,762 
 
 1,595,619 
 
 3,112,795 
 
 1S51 
 
 3,625,128 
 
 2,050,465 
 
 280,848 
 
 . 6,599,676, 
 
 65i,666 
 
 6;il,360 
 
 2,083,411 
 
 8,338,il05 
 
 3,259,671 
 
 1852 
 
 3,641,790 
 
 2.819,409 
 
 273,801 
 
 6,835,517 
 
 751,701 
 
 594,144 
 
 2,2SS,2!'6 
 
 3.073,410 
 
 3,212,107 
 
 1853 
 
 4,171,964 
 
 3,330,369 
 
 317,637 
 
 7,977,6.7 
 
 912,856 
 
 728,301 
 
 2,674,5--8 
 
 4, .'524 013 
 
 3,658,514 
 
 1854 
 
 4,495,386 
 
 8,726,186 
 
 846,441 
 
 8,696,'i61 
 
 1,233,076 
 
 1,0(8,041 
 
 3,111,117 
 
 5,451,047 
 
 3,245,204 
 
 1865 
 
 4,600,877 
 
 8,904,075 
 
 451.504 
 
 9,077,529 
 
 1,367,10! 
 
 886,866 
 
 3,8!)6 647 
 
 5 650,600 
 
 3,426,929 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ Number of 
 
 
 Weig'ht, in TOns, 
 
 Weight; iii •tons'; : -' . :•- . - 1 
 
 
 Net 
 
 Number of 
 
 Number of 
 
 Tons of 
 
 Number of Tons 
 
 
 iotal wumber of 
 
 Years, 
 
 Increase 
 
 "eSK 
 
 Paseengers 
 
 Merchandise 
 
 of-Merehandjse 
 
 
 
 Tons, not in- 
 
 per Cent. 
 
 liauled one 
 
 and Gravel 
 
 ■ iuJd Gravel 
 
 including Pasaeo- 
 
 
 j eluding Passen- ■ 
 
 
 oncost. 
 
 the Care. 
 
 
 carried ia the 
 Cars. 
 
 Iiauled one MUe. 
 
 gers, hauled one 
 Mile. 
 
 Gravel, hauled 
 one Mile. 
 
 gers, hauled one 
 Mile. 
 
 1846 
 
 $7 20 
 
 4,7.'-2,818 
 
 82,024,265 
 
 1,140,265 
 
 39,295,049 
 
 61.4411,037 
 
 71 080,160 
 
 171,805,837 
 
 1847 
 
 7 96 
 
 6341,341 
 
 99,870,187 
 
 1,665,218 
 
 66.8-8,7!'3 
 
 79,208,118 
 
 108,345,834 
 
 254452,640 
 
 1848 
 
 6 51 
 
 6.728,4'>7 
 
 118,005,742 
 
 1,894,182 
 
 64,577,165 
 
 107,286,614 
 
 119,604,791 
 
 291,418,570 
 
 1849 
 
 6 32 
 
 8,336,854 
 
 136,090,369 
 
 2,025,727 
 
 66,734,812 
 72,111,9^2 
 
 108,141,892 
 
 124 045 927 
 
 2f8,921,131 
 
 1850 
 
 6 49 
 
 8,761,372 
 
 147,605,638 
 
 2,188,838 
 
 99,9?2,192 
 
 130 8-.'6,802 
 
 302,759,955 
 
 1851 
 
 6 20 
 
 9,510,858 
 
 152,916,183 
 
 2,260,346 
 
 70,205,310 
 
 98 766.749 
 
 118,695,509 
 
 287,067,668 
 
 1852 
 
 6 05 
 
 9,810,056 
 
 161,694,655 
 
 2,583,287 
 
 77,638,247 
 
 101.746,153 
 
 131,077,450 
 
 310,461,8,':0 
 
 1853 
 
 6 64 
 
 11,479,232 
 
 185,865,727. 
 
 3,041,782. 
 
 C6,985.832 
 
 106148,699 
 
 148 804,441 
 
 360,(138.972 
 
 1854 
 
 5 03 
 
 12,3^2,7ll3. 
 
 194,168,802 
 
 , 3,767,631 
 
 104,553.043 
 
 122,063,281 
 
 171,677, ■; 54 
 
 3:8,323,57^ 
 
 1S55 
 
 5 68 
 
 11,339,850 
 
 185,160,127 
 
 3,06?;251 
 
 103,676,163 
 
 116,689,219 
 
 105,260,745 
 
 38,5,020,127 
 
 Statement showing the Number op Miles, Eqttipmeht, Cost, and. Revenue of the pbincipai, Eailboads in thb 
 
 United States fob 1866. 
 
 Railroads. 
 
 Miiei. 
 
 Equipment. 
 
 Cost. ■ ■ ■ ■ 
 
 Revenue. j 
 
 Length. 
 
 Fin- 
 Uhed. 
 
 380 
 
 30 
 
 Loco- 
 motives. 
 
 Care. 
 
 Capital 
 paid in. 
 
 Funded 
 Debt. 
 
 Floatiag 
 Debt. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Gross 
 EaralDgs. 
 
 Net 
 Esmingg, 
 
 Baltimore and Ohio, ) 
 
 380 
 30 
 
 204 
 4 
 
 3333 
 
 1C8 
 
 $lfl,118,902 
 1,659,000 
 
 $12,764,940 
 
 $194,043 
 25,000 
 
 $28;067,8S6 
 1,675,000 
 
 $4,3fS,S52 
 444,220 
 
 $2,001,172 
 285,f44 
 
 Baltimore and Ohio,) 
 ■Washington Branch. . / 
 
 Bellefontaine and Indiana 
 
 lis 
 
 118 
 
 16 
 
 219 
 
 1,881,635 
 
 1,214,500 
 
 29,829 
 
 3,125,964 
 
 298,293 
 
 140,823 
 
 Chicago.BiirlingtoD, and) 
 
 210 
 
 210 
 
 27 
 
 372 
 
 1,475,300 
 
 1,240,000 
 
 282,679 
 
 2,997,879 
 
 722,581 
 
 379,822 
 
 Chicago and Rock Island . 
 
 228 
 
 228 
 
 41 
 
 722 
 
 4,029,000 
 
 1,971,000 
 
 114,085 
 
 6,114,086 
 
 1,416,804 
 
 709,395 
 
 Cincinnati, Hamilton, \ 
 
 60 
 141 
 
 60 
 141 
 
 24 
 38 
 
 382 
 445 
 
 2,163,900 
 4,547,020 
 
 1,011,000 
 98,400 
 
 265,441 
 
 124,458 
 
 3,430,341 
 
 4,709,878 
 
 508,271 
 1,290,290 
 
 264,2C5 
 732,056 
 
 Cleveland, Columbus, i 
 and Cincinnati. ..,.../ 
 
 Cleveland and Pittsburg. , 
 
 104 
 
 155 
 
 24 
 
 632 
 
 2,S$0,784 
 
 2,750,318 
 
 2n3,679 
 
 5,924,776 
 
 681,878 
 
 809,519 
 
 Cleveland and Toledo 
 
 221 
 
 206 
 
 26 
 
 275 
 
 3,323,712 
 
 3,870,278 
 
 835,473 
 
 7,029,463 
 
 970,471 
 
 618 831 
 
 Covington and Lexington. 
 
 98 
 
 98 
 
 
 
 1,302,804 
 
 1,611,000 
 
 469,989 
 
 8,383,743 
 
 264,974 
 
 138,694 
 
 Delaware, Lackawanna,! 
 and Western J 
 
 111 
 
 HI 
 
 30 
 
 2057 
 
 3,051,622 
 
 2,400,000 
 
 1,063,756 
 
 6,515,378 
 
 1,269,108 
 
 460,640 
 
 Galena and Chicago. 
 
 259 
 
 259 
 
 53 
 
 1050 
 
 5,441,500 
 
 2,834,830 
 
 488,238 
 
 8,714,068 
 
 2,315,787 
 
 1,262,042 
 
 Green Bay, Milwaukie,} 
 and Chicago y 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 5 
 
 98 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 600,000 
 
 109,062 
 
 1,709,062 
 
 239,926 
 
 142,702 
 
 Hartford and New Haven. 
 
 72 
 
 72 
 
 
 
 2,850,000 
 
 944,000 
 
 
 3,294,00n 
 
 730,794 
 
 291,405 
 
 
 144 
 
 144 
 
 57 
 
 H5M 
 
 3,758,892 
 2,671,050 
 
 884,167 
 
 8,842,000 
 19,247,000 
 
 862,000 
 
 408,363 
 
 13 009 255 
 
 1,812,088 
 1 58' 119 
 
 603 947 
 
 
 704 
 
 627 
 
 83 
 
 1452 
 
 2,553,703 
 
 24,376,753 
 1,800,416 
 
 
 Indianapolis and Belle-' 
 fontaine ' ' 
 
 84 
 
 84 
 
 10 
 
 189 
 
 174,259 
 
 191,583 
 
 66,670 
 
 Indianapolis andCincin- , 
 
 110 
 198 
 
 110 
 61 
 
 19 
 12 
 
 342 
 
 2»7 
 
 1,803,675 
 1,037,802 
 
 1,396,800 
 1,^64,000 
 
 259,479 
 82,131 
 
 2,959,954 
 2,683,963 
 
 418,654 
 
 221,749 
 
 La Crosse and Milwaukie. 
 
 
 84 
 103 
 
 84 
 103 
 
 38 
 
 14 
 
 556 
 
 185 
 
 2,981,327 
 1,853,755 
 
 828,000 
 129,000 
 
 193,637 
 
 4,002,864 
 1,482;755 
 
 678,120 
 349,940 
 
 340,422 
 195,242 
 
 Macon and Western 
 
 Marietta and Cincinnati. . 
 
 258 
 
 155 
 
 23 
 
 214 
 
 4,380,550 
 
 7,160,000 
 
 
 11,480,550 
 
 196,089 
 
 64,219 
 
 Michigan Central 
 
 330 
 
 330 
 
 81 
 
 1522 
 
 6,033,432 
 
 5,408,068 
 
 785,180 
 
 12,226,676 
 
 2,878,321 
 
 1,806,508 
 
 Michigan Southern and) 
 Northern Indiana . . . . / 
 
 468 
 
 338 
 
 74 
 
 1011 
 
 4,082,600 
 
 8,646,300 
 
 406,438 
 
 13,135,338 
 
 , 2,695,680 
 
 984,810 
 
 Milwaukie and Mississippi 
 
 225 
 
 125 
 
 25 
 
 358 
 
 1,826,439 
 
 2,347,500 
 
 67,889 
 
 4,241.828 
 
 691,241 
 
 417.444 
 
 New Albany and Salem. . . 
 
 288 
 
 288 
 
 31 
 
 324 
 
 2,.51 1,824 
 
 4,774,722 
 
 300,794 
 
 ■ ' 7;6S7,34C 
 
 730,407 
 
 889,458 
 
 New Jersey Central 
 
 75 
 
 34 
 
 
 
 . 2.000.000 
 24,1^6,661 
 
 8,000,000 
 
 69,748 
 
 5,059,748 
 
 398,450 
 
 181,06.1 
 
 New York Central 
 
 666 
 
 656 
 
 209 
 
 2668 
 
 14,763,897 
 
 
 8S,900,6«6 
 
 7,773,069 
 
 3,676,202 
 
 New York and Erie 
 
 49T 
 
 497 
 
 203 
 
 2938 
 
 10,000,000 
 
 24,891,000 
 
 1,104,969 
 
 35,9f6,969 
 
 6,349,050 
 
 3,005,670 
 
 New York and Harlem . . . 
 
 133 
 
 18t) 
 
 35 
 
 'o» 
 
 4,217,100 
 
 5,353,305 
 
 568,361 
 
 10,12S,76e 
 
 1,040.393 
 
 324,892 
 
 New York and New Haven 
 
 62 
 
 02 
 
 23 
 
 381 
 
 3,000,000 
 
 2,216,000 
 
 73,010 
 
 6;288,010 
 
 884,306 
 
 338 8^7 
 
 
 47} 
 353 
 
 47 i 
 863 
 
 lis 
 
 i754 
 
 4,582,000 
 12,355,626 
 
 2,468,000 
 0,376,041 
 
 1;143;666 
 
 7,000,000 
 19,874,621 
 
 1,177,476 
 ■ 3,638,383 
 
 est.877,476 
 1,829,278 
 
 Pennsylvania Central .... 
 
 Philadelphia and Reading. 
 
 98 
 
 98 
 
 141 
 
 5'Ci8 
 
 9,054,207 
 
 8,890,600 
 
 1,480,827 
 
 19,525,694 
 
 4,321,794 
 
 2,444,433 
 
 Terre Haute, Alton, and\ 
 
 St. Louis [not offlcial]/ 
 
 208 
 
 208 
 
 
 
 3,250,000 
 
 4,600,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 7,800,000 
 
 471,000 
 
 .... 
 
RAI 
 
 1621 
 
 BAI 
 
 Railroad to the Pacific. — The proposed raikoad to the 
 Pacific involves so many qv^estions as to feasibility and 
 cost, requiring to idetermine much more accurate data 
 
 than we now possess, that it is better to give only the 
 statistics that have up to this time been obtained, and 
 abstain from arguments in favor of any route. 
 
 igTJBVKTED ROITTES TOa A ltAILB0A3> FBQM THE MlSBIfisipPI OB ITS TEIBUTARIES TO THE PaCIFIO OoEAK FbOM THE 
 
 Rbpobt op tub Seobetary of Wak. 
 
 DeecripUon of Roate, 
 
 1. Bouie near 4Tth and 49th parallelB, ftom St. Paul to) 
 Vancouver f . 
 
 a. ExteDEion thence to Seattle 
 
 3. Near tbe 4l8t and 42tl parallels, via South Pass from! 
 Council BluflFd to B^nicia .,,...'. / 
 
 3. Near the^Sth and 39l|h parallels, from Westport tO) 
 San llrancisco, by the Coo-che-to-pa and Tah-ee-^ 
 chay-pah PaGses ) 
 
 It. Same, from Westport to San iTrancisco by the Coo-> 
 che-tO'pah and Madelin Passes l . / 
 
 4 Near the 3.5th liarallel, from Fort Smith to San Pedro. 
 
 c. Niear the 3Sth paralleli from Fort Smith to Sftn FKan-1 
 
 Cisco J . , / 
 
 5. Near the '33d parallel, from Fulton to San Pedro. 
 
 d. Fulton to San Francisco ■. • 
 
 straight 
 
 Line. 
 "MIIeBT" 
 
 1483 
 45 
 
 1410 
 
 1740 
 
 1740 
 13C0 
 
 1400 
 1S20 
 
 Distance 
 
 by 
 
 pToposed 
 
 Routp. 
 
 Miles. 
 
 1864 
 
 161 
 
 2032 
 
 2290 
 
 11892 
 
 2174 
 
 1618 
 20^9 
 
 Sum of 
 
 Aacent and 
 
 SSscent. 
 
 Feet. 
 16,100 
 
 1,000 
 29,120 
 
 49,93,6 
 
 56,514 
 
 48,812 
 
 50,670 
 
 32,784 
 42,008 
 
 Estimated 
 Cost. 
 
 $130,781,000 
 
 10,090,000 
 
 116,095,000 
 
 So great that 
 road' is ilm- 
 practicable.. 
 
 do. ' 
 
 169,210,265 ! 
 
 169,210,265 I 
 
 68,970,000 
 98,120,000 
 
 Ui'oogb 
 arable 
 Lands. 
 
 Milee. 
 374 
 161 
 
 670 
 
 416 
 
 644 
 
 .408 
 759 
 
 yhrough 
 stajile 
 Liud. 
 
 140O 
 
 1400 
 
 1460 
 
 1620 
 
 1476 
 
 1530 
 
 1210 
 1280 
 
 Route. 
 
 J,, J Miles of Koute elevated _ 
 
 Liingftjai level 
 Koate of 
 
 equal Wbi-Kinj- 
 Expenses. 
 
 Snmniit 
 
 o( 
 hteluietj 
 
 Less than 
 1000 Feel. 
 
 Between 
 
 1 and 2000 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Between 
 
 3 and 8000 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Between 
 
 3 and 4000 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Between 
 
 4 and 6000 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Between 
 
 5 and 6000 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Between 
 
 and 7000 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Between 
 7 and 8000 
 
 Feet; 
 
 Between 
 8 and 9000 
 ■ Feet. 
 
 Between 
 
 9 and 10,000 
 
 ■Feet. 
 
 1 
 a 
 2 
 3 
 6 
 4 
 c 
 6 
 d 
 
 470 
 161 
 180 
 340 
 
 305 
 
 485 
 700 
 
 B90 
 
 170 
 276 
 308 
 347 
 
 300 
 410 
 
 720 
 
 210 
 165 
 190 
 260 
 
 ioo 
 
 160 
 
 130 
 
 160 
 348 
 143 
 185 
 
 170 
 205 
 
 97 , 
 
 580 
 466 
 725 
 160 
 
 603 
 604 
 
 28 
 
 285 
 170 
 284 
 805 
 
 '66 
 60 
 
 270 
 886 
 
 iol 
 
 155 
 155 
 95 
 
 .1 
 20 
 
 80 . 
 SO 
 
 . ■ r- 
 
 ■^t 
 
 Miles. 
 2207 
 180 
 2583 
 3125, 
 3360 
 
 2816 ' ' 
 3137 
 2239 
 2834 
 
 Feot. 
 6,044-; 
 
 8,373 
 I0,032t 
 10,033+ 
 
 7,472 
 
 6,717 
 5,717 
 
 * Tunnel at elevation of 5219 feet. 
 
 t Tunnel at elevation of 9640 feet. 
 
 Railboads in the United States in Janttaey, 185S. 
 
 . dumber 
 .Companies. 
 
 Length of Lines. 
 
 Total. I Opet 
 
 Cost of 
 
 CoDStmction and 
 
 Equipment.- 
 
 Completed 
 Road "actually 
 in eacti State. 
 
 Mileage 
 opened in 
 
 Maine 
 
 New Hampshire i — ';.'.. 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Massachusetts k 
 
 Rhode Island .' 
 
 Connecticut ^ ' 
 
 Total six New England States . 
 
 New York . . '. t • 
 
 New Jersey s. ' 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Delaware , 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Total five Middle Atlantic States . 
 
 Virginia , 
 
 North Carolina w 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 Georgia : 
 
 Florida ;. , 
 
 Total five 'Southern Atlan'tic States., 
 
 AUhama . . . > L 
 
 Mississippi ; i, ; . . — 
 
 LoUlalana i 
 
 Texas i 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Kentucky. . .. . „ ', 
 
 Total seven South-western States . 
 
 Ohio .' 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Michigan ....,, 
 
 Illinois ". 
 
 Wisconsin , 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Missouri 
 
 Total seven NoMhwestem States . 
 
 Galif-olTiia 
 
 Grand total . 
 
 14 
 15 
 
 47 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 16 
 68 
 
 139 
 
 9 
 14 
 
 4 
 
 16 
 
 6 
 18 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 89 
 
 Miles. 
 
 586 
 534 
 685 
 1,417 
 63 
 659 
 
 3,904 
 
 2,893 
 
 jB21 
 
 3,456 
 
 «1 
 
 844 
 
 7,'904 
 
 1,405 
 706 
 974 
 
 1,363 
 
 531 
 
 6,038 
 
 1,160 
 404 
 996 
 
 1,565 
 146 
 
 1,116 
 
 6,063 
 
 3,298 
 1,451 
 1,026 
 2,616 
 1,962 
 1,076 
 798 
 
 12,226 
 22 
 
 35,137 
 
 641 
 539 
 521 
 1,286 
 68 
 647 
 
 $17,063,677 
 17,697,703 
 20,623,9^8 
 63,384 310 
 2,58li,512 
 24,343,963 
 
 3,617 
 
 2,700 
 529 
 
 2,77S 
 91 
 708 
 
 $146,805,163 
 
 $10:3,407,268 
 
 24,S25;970 
 
 1E!8,168;609 
 
 1,619,310 
 
 44,SS7,831 
 
 6,893 
 
 1,321 
 675 
 748 
 
 1,180 
 
 128 
 
 $309,376,488 
 
 $37,705,049 
 
 11,126,486 
 
 17,601,944 
 
 24,952,158 
 
 8 500,000 
 
 4,05s 
 
 177 
 3G6 
 147 
 88 
 887 
 306 
 
 $94,8S5,033 
 
 $15,263,771 
 6,616,009 
 11,032,362 
 5,000,000 
 775,000 
 19,360,390 
 10,197,414 
 
 1,438 
 
 2,798 
 1,231 
 . 999 
 2,616 
 718 
 256 
 , ,817 
 
 $67,123,946 
 
 $106,048,328 
 28,801.276 
 >i 30,390,858 
 86,446,291 
 19,2 6,342 
 j9,08T;629 
 . 19.140,247 
 
 ' 8^935 
 
 $299,205,371 
 750.000 
 
 Miles. 
 474 
 654 
 666 
 
 l.,316' 
 101 
 5E5 
 
 2,731 
 629 
 
 2,605 
 114 
 429 
 
 6,408 . 
 
 1,653 
 606 
 
 1,187 
 
 4,316 
 
 540 
 483 
 
 S54 
 
 319 
 
 2,446 
 
 2,792 
 1,362 
 664 
 2,698 
 688 
 256 
 817 
 
 9,177 
 
 26,965 
 
 $018,146,600 
 
 25,965 
 
 6 i 
 
 78 
 
 47 
 
 242 
 8 
 31 
 
 133 
 
 69 
 118 
 
 68 
 84 
 27 
 
 244 
 
 645 
 
 53 
 
 119 
 127 
 
 82 
 167 
 
 82 
 127 
 
 747 
 
 Progress of SaUrtiads m the United Slates.'^'Nie fol- 
 lowing table exhibits the aggregate nuhiber of miles 
 of railrottds in the United States for every year from 
 
 1838 tp 1856 inclusive, and also shows the whole ftum- 
 ber of miles of railroads in each State for the satae pe- 
 riod: 
 
EAI 
 
 1622 
 
 EAI 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 Peogbess of 
 
 Railroads in tue Vs 
 
 TED 
 
 States. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 states. 
 
 1838.] 1839.' 1840 
 
 1841. 
 
 1842." 1848 
 
 1844 
 
 1845 
 
 1846. 
 
 1847. 
 
 1848. 
 
 1849.1 1850.1 1861.1 1862. 
 
 1853. 
 
 1864. 
 
 1866. 1 1866. 1 
 
 Maine 
 
 m. 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 m. 
 12 
 
 ""12 
 
 °37 
 
 m. 
 64 
 
 64 
 
 64 
 3 
 
 64 
 
 19 
 
 m. 
 64 
 
 88 
 
 '°64 
 
 38 
 
 m. 
 
 87 
 134 
 
 93 
 948 
 
 50 
 326 
 f,63 
 If 6 
 981 
 
 16 
 324 
 803 
 154 
 204 
 609 
 
 64 
 113 
 
 60 
 •66 
 
 m. 
 
 175 
 
 309 
 
 243 
 
 1095 
 
 60 
 
 434 
 
 lOfO 
 
 231 
 
 981 
 
 - 16 
 
 324 
 
 303 
 
 302 
 
 241 
 
 609 
 
 ■ 54 
 
 113 
 
 60 
 
 66 
 
 m. 
 224 
 414 
 302 
 
 1145 
 
 50 
 
 549 
 
 1404 
 267 
 
 1138 
 . 16 
 324 
 413 
 249 
 263 
 665 
 54 
 113 
 60 
 117 
 
 111. 
 
 283 
 
 463 
 
 36P 
 
 1,153 
 
 6C 
 
 57C 
 
 1,94C 
 
 29C 
 
 1,326 
 
 16 
 
 . 36£ 
 
 54f 
 
 249 
 
 883 
 
 804 
 
 54 
 
 185 
 
 95 
 
 117 
 
 m. 
 
 394 
 
 582 
 
 427 
 
 1,153 
 
 50 
 
 627 
 
 2,123 
 
 290 
 
 1,326 
 
 16 
 
 355 
 
 624 
 
 249 
 
 599 
 
 857 
 
 23 
 
 236 
 
 96 
 
 117 
 
 32 
 
 410 
 606 
 48( 
 
 1,175 
 50 
 596 
 
 2,400 
 350 
 
 1,700 
 50 
 365 
 900 
 400 
 660 
 910 
 28 
 £90 
 210 
 190 
 36 
 
 m. 
 
 425 
 
 646 
 
 516 
 
 1,201 
 
 76 
 
 596 
 
 2,668 
 
 446 
 
 2,038 
 
 84 
 
 372 
 
 1,252 
 
 488 
 
 677 
 
 1,002 
 
 26 
 
 817 
 
 255 
 
 222 
 
 86 
 
 144 
 
 866 
 
 198 
 
 2,641 
 
 474 
 
 1,438 
 
 2,185 
 
 276 
 
 88 
 
 23 
 
 m. 
 
 442 
 
 646 
 
 618 
 
 1,285 
 
 85 
 
 601 
 
 2,701 
 
 472 
 
 2,407 
 
 120 
 
 378 
 
 1,480 
 
 612 
 
 706 
 
 1,062 
 
 26 
 
 484 
 
 410 
 
 264 
 
 67 
 
 189 
 
 609 
 
 307 
 
 2,869 
 
 601 
 
 1,807 
 
 2,534 
 
 030 
 
 2C3 
 
 23 
 
 NewHarapshil'e. 
 Vermont 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Massachusetts. . . 
 Ehoda Island ... 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 New York 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 Pennsylvania. . . 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Mai-yland 
 
 Virginia 
 
 126 
 
 50 
 
 36 
 
 325 
 
 108 
 
 662 
 
 16 
 
 181 
 
 125 
 
 144 
 
 60. 
 
 36 
 
 326 
 
 124 
 
 662 
 
 16 
 
 181 
 
 125 
 
 144 
 
 60 
 
 36 
 
 404 
 
 148 
 
 562 
 
 16 
 
 181 
 
 125 
 
 53 
 
 137 
 
 186 
 
 219 
 50 
 212 
 496 
 186 
 893 
 16 
 202 
 14T 
 8T 
 204 
 271 
 
 436 
 
 60 
 
 238 
 
 590 
 
 186 
 
 893 
 
 16 
 
 223 
 
 228 
 
 87 
 
 204 
 
 323 
 
 465 
 
 50 
 
 238 
 
 722 
 
 186 
 
 898 
 
 16 
 
 2S8 
 
 223 
 
 87 
 
 204 
 
 368 
 
 465 
 
 50 
 
 238 
 
 722 
 
 186 
 
 893 
 
 16 
 
 254 
 
 223 
 
 87 
 
 204 
 
 452 
 
 467 
 
 50 
 
 2.='8 
 
 796 
 
 18b 
 
 898 
 
 16 
 
 268 
 
 223 
 
 87 
 
 204 
 
 516 
 
 626 
 
 50 
 
 238 
 
 873 
 
 186 
 
 893 
 
 16 
 
 286 
 
 223 
 
 87 
 
 204 
 
 576 
 
 718 
 
 50 
 
 238 
 
 878 
 
 186 
 
 946 
 
 16 
 
 324 
 
 270 
 
 87 
 
 204 
 
 609 
 
 38 
 
 91 
 
 60 
 
 40 
 
 790 
 50 
 238 
 902 
 196 
 881 
 16 
 824 
 303 
 8T 
 204 
 609 
 54 
 91 
 60 
 40 
 
 South Carolina . 
 Georgia 
 
 13T 
 5T 
 
 13T 
 100 
 
 Alabama 
 
 46 
 
 46 
 
 46 
 
 46 
 
 14 
 4» 
 
 46 
 14 
 40 
 
 46 
 26 
 40 
 
 46 
 26 
 40 
 
 46 
 42 
 40 
 
 46 
 
 42 
 40 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Texas 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 Missouri 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 134 
 93 
 890 
 474 
 538 
 271 
 20 
 
 185 
 9S 
 ],S85 
 474 
 755 
 296 
 60 
 
 300 
 180 
 
 2,500 
 474 
 960 
 
 1,200 
 200 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Ohio 
 
 22 
 
 25 
 
 28 
 
 28 
 36 
 138 
 
 98 
 84 
 138 
 
 28 
 84 
 
 174 
 
 28 
 84 
 206 
 
 28 
 84 
 238 
 
 28 
 84 
 238 
 30 
 22 
 
 28 
 129 
 270 
 30 
 22 
 
 28 
 274 
 270 
 42 
 22 
 
 58 
 274 
 270 
 86 
 22 
 
 £8 
 2S9 
 344 
 80 
 22 
 
 56 
 631 
 379 
 215 
 148 
 
 Michigan 
 
 
 
 
 Indiana 
 
 
 
 
 Illinois 
 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 22 
 
 22 
 
 22 
 
 22 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 
 
 
 Iowa 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 California 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 1843 
 
 1020 216T| 
 
 3319 
 
 8877 4174 
 
 4311 
 
 4511 
 
 4870 
 
 6330 5682|6350J7356,9090|1 1.631 
 
 13.213 
 
 18,266 
 
 21,128 
 
 .'4,476 
 
 From an examination of the above table it will be 
 foiinij that the construction of railroads has made 
 greater progress in 1856 than in any previous year. 
 The number of miles in operation on the 31st of De- 
 cember, 1856, is 24,476, against 21,069 at the close of 
 
 the year 1865, being an increase of 3407 miles for the 
 year. 
 
 We add to the last two columns of the following ta- 
 ble the population and wealth of the several States, as 
 estimated by the Secretary of the Treasury. 
 
 Miles of Eaileoad in Opeeation on the SIst Deoembee. 1856. 
 
 states. 
 
 _l_ 
 
 1855. 
 
 1856. 
 
 Population, 1856. 
 
 Wealth, 1850. 
 $131,128,186 
 103,804,326 
 
 91,166,680 
 597,986,996 
 
 91,099,850 
 
 203,759,831 
 
 1,864,164,625 
 
 179,760,000 
 
 1,031,781,304 
 
 30,466,924 
 261,243,660 
 530,994,897 
 ■ 239,608,872 
 303,434,240 
 500,000,000 
 
 49,461,461 
 279,218,037 
 250.5f6,0n0 
 270,425,000 
 240,000,000 
 321.776.810 
 411,000,198 
 860,877,364 
 30;,86S,464 
 n6,5:'3,680 
 333,287,474 
 
 87.500,000 
 110,000,000 
 228,948,731 
 165,00l),000 
 
 64,240,726 
 
 70,079.347 
 
 Maine 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 Vermont , 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 New York 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 Pennsylvania. . , 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Virginia 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Florida 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Texas 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Ohio. 
 
 Indiana 
 
 l^ichigan 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Missouri 
 
 California 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 Territories and District of Columbia. 
 
 Total . 
 
 646 
 
 516 
 
 1,207 
 
 78 
 
 596 
 
 2,668 
 
 448 
 
 2,038 
 
 84 
 
 872 
 
 1,252 
 
 483 
 
 677 
 
 1,002 
 
 26, 
 
 317 
 
 265 
 
 222 
 
 36 
 
 366 
 
 198 
 
 2,641 
 
 1,438 
 
 4/74 
 
 2,185 
 
 276 
 
 88 
 
 144 
 
 23 
 
 
 
 
 
 442 
 646 
 516 
 
 1,286 
 85 
 601 
 
 2,701 
 472 
 
 2,407 
 120 
 878 
 
 1,480 
 612 
 706 
 
 1,062 
 26 
 484 
 410 
 264 
 67 
 609 
 307 
 
 2,869 
 
 1,807 
 601 
 
 2,584 
 
 630 
 
 263 
 
 189 
 
 23 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 78 
 7 
 5 
 
 36 
 
 6 
 
 228 
 
 129 
 
 29 
 
 60 
 
 26 
 
 167 
 
 156 
 
 42 
 
 51 
 
 143 
 
 109 
 
 228 
 
 369 
 
 130 
 
 399 
 
 854 
 
 165 
 
 45 
 
 21,128 
 
 24,476 
 
 Estimated increase of property since 1850 , 
 
 623 862 
 
 324,701 
 
 326,206 
 
 1,133,123 
 
 166,927 
 
 401,292 
 
 3,470,059 
 
 569,499 
 
 2,542,960 
 
 97,295 
 
 639.580 
 
 1,512,593 
 
 921,852 
 
 705,661 
 
 986,090 
 
 110,725 
 
 836,192 
 
 671,649 
 
 600,387 
 
 500,000 
 
 1,092,470 
 
 1,086.687 
 
 2,216,750 
 
 l,149i606 
 
 509,874 
 
 1,242,917 
 
 562,109 
 
 325,014 
 
 831,215 
 
 386,000. 
 
 253,117 
 
 308,600 
 
 26,964,312 
 
 $9,817,611,072 
 1,500,000,000 
 
 $11,317,611,072 
 
 The above table, condensed, presents the following 
 points : 
 
 Miles opened in five years ending 1832 131 
 
 183T 1,281 
 
 1842 2,465 
 
 " " 1847 1,439 
 
 " " " 1852 6,296 
 
 " " " 1857 13,869 
 
 The greatest progress has been made by the eight 
 Western States ; next by the Southern States j while 
 the Northeastern States have made but trifling addi- 
 tions to their public works. 
 
 
 1866. 
 
 1866. 
 
 Increase. 
 
 6 Eastern States 
 
 4Middle " 
 
 18 Southern '* 
 
 Miles. 
 3,466 
 6,238 ■ 
 5,206 
 7,219 
 
 Miles. 
 3,575 
 5.700 
 6,304 
 8,897 
 
 Miles. 
 
 110 
 
 462 
 
 1154 
 
 1681 
 
 
 Total 
 
 21,128 
 
 24.476 
 
 8407 
 
 
 The Secretary of the Treasury has prepared a state- 
 ment showing the cost of railroads in the United States 
 in 1855, from which we make the following summary. 
 Returns not having been received from a number of 
 companies, these figures are only approximative. 
 
EAI 
 
 1623 
 
 RAI 
 
 Capital paid in. 
 Funded debt . , . . 
 Floating dett... 
 
 S03,13T,9T3 
 40,126,958 
 
 Expended in 1855 $T76,551,87T 
 
 Required to finish the roads 313,829.237 
 
 Total estimated coat $1,090,381,114 
 
 Miles finished 19,936 
 
 Miles unfinished 16,063 
 
 Totallength 86,005 
 
 Receipts for the year $91,182,683 
 
 According to these fignres, the average cost per mile 
 would only amount to $30,000, whereas experience 
 proves that $35,000 Is nearer the truth. Assuming 
 this estimate, thg total cost of the 36,000 miles, when 
 finished, would amount to $1,260,000,000. 
 
 The average cost of a portion of our railroad system 
 has been as follows : 
 
 at the end of 1854, had been made by the countries of 
 Central and Western Europe, and by the United States, 
 in providing themselves with railways. 
 
 Railways. — General summary of the comparative ex- 
 tent of railway open at the close of 1854, in diflerent 
 countries : 
 
 
 Costing. 
 
 P8I Mile. 
 
 30 roads in New York 
 
 $80,000,000 
 60,000,000 
 60,000,000 
 
 $46,344 
 44,483, 
 45,653 
 
 38 " " Massachusetts 
 
 12 " " the South and West . . 
 
 It is estimated that at least three-fourths of the mon- 
 ey which has been expended upon railroads in this conn- 
 try has been furnished by our own citizens, and the 
 remainder (chiefly for bonds) has been obtained from 
 foreign investments. 
 
 In conclusion, we may add, that, in reviewing the 
 progress of railroads in the United States, their ef- 
 fect upon the prosperity of the country, and their fu- 
 ture prospects, are much beyond the wildest dreams 
 of the originators of the system. The number of miles 
 built in the first ten years of our railroad history, be- 
 ginning in the year 1828, was 1843, of which New York 
 State built 18 per cent. The number of miles built in 
 the second ten years, or from 1838 to 1848, was 3839, 
 of which New York built 15 per cent. From 1848 to 
 1856 the number built was 18,794, of which New York 
 built 9 per cent. At the present time New York has 
 over 11 per cent of the total length of railroads, and 
 ranks next to Illinois in number of miles. Our rail- 
 road history has had two eras — the first from 1828 to 
 1848, when there was in the number of miles built an 
 average increase of 268 miles per year ; and the second 
 from 1848 to 1856, having an average increase of 2350 
 miles per year. In many of the States the develop- 
 ment of the railroad system is quite equal to the wants 
 of the people ; but in many others, Kentucky being the 
 most notable instance, it is much less. 
 
 The cost of these 26,000 miles of railroad built at the 
 end of the year 1857 is estimated at |920,000,000, or 
 an average of $35,000 @ $36,000 per mile ; and, if the 
 rails had been laid with American iron, produced by 
 domestic labor, it would have been the most produc- 
 tive investment the country ever made. 
 
 The Railroad Systems of Europe and the United States. 
 — Among the greatest achievements are the opening up 
 of new fields of supply, and the deepening of old chan- 
 nels of consumption. They have brought into profita- 
 ble use mines, forests, quarries, arable and grazing dis- 
 tricts, fisheries, harbors, and rivers, previously inacces- 
 sible. 
 
 But still greater even than these achievements are 
 the advantages arising from the cheap and rapid con- 
 veyance of passengers over long distances. Every en- 
 terprise is now carried on with perhaps ten times as 
 much dispatch, and with ten times less trouble than 
 forty years ago ; and the facility of personal superin- 
 tendence is certainly twenty times greater than it was 
 then. It is not difficult, therefore, to comprehend that 
 to accelerate even by a few years the completion in a 
 country of an extensive system of railwaj's, is to con- 
 fer upon it advantages the real value of which it is 
 impossible to represent in terms of money ; and we shall 
 find, in the considerations connected with this mode of 
 viewing the facts, a correction of many prevalent er- 
 rors relative to the cost of English railway's. 
 
 Let us see what was the comparative progress which. 
 
 England and Wales. 
 
 Scotland . .' 
 
 Ireland 
 
 France, . . , 
 Germany . 
 Belgium . , 
 
 Massachusetts-. 
 New York . . .'. 
 Pennsylvania . 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Indiana., 
 Illinois . 
 
 Twenty-two other States 
 of the Union 
 
 Area in 
 English 
 Square 
 Miles. 
 
 5T,S00 
 30,240 
 3I,8T0 
 
 119,910 
 205,000 
 268,000 
 11,000 
 
 484,000 
 T,SO0 
 4T,000 
 46,000 
 
 100,800 
 40,000 
 83,800 
 55,400 
 
 No. of 
 Miles of 
 Rail^i ay 
 open in 
 . 1854.. 
 
 6,100 
 
 1,040 
 
 900 
 
 8,040 
 
 2,910 
 
 5,400 
 
 630 
 
 8,840 
 1,300 
 2,T00 
 2,000 
 
 6,000 
 3,000 
 1,500 
 2,800 
 
 129,200 
 1.851,000 
 
 2,180,040 
 
 1,800 
 8,200- 
 
 32,380 
 
 Miles of Rail 
 
 open to eacli 
 
 100 Square 
 
 Miles of 
 
 Area. 
 
 35 
 
 6T^ 
 ■l-4* 
 2 
 4-8 
 
 16-0 
 5-8 
 4 3 
 
 6-4 
 7-T 
 4-4 
 5-0 
 
 It appears by these figures that the only country 
 or State possessing a greater extent of railway (com- 
 pared with territorial area) than England and Wales 
 was the State of Massachusetts ; but the area of Mas- 
 sachusetts is only an eighth part the area of England 
 and Wales. 
 
 In France and Germany the progress has been less 
 than a seventh of our own. Even in Belgium, and 
 New York, and Pennsylvania, the progress has been 
 barely a third of ours. In Scotland the progress has 
 been twice as rapid as in Germany ; and if fair allow- 
 ance be made for the lake and mountain surface of 
 Scotland, the progress in it will exceed the progress of 
 Belgium, and of those Western States of the Union 
 where railways are made with a cheapness and facility 
 unknown any where else. 
 
 We may now recapitulate the conclusions which 
 seem to be established by the facts and statements be- 
 fore us; viz, : 
 
 1. That of the three hundred millions sterling actu- 
 ally expended in railways to the close of 1855, in the 
 United Kingdom, fully one half, or one hundred and 
 fifty millions sterling, were expended during the five 
 years, 1846, '47, '48, '49, and '50, and that of the 8300 
 miles of railway open and at work at the close of 
 1855, fully one half, or 4150 "miles, were completed and 
 brought into operation for the first time during the 
 five years now enumerated. 
 
 2. That the consequence of so prodigious an outlay 
 in so small a space of time has been to place the 
 United Kingdom, but especiallj' England, so far in 
 advance of other countries in the possession of an ex- 
 tensive railway system, that, adopting the fair test of 
 comparing territorial area with railway mileage; Eii- 
 gland has a comparative mileage three times great- 
 er than Belgium, New York, and Pennsylvania, and 
 seven times greater than France and Germany. 
 
 3. That the introduction on the largest scale into 
 this country, and in degrees more limited into other 
 countries, of a change so extensive, absolute, and fun- 
 damental in the means of transit, has already led, and 
 in a short time will lead still further, to important 
 modifications in the conditions affecting the supply of 
 and the demand for large classes of commodities — -these 
 modifications tending generally to reductions of price, 
 as a consequence of diminished cost of production or 
 reduced expenses in conveyance to market. 
 
 4. That as regards the 150 millions sterling ex- 
 pended in this country in the five years, 1846-'50, its 
 operation was to give employment, during periods, 
 
KAI 
 
 1624 
 
 RAN 
 
 first, of clear ?ood (184G-'47), and second, of extreme 
 commercial difficulty (1847-'48-'49), to a body of ar- 
 tisans and others, varying from upward of a million to 
 balf a million of persons. 
 
 6. That on the other hand, the calls by the process 
 of which the 150 millions were gradually raised from 
 the middle and wealthier classes, who were the holders 
 of railway shares, operated like an income tax, nearly 
 the whole amovin't of which was provided by the resort 
 to severe economy, or by additional exertions to pro- 
 duce augmented resources. 
 
 6. That the retrenchments and increased exertions 
 of the contributors of calls, taken in the aggregate, 
 more than counterbalanced the consumption of the 
 armj' of laborers employed in railway works, and 
 also the expenditure for the purpose of those works on 
 imported materials ; and hence that even during the 
 five years, 1846-'o0, of an average annual expenditure 
 of thirty millions sterling, the balance of trade was, as 
 a general result, constantly in our favor. 
 
 7. That during the five years in question the aver- 
 age annual return yielded by the (say) 200 millions 
 actually expended in railway undertakings was less 
 than 2 per cent, per annum ; that beyond the failure 
 of annual return there was a depreciation of market 
 price equal" to about 50 per cent, below par value ; 
 and that while the ultimate recovery of the country, 
 with comparative ease, from the effects of so severe a 
 strain, abundantly indicates its resources ; still the de- 
 pression and losses experienced by so large a portion 
 of the middle class during 184G-'50, and even later, 
 may be considered to have been, to some extent, a cause 
 of the dullness of trade and the low range of prices 
 which prevailed during the two or three last years of 
 the period. 
 
 8. That, on the other hand, the cessation after 1850 
 of an annual heavy demand for calls, the rapid in- 
 crease of dividends on the capital previously expended, 
 the still more rapid advance of the market price of rail- 
 way stock, and, more powerful still, the effect upon pro- 
 duction and consumption of several thousand miles of 
 railway communication, may be regarded as explain- 
 ing in some important degree the comparative pros- 
 perity and ease which have prevailed since 1851. 
 
 9. That finally, while it is quite triie that the rail- 
 way excitement of 1841-45 was in many respects ir- 
 rational and disgraceful, and in numerous individual 
 cases the source of crime and ruin, still it enabled this 
 country to pass, almost at one step, and by a single 
 sharp and effectual effort of self-denial on the part of 
 the middle classes, into the possession of the most com- 
 plete system of railways possessed by any country ; 
 that while these railways have cost more to their pro- 
 jectors than would have been expended by less pre- 
 cipitate adventurers, there is no sufficient reason to be- 
 lieve that the inordinate post falls as a perpetual bur- 
 den upon the frequenters of the lines ; in other words, 
 that the cost of the line and the rates of toll, which can 
 alone attract customers, have no necessary or close de- 
 pendence on each other. And hence, that, eccentric 
 and exceptional as may have been, in many cases, the 
 efforts of private enterprise, as displayed in the forma- 
 tion of railways in this country, no denial can be given 
 to the broad and beneficial result. That to private 
 enterprise we are indebted for being a generation in 
 advance of the rest of Europe as regards the new means 
 of internal transit.— Tooke's History of Prices. 
 
 We give a summary showing the number of miles 
 and cost of the railroads of the world. This summa- 
 ry is of later date than the separate statements given 
 before, and of course shows an increase. There is a 
 discrepancy between the number of miles in operation 
 in Germany, according to the authority of Tooke, and 
 the following. This is explained by the fact that many 
 of the railroads stated by Tooke as belonging to Ger- 
 many should be placed in the column of French and 
 Belgio railroads. 
 
 The following table also exhibits the low cost of 
 American railroads compared to those of Europe. 
 
 COMPABATIVE TABLE OF RAlT.B0.iU8 IN OpEBATION, 
 
 United States (1857) . . 
 Great Britain (1855) . . 
 Trance (1856) ......... 
 
 Germany (1855) 
 
 Prussia (1865) 
 
 Belgium (1855) ■. . . 
 
 British Frovinces ...... 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Panama 
 
 South America. 
 
 BuGSia,. .... i 
 
 Sweden. 
 
 Italy 
 
 Spain. . j;':'^ i. 
 
 Africa 
 
 India 
 
 Total. 
 
 EneltBh 
 MUefl. 
 
 !i6,UJU 
 
 8,297 
 
 4,038 
 
 , -3,213 
 
 1,290 
 
 1,095 
 
 , 823 
 
 359 
 
 47 
 
 . 60 
 
 422 
 
 75 
 
 170 
 
 60 
 
 25 
 
 100 
 
 Cost in 
 DoUaia. 
 
 920,000,000 
 
 1,487,916.420 
 
 •616,118.995 
 
 . 228,000,000 
 
 145,000,000 
 
 98,500,000 
 
 41,600,000 
 
 16,100.000 
 
 7,000,000 
 
 4,500,000 
 
 , 42.000,000 
 
 7>. 00,000 
 
 ' 17,000,000 
 
 6,000,000 
 
 3,100,000 
 
 15,000,000 
 
 46,074 |!lia^665.<;35,4l5 
 
 ' Coat 
 per Milfl. 
 
 $36,000 
 
 179,000 
 
 1 62,000 
 
 71.000 
 
 63,000 
 
 9(j,(;00 
 
 60,000 
 
 48.000 
 
 150,000 
 
 75-000 
 
 100.000 
 
 100.000 
 
 100,000 
 
 100,000 
 
 126,000 
 
 150,000 
 
 $79,01.0 
 
 Haisins (Fr. Raisins sees, ou passes ; Ger. Rosinen; 
 It. Uve passe; Port. Passas; 'Rass. Issum; Sp. Pasas"), 
 the dried fruit of the vine. They are produced from 
 various species of vines ; deriving their names partly 
 from the place where they grow, as Smyrnas, Valen- 
 cias, etc. ; and partly from the species of grape of 
 which they are made, as muscatels, blooms, sultanas, 
 etc. Their quality appears, however, to depend more 
 on the method of their cure than on any thing else. 
 The finest raisins are cured in two methods ; either by 
 cutting the stalk of the bunches half through, when the 
 grapes are nearly ripe, and leaving them suspended on 
 the vine till the watery part be evaporated, and the 
 sun dries and candies them ; or hy gathering the grapes 
 when they are fully ripe, and dipping them in a ley ■ 
 made of the ashes of the burned tendrils ; after which 
 they are exposed to the sun to dry. Those cured in 
 the first way are most esteemed, and are denominated 
 raisins of the sun. The inferior sorts are very often 
 dried in ovens.— Thomsos's Disp. 
 
 Raisins are imported in casks, barrels, boxes, and 
 jars. The finest come in jars and quarter boxes weigh- 
 ing about 25 lbs. Some of the inferior sorts are brought 
 to us in mats. Malaga raisins are in the highest esti- 
 mation. The muscatels from Malaga fetch fully a 
 third more than any other description of raisins. 
 
 The value of raisins imported into the United States 
 for the fiscal year 1856-'57 was ^937,460, viz : 
 
 Whence imported. | FoundB. 
 
 ValM- 
 
 l^'iance on the M€diteiTjineaTl 
 
 Spain on the Mediterranean . , . * i 
 
 664,159 
 14,489,800 
 164,846 
 331,200 
 159,625 
 
 $29,651 
 
 876,770 
 
 14-638 
 
 6,7! 5 
 
 9,706 
 
 
 ■All others '. 
 
 Total in 1856-'57 
 
 16,699,624 
 14,306,407 
 
 $!)b7,4fl0 
 864,219 
 
 Total in 1855-'63 
 
 Increase 
 
 l,393,i07 
 
 $73,241 
 
 Rake, to. The sea term for incline, and applies to 
 the masts, stem, and stern-post, etc. ; the bowsprit, in- 
 stead of raking, is said to steeve. Masts generally rake 
 aft, and in peculiar rigs only forward. The rake of 
 the mast has an influence on the sailing of the vessel, 
 and the masts of some schooners rake excessively. 
 The principal effect seems to be to diminish the effect 
 common to all the sails, of depressing the ship's head. 
 To rake a ship, is to fire into her head or stetn in the 
 direction of her length, or along her decks. It is 
 similar to what engineers term enfilading. 
 
 Rake of a Ship, is all that part of her hull which 
 hangs over both ends of her keel. That which is be- 
 fore is called the fore-rake or rake forward, and that 
 part which is at the setting on of the stern-post is 
 called the rahe-afi or afterward. 
 
 Rangoon, a commercial port and town of the Bur- 
 mese dominions, about 26 miles from the sea, on the 
 left bank of the eastern branch of the Kiver Irrawaddy, 
 in lat. 16° 42' N., long. 96° 20' E. The town and 
 suburbs extend lengthwise about one mile along the 
 
KAN 
 
 1625 
 
 RAT 
 
 bank of the river, being about three-fourths of a mUe 
 in depth ; but th^ houses are very unequally scattered 
 over this area. The fort, or rather wooden stockade, 
 which contains the town, properly so called, is a Tegu- 
 lar square about 14 feet high, composed of heavy beams 
 of teak timbferi . It appears, from a census taken a 
 short time previously to the commencement of the war 
 in 1824, that the population was 18,000, which proba^ 
 biy is not far froAi its present amount, though it has 
 been stated considerably higher. The foreign trade is 
 principally regulated by the treaty between Great 
 Britain and the Court of Ava, 1826. 
 
 Rangoon is the chief j and indeed almost the only 
 port of foreign trade in the Burmese 'dominions, which 
 extend fro* between the 15th and 16th, up to the 26th 
 and 27th degrees of N. lat., and fiom tlie 93d to the 
 98th degree of E. long,, containing an area of about 
 184,000 square miles, with a population of about 
 4,000,000. Its situation is extremely convenient for 
 commercial purposes, being situated so near the sea, 
 and commanding the navigation of the Irrawaddy, 
 which extends to Ava, the>cap!tal,ia distance of nearly 
 600 miles. Eangoon is accessible to ship^ of even 1200 
 tons burden ;■ the nSivigation, although somewhat in- 
 tricate, being safe and practicable with the. assistance 
 of tlie ordinary native pilots. ' ' 
 
 Tlie town has many advantages for ship-building. 
 At neaps the tide rises and falls about 18 feet ; and at 
 springs from 25 to 30 feet. The principal teak forests 
 are, at the same time, at a comparatively short dis- 
 tance, and there is a water conveyance for the timber 
 nearly the whole way. Ship-building has, in fact, 
 been cai-ried on at Rangoon since 1786, and in the 38 
 years before the British captured it there had been 
 built nil square-rigged viessels of European constriic- 
 tion, the total burden of which amounted to above 
 35,000 tons. Several of these were of frOm 800 to 1000 
 tons. ' Under the direction of European masters, the 
 Burmese were found to m4k6 dexterous and laborious 
 artisans ; in this respect greatly surpassing the natives 
 of British Indian provinces. There are two consider- 
 able markets, where the ordinary necessaries of life, 
 according to Burme^b usage, are cheap and abundant : 
 these are ticS, excellent fish, and poultry. 
 
 Mmtey; — ^The Burmese currency consists, for small 
 payinents, of lead; for larger ones, of gold and silver, 
 but chiefly bf the latter. There are no coins. At 
 every payment the metal must Ito weighed, and very 
 generally assayed' — a rude and very inconvenient state 
 of things. , The weights used in the weighing of money 
 are the same as those used on ordinary occasions ; the 
 kyat or &t&\; and the paiktha or vis, being by far the 
 most frequent. Silver may be considered as the stand- 
 ard. Gold is generallyi held to be about 17 times 
 more valuable than silver. The weighing and jassay- 
 ing of the metals used as currency ^ves employment 
 to a class of peisons as brokers, money-changers, and 
 as^ayers. Every new assay costs the o\vner, if the 
 metal be silver, 2J- per cent. — 1^ per cent, being the 
 established commission of the assayers, while 1 per 
 cent, is lost, or supposed to be lost, in the operation. 
 If it be repeated 40 times, it follows that the original 
 amount is wholly absorbed — -a feet which shows the 
 enormous Waste of metal arising out of this rude sub- 
 stitute for coin. 
 
 All grains, pulses, certaiti fruits^ natron, salt, and 
 lime, are bought aild sold by measure: other commod- 
 ities by weight.-^For an account ctf the weights and 
 measures^ seewtkle Bcrmah. 
 
 Commerce. — A bonsiderable intercourse is carried on 
 between the Burmese and Chinese dominions by an 
 annual caravan, of which the merchants are all Chinese. 
 The imports from China consist of manufactured arti- 
 cles, the chief export from Burma being cotton wool. 
 The trade with foreign countries seaward is carried on 
 with the ports of Chittagong, Dacca, and Calcutta, in 
 Bengal ; Madras aad Masulipatam, on the Coromandel 
 
 coast ; the Nicobar Islands, in the Bay of Bengal ; 
 Penang, in the Straits of Itlalacca ; and occasionally 
 with the Persian and Arabian Gulfs. The largeiat 
 trade is with Oalontta, owing to the great consumption 
 of teak timber in the latter, and the teoility with which 
 she supplies the demand of the Burmese for Indian 
 and British cotton goods. The articles exported to for- 
 eign countries from Rangoon are the following: Teat 
 wood, terta Japonica, or catechu, sticfclac, beeswax, ele- 
 phants' teeth, i-aw cotton, orpiment, commonly called 
 in India hurtal, gbld, silver, mbieS, sapphires, and 
 horses, or rather the small, hai'dy pony of the country, 
 which is much esteemed, particularly at Madras. By 
 far the most important of these commodities is teak 
 timber; the iquantity of this wood annually exported 
 is said to be equal to 7500 full-sized trees, which for 
 the most part consist of what India ship-builders call 
 ehmbini, which arc planks hewn out of the 16g with the 
 adze at an immense waste. The teak forests'of Pegu 
 are by far the most abundanti in India. The teak is 
 nowhere to be found in the low alluvial lands to which 
 the tide reaches, but abounds in the high lands beyond 
 its influence. It seems to be very generally dissem- 
 inated throughout the Burmese dominions. In the 
 territory ceded to the British ih Martaban, there are 
 some fine fbresifs, the timber Of which is cut down for 
 exportation, and where it is believed' that saw-mills 
 have very recently been established by some European 
 settlersi . The most accessible and extensive forests of 
 teak in the Burmese' dominions are in the province of 
 Sarawadi, about 150 miles to the north of Eangoon, 
 with which there is a water communication. The 
 principal imports into Burma are cotton piece goods 
 from India and Britain, British woolens, iron, steel, 
 quicltsilver, copper^ cordage, borax, sulphur, gunpow- 
 der, saltpetre, fire-arms, coarseporcelain, English glass^ 
 ware, opium, tobacco, cocoa and areca nuts, sugar, and 
 spirits. Of these by faT the fnost important is cotton 
 piece goods. The Burmese have few cotton manufac- 
 tures of their own, and appear, from very early times, 
 to have been furnished with the principal part of their 
 supply from the Coromandel coast. • To these were 
 afterward added the cheaper fabribs of Bengal ; and 
 both ate now, in a great measure, superseded by Briti 
 ish' mannfactui-es', the use of which has spread very 
 rapidly since the opening of the trade in 1814. 
 
 Rape, a biennial plant of the turnip kind (Brassica 
 nnpus, Linn.), but with a wdodj' fusiform root scarcely 
 fit to be eaten. It is indigenous, flowers in May, and 
 ripens its seeds in July. It is cultivated in many 
 parts of England, partly on account of its seed, which 
 is crushed for oil, arid partly for its leaves as food for 
 sheep. The culture of rape for seed has been much 
 objected to by some, on account of its supposed great 
 exhaustion of the land; but Mr. Loudon says that, 
 where the ' soil and preparation are suitable, the after- 
 culture properly attended to, and the straw arid otfal, 
 instead'of being burned, as is the common practice, 
 cbrivcf ted to the purposes of feeding and littering cat- 
 tle, it may, in many instances, be the most proper and 
 advantageous crop that can be emploj'cd by the farmer. 
 The produce, when the plant succeeds well, and the 
 season is favorable for securing the seed, amounts to 
 frorii 40 to 50 bushels an acre. The seed is crushed in 
 mills constructed for that purpose. — Loiidon's Encyc. 
 of Agrioulttire. See On, and Lisseed. 
 
 The value of rape-seed and hemp-seed oil imported 
 into the United States for the fiscal year 1856-'57 was 
 $11,601, viz. : 
 
 England,. . 
 
 Ftihce .' . . . 
 
 Others. ; . . . 
 
 Total. 
 
 I Buflliel a. I Value. 
 ltS2T8~ 
 5,T13 
 610 
 
 6,TG8 
 
 9,441 
 
 976 
 
 1T,215 I $11,601 
 
 Ratans, or Cdnea, the long slender shoots of a 
 prickly bush {Calavms rotang, Linn.), one of the most 
 
EAT 
 
 1626 
 
 KED 
 
 useful plants of the Malay peninsula and the Eastern 
 islands. They are exported f o Bengal, to Europe, and, 
 above all, to China, -where they are consumed in im- 
 mense quantities. For cane work they should be 
 chosen long, of a bright pale-yellow color, well glazed, 
 and of a small size, not brittle, or subject to break. 
 They are purchased by the bundle, which ought to con- 
 tain 100 ratans, having their ends bent together, and 
 tied in the middle. In China they are sold by the 
 picul, which contains from 9 to 12 bundles. Such as 
 are black or dark colored, snap short, or from which 
 the glazing flies off on their being bent, should be re- 
 jected. When stowed as dunnage, they are generally 
 allowed to pass free of freight. — Milbukn's Oriental 
 Commerce, etc. "The ratan," says Mr. Crawfurd, "is 
 the spontaneous product of all the forests of the Archi- 
 pelago ; but exists in great perfection in those of the 
 islands of Borneo, Sumatra, and of the Malayan penin- 
 sula. The linest are produced in the country of the 
 BataTcs of Sumatra. The wood-cutter who is inclined 
 to deal in this article proceeds into the forest without 
 any other instrument than his parang or cleaver, and 
 cuts as much as he is able to carry away. The mode 
 of performing the operation is this: he makes a notch 
 in the tree at the root of which the ratan is growing, 
 and cutting the latter, strips off a small portion of the 
 outer bark, and inserts the part that is peeled into the 
 notch. The ratan now being pulled through as long 
 as it continues of an equal size, is by this operation 
 neatly and readily freed from its epidermis. When 
 the wood-cutter has obtained by this means from 300 
 to 400 ratans — being as many as an individual can 
 conveniently carry in their moist and undried state — 
 he sits down, and ties them up in bundles of 100, each 
 ratan being doubled before being thus tied up. After 
 drying, thej' are fit for the market without further 
 preparation. From this account of the small labor 
 expended in bringing them to market, they can be 
 sold at a very cheap rate. The Chinese junks obtain 
 them in Borneo at the low rate of 5 Spanish dollars per 
 100 bundles, or 6 cents for each 100 ratans, or 27 for Id. 
 The natives alwa3's vend them by tale ; but the Euro- 
 pean residents and the Chinese sell them by weight, 
 counting by piculs. According to their quantity, and 
 the relative state of supply and demand, the European 
 merchants dispose of them at from 1^ to 2^ dollars the 
 picul. In China the price is usually about 3^ dollars 
 per picul, or 75 per cent, above the average prime cost. 
 In Bengal they are sold by tale, each bundle of about 
 100 ratans bringing about 20J-d." — Indian Archipelago, 
 vol. iii. p. 423. 
 
 Ratlines, small lines which traverse the shrouds 
 of a ship horizontally, at regular distances, from the 
 deck upward, forming a variety of ladders whereby to 
 climb or to descend from any of the mast-heads. 
 
 Razee, a ship of war cut down to a smaller size. 
 
 Real, in the Spanish monetary system, is of two 
 sorts ; viz., a real of plate, and a real vellrni. The for- 
 mer is a silver coin, varying in value from 10 to 12^ 
 cents. — See Coins. A real vellon is a money of ac- 
 count, worth about 5 cents. Formerly, by authority 
 of Congress, the value of a real of plate was put at 10 
 cents, and a real vellon of Spain at 5 cents. 
 
 Realejo. The port of Realejo, on the Pacific, lat. 
 12° 34' N., long. 87° 4' W., to which it is proposed to 
 bring the canal from Lake Leon, is said to be one of the 
 best that is any where to be met with. The port of Ee- 
 alejo consists chiefly of a salt-water creek, into which 
 several small streams of water empty themselves. The 
 entrance is protected by an island about two miles 
 long, ivhich leaves at eacli end a channel where ships 
 can enter the harbor, but extending opposite the main 
 land, forming the port in such a manner as to protect 
 it entirely from any wind that could possibly blow, and 
 also entirely breaking the swell which enters the outer 
 bay of Couchagua from the ocean. The north entrance 
 is about a quarter of a mile wide, and that at the south 
 
 of the island rather narrower, both being entirely free 
 from rocks or hidden dangers, and having in no part 
 less than five fathoms depth of water. At one of these 
 openings vessels can at all times enter with a leading 
 wind, from whatever quarter it may blow. The inside 
 consists of a noble basin of water, nowhere less than 
 four fathoms deep, with a bottom of mud, where two 
 hundred ships of the line might lie at all times in the 
 most perfect security. One of the branches of the 
 creek extends inland to within three leagues of the 
 Lake of Leon or Managua. The intermediate country 
 is a gentle slope, where undoubtedly should enter one 
 of the ends of the canal to connect the Pacific and At- 
 lantic oceans. The difBculties to be encountered in 
 crossing the chain of hills between the Lake of Nicar- 
 agua and San Juan del Sud would be entirely avoided 
 by bringing the canal through the Lake of Leon (con- 
 nected as it is with that of Nicaragua by a river that 
 might be rendered navigable at a moderate cost) into 
 the above-named branch of the Realejo harbor, thus 
 securing the great advantage of an excellent harbor at 
 each end of the canal, besides many others which are 
 certainly not to be met with either at Panama, Te- 
 huantepec, or any other place. The town of Realejo 
 is about two leagues distant from the part of the creek 
 where vessels lie ; but there is sufficient depth for small 
 vessels to come within a mile of the town, and a very 
 little labor would make it accessible to large ships ; 
 but an enlightened government would probably prefer 
 moving the town to the opposite side of the reach, 
 where vessels lie, where there is a site extremely suit- 
 able for the purpose, and where a quay might easily be 
 erected capable of accommodating any number of ships. 
 In the time of the Spanish government several ves- 
 sels, some of 300 to 400 tons, were built at Realejo, 
 where the wood is very superior and durable. The 
 port of San Juan del Sud, to which place it was pro- 
 posed to bring the canal, seems inferior to Realejo in 
 most respects. The Gulf of Papagayo, where the port 
 is situated, is very difficult to enter for a sailing vessel 
 for five months in the year.. — See Nicaragua and Pan- 
 ama. 
 
 Ream, a quantity of paper. The ream of writing- 
 paper consists of twenty quires, each of twenty-four 
 sheets ; usually consisting of eighteen quires of twen- 
 ty-four sheets each, and the two outside (or broken) 
 quii'es of sixteen to twenty sheets each ; but the ream 
 of printing-paper, or, as it is sometimes called, the 
 printer^ s ream, extends to twenty-one and a half quires, 
 or 5K) sheets. Two reams of paper make a bundle. 
 
 Receipt is an acknowledgment in writing of hav- 
 ing received a sura of money, or other valuable consid- 
 eration. It is a voucher either of an obligation 6r debt 
 discharged, or of one incurred. 
 
 Reckoning, in Navigation, the estimated place of 
 a ship, calculated from the rate as determinecl by the 
 log, and the course as determined by the compass, the 
 place from which the vessel started being known. 
 Dead reckoning means the same as rechming, due al- 
 lowance being made for drift, lee-way, currents, etc. 
 
 Red River is the first large river which enters the 
 Mississippi, 341 miles above its mouth, and rises at 
 about lat. 34° N. in the Liana Estacuda, or Great 
 Staked Plain. It is formed by several head branches, 
 and receives several tributaries, the largest of which 
 are Blue River and False Washita. A greater part of 
 its course is through rich prairies of a red soil, which 
 colors the water of the river, and hence the origin of 
 its name. Its shores are covered with grass, and 
 abound with grape-vines, which produce an excellent 
 fruit. About one hundred miles above Natchitoches 
 commences what is denominated the Raft, which con- 
 sists of a swampy expansion of the river to the width 
 of twenty or thirty miles, and has a length of sixty or 
 seventy miles. The river divides into a great number 
 of channels, many of which are shallow, and these 
 channels have been obstructed by fallen trees, brought 
 
KED 
 
 1627 
 
 EEG 
 
 down by floods from its upper parts. At a great ex- 
 pense, this raft has been so far removed by the United 
 States government that steamboats pass through it. 
 Boats sometimes pass the raft by leaving the river 
 above it, in a channel which flows out of it into some 
 neighboring lake, and following the outlet of this lake 
 until it joins the river below the raft. This raft has 
 Keen a serious obstruction, as the river would otherwise 
 be navigable for steamboats four hundred miles, and 
 the lands on its borders are highly fertile, and desira- 
 ble for cultivation for a great distance above the raft. 
 Eelow the raft, and four miles above Natchitoches, the 
 whole volume of the river is again united, but very 
 soon divides into many channels, and fills an immense 
 number of bayous and lakes that lie parallel to it. In 
 its lower parts the main channel of the river is narrow- 
 er than above the raft. 
 
 Red Sea, or Arabian Gulf^ an inland sea be- 
 tween Africa and Asia (Arabia), lat. 12° 40' to 30° N., 
 long. 32° 30' to 43° 39' E. Length, northwest to south- 
 east, upward of 1400 miles ; breadth varies to nearly 
 200 miles. At its southern extremity it communicates 
 with the Indian Ocean by the strait Bab-el-Mandeb. 
 In its northern part it bifurcates into the Gulfs of Suez 
 and Akabah, which inclose the peninsula of Sinai. 
 Depth varies ; average about 100 fathoms. It abounds 
 with islands and coral reefs, and is supposed by some 
 to have derived its name from the large quantities of 
 red coral and pink-colored fuci which it yields ; while 
 it is" more probably derived from tlie ancient Idunus^ 
 " Sea of Edom," or " Red Sea." The country almost 
 every where around it is mountainous. The southeast 
 monsoon blows constantly for eight months of the 
 year, and during tlie remainder the northwest mon- 
 soon. From October to May,' when south winds pre- 
 va,il, the water rises in the northern part of the sea, 
 which then attains an elevation much higher than the 
 Mediterranean. The navigation is, difficult, owing to 
 sudden changes of wind and heavy gales. Principal 
 ports are Mocha, Hodeida, Loheia, Jiddah, and Yem- 
 bo on the Arabian side, and Suez, Kosseir, Suakin, 
 and Massowah on the Egyptian, Nubian, and Danakil 
 coasts. 
 
 Reef, a term in navigation. When there is a heavy 
 gale of wind the seamen commonly roll up part of the 
 sail below, that by this means it may become the nar- 
 rower, and not draw so much wind ; and this contract- 
 ing or taking up the sail they call a 7'eef^ or reefing a 
 sail; so also when a top^mast is sprung, as they call.it, 
 that is, when it is cracked, or almost broken in the cap, 
 they out off the lower piece that was nearly broken off, 
 and setting the other part, now much shorter, in the 
 step again, they call it a reefed top^nast. 
 
 Regatta, a word used originally by the Venetians 
 to signify a grand fete in which the gondoliers con- 
 tested for superiority in rowing their gondolas ; but 
 the term has been adopted into all the modern lan- 
 guages, in which it signifies a brilliant species of boat- 
 race. 
 
 Registry, in Commercial navigation, the registra- 
 tion or enrollment of ships at the custom-house, so as 
 to entitle them to be classed among, and to enjoy the 
 privileges of national ships. — See Ships. 
 ' The United States have imitated the policy of other 
 commercial nations in conferring peculiar privileges 
 upon American-built ships, and owned by citizens. 
 The object of the Registry Act is to encourage our own 
 trade, navigation, and ship-building, by granting , un- 
 usual and exclusive privileges of trade to the flag of 
 the United States, and by prohibiting the communica- 
 tion of those immunities to the shipping and mariners 
 of other countries. The provisions are well calculated 
 to prevent the commission of fraud upon individuals, 
 as well as to advance the national policy. The regis- 
 try of vessels at the custom-house, and the memoran- 
 dums of the transfers, add great security to title, and 
 bring the existing state of our navigation and marine 
 
 under the view of the general government. By these 
 regulations the title can be correctly traced back to its 
 origin. The acts of Congress of 31st of December, 
 1792, and 18th February) 1793, constitute the basis of 
 the regulations in this country for the foreign and 
 coasting trade, and for the fisheries of the United 
 States ; and they correspond very nearly to the provi- 
 sions of the British statutes in the reign of George III. 
 
 These acts relate to all ships employed at sea, which 
 may. be divided into five classes : 1. Ships of the Unit- 
 ed States employed in foreign trade, which are entitled 
 to be registered. 2. Ships of the United States em- 
 ployed in the coasting trade or fisheries, which are en- 
 titled to be enrolled and licensed. 3. Ships built out 
 of the United States, but owned by citizens, which are 
 entitled to a certificate of ownership ; but if wrecked in 
 the United States and repaired to the extent of three- 
 quarters of their value, they may be registered. 4. 
 Ships built in the United States, but owned wholly or 
 partly by foreigners, which are entitled to be recorded. 
 5. Ships built out of the United States, and owned by 
 foreigners, which are considered alien vessels to all in- 
 tents and purposes. — -See Kent's Comm., vol. iii. 
 
 Vessels actually registered, and vessels duly quali- 
 fied for carrying on the coasting trade and fisheries, or 
 one of them, are alone denominated and deemed ships 
 or vessels of the United States, entitled to the benefits 
 and privileges appertaining to such vessels ; and they 
 continue to enjoy the same no longer than they con- 
 tinue to be wholly owned and commanded by a citizen 
 or citizens of the United States. Vessels built within 
 the United States, and vessels captured by citizens in 
 war, and condemned as prizes, or seized and condemned 
 for a breach of revenue laws, and wholly belonging to 
 citizens, may be registered. No citizen who usually 
 resides in a foreign country can, during such residence, 
 entitle himself to have registered a ship owned in whole 
 or in part by him, unless he be a consul, or an agent 
 or partner in some house of trade or partnership, con- 
 sisting of citizens actually carrying on trade with the 
 United States. An American vessel, transferred by 
 parol while at sea to an American citizen, and resold 
 to her original owners on her return to port, does not 
 lose her privileges as an American vessel. 
 
 If one of two partners obtain a registry' of a vessel 
 by swearing that he and his partner, of the city of New 
 York, are the owners, when in fact his partner is dom- 
 iciliated abroad, the vessel is liable to forfeiture. ' 
 
 No ships can be registered, or if registered, can be 
 entitled to the benefit thereof, if owned, in whole or in 
 part, by a naturalized citizen, residing for more than 
 one year in the country from which he originated, or 
 for more than two years in any foreign country, unless 
 he is a consul or public agent. But such ships may 
 be registered anew on a hona fide, sale to any citizen 
 resident within the United States. 
 
 No registered ship, which has been seized or cap- 
 tured and condemned by a foreign power, can be reg- 
 istered anew, except regained by the original owner at 
 the time of capture or seizure, or by his executors or 
 administrators; but such a ship is deemed a, foreign 
 vessel, though purchased or owned by any other citi- 
 zen. Ships entitled to be recorded and entitled to the 
 benefits of recorded skips in the United States are ships 
 built in the United States, and belonging wholly or in 
 part to foreigners. Vessels entitled to be enrolled are 
 vessels of twenty tons or upward, possessing the same 
 qualifications and requisites as are made necessary for 
 registering ships, i. e., they must be built within the 
 United States, and be owned wholly by citizens. If 
 under twenty tons, they are entitled to a license. No 
 ships, unless enrolled and licensed, are deemed entitled 
 to the privileges of American vessels employed in the 
 coasting trade or fisheries ; and if any not enrolled or 
 licensed be found engaged in the coasting trade or fish- 
 eries, having on board any foreign articles or distilled 
 spirits other than sea stores, they are subject to forfeit- 
 
REG 
 
 1628 
 
 REG 
 
 are,- unless the vessel be at sea at the expitatio'n of the 
 time for which the license was granted ; in which case 
 the forfeiture is not incurred, provided the master prove 
 the fact, and deliver his license to the collector of the 
 district in wMch he shall first arrive, within forty-eight 
 hours after his arrival. 
 
 In the United States no vessels are required to be 
 registered. But to entitle them to the privileges of 
 the United States they must be registered ; otherwise 
 they are deemed alien ships. As is before stated, ves- 
 sels engaged in the coasting trade or fisheries are liable 
 to forfeiture if they have foreign good? on board, unless 
 thev are enrolled or licensed. — Blhnt's Shipmasters' 
 Assistant. 
 
 It is further provided by the act of March 2, 1797, 
 that whenever any vessel is transferred by process of 
 laiu, and the register, or certificate of enrollment br li- 
 cense, is retained by the former owner, a new one may 
 be obtained upon the usual terms, without the return 
 of the outstanding paper. Vessels captured and con- 
 demned by a foreign power, or by sale to a foreigner, 
 whereby there becomes an actual divesttire of the title 
 of the American citizen, are to be considered as foreign 
 vessels, and not entitled to a new register, even though 
 they should afterward become American property, un- 
 less the former owner regain his title, by purchase or 
 otherwise, and then the law allows of the restoration 
 of her American character by a sort of jus postUmmii. 
 Every registered or unregistered vessel owned by a 
 citizen of the United States, and going to a foreign 
 country, and an unregistered vessel, sailing with a sea- 
 letter, is entitled to a passport, to be furnished by the 
 collector of'the district. But no sea-letter, certifying 
 any vessel to be the property of a citizen of the United 
 States, can be issued, except to ships duly registered, 
 or enrolled and licensed, or to vessels wholly owned by 
 citizens of the United States, and furnished with or en- 
 titled to sea-letters, or other custom-house documents. 
 The English registry acts of 26 Geo. III. and 34 
 Geo. III. c. 68, required the certificate of registry to be 
 truly recited at length in every bill of sale of a British 
 ship to a British subject; otherwise such bill of sale 
 was declared to be utterly null and void, to all intents 
 and purposes; and this was held to be necessary, even 
 though the ship was at sea at the time, and the vendee 
 took the grand bill of sale and possession of the ship 
 immediately on her arrival in port. The laws of the 
 United States do not go to that rigorous extent ; and 
 the only consequence of a transfer Without a writing 
 containing a recital at length of the certificate of regis- 
 try ds, that the vessel ean not be registered anew, and 
 she loses her privilege as an American vessel, and be- 
 comes subject to the disabilities incident to vessels 
 not registered, enrolled, or licensed as the statute pre- 
 scribes. But where an American registered vessel was 
 in part sold, by parol, while at sea, to an American 
 citizen, and again resold, by parol, to her original otvn- 
 er on her return into port and before entry, that trans- 
 action was held not to deprive the vessel of her Amer- 
 ican privileges, or subject her to foreign duties, for in 
 that case no new register was requisite. It would 
 have been, except in dalCj a duplicate of the Old one, 
 and pei-fectly useless. 
 
 If a ship be owned by American citizens, tad be not 
 documented according to the provisions of the registry 
 acts, it is not liable to any forfeitures or disabilities 
 which are not specially prescribed. The want of a 
 register is not a ground of forfeiture, but the cause only 
 of loss of American privileges. Every vessel, wherev- 
 er built, and owned by an Americaii citizen, is entitled 
 to a custom-house document for protection, termed a 
 passport, under the act of June 1, 1796 ; for it applies 
 to " every ship or vessel of the United States going to 
 any foreign country." As our registry acts do not de- 
 clare void the sale or transfer, and every contract or 
 agreement for transfer of property in any ship, without 
 an instrument in writing, reciting at large the certifi- 
 
 cate of re^stfy ; and as they havenot prescribed any 
 precise fotm bf indorsement on the certificate of regis- 
 try^ and rendered it indispensable in every sale, as was 
 the case under the British statute* of 26 Geo. III. c. 
 60, and 34 Geo. III. c. 68, we are happilyTelieved from 
 many embarrassing questions which havfe arisen in the 
 English cotirts relative to the salfe and mortgage cif 
 ships. 
 
 There have 'been great difficulty and some alterna- 
 tion of opinion in the English courts in the endeavor 
 to reconcile the strict and positive provisions of the 
 statute with the principles of eqirity, and the good faith 
 and intdntion of the contracting parties. It has even 
 been a question of much discussion whether the stat- 
 utes of 26 and 34 Geo. III. had not destroyed the com- 
 mon-law right'of conveying a ship by way of mortgage, 
 like other personal property ; and whethei- the mort- 
 gagee had not a complete title beyond the power of re- 
 demption after the transfer of the legal title according 
 to the prescribed form of the indorsement on the cer- 
 tificate of registry. The language, in many of the 
 cases, was in favor of the conclusion that there could 
 be no equitable ownership of a ship distinct from the 
 legal title, and that upon a transfer under the forms of 
 the registry acts the ship becomes the absolute property 
 of the intended m'drtgagee, and that the terms and the 
 policy of the registry acts were incompatible with the 
 existence of any equity ©f redemption. But these 
 opinions or dicta have been met by a series of adjudi- 
 cations which assume the laws to be otherwise, and 
 that the registry acts related only to transactions be- 
 tween vendoi' and vendee, and to cases of real owner- 
 ship ; and that an equitable intel'est in a ship might 
 exist by operation of law, and by the contract of the 
 parties, distinct from the legal estate ; and that, not- 
 withstanding the positive and absolute terms of the 
 indorsement upon the certificate of register, a mortgage 
 of a ship i^ good and valid, according to the law as it 
 existed before the registry acts, provided the requisites 
 of the statutes be complied with. The opinion of Sir 
 Thomas Plumer, in Thompson vs. Smithy contained a 
 very clear and masterly vindicatioti of the validity of 
 the mortgage of a ship consistently with the preserva- 
 tion of the forms of the registry acts. He effectually 
 put to flight the alarming proposition that, since the 
 registry acts, there could be no valid mortgage of a 
 ship; and he insisted that the defeasante annexed to 
 the bill of sale ought to be fully indorsed as part of the 
 instrument on the certificate of registry, if trie ship be 
 mortgaged in port ; or, if mortgaged while at sea, a 
 copy of the whole transmitted to the custom-house; 
 and that thoiigh the defeasance should not be noticed 
 in any of the forms adhered to at the oifice of the cus- 
 toms, and the insti'ument should be registered as an 
 absolute bill of sale, the mortgager's right of redemp- 
 tion would not suflfer by the omission. But as no such 
 <juestions can possibly arise under the registiy acts of 
 Congress, these discussions in the English courts are 
 noticed only as a curious branch of the English juris- 
 prudence on this subject. 
 
 The registry is not a document required by the law 
 of nations as expressive of a ship's national character. 
 The registry acts are to be considered as forms of local 
 or municipal institutions for purposes of public policy. 
 They are imperative only upon the voluntary transfer 
 of parties, and do not apply to transfers by act or oper- 
 ation of law. They are said to be peculiar to England 
 and to the United States, whose maritime and naviga- 
 tion system is formed upon the model of that of Great 
 Britain. • But by various French ordinances, between 
 1681 and the era of the new code, it was requisite that all 
 vessels, in order to be entitled to the privileges of French 
 vessels, should be built in France, under some necessary 
 exceptions, and should be owned exclusively by French- 
 men, and foreigners were prohibited from navigating 
 under the French flag ; and a Frenchman forfeited his 
 privileges as such owner by marrying a foreign wife, 
 
EE3L 
 
 1^629 
 
 REY 
 
 or residing abroad, unless la connection with a French 
 house. The registec is not of itself evidence of prop- 
 erty, unless It be confirmed by iome auxiliary circum- 
 stance to show that it was made by the authority or 
 ijssent of the person nam^icl in it, and wl^o Is sought to 
 be charged as owner. Withoift proof to bonnecL the 
 party with the rdglster' as being his direct or adopted 
 act, the register has been held; not to be, eveja prima 
 facie evidence to cliarge a person as ow?Ler ; and even 
 then it is not conclusive evidence Of ownership. The 
 cases of the Mohawk Insurance Cmipany vs. Eckford, 
 decided in the New York Court, of Common PJftaji in 
 1828, and Ring vs. FramMin, in the Superiiar Court of 
 that city in 1*2!); went upon the same ground that the 
 register, standing ill the name Of a person, did not de- 
 termine the "ownership of a vessel, though it imight, 
 perhaps, be presumptive evidence in the first instance. 
 Ah equitable title in one person might legally exist 
 CODi^istentlj with the do'cufnentary title at the ciislom., 
 house in anbther. — Kbnt'si Comps., vol; iii. p. 196. See 
 ortw/e? TossASE, Shipping, etc. ' 
 
 Relieving Tackles. Temporary tackles attached 
 to the end of the tiUer.in ba4 weather, to .assist, the 
 helmsman, and in case'of accident happening to the 
 tiller riipes. They are also strong tackles from the 
 wharf tO'Which the .ship is hove down, passed under 
 her bottom and attached to the opposite side,'to assist 
 in righting her' afterward, as well as to preiren,t 'her 
 from oversetting entirely. ;,/,.■..' 
 
 Report. In Commercial r^migalmn, a paper de» 
 Uvered by the masters of all ships, arriving from parts 
 beyond ae^ to the -custom-hojise', containing ,'^ ac- 
 count of the cargo on board, etc. 
 
 Repousse, or Chasing. The »-e^>usad work of 
 French silver-smiths, which is equivalent to chasing, is 
 a very remarkable mode of decorating gol4.and silver 
 plate. It is effected entirely by the hammer. The 
 workman has a plain flat sheet of silver to work tt'poVi, 
 afii .Ijefore him is a carefully executed wax model of 
 the article to.be produced; the silver plate rests upon 
 a soft bed of pitch or other composition, and with, a 
 small hammer the workman pToduce.s, indentations oyeir 
 the surface corresponding with the device to be pro- 
 duced. A small steel punch is employed occasionally ; 
 and if any of the indbntations fire carried too far, the 
 plate is reversed, and a little qounter-hammering ap- 
 plied. Many of the shields, salvers, dishesy and pther 
 articles in the ' Grtjat F^xhibjt^on, displayed fine ex- 
 amples of this kind of work ; and, there was, an eques- 
 trian statue ofQueen Elizabeth produced almost en- 
 tirely by this remarkable prbcepsi 
 
 Reprisal. Where the people of one nation have 
 unlawfully seized and detained property belonging, to 
 another sta'tej the subjects of the latter are' authorized, 
 by ^he law of nations, to indemnify theinselves by 
 seizing th% property of the subjects of the state aggress- 
 ing. This is termed making reprisals ; and commis- 
 sions to this effect are issued from the Admiralty.-^ 
 (See Privateers. ,,, , , ',,1 
 
 Resin (Gr. fierwii ; from fieo, Tjtow^. A proximate 
 principle common in the vegetable kipgdomj the ulti- 
 mate components, of which are carbon, oxygen, and hy- 
 drogen. There are many varieties of resini , Theirgener- 
 al characters are fusibility and inflammability ; solubil- 
 ity in alcohol, insolubility in water. They are general- 
 ly separable into two distinct portions by the action of 
 cold and of hot alcohol. They are valuable as ingredi- 
 ents in vArhishes, and several of themi aire used in medi- 
 cine. They are often naturally blended with modifica- 
 tions of gum, in which pase they constitute tlio series of 
 gum. resins. The specific gravity of the resins varies be- 
 tween I'Oand 1'4. They become negatively electric by 
 friction. Tl^^ commonest resin in use, nsuaily. called 
 rosin, is obtained by distilling turpentine : the volatile 
 oil passes over, and the resin remaifls in the still. — See 
 Gums arid Oils. 
 Respondentia, in Commercial law, signifles the 
 
 hypothecation of the cargo of a ship, on conditions 
 similar to those upon which the ship and freight maj 
 be pledged — the latter being called a bottomry bond. 
 Tlje security of the cargo may, indeed, be given by the 
 master of the vessel, in additioii to that of the ship and 
 freight, should the last two be deemed sufficient secu- 
 rity ;by the lender ot'tljie money ; but, notwithstanding 
 the cargo may^in this case form the principal part of 
 ,the security, still such loan will be commonly said to 
 be bottomry, but is more strictly on bottomry and re- 
 spondentia. The right which a master possesses of 
 thus pledging the cargp isupdpubted, and is a natural 
 consjequence of the power which is invested in him of 
 disposing of part of the cargo in case of extreme neces- 
 sityj and which is to be exercised by him for the bene- 
 fit, to the best of his judgment, of all concerned. The 
 master of the' ship is 'not, however, justified in selling 
 thp whole, of the cargo, for that would defeat the ob- 
 ject, of the voyage which t}>e repairs are intended to 
 carry into eflfect; nor is he permitted to hypothecate 
 the cargo without the ship, or without the ship and 
 freiihtftj A biJ.Wpinfy ,bond may include a respondentia 
 bond, or they may be given separately. Generally all 
 laws applicable to respondentia are equally so upon 
 bottlomry, but the reverse is not in all countries the 
 cas4 By custoin, the holder of the bottomry and respon- 
 dentia bond fifter judgment fSrst receives the freight 
 and.sells the ship, and, if theseido not satisfy his claim 
 andithe expenses^of legal proceedings,. then to. have re- 
 course upon the cargo ; but this course is not always 
 iiuperative ; jhe may sell the c^rgo, and leave the ship 
 and freight,'. In such, case tlie'owners of the vessel are 
 responsible for any loss which;the owners of the cargo 
 may siiptain, over and above the proportion of general 
 average (^arges on the c^rgo. and the bottomry pre- 
 mium thereon. 
 
 A respondentia or bottomry bond is an assignable 
 instrument, and is usually transmitted to ail ag'en't i'n 
 the place named as the termination of the voyage, with 
 legal authority for him to receive the money, or insti- 
 tute legal proceedings for enforcing payment. The 
 i-general rule is, .that, the, power of the master to, give 
 bottomry or respondentia bonds exists only after the 
 voyage has commenced,' and is to be exercised in some 
 port where the owner does not reside. B ut it is not in- 
 dispensable to the. validity ot a hypothecation 'that 
 the ship and'gargp be in aybrc|^ft port. The l^w looks 
 .ippre ^o tl^e difficulty of.cppjiipuhicatibh between the 
 master and.owner. And a hypothecation may be made 
 in another portof-tlie same country, if communication 
 with the, pwner is subject tb great difficulty and delay. 
 ^The|botliomry;or respondentia bond is to be paid before 
 anylprior insurance, and it supersedes a previous mort- 
 ^ gage on the ship. If there is more than one bottomry 
 boniji, they take precedence in an inverse order to their 
 dates. The last bond given is entitled, to. piiority of 
 paynifint over all others. , 
 
 The portion taken by Lord.j^ansfield, that the lender 
 on bottomry or respondentia is not liable to contribu- 
 tionin case of general average, has been much and just- 
 ly, questioned. It is contrary to the maritime law of 
 France, and of other parts of Europe, and in I.puisiana 
 I theiie is a decision against it. It seems conclusive that 
 if the lender pn bpttomiy pwes the preservation of thp 
 security of his money to any sacrifice of ship oi: cargo, 
 he should contribute to a general average or jetsam. 
 . — /S^e Bq'itomky and Respondentia, and Maritime 
 ,Loa;ns. See also Kent's Corrm. vol. iii. ; Parsoss's 
 Maritime Law. 
 
 Revenue and E2:penditure. Though not prop- 
 erlyi belonging to a work of this sort, we believe we 
 shall do an acceptable, service to our Readers, by lajdng 
 before them the following comprehensive Table of the 
 revenue and expenditure of the world, which we have 
 compiled fronj Lbone Levi's Commercial Law. For 
 an exhibit of the revenue and expenditure of the United 
 States from 1789-1857, see article United States. 
 
REV 
 
 1630 
 
 REV 
 
 EEVENUE and EXPENPITTmi! OP THE PEINOIPAL COTTNTEIES IN THE AVOKLD. 
 
 Kev, 
 
 Austriaa Empire. 
 
 British Empire . 
 
 BuEsian Empire . 
 
 United States. 
 Bavaria 
 
 Belgium. 
 
 Denmark 
 Egypt... 
 
 Greece . . 
 
 Hamburg 
 Holland . , 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Papal States 
 
 Portugal . . . 
 Sardinia. . . . 
 
 Sweden and Norway . 
 
 Turkey 
 
 Two Sicilies 
 
 China 
 
 Colonies. 
 British PotiaeB&ions. 
 
 Indies 
 
 Canada 
 
 Cape of Good Hope . , . 
 Aitstralia. 
 
 New South Wales 
 
 Western 
 
 .South 
 
 Jamaica 
 
 Ceylon 
 
 Mauritius 
 
 Spanish Possessions, 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Dutch Possessions. 
 Java 
 
 ue lu Pounds Sterling. 
 
 20,817,258 
 
 Julys. 1851. 
 63,045,262 
 
 Customs 20,55S,63T 
 
 Excise 14,662,116 
 
 Stamps 6,410.014 
 
 Direct tax 9,676,105 
 
 Miscellaneous . . 1,758,390 
 1851-'52. 
 55,182,192 
 
 1851. 
 14,204,244 
 
 Direct tax 3,054,262 
 
 Indirect tax 4,509,946 
 
 Miscellaneous.. 6,640,037 
 
 Customs Establishment, 
 1848 4,943,191 
 
 1856. 
 
 $73,918,141 
 
 1849-61. 
 
 2,929,149 
 
 Direct tax 637,364 
 
 Indirect tax 1,223,772 
 
 Miscellaneous.. 1,068,013 
 
 Budget, 1850. 
 
 4,636,432 
 
 Land tax 734,390 
 
 Customs 467,400 
 
 Excise 826,000 
 
 Register's tax . . 835,000 
 
 Miscellaneous.. 1,783,642 
 
 1847 1,968,359 
 
 1850 2,728,841 
 
 1833 2,2C5,725 
 
 Now about 4,000,000 
 1860 734,290 
 
 1849 618,432 
 
 Budget, 1860. 
 
 5,809,540 
 
 Direct taxes .. . 1,533,333 
 
 Indirect taxes. . 759,000 
 
 Excise 1,618,796 
 
 Miscellaneous. . 1,688,411 
 
 1849 3,300,000 
 
 1843 1,4T6,000 
 
 30th June, 1849. 
 2,314,333 
 
 1860 3,630,938 
 
 1850. 
 
 11,470,282 
 
 Direct taxes . . . 3,337,800 
 
 Indirect taxes. . 1,806,000 
 
 Customs 1,752,000 
 
 Miscellaneous . . 4,676,482 
 1850. 
 
 Sweden 883,031 
 
 Norway 588,401 
 
 Estimate . 3,000,000 
 
 1835 4,511,222 
 
 Estimate. 
 63,984,173 
 
 1848-'49. 
 17,692,610 
 
 1848 574,640 
 
 1845 224,606 
 
 1848. 
 400,847 
 
 1848 18,464 
 
 1848 119,023 
 
 1847 247,892 
 
 1848 414,766 
 
 1847 361,293 
 
 1848. 
 
 2,666,000 
 
 Dutch East India, 1844. 
 
 6,201,802 
 
 Expenditure in Pounds Sterling. 
 
 1851. 
 
 27,702,952 
 Interest on debt. . 6,103,909 
 
 War 10,336;260 
 
 Commerce 3,378,675 
 
 Miscellaneous 7,884,108 
 
 July 6, 1851. 
 
 60,012,476 
 Interest on debt . . 23,894,477 
 
 Term, ann 3.766,133 
 
 Army and Navy. . 13,051,674 
 
 Justice 1,068,073 
 
 Miscellaneous 8,232,219 
 
 1851-62. 
 
 57,678,674 
 
 1861. 
 14,521,944 
 
 War 4,036,808 
 
 Interest on debt . . 1,434,135 
 
 Trade 1,152,883 
 
 Justice I,363,2li9 
 
 Miscellaneous 6,644,819 
 
 1856. 
 
 $72,948,792 
 
 1849-'61. 
 
 3,152,096 
 
 Interest on debt . . 913,833 
 
 Army 711,833 
 
 Miscellaneous 526,430 
 
 Budget, 1850. 
 
 4,670,206 
 
 Interest on debt . . 1,430,485 
 
 War 1,071,080 
 
 Public works 633,562 
 
 Miscellaneous 1,534,479 
 
 184S-'46 .... 2,578,412 
 
 1860 2,573,007 
 
 1863 2,102,526 
 
 1880 721,279 
 
 1849 670,925 
 
 Budget, ]8.'i0. 
 5,803,628 
 
 Public debt 3, 035. 338 
 
 War 879,833 
 
 Marino 443.633 
 
 Miscellaneous.... 1,444,824 
 
 1849 ],!166,000 
 
 1843 1.650,000 
 
 June SO, 1849. 
 2,602,300 
 
 1850 4,416,000 
 
 1850. 
 11,469,075 
 
 War 3,134,584 
 
 Debt 1,001,869 
 
 Clergy 1,1547,316 
 
 Miscellaneous 5,785,776 
 
 1850. 
 
 Sweden 992,960 
 
 Norway 588,401 
 
 1855.'.'.".'.'.'.'."4',513,'l25 
 
 1848-'49. 
 
 20,017,339 
 
 1848 566,403 
 
 1845 218,816 
 
 1848. 
 252,638 
 
 1849 17,886 
 
 1848 80,811 
 
 1847 292,097 
 
 1848 431,325 
 
 1847 289,194 
 
 1844. • 
 
 1,693,656 
 Dutch East India, 1844. 
 
 5,201,802 
 
 Public Debt in Pounda Sterling. 
 
 18J8-'49. 
 
 99,770,665 
 
 Bearing interest 83,170,666 
 
 Add to Jan. 31, 1850 . . 16,600,00 
 
 1860. 
 787,029,162 
 
 1851. 
 
 201,015,027 
 
 Consolidated debt ...180,386,936 
 
 Floating debt 20,629,091 
 
 1861. 
 27,392.832 
 
 General debt 23,016,448 
 
 Provin. debt, pro- ) 
 Tided for by thef 1,260,032 
 
 State ) 
 
 Treasul-y bills with- V „,„„.,„ 
 out interest / =>!':<'.-»'= 
 
 1860 53,234,753 
 
 Term, debt, Dutch . . 6,616,689 
 
 Do. domestic 10,921,565 
 
 Perm, stock, foreign \ „„ .„„ „.„ 
 and domestic.!^./ 36,096,308 
 18,65. 
 $39,909,731 
 
 1850. 
 12,261,669 
 
 May 1, 1850. 
 25,057,346 
 
 12,210,876 
 1847. 
 
 Internal debt 6,023 826 
 
 1843. 
 
 Foreign debt 6,187,060 
 
 1860 12,000,000 
 
 None. 
 
 1850 2,484,340 
 
 Bavarian debt 1 27,444 
 
 Eothschild 2,3,')8,'760 
 
 1849 2,456,250 
 
 1850. 
 102,663,484 
 National debt ai\ ... 68,042,833 
 " a 3 ... 10,071,406 
 " n 3} . . . 19,803,375 
 
 Miscellaneous 4,646,371 
 
 1849 20,000,000 
 
 14,640,000 
 
 1849. 
 16,332,197 
 
 1860 16,200,000 
 
 1660. 
 165,130,878 
 
 7,600,000 
 Estimate 20,000,000 
 
 1848. 
 
 43,085,263 
 
 1848 4,281,974 
 
RHO 
 
 1631 
 
 RHO 
 
 Rhode Island, one of the United States of Amer- 
 ica, and the smallest State in the Union, being about 
 49 miles long and 29 broad, containing 1200 square 
 miles, of which 130 is included in Narraganset Bay. 
 Population in 1790 was 68,825 ; in 1800, 69,122 ; in 
 1810, 76,931 ; in 1820, 83,059 ; in 1830, 97,212 ; in 1840, 
 108,830 ; and in i860, 147,545. 
 
 Early History. — The country round the Narragan- 
 set Bay and to the west of it is in the first old works 
 and maps generally named Narragansets, or the Narra- 
 gansett Country, The colonists at Plymouth discover- 
 ed and entered this country already in the first years 
 of the existence of their town.- Eoger Williams was 
 the first settler in this territory'. He and some other 
 dissenters and refugees from Massachusetts founded 
 here the towns of Providence, Newport, and Ports- 
 mouth. They united all in one government in the 
 year 1648, under the name "Incorporation of Provi- 
 dence Plantations ;" or, as they are styled in King 
 Charles First's patent of that year, " Incorporations 
 of Providence Plantations in our Naragansetts Bay, in 
 New Engla/nd." In the year 1656 Cromwell writes to 
 this colony under the foUowing address or title : "To 
 our well-beloved inhabitants of Rhode Island, together 
 with the rest of the Providence Plantations;" and this, 
 I believe, is the first time that the name Khode Island 
 is applied to a greater extent of the territorj' of a prov- 
 ince. As the name of an island it was, however, al- 
 ready for some time in existence. 
 
 Origin oftlie Name. — This island, the largest in Nar- 
 raganset Bay, was called by the Indians Aquiday, or 
 Aquednet, or Aquetneck, which is said to signify Gar- 
 dfti Island. In the first volume of the Colonial liec- 
 ords, p. 126, in the proceedings of the General Court of 
 Election, or General Assembly, March, 1644, is the fol- 
 lowing : " It is ordered by this Court, that theYsland 
 commonly called Aquethneck, shall be from henceforth 
 called the Isle of Ehodes, or Shode Island." Some 
 ancient authors write the name "Island of Rhodes," 
 and it has been suggested that the name was derived 
 of the old Grecian island of this name. It is in this 
 respect a curious fact that already the old French nav- 
 igator Verrazano, the first modem explorer who touch- 
 ed this part of the American coast, pronounced the 
 name of Rhodes in connection with this bay. He dis- 
 , covered in these waters an island (supposed by some to 
 be the island now known as Martha's Vineyard), which 
 he compares, in respect to size and appearance, to the 
 island of Rhodes, in the Mediterranean. This was read 
 in Hacklji:, and it is possible that John Clark and his 
 companions (the first settlers on Aquetneck) took oc- 
 casion from this circumstance to name their island. 
 The name was afterward given to the whole country 
 round Nan'aganset Ba}', which also was sometimes 
 called Khode Island Bay. In the year 1663 the col- 
 onists of that countr}' obtained from Charles I. a char- 
 ter which incorporated their community under the name 
 of the '* Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plan- 
 tations." The Narraganset country, lying south of 
 Warwick, was also sometimes called The King's Prov- 
 ince. The present legal and official name is still Rhode 
 Island and Providence Plantations, but Commonly the 
 name is made shorter. State nf Rhode Island. — J. G. 
 Kohl. 
 
 Physical Features, etc. — This State on the north and 
 west ia hilly and broken, but becomes gradually level 
 toward the sea. The islands in Karraganset Bay are 
 distinguished by their pleasing and diversified scenery 
 and fertile soil. The climate is healthy, particularly 
 on the islands, where the sea-breezes have the eifect 
 not only of mitigating the heat in summer, but moder- 
 ating the cold in winter, and rendering the climate 
 truly delightful. The rivers, though not large, fur- 
 nish many fine mill seats, which are extensively used 
 for manufacturing purposes. The principal are Paw- 
 tucket, Providence, Pawtuxet, Pawcatuck, and Wood 
 Rivers. Narraganset Bay ia a fine body of water. 
 
 and contains a number of beautiful and fertile islands. 
 Among them is Rhode Island, which gives name to 
 the State. Iron ore and anthracite coal are found to 
 some extent ; marble, limestone, freestone, and other 
 building stone. There were in this State in 1850, 
 356,487 acres of land improved, and 197,451 of unim- 
 proved land in farms ; cash value of farms $17,070,802, 
 and the value of implements and machinery $497,201. 
 Live Stock.— HoiaeB, 6168 ; milch cows, 28,698 ; work- 
 ing oxen, 8189; other cattle, 9375; sheep, 44,296; 
 swine, 19,509 ; value of live stock, $1,532,637. 
 ' Agricultural Products, etc. — Wheat, 49 bushels ; rye, 
 26,409; Indian corn,' 539,201 ; oats, 215,232; barley, 
 18,875 ; buckwheat, 1245 ; peas and beans, 6846 ; pota- 
 toes, 661,029 ; value of products of the orchard, $63,994 ; 
 produce of market gardens, $98,298 ; pounds of but- 
 ter made, 996,670 ; of cheese, 316,508 ; maple sugar, 
 28 pounds ; molasses, 4 gallons ; beeswax and honey, 
 6347 pounds ; wool, pounds produced, 129,692 ; flax, 
 85 ; hops, 277 ; hay, tons of, 74,818 ; clover seeds, 
 1328 bushels; other grass seeds, 3708 bushels; and 
 were made 1013 gallons of wine ; value of home- 
 made manufactures, $26,495 ; of slaughtered animals, 
 $667,486. 
 
 Manufactures, etc. — There were in the State in 
 1850, 158 cotton factories, with a capital invested of 
 $6,675,000, employing 4959 males and 5916 females, 
 producing 96,725,612 yards of sheetings, etc., and 
 1,902,980 pounds of thread and yarn, valued at 
 $6,447,120 ; 45 woolen factories, with a capital of 
 $1,013,000, employing 987 males and 771 females, man- 
 ufacturing 8,612,400 yards of cloth and 46,000 pounds 
 of yarn, valued at $2,381,826 ; 20 establishments, with 
 a capital of $428,800, employing 800 persons, and mak- 
 ing 8558 tons of castings, etc., valued at $728,705 ; 1 
 establishment, with a capital of $208,000, employing 
 220 persons, manufacturing 2650 tons of wrought iron, 
 valued at $222,400 ; 29 flouring and grist mills, 51 saw- 
 mills, 8 tanneries, 20 printing-offices, 5 daily, 2 semi- 
 weekly, and 12 weekly publications. Capital invested 
 in manufactures, $12,923,176 ; value of manufactured 
 articles, $20,000,000. 
 
 The principal places in the State are Providence, city, 
 Newport, each of which is alternately used as the capi- 
 tal, and Bristol. There were in September, 1857, 100 
 banks in the State, with a paid capital of $21,000,000. 
 There were built and in operation January, 1856, 145 
 miles of railroads ; tonnage, 1863, 41,156 tons. 
 
 Principal Ports. — Newport is situated on the south- 
 west shore of Rhode Island, twenty-eight miles south 
 from Providence, and five miles from the ocean. The 
 harbor is one of the best in the United States, and is 
 well defended. Its site is beautiful, and of late years 
 it has been much resorted to in the summer season. 
 Its shipping is mainly employed in the whale fisheries 
 and coasting, trade : its manufactures are various, and 
 of considerable extent. The tonnage of Newport in 
 1856 was 11,646 tons, and in 1857, 12,308 tons. 
 
 Providence, a city, and principal port of entry in 
 Rhode Island, situated in lat. 41° 49' 22" N., long. 
 71° 24' 28" W. Providence has great comnjercial 
 facilities, which have been well improved. The har- 
 bor is at the head of Narraganset Bay, thirty-three 
 miles from the ocean, is spacious, and has sufficient 
 depth of water for the largest ships. The tonnage 
 of Providence was 19,305 tons in 1856, and in 1867, 
 22,343 tons. 
 
 Bristol, between Mount Hope Bay and Narragan- 
 set Bay, has a good harbor, and great facilities for 
 navigation. The tonnage in 1856 was 2902 tons, and 
 in 1857, 15,152 tons. 
 
 The public revenue of Rhode Island for the fiscal year 
 ending April 30, 1857, was $206,400; viz., direct tax, 
 $52,407 ; tax on banks, $83,604 ; licenses of peddlers 
 and auctioneers, $6221 ; insurance companies, $4320 ; 
 from courts, $10,118 ; interest, $36,100 ; miscellaneous, 
 $14,634. 
 
EHO 
 
 1632 
 
 RHU 
 
 Foreign." CoMMBEOE of maa State ov 'Rnoim Iblakd from Octobeb 1, 1820, to Jtily 1, X85T, snowiso also the Dib- 
 
 TEIOT TONMAOE IN 1821, 1831, 1841, AND 1851, 
 
 Veara endiDg 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Domestic. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 TotRl. 
 
 Importai 
 
 Tonnnge clenred. 
 
 Totftl. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Diatrlct Tonnage. 
 
 Registered. 
 
 finrtilJed sad 
 Licensed. 
 
 Sept, 30, 1831.. 
 1822.. 
 1823.. 
 1824. . 
 1825,. 
 1826. . 
 1837.., 
 
 1830 
 
 1830 
 
 Total. 
 
 601,238 
 620,614 
 556,582 
 
 Bi.i,i5Si 
 
 666,370 
 596,177 
 541,675 
 8li7,408 
 206,!, 65 
 
 $51,5,403 
 201,125 
 412,500 
 316,317 
 
 ' "158,878 
 
 216,170 
 
 208,010 
 
 180,4 .1 
 
 62,'J13 
 
 71,985 
 
 $9!!0,828 
 862,363 
 ;i33,n4 
 87.,8.ia 
 678,467 
 781,540 
 804,187 
 722,166 
 31,0,381 
 278,i)B9 
 
 $1,032;968 
 
 1,884,144 
 
 1,412,958 
 
 1,388,336 
 
 907,1.06 
 
 1,185,934 
 
 1,241,828 
 
 1,128,226 
 
 423,811 
 
 488,756 
 
 21,814 
 24;4S0 
 23,8 
 24,680 
 43,i.23 
 28,045 
 21,35;) 
 20^300 
 15,621 
 14,094 
 
 28,456 
 
 10,388 
 
 Sept. 30,1831, 
 1832. 
 1833. 
 1834. 
 1835. 
 1836. 
 1837. 
 1838. 
 1833. 
 1840. 
 
 $4,1,27,043 
 
 $348,250 
 377,656 
 830,869 
 430,885 
 182,866 
 212,2.)T 
 411,800 
 270,065 
 175,808. 
 20^,006 
 
 $2,398,862 
 
 $19,215 
 156,803 
 154,612 
 80,741 
 113.137 
 ,16;i23 
 76,452 
 21,1.)2 
 9,420 
 
 $7,320,8il5 
 
 $367,465 
 534,459 
 485,^81 
 ' 601,626 
 286,003 
 828,420 
 488,258 
 S'Jl,267 
 185,234 
 206,989 
 
 Sept. 30,1841. 
 
 1842. 
 9 mos., 1843' 
 June SO, 1844. 
 
 1845. 
 
 1846. 
 
 1847. 
 
 1S4S. 
 
 1849., 
 
 1860. 
 
 $2,933,608 
 
 $206,276 
 323;487 
 105,232 
 257,602 
 100,141 
 220,019 
 1 )1,434 
 215,860 
 172,631 
 200,299 
 
 $651,684 
 
 $12,189 
 25,269 
 
 655 
 3,175 
 
 891 
 4,345' 
 
 935 
 6,771 
 6,461 
 9,906 
 
 $3,685,llj2 
 
 $278,465 
 348,636 
 10.5i847 
 260,777 
 191,032 
 224; 364 
 192,369 
 221,631 
 178,152 
 216,265 
 
 June 30, 1851., 
 
 1852. 
 1853., 
 18.54., 
 1855. 
 1856. , 
 1857., 
 
 *2,141,061 
 
 $223,404 
 174,115 
 802,454 
 426,046 
 331,287 
 333,224 
 544,178 
 
 $08,547 
 
 $14,373 
 5,060 
 8,031 
 
 13,935 
 4,736 
 
 14,160 
 8,173 
 
 $2,217,598 
 
 , $237,777 
 179,175 
 810,485 
 433,981 
 536,023 
 407,374 
 65^,351 
 
 $11,0114,862 
 
 $662,161 
 657,1,69 
 
 1,042,286 
 427,024 
 597,713 
 655,199 
 523,610 
 056,613 
 610,431 
 274,534 
 
 212,706 
 
 22,781 
 26,672 
 26,032 
 25,228 
 20,l.-73, 
 24,C24 
 22,584 
 27,728 
 
 $5,1,07,640 
 
 165,753 
 269,437 
 274,330 
 210,433 
 305,439 
 851,530 
 237,478 
 258,303 
 
 17,436, 
 
 $2,726,158 
 
 $310,630 
 210,680 
 366,116 
 437,172 
 536,387 
 345,803 
 515,432 
 
 237,249 
 
 20,911 
 19,264 
 7,645 
 17,471 
 14,598 
 18,267 
 14,595 
 19,316 
 15,568 
 16,770 
 
 164,3. 5 
 
 19,838 
 14,016 
 16,301 
 17,841 
 17,210 
 16,144 
 21,066 
 
 80 
 180 
 401 
 762 
 1,192 
 126 
 295 
 319 
 
 24,519; 
 
 3,364 
 
 787 
 729 
 
 1,782 
 196 
 785 
 1,978 
 3,148 
 2,315 
 1,705 
 
 13,426 
 
 8,747 
 ^,913 
 7,077 
 7,910 
 6,474 
 6,622 
 9,078 
 
 , 20,163 
 
 9,644 
 
 15,921 
 
 24,197 
 
 18,858 
 
 Nine montha to June 30, and the fiscal year fron> this time begin.^ July 1. 
 
 Rhodes, a sea-port of Asiatic Turkey, capital of the 
 island of Rhodes, at its northeast extremity, thirteen 
 miles southeast the nearest promontory of Asia Minor. 
 Lat. of mole 36° 26' 9" N., long. 28° 13' E. Popu- 
 lation about 15,000, of -whom SOOO are Turks, and 3000 
 Jews. On the northeast side two piera project to in- 
 close a harbor, having in its centre from sixteen to 
 eighteen feet water, and on its north side is another 
 port of nearly equal depth. 
 
 Rhubarb (Du. Rhuharber; Fr. Mhuharbe, Buharbe; 
 It. Jiaharbaro, Heo-barbaro ; Sp. Ridbarbo; Euss. i?e- 
 ■wen ; Arab. Rawend ; Chin. Ta-hwang\ the root of a 
 plant,^ a native of China and Tartar}'. Three varieties 
 of rhubarb are known in the shops ; viz., Russian, Tur- 
 key, and East Indian or Chinese rhubarbs The first 
 two resemble each other in every respect. They are, 
 in fact, the same article, being both derived from Tar- 
 tary. The portion destined for the Petersburg market 
 hetag selected and sorted at Kiachta, acquires the name 
 of Eussian rhubarb ; while the portion that is sent from 
 Tartary to Smyrna and other places in Turltey is called 
 Turkey rhubarb. Thebest pieces only are sent to Pe- 
 tersburg ; and according to the contract with the gov- 
 ernment, on whose account it is bought, all that is re- 
 jected must be burned ; and that which is approved 
 undergoes a second cleaning before being finally packed 
 up for Petersburg. The best pieces of Russian and 
 Turkey rhubarb are roundish, and perforated with a 
 large hole, of a reddish or yellow color on the outside, 
 and when cut or broken exhibit a mottled texture, and 
 alternate streaks of red and gray. Its odor is peculiar, 
 and its taste nauseous, bitter, and astringent. It should 
 not be porous, but rather compact and heavy. East 
 Indian or Chinese rhubarb is in oblong flat pieces, sel- 
 dom perforated ; has a stronger odor, and is more nau- 
 seous to the taste than the other ; it is heavier, more 
 compact, breaks smoother, and affords a powder of a 
 
 redder shade. — Thomson's Zii'speMa^ory; Ainslie's 
 Mat, Indica, etc. 
 
 The palraated rhubarb (Kheum palmatum) is a peren- 
 nial, native of Russia and some parts of Asia, whence 
 the dried root is imported into this country for medici- 
 nal purposes. Large quantities of the roots are also 
 annually collected for exportation in the Chinese prov- 
 inces, within the lofty range of the Himalayas. The 
 best is thati which comes- by the way of Russia, as 
 greater care is taken in the selection ; and, on its ar- 
 rivalat Kiachta, within the Russian frontiers, the roots 
 are all carefully examined, and the damaged pieces de- 
 stroyed. This is the fine article of the shops, improp- 
 erly called ' ' Turkey" rhubarb. That of the best qual- 
 ity occurs in small pieces, with a hole in the middle of 
 each, made in the fresh root, to facilitate the operation 
 of di-ying. The color is a lively yellow, streaked with 
 white and red. Its texture is dense, and, when re- 
 duced to powder, it is entirely yellow. The Chinese 
 rhubarb, called bj- the natives Ta Eroangor Haihoung, 
 is cultivated chiefly iu the province of Chersee. As 
 imported, it is known by the name of "East Indian" 
 rhubarb, and comes in larger masses, more compact 
 and hard, heavier, less friable, and not so fine in the 
 grain as the other, and having less of an aromatic 
 flavor. This species has been introduced into En- 
 gland, where it has been extensively cultivated ; and 
 there is little doubt, therefore, of its proving perfectly 
 hardy in many parts of our owna country. Large quan- 
 tities are annually imported, the cost of which might 
 be saved if its culture were successfully prosecuted 
 here, and we might thus add to our productive re- 
 sources. In the middle and cooler parts of the United 
 States, the seeds may be sown in March, in a gentle 
 hot-bed, and, when the roots are about an eighth of an 
 inch in diameter, they may be carefully drawn up, pre- 
 serving the tap-root, and planted in a fine, rich, and 
 
RHtr 
 
 1633 
 
 RIC 
 
 deep soil, but not too much so, lest tlie roots become 
 too fibrous. The largest specimens of this drug have 
 generally been allowed to grow six or seven years ; 
 the roots are then very large, sometimes weighing from 
 thirty to fifty pounds. The Chinese take up their rhu- 
 barb in winter. Pallas says that the Tartars take up 
 theirs in April and May ; but Fdrster, in his History 
 of Voyages in the North, with more reason, affirms 
 that the roots are dug up in winter, because they 
 then contain the entire juice and virtue of the plant, as 
 those taken up iii summer jjire of a light, spongy tex- 
 ture, and unfit for use. In Tartary, after being thor- 
 oughly cleansed, and the small radicles cut off, the 
 roots are cut transversely into pieces of a moderate 
 size ; these are then placed on long tables or boards, 
 and turned three or four times a dayj in order that the 
 yellow, viscid juice may incorporate with the substance 
 of the root. If this juice be suffered to run out, the 
 roots become light, and of but little value ; and if they 
 are not cut within five or six days after they are dug 
 up, they become soft, and rapidly decay. Four or five 
 days after the^- are cut, holes are made through them, 
 and they are hung up to dry, exposed to the air and 
 wind, but sheltered from the sun. Thus in about two 
 months the roots are completely cured. The loss of 
 weight in drying iS' verj^ considerable, seven parts in 
 weight of the green root j'ielding only one part of that 
 which is perfectly dry. The Chinese method is some- 
 what different. They peel the roots, cut them into 
 slices, and dry them on stone slabs, underwhich fires 
 are kindled ; but as this process is not sufficient to dry 
 them perfectly, they make a hole through each of the 
 pieces, and suspend them on strings — some say ex- 
 posed to the sun, while others assert that they are 
 hung in the shade. 
 
 Rhumb, a circle on the earth's surface, making a 
 given angle with the meridian of the place, marking 
 the direction of any object through which it passes. 
 The divisions on the compass card are called rhumbs. 
 —See Meecator's Chart. 
 
 Hhumb Line. In Naval affairs, the track of a 
 ship which cuts all the meridians at the same angle ; 
 called also the loxodromic curve. This being the sim- 
 plest curve, is the route universally pursued ; but a 
 ship sailing on this curve never looks direct for her 
 port until it comes in sight. A great meridian circle 
 would be the shortest distance between aiiy two points ; 
 but in order to follow such a circle, the course of the 
 ship would have to be constantlj'' changing, and with 
 such variations as to make it practically impossible. 
 
 Ribbons, or Ribands (Fr. Ruben de Soie; Ger. 
 Band; It. Naatro di Setd,; Sp. Cinta de Seda), a name 
 given to silken bands of various widths and colors, 
 much used by females for head-dresses and other pur- 
 poses. They are both plain and figured, and are 
 sometimes distinguished into sarcenet, satin, etc., 
 according to the manner in which they are made. 
 They are also fi^equently ornamented by having what 
 is called a pearl edge given to them. Eibbons are 
 woven in pieces, each 35 yards in length. The finest 
 are made entirely of Italian silk ; the next in quality, 
 of a mixture of Italian and Bengal silk ; and the com- 
 moner sorts, altogether of Bengal silk. The great 
 seat of the manufacture of ribbons is Coventry, where 
 they are now made of quality equal to the finest of the 
 productions of the Lyonese weavers : they are also 
 made at Congleton, Derby, Macclesfield, Leeh, and 
 other places. — See Silk. 
 
 Rice (Fr. Biz; It. Siso; Arab. Aruz; Hind. 
 Chawl), one of the most valuable of the tereal grasses, 
 the Oryza sativa of botanists. It is raised in immense 
 quantities in India, China, and most Eastern countries ; 
 in the West Indies, Central America, and the United 
 States ; and in some of the southern countries of Eu- 
 rope. It, in fact, occupies the same place in most 
 intertropical regions as wheat in the wanner parts of 
 Europe, and oats and rj'e in those more to the north. 
 5L 
 
 Forming, as it does, the principal part of the food of 
 the most civilized and populous Eastern nations, it is 
 more extensively consumed than any other species of 
 grain. It is light and wholesome, but is said to con- 
 tain less of the nutritive principle than wheat. When 
 rough, or in its natural state in the husk, it is called 
 paddy, • There is an immense variety in the qualities 
 of rice. That which is principally exported from Ben- 
 gal has received the name of cargo rice. It is of a 
 coarse reddish cast, but is sweet and large grained, and 
 is preferred by the natives to every other sort. It is 
 not kiln-dried, but is parboiled in earthem pots or 
 caldrons, partly to destroy the vegetative principle, so 
 that it may keep better, and partly to facilitate the 
 process of husking. Patna rice is more esteemed in 
 Europe than any other sort of rice Imported from the 
 East. It is small-grained, rather long and wiry, and 
 remarkably white. But the rice raised on the low 
 marshj' grounds of South Carolma is unquestionably 
 very superior to any brought from any part of India. 
 It may, perhaps, be worth mentioning that rice, like 
 wheat, oats, and barley, is not indigenous to America. 
 It was first raised in South Carolina from seeds brought 
 from Madagascar, near the end of the 17th century. 
 Its culture increased so rapidly that in 1724 no fewer 
 than 18,000 tierces, or barrels, were exported. — Pit- 
 kin's Statistics, 1835. According to the returns under 
 the census of 1840, the total annual produce of rice in 
 the United States was estimated at 80,841,422 lbs., 
 whereas under the census of 1850 it was estimated 
 at 215,312,000 lbs., or above 96,000 tons, of which 
 159,930,613 lbs. were raised in South Carolina ; and in 
 1850, 213,540,000 lbs. 
 
 The produce of lands naturally or artificially irriga- 
 ted is, as far as rice is concerned, from five to ten times 
 greater than that of dry land having no command of 
 water ; and hence the vast importance of irrigation in 
 all countries where this grain is cultivated. But it is 
 worthy of remark that, owin^'to the not unfrequent 
 occurrence of severe droughts, there is a greater varia- 
 tion in the crops of rice than in those of any other 
 species of grain. Those who, like the Hindoos, depend 
 almost entirely on it for subsistence, are consequently 
 placed in a very precarious situation. There can be 
 no doubt that famines are at once more frequent and 
 severe in Hindostau than in any other country, Ireland 
 excepted. 
 
 Cultivation in the United States. — Kice is the chief 
 food, perhaps, of one-third of the human race ; pos- 
 sesses the advantage attending wheat, maize, and 
 other grains, of preserving plenty during the fluctua- 
 tions of trade j and is also susceptible of cultivation on 
 land too low and moist for the production of most other 
 useful plants. Although cultivated principally within 
 the tropics, it flourishes well beyond, producing even 
 heavier and better filled grain. Like many other plants 
 in common use, it is never found wild (it is to be un- 
 derstood that the wild rice, or water oat, Zizania 
 aquatica, which grows along the muddy shores of our 
 tide-waters, is a distinct plant from the common rice, 
 and should not be confounded with it), nor is its native 
 country known, Linnaaus considers it as a native of 
 Ethiopia, while others regard it of Asiatic origin. At 
 the Industrial Exhibition in London there were dis- 
 played many curious samples and varieties of rice, 
 grown without irrigation, at elevations of 3000 to 
 6000 feet on the Himalayas, where the dampness of 
 the summer months compensates for the want of arti- 
 ficial moisture. At the exhibition above alluded to, 
 American rice received not only honorable mention for 
 its very superior quality, but the Carolina rice, exhib- 
 ited bj' E. J. Heriot, was pronounced by the j ury ' ' mag- 
 nificent in size, color, arid cleariiess," and to it was 
 awarded a prize medal. The jury were free to admit 
 that the American rice, though originally brought 
 from the Old World, is now iiiuch the finest in qual- 
 ity. The common variety is cultivated throughout 
 
EIC 
 
 1634 
 
 BIG 
 
 the torrid zone, Tflierever there is a plentiful supply of 
 water, and will mature,* under favorable circumstances, 
 in the Eastern Continent, as high as the forty-fifth 
 parallel of north latitude, and as far south as the thirty- 
 eighth. On the Atlantic side of the W^estern Conti- 
 nent it will flourish as far north as latitude thirty- 
 eight degrees, and to a corresponding parallel .south. 
 On the western coast of America it will grow as far 
 north as forty or more degrees. Its culture is princi- 
 , pally confined to India, China, Japan, Ceylon, Mada^ 
 gascar, Eastern Africa, the south of Europe, the south- 
 ern portions of the United States, the Spanish Main, 
 Brazil, and the Vallej' of Parana and Uruguay. 
 
 Eice was first introduced into Virginia by Sir "Will- 
 iam Berkeley in 1647, who received half a bushel of 
 seed, from which he raised sixteen bushels of excellent 
 rice, most or all of which was sown the following year. 
 It is also stated that a Dutch brig from Madagascar 
 came to Charleston in 1694, and left about a peclt of 
 paddy (rice in the huslc) with Governor Thomas Smith, 
 who distributed it among his friends for cultivation. 
 Another account of its introduction into Carolina is, 
 tliat Ashby was encouraged to send a bag of seed rice 
 to that province, from the crops of which sixty tons 
 were shipped to England in 1698. It soon after be- 
 came the chief staple of the colony. Its culture was 
 introduced into Louisiana in 1718, by the " Company 
 of the West." 
 
 The present culture of rice in the United States is 
 chiefly confined to South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, 
 Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas. The yield 
 per acre varies from twenty to sixty bushels, weighing 
 from forty-five to forty-eight pounds when cleaned. 
 Under favorable circumstances, as many as ninety 
 bushels to an acre have been raised. Another variety 
 is cultivated in this country, to a limited extent, called 
 Cochin-China, dry or mountain rice, from its adapta- 
 tion to a dry soil without irrigation. It will grow 
 several degrees further north or south than the Caro- 
 lina rice, and has been cultivated with success in the 
 northern provinces of China, Hungar}', "Westphalia, 
 Virginia, and Marj'land ; but the yield is much less 
 than that of the preceding, being only fifteen to twen- 
 ty bushels to an acre. It was first introduced into 
 Charleston from Canton, by John Bradby Blalce, in 
 1772. The amount of rice exported from South Caro- 
 lina in 1724 was 18,000 barrels ; in 1731, 41,957 bar- 
 rels i in 1740, 90,110 barrels ; in 1747-'48, 55,000 bar- 
 rels ; in 1754, 104,682 barrels; in 1760-'61, 100,000 
 barrels ; from Savannah in 1755, 2299 barrels, besides 
 237 bushels of paddy, or rough rice; in 1760, 3283 
 barrels, besides 208 bushels of paddy ; in 1770, 22,120 
 barrels, besides 7064 bushels of paddy; from Philadel- 
 phia in 1771, 258,375 pounds. The amount exported 
 from the United States in 1770 was 150,529 barrels ; 
 in 1791, 96,980 tierces; in 1800, 112,056 tierces; in 
 1810, 131,341 tierces ; in 1820-'21, 88,221 tierces ; in 
 1830-'31, 116,517 tierces ; in 1840-'41, 101,617 tierces ; 
 in 1845-'46, 124,007 tierces ; in 1846-'47, 144,427 tier- 
 ces ; in 1850-51, 105,590 tierces. 
 
 Production of Kiob in the United States in ttve Yeak 
 1850. 
 
 states. Rougji Rico, 11)8. 
 
 Alabama 2,313,252 
 
 Arkansas 63,179 
 
 Florida l,0T5,09a 
 
 Georgia 38,950,091 
 
 Kentucky 5,083 
 
 Louisiana 4,425,.W 
 
 Miasissippi 2,T19.856 
 
 Missouri 700 
 
 North Carolina 5,465,868 
 
 South Carolina 159,930,613 
 
 TenneBsee 258,854 
 
 Texas 88,203 
 
 Virginia 17,154 
 
 Total 215,313,097 
 
 It will be seen from this table that South Carolina 
 
 produced in 1850 75 per cent, of the total production, 
 
 and Georgia 18 per cent. 
 
 Statement ExmniTiHG the Quantity and Value of Ri05 
 
 EXrOttTBD annually FROM 1821 TO 1856, INCLUSIVE. 
 
 1821. . . . 
 1822. . . . 
 1823. . . . 
 1824. . . . 
 1825. . . . 
 1820. . . . 
 182T. . . . 
 1828.... 
 1829.... 
 1830. . . . 
 1831. . . . 
 1832. . . . 
 1833. . . . 
 1834. . . . 
 1835. . . . 
 1836.... 
 183T. . . . 
 1838. . . . 
 1839.... 
 1840. . . . 
 1841.... 
 
 1842 
 
 1843.... 
 1844. . . . 
 1845. . . . 
 1846. . . . 
 184T.... 
 1848.... 
 1849. . . . 
 1850. . . . 
 1851.:.. 
 1852. . . . 
 1853. . . . 
 1854.... 
 
 1856.... 
 
 1867.... 
 
 Total. 
 
 19,774 
 81,038 
 74,309 
 
 Tierces. 
 
 88,221 
 87,089 
 101,366 
 113,229 
 97,016 
 111,063 
 113,518 
 175,019 
 132,923 
 130,697 
 116,517 
 120,327 
 144,163 
 121,886 
 119,851 
 212,983 
 106,084 
 71,048 
 93,320 
 101,660 
 101,017 
 114,617 
 106,766 
 134,715 
 118,621 
 124,007 
 144,427 
 100,403 
 128,861 
 127,069 
 106,590 
 119,733 
 07,707 
 105,121 
 52,620 
 58,668 
 64,832 
 
 $1,494,307 
 1,553,482 
 1,820,985 
 1,882,982 
 1,925,245 
 1,917,446 
 2,343,903 
 2,620,696 
 2,514,370 
 1,986,824 
 2,016,267 
 2,152,631 
 2,744,418 
 2,122,272 
 2,210,331 
 2,648,750 
 2,309,279 
 1,721.819 
 2,460,198 
 1,942,076 
 2,010,107 
 1,907,387 
 1,625,726 
 2,182,468 
 2,160,456 
 2,504,991 
 3,606,896 
 2,331,824 
 2,669,362 
 2,631,857 
 2,170,927 
 2,470,029 
 1,667,658 
 2,634,127 
 1,717,953 
 2,390,233 
 2,290,400 
 
 Aver, cost 
 per tierce. 
 
 4,137,752 |$81,209,886 
 
 $18 94 
 17 84 
 17 96 
 
 16 63 
 19 84 
 
 17 26 
 
 17 65 
 
 14 97 
 
 18 92 
 
 15 20 
 17 .30 
 17 89 
 
 19 04 
 17 41 
 19 94 
 11 97 
 21 70 
 24 23 
 26 36 
 19 10 
 
 19 78 
 
 16 64 
 16 23 
 16 20 
 IS 21 
 
 20 08 
 24 97 
 
 23 23 
 
 19 94 
 
 20 71 
 20 56 
 20 63 
 
 24 48 
 26 05 
 
 Exports of Eice from tub United States for the Year 
 ENDING June 30, 1857. 
 
 Wliitber Exported. 
 
 Rut^sia on the Ualtic and) 
 
 North Seas j" 
 
 Prussia 
 
 Sweden and Norway 
 
 Swedish "West Indies , . 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Danish West Indies 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Holland 
 
 Dutch "West Indies 
 
 Dutch Guiana 
 
 Belgium » . . . 
 
 England 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Ireland 
 
 Canada 
 
 Other Brit. N. Am. Posses. 
 
 British "West Indies 
 
 British Honduras 
 
 British Guiana 
 
 British Possess, in Africa. . 
 
 Other ports in Africa 
 
 British Australia 
 
 France on the Atlantic .... 
 France on the Mediterran. . 
 French N. Am. Possessions 
 
 French "\^^e3t Indies 
 
 French Guiana 
 
 Spain on the Atlantic 
 
 Canary Islands 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Porto Kico 
 
 Portu.gal 
 
 Madeira 
 
 Cape de A'erd Islands 
 
 Azores 
 
 llay ti 
 
 Pan Domingo 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Central Kepublic 
 
 New Granada 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Uruguay, orCisplatine Rep. 
 
 Argentine Republic 
 
 ChUi., 
 
 Peru 
 
 Sandwich Islands 
 
 China 
 
 Whale Fisheries 
 
 , Total 
 
 Tierces. [ Barreifl. | Value. 
 
 398 
 
 25 
 
 244 
 
 13 
 
 600 
 
 433 
 
 1.472 
 
 4,453 
 
 1,481 
 
 '"oi 
 
 4,771 
 
 11,121 
 
 1,081 
 
 16 
 
 054 
 
 548 
 
 1,434 
 
 258 
 
 60 
 
 "iio 
 
 70 
 
 6,139 
 
 33 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 54 
 
 30 
 
 2 
 
 23,831 
 
 2,990 
 
 30 
 
 ""7 
 15 
 
 185 
 
 143 
 
 798 
 605 
 
 1,119 
 25 
 61 
 
 '"il 
 
 64,332 
 
 25 
 
 12 
 12,619 
 
 254 
 
 834 
 
 110 
 
 6,000 
 
 16,337 
 
 36 
 16^1 
 120 
 
 108 
 
 'lis 
 
 464 
 601 
 
 10 
 283 
 
 3,424 
 
 639 
 
 46 
 
 '"61 
 
 4,737 
 
 146 
 
 350 
 
 49 
 
 1,561 
 
 633 
 
 2,161 
 
 5,406 
 
 7,409 
 
 8,447 
 
 295 
 
 234 
 
 79 
 
 74,809 
 
 $11,354 
 
 730 
 
 7,638 
 
 659 
 
 60,667 
 
 12,725 
 
 49,325 
 
 120,385 
 
 39,073 
 
 9,265 
 
 2,362 
 
 156,183 
 
 328,022 
 
 30,269 
 
 374 
 
 26,190 
 
 16,642 
 
 37,077 
 
 8,860 
 
 500 
 
 1,320 
 
 11,095 
 
 9,710 
 
 157,498 
 
 450 
 
 164 
 
 2,839 
 
 1,546 
 
 12,209 
 
 57 
 
 641,256 
 
 81,277 
 
 6,750 
 
 524 
 
 173 
 
 1,397 
 
 00,492 
 
 1,742 
 
 4,214 
 
 557 
 
 20,578 
 
 29,862 
 
 36,861 
 
 66,484 
 
 81,494 
 
 185,664 
 
 5,384 
 
 3,711 
 
 991 
 
 1,215 
 
 $2,290,400 
 
KIC 
 
 1635 
 
 RIG 
 
 Of these exports, 185(>-'57, there was exported from 
 the following ports, 
 
 Boston $198,319 
 
 New York 795,009 
 
 Baltimore 132,053 
 
 Charleston 888,708 
 
 Savannah 138,137 
 
 Other porta 148,174 
 
 Total $2,290,400 
 
 Rioe Paper. This substance is said to be a mem- 
 brane of the Artocarpus incisa, or bread-fruit tree. It 
 is brought from China in small pieces, dyed of various 
 colors, and is used as a material for painting upon, and 
 for the manufacture of several fancy and ornamental 
 articles. It is sometimes erroneously stated to be pre- 
 pared from rice. — 8e( Paper. 
 
 Richmond, city and port of entry, and capital of 
 Henrico county, and of the State of Virginia, is situ- 
 ated on James River, at the falls, at the head of tide- 
 water, and is in 37° 30' N. lat., and 77° 31' W. long, 
 from Greenwich, and 0° 27' W, long, from Washing- 
 ton. It is 23 miles north frpm Petersburg, and 117 
 south by west from Washington. The population in 
 1800 was 6727 ; in 1810, 9785 ; in 1820, 12,067 ; in 
 1830, 16,060 ; in 1840, 20,153 ; in 1850, 27,570 ; and in 
 1854, 30,000. It is beautifully located on the west side 
 of the river, between 50 and 60 miles above City Point, 
 and 150 miles above the mouth of the river. 
 
 Four lines of railroad here connect, viz., Bichmond, 
 Fredericksburg, and PAomao ; Richmond and Peters- 
 burg ; the Central Railroad of Virginia ; and the Dan- 
 ville Railroad ; and here terminates the James Eiver 
 and Kanawha Canal. Vessels drawing 10 feet of water 
 come to Rockets, about a mile below the centre of the 
 city ; and those drawing 15 feet, to Warwick, three 
 miles below the city. The falls in James River are 
 obviated by the canal, and above them it is navigable 
 for boats 220 miles. Regular lines of packets connect 
 the city with New York and other places, and it is con- 
 nected by steamboats to Norfolk. The principal ar- 
 ticles of exportation are wheat, flour, and tobacco. The 
 exports amount to about $3,000,000 annually. The 
 tonnage of the port in 1853 was 11,460 tons. The 
 manufactures of Richmond are also extensive. 
 
 Riding, in Naval affairs^ is the state of a ship's 
 being retained in a particular station by means of one 
 or more cables with their anchors, which for this pur- 
 pose are sunk into the bottom of the sea, etc., in order 
 to prevent the vessel from being driven at the mercy 
 of the wind or current, A rope is said to ride when 
 one of the turns \>y which it is wound about the cap- 
 stan or windlass lies over another, so as to interrupt 
 the operation of wearing. 
 
 Biding Athwart, the position of a ship which lies 
 across the direction of wind and tide, when the former 
 is so strong as to prevent her from falling into the cur- 
 rent of the latter. 
 
 Siding between the Wind and the TiSe, the situation 
 of a vessel at anchor when the wind and tide act upon 
 her in direct opposition, in such a manner as to destroy 
 the effort of each other upon her hull ; so that she is in 
 a manner balanced between their reciprocal force, and 
 rides without the least strain on her cables. When a 
 ship does not labor heavily, or feel a great strain when 
 anchored in an open road or baj', she is said to ride easy. 
 On the contrary, when slie pitches violently into the 
 sea, so as to strain her cables, masts, or hull, it is called 
 riding hard, and the vessel is termed a bad roader. 
 
 Riga, a city of European Russia, the capital of Li- 
 vonia, on the Duna, about 9 miles from the sea, lat. 56° 
 56' 5" N., long. 24° 0' 4" E. Population in 1842, 
 excluding garrison, eOjOOO. A light-house has been 
 erected on Fort Comet, on the western side of the 
 mouth of the river. It has two lights : the first, ele- 
 vated about 104 feet (English) above the level of the 
 sea, may be seen, under favorable circumstances, at the 
 distance of 4 leagues ; and the second, elevated about 
 24J feet, may be seen at the distance of 2J- leagues. 
 
 The bar at the mouth of the river has usually from 12 
 to 13 feet water ; and vessels drawing more than this 
 frequently load and unload part of their cargoes by 
 means of lighters at Bolderaa, a small town on the west 
 side of the river, near its mouth. There is a fair-way 
 beacon without the bar, in 5 fathoms water ; and with- 
 in, the channel is buoyed with black and white buoys ; 
 the black being left on the right or starboard side when 
 entering, and the white on the larboard. Vessels bound 
 for Riga take pilots at Bolderaa, who carry them to 
 their anchorage. No ballast is allowed to be discharged, 
 except at Poderague. Regulations as to clearing, etc., 
 similar to those at Petersburg. — Coulier sur les Phares, 
 2d edit. ; and Regulations published by the Russian Au- 
 thorities, 
 
 Trade. — Owing to its advantageous situation near 
 the mouth of a great navigable river, the trade of 
 Riga is very extensive ; being, of the Russian towns 
 on the Baltic, in this respect second only to Peters- 
 burg. The trade is chiefly carried on by foreign mer- 
 chants, particularly by the English. The principal ex- 
 ports are flax and hemp, linseed and hemp seed, timber, 
 com, tobacco, hides, wool, tallow, etc. ; the imports are 
 salt, sugar, cofiee, and groceries of all sorts, herrings, 
 indigo, dye-woods, cotton and cotton twist, silks, wines, 
 etc. The mast trade is extensive. The burghers of 
 Riga send persons who are called mast brokers into the 
 provinces to mark the trees, which are purchased stand- 
 ing. They grow mostly in the districts which border 
 on the Dnieper, are sent up that river to a landing- 
 place, transported 30 versts to the Duna, when, being 
 formed into rafts of from 50 to 200 pieces, they descend 
 the stream to Riga. The tree which produces the larg- 
 est masts is the Scotch fir. Those pieces which are ■ 
 from 18 to 25 inches in diameter are called masts ; 
 under those dimensions, spars, or, in England, Norway 
 masts, because Norway exports no trees more than 18 
 inches in diameter. Great skill is required in distin- 
 guishing those masts that are sound from those which 
 are in the least internally decayed. They are usually 
 from 70 to 80 feet in length. The best kind of flax 
 shipped from Riga is grown in White Russia, and is 
 called Druana rakitzer ; its color is very white, and 
 the threads long, fine, and loose, but it has sometimes 
 black spots ; the next quality, coming from the prov- 
 ince of Trockic, in Lithuania, is called Lithuanian ra- 
 kitzer, and is very little inferior to Druana, but its color 
 is a little brown ; of this kind the best sort is Thiesen- 
 hausen. The best kind of Courland flax shipped from 
 Riga is Marienburg ; that grown in Livonia is inferior. 
 There are two kinds of linseed ; that of the last crop, 
 which is used for sowing ; and that of former years, 
 for crushing. To prevent deception, the year of its 
 growth is stamped on the barrel by sworn inspectors 
 (brackers). Hemp seed is mostly shipped for Holland. 
 
 Money. — For the moneys of Riga, see Petersburg. 
 
 Weights and Measures. — The commercial pound is 
 divided into 2 marks, or 32 loths ; and also into halves, 
 quarters, etc. It contains 6452 English grains. Hence 
 100 lbs. of Riga=92-17 lbs. avoii-dupois=41-8 kilog. = 
 86-32 lbs. of Hamburg =84-64 lbs. of Amsterdam. The 
 lisponnd =201bs.; the shippound = 20 lispounds. The 
 loof is the measure for grain : 48 loofs = 1 last of wheat, 
 barley, or linseed ; 45 loofs =1 last of rye ; and 60 loofs 
 = 1 last of oats, malt, and beans. According to Kelly, 
 the loof =1-9375 Winchester bushel ; and, consequent- 
 ly , the last of wheat = 11 -625 quarters. NeUcenbrecher 
 does not value the loof quite so high as Kelly. The 
 fuder, the measure for liquids, is divided into 6 ahms, 
 24 ankers, 120 quarts, or 720 stoofs. The anker=10 
 English wine gallons. The foot of Riga=10-79 En- 
 glish inches. The ell =2 feet ; the clafter=6 feet. 
 
 Like most of the rivers falling into the Baltic, the 
 Duna has a bar, varying, according to seasons, from 
 12 to 15 feet of water. Large vessels usually dis- 
 charge and take in their cargoes either at the roads or 
 in the Bolderaa harbor, near the mouth of the river, 
 
PIG 
 
 1636 
 
 BIG 
 
 by means of well-covered lighters. The linseed, flax, 
 hemp, and wool of this port have always been held in 
 higher repute than those exported from any other port 
 in Russia. The grain shipped from Eiga is the prod- 
 uce of "White Russia, the Ulirajne, Poland, Courland, 
 Livonia, Esthonia, Smolensk, Minsk, Lithiiania, etc. 
 The navigation of Eiga may be seen from the follow- 
 ing returns for a series of years : 
 
 Vessels Enteeed. 
 In 1800 86T 
 
 1810 . 
 1819. 
 1849. 
 1850. 
 1853. 
 
 Value of imports into the port of Riga in 1840. 
 Value of exports " " " . 
 
 «0 
 . 1300 
 . 1524 
 . 1364 
 . 1977 
 
 Francs. 
 19,333,000 
 61,426,000 
 
 This port, like Odessa, derives its principal wealth 
 from its export trade. In 1850 the total value of ex- 
 ports reached 61,426,000 francs. The imports during 
 the same j-ear were only 19,335,000 francs. The fol- 
 lowing table exhibits, in francs, the commercial move- 
 ments of Eiga, and the share assigned to each country, 
 in the year 1850 : 
 
 Countries. 
 
 ] Imports. 
 
 England 
 
 France 
 
 Holland 
 
 Hanee Towns 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Sweden aiid Norway, 
 
 LTnited States 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Spain 
 
 Other countries 
 
 Total franca 
 
 4,984,000 
 
 3,757,000 
 
 756,000 
 
 4,442,000 
 
 24,000 
 
 1,219,000 
 
 2,904,000 
 
 1,373,000 
 
 215,000 
 
 193,000 
 
 468,000 
 
 Exports. 
 
 35,339,000 
 6,963,000 
 6,187,000 
 1,965,000 
 5,698,000 
 1,825,000 
 
 864,000 
 
 1,431,000 
 
 539,000 
 
 625,000 
 
 40,323,000 
 9,720,000 
 6,943,000 
 6,897,000 
 6,722,000 
 3,044,000 
 2,904,000 
 2,237,000 
 1,646,000 
 732,000 
 1,098,000 
 
 80,761,000 
 
 Prom the preceding table it will be seen that, of the 
 whole trade of Eiga, Englanti h^s 50 per cent. ; France 
 upward of 12 per cent. ; liqlland„and .the three Hanse 
 Towns, eatjh 8 per cent. The principal imports in 
 1850 were—;': ' . . ' ' 
 
 Sugar Francs, 3,815,000 
 
 Salt.'.. " 2,495,000 
 
 Wine's and spirits " 2,336,000 
 
 Tobacco " 1,729,000 
 
 Herring " 1,256,000 
 
 Eaw and spun cotton " 1,866,000 
 
 The principal exports were — 
 
 Flax (of which England took two-thirds).. Francs, 28,439,000 
 
 Hemp (to England more than one half) . . " - 7,879,000 
 
 Timher (chiefly to England and Holland). " 5,100,000 
 
 Grains " " " " " 6,147,000 
 
 Flax-Bsed, for seed (one half to England) . " 3,791,000 
 
 Account op the Quantities of the rBmoiPAi. Articles 
 
 EXPORTED FROM RiGA IN 1851 AND 1852. 
 
 Rynehemp 
 
 Outshot ditto 
 
 Pass ditto 
 
 Hemp codilla 
 
 Total of hemp . 
 
 Flax, 1st sort tons 
 
 Ditto, 2d sort " 
 
 Ditto, 3d sort " 
 
 Ditto, codilla " 
 
 Total offlax " 
 
 Tallow 
 
 Quills " 
 
 Rye VS. 
 
 Barley " 
 
 Oats " 
 
 Sowing linseed bis. 
 
 Crushing linseed .... ; qrs. 
 
 Hemp seed " 
 
 Deals pieces 
 
 Timber '' 
 
 Masts ' 
 
 "Wainscot logs and vatwood . ' 
 
 Pipe and hogshead staves. . * 
 
 Total value in S. Eo 
 
 Total value in dollars. 
 
 To nil Countries. 
 
 17,814 
 
 7,292 
 
 1,499 
 
 924 
 
 27,629 
 
 0,318 
 3,799 
 3,892 
 
 17,967 
 
 2i 
 
 26 
 
 124,981 
 
 88,816 
 
 92,705 
 
 129,429 
 
 111,134 
 
 19,108 
 
 486,367 
 
 138,873 
 
 4,948 
 
 8,057 
 
 296,786 
 
 14,637,261 
 at 77! cts. 
 $11,163,350 
 
 1852. 
 
 21,223-i 
 
 9,051} 
 
 2,466 
 
 047 
 
 33,387 
 
 7,645 
 3,460i 
 4,016 
 605 J- 
 
 1B,727 
 
 7J 
 
 18{ 
 
 191,501 
 
 38,035 
 
 1,309 
 
 164,966 
 
 97,678 
 
 4,433 
 
 864,645 
 
 97,800 
 
 177 
 
 7,123 
 
 186,812 
 
 14,898,728 
 
 at 77i cts. 
 
 ,fll,660,760 
 
 Total amount of exports from England to this port 
 in 1850, 4,&84,000 francs, or $927,000. 
 
 Total amount of exports from Riga to England, 
 $6,573,054. 
 
 The merchandise imported into England from Rus- 
 sia is such, chiefly, as Russia only can supply — at least 
 in such quantities as to meet the extensive demands of 
 the manufacturers of Great Britain. It consists prin- 
 cipally of articles of first necessitj' in manufactures, 
 such as hemp and flax seed for oil and culture. The 
 merchandise supplied to Russia (at the port of Eiga) 
 from other countries consists chiefly of sugar, coffee, 
 saltj/wines, spirituous liquors, tobacco, and cotton tis- 
 sues. In reference to the latter article, such is the ex- 
 traprdinary activity of Eussian manufacturing indus- 
 try, supported as it is by a high tariff on manufactured 
 articles, that, had not the war intervened, she would 
 "probably be now independent of other nations as re- 
 spects cotton yarns. 
 
 The total tonnage which entered and cleared at the 
 port of Riga in 1850, as already shown, was 397,395 tons. 
 Of this total, 180,904 tons were under the English flag, 
 or within a figure of 50 per cent, on the whole ; while 
 the Eussian flag covered only 61,394 tons, or 15 per 
 cent, on the whole. The value of flax-seed for cul- 
 ture, exported from this port from 1840 to 1850, was 
 $7,000,000; of which England received, in the aggre- 
 gate, one-third. The remaining two-thirds were sent 
 to Belgium, Prussia, Hanse Towns, Sweden and Nor- 
 way, France, and the United States. The navigation 
 movements at this port for 1853 were as follows : 
 
 Port of Riga — Navigation in 1863. 
 
 English 
 
 Russian 
 
 Belgian 
 
 Hanoverian . . 
 
 Dutch 
 
 French 
 
 Spanish 
 
 Danish 
 
 Swedish 
 
 Prussian 
 
 Mecklenburg . 
 Oldenburg . . . 
 Portuguese . . . 
 Hamburgian . 
 American . . . . 
 
 No. of Vessels entered. 
 
 10 
 170 
 244 
 
 65 
 1 
 181 
 291 
 169 
 186 
 
 37 
 
 No. of Vessels cleared. 
 
 870 
 
 206 
 
 10 
 
 170 
 
 244 
 
 56 
 
 1 
 
 181 
 
 291 
 
 169 
 
 186 
 
 37 
 
 6 
 
 T 
 
 The official paper, from which the preceding table is 
 extracted, furnishes also interesting facts relative to 
 the hemp trade of this port. The following extract is 
 translated from this document : 
 
 " Hemp is usually sold by the producers in the in- 
 terior to merchants who visit their estates for the pur- 
 pose of speculation. They make their contracts gener- 
 ally between April and October. The time of dpliverj' 
 is stipulated for, and from 5 to 10 per cent, on the pur- 
 chase-money is^paid down in cash. The annual aver- 
 age quantity of hemp thus brought to the market of 
 Eiga amounts to about seven millions of francs. At 
 Eiga there are surveyors' ofiices established, where the 
 hemp brought for sale is subjected to the strictest ex- 
 amination, and is ranked, according to quality, Nos. 1, 
 2, or 3. Should the moducers be dissatisfied with'the 
 action of the survejma at Eiga, they have the right of 
 appeal to St. Petersburg." — See articles Hemp and 
 Russia for particular information. 
 
 Rigging of a Ship, a general name given to all 
 the ropes employed to support the masts, and to extend 
 or reduce the sails, or arrange them to the disposition 
 of the wind. The former, which are used to sustain the 
 masts, remain usually in a fixed position, and are called 
 standing rigging ; such are the shrouds, stays, and back- 
 stays. The latter, whose office is to manage the sails, 
 by communicating with various blocks or pulleys, situ- 
 ated in different parts of the masts, yards, shrouds, etc., 
 are comprehended in the general term running rigging ; 
 such are the braces, sheets, halliarils, clew-lines, and 
 brails. 
 
EIN 
 
 1637 
 
 RIO 
 
 Ring, an ornament of gold and silver, of a circular 
 figure, and usually worn on the finger. The antiquity 
 of rings is known from Scripture and profane authors. 
 Judah left his ring or signet with Tamar. When 
 Pharaoh committed the government of all Egj-pt to 
 Joseph, he took his ring from his finger and gave it to 
 Joseph. After the victory wliich the Israelites ob- 
 tained over the Midianites, they oficred to the Lord 
 the rings, the bracelets, and the golden necklaces, and 
 the golden ear-rings, that they had taken from the 
 enemy. The Israelitish women wore rings, not only 
 on their fingers, but also in their nostrils and their ears. 
 St. James distinguishes a man of dignity by the ring 
 of gold wliich he wore on his finger. At the return of 
 the prodigal son, his father orders him to be dressed in 
 a new suit of clothes, and to have a ring put upon his 
 er. The ring chiefly was used to seal with. The 
 
 patents and orders of princes were sealed with their 
 rings or signets ; and it was this that secured to them 
 their authority and respect. The episcopal ring, which 
 makes a part of the pontifical apparatus, and is esteem- 
 ed a pledge of the spiritual marriage between the bishop 
 and his Church; was used at a remote period. The 
 fourth council of Toledo, held in 633, appoints that a 
 bishop condemned by one council, and found after- 
 ward innocent by a second, shall be restored by giv- 
 ing him the ring, staff, etc. 
 
 Rio de Janeiro, the capital of Brazil, on the 
 Atlantic, in lat. 22° 54' 15" S., long. 43° 15' 50" W. 
 Population, 200,000. The harbor of Eio is one of the 
 finest in the world, both as respects capaciousness and 
 security for all sorts of vessels. In coming from the 
 northeast it is usual to make Cape Frio, in lat. 23° 1' 
 18" S., long. 42° 3' 19" W., being about 4 leagues 
 
 Beferenoea to Plan.— A. Ilha do Catunduba. B. Fort de St. Joao. C. Morro do Flamengo. 
 E. Fort da Ilha das Cobroa. F. Ilha dos Rattoa. G. Fort da Boa Viagem. 
 
 D. Ponta do Calhabouco. 
 
RIO 
 
 1638 
 
 EIO 
 
 nearly east of Rio. The entrance to the harbor is 
 marked by a remarkable hill in the form of a sugar- 
 loaf, 900 feet high, close to its west side ; while on the 
 east, or opposite side of the bay, at the distance of 
 about IJ mile, is the fort of Santa Cruz. But the wood- 
 cut in the preceding page, taken from a chart publish- 
 ed by order of the Brazilian authorities, gives a much 
 better idea of this noble harbor than could be obtained 
 from any description. 
 
 Harbor. — Vessels bound for Rio, coming from the 
 north, should, after rounding Cape Frio, steer due west, 
 keeping about 3 leagues from the coast, until they come 
 within 5 or 6 miles of the Ilha Haza, or Flat Island, 
 lying almost due south from the mouth of the harbor, 
 at the distance of about 3 leagues. A light-house, 
 the lantern of which is said to be elevated nearly 300 
 feet above the level of the sea, was erected on this 
 island in 1829. The light is a revolving one, finishing 
 its revolution in 3 minutes, and exhibiting alternately 
 a white and a red light. There is also a light-house 
 in the fort of Santa Cruz, the light of which is fixed, 
 and elevated about 50 feet above the level of the sea. 
 — Coulier sur les Phares, 3d ed. Having got within 
 6 or 6 miles of the Ilha Kaza, ships may enter by day 
 or by night, the dotted line in the cut marking the 
 fair-waj' into the harbor. There are no pilots to be 
 met with ; and as there are no hidden dangers of anj' 
 kind, their services are not wanted. On entering, 
 vessels must pass within hail of Fort Santa Cruz, to 
 be ready to answer any questions that maj^ be put to 
 them. Thej" then proceed to Fort Vilganhon, below 
 or opposite to which they must bring to, or come to 
 anchor, allowing no boats to come along side but those 
 of the government until thej' have received pratique^ 
 when they will be permitted to proceed to the usual 
 place of anchorage for the merchant shipping. The 
 sea-breeze generally sets in about 11 a.m., and lasts 
 till about sunset. It is strong enough to enable ships 
 to overcome the ebb. High water at full, and change 
 at 2 in the afternoon. 
 
 Anchorage Bues.—l. From and after 1st July, 1852, 
 the anchorage duty upon vessels trading between for- 
 eign ports and the ports of Brazil will be reduced to 
 300 reis the ton ; and the same class of duty now lev- 
 ied upon coasting vessels shall be abolished. 2. That 
 part of the provisions of April 26, July 20, .and Novem- 
 ber 15, 1844, which has not been altered by this decree 
 will continue in force. 
 
 Money, Weights, and Measures.- — All payments are 
 made in paper money, which has been over-issued, and 
 is excessively depreciated. But in ordinar}' cases the 
 par of exchange may now be assumed at about Sid. 
 sterling per patriotic dollar, of 1620 reis paper. 
 Weights and long measures are the same as those of 
 Lisbon, the arroba being 32^ lbs. avoirdupois ; but 
 measures of capacity are different, a medida being equal 
 to -5954 imperial gallon, and an alquiere to 1-11 ditto. 
 Trade. — The trade of Rio is extensive, and has in- 
 creased rapidly of late years. It is now by far the 
 greatest mart for the export of coffee. The shipments 
 of this important article, which in 1830 amounted to 
 396,785 bags, have increased with such unexampled 
 rapidity, that in 1848 they amounted to 1,710,707 bags, 
 that is (taking the bag at 160 lbs.), to 273,713,120 
 lbs., or 122,193 tons ; being about equal to all the ex- 
 ports of coffee from all the other ports in the world. 
 It has not, however, been so large since. Sugar was 
 formerly an important article of export from Rio, but 
 latterly it has rapidly decreased, and only amounted 
 to 5979 cases (13 cwt. each) in 1849. It is probable, 
 however, that here, as in Cuba and other places, the 
 late low prices of coffee may have produced a reaction 
 in favor of sugar, the exports of the latter having 
 risen in 1850 to 13,047 cases. The other great articles 
 of export from Rio are hides, rice, tobacco, rum, tapi- 
 oca, ipecacuanha, manioc or manihot, flour, and other 
 inferior articles. The export of cotton has entirely 
 ceased; and that of gold, diamonds, etc., is mostly 
 clandestine. Diamonds are principally exported from 
 i Bahia. We subjoin an 
 
 Account op tue Exports of Natfve Produce feom Rio de Janeiro during each of the six Yeabb ending with 1852. 
 
 ye»n 
 
 Coffee. 
 
 Sugar. 
 
 Hidoa. 
 
 Horns. 
 
 Rosewood. 
 
 Leather. 
 
 Eire. 
 
 Bum. 
 
 Tobacco. 
 
 Ipecacuanha. 
 
 Tapioca. 
 
 
 Bags. 
 
 Caaea. 
 
 No. 
 
 No 
 
 Logs and Planks. 
 
 Sidea. 
 
 Bflga 
 19,741 
 
 Pipes. 
 3,933 
 
 Rolls. 
 
 Soroons. 
 
 Barrela 
 
 184T 
 
 1,689,234 
 
 8,426 
 
 267,238 
 
 460,783 
 
 9,437 
 
 6,662 
 
 24,403 
 
 476 
 
 1,914 
 
 184S 
 
 1,710,579 
 
 6,713 
 
 331,583 
 
 269,191 
 
 16,864 
 
 10,254 
 
 9,712 
 
 2,863 
 
 23,144 
 
 333 
 
 1,832 
 
 1849 
 
 1,460,410 
 
 5,865 
 
 301,982 
 
 378,707 
 
 22,267 
 
 10,746 
 
 20,707 
 
 4,380 
 
 25,427 
 
 130 
 
 9,566 
 
 1S50 
 
 1,359,058 
 
 13,047 
 
 200,033 
 
 268,650 
 
 26,332 
 
 17,617 
 
 24,242 
 
 3,216 
 
 23,440 
 
 127 
 
 16,053 
 
 1851 
 
 1,846,213 
 
 7,824 
 
 147,296 
 
 256,949 
 
 36,547 
 
 12,774 
 
 8,229 
 
 3,892 
 
 28,755 
 
 641 
 
 17,787 
 
 1852 
 
 1,907,130 
 
 12,516 
 
 125,739 
 
 176,098 
 
 25,369 
 
 3,956 
 
 8,449 
 
 1,952 
 
 32,246 
 
 291 
 
 10,940 
 
 The principal article of import consists of cotton 
 goods, the value of which amounts to full one-third of 
 the total value of the imports. Next to cottons are 
 woolen, linen, and silk manufactures ; wines, jewel- 
 ry, and iron-mongery ; flour, meat, fish, butter, and 
 other articles of provision ; spirits, salt, earthen-ware, 
 paper, and a host of articles. The importation of ready- 
 made furniture from the United States is also extensive. 
 
 About 56 per cent, of the entire commerce of Brazil 
 passes through the port of Rio de Janeiro. Hither is 
 conveyed, from all the ports on the coast, from Bahia 
 almost to the frontiers of the Argentine Republic, all 
 the produce intended for exportation or home consump- 
 tion. Farina, beans, bacon, dried and salt meat, hides, 
 horns, tallow, rice, tobacco, sugar, coffee, cotton — in a 
 word, all the produce and manufactures of the different 
 provinces are made tributary, either by land or water 
 conveyance, to the wealth and commercial greatness 
 of the Brazilian metropolis. A numerous fleet of ves- 
 sels is employed in the coasting trade, in supplying the 
 different ports along the coast with the various pro- 
 ductions of the soil and industry of America and Eu- 
 rope. The chief foreign exports from Rio de Janeiro 
 are— coffee (more than half of the whole going to the 
 United States), sugar, cotton, hides, tobacco, otter 
 skins, etc. 
 
 Tonnage employed in the trade of 1841 : Total ves- 
 sels, 1705, of 416,000 tons— of which, from and to the 
 
 United States, there were 289 vessels, of 77,000 tons. 
 Tonnage, etc., of 1841, compared with that of 1840 : 
 
 1841 1705 voBScla : 416,000 tonnage. 
 
 1840 1640 " 399,200 " 
 
 Excess over 1840. . ~65 " 16,800 " 
 
 The increase of the foreign commerce of Rio de Ja- 
 neiro is better illustrated by the foUowmg returns : 
 
 Commercial Movement of Kio de Janeiro in 1846. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 England and Possessioua. 
 
 United States 
 
 France 
 
 Hanse Towns 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Spain 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Uruguay and La Plata 
 
 Sardinia 
 
 Sweden and Norway 
 
 Imports of 
 Rio. 
 
 52,960,000 
 20,440,000 
 20,720,000 
 6,020,000 
 8.920,000 
 4,710,000 
 4,490,000 
 2,670,000 
 2,180,000 
 2,060,000 
 1,740,000 
 
 Exporta 
 from Rio. 
 
 24,230,000 
 
 38,750,000 
 
 9,800,000 
 
 13,380,000 
 
 6,950,000 
 
 1,630,000 
 
 4,320,000 
 1,580,000 
 
 77,190,000 
 69,190,000 
 30,520,000 
 18,350,000 
 15,870,000 
 6,340,000 
 4,490,000 
 6,990,000 
 3,760,000 
 2;000;000| 4,060,000 
 2,710,000| 4,450,000 
 
 Africa, Austria, Denmark, Turkey, Russia, the Two 
 Sicilies, Prussia, Netherlands, Chili, and other coim- 
 tries, participate in this foreign trade to an extent 
 ranging in value from 6,000,000 francs to 4,000,000 
 each, making the total trade for 
 
 1846 266,640,000 francs=47,786,n40 dollars. 
 
 1845 236,800,000 " — 44,044,800 " 
 
 Increase over 1845. . 19,840,000 " = 3,690,240 " 
 
EIO 
 
 1639 
 
 RIO 
 
 All foreign nations shared equally in the large aug- 
 mentation which the returns of 1846 exhibit over those 
 of 1845. Some of the causes that contributed to this 
 increase have been already adverted to. The true 
 cause, however, to which aU others are but anxiliar}', 
 is the admitted capacity of BrazU to multiply her sta- 
 ple productions, particularly coffee, to the fullest ex- 
 tent of the foreign demand, if she will only avaU her- 
 self of the abundant resources with which nature has 
 so bountifully supplied her. 
 
 The quantity of coffee exported increased 23,764,000 
 kilogrammes (of 2-20 lbs. avoirdupois). Sugar, on 
 the o(her hand, diminished 3,096,000 kilogrammes. 
 The exports of coffee during the year 1846 were : 
 
 To England kilogrammes 39,000,000 
 
 United States . 
 
 Hanse Towns 
 
 Austria 
 
 France 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Sweden and Norvray 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Kussia 
 
 lOther countries 
 
 Total value. .81,000,000 francs 
 
 38.000,000 
 10,000,000 
 6,000,000 
 4,000,000 
 3,000,000 
 2,500,000 
 2,400,000 
 1,500,000 
 1,000,000 
 1,600,000 
 108,000,000 
 
 Depaetuhes. 
 
 The course of exchange, which varied from 313 to 
 374 reas per franc, ruled in 1846 at 335 reas per franc, 
 or 18'6 cents — equal to 55 cents per 1000 reas. The 
 following table gives the number of vessels, and their 
 tonnage, engaged in the trade of 1846,' with the coun- 
 tries whence they came : 
 
 Countries whence. 
 
 No.ofVeseole. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Brazilian ports ..;... 
 
 United States . . :...•.. . . .... .'. . 
 
 England and Possessions ■ 
 
 La Plata and Uruguay."." 
 
 • ■ T2 " 
 866 
 418 
 19T " 
 218 
 146 
 
 9T 
 "102 
 
 95 
 
 46 
 
 39, 
 
 33 
 
 28 
 
 22 
 
 21 
 
 80 ' 
 
 15,600 
 
 " ' 95,600 
 
 89,700 
 
 45,500 
 
 . 44,600 
 
 28,800 
 
 23,800 
 
 20,400 
 
 19,080 
 
 9,300 
 
 8,000 
 
 6,TO0 
 
 5,850 
 
 5,650 
 
 4,200 
 
 1T,460 
 
 Africa .. 
 
 
 Spain 
 
 
 
 Belgium. 
 
 Sardinia 
 
 Chili.; 
 
 
 
 Other countries 
 
 Total in 1846 
 
 19TT 
 1T62 
 
 44fl,040 
 389;0T0 
 
 Do. in 1845 ... . 
 
 
 Tonnage to and from the United States in 1846 : 
 vessels 366, of 95,600 tons. Tonnage in 1843 : vessels 
 328, of 76,900 tons. Increase in 1846 over 1843, ves- 
 sels 38, tonnage 18,700. 
 
 SUMMAEY OP THE TsADB OF RiO DE JaNBIEO IN 1848. 
 
 Total imports 134,600,000 francs. 
 
 Total exports 134,080,000 " 
 
 Total imports and exports 263,680,000 " 
 
 Tonnage, etc. — Entered, 213,900 tons ; cleared, 
 191,200 tons ; total, 405,100 tons, of which from and 
 to the^ 
 
 United States 89,000 tons. 
 
 Great Britain 66,000 " 
 
 Portugal 4T,000 " 
 
 Franco 18,400 " 
 
 Other countries 185,700 " 
 
 Total...., 405,100 " 
 
 Course of exchange at Eio de Janeiro in 1848 : 359 
 reas per franc, or 66 cents (nearly) per milrea. 
 
 The navigation of the port of Bio de Janeiro in 1851 
 is exhibited in the following table : 
 
 Abbivais. 
 
 Airivflla from foreign Porta. 
 
 "With cargo for port 
 
 Other destinations 
 
 Ou way to California 
 
 In ballast for foreign countries. 
 In ballast for home ports 
 
 Total in I'i.'il 
 
 Total in 1850 
 
 947 
 61 
 
 16T 
 IT 
 
 237,667 
 16,168 
 
 .10,428 
 
 49,716 
 
 3,479 
 
 1210 I 317,MT 
 1020 I 264,616 
 
 Clearances to foreign Porta. 
 
 "With products of country 
 
 "With foreign prodnota 
 
 For California " 
 
 In ballast for foreign countries. 
 In ballast for home ports ...... 
 
 Total inl851 
 
 Total in 1850 
 
 Veesele. 
 
 806 
 
 171 
 
 6 
 
 76 
 
 80 
 
 1138 
 
 1080 
 
 285,288 
 87,427 
 2,488 
 33,490 
 26,053 
 
 484,696 
 380,671 
 
 The leading articles imported in 1851 were as fol- 
 lows : Cottons, 42,560, woolens, 5488, linens, 6695, 
 silks, 1088, and mixed goods, 1263 packages ; codfish, 
 54,602 quintals ; coals, 42,007 tons ; ale and porter, 
 23,704 barrels ; floiir, 283,893 barrels ; candles, sperm, 
 90, composition, 6052, and tallow, 25,561 boxes ; wines, 
 Portugal, 14,033, Mediterranean, 7644, and Bordeaux, 
 4421 pipes ; butter, 25,561 firkins ; cordageS 480 coils, 
 etc. The produce of the country exported in the 
 same year consisted of : Coffee, 2,033,743 hags ; hides, 
 147,296 ; sugar, 7824 cases ; rum, 3892 pipes ; rice, 
 8229 bags ; horns, 256,949 ; tobacco, 28,755 rolls (of 
 96 lbs. each) ; rosewood, 36,547 pieces ; half-tanned 
 hides, 12,744 ; tapioca, 17,737 barrels, etc. The arriv- 
 als coastwise in 1851 were 1935 sail vessels, and 359 
 steamers, with an aggregate of 221,647 tons ; and the 
 departures were 1863 sail vessels, and 380 steamers, 
 with an aggregate of 225,002 tons. The total imports 
 and exports of the empire in 1851 exhibit an increase 
 of 33 per cent, over the average of the four preceding 
 years. Could Brazil be induced to abolish the heavj' 
 export duties which she levies on her staple produc- 
 tions, the increase would largely exceed this figure. 
 The , article of coffee alone would in a short period 
 fully make up for any deficiency in her revenue caused 
 by the abolition of those duties, in the increased de- 
 mand for that article for "foreign markets. Besides, 
 the stimulus which would in consequence he imparted 
 to that branch of agricultural labor would present an 
 incidental benefit which could hardly escape the observ- 
 ation of a sagacious legislator. 
 
 The subjoined figures show the. amount of export 
 duties levied at Eio de Janeiro from 1846 to 1861 . [Mil- 
 rea=55 to 56 cents United States currency.] 
 
 1846-'47 3,906,000 inilreas. 
 
 1847-'48 4,118,000 " 
 
 1848-'49 3,834*000 " 
 
 1849-'50 3,780,458 " 
 
 1S50-'61 4,706,696 
 
 Statements illusteative of the Tbadk of Rio in 1850. 
 
 Leading Articles imported. 
 
 Cotton manufactures pkgs. 
 
 "Woolen -do. '' 
 
 Linen do. " 
 
 Silks " 
 
 Mixed " 
 
 Codfish quintals 
 
 Coals tons 
 
 Ale and porter hbls. 
 
 Flour " 
 
 Candles, sperm boxes 
 
 " composition...*. " 
 
 '' tallow"....; " 
 
 "Wines, Portugal pipes 
 
 " Mediterranean " 
 
 '* Bordeaux '. " 
 
 Butter firkins 
 
 Cordage coils 
 
 Exports of Prpduco of the Country. Quantities. 
 
 Coffee.. '. bags 1,369,068 
 
 Hides No. 200,033 
 
 Sugar cases ■ 13,047 
 
 Rum pipes 3,210 
 
 Rice bags 24,242 
 
 Horns No. 
 
 Tobacco rolls 
 
 Ipecacuanha seroons 
 
 Rosewood pieces 
 
 Other woods , deals 
 
 Half-tanned hides No. 
 
 Tapioca ; lbs. 
 
 Tea boxes 
 
 Cigars " 
 
 Hair (horse) bales 
 
 Flour (manihot) bags 
 
 Soap , boxes 
 
 Candles, tallow . . ., '^ 
 
 Quantities. 
 
 26,124 
 
 2,968 
 
 1,170 
 
 770 
 
 1,141 
 
 35,060 
 
 33,404 
 
 15,961 
 
 208,678 
 
 1,872 
 
 14,525 
 
 6,761 
 
 2,432 
 
 23,980 
 
 10,670 
 
 268,650 
 
 28,440 
 
 127 
 
 26,332 
 
 15,186 
 
 17,617 
 
 16,063 
 
 34 
 
 666 
 
 857 
 
 10,672 
 
 3,535 
 
 304 
 
EIO 
 
 1640 
 
 EIO 
 
 Tahttlak Statement bxuibiting in detail Commeecial Movements at the Poet op Kio db jANErao in 1851, and the 
 RELATIVE Shake thereof assigned to eacu Foreign Nation. 
 
 Vessols entered. 
 
 ImportB. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 United States 
 
 Great Britain and Possesaions . 
 
 Portugal 
 
 France 
 
 Uruguay 
 
 Argentine Republic 
 
 Denmarlc 
 
 Austria 
 
 Hanse Towns 
 
 Spain 
 
 Prussia 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Other countries 
 
 VesBeU. 
 
 524 
 
 370 
 
 151 
 
 134 
 
 122 
 
 98 
 
 91 
 
 77 
 
 74 
 
 68 
 
 69 
 
 60 
 
 610 
 
 Total. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 154,000 
 
 124,000 
 
 39,600 
 
 39,000 
 
 31,300 
 
 26,150 
 
 25,500 
 
 20,749 
 
 20,200 
 
 19,400 
 
 19,100 
 
 16,400 
 
 157,180 
 
 Francs. 
 27,680,000 
 60,610,000 
 10,800,000 
 29,330,000 
 2,020,000 
 3,240,000 
 1,020,000 
 2,900,000 
 7,440,000 
 3,980,000 
 970,000 
 5,910,000 
 9,000,000 
 
 2348 r 692,420 
 
 165,500,000 
 
 Francs, 
 
 67,640,000 
 
 22,690,000 
 
 5,390,000 
 
 10,540,000 
 
 2,690,000 
 
 3,520,000 
 
 4,320,000 
 
 5,590,000 
 
 12,100,000 
 
 200,000 
 
 1,160,000 
 
 7,180,000 
 
 28,930,000 
 
 Finncs. 
 
 95,320,000 
 
 83,300,000 
 
 16,190,000 
 
 39,870,000 
 
 4,710,000 
 
 6,760,000 
 
 5,340,000 
 
 8,490,000 
 
 19,540,000 
 
 4,180,000 
 
 2,130,000 
 
 13,090,000 
 
 33,630,000 
 
 166,950,000 
 
 332,450,000 
 
 Account of the Coffee expoktei> from Rio r>B Janeiro 
 IN EACH Year from 1821 to 1850, both inclusive, in 
 Bags of 160 lus. 
 
 Years. | Bags. 
 
 Years. 1 Bags. 
 
 Yean. 
 
 Bags. 
 
 1821 
 1822 
 1823 
 1824 
 1825 
 1826 
 182T 
 1828 
 1829 
 1830 
 
 105,386 
 152,048 
 184,994 
 224,000 
 182,510 
 260,000 
 350,900 
 369,147 
 375,107 
 391,785 
 
 1831 
 1832 
 1833 
 1834 
 1835 
 1836 
 1837 
 1838 
 1889 
 1840 
 
 448,249 
 ■478,950 
 563,195 
 539,117 
 627,165 
 704,385 
 629,734 
 781,651 
 871,785 
 1,063,801 
 
 1841 
 1842 
 1843 
 1844 
 1846 
 1846 
 1847 
 184S 
 1849 
 1850 
 
 1,013,915 
 1,179,731 
 1,189,523 
 1,260,431 
 1,208,062 
 1,511,096 
 1,689,284 
 1,710,679 
 1,460,410 
 1,359,068 
 
 (JOMPAEATIVE StAT 
 OF PvIO DE Ja 
 
 ement showing the 
 
 NBIRO IN THE YeARS 
 
 INWARD Navigation 
 1S51 AND 1862. 
 
 ForeiRn Flaga. 
 
 Vessels. | Vessel^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 18S1. 
 300 
 
 ' 217 
 104 
 90 
 114 
 78 
 72 
 30 
 48 
 30 
 34 
 11 
 16 
 20 
 46 
 
 1832, 
 255 
 228 
 90 
 72 
 72 
 68 
 67 
 14 
 44 
 30 
 25 
 17 
 16 
 11 
 90 
 
 Great 
 
 Britain . . 
 
 
 
 Portu 
 
 jal 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Swede 
 
 n and Norw 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ark . . . 
 
 
 
 Spain 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Belgii 
 
 
 
 
 la 
 
 
 
 
 nd 
 
 
 
 Pruss 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Other 
 
 countries. . 
 
 
 
 
 rotal 
 
 
 
 1210 
 
 1099 
 
 Bra 
 
 zilian Flag.- 
 Total 
 
 -Onfo 
 On CO 
 
 reign voyages 
 asting trade . 
 
 
 4 
 16 
 
 20 
 
 49 ves 
 
 12 
 
 61 
 
 sela. 
 
 The total value of the commercial movements at the 
 port of Rio de Janeiro in 1852 was 353,000,000 francs 
 — equal to $67,070,000 ; showing a large increase over 
 the trade of the preceding year. Of the above total 
 there was for Imports 180,000,000 francs, and for ex- 
 ports 173,000,000 francs. The following condensed 
 summarj' shows the trade of the principal commercial 
 countries Tvith Eio during this year : Great Britain 
 and possessions, 74,000,000 francs ; imports consisted 
 chiefly of cottons, woolens, provisions, hardware, coal, 
 etc. France, 34,00P,000 francs ; Imports — liquors, tis- 
 sues, cutlerj', articles of fashion, etc. United States, 
 23,000,000 francs; imports — provisions, stores, etc. 
 Portugal, 14,500,000 francs; imports ■ — wines, provi- 
 sions, etc. Hanse Towns, 11,000,000 francs ; imports 
 — ^^general cargoes. Buenos Ayres and Montevideo, 
 5,000,000 francs ; imports— provisions, skins, etc. The 
 exports of Bio de Janeiro this year were in value : 
 
 Coffee, about 140,000,000 francs. 
 
 Diamonds and pearls 15,000,000 " 
 
 Sugar 5,000,000 
 
 Tobacco and cigars 8,600,000 
 
 Hides and skins 2,550,000 
 
 Cabinet ivoods 1,800,000 
 
 According to the official report of the custom-house 
 of Eio de Janeiro, there was exported from that port to 
 the United States, up to 30th June of this year (1852), 
 952,489 bags of coffee, of 160 lbs. each— making in all 
 152,398,240 lbs. The total quantity of coffee exported 
 the same year is stated to have been 1,896,609 bags, 
 
 or 303,457,440 lbs. The quantity sent to the United 
 States was thus distributed : 
 
 New Orleans 346,262 bags. 
 
 New Y'ork 260,179 " 
 
 Baltimore 207,792 " 
 
 Philadelphia 81,125 " 
 
 Charleston 28,732 " 
 
 Boston 11,758 " 
 
 Mobile 11,261 " 
 
 Savannah 4,869 " 
 
 San Francisco 4,011 ^' 
 
 Total 952,489 " 
 
 The following table exhibits the exports of coffee, in 
 
 bags, from Brazil to New Orleans, from 1842 to 1852, 
 
 both inclusive : 
 
 1842 126,210 
 
 1843 85,438 
 
 1844 161,082 
 
 1845 167,669 
 
 1846 215,031 
 
 1847 205,111 
 
 1848 289,371 
 
 1849 299,129 
 
 1850 229,013 
 
 1861 274,690 
 
 1852 346,262 
 
 It is stated that the first importation of coffee into 
 New Orleans direct from Brazil took place in 1835 ; 
 and that from that year to 1840, or during a period of 
 six years, the quantity thus directly imported from 
 Brazil did not exceed 44,000 bags ; while in the year 
 1840 alone there were received at that port from Cuba 
 91,000 bags. Cuba, however, has now almost entirely' 
 ceased' to export coffee — ^has ceased, at least, to any 
 considerable extent. 
 
 Comparative Statement suowing the Quantities or Cof- * 
 
 FEE exported FROM KlO DE JANEIRO FROM 1851 TO 1855, 
 BOTH INCLUSIVE. 
 
 Yean. 
 
 Bags. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 1851 
 
 2,033,743 
 1,896,609 
 1,637,663 
 1,987,632 
 2,409,099 
 
 326,398,880 
 303,457,440 
 262,026,080 
 318,021,120 
 386,455,840 
 
 1862 
 
 1863 
 
 1864 
 
 1855 
 
 Total 
 
 Annual average 
 
 ; 9,964,746 
 1,992,949 
 
 1,594.359,360 
 
 318,871,872 
 
 These returns show great uniformity, and go to prove 
 that the trade of Eio Janeiro in the great staple of Bra- 
 zil has attained for the time its maximum. The ex- 
 ports to New Orleans for the same period, however, 
 show a progressive increase. 
 
 From official publications received as these pages go 
 to press, it appears that the general foreign commerce 
 of Brazil in 1854 was unusually prosperous. The ag- 
 ricultural productions of the empire, the chief basis of 
 its foreign trade, exceeded those of the preceding year, 
 the returns for the port of Eio de Janeiro reaching as 
 high as 338,000,000 francs ; showing an excess over 
 those of the preceding year of 13,000,000 francs. The 
 total number of vessels that entered the port of Eio de 
 Janeiro in 1854 was 1064, and in 1855, 1285 ; while in 
 1853 there entered only 1054 vessels ; showing an in- 
 crease for 1854 of 10, and for 1855 of 231 vessels over 
 1853. The following statement shows how the navi- 
 gation of this port was distributed in 1853 and 1854 : 
 
RIO 
 
 1641 
 
 EIO 
 
 Nationality. 
 
 United States , 
 
 England 
 
 Portugal 
 
 France 
 
 Hanse Towns , 
 
 Spain 
 
 Sweden and Norway . 
 
 Montevideo 
 
 Buenos Ayi^GS 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Sardinia , 
 
 No. at VeBMls. 
 
 1853. 
 
 18fi4. 
 
 a79 
 
 B,S1 
 
 264 
 
 2fin 
 
 123 
 
 12S 
 
 64 
 
 63 
 
 '(2 
 
 63 
 
 43 
 
 44 
 
 72 
 
 44 
 
 22 
 
 87 
 
 18 
 
 4H 
 
 36 
 
 32 
 
 61 
 
 32 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 For many years the United States occupied the first 
 rank in the navigation of Rio de Janeiro, It will be 
 perceived from the preceding table that England 
 claims the precedence In 1854, a fact which is attrib- 
 uted to the falling off in that year in the importation 
 of flour from the United States. The new line of 
 steamers, established in 1853 between Liverpool and 
 Eio de Janeiro, touching at the same places as the 
 Southampton line — namely, Lisbon, Madeira, Tene- 
 riffe, St. Vincent, Pernambuco, and Bahia — notwith- 
 standing the fears as to its success, continued, in 1854, 
 its monthly service with activity and profit. Besides 
 these two lines of steamers, a company, composed of 
 Brazilian and Portuguese merchants, has established 
 a line between Lisbon and Kio, touching at the same 
 points ; but this line had in 1854 but one steamer in 
 iservice, the voyages of which, however, proved very 
 successful. 
 
 The port of Rio de Janeiro is becoming yearly more 
 important as the centre of South Atlantic commerce. 
 The number and tonnage of vessels which entered in 
 1855 were augmented a third when compared with 
 1845, and more than a half over the number and ton- 
 nage of vessels in 1835. From 1850 to 1854 the aver- 
 age increase during the five years was nearly a fifth. 
 The following statement exhibits this progressive 
 movement : 
 
 Yssra. 
 
 Ves»>l.. 
 
 TODH. 
 
 1836 
 
 572 
 878- 
 
 1285 
 
 134,912 
 153,940 
 214,238 
 380,872 
 
 1845 ,. 
 
 
 1855 
 
 These figures exhibit the results of foreign naviga^- 
 tion only. "The coasting trade is shown as follows : 
 
 1835 
 
 1845 
 
 Average 1850-54 . 
 1855 
 
 1920 
 2602 
 2390 
 
 Tons, 
 
 115,117 
 
 168,872 
 230,328 
 818,229 
 
 The en^ploj'ment of steamboats in the navigation of 
 Eio de Janeiro is yearly extending. In 1845 the num- 
 ber of steamboats engaged in the trade of the port of 
 Eio was 239. In 1855 the number reached 431. Four- 
 teen companies, owning thirty-nine steamboats, with 
 an aggregate of 2428 horse power, keep up the com- 
 munications between Eio de Janeiro and the other mar- 
 itime towns of the empire. There are also four tow- 
 boats, with an aggregate of 187 horse power. The fol- 
 lowing tabular statement exhibits the value of leading 
 importations into Rio de Janeiro in 1854 : 
 
 1st. — Merchandise. 
 
 Liquors, wines, tea, etc 17,000,000 francs. 
 
 Provisions, flour, butter, etc 24,000,000 " 
 
 Lamp-oil, fat, tallow, soap, etc 4,000,000 " 
 
 Hatters' wares, dry goods, lacea, fancy- 
 ware, etc 9,000,000 " 
 
 Tissues of cotton 31,000,000 " 
 
 " wool 7,000,000 " 
 
 " linen 8,000,000 " 
 
 Paper, books, etc 4,000,000 " 
 
 Skins and leather, shoes, etc, saddlery, etc. 4,000,000 " 
 
 Broom wares, willow wares, woods, furni- 
 ture, etc 8,000,000 " 
 
 Pottery wares, porcelain, etc 3,000,000 •' 
 
 Watches, jewelry, hardware, etc 10,000,000 " 
 
 Coal, tnetals, manufactured and wrought, 
 
 etc 11,000,000 " 
 
 Saltpetre, powder, arms, sea-stores 5,000,000 " 
 
 Simdriea 19,000,000 " 
 
 2i. — GomiTBlES FEOM WHICH IMPORTED. 
 
 Africa 350,000 francs. 
 
 America : 
 
 United States 18,000,000 " 
 
 Buenos Ayrea 1,400,000 " 
 
 Montevideo 1,600,000 " 
 
 Chili 700,000 " 
 
 Centeal Europe : 
 
 England and Possessions 56,000,000 " 
 
 Austria 2,000,000 " 
 
 Belgium 5,000,000 " 
 
 France 32,000,000 " 
 
 Switzerland 4,000,000 " 
 
 Southern Europe: 
 
 Spain 5,000,000 " 
 
 Portugal ^ 14,000,000 " 
 
 Sardinia 3,000,000 " 
 
 Sicily and Naples 400,000 " 
 
 Turkey and Levant 300,000 " 
 
 Northern Europe : 
 
 Holland 1,300,000 " 
 
 Hanse Towns 12,000,000 " 
 
 Denmark 3,000,000 " 
 
 Sweden and Norway 3,000,000 " 
 
 Prussia 1,700,000 " 
 
 Fisheries 100,000 " 
 
 Otherplacea ; 4,000,000 " 
 
 As regards the export trade of Eio de Janeiro in 
 1854, the returns at hand are not so minute. Of cof- 
 fee, however, the chief article of export from the Bra- 
 zilian market, there were exported this year 1,987,632 
 bags, weighing an aggregate of 318,021,120 lbs., of 
 which 899,900 bags, or 143,984,000 lbs., were sent to 
 the United States. The quantity exported the pre- 
 vious year was 1,637,663 bags, or 262,026,080 lbs. The 
 quantity of sugar exported was less than that of 1853 
 — namely, 5905 hhds. and 1739 barrels. 
 
 The following resumi exhibits the total results of 
 1854: 
 
 
 iQiports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Value in 1854. . . . 
 
 Value in 1853. . . . 
 
 Increase in 1864 
 
 Pronca. 
 171,000,000 
 164,000,000 
 
 Francs. 
 167,000,000 
 161,000,000 
 
 Francs. 
 338,000,000 
 325,000,000 
 
 7,000,000 
 
 6,000,000 
 
 13,000,000 
 
 The total flour imports at Eio for 1856 were 317,404 
 barrels, of which 301,729 barrels were from the United 
 States. Of this amount 151,716 barrels were shipped 
 coastwise or re-exported after reaching Rio. 
 
 Total import, 1867 317,404 
 
 Stock in all hands January 1, 1856 80,000 
 
 397,404 
 
 Shipped coastwise and re-exported, 1856 . . 151,716^ 
 
 Stock in all hands January 1, 1857 60,000 
 
 211,716!- 
 
 Consumption of 1856 bbla. lS6,687f 
 
 The imports of flour from all sources last j'ear ex- 
 ceed those of the preceding year 16,536 barrels, while 
 the imports from the United States show an increase 
 for the same period of 74,423 barrels. In fact, the 
 tables for ten years show a somewhat irregular but 
 decisive transfer of the flour trade almost entirely to 
 the hands of the United States. 
 
 The total exports of coffee from Eio for the year 
 1856 show as follows : 
 
 To the United States 1,169,131 bags. 
 
 To Europe 889,885 " 
 
 To other points 40,120 " 
 
 Total 2,099,138 " 
 
 Exports op 1855. 
 
 To the United States 1,139,135 bags. 
 
 ToEurope 1,242,820 " 
 
 Elsewhere 24,843 " 
 
 Total 2,406,809 " 
 
 Exports op 1854. 
 
 To the United States 891,705 bags. 
 
 To Europe 1,064,682 " 
 
 Elsewhere 37,319 " 
 
 ■^tal 1,993,706 " 
 
 The total exports of sugar for 1856 were : Cases, 
 2304 ; barrels, 25,581 ; showing a decrease from the 
 preceding year of 2381 cases and 12,155 barrels. The 
 export of hides for 1856 was 64,861 pieces, showing a 
 large decline from the two preceding years. 
 
 Of the cofi'ee exports to the United States in 1856, 
 
RIO 
 
 1642 
 
 BIO 
 
 Baltimore received 188,011 bags ; New York, 362,248 ; wlio are employed in the mechanic trades, in commer- 
 Philadelphia, 91,985 ; Boston, 5001 ; and New Orleans, cial pursuits, as domestics, etc. Some hundreds are 
 404,502. sent to the new colonies, where they constitute almost 
 
 The foreign commercial arrivals in 1856 number the only aid which Brazilian agriculture receives an- 
 1050 vessels, of 335,386 tons, of which thirty-two were nually from foreigners. There arrived in 1851 and in 
 
 ~ - - -~ " 1852 a large number of German settlers, engaged in 
 
 Europe by the agents of the colonial directors. On 
 their anival these colonists became dissatisfied, and 
 
 from Baltimore, thirty from New York, twenty-eight 
 from Richmond, fifteen from New Orleans, fourteen 
 from Boston, eleven from Philadelphia, two from 
 Charleston, two from the Rio Grande, and one from 
 "Wilmington. The number of foreign departures in 
 1856 was 996 vessels, of 426,908 tons, of which 640 
 were with produce, 34 with foreign merchandise, 140 
 with their inward cargoes, and 182 in ballast proceed- 
 ed to other ports of the empire. The coasting trade 
 outward was conducted, exclusively of 303 steamboats, 
 by 2276 vessels, of 253,736 tons burden. The coast- 
 ing trade inward was conducted by 2222 sailing ves- 
 sels and 305 steamboats, of 276,967 tons. 
 
 The revenue collected at the custom-house of Rio 
 exhibits an increase corresponding with that of the im- 
 port trade of this port. This is shown by the follow- 
 ing comparative statement of receipts : 
 
 1835 3,683,000 milreas. 
 
 1845 8,1143,000 " 
 
 1S55 13,07T,DCO " 
 
 The last year (1855) does not exhibit the maximum. 
 This was reached in '1852, the amount that year ex- 
 ceeding 14,775,600 milreas, or over $7,000,000. 
 
 Immigration. — The immigration returns of Eio fur- 
 nish the following statistics : 
 
 Years. 
 
 Entered. 
 
 Departed. 
 
 1851 : 
 
 0,535 
 C,8T0 
 9,645 
 8,6T3 
 
 154'J 
 ISST 
 1981 
 1TT3 
 
 1S.52 
 
 1S53 
 
 1854 
 
 
 34,7T3 
 
 T18I 
 
 
 8,693 
 
 1795 
 
 
 
 hence German immigration has almost entirely ceased. 
 In 1851, there arrived of this class of immigrants 2958 
 persons ; in 1852, 1047 persons ; in 1853, 349 persons ; 
 and in 1854, only 295. 
 
 General Bemarks.- — On the SOth of April, 1854, the 
 first railroad in Brazil was thrown open to the public, 
 the inauguration taking place in the presence of their 
 Imperial Majesties, and an immense concourse of the 
 leading personages of the empire. The general navi- 
 gation and commerce of the southern provinces, as well 
 as the general trade between them and the United 
 States, are decreasing ; owing, it is alleged, to the settle- 
 ment of the difficulties that existed on the River Plata. 
 The more liberal tarifl', both on imports and exports, at- 
 tracts a large bulk of the trade of these provinces to 
 that quarter. A treaty between the United States and 
 Brazil is regarded as the only means of promoting the 
 general commerce and navigation between the two 
 countries. There exists no commercial treaty between 
 the United States and Brazil ; but Brazilian vessels, 
 with their cargoes, are admitted on an equal footing 
 with vessels of the United States as respects tonnage 
 and import duties, and all other charges. 
 
 The ports of Brazil open to direct foreign trade are : 
 Para, Maranham, Pamahiba, Fortaleza (Ceara), Ara- 
 caty (Ceara), Eio Grande North, Parahiba, Pernamtju- 
 co, Maceyo (Alagoas), Lanangeiras (Sergipe), Bahia, 
 Espirito Santo, Rio de Janeiro,' Santos, Paranagua, St. 
 Catherine, Eio Grande, Sao Borga (E. G. South), Porto 
 Alegre (R. G. South). 
 
 The immigrants are very generally Portuguese, 
 
 CO-MMEECE OF TUB UNITED STATES WITH COAST OF 1'EAZIL AND DEPENDENCIES, FROM OOTOBEH 1, 1820, TO JULY 1, 1857. 
 
 Years ending 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Wliereof there was in 1 
 Bullion and Specie, 
 
 Tonnage clearod. 
 
 Domestic. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Export, 
 
 Import. 
 
 American. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Sent. 30,1821 
 
 $885,348 
 
 $496,412 
 
 $1,381,760 
 
 $605,126 
 
 $186,999 
 
 $19,500 
 
 22,264 
 
 314 
 
 1823 
 
 1,217,411 
 
 246,518 
 
 1,463,929 
 
 1,486,567 
 
 
 71.803 
 
 28,301 
 
 549 
 
 1823 
 
 1,062,209 
 
 279,181 
 
 1,341,390 
 
 1,214,810 
 
 8,616 
 
 46.215 
 
 22,,616 
 
 
 1824 
 
 1,699,764 
 
 602,150 
 
 2,801,904 
 
 2,074,119 
 
 83,219 
 
 318,792 
 
 38,845 
 
 507 
 
 1825 
 
 1,641,296 
 
 752,468 
 
 2,393,754 
 
 ■ 2,156,707 
 
 98,343 
 
 197,188 
 
 38,988 
 
 707 
 
 1826 
 
 1,597,844 
 
 603,005 
 
 2,200,349 
 
 2,166,678 
 
 113,090 
 
 104,771 
 
 34,372 
 
 1,034 
 
 1827 
 
 1,486,433 
 
 377,873 
 
 1,863,806 
 
 2,060,971 
 
 1,676 
 
 283,932 
 
 37,709 
 
 381 
 
 1828 
 
 1,505,779 
 
 482,936 
 
 1,988,715 
 
 3,097,763 
 
 135,183 
 
 181,577 
 
 40,114 
 
 
 1829 
 
 1,610,260 
 
 419,667 
 
 1,929,927 
 
 2,585,407 
 
 78,612 
 
 70,836 
 
 40,978 
 
 
 1830 
 
 Total. . . 
 
 1,600,999 
 
 242,239 
 
 1,843,288 
 
 2,491,460 
 
 1,470 
 
 84,6' 5 
 
 44,450 
 
 601 
 
 $14,206,833 
 
 $4,501,939 
 
 $18,708,772 
 
 $19,879,057 
 
 $678,106 
 
 $l,234,30;i 
 
 343,587 
 
 4,093 
 
 Sept. 30, 1831 
 
 $1,052,198 
 
 $423,902 
 
 $2,076,095 
 
 $2,875,820 
 
 $216,375 
 
 $23,14' 
 
 36,852 
 
 203 
 
 1S32 
 
 1,232.077 
 
 822,717 
 
 2,064.794 
 
 3,890,846 
 
 381,503 
 
 20,671 
 
 -30,439 
 
 356 
 
 1S3B 
 
 2,474,856 
 
 797,546 
 
 3,272,101 
 
 6,080,6£3 
 
 156,840 
 
 11,468 
 
 40,736 
 
 1,017 
 
 1834 
 
 1,536,097 
 
 473,254 
 
 2,059,361 
 
 4,729,969 
 
 60,084 
 
 31,735 
 
 37,092 
 
 1,977 
 
 1836 
 
 l,8i0,791 
 
 797,885 
 
 2,608,656 
 
 6,574,466 
 
 343,931 
 
 66,606 
 
 39,269 
 
 2,554 
 
 1836 
 
 1,782,741 
 
 1,802,196 
 
 8,094,986 
 
 7,210,190 
 
 900,324 
 
 6,940 
 
 43,833 
 
 8,062 
 
 1837 
 
 1,301,217 
 
 441,992 
 
 1,743,209 
 
 4,991,983 
 
 83,,531 
 
 40,617 
 
 19,676 
 
 4,107 
 
 1838 
 
 2,094,957 
 
 562,237 
 
 2,657,194 
 
 3,191,238 
 
 208,706 
 
 123,221 
 
 30,628 
 
 1,601 
 
 1839 
 
 2,133,997 
 
 603,488 
 
 2,087,486 
 
 6,292,»55 
 
 184,427 
 
 4,838 
 
 39,431 
 
 3,188 
 
 1840 
 
 Total. . . 
 
 2,145,863 
 
 360,711 
 
 2,606,574 
 
 4,027,2: 
 
 102,174 
 
 14,622 
 
 84,189 
 
 1,764 
 
 $18,164,488 
 
 $6,545,907 
 
 $24,710,395 
 
 $47,274,464 
 
 $2,637,81,5 
 
 $343,816 
 
 360,779 
 
 19,824 
 
 Sept. 80,1841 
 
 $2,941,991 
 
 $575,283 
 
 $8,517,273 
 
 $6,302,668 
 
 $265,303 
 
 421,363 
 
 47,634 
 
 3,101 
 
 1842 
 
 2,225,1571 
 
 375,981 
 
 2,601,602 
 
 6,948,814 
 
 81,794 
 
 50,345 
 
 38,773 
 
 2,643 
 
 9 mos., 1843* 
 
 1,608,584 
 
 223,704 
 
 1,792,288 
 
 3,947,088 
 
 22,400 
 
 50,34r 
 
 32,066 
 
 1,3'J5 
 
 June 30,1841 
 
 2,409,418 
 
 408,834 
 
 2,818,252 
 
 6,888,806 
 
 142,6:'5 
 
 28,609 
 
 46,250 
 
 1,816 
 
 1845 
 
 2,413,567 
 
 424,888 
 
 3,837,?50 
 
 6,084,619 
 
 181,150 
 
 7,477 
 
 40,716 
 
 2,077 
 
 1846 
 
 2,764,012 
 
 389,383 
 
 3,143,395 
 
 7,441,808 
 
 236,091 
 
 2,633 
 
 48,020 
 
 4,682 
 
 1847 
 
 2,566,938 
 
 ■376,840 
 
 2,943,778 
 
 T,0:i6,160 
 
 140,240 
 
 26,5r6 
 
 30,281 
 
 3,367 
 
 1848 
 
 3,092,736 
 
 279,698 
 
 8,372,434 
 
 7,992,648 
 
 163,072 
 
 17,505 
 
 67,206 
 
 6,036 
 
 1849 
 
 2,838,380 
 
 264,597 
 
 3,102,977 
 
 8,404,368 
 
 117,604 
 
 9,361 
 
 66,338 
 
 6,028 
 
 1850 
 
 Total... 
 
 2,723,768 
 
 473,847 
 
 3,107,114 
 
 9,324,429 
 
 270,690 
 
 3,166 
 
 58,113 
 "464,405 
 
 S,.560 
 
 $25,534,964 
 
 $3,791,999 
 
 $23,826,063 
 
 $69,F16,988 
 
 $1,638,066 
 
 $216 28' 
 
 84,714 
 
 June 30, 1851 
 
 $3,128,956 
 
 $623,960 
 
 $3,753,916 
 
 $11,.525,304 
 
 $430,263 
 
 $6,511 
 
 68,639 
 
 7,648 
 
 1S52 
 
 2,782,179 
 
 388,863 
 
 8,021,042 
 
 12,230,283 
 
 117,406 
 
 ','4,311 
 
 53,464 
 
 6,718 
 
 1853 
 
 3,784,190 
 
 260,254 
 
 3,994,444 
 
 14,817,961 
 
 399,039 
 
 0,000 
 
 6:i,T35 
 
 5,158 
 
 1854 
 
 4,046,857 
 
 193,384 
 
 4,239,241 
 
 14,110,387 
 
 643,114 
 
 24,400 
 
 60,348 
 
 2,829 
 
 1855 
 
 3,973,219 
 
 288,054 
 
 4,261,273 
 
 15,21S,'.55 
 
 141,536 
 
 1,461 
 
 75,666 
 
 2,674 
 
 1856 
 
 4,858,125 
 
 286,779 
 
 5,094,904 
 
 19,262,667 
 
 383,693 
 
 
 74,280 
 
 2,890 
 
 185T 
 
 5,268,166 
 
 277,041 
 
 5,646,207 
 
 21,460,733 
 
 146,588 
 
 
 84,713 
 
 3,186 
 
 * Xiao iQuiillifl to June 30, and the fiscal yGar from this time hegins July 1. 
 
KIO 
 
 1643 
 
 EIO 
 
 Anchorage Dues. — SOO reas (about 16f cents) per ton 
 of Brazilian measurement. Vessels arriving and de- 
 parting in ballast pay only half anchorage ; and those 
 calling merely for supplies are exempt from anchorage 
 duty. Vessels which make more than two voyages to 
 ports of Brazil during a twelvemonth are exempt from 
 the payment of anchorage dues on all voyages oyer 
 that number within the same year ; vessels, therefore, 
 pay no more than 600 reas annually (3^ cents), be the 
 number of voyages what it may. For passports to 
 leave, from 4 to 8 milreas (from $2 22 to ^4 44) ; for 
 pilotage inward 30 milreas ($16 67), but no obligation 
 to take pilots inward ; for pilotage outward 70 milreas 
 ($38 88), and for canoe-hire, 6 mUreas ($3 33). No ves- 
 sel is allowed to leave port without a pilot, nor to get 
 under weigh after sunset, or before sunrise. Hospital 
 money, 4 milreas on the vessel (say $2 22), and 640 
 reas (or about 36 cents) for each of the crew. The 
 charge for stamps varies, being not less than $1. A 
 consular return from Pemambuco, under date of Janu- 
 ary, 1855, gives each specific item of charges upon 
 an American bark of 200 tons burden which entered 
 that port laden with flour, and leaving with a cargo of 
 sugar. The total, inward and outward, including the 
 charges for lighterage, labor, craneage, etc., which are 
 not on government account, amounted to $571 45. Of 
 this there was paid on govermnent account $192 45 — 
 the remainder belonging to the other class of charges. 
 
 Tariff. — The market prices in Brazil are taken as 
 the basis for the duties imposed by the present tariff. 
 The dispatch by invoice will talte place when the goods 
 imported have no fixed duties in the tariff, or when 
 they are subject only to a tax for warehousing and 
 clearing out. 
 
 For the dispatch of goods subject to ad valorem du- 
 ties the merchant or consignee is obliged to show a dec- 
 laration stating the prices of his goods, and the orig- 
 inal invoice duly certified. In want of the original 
 invoice may be presented two certificates by two bro- 
 kers, or, in the absence of brokers, of two merchants 
 of the place, showing the current prices of the goods. 
 
 The value of the goods subject to ad valorem duties 
 will be that of the Brazilian market, as before said ; 
 deductions made of the respective duties, or the value 
 of the original invoice, with the addition of 10 per cent. 
 — United States Com. lielations. 
 
 Remarks on the Trade of Brazil. — This vast empire 
 comprehends the great eastern section of South Amer- 
 ica. Its length from north to south is computed at 
 about 2600 miles, and its greatest breadth at 2540 
 miles. The entire area comprises about 2,973,400 
 square miles, or over ten times the area of Texas, and 
 about seventy times that of Portugal. The climate is 
 generallj' favorable to agricultural pursuits, the soil 
 being fertile, and in many parts of the empire, particu- 
 larly in the provinces, abounding with valuable min- 
 eral resources. The staple productions of Brazil are 
 such as must necessarily attract an extensive foreign 
 trade; though it is stated that anterior to 1809 she 
 had no direct intercourse with other nations — the moth- 
 er country, under the policy which dictated her colo- 
 nial system, excluding from the ports of her extensive 
 colony all foreign flags. The dangers which menaced, 
 and the domestic troubles which agitated Portugal at 
 this period, resulted in the flight of the royal family 
 to Brazil. With the court were introduced new tastes, 
 new ideas, and a more liberal policy in regard to for- 
 eign intercourse. The ports of Brazil were at once 
 opened to foreign commerce, and since that period the 
 culture of the staple productions has kept pace with 
 the increased demands of foreign markets. The great 
 staple of Brazil is coffee, though vegetables, fruits, 
 wheat, barley, rice, maize, and tobacco are extensive- 
 ly produced in the southern or temperate provinces ; 
 while within the tropics the chief productions are 
 mandioca, rice, bananas, plantains, beans, sweet pota- 
 toes, coffee, sugar, cotton, and cocoa — the last four for 
 
 exportation. The forests supply the very best timber 
 for ship-bnilding, and almost every variety of wood 
 for cabinet-work and dj'eing purposes ; among the lat- 
 ter. Brazil-wood, rosewood, and Campeachy-wood are 
 important articles of commerce. Travelers who have 
 minutely explored the interior of Brazil describe no 
 less than 219 varieties of timber, and many of them 
 largely enter into the commercial resources and domes- 
 tic wealth of that empire. Since the acknowledgment 
 of its independence, the commercial regulations of Bra- 
 zil have been marked by a spirit of liberality and of 
 freedom from unnecessary and exclusive restrictions. 
 The duties on imports and exports are based upon the 
 valuation principle, and are designed solely with a view 
 to supply the necessary revenues for the support of 
 the government ; and the port, pilot, and other navi- 
 gation charges seldom exceed the actual requirements 
 of a just and liberal intercourse with foreign nations. 
 Indeed, the commercial policy of Brazil seems eminent- 
 ly adapted to a country of such boundless extent and 
 so sparsely populated, as labor is sure to find a remu- 
 nerative reward, in whatever mode it may seek to de- 
 velop the exhaustless resources of the empire, in the 
 free competition to which it invites the enterprise and 
 exchanges of foreign nations. The entire population 
 amounts to about six millions — ^being two persons to 
 the square mile; of which at least three-fifths are 
 blacks. The commercial treaties negotiated by the 
 govemm6nt of Brazil with foreign countries are gener- 
 ally based upon the principle of reciprocity. That 
 with the United States was concluded December 12, 
 1828, and established between the two countries free- 
 dom of commerce and entire reciprocity of trade and 
 navigation- — certain special favors being reserved to 
 Portugal, owing to the former relations between that 
 countrj- and Brazil. This treaty contained the usual 
 stipulation requiring twelve months' notice to be given 
 by either party desiring to terminate the same ; and 
 such notice having been given by the govermnent of 
 Brazil, and the twelve months having expired, the 
 treaty is no longer offeree. The commercial relations 
 between the two countries were, however, placed upon 
 a footing of similar reciprocity to that guaranteed by 
 the treaty, by virtue of the proclamation of the Presi- 
 dent of the United States,, bearing date November 4, 
 1847, issued conformably to the provisions-of an act of 
 Congress passed on the 24th day of Maj-, 1828. 
 
 As the trade between the two countries is placed 
 much on the same footing of reciprocity as that guaran- 
 teed by the treaty, it is deemed not irrelevant to pre- 
 sent a synopsis of the provisions of that treaty, so far 
 as they relate to commerce. 
 
 The contracting parties are placed on the footing of 
 the most favored nation in respect to commerce and 
 navigation, the relations between Portugal and Brazil 
 excepted. Free commercial intercourse, on the basis 
 of perfect equality and reciprocity between the citizens 
 and subjects of the two countries, is established, the 
 coasting trade being reserved by each government to 
 its own flag. The vessels of both countries are placed 
 on the same footing in the ports of each, as to the im- 
 portation, exportation, or re-exportation of foreign 
 goods, from or to any foreign country ; the United 
 States agreeing to consider a vessel as Brazilian when 
 the proprietor and captain are subjects of Brazil and 
 the papers are in legal form. The contracting parties 
 agree that no higher or other duties shall be imposed 
 on the importation of any articles, the produce or manu- 
 factures Of either country, into the ports of the other, 
 than are or shall be payable on the like articles, being 
 the produce or manufactures of any other foreign coun- 
 try ; and export duties shall be the same in each to the 
 ports of the other as when the articles are exported to 
 any other foreign country. It is agreed that it shaU 
 be wholly free for all merchants, commanders of ships, 
 and other citizens or subjects of Iioth countries, to man- 
 age themselves their own business in all the ports 
 
EIO 
 
 1644 
 
 and places subject to the jurisdiction of each other, as 
 well with respect to the consignment and sale of their 
 goods and merchandise by -wholesale or retail, as with 
 respect to the loading, unloading, and sending off their 
 ships ; they being in all these cases to be treated as 
 citizens or subjects of the country in "which they re- 
 side, or, at least, to be placed on a footing "with the 
 subjects or citizens of the most favored nation. Ves- 
 sels in distress, pursued by pirates or enemies, etc., 
 belonging to either of the contracting parties, to be 
 received and protected in the ports, rivers, bays, etc., 
 of the other. 
 
 Foreign Commerce of Brazil. — From official docu- 
 ments, it appears that of the whole commerce of Brazil, 
 Kio de Janeiro holds 56 per cent. ; Bahia 12 per cent. ; 
 Pemambuco 12 per cent. ; Alagoas, Santo Paulo, and 
 Santo Pedro do Sul, 8 per cent. ; Para, Maranham, 
 and Santa Catarina, each 4 per cent. The species of 
 merchandise which constitutes the leading imports 
 into Brazil are cottons; of which Rio de Janeiro, 
 Bahia, and Pemambuco usually receive in value 
 about $47,000,000 ; woolens about $10,000,000; silks, 
 $8,000,000. After these rank next in commercial 
 importance provisions, flour (the great bulk of which 
 comes from the United States) ;. wines and other liq- 
 uors ; metals, crude and inanufactured ; watches, jew- 
 elry, arms, ammunition, etc. etc. The principal ex- 
 ports are coffee (which is shipped from liio) and sugar, 
 (principally from Bahia and Pemambuco). Full a 
 moiety of the former goes to the United States, and 
 the latter chiefly to England, Trieste, and the Hanse 
 Towns. The precious metals next follow in the rank 
 of exports ; then diamonds, skins (otter), hides, cotton, 
 and tobacco. The two last, as well as sugar, though 
 not to so great an extent, are either stationary or de- 
 clining, as respects the quantities annually exported. 
 
 The following comparative statements give the fig- 
 ures for two years, 1851 and 1852 : 
 
 Imports . . . 
 
 Exports . . . 
 
 Total. 
 
 $32,300,000 
 31,920,000 
 
 $04,220,000 
 
 $34,200,000 
 32,680,000 
 
 $66,880,000 
 
 The proportion which the United States had in the 
 trade of these two years, appear as follows : Exports, 
 1851, 36 per cent. ; 1852, 37 per cent. Imports, 1861, 
 12 per cent. ; 1852, 9 per cent. 
 
 EIO 
 
 AWALTSIS OP iMrORTB (BT COTTNTSIEB). 
 
 
 1851. 
 
 1862. 
 
 
 France. 
 
 60,000,000 
 
 29,000,000 
 
 27,000,000 
 
 8,000,000 
 
 5,000,000 
 
 6,000,000 
 
 4,000,000 
 
 France. 
 T4,000,000 
 
 33,000,000 
 24,000,000 
 12,000,000 
 6,000,000 
 6,000,000 
 6,000,000 
 
 
 United States 
 
 Hanse Towns 
 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 ANALYSIS or Exports (by Meeohandisi;). 
 
 1 1851. 
 
 1852. 
 
 Coffee 
 
 Francs. 
 
 132,000,000 
 3,000,000 
 3,000,000 
 3,000,000 
 
 Francs. 
 
 140,000,000 
 5,000,000 
 1,000,000 
 1,000,000 
 
 Sugar 
 
 Hides 
 
 Woofls .; 
 
 Analysis of Exports (by Coumtries). 
 
 United States . 
 England ...... 
 
 Hanse Towns . 
 
 France 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Austria 
 
 1851. 
 
 1862. 
 
 Francs. 
 68,000,000 
 25,000,000 
 12,000,000 
 11,000,000 
 7,000,000 
 8,000,000 
 
 Francs. 
 71,000,000 
 23,000,000 
 3,000,000 
 12,000,000 
 8,000,000 
 7,000,000 
 
 The French official report, from which the preceding 
 summary is derived, states that there were received 
 from the United States 230,000 barrels of flour, and 
 from Europe 30,000 barrels ; of which 16,000 barrels 
 were shipped from Marseilles, and the remainder from 
 Trieste and Antwerp. Butter, salt, dried beef from 
 the Plata, gin, dried and preserved fruits, fish-oil, lin- 
 seed oil, &c., maintained the figures of the preceding 
 year ; but in the articles of beer, soap, wax and other 
 candles, tea, and codfish, there was a diminution. The 
 following statement shows the relative share assigned 
 to each country in the general importation of 1852 : 
 
 Imports. Exports. 
 
 Great Britain 38,100 
 
 France 18,100 
 
 United States 13,100 
 
 Germany, Belgium, Holland, and 
 
 Switzerland 19,100 
 
 Portugal, Spain, and Italy 12,100 
 
 The following tabular statement will be interesting 
 as exhibiting the custom-house revenues of Brazil for 
 the periods designated, and the sources whence de- 
 rived. The present value of the rea in United States 
 currency is, 1000 reas or 1 milrea^55 cents. 
 
 12,000 
 12,000 
 38,000 
 
 25,000 
 13,000 
 
 DUTIES OP 
 
 Import. 
 
 Export, I Navigation. 
 
 Intomal and Extraordinary. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1S40-'B0 
 
 1S50-'51 
 
 1851-'52 
 
 Increase in 1852 over 1851 
 
 At the port of llio Janeiro in 1851- 
 
 17,830,02911000 
 20,471,26211000 
 24,793,04611000, 
 4,321,78411000 
 14,034,90611000 
 
 3,780,45311000 
 4,706,69611000 
 4,527,77211000 
 
 2,555^(54311000 
 
 Reaa. 
 345,58011000 
 615,58111000 
 546,94411000 
 31,36311000 
 282,84311000 
 
 2,125,81711000 
 2,237,12511000 
 2,365,81011000 
 123,68511000 
 1,733,34711000 
 
 24,081,87911000 
 27,930,66411000 
 82,233,57211000 
 4,302,90811000 
 18,666,74411000 
 
 Coffee. — Coffee is the leading staple of Brazil. For- 
 merly, and for many years, San Domingo was the 
 source from which Europe derived its supplies of this 
 article — the quantity exported from that island at one 
 time having reached as high as 77,000,000 lbs. ; and 
 had not the revolution broken out in 1792, it was esti- 
 mated that there would have been exported that year 
 about 84,000,000 lbs. That event, combined with other 
 obvious causes, produced a total cessation in the sup- 
 plies from this source. Being driven from St. Domin- 
 go, the culture of coffee at once became a leading 
 branch of industry in Cuba, Jamaica, Surinam, and 
 Java, and was at a subsequent period introduced 
 with much success into Brazil. After the flight of 
 John VI. from Portugal to Brazil, in 1808-'9, the port 
 of Eio de Janeiro was opened to foreign trade, and 
 coffee soon became one of the leading staples of export. 
 At that period the annual crop did not exceed 30,000 
 bags, or 4,800,000 lbs. In 1820 it reached as high 
 as 100,000 bags, or 16,000,000 lbs. In 1817 and 1821 
 the supplj' was so small, that in the market of London 
 it rose as high as 37| cents per lb. This of course 
 stimulated its cultivation in Brazil. The ruin of San 
 
 Domingo transferred, also, the culture of indigo to 
 British India, and its culture was at the same period 
 abandoned in Brazil. Previously to the revolution in 
 Hayti there was exported from that island 76,835,219 
 lbs. ; in 1818 the exports fell to about 26,000,000 lbs. ; 
 and now they do not exceed thirty-five to forty mill- 
 ions. In 1834, the year in which the emancipation 
 act went into effect, Jamaica exported to England 
 18,268,888 lbs. of coffee ; five years later, the quantity 
 had fallen to 9,423,197 lbs. The decline in the culti- 
 vation of coffee in this island, and the unrestricted 
 supply of African slave labor in Brazil, combined to 
 give a powerful impulse to its culture in that empire. 
 Hence, in 1830, the crop reached as high as 400,000 
 bags, or 64,000,000 lbs. The coffee-growing districts 
 in Brazil are divided into Serra Abaxo (below the 
 mountains) and Serra Acima (above the mountains). 
 The cost of transporting the coffee from the plantation 
 to market is about 2 cents per lb. ; and the actual cost 
 of production is stated to be about 4J cents per lb. 
 The quantity produced in the empire, year by year, is 
 not officially ascertained ; but it has been approxima- 
 ted with sufllcient exactness for practical purposes. 
 
KIO 
 
 1645 
 
 RIO 
 
 Coffee was first imported into the United States 
 from Brazil in 1809, the first importation consisting of 
 1809 bags. From 1809 to 1849 the imports of coffee 
 into the United States had increased froni 1809 bags 
 to over 100,000,000 Iba. ; and in 1855 it reached as 
 high as 135,369,383 lbs. The following comparative 
 tabtdar statement shows the quantities of coffee im- 
 
 ported into the United States from Brazil, and the 
 quantities of flour exported from the United States to 
 Brazil, with the total annual values of each respect- 
 ively ; and the cunent price of flour per barrel, and 
 of coffee per lb., for each year, for a period of eleven 
 years — from 1844 to 1854, both inclusive, showing a 
 greater rate of increase in coffee over flour : 
 
 Yeara. 
 
 Coffee to U. S. 
 from Brazil. 
 
 Flour from U. 
 to Brazil. 
 
 Values. 
 
 Value of Coffee . Value of 
 per lb. Flour per bbl. 
 
 1844. 
 1845. 
 1846. 
 1847. 
 1848. 
 1849. 
 1850. 
 1851. 
 1852. 
 1853. 
 1854. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 95,291,484 
 
 78,553,616 
 
 97,535,697 
 
 94,916,629 
 
 110,927,284 
 
 122,581,183 
 
 90,319,511 
 
 107,578,257 
 
 138,156,506 
 
 153,338,464 
 
 116,794,773 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 5,802,901 
 
 4,401,269 
 
 5,964,513 
 
 5,673,690 
 
 5,969,993 
 
 6,776,727 
 
 7,422,608 
 
 8,881,105 
 
 10,064,740 
 
 11,844,414 
 
 10,329,993 
 
 Barrels. 
 288,181 
 209,845 
 296,460 
 254,300 
 294,816 
 314,808 
 292,464 
 369,975 
 345,025 
 433,843 
 315,319 
 
 Dollars. 
 1,493,413 
 1,083,318 
 1,675,756 
 1,562,979 
 1,952,212 
 1,885,203 
 1,649,696 
 2,021,631 
 1,639,285 
 2,434,187 
 2,417,685 
 
 Sugar. — A glance at the precedmg tables will show 
 that coffee is the great staple export of Brazil to the 
 United States, the produce of which is most steadily 
 and rapidly advancing. The supply will doubtless 
 always be equal to the demand, owing, in a great 
 measure, to the facility and comparatively small ex- 
 pense attending its production ; while the culture of 
 sugar and cotton depends on contingencies, both tem- 
 porary and permanent, which must materially affect 
 the quantities annually produced. These contingen- 
 cies may be briefly stated. The culture of sugar de- 
 pends as much on the science of the manufacturer as 
 on the capital and labor of the planter. Before it can 
 reach the market of Rio, or of any of the other ports of 
 the empire, it requires a vast expenditure of labor, the 
 most assiduous attention, and an outlay of capital that 
 absorbs fully one half, if not more, of the gross yield. 
 Besides, the abolition of the slave-trade, and the sever- 
 ity with which the present laws of Brazil punish those 
 detected in that traffic, must produce decided effects 
 upon the production of those staples in the culture of 
 which slave labor is indispensable. 
 
 A French work on statistics, recently published, 
 furnishes the following data relative to the present 
 number of slaves in Brazil : From a publication made 
 in 1843 bj' Mr. Saturnino de Souza e Oliveira, chief 
 officer of the customs in Brazil, the number of slaves 
 has been computed at three millions, who are thus 
 divided as to employment : 
 
 Slaves in Brazil. 
 
 Employed on the estates 2,600,000 
 
 Domestics 100,000 
 
 "Without any special employment 200,000 
 
 Hired but, and others 200,000 
 
 Total 3,000,000 
 
 The operation of the present rigid measures in force 
 
 in Brazil in respect to the slave-trade is seen in the 
 following table, compiled from an American authority : 
 
 Slaves importer into Brazil from Africa. 
 
 1842 1T,435 
 
 1848 10,0;6 
 
 1844 22,849 
 
 184T 50,172 
 
 1848 60,000 
 
 1849 ; 64,000 
 
 1860 23,000 
 
 1861 3,28T 
 
 1846 19,4.'i3 
 
 1846 60,324 
 
 The figures for 1861 evidence the vigilance of the 
 government in the detection of those engaged in this 
 traffic. It may be remarked, that of the 3287 given 
 for 1851, 1006 were recaptured by the Brazilian cruis- 
 ers, and declared free. 
 
 How long, under these circumstances, sugar and 
 cotton shall continue to be classed among the staples 
 of Brazil, is scarcely left to conjecture. 
 
 Quaktities and Values of Sogae imported into the 
 United States from Brazil. 
 
 Ye>r«. 
 
 Founds. 
 
 Valuen. 
 
 1844 
 
 6,258,288 
 10,100,618 
 15,043,677 
 , 19,738,093 
 28,034,206 
 11,118,228 
 
 8,679,707 
 
 $283,009 
 418,998 
 ,518,401 
 639,700 
 968,911 
 390,942 
 296,564 
 
 1860 
 
 1851 
 
 1S62 
 
 1S53 
 
 1864 
 
 1855 
 
 
 Cotton. — ^As regards the cultivation of cotton, it is 
 well known that several insuperable drawbacks to its 
 extension exist in Brazil. Among these may be 
 named the ravages of insects, the peculiarities of the 
 climate, and the expense and difficulties attendant 
 upon Its transportation from the interior to the coast. 
 Many years ago, it was ascertained in Brazil that the 
 cotton-plant will not flourish near to the sea, and the 
 plantations have. In consequence, receded further in- 
 land, as well to avoid this difficulty as to seek new 
 and fresher lands. 
 
 Tabular Statement showing the Quantities of Cotton exported from Brazil to Great Britain from tue Year 
 1840 to 1855, and also to France, Spain, Portugal, and Belgium, for such Portions of that Period ab can be 
 
 supplied FRO.M OFFICIAL DaTA — BLANKS INDICATING THE ABSENCE OF SAID DaTA. 
 
 Grout Brltnin. 
 
 Portugal. 
 
 1840. 
 1841. 
 1842. 
 1843. 
 1844. 
 1845. 
 1846. 
 1847. 
 1848. 
 1849. 
 1850 . 
 1851. 
 1862. 
 1863. 
 1864. 
 1855. 
 
 I.ba. 
 14,779,171 
 16,671,348 
 15,222,828 
 18,676,123 
 21,084,744 
 20,157,633 
 14,746,321 
 19,966,922 
 19,971,378 
 80,738,133 
 80,299,982 
 19,339,104 
 26,506,144 
 24,190,628 
 19,703,600 
 .•24,577,952 
 
 1,232,000 
 930,517 
 631,829 
 287,802 
 400,000 
 
 832,604 
 
 2,291,578 
 2,851,279 
 
 1,896,286 
 
 2,673J66 
 1,767,446 
 
 14,690 
 None. 
 None. 
 None. 
 None. 
 19,991 
 
 Aggregate 
 
 Annual average . 
 
 336,631,011 
 
 21,039,438 
 
RIV 
 
 1646 
 
 KOA 
 
 The exportations of cotton from Brazil in 1843-'44 
 and 1853-'54 are stated by Brazilian official authori- 
 ties as follows : 
 
 Inl853-'54 28,420,330 pounds. 
 
 lulS43-'44 26,056,160 
 
 Increase in ten years 2,364,160 " 
 
 In 1851-'52 the exportation amounted to 31,983,050 
 lbs., of which quantity Great Britain received 26,881,201 
 lbs., Spain 2,291,578 lbs., Portugal 1,896,286 lbs., and 
 France 889,048 lbs. Of the total exportations in 1852 
 -'53, Great Britain received, as appears from the same 
 authorities, 22,575,122 lbs., Spain 2,351,279 lbs., Port- 
 ugal 2,678,766 lbs., and France 543,611 lbs. The ex- 
 ports to Great Britain from Brazil began in 1781 ; and 
 from that period to the present time the large bulk — 
 at least four-fifths — of Brazilian grown cotton goes to 
 that kingdom. — Comm, Hel. U. S. 
 
 The commerce of Brazil has sustained great injur}'' 
 from the wretched state of the currency and of the 
 finances ; the value of the former, which consists al- 
 most wholly of paper, being excessively depreciated 
 and liable to extreme fluctuations, and ^he revenue be- 
 ing inadequate to meet the expenditure. Latterly, 
 however, vigorous efforts have been made to increase 
 the revenue ; and it is hoped that in the event of the 
 finances being placed on a better footing, measures 
 may also be taken to improve the currenc}'. We sub- 
 join an account of the debt, etc., ofthe empire in 1851: 
 
 Foreign debt £6,187,000 
 
 Local funded debt, 62,370,000,000 reis, at exchange 
 
 20d 7,640,000 
 
 Treasury Mils afloat, about 2,000,000,000 reis, at 
 
 exchange 29d 240,000 
 
 Estimated amount of notes in circulation (paper 
 
 money) throughout the empire, 56,000,000,000 
 
 reis 6,700,000 
 
 £20,667,000 
 
 or, in round numbers, the debts and liabilities of Bra- 
 zil may be stated at £20,500,000 sterling. The for- 
 eign capital in the empire is computed to be about 
 £10,000,000 sterling. 
 
 " The quantity of precious stones shipped is now 
 very considerable. In most cases they are sent to a 
 losing market ; being, in fact, more valuable in Brazil 
 than in London or Paris. Aquamarines (see Beryl) 
 of a very large size have been found. In Januarj", 
 1811, one was found in the Eiberao das Americanas, 
 near the diamond district, which weighed 15 lbs. ; and 
 in the same place, in the October following, one was 
 discovered weighing 4 lbs. Topazes of fine qualitj', 
 but seldom large, amethysts and chrysolites, are also 
 articles of exportation ; and at times some fine speci- 
 mens of these gems are to be met Avith in the jewelers' 
 shops. Correctly' speaking, there are no trading com- 
 panies in Rio de Janeiro ; there is a societj' for effect- 
 ing maritime assurances, but no other. The Bank of 
 Brazil has had very extensive concessions made in its 
 favor, and ought to be in a flourishing state. It has 
 power of issuing notes ; and all disputed moneys and 
 property of the deceased and absent (mories e auzentes) 
 must be placed in its hands, and 2 per cent, per annum 
 charged for the care and trouble. This, in addition 
 to the interest which might be obtained for the deposit, 
 would alone, in an active mercantile countr}', form no 
 inconsiderable revenue. Specie is prohibited from be- 
 ing carried coastwise ; merchants who wish to deposit 
 cash in one of the northern ports, where the largest 
 purchases are made, are therefore forced to take hand 
 bills, and pay a premium for them, varying from 3 
 to 5 per cent. Some enormous capitals have been 
 amassed ; but generally the speculations of the native 
 merchants are conducted on a very limited scale. The 
 legal rate of interest is 6 per cent. ; but money can 
 seldom be obtained under 12." — Caldclbugh's Trav- 
 els in South America, vol. i. p. 53-59. 
 
 River. A river is a current of fresh water flowing 
 in a ied or channel from its source to the sea. The 
 term is appropriated to a considerable collection of 
 
 waters formed by the conflux of two or more h-oois, 
 which deliver into its channel the united streams of 
 several rivulets, which have collected the supplies of 
 several rills trickling down from numberless springs, 
 and the torrents which carry off from the sloping 
 grounds the surplus of every shower. 
 
 Elvers form one of the chief features of the surface 
 of this globe, serving as voiders of all that is imme- 
 diately redundant in our rains and springs, and also as 
 boundaries and barriers, and even as highways, and in 
 many countries as plentiful store-houses. They also 
 fertilize our soil by laying upon our warm banks the 
 richest mould, brought from the high mountains, where 
 it would have remained useless for want of genial heat. 
 
 Rix Dollar (a corruption of German reichsthaler, 
 or dollar ofthe empire'). A silver coin of different val- 
 ues in different countries. — ^ee CoiKS. By authority 
 of Congress, the value of a rix dollar of Denmark is put 
 at 100 cents, and the rix dollar of Bremen at 7&| cents. 
 
 Road, in Namgaiion, a bay or place of anchorage, 
 at some distance from the shore, whither vessels oc- 
 casionally repair to receive intelligence, orders, or nec- 
 essary supplies, or to wait for a fair wind. The excel- 
 lence of a road consists in its being protected from the 
 reigning winds and the swell of the sea, in having a 
 good anchoring-ground, and being at a competent dis- 
 tance from the shore. Those which are not sufficiently 
 protected are termed open roads. 
 
 Roads, pathways formed through the country with 
 more or less art and care, for facilitating the transit of 
 individuals, carriages, etc., between different places. 
 They are of every variety of form — from rude, narrow, 
 rugged, and unformed paths, carried over mountains, 
 interrupted by everj' pettj' rivulet, and almost imprac- 
 ticable to any but foot-passengers, to smooth, broad, 
 and level ways, formed of solid materials, winding 
 round or cut through mountains, and carried over 
 swamps and rivers at an immense expense, and admit- 
 ting ofthe easy passage of carriages and of all sorts of 
 goods. The laying out of improved roads, and their 
 construction, forms an important part of what is de- 
 nominated the science of civil engineering. But as it 
 would be quite foreign toourpurposetoenterinto any 
 details as to the formation of roads, we shall satisfy 
 ourselves with laj-ing before the reader the following 
 statements as to their importance in a commercial point 
 of view. 
 
 Importance and Utility of improved Roads. — Next to 
 the introduction of money, and weights and measures, 
 the formation of good roads and bridges gives the great- 
 est facility to commerce, and contributes more power- 
 fully, perhaps, than anything else to the progress of im- 
 provement. They have been denominated national veins 
 and arteries ; and the latter are not more indispensable 
 to the existence of individuals than improved communi- 
 cations are to a health}' state ofthe public economy. It 
 were vain to attempt to point out in detail the va- 
 rious advantages derived from the easy means of com- 
 munication. There is not a single district that is not 
 indebted to others for a large part of its supplies, even 
 of some of the bulkiest commodities. Besides the coals, 
 metals, minerals, timber, com, etc., conveyed from one 
 part of the empire to another by sea, immense quanti- 
 ties, are conveyed from place to place in the interior by 
 roads and canals ; and everj^ improvement effected in 
 the means of conveyance has obviously the same effect 
 upon the cost of commodities that have to be conveyed, 
 as an improvement in the methods by which they are 
 raised or manufactured. Wherever the means of in- 
 ternal communication are deficient in a countrj-, the 
 inhabitants must unavoidably disperse themselves over 
 the surface. Cities were originally founded by indi- 
 viduals congregating more, perhaps, for the sake of 
 mutual defense and protection than for any other 
 cause. But in countries where good government is 
 established, and property is secure, men resort to cities 
 only from a sense of the advantages they afford. The 
 
KOA 
 
 1647 
 
 ROS 
 
 scale on which business is conducted in them presents 
 facilities that can not be elsewhere afforded for making 
 a fortune ; and the extent to which the subdivision of 
 employments is carried opens a field for the exercise 
 of all sorts of talent ; at the same time that it improves 
 and perfects all sorts of arts, whether subservient to 
 industrious or scientific pursuits, or to those of pleasure 
 and dissipation. It is this that attracts the aspiring, 
 the industrious, the gay, and the profligate, to cities — 
 that fills them with the best and the worst part of the 
 species. The competition that takes place in a great 
 town, the excitement that is constantly kept up, the 
 collision of so many minds brought into immediate 
 contact, and all endeavoring to outstrip each other in 
 their respective departments, develops all the resources 
 of the human mind, and renders a great city a perpet- 
 ually radiating focus of intelligence and invention. 
 There are, however, considerable clogs upon the con- 
 tinued increase of cities. The food and fuel made use 
 of by the inhabitants, and the raw products on which 
 their industrj' is to be exerted, must all come from the 
 countrj' ; and according as the size of a city increases, 
 the distances from which its supplies have to be brought 
 become so much the greater, that ultimately the cost 
 of their conveyance may be so great as to balance or 
 exceed the peculiar advantages resulting from a resi- 
 dence in town. Hence the impossibility of a large or 
 even a considerable city existing any where without 
 possessing extensive means of communication either 
 with the surrounding countrj' or with other countries ; 
 and hence, too, the explanation of the apparently sin- 
 gular fact, of almost all large cities having been found- 
 ed on or near the sea, or a navigable river. 
 
 The influence that the growth of a large town has 
 upon agriculture is great and striking. ' ' In the neigh- 
 borhood," says Paley, "of trading towns, and in those 
 districts which carry on a communication with the 
 markets of trading towns, the husbandmen are busy 
 and skillful, the peasantry laborious ; the land is man- 
 aged to the best advantage, and double the quantity 
 of corn or herbage (articles which are ultimately con- 
 verted into human provision) raised from it, of what 
 the same soil yields in remoter and more neglected 
 parts of the countr}% Wherever a thriving manufac- 
 tory finds means to establish itself, a new vegetation 
 springs up around it. I believe it is true that agri- 
 culture never arrives at any considerable, much less 
 at its highest, degree of perfection, when it is not con- 
 nected with trade ; tliat is, when the demand for the 
 produce is not increased by the consumption of trading 
 cities." — Moral Philosophy^ book vi. c. 11. But the 
 fact of their being mainly conducive to the growth of 
 cities is not the only advantage which improved roads 
 confer upon agriculture. Without their aid it would 
 be impossible to carr)** to distant places suflicient sup- 
 plies of such bulky and heavy articles as lime, marl, 
 shells, and other manures necessary to give luxuriance 
 to the crops of rich soils, and to render those that are 
 poor productive. Not only, too, would inferior roads 
 lessen the market for farm produce, and consequently 
 the quantity raised, but a larger proportional number 
 of horses or other cattle would be required to convey 
 the, diminished produce to market. It is plain, there- 
 fore, that good roads are both directly and indirectly 
 a prime source of agricultural improvement ; directly, 
 by increasing the quantity and reducing the cost of 
 manure, and by increasing the quantity and reducing 
 the cost of conveying farm produce to marl^et ; and in- 
 directly, by providing for the growth and indefinite ex- 
 tension of cities and towns, that is, of the markets for 
 agricultural produce. Increased speed of conveyance 
 is one of the principal advantages that have resulted 
 from the formation of good roads, the invention of 
 steam-packets, etc. Suppose that it takes two days to 
 travel by an uneven, ill-made road between any two 
 places, and that, by improving the road, the journey 
 may be accomplished in one day ; the efiect is the same 
 
 as if the distance were reduced one half; and there is 
 not only a great saving of time to travelers, but also a 
 great saving of cost, from the more speedy conveyance 
 of commodities. This latter is a point of much more 
 importance than is commonly supposed. It is not pos- 
 sible to form any correct estimate of the value of the 
 products that are constantly in the act of being carried 
 from place to place. It is certain, however, that it is 
 verj' great ; and every additional facility of convey- 
 ance, by bringing such products more rapidly to their 
 destination, and enabling them to be sooner applied to 
 the purposes for which they are intended, renders large 
 quantities of capital available for industrious purposes 
 that would otherwise be locked up. — See articles Eaii- 
 KOADS and Canals. 
 
 Rolling. In Naval language, the lateral oscilla- 
 tion of a vessel. This motion, which is often very 
 great when the vessel is running before the sea, en- 
 dangers the masts, strains the sides, and loosens the 
 decks at the water-ways ; it is also liable ta cause the 
 guns to break adrift. When the centre of gravity is 
 too low, the oscillations begin and end violently. The 
 changes in the stowage necessary to modify the nature 
 or extent of the roll are made by seamen from experi- 
 mental knowledge. 
 
 Rolling Tackle. A tackle or pulley hooked to 
 the weather quarter of a yard, and to a lashing or strap 
 round the mast near the slings or parrel of the j'ard. 
 The object of it is to keep the yard constantly over to 
 leeward, thereby depriving it of play and friction when 
 the ship rolls to windward. 
 
 Rope consists of hemp, hair, etc., spun into thick 
 yam, of which several strings are twisted together by 
 means of a wheel. When' made very small, it is called 
 a cord ; and when very thick, a cable. All the differ- 
 ent kinds of this manufacture, from a fishing-line or 
 whip-cord to the cable of a first-rate ship of war, go 
 by the general name of cordage. — See Cable. 
 
 Roses (Oil, Essence, or Attar of), an oil ob- 
 tained by distilling the leaves of damask roses. It is 
 limpid, of a light orange color, and has an extremely 
 grateful and powerful perfume. This, which is the 
 most expensive article of Oriental luxury, used to be 
 principally made at Tunis and Ghazipore, in India. 
 But though it be still very extensively produced at 
 these places, and more especially at the latter, what 
 may be called the foreign demand for the oil is now 
 almost wholly supplied by the districts of Eski Zara 
 and Hassanlik, in Bulgaria. There the culture of roses 
 is carried on upon a very large scale. Inasmuch, how- 
 ever, as it is said to require about 300,000 roses to yield 
 an ounce of oil, the quantitj' produced does not exceed 
 4500 lbs. in a good, and 3000 lbs. in an ordinarj"- j'ear. 
 The genuine article fetches an enormous price ; and is 
 in consequence very generally, or rather, we should 
 say, uniformly adulterated. When the adulteration 
 is effected by means of the oil of geraniums and other 
 fine volatile oils, the fraud is not easily detected ex- 
 cept by connoisseurs, unless the foreign matter be in 
 excess. Sometimes it is alleged that attar of roses has 
 been sold as genuine when above 80 per cent, of other 
 oils was mixed up with it. That which is hawked 
 about the streets of Constantinople and Smyrna is sel- 
 dom any thing better than olive oil scented with roses. 
 Some of the more expert dealers in the article will tell 
 within 2 per cent, the foreign oil in any parcel given 
 them to examine. The value of the exports of this 
 curious product from Turkey has been estimated at 
 from $400,000 to $500,000 a year.— Blanqdi, Vot/age 
 en Bulgarie; Hunt's Merch. Mag. 
 
 Rose-Twood (Ger. Rosenholz; Fr. Bois du rose, de 
 Rhode; It. Legno rodie; Sp. Leno de rosa; Port. Pao 
 de rosadd) is produced in Brazil ; the Canary Islands ; 
 in Siam, whence it is pretty largely exported by the 
 Chinese ; and in other places. It is in the highest es- 
 teem as a fancy wood. The width of the log import- 
 ed into this country averages about 22 inches, so that 
 
EOS 
 
 1648 
 
 EOS 
 
 it must be the produce of a large tree. Eose-wood 
 has a slightly bitterish, somewhat pungent, balsamic 
 taste, and fragrant smell, whence its name. It should 
 be chosen sound, heavy, of the deepest color, in the 
 largest pieces that can be procured, and of the most 
 irregular, knotty grain. The small, light-colored, and 
 large shivered pieces should be rejected. The more 
 distinct the darker parts are from the purple red, which 
 forms the ground, the more is the wood esteemed. It 
 is usually cut into veneers of nine to an inch. — Mil- 
 burn's Orient. Comm., etc. 
 
 Rosin. This substance is obtained from different 
 species of fir ; as the Pinus ahies, sylmstris, larix, bal- 
 samea. It is well known that a resinous juice exudes 
 from the Pinus st/lvesiris, or common Scotch fir, which 
 hardens into tears. The same exudation appears in 
 the Pinus abies, or spruce fir. These tears constitute 
 the substance called thus, or frankincense. When a 
 portion of the bark is stripped off these trees, a liquid 
 juice flows out, which gradually hardens. The juice 
 has obtained different names, according to the plant 
 from which it comes. The Pinus st/lvesiris yields com- 
 mon turpentine; the larix, Venice turpentine (see 
 Turpentine) ; the halsamea, balsam of Canada. All 
 these juices, which are commonly distinguished by the 
 name of turpentine, are considered as composed of two 
 ingredients ; namelj-, oil of turpentine and rosin. When 
 the turpentine is distilled, the oil comes over, and the 
 rosin remains behind. When the distillation is contin- 
 ued to dryness, the residuum is known by the name of 
 common rosin, or colopkonium ; but when water is mix- 
 ed with it while y^t fluid, and incorporated by violent 
 agitation, the mass is called yellow rosin. During win- 
 ter, the wounds made in the fir-trees become incrusted 
 with a white, brittle substance, called barras or galipot, 
 consisting of rosin united to a small portion of oil. The 
 yellow rosin, made by melting and agitating this sub- 
 stance in water, is preferred for most purposes, because 
 it is more ductile, owing, probably, to its still contain- 
 ing some oil. The uses of rosin are numerous and well 
 known. — Thomson's Chemistry. See Naval Stokes. 
 
 Rostock, the principal city of the Grand Duchy 
 of Mecklenburg Schwerin, on the Wamow, about 9 
 miles above where it falls into the Baltic, lat. 54° N., 
 long. 12° 12' E. Population in 1837, 18,067. A large 
 fair for merchandise is annually held at Whitsuntide ; 
 and there are wool fairs at other seasons of the j'car. 
 The outport of Rostock is at Wamemunde, at the mouth 
 of the Wamow. The depth of water at the latter 
 varies from 10 J to 12 feet ; but when the west pier, 
 now in the course of being constructed, has been com- 
 pleted, it is expected that the depth of water will be 
 from 12 to 14 feet. The depth of water in the river 
 from Wamemunde up to Rostock is usually from 8 to 
 9 feet ; so that vessels drawing more than this must be 
 lightened to get up to the latter. Rostock has a good 
 harbor and commodious quays. 
 
 Imports. — The principal articles of import are sugar, 
 coffee, and other colonial products ; cottons, woolens, 
 and hardware, with coal, earthen-ware, salt, iron, 
 horses, etc., from England ; hemp, flax, tallow, oil, 
 sail-cloth, etc., from Russia ; alum, deals, timber, lime, 
 tar, etc., from Sweden ; herrings and fish oil from Nor- 
 way ; wine, brandy, molasses, drugs, etc., from France ; 
 with rice, rum, groceries, etc., from Copenhagen and 
 Hamburg. The total value of the imports by sea may 
 be estimated at about £250,000. 
 
 Exports. — These consist chiefly of verj' good red 
 wheat, barley, peas, rape-seed, and a few oats ; with 
 wool, rags of a very superior quality, oil-cake, rape-oil, 
 bones, etc. The exports of wheat amounted in 1840 
 to 97,565 quarters, and in 1841 to 124,267. In 1840, 
 the exports of peas from Rostock only were 9503 
 quarters ; but from the duchy they amounted to 43,013 
 quarters ; but at an average theif export does not ex- 
 ceed from 20,000 to 25,000 quarters. The export of 
 bones amounted during the same year to 1,550,000 lbs. 
 
 At an average, the value of the exports may be esti- 
 mated at £300,000. 
 
 Shipping. — The port of Rostock in 1840 had 230 
 ships, of the burden of 36,332 tons, which trade with 
 most European nations, the United States, and Brazil. 
 In 1835 there entered the port 540 ships (burden not 
 stated), of which 215 belonged to Mecklenburg, 152 
 (mostly small craft) to Denmark, 83 to Sweden, 2? to 
 Hanover, 18 to Prussia, 12 to Russia, 19 to Holland, 10 
 to Lubeck, 2 to Hamburg, and 1 each to France and 
 England. It is only, in fact, when our ports are open 
 to the importation of foreign com that British ships 
 are met with in considerable numbers in the ports of 
 Mecklenburg. 
 
 Port Charges. — These are the same on native and 
 privileged ships, among which are included those of 
 England, France, America, Prussia, Norway, etc. The 
 port charges on a vessel of 100 tons burden are as fol- 
 low, viz. : 
 
 
 Prlvllegad. 
 
 Not privileged. 
 
 Inward with cargo 
 
 HlxDol. Sch. 
 10 2 
 23 44 
 12 6 
 19 3S 
 IT 32 
 
 RiiDol. Sch. 
 10 2 
 32 6 
 
 12 6 
 31 10 
 25 42 
 
 Outward ditto 
 
 Inward In ballast 
 
 Outward ditto 
 
 Ditto without either 
 
 Duties. — These are extremely moderate. On most 
 imported articles they amount to only 3 per cent, ad 
 valorem. An export duty of about M. per quarter is 
 charged on com, and of about 4s. &d. per hhd. on wine. 
 Wool is not subject to any duty on export. Goods 
 imported in vessels not privileged pay 50 per cent, 
 additional on the above duties ; that is, thej' pay 4^ 
 instead of 3 per cent, ad valorem. 
 
 Wismar, the second sea-port town of Mecklenburg, 
 at the confluence of the River Stor with the sea, in 
 lat. 53° 49' 25" N., long. 11° 36' 15" E. Population 
 11,000. The harbor of Wismar is commodious and 
 safe, being nearly land-locked by the islands of Poel 
 and Walfisch. Close to the town there is from 8 to 8J 
 feet water ; in the inner roads there is from 12 to 13 
 feet ; and in the outer from 16 to 20 feet water. The 
 port charges on a native or privileged vessel of 100 tons 
 amount to about 30 rix dollars. The articles of import 
 and export are the same at Wismar as at Rostock ; but 
 owing to the proximity of Lilbeck, from which Wismar 
 is not more than 27 miles distant, her foreign trade is 
 comparatively limited. About 35 ships, of the burden 
 of 4800 tons, belong to this port. There cleared from 
 it in 1835 227 ships, of which 11 were English. The 
 duties at Wismar are somewhat higher than at Rostock, 
 being 4^ per cent, ad valorem on colonial products, and 
 from Ad. to 8rf. per quarter on corn exported. It is be- 
 lieved, however, that they will shortly be reduced to 
 the Rostock level. / 
 
 Trade of the Duchies. — Mecklenburg is essentially 
 an agricultural, wool-growing, grazing, and breeding 
 country. In some places it is sandy and barren ; but 
 it is for the most part verj' fertile, and the crops and 
 pastures are both luxuriant. Having few manufac- 
 tures, her imports necessarily consist principally, as 
 already stated, of manufactured goods, and her exports 
 of raw produce. Owing, however, to the circumstance 
 of the southwestern part of the province being bounded 
 bj^ the Elbe, and approaching to within about 30 miles 
 of Hamburg, almost all the manufactured goods, as 
 well as a very large proportion of the colonial products 
 used by the population (550,000), are imported by way 
 of Hamburg. Hence, in Mecklenburg, as in Prussia, 
 the direct foreign trade carried on by the sea frontier 
 forms but a verj' small part of the entire trade of the 
 country. It is impossible, however, to form any pre- 
 cise estimate of what the latter may amount to. Prob- 
 ably there is no European country so little fettered 
 by customs regulations as Mecklenburg. The duties 
 on articles imported by sea amount only, as already 
 stated, to about 3 per cent, ad valorem ; and those en- 
 tering by the land frontier are subject merely to a tri- 
 
EOT 
 
 1649 
 
 KOU 
 
 fling charge, on account of toll, of which we have not 
 seen any account. It is impossible, indeed, that any 
 commercial system can be bottomed on more liberal 
 principles ; and this enlightened policy, and her situa- 
 tion near the mouth of the Elbe, and on the western 
 frontier of the Prussian league, give to Mecklenburg 
 far greater importance, as a commercial state, than is 
 indicated by the amount of her population or her in- 
 ternal consumption. 
 
 Rotterdam, on the north bank of the Maese, in 
 lat. 51° 55' 19" N., long. 4° 29' 14" E. Population 
 in 1850, 82,000 ? Eotterdam is the second commercial 
 city of Holland. It is more advantageously situated 
 than Amsterdam, being nearer the sea ; and the canals 
 
 which intersect it are so deep as to admit of the largest 
 vessels coming up to the quays and warehouses of the 
 merchants. Its commerce during the last fifteen years 
 has increased more rapidly than that of any town in 
 Holland. The exports and imports are similar to those 
 of Amsterdam. The white Zealand wheat shipped 
 here is of a peculiarly fine quality ; and it is the best 
 market for madder and geneva. Geneva is sold by 
 the aam ; but it used, for the convenience of smuggling 
 to England, to be divided into ankers and half ankers. 
 The legitimate imports of geneva from Holland in 1851 
 amounted to 155,895 gallons. Rotterdam has a regular 
 and frequent intercourse, by means of steamers, with 
 London, Liverpool, Hull, Leith, Havre, Hamburg, etc. 
 
 ImPOETS fob TUE seven YBinS ENDING WITH 1S52, AT ROTTERDAM, OP THE ITHDBB-MENTIONED AetIOLBB OF FOREIGN AND 
 COLONIAL PeODDOE (FROM THE MONTHLJ- MARKET EeVIEW, JanDAEV 1, 1853.) 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Stocks, 8lBt 
 Decomber, 
 
 Coffee, East India 
 
 Do. West India 
 
 Do. do 
 
 Tea 
 
 Rice 
 
 Do 
 
 Pepper 
 
 Sugar tons of 
 
 Cotton 
 
 Tobacco, Maryland 
 
 Do. Virginia 
 
 Do. Kentucky 
 
 Do. Sterna 
 
 Do. Java 
 
 Hides, East India 
 
 Do. "West India 
 
 Oil, South Sea Whale 
 
 Indigo 
 
 Ashes, United States, pots. . 
 
 Do. do. pearls 
 
 Do. sundries 
 
 caslcB 
 qr. cheats 
 
 bags 
 
 tierces 
 
 haga 
 1000 kilogr. 
 
 bales 
 
 hhds. 
 
 packages 
 pieces 
 
 hects. 
 
 chts. & bxs. 
 
 barrels 
 
 (1 
 
 casks 
 
 1846. 
 
 334,800 
 
 22,690 
 
 2,500 
 
 16,115 
 
 111,0T2 
 
 30,T50 
 
 3,290 
 
 4,0T4 
 
 612 
 
 198 
 
 T9 
 
 4,80T 
 
 22,354 
 
 7,276 
 
 26,800 
 
 6,784 
 
 3,533 
 
 1841. 
 
 361,560 
 
 37,520 
 
 1,606 
 
 17,806 
 
 147,060 
 
 3,998 
 
 8,716 
 
 23,600 
 
 2,816 
 
 6,577 
 
 1,203 
 
 200 
 
 6,569 
 
 46,188 
 
 6,064 
 
 21,700 
 
 7,006 
 
 2,085 
 
 393 
 
 632 
 
 1848. 
 
 329,600 
 
 43,100 
 
 960 
 
 20,800 
 
 159,200 
 
 3,200 
 
 7,700 
 
 34,000 
 
 7,840 
 
 6,653 
 
 659 
 
 633 
 
 276 
 
 8,544 
 
 79,690 
 
 500 
 
 22,300 
 
 6,643 
 
 3,260 
 
 386 
 
 1,090 
 
 1849. 
 
 329,500 
 
 96,000 
 
 2,000 
 
 21,700 
 
 196,400 
 
 2,500 
 
 4,850 
 
 34,000 
 
 9,575 
 
 8,404 
 
 1,036 
 
 5,369 
 44,072 
 
 1,100 
 22,700 
 
 3,724 
 
 2,382 
 291 
 
 1860. 
 
 242,100 
 
 22,000 
 
 780 
 
 34,250 
 
 111,300 
 
 3,420 
 
 9,600 
 
 37,000 
 
 3,590 
 
 5,157 
 
 1,045 
 
 153 
 
 21)6 
 
 1,215 
 
 68,550 
 
 192 
 
 1,600 
 
 3,572 
 
 2,906 
 
 468 
 
 1,601 
 
 1851. 
 
 346,900 
 
 25,800 
 
 2,600 
 
 20,800 
 
 133,000 
 
 2,700 
 
 8,800 
 
 46,750 
 
 7,410 
 
 3,990 
 
 514 
 
 787 
 
 201 
 
 4,785 
 
 91,414 
 
 6:663 
 
 15,400 
 
 8,338 
 
 3,186 
 
 203 
 
 712 
 
 1852. 
 
 396,000 
 
 6,100 
 
 2,100 
 
 31,400 
 
 326,000 
 
 4,200 
 
 6,000 
 
 23,750 
 
 14,026 
 
 9,148 
 
 2,184 
 
 376 
 
 107 
 
 4,130 
 
 73,062 
 
 3,091 
 969 
 612 
 
 6,172 
 
 1863. 
 
 132,000 
 
 3,600 
 
 45,700 
 
 190 
 
 7,300 
 
 abt. 4,000 
 
 3,710 
 
 1,923 
 
 139 
 
 76 
 
 22,790 
 3,176 
 
 "i84 
 
 310 
 
 92 
 
 2,087 
 
 Comparative Statement of Stocks of Corn and Grain in the under-mentioned Poets of Holland, in 1850, 1561, 
 
 AND 1852. 
 
 IV- aist December. 
 
 $ 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 n 
 
 i 
 
 ^3 
 
 SI 
 
 II 
 
 
 11 
 
 n^ 
 
 si 
 
 Ofl. 
 
 u 
 
 is 
 
 II 
 
 '^ 
 
 ii 
 
 1^ 
 
 qk 
 
 
 7,750 
 6,862 
 
 359 
 90 
 
 282 
 
 29,000 
 6,506 
 
 956 
 10,067 
 
 730 
 
 2500 
 
 245 
 
 11 
 
 1597 
 260 
 
 326 
 
 81 
 
 490 
 321 
 
 79 
 
 30 
 91 
 204 
 
 14 
 44 
 37 
 
 34 
 
 4 
 
 22 
 15 
 
 256 
 86 
 
 18 
 
 24 
 14 
 
 "■ 
 
 143 
 30 
 20 
 
 2050 
 160 
 752 
 
 2600 
 62 
 
 88 
 
 30 
 23 
 62 
 
 250 
 ■ 4 
 
 'is 
 
 
 
 
 Delftshaven 
 
 
 14,293 
 
 10,265 
 
 6,682 
 
 686 
 
 130 
 
 160 
 
 46,269 
 
 21,236 
 7,151 
 
 896 
 8,238 
 
 695 
 
 4613 
 
 758 
 
 679 
 
 11 
 
 667 
 
 601 
 
 237 
 24 
 35 
 
 890 
 
 803 
 
 533 
 
 86 
 
 ■■ 
 
 326 
 
 '33 
 61 
 
 •■ 
 
 95 
 
 io 
 
 8 
 
 38 
 
 13 
 2 
 
 •■ 
 
 37 
 
 6 
 2 
 
 3B6 
 
 67 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 188 
 
 32 
 48 
 12 
 
 •• 
 
 193 
 
 12 
 24 
 12 
 
 3562 
 
 8180 
 
 255 
 1414 
 
 .. 
 •• 
 
 2750 
 
 2510 
 100 
 195 
 
 105 
 
 264 
 
 300 
 3 
 
 19 
 
 200 
 27 
 
 
 
 
 
 Delftshaven 
 
 Total lasta 
 
 16,928 
 
 9,400 
 
 3,141 
 
 278 
 
 956 
 
 CO 
 
 88,214 
 
 18,300 
 6,483 
 639 
 8,658 
 1,114 
 
 1915 
 
 700 
 149 
 
 22 
 911 
 
 70 
 
 296 
 
 19 
 121 
 118 
 
 1482 
 
 980 
 689 
 
 85 
 
 94 
 
 "2 
 26 
 
 18 
 
 13 
 68 
 
 16 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 '9 
 
 2 
 
 87 
 '67 
 
 92 
 
 ;; 
 
 49 
 
 170 
 89 
 15 
 
 S839 
 
 8300 
 230 
 1677 
 
 2806 
 
 1700 
 203 
 292 
 
 8 
 "3 
 
 303 
 
 227 
 
 'io 
 
 21 
 
 
 
 
 th Schiedam 
 
 
 Total lastg 
 
 10,835 
 
 35,096 
 
 1852 
 
 258 
 
 1754 
 
 28 
 
 81 
 
 30 
 
 11 
 
 67 
 
 9 
 
 274 
 
 5107 
 
 2195 
 
 31 .. 1 ail 
 
 
 
 
 
 — See Holland and Amsterdam. 
 
 * The stocks in Amsterdam include the quantities on hand at Zaandam. 
 
 Rouble, a Russian coin. (For the silver rouble, 
 see Coins, division Russian; the value of the paper 
 rouble is variable.) By the official valuation of the 
 paper rouble, in the payment of taxes, a few years 
 since, one silver rouble was equal to three roubles six- 
 ty copecks paper. Bj' authority of Congress, the value 
 of the Kussian rouble formerly was fixed at 75 cents. 
 
 Rouge (Fr. Fard). The only cosmetic which can 
 be applied without injury to brighten a lady's com- 
 plexion is that prepared, by the following process, 
 from safHower (Carthamns tinctorius). The flowers, 
 after being washed with pure water till it comes off 
 colorless, are dried, pulverized, and digested with a 
 weak solution of crystals of soda, which assumes there- 
 by a yellow color. Into this liquor a quantity of finely- 
 carded white cotton wool is plunged, and then so much 
 lemon juice or pure vinegar is added as to supersaturate 
 5M 
 
 the soda. The coloring matter is disengaged, and falls 
 down in an impalpable powder upon the cotton fila- 
 ments. The cotton, after being washed in cold water, 
 to remove some yellow coloring particles, is to be treat- 
 ed with, a fresh solution of carbonate of soda, which 
 takes up the red coloring matter in a state of purity. 
 Before precipitating this pigment a second time by the 
 acid of lemons, some soft powdered talc should be laid 
 in the bottom of the vessel, for the purpose of absorb- 
 ing the fine rouge, in proportion as it is separated from 
 the carbonate of soda, which now holds it dissolved. 
 The colored mixture must be finally triturated with a 
 few drops of olive oil, in order to make it smooth and 
 marrowy. Upon the fineness of the talc, and the pro- 
 portion of the satflower precipitate which it contains, 
 depend the beauty and value of the cosmetic. The 
 rouge of the above second precipitation is received 
 
EOW 
 
 1650 
 
 RUM 
 
 sometimes upon bits of fine-twisted woolen stuff, called 
 crepons, which ladies rub upon their cheeks. 
 
 Row, to propel a boat by oars. Bowing is reckon- 
 ed the most favorable application of human strength ; 
 the whole force is, however, not effective on the oar, 
 as the part inside the actual fulcrum, which is in the 
 water, acts as a backwater. Some nations take short 
 strokes, which thej- rise up in making ; a long stroke 
 sitting, to say the least, saves much exertion. As the 
 theory of rowing involves the resistance of fluids, it is 
 necessarily defective. 
 
 Royal, in Naval affairs, the sail above the top-gal- 
 lant sail. The term royal is also applied, in artillery, 
 to a kind of small mortar. 
 
 Royal Exchange, London. The foundation of 
 the original edifice was laid by Sir Thomas Gresham, 
 June 7, 1566, on the site of the ancient Tun prison. 
 Queen Elizabeth visited this Exchange in January, 
 1571, and by the sound of trumpets her herald named it 
 the Royal Exchange. — Hume. This grand fabric was 
 totally destroyed by the great fire in 1666, precisely a 
 centurj' after its erection. Charles II. laid the founda- 
 tion of the next edifice, October 23, 1667, which was 
 completed by Mr. Hawkesmoor, a pupil of Sir Christo- 
 pher Wren, in about three years ; and it was repaired 
 and beautified in 1769. This last also became a prey to 
 a destructive fire, January 10, 1838, and was burned to 
 the ground, with a number of public ofiices and adjoin- 
 ing houses. The new Royal Exchange, commenced 
 in 1840, under the direction of Mr. Tite, was open'ed b)' 
 the queen in state, accompanied by her ministers and 
 a grand civic procession, October 28, 1844. 
 
 Ruby, a precious stone, verj'' highly esteemed ; but 
 under this name a varietj^ of minerals have not unfre- 
 quently been sold, which differ essentially in their char- 
 acters. The Oriental ruby is, in fact, a red variety of 
 the sapphire. When perfect, its color is a cochineal 
 red, presenting a richness of hue the most exquisite 
 and unrivaled : it is, however, in general more or less 
 pale, and often mixed with blue : hence it occurs rose 
 red, peach-blossom red, and lilac blue, passing into the 
 amethyst. It is harder than any other mineral, ex- 
 cept the diamond. Easily frangible. Specific gravity 
 from 3'916 to 4'283. Infusible before the blowpipe. 
 Oriental rubies of 10 carats are extremely rare and 
 valuable. One of 22 grains was sold for £160. Ru- 
 bies in lots, Indian cut, or small sizes, and of different 
 qualities, are at all times to be had, and sell at from 
 15«. to 65s. a carat ; but a perfect stone of a carat, or 
 6 grains, may be deemed rare, and falls little short of 
 the value of the diamond : nay, in some cases, rubies 
 of 2, 3, or 4 carats, if very fine, are much scarcer, and 
 even more valuable than diamonds of equal weight. 
 The finest ruby in England, or perhaps in Europe, is 
 in the collection of the late Mr. Hope, the author of 
 " Anastasius." There are two other species of ruby, 
 the Spinelle and Balais. When perfect, the spinelle 
 is a gem of great value and scarcity. Its color is a 
 fine full carmine or rose red, but it never presents that 
 rich mellow tinge that attends the Oriental ruby. It 
 is also inferior to the latter in hardness and specific 
 gravity. Stones of 3 carats and upward are verj^ rare 
 and valuable. 
 
 The Balais ruby is a pale variety of the spinelle. It 
 varies in color from light red to yellowish red. Though 
 not so rare as the spinelle, it is by no means common. 
 It is much admired for its agreeable tinge of color ; 
 and, when pure and perfect, fetches a very high price, 
 though considerably less than the other varieties. 
 Rubies are not found in any considerable quantity ex- 
 cept in Ava. — ^Mawe on Diamonds ; Thomson's Chem- 
 istry. 
 
 Rudder. A heavy flat piece or frame of wood, 
 hung upon the stem-post by means of pintles and 
 gudgeons, for the purpose of steering the ship. The 
 rudder is turned round the stem-post as an axis, by 
 the tiller, which enters the rudder-head. In vessels 
 
 drawing much water the rudder is aeep and narrow ; 
 in flat-bottomed vessels it is shallow and broad. When 
 carried to a considerable breadth, as in the Chinese 
 vessels, it is pierced with holes, which preserves an in- 
 creased leverage with a diminished direct resistance 
 from the water. When the rudder is broken off by 
 the ship getting aground, or by a heavy sea, a tem- 
 porary one is made hy a topmast and other spars placed 
 parallel, and loaded at the bottom with pigs and bal- 
 last, and confined to the stem-post by hawsers leading 
 on each side of the keel. 
 
 Rudder Coat. — A covering of tarred canvas loosely 
 put round the rudder-head to keep the water from en- 
 tering by the aperture, while it admits of the rudder 
 being turned freely round. 
 
 Rudder Pendants. — Strong pieces of rope ending in 
 chains, by which the rudder, if unshipped, is held to 
 the ship's quarter. 
 
 Rudder Slwck, — A piece of wood fitting between the 
 head of the rudder and the rudder-hole, to prevent the 
 play of the rudder in case of the tiller being removed. 
 
 Rum, a well-known and highly esteemed spirituous 
 liquor imported from the West Indies, of which it forms 
 one of the staple products. It is obtained by means 
 of fermentation and distillation from molasses, the ref- 
 use of the cane juice, and portions of the cane, after 
 the sugar has been extracted. The flavor and taste 
 peculiar to rum are derived from the essential oils car- 
 ried over in distillation. When the distillation has 
 been carelessly performed, the spirit contains so large 
 a quantity of the grosser and less volatile part of the 
 oil as to be unfit for use tUl it has attained a consider- 
 able age. When it is well rectified, it mellows much 
 sooner. Rum of a brownish transparent color, smooth 
 oily taste, strong body and consistence, good age, and 
 well kept, is the best. That which is clear and limpid, 
 and has a hot pungent taste, is either too new, or mixed 
 with other spirits. Jamaica rum is the first in point 
 of quality ; the Leeward Island rum, as it is called, 
 being always inferior to it, both in flavor, strength, 
 and value. The price of the latter is usually 20 per 
 cent, below that of the former. It is customary, in 
 some of the West India Islands, to put sliced pine- 
 apples in puncheons of rum : this gives the spirit the 
 flavor of the fruit ; and hence the designation pine- 
 apple rum. Rum is also produced in and imported 
 from the Mauritius and the East Indies ; but that of 
 the latter is more nearly allied to arrack than to genu- 
 ine rum. 
 
 We know nothing about the origin of the word rum, 
 or the time at which the manufacture of the spirit com- 
 menced. At present the manufacture is chiefly car- 
 ried on in the islands belonging to Great Britain. Dr. 
 Ure states that in Jamaica the wort is made by adding 
 together 120 gallons of molasses, 1000 gallons of the 
 spent wash of a former distillation, 720 gallons of the 
 skimmings of the sugar boilers, and 160 gallons of 
 water ; so that there is in the wort nearly 12 per cent, 
 of solid saccharine matter. Other proportions, how- 
 ever, are used, bringing the proportion of saccharine 
 matter up to nearly 15 per cent. ; as, for instance, 100 
 gallons of molasses, 300 gallons of skimmings, 200 gal- 
 lons of spent wash, and 400 gallons of water. The 
 proportions vary in almost every estate, so that no 
 certain rule can be laid down. The fermentation is 
 in general conducted very slowly (apparently very un- 
 necessarily so), occupying from nine to fourteen days. 
 The saccharine matter is, therefore, verj' imperfectly 
 converted into alcohol, and the yield of spirit is usually 
 so low as 115 gallons of proof-spirit for eveiy 1200 gal- 
 lons of wash. On some estates, and depending on the 
 price of sugar in the market, the greater proportion of 
 the sugar is converted into rum ; and the same imper- 
 fect fermentation being followed, the average yield is 
 said to be only 200 gallons of rum for every three hogs- 
 heads of sugar, whereas the proportion ought to be 
 ver}- nearly double. It is from the skunmings, which 
 
RUP 
 
 1651 
 
 BUS 
 
 are rich in aroma, that the peculiar flavor of rum is de- 
 rived ; for it is a curious fact that sugar and molasses 
 distilled in this country yield a spirit entirelj' destitute 
 of all rum flavor, and in nothing distinguishable from 
 the ordinary spirit derived from grain. Any depth of 
 color may be given to the rum by the addition of mo- 
 lasses or caromel, though it is commonly but errone- 
 ously stated that the color of the rum is derived from 
 the oak casks. — See Spirits and Wine. 
 
 The manufacture of rum entirely of sugar or mo- 
 lasses is not carried on in Great Britain. The nimiber 
 of gallons of rum manufactured in Great Britain dur- 
 ing the year ending January 5, 1864, of a mixture of 
 sugar or molasses with unmalted grain, Ti^as as follows : 
 
 England 989,010 gallons. 
 
 Scotland 915,631 „ 
 
 Ireland 4,005 „ 
 
 GreatBritain 1,903,646 „ 
 
 EXPOETS OF EUM FROM THE UNITED STATES FOE THE YEAE 
 BNUtNG JXWB 30, 1S5T. 
 
 Whither expoTt«d. 
 
 DaniBh Weat Indies 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Bremen 
 
 England 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 Malta 
 
 I'ritish North Amer. Possessiona. 
 
 Hritish West Indies 
 
 British Honduraa 
 
 British Posseaaiona in Africa 
 
 British Australia 
 
 France on the Atlantic 
 
 France on the Mediterranean. . . . 
 l''rench North Amer. Possessions. 
 
 French West Indies 
 
 Canary Islands 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Madeira 
 
 Cape de Verd Islands 
 
 Sardinia 
 
 Two Sicilies 
 
 Austria , 
 
 Turkey in Europe 
 
 Turkey in Asia 
 
 Porta in Africa 
 
 Hayti. 
 
 New Granada 
 
 Uruguay, or Ciaplatine Kepublic. 
 
 Argentine Republic 
 
 Chili 
 
 Peru 
 
 Sandwich lalands 
 
 Total 
 
 Spiritfl from MolaflBea. 
 
 Gnllons. 
 
 2,9B5 
 
 200 
 
 13,087 
 
 6,2T0 
 
 42,435 
 
 109,924 
 
 163,103 
 
 17,352 
 
 6,552 
 
 140,836 
 
 9,452 
 
 108,453 
 
 157,835 
 
 50,107 
 
 8,031 
 
 800 
 
 300 
 
 4,201 
 
 27,135 
 
 40,764 
 
 6,647 
 
 35,443 
 
 323,824 
 
 233,752 
 
 826,663 
 
 1,687 
 
 5,283 
 
 27,481 
 
 6,156 
 
 2,544 
 
 1,251 
 
 80 
 
 2,378,603 
 
 DoUais. 
 
 1,648 
 
 90 
 
 9,417 
 
 3,135 
 
 20,740 
 
 81,024 
 
 106,766 
 
 9,705 
 
 4,504 
 
 72,140 
 
 6,81!) 
 
 74,350 
 
 88,753 
 
 24,415 
 
 3,C55 
 
 351 
 
 154 
 
 l,!ir5 
 
 12,162 
 
 25,354 
 
 3,237 
 
 17,757 
 
 146,832 
 
 110,177 
 
 3:2,373 
 
 865 
 
 2,588 
 
 11,643 
 
 3,750 
 
 1,271 
 
 568 
 
 50 
 
 1,216,635 
 
 Rupee, a silver coin current in the East Indies, 
 equal to from 50 to 60 cents. Bj' authority of Con- 
 gress, the value of the rupee of British India was fixed 
 at 44J cents, and the sicca rupee of Bengal and the 
 rupee of Bombay at 50 cents. 
 
 Russia. This extensive empire comprises the 
 ■whole northern portion of the eastern hemisphere, from 
 the frontiers of Posen and the Gulf of Bothnia on the 
 west, to the Pacific Ocean and Behring's Straits on the 
 east. It includes the greater part of the ancient king- 
 dom of Poland, Finland, Astrakhan, and Kazan, con- 
 quered from the Tartars ; the Crimea, Little Tartary, 
 Bessarabia, and a portion of Moldavia, taken from 
 Turkey. 
 
 The Russian empire embraces nearly one-half of the 
 surface of Europe. It chiefly consists of an enormous 
 plain, being little diversified by rising ground, except 
 toward the Urals and the Caucasus in the south and 
 east, and in the province of Finland in the northwest. 
 The northern part of the country is a cold and barren 
 region of heaths and marshes ; the central provinces 
 are rich and fertile; the southern, mere steppes, or 
 grassy, sandy, and salt plains, which afford, however, 
 in their hollows, along the river-CQurses, abundance of 
 excellent pasturage for cattle and horses. The popu- 
 lation is chiefly agricultural or nomadic; and the 
 manufactures tliat are to be found in some places are 
 more indebted to the fostering care of the government 
 and the high import duties, or absolute prohibition of 
 
 foreign wares, than to native enterpnse, for their origin 
 and continuance. Russia is an immense military 
 power, so far as that depends on the numbers of her 
 armies ; but the want of national wealth is such>a draw- 
 back on military enterprise as she has not yet been 
 able to overcome. 
 
 The origin of the Russians as a distinct branch of 
 the Slavonians is a moot point among archseologists. 
 They seem to have borne at one time the name of 
 Antes, consisting of teveral tribes that formed a sort 
 of confederation. In the 9th century, Ruric the Va- 
 rangian established himself in Novgorod the Great ; 
 and his successors, extending their dominion by con- 
 quest, established their capital at Kieflf, where the dy- 
 nasty reached the zenith of its power under Vladimir 
 the Great, who introduced Christianity among his sub- 
 jects, according to the creed and ritual of the Greek 
 Church, A.D. 983. His empire was subsequently over- 
 thrown by the Poles and Lithuanians, and the greater 
 part of it remained subject to Poland till the accession 
 of the house of Romanoff. The eastern provinces be- 
 yond the Dnieper were conquered by Tartars, and re- 
 mained under their dominion till the 16th century. 
 The cit}' of Moscow was founded by Andrey I. in a.d. 
 11S6. In the middle of the 15th century, Ivan Vas- 
 siliwitz, Duke of Moscovy, recovered his independ- 
 ence, and having subdued a number of petty chieftains, 
 and added the duchies of Tver and Novgorod to his 
 dominions, assumed the title of Grand Duke. His 
 grandson, of the same name, subdued the Tartar king- 
 doms of Kazan and Astrakhan, and assumed the title 
 of Czar or Great King. 
 
 During the last three centuries the successive dukes 
 and czars of Moscovy and emperors of all the Russias 
 have followed the same policy of extending their do- 
 minions by every possible means, fair or foul. They 
 have now declared themselves the heads and protectors 
 of all the Slavonic races, and of the orthodox Greek 
 Church, and seem to make no secret of their deep-laid 
 project of unscrupulous aggrandizement. Their vast 
 dominion now extends in length through 202° of lon- 
 gitude, and in breadth through 38° of latitude, and is 
 supposed to contain about 65,000,000 of inhabitants, 
 of whom five-sixths are in Europe. 
 
 The following is believed to be a correct estimate 
 of the extent and population of this vast empire : 
 Aeea and Popm.ATiON op Russia. 
 
 Natural DiviBiOQB. 
 
 Cireat liussla 
 
 Little Russia 
 
 New Russia 
 
 White Russia 
 
 "Western provinces . . 
 Baltic provinces . . . . 
 Northern provinces . 
 
 Ural provinces 
 
 Cossack districts . . . . 
 
 Poland 
 
 Finland 
 
 Total in Europe 
 
 Caucasian provinces 
 
 "West Siberia 
 
 East Siberia 
 
 American possessions 
 
 Total extra European . 
 
 Grand total 
 
 Area in EiiglUIi 
 Square Miles. 
 
 323,731 
 150,141 
 90,636 
 70,319 
 47,076 
 36,616 
 536,226 
 447,788 
 123,776 
 41,230 
 135,800 
 
 2,022,478 
 
 86,578 
 
 2,631,147 
 
 2,122,000 
 
 371,350 
 
 6,261,075 
 7,283,553 
 
 20,403,371 
 11,775,805 
 3,253,612 
 2,937,436 
 2,370,667 
 1,761,907 
 1,420,629 
 10,770,181 
 1,156,736 
 5,156,543 
 1,439,109 
 
 63,012,146 
 
 2.850,000 
 
 3;500,000 
 
 237,000 
 
 61,000 
 
 6,648,000 
 61,660,146 
 
 The rivers of Russia are usually divided into five 
 groups or systems, corresponding to the seas in which 
 they have their emhouchures ; viz . , the Arctic Ocean, the 
 Baltic Sea, the Black Sea, the Caspian Sea, and the Pa- 
 cific Ocean. The first division comprises the Dwina, 
 Mezen, and Petchora, in Europe ; the Obi, Jenisei, and 
 Lena, with numerous other small rivfers, in Asia; the 
 three last have a course of from 2000 to 2500 miles. The 
 rivers which fall into the Baltic, though possessingmuch 
 more commercial importance to Russia, are of inferior 
 niiagnitttde. The principal are-^the Neva., which has 
 St. Petersburg at its mouth, the Duna, and the Nie- 
 men. The rivers which fall into the Black Sea are of 
 
RUS 
 
 1652 
 
 BUS 
 
 equal importance with those just named, and exceed 
 them in length of course and volume of water. The 
 principal among these are the Dniester, Dnieper, Bug, 
 Don, and Kuban. The Volga, in the basin of the Cas- 
 pian Sea, is the largest and most important of tlie rivers 
 of Russia. This extensive river has its sources in the 
 government of Twer, about 180 miles south by east 
 from St. Petersburg. Its course is about 1000 leagues, 
 while that of the Danube is only about 450. It 'is of 
 vast importance to the internal commerce of Russia. 
 Its affluents, which are connected by several canals 
 with the Neva, establish a communication between 
 the Caspian and the Baltic, White, and Black seas. 
 Two other rivers — the Ural and the Emba — have their 
 embouchures in the Caspian Sea. 
 
 Staples, — The products of Russia vary with the dif- 
 ference of soil and climate. Cereals of every Itind are 
 raised in great abundance ; but rye, being the common 
 food of the peasantry, is produced in much greater 
 quantities than any other sort of grain. The most pro- 
 ductive provinces are Orel, Kasan, Nijni Novgorod, 
 Penza, Tambov, and Kursk. The total annual produc- 
 tion of grains in European Russia (including Poland) 
 may be estimated in ordinary years at 1,495,000,000 
 bushels, at a value of about $720,416,665. Flax and 
 hemp are also extensively cultivated, and constitute a 
 leading export of Russia. Tobacco is cultivated in 
 the southern provinces, and of late years mucli atten- 
 tion has been given to the cultivation of beet-root. In 
 1848, the quantity of sugar manufactured from this 
 article was estimated at 32,240,000 lbs. Tallow and 
 wool are also- important articles in the export trade of 
 Russia ; of the latter, the exports amount annuallj' to 
 about 18,000,000 lbs. The climate of Russia is not, 
 however, well adapted to the production of fine wool ; 
 and although much attention has been given to the im- 
 provement of the breed of sheep, Russia can not enter 
 into competition with Australia in supplying foreign 
 markets with this article. The qiiantitj' of wool fur- 
 nished by the Cape of Good Hope colony, from 1840 to 
 1852 inclusive, was 48,869,748 lbs. ; furnished by Aus- 
 tralia in same period, 256,008,415 lbs. ; by Cape col- 
 ony, in 1852, 7,772,505 lbs. ; by Australia, in 1852, 
 
 32,500,000 lbs. ; number of sheep in Cape colony, 
 4,496,000 ; number of goats in Cape colony, 1,093,000 ; 
 number of sheep in Russia in Europe, 35,666,598 ; num- 
 ber of goats in Russia in Europe, 1,188,173. 
 
 Manufactures. — The manufactures of Russia are not 
 generally in a very advanced condition. In some de- 
 partments of manufacturing industry, however, Russia 
 excels all other countries. Every attempt to imitate 
 her leather, especiallj' such as is used for book-binding 
 purposes, has proved a failure ; and Russia still con- 
 tinues to enjoy, as she doubtless ever will, an undis- 
 puted monopoly in supplying foreign markets with this 
 valuable production. Her glass manufactures are also 
 highly esteemed. Single plates have been manufac- 
 tured at the St. Petersburg glass-works which have 
 readily sold for $3000. Her other manufactures are 
 sail-cloth, cordage and canvas, tick, felt, mats, pot- 
 ashes, soap, candles, caviar, isinglass, spirits, and some 
 minor articles for domestic consumption. The cotton 
 manufactures of Russia have made rapid progress dur- 
 ing the past twenty years ; and, instead of the vast 
 quantities of cotton yams formerlj' imported, she now 
 imports largely of the raw material. In 1832 the 
 quantity of raw cotton imported was 116,000 poods 
 (4,176,000 lbs.) ; in 1852 it ascended to 1,748,000 
 poods (62,928,000 lbs.), of which she received from the 
 United States 10,475,168 lbs. The total manufactures 
 of Russia employ 6,064,700 persons, of which number 
 4,500,000 are engaged in the manufacture of flax and 
 hemp. The total annual value of Russian manufac- 
 tures is estimated at about 486,000,000 silver roubles 
 ($364,500,000). Moscow is the grand centre of this 
 branch of industrial pursuits, and is inhabited almost 
 exclusively by manufacturers and artisans. 
 
 The following table, translated from Russian ofiicial 
 returns, wUl exhibit the number and character of man- 
 ufactories in Russia, the number of workmen employ- 
 ed, and the quantity and value of their productions, in 
 the year 1852. It is proper to remark, that the table 
 gives only the principal manufactures which enter into 
 the export trade of Russia. Those consumed in the 
 country, and numerous minor manufactures, are omit- 
 ted in the following summarj' : 
 
 KUSSIAN MANtn^AOTTIEES, ETO- 
 
 DenoDiiiiation of Manafacturoa. 
 
 rCiimber of 
 Factories. 
 
 QuautitlBS manufactured. 
 
 Value of Manu- 
 factures in Sil- 
 ver Roubles.* 
 
 Miinufucture3 of "woolens (cloths) . 
 
 Manufactures of -vroolens (tissues). 
 
 Slanufactiires of cotton yarns, 
 
 thread, etc 
 
 Manufactures of cottonades . 
 Dyeing factories 
 
 Factories for weaving 
 
 Manufactures of silks and bro- 
 cades 
 
 Manufactures of cables , 
 Manufactures of paper . 
 
 Manufactures oftobacco... 
 
 Founderiea and forges 
 
 Manufactures of hardware . 
 
 Manufactures of copper 
 
 Manufactures of chemicals 
 
 Manufactures of soap 
 
 IManufactures of sugar 
 
 Manufactures of glass and crystals 
 
 Tallow factories 
 
 Candle factories 
 
 "\^"ax-candle factories. 
 
 Tanneries 
 
 Other manufactures . . 
 
 Total 
 
 Total in 1851 ... 
 
 414 
 130 
 C5 
 440 
 340 
 113 
 632 
 
 143 
 
 ITT 
 
 845 
 
 115 
 
 28.) 
 
 140 
 102 
 263 
 364 
 1S3 
 
 534 
 
 413 
 
 15 
 
 2,032 
 
 3,143 
 
 13,446,236 archinest and 180,05T pieces of woolen 
 
 cloths : 12,854 poodst of woolen yarn 
 
 801, T60 pieces and 1,691,014 archines of woolen tiri- 
 
 sues : 8800 poods of yarn 
 
 1,136,326 poods of cotton thread, 88,150 pieces and 
 
 85,500 archines of tissues 
 
 3,7T0,03D pieces, 8,764,881 archines, 118,31T dozen 
 
 tissues, and 6230 poods of thread 
 
 6,785,088 archines, 4,411,007 pieces, 23,4"6 dozen, 
 
 166,036 pooda 
 
 275,106 pieces, 170,044 archines, 1086 dozen tissues, 
 
 1800 pooda of thread 
 
 5,302,567 archines, 1,2T0,10] pieces, S601 dozen of 
 
 tissues, 888 poods of silk thread 
 
 757,344 poods 
 
 1,888,365 reams, 50,484 poods, 716,134 sheets, 40,000 
 
 packages of pasteboard 
 
 183,732 poods of tobacco, 305,095,266 pieces, 451,! 55 
 
 boxes and packages of cigars and cigarettas 
 
 5,2,08,405 poods and 64,274 pieces of cast iron, 929,927 
 
 poods of iron, and 38,731 poods of steel 
 
 2,533,058 poods, 223,610 pieces, and 5370 archines 
 
 of iron wire 
 
 183,033 pooda and 1,261,192 pieces 
 
 514,143 poods 
 
 3,418,238 pooda of sugar, and 148,830 poods of sirup 
 
 47,634,396 pieces of glass dishes, plates, etc., 88,018 
 
 covers, and 150,980 platea or sheets of glass . . . 
 
 3,141,868 poods 
 
 1,174,852 poods 
 
 284,693 pooda 
 
 4,386,321 pieces 
 
 19,139,833 
 
 5,231, 45T 
 
 15,64T,838 
 
 14,308,540 
 
 ' 15,425,334 
 
 2,239 009 
 
 5,672,252 
 1,940,043 
 
 3,928,970 
 
 4,087,005 
 
 B,0: 6,099 
 
 2,264,21)3 
 1,306,915 
 2,: 20,453 
 1,229,122 
 19,315,603 
 
 3,387,86S 
 5,2:!6,C5) 
 4,498,484 
 l,5'i7,578 
 9,184,749 
 19.043,651 
 
 86,443 
 
 13,806 
 
 30,976 
 
 81,451 
 
 25,867 
 
 12,450 
 
 16,982 
 3,403 
 
 14,942 
 
 4,861 
 
 27,879 
 
 13,542 
 
 4,255 
 
 2,612 
 
 964 
 
 45,711 
 
 11,650 
 4,511 
 2,003 
 1,264 
 14,665 
 61,774 
 
 10, 3i 
 
 161,151,708 
 
 470,911 
 
 10,126 
 
 15.1,380,600 I 465,016 
 
 * The silver rouble ia equal to 75 cents, t The archlne is equivalent to 28 inches. t The pood is equal to 86 lbs. 
 
EUS 
 
 1653 
 
 EUS 
 
 The large manufacturing establishments are located 
 in the government of Moscow. The 1244 factories of 
 this government give employment to 114,623 work- 
 men, the annual value of whose productions amounts 
 to $33,146,606. In the government of St. Petersburg 
 there are 477 factories, employing 24,531 workmen ; 
 annual value of productions, $24,723,555. Before the 
 commencement of the late European war, the foreign 
 commerce of this vast empire was very extensive. 
 In 1852 the imports reached the sum of 114,773,829 
 silver roubles, and the exports amounted to 100,864,052 
 silver roubles. This trade gave employment to 17,162 
 vessels, measuring an aggregate of 1,559,200 lasts.* 
 Previous to the war, the exports of Enssia from the 
 ports of the Black Sea alone amounted' to 80,000,000 
 bushels of grain annually. There is no official or re- 
 liable information at hand which would indicate the 
 dimmution which Russian trade has experienced from 
 the blockading measures of the allied powers. It is 
 certain that not half the usual quantity of hemp, flax, 
 and tallow can pass from the territories of Russia. 
 There is at all times a considerable overland trade 
 across Prussia, but the heavy expenses attending the 
 transportation of merchandise over this roule must nec- 
 essarily confine its consumption to the wealthier classes. 
 The value of coffee, salt, sugar, etc., has been augment- 
 ed to the most exorbitant figure ; and these enhanced 
 prices, with the expenses of land transportation super- 
 added, must, in the event of prolonged hostilities, f drive 
 these articles out of general use altogether. These are, 
 however, but the unavoidable effects of war ; and as 
 the philanthropist must hope that peace shall soon re- 
 turn, and the channels of commerce be again reopened, 
 so the commercial statistician must regard these inter- 
 ruptions to the peaceful trade of the world as but tem- 
 porarj' and unfixed, and treat only of the permanent 
 commercial regulations, and relations with foreign na- 
 tions, of such countries as maj' come within the scope 
 of his official duties. The commercial relations of the 
 United States with Russia are regulated by the treaty 
 of October 6 [18], 1832. Its stipulations provide for 
 entire reciprocity and perfect commercial equality be- 
 tween the two countries. It has been observed in good 
 faith by both governments, and its provisions and spirit 
 faithfully adhered to. The principal articles of export 
 from Russia are tallow, grain, hemp, and flax ; timber ; 
 potashes ; leather ; fox, hare, and squirrel sidns ; can- 
 vas and coarse linen ^ cordage, caviare, wax, isinglass, 
 furs, tar, etc. The principal imports are sugar, cot- 
 ton, cotton stufi's and yams ; machinery for mills, fac- 
 tories, etc. ; hardwares and iron ; coffee, indigo, and 
 other dye-stufi's ; woolens, oils, spices, wine, tea, lead, 
 tin, coal, and salt; linens, silks, etc. The principal 
 ports for foreign commerce are St. Petersburg and 
 Riga, on the Baltic ; Archangel, on the White Sea ; 
 Ketch and Taganrog, on the Sea of Azof ; and Astra- 
 khan and Baku, on the Caspian. The interior commerce 
 of the empire has its principal entrepot at Moscow ; and 
 Kiachta is the centre of the trade with China. This 
 trade with China is strictly one of barter. The inter- 
 change takes place at the town named above, lying on 
 the Salenga, and at some distance from the great lake 
 Baikal. The Russian mercliandise and wares are here 
 deposited in warehouses, which are visited by the Chi- 
 nese merchants, with whom the interchange is effected. 
 
 None (says McCulloch, in a work published in 1854) 
 but native Russians are allowed to engage in the in- 
 ternal trade of the country ; and hence a foreigner who 
 imports goods into Russia must sell them to Russians 
 only, and at the port where they arrive. The mer- 
 chants engaged in the foreign trade are mostly for- 
 eigners, of whom the English are the principal. Every 
 Russian carrying on trade must be a burgher, and have 
 his name registered in the Burghers' Book. These 
 
 * The last is atout two tons. 
 
 t While this report waa in press the result of the conferences 
 at Paris was officially proclaimed. 
 
 burghers are divided into three guilds. Foreign mer- 
 chants or guests are permitted to enroll their names in 
 the city register, on the payment of from $900 to $950 
 per annum. tAc Journal of the Manufactures of the 
 Empire, 1846, published in Russia, gives the following 
 information relative to these guilds : 
 
 Kumber of merchants of the let guild 8G0 
 
 -■ ■ 2,2S3 
 
 2d 
 Sd 
 
 " of foreign merchants . 
 
 Total 40,228 
 
 Burghers possessing licenses, 1st class 5 
 
 " " " 2d " 30 
 
 " " " 3d " 2,831 
 
 " " " 4th " 4,225 
 
 Total VWT 
 
 General total of those engaged in trade 47,375 
 
 Declared capital of those engaged in commerce : 
 
 First guild $9,675,000 
 
 Second'guild 10,273,600 
 
 Third guild 66,691,800 
 
 Declared capital of foreign merchants . . 382,500 
 
 Total capital invested in trade $87,022,800 
 
 In the whole of European Russia about 7,000,fl00 
 tchetwerts of grain are employed in the distillation of 
 64,000,000 vedros (208,000,000 imperial gallons) of 
 brandy, nearly all for home consumption. 
 
 The tariff regulations of Russia have during the past 
 few years undergone several modifications. Under 
 the tariff of 1841, the duties on most kinds of manufac- 
 tures were equivalent to a prohibition. This tariff was 
 entirely remodeled in 1850 ; and in June, 1854, vari- 
 ous other alterations and changes were made, reducing 
 still lower the duties prescribed by the tariff of 1850. 
 These alterations and reductions are given down to the 
 23d June, 1854, the date of the last change in the Rus- 
 sian tariff; for which see Tariffs of Northern Europe, 
 " Russia," Part II. Prior to the year 1850, there was 
 a separate tariff for Poland ; but the imperial ukase, 
 promulgating the tariff of 1850, observes, in reference 
 to this kingdom: "In our constant solicitude for the 
 promotion of commerce and industry, we have judged 
 it expedient, with a view to facilitate the interior, as 
 well as the exterior, relations between our faithful sub- 
 jects of the empire of Russia and the kingdom of Po- 
 land, to establish a uniform tariff of customs applicable 
 to the empire and kingdom alike, and to suppress the 
 customs-line which has heretofore separated them." 
 The only other separate tariflT now in force in Russia 
 is that which applies to the ports of the Black Sea. 
 For the purpose of comparison with subsequent tables, 
 giving the commercial movements of Russia for later 
 periods, the following table is annexed, exhibiting the 
 total commerce of the empire with foreign countries, 
 by land and sea, from 1832 to 1842, both inclusive : 
 
 YOIVTB. 
 
 Iniporta. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Totel. 
 
 
 France. 
 
 Francs. 
 
 Franca. 
 
 1832 
 
 180,387,000 
 
 255,694,000 
 
 446,081,000 
 
 1833 
 
 211,984,000 
 
 265,153,000 
 
 477,137,000 
 
 1834 
 
 240,044,000 
 
 243,491,000 
 
 483,445,000 
 
 1835 
 
 246,542,000 
 
 231,720,000 
 
 485,260,000 
 
 1836 
 
 261,879,000 
 
 304,003,000 
 
 565,882,000 
 
 1837 
 
 277,062,000 
 
 280,865,000 
 
 667,917,000 
 
 1838 
 
 273,200,000 
 
 336,018,000 
 
 60,0,218,000 
 
 1830 
 
 274,375,000 
 
 371,843,000 
 
 646,218,000 
 
 1840 
 
 300,766,000 
 
 324,807,000 
 
 625,073,000 
 
 1841 
 
 317,718,000 
 
 345,529,000 
 
 663,247,000 
 
 1843 
 
 338,000,000 
 
 331,000,000 
 
 669,000,000 
 
 If to the total for 1841 we add for specie imported, 
 and the commerce of Poland and Finland, neither of 
 which is included in the above table — about 100,000,000 
 francs in all — we shall have for that year a general 
 total of nearly 760,000,000 of francs, or $141,360,000. 
 A comparison of thq Russian official reports from 
 1832-'33 (annual average) to 1842, as above condensed, 
 shows that the general commerce of Russia has in- 
 creased ; viz., imports 46 per cent., exports 22 per cent. 
 
 Franca. 
 
 Revenue from customs and other sources in 1839, 106,000,000 
 " " " " 1840, 109,420,000 
 
 » " " " 1341, 109,550,000 
 
]RUS 
 
 1654 
 
 KUS 
 
 The amounts derived from the different branches of 
 customs in 1841 were, 
 
 Duties from custom-house 106,172,000 francs. 
 
 " entrepdta 6.14,000 " 
 
 Excise on salt in the Crimea 600,000 " 
 
 Other duties 2,184,000 " 
 
 Total 10S),560,000 " 
 
 An analysis of the foregoing figures will show that 
 the duties amount to about 33J per cent, on the total 
 value of imports. The following table exhibits the 
 total value of products exported from Russia in Euro- 
 pean commerce from 1841 to 1850, and the share as- 
 signed to each countrj' : 
 
 Yean. 
 
 Annual Valne. 
 
 Proportion to each Country. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Annual Value. 
 
 Proportion to each 
 
 Country. 
 
 1841 
 
 1S42 
 
 1843 
 
 1844 
 
 1845 
 
 Silver Roubles. 
 74,817,000 
 72,262;000 
 71,209,000 
 . 80,516,000 
 78,802,000 
 
 Per Cent. 
 
 To England 41 
 
 1846 
 
 1847 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 
 
 1850 
 
 Silver Roubles. 
 88,893,000 
 34,112,000 
 76,938,000 
 83,134,000 
 83,881,000 
 
 To England 
 
 Percent. 
 
 . . . . 49 
 
 
 9 
 
 To Prussia 6 
 
 To Prussia 
 
 . . 6 
 
 
 To Turkey 
 
 6 
 
 To Holland 6 
 
 To Holland . . . . 
 
 5 
 
 To Italy 5 
 
 To other countries 21 
 
 To United States.. 
 To other countries. 
 
 .... 2 
 
 .... 23 
 
 The following table exhibits in detail the principal 
 foreign merchandise entering into the import trade of 
 Russia, and also the value or quantities imported, in 
 the j'ears 1849, 1850, and 1851 : 
 
 DeBoription of Merchandise. 
 
 1849, 
 
 1850. 
 
 1851. 
 
 Coffee poods 
 
 231,147 
 
 186,186 
 
 228,803 
 
 Raw sugar *' 
 
 2,038,258 
 
 1,979,231 
 
 1,829,877 
 
 Oliveoil " 
 
 650,809 
 
 648,009 
 
 676,180 
 
 Wines and other liquors. 
 
 
 
 
 value in roubles 
 
 7,815,699 
 
 8,090,926 
 
 7,008,635 
 
 Fruits " 
 
 3,462,541 
 
 3,612,193 
 
 3,045,118 
 
 Cotton, raw poods 
 
 1,564,919 
 
 1,200,738 
 
 1,312,356 
 
 Cotton, white spun '^ 
 
 279,103 
 
 168,803 
 
 138,065 
 
 Dye-stufifs roubles 
 
 6,421,509 
 
 6,453,177 
 
 5,806,944 
 
 SUk poods 
 
 16,894 
 
 15,613 
 
 11,631 
 
 Wool " 
 
 56,844 
 
 67,290 
 
 67,443 
 
 Tissues, or woven goods : 
 
 
 
 
 Of cotton. . . roubles 
 
 4,448,349 
 
 3,299,615 
 
 4,436,221 
 
 Of silk " 
 
 4,448,057 
 
 4,258,187 
 
 4,466,211 
 
 Offlax " 
 
 579,041 
 
 537,996 
 
 962,048 
 
 Of wool.... " 
 
 2,201,688 
 
 1,968,706 
 
 1,728,894 
 
 Machinery, etc . " 
 
 2,1567,27,1 
 
 2,674,805 
 
 2,889,116 
 
 The augmentation which the official returns of Rus- 
 sia exhibit in cottons, dye-stuffs, wool, machinery, and 
 tools, evinces the progressive condition of Russian man- 
 ufactures. It has already been shown that in 1832 the 
 quantity of raw cotton imported into Russia was only 
 116,000 poods ; in 1851 it reached 1,312,356 poods ; and 
 in 1852 it ascended to 1,748,000 poods of 36 lbs. each. 
 In 1845 the importation of cotton yams (chiefly from 
 England) reached 606,045 poods ; in 1851 this amount 
 fell to 138,065 poods, making a difference of 467,980 
 poods, or 16,847,280 lbs. The activity and progress 
 of the cotton manufactures of Russia explain this great 
 falling off in the quantity of cotton yams imported, as 
 the annual diminution of the latter will be found to be 
 proportionate to the annual augmentation in the quan- 
 tity of the former. An analysis of the returns of trade 
 between Russia and the United States will also show an 
 increase in the quantities of raw cotton imported by the 
 former, corresponding with the diminished importation 
 of cotton yarns ; our raw cotton supplying to a great 
 extent the different factories in Russia. The follow- 
 ing table, compiled from the United States official au- 
 thorities, exhibits the quantities and value of this staple 
 exported to Russia direct from the United States : 
 
 Cotton exported to Rnssia 
 from United States. 
 
 1844. 
 1850. 
 1861. 
 1852. 
 1853. 
 1854* 
 1865. 
 
 2,767,766 lbs. 
 
 4,838,705 " 
 
 10,098,448 " 
 
 10,476,168 " 
 
 21,286,583 " 
 
 2,914,r54 " 
 
 448,817 " 
 
 Value. 
 
 $241,4.54 
 6411,222 
 
 1,297,164 
 962,346 
 
 2,254,845 
 301,293 
 48,047 
 
 * The war was formally declared March 31, 1854. 
 The diminished quantity exported to Russia in 1854 
 shows the effect of the war on the direct trade between 
 the two countries. This, however, can be more fully 
 shown by the following comparative table, exhibitmg 
 the general trade between the two countries in 1853, 
 1854, and 1855: 
 
 ToTAi, Value of Domestic Peodtoh extobted feom the 
 L'nited States to Russia. 
 
 InlS,63 J^fgVg 
 
 InlS54 835,Sil 
 
 InlS65 ^S-S*" 
 
 Cotton absorbed $48,647 of this last sum. Besides 
 the domestic produce exported to Russia in 1855, there 
 was also exported foreign produce to the amount of 
 $20,414. 
 
 In 1854, exports to Russia from the United States 
 consisted principally of two 'articles : Rice, $21,723 in 
 value ; and cotton, $301,293. 
 
 In 1853 we sent — Spermaceti oil, $7160; lumber, 
 $1485 ; dye-stuffs, $6648 ; hams and bacon, $441 ; ship- 
 bread, $3268 ; rice, $5564 ; cotton, $2,254,345 ; tobacco, 
 leaf, $14,109 ; tobacco, manufactured, $1164 ; sundries, 
 $18,991 ; total, $2,313,175. 
 
 We here give the export trade of Russia for the 
 years 1850 and 1851. The table includes only the 
 principal articles exported, which are usually denom- 
 inated Russian staples : 
 
 Exports or peincipal Staples from Russia in 1850 and 
 1851. 
 
 Corn silver roubles. 
 
 Red hides " 
 
 Rawhides '* 
 
 Flax 
 
 Hemp 
 
 Timber 
 
 Copper 
 
 Iron 
 
 Potash 
 
 Tallow 
 
 Hemp and linseed. 
 
 Wool 
 
 Bristles 
 
 poods. 
 
 roubles, 
 poods. 
 
 tchetwcrts.* 
 poods. 
 
 19,207,188 
 
 1,062,829 
 
 1,055,626 
 
 4,307,618 
 
 2.723,933 
 
 2;797,676 
 
 114,976 
 
 767,966 
 
 477,898 
 
 3,813,873 
 
 1,066,173 
 
 617,062 
 
 83,358 
 
 19,393,281 
 
 1,288,121 
 
 833,693 
 
 3,018,780 
 
 3,042,422 
 
 ,3,619,263 
 
 ^ 110,906 
 
 793,054 
 
 507,830 
 
 2,998,488 
 
 968,784 
 
 479,074 
 
 74,076 
 
 The exports from Poland are not included in the above ta- 
 ble. 
 
 The foreign trade of Russia, though interrupted in 
 its usual course in 1854 by the war, still exhibits con- 
 siderable importance, as is shown by the following sum- 
 mary of official retums : 
 
 Total Expoets. 
 
 To Europe from Russia proper $33,056,623 
 
 " from Poland 7,084,604 
 
 To Asia 7,481,014 
 
 To Finland 1,431,021 
 
 Total $49,003,262 
 
 ExpoET of Coin (Golp and Silver) in lS54.t 
 
 To Europe from Russia proper $6,448,434 
 
 " from Poland 641,413 
 
 To Asia 2,288,525 
 
 Total $9,378,372 
 
 Total Tmpoets. 
 
 From Europe into Russia proper $33,679,902 
 
 " into Poland 7,188,9f5 
 
 FromAsia 11,701,371 
 
 From Finland 248,691 
 
 Total $52,768,959 
 
 Imports of Coin (Gold and Silvee) feom abeoad. 
 From Europe into Russia $4,441,091 
 
 into Poland. 
 
 212,070 
 72,863 
 
 From Asia. 
 
 Total $4,726,014 
 
 Trade with Finland. — The exports of merchandise to 
 
 * Tchetwert — nearly six bushels. 
 
 t A supreme ukase of I'^ebvuary 27, 1854, proliibited the 
 exportation of gold coin. Silver coin has been exported only 
 by ship-masters, carriers, and passengers, in the quantities 
 allowed by law. 
 
RUS 
 
 1655 
 
 RUS 
 
 Finland amounted to $1,431,022; the imports from 
 thence amounted to $248,G91. 
 
 The trade beyond the Caucasus, in 1854, was 
 confined to Persia. The total imports amounted to 
 $2,645,955 ; exports, $378,297 ; total trans-Caucasian 
 trade, $3,024,252. 
 
 The value of goods imported at the port of Astra- 
 khan was $784,742 ; of which raw cotton amounted to 
 138,183 silver roubles, or $103,638. 
 
 The total trade on the frontiers of Orenburg and Si- 
 beria, in 1854, amounted to : Imports, $3,890,571 ; ex- 
 ports, $2,415,270; total, $6,305,841. 
 
 Trade ofKiachia.* — Total amount of goods talcen by 
 the Chinese, $4,380,104; being woolens, $1,876,376; 
 cottons, $1,146,620; linen goods, $119,991; jewelry 
 (gold and silver), $745,966 ; furs, $185,997 ; dressed 
 skins, and red leather, $72,830 ; miscellaneous, 
 $234,325. 
 
 Exports or Wool from Russia. 
 
 Poods. 
 
 From 1800 to 1813, average annual exportation, 19,813 
 " 1814 to 1823, " " " ■ 35,173 
 
 " 1824 to 1833, " " " 111,546 
 
 " 1834 to 1837, " " " 300,100 
 
 " 1S38 to 1S41, " " " 375,680 
 
 In 1841, average annual exportation 436,181 
 
 In 1845, " " " 733,688 
 
 InlS4'J, " " " 601,636 
 
 InlS50, " " " 617,063 
 
 M. de Tegoborski gives the following account of the 
 exports of iiax and hemp from Russia from 1822 down- 
 ward: 
 
 Years. 
 
 Flax and Codllla 
 
 Hemp And Cedilla 
 
 Total of Flax and 
 
 of FIsx. 
 
 of Hemp. 
 
 Hemp. 
 
 
 Foods — AvQTage 
 
 Poods. — Average 
 
 Poods.— Average 
 
 
 of four Years. 
 
 of four Yeara. 
 
 of four Years. 
 
 1822-1826 
 
 1,906,641/ 
 
 2,938,673 
 
 4,845,314 
 
 1827-1831 
 
 2,53!l,i)7S 
 
 2,626,085 
 
 5,066,073 
 
 1832-1836 
 
 2,490,022 
 
 3,065,420 
 
 6,665,342 
 
 1837-1841 
 
 3,125,617 
 
 , 3,260,817 
 
 6,386,324 
 
 1842-1846 
 
 5,663,768 
 
 2,802,419 
 
 6,466,175 
 
 1847-1850 
 
 4,616,755 
 
 2,819,781 
 
 7,436,536 
 
 The total custom-bouse receipts at Kiachta were 
 $2,146,778. 
 
 Total tonnage at the different ports in 1854 : enter- 
 ed, 226,774 lasts ; cleared, 268,477. 
 
 The amounts of duties in 1854 were as follows : 
 
 On imports and exports, and tonnage duties $13,831,521 
 
 Duties for benefit of various cities 292,628 
 
 Excise on Crimean salt 260,476 
 
 For bridge on the Neva 105,823 
 
 Warehouse and storage duties 146,648 
 
 For the Odessa I.yceum 17,369 
 
 Total $14,654,465 
 
 In the kingdom of Poland the custom-house receipts 
 amounted to $993,978. 
 
 The Asiatic commerce of Bussia centres at three 
 principal points. Kiachta, at which place the opera- 
 tions with China are conducted, is the most important 
 of these. Considerable trade is also prosecuted with 
 the Tartars in Central Asia. Astrakhan, on the Caspian 
 Sea, is .the ehtrepot for this trade. The land route is 
 from Astralthan, through a barren and desert countr)'', 
 to Khiva. Steam vessels are now established between 
 Novgorod, Astrakhan, the Caucasian provinces, and 
 Persia. 
 
 In 1854 a steam navigation company was organized 
 at Astrakhan for the purpose of opening a regular steam 
 communication between the ports of the Caspian Sea. 
 Up to 1852 there were but a few small government 
 steamers employed on the waters of the Caspian. The 
 steamers of this new companj' will offer abundant fa- 
 cilities for commercial movements. Not being obliged 
 to winter at Astrakhan, they can be kept afloat the en- 
 tire year, and thus maintain regular communications, 
 not only with the trans-Caucasian ports of Eussia and 
 the eastern ports of the Caspian, but also with the 
 Persian coast. 
 
 In 1848 the entire commerce of Russia with Asia is 
 thus summed up in official returns : 
 
 Exports 9,144,500 silver roubles. 
 
 Imports 13,471,780 " 
 
 Total $22,616,250 " 
 
 If to the above we add the European commerce of 
 Russia, we shall have for that year nearly 710,000,000 
 francs, or $132,060,000. 
 
 The general navigation of Eussia, for a series of 
 years, is found in official returns, as follows : 
 
 Ports of 
 
 Vessels entered. 
 
 Vessels cleared. | 
 
 1845. 1846. 
 
 1847. 
 
 1848. 
 
 1845. 
 
 1846. 
 
 1847 
 
 1848. 
 
 Ualtio Sea 
 
 White Sea 
 
 Black and Azof 
 Seas 
 
 2B87 3766 
 573; 801 
 
 2245 2445 
 
 6,231 
 824 
 
 4,201 
 110 
 
 3092 
 330 
 
 281S 
 161 
 
 2990 
 688 
 
 2222 
 140 
 
 3790 
 807 
 
 2432 
 
 184 
 
 7213 
 
 6,241 
 822 
 
 4,231- 
 130 
 
 3023 
 327 
 
 2635 
 162 
 
 Caspian Sea . . . 
 
 Total 
 
 Laden 
 
 In ballast.... 
 
 121 
 
 116 
 
 5926 
 
 7125 
 
 11,366 
 
 640i;5940 
 
 11424 
 
 6197 
 
 3037 
 2889 
 
 2930 
 4196 
 
 3,003 
 8,303 
 
 3010 5312 
 3391 128 
 
 7028 
 18S 
 
 10,968 
 456 
 
 5486 
 711 
 
 Entered and Ci.eakei>. 
 
 
 1845 
 
 1846, 
 
 1847 
 
 1848. 
 
 Vessels entered 
 
 Vessels cleared . . , . . 
 Total 
 
 5,926 
 5,940 
 
 7,126 
 7,213 
 
 11,366 
 11,424 
 
 6,401 
 6,197 
 
 11,866 
 
 687,702 
 672,911 
 
 14,338 
 
 654,236 
 672,864 
 
 22,790 
 
 968,034 
 999,284 
 
 12,698 
 
 661,640 
 688,997 
 
 Tonnage entered 
 
 Tonnage cleared 
 
 Total 
 
 1,140,613 
 
 l,32T;in0 
 
 1,967,318 
 
 1,260,537 
 
 The preceding figures demonstrate the increasing 
 activity of Russian maritime commerce. It is proper 
 to observe, however, that the years of 1846 and 1847 
 are exceptional, as the commerce of thpse years was 
 simulated by circumstances which were, happily, of a 
 transient character ; and they can not, therefore, form 
 a basis for legitimate comparison^ The movements in 
 grain alone, in 1847, augmented Russian exports up- 
 ward of 640,000 tons, equivalent to an increase of 50 
 per cent. 
 
 Commercial Shipping. 
 
 
 ships arrived. | Ships Railed. j 
 
 1860. 
 
 1851. 
 
 1850. 
 
 1851. 
 
 
 3,423 
 547 
 
 2,500 
 220 
 
 3,790 
 721 
 
 2,585 
 227 
 
 3,545 
 641 
 
 2,480 
 235 
 
 3,781 
 658 
 
 2,598 
 305 
 
 White Seaports .. .. 
 
 Southern ports 
 
 Caspian ports. ...... 
 
 Total 
 
 6,T80 
 
 3,659 
 3,121 
 
 T,323 
 
 3,263 
 4,070 
 
 6,801 
 
 6,433 
 368 
 
 7,342 
 
 6,821 
 
 521 
 
 Of which 
 
 With goods 
 
 In ballast 
 
 Thetonnageof, J J 
 
 the wholes J™„ 
 
 amounted tot '™' 
 
 626,373 
 1,282,746 
 
 579,396 
 1,168,792 
 
 576,077 
 1,152,154 
 
 670.289 
 1,152;578 
 
 'This trade is exclusively a trade of barter with the Chi- 
 
 The greatest number of ships were English and Rus- 
 sian, viz. : of the former there arrived 1875 ; and of the 
 latter, 1019. Of ships arrived under other flags were, 
 Turkish, 978; Dutch, 586; Greek, 444; Swedish, 366; 
 Mecklenburg, 329 ; Russian, 299 ; Danish, 223 ; Sar- 
 dinian, 210 ; Austrian, 191 ; and of other nations, 803. 
 
 These arrivals and departures were thus distributed 
 in 1852 : 
 
 Ports of 
 
 The Baltic 
 
 The White Sea 
 
 The Black and Azof Seas . 
 
 The Caspian Sea 
 
 Total 
 
 3627 
 827 
 3929 
 
 3507 
 
 3889 
 266 
 
 The following table exhibits the national character 
 of the vessels arrived : 
 
 Nationality. 
 
 England. , 
 Eussia . . 
 Turkey. . 
 Greece . . 
 Holland . 
 Sweden.-. 
 Sardinia. 
 
 No. of 
 Vessels. 
 
 2020 
 1126 
 1072 
 600 
 613 
 470 
 463 
 
 Nationally. 
 
 Austria -. 
 
 Prussia 
 
 Denmark. . ; 
 
 Mecklenburg . . . 
 
 Hanover 
 
 France 
 
 Other countries. 
 
 No. of 
 Veeeels. 
 
 3S3 
 380 
 361, 
 291 
 ,263 
 186 
 483 
 
EUS 
 
 1656 
 
 RUS 
 
 Exports and Imports for 1854.— (FaZi« in Silver Rouhlcs.) 
 
 By the European frontier of 
 
 tile empire 
 
 The kingdom of Poland 
 
 Tlie frontiers of Asia 
 
 Finland 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Kublos d'ArK 
 44,0I5,49T 
 9,446,138 
 9,903,018 
 1,908,028 
 65,337,681 
 
 Rubles d'Arp. 
 
 44,006,635 
 
 9,618,659 
 
 16,601,S2T 
 
 381,687 
 
 70,358,608 
 
 Navigation for 1854. 
 
 The Baltic 
 
 The White Sea . . 
 
 The Black Sea. . . 
 
 The Caspian Sea. 
 
 Total 
 
 473 
 
 1183 
 181 
 
 2522 
 
 463 
 
 747 
 1409 
 211 
 
 2830 I 
 
 Steam Navigation. — The steam navigation of Russia 
 has largely increased since 1850. In that year there 
 visited the port of Cronstadt 82 steamers, viz. : From 
 London, 8 ; Hull, 13 ; Dunkirk, 7 ; Lubeck, 26 ; Stet- 
 tm, 24 ; Kiel, 2 ; Havre, 2 ; Total, 82. Two steamers 
 maintain a regular communication between Eiga, Hull, 
 and Stettin, making monthly, sometimes semi-month- 
 ly, trips. The frigate-built steamers the Odessa, the 
 Crimea, and the Odessa and Kherson, make annually 
 33 trips between Odessa and Constantinople, and the 
 steamer Peter the Great 19 between Odessa and Ga- 
 latz. Eegular communication is also kept up be- 
 tween St. Petersburg, and the ports of Finland and 
 of the Baltic ; also between Odessa, Kherson, Nico- 
 laief, and other ports in the south of Eussia. These 
 steamers usually make 104 voyages yearly. Two 
 steamers connect the ports of the Sea of Azof; and 
 communication between the ports of Russia and those 
 of Persia is regularly maintained by national steamers. 
 The prospectus of the new Russian Steam Navigation 
 and TralBc Company, the statutes of which received 
 the emperor's sanction on the 3d of August, is publish- 
 ed very conspicuously in the Journal de St. Petersburg. 
 This company, which, by the extent of its resources, 
 and by its importance to *' the regeneration of the in- 
 ternal and foreign trade of Southern Eussia," is re- 
 garded as one likely to take rank above all other exist- 
 ing Russian companies, will have a capital of six mill- 
 ions of roubles to begin with, divided into 20,000 shares 
 of 300 roubles each. At a future period this capital 
 may be raised to nine millions, h\ the creation of 10,000 
 new shares, if agreed to by a general meeting of share- 
 holders. By the 25th statute of the company, none 
 but Russian subjects are capable of holding shares, the 
 laws of the empire prohibiting any foreigners from 
 taking part in the coasting trade between the Sea 
 of Azof and the Eussian Black Sea ports, which is an 
 essential part of the company's undertaking. Like 
 the Eussian American Company, it is to be placed un- 
 der the special protection of the imperial government. 
 The objects of its establishment are defined as being 
 " the development of the trade of Southern Eussia, 
 and of the commercial as well as the postal communi- 
 cations bj' steamboats between that part of the empire 
 and foreign countries." 
 
 The company is bound to keep up certain lines of 
 communication. Between Qdessa and Constantinople, 
 Athos, Smyrna, Rhodes, Beyrout, Jaffa, and Alexan- 
 dria, its steamboats are to ply three times a month, as 
 well as between Odessa, the Sea of Azof, and the Cir- 
 cassian coast. If it should be deemed advisable, boats 
 from Odessa may touch at the porta of the Crimea, and 
 also at those of the Anatolian coast, before proceeding 
 to Constantinople, or a line may be established from 
 Odessa, taking in Galatz and the porta of the Princi- 
 palities, and ending at Constantinople. 
 
 The company are bound, moreover, to provide for 
 eighteen voyages in the year from Odesaa to Trieste, 
 calling at Constantinople, SjTia, the Ionian Isles, and 
 Ancona, as well as for eighteen voyages in the year 
 from Odessa to Marseilles, stopping at Constantinople, 
 the Piraeus, Messina, Naples, Leghorn, and Genoa, 
 
 The government will cede to the company, at a price 
 to be fixed by valuation, all the steamboats belonging 
 to the department which has conducted hitherto the 
 postal and commercial intercourse between the differ- 
 ent ports of New Russia, together with the wharves, 
 warehouses, and stores belonging to that department. 
 
 The company is to be aided by the government with 
 a subvention, calculated at so much per mile, allowed 
 upon the voyage actually made by the companj-'s ves- 
 sels. This allowance during the first ten years will 
 be at the rate of 5 roubles 22 kopecks for the Levant 
 voyages, 3 roubles 49f kopecks for the Marseilles, and 
 4 roubles 7J kopecks for the Trieste voyages ; the al- 
 lowance for the Black Sea trips will be somewhat 
 lower. After the first ten years the subsidy will de- 
 crease regularly in each year. Above this mileage, 
 an annual grant of 64,000 roubles is secured during 
 twenty years. 
 
 Commerce with the trans-Caucasian Provinces and on 
 the Caspian Sea. — The trade With the trans-Caucasian 
 countries consists in the importation of Asiatic produce, 
 for which European and colonial merchandise is sent 
 in return. Silk is the principal article of import from 
 this region, and is chiefly destined for European mark- 
 ets. The transit through Persia, of merchandise des- 
 tined for the trans-Caucasian countries, is becoming 
 more active each succeeding year. The establishment 
 of regular steam packets on the Black Sea, as well as 
 the steamboats belonging to the Volga Steamboat Com- 
 panj', have contributed to make Astrakhan a place 
 of considerable importance to Russian commerce. The 
 yearly increasing commerce of this port attests the im- 
 portance of these lines of communication. In 1850 
 there was received from trans-Caucasian countries 
 merchandise valued at 954,625 Silver roubles, showing 
 an increase over the imports of the preceding year of 
 290,432 roubles. This augmentation is to be attributed 
 to the increased demand for the silk of these countries. 
 In 1850 this article alone covered 332,115 roubles, 
 while the quantity in market in 1849 reached only 
 69,840. The imports into Astrakhan in 1850 amounted 
 to 453,039 roubles, against 139,094 roubles in 1849. 
 
 From Russian official statistics for 1853, the follow- 
 ing extracts are translated : 
 
 " The position of Astrakhan on the Volga, the con- 
 venience of its port, and its proximity to the Caspian 
 Sea, are the chief foundations of its commercial im- 
 portance. The advantage of water transportation of 
 merchandise over land conveyance, draws to this mark- 
 et the larger bulk of all the trade of the neighboring 
 territory. The imports and exports of Astrakan are 
 thus given for 1853 : 
 
 Imports 788,389 silver roubles. 
 
 Exports 1,190,148 " 
 
 Total 1,978,537 " 
 
 "This sum is, however, largely augmented, if we 
 add the amount of the internal trade, or trade with the 
 neighboring provinces of Astrakhan. Official returns 
 show this trade to have been in 1863, 28,666,732 francs, 
 or 5,446,790 dollars. The imports at Astrakhan are 
 silk, cottons, dry fruits, and sundries. The exports 
 are cotton tissues, iron, grains, copper, sugar, tea, and 
 hides." 
 
 Commerce hy the Lines of Orenburg and Siberia. — 
 The commercial movements of Russia with Central 
 Asia are prosecuted with much activity. The value 
 of merchandise exchanged with the Tartars of this por- 
 tion of Asia in 1850 reached nearly 6,000,000 roubles, 
 showing an increase over the total trade of 1849 of 
 600,000 roubles. The principal imports were tea 
 (19,070 poods), which passed through the western fron- 
 tiers of China, amounting in value to 512,482 roubles 
 (equal to 50 cents per pound nearly). In 1861 this 
 trade maintained still greater activity. The value of 
 merchandise imported across the lines of Orenburg > 
 and Siberia reached 3J millions of roubles ; and the 
 exchanges, consisting of cotton and woolen cloths, loaf. 
 
EUS 
 
 1657 
 
 RUS 
 
 sugar, raw and tanned hides, amounted to 2,746,322 
 roubles. This exhibits an increase over 1850, viz. : 
 
 silver Roubles. 
 
 Imports from (Jliina by the frontiers of Oren- 
 burg and Siberia 219,494 
 
 Exports to China by the frontiers of Ol'cn- 
 burg and Siberia 8,502,502 
 
 The principal imports were blaclc and other teas 
 (755,330 lbs., valued at ^437,891, or nearly 58 cents 
 per pound), raw and spun cotton, etc. 
 
 Commerce vnth China at Kiachta in 1851. — This trade, 
 as already remarked, is strictly a barter of merchan- 
 dise. It takes place from the 6th of I'ebruarj' to the 
 6th of April each year. In 1851 the export trade con- 
 sisted of woolen cloths, value 3,267,053 silver roubles ; 
 cotton cloths, value 1,193,713 silver roubles; Rus- 
 sian leather, 240,933 silver roubles; corals, 259,527 
 silver roubles ; making a total of 4,961,226 roubles, or 
 $3,720,920. The imports (merchandise received in bar- 
 ter) were teas (122,839 chests and 26,289 small pack- 
 ages). For the interior of Russia there were imported 
 at Kiachta 121,249 half chests, and 30,849 small pack- 
 ages of tea. The duties levied on these imports at the 
 Kiatcha custom-house amounted to 4,685,433 roubles, 
 or $3,504,076 ; an excess of $280,660 over the receipts 
 of 1850, and of $615,225 over those of 1849. The 
 duties, cost of transportation, and other incidental ex- 
 penses between Kiachta and Moscow, amount to about 
 100 per cent, on the original cost. This would make 
 the cost price of tea in Moscow $1 per pound. The 
 profit, however, is realized on the merchandise barter- 
 ed, on which high and arbitrary prices are usually fixed. 
 The tea in small packages is consumed in Siberia. 
 
 Official returns, received since the above was pre- 
 pared, afford materials for bringing down a report of 
 trade at this important point to a later period. From 
 these it appears that the number of chests of tea (black 
 and green) deposited by the Chinese merchants at 
 Kiatcha during the trading season of 1852 reached 
 100,000. There also arrived 1000 packages for con- 
 sumption in Siberia. The number of pounds per chest 
 varies ; thej' average, however, about 60 lbs. to a chest 
 of black tea, and about 90 lbs. to the chest of family 
 tea. Besides tea, the Chinese also exchange sugar 
 and sugar-candy ; but these articles are usually con- 
 sumed in the vicinitj- of Kiachta. 
 
 Of late 3'ears the Russian traders have derived im- 
 mense profits from the barter of velvets and velvet- 
 eens, which are in great demand among the Chinese. 
 
 The trade of 1853 presented some novel features. 
 The announcement that 180,000 chests of tea were in 
 transitu for Kiachta threw the market, at this point, 
 into the greatest confusion. The merchants received 
 weekly advices as to the state of the market at Mos- 
 cow, and the great decline which teas had experienced 
 at that time left no alternative to the merchants, in 
 view of the heavy arrivals of teas dailj' expected, than 
 to raise the prices of Russian merchandise 50 per cent. 
 Any other course would have annihilated the profit- 
 able trade so long carried on at this place. The ar- 
 rivals, however, did not exceed 67,000 chests, and the 
 market maintained its usual tranquillity. 
 
 General Summary/. — The following summary of the 
 navigation of the different ports of Russia, in 1851 and 
 1852, is abstracted from official returns : 
 
 1S51.— Vessels arrived 7,325 
 
 " " cleared 7,342 
 
 Total tonnage, lasts 790,300 
 
 1852 — Vessels arrived 8,655 
 
 " " cleared 8,50T 
 
 Total tonnage, lasts 768,900 
 
 Navigation of the Volga in 1852. — The importations 
 at Rybinsk, by the Volga, in 1852, reached in value 
 $75,449,000 francs, and the exportations 101,621,000 
 francs. The excess of exports over Imports is ex- 
 plained by the fact that Rybinsk exports by water 
 only, and imports by land as well as by water. The 
 returns of imports by land are inaccessible to the stat- 
 
 istician ; but it is supposed that they would equalize 
 the values of the imports and exports of this market. 
 Rybinsk is one of the most important markets in the 
 interior of Russia. In the import trade there are em- 
 ployed 32 steamboats belonging to the Volga-Kama 
 Steamboat Company ; 681 canal-boats ; and 3141 barks, 
 flat-boats, etc., propelled by sails and oars. 
 
 The export trade of Rybinsk (i.e., the re-exportation 
 of merchandise) employs : By the Volga, 3765 ves- 
 sels of all kinds ; Mologa, 1779 ; Sheksna, 2221 ; total, 
 7765. 
 
 Steam Company of the Volga. — From the report of tho 
 general meeting of this company, held 27th February 
 [11th March], 1852, the information is gleaned, that 
 the company was organized in 1843 with a capital of 
 1,300,000 roubles ($975,000), divided into 5200 shares 
 of 250 roubles ($187 50) each ; that it now owns (in 
 1852) five iron steamers, which navigate the Volga ; 
 namely, the Sampson and the Hercules, each of 77 ; the 
 Kama, of 50 ; the Volga, of 42 ; and the Oka, o£ 17 
 horse-power. Besides these, the company owns nine- 
 teen barks and three large bateaux. The capital in- 
 vested in property (vessels, etc.) amounts to 1,200,000 
 roubles ($900,000). In 1852 the company received 
 for freights 334,805 roubles 90 kopecks ($251,104 42J), 
 besides 3215 roubles 60 kopecks ($2411 70) interest on 
 capital invested, which brings up their total receipts 
 to 338,021 roubles 50 kopecks ($253,516 12^). 
 
 Roubles. Kopeclta. Dollars. Cts. 
 Total expenses during the year. . 179,038 45 =134,2T8 831 
 
 Total receipts 338,021 50 =263,1516 12i 
 
 Net receipts during the year . . 15S,iiS3 05 =119,237 23i 
 This net amount was thus distributed : 
 
 To stockholders, at 20 roubles per Roubles. Kopeclis. Dollara. Cfs. 
 
 share 104,000 00 = T8,000 00* 
 
 Premium to the directors 7,949 15= 5,901 80^ 
 
 For reserved capital 47,033 90 = 35,2T5 42} 
 
 Total 168,983 05 =119,237 28} 
 
 Extra Duties. — In addition to the rates given in the 
 tariff, special duties are levied for the benefit of cities, 
 etc., as follows : ' 
 
 At the Port of Archangel. — For the benefit of the 
 town, ^ per cent, on the value of all imports and ex- 
 ports. 
 
 At Odessa. — For the benefit of the town : On wheat 
 exported by sea, 1 cent per 64 bushels. For the ben- 
 efit of the lyceum, Ij cent per 5S. bushels, on all kinds 
 of corn exported. 
 
 At the Port of Taganrog. — For the benefit of the city : 
 On all merchandise passing through tlie scales, im- 
 ported, |- cent per 36 lbs. Exported, ~^^ cent per 36 
 lbs. On wines imported, -^ cent per 2f gallons. 
 
 At the Port ofMariopol. — For the benefit of the city : 
 Imports, f cent per pood, dry measure ; _i. cent per 
 pood, liquid measure. 
 
 St. Petersburg. — For the bridge on the Neva : On 
 all imports, 2 per cent, on amount of duties. 
 
 Moscow. — For a similar purpose to the foregoing : 
 On all imports via St. Petersburg, 2 per cent, on 
 amount of duties. 
 
 The custom-houses of St. Petersburg, Archangel, 
 and Riga allow foreign goods, imported by privileged 
 merchants, to remain in bond without paying duty, or 
 to be re-exported, during twelve months ; if imported 
 by others, six months. 
 
 Progress of Cotton Manufactures in Bussia. — It has 
 already been remarked, that the manufacture of cot- 
 ton in the Russian empire is progressing with ex- 
 traordinarj- activity. The number of spindles in Rus- 
 sia exceeds 350,000, producing annually upward of 
 10,800,000 lbs. of cotton yams. The manufacture of 
 cotton velvets, especiall}'', is becoming highly import- 
 
 * A simple calculation will show this to be equal to 8 per 
 cent, on the capital invested. The dividend for the year 
 1851 was not so large (only seven roubles, or $5 25 per share), 
 and consequently stock fell to 120 @ 130 roubles per share 
 {$90 @ $97 60). In 1853 it again became firm, and command- 
 ed a premium. 
 
BUS 
 
 1658 
 
 BUS 
 
 ant to the direct trade between the United States and 
 Russia, the raw material being almost exclusively sup- 
 plied, either in the direct or indirect trade, by the for- 
 mer country. Formerly cotton velvets -were supplied 
 to the Chinese exclusively by the British. The Chi- 
 nese now prefer the Russian manufacture ; hence it 
 has become a leading staple of barter at the Russio- 
 frontier markets of China. 
 
 No foreign nation is allowed to participate in the 
 coasting or internal trade of Russia — Ordinance, Sep- 
 tember 9, 1845. The treaties between Russia and other 
 maritime states all contain the same terms as that be- 
 tween Russia and the United States of December 18, 
 1832 ; viz., the vessels of friendly nations, with cargoes 
 in ballast, are to be regarded quite as the domestic, as 
 to export or import, and to port or other duties, or 
 taxes of any kind whatever ; but the coasting trade is 
 interdicted. From Finland, flax, and hemp, and iron 
 can be profitably exported to the United States ; and 
 from the United States into Finland may be advan- 
 tageously imported cotton, tobacco, and rice. 
 
 The following table exhibits the quantities of raw 
 and spun cotton imported into Rhssia during the years 
 designated : 
 
 Years. 
 
 Raw Cotton. 
 
 Cotton Twists. 
 
 While. 
 
 Colored. 
 
 1846 
 
 Kilogrammes.* 
 11,863,000 
 14,119,000 
 20,171,000 
 26,470,000 
 19,670,000 
 
 Kilogrammes. 
 8,128,000 
 6,732,000 
 6,326,000 
 4,572,000 
 2,765,000 
 
 Kilogrammes. 
 61,000 
 57,000 
 56,000 
 67,000 
 50,000 
 
 1847 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 
 
 1880 
 
 Total 
 
 Annual average 
 
 91,293,000 
 
 28,522,000 
 
 281,000 
 
 18,288,600 
 
 5,704,400 
 
 66,200 
 
 100 kilograiijines=220 pounds. 
 The imports of raw cotton from the United States 
 to Russia for designated periods have already been 
 given, and it has been noticed that the diminution of 
 cotton twists is in a ratio corresponding with the aug- 
 mentation in the importation of raw cotton. Below 
 is annexed a table, exhibiting the direct trade and 
 navigation between the United States and Russia dur- 
 ing the years designated. — Comm. Rel, U. S. 
 
 COMMEEOE OF THE UNITED STATES WITH EUBSTA FKOM OOTOEEB 1, 182( 
 
 , TO July 1, 
 
 1857. 
 
 
 Years eliding 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Wliereoftliere wasin 
 Bullion and Specie. 
 
 Tonnage cleared. 
 
 Domestic. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 ■Total. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Export. 
 
 Import, 
 
 American. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Sept. 80, 1821 
 
 $127,933 
 
 $500,956 
 
 $628,894 
 
 $1,852,199 
 
 
 
 . 4,621 
 
 
 1322 : 
 
 177,261 
 
 351,820 
 
 529,081 
 
 3,307,328 
 
 
 $300 
 
 ■ 4,325 
 
 
 1828 
 
 51,635 
 
 537,099 
 
 648,784 
 
 2,258,777 
 
 
 1,800 
 
 2,771 
 
 
 1824 
 
 92,766 
 
 139,215 
 
 231,981 
 
 2,209,663 
 
 
 .... 
 
 2,201 
 
 
 1S25 
 
 65,191 
 
 232,210 
 
 287,401 
 
 2,067,110 
 
 
 
 3,279 
 
 
 1826 
 
 11,044 
 
 163,604 
 
 174,648 
 
 2,617,169 
 
 
 
 1,3S6 
 
 
 1827 
 
 45,510 
 
 836,784 
 
 382,244 
 
 2,086,077 
 
 
 
 3,503 
 
 117 
 
 1828 
 
 108,922 
 
 341,573 
 
 450,496 
 
 2,788,362 
 
 $13,563 
 
 
 2,7S5 
 
 286 
 
 1829 
 
 51,684 
 
 384,542 
 
 386,226 
 
 2,218,995 
 
 10,213 
 
 
 2,943 
 
 
 1830 
 
 Total. . . 
 
 35,461 
 
 381,114 
 
 416,576 
 
 1,621,899 
 
 28,700 
 
 
 3,492 
 
 234 
 
 $757,413 
 
 $3,378,806 
 
 $4,136,279 
 
 $23,027,579 
 
 $52,466 
 
 $2,100 
 
 31,212 
 
 637 
 
 Sept. 30,1831 
 
 $114,652 . 
 
 ^347,914 • 
 
 $462,766 
 
 $1,608,328 
 
 $90,423 
 
 
 4,310 
 
 
 1882 
 
 , 121,114 
 
 461,608 
 
 582,682 
 
 8,251,852 
 
 82,083 
 
 $3,000 
 
 3,147 
 
 391 
 
 1833 
 
 223,734 
 
 480,071 
 
 703,805 
 
 2,772,550 
 
 85,494 
 
 2,192 
 
 6,498 
 
 
 1834 
 
 168,627 
 
 162,067 
 
 330,694 
 
 2,595,840 
 
 1,546 
 
 
 4,979 
 
 300 
 
 1835 
 
 281,607 
 
 358,840 
 
 685,447 
 
 2,395,245 
 
 6,977 
 
 
 8,424 
 
 535 
 
 1836....... 
 
 820,283 
 
 584,730 
 
 911,013 
 
 2,778,564 
 
 12,000 
 
 
 6,106 
 
 1,199 
 
 1837 
 
 144,080 
 
 1,162,652 
 
 1,300,782 
 
 2,816,116 
 
 3,000 
 
 4,000 
 
 6,644 
 
 4,147 
 
 1838 
 
 359,047 
 
 689,242 
 
 1,048,289 
 
 1,898,396 
 
 7,070 
 
 1,000 
 
 7,253 
 
 198 
 
 1839 
 
 434,687 
 
 804,659 
 
 1,239,246 
 
 2,898,894 
 
 1,866 
 
 60 
 
 8,540 
 
 858 
 
 1840 
 
 Total. . . 
 
 234,856 
 
 934,625 
 
 1,169,481 
 
 2,572,427 
 
 9,281 
 
 
 6,018 
 
 477 
 
 $2,388,787 
 
 $5,981,368 
 
 $8,340,165 
 
 $25,083,202 
 
 $299,680 
 
 $10,242 
 
 67,009 
 
 7,665 
 
 Sept. 30, 1841 
 
 $146,118 
 
 $879,611 
 
 $1,026,729 
 
 $2,717,448 
 
 
 
 7,405 
 
 803 
 
 1842 
 
 316,026 
 
 520,567 
 
 836,593 
 
 1,860,106 
 
 $4,978 
 
 
 5,691 
 
 1,699 
 
 9mos., 1843* 
 
 303,867 
 
 76,926 
 
 386,793 
 
 742,803 
 
 626 
 
 $3,401 
 
 4,163 
 
 271 
 
 June 30, 1844 
 
 414,882 
 
 140,532 
 
 655,414 
 
 1,053,419 
 
 1,120 
 
 
 6,308 
 
 1,881 
 
 1845 
 
 538,845 
 
 190,492 
 
 727,837 
 
 1,492,202 
 
 
 
 9,109 
 
 l,f06 
 
 184S 
 
 685,338 
 
 97,079 
 
 632,467 
 
 1,570,054 
 
 
 
 5,451 
 
 1,543 
 
 1S47 
 
 626,832 
 
 124,118 
 
 7.';O,450 
 
 824,673 
 
 
 
 4.135 
 
 1,362 
 
 1848 
 
 1,047,582 
 
 108,428 
 
 1,156,010 
 
 1,319,084 
 
 
 
 9,588 
 
 393 
 
 1849 
 
 937,667 
 
 197,947 
 
 1,186,604 
 
 840,238 
 
 
 74 
 
 10,349 
 
 1,393 
 
 1850 
 
 Total. . . 
 
 666,486 
 
 ,198,506 
 
 864,941 
 
 1,511,572 
 
 
 
 5,048 
 
 3,990 
 
 $6,637,032 
 
 $2,534,206 
 
 $8,071,238 
 
 $13,627,659 
 
 $6,724 
 
 $3,476 
 
 67,247 
 
 15,346 
 
 June 30, 1851 
 
 $1,465,704 
 
 $146,987 
 
 $1,611,691 
 
 $1,302,782 
 
 
 
 9,241 
 
 3,239 
 
 1852 
 
 1,061,748 
 
 188,732 
 
 1,200,4SO 
 
 1,581,620 
 
 
 
 10,006 
 
 3,045 
 
 1853 
 
 2,318,175 
 
 143,478 
 
 2,456,653 
 
 1,278,501 
 
 
 
 11,958 
 
 5,2:17 
 
 1SB4 
 
 336,521 
 
 145,036 
 
 480,616 
 
 1,644,235 
 
 
 
 3,891 
 
 1,4S5 
 
 1855 
 
 48,940 
 
 20,414 
 
 69,354 
 
 260,666 
 
 
 
 1,583 
 
 
 1866 
 
 600,153 
 
 86,262 
 
 686,405 
 
 330,581 
 
 
 
 9,720 
 
 660 
 
 1857 
 
 4,474,842 
 
 265,039 
 
 4,729,881 
 
 1,519,420 
 
 
 
 27,979 
 
 5,486 
 
 Nine months to June 80, and the fiscal year from this time begins July 1. 
 
 Principal Ports. — Odessa, a sea-port of southern Rus- 
 sia, on the northwest coast of the Black Sea, between 
 the rivers Dniester and Bug, in lat. 46° 28' 54" N., 
 long. 30° 43' 22" E. The bay or roadstead of Odessa 
 is extensive, the water is deep, and the anchorage is 
 good — the bottom being fine sand and gravel ; it is, 
 however, exposed to the southeasterly winds, which 
 render it less safe in winter. The port, which is arti- 
 ficial, being formed of two moles, one ofwhich projects 
 a considerable distance into the sea, and has deep wa- 
 ter, with room for three hundred ships. 
 
 St. Petersburg, the capital of Russia, situated at the 
 confluence of the River Neva with the eastern extrem- 
 ity of the Gulf of Finland, in lat. 69° 56' 23" N., long. 
 30° 18' 45" E. Cronstadt, situated on a small island 
 about twenty miles west of St. Petersburg, may in some 
 
 measure be considered as the port of the latter. Al- 
 most all vessels bound for St. Petersburg touch here, 
 and those drawing above eight feet of water load and 
 uiiload at Cronstadt — the goods being conveyed to the 
 city in lighters. The water to Cronstadt is ample, 
 there being from twenty-four to thirty-six feet of water. 
 Russian Possessions in Amerida. — The territory be- 
 longing to the Russian American Company compre- 
 hends the northwestern portion of North America, ex- 
 tending from Behring's Straits eastward to the merid- 
 ian of Mt. St. Elias, along both the Arctic and Pacific 
 oceans, and from that moHntain southward along the 
 coast chain of hills till it touches the coast in 54° 40' 
 N. lat., forming an area of 394,000 square miles. The 
 Aleutian Islands, though comprised in the Asiatic gov- 
 ernment of Irkutsk, may be considered as belonging to 
 
BUS 
 
 1659 
 
 EHU 
 
 this region. The settlements originated with an as- 
 sociation of merchants, formed at Irkutsk, Trho obtain- 
 ed from the Emperor Paul the exclusive privilege of 
 trading for peltries in the Aleutian Islands and ad- 
 jacent coasts. This privilege was extended by the 
 Emperor Alexander over all Russian America, and the 
 charter was renewed by Nicholas in 1849. The capi- 
 tal and principal factory was first established at Ko- 
 diak, but the increasing scarcity of sea otters led the 
 then governor to lay the foundation of New Archan- 
 gel, which has now become the chief dep6t. The Rus- 
 sian dominion over the vast solitudes of the interior is 
 only nominal : the interior, indeed, is a^ terra incognita, 
 and inhabited by tribes who scarcely know the name 
 of their lords. At the present day the Eussians occu- 
 py only the islands off this coast. New Archangel, 
 the capital, is situated on the island of Sitka, in lat. 
 57° 30' N., and long. 135° 13' W. It is a town of 
 some 1000 inhabitants, and contains the Boards and 
 warehouses of the company. The whole country is 
 under the surveillance of a governor, who derives his 
 authority from the company at Irkutsk. The total 
 population of Russian America is estimated at 60,000 
 or 70,000, including aborigines. The commerce of this 
 country is chiefly confined to the exportation of furs 
 to Canton, and the import of provisions and agricultu- 
 ral supplies from the Puget's Sound Agricultural Com- 
 pany. It is of little value, being less than $300,000 
 a year, and is constantly declining, consequent on the 
 decline of the seal and otter. Bodega, on the coast of 
 California, was formerly a Russian settlement. The 
 British lease the continental part of Russian America 
 for hunting purposes. 
 
 Shipping and ship-building are considerably increas- 
 ing in Finland. The causes are to be sought in the 
 increasing commerce and the general prosperity of the 
 country, in the high prices which have been paid in the 
 last years for the principal exports — ^wood articles — 
 especially in Southern Europe, and in the high freights 
 paid by foreigners for the employment of Finnish ves- 
 sels. To encourage shipping and ship-building in Fin- 
 land, the Russian government has allowed that aU ma- 
 terials and articles which are used in ship-building, 
 and are to be had cheaper in foreign countries, may 
 be imported into Finland free of duty. American im- 
 provements in ship-building have, in part, already 
 been introduced, and will probably be more generally 
 adopted. — Comm. Rd. U. S. 
 
 For able articles on the commerce, commercial pol- 
 icy, commercial strength, mines, resources, etc., of 
 Russia, see Blackwood's Magasim, liiL 807 ; Bankers' 
 Magazine, ii. 273 ; Quarterly Review, Ixxvii. 188, xix. 
 131, Ixvi. 218; Journal of Science, Hi. 153; Edinburgh 
 Review, xl. 476 (Jefpeey), xxiii. 340, Ixxix. ; Hunt's- 
 Merchamts' Magazine, v. 297 (F. Whakton), x. 207 ; 
 Living Age, xxiv. '529 ; American Whig Review, xii. 
 616 ; North American Review, xxvii. xxx. 
 
 Russia Company, a regulated company in Great 
 Britain for conducting the trade with Russia. It was 
 first incorporated by charter of Philip and Marj', sanc- 
 tioned by act of Parliament in 1566. The statute 10 
 and 11 William III., ch. 6, enacts, that everj- British 
 subject desiring admission into the Russia Company 
 shall be admitted on paying jE5 ; and every individual 
 admitted into the company conducts his business en- 
 tirely as a private adventurer, or as he would do were 
 the company abolished. 
 
 Russia Leather (Fr. Cuir de Russie ; Ger. Juften ; 
 It. Cuojo di Russia; Pol. Jachta; Russ. Juft, Youft; 
 Sp. Muscovia), the tanned hides of oxen and otlier kine, 
 denominated by the Russians yonfts, OTJuffs — a desig- 
 nation said to be derived from their being generally 
 manufactured in pairs. The business of tanning is car- 
 ried on in most towns of the empire, but principally at 
 Moscow and St. Petersburg. Russia leather is soft, has 
 a strongly prominent grain, a great deal of lustre, and 
 a powerful and peculiar odor. It is principally either 
 
 red or black : the former is the best, and is largely 
 used in this and other countries in book-binding ; for 
 which purpose it is superior to every other material. 
 The black is, however, in very extensive demand in 
 Russia, large quantities being made up into boots and 
 shoes. The process followed by the Russians in the 
 preparation of this valuable commodity has been fre- 
 quently described ; but notwithstanding this circum- 
 stance, and the fact that foreigners have repeatedly en- 
 gaged in the business in Russia, with the intention of 
 making themselves masters of its details, and under- 
 taking it at home, the efforts made to introduce the 
 manufacture into other countries have hitherto entirely 
 failed. One of thebest tests of genuine Rus^ leather 
 is its throwing out a strong odor of burned hide upon 
 being rubbed a little.— Ricaed, Traiti Genh-al du Com- 
 merce, tome i. p. 275, ed. 1781. 
 
 "We extract from Mr. Borrisow's work on the CoTn- 
 merce o/ St. Petersburg the following details with respect 
 to this article : Russia leather forms one of the princi- 
 pal export commodities of St. Petersburg. But since 
 the ports of the Black Sea have been opened, the exports 
 of leather from this port have considerably decreased ; 
 Italy, the principal consumer, supplj'ing its wants from 
 Odessa and Taganrog more easily, cheaply, and expe- 
 ditiously than from St. Petersburg. The chief exporta- 
 tion from the latter is to Prussia, Germany, and En- 
 gland. Frankfort-on-the-Maine and Leipzic are of great 
 importance as respects the trade in Russia leather, on 
 account of the fairs held in them. Juffs are never 
 bought on contract, but always on the spot at cash 
 prices. It nevertheless often happens that agents — in 
 order to secure a lot of juffs, pay a certain sum in ad- 
 vance, and settle for the amount at the first market 
 prices ; no prices being fixed in the months of January, 
 February, March, and sometimes even April. Juffs arc 
 assorted or bracked when received, according to their 
 different qualities, into Gave, Rosval, Malja, and Do- 
 mashna. The three first sorts are again divided into 
 heavy and light Gave, heamfaoA light Rosval, etc. Do- 
 mashna is the worst, and consequently the cheapest 
 sort. It often happens that juffs are bought unas- 
 sorted, and then the prices are regulated according as 
 the quantity of Domashna contained in the lot is great- 
 er or less. Persons well acquainted with the nature of 
 Russia leather prefer purchasing it in this state. Juffs 
 are sold by the pood, which consists, as it is commonly 
 expressed, of 4, 4J, 4J, 5, h^, and 5J hides. By this 
 is understood, that so many hides make a pood, calcu- 
 lated upon the whole lot ; and it is to be observed that 
 the lightest juffs are esteemed the best in quality. 
 Heavy juffs, or those of 4 and 4J hides, are shipped for 
 Italy : the Germans, on the contrary, prefer the lighter 
 sort. Juffs are packed in rolls, each containing 10 
 hides ; and from 10 to 15 of these rolls are packed to- 
 gether in a bundle, which is well secured by thick 
 matting. There are red, white, and black juffs ; but 
 the red are most in demand. Their goodness is determ- 
 ined by their being of a high red color, of equal size, 
 and unmixed with small hides : they must also be free 
 from boles, well stretched, and equally thin. In a well- 
 finished lot no thick head or feet parts should be found. 
 If spots resembling flowers are seen on the red hides, 
 it is an additional sign of their good quality, and they 
 are then called bloomed juffs. The inside should be 
 clean, soft, and white, and, when taken in the hand, 
 should feel elastic. 'The best connoisseurs of Russia 
 leather can nearly determine the quality by the smell 
 alone. Great attention must be paid, in shipping juffs, 
 to secure them from being wetted, as damp air alone is 
 sufiicient to injure them. Sixty rolls of juffs make a 
 last ; 88 poods net weight, when shipped for Italy, 
 make a last ; and 44 poods a ton. The exports of 
 juffs from Russia in 1841 amounted to 177,838 poods, 
 and 150,951 pieces, worth together 1,538,191 silver rou- 
 bles. 
 
 Rye (Ger. Rogken, Rocken; Du. Rog, Rogge; Fr. 
 
EYE 
 
 1660 
 
 EYO 
 
 Seigle ; It. Segale, Segala ; Sp. Centeno ; Euss. Hosch, 
 Sel, Jar; Lat. jSecale), according to some, is a native of 
 Crete ; but it is very doubtful if it can now be found wild 
 in any country. It has been cultivated from time im- 
 memorial, and is considered as coming nearer in its 
 properties to wheat than any other grain. It is more 
 common than wheat in many parts of Europe, being a 
 more certain crop, and requiring less culture and ma- 
 nure. It is the bread corn of Germany and Russia.— 
 Loudon's Encyc. of Agriculture. 
 
 Eye is supposed by some authorities to be a native 
 of the Caspian Caucasian desert ; and has been culti- 
 vated in the north of Europe and Asia from time im- 
 memorial, where it constitutes an important article of 
 human subsistence, being generally mixed with barley 
 or wheat. Its introduction into western Europe is of 
 comparatively recent date, as no mention is made of it 
 in the Orius Sanitatis, published at Augsburg in 1485, 
 which treats at length of barley, mUlet, oats, and 
 wheat. 
 
 The production of rj'e has decreased 4,457,000 bush- 
 els in the aggregate ; but in New York it is greater 
 than in 1840 by about 40 per cent. Pennsylvania, 
 which is the largest producer, has fallen off from 
 6,613,373 to 4,805,160 bushels. Perhaps the general 
 diminution in the quantity of this grain now produced 
 may be accounted for by supposing a corresponding 
 decline in the demand for distilling purposes, to which 
 a large part of the crop is applied. 
 
 EspOETS OF Eye and small Geain from the X'ntted States 
 FOR THE Yeaf. ending Jcne 30, 1S56. 
 
 Rye, Oafs, and 
 Whither exported. other BmaU Grain, 
 
 and Pulse. 
 
 Sweaish West Indies $G34 
 
 Danish West Indies 1,308 
 
 Hamburg 264,866 
 
 Bremen 449,403 
 
 Other German porta 8,860 
 
 IloUand 427,095 
 
 Dutch West Indies 222 
 
 Dutch Guiana 570 
 
 Belgium ■. 1,071,639 
 
 England 176,535 
 
 - - ■ 14,600 
 
 83,317 
 
 14,609 
 
 46,325 
 
 110 
 
 8,037 
 
 1,104 
 
 94,821 
 
 3S6 
 
 18,535 
 
 198 
 
 85 
 
 93 
 
 7.571 
 
 i;606 
 
 8,910 
 
 67 
 
 819 
 
 86 
 
 1,356 
 
 70 
 
 S50 
 
 13,214 
 
 1,477 
 
 285 
 
 102 
 
 4,028 
 
 461 
 
 536 
 
 Ireland 
 
 Canada 
 
 Other British North American Possessions 
 
 British West Indies 
 
 British Honduras 
 
 British Guiana 
 
 British Possessions in Africa 
 
 British Australia 
 
 British East Indies 
 
 France on the Atlantic 
 
 French North American Possessions 
 
 French West Indies 
 
 French Guiana 
 
 Cuha 
 
 Porto lUco 
 
 Turkey in Europe 
 
 Turkey in Asia 
 
 Hayti .' 
 
 San Domingo 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Central Republic 
 
 New Granada 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Chili 
 
 Peru 
 
 Sandwich Islands 
 
 China 
 
 "Whale riaherics 
 
 Total, 1855-1856 $2,718,620 
 
 Total, 1S56-186T 680,108 
 
 Eye was cultivated in the North American colonies 
 scon after their settlement by the English. Gorges 
 speaks of it as growing in Nova Scotia in 1622, as well 
 as of barley and wheat. Plantagenet enumerates it 
 among the productions of North Virginia (New En- 
 gland) in 1648, and alludes to the mixing of it with 
 
 maize in the formation of bread. It was also cultiva- 
 ted in South Virginia by Sir William Berkeley previous 
 to that 3'ear. 
 
 Geographically, rye and barley associate with one 
 another, and grow upon soils the most analogous, and 
 in situations alike exposed. It is cultivated for bread 
 in northern Asia, and all over the continent of Europe, 
 particularly in Eussia, Norway, Denmark, Sweden, 
 Germany, and Holland; in the latter of which it is 
 much employed in the manufacture of gin. It is also 
 grown to some extent in England, Scotland, and Wales. 
 In this country it is principally restricted to the Middle 
 and Eastern States, but its culture is giving place to 
 more proiitable crops. 
 
 The three leading varieties cultivated in the United 
 States are the Spring, Winter, and Southern, the latter 
 differing from the others only from dissimilarity of cli- 
 mate. The yield varies from 10 to 30, or more, bushels 
 per acre, weighing from 48 to 56 lbs. to the bushel. 
 
 This grain has never entered largely into our foreign 
 commerce, as the home consumption for a long period 
 nearly kept pace with the supply. The amount ex- 
 ported from the United States in 1801 was 392,276 
 bushels ; in 1812, 82,705 bushels ; in 1813, 140,136 
 bushels. In 1820-'21 there were exported 23,523 laar- 
 rels of rj-e flour; in 1830-'31, 19,100 barrels; in 1840- 
 '41, 44,031 barrels; in 1845-'46, 38,530 barrels; in 
 1846-'47, 48,892 barrels ; in 1850-'61, 44,152 barrels. 
 
 During the year ending June 1, 1850, there were 
 consumed, of lye, about 2,144,000 bushels in the man- 
 ufacture of malt and spirituous liquors. 
 
 According to the census returns of 1840, the prod- 
 uct of the country was 18,645,567 bushels; in 1850, 
 14,188,637 bushels. Of this amount there was export- 
 ted from New York $2,022,352. 
 
 Production of Rye in the United States foe the Yeaks 
 1S40 AKD 1850. 
 
 states and Territories. 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 Columbia, District of . 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Florida 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Kentucky. 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Maine 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Missouri 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 New Y'ork 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Texas 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Virginia 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 .^ a5 (Minnesota . 
 S.S -Oregon.... 
 H5 (Utah 
 
 1840. 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 51,088 
 
 6,210 
 
 5,081 
 
 737,424 
 
 33,546 
 
 305 
 
 60,603 
 
 88,197 
 
 129,621 
 
 3,7:i2 
 
 1,321,373 
 
 1,812 
 
 137,941 
 
 723,577 
 
 536,014 
 
 34,236 
 
 11,444 
 
 68,608 
 
 308,148 
 
 1,665,820 
 
 2,970,323 
 
 213,971 
 
 814,206 
 
 6,613,873 
 
 34,621 
 
 44,738 
 
 304,320 
 
 230,993 
 
 1,482,709 
 1,965 
 
 Total 1 18,866,587 
 
 1850, 
 
 Bimhele. 
 
 17.261 
 
 8;047 
 
 5,509 
 
 600,893 
 
 8,066 
 
 1,152 
 
 63,750 
 
 83,864 
 
 78,792 
 
 19,910 
 
 416,073 
 
 475 
 
 102,916 
 
 226,014 
 
 481,021 
 
 105,871 
 
 9^606 
 
 44,268 
 
 183,117 
 
 1,2.65,578 
 
 4,148,182 
 
 220,663 
 
 425,918 
 
 4,805,160 
 
 26,409 
 
 43,790 
 
 89,137 
 
 3,108 
 
 176,233 
 
 458,930 
 
 81,253 
 
 125 
 
 106 
 
 210 
 
 14,188,813 
 
 Ryots. The name given to the cultivators of the 
 soil of Hindostan, who hold their land by a lease which 
 is considered as perpetual, and at a rate fixed by an- 
 cient surveys and valuations, 
 
SAB 
 
 1661 
 
 SAI 
 
 s. 
 
 Sable (Ger. Zobel; Fr. Zibelline; It. Zibellino; Riiss. 
 Sohol), an animal of the weasel tribe, found in the 
 northern parts of Asiatic Russia and America, hunted 
 for the sake of its fur. Its color is generally of a deep 
 glossy brown, and sometimes of a fine glossy black, 
 ■which is most esteemed. Sable skins have sometimes, 
 though very rarely, been found yellow, and white. The 
 finer sorts of the fur of sables are very scarce and dear. 
 A single skin of the darker color, though not above four 
 inches broad, has been valued as high as $60. The 
 sable (Mustela zibellina, Linn.) is principally a native 
 of the northern regions of Asia : it is hunted and killed 
 for the Russian market, either by a single ball, a blunt 
 arrow, or traps, by exiles or soldiers sent for that pur- 
 pose, in the deserts of Siberia. The skin is in the high- 
 est perfection from November to February. A nearly 
 allied animal, called the "fisher," inhabits North Ameri- 
 ca, and is similarly sought after and destroyed for its 
 fur. — See Fde Trade. 
 
 Saddles (Fr. Settes; Ger. Sattel; It. Selle; Euss. 
 Sadla; 8p. Selles), seats adapted to horses' backs, for 
 the convenience of the rider. 
 
 Safilo'wer, or Bastard Safiron (Ger. Safflor; 
 Du. Sqffioer, Basterd Saffron; Fr. Cartame, Saffron 
 batard; It. Zaffrone; Sp. Alazor, Azafran bastardo; 
 Russ. Polerroi, Prostoi schafran), the flower of an an- 
 nual plant" (fiarthamus tinctorius, Linn.) growing in 
 India, Egypt, America, and some of the warmer parts 
 of Europe. It is not easily distinguished from saffi-on 
 by the eye, but it has nothing of its smell or taste. 
 The flowers, which are sometimes sold under the'name 
 of saffremon, are the only parts employed in dyeing. 
 They yield two sorts of coloring matter : one soluble 
 in water, and producing a yellow of but little beauty ; 
 the other is rednous, and best dissolved by the fixed 
 alkalies : it is this last which alone renders safflower 
 so valuable in dyeing ; as it affords a red color exceed- 
 ing in delicacy and beauty, as it does in costliness, any 
 which can be obtained even from cochineal, though 
 much inferior to the latter in durability. The color 
 of safflower will not bear the action of soap, nor even 
 that of the sun and air for a long time ; and being very 
 costly, it is principally employed for imitating upon silk 
 the fine scarlet (jionceau of the French) and rose colors 
 dyed with cochineal upon woolen cloth. 
 
 The fine rose color of safllower, extracted by crystal- 
 lized soda, precipitated by citric acid, then slowly dried, 
 and ground with the purest talc, produces the beauti- 
 ful rouge known by the name of rouge vigetale. Saf- 
 flower should be chosen in flakes of a bright pink color, 
 and of a smell somewhat resembling tobacco. That 
 which is in powder, dark-colored, or oily, ought to be 
 rejected. — Hasselquist's Voyages, Engl. ed. p. 352; 
 Bancroft's Permanent Colors, vol. i. p. 286-289 ; Mil- 
 burn's Orient. Commerce. 
 
 Safiron (Ger. Saffran ,- Du. Safrcm ; It. Zafferano ; 
 Sp. Saffron; Fr. Azafran; Russ. Schafran'), a sort of 
 cake prepared from the stigmas, with a proportion of 
 the style, of a perennial bulbous plant {Crocus sativus, 
 Linn.). When good, safiron has a sweetish, penetra- 
 ting, diffusive odor; a warm, pungent, bitterish taste; 
 and a rich, deep orange-red color. It should be chosen 
 fresh, in close, tough, compact cakes, moderately moist, 
 and possessing in an obvious degree all the above-men- 
 tioned qualities. The not staining the fingers, the 
 making them oily, and its being of a whitish yellow or 
 blackish color, indicate that it is bad, or too old. Saf- 
 fron is used in medicine and in the arts ; but in En- 
 gland the consumption seems to be diminishing. It 
 is employed to color butter and cheese, and also by 
 painters and dyers. — Thomson's Dispensatory; Lou- 
 don's Encyclopedia of Agriculture. 
 
 Sagapeuum (Arab. Sugbenuj), a concrete gum- 
 resin, the produce of an unknown Persian plant. It 
 
 is imported from Alexandria, Smyrna, etc. It has an 
 odor of garlic, and a hot, acrid, bitterish taste. It is 
 in agglutinated drops or masses, of an olive or brown- 
 ish yellow color, slightly translucent, and breaking 
 with a horny fracture. It softens and is tenacious be- 
 tween the fingers, melts at a low heat, and burns with a 
 crackling noise and white flame, giving out abundance 
 of smoke, and leaving behind a light spongy charcoal. 
 It is used only in medicine. — Thomson's Dispensatory. 
 
 Sago (Malay Sagu ; Jav. Sagu), a species of meal, 
 the produce of a palm (Metroxylon Sagu) indigenous 
 to and abundant in such of the Eastern islands as pro- 
 duce spices, where it supplies a principal part of the 
 farinaceous food of the inhabitants. It is produced in 
 China, Japan, Molucca, and the South Sea Islands. The 
 tree, when at maturity, is about 30 feet high, and from 
 18 to 22 inches in diameter. Before the formation of 
 the fruit, the stem consists of an external wall about 
 two inches thick, the whole interior being filled up with 
 a sort of spongy medullary matter. When the tree at- 
 tains to maturity, and the fruit is formed, the stem Is 
 quite lioUow. Being cut down at a proper period, the 
 medullary part is extracted from the trunk, and re- 
 duced to a powder like saw-dust. The filaments are 
 next separated by washing. The meal is then laid to 
 dry ; and, being made into cakes and baked, is eaten 
 by the islanders. For exportation, the finest sago meal 
 is mixed with water, and the paste rubbed into small 
 grains of the size and form of coriander seeds. This is 
 the species principally brought to England, for which 
 market it should be chosen of a reddish hue, and readily 
 dissClving in hot water into a fine jelly. Within these 
 few 3'ears, however, a process has been invented by 
 the Chinese for refining sago, so as to give it a fine 
 pearly lustre ; and the sago so cured is in the highest 
 estimation in all the markets. It is a light, whole- 
 some, nutritious food. It is sent from the islands 
 where it is grown to Singapore, where it is granulated 
 and bleached by the Chinese. The export trade to Eu- 
 rope and India is now principally confined to that set- 
 tlement. — Ainslie's Mat. Indica; Ckawfoed's East. 
 Archipelago; Bell's Review of the Commerce of Bengal. 
 
 Saliara, or the Great Desert (Arab. Zahrc^, a 
 vast region of northern Africa, extending between lat. 
 16° and 33° N., and long. 17° W., and 23° 10' E. Bound- 
 ed east by Egypt and Nubia, south by Senegambia and 
 Nigritia, west by the Atlantic, and north by Barbary. 
 It consists of an elevated table-land, covered with large 
 blocks of stone, hard-baked earth, gravel, and loose sand ; 
 and in many places it is incrusted with salt. It is the 
 greatest desert on the globe, but numerous oases and 
 habitable spots are scattered over its surface, the largest 
 of which are Gadames and Tuat. It is traversed in 
 many directions by caravan routes ; travelers on which 
 undergo the most intense sufferings from thirst, and 
 from exposure to the simoom, or hot, dry wind from the 
 south and east, which usually lasts 10 or 12 hours : 
 during its continuance the air is impregnated with fine 
 sand, and the sun is barely perceptible. Rain appears 
 to fall in torrents at intervals of 5, 10, or 20 years, and 
 many places of the desert bear evidence of its action 
 even for a much longer period. The heat is excessive 
 during the summer, but in winter the evenings are cool, 
 and during night 'frequently cold. Palm-trees grow 
 on the borders of the Sahara, and the chief products of 
 its oases are dates and gums. 
 
 Sail, mNavigation, an assemblage of several breadths 
 of canvas Sewed together by the lists, and edged round 
 with cord, fastened to the yards of a ship to make it 
 drive before the wind. The edges of the cloths or 
 pieces of which a sail is composed are generallj' sewed 
 together with a double seam, and the whole is skirted 
 round the edges with a cord, called the bolt-rope. Al- 
 though the form of sails is extremely different, they 
 
SAI 
 
 1662 
 
 SAI 
 
 are all, nevertheless, triangular or quadrilateral figures ; 
 or, in other -words, tlieir surfaces are contained either 
 between three or four sides. The former of these are 
 sometimes spread by a yard, as lateen sails, and other- 
 wise by a stay, as stay-sails, or by a mast, as shoulder- 
 of-mutton sails ; in all ivhich cases the foremost leech 
 or edge is attached to the said yard, mast, or stay, 
 throughout its whole length. The latter, or those 
 which are four-sided, are either extended by yards, as 
 the principal yards of a ship ; or by yards and booms, 
 as the studding-sails, drivers, ring-tails, and all those 
 sails which are set occasionally ; or by gaffs and booms, 
 as the mainsails of sloops and brigantines. 
 
 Sail is also a name applied to any vessel seen at a 
 distance under sail, and is equivalent to ship. 
 
 To set sail, is to unfurl and expand the sails upon 
 their respective yards and stays, in order to begin the 
 action of sailing. 
 
 To make sail, is to spread an additional quantity of 
 sail, so as to increase the ship's velocity. 
 
 To shorten sail, is to reduce or take in part of the 
 sails, with an intention to diminish the ship's velocity. 
 
 To strike sail, is to lower it suddenly. This is par- 
 ticularly used in saluting or doing homage to a superior 
 force, or to one whom the law of nations acknowledges 
 as superior in certain regions. — See Blunt's Coast Pi- 
 lot ; Blunt's Ship-master's Assistant, New York, 1857 ; 
 Bowditoh's Navigation. 
 
 Sailing, the movement by which a vessel is wafted 
 along the surface of the water by the action of the 
 wind upon her sails. When a ship changes her state 
 of rest to that of motion, as in advancing out of a har- 
 bor, or from her station at anchor, she acquires mo- 
 tion very gradually, as a body which arrives not at a 
 certain velocity till after an infinite repetition of the 
 action of its weight. The first impression of the wind 
 greatly affects its velocity, because the resistance of 
 the water might destroy it : since the velocity being 
 but small at first, the resistance of water which de- 
 pends upon it will be very feeble. But as the ship in- 
 creases her motion, the force of the wind on the sails 
 will be diminished ; and, on the contrary, the resist- 
 ance of the water on the bow will accumulate in pro- 
 portion to the velocity with which the vessel advances. 
 Thus the repetition of the degrees of force, which the 
 action of the sail adds to the motion of the ship, is per- 
 petually decreasing ; while the new degrees added to 
 the effort of resistance on the bow are always augment- 
 ing. The velocity is then accelerated in proportion as 
 the quantity added is greater than that which is sub- 
 tracted ; but when the two powers become equal, when 
 the impression of the wind on the sails has lost so 
 much of its force as only to act in proportion to the 
 opposite impulse of resistance on the bow, the ship will 
 then acquire no additional velocity, but continue to sail 
 with a constant, uniform motion. The great weight of 
 tha ship may, indeed, prevent her from acquiring the 
 greatest velocity ; but when she has attained it, she 
 will advance by her own intrinsic motion, without gain- 
 ing any new degree of velocity, or lessening what she 
 has acquired. She moves then by her own proper 
 force in vacuo, without being afterward subject either 
 to the effort of the wind on the sails, or to the resist- 
 ance of the water on the bow. If at any time the im- 
 pulsion of the water on the bow should destroy any 
 part of the velocity, the efiort of the wind on the sails 
 will revive it so that the motion will continue the same. 
 It must, however, be observed, that this state will only 
 subsist when these two powers act upon each other in 
 direct opposition, otherwise they will mutually destroy 
 one another. The whole theory of working ships de- 
 pends upon this counter action, and the perfect equal- 
 ity which should subsist between the effort of the wind 
 and the impulsion of the water. 
 
 The efiect of sailing is produced by a judicious ar- 
 rangement of the sails in the direction of the wind. 
 Accordingly, the various modes of sailing are derived 
 
 from the different degrees and situations of the wind 
 with regard to the course of the vessel. 
 
 Sailing also implies a particular mode of navigation, 
 which is formed on the principles and regulated by the 
 laws of trigonometry. Hence we say, Plain Sailing, 
 Mercator's, Middle-latitude, Parallel, and Great-circle 
 Sailing. 
 
 Saint Christopher, or Saint Kitt's, one of the 
 British "West India Islands, leeward group; lat. (Fort 
 Smith) 17° 17' 7" N., long. 60° 42' 2" W. Length, 
 northwest to southeast, 20 miles; breadth, 5 miles. 
 Area, 68 square miles. Population about 25,000. The 
 soil is particularly adapted to sugar. 
 
 Staple Productions.— Sagitr, rum, molasses, arrow- 
 root, fruits, and vegetables. The United States ex- 
 port to this island, and the other islands which com- 
 pose this consular district, flour, grain, lumber (princi- 
 pally pitch-pine), and provision of all kinds. Ameri- 
 can tonnage employed in the trade with this island in 
 1853 : 31 vessels, with an aggregate tonnage of 5070. 
 There are no British vessels regularly engaged either 
 in the foreign or coasting trade of this island. Plence 
 American ships are frequently chartered to convey 
 sugar, molasses, and other products to England, where, 
 by reason of a protective duty on foreign similar prod- 
 ucts, they find the best market. In addition to the 
 staples of this island. United States vessels export large 
 quantities of old metals (as brass, iron, copper, lead) 
 and hides. A large portion of the revenue of this island 
 is derived from an export duty on its staple produc- 
 tions. 
 
 Port Regulations, — All vessels on entering pay a ton- 
 nage duty of 36 cents per ton, and a fee of $4 to the 
 colonial secretary. There is no pilotage tax, as the 
 port of St. Christopher is open and free from all ob- 
 stacles, such as reefs, etc. The official returns for six 
 months, from 1st July to 31st December, 1864, will suf- 
 ficiently exhibit the extent of trade between the Unit- 
 ed States and St. Christopher. 
 
 Imports from United States $81,556 
 
 Exports to United States 14,714 
 
 Balance in favor of the United States 66,842 
 
 Saint Croix, the southernmost and largest of the 
 Virgin Islands, and the most important of the Danish 
 possessions. Area, 100 square miles. Population (1845), 
 25,600. 
 
 The commercial intercourse between this island and 
 the United States depends partly on the mother coun- 
 try, and partly on local legislation fixed for the time. 
 There are no privileges allowed other countries which 
 are not allowed the United States. Goods may be re- 
 shipped in American vessels. The money currently 
 passing here is dollars and cents. Danish weight is 
 about 10 per cent, heavier than English. The trade to 
 this island is now less than one-third of what it was 
 before the emancipation. Oftentimes there is not an 
 American vessel in port for months together. The 
 supplies come generally through St. Thomas, which is 
 a free port, and yet under the same government. — For 
 Geology of St. Croix, see Silliman's Journ. xxxv. 64. 
 
 AmeEIOAN PeoDTJOE IMPOnTED DlnEOT IKTO THE ISLANT> OF 
 
 St. Ceoix. 
 
 Aiticlei. 
 
 1851. 
 
 18B2. 
 
 1853. 
 
 Corn meal punch'ns. 
 
 Com meal barrels. 
 
 Superfine flour " 
 
 Bread " 
 
 Beef. " 
 
 Pork " 
 
 3,963 
 
 606 
 
 3,594 
 
 240 
 
 60 
 
 410 
 
 320 
 
 250 
 
 1-J4 
 
 231,000 
 
 140,000 
 
 1,667,000 
 
 310,000 
 
 2,316,000 
 
 14 
 
 150 
 
 70 
 
 210,000 
 
 8,740 
 
 830 
 
 3,240 
 
 210 
 
 74 
 
 560 
 
 410 
 
 278 
 
 168 
 
 246,000 
 
 120,000 
 
 1,760,000 
 
 185,000 
 
 1,580,000 
 
 22 
 
 165 
 
 55 
 
 260,000 
 
 4,060 
 
 745 
 
 8,150 
 
 180 
 
 80 
 
 610 
 
 280 
 
 310 
 
 210 
 
 260,000 
 
 110,000 
 
 1,720,000 
 
 265,000 
 
 1,956,000 
 
 20 
 
 150 
 
 78 
 
 280,000 
 
 Herrings " 
 
 Salt fish casks. 
 
 Rye flour .- barrels. 
 
 Red oak staves 
 
 White oak staves 
 
 White pine lumber feet. 
 Pitch pine lumber . " 
 
 Shingles 
 
 Horses number. 
 
 Mules 
 
 Kegs of nails " 
 
 Wood hoops '^ 
 
SAI 
 
 1663 
 
 SAI 
 
 PBODirOTB OF TIIE IbLAND EXPORTED TO THE UNITED STATES, 
 185l-'53. 
 
 Articles. 18SI. 
 
 1853. 
 
 18E3. 
 
 Sugar hogsheads. 1953 
 
 Sugar barrels. 1159 
 
 Rum puncheons. 1921 
 
 806 
 788 
 910 
 
 105T 
 
 16 
 
 i 1531 
 
 Saint Helena, an island in the south Atlantic 
 Ocean, belonging to Great Britain, about 800 miles 
 southeast from Ascension, and nearly 1200 miles from 
 the coast of Lower Guinea. Lat. of observatory, 15° 55' 
 S., long. 5° 44' E. Area, 30,300 acres. Population in 
 1850, 7000, of whom nearly one-half were whites. It is 
 of volcanic origin, and consists of rugged mountains, 
 interspersed with numerous ravines, in one of which, 
 on its northwest shore, is James Town, the residence 
 of the principal authorities. Its centre is a table-land, 
 with an elevation of 1500 feet, but from which several 
 mountains rise to a greater elevation, Diana's Peak 
 being 2700 feet. Climate mild. Mean temperature 
 of year, 61°-3; winter, 58°-4; summer, 63°-8. The isl- 
 and is watered by numerous brooks, and about a fifth 
 part of its surface is fertile, yielding the products both 
 of European and tropical countries. Goats are plenti- 
 ful in the uplands ; but supplies of provisions are most- 
 ly procured from abroad, the island lying in the home- 
 ward track of ships returning from India. St. Helena 
 is chiefly noted as the place of exile of Napoleon Bona- 
 parte, whose residence, Longwood, was on the elevated 
 plateau of the interior. He lived there from 1816 till 
 his decease, May 5th, 1821. 
 
 The United States have a consul resident at this 
 island, which is frequently visited by our ships to and 
 from Asia, India, Cape of Good Hope, etc. By act 
 of 3 and 4 William IV. the island of St. Helena, and 
 all forts, factories, and public edifices, were vested in 
 His Majesty, and the island shall be governed by or- 
 ders in council. 
 
 The average aggregate values of imports at this island 
 from the United States are : For the j'ear 1861, $6429 ; 
 for the year 1852, $8377 ; for the year 1853, $30,809 ; 
 for the six months ending 30th June, 1854, $12,254. 
 Value of oil and whalebone transhipped by American 
 vessels to the United States, $16,525. There are no 
 privileges permitted to the commerce of other nations 
 which are denied to the United States; but, on the 
 other hand, there are privileges granted solelt/ to vessels 
 of the United States, such as the reduction of custom 
 charges on the transhipment of oil, whalebone, and 
 empty oil casks, as per proclamation of September, 
 1853, and the remission of port charges to whaling ves- 
 sels calling here within three months after their first 
 arrival, as per notice of July, 1854, which accommo- 
 dations have had their effect in the increase of the 
 American fleet at this port. The port charges are 
 levied alike on all foreign vessels as on British. There 
 are no charges on national vessels, either British or 
 foreign, and all are alike furnished with water free of 
 
 charge. There is no Chamber of Commerce, and the 
 
 rates of exchange depend on the parties agreeing ; gen-, lengths, from 12 miles to one mile (but in the aggre- 
 
 peninsulas which project from the eastern portion of 
 the island; lat. 47° 33' 6" N. ; long. 52° 43' W. Pop- 
 ulation in 1850, 19,000 ; in 1852, 21,000 (resident), 6000 
 fishermen. The trade of St. Johns consists chiefly in 
 supplying the fishermen, most of whom are Koman 
 Catholics, with clothing, provisions, and fishing and 
 hunting gear. The harbor of St. Johns is excellent, 
 although narrow at the entrance ; the channel, from 
 point to point, being only 360 fathoms wide. The 
 tide rises 6 feet, neap-tides 3i feet, but very irregularly, 
 being much influenced by the winds. Goods may bo 
 transhipped in United States vessels to any place out 
 of this colony without restriction of any sort. The 
 weights and measures are the same as in England. 
 The moneys are in a great degree the same, namely; 
 sovereigns, with Spanish and Mexican dollars, which, 
 however, are now fast disappearing. The currrent 
 value of the sovereign is 24 shillings, equal to $4 80, 
 and of the dollar 5 shillings, or 100 cents. 
 
 The average wholesale prices of the exports to the 
 United States since July 1, 1853, have been as follows : 
 Seal oil, 60 cents per gallon ; cod oil, 55 cents per gal- 
 lon; codfish, $2 50 per quintal; herrings, $2 40 per 
 barrel. Salmon, i)ot quoted above, varies from $12 to 
 $20 generally for the tierce of 310 pounds. These 
 articles are rarely sold at retail in this market. The 
 average rate of exchange was 4 to 5 per cent, discount 
 from this colony to the United States. The true par 
 of exchange is 2 per cent. The duties are on imports 
 from all countries alike, as follows : Bread, 6 cents per 
 bag of 112 lbs. ; flour, 35 cents per barrel ; pork, 72 
 cents per barrel ; beef, 48 cents per barrel ; butter, 48 
 cents per cwt. ; manufactured tobacco, 4 cents per lb. ; 
 tea, 6 cents per lb. On all unenumerated goods 5 per 
 cent, ad valorem; and in this port an additional duty 
 is levied of 10 per cent, tm the duties above. 
 
 Saint Lawrence river, United States and Can- 
 ada, forms the outlet of the great lakes Superior, 
 Huron, Michigan, Erie, and Ontario, and, after a 
 course of more than 2000- miles, flows into the Gulf of 
 St. Lawrence. Itforms the boundary, with the middle 
 of the lakes through which it passes, between the Unit- 
 ed States and Canada, until it arrives at the 45th de- 
 gree of north lat. It has diflerent names in different 
 parts of its course. Erom its mouth to Lake Ontario 
 it is called the St, Lawrence; between Lakes Ontario 
 and Erie, Niagara River; between Lakes Erie and St. 
 Clair, Detroit Eiver; between Lakes St. Clair and 
 Huron, St. Clair Eiver ; and between Lakes Huron and 
 Superior, St. Mary's Eiver. It is navigable for ships 
 of the line 400 miles, to Quebec ; and for ships of 600 
 tons to Montreal. The distance from Montreal to Lake 
 Ontario is nearly 200 miles. From Quebec to Mont- 
 real it has an average breadth of two miles. At its 
 mouth, the Gulf, from Cape Rosier to Mingau settle- 
 ment, in Labrador, is 105 miles in length. The eleva- 
 tion from tide-water to Lake Ontario (exceeding two 
 hundred feet) is overcome by seven canals of various 
 
 erally, however, they are private bills, and are taken 
 at par; the commissariat, however, charges IJ- per 
 cent. There are no duties except on wines, spirits, 
 and beer; only a wharfage tax on all goods landed 
 from Great Britain or any foreign country. There are 
 no price-current sheets issued, the market being un- 
 stable ; and the supplies from abroad (almost entirely 
 from England) being irregular, every thing, as a gen- 
 eral thing, bears a high value. The American whaling 
 fleet, after once entering this port and 'paying the cus- 
 tom fees, may return to the island at any time within 
 three months, Jbr water or any other supplies whatsoever, 
 without being subject to the payment a second time of the 
 tonnage or other custom fees ; and that every facility 
 will be given for the accommodation of the fleet. 
 
 Saint Johns, a sea-port, and capital of the island 
 and British colony of Newfoundland, North America, 
 near the extremity of the most eastern of the numerous 
 
 gate only forty-one miles of canal), having locks two 
 hundred feet in length between the gates, and forty-five 
 feet in width, with an excavated trunk from one hun- 
 dred to one hundred and forty wide on the water-sur- 
 face, and a depth of ten feet water. From Lake On- 
 tario to Lake Erie an elevation of three hundred and 
 thirty feet is surmounted by a canal twenty-eight miles 
 in length, with abbut thirty cut stone locks one hun- 
 dred and fifty feet long, by twenty-six and a half feet 
 wide, designed for propellers and sail craft. These 
 locks will pass a craft of about five hundred tons bur- 
 den, while those on the St. Lawrence have a capacity 
 double this amount. The total cost of this navigation 
 may be set down at $12,000,000. The St. Lawrence 
 Canal was designed for paddle-steamers, which are re- 
 quired as tugs, or to ascend against the current; but 
 from the magnitude of the rapids, and their regular in- 
 clination, the aid of the locks is not required in de- 
 
SAI 
 
 1664 
 
 SAI 
 
 scending the river. At some of the rapids there are 
 obstacles preventing the descent of deeply-laden craft, 
 but the government are about to give the main channel 
 in all the rapids a depth of ten feet water, ivhen the 
 whole descending trade by steam -will keep the river, 
 leaving the canals to the ascending craft. — See Canada 
 and Montreal. 
 
 The relative position of the United States and Great 
 Britain in respect to the navigation of the great north- 
 ern lakes and the Eiver St. Lawrence, appears to be 
 similar to (hat of the United States and Spain, previ- 
 ously to the cessation of Louisiana and Florida, in re- 
 spect to the Mississippi ; the United States being in 
 possession of the southern shores of the lakes, and the 
 Eiver St. Lawrence to the point where the northern 
 boundary line strikes the river; and Great Britain of 
 the northern shores of the lakes, and the river in its 
 whole extent to the sea, as well as of the southern banks 
 of the river, from the latitude of 45° to its mouth. The 
 claim of the people of the United States of a right to 
 navigate the St. Lawrence to and from the sea was, in 
 1826, the subject of discussion between the American 
 and British governments. 
 
 The navigation of the continuous waters of the Unit- 
 ed States and Canada is provided for in the following 
 articles of the treaty of June 5, 1854 : The third article, 
 whose operation may be -affected at the will of the 
 American government, by a suspension of this privi- 
 lege, as stipulated for in the fourth article, on the part 
 of Great Britain, provides for a reciprocal trade, free 
 of duty, between the United States and the British 
 colonies, in the articles of their respective growth and 
 produce, as enumerated in the schedule thereto annexed. 
 "It Is agreed that the citizens and inhabitants of 
 the United States shall have the right to navigate the 
 Eiver St. Lawrence and the canals in Canada, used as 
 the means of communication between the great lakes 
 and the Atlantic Ocean, with their vessels, boats, and 
 crafts, as fully and freely as the subjects of Her Bri- 
 tannic Majesty, subject only to the same tolls and 
 other assessments as now are or may hereafter be ex- 
 acted of Her Majesty's said subjects ; it being under- 
 stood, however, that the British government retains the 
 right of suspending this privilege, on giving due no- 
 tice thereof to the government of the United States. 
 
 " It is further agreed, that if at any time the British 
 government should exercise the said reserved right, the 
 government of the United States shall have the right 
 of suspending, if it think fit, the operation of Article 3, 
 of the present treaty, in so far as the province of Canada 
 is affected thereby, for so long as the suspension of the 
 free navigation of the Eiver St. Lawrence or the canals 
 may continue. 
 
 " It is further agreed, that British subjects shall have 
 the right freely to navigate Lake Michigan with their 
 vessels, Koats, and crafts, so long as the privilege of 
 navigating the Eiver St. Lawrence, secured to the 
 Americans by the above clause of the present article 
 shall continue; and the government of the United 
 States further engages to urge upon the State govern- 
 ments to secure to the subjects of Her Britannic Maj- 
 esty the use of the several State canals on terms of 
 equality with the inhabitants of the United States." — 
 Wheatox's Intematimal Law. For correspondence 
 on navigation of St. Lawrence, see American Annual 
 Register, ii. 137 ; Niles's Register, xxxiii. 411. 
 
 Saint Louis, city, Missouri, capital of St. Louis 
 countv, is situated on the right bank of the Mississippi, 
 in lat" 38° 37' 28" K, and long. 90° 15' 16" W. from 
 Greenwich, and is one of the largest and most flourish- 
 ing cities in the great valley of the Mississippi. It is 
 1200 miles above New Orleans, and 1350 miles above 
 the mouth of the river. About 180 miles south of the 
 city the Ohio comes in to the Great Father of Waters, 
 from its eastern sources in the AUeghanies, after a 
 course of 1000 miles, while a short distance above its 
 mouth the Cumberland and the Tennessee pour their 
 
 streams into La Belle Eiviere. To the northward, 17 
 miles, the Missouri pours out its turbid stream into the 
 Mississippi, and the waters flow down to the very front 
 of the city, before the clear waters of tlie Mississippi 
 yield themselves to the embraces of the great rivers of 
 the West, coming down from the snows of the Eocky 
 Mountains 2000 miles away. At a distance of 33 miles 
 to the northward, the Illinois — now connected with the 
 lakes by the Illinois and Blichigan Canal — comes in 
 from the northeast, and is navigated b}' St. Louis boats 
 as far as the junction of the canal and river at La Salle, 
 290 miles from St. Louis. St. Louis is the centre of a 
 great railroad system, radiating to all parts of the 
 Union. The system, as at present planned, may be 
 stated as follows : The Pacific Eoad with its branches. 
 This road runs from St. Louis to the Merrimac River; 
 the mainline then crosses the divide between the Merri- 
 mac and the Missouri to Jefferson City, the capital of 
 the State ; thence leaving the river, it runs directly to 
 the mouth of the Kansas Eiver, to be extended to the 
 Pacific, through the great chain of the Rocky Mount- 
 ains. This road is 311'60 miles in length, and is fin- 
 ished to Jefferson City. The Ohio and Mississippi 
 Railroad, from Cincinnati to St. Louis, was opened in 
 1857, 336 miles in length. 
 
 The steamboat tonnage of this city will appear from 
 the following table. For the year ending June 30, 
 1853, the following cities stood entered on the books of 
 the custom-house, as follows : 
 
 Cities. 
 
 )850. 
 
 1861. 1 1858. 
 
 
 24,9f5 
 
 16,906 
 
 8,776 
 
 14,820 
 
 34,065 
 
 14,187 
 
 3,587 
 
 12,937 
 
 45,441 
 10,101 
 3,414 
 14,166 
 
 
 Nashville 
 
 
 
 thus showing an increase at the i"ate of 11,000 tons per 
 year. For the year ending December 31, 1853, the 
 sugar landed at St. Louis was 50,774 hhds., 13,993 
 bbls., 46,257 boxes and bags; molasses, 54,933 bbls. 
 and hhds. For this article St. Louis is the great cen- 
 tral supply mart. By the government returns, all the 
 sugar shipped from New Orleans for 1852 was 50,793 
 hhds., and 6584 bbls., while St. Louis imported 50,774 
 hhds., and 13,993 bbls. The whole imports of coffee 
 into the United States in 1853 were 199,089,823 lbs., 
 and of this St. Louis imported 16,714,720, or about one- 
 twelfth. To show the business of the years 1852-1857, 
 we give the receipts of certain articles : 
 
 Aitidei. 
 
 1852. 
 
 1853. 
 
 1867. 
 
 Tobacco . . 
 Hemp 
 
 hhds. 
 
 boxes. 
 
 barrels. 
 
 14,063 
 
 12,386 
 
 49,122 
 
 409,314 
 
 131,3.^3 
 
 1,591,886 
 
 344,720 
 
 323,081 
 
 47,264 
 
 66,300 
 
 42,515 
 
 11,815 
 
 46,446 
 
 97,148 
 
 8,680 
 
 42,121 
 
 10,102 
 
 10,528 
 
 63,360 
 
 442,218 
 
 200,203 
 
 2,077,427 
 
 459,193 
 
 464,062 
 
 62,885 
 
 78,354 
 
 35,1C8 
 
 16,889 
 
 61,207 
 
 101,440 
 
 2,326 
 
 68,437 
 
 5,107 
 
 12,111 
 
 78,950 
 
 162,600 
 
 305,061 
 
 2,800,000 
 
 1,243,000 
 
 608,000 
 
 111,000 
 
 110,000 
 
 55,000 
 
 16,000 
 
 125,000 
 
 136,000 
 
 44',600 
 
 Flour 
 
 Wheat . . . 
 
 baiTels. 
 
 bushelB. 
 
 Oats " 
 
 Barley and malt 
 
 Pork bbls. and tea. 
 
 
 Whisky . . 
 
 barrels. 
 
 Bagging . . 
 Bale rope. 
 
 pieces. 
 
 coils. 
 
 Flour manufactured at St. Louis in 1861, 408,099 bbls. ; 
 1852, 388,184 bbls. ; 1853, 457,076 bbls. ; to this must 
 be added receipts by wagons from country mills, 80,220 
 barrels, making the sum total of the flour manufactured 
 and brought to St. Louis, 737,499 barrels. The flour 
 manufactured in St. Louis in the year 1856 was 678,000 
 barrels ; and in 1857, 662,000. There are sixteen flour- 
 mills within the limits of the city. The number of 
 steamboat arrivals in 1857 was 3415, with an aggregate 
 tonnage of 964,700 tons. Foreign goods imported in 
 St. Louis for the year ending December 31 : 
 
 I 
 
 J 
 
 Goods, etc....|$873,672 89 $1,039,473 00 $1,436,981 40 
 Duties 239,318 68 290,168 85 457,646 44 
 
 -See Mississippi Eiver. 
 
SAI 
 
 1665 
 
 SAI 
 
 Saint Petersburg, the modem metropolis of the 
 Russian empire, situated at the confluence of the River 
 Neva with the eastern extremity of the Gulf of Finland, 
 in lat. 59° 66' 2S" N., long. 30° 18J' E. Population, 
 480,000. This flourishing emporium was founded by 
 Peter the Great, whose name it bears, in 1703. In the 
 same year, the first merchant ship that ever appeared 
 on the Neva arrived from Holland; and the czar, to 
 mark his sense of the value of such visitors, treated the 
 captain and crew with the greatest hospitality, and 
 loaded them with presents. In 1714, 16 ships arrived 
 at St. Petersburg ; in 1730 the number had increased 
 to 180 ; and so rapid has been the progress of commerce 
 and civilization in Russia since that period, that at 
 present from 1200 to 1600 ships annually enter and 
 clear out from St. Petersburg ! It is much to be re- 
 gretted that, although favorable to commerce, the sit- 
 uation of St. Petersburg is in other respects far from 
 good. The ground on which it stands is very low and 
 swampy ; it has on different occasions sustained great 
 injury from inundations; and the country round is, 
 generally speaking, a morass and forest, so that almost 
 every thing required for the subsistence of the inhab- 
 itants must be brought from a distance. No one less 
 bold and daring than Peter the Great would have 
 thought of selecting such a situation for the metropolis 
 of his empire; and none possessed of less power and 
 resolution could have succeeded in overcoming the all 
 but insuperable obstacles which the nature of the coun- 
 try opposed to the completion of his gigantic schemes. 
 
 Cronstadt, situated on a small island about 20 miles 
 west of St. Petersburg, may, in some measure, be con- 
 sidered as tlie port of the latter. Almost all vessels 
 bound for St. Petersburg touch there ; and those draw- 
 ing above 8 feet water load and unload at Cronstadt ; 
 the goods being conveyed from and to the city in 
 lighters, the charges of which vary according to the 
 demand at the time. The merchants* harbor at Cron- 
 stadt is fitted to contain about 600 ships ; but it is ex- 
 posed to the westerly winds. Cronstadt is strongly 
 fortified, and is the principal station of the Russian 
 fleet. Vessels bound for St. Petersburg must pass by 
 the narrow channel to the south of the island, com- 
 manded by tlie fortifications of Cronstadt on the one 
 side, and of Cronslot on the other. 
 
 Money. — Accounts are kept at St. Petersburg, and 
 throughout Russia, in roubles of 100 copecks. 
 
 The only gold coin at present struck is the i im- 
 perial, or 3-rouble piece, =16«. sterling very nearly. 
 The silver rouble, worth Ss. 2id. sterling very nearly, 
 was declared, by a ukase issued in 1839, to be worth sj 
 paper roubles. 
 
 But another ukase, issued on the 14th June, 1843, 
 directs that the old bank-note roubles in circulation, 
 amounting to the sum of 595,776,310, being equal, at 
 the exchange of 3J-, to 170,221,803 silver roubles, should 
 be called in, and replaced by an issue of 170,221,000 
 hUUts du credit, to be exchangeable at the pleasure of 
 the holder for silver roubles. This is a most important 
 regulation, and if it be fully carried out, the distinction 
 between silver and paper roubles will disappear; at 
 the same time that additional security will be given to 
 all sorts of industrious undertakings, and to the credit 
 of the government. 
 
 Weights and Measures. — The Russian weights are 
 the same for gold, silver, and merchandise : viz., 
 
 3Soltnick8 = lLoth. I 40 Pounds = 1 Pood. 
 
 33 Loths = 1 Pound. | 10 Poods = 1 Berkovitz. 
 
 The Russian pound contains, according to Kelly, 
 6318-5 English grains. Hence 100 lbs. Russian = 
 90-26 lbs. avoirdupois = 40-93 kilog. The pood = 36 
 lbs. 1 oz. 11 drs., but among merchants it is reckoned 
 = 36 lbs. According to Nelkenbrecher, 100 lbs. Rus- 
 sian = 90-19 lbs. avoirdupois = 40-9 kilog. = 82-8 lbs. 
 of Amsterdam = 84-444 of Hamburg. 
 
 The principal measure for corn is the chetwert, "di- 
 vided into 2 osmins, 4 pajocks, 8 chetwericks, or 64 ger- 
 5N 
 
 nitz. The chetwert = 5-77 imperial bushels. 
 100 chetwerts = 72-12 imperial quarters. 
 
 Hence 
 
 In liquid measure, 
 
 11 Tsharky = 1 Krashka. 
 
 8 Krashka = 1 Wedro. 
 
 40 Wedros = 1 Sorokovy. 
 
 The Wedro = 3t English 
 
 wine gallons, 
 13J Bottles = 1 Wedro. 
 
 S Wedros = 1 Anker. 
 8 Ankers = 1 Oxhoft 
 
 2 Oxhoft = 1 Pipe. 
 In long measure, 
 
 16 Werahok = 1 Arsheen. 
 
 3 Arshcen ^ 1 Sashen. 
 600 Sashen = 1 Verst. 
 
 1 sashen = 7 English feet. 1 arsheen = 28 English 
 inches. 100 Russian feet = 114i English feet. The 
 verst, or Russian mile, = 5 furlongs 12 poles. The 
 English inch and foot are used throughout Russia, 
 chiefly, however, in the measuring of timber. — Kel- 
 ly's Cambist, art. Russia; Nelke^bkechek, Manuel 
 Universel. 
 
 The following regulations for the importation of for- 
 eign goods are strictly enforced. All goods imported 
 must be accompanied by the following documents : 
 
 1. The declaration of the captain, according to the 
 form ordered by the custom-house. 
 
 2. An attestation from the Russian consul, and, 
 where there is no consul, from the custom-house of the 
 place, of the quantity and quality of the goods, and, a 
 declaration that they are not the produce, manufacture, 
 or property of an enemy's country. 
 
 3. Bills of lading of all goods, in which the weight, 
 measure, or quantity of each package must be specified. 
 In case the bills of lading are not exactly after this 
 regulation, the goods pay double duty as a fine. In 
 case more is found than specified in the bill of lading, 
 the surplus is confiscated : if less is found, the duty 
 must be paid on the quantity specified. Of wine, it is 
 not suflicient to specify the number of pipes or hogs- 
 heads only, but also their contents in gallons, etc. Of 
 lemons, the number in each box must be specified. 
 Of manufactured goods, the measure of each piece must 
 be specified, and the number of pieces in each bale. 
 It is indifi'erent whether the gross or the net weight 
 be specified. If tlie packages be all of the same weight, 
 measure, or contents, a general specification will do ; 
 as, for example, 100 casks alum, of 17 lispound each. 
 Of dye-woods the weight of the whole need only be 
 mentioned. Of goods of small bulk, as pepper, etc., it 
 is sufficient to state the weight of every five or ten bales, 
 but with specification of the numbers. There must not 
 be any erasures or blots in the bill of lading. All goods 
 not accompanied by these documents, or where the 
 documents are not according to the above regulations, 
 will be sent back. Bills of lading may be made out 
 either to some house or to order. 
 
 The following charges have been fixed by the mer- 
 chants of St. Petersburg : 
 
 Per ct. 
 
 Commission on sales and purchases 2 
 
 Extra charges on all goods 1 
 
 Commission and extra charges for goods delivered up 2 
 
 Brokerage on sales and purchases | 
 
 Ditto on bills | 
 
 Ditto on freight, per ton, 60 copecks. 
 
 Stamps } 
 
 Charges on duty, paid inward 4 
 
 Ditto, paid outward 4 
 
 Commission for collecting freight, or average inward 3 
 
 Commission for procuring freight outward 2 
 
 For clearances, 40 roubles. 
 
 Dues to be paid to the Church, 10 roubles each vessel. 
 
 Clearing of ships of or under 
 
 25 lasts each 40 roubles each vessel. 
 
 25 to 60 lasts each 60 " " 
 
 50 to 75 " 80 " " 
 
 T5tol00 " loo " " 
 
 lOOtolSO " 150 " " 
 
 ISOorabove 200 " " 
 
 Tare on Goods exported, as fixed by the Custom-house. 
 
 Dry Goods. Per Ct, 
 
 In barrels or chests 10 
 
 In sacks 2 
 
 In mats, or sacks made of mats 3 
 
 Except Muscovy leather, of which is deducted 5 
 
 Unit Goods. Far CL 
 
 Pressed caviare '. .»13 
 
 Soap 3 
 
 Meat and salt fish 20 
 
SAI 
 
 1666 
 
 SAI 
 
 Moiat Goods. Per Ct. 
 
 TalloM- Ill 
 
 Honey IT 
 
 Treacle 10 
 
 All other moist goods 17 
 
 Tare on Goods imported. 
 
 Dry Ooodi. ^" CI. 
 
 In barrels or chests 10 
 
 In vessels of glass or earthen-ware 20 
 
 In sacks , 2 
 
 In double sacks ^ 
 
 In mats • 3 
 
 In casks and mats together 5 
 
 In baskets ^ 
 
 Moist Goods imported. — The following are some of 
 the tares specified in the tariff: 
 
 Olire oil in casks 17 per cent. 
 
 " of Italy, in flasks and straw 20 " 
 
 " of France, in flasks and earthen-ware . 40 ** 
 
 Salt fish in barrels 36 " 
 
 And generally on all moist goods in barrels IT " 
 
 in glass and earthen-ware 20 " 
 
 Miseellanemia Goods. 
 
 Cotton twist inhales 6pereent 
 
 in chests and barrels 15 " 
 
 Cochineal must be weighed in the sacks after 
 being taken from the casks; for every sack of 
 
 from 4 to T poods 2 lbs. 
 
 sacks of from 2 to SJ- poods 1 " 
 
 Indigo in serons; every seron of from 5J to 7 
 
 poods 34 " 
 
 " in half serons, 2i to 4 poods 20 '* 
 
 " of Guatemala 20 per cent. 
 
 " in boxes 20 '* 
 
 Bills drawn in Enssia, and payable after date, are 
 allowed 10 days' grace ; but if payable at sight, 3 days 
 only. Sundays and holidays are included in both cases. 
 The Julian calendar, or old style, is still retained 
 throughout Eussia. This is 12 days later. than the 
 new style ; and in leap-years, 13 days, after the month 
 of February. 
 
 Port Charges.~~The regular charges which ships have 
 to pay at the ports of St. Petersburg and Cronstadt 
 comprise the following fixed dues and expenses ; viz., 
 lastage, passes, clearing at Cronstadt, address money, 
 St. Petersburg and Cronstadt church money, Cronstadt 
 expedition and allowance to the Eussia Company's 
 agent, for all which a charge is made in the ship's ac- 
 count in one sum, proportionallj' to the ship's register 
 tonnage, according to the following scale : viz., 
 
 Tons Register. Silv. Roub. 
 
 For 61 43 1/ 
 
 " 62 to 81 66 
 
 " 82 to 101 61 14 
 
 " 102 to 121 66 28 
 
 " 122 to 141 74 
 
 " 143 to 161 79 14 
 
 " 162 to 181 84 28 
 
 " 182 to 201 92 
 
 " 202to221 97 14 
 
 " 222 to 241 102 29 
 
 " 242 to 281 110 28 
 
 " 20Jto281 115 14 
 
 " 282 to 301 123 14 
 
 " 302to321 128 28 
 
 Tone Register. Silv. Roub. 
 
 For 322 to 341 136 
 
 " 342to361 141 14 
 
 " 362 to 881 143 14 
 
 " 882 to 401 164 
 
 " 402to421 162 
 
 " 422 to 441 16T 14 
 
 " 442to461 ITS 14 
 
 "■ 462to4Sl 180 
 
 " 4s3to501 18S 
 
 " 502to621 193 14 
 
 " 522 to 641 20il 8S 
 
 " SWtoBGl 206 
 
 " 662toB81 214 
 
 " 582 to 600 218 66 
 
 Trade, etc. — St. Petersburg has the most extensive 
 foreign trade of any city in the north of Europe. This 
 arises from its being the only great maritime outlet on 
 the Gulf of Finland, and from its vast and various 
 communications with the interior of the country. Few 
 countries have such an extent of internal navigation as 
 Russia. The iron and furs of Siberia, and the teas of 
 China, are received at St. Petersburg by rivers and 
 canals via the Caspian ; but owing to the great dis- 
 tance of those countries, and the short period of the 
 year during which the rivers and canals are navigable, 
 they take three years in their transit. Immense quan- 
 tities of goods are also conveyed during winter upon 
 the ice, in sledges, to the different ports, and to the 
 nearest prisians, or places in the interior where barks 
 are built for river or canal navigation. They are put 
 on board in anticipation of the period of sailing, that 
 the barks may be ready to take advantage of the high 
 water, by floating down with the current as soon as the 
 snow and ice begin to melt. The cargoes carried up 
 the river into the interior during summer are princi- 
 
 pally con-^eyed to their ultimate destinations by' the 
 sledge roads during winter. The conveyance by the 
 latter is generally the most expeditious ; and it, as well 
 as the internal conveyance by water, is performed at a 
 very moderate expense. The barks that come from 
 the interior are mostly of a very rude construction, 
 flat-bottomed, and seldom drawing more than 20 or 30 
 inches water. When they arrive at their destination, 
 they are sold or broken Up for fire-wood. Those that 
 leave the ports for the interior are of a superior descj'ip- 
 tion, and are comparatively few in number ; the com- 
 modities imported being at an average, of much greater 
 value relatively to their bulk and weight than those 
 that are exported. 
 
 Principal Articles of Export. — The principal articles 
 of export are tallow, hemp, and flax; grain, particu- 
 larly wheat; linseed, timber, copper ;' hides, potashes, 
 bristles, hemp-seed oil, furs, leather; fox, hare, and 
 squiiTcl skins ; canvas and coarse linen, cordage, cav- 
 iare, wax, isinglass, quills, tar, etc. Tallow, both for 
 candles and soap, is more largely exported from this 
 than from any other port in the Baltic or elsewhere, 
 and is an article of great commercial importance. — See 
 Tallow. Hemp is of good quality, though inferior 
 to that of Riga : it is assorted, according to its quality, 
 into clean., or firsts ; outshot, or seconds ; and half-clean, 
 or thirds. The first sort should be quite clean, and 
 free from spills; the second 4S less so; and the third, 
 or half-dean, contains a still gi'eater portion of spills, 
 and is, besides, of mixed qualities and colors. Russian 
 flax is much esteemed for the length of its fibre ; it is 
 naturally brownish, but becomes very white after the 
 first bleaching. Three qualities are distinguished ; viz., 
 12 head, 9 head, and 6 head. Iron of good quality, 
 and preferable to that from the other Russian ports, is 
 of two kinds, old and new sables, the former being the 
 best. It used to be exported in considerable quanti- 
 ties ; but the shipments are now much reduced. 
 
 Commerce. — The total value of the exports of St. 
 Petersburg in 1852 amounted to nearly $.'JO,000 000. 
 A considerable augmentation was experienced in cer- 
 tain descriptions of merchandise. Tlie quantities of 
 wool and copper more than tripled, and of wheat and 
 flax-seed oil more than doubled the quantities exported 
 during the year 1850. Potashes increased 50 per cent. • 
 on the other hand, oats decreased 4, peltries ^, iron ^, 
 tallow 25, per cent. ; flax-seed, hemp, and woven goods 
 more than 10 per cent. Sugar, tobacco, salt, w ines, 
 silk, and cotton yarns also fell much below the usual 
 importations. An augmentation, however, was noted 
 in the importation of fruits, rice, raw cotton, and Cham- 
 pagne wine. 
 
 Notwithstanding a heavy expenditure was applied 
 by the Russian government to the improvement of St. 
 Petersburg as the commercial emporium of Eussia, 
 still, owing to the numerous difficulties encountered, 
 and the severity of the climate allowingbut six months 
 in the year for the continuance of these works, the re- 
 sult by no means realized the expectations of the gov- 
 ernment. The consequence was, that the low waters 
 in the rivers, and the almost total absence of water in 
 the canals, kept back the produce usually forwarded 
 from the interior. It was not until toward the end of 
 July that the trade of St. Petersburg exhibited any 
 briskness. During the month of Blay, several Briti^h 
 vessels arrived and cleared in ballast ; but in the lat- 
 ter part of July and August freight offered in great 
 abundance, although the arrivals were numerous. From 
 this period the trade continued unusually brisk, until 
 early in November, when the navigation closed. 
 
 Subjoined is a statement of the principal exports 
 from St. Pctersbui-g in 1862 : 
 
 Tallow. To England 1,864,982 poods. 
 
 Other countries 17'2.8.'4 " 
 
 Total 2,ua7,80r> " 
 
 Average price : 
 31 roubles 71 kopecks per berkowitz = 7 J cents per lb., nearly. 
 
SAI 
 
 1667 
 
 SAI 
 
 Flaxssed. To England 145,860 tohetwerta. 
 
 Other countries 57,834 " 
 
 Total 203,694 " 
 
 Average price, 83^ cents per bushel, nearly. 
 
 Flax. To Ehglahd 513,780 poodB. 
 
 Other countries. 57,763 " 
 
 Total 671,642 " 
 
 Average price for beat, 6i cents per pound, nearly. ■ 
 
 Heup— lat qiality. To England 1,009,075 poods. 
 
 United States. 125,230 " 
 
 Germany 30^828 " 
 
 Sweden, etc. . . 14,961 " 
 
 Totat 1,180,094 " 
 
 " 24 quality— To England 161,047 " 
 
 Germany 27,040 " 
 
 Sweden, etc . . 16,485 " 
 
 France 6,292 " 
 
 United States. 3,074 "■ 
 
 Toijal '; 213,988 " 
 
 " 3d qWality— To England...'... 118,649 " 
 
 Germany 118,274 " 
 
 I Sweden, etc... 22,521 " 
 
 United States. 7,081 " 
 
 France 746 " 
 
 Total....... 267,271 " 
 
 Average prides, lat quality, 5 cents per pound, nearly. 
 2d "' 4} " " " 
 
 Sd , " , a " 1' " 
 
 Olotiib — canvas for sails :* 
 
 To Uwted States. 
 
 Germany 
 
 ' ' England 
 
 France .'.■.;... 
 
 Total i 
 
 '* ■" ! Flemish woolens ; 'i' 
 
 i , To Germany 
 
 United States., 
 ^ France..'..... 
 
 Total...... 
 
 " Raven' B-duck: ' ' ' ' 
 
 TO' Germany. ..■.. 
 United States. 
 
 Sardinia 
 
 ' ' England 
 
 Italy 
 
 France 
 
 iTotal..: 
 
 Average prices : 
 
 Sail-cloth (best quality), 16 roubles per piece==$13 00 
 
 ■' Flemish woolens " 9 " " = 6 75 
 
 iRaven's-dnck " Or. BOkop. " '== 4 87} 
 
 Bristles. To Englanfl ' 43,443 poods. 
 
 United States i 8,439 
 
 France 7,495 
 
 Sweden 194 
 
 Other countries 62,146 
 
 Total..: :... 121,347 
 
 Average prices : 
 Olcall^a, 40 a 4T r. per pood = $30 a $35 25 per 36 pounds, 
 or 974.^ cents per'pound; second quality do., 30 r. per pood 
 = $22 50 per 36 pounds, or 62} cents per pound. 
 
 Souqhaya, 20 r. per pood = $15 00 per 36 pounds, or 41f 
 (^nts per pound; 2d, quality do., 10 r. per j»ood=$7 50 per 
 '3iQ j)ounds, or 204 cents per poimd, 
 
 1-IoaSE Tails and Haib: 
 
 To Germany 
 
 United States, 
 
 France 
 
 England 
 
 Sweden, etc. . 
 
 Totfil 
 
 Average price : 
 , 3r. 60 kop. per pood = $2 62} per 36 lbs., or 7i cents per lb. 
 
 lBlNGLA8S.t To England 2,515 poods. 
 
 Germany 1,160 " 
 
 France 761 '' 
 
 Total 4^ " 
 
 Average price : 
 1st quality, 140 r. per pood = $105 per 30 pounds, or $2 92 
 per pound, nearly ; 2d quality, 100 a 120 r. per pood = $75 a 
 $90 per 86 pounds., or $2 08} o $2 50 per pound. 
 
 . 4,914 pieces. 
 8,789 " 
 1,600 " 
 
 6 " 
 
 10,398 " 
 
 4,030 " 
 
 l,3p4 " 
 
 7 " 
 
 5,341 " 
 
 7,871 " 
 7,350 
 3,448 
 1,978 
 298 
 
 ._B0 
 
 20,025 
 
 'f 
 
 Wool. ToEngland 46,260 poods. > 
 
 France 41.95J " 
 
 Germany 17,530 " 
 
 Italy '3.105 " ^ 
 
 Total 108,857 " 
 
 Prices ranged at 9, 10, and 12 roubles per pood= $6 76, 
 $7 50, and $9 per 36 pounds, or 18i, 20^, and 26 cents per 
 pound. 
 
 The foregoing were the principal exports from St. 
 Petersburg in 1862, and they are given in detail, inas- 
 much as they constitute, together with iron, copper, 
 timber, grains, Eussian leather, quills, etc., the lead- 
 ing staples of this great commercial emporium. ' 
 
 Navigation of the Neva in 1852. — The following table 
 exhibits the navigation of the Neva (i. e. of St. Peters- 
 burg and Cronstadt) in 1852 : 
 
 2,867 poods. 
 2,678 " 
 1,766 " 
 1,413 " 
 1.012 " 
 0,7z6 " 
 
 * Sail-cloth is of variable length and width. The pieces of 
 Flemish woolens are usually 50 archines long, by 1} wide. 
 Raven's-duck usually the same length, but only one archine 
 Vide. 
 
 t The supply of this article was so small, and the demand 
 so brisk, as to create the most active competition. This is 
 usually the case. 
 
 Nationalily. 
 
 VraseU. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Per Centaga 
 on the Whole. 
 
 
 1159 
 
 222 
 
 205 
 
 365 
 
 66 
 
 173 
 
 182 
 
 113 
 
 42 
 
 84 
 
 60 
 
 118 
 
 54 
 
 64 
 
 10 
 
 14 
 
 2 
 
 320,448 
 
 62,570 
 
 44,306 
 
 38,915 
 
 27,284 
 
 16,862 
 
 16,290 
 
 13,913 
 
 11,612 
 
 9,286 
 
 7,086 
 
 7,062 
 
 54-22 
 10-59 
 7-50 
 6-58 
 4-62 
 2-85 
 2-76 
 2-36 
 1-96 
 1-57 
 1-20 
 1-20 
 
 
 
 Dutch 
 
 United States 
 
 Swedish 
 
 Danish 
 
 
 
 
 Lubeck 
 
 
 Mechlenburg 
 
 6,244 1-06 1 
 
 
 5,760 
 
 1,608 
 
 1,536 
 
 272 
 
 •97 
 
 -27 
 
 -26 
 
 ' -04 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 
 
 100-00 
 
 
 
 It is proper to observe that the percentage is, predi- 
 cated upon the actual entries. Seventy-six of the ves- 
 sels included in the table wintered at St. Petersburg, 
 and do not, of course, enter into the calculation. These 
 were : 
 
 English 21 
 
 Bremen 1 
 
 DaniBh 6 
 
 French 1 
 
 Hanoverian 2 
 
 Dutcli 24 
 
 Liibecfc 6 
 
 Norwegian , 2 
 
 Prussian '. 3 
 
 Eussian T 
 
 Swedish 3 
 
 Total vessels 76 
 
 12,034 
 
 Aggregate tonnage 
 
 ^C. D. For further information see Living Age, ii. 
 347 ; South. Lit. Messenger, xv. 427 ; Democratic Review, 
 xi. 151 ; British a/nd Foreign Review, viii. 33 ; Black- 
 wood's Magazine, Ixx. 154; Foreign Quarterly, xxviii. 
 398. For an account of the commercial policy of Rus- 
 sia and the general statistics of trade, see Russia. 
 
 Saint Thomas, a Danish "West India Island, 
 Virgin group, three miles west of St. Johns. Latitude 
 of west extremity, 18° 20' N., long. 64° 55' "W. Area, 
 43 square miles. Population (1847), 12,800, Soil poor. 
 The principal products are sugar and cottpn. 
 
 The commercial intercourse of the United States 
 with this island is dependent partly on the action of 
 Denmark, and partly on the colonial government. 
 The present commercial regulations are not fixed for a 
 definite period, but may be changed at any time by 
 the recommendation of the colonial council, approved 
 by the Ministry and King of Denmark. There is, how- 
 ever, no change contemplated. By the existing laws 
 and regulations, all nations, including the mother 
 country, are placed on the same footing in their com- 
 mercial intercourse with this island, except as to the 
 tonnage duties on vessels entering and clearing at this 
 port, which arc : on all European vessels, 45 cents per 
 ton; on all others, including American, 19 cents. The 
 distinction is probably made to encourage the intro- 
 duction of provisions, rather than the dry goods, fancy 
 articles, and liquors imported from Europe. The tran- 
 shipment in vessels of the United States of goods to 
 ports in Denmark, the Danish colonies, or to a foreign 
 port, is permitted without any privileges or restrictions 
 not granted to or imposed on Danish vessels, or the 
 vessels of any other nations. The moneys, weights. 
 
SAL 
 
 1668 
 
 SAL 
 
 and measures known and in common use in this island 
 are the same as those established by the supreme law 
 of the mother country, yet the gold and silver coins 
 of tlie United States and the doubloons of Mexico are 
 also in common use; the latter is -worth $16. The 
 notes of the "Bank of St. Thomas" (a private institu- 
 tion not incorporated) and the notes of the Colonial 
 Bank, issued in ^5, $10, $50, and $100, redeemable in 
 gold and silver, according to the standard value of the 
 currency of the United States, form also a considera- 
 ble part of the colonial circulation. 
 
 The navigation between the United States and St. 
 Thomas, as shown by Consular Returns, was : entered 
 in 1851, 375 vessels, 71,410 tons ; cleared, 366 vessels, 
 69,847 tons ; total, 741 vessels, 141,257 tons. Entered 
 in 1852, 368 vessels, 69,490 tons; cleared, 361 vessels, 
 68,451 tons; total, 829 vessels, 137,941 tons. 
 
 FoBEiGN Impobtations AT St. Tiiomas, fkom ApkilI, 1S53, 
 TO Maech 31, 1854. 
 
 Denmark $12,349 
 
 The Duchies 40,652 
 
 Altona and Hamburg 651,507 
 
 Bremen T,833 
 
 Great Britain 2,321,114 
 
 Holland 30,232 
 
 France 421,720 
 
 Spain 44,865 
 
 Italy 50,406 
 
 South American States 75,891 
 
 United States of America 670,733 
 
 British possesBions in North America .... 9,454 
 
 British "West India colonies 81,884 
 
 Danish colonies 48,884 
 
 Spanish colonies 106,477 
 
 French colonies 12,250 
 
 Dutch colonies 32,089 
 
 Swedish colony 2,310 
 
 Hayti 34,131 
 
 Total 4,654,781 
 
 St. Thomas is the central station for packets in gen- 
 eral, and for the steam communication between South- 
 ampton and the "West Indies. 
 
 Sal Ammoniac. The manufacture of this salt 
 may be traced to the remotest era. Its name is de- 
 rived from Ammonia, or the temple of Jupiter Amnion, 
 in Egypt, near to which the salt was originally made. 
 Sal ammoniac exists ready formed in several animal 
 products. The dung and urine of camels contain a 
 sufficient quantity to have rendered its extraction from 
 them a profitable Egyptian art in former times, in order 
 to supply Europe "with the article. In that part of 
 Africa, fuel being very scarce, recourse is had to the 
 dung of these animals, -which is dried for that purpose 
 by plastering it upon the walls. 
 
 Salep, a species of powder prepared from the dried 
 roots of a plant of the orchis kind {Orchis mascida^ 
 Linn). That which is imported from India is in white 
 oval pieces, hard, clear, and pellucid, without smell, and 
 tasting like tragacanth. As an article of diet, it is 
 said to be light, bland, and nutritious. — Ainslie's 
 Mat. Indica ; Milbukn's Oriental Commerce. 
 
 Salmon (Ger. ImcJis, Salm; Fr. Saumon; It. Ser- 
 mone, Salamone ; Sp. Salmon ; Russ. Lemgci). This ex- 
 cellent fish is too well known to require any descrip- 
 tion. It is found only in northern seas, being unknown 
 in the Mediterranean and other warm regions. In this 
 country it is an article of much value and importance. 
 It is said to be exceedingly abundant in Japan and 
 Kamtschatka. 
 
 Great Britain. — Such salmon as are taken in estuaries 
 or rivers are, of course, the property of those to whom 
 the estuaries or rivers belong, the fisheries in them fre- 
 quently letting for very large sums; but of late very 
 considerable quantities of salmon have been taken in 
 bays and in the open sea, where the fishing is free to 
 any one who chooses to engage in it. The London 
 market, where the consumption is immense, has been 
 since 1790 principally supplied from the Scotch rivers. 
 The Tweed fishery is the first, in point of magnitude, 
 of any in the kingdom ; the take is sometimes quite 
 astonishing, several hundreds having been frequently 
 
 taken by a single sweep of the net ! Salmon are dis- 
 patched in steamers or fast-sailing vessels from the 
 Spey, the Tay, the Tweed, and other Scotch rivers, for 
 London, packed in ice, by which means they are pre- 
 served quite fresh. When the season is at its height, 
 and the catch greater than can be taken off fresh, it is 
 salted, pickled, or dried, for winter consumption at 
 home, and for foreign markets. Formerly, such part 
 of the Scotch salmon as was not consumed at home was 
 pickled and kitted after being boiled, and was in this 
 state sent up to London under the name of Newcastle 
 salmon ; but the present method of disposing of the fish 
 has so raised its value, as to have nearly deprived all but 
 the richer inhabitants in the environs of the fishery of 
 the use of salmon. There are considerable fisheries in 
 some of the Irish and English rivers, but inferior to 
 those of Scotland. The Scotch salmon fisheries seem to 
 have attained their maximum value toward the end of 
 the last war, when the fisheries in the Tweed were let 
 for from £15,000 to £18,000 a year! and those of the 
 Tay, Dee, Spej', etc., were proportionally valuable. 
 But the value of the Scotch salmon fisheries has, speak- 
 ing generally, declined greatly of late years ; in conse- 
 quence, partly and principally, of a diminished supply 
 of fish in the rivers, but in some degree, also, from the 
 greater facility of the communication between London 
 and Liverpool, and the consequent importation of Irish 
 salmon into the London markets. — General Report of 
 Scotland, vol. iii. p. 327. 
 
 This fishery in Canada, at the present time, is very 
 small. In 1786, however, the export was considerable. 
 In parts of the country where, in former years, the 
 catch was large, a few barrels of pickled salmon only 
 were shipped in 1848. In the Gulf of St. Lawrence 
 there were once extensive establishments for the prose- 
 cution of this business ; but some have been broken up, 
 and others have become unprofitable. Streams that 
 half a century ago afforded sufiScient for domestic con- 
 sumption, and thousands of barrels for export, now 
 yield only hundreds of barrels, and the quantity is rap- 
 idly diminishing. 
 
 Nova Scotia. — The loyalists, who went to this colony 
 at the peace of 1783, depended very much upon this 
 fishery, and carried it on to advantage. The quantity 
 of salmon exported for some years was sufficient to 
 purchase many articles of comfort, and to save them at 
 times from the miseries of pressing want. The salmon 
 has entirely disappeared in some parts of tlie colony, 
 and has ceased to be plentiful in all of its rivers and 
 streams. The export of salmon caught in the colony 
 is not large. The whole produce of the fishery in 1851 
 appears to have been but 1669 barrels. 
 
 Newfoundland. — The fishery is still worthy of atten- 
 tion, as reference to the accompanying statistics will 
 show. The export in 1843 was even larger than in 
 1814. 
 
 Labrador. — Captain Henry Atkins, of Boston, who 
 made a voyage to Davis's Straits in the ship \Mude in 
 1729, and who visited the coast a second time in 1758, 
 found salmon very. abundant. In Salmon River botli 
 he and his men caught many while wading, and with 
 their bands. They took all they had salt to cure, 
 and one that measured four feet ten inches in length. 
 Atkins's account, after his return, seems to have in- 
 duced no attention to the fishery on the part of his 
 townsmen. In 1831 the exports amounted to 2430 
 tierces of the pickled fish, of the value of $35,650. 
 
 New Brunswick, — The loyalists and other early set- 
 tlers found the salmon in almost every river and stream 
 in the colony. At present it is never seen in some, is 
 becoming scarce in most, and is of importance as an 
 article of export in the St. Johns alone. 
 
 The catch at Salmon Falls, in the St. Croix, thirty 
 years ago, was two hundred in a day, on the average, 
 for three months in a year. A person standing on a 
 "jam of logs" caught there at one time one hundred 
 and eighteen with a dip-net; and a boy fifteen years 
 
SAL 
 
 1669 
 
 SAL 
 
 old took about five hundred in a season. But such has 
 been the decline, that it is said only two hundred were 
 taken during the entire year of 1850 by all who engaged 
 in the business on the river. It is stated that the dams 
 erected across the river have produced this change in 
 the fishery, and facts appear to sustain the position. 
 The few salmon that now appear in the Oromocto, the 
 Nashwaak, the Maduxnakeag, and the Mispech, as 
 well as in Emerson's and Gardner's creeks, in Great 
 Salmon Elver and Goose Creek, is attributed to the 
 same cause. In two or three of the streams of minor 
 size, where no obstructions exist, and where the water 
 is not muddy, the pursuit is still attended with some 
 success and profit. 
 
 In some other places, the fishery, but for the wanton 
 and lawless destruction of the fish, without reference 
 to its condition or the season of the year, might be car- 
 ried on advantageously. 
 
 To the people of the city of St. Johns the annual catch 
 of salmon is a source of gain. The fisheries of the har- 
 bor, by a provision in the city charter, belong to the 
 citizens, or "freemen." The fishing grounds or sta- 
 tions are lotted out, and sold at auction every year for 
 the benefit of those who are entitled to them under the 
 charter. The practical fishermen are the purchasers. 
 The lots are of unequal value, and some merely nom- 
 inal. The number of salmon taken at St. Johns in 1860 
 was estimated at 32,000, which sold, whether large or 
 small, at the contract price of one dollar each — except 
 a small part for city consumption — to be packed in ice 
 and sent to Boston. Drift-nets and weirs are used in 
 the fishery, though the former are prohibited by law. 
 Fishermen deprecate the use of torch and spear; but 
 both are sometimes seen in the hands of lumberers and 
 gentlemen sporters. The salmon is found on the St. 
 Johns, two hundred miles from the sea, and on several 
 of its tributaries nearer to the ocean. On the Nerepis, 
 one of its branches, on which no mill-dams have been 
 erected, there is a fishery of note — from 1500 to 2000 
 being taken annually. 
 
 It will be seen that the exportation of cured salmon 
 from New Brunswick ceased entirely in 1848— the 
 whole catch, not required for consumption, having 
 been packed in ice, and shipped fresh. 
 
 STATISTICS OP THE SALMON FISHERY. 
 EXPOETS FEOM CANADA. 
 
 Teora. 
 
 . Pickled. 
 
 Smoked. 
 
 Tiorcea. 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 Kits. 
 
 Number. 
 
 1TS3 
 
 iioo 
 
 343 
 
 149 
 
 268 
 
 70 
 
 193 
 
 111 
 
 120 
 
 28 
 
 47 
 
 304 
 221 
 253 
 
 1784 
 
 1TS6 
 
 1832 
 
 1838 
 
 1843 
 
 1S48 
 
 
 EXPOKTS FEOM NewFOFHDLAHD. 
 
 Yenis. 
 
 Pickled. 1 
 
 Tierces. 
 
 ■V 
 
 alue. 
 
 1814 . . . , 
 
 2000 
 4408 
 2923 
 8396 
 3642 
 4716 
 405S 
 3783 
 S545 
 4976 
 3822 
 6911 
 195a 
 
 $4L 
 
 
 I83S 
 
 66,660 
 68,460 
 64,696 
 61,610 
 68,390 
 61,080 
 69,725 
 63,9T0 
 43,910 
 
 1839 
 
 1840 
 
 1811 
 
 1842 
 
 1843 
 
 1814 
 
 1845 
 
 1847 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 
 
 1850" 
 
 
 Year. 
 1631 
 
 • From St. Johns alone 
 
 EXPOKTB FBOM LABEADO 
 
 24 
 
 B. 
 
 —Pickled > 
 
 ces. .Value. 
 
 Years. 
 184T. 
 
 Cape Beeton, PsoDnoE 
 
 J 
 
 3flrrels. 
 
 1848. 
 
 
 2:5 
 
 Expoetb PROM New BEmrswiox. 
 
 1819.. 
 1322. . 
 1827.. 
 1828. . 
 1829. . 
 1830. . 
 1831.. 
 1832. . 
 1833. . 
 1834. , 
 1835. , 
 1836. , 
 1837. . 
 1838. , 
 1339. . 
 1840. . 
 1841. . 
 1842. . 
 1843. , 
 1844., 
 1845. 
 184G. , 
 1847, 
 1843. , 
 1860. 
 
 Pirklod. 
 
 Smoked. 
 
 Barrels. | Kits. 
 
 604 
 
 296 
 
 439 
 
 1776 
 
 1199 
 
 692 
 
 652 
 
 160 
 
 83 
 
 30 
 
 1843 
 
 930 
 
 1400 
 
 1S04 
 
 1826 
 
 2879 
 
 2155 
 
 2479 
 
 2621 
 
 1311 
 
 2426 
 
 2175 
 
 1726 
 2721 
 2635 
 2597 
 2947 
 2161 
 1965 
 6278 
 4680 
 1120 
 8261 
 5600 
 2276 
 2653 
 1232 
 
 855 
 6419 
 1261 
 1529 
 
 170 
 
 2,665 
 2,631 
 6,795 
 5,350 
 4,812 
 4,897 
 3,708 
 4,596 
 9,476 
 ,6,964 
 6,078 
 
 l6,'2dl 
 
 1,059 
 
 4,853 
 
 1,358 
 
 900 
 
 406 
 
 80 
 
 20 
 
 2,243 
 
 6,460 
 
 32,000* 
 
 * A proportion of 
 for some years, but 
 
 the annual catch has been exportod fresh 
 the quantity can only be conjectured. 
 
 
 Impoets and Expoets, Nova 
 
 SOOTIA. 
 
 
 Years. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 Tierces. 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 Tierces. 
 
 1785. 
 1846. . 
 1846. 
 1S4T. . 
 1848.. 
 
 
 4251 
 
 4745 
 3716 
 3210 
 
 208 
 82 
 
 2850 
 8053 
 6118 
 5686 
 ■ 2011 
 5055 
 6412* 
 
 538 
 49 
 
 340 
 
 
 1349. . 
 1850. 
 
 
 
 
 * From Halifax alone. 
 — Sabinks' Atnerican Fisheries. ' 
 
 Salonica, a large city and sea-port of European 
 Turkey, at the northeast extremity of the gulf of the 
 same name, lat. 40° 38'' 47" N., long. 22° 57' 13" E. 
 Population estimated at 60,000 to 75,000. 
 
 This city, originally called Therma, and afterward 
 Thessalonica, is celebrated both in sacred and profane 
 history. It was visited by St. Paul, who has addressed 
 two of his epistles to the Thessalonians. In the days 
 of its prosperity it had an amphitheatre, an extensive 
 hippodrome, numerous temples and triumphal arches, 
 the ruins of which sufficiently attest its ancient splen- 
 dor. — Clarke's Travels, vii. 441-478, 8vo ed. 
 
 Being the principal emporium of Macedonia, Salon- 
 ica has always had a considerable trade ; and to this 
 circumstance may be ascribed its continued and com- 
 paratively prosperous existence, notwithstanding the 
 many vicissitudes it has undergone. 
 
 There is no port at Salonica, but there is excellent 
 anchorage in the roads opposite to the town. The ac- 
 cess to them is by no means difiicult, and pilots are 
 seldom employed. Vessels anchor very near the walls 
 of the town, though it is prudent not to come too close 
 in, owing to the number of small craft at anchor. The 
 depth of water a cable's length from the shore varies 
 from 3J- to 4, and at two cables' length from 7 to 8 
 fathoms, whence to Cape Carabourum it varies fronr' 
 12 to 17 fathoms. There is very little rise. Owing to 
 the rivers which empty themselves into the Gulf, the 
 currents setting out are at times strong, and in light 
 winds sufficient to impede the way of the vessel. Next 
 to Constantinople, Salonica is the most important port 
 of Turkey in Europe. In 1850 its maritime commerce 
 reached upward of $3,500,000 ; viz., about $2,000,000 
 for imports, and $1,500,000 for exports. 
 
 The foreign trade of this port is chiefly engrossed by 
 the British and French flags. The imports consist 
 chiefly of cheap cottons and woolen cloths, and various 
 other manufactures. Its exports are wheat, barley, 
 maize, timber, wool, sponge, raw silk, wine, sesamum 
 seed, tobacco, and staves. Colonial 'produce and man- 
 ufactured goods are supplied to this port — the formel' 
 
SAL 
 
 1670 
 
 SAL 
 
 from second and third hands — by England and Austria. 
 There is nothing to prevent the United States from 
 participating in the trade in this species of merchan- 
 dise. Neither Austria nor England could compete with 
 this country in supplying the vast quantities of colonial 
 produce, and the cheap white and printed cottons, which 
 are required for consumption in this market. In addi- 
 tion to the supplies needed for the daily wants of 60,000 
 to 75,000 inhabitants, Salonica furnishes large quan- 
 tities of colonial and manufactured goods for the yearly 
 fairs of Parlepi, Lucca, and Seres, where the sales are 
 always made for cash. The high price of French cotton 
 and woolen cloths will always preclude the merchants 
 of France from successful competition in this branch 
 of trade ; and the heavy expenses attending the circui- 
 tous trade through Marseilles, Smyrna, Constantinople, 
 Trieste, and Venice, would necessarily favor direct ex- 
 portation from the United States. The prices at Sa- 
 lonica are always from 10 to 12 per cent, higher than at 
 Constantinople or Smyrna. 
 
 The gross returns of trade at the port of Salonica for 
 the year ending December 31, 1854, show a considera- 
 ble increase in the import trade, viz. ; 
 
 Value of imports in 1854 $3,7X0,236 
 
 inl863 2.857,765 
 
 Increase $912,470 
 
 But the returns exhibit a still more considerable in 
 crease in the value of the outward trade, viz. : 
 
 Value of exports in 1854 $5,492,980 
 
 in 1853. 
 
 Increase. 
 
 8,476,050 
 !,016,9y0 
 
 This large increase, both in the inward and outward 
 trade with the port of Salonica, may be'regarded as an 
 evidence of the improving state of the country. 
 
 The navigation returns for the same periods exhibit 
 the following results : 
 
 Year.. 
 
 iQward, 
 
 Outward. 
 
 1853 
 
 TOQB. 
 
 113,498 
 79,845 
 
 Tons. 
 
 111,767 
 81,192 
 
 1854 
 
 
 33,653 
 
 80,675 
 
 
 British manufact's and produce imported direct. . . $597,375 
 " " " " indirect. 521,350 
 
 Total imports of British raanufac's and products $1,118,7'25 
 Total exports to Great Britain 27,800 
 
 Balance, in 1854, in favor of British manufac^s. $1,090,925 
 
 A British authority, referring to this trade, says : 
 "A demand for British cotton manufactures of all de- 
 scriptions daily increases, and every year there is some 
 new outlet of sufficient importance for the establish- 
 ment of agencies in the interior by the importers at 
 Salonica ; hence the prospect of an increase of the im- 
 port trade in proportion to the increasing value of the 
 export trade. The Austrian and Saxon manufacturers 
 have again turned their attention to this part of Turkey, 
 and are sending larger parcels of low cotton goods." 
 
 The above extract is worthy the attention of those 
 engaged in trade with Turkish ports. 
 
 Exports. — Owing mainly to the Hellenic Invasion, 
 considerable delay was occasioned in getting in the 
 crops in 1854, and, consequently, the supply of grain 
 at Salonica was not equal to the demand. Little was 
 done in wools and cottons, the prices having averaged 
 too high a rate for European markets. The trade in 
 silk was considerable; but, owing to the rise in the 
 price for labor and fire-wood, several of the silk factors 
 preferred sending the silk-pods to France and to the 
 Italian ports, to drawing the raw silk at Salonica. — 
 U. S. Com. Relations. 
 
 Salt (Ger. Salz-; Du. Zout; Fr. Sel; It. Sale; Sp. 
 Sal; Russ. Sol; Lat. Sal; Arab. Melh; Chin. Ten; 
 Hind. Nimmvch; Per. iVan),'the chlorid of sodium of 
 modern chemists, has been known and in common use 
 as a seasoner and preserver of food from the earliest 
 ages. Immense masses of it arc found in this and 
 many other countries, which require only to be dug 
 
 out and reduced to powder. In that state it is called 
 rock-salt. The water of the ocean also contains a great 
 deal of salt ; to which, indeed, it owes its taste, and the 
 power which it possesses of resisting freezing till cooled 
 down to 28°'5. When this water is sufficiently evap- 
 orated, the salt precipitates in crystals. This is the 
 common process by which it is obtained in many coun- 
 tries. Thei;e are various processes by which it may 
 be obtained quite pure. Common salt usually crystal- 
 lizes in cubes. Its taste is universallj' known, and is 
 what is strictly denominated salt. Its specific gravity 
 is 2"125. It is soluble in 8'82 times its weight of cold 
 water, and in 2-76 times its weight of boiling water. — 
 Thomson's Chemistry, 
 
 Besides its vast utility in seasoning food, and pre- 
 serving meat both for domestic consumption and dur- 
 ing the longest voyages, and in furnishing muriatic 
 acid and soda, salt forms a glaze for coarse pottery, by 
 being thrown into the oven where it is baked ; it im- 
 proves the' whiteness and clearness of glass ; it gives 
 hardness to soap ; in melting metals it preserves their 
 surface from calcination, by defending them from the 
 air, and is employed with advantage in some assays ; 
 it is used as a mordant, and for improving certain col- 
 ors ; and enters more or less into many other processes 
 of the arts. Many contradictory statements have been 
 made as to the use of salt as a manure. Probably it 
 ma}' be advantageous in some situations, and not in 
 others. 
 
 Salt Mines, Sprinffs, etc. — The principal salt-mines 
 are at Wielitska in Poland, Catalonia in Spain, Alte- 
 monte in Calabiia, Loowur in Hungary, in many places 
 in Asia and Africa, and in Cheshire in England. The 
 mines at Wielitska are upon a very large scale ; but 
 the statements that have frequently been published, 
 of their containing villages inhabited by colonies of 
 miners who never saw the light, are altogether with- 
 out foundation. These mines have been wrought for 
 more than 600 j'ears. — Coxe's Travels in the North of 
 Europe, vol. i. 149, 8vo ed. 
 
 The salt-mines in the neighborhood of Northwich, in 
 Cheshire, England, are very extensive. They have 
 been wrought since 1670; and the quantity of salt ob- 
 tained from them is greater, probably, than is obtained 
 from any other salt-mines in the world. In its solid 
 form, when dug from the mine, Cheshire salt is not 
 sufficiently pure for use. To purify it, it is dissolved 
 in sea-water, from which it is afterward separated by 
 evaporation and crystallization. The greater part of 
 this salt is exported. Salt springs are met with in 
 several countries. Those in Chesliire and Worcester- 
 shire furnish a large proportion of the salt made use of 
 in Great Britain. The brine, being pumped up from 
 very deep wells, is evaporated in wrought-iron pans 
 from 20 to 30 feet square and 10 or 12 inches deep, 
 placed over a furnace. Most of the salt used in Scot- 
 land, previous to the repeal of the duty, was obtained 
 by tlie evaporation of sea-water nearly in the way now 
 mentioned ; but most part of the Scotch salt-works have 
 since been relinquished. 
 
 In warm countries, salt is obtained by the evapora- 
 tion of sea-water by the heat of the sun ; and the crys- 
 tals of salt made in this way are more perfect and 
 purer, from the greater slowness of the process. French 
 salt is manufactured in this mode, and it has always 
 been in considerable demand. 
 
 Duties on Salt. — In ancient Rome, salt was subjected 
 to a duty (I'ectigal salinarvm ; see Burman, Dissertatio 
 de Vectigalihus Fop. Rom. c, 6) ; and it has been heavi- 
 ly taxed in most modern states. The gabdle, or code 
 of salt laws, formerly established in France, was most 
 oppressive. From 4000 to 5000 persons are calculated 
 to have been sent annually to prison and the galleys for 
 offenses connected with these laws, the severity of which 
 had no inconsiderable share in bringing about the Revo- 
 lution. — Young's Travels in France, vol. i. p. 598. In 
 England duties upon salt were imposed in the reign of 
 
SAIi,' 
 
 1671 
 
 SAL 
 
 William III. In 1798 they amounted to 5s. a busliel ; 
 but were subsequently increased to 15». a bushel, or 
 about ihirt!/ times the cost of the salt! So exorbitant 
 a duty was productive of the worst efleots ; and occa- 
 sioned, by its magnitude, and the regulations for allow- 
 ing salt duty free to the fisheries a vast deal of smug- 
 gling. The opinion of the public and of the House of 
 Commons having been strongly pronounced against 
 the tax, it was finally repealed in 1823. , 
 
 The duty on salt imported into the United States is 
 15 per cent, by the act of March 3, 1857. 
 
 UnitedStates. — The following comprehensive account 
 of the manufacture and consumption of salt in this 
 country was written in answer to a request for the sta- 
 tistical information it contains, for the use of a commit- 
 tee of the British Parliament. Its author is a promi- 
 nent salt merchant of New York, and thoroughly con- 
 versant with the subject ; 
 
 New Yobk, April 28, 185T. 
 
 Deab Sik, — 1 have received your letter of the 20th 
 instant, in which you solicit information respecting the 
 manufacture of salt, the quantity made in the United 
 States at each of the works, the rate of freight to the 
 principal ports, the toll paid on domestic and also on 
 foreign salt on our State canals, etc. 
 
 The interest I feel in the salt trade of this country 
 prompts me to take some pains to give you the required 
 information. Yet the short time I have had since the 
 receipt of your letter precludes me from answering your 
 several inquiries with perfect satisfaction to myself in 
 regard to theju: accuracy. 
 
 I will, however, venture to give you the following 
 statistics, which, from the best information I have been 
 able to obtain, I believe to be mainly correct: 
 
 Estimated Quantity ov Salt MANtjPACTtritED in the 
 United States per Annum. 
 
 Bushels. 
 In the State of Massachusetts (mostly in vats built 
 
 along the sea-shore) 46,000 
 
 In the State of New York (Onondaga County), 
 
 about 6,000,000 
 
 In the State of Pennsylvania (Alleghany and Kis- 
 
 kiminetas Hi vers) 900,000 
 
 In the State of Virginia (Kanawha and Kings 
 
 Works) 3,500,000 
 
 In the State of Kentucky (Goose Creek) 260,000 
 
 In the State of Ohio (iVIuskingum, Hocking Elver) 500,000 
 In the State of Ohio (Pomeroy and West Colum- 
 bia) 1,000,000 
 
 In the State of Illinois 80,000 
 
 In the State of Michigan 10,000 
 
 In the State of Texas 20,000 
 
 In the State of Florida 100,000 
 
 Total , 12,376,000 
 
 There are salt lakes in the United States territories 
 — one in the southwesterly part of Texas and one or 
 more in Utah — where salt of good quality is found in 
 great abundance. Nearly all of the salt manufactured 
 in the United States is made by boiling, excepting what 
 is made in Massachusetts, Florida, and the Solar Works 
 at Onondaga. The amount of salt manufactured at the 
 Solar Works of Onondaga in 1856 was 709,391 bushels. 
 The amount of salt manufactured in kettles in Onon- 
 daga in 1856 was 6,258,419. bushels. When the works 
 (at Onondaga) are generally running, they require 
 3,000,000 gallons of bripe daily, and the supply is not 
 les? than, 2,000,000 gallons per day for six months. 
 The annual report of Y, W. Smith, Esq., the State Su- 
 perintendent of the Onondaga salt springs, which I 
 herewith hand you, furnishes valuable Information in 
 rega,rd to the manufacture of salt, the saline deposits 
 within our State, and such other general information 
 pertaining to this necessary article of animal subsistr 
 ence, as to render it one of the most accurate and in- 
 terestiug public documents published in our country. 
 
 The wells in the Virginia salt springs are about 900 
 feet deep. The wells at Pomeroy and West Columbia 
 are from 1000 to 1200 feet deep. The estimated quan- 
 tity of foreign salt consumed in the United States and 
 tei-ritories is about 13,500,000 bushels per annum. The 
 amount of salt consumed in the United States.(for va- 
 
 rious uses) is about sixty pounds to each inhabitant. 
 The consumption in France is estimated at 21 J^ pounds ; 
 in Great Britain at 25 pounds for each inhabitant. The 
 cost of manufacturing salt by boiling in Onondaga, as 
 per estimate, during five consecutive years, averages 
 about $1 per barrel of 280 pounds. The freight charged 
 on our canals on domestic salt, in barrels of 280 pounds 
 each, from Onondaga to Buffalo, 198 miles, is about X5 
 cents per barrel over the toll paid to the State, which 
 is one mill on 1000 pounds per mile in the canals. To 
 Oswego, 35 miles, the freight is about six cents per 
 barrel over the toll. 
 
 The freight on foreign and domestic salt from Alba- 
 ny to Bulfalo, 364 miles, is about $3 per ton (of 2000 
 pounds) over the toll. Freight from Albany to Oswe- 
 go, about 209 miles, is $2 per ton over toll. The freight 
 from New York city to Oswego and Bulfalo via Alba- 
 ny is precisely the same as though shipped at Albany, 
 although 148 miles farther. 
 
 The toll on foreign salt on our State canals is five 
 mills on 1000. pounds per mile. The freight on a bar- 
 rel of salt from Oswego to the principal ports on Lake 
 Erie (average distance about 450 miles) is 12 cents per 
 barrel. The freight to the principal ports on Lake 
 Michigan, distance about 1000 miles, is 25 cents per 
 barrel. The freight from ports on Lake Erie (say 
 Cleveland and Toledo) to the Ohio River and Cincin- 
 nati is 50 cents per barrel. The freight from Chicago 
 to the Mississippi Kiver and St. Louis is 50 cents per 
 barrel. The minimum price of salt at the Onondaga 
 works in 1849, '60, and '51 was from 70 to 90 cents 
 per barrel; in 1852, $1 per barrel; in 1853, $1 12; in 
 1854, $1 26 ; in 1865, $1 30 ; and in 1856, $1 40 per bar- 
 rel. The solar salt costs about the same price to man- 
 ufacturers as boiled salt. The solar salt weighs about 
 70 pounds to the bushel (measure). The boiled salt 
 weighs about 56 pounds to the bushel, varying, how- 
 ever, according to the position of the kettles, to a weight 
 considerably above and also considerably below this 
 standard. The duty paid to the State of New York on 
 salt manufactured at Onondaga is always reckoned on 
 56 pounds (the statute bushel), and covers the expense 
 incurred by the State for pumping up the water and 
 delivering it to the premises of the manufacturers. 
 
 A salt block at Onondaga, of fhe largest size, is 
 made of brick about 12 to 15 feet wide, four to five feet 
 high, and forming two parallel arches, extending the 
 whole length of the block. Over and withiathe top 
 of these arches are placed common cast-iron kettles, 
 holding about 60 to 70 gallons of brine, placed close to- 
 gether in two rows the whole length of the arches. A 
 fire built in the mouth of the arches passes under each 
 kettle into a chimney, built generally 60 to 150 feet 
 high, averaging from 50 to 70 kettles in each block. 
 A single block with one row of kettles is about half of 
 this width. The quantity of salt made in one of these 
 double blocks in the year (say eight months) averages 
 20,000 to 25,000 bushels of 56 pounds. The cost of a 
 bushel of salt produced at Kanawha is about 17J cents. 
 The price of freight on a sack of Liverpool salt from 
 New Orleans to Louisville averages about 35 cents 
 per sack. A good portion of the coarse, hard salt im- 
 ported into the United States from the most southerly 
 islands of the West India group is kiln-dried, cleansed, 
 ground very fine, and put in small packages for culi- 
 nary or dairy use. The amount of coarse and iiSe salt 
 imported into the United States from foreign countries 
 for the year ending June 30, 1856, was 15,405,864 bush- 
 els. The amount of domestic salt exported during the 
 year ending June 30, 1856, was 698;458 bushels. * The 
 amount of foreign salt exported duiing the year ending 
 June 30, 1856, was 126,427 bushels. 
 
 Yours, truly, Samuel Hotaling. 
 
 Patents were issued by the United States Patent Office 
 in 1856 — 1. For improvement in apparatus for evapora- 
 ting salt. 2. Improvement in apparatus for solar salt 
 evaporation. 3. Improvement in salt evaporators. 
 
SAL 
 
 1672 
 
 SAL 
 
 Statistics or the Salt MANurA0Tt)KE6 in the United State's fob the Yeae ending June 1, 1860. 
 
 states. 
 
 Nuntber. 
 
 Copital. 
 
 Raw 
 Material 
 
 Hands cmployfid. 
 
 Average yearly Wagea 
 paid. 
 
 Annual 
 Product in 
 Busbele. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Male. 
 
 Female. 
 
 Male. 1 Female. 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 Florida 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 1 
 12 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 192 
 
 32 
 
 47 
 
 2 
 40 
 
 $4,000 
 
 19,000 
 
 2,500 
 
 121,450 
 
 3,100 
 
 40,400 
 
 819,960 
 
 188,750 
 
 168,360 
 
 3,475 
 
 1,269,900 
 
 $4,000 
 
 2^660 
 
 11,050 
 
 7,226 
 
 60,000 
 
 631,955 
 
 35,633 
 
 57,189 
 
 1,760 
 
 234,623 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 153 
 
 4 
 28 
 873 
 167 
 219 
 16 
 1230 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 '9 
 
 't 
 
 .. 
 'i 
 
 67 
 
 $3611 
 
 1,440 
 
 T20 
 
 16.896 
 
 1,080 
 
 8,083 
 
 299,376 
 
 42,036 
 
 55,020 
 
 2,280 
 
 317,136 
 
 $144 
 283 
 
 ■432 
 
 1092 
 
 "72 
 7764 
 
 40,000 
 
 '20,660 
 246,600 
 
 4,600,600 
 
 650,350 
 
 919,100 
 
 8,000 
 
 3,479,890 
 
 $6,600 
 
 6,000 
 
 6,000 
 
 57,825 
 
 9,700 
 
 93,850 
 
 998,315 
 
 182,293 
 
 206,796 
 
 5,900 
 
 700,466 
 
 Massachnsetts. . 
 
 New York 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Pennsylvania . . 
 Texas 
 
 Virginia 
 
 Total 
 
 340 
 
 $2,640,885 
 
 $1,051,425 
 
 2699 
 
 87 
 
 $744,432 $9792 
 
 9,768,840 
 
 $2,222,745 
 
 
 Exports of Domebtio Salt feom tub United States. 
 
 
 
 To 
 
 Year ending June 30, { 
 
 1863 
 
 1864. 
 
 1866. j 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Bushels, Value. 
 
 B'lshels. 
 
 Value. 
 
 
 508,285 
 7,572 
 
 $115,666 
 4,063 
 
 530,560 
 17,626 
 
 $152,871 
 6,156 
 
 629,003 
 7,070 
 
 $152,516 
 3,563 
 
 Other places 
 
 Total 
 
 615,837 
 
 $119,729 
 
 548,186 
 
 $169,026 
 
 636,073 
 
 $156,079 
 
 Impoets of Salt into the United States in the years 1853, 1854, 18D5, 
 
 From 
 
 Year ending June 30, | 
 
 1863. 
 
 1854. 
 
 1865. 1 
 
 Bushels 
 
 Value. 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 Value. 
 
 
 6,613,204 
 1,734,864 
 1,718,4)13 
 
 $778,712 
 170,796 
 109,024 
 
 7,080,979 
 1,863,166 
 1,214,231 
 
 $1,000,192 
 207,345 
 103,398 
 
 8,8S4,219 
 1,187,775 
 2,654,240 
 
 $1,206,268 
 274,386 
 239,326 
 
 British West Indies 
 
 Other places 
 
 Total 
 
 10,006,981 
 
 $1,069,432 
 
 10,158,876 
 
 $1,310,935 
 
 12,920,234 1 $1,718,980 | 
 
 Espohts op Salt op Domebtio Feoductign prom the 
 United States fok the Year ending June 30, 185T. 
 
 Whither exported. Bushels. 
 
 Value. 
 
 
 912 
 
 1,304 
 
 509,504 
 
 9,164 
 
 410 
 
 12,000 
 
 80,050 
 
 125 
 
 6,900 
 
 6,695 
 
 $ill 
 
 053 
 
 171,0(16 
 
 2,249 
 
 215 
 
 4,950 
 
 4 
 
 8,591 
 
 50 
 
 1,668 
 
 1,323 
 
 
 
 Other British N. American Poss. , 
 British "West Indies 
 
 
 
 
 
 Chili 
 
 Sandwich Islands 
 
 
 576,151 
 
 $190,099 
 
 
 1.MPORT8 OP Salt into the United States fob tue Year 
 ENDiNO June 30, 1857. 
 
 whence imported 
 
 Danish West Indies 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Dutch West Indies 
 
 England 
 
 Ireland 
 
 Malta 
 
 Canada 
 
 Other British N. Amer. Poss. . 
 
 British West Indies 
 
 British Honduras 
 
 British Guiana 
 
 France on the Atlantic 
 
 France on the Mediterranean. 
 
 French West Indies 
 
 Spain on the Atlantic 
 
 Spain on the Mediterranean. . 
 
 Porto Rico 
 
 Portugal' 
 
 Cape de Verd Islands 
 
 Azores 
 
 Sardinia 
 
 Two Sicilies 
 
 Ports in Africa 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Sandwich Islands 
 
 China 
 
 Total . 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 2,624 
 
 70 
 
 174,862 
 
 12,890,868 
 
 74,955 
 
 14,662 
 
 191,298 
 
 9,004 
 
 1,083,601 
 
 1,640 
 
 6,422 
 
 14,180 
 
 131,914 
 
 40,126 
 
 1,004,714 
 
 854,997 
 
 1,368 
 
 93,143 
 
 18,926 
 
 6,700 
 
 ■188,669 
 
 773,602 
 
 23,800 
 
 76,770 
 
 5,537 
 
 10,366 
 
 26,207 
 
 17.166,704 
 
 Value. 
 
 $564 
 
 15 
 
 31,790 
 
 1,664,864 
 
 7,748 
 
 1,586 
 
 86,909 
 
 1,806 
 
 153,909 
 
 271 
 
 1,022 
 
 2,75S 
 
 10,053 
 
 2,968 
 
 T0,641 
 
 23,965 
 
 241 
 
 14,017 
 
 1,4.6 
 
 918 
 
 17,076 
 
 65,185 
 
 1,068 
 
 16,319 
 
 1,279 
 
 4,732 
 
 1,571 
 
 $9,082,583 
 
 The whole amount of salt inspected on the Ononda- 
 ga salt springs during the year 1856 was 5,968,810 
 bushels. This is about 120,000 bushels short of the in- 
 spection of 1855, but exceeds, however, that of any pre- 
 vious year, being 160,000 more bushels than were re- 
 turned in 1854. In the ordinary course of events, con- 
 sidering the increase of population in the Western mark- 
 ets for Onondaga salt, and the additional facilities of 
 
 transportation constantly brought into use, the inspec- 
 tion for 1856, according to the official Reports, ought 
 to have reached 6,600,000 bushels. The two principal 
 causes producing the deficiency may be found in a more 
 stringent state of the money market during the Avhole 
 season, and in the enhancement of the price of salt at 
 the works — ^1 40 per barrel in 1856 against $1 30 in 
 
 1855. The amount of salt actually manufactured in 
 
 1856, and either sold and shipped or remaining in orig- 
 inal hands, is considerably in excess of the manufac- 
 ture of any former year. The inspection indicates very 
 accurately the amount of sales, as no more is inspected 
 during the manufacturing season than what is required 
 to fill orders. The arrivals of Onondaga salt at Oswe- 
 go in 1856 were 3,483,987 bushels, against 3,039,593 in 
 1855 — an increase of 444,394 bushels. The arrivals 
 at Buffalo in 1856 were 1,081,767 bushels, against 
 1,947,938 in 1856— a decrease of 866,171 bushels. The 
 arrivals at all the lake ports in 1856, compared with 
 those in 1855, show a decrease of 241,778 bushels. 
 
 Saltpetre, or Nitrate of Potash (Ger. Saltpe- 
 ter ; Fr. Nitre, Salpetre ; It. Nitro, Salnitro ; Sp. Nitro, 
 Salitre; Euss. Senitra; Lat. Nitrum; Arab. TJbl-i{r; 
 Hind. Shorah), a salt well known in commerce, and of 
 great importance. It may be regarded both as a nat- 
 ural and an artificial production ; being found on the 
 surface of the soil in many parts of India, Egypt, Italy, 
 etc. ; but in these and other places all that is known in 
 commerce is obtained by an artificial process, or by 
 lixiviating earth that has been formed into nitre beds. 
 The saltpetre consumed in England is brought from 
 Bengal in an impure state, but crj'stallized, in bags, 
 each containing 164 lbs. Saltpetre forms the princi- 
 pal ingredient in the manufacture of gunpowder, and 
 is used in various arts. It is also of great utility in 
 the commerce of India, from its furnishing a large 
 amount of dead weight for the shipping engaged in it. 
 Saltpetre possesses considerable antiseptic power. That 
 which is of the best quality and well refined is in long, 
 transparent crj'stals ; its taste is sharp, bitterish, and 
 cooling ; it flames much when thrown upon burning 
 coals ; it is very brittle ; specific gravity, 1"933. It is 
 not altered by exposure to the air, 
 
 Beckmann contends, in a long and elaborate dissert- 
 ation {Hist, of Invent.'), that the ancients were unac- 
 quainted with saltpetre, and that their nitrum was 
 really an alkaline salt. But as saltpetre is produced 
 
SAL 
 
 1673 
 
 SAN 
 
 naturally in considerable quantities in Egypt, it is dif- 
 ficult to suppose that they could be entirely ignorant 
 of it, though it would appear that they had confounded 
 it with other things. It has been known in the East 
 from a very early period. Beckmann concurs in opin- 
 ion with those who believe that gunpowder was in- 
 vented in India, and brought by the Saracens from Af- 
 rica to the Europeans, who improved its manufacture, 
 and made it available for warlike purposes. 
 
 The Mammoth Cave in Kentucky was used as a place 
 for the manufacture of saltpetre during the war of 1812. 
 The soil in the cave is thoroughly impregnated with 
 saltpetre; but in consequence of the difficulty of trans- 
 portation, the manufacture has been abandoned. 
 
 Imports of Saltpetre into tiik United States for the 
 Year ending June 30, 1857. 
 
 WheDCO imported. 
 
 Crude. 
 
 Refined, or 
 pnrtly refined. 
 
 
 Pounda. 
 
 694,041 
 
 23,933,708 
 
 149,460 
 
 ■6i,'308 
 
 1,47.5,920 
 
 Value. 
 $46,660 
 1,068,207 
 6,992 
 
 ' '4,179 
 31,425 
 
 Pounds. 
 3116 
 
 1326 
 
 427 
 
 Vivlue. 
 $190 
 
 147 
 25 
 
 British East Indies 
 
 France on the Atlantic . 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Chili 
 
 Total 
 
 26,314,437 
 
 $1,166,463 
 
 4869 
 
 $362 
 
 Of this amount there was re-exported the following 
 quantity. There were no exports of saltpetre of do- 
 mestic production. 
 
 Foreign Exports of Saltpetre from the United States 
 FOR TUB Year ending June 30, 1857. 
 
 
 Crude. 
 
 Hefined. | 
 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Pounda. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 England 
 
 Other places . . . 
 Total 
 
 1,360,000 
 
 3,763,000 
 
 656,008 
 
 $69,233 
 
 296,538 
 
 46,948 
 
 394,670 
 
 1,331,588 
 
 106,683 
 
 $27,628 
 
 99,275 
 
 4,802 
 
 5,769,008 
 
 $412,769 
 
 1,831,941 
 
 $131,705 
 
 Salvage, as the term is now understood, is an al- 
 lowance or compensation made to those by whose ex- 
 ertions ships or goods have been saved from the dan- 
 gers of the seas, fire, pirates, or enemies. 
 
 The propriety and justice of making such an allow- 
 ance must be obvious to every one. It was allowed 
 by the laws of Khodes, Oleron, and Wisby ; andin this 
 respect they have been followed by all modem mari- 
 time states. At common law, the party who has saved 
 the goods of another from loss or any imminent peril 
 has a lien upon them, and may retain them in his pos- 
 session till payment of a reasonable salvage. 
 
 Salvage upon Losses by Perils of the Sea. — In fix- 
 ing the rate of salvage, regard is usually had, not only 
 to the labor and peril incurred by the salvors, but also 
 to the situation in which they- may happen to stand in 
 respect of the property saved, to the promptitude and 
 alacrity manifested by them, and to the value of the 
 ship and cargo, as well as the degree of danger from 
 which they were rescued. Sometimes as large a pro- 
 portion as a halfof the property saved has been allow- 
 ed as salvage ; and in others not more than a tenth. 
 
 Parties entitled to salvage are all those who have con- 
 tributed to the safety, either by personal exertions or 
 by summarj' sacrifice, provided it did not fall within 
 the course of their regular duty to make the exertions 
 or sacrifice. Thus neither the master nor seamen of 
 the ship in danger have any title to it ; nor have any 
 passengers for any ordinary assistance they may give ; 
 but it is not the duty of passengers to remain on board 
 in time of danger, nor to incur any responsibility by 
 undertaking the management of the ship ; and if by 
 doing the one or the other they contribute to the safety 
 of the ship, thej^may be entitled to salvage. 
 
 If, before the service is rendered, a bargain is made 
 for the amount to be paid for the assistance, this amount 
 settles the claim for salvage ; so if two ships sail as 
 consorts, as is customary with whaling ships, on the 
 terms of rendering each other mutual assistance, neither 
 can claim salvage for assistance rendered to the other. 
 
 All the officers and crew of a British ship are under 
 
 obligations to assist ships in distress ; they are, never- 
 theless, to receive salvage for their services, subject to 
 the conditions expressed in the Britihs statutes. The 
 owners, also, of a ship which has saved another are, 
 besides being remunerated for stores or other matters 
 contributed, or injurj- done to their ship, entitled to 
 salvage for the detention of their ship, the risk of va- 
 cating their insurance, etc. — See Shipping. 
 
 The salvage is to be paid by those who would have 
 borne the loss had there been no assistance, in the pro- 
 portion to the benefit they have received. If the ship 
 was in the course of earning freight, the freight must 
 contribute. The wearing apparel, etc., of the master 
 and crew are not liable for salvage. 
 
 The subject of salvage was largely discussed in our 
 courts in a case of recapture. The District Court of 
 New York allowed as salvage one half the value of the 
 ship. The Circuit Court reversed the decree, and de- 
 nied all salvage. The Supreme Court of the United 
 States corrected both decrees, and allowed one sixth 
 part of the net value, after deducting the charges. 
 The court in that case admitted the rule to be, that a 
 neutral vessel, captured by a belligerent, was entitled 
 to be discharged without paying salvage, on the ground 
 that no beneficial service was thereby rendered, as the 
 neutral, acting properly, would of course be discharged 
 by the courts of the sovereign of the captor ; and tliey 
 admitted likewise the exception to tlie rule when bel- 
 ligerent captors and courts were notorious for their un- 
 principled rapacity. This rule and the exception have 
 been frequently declared in the English admiralty. 
 The rule of British jurisprudence in respect to recap- 
 tured property' of British subjects to allies, until it ap- 
 pears that they act upon a less liberal principle, and 
 then the allies are treated according to their own meas- 
 ure of justice. The same rule has been adopted by 
 statute in this country, and is founded on the immov- 
 able basis of reciprocal justice. Though the contract 
 of seamen be not dissolved by shipwreclt, and it be 
 their duty to remain and labor to preserve the wreck 
 and fragments of the ship and cargo, yet they may be 
 entitled to recompense, by way of salvage, for their pe- 
 culiar services. The wages recovered in the case of 
 shipwreck are in the nature of salvage, and form a lien 
 on the property saved. The character of seamen cre- 
 ates no incapacity to assume that of salvors ; and were 
 it otherwise, it would be mischievous to the interests of 
 commerce, inconsistent with natural equity, and would 
 be tempting the unfortunate mariner to obtain by plun- 
 der and embezzlement, in a common calamity, what he 
 ought to possess upon principles of justice. The al- 
 lowance of salvage in such cases is and ought to be 
 liberal ; not less, in any case, than the wages would 
 have amounted to ; and even an additional recompense 
 should be made in cases of extraordinary danger and 
 distinguished gallantrj', when the service was much 
 enhanced by the preservation of life, and the great 
 value of the property at stake. — Kent's Commentor- 
 ries, vol. iii. — See Insceance. 
 
 Sample, a small quantity of a commodity exhib- 
 ited at public or private sales, as a specimen. Sugars, 
 wool, spirits, wine, cofl'ee, and indeed most species of 
 merchandise, are sold by sample. If an article be not, 
 at an average, equal to the sample by which it is sold, 
 the buyer may cancel the contract, and return the ar- 
 ticle to the seller. 
 
 Sandal-'wood, the wood of a tree (Santdlum al- 
 bum, Linn.) having somewhat the appearance of a large 
 myrtle. It is of a deep yellow color, and yields an 
 agreeable perfume. The tree, when cut down, is usu- 
 ally about nine inches in diameter at the root, but 
 sometimes considerably more. After being felled, it 
 is barked, cut into billets, and buried in a dry place for 
 about a couple of months, during which time the white 
 ants eat ofif the outer wood, without touching the heart, 
 which is the sandal. It is then taken up and sorted, 
 according to the size of the billets. The deeper the 
 
SAN 
 
 1674 
 
 SAN 
 
 color, and the nearer the root, the higher is the per- 
 fume. Reject such pieces as are of a pale color, small, 
 decayed, or have white wood about them ; and talte 
 especial care that it be not mixed with wood resem- 
 bling sandal, but without its perfume. — Milbokn's 
 Orient. Commerce. 
 
 Sandal-wood is extensively employed by the Hin- 
 doos as a perfume in their funeral ceremonies. But 
 the Chinese are its principal consumers. They manu- 
 facture it into fans, and small articles of furniture, and 
 use it, when ground into powder, as a cosmetic. Dur- 
 ing the year ending the 31st of December, 1848, there 
 were imported by British vessels into Canton 20,732 
 piculs of sandal-wood, valued at i'207,400 ; and the im- 
 ports in some years are more than twice this amount. 
 The average importation into Calcutta is about 200 
 tons a year. It grows principally in Malabar, in the 
 mountainous country at a little distance from the low 
 sea-coast ; in Timor ; and in the Fejee Islands in the 
 South Sea. Calcutta is principally supplied from Mal- 
 abar, while China derives the larger portion of her sup- 
 plies from Timor and the other islands. It is seldom 
 brought to Europe, except by individuals for their own 
 use, or as presents for their friends. — Bell's External 
 Comm. of Bengal; Ck.\wfoed's Indian Archipelago. 
 
 Sandals, a species of slippers worn by the ancient 
 Jews, Greeks, and Romans. They consisted of a sole 
 with a hollow part at one extreme, to embrace the 
 ankle and leave the upper part of the foot bare. Orig- 
 inally sandals were made of leather ; but they after- 
 ward became articles of great luxury, being made of 
 gold, silver, or other precious stuff, and most beauti- 
 fully ornamented. 
 
 Saudarach, a resinous substance, commonlj' met 
 with in loose granules a little larger than a pea, of a 
 whitish 3'ellow color, brittle, inflammable, of a resinous 
 smell, and acrid, aromatic taste. It exudes, it is said, 
 in warm climates, from cracks and incisions in the com- 
 mon juniper bush. It is used as a varnish, dissolved 
 in spirits of wine. — Ainslie's Mat. Jndica. 
 
 San Domingo. The old Spanish part of the island 
 of San Domingo, or the Dominican Republic, embraces 
 the territorj- as settled by the treaty of limits between 
 Spain and France in 1777. According to those limits, 
 its area would comprise about two-thirds of the whole 
 island, or over 18,000 square miles. The population 
 of the republic reaches about 126,500' souls, composed 
 of Spaniards, Creoles, and blacks. The population, 
 however, is stated by some authorities to exceed 
 260,000 ; but this is probably too large. The natural 
 productions of the republic 8re all kinds of valuable 
 wood, copper, iron, salt, coal, etc. Its soil is very fer- 
 tile, but its climate is unhealthy, and at certain sea- 
 sons exceedingl)' fatal to foreigners. The chief staples 
 of the republic are mahogany, lignum-vitJB, dye-woods, 
 tobacco, honey, and hides. The imports from the 
 United States consist of assorted cargoes, flour, etc. ; 
 but most usuall}'' our vessels enter the ports of the re- 
 public in ballast. 
 
 The tariff of duties is based upon a fixed value assign- 
 ed to each class of merchandise, on which a duty of 25 
 per cent, is levied. The general scope of these duties 
 may be illustrated by selecting from the latest tariff 
 the article of flour. The tariff valuation of this article 
 is $5 per barrel of from 175 to 200 lbs. ; the duty on 
 which, at 25 per cent., would be $1 25, These duties 
 are permanent (so long as the tariff continues unal- 
 tered), and are in no manner dependent on the fluctu- 
 ation of prices. The tonnage duty on American ves- 
 sels is $1 per ton in port, and 50 cents per ton for the 
 coast, being 50 per cent, more than is charged on the 
 vessels of such nations as have recognized the inde- 
 pendence of the republic, or have entered into treaties 
 with its government. The effect of this, as well as of 
 other discriminations against the American flag, has 
 been to give to the flags of treaty nations, especially to 
 that of Great Britain, a large share of the carrj'ing 
 
 trade between the United States and the Dominican 
 Republic. In 1854 a treaty of amit)', commerce, and 
 navigation was agreed upon and executed by plenipo- 
 tentiaries of the two governments duly appointed for 
 that purpose ; but, objections being made to some of 
 its stipulations by the Dominican Legislature, it was 
 not confirmed. An amendment, defining the rights of 
 Dominican citizens in the United States, was proposed, 
 to which the commissioner of the United States object- 
 ed, and thus the matter is understood to stand at the 
 present time. The following tabular statements exhib- 
 it the trade and navigation of the Dominican Republic 
 during a period of four years, ending with 1852, togeth- 
 er with an analysis of the trade and navigation of each 
 of the por^s, San Domingo and Porto Plata, during the 
 year last designated : 
 
 Trahe ani> Navigation of the Dominioan KEPUiiLic, 
 
 Years. 
 
 VessoJs 
 entered. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Vessels 
 cleared. 
 
 Tons, 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 1840 
 
 1880 
 
 1851 
 
 1852 
 
 248 
 272 
 279 
 324 
 
 20,082 
 22,403 
 24,449 
 30,056 
 
 216 - 
 268 
 261 
 298 
 
 16,139 
 23,290 
 21,776 
 29,914 
 
 $266,960 
 
 762,370 
 
 1,189,470 
 
 1,212,340 
 
 $637,360 
 1,047,0.56 
 1,234,285 
 1,620,660 
 
 Statement exhibiting the Share assigned to eaoii hv the 
 TWO Ports op San Domingo and Porto Plata in the 
 
 AHOVE GENEEAL TaBLE. 
 
 ARRIVALS. 
 
 Veais. 
 
 Port of San Domingo. | ■ Porto Plata. j 
 
 No. of 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tonnage, 
 
 Values. 
 
 No. of 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Values, 
 
 1849 ... 
 1850.,,, 
 1851 , , , . 
 1852 , . . , 
 
 130 
 147 
 128 
 182 
 
 12,428 
 15,273 
 14,272 
 19,3T5 
 
 $140,885 
 430.680 
 582,780 
 662,6&9 
 
 118 
 125 
 161 
 162 
 
 T.664 
 
 7,130 
 
 10,177 
 
 10,680 
 
 $126,076 
 331,690 
 606,690 
 549,655 
 
 Depaetuees. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Port of San Domingo, 
 
 Porto Plata. | 
 
 No. of 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Values. 
 
 No of 
 VoKiels. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Values. 
 
 1841 , , . . 
 1850 , , . , 
 1851,,,. 
 1S52 , , , , 
 
 115 
 148 
 119 
 140 
 
 9,863 
 16,447 
 12,912 
 18,468 
 
 $270,625 
 624,186 
 394,966 
 705,285 
 
 101 
 
 120 
 142 
 168 
 
 6,276 
 6,843 
 8,864 
 11,446 
 
 $366,736 
 522,870 
 839,320 
 915.3T5 
 
 Foreign Teade of San Domingo, 1852. 
 
 Nationality. 
 
 Arrivals, | Departures. { 
 
 No. of 
 Vessels. 
 
 Ton- 
 nage, 
 
 Invoice „ , 
 
 „„i,,„„„f No. of 
 
 Jargoes. ^•»''•• 
 
 Ton. 
 
 nage. 
 
 Invoice 
 
 values of 
 
 CarEoes, 
 
 $321,025 
 
 3,250 
 
 180,300 
 
 49,510 
 
 40,400 
 
 57,000 
 
 18,450 
 
 10,000 
 
 13,710 
 
 350 
 
 2,390 
 
 8,000 
 
 British 
 
 Dominican , , 
 
 Frencli 
 
 Danisli 
 
 Dutch 
 
 American . . , 
 
 Italian 
 
 Hamburg , , . 
 
 Prussian , 
 
 Venezuelan, , 
 
 Spanish 
 
 Swedish 
 
 Total 
 
 38 
 
 27 
 30 
 20 
 20 
 IB 
 4 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 1 
 1 
 
 5,376 
 
 767 
 
 B,T27 
 
 1,633 
 
 1,168 
 
 2,266 
 
 1,009 
 
 352 
 
 536 
 
 96 
 
 134 
 
 312 
 
 . $76,840 
 
 195,000 
 
 25,505 
 
 201,500 
 
 53,450 
 
 65,300 
 
 18,390 
 
 6,950 
 
 20,855 
 
 845 
 
 50 
 
 38 
 
 6 
 30 
 18 
 24 
 14 , 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 5,375 
 
 359 
 
 5,600 
 
 1,713 
 
 1,320 
 
 2,060 
 
 635 
 
 352 
 
 536 
 
 22 
 
 134 
 
 312 
 
 162 |19,376|$662,685 
 
 140 1 18,468 
 
 $705,285 
 
 Foreign Trade of Porto Plata, 1853. 
 
 Nationality. 
 
 British 
 
 Danish 
 
 Bremea 
 
 American ... 
 
 Dutch 
 
 Hamburg . . . 
 Oldenburg . . 
 Sardinian . . . 
 Hanoverian . 
 Swedish . . . . . 
 
 French 
 
 Portuguese , . 
 
 Spanish 
 
 {■•omiDican . . 
 
 Arrivals. 
 
 No. of 
 Vessels. 
 
 Ton- 
 nage. 
 
 3,247 
 
 1,S05 
 
 1,564 
 
 1,121 
 
 744 
 
 1,040 
 
 196 
 
 207 
 
 T8 
 
 195 
 
 148 
 
 149 
 
 45 
 
 141 
 
 Invoice 
 values of 
 Cargoes. 
 
 $129,510 
 166,210 
 119,0.'i0 
 31,500 
 27,1.50 
 26,150 
 40,000 
 45,000 
 
 6,66o 
 
 Total 162 1 10,080 $589,955; 153 
 
 Ton- 
 nage. 
 
 3,140 
 
 1,909 
 
 2,032 
 
 1,448 
 
 513 
 
 826 
 
 316 
 
 468 
 
 78 
 
 447 
 
 148 
 
 "45 
 
 Invoice 
 values of 
 Cargoes 
 
 $119,610, 
 
 136,125 
 
 306,445 
 
 41,145 
 
 17,425 
 
 108,600 
 
 64,425 
 
 25,.500 
 
 19,500 
 
 65,375 
 
 20,850 
 
 475 
 
 $915,475 
 
 The following is a summary of the trade between 
 the United States and the port of San Domingo during 
 the last six months of 1854, viz. : 
 
 Kumber of vessels entered and cleared 28, with an 
 
SAN 
 
 1675 
 
 SAN 
 
 aggregate of 2529 tons ; of these, four entered in bal- 
 last, and ten with assorted cargoes. The homeward 
 cargoes consisted of mahogany, lignum- vitsj, hides, and 
 honey, and amounted in value to $26,270. Daring the 
 same period there entered six vessels under British col- 
 ors, measuring in all 518 tons : one French vessel of 
 139 tons ; one Danish of 125 tons, and one Dominican 
 of 68 tons ; total number of foreign vessels (exclusive 
 of American) nine, with an aggregate tonnage of 850 
 tons. During the first six months of 1855 there en- 
 tered and cleared 40 vessels from the United States 
 (under the American flag), measuring in the aggregate 
 3375 tons ; of these, 13 entered in ballast, and 7 with 
 assorted cargoes, including one laden in part with 
 flour. Value of cargoes, inward, $27,650 ; value of 
 cargoes, homeward, $44,664. Homeward cargoes con- 
 sisted of mahogany, lignum-vitiB, satin-wood, fustic, 
 hides, and honey. 
 
 The commerce of San Domingo with the United 
 States for the year 1857 was as follows : 
 
 Exports to San Domingo ,. $44,349 
 
 Imports from San Domingo 109,874 
 
 Tonnage cleared from United States — American 1920 
 " " " Foreign . _918 
 Total 283S 
 
 The latest revision of the Dominican tariff bears 
 date 18th June, 1853. The valuation of several ar- 
 ticles, including domestic cottons, boys' shoes,. etc., has 
 been reduced ; while in a few others, including wom- 
 en's shoes, there is an increase — on the latter article 
 from $7 to $8 per dozen, which will raise the (}uty from 
 $1 75 to $2 per dozen, 'the financial and political dif- 
 ficulties now experienced in the Dominican Repub- 
 lic can hardly fail to be felt in the general movements 
 of its foreign commerce. 
 
 The reader is referred to the article I-Iayti for the 
 comparative statement of the commerce of the United 
 States with the island of San Domingo — embracing the 
 empire of Hajl:! and the Dominican Republic' — exhib- 
 iting the value of exports to and imports from each 
 country, and the tonnage of American and foreign ves- 
 sels arriving from and departing to each country, dur- 
 ing the years designated. 
 
 A Dominican vessel arriving in the United States 
 from a port in the Dominican Republic is liable to a 
 tonnage duty of $1 per ton, that being the duty im- 
 posed on the tonnage of vessels of the United States 
 arriving in said republic ; but the cargo is not liable to 
 a discriminating dutj' of 10 per cent., no such duty be- 
 ing levied by the Dominican Republic on the cargoes 
 of United States vessels arriving in the ports of that 
 republic. — See Hayti. For Political Relations of 
 England with San Domingo, see Fbaseb's Mag. xlii. 
 133 ; same article, Living Age, xxvii. 126 ; Edirdrurgh 
 Eeview, xvii. 372. 
 
 Sandivich Islands. A group of eleven islands 
 in the Pacific Ocean. They were discovered by Cap- 
 tain Cook in 1778. Many voyagers report that the 
 natural capacity of the natives seems in no respect be- 
 low the common standard of mankind. It was in one 
 of these islands that this illustrious circumnavigator 
 fell a victim to the sudden resentment of the natives, 
 Feb. 14, 1779. Tamehameha, chief of Hawaii, becomes 
 king of the gi'oup, 1800. Rihoriho,' his son, succeeds 
 him, 1819. Idolatry abolished, 1819. Rihoriho and 
 his queen died in England, 1824. Kanikeaouli, 20 
 years of age, king, 1824. Mission established by the 
 American Board, 1820. In 1832 there were 900 schools 
 and 50,000 pupils in the islands. Treaty with the 
 French, made with admiral Dupetit-Thonars, 1837. 
 Another, enforcing the introduction of Catholic mis- 
 sionaries, etc., 1839. Tamehameha III. becomes king. 
 Dr. G. P. Judd, an American, prime minister. In 1831 
 there were 14 ships, 2630 tons, belonging to the isl- 
 ands — which are important to the United States as a 
 whaling station. 
 
 This remote but interesting group is situated in the 
 
 midst of the Pacific Ocean, in about lat. 21° N. , and long. 
 157° W. It comprises eight inhabited and four unin- 
 habited islands, Owhyhee, where Captain Cook was 
 killed, being the most considerable. 'They are of vol- 
 canic formation, and mountainous, some of the peaks 
 rising in Owhyhee to between 13,000 and 14,000 feet 
 in height ! The population in 1847 is said to have 
 amounted to above 112,000, of which nearly 40,000 be- 
 longed to Owhyhee. But it is a curious fact that the 
 native population-has been rapidly decreasing for some 
 years past, and does not now probabl}' exceed a third 
 part of its amount at the epoch of their discovery. The 
 islanders are honorably distinguished among the Poly- 
 nesian nations by the advances they have made in civil- 
 ization ; and particularly by their progress in manu- 
 factures, navigation, and commerce. Christianity waS 
 introduced by the American missionaries in 1820, and 
 is now the religion of the state ; schools have been 
 established, churches have been built, and the forms of 
 religion are pretty well observed. European usages 
 have become fashionable ; and the costume of the bet- 
 ter classes, women as well as men, closely resembles 
 that of the Americans. 
 
 The following table exhibits the population of the 
 principal islands, according to the census of December, 
 1853: 
 
 Usnds. 
 
 NntivcH. 
 
 Forflipnora. 
 
 Total.. 
 
 Hawaii 
 
 24,19:i 
 
 17,420 
 
 3,.505 
 
 599 
 
 17,815 
 
 6,726 
 
 790 
 
 259 
 244 
 42 
 
 .isii 
 
 264 
 
 24,453 
 
 17,064 
 
 3,607 
 
 ,B99 
 
 19,126, 
 
 6,990 
 
 790 
 
 
 Mblokai '. . . 
 
 Lanai 
 
 Oalm 
 
 
 Total .:.... 
 
 71,108 
 
 2120 
 
 73,22.3 
 
 The staple exports of the islands are : Sugar, molas- 
 ses, sirup, coffee, goat-skins, sweet potatoes, wool, 
 hides, salt, tallow, beef, pulu,* and arrow-root. Agri- 
 culture has made but little progress, and will never, 
 probably, occupy the natives to any great extent. 
 There are many excellent tracts suitable for the pro- 
 duction of coffee, wheat, vines, etc. ; bnt the means of 
 subsistence are so easily procured, that the inhabitants 
 have but few inducements, even did they not lack the 
 industrj' and enterprise, to become extensive agricul- 
 turists. 
 
 There are large tracts of good grazing land scattered 
 throughout the island, and the growth of cattle is a 
 leading, perhaps the most profitable, branch of agri- 
 cultural industrj'. There are also numerous sheep 
 ranges, on iwhich are tended about 12,000 sheep ; but 
 the business is not encouraging. 
 
 The eminently advantageous position of the Sand- 
 wich Islands, lying on the great route between Amer- 
 ica and China, invited at an early period the enter- 
 prise and capital of several European and American 
 settlers, and led to the establishment of a somewhat 
 active trade. They constitute a common centre be- 
 tween the three principal whaling grounds of the 
 Korthern Pacific — one on the equator, the other near 
 Japan, and the third toward the Behring Sea. 
 
 The principal port is Honolulu, on the south side of 
 the island of Woahoo, in lat. 21° 18' 3" N., long. 
 157° 55' W. Population about 8500, of whom about 
 1200 are Englishmen, Americans, and other foreigners. 
 The harbor, to which the place owes all its importance, 
 has a narrow entrance, but it is easy of access at all 
 times of the tide to vessels not drawing more than 18 
 feet water. The bar at its mouth beiiig narrow, and 
 composed of soft coral, it might easily be made access- 
 ible even for line-of-battle ships. 
 
 Commercial relations between the United States and 
 the Sandwich Islands had existed for many years be- 
 fore the treat}' of 1849. As far back as 1832, when the 
 native population of the islands amounted to 130,315 
 (nearly double its present number), it appears that the 
 
 ■ A native production-used for teda and pillbt^s. 
 
SAN 
 
 1676 
 
 SAN 
 
 United States imported thence produce to the value 
 of $920. In 1833 it amounted to $1094; in 1837 to 
 $6601 i in 1840 to $16,293 ; and in 1841 to $47,630. 
 The tonnage employed was, in 1835, 682 tons ; in 1836, 
 1418 tons; in 1837, 1574 tons j in 1841, 1943 tons ; in 
 1842, 1309 tons; in 1843, 1813 tons; and in 1844, 3217 
 tons — all American. 
 
 It is only within a few years, however, that the 
 trade of the Sandwich Islands with the United States 
 has assumed any considerable importance. The great 
 wealth and rapidly increasing trade of California, to- 
 gether with the facilities which this group, from its geo- 
 graphical position, has always, as already intimated, 
 been enabled to afford to whaling ships, both as a re- 
 cruiting station and as regards the general supplies 
 which such vessels require during their long cruises 
 in distant latitudes, have recently given to these isl- 
 ands a commercial importance which, under other cir- 
 cumstances, might not have been reached for a century 
 to come. The staples of the island have now a market 
 in California, close at hand, and the communications 
 with the Atlantic coast have become regular and fre- 
 quent. 
 
 Owing to the prevalence of the small-pox, which first 
 made its appearance in the month of May, 1853, and 
 spread with such fatal malignity throughout the group 
 as to carry off nearly 8000 victims, the trade of that 
 year was languid ; the marlcets were overstocked, and 
 prices were, consequently, low and unremunerative. 
 
 The retail trade, especially, shared in this general 
 stagnation. The whaling fleet of 1853 was about equal 
 to that of 1852, though, generally, the results of the 
 latter year were not equal to those of the former. The 
 average catch of the Ochotsk fleet was over 1600 bar- 
 rels, while in the Arctic seas the yield did not average 
 more than 680 barrels. Freights also ruled low, and 
 the demands for the productions of the islands for the 
 markets of California were small, owing chiefly to the 
 fact that the almost nominal difference in prices be- 
 tween the two places precluded all hope of realizing 
 any profits after the payment of duties. 
 
 Tlie following summarj' of the recent commerce of 
 the Sandwich Islands has been compiled from the latest 
 and most authentic sources : 
 
 The total amount of imports for 1853 exceeded those 
 of 1852 by $522,082 64. From the United States they 
 amounted to $954,919 93, being more than three-fourths 
 of the whole amount imported. The imports for four 
 years, from 1850 to 1853, both inclusive, were as fol- 
 lows : 
 
 1850 $1,085,055 70 
 
 18.51 ],8'28,821 68 
 
 1852 759,868 54 
 
 1863 1,231,951 IS 
 
 Giving an average for the four j-ears of $1,225,175 02. 
 The amount of imports for 1853 exceeded the aver- 
 age of the past four years by $56,776 16. 
 
 COMP.VEISON FOR FOUR YEAR?. 
 
 Foreign Espoets, 
 
 1850 $46,539 72 
 
 1851 881,402 66 
 
 1862 881,143 51 
 
 1853 191,897 66 
 
 DOMEBTio Exports. 
 1860 $596,522 03 
 
 1851 309,828 94 
 
 1852 257,251 69 
 
 IS5?,'.'.'.'. 276,374 17 
 
 The revenue derived from imports was as follows : 
 
 In 1850 $121,500 73 
 
 JnlS51 160,002 19 
 
 In 18.53 113,091 93 
 
 In 1863 155,640 17 
 
 The arrivals were as follows : 
 
 In 1850.. 
 
 . Merchant vessels, 469 
 
 Whale ships, 237 
 
 In 1681. . 
 
 . " " '446 
 
 ■' " 135 
 
 In 1853.. 
 
 285 
 
 '• 519 
 
 In 1353. 
 
 " " 194 
 
 " •■ B35 
 
 The following summary exhibits the general com- 
 merce of the Sandwich Islands during the year 1854, 
 as condensed from the report of the collector general 
 of customs : 
 
 Total value of imports $1,396,786 24 
 
 " " exports 685,122 67 
 
 Excess of imports over exports 811,663 57 
 
 Of the imports, there were from 
 
 The United States, Atlantic side $503,506 89 
 
 Pacificside 348,916 55 
 
 Germany 
 
 Great Britain . 
 
 Australia 
 
 China 
 
 Vancouver's Island . 
 
 Tahiti 
 
 Callao 
 
 Imported free of duty 
 
 Goods entered in bond . . .$219,740 03 
 
 Goods withdraivn from bond for con- 
 sumption 
 
 Imports at Lahaina $42,277 79 
 
 " Hilo 6,258 49 
 
 " Kawaihae 912 16 
 
 " Kealakeakua . . 687 84 
 
 198,488 57 
 
 68,578 73 
 
 56,635 19 
 
 63,412 11 
 
 22,659 OT 
 
 8,167 60 
 
 4,467 60 
 
 192 00 
 
 $1,265,022 71 
 
 55,938 69 
 
 25,688 56 
 
 50,136 28 
 
 Total $1,3J6,786 24 
 
 Analysts of Espoets. 
 
 Value of foreign goods exported $311,092 97 
 
 " domestic products, $121,064 70 
 Value furnished as supplies, 163,975 00 
 
 274,029 70 
 
 Total $535,122 67 
 
 Statement suowino the pkincipal Exports in 1854 com- 
 pared WITH those op 1853. 
 
 Exports 
 
 Sugar pounds 
 
 Sirup gallons 
 
 Molasses " 
 
 Salt barrels 
 
 Coffee pounds 
 
 Hides pieces 
 
 Goat skins .... " 
 
 Tallow pounds 
 
 Arrow-root .... " 
 
 684,955 
 18,244 
 58,448 
 3,509 
 60,606 
 1,741 
 6,600 
 16,452 
 
 1854. 
 
 581,777 
 28,613 
 41,879 
 
 5,041 
 91,090 
 
 3,006 
 16.890 
 15,405 
 
 6,166 
 
 10,269 
 
 i,533 
 40,584 
 
 1,265 
 11,290 
 
 6,'l66 
 
 Decrease. 
 
 53,178 
 16,669 
 
 1,047 
 
 Statement op tub Quantities op Oil and Bone tran- 
 shipped IN 1854. 
 
 To what Country | Season 
 
 Sperm Oil. 
 
 Whale Oil. 1 Bone | 
 
 United States . . 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Havre 
 
 Spring.. 
 Fall .... 
 
 GaUons 
 49,861 
 60,449 
 46,674 
 
 GaUons. 
 
 257,360 
 
 1,268.365 
 
 104,760 
 
 10,244 
 
 25,172 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 28,765 
 
 752,339 
 
 654,241 
 
 26,288 
 
 46,810 
 
 Total 
 
 
 156,484 
 
 1,666,921 
 
 1,508,443 
 
 The total number of vessels of war at Honolulu dur- 
 ing 1854 was 25, carrying an aggregate of 675 guns ; 
 of which number 6 were American, 9 British, and 7 
 French. 
 
 Of merchant vessels at the Hawaiian Islands during 
 the year 1854, the total number was 148, measuring in 
 the aggregate 47,288 tons ; of which there were, 
 
 American, 103— measuring 38.442 tons. 
 
 British, 17— " 4,788 " 
 
 The total number of whaling vessels at the ports of 
 the Hawaiian Islands during 1854 was 565 ; of which 
 there were American 534, Bremen 8, and French 22. 
 
 The returns from the port of Hilo for the year 1851 
 exhibit the following commercial movement : 
 
 Total value of imports $11,431 53 
 
 Value of exports, domestic produce $3,323 31 
 
 Furnished as supplies to 82 whalers at 
 
 an overcharge of $2 25 each 18,450 00 
 
 22,273 31 
 
 The transhipments from the port of Hilo during the 
 year were as follows ; 
 
 Sperm oil 20,806 gallons. 
 
 ■Whaleoil 114,263 " 
 
 Whalebone 92,974 pounds. 
 
 Whaling vessels at the port of Hilo in 1854 : 
 
 American, 80 vessels — measuring 29,898 tons. 
 
 French, _2 " " 1,014 " 
 
 Total.. 82 " " 30,912 " 
 
SAN 
 
 1677 
 
 SAN 
 
 The following condensed tabular statement, made 
 up from reliable sources, exhibits the general, trade of 
 the Sandwich Islands from 1852 to 1855, distinguishing 
 imports from the United States from those from other 
 countries : 
 
 Yean. 
 
 Value of Imporfa. 
 
 Value or 
 Exporte. 
 
 From all 
 CouDtriea. 
 
 Prom United 
 States. 
 
 18.52 
 
 $759,869 
 1,281,951 
 1,396,787 
 1,306,356 
 
 $411,488 
 964,919 
 
 1,023,851 
 799,574 
 
 $638,395 
 466,772 
 685,123 
 572,602 
 
 1863 
 
 1854 
 
 1855 
 
 Annual Average .... 
 
 $1,188,241 
 
 $797,458 
 
 $665,723 
 
 According to the returns made to the United States 
 Treasury Department, the total value of exports to 
 the Sandwich Islands for the year ending June 30, 
 1855, was $1,125,622, of which $929,671 was for do- 
 mestic products, and only $195,951 for foreign prod- 
 ucts. From the same authority it appears that the 
 imports into the United States from the Sandwich Isl- 
 ands for the same year amounted to $442,899. The car- 
 rying trade between the two countries is almost exclu- 
 sively in the hands of American shippers. Of the 
 total exports of domestic produce as given above 
 ($929,671), there was borne in United States bottoms 
 $928,458, while there was only $1213 carried under all 
 foreign flags. Of the total tonnage that entered the 
 United States from these islands in 1855' (25,009 tons), 
 24,807 were under the flag of the United States. More 
 than three-fourths of the exports of the Sandwich Isl- 
 ands go to the United States, either on the Atlantic or 
 Pacific side, and the statements already given show 
 the proportion of the imports into the islands from the 
 United States. Of the 468 whalers that touched at 
 the islands in 1855, 436 bore the flag of the United 
 States, 20 were French, and 3 Hawaiian. Of the 158 
 
 merchant vessels that entered the Hawaiian ports the 
 same year, 129 were American, while there were only 
 8 under the British, and 1 under the French flag. 
 Among the latest acts passed by the Hawaiian Legisla- 
 ture relating to commerce, which has been published 
 in the official organ of that government, is one prohib- 
 iting the importation and sale of opium. 
 
 A considerable trade has sprung up between Wash- 
 ington Territorj' and the Sandwich Islands. Four 
 vessels have been for some time regularly and con- 
 stantly engaged in this trade, carrying (especially from 
 Oahu) sugar, coflee, molasses, salt products of the isl- 
 ands, as well as foreign merchandise from the dififerent 
 warehouses; and bringing back, in return, lumber, 
 shingles, ship-timber, spars, salmon, coals, etc. This 
 trade has had the effect of entirely driving from the 
 market the traffic previously carried on by the Hudson 
 Bay Company between Honolulu and Vancouver's Isl- 
 and; "for, although," says a recent British official 
 report on the Sandwich Islands, "Vancouver's Island 
 possesses superior natural advantages over "Washing- 
 ton Territory with respect to her ports and several of 
 her productions, on the other hand, the American set- 
 tlers, not being bound by any conditions that can not 
 be easily fulfilled, their energy and private enterprise 
 are unshackled.'.' 
 
 A steam-n^l, having two engines, one of eighty and 
 the other of forty horse power, has been erected at the 
 mouth of Hood's Canal, and head of the Straits of Fuca, 
 opposite Vancouver's Island, for manufacturing lum- 
 ber, shingles, laths, and planed, grooved, and tongued 
 boards. This mill supplies the Honolulu and the San 
 Francisco markets. Other and similar mills have been 
 put up ; and the business continues profitable, though 
 competition is increasing. For an account of the lum- 
 ber trade via San Francisco, see Sau Francisco. 
 
 C0.MPARATIVB STATEMENT OP TUE COMMBROE OF THE UNITED STATES WITH TUB SaNDWIOII IsLANPB, BXIirUITING THE VaLITE 
 
 OF Exp6rts to AM3 Imports from eaou Country, and tub Tonnage of American and foreign Vessels arriving 
 
 FRO.M AND DEPARTING TO EAOU COUNTRY DURING TUB YEARS DESIGNATED. 
 
 Years. 
 
 COMMKHCE. 
 
 NAVIGATION. 1 
 
 Value of Exports. 
 
 Value d Im 
 porta 
 
 American Tonnage. 
 
 F«-elgn Tonnage . | 
 
 Domestic 
 Produce. 
 
 Foreign 
 Produce, 
 
 Total 
 
 Entered tiie 
 United States. 
 
 Cleared from the 
 United States. 
 
 Entered the 
 United States. 
 
 Cleared from the 
 United States. 
 
 1846 
 
 1846 
 
 1847 
 
 $929J671 
 793,058 
 803,084 
 
 $381 
 
 29;406 
 55,8n 
 195,951 
 126,347 
 144,349 
 
 ' $381 
 
 29',406 
 
 55,891 
 
 1,126,622 
 
 919.405 
 
 947,433 
 
 $1,566 
 
 243,034 
 
 21,039 
 
 6,608 
 
 43,875 
 
 64,474 
 
 16,852 
 
 6,988 
 
 16,576 
 
 119,130 
 
 442,8 9 
 
 249,704 
 
 204,416 
 
 760 
 
 i,4-:8 
 
 3,221 
 9,267 
 18,992 
 12,814 
 18,111 
 22,287 
 24,807 
 17,774 
 16,743 
 
 l',377 
 1,978 
 470 
 3,066 
 31,623 
 36,390 
 13,624 
 20,260 
 19,835 
 19,311 
 17,550 
 16,951 
 
 23i 
 
 4'iE5 
 3,215 
 6,047 
 3,914 
 1,451 
 
 202 
 1,093 
 
 167 
 
 IIJOTO 
 12,008 
 6,073 
 4,118 
 1,417 
 2,200 
 1,817 
 187 
 
 1848 
 
 1S49 
 
 1860 
 
 1851 
 
 1852 
 
 18.53 
 
 1854 
 
 1855 
 
 1856 
 
 1857 
 
 The proportion which the United States had in the 
 total trade of the islands in 1856 is shown by the fol- 
 lowing : 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Total trade $670,824 
 
 With the United States 249,704 
 
 Imports. Total. 
 
 $1,161,422 $1,822,246 
 919,406 1,169,110 
 
 From this exhibit we find that in 1856, 80 per cent, 
 of the imports into the Sandwich Islands were from 
 the United States, and that 37 per cent, of the exports 
 were to the United States. The balance of trade in 
 favor of the United States for the same year was 
 $669,700. 
 
 On the whole, the statistics published for 1856 show 
 t the trade of the islands in a more favorable and healthy 
 condition than those of any previous j-ear since 1850. 
 The number of merchant and whaling vessels visiting 
 the islands during the year has been less, and the im- 
 portations into the islands were $230,000 less, while 
 the exports show an increase of about $100,000 for the 
 year. 
 
 According to the tables published by the Collector 
 General, the importations during 1856 are shown to be 
 $1,151,422 ; the exports at only half that amount, or 
 
 $583,544, omitting the sum of $87,280, which is stated 
 to be the produce of vessels bearing the Hawaiian flag. 
 The total exports appear as $670,824. 
 
 In estimating the "supplies" furnished to whale 
 ships for the year 1855, it is estimated that each whale 
 ship took, on an average, $275 worth of supplies, or 
 island produce. 
 
 In examining the table of domestic exports, it will 
 be observed that the exportation of staple products has 
 not increased rapidly, though the sum total of domes- 
 tics exported in 1856 is much in advance of previous 
 years, excepting only the "potato year," 1850, which 
 apparent increase is owing somewhat to the different 
 estimates of the supplies furnished to whale ships. We 
 give a comparison of some of our staple exports for 
 four years : 
 
 Exports. 
 
 1848. 
 
 18^9. 
 
 1855, 
 
 1856, 
 
 Gals, of molasses and Birup 
 
 28,978 
 
 499,533 
 
 58,065 
 
 41,235 
 653,820 
 28,231 
 50,000 
 31,488 
 
 38,304 
 289,908 
 77,616 
 26,000 
 lo.q.Tnn 
 
 68,802 
 554,805 
 
 63,633 
 175,000 
 
 70,914 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The domestic consumpt 
 
 ion of s 
 
 ugar af 
 
 well a 
 
 s coffee 
 
SAN 
 
 1678 
 
 SAN 
 
 in the islands lias been greater during tlie past than in 
 former years. It is supposed that the amount of sugar 
 produced the past j'ear is at least 500 tons, about one 
 half of which has been exported. Of coffee the prod- 
 uce has been not less than 300,000 lbs. Only a small 
 portion appears above as having been exported. But 
 of both sugar and coffee the whaling fleet will yearly 
 require larger supplies, as they leave home with smaller 
 
 stoeks,' owing to the high rates these articles command 
 in the States. 
 
 The receipts at the customs for 1856 show a falling 
 off of about $35,000 from those of 1855, which is ac- 
 counted for in part by the decrease in the importation 
 of goods ($230,000) and spirits (3600 galls.), and these 
 items show about the same falling off as the number of 
 whaling and merchant vessels visiting the group. 
 
 COMPABATITB VlEW 
 
 3F THE Commerce 
 
 OF TnK 
 
 Sandwich IslXntis for ten Years, prom 
 
 TUP 
 
 Year 
 
 1847 to 
 
 niE Y'ear 
 
 
 1356, oiviNG THE Totals fob each Year. 
 
 
 Yearg. 
 
 Tolol 
 Importa. 
 
 Total 
 ExporlB. 
 
 Domestic 
 Produce 
 exported 
 
 Foreign 
 Produce 
 exported. 
 
 Total Cus- 
 tom-house 
 -Keceipts 
 
 Oil and Bono transhipped. 
 
 No. of 
 National 
 
 Merchant ,Vo pf 
 
 Gallons of 
 
 Spirits 
 consumed. 
 
 Gal?, of 
 
 Gals- of 
 Whale. 
 
 Pounds of 
 Bone. 
 
 VeR!ie]9. 
 
 entries of 
 Whalers. 
 
 Ves«eJs. 
 
 ■n^ 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 1847. . . . 
 
 $7ln,188 $364,226, $21)9.018 
 
 $55,208 
 
 $48,801 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 75 
 
 
 167 
 
 3,271 
 
 ,1848.... 
 
 605,618 
 
 300,370 
 
 266,819 
 
 33,551 
 
 55,668 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 90 
 
 
 254 
 
 3,443 
 
 1849.... 
 
 729,739 
 
 477,345 
 
 279,743 
 
 108,102 
 
 83,231 
 121,656 
 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 ISO 
 
 . . '. 
 
 274 
 
 5,717 
 
 1350. . . . 
 
 1,035,053 
 
 783,062 
 
 536,622 
 
 246,629 
 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 469 
 
 90,304 
 
 237 
 
 8,252 
 
 1851.... 
 
 1,823,821 
 
 601,231 
 
 309,828 
 
 381,402 
 
 160, 6oa 
 
 1()4,'362 
 
 909,379 
 
 96l,(304 
 
 7 
 
 446 
 
 87,920 
 
 220 
 
 9,500 
 
 1852.... 
 
 751,868 
 
 638,395 
 
 257,251 
 
 351,142 
 
 113,091 
 
 173,490 
 
 1,182,738 
 
 3,169,951 
 
 3 
 
 235 
 
 61,066 
 
 519' 
 
 14,160 
 
 1853 
 
 1,401,975 
 
 472,996 
 
 281,599 
 
 191,397 
 
 1.55,640 
 
 175,396 
 
 3,787,348 
 
 2,020,264 
 
 7 
 
 211 
 
 69,461 
 
 635« 
 
 18,123 
 
 1854. . . . 
 
 1,590,837 
 
 635,122 
 
 274,029 
 
 311,092 
 
 152,126 
 
 156,484 
 
 1,683,922 
 
 1,479,678 
 
 16 
 
 126 
 
 47,288 
 
 525' 
 
 17,037 
 
 1855. . . . 
 
 1,383,169 
 
 572,601 
 
 274,741 
 
 297,869 
 
 158,411 
 
 109,308 
 
 1,436,810 
 
 827,954 
 
 13 
 
 164 
 
 61,304 
 
 46S« 
 
 13,315 
 
 1856. . . . 
 
 1,151,422 
 
 670,824 
 
 466,278 
 
 •204,545 
 
 123,171 
 
 121,294 
 
 1,641,579 
 
 1,074,942 
 
 9 
 
 123 
 
 42,213 
 
 366* 
 
 14,779 
 
 * Thepe figures give the number of different enti'KS of irhalers at the various ports — some of the vessels entering at three, 
 four, and even five poi-ts during the year. The actual number of different whalers during 1856 ivill not exceed 2^^. 
 
 Pcn~ts of Etflry. — The following are the only ports 
 of entry in the Sandwich Islands, viz. : for vessels of 
 all descriptions, Honolulu (Oahu), Lahaina (Maui), 
 Hilo, Kealakeakua, and Kawaihae (Hawaii), and Wai- 
 mea (Kauai) ; and for whalers, and vessels of war only, 
 Hanalei (Kauai). 
 
 Port Charges on Merchant Vessels. — At Honolulu — 
 Tonnage dues, fifteen cents per ton register j pilotage, 
 one dollar per foot each way ; or half-pilotage if no 
 pilot is emplojred; health certificate, one dollar ; buoys, 
 two dollars ; harbor-master, three dollars ; clearance, 
 one dollar ; pilot for anchoring a vessel outside which 
 does not enter the harbor, ten dollars. 
 
 At Lahaina. — Tonnage dues the same as at Hono- 
 lulu ; boarding officers, five dollars ; lights, one dol- 
 lar; canal, if used, two dollars ; clearance, one dollar. 
 
 At Hilo. — Tonnage dues, pilotage, health certificate, 
 anS clearance, the same as at Honolulu. 
 
 At Kealakeakua. — Tonnage dues the same as at 
 Honolulu ; boarding officer, five dollars ; clearance, 
 one dollar. 
 
 At Kawaihae (Hawaii), and TV'aimea (Kauai), the 
 same as at Kealakeakua. Any vessel, having paid the 
 tonnage dues at one port, complied with all the port 
 regulations, and obtained a clearance from the collect- 
 or, may go to either or all of the other ports of entrjr, 
 without paying any additional tonnage dues during 
 the same voyage. 
 
 Privileges to Whale Ships. — AVhale ships are allowed 
 to land goods to the value of 8200 free of duty, and 
 iiilOOO worth additional, subject to a duty of 5 per 
 cent, ad valorem, without being liable to pay any ton- 
 nage dues ; but if they land more than $1200 worth 
 (including the $200 worth free of duty), they are sub- 
 ject to the same charges and liabilities as merchant 
 vessels. — See "Whale Fisheries. 
 
 Penalties, Restrictions, etc. — Any master of a whale 
 ship who shall fail to produce his permit when called 
 for is liable to a fine of not less than $10, or more than 
 $50, to be imposed by the collector. Any vessel hav- 
 ing cargo on board intended for a foreign port, or spirits 
 in cargo or stores, and touching at a place not a port 
 of entrj-, without a permit from a collector, is liable 
 to pay double tonnage dues. Oil, whalebone, or any 
 other article of merchandise, landed or transhipped 
 without a permit, is liable to seizure or confiscation. 
 Seamen are not allowed to be discharged at any of the 
 ports of these islands, except Honolulu and Lahaina. 
 It is not lawfuWto discharge seamen at any of the ports 
 of the islands without the written consent of the gov- 
 ernor. Honolulu and Lahaina are the only ports at 
 which native seamen are allowed to be shipped, and 
 at these places only with the consent of the governor. 
 
 -~See United States Com. Relations' Stewart's Jour^ 
 nal', Hvst's Merchants' Magazine, xxii. 33, xviii. 316, 
 xxiv. 185 ; North American Review, li. 503, xxvi. 69 
 (EvARTs), Iv.' 193 (E. H. Dana) ; Christian Examiner, 
 xix. 244 ; De Bow's Review, xiii. 457. 
 
 Sandy Hook, Middletown township, Monmouth 
 county. New Jersey, is a sand}' beach extending north 
 from Old Shrewsburj- Inlet and the south point of the 
 Highlands of Navesink, five miles, and is from half a 
 mile to a mile wide. It incloses Sandy Hook Buy 
 The lights are on the north part. The Sandy Hook 
 lights consist of the main light, and two beacons placed 
 in position, for ranges of channels. The main light is 
 in lat. 46° 27' 42" N., long. 73° 59' 48'"' W. from 
 Greenwich, England. 
 
 Light-ship. — A light-ship, painted red, of about 350 
 tons burden, and showing two lights, is anchored off 
 Sandy Hook. The forward light is 30 feet above the 
 deck, and the after one 40 feet. She is also provided 
 with a bell of 800 pounds weight, which will be rung 
 in thick weather. She is placed in 13 fathoms water. 
 Sandy Hook light-house bears from the light-ship west 
 by north, distant G| miles ; Highland light-house, west- 
 southwest, distant 7 miles. 
 
 Highlands of Navesink. — Navesink hills, on which 
 two light-houses are built, extend northwest and south- 
 east, about southwest from Sandy Hook, on the At- 
 lantic Ocean to Raritan Bay. The correct altitudes 
 of the following places, which present themselves to 
 mariners as they approach them, are : Mount jMitchell, 
 the highest point of Navesink, Monmouth county. New 
 Jersey, 282 feet; Tompkins' Hill, on Staten Island, 
 307 feet ; Hempstead Hill, Queen's county. Long Isl- 
 and, 319 foot. 
 
 Highland Lights. — On the Highlands of Navesink 
 there are two light-houses bearing north 23° W., and 
 south 23° E., from each other distant 100 j-ards. The 
 southern light is a revolving one, on the Presnel plan ; 
 it is 248 feet above the level of the sea. The north- 
 em light is a fixed light, 246 feet 7 inches above the 
 sea. 
 
 Ledge South Sandy Hook. — On this reef there are 
 but 9 feet of water. The northern light on the High-, 
 lands, a little open to the eastward of the southern one, 
 leads right on the reef. This ledge is south half east 
 from Sandy Hook light, 7 miles distant, and about 
 1^ mile from the shore, and on which the &h\^ William 
 Thompson struck. 
 
 Oil jSpof.^East-southeast If mile from Sandy Hook 
 light is the Oil Spot, having only 10 feet of water in 
 one spot at low water. It is of a triangular shape, 
 and about half a mile on each side in extent. The 
 along-shore channel is inside of it. 
 
SAN 
 
 1«79 
 
 SAN 
 
 False Hooh. — IJ mile east, a little nortlierly, from 
 Sandy Hook light, tliere is a small elioal spot, with 
 only 12 feet water upon It at low water. It is the re- 
 mains of the old False Hook. 
 
 New Yorh Harbor. — There are four channels over 
 New York bar. The first is that along and parallel 
 to the Jersey shore, inside of the Outer Middle. ' The 
 second is the South Channel, between the Black Can 
 Buoy, No. l.and the Ked Can Buoy, No. 2. . The third 
 is the Main Ship-channel, between the Ked Can Buoy, 
 No. 2, and the Black Nun Buoy, No. 1. The fourth is 
 Gedney's Channel, between the Black Nun Buoy, No.' 
 1, and the Bed Nun Buoy, No. 2. This channel runs 
 west by north, and is used by our largest class ships of 
 war..7-BLnNT's Coast Pilot. 
 
 During the .year 1857 tlie west beacon at Sandy 
 Hook, the foundation of which had been undermined 
 by the sea, was removed to a secure position by order 
 of the Light-house Board, a new screen erected, and 
 the main light-house fitted with a' new lantern and a 
 third order lens. Gedney's Channel into New York 
 Bay having two feet more water tlian the old channels, 
 was unknown until a' few years since. The knowledge 
 of this channel is owing to the operations of the Coast 
 Survey. Had the true depth of this channel been 
 Imown in 1778, the French fleet under Count D'Estaingi 
 would have passed into the bay and taken the assem- 
 bled British naval force. — Coast Survey Report,- 1854 ; 
 Light-house^ Report, 1857. 
 
 Saijt Francisco, a city, and sea-port of the United 
 States, in California, on the south promontory, divid- 
 ing the great bay of San Francisco from the Pacific, 
 inside the bay, and a short way to the south, of its en- 
 trance. The latter, now called the Golden Gate, little 
 more than a mile in width, has on its south side an 
 old Spanish fort, oi presidio, in lat. 37° 48' 30" N., 
 long. 122° 27' 23" W. Having passed the fort, the 
 course to the town is nearly east from three to four 
 miles, and then south and west about as much more. 
 The city is situated at the bottom of a bay, skirted by 
 extensive flats, some of which are now being formed 
 into docks. Its growth has been quite extraordinary. 
 In the early part of 1848 it consisted only of a few rude 
 cabins ; whereas it has now an exchange, a theatre, a 
 custom-house; sundry churches and other public fiuild- 
 ings, with great number?, of private houses, many of 
 which are of wood, but many also of adobe (sun-dried) 
 and burned bricks, with a vast number of attached tents 
 and booths. And while such is the metamorphosis on 
 shore, her waters, which were formerly quite deserted, 
 are crowded with ships and steamers from all parts of 
 the world ! San Francisco is indebted, as cverj' one 
 knows, for this all but miraculous transformation to 
 the discovery of gold deposits in the beds of the tribu- 
 taries of the San Joaquin and Sacramento rivers, which 
 fall into her baj', and in the quartz of the contiguous 
 mountains. Such, however, are the advantages of her 
 situation, and the fertilitj' of the adjacent country, that 
 the exhaustion of the gold deposits, though it might 
 check for a while, would not permanently afiect the 
 growth of the city, or the extent of her trade. To ob- 
 viate the shallowness of the water close to the town, 
 a wharf 2300 feet in length has already been projected 
 into the bay, and to it all sorts of vessels are safelj' 
 moored, The construction of extensive docks has also 
 been commenced ; and every effort is being made to 
 provide the accommodation necessary for the' rapidly 
 increasing trade of the town. 
 
 San Francisco stands on a sandy level ; and during 
 the wet season, when it is most crowded, the streets 
 were at first mere puddles, into which carriages sunk 
 to the axles ; while in the dry season the annoyance 
 from dust was all but intolerable. But these incon- 
 veniences have been to a great extent obviated by 
 flooring the streets, or covering them with stout planks, 
 a process which has been carried to a great extent, and 
 has had the most complete success The city has suf- 
 
 fered much from fires, by which, indeed, it has repeat- 
 edly been laid waste. These, however, have been 
 speedily repaired ; and in a few weeks no traces are 
 seen of the most destructive conflagrations. Accord- 
 ing, however, as hfauses of brick or stone are substitu- 
 ted for those of wood and for tents, fires will become 
 less frequent and less destructive. .' , 
 
 The population of San Francisco is the most motley 
 that can be imagined ; for, though Americans predom- 
 inate, a large admixture is to be seen of adventurers 
 from all parts of the world. Gambling is veiy prev- 
 alent; and is, pethaps, carried on to a greater extent 
 here, during therainy season, than in any other place 
 either of the New or the Old World. But this is the 
 natural result of the circumstances under which the 
 population has been brought together ; ■ and the pas- 
 sion will no doubt abate as the circumstances in which 
 it originated change or lose their influence. Lynch- 
 law has been here reduced to a system, and carried to 
 a, greater extent than any where else ; and, despite the 
 gross abuses to which it unavoidably leads', it is the 
 general opinion that it could not have been dispensed 
 with. A sense of its necessity has led, not only to its 
 being adopted, but to it? being generally approved. 
 
 Nowhere in the world is there so great a disparity 
 between the sexes as in San Francisco, there being at 
 Ifeast from three to five men for one woman. But this 
 disparitj' is gradually lessening, and with it some of 
 the worst features in the present<;ondition of the popu- 
 lation. The population Of the city differs widely at 
 different periods, being crowded in thp wet, and com- 
 paratively deserted in the dry season. Though bj' far 
 the largest and most important town in the State, it is 
 not its capital. That distinction has been conferred 
 qn San Jose in consequence of its more central situa- 
 tion. 
 
 The Bay of San Francisco," though, as already stated, 
 it bas a narrow entrance, expands within into one of 
 the noblest basins that is an}' where to be met with, 
 having a coast line 'Of about 275 miles. The town has 
 already become the seat of a very extensive trade.and 
 will most likely be the grand emporium of the vast 
 territory belonging to the United States on the Pa- 
 cific. The trade with China, Australia, the Eastern 
 Archipelago, and the Polynesian Islands, is even now 
 very extensive, and several ships have^ been fitted out 
 for the whale-fisherj'. At present, however, the prin- 
 cipal trade of the city is with Panama on the one hand, 
 and Oregon on the other ; bringing immigrants and 
 all sorts of manufactured goods from the former, and 
 com and other raw produce from the latter. But she 
 has also an extensive trade with Chili, the eastern por- 
 tion of the United States, and with Europe by Cape 
 Horn. The importation of many sorts of products has 
 been completely overdone, and some varieties of manu- 
 factured goods might, in 1853 and 1854, be bought in 
 San Francisco as cheap as in Liverpool or Havre. 
 This, however, is a species of miscalculation incident 
 to the opening of all new markets, and will speedily 
 correct itself. Gold bullion, with small but increasing 
 quantities of quicksilver, and hides, have hitherto been 
 the all but exclusive articles of export. 
 
 The subjoined tabular form gives at a comprehen- 
 sive glance the amounts of the assessments, together 
 with the rates of taxation of the city and county of 
 San Francisco, for eight fiscal years, since the first or- 
 ganization of the local government, viz. ; 
 
 Fiscal 
 years.. 
 
 Rate of 
 Taxalion 
 percent. 
 
 Amount of Assessments. | 
 
 Real 
 Estate. 
 
 Improve- 
 ments. 
 
 Personal 
 Property. 
 
 Yearlv 
 Totaf. 
 
 1850-'51 
 1851-'52 
 1852-'5S 
 1853-'54 
 lS54-'65 
 lS55-'50 
 1856-'57 
 1857-'5S 
 
 DJs. CU. 
 
 2 00 
 4 10 
 4 41 
 
 3 8Si 
 3 85} 
 3 85i 
 2 30 
 2 30 
 
 Dollars. 
 16,849,054 
 11,141,463 
 15,676,356 
 17,889,850 
 19,765,285 
 18,6117,800 
 17,827,617 
 16,106,890 
 
 Dollars. 
 InpeTB'al 
 
 ditto 
 
 ditto 
 6,153,800 
 9,159,935 
 8,394,926 
 8,346,667 
 7,814,920 
 
 Dollars. ' 
 
 4,772,160 
 2,875,440 
 2,805,381 
 4,852,000 
 5,837,607 
 5,073,847 
 4,194,970 
 15,784,295 
 
 Dollars. • 
 21,621,214 
 14,016,903 
 18,481,737 
 28,900,160 
 34,762,827 
 32,076,572 
 30,868,264 
 39,706,106 
 
SAN 
 
 1680 
 
 SAN 
 
 Statement op tiie Nttmuer op Passengeeb bv Sea abriv- 
 
 ING at AK1> departing PROM THE PORT OF SaN PkANOISOO 
 DURING THE YeAR 1856. 
 
 Arrivals, Year 1856. 
 
 From 
 
 Mm, 
 
 Women. 
 
 children. 
 
 Totnl. 
 
 
 11,265 
 
 3,144 
 
 28 
 
 6,319 
 
 13 
 
 106 
 
 ISO 
 
 7 
 
 46 
 
 413 
 
 13 
 
 188 
 
 161 
 
 45 
 
 62 
 
 4026 
 883 
 11 
 19 
 11 
 22 
 65 
 2 
 18 
 72 
 
 "sT 
 
 63 
 
 1 
 
 14 
 
 1942 
 121 
 
 "s 
 
 ■"4 
 
 1 
 3 
 
 17,233 • 
 
 4,143 
 
 39 
 
 5,338 
 
 24 
 
 131 
 
 195 
 
 9 
 
 64 
 
 489 
 
 13 
 
 225 
 
 231 
 
 47 
 
 79 
 
 Saujuan 
 
 United States ports direct 
 China 
 
 
 
 
 Peru 
 
 Chili . .1 
 
 Sandwich Islands 
 
 Other Pacific Islands 
 
 
 Russian Poss., N. W. Coast 
 
 
 20,940 
 
 5244 
 
 2081 
 
 28,265 
 
 
 Departures, Year 1856. 
 
 For 
 
 Men. 
 
 Women 
 
 Children 
 
 Total 
 
 fanama. . , , 
 
 11,266 
 
 4,849 
 
 10 
 
 212 
 
 IT 
 
 3,214 
 
 129 
 
 412 
 
 479 
 
 232 
 
 33 
 
 762 
 
 268 
 
 4 
 
 34 
 
 a 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 75 
 
 121 
 
 60 
 
 5 
 
 46!) 
 193 
 
 ■"'3 
 
 12,468 
 
 5,310 
 
 14 
 
 243 
 
 20 
 
 3,223 
 
 136 
 
 487 
 
 600 
 
 352 
 
 44 
 
 United States ports direct 
 
 >'andwich Islands 
 
 Other Pacific Islands 
 
 China 
 
 Peru 
 
 Australia 
 
 Chili 
 
 Total 
 
 20,909 
 
 1348 
 
 646 
 
 22,903 
 
 Recapitulation, Year 1856. 
 
 1 Men. 
 
 Women. 
 
 Children 
 
 Total 
 
 Total arrivals :20,940 
 
 Total departures 20,903 
 
 6244 
 1343 
 
 2081 
 646 
 
 28,265 
 22,908 
 
 
 Excess of arrivals 31 
 
 3896 
 
 1435 
 
 5,362 
 
 Showing a net gain of population from arrivals by 
 sea, during the year 1866, of 5362 souls. This is a 
 very unfavorable exhibit, and we regret to make it 
 public. During the last six months of the year the de- 
 partures were 927 souls in excess of the arrivals. It 
 is, however, the class of population that we are losing 
 which is the worst feature. During the last half of 
 1866, the departures of male adults for the Atlantic 
 States were 2534 in excess of the arrivals. 
 
 The population has received a strong reinforcement 
 during the past year by immigration over the plains. 
 Earlj' in the season exaggerated estimates were made 
 of the extent of this immigration, as well as of the 
 quantity of stock that would be driven over; but we do 
 not overestimate the number when we say that fully 
 8000 persons were added to the permanent population 
 of the State by the Overland route during the past year, 
 and that they brought with them 25,000 to 30,000 head 
 of horned cattle. This is the character of population 
 that the State needs, and if Congress would authorize 
 the construction of a wagon road over the plains, we 
 should see 50,000 people annually leaving the Valley 
 of the Mississippi to make their homes on the Pacific 
 slope of the Kocky Mountains. As matters are now, 
 with virtually but one line of communication with the 
 Atlantic coast, we need indulge in no brilliant hopes of 
 the advancement of California in population of the right 
 stamp. — San Francisco Price Current. 
 
 Since the preceding was written. Congress passed an 
 act under date Februar}' 17, 1857, entitled " An Act 
 for the construction of a wagon road from Fort Kear- 
 ney, via the South Pass of the Kocky Mountains and 
 Great Salt Lake Valley, to the eastern portion of the 
 State of California ;" 2. For a road from' El Paso, on 
 the P.io Grande, to Fort Yuma, at the mouth of the Gila ; 
 3. For a road from Fort Defiance, in New Mexico, to 
 the Colorado. 
 
 The following table will show the excess of arrivals 
 over departures, and also those which have gained dur- 
 ing the year 1856, together with the amounts of our 
 gain and loss : 
 
 Aerivals at Panama. 
 
 LOM. 
 
 Gain. 
 4765 
 
 
 1162 
 
 
 China . . 
 
 2116 
 
 
 
 240 
 
 
 7 
 288 
 369 
 
 
 Chili 
 
 
 
 
 
 131 
 
 
 
 1'.5 
 
 Australia 
 
 262 
 '127 
 
 
 United States porta direct 
 
 Peru 
 
 25 
 
 
 24 
 
 Other ports 
 
 
 82 
 
 Total 
 
 2215 
 
 7577 
 
 Balance in favor of California 
 
 536 
 
 Export op QumKsiLVBB 
 To Mexico 
 
 
 Flneks. 
 8613 
 
 To China 
 
 
 . 1181 
 
 To Xew York 
 
 1500 
 
 To Peru 
 
 
 . 1667 
 
 Of the exports in 1856, 13,541 flasks were destined 
 to Mexico ; 4526 flasks to Peru ; 3009 flasks to China ; 
 2414 flasks to New York ; and 260 flasks to Australia. 
 The total value exported, according to the custom- 
 house books, was $883,185. 
 
 Operations ok the United States Beanch Mint at San 
 Feancisco PuaiNG the Year 1856. 
 
 Depoaita. 
 
 Gold, ounces 1,64.5,666 50 
 
 Silver, " 63,878 68 
 
 Coinage 
 
 Gold coin $26,146,400 00 
 
 Goldbars 3,047,00130 
 
 Gold bars, refined 122,130 65 
 
 Silver coin 184,000 00 
 
 Silver bars 26,343 30 
 
 Total coinage $26,624,881 25 
 
 Exports of Treasure. — Statement of the amount and 
 
 destination of treasure exported from San Francisco 
 
 during the year 1856. 
 
 To New Y'ork $39,765,294 
 
 To England 8,666,289 
 
 1,308,86 
 
 253,268 
 
 241,460 
 
 138,266 
 
 130,000 
 
 6'',7.50 
 
 56,518 
 
 47,0.50 
 
 11,838 
 
 9,000 
 
 . 5,300 
 
 $50,6'.I7,434 
 
 45,182,631 
 
 To China. 
 
 To Panama 
 
 To Sandwich Islands 
 
 To Manilla 
 
 To New Orleans 
 
 To Peru 
 
 To Australia 
 
 To Calcutta , 
 
 To Chili 
 
 To Costa Rica 
 
 To Society Islands 
 
 Total shipments of treasure in 1856. 
 " " " 1865. 
 
 Increase in 1856 $5,514,803 
 
 GoLB Product of Califoenia, 1866.— Actual Shipments 
 FROM San Francisco. 
 To New York and New Orleans, for Atlantic 
 
 States $33,8"5,264 
 
 To England direct 8,666,289 
 
 ToChina $1,308,852 
 
 Less Jlexican coin Included . . 1,000,000 
 
 308,852 
 
 Other foreign ports 824,029 
 
 Total manifested $43,694,434 
 
 Atlantic passengers estimated 3,'.''S i,526 
 
 Coined at Branch Mint $26,146,400 
 
 Of which included in shipments 17,000,000 
 
 8,146,490 
 
 Total estimated production of gold $61,830,360 
 
 Comparative Product for three Years. 
 
 
 1854. 
 
 1855. 
 
 1856. \ 
 
 
 $46,289,649 
 5,139,452 
 4,628,964 
 4,084,207 
 
 $38,730,564 
 5,909,526 
 3,873,056 
 17,538,300 
 
 $3:1,896,2641 
 
 England and foreign . . 
 
 Atlantic pa?senger8 . . . 
 
 Coined at Branch Mint 
 
 Total 
 
 9,799,170 
 3,r81,526l 
 26,140,400; 
 
 $60,142,272 
 2,500,000 
 
 $66,111,446 $78,830,360 
 8,000,000| 17,000,000 
 
 Less Brit, coin shipped 
 Estimated production 
 
 $57,742,272 
 
 $58,111,446 t61,830,360 
 
 Of the annual product of the gold mines and placers 
 of the State, it is difficult, also, to speak with any posi- 
 tive degree of accuracy. In the fire of May, 1851, al- 
 most the entire records of the custom-house were de- 
 stroj'e J, together with a vast quantity of the books and 
 papers of mercantile houses, so that we can only state 
 
SAJJ 
 
 1681 
 
 SAN 
 
 the recorded amonnts exported by the mail steamers 
 and other vessels since that epoch, which were as fol- 
 lows, according to official data : 
 
 jESTIMAXED PEODrCE OF THE MiNES OP Cai.TTORNIA SINCE 
 
 THEiE Discovery. 
 
 Previously to 1851, assumed from atatis- 
 
 tica of the United States Mint $63,915,000 
 
 1851 45,089,000 
 
 1852 46,779,000 
 
 1853 04,965,000 
 
 1854 61,429,000 
 
 1865 45,183,000 
 
 1866 50,697,000 
 
 1857 60,043,000 
 
 Add probable amount in hands of passen- 
 gers, 6 years, $10,000,000 per annum. 60,000,000 
 Total $468,000,000 
 
 In the foregoing estimate no account is taken of the 
 amount of uncoined gold in the hands of miners, or ly- 
 ing on general deposit with the various express agents 
 and bankers It is the opinion of those who have made 
 inquiries on the subject, that the amount thus retained 
 in the country is fully up to three millions of dollars. 
 Nor is the amount shipped by sailing vessels included, 
 an omission caused by our inability to ascertain the 
 proportion which dust bears to coin in such shipments. 
 The shipments of treasure to China, Manilla, Calcutta, 
 Valparaiso, and Honolulu, the present year, amount to 
 about $853,000. 
 
 It would be a, difficult task to ascertain the total 
 value of foreign goods imported and consumed in this 
 region, as a great part are previously imported at the 
 eastward, and do not require to be specifically entered 
 in cur custom-house. In stating, therefore, the aniount 
 of cur direct importation of foreign goods, for the year 
 ending the 1st of October last, at 9^7,490,000, we merelj' 
 do so en passant, without reference to the actual con- 
 sumption. If wo were to form an opinion of our im- 
 ports from the amount of our annual exports, both of 
 produce and gold, we should say that the former would 
 amount to at least $36,000,000, which forms nearly the 
 whole basis of our trade. 
 
 The following is a comparative statement of the ex- 
 ports from San Francisco for the years 1855 and 1856 : 
 
 IS.1S. 1856. 
 
 Treasure : $45, 182,631 $60,637,434 
 
 Foreign merchandise, produce, and 
 quicksilver 4,189,611 4,270,515 
 
 TotaL $45,372,242 $64,967,949 
 
 In estimating, as we have done, the imports at only 
 $36,000,000, or two-thirds the amount of our exporta- 
 tions, we presume the remaining $18,000,000 to have 
 been absorbed by the rents and other revenues of ab- 
 sentees ; by the interest on foreign capital ; and hy the 
 remittances of miners and others to their absent fam- 
 ilies, as well as those of others whose entire earnings 
 are sent out of the country. These are mere specula- 
 tive views and opinions, but, in the absence of positive 
 data, they may not be deemed unworthy of applica/- 
 tiou. — iSan Francisco Price Current. 
 
 Value of Expoets otoee than TBEAsnEB prom San Pean- 
 cjsco nvRiKc THE Year ENi>iNa December 3J, 1856, 
 
 Australia ,\ $1,123,367 
 
 New York 1,113,500 
 
 Mexico , 781,059 
 
 Peril 337,692 
 
 Sandwich Islands 249,302 
 
 China 239,941 
 
 Russian Possessions 127,910 
 
 l^bili 116.787 
 
 Society Islands 61'819 
 
 New Granada 43,126 
 
 Porta in the Pacific , 36,463 
 
 Vancouver's Island 23,376 
 
 Costa Rica. , 13,000 
 
 East Indies 2 750 
 
 Nicaragua 2J43O 
 
 Total exportation in 1856 $4,270,514 
 
 " " 1656 4,877,619 
 
 Excess in favor of 1355 $417,005 
 
 The exports of lumber in 1856 were 8,900,000 feet. 
 50 
 
 ExpOBTS osr Domestic Produce foe the Yeae ekdinq De- 
 
 iiiaiiiEE 31, 1856. 
 
 Floce. 
 
 Whithor exported. 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 Coses. 
 
 Hf. Sacks. 
 
 Qr. Sacks. 
 
 
 23U8 
 
 60 
 
 1205 
 
 
 
 "36 
 
 3290 
 1396 
 
 1000. 
 
 1186 
 50 
 100 
 
 237,434 
 
 4,000 
 
 7,202 
 
 1,980 
 
 6,826 
 
 162 
 
 40 
 
 30 
 
 2,570 
 
 880 
 
 
 China 
 
 Callao 
 
 
 .161 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Russian PossesBions . . , , ■ 
 
 . 25 
 70 
 101 
 
 Tahiti 
 
 Vancouver's Island 
 
 Total 
 
 3920 
 
 327 
 
 7021 
 
 260,114 
 
 Wheat . . 
 Barley . , 
 Oats 
 
 Gritts. . . . 
 Potatoes . 
 
 , .bags 4,433 
 . " 4,763 
 . " 13,332 
 .bbla. 5,330 
 .bags 132 
 
 Business done at tub Custom-hoobb op San Feamcisco 
 DURING the Yeae ending September 30, 1856. 
 
 
 Value. 
 
 Duties 
 
 Merchandise in bond on 1st Oct., 1856 
 Received in warehouse imported from 
 
 $828,094 
 1,400,995 
 
 423,736 
 
 $346,042 
 610,651 
 
 173,002 
 
 Do. transported in bond from the porta 
 of New York, Boston, Philadelphia, 
 and New Orleans 
 
 Withdrawn from warehouse for con- 
 
 $2,6511,825 
 
 $1,404,190 
 425,512 
 
 88,654 
 
 784,4*6 
 
 $4,029,696 
 
 $502,183 
 114,319 
 
 8,090 
 
 315,102 
 
 Do. for exportation to foreign ports . . 
 
 Do. for transportation to the ports of 
 
 New York and Boston 
 
 Remaining in warehouse on the 30th 
 
 Imported from foreign ports, duties 
 
 $2,652,826 
 
 $3,864,243 
 
 1,404,190 
 
 2,221,660 
 
 $1,029,695 
 $1,149,697 
 
 692,183 
 
 ■ 
 
 Withdrawn from warehouse for con- 
 
 " Free" merchandise imported from 
 
 Total value of foreign, merchandise 
 thrown upon the market 
 
 $7,490,088 
 
 Total duties coUected 
 
 $1,741,781 
 
 We copj'- from the 8dn Francisco Price Current the 
 following statistics for the year 1856, to which we add 
 the aggregates for the year 1857 : 
 
 Statement of the Number of Ve88ei.8, with thete Ton- 
 nage, ARRIVING AT AND DEPARTING FROM TIIE PORT OF SAN 
 
 Francisco during tue Year 1856. 
 
 ■ Arrivnla from 
 
 Atlantic domeatic porta 
 
 Pacific domeBtlc porta 
 
 Panama 
 
 China - 
 
 Nicaragua , „ 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 Sandwich Islands 
 
 France 
 
 Mexico , 
 
 Batavia 
 
 Islands in the Pacific 
 
 Rio de Janeiro . . . , 
 
 Russian Fosseasiona, Northwest Coast 
 
 Manilla. ,,,...., 
 
 Whaling voyage 
 
 Hamburg . . , , 
 
 Chill 
 
 Peru 
 
 Australia 
 
 British North America 
 
 Japan , 
 
 Vancouver's Island 
 
 Calcutta , 
 
 Costa Rica 
 
 Total. 
 
 No. of 
 Vessels. 
 
 128 
 1034 
 26 
 43 
 13 
 21 
 31 
 18 
 38 
 
 9 
 22 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 12 
 
 7 
 11 
 
 7 
 11 
 
 1 
 
 Tons 
 
 149,370 
 
 138,149 
 
 49.903 
 
 27.110 
 
 16.574 
 
 11,729 
 
 6.633 
 
 7,619 
 
 6,631 
 
 3,401 
 
 2,622 
 
 2,049 
 
 2,527 
 
 2,031 
 
 2.879 
 
 2,815 
 
 3,985 
 
 879 
 
 3,375 
 
 537 
 
 300 
 
 278 
 
 5ST 
 
 182 
 
 1456 I 441,015 
 
 Eecapitulation foe tub Years 1856-1.S57. 
 
 Vessels. Tons. 
 
 1162 287,519 
 
 109,919 
 
 2,879 
 
 39,698 
 
 American vessels arrived from domestic ports 
 
 " '' '■ foreign ports .. . 168 
 
 " '^ " whaling voyages 12 
 
 Foreign vessels arrived fi-om foreign ports 113 
 
 Total, 1856 1455 
 
 Total, 1S67 1583 
 
 449,015 
 427,566 
 
SAN 
 
 1682 
 
 SAN 
 
 DepaTturee for 
 
 No. of 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Pacific domestic ports . . 
 
 860 
 79 
 69 
 
 26 
 
 27 
 
 14 
 
 19 
 
 42 
 
 29 
 
 43 
 
 9 
 
 T 
 
 18 
 
 21 
 
 3 
 
 15 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 137.456 
 
 72;734 
 
 66,573 
 
 50,627 
 
 25,827 
 
 13,052 
 
 17,620 
 
 15,555 
 
 12,553 
 
 8,878 
 
 4,797 
 
 6,002 
 
 3,855 
 
 8.602 
 
 1,254 
 
 1,971 
 
 638 
 
 S4I 
 
 255 
 
 1,469 
 
 900 
 
 China 
 
 Peru 
 
 
 Calcutta 
 
 
 Manilla 
 
 
 Australia 
 
 Mexico 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 1283 
 
 445.867 
 
 Eecapitclation roK TiiE Yeae 1856. 
 
 American vessels departed for domestic ports . . 
 
 " '■' " foreign pores . . . 
 
 " " " whaling voyages 
 
 Foreign vessels departed for domeytic ports. . . 
 
 " " " foreign ports .... 
 
 Total r283 445,867 
 
 Thij tonnage arriving during the three years below 
 atated was as follows : 
 
 essols. Tons 
 866 143,181 
 283 255,771 
 IS 3,856 
 1- 277 
 
 115 42,783 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Arrived in 1953 1028 653,765 
 
 •■ 1854 620 406,114 
 
 " 1S5B 824 412,088 
 
 The tonnage entering from eastern domestic ports 
 in 1853 was 260,04,5 tons ; in 1854 it was 153,313 tons ; 
 and in 1855, 144,434 tons. The arrivals of the past 
 year from New York are in the proportion of two tons 
 to one from Boston, the actual iigures being 89,951 
 tons from New York against 45,601 tons from Boston. 
 
 The tonnage from all quarters arriving in San Fran- 
 cisco in 1856 comprised 1455 vessels of 440,015 tons 
 against 1520 vessels of 517,919 tons in 1855. The de- 
 crease has been in domestic coast and foreign trade, 
 the tonnage entered from domestic Atlantic ports being 
 somewhat larger than in 1855. The following figures 
 illustrate this : 
 
 Arrived. 
 
 From domestic From dnnie&tLc 
 Atinntjc Ports. Pneific Ports 
 
 Fiom toreign 
 Port.. 
 
 1855 
 
 Tona. 
 147.870 
 149,370 
 
 1S°I°035 
 138,149 
 
 Tons. 
 177,092 
 ]4'l,617 
 
 1856 . 
 
 Increase m 1358.. 
 Decrease in 1856 . 
 
 1,500 
 
 5li4S0 
 
 27,476 
 
 The exports have been upon a larger scale to Aus- 
 tralia in the year 1856 than to any other countrj'. The 
 tonnage movement for three years was as follows : 
 
 1864. 
 
 Entered tons 6,854 
 
 Departed " 10,292 
 
 With the Sandwich Islands the trade for the years 
 1854-'56 was as follows : 
 
 1855 iJ'ee. 
 6,460 3,375 
 16,712 12,558 
 
 1854. 1855 1856 
 
 8,427 10,361 6,683 
 
 8,065 10,948 15,555 
 
 Entered tons 
 
 Departed 
 
 The increase noticeable in the tonnage departing for 
 the islands in 1856 was caused by a larger number of 
 clippers than usual going thither to freight oil home. 
 
 With the other Pacific Islands trade since 1854 has 
 ranged as follows ; 
 
 Entered tons 
 
 Departed '* 
 
 1854. 
 2581 
 2287 
 
 1865. 1856. 
 
 3261 2522 
 2715 1971 
 
 The tonnage movement for the three following years 
 with Mexico was as follows : 
 
 The tonnage entered from domestic Atlantic porta 
 in 1853 was 260,045 tons; in 1854, 153,313 tons, in 
 1865, 147,870 tons ; and in 1856, 149,370 tons. Thus 
 it appears that the imports from thr.t t^uarter have 
 hardly decreased since 1854. The great falling off in 
 trade is more apparent than real, as in the tonnage en- 
 tering in 1855 were included the ocean steamers arriv- 
 ing from Benicia, and in the table of 1856 they are 
 excluded. Undoubtedly, however, the coasting trade 
 has fallen off 20,000 to 30.000 tons, compared with 1855, 
 which is owing to the decreased shipments of lumber 
 from the North. 
 
 The imports this past year from Great Britain ex- 
 hibit a falling off of near 60 per cent, compared with 
 those of 1864. The tonnage entered for four years 
 past was as fi")llows ; 
 
 1853 35,334 tons, j 1855 26,008 tons. 
 
 1854 22,114 " I 1856 11,723 " 
 
 From the continent of Europe there entered in 1855, 
 13,242 tons against 10,434 tons in 1856. 
 
 With China tlie trade shows a considerable increase 
 —the tonnage entered in 1856 being 27,110 tons against 
 17,296 tons in 1855. The clearances to that country 
 have little connection witli trade, and therefore there 
 is no need of making comparisons with previous years. 
 
 Entered tons 
 
 Departed '• 
 
 1S64. 
 
 8977 
 8065 
 
 1865 1856. 
 
 3,459 6531 
 15,870 SS73 
 
 Exports feoji San Fbawcisco fob the Yeae 1S57. 
 
 To 
 
 Treasure. 
 
 MerchandiBo and 
 Produce. 
 
 New York 
 
 $35,287,778 
 
 9.347,748 
 
 2,993,264 
 
 244,000 
 
 410.S29 
 
 278,900 
 
 34.996 
 
 4i;500 
 
 80,303 
 
 32,000 
 
 80.000 
 
 33,479 
 
 105,300 
 
 $2,158,000 
 313,896 
 
 '7^43 
 
 744;665 
 295.200 
 314,604 
 
 167[li93 
 5,419 
 105,162 
 139,700 
 51,576 
 30,141 
 7.086 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Havana 
 
 Chili 
 
 Other ports 
 
 Russian Possessions, America 
 
 Society Islands 
 
 
 San Salvador 
 
 
 $48,976,697 
 
 $4,329,7.58 
 48,976.697 
 
 
 Grand total 
 
 $58,806,455 
 
 IlEOAFITCTLATIOX OF XlIE VALUES OF FbeIGHTS TO SAJ4 FuAN- 
 
 oisco FOB TnE Yeae 185T. 
 
 Freights on cargoes from New York $1,309,244 
 
 " " " Boston 460,T98 
 
 *' " " Philadelphia '22,390 
 
 " " " foreign ports 1,041,23!) 
 
 Total freights for the year $2,842,6T1 
 
 STATFJtfEiJT OF THE ToNNAGE ENTERING THE PORT OF SajS" 
 FeANCIBCO during TIIE F<HRTII QUARTEK OF 185T, AN1> THE 
 
 Totals fou the Year l^iDT. 
 
 Airiyala from 
 
 ALlantic domestic ports 
 
 Pacific domestic ports 
 
 Panama 
 
 San Juan del Sur, Nicaragua, 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 France. 
 
 Hamhurg 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Peru 
 
 Mexico. 
 
 Sandwich Islands 
 
 i^ociety Islands 
 
 Whaling voyages , 
 
 Rio de Janeiro , 
 
 Russian Possesaions in Aroer. , 
 
 Russia in Asia , 
 
 Manilla 
 
 China , 
 
 Batavia 
 
 ^'■ancouve^'s Island 
 
 Siam 
 
 Singapore 
 
 Australia , 
 
 Malaga 
 
 Costa Rica 
 
 Chili 
 
 Calcutta 
 
 Lombock, Dutch East Indies. 
 
 Total . 
 
 18 
 
 312 
 
 5 
 
 'i 
 
 4 
 1 
 
 Tons. 
 
 21,798 
 
 4R,04S 
 
 8J85 
 
 "CIT 
 2,096 
 
 709 
 
 1,804 
 
 1,059 
 14G 
 350 
 980 
 160 
 1.068 
 3,508 
 973 
 452 
 
 1,138 
 
 Vessels. 
 1857. 
 
 90 
 
 1288 
 
 24 
 
 2 
 
 24 
 
 18 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 42 
 
 17 
 
 12 
 
 Tons. 
 1657. 
 
 10!l,52B 
 182,036 
 4C,2liO 
 1.610 
 16,992 
 8,.135 
 8,428 
 
 918 
 
 295 
 6,062 
 3,900 
 1,6^ 
 1,564 
 1,313 
 3,793 
 
 281 
 
 3.390 
 
 28.324 
 
 1,299 
 
 911 
 1,511 
 
 282 
 4,729 
 
 565 
 
 671 
 l..w:i 
 1,090 
 
 428 
 
 427,566 
 
SAN 
 
 1683 
 
 SAN 
 
 Rbcapitulation fob tiie Year 1857. 
 
 Ve^flala. Tona. 
 
 American vesHela arrived from domeatic ports . . 1323 291,561 
 " " " foreign porta. .. 123 
 
 '* " " whaling voyages 8 
 
 Foreign vessels cleared for foreign ports 125 
 
 Total 1583 427,560 
 
 Cleauakoes feom San Francisco for the last Quarter 
 ANB FOR 'XUE Year 1867. 
 
 89,833 
 1,564 
 44,603 
 
 Clenrances fot 
 
 No. <it 
 Veasels. 
 
 Atlantic domestic ports 
 
 Pacific domestic ports 
 
 I'eru 
 
 China 
 
 Whaling voyages 
 
 I'anama , 
 
 San Juan del Sur, Nicaragua . . 
 
 Mexico 
 
 ChUi 
 
 Sandwich Islands 
 
 Society Islands 
 
 Manilla 
 
 East Indies 
 
 Australia 
 
 Russian Possessions in Amer.' . 
 
 Russia in Asia 
 
 Vancouver's Island 
 
 Costa Rica 
 
 Batavia 
 
 San Salvador 
 
 Tehuantepec 
 
 Total 
 
 VeaMl^, 
 ISSY. 
 
 2,933 
 
 8,295 
 6,602 
 
 10,364 
 123 
 
 10,429 
 
 9,'576 
 
 1,076 
 
 930 
 
 313 
 
 i,'i49 
 
 3,959 
 532 
 
 i.'oVs 
 
 I lis 
 
 12 
 
 504 
 
 55 
 
 45 
 
 ■ 9 
 
 23 
 
 4 
 
 63 
 
 24 
 
 21 
 
 13 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 23 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1Q5 |57,473| 843 337. 
 
 ■Tons. 
 1867. 
 
 16,814 
 92,244 
 51,847| 
 38,313 
 
 1,333 
 46,373 
 
 4,430 
 23,977 
 12,466 
 
 6,970 
 
 2,110 
 
 8,839 
 12,170 
 10,188; 
 
 3,103! 
 755 
 
 2,032l 
 713' 
 
 2,346 
 369 
 118 
 
 Tona. 
 108,538 
 182,008 
 1,333 
 
 45.143 
 
 Reoai-itulation fob the Year 1857. 
 
 VpjBSela, 
 
 American vessels clearing lor domeatic ports. . . 516 
 
 " " *' foreign porta. . . . 194 
 
 " *' " whaling voyages. 9 
 
 I oreign vessels clearing for foreign ports 129 
 
 Total , 848 3.S7,022 
 
 The great diacrepapcy between the tonnage arriv- 
 ing from and clearing for domestic Paciiic ports needs 
 explanation. During the last half of the year the de- 
 partures of that class of tonnage in the table above 
 comprise only the small number of vessels which it 
 was necessary to clear at the ouBtom-house, on account 
 of there being foreign goods on board exceeding $400 
 in value. The arrivals, which are correctly stated, 
 are the true index of the domestic coast trade. 
 
 The declared exports of treasure, however, do not 
 by any means comprise the whole amount of the pre- 
 cious metals which annually leave California. Since 
 the great bank failures in 1855, miners who are going 
 to the East prefer carrj'ing their money on their per- 
 sons to trusting to bills of exchange. Incidents con- 
 nected with the loss of the Central America demon- 
 strated that her passengers had with them a very large 
 amount of gold; and those leaving here by every 
 steamer for Panama take away in the aggregate heavy 
 sums, of which no account can be got. But, at a low 
 calculation, ten millions of dollars leave the State an- 
 nually in the hands of passengers by steam and sailing 
 vessels. The entire product yearly of our gold mines 
 can be ascertaii^d only approximately. Persons who 
 lire qualified by position and observation to give the 
 most correct opinion upon the subject place the amount 
 at seventy millions, and this amount is probably 
 rather under than over the mark. 
 
 "We are gratified to state that the value of our ex- 
 ports other than treasure, in 1857, shows an increase, 
 although small, over that of the preceding year — the 
 figures being $4,329,768 in 1857 against |4,270,515 in 
 1856. The great increase is in the exports to New 
 York , which ha ve doubled in value, and the greatest de- 
 crease to Australia, in which the falling off is $809,000. 
 
 The exports of quicksilver In 1857 were as follows : 
 
 To Mexico flasks 14,334 
 
 To New York " 8,.374 
 
 ToChina " 3,554 
 
 ToChUi " IsOOO 
 
 Total " 27,262" 
 
 The exports in the four preceding years were : 
 
 In 1853 flasks 18,800 I In 1S55 flasks 27, 165 
 
 lQl864 ," 20,963 I In 1856 " 23,740 
 
 Tonnage Movement of the Port of San Francisco. — 
 The arrivals from all quarters during the years 1855-'57 
 have been as follows : 
 
 Vessela. Tona. 
 
 1855 1620 517,919 
 
 1856 1455 444,015 
 
 . 1857 1583 427,666 
 
 The tonnage arriving from domestic Aflantic ports 
 during the past year exhibits a large falling off when 
 compared with that of 1856 — that from domestic coast 
 ports an equally large increase, and that from foreign 
 ports a falling off of about 10 per cent, compared with 
 1856. The following are the figures : 
 
 Arrived, 
 
 From domestic 
 Atlantic Ports. 
 
 From domeatic 
 ' Coiwt PorU. 
 
 From foieigfl 
 Porta, 
 
 years. 
 1856 
 
 Tona 
 14'J,370 
 109,525 
 
 Tons. 
 138,1« 
 182,036 
 
 ' Toiia. , 
 134,441 
 
 1S5T 
 
 Decrease ia 1*^57 . . 
 Increase in 1857 . ; 
 
 39,845 
 
 43,887 
 
 15,170 
 
 The tonnage from homo Atlantic ports in 1853 was 
 260,045 tons, being more than two and a half times 
 larger than in 1857 ; the arrivals of 1854, '55, and '5G 
 averaged about 150 000 tons. From Great Britain the 
 tonnage arriving in 1857 was 16,992 tons against 11,729 
 tons in 1856, exhibiting an increase of nearly 50 per 
 cent., but a decrease compared with preceding years. 
 From the continent of Europe there entered in 1857, 
 12,681 tons against 10,434 tons in 1856. "W'ith China 
 the import trade shows a slight falling off com'pared 
 with 1856, the totals being 23,324 tons against 27.110 
 tons. The trade , with Australia, as indicated by the 
 tonnage arriving and departing for the past four years 
 at San Francisco, has been as follows : 
 
 1854. 1855. 1856. 1857 
 
 Entered 6,854 6,460 3,375 4,729 
 
 Departed 10,292 15,712 12,658 10,188 
 
 The arrivals from the Sandwich Islands are the best 
 index of the direct trade with that country (a number 
 of the clearances thence being vessels to freight oil to 
 the Eastern States), and for the last four years have 
 been as follows : 
 
 1854. 
 18D5. 
 
 . tons 3,427 
 . " 10,361 
 
 1856 tons 6,683 
 
 1857 " 3 900 
 
 It will thus be seen that the trade with the islands 
 since 1855 has fallen off nearly two-thirds. In like 
 manner as with the Sandwich Islands, the arrivals 
 from the west coast of Mexico indicate the trade 
 proper between the two countries, and for the past four 
 years have been as follows : 
 
 1854 tons 3977 1 1850 tona .5531 
 
 1855 " 3459 I 1S5T " 6052 
 
 These figures indicate a healthful and gratifying in- 
 crease in the trade with Mexico, which is destined in 
 the future to become of verj- great importance. The ton- 
 nage movement during the past year indicates that the 
 imports from the Eastern States and foreign countries 
 were about 18 per cent, less than in 1856, and although 
 making, as a general thing, a nearer approach than 
 ever before to being adapted to the wants of the mark- 
 et, have j'et in many important respects been of the 
 most excessive character, and have resulted in heavy 
 losses to those interested in them. 
 
 Export Trade of San Francisco. — The prominent 
 item in exports of course Is, and will continue to be 
 for many j'ears, the product of the mines. The ex- 
 ports of treasure in 1857, as compared with those of ^^ 
 the preceding years of which we have any record 
 stands thus -. 
 
 Inie-'-.S $45,182,631 
 
 In 1856 50,691,434 
 
 In 1S57 48,889,68 ) 
 
 In 1851 $.34,492 0110 
 
 In 1862 45,779,000 
 
 In 1853 54,965.000 
 
 In 1854 51,429,000 
 
 The exports in 1857, when compared with those of 
 1856, show a small falling off compared with thosu of 
 1855. There is a large item connected with the ex- 
 ports of last year which in reality has no bearing one 
 way or another on the product of gold in this State. 
 
SAN 
 
 1684 
 
 SAN 
 
 We refer to the shipments of treasure to China and 
 Manilla. In 1857 the exports to those points were 
 $3,272,164, almost wholly made up of doubloons and 
 dollars received from Mexico. San Francisco import- 
 ed in 1857 $3,168,711 in specie, nearly all of which 
 came from Mexico, and went from here to China and 
 the East Indies. More gold every j'ear goes to En- 
 gland direct, and less to New York ; the figures for five 
 years past show the change in this respect ; 
 
 Elxported to Eogland. 
 
 1853 S4,9T8,663 
 
 1854 3,781,080 
 
 E"cported to New York. 
 
 1853 $JT,916,443 
 
 1854 46,289,649 
 
 1865 38,730,564 
 
 1856 39,765,294 
 
 1857 35,287,778 
 
 1855 5,182,156 
 
 1856 8,666,289 
 
 1857 9,347,748 
 
 The Light-house Board Report for 1857 states that 
 ■'the steam tender authorized by Congress in 1856, 
 and built at the Philadelphia navy yard, will reach 
 San Francisco probably early in the year 1858. The 
 presence of this ves.sel will serve the economical pur- 
 pose of transporting supplies, materials, and workmen 
 for building and repairing the light-houses, and also, 
 in case of incursions of the Indians from the British 
 dominions in the Straits ofFiica and vicinity, to pro- 
 tect the keepers and citizens In that quarter against 
 their attacks. Representations have been made that 
 a light is necessary between the bays of Monterey and 
 San Francisco, and one on Mare Island, in San Fran- 
 cisco Bay. The latter is recommended mainly in con- 
 sideration of the difficulties at night in approaching the 
 navy yard and Benicia." 
 
 Port Charges. — Pilotage outside Farralones, $10 ; in- 
 side Farralones, $8 per foot; tonnage dues, 4 cents per 
 ton ; dockage, 3 to 6 cents per ton per day ; stevedore's 
 charges, 76 cents per ton; shipping men, $5 each; bal- 
 last, rough stone, $2 25 per ton ; cobble stone, $2 75 ; 
 sand, $1 50. Water, IJ- cents per gallon. Day labor, 
 $5. Port-warden, $30 to $75. 
 
 Exchanrje. — On Atlantic States, sight, 3 per cent. ; 
 England, sight, — d. at 47d per dollar ; France, sight, 
 4 80 frs. 
 
 Money. — Scarce at 2 to 4 per cent, on good security. 
 Doubloons very scarce, and wanted — 7 per cent, pre- 
 mium. Mexican dollars, do. do. 7 per cent, premium. 
 
 JRate of Interest on Money. — By an act passed March 
 13, 1850, the rate of interest on money was fixed at 10 
 per cent, where there was no special contract; but 
 " parties may agree in writing for the payment of any 
 rate of interest whatever on money due, or to become 
 due on any contract. Any j udgmeat rendered on such 
 contract shall conform thereto, and shall bear the in- 
 terest agreed upon." 
 
 San Francisco (Bay of), California. One of 
 the best harbors of the Pacific Ocean. The entrance is 
 very remarkable, bold, and rocky ; a mile wide and 4 
 miles in length, with deep water and no obstructions. 
 It then expands into an extensive bay, in which lie 
 several islands ; that of San Angelo is the largest and 
 highest, and covered with vegetation to its very top.- 
 The next in size are Yerba Buena and Alcantras. The 
 Bay of San Francisco is 3G miles in length by an aver- 
 age of 6 in width. A large portion of its southern, 
 eastern, and northern shores is bordered by extensive 
 and wide mud-flats, preventing the lauding, at low 
 water, of even a boat ; so much so, that the eastern 
 shore may be said to be inaccessible for a distance of 
 30 miles ; and this impediment prevents it from ever 
 becoming useful, except by the construction of extens- 
 ive artificial works. On the north it is bounded by 
 the Straits of San Pablo, which divide it from the bay 
 of that name. The Bay of San Pablo is nearly circu- 
 lar, about 10 miles in diameter, the largest segment of 
 which is a mud-flat, with but a few feet of water over 
 it. On the east side lies the channel, with a sufficient 
 depth of water for large vessels, leading to the Straits 
 of Karquines, at the mouth of the Sacramento River. 
 On the western side of the Bay of San Francisco, from 
 the Straits of San Pablo, for a distance of 15 miles, 
 
 the country is broken and mountainous, and the shores 
 rocky and indented by small bays. These obstructions 
 reduce this extensive bay very much in size, and it 
 becomes still more so when the safetj' and convenience 
 of vessels is taken into consideration ; indeed, with the 
 deep water, cross-tides, and exposed situations, thei-e 
 are but two safe anchorages, viz., San Francisco and 
 Sausalito. The Bay of San Francisco fias been cele- 
 brated, from the time of its first discovery, as one of 
 the finest in the world, and is justly entitled to that 
 character, even under the seaman's view of a mere 
 harbor. 
 
 San Juan, or St. John (sea-port of Porto Rico). 
 Although possessing a magnificent port, considered 
 one of the best on the island, San Juan is not the first 
 commercial place, as the products exported thence are 
 of a very inferior quality. Of the sugar shipped from 
 this port, as well as from the other ports of the island, 
 the United States receives more than two-thirds of the 
 whole. But a small quantity goes to England, and 
 also, though rarely, to France. From the United 
 States are imported codfish and other salt fish ; salt 
 meat, boards, lumber, hoops, staves, and butter ; from 
 England, boilers for the manufacture of sugar, ma- 
 chinerj'-, small quantities of iron, and heavy supplies of 
 earthen-ware. Spanish vessels take in cargoes at St. 
 Thomas, and discharge at San Juan, thereby avoiding 
 the duty applicable to all vessels from all other adja- 
 cent foreign ports, in the ports of Porto Rico. Gener- 
 ally speaking, the whole island of St. Thomas is but 
 a great entrepot of European and American manufac- 
 tures destined for the markets of Cuba and Porto Rico 
 —a fact shown bj' the large amount of importations 
 from St. Thomas into both these islands. The annual 
 exports from San Juan in 1853 consisted of 11,369,304 
 lbs. of sugar; 5803 hhds. of molasses ; 376 hhds. of 
 rum ; and 910,966 lbs. of coffee. It is to be regretted 
 that the port of San Juan, one of the best and safest of 
 the island, should be kept in so deplorable a condition. 
 Six or seven years ago, a vessel drawing 16 to 18 feet 
 water could take in a full cargo at the wharf; at pres- 
 ent a ship of the same tonnage can receive only three- 
 fourths of her cargo, and is compelled to leave the 
 wharf in order to get into water deep enough to take 
 in the balance. 
 
 San Juan de Nicaragua (pseudo Greytown), u 
 sea-port town of Nicaragua, Central America, at the 
 mouth of the San Juan, in the Caribbean Sea, lat. 10° 
 55' N., long. 83° 43' AV. It is stated to have the best 
 port on this coast between Cape Gracias a Dios and 
 the Boco del Tore, and to be much more healthy than 
 Chagres. It has an export trade in hides, indigo, and 
 coin, brought down the San Juan in boats from Gran- 
 ada. It was almost entirely destroyed by Captain 
 Hollins, in command of the frigate Cyane, July, 1854 
 to obtain redress for an insult to the American envov 
 to Central America. — ^ee Nicaragua. 
 
 San Juan del Sul, a port of Nicaragua, Central 
 America, on the Pacific Ocean, 24 miles southwest from 
 Nicaragua, and the maritime harbor nearest to that 
 city. Lat. 11° 15' 37" N., long. 85° 52' 56" ^^', It 
 has a good (small) harbor, surrounded by high land, 
 except on the southwest by south, where it lies open to 
 the ocean. It is one of the proposed termini of the 
 canal from Lake Nicaragua. 
 
 San Salvador. This is the smallest of the Cen- 
 tral American states, embracing but 7600 square miles, 
 and is separated from Nicaragua by the Bay of Con- 
 chagua. The soil is in many places exceedingly fer- 
 tile, but the country is generally hilly and mountain- 
 ous. Indian corn, cotton, coffee, and various kinds of 
 vegetable produce, are cultivated to some extent. The 
 most important article of cultivation, and, indeed, the 
 chief staple of San Salvador, is indigo, which grows in 
 great perfection and abundance. Near the coast, the 
 lands of -4cajutla and Libertad produce the article 
 known in commerce as the balsam of Peru, of which 
 
SAP 
 
 1685 
 
 SAR 
 
 about 20,000 lbs. is the annual j-ield. The inhabitants 
 display much ingenuity in the manufacture of an arti- 
 cle of female dress, called by the natives relosas, which 
 is much used in Central America and Mexico. San 
 Salvador has a coast line along the Pacific of about 150 
 miles, with the ports of Acajutla and Libertad, and 
 within the Bay of Conchagua the excellent harbor of 
 La Union. Commercial relations between the United 
 States and San Salvador are regulated by treaty of 
 January 2, 1850. This treaty is based upon the prin- 
 ciple of the most favored nation, and stipulates for rec- 
 iprocity of commerce and equality of flag, without any 
 discrimination as respects the origin of cargoes. 
 
 Sapan-Mvood is obtained from a species of the 
 same tree that yields the Brazil-wood (Ccesalpinia So- 
 pan, Linn.). It is a middle-sized forest tree, indigen- 
 ous to Siam, Pegu, the Philippine Islands, etc. It has 
 been employed for dyeing in the greater part of Asia 
 for many - centuries. It found its way into Europe 
 some time before the discovery of America ; and the 
 imports are now very considerable. Its coloring mat- 
 ter differs but little from that of Brazil-wood, but the 
 best sapan-wood does not yield more than half the 
 quantity that may be obtained from an equal weight 
 of Brazil-wood, and the color is not quite so bright. — 
 Banceoft on Colors, vol. ii. p. 329. 
 
 Sapphire (Ger. Sapphir; Du. Saffieirsteen ; Fr. 
 Saphir; It. Zaffiro; Sp. Sajiro, Sajir; Hass/ Jachant ; 
 Lat. Sapphirus), a precious stone in very high esti- 
 mation. Colors blue and red ; also gray, white, green, 
 and yellow. It occurs in blunt-edged pieces, in round- 
 ish pebbles, and crystallized. Varies from transparent 
 to translucent. Befracts double. After diamond, it 
 is the hardest substance in nature. The blue variety, 
 or sapphire, is harder than the ruby, or red variety. 
 Brittle, specific gravity 4 to 4'2. It is found in Bohe- 
 mia, Saxony, France, etc.; but the red sapphire, or 
 Oriental ruby, is not found in any considerable quan- 
 tities any where except in Ava. N-extto diamond, sap- 
 phire is the most valuable of the gems. The white 
 and pale blue varieties, by exposure to heat, become 
 snow-white, and, when cut, exhibit so high a degree 
 of lustre that they are used in place of diamonds. The 
 most highly prized varieties are the crimson and cai-- 
 mine red ; these are the Oriental ruby of the jeweler ; 
 the next is sapphire; and last, the yellow or Oriental 
 topaz. The asterias, or star-stone, is a verj' beautiful 
 variety, in which the color is generally of a reddish 
 violet, and the form a rhomboid, with truncated apices, 
 which exhibit an opalescent lustre. 
 
 Sarcocolla, a sub-viscid, sweetish, and somewhat 
 nauseous gum resin. It is brought from Arabia and 
 Persia in small grains of a pale yellow color : the whitest, 
 as being the freshest, is preferred. It is but seldom 
 imported. — Milbukn's Orient. Com. 
 
 Sardines, or Sardinias (Ger. SardeJlm ; Fr. Sar- 
 dines; It. Sardine; Sp. Sardinas'), a species offish of 
 the herring tribe, but smaller. They are taken in con- 
 siderable quantities on our coasts, and are exceedingly 
 plentiful on the coasts of Algarve in Portugal, Anda- 
 lusia and Granada in Spain, and along the shores of 
 Italy. The small sardines caught on the coast of Prov- 
 ence, in France, are esteemed the best. From 1000 to 
 1200 fishing smacks are engaged in catching these fish 
 on the coast of Brittany, from June to the middle of 
 October. The French frequently cure tljem in rod 
 brine ; and, when thus prepared, designate them an- 
 choisees, or anchovied sardines. These are packed in 
 vessels previously' employed for holding wine, and ex- 
 ported to the Levant. AYhen perfectly fresh, sardines 
 are accounted excellent fish; but if kept for any time, 
 they entirely lose their flavor, and become quite insipid. 
 
 Consumption of Sardines in the United States. — The 
 importation of sardines into the United States is in- 
 creasing every year. The fisheries commence about 
 the middle of May, and last until about the middle of 
 October. The quantities consumed are enormous. 
 
 Each eveiiing, upon the return of the fishing smacks, 
 they can be bought for a few cents per dozen : they are 
 an important part of the food of the poorer classes. 
 These fish are better, and have a flavor, when put up in 
 oil, which they otherwise have not. They are found in 
 great plenty from the "coast of Bretagne to the mouth 
 of the Garonne. La Kochelle is the principal depot 
 for the fishery. The quantity exported to the United 
 States in 1852 was 69,840 kilogrammes ; in 1853 the 
 quantity was 76,737 kilogrammes ; in 1854 the quan- 
 tity was estimated at 100,000 kilogrammes, and of this 
 more than one half, strange to say, was for California. 
 — Letter to the Dep. of State. 
 
 Sardinia. The whole area of this kingdom, in- 
 cluding Piedmont, Savoy, and Genoa, and the island 
 of Sardinia, is estimated at 28,229 square miles, con- 
 taining a population, in 1862, of over 5,000,000, viz. : 
 the continental states 18,994 square miles, population 
 4,500,000 ; and the island of Sardinia 9236 square miles, 
 population 600,000. 
 
 The chief staples of this kingdom are raw silk, rice, 
 maize, wheat, chestnuts, wines, olives and olive-oil, 
 figs, oranges, and citrons. In the island of Sardinia 
 the productions are maize, wheat, hemp, silk, beans, 
 and other pulse vegetables. There are several ex- 
 tensive vineyards, though the wines are not in much 
 repute in foreign markets. Piedmont is considered 
 the most productive part of the continental kingdom, 
 and usually exports its surplus produce for the con-' 
 sumption of Genoa, Nice, and the regions along the 
 coast. Silk is one of the most profitable productions.* 
 The olive and vine are extensively cultivated ; wheat 
 and Indian corn are also grown ; the latter of which, 
 mixed with roasted chestnuts, constitutes the chief 
 food of the rural inhabitants. The minerals of the 
 country are valuable, consisting of iron, copper, lead, 
 manganese, and cobalt ; but, owing to bad roads and 
 the lack of capital, they are not worked. The salt 
 springs and mines of alabaster, marble, and slate, re- 
 ceive the protection of the government, and their prod- 
 ucts constitute some of the chief exports of Sardinia. 
 The exportation of marble alone to the United States 
 amounts annually in value to about $15,000. The 
 manufactures consist of silks, velvets, and other silk 
 stuff's, stockings, common linens and woolens, and the 
 product of the tanneries ; but, with the exception of 
 silks, few of these manufactures are exported. The 
 chief ports are Genoa, Spezzia, and Nice, on the con- 
 tinent, and Cagliari, on the island of Sardinia. Genoa 
 is a free port, in which goods may be warehoused or 
 re-exported free of duty, li is the chief outlet of the 
 Mediterranean for the manufactures of Switzerland, 
 Lombardy, and Piedmont. 
 
 In 1815 the republic of Genoa was ceded to the King 
 of Sardinia, with the express stipulation that " the free 
 port of Genoa shall be re-established, with the regula- 
 tions which existed under the ancient government. 
 Every facility shall be given by the king to the transit 
 through his states of merchandise from that free port, 
 under such restrictions as his majesty shall judge ex- 
 pedient for preventing the said merchandise being il- 
 licitly sold or consumed in the interior. It shall be 
 subject only to the usual moderate duty.'' The com- 
 mercial relations of the United States with Sardinia 
 are regulated by treaty. Prior to the ratification of 
 this treaty (November 26, 1838), the commerce of the 
 United Slates with this kingdom was conducted ex- 
 clusively under foreign flags. Indeed, until within a 
 recent period, the commercial system of the Sardinian 
 government was directly opposed to the principle of 
 free intercourse. The treaty with the United States 
 guarantees entire reciprocity and perfect equality with 
 the Sardinian flag in the direct and indirect trade. 
 The following are the stipulations of this treaty which 
 relate to commerce : 
 
 * Piedmont and Lombardy produce more raw silk than all 
 the rest of the world together. 
 
SAE 
 
 1686 
 
 SAR 
 
 Perfect reciprocity of commerce and navigation be- 
 tween the two countries, inhabitants of the one enjoy- 
 ing in the other all the privileges of subjects or citi- 
 zens. Vessels in their respective ports to enjoy the 
 same privileges, and to pay no higher duties or charges' 
 than national vessels. All commodities and merchan- 
 dise, the produce of the soil or industry of the United 
 States, or of any other countrj', which may be legally 
 imported into Sardinian ports in Sardinian vessels, 
 may also be imported by American vessels, and pay no 
 higher duties. Sardinian vessels to enjoy the same 
 privileges in the ports of the United States. The 
 same principle extended to all exports from either 
 country. The vessels of each country may enter the 
 ports of the ether with cargoes from any foreign coun- 
 try whatever. Any duty or restriction imposed on 
 the vessels or merchandise of the one country in the 
 other to be extended to the vessels or merchandise of 
 all nations. Coasting trade reserved to national ves- 
 sels. Special favors to any other nation to be enjoyed 
 by the contracting parties respectively'. Vessels of 
 either countrj' forced into the ports of the other by 
 stress of weather to be exempted from port charges. 
 
 Article 9 stipulates free transit from the port of 
 Genoa across Piedmont, except for salt, gunpowder, 
 and manufactured tobacco. 
 
 Cagliari, the capital of Sardinia, on the northeast 
 shore of a spacious bay on the south coast of the island, 
 lat, 39° 12' 13" N., long. 9° 7' 44" E. Population 
 in 1850 estimated at 30,000. The city stands on a ris- 
 ing ground, and has an imposing effect from the sea. 
 The public buildings and churches are numerous, and 
 some of them splendid ; but the streets are for the 
 most part narrow, steep, and filthy. The Gulf of 
 Cagliari extends from Pula on the west, to Cape Car- 
 bonara on the east, a distance of about twenty-four 
 miles across, and about twelve in depth, with good an- 
 chorage every where after getting into soundings. A 
 mole projects from the Pratique office, and ships usu- 
 ally lie about one mile southwest by south from it, in 
 six or eight fathoms water, on an excellent bottom of 
 mud. There is a very convenient pier harbor at the 
 south angle of the tower wall, capable of containing 
 fourteen or sixteen vessels of a tolerable size, besides 
 small craft. Altogether Cagliari is one of the best 
 and safest ports in the Mediterranean. Vessels be- 
 longing to Sardinia are admitted by treatj' into the 
 ports of the United States on the same terms as Amer- 
 ican vessels, with the produce or manufactures of their 
 own or any other country. — >See Cagliaki. 
 
 Other usual provisions respecting the appointment 
 of consuls, etc., are made ,■ and, in a separate article, 
 his Sardinian majesty continues the differential duties 
 in favor of Sardinian ships on the importation of wheat, 
 olive-oil, and wine, from the ports of the Black Sea, 
 Adriatic, and Mediterranean, as far west as Cape Tra- 
 falgar. This separate clause is explained by the fact 
 that the grain, oil, and wine trade, carried on with the 
 ports of the Mediterranean, has always been the chief 
 source of the commercial prosperity of Genoa. On the 
 12th July, 1850, this differential position was aban- 
 doned, and American vessels can now engage in the 
 grain-carrying trade, as well as in all other kinds of 
 commerce, between Genoa and other ports within the 
 Mediterranean and Black seas, on terms of perfect 
 equality with Genoese vessels. The separate article 
 has, therefore, become a dead letter. 
 
 Genoa is the only port in Sardinia much frequented 
 by United States vessels. The port charges are : For 
 pilotage, according to draught; anchorage,30 centimes* 
 per ton ; quarantine dues, 3 centimes per ton each day ; 
 board of health fees, 40 centimes per ton ; measure- 
 ment charges, according to size of vessel. 
 
 The shipping frequenting the port of Cagliari, on 
 the island of Sardinia, has considerably increased dur- 
 
 ing the past ten years. This is owing to the shelter 
 and refuge it affords in stormy weather, and to the fa- 
 cilities it offers for obtaining all necessary supplies. 
 
 This may be seen from the following statement, 
 showing the number and tonnage of vessels of all na- 
 tions that have visited this port since 1845 : 
 
 1846. 
 184T.. 
 1843. 
 1849.- 
 1850. , 
 1851., 
 1852. 
 1863. 
 j 1864. 
 
 No. ofV,.180l«. 
 
 ToiiiMige 
 
 4T2 
 
 22,593 
 
 434 
 
 48,545 
 
 462 
 
 54,39J 
 
 601 
 
 71,959 
 
 49T 
 
 5'),S52 
 
 640 
 
 60,949 
 
 6CT 
 
 61,439 
 
 639 
 
 83,785 
 
 803 
 
 96,439 
 
 The chief articles of American produce consumed in 
 Sardinia are cotton and tobacco The former is free, 
 and on the latter the duty is ■' reserved," it being a 
 government monopoly. Whalebone, refined sugar, 
 rum, paints, and other minor articles, are also export- 
 ed from the United States to Sardinia, but to no con- 
 siderable amount. 
 
 The following table exhibits the quantity and value 
 of cotton and tobacco exported from tlie United States 
 to Sardinia from 1850 to 1855, both years inclusive : 
 
 1850. . 
 1851. 
 1862. 
 1853. 
 1864. 
 1855. 
 
 Vuluee. 
 
 Pounde. 
 1,566,720 
 2,136,100 
 5,568,823 
 1,639,025 
 1,645,372 
 14,777,76,5 
 
 $152,910 
 281,8.38 
 416,982 
 166,422 
 147,462 
 
 1,288,387 
 
 Tobacro | Viiltiea 
 
 Hhds. 
 
 107 
 
 8 
 
 3414 
 
 192 
 
 65 
 
 3311 
 
 SIS 
 
 341,170 
 
 21,900 
 
 10,500 
 
 383,245 
 
 Imports into the United States from Sardinia consist 
 chiefly of flax, olive-oil, rags, silk, piece goods, red 
 wines, wool (unmanufactured), marble, and manufac- 
 tures of wool. Marble is the most valuable article re- 
 ceived, amounting annually to upward of $30,000. 
 
 Almost all the trade of Sardinia is carried on by 
 strangers ; and even the fish on its coast and in its 
 harbors are caught by Sicilians, Neapolitans. Tuscans, 
 and Genoese Grain is the principal article of export 
 In good years, the exports from the whole island may 
 amount to 400,000 starelli, or about 600,000 bushels of 
 wheat, 200,000 starelli of barley, 6000 starelli of maize, 
 100,000 starelli of beans, 200,000 starelli of peas, and 
 1000 starelli of lentils. The culture of vines is gradu- 
 ally becoming of more importance ; and about 3500 
 Catalan pipes are exported, principally from Alghero 
 and Ogliastro. Cheese is an important object in the 
 rural economy of Sardinia, and considerable quantities 
 are exported. Salt is a royal monopoly, and affords a 
 considerable revenue. Until recently, Sweden drew 
 almost all her supplies of this important necessarj- from 
 Sardinia, and it continues to be exported in consider- 
 able quantities. Flax, linseed, hides, oil, saffron, rags, 
 alquifoux, etc, are among the articles of export. The 
 tunny and coral fisheries employ a good many hands ; 
 but, as already observed, they are almost wholly man- 
 aged by foreigners. 
 
 ACOOTTNT OP THE QUANTITIES OP THE rRLNCIPAL ArTIOI.ES 
 E\POIiTEP FROM TUE ISLAND OF SAEDINIA TO FOREIGN 
 COUNTRIES IN 1849, 1850, AND 1851. 
 
 100" centimes are equivalent to 1S*0 cents. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 Barilla . , cwta. 
 
 Bones " 
 
 Bullocks No. 
 
 Calves " 
 
 Cheese cwts. 
 
 Cork-wood " 
 
 Cows, steers, and bulls . No, 
 
 fire-wood cwts, 
 
 I'ruit, fresh " 
 
 Goats, sheep, and lambs , No, 
 
 Grain cwts. 
 
 Lead ore " 
 
 Olive-oil imp, galls. 
 
 Skins cwts. 
 
 Timber, oak val, lire 
 
 Tunny fish -cwts. 
 
 Wine imp, galls. 
 
 1SJ9, I 1850. 
 
 862 
 
 8,636 
 
 2,753 
 
 70 
 
 29,880 
 
 2,158 
 
 674 
 
 3,788 
 
 732 
 
 232 
 
 1,723 
 
 8,701 
 
 5,390 
 
 17,604 
 
 10,220 
 
 2,339 
 
 47,761 
 
 427 
 
 9,253 
 
 1,430 
 
 93 
 
 25,606 
 
 0,782 
 
 456 
 
 1,508 
 
 858 
 
 694 
 
 667 
 
 4,296 
 
 41 
 
 41,097 
 
 668 
 
 2,547 
 
 209,402 
 
 IBSl, 
 
 2 
 
 5S6S 
 
 211 
 
 19 
 
 24,986 
 
 3,S10 
 
 394 
 
 ,577 
 
 79 
 
 237 
 
 2,494 
 
 16,4-17 
 
 iisso 
 
 67,712 
 2,839 
 19,743 
 
SAR 
 
 1687 
 
 SAB 
 
 Almost every article of dress, whether for the gentry 
 or the peasantry, is imported. Soap, stationerj', glass, 
 earthen-ware, and furniture, as well as sugar, coffee, 
 drugs, etc., are also supplied by foreigners ; and not- 
 withstanding the Sards possess many rich mines, sev- 
 eral of which were successfully wrought in antiquity, 
 they import all their iron and steel. The only manu- 
 factures carried on in the island are those of gunpow- 
 der, salt, tobacco, and woolen caps. But salt; of which 
 the export may be estimated at 14,000 or 16,000 tons 
 a year, is excluded from the preceding table, on which, 
 indeed, but little reliance can be placed. 
 
 These statements sufficiently show that the com- 
 merce of Sardinia is very far from being what might 
 naturally be expected from her extent, fertility, admi- 
 rable situation, and the excellence of her many harbors. 
 The following summary presents a general view of 
 the foreign commerce of Sardinia : 
 
 1850.— Imports , . 111,870,000 francs. 
 
 Exports 93,366,000 " 
 
 Total foreign trade in 1860 206,736,000 " 
 
 1851 Imports 129,790,000 francs. 
 
 Exports 73,133,000 " 
 
 Total foreign trade in 1861. . . . 202,923,000 " 
 Navigation in 1850. .Vessels, 2420— Tonnage, 277,717 
 " 1851.. " 2638 " 230,280 
 
 " 1852.. " 3280 " 368,460 
 
 Of these there were under the American flag : 
 
 In 1850 Vessels, 27— Tonnage 6,176 
 
 Inl851.; " 19 " 7,577 
 
 In 1852. " 38 " 10,024 
 
 The trade of the kingdom in 1853 amounted in val- 
 ue to 333,942,000 francs ($63,448,980) imports; and 
 220,630,000 francs ($41,919,700) exports. In 1852 tho 
 direct trade between the United States and Sardinia 
 amounted to 7,725,362 francs ($1,477,818 78). In 
 1853 it reached as high as 13,891,661 francs (2,639,396), 
 showing an increase of nearlj' 100 per cent. 
 
 The entire trade, compared with that of 1862, shows 
 an increase of 21,500,000 francs on imports, and of 
 6,500,000 francs on exports. The imports comprise 
 in values (in round numbers) as follows : Cotton, 
 34,000,000 francs ; colonial or trans-Atlantic produce, 
 25,000,000; com, 22,000,000; silks, 20,000,000 ; wool- 
 ens, 18,000,000, etc. The exports comprise: Silks, 
 43,000,000 francs; wine and oil, 10,000,000 francs; 
 rice, 8,000,000 ; cattle, 4,000,000, etc. 
 
 The countries with which Piedmont carries on the 
 largest trade are as follows : 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Franca. 
 
 France 48,000,000 
 
 England 39,000,000 
 
 Switzerland 14,500,000 
 
 Austria 10,000,000 
 
 Russia 17,000,000 
 
 United States.... 13,000,000 
 
 EXPOETS. 
 
 Fmaca. 
 
 France 40,000,000 
 
 England 3,500,000 
 
 Switzerland 13,000,000 
 
 Austria 16,000,000 
 
 Euasia 163,000 
 
 United Stales 631,000 
 
 The customs' revenue amounted in the year 1853 to 
 $3,464,472. 
 
 Sardinian official returns show an importation of 
 raw cotton, direct from the United States, for 1863, of 
 about $2,000,000 in value ; and it is supposed that 
 while of the remainder some undoubtedly came from 
 Algeria, the greater part came indirectly from the 
 United States, through England, Holland, etc. If, 
 however, these Sardinian returns are compared with 
 those prepared by the United States Treasury Depart- 
 ment, it will appear that the direct importation of cot- 
 ton from the United States must be, as it unquestion- 
 ably is, largely over-estimated ; while the indirecl; im- 
 portation from English, Dutch, and other European 
 ports is much below the actual quantities given. Thus 
 the value of cotton exported from the United States to 
 Sardinia in 1863, as per United States Report on Com- 
 merce and Navigation, was only $156,422 ; and in 1862, 
 $410,982 ; making for both years the sum of $573,404, 
 or a little more th^n one-fourth of the value given in 
 the Sardinian returns for 1853 alone. The following 
 summary presents as accurate a statement of the cot- 
 ton trade of Sardinia as can be derived from a com- 
 parison of the official reports of the European countries 
 whence cotton is re-exported, and of the United States, 
 ■with the official returns of the Sardinian government. 
 The countries given are not the only, but the principal 
 countries, whence Sardinia imports cotton : 
 
 PouNiis OP Cotton imported into Sakdinia poe the fouk 
 Yeaes ekdhsg 1854 peom tue (Joumtrieb design ateu. 
 
 Yeftra. 
 
 Groat Britain. 
 
 Frnnce. 
 
 United Stotea. 
 
 Totni. 
 
 1851 
 
 1852 
 
 1853 
 
 1854 
 
 Average 
 
 2,742,320 
 ,2,233,208 
 3,860,864 
 3,821,328 
 
 No data. 
 ?,497,389 
 1,48:),329' 
 1,107,841 
 
 2,136,100 
 5,563,823 
 1,629,025 
 1,045,372 
 
 4,878,420 
 
 11,304,420 
 
 6,979,218 
 
 6,574,541 
 
 3,165,680 
 
 2,031,619 
 
 2,744,830 
 
 7,434,160 
 
 The railroad facilities afforded at the port of Genoa 
 for the transmission of merchandise to the interior of 
 Italy, Switzerland, etc., have already produced a mark- 
 ed effect on the cotton trade of that port. It has been 
 shown that the total quantity of cotton exported from 
 the United States to Sardinia was, in , 1851, 2,136,000 
 lbs. ; in 1862, 5,668,823 lbs. ; in 1853, 1,629,025 lbs. ; 
 in 1854, 1,645,372 lbs. In 1855 the exportation reach- 
 ed 14,777,765 lbs., of which the port of Genoa received 
 10,035,600 lbs. ; and an official document received 
 from .Ge.noa gives the quantity received at this port 
 from the United States, in American vessels alone, the 
 first six months of 1856, at 12,164,000 lbs.— C. D. 
 
 Money^, Weights^ and Measures. — ^Accounts are kept 
 in" lire, reali, and soldi. 5 soldi = 1 real = 4^d. ; 4 
 reali = 1 lira = Is. Ot?. ; 10 reali = 1 scudo = 3s. 9t?. The 
 paper money consists of notes for 5, 10, and 20 scudi. 
 Farm produce and the coarser metals are weighed by 
 iheped diferro : 12 Sardinian oz..=l lb. ==14 oz. 5 dr. 
 avoirdupois; 26 lbs. = l rfibbo; 4 rubbi=l cantaro= 
 93 lbs. 8 dr. avoirdupois. The starello or com meas- 
 ure is equivalent to 1 bushel IJ- peck English. The 
 palm=10J English inches. 
 
 CoilMEEOE OF TUE UNITED STATES WITH SaeDINIA FEOM OotOBEK 1, 1840, TO JuLY 1, 1866. 
 
 Years ending 
 
 ' Exports, 
 
 Imports. ' 
 
 Wiiereof tliore waa in 
 Buliion and Spedie. 
 
 Tonnage cleared. 
 
 ■ Dnmestic. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Tol»l. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Export. 
 
 Import 
 
 American. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Sept. 30, 1841 
 
 1342 
 
 9moa., 1843* , 
 
 Juno ^0, 1844 
 
 1845 
 
 -1846 
 
 1847 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 
 
 1850 
 
 Total..' 
 
 June 80, 1851 
 
 1862 
 
 1363 
 
 1854 
 
 1855 
 
 1856 
 
 $47,000 
 40,208 
 108,091 
 92,622 
 162,827 
 ' •283,283 - 
 630,232 ■ 
 175,683 
 460,960 
 170,764 
 
 $32,970 
 
 976 
 
 ■ . 16,370 
 
 18,389 
 
 21,414 
 
 86,136 
 
 $47,000 
 
 40,208 
 
 108,091 
 
 92,622 
 
 195,797 
 
 284,259 
 
 647,102 
 
 193,972 
 
 ' 482,364 
 
 256,900 
 
 $195859 
 "287 
 
 ^1538 
 205 
 
 
 $i,200 
 42,270 
 
 1,163 
 1,951 
 4,395 
 4,332 
 9,865 
 
 10,235 
 9,162 
 
 12,397 
 7,791 
 
 776 
 260 
 1,531 
 1,411 
 1,191 
 3,313 
 1,988 
 4,843 
 6,300 
 
 $2,171,460 
 
 $310,838 
 
 769,209 
 
 195,380 
 
 188,305 
 
 1,83?,186 
 
 2,143,977 
 
 $176,756 
 
 $19,401 
 
 42,286 
 
 27,926 
 
 2,020 
 
 143,844 
 60,961 
 
 $2,348,215 
 
 $830,289 
 
 811,4')5 
 
 223,306 
 
 190,325 
 
 1,983,030 
 
 2,204,938 
 
 $62,889 
 
 $2,302 
 74,901 
 171,583 
 85,676 
 217,232 
 317,179 
 
 
 $43,470 
 $2,000 
 
 61,281 
 
 6,741 
 13,443 
 11,821 
 10,688 
 16,754 
 17,958 
 
 21,663 
 
 8,479 
 6,669 
 7,018 
 2,246 
 4,597 
 3,501 
 
 Nine months to June 30, and the fiscal year from this time begins July 1. 
 
SAE 
 
 1688 
 
 SAX 
 
 Sardonyx, a precious stone, a variety of chal- 
 cedony. The ancients selected this substance to en- 
 grave upon, no doubt, from its possessing two peculiar 
 and necessarj' qualities: viz., hardness and tenacity, 
 by which it is capable of receiving the finest touch or 
 stroke of the tool without chipping, and showing the 
 art of the engraver to the highest perfection.— Mav^e 
 on JDlamonds. 
 
 Sarsaparilla (Ger. Sarsaparille ; Fr. Sdsepareille ; 
 It. Salsapariglia ; Sp. Zarzaparilla), the root of the 
 Smilax Sarsaparilla, a plant growing in South Amer- 
 ica and the West Indies. It is imported in bales. It 
 is known in the London market by the names of Lis- 
 bon, Honduras, and Vera Cruz, but it is also brought 
 from Jamaica. The Lisbon root, which is the produce 
 of Brazil, has a reddish or dark brown cuticle, is in- 
 ternally farinaceous, and more free from fibre than the 
 other kinds : the Honduras has a dirty brown, and 
 sometimes whitish, cuticle ; it is more fibrous, and has 
 more ligneous matter than the Lisbon and Vera Cruz. 
 It is in long, slender twigs, covered with a wrinkled 
 brown cuticle, and has a small, woody heart. The Ja- 
 maica differs from the others, in having u, deep red 
 cuticle of a close texture, and the red color partially 
 diffused through the ligneous part. The root is ino- 
 dorous, and has a mucilaginous, very slightly bitter 
 taste : the bark is the only useful part of the plant ; 
 the ligneous part being tasteless, inert, woody fibre. — 
 Thomson's Dispensatory. 
 
 Sassafras (Ger. and Fr. Sassafras ; It. Sassafras- 
 so ; Sp. Sassafras'), a species of laurel (Laurus Sassa- 
 fras, Linn.), a native of the southern parts of North 
 America, Cochin-China, and several of the Indian 
 islands. Sassafras wood, root, and bark have' a fra- 
 grant odor, and a sweetish aromatic taste. The wood 
 is of a brownish white color ; and the bark ferrugin- 
 ous within, spongy, and divisible into layers. Their 
 sensible qualities and virtues depend on an essential 
 oil, which may be obtained separate by distilling the 
 chips or the bark with water. It is very fragrant, 
 hot, and penetrating to the taste, of a pale yellow color, 
 and heavier than water. It is used only in the mate- 
 ria medica. — Thomson's Dispensatory. 
 
 Satin (Eng., Fr., and Germ.) is the name of a silk 
 stuff' first imported from China, which is distinguished 
 by its very smooth, polished, and glossy surface. It 
 is woven upon a loom with at least five-leaved healds 
 or heddles, and as many corresponding treddles. These 
 are so mounted as to rise and fall four at a time, rais- 
 ing and depressing alternately four yams of the warp, 
 across the whole of which the weft is thrown by the 
 shuttle, so as to produce a uniform smooth texture, in- 
 stead of the checkered work resulting from interme- 
 diate decussations, as in common webs. Satins are 
 woven with the glossy or right side undermost, be- 
 cause the four-fifths of the warp, which are always left 
 there during the action of the healds, serve to support 
 the shuttle in its race. "Were they woven in the re- 
 verse way, the scanty fifth part of the warp threads 
 could either not support, or would be too much worn 
 by the shuttle. 
 
 Saunders (Red) (Arab. Sundai-ahmer ; Hind. 
 Suclcut-chundum), the wood of a loftj' tree (Pterocarpus 
 santalinus') indigenous to various parts of India, Cey- 
 lon, Timor, etc. The wood is brought to Europe in 
 billets, which are verj' heavy, and sink in water. It 
 is extremely hard, of a fine grain, and a bright garnet 
 red color, which brightens on exposure to the air. It 
 is employed to dye lasting reddish brown colors on 
 wool. It yields its coloring matter to ether and alco- 
 hol, but not to water. — Thomson's Dispensatory ; Ban- 
 croft on Colors, vol. ii. p. 236. 
 
 Savannah, citj', port of entry, and capital of Chat- 
 ham count}', Georgia, is situated on the right bank of 
 the Savannah River, 17 miles from its mouth. It is 
 in 32° 4- 66" N. lat., and 81° 8' 18" W. long, from 
 Greenwich, and 4° 10' W. from Washington. It is 
 
 118 miles southwest from Charleston, 123 miles south- 
 east from Augusta, 158 miles east-southeast from Mil- 
 ledgeville, 662 miles south by west from Washing- 
 ton. The population in 1810 was 6195 ; in 1820, 7523 ; 
 in 1830, 7776; in 1840, 11,214; in 1860, 15,312; in 
 1854, 19,000. This city was founded in 1733 by Gen- 
 eral James Oglethorpe and others. It was taken by 
 the British in 1778, but they abandoned it in 1782. 
 On the 10th of Januaiy, 1820, 463 buildings were 
 burned, occasioning a loss of property amounting to 
 $4,000,000; but it has been rebuilt with additional 
 beauty. There are in Savannah eight banks, aggre- 
 gate capital $4,900,000 ; four printing-offices, issuing 
 three daily and one weekly newspaper. Capital em- 
 ployed in manufactures, 1850, $130,550 ; value of man- 
 ufactured articles, $266,250. Savannah is the port for 
 an extensive region, rich in agricultural and mineral 
 wealth, and bj- the immense extent of railroad con- 
 verging to this point (about 1200 miles) will undoubt- 
 edly be the port of the Southern Atlantic coast. The 
 cotton shipped from Savannah for the years 1856-'57 
 amounted to 327,658 bales. — See Georgia. 
 
 The recent construction of railroads from Savannah 
 westwardly has an important bearing, present and 
 prospective, upon the commerce of Savannah. Those 
 in operation in 1857 are as follows : 
 
 Georgia Rail-road 232 miles. 
 
 Central, Savannah to Macon 191 " 
 
 Southweatern and Muscogee 178 " 
 
 Macon and Western (to Atlanta) 101 " 
 
 Western, to Chattanoga 138 " 
 
 Atlanta and Lagrange 87 " 
 
 Total 927 " 
 
 These roads connect either directly or indirectly with 
 800 miles of railroad in Tennessee. 
 
 Saxe-Meiningen (one of the Zoll-Verein). The 
 general trade between this duchy and the United States 
 is increasing. Her manufactures are deservedly in 
 high repute, and are chiefly destined for the American 
 market. They consist of leather, woolen and cotton 
 stuffs, musical instruments, toys of everj' description, 
 china, glass,, iron, stone, and willow wares, slate pen- 
 cils, marbles, nails, drugs, colors, wooden wares, etc. 
 
 This duchy is rich in mineral productions, and min- 
 ing is pursued with considerable activity. Iron, cop- 
 per, coal, alum, vitriol, marble, and salt are extensive- 
 ly produced, and enter largely into the exports of the 
 duchy. Exports for the United States are transported 
 either to Bremen, Hamburg, Antwerp, Rotterdam, or 
 Havre. 
 
 The following statement exhibits the value of ex- 
 ports, the produce and manufacture of Saxe-Meinin- 
 gen, to the United States, during a period of five years, 
 from 1861 to 1866, both inclusive, specifj'ing the coun- 
 tries through which said exports were shipped for the 
 United States : 
 
 Yean. 
 
 Via 
 
 Total. 
 
 Hambiirg. 
 
 Bremen. 
 
 France. 
 
 1851 
 
 $T43 
 
 6318 
 
 247 
 
 $20,456 
 
 39,665 
 
 40,962 
 
 10,368 
 
 6,171 
 
 $2822 
 260 
 
 $20,456 
 
 43,230 
 
 46,540 
 
 10,615 
 
 6,171 
 
 1852 
 
 1853 
 
 1864 
 
 1856 
 
 
 The exports from the United States to this duchy 
 consist of tobacco, rice, breadstuff's, cotton, and manu- 
 factures of India-rubber, etc. The soil, owing to the 
 vast forests and mountains which cover so much of its 
 surface, is not favorable to agricultural pursuits ; hence 
 breadstuffs form a large item of imports from foreign 
 countries. 
 
 Saxony (one of the Zoll-Verein). This kingdom 
 lies in the centre of Germany, and though the soil is 
 generally fertile in grain, and is cultivated with the 
 greatest care, the quantity raised, even in the best har- 
 vests, is not more than suificient for the consumption 
 of the inhabitants. Wheat, rye, oats, barley, and pota- 
 toes are the general crops. 
 
 Saxony is rich in mines of iron, lead, copper, cobalt, 
 
SCA 
 
 1689 
 
 SCO 
 
 bismuth, antimony, and coal ; consequently we find 
 that mining and manufactures occupy the principal 
 portion of its nearly 2,000,000 inhabitants. There are 
 upward of 500 naines in active operation, the centre 
 of which is at Freiburg. Fruit is extensively culti- 
 vated, and excellent wine is produced from the vine- 
 yards of the Elbe. The forests, which cover one-fourth 
 of the surface, furnish fine timber, which is floated 
 down the Elbe to Hamburg. The chief manufactures 
 of Saxonj' are those of cotton, in the spinning of which 
 the latest improvements have been introduced.* The 
 other chief branches of manufacturing industry are 
 linen and woolen weaving, stocking-making, and the 
 fine porcelain of Meissen, known in commerce as Dres- 
 den china, Dresden and Leipsic are the commercial 
 
 marts of Saxony. Annual fairs are held in these cities, 
 which are attended by vast concourses of people from 
 most of the countries of Europe and Western Asia, 
 Leipsic is the great emporium of the book trade of 
 Germany ; and in both these cities manufactures, par- 
 ticularly in silk and woolen fabrics, jewelry, musical 
 and scientific instruments, artificial flowers, etc., are 
 carried to the very highest state of perfection. Leip- 
 sic communicates by railroad with Dresden, and the 
 trade of the latter is conducted up and down the Elbe. 
 The following statement exhibits the value of ex- 
 ports, the produce and manufactures of Saxonj', to the 
 United States, during a period c(f five years, from 1861 
 to 1855, both inclusive, specifying the countries through 
 which said exports were shipped for the United States ; 
 
 Yenra. 
 
 Viiv 
 
 Total 
 
 Hamburg. 
 
 Bremen. 
 
 Holland. 
 
 France. 
 
 Belgium. 
 
 Kngl&Dd. 
 
 1851 
 
 $115,259 
 351,364 
 375,406 
 231,655 
 381,281 
 
 $693,008 
 1,650,338 
 1,657,396 
 94.5,352 
 2,013,910 
 
 $4229 
 2104 
 9137 
 6437 
 
 $82,361 
 151,916 
 181,589 
 143,414 
 114,745 
 
 $8,683 
 12,131 
 9,942 
 11,345 
 25,303 
 
 $56,765 
 143,906 
 156,214 
 170,895 
 168,916 
 
 .$855,916t 
 
 2,313,884 
 
 2,882,661 
 
 l,611,798t 
 
 2,710,591 
 
 1862 
 
 1853 
 
 1854 
 
 1865 
 
 t These figures are for the port of New York only, and for six months. No returns are at hand for the general trade. 
 
 Soammony (Ger. Shammonien ;. Fr. Scammonee ; 
 It. Scammonea ; Sp. Escamonea), a gum-resin, the prod- 
 uce of a species of convolvulus, or creeper plant, which 
 grows abundantly in Syria. When an incision is 
 made into the roots, they yield a milky juice, which 
 being kept, grows hard, and is the scammony of the 
 shops. It is imported from Aleppo in what are called 
 drums, weighing from 75 to 125 lbs. each ; and from 
 Smyrna in cakes like wax, packed in chests. The 
 former is light and friable, and is considered the best ; 
 that from Smyrna is more compact and ponderous, less 
 friable, and fuller of impurities. It has 4 peculiar 
 heavy odor, not unlike that of old cheese, and a bit- 
 terish, slightly acrid taste. The color is blackish or 
 bluish gray, changing to dirty white, or lathering when 
 the surface is rubbed with a wet finger. Its specific 
 gravity is 1"235. It is verj' liable to be adulterated ; 
 and when of a dark color, heavy, and splintery, it 
 ought to be rejected. It is used only in medicine. — 
 Thomson's Disperisatory. 
 
 Schooner, in Nautical language, a small vessel 
 with two masts, whose mainsail and foresail are sus- 
 pended from gaff's, reaching from the mast toward the 
 stern, and stretched out below by booms, and whose 
 foremost ends are hooked to an iron, which clasps the 
 mast so as to turn therein as upon an axis, when the 
 after ends are swung from one side of the vessel to the 
 other. 
 
 Scotland, the northern portion of Great Britain, 
 extends in its main land from lat. 54° 38' to 58° 41' 
 N., and long. 1° 45' to 6° 14' W., and, including its 
 islands, to lat. 60° 60' N., and long. 8° '35' W. 
 
 Scotland is separated from England by a waving 
 line of the Cheviot Hills in the centre, by the Tweed, 
 which enters the sea at Berwick, on the east, and by 
 the Solway Firth on the west. Its eastern shores are 
 washed by the North Sea, and its western by the At- 
 lantic. It is of an oblong, irregular form, extending 
 longitudinally due north and south 280 miles, and 
 varying in breadth from 175 to 100, 60, and 30 miles. 
 Area, 31,324 square miles, or 20,047,462 acres, 6-9 acre 
 to a person, 92 persons to a square mile. Population in 
 1801,1,599,068; in 1841, 2,620,184 ; in 1851, 2,888,742. 
 For Manufacturing Districts, etc., of Scotland, see 
 Blackwood's Magazine, 1. 659, Ixv. 162 ; London 
 Quarterly Reeiew, Ixxxii. 187. For Scottish Fisheries, 
 see London Quarterly Review, Ixix. 226 ; North Uritish 
 Review, i. 326. 
 
 The relative commerce of the three leading Scotch 
 ports, compared with the leading ports of England and 
 Ireland, is shown in the following table, showing the 
 
 • The export of cotton tissues from the Zoll-Verein in 1863 
 amounted in value to .$2,394,497 34, of which amount Saxony 
 sent from her factories $2,075,299 66. 
 
 declared value of British and Irish produce and manu- 
 factures exported to foreign countries for each year, 
 from 1851 to 1855 : 
 
 Scotland. 
 
 YeaTB. Glnegow. Leith. 
 
 1861 £3,499,000 £38.1,290 
 
 1852 3,570,300 491,200 
 
 1853 4,968,600 675,000 
 
 1854 4,906,500 627,600 
 
 1856 3,916,500 536,600 
 
 England. 
 
 Yenie. London. 
 
 1851 £14,489,400 
 
 1862 15,802,100 
 
 1853 22,991,000 
 
 1854 23,330,200 
 
 1855 20,915,590 
 
 Liverpool. 
 
 £37,918,600 
 38,469,500 
 47,152,100 
 46,719,100 
 46,333,400 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 Yeara. Cork. Belfast. 
 
 1851 £109,400 £50,100 
 
 1862 141,000 64,600 
 
 1853 129,600 35,900 
 
 1864 148,000 28,700 
 
 1856 192,600 73,100 
 
 Greenock. 
 
 £401,900 
 418,600 
 437,600 
 654,500 
 452,800 
 
 Hull. 
 £10,126,400 
 9,894,200 
 10,788,700 
 10,003,100 
 10,679,600 
 
 Dublin. 
 £50,000 
 75,100 
 23,800 
 41,400 
 28,500 
 
 In Scotland there were in 1854-5 forty-six savings- 
 banks. The progress of these useful institutions is in- 
 dicated by the following suramarj' of Scotland, and of 
 Great Britain and Ireland : 
 
 Years. 
 
 No. of 
 Banks. 
 
 No. of 
 Accounts. 
 
 Amount of 
 Deposits. 
 Scotland. 
 
 Savings 
 
 Deposits. 
 
 UnitodKingdom. 
 
 186ll'52!!!! 
 lS62-'63 .... 
 lS63-'54 .... 
 1864-'65 .... 
 
 43 
 43 
 45 
 46 
 46 
 
 105,161 
 111,299 
 116,113 
 118,602 
 
 £1,488,777 
 1,64.5,205 
 1,837,103 
 1,931,998 
 2,0^1,473 
 
 £30,277,654 
 31,754,261 
 33,362,260 
 33,736,080 
 34,201,721 
 
 Railways. — The progress of the railway system in 
 Scotland has not been rapid. The following table ex- 
 hibits the number of miles, capital raised per mile, 
 and number of passengers per mile : 
 
 Years. 
 
 No. of 
 Miles. 
 
 Capital raised 
 per Mile. 
 
 Annum. 
 
 / From 
 Passengers. 
 
 From 
 Goods. 
 
 1849 
 
 7il5 
 902 
 957 
 970 
 987 
 1019 
 1069 
 
 £27,664 
 27,612 
 29,001 
 29,470 
 29,564 
 29,792 
 29,589 
 
 £680 
 664 
 649 
 663 
 713 
 742 
 726 
 
 £818 
 799 
 850 
 053 
 1075 
 1219 
 1277 
 
 1860 
 
 1851 
 
 1852 
 
 1853 
 
 1854 
 
 1855 
 
 — See articles Gkeat Bkitain and Glasgow for an 
 extended account of the trade and finances of Scot- 
 land. On the following page there is presented a tab- 
 ular statement of the foreign commerce of the United 
 States with Scotland for a series of twenty-seven years, 
 showing the exports, foreign and domestic, the im- 
 ports, and the tonnage cleared. 
 
scu 
 
 1690 
 
 SEA 
 
 COMMEEOE OF TnE UNITED STATES WITH SCOTLAND, EEOM OoTOBEE 1, 1S20, TO JULY 1, 185T. 
 
 Yeare ending 
 
 Sept. 30, 1821 
 
 1822 
 
 1823 
 
 1824 
 
 1825 
 
 1826 
 
 1S2T 
 
 1828 
 
 1829 
 
 isao 
 
 Total. . 
 
 Sept. 30, 1831 
 
 1832 
 
 1838 
 
 1834 
 
 1835 
 
 1886 
 
 1S3T 
 
 1838 
 
 1339 
 
 1840 
 
 Total. . 
 
 Sept. 30,1341 
 
 1842 
 
 9mos., 1848* 
 
 June 30, 1844 
 
 1846 
 
 1846 
 
 1847 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 
 
 ISBO 
 
 Total. . 
 
 June 30, 1851 
 
 1852 
 
 1853 
 
 1354 
 
 1855 
 
 18,50 
 
 185T 
 
 exports. 
 
 Domestic. 
 
 $1,405,443 
 
 1,616,506 
 
 1,1.58,496 
 
 1,196,219 
 
 l,69!),e26 
 
 572,894 
 
 1,336,10'J 
 
 059,660 
 
 895,316 
 
 1,465,211 
 
 $^2,304,402 
 
 $1,185,142 
 1,126,898 
 1,186,469 
 2,344,785 
 2,830,079 
 2,349,650 
 3,441,211 
 1,685,203 
 1,025,832 
 2,022,636 
 
 $19,196,805 
 
 $1,920,506 
 1,622,735 
 2,863,354 
 1,986,691 
 2,611,874 
 1,043,830 
 8,04.5,400 
 2,465,426 
 3,549,960 
 8,021,740 
 
 $24,669,976 
 
 $3,811,008 
 2,441,148 
 4,486,825 
 3,097,662 
 2,806,751 
 3,880,376 
 4,671,837 
 
 10,987 
 10,104 
 14,632 
 7.667 
 2,952 
 
 7^927 
 19,493 
 
 3,488 
 
 $90,923 
 
 $5,567 
 20,864 
 21,(158 
 28,789 
 10,850 
 744 
 12,596 
 10,776 
 1,266 
 28,304 
 
 $140,804 
 
 $15,818 
 80,279 
 14,657 
 16,882 
 64,936 
 45,416 
 
 162,013 
 88,418 
 68,472 
 
 183,679 
 
 $670,070 
 
 $261,937 
 280,635 
 164,739 
 190,336 
 114,439 
 26,166 
 32,181 
 
 $1,419,131 
 
 1,626,662 
 
 1,168,599 
 
 1,210,861 
 
 1,707,188 
 
 576,346 
 
 1,336,169 
 
 967,487 
 
 914,808 
 
 1,463,699 
 
 $12,396,325 
 
 $1,190,709 
 1,146,762 
 1,207,527 
 2,373,574 
 2,840,929 
 2,350,294 
 3,453.807 
 1,695,979 
 1,027,088 
 2,050,940 
 
 $19,337,609 
 
 $1,936,824 
 1,603,014 
 2,378,011 
 1,953,473 
 2,666,810 
 1,687,746 
 3,807,473 
 2,498,844 
 3,608,432 
 8,205,419 
 
 $26,340,046 
 
 $4,072,940 
 2,671,783 
 4,641,664 
 3,287,998 
 2,421,240 
 8,906,642 
 4,704,018 
 
 Imports. 
 
 $1,220,092 
 1,891,316 
 1,086,133 
 1,008,520 
 1,829,464 
 1,096,772 
 1,083,101 
 1,183,081, 
 1,024,215 
 1,332,841 
 
 $12,805,535 
 
 $1,977,830 
 
 1,680,812 
 
 1,025,229 
 
 1,402,030 
 
 1,639,648 
 
 2,875.899 
 
 1,188;410 
 
 594,666 
 
 t50,183 
 
 526,217 
 
 $13,269,923 
 
 $850,887 
 
 665,050 
 
 128,846 
 
 527,239 
 
 708,187 
 
 1,230,086 
 
 1,837,014 
 
 1,666,694 
 
 1,969,320 
 
 2,746,670 
 
 $12,309,993 
 
 $2,999,710 
 2,865,947 
 4,837,990 
 5,320,463 
 8,1:54,594 
 4,131,696 
 7,216,111 
 
 Wlioroof there was in 
 Bullion and Specie. 
 
 Export I Import 
 
 $2,100 
 3,000 
 
 l',766 
 
 '600 
 
 $7,3fl0 
 
 $500 
 3,900 
 16,800 
 3,360 
 4,000 
 
 3,066 
 
 $31,560 
 $1,312 
 
 7,260 
 
 69.565 
 7,210 
 
 Tonnage cleared. 
 
 4,015 
 7,207 
 4,517 
 3,175 
 7,253 
 2,860 
 7,296 
 2,429 
 2,609 
 6,913 
 
 48,264 
 
 ' 6,312 
 8,982 
 2,523 
 6,665 
 6,890 
 4,630 
 
 12,641 
 9,457 
 2,321 
 
 10,T99 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 6,220 
 6,079 
 8,220 
 5,836 
 2,832 
 2,792 
 7,521 
 8,002 
 T,699 
 7,707 
 
 $86,347 
 
 66,060 
 
 7,414 
 
 6,890 
 12 764 
 
 7,84') 
 14,732 
 
 9,647 
 26.316 
 14;i!6 
 21,032 
 15,759 
 
 62,008 
 
 9,102 
 9,410 
 9,860 
 
 13,484 
 9.386 
 
 10,593 
 7,924 
 6,387 
 5,403 
 
 10,483 
 
 134,997 
 
 18,608 
 19,856 
 27,734 
 22,018 
 18,674 
 20,235 
 83,982 
 
 91,982 
 
 8,717 
 10,045 
 18,848 
 13,418 
 20,810 
 13,788 
 15,630 
 17,096 
 24,940 
 17,276 
 
 160,568 
 
 22,987 
 22,288 
 32,612 
 23,003 
 18,108 
 24,978 
 49,422 
 
 * Nine months to June 30, and the fiscal year from this time begins July 1. 
 
 Soud, the name given hj seamen to loose, vapory 
 clouds driven swiftly along by the winds. To scud, 
 signifies to run directly before the wind in a gale. As 
 the object is to keep before the sea, the foresail or fore 
 topsail is set : the latter or the main topsail is often 
 necessaiy, as the foresail is often becalmed from the 
 height of the waves. 
 
 Soudo. See Coins. 
 
 Scull, an oar, so short that one can work a pair. 
 It most generally implies an oar placed over the stem 
 of a boat, and worked from side to side ; the blade, 
 which is turned diagonally, being always in the water. 
 In China, where the method is well understood, large 
 boats are impelled by a single scull with considerable 
 velocity. 
 
 Sculptures, figures cut in stone, metal, or other 
 solid substance, representing or describing some real 
 or imaginarj' object. The art of the sculptor, or statu- 
 ary, was carried to the highest pitch of excellence in 
 ancient Greece. Fortunately, several of the works of 
 the Grecian sculptors have been preserved, and serve 
 at once to stimulate and direct the genius of modern 
 artists. Models are casts or representations of sculp- 
 tures. 
 
 Scuppers are pipes of lead inserted in openings 
 bored from the deck through the sides of a ship, to 
 carry the water off from the deck to the sea. To avoid 
 the inconvenience of having the scuppers broken by 
 the working of the ship, each is formed of two pipes, 
 one of which is passed upward to the deck through 
 the opening in the ship's side, and having its lower end 
 nailed on the outside planking ; the other, which is of 
 smaller diameter, after being woolded on the outside 
 with flannel dipped in tallow, is passed downward into 
 the lower pipe, through the opening in the deck, and 
 its upper end secured on the plank of the deck. In 
 order to prevent the entrance of water by these scup- 
 
 pers when the ship is inclined, valves of metal are 
 placed over the external outer ends, which close with 
 the pressure of the external water.. In merchant ves- 
 sels, leather pipes, called scupper- hoses, are sometimes 
 nailed round the opening for the same purpose. Some- 
 times scuppers are only leaden pipes passed through 
 the ship's side, and turned and fastened at each end. 
 
 Scuttles, in a ship, holes in the decks, either for air 
 or as passages to the store-rooms ; also openings in a 
 ship's side for the admission of air. If, in order to sink 
 a ship, a hole be cut in her bottom, she is said, in Nauti- 
 cal language, to be scuttled. 
 
 Sea, The jurisdiction over the seas has long been 
 a question of difficulty and of doubtful right. Gro- 
 tius published his Mare Liberum against the Portu- 
 guese claim to an exclusive trade to the Indies through 
 th^ South Atlantic and Indian oceans, and he proves 
 the sea is not capable of private dominion. He vindi- 
 cates the free navigation of the seas, and the right of 
 commerce, and exposes the absurdity of the Portuguese 
 claim, Selden's Mare Clausum was written in answer 
 to the doctrine of Grotius, and he undertook to prove, 
 by the laws, usages, and opinions of all nations, ancient 
 and modem, that the sea was capable of private do- 
 minion. He asserted that the Knglish had long claimed 
 and enjoyed a supremacy over the surrounding and 
 narrow seas. Bynkersholck concedes to Selden much 
 of his argument, and admits that private dominion may 
 be exercised over adjoining seas ; but denies the right 
 of the English on the ground of a want of uninterrupted 
 possession. 
 
 Thp claim of dominion to close or narrow seas is 
 still subject to discussion. As far as a nation can con- 
 veniently occupy, and that occupancy is acquired by 
 prior possession or treaty, the jurisdiction is exclusive. 
 Navigable rivers which flow through a territory, and 
 the sea-coast adjoining it, and the navigable waters 
 
SEA 
 
 1691 
 
 SEA 
 
 included ia bays, and between headlands and arms of 
 the sea, belong to the people of the adjoining territory, 
 as being necessary to the safety of the nation, and to 
 the undisturbed use of the neigboring shores. The 
 open sea is not capable of being possessed as private 
 property. The free use of the ocean for navigation 
 and fishing is common to aU mankind, and the public 
 jurists generally and explicitly deny the main ocean 
 can ever be appropriated. The subjects of all nations 
 meet there, in time of peace, on a footing of entire 
 equality and independence. No nation has any right 
 or jurisdiction at sea, except it be over the persons of 
 its own subjects, in its own private and public vessels ; 
 and so far territorial jurisdiction may be considered or 
 preserved as portions of its territory, and persons on 
 board are protected and governed by the law of the 
 country to which the vessels belong. They may be 
 punished for offenses against the municipal laws of 
 the State, committed on board of its public and pri- 
 vate vessels at sea, and on board of its public vessels in 
 foreign ports. This jurisdiction is confined to the ship ; 
 and no ship has a right to prohibit the approach of an- 
 other at sea, or to draw round her a line of territorial 
 jurisdiction, within which no other is at liberty to in- 
 trude. Every vessel has a right, in time of peace, to 
 consult its own safety and convenience, and to pursue 
 its own course and business without being disturbed, 
 when it does not violate the rights of others. As to 
 narrow seas and waters approaching the land, there 
 have been manj' and sharp controversies among Euro- 
 pean nations concerning the claim of exclusive domin- 
 ion. The questions arising on this claim are not verj' 
 clearly defined and settled, and extravagant pretensions 
 are occasionally put forward. * * * Pufiendorf admits 
 that in a narrow sea the dominion of it may belong to 
 the sovereigns of the adjoining shores. Vattel, also, lays 
 down the position that the various uses to which the sea 
 contiguous to the coast may be applied, render it justly 
 the subject of property. * * * Chitty, in his work on 
 Commercial Law, has entered into an elaborate vindica^ 
 tion of the British title to the four seas surrounding the 
 British Islands, and known by the name of British Seas, 
 and, consequently, to the exclusivef right of fishing 
 and of controlling the navigation of foreigners there- 
 in. * * * On the other hand. Sir William Scott did 
 not treat the claim of territorj- to contiguous portions 
 of the sea with much indulgence. He said the general 
 inclination of the law was against it ; for in the sea, out 
 of the reach of cannon shot, universal law was pre- 
 sumed, in like manner as a common use in rivers flow- 
 ing through conterminous states was presumed; and 
 yet in both cases there might exist a peculiar proper- 
 ty excluding the universal or common use.-^KBNT's 
 Com. vol. i. 
 
 The United States have recognized the general limit 
 ation of a marine league, or a cannon-shot distance ; but 
 considering the contour of our coast, the law of nations 
 would justify, and it would not be unreasonable for us 
 to claim, the control of the waters from Cape Ann to 
 Cape Cod, and from Nantucket to Montauk Point, and 
 from that point to the Capes of the Delaware, and from 
 the South Cape of Florida to some point on our coast 
 west of the mouth of the Mississippi, 
 
 Seal (Lat. SigiUuni),: a stone, piece of metal, or oth- 
 er solid substance, generally round or elliptical, on 
 which is engraved the arras, crest, name, device, etc., 
 of some state, prince, public body, or private individ- 
 ual. It is employed as a stamp to make an impression 
 on sealing-wax, therebj' authenticating public acts, 
 deeds, etc., or to close letters or packets. Seals were 
 very early invented, and much learnings has been em- 
 ployed in tracing their histoiy, and explaining the fig- 
 ures upon them. See particularly the work of Hop- 
 KiNCK, De Sigillorum Frisco el Novo Jure, 4to, 1642. 
 
 Seal-fishery. The seal, an amphibious animal, 
 of which there are manj' varieties, is found in vast 
 numbers in the seas round Spitzbergen, and on the 
 
 coasts of Labrador and Newfoundland. Seals are prin- 
 cipally hunted for their oil and skins. When taken 
 in the spring of the j'car, when they are fattest, a full- 
 grown seal will yield from 8 to 12 gallons of oil, and a 
 small one from 4 to 5 gallons. The oil, when extracted 
 before putrefaction has commenced, is beautifully trans- 
 parent, free from smell, and not unpleasant in its 
 taste. The skin; when tanned, is extensively employ- 
 ed in the making of shoes ; and, when dressed with the 
 hair on, serves for the covering of trunks, etc. — For 
 an account of the imports of seal skins, see article Furs. 
 
 To the Esquimaux the seal is of as much importance 
 as bread to a European. Its flesh forms their most 
 usual food V the fat is partly dressed for eating, and 
 partly consumed in their lamps ; the liver, when fried, 
 is esteemed, even among sailors, as an agreeable dish. 
 The skin, which the Esquimaux dress by processes pe- 
 culiar to themselves, is made water-proof. With the 
 hair off, it is used as coverings, instead of planks, for 
 their boats, ■ and as outer garments for themselves ; 
 shielded with which, they can invert themselves and 
 canoes in the water, without getting their bodies wet. 
 It serves also for coverings for their tents, and for va- 
 rious other purposes. The jaclcets and trowsers made 
 of seal skin by the Esquimaux are in great request 
 among the whale-fishers for preserving them from oil 
 and wet. — Scoeesby's Arctic Regions, vol. i. p. 510. 
 Seals in fine weather prefer the ice to the water, and 
 vast herds of them are frequently found lying on the 
 field ice ; the places where they are met with being 
 thence called '* seal meadows." The seal hunters en- 
 deavor to surprise them while sleeping, and to intercept 
 their retreat to the water. They attack them with mus- 
 kets and bludgeons, but principally the latter, they be- 
 ing easily dispatched by a blow on the nose. The seal- 
 fishery has long been prosecuted to a considerable ex- 
 tent in the Northern seas by ships from the Elbe and 
 the Weser. But very few ships have been sent out for 
 sealing only from England, though occasionally some 
 of the whale-ships have taken large quantities of seals. 
 Latterty, however, the seal-fishery has been prosecu- 
 ted on a large scale, and with extraordinary success, 
 by vessels of from 60 to 120 tons each, having crews of 
 from 16 to 80 men, fitted out from the ports of New- 
 foundland, Nova Scotia, etc. The business is attend- 
 ed with a good deal of risk, and instances frequently 
 occur of the vessels being crushed to pieces by the col- 
 lision of the fields of ice. We borrow the following 
 details from Mr. Bliss's tract on the Track, Statistics, 
 etc., oy Canada and North American Possessions: 
 
 " There is another department of the colonial fisherj' 
 which has originated within no distant period, and is 
 now of great extent and importance. The large fields 
 of ice which, in the months of March and April, drift 
 southward from the Polar seas, are accompanied by 
 manj' herds of seals ; these are found sleeping in what 
 are called the seal nieadows of the ice, and are there 
 attacked and slaughtered in vast numbers. For this 
 purpose the fishers of Newfoundland, from which island 
 these voyages are principally made, without waiting 
 till the return of spring shall have opened their har^ 
 bors, saw channels through the ice for their vessels, 
 and set sail in quest of those drifting fields, through 
 the openings of which they work a passage, attended 
 with great difiiculties and dangers, till they encounter 
 their prey on the seal meadows. This bold and haz- 
 ardous enterprise seems well compensated by its suc- 
 cess. The number of seals thus taken is almost in- 
 credible, and is greatly on the increase" (p. 70). — Liv- 
 ing Age, xxvii. 186. See articles Fishekies, Oils, 
 Newfoundland, and Labrador ; see also M'Geeg- 
 ok's British America, 2d edit., and Sabike's American 
 Fisheries. There is a good account of the seal in 
 Laing's Voyage to Sjpitzbergen. 
 
 Sealing -vrax (Ger. Siegelladk; Fr. Cire d'Es- 
 pagne, Cire a cacheter ; It. Cera Lacca, Cera di Spagna ; 
 Sp. Lacre ; Euss. SurgutscK), the wax used for sealihg 
 
SEA 
 
 1692 
 
 SEA 
 
 letters, legal instruments, etc. It is a composition of 
 gum-lac, melted and incorporated with resin, and after- 
 ward colored with some pigment, as vermilion, ver- 
 diter, ivorj' black, etc. 
 
 The Hindoos from time immemorial have possessed 
 the resin lac, and were long accustomed to use it for 
 sealing manuscripts before it was known in Europe. 
 It was first imported from the East into Venice, and 
 then into Spain ; in which coimtr}' sealing-wax became 
 the object of a considerable commerce, under the name 
 of Spanish wax. 
 
 If shell-lac be compounded into sealing-wax imme- 
 diately after it has been separated by fusion from the 
 palest qualities of stick or seed lac, it then forms a bet- 
 ter and less brittle article than when the shell-lac is 
 fused a second time. Hence sealing-wax rightly pre- 
 pared in the East Indies, deserves a preference over 
 what can be made in other countries, where the lac is 
 not indigenous. Shell-lac can be restored in some de- 
 gree, however, to a plastic and tenacious state by melt- 
 ing it with a very small portion of turpentine. The 
 palest shell-lac is to be selected for bright-colored seal- 
 ing-wax, the dark kind being reserved for black. 
 
 Seamen, the individuals engaged in navigating 
 ships, barges, etc., upon the high seas. Those em- 
 ployed for this purpose upon rivers, lakes, or canals are 
 denominated watermen. 
 
 Of the Rights and Duties of Seamen. — The seamen 
 employed in the merchant service are made subject to 
 special regulations prescribed by acts of Congress. 
 Shipping articles are contracts in writing or in print, 
 declaring the voyage and the term of time for which 
 the seamen are shipped, and when they are to render 
 themselves on board ; and the articles are to be signed 
 by every seaman or mariner on all voyages from the 
 United States to a foreign port ; and, in certain cases, 
 to a port in another State other than an adjoining one. 
 If there be no such contract, the master is bound to 
 pay every seaman who performs the voyage the high- 
 est wages given at the port for a similar voyage within 
 the next three preceding months, besides forfeiting for 
 every seaman a penalty of twenty dollars. 
 
 The seamen are made subject to forfeitures if thej' 
 do not render themselves on board to the contract, or 
 if they desert the service ; and thej^ are liable to sum- 
 marj' imprisonment for desertion, and to be detained 
 until the ship be ready to sail. If the mate and a 
 majority of the crew, after the voyage is begun, but 
 before the vessel has left the land, deem the vessel 
 unsafe, or not duly provided, and shall require an ex- 
 amination of the ship, the master must proceed to, or 
 stop at, the nearest or most convenient port, where an 
 inquiry is to be made, and the master and crew must 
 conform to the judgment of the experienced persons 
 selected by the district judge, or a justice of the peace. 
 If the complaint shall appear to have been without 
 foundation, the expenses and reasonable damages to 
 have been ascertained by the judge or justice are to 
 be deducted from the wages of the seamen. But if the 
 vessel be found or made seaworthy, and the seamen 
 shall refuse to proceed on the voyage, they are sub- 
 jected to imprisonment until they pay double the ad- 
 vance made to them on the shipping contract. Fish- 
 ermen engaged in the fisheries are liable to like penal- 
 ties for desertion ; and the fishing contract must be in 
 writing signed by the shipper and the fishermen, and 
 countersigned by the owner. 
 
 The articles do not determine exclusively who are 
 the owners, and the seamen may prove by other doc- 
 uments the real and responsible owners. The object 
 of the articles is to place the crew of a fishing vessel 
 upon a footing with seamen in the merchant service, 
 and to make them liable to the same restrictions, and 
 entitled to the same remedies. Provision is made, for 
 the prompt recovery of seamen's wages, of which one- 
 third is due at every port at which the vessel shall un- 
 load and deliver her cargo before the voyage be ended ; 
 
 and at the end of the voyage the seamen may proceed 
 in the District Court by admiralty process against the 
 ship, if the wages be not paid within ten days after 
 they are discharged. The seamen having like cause 
 of complaint, may all join in one suit, and they may 
 proceed against the vessel within the ten days, if she 
 be about to proceed to sea ; but this remedy in rem 
 does not deprive the seamen of their remedy at com- 
 mon law for the recovery of their wages. 
 
 Every ship belonging to a citizen of the United 
 States, of the burden of 150 tons or upward, and nav- 
 igated by six or more persons, and bound from any 
 port in the United States to any port in the West In- 
 dies, shall be provided with a medicine-chest, properly 
 supplied with fresh and sound medicines ; and, if bound 
 on a voyage across the Atlantic Ocean, with requisite 
 stores of water, and salted meat, and wholesome ship- 
 bread, well secured under deck. A fund shall be raised 
 out of the mariners' wages earned on board of anj' ves- 
 sel of the United States, and be paid by the master to 
 the collector of the port, on entry from a foreign port, 
 at the rate of twenty cents per month for every sea- 
 man. The like assessment is to be made and paid on 
 the new enrollment and license for carrying on the 
 coasting trade, and also by persons navigating boats 
 and rafts on the Mississippi. The moneys so raised 
 are to be expended for the temporary relief of sick and 
 disabled seamen in hospitals and other proper institu- 
 tions established for such purpose; and the surplus 
 moneys, when sufficiently accumulated, shall be applied 
 to the erection of marine hospitals for the accommoda- 
 tion of sick and disabled seamen. The hospitals, as 
 far as it can be done with convenience, are to receive 
 sick foreign seamen on a charge of seventy-five cents 
 per day, to be paid by the master of the foreign vessel. 
 
 And to relieve American seamen who may be found 
 destitute in foreign places, it is the duty of the Amer- 
 ican consuls and commercial agents to provide for 
 those who may be found destitute within their consular 
 districts, and for their passages to some port in the Unit- 
 ed States, in a reasonable manner, at the expense of 
 the United States ; and American vessels are bound to 
 take such seamen on board at the request of the con- 
 sul, but not exceeding two men to everj' hundred tons 
 burden of the ship, and transport them to the United 
 States on such terms, not exceeding $10 for each per- 
 son, as may be agreed on. So, if an American vessel 
 be sold in a foreign port, and her company discharged, 
 or a seaman be discharged with his consent, the master 
 must pay to the consul or commercial agent three 
 months' pay over and above the wages then due for 
 everj' such seaman, two-thirds of which is to be paid 
 over to every seaman so discharged, upon his engage- 
 ment on board of any vessel to return to the United 
 States, and the remaining third to be retained for the 
 purpose of creating a fund for the maintenance and 
 return of destitute American seamen in such foreign 
 ports. 
 
 The master is personally responsible in damages for 
 any injur)' or loss to the ship or cargo by reason of his 
 negligence or misconduct. He has authority to im- 
 prison, and also inflict reasonable corporeal punish- 
 ment, upon a seaman for disobedience to reasonable 
 commands, or for disorderly, riotous, or insolent con- 
 duct. If the correction be excessive or imjustifiable, 
 the seaman is sure to receive compensation for dam- 
 ages on his return to port in an action at common law. 
 And it must be an extreme case that will justify a mas- 
 ter to confine a seaman in a common jail in a foreign 
 port. He can not do it as a punishment, but only by 
 way of precaution under existing circumstances. The 
 master may also confine a passenger who refuses to 
 submit to the necessary discipline of the ship. The 
 master has also the right to discharge a seaman for 
 just causes, and put him ashore in a foreign country ; 
 but the causes must be not slight, but aggravated ; such 
 as habitual disobedience, mutinous conduct, theft, or 
 
SEA 
 
 1693 
 
 SEA 
 
 babituol drankenness ; and he is responsible in dam- 
 ages if he discharge him •without just cause. This 
 power of discharge extends to the mate and subordi- 
 nate oificers as well as the seamen. But it would 
 require a case of flagrant disobedience, or gross negli- 
 gence, or palpable want of skill, to authorize a captain 
 to displace a mate, who is generally chosen with the 
 consent of the owners, and with a view to the better 
 safety of the ship and the security of their property. 
 
 Tlie master must receive back a seaman whom he 
 has discharged, if he reports and offers to return to his 
 duty and make satisfaction ; and if the master refuses, 
 or the seaman has been unduly discharged, he may fol- 
 low the ship, and recover his wages for the voyage, and 
 his expenses for his return. The master subjects him- 
 self to fine and imprisonment if, without justifiable 
 cause, he maliciously force an officer or mariner on 
 shore while abroad, or leaves him behind in any foreign 
 port or place, or refuses to bring home those whom he 
 took out, and are in a condition and willing to return. 
 The expense of curing a sick seaman in the course of 
 the voyage is a charge upon the ship in the nature of 
 additional wages during sickness. 
 
 The act of Congress requires that in seamen's ship- 
 ping articles the voj'age and the term of time for which 
 the seamen may have shipped be specified. The regula- 
 tion relates to voyages/rom a port in the United States, 
 and it does not apply to a voyage commencing from a 
 foreign port to the United States. The voyage within 
 the attention of the statute means one having a definite 
 commencement and end. The terminus a quo and the 
 terminus ad quern must be stated precisely ; and in a 
 case of general adventure the term of service must be 
 specified. A voyage from New York to the Curacoa 
 and elsewhere means, in shipping articles, a voyage 
 from New York to Curacoa, and the word elsewhere is 
 rejected as being void for uncertainty. Seamen in the 
 merchant service are usually hired at a certain sum, 
 either by the month or for the voyage. In the fishing 
 trade the seamen usually serve under an engagement 
 to receive a portion of the profits of the adventure. 
 The share or profits of the voyage are a substitute for 
 regular wages, and the act of Congress (19th June, 
 1813) extends the admiralty jurisdiction to the cogni- 
 zance of suits for shares in whaling voyages in the 
 same form and manner as in ordinarj' cases of wages in 
 the merchant service. Ever;' seaman engaged to serve 
 on board a ship is bound, from the nature and terms of 
 the contract, to do his dutj' in the service to the utmost 
 of his ability ; and, therefore, a promise made by the 
 master when the ship is in distress, to pay extra wages 
 as on inducement to extraordinarj' exertion, is illegal 
 and void. It would be the same if some of the crew 
 had deserted, or were sick, or dead, or peculiar efforts 
 became requisite ; for the general engagement of the 
 seamen is to do all they can for the good of the service 
 under all the emergencies of the voyage. 
 
 A seaman is entitled to his whole wages for the voy- 
 age, even though he be unable to render his service by 
 sickness or bodily injurj' happening in the course of the 
 voyage, and while he was in the performance of his 
 duty. He will equally be entitled to his wages to the 
 end of his voyage when wrongfully discharged by the 
 master in the course of it. The marine law distin- 
 guishes between the cases in which seamen's services 
 are not rendered in consequence of a peril of the sea, 
 and in which they are not rendered by reason of some 
 illegal act, or misconduct, or fraud, of the master or 
 owner mterrupting and destroying the voyage. In 
 the latter cases the seamen are entitled to their wa- 
 ges. If a seaman be wrongfully discharged on the 
 voyage, the voyage is then ended with respect to 
 him, and he is entitled to sue for his full wages for the 
 voyage. 
 
 Freight is the mother of wages, and if no freight be 
 earned no wages are due ; but the freight must not be 
 lost by the fraud or wrongful act of the master. The 
 
 rule applies to cases of loss of freight by a peril of the 
 sea. Seamen's wages in trading voyages are due pro 
 rata itineris. If the seaman dies on the voyage, it was 
 decided in the Circuit or District Court of the United 
 States in Pennsylvania that the representatives were 
 entitled to full wages to the end of the voyage ; and on 
 the other hand, in the District Court of South Carolina 
 and Massachusetts, it was decided that full wages by 
 marine law meant only full wages up to the death of 
 the mariner. As the payment of wages depends, in 
 general, upon the earning of freight, if a ship delivers 
 her outward cargo, and perishes on her return voyage, 
 and the outward freight be earned, the seamen's wages 
 on the outward voyage are consequently due. 
 
 By the custom of merchants, seamen's wages are 
 due at every delivering port, and their wages are not 
 affected, without their special agreement, by any stip- 
 ulation between the owners and the charterers, making 
 the voyages out and home one entire voyage, and the 
 freight to depend on the accomplishment of the entire 
 voyage out and in. The owners may waive or modify 
 their claim to freight as they please, but their acts 
 can not deprive the seamen, without their conseq^, of 
 the rights belonging to them by the general principles 
 of the marine law. They are entitled to wages not 
 onlj' when the owner earns freight, but when, unless 
 for his own act, he may earn it. "The wages are due 
 by an arrival at a port of destination, when no cargo is 
 on board, or when the owner chooses to bring the cargo 
 back again, and when the port of destination be not, 
 in fact, the port of delivery. Even if the ship perish- 
 es on the. outward voyage, yet, if part of the outward 
 freight has been paid, the seamen are entitled to wages 
 in proportion to the amount of the freight advanced, 
 for there is an inseparable connection between freight 
 and wages. In case of capture, the seamen taken 
 prisoners by the captor and detained are entitled to 
 their wages for the whole voyage, if the same be aft- 
 erward performed, with a ratable dedction for the ex- 
 penses of salvage. The same is the case of a vessel 
 captured and afterward ransomed, and enabled to ar- 
 rive at her port of destination. In the case of ship- 
 wreck, if any proportion of freight be paid for the cargo 
 saved, wages of seamen are to bo paid in the same 
 proportion. 
 
 Mariners are bound to contribute out of their wages 
 for embezzlements of the cargo, or injuries produced 
 by the misconduct of any of the crew. But the cir- 
 cumstances must be such as to fix the wrong upon 
 some of the crew ; and then, if the individual be un- 
 known, those of the crew upon whom the presumption 
 of guilt rests sf;and as sureties for each other, and they 
 must contribute ratably to the loss. » Where the em- 
 bezzlement has arisen from the fault, fraud, conniv- 
 ance, or negligence of any of the crew, they are bound 
 to contribute to the reparation of the loss, in proportion 
 to their wages. "Where no reasonable presumption is 
 shown against their innocence, the loss must be borne 
 exclusively by the owner or master. 
 
 In case of shipwreck, and there be relics or materials 
 of the ship saved, the seamen by whose exertions part 
 of a vessel had been saved are allowed the payment of 
 their wages, as far as the fragments of the materials 
 would form a fund, although there was no freight 
 earned by the owners. But in such cases where the 
 voyage is broken up by vis major, and no freight earn- 
 ed, no wages eo nomine are due; and the equitable 
 claim which seamen may have upon the remains of 
 the wreck is rather a claim to salvage than a title to 
 wages. Wages in such cases would be contrarj' to the 
 principle of marine law — ^that freight is the mother of 
 wages, and the safety of the ship the mother of freight. 
 If, however, the seamen abandon the wreck of a ship, 
 as being a hopeless case, and without the intention of 
 returning to possess and save it, they lose their lien 
 or privilege for any equitable compensation, whether 
 as wages or salvage — their claim is extinguished ; and 
 
SEA 
 
 1694 
 
 SEA 
 
 though other persons may possess the property which 
 had been derelict, it belongs to the original owner, 
 burdened for their claim for salvage. 
 
 By the act of Congress, one-third of seamen's wages 
 is due at the port where the ship unlades and delivers 
 her cargo, unless there be an express stipulation to the 
 contrary ; and when the voyage is ended, and the cargo 
 or ballast is fully discharged, the wages are due, and 
 if not paid within ten days thereafter, admiralty pro- 
 cess may be instituted. But there is no iixed period 
 of time within which mariners must proceed to enforce 
 lien for wages. It does not, lilse other liens, depend 
 upon possession. The seamen need not libel the ves- 
 sel at the intermediate port at which they are dis- 
 charged. They may disregard bottomry bonds, and 
 pursue their liens for wages afterward, even against a 
 subsequent bonajide purchaser. It follows the ship and 
 its proceeds, into whose hands soever they may come 
 by title or purchase. Their demand for wages takes pre- 
 cedence of bottomry bonds, and is preferred to all other 
 demands. Their claim is a sacred lien, and as long 
 as a single plank of the ship remains the sailor is en- 
 titled, as against all other persons, to the proceeds as 
 a security for his wages. The seamens' lien exists to 
 the extent of the whole compensation due them. There 
 is no difference between the case of a vessel seized 
 abroad, and restored in specie or in value ; the lien re- 
 attaches to the thing, and to whatever is substituted 
 for it. Desertion from the ship without just cause, or 
 the justifiable discharge of a seaman by the master for 
 bad conduct, will work a forfeiture of the wages pre- 
 viously earned. Desertion is accompanied with a for- 
 feiture of all the wages that are due ; and whatever 
 unjustifiable conduct will warrant the act of the mas- 
 ter in discharging a seaman during the voyage, will 
 equally deprive the seaman of his wages. But the 
 forfeiture is saved if the seaman repents, makes com- 
 
 pensation or offer of amends, and is restored to his 
 duty. 
 
 The master has power to remit a forfeiture, and the 
 penalty of forfeiture is not applied to slight faults, ei- 
 ther of neglect or disobedience. There must either be 
 an habitual neglect, or disobedience, or drunkenness, or 
 else a single act of gross dishonesty, or some other act 
 of a heinous and aggravated nature, to justify the dis- 
 charging a seaman in a foreign port, or the forfeiture 
 of wages ; nor will the admiralty courts, except in case 
 of great atrocity, visit the offenses of seamen with the 
 accumulated load of forfeiture of wages and compen- 
 sation in damages. They stop at the forfeiture of 
 wages antecedently earned ; and in the application of 
 forfeiture the advance wages are made a charge on the 
 forfeited wages, but the hospital money is apportioned 
 ratably on the wages for the whole voyage. If the 
 seaman quits the ship involuntarilj', oris driven ashore 
 bj' reason of cruel usage, and for personal safety, the 
 wages are not forfeited. On the other hand, it is the 
 dut}' of the seamen to abide by the vessel as long as 
 reasonable hope remains ; and if they desert the ship 
 under circumstances of danger or distress from perils 
 of the sea, when their presence and exertions might 
 have prevented damage, or restored the ship to safety, 
 they forfeit their wages, and are answerable in dam- 
 ages. And even when a seaman might well have been 
 discharged in the course of the voyage for gross mis- 
 behavior, if the master refuses to discharge him, and 
 leaves him in imprisonment abroad, he will in that case 
 be entitled to his wages until his return to the United 
 States, after deducting from the claim his time of im- 
 prisonment. — Leone Levi's Com. Law of the World, 
 vol. ii. p. 226. See Mercantile Guide, London, 8vo ; 
 Am. Whig Rev., ii. 230. Hospitals for Seamen, 
 see New Englarid Review, iii. 481 ; Hunt's Merchants^ 
 Mag., xi. 344, xi. 230 (J. H. Lanman). 
 
 Statement of Receipts aud Classification of Expekditttees of the Marine Hospital Fitnd of tub United States* 
 
 FOE THE fiscal YeAS ENDING JoNE 30, 1857. 
 
 Steles. 
 
 Seamen 
 
 admits 
 
 ted. 
 
 Seamen 
 
 dis- 
 charged. 
 
 Board and Medical 
 Nursing. 1 Services 
 
 Medi- 
 cine. 
 
 TrliTSl- 
 ing Ex- 
 penses. 
 
 Cloth- 
 ing. 
 
 other 
 Cljarges. 
 
 Funeral 
 Expendi- 
 tures. 
 
 Deaths. 
 
 Total Ex- 
 penditures 
 
 Hospital 
 
 Money 
 collected. 
 
 Maine 
 
 410 
 113 
 
 14 
 654 
 125 
 123 
 1236 
 
 27 
 2S2 
 
 284 
 33 
 226 
 316 
 173 
 29T 
 134 
 11 
 285 
 1279 
 114 
 627 
 235 
 201 
 641 
 658 
 197 
 
 '25 
 144 
 
 1247 
 9722 
 
 481 
 112 
 
 16 
 554 
 128 
 146 
 1,305 
 
 31 
 384 
 
 251 
 30 
 227 
 893 
 213 
 284 
 146 
 12 
 295 
 1,254 
 156 
 43S 
 
 rs 
 
 250 
 678 
 576 
 200 
 
 '23 
 111 
 
 l,2i2 
 
 $8,873 
 
 783 
 
 136 
 
 19,094 
 
 1,979 
 
 1,845 
 
 33,955 
 
 704 
 
 14,476 
 
 iissi 
 
 682 
 4,146 
 5,767 
 8,869 
 2.735 
 9,365 
 6,130 
 6,882 
 
 84,767 
 4,980 
 9,887 
 6,864 
 
 13,266 
 2,753 
 
 11,626 
 2,323 
 
 12;i36 
 1,029 
 
 38,630 
 
 7 
 
 $2,957 
 
 ■248 
 
 62 
 
 2,694 
 
 837 
 
 343 
 
 996 
 
 287 
 
 1,197 
 
 ■"a 
 
 2,667 
 2,632 
 
 137 
 1,011 
 1,904 
 2,222 
 2,369 
 3,541 
 57 
 
 998 
 
 866 
 1,217 
 1,741 
 1,882 
 
 877 
 
 2',754 
 4,166 
 
 $478 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 1,625 
 
 435 
 
 13 
 
 684 
 
 60 
 
 404 
 
 361 
 575 
 
 625 
 
 749 
 
 68 
 
 914 
 
 2,330 
 
 19 
 
 443 
 
 4'19 
 
 1,336 
 
 4 
 
 841 
 
 124 
 
 1,048 
 
 2,971 
 
 $4 
 
 'is 
 
 '84 
 "3 
 
 $574 
 
 '"k 
 
 25 
 
 $391 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 2,834 
 
 84 
 
 22 
 
 863 
 
 10 
 
 279 
 
 "44 
 
 6 
 
 65 
 
 191) 
 
 41 
 
 44 
 
 636 
 
 231 
 
 1,31T 
 
 407 
 
 60 
 
 970 
 
 '429 
 
 82 
 
 8,511 
 
 74 
 
 2,462 
 
 1,021 
 
 10 
 
 ■463 
 
 $53 
 6 
 
 '64 
 24 
 72 
 
 344 
 16 
 
 226 
 
 ioo 
 
 12 
 83 
 64 
 114 
 114 
 65 
 
 '66 
 
 192 
 
 30 
 
 100 
 
 252 
 
 121 
 
 48 
 
 84 
 
 26 
 
 241 
 13 
 
 674 
 
 8 
 1 
 
 25 
 3 
 11 
 
 58 
 3 
 30 
 
 26 
 2 
 9 
 8 
 19 
 19 
 ■ 9 
 
 ii 
 
 49 
 5 
 51 
 40 
 20 
 8 
 
 16 
 4 
 
 '3 
 
 48 
 
 $12,768 
 1,()60 
 208 
 26,316 
 3,310 
 2,297 
 36,703 
 1,038 
 17,159 
 
 4,'532 
 701 
 
 6,610 
 
 9,254 
 
 3,662 
 
 4,615 
 12,701 
 
 7,652 
 11,673 
 41,247 
 
 6,143 
 12,405 
 
 8,482 
 16,415 
 
 4,635 
 22,444 
 
 3,430 
 
 2,'462 
 
 17,202 
 
 1,053 
 
 46,'856 
 
 $6,907 
 
 197 
 
 176 
 
 21,627 
 
 1,492 
 
 3,336 
 
 50,138 
 
 4,749 
 
 9,972 
 
 1,183 
 
 7,172 
 
 400 
 
 6,699 
 
 2,300 
 
 2,225 
 
 820 
 
 2,750 
 
 324 
 
 1,984 
 
 15,111 
 
 1,060 
 
 4,482 
 
 3,'967 
 
 2,157 
 
 3,105 
 
 924 
 
 102 
 
 304 
 
 1,066 
 
 732 
 
 163 
 
 8.884 
 
 2:!S 
 
 $167,350 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Khode Maud 
 
 Coiinecticut 
 
 New Yorlc 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Delaware (no return) 
 
 Maryland 
 
 District of Columbia 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 
 
 Florida 
 
 
 Texas 
 
 
 
 Ohio 
 
 
 Illinois 
 
 
 Iowa (no return) 
 
 Indiana 
 
 
 Oregon Territory . . . 
 
 Washington Territo. 
 Total 
 
 10,006 
 
 $263,6S5|$39,512 
 
 $16,485 
 
 $106 
 
 $611 
 
 $21,540 
 
 $3104 
 
 392 
 
 $343,944 
 
 Relief of Destitute Seamen.— By the fourth section of 
 the act of Congress, 28th February, 1803, it is made 
 the duty of consular officers to provide for the mari- 
 ners of the United States who may be found destitute 
 within their districts sufficient subsistence and passage 
 to the United States, in the most reasonable manner. 
 
 at the expense of the United States, subject to such 
 instruction as the Secretary of State shall give ; and 
 the section also provides for the manner in which such 
 mariners are to be transported to the United States. 
 If any seaman happens at a United States consulate, 
 not from discharge from a vessel, but from shipwreck 
 
SEA 
 
 1695 
 
 SEA 
 
 or otherwise, the same must be stated accordingly, with 
 the time be arrived at the consulate, so that the return 
 will show how and when each relieved seaman hap- 
 pened there. And if no extra wages are received, the 
 reasons why such wages have not been received should 
 appear from the retnni,,or other accompanying papers. 
 When American seamen are discharged in any port 
 from sickness or any other cause, the three months' 
 extra wages should invariably be exacted as required 
 by the acts of February 28, 1808, and of August 18, 
 1856. The three months' extra wages are to be credit- 
 ed in consular accounts, and the two-thirds thereof 
 are not to be paid to seamen until they shall have en- 
 gaged on board some vessel to return to the United 
 States ; and then only when no disbnisements shall 
 have been made on their account. Expenses incurred 
 for them are first to be paid, and the balance only, if 
 any, to be returned them. On payment of the two 
 months' extra wages to seamen, consular officers 'Will 
 talte and forward receipts with their accounts. When- 
 ever a ship or vessel belonging to a citizen of, the 
 United States is sold in a foreign country, and her 
 company discharged, or when a seaman or mariner, 
 a citizen of the United States, is with his own consent 
 discharged in a foreign country, it is the duty of the 
 master or commander to produce to the. consular ofidcer 
 the certified list of his ship's company, and pay to such 
 consular officer for every, seaman or mariner so dis- 
 charged, being designated on such list as a citizen of 
 the United States, three months' pay, over and above 
 the wages which may then be due to such mariner or 
 seaman ; two-thirds tbexeof to be paid by suchiConsular 
 officer to each seaman or mariner so discharged, upon 
 his engagement on board of any vessel to return to the 
 United States, and the other remaining third to be re- 
 tained for the purpose of creating a fund for the pay- 
 ment of the passages of seamen or mariners, citizens 
 of the United States, who may be desirous of return- 
 ing to the United States, and for the maintenance of 
 destitute American seamen. 
 
 Whenever any seaman or mariner of any vessel of 
 the United States deserts such vessel, the master or 
 ' commander of the vessel is required to note the fact 
 and date of the desertion on the list of the crew, and 
 to have the same officiall}' authenticated at the port or 
 place of the consulate or commercial agency first visit- 
 ed by the vessel after such desertion. If the desertion 
 shall have occurred in a foreign countrj', or if, in such 
 case, the vessel shall not visit any place where there 
 is any consulate or commercial agency before lier re- 
 turn to tlie United States, or if the desertion shall have 
 occurred in the United States, the fact and time of de- 
 sertion shall be officially authenticated before a notary 
 public immediately at the first port or place where such 
 vessel arrives after the desertion. AH wages that 
 may be due to such seaman or mariner, and whatever 
 interest he may have in the cargo of such vessel, shall 
 be forfeited to and become the property of the United 
 States, and paid over for their use to the collector of 
 the port where the crew of such vessel are accounted 
 for as soon as the same can be ascertained, first de- 
 ducting therefrom any expense which may necessa^ 
 lily have been incurred on account of Such vessel in 
 consequence of such desertion. In settling the ac- 
 count of such wages or interest, no allowance or deduc- 
 tion shall be m»de, except for moneys actually paid, 
 or goods at a fair price supplied, or expenses incurred 
 to or for such seaman or mariner, any receipt or vouch- 
 er from or arrangement with such seaman or mariner 
 to the contrary notwithstanding. 
 
 Upon the application of any seaman or mariner for 
 a discharge, if it shall appear to the consular officer 
 that he is entitled to his discharge under any act of 
 Congress, or according to the general principles or 
 usages of maritime law as recognized in the United 
 States, he is required to discharge such seaman or 
 mariner, and require from the master or commander of 
 
 the ship or vessel from which such discharge shall be 
 made the payment of three months' extra wagesj as 
 provided by the act approved February 28, 1803 ; and 
 it shall be the duty of such master or commander to 
 pay the same, and no such payment, or any part there- 
 of, shall be remitted in any case, except such as are 
 mentioned in the preceding section, and in cases of 
 wrecked or stranded ships or vessels, or ships or ves- 
 sels condemned as unfit for service, when no payment 
 of extra wages shall be required.' The extra wages 
 required to be paid by the foregoing clause of this sec- 
 tion are applicable to the same purposes and in the 
 same manner as is directed by the act approved Feb- 
 ruary 28, 1803, in regard to tlie extra wages required 
 to be paid by that act. 
 
 If the first officer, or any officer and a majority of 
 the crew, of any vessel make complaint in writing that 
 she is in an unsuitable condition to go to sea, because 
 she is leaky, or insufficiently supplied with sails, rig- 
 ging, anchors, or any other equipment, or that the crew 
 is insufficient to man her, or thather provisions, stores, 
 and supplies are not, or have not been during the voy- 
 age, sufficient and wholesome, thereupon, in any of 
 these or like cases, the consular officer of the port is 
 required to appoint two disinterested competent prac- 
 tical men,, acquainted with maritime affairs, to ex- 
 amine into the causes of complaint, who must, in their 
 report, state what defects and deficiencies, if any, they 
 find to be well founded, as well as what, in their judg- 
 ment, ought to be done to put the vessel in order for 
 the continuance of her voyage. 
 
 By the 4th section of the act of February 28, 1803, 
 all masters and commanders of vessels belonging to 
 citizens of the United States, and bound to some port 
 of the same, are required and enjoined to take on board 
 their ships or vessels, at the request of the consular 
 officers, such American seamen as may be found in 
 their districts respectively, and to transport them to 
 the port in the- United' States. to which such ships or 
 vessels may be bound, on such terms, not exceeding 
 ten dollars for each person, as may be agreedupon be- 
 t\yeen the said masters and consular officers. And the 
 said seamen shall, if able, be bound to do duty on board 
 such ships or vessels according to their several abili- 
 ties. To enable the master of the vessel to obtain 
 the payment specified, the consular officer will give 
 him a certificate, stating the names of the seamen 
 placed on board, and the amount to be paid for their 
 passage; on which, upon the arrival of the vessel in a 
 port of the United States, an indorsement must be 
 made by the collector of the customs at such port, 
 stating that such seamen have arrived in said vessel in 
 his district. When the certificate so indorsed is re- 
 ceived at the Treasury Department, the amount will 
 be paid to its holfler. No master or captain of any 
 ship or vessel is obliged to take a greater number than 
 two men to every one hundred tons burden of the said 
 ship or vessel on any one voyage. 
 
 Wages of Seamen.- — The general rule in regard to 
 the wages of seamen is, that such wages on board of 
 merchant ships are payable out of the earnings for 
 freight ; and if no freight is earned, by reason of the 
 perils of the sea or capture by the enemy, and not by 
 the fault or neglect of the master or owner, no wages 
 are due. The maxim that "freight is the mother of 
 wages" is a formula which, though it has obtained 
 general currency, is to be carefully scrutinized in its 
 application. A distinction is to be made between 
 those accidents by which the voyage is interrapted and 
 the freight lost, without the fault of the owner or mas- 
 ter, and other causes arising from the acts of the owner 
 or master. If the voyage or freight be lost by the 
 negligence, fraud, or misconduct of the owner or mas- 
 ter, or voluntarily abandoned by them ; if the owner 
 has contracted for freight upon terms or contingencies 
 differing from the general rules of the maritime law ; 
 or, if he has chartered his ship to take a freight at a 
 
SEA 
 
 1696 
 
 SEA 
 
 foreign port, and none is to be earned on the outward 
 voyage — in all these cases the mariner is entitled to 
 ■wages, notwithstanding no freight has accrued. Where 
 freight is, or might he, earned, wages are due for the 
 full period of employment in the ship's service, whether 
 the freight is actually received by the owner or not. 
 No private contract between the owner and the shipper, 
 with regard to freight, can affect the right to wages. 
 
 If the vessel and cargo are lost on the outward voy- 
 age, before any freight is earned, and no part of either 
 is saved by the crew, the wages of the seamen are also 
 lost, and the original contract therefor is annulled, but 
 the advance wages are not in such case to be returned. 
 If the vessel is lost on the homeward voyage, and 
 freight has been, or might have been, by the general 
 principles of law, earned to an outward port, the wages 
 for the outward voyage to that port are deemed to have 
 been earned. No abatement is to be made from the 
 wages in case of the freight being partially lost or 
 diminished by maritime accidents or perils. If freight 
 is earned, whether it be large or small, the whole 
 wages, which are deemed to have been earned, are to 
 be paid without deduction. When the vessel is lost 
 between intermediate ports, the.wages are to be calcu- 
 lated up to the last port of the delivery or receipt of 
 cargo, and for half the time that the ship lies there. 
 Where a voj'age is divided by various ports of deliv- 
 ery, a claim for proportional wages attaches at each of 
 such ports of delivery upon safe arrival ; and all at- 
 tempts to evade or invade that title, by renunciations 
 obtained from the mariners without any consideration, 
 by collateral bonds, or by contracts inserted in the 
 body of the shipping articles, not usual, not fully ex- 
 plained to these illiterate and inexperienced persons, 
 are ineffectual and void. 
 
 Protection and Care of Seamen. — It is provided by the 
 16th section of the act of July 20, 1840, that the crew 
 of any vessel shall have the fullest liberty to lay their 
 complaints before the consular officer in any foreign 
 port, and shall in no respect be restrained or hindered 
 -therein by the master or any officer, unless some suf- 
 ficient and valid objection exist against their landing ; 
 in which case, if any mariner desire to see the consu- 
 lar officer, it shall be the duty of the master to acquaint 
 hira with it forthwith, stating the reason why the 
 mariner is not permitted to land, and that he is de- 
 sired to come on board ; whereupon it shall be the duty 
 of such officer to repair on board and inquire into the 
 causes of the complaint, and proceed therein as the act 
 directs. 
 
 Desertion. — In countries with which the United States 
 have stipulations by treaty or convention to airthorize 
 it, or where it is permitted by the local authorities, 
 consular officers may apprehend deserters as fugitives 
 from justice, and imprison them until required by their 
 commander. — Consular Regulations, United States, 1856. 
 
 For further information upon the rights and duties of 
 seamen, see articles Affreightment, Chaktek-pae- 
 Tv, Commerce, Insurance, Shipping, etc. See also 
 Kent's Com. vol. iii. p. 231 ; Paksons's Mercantile Law, 
 p. 385 ; DuNLAP's Digest of the iMwsofthe U. S. 
 
 SeaTWOrthy, a term applied to a ship, indicating 
 that she is in every respect fit for her voyage. It is 
 provided in all charter-parties that the vessel charter- 
 ed shall be "tight, stanch, and strong, well appareled, 
 furnished with an adequate number of men and mar- 
 iners, tackle, provisions, etc." If the ship be insuffi- 
 cient in any of these particulars, the owners, though 
 ignorant of the circumstance, will be liable for what- 
 ever damage may, in consequence, be done to the goods 
 of the merchant ; and if an insurance have been effect- 
 ed upon her, it will be void. But whether the condi- 
 tion of seaworthiness be expressed in the charter-par- 
 ty or not, it is always implied. " In every contract," 
 said Lord EUenborough, " between a person holding 
 himself forth as the owner of a lighter or vessel ready 
 to carry goods for hire, and the person putting goods 
 
 on board, or employing his vessel or lighter for that 
 purpose, it is a term of the contract on the part of the 
 lighterman or carrier implied by law, that his vessel is 
 tight, and fit for the purpose for which he offers and 
 holds it forth to thg' public ; it is the immediate foun- 
 dation and substratum of the contract that it is so. 
 The law presumes a promise to that effect on the part of 
 the carrier, without any actual proof ; and every reason 
 of sound policy and public convenience requires that it 
 should be so." 
 
 A ship is not seaworthy unless she be provided with 
 all the documents orpapers necessary for the mani- 
 festation of the ship and cargo. Neither is she sea- 
 worthy, if, during war,. she be not supplied with the 
 sails required to facilitate her escape from an enemy. 
 " It is not sufficient to defeat the liability of the owner 
 that he did not know that the ship was not seaworthy, 
 for he ought to have known that she was so at the time 
 he chartered her. The sufficiency of the ship is the 
 foundation of the contract between the parties, and a 
 ship not capable of conveying the goods in a proper 
 state is a failure of the condition precedent to the whole 
 contract. The seaworthiness of the ship is not a ques- 
 tion of fraud or good intention, but it is a positive stip- 
 ulation that the ship shall he so ; and therefore, al- 
 though the owner may himself have been deceived by 
 the ship-builder, repairer, etc., if the vessel be, in fact, 
 unseaworthy, have an insufficient bottom or unsound 
 timbers, it is a breach of a preliminary condition, and 
 is fatal, as such, to the contract." — Holt's JUiw of Ship- 
 ping. It is only necessary, to guarantee the owners 
 from loss, that the ship should be seaworthy at the 
 time of her departure. She may cease to be so in a 
 few hours, and yet they may not be liable. The ques- 
 tion to be decided in such cases always is, whether the 
 ship's disability arose from any defect existing in her 
 htfore her departure, or from a cause which occasioned 
 it afterward. But if a ship, within a day or two of her 
 departure, become leaky or founder at sea, or be obliged 
 to put back, without any visible or adequate cause to 
 produce such an effect — such as the starting of a plank 
 or other accident, to which the best ships are liable, 
 and which no human prudence can prevent — the fair 
 presumption is that she ivas not seaworthy when she 
 sailed ; and it will be incumbent on the owners to show 
 that she was seaworthy at that time. They are liable 
 for damage occasioned by every injury arising from 
 any original defect in the ship, or from bad stowage ; 
 but they are not liable for any injury arising from the 
 act of God, the king's enemies, or the perils of the sea. 
 
 It is further to be observed, that how perfect soever 
 a ship may be, yet if, from the nature of her construc- 
 tion, or any other cause, she be incapable of perform- 
 ing the proposed voyage, with the proposed cargo on 
 board, she is not seaworthy. She must he in all re- 
 spects ft for the trade in which she is meant to be em- 
 ployed. And it is a wholesome rule that the owners 
 should be held to a pretty strict proof of this. It has 
 been already observed that any defect in point of sea- 
 worthiness invalidates an insurance upon a ship. There 
 is not only an express but an implied warranty in ev- 
 ery policy that the ship shall be " tight, stanch, and 
 strong, etc. ;" and the reason of this is plain. The in- 
 surer undertakes to indemnify the insured against the 
 extraordinary and unforeseen perils of the sea ; and it 
 would be absurd to suppose that any man would in- 
 sure against those perils, but in confidence that the 
 ship is in a condition to encounter the ordinary perils 
 to which every ship must be exposed in the usual 
 course of the proposed voyage. 
 
 "In many ports certain equipments would now be 
 considered essential which at an earlier period were 
 not customarj' on the same voyages. Seaworthiness 
 is to be measured by the standard in the ports of the 
 countiy to which the vessel belongs, rather than that 
 in the port or country where the insurance was made. 
 * * "" A vessel may be seaworthy while lying in port 
 
SEE 
 
 1697 
 
 SEX 
 
 for the purposes to which she is to be there applied, 
 when she would not be for the voyage, and she may 
 bo seaworthy for one voyage and not for another. It 
 is sufficient if she be seaworthy for the voyage when 
 she sails. The general rule is, that the vessel must be 
 seaworthy at the commencement of the risk, whatever 
 that risk may be, in order to make the policy attach 
 and charge the insurer. It was held, in the case of 
 Wier vs. Aberdeen, that though a ship be unseaworthy 
 at the commencement of the risk, yet, if the defect be 
 cured before a loss, a subsequent loss is recoverable 
 under the policy. The argument of Lord Tenterden 
 in favor of this doctrine is very weighty, but a doubt 
 seems to have been thrown over its solidity by the 
 Supremo Court of the United States. — See M'Lanahan 
 vs. The Universal Insurance Co. ;" Kent's Com. vol. 
 iii. p. 364. 
 
 For further information upon this subject the read- 
 er is referred to the able and excellent work of Chief- 
 justice Abbot (Lord Tenterden) on the Law of Shipping, 
 part iii. ; Holt ore Shipping, part iii. ; Mr. Sekgeant 
 Marshall ore Insurance ; Kent's Comm. vol. iii. ; and 
 Parsons's Mercantile Law-. 
 
 Seeds, in Commerce, the grains of several species 
 of gramina. Those of most importance are clover seed, 
 flax or linseed, hemp seed, rape seed, mustard seed, 
 etc. ; for which see the respective articles. 
 
 Segars, or Cigars. See Tobacco. 
 
 Seizure, in Commerce, the arrest of some merchan- 
 dise, movable, or other matter, either in consequence 
 of some law, or some express order of the sovereign. 
 Contraband goods, those fraudulently entered, or land- 
 ediwithout entering at all, or at wrong places, are sub- 
 ject to seizure, 
 
 Senegal and Dependencies. Goree is the 
 only port which foreign vessels are permitted to enter. 
 Vessels of the United States pay a duty of 18|- cents 
 per ton. By decree of January 6, 1855, foreign vessels 
 visiting Goree are subject to a duty of 60 centimes per 
 ton, about one half of a franc, or 9-3 cents. They are 
 upon an equal footing with those of France in respect to 
 navigation duties. Up to 1831, the exportation of gum 
 Senegal was limited to France. By a royal ordinance 
 of that year it is permitted to be exported to all coun- 
 tries from the port of Gorfie only. Merchandise of ev- 
 ery kind and of every production (Guineas or India- 
 blue cloths excepted) can be imported into or exported 
 from the Island of Gorfie by vessels of all nations, free 
 of duty. 
 
 The name Senegal is derived from the great river 
 of that name, and includes several small French colo- 
 nies, embracing a number of little islands, and a strip 
 of the main land between the Senegal and Gambia 
 rivers. It is divided into a northern and a southern 
 arrondissement. The total native population of these 
 settlements amounted in 1836 to upward of 18,000. 
 They are all Mohammedan and blacks. The soil of 
 the islands is very poor. The main land, not near the 
 shore, is fertile, and covered with forests. The climate 
 is sultry, and extremely unhealthy. The rainy season 
 lasts from June to October, and breeds fatal diseases. 
 Gold is found near the sources of the Senegal,' but at- 
 tempts to form settlements there have proved abortive. 
 Salt is quite abundant. The vegetable products arc 
 varied and luxuriant. There may be found the gigan- 
 tic palm, the gum, mimosas, ebony, cotton, indigo, cof- 
 fee, annatto, olives, hemp, cassia, sweet potatoes, mil- 
 let, maize, etc. The wild animals are the elephant, lion, 
 hippopotamus, boar, buffalo, tiger-cat, deer, and an im- 
 mense variety of birds. Oxen, goats, mules, horses, 
 and asses are used for domestic purposes, and sheep and 
 hogs are bred. 
 
 The articles of export are raw hides, wax, elephant 
 teeth, gum Senegal, cabinet woods, and gold. The 
 value of the exports, including goods re-exported, is 
 about $1,300,000 ; and the value of the imports is about 
 $2,360,000. The imports are chiefly linen and cotton 
 6P 
 
 goods, ready-made clothing, brandy, liquors, wines, and 
 some provisions. 
 
 Senna (Fr. Sene ; Germ, Sennablaier ; It. Senna ; 
 Sp. /Sere; l,a.t. Cassia. Senna; Arah. Sund). The plant 
 (Cassia Senna) which yields the leaves known in com- 
 merce and the materia medica by. the name of senna is 
 an annual, a native of Upper Egypt, and Bernou in Cen- 
 tral Africa, The senna, after being collected in Upper 
 Egypt, is packed up in bales and sent to BouUac, where 
 it is mixed with other leaves, some of which are nearly 
 equally good, while others are very inferior. After be- 
 ing mixed, it is repacked in bales at Alexandria, and 
 sent to Europe. A great deal of senna is imported from 
 Calcutta and Bombay, under the name of East India 
 senna ; but it is originally brought to them from Ara- 
 bia. — Thomson's Dispensatory. Senna is very extens- 
 ively used in medicine. 
 
 Sequin, a gold coin struck at Venice, and in sev- 
 eral parts of the Grand Seignior's dominions. In Tur- 
 key it is called dahob, or piece of gold, and, according 
 to Volney, is in. value about 3s. 6i. sterling. It varies, 
 however, considerably in its value in difterent coun- 
 tries. At Venice it is equal to about 9«, id. sterling. 
 
 Sewing Machines, a recent French invention for 
 stitching. The piece of cloth is laid down flat upon a 
 cushion ; the seamstress who works the machine sits 
 at a kind of lathe, on which the cushion is laid, and 
 works a treadle with her foot ; at each movement of 
 the treadle a needle descends vertically and pierces 
 the cloth, carrying with it a thread ; the needle has a 
 small hook or notch on one side, which catches and 
 brings up a thread on its return from the hole ; and 
 thus, two or three hundred times in a minute, a thread 
 becomes interlaced in the manner of "chain-stitch," or 
 "tambour work." Tlie machine, which costs twenty 
 or thirty guineas, can embroider as much cloth in an 
 hour as an embroideress can complete in a day. An- 
 other French machine, by M, Seneschal, of Paris, is 
 more complex in its construction, and is intended for 
 sewing coarse cloth. Great ingenuity is shown in the 
 arrangement of the several parts ; the machine pierces 
 its own holes, inserts its own thread, tightens the thread 
 after insertion, and shifts the cloth as the work ad- 
 vances, at the rate of forty or fifty stitches a minute. 
 Barlow's (English) patent stitching machine for mak- 
 ing articles of dress : two distinct threads are used, one 
 at the front and the other at th^ back of the fabric, so 
 that each stitch forms an independent fastening. Jud- 
 kins's (English) sewing machine, said to be "suited to 
 sewing either a circle, curve, or straight line, at the 
 rate of 600 stitches per minute." There are racks or 
 toothed arms employed, straight or curved, according 
 to the shape of the work to be done ; there are two 
 threads, one in a reel and one in a shuttle ; and a 
 needle very ingeniously entangles these threads one 
 in another, through the holes pierced in the cloth. 
 The United States have also contributed to this class 
 of machines. Of Morey's sewing machine, made at 
 Boston, the following character is given : " By a very 
 simple process, straight and curvilinear seams are sewn 
 in cotton, linen, or woolen eloth with great rapidity. 
 With one attendant, it will accomplish the work of five 
 seamstresses ; it is easily wrought, is not liable to get 
 out of repair, and is readily applicable- to almost every 
 variety of plain stitch. In the large ready-made cloth- 
 ing establishments in the United States it is universal- 
 ly used." Among the most prominent patents now in 
 use in this country are Grover and Baker's, Wheeler 
 and Wilson's, and Singer's. 
 
 Sextant (Lat. sextans, the sixth part ; the limb of 
 the instrument being the sixth part of a complete cir- 
 cle), an instrument for measuring the angular dis- 
 tances of objects by reflection. The sextant is capable 
 of very general application ; but it is chiefly used as a 
 nautical instrument for measuring the altitudes of celes- 
 tial objects, and their apparent angular distances. It 
 is an instrument of the utmost importance in naviga- 
 
SHA 
 
 1698 
 
 SHA 
 
 tion. The sextant is used in the manner of a quadrant, 
 and contains sixty degrees, or the sixth part of a cir- 
 cle. It is for taking the altitude of the planets, etc. 
 Invented by the celebrated Tycho Brahe, at Augs- 
 burg, in 1560. — Visce's Astronomy,. The Arabian as- 
 tronomers under the califs are said to have had a sex- 
 tant of fifty-nine feet nine inches radius, about A.D. 
 995. — ^AsitE. 
 
 Shagreen (Ger. Schagrin; It. Chagrin; Euss. Scha- 
 grini Schayren), a kind of gi-ained leather, used for vari- 
 ous purposes in the arts. It is extensively manufac- 
 tured at Astrakhan, in Russia. — See Tooke's Russia, 
 vol. iii. p. 403. 
 
 Shallop, or Sloop, is a light vessel, with only a 
 small mainmast or foremast, and lug-sails to haul up 
 and let down on occasion. Shallops are commonly 
 good sailers, and are therefore often used as tenders 
 upon men-of-war. 
 
 Shammy, or Chamois Leather (Ger. S&mischle- 
 der; Fr. Chamois; It. Camoscio; Russ. Smschaniii, 
 Koshi), a kind of leather dressed in oil, or tanned, and 
 much esteemed for its softness, pliancy, and capability 
 of bearing soap without hurt. The real shammy is 
 prepared of the skin of the chamois goat. But leather 
 prepared from the skins of the common goat, kid, and 
 sheep is frequently substituted in its stead. 
 
 Shanghai, a city and river port of China, province 
 of Kiang-su, on the Woosung River, 40 miles by water 
 from the sea, and 169 miles east-southeast from Nan- 
 kin ; lat, 31° 12' N., long. 120° 63' E. Population esti- 
 mated at from 115,000 to 135,000. It stands in a level 
 and well-cultivated plain, producing good crops of cot- 
 ton, rice, and wheat. Immediately outside the wall 
 by which it is inclosed are several populous suburbs. 
 Streets narrow and iilthy. Foundling hospitals, tea- 
 gardens, and vast ice-houses, are the objects most 
 worthy of notice in the city. It has a Mint, with 
 manufactures of silk, vegetable oils, and oil-cake (of 
 which vast quantities are annually sent into the in- 
 terior), iron ware, glass, paper, ivory ware, etc. This 
 is the most northerly of the five Chinese ports opened 
 to foreigners by the treaty of 1842, and, excepting 
 Canton, it is also the most important. The river, 
 which may be navigated by ships of 450 or 500 tons 
 for a considerable distance above the town, crosses the 
 Grand Canal, so that Shanghai is an entrepot for all 
 the vast and fertile country traversed by the canal, and 
 by the great rivers, including the Yang-tse-Kiang and 
 the Hoang-Ho, with which it is connected. Hence 
 the present importance of the emporium, and hence, 
 also, the indefinite extension to which its foreign trade 
 will probably attain. Its inland and coasting trades 
 are both very extensive. It is said to be annually 
 visited by from 6000 to 6000 canal and river boats, 
 some from very great distances, and by 1600 or IGOO 
 coasting junks. The province of Kiang-su, in which 
 Shanghai is situated, produces great quantities of silk ; 
 and besides supplying most part of the northern prov- 
 inces of the empire, the shipments of silk to the for- 
 eigner are greater from this than from any other port. 
 It is also well situated for the export of both green 
 and black teas. Among the other exports are gold 
 and silver, with oil and oil-cake, camphor, drugs, por- 
 celain, cotton, cassia, alum, gypsum, coal, etc. Of 
 the imports opium is by far the greatest ; and at least 
 20,000 chests of Bombay (Malwa) and Patna opium 
 are now annually disposed of in this market ; which, 
 supposing the chest to be worth $500, will represent 
 an aggregate sum of $10,000,000, or £2,200,000 sterling, 
 for which payment is almost invariably made in the 
 precious metals ! Sugar is extensively imported from 
 Formosa, Canton, the Philippines, etc. ; cotton stuffs, 
 woolens, iron, etc., from England; with sandal-wood, 
 birdsnests, biche de mer, and other products of the 
 Eastern Archipelago, etc. The inhabitants of Shang- 
 hai are much more hospitable and better disposed to- 
 ward foreigners than those of Canton ; and strangers 
 
 may travel for miles into the interior all round the 
 city with perfect security. Within the last four or five 
 years, some very fine brick houses have been built by 
 foreign merchants in the suburbs..— Par?. Reports, etc. 
 
 Commerce with the United States. — The commercial ■ 
 relations of the United States with China are regulated 
 by the stipulations of the treaty of July B, 1844. A 
 treaty, similar in all its leading provisions, was nego- 
 tiated with Great Britain in 1842, and a tariff of duties 
 on imports and exports, and duties on tonnage, are 
 made a part of both these treaties. Formerly, foreign 
 intercourse, as already remarked, was confined to Can- 
 ton, and hither were brought from the distant parts of 
 the empire teas, silks, and other leading staples of 
 China. Trade was invariably conducted through the 
 intervention of hong merchants, who were licensed 
 agents of the government, and answerable to it for all 
 duties of import, export, and other charges accruing 
 on the vessel, the affairs of which they managed. This 
 system was adopted as a precautionary measure for 
 securing the duties and other dues levied on foreign 
 vessels ; but the treaties referred to containing ample 
 stipulations respecting this subject, the agency of the 
 hong merchants has been abolished, and their duties 
 transferred to the consuls of the nations to which the 
 vessels respectively belong. The treaty between the 
 United States and China guarantees the same com- 
 mercial advantages and privileges to the citizens of the 
 United States that are or shall be conceded to the 
 citizens of any other foreign power. Fees and charges 
 of every kind not comprehended in the treaty are abol- 
 ished. ■ Trade is permitted to the five ports of Kwang- 
 chow, Amoy, Foo-chow, Ningpo, and Shanghai, and 
 from either of the said ports to any other of them ; but 
 it is prohibited to any other ports in the empire, or 
 along the coasts thereof, under a penalty of confiscation 
 of vessel and cargo. Trade is subject to no restrictions 
 as to origin or nature of cargo, or port of departure, 
 with the exception of the article opium, which is de- 
 clared contraband. Captains, on entering, are required 
 to deposit their papers with the consul of their nation 
 who will notify the proper local authority of the name 
 and tonnage of the vessel, names of the crew, and na- 
 ture of cargo. Tonnage duty is fixed at 5 maces (equal 
 to 74 cents) per ton, if the vessel is over 150 tons bur- 
 den ; 150 tons or under, 1 mace (equal to 14-8 cents) 
 per ton. Before cargo can be landed, a permit must be 
 obtained from the local authority, under a penalty of 
 $600 and forfeiture of goods so landed. 
 
 Standards of weights and measures are to be supplied 
 by the Chinese government to the consuls of the dif- 
 ferent nations, to secure uniforniitj', and prevent con- 
 fusion in measures and weights of merchandise. The 
 former limitation of foreign trade to hong merchants 
 appointed by the government, is abolished ; and citi- 
 zens of the United States are permitted to trade with 
 any and all subjects of China, without distinction. The 
 privilege is conceded of re-exporting into any other 
 port any merchandise imported into any one of the 
 five ports, without being subject to anj- additional 
 duty, provided the full duty was paid when first im- 
 ported, and the goods remain with their original marks 
 unchanged; but this privilege must be specially ap- 
 plied for through the American consul. The other 
 provisions of the treaty apply mostly to the privileges, 
 and duties, and police regulations, applicable to the 
 consuls, merchants, and citizens of the United States 
 at the five ports. Shipping dues, formerly charged on 
 the measurement of the ship's length and breadth, at 
 so much per chang, and all the old charges of measure- 
 ment, entrance, and port clearance fees, daily and 
 monthly fees, etc., are also abolished by this treaty ; 
 and the tonnage duty on the registered tonnage of the 
 vessel, specified in the preceding synopsis, is substi- 
 tuted in lieu thereof. Commercial relations between 
 the United States and China date from a period as 
 early as 1784. In the month of February of that year, 
 
SHA 
 
 1699 
 
 SHA 
 
 it appears that the Empress of China, a ship of 360 
 tons, sailed from New York for Canton, and returned 
 the following year with a rich and valuable cargo. The 
 success, as well aa the novelty of this adventure, at- 
 tractedno little attention throughout the country. The 
 ensuing year another voyage was made, in a small 
 vessel of only 84 tons burden, with equal success. 
 Merchants were soon induced to engage in an enter- 
 prise which promised the most flattering results ; and 
 as early as 1789, five j'ears after the American flag 
 had first entered the Chinese seas, fifteen American 
 ships arrived at Canton. Such was the origin of an 
 extensive and profitable trade between the United 
 States and the Celestial empire. 
 
 The geographical position, excellent shipping facili- 
 ties, and proximity to the fertile valley of Yang-tse- 
 Kiang, would seem to point to Shanghai as a port pos- 
 sessing pre-eminent advantages, which, when fully de- 
 veloped, must make it a flourishing and primary station. 
 The following extract in relation to the trade of Shang- 
 hai is from an official communication addressed to the 
 Department of State, dated Shanghai, August 7, 1855 : 
 " It will be observed that the export trade for the first 
 six months of 1855 has more than doubled any previous 
 one ; and, inasmuch as the business season is just open- 
 ing, it may safely be inferred that the value of exports 
 for this year will be about double that of anj' previous 
 one. The disorganized state of the rest of the empire, 
 the equal and regular levy duties at this port, and its 
 superior geographical position, are the main causes of 
 the concentration of trade at this point. The imports 
 have been small, because it has required some time to 
 dispose of the enormous quantities which had collected 
 at this port during the period the city was in possession 
 of the rebels. That important branch of our trade 
 will now, I believe, revive ; and if our government 
 will but vigorously and prudently nourish the facilities 
 now enjoyed at this port, a commerce may be devel- 
 oped rivaling Calcutta in importance, and superior to 
 any other port in the East. The great valley Of the 
 Yang-tse-Kiang is the commercial field, and this port 
 is the entrepot. The greatest privileges conceivable 
 might be obtained at all the other ports, and yet one 
 half of such facilities at this port would be productive 
 of more advantage than could by any possibility be 
 derived from all the other ports combined. Foo-ehow 
 will in time be a port of some importance for the pur- 
 chase of a 'few black teas, but no more. Amoy and 
 Ningpo never have furnished any thing worthy of no- 
 tice ; and Canton was only a port of trade, because the 
 Chinese had been in the habit of going there to trade 
 with foreigners when there were no other ports opan. 
 But the difliculty created by the rebellion has diverted 
 the great mass of the trade from its ancient and out- 
 of-the-way channel, and concentrated it here. And 
 now that the Chinese find Shanghai to be nearer to 
 their tea and silk districts than Canton, and that they 
 can often get better prices, and always as good as at 
 Canton, they will abandon their old and long route to 
 a port of sale, and will continue to concentrate at 
 Shanghai. This they have done last year, as well as 
 the present ; and already they have made contracts on 
 next year's produce, deliverable at this port." 
 
 In another and later communication, it is stated 
 that property in houses and lands, to the value of 
 a million of dollars, is owned by American citizens in 
 Shanghai. 
 
 Navigation and Trade. — The number and tonnage of 
 American vessels, inward and outward, at the port of 
 Shanghai, for the years designated, were as follows ; 
 
 Your.. 
 
 Inward. 
 
 Outward. | 
 
 ViBsels. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 97826"" 
 13,308 
 2T,634 
 38,T60 
 
 VeiselB. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 1849 
 
 3850 
 
 1851 
 
 1852 
 
 24 
 3T 
 64 
 66 
 
 24 
 34 
 
 70 
 
 9,87T 
 14,464 
 26,69T 
 40,592 
 
 The number of American vessels entered at Shang- 
 
 hai during the first six nionths of 1855 was 28, with 
 an aggregate tonnage of 27,480. 
 
 The cargoes inward consisted of stone coal, sugar, 
 drills, general merchandise, and assorted cargoes, suit- 
 able for the Chinese markets, valued at $266,997. The 
 cargoes outward were chiefly silk and tea, valued at 
 $4,480,193. Of the vessels inward, there were from 
 the Atlantic ports direct, 2, with an aggregate of 
 1235 tons ; and from the Pacific ports 13, with an 
 aggregate of 13,839 tons. The following is a summary 
 of the navigation and trade of the port of Shanghai 
 with the United States during the last six months of 
 1855: 
 
 Number of American vessels entered, 67 ; measur- 
 ing 27,262 tons. Number of American vessels entered 
 from Atlantic ports, 4 ; measuring 1589 tons. Num- 
 ber of American vessels entered from Pacific ports, 10 ; 
 measuring 10,632 tons. Number of American vessels 
 entered from foreign ports, 36 ; measuring 13,000 tons. 
 The retnrns do not give the ports of departure of seven 
 of the American vessels entered. The number of 
 American vessels cleared from the port of Shanghai 
 during the same period was 57; aggregate tonnage, 
 30,542 tons. Of these, 13 vessels, all freighted with 
 tea and silk, proceeded direct to New York, and the 
 remainder to foreign ports. 
 
 During the same period, the duties paid by the Amer- 
 ican flag to the authorities at Shanghai were : 
 
 * TaelB. Mace. C. C. I 
 
 Imports 19,224 6 9 6 = in U. S. currency $28,452 
 
 Exports 456,048 7 7 1 " " 674,962 
 
 Tonnage dues. 13,539 8 " " 20,038 
 
 Total duties of import, export, and tonnage. . . . $723,442 
 
 The following statement exhibits the total tonnage 
 of vessels at the port of Shanghai during the last six 
 months of 1855 : 
 
 British 42,365 tons. 
 
 United States. 27,263 " 
 
 Danish 1,395 " 
 
 Hamburg 1,828 " 
 
 Dutch '3,827 " 
 
 Bremen 654 '^ 
 
 Swedish 833 tons. 
 
 Spanish 1,163 " 
 
 Portuguese... 1,126 " 
 
 Siameee 1,345 " 
 
 Peruvian 764 " 
 
 Total 82,462 " 
 
 The following is a summary statement showing the 
 quantity of teas exported from Shanghai to the United 
 States during the last six months of 1855 : 
 
 Black tea 289,442 pounds. • 
 
 Green tea 14,511,354 " 
 
 Total 14,800,796 't 
 
 All exported in 16 American vessels. 
 
 The following is a summary statement showing the 
 quantities of teas exported from Shanghai to all coun- 
 tries during the last six months of 1855 : 
 
 To Great Britain, in 31 vesselsl . 21,513,927 pounds. 
 
 To United States " 16 " . . 14,800,796 " 
 To Australia "7 " .. 1,639,674 " 
 To Hamburg "1 " .. 323,536 " 
 
 Grandtotal 38,277,983 \" 
 
 Summary Statement suowing the ^ttantities op Eaw 
 Silk, Silk Piece Goods, etc.. expobtbd from Shanghai 
 TO THE United States (New Yoek) dubing the last 
 SIS Months of 1855. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 Kaw silk 
 
 Silk piece goods . 
 
 Nankeens 
 
 Straw braid 
 
 Rhubarb 
 
 Fans 
 
 Cases. 
 
 7-20 
 1280 
 40 
 26 
 629 
 10 
 
 Piculs. 
 
 5j(i 
 
 Cattiea. 
 
 57 
 
 QiTANnTiEB OF Eaw* Silk expoeted Pkom the Poet of 
 
 BUANOHAI DTTEING THE LAST SIX MoNTUS OF 1855. 
 
 To London 
 
 Liverpool 
 
 Hong Kong. 
 Total.... 
 
 Raw. 
 
 Bales. 
 
 20,332 
 1,376 
 3,2T8 
 
 24,986 
 
 Bales. 
 1848 
 
 2495 
 
 4676 
 
 Bales. 
 519 
 
 3 
 
 Total. 
 
 Bales.' 
 22,699 
 1,712 
 5,796 
 
 80.207 
 
 • Tael = 10 mace = 100 candareens = 1000 cash = $l 48 
 United States currency. 
 
SHA 
 
 1700 
 
 SHA 
 
 The total trade of Shanghai during the period desig- 
 nated in the foregoing statements was thus distributed. 
 
 Vessels 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exportfl. 
 
 British ,.... 
 
 141 
 51 
 2 
 6 
 8 
 11 
 3 
 5 
 A 
 6 
 9 
 
 182 
 
 55 
 
 1 ' 
 
 T 
 11 
 11 
 
 6 
 3 
 6 
 9 
 
 
 
 Danish .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Stvedish 
 
 
 245 
 
 243 
 
 Total value of the trade of Shanghai during the last 
 six months of 1865: Imports, $2,812,019: exports, 
 $501,786. Total trade, $3,313,805. During the last 
 six months of 1855 great improvements ■were made in 
 the navigation of the Eiver Woosiing, on which the 
 port of Shanghai is situated, and, from having been 
 one of the most dangerous of access in the Pacific, it 
 has been made one of the safest and easiest. The ex- 
 pense of the work ($20,000) was defrayed by the Chi- 
 nese authorities. A system of pilot regulations, agreed 
 upon by the consuls of the United States, Great Britain, 
 and France, was ratified by the superintendent of cus- 
 toms, and is as follows : 
 
 Pilot Regulations. — The following rules and regula- 
 tions for the government of pilots, native and foreign, 
 at the port of Shanghai are hereby issued and made 
 binding by his excellency Chaou, superintendent of 
 customs, in communication with the consuls of the 
 three treaty powers : 
 
 1st. A board shall be appointed by the three consuls, 
 sanctioned by his excellency Chaou, consisting of not 
 less than three, nor more than five shipmasters, with 
 whom a naval officer shall be associated, if required, 
 before whom all persons wishing to become pilots shall 
 appear for examination. 
 
 2d. A certificate of competency from a majority of 
 said board being deposited at his consulate, shall en- 
 title the person therein named to a license as a pilot. 
 In all cases where the nationality of the applicant is 
 other than one of those nations in treaty with China, 
 his certificate from the board of examiners must be de- 
 posited with the senior consul, who will obtain for him 
 the necessary license. 
 
 3d. Every pilot-boat is to hoist a red and white flag 
 horizontal, on which the number of his boat shall ap- 
 pear in black. 
 
 4th. The rates of pilotage shall be by the water the 
 ship draws, viz.: from GutzlalT, $5 per foot; from 
 beacon-ship, $1 per foot ; from any point outside Woo- 
 sung, but inside bcacon-ship, $3 50 per foot; from 
 Woosung to Shanghai, $3 per foot. The same rates 
 of pilotage are allowed for vessels outward bound. 
 
 5th. Every pilot, on boarding a ship, shall produce, 
 for the inspection of the master, his license as a pilot. 
 
 6th. All persons acting as pilots without a license, 
 as hereinbefore prescribed, shall have no claim for 
 services rendered, and shall be dealt with by their 
 own consuls, according to law, for violating these regu- 
 lations ; and all such cases not coming within the juris- 
 diction of the three treaty consuls are to be referred to 
 the local Chinese authorities. 
 
 7th. Pilots shall be responsible for the faithful and 
 complete discharge of their duty ; and any misconduct, 
 either from ignorance, incapacity, willful neglect, or 
 otherwise, being known, shall entail a forfeiture of the 
 offender's license, in addition to any other liability he 
 maj"" have incurred by the laws of his own countrj'. 
 
 8th, The foregoing regulations to .take effect on and 
 after the 10th day of December, 1855. 
 
 Gejieral Regulcaions. — The general regulations under 
 which foreign trade is conducted at the five ports of 
 Canton, Amoy, Foo-chow-foo, Ningpo, and Shanghai, 
 are such as are usually prescribed in all well-regulated 
 
 ports, and are subject to such modifications, under the 
 
 treaties, as the consuls of the three nations, viz. : En- 
 gland, France, and the United States, may from time 
 to time fix and determine. These regulations provide 
 amply for all the wants of foreign commerce, and guard 
 against extortion, unnecessary delay, or capricious em- 
 barrassments, either on the part of Chinese officials, or 
 the captains or other officers of vessels trading at any 
 of the five ports. To give proper sanction to, and en- 
 force the due observance of these regulations, the con- 
 suls of the three nations, in Chinese ports, are invested 
 with judicial as well as with the ordinar}' consular 
 powers, by virtue of which they are enabled to exact 
 strict conformity to such provisions and regulations as 
 they may deem necessary in the maintenance 'of good 
 order and the faithful fulfillment of treaty obligations. 
 Prior to 1843, as before noted, it was the custom, when 
 foreign vessels entered the port of Canton, that a Chi- 
 nese hong merchant stood security for her, and that all 
 duties and charges were paid through such security 
 merchant. But the several treaties having provided 
 for the abolition of this security system, the consuls 
 of the different treaty nations are now substituted as 
 security for the vessels of their respective nations en- 
 tering any of the five ports. Hence one of the reasons 
 why the powers of consuls in China should be ample, 
 and these officers invested with full powers to control 
 the shipping of their respective nations. 
 
 During the recent troubles in China, foreign com- 
 merce at the port of Shanghai was considerably inter- 
 rupted, and the custom-house at this port was abandon- 
 ed by the Chinese officials, who organized in lieu there- 
 of two other custom-houses in the interior. An ar- 
 rangement was subsequently entered into between the 
 consuls of the three treaty powers and the Chinese 
 authorities, by virtue of which these custom-houses 
 were suppressed, and foreign commerce was again con- 
 ducted under the usual regulations. 
 
 It may be here observed that the five ports pertain 
 to different provincial jurisdictions, having different 
 local administrations, and not xmfrequently different 
 commercial regulations. It is by no means rare to see, 
 notwithstanding the treaties apply to all in common, 
 privileges enjoyed at one which are strictly interdicted 
 at another — perhaps at the other four. Thus, in 1855, 
 it is stated that rice was exported to the amount of 
 30^000 piculs (each 133^ lbs.) to a vessel, free, too, of 
 all export or other duty, save a doucevr of 200 or 300 
 dollars to some subordinate; while the exportation of 
 this article is not only forbidden at Shanghai, but the 
 death-penalty is inflicted on such of the Chinese as are 
 detected in violating the prohibition. The same ob- 
 servation applies to the emigration of coolies, which is 
 tolerated at Amoy, but strictly forbidden at the other 
 ports. So the importation of opium, as already stated, 
 though illegal, is openlj' tolerated by Chinese officials. 
 
 The state of the currency at this port has for some 
 time attracted attention. 
 
 A letter from the United States consul at Shanghai, 
 under date of June 25, 1855, states as follows: 
 
 "The rate of exchange here has exceeded that of Canton 
 from 25 to 30 per cent., although the distance between the 
 two is but 800 miles, and of easy and certain communication. 
 Under ordinary financial rulee, the diflference of exchange 
 between the two plaoes is regulated by the cost of transporta- 
 tion, the insurance, and a slight per cent, for brokerage. 
 While 24 per cent, would be a liberal allowance on these 
 items between this port and Canton, and Hong Kong, yet 
 exchange has varied from 25 to 30 per cent, against this port. 
 
 ■■'China has no currency but copper cash — one of which is 
 equal to the sixteen -hundredth part of a dollar. All large 
 transactions, therefore, are made in pure silver, denominated 
 by the Chinese sycee, which is measured in taels, or a weight 
 equivalent, when at par, to $1 S8 per tael. "When the foreign 
 trade became important in China, foreign dollars were intro- 
 duced ; and, on account of their superior qualities as a circu- 
 lating medium over the ponderous sycee, became quite popu- 
 lar, and were universally adopted. The Carolus dollar was 
 the first adopted ; afterward the Bolivian, Peruvian, Chilian, 
 and Mexican ; but the Carolus having been first introduced, 
 the Chinese formed a prejudice in its favor to the extent 
 
SHA 
 
 1701 
 
 SHA 
 
 of a discount of 10 per cent, on all others. "When this port 
 was first opened, the Chinese received the Mexican at A pre- 
 mium over the QaroluB, and the rupee at a premium over 
 both ; but the native brokers from Canton instilled into the 
 traders here the same prejudice which existed where they 
 came from, and the Carolus g^dually rose in value, and the 
 other dollars sank, until ^he diffei-ence has become 25 or 30 
 per cent., which is equivalent almost to an entire exclusion 
 from circulation. This result was chiefly brought about by 
 the native bi'okei'B, in cotgunction with a few foreign commer- 
 cial houses at this port, who have obtained the exclusive con- 
 trol of all the Carolus dollars that are made. The Spanish 
 government have long since discontinued their issue, but they 
 are made at Canton, in India, and in Mexico, though not as 
 pure as the original dollar. 
 
 ''Thus this pityudice irj favor of the Carolus has been foster- 
 ed by a few commercial bouses, until the evil conBeq[aentu|k)n 
 a limited currency, and one which is becoming less and less 
 every year, is almost beyond a remedy. The longer it is 
 permitted to exist, the more yexatious will its remedy be- 
 come. , The Carolus dollar is carried Into the interior to pay 
 for teas anSt'sIIks, and never returns; thus each year renders 
 the amount of circulating medium less and less. The Caro- 
 lus dollar, is the standard, and, therefore, as it deci'eases in 
 quantity, exchange rises. The same houses which have the 
 control of the Carolus dollar also discount atl bills of ex- 
 change, and thus hold the entire commercial machinery of 
 this port at their controL They discount bills of exchange at 
 whatever rates they please to. fix at Canton and all tlie other 
 ports in China. The foreign dollars at present circulate, ac- 
 cording to treaty, with 'reference to their purity in silver as 
 compared with sycee; but here a distinction is kept up in 
 favor of the Carolus far above its relative value in pure sil- 
 ver, and against all other dollars far below theirs. Thus ex- 
 change at this port rules from 25 to 30 per cent, above any 
 other port in China. 
 
 M The United States are great consumers of green tea, and 
 this port supplies it. The consumer pays this extraordinary 
 exchange on the price of tea, and thus the agent here, and 
 the importer at home, can feel no interest in ameliorating the 
 condition of the exchanges, as it is not their loss ; but, on the 
 contrary, as they now have control of all tKe circulating me- 
 dium, it is to their advantage and interest to let it remain so. 
 
 " I have thus briefly endeavored to show, first, that the enor- 
 mous diiSFerence , of exchange at this port over any other in 
 China is produced by a combination of native and foreign 
 merchants ; and, second, that as the United States take near- 
 ly all the green teas exported from the empire, which are all 
 purchased at this port, and as the consumer must in the end 
 pay all charges on the imported article, therefore the, con- 
 BumeiT? of the United States ai'e the sufferers to the full ex- 
 tent of this exorbitant exchange. Entertaining the convic- 
 tion that it Is the duty of an officer to guard and protect the 
 interests of those whom he has the honor to represent, espe- 
 cially when those interests are guai;anteed by tlie laws and 
 treaties of the land, and not to permit the advantages of a se- 
 lect few to be developed at the expense of the many, I will 
 now proceed to lay before the honorable Secretary of State the 
 course 1 have pursued in giving full effect to the treaty of the 
 United States with China in the matter of the currency. To 
 remedy the great evil which exists at tliis port in relation to 
 the cujiTency, there' -appeared to be but two ways: First, a 
 combination among the merchants that they would pay and 
 receive all dollars alike, so far as their intrinsic value should 
 be the same. Second, tlie enactment of regulations by the 
 Chinese authorities, which would place all dollars on an 
 equality, by their agreeing to receive them alike for all gov- 
 ernment dues. The, first was impossible in a community 
 where all are merchants possessed of as many different' inter- 
 ests, and therefore to the second I gave my attention. The 
 manner in which I presented this subject, and carried it 
 through, to an actual assay of the various dollars, may be 
 fully examined by reference to the entire correspondence, 
 which I have the honor herewith to inclose. The assay as 
 made here differs but slightly from that made at Canton; 
 and as there is an allowance of li per cent, for difference of 
 scales, it is more than made up. 
 
 " The whole examination of the subject proved mdst satis- 
 factoiy to his excellency the imperial collector of customs, 
 and his excellency . has asked for tvventy days to refer the 
 matter to bis supei'iors, prior to carrying Jt into practical 
 operation. I have therefore given notice to his excellency 
 that on and after the 12th of July next American merchante 
 shall be allowed to discharge all their treaty obligations at 
 this port in foreign money, at the rates as .ascertaineid by 
 actual assay on the 4th instant. Great results will inevita- 
 bly follow the adoption of this measure. Exchange will de- 
 cline 25 or 30 per cent — that, too, just at the opening of the 
 business season — and will assimilate with that at Canton, 
 plus the costof transportation, etc., etc The circulating me- 
 dium will be in the greatest abundance. The imported in the 
 United States 'will, through his agent here, realize more 
 money on his bills of. exchange, consequently he can pur- 
 chase more teas and silks ; and, finally, as the consumers par- 
 ticipate alike in the advantages and disadvantages, they will 
 be enabled to purchase teas and silks subject to the same re- 
 duction in price which the importer has enjoyed.'' 
 
 . Currency, — Tha only legal coin of China is the cop- 
 per cash, worth the fifteenth part of a cent ; though by 
 
 stipulations of the treaty of 1844 the sycee is received, 
 in payment of duties. The sycee fluctuates in price 
 with the value of silver. The shee is worth about 
 seventy dollars. In 1853 the American merchants re- 
 siding at Shanghai addressed a memorial to the United 
 States commissioner in China, setting forth the great 
 inconvenience to which mercantile interests in China 
 were subjected by the absence of an adequate circula- 
 ting medium between the two extremes above named, 
 and invoking the commissioner's aid in establishing a 
 national Mint in that empire. To the success of such 
 a measure the sanction and co-operation of the Chinese 
 government are indispensable. The treaty of 1844 pro- 
 vides that, should experience show that any modifica- 
 tions hereafter become requisite in those parts which 
 relate to commerce and navigation, the two govern- 
 ments will, at the expiration of twelve years from the 
 date thereof, treat amicably concerning the same, by 
 the means of suitable persons appointed to conduct 
 such negotiation. The time designated will soon ar- 
 rive ; and should such modifications as the treaty con- 
 templates become a subject of negotiation, the question 
 of a national. Mint, and of the currency generally, will, 
 doubtless, demand the attention of the United States 
 Commissioner, At Shanghai an attempt has been made 
 by the foreign consuls to cause an official substitution 
 of the Mexican for the Carolus dollar as the money of 
 account. — Com, Rel. U. S. 
 
 From official tables it is shown, 1st. That, until the 
 3''ear 1850, Canton was the principal port for tea, but 
 in that year Shanghai exported 50 per cent. ; and of 
 silk, three-fourths of the whole export was from Shang- 
 hai. 2d. That the trade of Shanghai continued to in- 
 crease over that of Canton, and even Foo-c!how, which 
 derives all its trade from this emporium, until the year 
 1855, when Shanghai exported in tea about 30 per cent, 
 more than both Canton and Foo-chow, and in silk al- 
 most the entire amount was furnished at Shanghai. 
 3d. That the grand increase of the foreign trade for 
 twelve years is an average per annum of about 3 per 
 cent. 4th. That the increase of silk for exportation 
 has been, on the grand aggregate, at the rate of 3| per 
 cent, per annum for the past eleven years. 
 
 It appears also, 1st. That the trade of the United 
 States in China has increased in the last ten years If 
 per cent, per annum. 2d. That since the year 1848 
 the ports of Canton and Shanghai have changed com- 
 mercial positions, the latter having exported more tea 
 the last year to the United States than the whole trade 
 amounted to when Canton was the only port opened. 
 3d. That Foo-chow is now a port of more commerce 
 with the United States than Canton, and ranks next 
 to the most important, Shanghai. 4th. That the trade 
 in silk to the United States has developed immensely ; 
 and as this port is the great emporium for that com- 
 moditj', it will probably furnish more trade than all 
 the others combined. 5th. That for the past year the 
 port of Shanghai has furnished more than three-fourths 
 of the American trade in tea, and all the silk. 
 
 Up to the year 1853, exchange was steady at from 
 15 to 21 per cent., but the change which followed, and 
 the variableness whi&h is marked, arose from the fact 
 that the city of Shanghai being taken by the rebels on 
 the 7th September, 1853, many large losses were in- 
 curred by the wealthy Chinese, which, creating em- 
 barrassment, engendered a lack of confidence and trust, 
 so that money became scarce and exchange began to 
 rise. About this time foreigners began to impose the 
 belief on the native Chinese that the Carolus dollar was 
 the most valuable, and at the same time secured the 
 monopoly of all obtainable over the world, and have 
 since been having the Mexican restamped with the 
 Carolus dies. This latter coin does not pass well, as 
 it is too new to the Chinese ; but the old and genuine 
 Carolus dollars are almost exhausted, and, indeed, are 
 becoming less and less everj* year, while just in pro* 
 portion to the supply or demand exchange rises or falls. 
 
SHA 
 
 1702 
 
 SHA 
 
 Exports oir Tea to all Nations feom China, from Jtjnb 
 30, 1850, TO June 30, 1855, not inclumng the United 
 States. 
 
 Exported from j Years. 
 
 PoundB. 
 
 
 1850-'51 
 1S60-'61 
 lS51-'6-2 
 l.s51-'63 
 1852-'53 
 1852-'f3 
 1853-'64 
 1 863-' 64 
 1868-'64 
 1854-'65 
 1854-'68 
 lS54-'55 
 
 42,2U4,0U0 
 21,816,100 
 35,017,200 
 29,520,000 
 32,327.600 
 40,578,500 
 45,131,200 
 6,143,000 
 25,943,700 
 16,123,800 
 19,512,800 
 50,872,400 
 
 Shanghai 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Exports of Tea and Silk to the United States from 
 CniNA, with the Proportion prom Shanghai, for a 
 Period of trn Years. 
 
 Year ending 
 June 30. 
 
 Total Amount 
 
 of Toft from 
 
 China. 
 
 Tea exported 
 
 from Shanghai 
 
 alone. 
 
 Silk exported 
 
 from 
 
 Shanghai. 
 
 
 Pounds. 
 20,702,-6B8 
 18,502,288 
 18,111,625 
 19,338,640 
 18,672,300 
 21,757,800 
 28,760,800 
 34,334,000 
 40,974,500 
 27,867,500 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 1,740,787 
 2,980,832 
 6,623,708 
 11,068.640 
 18,000,000 
 22,800,800 
 16,702,400 
 
 Bales. 
 
 "S5 
 415 
 280 
 298 
 634 
 
 1074 
 
 1846 
 
 1847 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 
 
 1850 
 
 1861 
 
 1862 
 
 1S63 
 
 1854 
 
 
 Statement of Imports into China from the Uniteu 
 States in the Yeae 1852. 
 
 March an disc. 
 
 Canton 
 
 Shanghai 
 
 Total. 
 
 American drill pieces. 
 
 American sheeting " 
 American jeans... *' 
 
 Cochineal parcels. 
 
 Silver dollars. 
 
 Spelter parcels. J 
 
 Lead " 4 
 
 Ginseng '* 
 
 Flour barrels. 
 
 Beef " 
 
 Pork " 
 
 Clocks pieces. 
 
 Boards feet. 
 
 Tohacco pounds. 
 
 Gold ounces, i 
 
 Cheese pounds. 
 
 Glassware boxes. 
 
 Sperm candles pounds. 
 
 233,246 
 42,096 
 40,116 
 23,986 
 122,300 
 •90,424 
 
 •1,125,421 
 
 209,272 
 
 3,069 
 
 200 
 
 200 
 
 114 
 
 ' 6,942 
 
 t600 
 
 13,300 
 
 1,000 
 
 203 
 
 1,000 
 
 342,115 
 88.015 
 64,260 
 
 "840 
 17,843 
 
 18,627 
 
 574,361 
 
 130,110 
 
 104,366 
 
 23,986 
 
 122,300 
 
 •90,424 
 
 t840 
 
 •1,125,421 
 
 tl7,843 
 
 209,272 
 
 3,069 
 
 200 
 
 200 
 
 114 
 
 18,627 
 
 5,942 
 
 BOO 
 
 13,300 
 
 1,000 
 
 203 
 
 1,000 
 
 t Piculs. 
 
 t Coins. 
 
 Statement op Exports from China to the United States 
 IN THE Year 1852. 
 
 Merchandise.' 
 
 Canton. 
 
 Shanghai. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Green teas 
 
 .poundrt. 
 
 8,113,472 
 
 19,809,400 
 
 27,922,872 
 
 
 
 9,924,334 
 
 3,033,000 
 40,868 
 
 12,957,334 
 125,576 
 
 Silk piece goods . 
 
 .pieces. 
 
 84,708 
 
 Crape shawls . . . 
 
 
 306,203 
 
 
 306,203 
 
 
 
 4,127 
 
 
 4,127 
 
 Nankeens 
 
 .boxes. 
 
 100 
 
 
 100 
 
 Pearl buttons 
 
 
 89 
 
 • . . • 
 
 89 
 
 
 
 1,644 
 
 
 1,644 
 131 
 402 
 
 
 
 131 
 402 
 
 
 Oil, cassia 
 
 Oil, anise " 
 
 9,190 
 
 200 
 
 9,890 
 
 
 2,000 
 209,563 
 
 
 2,000 
 22.9,.'i62 
 
 
 19,999 
 
 Fire-crackers . . . 
 
 . " 
 
 9,407 
 
 2,195 
 
 11,602 
 
 Cassia 
 
 .parcels. 
 
 60,046 
 
 .... 
 
 60,046 
 
 Matting 
 
 .rolls. 
 
 9,948 
 
 
 9,948 
 
 Fans and screens 
 
 .boxes. 
 
 4,867 
 
 
 4,867 
 
 Split ratans 
 
 .bundles. 
 
 749 
 
 436 
 
 1,185 
 
 Raw silk 
 
 .parcels. 
 
 317 
 
 
 317 
 
 Rhubarb 
 
 .boxes. 
 
 937 
 
 
 937 
 
 Lacquered ware . 
 
 , " 
 
 842 
 
 
 842 
 
 Tin 
 
 .pnrcels. 
 
 87 
 
 
 8T 
 
 The commerce of China is conducted on the basis of 
 imports, opium, and credits on London. The imports 
 are a trifle j opium is about 30 per cent., and the differ- 
 ence is made up bj' a direct drain on Europe in pure 
 silver and some dollars ; the former is cast into sycee, 
 or pure silver ingots, and rarely, if ever, leaves the 
 empire, as it is strictly forbidden by the laws. — See 
 China, Canton. 
 
 Sharks' Fins form a regular article of trade to 
 China, and are collected for this purpose in every 
 country from the eastern shore of Africa to New 
 Guinea. In the Canton Price-currents they are as 
 regularly quoted as tea or opium ; and the price of 
 late years has been, according to quality, from $15 to 
 $18 per pioul, equal to from 50s. to 60s. per cwt. 
 
 Sha-vrls (Ger. Schalen; Fr. Ckals, Chales; It. SAa- 
 vali; Sp. Schayalos), articles of fine ivool, silk, or wool 
 and silk, manufactured after the fashion of a large 
 handkerchief, used in female dress. The finest shawls 
 are imported from India, where they are highly es- 
 teemed, and cost from $250 to $1500. 
 
 Cashmere Shawls. — The shawl manufacture is be- 
 lieved to have originated in the valley of Cashmere, the 
 ancient Caspira, in the northwest of India, between lat. 
 34° and 35° N., and long. 73° and 76° E. Though not so 
 flourishing as it once was, the manufacture is still pros- 
 ecuted in this province to a very considerable extent. 
 The shawls are the very best that are made, possessing 
 unequaled fineness, delicacy, and warmth. They are 
 formed of the inner hair of a variety of the common goat 
 (Coprn AtVcus), reared on the cold, drytable-land of Thi- 
 bet, elevated from 14,000 to 16,000 feet above the level 
 of the sea. The goat thrives sufliciently well in many 
 other countries ; but in the sultry plains of Hindostan 
 it has hardly more hair than a greyhound ; and though 
 in higher latitudes the hair is more abundant, it is for 
 the most part shaggy and coarse. It is only in the 
 intensely cold and dry climate of Thibet that it yields 
 the peculiarly soft woolly hair that constitutes the 
 material of the Indian shawl. We do not, therefore, 
 suppose that the efforts to naturalize the shawl-goat in 
 France will turn out well. On the contrary, we believe 
 the chances of success would be about equal were an 
 attempt made to breed beavers in a hot country, with- 
 out water, or camels in a moist country, free from heat 
 and drought. The inner or fine wool is covered over 
 and protected by a quantity of long shaggy hair, which 
 is, of course, carefully separated from it before it is 
 manufactured. The genuine shawl-wool has been im- 
 ported into Europe, and the finest Edinburgh and 
 Paisley shawls have been produced from it. But it 
 must be admitted that shawls have nowhere been made 
 that can come, as respects quality, into successful com- 
 petition with those of Cashmere. The manufacture has 
 been established at Delhi and Lahore for some years ; 
 but, notwithstanding it is carried on by native Cash- 
 merians, and though the material employed be quite 
 the same, the fabrics are said to want the fineness of 
 those made in Cashmere, and to have a degenerated, 
 coarse appearance. It is difficult to account for this 
 superiority. It has been ascribed to some peculiar 
 quality of the water in the valley of Cashmere ; but it 
 is most probably owing to a variety of circumstances, 
 which, though each may appear of little importance, 
 collectively give a character to the manufacture. 
 
 The following details as to the manufacture of Cash- 
 mere shawls have been extracted from an English pa- 
 per published at Delhi : " The great mart for the wool 
 of which shawls are made is at Kilghet, which is said 
 to be a dependency of Ladak, and situated 20 days' 
 journey from the northern boundaries of Cashmere. 
 There are two kinds of it: that which can be readily 
 dyed is white ; the other sort is of an ashy color, which 
 being with difiiculty changed, or, at least, improved 
 by art, is generally woven of its natural hue. About 
 ■2 lbs. of either are obtained from a single goat once a 
 year. After the down has been carefully separated 
 from the hairs, it is repeatedly washed with rice starch. 
 This process is reckoned important ; and it is to the 
 quality of the water of their valley that the Cash- 
 merians attribute the peculiar and inimitable fineness 
 of the fabrics produced there. At Kilghet the best 
 raw wool is sold for about one rupee a pound. By the 
 preparation and washing referred to, it loses one half, 
 and the remainder being spun, three rupees' weight of 
 
SHA 
 
 1703 
 
 SHA 
 
 the thread is considered worth que rupee. Shawls are 
 made of various forms, sizes, and borders, which are 
 wrought separately, with the view of adapting them to 
 the different markets. Those sent to Turkey used to 
 be of the softest and most delicate texture. Carpets 
 and counterpanes are fabricated of the hair or coarser 
 part of the wool. From a variety of causes, among 
 others the destruction of the Janizaries, who dressed 
 much in shawls, the loss of royalty in Cabul, and the 
 ruined finances of Lucknow, it is certain that the de- 
 mand for this elegant commodity has greatly declined 
 of late years. Under the Mogul emperors. Cashmere 
 found work for 30,000 «hawl-looms. In the time of 
 the Afghan kings, the number decreased to 18,000. 
 There are nownot more than 6000 employed. Weshould 
 attribute little of this diminution to the sale of English 
 imitations among the Asiatic nations. When these 
 counterfeits first appeared, the pretty patterns and 
 brilliancy of the colors took the fancy of some ; but 
 their great inferiority in the softness and warmth which 
 mark the genuine shawl soon caused the new article 
 to be neglected. The average value of shawls exported 
 from Cashmere amounts annually to 1,800,000 rupees. 
 Bunjcet Singh took two-thirds in kind as part of the 
 gross revenue of the province, which was about 25 lacs 
 a year. He is said to have sold three-fourths of what 
 he thus received, and to have kept the remainder for 
 his own court. Of those disposed of by him and left 
 for sale in the valley, seven lacs' worth went to Bom- 
 bay and Western India ; three to Hindostan, chiefly 
 Oude ; half a lac each to Calcutta, Cabul, Herat, and 
 Balk, whence some were carried to neighboring coun- 
 tries. A curious calculation of the successive exactions, 
 from CaShmere to Bombay inclusive, which magnify 
 the price of shawls, is herewith subjoined^ 
 
 " AoTUAi. Cost for Matekiai.b and Labok in making a 
 Paik of Keel Shawls. 
 
 Fd. rs. 
 
 Four Furrulcabad seers of wool 12 8 
 
 Cleaning, washing, and spinning BO 
 
 Dyeing 11 
 
 Wages to weavers 264 6 
 
 Total 337 14 
 
 Duiiea on the same. 
 
 On Bale and importation to Cashmere 3 14 
 
 On the thread 8 4 
 
 While the fabric is in the loom 125 
 
 Fees to chowdries, brokers, assessors, etc 35 
 
 Total amount of duties in Cashmere 171 18 
 
 Duties from Cashmere to Amritsir 12 6 
 
 *^ '^ Amritsir to Bombay 3 6^ 
 
 " atBombay 70 
 
 Total from Amritsir to Bombay 85 12^ 
 
 Total from Kilghet to Bombay, 171 18 and 85 12J = 262 30} 
 
 Prime coat 83T 14 
 
 Proportion of carnage 13 
 
 Insurance 21 
 
 Total cost 610 B6i 
 
 "A pair of such shawls might sell for 500 rupees at 
 Amritsir, and in Bombay for 900. The amount of the 
 imports, and the sums levied by each government, will 
 appear more in relief if stated as they afiect a camel- 
 load in its progress. It consists of fourteen and a 
 half cutcha maunds, and contains, at an average, 2000 
 shawls of different kinds, valued, on reaching Bombay,, 
 at 28,500 Furrukabad rupees. 
 
 "The government of Lahore exacts Furrukabad 
 rupees, 1564 6 ; Patialah, 61 ; Bikeneer, 43 ; Jond- 
 pore, 121 4 ; Bhownuggur, 20 ; total levied by native 
 princes, 1809 ; Bombay, 10 per cent, (ad valorem) 
 2850 0." 
 
 . It is not as yet generally known that the Thibet 
 goat, from whose wool the famous Cashmere shawls 
 are made, has been introduced successfully into the 
 United States. This enterprising undertaking was 
 achieved a few years since, after many difficulties, by 
 Dr. J. B. Davis, ofColumbia, South Carolina, at that 
 time employed by the Ottoman Porte in experiment- 
 ing on the growth of cotton in the Sultan's dominions. 
 Dr. Davis succeeded, at vast expense, in securing 
 
 eleven of the pure breed, which, on his way home, he 
 exhibited in London and Paris. Since that period, 
 the goat has been introduced from South Carolina into 
 Tennessee, where it is said to thrive. The value of 
 a flock may be estimated from the fact that no real 
 Thibet goat has ever been sold for less than $1000. 
 This enormous price, moreover, is not a speculative 
 one, for no fleeced animal has wool of such fineness, 
 softness, and durability. The wool of all the Thibet 
 goats in Tennessee, for example, has been engaged at 
 New York this year at $8 50 per pound, the purchasers 
 designing to send it to Paisley, in Scotland, in order 
 to be manufactured into shawls. 
 
 The prices paid for the real Cashmere shawls, or 
 those woven in India, have sometimes been almost fab- 
 ulous. A full-sized shawl, such as is called in Amer- 
 ica a "long shawl," ordinarily commands in Paris or 
 London from $500 to $5000, according to the quality. 
 Scarfs and square shawls, being smaller, sell for less. 
 It is a mistake, however, to suppose that all these 
 shawls are manufactured in India in the shape in which 
 they are sold here. Generallyj indeed, the centres and 
 borders come out separately, and are put togetlier aft- 
 erward in sizes, and often patterns, to suit purchasers. 
 Moreover, a large portion of the shawls sold as real 
 India ones are actually made in France, for the Thibet 
 goat was introduced into that country more than thir- 
 ty j'ears ago, and the Cashmere shawls imitated with 
 considerable skill. Judges of the article pretend to 
 say, however, that the real India shawl can be detected 
 by its having a less evenly woven web, as also from 
 its brighter colors. It is likewise said that the border 
 of ithe genuine Cashmere shawls is invariably woven 
 in small pieces, which are afterward sewed together, 
 as the whole border is subsequently sewn on to the 
 centre. But other authorities deny that the skill of 
 India is insufficient to hroche a shawl ; in other words, 
 to weave the border and centre in one piece, or run the 
 pattern of the former over the latter. 
 
 Notwithstanding the successful imitation of these 
 shawls, fashion and luxury still prefer the apparently 
 original. Just as laces, woven by hand, bring a price 
 more than five times as great as the same pattern 
 woven by machinery, so a Cashmere shawl, known to 
 have come from India, will fetch vastly more than the 
 cleverest imitation. Probably, however, this is not all. 
 Persons familiar with both the article and the imita- 
 tion assert that the former is softer than the latter, 
 and that this softness arises partly from the way the 
 thread is spun, and partly because the Thibet goat, 
 when exported from its native hills, sensibly deteri- 
 orates. There is also a shawl popularly known as the 
 French Cashmere, which is an imitation of the imita- 
 tion ; but this has none or very little of the wool of the 
 imported Thibet goat. The animal from which this 
 valuable fleece is taken is a hardy creature, at least in 
 its original locality; and their fine curled wool lies 
 close to the skin, just as the under hair of the common 
 goat lies under the upper hair. 
 
 The importation of shawls, manufactured all or in 
 part from wool, into the United States for the year 
 ending June 30, 1857, was as follows : 
 
 whence imported. Valne. 
 
 Hanse Towns $218,387 
 
 England 732,449 
 
 Scotland 332,088 
 
 France 833,973 
 
 China 86,294 
 
 Other places 63,160 
 
 Total ■. $2,246,351 ' 
 
 — See Cashmere, Cotton MAunFACinEEs, Wool. 
 
 Sheathing. The covering laid on the ship's bot- 
 tom to defend it from the worms. Sheets of thin cop- 
 per nailed on with copper nails constitutes, at present; 
 the sheathing of all the better kinds of vessels. Lead 
 has been used; and large-headed iron nails, called 
 scupper nails, are used still for the same purpose on the 
 bottoms of old hulks, piles, etc. Zinc and different 
 
SHE 
 
 1704 
 
 SHI 
 
 compositions have been proposed as substitutes for 
 copper ; and Sir H. Davy ingeniously suggested the 
 application of pieces of zinc or iron upon different parts 
 of tlie copper surface, wliicli by tlie action of tlie sea- 
 water render the latter metal electro-negative, and 
 capable, therefore, of resisting the oxidizing and corro- 
 sive agencies of the substances held in solution. The 
 pieces of iron or of zinc so applied have been properly 
 called protectors; but by occasioning the precipitation 
 of earthy matters upon the copper, while they effectu- 
 ally protect it, they render its surface favorable to the 
 adhesion of weeds, barnacles, etc., and sometimes to 
 such an extent as to interfere with the passage of the 
 ship through the water : upon such grounds. Sir Hum- 
 phrey's valuable suggestion has been neglected. When 
 vessels are laid up in doclc the protectors are in suc- 
 cessful use. Sheathing formerly was composed of thin 
 fir boards. By a recent application of electrotyping, 
 plates of sheet-iron are covered with a surface of copper 
 which effectually protects the iron from oxidation. 
 Iron bolts are also similarly electrotyped. 
 
 Sheep (Ger. Schafe; Fr. Brebis, Betes a laine, 
 Moutmis; It. Pecore; Sp. Pecora, Ovejas ; Russ. OwzS; 
 Lat. Otes). Of the domestic animals belonging to 
 Great Britain, sheep, with the exception of horses, and 
 perhaps <;attle, are by far the most important. They 
 can be reared in situations and upon soils where other 
 animals would not live. They afibrd a large supply 
 of food, and one of the principal materials of clothing. 
 Wool has long been a staple commodity of this coun- 
 try, and its manufacture employs an immense number 
 of people. " The dressed skin," says Mr. Pennant, 
 "forms different parts of our apparel, and is used for 
 covers of books. The entrails, properly prepared and 
 twisted, serve for strings for various musical instru- 
 ments. The bones, calcined (like other bones, in gen- 
 eral), form materials for tests for the refiner. The 
 milk is thicker than that of cows, and consequently 
 yields a greater quantity of butter and cheese ; and in 
 some places is so rich, that it will not produce the 
 cheese without a mixture of water to make it part from 
 the whey. The dung is a remarkably rich manure 
 insomuch that the folding of sheep is become too useful 
 a branch of husbandry for the farmer to neglect. To 
 conclude : whether we consider the advantages that 
 result from this animal to individuals in particular, or 
 to these kingdoms in general, we may, with Columella, 
 consider this, in one sense, as the first of the domestic 
 quadrupeds." — Pennant's British Zoology. 
 
 There was between 1840 and 1850 an increase of 
 2,309,108 in the number of sheep in the United States. 
 It will be usefiU to observe with some closeness the 
 progress ^of sheep-breeding in different parts of the 
 country. We perceive that in New England there has 
 occurred a remarkable decrease in their number. There 
 were in that division of the Union in 1840, 3,811,307 ; 
 in 1850 the number had declined to 2,164,452 ; being a 
 decrease of 1,646,855, or 45 per cent. In the five At- 
 lantic Middle States, New York, New Jersey, Pennsyl- 
 vania, Delaware, and Maryland, there was a decrease 
 from 7,402,851 to 5,641,39ll'cqual to 1,761,460, or about 
 22^ per cent. In Pennsylvania there was a gain, how- 
 ever, during this period, of 155,000 sheep. We see 
 that while there has been a positive diminution of 
 3,408,000 in the States above named, there has been an 
 augmentation of 5,717,608 in those south of Maryland 
 and west of New York. Ohio has gained most largely, 
 having been returned as pasturing in 1840, 2,028,401 ; 
 and in 1850, 3,942,929; an increase of 1,914,528, or 
 nearly 100 per cent. In each of the States south and 
 west of the lines above indicated, there has been a very 
 large proportional increase in this kind ©f stock, and 
 there is reasonable ground for the opinion that the hilly 
 lands of Virginia, North and South Carolina, Tennes- 
 see, and the prairies of Illinois, Iowa, and Texas, will 
 prove highly favorable for the rearing of sheep for 
 their wool and pelts. 
 
 New Mexico has the extraordinary number of 377,271 
 sheep — more than six to each inhabitant; proving the 
 soil and climate of that territory to be well adapted to 
 this description of stock, and giving promise of a large 
 addition from that quarter to the supply of wool. The 
 importance of fostering this great branch of national 
 production is shown by the fact, as assumed by an in- 
 telligent writer on the subject, that our population 
 annually consumes an amount of wool equal to seven 
 pounds for each person. If this estimate be even an 
 approximation to correctness, we are yet very far 
 short of producing a quantity adequate to the wants of 
 the country ; and it is equally clear that we possess an 
 amount of unemployed land adapted to grazing, suffi- 
 cient to support flocks numerous enough to clothe the 
 people of the world. The kinds of sheep most sought 
 for are the pure-blooded Merinos, the Saxons, the Cots- 
 wolds, the Leicestershires, the Oxfordshires, and the 
 South Downs. The Merinos (including the Eambouil- 
 lets), the Cotswolds, the Leicestershires, the Oxford- 
 shires, and the Saxons, are the most highly prized for 
 their wool. The South Downs are particularly es- 
 teemed for the excellence of their flesh, and their wool 
 is valuable for many purposes on account of the facility 
 with which it can be wrought.— K S. Patent Office Re- 
 port. See Shawm and Wooi,. 
 
 Sheer. The curve which the line of ports or of 
 the deck presents to the eye when viewing the side of 
 the ship. When these lines are straight, or the ex- 
 tremities do not rise, as is most usual, the ship is said 
 to have a straight sheer. 
 
 Sheer Hulk. — .\ hulk pernianentlj- fitted with sheers 
 for masting and dismasting ships. 
 
 Sheers. — Two masts or spars lashed together at or 
 near the head, and raised to a vertical position, for the 
 purpose of lifting the masts into or out of vessels. 
 
 Sheet. The rope attached to the aftermost or lee- 
 wardmost clew or corner of a sail, to extend it to the 
 wind. In the square sails above the courses, the ropes 
 attached to both clews are called sheets : in all other 
 cases the weathermost one is called a tack. 
 
 Sheet Anchor. The third of the four large anch- 
 ors generally carried by a ship. 
 
 Sherry. A Spanish wine made from the grapes of 
 Xeres, in Andalusia. Genuine sherry is a rich, dry 
 wine, containing from 20 to 23 per oent. of alcohol : 
 there are many varieties, and it is extensively imitated 
 and adulterated. — See Wise. 
 
 Shilling. An English silver coin, equal to twelve- 
 pence, or the twentieth part of a pound. Freherus de- 
 rives the Saxon scilling, whence our shilling, from a cor- 
 ruption of siliqua ; proving the derivation by several 
 texts of law, and, among others, by the twenty-sixth 
 law, De annuis legatis. Skinner deduces it from the 
 Saxon scUd, " shield," by reason of the escutcheon of 
 arms which it has upon it. Bishop Hooper derives it 
 from the Arabic scheele, signifying a weight ; but others, 
 with greater probability, deduce it from the Latin si- 
 cUicus, which signified in that language a quarter of 
 an ounce, or the forty-eighth part of a Roman pound. 
 In confirmation of this etymology, it is alleged that 
 the shilling kept its original signification, and bore the 
 same proportion to the Saxon pound as sicilicus did to 
 the Roman and the Greek, being exactly the forty- 
 eighth part of a Saxon pound. 
 
 However, the Saxon law reckons the pound in the 
 round number at fifty shillings, but they really coined 
 out of it only forty-eight. The value of the shilling 
 was five-pence, but it was reduced to four-pence above 
 a century before the Conquest ; for several of the Sax- 
 on laws, made in Athelstan's reign, oblige us to take 
 this estimate. Thus it continued to the Norman times, 
 as one of the Conqueror's laws sufficiently ascertains ; 
 and it seems to have been the common coin by which 
 the English payments were adjusted. After the Con- 
 quest, the French solidus of twelve-pence, which was in 
 use among the Normans, was called by the English 
 
SHI 
 
 1705 
 
 SHI 
 
 name of shilling ; and the Saxon shilling offonr-penoc 
 took a Norman name, and was called the groat, or great 
 coin , because it was the largest English coin then known 
 in England. It was the opinion of bishops Fleetwood 
 and Gibson, and of the antiquaries in general, that, 
 though the method of reckoning by pounds, marks, and 
 shillings, as well as by pence and farthings, had been in 
 constant use even from the Saxon times, long before 
 the Norman Conquest, there was never such a coin in 
 England as either a pound or a mark, nor any shilling, 
 till the year 1504 or 1505, when a few silver shillings 
 or twelve-pences were coined, which have long since 
 been solely confined to the cabjnets of collectors. Mr. 
 Clarke combats this opinion, alleging that some coins 
 mentioned by Mr. Folkes, under Edward the First, were 
 probably Saxon shillings new minted, and that Arch- 
 bishop .^Ifric expressly says that the Saxons had three 
 names for their money — ^mancuses, shillings, and pen- 
 nies. He also urges the different value of the Sax- 
 on shilling at different times, and its uniform propor- 
 tion to the pound, as an argument that their shilling 
 was a coin ; and the testimony of the Saxon Gospels, 
 in which the word we have translated ^pj'eces of silver is 
 rendered shillings, which, he says, they would hardly 
 have done if there had been no such coin as a shilling 
 then in use. Accordingly, the Saxons expressed their 
 shilling in Latin by siclus and argenteus. He further 
 adds, that the Saxon shilling was never expressed by 
 aolidus till after the Norman settlements in England ; 
 and howsoever it altered during the long period that 
 elapsed from the Conquest to -the time of Henry the 
 Seventh, it was the most constant denomination of 
 money in all payments, though it was then only a spe- 
 cies of account, or the twentieth part of the pound 
 sterling; and when it was again revived' as a coin, 
 it lessened .gradually as the pound sterling lessened, 
 from the 28th of Edward, the .Third to the 43d of Eliz. 
 abeth. 
 
 In the year 1560 there was a peculiar sort of shilling 
 struck in Ireland, of the value of nine-pence English, 
 which passed in Ireland for twelve-pence. The motto on 
 the reverse was, Posui Deum adjutorem meum. Eighty- 
 two of these shillings, according to Malynes, went to 
 the pound. They weighed, therefore, twenty grains one 
 fourth each, which is somewhat heavier in proportion 
 than the English shilling of that time, sixty-two of which 
 went to the pound, each weighing ninety-two grains 
 seven-eighths ; and the Irish shilling being valued at 
 the Tower at nine-pence English, that is, one fourth 
 part less than the English shilling, it should therefore 
 proportionally weigh one fourth pait less, and its full 
 weight be somewhat more than sixty-two grains. But 
 some of them found at this time, though much worn, 
 weighed sixty-nine grains. In 1598 five different 
 pieces of money of this kind were struck in England 
 for the service of the kingdom of Ireland. These were 
 shillings to be current in Ireland at twelve-pence each, 
 half-shillings to be current at six-pence, and quarter- 
 shillings at three-pence. Pennies and half-pennies 
 were also struck of the same kind, and sent over for the 
 payment of the army in Ireland. The money thus 
 coined was of a very base mixture of copper and silver ; 
 and two years after there were more pieces of the same 
 kinds struck for the same service, which were still 
 worse ; the former being three ounces of silver to nine 
 ounces of copper, and the latter only two ounces eight- 
 een pennyweights to nine ounces two pennyweights of 
 the alloy. 
 
 The Dutch, Flemish, and Germans have likewise 
 their shilling, called scAelin, .schilling, and scalim; but 
 these, not being of the same weight or fineness with the 
 English shilling, are not current at the same value. 
 The English shilling is worth about twenty -three 
 French sols ; those of Holland and Germany about 
 eleven sols and a half; those of Flanders about nine. 
 The Dutch shillings are also called sols de gros, because 
 equal to twelve gros. The Danes have copper shil- 
 
 lings worth about one fourth of a farthing sterling.-i' 
 E. B. See Coins. 
 
 Ship-money was first levied a.d. 1007, and caused 
 great commotions. This impost being illegally levied 
 by Charles the First in 1634, led to the Revolution. 
 He assessed London in seven ships, of 4000 tons and 
 1560 men; Yorkshire in two ships of 600 tons, or 
 £12,000 ; Bristol in one ship of 100 tons ; Lancashire 
 in one ship of 400 tons. The trial of the patriot Hamp- 
 den for refusing to pay the tax, which he at first solely 
 opposed, took place in 1638. Ship-money was in- 
 cluded in a redress of grievances, in 1641. Hampden 
 received a wound in a skirmish with Prince Rupert, 
 and died June 24, 1643. 
 
 Ships. Nautical men apply the term ship to dis- 
 tinguish a vessel having three masts, each consisting 
 of a lower mast, a topmast, and top-gallant mast, with 
 their appropriate rigging. In familiar language, it is 
 usually employed to distinguish any large vessel, how- 
 ever rigged ; but it is also frequently used as a general 
 designation for all vessels navigated with sails ; and it 
 is in this sense that wc now employ it. 
 
 Merchant Ships. — It is hardly possible to divide mer- 
 chant sliips into classes, at least with any degree of 
 precision. Their size, shape, the mode of their rigging, 
 etc., depend not merely on the particular trade for 
 which the}' arc destined, but on the varying tastes 
 and fancies of their owners. In the articles Chakter- 
 PABTY, Freight, Master, O^vners, Seamen, Sea- 
 worthy, etc., the law with respect to ships and ship- 
 owners, in their capacity of carriers or public servants, 
 and the reciprocal duties and obligations of the mas- 
 ters and crews, is pretty fully expounded. 
 
 Ship-building. — The art is attributed to the Egyp- 
 tians, as the first inventors, the first ship (probably a 
 galley) being brought from Egypt to Greece, by Da- 
 naus, 1485 B.C. — Blair. The first double-decked ship 
 was built by the Tyrians, 786 B.C. — Lenglet. The 
 first double-deck vessel built in England was of 1000 
 tons burden, by order of Henry VII., 1509; it was 
 called the Great Hurry, and cost iE14,000.-^STOW. Be- 
 fore this time, 24-gun ships were the largest in the 
 British navy, and these had no port-holes, the guns 
 being on the upper decks only. Port-holes and other 
 improvements were invented by Descharges, a French 
 builder at Brest, in the reign of Louis XII., about 1500. 
 Ship-building was first treated as a science by Hoste, 
 1696. A 74-gun ship was put upon the stocks at Van 
 Diemen's Land, to be sheathed with India-rubber, 1829. 
 — Haydn. For articles on ship-building, see Quarterly 
 Review, vol. iii. 28, xi. 227, xii. 444 ; Anal. Mag., i. 263, 
 vi. 450 ; Host's Merchants' Mag., xi. 11, xviii. 172. 
 
 State of Shipping Interest^- — The complaints which 
 were so frequent some years since in regard to the ship- 
 ping interest have now wholly ceased. Most probably 
 they never had any verj' good foundation ; but whether 
 that were so or not, this interest has been for some time 
 past in a peculiarly prosperous condition. This has 
 beeen occasioned partly and principally by the gold 
 discoveries in California and Australia, or rather by 
 the unprecedented stimulus which they have given to 
 emigration and commerce. It is not, therefore, to be 
 supposed that the existing state of things, as respects 
 the shipping interest, can be permanent ; for while, on 
 the one hand, the advantages resulting from emigra- 
 tion will gradually diminish, on the other the supply 
 of ships will be augmented in proportion to the greater 
 demand for their services. However, it is all but cer- 
 tain that the commerce of the world is destined to in- 
 crease for a long time to come ; and our mercantile 
 navy will, no doubt, continue to realize a full and fair 
 share of the advantages resulting from this extension 
 of trade. 
 
 Some very important changes have been made of 
 late years, and are yet in progress, in the construction 
 of ships. They are now built of a much larger size 
 than formerly, of finer models, and with a power of 
 
SHI 
 
 1706 
 
 SHI 
 
 Bailing of which no just idea could previously have 
 been formed. Ships of 2000 tons burden are now recl^- 
 oned only of little more than a medium size ; and 
 those of 2300 and 2500 tons and upward are every day 
 becoming more and more common. It is probable, in- 
 deed, that in this, as in most other things, we shall run 
 from one extreme into another; and that from being 
 too small, our ships for distant voyages will become too 
 large and unwieldy. This, however, is a point which 
 experience only can settle, and to that it may safely 
 be left. Iron ships are also, as previously stated, be- 
 ginning to be extensively constructed; and ships are 
 now frequently fitted out with screws and steam-en- 
 gines, to be used only as a subsidiary power in calms, 
 and against contrary winds. 
 
 Most sorts of short passage traffic are now carried on 
 by steamers ; and it is probable that in the end they 
 will engross the greater part of the coasting trade of 
 most countries, and of the trade between foreign coun- 
 tries adjacent to each other. But the Improved class 
 of sailing ships have little to fear from the competition 
 of steamers in all the more distant branches of trade. — 
 For general statistics in regard to the number of ships 
 and amount of tonnage, see articles Stkam Naviga- 
 tion and Tonnage 
 
 Shipping, La^ws of. — Under the general heads 
 of AFiaiEiGiiTjiENT, Chaeter-party,Bills of Lad- 
 ing, Caerieks, Collision, Commerce, Masters, 
 Maeiti.me Laws, Registry, Seamen, etc. (see Index), 
 particular information has been given concerning the 
 laws of shipping. Wewill,therefore,inthis article only 
 give a synopsis of the general laws regulating ships and 
 shipping. 
 
 Title to Vessels. — The title of a ship, unless acquired 
 by capture, passes by writing. A bill of sale is the 
 proper record of title to <* ship, and one which the 
 maritime courts of all nations will look for and, in their 
 ordinary practice, require. In Scotland, a written con- 
 veyance of property in ships has, by custom, become 
 necessary ; and in England a statute requires it with 
 regard to British subjects. In this country, possession 
 of a ship and acts of ownership are presumptive evi- 
 dence without the aid of documentary proof, and will 
 hold good until destroyed by conti-ary proof, and a sale 
 with delivery of a ship, without a bill of sale or written 
 instrument of any kind, will be good at law. But the 
 presumpti%'e title from possession can easily be destroy- 
 ed ; and the general rule is that no person can convey 
 who has no title, and the fact of possession does not 
 give title. The master of a ship Las no authority to 
 sell, unless in a case of necessity. It is generally, 
 though not universally, considered that a sale by or- 
 der of an admiralty court in a foreign port, by a peti- 
 tion of the master on the ground of unseaworthiness, 
 is valid. The capture by a public enemy divests the 
 title from the original owner after a regular condemna- 
 tion by a prize court. Upon the sale of a ship in port, 
 delivery of possession is requisite to perfect the title. 
 If the vessel is at sea at the time of sale, possession 
 must take place upon arrival at port. 
 
 Liability of Owner. — The owner is personally liable as 
 owner for necessaries furnished and repairs made to a 
 ship by order of the master. It has been a disputed 
 question whether the mortgagee of a ship is liable be- 
 fore taking possession. The weight of the American 
 decisions decides that he is not liable for repairs pro- 
 cured on the order of the master, if not upon the credit 
 of the mortgagee, and if the same was not in receipt 
 of the freight. When the vessel is at sea, the liability 
 of the mortgagee for wages, etc., resolves itself into 
 the question of his possession. The liability of the 
 charterer or freighter under similar circumstances also 
 depends upon the question of temporary ownership by 
 their use of the vessel. 
 
 Custom-house Documents. — The United States have 
 followed the policy of other commercial nations in giv- 
 ing peculiar privileges upon American-built vessels 
 
 owned by our own citizens. This is obtained by a 
 registry of vessels (see article Eegistry), and which 
 provision is intended to encourage our own trade, 
 navigation, and ship-building. The registry of all 
 vessels at the custom-house, and the records of the 
 transfers also, add great security to the titles. No 
 vessel is to be deemed as belonging to the United 
 States, and entitled to the privileges of one, unless 
 registered and wholly owned and commanded by a 
 citizen of the United States. 
 
 Part Owners. — The several part owners of a ship 
 are tenants in common, and not partners. Each has 
 his undivided interest, and when one is appointed 
 to manage the concerns of the ship he is called the 
 ship's hysband. If there be no definite agreement 
 among the owners as to the employment of the ship, 
 the majority in value may employ the ship, while the 
 admiralty court secures the interests of the minority 
 from injury. This practice is dictated by the common- 
 sense view that " ships were made to plow the ocean, 
 and not to rot by the wall." The court takes a secu- 
 rity from the majority to a sum equal to the shares of 
 the minority, either to bring back the ship or pay the 
 minority the value of their shares, and in this case the 
 ship sails wholly at the profit or risk of the majority. 
 The distinction between part owners and partners may 
 be stated thus : Part ownership is but a tenancy in 
 common, and as such a part owner can only sell his 
 undivided right, and can give title only to such ; but 
 a partner has implied authority over the joint property. 
 A vessel may be held in partnership, but is not unless 
 by agreement. — See Kent's Comm., vol. iii. 
 
 Carriage of Goods. — When the ship is hired and the 
 cargo laden on board, the duties of the owner, and of 
 his agent, the master, arise in respect to the commence- 
 ment, progress, and termination of the voyage. When 
 the voyage is ready, the master is bound to sail as 
 soon as the wind and the tide permit, but he ought not 
 to set out in very tempestuous weather. If, by the 
 charter-party, the vessel is to sail by a given day, the 
 master must do it, unless prevented by necessity ; and 
 if there be an understanding to sail with convoy, he is 
 bound to go to the place of rendezvous, and place him- 
 self under the protection and control of the convoy, and 
 continue, as far as possible, under that protection during 
 his course. He is bound, likewise, to obtain the neces- 
 sary sailing instructions for the convoy ; but these cove- 
 nants to sail with the first fair wind and with convoy, 
 are not conditions precedent to the recovery of freight, 
 and a breach of them only goes to the question of 
 damages. The master is bound, likewise, to proceed 
 to the port of deliverj' without delay, and without any 
 unnecessary deviation from the direct and usual course. 
 If he covenants to go to a loading port by a given time 
 he must do it or abide the forfeiture ; and if he be forced 
 by perils out of his regular course, he must regain it 
 with as little delay as possible. Nothing but some just 
 and necessary cause, as to avoid a storm, or pirates, 
 or enemies, or to procure requisite supplies or repairs, 
 or to relieve a ship in distress, will justify a deviation 
 from the regular course of the voyage. If he deviates 
 unnecessarily from the usual course, and the cargo be 
 injured by tempests during the deviation, it is a suffi- 
 cient proximate cause of the loss to entitle the freighter 
 to recover ; though if it could be shown that the same 
 loss not only might but must have happened if there 
 had not been any deviation, the conclusion might be 
 otherwise. Nor has the captain any authority to sub- 
 stitute another voyage in the place of the one agreed 
 between the owner and freighter of the ship. Such 
 a power is altogether beyond (he scope of his au- 
 thority as master. In case of necessity, as where the 
 ship is wrecked, or otherwise disabled in the course 
 of the voyage, and can not be repaii-ed, under the 
 circumstances, without too great delay and expense, 
 the master may procure another competent vessel to 
 carry on the cargo and save his freight. If other means 
 
SHI 
 
 1707 
 
 SHI 
 
 to forward the cargo can be procured, the master must 
 procure them or Joae his freight ; and if he offers to do 
 it, and the freighter will not consent, he will then be 
 entitled to his full freight. The' master must act in 
 port of necessity for the best interest of all concerned, 
 and he has the power and disoretion adequate to the 
 trust, and requisite for the safe delivery of the cargo 
 at the port of destination. If there be another vessel 
 in the same or in a contiguous port which can be had, 
 the duty is clear and imperative upon the master to 
 hire it ; but still the master is to exercise a sound dis- 
 cretion adapted to the case. He may transmit the 
 cargo, if he has the means, or let it remain. He may 
 bind it for repairs to the ship. He may sell part, or 
 hypothecate the whole. If he hires another vessel for 
 the completion of the voyage, he may charge the cargo 
 with the increased freight arising from the hire of the 
 new ship. The master may refuse to hire another ves- 
 sel, and insist on repairing his own ; and whether the 
 freighter be bound to wait for the time to repair, or 
 becomes entitled to her goods without any charge of 
 freight, will depend upon circumstances. What may 
 be a reasonable time for the merchant to wait for the 
 repairs can not be defined, and must be governed by 
 the facts applicable to the place and the time, and to 
 the nature and condition of the cargo. A cargo of a 
 perishable nature may be so deteriorated as not to 
 endure the delay for repairs, or to be too unfit and 
 worthless to be carried on. The captain is not bound 
 to go to a distance to procure another vessel, and en- 
 counter serious impediments in the way of putting the 
 cargo on board another vessel. His duty is only im- 
 perative when another vessel can be had in the same 
 or a contiguous port, or at one within a reasonable dis- 
 tance, and there be no great diiSculties in the way of 
 a safe reshipment of the cargo. In the course of the 
 voyage, the master is bound to take all possible care 
 over the cargo ; and he is responsible for every injury 
 which might have been prevented by human foresight 
 and prudence, and competent naval skill. He is charge- 
 able with the most exact diligence. If the ship be 
 captured during the voyage, the master is bound to 
 render his exertions to rescue the property from con- 
 demnation, by interposing his neutral claims, and ex- 
 hibiting all the documents in his power for the protec- 
 tion of the cargo. < 
 
 Of the Delivery of the Goods ai the Port of Destination, 
 —On the arrival of the ship at the place of destination, 
 the cargo is to be delivered to the consignee, or to the 
 order of the shipper, on the production of the bill of 
 lading and payment of the freight. The cargo is bound 
 to the ship as well as the ship to the cargo ; but the 
 master can not detain the goods on board the ship un- 
 til the freight be paid, for the merchant ought to have 
 an opportunity to examine the condition of them pre- 
 vious to payment. Delivery at the wharf (where there 
 are no special directions to the contrary) discharges 
 the master. But there must be a delivery at the wharf 
 to some person authorized to receive the goods, or due 
 previous notice must have been given to the consignee 
 of the time and place of delivery ; and the master can 
 not discharge himself by learing them naked and ex- 
 posed at the whaif.. His responsibility will continue 
 until there is actual delivery, or some act which is 
 equivalent, or a substitute for it, unless the owner of the 
 goods or his agent had previously assumed the charge 
 of the goods ; or at least until the consignee has had 
 notice of the place and time of delivery, and the goods 
 have been duly separated and designed for his use. 
 When there are conflicting claims between consigner 
 and consignee, or consigner and the assignee of the 
 consignee, if the consignee has failed, he ought to de- 
 liver to the claimant on behalf of the consignee; and 
 if the consignee has assigned the bill of lading, and 
 the rights of the consignee be still interposed and con- 
 tested, it is safest for the master to deposit the goods 
 frith some bailee, until the rights of the claimants are 
 
 settled, as they can always be upon a bill of interpleader- 
 in chancery to be filed by the master. Having made 
 a consignment, the consignee or seller has not an un- 
 limited power to vary it at pleasure. He may do it 
 only for the purpose of protecting himself against the 
 insolvency of the buyer or consignee. 
 
 Responsibility of the Shipowner. — The cases that will 
 excuse the owners and masters for the non-delivery of 
 the cargo must be events falling within the meaning 
 of one of the expressions, act of God and public ene- 
 mies ; or they must arise from some event expressly 
 provided for in the charter-party. Water-carriers are 
 liable as common carriers in all the strictness and ex- 
 tent of the common-law rule, unless the loss happens by 
 means of one of the excepted perils. A loss by light- 
 ning is within the exception of the act of God ; but a 
 loss by fire proceeding from any other cause is chargea- 
 ble upon the ship-owner. The moment the goods are 
 transferred from the ship or lighter to the warehouse, 
 this extraordinary responsibility ends. 
 
 If a rock or a sand-bar be generally known, and the 
 ship be not forced upon it by adverse winds or tem- 
 pests, the loss is to be imputed to the fault of the mas- 
 ter. But if the ship be forced upon such shallow by 
 winds or tempests, or if the bar was occasioned by a 
 recent and sudden collection of sand in a place where 
 ships could before sail with safety, the loss is to be at- 
 tributed to a peril of the sea. A statute in Massachu- 
 setts, passed in 1818, and re-enacted in 1835, limits the 
 I'esponsibility of owners for the acts of the master and 
 mariners to the value of the ship and freight, but oth- 
 erwise the owner is bound for the whole amount of the 
 injury done by the master or crew. 
 
 •Duties of the Shippers. — The duties of the charterer 
 are to use the ship in a lawful manner, and for the pur- 
 pose for which it was let. If the freighter puts on 
 board prohibited or contraband goods,- b}' ^neans where- 
 of the ship is subjected to detention and forfeiture, he 
 must answer to the ship-owner for the consequences of 
 the act. And if the merchant declines to lade the 
 ship according to contract, or to furnish a return cargo, 
 as he had engaged to do, he must render in damages 
 due compensation for the loss. 
 
 Payment of Freight. — Freight, in its original and 
 more common acceptation, means the hire which is 
 earned for the transportation of goods, but in its more 
 extensive sense it is applied to all rewards for com- 
 pensation paid for the use of ships. If the hiring be 
 of the who^e ship, or for an entire part of her for the 
 voyage, the merchant must pay the freight though he 
 does not fully lade the ship. But if he agrees to pay 
 in proportion to the amount of the goods put on board, 
 and does not agree to provide a whole cargo, the owner 
 can demand payment for the cargo actually shipped. 
 If the merchant agrees to furnish a return cargo, and 
 he furnishes none, and lets the ship return in ballast, 
 he must make compensation to the amount of the 
 freight. — Leone Levi's Com. Law of the World. 
 
 Analysis of the General Law of /Shipping. — The sale 
 of ships in Great Britain must be made by a bill of 
 sale containing a recital of the certificate of registry. 
 In France, Spain, and Sardinia, it must be made by 
 public deed. In Holland the deed is transferred into 
 a public register. All British subjects are authorized 
 to possess shares in ships in Great Britain. In Spain 
 foreigners not naturalized can not acquire the owner- 
 ship of ships. In Russia this right is limited to mer- 
 chants of the first and second guild. Part owners are 
 tenants in common with each other of their respective 
 shares in Great Britain. Each ship's husband may 
 sell his share, but he should give preference to his part 
 owners at equal price, provided they pay the price 
 within three days : Spain, Prussia, Bussia, Denmark, 
 and Sweden. The responsibility of ship-owners for 
 the acts of the captain is unlimited in Prussia and Spain, 
 provided it be proved that auoh expenses turned to the 
 advantage of the vessels. In Great Britain the own- 
 
SHI 
 
 1708 
 
 SHI 
 
 ers are responsible -where the expenditure is for neces- 
 saries. In Portugal obligations are not binding be- 
 yond the value of the ship and freight. In France 
 owners maj' relieve themselves from such obligations 
 by the abandonment of ship and freight. In Russia 
 the ship's husband is responsible only to the value 
 of the ship. In the Two Sicilies, Sardinia, Holland, 
 Greece, and Hayti, the same restriction is admitted. 
 In the United States the seamen are not paid if the 
 ship and freight have been lost; but their wagesare 
 preferred to bottomry bond on the ship and freight 
 preserved. — See Owners of Ships. In France the 
 same law prevails. 
 
 Ships' Papers, the papers or documents required for 
 the manifestation of the property of the ship and cargo, 
 etc. They are of two sorts; viz., 1st, those required 
 by the law of a particular country — as the certificate 
 of registry, license, charter-party, bills of lading, bill 
 of health, etc. (see these titles), required by the law of 
 England to be on board British ships; and, 2d, those 
 required bj' the law of nations to be on board neutral 
 ships, to vindicate their title to that character. Mr. 
 Sergeant IMarshall, following Hubner (Z)e la Saisie des 
 Bdtimens Neuires, i. 241-252), has given the following 
 description of the latter class of documents : 
 
 1. T/ie Passport, Sea Brief, or Sea Letter. — This is 
 a permission from the neutral state to the captain or 
 master of the ship to proceed on the voj-age proposed, 
 and usually contains his name and residence ; the name, 
 property, description, tonnage, and destination of the 
 ship; the nature and quantity of the cargo, the place 
 whence it comes, and its destination ; with such other 
 matters as the practice of the place requires. This 
 document is indispensably necessary for the safety of 
 every neutral ship. Hubner says that it is the only 
 paper rigorously insisted en by the Barbary corsairs ; 
 by the production of which alone their friends arc pro- 
 tected from insult. 
 
 2. The Proofs of Property. — These ought to show that 
 the ship really belongs to the subjects of a neutral state. 
 If she appear to either belligerent to have been built in 
 tlie enemy's country, proof is generally required that 
 she was purchased by tlie neutral before, or captured 
 and legally condemned and sold to the neutral after, 
 the declai-ation of war; and in the latter case the Mil 
 of sale, properly authenticated, ought to be produced. 
 Hubner admits that these proofs are so essential to 
 every neutral vessel, for the prevention of frauds, that 
 such as sail without them have no reason to complain 
 if they be interrupted in their voyages, and their neu- 
 trality disputed. 
 
 3. The Muster-roll. — This, which the French call rule 
 d'eqwpage, contains the names, ages, quality, place of 
 residence, and, above all, the place of birth, of every 
 person of the ship's company. This document is of 
 great use in ascertaining a ship's neutrality. It must 
 naturally excite a strong suspicion, if the majority of 
 the crew be found to consist of foreigners ; still more, 
 if they be natives of the enemy's country. — See Seamen. 
 
 4. The Charter-party. — Where the ship is chartered, 
 this instrument serves to authenticate many of the facts 
 on which the truth of her neutrality must rest, and 
 should therefore be always found on board chartered 
 ships. — See Affreightment and Chaetee-party. 
 
 5. The Bills of Lading. — By these the captain ac- 
 knowledges the receipt of the goods specified therein, 
 and promises to deliver them to the consignee or his 
 order. Of these there are usually several duplicates ; 
 one of which is kept by the captain, one by the shipper 
 of the goods, and one transmitted to the consignee. 
 This instrument, being only the evidence of a private 
 transaction between the owner of the goods and the cap- 
 tain, does not carry with it the same degree of authen- 
 ticity as the charter-party. — See Bills op Lading. 
 
 6. The Invokes. — These contain the particulars and 
 prices of each parcel of goods, with the amount of the 
 freight, duties, and other charges thereon, which are 
 
 usually transmitted from the shippers to their factors 
 or consignees. These invoices prove by whom the 
 goods were shipped, and to whom consigned. They 
 carrj- with them, however, but little authenticity, be- 
 ing easily fabricated where fraud is intended. 
 
 7. The Log-booh, or Ship's Journal. — This contains 
 a minute account of the ship's course, with a short his- 
 tory of every occurrence during the voyage. If this 
 be faithfully kept, it will throw great light on the ques- 
 tion of neutrality ; if it be in awy respect fabricated, 
 the fraud may in general be easily detected. 
 
 8. The BUI of Health. — This is a certificate, properly 
 authenticated, that the ship comes from a pl,ace where 
 no contagious distemper prevails ; and that none of the 
 crew, at the time of her departure, were infected with 
 any such disorder. It is generally found on board 
 ships coming from the Levant, or from the coast of 
 Barbary, where the plague so frequently prevails. 
 
 A ship using false or simulated papers is liable to 
 confiscation. — Marshall on Insurance. 
 
 The reciprocal Duties of Consular Officers and Masters 
 of American Vessels. — 1^' an act of the Congress of the 
 United States, approved February 28, 1803, it is in 
 substance directed that every master of an American 
 vessel shall, on his arrival at a foreign port, deposit 
 his register, sea-letter, and Mediterranean passport, 
 with the consular officer of the United States, if there 
 be one at the port, under a penalty of $500, which the 
 consular officer may recover in his own name for the 
 use of the United States. Whenever a clearance from 
 the proper officer of the port shall be produced to the 
 consular officer, he shall deliver up all the ship's pa- 
 pers, provided the master shall have complied with the 
 provisions of the above-mentioned act, and those of the 
 28th section of the act of August 18, 1856. Where ves- 
 sels merely touch at a foreign port to try the market, 
 or are accidentalW driven into such port, and make no 
 formal entry, it does not constitute an "arriral" with- 
 in the meaning of the act, and the ship's papers can 
 not be required by the consul. 
 
 As some doubt has arisen in regard to what consti- 
 tutes an "arrival," attention is particularly called to 
 the following extract from an opinion of the Supreme 
 Court of the United States : " Our view, then, is, that 
 the term arrival, as used in this act, must be construed 
 according to the subject-matter, the object of the pro- 
 vision, and the expressions in other sections of this act, 
 and in other like acts ; and that according to all these, 
 a vessel putting into a foreign port to get information, 
 and getting it without going at all to the upper harbor 
 or wharves, and not entering, or repairing, or breaking 
 bulk, or discharging seamen, or being bound homeward, 
 so as to take seamen, or needing the aid of the consul 
 in any respect, but leaving the port in a few hours ; 
 not doing anj' of these, nor being required to, and duly 
 entering and delivering her cargo at a neighboring 
 port, where it had been sold, and there depositing her 
 papers with the vice-consul, can not be said to have 
 arrived at the first port, so as to come within the spirit 
 of the penal provision as to depositing her papers with 
 the consul. So far as regards precedents on this mat- 
 ter, the actual decision of one court and the opinions 
 of two Attorneys General are in favor of our conclu- 
 sion." 
 
 Vessels accidentally driven into a port are not re- 
 quired to deposit their papers with the consular officer, 
 unless formal entry be afterward made, or consular 
 services required. It is stated in the opinion of the 
 Attorney-general of October 17, 1863, that the body 
 of the second section of the act of 1803 contemplates an 
 arrival at a foreign port, with a clearance from the 
 proper officer of the port. It is the production of the 
 clearance to the consular officer which gives to the 
 master the right to demand a return of the ship's pa- 
 pers, and imposes on the consul the duty of returning 
 them. The proviso to the section allows the consular 
 officer, notwithstanding the clearance from the proper 
 
SHI 
 
 1709 
 
 SHI 
 
 officer of the port, to detain the ship's papers until cer- 
 tain requirements of law shall have been complied with: 
 Which are the payment of the fees due the consular of- 
 ficer for his services ; the payment to him of three 
 months' pay, additional to wages due, for every dis- 
 charged seaman who is designated on the certified list 
 of the ship's company As a citizen of the United States ; 
 and the taldng on board, at the request of the c(5nsular 
 officer, of- destitute mariners for transportation to the 
 United States. 
 
 Tills right of the consular officer attaches to the reg- 
 ister and other papers when they shall have been law- 
 fully deposited with him; but the statute does not 
 compel the deposit for the purpose of giving the right 
 of detention. Neither the section of the act which re- 
 gards discharged seamen, nor that which provides for 
 distressed seamen, nor the regulation as to consular 
 fees, requires a deposit of the register and other papers, 
 although the former makes it the duty of the master to 
 exhibit to the consul a certified list of the ship's com- 
 pany. And the proviso above cited does not enlarge 
 the scope of the other provisions of law as to the de- 
 posit of the papers ; it only releases the consul from 
 the duty, which would otherwise be imperative upon 
 him, of returning the papers upon the exhibition of 
 the clearance alone. 
 
 By the first section of the act of 1803, it is made the 
 duty of the consular officer, immediately on the amval 
 of an American vessel, should the master neglect to 
 deliver his ship's papers, as he is directed by law, to 
 inform him of the necessity of so doing, by showing 
 him the law that requires it, and apprising him of the 
 penalty he will incur by refusal or neglect. If he fail 
 to comply, a certificate of the fact, under the consular 
 seal, must be immediately sent to the Department of 
 State, giving a description of the vessel, the port to 
 whicli she belongs, where bound, and the usual resi- 
 dence of the master. In suth a case, it is desirable that 
 the consul should send some other evidence of the ar- 
 rival and departure of the delinquent master with his 
 vessel besides that of his own certificate, as it has been 
 held that such evidence of any fact is not sufficient, 
 unless expressly or impliedly made so by statute. 
 
 Whenever the master shall produce the, clearance of 
 his vessel,' and shall have complied with the directions 
 of the acts above mentioned, having fulfilled every law- 
 ful requisition of the consul and of the local authorities, 
 the consul shall, without delay, deliver up the( papers,, 
 with a consular certificate, under seal, of the time of 
 such delivery, and make an entry of the lilic period in 
 his consular record. 
 
 Before a clearance is granted to any American ves- 
 sel bound on a foreign voyage, the master thereof is 
 required to deliver to the collector of the customs a list, 
 containing the names, places of birth and residence, 
 and a, description of the persons who compose his ship's 
 company, to which list the oath or affirmation of the 
 captain is to, be annexed, that it contains the names of 
 his crew, together with the places of their birth and 
 residence, as far as he can ascertain them ; a certified 
 copy, written in a uniform hand, without erasures or 
 interlineations, must be delivered to the master by the 
 collector, for which he is entitled to receive from the 
 master the sum of twenty-five cents. The said master 
 must then enter into bond, with sufficient security, in 
 the sum of $400 dollars, to exhibit the aforesaid certi- 
 fied copy of the list to the first boarding-officer at the 
 first port in the United States at which he shall arrive 
 on his return thereto, and then and there also to pro- 
 duce the persons named therein to the said boarding- 
 officer, whose duty it is to examine the men with such 
 list, and to report the same to the collector. 
 
 By the act of Congress, August 18, 1856, it is made 
 the duty of every master and commander of a ship or 
 vessel of the United States, whenever he shall have 
 occasion for any consular or other official service which 
 any consular officer of the United States shall be an- 1 
 
 thorized by law or usage officially to perform, and for 
 which any fees shall be allowed by jthe said rates or 
 tariflis of fees as aforesaid, to apply to such one of the 
 said officers to perform the service as may then be of- 
 ficially in charge of the consulate or commercial agen- 
 
 SHIPg DAILY JOL'ENAL. 
 
 In which, an the deposit of the ship's register cmdpapera, slmll 
 
 be recorded^ for example, as follows : 
 
 Ship - 
 
 , OF , Toms, 
 
 
 - Mastkb. 
 
 Dote of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 entry and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 of service 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 rendered. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 18;;6, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Jan. 
 
 '2 
 3 
 
 From '-. 
 
 When built, , 18—. 
 
 Where built, . 
 
 Owners, ■ andotliere. 
 
 Cargo, imvard [here insert where 
 
 produced or manufact'dj, value 
 Cargb, outward [liere insert Hvhere 
 
 produced or manufact'd], value 
 A B; master. , , , 
 C D, mate. , , , 
 E F,. 2d mate, , , . , 
 Q H, boatswain, alias I J, sent to 
 
 hospjtaa. 
 K L, carpenter, (discharged ; wa- 
 ges paid, 'SSO ; S iHonths' extra 
 
 $.. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 wages, at $20, $60 . . 
 
 
 
 $110 
 
 on 
 
 •> 
 
 2 
 
 ■M N, steward, reported- to have 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 been lost overboard, at sea (or 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 to have, died at sea), Dec. 21, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1853, wages paid 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 00 
 
 
 8 
 
 P, coolc, reported to have de- 
 Berted; amount of wages for- 
 feited to the United States .... 
 
 Q K, Seaman. 
 F/tc., etc. ■ ,1 
 
 ' 
 
 
 50 
 
 00 
 
 " 
 
 S!0 
 
 ■ , boatswain. 
 
 , ca;rpenter. 
 
 ; steward. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ — * -, cook. 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 " 
 
 21 
 
 1 — 
 
 Eegiater and papers delivered to 
 . masler, bound to . : 
 
 
 
 
 
 Note.— Should any of the seamen or mariners have died 
 ]at sea, or have been lost, overboard, on the passage, tlie fact 
 ivill' be' reported at once by the inaster, anda note thereof 
 mad^ opposite to the name of suet person so deceased pr lost; 
 as, for example, see, Steward. ' Should any seaman or mariner 
 be, discharged, or desert, a sirtiil&r note of the fact must be 
 made opposite to such deserter's or discharged seaman's 
 name ; as, for example, see Carpenter and Cook. In case any 
 seaman or mariner has taken the name of any other seaman 
 or mariner, Tvhg may have deserted or otherwise absented 
 himself, after the clearing of the vessel, in the United States 
 or elsewhere, such seaman or mariner's correct and proper 
 name must be entered opposite the name of the seaman or 
 mariner so deserting or absenting himself; as, for example, 
 see Boatswain. And in the event of the seaman or mariner's 
 taking the name of another seaman or mariner as aforesaid, 
 entering the hospital,, being discharged, or deserting, the or- 
 der to the hospital, certificate of discharge or desertion, and 
 consular returns must contain the name of said seaman or 
 mariner so taking the place of the absconding seaman ; as, 
 for example, see Boatswain. 
 
 MAKIKE NOTE Off TttOTEST. 
 
 Conmlate of the IPnited States of America, 
 Port of . 
 
 On this — day of , in the year of our Lord 
 
 eighteen hundred ind , hefore me, , 
 
 consul of the United States of America for and the 
 
 dependencies thereof, personally appteared , 
 
 master-of the ship or vessel called the , of , 
 
 of the burden of ■ ■ tons or thereabout, and declared 
 
 that on the day of last past, he sailed in 
 
 and with the said ship from the port of- , laden with 
 
 . — , and arrived in the said ship at -, on [here 
 
 insert the day and hour] ; and having experienced bois- 
 terous and tempestuous weather on the voyage ■■ 
 
 hereby enters this Note of Protest accordingly, to serve 
 and avail him hereafter if found necessary. 
 
 Attested : 
 
 A B, Consul. 
 
 Master. 
 
SHI 
 
 , SHIP 
 
 MABINE EXTENHED PEOTEST OF • 
 ■ , 18- 
 
 1710 
 
 SHO 
 
 Consulate of the United States of America, 
 Poi-t of . . 
 
 By this public instrument of declaration and protest, 
 be it known and made manifest unto all to whom these 
 
 presents shall come or may concern, that on the 
 
 day of , one thousand eight hundred and ■ , 
 
 before me, , consul of the United States of 
 
 America for , and the dependencies thereof, per- 
 sonally came and appeared , master of the 
 
 ship or vessel called the , of ■ ■, of the burden 
 
 of tons, or thereabout, then lying in this port of 
 
 ■, laden with ■ cargo, who duly noted and en- 
 tered with me the said consul his protest, for the uses 
 and purposes hereafter mentioned ; and now, on this day, 
 to wit, the day of the date hereof, before me, the said 
 
 consul, again comes the said , and requires 
 
 me to extend this protest; and together with the said 
 
 also come A B, mate, G H, carpenter, K 
 
 L and M O, seamen, of and belonging to the said ship, 
 all of whom being .by me duly sworn on the Holy Evan- 
 gelists of Almighty God, did severally voluntarily, free- 
 ly, and solemnly declare, depose, and state as follows, 
 
 that is to say: That these appearers, on the day 
 
 of ■ , in their capacities aforesaid, sailed in and with 
 
 the said from the port of ■ , laden with , 
 
 and bound to the port of' ; that the s^id ship was 
 
 then tight, stanch, and strong; had her cargo well and 
 sufficiently stowed and secured ; had her hatches well 
 calked aud secured ; was well and sufficiently manned, 
 victualed, and furnished with all things needful and nec- 
 essary for a vessel in the merchant service, and particu- 
 larly for the voyage she was about to undertake ; that 
 [Here insert narrative of the facts of the voyage as they 
 
 occurred, with full and minute particulars, with dates, 
 
 latitude, longitude, etc.] 
 
 And these said appearers, upon their oaths aforesaid, 
 do further declare and say : That during the said voyage 
 they, together with the others of the said ship's company, 
 
 used their utmost endeavors to preserve the said • 
 
 and cargo from all manner of loss, damage, or injury. 
 Wherefore the said • , master, hath protest- 
 ed, as by these presents I, the said consul, at his special 
 instance and request, do publicly and solemnly protest, 
 against all and every person and persons whom it doth 
 or may concern, and against the winds, and waves, and 
 billows of the seas, and against all and eveiy accident, 
 matter, and thing, had and met with as aforesaid, where- 
 by, and by reason whereof, the said or cargo al- 
 ready has, or hereafter shall appear to have suffered or 
 sustained damage or injury. And do declare that all 
 losses, damages, costs, charges, and expenses that have 
 
 happened to the said or cargo, or to either, are, 
 
 and ought to be borne by those to whom the same by 
 right may appertain by way of average or otherwise, the 
 same having occun'ed as before mentioned, and not by 
 
 or through the insufficiency of the said , her tackle 
 
 or apparel, or .default or neglect of this appearer, his of- 
 ficers, or any of his mariners. 
 
 Thus done and protested in the port of , this 
 
 day of , in the year of our Lord one thou- 
 sand eight hundred and . 
 
 In testimony whereof these appearers have hereunto 
 
 subscribed thei^* names, and I, the said 
 
 consul, have granted to the said mas- 
 
 J SEAL OF ) ter this public instrument, under my 
 
 (THE OONBTTL, / hand and the seal of this consulate, 
 
 to serve and avail him and all others 
 
 whom it doth or may concern, as need 
 
 Master, and occasion may require. 
 
 A B, Mate. , U. S. Consul. 
 
 G H, Carpenter. 
 
 K L, Seaman. 
 
 M O, do. 
 
 Shipwrecks. See Wrecks. 
 
 Shoal, in the Sea language^ denotes a place where 
 the water is shallow ; and likewise a great quantity of 
 fishes, such as a shoal of herrings. 
 
 Shoes (Du. Schoenen; Fr. SouUers; Ger. Schuhe; 
 It. Scarpe; Kuss. Baschmahi ; Sp. Zapatos), articles 
 of clothing that are universally worn, and require no 
 
 description. The shoe manufacture is of great value 
 and importance. 
 
 Boot and Shoe Trade. — The annual value of boots 
 and shoes manufactured in Massachusetts is estimated 
 at ^37,000,000, exceeding any other branch of manu- 
 facture. The demand for boots and shoes for years 
 past has been fully equal to the production, and the 
 trade generally of Boston has been quite up to expect- 
 ation. The high prices of leather and all kinds of 
 stock have induced manufacturers to work very cau- 
 tiouslj', and they have turned out no more goods than 
 were actually wanted. The trade opened in January 
 last with a good demand and a firm market, and the 
 purchases generally were at an advance of about 5 per 
 cent. Early in February the trade was materially 
 checked by the ice embargo South and "West, which 
 completely closed river and harbor navigation, and 
 prevented the forwarding of goods. The opening of 
 navigation in March led to an active demand, and 
 throughout March and April the business was quite 
 active, buyers from the South and West completely 
 clearing the market of all desirable goods, the Spring 
 trade closing quite satisfactorily. 
 
 The high cost of stock the past year has also been 
 quite a check on the production, keeping it within the 
 limits of the demand ; and the same policy is likely to 
 control the operations of manufacturers the coming 
 year. - For some months past the quantitj' of goods 
 turned out has been comparatively small, and the sup- 
 ply on the market for Spring sales will not be likely 
 to exceed the actual wants of the trade. The quantity 
 of boots and shoes cleared at the custom-house has been 
 as follows : 
 
 Years. Quantity- Yenra. Qunntitv. 
 
 1847 72,424 1853 195,120 
 
 1848 79,118 1853 220,138 
 
 1849 101,371 1S54 196,411 
 
 1850 14T,TG9 1855 204,001 
 
 1851 153,912 1856 224,322 
 
 A large portion of the supplies for the "West are for- 
 warded by railroad, and are of course not included in 
 the above statement. 
 
 In one county alone of Massachusetts (Essex) the 
 annual product of boots and shoes in 1855, according 
 to the census, was over $12,000,000. As this is the 
 leading trade of the State, we enumerate the product 
 of each county : 
 
 Barnstable $19,300 
 
 Eerkshu-e 110,800 
 
 Bristol 498,000 
 
 Dukea ^ 3,000 
 
 Essex 12. 192,800 
 
 Franklm ' G2,30O 
 
 Hampden 124,100 
 
 Middlesex 0,502,100 
 
 Nantucket 10,300 
 
 Norfolk 4,987,000 
 
 Hampshire 60,400 
 
 Plymouth 4,868,700 
 
 Suffolk 193,900 
 
 Worcester 7,857,300 
 
 Total value of boota and ehoea $37,4.-0,000 
 
 Leather, tanned and curried 10,934,400 
 
 Patent enameled leather 1,271,900 
 
 In the immediate vicinity of Boston there are manu- 
 factures to the extent of at least $150,000,000 annually, 
 and of this the value added to the raw material by labor 
 can not be less than $75,000,000. In addition, the for- 
 eign Axy goods, groceries, drugs, hardware, and a mul- 
 tiplicity of other articles sold there, swell the trade of 
 Boston to nearly or quite a hundred millions more. 
 Of manufactures, the first in importance are domestic 
 cottons ; and of about fifty millions manufactured an- 
 nually, they send to foreign countries less than two 
 millions, or 4 per cent. One half of these go to the 
 west coast of South America, the east coast of South 
 America, and the Central American States, while the 
 West Indies receive less than $220,000 worth of cotton 
 manufactures from Boston in a year. The trade of 
 Boston with Cuba during the fiscal year ending June 
 
SHO 
 
 1711 
 
 SIA 
 
 30, 1856, stood as follows: Value of imports, $3,683,226 ; 
 exports, $1,044,359. 
 
 EXPOETS OF T)OMESTTO BOOTS AND SnOl3S FROM THE UNITED 
 
 t-TATES FOR THE YEAR ENDING JtjNB 30, 1857. 
 
 'Whither exported. 
 
 Pairs 
 
 Asiatic KuKsia 
 
 Russian Possess, in I^Qrtli America . 
 
 Danish West Indies 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Dutch West Indies 
 
 Dutch Cruiana 
 
 England 
 
 Canada 
 
 Other British North American Poss. 
 
 Britiah West Indies 
 
 British Honduras 
 
 British Guiana 
 
 British Possessions in Africa 
 
 Other ports in Africa 
 
 British Australia 
 
 French North American Possessions 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Porto Rico 
 
 Cape de Verd Islands 
 
 Hay ti , 
 
 San Domingo 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Central Republic 
 
 New Granada 
 
 Venezuela ',.. 
 
 Bi-aail ;' 
 
 Uruguay, or Cisplatine Kepublic . . . 
 
 Argentine .Republic. . .- 
 
 Chili.... 
 
 Peru 
 
 Sandwich Islands 
 
 Other islands in the Pacific 
 
 China 
 
 "Whale-fisheries 
 
 Total, 185T 
 
 Total, 1856 
 
 Decrease 1121, 648 
 
 480 
 
 6,233 
 
 4,000 
 
 880 
 
 86 
 
 4,500 
 
 226,632 
 
 111,838 
 
 8,643 
 
 9,222 
 
 400 
 
 1,T50 
 
 T,680 
 
 66,602 
 
 24 
 
 8,180 
 
 1,T15 
 
 154 
 
 T,6n 
 
 622 
 
 1,602 
 
 1,340 
 
 7,123 
 
 5,674 
 
 1,729 
 
 400 
 
 14,800 
 
 10,618 
 
 ' 6,217 
 
 40,8U 
 
 1,308 
 
 400 
 
 1,570 
 
 661,501 
 683,149 
 
 Value. 
 
 $'^,460 
 
 1,060 
 
 6,<J5I 
 
 8,200 
 
 1,272 
 
 110 
 
 7,280 
 
 365,944 
 
 118,180 
 
 11,860 
 
 13,420 
 
 2T1 
 
 1,020 
 
 5,40(1 
 
 140,468 
 
 C4 
 
 10,77.') 
 
 1,70T 
 
 102 
 
 10,686 
 
 266 
 
 2,763 
 
 1,706 
 
 10,528 
 
 8,974 
 
 1,186 
 
 500 
 
 ' 14,972 
 
 15,645 
 
 6,438 
 
 41,000 
 
 1,422 
 
 620 
 
 2,145 
 
 $813,985 
 1,060,967 
 
 $240,97 
 
 iMroBTS OF Boots and Shoes into the United States 
 FOR TUB Year ending June 30, 1867. 
 
 whence imported. 
 
 Boot8.and Shoes 
 of Leather. 
 
 Boote and Shoea 
 other than Leather. 
 
 Paire. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Fairs. 
 
 Value. 1 
 
 Hamburg.... 
 
 1,809 
 
 17,762 
 
 42 
 
 25 
 
 26,310 
 
 3,299 
 605 
 
 145 
 
 26,664 
 
 100 
 
 13 
 
 $3,ii21 
 
 14,112 
 
 126 
 
 74 
 
 62,662 
 
 12 
 
 2,038 
 
 387 
 
 333 
 
 38;573 
 199 
 37 
 
 6,873 
 
 ■"36 
 
 3,640 
 
 12,266 
 
 114 
 
 1,172 
 
 4,110 
 
 . ...^.^ 
 
 48 
 
 ""s 
 
 19,029 
 
 ■ ■ 31 
 
 
 8,153 
 29,315 
 
 $1,129 
 
 5,481 
 
 90 
 
 411 
 
 2,102 
 
 ■ ' 27 
 143 
 
 ■"20 
 6,223 
 
 ■ ■ ■28 
 3i3-8 
 i2,'5n4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Other British N. A. Poss. 
 
 British West Indies 
 
 British East Indies 
 
 France on the Atlantic . . 
 tVance on the Mediter'n . 
 Cuba 
 
 
 
 3,007 
 
 
 Sandwich Islands 
 
 30 
 
 Total. '. 
 
 
 78,205 
 
 )iil-i7,t61 
 
 77,7S7 
 
 $30,625 
 
 
 Shola. There is a singular substance manufactured 
 in India from tliq cellular, pith-like stems of the hedp- 
 sarum tagenarium. It closely resembles in appearance 
 the Chinese rice-paper, and is con.sidered to be well 
 adapted to various purposes in the arts. The shola is 
 wrought in India into life-buoys, boxes, bottle-cases, 
 hats, and numerous other articles. From its loosely- 
 cellular structure, it is a very bad conductor of heat, 
 and this, together with its lightness, admirably fits it 
 for the manufacture of hats. It is also advantageously 
 fitted for purposes of ornament, as it may readily be 
 made to present all the appearance of ivory. 
 
 Shore, a place which is washed by the sea or by 
 some large river. 1 Count Marsigli divides the sea- 
 shore into three portions: the first of which is that 
 tract of land which the sea just reaches in storms and 
 high tides, but which it never covers ; the second part 
 of the shore is that which is covered in high tides and 
 storms, but is dry at other times ; and the third is the 
 descent from this, and is always covered with water. 
 The first part is only a continuation of the continent, 
 and suffers no alteration from the neighborhood of the 
 
 sea, except that it is rendered fit for the growth of some 
 plants, and wholly unfit for that of others, by the 
 saline steams and impregnations ; and it is scarcely to 
 be conceived by any but those who have observed it 
 how far on land the effects of the sea can reach, so as to 
 make the earth proper for plants which will not grow 
 without this influence; there being several plants 
 frequently found upon high hills and dry places at 
 three, four, and more miles from the sea, which yet 
 would not grow unless in the neighborhood of it, nor 
 will they ever be found elsewhere. 
 
 The second part or portion of the shore is much 
 more afiected by the sea than the former, being fre- 
 qnentlj' washed and beaten by it. Its productions are 
 rendered salt by the water, and it is covered with sand 
 or with the fragments of shells in the form of sand, and 
 in some places with a tartarous matter deposited from 
 the water. The color of this whole extent of ground 
 is usually dusky and dull, especially where there are 
 rocks and stones covered with a slimy matter. 
 
 The third part of the shore is more affected by the 
 sea than either of the others ; and it is covered with a 
 uniform crust of the true nature of the bottom of the 
 sea, except that plants and animals have their resi- 
 dence in it, and the decayed parts of these alter it a 
 little. — See Gulf Stream and Ocean. 
 
 Shumab, or Sumach (Ger. Sckmack, Sumach; 
 Fr. Sumac,. Soure, Roux ; It. Sommaco; Sp. Zimaque; 
 Buss. Sunidk"). Common shumac (Rhis coriaria) is a 
 shrub that grows naturally in Syria, Palestine, Spain, 
 and Portugal; That which is cultivated in Italj', and 
 is improperly called young fustic, is the Rhus cotinus. 
 It is cultivated with great care : its shoots are cut down 
 every year quite to the root; and, after being dHod, 
 they are chipped or reduced to powder by a mill, and 
 thus prepared for the purposes of dyeing and tanning. 
 The shumac cultivated in the neighborhood of Mont- 
 pellier is called redoul or roudo. Shumac may be con- 
 sidered of good quality when its odor is strong, color 
 of a lively green, is well ground, and free from stalks. 
 Italian shumac is used in dyeing a full high j'ellow, 
 approaching to the orange, upon wool or cloth ; but 
 the color is fugitive. Common shumac is useful for 
 drab and dove colors in calico-printing, and is also ca- 
 pable of dyeing black. — Banckoft on Colors. 
 
 Siam. This extensive kingdom, in the southeast- 
 ern part of Asia, occupies the central part of Farther 
 India, and has on its west the British Tessarin prov- 
 inces and the Bay of Bengifl ; on the north and north- 
 west, Burmah and the free Laos country ; on the east, 
 Anam ; and on the south, a coast line of 1470 miles 
 along the Gulf of Siam. Its area has been differently 
 estimated : . some authors extending it to 294,720 square 
 miles, of which there are assigned to Siam proper 
 141,175 square miles ; 20,420 to Cambodia ; 108,645 to 
 the tributary Laos ; and 24,480 to the Malay provinces. 
 Crawford, however, who seems to have enjoyed the 
 most favorable opportunities of' correctly estimating 
 the extent of Siam, fixes its area at 190,000 square 
 miles. 
 
 The same authority estimates the population at 
 2,790,500, in 1822; but the American commissioner, 
 who negotiated the commercial treaty with Siam on 
 the part of the United States in 1832, gives an estimate 
 for that period as follows : 
 
 Siamese 1,800,000 
 
 Laos 1, 200,000 
 
 Malays 320,000 
 
 Chinese , 500,000 
 
 Total 3,620,000 
 
 All authors concur in representing Siam as one of 
 the most fertile and delightful countries in the East, 
 and capable, when its immense resources are more fully 
 developed, of sustaining an extensive and valuable 
 foreign trade. No other coimtry eastward of the Cape 
 of Good Hope abounds more plentifully in all the pro- 
 ductions suited for foreign commerce ; and it is found 
 
SIA 
 
 1712 
 
 SIA 
 
 to be no less distinguished for tlie great variety of its 
 mineral than it is acknowledged to be for its vegetable 
 productions. The largest-sized vessels are built an- 
 nually in Siaro. Some of the Chinese junks, the con- 
 struction of which forms an important feature in the 
 trade with China, measure 1000 tons burden. The 
 timbers are of a hard wood, called by the natives mar- 
 lao, and the plank are of the finest teak in the world. 
 
 Among the large rivers of Siam, through which the 
 internal and foreign trade of the kingdom is conducted, 
 the Menam is the most important, as pervading the 
 greater part of the kingdom, and almost monopolizing 
 its trade and navigation. On this river is situated 
 Bangkok, which has long been the great centre of the 
 commerce of the kingdom, inland, coastwise, and 
 foreign. The principal articles brought down this 
 river from the higher provinces are rice and paddy, 
 cotton, teak-timber, sapan-wood, lac, benzoin, ivory, 
 and beeswax ; while the districts east and west of the 
 Menam furnish gamboge, cardamoms, and sugar; and 
 the Malay provinces contribute to the trade of Bang- 
 kok tin, zinc, cotton, etc. The foreign trade is con- 
 ducted chiefly with the southern ports of Anam, Java, 
 Singapore, Pulo-Penang, and occasionallj' with British 
 India, the United States, and Great Britain. The 
 most extensive foreign trade of Siam is with China ; 
 this trade employs from 200 to 300 junks annually, 
 having an aggregate burden of about 25,000 tons, 
 mostly built in Siam by the Chinese. These junks 
 make one V03'age annually, leaving the Menam in 
 June, and returning in December. The exports to the 
 United States and to Europe comprise sugar, pepper, 
 lac, benzoin, gamboge, tin, cardamoms, ivory, horns, 
 and hides, with other articles of minor importance. 
 For these they receive, all kinds of textile fabrics, 
 shawls, cotton umbrellas, iron and steel goods, steel 
 bars, lead and spelter, earthen and glass ware, all 
 kinds of hardware and cutlery, with fire-arms, musket- 
 flints, etc. Formerly the British trade with Siam was 
 carried on under treaties with the"East India Company. 
 Duty was levied on the ship, and amounted to about 
 $1000 per fathom on the width of the vessel. The 
 length, draught, or tonnage was not regarded ; there 
 was no import or export duty; all duties and tolls 
 were merged in the charge on the ship. 
 
 On the 20th of March, 1833, a treaty of amity and 
 commerce was concluded between the King of Siam 
 and the United States by Mr. Roberts, who had been 
 sent thither for that purpose; ratifications were ex- 
 changed at Bangkok, April 14, 1836, and the procla- 
 mation of the President gave it effect in the United 
 States June 24, 1837. By this treaty citizens of the 
 United States are permitted to enter and depart from 
 any port of the kingdom with cargoes of whatever 
 description, and to buy, sell, and exchange, without 
 qualiScatiou or restriction, except that they are not to 
 sell munitions of war to any other person than the 
 king, or to import opium or export rice. The only 
 charge to be exacted from American vessels is a meas- 
 urement duty of 1700 ticals or bats for every fathom 
 of 78 American inches in breadth, upon ships selling 
 merchandise, and of 1500 ticals or bats per fathom on 
 those purchasing cargoes with specie; the measure- 
 ment to be made in the middle of the vessel's length 
 upon the single deck ; or if there be more than one 
 deck, then upon the lower one ; but no charge is to be 
 made upon a vessel entering merely to refit, or for re- 
 freshment, or to inquire the state of the market. In 
 case of a reduction of the duties upon the vessels of any 
 foreign nation, the same reduction is to be made in 
 favor of those of the United States. American debt- 
 ors, who shall have honestly brought forward and sold 
 all their property for the payment of their debts, are 
 not to be proceeded against for the balance remaining 
 due after the application of the proceeds of such sale. 
 Merchants trading to Siam shall obey the laws and 
 customs of the country; and if they wish to rent 
 
 houses, they shall rent the king's factories, and pay 
 the customary rent therefor. The king's officers may 
 take account of goods brought on shore, but no duties 
 shall be levied thereon. In case of shipwreck of an 
 American vessel on the Siamese coast, the persons 
 escaping shall be hospitably entertained, and the prop- 
 erty saved shall be restored to the owners; and if a 
 vessel of the United States shall be captured by pirates, 
 and brought into a Siamese port, the persons on board 
 shall be set at liberty, and the property restored to the 
 rightful proprietors. If the privilege shall hereafter 
 be granted to any foreign nation, other than the Portu- 
 guese, to have consuls resident in the kingdom, the 
 same privilege shall be extended to the United States. 
 
 With a few exceptions, this treaty is a mere tran- 
 script, as regards its commercial stipulations, of the 
 treaties of Siam with the British East India Company. 
 Anterior to the period of its conclusion, quite a number 
 of American vessels had visited that kingdom, and it 
 was supposed that the treaty would open an extensive 
 trade between Siam and the United States. Quite the 
 contrary, however, has proved to be the case ; for it is 
 stated that not a single cargo has since been shipped 
 under the flag of the United States. In 1850 a special 
 commissioner was sent by the government of the 
 United States to Siam for the purpose of negotiating a 
 new treaty, but without success. A similar result fol- 
 lowed the efforts of Sir J. Brooke, British envoy, who 
 had been specially deputed to proceed to Siam for the 
 same object. Since that period, however, and very 
 recently (April, 1855), Sir J. Bowring, for the British 
 government, has succeeded in negotiating a new and 
 much more favorable treaty than the one which it 
 supersedes with the Siamese kingdom. Efforts are 
 now in progress on the part of the United States to 
 negotiate a new commercial treaty with this kingdom ; 
 but until such treaty shall have been formed, the 
 United States, being entitled, by Article 4th of the 
 treaty of 1833, to any diminution of duties payable by 
 foreign vessels granted at any future time to any other 
 nation, can, of course, avail itself in that regard, as 
 well as respecting the appointment of consuls, of the 
 British treaty of 1855. 
 
 Of the general trade and commercial relations of 
 Siam with nations but little, comparatively, is with 
 certainty known. The following summary respect- 
 ing the principal products of that kingdom, and their 
 commercial importance, is made up chiefly from Brit- 
 ish official returns of recent date : 
 
 Sugar is looked upon as the principal return for 
 British imports. Its cultivation as an article of com- 
 merce originated in the enterprise of Chinese settlers 
 in the year 1810. In 1822 it had reached 60,000 piculs, 
 or 3700 tons; in 1835, 135,000 piculs, or 15,295 tons. 
 At this period the trade in sugar received a severe 
 check, in consequence of the king monopolizing the 
 entire trade in his own hands, and fixing his own 
 prices both for the producer and foreign purchaser. 
 The present king has discontinued the traffic carried 
 on by his predecessor, and cultivators are once more 
 free to sell to any customer. The manufacture, how- 
 ever, still remains burdened with various taxes, which 
 keep up the cost of production, and check demand, fo 
 that 80,000 piculs (say 5000 to 6000 tons) are now 
 spoken of as an average crop. The land-tax on sugar 
 plantations is one tical per square of twenty fathoms, 
 which, under favorable circumstances, will yield four 
 piculs. This would amount, on production, to one 
 salung (15 cents) per picul (133^ lbs.) ; and the duty 
 which is levied on sugar, on its passage to Bangkok, is 
 exactly double the amount of the land-tax, the pay- 
 ment of which, under the new treaty, will free it from 
 any further charge on exportation. Siamese sugar is 
 much esteemed for its whiteness and fine strong grain, 
 and as the greater portion of the valley of the Menam, 
 the area of which has been estimated at 22,000 square 
 miles, is stated to be well adapted to the growth of the 
 
SIA 
 
 1713 
 
 SIC 
 
 cane, it la supposed that the annual sugar crop would 
 admit of very material increase. 
 
 Mice. — The extreme facility of irrigation, and the 
 periodical inundations of the Menam, supply -witli un- 
 usual certainty . the fertility necessary for the growth 
 of this cereal. Hitherto its exportation was forbid- 
 den by law ; but under the new treaty it is stipulated 
 that this prohibition shall only be enforced in times of 
 positive scarcity. The demand for this article, both 
 for home and Oriental consumption, is constantly on 
 the increase ; and there is every prospect that Siam 
 will, in the course of time, rival the British province 
 of Arracan (in the Bengal presidency) in supplying 
 this article for the markets of China, Australia, and 
 Europe. The annual exportation of rice in this Brit- 
 ish province is now raised to 120,000 tons — nearly 800 
 per cent, over the total exportation of rice from the 
 United States in 1855. Tlie trade with Siam, how- 
 ever, will always have this advantage over that witl^ 
 Arracan, that in the former rice and all other prod- 
 ucts are given in exchange for manufactures and other 
 articles of trade ; while in the latter the exports are 
 paid for in bullion. Forty times the amount of seed 
 is stated as the average yield ; and the ordinary price 
 is one tical (61 cents) per 133 lbs. 
 
 SaU, — This article is obtained of excellent quality 
 from (he extensive mud-tlats which line the head of 
 the Gulf of Siam, and at so cheap a rate that the cost 
 of production does not exceed froih one to two ticals 
 (61 cents to $1 22) per lioyan of 25 piouls, or 3400 lbs. 
 English. Salt is, however, a special object of taxation 
 in Siam; and the duty of $3 60 per koyan raises the 
 above-mentioned price to seven or eight ticals ($4 27 
 to $i 88) per koyan, equal to about $2 88 to $3 36 per 
 ton. The British commissioner endeavored, in nego- 
 tiating the late treaty, but ineffectually, to obtain a 
 reduction of this high duty. It is, notwithstanding 
 its price in marlcet, in much demand at Singapore ; and 
 the Siamese government have withdrawn all impedi- 
 ments! hitherto existing to its shipment. 
 
 ' TeaJc. — The teak forests of Siam are situated at some 
 considerable distance up the Menam, and the trees, 
 when felled, are floated down in large rafts to Bang- 
 kok. There is always a brisli; demand for this article, 
 both in the markets of China and Singapore. 
 
 Sapan-ivood. — The annual exportation of this dye- 
 wood readies from 80,000 to 100,000 piculs (from 5000 
 to 6000 tons). Hitherto the Siamese government have 
 levied a tax of one tical per picul on sapan-wood, 
 being from 50 to more than 100 per cent, upon its 
 value ; and it was with great difficulty that the British 
 commissioner persuaded the Siamese authorities to 
 lessen this tax to 2^ salungs per picul — being a reduc- 
 tion of more than one-third upon the old rate. 
 
 Rose-ioood atid Ebony.- — These -woods are abundant 
 in Siam, and are largely shipped to China and Singa- 
 pore. The export duty has been reduced one-third of 
 former rates. 
 
 Pepper, — The production of this article had reach- 
 ed at one time more than 9,000,000 lbs. per annum, 
 when an oppressive tax, imposed by the present ad- 
 ministration of Siam, of one catty of pepper on every 
 vine, or about 8 per cent, on the produce, in addition 
 to an cxpout duty of one tical (61 cents) per picul, 
 amounting to the same percentage, caused such a 
 check to the cultivation, that last year onlj- 20-,000 
 piculs were brought to market. The removal of the 
 first of these taxes, now agreed to, will serve, it is 
 stated, to restore the growth of this useful spice to 
 its former flourishing condition. In 1855 the United 
 States imported from the British and Dutch East In- 
 dies 3,304,460 lbs. of black pepper, valued at $171,008. 
 
 Cotton. — Above the line of the inundated tracts, land 
 fit for the cultivation of cotton abounds. The crop has 
 reached as high as 140,000 piculs (8330 tons) in a year : 
 but owing to various causes, some of which the British 
 commissioner has succeeded in removing, it is thought 
 5Q 
 
 that its culture will be again encouraged, and its ex- 
 portation increased. 
 
 Silk. — This product has been largely grown in the 
 rich district of Kocat, and the crop has reached 1500 
 piculs per annum — valued at $150,000; hut the larger 
 markets of China being so close at hand, the silk of 
 Siam will probably never assume much importance in 
 the foreign trade of the kingdom. 
 
 Hemp. — This article holds out much interest to 
 foreign traders. Its growth in Siam is only just be- 
 coming known, and it is particularly recommended on 
 account of its great strength, and its glossy and silky 
 texture, which would allow of its being woven up into 
 silli fabrics. Its moderate price — 10 ticals (f 6 10) per 
 picul — will enable it to compete successfully with that 
 of Manilla. 
 
 The following list will be found t« contain all the 
 manufactures which are most suited to Siamese con- 
 sumption : White and gray long cloths ; white and 
 gray madapollans ; white and gray cambrics ; white 
 and gray jaconets ; book lappets ; velvets, plain and fig- 
 ured: checked fancy muslins; American drills ; cotton 
 umbrellas ; figured long cloths ; dyed cambrics ; dyed 
 long cloths ; prints, chintzes, furnitures, and neutrals ; 
 Siam ckowls, or dresses ; Turkey red cloth ; gray cotton 
 twist ; Turkey red twist ; imperial red and blue twist ; 
 long ells; ladies' cloth; Spanish stripes; merinos of 
 assorted colors; canvas; iron, steel, lead, spelter; 
 earthen-ware, assorted ; glass ware and lamps, assort- 
 ed ; muskets, gun-locks f brimstone, beeswax ; cow- 
 ries, flint-stone, musket-flints, etc. 
 
 The imports from India and China are even more 
 varied, and consist of almost every article of manufac- 
 ture, trifling or important, produced in those countries j 
 these being required not only to meet the tastes and 
 requirements of the Siamese, but also to supply the 
 wants of the natives of India and China, many of whom 
 are domiciled in Siam. The statistics of the trade of 
 Siam are but meagre. The following table exhibits 
 the number and tonnage of ships which left the port 
 of Bangkok for China and Singapore, from April 1, to 
 August 31, 1855 : 
 
 Destination. 
 
 ^•»">'- 1-=gf 1 T.™;g 
 
 
 11 
 
 9 
 
 4860 
 ■ 3500 
 
 441 
 389 
 
 To Singapore 
 
 — tr. 5. Com. BelcUions. 
 
 Sicily, or T'wo Sicilies. The kingdom of the 
 Two Sicilies comprises the ancient realm of Naples 
 and the island of Sicilj-. Naples proper embraces an 
 area of 31,350 square miles, and, by the census of 1854, 
 contains a population of 6,843,.355 inhabitants. Its 
 productions are of the most valuable and varied kind ; 
 and it only requires good roads to carrj' the produce 
 of the soil to market, and security and encouragement 
 under the government, to render the Neapolitan do- 
 minions among the most profitably productive in Eu- 
 rope. The chief prod ucts are com, wine, olive-oil, cot- 
 ton, flax, hemp, liquoriee-paste, silk, and wool. 
 
 The annual crop of wheat is between 60 and 80 mill- 
 ion bushels, and the yearly consumption is about 40 
 million bushels. The annual produce of Indian corn 
 is about 40 million bushels. The yearly production of 
 wine is about 480,000 pipes, the greater part of which 
 is consumed at home. About 13,000 pipes are made 
 into brandy near Naples, and from 250 to 300 tons of 
 argol and cream of tartar are prepared for foreign 
 markets. About 70,000 tons of olive-oil are expressed 
 yearly, half of which is exported to foreign markets. 
 The quantitv of cotton raised annually in the conti- 
 nental part of the kingdom amounts to about two mill- 
 ion pounds. In Sicily the cultivation is greater than 
 in Naples. The annual produce of raw "Bilk is about 
 1,000,000 lbs., of which one half is consumed in the 
 factories of the kingdom. 
 
 There are two species of wheat raised in the kingdom 
 of the Two Sicilies — the soft, of which the best quality 
 
SIC 
 
 1714 
 
 SIC 
 
 of bread is made ; and the hard wheat, chiefly employ- 
 ed in the preparation of macaroni. The principal ex- 
 ports of Naples proper are, olive-oil, silk, hemp, wool, 
 wine, grain, macaroni, and coral ; imports, colonial and 
 manufactured goods, iron, and cutlery. 
 
 Prior to the ratification of the treaty between the 
 United States and the Idngdom of the Two Sicilies, of 
 December 1, 1845, the commerce between the two coun- 
 tries was chiefly indirect. Having no commercial 
 treaty, the United States flag had to contend against 
 high duties, an exemption of 10 per cent, in favor of Brit- 
 ish and French vessels employed in the direct trade, 
 and the extreme rigor of quarantine regulations. The 
 indirect trade was carried on through Leghorn and the 
 French Mediterranean ports, and was necessarily fet- 
 tered with the incumbrances and burdens incident to 
 a circuitous route. Neapolitan merchandise was talsen 
 on board American ships in these ports ; wliile colonial 
 goods destined for the markets of the Sicilies were sold 
 to the French and Tuscan merchants, on whose account 
 they were shipped to their destination, or sold direct 
 to Neapolitan traders, by whom they were introduced 
 under the 10 per cent, discrimination. The retaliatory 
 duties of import and tonnage levied on the Sicilian 
 flag in the United States virtually excluded their ves- 
 sels from our ports, and the consequence was that the 
 trade between the two countries became exceedingly 
 limited. Indeed, in returns of the foreign trade and 
 navigation of the Two Sicilies for a period of three 
 years (1839, 1840, and 1841), but a single American 
 vessel appears to have entered or cleared at the ports 
 of that kingdom. 
 
 The treaty of 1845, which went into effect July 24, 
 1846, provides that there shall exist between the two 
 countries reciprocal liberty of commerce and naviga- 
 tion ; that no higher duties shall be imposed on im- 
 portations into either countiy of articles from the 
 other than from any other country ; that favors grant- 
 ed by either party to other nations shall be common to 
 the other ; that there shall be equalization of duties, 
 etc., on imports and exports, on vessels of either couu- 
 trj', as also of tonnage, harbor, and light-house duties ; 
 that the stipulations of the treaty shall not apply to 
 the coasting trade ; and that no preference shall be 
 given b}' either party to importations on account of 
 the national character of vessels in which imported. 
 The treaty to be in force ten years, with the usual 
 twelve mouths' notice for its termination. 
 
 By a convention ratified July 14, 1855, two prin- 
 ciples were recognized between the two countries as 
 permanent and immutable, to wit : 1st. That the ef- 
 fects or goods belonging to citizens or subjects of a 
 power or state at war are free from capture and confis- 
 cation when found on board of neutral vessels, except 
 articles contraband of war; and, 2d. That the prop- 
 erty of neutrals on board an enemy's vessel is not sub- 
 ject to confiscation, unless contraband of war. 
 
 In 1852 the commerce of the continental part of the 
 kingdom of the Two Sicilies is thus given : Imports, 
 $12,372,363; exports, $10,943,831 ; total, $23,316,194. 
 
 The trade represented by the preceding figures passed 
 exclusively through the custom-houses, and does not 
 comprise the movements at the general entrepot of 
 Brindisi, nor the transhipment in the roads. The 
 principal foreign powers which participated in the com- 
 mercial movements of 1853 were England, France, 
 Austria, Sardinia, the Papal States, and Tuscany ; and 
 next in the order of importance were Holland, Sweden, 
 Russia, Spain, Greece, the Ionian Islands, Brazil, and 
 the United States. The value of merchandise import- 
 ed into the continental part of the kingdom, it is seen 
 above, amounted to $12,372,363. This is the value of 
 maritime commerce with foreign nations only. The 
 coastmg trade between the different ports of the king- 
 dom would largely augment this total, but no returns 
 of this trade are accessible. Of the imports, sugar, 
 coffee, and trans-Atlantic produce are chiefly supplied 
 
 by England. Marseilles also furnishes small quantities 
 of sugar and coffee from French colonies ; but, owing 
 to their superior quality and high price, they are not 
 much in demand. The sugars from Holland, being 
 lower priced, find a readier market. Besides these 
 sources of supply, several Neapolitan vessels have for 
 SMne years past kept up a direct intercourse between 
 the port of Naples and Brazil. There seems no reason 
 why the United States should not compete with En- 
 gland, Holland, France, and even Genoa, in supply- 
 ing these trans-Atlantic necessaries to the kingdom of 
 the Two Sicilies ; nor why the carrying trade in these 
 articles from the countries of production, or from the 
 bonded warehouses of the United States, could not be 
 made as profitable to American as to British, Dutch, 
 French, or even to Genoese vessels, Genoa is a free 
 port, and the dues for pUotage, anchorage, and quaran- 
 tine are light. — See Sakdinia. 
 
 The subjoined statement exhibits the quantities and 
 values of sugar and coffee respective!}', exported from 
 the United States to the kingdom of the Two Sicilies, 
 during a period of five years, from 1851 to 1855, botli 
 inclusive, made up from the annual reports of the Sec- 
 retary' of the Treasury on Commerce and Navigation ; 
 followed by a statement exhibiting the quantities and 
 values of the same articles exported to all countries ; 
 and a third exhibiting the quantities and values of cot- 
 ton and tobacco exported to the Two Sicilies during 
 the same period : 
 
 1S51. 
 1852.. 
 185S.. 
 1854.. 
 1855., 
 
 Sugar. 
 
 $4542 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 . 34,2T2 
 60,328 
 91,32T 
 
 1,830^564 
 
 $3,345 
 4,019 
 T,C6T 
 
 Cotton and Tobacco expoetet> from the United States 
 TO THE Two Sicilies, peom 1851 to 1855. 
 
 1851 
 
 1852 
 
 1853 
 
 1854 
 
 1855 
 
 Aggregate. 
 
 Average . . 
 
 1,069,086 
 
 327,119 
 
 1,238,492 
 
 2,634,706 
 
 878,236 
 
 31,631 
 109,724 
 
 $237,574 
 
 79,191 
 
 92,000 
 
 208,000 
 
 22,000 
 
 1,282,000 
 
 93,000 
 
 1,697,000 
 
 339,400 
 
 Vajues. 
 
 $10,302 
 16,619 
 2,180 
 
 133,ES2 
 24,124 
 
 $186,807 
 
 37,861 
 
 The following are the chief staples which the Two 
 Sicilies draw from the United States : Tobacco, cotton, 
 rum, flour, naval stores, etc. Of these there were ex- 
 ported in 1854 and 1855 in value as follows ; 
 
 Description of MaTcIiandiGO. 1854. 1855. 
 
 "Whalebone $1,000 
 
 staves and headings 11,822 $10,713 
 
 Masta, spars, and naval stores.. 4,895 14,449 
 
 Flour 28,791 
 
 Cotton 31,631 109,724 
 
 Tobacco 133,582 24.124 
 
 Eum (from molasses) 27,250 25,579 
 
 In exchange for these staples and for miscellaneous 
 cargoes, our ships return home laden with wines, drugs, 
 fruits, feathers, anchovies, oil, sulphur, silks, corks, 
 and rags ; of which latter article were imported in 1854, 
 direct from the Sicilies, 3,140,718 lbs., of the value of 
 $90,424. Under the treaty of 1845 Sicilian and United 
 States vessels are equalized in the ports of the two 
 countries, when laden with the produce and manufac- 
 tures of the country to which the vessels belong. The 
 direct trade is, therefore, freed from the restrictions and 
 incumbrances with which it was clogged prior to that 
 period, and the commerce between the two countries 
 has in consequence largely increased. The exports 
 from the United States of its staples alone amount now 
 annually to between $250,000 and $300,000, more than 
 one half of which is shipped under the United States 
 flag. By a royal decree bearing date 18th December, 
 1854, the privileges which apply to the direct trade 
 with the Two Sicilies have been equally extended to 
 the indirect trade in favor of those nations which have 
 
SIC 
 
 1715 
 
 SIC 
 
 commercial treaties 'Witli the kingdom of the Sicilies, 
 when they shall have granted lilie favors to the flag 
 of the Two Sicilies. 
 
 Under the operation of the treaty already referred 
 to, and of the liberal privileges conceded by this de- 
 cree, the commerce of the United States with the Two 
 Sicilies is increasing. The total value of exports from 
 the Sicilies to the United States in 1845 was $530,000. 
 In 1854 they reached nearly $1,000,000, and in 1856 
 they ascended to $1,718,949. In 1846 the United States 
 exported to tjie Sicilies its own staples to the amount 
 of $70,625, against $246,151 in 1854, and $207,790 in 
 1855. The total trade in 1855 was $2,870,425, against 
 $1,219,351 in 1854, and $934,725 in 1845. 
 
 The port charges in the Two Sicilies are 3^ cents 
 per ton on equalized vessels, and 32 cents per ton on 
 those non-equalized. Eesides the tonnage duty there 
 are sundry minor charges, includmg custom-house 
 visit, entrance and clearance charges, etc., amounting 
 in the aggregate to $3 75 per vessel on entrance ; and 
 on clearance, including compensation to brolievs, $5 10. 
 The quarantine regulations require a payment of $5 
 for obtaining the requisite pratique. Should the vessel 
 be subject to quarantine, the charges are largely aug- 
 mented. In order to obtain free entrance, it is neces- 
 sary to exhibit a clean bill of health, signed by the 
 Neapolitan consul at the port of clearance. It would 
 seem, however, that vessels laden with cotton or other 
 "susceptible" merchandise have always to undergo 
 quarantine,* which is exceedingly strict if during the 
 voyage sickness chanced to prevail on board. 
 
 The following is a condensed summary of the latest 
 quarantine regulations in force at the different ports 
 of the Two Sicilies. These regulations are revised an- 
 nually, but the general principles on which they are 
 based remain unaltered : 
 
 ' ' Vessels proceeding from New Orleans, or any port 
 of Louisiana, shall be excluded whenever they come 
 unprovided with a certificate signed by the royal con- 
 sul at the port of departure, attesting that the yellow 
 fever did not exist in that State, either at the period 
 of sailing or twenty days prior to the same. 
 
 " The places supposed to be Infected by yellow fever 
 are the Argentine and Paraguaiau republics, Deme- 
 rara, Peru, Costa Firma, Gulf of Mexico, Mississippi, 
 Great and Little Antilles, and Savaimah. 
 
 "The places suspected of yellow fever are Santa 
 Martha in Columbia, Chili, Guayana (except Deme- 
 rara), Ohio and Missouri, Vera Cruz, and ports of the 
 United States, except as above." 
 
 The certificate of the Sicilian consul is indispensable 
 to be admitted to pratique ; but even with such protec- 
 tion the quarantine regulations are oppressive and un- 
 certain, especially if any sickness has occurred on board 
 during the voyage. 
 
 Pilotage. — ^Vessels arriving at Naples are seldom 
 under the necessity of taking pilots, and hence there 
 is no fixed regulation respecting them. Should a 
 pilot, however, be required, one can at all times be 
 found among the fishermen on the coast, with whom 
 the captain must make the best bargain he can. 
 
 The principal ports are Naples, situated on a bay of 
 the same name, having a commodious harbor, and good 
 anchorage for any sized vessels to load and discharge 
 cargoes ; and in Sicily proper, Palermo and Messina. 
 
 The foreign trade of Naples is almost exclusively in 
 possession of English merchants. The returns for 1856 
 assign two-thirds of this trade to the English flag, and 
 the other third to the Neapolitan and other flags. Some 
 twenty or thirty vessels from the north of Europe ar- 
 rive annually with stock-fish, crushed sugar, etc., from 
 Holland. England employs annually in the trade with 
 Naples about one hundred and thirty vessels of small 
 size, from one to two hundred tons each, besides a line 
 of steamers, which regularly touch at this port, to and 
 
 * See Consular Returns, " Naples, No. 30, December 30, 
 1853." Part III. 
 
 from Liverpool. The facilities wliich these steamers 
 furnish for executing orders suitable for the Neapolitan 
 market present the most serious obstacle to a direct 
 trade with the United States. The privilege of the 
 indirect trade, however, lately conceded to the Amer- 
 ican flag, may tend to increase the commercial inter- 
 course between the two countries. 
 
 The imports from Great Britain in 1855 amounted in 
 quantity to 34,900 tons, which at 40s. ($9 60) per ton 
 gave to British shippers on freight alone the sum of 
 $335,040, besides 10 per cent, primage. The value 
 of these imports was estimated at ^£3,000,000, or 
 $15,000,000. 
 
 The exports from Naples to Great Britain were esti- 
 mated at 15,500 tons, and the value at about $7,500,000. 
 
 Besides the disadvantage already referred to, under 
 which American vessels would have to compete with 
 English in the trade of Naples, the quarantine regula- 
 tions are such as to render any enterprise in that trade 
 on the part of American shippers uncertain and hazard- 
 ous. These regulations, as already observed, are re- 
 vised annually, and provide that, under the most favor- 
 able circumstances, a certificate from the Sicilian con- 
 sul at the port of departure is indispensable to be ad- 
 mitted to free pratique, 
 
 A few facts relative to currency and exchange at 
 Messina, communicated to the State Department under 
 date of October 20, 1855, by the United States consul 
 at that port, are subjoined : 
 
 " It is customary to draw, for all transactions with 
 the United States, on Paris or London, and occasion- 
 ally on Marseilles, Hamburg, or Genoa. American 
 coin, gold and silver, is, and has been for some time, 
 at a discount of from 10 to 15 per cent. 
 
 " The only kind of Spanish dollar current here is the 
 pillar dollar, and is at an advance of about 4 per cent. 
 
 "Exchanges are verj- unfavorable, and far below 
 the rates of former years. London, 1038 grains per 
 £ ; Paris and Marseilles, 41f grains per franc ; Lyons, 
 41-|, and Genoa 42 grains per franc; Leghorn, 35 j 
 grains per lire ; Amsterdam,' 88f grains per florin ; 
 Hamburg, 78 grains per mark-banco. 
 
 " The Sicilian ounce is two dollars and a half, or 30 
 lires, or 600 grains Sicilian currency." 
 
 Island of Sicily. — This island has an area of 10,556 
 square miles, and a population of 2,208,392 inhabitants. 
 Since its annexation to the kingdom of Naples in 1736, 
 it has experienced much of the evils of absenteeism. 
 The revenue, except that portion of it which is paid to 
 the Neapolitan employes who reside on the island, is 
 drained ofi' to be spent in enriching the metropolitan 
 court. In this respect Sicily in some degree resembles 
 Ireland. The resources which might be beneficially 
 expended in making roads and other improvements, 
 indispensable to the proper development of the indus- 
 try of the island and the growth of its commerce, are 
 squandered in other countries by an absentee nobility.* 
 
 Wheat and barley are exported in small quantities. 
 Other chief crops are beans, pulse, maize, rice, olive- 
 oil, oranges, lemons, almonds, and other fruit ; pota- 
 toes, tobacco, flax, hemp, sumach, liquorice, and man- 
 na. In the northeast part of the island silkis produced, 
 and it is woven at Catania ; and in the western part 
 30,000 pipes of wine are annually made, of which about 
 20,000 are exported from Marsala. Sulphur is also a 
 leading staple of the island of Sicily. It is found in 
 tertiary formations, and its production is annually in- 
 creasing. From 1838 to 1842 a monopoly in the ex- 
 port of s"nlphur was granted by the Neapolitan govern- 
 ment to a French mercantile firm ; but so vigorous was 
 the resistance of the British government, that in 1842. 
 the monopoly was suppressed. Since that period the 
 
 * Of the whole revenue raised in Sicily (atout $10,000,000), 
 half the amount is sent direct to Naples, never to return. • * * 
 No country exhibits land so highly taxed, nor one' in which so 
 little good Is extended to the general community. — Mao- 
 
 GUEOOB. 
 
SIC 
 
 1716 
 
 SIC 
 
 trade in this article has been annually increasing. 
 These sulphur mines have been explored and worked 
 for more than three hundred years, but it was not until 
 chemical science had pointed out the various uses to 
 which sulphur can be applied that its exportation had 
 risen to any great importance. There are now about 
 150 mines worked in an area of 2700 miles, though the 
 most productive mines are confined to Favara, Som- 
 matirio, Galiizzi, and Eiesi. 
 
 Mr. Macgregor gives some interesting statistics of 
 the sulphur trade of the island of Sicily, from which 
 it appears that in 1838 the amount on hand was 80,000 
 quintals ; on the Ist August, 1840, it had risen to 680,000 
 quintals ; in 1841 it reached 830,000 quintals ; and in 
 1842 it stood as high as 1,100,000 quintals. 
 
 There entered the ports of the island of Sicilj' in 
 1843, 1435 vessels of 211,000 tons ; of which from the 
 United States there were 9 of 2500 tons ; and during 
 the same year there . cleared from Sicilian ports 1427 
 vessels of 256,000 tons ; of which from the United 
 States there were 80 vessels, measuring 22,600 tons. 
 
 The value of imports and exports during the same 
 vear was : 
 
 Imports from all foreign countries $4,522,400 
 
 Exports to . " " 6,594,400 
 
 Total trade $11,116,800 
 
 Imports from the United States $272,600 
 
 Exports to " " 651,000 
 
 Total trade with the United States. . $928,600 
 
 FoEEiGi? Commerce of tub United States -vvitu Sicily, from October 1, 1830, to July 1, 1857. 
 
 Vessels belonging to the Two Sicilies are admitted 
 into the ports of the United States on the same terms 
 as American vessels only when laden with the home 
 produce or home manufactures. 
 
 Commerce and Navigation op tiie Sicilies witd foreign 
 
 COITNTRIES DURING TUE YeAB 1854. 
 
 Conntriea. 
 
 Austria i 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Modena 
 
 Koman States 
 
 Spain 
 
 United States 
 
 France 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 Greece 
 
 Holland 
 
 Ionian Islands...... 
 
 Sweden and Norway. 
 
 Russia 
 
 Tuscany 
 
 Turkey 
 
 Sardinia 
 
 Prussia 
 
 Tunis 
 
 All others 
 
 Total . 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Frflnca. 
 
 5,206,804 
 
 74,608 
 3,734,826 
 1,283,216 
 10,283,455 
 19.144,604 
 1,063,304 
 4,276,201 
 
 54'I,'600 
 26,282,407 
 3,023,807 
 2,768,260 
 2,460,871 
 
 122,600 
 
 Exports. 
 Frjlnca. 
 
 600,107 
 
 647i477 
 
 14,752,017 
 
 12,607,584 
 
 79,695 
 
 256,171 
 
 275,738 
 3,899,936 
 
 136,702 
 3,006,882 
 
 66,504 
 
 80,270,478 36,717,T3i)| 2514 297,631 
 
 859 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 677 
 
 6 
 
 17 
 
 396 
 
 200 
 
 ]2 
 
 14 
 
 61 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 65 
 
 20 
 
 254 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 Tons. 
 
 59,309 
 
 163 
 
 267 
 
 23,422 
 
 868 
 
 5,153 
 
 103,750 
 
 43.430 
 
 i;289 
 
 2,727 
 
 3,213 
 
 1,525 
 
 3,214 
 
 5,300 
 
 5,577 
 
 36,651 
 
 T78 
 
 1,036 
 
 SnippiNG IN 1854. 
 
 TonH. VesaeJa. 
 
 Continent 10,863 202,318 
 
 Two Sicilies 2,031 47,438 
 
 Total 12,8J4 249,756 
 
 Years ending 
 
 Exporta. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Wiiereof ttiere Mas in 
 Bullion and Specie. 
 
 Tonnage cleared. 
 
 Domeatic. Foreign. 
 
 Totfll. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Export. 
 
 Import. 
 
 American. 
 
 Foreign, 
 
 Sept. 30,1881 
 
 1832 
 
 1833 u. 
 
 1834 ...... 
 
 1835....... 
 
 1836 .• 
 
 1837 
 
 1888 
 
 1839 
 
 1840 
 
 Total... 
 
 Sept. 30, 1841 
 
 1842 
 
 9 mos., 1843* 
 
 June 30, 1844 
 
 1845 
 
 1846 
 
 1847 
 
 1848 
 
 1841 
 
 1850 
 
 Total... 
 
 June 30, 1851 
 
 1852 
 
 1853 
 
 1854 
 
 1865 
 
 1866 
 
 1867 
 
 $2,369 
 
 . 3,088 
 
 6,123 
 
 4,060 
 
 17,373 
 
 146,183 
 
 18,620 ' 
 
 25,532 
 
 192,462 
 
 303,217 
 
 $2,949 
 
 10,884 
 49,714 
 6,877 
 21,813 
 84,607 
 33,928 
 
 $2,369 
 
 8,088 
 
 9,063 
 
 4,060 
 
 28,257 
 
 195,897 
 
 24,497 
 
 47,345 
 
 277,069 
 
 887,140 
 
 $is6;617 
 166,714 
 254,966 
 274,548 
 643,090 
 411,959 
 345,362 
 592,1^51 
 649,525 
 
 
 ' $608 
 
 20,600 
 ' ' 600 
 
 378 
 
 l',264 
 1,457 
 1,230 
 1,012 
 2,233 
 1,006 
 
 ■432 
 
 376 
 311 
 
 1,228 
 3,143 
 2,105 
 1,824 
 2,298 
 8,176 
 
 $719,027 
 
 $474,470 
 237,861 
 82,558 
 75,624 
 70,625 
 319,441 
 56,899 
 17,754 
 24,359 
 50,577 
 
 $209,758 
 
 $11,592 
 
 196,797 
 
 51,871 
 
 278,602 
 
 334,667 
 
 298,891 
 
 7,218 
 
 9,075 
 
 4,854 
 
 13,024 
 
 $928,785 
 
 $486,062 
 
 433,658 
 
 84,429 
 
 354,316 
 
 405,292 
 
 617,832 , 
 
 64,117 
 
 26,829 
 
 29,?13 
 
 63,601 
 
 $3,493,732 
 
 $588,057 
 539,419 
 169,664 
 402,773 
 629,493 
 613,235 
 550,983 
 618,029 
 530,244 
 822,629 
 
 
 $21,703 
 
 $14,300 
 
 654 
 
 4,706 
 
 "4,626 
 22,'625 
 
 8,620 
 
 1,913 
 1,272 
 
 665 
 1,046 
 
 445 
 
 767 
 1,423 
 
 924 
 1,863 
 3,826 
 
 14,898 
 
 3,566 
 
 3,016 
 
 680 
 
 3,286 
 
 8,628 
 
 4,318 
 
 649 
 
 399 
 
 232 
 
 1,633 
 
 $1,360,168 
 
 $41,743 
 65,649 
 130,337 
 246,151 
 207,790 
 303,576 
 1,093,951 
 
 $1,205,181 
 
 $8,193 
 10,890 
 24,818 
 13,900 
 443,686 
 75,155 
 58,969 
 
 $2,566,34J 
 
 $40,?36 
 66,639 
 155,165 
 260,051 
 651,476 
 378,771 
 1,15'3,'..20 
 
 $5,324,581 
 
 $825,924 
 
 606,641 
 
 863,351 
 
 959,300 
 
 1,718,949 
 
 1,488,626 
 
 1,675,953 
 
 
 $46,811 
 
 $26,000 
 ■4,870 
 
 13,633 
 
 2,843 
 6,609 
 
 3^862 
 4,509 
 1,642 
 5,334 
 
 21,407 
 
 1,916 
 3,427 
 
 3,713 
 8,444 
 1,621 
 3,119 
 
 * Nine montlis to June 80, and the fiscal year from this time begins July 1. 
 
 Principal Poii. — Palermo, anciently Panormus, a 
 large city and sea-port, the capital of the noble island 
 of Sicily, on the north coast of which it is situated, the 
 light-house being in lat. 38° 8' 15" N., long. 13° 21' 
 66" E. Population, 170,000. The Bay of Palermo is 
 about five miles in depth, the city being situated on 
 its southwest shore. A fine mole, fully one quarter 
 of a mile in length, having a light-house and battery 
 at its extremity, projecting in a southerly direction 
 from the arsenal into nine or ten fathoms of water, 
 forming a convenient port, capable of containing a 
 great number of vessels. This immense work cost 
 about £1,000,000 sterling in its construction ; but the 
 light-house, though a splendid structure, is said to be 
 verj' ill lighted. There is an inner port, which is re- 
 served for the use of the arsenal. Ships that do not 
 mean to go within the mole may anchor about half a 
 mile from it, in from 10 to 23 fathoms, mole light bear- 
 
 ing northwest three-quarters west. A heavy sea some- 
 times rolls into the bay, but no danger need be appre- 
 hended by ships properly found in anchors and cliain 
 cables. In going into the bay it is necessarj' to keep 
 clear of the nets of the tunny iisherj', for these are so 
 strong and well moored as to be capable of arresting 
 a ship under sail. 
 
 Monet/. — Since 1818 the coins of Sicily have been 
 the same as those of Naples, their names only differ- 
 ing. The ducat = 3s. 5-2d. sterling, is subdivided into. 
 100 bajocchi and 10 piccioli; but accounts are still 
 generally kept in oncie, tarie, and grani: 20 grani= 
 1 taro; 30 tari=l oncia; the oncia=3 ducats; and 1 
 carlino of Naples =1 taro of Sicily. The Spanish dol- 
 lar is current at 12 tari 8 grani. 
 
 Weights. — 100 Sicilian pounds of 12 ounces =70 lbs. 
 avoirdupois =85-11 lbs. Troy=31-76 kilog.=64'23 lbs. 
 of Amsterdam=6o-58 lbs. of Hamburg. 
 
SIE 
 
 1717 
 
 SIE 
 
 Sierra Leone, an English settlement, near the 
 month of the river of the same name, on the west 
 coast of Africa, lat. 8° 30' N., long. 13° 5' W. This 
 colony was founded partly as a commercial establish- 
 ment, but more from motives of humanity. It was 
 intended to consist principally of free blacks, who, be- 
 ing instructed in the Christian religion, and in the arts 
 of Europe, should become, as it were, a focus whence 
 civilization might be diffused among the surrounding 
 tribes. About 1200 free negroes, who, having joined 
 the royal standard in the American war, were obligfed, 
 at the termination of that contest, to take refuge in 
 Nova Scotia, were conveyed thither In 1792. To these 
 were afterward added the Maroons from Jamaica ; and 
 since the legal abolition of the slave-trade, the negroes 
 taken in the captured vessels, and liberated by the 
 mixed commission courts, have been carried to the 
 colony. The ' total population of the colony in 1850 
 amounted to about 65,500, all black or colored, with 
 the exception of about 100 whites. 
 
 Success of the Efforts to civilize the Blacks. — Great 
 efforts have been made to introduce order and indus- 
 trious habits among these persons. We are sorry, 
 however, to be obliged to add tliat these efforts, though 
 prosecuted at an enormous expense of blood and treas- 
 ure, have been signally unsuccessful. There is, no 
 doubt, some discrepancy in the accounts of the prog- 
 ress made by the blacks. It is, however, sufficiently 
 clear that it has been very inconsiderable, and we do 
 not think that any other result could be rationally an- 
 ticipated. Their laziness has been loudly complained 
 of, but without reason. Men are not industrious with- 
 out a motive ; and most of those motives that stimu- 
 late all classes in colder climates to engage in labori- 
 ous employments are unknown to the indolent inhab- 
 itants of this burning region, where clothing is of little 
 importance, where sufHoient supplies of food may be 
 obtained with comparatively little exertion, and where 
 more than half the necessaries and conveniences of Eu- 
 ropeans would be positive incumbrances. And had it 
 been otherwise, what progress could a colony be ex- 
 pected to malie into which there have been annually 
 imported crowds of liberated negroes, most of whom 
 are barbarians in the lowest stage of civilization ? 
 ' Tnjiuence of the Colony Upon the illicit Slave-trade. — 
 As a means tt checking the prevalence of the illicit 
 slave-trade, the establishment of a colony at Sierra 
 Leone has been worse than useless. The trade is prin- 
 cipally carried on with the countries round the Bight 
 of Biafra and the Bight of Benin, many hundred miles 
 distant from Sierra Leone ; and the mortality in the 
 captured ships during their voyage to the latter is oft- 
 en very great. Tlie truth is that this traffic will never 
 be effectually put down otherwise than by the great 
 powers declaring it to be piracy, and treating those en- 
 gaged in it, wherever and by whomsoever they may be 
 found, as sea robbers or pirates. Such a declaration 
 would be quite conformable to the spirit of the decla- 
 ration put forth by the Congress of Vienna in 1824. — 
 See Slave-trade. But the jealousies with respect 
 to the right of visitation and search are so very great, 
 that it is exceedingly doubtful whether the maritime 
 powers mil ever be brought to concur in any declara- 
 tion of the kind now alluded to ; unless,however, some- 
 thing of this sort be done, we apprehend there are but 
 slender grounds for supposing that the trade will be 
 speedily suppressed. 
 
 Climate of Sierra Leone. — The soil in the vicinity of 
 Sierra Leone seems to be but of indifferent fertility, 
 and the climate Is about the most destructive that can 
 be imagined. The mortality among the Africans sent 
 to it seems unusually great, and among the whites it 
 is quite excessive. Much as we desire the improve- 
 ment of the blacks, we protest against its being at- 
 tempted by sending our countrymen to certain de- 
 struction in this most pestiferous of all pestiferous 
 places. It would seem, too, that It is quite unneces- 
 
 sary, and that blacks may be employed to fill the ofiS- 
 oial situations in the colony. Bui; if otherwise, it 
 should be unconditionally abandoned. 
 
 Commerce. — Commercially considered. Sierra Leone 
 appears to' quite as little advantage as in other points 
 of view. Palm-oil is the great article of export from 
 the west coast of Africa ; and by far the largest por- 
 tion of it is furnished by the coast to the west and 
 south of the Rio Volta, many hundred miles from Si- 
 erra Leone. We doubt, indeed, whether the commerce 
 with the latter will ever be of much importance. At 
 all events, we hardly think that it can be expected 
 materially to increase if it be conducted in the way in 
 which it is affirmed that the intercourse with the lib- 
 erated negroes is at present conducted.-^iZeporfo on Co- 
 lonial Possessions, 1851, p. 175. If there be not some 
 mistake or exaggeration in the statement now referred 
 to, hbthing can be conceived more disgi-aceful. Should 
 it, however, be ascertained that an establishment is 
 really required for the advantageous prosecution of the 
 trade to Western Africa, it is abundantly obvious that 
 it should be placed much farther to the south than Si- 
 erra Leone. The island of Fernando Po has been sug- 
 gested for this purpose ; but after the dear-bought ex- 
 perience we have already had, it is to be hoped that 
 nothing will be done with respect to it without mature 
 consideration. 
 
 ACOOITNT BUOWINO TnE Tai-TJE OF THE VAEIOUB AetIOLES, 
 THE GeOWTII, PeODUOE, AND MamuFAOTUEE OF TUB COL- 
 ONY AND West Coast of Afeioa, bxpoetew peom Sieeea 
 Leone dueing each of the Yeaes feom 1848 to 1650, 
 inl-lusiv^. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 I 1848. I 18»9. 
 
 Arrow-root. 
 Beeswax . , . 
 Benni-seed. 
 Bar-wood . . 
 Cam-wood'. 
 
 Coffee 
 
 Gumcopal . 
 Ground-nuts . 
 
 oil. 
 
 Ginger 
 
 Hides (dry and salted), leopard) 
 
 and goat Bkins / 
 
 Ivoiy 
 
 Ox bomE 
 
 Peppers and Cayenne pepper . . . . 
 
 Palm oil 
 
 " - nuts ;. ;. . 
 
 " oil 
 
 _Kice (clean i^nd rougli) 
 
 Teak timber ■ 
 
 Sundries, including curiosities, ) 
 
 mats, etc. f 
 
 Total..! 
 
 478 
 281' 
 60 
 
 250 
 13,525 
 
 646 
 22,032 
 11,491 
 
 1,769 
 
 51 
 
 2,978 
 
 11,858 
 
 628 
 26,336 
 
 |95;615 
 
 689 
 
 130 
 
 16 
 
 8,277 
 
 66 
 
 1,244 
 
 7,889 
 
 1,991 
 
 10,142 
 
 9,259 
 
 3,565 
 
 2,631 
 43,276 
 1,694 
 
 25,452 
 27 
 
 1850. 
 
 618 
 
 1,982 
 
 417 
 
 225 
 
 4,466 
 
 2,288 
 
 1,071 
 
 17,867 
 
 2,945 
 
 11,818 
 
 10,832 
 
 15,586 
 
 , 17 
 
 4,721 
 
 24,9ro 
 
 489 
 
 840 
 
 889 
 
 11,648 
 
 56 
 
 111,330 .123,105 
 
 The total value of the exports of British produce 
 and manufacture to the west coast of Africa amounted 
 in 1851 to £658,984 ; but of that amount only £94,546 
 went to Sierra Leone. The value of the exports from 
 the latter to the United Kingdom during the ten years 
 ending with 1850 amounted to £63,290 a year. The 
 only manufacture that can be said to exist in the col- 
 ony is the expression of the oil from the ground-nut by 
 means of machinery. — See Nuts, Geouhd. In 1850, 
 122 ships entered the river, of which 27 were from En- 
 gland. 
 
 Colonial Expenses. — The pecuniary expenses occa- 
 sioned to Great Britain by this colonj^, and, the unsuc- 
 cessful efforts to suppress the foreigii slave-trade, have 
 been altogether enormous. Mr. Keitli Douglas is re- 
 ported to have stated in the House of Commons, in 
 July, 1831, that " down to the year 1824 the civil ex- 
 penses of Sierra Leone amounted to £2,268,000; and 
 that the same expenses had amounted, from 1824 to 
 1830, to £1,082,000. The naval expenses, from 1807 
 to 1824, had been £1,630,000. The payments to Spain 
 and Portugal, to induce them to relinquish the slave- 
 trade, amounted to £1,230,000. The expenses on ac- 
 count of captured slaves were £533,092. The expenses 
 incurred on account of the mixed commission courts 
 
SIL 
 
 1718 
 
 SIL 
 
 were £198,000. Altogether this establishment had 
 cost Great Britain nearly £8,000,000 !" The prodigal- 
 ity of this expenditure is unmatched, except by its 
 uselessness. It is doubtful -whether it has prevented 
 a single African from being dragged into slavery, or 
 conferred the smallest real advantage on Africa. It, 
 however, enabled the kings of Spain and Portugal to 
 turn their mercenary humanity to good account.^ — For 
 further details with respect to Sierra Leone and the 
 trade of Western Africa, see the RepoH of the Select 
 Committee of the House of Commons on the West Coast 
 ■ of Africa, Sess. 1842, and the Pari. Paper for 1861. 
 The trade between the United States and the whole 
 of Africa is most insignificant in comparison with that 
 between England and simply the western coast; and 
 it is a fact especially deserving of attention, with ref- 
 erence to Liberia, that for some time past, while the 
 importations from England are increasing, from the 
 United States they are diminishing, particularly cot- 
 ton goods. It is estimated that there are not less than 
 one hundred ships regularly trading between the Brit- 
 ish ports and the coast of Africa, while a regular line 
 of steamers plies between England and Liberia and 
 other settlements on the coast. In addition, it is now 
 proposed to send a steamer up the Niger River each 
 season for the encouragement of emigrants and the 
 protection of traders ; to secure a free port at Fernando 
 Po, by a commercial treaty with Spain, or in some 
 other convenient locality, as an entrepot for British 
 merchant ships; to maintain the African squadron in 
 its former state of efficiency, and to make Sierra Leone 
 a free port. The following tables show the relative 
 importance of British and American trade with Africa ; 
 The Tbade of the United States with Afeioa dueing 
 
 THE nine YEAKS ENDING JuKE 30, 1857. 
 
 Yean. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1849 
 
 $708,411 
 759,206 
 1,340,644 
 1,240,141 
 1,610,833 
 1,804,972 
 1,375,905 
 1,795,419 
 2,484,746 
 
 $495,742 
 624,722 
 1,163,176 
 1,C57,657 
 1,202,986 
 1,888,560 
 1,337,627 
 1,165,857 
 1,521,665 
 
 $1,204,153 
 1,283,968 
 2,503,820 
 2,303,798 
 2,813,819 
 3,191,532 
 2,713,432 
 2,901,276 
 4,006,4il 
 
 1850 
 
 1S51 
 
 1852 
 
 1853 
 
 1864 
 
 1855 
 
 1856 
 
 185T 
 
 
 
 The amount of tonnage cleared from the United 
 States was as follows: 
 
 Year onding June 30. 
 
 Tonnage cleared. | 
 
 American. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 1856 
 
 18,077 
 22,000 
 
 11175 
 742 
 
 1857 
 
 The following returns to Parliament (as published 
 by the London Shipping and Mercantile Gazette) show 
 the increase of exports by Great Britain to the west 
 coast of Africa, and of imports from the same coast : 
 
 Years. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1850 
 
 £039,429 
 054,643 
 633,725 
 901,402 
 958,809 
 
 £605,958 
 794.810 
 707,024 
 749,373 
 905,634 
 
 £1,245,387 
 1,449,353 
 1,240,749 
 1,050,775 
 1,864,443 
 
 18:>1 
 
 1862. 
 
 1863 
 
 1S54 
 
 This is independent of the British colonies of Si- 
 erra Leone, the trade of which amounted in 1854 to 
 $1,421,865, and of the British possessions on the Gold 
 Coast and the Eiver Gambia, amounting to $1,547,285 
 more ; and of those at the Cape of Good Hope and in 
 South Africa, swelling the amount $8,383,090 more; 
 maliing in all an aggregate of over $23,000,000 in 1854 
 for the western coast of Africa entire. — See Blacic- 
 "wood's Magazine, xxiii. 63, xli. 693 ; Monthly Re- 
 riew, cxxiii. 188 ; Hunt's Merchants' Magazine, xv. 
 572 ; Edinburgh Review, iii. 355. 
 
 Silk (Lat. Sericum,, from Seres, the supposed an- 
 cient name of the Chinese), a fine gloss}' thread or fila- 
 ment spun by various species of caterpillars or larva; 
 of the phalmna genus. Of these the Phalcena atlas 
 produces the greatest quantity ; but the Phalaina bom- 
 byx is that commonly employed for this purpose in 
 
 Europe. The silk-worm, in its caterpillar state, which 
 may be considered as the first stage of its existence, 
 after acquiring its full growth (about three inches in 
 length), proceeds to inclose itself in an oval-shaped 
 ball or cocoon, which is formed by an exceedingly 
 slender and long filament of fine yellow silk, emitted 
 from the stomach of the insect preparatory to its as- 
 suming the shape of the chrysalis or moth. In this 
 latter stage, after emancipating itself from its silken 
 prison, it seeks its mate, which has undergone a sim- 
 ilar transformation; and in two or three days after- 
 ward, the female having deposited her eggs (from 300 
 to 500 in number), both insects terminate their exist- 
 ence. According to Reaumur, the phalcena is not the 
 only insect that affords this material — several species 
 of the aranea, or spider, inclose their eggs in verj' fine 
 silk. 
 
 Raw silk is produced by the operation of winding 
 ofi^ at the same time several of the balls or cocoons 
 (which are immersed in hot water to soften the natural 
 gum on the filament) on a common reel, thereby form- 
 ing one smooth even thread. When the skein is dry, 
 it is taken from the reel and made up into hanks ; but 
 before it is fit for weaving, and in order to enable it 
 to undergo the process of dyeing without furring up or 
 separating the fibres, it is converted into one of three 
 forms, viz., singles, tram, or organzine. 
 
 Singles (a collective noun) is formed of one of the 
 reeled threads being twisted, in order to give it strength 
 and firmness. 
 
 Tram is formed of two or more threads twisted to- 
 gether. In this state it is commonly used in weaving, 
 as the shoot or weft. 
 
 Thrown silk is formed of two, three, or more singles, 
 according to the substance required, being twisted to- 
 gether in a contrary direction to that in which the 
 singles of which it is composed are twisted. This pro- 
 cess is termed organizing, and the sUk so twisted or- 
 ganzine. The art of throwing was originally confined 
 to Ital}-, where it was kept a secret for a long period. 
 Stow says it was known in England since the 5th of 
 Queen Elizabeth, " when it was gained from the stran- 
 gers ;" and in that year (1562) the silk throwsters of the 
 metropolis were united into a fellowship. They were 
 incorporated in the year 1629, but the art continued 
 to be very imperfect in that country until 1719. 
 
 Dates of the Introduction of Silk. — Wrought silk was 
 brought from Persia to Greece 325 e.c. Known at 
 Rome in Tiberius' s time, when a law passed in the 
 Senate prohibiting the use of plate of massy gold, and 
 also forbidding men to debase themselves hj wearing 
 silk, fit only for women. Heliogabalus first wore a 
 garment of sUk a.d. 220. Silk was at first of the 
 same value with gold, weight for weight, and was 
 thought to grow in the same manner as cotton on 
 trees. Silk-worms were brought from India to Europe 
 in the 6th century. Charlemagne sent Ofia, king of 
 Mercia, a present of two silken vests a.d. 780. The 
 manufacture was encouraged by Roger, king of Sicily, 
 at Palermo, 1130, when the Sicilians not only bred the 
 silk-worms, but spun and weaved the silk. The manu- 
 facture spread into Italy and Spain, and also into the 
 south of France, a little before the reign of Francis I., 
 about 1510 ; and Henry IV. propagated mulberry-trees 
 and silk-worms throughout the kingdom, 1589. In 
 England sUk mantles were worn by some noblemen's 
 ladies at a ball at Kenilworth Castle, 1286. SUk was 
 worn by the English clergy in 1534. Manufactured 
 in England in 1604, and broad silk wove from raw silk 
 in 1620. First attempt to introduce the silk culture 
 into the American colonies by James I., year 1622. 
 Brought to perfection by the French refugees in Lon- 
 don at Spitalfields, 1688. A silk-throwing mill was 
 made in England, and fixed up at Derby, by Sir 
 Thomas Lombe, merchant of London, modeled from 
 the original mill then in the King of Sardinia's do- 
 minions, about 1714. — Haydk. 
 
SIL 
 
 1719 
 
 SIL 
 
 Historical Sketch. — The art of rearing silk-wonns, of 
 tinraveling the threads spun by them, and manufac- 
 taring the latter into articles of dress and ornament, 
 seems to have been first practiced by the Chinese. 
 Tirgil is the earliest of the Koman writers who has 
 been supposed to allude to the production of silk in 
 China, and the terms he employs show how little was 
 then known at Kome of the real nature of the article : 
 
 " Velleraque ut foliia depectanfc tenuia Serea." — Georg. lib. 
 ii. lin. 121. 
 
 But it may be doubted whether Virgil do not in this 
 line refer to cotton rather than silk. Pliny, howerer, 
 has distinctly described the formation of silk by the 
 bonibyx. — Hiat. Nat, It is uncertain when it first be- 
 gan to be introduced at Kome ; but it was most prob- 
 ably in the age of Pompey and Julius Cffisar — the lat- 
 ter of whom displayed a profusion of silks in some of 
 the magnificent theatrical spectacles with which he 
 sought to conciliate and amuse the people. Owing 
 principallj', no doubt, to the great distance of China 
 from Kome, and to the difficulties in the way of the in- 
 tercourse with that country, which was carried on by 
 land in caravans whose route lay through the Persian 
 empire, and partly, perhaps, to the high price of silli in 
 China, its cost, when it arrived at Rome, was very 
 great; "so much so that a given weight of silk was 
 sometimes sold for an equal weight of gold ; at first it 
 was only used by a few ladies eminent for their rank 
 and opulence.' In the beginning of the reign of Ti- 
 berius, a law was passed, ne vestis serica vivos Jcedaret 
 — that no man should disgrace himself by wearing a 
 silken garment. — Tacitus, Annal. But the profligate 
 Heliogabalus despised this law, and was the first of 
 - the Koman emperors who wore a dress composed wholly 
 of silk QiolosericuTn), The example once set, the cus- 
 tom of wearing silk soon became general among the 
 wealthy citizens of Kome, and throughout the prov- 
 inces. According as the demand for the article in- 
 creased, efforts were made to import larger quantities ; 
 and the price seems to have progressively declined 
 from the reign of Aurelian. That this must have been 
 the case is obvious from the statement of Ammianus 
 Marcellinus, that silk was in his time (anno 370) very 
 generally worn, even by the lowest classes. Sericwm 
 ad usum antehac noiilium, nunc etiam mjlmoruni sine 
 ulla discretione pro^ficiens. — Lib. xviii. 
 
 China continued to draw considerable sums from the 
 Koman empire in return for silk, now become indis- 
 pensable to the Western World, till the 6th century. 
 About the year 650, two Persian monks, who had long 
 resided in China and made themselves acquainted with 
 the mode of rearing the silk-worm, encouraged by the 
 gifts and promises of Justinian, succeeded in carrj'ing 
 the eggs of the insect to Constantinople. Under their 
 direction they were hatched and fed ; they lived and 
 labored in a foreign climate ; a suflicient number of 
 butterflies was saved to propagate the race, and mul- 
 berrj'-trees were planted to afibrd nourishment to the 
 rising generations. A new and Important branch of 
 industry was thus established in Europe. Experience 
 and reflection gradually corrected the errors of a new at- 
 tempt ; and the Sogdoite embassadors acknowledged in 
 the succeeding reign that the Romans were not inferior 
 to the natives of China in the education of the insects 
 and the manufacture of silk. — Gibbon, Decline and Fall. 
 Greece, particularly the Peloponnesus, was early dis- 
 tinguished by the rearing of silk-worms, and by the 
 skill and success with which the inhabitants of Thebes, 
 Corinth, and Argos carried on the manufacture. Until 
 the 12th centurj', Greece continued to be the only Eu- 
 ropean country in which these arts were practiced ; 
 but the forces of Roger, king of Sicily, having in 1147 
 sacked Corinth, Athens, and Thebes, carried off large 
 numbers of the inhabitants to Palermo, who introduced 
 the culture of the worm and the manufacture of silk 
 into Sicily. From this island the arts spread into 
 Italy; and Venice, Milan, Florence, Lucca, etc., were 
 
 soon after distinguished for their success in raising 
 silk-worms, and for the extent and beauty of their 
 manufactures of silk. — Gibbon, vol. x. p. 110 ; Bio- 
 grdphie Universelle, art. Rogek II. The silk manu- 
 facture was introduced into France in 1480, Louis XI. 
 having invited workmen from Italy, who established 
 themselves in Tours. The manufacture was not be- 
 gun at Lyons till about 1520, when Francis I., having 
 got possession of Milan, prevailed on some artisans of 
 the latter city to establish themselves, under his pro- 
 tection, in the former. Nearly at the same period the 
 rearing of silk-worms began to be successfully prose- 
 cuted in Provence and other provinces of the south of 
 France. Henry IV. rewarded such of the early manu- 
 facturers as had supported and pursued the trade for 
 twelve years with patents of nobility. 
 
 One circumstance distinguishes silk from the other 
 three great sources of textile fabrics ; viz., the silk is 
 already a continuous filament before it reaches the 
 hands of the manufacturer ; whereas cotton, wool, and 
 flax are all short in the fibre ; and these fibres have 
 to be combined end to end by spinning. The little 
 silk-worm, intent upon making a warm habitation for 
 himself, wraps or builds around him a cocoon or small 
 egg-shaped hollow envelope, fabricated of one very 
 long and exquisitely-fine filament of silk. This fila- 
 ment the silk growers-^whether in Italy, Turkey, 
 Chma, or India (these being the chief silk-producing 
 countries) — unwind by various ingenious means ; and 
 many filaments are then combined into one to form a 
 tliread sufficiently strong to form into hanks or skeins. 
 Such silk is called raw silk, and in this state most of 
 our supply is obtained. It thence follows that the 
 twisting and spinning machinery differs from that em- 
 ployed for the other three kinds of fibre mentioned 
 above. The sUls; is transferred from hanks to reels, 
 round which it is wound. It is twisted, and wound, 
 and doubled, and wound again, and transferred from 
 one machine to another, until there is sufficient thick- 
 ness to form a thread for weaving or for sewing, and 
 sufficient twist to give it strength. 
 
 A document of particular interest has been publish- 
 ed, showing the arrivals of raw silk in Great Britain in 
 each of the fifteen years from 1842 to 1856 inclusive. 
 The entire figures are too extended for insertion, but 
 the following abstract embodies the principal points of 
 interest. The most reraarliable feature is that, while 
 China sent to Great Britain only 180,124 lbs. in 1842, 
 the supply furnished by her amounted to 4,576,706 lbs. 
 in 1854, and in 1856 was 3,723,693 lbs., notwithstand- 
 ing the shipment of a large portion of her crop direct to 
 France in consequence of the failure in that country. 
 The next most important imports are those of Egj-pt. 
 Fifteen years back— namely, in 1842— the quantity 
 thence was 1 lb., and in 1866 it was 2,614,356 lbs. The 
 East Indian supply has gradually declined, the crops 
 in Bengal for the past few j'ears having been unsatis- 
 factory'. From France, in 1842, Great Britain obtained 
 1,156,498 lbs., and in 1856 only 157,559 lbs. So far 
 from having any to spare, the French manufacturers 
 were compelled to draw upon the stocks in other coun- 
 tries. The imports from Italy have been similarly af- 
 fected. Those from Turkey have also diminished, but 
 this is to be attributed to the French demand. Among 
 the countries that Great Britain has drawn upon are 
 the United States, but the small quantities obtained 
 must have been of Chinese growth. The supplies 
 from Holland and Belgium, it is also assumed, must 
 have come originally either from the Indian Archi- 
 pelago or France. It appears that the largest im- 
 portation ever known was in 1854, when the total was 
 7,635,407 lbs. Last year, however, it was almost as 
 great, and, as prices have advanced in the two years 
 more than 50 per cent., the money value was propor- 
 tionately beyond all former precedent. 
 
 The following is an official summary of the British 
 importations of raw silks for the years 1852-1856 : 
 
SIL 
 
 1720 
 
 SIL 
 
 Imports of Raw Silks into the Uihted Kingdom foe bach Yeak, 1852, 1853, 1854, 1855, 1856. 
 
 From 
 
 1862. 
 
 1853. 
 
 1864. 
 
 1855. 
 
 1856. 
 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 ' 2^023 
 
 271,089 
 
 7,416 
 
 172,005 
 
 "3,m 
 
 8,530 
 
 26,411 
 
 T73 
 
 69,949 
 
 875 
 
 670,123 
 
 14,464 
 
 911,408 
 
 1,335,486 
 
 2,418,843 
 
 948 
 
 18,859 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 ■ 9,716 
 
 182,297 
 
 12,121 
 
 276,160 
 
 588 
 
 2,2?3 
 
 367 
 
 19,264 
 
 916 
 
 99,242 
 
 6,707 
 
 621,461 
 
 8,660 
 
 1,863,308 
 
 , 683,502 
 
 2,838,047 
 
 2,180 
 
 916 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 ' i;706 
 155,774 
 
 14,049 
 148,195 
 
 ' ' (ilO 
 4,324 
 10,478 
 
 139486 
 
 2]3'766 
 
 13,737 
 
 1,539,746 
 
 696,728 
 
 4,676,706 
 
 17,667 
 
 2,735 
 
 Pounds. 
 12,000 
 
 13,351 
 
 95,972 
 
 10,649 
 
 139,070 
 
 ' ' '734 
 
 10,822 
 
 310 
 
 66,960 
 
 499 
 
 153,892 
 
 4,997 
 
 772,698 
 
 884,004 
 
 4,486,862 
 
 16,652 
 
 500 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 5,383 
 
 1,668 
 
 91,915 
 
 2,644 
 
 157,659 
 
 689 
 
 861 
 
 ' i;650 
 
 1,609 
 
 02,853 
 
 197',662 
 
 5,926 
 
 2.614,356 
 
 '610,42^ 
 
 3,723,693 
 
 4,330 
 
 1,T63 
 
 
 Holland 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 United States 
 
 
 
 5,832,551 
 
 6,480,724 
 
 7,635,407 
 
 6,618,852 
 
 7,388,672 
 
 
 An Account buowino the Quantities and deolaeed Val- 
 ues OF BaiTISU MANUFAOTUEED SiLK GoODS EXPORTED 
 
 FEOM THE United Kingdom in the Ybahb 1850, 1851, and 
 
 1853, RESPECTIVELY, AND SPECIFYING THE COUNTRIES TO 
 WHIOH THE SAME "WERE SENT, AND THE VALUES OF THOSE 
 GENT TO EACH. 
 
 Countries to which exported 
 
 1850. 
 
 1851. 
 
 1852. 
 
 Russia 
 
 £8,579 
 125,639 
 48,543 
 29,837 
 T,007 
 176,450 
 1,163 
 
 9,991 
 
 3,389 
 45,786 
 12,801 
 11,103 
 11,945 
 11,797 
 54,376 
 102,291 
 25,635 
 17,249 
 446,483 
 
 3,923 
 867 
 
 3,498 
 
 14,295 
 2,798 
 11,194 
 38,342 
 19,946 
 15,864 
 
 ±7,422 
 132,739 
 51,445 
 33,013 
 9,689 
 160,011 
 2,545 
 
 9,049 
 
 3,741 
 
 47,030 
 
 7,178 
 
 9,772 
 
 6,198 
 
 10,021 
 
 68,736 
 
 130,161 
 
 29,432 
 
 25,301 
 
 468,268 
 
 9,255 
 
 2,984 
 
 3,670 
 
 23,624 
 2,833 
 4,655 
 29,962 
 24,369 
 18,775 
 
 £6,799 
 179,536 
 114,630 
 
 41,247 
 
 14,055 
 257,556 
 
 11,943 
 
 12,351 
 
 5,502 
 
 49,304 
 
 6,762 
 
 6,466 
 
 13,721 
 
 8,996 
 
 117,113 
 
 82,071 
 
 19,071 
 
 28,545 
 
 464,590 
 
 2,942 
 
 1,693 
 
 4,574 
 
 24,709 
 12,412 
 22,606 
 13,782 
 19,198 
 9,698 
 £1,551,866 
 
 Hanseatic Towns 
 
 Holland 
 
 
 Channel Islands 
 
 Portugal, Azores, and Ma- 
 
 Spain and Canaries 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 Italy 
 
 Turkey 
 
 
 British South Africa 
 
 British East Indies 
 
 British Australia 
 
 British N. Amer. Colonies 
 
 British West Indies 
 
 Foreign West Indies 
 
 
 Central America 
 
 New Granada, Venezuela, 
 
 Brazil ; 
 
 
 
 (jhili 
 
 
 All other countries 
 
 Total 
 
 £1,256,641 
 
 £1,326,778 
 
 The silk exported from Canton consists of two lead- 
 ing varieties, known in commerce by tlia names of 
 Canton and Nankin. Tlie first, which is raised prin- 
 cipally in the province of Canton, is divided into five 
 sorts. The Nankin silk, produced in the province of 
 Kiangnan, is divided into two sorts, known in com- 
 merce by the names of Tsatlee and Taysaam. It is 
 very superior to tlie other, and usually fetches more 
 than double its price. East India native silk comes 
 wholly from Bengal. About the j'ear 1760, the East 
 India Company introduced the Italian mode of reeling 
 silk, which was productive of a verj' great improve- 
 ment in the quality of the article ; but we are not 
 aware that any subsequent improvement has been ef- 
 fected. The silk goods brought from India are not 
 onlj' inferior, in point of quality, to those of Europe, but 
 also to those of China. Turkey silk wholly consisted, 
 some years back, of what is termed long reel and short 
 reel brutia, a rather coarse description, suited to few 
 buyers, and chiefly used in the ribbon trade of Coven- 
 try ; but of late it has been imported of a very far su- 
 perior texture and quality, coming successfully into 
 competition with Italian and China silk. The qualities 
 now known as brutias may be classed as follows ; viz., 
 long reel brutia, short reel brutia, long reel Mestup 
 (being a finer thread than common brutia), short reel 
 
 Hestup, Selfe (a finer sort, generally in loose skeins), 
 Demirdask (a superior kind). At Brussa, the seat of 
 the silk trade in Asia Minor, it is now sold by the oke 
 of 400 drams, and not by the teffee of 610 drams, as 
 formerly : the teifee is, however, still used at Con- 
 stantinople. The plains of Brussa and the adjacent 
 villages produce different qualities, varying'consider- 
 ably in size, color, and qualitj''. The village of Demir- 
 dask produces the finest, owing to the care tal^en by 
 the natives in selecting the best cocoons, and attend- 
 ing carefully to the evenness of the thread throughout 
 the process of reeling ; consequently this description 
 commands a high price, and is approved hy our throw- 
 sters. 
 
 The water of this place is considered favorable to 
 the brightness and glossiness of the silk, b^^ which it 
 may be distinguished from that of Brussa. The silk 
 at Brussa is taken by the country people in small par- 
 cels to the bechestar or customs, where it pays duty. 
 The proprietor, with a broker, then takes it to the silk 
 bazar, where it is handed round to the different stands 
 and sold to the highest bidder, resembling in this re- 
 spect the mode of selling the ores in Cornwall to the 
 different smelters. 
 
 Thus a person buying several okes at a time, assorts 
 as well as he can the different qualities for packing. 
 It is generally bought by speculators for the Constanti- 
 nople market, and is forwarded to Ghemlek on camels 
 for shipment per steamers to Constantinople, where it 
 finds its way to the Mizam, or some broker's rooms, 
 where it is sold to the different merchants. The finest 
 long* are mostly bought for the French and Russian 
 markets, generally the latter. The long reels are go- 
 ing out of use in this country, as the more modem ma- 
 chinery' is not adapted to its use. 
 
 The prices of sillt at Brussa in September, 1842, 
 were: 
 
 193 
 185 
 
 175 
 
 !H6,16T 
 
 lat quality Demirdask . . $285 to $240 per oke of 400 drams. 
 2d " " .. 210 to 215 
 
 IstSeW 190 to 
 
 2d Sel6 180 to 
 
 Long Mestups 165 to 
 
 Long Brussas 150 to 
 
 Short Brussas 170 to 
 
 Costs anp Charges on Silk bougkt at Ertisba and 
 snirPED at Cosstantinoit.b foe London. 
 One case 46 teffees=70 okes 00 drams, at $216 60. 
 
 Packing charges and commission 
 
 Carriage from Brussa to Constantino-" 
 
 pie 
 
 Loss on gold sent to Brussa 
 
 Bill?, lading, and petty expenses .... 
 Inward duty, 70 okes 60 drams, at 
 
 $18, and 7,0/0 thereon 
 
 Export duty, TO okes 60 drams, at $6, 
 
 and 7,0/0 thereon 
 
 Carriage of money, i per cent _ 
 
 Constantinople commission, 3,0/0 .... 
 
 1-T per^ 
 J or c" 
 13^ per c 
 
 oke, or ca. > 
 ct. ) 
 
 2,115 
 
 531 
 
 Ex. lis. £155-46 at 4t, 194 lb8.=16s. 6tf. 
 Discount and charges in London 2s. 3d. 
 
 $18,241 
 
 -18». 9d. 
 
SIL 
 
 1721 
 
 SIL 
 
 By far the greater part of the raw and thrown silk 
 that comes from France is not the growth of that coun- 
 try, but of Italy ; being principally conveyed by the 
 canal of Languedoo and the Garonne to Bordeaux, 
 whence it is shipped for England. So much is this the 
 case, that it appears from the official accounts published 
 by the French government, that while the aggregate 
 quantity of the French and foreign raw and thrown 
 silk exported from France in 1841 amounted to 1 ,074,144 
 kilograms, the portion which was of Frencli origin 
 amounted to only 12,294 kilograms ! — Administration 
 des Douanes, 1841, p. 241. 
 
 "We have before us an interesting report on the pro- 
 duction of silk, submitted to the Academy of Sciences 
 by M. Duma^, to whom was referred a paper on the 
 subject drawn up by M. Andr6 Jean, one of the most 
 experienced silk growers, and for some time engaged 
 with the most commendable perseverance and signal 
 success in the improvement of the different varieties 
 of silk-worms. The observations of the learned author 
 of the report are based mainly upon the important fact 
 that the production of cocoons in France has dimin- 
 ished from 26,000,000 of kilograms (about 58,500,000 
 lbs.) in 1853 to 7,500,000 (about 16,750,000) in 1856. 
 To comprehend in its proper light the full effect of 
 similar diminutions, in view of a continued and con- 
 stantly increasing consumption, we must inquire what 
 are the limits to which the production of silk extends ? 
 The aggregate production of silk in the world may be 
 estimated at a value of at least 1,000,000,000 francs, or 
 nearly $200,000,000. Of this sum a little over one- 
 third is assigned to Europe, and the balance to Asia. 
 
 Aknual Productiom of Silk in tue AVofiLn. 
 
 Franca. 
 
 Franco 108,600,000 
 
 Italian States 281,800,000 
 
 Other countries, chiefly Spain 24,600,000 
 
 Total for Europe 414,600,000 
 
 China 425,000,000 
 
 India 130,000,000 
 
 Japan 80,000,000 
 
 Persia 23,000,000 
 
 Countries of Asia 54,800,000 
 
 Total of Asia 702,800,000 
 
 Africa 1,100,000 
 
 Occanica, 
 America . 
 
 600,000 
 500,000 
 
 Aggregate total, francs 1,119,600,000 
 
 If these figures are accurate, must we not conclude 
 from them that the aggregate quantity of silk avail- 
 able in commercial movements is exceedingly limited 
 and that a general uneasiness in the silk markets must 
 result from any failure in the cocooneries of Italy, 
 where one-fourth of all the silk in the world is pro- 
 duced, or in those even of France, which yield about 
 one-tenth of the whole production ? The falling off in 
 the production of cocoons in France, which we have al 
 ready indicated, would represent a diminution in value 
 of from 100,000,000 of francs to 25,000,000 had the price 
 of cocoons remained the same at both periods — ^namely, 
 1853 and 1856. But the movements of commerce have 
 been so powerless in replachig the deficit of 19,000,000 
 of kilograms (nearly 42,750,000 pounds), that the price 
 has advanced from 4 francs 50 centimes (84 cents) to 
 8 francs ($1 19) per kilogram (2-20 lbs.), so that the 
 loss falls equally upon the producer and the consumer. 
 — For the gxports of silk from China, see articles China, 
 Canton, and Shanghai. 
 
 Silk Mamufacture in the United States, — The intro- 
 duction of silk culture into the North American colo- 
 nies dates back to the first settlement of Virginia. 
 James I., who was anxious to promote this branch of 
 industr)', several times urged the " London Company" 
 to encourage the growth of mulberry-trees, and ad- 
 dressed a letter to them on the subject in 1622, convey- 
 ing strict injunctions that they should use everj' exer- 
 tion for this purpose, and stimulated the colonists to 
 apply themselves diligently and promptly to the breed- 
 
 ing of silk-worms, and the establishment of silk works, 
 bestowing their labors rather in producing this rich 
 commodity than to the growth of tobacco — an article 
 to which his majesty had recorded and published his 
 violent aversion. The company thus incited, showed 
 much zeal in their endeavors to accomplish the king's 
 wishes. A considerable number of mulberry-trees was 
 planted ; but little silk was produced, owing to diffi- 
 culties involved by their dissolution soon after. In 
 about the year 1651 the rearing of silk-worms again be- 
 came a subject of interest in Virginia, and premiums 
 were offered for its encouragement ; but it does not 
 appear that the business was ever prosecuted to any 
 extent. The sillc culture was introduced into Loui- 
 siana in 1718 by the " Company of the West." In the 
 infant settlement of Georgia, in 1732, a piece of ground 
 belonging to government was allotted as a nursery 
 plantation for white mulberry-trees, and the attention 
 of some of the settlers was soon engaged in rearing 
 silk- worms. In 1726 a quantity of raw silk was raised 
 in tliat colony, which was manufactured into a piece 
 of stuff, and presented to the queen. 
 
 In 1749 an act of Parliament was passed for encour- 
 aging the growth of sillc in Georgia and Carolina, ex- 
 empting the producer from the payment of duties on 
 importation into London. A bounty was also offered 
 for the production of silk, and a man named Ortolengi, 
 from Italy, was emploj'cd to instruct the colonists in 
 the Italian mode of management. A few years before 
 the Revolution considerable quantities of raw material 
 began to be raised, which was Said to be equal, in some 
 cases, to the best Piedmont silk, and worlsied with less 
 waste than the Chinese article. 
 
 In Carolina the culture was nndertalun by the small 
 farmers. In 1766 the House of Assembly of this prov- 
 ince voted the sum of jEIOOO toward the establishment 
 of a sillc filature at Charleston, under the direction of 
 Mr. Gilbert. 
 
 In Connecticut, attention was' first directed to the 
 rearing of sillc-worms in 1760. Dr. Aspinwall, of Mans- 
 field, from motives of patriotism, used his best exer- 
 tions to introduce this important branch of rural econ- 
 omy. He succeeded in forming extensive nurseries of 
 the mulberry at Now Haven, Long Island, Pennsyl- 
 vania, and other places. Half an ounce of mulberry 
 seeds was sent to each parish in the colon}', with such 
 directions as his knowledge of the business enabled 
 him to impart. In 1783 the Legislature of Connecti- 
 cut passed an act granting a bounty on mulberrj'-trees 
 and raw silk. It may hero be stated to the honor of 
 Connecticut that she is the only State in the Union 
 which has continued the business without suspension, 
 and probably has produced more silk, from the time of 
 her commencement up to the year 1830, than all the 
 other States. 
 
 In the year 1769, on the recommendation of Dr. 
 Franldin, through the American Philosophical Society, 
 a filature of raw silk was established in Philadelphia, 
 by private subscription, and placed under the direction 
 of an intelligent and skillful Frenchman, who, it is said, 
 produced samples of reeled silk not inferior in quality 
 to the best from France and Italy. In 1771 the man- 
 agers purchased 2300 lbs. of cocoons — all the product 
 of Pennsj'lvania, New Jersey, and Delaware. The 
 enterprise was interrupted by the Revolution. A sim- 
 ilar undertaking was again attempted in Philadelphia 
 in 1830, under the supervision of M. J. D'Homergue, 
 and cocoons were brought in abundance to the estab- 
 lishment from various parts of the country, and so con- 
 tinued for some time afterward ; but for want of capi- 
 tal the enterprise failed. 
 
 In about the year 1831 the project of rearing silk- 
 worms and establishing filatures of silk was renewed 
 in various parts of the Union, and the subject was 
 deemed to be of so much importance, that it not only 
 attracted the attention of Congress, but afterward re- 
 ceived encouragement from the Legislatures of several 
 
SIL 
 
 1722 
 
 SIL 
 
 States, by bounties offered for all the raw sUk produced 
 within their limits for certain periods of time. The 
 business soon began to be prosecuted with extreme ar- 
 dor, and continued for several years, resulting in the 
 establishment of several nurseries of mulberry-trees, 
 and ending in the downfall or the famous "Morus 
 Multicaulis speculation," in 1845. 
 
 The amount of raw silk exported from Georgia in 
 1760 was 118 lbs. ; in 1765, 138 lbs. ; in 1760, 558 lbs. ; 
 in 1766, more than 20,000 lbs ; in 1770, 290 lbs. From 
 South Carolina, in 1772, 455 lbs. In the year 1765, 
 there were raised on Silk Hope Plantation, in South 
 Carolina, 630 lbs. of cocoons ; in Mansfield, Connecti- 
 cut, in 1793, 265 lbs. of raw silk ; in 1827, 2430 lbs. ; 
 in 1831, 10,000 lbs. ; in Connecticut, in 1844, 176,210 
 lbs. ; in the United States, the same year, 396,790 lbs. 
 
 A remarkable circumstance is said to have occurred 
 in the silk factory of M. Garibaldi, at Cremona. It is 
 stated that in this factory a quantity of silk-worms, 
 instead of forming the cocoon as usual, actually wove 
 a kind of silk ribbon, of the breadth of an inch and the 
 length of twelve feet. — Year-Booh of Facts, 1857. 
 
 According to the census returns of 1840, the amount 
 of silk cocoons raised in the United States was 61,562 
 lbs. ; of 1850, 10,843 lbs. From the above it is obvious 
 that the production of cocoons has decreased, since 
 1840, 46,789 lbs. ; and since 1844, 382,027 lbs. 
 
 Feodttotion op Eaw Silk in the United States. 
 
 silk CocoonB, Lbs. 
 
 States and Temtoriea. 1S40. 
 
 Alabama 1,592 
 
 Arkanaaa 95 
 
 Columbia, District of 651 
 
 Connecticut 17,538 
 
 Delaware 1,458 
 
 Florida 124 
 
 Georgia 2,992 
 
 IllinoiB 1,150 
 
 Indiana 379 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Kentucky 737 
 
 Louisiana 317 
 
 Maine 211 
 
 Maryland 2,290 
 
 Massachusetts 1,741 
 
 Michigan 266 
 
 Mississippi 91 
 
 Missouri 70 
 
 Kew Hampshire 419 
 
 Kew Jersey 1,966 
 
 New York 1,735 
 
 North Carolina 3,014 
 
 Ohio 4,317 
 
 Pennsylvania 7,262 
 
 Rhode Island 458 
 
 South Carolina 2,080 
 
 Tennessee 1,217 
 
 Texas 
 
 Vermont 4,238 
 
 Virginia 3,191 
 
 Total Iba 62,647 
 
 185(1. 
 
 167 
 
 38 
 
 6 
 
 813 
 
 47 
 
 387 
 
 246 
 
 1,281 
 
 29 
 
 252 
 
 39 
 
 7 
 
 108 
 
 2 
 
 136 
 
 191 
 
 23. 
 
 1,774 
 
 22D 
 
 1,552 
 
 285 
 
 123 
 
 1,923 
 
 22 
 
 268 
 
 517 
 
 10,843 
 
 Importations, Expoetationb, and nOiME Consumption op foheign Silk ; foeeign Impoetations, Expoetationb, and 
 
 IIO.ME CONBU.MFTION OP MANUPAOTUIIES OF SiLK, AND TOTAL HOME CONSUMPTION OF ImPOETATIONS OF SiLK AND MaN- 
 
 UFACTUKES OP Silk in the United States foe tub last seventeen Years, with the yearly Average thekeof. 
 
 Yoara. 
 
 Unmanufacturad Silt. 
 
 Manufactures of Silk. 
 
 Total home Consumption of 
 
 Importations of Silk and the 
 
 Manufactures of Silk in the 
 
 United States. 
 
 Foreign 
 Importations 
 
 Foreign 
 Bxportations. 
 
 Home 
 Consumption. 
 
 Foreign 
 Importations. 
 
 Foreign 
 Exportations. 
 
 Home 
 Consumption. 
 
 1840 
 
 $234,235 
 264,1112 
 33,002 
 63,350 
 172,953 
 208,464 
 216,647 
 250,086 
 354,973 
 384,535 
 401,385 
 456,499 
 878,747 
 722,931 
 1,099,389 
 751,617 
 991,234 
 
 .^.200,239 
 
 227,113 
 
 420 
 
 3,353 
 
 T,102 
 
 4.362 
 
 23;999 
 
 8,385 
 
 19,868 
 
 55,515 
 
 7,408 
 
 43,856 
 
 7,143 
 
 282 
 
 7,966 
 
 71,122 
 
 4,255 
 
 $33,996 
 
 26,989 
 
 32,532 
 
 49,997 
 
 165,851 
 
 204,092 
 
 192,648 
 
 241,701 
 
 335,116 
 
 329,020 
 
 393,977 
 
 412,643 
 
 371,604 
 
 722,649 
 
 1,091,423 
 
 630,496 
 
 986,979 
 
 $9,601,622 
 16,800,795 
 9,444,341 
 2,662,087 
 8,310,711 
 9,731,796 
 10,667,649 
 11,733,371 
 14.543,633 
 13,791,232 
 17,639,62-i 
 25,777,246 
 21,661,752 
 30,434,886 
 34,606,331 
 24,366,556 
 30,226,532 
 
 $1,015,532 
 356,204 
 265,159 
 206,777 
 230,838 
 246,272 
 195,753 
 334,173 
 340,353 
 388,572 
 352,637 
 500,168 
 604,365 
 607,294 
 843,154 
 902,135 
 676.613 
 
 $3,585,990 
 14,944,531 
 9,179,182 
 2,455,310 
 8,079,873 
 9,436,524 
 10,471,396 
 11,399,198 
 14,202,780 
 13,402,660 
 17,286,987 
 26,277,077 
 21,046,897 
 29,827,692 
 33,353,077 
 23,464,421 
 29,660,019 
 
 $8,619,986 
 
 14,971,620 
 
 9,211,704 
 
 2,605,307 
 
 8,246,724 
 
 9,689,616 
 
 10,664,544 
 
 11,640,899 
 
 . 14,587,896 
 
 13,731,680 
 
 17,680,964 
 
 25,630,720 
 
 21,418,501 
 
 30,550,241 
 
 34,945,100 
 
 24,144,916 
 
 30,636,998 
 
 1841 
 
 1842 
 
 1S43 
 
 1844 
 
 1845 
 
 1840 
 
 1847 
 
 1843 
 
 1849 
 
 1850 
 
 1351 
 
 1852 
 
 1863 
 
 1S54 
 
 1855 
 
 1356 
 
 Yearly average 
 
 $409,655 
 
 $40,728 
 
 $368,927 
 
 $17,092,974 
 
 $468,044 
 
 $16,624,330 
 
 $16,993,257 
 
 The following is the comparative total receipts of 
 foreign silk goods at all the ports of the United States 
 during the years 1854, 1865, 1856 : 
 
 
 1854. 
 
 1855. 
 
 1856. 
 
 
 $1,085,261 
 25,296,519 
 
 1,001.299 
 
 332,801 
 
 1,188,299 
 
 106,139 
 
 14,078 
 
 43,868 
 
 1,694,088, 
 
 0,728,406 
 
 $742,251 
 20,060,957 
 
 453,003 
 189,220 
 800,000 
 
 110,686 
 
 9,866 
 
 66,984 
 
 1,188,839 
 
 8,480,716 
 
 $991,234 
 26,200,651 
 
 611,298 
 
 250,138 
 
 1,500,000 
 
 102,827 
 
 16,493 
 
 70,140 
 
 1,335,247 
 
 3,974,974 
 
 Silk piece goods 
 
 Hosiery and articles 
 made on frames 
 
 Silks, tamboured or em- 
 
 Silk hata and bonnets. . 
 
 
 Silk and worsted goods 
 
 Silks unspecified 
 
 Total imp. silks.. . 
 
 $37,400,205 
 
 $27,052,012 
 
 $34,053,013 
 
 riff, knubs or husks of silk and 
 
 waste silk, raw and thrown silk, dyed, single or tram 
 silk, dyed organzine or crape silk, may be imported 
 duty free ; manufactures of silk generally 15 per cent. 
 ad valorem. 
 
 The following table exhibits the population, con- 
 sumption of imported silk, and the allotment per capita 
 thereof; consumption of imported manufactures of 
 silk, and the per capita thereof, and the total home con- 
 sumption of importations of silk and manufactures of 
 silk in the United States, with the allotment per capita 
 thereof for the years 1840, 1850, and 1855 ; also, the 
 production of silk in the United States, and the allot- 
 ment per capita thereof, and the total consumption of 
 foreign and domestic silk and foreign manufactures of 
 silk in the United States, and the allotment per capita 
 thereof, for the years 1840 and 1850 : 
 
 1840. 
 
 1850. 
 
 Population ■_ 
 
 Consumption of imported raw silk . . . ■ 
 
 Allotment per capita thereof _. 
 
 Consumption of imported manufactures of silk 
 
 Allotment per capita thereof ._■ ■ • 
 
 Home consumption of imported raw and manufactured silk. 
 
 Allotment per capita thereof 
 
 Production of silk in the United States 
 
 Allotment per capita thereof 
 
 Total consumption of silk 
 
 Allotment per capita thereof 
 
 17,069,463 
 
 $88,996 00 
 
 20 
 
 8,635,990 00 
 
 50 30 
 
 8,619,986 00 
 
 60 60 
 
 61,653 00 
 
 36 
 
 8,631,639 00 
 
 50 86 
 
 23,101,876 
 
 $893,977 00 
 
 1 69 
 
 17,280,987 00 
 
 74 46 
 
 17,680,964 00 
 
 76 16 
 
 10,843 00 
 
 05 
 
 17,691,807 00 
 
 76 20 
 
 27,186,617 
 
 $630,495 00 
 
 ,2 50 
 
 23,404,421 00 
 
 86 31 
 
 24,144,916 00 
 
 88 81 
 
 C) 
 
 The census of 1850 does not fnrnish the manufactures of silk in the United States. 
 
SIL 
 
 1723 
 
 SIL 
 
 Imposts of 
 
 Silk into the Uhited States fob 
 
 THE Yeas 
 
 KKDIMO JnMH 30, 185T. 
 
 
 Whence imported. 
 
 Piece Goods. 
 
 Hosiery and 
 articles made 
 on Fiamea. 
 
 Sewing SUl£. 
 
 Hals and 
 Bonnets. 
 
 Manufactures 
 notBpecl6ed. 
 
 Floss. 
 
 Eaw. 
 
 Boltinc' 
 Clotts. 
 
 Danish West Indies 
 
 $20 
 
 108,836 
 
 1,132,226 
 
 97 
 
 166,170 
 
 7,895,439 
 
 10,641 
 
 72S 
 
 6,788 
 
 12,092,309 
 
 4 
 
 1,734 
 
 1,164 
 
 40 
 
 1,478 
 
 891 
 
 166 
 
 114,713 
 18 
 
 534,407 
 
 $231624 
 64,836 
 
 3,'979 
 
 503,130 
 
 8,540 
 
 "24 
 
 234,"6i9 
 
 1,097 
 
 $105 
 
 8,463 
 
 10 
 
 166!620 
 194 
 
 8 
 
 Biieoi 
 "74 
 
 "569 
 
 "ii 
 
 135 
 
 "492 
 
 8,'441 
 
 $643 
 
 "■52 
 
 19,594 
 
 319 
 
 12 
 
 127;B36 
 1,259 
 
 1,777 
 
 $54',i74 
 
 374,861 
 
 72 
 
 37,414 
 
 2,477,070 
 
 21,837 
 
 1,015 
 
 5,600 
 
 1,434,167 
 
 69 
 
 "124 
 340 
 
 "6S4 
 
 "is 
 
 154 
 6 
 
 31,943 
 
 ""1 
 3,076 
 
 $762 
 846 
 
 26,954 
 
 1,769 
 
 "'73 
 "208 
 
 ■$io5 
 
 2,052 
 1,213 
 
 ^5^927 
 
 $3;933 
 16',7i0 
 
 36',C53 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 British West Indies 
 
 Britisli East Indies 
 
 France on the Atlantic 
 
 France on tlie Mediterranean 
 
 Spain on the Atlantic 
 
 Spain on the Mediterranean. 
 Philippine Islands 
 
 
 
 
 Two Sicilies; 
 
 
 
 
 
 Brazil 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 $22,067,369 
 
 $839,299 
 
 $211,723 
 
 $151,162 
 
 .$4,442,622 
 
 $30,612 
 
 $963,734 
 
 $57,602 
 
 
 FosEiGN Extorts of Silk fsom the United States pok the 
 
 Yeae ending June 30, 1857. 
 
 
 Wliither exported. 
 
 Piece Gooda. 
 
 Hosiery and 
 articles made 
 on Frames. 
 
 Sewing Silk. 
 
 Hats and 
 Bonnets. 
 
 Manufactures 
 not specified. 
 
 Floss. 
 
 Raw. 
 
 Silk and 
 
 Worsted 
 
 Piece Goods. 
 
 Danish West Indies 
 
 $685 
 1,525 
 
 I'.iis 
 
 226 
 210 
 3,136 
 2,129 
 1,000 
 1,815 
 605 
 
 "344 
 
 100 
 
 650 
 
 2,260 
 
 27,173 
 
 2,136 
 
 13,381 
 
 204 
 
 28i475 
 
 3,65T 
 433 
 
 $444 
 
 1307 
 
 $15 
 
 6061 
 "59 
 
 .... 
 
 ■$67 
 
 665 
 
 $3'486 
 36,914 
 2,757 
 
 ■338 
 
 .... 
 
 6,524 
 .... 
 
 '983 
 
 1,400 
 
 125 
 
 2,422 
 
 2,255 
 
 $205 
 
 $1666 
 
 3i63 
 
 $ii69 
 
 
 
 
 
 British N. Amer. Possessions 
 
 France on the Atlantic 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Porto Rico 
 
 Cape de Verd Islands 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Uruguay, or Gisplatine Kep. 
 
 Peru '. 
 
 
 China 
 
 Total 
 
 $91,153 
 
 $1751 
 
 $6135 
 
 $732 
 
 $57,204 
 
 $205 
 
 $4163 
 
 $1169 1 
 
 —See NoHh Amer. Rev., xxvii. 438 (Wallenstein) ; 
 Amer. Quart., x. 385 ; Westm.. Rev., xvi. 425, xvii. 241, 
 xviii. 1, 228 ; De Bow's Rev., v. 324, 411 ; Edinh. Rev., 
 xliii. 76 ; Blackwood's Mag., xviii. 736, xxv. 685. 
 
 Silk-cotton. A beautiful silky kind of cotton is 
 obtaineii from the Bombax and other trees ; it is short 
 and remarkably elastic, and would be very largely used 
 ■were it not fragile and tender. The Hindoos spin it 
 into a loose, coarse, warm kind of cloth. In Europe 
 it has not yet been much employed ; but in America a 
 method lias been discovered of applying it as a cover- 
 ing for so-called silk hats, for which it is said to be ad- 
 mirably adapted. As there is an almost boundless 
 supply of the trees yielding these delicate fibres, there 
 may here be a great manufacture in the future. 
 
 Silver (Ger. jSt76er; Bvl. Zilver ; Da. Solv , Swed. 
 Silfver; Fr. Argent; It. Argento; Sp. Plata; Port. 
 Praia ; Kuss. Serebro ; Pol. Srehro; Lat. Argentwm; Gr. 
 apyvpo; ; Arab. FazzeK), a metal of a fine white color, 
 without either taste or smeU ; being in point of brill- 
 iancy inferior to none of the metallic bodies, if we ex- 
 cept polished steel. It is softer than copper, but harder 
 than gold. When melted its specific gravity is 10-474 ; 
 when hammered, 10-51. In malleability it is inferior 
 to none of the metals, if we except gold. It may be 
 beaten out into leaves only ^d^ti^ "^ ^° ^"^ thick. 
 Its ductility is equally remarkable : it may be drawn 
 
 out into wire much finer than a human hair ; so fine, 
 indeed, that a single grain of silver may be extended 
 about 400 feet in length. Its tenacity is such, that a 
 wire of silver 0'078 inch in diameter is capable of sup- 
 porting a weight of 187-13 lbs. avoirdupois without 
 breaking. Silver is easily alloyed with copper by fu- 
 sion . The compound is harder and more sonorous than 
 silver, and retains its white color even when the pro- 
 portion of copper exceeds one half. The hardness is 
 at a maximum when the copper amounts to one-ffth of 
 the silver. The standard or sterling silver of Britain, 
 of which coin is made, is a compound of 12^ parts sil- 
 ver and 1 copper. Its specific gravity is 10'2. The 
 specific gravity of Paris standard silver, composed of 
 137 parts silver and 7 copper, is 10-175. The French 
 silver coin during the old government was not nearly 
 so fine, being composed of 261 parts silver and 27 cop- 
 per, or 9|- parts silver to 1 part copper. The Austrian 
 silver coin contains -^^ of copper. The silver coin of 
 the ancients was nearly pure, and appears not to have 
 been mixed with alloy. — Thomson's Chemistry. 
 
 The most productive silver mines are in America, 
 particularly in Mexico and Peru. There are also sil- 
 ver mines in Hungary, Saxony, Spain, and other parts 
 of Europe, and in Asiatic Russia. — See Precious 
 Metals. 
 
 Besides being used as a coin, or money, silver is ex- 
 
SIL 
 
 1724 
 
 SIL 
 
 tensively employed in the arts. The value of the sil- 
 ver plate annually manufactured is very considerable. 
 Large quantities are also used in plating. Silver ex- 
 ists in most parts of the world, and is found mixed with 
 other ores in various mines in Great Britain. The sil- 
 ver mines of South America are far the richest. A 
 mine was discovered in the district of La Paz in 1660, 
 which was so rich that the silver of it was often cut 
 with a chisel. In 1749 one mass of silver, weighing 
 370 lbs., was sent to Spain. From a mine in Norway 
 a piece of silver was dug, and sent to the Koj'al Mu- 
 seum at Copenhagen, weighing 560 lbs., and worth 
 £1680. In England silver plate and vessels were first 
 used by Wilfrid, a Northumberland bishop, a lofty and 
 ambitious man, a.d. 709. — Tykell's Hist, of England. 
 Silver linives, spoons, and cups were great luxuries in 
 1300. 
 
 Silver Coin. Silver was first coined by the Lyd- 
 ians, some say ; others, by Phidon of Argos, 869 B.C. 
 At Rome it was first coined by Fabius Pictor, 269 B.C. 
 Used in Britain 26 B.C. The Saxons coined silver 
 pennies, which were 22| grains weight. In 1302 the 
 penny was yet the largest silver coin in England. — See 
 Shillings, etc., and Coin. 
 
 The scarcity of silver in Western Europe, including 
 Great Britain, and in this country, has given rise to 
 the question, " Where does the silver go i"' In connec- 
 tion with this question, we make the following extract 
 from a paper read by I?rof. E. H. Walsh, of the Dub- 
 lin University: 
 
 At the time when Pliny termed it the sink of the 
 precious metals, silver was a favorite article of export 
 to the East. It has continued so since, but the trade 
 of late has assumed an extraordinary magnitude. In 
 the five years prior to 1856 over $110,000,000 worth of 
 silver have been exported to the East through En- 
 gland alone, and from other countries a similar move- 
 ment has been in operation. The export in 1825 was 
 $32,000,000, and this year (1856) it is proceeding at 
 the rate of over $45,000,000 per annum, judging from 
 the returns that have been published for the first four 
 months. Unlike the old movement, the present can 
 not be permanent. The former was seldom more than 
 might be accounted for as the distribution of silver to 
 some of its chief consumers — ^the nations of the East — 
 according as new supplies were raised elsewhere. It 
 was, in fact, the ordinarj' movement from the producer 
 to the consumer. Humboldt estimated the annual pro- 
 duction of silver in Mexico at 1,184,000 lbs., or about 
 $25,000,000. 
 
 But now silver goes faster to the East than it is pro- 
 duced throughout the world. Hence the process can 
 not be peiTuanent, but must come to an end as soon as 
 the redistribution of the old stock has been effected ; for 
 the annual production of silver is only about $40,000, 000 ; 
 and since the export to the East through England alone 
 is at the rate of over $45,000,000, it follows that it can 
 not be the new supplies of silver which meet that de- 
 mand and all others for the same metal, hut that there 
 must be some auxiliarj' fund to be drawn upon. Such 
 a fund is furnished by a cessation in the demand for 
 silver in several countries which before employed it 
 most largely, but now use gold instead. Silver, which 
 used to be coined in France and the United States at 
 an average rate of $20,000,000 per annum, is now little 
 employed, while much of the old coin of that metal is 
 melted down and exported. In France, it is said that 
 in one year (1853) so much as $60,000,000 were dis- 
 posed of in this manner, and that the operation has 
 been since proceeding at a still greater rate. In Mex- 
 ico there are eight or nine mints, one of which is na^ 
 tional, having one general law of coinage, but inde- 
 pendent of each other, and subject to no general con- 
 trol. There are some characteristic dilFerences in re- 
 spect to grades of fineness and accuracy, but they seem 
 not sufficient to call for a distinction, as the only ex- 
 ternal means of identifying is in the mint mark. 
 
 Silver op domestic Production, incluiuno Silver parted 
 
 FROM (JaLIPORNIA GolD, DEPOSITED AT THE MiNT OF TUB 
 
 Umitbd States, its Branches, and the Assay Office, 
 New York, from January, 1841, to June SO, 1857 (that 
 
 FOR 1857 BEING SIX MONTIiS ONLY, TO JUNE 30). 
 
 Years, Value. 
 
 1841 $4,300 
 
 1842 6,463 
 
 1843 8,640 
 
 1844 30,847 
 
 1845 4,769 
 
 1846 3,006 
 
 1847.. 6,407 
 
 184S 6,191 
 
 1849 39,112 
 
 Yenra. Velue. 
 
 1850 $269,253 
 
 1851 389,471 
 
 1862 404,494 
 
 1868 417,279 
 
 1864 328,199 
 
 1S65 333,053 
 
 1856 321,938 
 
 1857 127,256 
 
 Total $2,700,728 
 
 Statement op Amount of Silver coined at the Mint of 
 THE United States, and tue Branou Mints at 8an 
 
 I'RANCISGO AND NeW OrLEANS, UNDER THE ACT OF FEB- 
 RUARY 21, 1853 (SIX Months only, 1867). 
 
 Yeaia. 
 
 Minloflhs 
 United StafOB, 
 Philadelphia. 
 
 Branch Iffint, 
 i San Fran- 
 
 Branch Mint, 
 New Orleans. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1853... 
 1864. . . 
 1865... 
 1856. . . 
 1857... 
 Total. 
 
 $7,617,161 
 ■6,373,270 
 1,419,170 
 3,214,240 
 1,427,000 
 
 $164,075 
 
 i7*;ooo 
 
 50,000 
 
 $1,137,000 
 3,246,000 
 1,918,000 
 1,744,000 
 
 $8,654,161 
 8,619,270 
 3,501,246 
 5,186,240 
 1,477,000 
 
 $18,960,841 
 
 $391,076 
 
 $8,046,000 
 
 $27,386,916 
 
 Silver Mines of Mexico. — It is not generally known 
 in tills countrj' that the silver mines of Mexico, which 
 yielded to the Spaniards, between the conquest by 
 Cortez and their expulsion by the Mexicans in 1827, 
 $2,028,000,000, as shown by the records of the Mints, 
 have since that period steadily and rapidly increased 
 their product, until from an annual yield of about 
 $20,000,000 it has risen, according to some authorities, 
 to upward of $40,000,000 in 1856. We have no official 
 data upon which to affirm or denj' this. This vast 
 product is from the working of a very small number 
 of mines, while that portion of Mexico north of lati- 
 tude 24°, and on our own frontier, which, according to 
 Baron Humboldt and others, contains the richest veins 
 . — often beginning near the surface, and above water- 
 level, and sometimes yielding vast quantities of pure 
 native silver, — have lain for many years entirely un- 
 worked and neglected. This has been in consequence 
 of the inability of the few Mexicans scattered over those 
 regions to cope with the wild Apache and Camanche 
 Indians, who have held free scope there until within a 
 few years past. They are now kept out from the states 
 near the lower part of the Eio Grande by the filling up 
 of the country, and by the vicinity of our newly-estab- 
 lished military posts. Up to this time the only foreign- 
 ers who have availed themselves of the opportunities 
 of amassing fortunes from these mines are the English, 
 and a few Germans ; and they have confined themselves 
 principally to the poorer veins of the thickly-settled 
 Central and Southern parts of Mexico. But they are 
 now meeting with the rewards of their enterprise. 
 
 Eecently, several companies have been formed in 
 the United States for working mines in Northern Mex- 
 ico and Arizona. One of these is composed, in part, 
 of ofiicers of our army, who have seen and examined 
 the localities, and some of whom have resigned their 
 commissions for the purpose of devoting their time to 
 the opening of these mines. Those in Arizona are so 
 far distant, and in a countrj' so uncultivated and so 
 beset by Indians, that it may be the work of time and 
 of much expense to overcome these obstacles. But 
 that American enterprise will finally overcome them 
 none can doubt. On the Lower Eio Grande, however, 
 in the state of Nuevo Leon, within forty-five miles of 
 steamboat na'vigation, and but forty-five miles from the 
 Texas line, and but four days' sail from New Orleans, 
 are some of the richest mines in the Eepublic of Mex- 
 ico. One of these is being reopened by a very strong 
 New York company, called the Vallicillio, and with 
 good prospects of large returns. — Letter from New 
 Mexico. See articles Mexico, Pkeciocs Metals, 
 and Coins for more extended information in regard to 
 the production of silver. 
 
sm 
 
 1725 
 
 SIN 
 
 The product of silver at different periods of tlie pres- 
 ent century is estimated as follows : 
 
 1800. 1860. 1868. 
 
 America. $32,891,000 $29,120,000 $30,500,000 
 
 Europe , 4,000,000 7,280,000 8,000,000 
 
 Asia 4,100,000 5,000,000 
 
 Africa 400,000 
 
 Total $3T,2al,000 $40,600,000 $43,600,000 
 
 In regard to the production of silver in Mexico, it 
 appears that the amount of coinage in that country in 
 1851 was $23,166,000, of which $2,004,000 was in sil- 
 ver. From the year 1690 to 1800 the production of 
 the gold and silver mines of Mexico is estimated at 
 $1,354,000,000, and from 1800 to 1866 at $160,000,000, 
 as the production of the silver mines alone. 
 
 Singapore, an island and British settlement at 
 the eastern extremity of the Straits of Malacca, the 
 town being in \a.% 1° 17',22" N., long. 103° 51' 45" 
 E. The island is of an elliptical form, about 27 miles 
 in its greatest lengtfy, and 11 iu breadth, containing an 
 estimated area of 275 square miles. But tho whole 
 British settlement embraces a circumference of above 
 120 miles ; in which are included about 50 desert islets, 
 and the seas and straits within 10 miles of the coast of 
 the principal island. The latter is separated from the 
 main land by a strait of the same name, of, small 
 breadth throughout, and scarcely, indee^, a quarter of 
 a mile wide in its narrowest part, which, in the early 
 period of European navigation, was the thoroughfare 
 between India and China, But the grand commercial 
 highway Ijetween the eastern and western portions of 
 maritime Asia now passes along the south side of the 
 islaiid, on which the town is built, between it and a 
 chain of desert islands about 9 miles distant ; the safest 
 and most convenient cl^armel being so near to the isl- 
 and that ships in pfissing and repassing come close. to 
 the roads. The town is wholly indebted, for its rapid 
 rise and growing importance to its position on tliis 
 strait. This has rendered it not merely a convenient 
 entrepot for the trade iDetween the Western World and 
 India on the one hand, and China on the other, but 
 also for that between the former and tlie Eastern 
 Archipelago, the; Philippines, etc. It is situated on a 
 river, or rather salt creek, navigable by lighters, about 
 three quarters of a mile from the sea. Ships lie in the 
 roads, or open harbor, ^t the distance of from 1 to 2 
 mfles from town, according, to their draught of water. 
 The assistance of a number of convenient lighters, 
 which are always in readiness, enables them to load or 
 unload, with scarcely any interruption, throughout the 
 year. The cr^eeli; is ,ftccepsij)le to the lighters, and the 
 goods are tal^en in and discharged at convenient quays, 
 at the doors of the principal warehouses. 
 
 The climate of Singapore, though hot, is healthy. 
 Fahrenheit's thermometer ranges from 71° to 89°. 
 Being only about 80 miles from the equator, there is, 
 of course, very little variety in the seasons. Tbere is 
 neither summer nor winter ; and even the periodical 
 rains are short, and not verj' well marked — moderate 
 sljbwers of rain falling for about 150 days each year. 
 The settlement of Singapore was formed in February, 
 1819, and its sovereignty and property, in their pres- 
 ent extent, confirmed to th& British government in 
 1825, by a convention with the King of the Nether- 
 lands, and a treaty with the Malay princes to whom it 
 belonged. Previously to its being taken possession of 
 by the English, it had been inhabited for about eight 
 years by a colony of Malays, half fishermen and half 
 pirates. When the first census was taken in January, 
 1824, the population was found to amount to 10,683. 
 In 1828 it had increased to 15,834, in both cases exclu- 
 sive of troops, camp followers, Indian convicts, and a 
 floating population of about 3000. In 1837 it amounted 
 to 29,984, of whom 13,749 were Chmese settlers, and 
 9132 Malays, the Europeans being but few in num- 
 ber; and at present (1853) the population exceeds 
 50,000, of whom about half are Chinese. 
 
 The principal merchants and agents are English- 
 men, of whom also there are a few shop-keepers, auc- 
 tioneers, etc. There are also some respectable Chinese 
 merchants ; and the bulk of the shop-keepers, with the 
 most valuable part of the laboring population, consist 
 of Chinese. About 6000 adult males arrive annually 
 from China by the junks, about 1000 of whom remain 
 at Singapore, the rest dispersing themselves among 
 the neighboring Dutch, English, and Malay settle- 
 ments. The boatmen are chiefly natives of the Coro- 
 mandel coast ; and the Malays employ themselves as 
 fishermen; in cutting timber, and in supplying the set- 
 tlement with the rude produce of the neighborhood. 
 There are good daily markets, open at all hours, and 
 well supplied with vegetables, fruits, grain, fish, pork, 
 and green turtle — ^the latter the cheapest animal food 
 that can be procured. There are no export or import 
 duties, nor anchorage, harbor, light-house dues, or any 
 fees ; but a register is kept of all exports and imports. 
 Beports must be made to the master attendant by the 
 masters of vessels, and invoices delivered to the super- 
 intendent of imports and exports. Though there are 
 neither duties on imports or exports, nor on the ships 
 frequenting the port, the revenue of Singapore amount- 
 ed in 1842-43 to 509,000 rupees, while its .expenditure, 
 civil and military, amounted to only 494,029 rupees. 
 
 United States Cimsular Returns from Singapore^ Jan, 
 1, 1855. — The commercial intercburse of the United 
 States with this consular district is governed partly by 
 general acts of the Parliament of Great Britain, and 
 partly by special legislation of the East India Com- 
 pany, through the governor and council at Calcutta. 
 The present port regulations are supposed to be fixed, 
 being for an indefinite period. Singapore is a free 
 port, and the privileges permitted to commerce, as well 
 as the restrictions imposed on it, are applicable, with- 
 out distinction of flag, to all nations alike. There are 
 no other port charges than the Pedra Branca or Straits 
 light dues, which are three cents per registered ton on 
 merchant vessels. 'National vessels' of all countries 
 are exempt from this tax. The transhipment of goods 
 to any other port in the East India Company's pos- 
 session, or to any foreign' port, is freely permitted to 
 vessels of the United States, but without any special 
 privileges or restrictions. The moneys, weights, and 
 measures known and in common use at Singapore, are 
 neither those of the mother country nor those made 
 use of in the continental possessions of the East India 
 Company. Merchants keep their accounts in Spanish 
 dollars, divided into one hundred parts, called cents, 
 precisely as in our federal currency. Fractional parts 
 of this cent are also coined, and are much in use ; these 
 are the half cent and the quarter cent, the latter being 
 called ajne, oi pice. The post-office, however, and all 
 other offices of the British East Indian government, 
 keep accounts only in rupees, annas, Sndpice. 
 ■ Moneys. — 4 pice make 1 cent ; 2-J cents make 1 anna ; 
 16 annas make 1 company's rupee (marked M) ; 100,000 
 rupees make 1 lac ; 100 lacs make 1 crore. The com- 
 pany's rupee, which is here meant, is valued at 46 cents 
 at Calcutta, while here it is now current at only 42 
 cents. Besides this coin, there is the old Sicca rupee 
 (now nearly obsolete), worth here 45 cents, and the Java 
 rupee, which is just now fluctuating at 35 to 36 cents. 
 Weights. — Measures of capacity are rarely used, and 
 then only with certain articles, such as tobacco ; even 
 oils and other fluids being sold by weight. The de- 
 nominations of the weights used in Singapore are taken 
 both from the Malays and the Chinese. In naming 
 and reducing them to the United standard value, I 
 omit all those which are not employed commercially 
 with and by foreign residents : 
 
 16 taela make 1 catty. (The catty is 1 lb. 5 oz. Si grs. 
 avoirdupois, or 1^ lb.) 
 100 cattiea make 1 Chinese picul marked (Pi. or Plfl.)=133i- 
 lbs. avoirdupois. 
 2 " Malay piculs make 1 char. 
 40 Chinese picula make 1 koyan (or coyau). 
 
SIN 
 
 1726 
 
 SLA 
 
 The Malay catty weighs $24 Spanish, and the Chi- 
 nese catty weighs $22| Spanish; hence 15 catties Ma- 
 lay=16 catties Chinese. By the Malay, or greater 
 picul, merchants purchase pepper, tin, etc., from the 
 native vessels, but sell by the Chinese or Bazar picul 
 of 133^ lbs. avoirdupois. Rice is sold by the Icoyan of 
 40 pis. ; salt by the same measure, but weighs about 
 52 piculs ; gold and silver thread bj- a particular catty 
 of $36 weight ; gold dust by the bunkal, which weighs 
 $2=:832 grs. Troy ; Java tobacco is sold by the corge 
 of 40 baskets ; India piece goods b}' the corge of 20 
 pieces ; wheat and grain bj' the bag, containing 2 Ben- 
 gal maunds (the maund is 61^ catties). 
 
 Freir/ht. — The rates at which ships are freighted or 
 chartered depend on the demand for tonnage and the 
 supply ; on the kind of cargo to be transported, and on 
 the sailing qualities of the vessels. These vary so 
 greatly that it is impossible to give them even approx- 
 imately. At the present time, for miscellaneous Straits' 
 produce, shippers are paying $18 @ $20 per ton of 50 
 feet to New York or Boston. " 
 
 Commissions. — While the trading ships of all other 
 nations pay the uniform commissions of 10 per cent, 
 (as established by the Singapore Chamber of Com- 
 merce), which include expenses of every sort for pur- 
 chasing or selling, a special exception is made for what 
 is called the " American trade," meaning that of the 
 United States. The established charges on this are : 
 Commissions on sales of goods or purchase of produce, 
 free of risk, either in sales or on advances on produce, 
 2J per cent. (Both of these are guaranteed for an extra 
 2^ per cent. , or 6 per cent, in all.) On negotiating bills 
 of exchange, 1 per cent. Other business on the usual 
 terms. Interest on all moneys advanced is at the rate 
 of 12 per cent, per annum, but on disbursements on 
 account of ships while in port, 5 per cent. Added to 
 these expenses are boat and cooly hire and warehous- 
 ing, the charges for which differ widely, being govern- 
 ed by circumstances. 
 
 The imports from the United States, in comparison 
 with the exports thither, are of trifling amount. I 
 therefore state the modes and terms of purchase, as well 
 as those of sale. Sales of imports are effected in the 
 usual manner by private arrangement with the buyer, 
 and sometimes also by public auction. The terms are, 
 cash down. 
 
 Purchase of Cargo. — This is done by private contract 
 (never at public sales) by the house to which the mas- 
 ter of the vessel is consigned ; the said house buying 
 the goods from either the native or from the Chinese 
 dealers, who are what is commercially styled the " first 
 hands." 
 
 Sinhara. The sinhara, or water-nut (Trapa ?), is 
 a native of the Cashmere, but grows abundantly in 
 the lakes near the capital, especially in the AVurler 
 lake, and yields an average return of 10,000,000 lbs. of 
 nuts a year. They are scooped up from the bottom of 
 the lake in small nets, and afford ^mplojTnent to the 
 fishermen for several months. These nuts constitute 
 almost the only food of at least 30,000 persons for five 
 months in the j-ear. "When extracted from the shell, 
 thej' are eaten raw, boiled, roasted, fried, or dressed in 
 various ways, after being reduced to flour. 
 
 Siuope, a town of Asia Minor, on the south coast 
 of the Black Sea, lat. 42° 2' 30" N., long. 35° 9' 45" 
 E. Population uncertain, probably from 8000 to 10,000. 
 Sinope is situated on a low narrow isthmus, connect- 
 ing the high rocky promontory of Ada with the main 
 land. Its port, which is the best on this coast, on the 
 south side of the town, is protected from the north and 
 northeast gales by the isthmus and promontory al- 
 ready mentioned. Ships anchor within a third of a 
 mile of the town, in from 13 to 17 fathoms ; or nearer 
 to it, in from 5 to 7 fathoms. There is a roadstead on 
 the north side of the isthmus, but it is open and ex- 
 posed. Sinope is one of the principal stations of tlie 
 Turkish fleet ; and there are docks and arsenals for its 
 
 accommodation and outfit. Its exports are inconsider- 
 able, the principal being timber, salt, cordage, fish oil, 
 etc. In ancient times Sinope was a city of great 
 wealth, magnitude, and importance. It was the birth- 
 place of Diogenes the Cynic ; and Mithridates made it 
 the capital of his dominions. After its conquest by 
 the Romans under Lucullus, it became the seat of a 
 colony, and continued for a lengthened period to enjoy 
 a good deal of consideration. Should civilization and 
 the arts once more revive in the ancient Pontus, and 
 the other countries to the south of the Black Sea, the 
 excellence of its port could not fail to restore to Sinope 
 some portion of its former grandeur. Even now a con- 
 siderable intercourse is beginning to take place with 
 the countries east and south of Sinope. Diarbeker on 
 the Tigris, in lat. 37° 54' N., long. 39° 53' 45" E., is 
 one of the principal seats of Eastern commerce ; and 
 caravans set out regularly from it for Aleppo, Smj-ma, 
 and Constantinople : but any one who consults a map 
 of Asia Minor, and of the contiguous countries, will see 
 at once that Trebizond and the neighboring ports on 
 the southeast coast of the Black Sea are the natural 
 channels through which Armenia, Koordistan, and the 
 northwestern parts of Persia may best maintain an 
 intercourse with Europe. For further particulars as 
 to Sinope, see Touksefort, Voyage du Levant, and 
 Norte's Sailing Directions for the Blach Sea. 
 
 Skins. The term is applied in commercial lan- 
 guage to the sluns of tbose animals — as deer, goats, 
 kids, lambs, etc. — which, when prepared, are used in 
 the lighter works of book-binding, the manufacture of 
 gloves, parchment, etc. ; while the term hides is applied 
 to the skins of the ox, horse, etc., which, when tanned, 
 are used in the manufacture of shoes, harness, and other 
 heavy and strong articles. Lamb and kid skins are 
 principally used in the glove manufacture ; 120 skins 
 being supposed to produce, at an average, 18 dozen pairs 
 of gloves. — See Hides and Leather. 
 
 Slate (Roof) {Ger.Sckiefer; Fr.Ardoise; It.La- 
 vagTia, Lastraj Sp. Pizarra), a fossil or compact stone 
 (argillaceous schistus') that may be readily split into 
 even, smooth, thin laminse. There are several varie- 
 ties of this valuable mineral, the prevailing colors be- 
 ing gray, blue, and brown. But the tints are very 
 various ; and slates are often marked with streaks of 
 a different color from the ground. Slate is principally 
 used in the covering of houses, for which purpose it is 
 infinitely superior to thatch or tiles, and is far less ex- 
 pensive than lead. Good roofing slate should not ab- 
 sorb water ; and it should be so compact as not to be 
 decomposed by the action of the atmosphere. When 
 properly selected, roof slates are of almost perpetual 
 duration ; but those which are spongy and imbibe moist- 
 ure speedily get covered with moss, and require, at no 
 very distant period, to be renewed. 
 
 Slaves and Slave-trade. A slave, in the ordi- 
 nary sense of the term, is an individual at the absolute 
 disposal of another, who has a right to employ and 
 treat him as he pleases. But the state of slavery is 
 susceptible of innumerable modifications ; and it has 
 been usual, in most countries where it has been long 
 established, to limit in various ways the power of the 
 master over the slave. The slave-trade is, of course, the 
 business of those who deal in slaves. A great deal of 
 learning has been employed in tracing the historj' of 
 slaverj', though the subject is still far from exhausted. 
 It seems most probable that it originally grew out of a 
 state of war. In rude, uncivilized communities, where 
 the passion of revenge acquires a strength unknown in 
 more advanced states of societj', captives taken in war 
 are adjudged to belong to the victors, who may either 
 put them to the sword or reduce them to a state of 
 servitude. In antiquity the ideas of war and slavery 
 were inseparable. Probably in verj' remote ages pris- 
 oners were most commonly put to death ; but the selfish 
 gradually predominated over the more passionate feel- 
 ings, and for many agep it was usual to reduce them 
 
SLA 
 
 1727 
 
 SLA 
 
 to the condition of slaves ; being either Bold by their 
 captors to others, or employed by them as they might 
 think fit. The practice of reducing men to a state of 
 slavery, having once begun, was extended in various 
 ways. The progeny of slaves or of women in a state 
 of slavery were slaves ; men bom free might sell them- 
 selves as slaves ; and parents had authority, in Judsea 
 and Kome, to dispose of their children for the same pur- 
 pose. — MiCHAELis on the Laws ofMoees, ii. 163, Engl, 
 ed. It was the law of Borne, and of most other ancient 
 states, that the persons of debtors who had contracted 
 obligations which they could not discharge should be- 
 come the property of their creditors. " Servi," says 
 Justinian, " autem ant nascuniur autjtuni: nascuntur 
 ex ancillis nostris, Jiunt aut jure gentium, id est ex cap- 
 tivitate ; aut jure civili, cum liber hcmo Tnajor viginti an- 
 nos ad premium pa/rticipandum sese venundari passus est." 
 — iTistit., lib. i. tit. 3. 
 
 The African slave-trade was commenced by the Port- 
 uguese in 1442. It was, however, but of trifling ex- 
 tent till the commencement of the 16th centur;-. In 
 consequence, however, of the rapid destruction of the 
 Indians employed in the mines of St. Domingo or Hay- 
 ti, Charles V. authorized, in 1517, the introduction into 
 the island of African slaves from the establishments of 
 the Portuguese on the coast of Guinea. The concur- 
 rence of the emperor was obtained by the intercession 
 of the celebrated Las Casas, bishop of Chiapa, who la- 
 bored to protect the Indians by enslaving the Africans ; 
 though, as the latter were certainly more vigorous and 
 capable of bearing fatigue than the former, the meas- 
 ure was not in reality so contradictory as it would at 
 first sight appear to be. — Eobektson's Hist. America. 
 The importation of negroes into the West Indies and 
 America, having once begun, gradually increased, un- 
 til the traffic became of great extent and importance. 
 Sir John Hawkins was the first Englishman who en- 
 gaged in it ; and such was the ardor with which our 
 countrj'men followed his example, that they exported 
 from Africa more than 300,000 slaves between the years 
 1680 and 1700 ; and between 1700 and 1786, f 10,000 
 Africans were imported into Jamaica only ; to which 
 adding the imports into the other islands and the con- 
 tinental colonies, and those who died on their passage, 
 the number carried from Africa will appear immense. — 
 Bryan Edwakds, Hist. West Indies. The importa- 
 tions by other nations, particularly the French and 
 Portuguese, were also verj' great. We may, however, 
 shortly observe that there can be no doubt that slavery 
 has always existed in Africa ; and it is sufficiently well 
 known that previously to the commencement of the 
 traffic such of the captives taken in war as could not 
 be advantageously employed as slaves were most com- 
 monly put to death — cannibalism, the exposure of in- 
 fants, and human sacrifices being then also very fre- 
 quent. The slave-trade, by opening a ready and profit- 
 able market for slaves, assisted in putting an end to 
 
 these enormities, though it be, at the same time, true 
 that the desire of profiting by their sale has tempted 
 the petty princes to make war on each other for the 
 chance' of making captives, and has given a stimulus 
 to man^stealing and other atrocities. — Geog. Diet., art. 
 Africa. But those who inquire dispassionately into 
 the subject will probably come to the conclusion that, 
 instead of being injured, the slaves have gained by be- 
 ing carried from the Old to the New World. Speaking 
 generally, the negroes are in the lowest state of abase- 
 ment, possessing merely the rudiments of the most in- 
 dispensable arts, a prey to the vilest superstition and 
 tyranny, without any tincture of learning, and with 
 little or no regard for the future. The circumstances 
 under which they are placed in their native land may, 
 perhaps, account for the low state in which we find 
 them ; but, however explained, the genuine negroes of 
 Africa are admitted, even by those least inclined to de- 
 preciate them, to be for the most part ' ' either ferocious 
 savages, or stupid, sensual, and indolent." — Peich- 
 AKD, History of Man, ii. 338, 3d ed. 
 
 Aiolition of Slavery. — The year 1833 was memorable 
 for the abolition of slavery throughout the British col- 
 onies. In enacting this celebrated statute. Parlia- 
 ment endeavored to reconcile the apparently conflict- 
 ing claims of humanity and justice, by providing for 
 the emancipation of the slaves without prejudice to the 
 just rights and claims of their proprietors. This was 
 efiected by assigning to the latter the safe of twenty 
 millions sterling, which was distributed among them 
 on their complying with the provisions of the act. This 
 is, perhaps, the greatest pecuniary sacrifice ever volun- 
 tarily made by any nation in vindication of the right 
 of property. But it was not too great for the object in 
 view ; for had that right been violated in this instance, 
 a precedent would have been set for its\violation in 
 others, and the consequences would have been most 
 disastrous. The measure, in fact, reflects quite as 
 much credit on the wisdom and honesty as on the gen- 
 erosity of the British nation. This celebrated statute 
 enacted that slavery should cease in all British colonial 
 possessions on the 1st of August, 1834 ; when the slaves 
 were to become apprenticed laborers, their final and 
 complete emancipation talring place partly on the 1st 
 of August, 1838, and partly on the 1st of August, 1840. 
 But a clamor having been raised against the duration 
 of the apprenticeship, its period was shortened, and the 
 blacks became universally free in 1838. 
 
 Distrihntion._of Slave Compensation. — The commis- 
 sioners for the apportionment of the ^£20,000,000 grant- 
 ed by Parliament as compensation to slave owners, un- 
 der the act 3 and 4 Will. IV. , cap. 73, issued the following 
 table, showing the average value of a slave in each col- 
 ony ; the number of slaves in each ; the total value of 
 the slaves, supposing the annual value of each were 
 realized; and the proportion of the £20,000,000 received 
 by each colony. 
 
 " Colony. 
 
 Average Value of 
 
 a Slave from 1822 
 
 to 1830. 
 
 Number of Slaves 
 b7 the last 
 Registration. 
 
 Eelative Value 
 of the Slaves. 
 
 Proportion of the 
 
 £:o,ogo;oao to vhieh 
 
 each Colony Is entitled. 
 
 
 jE . d. 
 27 4 Hi 
 29 18 9i 
 
 44 15 2i 
 120 4 7J 
 
 31 16 li 
 82 12 lot 
 36 17 lOf 
 39 3 lU 
 36 6 lOt 
 43 8 li 
 4T 1 3i 
 59 6 
 58 6 8 
 
 45 12 Of 
 ^56 18 7 
 105 4 Bi 
 114 11 6i 
 
 7S 9 11 
 69 14 3 
 
 4,203 
 
 9,705 
 
 311,692 
 
 1,920 
 
 5,192 
 
 29,537 
 
 6,355 
 
 8,722 
 
 20,660 
 
 14,384 
 
 82,807 
 
 23,536 
 
 22,997 
 
 11,621 
 
 13,348 
 
 22,359 
 
 84,915 
 
 38,427 
 
 68,613 
 
 114,527 
 
 290,573 
 
 13,951,139 
 
 230,844 
 
 165,143 
 
 964,198 
 
 234,466 
 
 341,893 
 
 750,840 
 
 624, 71B 
 
 3,897,276 
 
 1,39B,684 
 
 1,341,491 
 
 B29,941 
 
 759,890 
 
 2,352,655 
 
 9,729,047 
 
 2,824,224 
 
 4,783,183 
 
 50,584 
 
 128,340 
 
 6,161,927 
 
 101,958 
 
 72,940 
 
 425,866 
 
 103,558 
 
 151,007 
 
 331,630 
 
 275,923 
 
 1,721,345 
 
 616,444 
 
 592,508 
 
 234,0^ 
 
 335,627 
 
 1,039,119 
 
 4,297,117 
 
 1,247,401 
 
 2,112,632 
 
 
 
 
 Virgin IslandB 
 
 
 
 Nevis 
 
 
 
 
 
 St. Vincent's 
 
 
 
 Trinidad 
 
 British Guiana 
 
 
 Mauritius 
 
 Total 
 
 
 780,993 
 
 45,281,738 
 
 20,000^000 
 
SLA 
 
 1728 
 
 SLA 
 
 Dr. Livingstone, who is acknoivledged as being con- 
 versant upon'subjects aflFecting the slave-trade, says : 
 " I have thus ventured to state my conviction in favor 
 of our present system, formed as it was from personal 
 observation, and in the teeth of a strong bias to the 
 contrarj', that yon may, according to your custom, and 
 if you should deem it advisable, give this to your read- 
 ers by way of helping them to both sides of the ques- 
 tion. It is not to be supposed for a moment that the 
 present system of coercion will result in a radical cure 
 of the evil. The cultivation hy the Africtms on their own 
 soil of the raw materials of our manufactures, and the in- 
 fuence of Christian civilization alone will ej^'ect a perma- 
 nent suppression of the slave-trade. But all hope of this 
 must be given up if the coast tribes are to be hounded 
 on by the Europeans to hunt down the defenseless in- 
 land inhabitants, on the absurd pretense of promoting 
 'free emigration.' It is no more true that Africans 
 take delight in hunting, buying, and selling each other 
 than that the English glory in hanging themselves in 
 November. I know that this is the case throughout 
 the interior, and I was sorry at the cause of a different 
 state of things on the borders of civilization. But we 
 are ignorant of the sources whence statements such as 
 that referred to arise. From meeting it in various 
 quarters, and more especially in the mouths of slave- 
 holders, or would-be slave employers, I am inclined to 
 think that both it and that about the inefficiency of 
 Her Majesty's cruisers have had their origin in those 
 who are, directly or indirectly, abettors of slaverj', and 
 that they are promulgated by many who, like myself, 
 had not the means of testing their truth." 
 
 Passing over the interval from the period when the 
 slave-trade was declared to be piracy to the j'ear 1840, 
 we find that the number introduced into Brazil from 
 that year to 1851, inclusive, was 348,609, or a little 
 more than 30,000 a year. During the same period the 
 number imported into Cuba amounted to an average 
 of about 6000 a year. The following tables show the 
 importations into Brazil and Cuba from 1851 to 1854 : 
 
 , slaves. 
 
 Imported into Brazil iu the year 1851 4T,000 
 
 " " 1852 60,000 
 
 " " " 1853 3,700 
 
 Total IGO.TOO 
 
 Imported into Cuba in 1851 5,000 
 
 " " " 1852 7,924 
 
 " " "1853 12,500 
 
 " " " 1854 10,230 
 
 35,054 
 100,700 
 
 Total 136,364 
 
 For the four years from 1851 to 1854, inclusive, this 
 gives an average importation into both countries of 
 something over 34,000 a year. As perhaps not more 
 than three-fourths of the whole number was reported 
 to the mixed commission, the yearly average for this 
 period may be set down at 45,000. From the year 1854 
 there were very few, if any, slaves imported into Bra- 
 zil, in consequence of the laws passed by the govern- 
 ment of that countrj' against the trafBc, The slave- 
 trade is now mainly, if not wholly, carried on with 
 Cuba, which imports about 20,000 slaves every year ; 
 which, added to the total of the trade with both Brazil 
 and Cuba since the year 1850, gives the average num- 
 ber imported every year, up to the present time, at 
 about 30,000. If the profit realized on the purchase 
 of one slave amounts, as we have shown in the follow- 
 ing tables, to $365, the total profits of one year's trade 
 will therefore be about $11,000,000. 
 
 As a curious exhibit, we give the statistics showing 
 the estimated part which this countrj' takes in this ne- 
 farious traffic. It is estimated that in the port of New 
 York alone about twelve vessels are fitted out everj' 
 year for the slave-trade, and that Boston and Baltimore 
 furnish each about the same number, malting a fleet of 
 thirtj'-six vessels all engaged in a commerce at which 
 the best feelings of our nature revolt. If to these be 
 
 added the slavers fitted out in other Eastern ports be- 
 sides Boston, we will have a total of about forty, which 
 is rather under than over the actual number. Each 
 slaver registers from 150 to 250 tons, and costs, when 
 ready for sea, with provisions, slave equipments, and 
 every thing necessary for a successful trip, about $8000. 
 Here, to start with, we have a capital of $320,000, the 
 greater part of which is contributed by Northern men. 
 The expenses of fitting out, and of the trip to and from 
 the coast of Africa, may be estimated as follows ; 
 
 Coat of forty slavers ready for sea $320,000 
 
 lixpenseB at the port for brokerage and commis- 
 sion, $3000 on each vessel 120,000 
 
 Captains' and seamen's wages for the voyage .... 160,000 
 Amount paid for negroes on the coast of Africa, at 
 
 $15 a head, allowing 600 to each ve.ssel 36,000 
 
 Port charges and secret money paid at the place of 
 landing in Cuba or other destination, $42 for 
 each negro, allowing a diminution of 100 in each 
 
 vessel by death on the passage 840,000 
 
 Total $1,476,000 
 
 From this estimate it will be seen that the amount 
 of capital required to fit out a fleet of slavers is about 
 $1,500,000, upon which the profits are so immense as 
 almost to surpass belief. In a single voyage of this 
 fleet 24,000 human beings are carried off from different 
 points on the slave coast ; and of these 4000, or one 
 sixth of the whole number, become victims to the hor- 
 rors of the middle passage, leaving 20,000 fit for market. 
 For each of these the trader obtains an average of $500, 
 making a total for the whole 20,000 of $10,000,000. 
 Now, if we estimate the number of trips made by each 
 vessel in a year at two, we will have this increased to 
 $20,000,000. Each vessel, it is true, can make three, 
 and sometimes four trips, but as some of them are de- 
 stroyed after the first voyage, we have placed the num- 
 ber at the lowest estimate. The expenses and profits 
 of the slave-trade for a single year compare as follows : 
 
 Total expenses of two voyages $3,000,000 
 
 Total receipts of ditto 20,000,000 
 
 Profits $17,000,000 
 
 The laws of Congress on the subject of the slave- 
 trade were passed March 22, 1794 ; May 10, 1800 ; Feb- 
 ruarj' 28, 1808 ; March 2, 1807 ; April 20, 1818 ; March 
 3,1819; May 15, 1820; March 3, 1843; September 20, 
 1850. Conventions on the subject of the slave-trade 
 were held July 12, 1822 ; November 13, 1826, with Bra- 
 zil ; March 2, 1827 ; August 9, 1842. By the act of 
 March 22, 1794, the slave-trade was prohibited. The 
 act of May 10, 1800, applied to foreigners residing in 
 the United States, and forbid citizens from being en- 
 gaged in foreign ships in the slave-trade. By the act 
 of March 2, 1807, vessels irith slaves on board were to 
 be forfeited, the naval forces to be employed to enforce 
 the act. By the act of April 20, 1818, the importation 
 of negroes, or persons of color, " to be held to service 
 orlabor," was prohibited, By the act of March 3, 1819, 
 the naval ships would send to the United States, for 
 confiscation, any ships detected in the slave-trade ; a 
 bountj^ was offered of $25 for each negro captured and 
 delivered to the United States Marshal. By the act 
 of May 15, 1820, the slave-trade was declared to be 
 piracy, and any citizen detected in the trade should 
 suffer death. By the act of September 20, 1850, the 
 slave-trade in the District of Columbia was prohibited ; 
 no slave to be brought into the District for sale as mer- 
 chandise ; and all slave depots to be broken up. 
 
 For discussions on slavery and slave-trade, see For. 
 Quart., xxxiv. 104; South. Quart., xix. 101, xxi. 209 ; 
 Living Age, xiv. 235, xvi. 509 ; Edinh. Rev., viii. 385, 
 xli. 195, xii. 355, v. 209 (Bkougham), x. 199, xxxviii. 
 108, xxxix. 118 ; Westm. Rev., xxxiv. 125 ; Blackwood, 
 Iv. 731 ; Amer. Almanac, 1841 ; North Amer. Rev., xli. 
 170, Ixxiii. 347 (Peaeody) ; De Bo w's Rev. , x. 658, xi. 
 23-184, viii. 122, ix. ; South. Lit. Mess., ix. 736, \'ii. 774. 
 
 Coolie Trade. — This trade has sprung up since vigor- 
 ous efforts have been made to suppress the slave-trade 
 proper. Although theoretically the coolie trade prom- 
 
SLA 
 
 1729 
 
 SMU 
 
 ised benefits to both planters and coolie, yet practi- 
 cally it is only another form of the slave-trade. 
 
 The truth uttered by a late number of the Ccdi- 
 famia Chronicle. m the following paragraph is but too 
 true ; 
 
 " We hear of these wretched beings dying on their 
 passage from Canton to Callao of hunger, thirst, and 
 foul disease engendered by close confinement, without 
 air or nutriment, in the holds of ships ; we hear of 
 these unfortunates murdering one another in the agony 
 of their safi«ring; and yet, although the thing is plain 
 and palpable before our very ej'es, the civilized, the 
 Christian world shrugs its shoulders, exclaims ' hor- 
 rible,' and leaves the helpless creatures to their fate." 
 
 In extenuation of the guilt incurred, it-is-alleged 
 that the parties concerned have a contract with the 
 coolies ; but in effect the deluded victim is a slave, and 
 not the faintest dawn of hope illumines his dark ho- 
 rizon. Numerous important and incontrovertible facts 
 have been brought to the attention of our government 
 by means of the '' message from the President of the 
 United States communicating information in regard 
 to the slave and coolip trade," presented to the House 
 of Eepresentatives one year ago. 
 
 Mr. Parker, United States Minister to China, wrote 
 to Mr. Marcy on the 12th of February, 1866, that the 
 following shipments of coolies had been made during 
 the year 1855 from Swatow, an illegal port even for 
 legal trade : , 
 
 ships. Tonnage., Coolies. 
 
 American 5 6,692 3050 
 
 British 3 3,831 1933 
 
 (Jbilian., 
 Peruvian. 
 
 500 260 
 
 1,860 1160 , 
 
 6388 
 
 Total 12 12,7TB 
 
 Mr. Parker also stated, from official information, 
 that the number of males imported as coolies from Cal- 
 cutta and Madras, from 1845 to 1852, into British 
 Guiana and Trinidad, was 1700; and he suggested 
 " the necessity of specific instructions emanating from 
 the Navy Department to our men-of-war on the China 
 station, authorizing them to resort to illegal ports, and 
 to examine such vessels as do, and ascertain that they 
 do not offend against law, and to make them account- 
 able if they do." January, 1856, Mr. C. D. Mugford, 
 at Hong Kong, notified Mr. Parker that he was agent 
 for one of the most respectable firms in the United 
 States, who had made a contract with the Brazilian 
 government for sending to Rio de Janeiro some 2000 
 Chinese, and that part of them had been shipped, but 
 the firm referred to were ready to abide by the decision 
 of the governments of the United States or China as 
 regards the legality of the trade. Subsequently, Mr. 
 Parker addressed a public notification calling on citi- 
 zens of the United States to desist from this irregular 
 and immoral trafiic. 
 
 The evidence constantly accumulating to show the 
 horrible character of this trade calls still more loudly 
 for its speedy suppression. The London Times recently 
 published a deeply interesting communication on this 
 subject, from which we extract the following : 
 
 " The testimony of Sir John Bowring to the lament- 
 able condition of the Chinese emigrant can not but re- 
 call to most of our readers' minds the disclosures made 
 a few weeks ago at the Thames Police Court in Lon- 
 don with respect to the condition of the coolies on 
 board the ship Duke of Portland^ on her voyage from 
 Hong Kong to Havana. It will be remembered that 
 on the occasion referred to the master of the vessel 
 made the confession that one hundred and thirty-two 
 of the emigrants, all of whom had been taken on board, 
 he said, in good health, had died between Hong Kong 
 and Havana. He had ' had as many as two hundred 
 invalids at one time,' and ' many more had died after 
 they had landed in Cuba.' His log-book contained 
 daily, and more than daily, entries of death. The 
 magistrate said ' he had heard of the horrors of the 
 middle passage when the odious slave-trade was in 
 5R 
 
 existence, but he never heard of any thing like this.' 
 The counsel said, ' It is most horrible. Chinamen are 
 brought from Chma to work on plantations, and this 
 is the result. The English flag is disgraced by such 
 a traffic' The captain confessed, 'It is a dreadful 
 traffic, and quite time it was put an end to.' Yet this 
 was but an accidental disclosure of a system which 
 was only casually brought to light in this instance by 
 the magistrate's inspection of the log-book in a suit of 
 wages. 
 
 " I have myself, when in Havana, heard accounts 
 and witnessed scenes connected with this traffic which 
 are perfectly appalling. In some instances the pro- 
 portion of dead to living at the conclusion of the voy- 
 age has been as high as two hundred of the one for 
 every three hundred of the other. In March, 1858, 
 the British ship Gertrude arrived at Havana with a 
 cargo of 198 Chinamen, and in a note appended to the 
 return we read, 'of the Gertrude's 152 died.' 
 
 " Such are the horrors of this second slave-trade 
 during the passage. When he arrives at his destina- 
 tion, in the majority of instances, the coolie finds that 
 his misery has but commenced. I have seen examples 
 of considerate treatment, and consequently of compara^ 
 tive comfort; but these are unhappily rare. On ar- 
 riving at Havana, after passing the quarantine, the 
 coolie, if he survive, is transferred to the highest bid- 
 der, who places him upon his plantation side by side 
 with his slaves. His term of service is eight years ; 
 his labor as hard as his master thinks he can sustain. 
 He receives a small payment monthly, which makes 
 his condition by a few dollars preferable to that of the 
 slave. He is exposed to the same toil, watched by 
 the same overseer, with whip in hand and sword at his 
 side, as the slave. 
 
 " On the other hand, his position is worse than that 
 of his slave companion, inasmuch as his master's in- 
 terest in him terminates after eight years. In propor- 
 tion as the term of service approaches its expiration, 
 the motive for retaining the coolie in life decreases. 
 The slave's life is usually worked out, as the Cuban 
 planters have themselves confessed to me, in ten years 
 of full work. The Chinese coolie, as every one who 
 has lived on the Cuban plantations knows, reaches his 
 end on an average after a very much shorter term of 
 labor. Again, the Chinaman does not bear the tropical 
 heat with the ease with which the negro endures it." 
 
 Sloop, a vessel of one ipast, the mainsail of which 
 is attached to a gaff above, to a boom below, and to 
 the mast on its foremost edge ; diflferent from a cutter 
 by having a fixed bowsprit and a jib-stay. It is also a 
 general name for ships of war below the size of frigates. 
 
 Smack, a vessel with one mast, commonly rigged 
 as a sloop, and used in the coasting trade, or as a tender 
 in the royal navy. The vessels of this name that have 
 long plied between Le'ith and London are well known, 
 and have always been noted for their security. 
 
 Smaltz, or Smalt (Ger. ScAmalz ; Du. Smalt; Fr. 
 Smalt ; It. Smalto azzurro, Smaltino ; Sp. Esmalte, Azvl 
 azur; Russ. Lasor), an oxj-d of cobalt, melted with 
 siliceous earth and potash. It is a sort of glass, of a 
 beautiful deep blue color ; and being ground very fine, 
 is known by the name of powder blue. The color of 
 smaltz is not affected by fire ; and it is consequently 
 in great demand in the painting of earthen-ware. It 
 is also employed in the coloring of paper, and for other 
 purposes in the arts. Beckmann has proved that the 
 process used in the preparation of smaltz was invented 
 about the end of the 15th or the beginning of the 16th 
 century ; and that the blue glass of the ancients owes 
 its color, not to the presence of cobalt or smaltz, but to 
 that of iron.— .ffM<. of Inventions, vol. ii., art. Cobalt. 
 Smuggling, the ofifense of importing prohibited 
 articles, or of defrauding the revenue by the introduc- 
 tion of articles into consumption, without paying the 
 duties chargeable upon them. It may be committed 
 indifferently either upon the excise or customs revenue. 
 
SMU 
 
 1730 
 
 SMY 
 
 This crime, which occupies so prominent a place in the 
 criminal legislation of all modem states, is wholly the 
 result of vicious commercial and financial legislation. 
 It is the fruit either of prohibitions of importation, or 
 of oppressively high duties. It does not originate in 
 any depravity inherent in man, but in the folly and 
 ignorance of legislators. A prohibition against im- 
 porting a commodity does not take away the taste for 
 it ; and the imposition of a high duty on any article 
 occasions a universal desire to escape or evade its pay- 
 ment. Hence the rise and occupation of the smuggler. 
 The risk of being detected in the clandestine introduc- 
 tion of commodities under any system of fiscal regula- 
 tions may always be valued at a certain average rate ; 
 and wherever the duties exceed this rate, smuggling 
 immediately takes place. Now there are plainly but 
 two ways of checking this practice — either the tempta- 
 tion to smuggle must be diminished by lowering the 
 duties, or the difficulties in the way of smuggling must 
 be increased. The first is obviously the more natural 
 and efiicient method of effecting the object in view ; but 
 the second has been most generally' resorted to, even 
 in cases where the duties were quite excessive. Gov- 
 ernments have uniformly almost consulted the persons 
 employed in the collection of the revenue with respect 
 to the best mode of rendering taxes eff'ectual ; though 
 it is clear that the interests, prejudices, and peculiar 
 habits of such persons utterly disqualify them from 
 ■ forming a sound opinion on such a subject. They can 
 not recommend a reduction of duties as a means of re- 
 pressing smuggling and increasing revenue, without 
 acknowledging their own incapacity to detect and de- 
 feat illicit practices ; and the result has been that, in- 
 stead of ascribing the prevalence of smuggling to its 
 true causes, the officers of customs and excise have 
 almost universally ascribed it to some defect in the 
 laws, or in the mode of administering them, and have 
 proposed repressing it hy new regulations, and by in- 
 creasing the number and severitj' of the penalties af- 
 fecting the smuggler. As might have been expected, 
 these attempts have, in the great majority of cases, 
 proved signally unsuccessful. And it has been invari- 
 ably found that no vigilance on the part of the revenue 
 officers, and no severity of punishment, can prevent 
 the smuggling of such commodities as are either pro- 
 hibited or loaded with oppressive duties. The smug- 
 gler is generally a popular character-; and whatever 
 the law may declare on tlje subject, it is ludicrous to 
 expect that the bulk of society should ever be brought 
 to think that those who furnish them with cheap 
 brandy, geneva, tobacco, etc., are guilty of any ver}' 
 heinous oifense. 
 
 " To pretend," says Dr. Smith, " to have any -scruple 
 about buj'ing smuggled goods, though a manifest en- 
 couragement to the violation of the revenue laws, and 
 to the perjury which almost always attends it, would 
 in most countries be regarded as one of those pedantic 
 pieces of hypocrisy which, instead of gaining credit 
 with any bodj', seem only to expose the person who 
 affects to practice them to the suspicion of being a 
 ga'eater knave than most of his neighbors. By this 
 indulgence of the public, the smuggler is often encour- 
 aged to continue a trade which he is thus taught to 
 consider as, in some measure, innocent ; and when the 
 severity of the revenue laws is ready to fall upon him, 
 he is frequently disposed to defend with violence what 
 he has been accustomed to regard as his just property ; 
 and from being at first rather imprudent than criminal, 
 he at last too often becomes one of the most determ- 
 ined violators of the laws of society."- — Wealth of Na- 
 tions, p. 406. To create by means of high duties an 
 overwhelming temptation to indulge in crime, and then 
 to punish men for indulging in it, is a proceeding com- 
 pletely subversive of every principle of justice. It 
 revolts the natural feelings of the people, and teaches 
 them to feel an interest in the worst characters — for 
 such smugglers generally are — to espouse their cause 
 
 and avenge their wrongs. A punishment which is 
 not proportioned to the offense, and which does not 
 carr}' the sanction of public opinion along with it, can 
 never be productive of any good effect. The true way 
 to put down smuggling is to render it unprofitable — to 
 diminish the temptation to engage in it ; and this is 
 not to be done by surrounding the coasts with cordons 
 of troops, by the multiplication of oaths and penalties, 
 and making the country the theatre of ferocious and 
 bloody contests in the field, and of perjury and chican- 
 ery in the courts of law ; but b}- repealing prohibitions, 
 and reducing duties, so that their collection may be 
 enforced with a moderate degree of vigilance; and 
 that the forfeiture of the article may be a sufficient 
 penalty upon the smuggler. It is in this, and in this 
 only, that we must seek for an effectual check to illicit 
 trafficking. Whenever the profits of the fair trader 
 become nearly equal to those of the smuggler, the lat- 
 ter is forced to abandon his hazardous profession. But 
 so long as prohibitions or oppressively high duties are 
 kept up, or, which is, in fact, the same thing, so long 
 as high bounties are held out to encourage the adven- 
 turous, the need}', and the profligate, to enter on this 
 career, we may be assured that armies of customs of- 
 ficers, backed by the utmost severity of the revenue 
 laws, will be insufficient to hinder them. 
 
 The penalty for smuggling in this country is fixed 
 by the act of Congress, August 30, 18-12, as follows : 
 That if any person shall knowingly and willfully, with 
 intent to defraud the revenue of the United States, 
 smuggle or clandestinely introduce into the United 
 States any goods, wares, or merchandise, subject to 
 duty by law, and which should have been invoiced, 
 without paying or accounting for the duty, or shall 
 make out, or pass, or attempt to pass through the cus- 
 tom-house, any false, forged, or fraudulent invoice, 
 every such person, his, her, or their aiders and abet- 
 tors, shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and, on 
 conviction, shall be fined in any sum not exceeding 
 five thousand dollars, or imprisonment for any term 
 not exceeding two years, or both, at the discretion of 
 the court. 
 
 Smyrna, a large city and sea-port of Asiatic Turkey, 
 on the western side of Asia Minor, lat. 33° 25' 36" 
 N., long. 27° 6' 45" -E. Population probably about 
 120,000, of whom 60,000 maybe Turks, 40,000 Greeks, 
 and the remainder Armenians, Franks, Jews, etc. 
 Smyrna is situated at the bottom of a deep gulf, the 
 entrance to which lies between the island of Mytilene 
 on the north, and Cape Carabourun, in lat. 38° 41' 
 30" N., long. 26° 21' E., on the south. The passage 
 bet-ween James's Castle on the south and the opposite 
 sand-banlc is narrow ; but there is from nine to ten 
 fathoms water, with a blue clay bottom. Merchant 
 ships anchor abreast of tlie city in from seven to eight 
 fathoms ; but the water is-so deep that they may come 
 close to the quays. The iiibat, or sea-breeze, blows 
 from morning till evening, and is always waited for 
 bj' -ships going up to the city. There is excellent 
 anchorage in most parts of the gulf, merely avoiding 
 the shoals -on the north side. Smyrna is a place of 
 great antiquity. The excellence of its port, and its 
 admirable situation, have -made it be several times re- 
 built, after being destroj'ed by earthquakes. On ap- 
 proaching it from the sea, it has the appearance of an 
 amphitheatre : the castle is at the back of the town, 
 which it commands, on the top of the hill ; but it is in 
 a state of decay, and could oppose -no resistance to an 
 invading force. The interior of -the city does not cor- 
 respond to its external appearance ; the streets being 
 for the most part narrow, dirt)', and ill paved. Owing 
 to the want of cleanliness, and of all sorts of precautions 
 on the part of the Turks, Smyrna is frequently visited 
 by tjie plague. In 1814, from 50,000 to 60,000 of the 
 inhabitants are said to have been cut off by this dread- 
 ful scourge. The trade of this city is more extensive 
 than that of any other in the Turkish empire. The 
 
SMY 
 
 1731 
 
 SMY 
 
 caiavans from Persia are chiefly composed of Arme- 
 nians. They arrive and depart at fixed periods, which 
 are nearly identical with those of the arrival and de- 
 parture of most of the foreign ships frequenting the 
 port. Bargains are principally effected by Jew bro- 
 kers, many of whom have amassed considerable for- 
 tunes. The principal articles of import consist of 
 grain, furs, iron, butter, etc., from Odessa and Tagan- 
 rog ; and of cotton stuffs and twist, silk and woolen 
 goods, coffee, sugar, cochineal, and dye-woods, iron, 
 tin and tin plates, rum, brandy, paper, cheese, glass, 
 wine, etc., from Great Britain, France, Italy, the 
 United States, etc. The exports consist principally 
 of madder, which is the most valuable article, dried 
 fruits, valonia, opium, silk, wool, box-wood, emery- 
 stone, sponge, drugs, yellow berries, olive oil, Turkey 
 carpets, galls, wax, copper, hare skins, goats' wool, 
 etc. — For further details, see article Turkey, and 
 TouuNEFORT, Voyage au Levant, tome ii. ; Macgill's 
 Travels in Turkey, vol. i. 
 
 Quantities and Values op the Artigl^gb exported from 
 s.mvena in 1851. 
 
 Total QuaQ- 
 titiea ex- 
 portert. 
 
 l-Iorna . 
 
 Almonds qtU. 
 
 Barley kilo. 
 
 Beeswax qtls. 
 
 Bonea " 
 
 Box-wood " 
 
 Broken glass " 
 
 Bullock and lamb skins. . i^\^^ 
 
 Carpets bales 
 
 Cotton " 
 
 " spun " 
 
 Dried fruits (dates, etc.) ...qtls. 
 
 " dates... kilo. 
 
 Drugs cases 
 
 " qtls. 
 
 Kmery stones "' 
 
 Essence of roses cases 
 
 Filih goats* wool bales 
 
 Gums cases 
 
 Hare skins bales 
 
 fqlls. 
 
 (pairs 
 
 Leeches cases 
 
 Liquorice " 
 
 Liquors " 
 
 '• rum bbla. 
 
 Madder root *' 
 
 Maize and millet kilo. 
 
 Mastic bbls. 
 
 Nut-galls sacks 
 
 Nuts qtls. 
 
 Oleaginous seeds kilo. 
 
 Olive oil qtls. 
 
 Opium* cases 
 
 Poppy seeds sacks 
 
 (kilo. 
 Provisions -(bbls. 
 
 (qtls. 
 
 Rags bales 
 
 Radix saporaria cases 
 
 Sii'^P {bbls. 
 
 Scammony cases 
 
 Silk and cocoons bales 
 
 Soap, to America cases 
 
 Sponges " 
 
 Stones pieces 
 
 Storax bbls. 
 
 Terre d'Ambre , . .qtls, 
 
 (cases 
 
 \bbls. 
 
 Valonia qtls. 
 
 ,- . ' .. , t cases 
 
 V arious articles < ^-^^^ 
 
 Wheat kilo. 
 
 White stone qtls. 
 
 Wines bbls. 
 
 Wool bales 
 
 Yellow berries sacks 
 
 Total exports from Smyrna. . . 
 
 Tobacco . 
 
 1,241 
 13,660 
 T33 
 8,350 
 Oi),ES4 
 213 
 1731 
 6,488/ 
 627 
 11,712 
 317 
 179,073) 
 17,436/ 
 
 611 
 
 32,700 
 
 45,076 
 
 32 
 
 1,261 
 
 1,409 
 
 288 
 
 1,972) 
 
 1,868/ 
 
 1,057 
 
 10 
 
 BO 
 
 383 
 
 60,736 
 
 113,950 
 
 3 
 
 331 
 
 3,846 
 
 8,830 
 
 135 
 
 2,384 
 
 1,611 
 
 2,815) 
 
 2,660- 
 
 224> 
 
 1,643 
 
 704 
 
 105) 
 
 10/ 
 
 266 
 
 684 
 
 48 
 
 3,3T2 
 
 100,200 
 
 96 
 
 1,940 
 
 527) 
 
 27/ 
 
 262,012 
 
 1,225) 
 
 95/ 
 
 15,031 
 
 11,560 
 
 1,639 
 
 14,547 
 
 3,670 
 
 Totftl Value 
 of Exports. 
 
 Piastres. 
 375,850 
 132,940 
 824,630 
 208,750 
 
 1,666,660 
 18,450 
 
 3,417,000 
 
 1,300,600 
 
 9,836,450 
 
 338,030 
 
 24,!!61,890 
 
 183,750 
 4,578.000 
 2,479;i80 
 1,680,000 
 4,009,100 
 1,688,800 
 1,309,000 
 
 84,610 
 
 2,062,600 
 
 6,600 
 
 27,500 
 
 69,200 
 
 36,288,000 
 
 1,451,230 
 
 27,000 
 
 406,400 
 
 288,450 
 
 248,010 
 
 91,430 
 
 13,350,000 
 
 241,350 
 
 294,900 
 
 184,000 
 177,000 
 
 299,000 
 
 665,000 
 
 S, 135, 100 
 
 18,400 
 
 10,083,000 
 
 150,300 
 
 25,880 
 
 48,500 
 
 364,700 
 
 17,041,130 
 
 546,800 
 
 270,860 
 
 478,800 
 
 429,700 
 
 10,814,040 
 
 3,604,500 
 
 161,676,630 
 
 * Opium, 2121 cases. Of this T13 
 gland ; 140S are small, and go direct 
 
 are large, 
 to China 
 
 and go to En- 
 via Egypt. 
 
 In his Lettres sur la Turquie, the well-informed M 
 Dbicini estimates the value of the imports into Smyrna 
 in 1851 at 28,473,000 francs, and that of the exports at 
 
 36,682,000 francs. The coasting trade, as that be- 
 tween Smyrna, Constantinople, Syria, Alexandria, and 
 the Levant generally, is usually denominated, is almost 
 entirely in the hands of the Greeks, and is very extens- 
 ive. Excluding Greeks, the port is annually visited 
 by from 550 to 600 foreign ships. Ubicini reckons the 
 value of the imports of English and Swiss cottons at 
 above 14,000,000 francs ; the other leading articles of 
 imports are English and German woolens, French silks, 
 and colonial products. 
 
 The weights and measures are the same in this cit}' 
 as at Constantinople, with an exception of a small dif- 
 ference on some of the weights. The principal weight 
 in Smyrna is the oke, which is of two different weights. 
 The oke used in retail is of 400 drams, and in whole- 
 sale of 380. The wholesale oke being also known as 
 oke of 400 drams, in order to draw a distinction be- 
 tween the two, we will call the first, the oke of 400 
 drams, " real weight," and the other, the oke of 400 
 drams, "nominal weight." The only oke known in 
 Constantinople is that of 400 drams, " real weight." 
 At Smyrna, 400 drams, " nominal weight," are = 1 
 oke; 45 okes=100 rotoli=l kintal or kantar. 
 
 At Constantinople, 400 drams, "real weight," are= 
 1 oke"; 44 oke3=100 rotoli=l kintal or kantar. 
 
 Thus, 100 kintals of iron bought at Constantinople 
 will render here 102.|a^ kintals, if weighed by two ac- 
 curate steelyards in both places ; but as they are gen- 
 erally verj' imperfectly made, the difference varies 
 from 1 to \\ per cent. Generally, however, 100 kin- 
 tals of Constantinople render here from 102J to 104J. 
 
 General Remarks. — Exports are generally sold for 
 cash, and payment is made on the first Saturday fol- 
 lowing the day of sale. It sometimes occurs, however, 
 that one half of the money is paid the first, and the 
 other half the succeeding Saturday ; but for this pur- 
 pose a special agreement is generallj' necessarj' before 
 concluding the purchase. The term of paj'ment is 
 seldom extended to a third Saturday. The internal 
 duty is always paid by the seller, and is included in 
 the prices of commodities. The exporter has no other 
 tax to par than the export duty. Box-wood, canary 
 seed, hemp seed, and terra umbra, are generally sold 
 free on board, wliich comprises export duty, porterage, 
 and shipping charges. Weighing, measuring, and all 
 other charges, are paid by the exporter. The insurance 
 is almost exclusively effected in the United States for 
 goods to the States. The freight for figs, raisins, 
 gums, nut-galls, yellow berries, and valonia, is made 
 payable in pounds sterling ($4-ja^ per pound sterling). 
 Some houses charge a half per cent, for storage, some 
 one per cent., and others charge no storage at all; but 
 when they do, thej' actuallj' paj' for one. 
 
 Unwashed Wool. — Besides all the charges on un- 
 washed wool, a loss of weight must be added, arising 
 from the picking and assorting, which generally varies 
 from 3 to 5 per cent. The export duty shown in this 
 statement is for Anatolia, Eoumelia, and Constanti- 
 nople wool, which are the kinds generally exported to 
 the United States. The duty upon the wool of Syria, 
 Tripoli (Barbarj-), Bagdad, and the adjoining countrj-, 
 is of $0-1097 per 100 pounds. 13,085 bales, washed 
 and unwashed wool, have been exported to the United 
 States during the period mentioned in this statement, 
 representing an amount of $598,178. No sales of com- 
 modities took place during the months at which the 
 price is left blank in this statement. On all such 
 commodities where the price is left open in the column 
 of " retail prices," little or no consumption exists. 
 
 Leeches. — Leeches are a monopoly, and two Euro- 
 pean houses of this city have the exclusive right of 
 exportiug them, or to sell them in the market. 
 
 Sponges.- — The price of this article varies consider- 
 ably ; that of common sponges, called " chemuches," 
 after they had been prepared for shipment, varied from 
 $15 to $27 per 100 lbs., and tliat of fine sponges from 
 $105 to $600 per 100 lbs. The former are shipped in 
 
SNU 
 
 1732 
 
 SOC 
 
 bales, and a/re "the kind most exported to the United 
 States," and lithe latter in cases. They are generally- 
 bought in the lump from on board the boats -which 
 bring them from tlie neighboring islands by the ex- 
 porters. Who wash them, throw off the sand, and other- 
 wise prepare them for shipment ; consequently their 
 price per weight depends on the quantity of sand, 
 stones, etc., they may contain, and can only be ascer- 
 tained after this operation has been gone through. 
 The purchase of this article requires considerable skill, 
 and oftentimes the most experienced dealers are much 
 deceived, so much so that a difference in price of 20 to 
 25 per cent. , more or less, is regarded as a matter of no 
 great moment. Besides the commodities noted in this 
 statement, 2677 bales of rags and 70 tons of emery 
 stones have also been exported to the United States ; 
 but both of these articles are a monopoly, and are only 
 exported by two houses of Smyrna. The trade be- 
 tween Smyrna and the United States is generally car- 
 ried on -with Boston and New York, but principally 
 with the former place. — United States Consul at Smyr- 
 na, November 4, 1854. For further information, see 
 Com. Relat. United States ; Living Age, x. 201, xxviii. 
 167; Hunt's Merchants' Magazine, xxv. 452 (F. W. 
 Holland). 
 
 SmxB (Germ. SchnupftabacJs ; Fr. Taiac en poudre ; 
 It. Tobacco da naso ; Sp. Tabaco de polvo ; Buss. Noso- 
 v)oi tahalc), a powder in very general use as an errhine. 
 Tobacco is the usual basis of snuff; but small quanti' 
 ties of other articles are frequently' added to it, to vary 
 its pungency, flavor, scent, etc. Though substantially 
 the same, the kinds and names of snuff are infinite, and 
 are perpetually changing There are, however, three 
 principal sorts . the first, granulated ; the second, an 
 impalpable powder ; and the third, the bran or coarse 
 part remaining after sifting the second sort. Unless 
 taken in excess, no bad consequences result from its 
 use. — See Tobacco. 
 
 Snuffboxes are made of every variety of pattern, 
 and of an endless variety of materials. We only men- 
 tion them here for tlie purpose of giving the following 
 details, not elsewhere to be met with, with respect to 
 the manufacture of Laurencekirk or Ayrshire boxes. 
 These are made of wood, admirably jointed, painted, 
 and varnished. These beautiful boxes were first manu- 
 factured at the village of Laurencekirk, in Kincardine- 
 shire, about 60 years since. The original inventor was 
 a cripple hardly possessed of the power of locomotion. 
 Instead of curtains, his bed (ralher a curious work-shop) 
 was surrounded with benches and receptacles for tools, 
 in the contrivance and use of which he discovered the 
 utmost ingenuity. Instead of taking out a patent, the 
 inventor confided his secret to a joiner in the same vil- 
 lage, who in a few years amassed considerable proper- 
 ty ; while the other died, as he had lived, in the great- 
 est poverty. The great difiiculty of the manufacture 
 lies in the formation of the hinge, which, in a genuine 
 box, is so delicately made as hardly to be visible. Pe- 
 culiar, or, as they, are called, secret tools, are required 
 in its formation ; and though greatly improved by time 
 and experience, the mystery attached to their prepa- 
 ration is still so studiously kept up that the workmen 
 employed in one shop are debarred having any com- 
 munication with those employed in another. 
 
 Snuff-taking. This practice took its rise in En- 
 gland from the captures made of vast quantities of 
 snuff by Sir George Kooke's expedition to Vigo in 1702. 
 The prize of the forces having been sent home and 
 sold, the vice soon obtained from which the revenue 
 now draws, with tobacco, considerably more than 
 £4,000,000 per annum. In the year ending January 
 5, 1854, there were imported 36,000,000 lbs. of tobacco 
 and snuff, of which 30,400,000 lbs. were entered for 
 home consumption, — See Tobacco. 
 
 Soap (Ger. Seife; Fr. Savon; It. Sapone; Sp. Ja- 
 bon; Euss. Mijlo ; Lat. Sapoy This article was imper- 
 fectly known to the ancients. The first express men- 
 
 tion of it occurs in Pliny and Galen ; and the former 
 declares it to be an invention of the Gauls, though he 
 prefers the German to the Gallic soap. In remote pe- 
 riods clothes ivere cleansed by being ribbed' or stamped 
 upon in water. Nausicaa and her attendants, Homer 
 tells us, washed theirs by treading upon them with their 
 feet in pits of water. — Odyssej), book vi. The manu- 
 facture of soap began in London in 1524, before which 
 time it was supplied by Bristol at one Jienny perpoimd. 
 — Haydn. The soap met with in commerce is gener- 
 ally divided into two sorts, hard and- soft : the former 
 is made of soda and tallow or oil, and the latter of pot- 
 ash and similar oily matters. Soap made of tallow 
 and soda has a whitish color, and is, therefore, soine- 
 times denominated white soap ; but it is usual for soap- 
 makets, in order to lower the price of the article, to 
 mix a considerable portion of rosin with the tallow ; 
 this mixture forms the common yeUoio soap of this coun- 
 try. Soap made of tallow, etc., and potash does not 
 assume a solid form ; its consistence is never greater 
 than that of hog's lard. The properties of soft soap as 
 a detergent do not diifer materially from those of hard 
 soap, but it is not nearly so convenient to use. The 
 alkali employed by the ancient Gauls and Germans in 
 the formation of soap was potash ; hence we see why 
 it was described by the Romans as an unguent. The 
 oil employed for making soft soap in this country is 
 whale oil. A little tallow is also added, which, by a 
 peculiar management, is dispersed through the soap in 
 fine white spots. The soap made in countries which 
 produce olive oil, as the south of France, Italy, and 
 Spain, is preferable to the soap of this country, which 
 is usually manufactured from grease, tallow, etc. — • 
 Thomson's Chemistry. 
 
 The use of soap as a detergent is well known ; it 
 may, in fact, be considered as a necessary of life. Its 
 consumption in most civilized countries is immense. 
 Pliny informs us that soap was first invented by the 
 Gauls ; that it -was composed of tallow and ashes ; and 
 that the German soap was reckoned the best. — Lib. 
 xviii. 
 
 Society Islands. These islands, Ijing in the 
 Pacific Ocean, between lat. 16° and 18° S., and long. 
 148° and 155° W., are under the protectorate of the 
 French government. The principal islands of the group 
 are Tahiti, Eimeo, Huaheine, Eaiatea, Bona-bona, Ta- 
 haa, and Meura. Papiete, the capital of Tahiti, is much 
 resorted to by American and other whalers. The ex- 
 ports consist of oranges, pearl-shell, arrow-root, cocoa- 
 nut oil, and other native products of minor commercial 
 importance. The intercourse between the United States 
 and these islands has increased with our rapidly-in- 
 creasing relations with Valparaiso, Callao, Panama, 
 the Sandwich Islands, Australia, and China. In 1852 
 there entered the port of Tahiti 36 vessels under the 
 United States flag, measuring in all 5668 tons. Under 
 all other flags there entered 141 vessels, with an aggre- 
 gate of 12,817 tons. There are no import duties charged 
 at the Society Islands, except upon spirituous liquors 
 and wines, and on fire-arms and munitions of war. On 
 the last-named articles these duties amount to a pro- 
 hibition. These islands are under a different system 
 of commercial legislation from that which obtains in 
 the other French colonial settlements. No distinctions 
 are recognized as to any foreign countries, or as to any 
 foreign or domestic ports, with respect to entering or 
 clearing foreign vessels, with cargoes or in ballast. As 
 regards alcoholic and other beverages, American ves- 
 sels are placed on the same footing as French vessels 
 as to duty, while those of other nations pay double im- 
 port duties. This distinction is regulated by orr^e 
 No. 66, of May 8, 1853. The ports open to foreign ves- 
 sels are Papiete and Taunoa, at Tahiti ; and Papetoai, 
 at Meura. No foreign vessel is permitted without a 
 special permission, or in urgent necessity, to anchor in 
 any other ports of the islands subject to the French 
 protectorate. Offenders are liable to a fine of from 100 
 
SOD 
 
 1733 
 
 SOU 
 
 to .500 francs. The coasting trade of the islands be- 
 longing to France is reserved exclusively to vessels 
 carrying the French' or protectorate flag. The penalty 
 for violating this restriction is, for the first offense, a 
 fine of from 1000 to 2000 francs, and, in case of repeti- 
 tion, doable that sum. ,Every captain must, within 
 twenty-four hours after his arrival, present to the di- 
 rector of customs his manifest, with a detailed state- 
 ment of the ammunition and arms of every kind, and 
 also of the liquors, which, being subject to import du- 
 ties, can aot be landed without the authorization of the 
 director of customs. Those who infringe this regula- 
 tion ar^ liable, to a, fine of from 50 to 400 francs. Mak- 
 ing a false declaration respecting prohibited goods, or 
 those the sale of which is restricted, is punished by a 
 fine of from 1000 to 6000 francs. 
 
 ' When vessels have on board prohibited goods, spir- 
 its, arms, or ammunition, intended only fqr tl^eir own 
 consumption oif tlie defense of the ship, captains must 
 present to the director of onstoms a detailed declaration 
 of such hinds of stores within twenty-four hours after 
 their arrival. The sale of munitions of war, powder, 
 saltpetre, projectiles, mnskets; ' arms of any kind, is 
 prohibited, excejit under special permission from the 
 commissioner of the empire ;' and should any goods of 
 this kind be a.ttempted to be fraudulently landed, the}' 
 will be confiscated, in addition to .the fine imposed by 
 the police regulations. ' All spirits or liquors which 
 may be attempted to be fraudulently landed are liable 
 to confiscation, as Well as the boat conveying them; 
 and the captain, wtid is held responsible for all g9od3, 
 which may be on,^)03);d, under whatever conditions, is 
 liable tp a fine of from 5000 to 10,000 francs. AH goods 
 admitted to entry in the French establishments of Oce- 
 ania may be sold on boardj provided they be not sold' 
 by retail. To effect sales of this Itind, however, a li- 
 cense of the first class niust be previously obtained, 
 payable in advance, and for a pefiod of three mouths. 
 Sales of cargoes may also be efjeptpd on shore,, by open-, 
 ing a store for that purpose, for which a similar license 
 must be obtained, and.for the same period. Wines and 
 liquors, however, must ba sold exclusively on shore, 
 either through the medium of a consignee, or by the 
 captain or his agent, 'having first procured the neces- 
 sary license. Captains of vessels, whenever the length 
 of their stay permits, must give notice of their depart-, 
 ure at the ppst-oflace forty-eight hours beforehand ; and 
 when it is desired that a vessel should remain in port 
 less than forty-eight hourSj nWice to that effect must 
 be given on the day of arrival. If any of the fities 
 specified in the foregoing regulations should not be paid 
 within five days, at the farthest, from the date of con- 
 demnation, or satisfactory security not be tendered, a 
 part or the whole of the cargo will be sold, or the ves- 
 sel itself be retained, to liquidate the debt. — Com. Re- 
 lat. U.S. 
 
 Soda. See Alkali. 
 Solder, Sodder, or Soder, a metallic or mineral 
 tomposition used in soldering or joining together other: 
 metals. Solders are made of gold, silver, copper, tin, 
 bismuth, and.l^ad. In the composition there must be 
 some of the metal that is to be Soldered mixed with 
 some higher and finer metals. Goldsmiths usually 
 make four kiudsof solderj viz. : solder of eight) where 
 to seven parts of silver there is one of brass or copper; 
 solder of six, where only a sixth part is copper; solder 
 of four, and solder of three. It is the mixture of cop- 
 per in the solder that makes raised plate come always 
 cheaper than fiat. 
 
 Sound Dues. Under the head of Denmark the 
 reader -will find a full history of this interesting com- 
 mercial question, and also statistics illustrating the 
 proportional interest which every nation had in the 
 abolishment of the sound dues.' Since the article Den- 
 MAEK was in type the final treaties (including that of 
 the United States here given) necessary for the adjust- 
 ment of this question have been signed. We here an- 
 
 nex, as a supplement to this question, the treaty be- 
 tween the United States and Denmark, year 1857. We 
 also giye a table showing the pro rata division of the 
 indemnity which each nation agrees to pay Denmark. 
 
 On the 4th January, 1856, a meeting of the Minis- 
 ters of Austria, Belgium, France, Holland, Prussia, 
 Spain, and Sweden, and a Commissioner fronl Kussia, 
 met at Copenhagen to consider the disputed question. 
 On the 17th of February another meeting of the Com- 
 mission took place, when the same states were repre- 
 sented, with the addition of a delegate from Oldenburg. 
 At this meeting a memorandum was presented, in which 
 Denmark offered to accept as a compensation for the 
 abolition of thei sound dues, a sum of 35,000,000 rix 
 dollars (about i£3,888,888)j which is about fifteen and 
 a half years' purchase of 2,248,579 rix dollars, the av- 
 erage net revenue from the dues during the 'nine years 
 of peace— 1842 tp 1847, and 1851 to 1853. Each state 
 interested in the commerce of the Baltic to be respons- 
 ible for the sum only which is assigned to it, but the 
 offer to be binding on Denmark, on ifs acceptance by 
 all the states whose representatives have taken part in 
 the negotiation. This proposal has been accepted, as 
 will be seen by tbe following treaty between the Unit- 
 ed States and Denmark (see next page). 
 
 In the annexed table, showing fhepro rata amounts 
 to be paid by each nation for the abolishment of the 
 sound dues, it will be seen that Great Britain, Russia, 
 and Prussia paj' over 68 per cent, of the total ; ai)d that 
 the first and second pay 56 percent, of the total. The 
 share apportioned to the United States is only 2 per 
 cent., while the trade of this country would appear to 
 be about 6 per cent, of the whole. 
 
 T.A.BI.E SHOWING THE PRO ItATA DIVISION OF THE INDEMNITY 
 
 TO Benmakk for the Abolishment pF the Sound Dues 
 
 TO BE PAID BY EACH NATION. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Bussia 
 
 PruB&ia 
 
 Mecklenburg 
 
 Liibeck .' 
 
 The Baltic in general. 
 
 Norway ..;.... 
 
 Hamburg ; : 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Oldenburg 
 
 Hanover 
 
 Qreat Britain 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 Belgium 
 
 France. ; 
 
 Spain...!...: 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Sardinia 
 
 Tuscany ..,,..., 
 
 Two Sicilies. 
 
 Austria 
 
 Greece 
 
 Turkey..... 
 
 United States 
 
 Mexico '. 
 
 St. Domingo 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 New Granada 
 
 Uruguay. 
 
 La Plata 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Peru 
 
 Buenos Ayres 
 
 Chili 
 
 China ,.. 
 
 Other countries 
 
 Total.. 
 
 Rix Dollsni. 
 
 Per Cent. 
 
 1,122,0T8 
 
 3-21 
 
 1,500,503 
 
 4-55 
 
 9,759,993 
 
 2T-80 
 
 4,440,02T 
 
 12-60 
 
 3T3,608 
 
 1-07. 
 
 102,986 
 
 0-29 
 
 231,909 
 
 0'66' 
 
 e6T,225 
 
 1-91 
 
 , ■ 107,012 
 
 0-31 
 
 218,583 
 
 0'62 
 
 .28,127 
 
 0*8 
 
 123,387 
 
 0-3S 
 
 10,126,865 
 
 , 28:90: 
 
 1,408,060 
 
 4 03 
 
 301,455 
 
 0-86 
 
 1,219,003 
 
 8-48 
 
 1,020,016 
 
 2-91 
 
 274,828 
 
 0-77 
 
 . 22,928 
 
 0-07 
 
 26,196 
 
 , 0-08 
 
 22?„013 
 
 0;66 
 
 ..29,434 
 1,401 
 
 . 0-08, 
 
 0-00 
 
 35,925 
 
 0-10 
 
 717,829 
 
 203 
 
 6,537 
 
 0-02 
 
 13,059 
 
 0-04 
 
 6,887 
 
 0:02 
 
 3,269 
 
 0-01 
 
 1,307 
 
 O'OO 
 
 3,269 
 
 001 
 
 b06,2S5 
 
 1-45 
 
 430 
 
 0-00 
 
 16 
 
 0-00 
 
 368 
 
 0-00 
 
 3,269 
 
 01 
 
 368,908 
 
 1-04 
 
 35,000,000 
 
 100-00 
 
 As to the basis of the contribution, it would have 
 been just to have taken the quantity of goods carried, 
 or duties paid, by the ships of eacli nation through the 
 Sound and the Belt as determining the proportions re- 
 spectiveh' to be paid to the capitalization of the dues. 
 But this proportion has not in every case been car- 
 ried out, as may be seen by comparing the foregoing 
 table with the following, whidi exhibits the duties paid 
 by every nation. 
 
sou 
 
 1734 
 
 SOU 
 
 PaiVlLBGBD. 
 
 United States 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 France. 
 
 Greece 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Hanover 
 
 The Netherlands. . . 
 
 Italy (Naples) 
 
 Lubeck 
 
 Mecklenburg 
 
 Norway 
 
 Oldenburg 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Prussia , 
 
 Russia , 
 
 Spain 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Austria 
 
 I NON-PaiVILEQED. 
 
 Buenos Ayres , 
 
 Peru 
 
 Tuscany 
 
 Total 
 
 Sailed from Baltic. 
 
 Average 
 
 Sum. 
 1861-'53. 
 
 Rix DoU, 
 
 850 
 
 72 
 
 260 
 
 11,132 
 
 34,762 
 
 2,530 
 
 6 
 
 646 
 
 5,888 
 
 14,338 
 
 366 
 
 1,102 
 
 8,21)0 
 
 19,326 
 
 1,439 
 
 46 
 
 21,933 
 
 8,467 
 
 24 
 
 12,054. 
 
 6 
 
 142,908 
 
 Par Cenl. 
 of the 
 ■whole 
 
 Amount. 
 
 0-593 
 0-050 
 0-182 
 7-790 
 
 24-326 
 1-770 
 0-004 
 0-46L 
 3-735 
 
 10-033 
 0-256 
 0-773 
 6-73S 
 
 13-523 
 1-007 
 0-032 
 
 15-348 
 5-925 
 0-017 
 8-435 
 004 
 
 0-004 
 0-004 
 
 100 000 
 
 Entered into Baltic. 
 
 Average 
 
 Sum. 
 1851- '53 
 
 Riz Doll. 
 
 9T6 
 
 50 
 
 259 
 
 12,358 
 
 35,755 
 
 2,624 
 
 6 
 
 451 
 
 4,925 
 
 14,462 
 
 396 
 
 1,020 
 
 7,284 
 
 17,956 
 
 1,571 
 
 55 
 
 21,456 
 
 7,583 
 
 23 
 
 12,137 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 141,181 
 
 Per Cent, 
 of the 
 whole 
 
 Amount. 
 
 0-682 
 0-04T 
 0-183 
 8-753 
 
 25-360 
 1-771 
 0-004 
 0-319 
 3-488 
 
 10-244 
 0-281 
 0-723 
 5-159 
 
 12-718 
 1-113 
 0-039 
 
 15-198 
 5-3T1 
 0-016 
 8-597 
 0-004 
 
 0-004 
 0-004 
 0-005 
 
 100-000 
 
 A Proclamation. — Whereas a convention between the Unit- 
 ed States of America and his Majesty the King of Denmark, 
 for the discontinuance of the Sound dues, was concluded and 
 signed by their respective plenipotentiaries at Washington, 
 on the llth day of April, 1857, which convention is as fol- 
 lows; 
 
 The United States of America and his Majesty the King 
 of Denmark, being desirous to terminate amicably the dif- 
 ferences which have arisen between them in regard to the 
 tolls levied by Denmark on American vessels and their car- 
 goes passing through the Sound and Belts, and commonly 
 called the Sound dues, have resolved to conclude a conven- 
 tion for that purpose, and have named as their plenipoten- 
 tiaries, that is to say, the President of the United States, 
 Lewis Cass, Secretary of State of the United States, and his 
 Majesty the King of Denmark, Torben Bille, Esquire, Knight 
 of the Dannebrog, and decorated with the Cross of Honor of 
 the same order, his said Majesty's Charg6 d' Affaires near the 
 government of the United States, who, after having commu- 
 nicated to each other their full powers in due form, have 
 agreed to and signed the following articles: 
 
 Article I. His Majesty the King of Denmark declares en- 
 tire freedom of the navigation of the Sound and the Belts in 
 favor of American vessels and their cargoes from and forever 
 after the day when this convention shall go into effect as 
 hereinafter provided. And it is hereby agreed that Ameri- 
 can vessels and their cargoes, after that day, shall not be 
 subject to any charges whatever in passing the Sound or the 
 Belts, or to any detention in the said waters; and both gov- 
 , ernments will concur, if occasion should require it, in tak- 
 ing measures to prevent abuse of the free flag of the United 
 States by the shipping of other nations which shall not have 
 secured the same freedom and exemption from charges en- 
 joyed by that of the United States. 
 
 Article II. His Danish Majesty further engages that the 
 passages of the Sound and Belts shall continue to be lighted 
 and buoyed as heretofore, without any charge upon American 
 vessels or their cargoes on passing the Sound and the Belts, 
 and that the present establishments of Danish pilots in these 
 waters shall continue to he maintained by Denmark. His 
 Danish Majesty agrees to make such additions and improve- 
 ments in regard to the lights, buoys, and pilot establishments 
 in these waters as circumstances and the increasing trade of 
 the Baltic may requii-e. He further engages that no charge 
 shall be made, in consequence of such additions and improve- 
 ments, on American ships and their cargoes passing through 
 tlie Sound and the Belts. 
 
 It is understood, however, to be optional for the masters 
 of American vessels either to employ in the said waters Dan- 
 ish pilots, at reasonable rates fixed by the Danish govern- 
 ment, or to navigate their vessels without such assistance. 
 
 Article III. In consideration of the foregoing agreements 
 and stipulation on the part of Denmark, whereby the free 
 and unincumbered navigation of American vessels through 
 the Sound and the Belts is forever secured, the United States 
 agree to pay to the government of Denmark, once for all, the 
 sum of seven hundred and seventeen thousand eight hundred 
 and twenty-nine rix dollars, or its equivalent, three hundred 
 and ninety-threo thousand and eleven dollars in United States 
 
 curreticy, at London, on the day when the said convention 
 shall go into full effect, as herein afterward provided. 
 
 Article IV. Ifc is further agreed that any other or further 
 privileges, rights, or advantages which may have been or may 
 be granted by Denmark to the commerce and navigation of 
 any other nation at the Sound and Belts, or on her coasts and 
 in her harbors, with reference to the transit by land through 
 Danish territoiy of merchandise belonging to the citizens or 
 subjects of such nation, shall also be fully extended to, and 
 enjoyed by, the citizens of the United States, and by their 
 vessels and property in that quarter. 
 
 Article V. Thegeneralconventionof friendship, commerce, 
 and navigation, concluded between the United States and his 
 Majesty the King of Denmark, on the 26th of April, 1826, 
 and which was abrogated on the 15th of April, 1856, and the 
 provisions contained in each and all of its articles, the 5th 
 article alone excepted, shall, after the ratification of this pres- 
 ent convention, again become binding upon the United States 
 and Denmark ; it being, however, understood that a year's 
 notice shall suffice for the abrogation of the stipulations of the 
 said convention hereby renewed. 
 
 Article VI. The present convention shall take effect as soon 
 as the laws to carry it into operation shall he passed by the 
 governments of the contracting parties, and the sum stipu- 
 lated to be paid by the United States shall be received by or 
 tendered to Denmark ; and for the fulfillment of these purposes 
 a period not exceeding twelve months from the signing of this 
 convention shall be allowed. 
 
 But if, in the interval, an earlier day shall be fixed upon 
 and carried into effect for a free navigation through the Sound 
 and Belts in favor of any other power or powers, the same 
 shall simultaneously be extended to the vessels of the United 
 States and their cargoes, in anticipation of the payment of the 
 sum stipulated in Article III. ; it being understood, however, 
 that in that event the government of the United States shall 
 also pay to that of Denmark 4 per cent, interest on the 
 said sum from the day the said immunity shall have gone 
 into operation until the principal shall have been paid as 
 aforesaid. 
 
 Article VII. The present convention shall be duly ratified, 
 and the exchange of ratifications shall take place in Wash- 
 ington within ten months from the date hereof, or sooner if 
 practicable. 
 
 In faith whereof the respective plenipotentiaries have sign- 
 ed the present convention, in duplicate, and have thereunto 
 affixed their seals. 
 
 Done at Washington this lltli day of April, in the year of 
 our Lord one thousand eight hundred and fifty-seven, and of 
 the independence of the United States the eighty-first. 
 
 Lewis Cass. [seal.] 
 ToEUEN Bille. [seal.] 
 
 And whereas the said convention has been duly ratified on 
 both parts, and the respective ratifications of the same were 
 exchanged in the city of Washington on the 12th instant by 
 Lewis Cass, Secretary of State of the United States, and W. 
 de Kaasloff, his Danish IVftjesty's Charge d' Affaires and Con- 
 sul-general in the United States, on the part of their respect- 
 ive governments : 
 
 Now, therefore, be it known that I, James Buchanan, Pres- 
 ident of the United States of America, have caused the said 
 convention to be made public, to the end that the same and 
 every clause and article thereof may be observed and fulfilled 
 with good faith by the United States and the citizens thereof. 
 
 In witness whereof I have hereunto set my hand and 
 caused the seal of the United States to be affixed. 
 
 Done in the city of Washington, this 13th day of January, 
 in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hun- 
 
 [BEAL.] drcd and fifty-eight, and of the independence of 
 the United States the eighty-second. 
 
 James Buchanan. 
 By the Pi-esident : 
 
 Lewis Cass, Secretary of State. 
 Sounding, the operation of trying the depth of 
 the sea, and the nature of the bottom, by means of a 
 plummet sunk from a ship to the bottom. There are 
 two plummets used for this pui'pose, one of -which is 
 called the hand-had^ weighing about eight or nine 
 pounds ; and the other the deep-sea lead^ which weighs 
 from twenty-five to thirty pounds; and both are shaped 
 like the frustum of a cone or pyramid. The former is 
 used in shallow waters, and on approaching the land 
 after a sea-voyage. Accordingly, the lines used for 
 this purpose are called the deep-sea lead line, and the 
 hand-lead line. The hand-lead line, which is usually 
 twenty fathoms in length, is marked at every two or 
 three fathoms ; so that the depth of the water may be 
 
sou 
 
 1735 
 
 SOU 
 
 ascertained either in the day or night. At the depth 
 of two or three fathoms there are marks of black leath- 
 er; at five fathoms there is a white rag; at seven, a 
 red rag ; at ten, black leather ; at thirteen, black leath- 
 er ; at fifteen, a white rag ; and at seventeen, a red rag. 
 
 Sounding with the hand-lead, which by seamen is 
 called heaving the lead, is generally performed by a man 
 who stands in the main chains to windward. Having 
 the line quite ready to run out without interruption, 
 he holds it nearly at the distance of a fathom from the 
 plummet ; and having swung the latter backward and 
 forward three or four times, in order to acquire the 
 greater velocity, he swings it round his head, and 
 thence so far forward as is necessary ; so that by the 
 lead's sinking while the ship advances the line may 
 be almost perpendicular when it reaches the bottom. 
 The person sounding then proclaims the depth of the 
 water, in a kind of song resembling the cries of hawk- 
 ers in a cit}'. Thus, if the mark of five fathoms is close 
 to the surface of the water, he calls, " By the mark 
 five ;" and as there is no mark at four, six, eight, etc., 
 he estimates those numbers, and calls, " By the dip 
 four," etc. ; if he judges it to be a quarter or a half 
 more than any particular number, he calls, " And a 
 quarter five," " and a half four," etc. If he conceives 
 the depth to be three quarters more than a particular 
 number, he calls it a quarter less than the next : thus, 
 at four fathoms and three fourths he calls, "A quarter 
 less five." 
 
 The deep-sea lead is marked with two knots at twen- 
 ty fathoms, three at thirty, and four at forty, and so 
 on to the end. It is also markecl with a single knot in 
 the middle of each interval. 
 
 Until the commencement of the plan of deep-sea 
 soundings, as now conducted in the navy of the United 
 States, the bottom of the sea was almost entirely un- 
 known to us. 
 
 It has been proven that the system of deep-sea 
 soundings formerly in use was not accurate. This 
 was simply letting down a lead, until by a shock the 
 line became slack ; but it was found that the line would 
 run on without end, being dragged out by under-cur- 
 rents, and that beyond a certain depth no shock was 
 felt. 
 
 The plan of deep-sea soundings now in practice in 
 our navy was suggested by Lieutenant Maury, and has 
 been successful principally from the adoption of a lead 
 invented by Lieutenant J. M. Brooke, U.S.N. 
 
 This method is to take a cannon-ball, bored through 
 the middle, and a wire inserted ; and so arranged that 
 when it touches bottom the ball slips off, and the wire 
 with the line is drawn up. The wire has a cap at the 
 end, with some adhesive matter to attach particles of 
 the bottom. The line is prepared for the purpose, so 
 as to bear the weight, and yet of small resistance in 
 sinking. Experiment has proven that while the plum- 
 met is sinking the line runs out at an increasing rate 
 per minute ; and by observing when the rate becomes 
 constant, we get the depth, as a current would draw 
 at a constant speed. 
 
 Mr. Maury giVes this law of descent : 
 
 2m. 21s. as an average time of descent from 400 to 500 faths. 
 8m. 26s. " " " 1000 " 1100 " 
 
 4m. 29s. " " " 1800 "1900 " 
 
 Lieutenant Walsh, of the United States schooner 
 Fancy, reported a cast with the deep-sea lead of thirty- 
 four thousand feet without a bottom. His sounding- 
 line was an iron wire more than eleven miles in length. 
 Lieutenant Berryman, of the United States brig Dol- 
 phin, reported another unsuccessful attempt to fath- 
 om mid-ocean with a line thirty-nine thousand feet in 
 length. Captain Dedham, of Her Britannic Majesty's 
 ship Herald, reported bottom at the depth of forty-six 
 thousand feet ; and Lieutenant J. P. Parker, of the 
 United States frigate Congress, afterward, in attempt- 
 ing to sound near the same place, let go his plummet, 
 and saw a line fifty thousand feet long run after it as 
 
 though the bottom had not been reached. The last 
 three attempts were made according to the plan men- 
 tioned above. For further interesting items we refer 
 to Macky'.s Physical Geography of the Sea. — See At- 
 lantic Ocean. 
 
 Soundings for the Atlantic Telegraph. — The result of - 
 these soundings has been to establish the hypothesis of 
 Lieutenant Maury, of a submarine plateau from the 
 Newfoundland Banks nearly to the coast ol Ireland. 
 We extract portions of the report of Lieutenant 0. H. 
 Berryman, U.S.N., to the Secretary of the Navj-, giv- 
 ing an account of the experimental soundings made by 
 him in the United States steamer Arctic, to corroborate 
 the existence of this plateau. 
 
 *'Unitbd States Steambh Abctic, JVaio Tork, October 14, 1856. 
 
 " Leaving New York on the night of July 18, I steered di- 
 rectly for St. Johns, where I arrived on the 29th. Taking in 
 coal by the 3lBt, I sailed for Ireland, and commenced sound- 
 ing as near on the Great Cirale as possible, passing the north 
 end of the 'Grand Banks' in latitude 48° 34' N., and one 
 hundred and twenty fatlioms water, although the best charts 
 I have on board record one hundred and fifty-four. This 
 difference I attribute to the mode of taking soundings at 
 the time that sunrey was made. At intervals of tliirty, for- 
 ty, sixty, and one hundred miles, we sounded, all attended 
 with complete success, hut frequently involving many hours, 
 both night and day, of great suspense and hard work, losing 
 sometimes two or three thousand fathoms of line, sounding 
 apparatus and all. 
 
 " The great plateau became so apparent In themiddle of the 
 ocean, and our fuel being considerably reduced, I determined 
 to increase the intervals between the positions, to enable me 
 to reach the coast of Ireland with enough soundings to com- 
 plete a line entirely across. This was accomplished on the 
 22d of August, and I arrived in the harbor of Queenstown 
 with only a few bushels of coal on board. 
 
 "Temperatures were taken hourly at the surface, and at 
 twenty fathoms every four hours. Attempts were made to 
 obtain them at the bottom and at different depths, but the 
 results were so worthless, owing to some derangement of the 
 thermometers, that I abandoned taking them, as they inter- 
 fered very much with the more important object of sounding 
 and obtaining bottom. On one occasion two were sent to the 
 bottom in very deep water, and one indicated a temperature 
 of twenty-one degrees, the other twenty-four degrees. On 
 examining and comparing the rest of the thermometers, I 
 found them all differing from each other so much, and some 
 of the hands being broken, I was sure that they could not be 
 used with any proper results. 
 
 '* Cun-ents were experienced to the eastward, from nine to 
 fifteen miles in each twenty-four hours, between the Grand 
 Banks and those of Ireland. No good opportunities for ob- 
 serving under-currents occurred, there being always either 
 too much wind or a high sea. None appeared to affect our 
 soundings very much — so little, indeed, that frequently the 
 slack line would be coiled or Idnked upon the bottom, show- 
 ing plainly that it reached the bottom without the assistance 
 of the lead — determining in my own mind that, however 
 others may think, the cable or wire of the lightest kind ■will 
 here reach the bottom most certainly. 
 
 "Only one of the sounding apparatus which was used re- 
 mains, and is sent to the department for inspection, it being 
 somewhat different, we believe, from any heretofore used — ■ 
 being an association of Brooke^s and Massey's, with a weight 
 or lead of my own adoption. 
 
 " The line used in sounding was that Obtained from Boston, 
 which proved indifferent, and was all expended before reach- 
 ing Ireland, and we had to resort to two parts of smaller line 
 furnished at the navy-yard. Having eighty thousand fath- 
 oms of the smaller size line on reels, we had it made up into 
 one of about four thousand, and we found it decidedly the 
 best that we have yet used, it being very strong and small. 
 
 " On both sides the interest taken in this great enterprise is 
 very great, and it is with every satisfaction that I can state 
 that the navy of the United States is particularly recognized 
 as having promptly and efficiently executed the preliminary 
 and important survey for bo stupendous a work as laying a 
 telegraphic cable of three thousand miles long across an 
 ocean upward of two thousand fathoms deep, and nearly sev- 
 enteen hundred miles wide." — O. H. Bbbbthan, U. S. N. 
 
 For a full statement of the results of these soundings 
 in determining the proposed line of the cable of the At- 
 lantic submarine telegraph, and for the statistics con- 
 cerning this line, see article Telegeaph. 
 
sou 
 
 1736 
 
 SOU 
 
 AbSTKAOT op deep Sea SoiraDINas and TEMPEttATUEES, 
 
 WITH TBEiE Latitudes and Longitudes, made on boakd 
 THE United States Steamer '*Abotio," Lieutenant 
 Commanding O. H. Bekbtman, United States Navy, 
 between Newfoundland and Ieeland, August, 1856, 
 
 
 
 3 
 & 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 Thermometer. [ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 J. 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 1 
 
 '1 
 
 .a 
 
 1 
 
 ■a 
 
 t 
 § 
 
 n 
 
 ■s 
 
 II 
 
 1 
 
 "3 
 ■a 
 
 1 
 
 S 
 
 ■'i 
 
 r 
 
 34 
 
 90 
 
 o ' 
 
 4T50 
 
 S2 00 
 
 30-34 
 
 63 
 
 B5 
 
 49 
 
 ■4T 
 
 ?, 
 
 "IT 
 
 150 
 
 48 00 
 
 61 41 
 
 30-48 
 
 66 
 
 49 
 
 51 
 
 47 
 
 3 
 
 IT 
 
 98 
 
 48 13 
 
 51 20 
 
 30-33 
 
 63 
 
 49 
 
 47 
 
 45 
 
 4 
 
 19 
 
 85 
 
 48 2T 
 
 5(1 53 
 
 30-84 
 
 63 
 
 49 
 
 47 
 
 47 
 
 B 
 
 IB 
 
 120 
 
 43 40 
 
 60 36 
 
 80-41 
 
 64 
 
 F.(l 
 
 47 
 
 44 
 
 fi 
 
 23 
 
 ,3T0 
 
 48 51 
 
 50 05 
 
 30-38 
 
 68 
 
 60 
 
 4« 
 
 43 
 
 T 
 
 20 
 
 460 
 
 49 12 
 
 49 42 
 
 29-84 
 
 69 
 
 54 
 
 54 
 
 50 
 
 8 
 
 30 
 
 732 
 
 49 30 
 
 49 05 
 
 80-15 
 
 fiR 
 
 54 
 
 S2 
 
 56 
 
 9 
 
 23 
 
 loSo 
 
 49 40 
 
 48 39 
 
 30-26 
 
 63 
 
 58 
 
 66 
 
 51 
 
 10 
 
 68 
 
 1590 
 
 49 49 
 
 46 43 
 
 30-38 
 
 '68 
 
 69 
 
 60 
 
 53 
 
 11 
 
 32 
 
 182T 
 
 49 49 
 
 45 64 
 
 30-29 
 
 64 
 
 55 
 
 66 
 
 56 
 
 Vi 
 
 4i 
 
 162T 
 
 49 50 
 
 44 43 
 
 30-20 
 
 66 
 
 59 
 
 59 
 
 60 
 
 13 
 
 88 
 
 1600 
 
 60 15 
 
 43 08 
 
 80-10 
 
 67 
 
 65 
 
 55 
 
 53 
 
 14 
 
 83 
 
 1500 
 
 50 03 
 
 40 26 
 
 30-12 
 
 68 
 
 65 
 
 65 
 
 54 
 
 15 
 
 TT 
 
 1564 
 
 50 20 
 
 38 SO 
 
 30-13 
 
 69 
 
 57 
 
 56 
 
 56 
 
 16 
 
 6i 
 
 1600 
 
 50 44 
 
 37 15 
 
 30-03 
 
 69 
 
 55 
 
 57 
 
 66 
 
 n 
 
 fi6 
 
 1650 
 
 51 06 
 
 35 60 
 
 29-89 
 
 69 
 
 5S 
 
 57 
 
 67 
 
 18 
 
 64 
 
 16S0 
 
 61 15 
 
 34 08 
 
 29-88 
 
 69 
 
 55 
 
 56 
 
 57 
 
 19 
 
 72 
 
 2070 
 
 61 38 
 
 32 20 
 
 29 -TT 
 
 fiS 
 
 57 
 
 57 
 
 67 
 
 M 
 
 116 
 
 2000 
 
 52 24 
 
 29 16 
 
 29-99 
 
 6T 
 
 56 
 
 56 
 
 53 
 
 21 
 
 72 
 
 1830 
 
 53 26 
 
 2T 18 
 
 30-06 
 
 68 
 
 56 
 
 56 
 
 5T 
 
 i!li 
 
 35 
 
 1920 
 
 63 26 
 
 26 30 
 
 30-16 
 
 71 
 
 59 
 
 58 
 
 69 
 
 •23 
 
 53 
 
 1813 
 
 53 03 
 
 24 51 
 
 30-10 
 
 68 
 
 5T 
 
 6T 
 
 58 
 
 24 
 
 90 
 
 1050 
 
 51 45 
 
 22 23 
 
 80-05 
 
 69 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 62 
 
 25 
 
 40 
 
 1590 
 
 51 45 
 
 21 19 
 
 29-94 
 
 T4 
 
 69 
 
 60 
 
 62 
 
 26 
 
 41 
 
 1543 
 
 51 60 
 
 20 12 
 
 29-90 
 
 T1 
 
 59 
 
 60 
 
 61 
 
 27 
 
 60 
 
 1T60 
 
 61 48 
 
 13 81 
 
 29-90 
 
 T3 
 
 61 
 
 62 
 
 60 
 
 28 
 
 60 
 
 19S5 
 
 62 01 
 
 IT 06 
 
 29-83 
 
 70 
 
 65 
 
 65 
 
 62 
 
 29 
 
 30 
 
 1513 
 
 52 06 
 
 16 05 
 
 29-66 
 
 69 
 
 59 
 
 60 
 
 59 
 
 30 
 
 39 
 
 410 
 
 52 03 
 
 15 02 
 
 29 ■T6 
 
 T1 
 
 60 
 
 61 
 
 62 
 
 31 
 
 55 
 
 255 
 
 51 43 
 
 13 44 
 
 30-48 
 
 69 
 
 62 
 
 62 
 
 61 
 
 32 
 
 10 
 
 410 
 
 51 52 
 
 13 16 
 
 3004 
 
 63 
 
 58 
 
 60 
 
 61 
 
 33 
 
 31 
 
 TIT 
 
 51 64 
 
 12 2T 
 
 30-05 
 
 71 
 
 58 
 
 59 
 
 61 
 
 34 
 
 88 
 
 114 
 
 51 44 
 
 11 24 
 
 80-13 
 
 69 
 
 59 
 
 61 
 
 58 
 
 Note. — The soundings in this table are placed in the order 
 in which they appear on the profile, without regard to dates. 
 
 South America. The southern portion of the 
 American continent extends from Point Gallenas, in 
 lat. 12° 30', to Cape Horn, in lat. 56° 30'. The extent 
 of coast that it offers to the Caribbean Sea and the At- 
 lantic is estimated at 11,000 miles ; and the coast -R-ash- 
 ed by the Pacific, it is stated by the latest geographical 
 authority, has an approximate continuity of 5800 miles. 
 At the southern extremity thiai'e is a group of mount- 
 ainous islands, separated from the main land by the 
 Straits of Magellan, and forming the Archipelago of 
 Terra del Fuego, or " Land of Fire ;" so called from the 
 number of fires -which its discoverer, Magellan, saw 
 along its coast at night, supposed to have been volcanic. 
 This archipelago, -with its barren islands and rocks, 
 must, however, be considered as the termination of the 
 continent. Immediately north lies the vast and almost 
 uninhabited country of Patagonia ; -while on the east, 
 at a distance of from 300 to 400 miles in the South At- 
 lantic, lie the Falltland group of islands. 
 
 The vast region known geographically as Patagonia 
 extends from the Kiver Negro, lat. 39°, to the Straits 
 of Magellan, lat. 53° S., a distance of about 970 miles 
 
 in length, with a breadth varying from 200 to 420 miles. 
 It comprises two distinct physical regions, dift'ering in 
 surface and climate — the one lying on the west side of 
 the Andes, the other on the east, and called, respect- 
 ively. Eastern and Westei-n Patagonia. The former is 
 claimed by the Argentine Republic to the Straits of 
 Magellan, and the latter by Chili, down to Cape Horn. 
 Both sections are as yet, however, inhabited by abo- 
 riginal races, with the exception of a Chilian settlement 
 at Port Famine, and on the Straits of Magellan. This 
 division of Patagonia is comprised in the Chilian prov- 
 ince of Chiloe, which is composed of the archipelago 
 of that name ; that of Chonos, of the most southei-n 
 islands, and that part of the continent -nhich extends 
 from Eio Negro, and as far south as Cape Horn. On 
 the eastern division there are several ports, among 
 which are, Gallegos, in 51° 38' ; Santa Cruz, in 50° 7' ; 
 San Julian, in 49° 12' ; Desire, in 47° 5' ; Nuevo Golfo, 
 in 43° ; and San Antonio, in 41° south. The few tribes 
 of aboriginal Indians that inhabit this inhospitable re- 
 gion subsist upon the products of their fisherj'. The 
 principal object of Chili in colonizing Port Famine, on 
 the Straits, was to keep in check these nomadic tribes, 
 though the colony has also been used for penal pur- 
 poses. Cape Horn is 'uninhabited. 
 
 The South American continent has on its Pacific 
 coast no large rivers. On the Atlantic, however, are 
 the Amazon, the Orinoco, and the Plata, and a number 
 of others, which, though not so large as those named, 
 are equal in size, if not superior, to even the largest 
 rivers in Europe. The Amazon is the largest river on 
 the globe. Its principal tributaries vary in length 
 from 1000 to 1800 miles, while the central stream is 
 4000 miles long, and is navigable 2200 miles ^om the 
 sea. Peru, Bolivia, and Chili are the great mineral 
 sites of South America, and produce chiefly silver, but 
 also some gold and other metals, especially copper, 
 which is very abundant in Chili. The most distin- 
 guishing feature in the vegetation of South America 
 is the prodigious forests, which cover about two-thirds 
 of the whole surface. Fruits of almost every variety 
 abound, and indigo, coffee, sugar-cane, maize, and the 
 cocoa-tree are among the chief products. The cultiva- 
 tion of the tea-tree has been attempted in Brazil, though 
 it is believed without success ; but yerha matte, from 
 which is prepared the customary beverage of one half 
 of the peninsula, grows in the greatest abundance in 
 Paraguay. Spain and Portugal were severally the 
 original colonists of South America — the former found- 
 ing the states of Venezuela, New Granada, Bolivia, 
 Peru, Chili, the Argentine Republic, Uruguay, and 
 Paraguay ; and the latter the vast empire of Brazil. 
 
 The South American states all achieved their inde- 
 pendence between the years 1810 and 1825. These 
 states, together with the colonies and other regions 
 comprised in South America, with their respective 
 areas, population, capitals, etc., are exhibited in the 
 following table, derived from the latest geographical 
 authority ; though, as regards the strict accuracy of 
 the figures given, the same remark applies that is made 
 with reference to similar tables respecting Me'xico and 
 the Central American states : 
 
 states, etc. 
 
 New Granada. . . 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Ecuador 
 
 Guiana, British. 
 
 " Dutch. 
 
 ** French 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Peru 
 
 Bolivia 
 
 Chili. 
 
 Arg:entine Republic 
 
 Paraguay 
 
 Uruguay 
 
 Patagonia, east of Andes . 
 Falkland Islands 
 
 Total . 
 
 Aytea m 
 Square MilflB. 
 
 521,948 
 
 426,T12 
 
 28T,633 
 
 96,000 
 
 69,765 
 
 27,560 
 
 2,973,400 
 
 498,726 
 
 473,293 
 
 249,952 
 
 786,000 
 
 73,106 
 
 73,538 
 
 210,000 
 
 6,297 
 
 6,762,940 
 
 Population. 
 
 2,343,064 
 
 1,149,336 
 
 605,000 
 
 127,695 
 
 61,030 
 
 22,010 
 
 6,005,000 
 
 2,116,493 
 
 1,44T,000 
 
 1,183,862 
 
 764,000 
 
 300,000 
 
 120,000 
 
 800 
 
 560 
 
 16,314,390 
 
 Population to 
 Square Mile. 
 
 2-32 
 1-33 
 1-03 
 0-83 
 2-04 
 4 24 
 8-06 
 4-53 
 0-9T 
 4-16 
 1-63 
 
 0-09 
 
 2-41 
 
 Capitals. 
 
 Bogota 
 
 Garaccas 
 
 Quito , . 
 
 Georgetown . '. . 
 Paramaraibo . . 
 
 Cayenne 
 
 Rio Janeiro . . , 
 
 Lima 
 
 Chuquisaca . . . 
 
 Santiago 
 
 Buenos Ayres . 
 
 Asuncion 
 
 Jlontevideo . . . 
 
 Port Stanley . 
 
 Popalatl'oa. 
 
 46,000 
 
 53,800 
 
 65,000 
 
 25,600 
 
 18.000 
 
 5,000 
 
 266,000 
 
 100,000 
 
 26,000 
 
 78,000 
 
 100,000 
 
 12,000 
 
 16,000 
 
 ' 3(10 
 
sou 
 
 1737 
 
 SOU 
 
 In the population given; in the third oolnmnj no 
 account is talcen of the nncivilized Indian races, 
 which probably number between 1,000,000 and 
 1,200,000 souls. These are found chieflV in the great 
 plains of the Orinoco, Amazon, and Parana. The 
 relative rank of the South American states, as re- 
 gards their commercial intercourse with the United 
 
 States, may be inferred from the subjoined compar- 
 ative statement, CKhibiting the values of exports to 
 each country from the liTnited State's, and of imports 
 from each' country into the ' United States, during a 
 period of four years, from 1852 to 1856, inclusive; 
 made up from United States Treasury reports for said 
 y«ars : 
 
 South American StQtfia. 
 
 1BS4. 
 
 1865. 
 
 1866. 1 1867. 1 
 
 Exports, 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Brazil 
 
 $4,239,241 
 
 ' 2,193,289 
 
 1,200,883 
 
 761,726 
 
 685,166 
 
 512,957 
 
 $14,110,387 
 3,882,167 
 8,072,649 
 2,144,971 
 1^956,406 
 467,179 
 67,634 
 
 $4,261,278 
 
 3,426,257 
 
 1,223,449 
 
 969,427 
 
 870,!J46 
 
 422,172 
 
 66,092 
 
 $15,218,985 
 
 3,518,896 
 
 8v616,869 
 
 2,545,087 
 
 597,618 
 
 242,709 
 
 12,663 
 
 $5,094,908 
 2,867,743 
 1,712,774 
 1,259,863 
 1,244,233 
 651.329 
 
 $19,262,657 
 
 2,467,819 
 
 41202,692 
 
 2,322,161 
 
 217,769 
 
 361,036 
 
 $5,645,207 
 2,907,185 
 1,427,678 
 1,818,807 
 607,932 
 1,006,172 
 
 $21,460,733 
 
 '3,742,439 
 
 3,860,618 
 
 3,784,473 
 
 208,747 
 
 368,497 
 
 Chili 
 
 Venezsuela. 
 
 Argeutine BepubUq, . 
 
 
 Eonador , . 
 
 — Com. Belat. U. S. For a complete exhibit of the 
 commerce of each country, see articles under the proper 
 heads.-i-See ^orth Amer. Sev,, xii. 432 (E. Evbkett), 
 xix. 108, (J. SPAKKs)ri Westm- Rev., vi. 202; Edinh. 
 Eev., xliii. 299 ; Db Bow'iiiiew., vi. 3 ; Foreign Quwt. 
 Rev., xviii. 455,; Christ. JRev., xvi. 321 ; Quart. Rev., 
 ^xii. 125; Smthem Quart. Rev.,-!i\i.&iQ; Z>em.Rev., 
 i. and ii.—See article Ameeica. 
 
 SQuthampton, a parliamentary and municipal 
 borough, sea-port town, and county of England, in the 
 southern part of the county Hants, occupying a penin- 
 sula between, the, mpuths of the Test and, Itchin rivers, 
 at the head of Southampton water, 12 miles southcsouth- 
 west from Winchester, on th.e southwestern railroad, 72 
 miles southwest from London. Latitude of Saint Mi- 
 chael's spire,,50° 54' N"., long. 1° 24' 2" W. Population 
 in 1831 , 35,305. The new docks on the east of the.town, 
 opened in 1842, have an area of 208 acres, and have ad- 
 mitted steamers of more than 700 tons burden. The 
 West India, Mediterranean, and other mails, have their 
 station here, and the town communicates by steamers 
 with all the ports of South England, the Channel isl- 
 ands, Ireland, and by railroad with London, and all the 
 centre of England. The port extends from near Ports- 
 mouth to Christchurch. Here are some manufactures 
 of silks and carpets, but ship-building and general com- 
 merce are the chief sources of wealth. Southampton 
 is now the point of departure of the steamers for Alex- 
 andria (see ante, p. 20), and a stopping-place for the 
 steamers between Bremen and New York. 
 
 South Carolina, one of the Southern United 
 States, is situated between 32° 2' and 35° 10' N. lat., 
 and between 78° 24' and 88° 30' W. long. It is 200 
 miles long and 125 broad, containing 28,000 square 
 miles. The population in 1790 was 240,000 ; in 1800, 
 346,591 ; in 1810, 415,116 j in 1820, 902,741 ; in 1830, 
 581,458 ; in 1840, 591,398 ; and in 1850, 668,507. 
 
 Early History. — When the Spaniards, under Vasquez 
 Ayllon (1520 and 1526), arrived on the coasts of what 
 we now call Carolina, and more especially South Car- 
 --olina, they heard here of a great Indian king and coun- 
 try, both called Chicora or Chicoria, and they applied 
 that Indian name for some tiine to this countrj-, with- 
 out, however, giving to it very distinct litiiits. The 
 country was also Sometimes called after its discoverer, 
 Tierra del Licenciado Ayllen, or, shorter, Tierra de 
 Ayllon, often also corrupted to Terra de AuUon. Un- 
 der this name the Spaniards comprehended sometimes 
 n very great part of North America, sometimes not 
 more than this province. 
 
 French Claims. — It is curious enough that the French 
 also, When they (1563) arrived at the locality of Ayl- 
 lon's activity, heard again of an Indian king and coun- 
 try of that name. In their ears it sounded, however, 
 like Chicola or Chiouole. After the French'-navig^tion 
 to these regions we hear the country sometimes, desig- 
 nated by the French themselves with the name La 
 Floride Franfoise, and other nations also called it 
 French Florida. The Spaniards, of course, always con- 
 sidered it as a part of their Spanish Florida. The 
 French built on their Riviere May (St. Mateo or St. 
 
 John's Eiver) a fort, which they called Fort Caroline 
 or Carolina. Some map-makers and geographers ap- 
 plied this name, as an appellation of a country or ter- 
 ritory, to the whole region. ' SO'We see, for instance, 
 on a map of North America by Cornelius a Judseis 
 (1593), the whole French Florida called Carolina, in 
 honor of Charles.IX., king of France. It is curious 
 that the same name was afterward given to the same 
 locality in honor of ah English king. 
 
 English Settlements. — The English, since their settle., 
 ments at Boanoke, comprehended the whole territory 
 of Carolina under their widely-extended name of Vir- 
 ginia, after 1683. This- grant had, however, very 
 slight consequences. The country was not settled, not 
 taken possession of, not even surveyed or explored. 
 In the year 1663 Charles II. made another grant of all 
 the lands between the 36th and 37th degrees of north 
 latitude to Edward, earl of Clarendon, and some other 
 lords and gentlemen, and this tract W'as again called, 
 in his honor, Carolina; so that we may say we have 
 three kings as godfathers to this province — Charles 
 IX. of France, Charles I. and Charles II. of England. 
 By a second more ample charter of the 24th of March, 
 1667, Charles II. extended the boundaries of Carolina 
 from north latitude 29° to 36° 30', and from east to west 
 " until the Pacific Oce^n." The country was divided 
 into two great counties — a northern one, called the 
 county of Albemarle, and a southern one, called Clar- 
 endon county. 
 
 In this same year (1667) William Sayle, the appointed 
 Governor of Carolina, explored and surveyed the whole 
 coast of the province, entering all the rivers and mak- 
 ing astronomical observations. He no doubt, also, pro- 
 cured a map of the country to be made, but unhappily 
 this map is not preserved for us Probably the results 
 of this first good survey of the coasts of Carolina were 
 not then ma|de known to the world at large ; for we 
 find still, on the edition of Champlain's maps of the 
 year 1677, along the coasts of Carolina; this inscrip- 
 tion ; " Terre non encore Hen decouverte continente a la 
 Florida" (a land not yet well discovered is connected 
 with Florida). 
 
 In the year 1729 the whole great province was di- 
 vided into North and South Carolina, and as the divid- 
 ing point on the coast was fixed a small inlet to the 
 west of Cape Fear, called Little Kiver Inlet. In the 
 year 1733 the province of Georgia was detached as a 
 separate government of the old Territory of Carolina, 
 and the southern boundaries of this latter were fixed 
 at the mouth of the Savannah Eiver, and within these 
 boundaries the name of Carolina has been prescribed 
 ever since. According to what we stated, we may in 
 a certain degree consider the names of Wingandacoa, 
 Weapemeoc, Ould Virginia, Albemarle county, as old 
 particular designations for North Carolina; and the 
 naaie of Chicora, Terra de Ayllon, Florida Fran9oise, 
 Clarendon county, as particular appellations applied to 
 South Carolina. — J. G. Kohl. See North Carolina. 
 
 Physical Features, e«c.— The sea-coast is bordered with 
 a series of islands, between which and the shore there 
 is a very convenient navigation. The main land is 
 
sou 
 
 1738 
 
 SOU 
 
 naturally divided into the lower and upper country. 
 The low country extends from eighty to one hundred 
 miles from the sea-coast, and is covered with extens- 
 ive forests of pine, called pine barrens, interspersed 
 with marshes and swamps of a rich soil. The banks 
 of the large rivers and the creeks of this region are 
 bordered with a belt of excellent land, producing cot- 
 ton and Indian corn in abundance. The marshes and 
 swamps in this district make fine rice plantations. The 
 staple productions of the State are cotton and rice, 
 great quantities of which are exported. Eice is ex- 
 tensively cultivated where the land can be irrigated 
 by the tide or the overflowing of the rivers. The sea- 
 island cotton produced on the islands along the shores 
 is of a superior quality, and is in great demand. Gold, 
 iron, granite, and marble, are the principal minerals. 
 
 There were in this State in 1850, 4,072,651 acres of 
 land improved, and 12,145,049 acres of unimproved 
 land in farms. Cash value of farms, $82,431,6^4 ; and 
 the value of implements and machinery was $4,136,354. 
 The number of live stock was — horses, 97,171 ; asses 
 and mules, 37,483 ; milch cows, 193,244 ; working oxen, 
 20,507 ; other cattle, 563,935 ; sheap, 285,551 ; swine, 
 1,065,503 : aggregate value, $15,060,015. 
 
 Agricultural Products, etc. — Wheat, 1,066,277 bush- 
 els ; rye, 43,790; Indian corn, 16,271,454 ; buckwheat, 
 283; oats, 2,322,155; barley, 4583; peas, 1,026,900; 
 potatoes, 136,494 ; sweet potatoes, 4,337,469 ; rice, 
 159,930,613 pounds; value of products of the orchard, 
 $35,108; produce of market gardens, $47,286; pounds 
 of butter made, 2,981,850; of cheese, 4970; sugar, 671 
 hogsheads ; maple-sugar, 200 pounds ; molasses, 15,904 
 gallons; beeswax and honey, 216,281 pounds; wool. 
 
 pounds produced, 487,233 ; cotton, 300,901 ; flax, 333 ; 
 silk cocoons, 123; hops, 26 pounds; tobacco, 74,285; 
 hay, tons of, 20,925 ; clover seeds, 376 bushels ; other 
 grass seeds, 30 ; flax-seed, 55 bushels ; wine, 5880 gal- 
 lons. Value of home-made manufactures, $909,525 ; 
 and of slaughtered animals, |1,302,637. 
 
 The Great Pedee Kiver, 450 miles long, rises in North 
 Carolina, and runs through the eastern part of the State. 
 It is navigable for sloops 130 miles. The San tee, formed 
 by the junction of the Wateree and the Congaree, rises 
 in North Carolina, and has a sloop navigation for about 
 130 miles. The Saluda is a branch of the Congaree. 
 The Edisto is navigable for large boats 100 miles. The 
 Savannah washes the whole southwest border of the 
 State, and is a noble stream. There are several small- 
 er rivers, among which are Cooper, Ashley, and Com- 
 bahee. 
 
 Manufactures, etc. — There were in the State in 1850, 
 13 cotton factories, with a capital invested of $778,000, 
 employing 371 males and 572 females, producing goods 
 valued at $742,220 ; 6 establishments with a capital of 
 $185,700, employing 155 persons, and making 1286 
 tons of castings, etc., valued at $87,683; 287 flouring 
 and grist mills, 448 saw-mills, 107 tanneries, 41 print- 
 ing-oiBces, 45 newspapers — 7 daily, 4 tri-weekly, 2 
 semi-weekly, 24 weekly, 1 bi-monthly, 5 monthly, 
 and 1 quarterly publication. Capital invested in man- 
 ufactures, $6,060,565; value of manufactured articles, 
 $6,200,864. 
 
 In June, 1856, there were 9 railroads, with 846 miles 
 of road finished and in operation, and 374 miles in course 
 of construction. There were 16 banks and 2 branches, 
 with a cash capital of $16,073,580. 
 
 Foreign Com.meece of the State op SouTn Carolina feom Ootobee 1, 1820. to July 1, 1857, showing also the 
 DIBTEIOT Tonnage in 1821, 1831, 1811, and 1851. 
 
 Years ending 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Imports. 1 
 
 Tonnage 
 
 lenred. 
 
 District Tuiui.ige. | 
 
 Domestic. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 TotnJ. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Amorican. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Registered. 
 
 Enrolled and 1 
 Licensed, | 
 
 Sept 30,1 8-31 
 
 $0,867,516 
 
 $032,996 
 
 $7,200,511 
 
 $3,007,113 
 
 4.5,343 
 
 19,6;5 
 
 10,249 
 
 17,103 
 
 1822 
 
 7,136,366 
 
 123,964 
 
 7,260,320 
 
 2,233,,'>86 
 
 48,624 
 
 15,237 
 
 
 
 1823 
 
 6,671,998 
 
 226,810 
 
 6,8C8,S14 
 
 2,419,101 
 
 64,037 
 
 24.009 
 
 
 
 1824 
 
 7,833,713 
 
 200,360 
 
 8,034,082 
 
 2,166,186 
 
 61,092 
 
 18,878 
 
 
 
 1825 
 
 10,876,475 
 
 180,267 
 
 11,056,742 
 
 1,892,297 
 
 67,520 
 
 17,081 
 
 
 
 1826 
 
 7,468,966 
 
 85,070 
 
 7,654,036 
 
 1,634,483 
 
 03,830 
 
 18,848 
 
 
 
 1S2T 
 
 8,189,496 
 
 133,065 
 
 8,322,561 
 
 1,434,106 
 
 68,854 
 
 24,601 
 
 
 
 1828 
 
 6,508,670 
 
 42,142 
 
 6,550.712 
 
 1,242,048 
 
 47,555 
 
 26,600 
 
 
 
 1829 
 
 8.134,676 
 
 40,910 
 
 8,175,556 
 
 1,139,618 
 
 66,337 
 
 24.473 
 
 
 
 1830 
 
 Total... 
 
 7,630,821 
 
 46,210 
 
 7,627,031 
 
 1.0.H019 
 
 52,464 
 
 20,405 
 
 
 
 $77,268,51)6 
 
 $1,411,799 
 
 $78,680,396 
 
 $18,173,160 
 
 566,145 
 
 208,713 
 
 
 
 Sept. 30, 1831 
 
 $6,523,605 
 
 $46,696 
 
 $0,675,201 
 
 $1,238,103 
 
 48,426 
 
 29,046 
 
 6,802 
 
 9,040 
 
 1832 
 
 7,685,833 
 
 66,898 
 
 7,762,731 
 
 1,213,726 
 
 47,893 
 
 41,8:0 
 
 
 
 1833 
 
 8,337,612 
 
 96,813 
 
 8,434,325 
 
 1,517,7115 
 
 4'1,03 
 
 37,478 
 
 
 
 1S34 
 
 11,119,566 
 
 88,213 
 
 11,207,778 
 
 1,787,207 
 
 60,347 
 
 40,495 
 
 
 
 1835 
 
 11,224,298 
 
 118,718 
 
 11,338,016 
 
 l,S91,8i;6 
 
 48,703 
 
 33.470 
 
 
 
 1836 
 
 13,482,767 
 
 201,610 
 
 13,084,376 
 
 2,801,361 
 
 61,552 
 
 35,036 
 
 
 
 1837 
 
 11,138,992 
 
 81,169 
 
 11,220,161 
 
 2,510,800 
 
 49,600 
 
 39,250 
 
 
 
 1838 
 
 11,017,391 
 
 24,679 
 
 11,042,070 
 
 2,318,791 
 
 37,242 
 
 27,356 
 
 
 
 1839 
 
 10,318 822 
 
 66,604 
 
 10,385,426 
 
 8,086,077 
 
 51.828 
 
 30,627 
 
 
 
 1840 
 
 Total... 
 
 9,981,016 
 
 65,753 
 
 10,030,709 
 
 2,058,870 
 
 83,090 
 
 25,405 
 
 
 
 $100,834,791 
 
 $842,063 
 
 $101,676,853 
 
 $20,424,624 
 
 6J0,7S9 
 
 340,070 
 
 
 
 Sept. 3D, 1841 
 
 $8,011,392 
 
 $31,832 
 
 $3,043,284 
 
 $1,667,431 
 
 63,460 
 
 28,710 
 
 12,953 
 
 11,441 
 
 1842 
 
 7.5118,399 
 
 17,324 
 
 7,.526,723 
 
 1,359,465 
 
 61.132 
 
 34,018 
 
 
 
 .9mos., 1843* 
 
 7,764,153 
 
 6,657 
 
 7,760,809 
 
 1,294,709 
 
 71,400 
 
 43,191 
 
 
 
 June 30, 1844 
 
 7,429,585 
 
 3,097 
 
 7,433,283 
 
 1,131,515 
 
 49,801 
 
 48,926 
 
 
 
 1846 
 
 8,884,770 
 
 5,878 
 
 8,890,648 
 
 1,143,1.68 
 
 80,768 
 
 33,912 
 
 .... 
 
 
 1846 
 
 6,829,635 
 
 18,942 
 
 6,848,477 
 
 902,.530 
 
 50,614 
 
 27.679 
 
 
 
 1847 
 
 10,423,146 
 
 3,371 
 
 10,431,517 
 
 1,550,653 
 
 66,429 
 
 411,792 
 
 
 
 184S 
 
 8,081,917 
 
 
 8,081,917 
 
 1,485,299 
 
 53,8!)4 
 
 42,662 
 
 
 
 1840 
 
 9,699,875 
 
 1,301 
 
 9,701,176 
 
 1,475,695 
 
 88,738 
 
 58,401 
 
 
 
 1850 
 
 Total... 
 
 11,446,892 
 
 908 
 
 11,447,800 
 
 1,933,785 
 
 73.323 
 
 53,830 
 
 
 
 $86,074,663 
 
 $89,970 
 
 $86,164,033 
 
 $13,804,261 
 
 653,327 
 
 410,947 
 
 
 
 June 30, 1851 ." 
 
 $15,316,578 
 
 
 $16,310,578 
 
 $2,081,312 
 
 81,336 
 
 59,172 
 
 
 17,977 
 
 1852 
 
 11,670,021 
 
 
 11,070,021 
 
 2,175,014 
 
 89,037 
 
 63,234 
 
 
 
 1853 
 
 16,400,408 
 
 
 16,400,408 
 
 1,803,517 
 
 76,368 
 
 56,260 
 
 
 
 1854 
 
 11,982,308 
 
 $12,708 
 
 11,996,016 
 
 1,711,355 
 
 86,003 
 
 39,623 
 
 
 
 1855 
 
 12,698,891 
 
 1,S59 
 
 12,700,250 
 
 l,588,!v42 
 
 110 533 
 
 34,414 
 
 
 
 1856 
 
 17,358,293 
 
 2,261 
 
 17,360,549 
 
 1,905,234 
 
 114,963 
 
 40,255 
 
 
 
 18.T 
 
 16,127,434 
 
 12,969 
 
 16,140,403 
 
 2,019,786 
 
 105,002 
 
 47,940 
 
 
 
 Nino months to June 30, and the fiscal year from this time begins July 1. 
 
 the entrance to the harbor there is a sand bar, of about 
 eight miles in length, having several channels. Three 
 of the channels can only be used by ships of large ton- 
 
 Principal Ports. — Charleston, lat. 32° 47' N., long. 
 79° 48' W., situated on a point of land between the 
 Ashley and Cooper rivers, has a spacious harbor. At 
 
sou 
 
 1739 
 
 SPA 
 
 nage ; one, the ships' channel, has a depth of water of 
 twelve feot at ebb-tide, and from seventeen to twenty 
 at flood-tide. Ships always take a pilot, on account 
 of shifting sands, and are moored along side wharves 
 in safety inside the harbor. It is the chief commercial 
 emporium of the State, and the largest shipping port 
 on the Atlantic below Baltimore. The chief exports 
 are cotton and rice. It is connected with the interior 
 by the South Carolina and the Northeastern railroads. 
 The tonnage of Charleston, in 1856, was 59,128 tons. 
 
 Beaufort, on the west side of Port Eoyal Uiver, an 
 inlet of the Atlantic, and sixteen miles from the sea, 
 has a good harbor, but on account of a bar at its mouth 
 only small vessels can enter it. It has little or no com- 
 merce. The tonnage in 1856 was only 110 tons. — For 
 further particulars as to South Carolina, see Southern 
 Quart. Rev., xviii. 66, xx. 273, 298, iv. 247 (Simms) ; 
 De Bow's Rev., viii. 24, xi. 123 ; North American Rev., 
 xiii. 143. 
 
 South Sea Bubble. This destructive specula- 
 tion was commenced in 1710, and the company incor- 
 porated by statute in 1716. The bubble, which ruin- 
 ed thousands of families, exploded in 1720, and the di- 
 rectoi's' estates, to the value of £2,014,000 sterling, 
 were seized in 1721. Mr. Knight, the cashier, ab- 
 sconded with £100,000; but he compounded the fraud 
 for £10,000, and returned to England in 1743. Al- 
 most all the wealthy persons in the kingdom had be- 
 come stock-jobbers and speculators in this unfortunate 
 scheme. The artifices of the directors had raised tiie 
 shares, originally of £100, to the enormous price of 
 £1000.— See Chakles Mackay's History of Modem 
 Manias ; Bankers^ Magazine, N. Y. 
 
 Sotith Sea Duties. The British act of the 9 
 Ann. c. 21, establishing the South Sea Company, con- 
 veyed to them the exclusive privilege of trading to the 
 Pacific Ocean, and along the east coast of America, 
 from the Orinoco to Cape Horn. 
 
 Sovereign J^li& Coin). The name of an ancient 
 as well as a modern English gold coin. In Henry I.'s 
 reign, a coin of this denomination was issued, of the 
 value of twenty-two shillings, and one twenty-fourth 
 part of the weight of a pound of gold. In 34 Henry 
 VIII., sovereigns were coined of the value of twenty 
 shillings, which afterward (4 and 6 Edward VI.) passed 
 for twenty-four and thirty shillings. By 66 George 
 III., sovereigns of the new gold coinage were directed 
 to pass for twenty shillings, and they were issued from 
 the Mint the same jear (1810), and have since main- 
 tained the same value. 
 
 Sovereignty of the Seas. The claim of England 
 is of very ancient date. Arthur was the first who as- 
 sumed the sovereignty of the seas for Britain, and Alfred 
 afterward supported this right. The sovereignty of 
 England over the British seas was maintained by Sel- 
 den, and measures were taken by government in con- 
 sequence, 8 Charles I., in 1633. The Dutch, after the 
 death of Charles I., made some attempts to obtain it, 
 but were roughly treated by Blake and other admirals. 
 Bussia and other powers of the North armed, to avoid 
 search, in 1780; again in 1800. — Haydn. 
 
 Soy, a species of sauce prepared in China and Jap- 
 an from a small bean, the produce of the Dolichos soja. 
 It is eaten with fish and other articles. It should be 
 chosen of a good flavor, not too salt nor too sweet, of 
 a good thick consistence, a brown color, and clear ; 
 when shaken in a glass, it should leave a coat on the 
 surface, of a bright yellowish brown color; if it do 
 not, it is of an inferior kind, and should be rejected. 
 Japan soy is deemed superior to the Chinese. It is 
 worth, in bond, from six to seven shillings sterling a 
 gallon. It is believed to be extensively counterfeited. 
 — MiLEnRN's Orient. Com. 
 
 Spain, or Espana (Iheria, Hispanid), a country 
 of southwestern Europe, occupying the greater part of 
 the Iberian peninsula, and often termed colloquially 
 "the Peninsula," extending between lat. 36° 1' and 
 
 43° 45' N., and long. 3° 20' E., and 9° 21' W., bounded 
 north by the Bay of Biscay and by the Pyrenees, which 
 separate it from France, east by the Mediterranean, 
 south by the Mediterranean and the Strait of Gibral- 
 tar, and west by Portugal and the Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 Spain is rich in minerals, especially mercury, iron, 
 copper, and lead. The celebrated gold and silver mines 
 of the time of the Romans have long been abandoned, 
 but mercury is extracted in great abundance from the 
 mines of Almaden. Lead forms an important branch 
 of mining industry. Coal is found chiefly in the Astu- 
 rias ; copper, tin, zinc, antimony, arsenic, and cobalt, 
 are common, and rock-salt is abundant in the hills of 
 Cardona. The principal rivers of Spain are, from north 
 to south, the Tor, Llobregat, Ebro, Guadalaviar, Jucar, 
 and Segura, flowing east \o the Mediterranean. The 
 Minho, Douro, Tagus, Guadiana, and Guadalquivir, 
 flowing mostly through Portugal west and south to the 
 Atlantic. Few of these are navigable, and those only 
 for small boats near their mouths. 
 
 Spanish Colonies. — The principal are Cuba, Puerto 
 Rico, and some smaller islands in America; the Phil- 
 ippine and Marrianno I.slands in the Pacific, the Ca- 
 nary Islands in the Atlantic, Fernando Po and the Isl- 
 and of Annabon in the Gulf of Guinea, and Ceuta, Go- 
 mera, and Melilla in Barbary. — For a full account of 
 the Colonies, see articles under these heads. 
 
 The Public Debt of Spain. — The following is an oiii- 
 cial return of the state of the public debt of Spain on 
 the 30th of June, 1855: 
 
 Three per cent, stock, payable to beal'er, and 
 inscriptions transferable and non-transfera- 
 ble (internal) 
 
 Ditto given as guarantees for loans and con- 
 tracts 
 
 Ditto deferred 
 
 Three per cents (foreign) 
 
 Ditto deferred 
 
 Consolidated bonds and other internal stock, 
 bearing 4 per cent, interest 
 
 Five per cent, stock and inscriptions, transfer- 
 able and non-transferable 
 
 Redeemable debt, 1st class 
 
 Certificates of current debt at 5 per cent, in 
 paper (Certificaciones de deuda corriente al 
 5 porlOO&papel) 
 
 Non-consolidated bonds 
 
 Laminas Prorisionales 
 
 Bonds payable to bearer of redeemable debt, 
 2d class 
 
 Provisional documents for interest on the d6u- 
 da corriente b. 5 por 100 A papel 
 
 Bonds of all kinds of the debt witliout interest 
 (d6uda sin interds) 
 
 Inscriptions of active debt, 5 per cent 
 
 Inscriptions of English claims, 5 per cent. . . . 
 
 Ditto in favor of French treasury 
 
 Ditto United States 
 
 Foreign passive debt 
 
 Inscriptions of old foreign 5 per cent debt . . . 
 
 Ditto foreign 3 per cents of 1831 
 
 Actions of national loan of 1821 
 
 Certificates of premium on the LafBtte loan. . 
 
 Deferj'ed debt of 1S31, without interest. . . 
 
 Bonds payable to bearer of foreign redeemable 
 debt, 2d class 
 
 Capitals recognized to the ownei-s of lay tithes 
 
 Certificates of ditto, and interest on the same 
 
 Proprietors of quitrents of the order of St. John 
 of Jerusalem 
 
 Interests of the inscription in favor of the 
 French treasury 
 
 Capitalizable interfst at 8 per cent 
 
 Interests of 4 and 5 per cent debt, home and 
 foreign 
 
 Interest in paper of the 5 per cent current debt 
 
 Bonds issued for personal services (1st class). 
 
 State paper issued for railway undertakings 
 (acciones de feiTO carriles) 
 
 Loans (by decrees and laws) of 1838, 1S41, 1860, 
 1851, and 18S2 
 
 Treasury bills, preferable, with interest 
 
 Ditto, non-preferable 
 
 Ditto, preferable, without interest 
 
 Ditto, non-preferable, without interest. 
 
 Total Reals, 1855 
 
 Itenls. 
 2,681,011,544 
 
 543,012,000 
 
 1,597,289,456 
 
 713,594,010 
 
 316,978,400 
 
 85,889,492 
 
 134,178,119 
 331,201,486 
 
 495,393,238 
 90,847,622 
 56,867,833 
 
 266,400,000 
 
 129,552,669 
 
 387,328,678 
 
 14,260,000 
 
 90,000 
 
 278,268,123 
 
 12,000,000 
 
 33,504,000 
 
 79,852,000 
 
 1.786,133 
 
 3,774,000 
 
 2,301,300 
 
 122,310,000 
 
 970,964,000 
 
 115,075,725 
 
 39,677,238 
 
 91,400 
 
 183,760.874 
 
 38,740,157 
 
 18,543,628 
 
 407,040,748 
 
 23,978,124 
 
 192,200,000 
 
 192,880,000 
 
 12,251,384 
 
 42,601,670 
 
 149,870 
 
 1,068.694 
 
 13,580,466,110 
 
 The same report states that the total amount of re- 
 deemable debt, including 1st and 2d class, purchased 
 
SPA 
 
 1740 
 
 SPA 
 
 since the law of 1851 to the end of June, 1855, was 
 934,935,271 reals, and cost the state 67,101,134 reals. 
 
 The climate of Spain varies exceedingly with eleva- 
 tion and position ; it is warm on the coasts ; the table- 
 lands are exposed to great heat in summer, and ex- 
 treme cold in winter. The soil is generally fertile, ex- 
 cept in the elevated and arid districts of the central 
 provinces; the chief crops are wheat, maize, barley, 
 rice, hemp, and flax. The amount of corn is often in- 
 sufficient for home consumption. The wines of Spain 
 are much esteemed ; the principal growths are those of 
 Xeres (sherry), Rota, Malaga, Alicante, Malvasia, and 
 Val de Penas ; the other products are soda (from ma- 
 rine plants), honey, wax, and silk, the latter very 
 abundant in the southeastern provinces. In the south- 
 ern provinces the sugar-cane and cotton have been, ac- 
 climatized, and there the orange and citron grow in 
 great abundance. The best building timber grows in 
 the northern coast ; the cork-tree, the kennes,oak,iand 
 the shumao-tree, yield valuable products. The horses 
 of Andalusia are celebrated; the mules and asses are 
 remarkable for beauty and size. Cattle are of good 
 breeds. The race of sheep called the merino yields a 
 great quantity of excellent wool; their exportation 
 has always been prohibited, their pasturage is, regu- 
 lated by ancient laws, and their number is reckoned at 
 five or six millions. 
 
 Commerce. — There is not at this time, nor has there 
 ever been, a commercial treaty between the govern- 
 ment of the United States and that of Spain. But two 
 treaties of any kind have been negotiated between the 
 two governments — one purporting to be *' A treaty of 
 friendship, limits, and navigation," signed Octobeir 27, 
 1795; the other, "A treaty of amity, settlement, and 
 limits," February 22, 1821. 
 
 In regard to navigation, the first-mentioned treaty 
 provided chiefly for a state of wat, and prescribed the 
 immunities and privileges to which the vessels of each 
 should be entitled, in such a contingency, in the ports, 
 harbors, bays, etc., of the other. 
 
 By article 1st, the contracting parties agree that 
 there shall be a firm and inviolable peace and sincere 
 friendship between his Catholic Majesty, his success- 
 ors and subjects, and the United States and their citi- 
 zens, without exception of persons or places. — Art. 7. 
 The citizens and subjects, vessels and efiects, of each 
 of the parties, not to be liable to embargo or detention 
 for any military expedition, or other public or private 
 purpose, by either party. — /Irt. 13. In the event of a 
 war between the contracting parties, the merchants re- 
 siding in the dominions of either to be allowed one year 
 from the declaration of war to remove their effects. — 
 Art. 18. Ships of war of either party, when exercis- 
 ing right of search, to remain out of cannon-shot, and 
 to board with two or three men only ; and having seen 
 passport, not to molest in any manner, nor force to quit 
 her intended course, the vessel so visited. — Art. 19. 
 Consuls to be reciprocally established, and to be enti- 
 tled to the privileges and powers enjoyed by those of 
 the most favored nations. — Art. 22 (1st section). The 
 two contracting parties to give in future to their mu- 
 tual commerce all the extension and favor which the 
 advantages of both countries may require. 
 
 The treaty of 1819, so far as it relates to navigation, 
 confirms all the foregoing stipulations of the treaty of 
 1795 ; and as no limit was assigned to the duration of 
 that treaty, those stipulations are still in force, and, 
 with subsequent acts of legislation, regulate the inter- 
 course, navigation, and commerce between the United 
 States and its citizens, and the King of Spain, his suc- 
 cessors and subjects, between whom it is agreed " there 
 shall be a firm and inviolable peace and sincere friend- 
 ship, without exception of persons or places." The com- 
 merce between the United States and Spain, though at 
 all times employing but a limited capital, commenced at 
 a period long anterior to the American Revolution. The 
 British-American colonists were permitted, by act of 
 
 Parliament, to carry on a direct trade in all articles, 
 except tobacco, and naval stores, with countries south 
 of Cape Finisterre. , This trade consisted principally 
 in exporting from the colonies lumber, laths, and other 
 produce (tobacco and naval stores excepted), and in 
 bringing, home return cargoes of wine; salt,'fruits, aud 
 other productions of the Spanish peninsula. 
 
 After the peace of 1783, a more unrestricted trade was 
 opened between the two countries ; but, owing to the 
 prohibition on tobacco (a policy adopted for the pur- 
 pose of encouraging the growth of ,that article in the 
 Spanish colonial possessions), and the high protective 
 duties on most of the other leading staples of the Unit- 
 ed States, the trade could not have realized any hope 
 of profitable investment, or given much encouragement 
 to commercial, enterprise. The wines, fruits, olive oil, 
 salt, brandies, barilla, silks, and wools of Spain, would 
 constitute a profitable and, an easy exchange for the 
 productions of the United States, particularly bread- 
 stuffs, tobacco, and cotton, if that counti'y could be in- 
 duced to relax a system of restrictive policy which has 
 never realized the benefits it was designed to secure, 
 and , has virtually rendered Spain, to a great extent, 
 commercially isolated from the other nations of the 
 earth. Her legislation in regard to commercial in- 
 tercourse with foreign countries would seem to be based 
 upon the principle of possessing and securing within 
 herself all the advantages of an extensive commerce, 
 and all the .means of luxury, wealth, and power — a 
 principle which, however gratifying to national vanity 
 it may be in, theory, needs no other proof of its utter 
 impracticability, if not of its inevitably pernicious con- 
 sequences, than a reference to what is known of the 
 history of Japan or China, or even to the commercial 
 condition of Spain herself during the last half century. 
 She has ever maintained and exercised the right to be 
 the sole arbiter of her commercial regulations, and, ,as 
 such, permits no foreign interference with her policy of 
 excluding from her ports the produce of the industry 
 and soil of other nations. Two features stand prom- 
 inently forward in this , exclusive and restrictive sys- 
 tem : the first, the exclusion of commodities from any 
 country, except, her colonial empire, especially before 
 its dismemberment and consequent diminution ; and, 
 secondly, by compelling the latter to consume no man- 
 ufactured articles except those of Spain, with the view 
 that all the precious metals should be sent to the moth- 
 er country, where they would remain if no foreign mer- 
 chandise was admitted. Notwithstanding these pre- 
 cautions, the precious metals were drained off to for- 
 eign countries, in exchange for the enormous contra- 
 band importations smuggled into Spain, by way of the 
 Basque provinces, through Portugal; by way of the 
 Mediterranean ; and also even, as they were, and are 
 to the present day, by way of Gibraltar. Besides, an 
 extensive contraband trade with the Spanish settle- 
 ments in Cuba and South America was carried on b3' 
 the British-American colonies,, thus draining off a large 
 portion of the precious metals, which it was the policy 
 of the mother country to monopolize, at a cost so fatal 
 to her commercial prosperity. This contraband trade 
 was, however, arrested,, and after a short time totally 
 suppressed, by the vigilance of the guarda-costas sta- 
 tioned by Spain along the coasts, and by the indiscrim- 
 inate seizure of all British colonial vessels found near 
 the shores of the Spanish colonies. 
 
 The trade with Spain of late years exhibits in a most 
 striking manner the pernicious effect of a system of com- 
 mercial intercourse which, however well it may have 
 fulfilled its ends when Mexico, the West Indies, the 
 South American republics, and the Spanish Polynesian 
 islands all poured their united treasures into the lap 
 of Spain, and thus rendered her to a certain extent in- 
 dependent of other nations, has long since proved to be 
 the most serious, if not the only, obstacle to her regain- 
 ing the proud and prominent position she once held in 
 the family of nations. The difference in the amount 
 
SPA 
 
 1741 
 
 SPA 
 
 of exports between the periods of 1834 and 1854 is at- 
 tributable to the pafrtial relaxation of the restrictive 
 system within thepast few years, particularly the mod- 
 ifications Which the tariff has iliidergone since 1849; 
 btrt the great disproportion between imports and ex"- 
 ports, resulting in' so' large a' balance against Spain, 
 shows that the prohibitions and restrictions are as yet 
 biit partially abated. > ' 
 
 Of the article of tobacco, about 6i000;0C0 lbs. is smug- 
 gled annually from Gibraltar into Spain, and about 
 4,000,000 lbs. is exported froni the same depot to Oran, 
 Algiers, Malta,' and other places. Spain, in the face 
 of this contraband, still maintains her royal tobacco 
 monopoly. Exclusive of the tobacco smuggled into 
 Spain fi-ofti Gibraltar, it is smuggled along the whole 
 north and west coasts of Spain. The extension of the 
 Spanish customs to the sea-coasts and ports of Biscay 
 iri'1844 has not dinflnished, but; it is asserted, has 
 greatly incrbased, the contraband tradej-^MACGREG-' 
 o«, parts 13 and 14, p. 96. 
 
 Notwithstanding the apparently satisfactory results, 
 the Comntorce of the United States with Spain, in Amer- 
 ican bottoms, is perceptibly declining. ' Various causes 
 conspire to this result, among which, may be rpgarded 
 as the most prominent the enormous differential duties 
 imposed on imports under all foreign flags, and the dis- 
 criminating duties of port and na^'iga'tion, amounting 
 to 100 per cent, on Xniefican'vessels in favor of nation- 
 al, and what is styled " privileged vessels ;" or, in oth- 
 er words, the vessels of nearly' all other foreign nations. 
 Besides, America!n vessels are frequently exposed to 
 local restrictions (doubtless unauthorized by the gov- 
 ernment) in tlie different ports, to which they' must 
 either quietly submit, or incur all the expense, delay, 
 and trouble of,protesting against the action of officials' 
 wiiose power in such cases is as unlimited as its exer- 
 cise is arbitrary and oppressive. VfesselS of the follow- 
 ing nations are ascertained to be of this class '. England, 
 France, Holland, Portugal, Russia, Prussia, Sardinia, 
 Belgium', Hamburg; Sweden and Norway, Tuscany, 
 Bremen, Papal States, Denmark, Brazil, Ecuador, Ltt- 
 beck, Hanover, Mecklenbiii'g, Oldenburg, and Sicily. 
 
 This has been a subject of frequent complaint on the 
 part of American captains, but thus far without obtain- 
 ing relief. The iQnited States consul at Malaga, un- 
 der date of April 3, 1854, adverting to this subject, 
 says : " Although subject to the Central Board at Mad- 
 rid, [quarantine regulations] are almost entirely un- 
 der the control of the local board of this city, * * * 
 ordering vessels off to lazarettos, * * * in the 
 face of clean bills of health certified by Spanish con- 
 suls,' upoii' mere reports, without any official informa- 
 tion to warrant such extraordinary measures^" 
 
 The following'table will show, approximately, to 
 what extent the direct tr4de between the United States 
 and Spain has fallen off within the past few years. 
 Most of this trade is carried on through the port of 
 Malaga. ' ' 
 
 Tonnage op American Vessels entered at the Pout op 
 Malaga in tue 'following Years. 
 
 YeaiB. Tons. 
 
 1840 ,. 15,ii'r6 
 
 184T 12,288 
 
 1848 16,693 
 
 1849 ....;.. 13,G52 
 
 Yeara. Tons 
 
 1850 16,600 
 
 185t 11,918 
 
 1852..... 12,610 
 
 1853...... 11.375 
 
 The falling oflTiii tonnage which the above table ex- 
 hibits is, however, perfectly reconcilable with the com- 
 parative tables for 1854 and' 1832, when we take into 
 consideration the fact that at least one-third of the ex- 
 ports to the United States is carried by privileged ves- 
 sels ; and even national vessels, notwithstanding the 
 discriminating duty of 10 per cent, to which they are 
 subject in the ports of the United States, participate 
 largely in this carrying trade, for the 'purpose of return- 
 ing ■with cargoes of cotton for Malaga and Barcelona, 
 or with codfish from Newfoundland. 
 
 The great articles of export from Spain consist (ex- 
 clusive of silk manufactures) of raw products. Of these 
 
 wine; olive oil, wool, fruits of various kinds, lead, quick- 
 silver, brandy, cork -wood; salt, raw silk, wheat, etc., 
 are the most important, and are almost all susceptible 
 of an indefinite increase. 
 
 The great articles of import are colonial productfl; 
 obtained principally from Cuba, Porto Eico, etc. ; cot- 
 tons and' cotton wool; linens, and hemp and flax; 
 woolens ; salted fish ; hardware, glass, and earthen- 
 ware ; timber, rice, hides, butter and cheese, etc. Sub- 
 joined is ■■■ 
 
 An Account op tue Valttes op the PEiNCirAi, Articles of 
 Native Produce EXPORTEto'pBOM Spain in 1849, showing 
 
 ALSO TUE proportional VaLUE OP EACH AR-nCLE. 
 
 Articles in the Order of tbeir 
 .■ importflnce, 
 
 Wiae,i8herry 
 
 " common .^,.., 
 " Malaga ....... 
 
 Total wine. 
 
 Olive-oil .'. . . 
 
 Flour J.. 
 
 Quicksilver ,. . 
 
 Lead 
 
 Raisins 
 
 Wool 
 
 Coin 
 
 Cork-wood . . . 
 
 Brandy 
 
 Cochineal 
 
 Silver in bars. 
 
 Salt 
 
 Nuts 
 
 Silk 
 
 Liquorice 
 
 Almonds 
 
 Oranges '. .. 
 
 Silk goods 
 
 Saffron 
 
 Hides.., ,.. 
 
 Iron .*i 
 
 Woolen goods. . '. ; 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Shoes , 
 
 Pastas 
 
 Maize 
 
 Cattle. .. ^...,. I. .>j.. 
 
 GarbanzoA, or chick-pea . 
 
 Garden stliflf 
 
 White paper, i 
 
 Books.... ■. 
 
 nice ■,.... 
 
 Sedge mattings, etc 
 
 Lemons . ' ...\.y...l'. 
 
 Hempen yarn..'.. 
 Oil of almonds. .. 
 Kidney beans....' 
 Siigar. '.'.'. .';.;.;. 
 
 Salted codfish 
 
 Grapes 
 
 All Cither articles. 
 Total 
 
 Value in 
 Seftls Vellon. 
 
 7a,830,620 
 
 22,760,768 
 
 4,162,791 
 
 106,754,179 
 46,797,947 
 36,859,952 
 36,236,840 
 32,561,614 
 29,745,843 
 14,339,281 
 18,802,902 
 13,181,455 
 12,922,000 
 11,2874903 
 10,004,603 
 ,9,941,327 
 ' 5,724,648' 
 ' 6,B30,4B3 
 ,,,4,15^486 
 8,477,235 
 3,441,264 
 3,806,390 
 2,769,972 
 , 2.717,035 
 2,677,446 
 2,226,908' 
 2,139j519 
 1,965,844 
 1,022,579 
 1,83C;929 
 1,666,215 
 1,601,798 
 1,600,242 
 1,503,122 
 1,479,278 
 1,446,014 
 1,,368,949 
 1,349,253 
 1,509,765 
 1,177,724 
 1,156,446 
 1,096,548 
 1,087,036 
 1,044,879 
 916,768 
 ,912,768 
 80,725,990 
 
 469,010,917 
 
 'Aitiomit tier Cent. 
 Of. Total Value. 
 
 22-76 
 
 ■ 9'9S . 
 
 7-85, 
 ,7-71 
 6 94 
 6-35 
 306 
 2-84, 
 
 2-81 
 2-76 
 2-46 
 2-13 
 2-11 
 1-22 
 1-lT 
 ,0-88 , 
 0-74 
 0-74 
 0-73 
 0-58 
 0-57 
 0-54 
 0-47 
 0-46 
 0-42 , 
 0-41 
 0-40 
 0-35 
 0-34 
 0-34 
 0-32 
 0-32 
 0-30 
 0-29 
 0-28 
 0-20 
 ' 0-25 
 0-24 
 0-24 
 0-23 
 0-22 
 20 
 019 
 6-56 
 
 100 00 
 
 The importance of the trade that Spain formerly 
 carried on with her vast possessions in the New World 
 was at all times much exaggerated ; and she, in truth, 
 was little better than an agent in the business, the 
 greater part of the goods sent on Spanish bottoms to 
 the colonies being, in reality, the property of foreign 
 merchants. Spain, notwithstanding the emancipation 
 of Mexico and South America, has still some very val- 
 uable Colonies ; and, if nothing else can, the astonish- 
 ing progress made by Cuba and Porto Eico since the 
 abolition of the prohibitive system, should satisfy her 
 of its ruinous tendency. 
 
 New Organization of Ports.— ^By royal decree of Feb- 
 ruary 28, 1854, a new organization is made of the cus- 
 toms service by land and sea, the principal features of 
 which it may be interesting to the mercantile interests 
 of the United States to have noted. As regards the 
 sea, it divides the service into four classes. The first 
 class 'comprises inJportation, exportation, re-exporta- 
 tion, coasting-trade, and all other commercial opera- 
 tions in the ports of Alicante, Almeria, Barcelona, Bil- 
 boa, Cadiz, Carthagena, Palma de Majorca, San Se- 
 bastian, Santander, Seville, Tarragona, and Vigo. In 
 the second class, comprising the ports of Carril, Palo- 
 
SPA 
 
 1742 
 
 SPA 
 
 mas, and Rivadeo, the importation of cotton tissues is 
 not to be permitted. In tlie ports of tlie third class, 
 comprising those of seventeen provinces, only certain 
 specified articles, principally raw materials, are to be 
 imported and exported ; and in those of the fourth class, 
 comprising sixteen provinces and the Balearic Isles, 
 only coasting-trade operations and exports are to be 
 allowed. As regards the land, it is divided into three 
 classes, and the regulations are framed solely with a 
 view to prevent smuggling. They do not, however, 
 possess sufficient interest for insertion here at length. 
 
 The principal ports are, Alicant, a sea-port in Valen- 
 cia, lat. 38° 20' 41" N., long. 30' W. The harbor is 
 open and spacious, between Cape de la Huerta on the 
 northeast, and Isla Plana on the south, distant from 
 each other about ten miles. Ships of considerable bur- 
 den moor from one-fourth to one mile from shore, in 
 from 30 to JO feet of water; they are exposed to all 
 winds from the east-northeast to south by west; but 
 the holding-ground is good, and tliere is no instance 
 of a ship having been driven from her moorings in the 
 past twenty years. 
 
 Barcelona, the principal town of Spain on the Med- 
 itermnean, in lat. 41° 22' N., and long. 2° 10' E. The 
 harbor is naturally bad, and is formed by a mole or 
 jetty. The depth of water within the mole is from 18 
 to 20 feet ; but there is a bar between the mole and 
 Monjni, and which has frequently not more than ten 
 feet. Vessels inside the mole are safe. Large vessels 
 have to anchor outside, and are much incommoded by 
 the winds. 
 
 Bilbao, sometimes incorrectly written Belboa, a sea- 
 port in the Bay of Biscay. 
 
 Cadiz, the principal commercial city and sea-port of 
 Spain, on its southwestern coast, on the rocky and el- 
 evated extremity of a narrow, low peninsula, or tongue 
 of land, projecting from the Isla de Leon N.N.W. 
 about 4 j nautical miles. It is surrounded on all sides 
 except the south — where it joins the land — by the sea, 
 and is very strongly fortified. Population in 1837, 
 5s,525. It is well built, and has at a distance a very 
 strilting appearance. The tower or light-house of St. 
 Sebastian stands on the western side of the city, being 
 in lat. 36° 31' 7" N., long. 6° 18' 62" W. It is a most 
 conspicuous object to vessels approaching from the At- 
 lantic. The light, which is 172 feet high, is of great 
 brilliancy, revolves once a minute, and in fair weather 
 may be seen more than six leagues ofil 
 
 Bmj of Cadiz. — The entrance to this noble basin lies 
 between the city and the town and promontory of Rota, 
 bearing northwest by north, distant about If leagues. 
 The hay is of very great extent, afibrding in most 
 places good anchorage. The port is on the eastern 
 side of the city, where a. large mole has been con- 
 structed. 
 
 By a royal order of January 3, 1852, it was decreed 
 that all foreign vessels belonging to countries where 
 Spanish vessels are placed on the same footing as na- 
 tional, with respect to port dues and charges, should 
 enjoy a like privilege in the ports of Spain and adja- 
 cent islands ; but, practically, this decree was not per- 
 mitted to appl3' to vessels of the United States, and 
 they continued subject to double the amount of such 
 dues and charges paid by other foreign and the nation- 
 al vessels. The reason for the non-fulfillment of this 
 provision, as respects this country, was the refusal of 
 the government of the United States to receive vessels 
 in its ports on equal terms from Cuba and Porto Rico ; 
 and yie government of Spain refused to accede to such 
 condition, as it desired to secure this benefit for its ma- 
 rine, from wheresoever her vessels might proceed. On 
 the 16th of June, 1854, however, the American minis- 
 ter at Madrid was officially informed by the Spanish 
 Minister of State that her Majesty the Queen had been 
 pleased to command that American vessels " be consid- 
 ered in the peninsula and adjacent islands like nation- 
 al ones, as regards the duties of port and navigation, in 
 
 reciprocity for what is practiced ^vith the Spanish ves- 
 sels proceeding from the same places in the United 
 States, and with reference to the same duties." The 
 official notification added, that corresponding orders 
 had been given, "under date of the 14th inst., to the 
 general direction of custom-houses and tariffs," to car- 
 ry into effect the dispositions of this order. 
 
 The effect of the above-recited royal ordel-will be to 
 place American shipping on an equality, as respects 
 the duties of port and navigation, with national and 
 privileged vessels, and thus reciprocate the terms on 
 which Spanish vessels have been admitted into tlie ports 
 of the United States since 1852. Should this be fol- 
 lowed up by a liberal modification, or an entire aboli- 
 tion, of the enormous discriminating duties levied on 
 foreign imports in the ports of Spain, the commercial 
 intercourse between the two countries would soon be- 
 come a source of industrial development and national 
 -prosperity, equally beneficial and profitable to each. 
 The quarantine regulations of Spain have always been 
 complicated and vexatious. They were simplified, 
 however, by a sanitary tariff, promulgated December, 
 1855, a translation of which is subjoined: 
 
 TARIFF OF SAKITAKY DUTIES EXACTED IN THE 
 PORTS AND LAZARETTOS OF SPAIN. 
 
 Entrance Duties. — Coasting vessels of more than 
 twenty tons burden will pay one quarter of a real per 
 ton for the round voyage. 
 
 Vessels proceeding from the ports of the Mediterra- 
 nean and other ports of Europe, including the coast of 
 Africa to the parallel of the Canary Islands, will pay 
 one half of a real per ton for the round voyage. 
 
 Vessels from other places will pay one real per ton 
 each voyage. 
 
 Quarantine Duties. — Vessels of every class will pay 
 one quarter of a real per ton each day they are subject 
 to quarantine, whether in actual lazarettos or undergo- 
 ing observation. 
 
 Lazaretto Duties. — The fee for each person in the laz- 
 aretto will be four reals per diem. 
 
 Merchandise subject to purification will pay as fol- 
 lows: 
 
 The clothing and baggage of each of the crew 5 reals. 
 
 The clothing and baggage of each passenger 10 '* 
 
 Hides of cows, per 100 6 " 
 
 Fine skinB 6 '* 
 
 Goat, sheep, lamb-sltins, and the sldns of otlier 
 
 small animals, per 100 2 " 
 
 Feathers, goats'-hair, soft hair, wool, cotton, hemp, 
 
 and flax, per quintal 1 " 
 
 Large live animals, such as liorses and mules, each 8 " 
 
 Small animals, each 4 '' 
 
 Ceriijicates of Health shall be made out, and legally 
 attested, free of charge. 
 
 Regulations. — ^Vessels in quarantine defray all the 
 expenses attending the discharge of merchandise, its 
 transfer to the sheds and work-houses, and its purifica- 
 tion. They, in like manner, paj', as an additional 
 duty, the expenses attending the application of hygiene 
 measures, which must be employed before the depart- 
 ure or arrival of the embarkations, as the regulations 
 dispose, or as the condition of the vessel may require. 
 During all the incidents of quarantine, every possible 
 facility is to be afforded to vessels, no expense being 
 permitted without the knowledge or consent of the cap- 
 tain, agent, or consignee. All persons who perform 
 quarantine in the lazai-ettos defray all the necessary ex- 
 penses, inasmuch as the four reals per diem which is ex- 
 acted from each is only the fee for residence. 
 
 Where Spanish vessels are about to depart from a 
 port of the United States with any goods, wares, or 
 merchandise, for any destination other than some port 
 or place in the islands of Cuba or Porto Rico, the bond 
 and security required by the 3d section of the act of 
 30th June, 1834, are exacted in all such cases, before 
 allowing clearance or departure of the vessels. 
 
 A Spanish vessel leaving a port of Spain for a port 
 in Cuba, but, not iinding there a satisfactory market, 
 
SPA 
 
 1743 
 
 SPA 
 
 proceeding, without breaking bulk or taking in any 
 goods at said island, to a port in the United States, 
 would not on entry be subjected to nny other or higher 
 duties of tonnage or imposts than she would be if di- 
 rect from a port of Spain to the United States ; the 
 voyage, under the circumstances, being regarded as 
 continuous. 
 
 Commerce of Spain in the Year 1854. 
 
 Countries 
 
 Imporla. 
 
 Exporto. 
 
 EUBOPB. 
 
 Austria 
 
 Kealii. 
 
 1,040,527 
 
 2,915,839 
 
 4,40-1,803 
 
 4,727,877 
 
 395,31)8 
 
 42,920 
 
 3,610,425 
 
 173,589,279 
 
 3,821,034 
 
 158,324,024 
 
 6,527,270 
 
 102,509 
 
 1,183,709 
 
 24,083,380 
 
 2,395,340 
 
 60.050,509 
 
 Reals. 
 
 874,013 
 
 3,849,715 
 
 14,081,459 
 
 26,454,925 
 
 10,985,836 
 
 1,430,468 
 
 877,162 
 
 238,421,957 
 
 4,630,929 
 
 805,220,302 
 
 31,9!i5,9n2 
 
 7,408,274 
 
 2,959,131 
 
 4,276,887 
 
 12,872,205 
 
 1,560,021 
 
 14,819,880 
 
 
 Bremen and Hamburg 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Two Sicilies 
 
 
 France 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 England 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Prussia 
 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Tuscany 
 
 Turkey 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 Total 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 442,214,919 
 
 25,229,166 
 
 6,500 
 
 872,720 
 
 632,669,056 
 
 7,681,364 
 2,101,264 
 
 English Possessions 
 
 Zanzibar 
 
 Total 
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 26,108,398 
 
 3154,269 
 
 1,971,748 
 
 268,659 
 
 32,000 
 
 9,732,628 
 
 7,971,208 
 
 20,160 
 
 679,848' 
 
 76,849 
 
 Egypt 
 
 Morocco and Tunis 
 
 Portuguese Possessions 
 
 Total 
 
 AMHErCA. 
 
 Cuba and Porto Rico 
 
 2,626,676 
 
 148,546,232 
 
 0,395,792 
 
 222,380 
 
 12,142,536 
 
 111,723,886 
 
 2,611,390 
 
 696,370 
 
 20,040 
 
 8,654,520 
 
 10,665,391 
 
 726,064 
 
 27,118,037 
 
 13,323;623 
 
 8,648,065 
 
 161,013,480 
 
 9,050.339 
 
 7,785,872 
 
 80,000 
 
 57,312,261 
 
 7.'5,05a 
 
 7,124,693 
 
 8,623,274 
 
 32,686,464 
 
 6,816,693 
 
 1,435,037 
 
 411,037 
 
 16,000 
 
 5,068,840 
 
 Chili 
 
 Ecuador 
 
 United States 
 
 Guatemala 
 
 Mexico 
 
 New Granada 
 
 Peru 
 
 Kio de Plata 
 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 French Colonies 
 
 
 Total 
 
 Grand total. Heals . . . 
 
 342,536,251 
 
 292,453,034 
 
 813,485,244 
 
 993,602,783 
 
 
 Eutered. 
 
 Cleared. | 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 1888 i^"'"'"* ••••• 
 '"^^ tin ballast... 
 
 Total....... 
 
 1864 /Loaded 
 
 °^ \In ballast . . . 
 Total 
 
 , 6698 
 2008 
 
 , 795,140 
 189,837 
 
 5787 
 1041 
 
 029,681 
 168,130 
 
 8766 
 
 6473 
 2974 
 
 984,977- 
 
 766,525 
 3f:6,.S09 
 
 68.8 
 
 7376 
 0fi6 
 
 787,811 
 
 828,897 
 96,326 
 
 9447 1 !,0li3,K34 
 
 8072 
 
 924,223 
 
 The marine service of Spain in 1855 consisted of four 
 vessels of the line, nine frigates, eight corvettes, fifteen 
 brigs of the first, and four of the second class ; five 
 schooners, six sloops, forty steamers, and three hund- 
 red and nineteen smaller craft, mounting in all 1250 
 ordinary, and 280 swivel guns. 
 
 The imports into and exports from Spain for the 
 year 1856 are shown as follows : 
 
 Value in Reals. 
 
 Imports of 1866 87!),771,700 
 
 Imports of 1855 704,150,2,59 
 
 Increase in 1856 115,621,441 ' 
 
 Exports in 1856 1,043,610,106 
 
 Exports in 1865 1,246,784,5 99 
 
 Decrease in 1856 208,174,493 
 
 From this exhibit we see that in the aggregate there 
 was a decided decrease in the trade of Spain in the 
 year 1856 over that of 1855. 
 
 Statement .showing the American merchant vessels 
 which arrived at Cadiz in five years, 1849 to 1853 in- 
 clusive : 
 
 Years. 
 
 1849 
 
 18B0 
 
 18,51 
 
 1852 
 
 1853 
 
 Total . 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Men. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 63 
 
 801 
 
 24,310 
 
 4T 
 
 557 
 
 16.493 
 
 46 
 
 014 
 
 18,553 
 
 46 
 
 673 
 
 21,117 
 
 30 
 
 879 
 
 11.66T 
 
 232 
 
 3024 
 
 02,140 
 
 American and other foreign vessels can only trade 
 between Spain and other countries; they can not par- 
 ticipate in any Spanish coasting, domestic, or internal 
 trade. 
 
 The navigation and trade between the United States 
 and Spain does not increase. The tariff of Spain ex- 
 cludes most of the staple articles of the United States, 
 such as grain, breadstuffs, rice, tobacco, etc., the prin- 
 cipal article of import from the United States being 
 undressed oak staves for wine-casks. In order to pro- 
 mote navigation and trade between the two countries, 
 it is necessary that high duties, prohibitions, and re- 
 strictive measures on both sides should cease. 
 
 Comparative Statement op the Commeece of the TTnited States with Ppain, inolitdino the Canaries and Phil- 
 ippine Islands: exiiibitino the Value op Exports to ano Imports fro.m each Co::ntrv, and the Tonnage op 
 American and foreign Vessels arriving pecm ani> uepaetinq to each Country, huki.ng the Years designated. 
 
 Yenre. 
 
 COMMERCE. 
 
 NAVKJATION. . | 
 
 Value of Exports. 
 
 Value of 
 Imports. 
 
 American Tonnage. 
 
 l-'oreipn Tonnoffe. 
 
 Domestic 
 Produce. 
 
 Poroign 
 Produce. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Entered the 
 United SUtos. 
 
 Cleared from 
 United States. 
 
 Entered ll(o 
 United States. 
 
 Cleared from 
 United States. 
 
 1846 ■ 
 
 $452,091 
 541,903 
 2,006,710 
 2,386,141 
 1,944,202 
 3,809.362 
 6,666,128 
 3,446,080 
 4,642.740 
 4,660,181 
 4,702,252 
 
 $li4,(i73 
 
 61,843 
 
 96, 938 
 
 21,647 
 
 60,629 
 
 131,928 
 
 161,186 
 
 163,417 
 
 51,S4S 
 
 7S,4"4 
 
 441,013 
 
 $510,764 
 603,746 
 2,102,654 
 2,407,788 
 2,004,831 
 4,031,290 
 6,706,314 
 3,697,-197 
 4,694,588 
 4,728,675 
 5,143,864 
 
 $1,76j,877 
 1,939,740 
 1,847,179 
 2,428,539 
 2,488,210 
 3,504,484 
 3,444,979 
 3,360,333 
 4,643.629 
 5,122,458 
 6,366,108 
 
 3I,4!;8 
 27,981 
 37,13.1 
 43.677 
 38,700 
 42,797 
 35,283 
 37,908 
 47,309 
 45,r04 
 61,690 
 
 14,134 
 
 16,242 
 
 20,8?6 
 
 26,276 
 
 27,584 
 
 27,385 
 
 40,161 
 
 28,974 
 
 40,012 , 
 
 38,924 
 
 65,709 
 
 10,774 
 6,423 
 14,079 
 10,849. 
 11,997 
 30,064 
 28,432 
 22,402 
 24,';72 
 16,050 
 30,687 
 
 2,115 
 3,1C8 
 17,500 
 29,637 
 301542 
 48,848 
 01,400 
 53,.')32 
 47,r97 
 41.231 
 43,303 
 
 1846 
 
 1847 
 
 18-18 
 
 1S19 
 
 1850 
 
 1S51 
 
 IS'52.: 
 
 1853 
 
 1854 
 
 1855 
 
 A SUMMARV OF THE AmOTTNT OF NATIONAL TONNAQE, AJSP OP TlIE NtIMBEK OF EFFICIENT SeAMEN ENGAGED IN THE COM- 
 WERCH AN3> NaTAL SERTIOB OP SpAIN, AS OFFICIALLY STATED, FOR TUB YeAE 1853. 
 
 Districts. 
 
 Officers, 
 Masters, 
 Pilots, etc. 
 
 Active 
 Seamen. 
 
 Number of 
 
 Vessels over 
 
 400 Tons. 
 
 Number of 
 Vessels from 
 200 to 400 Tons. 
 
 Number of 
 Vessels from 
 80 to 200 Tons. 
 
 Number of 
 Veasela from 
 ,20 to 80 Tons. 
 
 ' Vessels of 
 Foreign 
 build. 
 
 steamers. 
 
 Vessels 
 building. 
 
 Cadiz 
 
 Ferrol 
 
 Carthagena . 
 
 Havana 
 
 Manilla 
 
 Total.. 
 
 2,076 
 
 3,202 
 
 7,774 
 
 096 
 
 93 
 
 13,001 
 22,116 
 20,897 
 2,052 
 17,773 
 
 4 
 11 
 16 
 7 
 8 
 
 25 
 74 
 118 
 30 
 16 
 
 62 
 
 342 
 
 380 
 
 99 
 
 84 
 
 313 
 442 
 
 1193 
 295 
 
 1244 
 
 39 
 
 13 
 
 28 
 
 389 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 20 
 
 13 
 62 
 79 
 
 23 
 
 13,841 
 
 75,838 45 
 
 263 
 
 907 
 
 3487 
 
 484 1 46 
 
 177 
 
 Note. — In this resum6 the seamen, tonnage, etc., of the province of Porto Rico are omitted; and there are some omis- 
 flions also in the provinces of Vascongados, Philippines, etc. 
 
SPA 
 
 1744 
 
 SPA 
 
 COMMEHOE OF THE UNITED STATES WITH SpAIN ON THE ATLANTIC, FEOM OoTOBEE 1, 1820, TO JUXY 1, 1S57. 
 
 Yenra endini;; 
 
 Sept. 30, 1831. 
 JS22. 
 1823. 
 1824, , 
 1825. 
 
 182T 
 
 1828 
 
 1829 
 
 ISSO 
 
 Total. 
 
 Sept. 30, 1831 
 
 1832 
 
 1833 
 
 1834 
 
 1835 
 
 1836 
 
 1S3T 
 
 1838 
 
 1839 
 
 1840 
 
 Total. 
 
 Sept. 30,1841. 
 
 1842. 
 9mos., 1843* 
 June 30, 1844. . 
 
 1846. 
 
 1848. 
 
 184T. 
 
 1848., 
 
 1849. , 
 
 1850. , 
 
 Exports. 
 
 ,Dome6tic. 
 
 ^24,706 
 
 116,270 
 
 130,966 
 
 140,436 
 
 73,516 
 
 71,313 
 
 T4,761 
 
 40,946 
 
 545,783 
 
 538,966^ 
 
 ■$27057,622 
 
 $235,584 
 302,684- 
 201,619 
 202,744 
 430,984 
 604,929 
 230,099 
 187,405 
 316,144 
 137,835 
 
 f 2, 799,927 
 
 $203,323 
 333,222 
 60,100 
 569,631 
 271,233 
 845,442 
 770,748 
 697,797 
 169,071 
 605,659 
 
 $3,916,226 
 
 $958,713 
 498,314 
 631,494 
 1,390,348 
 1,189,158 
 1,417,949 
 2,962,097 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 ~$189;900 
 
 07,742 
 
 (i5,966 
 
 366,434 
 
 82,722 
 
 22,2:!7 
 
 47,178 
 
 199,953 
 
 139,782 
 
 61, ,327 
 
 Total; 
 
 $1,243,181 
 
 ' $63,428 
 :44,6S1. 
 ,24,571 
 25,033 
 87,230 
 46,280 
 40,750 
 12,470 
 32,014 
 6,889 
 
 $388,2a6 
 
 $17,822 
 
 1,200 
 
 240 
 
 31,479 
 28,558 
 
 $514,606 
 184,012 
 196,932 
 506,870 
 156,237 
 93,540 
 121,939 
 240,'839 
 685,485 
 600,283 
 
 $3,300,803 
 
 $299,012 
 347,265 
 226,190 
 227,777 
 618,214 
 651,209 
 276,849 
 149,875 
 348,168 
 143,674 
 
 Importa. 
 
 Total. 
 
 $254,025 
 322,586 
 508,487 
 259,569 
 244,664 
 332,719 
 154,385 
 210,684 
 327,409 
 461,267 
 
 $118,772 
 
 $1,075 
 28,208 
 15,661 
 
 ;15l',ii7 
 10,806 
 ' 13,882 
 
 (3,188,-i2;j 
 
 $221,145 
 334,422 
 5n,340 
 513,439 
 271,733 
 346,442 
 780,863 
 597,797 
 200,559 
 ,634,217 
 
 $959,T8S 
 526,522 
 647,046 
 
 1,890,348 
 
 1,340,275 
 ,1,428,255 
 
 ■2,975,979 
 
 $3,076,735 
 
 $566,072 
 677,483 
 337,794 
 640,869 
 468,969 
 798,708 
 465,467 
 234,200 
 263,193 
 220,816 
 
 whereof thoro was m 
 Bullion aod Specie. 
 
 Export. 
 
 $3,030 
 
 33,600 
 60,000 
 
 $4,668,670 
 
 $190,727 
 79,735 
 49,029 
 252,127 
 117,158 
 147,363 
 274.T08 
 277,105 
 313,490 
 380,181 
 
 $2,081,623 
 
 $451,797 
 342,086 
 635,646 
 638,504 ' 
 618,140 
 582,025 
 692.982 
 
 $86,630 
 
 . $4,000 
 
 2,050 
 
 1,821 
 
 9,605 
 
 70,412 
 
 26,214 
 
 15,050 
 
 12,239 
 
 8,520 
 
 1,370 
 
 $161,781 
 $12,020 
 
 9,500 
 
 28,157 
 27,613 
 
 Import. 
 
 $21,200 
 
 3,600 
 
 6,569 
 
 Sl,994 
 
 800 
 
 2,390 
 
 2,300 
 
 245 
 
 14,450 
 
 25,475 
 
 $167,923 
 
 $16,439 
 9,029 
 34,438 
 2,491 
 2,328 
 3,400 
 10,428 
 78,766 
 
 '3,707 
 
 Tonnage cleared. 
 
 American ' | Foreign. 
 
 8,094' 
 3,079 
 4,628 
 6.0S4 
 2,345 
 3,6-20 
 2,245 
 2,939 
 12,719 
 9,387 
 
 $95,033 
 
 $25,700 
 18,581 
 
 $191,086 
 
 $8,200 
 
 1,843 
 
 7,195 
 
 5,118 
 
 1,876 
 
 4,653 
 
 55,692 
 
 55,429 
 
 24,413 
 
 .65,650 
 
 4,598 
 6,038 
 6,728 
 6,136 
 9,247 
 5,971 
 2,724 
 5,301 
 15,129 
 11,160 
 
 $169,345 
 
 $2, BOO 
 14,032 
 
 73,022 
 
 7,557 
 
 11,656 
 
 2,298 
 
 10,427 
 
 6,528 
 
 6,753 
 
 9,585 
 
 12,926 
 
 17,243 
 
 13,706 
 
 98,684 
 
 14,683 
 10,163 
 10,768 
 8,940 
 2-',264 
 18,223 
 28,611 
 
 17T 
 
 750' 
 1,550 
 
 2,912 
 
 1,068 
 2,093 
 1,537 
 1,524 
 1,411 
 4,021 
 6,843 
 1,637 
 1,617 
 2,419 
 
 23,070 
 
 1,474 
 
 2,3,8 
 
 302 
 
 135 
 
 672 
 
 2,871 
 
 1,174 
 
 2,209 
 
 2,234 
 
 10.533 
 
 24,053 
 
 12,424 
 8,406 
 6,229 
 3,104 
 6,570 
 7,897 
 
 10,075 
 
 Commerce of tub United States with Spain on the Mbditeeeanban, feom Ootobee 1, 1820, to Jul-s 
 
 1, 1857. 
 
 Years ending 
 
 Exportfl. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Whereof there wag in 
 Bullion and Specie. 
 
 Tonnage cleared. 
 
 Domestic. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Export. 
 
 Import. 
 
 Amevicau. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Sept. 30,1821 
 
 $24,225 
 
 $915 
 
 $26,140 
 
 $288,868 
 
 
 $5,002 
 
 1,174 
 
 
 1822 
 
 526,200 , 
 
 1,854 
 
 526,551 
 
 503,666 
 
 
 - 2,796 
 
 2,489 
 
 177 
 
 1828 
 
 20,876 
 
 19,117 
 
 ■ 40,323 
 
 473,639 
 
 
 8,610 
 
 874 
 
 
 1824 
 
 9,840 
 
 
 9,810 
 
 308,657 
 
 
 47,169 
 
 756 
 
 356 
 
 1825 
 
 18,811 
 
 , 6,335 
 
 25,149 
 
 332,999 
 
 
 
 1,868 
 
 
 1826 
 
 80,961 
 
 20,046 
 
 101,010 
 
 832,398 
 
 
 1,400 
 
 1,463 
 
 
 1837 
 
 62,353 
 
 7,112 
 
 69,465 
 
 460,3.50 
 
 
 19,200 
 
 1,913 
 
 
 1828 
 
 66,811 
 
 51,193 
 
 118,037 
 
 121,476 
 
 
 1,260 
 
 3,066 
 
 218 
 
 1829 
 
 185,952 
 
 45,700 
 
 231,652 
 
 474,120 
 
 
 15,800 
 
 1,516 
 
 
 1830 
 
 Total. . . 
 
 115,556 
 
 
 145,556 
 
 643,271 
 
 
 18,416 
 
 8,017 
 
 
 $1,110,621 
 
 $152,102 
 
 $1,292,726 
 
 $4,138,834 
 
 
 $114,883 
 
 20,834 
 
 746 
 
 Sept. 30, 1831 
 
 $75,121 
 
 $7,198 
 
 $82,819 
 
 $709,022 
 
 
 $8,130 
 
 1,905 
 
 636 
 
 1882 
 
 186,864 
 
 1,054 
 
 187,918 
 
 7-40,701 
 
 
 130 
 
 3,286 
 
 1,808 
 
 1833.. 
 
 136,150 
 
 616 
 
 136,696 
 
 806,714 
 
 
 1,991 
 
 4,845 
 
 2,059 
 
 1834 
 
 187,478 
 
 
 187,473 
 
 1,112,866 
 
 
 3,000 
 
 4625 
 
 2,886 
 
 1833 
 
 93,919 
 
 43,798 
 
 137,747 
 
 826,709 
 
 $25,500 
 
 31,633 
 
 6,874 
 
 8,201 
 
 1886 
 
 278,528 
 
 
 273.528 
 
 1,600,781 
 
 
 
 
 6,515 
 
 8,621 
 
 1837 
 
 821,187 
 
 30,216 
 
 364,433 
 
 1,981,689 
 
 21,600 
 
 2,100 
 
 1,846 
 
 4,838 
 
 1833 
 
 336,901 
 
 2,635 
 
 839,199 
 
 868,336 
 
 1,866 
 
 11,610 
 
 1,853 
 
 4,736 
 
 1889 
 
 209,721 
 
 19,000 
 
 228,721 
 
 1,697,978 
 
 19,800 
 
 2,800 
 
 6,637 
 
 2,038 
 
 1810 
 
 Total. . . 
 
 215,584 
 
 3,035 
 
 218,619 
 
 1,463,869 
 
 
 8,634 
 
 1,006 
 
 
 $2,044,484 
 
 $107,172 
 
 $2,151,966 
 
 $11,663,145 
 
 $68,066 
 
 $70,311 
 
 10,892 
 
 25,726 
 
 Sept. 30,1841 
 
 $173,633 
 
 $9,997 
 
 $183,630 
 
 $1,119,969 
 
 $9,531 
 
 $16,184 
 
 1,843 
 
 
 1812 
 
 221,893 
 
 16,578 
 
 238,476 
 
 1,065,640 
 
 
 
 5,319 
 
 90 
 
 9mos., 1843' 
 
 .. 
 
 
 
 115,069 
 
 
 68,777 
 
 170 
 
 .... 
 
 June 30, 1844 
 
 16,766 
 
 23,340 
 
 39,106 
 
 381,287 
 
 23,810 
 
 30,483 
 
 865 
 
 
 1845 
 
 55,700 
 
 23,808 
 
 81,508 
 
 954,628 
 
 28,808 
 
 111,662 
 
 8,909 
 
 1,060 
 
 1846.. 
 
 82,435 
 
 47,718 
 
 180,163 
 
 864,416 
 
 47,718 
 
 15,406 
 
 6,809 
 
 327 
 
 1847 
 
 1,188,310 
 
 41,063 
 
 1,229,103 
 
 1,016,661 
 
 25,000 
 
 126,642 
 
 7,26", 
 
 16.326 
 
 1848 
 
 1,711,474 
 
 6,875 
 
 1,748,849 
 
 919,346 
 
 6,8T5 
 
 84,039 
 
 9,189 
 
 27,313 
 
 3849 
 
 1,619,423 
 
 19,827 
 
 1,639,250 
 
 1,005,687 
 
 19,827 
 
 112,228 
 
 6,603 
 
 28,073 
 
 1850 
 
 Total... 
 
 3,266,362 
 
 96,856 
 
 3,353,217 
 
 1,703,214 
 
 85,792 
 
 107,188 
 
 9,667 
 
 34,297 
 
 $8,365,081 
 
 $391,061 
 
 $8,646,092 
 
 $9,444,757 
 
 $216,894 
 
 $912,609 
 
 53,110 
 
 107,482 
 
 June 30, 1851 
 
 $1,467,331 
 
 $137,472 
 
 $4,594,803 
 
 $1,710,770 
 
 $107,043 
 
 $8,480 
 
 9,576 
 
 14,014 
 
 1852 
 
 2,718,501 
 
 114,237 
 
 2,832.741 
 
 1,443,975 
 
 87,965 
 
 1,600 
 
 6,171 
 
 37,631 
 
 1853 
 
 3,923,656 
 
 34,297 
 
 3,t!6T,953 
 
 1,458,879 
 
 34,297 
 
 
 7,600 
 
 88,130 
 
 1864 
 
 3,212,368 
 
 31,010 
 
 3,243,408 
 
 1,679,074 
 
 31,040 
 
 
 12,140 
 
 37,324 
 
 1855 
 
 3,375,680 
 
 203,701 
 
 3,579,381 
 
 1,935,372 
 
 6,126 
 
 26,333 
 
 18,878 
 
 33,777 
 
 1855 
 
 5,91S,8S0 
 
 57,683 
 
 6,000,063 
 
 1,650,111 
 
 29,450 
 
 19,600 
 
 12,186 
 
 60,067 
 
 1867 
 
 7,715,907 
 
 11,211 
 
 7,727,118 
 
 2,050,034 
 
 
 24,500 
 
 21,005 
 
 67,687 
 
 
 * Nine mon 
 
 ths to June 3 
 
 0, and the flsc 
 
 al year from t 
 
 lis time be 
 
 jiiis July 1. 
 
 
 
SPA 
 
 1745 
 
 SPA 
 
 Of the changes in the commercial policy of Spain 
 the following particulars, furnished by the United 
 States consul at Cadiz, -will be found interesting : 
 
 " OCTOBBB 3. 1S65. 
 
 " The Queen's decree of the 30th, and order thereon of the 
 31st of July of the present year, was issued, establishing a 
 Junta consuUina de arancelea, or a board of consultation in 
 relation to custom-house tariffs, regulations, and all matters 
 relating to imports and exports, with extensive powers, and 
 determining their attributions. The object of this board is 
 declared to be to discuss and propose to the minister of the 
 hacienda all reforms which they may conceive ought to be 
 made in the custom-house tariff, and to occupy .themselves 
 with and direct all the proceedings which may be found with 
 respect to the understanding of the same, their application 
 and modification ; as also with respect to the reclamations of 
 foreign powers, and those which ought to be made on the 
 part of Spain, with respect to the agreements and treaties of 
 navigation or commerce, and any other affair whatever rela- 
 tive to the mercantile legislation. Tliis Junta' de armt- 
 ales is to be a corporation independent in all points of any 
 other office of the state : and as such is clothed with the 
 same faculties, privileges, and pre-eminences which belong to 
 the other directive centres of the ministry of the hacienda, 
 of a permanent character. The junta is empowered, in the 
 performance of its duties, to communicate directly with, and 
 claim from,' Spanish consuls in foreign countries, governors, 
 and provernors of provihces, administrators of custom-houses, 
 juntas of c6mmerce, economical societies, etc., and any other 
 authorities, ofdces, and corporations whatever, all data they 
 may conceive necessary for the execution of the business 
 committed to them. Copies of this decree and order are 
 herewith, detailing at length the persons composing the jun- 
 ta, and the mode in which they are to proceed. This board 
 is now organized, and is expected to make a report pending 
 the next sessiooof the Cortes. It is presumed that they will 
 recommend the favoring of navigation under the Spanish 
 flag ; the admission of certaii^ kinds of cotton manufactures, 
 and other articles now prohibited ; together with an aug- 
 mentation of two millions of dollars in the custom-house rev- 
 enue on imports ; also the maintenance of the presentmonop- 
 olies of tobacco, salt, stamped paper, and the duties payable 
 thereon." 
 
 Moneys, Weights, and Measures. — The weights and 
 measures are the Qstablished ones of Castile ; the arroba 
 of solids being considered of 25 pounds, of 16 ounces to 
 the pound ; and of liquids, 32 cuartillas, except in the 
 article of olive-oil, which will be deemed a solid. The 
 quintal will be of 100 pounds, and the toil of 20 quin- 
 tals. The yard will be of 36 inches. The money is 
 the real de vellon, which is divided into 100 parts, callied 
 centimes. 
 
 Moneys. — The real vellon is valued at the custom- 
 house of the United States at 5 cents ; 20 real vellons 
 =$1 ; the real of plate js double the real vellon=10 
 
 FOBEIGN COMMBEOE OP TUB UNITED STATES WITH SPANISH AUBBIOAN COLONIES* (INCLTIDINO MEXICO), FBOAC OOTOBEE 
 
 1, 1820, TQ Semembbb 30, 1824. 
 
 cents ; 1 hard dollar =1^ dollar of exchange =10 reals 
 of new plate=10| of old plate=20 reals vellon=170 
 quarters=361i maravedis of old plate=680 reals vel- 
 lon =©103^. 
 
 Gold Coinage. — The last date that we have noticed 
 of the long-continued doubloon series of Peninsular 
 coinage was 1824, The half doubloon of that year 
 weighed 0-433 ounce, 865 fine ; v^lue, $7 75. The new 
 gold coin is a piece of 100 reals, weighing 0-268 ounce, 
 896 fine, $4 96-3. 
 
 Silver Coinage. — The principal coin (not the largest) 
 seems to be the piece of 4 reals, or pistareen, which 
 before 1837 was of the weight 0-189 ounce ; fineness, 
 810 ; value, 20-7 cents. The standards have been lately 
 changed, and the new pistareen weighs 0-166 ounce, 
 fineness, 899 ; value, 20-3 cents. There is also a large 
 piece of 20 reals (dollar), worth 101-5 cents ; and pieces 
 of 10, 4, 2, and 1 real in proportion. — United States Mint 
 Report, 1857. 
 
 Weights, — Gold and Silver Weight. — Gold and silver 
 are weighed by the Castilian mark of 50 castellanos, 
 400 tomines, or 4800 grains. 
 
 Apothecaries' Weight. — The apothecaries' weight is 
 the Castilian, but the ounce is divided into 8 drachmas, 
 24 escrupulos, 48 obolos, 144 caracteres, or 576 grains. 
 
 Commercial Weight. — One commercial pound is equal 
 to 2 marks (Castilian), or 16 ounces. One commercial 
 ounce=8 drachmas=16 adarmes=676> grains. One 
 quintal of 4 arrobas, or 100 pounds, =101-44 pounds 
 avoirdupois, or 46 kilograms. One arroba =25 pounds 
 7 ounces. 
 
 Measures. — Dry Measure. — Corn, salt, and other dry 
 articles are measured by the cahiz. One cahiz=12 
 fanegas; one fanega=12 celemines. The celemine has 
 various subdivisions, as i, i, i, ete. The fanega meas- 
 ures 4322J Spanish, or 3439 English cubic inches, and 
 is equivalent to 1-55 English imperial bushels. Five 
 fanegas are nearly equal to one quarter English. 
 
 Wine Measure. — One arroba of wine measures 4245 
 English imperial gallons. One arroba of oil, 3^ En- 
 glish gallons. One botta=30 arrobas of wine, or 38^ 
 of oil. The botta contains 127^ English gallons, and 
 the pipe 1144 English gallons. 
 
 Long Measure. — One Spanish foot=12 pulgadas, or 
 144 lines, and is equivalent to 11-128 English inches, 
 or 0-2826 of a French metre. One palmo, of 9 pulga- 
 das, or 12 dedos, =8i English inches. One vara, or 4 
 palmos, =33-384 English inches, or 0-847 of a metre. 
 Onebraza=2 varas, or6feet. Onepasso=5i'eet. One 
 estadal=4 varas, or 12 feet. One cuerda=8i varas, 
 or 25i feet. 
 
 Years ending 
 
 Ezporte. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 whereof there was in 
 Bullion and Specie. 
 
 Tonnage cleared. 
 
 Domestic. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Export. 
 
 Import. 
 
 American. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Sept. 30,1821 
 
 1822 
 
 1S23 
 
 1824 
 
 Total. . . 
 
 $508,176 
 1,592,767 
 1,872,626 
 2.827,521 
 
 $629,559 
 1.828,286 
 3,229,347 
 6,040,966 
 
 $1,037,736 
 3,421,053 
 4,601,873 
 7,868,487 
 
 $1,114,117 
 2,522,988 
 4,842,503 
 6,786,769 
 
 $54,893 
 67,698 
 
 $129,462 
 
 661,117 
 
 1,950,416 
 
 3,674,800 
 
 13,208 
 31,747 
 33,112 
 61,651 
 
 282 
 364 
 
 1654 
 
 $6,300,990 
 
 $10,628,158 1 $16,929,148 
 
 $15,-.!C6,377 
 
 $112,591 
 
 $6,416,795 
 
 139,718 1 2200 1 
 
 Commebok of the United States with Texas,* feom Octobeb 1, 1836, to July 1, 1846. 
 
 Years ending 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Whereof there was in 1 a>-__-„- .i.„„j 
 Bullion and Specie. I Tonnage cleared. | 
 
 Domeatle. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Export. 
 
 Import. t American. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Sept. 80, 1837 
 
 1838 
 
 1839 
 
 1840 
 
 1841 
 
 1842 
 
 9mo8., 1843t 
 
 June 30, 1844 
 
 1845 
 
 1846 
 
 Total... 
 
 $797,812 
 1,028,818 
 1,379,065 
 937,072 
 516,255 
 278,973 
 105,240 
 196,447 
 210,736 
 250,240 
 
 $210,616 
 219,062 
 308,017 
 281,199 
 292,041 
 127,951 
 37,713 
 81,101 
 153,066 
 223,363 
 
 $1,007,928 
 
 1,247,880 
 
 1,687,082 
 
 1,218,271 
 
 808,296 
 
 406,929 
 
 142,953 
 
 277,548 
 
 363,792 
 
 473,603 
 
 $163,384 
 165,713 
 318,116 
 303,847 
 396,026 
 480,892 
 445,899 
 678,551 
 765,324 
 183,063 
 
 $1,700 
 826 
 
 $17"409 
 65,063 
 65,688 
 26,510 
 17,174 
 10,114 
 46,427 
 10,699 
 
 12,939 
 28,lf5 
 48,603 
 41.177 
 32,838 
 24,316 
 16,185 
 20,065 
 18,930 
 28,204 
 
 1,092 
 
 397 
 
 1,008 
 
 630 
 
 13 
 
 1,369 
 
 927 
 
 1,779 
 
 2,221 
 
 3,245 
 
 $5,700,163 
 
 $1,934,119 
 
 $7,634,282 
 
 $3,889,316 
 
 $2,525 
 
 $248,083 1 271,362 ' 
 
 12,581 
 
 * The commerce of Texas from 1846, when it became one of the United States, may be found under the head of Texas; 
 and the commerce of Mexico, since its independence, under the head of Mexico, 
 t Nine months to June 80, and the fiscal year from this time begins July 1. 
 5S 
 
SPE 
 
 1746 
 
 SPI 
 
 COMMEECE OF THE UNITED STATES WITH SPANISH "WEST INDIES [CUBA EXCEPTED], PROM (JOTOBEE 1, 1820, TO JUI.Y 1, 
 
 1857. 
 
 YeftTB ending 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Domestic. 
 
 Foreign 
 
 Total. 
 
 Imports. ' 
 
 Total. 
 
 Whereof there was in 
 Bullion and Specie- 
 
 Export. 
 
 Import 
 
 Tonnage cleared. 
 
 Kureigu 
 
 Sept. 30, 1821 
 
 1822 .... 
 
 1823 
 
 1824 
 
 1825 
 
 1826 
 
 182T 
 
 1828 
 
 1829 
 
 1830 
 
 Total. 
 
 $1T5,21T 
 150,485 
 256,033 
 306,836 
 216,102 
 210,858 
 218,156 
 222,191 
 209,730 
 245,686 
 
 $33,604 
 7,606 
 25,495 
 
 233,718 
 22,166 
 12,668 
 10,388 
 15,677 
 38,900 
 27,523 
 
 $208,821 
 158,041 
 281,628 
 640,614 
 238,258 
 223,526 
 228,519 
 237,668 
 248,680 
 273,159 
 
 $626,616 
 933,667 
 818,076 
 856,636 
 798,627 
 770,770 
 £69,612 
 
 1,129,130 
 838,882 
 
 1,307,148 
 
 $2,000 
 
 1,950 
 
 31,505 
 
 21.650 
 
 Sept. 30,1831. 
 1832. 
 1833. 
 1834. 
 1835. 
 1836. 
 1837. 
 
 $2,211,304 
 
 ,801 
 559 
 992 
 ,805 
 ,035 
 ,553 
 
 1839 
 
 1840 
 
 Total. 
 
 322, 
 393, 
 431, 
 686, 
 694, 
 617, 
 692, 
 779, 
 770, 
 
 ,049 
 ,i.'-0 
 
 $427,710 
 
 $63,245 
 72,652 
 27,398 
 69,722 
 91,622 
 65,839 
 52,138 
 30,484 
 87,348 
 29,208 
 
 $2,639,014 
 
 $315,046 
 396,111 
 421,390 
 491,627 
 677,657 
 660,468 
 569,916 
 723,053 
 806.397 
 799,628 
 
 $12,787 
 35,629 
 22,788 
 8,895 
 6,659 
 7,841 
 13,760 
 3,446 
 8,6;4 
 7,718 
 
 11,134 
 10,650 
 8,409 
 5,068 
 6,969 
 6,879 
 7,194 
 7,843 
 11,051 
 8,734 
 
 $.1,099,174 
 
 $1,580,166 
 1,889,182 
 1,879,324 
 2,246,413 
 2,364,170 
 8,209,048 
 2,481,082 
 2,636,152 
 3,742,549 
 1,898,782 
 
 $57, HB 
 
 $86,683 
 42,360 
 7,080 
 11,050 
 70,950 
 47,086 
 42,823 
 30,453 
 
 116,207 
 31,272 
 
 1S41.. 
 
 1842.. 
 9inos., 1843'. 
 June 30, 1844. '. 
 
 1845. . 
 
 1846.. 
 
 1847.. 
 
 1848.. 
 
 1849.. 
 
 1860. . 
 
 $6,350,668 
 
 $721,845 
 010,813 
 442,034 
 636,962 
 638,149 
 676,441 
 826,079 
 801,722 
 628,292 
 816,062 
 
 $369,610 
 
 $28,087 
 19,718 
 11,321 
 6,177 
 20,775 
 25,906 
 33,085 
 87,012 
 33,234 
 93.591 
 
 $127,137 
 
 $16,173 
 9,127 
 8,992 
 11,160 
 16,256 
 8,600 
 63,725 
 36,783 
 23,144 
 46,695 
 
 $5,920,182 
 
 $749,932 
 630,631 
 463,365 
 642,139 
 708,924 
 701,346 
 853,064 
 833,734 
 656,626 
 r03,668 
 
 $28,926,803 
 
 ,560,020 
 ,617,001 
 ,076,125 
 ,425,202 
 ,026,253 
 277,110 
 ,141,929 
 106,296 
 964,861 
 067,866 
 
 $484,004 
 
 $B8,923 
 12,757 
 1,872 
 4,083 
 11,608 
 15,064 
 21,394 
 21,656 
 28,0(5 
 88,758 
 
 June 30, 1851. 
 1852. 
 1S53. 
 1854. 
 1855. 
 " 1866. 
 1857. 
 
 $6,741,399 
 
 $961,410 
 1,015,563 
 810,411 
 990,886 
 1,144,.581 
 1,099,599 
 1,783,429 
 
 $308,805 
 
 $57,200 
 39,542 
 64,143 
 60 997 
 38,937 
 43,12.-) 
 
 152,045 
 
 1,162,663 
 
 $234,015 
 
 $39. £00 
 61,8(6 
 47,957 
 
 133,790 
 
 ]6,o.;o 
 
 23,250 
 
 483,4r6 
 
 $234,656 
 
 $17,799 
 63,457 
 47,943 
 27,021 
 63,463 
 63,679 
 14,157 
 29,919 
 27,604 
 2,600 
 
 $346,692 
 
 $345 
 26,277 
 18,010 
 19,179 
 23,625 
 14,700 
 658 
 
 82,931 
 
 8,272 
 9,343 
 13,863 
 15,769 
 21,140 
 22,079 
 17,071 
 19,538 
 22,647 
 22,659 
 
 172,187 
 
 30,129 
 29,665 
 18,361 
 28,143 
 2,S.675 
 30,055 
 26J67 
 85,241 
 25,870 
 30,744 
 
 283,461 
 
 36,820 
 35,010 
 30,815 
 31,014 
 34,1>0 
 33,(64 
 S7,C83 
 
 1,1 28 
 180 
 75 
 
 '603 
 323 
 216 
 
 431 
 
 3,014 
 
 1,051 
 
 717 
 
 219 
 
 741 
 
 172 
 
 423 
 
 1,155 
 
 2,496 
 
 1,160 
 
 952 
 
 8,996 
 
 730 
 
 1,134 
 
 340 
 
 683 
 
 022 
 
 1,373 
 
 1,879 
 
 1,150 
 
 8 808 
 
 S,108 
 
 14,917 
 
 6.013 
 6,,544 
 9,429 
 8,6:8 
 5,5:,2 
 1,990 
 3,550 
 
 ' Nine months to June 30, and the fiscal year from this time begins July 1. 
 
 Specie (Fr. espece), coin and bullion used as a cir- 
 , culating medium in distinction from paper money. — 
 See articles Banks, Coins, Precious Metals, Gold, 
 and Silver. 
 
 Spectacles. An optical instrument, consisting of 
 two lenses set in a frame, for assisting or correcting the 
 defects of imperfect vision. The lenses are convex or 
 concave, according to the nature of the defect to be 
 remedied. In old age the pupil of the eye becomes 
 flat, and the rays of light are consequently not re- 
 fracted sufficiently in passing through it to meet on the 
 retina and produce distinct vision. This defect is rem- 
 edied by a convex lens, which produces a slight con- 
 vergence'" of the rays before they enter the eye. Short- 
 sighted people, on the contrary, require concave lenses ; 
 because, in their case, the indistinctness of vision pro- 
 ceeds from too great a curvature of the pupil, -which 
 causes the rays to meet in a point before they reach 
 the retina — a defect which is remedied by giving the 
 rays a slight divergency before they enter the eye. 
 Spectacles were unknown to the ancients. They are 
 generally supposed to have been invented in the 13th 
 century, by Alexander de Spina, a monk of Plorence, 
 in Italy, about A.D. 1285. — Gen. Ilisf. They were in- 
 vented by Roger Bacon, according to Dr. Plott, about 
 1280. Some affirm that the real inventor was Salvino f 
 and Mr. Manni gives proofs in favor of Salvino in his 
 Treatise on Spectacles. — Haydn. 
 
 Spelter, a name frequentlj' given to Zinc ; which 
 see. 
 
 Speimaceti (Ger. Wallrath ; Fr. Blanc de BaJeine, 
 Sperme de Baleine ; It. Spermaceti ; Sp. Esperma de Bat- 
 lena; Russ. Spermazet')^ a product obtained from the 
 brain of the pht/seter macrocephalus, a species of whale 
 inhabiting the Southern Ocean. The brain being dug 
 out from the cavity of the head, the oil is separated from 
 
 it by dripping. The residue is crude spermaceti, of 
 which an ordinary-sized whale will yield twelve barrels. 
 It then concretes into a white, crystallized, brittle, semi- 
 transparent, unctuous substance, nearly inodorous and 
 insipid. On being cut into small pieces it assumes a 
 flaky aspect. It is very heavy, its specific gravity be- 
 ing 9-433. It is used in the manufacture of candles, in 
 medicine, etc. 
 
 Spices (Ger. Spezereyen ; Du. Speceryen ; Fr. Ep- 
 iceries, Epiees ; It. SpezJ, Spezierie ; Sp. Especias, Espe- 
 ceriasj Port. Especiaria ; Euss. Prdnue kormja). Under 
 this denomination are included all those vegetable pro- 
 ductions which are fragrant to the smell and pungent 
 to the palate ; such as cloves, ginger, nutmegs, allspice, 
 etc. 
 
 The ordinaiy spices which are used in housekeeping, 
 and are sold by the grocer are pepper (white, black, 
 and cayenne), mustard, ginger., nutmegs, mace, pimento 
 or allspice, cloves, cinnamon, and cassia. All of these 
 spices are more or less pungent to the taste and stim- 
 ulating to the stomach, and are used as additions to 
 food, not as food itself. For these qualities they de- 
 pend upon an essential oil in most cases, varying in 
 each particular case. Pepper, however, has a nitro- 
 genized principle, similar in composition to thein and 
 caffein, and called ^^pen're. 
 
 Pepper is the produce of two allied plants (known as 
 Piper nigrum and longum), and the part used is the 
 berry, dried in the sun. Black and white pepper are 
 both obtained from the berry of Piper nigrum; the 
 former being the entire berry, ground, while the latter 
 coDiSists of the berry deprived of its outer covering, or 
 husk, before it is reduced to powder. Long pepper is 
 not ground, and is not much used in the present day. 
 Pepper-corns, being these berries, are imported from 
 Penang, Malabar, and Sumatra. The best are those 
 
SPI 
 
 1747 
 
 SPI 
 
 which arc not too small, nor too much shrunk in dry- 
 ing, but which feel heavy in the hand, and sink in wa- 
 ter^. In looking at a section, the outer part, which is 
 black, or reddish black, is easily distinguished from 
 the inner or central, which is more or less white, and 
 brittle, hard toward the e:sterior, and soft and pow- 
 dery toward the centre. In separating these parts, as 
 for the purpose of procuring the white pepper, an inner 
 reddish covering remains attached to the internal white 
 structure, and this being ground up with it, is faintly 
 indicated in the pure white pepper-powder by small 
 reddish specks. The active properties of this spice de- 
 pend upon an acnc2 resin, an essential oil, and a sub- 
 stance before alluded to, called piperin. The outer 
 cortical part contains the resin, in the inner coat lies 
 the oil, and within the internal or white structure is 
 ibe piperin. 
 
 Pepper, both black and white, is adulterated with a 
 variety of articles — as, the flour of linseed, mustard, 
 wheat, sago, and arrow-root. Pepper-dust, also, being 
 the sweepings of the floors of warehouses, and known 
 as P.D., is largely used in making up lo\f-priced pep- 
 per. Powdered cayenne is likewise said to be used, 
 but, according to Dr. Hassall, not to any extent. 
 Chemistry and our natural senses are greatly at fault 
 in detecting these adulterations ; and the microscope 
 is the chief means upon which reliance can be placed, 
 and, as is proved, a very sufficient one. 
 
 Cayenne pepper is composed of the pods of several 
 species of capsicum, which is an annual herbaceous 
 plant,' a native of America, cultivated in the West and 
 East Indies, and to some extent in the United States. 
 Each pod is made up of three parts, an outer skin, an 
 inner parenchymatous, substance, and a quantity of 
 small seeds. All these are ground up to constitute 
 th6 pepper sold as cayenne, but it is to the first that it 
 chiefly owes its pungent taste. It contains a very act- 
 ive principle which is called eapsicin, and of which a 
 very minute quantity, even as little as half a grain, 
 diffused throughout a room will set a whole party of 
 people sneezing. This pepper is far more subject to 
 adulterations than black and white pepper, and is in 
 fact scarcely ever free from mixture either with red- 
 lead, red-ochre, or common salt — four only out of nine- 
 ty-eight samples examined by Dr. Hassall being per- 
 fectly genuine ; thirteen presented red-lead, often in 
 poisonous quantities, and in seven Venetian-red, red- 
 ochre, or brick-dust, were found. Six of the samples 
 contained salt in large quantities, with rice and color- 
 ing matter, and in the same number also appeared rice 
 mixed with turmeric and cayenne, and colored with 
 red-lead or gome ferruginous earth. It is said that 
 this pepper is often imported in a ground state, and 
 therefore a good deal of this sophistication is due to 
 foreign roguery. The mineral ingredients are easily 
 detected by chemical means, as red-led, vermilion, 
 etc. ; but for the most of the other articles the aid of 
 the microscope is again required. With a knowledge 
 of the difficulty in detecting adulterations, it behooves 
 us all to deal for our peppers only with tliose who are 
 of high character and standing in the trade ; but as 
 our senses tell us pretty clearly the strength of the 
 spice, and as all the adulterations of black and white 
 pepper are tolerably innocent, no harm accrues, except 
 to the purse, from the substitution of a weak spice for 
 a strong one. In the case, however, of cayenne pep- 
 per, the presence of red-led, vermilion, or other min- 
 eral coloring matter is of serious importance, and 
 should be cautiously avoided by a careful dealing with 
 honest tradesmen. — See Cayenke and Peppek. 
 
 Mustard is obtained from the plants known as the 
 black and white mustard plant (Sinapis nigra and alba'). 
 The former of these has smooth seed-vessels, and red- 
 dish or blackish-brown seeds, which are very pungent ; 
 while the latter. has rough or hairy pods and yellow 
 seeds, less pungent than those of the black mustard. 
 The seeds of the black mustard are composed of cel- 
 
 lulose matter, containing in addition a volatile and a 
 fixed oil of mustard; also, two peculiar substances 
 known as mjronic acid and myrocene, all of which are 
 deficient in white mustard seed. The fixed oil exists 
 in the seed, but the volatile oil is formed in the same 
 manner as the essential oil of bitter almonds, by the 
 joint action of water, and a peculiar coagulable albu- 
 minous matter, called myrocene, upon a substance very 
 imperfectly known, which is termed myronic acid. This 
 acid has no smell, and is not volatile, but is bitter to 
 the taste, and contains sulphur and nitrogen. Heat 
 coagulates myrocene, which is necessary to the forma- 
 tion of the essential oil, and hence mustard should al- 
 ways be mixed with hot water to develop its pungent 
 powers properly. 
 
 Adulteration in this article seems to be the rule, 
 and a pretty invariable one ; for in no single case did 
 Dr. Hassall find pure mustard seed sold in London. 
 The nature of the admixture was in nearly all cases 
 the same, genuine mustard being more or less mixed 
 with wheaten flour, and colored with turmeric. Even 
 in the case of an article which was specially sent up 
 from Newcastle-on-Tyne as a perfectly pure specimen, 
 a very small quantity of turmeric was discovered, which 
 the manufacturer afterward candidly admitted was 
 added to the mustard for the purpose of heightening 
 its color. This admission must be highly gratifying 
 to the Lancet Commissioners, as the quantity was only 
 two ounces in fifty-six pounds, or one part in 448. In 
 purchasing mustard, there is no guide short of the mi- 
 croscope but the palate, as the full power is not devel- 
 oped until the flour is mixed with hot water. The 
 adulterations are, however, only of importance as far 
 as the money-value is concerned, as the turmeric is in- 
 nocent enough of all other mischief. Most people can 
 judge of the strength of this spice when it is used, and 
 they may therefore readily take this as their guide in 
 dealing with their grocer for future orders. 
 
 Ginger is cultivated in Asia, Africa, and the tropical 
 parts of America, and is the root of the Zingiber offid- 
 nale, a perennial plant, of which the stem reaches to the 
 height of three or four feet. The roots are dug up at 
 the end of the first year ; they are well washed, and 
 then they are stripped of their outer skin, or left as 
 they are, constituting in this way the two primary di- 
 visions of ginger into coated ani uncoated; in addition 
 to which, it is sometimes imported from Jamaica in a 
 green state, preserved in jars with sirup. The two 
 first divisions are sold either in the state in which they 
 are imported, or finely ground, and sifted with great 
 care. Ginger owes its pungency to a volatile oil, with 
 an acrid resin, which are contained in it, and mixed 
 up with other vegetable substances, as gum, starch, 
 and woodj^ fibre. Ground ginger contains all the ele- 
 mentary principles of the root. It is adulterated with 
 wheat flour, sago, potato flour, cayenne pepper, mustard 
 husks, and turmeric powder, none of which are preju- 
 dicial to health, and the fraud is only on the pocket. 
 
 Nutmegs and Mace are both obtained from the nut- 
 meg-tree, of which there are three species — Myristica 
 fragrans, M. fatua, and M. malabarica. Together 
 they are the fruit of the tree, which is similar in ap- 
 pearance to a pear-tree, and produces a fruit about the 
 size of a peach, but shaped like a pear, and smooth 
 externally. The outer fleshy part of this is the peri- 
 carp, and this when ripe separates into two longitu- 
 dinal sections, within which lies the seed proper, or 
 nutmeg, inclosed in two coats, besides the mace, which 
 fills up the space between these and the pericarp. The 
 tree known to botanists as Myristica fragrans, is cul- 
 tivated in the Molucca Islands, as well as. in Java, 
 Sumatra, Singapore, Penang, the island of Bourbon, 
 Bengal, Madagascar, and the West Indies ; and these 
 trees produce the true nutmeg of commerce, which is 
 round, and of a strong aromatic flavor and smell. A 
 second and inferior kind, called the wild or false nut- 
 meg, is obtained from the Myristica fatua and M. mala- 
 
SPI 
 
 1748 
 
 SPI 
 
 barica, growing in awild state; and they may be dis- 
 tinguished from the true nutmeg by being longer and 
 paler than it. Mace is also true or wild, according as 
 It is obtained from either kind of nutmeg-tree. As 
 imported into this country, the true mace is of a golden 
 or orange yellow, transparent and horny. False or 
 wild mace is of a dark red color, and deficient in flavor 
 and smell. The nutmeg, as well as the mace, contains 
 a fixed, and also a volatile oil, as well as starch and 
 woody matter. 
 
 Adulteration. — It might readily be supposed, as these 
 spices are not powdered, but are sold as imported, that 
 no adulteration could possibly be practiced; and it 
 appears, in reality, that very little is attempted. The 
 only fraud is found to consist in the abstraction of the 
 volatile oil by distillation, which deprives the nutmeg 
 and mace of their chief flavor and utility as spices. In 
 order to preserve the nutmeg from insects, it is often 
 soaked in lime water, or covered with powdered lime ; 
 but this does not seem to be a fraud, but rather a pre- 
 servative. It therefore need not be guarded against, 
 but the presence of the full complement of oil should, 
 if possible, be insured. This can only be done in prac- 
 tice by attending to the flavor and smell, and compar- 
 ing them with the recognized genuine article. The 
 shape is a good guide to the true nutmeg, and pur- 
 chasers should always select those of a round form, 
 avoiding those which are like dates in appearance, or 
 even at all elongated beyond a very slight departure 
 from the true circle. 
 
 Pimento, or Allspice, also called Jamaica pepper, is 
 the berry of a tree bearing the first name, and growing 
 in the West Indies, from which it is imported in bags: 
 There are two qualities of it, but only one is extens- 
 ively used in this country. 
 
 Pimento, like most other spices, owes its qualities 
 as a condiment to its essential oil, which is contained 
 in considerable quantities in the berries mixed with 
 gummy and resinous matter, astringent extract and 
 fatty oil. This essential oil is readily obtained by dis- 
 tillation. The adulteration of this spice is so trifling 
 as scarcely to require alluding to ; and as the price of 
 pimento at present in the London market is from i^d. 
 to iid. per lb., with a duty of 55. percwt., the retailers 
 make a fair profit in selling it at 8d. and need not have 
 recourse to adulteration. — See Pimento. 
 
 Cloves are the flower-buds of the Caryophillus aromat- 
 icus, which is grown in the Molucca Islands, Sumatra, 
 the Mauritius, Bourbon, Cayenne, Martinique, and St. 
 Vincent. They present a peculiar oblong appearance, 
 too well known to need minute description, with a 
 pungent and aromatic taste, which is highly agreeable 
 to most people. Like the other spices, cloves contain 
 an essential oil, besides resin, tannin, and woody fibre. 
 The oil is extracted in considerable quantities, and 
 
 sold separately for various purposes. The whole- 
 sale price is from i^d, to Is. 2d. per lb. ; and the duty 
 being 2d. per lb., together with the retailer's profit, 
 bring them up to the retail price of Is. for Bourbon and 
 Cayenne, Is. id. for superior Bourbon, and 2s. for Pe- 
 nang cloves. 
 
 Cinnamon and Cassia are the bark of two species of 
 Cinnamonum; that producing the former bearing the 
 specific name Zeylanicum. ' The cinnamon-tree is cul- 
 tivated chiefly in Ceylon, but sparingly in Bombay, 
 Malabar, and Java. The bark, as sold, is peeled from 
 the three-year old branches, and dried in the sun ; and 
 its quality varies considerably, but its external char- 
 acters are generally pretty nearly the same. Cassia, 
 or the bark of the Cinnamonum cassia, is brought from 
 China, Malabar, Bombay, and the Mauritius; it re- 
 sembles the true cinnamon in flavor, thougli less deli- 
 cate and not so sweet, and attended with a certain de- 
 gree of bitterness. It is constantly substituted for cin- 
 namon, and it is necessary, therefore, to endeavor to 
 distinguish the one from the other by our ordinary 
 senses, if possible. 
 
 The bark of cinnamon is not much thicker than 
 drawing-paper, and breaks with an uneven margin, 
 showing a coarse arrangement of its fibres. It also 
 consists of several concentric layers of bark, one with- 
 in the other. These are called quills, and are of a pale 
 brown, with a sweet aromatic taste, unaccompanied by 
 any bitterness or astringency. 
 
 Cassia bark is considerably thicker and coarser, and 
 has a short fracture and smooth edge. It has general- 
 Ij' only one, or at most two quills, within the external 
 one ; and the taste is a coarse imitation of cinnamon, 
 with a strong tendency to leave an astringent bitter on 
 the tongue. By these characters the bark of the one, 
 when whole, may be distinguished from the other ; but 
 when powdered, the aid of the microscope is required 
 to detect the imposition, which is extensively prac- 
 ticed ; and, failing this, the character of the vendor is 
 the only safeguard. Cassia buds are also imported. 
 
 The cinnamon of commerce is chiefly produced in the 
 island of Ceylon, from the Laurus cinnamomi of botan- 
 ists, the Kooroondoo-gaka of the Singhalese, a plant 
 which appears to have flourished in that island from 
 the earliest period. We learn from Scriptural history 
 that this spice was employed by the Hebrews in their 
 religious ceremonies ; and there can be little doubt that 
 their supplies were derived from the Arabian merchants 
 who traded between the Ked Sea and the East. 
 
 Mixed spice, as implied by the name, is a compound 
 of the various ordinary spices, as ginger, pimento, cas- 
 sia, etc. It is largely adulterated, and can not, there- 
 fore, be recommended, nor is its use at all required, in- 
 asmuch as the cook may in all cases use her own judg- 
 ment to greater advantage. 
 
 Imports of Spioes into the 
 
 United States 
 
 roil TirE 
 
 EIBCAT. 
 
 Yeak embing June 30, 
 
 1857. 
 
 
 Whence imported. 
 
 Mace. 1 Nutmegs. 
 
 Cinnamon. 
 
 cloves. 
 
 Pepper, 
 
 BlBtk. 
 
 FouDda. 
 
 Value. IPounils. 
 
 Value. 
 
 PoundB. 
 
 Value. 
 
 PoundB. 
 
 Value, 
 
 Poundfl 
 
 Value. 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 
 
 l,5(i7 
 
 $614 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Holland 
 
 5,2TT 
 
 $2,689 
 
 132,639 
 
 73,943 
 
 9,330 
 
 $2,691 
 
 5,510 
 
 $2,664 
 
 
 
 Dutch West Indies 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2,175 
 
 $145 
 
 Dutch Guiana 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10,358 
 
 528 
 
 
 
 
 I0,8D3 
 
 5,372 
 
 49,168 
 
 22,473 
 
 19,787 
 
 1,248 
 
 
 
 1,180,080 
 
 70,154 
 
 
 b'Mi 
 
 2,968 
 
 8,371 
 
 108,725 
 
 3,485 
 
 4,627 
 
 69,716 
 
 1,467 
 
 2,200 
 31,167 
 
 606 
 
 9,721 
 
 .... 
 
 
 51,^93 
 42,643 
 
 4.2T7 
 4,07S 
 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Canada 
 
 
 .... 
 
 468 
 
 261 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 British West IndieB 
 
 . . • * 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 23 
 
 4,109 
 
 198 
 
 4,736 
 
 14- 
 
 British PosBessions in Africa 
 
 
 .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,800 
 
 65 
 
 British Australia 
 
 
 
 460 
 
 176 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 27,783 
 
 15,785 
 
 131,878 
 10,751 
 
 83,965 
 5,864 
 
 22,660 
 
 4,521 
 
 GC6 
 
 646 
 
 8,650,132 
 
 199,370 
 
 France on the Atlantic 
 
 French Guiana 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10,803 
 
 4TS 
 
 
 
 Cuba 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4,009 
 
 396 
 
 Porto Rico 
 
 
 
 208 
 
 89 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Madeira 
 
 . . • • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 C 
 
 Africa 
 
 . ..■ 
 
 .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,126,937 
 
 60,918 
 
 
 
 Hayti 
 
 .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 .... 
 
 . , .. 
 
 
 3,170 
 
 ieo 
 
 Buenos Ayres, or Argentine Repub. 
 
 • • • • 
 
 .... 
 
 801 
 
 558 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 China 
 
 Total 
 
 
 
 2,149 
 
 996 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8,000 
 
 501 
 
 49,273 
 
 $26,754 
 
 460,440 
 
 $2.54,637 
 
 86,234 
 
 $18,865 
 
 1,158,381 
 
 $66,332 
 
 4,948,698 
 
 $279,287 
 
SPI 
 
 1749 
 
 SPI 
 
 Imports of Spioeb imto the United States fob the fiscal Yeae ending Jxtnb 30, IS&I.^-'ConUmted. 
 
 Whence imported. 
 
 Pepper, Red. 
 
 Pimento. 
 
 casein. 
 
 Ginger, Ground. 
 
 Ginger, in Root \ 
 
 PoundH. 
 
 Value. 
 
 PoandB. 
 
 Vulue. 
 
 ^'POaniB, 
 
 Value. 
 
 Pounda. 
 
 Voluc. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Holland 
 
 ■ ■ 'is 
 
 2,'40'0 
 
 5,"3"3"o 
 7,"i78 
 
 i's'fi 
 
 19,'o"74 
 1,200 
 
 ■■$9 
 
 "86 
 
 '281 
 
 '631 
 
 "261 
 
 1210 
 92 
 
 'i,'9'30 
 
 24;9'86 
 3,445,677 
 
 ' ' '135 
 '8,'l'l4 
 
 '$187 
 
 '2,002 
 238,731 
 
 ""12 
 "481 
 
 2,623 
 
 22,'669 
 
 119,870 
 
 "."60 
 
 8i4,'676 
 35,112 
 
 42,'6oo 
 896.'613 
 
 • $272 
 
 ■ 'l',946 
 10,744 
 
 ""4 
 
 3'9",5i2 
 6,265 
 
 '6',884 
 137,256 
 
 "48 
 
 1200 
 
 
 
 ii6,'3'90 
 
 %o 
 
 802,104 
 836,684 
 
 i3,'9'46 
 
 168,'3'l.9 
 6,760 
 
 ' ' '368 
 37,944 
 
 $4;8M 
 
 i',724 
 
 8 
 10,228 
 21,784 
 
 "466 
 
 4is29 
 127 
 
 "is 
 
 615 
 
 Dutch West Indies 
 
 Duteh East Indies 
 
 British North American PoBseBsionE 
 British West Indies 
 
 British Honduras 
 
 British PosEessions in Africa 
 
 British East Indies 
 
 France on the Atlantic 
 
 Spain on the Mediterranean 
 
 
 Africa. . ....... ^ 
 
 Hayti 
 
 
 
 Sandwich Islands 
 
 China 
 
 Total 
 
 42,628 
 
 $2460 
 
 3,480,842 
 
 $241,603 
 
 1,433,713 
 
 $21)1,883 
 
 1248 
 
 $32 
 
 1,616,681 
 
 $44,123 
 
 SUMMAEY OP THE IMPOKTS OP SpIOBB INTO THE UNITED 
 
 States Foa the fiscal Yeaks ending J.une 30, 1856~"57. 
 
 Spice.. 
 
 1866-'66 
 
 1856-'67 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Vnluo. 
 
 Pounda 
 
 Vnluo. 
 
 Mace 
 
 44,415 
 
 694,818 
 
 8.),218 
 
 900,647 
 
 6,737,809 
 
 118,741 
 
 4,906,028 
 
 1,132,118 
 
 l,li"3",346 
 
 $23,1,0!, 
 326,133 
 21,145 
 63,077 
 813,652 
 6,84: 
 352,022 
 169,706 
 
 '22,713 
 
 4j,2i5 
 459,44'.] 
 
 85.234 
 1,153,381 
 4,948,698 
 . 42,628 
 3,480,842 
 1,432,713 
 1,248 
 1,516,581 
 
 $-■6,764 
 
 264,637 
 
 18,865 
 
 65,332 
 
 279,287 
 
 2,460 
 
 241,603 
 
 201,883 
 
 32 
 
 44,123 
 
 Nutmegs 
 
 Cinnamon 
 
 Black pepper. . . 
 Pimento 
 
 Ginger, ground. 
 
 " ' in root. 
 
 Total. . . . 
 
 16,633,040 
 
 $1,288,105 
 
 i:i,166,040 
 
 $1,134,876 
 
 Spikenard. This odoriferous plant belongs to the 
 valerian order, and although its fragrance is generally 
 considered unpleasant to European nostrils, it is so 
 much admired by Eastern natives that some of the 
 most esteemed Asiatic perfumes are composed of vale- 
 rian and spikenard. The fragrance of spikenard is 
 frequently mentioned in the Holy Volume. " While 
 the king" sitteth at his table, my spikenard sendeth 
 forth the smell thereof." " There came a woman hav- 
 ing an alabaster box of ointment of spikenard very 
 precious." It is nevertheless unknown to English and 
 French perfumers. — Piesse's Art of Perfumery. 
 
 Spirming. The art of spinning was ascribed by 
 the ancients to Minerva, the goddessof wisdom, such 
 was their veneration for it. Areas, king of Arcadia, 
 
 taught his subjects the art of spinning about 1500 B.C. 
 Lucretia with her maids was found spinning when her 
 husband Collatinus paid a visit to her from the camp. 
 The wife of Tarquin was an excellent spinner; and a 
 garment made by her, worn by Servius TuUius, was 
 preserved in the Temple of Fortune. Augustus Cajsar 
 usually wore no garments but sach as were made by 
 his wife, sister, or daughter. The spinning-wheel was 
 invented at Brunswick about a.d. 1530. Till 1767, 
 the -spinning of cotton was performed by the baud spin- 
 ning-wbeel, when Hargrave, an ingenious mechanic, 
 near Blackburn, made a, spinning-jenny with eight 
 spindles. Hargrave also erected the first carding-ma- 
 chine, with cylinders. Arkwright's machine for spin- 
 ning by water was an extension. o£ the principle of 
 Hargrave's ; but he also applied a large and small 
 roller to expand the thread, and for this ingenious con- 
 trivance took out a patent in 1769. At first he worked 
 his machinery by horses; but in 1771 he built a mill 
 on the stream of the Derwent, at Cro'mford. In 1779, 
 Crompton invented the mule, which is a further and 
 wonderful improvement of this art.^-PHiLLiPS. See 
 Cotton Mandfacture. 
 
 Spirit of Wine. <See Alcohol. 
 
 Spirits. All Inflammable liquors obtained by dis- 
 tillation — as brandy, rum, geneva, whisky, gin, etc., — 
 are comprised under this designation. See articles un- 
 der these heads. 
 
 Account of tub SmttTUOUB and Malt Liquoes peopuoed in the United St,vtes in 1850, showing the Amount op 
 
 GEAIN, etc., CONBOMBD in THEIE fEODUCTION. — FilOM THE ReTITENS UNDEE THE SEVENTH CENSUS. 
 
 
 Capital 
 invested. 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 Quantities an 
 
 d Kinds of Grain, etc., cooaumed. 
 
 Hands 
 ployed. 
 
 Quantities of Liquor produced. | 
 
 States. 
 
 Barley. 
 
 Com. 
 
 Rye. 
 
 Data. 
 
 Apples. 
 
 Mo- 
 lasses. 
 
 Hops. 
 
 Ale, «te.. 
 
 Whisky, 
 .lc.t 
 
 Rum, etc. 
 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 
 Busliels. 
 
 Bushels 
 
 Buali. 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 Hhds 
 
 Tone. 
 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 
 iT.noo 
 
 
 .... 
 
 
 .... 
 
 
 2,000 
 
 .... 
 
 6 
 
 800 
 
 .... 
 
 220,000 
 
 
 7,000 
 
 2,500 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 Massachusetts . 
 
 487,500 
 
 80,000 
 
 19,400 
 
 26,600 
 
 
 .... 
 
 35,i3"0 
 
 29 
 
 131 
 
 25,'8'00 
 
 ■ i2'6,bbo 
 
 3i786,000 
 
 Tlhode Island. . 
 
 17,000 
 
 12,600 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 3,900 
 
 
 
 
 15,000 
 
 
 20,000 
 
 20,000 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 20 
 
 
 i3o','o'oo 
 
 i,'2'oo 
 
 New York 
 
 2,885,900 
 
 2,062,250 
 
 1,647,266 
 
 909,067 
 
 6,707 
 
 60,940 
 
 24,500 
 
 6S1 
 
 1330 
 
 644,'7bo 
 
 9,231,700 
 
 2,488,600 
 
 New Jersey . . . 
 
 409,655 
 
 103,700 
 
 254,000 
 
 68,400 
 
 
 409,700 
 
 .... 
 
 42 
 
 197 
 
 34,760 
 
 1,250,630 
 
 .... 
 
 Pennsylvania . 
 
 1,719,960 
 
 550,105 
 
 1,483,655 
 
 617,180 
 
 24,7"o"o 
 
 61,200 
 
 10 
 
 263 
 
 911 
 
 189,681 
 
 ■6,648,830 
 
 1,600 
 
 
 247,100 
 
 76,900 
 
 166,100 
 
 54,300 
 
 460 
 
 .... 
 
 
 26 
 
 126 
 
 ■ 26,380 
 
 787,400 
 
 .... 
 
 
 100,915 
 
 20,000 
 
 260,700 
 
 62,680 
 
 450 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 123 
 
 ■6,600 
 
 879,440 
 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 21,930 
 
 .... 
 
 64,650 
 
 4,700 
 
 .... 
 
 
 
 .... 
 
 75 
 
 
 153,030 
 
 
 
 3,475 
 
 .... 
 
 18,100 
 
 
 
 .'. . •' 
 
 
 .... 
 
 33 
 
 .... 
 
 
 .... 
 
 Georgia .■ 
 
 7,150 
 
 
 20,160 
 
 2,600 
 
 i,5o"o 
 
 
 
 .... 
 
 16 
 
 .... 
 
 60,450 
 
 
 
 600 
 
 , 
 
 . ; • • 
 
 
 .... 
 
 .. . .' 
 
 2'5 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 .... 
 
 3,000 
 
 
 8,600 
 
 10,000 
 
 
 
 
 .... 
 
 
 io 
 
 8 
 
 3,000 
 
 
 
 Tennessee .... 
 
 65,125 
 
 3,000 
 
 268,400 
 
 6,480 
 
 ;. .. 
 
 
 
 
 159 
 
 .... 
 
 
 .... 
 
 Kentucky .... 
 
 168,896 
 
 65,650 
 
 651,350 
 
 30,520 
 
 
 6,000 
 
 
 is 
 
 274 
 
 19,600 
 
 1,491,745 
 
 
 
 298,900 
 
 124,440 
 
 309,20(1 
 
 24,000 
 
 
 
 
 31 
 
 179 
 
 44,850 
 
 
 .... 
 
 Ohio 
 
 1,262,974 
 334,950 
 
 330,960 
 118,150 
 
 3,638,140 
 1,417,900 
 
 281,760 
 48,700 
 
 19,500 
 1,000 
 
 .... 
 
 .... 
 
 178 
 18 
 
 1033 
 
 287 
 
 96,S4a 
 
 ■ n,oo5 
 
 11,865,160 
 4,639,900 
 
 .... 
 
 
 IlHnois 
 
 303,400 
 
 98,000 
 
 703,600 
 
 48,700 
 
 2,200 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 274 
 
 ?T,926 
 
 2,316,000 
 
 
 Michigan 
 
 130,426 
 
 32,030 
 
 212,300 
 
 19.150 
 
 
 
 .... 
 
 16 
 
 98 
 
 10,320 
 
 690,900 
 
 
 
 19,600 
 98,700 
 
 9'l",620 
 
 61,160 
 29,900 
 
 7,200 
 200 
 
 
 
 
 "28 
 
 19 
 98 
 
 3l:,"3'20 
 
 ■ 127,000 
 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 New Mexico... 
 
 7,30C 
 
 
 '2,000 
 
 •12,900 
 
 
 
 
 
 21 
 
 .... 
 
 42,000 
 
 .... 
 
 Utah 
 
 3,000 
 12,000 
 
 1,000 
 6,000 
 
 ••■•• 
 
 
 
 .... 
 
 
 '"2 
 
 8 
 6 
 
 1,350 
 
 
 
 
 Dis. of Columb. 
 
 Total 
 
 8,334,284 
 
 3,787,195 
 
 11,067,761 
 
 2,143,927 
 
 66,617 
 
 626,840 
 
 61,675 
 
 1294 
 
 5487 
 
 1,177,924 
 
 4-2,133,955 
 
 6,600,600| 
 
 t This includes high wines. 
 
SPI 
 
 1750 
 
 SPI 
 
 Exports of Domestic Spieitb fkom the United Statbs foe the Yeak ending JxnrE 30, 1857. 
 
 Whither exported. 
 
 Russia on the Black Sea 
 
 Asiatic Russia 
 
 Russian Possessions in North America 
 
 Danish West Indies 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Dutch West Indies 
 
 Dutch G-uiana 
 
 England 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 Malta 
 
 Canada 
 
 Other British North American Possessions. 
 
 British West Indies 
 
 British Honduras 
 
 I3ritlsh G-uiana 
 
 Britisli Possessions in Africa 
 
 Other ports in Africa 
 
 British Australia 
 
 British East Indies 
 
 France on the Atlantic 
 
 France on the Mediterranean 
 
 French North American Possessions 
 
 French West Indies 
 
 Spain on the Atlantic 
 
 Canary Islands 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Porto Rico 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Madeira 
 
 Cape de Verd Islands 
 
 Sardinia 
 
 Two Sicilies 
 
 Austria 
 
 Turkey in Europe 
 
 Turkey in Asia 
 
 Hayti 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Central Republic 
 
 New Granada 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Uruguay, or Cisplatine Republic 
 
 Argentine Republic 
 
 Chili 
 
 Peru 
 
 Ecuador 
 
 Sandwich Islands 
 
 Other islands in the Pacific. 
 
 China 
 
 Total 2,167,924 $1,248,234 
 
 Spirits from Grain. 
 
 GelionB. I Value. 
 
 4,799 
 
 3,013 
 
 12,731 
 
 8,337 
 
 630 
 
 14,815 
 
 70 
 
 61,061 
 
 3,400 
 
 45,302 
 
 18,000 
 
 257,034 
 
 55,701 
 
 6,885 
 
 9,136 
 
 300 
 
 6,929 
 
 100,314 
 
 21,043 
 
 5,040 
 
 830,566 
 
 368,008 
 
 1,863 
 
 6,653 
 13,948 
 40,816 
 
 "149 
 
 2,860 
 1,810 
 
 "220 
 410 
 2,171 
 8,414 
 3,433 
 
 34,889 
 8,649 
 9,150 
 
 90,119 
 
 63,917 
 
 9,982 
 
 6,324 
 
 433 
 
 3,090 
 
 636 
 
 29,565 
 
 $5,131 
 
 2,260 
 
 7,860 
 
 4,929 
 
 210 
 
 8,805 
 
 106 
 
 33,668 
 
 1,876 
 
 28,679 
 
 8,900 
 
 124,687 
 
 40,906 
 
 3,235 
 
 4,724 
 
 16T 
 
 2,630 
 
 37,134 
 
 14,991 
 
 2,191 
 
 621,013 
 
 220,809 
 
 706 
 
 2,860 
 
 7,780 
 
 25,428 
 
 "197 
 1,781 
 1,087 
 
 "460 
 170 
 1,042 
 4,814 
 2,909 
 
 18,349 
 4,770 
 4,544 
 
 43,396 
 
 32,170 
 
 4,496 
 
 2,164 
 
 177 
 
 3,067 
 
 637 
 
 11,185 
 
 Spirits from MoiasscG. 
 
 2,055 
 
 200 
 
 10,087 
 
 42,426 
 109,924 
 
 163.'l'08 
 17,352 
 6,652 
 
 146,'8'36 
 826,668 
 
 108,458 
 
 167,835 
 
 50,107 
 
 8,031 
 
 ' ' 800 
 300 
 
 4,201 
 27,185 
 40,764 
 6,647 
 85,443 
 328,824 
 233,752 
 1,687 
 
 6,283 
 
 27,481 
 6,156 
 2,544 
 1,251 
 
 " "so 
 
 $1,648 
 
 90 
 
 9,417 
 
 8,136 
 
 20,740 
 63,024 
 
 106,766 
 9,705 
 4,504 
 
 72,140 
 
 392,873 
 
 6,819 
 
 74,360 
 
 88,752 
 
 24,415 
 
 3,055 
 
 "359 
 164 
 
 1,995 
 
 12,162 
 
 25,394 
 
 8,237 
 
 17,757 
 
 146,632 
 
 110,177 
 
 865 
 
 11,648 
 
 3,750 
 
 1,271 
 
 663 
 
 '"50 
 
 378,603 $1,216,635 
 
 Spirits from other Materials. 
 
 405 
 
 3,'23'o 
 
 70,658 
 
 695 
 
 183 
 
 ' '437 
 
 2,'20'o 
 897 
 
 iMi'e 
 
 6,213 
 i,'84'0 
 
 ' '-lie 
 
 1,905 
 
 S.1S3 
 
 17,901 
 
 46 
 
 2,067 
 
 18,960 
 18,685 
 
 ' '300 
 2,298 
 
 189,226 
 
 Value, 
 
 317 
 
 3,'o'7'o 
 
 51,554 
 
 521 
 
 1S3 
 
 "2M 
 
 i'o'io 
 
 500 
 
 13,'3'4'8 
 2,813 
 
 141 
 
 845 
 
 6,644 
 
 10,263 
 
 34 
 
 10,062 
 13,739 
 
 ' '277 
 2,002 
 
 $120,011 
 
 Impoetb of Spibits into the L'nited States for 
 
 THE Yeae ending Jitnb 30, 1857. 
 
 
 Whence imported. 
 
 Brandy. 
 
 From Grain. | 
 
 From other Matenala ] 
 
 Cordials | 
 
 Gallons, 
 
 Value. 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Gallons 
 
 Value. 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 Value. 
 
 
 "i'oo 
 
 1,684 
 671 
 
 2,738 
 
 '2,'6'63 
 18,059 
 17,699 
 
 '5,'o'40 
 46 
 727 
 
 ""15 
 
 1,466,190 
 
 1,825 
 
 '8,'9'07 
 
 "'2"37 
 
 '"28 
 
 * ' 'soo 
 
 "$92 
 
 2,276 
 
 449 
 
 2,838 
 
 's.'o'ii 
 
 32,123 
 33,481 
 
 '9,161 
 
 46 
 
 1,162 
 
 '"26 
 
 2,432,112 
 
 - 2,393 
 
 '7,'2'51 
 
 "828 
 
 .... 
 
 ""6 
 
 '"608 
 
 23,012 
 
 454 
 
 1,606,991 
 
 ' ' 318 
 
 3,888 
 
 98,543 
 
 199,866 
 
 1,102 
 
 1,818 
 
 262 
 
 1,762 
 
 54,'470 
 ""6 
 
 ' ■ '8'l7 
 
 'i,'4i8 
 800 
 
 $ii,'6b4 
 
 338 
 818,382 
 
 "'93 
 
 1,925 
 
 78,830 
 
 184,189 
 
 1,221 
 
 665 
 
 160 
 
 563 
 
 26,'l'40 
 ""7 
 
 ■"2'l2 
 
 'i,'o'o2 
 
 839 
 
 28'2,3b9 
 
 '"14 
 3,200 
 4,464 
 2,954 
 
 "2i7 
 
 6,595 
 
 709 
 
 " "5 
 
 2,487 
 
 117,395 
 
 148 
 
 1,158 
 
 "249 
 
 ""e 
 
 12,898 
 8,236 
 
 '"98 
 "240 
 
 "■43 
 71 
 
 $1M',778 
 
 ■"28 
 1,749 
 8,462 
 1,446 
 
 "lis 
 
 6,641 
 816 
 
 ""8 
 
 1,935 
 
 63,533 
 
 41 
 
 330 
 
 "267 
 
 ""2 
 5,607 
 4,080 
 
 '"20 
 '"74 
 
 '"30 
 23 
 
 10 
 
 113 
 
 3,094 
 
 1,074 
 
 3,971 
 
 92 
 
 i.'i'fi 
 
 1,121 
 
 "■7 
 ' ' '56 
 
 42,'l6'l 
 
 6,609 
 
 270 
 
 5,837 
 
 ' 'e'se 
 ' s'k 
 
 18 
 404 
 
 30 
 798 
 
 " ' 'fi'l 
 '"52 
 "'8'0 
 
 $15 
 
 114 
 
 3,518 
 
 1,039 
 
 8,827 
 
 96 
 
 'l',i72 
 1,866 
 
 "'13 
 '"59 
 
 6^269 
 
 10,676 
 
 509 
 
 3,447 
 
 "434 
 
 "842 
 12 
 
 548 
 84 
 
 781 
 
 '"62 
 '"47 
 '"26 
 
 
 
 
 Holland 
 
 Dutch West Indies 
 
 
 Dutch East Indies , 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Other British N. American Poss. 
 British West Indies 
 
 
 British Guiana 
 
 British East Indies , 
 
 France on the Atlantic 
 
 France on the Mediterranean . . 
 
 Spain on the Mediterranean . . . 
 
 Cuba 
 
 
 Sardinia 
 
 Tuscany 
 
 
 Two Sicilies 
 
 
 Hayti 
 
 Mexico 
 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Peru 
 
 
 China 
 
 Total 
 
 1,618,328 
 
 $2,527,262 
 
 1,985,037 
 
 $1,126,160 
 
 443,495 
 
 $218,907 
 
 67,374 
 
 $92,896 
 
SPI 
 
 1751 
 
 STA 
 
 Table showing the Total Number of Gallons of Pkoof- 
 
 BPIEIT DIBTILLED IN ENGLAND, SCOTLAND, AND IEELAND 
 EE8PE0TIVELY, DUEING THE YeAE ENDING BtH JANUAEY, 
 1854. 
 
 
 From 
 AloXt only 
 
 From n Mixture of 
 
 Total. 
 
 Malt with 
 
 unmnltod 
 
 Oiaia. 
 
 Sugar or 
 MoJoasai 
 
 with 
 
 tmmalted 
 
 Grain. 
 
 England .... 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Ireland 
 
 Qnllois. 
 
 5,330,744 
 9,726 
 
 GniloM. 
 6,319,660 
 4,110,681 
 8,789,230 
 
 GalloDS. 
 989,010 
 916,631 
 4,006 
 
 GallonB. 
 7,303,670 
 10.359,926 
 8.772,961 
 
 United Kingdom. 
 
 6,340,440 
 
 19,192,471 
 
 l,808,(i4(, 
 
 v!6,441,667 
 
 — .See Wine. 
 
 Spithead, a celebrated roadstead, off the south 
 coast of England, county of Hant's, between Portsea 
 island and the Isle of Wight. It communicates west- 
 ward with the Solent and Southampton Water. It is 
 so secure from all winds except the southeast, as to 
 have been termed by sailors " the king's bedchamber," 
 and it is a principal rendezvous of the British navy, 
 Portsmouth and Byde are on its opposite sides. 
 
 Splicing, among seamen, to join the two ends of a 
 rope together, or to unite the end of a rope to any part 
 thereof, by interweaving the strands in a regular man- 
 ner. There are several methods of splicing, according 
 to the services for which it is intended; all of which 
 are distinguished by particular epithets. The term is 
 also used in architecture. 
 
 Splinters, the pieces of a ship's side, masts, decks, 
 etc., which, being knocked off by a shot, acquire great 
 velocity, and frequently do more damage among the 
 men than the shot itself. 
 
 Splinter-netting, sennit made into webs, and 
 nailed upon the inner parts of a ship's sides, to lessen 
 the effect of the splinters. 
 
 Sponge (Ger. Schwamm ; Fr. Sponge ; It. Spugna ; 
 Sp. Esponja), a soft, light, very porous, and compressi- 
 ble substance, readily imbibing water, and as readily 
 giving it out again. It is found adhering to rocks, 
 particularly in the Mediterranean Sea, about the isl- 
 ands of the Archipelago. It was formerly supposed to 
 be a vegetable production, but is now classed among 
 the zoophytes ; and analyzed, it yields the same prin- 
 ciples as animal substances in general. The inhabitants 
 in several of the Greek islands have been trained from 
 their infancy to dive for sponges. They adhere firmly 
 to the bottom, and are not detached without a. good 
 deal of trouble. The extraordinary clearness of the 
 water facilitates the operations of the divers. Smyrna 
 is the great market for sponge. The price varies from 
 6 to 16 piastres per oke for ordinary and dirty, and 
 from 80 to 100 piastres per oke for fine and picked spec- 
 imens. Sponge is also fished for in the Bed Sea.— 
 Uee's Dictidnary ; Savart's Letters on Greece. About 
 20 miles southeast from Napoli di Romania (Nauplia), 
 in the gulf of that name, is the small town of Cranidi, 
 the inhabitants of which are the principal sponge-fish- 
 ers of the Archipelago and Levant. The fishery is car- 
 ried on partly by spearing, and partly by diving ; the 
 latter securing the sponge free from injury, which is 
 not the case with the former. The Cranidiots are most 
 expert divers, and anecdotes approaching to the mar- 
 velous are told of their feats. After the sponge is fished 
 up, when perfectly free from sand, and dry, it is so 
 very light that large pieces of it are moved with the 
 slightest breath of air. It is customarj-, however, to 
 impregnate it with sand. This is done by stringing 
 the sponges together, and laying them on the sand to 
 allow the ripple of the sea to slush them with the finest 
 particles. They are then placed in heaps under piles 
 of stones which press them closely together, so that 
 they become when dry hard and flat, and have to be 
 beaten and sifted. But though this be done, and though 
 they are sometimes further washed and sifted, they 
 will, though apparently quite clean, weigh three or 
 four times their original weight ! It la, perhaps, need- 
 
 less to add that they are always sold by weight. The 
 sponges found on the Florida coast are very good, and 
 if the fishery was more extensively prosecuted would 
 furnish us with our consumption. 
 
 Squill (Ger. Meerzwiebel; Fr. Scille, Oignon marin; 
 It. Scilla, CipoUa marina ; Sp. CehoUa albarranna), or, 
 as it is sometimes denominated, the Sea onion, is a plant 
 with a large bulbous root, which is the only part that 
 is used. It grows spontaneously on sandy shores in 
 Spain and the Levant ; whence we are annually sup- 
 plied with the roots. They should be chosen large, 
 plump, fresh, and full of a clammy juice : some are of 
 a reddish color, and others white ; but no difl'erence is 
 observed in the qualities of the two sorts. The root is 
 very nauseous, intensely bitter, and acrimonious ; much 
 handled, it ulcerates the skin. The bulbs are brought 
 to market preserved fresh in sand. The acrimony of 
 the roots, on which their virtue depends, is partially 
 destroyed by drying and long keeping, and is complete- 
 ly destroyed by exposure to heat above 212°. Squill 
 is one of the most powerful and useful remedies in the 
 materia medica. — Lewis's Materia Med. ; Thomson's 
 Dispensatory. 
 
 Stade, a small city of Hanover, on the Schwinge, 
 22 miles west by north of Hamburg, lat. 53° 36' 32" 
 N., long. 9° 28' 34" E. It has very little trade ; and 
 would be quite unworthy of notice in a work of this 
 sort, except for the circumstance that a toll or duty, 
 charged by the Hanoverian government on goods con- 
 veyed up the Elbe to Hamburg, whether for consump- 
 tion or transit, used to bo charged at the castle of 
 Brunshausen, contiguous to this town. All vessels 
 .bound for Hamburg had to heave to (and those of some 
 countries to anchor) in passing the guard-ship opposite 
 to the castle, and send their papers, including mani- 
 fests, bills of lading, cockets, etc., on shore, that the 
 duty, which was in general about i per cent, ad valorem, 
 might be computed from them. This being done, the 
 ship was allowed to proceed, and the duty was paid at 
 Hamburg. — See Elbe. It is remarkable that an ob- 
 struction of this sort should have been tolerated for so 
 long a period. The duties fell heavily on certain de- 
 scriptions of goods, particularly on some manufactured 
 articles; and were, at an average, decidedly higher 
 than the duties charged in Hamburg. They are most 
 objectionable, however, from their requiring manj' trou- 
 blesome regulations to be complied with ; the uninten- 
 tional deviation from any one of which exposes the cargo 
 to confiscation, and never fails to occasion a great deal 
 of delay, trouble, and expense. As the principal part 
 of the foreign trade of the Elbe is in our hands, we are, 
 of course, principally affected by the Stade toll ; and 
 considering the source of the nuisance, it is not a little 
 astonishing it should not have been abated long ago. 
 The sum which the Hanoverian government derived 
 from the duties is but trifling compared with the injury 
 they inflicted on trade ; it would, consequently,- be good 
 policy for the former to sell, and for the government to 
 buy, an exemption from so vexatious a duty ; and few 
 things would do more to extend our trade with Ham- 
 burg than the completion of an arrangement of this 
 sort. By an order from the Hanoverian government 
 this duty has been abolished, and vessels are permitted 
 to navigate the Elbe paying ordinary port dues. 
 
 Stained Glass. When certain metallic oxyds 
 or chlorids, ground up with proper fluxes, are painted 
 upon glass, their colors fuse into its surface at a mod- 
 erate heat, and make durable pictures, which are fre- 
 quently employed in ornamenting the windows of 
 churches as well as of other public and private build- 
 ings. The colors of stained glass are all transparent, 
 and are therefore to be viewed only by transmitted 
 light. Many metallic pigments, which afibrd a fine 
 effect when applied cold on canvas or paper, are so 
 changed by vitreous fusion as to be quite inapplicable 
 to painting in stained glass. — See Glass. 
 
 Stamps, Stamp Acts. Stamps are impres- 
 
STA 
 
 1752 
 
 STE 
 
 sions made upon paper or parchment by the govern- 
 ment or its officers for the purpose of revenue. They 
 always denote the price of the particular stamp, or, in 
 other words, the tax levied upon a particular instru- 
 ment stamped, and sometimes they denote the nature 
 of the instrument itself. If the instrument is written 
 upon paper, the stamp is impressed in relief upon the 
 paper itself ; but to a parchment instrument the stamp 
 is attached by paste and u small piece of lead, which 
 itself forms part of the impression. These stamps are 
 easily forged, and at various times forgeries of them 
 upon a large scale have been discovered. The Stamp 
 Act was one of the main causes of the American Eev- 
 olution. In England all commercial paper must be 
 stamped to give it validity. The State of Maryland 
 passed a Stamp Act in 1845 as a source of revenue. 
 By this act bills of exchange, promissory notes, bonds, 
 mortgages, and lottery tickets, were to be stamped. 
 The ordinary annual revenue of the State was from 
 $70,000 to $80,000. The act was repealed in 1856. 
 By the present British Stamp Act, the stamps on bills 
 of exchange, and notes, drafts, etc., range from 1 penny 
 to £2 5s. ; on foreign bills, from 1 penny to 15^. ; on 
 wills, from 10s. to £270 or more. 
 
 Staple, " anciently written estapk, cometh," says 
 Lork Coke, "of the French word estape, which signifies 
 a mart or market." It appears to have been used to in- 
 dicate those marts both in Great Britain and at Bruges, 
 Antwerp, Calais, etc., on the continent, where the prin- 
 cipal products of a country were sold. Probably, in 
 the first instance, these were held at such places as pos- 
 sessed some convenience of situation for the purpose. 
 Afterward thej' appear to have been confirmed, or oth- 
 ers appointed for the purpose by the authorities of the 
 country. All merchandise sold for the purpose of ex- 
 portation was compelled either to be sold at the "sta- 
 ple," or afterward brought there before exportation. 
 This was done mth the double view of accommodating 
 the foreign merchants and also enabling the duties on 
 exportation to be more conveniently and certainly col- 
 lected. Afterward the word staple was applied to 
 the merchandise itself which was sold at the staple. — 
 Boiin's Cyclopedia. 
 
 Starch (Ger. Amidan; Ft. Amidon; It. Amodi, 
 Amito ; Sp. Amidon, Almidon ; Russ. Xrwc^mar), a sub- 
 stance obtained from vegetables. It has a fine white 
 color, and is usually concreted in longish masses ; it 
 has scarcely any smell, and very little taste. When 
 kept dry, it continues for a long time uninjured, though 
 exposed to the air. It is insoluble in cold water ; but 
 combines with boiling water — forming with it a kind 
 of jelly. It exists chiefly in the white and brittle 
 parts of vegetables, particularly in tuberose roots, and 
 the seeds of the gramineous plants. It may be ex- 
 tracted by pounding these parts, and agitating them in 
 cold water, when the parenchyma or fibrous parts will 
 first subside ; and these being removed, n fine white 
 powder, diffused through the water, will gradually sub- 
 side, which is the starch. Or the pounded or grated 
 substance, as the roots of potatoes, acorns, or horse 
 chestnuts, for instance, may be put into a hair sieve, 
 and the starch washed through with cold water, leav- 
 ing the grosser matters behind. Farinaceous seeds 
 may be ground and treated in a similar manner. Oily 
 seeds require to have the oil expressed from them be- 
 fore the farina is extracted. — Thomson's Chem. 
 
 Impoets of Staeoh into the United Rt.4.tes fok tile Year 
 BNDINa JlTNE 30, 186T. 
 
 whence imported. 
 
 PoUDds 
 
 Value. 
 
 
 47T 
 
 44,375 
 
 14,655 
 
 51,4S4 
 
 1,891 
 
 3,!!51 
 
 1,500 
 
 600 
 
 $34 
 
 1614 
 
 1009 
 
 3494 
 
 136 
 
 B33 
 
 4T 
 
 28 
 
 Holland 
 
 
 
 
 
 China 
 
 France and Canada 
 
 Total 
 
 118,8J3 
 
 $6695 
 
 Stay, a strong rope from the mast head, leading 
 forward to support it from falling aft. It takes the name 
 of the mast, as the fore-staj', main-topmast stay, etc. 
 To stay^ means to tack. To be in slays, is to be in the 
 act of tacking. To miss stays^ signifies to fail in at- 
 tempting to tack. 
 
 Steam Navigation. The statistics in regard to 
 the steam navigation of the maritime nations of the 
 world will be found under the heads of those countries. 
 This article, therefore, will be limited, and be comprised 
 under the following heads : I. Invention of the Steam- 
 engine. II. Introduction and Statistics of Ocean 
 Steam Navigation. 
 
 I. Jiivention of the Steam-engine. — The steam-engine 
 is the most important power that the ingenuity of man 
 has yet devised. The first idea of it was suggested by 
 the Marquis of Worcester, in his Century of Inventions, 
 as " a way to drive up water by fire," It does not, how- 
 ever, appear th^t this inventor ever derived any benefit 
 or could interest the public in favor of his discovery. 
 The following list includes the chronology of the most 
 important inventions and improvements of the steam- 
 engine. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 Papin's digester invented 1681 
 
 Captain Savery's engine constructed for raising water . 1698 
 Papin's engine exhibited to the British Koyal Society. . 1699 
 
 Atmospheric engine by Savery and Newcomen 1713 
 
 First idea of Bteam navigation set forth in a patent ob- 
 tained by Hull 1T3G 
 
 Watt's invention of condensation steam 1765 
 
 Watt's first patent 1769 
 
 Watt's engines built on a large scale, aad his patent re- 
 
 neived by Parliament 1775 
 
 Thomas Paine proposed the application of steam in the 
 
 United States 1778 
 
 Engine made to give a rotaiy 1778 
 
 Watt's expansion engine 1778 
 
 Double acting engines proposed by Dr. Flock 1779 
 
 Watt's double engine constructed and patented 1781 
 
 Marquess JoufCroy constructed an engine on the Saone. 1781 
 Fitch's experiments in steam navigation on the Dela- 
 ware 17S3-'84 
 
 Oliver Evans's experiments 1785-86 
 
 Ramsey experiments in Virginia 1787 
 
 W. Symington made a passage on the Clyde Canjil 1789 
 
 Chancellor Livingston built a steamer on the Hudson , . 1797 
 
 First experiment on the Thames 1801 
 
 Trevettrick's high pressure locomotive engine (see Rail- 
 
 fiOADs) first used 1802 
 
 Oliver Evans's experiments in locomotive engines in 
 
 Pennsylvania 1S04 
 
 Manufactories warmed by steam i 1806 
 
 Fulton started a steamboat on the Hudson Eiver, built 
 by himself, named The Clermont; engine by Boulton ' 
 and Watt; passage to Albany in thii-ty-six hours. 
 First Kecokd of pbaotioal Steam Navigation in 
 
 TUB WopLD 1807 
 
 The steamboats next in order in the world were. 
 
 The Car of jSeptunc, New York 1808 
 
 The Paragon '' 1811 
 
 Tlie Richmond " 1812 
 
 Steam power first used on railroads by Blenkinsop 1811 
 
 Steam vessels commenced plying on the Clyde (Fiebt 
 
 IN Etjeope) 1812 
 
 Five steam vessels in Scotland 1813 
 
 Steam used in printing London Times ,' 1814 
 
 First steam vessel on the Thames, brought from Glasgow 1815 
 
 First steamer buili in England 1315 
 
 Steamer Savannah, of 350 tons, made the first ocean 
 voyage from New York to Liverpool, in twenty-two 
 
 days 1819 
 
 First steamer in Ireland .' 1820 
 
 Captain Johnson obtained £10,000 for making the first 
 steam voyage to India in the Enterprise, which sailed 
 
 from Falmouth August 16 1825 
 
 Locomotive steam-carriages on railways at Liverpool, 
 
 October 1829 
 
 Locomotives first used in the United States on the Mo- 
 hawk and Hudson Railroad 1831 
 
 On the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad 1832 
 
 The Great Western arrived from Bristol at Now York, 
 and the Sirius from Cork, Ireland, being their first 
 
 voyages 1838 
 
 First steamer on the Cunard Line arrived at Boston, 
 
 fourteen days eight hours, July 18 1S40 
 
 — See Haykn'b DutUmary of Dates; see Fuiton. 
 
 II. Introduction and Statistics of Ocean Steam Naviga- 
 tion. — The first steamer that ever crossed the Atlantic 
 was the Savannah, Captain Moses Rogers — a vessel that 
 was built in New York, in 1818, by Fitchet & Crocket, 
 The engine was built by Stephen Vail and Daniel Dod, 
 
STE 
 
 1753 
 
 STE 
 
 of New Jersey. It was a paddle-wheel steamer, of 350 
 tons burden and 90 horse power, and sailed from New 
 York March 29, 1819, to Savannah, Georgia, where she 
 was owned. She next went to Charleston to take the 
 President, James Monroe, to Savannah, and from there, 
 on the 25th of May, 1819, started for Liverpool, where 
 she arrived safely in 22 days. She was a full-rigged 
 ship, and a fast sailer ; had steam up fourteen days of 
 the voyage; and by steam alone could make eight 
 knots an hour. Steamboats coming into general use 
 on rivers, lakes, and coasting voyages soon after, it 
 seems a little singular that no further attempts were 
 made for nineteen years to cross the ocean by steam. 
 The mere fact of this successful voyage seems to have 
 been overlooked ; the great philosopher, Dionysius 
 Lardner, having proyed-r-to his own satisfaction, at 
 least — that steam vessels never could cross the Atlan- 
 tic! 
 
 Finally, in Bristol, England — the very port that sent 
 out John and Sebastian Cabot to make the first actual 
 discovery of this continent — a line of steamers was 
 projected, and the first vessel, the Sinus, arrived in 
 New York on the 23d of April, 1838. The New York 
 papers of that date say, " Myriads of persons crowded 
 the Battery to have a glimpse of the first steam vessel 
 which had crossed the Atlantic from the British Isles, 
 and arrived safely in port." The London Times had 
 spoken of the project doubtfully. " There is really no 
 mistake," said the Times, " in this long-talked-of proj- 
 ect of navigating the Atlantic Ocean by steam. There 
 is no doubt of an intention to make the attempt, and 
 to give the experiment, as such, a fair trial. The iSir- 
 ius is absolutely getting under weigh for America." 
 Now, after a lapse of 20 years, there are 15 lines of 
 steamers, numbering 46 ships, trading between this 
 country and Europe ; and 37 of these steamers run out 
 of New York. The earliest vessels — the iSirius, the 
 Great Western, Royal William, City of Liverpool, Brit- 
 ish Queen, and the President — were none of them long 
 in the trade. The line established by the enterprising 
 Samuel Cunard, and to this day bearing his name, was 
 started in 1840, and was the first permanently success- 
 ful line of transatlantic steamers ever set afloat. The 
 first Cunard steamer (the Britannia) arrived at Boston 
 July 18, 1840. 
 
 Of the transatlantic steamers eight have been lost. 
 The President, the City of Glasgow, and the Pacific sail- 
 ed, and, with all on board, "were never heard of 
 more." The Arctic was sunk in a collision with the 
 French steamer Vesta, on the banks of Newfoundland, 
 and but few lives were saved. The Columbia, the Mum- 
 boldt, the Franklin, and the City of Philadelphia were 
 all wrecked, but no lives were lost. Since the Sirius 
 sailed from England to New York, in 1838, not far from 
 500,000 persons have crossed the Atlantic by steam — 
 reckoning both passengers and crews, and the voyages 
 both ways — and of this number about 1200 have been 
 lost. This, in the doctrine of chances, is about one- 
 third of 1 per cent., or one voyage in 300. With 
 greater care, with the lessons of experience, and the 
 
 aid of practical science, the percentage of loss will in 
 future undoubtedly be far less. 
 
 In comparing the screw with paddle-wheel steamers, 
 the latter have always been considered the swiftest 
 vessels, and have generally made the best time. Screw 
 steamers have many advantages over those with pad- 
 dle-wheels. As war vessels they are more secure, the 
 propelling power, as well as the most of the machinery, 
 being below the water-line, and out of the reach of 
 shot. The engine and machinery are less expensive, 
 take less fuel, occupy far less space, and consequently 
 afford more room for passengers and freight. They 
 are not usually as rapid, nor are they as great favorites 
 with the traveling public as paddle-wheel steamers. 
 The motion of screw steamers is more unpleasant than 
 those with paddle-wheels ; there being nothing on the 
 sides to balance and " trim" them, they have a lurch- 
 ing, rolling motion. 
 
 The ordinary time made by the Cunard and Collins 
 paddle-wheel steamers between Liverpool and New 
 York has been from 9 to 12 days. The monster steam- 
 er Himalaya — a British screw steamer of over 5000 tons 
 burden — was sent under steam from Halifax to South- 
 ampton in about 9 days. Three other screw vessels — 
 the Emeu, Lebanon, and Alps — steamed from Havre to 
 New York, respectively, in 11 days 17 hours, 13 days 
 21 hours, and 13 days 12 hours. These passages are 
 not far behind the usual speed of paddle-wheel steam- 
 ers. ' 
 
 The following is the record of the various lines of 
 transatlantic steamers, and the average time of passage 
 going both east and west, during the year 1856. It 
 can not be taken as positive proof of the comparative 
 speed of the different lines, for sometimes one or two 
 unfortunate trips will greatly increase the general av- 
 erage. The Boston branch of the Cunard line had 
 longer voyages than the New York line, in consequence 
 of the delay occasioned by putting into Halifax. 
 
 Eastern Western 
 PoBsages. Passages. 
 
 I)aye. Hra. Days. Hrs. 
 
 CoUina Paddle-wheel, lu 08 12 16 
 
 Cunard, New York .... " 11 03 11 23 
 
 Cunard, Boston " 11 12 13 OT 
 
 Bremen " 14 12 15 00 
 
 Old Havre " 13 16 14 18 
 
 Havre (Vanderbilt) ... . " 38 00 13 00 
 
 Havre (French) Screw, 15 00 IT 00 
 
 Glasgow ' " 18 08 15 12 
 
 Hamburg " 16 00 15 12 
 
 — Punt Miles's Report on Ocean Steam Navigation. 
 
 Great, Britain. — To exhibit the extent of the em- 
 ployment of steam vessels in the British trade to the 
 Mediterranean, India, and China, we give a summary 
 of the steamers owned by the Peninsular and Oriental 
 Company : 
 
 Screw, Paddle-wheel. Total. 
 
 Number 21 19 40 
 
 Tonnage 30,022 22,715 52,73T 
 
 The following tabular statement gives a full exhibit 
 of the ocean mail service of Great Britain, now carried 
 on almost exclusively by steamships : 
 
 Number of 
 SteameiB. 
 
 Horse 
 Power. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Number 
 of Men. 
 
 Serrlee 
 commenced. 
 
 How often. 
 
 ' Annual 
 Compeneation. 
 
 Liverpool and Isle of Man 
 
 England and Ireland 
 
 Scotland and Shetland 
 
 England, Spain, and Gibraltar 
 
 Mediterranean, India, and China 
 
 England and the United States 
 
 North America (Colonial) 
 
 West Indies, Mexico, and South America. 
 
 England, France, and Belgium 
 
 Channel Islands 
 
 West Coast of South America 
 
 Scotland and Orkney 
 
 West Coast of Africa '. 
 
 South America, Mauritius, and Calcutta . 
 
 England and Australia 
 
 Total 
 
 4 
 4 
 2 
 4 
 85 
 
 20 
 6 
 5 
 7 
 1 
 7 
 5 
 7 
 
 121 
 
 790 
 1,284 
 
 300 
 
 973 
 12,860 
 6,418 
 
 800 
 9,308 
 
 640 
 
 797 
 
 2,396 
 
 60 
 
 850 
 2,000 
 3,290 
 
 2,08!l 
 
 2,408 
 
 850 
 
 2,782 
 
 46,053 
 
 18,406 
 1,161 
 
 29,454 
 1,765 
 1,852 
 5,719 
 250 
 5,951 
 8,00) 
 
 13,410 
 
 91 
 115 
 
 42 
 200 
 2877 
 922 
 
 60 
 1667 
 
 S6 
 107 
 378 
 
 18 
 820 
 575 
 671 
 
 1833 
 1860 
 1840 
 1852 
 1863 
 1850 
 1854 
 1851 
 1854 
 1848 
 1852 
 1855 
 1862 
 1856 
 1867 
 
 2 a week 
 
 2 a day 
 
 1 a week 
 
 3 a month 
 
 2 a month 
 1 a week 
 1 a month 
 
 3 a month 
 
 1 a day 
 3 a week 
 
 2 a month 
 1 a day 
 
 1 a month 
 1 a month 
 1 a month 
 
 $4,250 
 
 125,000 
 
 6,000 
 
 .102,600 
 
 1,121,500 
 
 • 866,700 
 
 73,500 
 
 1,350,000 
 
 77,500 
 
 20,000 
 
 125,000 
 
 6i50d 
 
 10'6,25b- 
 
 208,000 
 
 925,000 
 
 42,254 
 
 140,139 
 
 S137 
 
 |B,114,70q* 
 
 * There are some lines not here noticed, which swell the sum to $5,833,985. 
 
STE 
 
 1754 
 
 STE 
 
 1. The mail routes from Great Britain to Australia 
 are shown as follows : 
 
 The route from Great Britain to her Australian col- 
 onies, via the Cape of Good Hope, includes the follow- 
 ing distances and lengths of passage : 
 
 IVIiles. Days. 
 
 Southampton to the Cape 6,700 30 
 
 Cape to Adelaide 6,100 28 
 
 Adelaide to Sydney 1,080 6 
 
 Sydney to New Zealand 1,200 _6 
 
 Total 16,080 69 
 
 2. The Suez and Singapore route is made up as 
 follows : 
 
 Miles. 
 
 Southampton to Gibraltar 1,150 
 
 Gibraltar to Alexandria . .x 1,890 
 
 Alexandria to Ceylon 3,750 
 
 Ceylon to Singapore 1,700 
 
 Singapore to Sydney 4,800 
 
 Sydney to New Zealand 1,200 
 
 Total '. 14,490 
 
 3. The distances by way of Panama are : 
 
 Miles. 
 
 Southampton to St. Thomas 3,620 
 
 St. Thomas to Panama 1,100 
 
 Panama to Tahiti 4,490 
 
 Tahiti to New Zealand 2,280 
 
 New Zealand to Sydney 1,200 
 
 Total 12,690 
 
 The comparatiTe distances show a decided advant- 
 age by the Panama rotrte, and prove that the course 
 of trade from Great Britain to her colonies must event- 
 ually tend that way. 
 
 The ocean mail steamers of Great Britain run 
 2,532,231 miles per year, at a total cost to the Admi- 
 ralty of £1,062,797, or $5,333,985. The ocean mail 
 steamers of the United States run 735,732 miles per 
 year, at a total charge on the Post-office Department 
 of $1,329,733. The British steamers run three and a 
 half times as man}' miles as ours do, and receive for it 
 a sum more than four times as large. The average 
 price paid to their principal companies, as the West 
 India Koyal Mail, the Cunard, the Australian, and the 
 Peninsular and Oriental, including its Mediterranean 
 coasting service, is 9«. Id., or $2 39 per mile; while 
 the average price paid by us, or for the Collins, Havre, 
 Bremen, Aspinwall, and Panama, San Francisco and 
 
 Oregon, is $1 801 per mile. The highest sum paid 
 per mile by the British government is \\s, i^d., or 
 $2 83 i, to the Cunard Company, $2 75 to the Austra- 
 lian, and $2 46 to the AVest India ; ami the lowest, 6s. 
 IJd., or $1 53J- to the Peninsular and Oriental, "much 
 of whose service is coasting. This is saying nothing 
 of the Pacific and the African coasting lines. The 
 highest sum which we pay is to the Collins line, $3 lOJ- 
 per mile ; and the lowest to the Havre, $1 00 J- per mile ; 
 while the sums paid to all of the other companies range 
 but little above the last figures. The lowest rate per 
 mile paid to any of the lines under the contract was to 
 the Pacific Mail, $1 70. It must not be forgotten that 
 the low rates per mile of the Havre and Bremen result 
 from those lines talting the postages since their con- 
 tracts expired^ a sum by no means adjusted to the 
 service done. They had ships that they could not let 
 lie idle. Under tlieir regular contracts the pay per 
 mile of the Bremen line was $2 08, and of the Havre 
 $1 761^. While the British government pays to four 
 of her principal transmarine services an average of 
 $2 39 per mile, we pay to five of ours an average of 
 $1 80J only, or but about two-thirds as much as she 
 does. While our total annual expenditure for foreign 
 mails is $1,329,733, a sum by $20,267 less than that 
 paid to the single service of the West India Royal Mail 
 Company, that of Great Britain is $5,333,985. And 
 while our total income from transmarine postages is 
 $1,035,740, a sum but little short of that paid in sub- 
 sidy, talcing the present Bremen and Havre services 
 at the estimates of last year for sea and inland post- 
 ages combined, the income ^om the whole transmarine 
 service of Great Britain, including ocean and inland 
 postage, was, when the last report was made in 1853, 
 £591,573, or $2,967,865 ; but little above half the sum 
 paid in subsidy, and including the French, Belgian, 
 and Dutch routes, where the postal yield was much 
 greater than from the ocean lines. The estimates 
 which we present below have been made with great care 
 from distances and subsidies furnished us by the reli- 
 able First Assistant Postmaster-general, Hon. Hora- 
 tio King, from the last report of the late Postmaster- 
 general, and from the report of the British Postmas- 
 ter-general, Lord Canning, before noticed. Every item 
 is consequently authentic. 
 
 Amekioan Mail Steamers. 
 
 Linea. 
 
 Trips. 
 
 Distances. 
 
 Subsidy. 
 
 Gross Postage. 
 
 Total Miles. 
 
 Pay per Mile. 
 
 (JoUins 
 
 iJO. 
 13 
 13 
 24 
 24 
 U 
 24 
 
 3,100 
 3,700 
 3,270 
 3,200 
 4,200 
 669 
 900 
 
 ' !t385.000 
 128,937 
 83,484 
 290,000 
 348,250 
 60,000 
 29,062 
 
 $415,867 
 
 128,937 
 
 88,484 
 
 139,610 
 
 183,233 
 
 6,288 
 
 6,960 
 
 lz4,OU0 
 96,000 
 85,020 
 158,600 
 201,600 
 32,112 
 43,200 
 
 $3 lot 
 134 
 1 OOJ 
 1 83} 
 1 70 
 1 86} 
 67 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,$1,329,733 
 
 $1,035,740 
 
 726,732 
 
 $1 811} average. 
 
 
 Total average per mile, $1 80}. Average of five principal linea, $1 SO}. 
 Britisu Mail Stbameeb. 
 
 Cunard 
 
 Boyal Mail 
 
 Peninsular and Oriental , . . 
 
 Australian 
 
 Bermuda aud St. Thomas . 
 Panama and Valparaiso. . . 
 West Coast Africa 
 
 Channel Islands 
 
 Holyhead and Kingston , , . 
 
 Liverpool and Isle of Man . 
 
 Shetland and Orkneys . . . . 
 
 Total 
 
 Trips. 
 
 52 
 24 
 24 
 12 
 24 
 24 
 12 
 
 156 
 730 
 112 
 
 52 
 
 3,100 
 11,402 
 
 14,000 
 2,042 
 2,718 
 6,245 
 
 132 
 64 
 70 
 
 200 
 
 Subsidy. 
 
 ±li3,34U 
 
 270,000 
 
 244,000 
 
 185,000 
 
 14,700 
 
 25,000 
 
 23,250 
 
 i;l,062,797 
 
 Gross Postage. 
 
 i;i43,667 10s. 
 106,905 
 178,186 11 
 33,281 12 
 
 6,716 
 8,196 2 
 French, Belgian, 
 <ind Dutch post- 
 age. 
 
 (74,430 8 
 J 86,153 9 
 ( 10,032 15 
 
 ^691,573 78. 
 
 Pay per Mile. 
 
 304,000 
 547,206 
 796,637 
 336,000 
 £8,000 
 130,404 
 149,881) 
 
 41,184 
 93,440 
 14,560 
 20,800 
 
 4,632,231 
 
 118. Hit. $^ 381 
 
 9s. lOd $2 46 , 
 
 6s. W. $1 m 
 
 lis. $2 75 
 
 88. $0 75 
 
 38. lOd. $0 96 
 
 2«. 6i. $0 62} 
 
 a«. Id. 
 
 Total average per mile, $2 10}. Average of four principal lines, $2 39. 
 * The Peninsular and Oriental Company run twice per month between Southampton and Alexandria, and between Suez 
 and Calcutta and Hong Kong ; twice per month between Marseilles and Malta ; between Singapore and Sydney eveiy two 
 months'; and three times per month between Southampton and Gibraltar, touching at Vigo, Oporto, Lisbon, and Cadiz. 
 
 It would hardly be expected that the lines of this 
 country should run at cheaper rates than those of Great 
 Britain, as the prime cost of ships and their repairs, 
 
 fuel, wages, insurance, etc., are much cheaper there, 
 and as they have more paying freights, in their manu- 
 factured goods. It only explains to us, what has al- 
 
STE 
 
 175S 
 
 STE 
 
 ■ways seemed a mystery, that while the regular com- 
 panies in England ivero making money, nearly all of 
 those in the United States not only had not made mon- 
 ey, but were embarrassed more or less, and were sell- 
 ing their stock at 60 to 80 cents on the dollar. 
 
 The history of commercial nations admonishes us 
 that no trading people can long maintain their ascend- 
 ency without using all of the most approved means of 
 the age for prosecuting trade. Portugal was at one 
 time the most powerful commercial nation of the globe ; 
 and at another Holland was the mistress of the seas. 
 But while the latter is now only a foiirth-i'ate com- 
 mercial power, the former has sunk into obscurity, and 
 is nearly forgotten of men. At that time England and 
 France had but a limited foreign trade, and scarcely 
 any commercial reputation. France could more easily 
 maintain her existence without a foreign trade than 
 could England ; and yet her matured manufactures and 
 her products of the soil became so valuable that she 
 sought a foreign market. England, on the contrary, 
 had not territory enough to remain at home and yet 
 be a great power. She matured an immense manufac- 
 turing system, and needed a market, as well as the 
 raw material, and food for her operatives. She began 
 to stretch her arms to the outev world, and had made 
 very considerable strides in foreign commerce side by 
 side with France and the German States, and in the 
 face of the steady young opposition of the American 
 States. 
 
 It is interesting to trace this rapid progress of steam 
 since its first application to purposes of mail transport 
 in 1833. An intelligent writer says, "The rise and 
 progress of the ocean steam mail service of Great Brit- 
 ain is second in interest to no chapter in the maritime 
 history of the world ;" and while we aclmowledge a 
 grateful pride in the triumphs of our transatlantic 
 brethren, we must blush with shame at our dereliction 
 in this great, and civilizing, and enriching service of 
 modern times. The steam marine of the United States, 
 postal, mercantile, and naval, is to-day so insignificant 
 in extent that we do not feel entirely certain tEat it is 
 a sufficient nucleus for the growth of a respectable mar- 
 itime power. The few ships that we possess are among 
 the fleetest and the most comfortable that traverse the 
 ocean, and have excited the admiration of the world 
 wherever they have been seen. But their number is 
 so small, their service so limited, their field of opera- 
 tion so contracted, tirat our large commerce and travel 
 are dependent, in most parts of the world, on British 
 steam mail lines for correspondence and transport, or 
 on the slow, irregular, and uncertain communications 
 of sailing vessels. , The question here naturally sug- 
 gests itself: Have we progressed in ocean steam navi- 
 gation in a ratio commensurate with the improvements 
 of the age, or of our own improvement in every thing 
 else ? And has the government of the country afforded 
 to the people the facilities of enterprise and commercial 
 competition which are clearly necessary to enable them 
 to enter the contest on equal terms with other commer- 
 cial countries ? 
 
 List of American Ocean Steamers. — The mail service 
 has eight lines, and 21 steamers in commission, of 
 48,027 registered tonnage. Much of this tonnage be- 
 longs to supply-ships, as for instance those of the Pacific 
 Mail Steamship Company. 
 
 Collins Line. — Three steataera, 9727 tons: Adriatic, 4144 
 tons; Atlantii:, 2849 tons: Baltic, 2T33 tons. 
 
 Havre Line.— Two steamers, 4548 tons: Arago, 2240 tons ; 
 Fulton, 2308 tons. 
 
 Vanderbilt Bremen Line. — Three steamers, 6523 tons: 
 North Star, 1867 tons; Ariel, i296 tons; VanderlnU, 3360 
 tons. 
 
 United States Mail Steamship Company. — Six steamers, 
 8544 tons : Illinois, 2123 tons : Empire City, 1761 tons ; Phil- 
 adelphia, 1238 tons ; Granada, 1068 tons; Moses Taylor, 1200 
 tons; Star of the West, chartered, 1172 tons. 
 
 Pacific Mail Steamship Company. — Thirteen steamers, 
 16,421 tons: ffoWen Gote, 2067 tons ; Goiden Jje, 2280 tons; 
 
 J. L. Stephem, 2189 tons; Sonora, 1616 tons; St. Louis, 
 1621 tons; Panama, 1087 tons; California, 1085 tons; Ore- 
 gon^ 1099 tons ; Columbia, 777 tons ; Republic, 860 tons ; 
 Northerner, 1010 tons ; Fremont, 576 tons ; Tobago, 189 tons. 
 Charleston, Savannah, Key West, and Havana — One steam- 
 er ; the Isabel, 1116 tons. 
 
 New Orleans and Mexico. — One steamer ; the Tennessee, 
 1149 tons. 
 
 The Coasting Service has eight lines, and 23 steam- 
 ers, of 24,071 tons registered tonnage. 
 
 New York, Havana, and New Orleans. — Two : The Black 
 TTaJrior, 1550 tons ; CaAawj&a, 1643 tonH=8199 tons. 
 
 New York, Havana, and Motile.— Oai: The Quaker City, 
 1428 tons. 
 
 New York and Savannah. — Four: Alabajna, 1261 tons; 
 Florida, 1261 tons ; Augusta, 1310 tons ; Star of the South 
 ([propeller), 960 tonE=4793 tons. 
 
 New York and Charleston. — Four> Columbia, 1847 tons; 
 NashvUU, 1220 tons; Jam.eB Adger, 1151 tons; Marion, 962 
 tons=4680 tons. 
 
 New York and Virginia. — Two: J2oa7ioA:e, 1071 tons; James- 
 town, 1300 ton8=2371 tons. 
 
 Philadelphia and Savannah.— Two : Keystone State and 
 State of Georgia, each about 1300 ton6=2600 tons. 
 
 Boston and Baltimore. — Two : Joseph Whitney, 800 tons ; 
 Unknown, 800 tonB=1600 tons. 
 
 New Orleans and Texas. — The Charles Morgan, Texas, Mex- 
 ico, and Atlantic, averaging 600 tons each=^2400 tons. 
 
 Nem Orleans and Key West — The General Musk, 600 tons, 
 and the Calhoun, 400 tonB=1000 tons. 
 
 There are also several propellers running: between New 
 York and Charleston, New York and Portland, and between 
 Philadelpliia and the South. They are all, however, small, 
 and Irregular in their trade. 
 
 Steamers lying up, 18. Registered tonnage, 24,845 
 tons. 
 
 Queen of the Pacific 2801 tons. 
 
 Washington ■. — 1640 " 
 
 Prometheus 1207 " 
 
 St. Louis 1621 " 
 
 Brother Jonathan 1359 '* 
 
 Oregmi : 1004 " 
 
 Southerner 900 '^ 
 
 Herman 1784 " 
 
 Northern Light 1747 " 
 
 Vncle Sam 1433 " 
 
 California 1058 " 
 
 Northerner 1012 " 
 
 Fiicsson 1902 " 
 
 Star of the West 1172 " 
 
 Daniel Webster 1035 " 
 
 Orizaba 1450 " 
 
 Panama 1087 " 
 
 Fremont 576 " 
 
 — EAimy's Ocean Post. 
 
 The number of transatlantic steamers, the lines run- 
 ning to difl^erent ports, and the tonnage, are as follows : 
 Steamship Lines eunning to New York. 
 
 Lines. No. of Ton- 
 
 Vessels, sage. 
 
 9,727 
 
 10,300 
 
 6,612 
 
 2,600 
 
 11,800 
 
 4,600 
 
 7,200 
 
 7,600 
 
 1,800 
 
 12,590 
 
 4,000 
 
 , a 2,400 
 
 36 81,189 
 
 CoUinS Line, Liverpool (paddle-wheel), American 
 Cunard Line, Liverpool '* British 
 Scotch Line, Glasgow (screw), " 
 Irish Line, Cork " " 
 Cunard Line, Havre " " 
 French Line, Havre " French 
 Old Havre Line, Havre (paddle-wheel), American 
 Vanderbilt Line, Havre " " 
 Independent Line, Havre "' " 
 Belgian lite, Antwerp (screw) Belgian . 
 Bremen Line, Bremen (paddle-wheel), American 
 Hamburg 'Line, Hamburg (screw), German . 
 Total, running to New York, 12 lines 
 
 LlVEEPOOL AND BOSTON STEA^EES. 
 
 Cunard Line, Liverpool (paddle-wheel), British . . 
 
 LiVEBPOOL AND PHILADELPHIA SteAMEES. 
 
 Philadelphia Line, Liverpool (screw), British 
 
 LlVEEPOOL AMD PoETLAND StEAJIEES. 
 
 Portland Line, Liverpool (screw), British 2 
 
 Total, besides New York, 3 lines 9 
 
 Grand total, 16 lines 45 
 
 Here we have an aggregate of 15 steamship lines, 
 comprising 45 steamers of 99,145 tons burden. Of 
 these lines seven are British, five American, one Ger- 
 man, one French, and one Belgian. Eight lines (23 
 steamers) are screw propellers ; and seven (23 steam- 
 ers) are paddle-wUeel.— Puny MiLEa'9 Ocean Steam 
 Navigation. 
 
 3 
 
 8,100 
 
 6,866 
 
 3,000 
 17,!/56 
 
 99,145 
 
STE 
 
 1756 
 
 STE 
 
 Statement exhibiting the Nitmbek or Ameeioan and Feenoh Steam and SAXxiNa Vessels engaged in Teadb 
 
 BETWEEN THE UNITED StaTE3 AND FeANCB, AND VICE VERBA; ALSO THE NuMBER OF 200 HOKSE-POWEE AND UPWARD, 
 
 Tonnage, Crews, and the Aggregate entered and cleared at the I'ortb of Boston, New York, and New 
 Orleans, during the fiscal Year ending June 30, 1857. 
 
 Nationality. 
 
 Porto. 
 
 steam Vessels. 
 
 Sailing Veaeele. | 
 
 Namber 
 of 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Number 
 
 of Crew, 
 
 Men. 
 
 200 Horse- 
 power and 
 upward. 
 
 Number 
 
 of 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Number 
 
 of Crew. 
 
 Men. 
 
 
 
 «i4 
 
 tsi^ooz 
 
 1472 
 
 514 
 
 8 
 
 71 
 
 126 
 
 1,899 
 50,621 
 66,982 
 
 73 
 
 1417 
 2400 
 
 
 New York 
 
 (t 
 
 New Orleans 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 • 
 
 is 
 
 3 
 
 34,002 
 
 115,168 
 2,852 
 
 1472 
 
 ■447 
 319 
 
 14 
 
 55 
 3 
 
 205 
 
 1 
 
 25 
 
 3 
 
 148,702 
 
 147 
 6,049 
 1,170 
 
 3890 
 
 10 
 
 288 
 31 
 
 
 n 
 
 New York 
 
 u ;;;;;; 
 
 New Orleans 
 
 
 Total 
 
 8 
 
 8,020 
 
 76S 
 
 8 
 
 29 
 
 6,366 
 
 329 
 
 
 G 
 
 25,982 
 
 706 
 
 6 
 
 .176 
 
 142,306 
 
 3561 
 
 
 * But three vessels were engaged in making the fourteen trips: The Fulton, six 
 derbilt, two. 
 
 t Of the above amount but 796T tons were actually employed; but by repeated 
 increased to the figure given in the table. 
 
 } But four vessels engaged, one having made two tripe. 
 
 jl Of this amount the actual tonnage was 4140, for reasons given in note t- 
 
 voyages; the .^rogro, six; and the Fan- 
 trips (see above note), the tonnage was 
 5 All far above 200 horse-power. 
 
 Statement showing the Steam Tonnage of the several 
 Districts of the United States on the 30tii of June, 
 1S5T. 
 
 Districts 
 
 Registered 
 
 Enrolled. 
 
 Passaraaquoddy. 
 
 . . . Maine. 
 
 1,052 
 
 1,348 
 
 Portland 
 
 *' 
 
 
 1,970 
 
 Portsmouth 
 
 .. N. Hampshire. 
 
 
 417 
 
 Burlingtoti 
 
 . . Vermont. 
 
 
 4,491 
 
 Boston 
 
 .. Massachusetts. 
 
 1,201 
 
 7,965 
 
 Fall River 
 
 *' 
 
 
 7,386 
 
 New Bedford 
 
 *' 
 
 
 1,821 
 
 Nantucket 
 
 " 
 
 
 <)60 
 
 Providence 
 
 . . Rhode Island. 
 
 
 2,070 
 
 Newport 
 
 " 
 
 
 265 
 
 Middletown 
 
 . . Connecticut 
 
 
 2,397 
 
 New Haven 
 
 *' 
 
 
 3,007 
 
 
 . . New York. 
 
 
 527 
 
 Oswego 
 
 
 
 3,715 
 
 Genesee 
 
 
 
 128 
 
 Oswegatchie .... 
 
 
 
 7,837 
 
 Buffalo Creek . . . 
 
 
 
 42.009 
 
 Sag Harbor 
 
 
 
 124 
 
 New York 
 
 
 69,051 
 
 111,526 
 3,759 
 
 Dunkirk " 
 
 Perth Amhoy . . . 
 
 . . New Jersey. 
 
 Burlington 
 
 '* 
 
 
 3;169 
 
 Camden 
 
 *' 
 
 
 4,493 
 
 Newark 
 
 (4 
 
 
 ' 1,778 
 22,367 
 
 Philadelphia. . . . 
 
 . . Pennsylvania. 
 
 Presque Isle 
 
 " 
 
 
 3,621 
 
 Pittsburgh 
 
 '* 
 
 
 41,724 
 
 Wilmington 
 
 . . Delaware. 
 
 
 1,057 
 
 New Castle 
 
 '' 
 
 
 202 
 
 Baltimore 
 
 . . Maryland. 
 
 
 17,984 
 
 Annapolis 
 
 *' 
 
 
 150 
 
 Georgetown 
 
 . . Dist. Columb. 
 
 
 3,971 
 
 Alexandria 
 
 . . Virginia. 
 
 
 328 
 
 Norfolk 
 
 ** 
 
 
 2,208 
 
 Petersburg 
 
 u 
 
 
 168 
 
 Richmond 
 
 *' 
 
 
 1,979 
 
 Wheeling 
 
 " 
 
 
 10,814 
 
 Washington .... 
 
 . . N. Carolina. 
 
 
 259 
 
 Newborn 
 
 '* 
 
 
 127 
 
 Plymouth 
 
 *' 
 
 
 300 
 
 Charleston 
 
 . . S. Carolina. 
 
 2,218 
 
 0,618 
 
 Savannah 
 
 . . Georgia. 
 
 
 6,584 
 
 Pensacola 
 
 ..Florida. 
 
 
 376 
 
 St Mark's 
 
 
 
 496 
 21,098 
 
 Mobile 
 
 ... Alabama. 
 
 New Orleans 
 
 . . Louisiana. 
 
 520 
 
 51,593 
 
 Teche 
 
 " 
 
 
 2,225 
 
 Nashville 
 
 ., Tennessee, 
 
 
 5,126 
 
 Memphis 
 
 " 
 
 
 6,775 
 
 Louisville 
 
 . , Kentucky. 
 
 
 25,643 
 
 Paducah 
 
 " 
 
 
 1,634 
 
 St. Louis 
 
 . . Missouri. 
 
 
 44,E43 
 
 Chicago 
 
 . . Illinois. 
 
 
 7,861 
 
 Alton 
 
 • * 
 
 
 155 
 
 
 (( 
 
 .... 
 
 4,563 
 293 
 
 Sandusky 
 
 .. Ohio. 
 
 Cuyahoga 
 
 " 
 
 
 15,877 
 
 
 
 
 33,916 
 
 115 
 
 Miami (Toledo) . 
 
 .. " 
 
 New Albany .... 
 
 ,. Indiana. 
 
 
 4,266 
 
 Milwaukie 
 
 , . Wisconsin. 
 
 
 1,995 
 
 Detroit 
 
 .. Michigan. 
 
 
 30,655 
 
 Michilimackinac 
 
 
 
 1,180 
 
 Galveston 
 
 . . Texas. 
 
 .... 
 
 3,330 
 
 Saluria 
 
 
 li'sis 
 
 97 
 11,950 
 
 San Francisco . . . 
 Total tonnage. 
 
 . . California. 
 June, 1S57 
 
 86,873 
 
 618,910 
 
 Statement showing the NniiBEn of Steam Vessels BintT 
 IN THE several States and Teeeitokieb op the United 
 States feom 1823 to 1857, inolusivi;.— (Yeae ending 
 June 30.) 
 
 Years. 
 
 1823 
 
 SteAmers. 
 15 
 
 Years. 
 
 steamers 
 
 1824 
 
 26 
 
 1842 
 
 137 
 
 1825 
 
 35 
 
 1843. ... 
 
 
 1826 
 
 45 
 
 1844 
 
 163 
 
 1827 
 
 
 1845 
 
 1846 . . 
 
 163 
 
 1828 
 
 33 
 
 1829 
 
 .... 43 
 
 1847 
 
 1818 
 
 198 
 
 1830 
 
 37 
 
 1831 
 
 34 
 
 100 
 
 1849 
 
 203 
 
 1832 
 
 1850 
 
 1851 
 
 1862 
 
 1853 
 
 159 
 
 233 
 
 259 
 
 271 
 
 1833 
 
 65 
 
 1834 
 
 68 
 
 1835 
 
 80 
 
 124 
 
 135 
 
 90 
 
 125 
 
 1836 
 
 1837 
 
 1854 
 
 1S65 
 
 281 
 
 253 
 
 1838 
 
 1866 
 
 221 
 
 1839 
 
 1857 
 
 
 1840 
 
 64 
 
 
 
 From this exhibit it is apparent that, in point of num- 
 bers, there has been no increase in the steam-vessels 
 built since the year 1851. If, however, we take into 
 consideration the increased size of the vessels built, or 
 the aggregate tonnage, there has been a healthy in- 
 crease corresponding to the growth of the country. 
 Statement showing the Numbee of Steam Vessels built 
 
 in each Disteigt of the United States dbeing the 
 
 Year ending June 30, 1857. 
 
 DistricU. 
 
 Steameia. 
 
 Bath 
 
 .Me. 
 
 1 
 
 Boston 
 
 .Mass. 
 
 2 
 
 Providence . . . 
 
 .R.L 
 
 2 
 
 Middlelown. . . 
 
 .Conn. 
 
 7 
 
 New London. . 
 
 *' 
 
 1 
 
 New Haven... 
 
 " 
 
 1 
 
 Oswego 
 
 .N. Y. 
 
 1 
 
 Buffalo Creek. 
 
 " 
 
 U'A 
 
 New York 
 
 '.N. J. 
 
 •n 
 
 Camden 
 
 1 
 
 Philadelphia. . 
 
 . Penn. 
 
 14 
 
 Pittsburgh 
 
 (I 
 
 6K 
 
 Wilmington . . 
 
 . .Dela. 
 
 10 
 
 Baltimore .... 
 
 .Md. 
 
 2 
 
 Wheeling 
 
 ..Va. 
 
 14 
 
 Dietrlctfl. 
 
 Stflamere 
 
 Savannah 
 
 .Ga. 
 
 1 
 
 Mobile 
 
 ..Ala. 
 
 1 
 
 New Orleans . . 
 
 ..La. 
 
 4 
 
 Teche 
 
 
 1 
 
 Nashville 
 
 .Tenn. 
 
 1 
 
 Memphis 
 
 " 
 
 3 
 
 Louisville 
 
 .Ky. 
 
 28 
 
 St. Louis 
 
 .Mo. 
 
 10 
 
 Cuyahoga 
 
 .Ohio 
 
 4 
 
 Sandusky 
 
 " 
 
 1 
 
 Cincinnati 
 
 , »' 
 
 33 
 
 Toledo 
 
 iMich. 
 .Cal. 
 
 1 
 
 Detroit 
 
 10 
 
 San Francisco. 
 
 3 
 
 Total 263 
 
 From the sixth annual report of the board of super- 
 vising inspectors of steamers, made to the Secretary 
 of the Treasury, we glean the following interesting sta- 
 tistics : 
 
 During the five years from 1848 to 1852, inclusive, 
 prior to the establishment of the Board of Supervisors, 
 there were 60 steamboat explosions, causing a loss of 
 1155 lives, and 475 persons wounded. By other disas- 
 ters during the same period, 416 lives were lost, mak- 
 ing a total loss of 1671 liyes in the five years. During 
 the four years from 1854 to 1857, inclusive, subsequent 
 to the passage of the steamboat law, there have been 
 seven explosions, and 132 lives lost. By other disas- 
 ters, collisions, fire, sinking, etc., there have been lost 
 during the same time 214 lives, making a total loss for 
 the five years of 346. 
 
STE 
 
 1757 
 
 STE 
 
 By an examination of these statements we find that 
 for five years prior to the passage of the steamboat act 
 we have accounts of the loss of 1571 lives, and for the 
 five years since said passage the total loss of life on 
 the Western rivers is 346, leaving a difference of 1226 
 lives. 
 
 The total number of steamers inspected during the 
 year in the United States was 1122, with an aggregate 
 tonnage of 464,370 tons. The number of pilots is 2584, 
 and number of engineers 2854. The total number of 
 passengers carried by licensed steamers was 3,610,367. 
 
 Statement showing the Tonnage employed in Steam 
 Navigation in the United States feom the Ybab 
 1823 TO tue Year 1857, inolvsive. 
 
 Vjiara. Tonnage. 
 
 1841 175,088 
 
 1842 229,681 
 
 1843 236,867 
 
 1S44 273,179 
 
 1845 326,018 
 
 1846 347,893 
 
 1847 404,841 
 
 1848 427,891 
 
 1849 462,394 
 
 1860 625,946 
 
 1851 883,607 
 
 1852 643,240 
 
 1853 514,097 
 
 1854 676,607 
 
 1855 770.285 
 
 1886 673,077 
 
 1857 706,784 
 
 Yonra ToDDaze. 
 
 1828 24,879 
 
 1824 21,6tf9 
 
 1825 23,061 
 
 1826 34,058 
 
 1827 40,197 
 
 1828 39,418 
 
 1829 64,086 
 
 1830 64,471 
 
 1831 34,435 
 
 1832 90,818 
 
 1833 101,849 
 
 1834 122,815 
 
 1835 122,815 
 
 1836 145,658 
 
 1837 154,764 
 
 1838 193,413 
 
 1839 204,938 
 
 1840 201,339 
 
 To show the advantage which steam communication 
 gives to a growing trade, it may be stated that " from 
 1840 to 1850 the total Imports of Great Britain from 
 Brazil made no increase. In 1863 they had advanced 
 150 per cent, on 1848 ; and in 1855 they had advanced 
 over 1848 — or the average of the ten years noticed — 
 about 300 per cent. This, however, it must be recol- 
 lected, was in coffee, for re-exportation ; a trade which 
 was lost to our merchants and to our shipping. Her 
 total exports to Brazil from 1840 to 1850 were station- 
 ary at about two and a half million pounds sterling 
 annually. In 1851 — the first year after steam by the 
 Royal Mail Company — they advanced 40 per cent. ; 
 and in 1854 they had advanced 102 per cent, on 1850. 
 Thus her exports have doubled in five years, from a 
 stationary point before the establishment of steam mail 
 facilities ; whereas ours have been thirteen years in 
 making the same increase. The total trade between 
 Brazil and Great Britain has increased in an unprece- 
 dented ratio. The combined British imports and ex- 
 ports up to 1850 averaged £3,646,833 annually; but 
 in 1855 these had reached £8,162,455. Thus (he Brit- 
 ish trade increased 225 per cent, in Jive years after the 
 frst line of steamers was established to Brazil.^^ — Brazil 
 and the Brazilians. 
 
 The many instances of our dereliction in the estab- 
 lishment of steam mail facilities, and the failure to 
 establish locomotive accommodations for our mer- 
 chants and other business classes, call loudly for a 
 change in our affairs, and the establishment of a na- 
 tional steam policy in the place of the accidental and 
 irregular support hitherto given to foreign steam en- 
 terprise. 
 
 The conclusions which Mr. Eainey arrived at in his 
 late work on Ocean Steam Navigation are set forth in 
 a clear summary, which we give as follows : 
 
 1. That steam mails upon the ocean control the 
 commerce and diplomacy of the world ; that they are 
 essential to our commercial and producing country ; 
 that we have not established the ocean mail facilities 
 commensurate with our national ability and the de- 
 mands of our commerce ; and that we to-day are large- 
 ly dependent on, and tributary to our greatest com- 
 mercial rival, Great Britain, for the postal facilities 
 which should be purely national, American, and under 
 our own exclusive control. 
 
 2. That fast ocean mails are exceedingly desirable 
 for our commerce, our defenses, our diplomacy, the 
 
 management of our squadrons, our national standing, 
 and that they are demanded by our people at large. 
 
 3. That fast steamers alone can furnish rapid trans- 
 port to the mails ; that these steamers can not rely on 
 freights; that sailing vessels will ever carry staple 
 freights at a much lower figure, and sufficiently quick- 
 ly; that while steam is eminently successful in the 
 coasting trade, it can not possibly be so in the trans- 
 atlantic freighting business ; and that the rapid tran- 
 sit of the mails, and the slower and more deliberate 
 transport Affreight, is the law of nature. 
 
 4. That high, adequate mail speed is extremely cost- 
 ly, in the prime construction of vessels, their repairs, 
 and their more numerous employes; that the quantity 
 of fuel consumed is enormous, and ruinous to unaided 
 private enterprise ; and that this is clearly proven both 
 by theory and indisputable facts, as well as by the con- 
 current testimony of the ablest writers on ocean steam 
 navigation. 
 
 5. That ocean mail steamers can not live on their 
 own receipts ; that neither the latest nor the anticipated 
 improvements in steam shipping promise any change 
 in this fact ; that self-support is not likely to be at- 
 tained by increasing the size of steamers ; that the 
 propelling power in fast steamers occupies all of the 
 available space not devoted to passengers and express 
 freight; and that steamers must be fast to do success- 
 ful mail and profitable passenger service. 
 
 6. That sailing vessels can not successfully trans- 
 port the mails; that the propeller can not transport 
 them as rapidly or more cheaply than side-wheel ves- 
 sels ; that with any considerable economy of fuel and 
 other runniilg expenses, it is but little faster than the 
 sailing vessel ; that to patronize these slow vessels 
 with the mails, the government would unjustly dis- 
 criminate against sailing vessels in the transport of 
 freights; that we can not in any sense depend on the 
 vessels of the navy for the transport of the mails ; that 
 individual enterprise can not support fast steamers ; 
 and that not even American private enterprise can 
 under any conditions furnish a sufficiently rapid steam 
 mail and passenger marine : then it must be con(;eded, 
 
 I. That it is the duty of the government to its peo- 
 ple to establish and maintain an extensive, well-organ- 
 ized, and rapid steam mail marine, for the benefit of 
 production, commerce, diplomacy, defenses, the public 
 character, and the general interests of all classes; that 
 our people appreciate the importance of commerce, and 
 are willing to pay for liberal postal facilities ; that our 
 trade has greatly suffered for the want of ocean mails ; 
 that we have been forced to neglect many profitable 
 branches of industry, and many large fields of effort ; 
 and that there is positively no means of gaining and 
 maintaining commercial ascendency except through an 
 ocean steam mail sysfem. 
 
 II. That the government can discharge the clear and 
 unquestionable duty of establishing foreign mail facili- 
 ties only by paying liberal prices for the transport of 
 the mails for a long term of years, by creating and 
 sustaining an ocean postal system, by legislating upon 
 it systematically, and by abandoning our slavish de- 
 pendence upon Great Britain. 
 
 III. That the British ocean mail system attains 
 greater perfection and extent every year ; that instead 
 of becoming self-supporting, it costs the treasury more 
 and more every year ; that English statesmen regard its 
 benefits as far outweighing the losses to the Treasury ; 
 that so far from abandoning, they are regularly and 
 systematically increasing it ; that it was never regard- 
 ed by the whole British public with more favor than 
 at the present time ; that it is evidently one of the 
 most enduring institutions of the country; that it 
 necessitates a similar American system ; that without 
 it our people are denied the right and privilege of com- 
 petition ; and that we are thus far by no means ade- 
 quately prepared for that competition, or for our own 
 development. 
 
STE 
 
 1758 
 
 STE 
 
 OoEAN Steam Limes of the 'VVoeld. 
 
 Lines. 
 
 I Shipa. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 (Junard, paddle-wheel 
 
 " screw 
 
 North Atlantic Steamship Co 
 
 European aad American Steamship Co. 
 
 London and Canada 
 
 Liverpool and Canadian 
 
 Liverpool, Philadelphia, and New York . 
 
 Glasgo^y and New York 
 
 Belgian Transatlantic 
 
 Liverpool, New York, Boston, and Halifax . 
 
 Hamburg and American. 
 Hamburg and Brazilian* 
 Genoa and Brazilian .... 
 
 Koyal Mail Co 
 
 Pacific Steam Navigation Co. . 
 Peninsular and Oriental Co. . . 
 
 European and Australian Royal Mail Co. , 
 
 Australian Koyal Mail Co , 
 
 Rotterdam and Mediterranean , 
 
 North of Europe Steam Navigation Co. . . , 
 Mclver's 
 
 Bibby's 
 
 Fowler's 
 
 Dixon's 
 
 Liverpool and Australian 
 
 London and Australian 
 
 African 
 
 Union Screw Co 
 
 Luzo-Brazileira 
 
 Austrian Llpyds 
 
 Messageries Impei'iales 
 
 West Hartlepool Steam Navigation Co. .. 
 
 Danube Steam Navigation Co 
 
 Hamburg and Spanish 
 
 East India Company 
 
 Spanish and Cuban 
 
 Companhia Brazileira 
 
 Collins Company 
 
 Havre Steam Navigation Co 
 
 Cornelius Vanderbilt 
 
 United States Mail Steamship Co 
 
 Pacific Mail Steamship Co 
 
 New York and New Orleans 
 
 New York and Alabama 
 
 Charleston and Havana 
 
 Savannah Steamship Co 
 
 New York and Charleston Steamship Co.. 
 
 New York and Virginia 
 
 Philadelphia and Savannah 
 
 Boston and Baltimore 
 
 Texas Steamship Co 
 
 Southern Steamship Co 
 
 Mexican Steamship Co 
 
 St. Johns and Portland 
 
 Bremen, Antwerp, Southampton, and New York. . . . 
 
 Bremen, Antwei-p, Southampton, to Brazil 
 
 London and Montreal 
 
 Liverpool and Quebec , 
 
 Liverpool and New York , 
 
 Glasgow and New York 
 
 Antwerp and New York , 
 
 Antwerp and Brazil 
 
 Hamburg and New York 
 
 Hamburg and Rio de Janeiro , 
 
 Genoa and Rio de Janeiro 
 
 Southampton, West Indies, Central America, and South 
 
 America 
 
 Southampton, Pernambuco, Rio, Bahia, and La Plata . . 
 
 Panama to Valparaiso and intermediate 
 
 Portugal, Spain, Malta, Alexandria, East Indies, China, 
 
 and Australia 
 
 Soutbampton, Alexandria, Suez, and Sydney 
 
 Transport and other 
 
 Rotterdam, Leghorn, and Trieste 
 
 African 
 
 Liverpool and Mediterranean 
 
 Liverpool and Havre 
 
 Liverpool and Mediterranean 
 
 Liverpool and Australia 
 
 London and Australia 
 
 London, Livei-pool, and Africa 
 
 Southampton andCape of Good Hope 
 
 Lisbon and Brazil 
 
 Very large Mediterranean sen-ice 
 
 Mediterranean, Black Sea, Levant 
 
 Hartlepool, Hamburg, and St. Petersburg 
 
 Vienna, Galatz, an'd Constantinople 
 
 Hamburg, Southampton, and all Spanish ports . . . 
 
 Suez and India, and the Bombay Mail lines 
 
 Cadiz, Havana, and Mexico 
 
 Rio de Janeiro to the Amazon and La Plata 
 
 New York and Liverpool 
 
 New York, Southampton, and Havre 
 
 New York, Southampton, and Bremen , 
 
 New York, Havana, Aspinwall, and New Orleans. , 
 
 Panama, California, and Oregon , 
 
 New York, Havana, and New Orleans 
 
 New York, Havana, and Mobile 
 
 Charleston, Key West, and Havana 
 
 New York and Savannah 
 
 New York and, Charleston 
 
 New York, Norfolk, and Richmond 
 
 Philadelphia and Savannah 
 
 Boston and Baltimore 
 
 New Orleans and Galveston 
 
 New Orleans and Key West 
 
 New Orleans, Tampico, and Vera Cruz 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 4 
 3 
 4 
 4 
 3 
 4 
 5 
 4 
 2 
 4 
 
 18 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 1-^,U00 
 4,800 
 4,800 
 
 10,000 
 9,(100 
 1,8T0 
 5,000 
 S,TOO 
 6,200 
 8,300 
 €,500 
 7,300 
 4,500 
 8,000 
 
 21,510 
 
 6,820 
 5,719 
 
 49,416 
 
 15,500 
 7,800 
 1,900 
 3,200 
 9,000 
 2,000 
 11,700 
 7,500 
 3,800 
 7,000 
 T,500 
 5,000 
 1,800 
 8,000 
 Unknown 
 "t 
 
 2,000 
 11,4T1 
 9,000 
 5,500 
 9,7-7 
 4,549 
 6,5.'3 
 8,544 
 16,421 
 3,198 
 1,300 
 1,116 
 4,793 
 4,680 
 2,371 
 2,600 
 1,600 
 2,400 
 1,000 
 r60 
 
 * Building another steamer of 25)0 tons for the Brazil line. 
 
 t These vessels average about 250 horse-power each. Their tonnage is large, probably 1200 tons each. 
 
 There are several other lines of ocean steamers in 
 Europe ; but it is almost impossible to ascertain any 
 thing definite about them. The list above embraces 
 all of the most important companies of the -world. The 
 lines are continually changing, while the vessels are 
 passing into new hands almost every week. — iSee arti~ 
 cles Tonnage and the United States. 
 
 Steel (Fr. Acier ; Ger. Stahl; It. Acciajo; Lat. 
 Chalyhs; Russ. Stal; Sp. Acero; Swed. Stal\ is iron 
 combined with a small portion of carbon, and has been 
 for that reason called carbureted iron. The propor- 
 tion of carbon has not been ascertained with much 
 precision. It is supposed to amount at an average to 
 yj^part. Steel is so hard as to be unmalleable while 
 cold; or at least it acquires that property by being 
 immersed, while ignited, in a cold liquid; for this im- 
 mersion, though it has no effect upon iron, adds great- 
 ly to the hardness of steel. It is brittle, resists the 
 file, cuts glass, affords sparks with flint, and retains 
 the magnetic virtue for any length of time. It loses 
 this hardness by being ignited, and cooled very slowly. 
 It is malleable .when red hot, but scarcely so when 
 raised to a white heat. It may be hammered out into 
 much thinner plates than iron. It is more sonorous ; 
 and its specific gravity when hammered is greater than 
 that of iron — varying from 778 to 7*84. Steel is usual- 
 ly divided into three sorts, according to the method in 
 
 which it is prepared ; as natural steel, steel of cementO' 
 tion, and cast steel. The latter is the most valuable of 
 all, as its texture is the most comt)act, and it admits 
 of the finest polish. It is used for razors, surgeons' in- 
 struments, and similar purposes. Steel is chiefly em- 
 ployed in the manufacture of swords, knives, and cut- 
 ting instruments of all sorts used in the arts; for which 
 it is peculiarly adapted by its hardness, and the fine- 
 ness of the edge which may be given to it. — See 
 Iron. 
 
 Steelyard and Steelyard Company. A most 
 ancient instrument, the same that is translated bal- 
 ance in the Pentateuch. Tlie Statera Romana^ or Ro- 
 man steelyard, is mentioned in S15 B.C. The Steel- 
 yard Company was a company of London merchants 
 who had the steelyard assigned to them by Henry III. 
 A.r>. 1232. They were all Flemings and Germans, and 
 the only exporters, for many years after, of the staple 
 commodities of England. — Haydn. 
 
 Steer, to keep the ship on a given direction. This 
 is done by moving the rudder by the tiller, which last 
 is moved from that side to which the ship's head is 
 required to be moved. 
 
 Steerage, an apartment before the great cabin, 
 from which it is separated by a partition or bulk-head. 
 In merchant ships it is generally the habitation of the 
 inferior officers and crew ; but in ships of war it serves 
 
STE 
 
 1759 
 
 STO 
 
 only as n hall or ante-chamber to the great or captain's 
 cabin. — Steerage is also used to express the effort of 
 the helm. — Steerage-way implies a sufficient degree of 
 motion communicated to a ship for her to become' sus- 
 ceptible of the effects of the helm in governing her 
 course. 
 
 Stem, a circular piece of timber into which the 
 two sides of a ship are united at the fore end ; the lower 
 end of it is scarfed to the keel, and the bowsprit rests 
 upon its upper end ; the ends of the walls and plianks 
 of the sides and bottom are let into a groove or channel 
 cut in I the middle of its surface from top to bottom. 
 The outside of the stem is usuall}' marked with a scale 
 of feet answering to a perpendicular from the keel. 
 The use of this scale is to ascertain the draught of 
 water. — From stem to stern, from one end of the ship 
 to the other. , , , 
 
 Steppe (from the Russian. sfe^, a desert; also a 
 dry plain).i The steppes of Russia, which are not un- 
 like the landes of Guienne in France, and the heaths 
 of northern Germany, are in part susceptible of cnltir 
 vation, and they afford pasturage for the numerous 
 herds of the nomadic tribes. , In the extensive steppes 
 of Astrakhan, between the Volga and the Ural, the 
 Calmucs and the Nogay Tartars rove with their cattle. 
 They produce several sorts of flowers, herbs, and are 
 frequented by wild goats and birds. 
 
 Sterling, an old pound wejght of geographical 
 significance, named Easterling, divided . into twelve 
 ounces, was in use among the Anglo-Saxons some cen- 
 turies before the Norman Conquest. The same weight, 
 called the Tower and the Moneyers' pound, was styled 
 by early French welters the Boman and the Eochelle 
 pound ; also known among the Germans as the Cologne 
 pound. A simple system of exchange, by which a 
 pound of silver money, in tale, was made to equal a 
 ■ pound in gross weight, had been arranged by Charles 
 the Great, in France, toward the end of the 8th cen- 
 tury. In Britain, under the first William of Norman- 
 dy, an ordinance declared " the weights and measures 
 throughout the kingdom shall remain as our worthy 
 predecessors have established." An act of Henry the 
 Third, in 1266, explains the primitive initials of these 
 ancient British, Gallic, and German standards, to all 
 which one common derivation is imputed. " By con- 
 sent of the whole realm the measure of the king was 
 made, that is to say, an English penny of silver, called 
 a stei'ling, round and without any clipping, shall weigh 
 thirty-two wheat corns, taken from the middle of the 
 ear. And twenty pence of silver do make one ounce ; 
 and twelve ounces of silver do make one pound ; and 
 eight pounds of silver do make a gallon of wine ; and 
 eight gallons of wine do make a London bushel, which 
 is the eighth part of a quarter." This general ar- 
 rangement for money weights and measures was that 
 of the Eastern nations, by which Europe had been 
 overrun. Theterm "Easterling"oftheNormanFrench 
 was transmuted on the English tongue, first to "Easter- 
 ling," and finally to " Sterling. " Another pound weight, 
 also divided into twelve ounces, had been brought from 
 Cairo, in Egypt, to Troyes of Champagne, in France, 
 during the Crusades. Carried into England by for- 
 eign goldsmiths, Lombard merchants, possibly from 
 Venice, about the year 1496, it gradually superseded 
 the old Easterling weights, and found access into the 
 British Mint by decision of Henry the Eighth. Queen 
 Elizabeth ordered the ounce of silver in England to be 
 cut into sixty pennies, so that the penny, forming the 
 twentieth of an ounce, thenceforth became "the sixtieth 
 part. From the termination of Queen Elizabeth's 
 reign, the coinage of English silver has generally re- 
 tained a pmity of 925 thousandths, called the "Ster- 
 ling standard." — See Pound and Penny. See also 
 BanTcers' Magazine, N. Y., 1856, '57. 
 
 Stettin, a city of Prussia, on the left bank of the 
 Oder, about 36 miles from its mouth, in lat. 53° 23' 20" 
 N., long. 14° 33' E. It is well built, strongly fortified. 
 
 and Jiad in 1846 a population of 42,000. Stettin is 
 the seat of an extensive and growing commerce ; and 
 is noW) indeed, the principal port of importation in 
 Prussia. She owes this distinction mainly to her situ- 
 ation. The Oder, which flows through the centre of 
 tlie Prussian dominions, is navigable as far as Katibor, 
 near the extreme southern boundary of Prussian Sile- 
 sia; and is united, by means of canals^ with the Vistula, 
 the Elbe, the Spree, etc. Stettin is, consequently, the 
 principal emporium of some very extensive and flour- 
 ishing countries ; and is not only the port of Franlt- 
 fort-on-the-Oder, Breslau, etc., but also of Berlin. A 
 railway from the latter to Stettin has been completed. 
 Hence at the proper seasons its wharves are crowded 
 with lighters that bring down the produce of the differ- 
 ent countries traversed by the. river, and bring ibaclc 
 colonial products, and other articles of foreign growth 
 and manufacture. Vessels of considerable burden, or 
 those drawing about seven or eight feet water, load 
 and unload, by. means of lighters, at the mouth of the 
 river, at Swinemunde, the outport of Stettin, on the 
 east coast of the isle of Usedom, in lat. 53° 55' N., 
 long. 14° 15' 15" E. Formerly there were not more 
 than seven feet water over the bar adjacent to Swine- 
 munde ; but the harbor of the latter has recently been 
 so much iniprdved, by the construction of piers and 
 breakwaters, dredging, etc., that it isnow the best on the 
 Prussian coast, and admits vessels drawing from 18 to 
 19 feet water. A light-house has been erected at the ex- 
 tremity of the eastern pier. Stettin is a free .port; that 
 is, a port into and from which all sorts of goods may be 
 imported and re-exported free of duty. Goods brought 
 through the Sound and imported at Stettin, and enter- 
 ed for home consumption in the Prussian states, were 
 formerly charged with 2^ per cent, less duty than if they 
 had been imported through any other channel. This 
 was intended to reimburse the merchant for the Sound 
 duties, and to encourage importation by this direct 
 route in preference to that carried on through Ham- 
 burg and Embden ; but now that the Sound dues are 
 abolished there no longer exists the necessity for the 
 bounty. There is at Stettin a great wool fair in the 
 month of June each year. 
 
 The intercourse with the United States is solely de- 
 pendent on the regulations of the Zoll-Verein. 'There 
 are no privileges in favor of any nation which are de- 
 nied to the United States, nor any restrictions imposed 
 upon the commerce of any other nations. The moneys, 
 weights, and measures, etc., etc., in the ports of this 
 consular district are the same -as established by the 
 law of the mother country. Commission, 2 per cent. 
 Freight — no rates can be named for want of business. 
 Insurance done in England or the United States. Bills 
 at three months. There are no direct exchanges with 
 the United States. 
 
 Steward, in Naval affairs, is an officer in a ship 
 of war, appointed by the purser to distribute the differ- 
 ent species of provisions to the officers and crew. I'he 
 same officer is employed for steamships and all classes 
 of vessels for similar purposes. 
 
 Stockholm, the capital city of Sweden, situated 
 at the junction of the Lake Maelar with an inlet of the 
 Baltic, in lat. 69° 20' 81" N., long. 17° 54' E. ; a well- 
 built, handsome city. Population in 1851, 93,070. 
 The entrance to the harbor is intricate and dangerous, 
 and should not be attempted without a pilot ; but the 
 harbor itself is capacious and excellent, the largest ves- 
 sels Ij^ng in safety close to the quays. Stockholm pos- 
 sesses from a third to a half of the foreign trade of 
 Sweden ; but this is confined within comparatively 
 narrow limits. The government has long been accus- 
 tomed to endeavor to promote industry by excluding 
 foreign products; latterly, however, this system has 
 been considerably relaxed, with great advantage to the 
 trade of the country, and the well-being of the people. 
 Iron, timber, and deals form the great articles of ex- 
 port. Swedish iron is of very superior quality, and is 
 
STO 
 
 1760 
 
 STO 
 
 rather extensively used in Great Britain; the imports 
 of it amounting in ordinary years to about 16,000 tons 
 exclusive of 600 tons of steel" In addition to the above 
 leading articles, Stockholm exports pitch, tar, copper, 
 etc. The timber is inferior to that from the southern 
 ports of the Baltic. The imports principally consist 
 of colonial products, cotton, dye-stuffs, salt, British 
 manufactured goods, hides, fish, wine, brandy, wool, 
 fruit, etc. In seasons of scarcity corn is imported, but 
 it is generally an article of export. 
 
 Pilotaye. — Vessels bound for Stockholm take a pilot 
 at the small island of Oja. Lands-hort light-house is 
 erected on the southern extremity of this island, in 
 lat. 58° 44' 30" N., long. 17° 52' 15" E. It is painted 
 white, and is furnished with a fixed light, elevated 158 
 feet above the level of the sea, which may be seen under 
 favorable circumstances five leagues off. The signal 
 for a pilot is a flag at the fore top-mast head, or firing 
 a gun. 
 
 The following table exhibits the commercial move- 
 ments at the port of Stockholm during the year 1851, 
 compared with the two preceding 3'ears : 
 
 Yeara. 
 
 Vessels 
 entered 
 
 Tonnnge. 
 
 Vesseli 
 cleared. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Total 
 Vessels. 
 
 Total 
 Tonnage 
 
 1849 
 1850 
 
 1851 
 
 6(i9 
 711 
 861 
 
 70,728 
 71,892 
 94,218 
 
 790 
 783 
 905 
 
 ' 79,118 
 77,478 
 95,236 
 
 1459 
 1494 
 1T50 
 
 149,846 
 149,370 
 189,454 
 
 The following table shows the countries from which 
 the vessels comprised in the foregoing table for 1851 
 cleared, and to which they sailed : 
 
 Countries. No. of Vessels. Tonasge. 
 
 Finland 672 44,828 
 
 GreatBritain 191 86,714 
 
 Euasia 173 19,790 
 
 Prussia l.M 12,122 
 
 France 72 11,034 
 
 Portugal 59 10,742 
 
 Denmark 150 9,016 
 
 Hause Towns 126 8.434 
 
 Norway , 93 8,414 
 
 Brazil 2T 6,626 
 
 United States IT 5,016 
 
 The following comparative table shows the values 
 of imports and exports into and from the port of Stock- 
 holm during the years designated : 
 
 Y Imports. Eiporta. Total Trade. 
 
 Francs. Francs. Francs. 
 
 1849 21,578,000 17,342,000 38,920,000 
 
 1860 20,462,000 14,064,000 34,.516,000 
 
 1861 23,809,000 14,014,000 37,823,000 
 
 Valxte akd Desceiption of Mekchandisb impobted into, 
 and expoeted fttom, tue pokt of stockholm in 1851. 
 
 - IMPORTS, 
 Articles. Francs. 
 
 Cereals 3,221,000 
 
 Sugar 3,481,000 
 
 Coffee 1,759,000 
 
 Fish 7,363,000 
 
 Wines and spirits 1,173,000 
 
 Tallow 1,223,000 
 
 Eawsilk 1,019,000 
 
 Tissues 2,146,000 
 
 EXPORTS. 
 
 Iron and steel 10,450,000 
 
 Copper 1,824,000 
 
 Pitch and tar 311,000 
 
 Timber and lumber 187,000 
 
 The following table exhibits the countries which 
 participated in the general commercial movements of 
 1851, and the value of imports and exports assigned to 
 each: 
 
 year 1851. Imports. Exports. Total. 
 
 Couotriea. Franca. Franca. Francs. 
 
 Norway 1,097,000 31,000 1,128,000 
 
 Denmark 876,000 1,538,000 2,413,000 
 
 Russia 2,923.000 243,000 3,166,000 
 
 Finland 1,037,000 1,211,000 2,248,000 
 
 Prussia 960,000 2,374,000 3,334,000 
 
 Hanse Towns. . 6,3116,000 1,307,000 7,613,000 
 
 GreatBritain.. 2,260,000 2,897,000 5,167,000 
 
 Netherlands.... 586,000 281,000 867,000 
 
 France 785,000 747,000 1,532,000 
 
 Portugal 431,000 707,000 1,138,000 
 
 Brazil 4,026,000 299,000 4,325,000 
 
 United States . . 302,000 1,306,000 1,608,000 
 
 East Indies 1,434,000 100,000 1,634,000 
 
 Besides the countries included in the preceding ta-- 
 ble, Stockholm extends its commercial transactions to 
 Spain, Italy, Austria, Malta and Gibraltar, Mecklen- 
 burg, Hanover, Oldenburg, Belgium, the Cape of Good 
 Hope, and the Antilles. 
 
 It may be remarked that during this year the gen- 
 eral commerce of Sweden exhibited an advancing tend- 
 ency. This was owing, in a great measure, to the lib- 
 eral policy which characterized the commercial legis- 
 lation of England, dating from January 1, 1850 — a 
 policy the wisdom of which could not be more appo- 
 sitely illustrated than by the fact that while the total 
 trade of Sweden with all foreign nations during this 
 year reached as high as 55,000,000 rix dalers,* the 
 trade with England alone covered 14,543,000 rix dalers, 
 or more than one-fourth of the whole. 
 
 In 1852 ofiicial returns show a slight falling off in 
 the general trade of Stockholm. It will be seen from 
 the annexed table, from Swedish official sources, that 
 the entire trade, imports and exports united, represents 
 in value $6,559,027, or about $487,970- less than the 
 total trade of 1851. This diminution affected imports, 
 especially grains, fish, and brandies, to the extent of 
 1,523,494 francs, while coffee and Sugar increased in 
 value 838,816 francs ; and in the export trade it was 
 felt in the falling off the preceding year of 1,044,770 
 francs, chiefly on iron, steel, and copper, while the ex- 
 portation of timber and pitch increased over that of 
 1851. In 1852 a new article of commerce entered into 
 the export trade of Sweden. The metal nickel figures 
 for the first time in the returns for this year to the 
 amount of 101,520 francs, or $18,88272, chiefly sent 
 to the Hanse Towns. The navigation of the port of 
 Stockholm during 1852 presented a total tonnage of 
 167,686 tons : viz., entered, 81,874 tons ; cleared, 85,812 
 tons. This is a falling off from 1851 of 21,708 tons. 
 
 Exports.- — It is unnecessary to present a detailed - 
 statement of exports, , inasmuch as iron, steel, and cop- 
 per constitute the articles of chief value exported from 
 the port of Stockholm, Other exports consist principal- 
 ly of timber (boards), pitch, and tar. These amounted , 
 in value, in 1852, to $107,533, to which is to be added 
 for miscellaneous, not enumerated, $230,048. The to- 
 tal value of iron, steel, and copper exported in 1852 
 was : iron and steel, $1,747,545 ; copper, $327,213. 
 Value of iron and steel exported from Stockholm to 
 the United States in 1862, $8102. Great Britain, the 
 Hanse Towns, and Denmark occupy the first rank in 
 the order in which they are given as exporters from 
 Stockholm. Prussia, Finland, Portugal, France, and 
 the United States come next. 
 
 Statement exhibiting tue general fokeign Teape of 
 Stockholm, showing the Quantities and Values op 
 Imports and Exports, eespectivelv, during the Year 
 1853. 
 
 imports. 
 
 Description of Merchandise. Value in Francs. 
 
 Coffee 2,901,000 
 
 Sugar 2,419,000 
 
 Cereals 1,760,000 
 
 Fish 1,040,000 
 
 Wines and spirits 888,000 
 
 Tallow 1,180,000 
 
 Tissues 1,863,000 
 
 Eaw silk 862,000 
 
 EXPORTS. 
 
 Iron and steel ' 10,403,000 
 
 Copper 1,840,000 
 
 Wood and lumber 244,000 
 
 Pitch and tar 314,000 
 
 During the year 1853 there was a great scarcity of 
 vessels to carry off the freight to foreign markets. The 
 number that entered the port of Stockholm was 589, 
 with an aggregate of 76,226 tons ; and the number 
 cleared was 927, with an aggregate of 81,916 tons. The 
 total number entered and cleared was 1516 vessels ; ag- 
 gregate tonnage, 158,142 tons. The number of vessels 
 was greater, but the tonnage was less by 9500 tons than 
 in 1852. 
 
 * The rix daler is equivalent to G9i cents. 
 
STO 
 
 1761 
 
 STO 
 
 Money. — Accounts are kept here, in Gottenburg, and 
 generally throughout Sweden, in paper money, consist- 
 ing of rix dollars banco, one rix dollar being equal to 48 
 skillings, and one skilling to 12 rundstycks. The ex- 
 change with London is at about 12 rix dollars banco per 
 £, so that the rix dollar is worth about Is. id. sterling. 
 Bix dollars banco may be exchanged for specie rix dol- 
 lars at the rate of 2J the former for one of the latter. 
 But there are very few coins, except of copper, in cir- 
 culation, the currency consisting almost wholly of notes, 
 varying from 5 skillings to 600 rix dollars banco. 
 
 Weights and Measures. — The victual! or commercial 
 weights are punds, lippunds, and skippunds ; 20 punds 
 being equal to 1 lispund, and 20 lispund8=l skippund. 
 100 lbs. Swedish commercial weight =93J lbs. avoir- 
 dupois=42i kilograms=87i lbs. of Hamburg. 
 
 The iron weights are three-fifths of the victuali, or 
 commercial weights; 20marks— Imarkpund; 20 mark 
 pnnds=l mark skippund; and 7i- skippunds=l ton 
 English. Hence 100 punds Swedish iron weight=75 
 lbs. avoirdupois, and 100 lbs. avoirdupois =133^ lbs. 
 Swedish iron weight. 
 
 In corn measure, 4 quarts=l spann; 2 spann=l 
 tun, or barrel; 1 tun=4i Winchester bushels; a last 
 of rye from Eiga=18 tuns ; a last of rye from Liebau 
 =194- tuns; a last of rye from Stettin=22i tuns ; a 
 last of rye from Stralsund=24 tuns. The tun of 32 
 kappor contains 4^ Winchester bushels. 
 
 In liquid measure, 2 stup=l kanna; 15 kannor=l 
 anker; 2 ankers =1 eimer; 2 eimers=l ahm; IJ^ ahm 
 =1 oxhoft; 2 oxhoft=l pipe. The pipe=124i En- 
 glish wine gallons ; and, consequently, the ahm=41-j^ 
 English wine gallons, and 100 kannor=69^ English 
 gallons. 
 
 The Swedish foot=ll'684 English inches ; the ell, 
 or alna,=2 feet; the fathom=3 ells; the rod=8 ells. 
 
 In estimating by lasts, 1 last of pitch, ashes, etc., = 
 12 barrels; 1 last of tar, oil, etc., =13 barrels; 1 last 
 of hemp, flax, tallow, etc., =6 skippunds ; 1 ton of Liv- 
 erpool common salt = 7 tons Swedish. 
 
 Port Charges at Stockholm. — The total port charges 
 for a vessel of 500 tons (230 lasts) amount to about 
 $277, including all expenses, in and out. For an un- 
 privileged vessel this amount is nearly doubled. 
 
 Port Charges at Gothenburg. — Tonnage, pilotage, and 
 all other dues and port charges on a vessel of 300 tons, 
 amount at this port to about $167. — Com. Relat. U. S. 
 
 Stockings, as every one knows, are coverings for 
 the legs. They are formed of only one thread entwined, 
 so as to form a species of tissue, extremely elastic, and 
 readily adapting itself to the figure of the part it is 
 employed to cover. This tissue can not be called cloth, 
 for it has neither warp nor woof, but it approaches 
 closely to it ; and for the purpose to which it is applied 
 it is very superior. Silk stockings were first worn by 
 Henry II. of France, in 1647. In 1560 Queen Eliza- 
 beth was presented with a pair of black silk stockings 
 by her silk-woman, Mrs. Montague, and she never wore 
 cloth ones any more. — Howell. He adds, " Henry 
 VIII. wore ordinary cloth hose, except there came 
 from Spain by great chance a pair of silk stockings ; 
 for Spain very early abounded with silk." Edward 
 VI. was presented with a pair of Spanish silk stockings 
 by his merchant. Sir Thomas Gresham ; and the pres- 
 ent was then much taken notice of. — Howell. Others 
 relate that William Eider, a London apprentice, see- 
 ing at the house of an Italian merchant a pair of knit 
 worsted stockings from Mantua, ingeniously made a 
 pair like them, which he presented to the Earl of Pem- 
 broke, the first of the kind made in England, in 1564. 
 
 It is well known that the Romans and other ancient 
 nations bad no particular clothing for the legs. Dur- 
 ing the Middle Ages, however, hose or leggins, made 
 of cloth, began to be used ; and at a later period the 
 art of knitting stockings was discovered. Unluckily, 
 nothing certain is known as to the individual by whom, 
 the place where, or when this invention was made. 
 5T 
 
 It would appear from this circumstantial account 
 that the art of knitting stockings, or at least that the 
 first specimens of knit stockings, had been introduced 
 into England from Spain about the middle of the 16th 
 century ; and such seems to have been the general 
 opinion, till an allusion to the practice of knitting, in 
 the pretended poems of Rowley, forged by Chatterton, 
 made the subject be more carefully investigated. The 
 result of this investigation showed clearly that the 
 practice of knitting was well known in England, and 
 had been referred to in acts of Parliament a good many 
 years previously to the period mentioned by Howell. 
 But it had then, most probably, been applied only to 
 the manufacture of woolen stockings ; and the general 
 use of cloth hose shows that even these had not been 
 numerous. There is Ao evidence to show whether the 
 art is native to England or has been imported. — See- 
 Beckmann's Inventions, article Stockings. 
 
 It is singular that the stocking-frame, which, even 
 in its rudest form, is, a very complex and ingenious 
 machine, that could not have been discovered accident- 
 ally, but must have been the result of deep combina- 
 tion and profound sagacity, should have been discov- 
 ered so early as 1589 — before, in fact, the business of 
 knitting was generallj' introduced. The inventor of 
 this admirable machine was Mr. William Lee, of Wood- 
 borough, in Nottinghamshire. He attempted to set up' 
 an establishment at Calverton, near Nottingham, for 
 the manufacture of stockings, but met with no success. 
 In this situation he applied to the queen for assistance ; 
 but, instead of meeting with that remuneration to 
 which his genius and inventions so well entitled him, 
 he was discouraged and discountenanced ! It need not, 
 therefore, excite surprise that Lee accepted the invita. 
 tion of Henry IV. of France, who, having heard of the 
 invention, promised him a magnificent reward if he 
 would carry it to France. Henry kept his word, and 
 Lee introduced the stocking-frame at Beuen with dis- 
 tinguished success ; but after the assassination of the 
 king, the concern got into difficulties, and Lee died in 
 poverty at Paris. A knowledge of the machine was 
 brought back from France to England by some of the 
 workmen who had emigrated with Lee, and who estab- 
 lished themselves in Nottinghamshire, which still con- 
 tinues to be the principal seat of the manufacture. — <See 
 Becksiann's Inventions, vol. iv. ; and Letters on the 
 Utility and Policy of Machines, London, 1780. 
 
 Imports of Hobibky akd Aktioles made on Feames into 
 TUE Unitep States foe the Year enbino June 30, 185T. 
 
 Whence imported. 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Bremen . . . . 
 
 England 
 
 France 
 
 Other places 
 
 Total yearlSST, 
 
 Cotton 
 Hosiery. 
 
 $864,091 
 
 1,637,384 
 
 1,112,385 
 
 69,369 
 
 3T,06S 
 
 $3,210,28T 
 
 Silk 
 Hosiery. 
 
 $23,024 
 
 64,886 
 
 503,130 
 
 234,619 
 
 13,640 
 
 Woolen 
 Hosiery. 
 
 $37,755 
 
 199,169 
 
 1,872,722 
 
 66,772 
 
 64,411 
 
 $1,740,829 
 
 — See articles Cotton, Silk, and Wool. 
 
 Stock-jobber. It was about the year 1688 that 
 the word stock-jobber was first heard in London. In 
 the short space of four years u, crowd of companies, 
 every one of which held out to subscribers the hope of 
 immense gains, sprang into existence ; the Insurance 
 Company, the Paper Company, the Lute-string Com- 
 pany, tiie Pearl-fishery Company, the Glass-bottle 
 Company, the Alum Company, the Blythe Coal Com- 
 pany, the Sword-blade Company. There was a Tap- 
 estry Company, which would soon furnish pretty hang- 
 ings for all the parlors of the middle class, and for all 
 the bed-chambers of the higher. There was a Copper 
 Company, which proposed to explore the mines of En- 
 gland, and held out a hope that they would prove not 
 less valuable than those of Potosi. There was a Div- 
 ing Company, which undertook to bring up precious 
 effects from shipwrecked vessels, and which announced 
 that it had laid in a stock of wonderful machines re- 
 sembling complete suits of armor. In front of the hel- 
 met was a huge glass eye like that of a cyclop ; and 
 
STO 
 
 1762 
 
 STO 
 
 out of the crest went a pipe throngli which the air was 
 to be admitted. 
 
 The process was exhibited on the Thames. Fine 
 gentlemen and fine ladies were invited to the show, 
 were hospitably regaled, and were delighted by seeing 
 the divers in their panoply descend into the river and 
 return laden with old iron and ships' tackle. There 
 was a Greenland Fishing Company, which could not 
 fail to drive the Dutch whalers and herring busses out 
 of the Northern Ocean. There was a Tanning Com- 
 pany, which promised to furnish leather superior to 
 the best that was brought from Turkey or Russia. 
 There was a society which undertook the office of giv- 
 ing gentlemen a liberal education on low terms, and 
 which assumed the sounding name of the Royal Acad- 
 emies Company. In a pompous advertisement it was 
 announced that the Directors of the Royal Academies 
 Company had engaged the best masters in every branch 
 of knowledge, and were about to issue twenty thousand 
 tickets at twenty shillings each. 
 
 There was to be a lottery ; two thousand prizes were 
 to be drawn; and the fortunate holders of the prize 
 were to be taught, at the charge of the Company, 
 Latin, Greek, Hebrew, French, Spanish, conic sections, 
 trigonometry, heraldry, japanning, fortification, book- 
 keeping, and the art of playing on the theorobo. Some 
 of these companies took large mansions, and printed 
 their advertisements in gilded letters. Others, less 
 ostentatious, were content with ink, and met at coffee- 
 houses in the neighborhood of the Royal Exchange. 
 Jonathan's and Garra way's were in a constant ferment 
 with brokers, buyers, sellers, meetings of directors, 
 meetings of proprietors. Time-bargains-soon came into 
 fashion. Extensive combinations were formed, and 
 monstrous fables were circulated, for the purpose of 
 raising or depressing the price of shares. — Macaulay. 
 Stocks. The public funding system originated in 
 Venice in the 12th century, and was introduced into 
 Florence in the year 1340. The English funding sys- 
 tem may be said to have had its rise in 1672-'94. In 
 the United States the term stocks includes United States 
 funded loans and State loans, and the stocks or shares 
 in various corporations, such as railroad companies, 
 hanks, funded debts of cities, etc. 
 
 In England the term stocks is applied mainly to gov- 
 ernment funded debt — such as consols. Bank of En- 
 gland stock, etc. ; and the term shares is used when ap- 
 plied to the capital or joint stock of railroad, banking, 
 and mining companies. — See article B'unds. 
 
 The difficulties in which individuals are involved by 
 their real wants, but oftener by their unruly passions, 
 are the source of their debts. The debts of [European] 
 nations have not a different origin. When the ordi- 
 nary resources of a country were insufficient to carry 
 into effect the private views or impolitic wars of the 
 despots who ruled, or the ministers who directed it, 
 they simply resorted to the expedient of borrowing; 
 but' when the sums loaned were inadequate to the in- 
 creased expenditure, they had recourse to all sorts of 
 schemes, deceptions, and contrivances, the better to delude 
 the lenders, and allure their avarice. Such is the ori- 
 gin of the British funding system. Among states, debt 
 may be considered a national disease; and, like other 
 diseases in our day, has made the tour of Europe, and, 
 we may add, of many of the new nations of America. 
 
 One set of British writers maintain that " debt and 
 wealth are synonymous ;" that " increase of debt is a 
 true increase of riches ;" that no happiness can exist 
 without a national debt. The domestic [i. e., the na- 
 tional] debt, says one of the highest authorities (Coi.- 
 quhoun), dispenses protection and happiness, by form- 
 ing mutual advantages between the rich and the poor. 
 It has produced the rapid increase of public and pri- 
 vate buildings, and of the trade, commerce, and naviga- 
 tion of the country. Another, more audacious than the 
 rest, declares that " a part of the industry, a part of 
 the wages, and a part of the land, lelong to the stock- 
 
 holders; and that by thirty millions of expenditure 
 being in the hands of the stockholders or dissipaton, 
 consumption is highly stimulated." The extinction 
 of the national debt of Great Britain, in the opinion of 
 these economical writers, would, of course, bring mis- 
 fortune and evil. " It would," says Colquhoun, " be 
 attended with greater inconveniences than at present 
 are experienced." 
 
 Another class of British writers, with more truth, 
 with greater force of argument, and with more evidence 
 of facts, contend that "poverty, miserj', and the na- 
 tional debt, are also synonymous and identical terms;" 
 that " taxation incurred to pay its annual interest 
 (swallowing up thirty millions out of sixty millions of 
 revenue, to satisfy the fund-holders), oppresses the peo- 
 ple, destroys industrj-, and is equal to the curse of 
 heaven- on the agriculture, commerce, and manufac- 
 tures of the nation." (McCulloch): "To maintain 
 that this enormous taxation enriches the nation, be- 
 cause it abstracts a portion of its riches, is both a plain 
 contradiction and an absurdity ; taxation being always 
 an engine of destruction to all the productive classes'." 
 " To attribute to the debt the increase of business, im- 
 provements, etc., during the late war, is an error of the 
 most miserable kind. It is to be attributed not to the 
 increase of debt, but to the monopoly of commerce, to 
 the discoveries of Arkwright and "Watt, and to various 
 other causes. The nation did not improve because of 
 the debt, but in spite of it ; as it gave birth to the 
 nefarious practice of stock-jobbing, begetting a spirit 
 of gambling, destructive of public morals, disgraceful 
 to the nation, and hostile to the pursuit of sober indus- 
 try." " No wages, no part of the lands, belongs to the 
 stockholders or dissipaiors ; nor was any specified prop- 
 erty pledgedfor the greatest part of the debt contracted. 
 The lenders had not at the time any property mort- 
 gaged to them ; consequently, they can not have at 
 present more specified rights than they possessed when 
 they loaned their money. To maintain the contrary 
 is a dangerous and arbitrary assumption." " They ad- 
 vanced money when its value was depreciated on an 
 average oiffteen per cent. They never entertained 
 the idea of receiving payment at par, when the loans 
 were contracted at exceedingly low prices." "It would 
 be both folly and injustice to compel the nation to pay 
 one hundred ounces of gold to the fund-holders, when 
 they loaned less than eighty." " It is equally unjust 
 to exempt this sort of property from the alteration in 
 value to which every other kind of property in the 
 kingdom is subject; and, consequently, the reduction 
 of the debt — that millstone which destroys the industry 
 and vigor of the people, doubles taxes, and spreads pau- 
 perism, crime, and wretchedness throughout the coun- 
 try—can be effected without any violation of the pub- 
 lic faith." " The nation must not suft'er on account of 
 the errors of party or ministerial men. The happiness 
 of twenty-four millions of British subjects ought not to 
 be postponed for the sake of an insignificant portion — 
 two hundred and eighty thousand stockholders." ' 
 
 Before we enter more fully on the subject, we have 
 thus drawn a brief summary of the leading arguments 
 and opinions of the contending parties for and against 
 the existence of the present British national debt. It 
 is not difficult to anticipate the American side of the 
 argument ; but on the opposite side what can we ex- 
 pect, where the infection of gambling is so strong that 
 Pope, who knew his countrymen well, declared — 
 " Statesman 0.n(lpatriot ply alike the stocks; 
 Peeress and butler share alike the box; 
 And judges job, and bishops bite the town, 
 And mighty dukes pack cards for half a crown." 
 In the 12th century, Richard I. pawned the reve- 
 nues of the crown for the payment of moneys borrowed 
 to defray the expenses of the fanatical conquest of the 
 Holy Land. Henry III. pawned the crown jewels 
 and regal ornaments and robes of state. Edward I. 
 borrowed money to pay the debts of his father, in order 
 
STO 
 
 1763 
 
 STO 
 
 to g?t Ms BOf 1 "out of purgatory," as the record states. 
 Bichard II, was deposed (or extorting £1,100,000 ster- 
 ling, uoder pretext of borrowing, which was never 
 repaid. This was one of the chief causes of the Yorli 
 and Lancaster wars. In 1346, Edward III. ordered a 
 sum of money to he lent to him. Henry IV. obliged 
 the rich men of the kingdom to lend him money upon 
 the growing taxes. . Henry VIII. esojiped the punish- 
 ment he so justly merited for defrauditig his creditors. 
 He compelled Parliament to pass two'^ac^ts, offering 
 him "all the money he had received in loans;" thus 
 discharging him of aU obligations he had come under, 
 and all suits that might arise thereupon. In money 
 matters in Elizabeth's time, the people insisted upon 
 the payment of the sums advanced to her predecessors; 
 — a denjattd she was ^vise enough to comply with. 
 Burleigh counseled her to lay the foundation of public 
 credit. The commonwealth contracted a large debt : at 
 Cromwell's death itamounted to £2,474,290. Charles, 
 by closing the exchequer in 1.672, (^f/rauefed the. cred- 
 itors of the state of the sum of £2,800,000 i but an ar- 
 rangement took place, by which the sum, of £664,226 
 was left at, an interest of £19,027 18«. 6d. This was 
 the origin, of the pfesemt national debt, and its whole 
 .amount before, the English Revolution, 
 
 In forojer times, says a British writer, loans were 
 , generally contracted for short periods. It was, more- 
 over, an established practice that the funds assigned 
 for tho repayment should be sufficient to pay th^ prin- 
 cipal and interest, and that within a certain number 
 of years. The Bvitish system, in practice, is quite the 
 reverse. , Their ministers are satisfied if thej' provide 
 , for the payment of the interest, without a thought on 
 providing for the discharge of the principal; or if they 
 do, it is in conformity to the maxim of Linguet and 
 Terney, 'Ho cancel the capital by «. general bank- 
 ruptcy, in order to bring the state home." This max- 
 im of Terney and Linguet was practically adopted in 
 France some centuries ago. Brisson, in his history, 
 enumerates FIVE national bankruptcies; but in the 
 financial history of that country may be found a great 
 many more. The new system originated in the re- 
 publics of Venice and Genoa; and being imported by 
 William III., has been carried by the British to the 
 highest perfection. .. 
 
 After the Irish Revolution, to supply deficiencies, 
 William had recourse to the long annuities which were 
 created in 1692. £861,493 were raised on annuities of 
 99 years, bearing interest at 10 per cent, until 1700, 
 .and at 7 per cent, after that year, with benefit of, sur- 
 vivorship for the lives of the nominees of those who 
 contributed. The sAort annut'ties began in 1693. Eight 
 millions was borrowed by this expedient ; every sub- 
 scriber receiving 14 per cent, for sixteen years, besides 
 a lottery tipket. , At this moment the scheme of the 
 Bank of England was contrived by Patterson. The 
 bank loaned William £1,200,000, at 8 per cent, inter- 
 est ; thus at the very outset taking advantage of the 
 public distress, and setting a usurious example to their 
 successors, who, like true Shylocks, have ever since 
 profited by the example. Chancellor Montague about 
 this period, to aid his, sovereign, invented the scheme 
 of issuing exchequer bills. Their issue has been at 
 intervals ever since. The most exorbitant premiums 
 were given for money, and the public debt was greatly 
 increased. Public credit sunk so low, that out of five 
 millions granted to carry on a war only two and a 
 half, in Daveuant's opinion, ever reached the excheq- 
 uer. One of the constituent parts of the funding system 
 is the reduction of interest from the higher to the lower 
 denomination. This expedient, which has played so 
 conspicuous a part in our day, was originally resorted 
 to in 1699, when the higher interests were reduced to 
 5 per cent. It was the destiny of King William's 
 reign to create, improve, and to complete aU the essen- 
 tial parts of the funding system as in practice at this 
 day. William left a national debt at the close of his 
 
 reign of £16,394,702. This sum formed the nucleus of 
 the present national debt, (These facts are chiefly 
 collected from British parliamentary history.) 
 
 The history of the Stock Exchange a century ago is 
 its history, at the present day. "The centre of job- 
 bing," says a writer of that time, Mis the kingdom of 
 'Change Alley." The enormous profits made by the 
 association, the malpracticeeof the greater part of its 
 members, and the insolence of the richer ones, excited 
 the just .alarm of, a steady and reflecting nation unac- 
 customed to such manoeuvres, and. the public writers 
 began to attack their increasing power. " The villainy 
 of stock-jobbing is called a mystery or machine of 
 trade," says one of, these writers. "This destructive 
 hydra, this new corporation of hellj" exclaims another ; 
 while one of them gives directions, in order to besiege 
 and bring to surrender ''that infamous place, 'Change 
 .Alley," "to storm it," etc. Another writer declares 
 that " the general cry against stock-jobbing has been 
 so long, and it has been so justly complained of as a 
 public nuisance, that these people are hardened in 
 crime ; all their art is a mere system of cheat and de- 
 lusion; their characters are as, dirty as their employ- 
 ments ; and the best thing that can be said of them is, 
 that there happen to be two honest men among them." 
 " Their employment becomes a crime. This setof men 
 are more dangerous than all national enemies abroad." 
 "■Exchange Alley is, in faot, as dangerous to the public 
 safety as a magazine of gunpowder to a populous city." 
 
 However, all these invectives did not obstruct the 
 progress of the establishment; on the contrary, it be- 
 came more powerful, and increased in proportion as 
 the government was more extravagant and careless of 
 the public money. It became, in short, an indispensa- 
 ble engine of the government itself; but the latter was 
 compelled, hy public opinion against the detested opera- 
 tions of the Exchange, and in oj-der to keep up appear- 
 ances, to pass several acts against the very, operations 
 and the very gambling it was so deeply, though secret- 
 ly, fomenting. Avarice, idleness, and the hope of be- 
 coming rich in a short time without industry, eluded 
 and evaded all the laws ofiBritish wisdom, and some- 
 times disregarded even the common law of the land. 
 By a variety of measures has the power of this corpora- 
 tion reached its present height. . Its members have not 
 only become the exclusive masters of the British money 
 market, but have acquired the immense power of se- 
 cretly controlling and regulating the funds and money 
 market of all Europe, and, we may add, all America. 
 No financial operation whatever can be safely under- 
 taken in any of those markets without consulting and 
 obtaining the approbation of the Committee of the 
 Stock Exchange. The agents of the Bank of England 
 have surpassed their principals. A mere decision of a 
 committee, composed of individuals unknown beyond 
 their own immediate circle, is more powerful, and will 
 produce more effect in regard to any loan or financial 
 measure than all the. laws of the sovereigns of Europe 
 put together. However, the importance of the Stock 
 Exchange has somewhat declined since the failure of 
 its gigantic operations on this side of the Atlantic ; and 
 since the immense losses sustained by the British pub- 
 lic on that occasion, it has been less attended ; the 
 number of its members being reduced at one tiine ae 
 low as 400.; 
 
 Funding System. — The first operation of the funding 
 system, aftex the peace of 1815, in consequence of the 
 rise of public securities, was to reduce the interest on 
 exchequer bills (1817) from 6i to SJ per cent. ; and 
 while only three millions were added to the debt, 
 above twenty-three millions were canceled. The in- 
 terest of a portion of the public funds was transferred 
 from, a lower to a higher denomination ; the 3 per cent, 
 stock was converted into Si per cent., thereby effecting 
 a reduction of the debt, by inducing the holders of the 
 former stock to buy in the latter at a higher price. 
 Thus the small sum of £3000 was created, while more 
 
STO 
 
 1764 
 
 STO 
 
 than nineteen millions of the national debt were re- 
 deemed in 1818. The next measure was the reduction 
 of the five per cents into fours. The banic at that 
 time had thirteen millions in their vaults ; and they 
 increased the circulation by throwing a large amount 
 of paper into market, and by lowering the rate of in- 
 terest from 5 to 4 per cent. By the union of gov- 
 ernment and banking powers, the enormous sum of 
 £140,250,828 of 5 per cents was readily converted into 
 £147,203,328 of 4 per cents, at an annual saving of in- 
 terest of £1,222,000 at a small increase of capital only. 
 In 1824, 4 per cents to the amount of £76,806,882 were 
 changed into an equal amount of stock bearing an in- 
 terest olSi per cent. This operation, besides effecting 
 an annual saving of i£381,034, had the advantage of 
 making no addition to the capital of the debt. In 
 1827, £8,500,000 of debt were created, while £2,866,528 
 were redeemed. In 1828 the sinking fund was de- 
 stroyed. On the lltb of July, it was enacted that for 
 tlie future " the amount of the sinking fund be the 
 actual surplus of the revenue over the expenditures." 
 (Came into operation 5th July, 1829.) At that time 
 there were no surpluses, but a large deficiency of 
 revenue. 
 
 But although one of the three elements of the fund- 
 ing system was thus lost, the action of that system 
 was not on that account discontinued. A prospective 
 operation was contrived in May, 1830, to transfer into 
 3^^ per cents the fours created at the reduction of the 
 fives in 1822. One of the conditions was, that the 
 new stock should not be subject to redemption at any 
 time before January 6, 1849 ; and an option -was of- 
 fered to the holders to receive £70 of the new fives, or 
 £100 of the 3J- per cents, for every £100 of 4 per cent, 
 annuities. This operation was called prospective, be- 
 cause the advantage of the plan is, that when the 
 stipulated term shall have expired, as much relief may 
 be obtained by the nation from every payment of £70 
 employed in canceling 5 per cents as by the pay- 
 ment of £100 when applied to the discharge of 3^ per 
 cents, both being redeemable at par : annual saving 
 of this step, £700,000. In 1829, £4,900,000 were cre- 
 ated, and £6,000,000 reduced; £154,000,000 were cre- 
 ated in 1830, and £168,000,000 reduced; but what was 
 the result? The committee of 1828 state, that "in a 
 few years [says the 4th report] which preceded the 
 virtual abandonment of the system, one hundred and 
 twenty millions had been added to the capital of the 
 national debt, while the purchases of the commissioners 
 had fallen so far short of that sum that the unredeem- 
 ed capital of the unfunded debt was greater at the com- 
 mencement of 1823 than it had been in 1818, by the 
 sum of twenty-five millions." In 1819 twelve millions, 
 and in 1820 tliirteen millions, were unwarrantably taken 
 from the sinking fund. Tlie actual reduction during 
 the peace is, according to the Finance Committee, who 
 declare " that the total redaction effected from 1816 to 
 1828 in the national debt was only three millions and a 
 half." 
 
 The writer from whom we have abridged the pre- 
 ceding facts concludes: "It appears that this enor- 
 mous debt (which he states at eight hundred and sixty- 
 four millions) has been chiefly raised by means of the 
 Bank and the Stock Exchange, aided by the delusion 
 of the sinking fund; and that it has been principally 
 expended in wars, most of them undertaken against 
 the true interests of the nation, whose topographical 
 situation renders her independent of continental broils 
 and quarrels. Its amount has been immensely in- 
 creased in time of war, while the reductions effected in 
 time of peace have been exceedingly limited. In the 
 first period, of twelve years peace, ten millions were 
 reduced; in the second, which lasted ten years, only 
 four and a half millions ; and in the last and longest, 
 near thirty years, the amount of reduction has been so 
 trifling that it seems almost incredible. When we 
 consider the veiv inconsiderable reduction effected 
 
 during so long an interval of peace, the most alarming 
 forebodings arise for the future. The British Legisla- 
 ture, the economists, and the reflecting men, so numer- 
 ous in England, have in this subject an unbounded 
 field for the most serious reflection." These wars were 
 conducted through the agency of paper vwney and the 
 funding system. Pope has very happily hit the expe- 
 dients of the British ministry in the following lines : 
 
 " Bless' d paper credit! last and best supply. 
 That lends corruption lighter wings to fly ; 
 Gold imp'd by thee can compass hardest things. 
 Can pocket states — can fetch or carry kings; 
 A ein/fle leaf shall waft an army o'er, 
 Or ship off senates to some distant shore." 
 
 — Compiled from BamUton, Bailey, Pehrer, Parliament- 
 ary authorities, and on the authority of manuscript tables 
 obtained from the office of the British Controller in Lon- 
 don, 
 
 Stoppage in Transitu is the seizure by the seller 
 of goods sold on credit, during the course of their pas- 
 sage (transitus) to the buyer. This principle is said 
 to have been established about 1690 in the Court of 
 Chancery (2 Vem, 203) ; and it has since been acknowl- 
 edged in the courts of common law. The transitus is 
 defined to be the passage of the goods to the place 
 agreed upon by the buyer and seller, or the place at 
 which they are to come into the possession of the buyer. 
 This definition does not mean that the term transitus 
 implies continual motion ; goods are in transitu while 
 they are at rest, if they are still on the road to the 
 place to which they have been sent. This doctrine of 
 stoppage in transitu entitles a seller, in case of the in- 
 solvency or bankruptcy of the buyer, to stop the goods 
 before they come into the buyer's possession. The 
 right of stoppage in transitu is not confined to cases of 
 buying and selling. A factor either at home or abroad, 
 if he consigns goods to his principal by the order of the 
 principal, and has got the goods in his own name or on 
 his own credit, has the same right of stoppage in tran- 
 situ as if he were the seller of the goods. Questions 
 of stoppage in transitu sometimes involve difficult 
 points of law. The right of stoppage implies that the 
 goods are in the possession of the seller or factor when 
 he exercises this right. Accordingly, the law of stop- 
 page involves the law of possession of movable things. 
 — Bohn's Cyclopedia; Aehoth on Shipping ; Cross on 
 Lien and Stoppage in Transitus; Smith's Leading Cases; 
 Russell's Treatise on the Laws relating to Factors and 
 Brokers, 
 
 If the buyer has in good faith and for value sold 
 the goods, and indorsed and delivered the bill of lading, 
 this second purchaser holds the goods free from the 
 first seller's right to stop them. But if the goods and 
 bill are transferred only as a security for a debt due 
 from the first purchaser to the transferee, the original 
 seller may stop the goods, and hold them subject to 
 this security, and need pay only the specific advances 
 made on their credit or on that very bill of lading, and 
 not a general indebtedness of the first purchaser to the 
 second. The question has been much agitated whether 
 the right of stoppage in transitu was a right to rescind 
 the sale for non-payment, or only an extension of the 
 common-law lien of the buyer on the thing sold for his 
 price. And it seems now quite well settled, both in 
 England and in this country, that it is the latter ; that 
 is, an extension of the lien. Important consequences 
 might flow from this distinction. If the seller, by stop- 
 ping the goods in transitu, rescinds the sale, he has no 
 further claim for the price, nor any part of it ; nor can 
 the buyer, or any one representing him, pay the price 
 and recover the goods against the will of the seller. 
 If, however, he only exercises his right of lien, he holds 
 the goods as the 'property of the buyer ; and they may 
 be redeemed by him or his representatives by paying 
 the price for which they are a security ; and if not re- 
 deemed, they become absolutely the seller's, in the 
 same way as a pledge might become his ; and if he fails 
 
STO 
 
 1765 
 
 SUE 
 
 to obtain from them the full price due, he has a claim 
 for the balance upon the buyer. All of this is not posi- 
 tively determined by adjudication, but it would seem to 
 be deducible from the pripciple that the act of stoppage 
 in transitu is only the exercise of a lien on the goods 
 for their price. — Parsons's Mercantile Law, p. 63 ; see 
 also Kent's Comm., vol. ii. 
 
 Storaz. See Balsam. 
 
 Stores, Military and Naval, include arms, am- 
 munition, etc. — See Naval Stokes. 
 
 Stores, in Commercial navigation, the supplies of 
 different articles provided for the subsistence and ac- 
 commodation of the ship's crew and passengers. 
 
 Stranding, in Navigation, the running of a ship on 
 shore, or on the beach. 
 
 It is important to define accurately ivhat shall be 
 deemed a stranding. But this is no easy matter ; and 
 much diversity of opinion has been entertained with 
 respect to it. It would, however, appear that merely 
 striking against a rock, bank, or shore, is not a strand- 
 ing; and that, to constitute it, the ship must be tipon 
 the rock, etc., for some time (how long ?). Mr. Justice 
 Park has the following observations on this subject: 
 " It is not every touching or striking upon a fixed body 
 in the sea or river that will constitute a stranding. 
 Thus Lord Ellenborough held that, in order to estab- 
 lish a stranding, the ship mu^t be stationary; for that 
 merely striking on a rock, and remaining there a short 
 time (us in the case then at the bar, about a minute 
 and a half), and then passing on, though the vessel 
 may have received some injury, is not a stranding. 
 Lord EUenborough's language is important. £x vi 
 termini stranding means lying on the shore, or some- 
 thing analogous to that. To use a vulgar phrase, 
 which has been applied to this subject, if it be touch 
 and go with the ship, there is no stranding. It can 
 not be enough that the ship lie for a few moments on 
 her beam ends. Every striking must necessarily pro- 
 duce a retardation of the ship's motion. If by the 
 force of the elements she is run aground, and becomes 
 stationary, it is immaterial whether this be on piles, 
 on the muddy bank of a river, or on rocl^s on the sea- 
 shore ; but a mere striking will not do, wherever that 
 may happen. I can not look to the consequences with- 
 out considering the causa causans. There has been a 
 curiosity in the cases about stranding not oi-editable to 
 the law. A little common sense may dispose of them 
 more satisfactorily." 
 
 This is the clearest and most satisfactory statement 
 we have met with on this subject; still, however, it is 
 very vague. Lord Ellenborough and Mr. Justice Park 
 hold that, to constitute a stranding, the ship must be 
 stationary ; but they also hold that if she merely re- 
 main upon a rock, etc., for a short time, she is not to be 
 considered as having been stationaiy. Hence every 
 thing turns upon what shall be considered as a short 
 time. And we can not help thinking that it would be 
 better, in order to put to rest all doubts upon the sub- 
 ject, to decide either that every striking against a rock, 
 the shore, etc., by which damage is done to the ship, 
 should be considered a stranding ; or that no striking 
 against a rock, etc., should be considered as such, pro- 
 vided the ship be got off within a specified time. Per- 
 haps a tide would be the most proper period that could 
 be fixed. The English Insurance companies exclude 
 the words, " or the ship be stranded," from the memo- 
 randum.— See InsukaSce [Makinb], Abandohment, 
 and Average. 
 
 If the ship be voluntarily stranded, to escape danger 
 from tempest or chase of an enemy, the damages from 
 that act are to be borne by a general average, if the 
 ship be afterward recovered and perform her voyage. 
 But if the ship be wholly lost or destroyed by the act 
 of running her ashore, it has been a question much 
 discussed, and different opinions maintained, whether 
 the cargo saved was bound to contribute to bear the 
 loss of the ship. In the United States the general 
 
 conclusion seems to be that the loss is not to be borne 
 by general average of cargo ; while the decisions in 
 Europe go to establish the opposite. — Kent's Comm., 
 vol. iii. p. 306. It is understood that the mere strand- 
 ing a ship is not of itself to be deemed a total loss, yet 
 it maybe attended with circumstances that will justify 
 an abandonment, even though the hull of the ship 
 should not be materially damaged ; if, for instance, the 
 cost of removal would exceed the worth of the ship. — 
 See Kent's Comm., vol. iii. p. 402. 
 
 Sturgeon Fishery. The sturgeon is a large, 
 valuable, and well-known fish, of which there are sev- 
 eral species : viz., the sturgeon, properly so called, or 
 Accipenser sturo; the beluga, or Accipenser huso; the 
 sevruga, or Accipenser stelkUus, etc. The sturgeon 
 is plentiful in the North American rivers, and on the 
 southern shores of the Baltic; and is met with in 
 the Mediterranean, etc. But it is found in the great- 
 est abundance on the northern shores of the Caspian, 
 and in the rivers Wolga and Ural ; and there its fishery 
 employs a great number of hands, and is an important 
 object of national industry. Owing to the length and 
 strictness of the Lents in the Greek Church, the con- 
 sumption of fish in Kussia is immense ; and from its 
 central position, and the facilities afforded for their 
 conveyance by the Wolga, the products of the Caspian 
 fishery, and those of its tributary streams, are easily 
 distributed over a vast extent of country. Besides the 
 pickled carcasses of the fish, caviar is prepared from 
 the roes ; and isinglass, of the best quality, from the 
 sounds. The caviar made by the Ural Cossacks is 
 reckoned superior to any other ; and both it and isin- 
 glass are exported in considerable quantities. The 
 belugas are sometimes of a very large size, weighing 
 from 1000 to 1500 lbs., and yield a good deal of oil. 
 The seal-fishery is also pretty extensively prosecuted 
 in the Caspian. The reader will find a detailed ac- 
 count of the mode in which the fishery is carried on in 
 the Caspian, and in the rivers Wolga and Ural, in 
 Tooke's Russia. — See Fisheries. 
 
 Sub-treasury. The sub-treasury system is one 
 peculiar to the general government of the United 
 States ; whereby the separate and safe-keeping of the 
 public funds is intrusted to special officers appointed 
 for this purpose. From the year 1789 to the year 184G 
 the public funds were entrusted as deposits in numer- 
 ous banking institutions throughout the Union. The 
 failures of many of these during the years 1837-1842 
 led to the establishment, on the 6th August, 1846, of 
 the Independent Treasury, or Sub-treasury. By this 
 law of Congress, the "rooms prepared and provided in 
 the new treasury building at the seat of government 
 (Washington), £br the use of the Treasurer of the United 
 States, his assistants and clerks, and occupied by them, 
 and also the fire-proof vaults and safes erected in said 
 rooms for the keeping of the public moneys in the pos- 
 session and under the immediate control of said treas- 
 urer, and such other apartments as are provided for in 
 this act as places of deposit of the public money, are 
 hereby constituted and declared to be the Treasury of 
 the United States." The sub-treasuries for the recep- 
 tion of the public funds are at Boston, New York, 
 Philadelphia, and other cities ; generally in the build- 
 ings used and known as the custom-houses. The as- 
 sistant treasurers receive the following salaries: Bos- 
 ton, $2500 ; New York, $4000 ; Philadelphia, Charles- 
 ton, New Orleans, St. Louis, $2500 each. After the 
 1st January, 1847, all duties, taxes, sales of public 
 lands, postage, and all other revenue, were made pay- 
 able in gold or silver coin only ; and all disbursements 
 by or for account of the Treasury were by law made 
 payable in the same medium. 
 
 Succory. See Chicory. 
 
 Suez Canal. If we compare the mean distances 
 between the ports of Europe and India, by the Cape of 
 Good Hope on the one hand, and by the intended chan- 
 nel between the two seas on the other, we shall find an 
 
SUE 
 
 1766 
 
 SUG 
 
 enormous difference in fav6r of this latter route. This 
 difference will be still greater if we remember that a 
 straight line on the chart of navigation is far from 
 being the shortest distance from one port to another, 
 and the seaman can Only reach the point for which he 
 is steering by following a certain number of successive 
 courses, approaching as near as possible the arc of a 
 great circle. Thus, far from malsing directly for the 
 Cape of Good Hope, vessels leaving Europe or the At- 
 lantic ports of North America, en route for India, must 
 steer for the Canaries or Azores, in order to find the 
 trade-winds of the northern hemisphere, to make the 
 coast of Brazil, and sight Cape Frio, or put into har- 
 bor at Rio Janeiro. This is generally the route for the 
 Cape of Good Hope, more justly, perhaps, called the 
 Cape of Storms. They then cross the Agulhas Bank, 
 reach Bourbon or Mauritius, and from thence steer for 
 India, following the routes 'allowed by the monsoons. 
 Vessels in the Mediterranean again have to contend 
 with still greater disadvantages. It often takes them 
 fifteen days to reach the Straits of Gibraltar, westerly 
 winds generally prevailing in this quarter, wh'ere we 
 also find a rapid flow of the ocean waters itito the Medi- 
 terranean. Thus the voyage to India takes at least 
 five months, or five months and a half, the voyages 
 home being rather more direct, without being sensibly 
 shorter. Ships then run nearer to the African shore, 
 by reason of the trade-winds of the southern hemi- 
 sphere ; the place of call in this case being St. Helena. 
 If we now examine the facilities for navigation in 
 the three seas near the Canal of Suez, namely, the 
 Mediterranean, the Bed Sea, and the Gulf of Oman, wo 
 find : 
 
 That in the Mediterranean the winds blow from the 
 north during the greater part of the year; change south- 
 east in the spring, and return to the north, passing by 
 the west and northwest. 
 
 That nearly the same takes place in the Red Sea, 
 where the north, which is the prevailing wind, heaps 
 the waters in the directioii of Babelmandel, so that 
 during; a calm we observe a current setting northward, 
 evidently arising from the elevated waters in the south 
 endeavoring to recover their level. Southerly winds 
 geiierally succeed a calm. 
 
 The Gulf of Oman has two monsoons — the northeast 
 monsoon, which generally continues during the winter, 
 and southwest monsoon, which lasts during the sum- 
 mer, and is frequently stormy. The change from one 
 monsoon to the other is there, as elsewhere, accom- 
 panied by a series of storms and gales. 
 
 The considerable reduction of the distance of Euro- 
 pean ports from those of India would not be the only 
 advantage to trade from adopting the canal between 
 the two seas ; for not only would vessels reach their 
 point of destination much sooner, but they would find 
 places of anchorage throughout the entire route, and 
 also, what is of more importance still, they would meet 
 ^vith good markets. The navigator, after having fol- 
 lowed the usual easy routes of the Mediterranean, 
 would dispose of part of his cargo in the Canal of Suez, 
 or at Djedda, would purchase ivory at Massarva, Soua- 
 ken, or Derbera, which he would exchange in India 
 for opium to take to China in exchange for silk and 
 tea. He would complete his home cai-go in colonial 
 merchandise from Manilla, the Isles of Sunda and 
 Ceylon; in cotton of India and Egypt; in coffee of 
 Abyssiriia or Yemen ; the gum of Soudon or Hedjaz ; 
 the corn of Lower Egypt, or rice of Damietta; and 
 these numerous operations, which now require years, 
 would be accomplished rapidly and without danger 
 with small capital and small vessels. In short, by re- 
 ducing the time necessary for the operations of com- 
 merce, we reduce the general exjiense. 
 
 All nations would take advantage of the importance 
 of the trade with India, China, and the islands of the 
 ocean. Trade with the Red Sea, although less consid- 
 Hrable, deserves attention; but as there is scarcely 
 
 any carried on at present, it is very little known, and 
 could only acquire importance by the opening of a 
 canal between the two seas. The Red Sea, which Is 
 so near to us in a straight line, becomes far distant 
 when we have to double the Cape. Babelmandel is as 
 far from us as PondicheiTy, and Sonaken as far as Ba- 
 tavia ; Suez, farther still, by this route becomes as 
 near as Beyrout by the canal ; in short, the two routes, 
 measured from the Straits of Gibraltar to Souaken, are 
 in the proportion of one to five. 
 
 Very few European vessels are now met with in the 
 Red Sea. Every year we see a few belonging to the 
 Parsees of Bombay, and manned by Lascars. The in- 
 ternal trade of this sea is now carried on by Arabian 
 barks, called dows, or houtres, constructed at Suez, 
 Djeddo, Kossair, Sonaken, or Mocha, with wood from 
 India to Singapore. These vessels are of a very small 
 tonnage, are very sharp, and have a handsome sheer ; 
 a heavy poop, which hinders their working, and lowers 
 it at the stern ; they carry one mast, rigging a square 
 sail; this sail and yard are struck to the foot when 
 they lay to ; about thirty men are required to hoist it 
 again, and this operation can not be performed in less 
 than half an hour. The tacking of these ships is as 
 difficult as it is dangerous. The dows only sail in 
 the daytime ; they get under way about seven o'clock 
 in the morning, sail till about four in sight of the coast, 
 then anchor by a grappling-iron, or run aground on the 
 sand. — -London Nautical Magazine. See also Southern 
 Quarterly Review^ ix. 57. 
 
 Messrs! Conrad, A. Renaud, Megrilli J. M'Lean, and 
 Lieusson, the members of the international commission 
 for cutting a canal through the Isthmus of Suez, have 
 terminated their investigations in Egypt, and given in 
 to the viceroy a brief preliminary report. They found 
 insuperable obstacles to directing the canal on Alexan- 
 dria, and unexpected facilities for establishing a port 
 in the Gulf of Pelusium. They are therefore unani- 
 mously of opinion that a direct canal from Suez toward 
 the Gulf of Pelusium is the only solution of the problem 
 of the junction of the Red Sea and the Mediterranean. 
 " The execution thereof is easy, the success certain, the 
 results immense for the commerce of the world." The 
 expense of the canal and of the works connected with 
 it will not, it is added, exceed 200,000,000 francs. 
 
 Sugar (Fr. Sucre ; Ger. ZucTcir ; It. Zucchero ; Russ. 
 Sachar; Sp. Azucar; Arab. Sukhir ; Malay, Soola; 
 Sans. SarJcara), a sweet granulated substance, too well 
 known' tO' require any particular description. It is 
 every where in extensive use, and in this country 
 ranks rather ainong the indispensable necessaries of 
 life than among luxuries. In point of commercial 
 importance, it is second to very few articles. It is 
 chiefly prepared from the expressed juice of the ^ rundo 
 saccharifera, or sugar-cane ; but it is also procured from 
 an immense variety of other plants, as maple, beet-root, 
 birch, parsnep, etc. 
 
 Species of Sugar. — The sugar met with in commerce 
 is usually of four sorts; brown, or muscovado sugar; 
 clayed sugar ; refined, or loaf sugar ; and sugar-candy. 
 The difference between one sort of sugar and another 
 depends altogether on the different modes in which they 
 are prepared. 
 
 Brown, or Muscovado Sugar. — The plants or canes 
 being crushed in amill, the juice, having passed through 
 a strainer, is collected in the clarifier, where it is first 
 exposed to the action of a gentle fire, after being " tem- 
 pered" (mixed with alkali), for the purpose of facili- 
 tating the separation of the liquor from its impurities. 
 It is then conveyed into the large evaporating copper, 
 and successively into two others, each of smaller size ; 
 the superintending boiler freeing it during the process 
 from the scum and feculent matters which rise'to the 
 surface. The sirup then reaches the last copper ves- 
 sel, called the "striking tache," where it is boiled till 
 sufficiently concentrated to be capable of granulating 
 in the cooler, whence it is transferred With the least 
 
SUG 
 
 1767 
 
 SUG 
 
 possible delay, to prevent charring^ Here it soon 
 ceases to be a liquid ; and when fully crystallized, is 
 put into hogsheads (called "potting"), placed on their 
 ends in the curing-Jiouse, with several apertures in their 
 bottoms, through which the molasses drain into a cis- 
 tern below. In this state they remain till properly 
 cured, when the casks are filled up and prepared for 
 shipment. 
 
 Clayed sugar is prepared by taking the juice, as iu 
 the case of muscovado sugar, when boiled to a proper 
 consistency, and pouring it into conical pots with the 
 apex downward. These pots have a hole at the lower 
 extremity, through which the molasses and sirup are 
 allowed to drain. After this drain has continued for 
 some time, a stratum of moistened clay is spread over 
 the surface of the pots ; the moisture of which, perco- 
 latiftg through the mass, is found to contribute power- 
 fully to its purification. 
 
 Sefined sugar may be prepared from muscovado or 
 clayed sugar by redissolving the sugar in water, and, 
 after boiling it with some purifying substances, pour- 
 ing it, as before, into conical pots, which are again 
 covered with moistened clay. A repetition of this 
 process produces double refined sugar. But a -variety 
 of improved processes are now resorted to. 
 
 Siiyor-candly.-iSolutions of brown or clayed sugar, 
 boiled until they ^become thick, and then removed into 
 a hot room, form, upon sticks or strings put into the 
 vessels for thatpurpose, into crystals, or candy. 
 
 Historical Notice. — The history of sugar is involved 
 in a good deal of obscurity. It was very imperfectly 
 known by the Greeks and Romans. Theophrastus, 
 who lived about 320 years before the Christian era, the 
 first writer whose works have come down to us by 
 whom it is mentioned, calls ifc a sort of " honey extract- 
 ed from canes or reeds." Strabo states, on the author- 
 ity of Nearchus, Alexander's admiral, that " reeds in 
 India yield honey without bees." And Seneca, who 
 was put to death A.c. 65, alludes to sugar in a way 
 which shows how little was then known respecting it 
 (Epist. 8-1) : Aiuntj says he, inveniri apud Indos met in 
 arundinumjbliis, quod'Out ros illius cali, aut ipsius arun- 
 dinis humor dulcis et jiitiffuior gignat. Of tlie ancients, 
 Dioscorides and Pliny iave given the most precise 
 description of sugar. The former says, it is " a sort 
 of concreted honey, found upon canes, in India and 
 Arabia Felix ; it is in consistence like salt, andds, like 
 it, brittle between the teethj" And Pliny describes it 
 as " honey collected from canes, like a gum, white and 
 brittle between the teeth ; the largest is of the size of 
 a hazel-nut ; it is usediin medicine only. "-^SaccAarum, 
 et Arabia fert, sed laudaiius India; est autem mel in 
 arundinibus coUecittm^' giirmniv/m^modo candidumydenti^ 
 bus fragile, amplissitnum nucis avelkmce magnitudine, ad 
 mediance iantum usum. — Lib. xii. c. 8. It is evident, 
 from these statements, that theknowledge of the Greeks 
 and Eomans with respect to the mode of obtaining 
 sugar was singularly imperfect. ' They appear to have 
 thought that it Was found adhering to the cane, or that 
 it issued from it in the state of juice, and then concreted 
 like gam. Indeed, Lucan expressly alludes to Indians 
 near the Ganges — 
 
 Ouioue MJyimt tenerd diilccs db arundine suceos. 
 
 -Lib.lii. I. 23T. 
 
 But these statements are evidently without founda- 
 tion. Sugar can not be obtained from the cane with- 
 out the aid of art. It is never found native. Instead 
 of flowing from the plant, it must be forcibly expressed, 
 and then subjected to a variety of processes. It is not, 
 however, quite so clear, as has been generally supposed, 
 that the Eomans were wholly unacquainted with the 
 mode of procuring sugar. The remarkable line of 
 Statins, 
 
 M gua^ percoquitEbusia cannas — Sylv. lib. i. v. 15, 
 
 has been conjectured, apparently on good grounds, to re- 
 fer to tho boilingof the juice of the cane. But the pas- 
 
 sage has been difTerently read, and is too enigmatical to 
 be much depended on. Dr. Moseley conjectures, appar- 
 ently with much probability, that the sugar described 
 by Pliny and Dioscorides, as being made use of at 
 Rome, was sugar-candy obtained from China. This, 
 indeed, is the only sort of sugar to which their descrip- 
 tion Will at all apply. And it would seem that the 
 mode of preparing sugar-candy has been understood 
 and practiced in China from a very remote antiquity ; 
 and that large quantities of it have been in all ages 
 exported to India, whence, it is most pi'obable, small 
 quantities found their way to Rome. — Treatise on Sugar. 
 This, as well as Dr. Moseley's Treatise on Coffee, is a. 
 very learned and able work. Europe seems to be in- 
 debted to the Saracens not only for the first consider- 
 able supplies of sugar, but for the earliest example of 
 its manufacture. Having, in the course of the 9th 
 century, conquered Rhodes, Cyprus, Sicily, and Crete, 
 they introduced into them the sugar-cane, with the 
 cultivation and preparation of which they were famil- 
 iar. It is mentioned by the Venetian historians that 
 their coimtrymen imported, in the 12th centurj-, sugar 
 from Sicily at a cheaper rate than they could import it 
 from Egypt. — Essai de Vliistoire die Commerce de Venise, 
 p. 100. The crusades tended to spread a taste for sugar 
 throughontj the Western World ; but there can be no 
 doubt that it was cultivated, as now stated, in modern 
 Europe antecedently to the era of the crusades ; and 
 that it was also previously imported by the Venetians, 
 Amalphitans, and others, who carried on a commercial 
 intercourse from a very remote epoch with Alexandria 
 and other cities in the Levant. It was certainly im- 
 ported into Venice in 996. 
 
 The art of refining sugar, and making what is called 
 loaf-sugar, is said by Dr. Moseley to be a modern Eu- 
 ropean invention, the discovery of a Venetian about 
 the end of the 15th, or the beginning of the 16th cen- 
 tury.— Moseley, p. 66. But this is doubtful, fpr Le 
 Grand D'Aussy has shown that white, or, as he calls it, 
 refined sugar (sucre blanc ou raffinS), had been introduced 
 into and used in France for more than a century and a 
 half previously to the date assigned for the discovery 
 of the process of refining in Venice. But white sugar 
 is not necessarily, as Le Grand D'Aussy seems to sup- 
 pose, refined ; it may be merely clayed, like Havana 
 sugar, which is as white as refined sugar. Loaf or 
 lump sugar is unknown in the East, sugar-candy being 
 the only species of refined sugar that is made use of in 
 India, China, etc. The manufacture of sugar-candy is 
 carried on in Hindostan, but the process is extremely 
 rude and imperfect. In China, however, it is manu- 
 factured in a very superior manner, and large quanti- 
 ties are exported. When of the best description, it is 
 in large white crystals, and is a very beautiful article. 
 Two sorts of sugar-candy are met with at Canton, viz., 
 Chinchew and Canton ; the former being the produce 
 of the province of Fokien, and the latter, as its name 
 implies, of that of Canton. The Chinchew is by far 
 the best, and is about 50 per cent, dearer than the 
 other. Chinese sugar-candy is extensively consumed 
 by Europeans at the different settlements throughout 
 the East. The exports of sugar-candy from Canton in 
 1£46 for British India and Australia amounted to 
 S8|581 piculs, or 2296 tons. Within the last four or five 
 years raw sugar has begun to be rather largely ex- 
 ported from China to England, the shipments for the 
 latter in 1846 having amounted to 18,620 tons. But 
 the speculation did not turn out well ; and it is doubt- 
 ful whether the sugar of China will be able to with- 
 stand the competition bf that of Brazil and Cuba. — 
 Tie Privie des Fraafois, ii. 198, ed. 1815. This sugar 
 was imported from Egypt principally by Italians ; and 
 the probability is, that the latter were the first Euro- 
 peans who practiced the art, which, however, would ap- 
 pear to have originated in the East. The cane had, as 
 already seen, been introduced into Sicily, and its cul- 
 ture practiced previously to the middle of the 12th cea- 
 
SUG 
 
 1768 
 
 SUG 
 
 tury. It also was carried to Spain and cultivated by 
 the Saracens soon after tiiej' obtained a footing in that 
 country. The first plantations were at Valencia ; but 
 they were afterward extended to Granada and Murcia. 
 Mr. Thomas Willoughby, who traveled over the greater 
 part of Spain in 1664, has given an interesting account 
 of the state of the Spanish sugar plantations, and of 
 the mode of manufacturing the sugar. Plants of the 
 sugar-cane were carried by the Spaniards and Portu- 
 guese to the Canary Islands and Madeira, in the early 
 part of the 15th century ; and it has been asserted by 
 many that these islands furnished the first plants of 
 the sugar-cane that ever grew in America. 
 
 Barbadoes is the oldest settlement of the English in 
 the "West Indies. They took possession of it in 1627, 
 and so early as 1646 began to export sugar thence to 
 England. The trade of Barbadoes attained Us maxi- 
 mum in 1676, furnishing, it Is said, employment, at that 
 period, for 400 sail of vessels, averaging 150 tons bur- 
 den ; but this statement is most probably exaggerated. 
 
 Jamaica was discovered by Columbus in his second 
 voyage, and was first occupied by the Spaniards. It 
 was wrested from them by an expedition sent against 
 it by Cromwell in 1656 ; and has since continued in 
 the possession of the English, forming by far the most 
 valuable of their West Indian colonies. At the time 
 when it was conquered, there were only three small 
 sugar plantations upon it. But, in consequence of the 
 influx of English settlers from Barbadoes and the moth- 
 er country, fresh plantations were speedily formed, and 
 continued rapidly to increase. 
 
 The sugar-cane is said to have been first cultivated 
 in San Domingo, or Hayti, in 160S. It succeeded better 
 there than in any other of the West Indian islands. 
 Peter Martyr, in a work published in 1530, states that 
 in 1518 there were 28 sugar-works in San Domingo, 
 established by the Spaniards. "It is marvelous," 
 says he, "to consider how all things increase and pros- 
 per in the island. There are now 28 sugar-presses, 
 wherewith great plenty of sugar is made. The canes 
 or reeds wherein the sugar groweth are bigger and 
 higher than in any other place, and are as big as a 
 man's wrist, and higher than the stature of a man by 
 the half. This is more wonderful, that whereas in 
 Valencia, in Spain, where a great quantity of sugar is 
 made yearly, whensoever they apply themselves to the 
 great increase thereof, yet doth every root bring forth 
 not past 5 or 6, or at most 7 of these reeds ; whereas in 
 San Domingo one root beareth 20, and oftentimes 30." 
 
 Sugar from San Domingo formed, for a lengthened 
 period, the principal part of the European supplies. 
 Previously to its devastation in 1790, no fewer than 
 65,000 tons of sugar were exported from the French 
 portion of the island. 
 
 Introduction and Cultivation of the Sugar-cane in 
 America. — Sugar-cane occurs in a wild state on many 
 of the islands of the Pacific, but in no part of the 
 Amei'ican Continent, notwithstanding a contrary opin- 
 ion has been expressed. Its cultivation and the manu- 
 facture of sugar were introduced into Europe from the 
 East by the Saracens, soon after their conquests in 
 the 9th century. It is stated by the Venetian his- 
 torians, that their countrymen imported sugar from 
 Sicily, in the 12th century, at a cheaper rate than 
 they could obtain it from Egypt, where it was then 
 extensively made. The first plantations in Spain were 
 at Valencia, but they were extended to Granada, Mur- 
 cia, Portugal, Madeira, and the Canary Islands, as ear- 
 ly as the beginning of the 15th century. From Gome- 
 ra, one of these islands, the sugar-cane was introduced 
 into the West Indies hy Columbus, in his second voyage 
 to America, in 1493. It was cultivated to some extent 
 in San Domingo in 1506, where it succeeded better than 
 in any of the other islands. In 1518 there were twen- 
 ty-eight plantations in that colony, established by the 
 Spaniards, where an abundance of sugar was made, 
 which for a long period formed the principal part of 
 
 the European supplies. Barbadoes, the oldest English 
 settlement in the West Indies, began to export sugar 
 in 1646, and in the year 1676 the trade required four 
 hundred vessels, averaging 150 tons burden. 
 
 The introduction of sugar-cane into Florida, Tex- 
 as, California, and Louisiana, probably dates back to 
 their earliest settlement by the Spaniards or French. 
 It was not cultivated in the latter, however, as a staple 
 product before the year 1751, when it was introduced 
 with several negroes, by the Jesuits, from San Domingo. 
 They commenced a small plantation on the banks of 
 the Mississippi, just above the old city of New Orleans. 
 The year following, others cultivated the plant, and 
 made some rude attempts at the manufacture of sugar. 
 In 1758 M. Dubreuil established a sugar estate on a 
 large scale, and erected the first sugar-mill in Louisiana, 
 in what is now the lower part of New Orleans. His 
 success was followed by other plantations, and in the 
 year 1765 there was sugar enough manufactured for 
 home consumption; and in 1770 it had become one of 
 the staple products of the colony. Soon after the Rev- 
 olution, a large number of enterprising adventurers 
 emigrated from the United States to Lower Louisiana, 
 where, among other objects of industry, they engaged 
 in the cultivation of cane, and by the year 1803 there 
 were no less than eighty-one sugar estates on the Delta 
 alone. Since that period, while the production of cane 
 sugar has been annually increasing at the South, the 
 manufacture of maple-sugar has been extending in the 
 North and West. 
 
 The common sugar-cane is a perennial plant, very 
 sensitive to cold, and is therefore restricted in its cul- 
 tivation to regions bordering on the tropics, where 
 there is little or no frost. In the Eastern hemisphere 
 its production is principally confined to situations fa- 
 vorable to its growth, being between the fortieth par- 
 allel of north latitude and a corresponding degree south. 
 On the Atlantic side of the Western Continent it will 
 not thrive beyond the thirty-third degree of north lat- 
 itude and the thirty-fifth parallel south. On the Pa- 
 cific side it will perfect its growth some five degrees 
 farther north or south. From the flexibility of this 
 plant, it is highly probable that it is gradually becom- 
 ing more hardy, and will eventuallj'' endure an expos- 
 ure, and yield a profitable return, much farther north, 
 along the borders of the Mississippi and some of its 
 tributaries, than it has hitherto been produced. In 
 most parts of Louisiana the canes yield three crops 
 from one planting. The first season it is denominated 
 " plant cane," and each of the subsequent growths " ra- 
 toons." But sometimes, as on the prairies of Attaka- 
 pas and Opelousas, and the higher northern range of 
 its cultivation, it requires to be replanted every year. 
 Within the tropics, as in the West Indies and else- 
 where, the ratoons continue to yield abundantly for 
 twelve, fifteen, and even twenty-four years, from the 
 same roots. 
 
 The cultivation of this plant is principally confined 
 to the West Indies, Venezuela, Brazil, Mauritius, Brit- 
 ish India, China, Japan, the Sunda, Philippine, and 
 Sandwich islands, and to the southern districts of the 
 United States. The varieties most cultivated in the 
 latter are the striped blue, and yellow ribbon, or Java ; 
 the red ribbon, or violet, from Java; the Creole crys- 
 talline, or Malabar ; the Otaheite, the purple, the yel- 
 low, the purple-banded, and the gray canes. The quan- 
 tity of sugar produced on an acre varies from 500 to 
 3000 lbs., averaging, perhaps, from 800 to 1000 lbs. 
 
 Hitherto the amount of sugar and molasses con- 
 sumed in the United States has exceeded the quantity 
 produced, consequently there has been no direct occa- 
 sion for their exportation. In the year 1815 it was es- 
 timated that the sugar made on the banks of the Mis- 
 sissippi alone amounted to 10,000,000 lbs. In 1818 
 the entire crop of Louisiana was only 25,000,000 lbs. ; 
 in 1850 it had reached the enormous quantity of 
 226,001,000 lbs., besides about 12,000,000 gallons of 
 
SUG 
 
 1769 
 
 SUG 
 
 molasses. According to the census of 1840, the amount 
 of cane and maple sugar was 155,100,800 lbs., of which 
 119,947,720 lbs. were raised in Louisiana. By the cen- 
 sus of 1850 the cane sugar made in this country was 
 247,581,000 lbs., besides 9,700,606 gallons of molasses ; 
 maple-sugar, 34,249,886 lbs., amounting to 281,830,886 
 lbs., showing an increase in ten years of 126,730,077 
 lbs. — United States Patent Office Report, 1860. 
 
 jldMZterofwre.— Sugar is an article which is especial- 
 ly liable to adulteration ; and its high price during the 
 last few years, coupled with the high duty, has given 
 a powerful stimulus to this nefarious practice. Per- 
 haps we might not be far from the mark were we to 
 estimate the quantity of foreign matters intentionally 
 mixed up with sugar, and sold as such in England, 
 previously to the late reduction of duties, at 10,000 or 
 12,000 tons a year ! Sago and potato flour are the ar- 
 ticles which have been most extensively used for this 
 purpose. When mixed with sugar they give it a whiter 
 and finer appearance, and, unless the dose be overdone, 
 increase its price about 4s. a cwt. It is extremely dif- 
 ficult to deal with an abuse of this sort. No doubt the 
 fall in the price of sugar following the placing of the 
 trade on a proper footing, and the reduction of the duty, 
 have lessened the temptation to adulterate. But they 
 have not wholly removed it, the materials employed 
 to adulterate being decidedly cheaper than sugar, how- 
 ever supplied. In this, as in most cases of the sort, 
 the best security against adulteration is to deal only 
 with grocers of the highest character. 
 
 Failure of the Sugar-cane in Louisiana. — The culture 
 of sugar-cane in Louisiana has been subject, from the 
 period of its introduction in 1751 up to the present time, 
 to certain unfavorable vicissitudes to which it is not 
 liable in more southern climes. The past has been 
 more marked, perhaps, than any preceding season, 
 both in respect to the amount produced and to the dis- 
 eases and condition or degeneracy of the cane. The 
 spring of 1854 is represented to have been so extraor- 
 dinarily dry that most of the cuttings put into the 
 ground perished, even after they had vegetated. In- 
 deed, some few sections only of the sugar-growing par- 
 ishes were favored even with occasional vernal showers, 
 and the crops in these sections gave better promise than 
 those in other parts of the State. But yet in these 
 the yield was not abundant, as the summer and fall 
 proved otherwise unfavorable to the growth and ma- 
 turity of the cane ; and many planters, who had crops 
 of fair appearance, found, upon grinding and boiling, 
 that the actual yield of sugar to the acre was unusual- 
 ly small. The plant-cane, upon which the cultivators 
 mainly depend, seems to have been a general failure 
 throughout the State ; and the small crop made was 
 mostly saved from the stubbles or ratoons. The se- 
 curing of the crop was also very unfavorable to the 
 planter. At the commencement of the grinding there 
 appeared to be little or no crystallizable sugar in the 
 juice. The cane was not ripe, and the cold and un- 
 tisually wet winter, which consequently required a 
 large amount of fuel for boiling, was a great draw- 
 back; so much so that many of the planters lost a 
 good portion of their crops by not being prepared for 
 these exigencies, while others, rather than grind their 
 immature cane, preferred to let it stand in the fields, 
 even at the risk of losing a part, and did not commence 
 boiling before the 20th of December. 
 
 The deterioration, or falling off of ihe crop, has been 
 attributed to presumed causes, one of which is that 
 based upon the theory of Mr. Knight, of Herefordshire, 
 in England, in the latter part of the last century, name- 
 ly, that plants propagated by cuttings, or slips, dete- 
 riorate and become extinct, unless regenerated from 
 time to time by the production of fresh stocks directly 
 from the seeds. Mr. Knight, it would seem, based his 
 hypothesis upon the fact that certain varieties of the 
 apple in his neighborhood were believed to be running 
 through their natural course, and named as instances 
 
 the " Golden Pippin" and the " Nonpareil." But the 
 particular cases thus cited failed to sustain his assump- 
 tion, for the Golden Pippin is believed still to thrive 
 well at Madeira, on many parts of the Continent of 
 Europe, and in England, as well as the Nonpareil, just 
 as they did in the days of Queen Anne. 
 
 The cultivated sugar-cane very rarely produces seeds, 
 although this is said sometimes to occur even in the 
 Southern States of this Union; but it has not been 
 shown that the seeds have vegetated when sown ; yet 
 there is, no doubt, some country in which the course of 
 nature is followed in this respect. Moreover, it has been 
 averred that there is no region in which the cultivators 
 attempt to resort to this mode of propagation, their de- 
 pendence being always and entirely upon the cuttings. 
 The theory, therefore, of the insuificiency of this means 
 of propagating the sugar-cane, is without the least foun- 
 dation, unless it can be shown that a general tendency 
 to decay and extinction is manifested in it throughout 
 the globe — a fact that has not been assumed, and that 
 certainly does not exist. 
 
 That the propagation of plants, by their seeds, is the 
 natural method, seems like an infallible proposition ; 
 and to the inquiry it naturally suggests respecting 
 their design, if not for this use, it may be difficult to 
 find a conclusive reply. But the vegetable kingdom 
 presents to the mind of the observer so many apparent 
 anomalies, that the' student who refuses to progress 
 farther until each in succession is made plain to his 
 understanding, is not likely to proceed far in this most 
 interesting and profitable pursuit. 
 
 It is an unfortunate, though very prevalent error, to 
 attribute the diseases of plants to other than the real 
 causes, since by doing so we deprive ourselves of the 
 ability to apply the remedy appropriate to each case. 
 A deficiency or excess of rain, heat or cold, the electric 
 state of the atmosphere, and, what is still more likely, 
 an unfavorable condition of the soil, doubtless more or 
 less induce the diseases or debility of plants ; and these 
 may he either local or general. In the case of the 
 sugar-cane of Louisiana, for instance, although it is 
 highly desirable to introduce cuttings of new, and, if 
 possible, better varieties, than are now cultivated in 
 that State, there is a probable cause of deterioration 
 to which the attention of planters has not been effectu- 
 ally directed. It is known that the continued produc- 
 tion of a single species of plant upon almost any soil 
 will eventually exhaust that soil of those elements 
 especially required as the pabulum of that plant, if 
 those elements be not carefully ascertained and sys- 
 tematically returned. Is not this probably the case 
 with respect to the sugar-fields of Louisiana ? Chem- 
 ical analyses have shown that nearly one half of the 
 inorganic matter contained in the cane itself is phos- 
 phate of lime, and nearly a fourth silica. The bare 
 statement of this fact must assuredly suggest to every 
 mind a prominent cause of the evil. In the continued 
 culture of sngar upon the same lands, as of everj' thing 
 else, a judicious sj'stem of rotation, with a liberal sup- 
 ply of guano, or other animal and phosphated manure, 
 in connection with a due supply of well decomposed 
 vegetable matter, is essential ; and, as has been inti- 
 mated, the latter must be of the kinds specially indi- 
 cated. 
 
 That there has been a degeneracy in the cane, caused 
 by exhaustion of the soil, and injudicious rotation, is 
 obvious, from the fact that the same lands which have 
 been under cultivation for a long period have yielded 
 more than three times the amount of sugar to the acre 
 in some years than in others, the productiveness hav- 
 ing been in those cases in which the soil was in its 
 primitive fertility, or when enriched by guano or other 
 appropriate manures. For instance, the British and 
 French West India Islands, some sixty or seventy years 
 ago, yielded from 3000 to 6000 pounds of sugar to the 
 acre. At present they do not yield a third of this 
 amount without manure. The product in Louisiana, 
 
SUG 
 
 1770 
 
 SUG 
 
 formerly, often reached as high as 3000 or 4000 pounds ; 
 and in some cases even to 6000 pounds ; but for the 
 last few years It has often ranged as low as from 500 
 to 1000 pounds to the acre. According to Commodore 
 Perry, in his " Expedition to Japan," before the intro- 
 duction of guano into Mauritius, the product of sugar on 
 that island was from 2000 to 2500 pounds to the acre ; 
 but the increase since the application of this fertilizer 
 has been so extraordinary as to be scarcely credible. 
 In ordinary seasons the product has been from 6000 to 
 7000 pounds, and under peculiarly favorable circum- 
 stances it has even reached 8000 pounds to the acre. 
 
 The amount of raw sugar as a gross produce to the 
 acre, in several countries of the globe, from good author- 
 ities, is as follows : / 
 
 Mauritius 6000 pounds. 
 
 Brazil .■ 6000 " 
 
 Cuba 4000 " 
 
 Isle of Bourbon 3300 " 
 
 Guadaloupe 2000 " 
 
 Vera Craz 1900 " 
 
 Martinique 1700 " 
 
 Bengal 1600 " 
 
 St Domingo 1100 " 
 
 Louisiana 1000 " 
 
 In order to show the fluctuations of the sugar-crop 
 in Louisiana, we have compiled from our records the 
 annexed statement of the sugar product of Louisiana 
 for the past twenty-three years, showing the amount 
 of each year's crop in hogsheads and pounds, with the 
 gross average value per hogshead and total, the pro- 
 portions, taken by Atlantic ports and Western States, 
 and the date of the first receipt of each crop. By this 
 statement it will be seen that the total product of 
 Louisiana from 1834 to 1856 inclusive, a period of 
 twenty-three years, was 3,972,710 hogsheads, valued 
 at 1204,131,228, and that of this quantity the Atlantic 
 ports took 1,317,883 hogsheads, and the Western States 
 1,974,103 hogsheads. The crops from 1828 (which is 
 as far back as our estimates extend) to 1833 summed 
 up 281,000 hogsheads; which would make the total 
 product in a period of twenty-seven years 4,253,716 
 hogsheads, or 4,477,668,000 pounds. We would here 
 remark that up to 1848 the product in hogsheads is 
 estimated, and 1000 pounds taken as the average weight 
 per hogshead, but for the crop since that date we have 
 taken the figures of Mr. P. A. Champonier, as we find 
 them in his annual statements. 
 
 Yenrs. 
 
 
 
 Average 
 Price per 
 Hogshead. 
 
 Total Value, 
 
 Exports from New Orleane, 
 
 First Receipts 
 
 of 
 
 New Crop. 
 
 
 Exported to 
 Atlantic PortJ. 
 
 Exported to 
 Western States.' 
 
 1834 
 
 Hogsheads. 
 
 100,01)0 
 
 30,000 
 
 70,000 
 
 65,000 
 
 70,000 
 
 115,000 
 
 87,000 
 
 90,000 
 
 140,000 
 
 100,000 
 
 200,000 
 
 188,650 
 
 140,000 
 
 240,000 
 
 220,000 
 
 247,923 
 
 211,303 
 
 236,547 
 
 321,931 
 
 449,324 
 
 346,635 
 
 231,427 
 
 73,976 
 
 PouadB. 
 
 100,000,000 
 30,000,000 
 70,000,000 
 65,000,000 
 70,000,000 
 
 115,000,000 
 87,000,000 
 90,000,000 
 
 140,000,000 
 
 100,000,000 
 
 200,000,000 
 188,650,000 
 140,000,000 
 240,000,000 
 220,000,000 
 269,769,000 
 231,194,000 
 257,138,000 
 363,129,000 
 495,156,000 
 386,726,000 
 254,663,000, 
 81,373,000 
 
 $60 00 
 90 00 
 60 00 
 62 50 
 62 60 
 50 00 
 65 OD 
 40 00 
 42 50 
 60 00 
 45 00 
 55 00 
 70 00 
 40 OO 
 40 00 
 50 00 
 60 00 
 60 OO 
 4S 00 
 35 00 
 62 00 
 70 00 
 
 110 00 
 
 $6,000,000 
 
 2,700,000 
 
 4,200,000 
 
 5,062,600 
 
 4,375,000 
 
 5,750,000 
 
 4,785,000 
 
 3,600,000 
 
 4,750,000 
 
 6,000,000 
 
 9,000,000 
 
 10,265,750 
 
 9,800,000 
 
 9,600,000 
 
 8,800,000 
 
 12,396,150 
 
 12,678,180 
 
 11,827,350 
 
 15,452,688 
 
 15,726,340 
 
 18,025,020 
 
 16,199,890 
 
 8,137,360 
 
 Hogsheads. 
 45,500 
 
 1,600 ■- 
 26,300 
 24,500 
 26,500 
 42,600 
 38,500 
 28,000 
 63,0110 
 34,000 
 101,000 
 79,000 
 45,500 
 84,000 
 90,000 
 90,000 
 45,000 
 42,000 
 82,000 
 106,000 
 122,000 
 39,133 
 1,850 
 
 Hogsheads. 
 
 44,500 
 
 23,500 
 
 35,000 
 
 32,600 
 
 82,500 
 
 68,000 
 
 46,500 
 
 60,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 62,000 
 
 70,000 
 
 75000 
 
 70,000 
 
 116,000 
 
 108,000 
 
 125,000 
 
 123,000 
 
 149,000 
 
 206,000 
 
 185,000 
 
 143,000 
 
 131,027 
 
 39,676 
 
 October 16. 
 November 5. 
 November 1. 
 November 1. 
 October 17. 
 October 18. 
 October 14. 
 October 13. 
 October 12. 
 October 22. 
 October 3. 
 October 4. 
 October 7. 
 October 2. 
 October 5. 
 October 11. 
 October 17. 
 October 19. 
 October 9. 
 October 6. 
 October 4. 
 October 10. 
 November 3. 
 
 1835 
 
 1836 
 
 1837 
 
 1838 
 
 1839 
 
 1840 
 
 1841 
 
 1842 
 
 1843 .. 
 
 1844 
 
 1845 
 
 1846 
 
 1847 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 
 
 1850 
 
 1851 
 
 1852 
 
 1853 
 
 1854 
 
 1855 
 
 1856 
 
 Total. . . . 
 
 3,97?.,716 
 
 4,196,668,000 
 
 
 204,131,228 
 
 1,017,683 
 
 1,1174,103 
 
 
 In seeking a remedy for the evil here complained of 
 In Louisiana, the minds of many have very natui-ally 
 been turned to the project of replenishing the cane- 
 fields of that State by the importation of ,a fresh sup- 
 ply of cuttings, of such varieties as may be found best 
 suited to the soil and climate. Resort to this means 
 of restoration should be promptly made on a liberal 
 and extensive scale, so that the experiment may be 
 thorough, and, if possible, effectual in its results. An 
 intelligent agent should be selected for the purpose, 
 well acquainted with the character of the cane, and the 
 nature of the soils and climates in which it grows, as 
 well as with the best modes of packing and transport- 
 ing it to distant parts, either by land or sea ; and, 
 what would add much to his qualifications, one who is 
 also acquainted practically with the culture of the 
 plant and the manufacture of sugar. 
 
 Among the points on this continent from which the 
 cuttings could -be obtained might be instanced the 
 valley of Aragua, in Venezuela, British Guiana, or some 
 favorable locality on the coast, of Brazil. On or near 
 the Eastern continent, perhaps British India or the 
 islands of Maritius and Javamight prove suitable posi-i 
 f ions for the procurement of the varieties desired. The 
 agent thus employed should be .accurately informed 
 or instructed with reference to the soil, climate, and 
 elevation above the sea, of the sugar districts of these 
 countries, as well as to the age and healthiness of the 
 canes from which the cuttings are to be taken, the 
 parts of the plants from which they are to be obtained, 
 
 and the proper seasons of procuring them and deliver- 
 ing them at some accessible point in the United States 
 near where they are intended to grow. 
 
 The varieties of cane which have hitherto been most 
 cultivated in Louisiana are the Striped-blue Ribbon ; 
 the Green Ribbon ; the Yellow Ribbon, or Java ; the 
 Bed Ribbon, or Violet; the Reddish Violet ; the Red 
 striped ; the Creole ; Crystalline, or Malabar ; the Ota- 
 heite; the Purple; the Yellow; the Pui-ple-banded ; 
 the Gray ; the Grayish White. 
 
 The Red-striped cane, which was originally brought 
 from the Dutch colony of Java, and the Violet or Red- 
 dish Violet^ which is only a variation from the former, 
 are believed to be the only two varieties that will gen- 
 erally prosper under the climate of the sugar districts 
 of the Southern States. All fhe other descriptions are 
 too sensitive to cold, except in the warmer parts of the 
 delta of the Mississippi, Florida, and Texas. When 
 planted in new ground, it gives a certain amount of 
 white canes, or those the outside of which is of a gray- 
 ish white. When cultivated in old soil, however, it 
 furnishes a good yield of violet-red cane. Again, on 
 new ground, a part, say, from one-tenth to one-fifteenth, 
 of the striped cane becomes white, or a dirty grayish 
 white. There are also to be found more or less red 
 stripes on some portions of the stalk, or on the joints ; 
 but all the rest of the stalk is entirely gray. On old 
 ground, on the contrary, the red-striped gives red or 
 violet red canes in about the same proportion as above. 
 The tendency of this cane to degenerate rapidly is re- 
 
SUG 
 
 1771 
 
 SUG- 
 
 markable in every part of America. The other varie- 
 ties are not so liable to deteriorate. After once degen- 
 erating, these canes never recover their original color. 
 — ■Patent Office Report, 1855. 
 
 Sources whence the Supply of Sugar is derived. — The 
 West Indies, United States, Java, Brazil, Bengal, Mau- 
 ritius, Siam, the Isle de BoUrbon, and the Philippines, 
 are the principal sources ■whence the supplies required 
 for the European and American markets are derived. 
 The quantities exported in 1857 from these countries, 
 exclusive of molasses, may be estimated as follows : 
 
 British Colonies. 'Tohb. 
 
 West Inaies. .180,000 
 
 Maurilins ..., 76,000 
 
 British India , . , 75,000 
 
 Spanish Colonies. 
 
 Cuba 350,000 
 
 Porto Rico 50,000 
 
 Philippines 25,000 
 
 Dutch Colonies. 
 
 Java 75,000 
 
 Guiana 26,000 
 
 330,000 
 
 425,000 
 
 Frennch Colonies. 
 
 Martinique. , ) 
 
 Guadaloupe > 
 
 Isle de Bourbon, eta ) 
 
 Danish and Swedish Colonies. 
 
 St. Thomas >^ 
 
 StCfuz, etc , / 
 
 Brazil 
 
 United States 
 
 China, Slain, and all other parts 
 
 Production of beet-root sugar in the 
 
 world 
 
 Production of sorghum and maple-sug- 
 ars, principally in the United States. 
 Aggregate tons 
 
 100,000 
 
 80,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 95,000 
 
 100,000 
 
 40,000 
 
 200,000 
 200,000 
 
 1,580,000 
 
 Consumption of Sugar in the World. — tn the aggre- 
 gate we shall not, perhaps, be far wrong in estimating 
 the consumption of exported colonial and tropical sugar 
 for the year 1867 as follows : 
 
 Tons. Tons.' 
 
 The United Kingdom 420,000 
 
 France.' i 165,000 
 
 The Netherlands, Belgium, Germany,"^ 
 PruGaia, Austria, Hungary, and Aus- 
 trian Italy; per Dutch ports, deduct- V 125,000 
 ing re-exports toEuasia and other] 
 
 countries J 
 
 Per Ilanse Towns 40,000 
 
 Per Antwerp 16,000 
 
 Per Rostock, Stettin, Konigsberg,^ 
 ' and other ports on tlie Baltic, ex- 
 cluding the imports from Holland 
 
 and the Hanse Towng ,, 
 
 Trieste, Venice, Fiiime, etc :'.':. 55,000 
 
 250,000 
 
 Spain 
 
 ■ Portugal 
 
 Russia 
 
 Denmark and Sweden 
 
 Italy, Sicily, Malta, Turkey, Greece,") 
 
 and the Levant generally | 
 
 United States 
 
 Canada, Australia, Cape of Good Hope,! 
 
 etc .......,...../ 
 
 Total tons 
 
 18,000 
 
 50,000 
 10,000 
 70,000 
 25,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 435,000 
 
 95,000 
 
 . 1,580,000 
 
 In the estimate for the United States, the production 
 of cane ^ugar is included. 
 
 Statement of the totai. Quantity op- baw and befinbd 
 Sfgak entered fob Home Consumttion in Geeat Bbit- 
 
 AIN IN EACH OP THE FIVE YEAKS ENDIKQ 1856. 
 
 Year ending Tone. . . . Tons. 
 
 July 6, 1852 303,875; Increase, 55,072 
 
 " 1853 365,239 ; .decrease, 3,636 
 
 1854 384,102 ; .increase, 18,863 
 
 June 30, 1855 , 4-26,203 ; increase, 43, 1 01 
 
 " 1856 372,626 ; decrease, 58,577 
 
 , The imports have, in a partial degree, corresponded 
 with the fluctuations in consumption, and these tables 
 show, notwithstanding the large quantities received 
 from the Continent toward the close' of laSt year, and 
 the earlier arrivals from the colonies in the present, 
 that the imports in the year ending the 30th June last 
 were nearly 20,000 tons less than in thepreoeding twelve 
 months. 
 
 Statement op the total Quantitt op Raw and Ebpined 
 
 SUGAB IMPOETfiD INTO GUEAT BbITIAIN IN BACH OF TUB 
 
 FIVE Yeabs ending 1856. 
 
 Year ending Tone. TonB; - - 
 
 July 5,1852 396,261i increase, 26,726 
 
 " 1853 354,138;, decrease, 42,123 
 
 " 1854 '. .... 3!i3,438; increase, 39,300 
 
 JuneSO, 1R65.; 428,879; increase, 35,441 
 
 . " 1856 ; 409,226 ; decrease, 19,653 
 
 AVEBAGE PbiOES OF BeOWN StTGAB IN THE MONTHS OF JaN- 
 TTABY, MAEOU, MAT; JTTLT, SepTEMBEE, AND KOVEMBEE 
 IN THE POET OF HAVANA DrEING TUE ■ FOLLOWING TEN 
 YEABS — WITH THE "JTEAELY AVEEAGE VaL-UE— PEICES IN 
 
 Reals 
 
 Years. Jan.^ March. May. 
 
 1846 6-^ 5f 5f 
 
 1847 5fg 6^ 6| 
 
 1848 ' " 
 1849 
 1850 
 1851 
 1852 
 1853 
 1854 
 1855 
 
 Average 5-62 
 
 July. Sept. 
 ^ 6i 
 
 5-30 
 
 Consumption in the United States, — The consumption 
 of sugar in the United States has been very variable, 
 and the increase of consumption, in the last half-dozen 
 years — since the price has been low — is very great, 
 This will be seen in the following tables. We shall 
 first show the importation of foreign sugar. In this 
 account we l^ave. subtracted from the quantity import- 
 ed the amount re^expcyrted, so tliat the statement below 
 gives the prime quantity imported and used in the 
 country for the years given. 
 
 FOBEIGN SUGAB IMPOBTED AND CONSUMED. 
 
 Yean. Pounds. 
 
 184S 244,130,753 
 
 I860 194,433,629 
 
 18B3 448,400,644 
 
 1855 440,000,000 
 
 It will be seen from this that since 1845, a period of 
 ten years, the importation of sugar has quadrupled. 
 
 It will also be seen that from 1837 to 1839, and from 
 1850 to 1853, in each period, the importation of sugar 
 doubled. There can be no doubt, from the exhibition 
 of the above figures, that the reduction of prices has 
 had great influence on the importation of sugar. Let 
 us now turn from the foreign to the domestic supply ; 
 and first the production of Louisiana and Texas. 
 
 The .(VisjoOWeamsPriceCBrTCTrf furnishes the number 
 of hogsheads raised in the United States for a series of 
 years. Eeducing it to pounds, at lOOO lbs. to the hogs- 
 head, we have the following result since 1837 : 
 
 Yenrs. 
 
 Yeara. Pounds. 
 
 1837 96,141,352 
 
 1840 110,941,297 
 
 1842 160,868,476 
 
 1845 99,752,869 
 
 Years. Pounds. YeaTs. Pounds. 
 
 1837 65,000,000 1848 220,000,000 
 
 1840 / 87,000,000 1850 '211,303,000 
 
 1842 140,000,000 1853 449,324,000 
 
 1845 186,650,000 1855 281,427,000 
 
 We find from the table that the production of cane 
 sugar has doubled in the last ten years, and quadru- 
 pled in fifteen. In addition to this, the common maple- 
 sugar averages about thirty millions of poimds per 
 annum. 
 
 Now, taking the aggregate of sugar imported, and 
 that made in the country, we have the following sup- 
 ply, estimated in pounds, for successive years : •■ 
 
 TOTAT. STTGAE SUPPLY. 
 
 Years. Foohds. 
 
 1837 191,141,352 
 
 1840 227,S41,297 
 
 1842 330,863,475 
 
 1845 316,402,969 
 
 Yean. FooDds.- 
 
 1848.,,. 494,129,753 
 
 1850 435,736,629 
 
 1863 •S2T,424,644 
 
 185S.; 671,427,000 
 
 It may safely be assumed that the average consump- 
 tion of sugar in the United States is now equal to nine 
 hundred millions of pouhds per annum.' Deducting 
 from the population of the United States three mill- 
 ions of slaves, who probably use very little sugar, we 
 have the consumption of sugar equal to about 40 lbs. 
 
SUG 
 
 1772 
 
 SUG- 
 
 average for each person. But this consumption of 
 sugar has actually trebled in ten years ! This is cer- 
 tainly a very extraordinary fact, and indicates a great 
 change in the habits of living among the people of the 
 United States. That it is a real, absolute change in 
 the habits of life, can not be doubted. Let us show its 
 magnitude by comparing the increase of population 
 "with the increase of sugar : 
 
 iDcreaae Sugar. 
 
 50 per cent. 
 
 34 
 100 " 
 300 " 
 
 Years. Increage Population. 
 
 1840 to 1845 16 per cent. 
 
 1845 to 1850 16 " 
 
 1850 to 1865 16 
 
 1S40 to 1865 48 " 
 
 We then see that the consumption of sugar far out- 
 runs the increase of population. In 1840 the consump- 
 tion of sugar was but 16 lbs. per individual. In 1855 
 it is 40 lbs. 
 
 In the period of twelve years, from 1843 to 1854.in- 
 clusive, there has been a steady diminution in the price 
 of sugar, but not enough to account for the change we 
 see here. The change of prices in New Orleans sugar 
 has been as follows : 
 
 1843 to 1846 $58 per hoesliead. 
 
 1847tolS50 47 ° 
 
 1861tol854 46 
 
 The price of sugar to the consumer in the West has 
 diminished much more rapidly than this. The in- 
 crease of steamboats and the rapid decline of freights 
 has produced a great reduction in the price of tropical 
 products in the West ; which has been steadily going 
 on for thirty years. The effect of this, together with 
 the increase of population at the West, has produced 
 an extraordinary increase in the consumption of sugar, 
 and especially in the valley of the Ohio. This increase 
 in the Western States is quite remarkable. We find, 
 by a statement in the New Orleans Price Current, that 
 in twenty years, from 1834 to 1854, the export of sugar 
 from New Orleans to the Western States amounted to 
 one million eight hundred thousand hogsheads, or about 
 ninety thousand hogsheads per annum ; but when we 
 examine the detail, we find the average annual increase 
 to be very rapid. Taking the aggregate of each five 
 years, we have the following result: 
 
 1835 to 1839, incluBlve 181,600 hogsheads. 
 
 1839 to 1844 " 278,500 
 
 1845 to 1849 " 403,000 " 
 
 1850 to 18.54 " 806,000 " 
 
 1839 to 1844 53 per cent. 
 
 1845 to 1849 80 
 
 1850 to 1854 70 
 
 The present consumption of Louisiana sugar in the 
 Western States, to which it is earned by steamboats, 
 amounts to an average of 160,000 hogsheads per annum. 
 This is mainly distributed through the three great dis- 
 tributing points of the West — Cincinnati, Louisville, 
 and St. Louis. 
 
 Another remarkable fact in the commerce in sugar 
 is the increase of American refined sugar. At the 
 present time the amount of refined sugars imported is 
 not half what it was twenty years since ; while the 
 amount of sugar exported is four times as much. 
 
 Bounty on Exportation ofrejined Sugar. — Sugar re- 
 fined in the United States, the growth and production 
 of any other country, is entitled to an allowance of 
 drawback equal to the amount of duties paid on the 
 raw article, on due exportation thereof to any foreign 
 port or place, subject only to the provisions that no 
 drawback shall be allowed on any exportation when 
 such drawback shall not amount to twelve dollars or 
 more. To entitle the exporter to the benefit of said al- 
 lowance of drawback, such exporter, at least six hours 
 previous to the putting or lading any of the said re- 
 fined sugar on board any vessel or other conveyance 
 for exportation, shall lodge with the collector of the 
 customs, for the district from which such importation 
 is to be made, an entry setting forth his intention to 
 export the same, and describing the marks, numbers, 
 and packages, and designating the place where depos- 
 
 ited, and the name of the vessel or other conveyance in 
 or by which, and the port or place to which, the same 
 is intended to be exported. This entry must be ac- 
 cording to form, and, upon presentation, be verified by 
 the oath or affirmation of the owner or agent, or other 
 proper oflicer of the manufactory in which such sugar 
 may have been refined. If any of such sugar, after 
 it shall have been shipped for exportation, shall be 
 unshipped for any purpose whatever, either within the 
 limits of the United States or within four leagues of the 
 coast thereof, or shall be relanded witliin the United 
 States from on board the vessel wherein the same shall 
 have been laden for exportation, unless the voyage shall 
 not be proceeded on, or shall be altered from necessity 
 or distress, to save the ship and goods from perishing, 
 which shall be immediately made known to the col- 
 lector of the nearest district ; then the sugar so un- 
 shipped, together with the vessel, her boats and equip- 
 ment, shall be forfeited, and may be seized by any offi- 
 cer of the customs or inspection. 
 
 SUGAE TKADE OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 Impoets into, Expoets from, and Conbttmption of Foe- 
 EiGN Sugar in the United States fop. tue five ^'baes 
 
 ENDING TUE SOtH OF JDNE, 1856.— (FeOM TeEASUET JiE- 
 POETa.) 
 
 Years. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Consumption 
 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Pounds, 
 
 1861 
 
 38.5,000,000 
 
 6,000,000 
 
 379,000,000 
 
 1S62 
 
 467,000,000 
 
 9,000,000 
 
 448,000,000 
 
 1853 
 
 464,000,000 
 
 18,000,000 
 
 446,000,000 
 
 1854 
 
 455,000,000 
 
 52,000,000 
 
 403,000,000 
 
 1855 
 
 473,000,000 
 
 53,000,000 
 
 440,000,000 
 
 PeODTTCT of StTGAE IN THB UkITED StATES — EXPOKT AND 
 CJONSUMPTION THEREOF. — CFBOM CflAMPONIEU'S AND 
 TbEASUBY EErOETB.) 
 
 Years. 
 
 Products. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Consumption. 
 
 1851 
 
 1853 
 
 1863 
 
 1854 
 
 1855 
 
 Pounds. 
 ;57,00lj,000 
 379,000,000 
 603,000,000 
 303,000,000 
 263,000,000 
 
 Pounds. 
 2,000,000 
 6,000,000 
 10,000,000 
 11,000,000 
 (no data) 
 
 Pounds. 
 265,000,000 
 373,000,000 
 493,000,000 
 382,000,000 
 263,060,000 
 
 Count 
 
 Brazor 
 Matago 
 Whart 
 FortB 
 
 Sugar Crop i 
 
 N Texas, 1855 
 
 Number of 
 Hogslieads. 
 tj790 
 
 rda 
 
 
 ... 959 
 ... 320 
 
 
 
 ... 920 
 
 rotal 
 
 
 .... 8989 
 
 Thus Texas produced in the year 1855 a much 
 better crop than the preceding one, say 9,887,900 
 pounds against 7,513,000 pounds during the previous 
 
 Exports op Sugar of Domestic Pboduotion from the 
 United States foe the Year ending June 30, 1857. 
 
 DiBtrictfi. 
 
 Brown Sugar. 
 
 Refined Sugar. | 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Passamaquoddy 
 
 Portland and Falmouth 
 
 850 
 
 500 
 
 122,158 
 
 16373 
 6,500 
 
 1!);222 
 
 5,000 
 
 36,672 
 
 658,342 
 
 160,346 
 
 20,961 
 
 1,600 
 
 72,890 
 
 852,328 
 
 350 
 
 299,577 
 
 "546 
 19,252 
 
 7,850 
 921 
 
 8i670 
 
 % 
 80 
 46 
 10,944 
 
 i,%4 
 500 
 
 i,!>70 
 
 600 
 
 3,732 
 
 67,342 
 
 14,199 
 
 2,042 
 
 80 
 
 6,666 
 
 61,648 
 
 42 
 
 24,917 
 
 "78 
 
 2,025 
 
 684 
 
 110 
 
 "343 
 
 9j6o 
 
 19,867 
 
 1,947,866 
 
 3,600 
 
 7,707 
 
 414,096 
 
 28^213 
 
 52,i83 
 
 9,660 
 
 42„'544 
 
 587,862 
 
 400 
 
 "sio 
 
 37 
 
 12^600 
 4,650 
 
 » 
 
 ' 970 
 
 2,644 
 
 227.374 
 
 380 
 
 968 
 
 48,487 
 
 3,140 
 
 6,1S3 
 
 1,032 
 
 5,461 
 
 68,495 
 
 57 
 
 "99 
 42 
 
 2,1T1 
 718 
 
 Salem and Beverley . . . 
 Boston and Charlestown 
 
 
 
 Stonington 
 
 
 
 Buffalo Creek 
 
 
 New York 
 
 
 
 
 Norfolk 
 
 
 
 Detroit 
 
 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 Total 
 
 2,198,412 
 
 190,012 
 
 3,141,835 
 
 368,206 
 
SUG 
 
 1773 
 
 SUG 
 
 EXPO&TS OF SXTGAB OF FOBEIGN PeODTTOTION FEOM TUB UnITBD STATBS FOB THE YeaE EKDING JXTNE 30, 186T. 
 
 Whither eiported. 
 
 BuBsia on the Baltic and North tSeas 
 
 SuBBian PoBsesaions in North America 
 
 Danish West Indies 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Holland 
 
 Dutch WeBt Indies 
 
 Belgium 
 
 England 
 
 Malta 
 
 Canada 
 
 Other British North American FosEessiona 
 
 British West Indies 
 
 British Honduras 
 
 British PosBessions in Africa 
 
 Other ports in Africa 
 
 French North American PossesBions 
 
 French West Indies 
 
 Porto Rico 
 
 Azores 
 
 Sardinia 
 
 Turkey in Asia 
 
 Hayti 
 
 San Domingo 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Central Kepublic 
 
 New Granada 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Uruguay, or Cisplatine Kepublic 
 
 Buenos Ayres, or Argentine Republic. . , . 
 
 Chili 
 
 Ecuador 
 
 Sandwich Islands 
 
 China 
 
 Whale-fisheries 
 
 Total, year 1S56-'T-. 
 
 From warehouse 
 
 Not from warehouse 
 
 Brown. 
 
 I White, clayed, or powdered. 
 
 "I 
 
 Loaf and other jefiped. 
 FouDdfl. Value. 
 
 251,i53 
 26,912 
 
 6,013 
 
 1,800 
 
 1,025,578 
 
 131,886 
 
 40,780 
 
 8,468,397 
 
 140,304 
 
 1,150 
 
 lo^sio 
 
 6,843 
 95,727 
 
 33,474 
 96,730 
 2,077 
 1,934 
 40 
 6,850 
 6,636 
 
 1,796,647 
 
 11,920 
 
 6,960 
 
 Ii6,7z8 
 1,126 
 
 601 
 
 198 
 
 92,261 
 
 12,302 
 
 8,697 
 
 577,142 
 
 13,025 
 
 50 
 
 i,'l60 
 
 834 
 
 8,887 
 
 2,551 
 7,612 
 244 
 220 
 9 
 513 
 460 
 
 134,185 
 1,164 
 
 731 
 
 12,168,659 
 
 $884,593 
 
 7,018,266 
 5,150,393 
 
 $4'j3,533 
 301,060 
 
 440,415 
 
 1,600 
 '422 
 
 3,840 
 1^950 
 
 8,435 
 
 $44,042 
 
 200 
 '"47 
 
 480 
 "264 
 
 65,560 
 70,447 
 6,000 
 
 3'6,'001 
 150,000 
 
 57,246 
 244,766 
 22,293 
 56,484 
 
 10,472 
 
 'i,790 
 
 11,084 
 
 8,830 
 
 239,454 
 1,707 
 6,800 
 
 397,932 
 13,853 
 
 107,713 
 37,619 
 
 303,294 
 
 253,246 
 2,0(5 
 3,257 
 8,999 
 1,600 
 
 $7,040 
 
 9,206 
 
 648 
 
 3,676 
 It.OOO 
 
 5,136 
 
 28,682 
 2,599 
 6,779 
 
 i,'315 
 
 ■ 178 
 
 1,369 
 
 383 
 
 29,615 
 215 
 611 
 
 49,682 
 1,891 
 
 12,499 
 4,514 
 
 34,364 
 
 30,664 
 226 
 458 
 964 
 180 
 
 4f)6,712 
 
 $46,017 I 2,106,430 | $249,053 
 
 3,840 
 462,872 
 
 45,637 
 
 978,603 
 M27,827 
 
 4.112,914 
 130,739 
 
 ImPOETS of FOEEIGN StJGAE INTO THE 
 
 United States 
 
 FOK 
 
 THE Y 
 
 KAS. ENDiNO Jmns so, 
 
 1867. 
 
 
 Whence imported. 
 
 Loaf and other 
 retlned. 
 
 Cnndy. 
 
 sirup of 
 Sugar-cane. 
 
 Brown. 
 
 White, clajed, 1 
 or powdered. | 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Pounds 
 
 Value. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Swedish West Indies 
 
 Danish West Indies 
 
 65,560 
 
 27i,'9a8 
 
 373,'3d5 
 7,'9S0 
 
 $7;d40 
 26i933 
 
 S4;232 
 "701 
 
 ' '530 
 2,773 
 
 5,'42'3 
 2,900 
 
 4,'5'7'0 
 
 ' 's'g'o 
 
 2,'26T 
 
 '$70 
 
 396 
 
 'i'es 
 
 304 
 '803 
 "45 
 
 '105 
 
 
 [,'o'2'9 
 'fi?1 
 
 '$53 
 "33 
 
 1359 
 
 1774 
 
 
 "69 
 
 1O06 
 
 8,564 
 
 446,683 
 
 1,912 
 
 ■"325 
 
 375,088 
 
 6,353,900 
 
 2,629,745 
 
 '9,'9'62 
 
 16,162 
 
 800 
 
 62,729 
 
 227,310 
 
 17,714,663 
 
 13,725,403 
 
 8,288,686 
 
 '2,'500 
 
 480,044 
 
 21,438,937 
 
 599,518,865 
 
 81,354,212 
 
 ' ' '026 
 
 1,064 
 
 31,960 
 
 31,821 
 
 200 
 
 37,816 
 
 19,101,751 
 
 65s,'499 
 8.576,698 
 
 $209 
 
 29,311 
 
 169 
 
 ■'"62 
 
 23,952 
 
 283,978 
 
 136,069 
 
 '"481 
 
 1,832 
 
 48 
 
 3,044 
 
 16,143 
 
 1,028,662 
 
 710,440 
 
 354,670 
 
 "'l78 
 
 14,790 
 
 875,543 
 
 33,188,936 
 
 4,702,897 
 
 " "49 
 
 100 
 
 1,558 
 
 1,737 
 
 10 
 
 1,915 
 
 1,079,340 
 
 '40,164 
 168,327 
 
 187,'o'73 
 
 76s,'7'04 
 
 '"100 
 
 327,'307 
 
 .... 
 
 $2'l,'844 
 
 4S;3'56 
 ""6 
 
 19^616 
 
 
 
 Dutch West Indies 
 
 Dutch Guiana 
 
 Dutch East Indies 
 
 
 
 Ireland 
 
 other British N. Am. PossesBions. . 
 
 British West Indies 
 
 British Guiana 
 
 British East Indies 
 
 France on the Atlantic 
 
 France on the Mediterranean 
 
 French West Indies 
 
 French Guiana 
 
 Philippine Islands 
 
 Porto Kico 
 
 Madeira , 
 
 37,344 
 65,'272 
 
 ' 'lo'o 
 
 11,154 
 
 Two Sicilies 
 
 Hayti 
 
 San Domingo 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Central Eepublio 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Chili 
 
 Sandwich Islands 
 
 China 
 
 Total, year lS56-'7 
 
 718,843 
 
 $68,906 
 
 18,853 
 
 $1887 
 
 116,420 
 
 $4284 
 
 174,931,815 
 
 $42,614,604 
 
 1,218,184 
 
 $80,820 
 
 The comparativa consumption of sugar in Europe 
 and America is a subject of interest. Mr. M'Cnlloch, 
 tlie political economist, estimated the consumption of 
 sugar in Great Britain at 24 lbs. per Individual, and 
 gays this is much more than is consumed in France or 
 any part of the continent. At present the consump- 
 tion in the United States is 40 lbs. per individual ; and 
 thus we see it is much greater than in Europe, or prob- 
 ably any part of the world. This fact is conclusive, 
 
 if no other could be had, that the people of the United 
 States live more comfortably, and even luxuriously, 
 than any other people in the world, because they have 
 more real income to expend in subsistence and its com- 
 forts. High prices tend to diminish consumption. But, 
 on the other hand, the capacity to consume was never 
 so great as at present, owing to the general prosperity. 
 A rapid increase of population will also have a tendency 
 to prevent much reduction in the importation of sugar. 
 
sua 
 
 1774 
 
 SUG 
 
 KKOEIPTS op rOEElGN StTGAR IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 
 
 
 „ Peom 1st January to 3Ist Decbmbee, 1856., 
 
 Hha«. 
 
 and 
 Tierces. 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 Boxes 
 nod • 
 Cosea. 
 
 Bags, ' 
 Mats, and 
 Basketa. 
 
 Total Tons 
 orsS40 
 Poiinda, 
 
 At Ne w York 
 
 281,002 
 23,033 
 28,962 
 23,855 
 7,026 
 19,673 
 
 23,941 
 1,909 
 2,931 
 8,019 
 1,653 
 3,203 
 
 73,860 
 16,294 
 16,982 
 3'.l,202 
 8,942 
 
 189,285 
 24,95"> 
 ■8,357 
 
 38,657 
 22,182 
 19,196 
 11,579 
 12,892 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 339,151 
 5,104 
 
 4l,t66 
 
 264,039 
 
 15,767 
 
 491,933 
 
 276,662 
 5,960 
 
 Add stock at all the ports, Januaiy 1, ISoG 
 
 
 344,255 
 12,555 
 
 41,966 
 198 
 
 2T9,806 
 12,912 
 
 491,933 
 455 
 
 281,612 
 9,501 
 
 
 331,700 
 13,770 
 
 41,758 
 
 268,894 
 46,6I>9 
 
 491,478 
 4,000 
 
 272,111 
 16,819 
 
 
 317,930 
 
 246.106 
 24,712 
 28,639 
 27,833 
 84,500 
 24,E66 
 
 41,753 
 
 24,897 
 1,647 
 5,173 
 9,606 
 1,010 
 3,226 
 
 220,225 
 
 99,200 
 36,223 
 6,330 
 1,561 
 14,760 
 3,089 
 
 487,478 
 
 175,995 
 200,366 
 63,'.:81 
 18,394 
 8,297 
 1,256 
 
 255,292 
 
 161,942 
 . 81,720 
 22,802 
 18,080 
 20,349 
 14,287 
 
 From 1st January to 31st December, 1867. 
 
 
 
 
 
 At other ports 
 
 
 386,708 
 13.770 
 
 45,469 
 
 161,163 
 40,669 
 
 468,289 
 4,000 
 
 269,180 
 16,819 
 
 
 Total supply ; , . 
 
 400,538 
 39,468 
 
 46,459 
 746 
 
 207,832 
 26,037 
 
 472,289 
 30,273 
 
 285,999 
 28,705 
 
 Deduct exports and shipments inland to Canada from all the ports in 1857 
 
 3dl.07O 
 28,410 
 
 44,713 
 
 181,795 
 13,139 
 
 442,016 
 20,312 , 
 
 267,294 
 15,629 
 
 Total consumption of foreign 
 
 .j3T,6JU 
 
 44,713 
 
 168,656 
 
 421,704 
 
 241;765 
 
 Tons. 
 
 255,292 
 
 192.607 
 
 62,685 
 
 265,292 
 
 123,468 
 878,760 
 877,752 
 
 1,008 
 
 Con Gumption of foreign in 1855, aa above 
 
 Consumption of foreign in 1855 
 
 Increase in 1856 , 
 
 Consumption of foreign in 1856 
 
 Add crop of 1856-'56, of Louisiana, Texas, Florida, etc., the bulk of which came to market in 1856, and 
 
 assuming the stock 1st January each year to be equal 
 
 Would make the total consumption of cane sugar in the United States in 1856 
 
 Total consumption of domestic and foreign in 1866 
 
 Increase in 1856 
 
 Consumption of foreign in 1857, as above 241,765 
 
 Consumption of foreign in 1856 255,292 
 
 Decrease in 1857 13,627 
 
 Consumption of foreign in 185T 241,765 
 
 Add crop of 1866-'57 of Louisiana, Texas, Florida, etc., the bulk of ivhich came to market in 1857, and 
 assuming the stock 1st January each year to be equal. 39,000 
 
 Would make the total consumption of cane sugar in the United States in 1857 280,765 
 
 Total consumption of foreign and domestic in 1856 378,760 
 
 Decrease in 1857 97,995 
 
 *' The foregoing statistics present in a clear and con- 
 cise view the extent of this branch of our commerce 
 for the past year. It -will be seen that the total 
 receipts of foreign unrefined sugar into the United 
 States, during the year ending December 31, 1857, 
 were 269,180 tons, against receipts in 1856 of 275,662 
 tons, and in 1855 of 206,06i tons ; and the quantity of 
 this description taken for consumption in. 1857 was 
 241,765 tons, against 265,292 tons in 1856, and 192,607 
 tons in 1856, being a decrease in the consumption of 
 foi^igu in 1857, as compared with 1856, of 13,527 
 tons, or 5-j^ per cent. ; while the total consumption 
 of foreign and domestic in 1857 was 280,765 tons, 
 against a total consumption in 1856 of 378,760 tons; 
 in 1855, 377,752 tons ; in 1854, 385,298 tons ; in 1853, 
 372,989 tons; in 1852, 315,217 tons; and in 1851, 
 288,485 tons — making a decrease in the total deliver- 
 ies for consumption in 1857, as compared with 1856, 
 of 97,995, tons, or 25| per cent. If we discard entirely 
 the Melado, etc., the deficiency in the consumption of 
 1857 will be considerably greater, as it would then 
 stand— Consumption of foreign, 220,644 tons, against 
 a consumption of foreign in 1856 of 255,292 tons, de- 
 crease 13-| per cent. ; or, total consumption of for- 
 eign and domestic cane sugar in 1857, 259,644 tons, 
 against a total consumption in 1856 of 378,760 tons, 
 being the large decrease of 31^^ per cent. 
 
 " We reduce our estimate of the quantity of sugar 
 made from molasses during the past year; the high 
 and very unusual prices which prevailed during the 
 largest part of it made the business an unprofitable 
 one. After the heavy decline in the price of molasses, 
 
 which took place in October, manufacturing was re. 
 sunied with considerable vigor, but not to a sufficient 
 extent to repair the previous large deficiency. An 
 intelligent observer estimates the quantity of sugar 
 made from molasses in 1857 at 10,300 tons, j'ielded 
 from 46,000 hhds. molasses, against 11,875 tons, from 
 53,000 hhds. in 1856 ; 11,160 tons, from 50,000 hhds. in 
 1855; and 14,923 tons, from 66,500 hhds. in 1854; if 
 we add to this the product of the maple-tree the past 
 year, say 35,000 tons, and' the estimated consumption 
 of California and Oregon, 6000 tons, would make the 
 total consumption of raw sugar in the United States 
 in 1857, 332,065 tons, agaihst a total consumption in 
 1856 of 412,135 tons — making the decrease in the 
 consumption of all kinds; say IS-j^ per cent. The 
 quantity of foreign sugar consumed in 1857 by the 
 several ports (not including the coastwise receipts, 
 they being embraced in the calculation at the original 
 port of entry), was — New York, 142,187 tons; Boston, 
 28,111; Philadelphia, 21,157; Baltimore, 18,869 ; New 
 Orleans, 20,448 ; and other ports, 10,993 : total, 241,765 
 tons. 
 
 "A somewhat novel feature in this trade has been the 
 large importation during the past year of the article 
 known as melado, etc., the receipts ipto the country 
 having reached equal to about 70,000 hhds.— say 23,400 
 tons sugar (deducting 50 per cent, from weight, to 
 make them equal to ordinary grades sugar, which, it 
 will be observed, we have done throughout the state- 
 ment in all cases of receipts, stocks, and exports). 
 We understand, however, that the importation of this 
 article has proved far from lucrative, and the proba- 
 
SUG 
 
 1775 
 
 SUG 
 
 bitities are that the commerce in these goods for the 
 year now entered upon will be comparatively small. 
 
 " Mercantile enterprise seems to have ransacked the 
 ' uttermost parts of the earth' to procure supplies of 
 this article, so essential to the comfort of the human 
 family; and not only the 'highways,' but the 'by- 
 ways' of commerce have been diligently explored, and 
 scarce a figjd left ungleaned ; hence we have seen 
 within the twelve-month cargoes and invoices landed 
 here from parts of the globe hitherto scarcely known 
 as sugar-producing countries. 
 
 '"The very extraordinary prices that sugar has com- 
 manded during the past two or three years, but espe- 
 cially the first halt of last year, has been the means of 
 transferring this article from the catalogue of the 
 necessaries to that of the luxuries of life, and the con- 
 sumption, as we have seen, has been greatly curtailed. 
 If we add to this the partial, and in many parts of the 
 country the entire failure of the fruit crops (very large 
 quantities of sugar being usually consumed, when 
 fruits are abundant, in the manufacture of conserves, 
 jellies, etc.), together with the intense and almost un- 
 paralleled money panic, and rigid economic contrac- 
 tion, which supervened from early autumn till now, 
 the great diminution in the consumption is readily ac- 
 counted for. Bread, and a few other articles of dail}' 
 use, are very difficult to economize in, at almost any 
 valuation ; but the case is different with sugar — it as- 
 sumes the character of a luxury, or necessity, according 
 to its cost. 
 
 " "A by no means insignificant cause aiding the reduc- 
 tion of the consumption of cane sugar in this country 
 the past year,, may be traced to the unusual, and, we 
 believe, unprecedented yield of sugar made from the 
 maple-tree. The season was one of the most favorable 
 remembered, extending over a period of nine weeks 
 (three to four weeks being the usual length), and the 
 farmers, stimulated by the prices that were current for 
 sugar, labored indefatigably at the sap kettles ; and 
 the result is, tjiat the product of the United States, the 
 past season, of this description of sugar, is set down at 
 36 @ 38,000 tons. There are, unfortunately, no relis^ble 
 data to determine the extent of the crop, but after 
 carefully collating the information in our possession, 
 we have no doubt that the yield was fully up to 35,000 
 tons — a very important item in our consumption, and 
 contributing in no inconsiderable degree to the relief 
 of the last year's deficiency in the product of the sugar- 
 fields of Louisiana. 
 
 " The sanguine expectations that were entertained by 
 many in the earlj- part of the year with regard to the 
 sorgo, or African and Chinese imphee, have not been 
 realized. The experiment of cultivating this plant 
 for its sugar properties has been entered into the past 
 season quite extensively in many parts of the coun- 
 try, but, as far as we can gather, though there have 
 been a few isolated cases of succeSs, the general result 
 has been unsatisfactory. A verjr fair quality of mo- 
 lasses has been produced,but there seems to be a diffi- 
 cul ty in.concentrating and granulating the sirup, owing 
 either to a deficiency of saccharine qualities, or an ig- 
 norance in treating the juice of the cane j at all events, 
 we believe it is generally conceded that crystallizable 
 sugar can not be obtained here from the imphee in 
 sufficient quantities to repay the labor and expense of 
 cultivating it, oven when sugars rule at a high cur- 
 rency. 
 
 " The supply of foreign needed, is governed in agreat 
 measure by our domestic crop, and hence there is a gen- 
 eral interest felt as to the probable extent of the yield. 
 In our last annual statement we said that the Louisi- 
 ana crop, then coming forward, was estimated at from 
 80,000 to 120,000 hhds. ; the actual out-turn was only 
 73,976 hhds., against 449,324 hhds. in 1853, the lai-ge 
 crop year." — N. Y. Price Cwrrevi, January, 1858. 
 
 'The present crop of Louisiana, concerning which 
 such high expectations were entertained during the 
 
 early part of last year, while yet growing, has again 
 proved a comparative failure, ndtwithstahding a larger 
 breadth of land was placed under cultivation. Plant- 
 ers having been greatly stimulated by the high cur- 
 rency, and having during the fall and winter months 
 of 1856 and 1857, little or no sugar to make, were 
 enabled to place all their laborers into their fields, arid 
 put them into a very high state of cultivation; but a 
 late spring, a dry summer and fall, and a heavy and 
 unexpected frost occurring on the 20th November, dis- 
 appointed their hopes,' and the yield will not, accord- 
 ing to the best authorities, exceed 25&,000 hhds., and 
 it may not reach that figure. The consumption of the 
 valley of the Mississippi, including New Orleans and 
 neighborhood, with sugars at a moderate price, is esti- 
 mated at 150,000 @ 160,000 hhds. (it has reached 208 
 @ 210,000 hhds. when low rates prevailed), leaving 
 available for shipment to the Gulf and Atlantic ports 
 80,000 @ 90,000 hhds. 
 
 The preceding tables show that the receipts into this 
 port direct, of foreign unrefined . sugar, for the year 
 ending December 31, 1857, were 161,942, against an 
 import of 171,156 tons in 1856; 126,844 in 1855, and 
 99,491 in 1854 ; and the quantity of foreign taken from 
 here for consumption in 1857 was 143,892 -tons, against 
 a consumption of foreign in 1856 of 161,455 ; in 1855, 
 121,356 ; and in 1854, 92,500. 
 
 The port of New York has received and delivered 
 for consumption 68-j^^ per cent, of the whole quan- 
 tity of foreign imported into the United States during 
 the past year. 
 
 It having been ascertained at an early period of the 
 season that the crop of Louisiana sugar would prove 
 not only deficient, but almost an entire failure, and 
 that the fields of Cuba would scarce!}' return an av- 
 erage yield, an impetus was immediately given to the 
 foreign trade, seldom if ever before witnessed, and the 
 importation of the first six months was without a 
 parallel in its history. The extreme and unusual 
 prices soon told, however, with unerring efl'ect upon 
 the corisumptioti, and the contrast- between the depart- 
 ure of the year 1857 and its commencement is sharply 
 defined; buoyancy, elasticity, and confidence marked 
 the opening months — depression, languor, and timidity 
 the dosing ones. 
 
 The past year will be long remembered by those 
 engaged in the sugar trade as one of unparalleled ex- 
 citement, great fluctuations, and no litti^ disaster, 
 stamping it as far the most eventful one, at least in 
 the present century. The prices of this article, which 
 had been steadily advancing for nearly three years, 
 reached in early summer their maximum, and the de- 
 cline since then has been rapid and extreriie ; there 
 are, however, but few interests that have suffered so 
 greatly from the effects of the financial hurricane, that 
 has devastated almost the whole commercial world 
 during the past four moriths, as. the. one now under re- 
 view, and the number is also still less that have with- 
 stood the storm more bravely ; this fact seems to war- 
 rant the belief that the trade rests on a more than 
 ordinary substantial basis. The losses that have been 
 sustained, though considerable, have fallen in a great 
 measure upon the planters and speculators of Cuba, on 
 whose account the bulk of the stock here was held, and 
 they having during the preceding two years realized 
 large advances by the rapid appreciation in prices 
 which have ruled in all the marts of the world, and 
 which placed them in a very strong position, have been 
 enabled to support these losses, it is believed, with 
 comparatively little inconvenience. — Ihid. 
 
 At the commencement of the year the stock of for- 
 eign at this port was 9816 tons, against a stock of 3049 
 tons, January 1, 1856. During the early part of the 
 month of January, the demand was quite moderate 
 from the trade, and the refiners being generally en- 
 gaged, according to custom, in making their annual 
 repairs, etc., to their machinery, the business was 
 
SUG 
 
 1776 
 
 SUG 
 
 small ; this dullness, howeyer, was soon followed by an 
 increased activity. It having been satisfactorily as- 
 certained that the crop of Louisiana would be a very 
 small one, refiners entered the market with spirit, 
 and prices advanced on all kinds i @ | of a cent. A 
 firm, buoyant feeling prevailed throughout the month, 
 though at the close a falling off in the demand was 
 observable ; full prices were, however, realized without 
 difficulty, holders having constantly the advantage. 
 On the 13th, the first arrival of new crop melado 
 reached here, and sold at 7i cents ; and on the loth, 
 37 hhds. new Cuba muscovado arrived, and was placed 
 at 10 @ 10} cents, the opening price the previous year 
 
 being 7} @ 8 cents. The sales and resales for the 
 month were 75 hhds. New Orleans, 4800 hhds. and 
 18,600 boxes ; Cuba, 1850 hhds. ; Porto Eico, 280 hhds. ; 
 English Island, 286 cases and 4328 bags Brazil, and 
 613 hhds. melado. — For further information, see De 
 Bow's Review, vii. 56 (R. S. M'CnLLOCH), iii. 244, 
 294, X, 218, xii. 646, xiii. 57, 176, iv. 229, 383, 611, 
 V. 349 ; Southern Quarterly Eeview, iii. 329 ; North 
 American Review, xl. 415 ; Edinburgh. Review, 1. 426. 
 
 The following table shows the range of prices of su- 
 gar in New York each month, and average value of the 
 various descriptions of sugar each year, for the past 
 four years : 
 
 Tee Ranob of Pkioes op sugar at New Yoek nmiNG Fora Yeaes — 1854-'5T. 
 
 Years. 
 
 New 
 Orleans. 
 
 Cuba 
 MiiBCoyado. 
 
 Porto 
 Rico. 
 
 Hnvann, 
 brown. 
 
 Brazil, 
 
 white. 
 
 Brazil, 
 brown. 
 
 1854. 
 
 January 
 
 February .... 
 
 March 
 
 April 
 
 May 
 
 June 
 
 July 
 
 August 
 
 September. . . 
 
 October 
 
 November . . . 
 December . . . 
 
 4 ® 6} 
 
 4 @ 6 
 
 4 ® 6i 
 
 35 @ 6 
 
 3>® 6t 
 
 34® 5i 
 
 3i@ 51- 
 
 4t@ 6 
 
 4i@ 6 
 
 4 ® 6i 
 
 5 ® 6t 
 41® 6 
 
 4i@ 5i 
 
 4i@ 5t 
 
 4 @ 6i 
 
 3}@ 5i 
 
 4 @ BJ 
 
 4 ® 6i 
 
 i @ 6i 
 
 41-® 5i 
 
 4}® 6 
 
 4J@ C 
 
 4 @ 5i- 
 
 4J ® 6 
 
 4f @ 6 
 
 4^® 6 
 
 4 @ 6 
 
 i @ Si 
 
 4 ® 64 
 
 4 ® Bi 
 
 a® H 
 
 4i@ a 
 
 5 @ 6i 
 5 @ 6J 
 
 4J@ 6J 
 
 Average for the year . 
 
 1835. 
 
 January 
 
 February 
 
 March 
 
 April 
 
 May 
 
 June 
 
 July 
 
 August 
 
 September 
 
 October 
 
 November 
 
 December 
 
 $4-S9 
 
 4t® Si- 
 
 4 @ 6 
 
 4 ® 6 
 4J@ 6 
 4i® 6i 
 Bl@ 6i 
 
 5 @ 61^ 
 5i® 8 
 6i@ 8J 
 H@ Si 
 6J ® Si 
 Ti® 9 
 
 6i® T 
 
 Ct® T 
 
 6i @ 7 
 
 6i® T 
 
 64® T 
 
 64® T 
 
 64® T 
 
 T ® ti 
 
 T @ 7i 
 
 1 ® 1i 
 
 1 ® V, 
 
 7 @ Ti 
 
 BJ@ 6j 
 
 5 ® fit 
 
 6 ® 64 
 a® 64 
 
 5 @ 64 
 
 6 @ 64 
 5 @ 64 
 
 5 @ 64 
 
 6 @ 6J 
 B @ 6i 
 S ® 7 
 — ® 7 
 
 $4-83 
 
 4 @ 5!- 
 
 4 ® 5} 
 
 4 ® 5J 
 
 4J® Bj 
 
 44® 64 
 
 B @ 64 
 
 54® 64 
 
 54® 7} 
 
 C4® 84 
 
 6 ® 8 
 
 54® 8!- 
 
 64® 8 
 
 $5-33 
 
 44® 6 
 
 44® 6 
 
 44 ® 6 
 
 44® 64 
 
 5 ® 64 
 54® 64 
 54® 6i 
 
 6 @ 8 
 
 7 ® 84 
 64® 84 
 6i® 84 
 7 ® 84 
 
 $7-00 
 
 64® 7 
 
 64® 7 
 
 64® 7 
 
 64® 74 
 
 64® 74 
 
 74® 74 
 
 74® 8 
 
 74® 84 
 
 84® 9 
 
 8 ® 9 
 
 8 @ 84 
 
 84® 84 
 
 $5-88 
 
 5 @ 64 
 
 S ® 64 
 
 5 @ 64 
 B ® 64i 
 44® 74 
 B ® 74 
 Bi @ 74 
 
 6 ® 8 
 6J ® 8{ 
 64® 8} 
 64® 8 
 
 7 ® 8 
 
 Average for the year . 
 
 1856. 
 
 January 
 
 February 
 
 March 
 
 April 
 
 May 
 
 June 
 
 July 
 
 August 
 
 September 
 
 October 
 
 November 
 
 December 
 
 $6-25 
 
 8 @ 9 
 74® 9 
 
 7 @ 9 
 64® 84 
 64® 84 
 6-i ® 84 
 74® 9 
 
 8 ® 94 
 8 @ 94 
 8 @10 
 8 ®104 
 8 ®11 
 
 $6-04 
 
 7 @ 8 
 74® 84 
 64® 84 
 6 @ 8 
 6 ® 84 
 64® 84 
 74® 94 
 
 8 @ 9 
 74® 9i 
 74® 94 
 74 ® 104 
 74 @ 104 
 
 $6-37 
 
 7 ® 84 
 74® 8i 
 7 @ 9 
 7 ® 9 
 64® 9 
 
 7 ® 94 
 74® 94 
 84® 10 
 74® 10 
 
 8 ®10 
 8 ®10i 
 84 @ 104 
 
 ,$T-0B 
 
 84® 94 
 9 ® 94 
 9 ® 94 
 94® — 
 9 ® 94 
 9 ®10 
 
 10 ©104 
 
 11 '©12 
 11 @12 
 11 ©124 
 114 © 124 
 
 !t6-54 
 
 7 ® 84 
 74® 9 
 74® 94 
 7 © 94 
 7 © 94 
 74® 94 
 74 ©11 
 84® 11 
 S4 ® 104 
 84 ® 104 
 9 ®104 
 9 ®11 
 
 Average for the year . 
 
 1857. 
 
 January 
 
 February 
 
 March 
 
 April 
 
 May 
 
 June 
 
 July 
 
 August 
 
 September 
 
 October 
 
 November 
 
 December 
 
 $3-33 
 
 9 ®11 
 94® 11 
 
 54® 84 
 
 8 ®10i 
 84 @ lOi 
 84 ® lOi 
 84 © Hi 
 94® 114 
 94® Hi 
 74 ® lOi 
 64® 104 
 64® 94 
 6 ® 64 
 44® 8 
 5 ® 74 
 
 $8-52 
 
 84 ©11 
 9 ®11 
 9 ®11 
 94 © 114 
 94 © 124 
 10 ©12 
 84 ® 114 
 8 ®114 
 7 ®104 
 64® 94 
 54® 9 
 64® 84 
 
 $10-23 
 
 114 ® 124 
 12 ®124 
 12 ®124 
 
 12 ®14 
 18 ® 14 
 
 13 ©14 
 12 ©14 
 114® 13 
 104 ® 124 
 10 ©11 
 
 84 ® 104 
 8i @ 94 
 
 Average for the year . 
 
 $8-90 
 
 84 ® 114 
 9 ®114 
 9 ® 114 
 94 ® 124 
 10 ®124 
 104 © 124 
 94 ® 124 
 74 ® 114 
 6 @H 
 6 ®10 
 64® 9 
 54® 84 
 
 $9-04 
 
 S-69 
 
 $'J-41 
 
 $11 -.574 
 
 $'J-6i) 
 
 44® 5 
 
 44® B 
 
 44® 5 
 
 44® 6 
 
 44® 5 
 
 44 @ 6 
 
 44® 5 
 
 44 ® 5 
 
 44® 54 
 
 5 ® 64 
 
 64® Bi 
 
 54® 5} 
 
 64® 6 
 
 64® 64 
 
 64® 65 
 
 64® 64 
 
 5 © 
 
 6 ® 
 6 © 
 5 © 
 
 $5-02 
 
 64® 64 
 
 54® 54 
 
 54® 54 
 
 54® 54 
 
 64 ® 54 
 
 64® 54 
 
 64 @ 64 
 
 64® 64 
 
 64® — 
 
 64© 74 
 
 74® — 
 
 $6-54 
 
 74® — 
 
 74© — 
 
 71© — 
 
 74® — 
 
 7 @ 74 
 
 84® — 
 
 84®' 84 
 9 ® — 
 
 84 @ 5 
 
 $8-05 
 
 84® 94 
 
 — ©94 
 94 ® 94 
 94 @ 104 
 
 — ® 104 
 104 @ 104 
 
 9 ©104 
 8 ® 94 
 
 — ® 8 
 64® 64 
 64© — 
 
 — ® 64 
 
 i-C8 
 
 $6 50 
 
 -® 74 
 
 $6-40 
 
 10 ©104 
 94 ©10 
 94© 94 
 
 $5-00 
 
 -® 64 
 
 — © 51 
 
 — ® 64 
 
 -@ 64 
 ■ '@ '74 
 
 $5-97 
 
 74® — 
 
 74 '@ '— 
 
 74 ® — 
 
 7J ® 8 
 
 7 © 84 
 
 84® 84 
 
 84© — 
 
 84® — 
 
 $7-84 
 
 — ® 91 
 
 — ©94 
 -©94 
 
 — © 94 
 9J © 104 
 
 — ©104 
 
 $9-74 
 
 — See Shippitig and Commercial List, New- York. 
 
 Beet-root Sugar, — The manufacture of sugar from 
 beet-root is carried on to a very considerable extent in 
 several parts of the Continent, particularly in France 
 and the north of Germany. It began in France during 
 the exclusion of colonial products in the reign of Na- 
 poleon, and received a severe check at the return of 
 peace, by the admission of West India sugars at a 
 reasonable duty. It is probable, indeed, that it would 
 long since have been entirely extinguished but for the 
 additions made to the duties on colonial and foreign 
 sugars in 1820 and 1822. After the last-mentioned 
 epoch, however, the production of beet-root sugar be- 
 gan rapidly to increase ; and such was its progress, 
 that though, in 1828, its produce did not exceed 
 
 4,000,000 kilograms, it amounted in 1838 to 39,199,408 
 kilograms. 
 
 Up to the middle of the 18th century the cane was 
 the only plant known to contain sugar. In 1747 M. 
 Marggraf, director of a department of the Eoyal Acade- 
 my of Sciences in Berlin, first called attention to the sac- 
 charine substance in the parsnep, the birch juice, and 
 carrot. At a later period, Parmentier discovered .the 
 same ingredient in the composition of com and chest- 
 nuts. But the chemical experiments made by these 
 savans accomplished no practical result. Yet, even 
 before Napoleon I. had imposed on Europe the princi- 
 ple of absolute prohibition, the necessity of a substitute 
 for the expensive colonial sugar was urgently felt. As 
 
SUG 
 
 1777 
 
 SUG- 
 
 early as 1796 the beet-root was analyzed by Achard In 
 Beilin, who obtained from 100 lbs. of the raw material 
 5 lbs. of white sugar and three of molasses. 
 
 It was only since 1830 that the production of indig- 
 enous sugar began to manifest its inherent strength. 
 From three million tons in 1830, it rose to sixty-iive 
 millions, or half the consumption of the empire, in 
 1850, and this was accomplished under the pressure of 
 an impost of from 16^ to 22 francs per 100 kilograms 
 upon the home manufacture. "The last ten years 
 have shown," remarks Mr. Tegoborsky, " that there is 
 a vitality about the manufacture of beet-root sugar on 
 the continent of Europe which was far from being im- 
 agined twenty or thirty years ago." Considering that 
 in France it so quickly recovered from the blow dealt 
 in 1843, by an impost placing it gradually on a level 
 with the sugar of the colonies ; that the terror then ex- 
 perienced by the French manufacturer, which made 
 him, in many instances, abandon his establishments, 
 was now felt by the rival colonists ; that in Germany, 
 where the tax of 1842 at first arrested the home manu- 
 facture, it immediately resumed the ascending move- 
 ment, so that the production of 124,000 centners in 
 1843 had risen to 660,000 in 1849, or quintupled in the 
 short space of six years. 
 
 The quantity of cr}'stallizable sugar contained in the 
 cane and beet-root is equally variable in both, depend- 
 ing on the quality of the plant, soil and climate, etc. 
 The saccharine substance in the cane varies from 10 to 
 30 per cent. ; in the beet-root from 5 to 13. ' In the 
 former 18, in the latter 10 per cent, are generally ad- 
 mitted as a fair average. The difference, however, in 
 favor of the cane is, as will be seen presently, equal- 
 ized in consequence of the advantages attending the 
 manufacture of sugar from beet-root, irrespective of 
 those derived from the culture of the latter. In the 
 cane 90 per cent, is liquid to 10 per cent, solid matter ; 
 in the beet-root 96 is liquid to 6 per cent, only of solid 
 filamentous substance. The extraction of juice, by 
 means of the hydraulic press, from the latter exceeds, 
 therefore, by five per cent, the quantity obtained from 
 cane. Of the 95 per cent, of liquid absolutely con- 
 tained in the beet-root, from 75 to 85 per cent., on an 
 average, are practically gained by the process of com- 
 pression, while the juice extracted from the cane in 
 the colonies represents only 50 per cent., on an average. 
 In Bengal it is no more than 30, and where the best 
 appliances are used it does not exceed 60. Thus, of the 
 10 per cent, of saccharine matter, which is absolutely 
 contained in the beet-root, from 7i to 8^ per cent, are 
 realized as sugar, while from the 18 per cent, of the 
 cane from 10 to 12 per cent, of sugar are realized, and 
 in Bengal only 7. Hence, at this stage of the demon- 
 stration of the comparative value of cane *nd beet- 
 root, respecting the practical results obtained from 
 them, we find the difference already reduced from 9 to 
 5, representing their proportion of saccharine matter, 
 to 12 to 8i^, representing the sugar actually realized. 
 The sugar of which we speak here is not yet crj'stal- 
 lized. The process of crystallization modifies still 
 further the above difference in favor of the beet-root. 
 Of the 7i to 8i per cent, of beet-root sugar, the resi- 
 due, in the form of molasses, has been diminishejl, in 
 consequence of modern improvements, to from 1^^ to 2J^ 
 per cent., which leaves from 6 to 7 per cent, as solid 
 crystallized and marketable sugar. 
 
 The results obtained in this respect from cane-juice 
 in the tropical colonies we present in the following table: 
 
 Crystallized Mo- 
 Sugar, lasses. 
 Fotmds. Fooods. 
 
 100 pounds of cane-juice subjected by the* 
 Chemist Avequin, in Louisiana, to a chem-/- 10 4 
 
 ical analysis, gave ) 
 
 II. Experiment with 100 pounds of juice. . , 12 5 
 
 III. '^" " " ... 10 3 
 
 IV. " " " ... 11 5 
 From 100 pounds of cane Dupuis obtained) a g 
 
 in Guadalonpe (1st experiment) / 
 
 (2d experiment) 3 
 
 5U 
 
 The natural superiority of the cane, thus reduced in 
 the process of manufacturing, is nearly neutralized, 
 when the fact is taken into consideration that more 
 time is required for the cane to ripen than for the beet- 
 root. According to an accurate estimate, four crops 
 of the latter can be harvested against three of cane. 
 M. Stolzel, basing his calculation upon this proportion 
 and the foregoing data, arrives at the final result that, 
 on an average, one hundred pounds of cane yield six 
 pounds of crystallized sugar and three pounds of mo- 
 lasses ; while, as above stated, one hundred pounds of 
 beet-root yield from six to sev^n pounds of sugar, and 
 from one and a half to two and a half pounds of mo- 
 lasses. 
 
 There is, according to the authority quoted, no dif- 
 ference, therefore, in the manufacture of sugar from 
 beet-root or cane, as regards the quantity of the mark- 
 etable article obtained from an equal weight of either 
 raw material. But then there are several other im- 
 portant subjects yet to be considered before an opinion 
 can be formed of the relative merits of sugar produc- 
 tion in the tropical colonies and' northern and tem- 
 perate regions. In the first case, the productiveness 
 of each acre of land in the former countries by far ex- 
 ceeds tirat of the same area in the latter. We find the 
 difference illustrated in two tables, computed from the 
 best authorities, by M. Stolzel. After a deduction of 
 15 per cent, for waste in preparing for the press, and 
 assuming a yield of sugar equivalent to 6 per cent, on 
 the remainder, we obtain. 
 
 Average Crop 
 of Beet-root 
 per Acre. 
 
 In Austria 
 
 In Bohemia 
 
 In Prussia 
 
 In environs of Heidelberg 
 
 In France (Department of Nord) . 
 In France (other departments) . . 
 In France (general average) 
 
 Centner. 
 209 
 169 
 228 
 191 
 2T2 
 170 
 204 
 
 Product of 
 
 cryBtallizalilfr 
 
 'Sugar. 
 
 Pounds. 
 1405 
 1061 
 1682 
 1288 
 182T 
 1142 
 1370 
 
 After a deduction made in consideration of the fact 
 above stated, that four crops of beet-root are produced 
 in the same period as three of cane, each acre in the 
 colonies produces, 
 
 Cbtstallizable SnGAU. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 In Louisiana 1000 
 
 In San Domingo 1066 
 
 In Bengal 1626 
 
 In Martinique 1680 
 
 In Vera Cruz 1880 
 
 In Guadaloupe 2000 
 
 In Isle Bourbon 3383 
 
 In Cuba 4000 
 
 In Brazil 6000 
 
 Thus the average of all these figures, or the mean 
 annual produce of sugar per acre in the colonies, is 
 2400 lbs., in Europe 1360 lbs. The proportion is 18-10 
 in favor of cane, which is still increased by the higher 
 value of land in Europe than in the tropics. The 
 mean price of land per acre, according to authentic 
 statements, is. 
 
 In Eueope. 
 
 Prussia £22 7s. @ £25 6». 
 
 Province Magdeburg 96 Ss. @ 104 — 
 
 Austria 16 15s. @ 16 16s. 
 
 Bohemia 15 168. @ — — 
 
 "Wurtemberg 23 Gs. ® — — 
 
 France and Belgium 32 3s. @ 40 — 
 
 The Colonies. 
 
 San Domingo 2 28. @ 8 8s. 
 
 Jamaica 3 2g. @ 6 4s; 
 
 Guiana 4 Is. @ 5 6s. 
 
 Porto Kico 10 Ts. @ — — 
 
 Cuba 10 7«. @ 20 14s- 
 
 The average of the whole is £40 17s. per acre for 
 Europe, and £S per acre for the colonies. (The aver- 
 age value of farm lands throughout the United States 
 is, according to the census of 1850, $10 79 ; and in the 
 Northern States it varies between $12 and $60.) To 
 show in what manner these advantages of greater pro- 
 
SUG 
 
 1778 
 
 SUL 
 
 ductiveness of the land, and its lower price in the 
 colonies, are more than counterbalanced in Europe by 
 the lower rates of interest on the capital required for 
 the purchase of these lands, and the erection of the 
 factories; the more intelligent, efficient, and cheaper 
 labor; the greater abundance and cheapness of the 
 important item of fuel ; the advantages of a home mark- 
 et; and the accessarj' profits derived from the culture 
 of beet-root, in the shape of fodder for cattle, we re- 
 serve for a concluding article, together with a review 
 of the practical inducements offered to the cultivators 
 of beet-root, and the manufacture of sugar, by the con- 
 ditions of the Northern and Middle States of the Union. 
 Maple-sugar. — A species of maple {Acer saccharinum, 
 Linn.) yields a considerable quantity of sugar. It 
 grows plentifully in the United States and in Canada, 
 and in some districts furnishes the inhabitants with 
 most of the sugar they make use of. Though inferior 
 both in grain and strength to that which is produced 
 from the cane, maple-sugar granulates better than 
 that of the beet-root, or any other vegetable, the cane 
 excepted. It is produced from the sap, which is ob- 
 tained hj perforating the tree in the spring to the 
 depth of about two inches, and setting a vessel for its 
 reception. The quantity' afforded varies with the tree 
 and the season. From two to three gallons may be 
 about the daily average yield of a single tree; but 
 some trees have yielded more than twenty gallons in 
 a day, and others not more than a pint. The process 
 of boiling the juice does not differ materially from 
 what is followed with the cane juice in the West Indies. 
 It is necessary that it should be boiled as soon after it 
 is drawn from the tree as possible. If it be allowed 
 to stand above twenty-four hours, it is apt to undergo 
 the vinous and acetous fermentation, by which its sac- 
 charine quality is destroyed. — Bouchette's British 
 America^ Timber Trees and Fi-uits, Library of Enter- 
 taining Knowledge. See article Maple-sugar. 
 
 Chinese Sugar-cane, — This new plant seems to be 
 destined to take an important position among our eco- 
 nomical products. Its seeds were sent some six years 
 ago from the north of China, by M. de Montigny, to 
 the Geographical Society of Paris. From a cursory 
 examination of a small fieM of it, growing at Verrieres 
 in France, in the autumn of 1854, Mr. D. J. Browne, 
 then on a mission from the U. S. Patent Office for col- 
 lecting agricultural information and products, was led 
 to infer that, from the peculiarit}' of the climate in 
 which it was growing and its resemblance to Indian 
 corn, it would flourish in any region wherever that 
 plant 'would thrive. From this source he obtained 
 some 200 pounds of the seed, which Avas distributed in 
 small packages among members of Congress, with the 
 view of experimenting with it in all parts of the Union, 
 and thereby ascertaining its adaptation to the soil and 
 climate, and its economical value in the United States. 
 In numerous instances the results proved highly satis- 
 factory, as it attained the height of twelve or fifteen 
 feet as far north as St. Paul, Minnesota, and matured 
 its seeds at various points in Massachusetts, New York, 
 Pennsylvania, and Illinois. The following year, while 
 in France on a similar mission as above, Mr. Browne 
 obtained several bushels of the seed of this plant, grown 
 from that reputed to have been brought from South 
 Africa by Mr. Leonard Wray, of London, and which 
 has since proved to be identical with that obtained in 
 1854. 
 
 There appears to be a doubt among many in Eu- 
 rope, as well as in this country, as to the true botanical 
 name of this plant. M. Louis VUmorin, a scientific 
 cultivator of Paris, provisionally gave it the name of 
 Holcus saccharatus, which had previously been applied 
 to the common broom-corn, if not to other species, or 
 at least varieties, of some allied plant. He also con- 
 jectured that it might be the Sorghum vulgare (Andro- 
 pogon sorghum of others), and thought that it might 
 comprehend a variety, as well as Andropogon cafra, 
 
 bicola, etc., of Kunth. Mr. Wray, who has devoted 
 much time and attention to the cultivation of this 
 plant, with the view of extracting sugar from its juice, 
 at Cape Natal and other places, states that in the 
 southeast part of Caffraria there arc at least fifteen 
 varieties of it, some of them growing to a height of 
 twelve and fifteen feet, with stems as thick as those 
 of the sugar-cane (Saccharum officinale). M. Vilmorin 
 also says that, in a collection of seeds sent to the Mu- 
 seum of Natural History at Paris in 1840, by M. 
 d'Abadre, there were thirty kinds of sorghum, among 
 the growth of which he recognized several plants hav- 
 ing stems of a saccharine flavor. Others are of the 
 opinion that the common broom-corn (Holcus sacchara- 
 tus'), the chocolate or Guinea corn (Sorghum vulgare^, 
 and the Chinese sugar-cane (Sorghum saccharatum\ all 
 of which contain more or less saccharine matter, belong 
 to the same species, but are variations caused by dif- 
 ferences of soil and climate, or by a disposition to sport 
 after the manner of Indian corn, and other plants under 
 cultivation. The Chinese sugar-cane differs from the 
 others in containing a far larger proportion of juice, 
 and consequently is more valuable for fodder and other 
 economical uses. 
 
 In 1766 a plant analogous to the one in question was 
 experimented upon at Florence, in Italy, by Pietre 
 Arduino, for the extraction of sugar ; yet it must have 
 been of a very different variety, as he describes its 
 seeds as of it clear brown color, while those of the 
 Chinese 'sugar-cane are of a shining jet black, and in 
 appearance identical wuth those of the Sorghum vul- 
 gare of the old collections. 
 
 Description and Hahit of its Grou-th.— The Chinese 
 sugar-cane, when cultivated on ordinary land in the 
 United States, somewhat after the manner of broom- 
 corn, grows to a height of from eight to sixteen feet, 
 while in Europe it does not attain more than half this 
 altitude. Its stems are straight and smooth, often 
 covered with a white bloom or down,' having leaves 
 somewhat flexuous, falling over and greatly resembling 
 in appearance those of Indian corn, but more elegant 
 in its form. Where cultivated in hills, containing 
 eight or ten stalks each, it puts forth at its top a conical 
 pinnacle of dense flowers, green at first, but changing 
 into violet shades, and finally into dark purple, at ma- 
 turity. In France, and in the central and northern 
 sections of the United States, it has thus far proved an 
 annual ; but from observations made by M. Vilmorin, 
 as well as some experiments in our Southern States, 
 it is conjectured that, from the vigor and fullness of 
 the lower part of the stalks in a^itumn, by protecting 
 them during the winter, they would produce new 
 plants the following spring. It stands dearth far bet- 
 ter than 'Indian corn, and will resist the effects of con- 
 siderable frost without injurj', after the pannicles ap- 
 pear, but not in its younger and more tender state. 
 If suffered to remain in the field after the seeds have 
 ripened and been removed, when the season is suffi- 
 ciently warm and long, new pannicles will shoot out at 
 the topmost joints one or more to each stalk, and ma- 
 ture a second crop of seeds. The average yield of seed 
 to each pannicle is at least a gill. 
 
 Sulphur, or Brimstone (Fr. Sou/re ; Ger. Schwe- 
 fel; It. Zolfo, Solfo; Sp. Azufre; Arab. Kibreet), a 
 crystallized, hard, brittle substance, commonly of a 
 greenish yellow color, without any smell, and of a 
 weak though perceptible taste; its specific graA^ity is 
 from 1'9 to 2'1. It burns with a pale blue flame, and 
 emits a great quantity of pungent, suffocating vapors. 
 In some parts of Italy and Sicily it is dug up in a state 
 of comparative purity. That which is manufactured 
 in England is obtained by the roasting of pyrites. It 
 is denominated rough or roll sulphur, from its being 
 cast in cylindrical moulds, and contains 7 per cent, of 
 orpiment. The Italian roll sulphur does not contain 
 more than 3 per cent, of a simple earth ; and is, there- 
 fore, in higher estimation than the English. When 
 
SUM 
 
 1779 
 
 SUP 
 
 TO., sulphur is purified, it receives the name oC sublimed 
 sulphur, and is in the form of a bright yellow powder. 
 — Thomson's Chemistry, etc. 
 
 Sumatra, the most western of the Sunda islands, 
 Asiatic Archipelago, and, next to Borneo, the largest 
 in the eastern seas, between lat. 5° 40' N., and 6° S., 
 and long. 95° 20' and 106° E., separated on the north- 
 east from the Malay peninsula by the Strait of Malacca, 
 having east the Java Sea, and the Strait of Sunda sep- 
 arating it from the island of Java, on other sides the 
 Indian Ocean. Length northwest to southeast 1100 
 miles ; breadth 60 to 240 miles. 3?he area has been 
 estimated at from 128,000 to 130,000 square miles; 
 population 1,437,360, mostly Malays, but partly of the 
 Papuan negro race, with Moors in the northwest, and 
 Dutch and other foreigners. The eastern half of the 
 island is mostly level or undulating, and along the 
 coasts there are many sandy and marshy plains trav- 
 ersed by the Siak, Judrageri, Jambi, Palembang, and 
 other rivers of large size, but whicli have been little 
 explored by Europeans. Climate in the plains is less 
 oppressive than might have been expected; at mid- 
 day the thermometer usually ranges between 82° and 
 85°, sometimes rising to 88° ; but at sunrise not more 
 than 70° Fahr. Dense fogs, thunder-storms, and water- 
 spouts off the coast are frequent. Much of the island 
 is ocriupied by dense forests. Products consist of rice, 
 sago, millet, cocoa-nuts, betel, sugar-cane, an abund- 
 ance of tropical fruits, turmeric, ginger, coffee, ratans, 
 scented wood, teak and other timber, and the European 
 colonists successfully cultivate the vine ; but the prin- 
 cipal articles of export are pepper to about three mill- 
 ion pounds yearly; gold dust, copper ore, sulphur, 
 camphor, in the north ; nutmegs, cloves, and mace, in 
 the Dutch territory of Bencoolen; and coral, benzoin, 
 gutta percha, tin, in Palembang and Menankabow ; 
 many of which articles are brought by natives from 
 the interior, and bartered at the ports for Indian and 
 European manufactured goods. Iron, coal of an in- 
 ferior quality, and naphtha, are among the mineral 
 products. The inhabitants build their houses on posts, 
 and adopt other usages of ultra-Gangetio nations ; they 
 manufacture gold and silver filagree work with great 
 skill, also siUi and cotton fabrics, earthen-wares, arms, 
 and domestic goods generally ; from Palembang, lac- 
 quered basins, cane boxes, and ratan mats of the best 
 quality are exported to Singapore ; and it is said that 
 cannon were formerly cast at Acheen, in the northwest, 
 which territory is, however, peopled by a race of Moor- 
 ish descent. Imports, besides manufactured goods al- 
 ready mentioned, are opium and salt from India, coarse 
 porcelain, iron wares, gold thread from China, striped 
 cottons, spices, krises and other weapons from Java, 
 Celebes, and other islands of the Archipelago. The 
 island is divided among a number of native states, the 
 chief being Acheen, Menankabow in the central mount- 
 ain region, Batak, Siak, Jambi, Palembang, Lampong, 
 along the east from north to ^outh, mostly under the 
 supremacy of the Dutch, who possess the settlements 
 of Bencoolen and Padang, on the western coast. 
 
 Sumptuary La^ws. Laws to restrain excess in 
 dress, furniture, eating, etc. Those of Zaleucus or- 
 dained that no woman should go attended by more 
 than one maid in the street, unless she were drunk ; 
 and that she should not wear gold or embroidered ap- 
 parel, unless she designed to act nnchastely, 460 B.C. 
 ' — DiOG. Labrt. This law checked luxury. The Lex 
 Orchia among the Romans limited the guests at feasts, 
 and the number and quality of the dishes at an enter- 
 tainment; and it also enforced that during supper, 
 which was the chief meal among the Eoman.s, the doors 
 of every house should be left open. The English 
 sumptuary laws were chiefly in the reigns of Edward 
 III. and Henry VIII. — See Dkess, Luxury, etc. 
 
 Supercargo, » person employed to oversee the 
 cargo or sale of the cargo. The duties of a supercargo 
 are not specially regulated by law, but are dependent 
 
 upon special agre/mient between the owners of the 
 cargo and himself. Generally the power of a super- 
 cargo does not extend beyond the cargo, the master 
 alone being responsible, and has its limits in the arrival 
 and departure from trading ports. However extended 
 may be the authority conceded to a supercargo, such 
 authority mustbe subordinate to the common interest 
 of the vessel and cargo. When the powers of a super- 
 cargo extend to the navigation' of a ship, they must 
 be communicated through the captain, and have refer- 
 ence only to the destination of the ship, and not to the 
 particular management of the ship. Even a super- 
 cargo, in cases of necessity, and acting with discretion, 
 may bind the owners of a ship. — Pothier, Charte- 
 Partie; Dodson's Admiralty Rep., i. 278. See articles 
 Master, Insurance, Shipping. 
 
 Superior, Lake, the largest sheet of fresh water 
 on the face of the globe, and the most remarkable of 
 the great American lakes, not only from its magnitude, 
 but also from the picturesque scenery of its borders, 
 and the interest and value attaching to its geological 
 features. As a mining region it is one of the most im- 
 portant in this country, and is rich in veins of metallifc 
 copper and silver, as well as in the ores of those metals. 
 At the present moment it may be regarded as the most 
 valuable mining district in North America, with the 
 exception only of the gold deposits of California. 
 
 This great lake is comprised between the 46th and 
 49th degrees of north latitude, and the 84th and 92d 
 degrees of longitude, west of Greenwich. Its gi'eatest 
 length is 400 miles; its width in the middle is 160 
 miles, and its mean depth has been estimated at 900 
 feet. Its surface is about 600 feet above the level of 
 the Atlantic Ocean, and its bottom is 300 feet below 
 the level of the sea. The ancient French Jesuit fa- 
 thers, who first explored and described this great lake, 
 and published an account of it in Paris in 1636, de- 
 scribe the form of its shores as similar to that of a 
 bended bow, the northern shore being the' arc, and the 
 southern the chord, while Keweenaw Point, projecting 
 from the southern shore to the middle of the lake; is 
 the arrow. This graphic description is illustrated by 
 a map, prepared by them, which displays the geo- 
 graphical position of its shores with as much fidelity as 
 most of the maps of our day, and proves that those 
 early explorers were perfectly familiar with its shores. 
 The coast of Lake Superior is formed of rocks of vari- 
 ous kinds and of different geological groups. The whole 
 coast of the lake is rock-bound ; and in some places 
 mountain masses of considerable elevation rear them- 
 selves from the immediate shore, while mural preci- 
 pices and beetling crags oppose themselves to the 
 surges of this mighty lake, and threaten the unfortu- 
 nate mariner who may be caught in a storm upon a 
 lee-shore with almost inevitable destruction. Small 
 coves, or boat harbors, are abundantly afforded by the 
 myriads of indentations upon the rocky coast : and 
 there are a few good snug harbors for vessels of moder- 
 ate capacity, such as steamboats, schooners, and the 
 like. 
 
 The fisheries of Lake Superior are of great value to 
 the people living upon the shores of the lake, and of 
 some importance to the states bordering on the other 
 and lower lakes, and the inland towns near their bor- 
 ders. To the poor Indian the bounties of the great 
 lakes are of vital importance, for without the fish the 
 native tribes would soon perish. Game has become 
 exceedingly ■ scarce in these thickly -wooded regions, 
 only a few bears, rabbits, and porcupines, and some 
 partridges, being found in the woods, and ducks in 
 moderate numbers upon the waters. Agriculture has 
 scarcely begun to tame the wilderness in the vicinity 
 of the copper mines, and the only crops raised are 
 potatoes and a few hardy northern esculents. Small 
 cereal grains — such as oats, barley, and rye — will do 
 well here as in Canada ; and Indian corn of the north- 
 ern varieties, in places not too much exposed to the 
 
SWE 
 
 1780 
 
 SWE 
 
 chill breezes of the lake, thrives and ripens. English 
 grasses have not yet been cultivated, but they will un- 
 doubtedly thrive as well on the south shore of Lake 
 Superior as in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. The 
 native grasses are abundant and good, but are limited 
 to small natural prairies or to dried-up ponds. The 
 forests are also filled with excellent timber for build- 
 ing purposes ; and where the growth is of mixed trees, 
 such as sugar-maple, yellow birch, and pines, the white 
 and j-ellow pines are of large dimensions, and furnish 
 good lumber. — See Lakes, Commerce of. 
 
 Sweden {Soerige), a country of northern Europe, 
 forming the east and larger portion of the Scandinavian 
 peninsula, and one of the kingdoms composing the 
 monarchy of Sweden and Norway ; situated between 
 lat. 55° 20' and 69° 10' N., long. 11° 15' and 24° 10' E., 
 bounded east by the Baltic, the Gulf of Bothnia and 
 Russia, south by the Baltic, west by Norway, the Kat- 
 tegat, and the Sound. Capital, Stockholm. The soil 
 is not generally fertile, and the corn produced was 
 formerly only about two-thirds of that required ; but 
 from the great improvements in agriculture introduced 
 by the government within the present century, and the 
 general introduction of the potato, the produce is now 
 adequate to the consumption. Barley is cultivated as 
 far north as lat. 69°, but the crops frequently fail. Eye, 
 hemp, and potatoes are grown to lat. 66° N. Oats 
 ripen to 63° 30'; wheat and hops cease to be cultivated 
 with advantage beyond lat. 62° N. One-fourth of the 
 surface is covered with forests, but the produce of tim- 
 ber is small ; much is used for fuel, and made into 
 charcoal for use in the mines. There are few woods to 
 the north of lat. 64° N. The principal trees are the 
 pine, fir, and birch. Fish are abundant on the coast, 
 and in the lakes and rivers; the herring-fishery has 
 greatly declined, but lobsters are exported, and salmon 
 is caught in all the principal rivers. The mining dis- 
 tricts of Sweden, mostly in the central provinces, ex- 
 tend over 16,000 square miles ; the chief products are 
 iron, which is distributed over nearly all the country, 
 but the best is found in the Isen Upsala ; the annual 
 produce of all the mines is about 70,000 tons of bar 
 iron. The richest copper mines are at Fahlun ; the 
 annual produce in all is about 1000 tons. Gold is not 
 now sought for, and silver is procured only to a small 
 extent. The other mineral products are cobalt, lime, 
 coal of inferior quality, and porphyry. Manufactures 
 are chiefly confined to articles of domestic use ; the 
 principal are woolens, sugar, tobacco, paper, linens, 
 cotton (in small quantity); tanning is an important 
 branch of industry. Ship-building is carried on to 
 some extent in the ports of the Baltic. Distilling and 
 brewing are extensivelj' prosecuted. The internal com- 
 merce of Sweden is considerable, and Swedish vessels 
 visit most of the Atlantic ports of America, and the 
 Mediterranean. Government is a constitutional mon- 
 archy. — See NoKwAY. 
 
 The Swedish monarchy, comprising Sweden and 
 
 Norw^y^ embraces an area of 292,104 square miles, and 
 
 contains a population of 4,645,000 inhabitants, viz. : 
 
 Sweden. — Area, 110,096 square miles; population, 3,816,530 
 
 Xarway.— " 122,008 " " 1,328,470 
 
 Sweden and Norway have different constitutions, 
 though they are governed by the same king. Their 
 commercial regulations, their tariffs of duties, their 
 laws and revenues, are all separate. Several treaties 
 of peace, amity, and commerce have been negotiated 
 between the United States and these countries; the 
 latest, that of July 4th, 1827, being based upon the 
 liberal principle of entire reciprocity, as well with 
 Sweden and Norway as with the small but flourishing 
 colony of St. Bartholomew, in the West Indies. The 
 following abstract presents the principal stipulations 
 I'especting commerce and navigation ; 
 
 'fhe citizens and subjects of each of the two high 
 contracting parties may, with perfect security for their 
 persons, vessels, and cargoes, freely enter all the ports, 
 
 places, and rivers of the territories of the other, wher- 
 ever foreign commerce is permitted. The vessels of 
 both nations, including those of the island of St. Bar- 
 tholomew, whether laden or in ballast, to be treated in 
 the ports of each, on their entrance, during their stay, 
 and at their departure, upon the same footing as na- 
 tional vessels coming from the same place, with respect 
 to the duties of tonnage, light-houses, pilotage, and port 
 charges, and all other perquisites, duties, and charges, 
 of whatever kind, levied in the name or to the profit 
 of the government, the local authorities, or any private 
 establishment whatever. All merchandise of every 
 description, no matter of what country it may be the 
 produce or manufacture, that may be imported into 
 either country in national vessels (or into Sweden or 
 Norway in vessels of the island of St. Bartholomew), 
 may in like manner, and without paying other or 
 higher duties or charges, of whatever kind or denomi- 
 nation, be imported in the vessels of the other; full 
 and perfect reciprocity and equality in this respect be- 
 ing established. Similar reciprocity and equality be- 
 tween the vessels of each of the high contracting par- 
 ties, including those of the island of St. Bartholomew, 
 in respect to exports from either country, is established. 
 This equality with the national flag is applicable to 
 the vessels of the United States proceeding, either laden 
 or in ballast, to the colony of St. Bartholomew, in the 
 West Indies, whether from ports of the kingdom of 
 Sweden and Norway, or from any other place whatso- 
 ever, or proceeding from the said colony, either laden 
 or in ballast, whether bound for Sweden or Norway, or 
 any other place whatever. The coasting trade is re- 
 served by each party to its own flag, respectively ; the 
 navigation from one port to another in the kingdom 
 of Sweden and Norway, or between these two countries, 
 being considered such coasting trade as respects Swe- 
 den. Duties on the navigation between their respective 
 territories, including the island of St. Bartholomew, in 
 the vessels of either, to be no higher or other than those 
 imposed on every other nation ; and no prohibitions, 
 restrictions, or differential duties, of any kind or de- 
 nomination whatsoever, to be established in respect of 
 the products of the soil or industry of either country, 
 including the island of St. Bartholomew, which shall 
 not equally apply to articles of like nature, the growth 
 of any other country. The privileges of transit, and 
 all bounties and drawbacks which may be allowed 
 within the territories of one of the high contracting 
 parties upon the importation or Exportation of any 
 article whatever, shall likewise be allowed on the arti- 
 cles of like nature, the products of the soil or industry 
 of the other contracting party, and on the importation 
 or exportation made in its vessels. 
 
 The 11th and 12th articles exempt from import and 
 navigation dues (pilotage, wharfage, and light-dues ex- 
 cepted) the vessels of either party arriving in the ports 
 of the other, not wishing to unload any part of their 
 cargoes, or perform any act of trade ; and the privilege 
 is mutually conceded to unload in the ports of either 
 such portions only of their cargoes as the captain or 
 owner may wish, and to depart with the remainder, 
 without paying any duties, imposts, or charges what- 
 soever, except for that part which shall be landed, the 
 proper entries having been made on the vessel's mani- 
 fest. It is understood, however, that all duties, im- 
 posts, or charges whatsoever, which are or may be- 
 come chargeable upon the vessels themselves, must be 
 paid at the first port where they shall break bulk, or 
 unload part of their cargoes ; but that such duties, etc., 
 shall not be paid twice in the ports of the same coun- 
 try which such vessels may afterward wish to enter, 
 unless national vessels be, in such cases, subject to 
 such ulterior duties. 
 
 Article 16 stipulates that on direct voyages between 
 the two countries, respectively, a bill of health, granted 
 at the port of departure by an officer having competent 
 power to that effect, will exempt the vessel from any 
 
SWE 
 
 1781 
 
 SWE 
 
 other quarantine than such as may be necessary for the 
 visit of the health officer of the port where such vessel 
 shall have arrived. Other sanitary regulations are 
 mutually stipulated between the high contracting par- 
 ties, equally liberal and beneficial to commerce. The 
 treaty of 1783, so far as its stipulations are not incon- 
 sistent with the present treaty, is revived; and the 
 usual twelve months' notice, after the expiration of 
 nine years from the exchange of ratifications, is pro- 
 vided for. A separate article reserves, on the part of 
 Sweden, certain commercial privileges to Finland, ap- 
 plicable to the products of that duchy, and of Sweden 
 and Norway, respectively. 
 
 The fisheries, the mines, and the forests of this king- 
 dom were the early sources of Swedish commerce. 
 Macgregor, in his Tariff Regulations of Sweden, cites 
 from Puffendorf, one of the counselors of state to the 
 King of Sweden, the following passage, written in 1680, 
 relative to the productions of this kingdom : " Sweden 
 produces more copper and iron than any other kingdom 
 in the world, and the mines are fitted by nature for 
 that purpose, being surrounded by woods and rivers. 
 There is a silver mine in Westmanland. Finland 
 brings forth pitch, and tar, and deal; andWerman- 
 land [Carlstadt] good store of masts. The native com- 
 modities of Sweden are copper, iron, tar, pitch, masts, 
 deals, boards, etc. In lieu of which, Sweden receives 
 from abroad wine, brandy, salt, spices, cloth, silks, and 
 woolen stuffs, fine linen, French manufactures of all 
 sorts, furs, paper, and such like ; all which, in some 
 years, surpass ill value the commodities exported 
 hence. To recompense this, navigation and commerce 
 has been encouraged of late years among the natives, 
 and several sorts of manufactures are made, whereof 
 those made of copper, iron, and brass would, question- 
 less, turn to the best account, if those artists [black- 
 smiths and copper-smiths] were duly encouraged to set- 
 tle in this kingdom." 
 
 The general character of the resources and foreign 
 commerce of Sweden has undergone but little change 
 since the foregoing was written. The extent and value 
 have varied somewhat, but by no means in a ratio cor- 
 responding with the more enlightened and the more 
 liberal commercial policy of the age. This is mainly 
 owing to the restrictive tariff policj', which still obtains 
 in Sweden, by which duties, equivalent in many cases 
 to actual prohibition, are levied upon many articles of 
 prime necessity, both for immediate consumption and 
 manufacturing purposes. 
 
 The following table exhibits the general foreign 
 trade of Sweden during the year 1854, compared with 
 the general result for the preceding j'ears designated : 
 
 Navigation of Sweden in 
 
 1854. 
 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Arrived. 
 
 Cleared. J 
 
 Vesjcls. 
 
 Lasts 
 
 Vessele. 
 
 .Laete. 
 
 
 1,306 
 
 1,536 
 
 81 
 
 397 
 
 4,415 
 
 171 
 
 679 
 
 66 
 
 34 
 
 6 
 
 81 
 
 27 
 
 1,347 
 
 190 
 
 90 
 
 179 
 
 S3 
 
 "26 
 
 10 
 53 
 
 ■'is 
 
 50,31.9 
 18,697 
 
 1,201 
 17,157 
 86,814 
 
 7,802 
 21,251 
 
 4,369 
 
 2,173 
 279 
 
 6,935 
 
 3,346 
 126,411 
 20,778 
 10,312 
 17,569 
 
 3,665 
 
 6,214 
 1,256 
 6,087 
 
 i,940 
 
 982 
 
 1,442 
 
 78 
 
 336 
 
 4,400 
 
 142 
 
 462 
 
 33 
 
 22 
 
 5 
 
 144 
 
 40 
 
 1,778 
 
 364 
 
 73 
 
 82 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 2 
 
 25 
 
 36 
 
 "37 
 12 
 20 
 27 
 
 20,774 
 
 15,996 
 
 951 
 
 10,470 
 
 74,035 
 
 6,963 
 
 19,801 
 
 1,763 
 
 989 
 
 131 
 
 7,290 
 
 3,829 
 
 172,523 
 
 40,326 
 
 3,891 
 
 7,266 
 
 2,438 
 
 2,772 
 
 148 
 
 3,776 
 
 8,385 
 
 4,515 
 2,101 
 3,442 
 3,607 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lubeck 
 
 
 
 Hanover & Oldenburg 
 
 
 Great Brit, and Ireland 
 
 
 
 Italy 
 
 
 
 
 
 Wpr*- Tndips 
 
 Brazil 
 
 America generally 
 
 E.' Indies and AuBti-alia 
 
 Cape of Good Hope... 
 
 Total 
 
 10,648 
 
 418,655 
 
 10,574 
 
 422,168 
 
 COMMEECE OF SWEDEN IN 1854. 
 
 Rix Dollars Banco. 
 Coustriea. 
 
 Importa. Exporla. 
 
 Nonvay 4,032,000 2,241,000 
 
 Finland 1,453,000 276,000 
 
 Euasia 306,000 133,000 
 
 Prussia 1,165,000 2,630,000 
 
 Denmark 2,627,000 7,101,000 
 
 Mecklenburg 32,000 448,000 
 
 Lubeck 19,129,000 4,021,000 
 
 Hamburg 1,777,000 406,000 
 
 Bremen 421,000 321,000 
 
 Hanover and Oldenburg . 1,000 38,000 
 
 Netherlands 626,000 1,381,000 
 
 Belgium 181,000 389,000 
 
 Great Britain and Ireland 9,264,000 23,093,000 
 
 France 738,000 3,035,000 
 
 Spain 604,000 1,081,000 
 
 Portugal 461,000 1,392,000 
 
 Italy 206,000 367,000 
 
 Gibraltar 74,000 
 
 Austria 253,000 
 
 Algiers 362,000 
 
 United States 3,260,000 2,173,000 
 
 Westlndles 601,000 
 
 Brazil 6,071,000 626,000 
 
 America generally 180,000 
 
 East Indies and Australia 688,000 484,000 
 
 Cape of Good Hope .... 315,000 
 
 Total, 1864 52,437,000 52,810,000 
 
 " 1847 28,040,000 30,920,000 
 
 " 1S46 20,600,000 24,880,000 
 
 " 1840 18,308,000 20,437,000 
 
 " 1830 11,160,000 13,337,000 
 
 " 1821 11,143,000 12,161,000 
 
 The preceding table exhibits the following results : 
 
 Increase In 1830 over 1821 1,183,000 rix dollars banco. 
 
 " 1840 over 1830 14,258,000 
 
 " 1846 over 1840 6,735,000 " 
 
 " 1847 over 1846 13,480,000 
 
 1864 over 1847 46,387,000 " 
 
 Notwithstanding the annual augmentation in the 
 general foreign commerce of Sweden, which the above 
 summary exhibits, the trade with the United States 
 has been marked with but little variation. 
 
 The total trade with the United States in 1847, ac- 
 cording to Swedish official authorities, amounted in 
 value to 3,341,000 rix dollars banco, or 3S8,880 rix dol- 
 lars banco less than 1840, while it exceeded that of 1845 
 by 779,000 rix dollars banco. In the trade between the 
 United States and Sweden and Norway, there are but 
 comparatively few American vessels employed. The 
 following comparative statements will show the pro- 
 portion between American and foreign (mostly Swedish 
 and Norwegian) tonnage employed in this trade. A 
 period of ten years, from 1845 to 1854, is selected, as 
 affording a fair average: American tonnage employed 
 in the direct trade between the United States and 
 Sweden and Norway, from 1845 to 1854, 47,638 tons. 
 Average annual tonnage, 4763-8 tons. Foreign (chiefly 
 Swedish and Norwegian) tonnage employed in the trade 
 between the United States and Sweden and Norway, 
 during the above period, 232,089 tons. Average an- 
 nual tonnage, 23,2089 tons, or nearly 500 per cent, of 
 foreign over American tonnage annually employed in 
 the trade between the United States and Norway and 
 Sweden. In 1847 the imports of Sweden amounted to 
 nearly 11,160,000 dollars (United States currency). Of 
 this sum Swedish and Norwegian vessels floated nearly 
 nine million dollars, or four-fifths of the whole. The 
 exports reached the sum of $12,276,000, of which the 
 Swedish flag covered over seven and a half millions, or 
 about three-fifths of the whole. 
 
 The following are the principal colonial products 
 entering into the imports during 1847, in kilograms of 
 2-20 lbs. each. 
 
 Sugar kilogs. 8,085,000 
 
 Coffee " 3,035,000 
 
 Cotton " 2,072,000 
 
 Toiacoo " 1,212,000 
 
 Dye-Toods " 500,000 
 
 Wines and spirits litres. 2,150,000 
 
 Of the exports, iron occupies the next rank to tim- 
 ber. The quantity exported in bars reached 82,212,000 
 kilograms, or about 185,000,000 lbs. 
 
SWE 
 
 1782 
 
 SWE 
 
 TaoN (iN0Ln>iNG Cast anb other Steel) imported ikto 
 THE Uhited States fkom Sweden xvd Norway. 
 
 years. Cwt. Valuoa. 
 
 1845 27J,490 $6:6,166 
 
 1846 256,683 717,116 
 
 184T 288,464 609,729 
 
 1848... 290,033 740,078 
 
 1849 .. 295,359 720,206 
 
 18.50 897,281 1,026,687 
 
 1851 409,008 942,961 
 
 1862 .'... 289,391 778,674 
 
 1863" 181,049 445,808 
 
 1854 208,137 510,221 
 
 1865' ' 296,600 844,283 
 
 1856 280,690 870,759 
 
 1867!'. 238,434 741,446 
 
 The value of iron quite equals the entire value of 
 imports into the United States from Sweden for each 
 3-ear during the period specified. The export of iron 
 ore is prohibited. The annual average quantity pro- 
 duced the last five years is estimated at 300,000 tons. 
 The quantity manufactured during the same period is 
 stated to have been 140,000, and 100,000 tons of bar 
 iron. The annual average of the latter exported wag 
 80,000 tons. The average price of pig-iron in Sweden 
 is 8 rix dollars banco the skeppund — 7J skeppunds to 
 the ton, or $24 the ton. The iron mines of Sweden be- 
 long to joint-stock companies principallj'. About two- 
 fifths of the pig-iron is purchased and manufactured 
 into bar-iron by iron-masters who own no mines ; but 
 the remaining three-fifths are manufactured by the com- 
 panies that own the mines themselves. The produc- 
 tion of pig-iron was formerly limited to a certain spec- 
 ified quantity, whether the capabilities of the mines 
 and miners would admit of more or not. Under this 
 unwise regulation of the government, which it is said 
 was adopted to prevent the exhaustion of the fuel of 
 the kingdom, the coal and forests, the annual produc- 
 tion never exceeded 90,000 tons. These limitations 
 have for some years been done away with ; nor is there 
 at present any limitation, beyond a matter of form, to 
 the manufacture of bar-iron. The following statement, 
 showing the exportation of iron from 1834 to 1849, is 
 from Swedish official returns : 
 
 From 1834 to 1838, annual average 79,800 tons. 
 
 " 1839 to 1843 " 80,200 " 
 
 " 1844 to 1843 " 92,Q00 " 
 
 In 1840 88,500 " 
 
 The above exports were destined principally to the 
 following countries, and in annual average quantities 
 as follows : 
 
 Great Britain 33,000 tons. 
 
 United States 19,850 " 
 
 Denmark 8,150 " 
 
 France 5,200 " 
 
 Small quantities, in the shape of cannon, bomb- 
 shells, etc., are sent to Norway, Holland, and Den- 
 mark. The number of blast furnaces in operation in 
 1850 was 220 ; of workmen employed in mining the 
 ore, 6241 ; of mines, 686. The importation of cotton in 
 1851, according to Swedish official authorities, amount- 
 ed to 7,989,428 lbs., against 1,832,431 lbs. in 1841, and 
 794,434 lbs. in 1831. In 1843 these authorities show 
 an importation of 2,600,000 lbs., against 9,883,672 lbs. 
 in 1853, which latter amount exceeded that of the im- 
 portation of 1852 by 1,247,041 lbs., and that of 1850 by 
 more than 5,200,000 lbs., being the largest of any pre- 
 ceding year. In 1848 the amount was 8,074,020 lbs. 
 The value of cotton manufactures exported to Sweden 
 in 1860 was $46,000, against $7500 only in 1851. It 
 may be well now to inquire into the operation of the 
 tarifFs of the two countries respectively upon the lead- 
 ing staples of each, chiefly with a view to ascertain to 
 what extent the importation of such products contrib- 
 utes to the respective customs revenue of each country. 
 The character of the commercial legislation of the two 
 nations, in its effects upon the importation' of staple 
 articles of prime necessity, from each into the other, 
 ■will best show how far the reciprocity stipulated in the 
 treaty of 1827 has been carried into practical operation. 
 This inquiry may lead to useful and obvious sugges- 
 
 tions, especially if it results in demonstrating that a 
 positive inequality exists in practice, under which one 
 government derives fully one-fifth of its entire customs 
 revenue annually from a cent-per-cent. duty on a lead- 
 ing staple of the other, without tendering any compen- 
 sating equivalent for a tax so oppressive. 
 
 The importation of unmanufactured American to- 
 bacco into Sweden and Norway (including direct and 
 indirect importations) amounted in 1851 to more than 
 6,500,000 lbs., which, under a duty equal to cent-per- 
 cent, ad valorem, paid into the Swedish treasury about 
 $330,000, or one-fifth of the whole customs revenue of 
 the kingdom — and this upon the single article of to- 
 bacco ; while the entire exports of Sweden and Nor- 
 way to the United States (amounting to $967,237) paid 
 into the Treasury of the United States, at 30 per cent., 
 but a trifle more than $290,000 ! In the mean time, 
 nearly 40,000 tons of Swedish and Norwegian shipping 
 were carrying profitable American freights on every 
 sea, while but 4000 tons of United States shipping made 
 single voyages direct to Sweden and Norway. Not- 
 withstanding the most earnest and repeated remon- 
 strances against these unequal restrictions, and this 
 one-sided reciprocity, no amelioration has yet taken 
 place in the tariff regulations of Sweden. It is true, 
 some reductions have been admitted in the tariff of 
 1862 on certain articles which enter into American ex- 
 ports. The duties upon coffee, sugar, arrack, and un- 
 dressed hides were several!}- reduced 33J-, 25, 12J, and 
 8J per cent., and upon rice in the husk, or paddy, 16'6 
 per cent. But these concessions were clogged to such 
 an extent by tlie repeal of the 24th article of the tariff 
 of 1849, that American commerce, so far from gaining 
 anj' advantage by them, will be found, by the simple 
 process of striking a balance between the results of the 
 redi^ctions and of the repeal, to be subjected to new 
 and oppressive burdens. The 24th article, or the dif- 
 ferential clause, appended to the tariff of 1849, reduced 
 the duties upon certain merchandise imported and ex- 
 ported in Swedish or Norwegian vessels, as follows : 
 Swedish vessels navigating to distant countries will 
 continue to enjoy the advantage of the following re- 
 duction in duties of customs and convoy imposts, viz. : 
 
 Of 15 per cent, on the produce and manufactures of 
 countries situated on the continent of America north of 
 the 26th degree of north latitude, or of any of the for- 
 eign colonies in the. West Indies, if imported direct 
 from thence in Swedish ships ; and of the like reduc- 
 tion on Swedish produce and manufactures exported 
 direct to foreign colonies in the "West Indies. 
 
 Of 25 per cent, on Swedish produce and manufac- 
 tures exported in Swedish ships direct to the island of 
 St. Bartholomew, to places on the east coast of the con- 
 tinent of America south of the 25th degree of north lat- 
 itude, or to the Cape of Good Hope ; and the like re- 
 duction on the produce and manufactures of those coun- 
 tries imported direct into Sweden in Swedish vessels. 
 
 Of 33J- per cent, on Swedish produce and manufac- 
 tures exported in Swedish ships direct to places on the 
 other side of the Cape of Good Hope, as also to ports 
 on the other side of Cape Horn ; and on the produce 
 and manufactures of those ports and places imported 
 from thence direct in Swedish ships. Under the treaty, 
 these privileges apply equally to American vessels. 
 
 The effect of the repeal of this article is, that ever)' 
 thing imported from America, except the articles above 
 enumerated, has been chargeable since 1st of January, 
 1853 — the day when the repeal took effect — with duties 
 15 per cent, higher than before that period. The re- 
 peal of this clause was granted as a concession, to silence 
 the united and vigorous remonstrances of England and 
 Holland against the operation of the Swedish tariff 
 regulations. On the article of tobacco alone the com- 
 merce of the United States is burdened with additional 
 duties amounting to $35,000 per annum — enough to 
 affect materially the sale of this American staple in the 
 markets of that country ; and a trifling reduction of 
 
SWE 
 
 1783 
 
 SWE 
 
 duty upon rice is the only acknowledgment which the 
 government of Sweden has yet made of the injustice 
 of these oppressive restrictions. The following table 
 exhibits the working of the existing treaty between 
 the United States and Sweden during the years 1845, 
 1846, 1847, 1848, and 1849, so far, at least, as it relates 
 to the commerce between the two countries. It is 
 translated and compiled from Swedish of&cial publica- 
 tions : 
 
 I.MPOBT AH1> EXPOET TbADB OP SWEDEN WITH THE UNITED 
 
 States during tue Years specified. 
 
 1845. 
 1S48. 
 184T. 
 184S. 
 184T . 
 
 Imports. 
 
 By AmorlCBn 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Per Cent. 
 26 
 IG 
 30 
 26 
 3T 
 
 By Swedish 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Par Cent. 
 51 
 56 
 50 
 51 
 51 
 
 Exports, 
 
 By Americnn 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Per Cent. 
 31) 
 14 
 12 
 16 
 25 
 
 By Swedish 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Per Cent. 
 55 
 6T 
 SO 
 50 
 55 
 
 TpDACCO LMPORTED INTO SWEDEN, WITH THE FeOPOKTION 
 FROM THE UWITED STATES. 
 
 1846. 
 1840. 
 1847. 
 1848. 
 1849. 
 
 Total Importfl. 
 
 Leaf. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 2,436,000 
 2,523,000 
 1,024,000 
 2,186,000 
 2,358,000 
 
 Pounds. 
 l,i>86,000 
 1,632,000 
 
 911,000 
 1,363,000 
 1,405,000 
 
 Direct from United States. 
 
 Leaf. 
 
 Founds. 
 1,691,000 
 1,679,000 
 1,655,000 
 1,462,000 
 1,440,000 
 
 Founds. 
 
 1,156,000 
 991,000 
 540,000 
 999,000 
 
 1,259,000 
 
 The following statement shows the amount of Amer- 
 ican tonnage arrived at Swedish ports, and amount of 
 Swedish tonnage arrived at United States ports direct 
 from each country, or from foreign nations ; also, 
 amount of Swedish tonnage arrived at transatlantic 
 ports from the. United States, with full cargoes : 
 American Tonnage arrived at Swedish Ports. 
 
 In 1845 5500 tons. 
 
 In 1846 1700 " 
 
 In 1847 1400 " 
 
 InlS4S 4000 " 
 
 In 1849 3800 " 
 
 Swedish Tonnage arrived at American Torts. 
 
 In 1845 17,000 tons. 
 
 la 1846 , 14,500 , , " 
 
 Inl847. 21,000 " 
 
 Inl848 17,000 " 
 
 Inl849 17,000 " 
 
 Swedish Tonnage arrived at European Ports from the 
 United States. 
 
 In 1S45 , 60,000 tons. 
 
 InlS46 56,000 " 
 
 Iiil847 60.000 " 
 
 Inl843 53,000 " 
 
 Inl843 64,000 " 
 
 According to the laws of Sweden, each triennial Diet 
 proposes a new tariff, which is designed to remain in 
 force three years ; the king having, in the mean time, 
 constitutional power to lower, but not to raise, any du- 
 ties whatever, provided a certain sum be obtained from 
 the customs. The tariff of 1852 continued in force un- 
 til January 1, 1855. In the Diet of 1854 many import- 
 ant reductions were recommended by the committee on 
 revenue, but they declined recommending any precise 
 change on tobacco duties. They referred this subject 
 to the king, to whom a recommendation was made to 
 enter into negotiations with foreign governments, with 
 a view to obtain reductions upon Swedish produce in 
 exchange for lighter tobacco duties. These negotia- 
 tions were understood to refer chiefly to iron duties in 
 the United States. Among the Ieduotiqn^ proposed 
 by this committee are the following : 
 Indian corn to be reduced from 40 to 10 cents per barrel. 
 Cotton tjiread, from 20 to 13 cents per.pound. 
 Wool, from 5 cents to'li cent per pound. 
 Dye-woods, from 1 per cent, ad valorem to free. 
 £ope, from 20 to 13 cents per 18} lbs. 
 Salt, from 30 to 14 cents per barrel. 
 Copper, raw, from $2 to 40 cents per 375 lbs. 
 Copper, refined, from $8 to $1 60 per 375 lbs. 
 Copper plates, from $13 35 to $2 TO per 875 lbs. 
 Steamrengines, from 20 and 10 per cent, to 5 per cent, ad 
 valorem. 
 
 Tools and machinery, not specially enumerated, from 25 to 
 5 per cent, ad valorem. 
 
 The alterations recommended by this committee 
 were generally adopted. After January 1, 1856, the 
 articles prohibited by the tariff of 1855 are to be ad- 
 mitted at a duty equal, generally, to 25 per cent., ex- 
 cept gunpowder, pig-iron, and certain kinds of brandj'. 
 Tobacco remains as under the tariff of 1852, and will 
 doubtless be reserved as a basis for such negotiations 
 as the Swedish government may have in con^mplation 
 relative to iron duties in the United States. The prin- 
 cipal reductions, though not of great importance to 
 American commerce with Sweden, apply to fire-arms, 
 cheese, printed cotton, undyed cotton, yarn, codfish 
 (dried and salted), logwood (made free), Indian corn 
 (committee's recommendation adopted), salted meat, 
 smoked or dried do., spermaceti candles (reduced 50 
 per cent.), rosin (do.), rice. 
 
 Description and Quantities of certain Merchandise im- 
 ported INTO Sweden in the Years 1851 and 1852. 
 
 Articles. 1851. 1852. 
 
 Sugar, loaf pounds ■ 54,509 821,898 
 
 " other kinds. " 24,700,329 25,046,752 
 
 Coffee " 9,613,934 10,373,004 
 
 Cotton ' " 7,989,428 8,636,531 
 
 Tobacco stems •' 1,448,187 1,858,688 
 
 ■Wines and spirits., kanna 290,633 312,155 
 
 Besides the articles above speciiied, the returns for 
 1852 show an increase over 1851 in the following de- 
 scriptions of merchandise, viz. ; 
 
 Articles. 1851. 1852. 
 
 Cotton yarn pounds 962,993 1,249,783 
 
 Hides " 3,061,574 3,410,422 
 
 Linseed-oil " 492,914 1,109,130 
 
 Coal " 634,939 583,413 
 
 Cast steel i " 26,238 64,958 
 
 Sulphuric acid " 189,225 , 196,834 
 
 Soap " 140,403 182,260 
 
 The principal articles of which the importation in 
 1852 was less than that of 1851 were cocoa, fish (dried 
 and smoked), salt, cheese, spirits of turpentine, tobacco 
 (leaf and cut), fish-oil, wool, etc. 
 
 The exports of articles of doniestic produce from the 
 United States to Sweden and Norway for the year 
 ending June 30, 1857, may be thus divided : Cotton, 
 $1,249,042; tobacco, $84,871 ; other articles, 39,393— 
 total, $1,373,306. 
 
 The navigation returns for 1852 show a total of 7303 
 vessels entered, with an aggregate of 343,693 lasts. Of 
 the total number of vessels, there were Swedish 4154, 
 measuring an aggregate of 133,963 lasts ; 1288 vessels, 
 carrj-ing in all 109,272 lasts, under the Norwegian flag ; 
 550 vessels of 34,025 lasts, belonging to Finland; and 
 1311 vessels, measurinfg 66,433 lasts, under foreign 
 flags.— Com. Rel. U. S. 
 
 Principal Ports. — Gottenburgo, or more properly 
 GSthaborg, on the southwest coast of Sweden, border- 
 ing the Cattegat, near the mouth of the Eiver Gotha, 
 lat. 57° 42' 4" N., long. 11° 57' 45" E. Vessels do 
 not come up clftse to the city, but lie in the river or 
 harbor, at a short distance from the shore — goods being 
 conveyed to and from them by lighters. The depth of 
 water in the port is 17 feet, and there is no tide, bar, 
 or shallow. 
 
 Stockholm, the* capital of Sweden, situated at the 
 junction of Lake Mseler with an inlet into the Baltic. 
 The entrance to the harbor is intricate and dangerous, 
 and should not be attempted without a pilot ; but the 
 harbor itself is capacious and excellent — ^the largest 
 vessels lying in close to the quays. — See Stockholm. 
 
 Bergen, the first commercial city of Norway, sit- 
 uated at the head of a deep bay, in lat. 60° 24' N., and 
 long. 5^^ 20' E. The bay is inclosed on all sides by 
 rugged rocks and islands ; the water is deep, but the 
 entrance to the town is difficult, and needs a pilot. 
 
 Mamifactures, — The value of manufactures of all 
 kinds at registered factories was : In 1839, $5,439,123 ; 
 in 1846, $7,084,947; in 1848, $8,368,348; in 1849, 
 $9,239,899; in 1850, $9,891,072; ill 1851, $9,913,866, 
 showing an increase since 1839 of $4,474,743 ; since 
 1846, of $2,828,919 ; and since 1849, of $673,967. 
 
SWE 
 
 1784 
 
 SWE 
 
 COMMEEOE OF 
 
 THE United States with Sweden and Noeway feom Ootobee 1, 1820, tc 
 
 July 1, 1 
 
 55T. 
 
 Yeara ending 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Whereof there was in 
 Bullion and Specie. 
 
 Tonnage 
 
 cleared. 
 
 Domestic. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Export. 
 
 Import. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Ameriean. 
 
 Sept. 30, 1821 
 
 $154,213 
 
 $62,968 
 
 $217,181 
 
 $769,753 
 
 
 $10,139 
 
 1,016 
 
 904 
 
 1822 
 
 180,411 
 
 80,210 
 
 260,621 
 
 1,151,788 
 
 
 
 2,231 
 
 1,208 
 
 1823 
 
 161,037 
 
 147,191 
 
 298,228 
 
 1,317,242 
 
 
 2,000 
 
 3,060 
 
 880 
 
 1824 
 
 163,725 
 
 161,033 
 
 324,768 
 
 998,915 
 
 
 300 
 
 2,832 
 
 1,560 
 
 1825 
 
 222,164 
 
 112,378 
 
 334,642 
 
 1,336,896 
 
 
 3,080 
 
 3,436 
 
 702 
 
 
 126,034 
 
 88,489 
 
 214,523 
 
 1,128,236 
 
 
 3,000 
 
 2,65S 
 
 518 
 
 182T 
 
 201,488 
 
 207,553 
 
 409,041 
 
 1,015,507 
 
 
 4,400 
 
 3,731 
 
 1,630 
 
 1828 
 
 256,632 
 
 215,222 
 
 471,754 
 
 1,670,788 
 
 
 
 5,005 
 
 1,7T6 
 
 1829 
 
 122,663 
 
 126,971 
 
 249,634 
 
 1,020,910 
 
 
 3,000 
 
 2,265 
 
 1,U4 
 
 1830 
 
 Total. . . 
 
 181,353 
 
 189,949 
 
 371,302 
 
 1,168,110 
 
 $773 
 
 1,110 
 
 3,502 
 
 2,023 
 
 $1,769,620 
 
 $1,391,964 
 
 $3,151,584 
 
 $11,467,145 
 
 $773 
 
 $27,029 
 
 30,375 
 
 12,275 
 
 Sept. 30,1831 
 
 $190,511 
 
 $86,619 
 
 $277,030 
 
 $901,812 
 
 
 
 3,232 
 
 472 
 
 1832 
 
 214,048 
 
 152,366 
 
 366,413 
 
 1,097,394 
 
 
 
 1,868 
 
 3,078 
 
 1833 
 
 244,687 
 
 70,262 
 
 314,849 
 
 1,168,697 
 
 
 
 1,806 
 
 2,898 
 
 1834 
 
 277,237 
 
 128,502 
 
 405,793 
 
 1,079,327 
 
 
 
 1,437 
 
 3,486 
 
 183.5 
 
 416,078 
 
 100,160 
 
 516,233 
 
 1,285,178 
 
 
 
 1,520 
 
 2.703 
 
 1836 
 
 528,988 
 
 89,658 
 
 618,541 
 
 1,243„189 
 
 
 
 1,926 
 
 2,807 
 
 1837 
 
 211,700 
 
 208,704 
 
 420,404 
 
 1,399,901 
 
 
 
 1,331 
 
 4,034 
 
 1838 
 
 210,745 
 
 66,686 
 
 277,431 
 
 854,771 
 
 
 $6,027 
 
 1,412 
 
 1,039 
 
 1839 
 
 337,000 
 
 26,502 
 
 353,602 
 
 1,653,684 
 
 
 
 797 
 
 2,608 
 
 1840 
 
 Total... 
 
 436,092, 
 
 116,134 
 
 060,226 
 
 1,217,913 
 
 
 
 1,118 
 
 5,936 
 
 $3,065,981 
 
 $1,044,452. 
 
 $4,110,433 
 
 $11,801,866 
 
 
 $6,027 
 
 16,447 
 
 29,711 
 
 Sept. 30, 1841 
 
 $563,766 
 
 $38,563 
 
 $602,319 
 
 $1,209,881 
 
 
 $2,000 
 
 2,215 
 
 3,816 
 
 1842 
 
 238,948 
 
 105,970 
 
 344.918 
 
 890,934 
 
 .... 
 
 
 1.311 
 
 5,161 
 
 9mo8., 1843* 
 
 18,381 
 
 16,807 
 
 34,188 
 
 227,356 
 
 
 
 780 
 
 488 
 
 June 30, 1844 
 
 217,870 
 
 12,231 
 
 230,101 
 
 421,834 
 
 
 
 
 4,629 
 
 1845 
 
 260,667 
 
 22,761 
 
 273,328 
 
 627,938 
 
 
 
 349 
 
 6,243 
 
 1846 
 
 S62,792 
 
 39,546 
 
 402,337 
 
 724,865 
 
 
 
 693 
 
 7,765 
 
 184T 
 
 391,847 
 
 28,340 
 
 420,187 
 
 613,698 
 
 .... 
 
 
 
 6,263 
 
 1848 
 
 628,972 
 
 32,844 
 
 668.816 
 
 760,817 
 
 
 
 2,138 
 
 10,648 
 
 1849 
 
 725,281 
 
 88,606 
 
 763,787 
 
 731,846 
 
 
 
 1,531 
 
 14,718 
 
 1850 
 
 Total. . . 
 
 668,530 
 
 61,610 
 
 720,190 
 
 1,032,117 
 
 
 
 04-) 
 
 9,822 
 
 $4,064,004 
 
 $386,167 
 
 $4,450,171 
 
 $7,231,286 
 
 
 $2,000 
 
 0,666 
 
 69,468 
 
 June 30, 1861 
 
 $760,800 
 
 $21,566 
 
 $782,366 
 
 $907,237 
 
 
 
 1,645 
 
 9,038 
 
 1852 
 
 732,846 
 
 25,322 
 
 758.168 
 
 775,448 
 
 
 
 3,640 
 
 6,647 
 
 1853 
 
 833,633 
 
 18,735 
 
 852,268 
 
 447,332 
 
 
 
 3,217 
 
 0,153 
 
 18.54 
 
 1,086,602 
 
 39,324 
 
 1,124,920 
 
 515,178 
 
 
 
 4,731 
 
 4,890 
 
 1855 
 
 049,017 
 
 28,793 
 
 977,810 
 
 848,900 
 
 
 
 4,601 
 
 4,850 
 
 1856 
 
 1,871,645 
 
 47,718 
 
 1,919,363 
 
 871,246 
 
 
 
 9,461 
 
 8,D60 
 
 185T 
 
 1,373,306 
 
 27,120 
 
 1,400,426 
 
 744,812 
 
 
 
 3,432 
 
 5,592 
 
 Nine moaths to June 30, and the fiscal year from this time begins July 1. 
 
 The importation of raw cotton into Sweden in 1851 
 amounted to 7,989,428 lbs., being larger than the im- 
 portation of the previous year by 3,338,688 lbs. It was, 
 moreover, the largest quantity over imported in a single 
 year, except in 1848, when the amount was 8i074,020 
 lbs. In 1831 the amount imported was 794,434 lbs., 
 and in 1841, 1,832,431 lbs. The amount of cotton twist 
 produced in Sweden in 1851 was 6,005,081 lbs. (chiefly 
 No. 26), and was valued at $1,311,777. In 1850 the 
 quantity was 5,734,332 lbs., and the value $1,279,960. 
 The amount of cotton cloth manufactured in 1851 was 
 1,730,000 English yards, and the number of people 
 employed in registered cotton factories was over 3000. 
 In 1850 the value of exported cotton manufactures was 
 $46,000. In 1851 it decreased to $7500. In 1850, 
 imported cotton cloth, 170,000 lbs. ; imported cotton 
 twist, 893,000 lbs. : total, 1,063,000 lbs. In 1851, im- 
 ported cotton cloth, 195,500 lbs. ; imported cotton twist, 
 1,068,000 lbs. : total, 1,263,500 lbs. Tobacco was im- 
 ported in 1851 into Sweden to the amount of 4,141,599 
 lbs., of which only 42,642 lbs. were manufactured. 
 Of the whole amount 2,567,982 lbs. came direct from 
 the United States ; the remainder chiefly from German 
 ports. In 1850 the importation was 3,370,399 lbs. ; 
 41,795 lbs. manufactured. At 79 tobacco manufactories 
 in the kingdom there were emploj'ed, in 1851, 1277 
 workmen, and the sales were valued at $647,120 ; con- 
 sisting of 200,175 lbs. of cigars, 2,750,723 lbs. of snuff, 
 and 1,632,555 lbs. of other prepared tobacco; in all 
 4,583,453 lbs. Tobacco, in small quantity, and of very 
 bad quality, is grown in the neighborhood of Stock- 
 holm, but I believe in no other part of the kingdom. 
 It should be remembered that the accompanj-ing table 
 and the foregoing notices of Swedish woven goods refer 
 only to the registered factories, and do not exhibit half 
 of the actual manufactures of the kingdom. None of 
 the homespun cloths are included, for which, of every 
 
 description, the Swedish peasantrj' are remarkable, 
 and of which, unfortunately, it is impossible to obtain 
 exact accounts of the value or quantity. The province 
 or county most distinguished for these productions is 
 that of Elfsborg, of which Gottenburg is the market. 
 The home-made manufactures of this province, over 
 and above the amount consumed by its own inhab- 
 itants, were, in 1850 and 1851 (inclusive of stocldngs, 
 quilts, and ribbons), as follows ; 
 
 1850— Cotton stuffs 4,842,000 English yards. 
 
 " LineastuSfs 275,200 " 
 
 " Woolen stuffs 392,170 " 
 
 " Cotton handlcerchiefs . . . 1,448,928 pieces. 
 
 1851— Cotton stuffs 4,752,600 English yards. 
 
 " Linen stuffs 270,800 
 
 " Woolen stuffs 340,161 " 
 
 " Cotton handkerchiefs .. . 1,086,281 pieces. 
 
 These quantities have slightly diminished of lato 
 years, and the registered factories are accordingly en- 
 couraged. 
 
 The homespun manufactures of Gefleborg which 
 were sold in 1849 amounted to 1,423,333 yards ; those 
 of Westmoreland to 305,333 yards ; and those of Hol- 
 land to 162,700 yards. 
 
 The productions of other provinces are not given re- 
 liably ; but enough is known to prove that the amount 
 of such fabrics is considerably greater than that of the 
 registered manufactures; and their productions, es- 
 peciall}' of linen cloth, surpass in durability, and rival 
 in fineness, the best productions of the factories. 
 
 The value of manufactures of all kinds at registered 
 factories was : In 1839, $5,439,123; in 1846, $7,084,947; 
 in 1850, $9,891,072; in 1853, $10,151,724; in 1854, 
 $11,841,613 ; and in 1855, $14,437,645. It will be seen, 
 therefore, that the increase in ten years has been near- 
 ly $7,000,000 (100 per cent.), and in twelve months 
 $2,500,000. The importation of raw cotton into Swe- 
 den in 1855 reached to 14,783,529 lbs. ; in 1853 the 
 
SWE 
 
 1785 
 
 SWE 
 
 amount was 9,883,672 lbs. ; in 1843, 2,600,000 lbs. ; in 
 1831, 794,434 lbs. ; showing an increase in twelve years 
 of more than 12,000,000 lbs. The amount of cotton 
 twist produced in 1865, chiefly of a quality under " No. 
 26," was 10,598,093 lbs., valued at $2,168,625, exceed- 
 ing the amount of the preceding year by 2,393,823 lbs. 
 The amount of cotton cloth produced does not appear 
 to have been ascertained, as the official report gives the 
 amount indiscriminately with linen. Their joint value 
 in 1866 was equivalent to $662,489, nearly twice great- 
 er than in 1863. In 1845 their value was $188,787. 
 The importation of unmanufactured tobacco into Swe- 
 den in 1865 amounted to 4,532,616 lbs., being 573,626 
 lbs. more than in 1854. In 1863 the amount was 
 4,831,722 lbs. The importation of manufactured to- 
 bacco in 1856 was 66,206 lbs., somewhat more than 
 10,000 lbs. less than in 1853. Cousiderablj' more than 
 half the tobacco consumed in Sweden is imported di- 
 rectly from the United States. The amount directly 
 from the United States in 1858 was over 3,100,000 lbs. 
 The accompanying table is necessarily confined to the 
 returns of registered factories, and, unfortunately, exact 
 accounts of homespun fabrics, for which this country 
 is remarkable, can not be had. The province most dis- 
 tinguished for these productions is that of Elfsborg, 
 adjoining the province of Gottenburg. In Elfsborg it 
 appears that in 1856 the home-made goods, over and 
 above the quantity consumed by its own inhabitants 
 (about 250,000 souls), amounted to 9,047,606 English 
 yards of cotton cloth, together with 1,668,566 cotton 
 handkerchiefs. Also, linen fabrics, 259,329 English 
 yards ; woolen fabrics, 392,425 English yards ; show- 
 ing an increase in cotton weaving since 1853 of more 
 than 8,300,000 English yards. In the province of 
 Gefieborg there were woven by the peasants, in their 
 homes; no less than 2,077,000 ells (or 1,384,666 English 
 yards) of heavy linen. Other districts also are almost 
 
 equally distinguished for cotton and linen homespun 
 
 fabrics of excellent quality. 
 
 Review of Swedish begistbked Manupactuees ih^1855, 
 
 TUEiB Values, Number of Operatives, and Numbee of 
 
 Establishments. 
 
 Species of Maoufacture. 
 
 Cotton and linen, woven 
 
 Cotton twist 
 
 Woolen cloth 
 
 Silk cloth 
 
 Kibbon and tape 
 
 Sail-cloth 
 
 Stockings 
 
 Calico printing 
 
 Sugar 
 
 Tobacco 
 
 Paper 
 
 Leather 
 
 Dye-houses 
 
 Glass 
 
 China 
 
 Earthen-ware. 
 
 Oil 
 
 Porter 
 
 Wax candles 
 
 Stearin 
 
 Soap 
 
 Rope 
 
 Clocks 
 
 Playing cards 
 
 Wall paper 
 
 Colors and acids 
 
 Coaches 
 
 Lucifer matches 
 
 Engines 
 
 Various small manufactures 
 Total, 18S5 
 
 No. of 
 Facto- 
 ries. 
 
 30 
 
 16 
 
 106 
 
 12 
 
 11 
 
 T 
 
 18 
 
 21 
 
 17 
 
 90 
 
 90 
 
 650 
 
 449 
 
 IT 
 
 2 
 
 B3 
 
 62 
 
 22 
 133 
 7 
 9 
 16 
 19 
 7 
 29 
 636 
 
 No. of 
 
 Ownets 
 
 and 
 
 WorlinieD. 
 
 Value of Man- 
 ufactures in 
 Swedish Rix 
 Dollars.* 
 
 1,665 
 
 3,09T 
 
 3,684 
 
 7T9 
 
 101 
 
 1,1T6 
 
 609 
 
 1T7 
 
 90T 
 
 1,839 
 
 1,350 
 
 1,879 
 
 1,741 
 
 1,138 
 
 728 
 
 440 
 
 220 
 
 197 
 
 2 
 
 68 
 
 31 
 
 195 
 
 119 
 
 66 
 
 195 
 
 509 
 
 2,067 
 
 2,686 
 
 2439 I 27,905 
 
 1,631,223 
 
 5,421,662 
 
 6,375,332 
 
 1,082,468 
 
 43,540 
 
 377,741 
 
 247,352 
 
 173,478 
 
 7,369,340 
 
 2,484,291 
 
 1,198,647 
 
 2,114,061 
 
 876,681 
 
 769,911 
 
 414,498 
 
 163,567 
 
 1,047,305 
 
 290,900 
 
 221 
 
 178,600 
 
 214,417 
 
 210,461 
 
 45,681 
 
 35,573 
 
 65,639 
 
 144,892 
 
 139,190 
 
 125,296 
 
 1,547,712 
 
 1,298,337 
 
 36,094,114 
 
 * Nearly equivalent to 40 cents American currency. 
 — U. S. Consular Returns, 1857. See articles Cotton, 
 Cotton Manufactdbes, Iron, Stockholm, and 
 NoEWAT, for additional information on the trade and 
 manufactures of Sweden. 
 
 COMMBEOE OF THE UNITED STATES WITH THE SWEDISH 
 
 West Indies, 
 
 from OctobeeI, 1820 
 
 TO July 1 
 
 1867. 
 
 Years ending 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 whereof there was in 
 Bullion and Specie. 
 
 Tonnage cleared. 
 
 Domestic. 
 
 Foretpn. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Export. 
 
 Import. 
 
 American. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Sept. 30, 1821 
 
 $507,077 
 
 $63,149 
 
 $660,226 
 
 $611,116 
 
 
 $292,738 
 
 20,774 
 
 888 
 
 1822 
 
 569,660 
 
 91,247 
 
 660,813 
 
 393,119 
 
 
 76,583 
 
 16,282 
 
 1080 
 
 1823 
 
 241,701 
 
 13,362 
 
 260,063 
 
 186,808 
 
 
 44,181 
 
 8,174 
 
 354 
 
 1824 
 
 204,983 
 
 39,687 
 
 244,670 
 
 102,836 
 
 
 22,620 
 
 8,263 
 
 340 
 
 1825 
 
 193,761 
 
 41,24T 
 
 236,008 
 
 81,702 
 
 
 36,663 
 
 7,150 
 
 133 
 
 1826 
 
 120,573 
 
 23,284 
 
 143,857 
 
 163,946 
 
 
 40,429 
 
 4,437 
 
 .... 
 
 1827 
 
 416,822 
 
 25,014 
 
 441,836 
 
 209,635 
 
 
 82,920 
 
 16,277 
 
 .... 
 
 1828 
 
 611,684 
 
 23,616 
 
 635,200 
 
 875,995 
 
 
 109,666 
 
 26,663 
 
 635 
 
 1829 
 
 684,623 
 
 23,791 
 
 71)8,314 
 
 283,049 
 
 
 100,741 
 
 28,246 
 
 328 
 
 1830 
 
 Total. . . 
 
 562,700 
 
 37,727 
 
 590,427 
 
 230,530 
 
 
 157.874 
 
 19,960 
 
 C84 
 
 $4,103,290 
 
 $377,124 
 
 $4,480,414 
 
 $2,637,636 
 
 
 $964,195 
 
 156,116 
 
 4742 
 
 Sept. 30, 1831 
 
 $261,937 
 
 $11,111 
 
 $263,048 
 
 $218,918 
 
 
 $111,142 
 
 7,199 
 
 662 
 
 1832 
 
 141,249 
 
 7,478 
 
 148,727 
 
 53,410 
 
 .... 
 
 22,216 
 
 4,651 
 
 644 
 
 1833 
 
 100,163 
 
 5,057 
 
 106,220 
 
 32,202 
 
 
 8,935 
 
 3,395 
 
 283 
 
 1834 
 
 81,040 
 
 7,902 
 
 88,942 
 
 47,214 
 
 $2400 
 
 24,429 
 
 2,619 
 
 236 
 
 1835 
 
 72,714 
 
 13,641 
 
 86,355 
 
 31,330 
 
 
 22,013 
 
 2,599 
 
 217 
 
 1836 
 
 80,225 
 
 1,620 
 
 81,845 
 
 66,414 
 
 
 10,002 
 
 2,062 
 
 
 1837 
 
 84,114 
 
 3,005 
 
 87,119 
 
 68,977 
 
 
 27,207 
 
 2,628 
 
 84 
 
 1838 
 
 74,140 
 
 4,281 
 
 78,421 
 
 46,019 
 
 
 26,013 
 
 1,945 
 
 
 1839 
 
 103,282 
 
 4,130 
 
 107,412 
 
 12,458 
 
 
 3,960 
 
 2,184 
 
 139 
 
 1840 
 
 Total. . . 
 
 98,710 
 
 3,610 
 
 102,320 
 
 67,646 
 
 
 49,947 
 
 2,203 
 
 139 
 
 $1,087,674 
 
 $61,835 
 
 $1,149,409 
 
 $624,487 
 
 $2400 
 
 $305,863 
 
 31,475 
 
 2204 
 
 Sept. 30, 1841 
 
 $166,184 
 
 $3,707 
 
 $168,891 
 
 $19,760 
 
 
 $13,607 
 
 3,455 
 
 f5 
 
 1842 
 
 129,727 
 
 3,320 
 
 133,047 
 
 23,242 
 
 
 19,476 
 
 2,663 
 
 726 
 
 9mo3., 1843* 
 
 31,228 
 
 2,346 
 
 33,674 
 
 61,318 
 
 
 46,823 
 
 949 
 
 
 June 30, 1844 
 
 63,884 
 
 1,360 
 
 66,244 
 
 23,719 
 
 $i66o 
 
 22,399 
 
 1,478 
 
 141 
 
 1845 
 
 88,886 
 
 1,453 
 
 90,339 
 
 12,119 
 
 
 8,473 
 
 2,135 
 
 
 1846 
 
 138,121 
 
 3,448 
 
 141,669 
 
 S,2S5 
 
 1012 
 
 2,460 
 
 2,329 
 
 
 1847 
 
 110,062 
 
 3,659 
 
 113,721 
 
 
 
 
 1,60T 
 
 
 1848 
 
 75,496 
 
 800 
 
 76,296 
 
 13,785 
 
 
 9,589 
 
 2,250 
 
 79 
 
 1849 
 
 96,128 
 
 737 
 
 96,865 
 
 16,982 
 
 
 9,918 
 
 2,634 
 
 647 
 
 1850 
 
 Total... 
 
 98,176 
 
 1,166 
 
 99,342 
 
 2,193 
 
 
 600 
 
 2,454 
 
 382 
 
 $995,892 
 
 $21,996 
 
 $1,017,888 
 
 $167,403 
 
 $2012 
 
 $132,234 
 
 22,004 
 
 1970 
 
 June 30, 1861 
 
 $61,157 
 
 , $745 
 
 $61,902 
 
 $29,001 
 
 
 $19,687 
 
 1,319 
 
 
 1852 
 
 90,802 
 
 1,998 
 
 92,795 
 
 4,284 
 
 
 3,229 
 
 2,287 
 
 125 
 
 isa 
 
 31,024 
 
 1,191 
 
 32,216 
 
 6,876 
 
 
 4,639 
 
 1,136 
 
 
 1864 
 
 12,741 
 
 
 12,741 
 
 22,590 
 
 
 13,156 
 
 367 
 
 
 1855 
 
 68,856 
 
 391 
 
 69,247 
 
 32,229 
 
 
 16,816 
 
 1.366 
 
 146 
 
 1866 
 
 60,702 
 
 
 60,702 
 
 10,192 
 
 
 2,829 
 
 1,012 
 
 65 
 
 1S67 
 
 76,406 
 
 3,628 
 
 79,933 
 
 12,082 
 
 $2065 
 
 .... 
 
 1,719 , 
 
 
 ' Nine months to June 30, and the fiscal year from tliis time begins July 1. 
 
SWI 
 
 1786 
 
 SWI 
 
 Swedish West Indies.— The island of St. Bartholomew 
 is the only possession of the Swedes in America. It 
 belongs to the leeward group, and is situate centrally 
 in lat. 17° 50' N., and long. 62° 52' "W., distant 12 
 miles from St. Martin, and about 30 from St. Christo- 
 pher. It is about 8 miles long, by from 2 to 3 miles 
 wide, and contains an area of about 25 square miles. 
 Capital, Gustavia. The island is of an irregular shape, 
 and deeply indented by numerous small sandy bays, 
 separated by bold and steep rocliy acclivities «f mod- 
 erate height. In the interior it is hillj^, but its loftiest 
 elevations are less than 1000 feet. In most parts it is 
 barren and sterile, but has numerous well-cultivated 
 valleys. It produces all the staples of the West Indies 
 — cotton, sugar, tobacco, indigo, etc., and also lignum 
 vitjB and iron wood. Its only exports are cattle and 
 some salt. Water is scarce, and the inhabitants depend 
 for supply on the rains. The only harbor is La Care- 
 nage, a safe and commodious one, and much frequent- 
 ed. It is on the west side of the island. Close by is 
 Gustavia, the principal town, a thriving place, having 
 considerable commerce with the neighboring islands. 
 The population is estimated at between 8000 and 9000, 
 of which two-thirds are blacks. The slaves were eman- 
 cipated on the gth of October, 1847, and on this occasion 
 the negroes tendered to the King of Sweden an address 
 of thanks. St. Bartholomew was settled by the French 
 in 1648, and was ceded to the Swedes in 1784, with whom 
 it still remains. 
 
 Swedish vessels from the island of St. Bartholomew 
 are placed on an equal footing with those of the United 
 States by the treaty with Sweden and Norway of July 
 4, 1827 — See Treaties, Commekcial. 
 
 Switzerland (Ger. Schweitz; Fr. La Suisse; It. 
 La Svizzerd), a country of Central Europe, between lat. 
 45° 50' and 47° 50' N., and long. 5° 55' and 10° 30' 
 E., having east the principality of Lichtenstein and the 
 Tyrol, south Lombardy and Sardinia, west France, 
 north and northeast Baden, Wurtemberg, and Bavaria. 
 Length 216 miles, breadth 75 to 140 mUes. At an eleva- 
 tion of from 1000 to 1600 feet, the climate is pure and 
 salubrious ; but it is unhealthy in many of the deep 
 and narrow valleys. Vegetation corresponds with the 
 extremes of climate. In the Valais the fig and grape 
 ripen at the foot of ice-clad mountains, while near 
 their summits the rhododendron and the lichen grow at 
 the limit of the snow line. The corn raised in Switz- 
 erland is not nearly suiEcient for the supply of its pop- 
 ulation ; the most prodaotive cantons are those of the 
 north and west. Here the vine ripens at an elevation 
 of 1900, and in some places at 2100 feet above the sea. 
 It is cultivated on the slopes of the Jura, and in the 
 valleys of the Ehine, Rhone, Eeuss, Limmat, and Thur. 
 Buckwheat ripens at an elevation of 2200, and with a 
 southern exposure at 3000 feet ; barley, rye, potatoes, 
 and pot herbs at 4000 feet. Flax and hemp are exten- 
 sively grown ; irrigation is judiciously managed ; and, 
 in general, agriculture is making considerable progress. 
 The slopes of the Jura and of the Alps, and the high re- 
 gions of the table-land, are covered with valuable tim- 
 ber trees — the oak, beech, larch, and birch. The pine 
 grows to an elevation of 6700 feet, shrubs to 7400. The 
 great wealth of Switzerland consists in its rich and ex- 
 cellent pastures, which in summer support vast num- 
 bers of cattle ; the iinest breeds are those of the Sim- 
 menthal, Gessenay, Gruyere, Zug, and Schwytz. The 
 cultivation of the vine is an imljortant branch of indus- 
 trj' in the southwest cantons, and wine is exported. 
 Kirschwesser^ cider, and perry are made. Cheese is a 
 valuable product ; it is made chiefly in Gessenay, the 
 Simmenthal, and the Emmenthal ; that called Gruyere 
 is much esteemed and extensively exported. 
 
 Switzerland has made rapid progress in manufac- 
 turing industrj'. The east and northeast cantons 
 manufacture cotton goods, the chief seats of which are 
 Appenzell and St. Gall. Silks are woven in Zurich 
 and Basle, and linens at Bern. Neufchatel has supe- 
 
 rior printing establishments. Watches, jewelry, and 
 musical boxes are the principal manufactures of the 
 west cantons ; here 230,000 watches are made every 
 year. The number of individuals employed in the dif- 
 ferent branches of industry in 1846 were ; Silks, 40,000 ; 
 cottons, 90,000 ; watches and jewelrj', 30,000 ; woolens, 
 paper, leather, iron wares, etc., 40,000 ; in all, 200,000. 
 Switzerland contains a population of 2,390,116, and 
 embraces an area of 15,261 square miles. Politically 
 it is divided into twenty-two cantons, as follows : 
 
 Cantons. 
 
 Square Miles, 
 
 Population 
 
 
 153 
 503 
 186 
 
 2,567 
 565 
 749 
 280 
 91 
 
 2,975 
 538 
 281 
 116 
 339 
 225 
 
 1,087 
 270 
 263 
 422 
 
 1,666 
 
 1,185 
 
 85 
 
 687 
 
 54,869 
 
 199,720 
 73,385 
 
 457,921 
 99,S05 
 
 169,508 
 30,197 
 63,932 
 89,840 
 
 132,789 
 70,679 
 35,278 
 44,159 
 69,613 
 
 117,397 
 88,819 
 25,135 
 14,600 
 81,627 
 
 199,463 
 17,456 
 
 250,134 
 
 
 Basle 
 
 Bern 
 
 Freyburg 
 
 St. Gall 
 
 Glarua 
 
 
 
 
 Neufchatel 
 
 Schaff hauaen 
 
 
 
 Ticino 
 
 
 Uaterwalden ; . . 
 
 Uri 
 
 Valaia 
 
 Vaud 
 
 Zug 
 
 Zurich 
 
 Total 
 
 15,261 
 
 2,890,116 
 
 
 A more moderate tariff than that now levied in 
 Switzerland upon our principal staples could not bo 
 desired. For instance, 
 
 Grain of every kind paya a duty of only 3 centa per llOi lbs. 
 
 Rice, 3 centa " 
 
 Salted proviaiona, 66 cents " 
 
 Lard, 65 centa " 
 
 Dried vegetablea, 3 centa " 
 
 Whale oil, 6 cents " 
 
 Whalebone, 66 centa " 
 
 Tobacco, 65 centa " 
 
 Wool, raw or combed, 6 cents " 
 
 Pot and pearl ashea, 6 cents " 
 
 Roaln, 6 centa " 
 
 Tallow, 6 cents " 
 
 The commercial relations between the United States 
 and Switzerland are regulated by treaty, exchanged 
 November 8th, and proclaimed November 9th, 1855. 
 Article 1 places citizens of either country residing in 
 the other upon a footing of equality with native cit- 
 izens, subject to the constitutional and legal provisions, 
 as well federal as state and cantonal, of the contract- 
 ing parties. Article 7 provides for the appointment 
 and powers of consuls and vice-consuls in the large cit- 
 ies and important commercial places, in the countries 
 of the contracting parties respectively. Article 8 pro- 
 vides that in all that relates to the importation, ex- 
 portation, and transit of their respective products, the 
 United States of America and the Swiss confederation 
 shall treat each other reciprocally as the most favored 
 nation : thus, neither of the (Contracting parties shall 
 impose any higher or other duties upon the importation, 
 exportation, or transit of the natural or industrial prod- 
 ucts of the other than are or shall be payable upon 
 the like articles, being the produce of any other coun- 
 trj', not embraced within its present limits. Article 10 
 provides that neither of the contracting parties shall 
 grant any favor in commerce to any nation, union of 
 nations, state, or society which shall not immediately 
 be enjoyed by the other party. Article 11 provides 
 that each country shall be at liberty to determine the 
 manner of establishing the origin of its own products 
 destined to enter the country of the other, should dif- 
 ferential duties be established by either on the products 
 of any nation. Article 12 provides that the territories 
 and ports of each country shall be open to the admis- 
 sion of articles from the other ; such articles, when im- 
 ported into the United States under the national flag, 
 or under that of one of the nations most favored hj 
 
SWI 
 
 1787 
 
 SWI 
 
 them, shall pay the same duties as the merchandise of 
 such nation ; under any other flag it shall be treated 
 as the merchandise of the country to which the vessel 
 belongs. Th eremaining articles relate to the extra- 
 dition of criminals. 
 
 By a provision of the Swiss constitution of 1848, raw 
 materials required for manufactures, as well as for the 
 necessaries of life, are to be admitted at the lowest pos- 
 sible rate of duty, while the highest import tax they 
 can bear is to he levied upon articles of luxury. In 
 all the other governments of Europe, if we except the 
 Hanse Towns, tobacco is considered as an article of 
 luxury ; and it might be added, in behalf of France 
 and England, as an article of convenience, also, for rais- 
 ing revenue. In these countries it is, consequently, 
 subjected — in the former to the arbitrary exactions of 
 the regie,* and in the latter to such duties as are almost 
 equivalent to a prohibition. In Switzerland, however, 
 whatever may be the light in which they view tobacco, 
 whether as an article of luxury or of Necessity, it is 
 treated as an article of trade, and admitted at a rate of 
 duty less for llOJ lbs. than Great Britain charges on 
 the single pound. The effect of this liberal treatment 
 of one of our leading staples is seen in the dispropor- 
 tional quantities, relatively to population, which are 
 sent to these different countries. For example : France, 
 with a population of 36,000,000, received an annual 
 average of 15,000,000 lbs. of American tobacco during 
 a period of three years (1851, 1852, and 1853), which 
 gives about one-third of a pound to-each person. Great 
 Britain, with a population of 27,000,000, received an 
 annual average, the same period, of 25,000,000 lbs., or 
 nearly one pound per head ; while Switzerland, with a 
 population of 2,400,000, received more than 7,000,000 
 lbs., or some three pounds for each person. 
 
 The manufactures of Switzerland are the chief basis 
 of its trade with foreign countries. As early as the 
 14th century Zurich became the great emporium and 
 market for Italian products and industry ; and Schwj-tz 
 and Unterwalden, which, with Zurich, constituted the 
 three original cantons, were at that period famed for 
 their ingenious and industrious habits. The principal 
 seats of Swiss manufactures at the present day are : 
 
 The canton of Neufchatel for printed cottons, lace, 
 jewelrj', clocks, watches, and various minor articles. 
 Wine and cheese are also produced in this canton. 
 Geneva for watches, f clocks, jewelry, musical boxes, 
 enameled articles, philosophical instruments, tools, 
 cutlery, iirfi-arms, etc. Zurioh, Aargau, and Thurgau 
 chiefly for cotton and silk manufactures, woolen goods, 
 straw platting, linens, and various minor articles. St. 
 Gall and part of Appenzel for linens, muslins, cam- 
 brics, embroidery, tambouring, etc. Basle chiefly for 
 silk ribbons, having upward of 4000 looms employed 
 in their manufacture. The raw materials for these 
 manufactures are greatly enhanced in price by the ex- 
 pense of carnage (transit) ; and bread, flour, and other 
 articles of food cost higher than in most other countries 
 of Europe. The restrictions on transit through France 
 and other adjacent countries are a heavy drawback 
 upon the industry of Switzerland ; but the proverbial 
 frugality of the people, and the low price of labor, to- 
 gether with the admitted superiority of most of their 
 manufactures over those of England and France, enable 
 them to compete successfully with those countries in 
 foreign markets. 
 
 The commerce of all nations enjoys equal privileges 
 in Switzerland, but the federal council is empowered 
 to adopt immediate measures in case the commerce of 
 Switzerland is subjected to any extraordinary restric- 
 tions in other countries; notifying, however, such 
 measures to the next succeeding federal assembly. 
 Consumption duties are levied in eighteen cantons ; but 
 
 as they apply to only two articles — namely, wines and 
 alcoholic liquors, neither of which the United States 
 exports to that country — it is deemed needless to spec- 
 ify them. The suppression of these duties, however, 
 affecting as they do one of the staples of France, might 
 be compensated by a melioration in the laws applicable 
 to the transitage of Swiss manufactures across tlie ter- 
 ritories of France — a result which would prove highly 
 advantageous to the commercial relations between the 
 United States and Switzeriand. 
 
 The whole foreign commerce of Switzerland during 
 the year 1840 amounted to about 460,000,000 francs, or 
 $85,000,000. Several causes have combined to develop 
 and promote the industrial and commercial prosperity 
 of Switzerland. In a mountainous country, covered 
 with snow during six or eight months in the year, the 
 inhabitants have recourse to in-dooi^ labor as a matter 
 of necessity. B^side^, their position in the centre of 
 Europe, surrounded on all sides by manufacturing 
 communities, stimulates their emulation, encouraged 
 as it is by the facilities which the adjacent markets 
 afford for the supply of raw materials. The people, at 
 once agriculturists and artisans, and naturally indus- 
 trious, find ample scope for constant and profitable em- 
 ployment in these two occupations, and are thus en- 
 abled to live on moderate wages. These causes have 
 contributed to the most remarkable development of 
 industrial pursuits, especially in the northern and west- 
 ern cantons. Without dwelling upon minute details 
 in regard to the different branches of manufactures into 
 which this mechanical industry has entered, the extra- 
 ordinary success of cotton manufactures in Switzerland 
 will be briefly considered, as necessarily bearing upon 
 the consumption of one of the leading staples of the 
 United States. There is, moreover, no branch of in- 
 dustry' which more forcibly illustrates the energj- and 
 mechanical genius of the Swiss than their cotton man- 
 ufactures. In 1830 the republic had in operation 
 400,000 spindles'; in 1840, 750,000 ; and in 1850, 950,000 ; 
 the number having more than doubled in twenty years. 
 The cotton-spinning factories in the year last named 
 were 200, estimated to produce annually from 18,000,000 
 to 20,000,000 lbs. of yam. This progress in cotton 
 manufactures is the more surprising, because of the 
 heavy expense with which the raw material is burden- 
 ed by transit tolls before it can reach the territorj- of 
 Switzerland. The quantity passed in transit from 
 Havre for Switzerland in 1833 and 1834 was nearly 
 6,000,000 lbs. ; in 1843 it reached nearly 17,000,000 lbs., 
 and constituted four-fifths of all consumed during that 
 year in Switzerland. The entire receipt of cotton that 
 year is put down at 22,000,000 lbs. 
 
 The following table exhibits the total quantity of 
 raw cotton which passed through Havre in transit for 
 Switzerland during a period embracing thirteen years : 
 
 Yenra. Kilograms. 
 
 1833 2,038,000 
 
 1834 4,296,000 
 
 1835 4,362,000 
 
 1836 6,486,000 
 
 1837..'. 5,493,000 
 
 1838 7,120,000 
 
 1839 4,475,0,00 
 
 In 1851 the importation of cotton into Switzerland 
 amounted to 27,035,725 lbs., of which 13,729,320 lbs. 
 were from the United States. According to the 
 Tahleau General of France for the j'ears designated, 
 Switzerland received cotton in pounds as follows, in 
 1851, 1852, and 1853 : 
 
 • For an explanation of this term, see Digest ^f France, p. 
 128. 
 
 t It 18 estimated that from Geneva alone 240,000 watches 
 are annually shipped, via Havre, to the United States. 
 
 Years. Kilograms. 
 
 1840 4,912,000 
 
 1841 7,367,000 
 
 1842 9,836,000 
 
 1843 .V 7,022,000 
 
 1844 7,440,000 
 
 lS45i 9,431,000 
 
 
 1851. 
 
 1852. 
 
 1853. 
 
 
 15,816,751 
 
 15,812,161 
 4,590 
 
 15,815,473 
 
 15,765,556 
 49,917 
 
 14,978,857 
 
 14,879,331 
 . ,98,926 
 
 Of which from the United 
 
 From other places 
 
 A severe restriction on the importation of cotton, 
 and also of tobacco, to Switzerland, as well as on the 
 reception by the United States of Swiss wares and 
 manufactures in return, is, as already mentioned, the 
 
SWI 
 
 1788 
 
 SWI 
 
 vexatious and expensive transitage, epecially through 
 France. The oppression of this burden may be in- 
 ferred from the fact that the annual average aggre- 
 gate value of merchandise on which transit tolls are 
 paid, proceeding from Switzerland, was in 1853 nearly 
 $30,000,000 ; and the value of that proceeding to that 
 republic more than half as much. 
 
 Switzerland sent in transitu to France, cotton tis- 
 sues to the value of nearly $3,000,000 in 1852, and to 
 the value of nearly $4,000,000 in 186B. By the French 
 tariff such fabrics are excluded from France for con- 
 sumption. Since 1845, Switzerland, it is stated offi- 
 cially, has quite superseded, in the markets of Ger- 
 many and Austria, the yarns of Great Britain. 
 
 The following statement shows the quantities of 
 cotton received by Switzerland from the United States, 
 and of cotton stuffs sent to the United States from 
 Switzerland, made up from Swiss official sources : 
 Cotton from the United States to Switzerland. 
 
 1850 ll>,942,740 lbs. I 1852 19,065,200 Ibg. 
 
 1851 13,729,320 " | 1853 18,441,830 " 
 
 Cotton Stuffs from Switzerland to the United States. 
 
 18.50 3,226,300 lbs. I 1852 4,077,920 tba. 
 
 1851 3,509,660 " | 1863 5,265,150 " 
 
 In 1855 Switzerland returned to the United States, 
 in exchange for raw cotton, the same article manu- 
 factured, to the value of $212,700. 
 
 In this branch of industry Switzerland is said to 
 compete successfully with France. Her chintzes, and 
 also her embroidered mousselines, are superior to those 
 of Alsace ; and if the French markets are closed against 
 their admission under the operation of restrictive tar- 
 iffs, they find an ample outlet in the Levant, or across 
 the Austrian territory by the Danube. They also find 
 markets in North and South America, the Barbary 
 States, the East and West Indies, in the fairs and 
 markets of Central Germany, as well as in the entre- 
 pots of the Hanse Towns. The manufacture of tobacco 
 in Switzerland is stated to employ 4000 persons, and to 
 produce about 9,000,000 pounds, valued at $1,116,000. 
 There is imported of the article annually into Switzer- 
 land, and produced in the country, as follows : 
 
 Imported 7,031,502 lbs Value $436,723 
 
 Produced 800,000 " " 24,626 
 
 Total 7,831,502 " " $461,354* 
 
 Of this there is consumed in Switzerland 6,740,502 
 lbs., of the value of $558,000 ; leaving for exportation 
 1,091,000 lbs. ; and if to the value which this latter 
 amount represents to the manufacturer be added wages 
 of hands and other expenses of manufacturing, it is 
 estimated that the raw tobacco costs the Swiss manu- 
 facturer about six cents per pound, while he expects to 
 realize from the sale of the manufactured article about 
 72J cents per pound. 
 
 Tobacco imported into Switzerland during a Series op 
 Years. 
 
 1847 lbs. 
 
 1843 " 
 
 1841 " 
 
 1851 " 
 
 1852 " 
 
 As American products generally react Switzerland 
 via Havre, the following table, is subjoined, exhibiting 
 the transit trade between France and Switzerland dur- 
 ing a period of eight years, ending with 1863 : 
 
 2,696,712 
 3,370,894 
 5,428,159 
 7,284,867 
 7,166,912 
 
 Yenn. 
 
 From Switzerland. 
 
 To Switzerland. 
 
 1846 
 
 $13,764,000 
 14,880,000 
 16,182,000 
 18,600,000 
 18,414,000 
 18,225,000 
 18,786,000 
 26.598,000 
 
 $10,416,000 
 9,800,000 
 9,114,000 
 10,602,000 
 8,928,000 
 8,928,000 
 11,346,000 
 10,788,000 
 
 1847 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 
 
 1850 
 
 1851 
 
 1852 
 
 1853 
 
 It may be inferred from the above statement that 
 the chief obstacle to trade between the United States 
 
 * The figures indicate the relative qualities of imported and 
 domestic tobacco. Thus— imported, &^ cents per pound ; do- 
 mestic, 3 cents per pound. 
 
 and Switzerland is found in the restrictions of transit- 
 age, especially over the territories of France. If Swiss 
 manufacturers could have their goods destined for the 
 United States finally examined and sealed (plombe) at 
 the first French frontier custom-house, then to pass on 
 to their final destination under the protection of that 
 seal, unopened, and consequently exempt from the re- 
 examination and repacking which they undergo at 
 each post, it is believed that the trade with the United 
 States would all pass through Havre, instead of seek- 
 ing, as is the case at present, the more circuitous and 
 expensive routes via Liverpool and other ports. Such 
 a change in the French transit regulations would re- 
 sult, also, in an annual augmentation in the general ex- 
 changes between the United States and Switzerland. 
 Commercial returns from Switzerland are necessarily 
 imperfect, owing to the difficulty in procuring requisite 
 statistics from the various ports through which Swiss 
 merchandise reaches the United States. The exports 
 which passed through the consular district of Basle 
 during the last six months of 1854 for the United 
 States, amounted to $728,689 35. The total value of 
 merchandise that passed through the consulate at Zu- 
 rich for the United States was : 
 
 In 1853 $3,300,628 
 
 In 1854 4,496,072 
 
 The following statement shows the values of the 
 goods, wares, and merchandise sent from Switzerland 
 to the United States, covered by invoices authenticated 
 at the consulate of Basle, for the six months ending 
 July 1st, 1855 : 
 
 Silk goods $386,858 09 
 
 Watches and je^7elry 89,067 62 
 
 Cotton 24,272 17 
 
 Straw 11,706 17 
 
 Medicines 3,696 20 
 
 Cheese and spirits 3,161 26 
 
 Silk and woolen 12,361 95 
 
 Paper-hangings 
 
 Leather 
 
 Mathematical instruments 
 
 Cloth 
 
 Machinery 
 
 Wooden ware 
 
 Cutlery 
 
 Total $537,014 53 
 
 The following table exhibits the value of imports, 
 the produce and manufacture of Switzerland, into the 
 United States, during the years ending June, 1853, 
 and 1855 ; to which is added a statement showing the 
 ports from which said imports were cleared, with the 
 amounts for each, made up from United States official 
 authorities : 
 Value of principal Imports, the Produce and BIanufac- 
 
 TURE OP SWTTZERLAMD, INCLUDED IN TUE IMPORTATION S FROM 
 
 THE Hanse Towns, Holland, Belgium, France, and En- 
 gland, DURING TUB YEARS ENDING JUNE 30, 1853, AKD 
 
 June 30, 1855. 
 
 2,980 56 
 
 838 26 
 
 363 67 
 
 684 60 
 
 81 40 
 
 23 06 
 
 31 43 
 
 Description of Merciiflpdise. 
 
 Manufactures of wool. . . 
 cotton . 
 
 silk, etc 
 
 flax, linens, etc 
 iron and steel . . 
 
 brass 
 
 gold and silver. 
 
 glass 
 
 paper, etc 
 
 wood 
 
 Watches 
 
 Watch crystals 
 
 Wearing apparel 
 
 Books, printed and other 
 
 Buttons 
 
 Cheese 
 
 Clocks 
 
 Drugs and medicines 
 
 Hats and bonnets of straw, etc. . . 
 
 Mathematical instruments , 
 
 Musical boxes 
 
 Optical instruments 
 
 Cordials 
 
 Argol 
 
 Total value of imports. ...... 
 
 Values. 
 
 1K53. 
 
 $15,932 
 
 323,032 
 
 3,801,836 
 
 3,352 
 
 19,062 
 
 326 
 
 16,449 
 
 167 
 
 72 
 
 2,704 
 
 1,035,714 
 
 3,961 
 
 5,344 
 
 1,352 
 
 445 
 
 3,225 
 
 842 
 
 ' 91 
 
 351,949 
 
 1,324 
 
 3,916 
 
 214 
 
 1,085 
 
 $8,692,984 
 
 1855. 
 $69,526 
 212,700 
 4,346,534 
 
 28,426 
 
 1,959 
 
 14,510 
 
 'i,354 
 
 1,300 
 
 2,573,416 
 
 23,790 
 
 6,940 
 
 173 
 
 6,702 
 408 
 
 1,669 
 
 149,853 
 
 984 
 
 7,732 
 
 6,86T 
 
 .$7,778,132 
 
swo 
 
 1789 
 
 SYD 
 
 SuMMAEY Statement exuibitinq the Values op this phin- 
 
 CIl'AL iMrOETS, THE PeoDUOE AtTD MaNDFACTUEE OF SWITZ- 
 ERLAND, mrntNG the Yeaeb ending June 30, 1853, and 
 June SO, 1855, the Details ok which appeae in the pke- 
 
 OEDING StATESIENT, "WITII TUE PORTS WHENCE CLEARED. 
 
 Via tUe Porta of 
 
 Hamburg . . 
 Bremen , . . . 
 Holland . . . . 
 
 Belgium 
 
 France 
 
 England. . . 
 Total. 
 
 1853. 
 
 $931 
 
 T93,342 
 
 995 
 
 10,016 
 
 3,037,3TT 
 
 2,150,324 
 
 $5,5S)2,984 
 
 $3,162 
 
 569,168 
 
 9,542 
 
 3,791,664 
 3,405,266 
 
 $T,n8,132 
 
 Imports from tho United States into Switzerland 
 are made, for the most part, through the customs fron- 
 tiers of Bern, Soleure, Basle, and Aargau, bordering 
 on France and the southern part of Germany, Swiss 
 statistics, especiall}^ such as relate to commerce, are so 
 far behind those of other European governments, ow- 
 ing mainly to the geographical position of Switzerland, 
 that an approximation only to rixed facts is attempted 
 in the following tables, designed to illustrate the pre- 
 ceding summary of the trade between the two coun- 
 tries. 
 
 Commerce op the United Stains with Switzerland, em- 
 bracing THE Amounts of the prinoipal Impouts and 
 Exports. 
 Importations into Switzerland from the United States. 
 
 DenDmination of MerchandiEo, 
 
 Cotton 
 
 Dye-stuffa, wood, berries,") 
 
 roots, and herbs / 
 
 Grains and vegetables 
 
 Fish-oil 
 
 Flour 
 
 Furs : 
 
 Hops 
 
 Lard and tallow 
 
 Fotash 
 
 Tobacco leaf 
 
 Manufactured cigars 
 
 Tar, rosin, and pitch 
 
 Turpentine and oil 
 
 isei. 
 
 Centners.* 
 124,812-4 
 
 24,393-2 
 
 442,543-9 
 
 3,060-4 
 
 141,530-3 
 
 12T-1 
 
 564-8 
 
 3,958-1, 
 
 l,22T-6 
 
 46,218-5 
 
 3,405-8 
 
 1,401-2 
 
 2,921 
 
 lasQ. 
 
 Centhei-s, 
 173,320 
 
 14,464 
 
 726,366 
 
 3,090-1 
 
 172,323 
 
 137 
 
 64S 
 
 4,563 
 
 791 
 
 49,864 
 
 3,699-1 
 
 ; issa. . 
 
 Centnere. 
 167,663 
 
 16,294 
 
 676,108 
 
 3,140 
 
 107,023 
 
 58 -S 
 
 .618 
 
 2,341 
 
 995 
 
 51,467 
 
 4,802 
 
 897 
 
 2,162 
 
 Exportationb from Switzerland to the United States. 
 
 Denomination of MerchandiBO. 
 
 Cotton stuffs 
 
 Cheese 
 
 Silk stuffs 
 
 Straw twistings 
 
 Watches, including mitsic-boxes. 
 "Wooden manufactures. 
 
 1861. 
 
 Centners. 
 31,f.06 
 31,854 
 20,767 
 
 2,737 
 551-6 
 
 1,369-5 
 
 1852. 
 
 Centners, 
 37,072 
 36,396 
 26.674 
 6;080 
 342 
 1,942 
 
 Centners. 
 
 47,866 
 
 37,868 
 
 28,287 
 
 4,466 
 
 467 
 
 1,652 
 
 The trade between the United States and Switzer- 
 land is gradually on the increase. American flour, 
 which, prior to 1847, never reached that countrj', is in 
 common use now, and if reduction can be obtained on 
 the expense of transportation through France, or on 
 the Rhine, it may in time become as much in use as 
 that obtained from the Baltic. During the year 1853 
 the following amounts of Swiss manufactured articles 
 were exported to the United States, the papers of 
 which passed through this consulate, nine-tenths of 
 which were manufactured alone in the Canton of Zu- 
 rich, which contains a population of but 250,000 : 
 
 Silk goods, amounting to 19,312,060 francs. 
 
 Cottons (mostly from Canton St. Gall) 703,812 " 
 
 Strawgoods 72,939 " 
 
 Catholic books, from Convent Einsiedel 18,965 " 
 
 Cheese 8,845 " 
 
 Calf-skins, etc 16,779 " 
 
 Making a grand total of 20,133,330 francs. 
 
 —Com. Rel. U. S. 
 
 S"Words were originally formed of iron taken from 
 a mountain by the Chinese, 1879 B.C. — Univ. Bist. 
 The sword was one of the earliest implements of war. 
 The Roman swords were from twenty to thirty inches 
 long. The broadsword and cimeter are of modem 
 adoption. The sword of state was carried at an En- 
 glish king's coronation by a king of Scotland, 1194. 
 Damascus steel swords are highly prized, and next the 
 sword of Ferrara steel. The Scotch Highlanders w^ere 
 accustomed to procure the l atter from the celebrated 
 • The Swiss centner is equivalent to llOi lbs. 
 
 artificer named Andrea di Ferrara, and used to call 
 them their An&rew Ferraras. The broadsword was 
 forbidden to be worn in Edinburgh in 1724. — Haydn. 
 Sydney, the capital of New South Wales, and of 
 the British settlements in New Holland, or Australia, 
 on a cove on the south side of Port Jackson, about 
 seven miles from its mouth, lat. 33° 56' S., long. 150° 
 10' E. Population in 1846, 38,358, and now (1853) 
 estimated at above 50,000. Owing to a want of atten- 
 tion at first, the streets of Sydney were laid out, and 
 the houses built, according to the views of individuals, 
 without any fixed or regular plan. But latterly this 
 defect has been to a considerable degree remedied in 
 the old streets ; and the new ones are systematically 
 laid out. The town covers a great extent of land, al- 
 most every house having a considerable piece of ground 
 attached to it. Schools for the instruction of poor 
 children have been established, and there are, besides 
 two establishments dignified with the pompous title 
 of colleges, numerous seminaries, some of them said to 
 be very well conducted, for the educatito of the middle 
 and upper classes. There are several newspapers and 
 other periodical publications. 
 
 Sydney is admirably adapted for the capital of a 
 great trading colony. Port Jackson is one of the finest 
 natural basins in the world. It stretches about fifteen 
 miles into the country, and has numerous creeks and 
 bays ; the anchorage is every where excellent, and 
 ships are protected from everj' wind. The entrance 
 to this fine bay is between two gigantic clifl's, not quite 
 two miles apart. On the most southerly, in lat. 33° 
 51' 30" S., long. 151° 16' 30" E., a light-house has 
 been erected, the lantern of which is elevated 67 feet 
 above the ground, and about 345 feet above the sea. 
 It is navigable for ships of any burden to the distance 
 of fifteen miles from its entrance, or seven miles above 
 Sydney, up what is called the Paramatta River. Ships 
 come close up to the wharves and stores of the town, 
 their cargoes being hoisted from the ship's hold into 
 the warehouses. Sydney is cbnsequently the empo- 
 rium of all the settlements in this part of Australia, 
 and has a very extensive trade. Down to the dis- 
 cover}' of the gold fields in 1851, wool was by far the 
 most important product raised in the colony. The in- 
 crease of cattle and sheep, hut especially the latter, in 
 Australia has in truth been altogether extraordinary. 
 Previously to the arrival of the English settlers in New 
 South Wales in 1788, neither horse nor cow, sheep nor 
 hog, had ever set foot on the continent. The stock 
 they brought with them was limited in the extreme, 
 consisting only of 7 horses, 7 head of cattle, 29 sheep, 
 19 goats, and 74 pigs. And from this late and scanty 
 stock, assisted by a few subsequent importations, have 
 been derived all the vast numbers of sheep and other 
 useful animals now to be found in the Australian con- 
 tinent. For a while the rate of increase was compara- 
 tively slow. But from 1810 down to 1851, when the 
 revolution occasioned by the gold discoverj' aifected 
 everj- branch of industrj', the multiplication of sheep 
 and other stock, especially the former, has been rapid 
 beyond all precedent. This is shown by the following 
 account of the sheep's wool annually imported from, 
 Australia into the United Kingdom since 1840 : 
 
 Yenra. Pounds. 
 
 1847 26,056,815 
 
 1848 30,034,567 
 
 1849 35,774,671 
 
 1850 39,018,221 
 
 1851 41,810,137 
 
 1852 43,197,301 
 
 Years. Pounds. 
 
 1840 9,721,423 
 
 1841 12,399,090 
 
 1842 12,959,671 
 
 1843 17,433,780 
 
 1844 17,689,712 
 
 1845 24,160,687 
 
 1846.. 21,865,270 
 
 Down to 1851 the colony of New South Wales com- 
 prised the extensive province of Port Phillip, now "Vic- 
 toria. But the latter was then separated from the 
 former, and formed into an independent state, with a 
 governor and Legislature of its own. — See Melboubhe. 
 
 At the close of December, 1851, the colony of New 
 South Wales (exclusive of "Victoria) had a population 
 
SYK 
 
 1790 
 
 SYK 
 
 of 197,168. It had also, at the same time, 152,057 
 acres under crop, 116,397 horses, 1,375,257 head of 
 cattle, and 7,396,895 sheep. During the same year 
 the value of the imports (mostly from England) 
 amounted to £1,663,931, and that of the exports to 
 £1,796,912. The latter comprised, among others, the 
 following items, viz. : 
 
 Wool 15,26S,4'>3 Iba. Value, £828,302 
 
 Gold bullion. 144,120 oz. IT diet " 468,336 
 
 Tallow 84,464 owt. " 114,168 
 
 Hides :; 3^625 
 
 Whale oil . . . 601i tons. " 25,817 
 
 ■with neat cattle, flour and bread, bones, soap, cedar, 
 and other woods, etc. 
 
 Harbor Dues, etc. — The colonial Legislature has also, 
 by an act passed in 1852, suppressed all charges on 
 shipping for harbor dues, light-house dues, fees on en- 
 tering and clearing, water police dues, etc. Sydney 
 is therefore really a free port. iSee articles Austra- 
 lia, Melbouknb, and New Sodth Wales. 
 
 Moneys, Weights, and Measures. — Accounts are kept 
 in sterling money ; but Spanish dollars are most abund- 
 ant. They pass current at 5«. each. The weights 
 and measures are the same as those of England. 
 
 Syra, the ancient Syros, one of the islands of the 
 Greek Archipelago, whose salubrity and fertility have 
 been celebrated by Homer (Pope's Odyssey, book xv. 
 V. 438, etc.), in the group called the Northern Cy- 
 clades, fifteen miles west from the greater Delos, its 
 port, on the east side of the island, being in lat. 37° 26^ 
 30" N., long. 24° 57' E. It is from nine to ten miles 
 in, length, by about five in breadth. Though rugged, 
 it is carefully cultivated, and produces garden stuffs, 
 "vvine, olives, figs, cotton, etc., with a little barley. 
 The population in 1830 was set down, by Mr. Urquhart 
 at 4500 ; but we have been assured that it is at present 
 (1853) little, if at all, short ,of 27,000. 
 
 It is indebted for this extraordinary increase of pop- 
 ulation to the convenience and excellence of its port 
 and, its central situation, which have made it a con- 
 siderable commercial entrepot. Though small, its har- 
 bor is accessible to line-of-battle ships. The holding 
 ground is good, and it has in its centre about ten fath- 
 oms water. Merchantmen of from 400 to 500 tons bur- 
 den moor within about 100 yards of the wharves. Winds 
 from the southeast round to east-northeast throw in a 
 heavy swell ; but the port is well protected from winds 
 from all other points. , A light-house, with a revolv- 
 ing light, has been erected on Gaidoro Island, about 
 IJ mile southeast from the pprt. Most part of the 
 trade that formerly centred at Scio is now carried on 
 here ; and the island has not only received numerous 
 immigrants from Scio, but also from many other parts 
 of Greece. Great Britain and most Em-opean powers 
 have consuls in Syra ; and it is also the principal seat 
 of the Protestant missionaries to the Levant. The 
 town is on the north side of the harbor. The oldest 
 portion occupies the summit of a conical-shaped hill, 
 probably the site of the acropolis of the ancient city. 
 — See TourtXEFOKT, Voyage du Levant. But tlw new 
 streets and houses, of which there are many, come 
 down to the water's edge. It has an appearance of 
 great bustle and animation. Its copious spring of 
 pure fresh water has been eulogized by Clarke {Travels). 
 In 1848 no fewer than 468 vessels were registered at 
 Syra, being a greater amount of shipping than belong- 
 ed to any Greek port. 
 
 Syria (with Palestine), a large division of Asi- 
 atic Turkey, mostly between lat. 31° and 37° N., and 
 
 long. 34° 30' and 40° E. ; bounded north by the Ama- 
 nian Mountains, east by the Euphrates and the Arabian 
 desert, south by Arabia Petraja, and west by the Medi- 
 terranean Sea. Estimated area, 50,000 square miles. 
 Population about 1,865,000, mostly Mohammedans, 
 but comprising about 345,000 Greek Christians, 260,000 
 Maronites and Roman Catholics, 175,000 Jews, 48,000 
 Druses, and 17,000 Metualis and Yezidis. The west, 
 or coast portion, is mountainous ; the east chiefly an 
 elevated plain. After the Dead Sea, the principal 
 lakes are those of Tiberias, or Genesareth, and Hu- 
 laah, in the vallej^ of the Jordan ; some smaller ones 
 exist near Damascus and Antioch. The surface being 
 very uneven, the climate and products vary greatly 
 within short distances. Along the coasts the heat is 
 great, and the orange, banana, and date flourish, while 
 the summits of the mountains are seen covered with 
 snow. In the nortli, and on the elevated plain east 
 of the mountains, the climate is colder, but at Aleppo 
 frosts are seldom severe, and snow rarely lies on the 
 ground for more than a daj' at a time. The corn is 
 nearly ripe early in May ; and from June to Septem- 
 ber summer heats prevail, unbroken by any rain, 
 though tempered in the west by sea-breezes. It is 
 stated that the country is capable of producing suifi- 
 cient to maintain ten times its jiresent population ; yet 
 such is the rude method of agriculture, the depressed 
 condition and insecurity of the rural population, and 
 the uncertainty of taxation and government regula- 
 tions, that in bad years corn must frequently' be im- 
 ported from Eg3'pt and elsewhere. Wheat, barley, 
 maize, millet, lentils, and sesamum, are raised in the 
 plains, principally in the Haouran, which has alwa3-s 
 been considered the granary of Syria. Cotton and the 
 mulberr}'' flourish on the coast, and silk is produced on 
 the slopes of Lebanon. The cotton annually raised in 
 the south is estimated to amount in value to £350,000 ; 
 and about 1700 cantars of silks, 10,700 cantars of to- 
 bacco, from 8000 to 10,000 cantars of gall-nuts, and 
 300 cantars of madder roots are annually produced. 
 Other chief products are sheeps' wool, olive-oil, siigar, 
 indigo, scammony, and other gums, safHower, dates, 
 timber, hides, and skins. Sheep and other live-stock 
 form, as in antiquity, a chief part of the wealth of the in- 
 habitants ; and, all merchandise being convej'ed on the 
 backs of animals, it is estimated that the transit trade 
 emploj'S 80,000 beasts, and about 30,000 drivers. About 
 3500 okes of sponge fished on the coast are sent to the 
 ports of the Mediterranean annually ; other fisheries 
 are comparatively unimportant, as is mining industrJ^ 
 Damascus has about 4000 looms engaged in the manu- 
 facture of silks, and the same manufacture is carried 
 on to a considerable extent in Aleppo. Cotton, and 
 some woolen fabrics, shawls, gold and silver thread 
 stuffs, are also woven there and elsewhere, and the 
 total produce of the looms of Aleppo is estimated at 
 £250,000 in annual value. Glass, earthen-wares, leath- 
 er, and soap, are made in the above and other towns ; 
 and in Palestine great numbers of religious ornaments 
 are manufactured for sale. Commerce is greatly im- 
 peded by the want of roads, those that exist being mere 
 mule or camel tracks ; also by the deficiency of good 
 harbors. But as Syria is on the high route from Bag- 
 dad, Mosul, and Erzeroum, to Mecca, caravans annu- 
 ally traverse it, bringing galls, indigo. Mocha coff'ee, 
 skins. Cashmere shawls, and other Indian manufac- 
 tures, also the products of Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, 
 and Persia, which are exchanged here for European 
 manufactures and cochineal. 
 
TAG 
 
 1791 
 
 TAL 
 
 T. 
 
 Tacamahac, a resin obtained from the Fdgara oe- 
 tandra ; and likewise, it is supposed, from tlie Populus 
 talsamifera. It comes in large oblong masses wrapped 
 in flag leaves. It is of a light brown color, verj' brit- 
 tle, and easily melted when heated. When pure, it 
 has an aromatic smell, between that of lavender and 
 musk, and dissolves completely in alcohol, water hav- 
 ing no action upon it, — Thomsoh's Chemistry. 
 
 Tack, a rope used to confine the foremost lower 
 comers of the courses and stay-sails in a fixed position 
 when the wind crosses the ship's course obliquely. 
 The same name is also given to the rope employed to 
 pull out the lower corner of a studding-sail or driver to 
 the extremity of its boom. The mainsail and foresail of 
 a ship are furnished with a tack on each side, which is 
 formed of a thick rope tapering to the end, and having 
 a knot wrought upon the largest end, by which it is 
 firmly retained in the clew of the sail. By this means 
 one tack is always fastened to windward, at the same 
 time that the sheet extends the sail to the leeward. 
 
 To tacJc, to change the course from one board to 
 another, or turn the ship about from the starboard to 
 the larboard tack in a contrary wind. Thus, a ship 
 being close-hauled on the larboard tack, and turning 
 her prow suddenly to windward, receives the impres- 
 sion of the wind on her head sails, by which she falls 
 off upon the line of the starboard taclc. Tacking is 
 also used in a, more enlarged sense, to employ that 
 maneuver in navigation by which a ship makes an 
 oblique progression windward in a zigzag direction. 
 This, however, is more usually called beating or turn- 
 ing to windward. 
 
 Tackle, a machine formed by the commuilication 
 of a rope with an assemblage of blocks, and known in 
 mechanics by the name ai pulley. Tackles are used 
 in a ship to raise, remove, or to secure weighty bodies, 
 to support the masts, or to extend the sails and rig- 
 ging. They are movable as communicating with a 
 runner, or fixed as being hooked in an immovable situ- 
 ation ; and they are more or less complicated in pro- 
 portion to the eff'ect which they are intended to produce. 
 The application of the tackle to mechanical purposes 
 is called hoisting or bomsing. Ground tackle implies 
 the anchors, cables, etc. 
 
 Tafierel, the uppermost part of a ship's stem, be- 
 ing a curved piece of wood, and usually ornamented 
 with some device in sculpture. 
 
 TafTeta, one of the earliest species of silken man- 
 ufacture, more prized formerly than now, woven very 
 smooth and glossy. It was worn by queens, and was 
 first made in England by John Tyce, of Shoreditch, 
 London, 41 Elizabeth, 1598. — Store's Chron. Taf- 
 feta has been superseded by numerous descriptions of 
 manufacture more esteemed by the female world. — 
 Haydn. 
 
 Taganrog, a city of European Russia, on the north 
 coast of the Sea of Azof, near the mouth of the River 
 Don, lat. 47° 12' 48" N., long. 38° 39' E. Popula- 
 tion, 18,000. It has a naval hospital, a lazaretto, etc. ; 
 and there are annual fairs in May, August, and No- 
 vember. Taganrog is a place of considerable com- 
 mercial importance. It was intended by its illustri- 
 ous founder, Peter the Great, to replace Azof, the an- 
 cient emporium of the Don, the port of which had be- 
 come all but inaccessible ; and its whole consequence 
 is derived from this circumstance, or from its being the 
 entrepot of the commerce of the countries traversed bj- 
 that great river. The largest portion by far of the 
 trade is carried on with Constantinople, Smyrna, and 
 other Turkish ports, but a good deal is also carried on 
 ivith the Italian and other foreign ports ; and there is 
 an extensive coasting trade with Odessa and other 
 Russian ports. In 1852 the exports to foreign coun- 
 tries comprised, among other articles, 1,102,047 chet- 
 
 werts wheat, 112,510 poods tallow, 175,336 poods wool, 
 26,194 poods caviare, 346,380 chetwerts linseed, etc. 
 Seeing that Taganrog was built to obviate the difficul- 
 ties that had to be encountered by vessels entering the 
 Don, through the shallowness of the water, it might 
 have been supposed that care would be taken to place it 
 in a position in which it should be, in as far as possible, 
 free from this defect. This important consideration 
 seems, however, to have been to a great degree over- 
 looked. The Gulf of the Don is seldom navigable by 
 vessels drawing more than from ten to eleven feet 
 water, and even these can not approach within less 
 than about 700 yards of the town. They are piinci- 
 pally loaded by carts, drawn each by a single horse, 
 the expenses being so verj' considerable that it costs 
 from 120 to 160 copecks to ship a chetwert of wheat. 
 Without, however, altering the position of the town, 
 these defects might be obviated with but little diffi- 
 culty, by constructing a wooden pier by which vessels 
 in the roads might be sheltered, and from which they 
 might be laden. 
 
 It is impossible to form a correct estimate of the 
 future magnitude of the trade of the Sea of Azof. No 
 doubt, however, it is very great, being the natural seat 
 of the commerce of some of the most extensive and 
 fertile countries of Eastern Europe. 
 
 Were the navigation of the Don improved, and fa- 
 cilities given to foreigners entering the sea, the ex- 
 ports might be largely increased, even with recent 
 prices, which have been nearly the same as those of 
 Odessa. The harvests in the south of Russia fluctu- 
 ate verj' greatly. The imports into the Sea of Azof 
 are but inconsiderable, principally consisting of Greek 
 wines, oils, drj' salteries, and such like articles. 
 
 Talc, a species of fossil nearly allied to mica. It 
 is soft, smooth, greasy to the feel, and may be split 
 into fine plates or leaves, which are flexible, but not 
 elastic. It has a greenish, whitish, or silver-like 
 lustre. The leaves are transparent, and are used in 
 many parts of India and China, as they were used in 
 ancient Rome (Pliny, Hist. Nat., lib. xxvi.), in win- 
 dows instead of glass. In Bengal a seer of talc costs 
 about two rupees, and will sometimes yield a dozen 
 panes 12 inches by 9, or 10 by 10, according to the form 
 of the mass, transparent enough to allow ordinarj' sub- 
 jects to be seen at twenty or thirty yards' distance. 
 It should be chosen of a beautiful pearl color ; but it 
 has, in general, either a yellowish or faint blue tinge. 
 Its pure translucent flakes are frequently used by the 
 Indians for ornamenting the bawbles employed in their 
 ceremonies. Talc is employed in the composition of 
 rouge vigetdl. The Romans prepared with it a beau- 
 tiful blue, by combining it with the coloring fluid of 
 particular kinds of testaceous animals. The talc 
 brought from the Tj-rolese mountains is called in com- 
 merce Venetian talc. Several varieties are found in 
 India and Ceylon. — Thomson's Chemistry ; Rees' 
 Cyclopedia; Milbuen's Oriental Commerce ; Ainslie's 
 Mat.Indica. 
 
 Talent signifies both a weight and a coin verj- com- 
 mon among the ancients, but verj' diff'erent among 
 difierent nations. The common Attic talent of weight 
 contains 60 Attic minse, or 6000 Attic drachmae ; and 
 weighed, according to Dr. Arbuthnot, 59 lbs. 11 oz. 
 174- grs. English Troy weight. There was another 
 Attic talent, by some said to consist of 80, by others 
 of 100 mina;. The Egyptian talent was 80 minas ; the 
 Antiochian also 80 ; the Ptolemaic of Cleopatra 80j 
 that of Alexandria, 96 ; and the insular talent, 120. In 
 the valuation of money, the Grecian talent, according 
 to Dr. Arbutlmot, was equal to 60 minse ; or, reckon- 
 ing the mina at £3 4s. 7d., equal to £193 15s. The 
 Syrian talent, in this valuation, consisted of 15 Attic 
 minae, the Ptolemaic of 20, the Antiochian of 60, the 
 
TAL 
 
 1792 
 
 TAM 
 
 Euboean of 60, the Babj'lonio of 70, the. greater Attic 
 of 80, the Tyrian of 80, the Eginajan of 100, the Eho- 
 dian of 100, and the Egyptian of 80 niinae. There is 
 another talent much more ancient, which Dr. Arbuth- 
 not calls the Homeric talent of gold, Tfhich seems to 
 have weighed six Attic drachms, or three Dorics, a 
 Doric weighing verj' little more than a guinea. Ac- 
 cording to this talent some reckon the treasure of 
 King David, particularly that mentioned 1 Chron. xx. 
 14, which, according to the common reckoning, would 
 amount in gold talents to the value of £547,600,000, 
 and the silver to above £342,000. As David reigned 
 in Judea after the siege of Troy, it is not improbable 
 but Homer and he might use the same numeral talent 
 of gold. Among the Romans there were two kinds 
 of talents, the little and the great talent. The little 
 was the common talent ; and whenever they say sim- 
 ply ialentum, they are to be understood of this. The 
 little talent was 60 minse or Roman pounds, the mina 
 or pound being estimated at 100 drachmse or denarii. 
 It was also estimated at twenty-four great sesterces, 
 which amounted to £60. The great talent exceeded 
 the less by one-third part. Budseus computes that the 
 little talent of silver was worth £75 sterling, and the 
 greater £99 6s. Sd. sterling. The greater of gold was 
 worth £1125 sterling. 
 
 Talent^ as a species of money among the Hebrews, 
 was sometimes used for a gold coin, the same with 
 the shekel of gold, called also stater, and weighing 
 only four drachms. The Hebrews reckoned by these 
 talents, as we do by pounds, etc. Thus a million of 
 gold, or a million of talents of gold, among them was a 
 million of shekels, or nummi ; the nummus of gold be- 
 ing the same weight with the shekel ; viz., 4 drachms. 
 But the Hebrew talent weight of silver, which they 
 called dear, was equivalent to that of 3000 shekels, or 
 113 lbs. 10 oz. 1 dwt. lOf grs. English Troy weight., 
 according to Arbuthnot's computation. — E. B. See 
 Coins. 
 
 Tallow (Fr.fSuif; Ger. Talg; It. Sevo, Sego ; Euss. 
 (Sato, toplenoe; Sp. Sebo), animal fat melted and separa- 
 ted from the fibrous matter mixed with it. Its qual- 
 ity depends partly on the animal from which it has 
 been prepared, but more, perhaps, on the care taken in 
 its purification. It is firm, brittle, and has a peculiar 
 heavy odor. When pure, it is white, tasteless, and 
 nearly insipid ; but the tallow of commerce has usually 
 a yellowish tinge, and is divided, according to the de- 
 gree of its purity and consistence, into candle and soap 
 tallow. Tallow is an article of great importance. It 
 is manufactured into candles and soap, and is extens- 
 ively used in the dressing of leather, and in various 
 processes of the arts. The exports of tallow from Rus- 
 sia amount, at an average, to about 3,810,000 poods, or 
 137,160,000 lbs. a year. — Tegoeorski, Forces Produc- 
 tives de la Russie, i. 233. Of this immense supply, the 
 export of the largest portion is to England ; the re- 
 mainder being exported to Prussia, France, the Hanso 
 Towns, Turkey, etc. 
 
 We borrow from the work of Mr. Borrisow, on the 
 commerce of Petersburg, the following details with 
 respect to the tallow trade of that city : Tallow is di- 
 vided into different sorts ; namely, white and yellow 
 candle tallow, and common and Siberian soap tallow ; 
 although it is allowed that the same sort often differs 
 in quality. Tallow is brought to Petersburg from 
 the interior ; and the best soap tallow from Siberia, 
 by various rivers, to the Lake Ladoga, and thence by 
 the canal of Schlusselburg to the Neva. Yellow can- 
 dle tallow, when good, should be clean, dry, hard when 
 broken, and of a fine yellow color throughout. The 
 white candle tallow, when good, is white, brittle, hard, 
 drj', and clean. The best white tallow is brought from 
 Woronesch. As for soap tallow, the more greasy and 
 yellow it is, the better the quality. That from Si- 
 beria is the purest, and commonly fetches a higher 
 price than the other sorts. The exports of tallow 
 
 from Petersburg in 1852 amounted to 2,062,101 poods. 
 Formerlj- the oil and tallow warehouses were the same, 
 and this occasioned great difficulties in shipping, be- 
 cause all vessels or lighters taking ih tallow or oil 
 were obliged to haul down to the ambare, and wait in 
 rotation for their cargoes. The consequence was, that, 
 when much business was doing, a vessel was often de- 
 tained for several weeks at the ambare before she could 
 get her cargo on board. Now the tallow and oil ware- 
 houses are separated, and every article has its own 
 place. When a shipment of tallow is made, the agent 
 is furnished by the selector (bracker) with a sample 
 from each cask. Captains, in order to obtain more 
 freight, usually load some casks of tallow upon deck ; 
 but it is more for the interest of the owner to avoid 
 this, if possible, because the tallow loses, through the 
 heat of the sun, considerably, both in weight and qual- 
 ity. One hundred and twenty poods of tallow, gross 
 weight, make a Petersburg last, and 63 poods a ton. 
 The value of the tallow exported from Russia is said 
 by M. Tegoborski to amount, at an average, to about 
 3,871,000 roubles, or about $15,500,000. 
 
 ESPOETS OP DOMESTIC TaLI.OW FKOM THE UNITED STATES 
 DOKING THE YEAE ENDING JUNE 30, 1857, 
 
 Whither exported. 
 
 Danish West Indies 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Dutch West Indies 
 
 Dutch Guiana 
 
 England 
 
 Malta 
 
 Canada 
 
 Other British North Am, Possessions 
 
 British West Indies 
 
 British Honduras 
 
 Britisll Guiana 
 
 France on the Atlantic 
 
 French North American Possessions 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Porto Rico 
 
 Azores 
 
 Hayti 
 
 Mexico 
 
 New Granada 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Chili 
 
 Total. 
 
 PonndB. I Vftluo. 
 
 8,750 
 
 26,587 
 
 43S 
 
 14,706 
 
 1,773,452 
 
 2,750 
 
 1,456,568 
 
 532,110 
 
 2,679 
 
 2,700 
 
 4,571 
 
 40,000 
 
 3,163 
 
 885,316 
 
 8,858 
 
 1,100 
 
 4,556 
 
 12,182 
 
 14,333 
 
 267,987 
 
 676,661 
 
 5,698,316 
 
 $1,068 
 
 3,320 
 
 65 
 
 1,724 
 
 208,946 
 
 358 
 
 148,382 
 
 60,,378 
 
 362 
 
 270 
 
 624 
 
 4,841 
 
 382 
 
 106,366 
 
 1,010 
 
 120 
 
 604 
 
 1,305 
 
 1,736 
 
 31,421 
 
 60,006 
 
 .$632,286 
 
 iMrOETS OF Tallow into the United States fob the 
 Year ending June 30, 1857, 
 
 whence importtid. 
 
 England 
 
 British West Indies 
 
 British Possessions in Africa, , , , 
 
 British East Indies , , , ,. 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Buenos Ayres, or Argentine Republic 
 
 Sandwich Islands 
 
 Total 
 
 Pounds. 1 Value. 
 
 21,710 
 7,T0O 
 641 
 32,420 
 974 
 16,238 
 86,966 
 
 $1,721 
 
 427 
 
 69 
 
 2,601 
 
 39 
 
 1,108 
 
 6,642 
 
 166,548 I $12,507 
 
 Tally Trade, the name given to a system of deal- 
 ing carried on in London and other large towns, by 
 which shop-keepers furnish certain articles on credit 
 to their customers, the latter agreeing to pay the stip- 
 ulated price bj"- certain weekly or monthly installments. 
 In London there are about sixty or seventy tally-shops 
 of note, and from 500 to 600 on a smaller scale. They 
 are also spread over the countrj- to a considerable ex- 
 tent, particularly in the manufacturing districts. The 
 customers of the tally-shops are mostly women, con- 
 sisting principally of the wives of laborers, mechanics, 
 porters, etc., servant girls, and females of loose char- 
 acter. Few only of the more respectable classes have 
 been infatuated enough to resort to them. 
 
 Tamarinds (Ger. Tamarinden; Fr. Tamanns; It. 
 and Sp. Tamarindo ; Arab. Umblie ; Hind. Tintiri), the 
 fruit of the Tamarindus Indica, a tree which grows in 
 the East and West Indies, in Arabia, and Egypt. In 
 the West Indies the pods or fruit, being gathered when 
 ripe, and freed from the shelly fragments, are placed 
 in layers in a cask, and boiling sirup poured over them, 
 till the cask be filled ; the sirup pervades every part 
 quite down to the bottom ; and when cool, the cask is 
 headed for sale. ^ The East India tamarinds are darker 
 
TAM 
 
 1793 
 
 TAR 
 
 colored and drier, and are said to te preserved without 
 sugar. When good, tamarinds are free from any de- 
 gree of mustiness ; the seeds are hard, flat, and clean ; 
 the strings tough and entire ; and a clean knife thrust 
 into them does not receive any' coating of copper. They 
 should be preserved in closely-covered jars. — Thom- 
 son's Dispensatory. The tamarind-tree was very early 
 introduced into England, where it sometimes is known 
 to flower ; from which circumstance it may be inferred 
 that it would prosper in favorable localities in some of 
 our Southern States, and probably mature its fruit. 
 There is, perhaps, only one species of this genus '; but 
 the West Indian tamarind, believed to be only a vari- 
 ety, diflfers much from the East Indian, in the form of 
 its fruit and the number of its seeds. 
 
 Tampico, or Santa Ana de Tamaulipas, a 
 sea-port town of the Mexican confederation; depart- 
 ment, and 215 miles north-northwest from Vera Cruz, 
 on the south Shore of the Lake of Tampico. Population, 
 7000. It is regulairly laid out on a slbpi, and has some 
 good dwellings in the bid Spanish style, with military 
 and naval hospitals, some public monuments, and well- 
 supplied markets. It is better drained and less un- 
 healthy than formerly. Principal exports are specie, 
 hides, tallow, bones, and jerked beef. 
 
 Imports into Tampico fiJom the "United States, with the 
 
 ESTiMATEw Duties. 
 
 ' VdaiB. Amount of Cargoes. Import Duties. 
 
 im $273,70i $205,278 
 
 1852 196,936 14T,T02 
 
 1853 843,564 632,678 
 
 The exports hence to the United States during the 
 year 1837 Amounted to $1,283,157, whereas the returns 
 of the 3'ear 1855 onlj' amount to' the sum of $208,571. 
 In 1834 the total amount of specie from this port was, 
 by official returns, $9,165,178, of Which over $2,000,000 
 went to the United States, the balance to Eutope. A 
 serious drawback to the commercial intercourse be- 
 tween this port and the United States is the want of 
 direct steam convej'ttnces. The geographical position 
 of Tampico has many advantages over any other port 
 in the republic, in consequence of its proximity to San 
 Luis Potosi, where goods can 'be sent at 50 per cent. 
 less in the chai-ges of freight than from Vera Cruz, and 
 San Luis being the key to all the principal places in 
 the sections of the country whose commerce is supplied 
 with foreign goods, and the spot where the goodsTneet 
 from the states of Durango, Jalisco, Guanajuato, and 
 Zacatecas, these being the principal mining states in 
 the republic. There were twelve arrivals and depart- 
 ures of English packets, bringing to Tampico 3431 
 quicksilver flasks, and taking thence cargoes of an ag- 
 gregate value of $3,459,061 ; which, added to the ag- 
 gregate value of other outward cargoes, makes a total 
 of $3,994,772. 
 
 Eetuens op American and foreign Trade at the Port 
 OF Tampico during the Year ending Deoembee 31, 1854 
 
 Nations. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Valno of Im- 
 ports. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Value of Ex- 
 ports. 
 
 American vessels . . . 
 
 2rt5 
 
 $260,369 
 
 30j1 
 
 $208,471 
 
 Mexican "- 
 
 2764 
 
 216,700 
 
 2650 
 
 61,890 
 
 Spanish " 
 
 285 
 
 66,100 
 
 285 
 
 26,450 
 
 Frencli " 
 
 2100 
 
 530,382 
 
 22U6 
 
 
 English " 
 
 895 
 
 493,140 
 
 895 
 
 238,000 
 
 Danish " 
 
 Total 
 
 280 
 
 111,835 
 
 280 
 
 900 
 
 92J9 
 
 $1,678,026 
 
 9407 
 
 $535,711 
 
 Tanning. The process of tanning leather -with the 
 bark of trees was earlj' practiced by various nations. 
 The use of tan was introduced into these countries from 
 Holland by William III., for raising orange-trees. It 
 was discontinued until about 1719, when ananas were 
 first brought into England, Since tlien tan has been 
 in general use in gardening. Great improvements 
 were made in tanning in 1795, et seq. 
 
 Tapestry, an art of weaving borrowed from the 
 Saracens ; and hence its original worl^ers in France 
 were called Sarazinois. The invention of tapestrj^ 
 hangings belongs (the date is not mentioned) to the 
 Netherlands.— GuicciARDiNi. Manufactured in France 
 5 X 
 
 under Henry fV., by artists invited from Flanders, 
 1606. The art was brought into EngUnd by William 
 Sheldon, and the first manufactory of it was estab- 
 lished at Mortlake by Sir Francis Crane, 17 James I., 
 1619. — Salmon. Under Louis XIV. the art of tapes- 
 try was much improved in France. — See Gobelin 
 Tapestry. Very early instances of making tapestrj- 
 are mentioned by the ancient poets, and also in Scrip- 
 ture 5 80 that the Saracen manufacture is a revival of 
 the art. For the tapestry wrought by Matilda of En- 
 gland, see Bateaux, Tapestry^ p. 74. 
 
 Tapioca, a species of starch or white coarse pow- 
 der derived from the roots of the bitter cassava (Jatropa 
 manikot\ an American plant raised all over South 
 America, but principally in Brazil, where it is called 
 mandioc or manioc. The roots of the plant, being peel- 
 ed, are subjected to pressure in a kind of bag made of 
 rushes ; the juice which is forced out by this process 
 being a deadly poison, and ^mjiloj^ed as such by the 
 Indians to poison their arrows. But the residuum, or 
 farinaceous matter remaining after the expulsion of 
 the juice, is perfectly wholesome, and maked excellent 
 bread. Tapioca, as stated above, is prepared from this 
 residuum ; and being nutritious and easy of 'digestion, 
 is extensively used in the making of puddings. When 
 dressed, it is not easily distinguished from sago. 
 
 Tar (Fr. Gondfon; Ger. Theev; It. Cairame; Pol. 
 Smola ffcsta ; Russ. Degot^ Smola ihithaja ; Svfed.Tjarct), 
 athick,black, unctuous substance, chiefly obtained from 
 the pine and other turpentine trees, by burning them 
 in a close, smothering heat. ^ 
 
 Exports of Tar from tue TJniteb States foe the Yeae 
 KNDiNG Juke 30, 1S57. 
 
 Whither exported. 
 
 Swedish \\est Indies 
 
 Danish West Indies -■ . 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Holland 
 
 Dutch West Indies 
 
 Dutch Guiana 
 
 Dutch East Indies 
 
 England 
 
 Scotland ; 
 
 Gibraltar . .' 
 
 Malta 
 
 Canada 
 
 Other British North Am. Posaessions 
 
 British West Indies 
 
 British Honduras 
 
 British Guiana 
 
 British Posaessions in Africa. . . . 
 
 British Australia 
 
 British Ea^t Indies 
 
 France on the, Atlantic 
 
 Prance on the Mediterranean . . . 
 French North American PoaBessions 
 
 French West Indies 
 
 French Guiana 
 
 Spain on the Mediterranean 
 
 Canary Islands 
 
 Philippine Islands 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Porto Rico 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Madeira 
 
 Cape de Verd Islands 
 
 Azores 
 
 Two Sicilies 
 
 Turkey in Europe 
 
 Turkey in Asia 
 
 Ports in Africa 
 
 T-Iayti ■ 
 
 San Domingo 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Central Bepublic 
 
 New Granada 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Brazil. . . ,\ 
 
 I'ruguay, or Cisplatine Eepublic . 
 
 Argentine Kepublic 
 
 Chili 
 
 Peru 
 
 Ecuador 
 
 Sandwich Islands 
 
 Other islands in the Pacific. 
 
 (":hina 
 
 AN' hale-fisheries 
 
 Total, year ia56~T.. 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 870 
 800 
 198 
 
 7,032 
 
 85 
 
 370 
 
 728 
 
 27,253 
 
 12,742 
 
 270 
 
 130 
 
 2,471 
 
 6,243 
 
 2,857 
 210 
 
 1,47? 
 S05 
 850 
 
 8,388 
 
 3,722 
 
 1,929 
 169 
 698 
 442 
 
 1,096 
 
 60 
 
 659 
 
 3,215 
 476 
 285 
 50 
 75 
 290 
 815 
 151) 
 400 
 
 1,878 
 277 
 230 
 962 
 59 
 
 1,224 
 777 
 
 1,380 
 250 
 575 
 472 
 360 
 250 
 339 
 26 
 350 
 19 
 
 1,773 
 228 
 
 8,213 
 210 
 827 
 
 1,612 
 
 63,498 
 
 26,680 
 
 661 
 
 247 
 
 9,470 
 13,633 
 
 5,360 
 606 
 
 3,158 
 
 1,687 
 
 1,907 
 17,929 
 
 6,983 
 
 2,359 
 402 
 
 1,289 
 817 
 
 2,766 
 132 
 
 1,949 
 
 7.511 
 
 1,114 
 646 
 120 
 166 
 588 I 
 
 1,662 
 300 I 
 825 i 
 
 3,011 : 
 573 i 
 460 
 
 2,676 
 131 i 
 
 3,570 ! 
 
 1,673 
 
 2,764 
 506 
 
 1,399 
 
 1,218 
 777 
 549 
 
 1,109 
 108 
 
 1,166 
 76 
 
 $208,610 
 
TAR 
 
 1794 
 
 TAR 
 
 Tar is an artic of great commercial importance. 
 The process followed in making it has been described 
 as follows by Dr. Clarke : " The situation most favor- 
 able to the process is in a forest near to a marsh or bog ; 
 because the roots of the fir, from which tar is princi- 
 pallj' extracted, are always most productive in such 
 places. A conical cavity is then made in the ground 
 (generally in the side of a bank or sloping hill), and 
 the roots of the fir, together with logs and billets of 
 the same, being neatly trussed in a stack of the same 
 conical shape, are let into this cavity. The whole is 
 then covered with turf, to prevent the volatile parts 
 from being dissipated, which bj' means of a heavy 
 wooden mallet, and a wooden stamper, worked sep- 
 arately by two men, is beaten down and rendered as 
 firm as possible above the wood. The stack of billets 
 is then kindled, and a slow combustion of the fir takes 
 place, without flame, as in making charcoal. During 
 this combustion the tar exudes ; and a cast-iron pan 
 being at the bottom of the funnel, with a spout which 
 projects through the side of the bank, barrels are placed 
 beneath this spout to collect the fluid as it comes away. 
 As fast as the barrels are filled they are bunged and 
 ready for immediate exportation. From this descrip- 
 tion it will be evident that the mode of obtaining tar 
 is by a kind of distillation per descetisum ; the turpen- 
 tine, melted by fire, mixing with the sap and juices of 
 the fir, while the wood itself, becoming charred, is con- 
 verted into charcoal." 
 
 Tare, an abatement or deduction made from the 
 weight of a parcel of goods, on account of the weight 
 of the chest, cask, bag, etc., in which they are contain- 
 ed. Tare is distinguished into real tare, cusiomary 
 tarCf and average tare. The first is the actual weight 
 of the package ; the second its supposed weight ac- 
 cording to the practice among merchants ; and the third 
 is the medium tare, deduced from weighing a few pack- 
 ages, and taking it as the standard for the whole. In 
 some commercial cities tares are generally fixed hy 
 custom. The prevailing practice, as to all goods that 
 can be unpacked without injury, both at the custom- 
 house and among merchants, is to ascertain the real 
 tare. Sometimes, however, the buyer and seller make 
 a particular agreement about it. 
 
 Tare, Vetch, or Fitch, a plant {Vicia saiiva, 
 Linn.) that is cultivated principally for its stem and 
 leaves, which are used in the feeding of sheep, horses, 
 and cattle ; but partly, also, for its seed. Horses 
 thrive better upon tares than upon clover and rye 
 grass ; and cows that are fed upon them give most milk. 
 The seed is principally used in the feeding of pigeons 
 and other poultry-. 
 
 Tariff, or Tarif. First, a list of certain goods, mer- 
 chandise, etc. ; then a list of duties on imports or ex- 
 ports of such articles. This word, like manj' others 
 used in commerce, is derived from the Italian, in which 
 it is tariffa; this again, like numerous other expres- 
 sions relating to commerce and navigation, comes from 
 the East. In Persian it is tarif; in Arabian the verb 
 ar/* signifies to know, which in the second form becomes 
 tarif, signifying to mahe ?cnown. The substantive de- 
 rived from the verb therefore signifies notification. The 
 principles of a tariff depend upon the commercial policy 
 of the state by which it is framed ; and the details are 
 constantly fluctuating with the change of interests, and 
 with the wants of the government or community, or 
 in pursuance of commercial treaties with other nations. 
 The British tariff underwent seven important changes 
 between the years 1772 and 1842 j'viz., in 1787, in 1809, 
 in 1819, in 1825, in 1833, and in 1842. Finally, on 26th 
 June, 1846, the royal assent was given to Sir Robert 
 Peel's noted tariff — a measure which canceled the du- 
 ties on several hundred articles, and pressed upon the 
 country the adoption of free trade. 
 
 The able report of L. D. Campbell, of the House of 
 Representatives, 1856, to the Committee of Ways and 
 Means, is a just and comprehensive exposition of the 
 
 protective (not prohibitive) sj'stem ; and as such, and 
 as being the report upon which our present tariff was 
 mainly constructed, we need not apologize for giving 
 extended extracts. The moderately protective tariff 
 is essential in the early commercial and manufacturing 
 stages of a country. And the fact that free trade may 
 at some future time be advantageous to us does not 
 prove its present necessity. It will be seen that, 
 though generally assenting to the asserted fact that the 
 purpose of revenue alone can justify the imposition of 
 duties, yet the proofs and statistics given prove too 
 much, and prove to the unprejudiced reader that duties 
 are not alone necessary for revenue, but 7nai/ be neces- 
 sary for protection. 
 
 Principle and Policy of the Proposition. — The pro- 
 priety of the proposed reduction of the tariff of duties 
 upon imports is made by the President's annual mes- 
 sage to rest, first, upon t]ie principle that " the purposes 
 of revenue alone can justify their imposition ;" and, 
 second, upon the policy of " reducing the tariff of du- 
 ties upon imports, as the means of reducing the revenue 
 to the amount annually needed for the prudent and 
 economical administration of public affairs." 
 
 The recommendation of the message, thus analyzed, 
 affords a principle which the President contents him- 
 self with saying " is so generally conceded, that, in re- 
 adjusting the impost tables and schedules, which un- 
 questionably require essential modifications, a depar- 
 ture from the principles of the present tariff is not an- 
 ticipated," and & policy yfhich. he does not in any man- 
 ner undertake to verifj' or illustrate. It stands in the 
 message as a position assumed without proof, or as too 
 plain to require demonstration. 
 
 Revenue limited by Expenditures. — Your committee 
 perceive only one sense in which the President's doc- 
 trine concerning the purpose for which import duties 
 may be imposed can be regarded as generally conceded. 
 Imposts emplo3''ed as a measure of taxation must be 
 conformed to the requirements of the public revenue, 
 or they miss the controlling object of their imposition. 
 
 Taxes of every kind must be levied at once up to 
 the necessities, and within the limits of government 
 expenses ; in other words, the gross amount of revenue 
 must be regulated b}- the demand of the government 
 for its current expenses ; and, where foreign imports 
 are selected by the policy of the nation to bear the chief 
 burden of its support, the tax imposed must be determ- 
 ined in amount by the requirements of the national 
 tjeasury. 
 
 Thus far it is conceded that the purpose of revenue 
 alone can justify their imposition ; and thus far the 
 doctrine of the message is in accordance with the sen- 
 timents of the American people. But tariffs have other 
 legitimate purposes, and are capable of other and im- 
 portant uses, while kept in strict conformity to the re- 
 quirements of the national treasury. 
 
 Impost Systems of all Nations protective of tlieir pro- 
 ductive Industry. — Our own Policy persistently governed 
 hy this Intention. — The protection of the national in- 
 dustry, b}^ means of duties laid upon foreign imports, is 
 one of the purposes which characterize the impost sys- 
 tems of all the governments of the earth, whose rank 
 entitles them to consideration as authorities with us. 
 This policy, since its adoption by the first-class na- 
 tions, has undergone changes corresponding to changes 
 of condition, both in Europe and America, but the prin- 
 ciple has never been abandoned. The Continent of 
 Europe holds it as firmly as ever, and Great Britain, 
 by working it to its utmost capacity of beneficial serv- 
 ice, has thoroughly justified the theorj'. Her expe- 
 rience is its most perfect demonstration. In the United 
 States the doctrine has its disciples and supporters as 
 numerous and influential as principles, rightly under- 
 stood, ever secured among an intelligent and patriotic 
 people. In the forty j'ears of controversy to which it 
 has been subjected in this country, the opposing theory 
 has never obtained a victorj' or a concession which can 
 
TAR 
 
 1795 
 
 TAR 
 
 in any way entitle its advocates to claim possession of 
 the field. Fifteen general acts of legislation have 
 made as many changes in the details of our tariff laws, 
 but none of them has yielded the principle of protec- 
 tion, direct or indirect, to our national induetrj'. 
 
 Duties less than protective, FluctiuUiotis of the Rev- 
 enue, and Vicissitudes in the Business of the Country. — 
 The compromise of 1833, of all the general acts of 
 Congress imposing duties upon impoits, alone seems 
 to yield prospectively to the doctrine of a tariff for rev- 
 enue without effectual incidental protection. It is 
 the only instance of a horizontal rate of duties carried 
 below the point of adequate encouragement of our 
 home industry. But even under this act, the level 
 20 per cent, which its provisions contemplated was 
 not to talte effect until after the 30th of June, 1842. 
 Till that date the successive reductions of all excess in 
 the rates over 20 per cent, continued to wear the dis- 
 criminating features of the protective tariff, which it 
 modified, altliough the rates ran below the point of 
 protection ; and its large free list decidedly expressed 
 the same intention. Nine years' experience of the 
 operation of this act abundantly manifested its unfit- 
 ness for any of tlie purposes which a policy of imposts 
 should answer. The revenue derived from it declined 
 in four years from twenty-nine millions to eleven ; 
 rose again in two years to twenty-three ; sunlc the 
 next year to thirteen and a lialf ; and stood three years 
 afterward at eighteen millions. The vicissitudes in 
 the business of the countrj-, and the disasters which 
 its monetary interests encountered in this period, are 
 well remembered. They are indicated sufficiently by 
 the following facts. The price of flour in 1837 was 
 $10 25 per baiTel ; in 1842 it had fallen to $6. In 
 1836 twenty-five millions of dollars' worth of public 
 lands were sold ; in 1842 less than two millions of dol- 
 lars' worth. In 1836 cotton was at 16"8 cents per lb., 
 in 1842 at 8'1 cents per lb. The export had in six 
 years risen one hundred and sixty millions of pounds, 
 and the total value had fallen twenty-three millions of 
 dollars. 
 
 The tariff of 1842 was a convulsive reaction of the 
 national sentiment, awakened by the sufferings of the 
 people under the operation of the system of the Com- 
 promise Act. 
 
 The general bankruptcy of the people which had 
 resulted was reflected by a corresponding bankruptcy 
 of the national treasury. In 1836 a surplus fund of 
 twenty-eight millions had been disposed of by order- 
 
 ing that amoimt to be deposited with the States ; but 
 sixteen months afterward the fourth installment of that 
 deposit was arrested by the necessities of the treas- 
 nrj' ; and in six years from the date of the act required 
 to relieve the plethora, it was fifty-four millions in 
 debt ! 
 
 The single instance of a tariff that looked to revenue 
 only, and had the opportunity to practically demon- 
 strate its working qualities, thus proved itself to be the 
 only one ever put upon its trial wholly incapable of 
 answering tliat special intention, and at the same time 
 had proved more mischievous to every other object 
 which the system of import duties affects, than any 
 other that has ever been attempted. 
 
 Established Principles of our Revenue St/stem.'^Your 
 committee, feeling well satisfied that the policy of the 
 nation in respect to all the points involved in legislation 
 upon the subject of import duties is sufficiently mani- 
 fest, think it well to state its principal doctrines for the 
 service which such a statement will render to the pur- 
 poses and objects of this report : 
 
 I. The revenue of the government is to be raised 
 from the sales of public lands, duties upon imports, 
 and from miscellaneous sources, without resorting to 
 internal taxation, direct or indirect. 
 
 II. The revenue to be derived from import duties, 
 amounting in the average, since the foundation of the 
 government, to six-sevenths of the resources relied 
 upon, shall be levied under direction of the following 
 principles : 1st. No more money shall be collected than 
 is ne^cessary for the wants of the government, econom- 
 ically administered. 2d. The duties shall be imposed 
 so as to operate as equally as possible throughout the 
 Union, discriminating neither for nor against any class, 
 or section, or interest. 
 
 III. Conforming to the objects and limitations of 
 these rules, certain kinds of imports shall be subject to 
 varied rates of duty, and certain others shall be ex- 
 empt from duty, in such manner as shall best foster 
 and promote home production and the general welfare 
 of the nation ; taking care to distribute the protection 
 so afforded over every interest of the people as equally 
 
 Revenue acoruing under High and' Low Tariffs, re- 
 spectively^ in the last thirty-two Years. — Let us see how 
 either of these points, thus necessary to the validity of 
 the calculation, is sustained or contradicted by the his- 
 tory of our foreign commerce in the last thirty-two 
 years : 
 
 
 Mlllioiis 
 
 Sales of Lan€ 
 
 Average 
 
 MUliolis 
 
 
 MUllons of 
 
 
 Years. 
 
 of 
 
 in ThouHnndi 
 
 Sales per 
 
 of Dollars 
 
 Average; 
 
 Bollars 
 
 
 
 DoUftTs. 
 
 of DoUora. 
 
 Amom. 
 
 Customs. 
 
 
 difference. 
 
 
 1S24 
 
 63i 
 
 984}1 
 
 
 
 r"*i 
 
 
 r 
 
 
 1825 
 
 66i 
 
 1,216 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 Inc. 2} 
 
 Tariff of 1824, from June 80, 1824. 
 
 1826 
 
 STi 
 
 139} 
 
 
 
 23}^ 
 
 21} 
 
 i Inc. 3} 
 
 , 
 
 182T 
 
 65 
 
 1,495} 
 
 
 
 19} 
 
 
 Dec. 3} 
 
 
 1828 
 
 1829 
 
 67 
 
 54} 
 
 1,018} 
 li617 
 
 $2,086,000 
 
 
 23}J 
 22}'1 
 
 
 1 Inc. 3} 
 roec i 
 
 
 1830 
 
 49} 
 
 2,329} 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 24} 
 
 Deo. } 
 
 Tariff of 1828, from Sept. 1, 1S28. 
 
 1831 
 
 82i 
 
 3,210} 
 
 
 ( 
 
 24 
 
 Inc. 2 
 
 
 1832 
 
 75t 
 
 2,623} 
 
 
 
 28} 
 
 
 Jnc. 4} 
 
 
 1833. ...... 
 
 83} 
 
 3,96T}J 
 4,867}i 
 
 
 
 29 
 
 .... 
 
 Inc. } 
 
 Tariff of 1832, from March. 1, 1833. 
 
 1834 
 
 87 
 
 
 
 16} 
 
 
 Dec 13 
 
 After Dec. 31, 1833, one-tenth ex- 
 
 1835 
 
 122 
 
 14,767} 
 
 
 
 19} 
 
 
 Inc. 3} 
 
 cess over 20 per cent, deducted. 
 
 1836 
 
 15Si 
 
 24,877 
 
 
 
 23} 
 
 
 Inc. 4} 
 
 One-tenth more after Dec. 31, 1835. 
 
 183T 
 
 113i 
 
 6,776 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 Dec. 12} 
 
 
 1838 
 
 80} 
 
 3,082 )■ 
 
 7,491,000 
 
 
 16 
 
 
 Inc. 5 
 
 One-tenth more after Dec. 31, 1837. 
 
 1839 
 
 145} 
 
 7,076} 
 
 
 
 23 
 
 
 Inc. 7 
 
 
 1840 
 
 86} 
 
 3,292 
 
 
 
 IS} 
 
 
 Dec. 9} 
 
 One-tenth more after Dec. 31, 1839. 
 
 1841 
 
 114} 
 
 1,365} 
 
 
 
 14} 
 
 
 Inc. 1 
 
 
 . 1842 
 
 88 
 
 1,336}, 
 
 
 
 18 
 "16 1 
 
 
 Inc. 3} 
 
 Half of residue after Dec. 31, 1841. 
 
 Equal to 1843 
 
 T7 
 
 1,197 - 
 
 
 
 
 (•Dec. 2 
 
 Eemaining half after June 30, 1842. 
 
 1843-'44 
 
 1844-'45 
 
 90} 
 105} 
 
 2,060 1 
 2,077 f 
 
 2,007,000 
 
 ] 
 
 26 
 
 27} f 
 
 24 
 
 J Inc. 10 
 ilnc. 1} 
 
 Tariff of 1842, after Aug. 30, 1842. 
 
 1845-'46 
 
 110 
 
 2,694}, 
 
 
 
 26}, 
 
 
 Dec 1 
 
 
 1846-'4T 
 
 116} 
 
 2,498} 
 
 
 ,23}) 
 
 
 fDec. 2} 
 
 Tariff of 1846, after Dec. 1, 1846. 
 
 184T-'43 
 
 140} 
 
 3,328})- 
 1,689 
 
 2,505,000 
 
 -31}- 
 
 28 
 
 -Inc. 8 
 
 
 1848-'49 
 
 132} 
 
 
 (2S}> 
 
 
 (Dec. 3} 
 
 
 1840-'50 
 
 164 
 
 1,860 > 
 2,352 [ 
 2,043 ) 
 
 (39}) 
 
 
 (Inc. 11} 
 
 
 1850-'51 
 
 200} 
 
 2,086,000 
 
 ^40 >■. 
 
 45} 
 
 ■^Inc 9} 
 
 
 l.S51-'52 
 
 195 
 
 
 
 (Dec. 1} 
 
 
 1852-'53 
 
 261 
 
 1,667 1 
 
 
 (59 
 
 ^64 Y 
 (63) 
 
 
 Inc. 11} 
 
 
 1853-'54 
 
 276 
 
 8,471 [ 7,212,000 
 
 58} 
 
 .(Inc. 5 
 
 
 . 1854^'65 
 
 231} 
 
 11,497 ) 
 
 
 Dec. 11 
 
 
TAR 
 
 1796 
 
 TAR 
 
 Productiveness of the higher and lower Tariffs of 
 thirty-five Years, Steadiness of the former : Unsteadi- 
 ness dfthe latter. — The income from customs, under the 
 same tariff, rose from thirteen millions in 1821, to sev- 
 enteen and a half millions in 1822. Under the tariff of 
 1824, from 1825 to 1828, it rose from twenty to twenty- 
 three and a quarter millions ; under that of 1828, from 
 1829 to 1832, it rose gradually from twenty-two and a 
 half to twenty-eight and a half millions. Under the 
 Compromise Act of 1833, which reduced the duties un- 
 der the act of 1832, by biennially deducting one-tenth 
 of the excess over 20 per cent., from and after the 31st 
 of December, 1833, until the 31st of December, 1841, 
 when one half of the remaining excess was struck off, 
 and on the 30th of June, 1842, the other half thereof, 
 the revenue from the customs rose in the first three 
 years of its operation from sixteen to twenty-three 
 and a half millions ; in the next year, 1837, sunk to 
 eleven millions — falling twelve and a half millions in 
 one year — and rose again in 1839 to twenty-three mill- 
 ions, another difference of twelve millions in two years. 
 In 1840 it ran down nine and a half millions, and in 
 two years more rose four and a half millions. 
 
 The first year of the operation of the tariff of 1842, 
 the customs amounted to no more than sixteen mill- 
 ions ; the three following years it stood very steadily 
 at twenty-six, twenty-seven and a half, and twenty- 
 six and a half millions, respectively. In the years 
 1846-47, during seven months of which the present 
 tariff was in operation, the customs fell two and a half 
 millions ; in the following year of famine in Europe 
 they rose eight millions ; in the j'ear 1848-'49 they 
 declined three and a half millions, and in the suc- 
 ceeding year increased eleven and a quarter millions. 
 In the year 1850-'51 they rose again nine and a half 
 millions above the preceding year ; in 1851-62 they 
 declined one and three-quarter millions ; in 1852-'53 
 they rose eleven and three-quarter millions ; in 1853-'54 
 they again increased five millions ; and in 1854-'65 fell 
 eleven millions. 
 
 Fluctuations of the Customs, and Tendency to Excess 
 under the same low-duty Tariff. — In this summary it 
 will be perceived that within the last nine years the 
 revenue from customs has five times varied from the 
 amounts yielded in the years immediately preceding 
 these several changes, from eight to eleven millions 
 of dollars. During these nine years the present tariff 
 was in operation, and an unvarying rate of duties was 
 charged upon the imports. Its changes of productive- 
 ness to the revenue have been changes of increase, in- 
 deed, but not in any balancing proportion to the natu- 
 rally increasing expenditure of a growing population ; 
 for we find by statement No. 23, of the Secretary's 
 report, that the consumption of foreign imports, per 
 capita, rose in the first four years of the period from 
 $6 60 to $10 ; and the surplus in the treasury after all 
 ordinarj' expenditures, and the payment of over forty 
 millions of the public debt besides, is conclusive of this 
 point. 
 
 Your committee have not in these statements con- 
 sidered the causes of the great disparity of the reve- 
 nues yielded to the treasurj- by the different rates of 
 duty levied upon foreign imports. They have been 
 looking simplj' to the question how far, and to what 
 effect, impost percentages of themselves affect the 
 revenue. For the proposition presented for their con- 
 sideration by the President and Secretary embraces 
 no more, either of facts or principles, than the naked 
 assumption that the reduction of the percentage of 
 itself must work a reduction of the revenue, 
 
 ^^ Low Duties yield the larger Mevenue.''^ The Doc- 
 trine and Experience of the Past. — That this doctrine is 
 not in accordance with the facts of a large and varied 
 experience, covering and embracing every variety of 
 conditions which can affect the question, is abundantly 
 manifested by the statistics presented. Indeed the di- 
 rectly opposite doctrine has been held b}' the advo- 
 
 cates of low duties in all controversies which the mat- 
 ter has hitherto undergone. In 1845, pending the dis- 
 cussion which substituted the present reduced tariff 
 for the higher one of 1842, it was argued by the Secre- 
 tarj' of the Treasury, in his report of that year, that 
 the larger revenue is produced by the lower rates of 
 duty. He says, " The revenue from ad valorem- duties 
 last year exceeded that realized from specific duties, 
 although the average of the ad valorem duties was only 
 23"57 per cent., and the average of the specific duties 
 41-30, presenting another strong proof that lower du- 
 ties increase the revenue." And again, he says, 
 " While it is impossible to adopt any horizontal scale 
 of duties, or even any arbitrary maximum, experience 
 proves that, as a general rule, 20 per cent, ad valorem 
 will yield the largest revenue." 
 
 This principle, which is a sound one, does not apply 
 to either of the extremes of impost rates, for the one 
 may be carried up to the point which is prohibitory', or 
 near to it, and the other down to that which would be 
 as nearly nugatory, and so both extremes may be made 
 to operate alike upon the treasury ; but it is true with- 
 in a comparatively mbderate range of difference^ — that 
 is, within any such difference of percentage as any 
 advocate of reduction would now undertake to recom- 
 mend. 
 
 The facts which our financial histoiy offers in sup- 
 port of this doctrine are, in general, as conclusive as 
 these following, which your committee select from a 
 multitude for its proof. 
 
 Under the tariff of 1842 the average duties upon 
 protected articles was something above 40 per cent. ; 
 tlie average monthly receipts from customs under that 
 act amounted to $1,991,267. Under the tariff of 1846, 
 with its average duties below 30 per cent., the monthly 
 receipts during the first two years of its operation 
 reached the sum of $2,575,207. 
 
 Mr. Walker, in his report, December 11, 1848, page 
 3, says: '*As the high duties under the act of 1842 
 were rapidly substituting the domestic articles, and 
 excluding the foreign rival, the revenue mugt have 
 declined. From this disastrous condition we have beer 
 saved by the tariff of 1846, yielding from reduced taxe.° 
 an average excess, thus far, of more than seven mill- 
 ions of dollars over the average receipts from the tar- 
 iff of 1842." 
 
 Twice imder the operation of the Compromise Act, 
 once after the second deduction was made upon the 
 rates of the act of 1832, and once after the third deduc- 
 tion, the revenue from customs rose to the annual av- 
 erage of the high tariff of 1828. And in the year 1842, 
 when its lowest rates were nearly touched, and the 
 level 20 per cent, was nearly its maximum, the cus- 
 toms stood higher than in five of the previous years of 
 its operation, and above the average of the eight pre- 
 ceding years. 
 
 The average annual amount of the customs yielded 
 by the tariff of 1824 was twenty-one and a half mill- 
 ions ; of the tariff of 1828, was twenty -four and a fourth 
 millions. In a period of twenty-two years, rising five 
 millions, or 23 per cent. The average of the first four 
 years of the tariffof 184G was thirty-three and a fourth 
 millions — 25 per cent, in four j^ears ; the average of its 
 second four years was fifty-four and three-fourths mill- 
 ions ; rising in eight years twenty-seven and a half 
 millions per annum, or 133 per cent. 
 
 The average annual consumption of foreign imports 
 per capita under the tariffof 1824 amounted to $5 26 ; 
 under the tariff of 1828, $5 21 ; under that of 1842, to 
 $5 20; while under the lower tariffof 1846, during the 
 four years of its operation previous to the influx of the 
 California gold, the consumption rose to $6 50 per 
 capita of the population, and under the very low aver- 
 age duties of the whole period of the compromise the 
 consumption stood at $7 28. 
 
 These facts show how much more productive of 
 revenue the lower tariffs rates are than those which, 
 
TAK 
 
 1797 
 
 TAR 
 
 though considered higher, are yet far short of prohib- 
 iting importation, or seriously interfering with the 
 prosperity of the carrjang trade. 
 
 Causes of larger Revenue from lower Duties. — As a 
 means of lessening the revenue derived from customs, 
 or of lessening its proportion to the public expendi- 
 ture, it is thus made apparent, by the facts of a con- 
 clusive experience, that a mere reduction of the rates 
 of duty can not be relied upon ; but, on the contrax}'-, 
 that the policy has always the directly opposite effect, 
 and this for many obvious reasons. 
 
 A reduction of duties induces increased importations 
 of foreign commodities, disturbing our money market 
 by diminishing the available capital, and enhancing its 
 rate of interest to our own manufacturers. The im- 
 porter obtains command of the market, and to the ex- 
 tent to which the home competition is crippled in the 
 production of such articles, it opens a vacancy to be 
 supplied by importation, and adds just so much more 
 to the customs as such supply from abroad will yield ; 
 and, therefore, so long as the country has the means 
 of purchasing such increased quantity of foreign goods, 
 so replacing the home product, the revenues will con- 
 tinue to augment, instead of diminishiiig, under the 
 lower rates. 
 
 Again, an increased demand for our breadstuffs and 
 provisions in Europe, occasioned by failure of crops 
 there, will have the effect, under a low tariff, of induc- 
 ing large importations, and, consequently, a large en- 
 hancement of the customs. In the famine year of 1847 
 the customs rose eight millions above the receipts of 
 the j'ear immediately preceding ; and every deficiency 
 of crops.abroad, to the extent to which it occurs, must 
 have a proportionate effect in the same direction. 
 
 Again, a large increase in our agricultural and man- 
 ufacturing products, by affording a surplus for expor- 
 tation at any price which will pay transportation, will 
 have a similar effect. 
 
 Again, foreign wars, by increasing the demand upon 
 us for provisions, induces a corresponding increase of 
 our importations, and a corresponding augmentation 
 pf the revenues resulting from it. 
 
 Again, abundant products of the precious metals, by 
 affording the means of large purchases, operate in the 
 same way. 
 
 And again, the system of railroad and other enter- 
 prises now in active operation in this country, which 
 demand large capital on long credits, bring loans in 
 immense amounts, in the shape of dutiable merchan- 
 disoj to swell the customs. 
 
 All the causes above mentioned, except diminished 
 rates of duty, and great failure of crops abroad, have 
 been in operation upon the customs since the fiscal 
 year 1849-'50, and we have their combined effect in 
 raising the revenue derived from this source from less 
 than forty to over sixty-four millions of dollars per 
 annum in the space of four years. 
 
 In the last year they fell off eleven millions, owing 
 to the absence of some of the causes which we have 
 noticed, but their product still stood at thirteen mill- 
 ions above that of the year 1849-'50, and nearly six 
 millions above that of 1851-'52. 
 
 Alternations of Excess and Deficiency in the Revenue 
 under Duties lower than protective. — From these facts, 
 and the laws of national finance which they illustrate, 
 it is obvious that the ratio of percentage imposed upon 
 imports, acting within a moderate range of differences, 
 is the least influential, and the most likely to deceive 
 expectation, of all the causes which usually aff^t the 
 revenues arising from them. But low duties not only 
 disappoint the intention for which thej' are recom- 
 mended, in the manner and for the reasons given, but, 
 by their own inherent vices, they are not only liable, 
 but certain, in despite of all modifying influences, or- 
 dinarj- and extraordinary, to work mischievously in 
 the opposite direction — in spasmodic alternations from 
 excess to deficiency. 
 
 The first reduction of the duties of the act of 1832, 
 provided for by the compromise of 1833, took effect on 
 the 1st January, 1834. At the end of that year the 
 public debt was paid off, and there was a balance in 
 the treasurj' of a little less than nine millions of dol- 
 lars. In 1835 the revenue from customs and the sale 
 of public lands rose thirteen millions and a half above 
 the receipts from the same sources in the preceding 
 year ; and in the year 1836 they rose fourteen and a 
 half millions more ; so that at the end of the year 
 1836 there was a balance in the treasury of forty-six 
 and a half millions. To dispose of this enormous sur- 
 plus of public moneys, the act of 23d June, 1836, was 
 passed, directing the deposit of twentj'-eight millions 
 with the States. But such tendency to excess in the 
 system of national finances, like the febrile paroxysms 
 of the human constitution, speedily passes into the 
 stage of exhaustion. In 1837 the revenue from pub- 
 lic lands and customs fell to eighteen millions, from 
 forty-eight millions the year before ; and on the 12th 
 October of that j-ear, the issue of ten millions of treas- 
 ury notes was authorized to supply its deficiency for 
 the services of the government. In 1839 the revenues 
 rose to thirty millions— twelve millions in two years ; 
 and in two years more sunk to fifteen and three-fourth 
 millions — another fall of nearly 100 per cent, in two 
 years. 
 
 Thus, in the first three years of the Compromise Act 
 we have the whole difference between twenty-one and 
 forty-eight millions of revenue per annum resulting 
 to the treasurj', and in the- next five years the still 
 greater difference of a decline from fortj'-eight to fif- 
 teen and three-quarter millions. Under the operation 
 of the second reduction, while the duties remained the 
 same, the customs fell off from twenty-three and a half 
 to eleven millions ; and under the operation of the third 
 reduction, the3' rose again to twenty -three millions — 
 fluctuations in the revenue which baffled all calculation 
 and destroyed all reliance. 
 
 Steadiness of the Revenue^ and A djustment to Expend' 
 iture, under protective Tariffs. — Under the tariff of 1824 
 the revenue varied r^o more than from twenty-two to 
 twenty-five millions in four years ; and under that of 
 1828 from twenty-five to thirtj'-two millions by regular 
 increase in four years. Under that of 1842 the cus- 
 toms rose from the depressed point of eighteen to the 
 steadj' and adequate one of twentj'-seven and a half 
 millions in four years, and the receipts from the public 
 lands raised only from one and a third millions to two 
 millions. 
 
 The public expenditures during the three periods of 
 these comparatively high tariffs were very regularly 
 covered by the national income — the first j'ielding five 
 millions, the second four millions, and the last thir- 
 teen millions, or from one to three millions per annum 
 more than the current ordinary expenses of their re- 
 spective periods of operation ; amountingannually to 
 no more than such balance in the treasury as it is pru- 
 dent to hold for its incidental uses. 
 
 Plethora of the Treasury under the Compromise Act, 
 and under the Tariff of ISiG. — Under the low tariff of 
 1833 we have first an enormous surplus in the treas- 
 urj-, then a large deficiency and debt. Under that of 
 1846 we have arrived at such a surplus of public 
 moneys as again calls for relief; M'e have a balance 
 in the treasurj- now of nineteen millions, and we are 
 threatened with its augmentation to the amount of 
 thirty millions in a year to come. 
 
 It is not intended by this contrast of the steadiness 
 of the revenue under the highest tariffs and their hap- 
 pier adaptation to the wants of the treasury, against 
 the unsteadiness of the income and its maladjustment 
 to expenditure under the lower tariffs, to espouse the 
 rates of duty of the particular systems cited of the one 
 class, or to condemn the systems of the other by so 
 sweeping a generalization ; but they are arrayed here 
 now simply to exhibit their respective workings, as 
 
TAR 
 
 1798 
 
 TAR 
 
 the facts and figures of their history present them to 
 us, and that they may serve as data for the inquirj' 
 before us. 
 
 Your committee are as well aware, and feel as forci- 
 bly as any objector can, that where a number of causes 
 are in existence, and co-operating in the result, espe- 
 cially when several of them are inter-dependent, and 
 some of them independent of the others, the difficulty 
 of determining their respective agencies is great in 
 proportion to the complexity and diversity of the forces 
 at work ; but such difficulty, in a matter of the vast 
 importance of that under investigation, only increases 
 the necessity for endeavoring a solution. 
 
 The fluctuations of the national revenue during the 
 operation of the low tariffs, and its steadiness under 
 the higher ones, occurring in a constant connection in 
 the last thirty-five years of our financial experience, 
 seem to admit of a clear and instructive explanation. 
 
 The following propositions, which embrace the facts 
 involved correctly and sufficiently to cover all the op- 
 erative causes, immediate and collateral, very fully 
 satisfy the inquiry. 
 
 A tariflT of duties ranging generally below the point 
 of adequate protection to our home production, induces 
 large importations by the eflfect of diminished prices, 
 to the extent to which the purchaser's means are rel- 
 atively increased, and to the further extent of supply- 
 ing the vacancy occasioned by withdrawing from the 
 market the amount of commodities of home production 
 which are so excluded. 
 
 ££ict of low Tariff's upon the Income from the pub- 
 lic Lands. — In 1834, the first year of the reduction tin- 
 der the Compromise Act, the imports for consumption 
 rose three and a half millions, and the revenue fell off 
 twelve millions. 
 
 In the year 1835 the imports rose again thirty-five 
 millions, and the revenue from them was less by ten 
 millions than in the year 1833 ; but nearly fifteen mill- 
 ions of dollars flowed into the treasury that year from 
 the sales of the public lands, bringing the total reve- 
 nue up to the total of 1833, and more than a million 
 above it. 
 
 In the following year, 1836, the imports for con- 
 sumption took another rise of thirty-seven millions ; 
 the customs reached within five and a half millions of 
 the highest point they had ever attained under the pre- 
 ceding tariffs. The public lands rose to the enormous 
 amount of twenty-five millions ; and the total revenue 
 of the year stood at seventeen millions above that of 
 1833 — the highest mark of the high tariff years. 
 
 Under the lowest of our Tariffs the greatest Excess 
 and the greatest Dejidency of Revenue both reached. — 
 Tor nine years before 1834, thd public lands had never 
 in any one year yielded quite four millions, and the 
 average was two, or nineteen millions in nine years ; 
 but in three years, 1834, '35, and '36, their product to 
 the treasury was over forty-four millions. The cus- 
 toms for these three years, under the compromise, had 
 fallen ofi' from the sum of eighty-one and a half mill- 
 ions afforded by the three previous years of the higher 
 tariff, to fifty-nine millions — a reduction of twenty-two 
 and a half millions ; but the revenue of the treasury, 
 by the addition of thirty-six millions from the public 
 lands, above their average previous jaeld, amounted to 
 fourteen millions more for these three years of the com- 
 promise than for the three preceding years ; and the 
 proceeds from the- sales of lands continued for three 
 years longer to yield ten millions more than their 
 product under any higher tariff which we had before 
 or since. At the close of the year 1839 these move- 
 ments had exhausted themselves. The customs for 
 the three following j'ears ran down to forty-six mill- 
 ions, twenty-eight millions below the ordinary ex- 
 penditures of the period ; the lands fell to two millions 
 per annum, and the principal of the public debt con- 
 tracted in the five preceding years stood at ten millions. 
 
 The operation of a tariff of duties below the point of 
 
 protection, with the long run of nine years for its de- 
 velopments, is here fully presented. All the causes 
 which could affect the results had room and time for 
 their natural action, and their combined results are 
 openly exhibited. 
 
 Its first effect was to nearly double our foreign im- 
 portations in three years. This had the effect, by re- 
 duction of prices and glut of the market, of crusliing 
 the rival manufacturing industry at home ; mills and 
 work-shops were crippled and closed ; the capital and 
 labor driven from them sought emplo3'ment in agri- 
 culture ; the sales of public lands amounted to more 
 than seven-fold the average quantity of any other pe- 
 riod of ten years before or ten years afterward ; and 
 the term wound up with a general bankruptcy of the 
 national treasury, and of the people, bringing with it 
 a complete political revolution, and compelling a total 
 change in the financial policy of the government. 
 
 The fluctuations of revenue under it are strikingly 
 marked by the facts that the income from all sources 
 never afterward rose to within eight millions of that 
 of 1836, until the year 1850-'61, and had not fallen so 
 low as in the )-ear 1841 since the year 1821 ; it, in fact, 
 touched a point below the receipts into the treasury 
 of the year 1808. Its fluctuations in a period of five 
 3'ears touched both extremes of the revenue of the na- 
 tion, running through thirty-four years of change ; 
 that is, the revenue had not been so low for twenty- 
 five years before the year 1841, nor so high for four- 
 teen years after 1836. 
 
 Greatest Fluctuation in Prices under the lowest Tar- 
 iff's.' — The business of the country felt these vicissitudes 
 in our foreign commerce, and answered to them like 
 their echo. Within a period of six years, while this 
 tariff was developing its extremes of change, from 1836 
 to 1842, the highest and lowest prices of eighteen years 
 were touched. Cotton, flour, provisions, tobacco, com- 
 modities of all kinds, labor and real estate, went up in 
 price almost in the exact ratio that importations in- 
 creased — ^that is, to nearly double the amount of 1833, 
 in 1836 ; and in 1842, the imports falling to one half in 
 amount, so the property, labor, and products of the 
 country stood at half the market value of six yea.TS 
 before. Kot an interest of the country on which its 
 national or individual welfare depended, but had in 
 that brief period undergone convulsions unparalleled 
 since similar causes had resulted in the great business 
 catastrophe of 1820-'21. 
 
 Such is the- history of the policy which abandoned 
 the revenues of the government, and the industrial in- 
 terests of the country, to the operation of causes not 
 within its control. 
 
 Undue Expansion of Bank Circulation inseparable 
 from excessive Imports of foreign Merchandise. — It has 
 been customary with the advocates of low tariff duties 
 to charge the inflation of prices, the rage of speculation, 
 and the resulting revulsions in the business prosperity 
 of the countrj', to excessive issues of bank paper. 
 
 The fact that such overissues always concur with 
 inordinate rise of prices is remarkable indeed, and of- 
 fers a plausible explanation of the mischief; but the 
 ether fact, of the invariable concurrence of greatlj'- en- 
 hanced prices and excessive bank issues with the reign 
 of low tariffs, connect these phenomena in our financial 
 history in a category of relations which very clearly 
 shows that they are in their nature inseparable. If 
 this be so, the government, which has the direct con- 
 trol of one of these agencies in the mischief, has an in- 
 direct but absolute control over the others, and should 
 exert it. 
 
 Fixed Ratio of Bank Issues to foreign Imports, — In 
 1830 the bank circulation was estimated by Mr. Galla- 
 tin at sixty-one millions ; in April, 1834, the Secretary 
 of the Treasur}'', Mr. Taney, estimated the circulation 
 at eighty millions. In the four years, 1830, 1831, 
 1832, and 1833, which immediately preceded the first 
 reduction under the Compromise Act, the imports con- 
 
TAK 
 
 1799 
 
 TAR 
 
 sumed amounted to two hundred and ninety-one mill- 
 ions. At the end of the next five years, 1837, the 
 bank circulation had s-woUen to one hundred and forty- 
 nine millions, and the imports for consumption for 
 1834, 1835, 1836, and 1837, to four hundred and eighty- 
 one millions. Thus the increase of the imports amount- 
 ed to 75 per cent, for the period of four years, and the 
 increase of the bank circulation to 80 per cent. ; and 
 if we add the increased purchase of public lands of the 
 latter term over the former, we have the proportion of 
 the circulation to the expansion of business specula- 
 tions induced by the reduced tariff very exactly bal- 
 anced. 
 
 In May, 1837, the banks, with one consent all over 
 the Union, suspended specie payments, and did not 
 permanently or effectually resume till the spring of 
 1842 ; then their circulation had fallen to eighty-three 
 millions ; nor did it rise higher than eighty-nine mill- 
 ions again during the operation of the tariff of 1842. 
 
 Since the year 1846, the increase and decrease of 
 hank circulation hold so exact a ratio to the several 
 instances and rates of increase and diminution of im- 
 ports for consumption for each year of the whole period, 
 as involves a direct and unquestionable connection be- 
 tween them. 
 
 The tabular statement appended to this report ex- 
 hibits the constancj' of this connection for every single 
 year of our financial history since 1833, and for periods 
 of years before and since, in a ratio so nearly mathe- 
 matical that there seems no doubt of the law which 
 rules the subject, as there is none of the facts which 
 serve to demonstrate it. 
 
 It will be seen, by reference to the tabular state- 
 ments of this report, how little power other causes, 
 which were undoubtedly active in modifying the re- 
 sults, had to disturb the working of that one which is 
 here assumed to be the principal. The expansions 
 and contractions of bank credits and issues are certain- 
 ly influenced by many other causes, but the fact that 
 they have occurred during the last forty years, year 
 by year, in an invariable relation to the fluctuations 
 in the amount of our foreign imports, goes far to estab- 
 lish the idea that the variations in our imports rule the 
 fluctuations in our paper currency ; and this law is, 
 moreover, so energetic that it even overrules the effects 
 naturally expected from the large supply of gold fur- 
 nished to the currency from the California mines. For 
 it is as true as it is surprising that since 1850, as be- 
 fore, every year of increased import has been marked 
 by an equivalent increase of tiank circulation, and 
 every year of diminished imports has been marked by 
 a diminished bank circulation, corresponding in amount 
 as nearlj- as it is possible to conceive a primary and 
 ruling cause can operate while minor and subordinate 
 ones are also in plaj'. 
 
 Low Tariffs responsible for excessive Bank Issues^ — 
 That low tariff duties are responsible for the excess of 
 foreign importation — that these augmented imports in- 
 duce excessive bank issues, and excessive bank issues 
 swell prices inordinately, in the series of dependency 
 which is here alleged — is rendered unquestionable, by 
 the fact that these expansions of imports, paper cir- 
 culation, and prices, never have occurred when our 
 tariffs were high enough to foster, but always when 
 they were so low as to discourage, home production, 
 and to substitute the foreign commodities for domestic 
 products in our market. 
 
 Svmmary of ike Reasons which forbid the Abandon- 
 meni of protective Duties. — Your committee derive from 
 this investigation of the effects of our varied tariff sys- 
 tems upon the revenue the following conclusions : 
 
 1. The immediate effect of duties below the rates 
 which protect our own industiy from the rivalry' of 
 foreign commodities of the same kind, is a proportion- 
 ate enhancement of such imports, and a corresponding 
 increase of the revenue from customs, which either ap- 
 proach, equal, or exceed the revenue from customs of 
 
 the higher tariffs ; but in all instances is certain to 
 disappoint any expectation of a reduction of the cus- 
 toms in proportion to the abatement of the rates. 
 
 2. The increase of imports consequent upon a reduc- 
 tion of duties below the point of adequate protection 
 drives manufacturing capital and labor into agriculture 
 and trade, and by this means vastly increases the reve- 
 nues from the sale of the public lands and from foreign 
 commerce, and thus makes up all deficiency in the 
 customs, and greatly overpasses it, and so tends to a 
 plethora in the treasur)-, instead of limiting its income 
 and restraining its overflow. 
 
 3. The indirect effects of the same policy is to ex- 
 haust the sources of national and individual prosperity, 
 and by its reaction to bankrupt the treasury and pros- 
 trate the enterprise of the country, leaving debt, pub- 
 lic and private, to punish the extravagance which it 
 induced and indulged. 
 
 Your committee, therefore, for reasons cogent as 
 these, and many others which depend upon these, but 
 are irrelevant to this issue of mere national finance, 
 would earnestly discourage any measure which, either 
 in principle cr in details, aims at relieving the treasury 
 of its present and prospective surplus by a reduction 
 of the present rates of impost duties below the point 
 which any branch of our home industry requires for 
 its securitj' and prosperity. To guard against any 
 possible misconstruction, it must be observed that by 
 the frequent allusions of this report to excessive im- 
 portations of foreign goods, and the influences drawn 
 from such excess of importation, the apparent " bal- 
 ance of trade" against the United States, which the 
 statements of the Treasury Department exhibit for any 
 single year, or for any series or groups of years, is not 
 taken, or intended to any effect or purpose for which 
 the difference in official value between our imports and 
 exports has been used by either party to the contro- 
 versy. 
 
 The total value or valuation of our imports, as given 
 by the department statements, from the beginning of 
 the government to the 30th June, 1855, amounts to 6983 
 millions of dollars ; the exports for the same period of 
 domestic and foreign merchandise and specie, to 6170 
 millions— a difference of 813 millions. 
 
 No conclusions whatever are drawn, either as to ef- 
 fect or amount of effect, from the data which our inter- 
 national account current thus offers, or seems to offer. 
 The discussion which this point would awaken has 
 been avoided as wholly unnecessarj- to the argument 
 of this report, and possibly inconclusive and uncertain 
 for any purpose. But although the enormous apparent 
 balance against us in the account of our foreign trade 
 be not reliable for the actual difference in our ex- 
 changes with the rest of the world, as it probably is 
 not, yet the amount of the national. State, municipal, 
 railroad, bank, and other corporation stocks and bonds 
 held by foreigners, should be received as a subsisting 
 balance of debt, resulting from a past balance of trade, 
 which it must represent. 
 
 Effects of the present Tariff upon Wool-growers^ 
 Manufacturers, and upon the Revenue. — The tariff of 
 1846 unhappily raised the duty on all imported wools 
 to 30 per cent., while it reduced the duty on imported 
 flannels and blankets to 25 and 20 per cent., and on the 
 coarser woolen fabrics to 26 per cent. 
 
 Now these low-priced manufactures of wool being 
 the chief in quantity and value of which we were then 
 capable, the business was prostrated by the premium 
 which that act in effect offered to the foreign manufac- 
 turer ; and the nominal protection of the wool-grower 
 resulted in the ruin of his business, as in that of the 
 cloth-maker. The home market was destroyed for the 
 farmer ; in the foreign he could not compete, and the 
 flocks were sent to the slaughter, because the woolen 
 factories had been sold at auction or converted to other 
 services. The effects of this policy on the treasury 
 are seen in the fact that twenty-two millions of the 
 
TAK 
 
 1800 
 
 TAK 
 
 surplus in the treasury, accumulated in the years 1853, | 
 1854, and 1855, have come from customs upon woolens. 
 In 1844 woolens yielded $3,313,495 to the customs, 
 cottons $4,850,731 ; in 1855 woolens yielded $6,088,157, 
 cottons but $3,823,294. 
 
 The cotton manufacture was protected ; the woolen 
 was abandoned ; and while all the interests dependent 
 upon it have been sacrificed, the revenue has been in- 
 flated at least four millions per annum during the last 
 four years beyond what it would have received if the 
 policy of the government had been as friendlj' to it as 
 it has been to the cotton manufacturer ; a striking il- 
 lustration of the law that the certain method of limit- 
 ing the amount of taxes is by limiting the amount of 
 imports, by duties adequate to guarding the home-made 
 commodity against extinguishment by the foreign. 
 
 Exemption of the coarser and finer Wools from Duty. 
 — ^Your committee, looking straight at the question of 
 the revenue, therefore, recommend you to exempt all 
 wools of those qualities not generally grown In this 
 country, costing less than fifteen and more than fifty 
 cents per pound at the port of Qntry in the United 
 States, from duty, retaining the existing tariif rate 
 upon the intermediate qualities, and at the same time 
 to raise the duties upon all woolen manufactures to the 
 point of adequate protection. 
 
 The recommendation to fix the duty upon all such 
 wools as our farmers now produce, or can easily pro- 
 duce, at 30 per cent., and to raise the duties upon all 
 woolen fabrics into whose manufacture such wool en- 
 ters, is made for the purpose of opening a market at 
 home for the raw material which it can not find abroad, 
 and diminishing the customs flowing into the treasury 
 from woolen import-s to the extent which such enhanced 
 domestic production will replace them. 
 
 Magnitude of the Woolen Interest. — Special consid- 
 eration to this interest is here given because of its 
 magnitude, which may be estimated by the fact that, 
 both in value of the imports and the amount of duty 
 yielded to the treasury, woolen manufactures have 
 been equal to those of iron, greater than cottons, and 
 next in importance to silks, during the last ten years 
 of our financial historj'. 
 
 The Secretary of the Treasurj'-, noticing the great 
 progress made in the manufacture and production of 
 iron since the year 1840, states the fact that the Amer- 
 ican production in the year 1850 was $60,485,655, and 
 the foreign import of the same year only $16,333,145, 
 and says : " The conclusion is inevitable, that the pro- 
 duction and manufacture of iron in the United States 
 within a \&ty short period of years will exclude the 
 foreign production and manufacture." Of cotton he 
 says: '* That already the American manufacture is in 
 possession of the home market as to all coarser fabrics, 
 and beginning successfully the manufacture of the finer 
 fabrics." 
 
 These are the good parts of a policj'' of protection so 
 moderate that without the help of a number of inde- 
 pendent causes, co-operating with the imposed duties, 
 even these branches of the iron and cotton manufac- 
 ture, to which the Secretary's report justl}' applies, 
 would not have been sustained in the past, or given 
 such flattering promises for the future. The protec- 
 tion extended to them, and which now appears in their 
 prosperity, covers a period of not more than fourteen 
 years, and has been efficient!}^ operative for only about 
 half of that time ; yet, with all favoring influences con- 
 curring, under a stable policj^, the enterprise and skill 
 of our manufacturers may in time achieve a victory 
 over the competition of cheaper and more abundant 
 capital and labor abroad. 
 
 Depression of the Woolen Interest. — But our woolens 
 have languished to the verge of extinction, while these 
 two branches, of not more than equal importance, have 
 so far prospered. In 1846 we imported for consumption 
 $10,000,000 of woolens and $13,000,000 of cottons. In 
 1865 we imported for consumption $22,000,000 of wool- 
 
 ens and only $15,500,000 of cottons, and exported Of 
 domestic cottons nearly $6,000,000; in the one case 
 more than doubling our dependence upon foreign pro- 
 duction, and in the other reducing it, in effect, 27 per ct. 
 
 Now we are just as capable of growing wool and 
 manufacturing it as we are of the corresponding cotton 
 production and manufacture. The territory of the 
 United States, adapted to wool-growing, is as large and 
 as favorable as all Europe possesses and devotes to the 
 purpose ; and if those qualities of the article which we 
 do not or can not profitably cultivate were exempted 
 from duty, and so afforded equally cheap to our own 
 as to the foreign manufacturer, there is no natural 
 cause in existence to prevent the immediate establish- 
 ment of woolen factories sufficient to open a remuner- 
 ating market for our farmers to an almost unlimited 
 extent. There are portions of the United States in 
 which the finest and best Wool of the world has already"" 
 been grown ; and it is possible that this might in time 
 be brought up to supply our entire demand for such 
 first quality'' of staple ; but it is certain that all the 
 qualities between the finest and the coarsest could be 
 supplied quite up to the demand of the market within 
 five 3'ears from the establishment of an encouraging 
 policy ; and Congress is imperatively called upon now 
 to decide whether so vast an interest as this shall be 
 sustained or destroyed. 
 
 Protection to the Wool-grower and Manvfaciurer^ or 
 Destruction to one of the three greatest Branches of 
 American Industn/. — As the question now stands, more- 
 over, let it not be overlooked that, if the manufacture 
 shall be relieved of all weight which the duties upon 
 all qualities of wool impose on it, by placing them in 
 the free list, the wool-growing interests of the country 
 may be seriously injured. If the manufacture is pro- 
 tected, as it must be by a duty of 30 per cent., the 
 agriculturists will be taxed that much upon all the 
 woolens they must use, while their own interests in 
 the production of the fabrics are destroyed ; and if 
 woolens shall not be thus protected, then manufacturer 
 and farmer are both overwhelmed, and the country 
 is deprived of all share in one of the three greatest 
 branches of human industry. 
 
 The consumption of woolens is at least equal in 
 value to that of cottons in the United States, and to 
 surrender their production and manufacture to destruc- 
 tion is so unwise that it is not to be supposed possible 
 to an intelligent people. Let a home market for all 
 the wool that can be profitably produced in this coun- 
 try be created by a change in the present tariff which 
 will exempt the coarsest and finest qualities from duty, 
 raise the duties on flannels, blankets, and those fabrics 
 which require the middling qualities of wool which the 
 United States can supply abundantly, and farmer and 
 manufacturer will be restored to that prosperity of 
 which they have been deprived, and the revenues will 
 be reduced by the diminution of imports effected by 
 the home supply, and all the objects of a just and wise 
 legislation will be equally met. 
 
 deduction of the Revenue hy Protection of the Woolen 
 Manufactures. — The customs have risen on woolens in 
 eleven years from $3,313,495 to $6,088,157, while those 
 on cottons have fallen from $4,850,731 to $3,823,294. 
 Here we have a ratio of reduction in the revenue, from 
 this source, which under parallel circumstances would, 
 by its direct operation, reduce the annual surplus of 
 the treasury at least four millions. 
 
 Add this probable reduction to the Secretary's esti- 
 mate of the diminution promised by his proposed free 
 list, and about nine millions of diminution in the an- 
 nual revenue are fairh^ provided for — five millions im- 
 mediately, and four millions just as soon as factories 
 can be built, or those which have been converted from 
 woolen to other manufactures can be restored ; and 
 sheep, which by natural increase more than double 
 their number every year, can be reared to supply the 
 demand. 
 
TAR 
 
 1801 
 
 TAB 
 
 Silks, Revenue from them. — Another and more im- 
 mediately effective reduction of tlie revenuea may be 
 made by revising the tariff upon sillis, so as to reduce 
 the rates, upon all qualities and kinds which do not 
 compete with any established production of the article 
 at home. 
 
 The imports have risen in value since 1847 from less 
 than twelve to over twenty-four millions, and the cus- 
 toms from $2,833,850 to $0,129,583. In these nine 
 3'ears the total amount of duties received into the treas- 
 ury from manufactures of silk is $51,893,871 ; while 
 the total revenue from iron, manufactures of iron, and 
 iron and steel, amouht to only $50,130,942. 
 
 Luxuries, and the Rule for taxing them, — SUk manu- 
 factures stand highest in productiveness to the treas- 
 ury of all articles enumerated in the tariff schedules. 
 They owe this rank as sources of revenue, it seems to 
 your committee, mainly to the misapplication of a 
 general rule which has governed tariff legislation dur- 
 ing' those periods of financial necessity when import 
 duties were resorted to to supply the treasur3''s de- 
 ficiencies,' and were felt to, be a necessary increase of 
 the burdens of taxation for revenue purposes. This 
 rule holds, with some justice, that the wealthy shall 
 contribute more liberally to the national wants than 
 can be fairly demanded of the comparatively poor. 
 Hence the maxim that luxuries should bear the high- 
 est revenue duties. 
 
 When this rule has the effect of lessening the burden 
 of taxation upon the poor, it ought to have its opera- 
 tion ; but when in altered circumstances, both of the 
 national finances and the general condition of the 
 people, it only operates to bar the people of •moderate 
 independence from the ' enjoyment of such luxuries 
 without affording them a corresponding and compen- 
 sating relief from taxation ; it takes the character of 
 ministering to the privileges of the rich, and prevent- 
 ing the otherwise possible enjoyment of luxuries by 
 the whole people. 
 
 Luxury is a relative term, and must change its mean- 
 ing or its application with all changes of condition in 
 its subjects. Before the year 1832 tea and coffee were 
 , treated as luxuries by the previous tariffs, although 
 they were more than sufficiently productive of revenue 
 for all the wants of the government. By the act of 
 that year thej' were put into the free list, probably be- 
 cause they did not enter into competition with any 
 home production of a similar character and use, and 
 possibly for the additional and equally good reason 
 that a republican Legislature ought, by ever}' legitimate 
 use of the powers intrusted to it, aim at leveling up 
 the comforts and enjoyments of the people of every 
 condition to the better and higher that can by any 
 means be brought within the reach of their industry 
 and aspirations. 
 
 The imports of silk manufactures are greatly larger 
 in value every year than those of wool ; their con- 
 sumption by the people of the United States must, 
 therefore, be not only very large but very general, and 
 whatever can be done to bring them more easily with- 
 in the means of the whole community, which at the 
 same time shall help to relieve the excess of annual 
 revenue and damage no industrial interest of the na- 
 tion, ought to be done. 
 
 For the like reasons, tropical fruits, spices, and other 
 commodities not produced in the United States, or not 
 embraced by, or adapted to, the industrial enterprise 
 of our people, should be put under the same rule. With 
 a sufficiency of revenue accruing to the treasury from 
 other sources, the principle of free trade in all such 
 commodities should have its utmost application in prac- 
 tice. 
 
 Reduction of Customs hy enlarging the free List, en- 
 couraging Woolens and modifying Duties upon Silks, 
 sufficient to relieve the Excess of Revenue. — In a judi- 
 cious modification of the duties upon silks and other 
 luxuries, your committee see a promised reduction of 
 
 the revenue, based upon the statistical data before us, 
 which, taken in connection with the measures alreadj' 
 indicated, comes very well up to the amount of diminu- 
 tion demanded by the present and prospective exigen- 
 cies of the treasury. 
 
 Calculations of revenue to be j-ielded by percent- 
 ages, when the principal is of unsettled amount, and 
 liable to be disturbed, not only by various other causes, 
 but by the changes in the rate of duties adopted upon 
 those calculations, are of course uncertain ; but where 
 there is nothing else to guide than estimates so based, 
 they must be taken, and a future experience be left to 
 settle their results into certainties. We can be safely 
 confident that the measures which conform to the prin- 
 ciples and laws of the subject will work in the direc- 
 tion intended, and this is sufficient assurance of cor- 
 rectness to waiTant the trial. In this confidence, cor- 
 roborated as it is by the teachings of the past, your 
 committee submit these suggested changes of the pres- 
 ent tariff for adoption. 
 
 Our System of Finance unsound and mischievous, — 
 The management of the national revenue so as to ad- 
 just it fairly to the national expenditure, keeping the 
 policy well within the constitutional powers of the 
 government, and conforming it at the same time to the 
 movements and interests of our national industry' in 
 all its vast varieties and values, is a problem which 
 has not yet been satisfactorily solved in the practice 
 of the government. Deficiencies and excesses have 
 alternated in the treasurj' so rapidly and so largely in 
 our past experience, that Congress is at length fairly 
 driven from the ground of temporary experiments, and 
 compelled to search for the principles that naturally 
 rule the subject. 
 
 7'A0 Policy of Industrial Independence. — If the ex- 
 perience of mistakes teaches any thing clearly and re- 
 liably, our tariff histories are full of evidence that our 
 home affairs can not be safely left to foreign influences, 
 and that the accidents which lie in wait for them are 
 not to be prevented by abandoning all legislative care 
 of them. A nation must govern itself, or its neighbors 
 will ; and that for their own purposes and profit. If 
 the, United States were exclusively a manufacturing, 
 or as exclusively an agricultural people, absolute free 
 trade would be their policy, and custom-houses an ab- 
 surdity. 
 
 The most extensive trade which they could attain 
 to with foreign nations would then be their highest in- 
 terest, and direct taxation for the support of the gov- 
 ernment the soundest sj'stera of national finance. 
 
 But our manufactures have now quite reached to the 
 value of our agricultural products. Fifteen hundred 
 millions of dollars per annum is the value of each of 
 these two great classes of productive labor, according 
 to the estimate of the most reliable authority ; and it 
 is neither in the character nor destiny of this great 
 people to endure a perpetual dependence upon foreign 
 nations for the products of skilled industry which they 
 need for everj'-day consumption. British legislation 
 aimed at restraining us, while we were her colonies, to 
 the production of raw material from her market. If 
 our own system were permitted to drift to the same 
 result, we should, by our own act, voluntarilj' restore 
 her empire over us in the only particular that is, or 
 ever was, a substantial object of her ambition, and our 
 Revolution would be a failure in every thing but the 
 boast of political independence. 
 
 The despotism of wealth fears no rebellions ; predes- 
 tinated poverty has no independence to assert. Its 
 spirit and its necessities are passive submission. The 
 rights and liberties of a nation are declared in its polit- 
 ical constitution, but their substance is in the indus- 
 trial independence of the people. True freedom is 
 found only in the command that men have over the 
 resistance of the forces of nature to their dominion ; 
 and a people which achieves the control of their own 
 conditions are never the slaves of any other power. 
 
TAR 
 
 1802 
 
 TAR 
 
 Dependence upon a foreign people for a market, either 
 for agricultural or meclianical products, is industrial 
 
 England has made herself the work-shop of the world 
 by a viciously exaggerated system of manufacturing ; 
 and she depends day by day upon the world's unnat- 
 ural submission to her system for her prosperity, 
 
 Turkey abandoned the guardianship of her pros- 
 perity to foreign dominion, and has sunk from the 
 rank of a flrst-rate power in the earth to the Tery verge 
 of national ruin. Her internal trade is wholly in the 
 hands of foreign hucksters, as her national integrity 
 is under the guardianship of foreign sovereigns. A 
 people impoverished by a system of the lowest and 
 least remunerative industrj', and degraded in character 
 and spirit by its necessary ignorance and feebleness, 
 is inevitably at the mercy of its superiors in these re- 
 spects. 
 
 The American people, of the same lineage, equal 
 skill and enterprise, superior inventive genius, and 
 holding a better territory by all the difference of its 
 extent and variety of climate, soil, and commercial re- 
 lations, as compared with "Western Europe, can not 
 possibly be held to inferior and subordinate industrial 
 avocations. 
 
 The necessary command of our welfare, the current 
 disposition of our own affairs, imperatively demand 
 that we shall guard ourselves against all injurious for- 
 eign agencies and influences, by a settled sj'stem of 
 self-defense. 
 
 Home mid foreign Market for Provisions and Bread- 
 stuffs. — The home market for all our products now is 
 at twentj'-seven hundred and fifty millions to two 
 hundred and fiftj' millions ; but the corresponding two 
 hundred and fifty millions of imports, for which we ex- 
 change our surplus, has the power to disturb and dis- 
 tract our currency, domestic exchanges, and domestic 
 industry, to an extent which puts tlie treasury of the 
 nation and the prosperity of the people at the mercy 
 of every fluctuation in the market of London. We 
 must conquer our independence of the money power 
 of Europe, and we must control our national finances 
 into conformity with our own necessities. This, it is 
 obvious, can be done only by bracing the home market 
 against all disturbing agencies. 
 
 The mischievous error of preferring a foreign to the 
 home market for breadstuffs and provisions, and se- 
 ducing the agriculturist into the policy of favoring it, 
 is clearlj' exposed and convincingly proved by the fol- 
 lowing statement : 
 
 The population of Great Britain and Ireland is. . 27,000,000 
 
 American breadstuffs and provisions shipped to 
 the United Kingdom in 1855 $15,392,342 
 
 Consumption per capita 57 cents. 
 
 "Workmen employed in making the iron imported 
 from Great Britain in 1S55 60,618 
 
 Eepreaenting in families of five persons each 302,590 
 
 Three hundred and two thousand five hundred 
 and ninety persons, at fifty-seven cents each, 
 worth of provisions and breadstufia $172,476 
 
 Three hundred and two thousand five hundred 
 and ninety Americans would consume of our 
 provisions and breadstuffs fifty dollars each. . . 15,123,500 
 
 or within a trifle of the whole amount taken from ns 
 by the 27,000,000 of British people for that year. 
 
 To bring the iron imported in 1855 to the United 
 States the equivalent of 70 American and 18 for- 
 eign vessels were entirely supported, counting the 
 cargoes both ways. The tonnage of American vessels 
 average 931 tons each, and they carry crews of 24J 
 men each, or in all, Americans, 1563 ; 18 foreign ves- 
 sels, of 733J tons each, and crews of 21f men each, 
 equal to 390 men. Each vessel is estimated to make 
 three trips in the year, carrying six cargoes. The ves- 
 sels represent a capital equal to $50 per ton. 
 
 American capital employed in carrying this iron is 
 
 65,170 tons, at $50 $3,258,500 
 
 British capital in 13,203 tons of shipping, at $50. . 660,150 
 Total capital in the shipping $3,918,659 
 
 SuMMAUT OP Employment. 
 
 Men. Persons Eupported. 
 
 Englishmen in manufacturing . . 60,518 302,590 
 
 Englishmen in shipping 390 1,950 
 
 Americans in shipping 1,563 7,815 
 
 Total 63,571 312,255 
 
 Summary op Capital. 
 
 British in production of iron $75,000,000 
 
 British in shipping 666,150 
 
 75,666,15a 
 Americans in shipping 3,258,500 
 
 Total capital supported $78,924,650 
 
 SUMMART OF EeEADSTUFFS AND PeOVI&IONB. 
 
 Consumed by the British people in making iron, 
 
 302,530, at 57 cents $173,476 
 
 In shipping, 1,950 , at $5 9,750 
 
 304,640 $182,220 
 
 By Americana in shipping, 7815 men, at $60 390,750 
 
 Total $472,970 
 
 Had the iron been made in the United States, 
 302,590 persons would have consumed, at $50 each, 
 $15,129,500. 
 
 The result is, that we supported in the importation 
 of foreign iron, in the year 1855 — 
 
 Foreign capital $75,660,160 
 
 Foreign people, 304,540. 
 
 American capital 3,353 500 
 
 American people, 7815. ' 
 "VVe gained a market for breadstuffs and provi- 
 sions of 4,722,976 
 
 And we lost a market for breadstuffs and provi- 
 
 aions of 15,139,500 
 
 Loss to American farming interest, a market for $14, 660, 670 
 
 The facts and figures of every other kind of import- 
 ed commodities which a home production would ex- 
 clude are data for a similar calculation of loss to the 
 agricultural interest of this country. 
 
 International Exchanges. — The surplus provisions 
 and breadstuffs which we might produce, after an 
 evenly balanced and independent system of manufac- 
 turing should be established, would be the legitimate 
 subject for foreign commerce, contributing to our nec- 
 essary exchanges with other nations, and thus to the 
 general welfare ; but shipped at such a loss in amount 
 and value, as they must be while they are injudiciousl}^ 
 denied a home consumption, the undue amount of their 
 export measures our distance from a healthy system, 
 and from the wealth, prosperitj-, and independence 
 which a true policy would secure to us. 
 
 Agricultural home Market against the f&reign. — It 
 is only the least profitable of the farmer's crops which 
 will bear distant voyages in search of a market, and 
 all excess which his exports find or make abroad falls 
 back in diminished prices upon the hundred-fold stock 
 which he sells at home, sometimes scarcely repairing 
 b}^ the whole net value of the exports the diminution 
 of price which they reactively inflict upon the domes- 
 tic market. For his green crops, fruits, and garden 
 stuffs, his poultry, veal, mutton, and dairy products, 
 he must have a market at home, or he must abandon 
 their culture for sale. His land may be made to yield 
 him thirty or forty dollars per acre in transportable 
 grain, less the cost of cultivation, or he may make its 
 product marketable abroad and worth about as much 
 by feeding it to stock ; but he can neither diversify his 
 crops, nor maintain the fertility of his land against 
 such a sj'stem of exhaustion ; and, above all, he will 
 not be able to make it j'ield three times the value of 
 such crops in those vegetables which, with a well-sus- 
 tained home market, is easily effected. The difference 
 between the market value and the profit of a farm in 
 the Far "West, and one of an equal quantity of land 
 adjacent to a large citj^ illustrates the difference be- 
 tween a market at hand for all possible agricultural 
 products, and a foreign one with an ocean intervening. 
 
 The farmer's wool crop has been amply protected 
 for nine or ten years, so far as a high tariff duty upon 
 imported wool could do, or promise to do it ; but his 
 home market has been destroyed by a countervailing 
 
TAR 
 
 1803 
 
 TAE 
 
 legislation leveled against the manufacturer. The 
 opportunity of a foreign market could not tempt, as it 
 would not reward, him for his industry in that direc- 
 tion. If the agriculturists of this country but consid- 
 ered the subject, they would discover that the market 
 opened to them abroad for the produce of their fields is 
 no better than for their wool. 
 
 In the year 1855 the total exports of breadstuffs and 
 provisions from the United States fell short of thir- 
 ty-nine millions of dollars. What is this to the crop 
 of the year, worth fifteen hundred millions, that the 
 American farmer should sacrifice the custom of a 
 neighboring blacksmith, shoemaker, or weaver to se- 
 cure it ? In amoimt it is but the fortieth part of his 
 crop, and one family next door to him would consume 
 it more profitably for him, and with greater certainty 
 of demand. Prices may be high or low under the in- 
 fluence of accidental causes, but the laws of nature 
 and the principles of trade are a safe directory in any 
 combination of circumstances ; their bearing upon na- 
 tional policy is absolute and unvarying, and they must 
 be obeyed or they will be avenged. 
 
 Harmony of all Industrial Interests, and Adjustment 
 of the best ecoTwmicaX Policy to the Necessity of the na- 
 tional Treasury, — That a harmony of interests natu- 
 rally and necessarily exists among all the departments 
 of national industry is a fundamental principle in po- 
 litical, as it is in social and religious science. It is 
 one of those first principles which stand incontrovert- 
 ible as the data of all reasoning upon the policy of hu- 
 man societies. So far as this inquiry has proceeded, 
 the truth of this principle is clearly supported ; and it 
 can not be doubted that the other branches of produc- 
 tive and commercial business, not specially considered, 
 must fall within the rule with an equally happy ac- 
 cordance. If an integral, self-sustaining, well-bal- 
 anced relation holds between the manufacturing and 
 agricultural welfare of the nation, and if the policy 
 which is best for them is also well adjusted to the re- 
 quirements of our system of national finance, the true 
 interests of the planter, the navigator, and the mer- 
 chant can not possibly be at war with them. 
 
 Cotton and Commerce. — It would exceed the limits 
 as well as the proper province of this report, to en- 
 deavor a formal demonstration of its doctrine as it ap- 
 plies to cotton and commerce, and it must, therefore, 
 be forborne ; but some general considerations, whicli 
 may be suggested in its support, will serve to show 
 "the equal operation of the policy throughout the 
 Union, discriminating neither for nor against any 
 class, section, or interest," conformably with that 
 maxim of our legislative system which has the die 
 tates of justice and the spirit of the federal constitu- 
 tion for its authorities. 
 
 Export of Gold ; Effects upon the Planting Interest. — 
 In the first place, the system which looks to the in- 
 dustrial independence of the country would necessarily 
 have the effect of retaining the gold exported to for- 
 eign countries for the purchase of all those commodi- 
 ties which we might advantageously manufacture for 
 ourselves. The two hundred millions which we have 
 sent abroad within the last six years is an excessive 
 export, by the amoimt to which it has diminished the 
 necessary home supply, and raised the rate of interest 
 to its present inordinate height. Scarcity of capital 
 and extravagant rates of loans leave no interest of the 
 countrj- uninjured, except that of the wealthy money- 
 holder. 
 
 At the place to which money flows it is most abund- 
 ant and cheapest. The rates in London do not aver- 
 age more than half those that are constantly paid in 
 our Atlantic cities, and often stand at one-third, or 
 even lower. 
 
 Capital at 10 per cent, interest, exposed to the com. 
 petition of capital at 5, has a fearful odds to contend 
 with; but it is abundance against scarcity which is 
 even more disastrous than the dlfierence of rates. A 
 
 prosperous business man may endure heavy interest, 
 but a small capital must encounter the fluctuations of 
 the market without relief, and is swamped in a storm 
 which the heavier craft will ride out under bare poles. 
 From the revulsions which our monetary affairs peri- 
 odically suffer from this cause, no department of pro- 
 duction or trade escapes, and the planters are usually 
 the earliest and severest sufferers. They are most 
 shaken by depression of prices, and by bankruptcy of 
 their customers, from the fact that their industrj' is 
 less varied, and the commodities which thej' require 
 for constant consumption are less within their reach, 
 when business is embarrassed. They must bring them 
 from abroad, where credit and confidence are not so 
 easily commanded as at home. 
 
 Fixed capital commands credit within the country, 
 but mortgages are not negotiable securities at a dis- 
 tance. 
 
 Limit to Exportation of the precious Metals. — The 
 drain of the precious metals, unduly induced by the im- 
 port of articles which ought to be made at home, is an 
 evil of such magnitude, that if there were not another 
 among the incidents of excessive importation, it would 
 of itself deserve the utmost exertion of legislative 
 power to correct it. It is utterly from the purposes 
 of a sound policy to speak of gold as a product of the 
 country, and a commodity of trade, like iron or cotton, 
 while its export is carried to the extent of crippling 
 business, disturbing the currency, and enormously en- 
 hancing the rate of interest. However produced or 
 derived, it is money to the extent required for the health 
 of the circulation and the prosperity of business, and 
 any policy which i-uns the supply below the demand is 
 suicidal. 
 
 Cotton and Iron Manufactures in the South, — In the 
 next place, the older planting States are not only capa- 
 ble of the labor of converting their raw material, both 
 cotton and iron, into at least the coarser fabrics which 
 are conveniently and profitably marketable, but they 
 are now under the compulsion of necessity to so far di- 
 versify their industrj', and so to divert some portion of 
 their labor from the one business which they have been 
 so long helping to depress, and to derive from this 
 change the better remuneration which the work of 
 conversion affords above that of production. 
 
 Georgia, Virginia, and North Carolina made the ex- 
 periment of applying a portion of their cheaper labor 
 to the coarser cotton fabrics, with a, success which 
 promised fairly to give them the home-market in a 
 few years for such articles ; but New England was 
 compelled to dispute this ground with them by the 
 failure of the tariff of 1846, to give the more advanced 
 manufacturers of the North the opportunity of making 
 the finer fabrics in the then existing condition of the 
 enterprise, and the South for the time was thrown 
 back upon her staples and a foreign market for her 
 dependence. 
 
 Protective Policy no longer a Party or < sectional Ques- 
 tion. — But the spirit of progress, and the change of 
 conditions which nine years have brought with them, 
 have wrought their necessary changes in the move- 
 ments of the whole countrj', and given us the happy 
 promise of a better union in interests and policy than 
 we have known in the past. 
 
 The time and the occasion for harmonizing meas- 
 ures are now upon us, and the fond faith which we 
 hold in the future destinj' of the Union warrants the 
 confidence that this great people will show both the 
 wisdom and virtue of a genuine patriotism in the set- 
 tlement of all their differences. 
 
 A common Prosperity corrective of social Strifes. — 
 Everj' section of the Union should be the best judge 
 of its own policy ; at all events, it will determine it for 
 itself; but it is a happy circumstance for the United 
 States that, in the things which work their way determ- 
 inately into the destiny of the nation, there exists so lit- 
 tle contrariety of opinion, and so much less difference 
 
TAR 
 
 1804 
 
 TAR 
 
 of drift, that tliere is nothing substantial required to 
 be sacrificed by any part of the country for the good 
 of the whole, and very little even in speculative opin- 
 ion to be compromised to effect an agreement. 
 
 The people may be agitated and divided upon con- 
 stitutional, moral, and religious questions, and their 
 discussion and settlement will have proportionate ef- 
 fect upon the general harmony, but the measures which 
 carry with them a general prosperity will hereafter, as 
 heretofore, bear them through every strife, and secure 
 the general welfare. 
 
 The prosperity of navigation, foreign, coastwise, and 
 internal, are necessarily so directly dependent upon 
 the productiveness and wealth of the agricultural and 
 manufacturing business of the nation, that the sim- 
 plest definition of its functions contains the proof of 
 our proposition. It is the common carrier of all ex- 
 changes. Its business is proportioned to, as it is de- 
 pendent upon, production, and must grow with all 
 growth, and decline with all diminution of the prod- 
 ucts demanding its agency. 
 
 Belaiions qfthe Trader and the Laborer, and the Com- 
 pensations of a general Progress for all Changes. — A 
 sound political policy looks to a constant diminution 
 of the proportionate number of intermediates between 
 the producer and consumer. 
 
 All the modern improvements in the methods and 
 instruments of commerce tend to the accomplishment 
 of this great aim. Time, distance, and cost of trans- 
 portation are in rapid progress of abridgment, and 
 middlemen are, in corresponding ratio, eliminated by 
 the process. Yet all these movements toward a bet- 
 ter and director relation between men whose recipro- 
 cating industries require improved conditions of inter- 
 course is found to worli; as well for all the dependent 
 as for the principal functionaries in the world's com- 
 merce. Steam has been largely substituted for human 
 and brute power on the great thoroughfares of trade 
 and travel, but horses have increased in number and 
 value in direct proportion to the growth pf the agency 
 whicli tlireatened to deteriorate them. Wages and de- 
 mand for human labor have, in like manner, risen un- 
 der the auspices of the machinery that now does so 
 much of the work which formerlj' belonged to them. 
 All the natural labor in the nation bears but a small 
 proportion to the artificial, which has so largely re- 
 placed it in production and transportation ; yet that 
 natural labor was never so fully employed nor so well 
 rewarded as now ; and the same law holds for every 
 business function of society, and every species of em- 
 ployment which has any legitimate place or use in 
 human life. 
 
 Statement suowinq tio Citanges that have taken place 
 IN OUR Tartff Policy binoe the Formation op the Con- 
 stitution, viz. : 
 
 Date. Chnvttcter of Cliflnge. 
 
 1789 July 4, First Tariff adopted. 
 
 1790 August 10, General change. 
 
 1791 March 3, General " 
 
 1792 May 2, G eneral " 
 
 1794 June 6, Special " 
 
 " "7, General " 
 
 1795 January 39, General " 
 
 1797 March 8, General " 
 
 " July 8, Special " 
 
 1800 May 13, Special " 
 
 1804 March 20, 27, Special " 
 
 1812 July 1, Special " 
 
 1813 July 29, Special " 
 
 1816 FehruaryS, Special " April,29, General. 
 
 1818.... April 20, Special " 
 
 1819 March 3, Special " 
 
 1824 May 22, General " 
 
 1828.... May 19, General " May 24, Special. 
 
 1830 May 20, Special " May 29, Special. 
 
 1832. . . .July IB, Special " July 14, General. 
 
 1883 March 2, Special " March 2, Comp'se. 
 
 1841 September 11, General " 
 
 1842 August SO, General " 
 
 1846. .. .July 30, General " 
 
 1843.... March 29, Special " 
 
 " August 12, Special '* 
 
 184") January 26, Special " 
 
 1867 March 3, General " 
 
 Year 1824. — The tariff change of this year created 
 considerable discussion and feeling. The duties col- 
 lected that year were $17,878,000, with a population 
 of 12,000,000, or $1 50 to each individual. 
 
 1828. — The general change this year was accom- 
 panied by a light increase of duties ; viz., $22,681,000. 
 
 1832. — ^Another general change took place, followed 
 by a rapid increase of duties after 1834, viz. : 
 
 Years. Dutiofl. 
 
 1833 $29,082,000 
 
 1834 16,214,000 $1 10 per head. 
 
 1835 19,391,000 
 
 1830 23,409,000 $1 60 per head. 
 
 The collapse of 1837 led to a reaction, and the duties 
 diminished for 1837-'38, showing as follows : 
 
 VeftTB. DutieH. I Yeara. Dutiea. 
 
 1837 $11,169,000 1840 $13,499,000 
 
 1838 16,158,000 1841 14,487,000 
 
 1889 23,137,000 I 1842 18,187,000 
 
 Population, 1S40 17,003,000 
 
 Since the latter date the duties have increased from 
 111 per head to about $2 50 per head, viz. ; 
 
 Years, DiiHcs. 
 
 18ei-'52 $47,389,000 
 
 1862-'53 58,981,000 
 
 1863-'54 64,224,000 
 
 1854-55 63,025,000 
 
 1865-'50 64,022,000 
 
 Yeara. Putics. 
 
 lS46-'47 ' $28,747,500 
 
 1847-' 4S 81,757,000 
 
 184S-'49 28,346,000 
 
 1849-'50 39,668,000 
 
 1850-'61 49,017,000 
 
 Since the j'ear 1789, the aggregate revenue from all 
 sources has been $1,886,740,084, viz. : 
 
 From cuBtoips $1,327,151,592 
 
 From public lands 104,068,865 
 
 From miacellaneoua 395,810,036 
 
 Total returns $1,886,740,084 
 
 Total disbursements i;83T,721,045 
 
 for a period of aixty-eight years ; viz., from March 4, 
 1789, to June 80, 1856. 
 
 By the Constitution of the United States it is pro- 
 vided that "no State shall, without the consent of Con- 
 gress, lay any impost or duties on imports or exports, 
 except what may he absolutely necessarj' for executing 
 its inspection laws ; and all such laws shall be subject 
 to the revision and control of Congress." 
 
 The following statement has been furnished showing 
 the changes from one rate of duty to another, as made 
 by the tariff act of the year 1857, when applied to the 
 importations of the year ending 30th June, 1856 : 
 
 Value. Rate, Act of 1843. Rate, Act of 1857. 
 
 .$4,552 from 40 per cent, to 15 per cent. 
 
 26,232 " 
 
 30' ' 
 
 to 15, 
 
 277,310 " 
 
 40 ' 
 
 to 8 
 
 821,359' " 
 
 30 
 
 to 8 
 
 12,662 " 
 
 26 
 
 to 8 
 
 440,028 " 
 
 20 ' 
 
 to 8 
 
 697,929 " 
 
 15 
 
 to 8 
 
 i5§,2t6 " 
 
 26 
 
 to 4 
 
 2,205,860 " 
 
 20 
 
 to 4 
 
 179,170 " 
 
 16 
 
 to 4 
 
 8,305,813 " 
 
 10 ' 
 
 to 4 
 
 1,665,930 " 
 
 30 
 
 Free. 
 
 70,146 " 
 
 25 
 
 
 153,729 " 
 
 20 
 
 
 1,546,716 " 
 
 15 ' 
 
 
 190,778 " 
 
 10 
 
 
 6,023,471 " 
 
 5 
 
 
 The loas of revenue by additions to the free list 
 
 ia $1,145,615 90 
 
 Losa of revenue ty transfers to Schedule H, or 
 
 4 per cent 775,535 C7 
 
 Loss of revenue by transfers to Schedule G, or 
 
 8 per cent 263,247 41 
 
 Lose qf revenue by transfers to Schedule E, or 
 
 15 per cent 4,922 80 
 
 Subjoined is a statement exhibiting the revenue 
 ■which the importations into the United States, in the 
 year ending 30th June, 1856, would produce under the 
 tariff act of 1857:* 
 
 * This includes an approximation to all the changes made 
 by the new tariff, except bleached, printed, painted, and dyed 
 manufaetures of cotton, and of delaines transferred from Sched- 
 ule D to C (or 15 to 24 per cent.), and of japanned leather or 
 skins, transferred from Schedule E to D (or 20 to 19). These 
 changes, raising from a lower to a higher schedule, would in- 
 crease the aggregate above given equal to the diiference made 
 by th? transfer, and in proportion to the amount of such im- 
 portations, which are not returned in such a manner as to be 
 separated from other similar goods. 
 
TAR 
 
 1805 
 
 TAR 
 
 Schedule. ' 
 
 Value oMmporta. 
 
 Rate of Duty. 
 
 Aioouut of Duties. 
 
 A 
 
 $4,001,675 
 
 30 per oent. 
 
 $1,300,472 50 
 
 B 
 
 8,662,183 
 
 30 " 
 
 3,598,656 40 
 
 C 
 
 94,159,243 
 
 24 
 
 22,598,210 76 
 
 n 
 
 71,074,265 
 
 19 " 
 
 13,504,110 S5 
 
 E 
 
 35,288,897 
 
 15 , ", . 
 
 ., 6,293,334 55 
 
 F 
 
 , 5,892,347 
 
 12 » ■ 
 
 , 707,081' 24 
 
 G 
 
 6,160,423 
 
 8 " 
 
 492,833 J6 
 
 H 
 
 Total.. 
 
 3,653,050 
 
 4 " 
 
 . ,942,122 00 
 
 ♦248,791,993 
 
 
 $47,386,830 56 
 
 British Tariff. — The following are some of the most 
 iipportant regulations of the British tariff: 
 
 Overpayments of duty made in error may be re- 
 turned, if claimed within six yeats after date. 
 
 In case of dispute as to the proper rate of duty, the 
 importer to deposit the amount of duty demanded, and 
 such deposit shall be deemed the proper duty paj'able, 
 unless an action be brought or commenced within three 
 months. In the event of such action being determ- 
 ined against the revenue, full indemnity to be made to 
 the importer. 
 
 The Board of Customs may remit or mitigate penal- 
 ties incurred through inadvertence, or non-compliance 
 with existing regulations. 
 
 The duties on the following goods must be paid on 
 the first importation, and such goods shall not be ware- 
 housed for home consumption or exportation : viz., 
 com, grain, meal, and flour, and wood goods froin Brit- 
 ish possessions. 
 
 Diamonds, bullion, lobsters, and fresh fish of Brit- 
 ish taldng, may be landed without report or entry ; no 
 other goods can te unshipped or landed, except with 
 the authority of an officer of the customs. 
 
 Tyiiere ad valorem goods shall have been detained 
 as undervalued, the officers shall give a written hotide 
 of such detention to the person entering the same, and 
 of the value thereof as estimated by them. If such 
 goods be retained for the use of the crown, the value 
 entered with an addition of 5 per cent., and the duties 
 already paid on such entry, to be paid to the owner. 
 
 Goods not entered, or landed within foiirteen days 
 after the arrival of the ship, may be conveyed to the 
 queen's warehouse ; and if the duties and charges due 
 lipou sucli goods be not paid within three months, they 
 may be sold, and the overplus, if any, paid to the pro- 
 prietor. 
 
 Bonded goods to be cleared within five years, unless 
 the proprietor desire to re-warehouse them, in which 
 case they shall be examined, and the duties due upon 
 any deficiency ascertained and paid. 
 
 If such goods be not cleared or re-warehoused within 
 the said period, they shall be sold to defray duties and 
 charges. 
 
 No person shall export bonded goods in any ship of 
 less burden than fifty tons, except to the islands of 
 Guernsey and Jersey, by regular traders not being of 
 less than forty tons burden. 
 
 No drawback shall be allowed on goods of less value 
 than the drawback claimed, and all such goods so en- 
 tei;^d shall be forfeited, and the person who caused 
 them to be entered shall forfeit the sum of .£200. 
 
 No tobacco, cigars, or snuff shall be imported into 
 the Channel Islands in ships of less than 120 tons bur- 
 den, nor unless in hogsheads or chests, each contain- 
 ing not less than two hundred pounds' weight of such 
 tobacco or snuflF, nor unless in packages each contain- 
 ing not less than one hundred pounds' weight of such 
 cigars, tobacco, or snuff, not being in any manner sep- 
 arated or divided within such package. 
 
 The island of Malta and its dependencies shall be 
 deemed to be in Europe. 
 
 Any person making a false declaration in anj' docu- 
 ment relating to the customs, or answering untruly 
 authorized questions put to him by the ofiicers of cus- 
 toms, liable to a penalty of £100. 
 
 In case it shall appear that British vessels are sub- 
 ject in any foreign country to restrictions as to the 
 voyages in which they may be engaged, or the articles 
 
 imported or exported, it shall be lawful for her majesty 
 to impose similar restrictions upon the ships of such 
 foreign country.. 
 
 Nfl foreign goods uppn which a higher duty is pay- 
 able on their importation into Great Britain than on 
 their importation into the Isle of Man, shall, after they 
 have been delivered out of charge of the customs in 
 the said isle, be shipped into Great Britain. 
 
 Comparative Tariffs. — The following comparative 
 statement exhibits the gross amount of duties received 
 upon the principal articles of foreign and colonial mer- 
 chandise in Great Britain and France, respectively, 
 during the year 1866, to which we have annexed a col- 
 umn showing the gross amount of duties received by 
 the United States upon similar articles during the same 
 year : , , 
 
 Cocoa . 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Oats 
 
 Rye 
 
 Barley 
 
 Indian corn. . 
 
 Opium 
 
 Kice , 
 
 Cassia lignea. . 
 
 Cinnamon 
 
 Cloves 
 
 Mace 
 
 Nutmegs 
 
 Pepper 
 
 Pimento 
 
 Kum 
 
 Sugar 
 
 Tallow 
 
 Tea 
 
 "Watches 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 . $78,390 
 
 3,933,820 
 
 1,027,005 
 
 289,205 
 
 7,005 
 
 183,980 
 
 447,000 
 
 10,605 
 
 139,910 
 
 3,876 
 
 1,836 
 
 8,945 
 
 6,830 
 
 53,275 
 
 494,445 
 
 6,015 
 
 6,945,095 
 
 26,918,385 
 
 342,285 
 
 27,691,205 
 
 77,110 
 
 I 9840,520 
 
 .4,616,020 
 
 ; 897,680 
 
 4,010 
 
 965 
 
 3,770 
 
 18,660 
 
 2,235 
 
 40,720 
 
 4,520 
 
 1,765 
 
 12,090 
 
 270 
 
 3,570 
 
 210,406 
 
 9,175 
 
 63,990 
 
 12,071,960 
 
 99,316 
 
 50,840 
 
 70,220 
 
 $11,807 
 
 11,872 
 
 609 
 
 i08 
 
 "sis 
 
 97',i69 
 
 67',830 
 
 6,343 
 
 , 21,231 
 
 9,663 
 
 ,130,453 
 
 95,820 
 
 140,808 
 
 288,494 
 
 6,720,106 
 
 303 
 
 7,864 
 
 380,076 
 
 The following comparative statement exhibits the 
 amount of duties paid on the articles specified, in 
 France and the United States, respectively, in the 
 year 1856, all of said articles being admitted free of 
 duty in Great Britain : 
 
 Brimstone 
 
 Cotton, raw. ..... 
 
 Cochineal, ... 
 
 Indigo . . 
 
 Flax 
 
 Guano 
 
 Hemp 
 
 Hides 
 
 Maliogany 
 
 Iron in bars 
 
 Steel, unwrought . 
 
 Lead 
 
 Spelter 
 
 Tin 
 
 Oil, whale 
 
 Oil, palm 
 
 Olive-oil 
 
 Beef, salted 
 
 Pork, salted 
 
 Quicksilver 
 
 Silk, raw 
 
 Tar 
 
 Wool 
 
 France. 
 
 United states. 
 
 $43,005 
 
 $24,526 
 
 3,870,115 
 
 Free. 
 
 , 46,885 
 
 , 24,906 
 
 124,175 
 
 106,374 , 
 
 245,315 
 
 19,663 
 
 146,210 
 
 Free. 
 
 24,866 
 
 ,503,563 
 
 36,836 
 
 404,164 
 
 118,310 
 
 88,049 
 
 125,136 
 
 1,605,835 
 
 3^5,695 
 
 422,747 
 
 395,680, 
 
 606,603 ' 
 
 7,345 
 
 26,351 
 
 9,930 
 
 728,661 
 
 5,805 
 
 1,594 
 
 41,575 
 
 41,631 
 
 429,480 
 
 141,149 
 
 8,230) 
 6,986f 
 
 124 
 
 875 
 
 725 
 
 20,155 
 
 151,160 
 
 9,680 
 
 
 1,636,730 
 
 499,519 
 
 The total amount of customs duty in France in 1856 
 was $35,330,405, on a total value of $397,955,235, or 
 8'87 per cent, on the whole amount ; the total amount 
 in Great Britain' was $131,034,220; and the total amount 
 in the United States was $64,022,863. If to the 
 $35,330,405, the amount of customs paid into the 
 French treasury in 1856, we add $36,416,640, chiefly 
 realized from the tobacco monopoly, but made up in 
 part also of the export duty on wines, we have 
 $71,747,045, or amount of customs duties received bj' 
 the three countries in 1856, as per existing tariflFs : 
 
 Great Britain $121,084,220 
 
 France (including revenues from tobacco and 
 
 wines) 71,747,045 
 
 United States 64.022,863 
 
 The following table exhibits the comparative tariffs 
 of the United States, Great Britain, France, Spain, 
 Holland, Belgium, and Brazil, in regard to the princi- 
 pal articles exported from the United States. 
 
TAR 
 
 1806 
 
 TAR 
 
 COMPABATITB STATEMENT EXUIBITING THE IMPORT DUTY LEVIED IN GBEAT BRITAIN, FbANOB, AMD HOLLAND ON 
 
 Goods, Waees, and Mebchandise, of the Geowtu, Proddob, and Majsitfactuee ov the United States: also the 
 Duty on like Goons, Wares, and Mesouandibe imported into tue United States. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 United 
 States. 
 Duty, nd 
 valorem. 
 
 Quantity and 
 Duty. 
 
 Quantity and Duty. 
 
 In Frencii Vessels. 
 
 Ill for'n Veaaels. 
 
 Quantity and Duty 
 
 Uil, Bpermaceli 
 
 " whale and fish . . . . 
 Fish, dried and smoked 
 Lumber and boards . . . 
 Manufactures of wood . 
 
 Tar and pitch 
 
 Skins and furs 
 
 Tallow 
 
 Hides 
 
 Leather 
 
 Butter 
 
 Cheese 
 
 Pork and Bacon 
 
 Lard 
 
 Wool 
 
 " less than 20 c. p.lb. 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Indian corn and meal. . 
 Rye, oats, and small 
 
 grain 
 
 Ship bread 
 
 15 cts, 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 15 
 
 24 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 15 
 15 
 24 
 15 
 16 
 24 
 
 Free. 
 15 
 15 
 
 15 
 35 
 
 Ton. $3 4 
 
 10 per ct. ad val. 
 
 Free. 
 
 Fi-ee. 
 
 Free. 
 
 Bushel. 
 
 Cwt. 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 Apples 
 
 Rice 
 
 Cotton 
 
 ' manufactures.. 
 
 Tobacco 
 
 " manufactured 
 
 Hemp-seed 
 
 Hemp, manufactured. . 
 
 Sugar, brown 
 
 " refined 
 
 Spirits 
 
 Molasses 
 
 Beer, ale, etc 
 
 Linseed oil 
 
 Spirits of turpentine . 
 
 Hats of fur and silk . 
 
 Gunpowder 
 
 Boots and shoes 
 
 Cables and cordage. . 
 
 Salt 
 
 Lead 
 
 Iron, pig 
 
 bar 
 
 nails and castings 
 other manufact . 
 
 Copper and brass 
 
 ' " manuf. 
 
 Drugs and medicines . . 
 
 Wearing apparel 
 
 Books 
 
 Paper, all kinds 
 
 Jeweh'y 
 
 Glass, fancy 
 
 other kinds 
 
 Bullion 
 
 Coal 
 
 Ice 
 
 India rubber manufact. 
 
 Unenumerated 
 
 24 
 8 
 
 15 
 
 Free. 
 19 and 24 
 
 24 
 
 30 
 8 
 
 15 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 24 
 
 19 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 Free. 
 
 24 
 
 15 
 
 24 
 
 8 
 IS and 24 
 
 24 
 
 24 and 30 
 
 15 and 24 
 
 Free. 
 
 24 
 Free, 
 
 24 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 Bushel. 
 Cwt. 
 
 Gallon. 
 
 Cwt. 
 
 BarreL 
 
 Free. 
 
 36 
 
 121 
 61 
 
 73 
 218 
 
 Cwt. $1 96 
 
 3 91 
 3 91 
 324 feet. 19 
 
 15 per ct. ad val. 
 Cwt 29 
 
 100 pieces. 19 c. to 46 
 Cwt. 1 75i 
 
 146i 
 " 24 c. to 98 
 
 24 c. to 98 
 29 
 " 5 c. to 1 46i 
 
 3 23 
 1 46J 
 20 per ct. ad val. 
 30 per ct. ad val. 
 
 (Duty fixed monthly, 
 [according to price. 
 
 Duty same as the grain 
 of which it is manu- 
 factured. 
 Cwt. 5 
 
 98 
 5 c to 59i 
 98 c. to 2 93 
 Prohibited. 
 
 $215 
 
 5 48 
 
 431 
 
 19 
 
 15 p. c. ad val, 
 
 34 
 
 19c. to 48 
 
 1 94 
 
 175i 
 
 48J c. to 1 46J 
 
 48} c. to 1 46i 
 
 32 
 
 5 c. to 1 61 
 
 3 55 
 
 175{ 
 
 20 p. c. ad val. 
 
 30 p. c. ad val. 
 
 Cubic ell. 
 
 8 per ct. ad val. 
 Free. 
 
 1 per ct. ad val. 
 220 lbs. 
 
 $0 20 
 
 2 42 
 
 20 
 
 i per ct. ad val. 
 
 I per ct. ad val. 
 
 220 lbs. 1 21 
 
 2 02 
 
 " 49 c. to 50 
 
 220 lbs. 
 Ton. 
 
 220 lbs. 
 
 Free. 
 
 2 02 
 16U 
 121 
 
 121 
 183 
 
 5 
 
 108 
 
 66} c. to 8SJ 
 
 f2 44! to 3 42i 
 
 Prohibited, 
 
 Free. 
 
 2 30 
 
 3 93 
 
 3 63 
 
 9 
 
 4 84 
 
 24 
 Free. 
 $1 13 to 3 39 
 Free. 
 
 Cwt. 
 
 Cwt. 
 
 01 
 61 c to 3 63 
 Free. 
 
 2 42 
 
 Free. 
 
 10 per ct. ad val 
 
 Cwt. 7 26 
 
 Pound. 5 c. to I 
 
 10 per ct. ad val. 
 
 Cwt. 2 42 
 
 Free. 
 
 Pound. I 
 
 Manufactured. 
 10 per ct. ad val. 
 Raw. Free. 
 
 t. 15 c. to 04 
 
 $2 93 to 240 34 
 
 Prohibited. 
 22 gallons. 38 32 
 
 Cwt. 5 
 
 2 44i 
 2 44} 
 
 Each (felt). 29 
 
 Prohibited. 
 
 10 per ct. ad val. 
 Cwt. 5 
 
 2 35 
 39 
 9S c. to 1 37 
 Prohibited. 
 $1 90 to 24 25 
 1 c. to 4 89 
 $4 89 to 92 92 
 5 c. to 20 64 
 Same as raw material 
 
 Cwt. 
 
 53} c. to 79 
 $2 93 to 240 34 
 
 2 93 
 
 2 08 
 
 29 
 
 Prohibited. 
 
 10 p. c. ad val, 
 10 c. to 27 
 2 58} 
 43 
 
 3 bushels. 2 
 
 3 per ct. ad val. 
 
 220 lbs. 8 c. to 12 
 
 Free, 
 
 4 per ct. ad val. 
 
 220 lbs. 28 c. to 4 84 
 
 " $4 84 to 16 13 
 
 Ton. 40i 
 
 1 to 6 per ct. ad val. 
 220 lbs. S 
 
 Free. 
 280 lbs. 
 22 2-9 gallons. 
 
 14 52 
 121 
 
 ini 
 
 2 02 
 
 Cwt. 
 
 3}oz. 
 
 Cwt 
 
 9.3 c. to 9 7S 
 
 $7 83 to 29 34 
 
 4i c. to 1 92 
 
 93 c. to 12 64 
 
 .59} 
 
 10 
 
 3 c. to 5 
 
 Free. 
 
 190 
 
 Prohibited. 
 
 $2 16} to 25 91 
 
 29 c. to 5 SS 
 
 $6 38 to 94 62 
 
 5 c. to 21 SI 
 
 Ditto. 
 
 $1 08 to 10 52 
 
 $8 48 to3t06 
 
 41 c. to 2 11 
 
 $1 08 to 12 04 
 
 06 
 
 11 
 
 1 c. to 10 
 
 Free. 
 
 216J 
 
 1 per ct ad val. 
 
 6 per ct. ad val. 
 220 lbs, $4 84 to 10 13 
 
 6 per ct. ad val. 
 
 per ct. ad val. 
 
 220 lbs. 6 45 
 
 Free. 
 
 220 lbs. 30 
 
 1 and 2 per ct ad val. 
 220 lbs. 8 
 
 ■10 c. to 101 
 1 per ct. ad val. 
 
 per ct ad val. 
 
 220 lbs. 4 03 
 
 3 to 5 per ct ad val. 
 
 6 per ct. ad val, 
 
 6 per ct ad val. 
 
 100 pieces. 1 40 
 
 Free. 
 
 1 per ct ad val. 
 
 per ct ad val. 
 
 1 per ct ad val. 
 
 From an examination of the comparative duties on 
 different articles, we find that the tariff of Great Britain 
 more nearly approaches free trade than any other. The 
 United States and Holland follow next in order, and 
 Spain and Brazil are the nearest the other extreme — 
 making, in fact, protection almost prohibition. There 
 is a great want of uniformity in the tariff charges gen- 
 erally, with the exception of those of the United States. 
 In the tariffs of Spain and Brazil the duties seem to be 
 levied arbitrarily in regard to home production, etc., 
 and the tariff considered only in reference to the maxi- 
 mum duty under which the separate articles wiU be 
 imported, and the total possible maximum revenue. 
 
 In the articles of every-day consumption, such as 
 fiour, provisions, etc., the tariff of Spain shows almost 
 a prohibition, while articles of luxury are admitted on 
 low duties. 
 
 The commerce of the United States with these coun- 
 tries in 1857 was in proportion to the total commerce 
 of the country, as follows : 
 
 Year ending June 80, 
 1857. 
 
 Exports from 
 United States. 
 
 ImI)ort« into 
 United States. 
 
 Tolal, 
 
 Great Britam . . . 
 
 $185,846,784 
 38,238,987 
 10,703,097 
 4,107,877 
 5,644,326 
 5,546,207 
 112,875,404 
 
 $131,003,193 
 47,792,827 
 2,723,010 
 2.409,762 
 5;060,3H 
 21,460,733 
 150,380,299 
 
 $316,848,977 
 86,031,814 
 13,426,113 
 6,577,639 
 10,704,637 
 27,005,940 
 268,265,703 
 
 
 Holland 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Other countries.. 
 Total 
 
 $362,900,682 
 
 $360,890,141 
 
 $723,850,823 
 
 From this table it appears that the six countries of 
 which we have given a tariff summary had the follow- 
 ing proportion of the commerce of this countrj' for the 
 fiscal year 1857 : 
 
 In the exports from United States 69 per cent. 
 
 In the imports into " 58 " 
 
 In the total commerce of " 04 " 
 
 If we had included^he colonies of the above coun- 
 tries, which have the same tariff regulations as their 
 mother countries the percentage would have been ma- 
 terially increased. 
 
TAR 
 
 1807 
 
 TAR 
 
 Comparative J^tatement exhibiting the import Duty levied in Spain, Beloidm, and Bbazil on Goods, Wares, 
 Awi> Meroiiandibe, ok tub Growth, Produce, and Manufacture of the United States ; also the Duty on like 
 Goods, \s ares, and Mercuanwibe imported into the United States. 
 
 ArtlclflB. 
 
 on, bpermaceti 1 
 
 whale and fiBh ... . 
 Fish, dried and smoked 
 Lumber and boards . . . 
 Manufactures ofwood . 
 
 Tar and pitch 
 
 Slcins and furs 
 
 Beef 
 
 Tallovir 
 
 Hides 
 
 Leather 
 
 Butter 
 
 Cheese 
 
 Porlc and bacon 
 
 Ijard 
 
 Wool 
 
 less than 20 c. p. lb. 
 
 ;Wheat 
 
 Indian corn and meal. . 
 •Rye, oats, and small 
 
 grain 
 
 Ship bread 
 
 IPotatoes 
 
 Apples 
 
 Rice 
 
 Cotton 
 
 * manufactures 
 Tobacco 
 
 " manufactured. 
 
 Hemp-seed 
 
 Hemp, uiauufactured . . 
 Sugar, broivn 
 
 '■' refined 
 
 Spirits 
 
 .Molasses 
 
 Beer, ale, etc 
 
 Linseed oil 
 
 Spirits of turpentine. . . 
 Hats of fur and sltk . . 
 
 Gunpowder..' 
 
 Boots and shoes 
 
 Cables and cordage 
 
 Salt 
 
 Lead 
 
 Iron, pig 
 
 " bar 
 
 " nails and castings 
 
 " other manufact . . 
 
 Copper and brass 
 
 " " " manuf. 
 
 Drugs and medicines . . 
 
 Wearing apparel 
 
 Books 
 
 paper, all, kinds. 
 
 Jewelry 
 
 Glass, fancy 
 
 "■ other kinds 
 
 Bullion ^ . 
 
 Coal 
 
 Ice i 
 
 India rubber inannfact. 
 Uncnumerated 
 
 Uniled 
 Status. 
 Duty, aH 
 valorem. 
 
 15 cts. 
 
 16 
 
 IS 
 
 15 
 
 24 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 15 
 15 
 24 
 15 
 15 
 24 
 
 Free. 
 15 
 15 
 
 2511)8. ' $0 68) 
 , 26) 
 Free. 
 Each. li 
 
 15 per ct. ad val. 
 10»lbs. 12 J 
 
 Dozen. 4 1-6 c. to 9 ( 
 5 lbs. 31i 
 
 100 Iks. 38t 
 
 " ■ 8} c. to 1 30 
 " 8i c. to 1 80 
 Pound. 8) 
 
 25 lbs, 1 OT 
 
 Pound. 4t 
 
 25 lbs. 1 00 
 
 100 lbs. 6 40 
 
 " 4 TO 
 
 Prohibited. 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 24 
 8 
 
 15 
 
 Free, 
 19 and 24 
 
 24 
 
 30 
 8 
 
 15 
 
 ■.4 
 
 24 
 
 80 
 
 24 • 
 
 24 
 
 16 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 24 
 
 19 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 Free. 
 
 24 
 
 15 
 
 24 
 
 8 
 
 15 and 24 
 
 24 
 24 and 
 15 and 24 
 
 Free. 
 
 24 
 
 Free. 
 
 24 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 Spain. 
 
 Quantity and Duty. 
 
 In Spapiah VesBela. 
 
 26 lbs. 9) c. to 1 181 
 
 Pi'ohibited. 
 26 lbs. IJ 
 
 " S 
 
 100 lbs. 1 TO) 
 
 3T c. to 2 14 
 51t 0. to 4 6T 
 Prohibited. 
 15 per ct. ad val. 
 ■:5 lbs. 51 
 
 " $10 80 to 120 24 
 10) c. to 86 
 " 61) c. to 1 CO 
 15 per ct. ad val. 
 15 per ct. ad val. 
 25 lbs. 58{ 
 
 40 
 100 lbs. 80) 
 
 30 per ct. ad val. 
 15 per ct. ad val. 
 Prohibited. 
 100 lbs. 3 51 
 
 Prohibited. 
 
 100 lbs. 96} 
 
 42) 
 
 " $2 14 to 2 66 
 
 " $2 GT to 23 
 
 " 31i 0. to 32 OT 
 
 " $S 67 to 10 69 
 
 " $1T 14 to 83 28 
 
 Pound. 1 c to 41 
 
 Prohibited. 
 
 25 lbs. 80) c. to B 35 
 
 21i c. to 3 15 
 
 6 per ct. ad va). 
 
 Each. Ct c. to GO 10 
 
 25 lbs. 53) 
 
 Free. 
 
 too lbs. 2} 
 
 2H 
 15 per c^ ad vaL 
 .Manufactured. 
 
 1,5 per ct. ad val. 
 Raw 
 
 in I'or'n VeBsela. 
 
 $OTTj 
 34 
 Free. 
 
 2 
 
 IS p. c. ad val. 
 17 
 4 c to 11 5C 
 381 
 51 
 $1 14 to 2 78 
 $1 14 to 2 T8 
 inj 
 1 28 
 5f 
 120J 
 8 57 
 5T5 
 Prohibited. 
 
 22 gallons. $3 07 
 
 2 63 
 220 lbs. 1 22} 
 
 20 per ct. ad val. 
 2 per ct. ad val. 
 on. 36J 
 
 1 per ct. ad val. 
 6 per ct. ad val. 
 220 lbs. 9) c. to 67) 
 
 " 1-6 c. to 19 
 
 ' 1-5 c. to 19 
 
 122} 
 134 
 
 14 c. to 1 56J 
 Prohibited. 
 
 9) 
 214 
 $1 33} to 3 23 
 51i c. to 5 61} 
 Prohibited. 
 18 p. c. ad val. 
 6} 
 $2133 to 149 C4 
 5i c. to 1 07 
 $1 07 to 3 03 
 IS p. c. ad val 
 18 p. c. ad val 
 
 em 
 
 48 
 107 
 86 p. c. ad val. 
 18 p. c. ad val. 
 Prohibited. 
 365 
 Prohibited. 
 115! 
 51 
 $2 56 to 8 08 
 $8 S3 to 4 24 
 42} c. to 38 46 
 $10 C9 to 13 36 
 $21 43 to 30 56 
 1} c. to 7 23 
 Prohibited. 
 nC} c. to 6 40 
 25} c. to 3 77i 
 p. c. ad val. 
 8}c. to 80 16 
 04 
 Free. 
 
 lOi 
 
 2Ci 
 
 18 p. c. ad val. 
 
 18 p. c. ad val. 
 
 Belgium. 
 
 QuanUty and Duty. 
 
 9 68 
 
 9 58 
 
 19 
 
 13} to 58 
 
 11} to 19 
 58 
 2i bushels. 2 
 
 22 gallons. 80 
 
 220 lbs. 28t c. to 1 82) 
 32} c. to 77 
 $34 53 to 57 48 
 $192 to CTl 
 $6 TO to 45 C8 
 Ton. 4 
 
 220 lbs. $5 T5 to 18T 82 
 " 82} c. to 83 
 
 18 20 
 22 gallons, 88 c. to 1 53 
 
 Prohibited. 
 22 gallons. 2 43) 
 
 2 36 
 220 lbs. 11} 
 
 10 per ct. ad val. 
 220 lbs. 6 49} 
 
 18 per ct. ad val. 
 1000 No. 4 04 
 
 220 lbs. 6 49 
 
 26} 
 2 66} 
 2 48} 
 2 56) 
 $1 32} to 14 3T 
 " 3 
 
 6 per ct. ad val. 
 
 1 per ct. ad val. 
 
 Free. 
 
 Ton. 6 00 
 
 3 to 1 5 per ct. ad val. 
 
 6 to 6 per ct. ad val. 
 
 2 to 12 per ct. ad val. 
 
 10 per ct. ad val. 
 
 Free. 
 
 ton. 2 83! 
 
 2 per ct. ad val. 
 
 3 per ct. ad val. 
 
 Quantity and Duty. 
 
 3 pints. $0 33 
 
 19 
 25 per ct. ad val. 
 9000 sq. in. 6 68 
 
 40 per ct. ad val. 
 Cash. 96} c. to 3 2T 
 
 25 per ct. ad val. 
 32 lbs. 82 
 
 $1 IT to 1 63 
 Pound. 8 
 
 3 c to 4 
 13 
 13 
 6 
 
 32 lbs. 1 63 
 
 30 per ct. ad val. 
 
 30 per ct. ad val. 
 
 32 lbs. 99 
 20 to 30 per ct. ad val. 
 
 Upeck. 33, c. to 99 
 
 33 lbs. 44 
 1281bs. 99 
 
 30 per ct. ad val. 
 
 30 per ct. ad val. 
 
 30 per ct. ad val. 
 
 43 1-5 in. sq. T c. to SO 
 
 32 lbs. 6 58 
 
 60 per ct. ad val. 
 
 2 per ct. ad val. 
 
 40 per ct. ad val. 
 
 30 per ct. ad val. 
 
 50 per ct. ad val. 
 
 50 per ct. ad val. 
 
 3 pints. 
 Pound. ' 
 
 38 
 5) 
 
 10 
 
 Each. 26 c. to 2 62 
 Pound. 19 
 
 Pair. 26 c. to 5 89 
 128 lbs. 4 90 
 
 1} peck. 17 
 
 128 lbs. 3 27 
 
 25 per ct ad val. 
 32 lbs. 2 62, 
 
 $2 10 to 16 78 
 
 25 per ct. ad val. 
 Dozen. 5} c. to 10 34 
 Pound. 2} c, to 19 60 
 
 40 per ct. ad val. 
 
 30 per ct, ad val. 
 Ream. 9 c. to 1 96 
 4 to 30 per ctw ad Val. 
 
 40 per ct. ad val. 
 Each. 2 c. to 16 69 
 
 30 per ct. ad val. 
 
 5 per ct. ad val. 
 
 1728 lb.>i. 1 97 
 
 30 per ct. ad val. 
 
 30 per ct. ad val. 
 
 NEW TARIFF ACT OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 AN ACT EEDDCINQ THB DUTY ON IMPOBTS, AND FOB OTHEB POBPOSES 
 
 Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of 
 th£ Uniled States of America, in Congress assembled. That on 
 and after the 1st day of July, 185T, ad valorem duties shall be 
 imposed, in lieu of those now imposed upon goods, wares, and 
 merchandise imported from abroad into the United States, as 
 follows, viz. : 
 
 Upon the articles enumerated in Schedules A and B of the 
 tariff act of 1846, a duty of 30 per cent., and upon those enu- 
 merated in Schedules C, D, E, F, G, and H of said act, the du- 
 ties of 24 per cent., 19 per cent, 15 per cent., 12 per cent, 8 
 per cent, and 4 per cent, respectively, with such exceptions 
 as hereinafter made ; and all articles so imported as aforesaid, 
 and not enumerated in the said schedules, nor in Schedule I, 
 shall pay a duty of 15 per cent 
 
 Sec. 2. And be it further enacted. That all manufactures 
 composed wholly of cotton, which are bleached, printed, paint- 
 ed, or dyed, and de laines, shall be transferred to Schedule C. 
 
 Japanned leather, or skins of all kinds, shall be transferred 
 to Schedule D. Ginger, green, ripe, dried, preserved, or pick- 
 led ; ochreys and ochrey earths, medicinal roots^ leaves, gums 
 and rosins in a crude state, not otherwise provided for ; wares, 
 chemical, earthen or pottery, of a capacity exceeding ten gal- 
 lons, shall be transferred to Schedule E. 
 
 Borate of lime and codella, or tow of hemp or flax, shall be 
 transferred to Schedule F. 
 
 Antimony, crude or regulus of; barks of all kinds, not oth- 
 erwise provided for ; camphor, crude ; cantharides ; carbonate 
 of soda ; emery. In lump or pulverized ; fruits, green, ripe, or 
 dried ; gums, Arabic, Barbary, copal. East India, Jeddo, Sen- 
 egal, substitute, tragacanth, and all other gums and rosins in 
 a crude state ; machinery exclusively designed and expressly 
 imported for the manufacture of flax and linen goods ; sponges ; 
 tin in plates or sheets, galvanized or ungalvanized ; woods, 
 namely, cedar, lignum vita?, ebony, box, granadilla, mahogany, 
 rose-wood, satin-wood, and all cabinet woods, shall be trans- 
 ferred to Schedule G. 
 
 Acids, acetic, benzoic, boracic, citric, muriatic, white and 
 yellow, oxalic, pyroligneous and tartaric, and all other acids 
 of every description used for chemical or manufacturing pur- 
 poses, not otherwise provided for ; aloes ; amber; ambergris ; 
 anise seed ; annato, roucon or Orleans ; arsenic ; articles not 
 in a crude state, used in dyeing or tanning, not otherwise pro- 
 vided for; asafoetida; aspbaltnm; barilla; bleaching pow- 
 der, or chlorid of lime ; borax, crude ; boucho leaves ; brim- 
 stone, crude, ,ia bulk; cameos, mosaics, diamonds, gems, 
 pearls, rubies, and other precious stones (not set); chalk; 
 clay ; cochineal ; cocoa, cocoa-nuts, and cocoa-sheUs ; cork- 
 tree bark ; cream of tartar ; extract of indigo ; extracts and 
 
TAE 
 
 1808 
 
 TAR 
 
 decoctions of logwood and other dye woods, not otherwise pro- 
 vided for; extract of madder; flint, ground; grindstones; 
 gutta percha, unmanufactured ; India rubber in bottles, slabs, 
 or sheets, unmanufactured; India rubber, milk of; indigo; 
 lac spirits ; lao sulphur ; lastings, cut in strips or patterns of 
 the size and shape for shoes, slippers, boots, bootees, gaiters, 
 or buttons exclusively, not combined with India rubber ; man- 
 ufactures of mohair cloth, silk twist, or other manufactures of 
 cloth suitable for the manufacture of shoes, cut in slips or pat- 
 terns of the size and shape for shoes, slippers, boots, bootees, 
 gaiters or buttons exclusively, not combined with India rub- 
 ber; music printed with lines, bound or unbound ; oils, palm, 
 teal, and cocoa-nut; Pru-ssian blue; soda ash; spices of all 
 kinds ; watch materials and unfinished parts of watches and 
 woad, or pastel, shall be transferred to Schedule II. 
 
 Seo. 3. And bs it further enacted. That on and after the 1st 
 day of July, 1S6T, the goods, wares, and merchandise men- 
 tioned in Schedule I, made part thereof, shall be exempt from 
 duty and entitled to free entry. 
 
 SonEDULB I. All books, maps, charts, mathematical, nautic- 
 al instruments, philosophical apparatus, and all other articles 
 whatever imported for the use of the United States. 
 
 All philosophical apparatus, instruments, books, maps, and 
 charts ; statues, statuary, busts and casts of marble, bronze, 
 alabaster, or plaster of Paris ; paintings and drawings ; etch- 
 ings,; specimens of sculpture; cabinets of coins, medals, gems, 
 and all collections of antiquities.: provided the same be spe- 
 cially imported, in good faith, for the use of any society incor- 
 porated or established for philosophical or literary purposes, or 
 for the encouragement of the fine arts, or for the use or by the 
 order of any college, academy, school, or seminary of learning 
 in the United States ; animal carbon (boneblack) ; animals, 
 living, of all kinds ; argol, or crude tartar ; articles in a crude 
 state used in dyeing or tanning, not otherwise provided for. 
 
 Bark, Peruvian ; , bells, old, and bell-metal ; berries, nuts, 
 flowers, plants, and vegetables used exclusively in dyeing, or 
 in composing dyes, but no article shall be classed as such that 
 has undergone any manufacture ; bismuth ; bitter apples ; 
 bolting-cloths ; -bones, burned, and boncdust. 
 
 Books, maps, and charts imported by authority of the Joint 
 Library Committee of Congress for the use of the library of 
 Congress : provided that if in any case a contract shall have 
 been made with any bookseller, importer, or other person for 
 books, maps, or charts, in which contract the bookseller, im- 
 porter, or other person aforesaid shall have paid the duty, or 
 included the duty in said contract, in such case the duty shall 
 not be remitted ; brass in bars and pigs, or when old, and fit 
 only to be remanufactured ; Brazil-wood, braziletto, and all 
 other dye-woods in sticks ; bullion, gold and silver ; burr stones, 
 wrought or unwrought, but unmanufactured. 
 
 Cabinets of coins, medals, and other collections of antiqui- 
 ties ; coffee and tea, when imported dii'cct from the place of 
 their growth or production in American vessels, or in foreign 
 vessels entitled by reciprocal treaties to be exempt from dis- 
 criminating duties, tonnage, and other charges ; coffee, the 
 growth or production of the possessions of the Netherlands, 
 imported from the Netherlands in the same manner ; coins, 
 gold, silver, and copper ; copper ore ; copper, when imported 
 for the United States Mint ; copper, in pigs or bars, or when 
 old and fit only to be remanufactured ; cotton ; cutch. 
 
 Dragon's-blood. 
 
 Felt, adhesive, for sheathing vessels ; flax, unmanufactured. 
 
 Garden seeds and all other seeds for agricultural, horticul- 
 tural, medicinal, and manufacturing purposes, not otherwise 
 provided for ; glass, when old and fit only to be remanufac- 
 tured ; goods, wares, and merchandise, the growth, produce, 
 or manufacture of the United States, exported to a foreign 
 country and brought back to the United States in the same 
 condition as when exported, upon which no drawback or 
 bounty has been allowed : provided that all ' regulations to 
 ascertain the identity thereof, prescribed by existing laws, or 
 which may bo prescribed by the Secretary of the Treasury, 
 shall be complied with ; guano. 
 
 Household effects, old and in use, of persons or families 
 from foreign countries, if used abroad by them, and not in- 
 tended for any other person or persons, or for sale. 
 
 Ice ; ivory, unmanufactured ; junk, old. 
 
 Linseed, but not embracing flaxseed. 
 
 Madder root ; madder, ground or prepared ; maps and 
 charts ; models of inventions and other improvements in the 
 arts : provided that no article or articles shall be deemed a 
 model or improvement which can be fitted for use. 
 
 Oakum ; oil, spermaceti, whale and other fish, of American 
 fisheries, and all other articles the produce of such fisheries. 
 
 Paintings and statuary; palm leaf, unmanufactured; per- 
 sonal and household effects (not merchandise) of citizens of 
 the United States dying abroad ; plaster of Paris or sulphate 
 of lime, unground ; phiti ■;!, unmanufactured. 
 
 Rags of whatever material, except wool ; ratans and reeds, 
 unmanufactured. 
 
 Sheathing copper, but no copper to be considered such and 
 admitted free, except in sheets of forty-eight inches long and 
 fourteen inches wide, and weighing from fourteen to thii'ty- 
 four ounces the square foot; sheathing metal, not wholly or jn 
 part of iron, ungalvanized ; shingle bolts, and stave bolts ,* 
 silk, raw, or as reeled from the cocoon, not being doubled, 
 twisted, or advanced in manufacture in any way; specimens 
 of natural history, mineralogy, or botany ; substances express- 
 ly used for manures. \ 
 Tin in pigs, bars, or blocks ; trees, shrubs, bulbs, plants, and 
 roots, not otherwise provided for. 
 
 Wearing apparel in actual use, and other personal effects 
 (not merchandise) ; professional books, implements, instru- 
 ments, and tools of trade, occupation or employment, of per- 
 sons arriving in the United States : provided that this ex. 
 emption' shall not be construed to include machinery or other 
 articles imported for use in any manufacturing establishment, 
 or for sale. 
 
 Sheep's wool, unmanufactured, of the value of 20 cents per 
 pound or less at the port of exportation, and hair of the al- 
 paca, the goat, and other like animals, unmanufactured : pro- 
 vided that any wool of the sheep, or hair of the alpaca, the 
 goat, and other like animals, which shall be imported in any 
 other than the ordinary condition, as now and heretofore prac- 
 ticed, or which shall be changed in its character for the pur-, 
 pose of evading the duty, or which shall be reduced in value 
 by the intentional admixture of dirt, or any foreign substance, 
 to 20 cents per pound or less, shall be subject to pay a duty pi 
 24 per cent, ad valorem, any thing in this act to the contrary 
 notwithstanding. 
 
 .Si:c. 4. And be it further enacted. That all goods, wares, and 
 merchandise which shall be in the public stores on the 1st day 
 of July aforesaid, shall be subject, on entry thereof for con- 
 sumption, to no other duty than if the same had been import- 
 ed respectively after that day. 
 
 Sec. 5. And be it further enacted. That on the entry of any 
 goods, wares, and merchandise imported on and after the 1st 
 day of July aforesaid, the decision of the collector of the cus- 
 toms at the port of importation and entry, as to their liability 
 to duty or exemption therefrom, shall be final and conclusive 
 against the owner, importer, consignee, or agent of any such 
 goods, wares, and merchandise, unless the owner, importer, 
 consignee, or agent shall, within ten days after such entry, give 
 notice to the collector in writing of his dissatisfaction with such 
 decision, setting forth therein distinctly and specifically his 
 grounds of objection thereto, and shall, within thirty days 
 after the date of such decision, appeal therefrom to the Sec- 
 retary of the Treasury, whose decision on such appeal shall be 
 final and conclusive ; and the said goodr<, wares, and merchan- 
 dise shall be liable to duty or exempted therefrom according- 
 ly, any act of Congress to the contrary notwithstanding, un- 
 less suit shall be brought within thirty days after such decision 
 for any duties that may have been paid or may hereafter be 
 paid on said goods, or within thirty days after the duties shall 
 have been paid, in cases where such goods shall be in bond. 
 
 AN ACT TO AMEND THE ACT EEDXTOTNG THE DUTY ON IMPORTS, 
 AND FOE OTHEE PUEPOSEB, TABBED JULY 30, 1846. 
 
 Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of 
 the United States of America, in Confess assembled. That 
 the eighth section of the act approved July 30, 1846, and en- 
 titled " An act reducing the duty on imports, and for other 
 purposes," be amended as follows : 
 
 Seo. 3. And be it further enacted, That it shall be lawful 
 for the owner, consignee, or agent of imports which have been 
 actually purchased or procured otherwise than by purchase, 
 on entry of the same, to make such addition in the entry to 
 the cost or value given in the invoice as, in his opinion, may 
 raise the same to the true market value of such imports in the 
 priacipal markets of the country whence the importation shall 
 have been made ; and to add thereto all costs and charges 
 which, under existing laws, would form part of the true value 
 at the port where the same may be entered, upon which the 
 duties should be assessed. And it sliall be the duty of the 
 collector within whose district the same may be imported or 
 entered to cause the dutiable value of such imports to be ap- 
 praised, estimated, and ascertained, in accordance with the 
 provisions of existtog laws ; and if the appraised value there- 
 of shall exceed by 10 per cent, or more the value so declared 
 on the entry, then, in addition to the duties imposed by law on 
 the same, there shall be levied collected, and paid, a duty of 
 20 per cent, ad valorerm, on such appraised value : Provided, 
 nevertheless, That under no circumstances shall the duty be 
 assessed upon an amount less than the invoice or entered val- 
 ue, any law of Congress to the contrary notwithstanding. 
 
 Approved March 3, 1857. 
 
TAR 
 
 1809 
 
 TAR 
 
 COMPAEATIVK TAEIFFS OF THE UNITED STATES, 1848 and 185T. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 Absynthe ; see Cordial» 
 
 Acetic acid ; see Adds^ acetic, etc. . »' 
 
 Acetous Acid ; sec Acui, acetous^ «tc . . : . . 
 
 Acida of every description used for chem- 
 ical or for manufacturing purposes, not 
 otherwise provided for 
 
 Adds of every description used for medic- 
 inal purposes or in the fine arts, not oth- 
 erwise provided for 
 
 Acid, sulphuric ; see Sulphuric Add 
 
 Adhesive felt, etc. ; see Felt, adhesive. 
 
 Alabaster statuary, etc., for use of colleges, 
 etc. ; see Philoe^hUal Apparatits, etc. . 
 
 Alabaster and spar ornaments 
 
 Alabata ; see Argentine 
 
 Alcornoque , 
 
 Ale, beer, and porter, in casks or bottles . . 
 
 Almonds 
 
 Aloes 
 
 Alum ,^..^..., 
 
 Amber beads ; see Beads 
 
 Amber , 
 
 Ambergris .,..,.,,... 
 
 Ammonia 
 
 Ammonia, sal ; see Sal Ammonia 
 
 Anatito, roucou, or Orleans 
 
 Anchovies, Sardines, and all other fish pre- 
 aerved in oil 
 
 Angora, Thibet, and other goats' hair or 
 mohair, unmanufactured, not otherwise 
 provided for 
 
 Animal carbon ; see Bone black 
 
 Animal oils ; see Oils, NeaVs-foot, etc .... 
 
 Animals, living, of all kinds 
 
 Aniae seed .' 
 
 Antimony, crude, or regulus of 
 
 Antiquarian paper ; see Paper 
 
 Antiquities, collections of; see PAitoaopAi'c- 
 al Apparatus, etc. . . . , 
 
 Antiquitiea, collections of ; see Cdbineits of 
 Coins, etc 
 
 Apparatus for use of United States ; see 
 Books, Maps, etc 
 
 Apparatus for use of colleges, etc. ; see PhU- 
 osophical Ajyparatus, etc 
 
 Apparel ; see Clothing, ready-made 
 
 Apples, bitter ; see .Bitter Apples 
 
 Arabic, gum ; see GuTti Arabic 
 
 Argentine, alabata, or German silver, man- 
 ufactured or unmanufactured 
 
 Argol, or crude tartar 
 
 Arms, fire ; see Muskets 
 
 Ai'ms, aide ; see Side Arms 
 
 AiTack ;' see Cord-Utls 
 
 Arrow-root 
 
 Arsenic 
 
 Articles embroidered with gold, silver, etc 
 
 Articles worn by men, women, or children, 
 of whatever material composed, made up, 
 or made wholly or in part by hand , . , 
 
 Articles of metal ; see Manvfactures . . . 
 
 Articles of leather; see ManvfcuAures. . 
 
 Articles of marble ; see Manufactures . . 
 
 Articles of glass ; see Manvfac^rea 
 
 Articles of papier-mache ; see Manvfactures 
 
 Articles, all, imported for the use of United 
 States ; see Books, Maps, etc :..... 
 
 Articles not in a crude state, used in dyeing 
 or tanning, not otherwise provided for . ; 
 
 Articles in a crude state, used in dyeing or 
 tanning, not otherwise provided for. . . . . 
 
 Artificial flowers or feathers ; see FeatJiers 
 
 Ash^ soda ; see Soda-ash 
 
 Aaphnltnm 
 
 Aaafoetida. 
 
 Asses' skins , , . 
 
 Aubusson carpeting ; see Carpets 
 
 Bacon ; 
 
 lialzes, bqckings, flajinels, and floor-cloths, 
 of whatever material composed, not oth- 
 erwHe provided for i , . . 
 
 Balsams, cosmetics, essences, extracts, per- 
 fumes, pastes, jtnd tinctures , . . . 
 
 Bananas 
 
 Barbary gum ; see Gum Arabic ; . 
 
 Barilla . 
 
 Bark of the cork-tree, manufactures of ; see 
 Manvfactxires 
 
 Bark of the cork-tree, unmanufactured ; see 
 Cork-tree Bark 
 
 Barks of all kinda not otherwise provided for 
 
 Bark, Peruvian 
 
 Bark, QuiUa 
 
 Barley 
 
 5y 
 
 Per Cent. 
 
 Per Cent 
 
 100 
 
 30 
 
 iO 
 
 4 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 4 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 Free. 
 
 Free. 
 
 Free. 
 
 Free. 
 
 40 
 
 80 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 40 
 
 30 
 
 20 
 
 4 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 20 
 
 4 
 
 20- 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 ,1ft 
 
 8 
 
 19 
 
 4 
 
 40 
 
 30 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 Free. 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 Free. 
 
 20 
 
 4 
 
 20 
 
 8 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 Free. 
 
 Free. 
 
 Free. 
 
 Free. 
 
 Free. 
 
 Free. 
 
 Free. 
 
 Free. 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 20 
 
 Free. 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 SO 
 
 24 
 
 6 
 
 Free. 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 100 
 
 30 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 4 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 SO 
 
 24 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 Free. 
 
 Free. 
 
 20 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 Free. 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 20 
 
 4 
 
 20 
 
 4 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 25 
 
 10 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 20 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 15 
 
 8 
 
 20 
 
 8 
 
 15 
 
 Free. 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 Articles. 
 
 Barley, pearl or hulled ; see Pearl or Hull- 
 ed Barley 
 
 Bars, iron ; aee Iron in Bars 
 
 Bars, steel ; see Steel in Bars , 
 
 Bars, brass ; aee Brass in Bars, etc 
 
 Bars, copper; see C(^^)erin PigSi etc..-,-.. 
 
 Bar, tin; see Tin in Pigs^ &te ;. 
 
 Barytes, sulphate of; see Sulphate of Ba 
 rytes : , 
 
 Baskets, and all other articles comp<Hied of 
 grass, osier, palm-leaf, straw, whalebone, 
 or willow, not otherwise provided for 
 
 Bay rum 
 
 Beada, of amber, composition, or wax, and 
 all other beads 
 
 Beans, Vanilla ; see Vanilla, Beans 
 
 Bed-sides ; see Carpets 
 
 Beds, feather ; aee Fhss Silks, etc 
 
 Beef 
 
 Beer, in casks or bottles ; aee Ale, Beer, etc. 
 
 Beeswax 
 
 Bella, old, and bell-metal 
 
 Bend leather; aee Leather, tanned^ etc. . .■ . 
 
 Braizoates , — 
 
 Benzoin, or Benjamin, gum ; see Gunt Ben- 
 zoin, etc 
 
 Benzoic acid; see AoidSi acetic, eto. . . . 
 
 Berries, vegetables, and flowers, not other- 
 wise provided for -... i ,■.;.- i . i . i :;.■., . 
 
 Berries, juniper ; see Jumiper Berries. . 
 
 Berries, nuts, fiov^ers, rplants, and yegeta- 
 bles, used exclusively in dyeing or in 
 composing dyes ; -but no article sTiall be 
 classed as such that has undergone any 
 manufacture 
 
 Bichromate of potash ; see Chromate . . 
 
 Bismuth .1 
 
 Bitter apples 
 
 Bituminous substances in a crude state ; see 
 Mineral and Bitumiinaus Substances — 
 
 Black, Frankfort; see Frankfort Black. . 
 
 Black, ivory ; see Ivory Black .: 
 
 Blank-hooka, bound or unbound 
 
 Blankets of all kinds . . . . . ^ - . . .■ 
 
 Bleaching powder, or chlorid of lime 
 
 Blocks, tin ; see Tin in Pige^ -etci .-.:., ... 
 
 Blooms ; see Iron m Bars^ etc- ■....: 
 
 Blue or Eoman vitriol, or- sulph. of copper 
 
 Blue, fig ; aee Fig Blue. , 
 
 Blue, Prussian ; see Prusekm Blue 
 
 Bone black ; see AniTnal Carbon 
 
 Boards, planks, staves, laths, scantling, 
 spars, hewn and sawed timber, andtim 
 ber to be used in building wharves 
 
 Bookings : aee Baizes 
 
 Bodies, hat, of wool; see Hat Bodies 
 
 Bologna sausages 
 
 Bolta ; see Iron in Bars 
 
 Bolts, shingle and stave , 
 
 Bolta, copper ; see Copper Rods, etc 
 
 Bolting cloths , 
 
 Bone, manufactures of; aee Manufactures 
 of Bone 
 
 Bone black 
 
 Bohe-duat 
 
 Bones and bone tips, unmanufactured ; see 
 Horn and Horn Tips 
 
 Bones, burned 
 
 Bonneta, flats, braids, etc, used for mak- 
 ing ; aee Flats, etc 
 
 Bonneta composed of certoin materials ; see 
 Hats and Bonnets 
 
 Books, maps, and charts, imported by au- 
 thority of the joint library committee of 
 Congress for the use of the library of 
 Congress 
 
 Books, maps, and charts^ mathematical and 
 nautical instruments, philosophical appa- 
 ratus, and all other articles whatever, im- 
 ported for the use of the United States . . 
 
 Books as personal effects of persons arriving 
 in the United States ; see Wearing Ap- 
 parel ...'..■ 
 
 Books specially Imported for societies ; see 
 PhilosophUal Apparatus 
 
 Botany, specimens of; see Speciimens of 
 Natural History 
 
 Books, blank ; see Blank Books 
 
 Books, printed, magazines, pamphlets, and 
 periodicals, illustrated newspapers, bound 
 or' unbound, not' otherwise -provided for . 
 
 Books in course of printing and republica- 
 tion ; see Periodicals : S. J . . : 
 
 Boracic acid ; aee Adds, acetic, etc 
 
 30 
 15 
 5 
 6 
 6 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 20 
 30 
 20 
 6 
 20 
 30 
 
 20 
 20 
 
 5 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 10 
 6 
 30 
 20 
 20 
 20 
 20 
 
 20 
 26 
 20 
 30 
 
 30 
 25 
 
 30 
 20 
 20 
 
 30 
 30 
 
 Free. 
 Free. 
 
 Free. 
 20 
 
TAR 
 
 1810 
 
 TAB 
 
 tlMiTED States' Taeifpb— ConKretjed. 
 
 
 ^ Articles. 
 
 1846. 
 
 1857. 
 
 Borate of lime . . 
 
 Per Cent. 
 
 25 
 25 
 
 10 
 20 
 20 
 20 
 30 
 30 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 30 
 
 30 
 26 
 
 100 
 
 30 
 5 
 5 
 
 20 
 15 
 
 5 
 20 
 30 
 20 
 15 
 
 6 
 20 
 20 
 20 
 
 20 
 30 
 30 
 30 
 20 
 10 
 
 Free 
 
 Free. 
 40 
 25 
 10 
 
 10 
 Free. 
 20 
 25 
 30 
 
 Free. 
 25 
 20 
 20 
 20 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 10 
 
 ,10 
 40 
 25 
 
 20 
 20 
 20 
 20 
 
 80 
 20 
 
 30 
 .30 
 
 50 
 
 20 
 
 For Cent. 
 12 
 4 
 19 
 
 4 
 16 
 15 
 
 4 
 24 
 24 
 
 8 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 19 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 Free. 
 Free. 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 Free. 
 16 
 15 
 15 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 15 
 15 
 16 
 
 Free. 
 
 15 
 
 24 
 24 
 24 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 Free. 
 
 Free. 
 
 30 
 
 19 
 
 8 
 
 Free. 
 Free. 
 
 15 
 
 19 
 
 24 
 
 Free. 
 19 
 15 
 16 
 15 
 
 19 
 
 24 
 4 
 
 8 
 30 ■ 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 15 
 ■16 
 ,16 
 
 24 
 
 8 
 
 24 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 15 
 
 
 Borax, not crude 
 
 Bottles, India rubber ; see India Rubber in 
 Bottles 
 
 Bottoms, copper ; see Copper Bottoms 
 
 Bottoms, still ; see Still Bottoms 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bracelets, braids, chains, curls, or ringlets, 
 composed of liair, or of which hair is a 
 
 Braces, suspenders, webbing or other fab- 
 rics, composed wholly or in part of India 
 rubber, not otherwise provided for 
 
 Braids, of hair ; see Bracelets 
 
 Braids, for making hats or bonnets; see 
 Flats, Braids, etc 
 
 Braids, cotton ; see Cotton Laces, etc 
 
 grain or other materials 
 
 Brass, manufactures of; see Manyfactures 
 of Brass 
 
 Brass, in bars or pigs 
 
 Brass, old, and fit only to be remanufact'd 
 Braziers' copper ; see Copper in Sheets, etc 
 Brazil paste 
 
 Brazil-wood, Brazilletto, and all dye-woods 
 in sticks 
 
 
 Bricks ; see Paving and Hoojiti^ Tiles, etc. 
 
 Brimstone, roll ; see Roll Brimstone 
 
 Brimstone, crude, in bulk 
 
 Bristles 
 
 Broad window glass ; see Window Glass.. . 
 
 Bronze powder , 
 
 Bronze, casts of; see Philosophical Appa- 
 ratus, etc 
 
 Bronze, metal, in leaf; see Metals, Butclu,- 
 
 
 
 
 Buds, cassia ; see Cassia Buds 
 
 Building stones 
 
 Bulbs ; see Trees, Shrubs, etc 
 
 
 
 Burned starch ; see Oum substitute 
 
 Burr stones, wrought or unwrought, but 
 unmanufactured 
 
 Busts ; see Philosophical Apparatus, etc . 
 Butter 
 
 Buttons and button-moulds of all kinds. . . 
 
 Cabinets of coins, medals, gems, and all 
 collections of antiquities 
 
 
 Cake, saffron ; see Saffron and Saffton Cake 
 
 Calomel and' all other mercurial prepara- 
 
 Cameos, real and imitation ; and mosaics, 
 real and imitation, when set in gold, sil- 
 
 Cameos and mosaics not -set 
 
 Cameos and mosaics, imitations thereof, not 
 set 
 
 
 Camphor, crude - . 
 
 dies 
 
 Candles, stearin ; see Stearin Candles 
 
 Candles, tallow ; see Tallow Candles 
 
 Canes and sticks for walking, finished or 
 unfinished .... .... 
 
 Cantharides 
 
 otherwise provided for , . . . 
 
 Caps, hats, muffs, and tippets of' fur, and 
 all other manufactures of fur, or of which 
 fur shajl be a component material ...... 
 
 Caps, gloves, leggins, mit^, socks, stock- 
 ings, wove shirts and drawers, and all 
 similar articles made on frames, wora by 
 men, women, or children, and not other- 
 
 Caps, gloves, leggins, mita, socks, stockings, 
 wove shirts and drawers, made on frames, 
 composed wholly of cotton " 
 
 TJnitetj States' TAsiWB—Coniivued. 
 
 Caps, gloves, leggins, mits, socks, stockings, 
 Tvove shirts and drawers, made on frames, 
 composed wholly of cotton, worn by men, 
 women, and children, when bleached, 
 printed, painted, or dyed ; . 
 
 Carbonate of soda ; see Sal Sod(t, etc 
 
 Carbon, animal ; see Animal Carbon 
 
 Card cases, pocket-booka, shell boxes, sou- 
 venirs, and all similar articles, of what- 
 ever material composed 
 
 Cards, playing ; see Playing Cards 
 
 Carpets, carpeting, hearth-rugs, bed-sides, 
 and other portions of carpeting, being 
 either Aubusson, Brussels, ingrain. Sax- 
 ony, Turkey, Venetian, Wilton, or any 
 other similar fabric 
 
 Carriages and parts of carriages 
 
 Cassia 
 
 Cassia buds 
 
 Castings of iron 
 
 Cast-iron vessels; see Iron^ caM^Vessel^ of 
 
 Cast-steel ; see Steel in Bars 
 
 Castile-soap ; see Soap, Castile^ etc 
 
 Castor oil 
 
 Castorum 
 
 Casts of marble, bronze, alabaster, or plas- 
 ter of Paris ; see Philosophical Appara- 
 tus^ etc. .J 
 
 Cayenne pepper 
 
 Cedar-wood, manufactures of; see Manvr- 
 factur&s of Cedar-wood 
 
 Cedar-wood, box-wood,' ebony, granadilla, 
 lignum-vitse, mahogany, roae-wood, and 
 satin-wood, and all cabinet woods, un^ 
 manufactured ;' see Woods , 
 
 Cement, Koman ; see Roman Cement 
 
 Chains of hair ; see Bracelets, Braids, etc. . 
 
 Chalk, red, pencils; see Red Chalk Pencils 
 
 Chalk 
 
 Chalk, French ; see Freiich Chxdk. 
 
 Chalk, red ; see R^d CJialk 
 
 Charts ; see Maps and Charts 
 
 Cheese 
 
 China ware ; see Earthen, China, and Stone 
 Ware 
 
 China matting; see Matting, China, etc. .. 
 
 Chip hats and bonnets ; see Hats and Bon- 
 nets 
 
 Chocolate 
 
 Chlorid of lime ; see Bleaching Powder. . . . 
 
 Chromate of lead 
 
 Chromate, bichromate, hydriodate, and 
 prussia'te of potash 
 
 Chromic acid ; see Acids, aceiovs, etc 
 
 Chronometers, box or ships', and parts 
 thereof 
 
 Cinnamon 
 
 Citric acid ; see Adds, acetic, etc 
 
 Claret ; see Wines 
 
 Clay, 
 
 Clay, unwrought , 
 
 Clocks and parts of clocks 
 
 Clothing, ready-made, and wearing appar- 
 el of every description, of whatever mate- 
 rial composed, made up or manufactured 
 wholly or in part by the tailor, seamstress, 
 or manufacturer 
 
 Cloth, suitable for the manufacture of 
 shoes, buttons, etc., exclusively; eeeMan- 
 ufactures of Mohair Cloth, etc 
 
 Clotlis, bolting ; see Bolting Cloths 
 
 Cloves 
 
 Coach and harness furniture of all kinds 
 
 Coal 
 
 Cobalt 
 
 Cochineal 
 
 Cocoa -nuta 
 
 Cocoa 
 
 Cocoa shells 
 
 Cocoa-nut oil ; see Oils, Palm,8, etc. . . . 
 
 Coculus Indicus 
 
 Cedilla, or tow of hemp or flax 
 
 Coffee and tea, when imported direct from 
 the place of their growth and production, 
 in American vessels, or in foreign vessels 
 entitled by reciprocal treaties to be ex- 
 empt from discriminating duties, tonnage, 
 and other charges 
 
 CoflFee, the growth or production of the pos- 
 sessions of the Xetherlands, imported 
 from the Netherlands in the same man- 
 ner 
 
 Coins, gold, silver, and copper 
 
 Coins ; see Cabinets of Coins 
 
 ( "oir ; see Jute, etc 
 
 Coke and culm of coal 
 
 20 
 20 
 20 
 
 30 
 30 
 
 30 
 30 
 40 
 20 
 30 
 30 
 15 
 30 
 
 Free. 
 30 
 
 20 
 20 
 30 
 30 
 5 
 20 
 20 
 10 
 30 
 
 30 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 20. 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 80 
 20 
 40 
 5 
 5 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 S 
 
 Free. 
 
 24 
 24 
 4 
 
 24 
 12 
 
 15 
 15 
 
 4 
 30 
 
 15 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 Free. 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 19 
 
 24 
 15 
 
 15 
 15 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 30 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 25 
 
 Free. 
 
 40 
 
 4 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 20 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 HI 
 
 4 
 
 20 , 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 12 
 
 Free. 
 
 Free. 
 
 Free. 
 
 Free. 
 
 Free. 
 
 Free. 
 
 Free. 
 
 25 
 
 19 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
TAR 
 
 1811 
 
 TAR 
 
 IJNtTBD States* Tabifps— Continued. 
 
 Collections of antiquities ; see Pkiloeophic- 
 
 al Apparatus, etc 
 
 CoUectiona of antiquities ; see Cabinets of 
 
 ' Coina, etc 
 
 Colored glass ; see Crlass, colored 
 
 Colors, water ; see Water Colore 
 
 Combs of all kinds 
 
 Comfits, sweetmeats, or fruity preserved in 
 sugar, brandy, or molasses ..,.:...<..., 
 
 Common saddlery ; see Saddlery 
 
 Composition tops for tables, or other arti- 
 cles of furniture 
 
 Composition beads ; see Beads , 
 
 Compoeifcion of glass or paste, when set . . . 
 
 Composition of glass or paste, not set , 
 
 Confectionery of all kinds, not otherwise 
 
 jffovided for 
 
 Copal, gum ; see Gums 
 
 Copper articles, vessels, and wares ; see 
 
 Manufactures 
 
 Copper bottoms , 
 
 Copper rods, bolts, nails, and spikes 
 
 Copper in sheefea or plates, called braziers' 
 copper, and other sheets of copper not 
 
 otherwise provided for 
 
 Copperas, or green vitriol, or eulph. of iron 
 
 Copper, in piga or bars 
 
 Copper, when old, and fit only to be reman- 
 
 mctured 
 
 Copper, when imported for the U. S. Mint. 
 
 Copper ore 
 
 Copper, sheathing; see Sheathing Copper. 
 
 Copper coins ; see Coins . . * , 
 
 Coral, cut or manufactured * . . 
 
 Coral, marine ; see Marine Coral, unman- 
 
 vfactured 
 
 Cordage ; see Cables OTid Cordage 
 
 Cordials, abtiynthe, arrack, Curapoa, kir- 
 Bchenwasser, liqueurs, maraschino, rata- 
 fia, and air other spirituous beverages of 
 
 a similar character 
 
 Cords, cotton ', see Cotton Cords . t . . . 
 
 Corks 
 
 Cork-tree bark ; see Manufactures of the 
 
 Bark of the Cork-tree 
 
 Cork-tree bark 
 
 Corn, Indian ; see Indian Corn ..... 
 Corn meal, Indian ; see Indian Com and 
 
 Meal 
 
 Cosmetics ; see Balsams, Cosmetics, etc. . . 
 
 Cotton 
 
 Cotton cords, gimps, and galloons . . 
 Cotton, hat bodies of; see Hat Bodies of 
 
 Cotton 
 
 Cotton, embroidered ; see Manufactures of 
 
 Cotton, etc. , embroidered. 
 
 Cotton, all manufactures of, bleached, 
 printed, painted, or dyed ; see ManUtfac- 
 
 tures of Cotton 
 
 Cotton laces, cotton insertings, cotton trim- 
 ming laces, cotton laces and braids 
 
 — when bleached, printed, painted, or dyed 
 Cotton, manufactures of, not otherwise pro- 
 vided for ; see Mani^factures of Cotton 
 
 not otherwise provided for 
 
 Cotton, articles of, made on frames ; see 
 
 Caps, Gloves, etc. 
 
 — when bleached, printed, painted, or dyed 
 Cotton and eilk, hatters* plush ; see Hatters' 
 
 Plush 
 
 Cotton velvet in the piece, composed whol- 
 ly of cotton ; see Velvet in the Piece, etc. 
 — when bleached, printed, painted, or dyed 
 Cotton and siTk velvet in the piece, cotton 
 of chief value ; see Velvet in the Piece, 
 
 composed of Cotton a/nd Silk, etc 
 
 Court-plaster 
 
 Crackers, fire ; see Fire-crackers 
 
 Crayons of all kinds 
 
 Cream of tartar .' 
 
 Crown window glass ; see Window Glass . . 
 
 Crude tartar ; see Argol 
 
 Crude articles for dyeing, etc ; see Articles 
 
 in a crude state, etc 
 
 Crystals for watches ; see Glaas C^stals . . 
 
 Cubebs 
 
 Cudbear 
 
 Culm of coal ; see Coke 
 
 Curapoa ; see Cordials 
 
 Curls of hair ; see Bracelets 
 
 Curled hair for beds ; see Hair, curled, etc. 
 
 Currants 
 
 Cutlery of all kinds 
 
 Cutch 
 
 Cylinder window glass ; see Window Glass. 
 Darning needles ; see Needles of all kinds. 
 
 Per Cent. 
 
 Free. 
 
 Free. 
 80 
 30 
 30 
 
 40 
 20 
 
 40 
 80 
 30 
 10 
 
 30 
 10 
 
 30 
 30 
 20 
 
 20 
 20 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 Free. 
 Free. 
 Free. 
 
 Free. 
 
 100 
 80 
 30 
 
 Per Cent. 
 
 Free. 
 
 Free. 
 24 
 24 
 24 
 
 30 
 15 
 
 30 
 24 
 34 
 
 8 
 
 24 
 
 2-4 
 15 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 Free. 
 
 Free. 
 Free. 
 Free. 
 Free. 
 Free. 
 24 
 
 16 
 19 
 
 30 
 24 
 24 
 
 Unitki> States' Tabtfts — Continiced. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 Dates ..-.;.;.... 
 
 Demy paper ; see Paper, demp, etc 
 
 Decoctions of logwood, etc, ; see Extracts 
 and Decoctions ^ 
 
 De laines 
 
 Diflmonds, gems, pearls, rubiiefl, and othe]^ 
 precious stones, and imitations of pre- 
 cious atones, when set in gold, silrer, or 
 other metal :;.;..,;.... 
 
 Diamonds^ Qameos, mosaics, gems, pearls, 
 rubies, and other precious stones, when 
 not set ; . . . 
 
 Diamonds, cameos, mosaics, gems, pearls, 
 rubies, and other precious stones, imita- 
 tions thereof, not set 
 
 Diamonds, glaziers*, set or not set 
 
 Dolls, and toys of all kinds 
 
 Downs of all kinds ; see Floss Silk, etc. . . 
 
 Dragon* 8-blood 
 
 Drawers wove on frames ; see Caps, Gloves, 
 etc 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 16 
 
 4 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 Free. 
 
 Free. 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 20 to 25 
 
 24 
 
 2B 
 
 19 
 
 25 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 19 
 
 ^0 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 24 
 
 *20 
 
 IB 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 20 
 
 -24 
 
 20 
 
 15 , 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 -30 
 
 24 
 
 -20 
 
 4 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 5 
 
 Free. 
 
 5 
 
 Free. 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 80 
 
 24 
 
 100 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 40 
 
 8 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 10 
 
 Free. 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 20 
 
 ■ IB 
 
 Drawers wove on frames, wholly of cotton ; 
 see Caps, Gloves, etc.- 
 
 Drawers, when bleached, printed, painted, 
 or dyed 
 
 Drawing paper ; see Paper, demy, etc 
 
 Drawings ; see Philosopk. Apparatus^ etc. 
 
 Dressed and tanned skins ; see Skins, 
 tanned, etc. 
 
 Dried pulp 
 
 Dried fish ; see Fish, foreign, etc 
 
 Drugs, medicinal ; see Medicinal Drugs. . . 
 
 Dutch metal, in leaf ; see Metal, Dutch, etc. 
 
 Dye-woods, extracts and decoctions of; see 
 Fxtracts and Decoctions ■. 
 
 Dye-woods in sticks; see Brazil-wood, etc. 
 
 Dyoj lac ; see Lac Dye 
 
 Dyeing, articles used for, not in a crude 
 state ; see Articles notin a crude state, etc. 
 
 Dyeing; see Articles in a crude state used 
 for dyeing 
 
 Dyeing ; see Berries^- Nuts, etc., in a crude 
 state 
 
 Earthen, China, and stone ware, and all 
 other wares composed of earthy and min- 
 eral substances, not otherw. provided for 
 
 Earth, ochrey ; see Ochres and Ochrey 
 Earths 
 
 Earths, ochrey, crude or ground ; see 
 Ochres and Ochrey Earths '. 
 
 Earth, fullers' ; see Fullers* Earth ....... 
 
 East India gum ; see Gum, Arabic, etc. '. . . 
 
 Ebony-wood, manufactureg of ; see Manu- 
 factures of Cedar-wood. fStc '. 
 
 Ebony-wood, unmanufactured j see Cedar- 
 wood 
 
 Effects, household ; see Household Ejects. 
 
 Effects, personal and household ; see Per- 
 sonal and Household Effects 
 
 Effects, not merchandise,' of persons arriv- 
 ing in the United States^ see Wearing 
 Apparel in actual use 
 
 Elephant paper ; see Paper, demy, etc. . 
 
 Embroideries of gold, silver, etc. ; iee Arti- 
 cles embroidered, etc .■ '. 
 
 Embroidered manufactures of cotton, silk, 
 wool, worsted ; Bee- Manufactures of Cot- 
 ton, etc, embroidered _. 
 
 Emery, in lump or pulverized . . ". 
 
 Engravings or plates, bound or unbound . . 
 
 Envelopes, paper ; see Paper Envelopes . . 
 
 Epaulets, galloons, laces, knots, stars, tas- 
 sels, tresses, and wings of gold, silver, or 
 other metal 
 
 Epsom salts'; see Salts,- Ejysom, etc 
 
 Essential oils ; see Oils, volatile, etc 
 
 litohinge ; see Phihsoph, Apparatus, etc. 
 
 Ether 
 
 Expressed oils ; see Oils, volatile, etc 
 
 Extracts ; see Balsams 
 
 Extract of indigo 
 
 Extracts and decoctions of logwood and oth- 
 er dye-woods, not otherwise provided for 
 
 Extract of madder 
 
 Fabrics wholly or in part of India rubber ; 
 see Braces, etc 
 
 Fancy boxes ; see Paper Boxes 
 
 Fans and fire-screens of every description, 
 of whatever material composed 
 
 Feathers and flowers, artificial or orna- 
 mental, and parts thereof, of whatever 
 material composed 
 
 Feather-beds ; see Floss Silks, etc 
 
 leathers for beds ; see Floss Silks, etc. 
 
 J'^eldspar 
 
 Felt, adhesive, for sheathing vessels . . . 
 
 Per Cent. 
 
 40 
 30 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 10 
 15 
 30 
 25 
 15 
 
 30 
 Free. 
 
 20 
 5 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 30 
 
 SO 
 10 
 10 
 
 Free. 
 F-ree. 
 
 Free. 
 30 
 
 80 
 
 30 
 
 10 
 30 
 
 80 
 20 
 30 
 Free. 
 20 
 80 
 30 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 80 
 
 30 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 Free. 
 
TAE 
 
 United States' TAKiFffS — Continued. 
 
 1812 TAR 
 
 United States' Tariffs— Continited. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 1846. 
 
 185T. 
 
 
 For Cent. 
 
 Per Cent. 
 
 Fig blue 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 Fire-arms ; see Muskets, etc. . 
 
 30 
 30 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 
 24 
 
 Fii-e-screens ; see Fans and Fire-screens . . 
 
 24, 
 
 Fire-wood ; see Wood, unmanufactured . . . 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 Fish, preserved in oil ; see Anchovies 
 
 40 
 
 30 
 
 Fiah, foreign, whether fresh, smoked, salt- 
 
 
 
 ed, dried, or pickled, not otherwise pro- 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 Fish oils ; see Oils, neafs-foot, etc 
 
 15 
 
 Flag8, matting, or mats of; see MaiUng, 
 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 19 
 
 Flannels ; see Baizes, etc 
 
 20 
 
 19 
 
 Flats, braids, plaits, sparterre and willow 
 
 
 
 squares, used for making hats or bonnets 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 Flax, manufactures of; see Manufactures 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 Flax, unmanufactured 
 
 15 
 
 Free. 
 
 
 15 
 20 
 6 
 5 
 
 13 
 
 
 15 
 
 Flints 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 Floor-cloths ; see Baizes, etc 
 
 25 
 25 
 
 19 
 
 Floor matting ; see Matting, China, etc 
 
 ID 
 
 Floss Bilks, feather-beds, feathers for beds, 
 
 
 
 
 26 
 20 
 
 19 
 
 Flour, wheat ; see Wheat and WTwat Flour 
 
 15 
 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 Flour of sulphur 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 Flowers ; see FeatJiers and Flowers 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 Flowers, used exclusively in dyeing, etc. ; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Floivers not otherwise provided for ; see 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 Foolscap paper ; see Paper, demy, etc 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 Frames and sticks for umbrellas, parasols. 
 
 
 
 and sun-shades, finished or unfinished . . 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 
 20 
 20 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 15 
 
 Fruit preserved in sugar, 'brandy, or mo- 
 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 Fullers' earth 
 
 ]0 
 
 20 
 
 8 
 
 Fulminates, or fulminating powders 
 
 15 
 
 Furniture, cabinet and household 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 Furniture ; see Composition TahUr-tops ., . 
 
 40 
 
 30 
 
 Fur manufactures ; see Caps^ Hats, Muffs, 
 
 
 
 and Tippets of Fur 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 Furs, hatters', dressed or undijessed, not on 
 
 
 
 10 
 10 
 
 s 
 
 
 8 
 
 Galloons, gold, silver, etc. ; see Epaulets. . 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 
 80 
 
 24 
 
 Galvanized tin plates ; see Tin Plates, gal- 
 
 
 
 
 15 
 20 
 
 8 
 
 
 16 
 
 Game, prepared ; see Prepared Vegetables, 
 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 30 
 
 Garden seeds, and all other seeds for agri- 
 
 
 cultural, horticultural, medicinal, and 
 
 
 
 manufacturing purposes, not otherwise 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 30 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 Gems, set ; see Diamonds, etc., set 
 
 24 
 
 Gems ; see Philosophical Apparatus, etc, . 
 
 Free. 
 
 Free. 
 
 Gems, not set ; see Cam£os, etc, not set. . . 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 Gems, imitations of, not set ; see Diamonds, 
 
 
 
 etc 
 
 10 
 30 
 
 8 
 
 German silver ; see Argentine 
 
 24 
 
 German steel ; see Steel in Bars, etc 
 
 15 
 
 12 
 
 Gilt ware ; see Plated and Gilt Ware 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 Gimps, cotton ; see Cotton Cm-ds, etc. 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 Ginger, dried, green, ripe, preserved, or 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 40 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 Glass, colored, stained, or painted 
 
 24 
 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 Glass tumblers, plain, moulded, or pressed, 
 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 Glass, paintings on; see Paintings on 
 
 
 
 
 30 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 Glass, porcelain ; sec Porcelain Glass 
 
 24 
 
 Glass, compositions of, set; see Composi- 
 tions of Glass or Paste, wlien set 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 Glass, compositions of, not set ; see Compo- 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 Glass, window ; see Window Glass 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 Glass, when old, and fit only to be remanu- 
 
 
 
 factured . . . , 
 
 20 
 
 Free. 
 
 Glaziers' diamonds, set or not set ; sec Dia- 
 monds, glaciers' ; ; 
 
 Glauber salts ; see Salts, Epsom, etc 
 
 Gloves made on frames ; see Caps,^ Gloves, 
 etc., made on Frames 
 
 Gloves, wholly of cotton, made on frames ; 
 see Caps, Gloves, etc.,, ma.de on Frames . 
 
 Gloves, when bleached, printed, painted, 
 or dyed 
 
 Glue 
 
 Glue, fish 
 
 Goats' hair, manufactures of; see Man%i- 
 factures of Goats' Hair, etc 
 
 Goata' hair, unmanufactured ; see Angora, 
 Thibet, and other Goats' Hair 
 
 Gold embroideries ; see Articles embroider- 
 ed with Gold ,...,..... 
 
 Gold, manufactures of ; see Manufactures 
 of Brass, etc 
 
 Gold coin ; see Coin , . . , 
 
 G old and silver leaf , . . , r - -, i'. ? 
 
 Gold-beaters' skin , 
 
 Goods, wares, and merchandise, the growth, 
 produce, or manufacture of the U. States, 
 exported to a foreign country, and brought 
 back to the U. S. in the same condition as 
 when exported, upon which no drawback 
 or bounty has been allowed, provided 
 that all regulations to ascertain the iden- 
 tity thereof, prescribed by existing laws, 
 or which may be prescribed by the Secre- 
 tary of the Treasury, shall be complied 
 with f F . . . , 
 
 Granadilla wood, manufactures of; see 
 Manufactures of Cedar-wood, etc 
 
 Granadilla wood, unmanufactured ; see 
 Woods, eta 
 
 Grapes 
 
 Grass bonnets ; see Hats and Bonnets com- 
 posed of Straw, etc 
 
 Grass baskets j see Baslcetft, etc., composed 
 of Grass, etc 
 
 Grass cloth 
 
 Grass, Sisal; see Jute, etc., umnanufacCd 
 
 Grass mats and matting ; pee Matting, Chi- 
 na, etc ...ft , .. . 
 
 Grease ; see Tallow, etc 
 
 Green vitriol ; see Copjyeras 
 
 Green turtle 
 
 Grindstones 
 
 Ground plaster of Paris ; see Plast. of Parii 
 
 Gum benzoin, or Benjamin 
 
 Gums, Arabic, Barbary, copal. East India, 
 Senegal, substitute, tragacanth, and all 
 other gums and resins in a crude state . 
 
 Guano 
 
 Gunny cloth 
 
 Gunpowder 
 
 Gutta percha, unmanufactured 
 
 Hair, human, cleansed or prepared for use 
 
 Hair of all kinds, uncleaned and unmanu- 
 factured 
 
 Hair, goats', unmanufactured ; see Ango^'a, 
 Thibet, and oilier Goats' Haiir 
 
 Hair of the alpaca, the goat, and other like 
 animals, in certain conditions ; see Wool 
 
 Hair, curled, moss, sea-weed, and all otlier 
 vegetable substances used for beds or 
 mattresses 
 
 Hair-cloth, hair seating, and all other man- 
 ufactures of hah7 not otherwise provided 
 for 
 
 Hair, hats, etc., of; see Hats and Bonnets 
 of Straw, Hair, etc 
 
 Hair pencils 
 
 Hair seating ; see Hair-cloth, etc. 
 
 Hams 
 
 Harness furniture ; see Coach Furniture 
 
 Hats ; see Hats and Bonnets, etc , 
 
 Hata, flats, braids for mp-king; see Flats, 
 
 Hat bodies of cotton 
 
 Hats and bonnets, for men, women, and 
 children, composed of straw, satin-straw, 
 chip, grass, palra-lcaf, friUow, or any 
 other vegetable substance, ov of haii*^ 
 whalebone, or other material, not other- 
 wise provided for , 
 
 Hata of wool 
 
 Hat bodies, made of wool, or of which wool 
 shall be a component material of chief 
 value 
 
 Hatters' plush, composed, of silk and cot- 
 ton, but of which cotton is the component 
 material of chief value 
 
 Hearth rugs ; see Carpets 
 
 Per Cent. 
 
 15 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 20 
 
 ■^ 20 
 20 
 20 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 Free. 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 Free. 
 
 40 
 
 20 
 30 
 
 30| 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 12 
 15 
 
 24 
 
 15 
 
 24 
 15 
 15 
 
 19 
 
 15 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 Free. 
 
 12 
 
 Free. 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 19 
 
 25 
 
 19 
 
 25 
 
 19 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 50 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 30 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 Tree. 
 
 Free. 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 4 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 Free. 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 .30 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 15 
 
 15 
 24 
 
TAIi 
 
 United States' Takiffs — Continued, 
 
 1813 TAR 
 
 Unttec States' TARVffFS-^Continued. 
 
 Hemp, unmanufactured 
 
 Hemp, manufactured; BeeManufactureaof 
 
 Hemp 
 
 Hemp, tow of ; see Codilla 
 
 Hemp-seed and rape-seed 
 
 liemp-seed or linseed, ■ and rape-seed oil, 
 
 and all other oils used in painting 
 
 Hides, raw, of all kinds ; see Raw Hides 
 
 dnd Skins 
 Honey. . . .i. 
 Horn, manufactures of ; see Manvfacturea 
 
 of Bone, etc. t . . . 
 
 Horns, horn tips, bones,- -bone tips, and 
 
 teeth, unmanu&ctared .\ 
 
 Household furniture ; see Fumitwre. ...... 
 
 Household effects, old a.nd in iise, of ;per- 
 
 sons or families from foreign coimtries, 
 
 if used abroad by them^ and not intended 
 
 for any other person or persons, or for 
 
 sale 
 
 Hulled barley ; see Pearl or Hulled Barley 
 Human haii% cleansed or prepared for use 
 Hydriodate oi potash ; see Chromate^ Bi- 
 
 ehromatej etc. 
 Ice . 
 
 Illustrated newspapers ; see Books, etc. . , . 
 
 Imitations of wines ; see Wiiies ■ 
 
 Imitations of cameos or mosaicsf set ;< see 
 
 Cameos, etc., set , j 
 
 Imitations of precious stones,- set ; see Dia^ 
 
 monds, etc., set. . . .: 
 
 Imitations of jewelry; bqq Jewelry 
 Imitations of cameos and mosaics, not set ; 
 
 see Cameos and Mosaics, imitatioTis of, 
 
 not set ' :...:.:... 
 
 Imitations of diamonds, gems, etc. ^ not set ; 
 
 see 'Diamonds, imiitatioTW of, etc., not set 
 Imitations of jet ; s^Jet and mcmvfact. of 
 Imperial paper ; tfee Paper, aktiqaarian, 
 
 %tc. 
 
 India rubber, fabrics of; see Braces, etc.. 
 
 In'dia rubber shoes ; see Shoes wholly q/' 
 India RuHber * 
 
 India rubber, in bottles, slabs, or sheets, 
 unmanufactured ■. . . .-...-.,... ... .-..-.... 
 
 India rubber, milk of 
 
 Indian corn and corn meald 
 
 Indigo, extract of; see Extract of Indigo.. 
 
 locdigo . » * > - 
 
 Ingrain carpeting ; see Carpets.- 
 
 Ink and ink powder 
 
 Insertings, cotton; see Cotton Insertings. , 
 
 Insertings, thread ;- see Thread Laces, etc. 
 
 Instruments, musical ; see Musical Instru- 
 ments 
 
 Ipecacuanha 
 
 Iridium 
 
 Iria, or orris root. .* 
 
 Iron in bars, bloom, bolts, loopSj-pigs, rods, 
 slabs, or other form, notrbthe,rwise pro- 
 vided for' ...» * 
 
 Iron castings ; see Castings of Iron 
 
 Iron, old or scrap ; seo Old or Scrap Iron. 
 
 Iron, TiesselB of, cast ; see Vessels of Cast 
 Iron * 
 
 Iron, manufb-ctures of; see Mamtfactures 
 of Brass, etc. . . * v 
 
 Iron, sulphate of; see Copperas, etc . . . 
 
 Iron liquor .' 
 
 Isinglass ; see Fish Glue 
 
 Ivory, manufactures of ; see Manufactures 
 of Bone, etc 
 
 Ivory, vegetable, manufactures of; see 
 Manufactures of Bone, etc 
 
 Ivory-black ■ 
 
 Ivory, unmanufactured 
 
 Ivory nuts, or vegetable ivory 
 
 J&lap ■.. 
 
 Japanned ware of all kinds,- not otherwise 
 provided for ^ 
 
 J^anned saddlery ; aee Saddlery, common, 
 etc '. ■ 
 
 Japanned leather or skins of all kinds . 
 
 Jeddo gum ;■ see Gum, Arabic 
 
 Jellies ; see Macc^ni-. .i.... 
 
 Jet, and manufactures of jet, and imitations 
 ther^ ...'.(..:..... 
 
 J6Wolry, real or imitation. .■ 
 
 Juice, licorice; eeo Licorice Paste, etc.. 
 
 Juice, lemon or lime-; see Lemon and Lime 
 Juice -. . -. 
 
 Juniper ihet'Mes....' ..-. 
 
 Junk, old..* .-. .. ■. 
 
 Jute, Sisal grass, coir, and otiher vegetable 
 BubstanceiS, unmanufactured, not other- 
 wise provided for .-. .■. 
 
 Per Cent. 
 30 
 
 20 
 16 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 6 
 
 30 
 
 SO 
 
 5 
 
 30 
 
 Free. 
 20 
 80 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 10 
 40 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 30' 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 30 
 
 30 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 20 
 20 
 10 
 SO 
 80 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 20 
 10 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 20 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 Free. 
 
 25 
 
 15 
 
 13 
 8 
 
 15 
 
 4 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 4 
 
 Free. 
 16 
 24 
 
 15 
 
 Free. 
 
 8 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 24 
 
 4 
 4 
 15 
 4 
 4 
 24 
 24 
 19 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 15 
 15 
 
 24 
 24 
 24 
 
 24 
 15 
 15 
 15 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 15 
 
 Fi:ee. 
 
 4 
 
 15, 
 
 24 
 
 15 
 
 19 
 
 8 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 24 
 15 
 
 ■15 
 Free. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 Jute, mats, or matting ; see Matting, China, 
 etc, 
 
 Kelp 
 
 Kirschenwasser ; see Cordials 
 
 Kermes, mineral ; see Mineral Kermes . . . 
 
 Kermes 
 
 Knitting needles ; see Needles of all kinds 
 for sewing, darning, or knitting 
 
 Knots of gold, silver, or other metal ; see 
 Bpaulets^ etc. 
 
 Lac spirits 
 
 Lac sulphur , 
 
 Lac dye. 
 
 Laces of gold, silver, or other metal ; aee 
 Epaulets , 
 
 Laces, cotton ; see Cotton Laces, etc, . . . 
 
 Laces, when bleached, etc. 
 
 Laces, thread ; see Thread Laces 
 
 Lanipblack. 
 
 Lard : 
 
 Lastinga, cut in strips or patterna of the 
 size and shape for shoes, boots, booteea, 
 slippers, gaiters; or buttons, exclusively, 
 not combined with India rubber 
 
 Laths ; see Boards, PUtfik, etc 
 
 Lead pencils '. 
 
 Lead, manufactures of; aee Manufactures 
 of Brass, etc. 
 
 Le^d, chromate of; see Chromate 
 
 Lead in pigs; bars, or sheels. . .' '. . 
 
 Lead, nitrate of ; see Nitrate of Lead '. .' 
 
 Lead, white and red ; see Whit^ and Red 
 Lead , ^ 
 
 Leaden pipes 
 
 Leaden shot '...'....' 
 
 Leaf, gold and silver ; see Gold and Silver 
 .Leaf 
 
 Leather, manufactures of; see Manufac- 
 tures of Leather 
 
 Leather, tanned, bend, or sole 
 
 Leather, upper, of all kinds 
 
 Leather, japanned.' 
 
 Leaves, medicinal ; see Medicinal Drugs^ 
 '4tc.... 
 
 Leeches 
 
 Leggins ; see CapS, etc., made on Frames. 
 
 I^^ns, wholly of cotton; see Caps, etc, 
 Wholly of'iJotton, made on Frames 
 
 Leggins, cotton, when bleached, printed, 
 , painted, or dyed 
 
 L6mons and limes 
 
 Lemon-peel ; aee Orange and Lemon peel . 
 
 Lemon and. lime juice'. v. . . . 
 
 Letter paper; see Paper, antiquarian, etc. 
 
 Limes ; see Lemoyis and Limes 
 
 Lime-juice ; aee Lemon arid Linie juice. . . 
 
 Lime 
 
 Lime, sulphate of, ungi'oUUd^ see Plaster 
 of Paris , ,.. 
 
 Lime, chlorid of; see Bleaching Powder. . . 
 
 Linen, manufactures of, . embroidered ; aee 
 Mani^actures of Cotton, Linen, etc . 
 
 Linens of all kinds 
 
 Linseed, but not embracing flax-seed. . . 
 
 Lmseed oUs ; aee ' Hemp-seed or Linseed 
 Oil, etc 
 
 Liqueurs ; see Cordials 
 
 Liquor, iron ; see Irort Liquor 
 
 Licorice, paste, juice, or root 
 
 Listings, woolen ; see Woolen Listings .... 
 
 Litharge , ,,.... 
 
 Logwood, extract or decoction of; see JEx- 
 tracts and Decoctions 
 
 Loops, iron ; see Iron in Bars, etc 
 
 Macaroni, vermicelli, gelatine, jellies, and 
 all other similar preparaliions , 
 
 Mace , ' , 
 
 llachinery, exclusively designed and ex 
 preasly imported for the manufacture of 
 ^ax and linen goods ., 
 
 Madder, extract of ; see Extract of Madder 
 
 Madder, ground or prepared 
 
 l^adder-root 
 
 Madeira ; see Wines .'. 
 
 Magazines ; see Books 
 
 IV^ahogany r wood, * manufactures of^ aee 
 Manufactures of Cedar-wood, etc 
 
 Mahogany - :wood, unmanufactured ; see 
 Woods, etc 
 
 Malt... 
 
 M^EUiganese. 
 
 Manna. '..!,: ' '.'....'.... 
 
 Mflmufaetures of cedar -wood, gi'anadilla. 
 eiaony, mahogany, rose-wood, and satin- 
 wood 
 
 Manufactures of jet ; see Jet 
 
 25 
 
 10 
 
 100 
 
 15 
 
 5 
 
 30 
 20 
 
 5 
 
 30 
 
 25 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 5 
 
 20 
 30 
 
 30 
 20 
 20 
 
 20 
 20 
 20 
 
 30 
 20 
 20 
 
 20 
 30 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 20' 
 
 lo 
 
 SO 
 20 
 10 
 10 
 
 Free. 
 
 10 
 
 30 
 20 
 10 
 
 20 
 100 
 20 
 20 
 20 
 20 
 
 20 
 30 
 
 30 
 40 
 
 5 
 5 
 
 40 
 10 
 
 40 
 
 ■20 
 20 
 20 
 
 40' 
 30 
 
TAR 
 
 UsiTED States' Tauitfb— CoTittwied. 
 
 1814 TAR 
 
 United Statbb' Tariffs — Continued. 
 
 Manufactures of the bark of the cork-tree, 
 except corks 
 
 Manufactures of bone, shell, horn, pearl, 
 ivory, or vegetable ivory 
 
 Manufactures, articles, veaeels, and wares, 
 not otherwise provided for, of brass, cop- 
 'per, gold, iron, lead, pewter, platina, sil- 
 ver, tin, or other metal, or of which eitlier 
 of those metals or any other metal shall 
 be the component material of chief value 
 
 Manufactures composed wholly of cotton, 
 bleached, printed, painted, or dyed 
 
 Manufactures of cotton, linen, silk, wool, 
 or worsted, if embroidered or tamboured 
 in the loom or otherwise, by machinery, 
 or with the needle or other process 
 
 Manufactures, articles, vessels, and wares 
 of glass, or of which glass shall be a com- 
 ponent material, not otherwise provided 
 for 
 
 Manufactures nud articles of leather, or of 
 which leather shall be a component part, 
 not otherwise provided for 
 
 Manufactures and articles of marble, mar. 
 ble paving tiles, and all other marble 
 more advanced in manufacture than in 
 slabs or blocks in the rough _ _ _ 
 
 Manufactures of paper, or of which paper 
 is a component material, not otherwise 
 provided for 
 
 Manufactures, articles, and wares of pa- 
 pier-mach6 
 
 Manufactures of wood, or of which wood is 
 a component part, not otherwise provided 
 for 
 
 Manufactures of wool, or of which wool 
 shall be the component material of chief 
 value, not otherwise provided for 
 
 Manufactures of hair ; see Hair-cloth^ Hair 
 Seating, etc .• 
 
 Manufactures of fur ; see Caps, Hats, Muffs, 
 and Tippets of Fur^ etc. 
 
 Manufactures composed wholly of cotton, 
 not otherwise provided for 
 
 Manufactures of goats' hair or mohair, or 
 of which goats' hair or mohair shall be a 
 component material, not otherwise pro- 
 vided for 
 
 Manufactures of silk, or of which silk shall 
 be a component tnaterial, not otherwise 
 provided for 
 
 Manufactui-es of worsted, or of which worst- 
 ed shall be a component material, not 
 otherwise provided for 
 
 Manufactures of flax, not otherwise pro- 
 vided for 
 
 Manufactures of hemp, not otherwise pro- 
 vided for 
 
 Manufactures of mohair cloth, silk twist, or 
 other mapufacture of cloth suitable for 
 the manufacture of shoes, cut in slips or 
 patterns of the size and shape for shoes, 
 slippers, boots, booties, gaiters, or but- 
 tons, exclusively, not combined with In- 
 dia inibber , 
 
 Manufactures of lastings suitable for shoes, 
 hoots, bootees, or buttons, exclusively; 
 see LasUnga 
 
 Manures or substances expressly used for , 
 
 Maps and charts 
 
 Mai'aschino ; see Cordials 
 
 Marble, manufactures of ; see Manufactures 
 of Marble 
 
 Marble paving tile ; see Manufactures of 
 Marble 
 
 Marble in the rough slab or block, unman- 
 ufactured 
 
 Marine coral, unmanufactured , 
 
 Marrow ; see Tallow, Morrow, etc 
 
 Matting, China, and other floor matting 
 and mats, made of flags, jute, or gfass. . 
 
 Meal, Indian corn ; see Ir^imi Corn 
 
 Meats, prepared; see Pr^ared Vegetables, 
 Meats, etc 
 
 Medals ; see Cabinets of Cdiis, etc 
 
 Medicinal preparations, not otherwise pro- 
 vided for 
 
 Medicinal drugs, roots, and leaves, in a 
 crude state, not otherwise provided for. . 
 
 Mercurial preparations ; see Calomel 
 
 Metal embroideries ; see ArticUs embroid- 
 ered 
 
 Metals, manufactures of; see Manufactures 
 of Brass, etc 
 
 Metals, silver plated; see Silver -iJlated 
 Metals 
 
 1846. 
 
 Per Cent. 
 30 
 30 
 
 30 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 10 
 100 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 20 
 20 
 10 
 
 40 
 Free. 
 
 20 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 1857. 
 
 Percent, 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 19 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 26 
 
 19 
 
 25 
 
 19 
 
 25 
 
 19 
 
 25 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 4 
 
 Free. 
 
 Free. 
 
 30 
 
 15 
 15 
 
 19 
 15 
 
 30 
 Free. 
 
 15 
 19 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 Articles. 
 
 Metal, Dutch and bronze, in leaf 
 
 Metals, unmanufactured, not otherwise pro- 
 vided for 
 
 Metal, type ; see Type Metal 
 
 Metallic pens 
 
 Mineral waters 
 
 Mineral and bituminous substances, in a 
 crude state, not otherwise provided for, . 
 
 Mineral kernies 
 
 Minerals; see Spedmiens of Natural History 
 
 Mits made on frames ; see Cops, Gloves, etc. 
 
 Mits made on frames, when wholly of cot- 
 ton ; see Caps, Gloves, etc 
 
 — when bleached, printed, painted, or dyed 
 
 Models of inventions and other improve- 
 ments in the arts, provided that no arti- 
 cle or articles shall be deemed a model or 
 improvement which can be fitted for use. 
 
 Mohair and silk twist ; see Silk Twist, etc. 
 
 Mohair, manufactures of; see Manv/actures 
 of Goats' Hair, etc 
 
 Molasses , 
 
 Mordant, patent ; see Patera Mordant .... 
 
 Mosaics, real and imitations, when set ; see 
 Cameos, etc 
 
 Mosaics, not set ; see Cameos, etc., not set. 
 
 Mosaics, imitations of, not set; see Dia- 
 monds, etc., Twtset 
 
 Moss for beds or mattresses ; see Hair, curl- 
 ed, etc ,, , . 
 
 Moulds, button; see Buttm. ani BuUon 
 Moulds 
 
 Muffs ; see Caps, Hats, Muffs, etc 
 
 Muriatic acid ; see Acids, acetic, etc 
 
 Musical instruments of all kinds, and 
 strings for musical instruments, of whip- 
 gut, catgut, and all other strings of the 
 same material 
 
 Music, printed with lines, bound or un- 
 bound 
 
 Muskets, rifles, and other fire-arms .' 
 
 Nails, copper ; see Copper Mods, etc 
 
 Natron 
 
 Natural history, specimens of; see Speci- 
 mens, etc 
 
 Neat's-foot oil ; see Oils, NeaCs-foot, etc. . . 
 
 Needles of all kinds, for sewing, darning, 
 or knitting 
 
 Newspapers, illustrated ; see Books, etc. . . 
 
 Nickel 
 
 Nitrate of lead 
 
 Niti'ate of soda, refined, etc. ; see Saltpetre, 
 refined, etc 
 
 Nitrate of soda, when crude ; see Saltpetre, 
 when crude 
 
 Nitric acid ; see Acids, acetous, etc 
 
 Nutmegs 
 
 Nuts, not otherwise provided for 
 
 Nuts, cocoa ; see Cocoa-nuts 
 
 Nuts used exclusively in dyeing, etc. ; see 
 Berries, Nuts, etc 
 
 Nuts, ivory ; see Ivory NtUs 
 
 Nut-galls 
 
 Nux vomica 
 
 Oakum 
 
 Oata and oatmeal 
 
 Ochres and ochrey earths 
 
 Oil-cloth of every deaeription, of whatever 
 material composed 
 
 Oils, volatile, essential, or expressed, and 
 not otherwise provided for 
 
 Oil, castor; see Castor Oil 
 
 Oil, spermaceti, whale, and other fish, of 
 American fisheries, and all other articles 
 the produce of such fisheries 
 
 Oils, hemp-seed, linseed, rape-seed, and all 
 other oils used in painting; see Hemp- 
 seed Oil, etc 
 
 Oils, neat's-foot, and other animal oil; 
 'Spermaceti, whale, and other fish oil, the 
 produce of foreign fisheries 
 
 Oils, palm, seal, and cocoa-nut 
 
 Oil of vitriol ; a^e Sulphuric Acid 
 
 Old or scrap iron ; see Iron, old, etcj . . 
 
 Old pewter; see Pewter, when old, etc.. 
 
 Olive-oil in casks, other than salad oil . 
 
 Olive salad oil, and all other olive-oil, not 
 otherwise provided for 
 
 Olives 
 
 Opium i 
 
 Oranges, lemons, and limes 
 
 Orange and lemon peel 
 
 Orleans ; see Aiiatto 
 
 Ornamental feathersi or fiowers ; see Feath- 
 ers 
 
 Orpiment 
 
 1846. 
 
 Per Cent. 
 20 
 
 30 
 30 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 Free. 
 
 30 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 Free. 
 30 
 
 25 
 80 
 
 30 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 25 
 80 
 20 
 
 10 
 30 
 20 
 10 
 
 Free. 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 10 
 5 
 
 20 
 40 
 30 
 20 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 Free. 
 
 30 
 20 
 
 20 
 10 
 10 
 30 
 5 
 30 
 
 SO 
 30 
 20 
 20 
 20 
 10 
 
 30 
 10 
 
 Per Cent. 
 15 
 
 16 
 15 
 24 
 24 
 
 15 
 
 12 
 
 Free. 
 
 24 
 
 15 
 
 24 
 
 19 
 24 
 15 
 
 24 
 4 
 
 19 
 
 24 
 
 4 
 
 15 
 
 24 
 15 
 
 Free. 
 15 
 
 4 
 15 
 
 4 
 15 
 4 
 
 Free. 
 
 4 
 
 Free. 
 
 8 
 
 Free. 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 16 
 
 Free. 
 16 
 
 15 
 
 4 
 4 
 
 24 
 4 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 24 
 16 
 
 S 
 15 
 
 4 
 
 24 
 8 
 
TAB 
 
 United Status' T\jairtB— Continued. 
 
 1815 TAR 
 
 United States* Tariffs — ConHrmed. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 Owifl or iris root ; see Xria or Orris Root . . 
 Osier baskets; see Baaketa composed of 
 
 Qrasa, Osier^ etc 
 
 Osier or willow, prepared for basket-mak- 
 
 era' use. 
 
 O^talic acid; see AeidSrCtcetic^e^ 
 
 Pack-thread ; see Twines and- Pack-thread 
 
 Paddy ; see Rice or Paddy 
 
 Painting and statuary 
 
 Paintings on glass 
 
 Fainted glass ; see GlasSy pairUed 
 
 Paints^ dry or ground in oil, not otherwise 
 provided for 
 
 Palm leaf, unmanufactured 
 
 Palm-leaf baskets ; see Baskets 
 
 Palm-leaf hats ; see Mats and Bonnets .... 
 
 Palm oils ; see Oils, Pa^nt, etc. .. ^ ....... . 
 
 Pamphlets ; see Books, printed, etc. ....... 
 
 Pfrper seigars ; see Segars, Snuff, etc; 
 
 Pa^er, ntannfacturee of ; ^^ Hianufactures 
 of Paper, etc 
 
 Piper, antiquarian, demy, drawing, ele- 
 phant, foolscap, impeiial, letter, and all 
 bther paper, not otherwise provided for. 
 
 Paper boxes, and all other flancy boxes. . . . 
 
 Pa|ier envelopes..-. > 
 
 Paper hangings ^ 
 
 Pdper for sci'eens or fire-boards 
 
 PAper, sheathing ; see Sheathing Paper. . . 
 
 Paper, music, bound or unbound ; see Mu- 
 Mc Paper 
 
 Papier-mach6 ; sec ManvfiXctHres of Pa- 
 'pier-macM 
 
 Parchment ^ 
 
 Parasols, frames or sticks for ; see Frames 
 or Sticks 
 
 Parasols^ and sun-shades 
 
 Paris white ; see Whiting or Paris White. . 
 
 Paste; see Balaams .' ;.' 
 
 Paste compositions; see Compositions of 
 'Qlass or Paste, when set 
 
 Paste, licorice ; see Licorice Paste 
 
 Paste, Brazil ; see Brazil /*aste 
 
 Paste compositions, if not set ; see Compo- 
 sitions of Glass or Paste^ not set 
 
 Pastel ; see Wood or Pastel 
 
 Patent mordant '. 
 
 Paving tiles, marble ; see Manvfactures of 
 Marble 
 
 Paving stones 
 
 Paving and roofing tiles and bricks. 
 
 Pearls, when set ; see Diamonds, etc., set . 
 
 Pearl, manufactures of; sec Manvfactures 
 of Bone, Shell, Pearl, etc 
 
 'Pearl or hulled barley 
 
 Pearls, not set ; see Cameos, Monaics, Dia- 
 monds, GemSi, Pearls, etc., not set 
 
 Pearls, imitations thereof, not set ; see Dia- 
 •TtioTuis, P&xtIs, etc, imitaisfms thereof, 
 not set 
 
 Pearl, mother of. 
 
 Pebbles for spectacles ; see Glasses or Peb- 
 bles for Spectacles 
 
 Pencils, hair ; see Hair Pencils 
 
 Pencils, lead ; gee Lead Pencils 
 
 Pencils, red-chalk ; see Red-chalk Pencils . 
 
 Pens, metallic ; see MetaUic Pens 
 
 Pepper 
 
 perfumes ; see Balsams, etc. 
 
 Perfumed aoap ; see Soap, perfumed 
 
 Periodicals and other works in course of 
 printing and republication in the U. S. . . 
 
 Periodicals ; see Books, printed, etc 
 
 Personal and household effects (not mer- 
 chandise) of citizens of the United States 
 dying abroad 
 
 Peruvian bark ; see Bark, Peruvian 
 
 Pewter, manufactures of; see Manvfac- 
 tures of Brass, etc 
 
 Pewter, when old, and fit only to be reman- 
 ufactured 
 
 Pickles, capers, etc ; see Capers, etc 
 
 Pickled fish; see Fish, foreign, ichether 
 fresh, etc 
 
 Pigs, iron ; see Iron in Bars, etc 
 
 Pigs, lead ; see Lead in P^s, etc 
 
 Pigs, brass ; see Brass in Bars and Pigs . . 
 
 Pigs, copper ; see Copper in Pigs, etc 
 
 Pigs, tin ; see Tin in Pigs, etc 
 
 Pimento 
 
 Pine-apples 
 
 Pipes, lead; BGe Leaden Pipes, eUi 
 
 Pitch 
 
 Pitch, Burgundy ; see Burgundy Pitch . . . 
 
 Plaits for bonnets, etc. ; see Flats, Braids, 
 Plaits, etc 
 
 Per Cent. 
 20 
 
 20 
 20 
 30 
 
 30 
 30 
 
 20 
 10 
 30 
 30. 
 10 
 10 
 40 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 20 
 SO 
 
 30 
 20 
 16 
 
 10 
 10 
 20 
 
 20 
 30 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 Free. 
 
 15 
 
 30 
 
 Per Cent. 
 15 
 
 24 
 
 15 
 
 4 
 
 24 
 
 15 
 
 Free. 
 
 24 
 
 15 
 
 Free. 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 4 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 30 
 
 21 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 W 
 
 15 
 
 m 
 
 IS 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 30 
 24 
 
 24 
 24 
 15 
 24 
 
 24 
 15 
 12 
 
 4 
 IB 
 
 15 
 15 
 
 24 
 15 
 
 24 
 24 
 24 
 4 
 24 
 24 
 
 16 
 8 
 
 Free. 
 Free. 
 
 24 
 
 4 
 24 
 
 15 
 24 
 15 
 
 Free. 
 
 Free. 
 
 Free. 
 4 
 8 
 15 
 15 
 19 
 
 24 
 
 Plafiks ; see Boards, PUmka, etc. 
 
 Plants, not othefwiee proviaed for; see 
 
 IVees, ShrUba,eUs 
 
 Plants used excliuively in dyeing ; see Ber- 
 ries, Nuts, etc 
 
 Plantains j ^ ^ ..... . 
 
 Plaster of Paris, when ground.-. .■..-.■.--.... 
 
 Plaster of Paris, or sulphate of lime, un. 
 
 ground -. .. ; 
 
 Plated metal, silver; see Silver, Plated 
 Metal, etc '. 
 
 Plates,' copper j see Capper in Sheets, fXe. . 
 
 Plates, stereotype ; see Stereotype Plates. . 
 
 Plates; Tcmc tin ; see HerMfr Tin Plates. . . 
 
 Plates, tin, galvanized or nngalvanized ; 
 see Tin Plates, galvanized • or ungalvan'd 
 
 Plates, bound or unboimd ; see Engravings 
 or Plates. .■ 
 
 Plated and gilt ware of all kinds 
 
 Platina, manufactures 6f; see JKcfnu/ac- 
 tures, etc :....;; 
 
 Platina, unmanufactured 
 
 Playing cards 
 
 Plumbago '..' .' 
 
 Plums 
 
 Plush, hatters' ; see Hatters' Plush 
 
 Pocket-books ; see Card-coxes, etc. 
 
 Polishing stones 
 
 Poi'celain glass ; see OUss, porcelain 
 
 Pork 
 
 Porter, in casks or bottles ; see Ale, Beer, 
 and. Porter 
 
 Port-wines; see Wines...: 
 
 Potash, nitrate of; see Saltpetre, refined 
 or partially refilled 
 
 Potash, nitrate of, when crude; see Salt- 
 petre or Nitrate of Soda, etc., when crude 
 
 Potassium 
 
 Potash, chTomate, bichromate, and prus- 
 siate of; see Chromate 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 Poultry, prepared; see Prepared Vegeta- 
 ble'^, Meats, etc 
 
 Powder, gun ; see Cfunpowder 
 
 Powders, fulminating ; See Fulminates . . . 
 
 Powders, bleaching; see Bleaching Poiodfir, 
 etc ■ 
 
 Powder, ink ; see Ink and Ink Powder 
 
 Precious stones, and imitations thereof; see 
 Diamonds, etc., when set 
 
 Precious stones, not set ; see Cameos, etc. 
 when not set .^. 
 
 Precious stones, imitations of, not set ; see 
 Diamonds, etc., imiiations of, not set ... 
 
 Prepared vegetables, meats, poultry, and 
 game, sealed or inclosed in cans, or oth' 
 erwise. 
 
 Preparations, medicinal ; see Medicinal 
 Preparations 
 
 Preparations, mercurial ; see Calomel, etc. 
 
 Preparations of salts ; see Salts, Epsom, etc. 
 
 Preserved salmon ; see Salmon, preserved . 
 
 Printed books, magazines, etc. ; see Books, 
 printed 
 
 Prunes 
 
 Prussian blue 
 
 Prussiate of potash ; see Chromate, etc 
 
 Pulp, dried ; see Dried Pulp 
 
 Pumice 
 
 Pumice-stone 
 
 Pumpkins 
 
 Pnfty 
 
 Pyroligneoos acid ; see Acids, acetic, etc. . . 
 
 Quicksilver 
 
 Qnilla bark ; sea Bark, Quilla 
 
 Quills 
 
 Quinine, sulphate of; see Sulphate 
 
 Bags, of whatever material, except wool. . . 
 
 HalBins 
 
 Kape-seed ; see Hemp-seed 
 
 Bape-seed oil ; see Hemp-seed, etc., Oil. . . 
 
 Batafia; see Cordials 
 
 Katans and reeds, unmanufactured 
 
 Raw silk; see Silks, raw, not more ad- 
 vanced, etc 
 
 Eaw silk ; see Silk, raw, or as reeled from 
 the cocoon, etc , 
 
 Raw hides ani skins of all kinds 
 
 Red-chalk pencils 
 
 Red-chalk 
 
 Red-lead ; see White and Red Lead 
 
 Reeds, unmanufactured ; see Batans, etc. . . 
 
 Regulus of Antimony; see Antimony, etc. 
 
 Rhubarb 
 
 Rice or paddy 
 
 Rifles ; see Muskets 
 
 Free. 
 ' 5 
 
 30 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 10 
 80 
 
 30 
 
 80 
 20 
 80 
 10 
 80 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 10 
 
 B 
 20 
 
 20 
 30 
 
 40 
 20 
 20 
 
 15 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 40 
 
 25 
 20 
 30 
 
 10 
 40 
 20 
 20 
 20 
 10 
 10 
 20 
 20 
 20 
 20 
 16 
 20 
 20 
 5 
 40 
 10 
 20 
 100 
 10 
 
 15 ^ 
 6 
 SO 
 20 
 20 
 10 
 
 30 
 
TAB 
 
 Ukitbd States' Tariffs — Contimied. 
 
 1816 TAR 
 
 UmTEO States' Tabiffs— CimKnKed. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 1846. 
 
 1857. 
 
 Ringlets of hair ; see Bracelets 
 
 Per Cent. 
 30 
 30 
 20 
 20 
 20 
 20 
 25 
 20 
 20 
 20 
 '20 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 40 
 20 
 10 
 10 
 20 
 
 80 
 10 
 
 10 
 30 
 20 
 
 30 
 20 
 5 
 20 
 20 
 30 
 10 
 30 
 
 20 
 20 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 20 
 40 
 20 
 
 40 
 20 
 
 30 
 30 
 30 
 
 40 
 20 
 30 
 
 Free. 
 30 
 .25 
 
 20 
 Free. 
 
 10 
 6 
 
 40 
 10 
 20 
 30 
 20 
 20 
 15 
 20 
 
 Free. 
 
 Free. 
 Free. 
 
 80 
 
 30 
 20 
 
 10 
 20 
 
 Per Cent. 
 24 
 
 
 24 
 
 Rods, copper ; see Copper Bods, etc 
 
 16 
 16 
 
 Roman vitriol ; see Blue or Roman Vitriol 
 Roman cement 
 
 15 
 15 
 
 
 
 Roofing tileu ; see Paving and Roofing^ etc. 
 Root, iris or orris ; aee Iris or Orris Root, . 
 Root, licorice ; see Licorice Paste, etc. .... 
 Roots, medicinal ; see MediciTial Vrugs^ etc. 
 
 . 15 
 16 
 15 
 15 
 
 Roots used exclusively in dyeing ; see Ber- 
 
 Free. 
 
 30 
 
 8 
 g 
 
 Rose-wood, manufactures of ; see Manv/ac- 
 
 Rose-wood, unmanufactured ; see Woods . . 
 Rotten-stone 
 
 
 
 Rough marble ; see Marble in the rough. . , 
 Rubies and imitations, wlien set ; see IHa- 
 
 15 
 
 24 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 Rubiee, not set ; see Cameos,' etc., not set . 
 Rubies, imitations thereof, not set ; see Dia- 
 monds, etc., imiidtions thereof^ 7iot set. . 
 
 
 15 
 
 Saddlery of all kinds, not otherwise pro- 
 
 Saddlery, common tinned or japanned .... 
 Safflower 
 
 IS 
 Free. 
 15 
 15 
 24 
 8 
 24 
 
 
 S^o ', i . 
 
 SaUd oil ; see Olive Salad Oil 
 
 
 
 Sal Boda, and all carbonates of soda by 
 ■whatever name designated, not otherwise 
 
 Salted fish j see Fish, foreign, etc 
 
 Saltpetre, or nitrate of soda or potash, when 
 
 15 
 
 8 
 4 
 
 Saltpetre, or nitrate of soda or potash, when 
 crude. . . , , i 
 
 Salts, Epsqna, Glauber, Rochelle, and all 
 other salts and preparations of salts, not 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 Sareaparilla , 
 
 15 
 
 Satin-wood, manufactures of; see Manu- 
 
 30 
 
 8 
 
 24 
 24 
 24 
 
 30 
 
 Satin-wood, unmanufactured ; see Woods. . 
 Satin straw hats, bonnets, etc. ; see Hats, 
 
 
 
 Scagliola tops for tables, or other articles of 
 
 
 18 
 24 
 
 Scrap iron ; see Iron, old' or s<n-ap 
 
 Sculpture, specimeuB of; see Philosophical 
 
 
 24 
 
 
 19 
 15 
 
 Sea-weed for beds, mattresses, etc. ; see 
 
 
 Free. 
 
 Seeds, hemp-eeed, rape-seed j see Ilemp- 
 
 
 4 
 
 Segars, snuSf, paper segara, and all other 
 
 80 
 
 
 8 
 15 
 
 Sewing silk, in the gum or jurifled 
 
 Sewing needles ; see Needles of all hinds . . 
 
 24 
 16 
 
 8 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 15 
 
 Sheathing copper, hut no copper to he con- 
 sidered such, and admitted free, except 
 in sheets of forty-eight inches long and 
 fourteen inches wide, and weighing from 
 fourteen to thirty-foiu: ounces tlie square 
 foot . 
 
 Free. 
 
 Sheatliing metal, not wholly or in part of 
 
 
 Sheathing felt ; see Fell, adhesive, etc. , . , 
 
 Sheep's wool, on certain conditions ; see 
 
 Wool 
 
 Free. 
 
 Sheets, silver-plated, metal; see Silwr- 
 
 24 
 
 Sheets, copper ; see Copper in Sheets ..... 
 
 Sheets, Inilia rubber; see India Rubber, 
 
 etc 
 
 15 
 4 
 
 Sheets,lead ; see Lead in Pigs, etc 
 
 15 
 
 Sheets, tin; see Tin in Plates or Sh".ets. 
 
 Sheets, zinc, spelter, or Wutenegue ; see 
 Zinc, etc 
 
 Shell, manufactures of; see Manufactures 
 of Bone, etc 
 
 Shells of cocoa ; see Cocoa Shdla 
 
 Shell boxes ; see Card-cases, etc 
 
 Shells, unmanufactured ; see Tortoise and 
 oOwr Shells 
 
 Shellac 
 
 Sherry ; see Wines 
 
 Shingle bolts and stave bolts 
 
 Shirts made on frames ; see Caps, Gloves, 
 etc 
 
 Shirts made on frames, if wholly of cotton ; 
 see Caps, Gloves, etc 
 
 — when bleached, printed, painted, or dyed 
 
 Shoes composed wholly of India rubber , . , 
 
 Shoddy ; see Waste, or Shoddy 
 
 Shot, leaden ; see Leaden Slwt 
 
 Shnibs ; see Trees, Shrubs,, etc , 
 
 Side arms of every description 
 
 Singles, silk ; see Silk, raw,, not more ad- 
 vanced, etc 
 
 Silk, manufactures of, if embroidered ; see 
 Manufactures of Cotton, Linen, SUk, etc. 
 
 Silk twist, and twipt composed of mohair 
 and silk 
 
 Silk, sewing, purified ; see Sexving Silk . . . 
 
 Silk, sewing, in the gum ; see Sevdng Silk 
 
 Silks, floss ; see Floss Silks '. 
 
 Silk, manufactures of; see Manufactures 
 of Silk 
 
 Silk and cotton hatters' plush ; see Hatters' 
 Plush 
 
 Silk and cotton velvet in the piece, cotton 
 chief value ; see Velvet com2Wsed of Cot- 
 ton and Silk 
 
 Silk, raw, not more advanced in manufac- 
 ture thau singles, tram, and thrown, or 
 organzine 
 
 Silk, raw, or as reeled from the cocoon, not 
 being doubled, twisted, or advanced in 
 manufacture in any way '. 
 
 Silk twist, suitable for the manufacture ex- 
 clusively of shoes, cut in slips or patterns 
 of the size and shape for shoes, boots, 
 bootees, or buttons, slippers, and gaiters, 
 not combined with , India, rubber ; see 
 Manufactures of Mohair Cloth, etc 
 
 Silver embroideries ; see Articles embroid- 
 ered, etc 
 
 Silver, manufactures of ; see Manufactures 
 of Brass, etc. 
 
 Silver-plated metal, in sheets or other form 
 
 Silver leaf; see Gold and Silver Leaf. 
 
 Silver coin ; see Coirm 
 
 Sisal grass ; see Jut£, etc 
 
 Skins, fish ; see Fish Skins 
 
 Skins, furs dressed on ; see Furs dressed on 
 Skin 
 
 Skins, gold-beaters' ; see Gold-beaters'' Skins 
 
 Skins of all kinds, japanned 
 
 Skins, tanned and dressed, of all kinds. . . . 
 
 Skins, raw, of all kinds ; see Raw Hides 
 and Skins, etc 
 
 Skins of all kinds, not otherwise provided 
 for 
 
 Slabs, iron ; see Iron in Bars, etc 
 
 Slabs, marble ; see Marble in the rough 
 
 Slabs of India rubber, unmanufactured . . . 
 
 Slates, roofing ; see Roofing Slates 
 
 Slates other than roofing ; see Roofing 
 Slates, etc 
 
 Slate pencils 
 
 Smalts 
 
 Smoked fish ; see Fish, foreign, etc 
 
 Snviflf; see Segars, Snuf, etc 
 
 Soap, Castile, perfumed, Windsor, and all 
 other kinds 
 
 Soap stocks and stuffs ; see Tallow 
 
 Socks made on frames ; see Caps, Gloves, 
 etc , 
 
 Socks made on frames,, wholly of cotton ; 
 see Caps, Gloves, etc,, made on frames, 
 wholly of Cotton 
 
 —when bleached, printed, painted, or dyed 
 
 Soda, sal ; see Sal Soda 
 
 Soda, carbonates of ; see Sal Soda 
 
 Soda, nitrate of, refined, etc. ; see Saltpe- 
 tre, refined 
 
 Soda, nitrate of, when crude ; see Saltpetre, 
 crude ...,,... 
 
 Soda ash 
 
 Pole leather; see Leatlwr, tanned, etc. 
 
 Souvenirs ; aee Card-oases 
 
 Per Cent. 
 
 Per Cent 
 
 15 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 30 
 
 ^ 24 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 40 
 
 30 
 
 
 Free. 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 24 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 
 Free. 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 15 
 
 12 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 19 
 
 25 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 12 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 Free. 
 
 Free. 
 
 25 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 25 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 80 
 
 24 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 25 
 
 19 
 
 25 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 40 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 24 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 24 
 
 20 
 
 8 
 
 20 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
TAB 
 
 ■nuiTEK States' TABiTOs-t-OontfeMeJ. 
 
 1817 TAR 
 
 UstTBD States' Txv^iFFs^-Continued. 
 
 Spar ornaments; see Alabaster and Spar 
 
 Ornaments 
 
 Spars ; see SoardSy.PUm^^ etc *......, 
 
 Sparterre for hats, bonnets; etc. ; see FUxta^t 
 Braids, Sparterre^ etc 
 
 Spectacles, glasses for*; see Glasses or Peb- 
 bles for Spectacles'. , 
 
 Specimens of sculpture ; see Philosophical 
 Apparatus^ etc .....^.... 
 
 Specimens of natural history, mineralogy, 
 or botany 
 
 Spelter Id sheets ; see Zi'nc, SpeUer^ etc. . . 
 
 Spelter, unmanufactured; see Zinc^ Spel- 
 ter, etc. , unmanufactured 
 
 Spermaceti oil ; see Spermaceti, whale, and 
 other Oil^, of American fishery 
 
 Spermaceti oil, foreign ; see pfedts-foot, etc. 
 
 SpEirmacetl candles and tapers 
 
 Spices of all kinds 
 
 Spikes, copper ; see Copper Mods,' etc. 
 
 Spirits distilled from grain ; see Brandy. . . 
 
 Spirituous beverages ; see Cordials '. ^ 
 
 Spirits, lac ; see Lac Spirits 
 
 Spirits of turpentine , . . . 
 
 Sponges .,[. -'. 
 
 Spunk 
 
 Squills .,. 
 
 Stained glass ; see Glass, colored, stained. 
 
 Starch 
 
 Stars of gold or silver ; see Fpauleta , 
 
 Statuary ; see Paintings and Staiitary. . . 
 
 Staves ; see Boards, Planks, etc. ......... 
 
 Stave bolts ; see Shingle and Stave Bolts. 
 
 Stearin candles and, tapers 
 
 Steel, not otherwise provided for 
 
 Steel, in bars, cast, shear, or German 
 
 Stereotype plates. 
 
 Sticks for walking ; see Canes, etc 
 
 Sticks for umbrellas ; see Frames arid Sticks 
 for Umbrellas, etc 
 
 StlU-bottoms 
 
 Stockings made on frames; see Caps, 
 ,G.U}ve8, etc, made on Frdniei 
 
 Stockings, -wholly of cotton, made on 
 frames; pee Caps, Bonnets, etc., wholly 
 of Cotton, made on Frames ,",,. . . , 
 
 Stockings, when bleached, printed, painted, 
 or dyed 
 
 Stones, precipus, when set ; see Dktmonds, 
 etc. , when set 
 
 Stones, precious, when not set; see Cam- 
 eos, etc, not set 
 
 Stones, precious, imitations thereof, not 
 set; see Diamonds, etc, imitations qf, 
 not set , 
 
 Stones, paving ; see Paving Stones 
 
 Stones, building; see BuiWing Stones 
 
 Stones, burr, unmanufactured ; see Burr 
 Stones '. 
 
 Stone-ware ; see Earthen, China, and Stone- 
 ware 
 
 Stones, polishing ; see Polishing Stones. . . 
 
 Stone, pumice ; see Pumice'Stor.e 
 
 Stone, rotten ; see Rotten-stone 
 
 Stra,w baskets ; see Baskets compost of 
 Grass, Straw, etc t 
 
 Straw hats and bonnets; see Rata and 
 Sonnets composed of Straw, etc 
 
 Strings of ivhipgut or catgut for; musical 
 ins&uments ; see Musical Instnmi&nts. . 
 
 Strings, all other, of the same material ; 
 s6e Miisical Instruments 
 
 Snbattinces expressly used for manures . 
 
 Substitute, gums or burned starch ; see Gum 
 Ai-aoiv , 
 
 Sugar of all kinds 
 
 Sugar, sirup of; see Sirup of Sugar 
 
 Sulphate of lime, unground ; see Plaster of 
 Paris , 
 
 Sulphate of copper ; see Blue or Boman 
 Vitriol 
 
 Sulphate of iron ; see, CojrperoA. \,, 
 
 Sulphate of barytes, ci'ude or refined. 
 
 Sulphate of quidine 
 
 Sulphate of zinc ; see White Vitriol 
 
 Sulphuric acid, or oil of vitriol ..j..,, 
 
 Sulphur, flour of ; see Flour of Sulphur. . 
 
 Sulphur, lac ; see Lac Sulphur 
 
 Sumac , 
 
 Snn-ishadBS ; see Pay-asols and Sun-shades. 
 
 Sun-shades, frames and sticks for; see 
 Frames and Sticka for Parasols 
 
 Suspenders, wholly or In part of India rub- 
 ber ; see Brads , 
 
 Sweetmeats ; see Comfits. 
 
 40 
 20 
 
 30 
 30 
 
 Free. 
 
 Free. 
 15 
 
 20 
 40 
 20 
 
 ioo 
 
 100 
 20. 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 Free., 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 15 
 
 30 
 
 10 
 '26 
 10 
 
 30 
 10 
 10 
 10 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 10 
 80 
 30 
 
 20 
 10 
 20 
 20 
 5 
 30 
 
 30 
 40 
 
 30 
 15 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 Free. 
 
 Free. 
 12 
 
 Free. 
 15 
 15 
 
 4 
 15 
 30 
 30 
 • 4 
 15 
 
 8 
 16 
 15 
 
 24 
 15 
 24 
 
 Free. 
 15 
 
 Free. 
 15 
 15 
 12 
 15 
 
 24 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 24 
 4 
 
 8 
 15 
 
 8 
 
 24 
 15 
 
 24 
 
 Free, 
 
 15 
 15 
 15 
 15 
 15 
 4 
 15 
 4 
 4 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 80 
 
 Sirup of sugar 
 
 Tallow candles 
 
 Tallow, marrow, and. all othej* grease and 
 soap stocks and soap stuflfs. Hot otherwise 
 provided for 
 
 Tanned leather ; see Leather, tanned 
 
 Tanned and dtessed skins ; see Skins, taniied 
 and dressed i. 
 
 Tanning, articles used in, not in a crude 
 state, not otherwise provided for ; see 
 Articles used in Dyeing, or Tanning 
 
 Tapers, spermaceti ; see Spermaceti Can- 
 nes and Tapers 
 
 Tapers, steai'ln ; see Stearin Candles and 
 Tapers 
 
 Tapers, wax ; see Wax Candles and Tapers 
 
 Tapioca, 
 
 Tar. 
 
 Tartaric acid,; see Adds, acetic 
 
 Tartar, cream of ; see Cream of Tartar . . 
 
 Tartar, crude ; see Argols ,. ; . 
 
 Tassels of gold, silver, or other metal.; see 
 
 Epaulets 
 
 Tea from place of produotion ; see Coffee 
 
 and Tea 
 
 Teeth, unmanufactured ; see Horns, etc. . . 
 
 Teme tin, in plates or Sheets 
 
 Terra japonica, catechu, or cutch 
 
 Teutenegue' in sheets ; see Zinc, Spelter, 
 
 and Teutenegue, in Sheets.. 
 
 Teutenegue,;. unmanufactured.;, see . Zinc, 
 
 etc, unmanufoct/wred j.. ...... .. 
 
 Thibet goats' hair, unmanufactured:; see 
 
 Ar^ora, Thibet, etc. , 
 
 Thread lacings and Insertings 
 
 Thrown silk ; see Silk, raw, not m^re ad- 
 vanced, etc 
 
 Tiles, marble paving; see Manufactita-ee 
 
 X(f Marble 
 
 Tiles, roofing or paving;- see Paving and 
 
 Roofing Tiles 
 
 Timber, hewn and sawed ; see Boards, 
 
 Planks, etc 
 
 Timber to be used in building. whaivea ; see 
 
 Boards, Planks, etc., 
 
 Tin, manufactures of; see Manufactures 
 
 of Brass, etc '. 
 
 Tin in plates or aheetai. galvanized or un. 
 
 galvanized. 
 
 Tin in pigs, bars, or blocks 
 
 Tinned saddlery; see Saddlery, common. . 
 
 Tincal ; see Borax, crude 
 
 Tinctures ; see Balsams. * . , 
 
 Tippets of fur ; see Caps, etc, of Fur 
 
 Tobacco, manufactures of ; see Segars .... 
 
 Tobacco, unmanufactured 
 
 Tortoise and other shells, unmanufactured 
 
 Tow of hemp or flax ; see Codilla 
 
 Toys ; see Dolls 
 
 Tragacanth, gum; see. Gum Arabic, etc.. 
 Tram, silk ; see Silks, raw, not more ad- 
 vanced, etc 
 
 Trees, shrubs, bulbs, plants, and roots, not 
 
 otherwife provided for 
 
 Tresses, gold, silver, or other metal ; see 
 
 Per Cent. 
 3U 
 20 
 
 10 
 20 
 
 Trimmings, cotton ; see Cotton Laces 
 
 Tumblers, glass ; see Glass Tumblers 
 
 Turkey carpeting ; see 'Cairpets 
 
 Turmeric 
 
 Turpentine, spirits of; see Spirits of Tur- 
 pentine f ", 
 
 Turtle, green ; see Green Turtle 
 
 Twines and pack-thread, of whatever mate- 
 rials composed .....: ■,. 
 
 Twist, silk, or silk and mohair; see .S't7/c 
 Twist 
 
 Type metal 
 
 Types, new or old ; 
 
 Umbrellas : 
 
 Umbrellaf frames and sticks ; see Frames. . 
 
 Upper leather 
 
 Vanilla beans 
 
 Vegetable ivory, manufactured ; see Man- 
 ufactures of Bone, etc: 
 
 Vegetable ivory, or, ivory nuts ; see Jv. A'xiis 
 
 Vegetables, prepared ; see Prepared Vege- 
 tables 
 
 Vegetable substances used in making hats 
 and bonnets ; see Bats and Bonnets 
 
 Vegetable substances, unmanufactured 
 see Jute 
 
 Vegetables not otherwise provided for ; see 
 Berries, Vegetables 
 
 Vegetable substances used for beds and 
 mattresses ; see Hair, curled .-. 
 
 20 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 6 
 
 30 
 
 Free. 
 5 
 15 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 15 
 
 30 
 20 
 20 
 20 
 
 20 
 25 
 30 
 30 
 40 
 31 
 5 
 15 
 
 30 
 25 
 30 
 30 
 5 
 
 30 
 20 
 20 
 30 
 30 
 20 
 
 40 
 30 
 25 
 20 ' 
 
TAR 
 
 United States' Taeiffs— ConWnwfid. 
 
 1818 TAS 
 
 United States* Tahibts — Continued. 
 
 ___^ Articles. 
 
 Vegetables used exclusively in dyeing ; see 
 Berries, Nuts 
 
 Vellum 
 
 Velvet in the piece, composed wholly of 
 cotton 
 
 Velvet, when bleached, printed, painted, or 
 dyed 
 
 Velvet in the piece, composed of cotton and 
 silk, but of which cotton is the compo- 
 nent material of chief value 
 
 Venetian carpeting ; see Carpets 
 
 Verdigris 
 
 Vermicelli ; see Macaroni 
 
 Vermilion 
 
 Vessels of cast ii-on ; sec l7-on, cast, etc. . . . 
 
 Vessels of metal; see Manufactures of 
 Brass, etc 
 
 Vessels of glass ; see Manv/actures of Glass 
 
 Vinegar 
 
 Vitriol, green ; see Copperas 
 
 Vitriol, white; see Wliite Vitriol, or Sul- 
 phate of Zinc ■'...... 
 
 Vitriol, oil of; see Sulphuric Add 
 
 Volatile oil ; see Oils, volatile, etc j,, 
 
 "Wafers 
 
 Wares composed of earthy and mineral 
 substances; not otherwise provided for ; 
 see Earthen^ etc 
 
 Wares, japanned ; see Japanned Wares. . . 
 
 Wares of metal; see Manufactures of 
 Brass, etc ....;.' ■- 
 
 Wares of glass ; see Manufactures of Glass 
 
 Wares of papier-mach6 ;■ see MOnvfacturas 
 of Papier-mache 
 
 Wares, plated and gilt; see Plated and 
 Gilt Wares 
 
 Waste, or shoddy 
 
 Watches, crystals for ; see Glass Gri/stals 
 for WatcTies 
 
 Watches and parts of watches 
 
 Watch materials and unfinished parts of 
 watches 
 
 Waters, mineral ; see Mineral Waters 
 
 Water colors 
 
 Wax beads ; see Beads 
 
 Wax, sealing ; see Sealing-wax 
 
 Wax, bees' ; see Beeswax 
 
 Wax candles and tapera 
 
 Wearing apparel ; see Clothing, ready-made 
 
 Wearing apparel in actual use, and other 
 personal effects not merchandise, profes- 
 sional books, implements, instruments, 
 and tools of trade, occupation, or em- 
 ployment, of persons arriving in the U. 
 States, provided that this exemption shall 
 not be construed to include machinery or 
 other articles imported for use in any 
 manufacturing establishment, or for sale 
 
 Webbing, composed wholly or in part of 
 India rubber ; see Braces 
 
 Weld 
 
 Whalebone baskets ; see Baskets 
 
 Whalebone, the produce of foreign fisheries 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 20 
 80 
 
 30 
 30 
 30 
 20 
 
 20 
 10 
 30 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 30 
 
 30 
 5 
 
 30 
 10 
 
 10 
 30 
 30 
 30 
 30 
 20 
 20 
 30 
 
 Free. 
 24 
 
 15 
 
 24 
 
 15 
 24 
 15 
 24 
 15 
 
 24 
 24 
 15 
 
 12 
 
 4 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 4 
 
 4 
 24 
 24 
 24 
 24 
 15 
 15 
 24 
 
 30 . 
 
 24 
 
 5 
 
 Free. 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 Articles. 
 
 Whalebone hata and bonnets ; see Hats and 
 Bonnets 
 
 Whale oil, foreign ; see Oils, NeaVs-foot, etc. 
 
 Whale oil of American fisheries ; see Oils^ 
 spermaceti, etc ; 
 
 Wheat and wheat flour 
 
 White acid ; see Aci.ds, acetic, etc. 
 
 White and red leaS. '..' 
 
 White, Paris ;"8ee' Whiting, or- Paris White 
 
 White vitriol, or suljjhdtfe of zinc 
 
 Whiting, OT Paris, white 
 
 Willow baskets ; see Baskets 
 
 Willow hats and bonnets ; see Hats and 
 Bonnets of Straw, etc. !. . . 
 
 Willow squares for hats and bonnets ; sec 
 Flats ; :.: 
 
 Willow prepared for basket-makers' use; 
 see Osier and Willow 
 
 Wilton carpeting ; see Carpets 
 
 Window glass, broad, crown, or cylinder. . 
 
 Windsor soap ; see Soap 
 
 Wines, Burgundy, Champagne, claret, Ma- 
 deira, port, sherry, and all other wines 
 aiid imitations of wines 
 
 Wings of gold, silver, metal ; see Epaulets 
 
 Wo'ad or pastel. -. 
 
 Wdod, manufactures of: see Manztfactures 
 of Wood 
 
 Wood, unnianufactured, not otherwise pro- 
 vided for 
 
 Wood, fire ;' see Fire-wood 
 
 Woods, cedar, granadilla, ebony, mahoga- 
 ny, rose -wood, and satin-wood, when 
 manufactured .' 
 
 Woods, namely, cedar, box, ebony, lignum 
 vitse, granadilla, mahogany, rose-wood, 
 satin-woodj and all other cabinet woods, 
 unmanufactured 
 
 Woods, dye, extracts or decoctions of; see 
 Extracts and Decoctions 
 
 Woods, dye ; see Brazil-wood, and all other 
 Dye-woods in Sticks 
 
 Wool, manufactures of; see Manvfa^tures 
 of Wool, etc ■ 
 
 Wool, unmanufactured, not otherwise pro- 
 vided for 
 
 Wool costing 20 cents or less per pound . . , 
 
 Woolen and worsted yarn 
 
 Wool hats ; see Hats of Wool 
 
 Wool hat bodies ; see Hat Bodies of Wool. 
 
 Woolen listings 
 
 Worsted manufactures ; see Manufactures 
 of Worsted 
 
 Works, foreign, in course of republication ; 
 see Periodicals 
 
 Yams 
 
 Yarn, woolen and worsted ; see Woolen and 
 Worsted Yam - 
 
 Yellow acid ; see Adds, acetic, etc. 
 
 Zinc, sulphate of; see White Vitriol 
 
 Zinc, spelter or teutenegue, in sheets 
 
 Zinc, spelter, or teutenegue, unmanufac- 
 tured 
 
 Per Cent. 
 
 Per Cent 
 
 30 
 
 ■24 
 
 20 
 
 IS 
 
 Free. 
 
 I'-reo. 
 
 20 
 
 IS 
 
 20 
 
 4 
 
 20 
 
 IS 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 SO 
 
 24 
 
 SO 
 
 24 
 
 SO 
 
 24 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 40 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 10 
 
 ■4 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 SO 
 
 24 
 
 SO 
 
 24 
 
 40 
 
 30 
 
 20 
 
 8 
 
 20 
 
 4 
 
 30 
 30 
 25 
 
 20 
 20 
 
 25 
 20 
 20 
 15 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 Free. 
 19 
 15 
 15 
 15 
 
 19 
 
 15 
 15 
 
 19 
 
 4 
 
 15 
 
 12 
 
 — ^For discussions on Protective Tariff, see North Amer- 
 ican Jieview, xi. 223 (E. Everett), xxx, 160, xxxii. 
 127 (A. H. Evbkett), xxxv. 266, Ixxiii. 90 (Bowen) ; 
 American Whiff Heview, ii. iii. (Greeley), iv. 215, 410, 
 iii. 335, V. 313 ; Edinburgh Review, Ixxii. 221 ; Dema- 
 cratic Review, vii. 341, ix. 329, x. 357, xiv. 291, 447 ; 
 American Quarterly Review, x. 444, xi. 345 ; Southern 
 Quarterly Reriew, ii. 582, vi. 206, viix. 213; Niles's 
 Reg., vols, xvii., xix., xx., xxi., xxii., xxiii., xxiv. ; 
 Southern Literary Messenger, viii. 421. The speeches 
 of Mr. Clay, Mr. Adams, and other statesmen, may be 
 found in the volumes of Niles's Register. 
 
 Tarpanling, a broad piece of canvas well daubed 
 ■with tar, and used to cover the hatchways of a ship at 
 sea, to prevent the penetration of the rain or sea-water 
 which may at times rush over the decks. 
 
 Tartar (Gr. raprapo^, infernal; because it is the 
 sediment or dregs of ivine), the substance which con- 
 cretes upon the inside of wine-casks. It is called red 
 and white argol, according to the wina from which it 
 is obtained. When puriiied it is often called cream of 
 tartar : it is a bitartrate of potash. — See Argal. 
 
 Tasnian, Abel Jansen. Historj' is silent in re- 
 gard to the early days of this navigator and geograph- 
 
 ical discoverer. He was a Hollander by birth, and 
 appointed by the Dutch East India Company to the 
 command of three vessels which thej- had fitted out at 
 Batavia for the discover}' of new countries and a more 
 extended commercial power. Tasman sailed Septem- 
 ber 5, 1642, and the first-fruits of his enterprise was 
 the discovery of that part of New Holland called Van 
 Diemen's Land, which the navigators made on 24th 
 November. Earlj' in December they set out again, 
 and on the 13th they first saw the islands of New Zea- 
 land, on which the natives successfully opposed hia 
 landing. After visiting several Islands in the South 
 Sea, some of which were previouslj' unknown, he re- 
 turned to Batavia, June 15th, 1643, having sailed round 
 the southern hemisphere of the globe. The short- 
 sighted policy of the Dutch East India Company pre- 
 vented the publication of any account of this voyage, 
 but a map or chart of the discoveries of Tasman was 
 preserved at the Stadt House at Amsterdam, and some 
 years after Dirk Rembrandts published an extract from 
 the journal of this enterprising seaman, of which later 
 geographical writers have been content to avail them- 
 selves. In 1856 a proposition was made in England 
 to restore to the whole district hitherto (but unjustly) 
 
TAT 
 
 1819 
 
 TAX 
 
 known as Van Diemen's Land, the name of Tasmania, 
 in meritorious honor of its ^original discoverer. 
 
 Tatta, a town in the territory of Sinde, situated 
 about 60 miles in a direct line from the sea, at a short 
 distance from the western bank of the River Indus, 
 in lat. 24° 44' N., long. 68° 17' E. Population un- 
 certain, probably about 8000. The streets are nar- 
 row and dirty ; but the houses; though built of mud, 
 chopped straw, and timber,'are superior to the low huts 
 seen in the adjoining towns and villages. JJeing situ- 
 ated a little above the part where the Indus divides 
 into tlxe two great branches by which its waters are 
 poured into tlie Indian Ocean, it might be supposed 
 that Tatta would be a place of great trade. But, ow- 
 ing to the unwholesoraeness of the climate, the barbar- 
 ism of the tribes on its banks, and other causes, its 
 commerce has never corresponded with what might 
 have been anticipated, looking' at its position on- th^ 
 map. It had probably attained the acme of its pros- 
 perity in the beginning of the 16th century. In 1565 
 the Portuguese, by way, as they stated, of avenging 
 the treachery of the King of 'Sinde, inhumanly mas- 
 sacred 8000 of the inhabitants, and burned the town. 
 — COnqmtes des Portugais, tome iv. p. 183. It is prob- 
 able that Tatta never fully recovered from this dread- 
 ful blow; but Mr. Hamilton mentions that in the i7th 
 century it was extensive and populous, possessing 
 much conuneTce,<with manufactures of silk, wool, and 
 'Cabinet ware. The decayed state in which we now 
 iind it has been a consequence of the misgovemment 
 and rapacity of its present rulers, the Ameers of Sinde, 
 .under whose sway it fell more than 50 years ago. In 
 1635 the English established a factory at Tatta, in the 
 view of facilitating the disposal of woolens and other 
 goods in the countries traversed by the Indus.; and the 
 building occupied by the factor}'', :though far from mag- 
 nificent, was irecentiy, if it be not still, the best, not 
 in Tatta onlj', but in the whole country of Sinde. The 
 ichief exports are rice, shawls from Cashmere, opium 
 from Malwah, hides, ghee, cotton, goats' wool, carpets, 
 drugs,' etc. Putchock, an article largely consumed in 
 China, is a peculiar export of Sinde. The imports 
 comprise a variet)' of articles, but the quantities are 
 trifling : they consist principallj' of spices, dye-stuffs, 
 hardware, tin, iron, etc., broadcloths, English cottons, 
 silks, etc. But at present the trade is quite incon- 
 siderable ; and no one could believe, apriori, that the 
 natural emporium of so great a liver as the Indus, 
 traversing many extensive countries, would cut so in- 
 significant a figure in the trading world. 
 
 A very well-informed party. Dr. Buist, editor of the 
 Bombay Times, has, in his work on the late expedition 
 into Afghanistan, made the following observations on 
 the trade of the Indus : 
 
 I , f ' The glowingidescriptione of Bumes appear to have 
 given a very exaggerated idea of the value of the in- 
 ternal traffic of the countries beyond the Indus. It 
 was forgotten that where there was no industry, no 
 manufactures or mineral wealth, no sea-coast or rivers 
 
 to permit exportation, there could be little or nothing 
 to give in exchange for imports ; and that the wants 
 of a population purely nomade must at all, times be 
 simple and singularly, few. The whole of our com- 
 merce "with Persia has never exceeded two millions 
 sterling a year, rarely above one ; the total of our 
 trade with Afghanistan certainly never exceeded a 
 million annually, i and hast Very rarely amounted to 
 much more than the half of one. . Besides this, the 
 Indus in reality was nevenclosed save by its own dan7 
 gerous entrances and shallow depth of water. -Lord 
 EUenborough has opened the Indus as far as Mithen 
 Kote ;i and the Sutlej, in continuation of this, to the 
 Markunda, where it ceases to be navigable for the 
 sinallest craft. Yet the gross value of the British 
 goods consumed by the countries adjoining does not 
 at present amount to a quarter of a million sterling, 
 and win not, in all likelihood, be doubled for ten years 
 to come ; the expense of maintaining troops between 
 Knri'achee and Bukkur, both stations included, ex- 
 ceeding £600,000 a year ; with a less force it would be 
 unwise to think of keeping these stations at all. The 
 great line of traf^c was not along but across the Indus, 
 by the Delhi frontier, or parallel to it at a distance of 
 100 miles, by Sonmeanee and Kelat. The countries 
 beyond the Indus, besides, have alwaj's been open- to 
 the free admission of every variety of foreign imports 
 on paying a moderate fixed duty. The chief obstruc- 
 tion in reaching these is irremediable by treaty, and 
 arises from the attacks of the plundering tribes in the 
 passes.,1 which can not. be restrained save by the pay- 
 ment of a black mail or subsidj-." 
 
 The delta of the Indus has little in common with 
 the delta of the Nile, except its shape. : Not a fourth 
 part of it is cultivated, and its few inhabitants prin- 
 cipally lead a pastoral, life. It is overgrown with 
 tamarisks, and. other wild shrubs ; and though inter- 
 sected by the numerous mouths of the river, its surface 
 is dry and arid, being almost destitute of fresh water. 
 , . Tax (Welsh Tasg; Fr. Taxi.-, Du. Taxe), a rate or 
 duty laid by government on the income or property of 
 individuals ; an impost, a tribute, or an excise, accord- 
 ing to the method of collecting, or ,the property from 
 which collected. The first taxes levied; on the people 
 were by Solon, the first Athenian legislator, 540 B.C. 
 The first class of citizens paid an Attic talent of silver, 
 about £55 sterling. The next was by Darius, the son 
 of Hystaspes, which was a land-tax, by assessment, 
 and deemed so odious that his subjects styled him, by 
 way of derision, " Darius the Trader," 480 B.C. — 
 D'Eon's Historie des Finances. Taxes in specie were 
 first introduced in England by William I., 1067, and 
 he raised them arbitrarily ; yet subsidies in kind, as in 
 wool, corn, and other products of England, continued 
 till the accession of Richard II., 1377, — Hatdn. 
 
 The following table exhibits the several taxes of all 
 the states of which there are any returns, and shows 
 the aggregate of the. taxes of each state, and also of 
 the separate species of tax : 
 
 
 ASNDAI. Ta?er in tub Umited 
 
 States, 1850. 
 
 
 
 states. 
 
 state. 
 
 Coonty. . 
 
 Schpol, 
 
 Poor. 
 
 Rood. 
 
 All others. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 $428,690 
 67,947 
 68,616 
 29,2,707 
 ^2,463 
 381,911 
 779,163 
 77,313 
 
 114, 6S6 
 1,536,662 
 
 lfi,961 
 373,421 
 
 74,936 
 138,633 
 368,649 
 
 93,982 
 
 $202,960 
 1,101 
 23,690 
 156,061 
 449,616 
 141,705 
 436,993 
 84,854 
 190,685 
 
 144ii89 
 1,689,212 
 
 35,655 
 
 3,578 
 
 229,285 
 
 151,835 
 
 105 
 15,728 
 96,736 
 
 234,842 
 31,106 
 
 144,178 
 62,706 
 
 42^340 
 840,066 
 56,937 
 
 88,930 
 45,697 
 75,980 
 
 $2,'J04 
 
 80,444 
 
 li;d2T 
 54,833 
 
 103,747 
 7,461 
 
 150,746 
 54,531 
 
 66,'ili2 
 353,757 
 46,687 
 49,143 
 
 96,869 
 
 110,077 
 
 9,194 
 
 $8,000 
 30,117 
 
 ijsss 
 
 171,654 
 563,887 
 4,698 
 250,913 
 119,614 
 
 "660 
 816,867 
 29,077 
 20,817 
 
 247,801 
 20,309 
 72,103 
 
 $12,029 
 
 288,065 
 
 2,816 
 
 42,571 
 
 53,153 
 
 327,945 
 
 80,979 
 
 200,993 
 
 171,803 
 
 87,'906 
 847,8:)1 
 198,559 
 188,781 . 
 
 21,332 
 14');763 
 363,835 
 167,375, 
 
 $663,446 
 
 666,343 
 
 85,287 
 
 522,482 
 
 1,333,360 
 
 1,753,037 
 
 1,340,400 
 908,996 
 599,404 
 
 7,160,355 
 465,343 
 
 6,089,455 
 ■347,111 
 632,1^ , 
 131,313 
 719,414 
 
 1,126,862 
 .,, 670,469 
 
 
 Florida 
 
 
 
 Maine 
 
 Missidsispi 
 
 
 
 New Yort 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Rhode Man4 
 
 
 Texas .... 
 
 
 Virginia 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 Total, eighteen States. . , 
 
 .... 1 
 
 .... 1 .... . 
 
 • .... 1 .... 
 
 $25,055,129 
 
TEA 
 
 1820 
 
 TEA 
 
 Adam Smith laj-s down four general maxims upon 
 the subject of taxation, which are as follows : " 1. The 
 subjects of every state ought to contribute toward the 
 support of the government as nearly as possible in 
 proportion to their respective abilities ; that is, in pro- 
 portion to the revenue which they respectively enjoy 
 under the protection of the state. 2. The tax which 
 each individual is bound to pay ought to be certain, 
 and not arbitrary. The time of payment, the manner 
 of payment, the quantity to be paid, ought all to be 
 clear and plain to the contributor, and to everj' other 
 person. 3. Every tax ought to be levied at the time, 
 or in the manner most likely to be convenient for the 
 contributor to pay it. 4. Every tax ought to be so 
 contrived as both to talte out and keep out of the pock- 
 ets of the people as little as possible over and above 
 what it brings into the public treasurj' of the state." 
 
 The subject of taxation is ably discussed in the Edin^ 
 hurgh Review^ xxxiii. xc. ; Democratic Heviev}, xx.' ; 
 Quarterly Heview, xxxv. ; American Quarterly Register^ 
 viii. For farther articles, see De Bow's Review^ xiii. ; 
 Hunt's Merchants' Magazine, iv. ; Southern,' Review, 
 viii. ; North American Review, xix. (Du Ponceau) ; 
 Wesim. Review, xlvi., xli. 
 
 Tea'(in one Chinese dialect, Cha, in. another Te; 
 Du. Te; Fr. The; It. Te; Russ. Tchai ; Hind. Cha; 
 Malaj', Teh"), the leaves of the tree or shrub {Thea 
 viridis, Linn.). The tea-plant ordinarily grows to the 
 height of from three to six feet, and has a general re- 
 semblance to the myrtle, as the latter is seen in con- 
 genial situations in the southern countries of Europe. 
 It is a polyandrous plant, of the natural order Colum- 
 niferce, and has a white blossom, with yellow style and 
 anthers, not unlike those of a small dog-rose. The 
 stem is bushy, with numerous branches, and ver}- 
 leafy. The leaves are alternate, on short, thick, chan- 
 neled footstalks, evergreen, of a longish elliptic form, 
 with a blunt, notched point, and serrated except at the 
 base. These leaves are the valuable part of the plant. 
 The Camellias, particularly the Camellia sasanqua, of 
 the same natural family as the tea-tree, and very 
 closely resembling it, are the only plants liable to be 
 confounded with it by a careful observer. The leaves 
 of the particular camellia just named are, indeed, often 
 used in some parts of China as a substitute for those 
 of the tea-tree. The effects of tea on the human frame 
 are tliose of a very mild narcotic ; and, lilce those of 
 many other narcotics taken in small quantities — even 
 of opium itself — they are exhilarating. The green vari- 
 eties of the plant possess this quality in a higher de- 
 gree than the black ; and a stronger infusion of the 
 former will, in most constitutions, produce consider- 
 able excitement and wakefulness. Of all narcotics, 
 however, tea is the least pernicious ; if, indeed, it be 
 so in any degree, which we veiy much doubt. 
 
 The tea shrub may be described as a veiy hardy 
 evergreen, growing readily in the open air, from the 
 equator to the 45th degree of latitude. For the last 
 sixtj' years it has been reared in this countrj-, without 
 diiliculty, in green-houses ; and thriving plants of it are 
 to be seen in the gardens of Java, Singapore, Malacca, 
 and Penang; all within six degi'ees of the equator. 
 The climate most congenial to it, however, seems to be 
 that between the 25th and 23d degrees of latitude, judg- 
 ing from the success of its cultivation in China. For 
 the general purposes of commerce, the growth of good 
 tea is confined to China ; and is there restricted to five 
 provinces, or rather parts of provinces; viz., Fokien 
 and Canton, but more particularly the first, for black 
 tea; and Kiang-nan, Kiang-si, and Che-kiang, but 
 chiefly the first of these, for green. The tea districts 
 all lie between the latitudes just mentioned, and the 
 115th and 122d degrees of east longitude. However, 
 almost every province of China produces more or less 
 tea, but generally of an inferior quality, and for local 
 consumption only ; or when of a superior quality, like 
 some of the fine wines of France, losing its flavor when 
 
 exported. The plant is also extensively cultivated in 
 Japan, Tonquin, and Cochin-China ; and in some of 
 the mountainous parts of Ava ; the people of which 
 countrj' use it largely as a kind of piehle preserved in 
 oil! Botanically considered, the tea-tree is a single 
 species ; the green and black, with all the divefsities 
 of each, being mere varieties, like the varieties of the 
 grape, produced by difference of climate, soil, locality, 
 age of the crop when taken, and modes of preparation 
 for the market. Considered as an object of agricul- 
 tural produce, the tea-plant bears a close resemblance 
 to the vine. In the husbandry of China, it may be 
 said to take the same place which the vine occupies in 
 the southern countries of Europe. Like the latter, its 
 growth is chiefly confined to hilly tracts, not suited to 
 the growth of grain. The soils capable of producing 
 the finest kinds are within given districts, limited and 
 partial. Skill and care, both in husbandry and prep- 
 aration, are quite as necessary to the production of good 
 tea as to that of good wine. 
 
 Cultivation.- — The best wine is produced only in par- 
 ticular latitudes, as is the best tea ; although, perhaps, 
 the latter is not restricted to an equal degree. Only 
 the most civilized nations of Europe and America have 
 as yet succeeded in producing good wines ; which is 
 also the case in the East with tea ; for the agricultural 
 and manufacturing skill and industrj^ of the Chinese 
 are there unquestionably pre-eminent. These circum- 
 stances deserve to be attended to in estimating the 
 diSBculties which must be encountered in any attempt 
 to propagate the tea-plant in colonial or other posses- 
 sions. These diflBculties are obviously rerj- great, 
 and perhaps all but insuperable. Most of the at- 
 tempts hitherto made to raise it in foreign countries 
 were not, indeed, of a sort from which much was to be 
 expected. "Within the last few years, however, con- 
 siderable efforts have been made by the Dutch govern- 
 ment of Java to produce tea on the hills of that island ; 
 and having the assistance of Chinese cultivators from 
 Fokien, who form a considerable part of the emigrants 
 to Java, a degree of success has attended them, beyond 
 what might have been expected in sO warm a climate. 
 The Brazilians have made similar efforts ; having also, 
 with the assistance of Chinese laborers, attempted to 
 propagate the tea shrub near Eio de Janeiro; and a 
 small quantity of tolerably good tea has been produced. 
 But owing to the high price of labor, and the quantity 
 required in the cultivation and manipulation of tea, 
 there is no probability, even were the soil suitable to 
 the plant, that its culture can be profitably carried on 
 in that countrj'. It may, perhaps, succeed in Assam, 
 where its culture is now being attempted ; for labor is 
 there comparatively cheap, and the hilly and table- 
 lands are said to bear a close resemblance to those of 
 the tea districts of China ; but we are not sanguine in 
 our expectations as to the result. 
 
 Cultivation -of the Tea-plant in the United States. — 
 This plant, which has so long afforded a most grateful 
 beverage to millions of people in every civilized coun- 
 try of the globe, there is much reason to believe, may 
 be successfully cultivated in favorable situations and 
 under proper management, for local consumption, at 
 least, in most, if not all of our Southern States. This 
 was partially realized from an experiment made at 
 Greenville, in the mountainous parts of South Caro- 
 lina, by the late Junius Smith, in 1848 to 1852. He 
 imported several cases of black and green tea plants, 
 of Chinese stock, of from five to seven years' growth, 
 and planted them in the village above named, where 
 they remained about two years. On their removal to 
 a plantation in that vicinity, in March, 1851, Dr. Smith 
 stated that " they grew remarkably last summer, and 
 are now fully rooted, with fine large main and collate- 
 ral roots, •with an abundance of fibrous radicles. They 
 all stood the snow, eight or nine inches deep upbn the 
 levef on the 3d of January, and the severe frosts of 
 winter, without the slightest covering or protection. 
 
TEA 
 
 1821 
 
 TEA 
 
 and without the loss of a single plant. They are now 
 all forming part of the plantation, composed of those 
 received from China last June, and a few planted the 
 first week in June, which germinated the 17th of Sep- 
 tember. All these young plants were thinly covered 
 with straw. Some of them have lost their foliage ; 
 others have not. The stems do not appear to have 
 sustained any injury. The fresh buds are beginning 
 to shoot. I can not help thinking that we have now 
 demonstrated the adaptation of the tea-plant to the soil 
 and climate of this country, and succeeded in its per- 
 manent establishment within our borders." 
 
 .Considering the practical bearing this subject has 
 on the economy and agricultural interests of our South-; 
 em States, it is surprising that a single herb, which 
 has proved of such universal acceptance, should retain 
 this position in the world for qenturiesj and yet still 
 (;on,tinue to be restricted in its. production almost en- 
 tirely to the country of its origin, although correspond- 
 ing regions, with respect to platitude, elevation above 
 the sea, and other circumstances which modify the 
 climate, are open to its introduction and culture,' and 
 the most intelligent, as well as the most enterprising 
 merchants and others hav* ever sought to learn every 
 fact connected with its growth and subsequent prep- 
 aration. Though regarded, in general, as a luxury, 
 and by some even as food, yet it is not an article from 
 which the people of any country should be debarred. 
 On the contrary, it is the policy in this case, as well 
 as in most others, of everj' government to gratify the 
 iirishes of its people, and to facilitate the acquisition of 
 this luxury by its economical hnportation,. or, what 
 would be far more desirable, to extend the production 
 to its own soil. Eespecting the expediency of such a 
 measure in this country as that last named, little more 
 need be stated than that most of our citizens will have 
 it, and millions of dollars will annually be paid for its 
 imporijation. To the argument which has often been 
 advanced, that the verj' low rate of wages in China is 
 the reason why the production of tea has not been en- 
 couraged in this country, it may be stated that, with 
 improved machinery and other appliances, facility of 
 transportation, robust and well-fed laborers, and prob- 
 ably with the aid of the Chinamen now in California, 
 there can be little doubt that we can successfully com- 
 pete, at least for local consumption, with the primitive 
 utensils, tedious manipulations, and absence of rail- 
 roa.dS', canals, steam navigation, and even of common 
 roads, of the enfeebled and poorly-fed Asiatics. The, cost 
 of the transportation of tea in China, say at a distance, 
 upon an average, from the plantations to Canton, the 
 port of slijpraent, of 800 to 1000 miles, at a waste of from 
 six weeks' to two months' time, whole- cargoes being 
 constantly carried upon the backs of porters, is about 
 four cents a pound, or about one-third of its value at the 
 place of its growth. It is supposable that in no part 
 of the United- States, at a corresponding distance from 
 the searboard, would the cost qf carriage be equal to 
 one-fourth . of that sum, or occupy one-tenth of the 
 time. Or. Jameson, supefintendent of the tea planta- 
 tions of the East India Company, on the Himalayan 
 Mountains, in his report of 1847, remarks that the 
 task-work of one laborer is to dress, weed, and keep 
 in order three acres of tea land. . In our Middle and 
 Southern States one hand cultivates annually, , and. 
 keeps in order, six acres of cotton, or fifteen of Indian 
 corn. Therefore, assuming the amount of time for 
 cultivating the respective crops to be equal, the Amer- 
 ican laborer would perform more than double the 
 amount of work done by the Hindoo, which, undoubt- 
 edly, is about the difference in their physical force. 
 
 'The tea-plant is not only found in China and Japan, 
 chiefly in a cultivated state, but is indigenous in the 
 mountains which separate China from the Burmese 
 territories, especially in Upper Assam, bordering on 
 the province of Yun-nan. It is also cultivated in 
 Nepal, at an elevation of four thousand seven hundred 
 
 and eighty-four feet above Bengal, in latitude 27° 
 42' N. . , 
 
 Before proceeding in the inquiry, it would be desu:- 
 able to ascertain whether one or several species of the 
 genus Thea yield the several varieties of tea, as this 
 might explain some of the discrepancies in the accounts 
 respecting the soil and climate required for its cultiva- 
 tion, , Some authors, among whom are Mr. Fortune 
 and Dr. Lettsom, who traveled extensively in China, 
 and had ample opportunities for investigating thia sub- 
 ject,, consider t^at all the varieties of tea may be ob- 
 tained from. the same plant, and that the differences 
 are therefore due to the soil or climate, or to the age 
 of the leaf and the mode of xireparation. Others, on 
 th« contrary, are of the opinion that they are produced 
 from at least two distinct species, Thea viridis and 
 Thea, bohea. There is no doubt, however, that the 
 plants usually known as " Green" ani" Black," when 
 cultivated under similar circumstances, retain per- 
 manently their characteristics, and that their leaves, 
 respectively, generally resemble those obtained after 
 infusing good specimens of green and black tea. The 
 green-tea-plant;- moreover, is much more hardy than 
 the black ; one of the former having lived twenty 
 years in the open air, near London, and being only 
 killed in the very severe winter of 1837-38, when the 
 thermometer fell to 4|° F. Yet, from the great ex- 
 tent of territory over which the tea-plant is found, and 
 from the variety of situations in which it is produced, 
 there can be but little doubt that it is grown in very 
 different soils, though there are, doubtless, certain 
 physical conditions that are best suited to the produc- 
 tion of the finest-flavored teas. 
 
 The tea-plant loves to grow in valleys, at the foot 
 of mountains, and upon the banks of streams, where it 
 enjoj's a southern, exposure to the sun, though it en- 
 dures considerable variations of dryness and moisture, 
 and of heat and cold ; for it flourishes in the climate 
 of Pekin, in latitude 40°^ as well as about Canton, in 
 23° 8' N. ; and it is observed that the degree of cold 
 at the former place is nearly as severe in winter as it 
 is in some of our Middle States. The best tea, how- 
 ever, grows in a, mild, temperate climate, the country 
 about Nankin producing a better Article than either 
 Pekin or Canton; , Mr. Bruce, who traveled in Upper 
 Assam in 1836, describes the tea districts as consisting 
 of little mounds or hillocks of earth, oh which large 
 trees h^^ grown, their roots alone appearing to save 
 them from being washed away. One thing he ob- 
 serves 83 worthy . of notice, that all the Assam tea 
 grows near water, of which it appears to be very fond, 
 for wherever there is a small stream tea is sure to be 
 Ifound. He subsequently discovered, however, that 
 tea plantations in that country were very extensive, 
 both on the hills and in the plains. But excessive 
 moisture, either in the soil or in the air, is not con- 
 genial to the growth of the tea-plant, as it is evident 
 from its- preference for sandy or- porous soils, or the 
 moulds, in the moist climate of Assam, but which prob- 
 ably, would not be requisite where the climate ,is dry. 
 
 Mr. Fortune, who had frequent opportunities to in- 
 spect some of the most extensive tea districts of Can- 
 ton, Fqkein, and Chekiang, states that the soil of those 
 of the northern provinces is much richer than it is in 
 Quantung. " Tea shrubs," he says, "will not suc- 
 ceed well unless they have a rich sandy loam to grow 
 in. The continual gathering of their leaves is very 
 detrimental to their health, and, in fact, ultimately 
 kills them. Hence aprincipal object witli the grower 
 is to keep his bushes in as .robust health as possible ; 
 andtthis can not be done if the soil be poor. The tea 
 plantations in the north of China are always situated 
 on the lower and. most fertile sides of the hills, and 
 never on the low lands. The shrubs are planted in 
 rows, about four feet apart, and about the same dis- 
 tance between each row, and look at a distance like 
 little shrubberies of evergreens. The farms are small, 
 
TEA 
 
 1822 
 
 TEA 
 
 each consisting of from one to four or five acres ; in- 
 deed, every farmer has his own little tea garden,' the 
 produce of which supplies the wants of his family, and 
 the surplus brings him in a few dollars that are spent 
 on the other necessaries of life." In Japan, tea is 
 planted around the borders of fields, without regard to 
 situation or soil. 
 
 Species of Tea. — The tea-plants are raised from nuts, 
 or seeds, usually sown where they are to remain. 
 Three or more are dropped into a hole, and covered 
 with earth four lor five inches deep ; these come up 
 without any fiAther trouble, and require little culture, 
 except that of removing weeds. The leaves are not 
 collected from the cultivated plants until they are three 
 years old ; and, after growing nine or ten 3'ears, they 
 are cut down, in order that the young shoots, which 
 will then rise, may aiford a greater supply of leaves. 
 The best time to.gather the tea is while the leaves are 
 small, young, and juicy. The first gathering usually 
 commences at about the end of February, when the 
 leaves are young and unexpanded ; the second about 
 the beginning of April ; and the third in June. The 
 first collection, which only consists of fine tender leaves, 
 is most esteemed, and is called by us " Imperial" tea. 
 The second is denominated " Tootsjaa," or Chinese tea, 
 because it is infused and imbibed after the Chinese 
 manner. The last gatherings, which are the coarsest 
 and cheapest of all, are drunk by the people of the 
 lowest class. Besides the three kinds of tea named 
 above, it may be observed that, by sorting these, the 
 varieties become still further multiplied. The Chinese, 
 however, know nothing of " Imperial" tea, '* Flower" 
 tea, and manj' other names, which in Europe and 
 America serve to distinguish the quality and the price 
 of the article ; but, besides the common tea, they dis- 
 tinguish two other kinds, namely, the " Voui" and 
 "Soumlo," which are reserved for people of the first 
 order o'f society, and for those who are sick. The prin- 
 cipal varieties used in Europe and in this countrj- are 
 the "Green" tea, which is the "Bing," or common 
 tea of the Chinese, and is gathered in April ; the 
 "Voui," or " Vou-tche," a delicate kind of "Young 
 Hyson," which differs only from the other in being 
 gathered a few weeks earlier, and consists of the young 
 leaf-buds just as they begin to unfold ; and the various 
 descriptions of " Black" tea, which diminish in quality 
 and value as they are collected later in the season, until 
 they reach the lowest kind, called by us " Bohea," and 
 b}^ the Chinese " Ta-cha," or large tea, on account of 
 the maturity and size of the leaves. The early leaf- 
 buds, in spring, being covered with a white, silky 
 down, arc gathered to make " Pekoe," a corruption of 
 the Canton word Pw-ko^ white down. A few days' lat- 
 er growth produces what is sometimes styled " Black- 
 leaved Pekoe." The more fleshy and matured leaves 
 constitute " Souchong;" as they grow still larger and 
 coarser, they form " Congo;" and the last and latest 
 picking of all is the "Bohea." The variety -named 
 above, called " Voui, " is a scarce and expensive article, 
 and the picking of the leaves in so 3'oung a state does 
 considerable injury to the plantations. The summer 
 rains, however, which fall copiously about this season, 
 moisten the earth and air, and, if the plants are young 
 and vigorous, the}' soon push out fresh leaves. 
 
 The process of gathering tea is one of great nicety 
 and importance. Each leaf is plucked separately from 
 the twig ; the hands of the gatherer are kept clean ; 
 and in collecting some of the finer sorts, it has been 
 stated, upon credible authority, that he is obliged for 
 some weeks previous to abstain from all gross food, lest 
 his breath or perspiration might injure the flavor ; to 
 wear fine gloves while at work, and to bathe two or 
 three times a Aay during this period. In the general 
 harvest seasons, the natives are seen in little family 
 groups on the side of every hill, when the weather is 
 '^y\ engaged in gathering the tea leaves, which are 
 stiipped off rapidly and promiscuously into round 
 
 ba'sketS','made for the purpose, of split bamboo or rat- 
 an. When a sufficient quantity is gathered, it is car- 
 ried home to the cottage or bam, where the opera- 
 tion of drying is performed. The Chinese dislike 
 gathering the leaves on a rainy day for any descrip- 
 tion of tea, and never will do so unless necessity re- 
 quires it. Some even pretend to distinguish the teas 
 made on a rainy day from those made on a sunnj' day. 
 The process of rolling and drj'ing the leaves, it is stated, 
 can only be learned by actual experience ; j-et the sys- 
 tem adopted to attain this end is as simple as it is effi- 
 cacious. Let it be borne in mind, however, that the 
 grand object is to expel the moisture, and at the same 
 time to retain as much as possible of the aromatic and 
 other desirable secretions. 
 
 As to the differences of flavor and color peculiar to 
 the green and black teas, it is well known that, in 
 many instances, they are produced by art. In de- 
 scribing the green teas grown in the districts of Che- 
 kiang, Mr. Fortune remarks that " it must not be sup- 
 posed that they are the green teas which are exported. 
 The leaf has a much more natural color, and has little 
 or none of what we call the beautiful bloom upon it, 
 which is so much admired in Europe and America. 
 There is now no doubt that all these blooming green 
 teas, which are manufactured at Canton, are dyed with 
 Prussian blue and gypsum, to suit the tastes of the 
 ' foreign barbarians ! ' Indeed, the process maj' be 
 seen any day during the season by those who will give 
 themselves the trouble to seek after it. It is verj- 
 likely that the same ingredients are also used in dyeing 
 the northern green teas for the foreign market." The 
 Chinese, it is asserted, never use these dyed teas them- 
 selves ; and certainly their taste in this respect is more 
 correct than ours. It is not to be supposed that the 
 dye employed can produce any very bad effects upon 
 the consumer, for, had this been the case, it would have 
 long since been discovered. As to the opinion that 
 green ^ea owes its verdure to an inflorescence acquired 
 from plates of copper, on which it is supposed to be 
 curled or dried, there is no foundation for the suspicion, 
 as the infusions undergo no change on the addition of 
 volatile alkali, which would detect the minutest por- 
 tion of copper hy turning the liquors blue. And, be- 
 sides, the drj-ing pans and furnaces used throughout 
 China for this purpose are said to be invariably made 
 of sheet-iron. — Patent Office Report. 
 
 Adulteration of Tea. — It might have been anticipa- 
 ted, from the high price of and the high duties in some 
 countries on tea, and the facility with which it may 
 be mixed up witli foreign substances, that it would not 
 escape adulteration ; and the records of the courts of 
 justice show that this is the case, several dealers hav- 
 ing been convicted of this pernicious practice. The 
 adulteration is usually effected either hy the intermix- 
 ture of sloe or ash leaves with fresh teas, or by mixing 
 the latter with tea that has been already used. The 
 penalties on such offenses are not specific ; and the 
 best, or rather the only, security on which any reliance 
 can he placed, is to be found in the character and re- 
 spectability of the parties dealing in tea. Even were 
 he influenced by nothing else, it would be extreme 
 folly in any person carrying on an extensive business 
 to engage in such dishonest practices, for they can 
 hardly fail of being detected ; and the ruin of his busi- 
 ness that would follow such exposure would far more 
 than balance whatever gains he could hope to make 
 by his fraudulent schemes. 
 
 Tea Trade in China. — The tea merchants commonly 
 receive advances from the principal merchants and 
 other capitalists of Canton ; but, with this exception, 
 are altogether independent of them ; nor have the lat- 
 ter any exclusive privilege or claim of pre-emption. 
 They are very numerous; those connected with the 
 green-tea districts alone being about four hundred in 
 number. The black-tea merchants are less numerous, 
 but more wealthy. The greater part of the tea is 
 
TEA 
 
 1823 
 
 TEA 
 
 brought to Canton ty land carriage or inland naviga- 
 tion, biit chiefly by the first. It is conveyed by por- 
 ters ; the roads of China, in the sottthem provinces, not 
 generally admitting of wheel carriages, and beasts of 
 burden being very rare. A small quantity of black 
 tea is brought by sea, but probably smuggled ; for this 
 cheaper mode of transportation is discoinraged by gov- 
 ernment, which it deprives of the transit duties levied 
 on inland carriage. The length of land carriage from 
 the principal districts where the green teas are grown 
 to Canton is probably not less than 700 miles ; nor that 
 of the black tea, over a mountainous country, less than 
 200 miles. The tea merchants begin to arrive in Can- 
 ton about the middle of October, and the busy season 
 continues until the beginning of March ; being briskest 
 in November, Decembei-, and Januarj'. Tea, for the 
 most part, could, previously to the late changes, only 
 be bought from the hong or licensed merchants ; but 
 some of these, the least prosperous in their circum- 
 stances, were supported by wealthy outside merchants, 
 as they are called ; and thus the trade was consider- 
 ably extended. The prices in the Canton market vary 
 from year tb year with the crop, the stock on hand, and 
 the external demand, as in any other article and in ally 
 other matket. Aftef the season is over, or when the 
 westerly monsoon sets fn, during the month of March, 
 and impedes the regular intercourse of foreigners with 
 China, there is a fall in the price of tea, not only arising 
 from this circumstance, but from a certain depreciation 
 in quality, from the age of the tea; which, like most 
 
 other vegetable productions, is injured by keeping, par- 
 ticularly in a hot and damp climate. 
 
 There seems to be little mystery in the selection andf 
 purchase of teas ; for the business is both safely and 
 eflectively accomplished, not only by the supercargoes 
 of the American ships, but frequently by the masters ; 
 and it was ascertained by the sales at the East India 
 House, that there was no difference between the quali- 
 ties of the teas purchased by the commanders and of- 
 ficers of the company's ships, without assistance from 
 the ofiicers of the factory, and those purchased for the 
 company by the latter. An unusual degree of good 
 faith, indeed, appears to be observed on the part of the 
 Chinese merchants with respect to this commodity ; for 
 it was proved before the select committee of the House 
 of Commons, in 1830, that it was the regular practice 
 of the hong merchants to receive back, and return good 
 tea for, any chest or parcel upon which any fraud might 
 have have been practiced, which sometimes happens in 
 the conveyance of the teas from Canton on board ship. 
 Such restitution has occasionally been made, even at 
 the distance of ojie or two years. The company enjoy- 
 ed no advantage over other purchasers in the Canton 
 market except that which the largest purchaser has in 
 every market, viz:, a selection of the teas, on the pay- 
 ment of the same prices as others ; and this advantage- 
 they enjoyed only as respects the black teas, the Amer- 
 icans being the largest purchasers of green teas. 
 
 We herewith subjoin a table for calculating the cost 
 of tea : 
 
 Comparison op the Cost of Tea. per Picin. (ISSi-' xbs. Avoirdupois), avitu the Rate pee Pound, and Ton of 9 Cwt. 
 
 OE 1008 Pounds peb Ton. 
 
 Por 
 Picul. 
 
 Bxchauge 
 
 4t. per Dollar. 
 
 Exchange 4s. M. per Dol. 
 
 Exchange ia. id. per Dol. 
 
 Exchange 4*. Erf. per Dol. 
 
 Exchange 44. b'rf. per JIol. | 
 
 Por Lb. 
 
 Per Ton. 
 
 Por Pound. 
 
 Por Ton. - 
 
 Per Pound. 
 
 Por Ton. 
 
 Por Pound. 
 
 Per Ton. 
 
 Per Found. 
 
 Per Ton. 
 
 
 
 £ 1. d. 
 
 
 £ 1. d. 
 
 
 £ I. d. 
 
 Pence. 
 
 £ 1. d. 
 
 Pence. 
 
 £ ,. d. 
 
 20 — 
 
 10 
 
 42 0. 
 
 10-625 
 
 44 12 6 
 
 10-833 
 
 45 10 
 
 11042 
 
 46 7 6 
 
 11-250 
 
 47 5 
 
 21 — 
 
 lot 
 
 44 2 
 
 11-156 
 
 46 17 14 
 
 11-376 
 
 47 15 6 
 
 11-894 
 
 48 13 104- 
 
 11-313 
 
 49 12 3 
 
 22 — 
 
 11 
 
 46 4 
 
 11-687 
 
 49 1 9 
 
 12-916 
 
 50 1 
 
 12-146 
 
 61 3 
 
 12-375 
 
 51 19 
 
 23 — 
 
 114 
 
 43 6 
 
 12-219 
 
 61 6 4J 
 
 12-463 
 
 52 6 
 
 12-698 
 
 63 6 74 
 
 12-936 
 
 64 60 
 
 24 — 
 
 12 
 
 60 8 
 
 12-750 
 
 63 11 
 
 13-000 
 
 B4 12 
 
 13-250 
 
 55 13 
 
 13-500 
 
 66 14 
 
 26 — 
 
 124 
 
 . 62 10 
 
 13-281 
 
 55 16 74 
 
 13-541 
 
 86 17 6 
 
 13-802 
 
 57 19 4i 
 
 14-063 
 
 69 1 3 
 
 26 — 
 
 13 
 
 54 12 
 
 13 812 
 
 58 3 
 
 14-083 
 
 59 3 
 
 14-354 
 
 60 6 9 
 
 14-626 
 
 61 8 6 
 
 27- 
 
 134 
 
 66 14, 
 
 14-844 
 
 60 4 104 
 
 14-625 
 
 61 S 6 
 
 14-E06 
 
 62 12 H 
 
 16-188 
 
 63 15 9 
 
 28- 
 
 14 
 
 68 16 
 
 14-875 
 15-406 
 
 62 9 6 
 
 15-166 
 
 *3 14 
 
 16-488 
 
 64 18 6 
 
 15-760 
 
 66 8 
 
 29 — 
 
 144 
 
 60 18 
 
 04 14 14 
 
 15-708 
 
 65 19 6 
 
 16-010 
 
 67 4 10^ 
 
 16 313 
 
 68 10 3 
 
 SO — 
 
 16 
 
 63 
 
 16-937 
 
 66 18 9 
 
 16-250 
 
 68 6 
 
 16 562 
 
 69 11 3 
 
 16-375 
 
 70 17 6 
 
 31 — 
 
 r/ 
 
 65 2 
 
 16-469 
 
 69 3 44 
 
 16-791 
 
 70 10 6 
 
 17-114 
 
 71 17 74 
 
 17-438 
 
 73 4 9 
 
 32 — 
 
 67 4 
 
 17-000 
 
 71 8 
 
 17-383 
 
 72 ,16 
 
 IT -666 
 
 74 4 . 
 
 18:000 
 
 75 12 
 
 33 — 
 
 ■' 164 
 
 69 6 
 
 17 531 
 
 73 12 H 
 
 17-875 
 
 T5 1 6 
 
 18-218 
 
 76 10 44 
 
 18-533 
 
 77 19 3 
 
 34 — 
 
 17 
 
 Tl 8 
 
 18-062 
 
 75 17 3 
 
 18-416 
 
 77 7 
 
 18-T70 
 
 78 16 9 
 
 19-125 
 
 80 6 6 
 
 35 = 
 
 174 
 
 73 10 
 
 18-694 
 
 78 1 104 
 
 18-953 
 
 79 12-(i" 
 
 19-323 
 
 81 3 14 
 
 19 088 
 
 83 13 9 
 
 36 — 
 
 18 
 
 75 12 
 
 19-126 t 
 
 80 6 6 
 
 19-500 
 
 81 18 
 
 19-3T5 
 
 83 9 64 
 
 20-250 
 
 85 1 
 
 3T- 
 
 1S4 
 
 77 14 
 
 19-6b6 
 
 82 11 U 
 
 20-041 
 
 34 3 6 
 
 20 427 
 
 65 15 104 
 
 20-813 
 
 37 3 3 
 
 38 — 
 
 19 
 
 79 16 
 
 20-187 
 
 8416 9 
 
 20-683 
 
 80 9 
 
 20-979 
 
 88 2 3 
 
 21-3T5 
 
 89 15 
 
 89 — 
 
 194 
 
 81 18 
 
 20-719 
 
 ST 44 
 
 21-125 
 
 83 14 6 
 
 21-531 
 
 90 8 7; 
 
 21-983 
 
 92 2 9 
 
 40 = 
 
 20 
 
 84 
 
 ' 21-250 
 
 89 5-0- 
 
 21-666 
 
 91 0,0 
 
 22 083 
 
 92 15 
 
 22-600 
 
 94 10 
 
 Thus, 4s. 3d. per dollar, 1 tael per picul is equal to 
 ^d. per pound. 
 
 UsFAL NET Weight amd Measurement of a Chest of 
 
 DIFFBEBNT DE80BIPTI0NS OF TEA. 
 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Solid Men 
 
 Bohea, whole chests. . . 
 
 . catties 133 
 
 feet 8-966 
 
 " half " ... 
 
 . " 84 
 
 " 5-416 
 
 " quarter " ... 
 
 46 
 
 " 3-374 
 
 
 63 to 64 
 . " 60 " 62 
 
 " 4-085 
 
 Souchong 
 
 " 4-025 
 
 Pekoe 
 
 . " 49 " 50 
 ., " 43 " 50 
 
 " 4-333 
 
 Hyson 
 
 " 4 
 
 
 . " 43 "50 
 . " 62 " 65 
 
 >' 4-125 
 
 Twankay, long chests . 
 
 " 4-864 
 
 Gunpowder 
 
 . " 80 " 34 
 
 " 4-100 
 
 Imperial 
 
 . " 70 " 74 
 
 " 4-074 
 
 Young hyson 
 
 . " TO " 72 
 
 " 4-220 
 
 Comumpiion of Tea in Europe. — Of the Continental 
 states, Kussia and Holland are the only ones in which 
 the consumption of tea is considerable. In 1848 the 
 imports of tea into Russia amounted to 253,429 poods, 
 or 9,123,444 pounds, in chests, and 116,249 poods in 
 bricks. The former consists almost entirely of the 
 finest varieties of black tea. The consumption of tea 
 in Holland amounts to about 3,000,000 pounds a year, 
 the duty on which varies from lid. to i^d. per pound. 
 The consumption of France does not exceed 350,000 
 
 pounds. The importations into Hamburg vary be- 
 tween 1,500,000 and 2,000,000 pounds, the greater part 
 of which is forwarded to the interior of Germany. 
 
 Imports of Tea in the United Kingdom in 1851 and 1852. 
 
 ... 1851.1 
 Pounds. 
 
 Description of Tea. 
 
 Bohea. '2^00 
 
 Congo 61,055,000 
 
 Pouqjiong . 44,000 
 
 r-T,— f plain 91,000 
 
 "T" \soentcd 1,465,000 
 
 Souchong, Oolong, etc 4,792,000 
 
 Flowery and black leaf pekoo . 825,000 
 
 orange pekoe^Pl^j^-,-;:;;;;; ,^l^fS> 
 
 Twankay 115,000 
 
 Hyson skin 49,000 
 
 Hyson 95T,000 
 
 Young Hyson 2,T44,000 
 
 Imperial 409,000 
 
 Gunpowder 4,857,000 
 
 Sorts and Assam tea 621,000 
 
 For exportation only .... 
 
 1862. 
 Pounds. 
 
 48,106,000 
 15,000 
 100,000 
 1,013,000 
 2,169,000 
 822,000 
 42,000 
 2,694,a0Q 
 341,000 
 88,000; 
 309,000 
 2,661,000 
 393,000 
 4,983,000 
 662,000 
 7,000 
 Total. 71,600,000 64,700,000 
 
 Black 6_',214,000 
 
 Green 9,286,000 
 
 56,386,000 
 9,314,000 
 
 The Tea Trade of the United Slates.— Tea. is the chief 
 article imported from China into the United States. 
 The consumption of the United States amounts to from. 
 
TEA 
 
 1824 
 
 TEA 
 
 30,000,000 to 32,000,000 pounds a year. Duties on tea 
 used to form one of the largest items of American reve- 
 nue, having in some years produced $3,250,000. Their 
 magnitude, however, was justly complained of; and 
 it is probably owing to this circumstance that, while 
 the consumption of tea was for several years pretty 
 stationary in the United States, that of coffee increased 
 with even greater rapidity than in England. The 
 Secretary of the Treasury of the United States, in his 
 Report for 1827, observed : " The use of tea has become 
 so general throughout the United States, as to rank al- 
 most as a necessary of life. When to this we add that 
 there is no rival production at home to be fostered by 
 lessening the amount of its importation, the duty upon 
 it may safely be regarded as too high. Upon some of 
 the varieties of the article it considerably exceeds 100 
 per cent,, and is believed to be generally above the 
 level which a true policy points out. A moderate re- 
 duction of the duty will load to an increased consump- 
 tion of the article, to an extent that, in all probability, 
 would in the end rather benefit than injure the revenue. 
 Its tendency would be to enlarge our trade and exports to 
 China — a trade of progressive value, as our cottons and 
 other articles of home production (aside from specie) are 
 more and more entering into it. It would cause more 
 of the trade in teas to centre in our ports ; the pres- 
 ent rate of duty driving our tea ships not unfrequently 
 to seek their markets in Europe, not in the form of re- 
 exportation, but in the direct voyage fivom China. It 
 would also serve to diminish the risic of the United 
 States losing any portion of a trade so valuable, through 
 the policy and regulations of other nations." These 
 judicious suggestions could not fail to command atten- 
 tion ; and the flourishing state of the revenue in sub- 
 sequent years having admitted of a very great reduc- 
 tion of duties, those on tea were wholly repealed. As 
 was to be expected, the consumption has since rapid- 
 ly increased. Tlie whole imports from China to the 
 United States in 1865 amounted to $11,048,726, of 
 which tea covered $6,806,463. In 1854 the total im- 
 ports reached $10,506,329, of which tea amounted to 
 $6,645,115; and in 1853, $10,573,710, of which tea 
 covered $8,174,670. 
 Estimate, in Pounds' "Weight, of tue Quantities op Tea 
 
 EXPOItTBB BY Sea FKO.M ClICNA IN lS51-'52, BPEOirVING 
 TUE COTJNTBIES FOE WHICU TUE SAME WEEE BUirPED, AND 
 
 THE Quantity sniprED FOn each. 
 
 Countries. Pounds. 
 
 The United Kingdom 05,100,000 
 
 The United States 34,327,000 
 
 Australia 8,829,000 
 
 Holland 3,000,000 
 
 India 500,000 
 
 Other places 2,200.000 
 
 Total 113,856,000 
 
 The exports of tea to Russia by land amount to 
 14,000,000 or 15,000,000 pounds a year. 
 
 The following tables atford a review of the quantities 
 of tea imported into the United States from China 
 since the commencement of that trade, so far as they 
 can be gathered from various official returns : 
 
 YearB. Pounds. 
 
 1790 3,047,242 
 
 1791 985,997 
 
 1792 2,614,008 
 
 1703 2,009,509 
 
 1794 2,460,914 
 
 1T95 2,374,118 
 
 1796 2,310,269 
 
 1797 2,008,399 
 
 1798 1,890,966 
 
 1799 4,501,603 
 
 1800 3,797,634 
 
 1801 4,086,960 
 
 Deducting the quantities ascertained to have been 
 exported from the United States during the above pe- 
 riod, we find the average annual consumption in the 
 country to have been 3,350,000 pounds for twelve years, 
 from 1801 to 1812, inclusive. From 1818 to 1820, in- 
 clusive, the total amount consumed or on hand can 
 alone be given. It approximates very closely, how- 
 
 Pounds. 
 4,269,828 
 6,063,629 
 
 Vears. 
 
 1802 
 
 1803 
 
 1804 
 
 1806 5,119,441 
 
 1806 6,870,800 
 
 1807 8,108,774' 
 
 1808 4,812,638 
 
 1809 1,482,690 
 
 1810 7,839,457 
 
 1811 3,018,118 
 
 1812 3,056,089 
 
 ever, the total amount imported during that period, and 
 was as follows : Teas consumed or on hand, 26,717,917 
 pounds ; or an average annual quantity of 3,339,740 
 pounds. The quantities of teas of all kinds imported 
 into and exported from the United States, from 1821 to 
 1833, inclusive, together with the quantities retained 
 for consumption, are shown as follows : 
 
 Years. 
 
 Imported. 
 
 Exported, 
 
 Consumed. 
 
 1821 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 4,975,646 
 
 6,639,434 
 
 8,210,010 
 
 8,934,487 
 
 10,209,548 
 
 10,098,900 
 
 5,875,638 
 
 7,707,427 
 
 6,636,790 
 
 8,609,418 
 
 5,182,867 
 
 9,906,606 
 
 14.639,822 
 
 Pounds, 
 
 531i691 
 1,333,846 
 1,735,076 
 1,148,868 
 2,036,808 
 1,998,672 
 1,626,417 
 1,417,846 . 
 1,018,343 
 1,736,324 
 
 526,186 
 1,279,262 
 1,712,779 
 
 Pounds. 
 4,443,965 
 5,305,688 
 6,474,934 
 7,765,619 
 8,173,740 
 8,100,228 
 4,249,221 
 6,289,581 
 6,618,447 
 6,873,091 
 4 666,631 
 8,627,344 
 12,927,043 
 
 1322 
 
 1823 
 
 1824 ... 
 
 1825 
 
 1826 
 
 1827 
 
 1828 
 
 1829 
 
 1830 
 
 1831 
 
 1832 
 
 1833 
 
 
 If from the imports are deducted the exports for each 
 year, an average annual consumption, for the entire 
 period, of 7,000,000 pounds will be given. The follow- 
 ing statement shows the imports and exports of tea, 
 the quantity remaining on hand or consumed each year, 
 from 1834 to 1841, exclusive of 601,319 pounds import- 
 ed during the entire period from^ other countries than 
 China : 
 
 Years, 
 
 Imported. 
 
 Exported. 
 
 Consumed. 
 
 1834 
 
 1835 
 
 Pounds, 
 16,282,977 
 14,415,672 
 16,382,114 
 16,982,384 
 14,418,112 
 9,349,817 
 20,006,595 
 11,560,301 
 
 Pounds, 
 3,081,308 
 2,082,866 
 1,836,342 
 2,608 386 
 2,435,302 
 1,592,033 
 3,123,496 
 
 660,832 
 
 Pounds. 
 13,201,669 
 12,332,706 
 14,485,772 
 14,473,9! 8 
 11,982,810 
 7,767,784 
 16,883,099 
 10,899,469 
 
 1836 
 
 1837 
 
 1838 
 
 1839 
 
 1840 
 
 1841 
 
 Total... 
 
 119,897,872 
 
 17,380,566 
 
 102,017,307 
 
 The preceding table will show that the average an- 
 nual amount consumed, or retained on hand, during this 
 period, was 12,752,163 pounds. The following state- 
 ment exhibits the values of all imports from China 
 into the United States from 1833 to 1841, inclusive, dis- 
 tinguishing the values of teas ; together with the num- 
 ber of vessels and the tonnage employed in the trade : 
 
 Tears. 
 
 Number 
 of Vessels. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Values of 
 Imports. 
 
 Values of 
 Teas, 
 
 1833 
 
 1834 
 
 1835 
 
 1836 
 
 1837 
 
 1838 
 
 1839 
 
 1840 
 
 1841 
 
 Total.. 
 
 41 
 43 
 36 
 
 43 
 
 42 
 29 
 18 
 35 
 
 28 
 
 16,334 
 15,650 
 13,495 
 16.446 
 16,160 
 11,821 
 7,392 
 14,771 
 11,S86 
 
 $7,541,570 
 7,892,327 
 5,987,187 
 7,324,816 
 8,965,837 
 4,764,636 
 3,678,509 
 6,640,829 
 8,696,388 
 
 $5,484,603 
 6,217,949 
 4,622,806 
 6,342,811 
 5,903,054 
 3,497,156 
 2,428,419 
 5,427,010 
 3,406,24') 
 
 315 
 
 122,964 
 
 $56,490,499 
 
 $42,290,053 
 
 From the preceding table it may be seen that the 
 value of teas reached annually, during the period des- 
 ignated, about $4,698,894, and constituted 75 per cent, 
 of the value of the entire imports ; while the trade em- 
 ployed annually about thirty-five vessels, averaging 
 390 tons each. The preceding table is continued as 
 follows, down to 1855, and exhibits generally tile same 
 proportion between the value of total imports from 
 China into the United States and the value of teas : 
 
 Years, 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Values of Imports. 
 
 Values of Teas, 
 
 1842 
 
 12,488 
 13,460 
 16,399 
 21,682 
 19,243 
 17,775 
 24,383 
 19,418 
 29,414 
 38,914 
 78,086 
 92,864 
 70,426 
 70,816 
 
 $4,1:34.646 
 4,085,566 
 4,931,256 
 7,286,914 
 6,633,881 
 5,583,343 
 8,083,496 
 6,513,785 
 6,693,462 
 7,065,144 
 10,693,950 
 10,637,710 
 10,606,329 
 11,048,726 
 
 $4,367,101 
 3,776,464 
 4,076,191 
 6,730,101 
 5,022,600 
 4,278,448 
 6,217,111 
 4,071,789 
 4,685,720 
 4,633,629 
 7,144,600 
 8,174,670 
 6,545,115 
 6,806,463 
 
 1843 
 
 1844 
 
 1846 
 
 1846 
 
 1847 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 
 
 
 1861 
 
 1862 
 
 1853 
 
 1854 
 
 1865 
 
TEA 
 
 1825 
 
 TEA 
 
 Tea iXPOHTED fhom China to G-bbat Bbitain and the 
 United States, uespeotively* fob a Pebiod of ten 
 Yeabs, ending Jttne 30, 1854. — (Made up fkom the 
 "China Mail.") 
 
 Yearn. 
 
 To Oreiit Britidn. " 
 
 ■ ■.ToTTolUdSlntei. 
 
 1845 
 
 PQunda. 
 . 63,570,200 
 67,584,600 
 63,865,000 
 47,694,300 
 47,242,700 
 53,961,800 
 64,020,100 
 65,187,200 
 72,906,100 
 77,217,900 
 
 ' ' Pounda. 
 ; 20(762,558 
 18,502,288 
 18,171,625 
 19,338,640 
 18,672,300 
 21,757,800 
 28,760,800 
 34,334,000 
 40,974,600 
 27,867,500 
 
 1846 
 
 1347 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 
 
 1830 
 
 1851 
 
 1853 
 
 1853 
 
 1854 
 
 It will be noticed that these statistics agree with 
 those given below, the latter being taken from the 
 United States Treasury Reports. 
 
 Tea expoeted feom China to Gbbat Bbitain, Fbanoe, 
 AND THE United States, feom 1821 to 1840, — (Fbom 
 Fbenoh Attthokitieb.) 
 
 Yearfl. 
 
 England. 
 
 France. 
 
 United States. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Kilograma. ' 
 13,820,000 
 
 KUogranu. 
 66,01)0 
 
 Kilograms. 
 
 Kilograms. 
 16,114,000 
 
 1821 
 
 2,238,000 
 
 1822 
 
 12,315,000 
 
 14,000 
 
 2,887,000 
 
 15,316,000 
 
 1828 
 
 13,072,000 
 
 15,000 
 
 3,694,000 
 
 16,781,000 
 
 1824 
 
 14,802,000 
 
 6,000 
 
 4,010;000 
 
 18,318,000 
 
 1825 
 
 13,206,000 
 
 3,000 
 
 4,581,000 
 
 17,790,000 
 
 1826 
 
 13,428,000 
 
 151,000 
 
 4,533,000 
 
 18,112,000 
 
 1837 
 
 17,886,000 
 
 276,000 
 
 2,641,000 
 
 20,303,000 
 
 1828 
 
 14,706,000 
 
 
 3,460,000 
 
 18,166,000 
 
 1829 
 
 13,745,000 
 
 121,000 
 
 2,968,000 
 
 16,834,000 
 
 1830 
 
 14,354,000 
 
 9,000 
 
 3,863,000 
 
 18,226,000 
 
 1831 
 
 14,243,000 
 
 237,000 
 
 2,330,000 
 
 16,809,000 
 
 1832 
 
 14,269,000 
 
 47,000 
 
 4,452,000 
 
 18,763,000 
 
 1833 
 
 14,427,000 
 
 386,000 
 
 6,587,000 
 
 21,400,000 
 
 1884 
 
 14,418,000 
 
 648.000 
 
 7,319,000 
 
 22,380,000 
 
 1835 
 
 lB,7i5,000 
 
 46,000 
 
 6,432,000 
 
 25,253,000 
 
 1836 
 
 21,800,000 
 
 116,000 
 
 7,361,000 
 
 29,277,000 
 
 1837 
 
 16,426,000 
 
 35,000 
 
 7,628,000 
 
 24,089,000 
 
 1838 
 
 18,187,000 
 
 124,000 
 
 6,485,000 
 
 24,796,000 
 
 1839 
 
 17,172,000 
 
 93,000 
 
 4,184,000 
 
 21,449,000 
 
 1840 
 
 12,010,000 
 
 26.4,000 
 
 9,063,000 
 
 21,937,000 
 
 In addition to the foregoing, large quantities of tea 
 are exported from Cliina to tlie Netherlands, Hanse 
 Towns, the Levant, the Mediterranean, and Bussia. To 
 the last-named country there were exported in 1839, 
 3,442,000 kilograms ; and in 1840, 3,585,000 liilograms ; 
 ■which, added to the totals for 1839, will give for that 
 year 24,891,000 kilograms ; and for 1840, 25,522,000 
 kilograms. 
 
 " In the consumption of tea, the United States ranlc 
 next to Great Britain. From 1815 to 1834 there were 
 exported to the former, for consumption and re-exporta- 
 tion, 85,805,000 kilograms. In 1832, 4,028,000 kilo- 
 grams, of which 20,000 kilograms were re-exported. 
 In 1833-'34 the Americans exported from Canton for 
 Europe 1,014,000 kilograms. Consumption in the 
 United States has largely increased since tea was put 
 on the free list of that country." 
 
 The following is a statement of the exports of tea 
 from China to the United States for ten years, from 
 1845 to 1854, inclusive : 
 
 Year ending June SO. 
 
 Green. 
 
 Black. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Pounda. 
 
 1845 
 
 13,812,099 
 
 6,960,459 
 
 20,762,658 
 
 1846, in 40 vessels . 
 
 14,236,082 
 
 4,216,168 
 
 18,502,248 
 
 1847, in 37 '■ . 
 
 13,853,132 
 
 4,318,496 
 
 18,171,828 
 
 1848, in 38 " . 
 
 15,346,030 
 
 3,993,617 
 
 19,338,647 
 
 1849, in 37 " . 
 
 13,818,700 
 
 4,853,600 
 
 18,672,300 
 
 1850, in 44 " 
 
 14,396,400 
 
 7,361,400 
 
 21,757,800 
 
 1851, in 64 " . 
 
 15,205,700 
 
 13,315,100 
 
 28,760,800 
 
 1852, in 68 " . 
 
 20,937,300 
 
 13,396,700 
 
 34,334,000 
 
 1853, in 72 " . 
 
 26,489,800 
 
 14,484,700 
 
 40,974,500 
 
 1854, in 47 " . 
 
 18,280,300 
 
 9,397.200 
 
 27,867,500 
 
 For the year ending June 30, 1855, the total number 
 of pounds exported to the United States was 31,515,900, 
 in forty-eight vessels, distributed among three ports, as 
 follows : 
 
 Founds. 
 
 Canton 2,561,900 
 
 roo-chow 5,400,800 
 
 Shanghai 23,553,200 
 
 Total, year lS54.-'55 31,515,900 
 
 5Z 
 
 For the year ending June 30, 1856, it was 40,247,800 
 pounds, in fifty-eight vessels, distributed as follows : 
 
 bounds. 
 
 Canton 8,240,800 
 
 Foo-chow 10,813,900 
 
 Shanghai 21,127,100 
 
 Total, year 1855-'56 , . 40,247,800 
 
 From July 1, 1856, to Januarj- 15, 1857, the exports 
 to this countrj' were 16,299,600 pounds; 
 
 - ' Pounds. 
 
 From Canton 997,500 
 
 From Foo-chow 5,857,200 
 
 From Shanghai 9,444,900 
 
 Total, 61- months 16,299,600 
 
 Th? exports to Great Britain during the year 1855-'56 
 were 91,931,800 pounds ; andfrom July 1, 1856, to Jan- 
 uary 15, 1857, 39,991,400 pounds. 
 
 ExpOBTB or Tea from the United States. 
 
 To 
 
 Year ending June 30. | 
 
 1854. 
 
 1655. 1 
 
 Pounds, 
 
 Value. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Value. 
 
 
 816,918 
 1,583,653 
 2,340,193 
 
 481,432 
 
 $257,686 
 400,080 
 966,379 
 170,542 
 
 1,352,266 
 
 1,179,219 
 
 2,190,573 
 
 786.88S 
 
 $478,631 
 282,613 
 981,178 
 277,020 
 
 Br. Am. Colonies, 
 
 Other places 
 
 Total 
 
 Paying duty . . , . , 
 
 Total 
 
 5,177,196 
 4,403 
 
 $1,794,537 
 1,307 
 
 5,508.944 
 60,560 
 
 $2,019,442 
 16,947 
 
 5,131,5911 
 
 $1,795,884 
 
 5,569,504 
 
 $2,036,380 
 
 Impobts of Tea into the United States. 
 
 
 Year ending June 30. _ " | 
 
 From 
 
 1864. 
 
 1865. 1 
 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 ■ Value. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Value. 
 
 China 
 
 Other places . . . 
 
 23,58.1,039 
 717,207 
 
 $6.545ill5 
 170,611 
 
 24,366,615 
 827,269 
 
 $6,306,463 
 124,523 
 
 Total 
 
 Paying duty) 
 as non-pro- - 
 ducers 
 
 24,306,906 
 110,806 
 
 $6,715,726 
 13,721 
 
 25,203,884 
 129,213 
 
 $6,930,986 
 43,01S 
 
 Total 
 
 24,417,71'-i 
 
 $6,729,447 
 
 25,333,097 
 
 $6,973,999 
 
 iMrOETS OF Tea into the United States foe tub Year 
 ENDING June 30, 1857, feom Plages othee than that 
 of its Feoduction, and paying Duties ad valoebu. 
 
 Whence imported. Pounds. Value. 
 
 Hamburg 23,698 $12,481 
 
 Holland , 83 42 
 
 England 5,563 2,788 
 
 Scotland..-. 30 9 
 
 Ireland 50 18 
 
 Canada 4,726 587 
 
 Other British North American FoEfiesE. 370 168 
 
 British West Indies 788 143 
 
 British Austi-alia 1,000 223 
 
 British East Indies 576 25 
 
 France on the Atlantic 40 92 
 
 Cuba 2,040 165 
 
 Central Eepublic 814 167 
 
 Brazil 665 83 
 
 Sandwich Islands 1,474 153 
 
 China 860 226 
 
 Total... 42,288 $17,315 
 
 Imports of Tea, the Geowth op the Countries export- 
 ing IT, into the United States for the Year ending 
 June 30, 1857.— (Free of Duty.) 
 
 whence imported. Pounds. Value. 
 
 Dutch East Indies 21,198 $3,864 
 
 British East Indies 798,436 135,120 
 
 Philippine Islands 630 174 
 
 China 19,505,282 5,618,702 
 
 Total 20,325,541 $5,757,860 
 
 In England there are certain ports where teas may 
 be imported. There are warehouses which may be ap- 
 proveif of for the deposit of teas, and are to be exclusive- 
 ly appropriated to that purpose. Ko package shall be 
 divided into smaller packages, except for the purpose 
 of stores, nor shall the mixing of tea of any sort or sorts 
 be permitted in the warehouses, either for home con- 
 sumption or exportation. The packages shall be sorted 
 and arranged in the warehouse by the occupier, accord- 
 ing to their respective "chops" or "beds," so as to en- 
 able the officers to select from each the required number 
 of packages for taring, and to ascertain the proper tare 
 to be allowed on the package therein. 
 
TEA 
 
 1826 
 
 TEH 
 
 Exports of Tea, the Growth of fobbion Coxtntrieb, 
 FBOM THE United States fob tub Yeab ending June 
 30, 1857. 
 
 Whither exported 
 Russian Poss. in North America. . 
 
 Swedish West Indies 
 
 Danish West Indies 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 ' Other German ports 
 
 Butch Guiana 
 
 England 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 Canada 
 
 Other British N. American Pos3. 
 
 British West Indies 
 
 British Honduras 
 
 British Guiana 
 
 British Possessions in Africa .... 
 
 Other porta in Africa 
 
 British Australia 
 
 France on the Atlantic 
 
 Fi'encli N.American Possessions. 
 
 French West Indies 
 
 Canary Islands 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Porto Rico .: 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Madeira 
 
 Cape de Verd Islands 
 
 Azores 
 
 Sardinia 
 
 Turkey in Europe 
 
 Turkey in Asia 
 
 Hayti 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Central Republic 
 
 New Granada 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Uruguay, or Cisplatine Republic. 
 Buenos Ayres, or Argentine Rep.. 
 
 Chili 
 
 Peru 
 
 Sandwich Islands 
 
 China 
 
 Whale-fisheries 
 
 Total 
 
 From warehouse. . . . . 
 Not from warehouse . 
 
 
 ValuB. 
 
 23,03T 
 
 $12,3S6 
 
 66 
 
 44 
 
 11,660 
 
 4,236 
 
 111 
 
 55 
 
 183 
 
 67 
 
 40 
 
 10 
 
 7T,814 
 
 27,673 
 
 360 
 
 144 
 
 2,070,112 
 
 876,601 
 
 1,013,034 
 
 262,692 
 
 12,946 
 
 4,996 
 
 8,480 
 
 3,060 
 
 88 
 
 25 
 
 188 
 
 79 
 
 3,65T 
 
 1,829 
 
 9,200 
 
 2,000 
 
 250 
 
 100 
 
 32,307 
 
 8,086 
 
 350 
 
 140 
 
 300 
 
 105 
 
 8,489 
 
 1,700 
 
 303 
 
 172 
 
 22,388 
 
 10,199 
 
 1,627 
 
 634 
 
 1,068 
 
 388 
 
 21,104 
 
 10,r53 
 
 4,036 
 
 1,005 
 
 4,000 
 
 1,550 
 
 1,620 
 
 619 
 
 604 
 
 270 
 
 34,609 
 
 9,907 
 
 105 
 
 71 
 
 8,827 
 
 3,704 
 
 6,409 
 
 2,444 
 
 282,079 
 
 123,873 
 
 29,500 
 
 8,997 
 
 79,709 
 
 25,324 
 
 56,631 
 
 12,948 
 
 4,01Q 
 
 1,100 
 
 13,243 
 
 2,728 
 
 23,000 
 
 3,877 
 
 4,098 
 
 1,903 
 
 8,867,470 
 
 $1,430,212 
 
 23,037 
 
 $12,386 
 
 3,844,442 
 
 $1,417,876 
 
 Duty on Teas. — Tea or coffee, shipped from the coun- 
 try of production, but not for a distinct and specific 
 destination to persons or places in the United States, 
 and transhipped at a foreign intermediate port for the 
 United States, is, on importation, liable to a duty of 
 20 per cent. But if originally shipped in national 
 vessels, or vessels placed on that footing by treaty, for 
 a specific party and place in the United States, from 
 the country of production, and so imported into the 
 United States, these articles are entitled to free entry, 
 although a mere transhipment may have taken place 
 at a foreign intermediate port. 
 
 Tea or coffee, entitled to free entry when originally 
 imported into the United States, afterward exported 
 to a foreign port and brought back as part of the re- 
 turning cargo of the exporting vessel, not having been 
 landed abroad, is entitled to free entry on its reimpor- 
 tation under these circumstances. Tea and coffee, 
 when imported direct from the place of their growth 
 or production in American vessels, or in foreign ves- 
 sels so entitled by reciprocal treaties, are exempt from 
 duty. 
 
 Coffee, the product of a possession of the Nether- 
 lands, imported into the United States in a vessel of 
 the Netherlands direct from such possessions, or from 
 the Netherlands, is admitted free of duty under the 
 tariff law of 1846, and the first article of the treaty be- 
 tween the United States and the Netherlands of Ji-ugust 
 26, 1852. Tea or coffee imported direct from the place 
 of its production, in vessels of the kingdom of Prussia, 
 and of the Hanseatic republics of Hamburg, Bremen, 
 and Lubeck, is placed on the same footing with that 
 imported in American or Dutch vessels. 
 
 Tea or coffee, the production of China, imported via 
 Singapore, is admitted to free entry, if it be satisfac- 
 torily shown at the time of entry that it was laden on 
 board the American importing vessel from Chinese 
 boats or junks in Chinese waters, intended in good 
 
 faith to be conveyed therein direct to a specified port 
 of the United States, as its ultimate destination. 
 
 Teak Wood, or Indian Oak, the produce of the 
 Tectona grandis, a large forest tree that grows in dry 
 and elevated districts in the south of India, the Bur- 
 man empire, Pegu, Ava, Siam, Java, etc. Teak tim- 
 ber is by far the best in the East ; it works easily, and, 
 though porous, is strong and durable ; it is easily sea- 
 soned, and shrinks very little ; it is of an oily nature, 
 and therefore does not injure iron. Mr. Crawfurd says 
 that in comparing teak and oak together, the useful 
 qualities of the former will be found to preponderate. 
 "It is equally strong, and somewhat more buoyant. 
 Its durability is more uniform and decided; and to in- 
 sure that durability it demands less care and prepara- 
 tion ; for it may be put in use almost green from the 
 forest, without danger of dry or wet rot. It is fit to 
 endure all climates and alternations of climate." — See 
 Teedgold's Principks of Carpentry; Crawford's 
 Eastern Archipelago; Rees' Ct/clopcedia. The teak of 
 Malabar, produced on the high table-land of the south 
 of India, is deemed the best of any. It Is the closest 
 in its fibre, and contains the largest quantity of oil, be- 
 ing at once the heaviest and the most durable. This 
 species of teak is used for the keel, timbers, and such 
 parts of a ship as are under water : owing to its great 
 weight, it is less suitable for the upper works, and is 
 not at all fit for spars. The teak of Java ranks next 
 to tliat of Malabar, and is especially suitable for plank- 
 ing. The Eangoon or Burnian teak, and that of Siam, 
 is not so close-grained or durable as the others. It is, 
 however, the most buoyant, and is therefore best fitted 
 for masts and spars. Malabar teak is extensively used 
 in the building-yards of Bombay. Ships built wholly 
 of it are almost indestructible by ordinary- wear and 
 tear, and instances are not rare of their having lasted 
 from 80 to 100 years. They are said to sail indiffer- 
 ently, but this is probably owing as much to some de- 
 fect in their construction as to the weight of the tim- 
 ber. Calcutta ships are never wholly built of teak ; 
 the timbers and frame-work are always of native wood, 
 and the planking and deck only of teak. The teak of 
 Burma, being conveyed with comparatively little diffi- 
 culty to the ports of Rangoon and Maulmain, is the 
 cheapest and most abundant of any ; and it is mainly 
 owing to the facility with which supplies of it are ob- 
 tained that ship-building is now carried on so very ex- 
 tensively at Maulmain. It is largely exported to Cal- 
 cutta and Madras. — /See Rangoon. A species of tim- 
 ber called African teak is exported from the west coast 
 of Africa; but in point of fact It is not teak, and it is 
 destitute of several of its most valuable properties. It 
 is, however, for some purposes, a useful species of tim- 
 ber. 
 
 Teasel, or Fullers' Thistle (Ger. Weierdistel, 
 Kratzdistel; Fr. Chardon a carder; It. Cardo da car- 
 dare ; Sp. Cardeucha, Cardo peinador). This plant, 
 which is cultivated in the north and west of England, 
 is an article of considerable importance to clothiers, 
 who employ the crooked awns of the heads for raising 
 the nap on woolen cloths. For this purpose they are fix- 
 ed round the periphery of a large, broad wheel, against 
 which the cloth is held while the machine is turned. 
 In choosing teasels, the preference should be given to 
 those with the largest bur, and most pointed, which 
 are generally called ma?e teasels. They are mostly used 
 in preparing and dressing stockings and coverlets ; the 
 smaller kind, commonly called the fullers' or drapers', 
 and sometimes ^hQ female teasels^ are used in the prep- 
 aration of the finer stuffs, as cloths, rateens, etc. 
 
 Tehuantepec, Gulf of, a bay of the Pacific 
 Ocean, Central America, bounded northwest by the 
 state of Oaxaca, and northeast by the republic of Gua- 
 temala, lat. 16° N., long. 94° to 95° W. It receives 
 the River Tehuantepeo 10 miles south of the town. 
 
 The Isthmus of Te/iuantepec, states of Oaxaca, Vera 
 Cruz, and Tabasco, is the narrowest part of the land 
 
TEH 
 
 1827 
 
 TEL 
 
 separating the Gulf of Mexico from the Pacific, and is 
 130 miles across. It produces mahogany, fustic, log- 
 wood, cotton, drugs, cacao, indigo, gum, salt, with va- 
 rious kinds of grain ; and its uplands abound with fine 
 pastures. It is traversed almost throughout by the 
 Kiver Goatzacoalcos. This is one of the places where 
 it has been proposed to unite the Atlantic and Pacific 
 oceans by a canalj of which the river and some lakes 
 would form a part. 
 
 This new inter-oceanic route is by the River Goatza- 
 coalcos to Sttchil, something over 100 miles from the 
 sea, all the windings included, thence overland by stage 
 to Ventosa, 130 to 140 miles; making in all about 240 
 miles from the Atlantic to the Pacific, to be accomplish- 
 ed in a day and a half from the sea. This distance will 
 be materially diminished — the time still more so — on 
 completion of a projected railroad from Minatitlan to 
 Suchil, already surveyed. 
 
 From the motith of the river to Minatitlan, twentj' 
 miles, the channel is excellent, capacious enough for 
 the largest ocean steamships. The depth of water on 
 the bar at low tide is 16 to 16 feet (Major Barnard says 
 13), and only one obstruction, a large rock, has been 
 discovered, and that easily avoidable. From Minatit- 
 lan to Suchil the river becomes more difficult, and 
 must be traversed by steamboats ; those contemplated 
 are, in size and fashion, not dissimilar from the Cum- 
 berland River boats. The Leonora, built in New York, 
 and placed on this portion of the river a short time 
 since, had proved of too large draught. The current 
 is about two miles and a half an hour — ^from Suchil to 
 Minatitlan, thirty-six hours. These are the termini 
 of the projected railway, by which, when completed, a 
 distance of 45 miles will be saved. 
 
 From Suchil to Ventosa, on the Pacific, 130 to 140 
 miles, the route is by the newly-made stage-road over 
 a rough, sometimes mountainous country. The heavi- 
 est work has been on this end of the road, where also 
 the River Puerta, fordable at, times, but high and 
 marshy in the rainy season, is to be spanned by a 
 bridge a mile and a half in length. Soma compensa- 
 tion is made on the other side of the mountain, how- 
 ever, by an old road, which has proved available from 
 Chivela Pass to the Pacific plain. The time contracted 
 for on the stage-road is five miles per hour — twenty-six 
 to twenty-6ight hours ; between Minatitlan and Suchil 
 the passage by steamboat will be from six to eight 
 hours, in all about thirty-five hours, or a day and a 
 half from ocean to ocean. The harbor of Ventosa is 
 good, but a breakwater will be necessary. As to the 
 probable amount of travel and business on the Tehuan- 
 tepec road, when in full operation, we have no further 
 information than is already, in various speculations, 
 before the public. The shortest route from England, 
 New York, and New Orleans, to the ports of the Pacific, 
 the most flattering expectations are of course enter- 
 tained respecting it. 
 
 The present population of the territory of Tehuan- 
 tepec is estimated at 60,000, descendants, for the most 
 part, of the original Aztecs. They are gregarious in 
 their habits, living in communities numbering 3000 to 
 4000 each, and distant from each other five to ten 
 miles. They are industrious, kind-hearted, and do- 
 cile, but very thriftless. The government is, of course, 
 that which at any time our mobile Mexican neighbors 
 may chance to have. In general, the rights and privi- 
 leges of the old Spanish colonial towns are fully en- 
 joyed. Titles to landed property are good, and always 
 respected. The town of Minatitlan, the capital and 
 emporium of the territory, has at present a population 
 of about five hundred. The commerce in the native 
 products of the country, mahogany, dyewoods, coffee, 
 etc., is large and increasing. The last quarter Mr. 
 P. cleared twelve American vessels, averaging 200 
 tons each, and the foreign export business was about 
 the same. The government, a short time since, ap- 
 propriated the handsome sum of $60,000 for the erec- 
 
 tion of a new custom-house, the foundation of which is 
 already laid. On the whole, what with present busi- 
 ness and future expectations, our Tehuantepec neigh- 
 bors are evidently looking up. — United States Consul at 
 Minatitlan. 
 
 Tehuantepec Route. — The following figures show the 
 distances on the Tehuantepec route from New York to 
 San Francisco : 
 
 Miles. 
 
 From New York to the mouth of the Coatzacoaloos 2275 
 
 Transit distance 236 
 
 Ventosa to San Francisco 280-^ 
 
 Total 4815 
 
 Telegraph. Long before the electric telegraph 
 had been imagined, the art of rapidly conveying intel- 
 ligence from point to point had occupied the attention 
 of mankind, and various expedients for the accom- 
 plishment of this object had been devised. The most 
 primitive modes of telegraphing were by means of 
 signal-fires, torches, trumpets. More recently, since 
 the invention of gunpowder, the cannon and sky-rock- 
 ets have been used. On' the invention of the aerial 
 telegraph, or semaphore, these means were abandoned. 
 
 In the 3'ear 1684 Dr. Hooke described a plan for 
 an aerial telegraph, and about 1704 M. Amontons in- 
 stituted experiments with the same end in view. How- 
 ever, neither of these plans were carried into effect ; 
 and it was not until 1794 that the semaphore was act- 
 ually used. In that year an aerial telegraph, the in- 
 vention of M. Claude Chappfi, was employed for the 
 transmission of intelligence between Paris and Lille ; 
 the conveyance of a signal from one of these places to 
 the other occupying only two minutes. Semaphores, 
 mostly modifications of the plan of Chappd, were soon 
 in use throughout Europe — in England, in 1795; Den- 
 mark, in 1802 ; India, in 1823; Prussia and Austria, 
 about 1833 ; and Russia, in 1839. 
 
 This method of telegraphing is still in use, but is 
 rapidly being superseded by the electric telegraph. In 
 1852 the only aerial telegraph line in England was be- 
 tween Liverpool and Holyhead. This has now, we be- 
 lieve, been superseded by the establishment of electfic 
 communication between those two places. 
 
 The cost of working the aerial telegraph was enor- 
 mous. The line above mentioned cost in the vicinity 
 of jElSOO (about $7500) per annum ; and a similar line, 
 between London and Portsmouth, cost £3300 (about 
 $16,500) per annum. 
 
 These telegraphs were necessarily imperfect ; being 
 limited in their power of conveying intelligence, ex- 
 ceedingly slow, and liable to total interruption by 
 storms of rain and snow, fogs and darkness. 
 
 The idea of the employment of electricity as a means 
 of conveying intelligence to a distance appears to have 
 been long entertained, and experiments to ascertain the 
 practicability of electrical communication between dis- 
 tant places were early made by scientific men through- 
 out the civilized world. In 1729 Grey and Wheeler 
 discovered that a current of electricity could be made 
 to flow tlirough considerable lengths of wire. In 1746 
 Winckler at Leipsic, and Le Monnier at Paris, experi- 
 mented on the same subject of the transmission of the 
 electric current through conducting bodies. In 1747 
 Dr. Watson, in England, repeated and extended these 
 experiments, sending a current through two miles of 
 wire and two of earth ; sending shocks across the 
 Thames and the New River. Dr. Franklin in-1748, and 
 De Luc in 1749, repeated many of these experiments. 
 In addition, experiments bearing more or less on the 
 subject of electric telegraphy were made by Lesage in 
 1774, Reusser in 1794, Cavallo in 1795, Betancourt in 
 1798, SSemmering in 1807, and Prof. Oersted in 1819. 
 
 The first electric telegraph actually applied seems 
 to have been the invention of M. D. F. Salva. Hum- 
 boldt says his telegraph was established between Mad- 
 rid and Aranjnez in 1798 — a distance of about 26 miles. 
 
 In 1816 Francis Ronalds, of Hammersmith, England, 
 constructed a telegraph of eight miles in length. This 
 
TEL 
 
 1828 
 
 TEL 
 
 telegraph was one of the best that had then been in- 
 vented, and was capable of transmitting intelligence 
 with considerable rapidity. In 1823 he urged the im- 
 portance of his inyention for government purposes, writ- 
 ing to Lord Melville on the subject, but without effect. 
 
 In 1827 Harrison G. Dyer, an American, construct- 
 ed a telegraph on Long Island, using frictional elec- 
 tricity. The line was about two miles in length. 
 
 Previous to 1809 no mode of electric telegraphing 
 capable of any extended use had been discovered. The 
 principal cause of failure seems to have been in the em- 
 ployment of frictional electricity, which is, on account 
 of its high intensity, confined with great diiBculty to 
 conducting bodies, rapid and incontinuous in its ac- 
 tion, and, from its small quantity, devoid of energetic 
 force. 
 
 Soemmering made a step forward by his application 
 of galvanism to the purposes of telegraphing. In 1809 
 he constructed, at Munich, a telegraphic apparatus, us- 
 ing 35 wires. The signals were made by the decom- 
 position of water in 35 tubes, which were in connection 
 ivith the 35 wires of the line. Telegraphs employing 
 the pure galvanic force were also invented by Schweig- 
 ger, De Haer, K. Smith (Scotland, about 1843); Bain, 
 1846 ; and Morse, 1849. 
 
 Bain's was the only telegraph on this principle that 
 was extensively used. He used a very simple appara- 
 tus, receiving the galvanic current upon chemicallj'- 
 prepared paper, where it made a light-blue mark. A 
 combination of dots constituted his alphabet. This 
 telegraph was exceedingly rapid, being capable of 
 transmitting 1200 letters per minute. In 1850 about 
 200 miles of telegraph in England, and 1500 in Amer- 
 ica, were worked under Bain's patents. His plan has 
 gone now .almost entirely out of use, other and better 
 instruments superseding it. 
 
 The property which lightning possesses of reversing 
 or destroying the poles of the natural magnet, and of 
 imparting magnetism to iron, had long been known ; 
 but not until 1820 was the fact turned to any useful 
 purpose. Professor Oersted, of Copenhagen, discov- 
 ered, during 1819, that if a wire charged witli elec- 
 tricity is placed parallel to a magnetic needle, the nee- 
 dle will deviate from its natural position, tending to 
 assume a position at right angles with the conducting 
 wire J and that this deviation follows a regular law. 
 Proceeding on the groundwork of Professor Oersted, 
 many other discoveries were made by Arago, Ampfere, 
 Faraday, Davy, Sturgeon, and Professor Henry. 
 
 Arago and Ampfere in France, and Sir H. Davy in 
 England, discovered that a current of electricity would 
 render steel magnetic ; and Ampere found that by coil- 
 ing the wire in the form of a helix round steel the ef- 
 fect was greatly increased. William Sturgeon, of Lon- 
 don, in the year 1825, discovered and constructed the 
 electro-magnet. The electro-magnet is one of the most 
 valuable parts of the electric telegraph now in use, and 
 has entered more or less into nearly every telegraph 
 invented since its discovery. 
 
 Oersted's great discovery gave a new direction to 
 the science of electric telegraphing. Galvanic tele- 
 graphs -were, in turn, discarded, and magneto-electric 
 telegraphs took their place. 
 
 Amp6rc was the first to make use of Oersted's dis- 
 covery in telegraphing. In 1820 he invented a tele- 
 graph, using 36 magnetic needles. His plan was not 
 practically carried into effect. 
 
 Baron de Schilling invented a needle telegraph in 
 1832, at St. Petersburg. His instrument had five nee- 
 dles, which, by their vibrations to the right or left, in- 
 dicated signals. He afterward improved his instru- 
 ment, using but one needle. 
 
 In 1837 Dr. Steinheil had a telegraphic instrument 
 working a distance of 12 miles. His telegraph of one 
 wire, and either one or t^^o magnetic needles, as might 
 be desired, made permanent marks on paper, and also 
 telegraphed by sound. "When writing, his needles were 
 
 furnished with ink-tubes, and by their motions marks 
 were recorded on paper; when telegraphing by sound, 
 the needles were made to strike bells of different tones. 
 He used the earth as part of the circuit. This was 
 very nearly a perfect instrument, and is infinitely su- 
 perior to the majority of telegraphic instruments since 
 invented. 
 
 June 12, 1837, Messrs. Cooke & Wheatstone, in En- 
 gland, obtained a patent for "improvements in giv- 
 ing signals and sounding alarms in distant places, by 
 means of electric currents transmitted through metal- 
 lic circuits." This seems to have been the first tele- 
 graph that was patented in Europe. . Cooke & Wheat- 
 stone's first telegraph was a needle telegraph. They 
 used five magnetic needles and five wires. An electrd- 
 magnet was used to sound an alarm. A second patent, 
 taken out by Cooke only, was issued in April, 1838. 
 These instruments were found to be very imperfect, 
 and after a short trial were abandoned. 
 
 A different form of telegraph, the invention of the 
 same parties, having but two needles, has, until very 
 recently, been in general use in England ; but the 
 Morse system is now being adopted there and upon 
 the Continent. 
 
 The last patent taken out by Cooke & Wheatstone is 
 dated May 0, 1845. During the same year an act of 
 Parliament was obtained incorporating '* The Electric 
 Telegraph Company," working these patents. 
 
 The needle telegraph is, comparatively, very slow; 
 the average speed per message being but 14 words per 
 minute. It is, Iiowever, yet extensively used in En- 
 gland, Cooke & Wheatstone took out a patent in 
 America, but their instrument was never practically 
 used in the United States, 
 
 Since Cooke & Wheatstone's first patent, upward of 
 40 patents have been taken out in England alone. 
 Very few of the instruments since invented are in 
 practical operation. 
 
 Morse's Telegraph. — In the year 1832 Professor S. F. 
 B. Morse first conceived the idea of an electric tele- 
 graph ; and in the year 1835 he had a telegraph con- 
 structed, the basis of his present simpje and beautiful 
 instrument. In September, 1837, he exhibited his in- 
 strument at the New York University, working through 
 1700 feet of wire. 
 
 Morse applied for a patent in the United States in 
 April, 1838. This application was afterward with- 
 drawn, and his patent was not taken out until June, 
 1840. In 1842 he petitioned Congress, who appropri- 
 ated $30,000 to his use for the construction of a line 
 between Washington and Baltimore. In June, 1814, 
 Morse had his invention in successful operation be- 
 tween Washington and Baltimore — a distance of 40 
 miles. This was the only line in the United States 
 constructed under government patronage. 
 
 The Morse Electro-magnetic Telegraph consists 
 mainly of two parts — the receiving magnet and the 
 registering apparatus. The receiving magnet is sur- 
 rounded bj' fine wire, and is of the horseshoe form. 
 An adjustable armature is placed before the poles of 
 the receiving magnet. The main circuit passes un- 
 broken tlirough the receiving magnet to the next sta- 
 tion. 
 
 The registering apparatus has a powerful horse-shoe 
 magnet placed vertically. Above the poles of the 
 magnet is an armature attached to one end of a mova- 
 l)le lever, on the other end of which is a steel style 
 for the purpose of impressing marks on paper placed 
 immediately above the style. Intelligence is trans- 
 mitted by means of breaking and closing the main 
 circuit. For this purpose a small key is employed. 
 When this key is presseil down, the current passes to 
 the receiving magnet of the distant station, causing 
 the receiving magnet to close the local circuit. On the 
 local circuit being closed, the registering magnet be- 
 comes excited and attracts the armature downward, 
 causing a mark on the paper, placed above the lever of 
 
TEL 
 
 1829 
 
 TEL 
 
 the armature. On the circuit being opened again by 
 the operator's raising the key, all returns to its usual 
 quiescentposition. This operation is performed at every 
 closing and breaking of the circuit. By keeping the 
 key depressed for an instant, a dot is made ; if it is 
 depressed for a longer time, a line. A combination of 
 dots and lines forms the telegraphic alphabet used with 
 this system. The speed of this instrument is, in the 
 hands of an expert, about twenty words per minute. 
 
 Professor Morse's instrument was for some time tlie 
 only instrument in use in this country, and is now 
 used to a greater extent than all other telegraphs com- 
 bined. 
 
 The House Telegraph, the invention of Royal E. 
 House, differs materially from all previously invented 
 telegraphic instruments, printing messages in the or- 
 dinary Roman letters. Directly under a set of keys 
 like those of the piano-forte is a shaft inclosed by a cyl- 
 inder. This shaft is made to revolve rapidly by 
 means of a treadle. The shaft and cylinder are so 
 arranged that the cylinder can be arrested while the 
 shaft still revolves. On one end of this cylinder is a 
 brass wheel having fourteen teeth. A spring is so 
 arranged, that when the shaft and cylinder revolve 
 it will alternately strike a tooth of this brass wheel 
 and pass into an open space ; thus alternately break- 
 ing and closing the electric circuit. On the cylinder 
 two lines of teeth project, fourteen in each line, one 
 for each tooth and each space of the circuit wheel. 
 These teeth are immediately below the keys, so that 
 by pressing down a key the motion of the cylinder is 
 stopped. By making the cylinder revolve, the circuit 
 is rapidly broken and closed, which continues till a 
 key is depressed. On the key being released, the re- 
 volution goes on as before. The electrical pulsations 
 produced by the breaking and closing of the circuit are 
 conveyed to the magnet of the distant instrument, each 
 pulsation causing the magnet to act. 
 
 The type-wheel, a wheel having the letters of the 
 alphabet cut upon it, is made to revolve, but is so 
 checked by an escapement wheel that only one letter 
 goes forward at a time. This escapement is connected 
 by a lever with the piston of an air-chamber. This 
 piston is caused to move horizontally backward and 
 forward, by means of compressed air admitted altern- 
 ately on different sides of the piston. A valve at- 
 tached to the magnet regulates the pressure of the air 
 on the piston. Every breaking and closing of the 
 circuit causes the magnet, piston, and escape to act, 
 so that for every time the circuit is broken or closed 
 the type-wheel is advanced one letter. If any letter 
 of the type-wheel is placed in a certain position, and 
 the key corresponding to it is depressed, raised, and 
 again depressed, the circuit wheel at the transmitting 
 station and the type-wheel at the receiving station 
 make one revolution, bringing the letter back to its 
 former position. Anj' other letter is brought into the 
 ' required position by pressing down its key on the key- 
 board of the instrument. The letter first brought into 
 position is the dash. The type-wheel is stopped at 
 the dash, after which the printing goes regularly on as 
 the keys are depressed. Immediately before the type- 
 wheel is the press, containing a narrow strip of paper. 
 At the depression of a key the type-wheel stops, sets a 
 crank in motion, which presses the paper forcibly 
 against the letter opposite to it on the type-wheel. 
 On the key being raised, the type-wheel revolves until 
 the depression of another key, which again unlocks 
 the press and prints a letter. 
 
 The electric current is used in this instrument to 
 preserve equal time, that the letters in one machine 
 may correspond to those in the other. The number of 
 pulsations required to indicate a succession of letters is 
 exceedingly unequal ; from a to 6 requires one, from 
 A to A twenty-eight pulsations. 
 
 House obtained a second patent in December, 1852. 
 The House instrument is used to a limited extent in 
 
 this country. It is still less used in England, where 
 it is known as Jacob Brett's Telegraph. This instru- 
 ment is more rapid than Morse's, printing accurately 
 from twenty-five to thirty words per minute. 
 
 The Hughes Telegraph is the invention of David E. 
 Hughes, of Kentucky, who obtained a patent in 1855 
 and in 1858. This, like the House Telegraph, is a print- 
 ing telegraph, but in principle and in mechanism it is 
 totally unlike that instrument. 
 
 The Hughes system of telegraphing combines not 
 only all the advantages of all other existing systems, 
 but reduces the labor which electricity has to perform 
 to the lowest possible point. In all other systems it 
 requires several distinct electrical impulses to form a 
 single letter. In the House system, which is based 
 upon the number of waves sent, the average number of 
 impulses required to determine the intended letter is 
 seven : in the Morse system, which is based upon the 
 number and duration of the waves sent, the average is 
 three and a half. To print a letter every closing or 
 breaking of the circuit, so that every electrical impulse 
 should determine a letter, has long been a desidera- 
 tum, more particularly since the discovery that it re- 
 quires an appreciable time to charge a long wire with 
 electricit}' ; so that on long circuits we should be 
 obliged to send a less number of electrical waves in a 
 given time than on a short circuit. On submerged 
 cables this and other effects are still more marked, re- 
 ducing the speed of transmission upward of two-thirds. 
 If every wave, instead of every three waves, produced 
 a letter, it is evident enough that the speed of trans- 
 mission through the cable would be equal to that of 
 the air-lines with the systems now in use, and that the 
 speed of the air-lines would be increased two-thirds. 
 The Hughes system uses but one electrical impulse per 
 letter, and by the use of a new and exceedingly sensi- 
 tive magnet can work on lines of far greater length, 
 and with a rapidity exceeding that of any telegraph 
 now in existence. 
 
 To carry out the one-wave system, it is essential 
 that the type-wheels of the difierent instruments should 
 revolve at precisely the same speed, so that the same 
 letter on each type-wheel should ba opposite a given 
 point at the same time. Clock-work governed bj 
 means of a pendulum would be too slow for any prac. 
 tical use. Instead of a pendulum, Hughes employs a^ 
 a governor a vibrating spring. This spring allows the 
 type-wheels to revolve with any desired degree of 
 rapidity. This governor is dependent for its correct ac- 
 tion on a law of acoustics, viz., "that a certain num- 
 ber of vibrations per second produces a certain musical 
 tone ; and if there are two or more springs of the same 
 tone, they invai'iably give the same number of vibra- 
 tions per second." If these springs by their vibrations 
 are made to unlock an escapement, it follows that all 
 instruments governed by springs of the same tone must 
 revolve in exactly the same time. The type-wheels,' 
 thus governed, revolve at the rate of 100 revolutions 
 per minute, and the average number of letters sent at 
 each revolution being two, it follows that the speed of 
 the instrument is 200 letters per minute, equal to about 
 forty words. 
 
 This is about the speed that an ordinary operator 
 touches the keys, but not by anj' means the utmost 
 speed of the instrument, as the type-wheels would re- 
 volve with undeviating accuracy at a speed of 600 in- 
 stead of 100 revolutions per minute. 
 
 The magnet of the Hughes instrument, which re- 
 ceives the electric current from the distant station, is 
 a combination of a natural and an electro-magnet. 'The 
 attractive power of the natural magnet, exerted through 
 the electro-magnet, holds a small armature in contact 
 with the poles of the electro-magnet. A spring at- 
 tached to the armature is so adjusted as nearly to pull 
 the armature away from the poles of the electro-mag- 
 net. The slightest change in polarity causes the 
 spring to pull the armature away from its resting- 
 
TEL 
 
 1830 
 
 TEL 
 
 place. The armature is restored to its place by means 
 of a lever, which acts upon it at the instant it is pulled 
 away from the electro-magnet's poles. This arrange- 
 ment employs the current of electricity merely to effect 
 a slight change in the force by which the armature is 
 held to the magnet's poles, and it is so remarkably 
 sensitive that the mere contact of a piece of zinc against 
 a copper wire has been found amply sufflcient to work 
 the magnet. From its sensitiveness it requires scarce- 
 ly a tenth of the battery-power used by the most sensi- 
 tive of other systems. 
 
 Another wonderful and beautiful feature of this in- 
 strument is its power of writing both ways, sending 
 and receiving messages at the same instant over one 
 wire. This instrument thus doubles the capacity of 
 the wire, making it do the service of two ; transmitting 
 with certainty and accuracy 200 letters each way per 
 minute, an actual transmission of 400 letters, or 80 
 words, per minute. This result is accomplished by 
 means of a peculiar arrangement of the batteries and 
 magnets, so that the current from the transmitting sta- 
 tion does not influence its own magnet, while it affects 
 that of the receiving station, each magnet thus being 
 placed under control of the distant operator. 
 
 The machinery which accomplishes results so aston- 
 ishing is simple in the extreme. It consists mainly of 
 four clock-wheels used to turn the type-wheel. These 
 wheels are governed by the vibrating spring before ex- 
 plained. At the moment a current from the distant 
 station enters the magnet the armature flies off, opens 
 a detent which causes a small press to be locked to the 
 wheel-work of the instrnment, and then to press a strip 
 of paper against the letter of the type-wheel opposite 
 the press at that instant, A current is sent upon the 
 line by means of kej'S arranged like those of a piano, 
 and having the letters of the alphabet engraved upon 
 them. At the moment one of these kej-s is depressed 
 the magnet of the receiving station is made to act, 
 and the press to print the letter corresponding to the 
 touched key. The receiving operator has nothing to 
 do but to tear off the messages as they arrive. 
 
 This instrument, after more than ten years of perse- 
 vering thought and labor, is at last perfected, and now 
 fulfills all the requisites of a perfect telegraph instru- 
 ment. — more than realizing all that has ever been 
 claimed for it by the inventor. The remarkable in- 
 genuity, talent, and knowledge of the principles of 
 electrical science displayed by Professor Hughes, in the 
 invention of his beautiful machine, deservedly place 
 him foremost in the ranks of the laborers in this branch 
 of art, and justify his claim of having invented a tele- 
 graph instrument which, for speed, neatness, and econ- 
 omy, is without a rival. 
 
 The numerous advantages that the Hughes instru- 
 ment possesses over all other existing systems, par- 
 ticularly in the matter of speed and power of working 
 on long circuits, will probably give it the preference 
 in the selection of telegraphic machines with which to 
 work the Atlantic Submarine cable. Indeed it may 
 well be doubted if any other system can be made prac- 
 tically available for that purpose. 
 
 The following brief summary of the telegraph lines 
 of the world at the close of the year 1857 will furnish 
 some idea of the importance of the telegraphic art, and 
 of its claims to public attention : 
 
 United States have upward of 36,000 miles of telegraph, em- 
 ploying a capital, aB near as can be ascertained, of $4,000,000. 
 The instruments used are the Hughes, House, and Morse 
 machines. 
 
 British Provinces have 5000 miles of telegraph, employing 
 a capital of $S00,000. 
 
 Cuba a7id Mexico have short and unreliable lines, which are 
 controlled by the governments. 
 
 Sngland has about 10,000 miles of telegraph lines— upward 
 of 40,000 miles of conducting wire— employing a capital esti- 
 mated at a million and a half pounds sterling. In England 
 the government has the power of ordering all government 
 messages to take precedence of any other communications. 
 
 and when deemed necessary all telegraphs are required to be 
 placed at the sole disposal of the government. Only one in- 
 stance of this kind has occurred ; on the occasion of the an- 
 ticipated (Jhartist riots in April, 1849. 
 
 J/'raTice has 8000 miles of telegraph in operation, under the 
 exclusive control of the government. 
 
 Belgium has about 550 miles of telegraph lines, constructed 
 aud controlled by the goverament. 
 
 GerTnany and Austiia have nearly 10,000 miles of tele- 
 graph, controlled by the governments. 
 
 Prussia has about 4000 miles of telegraph in operation. 
 The wires are mostly underground — controlled by the gov- 
 ernment. 
 BoUand has 600 miles of telegraph. 
 Saxony and Bavaria have government lines of about 1700 
 miles. 
 
 Italy has 2600 miles, controlled by its different govern- 
 ments. 
 
 Svntzerland has 1500 miles, under control of the Federal 
 government. 
 
 Spain and Portugal have some 800 miles — controlled by the 
 governments. 
 
 Bussia — Of the number and extent of Russian telegraph 
 lines little is known. As near as can be estimated, they ex- 
 tend over 5000 miles — under government control. 
 
 India has now in operation 50OO miles of telegraph, con- 
 structed and controlled by the East India Company. 
 
 Aitstralia has 500 miles in operation, and 800 miles nearly 
 or quite completed. 
 
 Eeoapituxation. 
 
 Miles. 
 
 America 45,000 
 
 England 10,000 
 
 France 8,000 
 
 Germany and Austria 10,000 
 
 Prussia 4,000 
 
 Russia 6,000 
 
 Rest of Europe T,660 
 
 India 5,000 
 
 Australia 1,200 
 
 Other parts of the world 500 
 
 Total length of telegraph lines. .. 95,a60 
 The number of messages passing over all lines in the 
 United States is estimated at about 4,000,000 per 
 annum. 
 
 In addition to the land lines, numerous submarine 
 cables have been laid in different parts of the world. 
 Annexed is a brief account of the different submarine 
 cables, lengths, when laid, etc. 
 
 The first submarine cable was laid between Dover, 
 England, andCalais, France, during August, 1850. This 
 cable was about 24 miles in length. Electrical com- 
 munication between England and France continued 
 uninterrupted for about a month, wheu the cable was 
 broken. Upon examination it was found that the 
 chafing of the cable against rocks off Cape Grienez had 
 caused it to part. A second cable was immediately 
 relaid, larger and stronger than its predecessor, which 
 has remained in good working order up to the present 
 time. 
 
 In May, 1852, a submarine cable was successfully 
 laid between Holyhead and Howth, thus connecting 
 England with Ireland. This cable is 64 miles in 
 length. 
 
 During May, 1853, " the Port Patrick and Carrickfer- 
 gus" cable, 24 miles in length, connecting Scotland and 
 Ireland, was laid. 
 
 In June, 1854, a cable 115 miles in length was laid 
 between Orfordness, England, and the Hague, Holland. 
 A third cable, 75 miles in length, was laid in 1852, 
 between Dover and Ostend. 
 
 In 1854 cables from Italy to Corsica, thence to Sar- 
 dinia, were, after much difficulty, successfully laid 
 down, a distance of about 76 miles. 
 
 The New York, Newfoundland, and London Tele- 
 graph Company, in 1855 made an attempt to connect 
 the islands of Newfoundland and Cape Breton. The 
 attempt was unsuccessful. In 1856 another attempt 
 was made, resulting in complete success. 
 
 Summary of Submarine Cables. — The following is a 
 correct table of the number and length of the sub- 
 marine cables laid down in different parts of the 
 world : 
 
TEL 
 
 1831 
 
 TEN 
 
 Cabl... 
 
 Miles. 
 
 Wlnii. 
 
 Date. 
 
 Dover and Calais 
 
 Dover and Osteiid 
 
 T5 
 65 
 115 
 13 
 13 
 66 
 10 
 16 
 
 5 
 12 
 
 4 
 
 3m 
 
 60 
 1 
 2i 
 6 
 
 T4 
 
 104 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 10 
 
 1 
 20 
 
 4 
 6 
 1 
 3 
 6 
 6 
 6 
 6 
 3 
 3 
 3 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 S 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 4 
 
 18B1 
 1882 
 1852 
 1S53 
 1853 
 1853 
 1854 
 1854 
 1854 
 1864 
 1855 
 1855 
 
 1865 
 
 1855 
 18D6 
 
 i866 
 1866 
 
 1850 
 
 1856 
 1856 
 
 1S5T 
 
 1851 
 1856 
 1855 
 1856 
 
 
 
 
 
 Italy and Corsica i . . . . . 
 
 Corgica and Sardinia i . . , 
 
 Denmark, across the Great Belt;. ...-.•. 
 Denmark, across the Little Belt 
 
 Across the Frith of Forth (Scotland) . . . 
 
 Vavna and Balaklava (across the Black 
 
 Sea) 
 
 
 Across the Danube, at Shumla 
 
 
 Across the Gulf of St. Lawrence 
 
 Across the Straits of Northumberland, 
 
 Across the Bosphorus, at Kandili 
 
 Across tlie Gut of Kanso, Nova Scotia. . 
 Six cables across the mcuthsof the Dan- 
 ube, at the Isle of Serpents, each one ' 
 ' mile long and having one' conductor > 
 Across the Mississippi, at Paducah 
 
 Across the St. Lawrence, at Quebeq 
 
 Across the Soland, Isle of Wight (tog.: 
 
 Total length of submarine cables. . . 
 
 9B0 
 
 1 1 
 
 wires, through England, Ireland, and the Irish Sea, con- 
 nected for this experiment. Signals were sent through- 
 out the entire distance with rapidity and certainty, 
 260 being transmitted per minute. Professor Morse, 
 who was present, wrote as follows : " There can be no 
 question but that, with a cable containing a single con- 
 ducting wire, of a size not exceeding that through 
 which we worked, it would be easy to telegraph from 
 Ireland to Newfoundland at the speed of at least eight 
 or ten words per minute. Take it at ten words in the 
 minute, and allowing ten words for name and address, 
 we can safely calculate upon the transmission of a 
 twenty-words' message in three minutes; * * * * or 
 fourteen thousand four hundred words per day. In 
 one word, the doubts are resolved — the difficulties over- 
 come ; success is within our reach ; and the great feat 
 of the century must shortly be accomplished." 
 
 The cost of the telegraph cable has been as follows : 
 
 Price deep-sea wire per mile 
 
 Price spun yam and iron wire per mile . 
 
 Price outside tar per mile 
 
 Total per mile . 
 
 265 
 20 
 
 The total length of submarine cables laid down is 
 950 miles, and the length of the conducting wires in 
 all is 2660 miles. Should the attempt to lay the great 
 Atlantic Submarine Cable next June be successful, the 
 length of cable laid down will be increased to 2564, and 
 the length of conducting wires to 4075 miles. 
 
 The Atlantic Telegraph. — In the year 1856 Cyrus 
 W. Field visited England. The result of his visit was 
 the formation of the Atlantic Telegraph Company, with 
 a capital of £350,000, for the purpose of connecting 
 Europe with America by a submarine telegraph cable. 
 In August, 1857, an attempt was made to lay down the 
 Atlantic Submarine Cable, resulting in a disastrous 
 failure. The cable was 2500 miles in length, weighing 
 nearly one ton per mile, capable of bearing u direct 
 strain of over five tons without fracture. The centre 
 of the cable was formed by seven fine copper wires, 
 twisted into a cord Jg. of an inch thick. This strand 
 was coated with gutta percha, forming a small rope J 
 of an inch thick ; then coated with hempen twine soaked 
 in pitch and tar ; lastly, an external sheathing of 18 
 iron wires, each wire being a strand of seven finer wires, 
 making in all 126 wires. The submersion was com- 
 menced on the oth August, 1857. There were present 
 the six steamers, Niagara, Agamemnon, Leopard, Sus- 
 quehanna, Willing, and Mind, intended to assist in vari- 
 ous parts of the operation. The cable came up from the 
 hold of the ship, around a central block, so to the open 
 space above decks ; it was there wound round grooved 
 sheaths, geared together by cogs, and firmly planted 
 on girders. Thence it passed over a fifth sheath, out 
 over the stern into the sea, sinking by its own weight. 
 A trifling accident happened on the 6th ; this was re- 
 paired; and on the 11th, 380 miles (statute) had been 
 submerged. The engineer here concluded that there 
 was too much "slack" in the cable's course, and some 
 modification in the machinery was consequent!)' made. 
 This appears to have been badly attended to by a sub- 
 ordinate. The cable snapped, and thus ended the at- 
 tempt of 1857. 
 
 But little doubt is now entertained that the year 
 1858 will see this great enterprise successfully accom- 
 plished, and the Atlantic Submarine Cable a fixed fact. 
 
 In regard to the possibility of any transmission of 
 signals with rapidity sufficient for practical use, it may 
 be stated that on the 9th of October, 1856, a large num- 
 ber of scientific men met at the offices of the Magnetic 
 Telegraph Company, in old Broad Street London, En- 
 gland, to witness the operation of telegraphing through 
 upward of 2000 miles of subterranean and submarine 
 
 For 2600 mUcs $1,212,500 
 
 For 10 miles deep-sea cable, at $1450 per mile 14,500 
 
 For 25 miles shore ends, at $1250 per mile. . . 31,280 
 
 Total cost $1,253,250 
 
 We learn from the London Times that a prospectus 
 has been issued of a company to complete the long-ex- 
 pected telegraphic communication with British Indian 
 territories. It is to be called the European and In- 
 dian Junction Telegraph Company, with a capital of 
 £200,000, in £10 shares.' The line selected is the same 
 as that for the Euphrates Hallway — namely, from the 
 port of Seleucia, on the Mediterranean, to the head of 
 the Persian Gulf, following the valley of the Euphrates ; 
 and it will connect, on the one hand, with the Austrian 
 system of telegraphs, which is to be carried to Seleucia, 
 and on the other with a cable to be laid by the East 
 India Company from the Persian Gulf to the Indian 
 port of Kurrachee. It will, therefore, supply the only 
 linlc necessary to enable messages to be transmitted 
 from London to any of the several Presidencies. Direct 
 pecuniary support is expected from the government 
 and the East India Company, together with a conces- 
 sion from Turkey, and no call is to be made until these 
 arrangements shall have been completed. One half 
 the shares are to be allotted to the subscribers to the 
 Euphrates Eailway, and the other half to the public. 
 
 This, in connection with the proposed construction 
 of a continuous line of railroad from Germany to Cal- 
 cutta, shows that the trade of the East is gradually as- 
 suming more importance in the eyes of Em'opean capi- 
 talists and merchants. 
 
 Tender, Legal. Legal tender of money varies in 
 different countries. Thus, in England, Bank of En- 
 gland notes (except by the bank itself) and gold are 
 legal tender for any amount. Silver to the amount 
 of 40 shillings only. 
 
 In the United States, the gold and silver coins of 
 the United States were made legal tender by' the act 
 of Januarj' 18, 1837, viz. : That dollars, half-dollars, 
 quarter-dollars, dimes, and half-dimes, shall be legal 
 tender, according to their nominal value, for any sums 
 whatever ; the gold eagle at ten dollars, the half-eagle 
 at five dollars, and the quarter-eagle for two and a half 
 dollars. By the act of 1849 the coinage of the double 
 eagle, value twenty dollars, and of the gold dollar, was 
 authorized ; both of which are legal tender for any 
 amount. — See Coinage. 
 
 Owing to the reduced weight of the new silver coins 
 authorized by Congress 3d March, 1851, and 21st Feb- 
 ruary, 1853, they are no longer legal tender except in 
 small sums, viz. ; 
 
 Three-cent pieces (Act March, 1861, and 1853) 30 cts. 
 
 Half-dollars, 192 grains each, 2lBt Feb., 1861. , 
 
 Quarter-dollars 96 " " " " . . i *,. ^- 
 
 Dimes 38-40 " " " •' . f >l« "" 
 
 Half-dimes 19-20 " " " " 
 
TEN 
 
 1832 
 
 TEN 
 
 By the act of February, 1857, "all former acts au- 
 thorizing the currency of foreign gold and silver coins, 
 and declaring the same a legal tender in payment of 
 debts, are hereby repealed." 
 
 In the absence of any special agreement, the only 
 payment known to the law is by cash. The tender 
 should properly be in cash, and must be so, if that is 
 required. A tender of a larger sum than is due, with a 
 requirement of change or of the balance, is not good. 
 A lawful tender, and payment of the money into court, 
 is a good defense to an action for the debt. But the 
 creditor may break down this defense by proving that 
 he demanded the money of the debtor, and the debtor 
 refused to give it, subsequently to the tender. — Par- 
 sons on Mercantile Law. 
 
 Teneriffe, the largest island of the group called 
 the Canaries, lies between Canary and Gomera. It is 
 of an irregular shape, 60 miles in length, with an ex- 
 treme breadth of 30 miles. Not more than one-seventh 
 is cultivable. A chain of mountains traverses the isl- 
 and in the direction of its greatest length, and in the 
 middle of the broadest part rises the celebrated peak 
 locally known as the Pico de Teyde, which, with its 
 supports and spurs, occupies nearly two-thirds of the 
 whole island. 
 
 The Canary Islands are in the North Atlantic Ocean, 
 between lat. 27° 40' and 29° 30' N., and long. 13° 30' 
 and 18° 20' AV. The names of the seven principal 
 
 COMMEttOE or THE United States with Teneeifpe and the Canaries, feom October 1, 1820, to July 1, 185T. 
 
 islands, their respective area in English square miles, 
 and their population in 1835, are given in the follow- 
 ing table : 
 
 lolanda. Ana. Population. 
 
 Teneriffe 87T 86,000 
 
 Grand Canary 7B8 68,000 
 
 Palma 718 33,000 
 
 Lanzarote 323 17,400 
 
 Fucrtaventura 326 13,800 
 
 Gomera 169 11,700 
 
 Hierro 82 4,400 
 
 Formerly the total annual produce was estimated 
 at about 40,000 pipes, of which 25,000 pipes were pro- 
 duced in Teneriffe. 13etween 8000 and 9000 pipes were 
 exported. The chief exportsare wine, cochineal, barilla, 
 and orchilla. The imports consist of woolen, silk, cot- 
 ton, and iron manufactures, glass, etc. 
 
 Principal Ports. — The ports of Santa Cruz de Tene- 
 riffe, Orotana, Ciudad Eeal de los Palmas, Aneciffe de 
 Langarole, Puerto de Cabras, and San Sebastian, in 
 the Canary Islands, having been declared free by royal 
 decree proclaimed on the 10th of October, 1852, and 
 vessels of the United States and their cargoes arriving 
 in said ports being thus placed on the same footing; 
 with those of Spain, no discriminating duty is levied 
 on Spanish vessels and their cargoes arriving from those 
 ports in the ports of the United States; provided that 
 on every such arrival the required consular certificate 
 be filed with the collector of the port. — See Canakies. 
 
 Years eudiog 
 
 Exports, 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Totni. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Whereof there was in 
 Bullion and Specie. 
 
 Import, 
 
 Tonnnge cleared. 
 
 American. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Sept. 30, 1821. 
 1822. 
 1823. . 
 1824. . 
 1826. 
 1826.. 
 1827. 
 1828. 
 1829. 
 1830. . 
 
 $74,828 
 86,907 
 58,002 
 42,845 
 70,380 
 42,761 
 46,163 
 33,529 
 42,839 
 19,040 
 
 $48, lis? 
 29,140 
 21,216 
 20,144 
 21,271 
 21,742 
 39,817 
 8,661 
 23,317 
 CIO 
 
 $123,465 
 115,077 
 79,218 
 62,989 
 91,651 
 64503 
 85,980 
 42,080 
 66,158 
 19,650 
 
 $265,089 
 241,196 
 203,484 
 95,579 
 165,718 
 173,399 
 123,360 
 222,740 
 26,283 
 99,878 
 
 $7,284 
 3,660 
 
 6,767 
 6,240 
 4,607 
 4,316 
 2,350 
 8,108 
 
 Total..' 
 
 Sept. 80, 1831 
 
 1832 
 
 1833 
 
 1834 
 
 1S35 
 
 1830 
 
 1837 
 
 1838 
 
 1839 
 
 1840 
 
 Total... 
 
 $516,324 
 
 $54,S3t 
 14,567 
 24,313 
 20,638 
 40,195 
 21,687 
 27,553 
 34,619 
 15,672 
 11,816 
 
 $234,445 
 
 $3,446 
 7,851 
 16,355 
 787 
 12,710 
 4,264 
 7,648 
 18,686 
 11,939 
 11,579 
 
 $750,769 
 
 $38,377 
 22,418 
 39,668 
 21,425 
 52,905 
 25,951 
 36,201 
 63,305- 
 27,511 
 23,395 
 
 $1,615,725 
 
 $126,159 
 151,837 
 148,090 
 148,130 
 106,862 
 200,963 
 2,';5,276 
 151,366 
 1C6,755 
 160,522 
 
 $43,322 
 
 $6,976 
 8,0l]0 
 
 2,C61 
 7,200 
 .12,540 
 11,652 
 9,000 
 
 Sept. 30,1841 
 
 1842 
 
 9 moB., 1843' 
 
 June 30, 1844 
 
 1845 
 
 1846 
 
 1847 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 
 
 1850 
 
 Total... 
 
 $246,891 
 
 $12,290 
 12,723 
 
 7,099 
 14,493 
 
 6,8S5 
 13,072 
 15,148 
 
 9,921 
 
 , 17,840 
 
 20,524 
 
 $94,265 
 
 $3,499 
 
 518 
 
 3,925 
 
 1,042 
 
 4,840 
 
 1,229 
 
 654 
 
 5,065 
 
 $340,156 
 
 $15,789 
 13,241 
 11,024 
 16,535 
 5,895 
 17,912 
 15,148 
 11,150 
 18,494 
 25,689 
 
 $1,730,980 
 
 $144,654 
 91,411 
 16,058 
 61,658 
 55,032 
 
 02,o:c 
 
 61,804 
 36,061 
 38;919 
 85,223 
 
 $62,870 
 
 $4,840 
 
 June 30, 1861., 
 1852. . 
 1853. , 
 1854.. 
 1855.. 
 1853.. 
 1867.. 
 
 $129,005 
 
 $18,640 
 16,471 
 28,215 
 19,316 
 43,211 
 30,941 
 89,027 
 
 $20,772 
 
 $5,639 
 
 45 
 
 1,000 
 
 804 
 
 3,086 
 
 2,506 
 
 915 
 
 $149,777 
 
 $19,179 
 16,516 
 24,218 
 20,120 
 46,297 
 33,446 
 89,942 
 
 $650,970 
 
 $27,718 
 61,616 
 84,021 
 39,598 
 45,155 
 16,704 
 44,065 
 
 $4,840 
 
 $470 
 
 600 
 
 3,000 
 
 4,064 
 1,700 
 
 8,003 
 2,849 
 2,296 
 1,732 
 8,067 
 1,901 
 2,163 
 1,616 
 1,714 
 7S6 
 
 130 
 119 
 
 $10,484 
 
 $2,160 
 
 679 
 670 
 
 6DS 
 190 
 
 21,037 
 
 1,418 
 925 
 2,342 
 1,826 
 2,151 
 1,616 
 2,157 
 2.177 
 1,192 
 713 
 
 341 
 
 97 
 352 
 194 
 
 $4,232 
 
 $1,900 
 
 16,516 
 
 1,200 
 426 
 486 
 861 
 467 
 645 
 856 
 839 
 9)2 
 C47 
 
 143 
 887 
 
 115 
 
 236 
 
 1376 
 
 $1,900 
 
 7.839 
 
 753 
 T!3 
 1,046 
 1,046 
 2,147 
 2,340 
 3,749 
 
 2734 
 
 157 
 1133 
 1235 
 
 1356 
 1118 
 1090 
 
 Nine mouthB to Jane 30, and the fiscal year from this time begins July 1. 
 
 Tennessee, one of the United States, lies between 
 lat. 35° and 36° 30' N., and long. 81° 30' and 90° 10' 
 W. Its mean length is 400 miles, and its mean breadth 
 114 miles, containing 44,000 square miles. Population 
 in 1790 was 35, 691; in 1800, 105,602; in 1810, 261,727; 
 in 1820, 422,813; in 1830, 681,904; in 1840, 829,210; 
 and in 1850, 1,002,625. The soil is various, but gener- 
 ally fertile. The western part has a dark rich soil; in 
 the middle are great quantities of excellent land. In 
 
 the eastern part the mountains are mostly sterile but 
 the valleys are very fertile. The country has a great 
 profusion of native timber, poplar, hickory, walnut, oak, 
 beach, sycamore, locust, cherry, sugar-maple, etc. There 
 are many medicinal plants. The soil produces abund- 
 antly cotton and tobacco, the staple commodities of the 
 State ; also grain, grass, and fruit. The eastern por- 
 tion of the State contains the principal mineral deposits, 
 among which are ores of iron, copper, lead, and beds 
 
TER 
 
 ,1833 
 
 TEX 
 
 of coal. Mineral springs occur ; granite and limestone 
 abound. In the latter formation are many caverns 
 of great extent ; some have been explored for miles. 
 There were in this State in 1850, 6,176,173 acres of land 
 improved, and 13,808,849 unimproved land in farms. 
 Cash value of farms, $97,851,212; and the value of 
 implements and machinery, $5,360,210. Live Stock. — 
 Horses, 270,636 ; asses and mules, 75,303 ; milch cows, 
 250,456; working oxen, 86,256; other cattle, 414,051; 
 sheep, 811,591; swine, 3,104,800; value of live stock, 
 $29,978,016. 
 
 Agricultural Products, etc. — Wheat, 1,619,386 bush- 
 els; rye, 89,137; Indian corn, 52,276,223; oats, 7,703,086; 
 barley, 2737; buckwheat, 19,427; peas and beans, 
 369,321 ; potatoes, 1,067,844 ; sweet potatoes, 2,777,716 ; 
 rice, 258,864 lbs. ; value of products of the orchard, 
 $52,894; produce of market gardens, $97,183; pounds 
 of butter made, 3,139,685 ; of cheese, 177,681 ; sugar, 
 248 hhds. ; maple-sugar, 158,567 lbs. ; molasses, 7223 
 gallons; beeswax and honey, 1,036,572 lbs.; wool, 
 1,364,378 lbs. produced ; cotton, 194,532 ; flax, 368,131 ; 
 silk cocoons, 1923 ; hops, 1032 ; tobacco, 20,148,932 lbs. ; 
 hay, 74,091 tons; hemp, 597 tons; clover-seeds, 5096 
 bushels ; other grass seeds, 9118 ; flax-seed, 18,904 ; and 
 were made, 92 gallons of wine ; value of home-made 
 manufactures, $3,137,000; and of slaughtered animals, 
 $6,401,000. 
 
 The Tennessee Eiver has its chief source in this State ; 
 it is 1260 miles long, and is navigable for steamboats 
 to Florence in Alabama, 276 miles above Its entrance 
 into the Ohio, and from the head of the Muscle Shoals 
 for boats 250 miles farther. Cumberland Eiver, which, 
 rising in Kentucky, runs mainly in Tennessee, is navi- 
 gable for steamboats 198 miles to Nashville, and for 
 boats 300 farther. It enters the Ohio Kiver in Ken- 
 tucky, 60 miles from the Mississippi Eiver. The Hol- 
 ston. Clinch, French, Broad, and Hiwassee, are branches 
 of the Tennessee ; Obion, Forked Deer, and Wolf rivers, 
 in the western part of the State, flow into the Missis- 
 sippi, and are navigable for boats. 
 
 Manufactures, etc. — There were in the State in 1860, 
 33 cotton factories, with a capital invested of $669,600, 
 employing 310 males and 681 females, producing 363,250 
 yards of sheeting,etc., and 2,326,260 lbs. of yarn, val- 
 ued at $510,624; four woolen factories, with a capital 
 of $10,900, employing fifteen males and two females, 
 manufacturing articles valued at $6310 ; 23 establish- 
 ments making pig-iron, with a capital of $1,021,400, 
 employing 1822 persons, producing 30,420 tons of pig- 
 iron, etc., valued at $676,100 ; 16 establishments with 
 a capital of $139,500, employing 269 persons, and mak- 
 ing 3384 tons of castings, etc., valued at $264,325 ; 42 
 establishments with a capital of $765,050, employing 
 786 persons, manufacturing 10,348 tons of wrought iron, 
 etc., valued at $670,618. Capital invested in manu- 
 factures, $7,044,144; value of manufactured articles, 
 $9,443,701. There were in this State in 1857, 51 banks 
 and branches, with an aggregate cash capital of 
 $10,576,000 ; and in January, 1856, 15 railroads, with 
 455 miles of road completed and in operation. 
 
 Teredo, or Ship Worm. The following account 
 of this worm is from a paper written by James Jarvis, 
 who has been engaged since 1849 in a series of experi- 
 ments concerning the teredo or ship worm, by order of 
 Commodore Smith, chief of the Bureau of Yards and 
 Docks. In order to ascertain the best composition for 
 resisting the attacks of the teredo upon wood, he paint- 
 ed a number of blocks and boxes with various com- 
 pounds — some he left unprepared, and some partly 
 painted— and sunk them in Elizabeth Eiver in the 
 month of April. " About the 12th June the blocks and 
 boxes were generally lifted and examined, but he never 
 was able to discover any of the animalculas (young 
 teredo) until about the 20th of June. At this period 
 of the year he generally discovered minute holes in the 
 wood by the use of a magnifying glass. After this 
 the creature daily grows ahead, for it has no powers 
 
 of locomotion ; it grows like an oyster, and has a cal- 
 careous or shelly sheathing, which adheres to the sur- 
 face of its burrow." 
 
 In Norfolk harbor, Virginia, they grow from six to 
 twelve inches in length, and from three-eighths to half 
 an inch in diameter. The wood excavated by one 
 twelve inches long, in a season, amounted to more than 
 a cubic inch, if in a solid piece. No'signs of the teredo 
 were discovered by him in wood deposited after. Mr. 
 Jarvis supposes that the teredo commences to develop 
 about the Ist of July, and continues until cold weather 
 arrives; in Charleston, South Carolina, and further 
 south, they develop during the whole year; whereas in 
 the colder blasts, such as in the harbors of New En- 
 gland, they do but little injury, because the worm is 
 feeble there, being like a fine thread. It is believed to 
 he a native of the torrid seas. The teredo is not so 
 destructive on piles sunk under water at New York 
 city docks as those on the opposite side of the river, 
 on the Jersey and Long Island shores ; this is owing, 
 Mr. Jarvis thinks, to the amount of filth carried down 
 in the city sewers. In Boston, and Portsmouth, New 
 Hampshire, harbor piles will stand twenty-five years. 
 One open nail-hole in a sheet of copper upon a vessel's 
 bottom will allow the worm access to pursue its work 
 of destruction. All kinds of wood used in ship-build- 
 ing are attacked by it. To secure the bottoms of ships 
 from the salt-water worm, and from coral deposits, Mr. 
 Jarvis recommends putting three coats of white zinc 
 paint on the dry bottom of the vessel, then copper 
 them ; and to make the whole invulnerable, put three 
 more coats of white zinc paint upon the outer surface 
 of the copper. To preserve piles, drive them with the 
 bark on. There is no danger while the bark remains. 
 The barnacle on piles does no injury. Charring is 
 excellent, provided the fissures are well filled with hot 
 coal tar or zinc paint, which will be found excellent to 
 keep the shell-fish from the wood where piles may have 
 the bark broken off before being driven. 
 
 Terra Japonica, the commercial name of cate- 
 chu (cutch) and gambir. It is stated that it is ob- 
 tained by boiling the wood of the trees of which it is a 
 product. But cutch is also obtained direct from the 
 tree by tapping in the same way as caoutchouc (India 
 rubber). Terra japonica gives out the large portion 
 of tannin which it contains more readily than oak bark 
 or most other substances, and is, therefore, preferred 
 by those tanners who work on the quick process. Lat- 
 terly, also, it has been extensively used as a dye, pro- 
 ducing a brown color. 
 
 Texas, the most southern State in the Union, is 
 situated between lat. 26° and 36° 30' N., and between 
 long. 94° and 107° W. from Greenwich, and contains 
 325,520 square miles. 
 
 Karly History of Texas. — The regions which we now 
 comprise under the name of Texas, to the northwest of 
 the Gulf of Mexico, were called by the Spanish gov- 
 ernor of Jamaica, Garay, when his Captain, Pineda 
 (1519), had sailed along them, Provincia de Amichel. 
 It is a name of the origin of which we are quite in the 
 dark. Perhaps, also, the whole northern shore of the 
 Gulf was comprised under it. This expression, Pro- 
 vincia de Amichel, was pointed out as the original In- 
 dian name of the land. Because it was discovered by 
 the exertions of Garay, the Spanish geographers, there- 
 fore, gave to it also the Spanish name, Tierra de Ga- 
 ray (Garay's country), which name we see on many 
 old maps round the whole northern shore of the Gulf, 
 including Texas. When (about 1521) the King of 
 Spain divided the discoveries and governments of 
 Cortez and Garay, and put the Rio de las Palmas as 
 the northern boundary of the government of Mexico, 
 the countries to the north were very often called El 
 Gobiemo del Rio de las Palmas (the government of the 
 Palm Eiver) ; and this also included a great part of 
 the countries to the north. Because, however, the 
 efforts of Garay to form a province in the north were 
 
TEX 
 
 1834 
 
 TEX 
 
 unfortunate, and because all the first attempts toward 
 the north were either made from Mexico or from the 
 peninsula of Florida, so these two names prevailed, 
 and divided the whole region among each other. The 
 great conquerors of the north, Narvaez and De Soto, 
 entered from Cuba and from the peninsula of Flori- 
 da. The names Frovincia Amichel, Tierra Garay^ Go- 
 biemo del Rio de las Palmas, disappeared soon after, 
 and every thing round the whole Gulf of Mexico, up 
 to the Palms Elver in the west, was comprised under 
 the general name of Florida. As soon as Mexican 
 travelers traversed the Palms River they, considered 
 themselves to be in Florida. When Moscoso (1542) 
 made his excursion from the Red River westward to 
 the centre of Texas, he found there innumerable herds 
 of buffaloes, and called this country, from which he 
 returned to the east. La Frovincia de las Vaqueros 
 (the province of the Herds). Some authors conse- 
 quently gave that name to what we now call Texas. 
 The Spaniards in Mexico commonlj' called all those 
 wild Indians to the north of the civilized empire of 
 Montezuma Los Indios bravos (the savage Indians), 
 or Los Chichiviecas. The whole country north of the 
 Palms River was, therefore, very often designated as 
 "the Province of the Chichimecas, or of the Savage 
 Indians" (ia Frovincia de las Chichimecas, or de los 
 Indies braves'). It was a custom from which also grew 
 out the name of the Rio Bravo. When the French, 
 under La Salle, arrived on the coasts of Texas (1685), 
 they took possession of it under the name and as a 
 part of their great country. La NouveUe France (New 
 France) ; which name, according to their notions, cov- 
 ered as much ground as the name of Florida, according 
 to the Spanish ideas ; that is to say, the whole eastern 
 half of North America. The French from this time 
 considered Texas to be a part of their dominion as far 
 south as the Rio Bravo, and called it also Louisiana, 
 when they had erected their Mississippi colony after 
 1699, and had given to it officially that name after 
 1712. All their old maps of Louisiana go as far down 
 as Rio Bravo, and include Texas. Meanwhile the 
 Spaniards had, however, taken actual possession of 
 that province, and gave another name to it. 
 
 Some believe the word-Texas to be Indian, and say 
 that when Alonzo de Leon, in 1689, arrived among 
 them he heard them often use the word Texas as a 
 term of love or friendship. Others suppose that the 
 word is Spanish, and that it implies some indication 
 of ' ' the manner of the Ii^dians in constructing or cover- 
 ing tents or wigwams." But this seems a not well- 
 "founded supposition ; for the Spanish word Teja (plur. 
 Tejas) does not appear to have any thing to do with 
 a covering of a tent or wigwam; it means simply "a 
 tile." — SeeYoAKVM, History of Texas. 
 
 The first Frenchman who pronounced this name, in 
 the year 1719, La Harpe (an officer in Louisiana, well 
 known by his travels and writings), received it evi- 
 dently through the Spaniards. He calls the country 
 of the Cenis Indians Ims Tekas, Some old French 
 authors write also La province de Lastikas. In the 
 year 1727, for the first time, a separate "governor for 
 the province of Texas" alone was nominated ; but this 
 province extended then only as far south as the River 
 Medina. The southwestern part of our present Texas 
 belonged still for a long while to "the province of 
 Coahuila." — Yoakom, 1. 893. 
 
 It is supposed that with this establishment of Texas 
 as a new and separate government for itself (in 1727) 
 was also connected an introduction of a new name — 
 of Las Nuevas Filipinas (the new Philippines), given 
 to this government in honor of King Philip V. At 
 least neither Barcia nor any other author used this 
 name before this time, while we afterward find it re- 
 peatedly in official papers and documents. The old 
 and popular name of ios Texas was, however, used be- 
 sides it. We see both names still on maps of a very 
 late date ; as, for instance, on a Mexican map of the 
 
 year 1813, Frovincia de Texas o Nnevas Filipinas (the 
 province of Texas, or the new Philippines). Until 
 1824, the dominion of this name did, however, south, 
 ward, not reach the Rio Bravo. The province of Coa- 
 huila and of Nuevo Sant Ander took away the whole 
 southwestern quarter of Texas, as far east and north as 
 the Rio Medina and the sources of the Colorado and 
 Brazos. Eastward, toward Louisiana, the province of 
 Texas and New Philippines extended to the neighbor- 
 hood of the Red River, and on the shores of the Mexi- 
 can Gulf to the Rio Calcasiu, and sometimes as far as 
 the Merrmentau. In the year 1824, under the domin- 
 ion of the Mexican Republic, the old connected prov- 
 inces of Coahuila and Texas were again melted to- 
 gether into one state, under the name of El Estado de 
 Texas y Coahuila. The southern part of our Texas, 
 about the lower Rio Bravo, as far northeast as the 
 Medina River, was not yet included in this name. It 
 became a part of the new created Estado de Tamauli- 
 pas. Sometimes, and on some maps, it was tried at 
 this period to apply to the whole of Texas the name of 
 Fredonia, which was the particular name of Austin's 
 colony. This has been done, for instance, in that oth- 
 erwise excellent Dictionnaire de Geographic" edited by 
 a society of French geographers. In the year 1836 
 Coahuila and Texas were divided again, and Texo.s be- 
 came a separate and independent State, which was (1846) 
 annexed to the United States, and received then, after 
 the war of 1846, its present boundaries. These bounda- 
 ries extend from this time along the Gulf of Mexico, 
 from the mouth of the Rio Bravo in the south to the 
 mouth of the Sabina in the east. To show how far and 
 in what manner the boundaries of this name and State 
 were extended toward the interior does not belong to 
 our hydrographical researches. — J. G. Kohl. 
 
 The general aspect of the country is that of a vast 
 inclined plane, gradually sloping from the mountains 
 eastward to the sea, and traversed by numerous rivers, 
 all having a southeast direction. It may be naturally 
 divided into three regions ; the first, which is level, ex- 
 tends along the coast with a breadth varying from 100 
 to 30 miles, being narrowest at the southwest. The 
 soil of this region is principally a rich alluvion, with 
 scarcely a stone, and singularly free from stagnant 
 swamps. Broad woodlands fringe the banks of the 
 riversj between which are extensive and rich pasture 
 lands. The second division, the largest of the three, 
 is the undulating prairie region which extends for 160 
 or 200 miles farther inland, its wide, grassy tracts al- 
 ternating with others that are thickly timbered. Lime- 
 stone and sandstone form the common substrata of 
 this section. The third, or mountainous region, situ- 
 ated principally on the west and southwest, forming 
 part of the Sierra Madre, or Mexican Alps, is but little 
 explored. At its remote extremity it consists of an 
 elevated table-land, resembling the vast steppes of 
 Asia, except in their superior fertility. The mountain 
 sides are clothed with forests, and there are few, if any 
 districts of country of the same extent as Texas, with 
 so little unproductive land. 
 
 The principal rivers in the State are the Sabine, 
 Neches, Trinidad, Brazos, Colorado, Guadaloupe, San 
 Antonia, Nueces, and the Rio Grande. The Neches is 
 navigable for small steamboats for more than 100 miles, 
 Trinidad River for 300 or 400 miles, and the Brazos for 
 half that distance. The Rio Colorado is obstructed by 
 a raft 10 miles from its mouth ; it will, when removed, 
 be navigable for steamboats 200 miles to Austin City. 
 The San Antonia and Neuces are navigable for only a 
 short distance ; but the Eio Grand del Norte, a noble 
 stream, having a course of 1800 miles, will most prob- 
 ably, though in parts broken by rapids, become here- 
 after an important commercial channel. Galveston 
 Bay, into which the Trinidad flows, is about 36 miles 
 in length, and from 12 to 18 miles wide. The Gulf of 
 Mexico bounds its southeastern border, on which are 
 many bays and some good harbors. The Texan year 
 
THA 
 
 1835 
 
 TID 
 
 is divided into wet and dry seasons ; the former lasts 
 from December to March, and the latter from March to 
 December. Snow is seldom seen except on the mount- 
 ains. The country is in most parts covered with a 
 luxuriant native grass, and it is amply supplied with 
 timber, among which are the live oak, white, black, 
 and post oak, hickory, walnut, sycamore, caoutchouc, 
 etc., and on the high lands pine and cedar. The 
 " Cross Timbers" are two lines of continuous forests of 
 great extent. Cotton and sugar-cane are the great 
 agricultural staples, both of which attain tc great per- 
 fection. The grains chiefly cultivated are Indian corn 
 and wheat. Peaches, melons, figs, oranges, lemons, 
 pine-apples, dates, olives, grapes, etc., grow abundant- 
 ly. Great numbers of cattle and horses are reared, 
 and vast herds of buffaloes and wild horses wander 
 over the prairies, while deer and game are abundant. 
 Among its minerals are coal of a superior quality, iron 
 ore, limestone, granite, slate, gypsum, etc. Silver 
 
 mines have been wrought in the mountains, and bitu- 
 men and salt are abundant. 
 
 Manufactures, etc. — There were in the State in 1850 
 one woolen factory, with a capital invested of $8000, 
 employing four males and four females, manufacturing 
 14,000 yards of cloth, etc., valued at $15,000 ; two es- 
 tablishments with a capital Of $16,000, employing 35 
 persons, and making 200 tons of iron castings, etc., 
 valued at $55,000 ; 38 flouring and grist mills, 89 saw- 
 mills, 22 tanneries, 34 printing-offices, three tri-weekly, 
 two semi-weekly, and 32 weekly publications. Capital 
 invested in manufactures, $613,238 ; value of manufac- 
 tured articles, $1,202,885. 
 
 The principal places in the State are Austin, the 
 capital, Galveston, Houston, "Washington, Matagorda, 
 San Felipe de Austin, San Augustine, Nacogdoches, 
 San Antonia de Bexar, Corpus Christi, and Brown- 
 ville. There were, January 1st, 1856, 36 miles of rail- 
 road built. 
 
 FOKBIQN COMMBBOE OF THE STATE OP TEXAS, TBOM JtTLY 1, 1845, TO JULT 1, 1857, SHOWING ALSO rUR DlBTBIOT TOIT- 
 
 NAGE IN 1846. 
 
 Years ending 
 
 Exports. 1 Imports. 
 
 Tonnage clenroil. 
 
 Difitnct Tonnage. ] 
 
 Domestic. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Totnl. 
 
 American. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Registered. 
 
 Enrolled and . 
 Liceoeed. 
 
 June 30, 1846 
 
 1847 
 
 1848 
 
 1840 
 
 1860 
 
 Total... 
 
 June 30, 1851 
 
 1852 
 
 1863 
 
 1854 
 
 1855 
 
 1856 
 
 1857 
 
 $12,089 
 82,791 
 
 $131,521 
 24,958 
 
 $143,610 
 82,791 
 24,958 
 
 $17,266 
 29,826 
 94,024 
 16,649 
 26,650 
 
 695 
 
 117 
 
 7S0 
 
 1035 
 
 2,500 
 
 5,r>?r 
 ",0157 
 1,031 
 
 'boo 
 
 '987 
 
 $14,880 
 
 $75,443 
 229,334 
 609,918 
 762,448 
 094,057 
 1,252,925 
 1,491,376 
 
 $156,479 
 
 $483,741 
 459,763 
 652,001 
 222,904 
 680,664 
 
 $261,359 
 
 . $76,442 
 713,075 
 
 1,029,681 
 
 1,314,449 
 916,961 
 194,589 
 
 1,491,375 
 
 $183,415 
 
 $94,715 
 77,892 
 281,469 
 231,423 
 262,563 
 321,834 
 800,774 
 
 2577 
 
 863 
 2269 
 2751 
 48T5 
 4924 
 7504 
 6619 
 
 11,715 
 
 1,479 
 6,199 
 5,226 
 4,833 
 6,040 
 3,965 
 6,102 
 
 
 
 — See Spanish Colonies for commerce prior to the year 1S46, 
 
 Thaler, a German silver coin, first coined in Joa- 
 chimsthal, a valley in Bohemia. The value of the 
 thaler is about seventy cents. — See Coins, Germany, 
 and Dollar. 
 
 Thames (Tamesis), the principal though not the 
 longest river of England, through the south part of 
 which it flows mostlj' in an easterly direction. It 
 rises under the name of the Isis, about two miles south 
 of Cirencester, and 376 feet above the sea, flows at first 
 south to near Cricklade, then east-northeast past Lech- 
 lade to near Oxford, and southeast past Oxford, Ab- 
 ingdon, and Wallingford to Reading, after which its 
 course is mostly eastward to Gravesend. A few miles 
 beyond this it expands into an estuary, which at its 
 junction with the North Sea at the Nore, between the 
 Isle of Sheppey and Foulness Ppint, is fifteen miles 
 across, and has on its opposite banks the towns Sheer- 
 ness and Southend. Total course estimated at 215 
 miles. At Dorchester it receives the Thamer from the 
 north, and thenceforth assumes its proper name ; other 
 principal aflSuents are the Chumet, Coin, Wainrush, 
 Evenlode, Cherwell, Colne, Brent, Lea, and Koding 
 from the north, and the Cole, Kennet (its chief afflu- 
 ent), Wey, Mole, and some smaller rivers from the 
 south. The Mersey joins its estuary at Sheemess. 
 Its basin is of less size than that of the Severn, but no 
 river in the world has more commercial importance. 
 The tide flows up it for about eighty miles; it is nav- 
 igable for ships of any burden to Deptford, for vessels 
 of 200 tons to London Bridge, and for barges 130 miles 
 farther, where it is united by the Thames and Severn 
 Canal with the Severn, below Gloucester ; it is also 
 connected with all the centre of England by the Ox- 
 ford and Warwick and Grand Junction Canals, and by 
 other canals with Bristol, Basingstoke, Arundel, etc. 
 Under the Romans it formed the north boundary of the 
 province of Britannia prima. 
 
 The Thames is the richest river in the world. It 
 has been erroneously said that its name is Isis till it 
 arrives at Dorchester, when, being joined by the 
 
 Thame or Tame, it assumes the name of Thames. 
 What was the origin of this common error can not 
 now be traced : poetical fiction, however, has perpetu- 
 ated the error, and invested it with a kind of classical 
 sanctity. It was called Thames or Tems before it 
 came near the Thame. — Camden. The river rose so 
 high at Westminster that the lawyers were brought 
 out of the hall in boats, a.d. 1236. Again it rose to 
 great height, 1736, 1747, 1762, and 1791. The conser- 
 vation of the Thames was given to the mayors of Lon- 
 don, 1489. The Thames was made navigable to Ox- 
 ford, 1624. It ebbed and flowed twice in three hours, 
 1658. Again, three times in four hours, March 22, 
 1682, Again, twifie in three hours, November 24, 
 1777. — See article Tunnel. 
 
 Thermometer. The invention of this instru- 
 ment is ascribed to several scientific persons, all about 
 the same time, Galileo, 1597. — Libri. Invented by 
 Drebbel of Alcmaer, a.d. 1609.^Boekhaave. Invent- 
 ed by Paulo Larpi in 1609. — Fdlgentio. Invented by 
 Sanctorio in 1610.^ — Borelli. Fahrenheit's thermom- 
 eter was invented about 1726; and the scale called 
 Reaumur's soon after, 1730. 'The mode of construc- 
 tion by substituting quicksilver for spirits was invent- 
 ed some years subsequently. — Hatdn. 
 
 Thimble. This simple yet useful, and now indis- 
 pensable appendage to the ladies' work-table, is of 
 Dutch invention. The art of makingthem was brought 
 to England by John Lofting, a mechanic from Hol- 
 land, who set up a work-shop at Islington, near Lon- 
 don, and practiced the manufacture of them in various 
 metals with profit and success, about 1695. — Haydn. 
 
 Thread (Ger. Zwim ; Du. Garen ; Fr. Fit; It. 
 Re/e; Sp. Bilo, Torzal ; Russ. Nitlci), a small line 
 made up of a number of fibres of some vegetable or 
 animal substance, such as flax, cotton, or silk ; whence 
 its names of linen, cotton, or silk thread-^-^See Cotton 
 Manhfacthre. 
 
 Tide Gauge, a mechanical contrivance for regis- 
 tering the state of the tide continuously at every in- 
 
TID 
 
 1836 
 
 TID 
 
 stant of time. In the Philos. Trans, for 1838, there 
 is a, description of a very complete self-registering 
 machine for this purpose, erected at Bristol by Mr. 
 Bunt. The principal parts are an eight-day clock, 
 which turns a vertical cylinder revolving once in 
 twenty-four hours ; a wheel, to which an alternate 
 motion is communicated by a float rising and falling 
 with the tide, and connected with the wheel by a wire 
 passing over a pulley, and kept constantly strained by 
 a counterpoise ; and a small drum on the same axis 
 with the wheel, which, by a suspending wire, com- 
 municates one- eighteenth of the vertical motion of the 
 float to a bar carrying a pencil, which describes a curve 
 on the cylinder, and thereby marks the fluctuations, 
 and the time and height of high water. 
 
 Tides, the alternate rise and fall of the waters 
 of the ocean. The moon is the principal agent in the 
 production of the tides ; but they are modified, both 
 with respect to their height and the times at which 
 they happen, by the action of the sun. The effect of 
 the planets is inappreciable. Homer is the earliest 
 profane author who speaks of the tides. Posidonius 
 of Apamea accounted for the tides from the motion of 
 the moon, about 79 b.c. ; and Caesar speaks of them in 
 his fourth book of the Gallic War. The theory of the 
 tides was first satisfactorily explained by Kepler, a.d. 
 1598 ; but the honor of a complete explanation of them 
 was reserved for Sir Isaac Newton, who laid hold of 
 this class of phenomena to prove universal gravitation, 
 about 1683. 
 
 The attractive force of a body on a distant particle 
 of matter varying inversely as the square of the dis- 
 tance, the particles of the earth on the side next the 
 moon will be attracted with a greater, and those on the 
 opposite side with a smaller force, than those which 
 are situated inter mediatelj'". The gravitation toward 
 the earth's centre of the particles nearest the moon 
 will therefore be diminished, and consequently'', if at 
 liberty to move among themselves, they will rise 
 above the general level. In like manner, the moon's 
 attraction on the most distant particles being less than 
 on the central ones, their relative gravitation toward 
 the centre will also be diminished, and the waters will 
 consequently be heaped up on the side of the earth 
 which is turned away from the moon. Hence, if the 
 earth were at rest, the ocean would take the form of an 
 oblong spheroid, with its longer axis passing through 
 the attracting body ; and it may he shown from the- 
 ory that the spheroid would be in equilibrium under 
 the influence of the moon's attraction, if the longer 
 semi-axis exceeded the shorter b;^' about 58 inches. 
 But in consequence of the rapid rotation of the earth 
 about its axis, the spheroid of equilibrium is never 
 fully formed ; for before the waters can take their 
 level, the vertex of the spheroid has shifted its posi- 
 tion on the earth's surface, in consequence of which 
 an immensely broad and very flat wave is formed, which 
 follows the motions of the moon at some interval of 
 time. In the open sea the time of high water -is, in 
 general, from two to three hours after the moon's 
 transit over the meridian either above or below the 
 horizon. The tidal wave, it is to be observed, is en- 
 tirely different from a current : the particles of water 
 merely rise and fall ; but except when the wave passes 
 over shallows, or approaches the shore, there is little 
 or no progressive motion. 
 
 The waters of the ocean are affected in a similar 
 manner by the action of the sun, under the influence 
 of which they have a tendency to assume at every in- 
 stant the form of an elongated spheroid ; but although 
 the attractive force of the sun is immensely greater 
 than that of the moon, yet, by reason of the greater 
 distance of the sun, the difference of the effect on par- 
 ticles situated on opposite sides of the earth (on which 
 difference the phenomena depend) is very much less. 
 The solar tides are therefore comparatively small with 
 respect to the lunar tides, and, in fact, are never per- 
 
 ceived as distinct phenomena, but become sensible 
 only from the modifications which they produce in the 
 heights and times of those which primarily depend on 
 the moon. At the syzygies, when the sun and moon 
 come to the meridian together, the tides are, ceteris 
 paribus^ the highest ; at the quadratures, or when the 
 sun and moon are 90° distant, the tides are least. 
 The former are called spring tides, the latter neap tides. 
 Although we are not in possession of data to enable 
 us to compute the exact height either of the spring or 
 neap tides, yet their relative heights in the open ocean 
 probably correspond very nearly to the ellipticities of 
 the spheroids of equilibrium that would be formed un- 
 der the action of the two bodies exerted separatel3\ 
 Now the ellipticity of the aqueous spheroid formed by 
 the moon's action is about five feet, and the ellipticity 
 of that formed by the sun's action about two feet ; 
 therefore, the spring and neap tides being the sum and 
 difference of the separate effects, the average spring 
 tide will be to the average neap in the ratio of about 7 
 to 3. 
 
 The apparent time of high water at any port, in the 
 afternoon of the day of new or full moon, is what is 
 usually called the establishment of the port. Mr. 
 Whewell calls this the vulgar establishment, and the 
 mean of all the intervals of tide and transit for a half 
 lunation he terms the corrected establishment. This 
 corrected establishment is consequently the lunitidal 
 interval corresponding to the day on which the moon 
 passes the meridian exactly at noon or midnight. 
 
 The two tides immediately following one another, 
 or the tides of the day and night, varj', both in height 
 and time of high water, at any particular place with 
 the distance of the sun and moon from the equator. 
 As the vertex of the tide wave always tends to place 
 itself verticallj' under the luminary which produces it, 
 it is evident that, of two consecutive tides, that which 
 happens when the moon is nearest the zenith or nadir 
 will be greater than the other; and consequently, 
 when the moon's declination is of the same denomina- 
 tion as the latitude of the place, the tide which cor- 
 responds to the upper transit will be greater than the 
 opposite one, and vice versa, the differences being great- 
 est when the sun and moon are in opposition, and in 
 opposite tropics. This is called the diurnal inequality^ 
 because its cycle is one day ; but it varies greatly at 
 different places, and its laws, which appear to be gov- 
 erned by local circumstances, are verj' imperfectly 
 known. 
 
 We have now described the principal phenomena 
 that would take place were the earth a sphere, and 
 covered entirely with a fluid of uniform depth. But 
 the actual phenomena of the tides are infinitely more 
 complicated. From the interruption of the land, and 
 the irregular form and depth of the ocean, combined 
 with many other disturbing circumstances, among 
 which are the inertia of the waters, the friction on the 
 bottom and sides, the naiTowness and length of the 
 channels, the action of the wind, currents, difference 
 of atmospheric pressure, etc., great variation takes 
 place in the mean times and height of high water at 
 places differently situated ; and the inequalities above 
 alluded to, as depending on the parallax of the moon, 
 her position with respect to the sun, and the declina- 
 tion of the two bodies, are, in many cases, altogether 
 obliterated by the effects of the disturbing influences, 
 or can onlj' be detected by the calculation and com- 
 parison of long series of observations. 
 
 By reason of these disturbing causes, it becomes a 
 matter of great difficulty to trace the propagation of 
 the tide wave, and the connection of the tides in dif- 
 ferent parts of the world. In the Philosophical Trans- 
 actions for 1832, Sir John Lubbock published a map 
 of the world, in which he inserted the times of high 
 water at new and full moon at a great number of places 
 on the globe, collected from various sources, as works 
 on navigation, voyages, sailing directions, etc. ; and, 
 
TID 
 
 1837 
 
 TID 
 
 in order that tlie march of the tide wave might be 
 traced more readily, the times were expressed in Green- 
 wich time as well as the time of the place. In the 
 same Transactions for 183S, Mr. Whewell prosecuted 
 this subject at greater length ; and availipg himself of 
 hpriori considerations, as well as of a mass of informa- 
 tion collected in the hydrographer's office at the Ad- 
 miralty, inserted in the map a series of cotidal lines, or 
 lines along which high water takes place at the same 
 instant of time. But these cotidal lines, as Sir J. 
 Lubbock remarks, are entirely hypothetical; for we 
 have few opportunities of determining the time of high 
 water at a distance from the coast, though this is some- 
 times possible by means of a solitary island, as St. 
 Helena. — Lubbock's Elementary Treatise on the Tides, 
 1839. 
 
 According to Mr. Whewell's deductions, the general 
 progress of the great tide wave may be thus described : 
 It is onlj' in the Southern Ocean, between the lati- 
 tudes of 30 and 70 degrees, that a zone of water exists 
 of sufficient extent to allow of the tide wave being 
 formed. Suppose, then, a line of contemporary tides, 
 or cotidal lines, to be formed in the Indian Ocean, as 
 the theory supposes, that is to saj', in the direction of 
 the meridian, ^nd at a certain distance to the eastward 
 of the meridian in which the moon is. As this tide 
 wave passes the Cape of Good Hope, it sends off a de- 
 rivative undulation, which advances northward up the 
 Atlantic Ocean, preserving always a certain proportion 
 of its original magnitude and velocity. In traveling 
 along this ocean the wave assumes a curved form, the 
 convex part keeping near the middle of the ocean, and 
 ahead of the branches, which, owing to the shallower 
 water, lag behind on tlie American and African coasts ; 
 so that the cotidal lines have always a tendency to 
 make very oblique angles with the shore, and, in fact, 
 run nearly parallel to it for great distances. The 
 main tide, Mr. Whewell conceives, after reaching the 
 Orkneys, will move forward in the sea bounded by the 
 shores of Norway and Siberia on the one side, and 
 those of Greenland and America on the other, wUl pass 
 the pole of the earth, and finally end its course on the 
 shores in the neigliborhood of Behring's Straits. It 
 may even propagate its influence through the straits, 
 and modify the tides of the North Pacific. But a 
 branch tide is sent off from this main tide into the Ger- 
 man Ocean ; and thi», entering between the Orkneys 
 and the coast of Norway, brings the tide to the east 
 coast of England, and to the coasts of Holland, Den- 
 mark, and Germany. Continuing its course, part of 
 it, at least, passes through the Strait of Dover, and 
 meets in the British Channel the tide from the At- 
 lantic, which arrives on the coast of Europe twelve 
 hours later ; but in passing along the English coast, 
 another part of it is reflected from the projecting land 
 of Norfolk upon the north coast of Germany, and again 
 meets the tide wave on the shores of Denmark. Ow- 
 ing to this interference of different tide waves, the 
 tides are almost entirely obliterated on the coast of 
 Jutland, where their place is supplied by continual high 
 water. 
 
 In the Pacific Ocean the tides are very small, but 
 there are not sufficient observations to determine the 
 forms and progress of the cotidal lines. Off Cape 
 Horn, and round the whole shore of Terra del Fuego, 
 from the western extremity of the Strait of Magal- 
 haens to Staten Island, it is verj* remarkable that the 
 tidal wave, instead of following the moon in its diurnal 
 course, travels to the eastward. This, however, is a 
 partial phenomenon ; and a little farther to the north 
 of the last-named places the tides set to the north and 
 west. In the Mediterranean and Baltic seas the tides 
 are inconsiderable, but exhibit irregularities for which 
 it is difficult to account. The Indian Ocean appears 
 to have high water on all sides at once, though not in 
 the central parts at the same time. 
 
 Since the tides on our coasts are derived from the 
 
 oscillations produced under the direct agency of the 
 sun and moon in the Southern Ocean, and require a 
 certain interval of time for their transfer, it follows 
 that, in general, the tide is not due to the moon's tran- 
 sit immediately preceding, but is regulated by the po- 
 sition which the sun and moon had when they determ^ 
 ined the primarj' tide. The time elapsed between 
 the original formation of the tide and its appearance at 
 any place is called the age of the tide, and sometimes, 
 after Bernoulli, the retard. On the shores of Spain 
 and North America the tide is a day and a half old ; in 
 the port of London it appears to be two days and a 
 half old when it arrives. 
 
 Velocity of the Tide Wave. — In the open ocean the 
 crest of the tide travels with enormous velocity. If 
 the whole surface were uniformly covered with water, 
 the summit of the tide wave, being mainly governed 
 by the moon, would every where follow the moon's 
 transit at the same interval of time, and consequently 
 travel round the earth in a little more than twenty- 
 four hours. But the circumference of the earth at the 
 equator being about 25,000 miles, the velocity of prop- 
 agation would therefore be about 1000 miles per hour. 
 The actual velocity is perhaps nowhere equal to this, 
 and is verj' different at different places. In latitude 
 60° South, where there is no interruption from land 
 (excepting the narrow promontory of Patagonia), the 
 tide wave will complete a revolution in a lunar &&y, 
 and consequently travel at the rate of 670 miles an 
 hour. On examining Mr. Whewell's map of cotidal 
 lines, it will be seen that the great tide wave from the 
 Southern Ocean travels from the. Cape of Good Hope 
 to the Azores in about twelve hours, and from the 
 Azores to the southernmost point of Ireland in three 
 hours more. In the Atlantic the hourly velocity in 
 some cases appears to be 10° of latitude, or near 700 
 miles, which is almost equal to the velocity of sound 
 through the air. From the south point of Ireland to 
 the north point of Scotland the time is eight hours, 
 and the velocity about 160 miles an hour along the 
 shore. On the eastern coast of Britain, and in shal- 
 lower water, the, velocity is less. From Buchanness 
 to Sunderland it is about sixty miles an hour ; from 
 Scarborough to Cromer, thirty-five miles ; from the 
 North Foreland to London, thirty miles ; from London 
 to Richmond thirteen miles an hour in that part of the 
 river.— Whewell, Phil. Trans., 1833 and 1836. It is 
 scarcely necessary to remind the reader that the above 
 velocities refer to the transmission of the undulation, 
 and are entirely different from the velocity of the 
 current to which the tide wave gives rise in shallow 
 water. 
 
 Theory of the Tides. — The theory of the tides, con- 
 sidered as a consequence of solar and lunar attraction, 
 was first sketched by Newton in the Principia' In 
 the 36th and 37th propositions of the third book, he de- 
 termines the forces of the sun and moon to elevate the 
 waters of the ocean, on the supposition that the sea is 
 a fluid of the same density as the earth, covering the 
 whole terrestrial surface, and which takes at everj' in- 
 stant the figure of equilibrium. He assumes, without 
 demonstration, that this figure is an elongated sphe- 
 roid. One spheroid he supposes to be formed under 
 the action of the sun, another under the action of the 
 moon ; and, by reason of the smallness of their eccen- 
 tricities, they may be conceived as superposed the one 
 on the other. From these suppositions he deduced the 
 general phenomena of the ebb and flow of the sea; 
 and by comparing his theory with observations df the 
 heights of the spring tides made at the mouth of the 
 Avon, near Bristol, he determined the ratio of the at- 
 traction of the moon to that of the sun to be nearly 
 4'48 to 1 ; whence he deduced the mass of the earth to 
 be to that of the moon as 39'788 to 1, the density of 
 the sun to that of the earth as 1 to 4, and the density 
 of the moon to that of the earth as 11 to 9. Newton's 
 theory was defective in many points of view, but fifty 
 
TID 
 
 1838 
 
 TID 
 
 years elapsed before it received any improvement. In 
 1738 the subject of the tides was prbposed as a prize 
 question by the French Academy of Sciences, which 
 gave occasion to the celebrated treatises of Daniel 
 Bernoulli, Maclaurin, and Euler. Maclaurin's Essay 
 is remarkable, as containing a demonstration of the 
 theorem assumed by Newton, that the elliptic spheroid 
 affords an equilibrium under the action of the disturb- 
 ing forces : those of Bernoulli and Euler, though they 
 furnish no new principle of equal or similar import- 
 ance in point of theory, enter more into details, and 
 contain many useful illustrations. That of Bernoulli, 
 indeed, contains a table which has served as the model 
 for all those (not purely empirical) which have since 
 been formed. Tfie next important step in the theory 
 of the tides was taken by Laplace, who first treated 
 the subject as a general question of hydrodynamics, 
 and attempted to deduce the principal phenomena from 
 the equations of the motions of fluids. But in order 
 to simplify the equations, which are of a very compli- 
 cated nature, he was forced to have recourse to the 
 hypothesis of a fluid covering entirely a spheroid of a 
 regular surface, and consequently the results were far 
 from representing the actual observations of the tides 
 at any port. The late Dr. Thomas Young {Ency. Brit., 
 article Tides) extended Laplace's method to the more 
 general case of an ocean covering a part only of the 
 earth's surface, and more or less irregulaV in its form, 
 and attempted also to include in his calculation the ef- 
 fects of hydraulic friction on the times and magnitudes 
 of the tides. 
 
 Influence of Atmospheric Pressure and Winds. — Be- 
 sides the numerous causes of irregularity depending 
 on the local circumstances, the tides are also affected 
 by the state of the atmosphere. At Brest, the height 
 of high water varies -inversely as the height of the 
 barometer, and rises more than eight inches for a fall 
 of about half an inch of the barometer. At Liverpool, 
 a fall of one-tenth of an inch in the barometer corre- 
 sponds to a rise in the Eiver Mersey of about an inch ; 
 and at the London Docks, a fall of one-tenth of an inch 
 corresponds to a rise in the Thames of about seven- 
 tenths of an inch. With a low barometer, the tides 
 may therefore be expected to be high, and vice versa. 
 The tide is also liable to be disturbed by winds. Sir 
 J. Lubbock states that, in the violent hurricane of 
 Januaiy 8, 1839, "there was no tide at Gainsborough, 
 which is twenty-five miles up the Trent — a circum- 
 stance unknown before. At Saltmarsh, only five 
 miles up the Ouse from the Humber, the tide went on 
 ebbing, and never flowed till the river was drj' in some 
 places ; while at Ostend, toward which the wind was 
 blowing, contrarj' effects were observed. During strong 
 nortturesterly gales the tide marks high water earlier 
 in tM Thames than otherwise, and does not give so 
 much water, while the ebb-tide runs out late, and 
 marks lower ; but upon the gales abating and the 
 weather moderating, the tides put in, and rise much 
 higher while they also run longer before high water 
 is marked, and with more velocity of current ; nor do 
 they run out so long or so low. — Bkande's Cyclpcedia. 
 
 The tidal observations of the Pacific coast have cas- 
 ually led to a determination of great scientific inter- 
 est, that of the average depth of the Pacific Ocean be- 
 tween the coasts of Japan and California. On the 23d 
 of December, 1854, an earthquake occurred in Japan 
 by which the town of Simoda, in the island of Niphon, 
 was destroyed. From the imperfect accounts which 
 have reached us, it appears that at nine a.m. on that 
 day the severe shock of an earthquake was felt on 
 board the Russian frigate Diana, then lying in the har- 
 bor of Simoda. Half an hour later the sea came into 
 the bay in an immense wave thirty feet in height, 
 overwhelming the town and then receding. This ad- 
 vance and recession occurred five times, and by 2-30 
 P.M. all was again quiet. The depth of the sea dur- 
 ing these changes varied from less than eight to more 
 
 than forty feet. Upon the same day an extraordinary 
 rise and fall of water was observed at Peel's Island, 
 one of the Benin Islands, and the tide continued to 
 rise and fall during the day at intervals of fifteen min- 
 utes, gradually lessening until evening.- — American 
 Journal of Science, January, 1858 [Prof. Bache]. 
 
 The following table contains the re-vised data for the 
 principal tidal elements of a number of points on the 
 coast of the United States, with additions to the tables 
 published last year, furnished by the discussions of the 
 tidal observations. These elements are selected from 
 a large number of results obtained in the progress of 
 the Coast Survey, only those stations being reported, 
 as a general rule, where the observations extended 
 through at least two lunations. 
 
 General Tide Table for the Coast op tue United 
 States. 
 
 Coast from Portland to 
 New York. 
 
 Portland 
 
 Portemouth 
 
 Newburyport 
 
 Salem 
 
 BoBton Light 
 
 Boston 
 
 Nantucket 
 
 Edgartown 
 
 Holmes's Hole 
 
 Tarpaulin Cove 
 
 Wood's Hole, south side. 
 " north side. 
 
 Bird Island Light 
 
 New Bedford harbor 
 
 Newport 
 
 Point Judith 
 
 Montauk Point 
 
 Sandy Hook 
 
 New York 
 
 Long Island Sound. 
 
 Watch Hill 
 
 Stonington 
 
 Little Gull Island 
 
 New London 
 
 New Haven 
 
 Bridgeport 
 
 Oyster Bay, Long Island 
 
 Sand's Point 
 
 New Kochplle 
 
 Throg's Neck 
 
 Coast of New Jersey. 
 
 Cold Spring Inlet 
 
 Cape May 
 
 Delaware Bay and River. 
 Delaware Breakwater. . . 
 
 Higbies 
 
 Egg Island Light 
 
 Mahon's Ditch 
 
 New Castle 
 
 Philadelphia, Na-vy Yard 
 " Walnut-st. whf. 
 
 Old Point Comfort 
 
 Point Lookout 
 
 Annapolis 
 
 Bodkin Light 
 
 Ealtlmoie 
 
 James Eiver 
 
 Richmond 
 
 Coast of North Carolina, 
 South Carolina, Geor- 
 gia, and Florida. 
 
 Hatteras Inlet 
 
 Beaufort 
 
 Smithville ■ 
 
 Charleston 
 
 Savannah Eiver 
 
 Savannah city 
 
 St. Augustine 
 
 Cape p'lorida 
 
 Sand Key 
 
 Key West 
 
 Tampa Bay 
 
 Cedar Keys 
 
 Western Coast 
 
 San Diego 
 
 San Pedro 
 
 San Luis Obispo. . -. 
 
 Monterey 
 
 San Francisco 
 
 Astoria 
 
 Maine 
 
 New Hampshire 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Do. ... 
 
 Do. ... 
 
 Do. . . . 
 
 Do. ... 
 
 Do. ... 
 
 Do. ... 
 
 Do. ... 
 
 Do. ... 
 
 Do. ... 
 
 Do. . . . 
 
 Do. ... 
 Ehode Island . 
 
 Do. ... 
 New York .... 
 New Jersey. . . 
 New York .... 
 
 Ehode Island . 
 Connecticut . . . 
 New York . . . . 
 Connecticut. . . 
 
 Do. . . . 
 
 Do. ... 
 New York. . . . 
 
 Do. . . . 
 
 Do. . . . 
 
 Do. . . . 
 
 New Jersey. . . 
 Do. . . . 
 
 Delaware 
 
 New Jersey. . . . 
 
 Do 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Do 
 
 Pennsylvania . . 
 
 Do 
 
 Virginia . . , 
 Maryland . 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 Virginia... 
 
 Do. 
 
 North Carolina. 
 
 Do 
 
 Do 
 
 South Carolina. 
 Georgia 
 
 Do 
 
 Florida 
 
 Do 
 
 Do 
 
 Do 
 
 Do 
 
 Do 
 
 California . 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 Oreg. Territory' 6-1 
 
 8-6 
 1-8 
 9-2 
 9-3 
 10-0 
 31 
 2-0 
 1-T 
 2-4 
 3-9 
 1-6 
 4-4 
 8-8 
 8-9 
 3 1 
 2-0 
 4-8 
 4-3 
 
 2-T 
 2-3 
 2-6 
 2-6 
 6-8 
 6-5 
 7-3 
 7T 
 T-6 
 T-3 
 
 4-4 
 48 
 
 S-6 
 4-9 
 6-0 
 6-0 
 6-5 
 61 
 5-9 
 
 2-5 
 1-4 
 0-9 
 1-0 
 1-3 
 2-6 
 
 10-0 
 9-8 
 9-1 
 10-6 
 10-9 
 11-3 
 3-6 
 2-5 
 1-8 
 
Tm 
 
 1839 
 
 TID 
 
 EePOUT UADE to the SirprailNTENDENT, SHOWING THE LEAST "WATEB IN CHANNEL EmTBANOEB TO OEItTAIN ITAEBORS, RiV- 
 
 ERS, AND Anchorages, on the Coasts of the United States : prepared by Lieutenant W. D. Whiting, and re- 
 
 yiBED BY LieTTTENANTB COMMANDING J. J. AlMY AND T. A. CeAVEN, U. S. N.^ ASSISTANTS IN THE COAST SURVEY. 
 
 Tidal Data by Assistant L. F. Pouetales, in charge of tidal Division. 
 
 Flflcefl. 
 
 Limits between irliich Depths are given. 
 
 .EAST WATER IN CHANNEL WAY.| 
 
 Aiithoritiefl —(From Const Survey 
 Data wlien not otherwise stated. ), 
 
 Mean. | 
 
 Spring Tides. | 
 
 Low 
 Wolot 
 
 High 
 Water. 
 
 Low 
 Wnter 
 
 High 
 Wnter 
 
 Portland, Maine 
 
 Portsmouth, N. H,... 
 Salom, Masaachusetts. 
 
 Boston, » .... 
 
 ■ - Xarraganset Bay to 
 Prudence Island. 
 
 From Cape Elizabeth to Portland Light 
 *From Portland Light to breakwater. . . 
 From breakwat. to end of Munjoy Point 
 
 From breakwater to anchorage 
 
 Channel way off town and wharves .... 
 
 From Munjoy to railroad bridge 
 
 From Whale's Back to Fort t;onatitution 
 From Fort Constitution to the Narrows. 
 From the Narrows to the city 
 
 Feet. 
 
 45 
 
 36 
 
 30 
 
 18 
 
 27, 
 
 19-5 
 
 42 
 
 Bl 
 
 45 
 
 63 
 
 62 
 
 28 
 19 
 
 28-5 
 19-5 
 31-5 
 
 18 
 
 25 
 
 60 
 
 33 
 21 
 
 31 
 
 42 
 
 ■ 
 
 20 
 24 
 22 
 22-5 
 
 31 
 
 22 
 
 61 
 
 43 
 
 2T-5 
 13-5 
 
 13-5 
 
 20 
 20 
 
 24-5 
 
 30 
 
 20 6 
 
 20-5 
 
 24-5 
 
 18-5 
 
 815 
 
 21-5 
 
 30 
 51 
 25 
 
 21 
 
 28 
 
 25-5 
 
 12-5 
 
 12-6 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 10-T 
 
 15-5 
 
 T 
 
 8 
 
 Peet. 
 63-8 
 44-8 
 38-8 
 24-8 
 85-8 
 28-3 
 50:6 
 69 -6 
 53-6 
 Tl-6 
 
 61-2 
 
 37-2 
 28 -2 
 
 38-6 
 .20:5 
 41-5 
 
 28 
 
 28-9 
 
 63-9 
 
 36-9 
 24-9 
 
 34-9 
 45:9 
 
 23 '9 
 28-8 
 26-8 
 27-3 
 
 3B'8 
 
 26-8 
 
 645 
 46-5 
 
 33-4 
 19-4 
 
 19-4 
 
 25-9 
 26 
 
 30-5 
 
 36 
 
 27 
 
 27 
 
 30-7 
 
 24-7 
 
 37-5 
 
 27-5 
 
 32:5 
 
 61-5 
 27-5 
 
 23-5 
 
 25-5 
 
 28 
 
 14-5 
 
 14-5 
 
 14 
 
 16 
 
 13-1 
 
 18-3 
 
 11-5 
 
 12-5 
 
 Feet. 
 
 44-5 
 
 35-5 
 
 29-5 
 
 15-5. 
 
 26 '5 
 
 19 
 
 41-4 
 
 50-4 
 
 44-4 
 
 62-4 
 
 51-3 
 
 27 '3 
 18-3 
 
 27-8 
 18-8 
 30-8 
 
 17-3 
 
 24-6 
 
 53-6 
 
 32-6 
 20-6 
 
 30-6 
 41-6 
 
 19-6 
 23-6 
 21-6 
 22-1 
 
 30 -6 
 
 21-6 
 
 60-4 
 42-4 
 
 27-3 
 13-3 
 
 13-3 
 
 19-8 
 19-6 
 
 241 
 29-6 
 20-3 
 20-3 
 24-4 
 18-4 
 
 31-4 
 
 21-4 
 
 29-8 
 58-8 
 24-8 
 
 20-8 
 22-8 
 25-3 
 12-4 
 12-4 
 11-9 
 13-9 
 10-5 
 15-3 
 6 5 
 7-5 
 
 Feet. 
 
 54-4 ^ 
 
 45-4 
 
 39-4 
 
 25-4 
 
 36-4 
 
 28-0 
 
 61-3 ' 
 
 60-3 
 
 64-3 
 
 72-3 
 
 61-9 - 
 
 37-9 
 28-9 ' 
 
 30-1 - 
 30 1 
 42 1 
 
 28-6 
 
 29-2 
 
 64-2 
 
 37-2 
 25-2 
 
 35-2 
 46-2 
 
 24-2 
 29-1 
 27-1 
 27-6 
 
 36-1 
 
 27-1 
 
 64-9 
 46-9 
 
 34-2 
 20-2 
 
 20-2 
 
 26 '7 
 L6 3 
 
 30-8 
 36-3 
 27-2 
 27 '2 
 312 
 25-2 
 
 38-2 
 
 28-2 
 
 32-8 
 61-8 
 27 -S 
 
 23-8 
 
 25 -3 
 
 28-3 
 
 14-6 
 
 14-6 
 
 141 
 
 10-1. 
 
 13-3 
 
 18-6 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 ■1850,'53,and'54. 
 •1851. 
 
 ■1850 and '51. 
 1850 and '51. 
 
 •1846,'47, '43, and'53. 
 Com. Wadsworth, 1332. 
 
 ■1843. 
 
 ■ From 1835 to 1853, inclUBive. 
 
 ■ From 1840 to 1844, inclusive. 
 
 • 1852, '53, and '54. 
 
 1850. 
 18BD. 
 1852. 
 1862. 
 1853. 
 1S54. 
 
 1 1851, '52, and '53. 
 
 
 Northern ship channel, between Baker's 
 
 Southern ship clyinuel, passing Halfway 
 Rock, Gooseberry and Eagle Islands, 
 to the northward, Cat Island and Co- 
 
 
 Main ship channel, between Lovers and 
 
 
 
 Main ship channel, between Governor's 
 
 Entering with Boston Neck on port 
 hand, Beavertail and Dutch Island 
 Lights on starboard hand, passing be- 
 tween Canonicut Point and Hope Isl- 
 
 Enterhig with Beavertail light on the 
 port, and Castle Kill on starboard 
 
 Anchorage, southward and westward of 
 Goat Island 
 
 Abreast of wharves, inside of Goat Isl'd 
 From Newport harbor, inside of Gulf 
 
 
 To Mount Hope Bay, with Cormorant 
 Rock, Sachusefc Point on port, and 
 Saugbkonnet Point on starboard hand 
 
 Delaware Bay 
 
 Delaware River 
 
 Chesapeake Bay 
 
 Elizabeth River, Va. . 
 Hatteraa Inlet, N.C.. 
 
 Ocracoke Inlet 
 
 Beaufort, N. C 
 
 
 
 Main ship channel, passing Sandy Hook 
 
 Main ship channel, after passing S.W. 
 Spit buoy on N.E. course, one mile up 
 
 tMain ship channel, passing Delaware 
 
 
 Main ship channel, passing False Lis- 
 ten's tree, to abreast of Bombay Hook 
 
 light 
 
 Blake's channel, along 1- logger Shoal . . 
 
 Blake*s channel, passing Mahon River 
 
 light . . 
 
 Main ship channel, approaching Listen's 
 Point 
 
 Main ship channel, up to Reedy Island. 
 Mnin ship channel, opposite Reedy, Isl- 
 
 
 Up to Christiana Creek light 
 
 
 
 
 Between Greenwich Point and Glouces- 
 
 From Greenwich Point up to Philadel- 
 
 From capes at entrance to Hampton 
 
 
 From Hampton Roads to Sewall's Point 
 
 South of Sewall's Point (one mile and a 
 
 half) 
 
 Up to Norfolk 
 
 Between Norfolk and navy yard 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1:Main ship channel, Cape Fear Kiyer . . 
 
 * The depth in channel way varies between 6 and 81- fathoms. 
 t Suhject to frequent changes. 
 
 t Soundings varying between 10 and 15 fathoms. 
 
TID 
 
 1840 
 
 TID 
 
 Kepoet to tub Supeeintendent of titb United States' Coabt StmvEY. — Continued. 
 
 [LEAST WATKB IN CHANNEL WAT. 
 
 Limits between whicli Deptlis are given. 
 
 Spring Tidee. 
 
 Low , Higli lyow Higti 
 Water. Water. Water. Water. 
 
 AuthnritieB. — (From Coast Survey 
 Data when not otberwiee stated.) 
 
 Cape Fear 
 
 Georgetown, S. C. . 
 
 Charleston, S. C. . 
 
 North Edisto. 
 Port Koyal . . 
 
 Tybee Entrance . 
 
 Savannah 
 
 St. Simon's 
 
 Dohoy Bar and Inlet . 
 
 St. Mary's Eiver 
 
 St. John's Kiver, Fla, 
 Key West 
 
 Tortugas . 
 
 Cedar Keys. 
 
 St. Mark's.. 
 
 Apalachicolat . 
 Pensacolat . . . 
 
 Mobile Bay and Rivert 
 
 Ship Island harbort. . 
 
 Cat Island harbort. . . 
 
 Mississippi Deltat. . 
 Northeast Passt. . . . 
 
 Southeast Passt. . 
 
 South Passt 
 
 Southwest Pasat . 
 Barataria Bay . . . 
 
 Dernicre or Last Isl'dt 
 
 Sabine Passt 
 
 Galveston Bayt. 
 Aransas Passt . . 
 Rio Grande 
 
 Western rip 
 
 Western bar 
 
 Entrance to Winyah Bay, East and 
 
 Southeast Pass 
 
 Anchorage inside of North Island. . . 
 
 Up to Georgetown 
 
 Main bar 
 
 North channel 
 
 Maffitt's channel 
 
 Maffltt's channel 
 
 Over bar at entrance 
 
 Channel up to Northeast branch 
 
 South channel 
 
 Southeast channel 
 
 East channel 
 
 Bar near Tybee Island 
 
 •Tybee Roads 
 
 Channel up to city (Wrecks and Garden 
 
 Bank) 
 
 Over bar at entrance 
 
 Entrance to Sound 
 
 Turtle River, up to Blythe Island . . 
 
 Entrance over bar 
 
 Anchorage in Sound 
 
 On bar 
 
 Channel up to St. Mary's 
 
 Over bar at entrance 
 
 Channel passing up toward Jacksonville 
 Main ship channel to middle buoy on 
 
 shoals 
 
 From shoals to anchorage 
 
 East channel, entering 
 
 On course N.N.W. half W. (light on 
 
 O'l-lara's Observatory), and passing 
 
 between shoals 
 
 From fourteen feet shoals to anchorage 
 
 At anchorage 
 
 Rock Key channel 
 
 jrand Key channel 
 
 West channel .' 
 
 Northwest channel, up to abreast N.W. 
 
 liglit 
 
 Over northwest channel bar 
 
 Northwest channel 
 
 Southwest channel 
 
 East channel 
 
 Anchorage at Garden Key 
 
 Channel 
 
 Over bar 
 
 (Jhannel at middle buoy 
 
 Up to Fort St. Mark's 
 
 Channel 
 
 Over bar, channel 
 
 From bar to navy yard 
 
 From navy yard to city 
 
 *Off wharf at Pensacola 
 
 Over outer bar 
 
 Main ship channel to Fort Morgan 
 
 To the upper fleet 
 
 Channel 
 
 Northwest channel 
 
 Anchorage, Man-of-war harbor 
 
 Ship channel 
 
 South Pass 
 
 Shell-hank channel 
 
 Pass & Lontre, north channel 
 
 South channel 
 
 Over bar, north entrance 
 
 Over bar, south entrance 
 
 Entexing 
 
 Channel 
 
 Channel 
 
 Over bar, outside of Grand Pass 
 
 Grand passage to Independence Island 
 Channel inside and north of Ship Island 
 
 Shoal light-ship. 
 
 Channel north of Ship Shoal, one mile 
 
 from beach of Derniere Island. . . . 
 
 Across the bar 
 
 Galveston Bay 
 
 Aransas Pass 
 
 Rio Grande 
 
 10 
 
 T 
 27 
 
 9 
 
 11 
 10 
 
 T 
 
 11-5 
 13 
 19 
 19 
 20 
 IT 
 19 
 31 
 
 11 
 IT 
 3S 
 21 
 15-5 
 24 
 14 
 10 
 7 
 23 
 
 27 
 30 
 30 
 
 23 
 30 
 2T 
 20 
 2T 
 30 
 
 15 
 11 
 
 45 
 54 
 45 
 30 
 10 
 11 
 12 
 
 T 
 
 12-5 
 21-5 
 2S 
 31 
 20 
 21 
 36 
 12 
 19 
 19-5 
 18 
 16 
 14 
 15-2 
 
 9-5 
 12 
 
 9-5 
 
 9 
 10 
 
 8 
 13 
 
 7-5 
 15 
 
 27 
 
 14 
 
 7-5 
 12 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 12-5 
 14-5 
 
 10-8 
 
 30-8 
 
 12-6 
 
 16-3 
 
 15-3 
 
 12-3 
 
 16-8 
 
 18-8 
 
 26 
 
 26 
 
 27 
 
 24 
 
 26 
 
 38 
 
 IT -5 
 23-1 
 44-1 
 27-1 
 22-1 
 30-6 
 19-9 
 24-9 
 11-6 
 25-1 
 
 31-4 
 31-4 
 
 29-4 
 31-4 
 28-4 
 21-4 
 28 -4 
 31-4 
 
 16-4 
 12-4 
 46-2 
 65-2 
 46-2 
 31-2 
 12-5 
 13-2 
 14-2 
 9-2 
 13 '6 
 22-5 
 29 
 32 
 21 
 22 
 37 
 13 
 
 19-3 
 IT -3 
 15-3 
 16-6 
 106 
 131 
 10-6 
 10-1 
 11-1 
 
 9-1 
 141 
 
 8-7 
 16 2 
 
 15-4 
 
 9 
 
 13-1 
 10-1 
 
 4-9 
 
 Feet. 
 7-5 
 9-6 
 
 6-7 
 26-T 
 
 8-T 
 10 '8 
 
 11-3 
 12-5 
 18-5 
 18-5 
 19-5 
 16-5 
 l$-4 
 30-4 
 
 10-0 
 16-5 
 3T-6 
 20-5 
 14-T 
 23-2 
 13-5 
 18-5 
 C-6 
 22-5 
 
 26-T 
 29 -T 
 29 -T 
 
 2T-T 
 29 -T 
 26-7 
 19 -T 
 26T 
 29 -T 
 
 14-T 
 1(]T 
 44-8 
 53-8 
 44-8 
 29-8 
 9-T 
 10 
 11-6 
 
 e-6 
 
 12-2 
 
 22-2 
 
 2T-7 
 
 30-7 
 
 19-7 
 
 20-7 
 
 35-7 
 
 11-7 
 
 IS-T 
 
 19-2 
 
 ITT 
 
 15 T 
 
 1B-T 
 
 14-9 
 
 9-3 
 
 11-8 
 
 9-3 
 
 S-S 
 
 9-8 
 
 T-8 
 
 12-8 
 
 T-2 
 
 14-7 
 
 26-7 
 
 13-7 
 T-2 
 
 11 -T 
 8-7 
 
 Feet. 
 
 13 
 
 15 
 
 11-3 
 
 31-3 
 13-1 
 17-1 
 16-1 
 13-1 
 17-6 
 19-4 
 26-6 
 26-5 
 27-5 
 24-5 
 26-5 
 38-5 
 
 18-2 
 
 2^-S 
 
 44-8 
 
 27-8 
 
 22-6 
 
 31 
 
 20-2 
 
 25-2 
 
 12 
 
 25-5 
 
 29 
 32 
 32 
 
 29 
 32 
 
 17 
 
 13 
 
 48-4 
 
 65-4 
 
 46-4 
 
 31 -4 
 
 12-6 
 
 13-5 
 
 14-5 
 
 9-5 
 14 
 22 -T 
 29-2 
 32-2 
 21-2 
 22-2 
 3T-2 
 13-2 
 20-6 
 21-1 
 19-6 
 IT -6 
 15-6 
 16-8 
 10 T 
 13-2 
 10 -T 
 10-2 
 11-2 
 
 9-2 
 14-2 
 
 8-9 
 16-4 
 
 15 8 
 9 3 
 13-3 
 10 5 
 5 
 
 1860. 
 
 •1851, '82, and '63. 
 
 ■ 1850. 
 
 1855. 
 
 1850. 
 
 Des Barres, 17TT. 
 
 1858. 
 
 1856. 
 
 1855. 
 
 1851 and '52. 
 
 Captain Gilmer, U. S. En- 
 gineers. — 1856. 
 
 1855 and '56. 
 
 1855. 
 
 Captain Mackay, U. S. Top. 
 En. and Coast Sur.— 1866. 
 
 1855. 
 
 1S50 and '51. 
 
 1850 and '51. 
 
 1854 
 1854. 
 
 Colonel Kearney, U. States 
 . Topographical Engineers. 
 —1822. 
 
 ■ From 184T to '62, inclusive. 
 
 ■ 1848. 
 
 -1848. 
 
 1851. 
 
 1851. 
 1851. 
 1851. 
 
 ■ 1852. 
 1862. 
 
 1852. 
 
 -1S53. 
 
 1353. 
 1853. 
 1853. 
 1853. 
 
 * Varying between 30 and 24 feet of water. 
 
 t The highest tides occur at the moon's greatest declination, and are applied in the column beaded " Spring Tides." 
 
 Range of the Tide. — The difference of level bet-ween 
 high and low water is affected by various causes, but 
 chiefly by the configuration of the land, and is very 
 different at different places. In deep inbends of the 
 shore, open in the direction of the tide wave, and grad- 
 ually contracting like a funnel, the convergence of 
 
 the water causes a very great increase of the range. 
 Hence the verj- high tides in the Bristol Channel, the 
 Bay of St. Malo, and the Bay of Fundy, where the tide 
 is said to rise sometimes to the height of 100 feet. 
 Promontories, under certain circumstances, exert an 
 opposite influence, and diminish the tide. 
 
TID 
 
 1841 
 
 TIM 
 
 
 Eeport to tue Supbbimtendbst, 
 
 sic—Cimtinued. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Floces. 
 
 LimLta between which Depths are giTon. 
 
 LEAST WATBB IN CHANNEl, WAY. 
 
 Date. 
 
 Mean, lowest of i)fly. 
 
 Sp^neTides, lowest 
 . of Day .—Mean. 
 
 Spring Tides, lowest 
 
 of. Pay.— Moon's 
 greatest Declination. 
 
 Low . 
 
 Water. 
 
 High 
 
 Water. 
 
 -'■ TjOW- 
 
 , Water. , 
 
 ' . High 
 ,- Water. 
 
 Low 
 Water. 
 
 High 
 
 Wotor. 
 
 San Dtogo Bay 
 
 Monterey harlior 
 
 San Francisco harbor . . 
 
 Humboldt Bay 
 
 Columbia River 
 
 Shoalwater Bay 
 
 Falae Dimgeness 
 
 Bellingbam Bay 
 
 
 Feel. 
 
 2T-4 
 
 30 
 
 83 
 
 20 ■ 
 
 20 
 
 24 
 
 19 , 
 
 22-5 
 
 2S 
 
 64 
 
 GO 
 
 Feet. 
 
 31 S 
 
 33-9 
 
 3T 
 
 24 ■ 
 
 24 'T 
 
 30-6 
 
 25-5 
 
 29 
 
 31-5 
 
 60 
 
 6T 
 
 Feet. 
 
 26-8 ' 
 
 29 '5 
 
 32-6 
 
 19-6 
 
 19-3 ■ 
 
 23-4 
 
 18-4 
 
 21-6 
 
 24-1 
 
 Feet. 
 82 -1 
 34-2 
 37-4 
 24-4 
 25 '8 
 30-9 
 . 20-9. 
 23 -5 
 32 
 
 Feet. 
 
 26-3 
 28-9 
 31-9 
 18-9 
 18-T 
 22 -T 
 ilT-T 
 20-9 
 23-4 
 
 Feet. 
 
 31-4 
 33-8 
 36-T 
 23-7 
 25-1 
 30 'O 
 2.5-6 , 
 29 
 31 '6 
 
 1851. 
 1862. 
 
 |lS5S. 
 
 1851. 
 
 } 1S52. 
 
 \ 1853. 
 
 
 
 
 
 North channel to Baker's Bay. . . 
 *Entrance into south channel .... 
 
 
 
 ..1 1853. 1 
 
 
 
 1 1855. 1 
 
 * Twenty-one feet may 
 of the middle aarnds, and, 
 
 be carried in at mean low water by keeping a little northward and westward, nearer the breakers 
 at the turn, hauling up for Cape Disappointment. 
 
 BamOE OB MEAN RISE AND FALL OP TIDES IN LONG ISLAND 
 
 Sound, AND Afpboacues — (Data to April, 1853.) 
 Eabtebn Sebies. 
 
 stations. Feet. 
 
 Sheffield Island 7-4 
 
 l-luntington Bay 7 '6 
 
 Great Captain's Island . . 7 '5 
 
 Oyster Bajy 7-2 
 
 Sand's Pomt , 7-7 
 
 New Rochelle 7-6 
 
 Throg's Neck 7-2 
 
 stations. Feet. 
 
 Montauk Point 2-0 
 
 Point Judith „.. 3-1 
 
 Beavertail Light 4-0 
 
 Btonington 2-7 
 
 New London 2-6 
 
 Sachem's Head 5-3 
 
 New Haven 6-8 
 
 Bridgeport 6-6 
 
 Westeen Sebies. 
 
 stations. Feet. | Stations.' Feet. 
 
 Sandy Hook 4-8 Spitflre Pot Cove C-3 
 
 Governor's Island 4-9 | North Brother 7-2 
 
 Tide-rips.— r^e&r the equator, and especially on this 
 side of it in the Atlantic, mention is made, in the "ab- 
 stract log," by almost every observer that passes that 
 •way, of " tide-rips," which are a commotion in the 
 water, not unlilse that produced by a conflict of tides 
 or of other powerful currents. These "tide-rips" 
 sometimes move aloiig with a roaring noise, and the 
 inexperienced navigator always expects to find his ves- 
 sel drifted by them a long way out of her course ; but 
 when he comes to cast up his reckoning the next day^at 
 noon, he remarlcs with surprise that no current has been 
 felt. Tide-rips are usually found in the neighborhood 
 of the equatorial calms — that region of constant precipi- 
 tation. And hence, if currents at all — ^if so, they are 
 very superficial — I liave thought thej' might be streams 
 of rain-water, which old seamen tell us they have 
 dipped up there fresh from the sea,-running off. This 
 conjecture, however, does not satisfy the phenomenon 
 in all of its aspects. It is sometimes described as 
 starting up in a calm, and then approaching the vessel 
 with great waves and a great noise ; it seems threat- 
 ening enough to excite a feeling of apprehension in the 
 minds of seamen, for it looks as if it would dash over 
 their frail bark as it lies wallowing in the sea, and 
 helplessly flapping its sails against the masts. Captain 
 Higgins, of the Maria, when boimd from New York 
 to Brazil, thus describes, in his abstract log, one of 
 these "tide-rips," as seen by him, 10th October, 1865, 
 In lat. 14° N., long. 34° W. : " At three p.m. saw a 
 tjde-rip ; in the centre, temperature of air 80°, water 
 81°. From the time it was seen to windward, about 
 three to five miles, until it had passed to leeward out 
 of sight, it was not five minutes. I should judge it 
 traveled at not less than sixty miles per hour, or as 
 fast as the bores of India. Although we have passed 
 through several during the night, we do not find they 
 have set the ship to the westward any ; it may be that 
 they are so soon passed that they have no influence on 
 the ship, but they certainly beat very hard against the 
 ship's sides, and jarred her all over. They are felt 
 even when below, and will wake one out of sleep." — 
 Maury's Physical Geography. For further information 
 as to Tides, refer to Amer. Jour, of Sci., ^xxiv. 81, 
 xvi. 78, XX. 205, xliv. 118, xii. (2a series) 341 (A. D. 
 Bache) ; South. Lit. Mess., iv. 747 ; Mass. Quart. Rev., 
 ii. 77 ; Quart. Rev., vi. 74 ; Anal. Mag., ix. 231. 
 6A 
 
 Tiles (Ger. Dachdegel; Fr. Tuiles; It. Tegole, Em- 
 trici; Sp. Tejas; Euss. Tscherepim), a sort of thin 
 bricks, dried in kilns, and used in covering and paving 
 different kinds of buildings. The best brick earth only 
 should be made into tiles. 
 
 Timber (Ger. Bauholz, Zimmer; Du. Timmerhout ; 
 Fr. Bois de charpente, Bois a, bdtir ; It. Legname da 
 faVbrieare ; Sp. Madera de construccion ; Euss. Stroe- 
 woi Gess ; Pol. Cemhra^ina), the term used to express 
 every large tree squared, or capable of being squared, 
 and fit for being employed in house or ship-building. 
 In the language of the English customs, when a tree 
 is sawn into thin pieces, not above seven inches broad, 
 it is called batten; when above that breadth, such 
 thin pieces are called deal. Wood is the general term, 
 comprehending under it timber, dye-woods, flre-wood, 
 etc. 
 
 The following are the contents of the loads of dif- 
 ferent species of timber, hewn and unhewn : 
 
 A load of timber, unhewn 40 cubic feet. 
 
 " square timber 50 " 
 
 " 1 inch plank 600 square feet. 
 
 " Vt inch plank 400 " 
 
 " 2inchplank 300 " 
 
 " 2Hnohplank 240 " 
 
 " 3 inch plank 200 " 
 
 " 31 inch plank 170 " 
 
 " 4 inch plank 150 " 
 
 36f Russian standard deals, 12 feet long, \\ inch thick, 11 
 
 inches broad, make 1 load of timber. 
 53^ Christiana standard deals, 11 feet long, 1^ inch thick, 
 
 9 inches broad, make 1 load of tim'ber. 
 53^ Dram standard deals, 10 feet long, 1} inch thick, 9 inches 
 broad, make 1 load of timber. 
 3 Riga logs make 1 load of timber. 
 — See Ldmbee Tkade. 
 
 The annual demand of timber for the British navy, 
 in war, is 60,000 loads, or 40,000 full-grown trees, a 
 ton each, of which thirtj'-five will stand on an acre ; 
 in peace, 32,000 tons, or 48,000 loads. A seventj'-four 
 gun ship consumes 3000 loads, or 2000 tons of trees, the 
 produce of fifty-seven acres in a century. Hence the 
 whole navy consumes 102,600 acres, and 1026 per an- 
 num. — Allnut. England imports about 800,000 loads 
 of timber annually, exclusively of masts, yards, staves, 
 lathwood, etc., together with about 8,000,000 of deals 
 and deal-ends. — Pari. Ret. 
 
 To overcome the difficulty of bending timber, a meth- 
 od has been discovered which, to judge from the ac- 
 counts given by the most eminent engineers, both of 
 America and England, will be of the greatest service 
 in sliip-building and domestic architecture, and in the 
 construction of all pieces of furniture in which it is 
 necessary to employ curved timber. It has been al- 
 ready so employed in the United States. 
 
 By this invention, which has been patented in Amer- 
 ica, the strength of the wood is increased at least 75 
 per cent, at the point where strength is most required. 
 The curve, moreover, never relaxes. The timber, as 
 in the old process, is first subjected to the influence of 
 steam, which softens the whole mass, and puts it in a 
 fit state for the action of a machine. The principle of 
 
TIM 
 
 1842 
 
 TIN 
 
 bending, as employed in this new application, is based 
 on end-pressure, which, in condensing and turning at 
 the same time, destroys the capillary' tubes by forcing 
 them into each other. These tubes are only of use 
 when the tree is growing ; and their amalgamation in- 
 creases the density of the timber, the pressure being 
 so nicely adjusted that the wood is neither flattened 
 nor spread, nor is the outer circumference of the wood 
 expanded, though the inner is contracted. Now the 
 error of the former process, as expounded by com- 
 petent judges, has arisen from the disintegrating of 
 the iibre of the wood by expanding the whole mass 
 over a rigid mould. Wood can be more easily com- 
 pressed than expanded ; therefore, it is plain that a 
 process which induces a greater closeness in the com- 
 ponent parts of the piece under operation — which, as it 
 were, locks up the whole mass by knitting the fibres 
 together- — ^must augment the degree of hardness and 
 power of resistance. The wood thus becomes almost 
 impenrious to damp and to the depredations of insects, 
 while its increased density renders it less liable to take 
 fire ; and the present method of cutting and shaping 
 timber being superseded, a saving of from two to three- 
 fourths of the material is brought about. The action 
 of the machine throws the cross-grains into right 
 angles ; the knots are compelled to follow the impulse 
 of the bending ; the juices are forced out of the cells 
 of the wood, and the cavities are filled up by the inter- 
 lacing fibres. In the same way, j'ou may sometimes 
 see in the iron of which the barrels of muskets are 
 made a kind of dark grain which indicates that the 
 particles of the metal, either in the natural formation 
 or in the welding, have been strongly clinched in one 
 another. The specimens are always greatly valued 
 for their extraordinary toughness, as well as for a cer- 
 tain fantastical and mottled beauty. 
 
 Another of the good results of this new method is 
 that the wood is seasoned by the same process as that 
 which effects the bending. The seasoning of the wood 
 is simply the drying of the juices, and the reduction 
 of the mass to its minimum size before it is employed, 
 so that there shall be no future warping. But, as we 
 have already shown, the compression resorted to in 
 the American system at once expels the sap ; and a 
 few hours are sulficient to convert green timber into 
 thoroughly seasoned wood. Here is an obvious sav- 
 ing of time, and also of money ; for the ordinary mode 
 of seasoning, by causing the wood to lie waste for a 
 considerable period, locks up the capital of the trader, 
 and of course enhances the price to the purchaser. 
 Time also will be saved in another way, in searching 
 for pieces of wood of the proper curve for carrying out 
 certain designs. "How delighted," says Mr. Jervis, 
 the United States inspector of timber, " will the ship- 
 wright be to get clear of the necessity of searching for 
 crooked pieces of timber ! There need no longer be 
 any breaking of bats in the frame, as we have been 
 wont to break them. We shall see numbers one, two, 
 and three futtocks, at least, all in one piece." An 
 English engineer (Mr. Charles Mayhew) remarks, that 
 one of the advantages of the American method is that, 
 "in its application to all circular, wreathed, or twisted 
 work, it not onlj' preserves the continuous grain of the 
 wood, which is now usuallj' and laboriously done by 
 narrow slips of veneer glued on cores cut across the 
 grain, with many unsightly joints, ill concealed at 
 best; but it will materially reduce the cost of all 
 curved work, which now varies according to the quick- 
 ness of the sweep, and will give the artist greater free- 
 dom in his design, by allowing him to introduce lines 
 which are now cautiously avoided in order to prevent 
 the cost of their execution." Dr. Hooker, Mr. Fair- 
 bairn, Mr. Kennie, Mr. Gallway, civH engineer, and 
 other eminent scientific men, confirm these judgments. 
 A specimen of bent oak now lies before us, and ex- 
 hibits a beautiful continuity in the sweep of the fibres. 
 Timber-bending has reached a new stage of develop- 
 
 ment ; and it is not too much to anticipate that it will 
 have considerable influence on the industrial arts. 
 
 Tin (Ger. Blech, Weissbkch; Fr. Fer blanc; It. 
 Latta, Banda stagnala ; Sp. JJoja de lata ; Tinas. Bldcha^ 
 Shest ; Arab. Resas ; Sans. Trapu and Rangct)^ a metal 
 which has a fine white color like silver ; and when 
 fresh, its brilliancy is verj' great. It has a slightly 
 disagreeable taste, and emits a peculiar smell when 
 rubbed. Its hardness is between that of gold and 
 lead. Us specific gravity is 7'29. It is very malle- 
 able ; tin-foil, or tin leaf, is about . A th part of an 
 inch thick; and it might be beat out into leaves as 
 thin again, if such were required for the purposes of 
 art. In ductility and tenacity it is very inferior. A 
 tin wire 0*078 inch in diameter is capable of support- 
 ing a weight of 34'7 pounds only without breaking. 
 Tin is very flexible, and produces a crackling noise 
 when bent. It may be readily alloyed with copper, 
 zinc, etc., forming very valuable compounds. — Thom- 
 son's Chemistry. 
 
 The Phoenicians traded with England for this article 
 for more than 1100 years before the Christian era. It 
 is said that this trade first gave them commercial im- 
 portance in the ancient world. Under the Saxons, 
 our tin mines appear to have been neglected ; but after 
 the coming in of the Normans, they produced consider- 
 able revenues to the earls of Cornwall, particularly' to 
 Richard, brother of Henry III. ; a charter and various 
 immunities were granted by Edmund, Earl Eichard's 
 brother, who also framed the stannary laws, laying a 
 dutj- on the tin, payable to the earls of Cornwall. 
 Edward III. confirmed the tinners in their privileges, 
 and erected Cornwall into a dukedom, with which he 
 invested his son, Edward the Black Prince, 1337. Since 
 that time, the heirs apparent to the crown of England, 
 if eldest sons, have enjoyed it successively. Tin mines 
 were discovered in Germany, which lessened the value 
 of those in England, till then the only tin mines in 
 Europe, a.d. 1240. — Anderson. Discovered in Bar- 
 hary, 1640; in India, 1740; in New Spain, 1782. En- 
 gland exports at present, on an average, 1500 tons of 
 unwrought tin, besides manufactured tin and tin- 
 plates, of the value of about £400,000. 
 
 The ores of this metal are found in comparatively 
 few places ; the principal, and perhaps the only, ones 
 are Cornwall, Galicia, Erzgebirge in Saxony, Bohemia, 
 the Malay countries, China, and Banca in Asia. They 
 are peculiar to primitive rocks, generally in granite, 
 either in veins or beds, and are often associated with 
 copper and iron pyrites. Tin is much used as a cover- 
 ing to several other metals : iron is tinned, to prevent 
 its rapid oxydation when exposed to air and moisture ; 
 and the same process is applied to copper, to avoid the 
 injurious effects to which those who are in the habit of 
 employing cooking utensils made of this metal are al- 
 ways liable. The solutions of tin in the nitric, muri- 
 atic, nitro-sulphuric, and tartaric acids, are much used 
 in dyeing, as giving a degree of permanency and hril- 
 liancj' to several colors, to be obtained by the use of 
 no other mordants with which we are at present ac- 
 quainted : tin forms the basis of pewter, in the com- 
 position of which it is alloyed with lead ; wiien rolled 
 into thin sheets, it is called tin-foil, and is applied, with 
 the addition of mercurj', to cover the surface of glass, 
 thus forming looking-glasses, mirrors, etc. ; and in 
 combination with sulphur, it constitutes what is called 
 mosaic gold. — Joyce's Chem. Min. Tin plates, known 
 in Scotland by the name of white iron, are applicable 
 to a great variety of purposes. They are formed of 
 thin plates of iron dipped into molten tin. The tin 
 not only covers the surface of the iron, but penetrates 
 it completely, and gives the whole a white color. It 
 is usual to add about one-tenth of copper to the tin, to 
 prevent it from forming too thick a coat upon the iron. 
 — Thomson's Chemistry. 
 
 British Tin Trade. — The tin mines of Cornwall have 
 been worked from a verj' remote era. The voj'ages 
 
TIN 
 
 1843 
 
 TIN 
 
 of the Phoenicians to the Cassiterides, or tin Islands, 
 are mentioned by Herodotus (lib. iii. c. 116), Diodorus 
 Siculus (lib. iv. p. 301, ed. 1604), and Strabo {Geog., 
 lib. iii.). Some difference of opinion has, indeed, been 
 entertained as to the particular islands to which the 
 Phoenicians applied the term Cassiterides ; but Borlase 
 (Account of the Scilly hlands, p. 72), Larcher (Herodote, 
 tome iii. p. 384, ed. 1802), and the ablest critics, agree 
 that they are the Scilly Islands, and tlie western ex- 
 tremity of Cornwall. After the destruction of Car- 
 thage, the British tin trade, which yia.a always reclcon- 
 ed of peculiar importance, was carried on by the mer- 
 chants of Marseilles, and subsequently by the Romans. 
 Besides Britain, Spain furnished the ancients with con- 
 siderable quantities of tin. We have no very preciss 
 information as to the purposes to which they applied 
 this metal. It has been supposed that the Phoinicians, 
 so famous for their purple dyes, were acquainted witli 
 the use of the solution of tin in nitro-muriatic acid in 
 fixing that color. The best of the ancient mirrors, or 
 tpecula, were also made of a mixture of copper and 
 tin ; and tin was used in the coating of copper vessels. 
 — Watson's Chemical Essays. 
 
 In modern times, the tin mines of Cornwall and 
 Devon have been wrought with various degrees of 
 energy and success. Queen Elizabeth brought over 
 some German miners, by whom some of the processes 
 were improved. During the civil wars the mines were 
 much neglected. At the commencement of last cen- 
 turj', however, the business of mining was carried on 
 with renewed vigor; and from 1720 to 1740 the annual 
 produce was about 2100 tons. The produce went on 
 gradually increasing, till it amounted, in the ten years 
 from 1790 to 1800, to 3254 tons a year. During the 
 next fifteen years the produce fell off; and for the five 
 years ending with 1813 it was always considerably 
 under 3000 tons a year. But in the last-mentioned 
 • year a considerable increase took place ; and since 
 1816 the produce has been, with the exception of 1820 
 always above 3000 tons a year. The average produce 
 of the mines in the year 1843 was estimated at above 
 5000 tons a year. 
 
 Tin, Oriental (Malay, Tima; Hind. Kalai; Siam. 
 ese, Bibuk; Burmese, Kye-pkyu, white copper), in 
 Commercial language usuallj' called Banca tin. It is 
 found in several provinces of China ; but the most ex- 
 tensive, and probably richest tin district in the world, 
 exists in the Malay countries. This comprehends the 
 whole of the peninsula, from the extreme cape to the 
 latitude of 14° on its western side, and to 11° on its 
 eastern, and comprehends several of the small islands 
 lying in the route between the peninsula and Java, as 
 far as the latitude of 3° south ; so that the whole of this 
 tin district has an extreme length of near 1200 miles. 
 By far the greater number of the mines within these 
 limits are as yet unwrought and unexplored. It was 
 only in the beginning of last century that the mines 
 of Banca, the most flroductive at present worked, were 
 accidentally discovered. The whole tin of the Malay 
 countries is the produce of alluvial ores, or what is 
 called in Cornwall "Stream-work;" and from the 
 abundance in which the mineral has been found by 
 the mere washing of the soil, no attempt has hitherto 
 been made at regular mining, or obtaining the ore from 
 its rock}' matrix. Malay tin, consequently, is grain 
 tin, or tin in a very pure state ; that being the species 
 which alluvial ore uniformly produces. The mines, 
 or rather excavations, are perpendicular pits of from 
 15 to 25 feet deep; and when the soil and a super- 
 stratum of common clay are removed, the bed contain- 
 ing the ore, consisting of quartz and- granitic gravel, is 
 reached. The sand and gravel are separated from the 
 ore by passing a stream of water through the whole 
 materials. The ore so obtained is preserved in heaps, 
 and smelted periodically with charcoal in a blast fur- 
 nace. The mine or pit is kept clear of water by the 
 Chinese wheel. No cattle are used in any part of the 
 
 process, human labor being had recourse to through- 
 out the whole of its stages. The most imperfect part 
 of the process is the smelting. The stream ores of 
 Cornwall, which are generally poor, afford from 65 to 
 75 per cent, of grain tin ; whereas, owing to the im- 
 perfection of the process, from those of Banca not more 
 than 55 or 60 are usually obtained. The difference in 
 the produce suggested, a few years ago, the practica- 
 bility of sending the ore to England for the purpose 
 of being smelted ; and the experiment was tried ; but 
 our customs regulations not allowing the produce to be 
 bonded and re-exported without duty, rendered the 
 scheme abortive. 
 
 With very trifling exceptions, the whole tin of the 
 Malay islands is mined and smelted by Chinese settlers ; 
 and before their skill and enterprise were applied to its 
 production, the metal seems to have been obtained by 
 the inhabitants of the countries which produced it, by 
 processes hardly more skillful than those by which the 
 precious metals were procured by the native inhabit- 
 ants of America prior to the introduction of European 
 skill and machinerj'. The following estimate has been 
 given of the annual produce of the principal states and 
 places producing tin : 
 
 East Coast of tub Malay PKiaNSULA. 
 
 PicuU. 
 
 JunkCoylon 5,000 
 
 Queda 2,1)00 
 
 Pera 8,000 
 
 Ralangore 8,000 
 
 Malacca 4,000 
 
 Total piculB WfiM 
 
 West Coast of the Malav Peninsula and Islands. 
 
 PiculB. 
 
 Sungora and Patani 3.000 
 
 Tringanii 7,000 
 
 Pahang 3,000 
 
 Singkop 5,00!) 
 
 Banca 85.000 
 
 Total piculB 53,000 
 
 This can be considered only as a rough estimate ; 
 but we believe it is not far wide of the truth. The 
 most considerable port of exportation is Batavia ; from 
 which there is sent annually, either directlj' or through 
 orders from the Dutch government or the authorities 
 at Banca, 2000 tons. From Prince of Wales Island 
 there is also a considerable quantity exported ; and a 
 smaller one direct to China in junlcs, from several of 
 the native ports on the eastern shore of the Malay 
 peninsula. The grea,t marts for the consumption of 
 tin are China, Hindostan, and the continent of En- 
 rope. The quality of the different descriptions of 
 Malay tin, although there may be some inconsiderable 
 difference in the qualitj' of the original ores, seems to 
 be derived chiefly from the greater or less skill with 
 which the process of smelting is conducted ; and this, 
 again, necessarily depends upon the extent of capital 
 and goodness of the machinerj' emploj'cd. The min- 
 ing operations of Banca have long been conducted 
 upon a larger scale, and with more sldll, than in any 
 other of the Malay countries ; and, consequently, the 
 metal produced in this island is superior by from 10 to 
 12 per cent. : in the market of Canton it is called " old 
 tin," in contradistinction to "new tin," the produce 
 of the other Malay countries. Next, in point of qual- 
 ity, to the produce of Banca, are those of Tringanu 
 and Singkep, which are not more than 5 per cent, in- 
 ferior to it. The tin of the state of Pera, a consider- 
 able part of which is produced by the natives them- 
 selves, without Chinese assistance, is the worst, and 
 usually about 15 per cent, below that of Banca. The 
 native tin of China is 10 per cent, inferior to that of 
 Banca, and is probablj' block-tin, like the greater part 
 of that of Cornwall ; and, like it, the produce of regular 
 mining operations, and not alluvial. The produce of 
 the Chinese mines is said of late j'ears to have greatly 
 decreased ; probably owing to the great increase which 
 has recently taken place in the produce of the Malay 
 countries, and the cheapness and abundance with which 
 
TIT 
 
 1844 
 
 TOB 
 
 it finds its way to Chifia. It should be added, that of 
 late years, and chiefly owing to the very low price and 
 abundance of German spelter (zinc) in the Indian 
 market, this commodity has occasionally been fraud- 
 ulently mixed with tin. The Chinese brokers of Can- 
 ton, however, are sufficiently expert to detect the adul- 
 teration ; and it is believed that this discreditable 
 practice has lately ceased. The price of tin, taking 
 the market of Singapore as the standard, has fluctuated 
 of late years from 14 to 20 Spanish dollars per picul j 
 equal, at the exchange of 4*. per dollar, to 47s. and 
 (i7s. per civt. At an average of these prices, the annual 
 value of the whole Malay tin will be about £240,000 
 per annum. — Crawfurd's History of the Indian Arcki- 
 pelaffoj Dr. Hobsfield's MS. /Statistical View of the 
 Island of Banca^ Singapore Chronicle; Canton Regis' 
 fer, etc. 
 
 ESPORTS OF POMESTIO TlN FROM TIIE UNITED STATEB FOK 
 
 THE Yeak endinu Junk 30, 1857. 
 
 Whither exported. Value. 
 
 Canada $4174 
 
 Other British North American rossessions. . . . 518 
 
 British West Indies 82 
 
 Azores 251) 
 
 Ports in Africa 66 
 
 Mexico 128 
 
 Sandwich Islands 50 
 
 Whale-fisheries 354 
 
 Total "^5622 
 
 Exports of foreign Tin from tite Unitep States for the 
 Year ending June 30, 185T. 
 
 "Whither exported. 
 
 In Pigfl 
 ivnd 
 Bnra. 
 
 In Plntea 
 nnd Sheets. 
 
 Manufac. 
 tures of, not 
 epccifiod. 
 
 
 $3838 
 57 
 
 'mo 
 
 14T4 
 "89 
 
 $22,046 
 3,325 
 
 330 
 3,531 
 3,010 
 
 274 
 2,441 
 
 $14,420 
 
 "iso 
 
 Other British K. A. Poaa. . . 
 
 British West Indies 
 
 Ilayti 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 $6148 
 
 $34,907 
 
 $14,550 
 
 
 1863 
 4285 
 
 24,433 
 10,474 
 
 285 
 14,266 
 
 Not from -warehouse 
 
 IMPOKTS OF Tin and Manufaotures of Tin into the United 
 States foe the Yeae ent>ing June 30, 1857. 
 
 Whence imported. 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Holland 
 
 Dutch East Indies 
 
 Belgium 
 
 England 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Canada 
 
 Other British N. A. Poss. . 
 
 British AVest Indies 
 
 British Guiana 
 
 British East Indies 
 
 France on the Atlantic . 
 France on the Mediter'n , 
 
 Philippine Islands 
 
 Cuba 
 
 New Granada 
 
 Buenos Ayres 
 
 Chili 
 
 Peru 
 
 Total. 
 
 6,246 
 
 277,347 
 
 65,584 
 
 27,871 
 
 87,783 
 
 33 
 
 641 
 491,171 
 
 39,488 
 
 2,'007 
 
 ' ' 61 
 
 53 
 
 24,602 
 
 318 
 
 1,023,210 
 
 In Plfttee 
 nnd 
 
 Sheets. 
 
 2,493 
 
 2,501 
 4,732,763 
 
 1,537 
 236 
 
 ' ' 18 
 
 4,789,638 
 
 18 
 1,116 
 
 4,627 
 2,763 
 
 12,830 
 5 
 
 21,426 
 
 Other 
 Mnnu- 
 facturee. 
 
 467 
 3,603 
 
 6,379 
 16,480 
 
 4,840 
 "196 
 
 81,922 
 
 Tithes are the tenth part of the increase yearly 
 arising and renewing from the proiits of lands, the 
 stock upon lands, and the personal industry of the in- 
 habitants, and are offerings payable to the Church by 
 law. Under tlie Jewish system, the tenth part of the 
 yearly increase of their goods was due to the priests. 
 — Numhers, xviii. 21; Deui., xiv. 22; Levit., xxrii. 
 30, 32. 
 
 In the earliest ages of the Christian Church, offer- 
 ings were made by its members at the altar, at collec- 
 tions, and in other ways ; and such payments were 
 enjoined by decrees of the Church, and sanctioned by 
 general usage. For many centuries, however, they 
 were voluntary. But when the Church had increased 
 
 in power, and began to number among its members 
 many who adhered to it because it was the prevailing 
 religion, it was found necessary to enforce certain fixed 
 contributions for the support of the ministers of re- 
 ligion. The Church relied upon the example of the 
 Jews, and claimed a tenth. Meanwhile, the conver- 
 sion of temporal princes to Christianity, and their zeal 
 in favor of their new faith, enabled the Church to ob- 
 tain the enactment of laws to compel the paj'ment of 
 tithes. In England, the first instance of a law for 
 the offering of tithes was that of Offa, King of Mercia, 
 toward the end of the 8th centurj'. He first gave the 
 Chm'ch a civil right in tithes, and enabled the clergy 
 to recover them as their legal due. The law of Ofla 
 was at a later period extended to the whole of England 
 by King Ethelwulph. — Peideahx ore Tithes ; JSoHN's 
 
 Tobacco (Da. Tohah ; Du. Taiah; Ft. Taiae; Ger. 
 Taback; It. Tobacco; Pol. Tobaka; Euss. Tahalc; Sp. 
 Tabaco; Arab. Bujjerbhang ; Hind. Tumbaku; Malay, 
 Tambrdcoo), the dried leaves of the Nicotiana tabacum, 
 a plant indigenous to America, but which succeeds very 
 well, and is extensively cultivated in most parts of 
 the Old World. The recent leaves possess very little 
 odor or taste ; but when dried, their odor is strong, 
 narcotic, and somewhat fetid ; their taste bitter and 
 extremely acrid. When well cured, they are of a. 
 yellowish green color. When distilled, they yield an 
 essential oil, on which their virtue depends, and which 
 is said to be a virulent poison. The leaves are used 
 in various ways ; being chewed, smoked, and ground 
 and manufactured into snuff. It is in the last men- 
 tioned form that tobacco is principally used in Great 
 Britain ; and though the contrary has been often as- 
 serted, its use does not seem to be productive of any 
 perceptible bad consequence. 
 
 Ilisioricdt Sketch.- — The taste for tobacco, though 
 apparently administering only to a frivolous gratifica- 
 tion, has given birth to a most extensive commerce, 
 and been a powerful spur to industry. Being a native 
 of the New World, its introduction into Europe dates 
 only from the early part of the 16th century. Seeds 
 of the plant were sent, in 1560, from Portugal to Cath- 
 erine de' Medici, by Jean Nicot, the French embassador 
 in that countiy, from whom it has received its botan- 
 ical name. The notion, at one time so general, that 
 the specific appellation tobacco was derived from its 
 having been imported from Tobago, is now universally 
 admitted to be without foundation. Humboldt has 
 shown that tobacco was the term used in the Haytian 
 language to designate the pipe, or instrument made 
 use of by the natives in smoking the herb ; and the 
 term, having been transferred by the Spaniards from 
 the pipe to the herb itself, has been adopted \>y the 
 other nations of the ancient world.. — Essai Politique sur 
 la Noumlle Espa(/ne, vol. iii. p. 50, 2d. ed. Tobacco 
 is believed to have been first introduced into England 
 b}' the settlers who returned, in 1586, from the colony 
 which it had been attempted to found in Virginia, 
 under the auspices of Sir Walter Ealeigh, in the pre- 
 ceding year. Harriott, who accompanied this expedi- 
 tion, gives, in his description of Virginia, an account 
 of the tobacco plant, and of the manner in which it 
 was used by the natives ; adding, that the English, 
 during the time they were in Virginia, and since their 
 return home, were accustomed to smoke it after the 
 fashion of the Indians, ' ' and found many rare and 
 wonderful experiments of the virtue thereof." — Hak- 
 LUYT, vol. i. p. 75. Ealeigh, and other young men of 
 fashion, having adopted the practice of smoking, it 
 spread among the English ; as it had previously spread 
 among the Spaniards, Portuguese,. French, and other 
 continental nations. But it made its greatest progress 
 in England after the foundation of the colonj* at James- 
 town, in Virginia, iu 1607. The soil of the colony 
 being found particularly well fitted for the culture of 
 tobacco, considerable quantities were raised and sent 
 
TOB 
 
 1845 
 
 TOB 
 
 home ; and the numerous individuals interested in the 
 colony contributed to introduce that taste for it which 
 ■was diffused among all classes with astonishing ro^ 
 pidity. James I. attempted,.by repeated proclama- 
 tions and publications, some of them couched in ver)- 
 strong terms, to restrain the use of tobacco. But his 
 efforts had very little effect ; and the settlers in Vir- 
 ginia continued to experience a more rapidly increas- 
 ing and better demand for tobacco than for any other 
 product of the colony. During the earlier part of the 
 reign of Charles I., the trade in tobacco was monopo- 
 lized by the crown. This monopoly was not, howev- 
 er, of long continuance, and totally ceased at the brealt- 
 ing out of the civil war. 
 
 Tobacco plants had been early introduced into En- 
 gland, and were found to answer remarkably well. 
 Their cultivation was, indeed, prohibited by James, 
 and afterward by Charles, but apparently without ef- 
 fect. At length, however, the growing consumption 
 of tobacco 'having excited the attention of the govern- 
 ment financiers, it was seen that, by imposing a duty 
 on its Importation, a considerable revenue might be 
 raised; but that, were it allowed to be freely culti- 
 vated at home, it would be very difficult to collect a 
 duty upon it. In 1643 the Lords and Commons im- 
 posed a moderate duty, for the salce of revenue, on 
 plantation tobacco ; but instead of directly prohibiting 
 the use of native tobacco, they burdened it with such 
 a duty as, it was supposed, would occasion its culture 
 to be abandbned. The facility, however, with which 
 the duty was evaded soon satisfied the republican 
 leaders that more vigorous measures were required to 
 stop its cultivation, and consequently to render its im- 
 portation a source of revenue. Hence, in 1652, an act 
 was passed prohibiting the growth of tobacco in En- 
 gland, and appointing commissioners to see its provi- 
 sions carried into effect. This act was confirmed at the 
 Restoration, by the act Charles II'., c. 34, which order- 
 ed that all tobacco plantations should be destroyed. 
 These measures were believed at the time to have been 
 principally brought about by the solicitations of the 
 planters ; but their real intention was not so much to 
 conciliate or benefit the latter, as to facilitate the col- 
 lection of a revenue from tobacco ; and, considered in 
 this point of view, their policy seems quite unexcep- 
 tionable. 
 
 Nicotiana Taiacum.—lt is thought by some that this 
 plant received its name from Tahacco, a province of 
 Yucatan, Kew Spain ; others say from the island of 
 Tobago, one of the Caribbees ; and others that it is 
 derived from Tobasco, in the Gulf of Florida. It was 
 first observed at San Domingo, A.D. 1496 ; and was 
 used freely by the Spaniards in Yucatan in 1520. To- 
 bacco was first carried to England in the seventh year 
 of Elizabeth, 1565, by Sir John Hawlcins ; but Sir 
 Walter Baleigh and Sir Francis Drake are also men- 
 tioned as having first introduced it in England. Ac- 
 cording to Stowe's Chronicle, it was manufactured 
 only for exportation for some years. The Pied Bull 
 Inn, at Islington, was the first house in England where 
 tobacco was smoked. In 1584 a proclamation of the 
 English government was issued against it. The Star 
 Chamber ordered the duties to be 6s. Wd. per lb., in 
 the year 1614. Its cultivation was prohibited in El- 
 gland by Charles II. The act laying a specific duty 
 on the Importation into England was passed 1684. 
 The cultivation was allowed in Ireland about the year 
 1779. In Anderson's History of Commerce we 'find 
 that the tax was increased, and put under the excise 
 in 1789. Various statutes have been passed by the 
 English government relative to tobacco. The act to 
 revive the act proliibiting the culture of tobacco in Ire- 
 land passed 2 William IV. (August, 1881). The act 
 directing that tobacco grown in Ireland be purchased 
 in order to its being destroyed, March 24, 1832. The 
 quantitj- consumed in England in 1791 was 9,500,000 
 lbs., and in 1829 about 15,000,000 lbs. In 1840 the 
 
 quantity had reached to 40,000,000 lbs. In 1854 the 
 quantity imported into Great Britain was about 
 35,000,000 lbs., of which 2,710,000 lbs. were manufac- 
 tured as cigars or snuff, and the rest unmanufactured. 
 — Haydn. 
 
 In some countries tobacco is principally, perhapSj 
 used in the form of snuff; in others,it is principally • 
 chewed, or again smoked ; but, in one form or another, 
 it is everj' where made use of. So early as 1624, Pope 
 Urban VIII. issued a bidl excommunicating those 
 who smoked in churches ! The practice of smoking 
 was at one time exceedingly prevalent in England; 
 but during the reign of George III. it was well-nigh 
 superseded, at least among the higher and middle 
 classes, by the practice of snuff-taking. Latterly, 
 however; smoking has been extensively revived among 
 both the rich and the poor. 
 
 We quote the following statement as to the univer- 
 sality of the use of tobacco from a learned paper on its 
 " Introduction and Use," in the 22d volume (p. 142) 
 of the Asiatic Journal: " In Spain, France, and Ger- 
 many, in Holland, Sweden, Denmark, and Russia, the 
 practice of smoking tobacco prevails among the rich 
 and poor, the learned and the gay. In the United 
 States smoking is often carried to excess. If we pass 
 to the East, we shall find the practice almost universal. 
 In Turlcej- the pipe is perpetually in the mouth ; and 
 the most solemn conferences are generally concluded 
 with a friendly pipe, employed lilce the calumet of peace 
 among the Indians. In the East lilies not merely 
 all classes, but both sexes, inhale the fragrant steam ; 
 the only distinction among them consisting in the 
 shape of the instrument employed, and the Species of 
 the herb smoked. In China the habit equally prevails ; 
 and a modern traveler in that countrj' (Barrow) states, 
 that every Chinese female, from the age of eight or 
 nine years, wears, as an appendage to her dress, a small 
 silken purse or pocket to hold tobacco and a pipe, with 
 the use of which many of them are not unacquainted 
 at this tender age. This prevalence of the practice 
 at an early period among the Chinese is appealed to 
 by M. Pallas as an .evidence that ' in Asia, and espe- 
 cially in China, the use of tobacco for smoking is more 
 ancient than the discovery of the New World.* He 
 adds : ' Among the Chinese, and among the Mongol 
 tribes who had the most intercourse with them, the 
 custom of smoking is so general, so 'frequent, and has 
 become so indispensable a luxuiy ; the tobacco purse 
 affixed to their belt so necessary- an article of dress ; 
 the form of the pipes, from which the Dutch seem to 
 have taken the model of theirs, so original ; and, last- 
 ly, the preparation of the yellow leaves, which are 
 merely rubbed to pieces and then put into the pipe, so 
 peculiar, that they could not possibly derive all this 
 from America by way of Europe ; especially as India, 
 where the practice of smoking is not so general, inter- 
 venes between Persiaand China.'" This, however, 
 is a verj' doubtful proposition. . It seems sufficiently 
 established that the tobacco plant was first brought 
 from Central America (see date of introduction of to- 
 bacco),. and it is most probable that it was thence car- 
 ried to Siam, China, and other Eastern countries. The 
 names given to it in all the languages of the East are 
 obviously of European, or rather American, origin ; 
 a fact which seems completely to negative the idea of 
 its being indigenous to the East. 
 
 Tobacco is extensively cultivated in Mexico, but 
 only for hoihe consumption. It might probably, how- 
 ever, were it not for the restrictions under which it is 
 placed, form a considerable article of export from that 
 country. Under the Spanish government, the tobacco 
 monopoly was one of the principal sources of revenue ; 
 yielding from 4,000,000 to 4,500,000 dollars, exclusive 
 of the expenses of administration, amounting to about 
 800,000 dollars. Ko tobacco Was allowed to be culti- 
 vated, except in a few specified places. Commission- 
 ers, or guardas de tobaco, were appointed, whose duty 
 
TOB 
 
 1846 
 
 TOB 
 
 it was to take care that all tobacco plantations without 
 the privileged districts should be destroyed. The gov- 
 ernment fixed the price at which the cultivators of 
 tobacco were obliged to sell it to its agents. The sale 
 of the manufactured tobacco was farmed out ; and 
 cigars were not allowed to be sold, except at the royal 
 estancos. No one was allowed to use cigars of his own 
 manufacture. This oppressive monopoly was estab- 
 lished in 1764. It has been continued, from the diffi- 
 culty of supplying the revenue which it produces, by 
 the revolutionary governmen^ts. — Humboldt, Nouvelle 
 J'Jspaffne^ iii. 49 ; Poinsett's Notes on Mexico^ note 
 116, London ed. 
 
 Cuba is celebrated for its tobacco, particularly its 
 cigars. These consist of the leaves, formed into small 
 rolls, for the purpose of smoking. Formerly their im- 
 portation into England was prohibited ; but they may 
 now be imported on paying an exorbitant duty. Ha- 
 vana cigars are usually reckoned the best. Previous- 
 ly' to 1820, the cultivation and sale of tobacco were 
 subjected to the same sort of monopoly in Cuba as in 
 Mexico ; but at the period referred to the trade was 
 thrown open. In consequence of the freedom thus 
 given to the business, the production and exportation 
 of tobacco are both rapidly increasing, though hardly, 
 perhaps, so much as might have been expected, the 
 culture of sugar and coffee being for a while reckoned 
 more profitable ; that, however, is no longer the case. 
 — See Cuba for Exports. 
 
 United States. — Previous to the war of Independ- 
 ence, its culture had spread into Maryland, Carolina, 
 Georgia, and Louisiana, from which nearly all Europe 
 was supplied^ but at present most of the sovereigns 
 of the Old World derive a considerable part of their 
 revenue from the cultivation of this plant. Independ- 
 ent of its production in the Middle and Southern States 
 of tlie Union, tobacco is extensively cultivated in 
 Mexico, the Spanish Main, Cuba, Brazil, Trinidad, 
 San Domingo, Turkey, Persia, India, China, Australia, 
 the Philippines, and Japan. It has also been raised 
 with success in nearly every country in Europe, Egypt, 
 Algeria, the Cape of Good Hope, tlie Canaries, and 
 numerous other islands in the ocean, Canada, New 
 Brunswick, and on the western coast of America. The 
 principal varieties cultivated in the United States are 
 the Virginian, the large-leaved, the dwarf, the Cuba, 
 and the common green tobacco. 
 
 In 1622 there were raised in Virginia 60,000 lbs. 
 The amount exported from that colony in 1639 was 
 120,000 lbs. ; annually for ten years preceding 1709, 
 28,868,666 lbs. ; annually for several years preceding 
 the Revolution, 55,000 hogsheads; in 1758, 70,000 
 hogsheads; from North Carolina, in 175S, 100 hogs- 
 heads; from Georgia, in 1772, 176,732 lbs. The 
 amount exported from the United Colonies in 1772 
 was 97,799,263 lbs. ; in 1780, 17,424,267 lbs. ; from the 
 United States, in 1787, 99,041,000 lbs ; in 1791, 101,272 
 hogsheads, 81,122 lbs. manufactured, and 15,689 lbs. 
 of snuff; in 1800, 78,680 hogsheads, 457,713 lbs. man- 
 ufactured, and 41,453 lbs. of snuff; in 1810, 84,134 
 hogsheads, 495,427 lbs. manufactured, and 46,640 lbs. 
 of snuff; in 1820-'21, 66,858 hogsheads, 1,332,949 lbs. 
 manufactured, and 44,552 lbs. of snuff; in 1830-'31, 
 86,718 hogsheads, 3,639,856 lbs. manufactured, and 
 27,967 lbs. of snuff; in 1840-'41, 147,828 hogsheads, 
 7,503,644 lbs. manufactured, and 68,553 lbs. of snuff; 
 in 1850-'51, 95,945 hogsheads, 7,235,358 lbs. manufac- 
 tured, and 37,422 lbs. of snuff. 
 
 According to the census returns of 1840, the amount 
 of tobacco raised in the United States was 219,163,319 
 lbs. ; of 1850, 199,752,646 lbs. ; showing a decrease in 
 its culture of 19,410,673 lbs. 
 
 Great Britain. — It is assumed by British statisticians 
 that the yearly consumption of tobacco in Great Britain 
 and Ireland amounts to 26,000 tons ; about one half 
 of which, it is supposed, is smuggled, owing to the 
 excessive duties (upward of 1000 per cent.) levied on 
 
 the article under the tariff system of that kingdom; 
 The quantity of cigars and snuff imported does not ex- 
 ceed two or three hundred weight per annum. The 
 following table, compiled from parliamentary returns, 
 shows the imports of tobacco into the United King- 
 dom, and -the quantities entered at each port, during 
 the year 1850 : 
 
 London 
 
 Liverpool . 
 
 Bristol 
 
 Glasgow 
 
 Leith 
 
 Southampton . 
 
 Other places . 
 
 Total. . . 
 
 Lenf. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 7,638 
 6,8T0 
 435 
 414 
 200 
 140 
 3 
 
 15,T00 
 
 Manufactured 
 and Cigars. 
 
 Tona. 
 482 
 146 
 
 "t 
 
 '65 
 4 
 
 Total. 
 
 Tons. 
 8,120 
 7,016 
 
 435 
 421 
 200 
 19B 
 
 T 
 
 16,3D4 
 
 The following return, transmitted to the House of 
 Commons, for the year ending January 5, 1853, shows 
 the annual consumption of tobacco in the United King- 
 dom, and duty levied on the same : 
 
 London 
 
 Liverpool 
 
 Bristol 
 
 Glasgow 
 
 Dublin 
 
 Belfast 
 
 Newcastle . . . . 
 
 Cork 
 
 Limerick 
 
 Leith 
 
 Freston 
 
 Chester 
 
 Shields 
 
 Waterford . , . . 
 Londonderry . 
 Southampton . 
 Other places . . 
 Total . . . 
 
 Loaf. 
 
 Manufact'd 
 and CigHTS. 
 
 Tons. 
 4,T62 
 2,766 
 T80 
 631 
 604 
 87T 
 341 
 2T0 
 263 
 238 
 ITS 
 158 
 14T 
 132 
 116 
 8 
 904 
 
 12,660 
 
 Tons. 
 69 
 
 80 
 
 Total. 
 
 Tons. 
 4,831 
 2,763 
 T80 
 632 
 60T 
 37T 
 341 
 270 
 25S 
 239 
 179 
 168 
 147 
 132 
 116 
 13 
 SOT 
 
 12,750 
 
 Duty. 
 
 UollaTB. 
 
 8,T64,n40 
 
 4,903,160 
 
 1,3T7,425 
 
 1,118,806 
 
 1,0TT,83B 
 
 665,555 
 
 602,220 
 
 476,810 
 
 455,020 
 
 422,570 
 
 316.560 
 
 2T9.540 
 
 260,125 
 
 233,350 
 
 204,960 
 
 40,9T6 
 
 1,603,863 
 
 3,TUS 
 
 The following table, exhibiting the exports of to- 
 bacco from Great Britain for 1852, will show the quan- 
 tities and destination of that article supplied by En- 
 gland to foreign countries, relatively to the quantities 
 imported. Total quantity imported 15,700 tons, or 
 35,168,000 lbs. 
 
 EXPOETS FEOM GeEAT BeITAIN, 1852. 
 Places. Hhds. 
 
 West coast of Africa . . . 1725 
 Holland 22T 
 
 Malta 134 
 
 San Sebastian 110 
 
 Alexandria 53 
 
 Babia 51 
 
 Antwerp 44 
 
 Rio de Janeiro 39 
 
 Gibraltar 36 
 
 Hhd.. 
 31 
 
 Places. 
 
 Draaman 
 
 Christiana 
 
 Drontbeim , 17 
 
 Senegal 15 
 
 Guernsey 14 
 
 Liberia 10 
 
 Isle of Man 54 
 
 Sundry places 22 
 
 Total 2602 
 
 The foregoing table shows that in 1852 there were 
 exported from Great Britam about 2,602,000 lbs. (al- 
 lowing 1000 lbs. to the hogshead) out of the 35,168,000 
 lbs. imported, showing the amount retained for con- 
 sumption to be 32,566,000 lbs. 
 
 QUA-NTITrEB AITD VaLUE OF TOBACCO (UAW) EXPOETBD FEO.M 
 
 THF. United States to Geeat Beitain and Ieeland feom 
 1830 to 1865. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Quantity.) Value. 
 
 years. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Value. 
 
 
 HhdBJ 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 
 Hhds. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 1880... 
 
 20,291 
 
 1,583,971 
 
 1843... 
 
 21,050 
 
 1,262,616 
 
 1331... 
 
 26,785 
 
 1,882,386 
 
 1844. . . 
 
 89,132 
 
 2,900,126 
 
 1832... 
 
 36,393 
 
 2,345,460 
 
 1845... 
 
 26,]6:» 
 
 1,985,037- 
 
 1833... 
 
 23,884 
 
 2.269,197 
 
 1846... 
 
 27,943 
 
 2,428,223 
 
 18.S4. . . 
 
 80,668 
 
 2,937,020 
 
 1847... 
 
 2;),746 
 
 2,583,775 
 
 1885. . . 
 
 27,683 
 
 8,400,639 
 
 1848... 
 
 23,801 
 
 2,260,!'8T 
 
 1836... 
 
 38,855 
 
 4,593,442 
 
 184T . . . 
 
 21,857 
 
 1,7T1,12B 
 
 183T. . . 
 
 21,783 
 
 1,879,868 
 
 1860. . . 
 
 80,926 
 
 3,026,585 
 
 1838... 
 
 26,732 
 
 2,857,203 
 
 1861... 
 
 23,638 
 
 3,458,885 
 
 1839... 
 
 30,330 
 
 B,404,96T 
 
 1862. . . 
 
 17,6-'6 
 
 2,512.225 
 
 1840... 
 
 27,136 
 
 3,227,880 
 
 1863... 
 
 32,236 
 
 3,438,423 
 
 1841... 
 
 43,131 
 
 5,114,836 
 
 1854... 
 
 17,664 
 
 2,146,942 
 
 1842... 
 
 36,999 
 
 3,212,207 
 
 1865. . . 
 
 24,203* 
 
 3,507,760 
 
 * There were also exported cases and bales, included in the 
 column of value. 
 
 The duties on imported tobacco j'-ield to the British 
 government over four and a half millions sterling an- 
 
TOB 
 
 1847 
 
 TOB 
 
 nually. For the fifty years, from 1801 to 1850, the 
 aggregate duties collected amounted to the enormous 
 sum of one hundred and fifty million pounds sterling ! 
 We annex the quantities imported, and the duties, at 
 intervals of five years : 
 
 Years. Founds consumsd Duty paid. 
 
 1801 16,904,000 £1,209,000 
 
 1806 16,816,000 1,891,000 
 
 1810 20,329,000 2,043,000 
 
 1815 1T,9S6,000 2,604,000 
 
 1820 15,116,000 3,11T,000 
 
 1825 18,761,000 8,268,000 
 
 1830 13,298,000 2,924,000 
 
 1835 21,116,000 3,364,000 
 
 1840 23,006,000 3,616,000 
 
 1845 26,161,000 4,24S,000 
 
 1850 27,T34,000 4,560,000 
 
 The changes in the import duties were as follows : 
 
 American 
 
 Yenrs. • 
 
 1801-'2 . 
 
 1803 ... 
 
 1804 . . . 
 
 1805 . . . . 
 
 1806 . . . , 
 1809 . . . 
 
 1812 ... 
 
 1813 . . . , 
 1816 . . . , 
 1819 ... 
 
 1826. 
 1833. 
 1842. 
 
 Sptinish or 
 Portuguese. 
 X. d. a, d. 
 
 IT 4 6 
 
 IT 4 Si 
 
 1 8i 4 10} 
 
 1 9i 4 11 
 
 2 2} 5 5 
 4 1} 
 
 2 5 4 6 
 
 2 8 4 lli 
 
 3 2 6 5! 
 
 4 6 
 3 6 
 
 3 
 
 2 9 3 
 
 3 3 
 
 We have no means of ascertaining the value of 
 cigars smoked away in the United States annually. 
 
 Baden. — The cultivation of tobacco in the Grand 
 Duchy of Baden was commenced in the earlj' part of 
 the present century. It has greatly increased within 
 the last twenty years ; and particularly so since the 
 commencement of the exportation of palatinate cigars 
 to the United States, and which export trade during 
 the last twelve years has shown a constantly aug- 
 menting importance. In the Grand Duchy there are 
 now from 18,000 to 20,000 acres of land devoted to the 
 cultivation of tobacco. It is particularly the Baden 
 palatinate which yields the most and best; but the 
 cultivation extends to other parts, and even as far as 
 Offenburg, in Breisgan. The crops of five years dif- 
 fered very much from each other in regard to quan- 
 tity, and still more in quality. The last two crops 
 were superior to all others. 
 
 The crops of 1351 were 100,000 cwt. 
 
 " 1862 200,000 " 
 
 " 1853 160,000 " 
 
 " 1854 150,000 " 
 
 " 1855 ITO.OOO " 
 
 " 1356 180,000 " 
 
 The cultivation and produce of the Pfalz (Rhenish 
 Bavaria) amounts to about half of that of Baden. As 
 compared with other crops, the cultivation of tobacco 
 would appear to the traveler to be on very large planta- 
 tions, but the vast extent of tobacco ground in some 
 parts of the Badish palatinate (as near Seckenheim, 
 where they reach for miles) belong to hundreds of dif- 
 ferent persons, generally speaking, in the Baden and 
 Bavarian palatinates ; tobacco is cultivated only in de- 
 tached and small pieces of ground ; some few of the 
 principal land-owners raise from 150 to 200 cwt. per 
 annum ; some not more than 5 cwt. ; and others, again, 
 not more than 3, and even down to 2 cwt. The to- 
 bacco is not put up in hogsheads, as in America ; it is 
 put up in strong bales. The finer sorts and leaf are 
 put up in boxes, and exported to Spain, England, etc. 
 Common tobacco for inland consumption is mostly 
 sold and dispatched in a loose state. 
 
 From 1844 to 1852 the prices of tobacco, with a few 
 exceptions, remained about the same ; the lowest at 
 7^ florins, and the highest 15 florins, per 50 kilograms. 
 During the years 1852-53 the export of cigars, prin- 
 cipally to the United States, had become so great as to 
 make the cigair manufacturers early and important 
 purchasers. Large purchases were also made for the 
 
 regies of France and Austria. The latter alone bought 
 100,000 cwt., which, of course, produced a great rise 
 in the market ; prices went up from 12 florins to 25 
 florins per 50 kilograms ; and since that period tobacco, 
 like cotton and public funds, has become an article of 
 " speculation." 
 
 The average prices for the last five years may be 
 quoted as follows : 
 
 Say for 1851 12 to 22 florins per 50 kilograms. 
 
 " 1862 Ttol8 " " " 
 
 " 1853 10 to 14 " " 
 
 " 1854 12 to25 " " " 
 
 " 1855 10 to 30 " " " 
 
 " 1856 13 to 42 " " " 
 
 The whole of the last crop was disposed of before 
 the close of the year. Between Carlsruhe and Bruch- 
 sal the prices were from 16 to 23 florins. The first- 
 rate tobacco of the palatinate was sold from 33 to 42 
 florins per 50 kilograms. According to estimate, about 
 one half of the produce is manufactured, and the other 
 half exported to England, Spain, and Switzerland, and 
 to Austria and France. It is quite clear that the grow- 
 ing of tobacco is profitable ; for it is Icnown that on an 
 average it costs the planter not over 12 florins per 60 
 kilograms ; and in further evidence of the fact is the 
 constantly increasing breadth of land devoted to the 
 cultivation of that crop. The consumption of foreign 
 tobacco in the Grand Duchy can not be correctly as- 
 certained, there being no statistical account of it, but 
 I have heard the quantity estimated at 25,000 cwt. per 
 annum. 
 
 The present high prices of tobacco, in the face of 
 good crops, are caused in a great measure by the active 
 export demand. The shippers 'of cigars to America, 
 and who have now mostly their own manufactories, 
 are large and ready purchasers, and for the best kinds 
 pay high prices. The Austrian regie is a very im- 
 portant customer, and the French rigie early last fall 
 contracted with some of the Baden cigar manufactories 
 for 100,000,000 of cigars. The improved export trade 
 has increased the demand for tobacco of foreign growth. 
 In Baden and Ehenish Bavaria there are no other taxes 
 on the cultivation of tobacco except land and ground 
 taxes, while the duty on foreign tobacco is. 
 
 On raw tobacco. 7 florins per 50 kilcgrams. 
 
 On manufactured tobacco . 19^ " " '' 
 
 On cigars 36 " " " 
 
 — United States Com. Relat. 
 
 France. — The revenue derived from the tobacco 
 monopoly in France, during the first nine months of 
 1857, reaches the enormous sum of 127,223,000 francs, 
 or about $26,444,600 — showing an increase over the 
 revenue derived from the same source the correspond- 
 ing period of 1856 of 7,488,000 francs, or $1,497,600. 
 The increase is owing to the larger consumption of to- 
 bacco in France, and would seem to indicate a steady 
 market for the article in the leading countries of Eu- 
 rope. The tobacco monopoly, under the regie system, 
 commenced in France in the year 1811. The follow- 
 ing statement will show the amount of revenue derived 
 from this article in quinquennial periods from that date : 
 
 1811 $1,200,000 1841 $14,397,819 
 
 1816 6,671,064 1846 17,192,216 
 
 1821 8,455,801 1861 18,446,746 
 
 1826 8,998,611 1852 19,068,816 
 
 1831 9,184,186 9 months 1866. . . 23,947,000 
 
 1836 11,125,908 9 months 185T. . . 25,444,600 
 
 The United States supplies about two-fifths of all 
 the tobacco consumed in Europe, and usually from 
 three-fourths to four-fifths of all the tobacco consumed 
 in France. Were the monopoly abolished, and our to- 
 bacco admitted at a moderate duty, our exports of the 
 article to France would increase at least ten-fold. The 
 average price of American tobacco delivered at the fac- 
 tories of the regie, aU expenses included, is estimated 
 as follows : 
 
 Maryland tobacco 9'6 cents per lb. 
 
 Virginia " 8-2 " 
 
 Kentucky " 7-7 " 
 
 Missouri *' 7'5 *' 
 
TOB' 
 
 1848 
 
 TOB 
 
 The profits realized by the regie, one year with an- 
 other, average nearly 450 per cent. 
 
 Netherlands. — The cultivation of tobacco in the Neth- 
 erlands is subject to no restrictions, with the exception 
 of the excise duty; to which, like all other products, it 
 is liable. From 1800 to 1900 morgens (equal to 3600 
 to 3800 acres) are annually devoted to tobacco. The 
 tobacco land is situated in the provinces of Guilder- 
 land, Overyssel, Utrecht, and Zealand. The average 
 quantity of tobacco produced on each morgen is about 
 4500 lbs. The total crop is estimated at from 8,000,000 
 to 9,000,000 lbs. per annum. — AnncUes du Commerce 
 Extirieur, No. 640. The quantity reserved for home 
 consumption is about 2,000,000 lbs., of which, 
 
 Smoking tobacco, about 900,000 lbs. 
 
 Snuff 700,000 " 
 
 ■ Covers for cigars .400,000 " 
 
 Besides the above, the Netherlands export to for- 
 eign countries about 6,000,000 lbs. of tobacco : 
 
 . In the leaf 8,000,000 lbs. 
 
 Manufactured 1,000,000 " 
 
 The following table shows the annual tobacco ex- 
 port trade of Holland : 
 
 The Rhenish provinces 580,000 kilograms. 
 
 Eussia and Great Britain 400,000 " 
 
 Sardinia 250,000 " 
 
 Norway and Denmark 80,000 " 
 
 Naples 60,000 " 
 
 Romanstatea 60,000 " 
 
 Spain and Portugal 80,000 " 
 
 The total quantity of tobacco grown in the Nether- 
 lands is distributed as follows : 
 
 KiloErams. 
 
 For the manufacture of snuff and chewing tobacco. 1,875,000 
 For cigars and cigar covers 1,775,000 
 
 Average price of the former, from 14 to 32 florins 
 for common ; 30 to. 90 florins for the best, per 100 kilo- 
 grams. .Average price of the latter, from 14 to 32 
 florins for common ; 60 to 90 florins for the best, per 
 100 kilograms. The planters of Amhem, and some 
 other districts, have during the past few years ap- 
 plied themselves to the raising of a very light, clear, 
 yellow tobacco, for cigar covering, for which they ob- 
 tain a very high price. For this purpose they employ 
 a very active fertilizer, with a view to the large and 
 rapid growth of the plant, which they dry by the sun 
 with great skill and management. The average quan- 
 tity of foreign tobacco annually imported is from 
 22,000,000 to 25,000,000 lbs., chiefly from the follow- 
 ing places : 
 
 Maryland 5,600,000 kilo. Tarinas 120,000 kilo. 
 
 Kentucky.... 1,750,000 " 
 
 Virginia 1,400,000 " 
 
 .Java 800,000 " 
 
 Porto Rico . . . 360,000 " 
 
 Cuba 180,000 " 
 
 San Domingo. 120,000 " 
 
 A third part of the tobacco imported from foreign 
 countries is consumed in the Netherlands, the other 
 two-thirds are exported. Germany and Belgium re- 
 ceive the larger portion, which consists altogether of 
 Virginia, Maryland, Kentucky, and some Java tobacco. 
 Besides the imports above designated, Hamburg sup- 
 plies Holland annually with large quantities of tobacco 
 of American growth. The tobacco manufactories in 
 Holland, of the first class, are numerous. They are 
 chiefly located at Rotterdam and Amsterdam, though 
 many similar factories are scattered throughout the 
 provinces. The first-class factories employ upward 
 of a million of operatives. The average consumption 
 of tobacco in Holland is about two kilograms (4-408 
 lbs.) for each individual, or 6,000,000 kilograms, or 
 upward of 13,000,000 lbs. for the whole population. 
 Germany offers the principal market for the Dutch 
 tobacco trade, though considerable quantities are ex- 
 ported to the Levant, Italy, Austria, Belgium, Den- 
 mark, Surinam, etc. — C. D. 
 
 Tobacco is, next to salt, probably the article most 
 universally consumed by men. In one form or an- 
 
 Manilla 
 
 75,000 
 
 Colombia 
 
 30,000 
 
 Brazil 
 
 30,000 
 
 Havana 
 
 60,000 
 
 Tobacco Btema 
 
 145,000 
 
 other, but most generally in the form of fume or 
 smoke, there is no climate In which it is not consumed, 
 and no nationality that has not adopted it. To put 
 down its use has equally baflled legislators and moral- 
 ists ; and, in the words of Pope on a higher subject, it 
 maj- be said to be partaken of " by saint, by savage, 
 and by sage." The civilized European and American 
 nations are the smallest consumers of tobacco of any 
 people, in consequence of its being every where with 
 them an object of heavy taxation, of its being very 
 generally a foreign commodity or high-priced, because 
 raised in uncongenial climates, and, finally, its being 
 for the most part confined in use to the male sex. 
 The duty on the importation oiraw tobacco amounts, 
 
 .In the United States to. . . 30 per cent, ad valorem. 
 
 In Belgium to 13-9 " " 
 
 In Great Britain to 933-3 " " 
 
 In Hanover to 9-6 " " 
 
 InHolsteinto 10 " " 
 
 InHoUandto 3-5 " " 
 
 In Russia to 161 *' " 
 
 In Switzerland to 8 " " 
 
 In Zoll-Verein to 45 " " 
 
 ■ — German Custom Union. 
 
 Statement ^^ respecting the Tariff Duties, Restrictions, 
 Prohibitions, and Custom-house Regulations applicable 
 to American Tobacco, in the principal commercial 
 Countries of Europe." 
 
 Bremen levies a Tariff Duty of^ofl per Cent. — Im- 
 port duty is levied at the rate given on the invoice 
 value, with the addition of freight and insurance 
 charges. All foreign vessels (American excepted) 
 must be entered at this port by a licensed ship-broker, 
 the exemption in favor of American vessels having 
 been conceded by the Bremen Senate in 1852. 
 
 Great Britain levies a Duty ofli Cents per lb,, and 
 5 per Cent, additional. — Tobacco, snuff, and cigars are 
 prohibited to be imported into Great Britain, unless in 
 vessels of not less than 120 tons burden, and into ports 
 approved bj' the commissioners of customs. These 
 ports are London, Liverpool, Bristol, Hull, Lancaster, 
 Cowes, Falmouth, Whitehaven, Plymouth, Newcastle, 
 Southampton, Preston, and Swansea, in England ; 
 Aberdeen, Leith, and Greenock, in Scotland ; and 
 Dublin, Belfast, Galway, Limerick, Londonderrj', 
 Newry, Sligo, Waterford, Wexford, and Drogheda, in 
 Ireland. Duties alike from all countries and in all 
 bottoms. The consumption of tobacco in the United 
 Kingdom was : 
 
 Years. 
 
 
 Reveoue. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Consump- 
 tion per 
 Head. 
 
 1821 
 
 1831 
 
 1841 
 
 1851 
 
 Pounds. 
 16,598,152 
 19,638,841 
 22,809,860 
 28,062,978 
 
 3,122,683 
 2,964,592 
 3,680,163 
 4,485,768 
 
 21,282,960 
 24,410,439 
 27,019,672 
 27,462,262 
 
 Ounces. 
 11-71 
 12-80 
 13-21 
 16-86 
 
 In 1853 the duty amounted to .£4,751,780, or 
 $23,000,000. 
 
 France. — Tobacco a Government Monopoly. ■ — In 
 1629 the first duties on the tobacco trade were levied. 
 In 1674 Louis XIV. established the first monopoly in 
 Europe. The cultivation of tobacco is prohibited ex- 
 cept in six departments. From 1811 to 1852 there 
 were sold by the government 1,308,838,075 lbs., which 
 brought a clear revenue of $432,233,434. The ex- 
 penses of the administration were 24 per cent, ad 
 valorem. By the terms of the treaty of June 24, 1822, 
 American produce, if imported direct to France in 
 United States bottoms, is admitted on the paj'ment of 
 the same duties as apply to similar importations from 
 countries out of Europe in French vessels. The origin 
 of the merchandise must, however, be duly authenti- 
 cated and certified by the collector at the port of ex- 
 portation, and by the French consul. American to- 
 bacco is purchased by the commissioners of the regie 
 for the government factories, and is admitted either in 
 French or American vessels free of duty. In foreign 
 vessels the duty is ^1 86 per 100 kilograms (221 lbs.). 
 
TOB 
 
 1849 
 
 TOB 
 
 The monopoly was established in 1810 by imperial de- 
 cree. 
 
 Holland levies aJ)utg 0/28 Cents per 221 lbs. — If 
 imported direct from the United States, admitted on 
 the same terms, whether in American or national ves- 
 sels. 
 
 Spain. — Tohacco is a Government Monopoly. — The- 
 gross receipts from the tobacco monopoly in the 
 years 1830-34 were $4,950,121, and the net receipts 
 $3,097,147. The sold tobacco amounted to 2-4 lbs. 
 per head of the population. The net receipts of 1851 
 were $3,100,000. The expenses of the adminislxation 
 amounted to 40 per cent, of the total value. Admitted 
 at the port of Malaga in American vessels at a duty of 
 20 cents, and in Spanish at a duty of 15 cents per lb. 
 The privilege of the tobacco monopoly in Spain is 
 rented to individuals, and yields a, revenue of about 
 $4,000,000 to $6,000,000 per annum. 
 
 Belgium levies a Duty o/"$l 86 per 221 lbs. — In the 
 direct trade between the United States and Belgium 
 the vessels of both nations are equalized by treaty. 
 In the indirect or triangular trade there are discrimin- 
 ations, though frequently suspended by Belgium. 
 
 Sardinia. — A Government Monopoly, — The annual 
 revenue can not be calculated, as the Italian states are 
 grouped in official returns of commerce. 
 
 Austria. — A Government Monopoly. — ^The monop- 
 oly exists since 1784. The gain of the government 
 amounts to 76 per cent, ad valorem. The net re- 
 ceipts amounted in 1851 to $8,739,421, and in 1853 to 
 $10,619,106. The consumption in the whole empire 
 was, in 1850, 34,457,513 lbs. ; in 1851, 54,217,578 lbs. ; 
 in 1852, 61,805,697 lbs. ; in 1853, 57,926,925 lbs. ; i^ 
 1854, 62,020,333 lbs. When imported by permission 
 of the government, the duty is $4 85 per 110 lbs., be- 
 sides 97 cents per lb. for a license to import. 
 
 Sweden levies a Duty of 5 5-6 per lb. — The duty is 
 over 100 per cent., and importations from the United 
 States are diminishing annually. 
 
 NoKWAY levies a Duty o/"4J cents per Ibi — Owing to 
 a difference in .the weights and measures in use in 
 Norway, the duty is about 33'3 per cent, less than in 
 Sweden. 
 
 ■Portugal. — A Government Monopoly. — The raw 
 article for the factories of the government is derived 
 chiefly from Brazil, about half a mUUon lbs. per an- 
 num being received from the United States. 
 Statement EXliiBiTlNG the Quantities op American To- 
 
 BAOaO EXPORTED FROM THE UNITED STATES INTO THE 
 COUNTEIES DESIGNATED, WITH THE AMOUNTS OF DUTIES 
 PAID TUEREON, DURING THE COMMERCIAL YeAR 1855. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 QuantitieB. 
 
 Dutiea paid. 
 
 
 38,058,000 IbB. 
 34,303,000 " 
 40,866,000 " 
 
 17,124,000 " 
 7,524,00,0 " 
 
 4,OJO,000 " 
 3,311,000 » 
 
 2,946,000 " 
 
 1,713,000 " 
 336,000 " 
 
 $16,652. 
 
 $18,397,468. 
 
 Average-annual rev- 
 enue from monop- 
 oly, $16,000,000. 
 
 $21,695,000, 
 
 Average annual rev- 
 enue &om monop- 
 oly, .$4,600,OOQ. 
 
 $33,749. 
 
 No data from which 
 to ascertain amt. of 
 revenue derived 
 from monopoly. 
 
 $129,805, besides an 
 annual profit to 
 the regie of about 
 $7,500,000. 
 
 $88,605. 
 
 No data from which 
 to ascertain the 
 share of the mo- 
 nopoly revenue 
 wliich this quanti- 
 ty bears; the whole 
 amount is about 
 $2,250,000 yearly. 
 
 Great Britain ; 
 
 France ..^ 
 
 Holland 
 
 
 
 
 AuBtrla 
 
 Sweden and Norway 
 
 
 The total receipts from custom duties in France for 
 one year (1848), according to official returns, were 
 146,000,000 francs, of which 86,000,000 were derived 
 from tobacco, nearly all grown in the United States. 
 
 The Austrian empire contains 36,614,397 inhabitants. 
 The annual yield (average) of tobacco in Austria is 
 estimated at 79,000,000 lbs. The only places where 
 the plant is permitted to be grown are Hungary, Gali- 
 cia, the Tyrol, and Venice. In Himgary it is the 
 leading staple, the annual crop reaching as high as 
 68,000,000 lbs. ' Of this one-third is sold to the Aus- 
 trian regie, one-third to foreign countries, and the re- 
 maining third is consumed at homis. The average 
 annual importation from the United States is from two 
 and a half to three millions of lbs. The regie clears 
 a profit of 10 cents on each lb. of raw tobacco, and the 
 annual revenue to the government is $7,500,000. 
 
 In the states composing the ZoU-Verein the annual 
 crop of tobacco is estimated at 55,000j000 lbs. The rev- 
 enue derived from American tobacco is about $1,800,000 
 per annum. The duty on raw tobacco is $2 76 per 110 
 lbs., which, if re-exported, enjoys a drawback of $2 20 
 per 110 lbs. Tobacco grown within the limits of the 
 Customs Union pays oiJy 46 cents for the same quan- 
 tity. The revenues which the government herefrom 
 derives amount to 38 per cent, on the value. 
 
 Belgium produces annually about 1,300,000 lbs. of 
 tobacco, and imports from 9,000,000 to 11,000,000 lbs. 
 
 Holland produces from 4,000,000 to 5,000,000 lbs., 
 and imports annually from 30,000,000 to 35,000,000 
 lbs. The tobacco factories in this country are stated 
 to give employment to " one million operatives." 
 
 Bremen imports yearly from 35,000,000 to 50,000,000 
 lbs. of tobaccb, most of which is manufactured in that 
 city and re-exported to foreign markets. 
 
 Hamburg imports only from 1,000,000 to 2,000,000 
 lbs. annually, most of which, after being manufactured, 
 is re-exported. 
 
 The annual tobacco crop of Russia is about 25,000,000 
 lbs. 
 
 The annual consumption of tobacco in Spain is about 
 9,000,000 lbs., one-third of which is imported for the 
 government factories from the United States. 
 
 In Portugal the culture of tobacco is prohibited by 
 law. 
 
 The quantity of American unmanufactured tobacco 
 annually imported into the principal commercial conn- 
 tries of Europe may be thus stated : For each inhabit- 
 ant of Great Britain, 14 ounces; for each inhabitant 
 of France, 10 ounces ; for each inhabitant of Belgium, 
 2^ lbs. ; for each inhabitant of Holland, 2f lbs. ; for 
 each inhabitant of the Hanse Towns, 5 lbs. ; for each 
 inhabitant of Hanover, 3J lbs. ; for each inhabitant of 
 Mecklenburg Schwerin and Mecklenburg Strelitz, 2 
 lbs. ; for each inhabitant of the states of the ZoU- 
 Verein, 1 lb. ; for each inhabitant of Eussia, i ounce ; 
 for each inhabitant of Austria, 1 ounce ; for each in- 
 habitant of Spain, 3 ounces ; and for each inhabitant 
 of Portugal, IJ ounce. The aggregate quantity of to- 
 bacco annually raised in these countries (exclusive of 
 their colonies) is about 210,000,000 lbs. The aggre- 
 gate quantity of tobacco raised in the United States 
 in 1850 was 199,752,515 Ihs.— Census o/1850. 
 
 The average annual quantity of American tobacco 
 imported into Great Britain during a period of three 
 years (1851, '52, '53) was 24,543,334 lbs., on which there 
 was levied an average annual duty of $18,554,760. 
 The average annual quantity imported into France 
 during the same period was 14,690,000 lbs. ; into Hol- 
 land, 18,660,000 lbs., on which the average annual 
 amount of duty was $24,915 ; into Belgium, 4,824,000 
 lbs., on which the average annual amount of duty was 
 $40,600; and into the Hanse Towns, 38,637,667 lbs., 
 on which was paid an average annual amount of 
 $12,643 91. 
 
 The following table shows the average consumption 
 per head of male population over 18 years of age ; also 
 net revenue from tobacco, and tax per head of popula- 
 tion. It will be seen that the countries Steuer-Verein, 
 Zoll-Verein, and Belgium, in their respective order, 
 are the largest consumers -per head of' tobacco ; and 
 
TOB 
 
 1850 
 
 TOB 
 
 .that England, the Papal States, and Spain, in their or- 
 der, produce the greatest net revenue per head : 
 
 (1-Ian-i 
 
 Austria 
 
 Zoll-Verein . . 
 
 Steuer -Verein 
 over and Oldenburg, ,- 
 now added to former)) 
 
 France 
 
 Kuasia 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Sardinia 
 
 Tuscany 
 
 Papal States. 
 Two Sicilies . 
 England .... 
 
 Holland 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Denmark. ... 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Norway 
 
 United States^ 
 
 Avflragfl 
 Consump- 
 tion. 
 
 6-75 
 9-75 
 
 12-50 
 
 5 -50 
 2-50 
 3-50 
 4-76 
 2-75 
 2-50 
 2-00 
 
 4'io 
 8-25 
 9-00 
 8-00 
 4 -37 
 6-4') 
 7-60 
 
 Dollars. 
 6,062,060 
 1,482,800 
 
 62,100 
 
 15,291,780 
 
 1,421,400 
 
 1,520,700 
 
 6,840,410 
 
 1,230,(160 
 
 424,350 
 
 1,486,200 
 
 842,110 
 
 21,735,000 
 
 31,050 
 
 140,070 
 
 52,440 
 
 73,830 
 
 116,610 
 
 Per Head. 
 
 Cento. 
 
 26 1-3 
 
 6 1-2 
 
 3 1-20 ' 
 
 43 
 
 2 1-3 
 
 46 2-3 
 
 48 2-5 
 
 27 1-4 
 
 24 9-10 
 
 60 2-5 
 
 7 1-2 
 
 78 4-5 
 
 1 ' 
 
 3 1-5 
 
 2 1-3 
 
 2 1-3 
 
 4 1-3 
 
 — Cor. Nat. Intelligencer. 
 
 * Hypotlietically. 
 
 According to the United States Census Report, the 
 number of lbs. of tobacco in the year 1850, produced 
 per acre, was as follows : Kentucky, 675 lbs. ; Marj'- 
 land, 650 lbs. ; Missouri, 775 lbs. ; Ohio, 730 lbs. ; Ten- 
 nessee, 750 lbs. ; Virginia, 660 lbs. The whole num- 
 ber of acres for cultivation of tobacco at the same time 
 was 4.00,000, which at an average of 600 lbs., five acres 
 would produce 240,000,000 lbs. annually. The gross 
 product for the same jqsly was estimated to be worth 
 $13,982,686, being about one half the duty levied on 
 Great Britain on 27,000,000 lbs. only. Every State 
 in the Union produces tobacco more or less. Dela- 
 ware, Maine, Rhode Island, and Vermont produce so 
 little that it ivas not enumerated in the year 1850. 
 
 THE TOBACCO TRADE OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Imports of Tobacco into the United States for the 
 Years ending June 30, 1853, '54, '55. 
 
 
 Raw State. 
 
 Snuff, etc. 
 
 Cigars. 1 
 
 1853. 
 
 Cuba 
 
 0th. places 
 Total... 
 
 1854. 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Otli. places 
 Total... 
 1855. 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Otb. places 
 Total... 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 4,295,530 
 
 713,342 
 
 nollars. 
 764,529 
 91,274 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 1,650 
 
 40,432 
 
 DoUb. 
 
 286 
 
 7,215 
 
 M. 
 777,044 
 104,443 
 
 Dollais. 
 
 2,896,620 
 
 415,315 
 
 5,008,872 
 
 4,562,187 
 810,426 
 
 865,803 
 
 700,371 
 94,625 
 
 42,082 
 
 18,068 
 74,791 
 
 7,500 
 
 2,369 
 11,647 
 
 881,487 
 
 71,882 
 81,636 
 
 3,311,926 
 
 2,760,229 
 623,807 
 
 5,362,613 
 
 3,713,786 
 641,US 
 
 794,896 
 
 523,112 
 90,664 
 
 92,859 
 
 600 
 
 21,750 
 
 14,016 
 
 65 
 4,674 
 
 153,518 
 
 167,309 
 218,710 
 
 3,384,036 
 
 2,531,453 
 . 907,544 
 
 4,363,104 
 
 614,076 
 
 22,859 
 
 4,729 
 
 376,019 
 
 3,438,997 
 
 Raw tobacco, 1855 $623,112 $90,964 
 
 Snuff 53 4,674 
 
 Cigars 2,631,453 3,438,997 
 
 Total $3,054,618 $3,534,635 
 
 From this "vve see that, except to a limited extent, 
 all our foreign tobacco comes from Cuba, and of this 
 four-fifths is in cigars. 
 
 Exports of manitpaotueed Tobacco from the United States for the Years 1853, 1864, and 1866. 
 
 Statement exhibiting the . Quahtity and Value of To- 
 bacco exported annually, from 1821 TO 1867, inclu- 
 sive. 
 
 1821.. 
 1822. . 
 1823. . 
 1824. , 
 1826.. 
 1826.. 
 1827. 
 1828., 
 1829.. 
 1830., 
 1831. , 
 1832., 
 1833., 
 1834., 
 1836. 
 1836. 
 1837. 
 1838.. 
 1839. 
 1840., 
 1841. 
 1842., 
 1843. 
 1844. 
 1846. 
 1846. 
 1847. , 
 1848.. 
 1849. 
 I860.. 
 18.51. , 
 1852. . 
 1853. 
 1864., 
 1855. 
 1858. . 
 1857., 
 
 Total. 
 
 Hogsheads. 
 
 66,858 
 
 83,169 
 
 99,009 
 
 77,883 
 
 75,984 
 
 64,098 
 
 100,025 
 
 96,278 
 
 77,131 
 
 83,810 
 
 86,718 
 
 106,806 
 
 83,153 
 
 87,970 
 
 94,353 
 
 109; 042 
 
 100,232 
 
 100,593 
 
 78,996 
 
 119,484 
 
 147,828 
 
 158,710 
 
 94,454 
 
 163,042 
 
 147,168 
 
 147,998 
 
 135,762 
 
 130,666 
 
 101,521 
 
 145,729 
 
 95,945 
 
 137,097 
 
 159,863 
 
 126,107 
 
 *150,213 
 
 116,1:62 
 
 166,848 
 
 4,107,502 
 
 $6,648,962 
 6,222,838 
 6,282,672 
 4,865,566 
 6,115,623 
 5,347,208 
 6,577,123 
 6,269,960 
 4,982,974 
 6,586,365 
 4,892,388 
 5,999,769 
 S,755,S68 
 6,595,305 
 8,250,577 
 10,058,840 
 6,795,647 
 7,392,029 
 9,832,943 
 9,888,957 
 12,576;708 
 9,540,766 
 4,650,979 
 8,397,255 
 7,469,819 
 8,478,270 
 7,242,086 
 7,551,122 
 5,804,207 
 9,961,023 
 9,219,251 
 10,031,283 
 11,319,319 
 10,016,046 
 14,712,468 
 12,221,843 
 20,6 62,772 
 $301,191,715" 
 
 Average 
 Cost per 
 Hogshead. 
 
 $84 4J 
 74 82 
 
 63 46 
 62 34 
 80 4S 
 83 42 
 66 75 
 54 73 
 
 64 60 
 66 66 
 
 66 41 
 
 56 17 
 
 69 20 
 74 96 
 87 44 
 92 24 
 
 67 82 
 73 48 
 
 124 47 
 82 72 
 8S 07 
 60 11 
 
 49 24 
 51 50 
 
 50 76 
 
 57 28 
 53 34 
 57 78 
 
 67 17 
 
 68 28 
 
 96 09 
 73 17 
 
 70 81 
 79 42 
 
 97 94 
 104 50 
 132 40 
 
 * In addition to tbis export of 150,213 hogsheads for the fis- 
 cal year ending June 80, 1865, there was an export of 12,913 
 bales and 13,306 cases, the value of which is included in the 
 general sum of $14,712,468. 
 
 Exports of Tobacco fro.m the United States for tiie 
 Year ending June 30. 
 
 Domestic. 
 
 1863. 1 
 
 Hhd.. 
 
 Cases. 1 Bales. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 
 38,058 
 17,124 
 23,841 
 40,866 
 30,324 
 
 1,490 
 
 27 
 
 248 
 
 2,905 
 
 8,696 
 
 2,467 
 
 98 
 
 50 
 
 379 
 
 9,419 
 
 2,497,730 
 1.068,782 
 8,468,132 
 4,103,695 
 8,574,229 
 
 Holland 
 
 
 France 
 
 
 Total domestic 
 
 Foreign, all places 
 
 Total domestic and foreign 
 
 160,213 
 
 13,366 
 
 12,918 
 131,279 
 
 14,712,468 
 14,116 
 
 14,726,584 
 
 
 
 
 Domestic. 
 
 1854. 
 
 1855. 1 
 
 Hhds. 
 
 DoUavs. 
 
 HhdB. 1 Dollais. 1 
 
 Hanse Towns 
 
 Holland 
 
 35,358 
 26,070 
 17,435 
 15,162 
 32,082 
 
 2,182,649 
 1,350,336 
 2,116,722 
 1,852,719 
 3,013,720 
 
 53,851 
 23,389 
 31,226 
 1.5,796 
 .36,091 
 
 2,822,348 
 1,119,808 
 3,286,922 
 1,070,588 
 8,020,653 
 
 
 
 Other places 
 
 Total domestic . . . 
 
 Foreign, all places 
 
 Total domestic and 
 . foreign exports, lbs. 
 
 126,107 
 677,009 
 
 10,016,046 
 95,938 
 
 169,853 
 501,447 
 
 11,319,319 
 84,364 
 
 10,111,984 
 
 11,403,983 
 
 Domestic. 
 
 185S, 
 
 1854. 
 
 1855. 1 
 
 Snutf. 
 
 Manufaet'd. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Siiuff. 
 
 Manufact'd. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Snuff. 
 
 Manufact'd. 1 Value. | 
 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 2,842,668 
 483,917 
 1,184,964 
 ,1,090,707 
 1,160,868 
 8,798,688 
 
 $507,804 
 62,788 
 185,299 
 166,099 
 272,475 
 487,035 
 
 Lbs. 
 10 
 
 7,773 
 18,984 
 2,571 
 3,718 
 2,836 
 
 Lbs. 
 1,467,834 
 
 428,366 
 2,530,323 
 1,353,382 
 - , 652,418 
 3,850,845 
 
 $304,685 
 58,340 
 375,165 
 
 " 181,009 
 126,014 
 516,124 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 14,918 
 
 18,800 
 
 832 
 
 30,180 
 
 7,804 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 2,799,419 
 378,901 
 
 1,858,806 
 852,769 
 
 1,139,264 
 
 3,595,123 
 
 $601,810 
 42,278 
 841,376 
 121,501 
 235,398 
 457,706 
 
 British "VN'est Indies 
 
 17,112 
 7,049 
 1,486 
 2,068 
 
 11,927 
 
 
 
 
 Other places 
 
 
 89,641 
 
 10,561,692 
 
 $l,670,f00 
 228,,!i90 
 
 36,287 
 7,756 
 
 10,278,162 
 473,108 
 
 $1,550,327 
 200,466 
 
 72,534 
 
 9,625,282 Sl.BOO.OOsI 
 
 Foreign, all places 
 
 
 112,593 
 
 Total domestic and foreign exports. . 
 
 
 ,tl,899,809 
 
 54,042 
 
 10,746,350 
 
 $1,750,793 
 
 $1,692,661 
 
 Agreeably to official statements received at the 
 State Department at Washington, the annual average 
 produce of the States of Maryland, Ohio, Virginia, 
 iXennessee, Kentucky, and Missouri, is estimated at 
 
 200,000 hogsheads, of 1200 lbs. each, of which foreign 
 countries annually take 162,000 hogsheads, leaving 
 about 40,000 per annum fof our home consumption, 
 ■which are manufactured Into fine cut, smoking, and 
 
TOB 
 
 1851 
 
 TOB 
 
 chewing, ping chewing tobacco, and snuff. But a 
 very small quantity is now used of these crops for the 
 making of cigars, as the manufacturing of common 
 grades of cigars has almost entirely ceased in this 
 country, for reasons which will be stated hereafter. 
 The average crops of the last few j'ears have been 
 under the above estimate, the exportations smaller, the 
 home consumption for the above uses somewhat larger; 
 and foreign consumers of these kinds have been com- 
 pelled to substitute other foreign tobaccos, not as de- 
 sirable to them as our produce, to supply the deficien- 
 cies in our deliveries. Thus it will be perceived that 
 of the largest product of tobacco of our own growth but 
 one-fourth is required to supply the home demand, 
 while, if the production could be doubled, foreign coun- 
 tries would be ready customers for the greatest part of 
 it, as our tobacco leaf is of such peculiar style and qual- 
 ity, that, lilie cotton, or the leaf tobacco of the isl- 
 and of Cuba, it is indigenous to the soil and climate, 
 no other soil producing the same ; and therefore its 
 culture is confined to certain sections of the country, 
 and attempts in others have proved unsuccessful. Be- 
 sides the above described sorts of leaf tobacco, five 
 States of the Union produce a limited quantity of leaf, 
 mostly used for the manufacture of cigars, namely, 
 Connecticut, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and 
 Florida. The average yield in these States has been 
 of late years as follows : 
 
 In Connecticut 5,000 cases of 350 lbs. each. 
 
 In New York 2,000 " " " 
 
 In Ohio 6,000 " " " 
 
 In Pennaylvania 2,000 " " " 
 
 In Florida 2,000 " " " 
 
 Total 10,000 " " " 
 
 Deduct from the above one quarter, or 4000 cases, 
 of the most inferior grades, called fillers, and now used 
 mostlj' for the cutting of smoking tobacco, and it leaves 
 12,000 cases, or about 4,000,000 lbs. for the use of the 
 cigar-maker. In former years, about one-third of 
 these crops were bought for exportation, chiefly by 
 German buyers ; but for the last few years the con- 
 sumption for the manufacture of cigars has so consider- 
 ably increased, that of the produce of the first four 
 States very little is exported — our manufacturers pay- 
 ing higher prices than exporters are willing to give ; 
 and only of the crop of Florida, about one-half to two- 
 thirds is annually exported, leaving from three to three 
 and one half millions of lbs. of leaf of our own growth, 
 called Spanish seed-leaf tobacco, for the home con- 
 sumption of the cigar manufacturers. 
 
 The manufacturing of cigars, at prices to rival the 
 foreign fabric, having beooAe next to impossible, a 
 great many operatives, who made fair wages for their 
 own and their families' support, were forced, in conse- 
 quence, to turn to other employments, particularly so 
 in Pennsylvania and Connecticut. Other manufac- 
 turers gave their attention to better grades of cigars, 
 for the purpose of furnishing a medium between the 
 common German and finer and high-priced Havana 
 cigar. The American cigar-makers, being noted for 
 their excellent workmanship and tasty style of pack- 
 ing, succeeded in furnishing an. article as handsomely 
 made as the fine Havana, similar to it in appearance 
 and flavor, although not of as fine a quality, at a more 
 moderate price than the latter, as palatable to the great 
 majority of smokers, who are disinclined to use the 
 common German fabric, and, finding the genuine Ha- 
 vana too expensive, content themselves with the fair 
 medium, and thus Ijecame the great patrons of this 
 branch of trade. This class of cigars are made from 
 onr own seed leaf and Florida tobacco for wrappers, 
 and from Havana, Sagua, Cuba or Yara (all the prod- 
 uce of the island of Cuba), for fillers, and now the con- 
 sumption of this sort reaches 300 to 400 millions of 
 cigars a year, varj'ing in prices from $12 to $22 per 
 thousand. From 1848 to 1861, five thousand cases of 
 Beed-leaf wrappers anrtuallj' were sufficient to supply 
 the wants of the cigar-makers for home use ; the value 
 
 of seed-leaf wrappers ruling at 10 to 15 cents, and 
 fillers 4 to 5J cents ; leaving a large surplus for ex- 
 port, principally to Germany, to be returned to us as 
 a rival of our own ofi'spring in the shape of low-priced 
 German cigars. Since 1852, almost the entire crops 
 of seed-leaf tobacco have been manufactured at home 
 into Spanish cigars — prices for seed-leaf wrappers rang- 
 ing at 20 to 35 cents, and fillers at 10 to 13 cents per lb., 
 and a corresponding increase in the importation and 
 consumption of its needful concomitant, the Spanish 
 tobacco from the island of Cuba, for fillers, has taken 
 place. 
 
 The importation's of this sort of tobacco were — 
 
 In 1850, 25,000 IbB. ; value, $300,000, duty paid under $90,000 
 In 1851, 23,000 " 275,000 " " 80,000 
 
 In 1852, 35,000 " 420,000 " " 120,000 
 
 In 1853, 35,000 " 620,000 " " 120,000 
 
 In 1854, 42,000 " 620,000 " " 160,000 
 
 In 1865, 45,000 " 650,000 " " 165,000 
 
 In 1856, 40,000 " 600,000 " " 180,000 
 
 To show the extent of the export of leaf tobacco 
 and cigars from Cuba, a large portion of which is im- 
 ported into this country for cigar manufacture and con- 
 sumption, we give the following statement : 
 
 quahtities oc lkaf tobaooo an1> cigak8 expobtitd from 
 Cuba from 1848 to 1854, hoth inclusive. 
 
 Venrs. 
 
 Loaf 
 Tobacco. 
 
 Cignrs. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Loaf 
 Tobacco. 
 
 Cigars. 
 
 1848.. 
 1849.. 
 1850. . 
 1861. . 
 
 Pounds. 
 6,275,630 
 4,019,133 
 7,978,148 
 9,436,591 
 
 M. 
 
 161,430 
 123,720 
 212,640 
 2T0.S13 
 
 1852.. 
 1853. . 
 1854.. 
 
 Pounds. 
 9,737,443 
 8,039,797 
 9,808,150 
 
 M. 
 
 142,567 
 287,350 
 251,313 
 
 From this we see that the exportation of leaf tobacco 
 from Cuba has been steadily increasing, but not in the 
 same proportion with the exports of cigars. 
 
 Added to this we give the production of tobacco in 
 the island of Porto Eico, only a small portion of which 
 is imported into and used in this country : 
 
 Years. Founds. 
 
 1851 '. 6,478,084 
 
 1853 6,565,739 
 
 1853 8,703,457 
 
 The fact has now become incontrovertible, that to 
 sustain this branch of industry, the use of the finer 
 grades of foreign material, to improve the quality of 
 our own product, is indispensable. The census return 
 of 1850 gives the number of tobacconists and cigar- 
 makers in the United States as 10,823-. 
 Tobacco. 
 
 Years. Pounds. 
 
 1848 2,457,449 
 
 1849 2,430,540 
 
 1850 2,973,308 
 
 •States and Territories. 
 
 1840. 
 
 1850. 
 
 
 Pounds. 
 273,303 
 148,430 
 
 66,550 
 
 471,667 
 
 273 
 
 75,274 
 
 162,894 
 
 564,326 
 
 1,820,306 
 
 8,076 
 
 53,436,909 
 
 119,824 
 
 30 
 
 24,816,012 
 
 64,965 
 
 1,603 
 
 83,471 
 
 9,067,913 
 
 116 
 
 1,922 
 
 744 
 
 16,772,359 
 
 5,942,275 
 
 326,018 
 
 317 
 
 61,619 
 
 29,550,432 
 
 " ' 535 
 
 76,347,106 
 
 115 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 164,990 
 
 218,936 
 
 1,000 
 
 7,800 
 
 1,267,624 
 
 998,614 
 
 423,924 
 
 841,394 
 
 1,044,620 
 
 6,041 
 
 56,601,196 
 
 26,878 
 
 21,407,497 
 
 138,246 
 
 1,245 
 
 49,960 
 
 17,113,784 
 
 50 
 
 310 
 
 83,189 
 
 11,984,786 
 
 10,4.54,449 
 
 912,651 
 
 74,285 
 
 20,1«,932 
 
 66,897 
 
 56,s63,227 
 
 1,268 
 
 8,467 
 
 326 
 
 TO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Florida 
 
 
 Illinois 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 New York 
 
 
 Ohio 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 b'S (Utah 
 
 Total 
 
 221,195,419 
 
 201,350,663 
 
TOB 
 
 1852 
 
 TOB 
 
 A OOMPAEATiyE STATEMENT OF THE STOCKS, IMPOETS, AND DeLIVEEIES OF TonAOQO IN LIVERPOOL THE IJiST TEN YeABB. 
 
 
 
 \ Imports. 
 
 DellTories. 
 
 stock 3l8t 
 Decem- 
 ber. 
 
 Stock iBt January. 
 
 Virginia. 
 
 New 
 Orleans. 
 
 Baltimore. 
 
 OtheT 
 Porte. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Home Use. 
 
 Irolnnd. 
 
 Export. 
 
 Coastwise. 
 
 Total. 
 
 lit:: 
 
 1850... 
 1861. . . 
 1852... 
 1853... 
 1854... 
 1855... 
 ,1850... 
 185T. . . 
 
 18,453 
 16,119 
 16,365 
 17,45-2 
 16,041 
 13,T60 
 14,023 
 12,22T 
 10,215 
 10,889 
 
 .3263 
 6785 
 2162 
 16S0 
 3057 
 2723 
 4420 
 6043 
 6953 
 3654 
 
 6670 
 6833 
 6422 
 5933 
 7819 
 8495 
 6173 
 3817 
 3373 
 6203 
 
 1465 
 1224 
 1437 
 650' 
 1369 
 1345 
 294B 
 2065 
 
 532 
 1587 
 2607 
 1206 
 
 980 
 2410 
 1003 
 
 882 
 
 676 
 1082 
 
 10,477 
 13,205 
 12,666 
 10,041 
 13,293 
 14,278 
 12,955 
 11,087 
 12,946 
 12,004 
 
 4911 
 4945 
 4633 
 5263 
 5243 
 4865 
 5274 
 4516 
 4276 
 5070 
 
 8357 
 
 2970 
 
 2783, 
 
 2320 
 
 3591 
 
 3126 
 
 3652 
 
 3357 
 
 3649 
 
 3728 
 
 2366 
 2781 
 2012 
 2637 
 2602 
 2843 
 2658 
 2430 
 1902 
 2066 
 
 2188 
 2273 
 2031 
 2233 
 3138, 
 3191 
 3267 
 2796 
 2545 
 2501 
 
 12,811 
 12,969 
 11,469 
 12,452 
 14,674 
 14,015 
 14,761 
 13,099 
 12,271 
 13,365 
 
 16,119 
 16,355 
 17,452 
 15,041 
 13,760 
 14,023 
 12,227 
 10,215 
 10,889 
 9,63S 
 
 The total annual sales at Liverpool and their distribution' were as follows : 
 
 
 1850. 
 
 1851. 
 
 1852. 
 
 1853. 
 
 1664. 
 
 1856. . 
 
 1866. 
 
 1857. 
 
 
 7,553 
 3,679 
 2,145 
 8,312 
 
 6,253 
 2,329 
 2,233 
 2,637 
 
 5,243 
 3,591 
 3,138 
 2,602 
 
 4;855 
 3,126 
 3,191 
 
 2,843 
 
 5,274 
 3,552 
 8,267 
 2,658 , 
 
 4,516 
 3,357 
 2,796 
 2,430 
 
 4,2T5 
 
 3,549 
 
 2,545 
 
 ., I,fl02 
 
 5,0TO 
 3,728 
 2,601 
 2,056. 
 
 
 
 For exportation 
 
 Total sales 
 
 21,589 
 
 12,482 
 
 14,574 
 
 14,015 
 
 14,751 
 
 13,099 
 
 12,271 
 
 13,365 
 
 DbIIVEKIEB OUT OF StOEB in 1S57. — LiVEEPOOL. 
 
 
 Virginia 
 Leaf. 
 
 "Virginia 
 Stemmed. 
 
 Western 
 Leaf. 
 
 Western 
 Stemmed. 
 
 Maryland. 
 
 Total Hogs- 
 heads, etc. 
 
 
 349 
 1941 
 
 265 
 1039 
 
 291 
 
 1125 
 
 1131 
 
 48 
 
 254 
 113 
 327 
 938 
 
 1901 
 549 
 625 
 
 2275 
 
 -163 
 31 
 
 5,070 
 3,728 
 2,501 
 2,056 
 
 
 
 For exportation 
 
 Total 
 
 3594 
 
 2695 
 
 1632 
 
 3075 
 
 2459 
 
 13,365 
 
 
 Estimated Stock at Livehpool on Sale exoltjsive of that held in the Channels op Consumption. 
 Of Virginia leaf. 1174 against 2110 in 1856, 1616 in 1865, 125T in 1854, 977 in 1863, 1,493 in 1852, 
 
 stemmed 1086 " 1634 
 
 Of Western leaf 1341 " 763 
 
 " stemmed 3237 " 2502 
 
 OfMaryland 773 " 1221 
 
 Total 7611 " 8230 
 
 1352 
 347 
 
 4449 
 628 
 
 8292 
 
 829 
 1147 
 5308 
 
 608 
 9149 
 
 1,217 
 4,039 
 4,600 
 732 
 11,565 
 
 1,123 
 
 2,175 
 
 6,330 
 
 089 
 
 11,110 
 
 Paetioulaes of leaf and stemmed Tobacco impoeted dueing the last ten Yeaes, and the Stock on Sale at the 
 
 Close op each Yeah — Imports. 
 
 i 1848. 
 
 1849. 
 
 1850. 
 
 1861. 
 
 18S!. 
 
 1853. 
 
 1864. 
 
 1855. 
 
 1866. 
 
 1857. 
 
 Virginia leaf 
 
 1,665 
 1,679 
 1,364 
 6,666 
 23 
 
 4,082 
 2,056 
 2,530 
 4,473 
 64 
 
 644 
 1,793 
 3,336 
 5,348 
 1,436 
 
 1,242 
 1,040 
 1,971 
 4,565 
 1,223 
 
 1,664 
 1,641 
 2,282 
 6,878 
 1,938 
 
 1,243 
 1,668 
 5,087 
 4,903 
 
 1,317 
 
 1,932 
 2,421 
 1,100 
 5,651 
 
 l,7!il 
 
 2,992 
 2,511 
 1,269 
 8,012 
 1,303 
 
 4,072 
 2,652 
 1,393 
 2,184 
 2,644 
 
 2,276 
 2,236 
 2,205 
 3,342 
 1,946 
 
 
 
 
 Maryland and OMo 
 
 Total 
 
 10,477 
 
 13,205 
 
 12,666 
 
 10,041 
 
 13,2S3 
 
 14,278 
 
 12,0.0.5 
 
 11,087 
 
 12,945 
 
 12,004 
 
 
 
 Stocks on hand at Liveepool. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1848. 
 
 1849. 1 1860. 1 1851. 
 
 1859. 
 
 1853. 
 
 1854. 
 
 1866. 
 
 1856. 
 
 1857. 
 
 
 2,862 
 
 ' 3,638' 
 
 2,225 
 
 7,380 
 
 24 
 
 - 4.170 
 2;653 
 8,123 
 6,460 
 
 - -..6) 
 
 2,380 
 2,494 
 4,075 
 7,240 
 ■1,263 
 
 2,254 
 1,616 
 2,923 
 7,B42 
 701 
 
 1,634 
 1,356 
 2,761 
 6,779 
 1,230 
 
 1,146 
 1,342 
 4,522 
 5,806 
 1,207 
 
 1,638 
 1,160 
 1,974 
 6,440 
 1,116 
 
 2,178 
 1,541 
 516 
 4,960 
 1,020 
 
 2,631 
 1,820 
 994 
 3,410 
 2,034 
 
 1312 
 1461 
 1567 
 3077 
 1621 
 
 
 
 
 Maryland, etc 
 
 Total..: 
 
 16.119 
 
 16,355 
 
 17,452 
 
 15,041 
 
 13,760 
 
 14,023 
 
 12,227 
 
 10,216 
 
 10,389 
 
 9633 
 
 
 1850. 
 
 1861. 
 
 1862. 
 
 1863. 
 
 ft54. 
 
 1866. 
 
 1856. 
 
 1851. 
 
 
 26,647 
 
 17,462 
 
 1,870 
 
 1,985 
 
 1,600 
 
 22,863 
 
 15,041 
 
 1,200 
 
 1,370 
 
 960 
 
 18,090 
 
 13,760 
 
 2,400 
 
 1,400 
 
 1,200 
 
 17,465 
 14,023 
 2,200 
 1,600 
 '1,400 
 
 11,384 
 
 12,227 
 
 2,100 
 
 1,300 
 
 900 
 
 10,041 
 
 10,220 
 
 1,700 
 
 1,800 
 
 1,100 
 
 11,101 
 
 10,889 
 
 1,512 
 
 1,921 
 
 1,000 
 
 10,326 
 
 9,538 
 
 1,600 
 
 770 
 
 860 
 
 
 
 
 " Ireland 
 
 Total in Great Britain 
 
 49,554 
 
 41,424 
 
 36,850 
 
 36,578 
 
 27,911 
 
 24,861 
 
 26,423 
 
 23,094 
 
 Paraguay : 1856. 
 
 Stoclt on 1st January 6337 
 
 Imported during 12 months 1287—7624 
 Delivered " " 4559 
 
 3066 Ijales 
 
 1857. 
 
 3065 
 
 6420— 84S5 
 6086 
 2399 
 
 9547—12006 
 
 5937 
 
 Stock on 31st December. . . . 
 
 Greek and Turkey : 1866. 
 
 Stock on 1st January 5022 
 
 Imported during 12 montlis' 2543—7666 
 
 Delivered ." " 6107 
 
 Stock on 31at December. . . 2458 bales 
 
 It may be here stated, as important to the export 
 trade of tobacco, and as a specimen of the inequalities 
 of the tariff duties on tobacco in Europe, that the Nor- 
 wegian tariff, which differs in many essential particu- 
 lars from that of Sweden, admits tobacco considerably 
 lower ; and, owing to this fact, and to the advantages 
 resulting from different weights, it, is found that to- 
 bacco blades may be imported into Norway at a rate 
 nearly 33-3 per cent, less than into Sweden. 
 
 The following table exhibits the prices current at 
 Liverpool, December 31, for the years 1855, '56, '67 : 
 
 Liverpool Prices. 
 
 Virginia leaf: 
 
 Ordinary and faded 
 
 Ordiiiary sound 
 
 Fair leafy, dry 
 
 Good substance 
 
 Fine Irish 
 
 Stemmed : 
 
 Ordinary short dry 
 
 Fair dry leafy 
 
 Good do. with substance. 
 
 Fine Irish 
 
 Western leaf: 
 
 Ordinary 
 
 Middling to fine, dark. . . 
 
 Fine, dry and colory 
 
 Stemmed : 
 
 Ordinary 
 
 Middling 
 
 Fine colory , 
 
 Marylanda : 
 
 Dry leafy and sweet .... 
 
 Colory and fine 
 
 Paraguay 
 
 Greek and Turkey 
 
 Nomin. 
 
 7 @7J 
 
 Nomin. 
 7i® 8 
 8i® 9 
 9}@10 
 
 51® 6i 
 
 7i@ .. 
 8 @ .. 
 
 6 ®Xom, 
 
 8 @ .. 
 
 9 @ 9} 
 10 @ .. 
 
 10 ® 11 
 
 Nominal. 
 
 11 @ 12 
 
 13 @ .. 
 
 14 @ 15 
 
 NominaL 
 8!® 9i 
 10 @ .. 
 
 10 @ 11 
 Hi© 121 
 13 ® ISi 
 
 8 @ 8i 
 
 9 ® 11 
 9 @ 10 
 
 1867. 
 
 Nominal. 
 7j@ 8 
 8J@ 9 
 9 @ 94- 
 10 ®Wi 
 
 NominaL 
 10 ®11 
 12 ® .. 
 12 @13J- 
 
 Nominal. 
 Tj® 8i 
 9 @10&11 
 
 10 @ .. 
 
 11 ©llj- 
 
 12 ®13 
 
 7 @ 8 
 9 ©10 
 9 ©10 
 
TOB 
 
 1853. 
 
 TOB 
 
 Ihfobts oe Tobacco into ths Ubitsd Statxs fob tqs Yeab ssDma Jmns 30, 1857. 
 
 T 
 
 Whence Imported. 
 
 Sweden and Norway 
 
 Daniah West Indies 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Bremen. 
 
 Hollaad , , 
 
 Dutch West Indies 
 
 Dutch Guiana 
 
 Dutch East Indies 
 
 Belgium ...-. 
 
 England 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Gibraltar , 
 
 Canada 
 
 British West Indies ,. .. . 
 
 British Honduras, 
 
 Britiah Australia 
 
 British East Indies ,, 
 
 Fraqce on the Atlantic , 
 
 France on the Mediterranean 
 
 French West Indies 
 
 Spain on the Mediterranean , 
 
 Philippine Islande , 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Porto Rico 
 
 TWb Sicilies 
 
 Austria 
 
 Turk'ejrm Asia 
 
 Ports in Africa 
 
 Hayti 
 
 San Domingo 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Central Republic , 
 
 New Granada , 
 
 "Venezuela 
 
 Brazil , 
 
 Chili ., 
 
 I*«ru 
 
 China 
 
 Total, year 1856-'7 , 
 
 Unmanufactorod. 
 
 Snuff. 
 
 Value. '[ Poirnda. 
 
 Thouannd. Value. 
 
 264 
 
 2iii3 
 
 838,514 
 
 60,045 
 
 ltl6;035 
 33,014 
 
 16,801 
 14,0TO 
 
 31,6i5 
 2T,798 
 
 S3S 
 
 562,430 
 
 5,636,630 
 
 11,629 
 
 13,927 
 
 275,229 
 
 125,045 
 
 117,650 
 
 256 
 
 1,142,236 
 
 150,712 
 
 1,768 
 
 10,500 
 
 1,025 
 
 $40 
 
 "478 
 
 : 45,623 
 
 8,965 
 
 12,614 
 
 3,705 
 
 2,310 
 974 
 
 ' 824 
 8,241 
 
 79 
 
 67,837 
 
 972,667 
 
 1,170 
 
 2,444 
 
 42,613 
 
 15,182 
 
 12,359 
 
 34 
 
 155,385 
 
 18,330 
 
 260 
 
 1,722 
 
 1S9 
 
 8,574,6312 
 
 $1,368,835 
 
 2,320 
 6,036 
 3,205 
 
 1,181 
 134 
 
 1021 
 649 
 
 143 
 73 
 
 44 
 
 321 
 
 4 
 18,251 
 
 .89,360 
 
 65,171 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 198,469 
 
 536 
 
 '74' 
 
 120 
 
 37 
 
 10 
 
 68 
 
 1.530 
 
 '302 
 
 37,873 
 
 70 
 
 1 
 
 7,731 
 
 138,307 
 
 42 
 
 260 
 
 36 
 
 13,547 
 
 12 
 
 31 
 
 780 
 
 $37 
 
 58,205 
 
 275,329 
 
 1681698 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 82 
 
 600,168 
 
 4,009 
 
 615 
 
 545 
 
 643 
 
 169 
 
 343 
 
 4,655 
 
 2,009 
 
 138,989 
 
 382 
 
 10 
 
 60,828 
 
 8,506,743 
 
 3T8 
 
 21 
 146 
 
 ' 240 
 
 1,479 
 
 313 
 
 384,530 
 
 82 
 
 44 
 
 3,545 
 
 500,043 
 
 $4,221j096 
 
 Exports op thb MANifFACTtraES of domubtio Tobacco from 
 THE United States foe tse Yeab Ending June 30, 1867. 
 
 Exports of foreign Tobacco from the United States foe 
 THE Year ending June 30, 1857. " 
 
 .1 ; Whither exported. 
 
 Pounds. Value. 
 
 RuBSia 
 
 Danish "West Indies 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Holland 
 
 Dutch "West Indies .... 
 
 Dutch Guiana 
 
 Belgium 
 
 England 
 
 Scotland! 
 
 Grlbraltar. . . i 
 
 Malta. 
 
 Canada .' 
 
 British N. Am. Possess. 
 British West Indies. . . . 
 
 British Honduras 
 
 British Guiana 
 
 Brit. Possess, in AArica. 
 
 British Australia 
 
 British East Inijies 
 
 France on the Atlantic, 
 France on the Mediter'n 
 French N. Am. Possess. 
 Spain on the Mediterr*n 
 
 Canary Islands 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Porto Eico 
 
 Cape de Verd Islands . . 
 
 Azores 
 
 Sardinia 
 
 Turkey in Europe 
 
 Turkey in Asia 
 
 Porta in Africa 
 
 Hayti 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Central Kepublic 
 
 New Granada 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Uruguay 
 
 Argentine Republic .... 
 
 Chili 
 
 Peru 
 
 Sandwich Islands. ..... 
 
 China 
 
 Whale-fisheries 
 
 Total, 1856-'7. 
 
 C4 
 120 
 
 14,560 
 
 861 
 
 16,588 
 
 10,140 
 
 500 
 725 
 200 
 
 96 
 
 14 
 
 2,577 
 
 800 
 
 "ioo 
 
 50,401 
 
 $64 
 120 
 
 3,507 
 
 134 
 
 2,743 
 
 1,285 
 
 "648 
 49 
 208 
 120 
 
 "'48 
 
 94 
 
 ""4 
 
 2,093 
 
 100 
 "15 
 
 $11,526 
 
 Founds. 
 
 0,000 
 
 06,549 
 
 81,224 
 
 84,302 
 
 16,143 
 
 104,622 
 
 4,175 
 
 4,000 
 
 836,819 
 
 63,131 
 
 133,235 
 
 166,359 
 
 1,471,030 
 
 1,130,803 
 
 290,835 
 
 29,102 
 
 • 30,271 
 
 463,352 
 
 1,032,456 
 
 243,826 
 
 65,676 
 
 71,681 
 
 39,146 
 
 10,960 
 
 27,022 
 
 200,072 
 
 130,431 
 
 6,455 
 
 280 
 
 5j051 
 
 10,176 
 
 7,817 
 
 68,029 
 
 62,161 
 
 35,415 
 
 1,465 
 
 70,232 
 
 97,402 
 
 35,798 
 
 32,433 
 
 13,303 
 
 122,301 
 
 19,108 
 
 33,183 
 
 35,682 
 
 16,610 
 
 7,456,666 
 
 $700 
 
 13,509 
 
 16,469 
 
 18,826 
 
 2,293 
 
 23,401 
 
 , 633 
 
 837 
 
 186,378 
 
 8,608 
 
 20,871 
 
 32,642 
 
 303,140 
 
 206,600 
 
 47(568 
 
 5,205 
 
 3,590 
 
 72,639 
 
 235,128 
 
 39,357 
 
 10,180 
 
 11,751 
 
 6,541 
 
 689 
 
 3,962 
 
 32,673 
 
 21,756 
 
 1,232 
 
 30 
 
 992 
 
 1,676 
 
 847 
 
 19,174 
 
 9,945 
 
 7,149 
 
 311 
 
 11,103 
 
 14,376 
 
 6,003 
 
 4,630 
 
 2,003 
 
 16,936 
 
 4,680 
 
 6,214 
 
 10,082 
 
 3,587 
 
 $1,447,027 
 
 We now add a summary of foreign tobacco, showing 
 together the aggregate export trade for 1886-7 : 
 
 whither cjcported. 
 
 Russia 
 
 Asiatic Russia 
 
 Russian Poss. in N. Am. 
 Sweden and Norway . . . 
 
 Danish West Indies 
 
 Hamburg ....1 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Other German ports. . . . 
 
 Holland 
 
 Dutch West Indies 
 
 Dutch Guiana 
 
 Belgium 
 
 England 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Malta 
 
 Canada 
 
 British N. Am. Possess. 
 
 British West Indies 
 
 British Honduras 
 
 British Poss. in Africa. . 
 
 British Australia 
 
 British East Indies 
 
 France on the Atlantic. . 
 France on the Mediter'n 
 French N. Am. Possess. 
 
 French West Indies 
 
 Porto Rico 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Cape de Verd Islands . . 
 
 Sardinia 
 
 Two Sicilies 
 
 Turkey in Europe 
 
 Turkey in Asia 
 
 Ports in Africa 
 
 Hayti 
 
 Mexico 
 
 New Granada 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Brazil,... 
 
 Uruguay, or Cispl. Rep. 
 
 Buenos Ayres 
 
 Chili 
 
 Peru 
 
 Sandwich Islands 
 
 China 
 
 Whale-fisheries 
 
 Total 
 
 From warehouse 
 
 Not from warehouse. , . . 
 
 cigars. 
 
 MaDufactui«d, other 
 than Snuff,flpd Cigara 
 
 36 
 64 
 85 
 49 
 
 217 
 64 
 
 141 
 
 72 
 
 60 
 
 38 
 
 ,214 
 
 281 
 
 SO 
 
 4 
 
 1,746 
 
 183 
 
 66 
 
 40 
 
 24 
 
 651 
 
 10 
 
 362 
 
 15 
 
 11 
 
 15 
 
 61 
 
 6 
 
 71 
 
 9 
 
 50 
 
 10 
 
 43 
 
 121 
 
 123 
 
 61 
 
 462 
 
 1,299 
 
 739 
 
 113 
 
 110 
 
 986 
 
 534 
 
 15 
 25 
 
 11,168 
 
 6;241 
 4,927 
 
 $948 
 686 
 1,018 
 1,464 
 3,394 
 1,!"" 
 2,438 
 
 - IfiSO 
 
 i,r" 
 
 465 
 
 3,71!) 
 
 7,047 
 
 1,018 
 
 320 
 
 33,141 
 
 2,217 
 
 657 
 
 947 
 
 630 
 
 13,585 
 
 107 
 
 . .6,769 
 
 236 
 
 1,580 
 
 168 
 
 527 
 
 320 
 
 781 
 
 169 
 
 595 
 
 1,752 
 
 1,709 
 
 621 
 
 8,499 
 
 32,704 
 
 20,427 
 
 2,r" 
 
 3,696 
 
 30,274 
 
 17,650 
 
 16,590 
 
 342 
 
 609 
 
 $227,143 
 
 118,786 
 108,357 
 
 5,000 
 14,769 
 
 280,024 
 651,730 
 
 61,149 
 
 151,391 
 25,153 
 
 10,400 
 
 9,480 
 
 1,016 
 1,600 
 
 8,000 
 
 45,000 
 ' ' 500 
 
 411 
 2,408 
 
 49,603 
 126,177 
 
 8,091 
 
 32,003 
 6,026 
 
 11,816 
 " "51 
 
 1,250,161|$241;385 
 
 852,877 ' 165,518 
 397,284, 75,867 
 
TOK 
 
 1854 
 
 TON 
 
 Exports of FOEEroN Tobacco fkom the United States 
 FOE THE Year ending June 30, 185T. 
 
 Wliithor exported. 
 
 Unmanufactured. 
 
 Snuff. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 VahiB. 
 
 Pounds. 1 Value. 
 
 
 11,651 
 
 836 
 
 11,176 
 
 81,233 
 
 $1,B80 
 
 188 
 
 2,123 
 
 9,750 
 
 "646 
 
 '780 
 ■566 
 
 $i56 
 '266 
 
 Other German ports 
 
 Chili 
 
 Peru 
 
 Sandwich Islands 
 
 Total 
 
 77,T63 
 
 $14,287 
 
 ,1280 
 
 $356 
 
 
 T2,660 
 6,103 
 
 13,136 
 1,151 
 
 600 
 780 
 
 200 
 156 
 
 Not from warehouse 
 
 Exports op unmanufaotureij bomestto Tobacco from the 
 United States for the Year ending June 30, 1857. 
 
 whither exported. 
 
 Asiatic Russia 
 
 Russian Possess, in N. Am. . 
 
 Sweden and Norway 
 
 Swedish West Indies 
 
 Denmarlc 
 
 Danisli West Indies 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Holland 
 
 Dutch West Indies 
 
 Dutch Guiana 
 
 Belgium 
 
 England 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Ireland 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 Malta 
 
 Canada 
 
 Other British N. A. Possess, 
 
 British West Indies 
 
 British Honduras 
 
 British Guiana 
 
 British Possessions in Africa 
 
 British Australia 
 
 British East Indies 
 
 France on the Atlantic 
 
 France on the Mediterranean 
 French N. Amer. Possessions 
 
 French West Indies , 
 
 French Guiana 
 
 Spain on the Atlantic 
 
 Spain on the Mediterranean. 
 
 Canary Islands 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Porto lUco 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Madeira 
 
 Cape de Verd Islands 
 
 Sardinia 
 
 Tuscany 
 
 Two ^-icilies 
 
 Austria 
 
 Austrian Possessions in 1 taly 
 
 Turkey in Europe 
 
 Turkey in Asia 
 
 Ports in Africa 
 
 Hayti 
 
 Mexico 
 
 New Granada 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Uruguay, or Cisplatiue Rep. . 
 
 Argentine Republic 
 
 Chili 
 
 Peru 
 
 Sandwich Islands 
 
 Other islands in the Pacific . 
 Total, yearlS56-'7 
 
 395 
 
 9 
 
 63 
 
 68 
 
 633 
 
 46,045 
 
 27,758 
 
 15 
 
 59 
 
 6,346 
 
 29,376 
 
 822 
 
 160 
 
 332 
 
 766 
 
 811 
 
 137 
 
 560 
 
 26 
 
 133 
 
 ^•4 
 
 165 
 
 10,145 
 
 1,824 
 
 "630 
 
 95 
 
 7,436 
 
 117 
 
 26 
 
 18 
 
 125 
 
 876 
 
 22 
 
 82 
 
 5,141 
 
 2,033 
 
 4,144 
 
 1,508 
 
 5,054 
 
 33 
 
 41 
 
 1,721 
 
 579 
 
 150 
 
 SO 
 
 6 
 
 942 
 
 199 
 
 1981 
 
 13 
 
 15 
 
 ido 
 
 202 
 20 
 14 
 
 174 
 
 326 
 
 3,524 
 
 190 
 
 25 
 
 ' 688 
 92 
 
 25 
 466 
 
 231 
 60 
 
 40 
 
 121 
 
 1 
 
 24 
 
 202 
 
 984 
 
 3,095 
 
 100 
 
 1,660 
 
 41 
 
 9 
 
 156,848 5631 14,432 20,260,722] 
 
 300 
 
 1,200 
 
 84,871 
 
 1,932 
 
 16,275 
 
 15,013 
 
 131,720 
 
 4,916,386 
 
 1,969,008 
 
 3,036 
 
 7,040| 
 
 904,257, 
 
 4,6?4,105 
 
 131,847 
 
 29,4'lT 
 
 65,841 
 
 119,802 
 
 181,964 
 
 23,786 
 
 114,011 
 
 6,365 
 
 28,708 
 
 56,976 
 
 22,882 
 
 400 
 
 9S5,0;)2 
 
 308,700 
 
 16 
 
 107,386 
 
 20,377 
 
 1,092,414 
 
 27,531 
 
 5,012 
 
 3,212 
 
 27,000 
 
 121,359 
 
 4,210 
 
 22,471 
 
 E82,124 
 
 837,400 
 
 875,20,S 
 
 151,0'5 
 
 1,035,893 
 
 2,091 
 
 10,186 
 
 402,069 
 
 97,760 
 
 2,740 
 
 36,345 
 
 28,226 
 
 14,462 
 
 1,090 
 
 1,035. 
 
 23,018 
 
 262 
 
 4,308 
 
 1,5S6 
 
 , — For articles on tobacco, see American Quarterly Re- 
 view^ ix. 136 ; De Bo'vv's Ueview^ xii. 656, ii. 249, xi. 
 394 ; Hunt's Merchants' Magazine, x. 72, xv. 521, xvi. 
 396. On tobacco trade, see American Almanac^ 1836. 
 Tokay, a town of northeast Hungary, county of 
 Zemplln, on the right bank of the Theiss, at the influx 
 of the Bodrog, 43 miles north-northwest of Debreczin. 
 Population, 5700. It is celebrated as being the entre- 
 pot for the famous Tokay wine, produced in the hilly 
 tract called the Hegyalla, in the county of Zemplin, 
 lat. 48° N., between the Bodrog and Hernad rivers. 
 The wine of premier quality is bought up for the im- 
 perial cellars, and only the secondary and inferior 
 growths are exported. Much of the wine sold as 
 
 Tokay is produced in other parts of Hungary. In man- 
 ufacturing the genuine Tokay wine, the dried grapes 
 are carefully separated from the others, and three 
 sorts of wine are produced. The best is the Essence : 
 this is the oily juice which runs from the fruit with- 
 out any pressure. When this ceases to run, the grapes 
 are moistened with common Tokay-must, and trodden 
 out: this gives the Aushruch. A second infusion of 
 Tokay-must on the remaining grapes, pressed bj' hafld, 
 gives the Mdszl&s (Masklass). — See Hendeeson on 
 Wines ; Ency. Amer. 
 
 Tokens (Bank). These were silver pieces issued 
 by the Bank of England, of the value of 5s., January 
 1, 1798. The Spanish dollar was at first impressed 
 with a small profile of George III. ; it was stamped on 
 the neck of the Spanish king. Tokens were raised to 
 the value of 6s. Gd., November 14, 1811. Bank tokens 
 were also current in Ireland, where those issued b}' the 
 Bank of Ireland passed for 6s. and lesser sums until 
 1817. They were soon after called in, on the revision 
 of the British coinage. 
 
 Toll, from the Saxon Tolne ; in German ZoU (call- 
 ed in law Latin Tehnium and Tolnetum, with many other 
 variations, which may be seen in Ducange, all which 
 Latin terms are derived apparently from Te?tuviov, 
 "collection of tribute or revenue"). Tolls maj' be 
 considered a paj'ment in money, or in kind, fixed in 
 amount, made either under a Toya\ grant or under a 
 prescriptive usage, from which the existence of such 
 a grant is implied, in consideration of some service 
 rendered, benefit conferred, or right forborne to be ex- 
 ercised by the party who is entitled to such payment. 
 
 An ancient toll may be claimed by the owner of a 
 port in respect of goods shipped or landed there. Such 
 tolls are port tolls, more commonlj' called port dues. 
 The place at which these tolls were set or assessed was 
 anciently called the Tolsey, where, as at the modern 
 Exchange, the merchants usually assembled, and where 
 commercial courts were held. — BoiiN's Cyclop. 
 
 Marine toU.s were first paid by vessels passing the 
 Stade on the Elbe, a.d. 1109. They were first de- 
 manded by the Danes of vessels passing the Sound, 
 1341. Toll-bars in England originated in 1267, in the 
 grant of a penny for every wagon that passed through 
 a certain manor ; and the first regular toll was collect- 
 ed a few years after for mending the road in London 
 between St. Giles and Temple Bar. Tolls were also 
 gathered for repairing the highways of Holborn Inn 
 Lane and Martin's Lane, 1346. Toll-gates or turn- 
 pilces were used in 1663. Numerous acts relating to 
 tolls and turnpUce roads have been passed in Great 
 Britain and the several States of the United States. — 
 Haydn. 
 
 By order of the London Court of Common Council, 
 the tolls taken at the several bars of the city of Lon- 
 don, for the wagons, carts, etc., not being the property 
 of a citizen of London, were abolished December 25, 
 1854. These tolls had brought an annual revenue of 
 only 2d. on each cart, or about £6000. 
 
 Ton, a weight used in Great Britain and this coun- 
 try, usually of 2240 lbs., but sometimes of 2000 lbs., 
 called a short ton. By act of Congress it is decided 
 that, unless specified to the contrary, a ton weight is 
 to be understood as two thousand two hundred and 
 forty lbs. avoirdupois. — See Weights and Measures. 
 
 Tonnage, in Commercial navigation, the number of 
 tons burden that a ship will carry. Tonnage has long 
 been an ofiBcial term, intended originallj' to express 
 the burden that a ship would carrj^ in order that the 
 various dues and customs which are levied upon ship- 
 ping might be levied according to the size of the ves- 
 sel, orTather in proportion to her capability of carrying 
 a burden. It has hence arisen that the term " ton- 
 nage," as applied to a ship, has become almost synony- 
 mous with that of size. It is, indeed, the only term 
 used to give an idea of the magnitude of merchant 
 ships, which are invariably spoken of according to 
 
TON 
 
 1855 
 
 TON 
 
 their tonnage, or as being eliips of 50, of 600, or of 1000 
 tons. Not only are all dues and customs levied ac- 
 cording to tonnage, but ships are also built, and some- 
 times sold and bought for a price per ton of their ad- 
 measurement ; and they are also' timbered, fastened, 
 and have their anchors, cables, and boats, all in pro- 
 portion to the same datum. Tonnage, therefore, in so 
 far as these considerations are involved, is assumed 
 to be a correct representation of the size of a ship. 
 
 It is evident that tonnage may express several re- 
 sults of measurements, and in each case may be a suf- 
 ficiently fair criterion of the burden of a merchant 
 vessel by which to levy dues ; because all that is re- 
 quired thus far, either on the part of the government 
 or of private interests, or on that of the owner, is, that 
 the dues should be levied in equal proportion on all 
 vessels. Thus, tonnage may he the product of a series 
 of measurements, intended to express the exact size, 
 or an approximation to the exact size of the ship. It 
 may be the actual displacement or weight of the ship, 
 either with or without the cargo ; it may be the dis- 
 placement of the cargo, or the dead weight which she 
 will carry to a, fixed draught of water ; or it may be 
 the exact capacity of the space which she has for the 
 stowage of cargo. Yet to each of these there, are im- 
 portant and practical objections. The first-; or that by 
 which the measured bullc of the ship would be the ton- 
 nage, might be easily evaded,' and would lead to in- 
 jurious results ; because, as there must necessarily be 
 fixed measuring places, such a law would have the ef- 
 fect of restricting vessels to that shape which would 
 carry the greatest amount ,of cargo under the least pos- 
 sible measurements at these places. If the actual dis- 
 placement, either load or light, of a vessel were to be 
 her tonnage, it would be subject to the inconvenience 
 that it could only be calculated correctly from the 
 drawing of the ship, and therefore would be inapplica- 
 ble to foreign ships arriving at our ports. An exact 
 account of the draught of water, either load or light, 
 would also be necessary, which being a variable quan- 
 tity when the load draught is involved, and one of 
 great difficulty to be determined when the light draught 
 is required, would present almost insuperable objec- 
 tions ; and, besides, the draught of water is a quantity 
 easily concealed or falsified for fraudulent purposes. 
 Above all objections, however, may be reclcaned this : 
 that if either the load or the ship represent the ton- 
 nage, it would be to the interest of the ship-builder to 
 build large vessels with slight scantling and inadequate 
 fastenings, that the weight of the vessel might be 
 small in proportion to that of the cargo. If the ton- 
 nage were to express the difference between the two 
 displacements, that is, the excess of the load displace- 
 ment over the light, or the dead weight of the loading, 
 although this would be the most correct in principle, 
 and even mathematically correct, there is the objection 
 that it involves a. knowledge of both light and load 
 draughts of water, and is therefore, on this account, 
 practically, at least, as objectionable as , the whole dis- 
 placement. Lastly, if the tonnage were to be the 
 space or capacity for the stowing of cargo, numerous 
 openings would be afforded for fraudulent evasion ; 
 because the manner of measuring the ship for this 
 space must be defined, and it is eas)'' to build space 
 which will not come within the limits of the defined 
 measurements ; or it is easy to build a vessel of such 
 a form that the measurements made at given points 
 shall not give a correct account of her capacity. 
 
 Measurement of Tonnage in the United States. — By 
 an act of Congress, passed March 2, 1799, it is pro- 
 vided that, to ascertain the tonnage of any ship or 
 vessel, tlxe surveyor, or such other person as shall be 
 appointed bj' the collector of the district to measure 
 the same, shall, if the said ship or vessel be double- 
 decked, take the length thereof from the fore part of 
 the main stem to the after part of the stem-post above 
 the upper deck, the breadth thereof at the broadest 
 
 part above the main wales, half of which breadth shall 
 be accounted the depth of such vessel ; and shall then 
 deduct from the length three-fifths of the breadth, mul- 
 tiplying the remainder by the breadth, and the prod- 
 uct by the depth, and shall divide this last product by 
 ninety-five, the quotient whereof shall be deemed the 
 true contents or tonnage of such ship or vessel. And 
 if such ship or vessel be single-decked, the surveyor, 
 or other person authorized, shall take the length and 
 breadth as above directed, in respect to a double-deck- 
 ed ship or vessel, shall deduct from the said length 
 three-fifths of the breadth, and, taking the depth from 
 the under side of the deck plank to the ceiling in the 
 hold, shall multiply and divide as aforesaid, and the 
 quotient shall he deemed the tonnage of such ship or 
 vessel. 
 
 METHOnS AT PKESENT IK USE AMONG FOREIGN NATIONS FOR 
 COMPUTING THE TONNAGE OF SHIPS. 
 
 France. — The three measures of length, breadth, 
 and depth are multiplied together, and the product is 
 divided by 94 for the tonnage. 
 
 In sinffle-decked vessels the length is taken from the 
 after part of the stem on deck to the stej-n-post ; the 
 extreme breadth is taken, being measured inside from 
 ceiling to ceiling, and the depth from the ceiling to 
 the under surface of the deck. 
 
 In vessels of two decksj at Bordeaux, the length of 
 the upper decic and that of the keelson is measured, 
 and the mean taken for the length. But at Brest, 
 Marseilles, and Boulogne, the mean of the length on 
 the two decks, from the stem to the stern-post, is taken 
 as the length. The depth of the hold from the ceiling 
 to the under surface of the lower deck is added to that 
 of the height between decks, and considered as the 
 depth. The extreme inside breadth is taken in the 
 same way as in single-decked vessels. At Bordeaux 
 an allowance is sometimes made for the ralto of the 
 stem and stern of the vessels. 
 
 At Boulogne, in measuring steamboats, the length 
 of the coal and engine chambers is deducted from the 
 length of the vessel, and her breadth is taken at the 
 fore and aft .extremities of the same, the mean ofwhich 
 is considered as the breadth. The depth is taken in- 
 side the pumps, from the lower surface of the deck, be- 
 tween the timbers. At Brest measures are frequently 
 taken with a string, although contraiy to law, and an 
 error of seven tons in the tonnage of a cutter has been 
 the result. 
 
 Great Britain. See art. Great Britain, p. 858. 
 
 Spain. — The breadths are measured at the follow- 
 ing places : 1st, at the mizzen-mast ; 2d, a few feet abaft 
 the foremast ; 8d, at a point half way between the two 
 former. The heights at which the three breadths are 
 talcen at the above places are : 1st, on a level with the 
 declc; 2d, on a level with the upper surface of the 
 keelson; 3d, at a level half-way between the two for- 
 mer positions. 
 
 To find the area at each section, the half of the sum 
 of the upper and lower measurements is added to the 
 middle measurement, and this sum is multiplied by 
 the height of one aljove the other. Then half the 
 areas of the fore and after section is added to that of 
 the middle section, and this sum is multiplied by the 
 length which the sections are apart from each other. 
 The result will express in Burgos cubic feet the capac- 
 ity of the part of the hold between the fore and after 
 sections, and it still remains to add the spaces between 
 these and the stem and stern-post. The former may 
 be found, without any considerable error, by multiply- 
 ing the area of the foremost section by half its distance 
 from the stem ; and the latter in the same manner, by 
 multiplying the area of the after section by half its dis- 
 tance from the stem-post. It is evident that the room 
 occupied by the pumps must be deducted from the fore- 
 going result, in order to obtain the fair quantity of 
 space filled by the cargo. 
 
 Having thus found the capacity of the hold of any 
 
TON 
 
 1856 
 
 TON 
 
 Tessel in the above xnanner in Burgos cubic feet, it is 
 to be divided by 41-,^, and the result -will be the 
 amount of displacement of such vessel in tons of Bur- 
 gos measure, because each ton is reckoned equal to 
 
 41,% feet of Burgos. 
 
 PoETnoAL. — For single-decked vessels, the length is 
 measured from the cabin bulkheads to the forecastle 
 bulkheads. The depth is meisured froni the upper 
 surface of the keelson to the under surface of the 
 beams. The extreme breadth of the deck is consider- 
 ed the breadth. The continued product of these three 
 dimensions will give the contents in cubic feet, which, 
 divided by &7-^Tfi^, gives the tonnage. 
 
 Vessels of two Decks. — In these vessels two distinct 
 operations are made ; one for the hold, the other for 
 the middle deck. For the hold : The length is meas- 
 ured from the heel of the bowsprit to the stem-post. 
 The breadth is the extreme breadth of the upper deck, 
 deducting two feet. The depth is from tlje upper sur- 
 face of the keelson to the under surface of the beams. 
 For the middle deck : The length is considered as half 
 of that for the hold, the other half being allowed for 
 cabins, etc.— the breadth as before ; and for the depth, 
 the height of the middle deck to the under surface of 
 the beams. 
 
 The foregoing is the method adopted at Lisbon ; but 
 at Oporto the length of the vessel is taken from the 
 second timber at the bows to the stem-post ; the 
 breadth at the widest part from the inside of each bul- 
 wark on the upper deck ; and the depth from the up- 
 per surface of the keelson, to the lower surface of the 
 beams of the upper deck at the main hatchway. 
 
 If the keelson be more than ordinarily thick, allow- 
 ance is made accordingly; and where there are two 
 decks, the thickness of the lower deck is also deducted 
 from the depth. The length is then multiplied by the 
 breadth, and the product by the depth. The product 
 is then divided by 96, the number of Portuguese cubic 
 feet contained in a ton, and the result is the tonnage 
 of the vessel. 
 
 Naples. — For vessels with two decks, the length is 
 measured from one end of the vessel to the other, over 
 all. The length is also measured from the after part 
 of the stem to the rudder hatch, under the poop. The 
 mean between these two lengths is multiplied by the 
 extreme breadth of the vessel. The depth is then taken 
 from the bottom of the well to the lower surface of the 
 upper or poop deck ; and the above product being multi- 
 plied by this depth, and divided by 94, gives the ton- 
 nage. 
 
 For single-decked vessels, the tonnage is found by 
 multiplying the extreme length b}^ the extreme breadth, 
 and the product by the extreme depth, and divided by 
 94, as above. 
 
 Netheelands. — The length is measured on deck 
 from the stem to the stern-post. For the breadth, the 
 hold is divided into four portions, and two measure- 
 ments taken at each of the three divisions : 1st, across 
 the keelson, on a*level with the upper surface, from 
 ceiling to ceiling ; 2d, the greatest breadth of the hold 
 at each division. The mean of these six measure- 
 ments is considered the breadth. The depths are taken 
 at each of the foregoing points of division, from the 
 upper surface of the keelson to the lower surface of 
 the upper deck between the beams, and the mean of 
 these three is resumed. The length, breadth, and 
 depth are then multiplied together, and two-thirds of 
 the product is considered as the tonnage. Allowance 
 for provisions and water, cabin and ship's stores, varj'- 
 ing from -^^ to •^^, is deducted from the depth be- 
 fore it is multiplied by the length and breadth. 
 
 Norway. — From the after part of the stem, the 
 length of the ship is taken to the inner part of the 
 stern-post. Dividing the length of the vessel into 
 four equal parts, the breath is measured at each of 
 these divisions. The depth of the vessel, from the 
 
 under surface of the upper deck to the keelson, is taken 
 at the above three points of division. Then multiply 
 the length by the mean of the three breadths, and this 
 product by the mean of the three depths. The result 
 of the foregoing is divided by 242J, if there be no frac- 
 tional parts of feet ; but if there are, the calculation is 
 made in inches, and the divisor becomes 322,776, the 
 result thus obtained being the burden of the vessel 
 in wood lasts, of 4000 Neva lbs. each. To reduce these 
 into commerce lasts, one of which is equal to 6200 Neva 
 lbs., it is multiplied by 10, and divided by 13. 
 
 EnssiA. — Length of the keel in feet, multiplied by 
 the extreme breadth over the sheathing, and the prod- 
 uct multiplied again by half the breadth, and divided 
 by 94, gives the number of English tons. 
 
 United States. — If the vessel be double-decked, 
 the length is taken from the fore part of the main stem 
 to the after part of the stem-post, above the upper 
 deck ; the breadth, at the broadest part above the main 
 wales, half of which breadth is accounted the depth. 
 From the length three-fifths of the breadth is deducted ; 
 the remainder is multiplied by the breadth, and the 
 product by the depth. The last product is divided by 
 95, and the quotient is deemed the true tonnage of such 
 ship or vessel. See page 1855. 
 
 If the ship or vessel be single-decked, the length and 
 breadth are taken as above for a double-decked vessel, 
 and three-fifths of the treadth are deducted from the 
 length. The depth of the hold is taken from the under 
 side of the deck-plank to the ceiling in the hold. 
 These are multiplied and divided as aforesaid, and the 
 quotient is the tonnage. At some places a system of 
 measuring, called carpenter's tonnage, appears to be 
 adopted. The rule is as follows : 
 
 For vessels with one deck, multiply the length by the 
 breadth of the main beam, and the product by the 
 depth. Divide this second product by 95. For double- 
 decked vessels, take half the breadth of the main beam 
 for the depth, and work as for a single-decked vessel. 
 
 At New Orleans, the mode at present in use is to 
 take the length from the stem to the after part of the 
 stem-post, on the deck. Take the greatest breadth 
 over the main hatch, and the depth from the ceiling 
 of the hold to the lower surface of the deck at the main 
 hatch. From the length deduct three-fifths of the 
 breadth, multiply the remainder by the actual breadth 
 and depth, and divide by 95 for a vessel with a single 
 deck ; but if the vessel have a double deck, half the 
 breadth of the beam is considered as equivalent to the 
 depth, and is multiplied accordingly. 
 
 Tonnage Duties.- — By an act of Congress, May 31, 
 1830, it is ordered that no tonnage duties shall be paid 
 by sliips or vessels of the United States, of which the 
 officers and two-thirds of the crew shall be citizens of 
 the United States ; and all acts imposing tonnage du- 
 ties on such ship are repealed. 
 
 Under the provisions of the act of the 27th May, 
 1848, extending privileges to American vessels, bound 
 from one port to another in the United States, touch- 
 ing at a foreign port for certain purposes, a bond for 
 the return of the seamen and crew list, prescribed by 
 law in cases of vessels bound on a foreign voyage, is 
 required, and the seamen must all be accounted for. 
 
 American vessels, owned by Americans or others, 
 without register, are subject to a tonnage duty of one 
 dollar per ton, and 10 per cent, additional duty on the 
 cargo, as foreign vessels. 
 
 American-built vessels, owned wholly or in part by 
 foreigners, are subject to tonnage duty of thirty cents 
 per ton, and 10 per cent, additional duty on cargo, un- 
 less exempt by treaty. 
 
 American vessels, on arrival from foreign ports, are 
 subject to a tonnage duty of fifty cents per ton, unless 
 the ofiicers and two-thirds of the crew for the whole 
 voyage are American citizens. 
 
 The discharge of seamen from an American vessel, 
 although by mutual consent, certified by a consul, will 
 
TON 
 
 1857 
 
 TOP 
 
 not exempt the vessel from the payment of tonnage 
 duty incurred as above. The only exemption pro- 
 vided by law is in cases of siclcness, death, desertion, 
 or being made prisoners of war ; which must be certi- 
 iied by an American consul. 
 
 All acts imposing duties on the tonnage of the ships 
 and vessels of foreign nations, so far as they relate to 
 the imposition of such duties, are repealed ; provided 
 that all discriminating or countervailing duties of such 
 foreign nations, as far as they operate to th^ disad- 
 vantage of the United States, have been abolished. 
 
 TONNAGE STATISTICS. 
 
 The Tonwage oe Vessels entered amd cleared pkom the 
 
 PMNoiPAL Countries and Ports op Curistendom. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 
 1851. 
 
 1862. 
 
 1866. 
 
 Great Critaln 
 
 fEnt'd. 
 
 7,872,094 
 
 7,887,447 
 
 7,528,387 
 
 V^&VurU J-r^AUailA 
 
 Cl'd. 
 
 8,108,104 
 
 8,242,702 
 
 7,479,648 
 
 United States 
 
 Ent'd. 
 
 4,993,440 
 
 5,292,880 
 
 '7,186,316 
 
 K^iJMifl^^^ >JU4LU^I3 
 
 Cl'd. 
 
 5,130,054 
 
 6,278,165 
 
 7,070,821 
 
 France ,,.... 
 
 Ent'd. 
 
 
 
 4,068,781 
 
 
 Cl'd. 
 
 2,121,520 
 
 2,544,785 
 
 2,307,490 
 
 Turkey, from 
 
 Ent'd. 
 
 1,689,325 
 
 
 .... 
 
 8 prinp. port.3 
 
 Cl'd. 
 
 1,705,968 
 
 
 
 A TlfltTlft 
 
 Ent'd. 
 
 483,861 
 
 1,239,433 
 
 1,416,406 
 
 
 Cl'd. 
 
 418,833 
 
 1,626,871 
 
 1,418,716 
 
 Itussia 
 
 Ent'd. 
 
 472,172 
 
 647,162 
 
 t 453,548 
 
 
 Ici'd. 
 
 611,868 
 
 914,194 
 
 637,954 
 
 p . 
 
 Ent'4. 
 
 620,878 
 
 632,114 
 
 
 
 
 Ici'd. 
 
 1,073,868 
 
 737,948 
 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Ent'd. 
 Ici'd. 
 
 744,63p 
 74S,1?8 
 
 841,680 
 845,184 
 
 781,816 
 774,616 
 
 Eriemen 
 
 Ent'd. 
 
 24i,206 
 
 409,634 
 
 * 488,000 
 
 JJ*- ^IMXVXA • • • • • 
 
 •Cl'd, 
 
 363,248 
 
 438,756 
 
 * 509,922 
 
 Chili 
 
 (Ent'd. 
 ' Cl'd. 
 
 475,694 
 470,924 
 
 
 620,000 
 
 Sweden 
 
 /Ent'd. 
 
 293,454 
 
 374,226 
 
 t 266,830 
 
 
 Cl'd. 
 
 270,620 
 
 333,834 
 
 428,334 
 
 Norway 
 
 Ent'd. 
 
 21)5,8)1 
 
 283,310 
 
 t 431,479 
 
 ■ Cl'd. 
 
 463,656 
 
 680,924 
 
 399,309 
 
 Denmark (pr.) 
 
 j Ent'd. 
 ■ Cl'd. 
 
 341,604 
 312,692 
 
 341,818 
 324,338 
 
 
 Spaiu 
 
 Ent'd. 
 
 316,761 
 
 
 
 ici'd. 
 
 303,818 
 
 
 
 Brazil 
 
 (Ent'd. 
 Ici'd. 
 
 383,111 
 373,609 
 
 
 634,213 
 
 Two SicUies . 
 
 j Ent'd. 
 tci'd. 
 
 300,206 
 310,909 
 
 
 t 326,088 
 297,631 
 
 * Year ending June 30, 1857. 1 1863. 1 1854. 5 1865. 
 
 These statistics are the latest that can be obtained, 
 and are given to show the comparative tonnage rather 
 than as accurate statements. Several discrepancies, 
 as in the case of the tonnage of France, are unavoid- 
 able.^For more accurate statistics, see the countries 
 under their proper heads. For the statistics in regard 
 to the tonnage of the United States, see article United 
 States. 
 
 Tontine, a species of life annuity, with benefit of 
 survivorship, so called from Lorenzo Tonti, a Neapol- 
 itan, with whom the scheme originated, and who intro- 
 duced it into France, where the first tontine was opened 
 in 1653. The subscribers were divided into ten classes, 
 according to their ages, or were allowed to appoint 
 nominees, who were so divided j and a proportionate 
 annuity being assigned to each class, those who lived 
 longest had the benefit of their survivorship, by the 
 whole annuity being divided among the diminished 
 number. The terms of this tontine may be seen in 
 the French Enchjcopedie, Finance Division, vol. iii. 
 In 1689 a second tontine was opened in France. The 
 last survivor was a widow, who at the period of her 
 death, at the age of 96, enjoyed an income of 73,500 
 livres for her original subscription of 300 livres. The 
 late celebrated Mr. Jennings was an original subscriber 
 for a £100 share in a tontine company ; and being the 
 last survivor of the shareholders, his share produced 
 him £3000 per annum. He died worth £2,115,244, 
 aged 103 years, June 19, 1798. The last French ton- 
 tine was opened in 1759. They had been found very 
 onerous, and in 1763 the Council of State determined 
 that this sort of financial operation should not be again 
 adopted. Tontines have seldom been resorted to in En- 
 gland as a measure of finance. The last for which the 
 government opened subscriptions was in 1789. The 
 6B 
 
 terms may be seen in Hamilton's Bitt. Public Revenue, 
 p. 210. There have been numerous private tontines 
 in England and in the United States. The Tontine 
 Building, Wall Street, New York, was erected during 
 the years 1792-1794, upon this principle, by an asso- 
 ciation of merchants. By the constitution under which 
 the association was formed, 203 shares were subscribed, 
 at $200 a share, severally depending upon a life select- 
 ed by each subscriber. The old building was razed 
 to the ground in 1855, and was superseded in the same 
 year by a substantial edifice. 
 
 Top, a sort of platform surrounding the lower mast- 
 head, from which it projects on all sides like a scaffold. 
 The principal intention of the top is to extend the angle 
 with the mast, and thereby give additional support to 
 the latter. The top is also very convenient to contain 
 the materials necessary for extending the small sails, 
 and for fixing and repairing the rigging and machinery 
 with greater expedition. In ships of war the tops are 
 furnished with swivels, musketrj-, and other fire-arms, 
 and are guarded with a fehce of hammocks in time of 
 action. Finally, the top is employed as a place for 
 looking out, either in the day or night. — E. A. 
 
 Topaz (Ger. Topas; Fr. Topase; It. Topazio ; Sp. 
 Topacio ; Russ. Topas). The name topaz has been re- 
 stricted by M. Haily to the stones called by mineralo- 
 gists Occidental ruby, topaz, and sapphii-e ; which, 
 agreeing in their crystallizatioti and most of their 
 properties, were arranged under one species by M. 
 Eom6 de Lisle. The word topaz, derived from an 
 island in the Red Sea, where the ancients used to find 
 topazes, was applied by them to a mineral very differ- 
 ent from ours. One variety of our topaz thej'' denom- 
 inated chrysolite. Color, wine yellow. From pale 
 wine yellow it passes into yellowish white, greenish 
 white, mountain green, sky blue ; from deep wine yel- 
 low into flesh red and crimson red. Specific gravit}' 
 from 3-464 to 3'641. — Thomson's Chemistry. 
 
 Yellow Topaz. — In speaking of the topaz, a gem 
 of a beautiful yellow color is always understood : it is 
 wine yellow, of different degrees of intensity ; and the 
 fuller and deeper the tinge, the more the stone is esteem- 
 ed. In hardness it yields to the spinelle. There are 
 few gems more universal favorites than the yellow 
 topaz, when perfect ; the rich warm tone of its color, 
 the vivacity of its lustre (which it retains even by the 
 side of the diamond), and its large size, tiompared with 
 many others, are characters which deservedly entitle 
 it to distinction ; it bears, accordingly, a high price 
 when of good quality. It is chiefly employed for neck- 
 laces, ear-drops, bracelets, etc., in suit. No little skill 
 and taste are required in cutting and duly proportion- 
 ing this gem ; the table should be perfectlj' symmetric- 
 al, and not too large ; the bizel of sufScient depth, and 
 the collet side should be formed in delicate steps. It 
 works easily on the mill, and the lapidaries are in gen- 
 eral tolerably well acquainted with it ; yet it is uncom- 
 mon to meet with one well cut. The yellow topaz 
 varies in price according to its beautj' and perfection. 
 A superlatively fine stone, perfect in color and workman- 
 ship, sufficiently large for an ai-mlet, or any other or- 
 nament, and weighing nearly 80 carats, was sold for 
 £100. Topazes have become more common since our 
 intercourse with Brazil ; consequently, they are less in 
 demand, and lower in price. A fine stone of 60 carats 
 may be purchased at from £20 to £35 ; and smaller, 
 calculated for ring stones, at from £2 to £5, but it is 
 not usual to sell them by weight. 
 
 Pinlc Topaz. — This is made from the yellow, which, 
 when of intense color, is put into the bowl of a tobacco 
 pipe or small crucible, covered with ashes or sand : on 
 the application of a low degree of heat, it changes its 
 color from a yellow to a beautiful pink. This is per- 
 formed with little hazard ; and, if the color produced 
 happens to be fine, the price is much augmented. 
 
 Red Topaz. — This beantifnl gem, which very sel- 
 dom occurs naturally, is of a fine crimson color, tinged 
 
TOE 
 
 1858 
 
 TEA 
 
 with a rich brown ; it is extremely rare, and generally 
 taken to be a variety of ruby, for which I have seen it 
 offered for sale. Its price, from its scarcity, is quite 
 capricious ; it has an exquisite pleasing color, verj- dif- 
 ferent from the glare of the artificial pink topaz. 
 
 Blue Topaz is also a beautiful gem, of a fine celes- 
 tial blue color. It has occurred of considerable mag- 
 nitude ; the finest specimen known I brought in the 
 rough from Brazil ; when cut and polished, it weighed 
 about 1^ bz. Smaller specimens are not uncommon, 
 and when ligbt-colored are often taken for aqua-mari- 
 nas, from which they maj' always be distinguished by 
 their greater weight and hardness, etc. 
 
 White Topaz is familiarly called Minas Nova. It 
 is a beautiful pellucid gem, and is used for bracelets, 
 necklaces, etc. It possesses greater brilliancy than 
 crystal ; and, from its hardness, has been used to 
 cover paste, etc., and to form doublets." — Mawe on 
 Diamonds. 
 
 Top-mast, the second division of a mast, or that 
 part next above the lower mast. Top-gallant mast, 
 the mast next above the top-mast, and is generallj^ 
 the uppermost mast. Top-sails^ large sails extending 
 across the top-mast. Top-gailant sails are extended 
 above the top-sail yards, in the same manner as the 
 top-sails are extended above the lower yards. 
 
 Tornado (Spanish), a violent hurricane or gust of 
 wind, which, arising suddenly from the shore, veers 
 round to all points of the compass, and indeed has been 
 described as blowing from all points at once. Tor- 
 nadoes are usually accompanied with thunder-storms, 
 and are generally of short duration. They are frequent 
 in the Chinese seas and the West Indies. 
 
 Toronto, city, at one time the capital of Canada, 
 is situated on Toronto Bay, in the township and coun- 
 ty of York, lat. 43° 32' N., long. 79° 20' W. It is 45 
 mUes northeast from Hamilton, 165 miles west from 
 Kingston, 363 miles from Montreal, 543 miles from 
 Quebec, and 1353 from Halifax, Nova Scotia. 
 
 The bay is a beautiful sheet of water, separated from 
 the main body of Lake Ontario, except at its entrance, 
 by a long narrow strip of sandy beach, the southwest 
 termination of which is known as " Gibraltar Point." 
 The city was founded in 1794 by Governor Simcoe, 
 and is ikid out in the form of a parallelogram, being 
 above three miles long by one and a half wide ; the 
 streets, which are straight and wide, intersecting at 
 right angles. The esplanade fronting the bay extends 
 for a distance of two mUes. In 1817 the population 
 amounted to 1200 ; in 1830 to 2860 ; in 1842 to 15,336 ; 
 in 1860 to 25,166; in 1862 to 30,763; and in 1854 to 
 over 40,000. The city is lighted wkh gas, and is well 
 supplied with water, by companies incorporated for 
 those purposes. — See Trade. From Toronto the cap- 
 ital was removed to Quebec, and in 1857-'58 was finally 
 established at Ottawa, formerly Bytown. 
 
 Tortoise-shell (Kr. Ecaille de Torlue ; It. Bcaglia 
 de Tariuruga; G^r. Schilpad; Malsiy, Sisik Jcurahura'), 
 the brown and j^ellow scales of the Testudo imhricata, 
 or tortoise, a native of the tropical seas. It is ex- 
 tensively used in the manufacture of combs, snuff- 
 boxes, etc., and in inlaj^ing and other ornamental work. 
 The best tortoise-shell is that of the Indian Archipel- 
 ago ; and the finest of this quarter is obtained on the 
 shores of the Spice Islands and New Guinea. When 
 the finest West Indian tortoise-shell is worth, in the 
 London market, 46s., the finest East Indian is worth 
 60s. per lb. Under the latter name, however, a great 
 deal of inferior shell is imported, brought from various 
 parts of the East Indies. The goodness of tortoise- 
 shell depends mainly on the thickness and size of the 
 scales, and in a smaller degree on the clearness and 
 brilliancy of the colors. Before the opening of the 
 British intercourse with India, the greater part of the 
 tortoise-shell which eventually found its way to Eu- 
 rope was first carried to Canton, which then formed 
 the principal mart for the commodity. It is still an 
 
 article of trade from that city ; but the imports and 
 exports are inconsiderable, Singapore- being now the 
 chief mart for this article. Its price at the latter va- 
 ries from 750 and 900 to from 1000 to 1600 dollars per 
 picul, according to quality. — Cra.wwvei>'s Indian Arch- 
 ipelago; Singapore Chronicle; Canton Register. 
 
 Toulon (Telo Martins'), a commercial and important 
 militarj' and naval port of France, department of Var, 
 on a fine bay of the Mediterranean, 40 miles southwest 
 from Draguignan. Lat. (of observatorj') 43° 7'5"N., 
 long. 5° 56' E. Population, .40,000. Mean tempera- 
 ture of year, 62°'2 ; winter, 48°-5 ; summer, 76°-2 
 Fahrenheit. It is strongly fortified,, defended by a 
 double line of bastioned fortifications, and strengthen- 
 ed by forts on the adjacent heights. The French con- 
 sider it impregnable. It has a tribunal and chamber 
 of commerce, tribunal of marine, school of navigation, 
 commercial college, and public library. The streets 
 are watered by numerous fountains. Around the har- 
 bor are immense magazines and arsenals, ship-building 
 docks, rope and sail-works, -and the iagne or convict 
 prison, usually occupied by 4000 to 6000 culprits. 
 Toulon was originally a Eoman colony ; it was taken 
 by the constable of Bourbon in 1624, and by Charles 
 V. in 1686. It was given up to the English in August, 
 1793 ; in December of the same year it was taken by 
 the French republicans, after a memorable siege, dur- 
 ing which Napoleon commenced his military' career. 
 Toulon-sur-Arroux is a commune and vUlage, depart- 
 ment of Saone-et-Loire, eighteen miles north-northwest 
 from Charolles. Population about 1700. 
 
 Toys (Ger. Spielzetig, Speilsaehen; Du. Speelgoed; 
 Fr. Jouets, Bimbelots ; It. Trastulli; Sp. Dijes, Juguetes 
 de ninnos ; Knss. Igmshki) include everj- trifling ar- 
 ticle made expressly for the amusement of children. 
 How frivolous soever these articles may appear in the 
 estimation of superficial observers, their manufacture 
 emploj'S thousands of hands, and gives bread to many 
 families. 
 
 Children's toj's are brought in immense numbers 
 from the hilly regions of Germany, Austria, and Switz- 
 erland. The forests supplj' abundance of timber at 
 very low cost ; and the peasant mountaineers, simple 
 and frugal, employ their leisure hours and the time of 
 their children in fabricating these articles. Dealers 
 are sure to be found who will drive a trade in these 
 trifles in some countrj' or other. The Art Union Jour- 
 nal, a few years ago, gave some curious information 
 concerning the better kind of carved German toys ; 
 " The best German toys come from the town of Sonne- 
 berg, on the southeastern frontier of the forest of Thu- 
 ringia. It has a population of 4000 inhabitants, of which 
 the greater part are emploj^ed in the trade. The prin- 
 cipal toy-merchants, numbering about thirty, provide 
 themselves with goods from manj- hundred different 
 makers of common articles, resident in the town and 
 its vicinity ; these, again, are furnished by the neigh- 
 boring villagers with the requisite roughly-prepared 
 articles in wood, which are fitted up, carved, and paint- 
 ed by the makers in the town. Every year about 25,000 
 cwts. of these goods are exported to almost everj' part 
 of the world, but the manufacturers are confined to the 
 use of wood or pasteboard, or these two materials com- 
 bined. The factory from which the best toys are de- 
 rived is that of Adolph Fleischmann, who employ's 
 none but first-rate workmen ; and it is interesting to 
 notice the many admirable productions these unedu- 
 cated artists produce — models and groupings of figures 
 that would cast no discredit on the atelier of a Bailey 
 or a Westmacott." 
 
 Trade, Board of. See Boaed of Trade, p. 312. 
 
 Trade-TBTinds (so called from their favoring com- 
 merce), easterly winds which constantly prevail, with 
 slight variations, within the tropics. It is a common 
 notion that the northeast trade-wind blows exactly 
 from the northeast point nearly to the equator, when 
 it gradually becomes more and more easterly, till at 
 
TRA 
 
 1859 
 
 TEE 
 
 length it blows due east j and so with the southeast 
 trade. This notion 13, however, erroneous. The trade- 
 winds in the Atlantic, and Pacific oceans extend to 
 about 28" of latitude each side of the equator, so that 
 a ship, after passing 30°, may expect to enter them 
 every day. But, on first entering them, they will be 
 found to blow from the ea?t, or even a little southerly, 
 and, as you advance, to draw round gradually to north- 
 east, and even north, at the southern limit of the north- 
 east trade, where it is commonly represented as being 
 due east. This limit varies with the position of the 
 sun, reaching, when the sun has a southern declination, 
 to within three or four degrees north latitude ; and, as 
 the sun acquires a more northern declination, receding 
 ten or twelve degrees from the equator. At this point 
 the mariner enters the region of calms and variables, as 
 they are called, where the wind has more or less south- 
 erly direction, and sometimes blows freshly from the 
 south-southwest. This region varies from 150 to 550 
 miles, and is subject to heavy rains. On passing this 
 range the southeast trade begins, and is subject to the 
 same phenomena as the northeast. To the north and 
 south of the northeast and the southeast trades wester- 
 ly winds will be found generally to prevail, though less 
 regular in the northern than in the southern hemi- 
 sphere ; and it has been remarlcQd that the average of 
 the passages made by the Liv^pool pacltets from New 
 Yorlc out, for a period of six years, was twenty-three 
 days, and from Liverpool to New York, that , is, from 
 east to west, thirty-eight daj's. — E. A. See Winds. 
 
 Trade-winds is a name given to certain remarkable 
 aerial currents, on account of their sinal aid to naviga^ 
 tion. In those parts of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans 
 which are remote from the influence of the land, be- 
 tween the limits of about 28° or 30° north andsouth lati- 
 tude, there is a constant easterly wind. On the north 
 side of the equator it blows from between the north and 
 east, and on the south side from the south and east, ac- 
 cording to the distance from the equator ; these winds 
 are called the northeast and southeast trade^winds, and 
 are the cold currents of air flowing from the poles to 
 the equator, altered in direction by the rotation of the 
 earth upon its axis. The direfetion and extent of the 
 trade-winds vary with the seasons of the year, and in 
 different parts of the world their course is entirely al- 
 tered, the most remarkable modification shown be- 
 ing the monsoons. — See Monsoons ; also, articles At- 
 lantic Ocean, Gulp Stream, Cderents, Winds. \ 
 
 Tragacanth, a species of gum, the produce of the 
 Astragalus tragacantha, a thorny shrub growing in 
 Persia, Crete, and the islands of the Levant. It ex- 
 udes about the end of June from the stem and larger 
 branches, and soon dries in the sun. It is inodorous, 
 impressing a very slightly bitter taste as it softens in 
 the mouth. It has a whitish color ; is semi-transpar- 
 ent, and in verj' thin, wrinkled, vermiform pieces ; it 
 is brittle, but not easily pulverized, except in frosty 
 weather, or in a warmed mortar. It should be chosen 
 in long twisted pieces, white, very clear, and free from 
 all other colors ; the brown, and particularly the black 
 pieces, should be wholly rejected. — Thomson's Chem- 
 istry ; Thomson's Dispensatory; Milehen's Oriental 
 Commerce. 
 
 Treasury Notes. A species of Treasury Notes, 
 termed Continental currency, was issued by order of 
 the Continental Congress. 'This depreciated rapidly, 
 and no provision was made afterward for its redemp- 
 tion by Congress. The amount issued was estimated 
 at $400,000,000 ; Mr. Jefferson calculated that the real 
 value given for these notes was only $72,000,000. The 
 assignats of the French Kepublic during the revolu- 
 tion were authorized by the National Assembly, in 
 April, 1790. At one period they amounted to the enor- 
 mous suift of eight millards of francs (8,000,000,000), 
 or equivalent to nearly £350,000,000 sterling. — Ali- 
 son's History of Europe. In May, 1812, Mr. Albert 
 Gallatin, Secretary of the Treasury, recommended the 
 
 issue of Treasury Notes to the extent of $4,900,000, 
 repayable one year after date, and receivable in the 
 mean time for government dues, and bearing 5 2-5 per 
 cent, interest. These were authorized by act of Con- 
 gress, June 30, 1812. Treasury Notes were also sug- 
 gested by Mr. A. J. Dallas, Secretary of the Treasury, in 
 January', 1815. He reported that the Treasury would 
 require for the fiscal year $40,906,124 in addition to 
 the ordinary revenue (see Funding System, U. S., p. 
 607), of which $15,000,000 was to be in Treasury Notes 
 at 5 2-5 per cent» per annum (or about IJ cent per day 
 for every hundred dollars). 
 
 Up to December 4, 1819, the amount issued was 
 $36,680,794, viz. ; 
 
 By act of 20th June, 1812 $5,000,000 
 
 " 25tli Febrmiry, 1813 5,000,000 
 
 " 4th March, 1814 10,000,000 
 
 " 26fch IJecember, 1814 8,318,400 
 
 " 24th February, 1815 8,362,304 
 
 Total $36,680,794 
 
 Of this amount all were redeemed prior to October 
 1, 1824, except $19,756. Further issues of Treasurj' 
 Notes was made under acts of 12th October, 1837 ; 21st 
 Maj', 1838 ; and 2d March, 1839. From the year 1812 
 to 31st December, 1843, the total issue of Treasury 
 Notes was $84,611,833, and amount received from 
 loans $98,360,112, viz. . 
 
 YflftTfl. 1 Loftiia. 
 
 Trensliry Nutea. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1812 ...... 
 
 $10,032,400 
 
 20,089,635 
 
 15,080,546 
 
 14,857,423 
 
 1,367,586 
 
 3,b4b!ooo 
 
 6,000,000 
 
 5,665!756 
 
 11,383,405 
 11,883,368 
 
 $2,836,600 
 
 6,094,800 
 
 8,297,365 
 
 20,406,897 
 
 8,136,849 
 
 734,542 
 
 8,765 
 
 2,291 
 
 824 
 
 324 
 
 2,932,989 
 
 12,716,820 
 
 3,857,276 
 
 6,589,547 
 
 7,993,560 
 
 3,425,329 
 
 1,518,150 
 
 $12,837,900 
 
 26,184,435 
 
 23,377,911 
 
 35,264,320 
 
 9,494,436 
 
 734,642 
 
 8,765 
 
 2,291 
 
 3,040,824 
 
 6,000,324 
 
 2,992,989 
 
 12,716,820 
 
 3,857,276 
 
 6,589,547 
 
 13,659,317 
 
 14,808,736 
 
 13,401,508 
 
 1813 
 
 1814 
 
 1815 . . . ; 
 
 1816 
 
 1817 
 
 1818 
 
 1819 . . ; 
 
 1820 ; 
 
 1821 
 
 1837 
 
 1838 
 
 1839 
 
 1840 
 
 1841 
 
 1842 
 
 1843 
 
 Total 
 
 $98,360,112 
 
 $84,611,833 
 
 $182,971,946 
 
 Of the issues between 1837 and 1843, there were 
 outstanding September 30, 1847, $239,789. Further 
 emissions were authorized by act of Congress, un- 
 der date of 23d July, 1846, and 28th January, 1847 ; 
 $10,000,000 by the act of 1846, not exceeding 6 per 
 cent, interest ; and $23,000,000 by the act of 1847; and 
 a further issue by act of December, 1857. 
 
 In March, 1858, the bills for the new issue of Treas- 
 ury Note^ were opened at the Treasury Department. 
 The result was, that $2,600,000 were token at rates 
 varj'ing at 3J, 3f , 4, 4J, 4J, and 4|. The remainder 
 of the 5,000,000 was taken in 5 per cents. Some of 
 the bids .were for permanent investment, while others 
 were for speculation. 
 
 There is a species of Treasurj' Notes in common use 
 in England, known as Exchequer Bills. These were 
 first created in the j'ear 1696, two years after the in- 
 corporation of the Bank of England. They have been 
 issued annually ever since. These bills bear an inter- 
 est of Id., \\, 2 or 2J pence per day on each £100, 
 equivalent to 1^ @ 3 per cent, per annum. Of these 
 bills there were issued in 1852, £17,742,800, at l\d. ; 
 1853, £17,742,500, at U. @ 2d. ; 1854, £16,029,600, at 
 2Jrf. ; 1855, £17,183,000. These are a favorite invest- 
 ment for short periods. — See Excheqube. 
 
 In 1768 the Empress Catharine the Second, of Rus- 
 sia, established the Banque d'Assignat, to issue govern- 
 ment notes payable to bearer. The amount at first is- 
 sued was 40,000,000 of roubles. In 1786 the amount 
 was extended to 100,000,000, and they soon after rap- 
 idly depreciated. 
 
 Treaties, Commeroial. By a commercial treaty 
 is meant a treaty between two independent nations, 
 for facilitating, and most commonly also regulating, 
 the commerce carried on between them. During the 
 
TEE 
 
 1860 
 
 TEE 
 
 Middle Ages, and down, indeed, to a comparatively re- 
 cent period, foreigners resident in a countr}', whetlier 
 for commercial or other pnrposes, were for the most 
 part subject to verj' harsh treatment. At one time it 
 was usual in England to malce aliens liable for the 
 debts and crimes of each other ; and the practice, for- 
 merly so common, of laying heavier duties on the 
 goods imported and exported by aliens than by Brit- 
 ish subjects, is not even yet, we grieve to say, alto- 
 gether abandoned. In France and some other coun- 
 tries, during the 14th and 15th centuries, a stranger 
 was incapable of bequeathing property hj' will ; and the 
 whole of his personal as well as real estate, fell, at his 
 death, to the king or the lord of the barony. This bar- 
 barous law was known by the name of Droit d^Auhaine, 
 and was not completelj' abolished in France till a very 
 late period. — Robertson's Charles V., vol. i. Previ- 
 ously to last century, the laws with respect to ship- 
 wreck, though infinitely more humane than they had 
 been at a more remote period, were calculated rather 
 to promote the interest of the sovereign of the country, 
 or the feudal lords on whose territories shipwrecked 
 vessels might be thrown, than those ofthe unfortunate 
 owners or survivors. Tl^e most serious obstacles were 
 then also opposed by the prevalent insecurity, and the 
 arbitrary nature of the tolls which the lords were in 
 the habit of exacting, for the transit of commodities 
 through the territories of one state to those of another. 
 The practice of confiscating shipwrecked property con- 
 tinued in France till 1681, when it was abolished by an 
 edict of Louis XIV. It was at one time common in 
 Germany, to use the words of M. Bouchaud, " pour les 
 pr^dicateurs de prier Dieu en chaire, qu^ 11 se fosse bien 
 des naufrages sur leurs cotes .'" — Tkeorie des Traites de 
 Commerce, p. 118. And the fact that the celebrated 
 jurist Thomasius wrote a dissertation in defense of such 
 prayers, affords, if possible, a still more striking proof 
 of the spirit of the period. 
 
 Under such circumstances, it became of much im- 
 portance for commercial states to endeavor to obtain, 
 by means of treaties, that protection and security for 
 the persons and properties of their subjects, when 
 abroad, against unjust treatment and vexatious ex- 
 actions, which they could not have obtained from the 
 laws of the countries in which they might happen to 
 reside. Thus it was stipulated by Edward II., in 1325, 
 that the merchants and mariners of Venice should have 
 power to come to England for ten years, with liberty to 
 sell their merchandise and to return home in safety, 
 '■^without having either their persons or goods stopped on 
 account of other people's crimes or debts." — Anderson, 
 anno 1325. The commercial treaties negotiated during 
 the 15th, 16th, and 17th centuries, are full of similar 
 ' conditions ; and there can be no doubt that by provid- 
 ing for the security of merchants and seamen when 
 abroad, and suspending, with respect to them, the bar- 
 barous laws and practices then in force, thej' contrib- 
 uted materially to accelerate the progress of commerce 
 and civilization. Commercial treaties were also ne- 
 gotiated at a very early period for the regulation of 
 neutral commerce during war, and for defining the ar- 
 ticles that should be deemed contraband, or which it 
 should not be lawful for neutral ships to convey or 
 carrj- to either belligerent. These are obviously points 
 that can only be decided by express stipulations. 
 
 Instead, however, of confining commercial treaties 
 to their legitimate and proper purposes — the security 
 of merchants and navigators, and the facility of com- 
 mercial transactions — they very soon began to be em- 
 ployed as engines for promoting the commerce of one 
 country at the expense of another. For more than 
 two centuries, those engaged in framing commercial 
 treaties have principally applied themselves to secure, 
 either by force or address, some exclusive advantage 
 in favor of the ships and products of their particular 
 countries. Hence these compacts are full of regula- 
 tions as to the duties to be charged on certain articles. 
 
 and the privileges to be enjoyed by certain ships, ac- 
 cording as they were either produced by or belonged 
 to particular countries. It was in the adjustment of 
 these duties and regulations that the skill of the nego- 
 tiator was chiefly put to the test. It was expected 
 that he should be thoroughly acquainted with the state 
 of every branch of industry, both in his own countrv 
 and in the country with which he was negotiating; 
 and he was to endeavor so to adjust the tariff duties, 
 that those branches in which his own country was de- 
 ficient might be benefited, and those in which the oth- 
 er was superior might be depressed. The idea of con- 
 ducting a negotiation of this sort on a fair principle of 
 reciprocity is of very late origin ; success in circum- 
 venting, in overreaching, or in extorting, from fear or 
 ignorance, some oppressive, but at the same time worth- 
 less privilege, was long esteemed the only proof of su- 
 perior talent in negotiators. 
 
 In an able tract, attributed to Mr. Eden, afterward 
 Lord Auckland, published in 1787 {Historical and Po- 
 litical Remarlcs on the Tariff ofthe French Treaty), there 
 is the following outline of the qualifications necessary 
 to the negotiator of a commercial treaty : " Besides a 
 general knowledge of the trade and reciprocal interests 
 of the contracting parties, he ought to be precisel}^ ac- 
 quainted with their several kinds of industry and skill ; 
 to discover their wants, to calculate their resources, 
 and to weigh with nicety the state of their finances, 
 and the proportionate interest of their money; nay, 
 further, he should be able to ascertain the comparative 
 population and strength of each country, together with 
 the price and quality both of first materials, and also 
 ofthe labor bestowed upon them: for this purpose he 
 should inquire into the operations of every class of 
 merchants and manufacturers concerned in the trade ; 
 should consult their expectations on each of its several 
 braiiches'; and collect their hopes and fears on the ef- 
 fect of such' a commercial revolution, on the competi- 
 tion of rival nations. A good treaty of commerce, in- 
 dependent of the art of negotiation, is pronounced, by 
 one who well knew the extent and difficulty ofthe sub- 
 ject, to be a ' master-piece of skill.' " 
 
 It is visionary to imagine that any nation will ever 
 continue to grant to another any exclusive advantage 
 in her markets, unless she obtain what she reckons 
 an equivalent advantage in the markets of the other. 
 And if a commercial treaty stipulating for an exclus- 
 ive privilege be really and bonafde observed by the 
 countrj' granting the privilege, we may be sure that 
 the concessions made by the country in whose favor it 
 is granted are sufficient fully to countervail it. Those 
 who grasp at exclusive pri^'ileges in matters of this 
 sort, or who attempt to extort valuable concessions 
 from the weakness or ignorance of their neighbors, are 
 uniformly defeated in their object. All really bene- 
 ficial commercial transactions are bottomed on a fair 
 principle of reciprocity ; and that nation will always 
 flourish most, and have the foundations of her pros- 
 perity best secured, who is a universal merchant, and 
 deals with all the world on the same fair and liberal 
 principles. 
 
 As early as 1783, Mr. Pitt, then Chancellor of the 
 Exchequer, proposed a bill in the British Parliament, 
 based upon the liberal principle of " admitting to all 
 the ports of the British dominion American vessels 
 loaded with goods the growth or produce of the United 
 States, on the same terms as British vessels or goods ;" 
 but the proposition at once startled the fears of the 
 British merchants, who, with the aid of Lord North, 
 Mr. Fox, and Lord Sheffield, succeeded in transfer- 
 ring the whole subject to' the discretion of the king 
 and his council. The consequence was, that an order 
 was immediately issued, not only excluding American 
 vessels from all participation in the colonial trade, 
 but prohibiting the exportation from the United 
 States of provisions and fish, even in British bot- 
 toms. 
 
TRE 
 
 1861 
 
 TKE 
 
 English rretrfies.— The first formal and written treaty 
 made by England with any foreign nation was entered 
 into A.D. 1217. The first commercial treaty was with the 
 Flemings, 1 Edward, 1272 ; the second with Portugal 
 
 and Spain, 1308,— Anderson. The chief treaties of the 
 principal civilized nations of Europe will be, found de- 
 scribed In their respective places. The following forms 
 an index to them: 
 
 Abo, peace of 1T43 
 
 Aix-la-Chapelle 166S 
 
 Aix-la-Chapelle, peace of 1748 
 
 Akermann, peace of 1826 
 
 Alt Radstadt 1706 
 
 America, peace with 1783 
 
 AmlenB, peace of 1802 
 
 Armed Neutrality J800 
 
 Arras, treaty of 1435 
 
 Arras, treaty of. 1482 
 
 Augsburg, league of 1686 
 
 Baden, peace of 1714 
 
 Barrier treaty 1715 
 
 Basle, peace of 1796 
 
 Bassein, India 1802 
 
 Bayonne, treaty of 1808 
 
 Belgium, treaty of London 18.B9 
 
 Belgrade, peace of 1789 
 
 Berlin, peace of 1742 
 
 Berlin decree. 1806 
 
 Berlin convention , 1808 
 
 Breda, peace of 1667 
 
 Bretigny, peace of 1360 
 
 Bucharest, treaty of .1812 
 
 Cambray, league of , . . . 1508 
 
 Cambray, peace of 1529 
 
 Campo-Formio, treaty of 1707 
 
 Garlowltz, peace of. . , 1699 
 
 Carlsbad, congress of 1819 
 
 Cateau-Cambresia, peace of *1559 
 
 Chaumont, treaty of 1814 
 
 Ghunar, India 1781 
 
 Cintra, convention pf 1808 
 
 Closterseven, convention of 175T 
 
 Coalition, first, against France . . . 1792 
 Coalition, second, against France. 1799 
 Coalition, third, against France . . 1805 
 CoalitioQ, fourth, against France. 1806 
 Coalition,' fifth, against France. , . 1809 
 Coalition, sixth, against France . . 1813 
 
 Concordat ISOI 
 
 Confians, treaty of 1465 
 
 Constantinople, peace of 1T12 
 
 Constantinople, treaty of 1833 
 
 Copenhagen, peace of 1660 
 
 Cressy 1644 
 
 Dresden , 1745 
 
 Family compact 1761 
 
 Fontalnebleau, peace of 1679 
 
 Fontainetaleau, treaty of 1785 
 
 Fontaiuebleau, concordat at 1813 
 
 Frieclwald, treatj,^ of 1551 
 
 Fuessen, peace of. 1745 
 
 Ghent, pacification of 1576 
 
 Ghent, peace of (United States) . . . 1814 
 Golden Bull 1G56' 
 
 Grand Alliance 1689 
 
 Greece, treaty of London 1829 
 
 Hague, treaty of the 1659 
 
 Hague, treaty of the 1669 
 
 Halle, treaty of. 1610 
 
 Hamburg, peace of 1762 
 
 Hanover treaty 1726 
 
 Holland, peace with 1784 
 
 Holy Alliance 1815 
 
 Hubertsherg, peace of. 1763 
 
 Interim 1548 
 
 Kiel, treaty of. 1814 
 
 Laybach, congress of 1721 
 
 League ' 1576 
 
 Leipsic, alliance of 1631 
 
 Leoben, peace of 1797 
 
 Lisbon, peace of 1668 
 
 London, treaty of (Greece) 1829 
 
 London, convention of (Turkey). 1840 
 
 Liibeck, peace of 1629 
 
 Luneville, peace of 1801 
 
 Madrid, treaty of 1626 
 
 Mefchuen treaty 1703 
 
 Milan decree 1807 
 
 Munster, peace of , . 1648 
 
 Nantes, edict of 15;i8 
 
 Naumberg, treaty of. 1554 
 
 Nice, treaty of 1619 
 
 Nimeguen, peace of 1673 
 
 Noyon, treaty, of. 1516 
 
 Nuremberg, treaty of 1632 
 
 Olivia, peace of 1660 
 
 Paris, peace of (see Paris) 1763 
 
 Paris, treaty of 179^ 
 
 Paris, peace of (Sweden) 1810 
 
 Paris, capitulation of 1814 
 
 Parisi treaty of. 1814 
 
 Paris, peace of 1816 
 
 Paris, treaty of 1817 
 
 Partition, first treaty 1698 
 
 Partition, second treaty. 1700. 
 
 Passa-rowitz, peace of 1718 
 
 Passau, treaty of 1662 
 
 Petersburg, peace of 1762 
 
 Petersburg, treaty of 1772 
 
 Petersburg, treaty of 1805 
 
 Petersburg,, treaty of 1810 
 
 Peterswalden, cc^vention of 1813 
 
 Pilnitz, convention of 1791 
 
 Poland, partition of < 1795 
 
 Pragmatic Sanction 1439 
 
 Pragmatic Sanction 1713 
 
 Prague, peace of 1653 
 
 Presburg, peace of. 1805 
 
 Public good, league for the 1464 
 
 Pyrenees, treaty of the 1659 
 
 Quadruple Alliance 1718 
 
 Radstadt, peace of 1714 
 
 Radstadt, congress of 179T 
 
 Ratlsboa, peace of ; . 1630 
 
 Ratisbon, treaty of 1806 
 
 Religion, peace of , 1555 
 
 Rhine, Confederation of the 1806 
 
 Ryswick, peace of. 1697 
 
 St. Grermains, peace of 1570 
 
 St. Germain-en- Lay e 1679 
 
 St. Ildefonso, alliance of Spain with 
 
 France 1795 
 
 Seville, peace of. 1793 
 
 Siorod, peace of 1613 
 
 Smalcald, league of. 1529 
 
 Spain, pacification of (London) . . . 1834 
 
 Stettin, peace of 1670 
 
 Stockholm 1630 
 
 Stockholm, peace of 1719 
 
 Stockholm, treaty of. 1724 
 
 Stockholm, treaty of. 1813 
 
 Temeswar, truce of 1664 
 
 Teschen, peace of. 1779 
 
 Teusiu, peace of 1595 
 
 Tilsit, peace of 1807 
 
 Tolentino, treaty of 1793 
 
 Toplitz, treaty of. 1813 
 
 Triple Alliance 1717 
 
 Triple Alliance of the Hague 1668 
 
 Troppau, congress of. ,, . 1820 
 
 Troyes, treaty of 1420 
 
 Turkmauchay, peace of. 1828 
 
 TJlm, peace of . , 1620 
 
 Utrecht, union of, . , 1579 
 
 Utrecht, peace of... 1713 
 
 Valeuf ay, treaty of 1813 
 
 Verona, congress of 1822 
 
 Versailles, peace of 1783 
 
 Vienna, treaty of 1725 
 
 Vienna, treaty of alliance 1731 
 
 Vienna, definitive peace 1737 
 
 Vienna, peace of 1809 
 
 Vienna, treaty of, March 28 1815 
 
 Vienna, treaty of. May 31 1815 
 
 Vienna, treaty of, June 4 1815 
 
 Vpssem, peg-ce of , 1768 
 
 Warsaw, treaty of 1768 
 
 Warsaw, alliance of ^ . . 1683 
 
 Westminster, peace of 1674 
 
 Westminster (with Holland) 1716 
 
 Westphalia^ peace of. 1648 
 
 Wilna, treaty of 1561 
 
 Worms, edict of. 1621 
 
 Wurtzburg, treaty of . . ; 1610 
 
 Treaties of Commerce and Navigatidn between the 
 United States and foreign Nations,— 1!\\q United States 
 has treaties, conventions, or reciprocal regulations of 
 commerce and navigation with thirty-eight foreign 
 nations, all of which are in force, either in pursuance 
 of the stipulations and terms expressed therein re- 
 spectively, or by virtue of decrees, royal orders, or 
 other local regulations on the part of foreign govern- 
 ments, on the one side, and of proclamations by the 
 President of the United States on the other. The dif- 
 ficulty of referring to any particular treaty, or of as- 
 certaining at a glance the precise character of the com- 
 mercial regulations of any particular country'', is ob- 
 
 Argentine Confederation 
 
 Austria 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Bolivia 1 
 
 Borneo 
 
 Chili 
 
 China 
 
 Costa Rica I........ 
 
 Denmark .1 , ; 
 
 Ecuador , , . 
 
 France , 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 Guatemala 
 
 Hanover 
 
 Holland ...,.., 
 
 Hanse Towns 
 
 Japan 
 
 Meehlenburg Schwerin 
 
 Mexico April 5, 1831, and 
 
 Julyl0and27, 
 
 August 27, 
 
 November 10, 
 
 November 30, 
 
 June 23, 
 
 May 16, 
 
 July 
 
 July 
 
 April 
 
 June 
 
 June 
 
 July 
 
 March 
 
 June 
 
 August 
 
 December 20, 
 
 March Bt, 
 
 December 9, 
 
 February 2, 
 
 1853. 
 
 1819. 
 
 1846. 
 
 1836. 
 
 1850. 
 
 1832. 
 
 1844. 
 
 1851. 
 
 1826. 
 
 1839. 
 
 1822. 
 
 1815. ■ 
 
 1849. 
 
 1846. 
 
 1852. 
 
 1827. 
 
 1854 
 
 1847. 
 
 1843. 
 
 vious. "With a view, chiefly, to remedy this incon- 
 venience, the following summary of these treaties has 
 been prepared ; and it will enable all interested in the 
 foreign trade of the United States readily to ascertain 
 the footing on which our commerce and navigation are 
 placed in foreign countries with which treaties exist, 
 and the treatment to which the commerce and naviga- 
 tion of such foreign countries, respectively, are entitled 
 in the ports of the United States. 
 
 The following are the foreign countries, arranged 
 ill alphabetical order, between which and the United 
 States commercial treaties are now in force, with the 
 dates of such treaties, respectively : 
 
 Morocco '. September 16, 
 
 Muscat September 21, 
 
 Ne^v Granada December 12, 
 
 Oldenburg i March 
 
 Peru July- 
 Portugal i April 
 
 Prussia May 
 
 Russia October 
 
 San Salvador. July 2, 
 
 Sandwich Islands December 20, 
 
 Sardinia November 26, 
 
 Siam April 14, 
 
 Sweden and Norway July 4, 
 
 Switzerland '. November 9, 
 
 Tripoli June 4, 
 
 Tunis February 
 
 Turkey May 
 
 Two Sicilies ; .' December 
 
 Venezuela January 
 
 10, 
 
 26, 
 
 23, 
 
 1, 
 
 6, 
 
 24, 
 7, 
 1, 
 
 20, 
 
 1836. 
 1833. 
 1846. 
 1847. 
 1851. 
 1841. 
 
 1850. 
 1849. 
 1838. 
 1836. 
 1827. 
 1865. 
 1805. 
 1824. 
 1830. 
 1845. 
 1836. 
 
TEE 
 
 1862 
 
 TEE 
 
 By virtue of notice from the United States, the 
 treaty with Denmark " ceased and determined," in ac- 
 cordance -with the 11th article of the same, April 14, 
 1856. 
 
 On the 24th of May, 1828, an act was passed by the 
 Congress of the United States, respecting commerce 
 and navigation with foreign nations, in the following 
 words : " Be it enacted, etc., That, upon satisfactory 
 evidence being given to the President of the United 
 States, by the government of any foreign nation, that 
 no discriminating duties of tonnage or impost are im- 
 posed or levied in the ports of the said nation upon 
 vessels wholly belonging to citizens of the United 
 States, or upon the produce, manufactures, or merchan- 
 dise imported in the same from the United States, or 
 from any foreign country, the President is hereby au- 
 thorized to issue his proclamation, declaring that the 
 foreign discriminating duties of tonnage and impost 
 within the United States are, and shall be, suspended 
 and discontinued, so far as respects the vessels of the 
 said foreign nation, and the produce, manufactures, or 
 merchandise imported into the United States in the 
 same, from the said foreign nation, or from any other 
 foreign country ; the said suspension to take effect from 
 the time of such notification being given to the Presi- 
 dent of the United States, and to continue so long as 
 the reciprocal exemption of vessels belonging to citi- 
 zens of the United States, and their cargoes, as afore- 
 said, shall be continued, and no longer." 
 
 By virtue of proclamations issued by the President 
 of the United States, in accordance with the provisions 
 of the law above recited, vessels belonging to Tus- 
 cany, Brazil, and Chili, are admitted into the ports of 
 the United States on the same terms as American ves- 
 sels, with the produce or manufactures of their own, or 
 any other country; similar reciprocity being gi'anted 
 in those countries, respectively, to vessels and cargoes 
 of the United States. The dates of the proclamations 
 of the President respecting these countries are as fol- 
 lows; Tuscany, September 1, 1836 ; Brazil, November 
 4, 1847;. Chili, November 1, 1860. 
 
 By the President's proclamation of Juno 7, 1827, 
 vessels of the Pontifical states are admitted into the 
 ports of the United States on the same terms as Ameri- 
 can vessels only when laden with the produce and 
 manufactures of said Pontifical states ; and by similar 
 proclamation of April 20, 1847, French vessels in bal- 
 last, or laden with the produce of St. Pierre and Mique- 
 lon, and coming directly from those islands, are treated 
 in ports of the United States as national vessels. Like 
 favors and privileges are, of course, conceded to vessels 
 of the United States in the Pontifical states, ftnd at 
 the islands of St. Pierre and Jliquelon, respectively. 
 
 Summary of Treaties with the United States. — A rt/en- 
 tine Covfederation. — Treaties of July 10 and 27, 1853, 
 both proclaimed April 9, 1855. The former relates to 
 the navigation of the rivers Parana and Uruguay, and 
 the latter establishes and regulates friendship, com- 
 merce, and navigation between the Argentine Con- 
 federation and the United States, Duration of both 
 undefined. United States vessels enter all the places 
 and ports on the rivers Parana and Uruguay which be- 
 long to the Argentine Confederacy, and which are open 
 to commerce, on the payment of the same custom-house 
 duties, harbor, light, police, and pilotage dues that are 
 paid by the vessels of the most favored nation. This 
 restriction to equality with the vessels of the most 
 favored nation is qualified and enlarged by the treaty 
 of July 27, 1853, which equalizes the vessels of the 
 United States in all the places, ports, rivers, and terri- 
 tories of the confederation, with the national flag, as to 
 tonnage, light or harbor dues, pilotage, salvage in case 
 of shipwreck, or any other local charges whatever. 
 Merchandise introduced into any part of the territories, 
 ports, or places of the Argentine Confederation, in ves- 
 sels of the United States, is treated, in respect of duties 
 and all other charges, as if imported in national ves- 
 
 sels ; and if such merchandise be of the growth, prod- 
 uce, or manufacture of the United States, it is subject 
 to no other or higher duties than similar merchandise, 
 the growth, produce, or manufacture of any other 
 country. In regard to exports. United States vessels 
 enjoy equality, as to drawbacks and bounties, with the 
 national flag. The province of Buenos Ayres having 
 seceded from the other provinces of the Confederation, 
 decrees have been issued by the federal power which 
 affect, in some respects, the commercial regulations of 
 the republic. The latest decree of this kind is one 
 imposing heavy differential duties on foreign merchan- 
 dise introduced into the other, or fluvial provinces, 
 through the port of Buenos Ayres. This decree, should 
 it be carried into effect, will divert from this port, here- 
 tofore the general depot for the trade of the other prov- 
 inces, such foreign merchandise as is destined for the 
 different points on the Parana and the Uruguay rivers. 
 
 Austria. — Treaty of August 27, 1829, to continue in 
 force ten years from February 10, 1831, with the twelve 
 months' notice stipulation. United States vessels are 
 treated as national vessels, coming from the same 
 places, in Austrian ports, whether in the direct or in- 
 direct trade. The same duties are charged on importa- 
 tions into Austrian ports, whether of merchandise the 
 growth, produce, or manufacture of the United States, 
 or of any other country ; and these duties are no higher 
 than on similar merchandise from any other countrv. 
 Any favors hereafter granted by either party to the 
 commerce or navigation of another country to become 
 common to the other party on like conditions. The 
 ti'eaty establishes perfect equality between the flags of 
 the two parties in the ports of each. 
 
 Belgium. — Treaty of November 10, 1845, to continue 
 in force ten years from the 30th March, 1846; each party 
 reserving the right to renounce the treaty after the ex- 
 piration of that period, on giving to the other twelve 
 months' notice of its intention to do so. United States 
 vessels pay the same duties of tonnage, pilotage, anchor- 
 age, buoys, light-houses, clearance, brokerage, and all 
 other charges, as Belgian vessels. This equality ap- 
 plies, no matter whence the vessel comes. The Belgian 
 government guarantees restitution for any duties levied 
 by Holland on United States vessels navigating the 
 Scheldt. Steam-vessels of the United States engaged 
 in regular navigation between the United States and 
 Belgium are exempt from the payment of duties of 
 tonnage, anchorage, buoys, and light-houses. Vessels 
 of both parties enjoy, as to coasting trade, equal pi'ivi- 
 lege with the most favored nation. The treaty re- 
 stricts the equality of flags, as to duties, to the direct 
 trade, but contains a clause providing that, " it is well 
 understood, 1st. That the goods shall have been really 
 put on board in the ports from which they are declared 
 to have come ; 2d. 'That putting in at an intermediate 
 port by uncontrollable circumstances, duly proved, 
 does not occasion the forfeiture of the advantage al- 
 lowed to direct importation." In the indirect trade, 
 the flag of the United States is placed on an equality 
 with the flag of the most favored nation — except the 
 nation of production — as to import duties. The im- 
 portations of salt, and of the produce of the national 
 fisheries, are excepted from this equality. A law of 
 the Belgian government, of June 8, 1853, provides that 
 " the government is empowered to allow vessels pro- 
 ceeding from trans-Atlantic countries, or from a port 
 beyond the Straits of Gibraltar, to touch at an inter- 
 mediate port, whether for the purpose of receiving or- 
 ders or carrying on commercial transactions, by dis- 
 charging or receiving cargoes." This law, while it re- 
 mains in force, suspends the practical operation of that 
 article of the treaty restricting the equality of flags to 
 the direct trade ; under its operation, the flag of the 
 United States is equalized with the Belgian flag, 
 whether the vessel proceeds from a port in the United 
 States or not. — See Report from Department of State, 
 Ex. Doc. No. 2, 34th Congress, 1st session, p. 135. 
 
TRE 
 
 1863 
 
 TRE 
 
 Bolivia. — Treaty, or general convention of peace, 
 friendship, commerce, and navigation, of Noveraber 13, 
 18S6. Eatiflcations exchanged May 28, 1838, and proc- 
 lamation of the President of the United States issued 
 October 3 of the same year. To continue in force 
 twelve years from date of ratification, and further, for 
 one year after either party gives tlie other notice of its 
 intention to renounce it. The vessels of the United 
 States visiting the " coasts or countries of Bolivia" (the 
 port of Oobija) are placed, as to all charges and privi- 
 leges, on a footing of equality with the vessels of the 
 most favored nation. Should United States vessels, 
 either of war (public or private), of trade, or employ- 
 ed in the fisheries, whether through stress of weather, 
 want of water or provisions, pursuit of pirates or ene- 
 mies, be forced into the rivers, bays, or ports of Bolivia, 
 they shall be received and treated with humanity, and 
 all favor and protection shall be given to them suitable 
 to their respective exigencies. Merchandise and arti- 
 cles of commerce of every kind and description, the im- 
 portation of which is not prohibited to all other nations, 
 imported in vessels of the United States into Bolivia, 
 are subject to the same duties as similar merchandise 
 and articles Imported in the vessels of the most favor- 
 ed nation. The merchants and citizens of the United 
 States are allowed to manage for themselves all their 
 commercial transactions, whether of consignment and 
 sale of their goods, or with respect to the purchase of 
 their return cargoes, or loading and sending off their 
 vessels. This convention is stj'led the "Peru-Bolivian," 
 and was negotiated when these two republics were con- 
 federated under one government. Peru having at a 
 subsequent period re-established its independence of 
 Bolivia, disavowed the convention, and a new treaty 
 was entered into with that republic. It is still in 
 force, however, as regards Bolivia. By a decree of 
 Januaiy 27, 1853, the Bolivian government declared 
 free to the commerce and mercantile navigation of all 
 the nations of the -globe the waters of the navigable 
 rivers, which, flowing through the territories of Bolivia, 
 empty into the. Amazon and Paraguay; and, by virtue 
 of a treaty of June 14, 1856, between Brazil and Para- 
 guay, the navigation of the Upper Paraguay river was 
 made free, and Bolivia opened to an Atlantic market. 
 Borneo, — Convention of June 23, 1850, ratified July 
 11, 1853 — establishes perpetual peace, friendship, and 
 good understanding between the citizens and subjects 
 of the two contracting parties. No higher duty than 
 one dollar per registered ton to be levied on American 
 vessels entering the ports of the Sultan of Borneo ; and 
 this fixed duty to be in lieu of all other charges or 
 duties whatever. Importations in United States ves- 
 sels subject only to the same duties as apply to similar 
 importations lu vessels of the most favOred nation ; and 
 no prohibitions exist, either as respects importations 
 or exportations ; the latter of which, if the produce or 
 manufacture of the sultan's dominions, to be always 
 exempt from duty. Citizens of the United States are 
 permitted to enter, pass through, and trade in, all 
 parts of the sultan's dominions, and to enjoy all the 
 privileges granted to the citizens of the most favored 
 nations. They may also purchase, rent, occupy, and 
 acquire, in a legal manner, all kinds of property with- 
 in the dominions of the sultan. 
 
 China. — Treaty concluded July 3, 1844, and procla- 
 mation made by the President of the United States 
 April 18, 1846. Not limited as to duration; the Unit- 
 ed States, however, reserving the right, after the ex- 
 piration of itwelve years from the date of the conven- 
 tion, to open negotiations, should It be deemed neces- 
 sary to do so, for such modifications in the articles re- 
 lating to commerce and navigation as may be requisite. 
 Vessels of the United States may enter any of the five 
 ports open to foreign commerce, viz. : Canton, Amoy, 
 Foo-chow-Fn, Ningpo, and Shanghai, but no other 
 ports, under penalty of confiscation of vessel and cargo. 
 When Amerioan vessels shall have entered port, offi- 
 
 cers may be sent on board as a guard, at the expense 
 of the custom-house ; and within forty-eight hours after 
 a vessel shall have cast anchor, the proper officer must 
 deposit the ship's papers in the hands of the American 
 consul, who will forthwith communicate to the super- 
 intendent of customs the name and tonnage of such 
 vessel, the names of her men, and the, character of the 
 cargo ; after which the superintendent will give a per- 
 mit for discharging; or, if the master so desire, he 
 may, within twenty-four hours depart, without break- 
 ing bulk, for another port; in which case he will not 
 be liable to pay tonnage or other duties until he pro- 
 ceeds to discharge at such other port. Tonnage duties 
 to be, on vessels of over 150 tons, 5 mace (74 cents) per 
 ton ; 150 tons or under, 1 mace (14^ cents), paid only 
 at one port. United States vessels may import and 
 export all kinds of merchandise not prohibited in the 
 tariff. No new restrictions or monopolies to be created. 
 Duties to be paid in Sycee silver or in foreign money. 
 Discharging cargo without a permit subjects the cap- 
 taiU' to a fine of $500, and the confiscation of the goods 
 so landed ; but if part of cargo only is landed, duties 
 to be paid on such part only. Goods are not to be 
 transhipped from on board one vessel to another, un- 
 less there be some particular occasion for doing so, 
 which occasion shall be certified by the consul to the 
 superintendent of customs. Imported goods, having 
 paid duties on their resale or transit in any part of the 
 empire, are subject to the imposition of no other duty 
 than they were accustomed to pay at the date of the 
 treaty. It is also provided that vessels forced in any 
 way to take refuge in any port other than one of the 
 free ports, shall receive friendly treatment, and the 
 means of safety and security. The importation of 
 opium is prohibited, but a large- contraband trade is 
 regularly carried on In this article through the conniv- 
 ance of Chinese officials. Saltpetre and spelter are 
 government monopolies, and can be sold only to the 
 government merchants. Kice and other grains are free 
 of duty. Should a difference arise as to the value of 
 clocks, watches, jewelry, or of other merchandise on 
 which there is an ad valorem duty, and the parties can 
 not agree, the question may "within twenty-four hours, 
 but not afterward, be referred to the consul of the 
 party interested, to be adjusted by hira and the super- 
 intendent of customs. 
 
 Chili. — Convention of amity, peace, commerce, and 
 navigation of May 16, 1832 ; ratifications exchanged, 
 and proclamation made April 29, 1834. To continue 
 in force twelve years from date of exchange of ratifica- 
 tions, with the usual stipulation providing for twelve 
 months' notice after that period. Vessels of the United 
 States are placed on an equal footing in respect of 
 charges and privileges with those of the most favored 
 nation. Vessels driven into Chilian ports by stress of 
 weather or other compulsory causes, to be pi;oteoted, 
 and favored in every respect, until they are placed in 
 a condition to continue their voyage. Imports, the 
 produce or manufacture of any country, not prohibited 
 to be imported, subject to the same duties, charges, and 
 fees under the United States flag as when imported in 
 vessels of the most favored nation. Citizens and mer- 
 chants of the United States are allowed to manage for 
 themselves their own commercial operations. All fa- 
 vors granted to the citizens or flag of any other nation 
 to become common, on similar conditions, to the citi- 
 zens and vessels of the United States ; exceptions be- 
 ing reserved bj' Chili in favor of Bolivia, the Central 
 American states, Mexico, Peru, and the Argentine 
 Confederation. The government of the republic of 
 Chili notified that of the United States, under date of 
 October 31, 1850, that no other or higher duties of ton- 
 nage or Impost would be imposed on vessels of the 
 United States, no matter whence they came, or of what 
 origin might be their cargoes, than were levied on 
 national vessels under like circumstances ; consequent- 
 ly, the United States flag is now placed on a footing of 
 
TKE 
 
 1864 
 
 TRE 
 
 equality, both in the direct and indirect trade, -with 
 that of Chili. 
 
 Costa Rica. — Treaty of amity, commerce, and navi- 
 gation, July 10, 1851. Perpetual amity established, 
 and the stipulations relating to navigation and com- 
 merce may be abrogated at the expiration of seven 
 years, after the lapse of twelve months from the time 
 that notice to that effect shall have been given by either 
 party to the other. Vessels of the United States are 
 placed on an equal footing with national vessels in the 
 ports of Costa Rica as to tonnage duties, light or har- 
 bor dues, pilotage, salvage in case of damage or ship- 
 wreck, or any other local charges. Mail-packets of the 
 United States have liberty freely and securely to come 
 to all harbors, rivers, and places to which other foreign 
 ships of the same description are, or may be permitted 
 to come ; to enter, anchor, and remain there, and refit, 
 subject to the laws and statutes of the country. The 
 coasting trade reserved by each party, respectively, to 
 its own flag ; and all favoTs hereafter granted to other 
 nations by either of the two parties to become common 
 to the other. Imports in United States vessels of 
 articles the growth, produce, or manufacture of the 
 United States, to be subject to the same duties as if im- 
 ported in national vessels; and these duties to be no 
 higher, nor other than are charged on similar imports 
 the growth, produce, or manufacture of any other for- 
 eign country; similar equality of flag as to exports. 
 By a decree of August 31, 1854, the local commercial 
 legislation of Costa Rica was completely remodeled and 
 materially modified. Liberty of commerce to the ves- 
 sels of all nations is granted ; certain descriptions of 
 merchandise monopolized by the government, and 
 other descriptions which are prohibited, being speci- 
 fied; among the latter being included rum, fire-arms, 
 and munitions of war, which can be imported only 
 upon special permission ; and the former consisting of 
 tobacco, gunpowder, and saltpetre, which can be ad- 
 mitted only on government account. 
 
 Denmark. — Convention of friendship, commerce, and 
 navigation of April 26, 1826 ; ratified August 10, 1826 ; 
 proclamation made October 14 of the same year. Ves- 
 sels of the United States permitted to frequent all the 
 coasts and countries of Denmark, no matter whence 
 they may come or how they are laden, on terms of the 
 most perfect equality as to tonnage and other charges, 
 with the national flag, the coasting trade excepted, 
 which is reserved by each contracting party to its own 
 flag. This equality of flags not to apply to the north- 
 ern possessions of Denmark, viz. : Iceland, the Feroe 
 Islands, and Greenland, nor to the direct navigation 
 between Denmark and the West India colonies of his 
 Danish majesty. In passing the Sound or the Belts, 
 United States vessels to pay the same dues as the most 
 favored nation. United States .vessels permitted to 
 import into any part of his Danish majesty's dominions 
 merchandise, whether of the growth, produce, or manu- 
 facture of the United States, or of any foreign country, 
 on the same terms, and with the same privileges as to 
 duties, charges, and fees of every description whatever, 
 as apply to similar imports under the national flag; 
 and should the merchandise be of the growth, produce, 
 or manufacture of the United States, to be subject to 
 no other or higher duties than similar merchandise of 
 any other foreign country. This equality, however, 
 not to apply to the Danish possessions of Iceland, the 
 Feroe Islands, nor to Greenland; nor the flags to be 
 equal in the direct trade between Denmark and her 
 West India colonies. Merchandise in United States 
 bottoms to pay at the Sound and Belts the same duties 
 as similar merchandise in vessels of the most favored 
 nation. In consequence of the onerous, and, as the 
 United States think, the illegal taxes upon the navi- 
 gation and commerce of the United States at the 
 Sound, notice was given April 14, 1855, in accordance 
 with the provisions of article 11 of the treaty, of the 
 desire of the United States to terminate the same at the 
 
 expiration of twelve months from that date. The 
 treaty a&cordingly " ceased and determined" April 14, 
 1856, and the commerce of the United States with Den- 
 mark is now unprotected by any treaty stipulations. 
 
 Ecuador. — Treaty of June 13, 1839 ; ratifications ex- 
 changed April 9, 1842 ; proclamation made by the Presi- 
 dent of the United States September 23, of the same 
 year. To continue in force twelve years from the date 
 of ratifications, and after the expiration of that period 
 until the end of one year after either of the parties 
 shall have given notice to the other of its intention to 
 renounce it. Vessels of the United States placed on a 
 footing of equality in the ports of Ecuador with the 
 national flag, no matter whence they come, certain 
 privileges in favor of vessels built in the dock-j-ard of 
 Guayaquil being reserved ; but these privileges also to 
 be accorded to vessels of the United States, should 
 they ever be granted to Spain, or to Mexico, or the 
 other Hispano-American republics. Any favors here- 
 after granted to the commerce or navigation of other 
 countries to become common to those of the United 
 States. Imports in vessels of the United States, wheth- 
 er of the growth, produce, or manufacture of the United 
 States or of any other country, subject to the same 
 duties and charges as if imported in national vessels ; 
 and merchandise, the growth, produce, or manufacture 
 of the United States, admitted on the same terms as 
 similar merchandise of any other foreign country. 
 United States commerce entitled to any privileges 
 hereafter granted to the commerce of any other foreign 
 nation. In all lawful commerce, whether as respects 
 imports, exports, duties, drawbacks, etc., the United 
 States flag enjoys an equality' with the flag of Ecuador ; 
 the coasting trade and the reservation in favor of ves- 
 sels built at Guayaquil excepted. Such vessels, when 
 under the national flag, are, by decree of August 23, 
 1845, exempt from tonnage, anchorage, and other port 
 dues, and are entitled to a reduction of 3 per cent, on 
 all produce, merchandise, etc., imported by them, for 
 consumption, into any of the ports of the republic. 
 
 France. — Convention of June 22, 1822, to be in force 
 for two years from October 1, 1822 ; and after the ex- 
 piration of that time, until one of the parties shall have 
 declared its intention to renounce it ; which declaration 
 shall be made at least six months before it can take 
 effect. Equality of treatment. Tonnage and other 
 navigation dues in French ports upon American vessels, 
 five francs per ton ; in United States ports upon French 
 vessels, 94 cents per ton. The navigation duty of 94 
 cents per ton is payable by American vessels, no mat- 
 ter from what port they may have last proceeded ; but 
 the equality of treatment as to cargoes with the French 
 flag is applicable only when the voj'age has been direct, 
 and the origin of the merchandise is attested by certifi- 
 cate from the custom-house at the port of departure, 
 vised by the French consul at such port. In French 
 ports an extra duty on articles of the growth, produce, 
 or manufacture of the United States, imported in 
 American vessels, at 20 francs per ton of merchandise; 
 in United States ports, upon similar products of Franco, 
 imported in French vessels, an extra duty at $3 75 per 
 ton of merchandise ; these extra duties not applicable 
 in either country to merchandise of the other destined 
 for transit or re-exportation. Should this convention 
 be continued in force after two years, the additional 
 duties, at the expiration of that period, to be reduced 
 one-fourth of their amount, and successively from year 
 to year, so long as neither nation shall give the six 
 months' notice of its intention to renounce it. Neither 
 party having given the notice, the additional duties 
 ceased to exist by the annual reduction of one-fourth, 
 from October 1, 1827. By virtue of a ministerial de- 
 cree of December 17, 1861, American vessels laden with 
 cotton for France may touch at English ports without 
 losing the benefit of direct importation, provided bulk 
 be not broken, and no operation of commerce be trans- 
 acted. Navigation and commerce between the United 
 
TRE 
 
 1865 
 
 TRE 
 
 States and French colonial possessions are regulated 
 by the laws and decrees of the French governmfint. 
 American vessels proceeding direct from the United 
 States in ballast, or laden with articles the growth or 
 manufacture of their own country, to the islands St. 
 Pierre and Miquelon, are treated on the same footing 
 as national vessels. 
 
 Guatemala. — Convention of peace, amity, commerce, 
 and navigation concluded March 3, 1849, and pro- 
 claimed by the President of the United States July 28, 
 1852. To continue in force twelve years from the date 
 of the exchange of ratifications ; and after that period, 
 for twelve months after either party shall have given 
 notice to the other of its intention to renounce it. Ves- 
 sels of the United States are admitted into the ports 
 of Guatemala, no matter whence they may have sailed, 
 on the same terms, as to tonnage and all other naviga- 
 tion dues, as national vessels. Any favors granted to 
 the navigation of other foreign nations are to become 
 common to that of the United States, on equal condi- 
 tions. The coasting trade reserved by eacli nation to 
 its own flag. Imports into the ports of Guatemala in 
 vessels of the United States, whether of articles the 
 produce, growth, or manufacture of the United States, 
 or of any other country, placed on the same footing, as 
 to duties and all other dues and charges, as similar im- 
 ports under the national flag ; and if the articles so im- 
 ported are of the growth, produce, or manufacture of 
 the United States, they are subject to no higher or 
 other duties than similar articles, the growth, produce, 
 or manufacture of any other foreign country. By de- 
 cree of May 6, 1852, every vessel which shall anchor 
 in the ports of Guatemala, no matter whence it may 
 come, is required to pay a tonnage duty of twenty-five 
 cents per ton of measurement ascertained from her 
 papers. Among the vessels free of this duty are — 
 vessels in ballast anchoring for supplies, and discharg- 
 ing no cargo ; vessels of war and regular mail or steam- 
 packets not discharging over twenty tons of cargo ; and 
 vessels receiving on board, for exportation, produce of 
 the country, excepting cochineal. 
 
 Great Britain. — Treaty of July 3, 1815, to continue 
 in force four years. Continued in force ten years by 
 the 4th article of the convention of London, October 
 20, 1818, and renewed indefinitely April 2, 1828, with 
 an additional article containing the usual stipulation 
 as to twelve months' notice. "Reciprocity treaty" 
 concluded June, 5, ratified June 9, and proclaimed by 
 President of the United States September 11, 1854. To 
 continue in force ten years from the date at which it 
 went into operation (1855), with the usual stipulation 
 as to twelve months' notice afterthat period. It secures 
 reciprocal freedom of fishery on the coasts of the Unit- 
 ed States and the British provinces in America, and 
 of trade in raw products. United States vessels ad- 
 mitted into British ports in Europe on the same foot- 
 ing as national vessels. The vessels must be built and 
 owned in the United States, and navigated by a mas- 
 ter and a crew three-fourths of which are citizens of the 
 United, States. Vessels of the United States permit- 
 ted to touch for refreshments, but not for commerce, 
 in the course of their voyage to or from the British 
 territory in India, or to or from the dominions of the 
 Emperor of China, at the Cape of Good Hope, the isl- 
 and of St. Helena, or such other places as may be in 
 the possession of Great Britain, in the African or In- 
 dian seas — such vessels being subject, in all that, re- 
 gards this article, to the laws and regulations of the 
 British government from time to time established. 
 Merchandise imported into British ports in United 
 States bottoms must consist of articles the growth, 
 produce, or manufacture of the United States ; and the 
 same duties are charged, whether imported in United 
 States or British vessels, as on similar produce of any 
 other foreign country. The importation, in American 
 vessels, of the productions of any country but the Unit- 
 ed States, is prohibited. The intercourse between the 
 
 United States and the British West Indies is not af- 
 fected by the treaty. The vessels of the United States 
 are admitted into the British East India possessions on 
 the footing of those of the most favored nation ; that is, 
 they pay the same tonnage and import duties and other 
 charges as the vessels of such nations; but, when laden, 
 they must proceed direct to the United States. With 
 the British West Indies the trade was regulated, prior 
 to 1850, by diplomatic agreement. By reciprocity 
 treaty of 1854, a free trade in the raw staples of the 
 United States and Canada, Newfoundland, New Bruns- 
 wick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island, re- 
 spectively, is established. By the act 12 and 13 Vic- 
 toria, chapter 29, which went into force January 1, 
 1850, the comprehensive principle was adopted of 
 admitting into the ports of Great Britain, and of Brit- 
 ish possessions, goods of any sort, in a ship of any 
 country, from any part of the world ; certain restric- 
 tions, deemed necessary either for the safety of the 
 state or for the protection of the revenue, still remain- 
 ing in force. American vessels in British ports are, 
 therefore, equalized with British vessels as to tonnage 
 and import duties, and all other charges whatever. 
 By circular of the Treasury Department of the United 
 States, October 15, 1849, instructions were issued to 
 custom-house officers and others interested, as follows : 
 " 1. In consequence of the alteration of the British 
 navigation laws, British vessels from British or other 
 foreign ports will (under our existing laws), after the 
 first day of January next, be allowed to enter in our 
 ports with cargoes of the growth, production, or man- 
 ufacture of any part of the world. 2. Such vessels and 
 their cargoes will be admitted, from and after the date 
 before mentioned, on the same terms as to duties, im- 
 posts and charges, as vessels of the United States and 
 their cargoes. By the act 17 Victoria, chapter 5, the 
 coasting trade of Great Britain is opened to foreign 
 flags, subject only to the same regulations as apply to 
 British vessels engaged in the same trade. 
 
 Hanover. — Treaty of June 10, 1846, to continue in force 
 twelve years from date ; and further, until either party 
 gives to the other twelve months' notice of its intention 
 to renounce it at the expiration of the period. Vessels 
 of the United States received in Hanoverian ports on 
 the same terms, as to -navigation' dues of every de- 
 scription, as national vessels ; and, in the navigation 
 of the Eiver Elbe, are equalized with Hanoverian ves- 
 sels as to the tolls collected at Brunshausen or Stade. 
 Whatever merchandise or produce may be imported 
 in Hanoverian vessels may also be imported in United 
 States vessels, on terms of perfect equality as to duties, 
 irrespective of the country of origin, or whence im- 
 ported. The equality guaranteed by the treaty ex- 
 tends only to such vessels of the high contracting par- 
 ties as are built within their respective territories, or 
 lawfully condemned as prizes of war, or adjudged to be 
 forfeited. It is also stipulated that vessels of the king- 
 dom of Hanover may select their crews from any of 
 the states of the Germanic Confederation, provided 
 that the masters of each be a subject of the kingdom 
 of Hanover. 
 
 Hanse Towns. — Treaty of December 20, 1827, to con- 
 tinue in force twelve years from date ; either party re- 
 serving the right, after the expiration of that period, 
 to renounce the treaty at the end of twelve months, 
 after having given notice of its intention to do so. 
 Navigation duties of every description whatever, the 
 same on United States vessels as on national, whether 
 in the direct or indirect trade ; and perfect equality in 
 all other respects. Imports into the ports of the Hanse 
 Towns in vessels of the United States, subject to the 
 same duties, charges, etc., as similar imports under the 
 flag of the Hanse Towns. Each one of the three Han- 
 seatic towns, Hamburg, Bremen, and Lilbeck, agrees 
 separately, and each for itself, to the stipulations of the 
 treaty. Hanseatic vessels are entitled to equality in 
 the ports of the United States with the national flag, 
 
TEE 
 
 1866 
 
 TRE 
 
 if owned exclusively by a citizen or citizens of any or 
 either of the Hanse Towns, and of which the master 
 shall also be a citizen of any or either of them, and 
 provided that three-fourths of the crew shall be citi- 
 zens or subjects of any or either of the said republics or 
 towns, or of any or either of the states of the Germanic 
 Confederation. This privilege secures to the flag of 
 the Hanse Towns a large share of the carrying trade 
 between the United States and the German states. 
 
 Bolland. — Treaty of August 26, 1862, additional to 
 that of January 19, 1839, and substituting for articles 
 1 and 2 of the latter treaty other articles ; and pro- 
 viding that the duration of the new treaty shall be 
 limited to the term of two years from the date of ratifica- 
 tion (February 25, 1853), with the usual twelve months' 
 notice. Vessels of the United States, whencesoever 
 coming, are treated in Dutch ports, including also the 
 foreign possessions of Holland, as national vessels, 
 with respect to duties of tonnage, harbor dues, light- 
 house, pilotage, quarantine, or other port charges of 
 any kind whatever — the coasting trade and national 
 fisheries being reserved. Entire reciprocity guaran- 
 teed to the flag of the United States, and perfect equal- 
 ity with the national flag, as to the duties of import 
 and export, both in Dutch ports in Europe and in those 
 of Dutch possessions abroad. All differential and dis- 
 criminating duties as respects the flag are abolished. 
 The equality as to export duties, stipulated in the treaty 
 of 1852, applies only when the vessels of the United 
 States clear for the same ports as national vessels. 
 Thus the export duty on coffee in Java is the same 
 when exported in United States bottoms as when ex- 
 ported in Dutch vessels, when both have the same des- 
 tination ; but if the Dutch vessel proceeds to Amster- 
 dam, and the United States vessel clears for Boston, 
 the former enjoys a discriminating privilege in respect 
 of the amount of duty. 
 
 Japan. — Treaty concluded March 31, 1854 ; ratifica- 
 tions exchanged Februaiy 21, 1856; and proclamation 
 made by the President of the United States June 22 of 
 the same year. American vessels, permitted to enter 
 the ports of Hakodade and Simoda, and no other ports 
 of the Japanese empire, unless in distress, or forced by 
 stress of weather. The only charge for entering is for 
 pilotage, the rates of which, for the port of Simoda, 
 are as follows : Vessels drawing over 18 feet pay $15 ; 
 over 13, and less than 18, $10 ; under 13, $5. Vessels 
 of the United States are permitted to exchange only 
 gold and silver coin, and articles of goods for other 
 articles of goods, under such regulations as shall be 
 temporarily established by the Japanese government. 
 "Wood, water, provisions, coal, and goods required, can 
 only be procured through the agency of Japanese /ofii- 
 cers, appointed for that purpose. As a means of open- 
 ing the commerce of Japan, or even of the ports open- 
 ed to American vessels — viz., Simoda and Hakodade 
 — the treaty has proved totally inefficient. The treaty 
 grants the privilege to shipwrecked persons and other 
 citizens of the United States, living temporarily at 
 Simoda, to go where they please within the limits of 
 seven Japanese miles from a small island in the har- 
 bor, and at Hakodade within limits hereafter to be 
 defined. "Living temporarily" has been defined by 
 the Japanese authorities to mean " a sojourn of four 
 or five days on shore." Wood and water, and such 
 supplies as could be had, have been freely sold at pretty 
 good prices; but permission to trade, in a mercantile 
 sense, has been absolutely refused. The privileges of 
 this treaty are said to have been recently extended to 
 all nations. 
 
 Mechlenhurg Sehwerin. — Declaration of accession to 
 treaty with Hanover, December 9, 1847, to continue in 
 force until June 10, 1858, with the usual twelve months' 
 notice stipulation after that period, and a conditional 
 six months' notice by the United States, if a contingency 
 should occur rendering it expedient, in tlie opinion of 
 that government, to renounce the treaty. Vessels of 
 
 the United States subject to the same duties in the 
 ports of the Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg Schwerin 
 as national vessels ; the coasting trade being reserved. 
 This equality applies only to vessels built within the 
 respective territories of each party, or lawfully con- 
 demned as prizes of war, or adjudged to be forfeited, 
 etc., and belonging wholly to citizens of each. Impor- 
 tations of articles the growth, produce, or manufacture 
 of the United States, subject to no higher duties than 
 similar articles the growth, produce, or manufacture 
 of any other foreign country ; such duties to be the 
 same, whether imported in vessels of the United States 
 or in national vessels. This equality is applicable to 
 the indirect as well as to the direct trade. Besides the 
 stipulations contained in the treaty with Hanover, oth- 
 er articles are added. Import duty on raw cotton and 
 paddy, the produce of the United States, is abolished 
 by the treaty ; and maximum rates of import duty on 
 tobacco, rice, and whale-oil, and for transit on the Ber- 
 lin-Hamburg railroad, are prescribed. 
 
 Mexico. — Treaty of April 5, 1831, revived, as to gen- 
 eral stipulations relating to commerce and navigation, 
 by article 17 of the treaty of February 2, 1848, and to 
 continue in force from date of ratification of said treaty 
 (May 30, 1848) for a period of eight j-ears, with the usu- 
 al stipulation providing for twelve months' notice after 
 that period by either party wishing to renounce it. 
 Vessels of the United States may enter all the open ports 
 of the Mexican republic on the same terms, as to ton- 
 nage duties, light or harbor dues, pilotage, salvage, 
 and all other local charges, as apply to national ves- 
 sels. The coasting trade is reserved by each country, 
 respectively, to its own flag. United States vessels 
 may import into Mexican ports merchandise, the 
 growth, produce, or manufacture of the United States, 
 on the same terms as if the said merchandise were im- 
 ported under the national flag ; the duties of import 
 to be no higher or otlier than levied on similar mer- 
 chandise,, the growth, produce, or manufacture of the 
 most favored nation. 
 
 Morocco. — Treaty concluded September 16, 1836, and 
 proclamation thereof made by thePresidentof the United 
 States January 30, 1837 ; to continue in force iif ty years, 
 witli the usual stipulation requiring twelve months' 
 notice after that period by either party wishing to re- 
 nounce it. United States vessels permitted to put into 
 any ports in the dominions of the Emperor of Morocco 
 for provisions or other supplies, without any interrup- 
 tion or molestation, and to put in for repairs, and to 
 land and reload their cargoes, without paying any duty 
 whatever. Should American vessels be cast ashore on 
 any part of the coasts of Morocco, either by stress of 
 weather or other cause, to be permitted to remain un- 
 disturbed until the commander may think proper to 
 proceed on his voyage. Importations from the United 
 States, and American commerce generally, to be on 
 the same footing as those from Spain, or from the most 
 favored nation for the time being. Masters forbidden 
 to transport their cargoes on board other vessels. 
 Merchants of the United States allowed to employ 
 such interpreters and other agents as they shall think 
 proper ; and American citizens permitted to pass and 
 repass the country and sea-ports whenever they please, 
 without molestation. The tariff' of duties is often ar- 
 bitrarHj' raised in Morocco. The general rate is 10 
 per cent, on imports, excepting. certain specified arti- 
 cles, on which specific duties are levied. (Tobacco is 
 a monopoly of the government, and the trade is usual- 
 ly rented out at rates reaching as high as $100,000 per 
 annum. Were the trade in this article freed from the 
 pressure of this monopoly, its importation from the 
 United States would be largely increased.) 
 
 Muscat. — Treaty of September 21, 18B3 ; President's 
 proclamation issued June 24, 1837. Establishes per- 
 petual peace between the United States and his majesty 
 the Sultan of Muscat and his dominions. Vessels of 
 the United States pay 6 per cent, duties on the car- 
 
TRE 
 
 1867 
 
 TRE 
 
 goes landed, to be in full of all duties of import and ex- 
 port, tonnage, license to trade, pilotage, anchorage, or of 
 any other charge whatever. No charge to be paid by- 
 American vessels entering any of the sultan's ports for 
 the purpose of refitting, or refreshments, or to inquire 
 the state of the market. The duties and other charges 
 on commerce in the dominions of the sultan are given 
 under the l>ead of Navigation. The articles of mus- 
 kets, powder, and balls, can be sold only to the gov- 
 ernment, in the island of Zanzibar ; but in other ports 
 of the sultan's dominions said munitions of war may 
 be sold to the highest bidder without restriction. Du- 
 ties of tonnage, import and export, license to trade, 
 etc., to be the same for American citizens as for citi- 
 zens of the most favored nation. The trade between the 
 United States and the dominions of the Sultan of Mus- 
 cat, especially the island of Zanzibar, is yearly increas- 
 ing. It reaches annually in value about $1,000,000, 
 and is carried on chiefly from Salem, Massachusetts. 
 Articles of American manufacture most in demand in 
 the market of Zanzibar are the various descriptions 
 of cotton goods, the annual exportation amounting to 
 about 6000 bales. Every facility for commercial op- 
 erations is extended to American vessels and mercan- 
 tile houses, and the duties or other charges never ex- 
 ceed those stipulated in the treaty. 
 
 New Granada. — ^Treaty of December 12, 1846, to con- 
 tinue inforce twenty years, unless eitherparty should no- 
 tify theother, twelve months before theexpirationof that 
 period, of its intention to reform any or all of its stipu- 
 lations ; and beyond that period, for twelve months after 
 either shall have given notice of its intention to pro- 
 pose such modifications. Vessels of the United States 
 to enter all the ports of New Granada on a footing of 
 entire equality with the vessels of that republic, with- 
 out regard to the port or country whence they may 
 have sailed. Should such vessels be driven into the 
 ports of the republic by pirates, enemies, or from stress 
 of weather, to be pli'otected, and all facilities, etc., af- 
 forded them; and, unless they remain in port over 
 forty-eight hours, to be exempt from all port or har- 
 bor charges, pilotage excepted. The coasting trade 
 reserved by each of the contracting parties to its own 
 flag. Duties on imports and exports under the United 
 States flag the same as under the national flag ; and 
 on articles the growth, produce, or manufacture of the 
 United States, these duties not to be higher or other 
 than ai-e levied upon similar articles, the growth, prod- 
 uce, or manufacture of any other foreign country. 
 Merchandise belonging to citizens of the United States, 
 in transit across the Isthmus of Panama, to be free from 
 import duties, and subject only to the same tolls that 
 are levied in like cases on merchandise belonging to 
 citizens of New Granada. For the privileges granted 
 on the Isthmus of Panama, the United States guaran- 
 tee to New Granada the perfect neutrality of that ter- 
 ritory, and her sovereignty and rights of property over 
 the same. The stipulations of the treaty respecting 
 commerce have been modified by subsequent decrees 
 of the government of New Granada. Those of chief 
 interest provide that the coasting trade shall be thrown 
 open to all flags, and payment of navigation duties 
 shall be demanded only at one port. Panama, Car- 
 tagena, Choco, Buenaventura, and Yumaco, are free 
 ports — no other than navigation duties being charged. 
 More recent enactments, however, impose a tonnage 
 duty of 40 cents per ton on all vessels entering port; 
 and a tax of $3 per pound on all mail matter crossing 
 the Isthmus. 
 
 Oldenburg. — Declaration of accession of the Grand 
 Duke of Oldenburg to treat}' with Hanover, March 10, 
 1847. The same stipulations and privileges as are grant- 
 ed under the treaty with Hanover of June 10, 1846. 
 The same privileges, as respects the commerce of the 
 United States, as are extended to said commerce in 
 Hanoverian ports. The stipulations relative to the 
 Stade and Weser tolls, contained in the treaty between 
 
 the United States and Hanover, are omitted in the 
 declaration of accession by Oldenburg ; this govern- 
 ment having no control over, or interest in, said tolls. 
 
 Peru. — Treaty o,f July 26, 1851; ratifications ex- 
 changed the 16th, and proclamation made by Presi- 
 dent of the United States the 19th July, 1852. To 
 continue in force ten years frotA date of ratification ; 
 and beyond that period, until twelve months shall have 
 elapsed after either party shall have given the other 
 notice of its intention to renounce it. No higher or 
 other duties or charges on account of tonnage, light- 
 houses, or harbor dues, pilotage, quarantine, salvage, 
 etc., to be levied on United States vessels of 200 tons 
 or upward, than are payable in the same pm*ts on na- 
 tional vessels of the same tonnage. The coasting trade 
 is reserved by each country, respectively, to its own 
 flag. Imports in vessels of the United .States to be 
 subject to the same duties as similar imports in nation- 
 al vessels ; and if of the growth or manufacture of the 
 United States, the duties to be no higher or other than 
 on similar merchandise the growth or manufacture of 
 any other nation. Like equality of flags as to exports. 
 Should the tariff' of Peru be changed so as to augment 
 the duties of import or export, such change not to ap- 
 ply to United States commerce until the expiration of 
 eight calendar months thereafter. Steam-vessels of 
 the United States, if belonging to a regular line owned 
 by citizens of the United States, to bo permitted to 
 navigate the ports of entry of Peru with the same priv- 
 ilege as any association or company whatsoever. The 
 treaty provides that whale-ships of the United States 
 shall have access to the port of Tumbez, as well as to 
 the ports of entry of Peru, and may sail from one port 
 to another for the purposes of refreshment and refitting; 
 and shall be permitted to sell or barter their supplies 
 or goods, including oil, to the amount of $200 ad valo- 
 rem for each vessel, without paying any tonnage or har- 
 bor dues, or any duties or imposts upon the articles so 
 sold or bartered. They shall be permitted, with like 
 exemption from tonnage and harbor dues, to sell or 
 barter supplies or goods, including oil, to the addition- 
 al amount of $1000 ad valorem for each vessel, upon 
 payment, on said additional articles, of the same du- 
 ties as are payable upon like supplies or goods and oil 
 when imported in the vessels and by the citizens of the 
 most favored nation. A decree of the Peruvian gov- 
 ernment restricts the terms " supplies or goods, includ- 
 ing oil," to articles the produce of the fisheries, and 
 withholds the privileges of the stipulations of the 
 treaty, above condensed, from all other descriptions 
 of "goods" or merchandise. 
 
 Portugal.— TiKsity of August 26, 1840; ratifications 
 exchanged April 23, 1841; and proclamation made 
 April 24 of the same year ; to continue in force six 
 j'ears from date of ratifications ; and further, until the 
 end of one year after either of the contracting parties 
 shall have given notice to the other of its intention to 
 renounce it. Vessels of the United States arriving, 
 either laden or in ballast, in the ports of Portugal (in- 
 cluding Portuguese possessions), to be treated on an 
 equal footing with national vessels coming from the 
 same place, with respect to the duties of tonnage, light- 
 house dues, pilotage, port charges, and all other charges 
 whatever. Each party reserves to its own flag, re- 
 spectively, the coasting trade. On the importation into 
 the kingdom of Portugal and its possessions, where 
 foreign commerce is allowed, in vessels of the United 
 States, of any articles the growth, produce, or manu- 
 facture of the United States, no other or higher duties 
 to be levied than on similar articles the growth, prod- 
 uce, or manufacture of any other foreign country ; and, 
 in all cases of direct importation, the vessels of each 
 country to be equalized in. the ports of the other. 
 Should the indirect trade of any other foreign country 
 be placed upon the same footing as the direct trade, 
 similar privileges to be accorded to the United States 
 on equal conditions. Any favor granted since the date 
 
TEE 
 
 1868 
 
 TKE 
 
 of the treaty, or which may hereafter be granted by ei- 
 ther of the high contracting parties, as respects com- 
 merce and navigation, is to apply to the other party, 
 freely if it has been freely granted, and on similar 
 eqiiivalents where it has been conditional. By virtue 
 of the reciprocity, as it respects navigation, Portuguese 
 vessels are exempt from tonnage duty in the ports of 
 the United States. In the indirect trade with Portu- 
 gal, imports under the United States ilag are subject 
 to differential duties. 
 
 Prussia. — Treaty of May 1, 1828, to continue in 
 force twelve years, with the usual stipulation requiring 
 twelve months' notice after that period by cither party 
 desiring to renounce it. United States vessels to be 
 treated in Prussian ports, as to the duties of tonnage, 
 light-houses, pilotage, salvage, and port-charges, as 
 well as to all other duties, fees, or charges whatsoever, 
 as national vessels. The coasting trade reserved to 
 each country. Cargoes under the United States flag, 
 whatever the origin, or wbencesoever imported, to l^e 
 subject to the same duties and charges only as if im- 
 ported under the national flag. Lilce equality as to 
 exportations. , Articles the growth, produce, or manu- 
 facture of the United States, to be subject to the same 
 duties as like articles the growth, produce, or manufac- 
 ture of any other foreign countr3\ Two treaties of 
 amity and commerce were entered into between the 
 United States and Prussia prior to that condensed above 
 • — one of July, August, and September, 1785 ; and the 
 other of July 11, 1799. By article 12 of the treaty of 
 May 1, 1828, the 12th article of the former treaty, and 
 from the 13th article to the 24th, inclusive, of the lat- 
 ter, with the exception of the last paragraph in article 
 19, are revived, in so far as they do not affect treaties 
 or conventions concluded by either party with other 
 powers, during the interval between the expiration of 
 the treaty of 1799 and the commencement of the treaty 
 of 1828. Articles 12 of the treaties of 1785 and 1799, 
 respectively, relate to the principle of free ships mak- 
 ing free goods. In reference to this point, article 12 
 of the treaty of 1828 provides that, the parties being 
 still desirous to establish between themselves, or in con- 
 cert with other maritime powers, further provisions to 
 insure just protection and freedom to neutral naviga- 
 tion and commerce, and which may, at the same time, 
 advance the causes of civilization and humanity, en- 
 gage again to treat on this subject at some future and 
 convenient period. 
 
 iBmsra.— Treaty of December 6 [18], 1832, to con- 
 tinue in force until January 1, 1839, with the usual 
 stipulation for twelve months' notice to renounce it by 
 either party desiring to do so. No such notice hav- 
 ing been given, the treaty continues in force. United 
 States vessels arriving in Russian ports, either laden 
 or in ballast, to be treated on the same footing as na- 
 tional vessels, coming from the same place, with re- 
 spect to duties of tonnage. In regard to light-house 
 duties, pilotage, and port charges, as well as to the fees 
 and perquisites of public ofiicers, and all other duties 
 and charges levied upon vessels of commerce, the Unit- 
 ed States flag is placed upon the footing of the most fa- 
 vored nation with which Eussia has no special treaty 
 stipulating for entire reciprocity. Any favors hereaft- 
 er granted to the navigation of any other foreign nation, 
 to become common to the United States on similar or 
 equal conditions. All kinds of merchandise and arti- 
 cles of commerce, being the growth, produce, or manu- 
 facture of the United States, may be imported into Rus- 
 sian ports on the same terms as apply to similar articles 
 the produce or manufacture of any other foreign coun- 
 try ; and, whether the imports be of the growth, prod- 
 uce, or manufacture of the United States, or of any oth- 
 er foreign country, perfect equality is granted with the 
 national flag. Any favorhereafter granted to the com- 
 merce of other foreign nations to become common to 
 the commerce of the United States. Certain special 
 privileges to be retained by Russia in reference to com- 
 
 merce with Prussia, and Sweden and Norway ; but they 
 do not affect the general reciprocity stipulated in the 
 treaty. The treaty establishes entire reciprocity be- 
 tween the flags of the two countries. July 22, 1854, a 
 treaty was concluded between Russia and the United 
 States, establishing the principle that "free ships make 
 free goods," and containing a stipulation to the effect 
 that other nations may, by a formal declaration of a 
 desire to accept and be governed by the principle, be- 
 come entitled to all the resulting rights and privileges. 
 The Russian government, under date November 28, 
 1856, officially signifies to the government of the Unit- 
 ed States its adhesion to the principles announced in 
 the reply of the latter government to the declarations 
 of the Congress at Paris, April 16, 1856, in reference to 
 privateering. The communication of the representa- 
 tive of the Russian governmeiit at Washington thus 
 conveys the concurrence of the emperor: "His maj- 
 esty entirely concurs in the views of the government 
 of the United States which the Hon. Mx. Marcy has 
 laid down in his equally lucid as temperate note of the 
 28th of July. The proposition of the federal govern- 
 ment, in the opinion of his imperial majesty, deserves 
 so much the more to be taken into consideration that 
 the honorable Secretary of State argues not for the ex- 
 clusive interest of the United States, but for those of 
 the whole of mankind. The undersigned is according- 
 ly instructed to notify the Hon. Mr. Marcy that his 
 majesty the emperor accepts, for his part, the condi- 
 tion under which the United States consent to the abo- 
 lition of privateering — namely, that the private prop- 
 erty of the subjects and citizens of the contracting par- 
 ties shall in times of war be respected by their respect- 
 ive naval forces, as well as by those of all the powers 
 which may join in this declaration." 
 
 San Salvador, — Convention concluded January 2, 
 1850. To continue in force twenty years, if neither 
 party notify the other twelve months before the expi- 
 ration of that period of its desire to reform any of its 
 stipulations; and beyond twenty years, until twelve 
 months shall have elapsed after such notice shall have 
 been given by either partj'. Vessels of the United 
 States, no matter whence they may have come, or how 
 laden, to be treated in the ports of San Salvador, as to 
 all duties of tonnage, light-house, or any other charges 
 of whatsoever denomination or character, as national 
 vessels. From this equality the coasting trade is ex- 
 cepted, which is reserved to the national flag ; but 
 should any favors of navigation be granted hereafter to 
 any other foreign nation, it will immediately apply to 
 the flag of the United States. Imports into San Salva- 
 dor in vessels of the United States, no matter whence 
 imported or of what origin, to be subject to the same 
 duties, charges, and fees of every description, as similar 
 imports in vessels of San Salvador ; and if these im- 
 ports consist of articles the growth, produce, or man- 
 ufacture of the United States, to be subject to no higher 
 or other duties than similar imports, the growth, prod- 
 uce, or manufacture of any other foreign nation. 
 
 Sandwich Islands. — Treatj' concluded December 20, 
 1849; ratifications exchanged August 24, 1850, and 
 proclamation made by the President of the United 
 States November 9, 1850. Establishes perpetual peace 
 and amity between the United States and the Hawai- 
 ian Islands, and provides that the treaty shall continue 
 in force ten years, with the usual stipulation providing 
 for twelve months' notice by either party wishing to 
 renounce it after that period. United States vessels in 
 direct voyages, if laden, or in respect of any voyage, if 
 in ballast, to pay the same duties of tonnage, harbor, 
 light-houses, pilotage, quarantine, or other navigation 
 charges of whatever kind, that are paid by national 
 vessels. Steam vessels employed in carrying the pub- 
 lic mails of the United States across the Pacific, or from 
 one port to another therein, to have free access to the 
 ports of the Sandwich Islands, to refit, refresh, land 
 passengers and their baggage, or for any purpose per- 
 
TRE 
 
 1869 
 
 TRE 
 
 tainlng to the mail service of the United States, with- 
 out being subject to any of the duties above specified. 
 Whale-ships of the United States may enter the ports 
 of Hilo, Kealakeakua, and Hanalei, and also the open 
 ports of Honolulu and Lahaina, exempt from tonnage 
 or harbor dues of any description, with certain privi- 
 leges of trade, as set forth herewith. They may also 
 pass from port to port of the islands for the purpose of 
 procuring refreshments, but may not land their sea- 
 men or passengers, except at Honolulu or Lahaina. 
 The privilege of the same ports is also granted to arm- 
 ed vessels of the United States. Imports of merchan- 
 dise, fhe growth, produce, or manufacture of the Unit- 
 ed States, to be subject to the same duties, whether im- 
 ported in vessels of the one country or of the other; 
 and these duties to be the same as are levied upon sim- 
 ilar merchandise, the growth, produce, or manufacture 
 of, or imported from, any other country. Absolute 
 liberty of trade allowed between the citizens of the two 
 countries, without restriction, unless in articles pro- 
 hibited. Whaling vessels of the United States may 
 trade or barter their supplies or goods, except spiritu- 
 ous liquors, to the amount of $200 ad valorem for each 
 vessel, without being liable to pay duties therefor ; and 
 the further privilege is granted to such vessels at the 
 ports designated above, and exempt, as therein stated, 
 from tonnage and harbor dues, to trade or barter, except 
 in spirituous liquors, to the further amount of $1000 ad 
 valorem, by paying on the additional goods so traded 
 or bartered the usual duties levied on similar merchan- 
 dise imported under the flag of the most favored na- 
 tion. 
 
 /Sardinia. — Treaty of November 26, 1838, to continue 
 in force ten years from March 13, 1889 — the date of 
 exchange of ratifications ; and, after the expiration of 
 that period, until twelve months shall have elapsed 
 after either party shall have given notice to the other 
 of its intention to renounce it. Vessels of the United 
 States arriving in Sardinian ports, either laden or in 
 ballast, to be treated, as to the duties of tonnage, light- 
 houses, pilotage, and port charges, as well as to all fees 
 and charges of whatever kind or denomination, as na- 
 tional vessels coming from the same place. All im- 
 ports in United States vessels into Sardinian ports to 
 pay the same duties and charges only as if brought in 
 Sardinian vessels. Imports, the growth or manufac- 
 ture of the United States, to pay the same duties only 
 as like produce of the most favored nation. The " Sep 
 arate Article" of the treaty, respecting " differential du- 
 ties," ceased to have effect, by virtue of a law of Sardin- 
 ia, July 6, 1850. Freedom of transitage, from and to 
 the port of Genoa, through the territories of Sardinia, 
 is stipulated by the treaty, with specified exceptions. 
 
 Sweden and Norwat/. — Treaty of July 4, 1827, reviv- 
 ing certain articles of the treaty of April 3, 1783, to- 
 gether with the 1st, 2d, 4tb, and 5th separate articles 
 of the said treaty, and containing additional commer- 
 cial stipulations ; to continue in force ten years, with 
 the usual stipulation requiring twelve months' notice 
 to be given by either party desiring to renounce it, 
 after the expiration of that- period. Vessels of the 
 ■ United States proceeding from any port to the ports of 
 .Sweden and Norway, including those of the island of 
 -St.* Bartholomew, laden or in ballast, are treated as 
 national vessels coming from the same port, as to all 
 duties of navigation and tonnage. Entire reciprocity 
 and perfect equality, as to import duties and all other 
 charges, between the flag of the United States and that 
 of Sweden and Norway ; and this reciprocity and equal- 
 ity applies, whether the voyage be direct from the ports 
 of the United States, or indirect from any other foreign 
 port. 
 
 Switzerlamd. — Convention signed November 25, 
 1850; ratifications exchanged November 8, 1855; and 
 proclamation made November 9 of the same year. To 
 continue in force ten years from date of ratification, if 
 neither party gives notice to the other one year before 
 
 the expiration of that period ; and so on from year to 
 year, until the expiration of twelve months after such 
 notice shall have been given. Imports and exports to 
 and from Switzerland take place through the ports and 
 territories of France and other adjacent countries; and 
 the charges of transitage, in consequence, are a heavy 
 drawback upon theindustry and commerce of the con- 
 federation. This remark applies especially to the re- 
 strictions on transitage through France. In all that 
 relates to the importation, exportation, and transit of 
 their respective products, the United States and the 
 Swiss Confederation to treat each other reciprocally as 
 the most favored nation, union of nations, etc. All fu- 
 ture commercial privileges granted by either party to 
 any nation, union of nations, etc., immediately to be- 
 come common to the other party on equal conditions. 
 Should difierential duties 'be established in the Swiss 
 Confederacy upon the products of any nation, the Unit- 
 ed States to be at liberty to determine the manner of 
 establishing the origin of its own products destined to 
 enter that confederacy. The frontier territory of Switz- 
 erland is divided into six departments for the collec- 
 tion of customs duties. The central points of these, re- 
 spectively, are at Basle, Schaffhausen, Coire, Lugano, 
 Lausanne, and Geneva. No merchandise can be im- 
 ported or exported, unless by special license, except 
 through one or other of those frontier custom-houses. 
 
 Siam. — Treaty of amity and commerce of March 20, 
 1833 ; ratifications exchanged April 14, 1836 ; and proc- 
 lamation made by the President of the United States 
 June 24, 1837. Establishes perpetual peace between 
 the United States and Siam. Vessels of the United 
 States entering any port of the Siamese dominions, and 
 selling or purchasing cargoes of merchandise, to pay, 
 in lieu of all import and export duties, tonnage, license 
 to trade, or any other charges whatsoever, a measure- 
 ment duty of 1700 ticals, or bats (equal to $1037), for 
 every fathom of 78 English inches in breadth upon ves- 
 sels selling merchandise, and of 1600 ticals (equal to 
 $915) per fathom, similar measurement, upon vessels 
 purchasing cargoes with specie. It is prohibited to 
 sell munitions of war to any person except the king, 
 and also to export rice or import opium, the latter be- 
 ing contraband. It is stipulated that if hereafter the 
 duties payable by foreign vessels be diminished in favor 
 of any other nation, the vessels of the United States 
 sh^U be entitled to like diminution ; and should any 
 foreign nation, other than Portugal, be hereafter per- 
 mitted to have consuls in Siam, the same privilege 
 shall be accorded to the United States. United States 
 merchants, desirous of bringing their goods on shore 
 for trade, must deposit them in the king's factories, 
 paying the customary rent of the country therefor. 
 The treaty of 1833 completely suspended all commer- 
 cial operations between the United States and Siam. 
 On a vessel, say of 25 feet beam, the duty, at 1700 ti- 
 cals per 78 inches, would amount to $3988 46! In 
 1855 (April) a new treaty was negotiated between 
 Great Britain and Siam, to the privileges of which 
 American commerce is entitled by article 4 of the 
 treaty of 1833 between the United States and Siam. . 
 This new treaty with Great Britain authorizes that 
 nation to have a resident consul at Bangkok, after 
 April 6, 1856 ; and after the same date the measure- 
 ment duty is to be abolished, and a general import 
 duty of 3 per cent, to be paid in money or kind, at the 
 option of the importer. Disputes as to the value of 
 goods are to be settled by arbitrators. Opium may be 
 imported free, but can be sold only to the opium farm- 
 er or his agent. Export duty specific. 
 
 Tripoli. — Treaty of peace and amity of June 4, 1805, 
 not limited as to duration. Establishes a firm, invio- 
 lable, and universal peace, and a siricere friendship 
 "on the terms of the most favored nation," and guar- 
 antees to the United States like favors with those here- 
 after granted to any other nation. Vessels of the 
 United States in the ports of Tripoli to be subject to 
 
TEE 
 
 1870 
 
 TEE 
 
 the same duties, charges, and privileges as the vessels 
 of the moat favored nation. United States vessels 
 destined for Tripolitan ports must be provided with 
 proper passports; to examine which, not more than 
 two persons, besides the rowers, are allowed to proceed 
 from any Tripolitan man-of-war, or to go on board, 
 unless permitted so to do bj^ the American captain. 
 In case of distress, United States vessels may put in, 
 land and re-embark cargo, and repair, without the pay- 
 ment of duties. The commerce between the United 
 States and Tripoli — the protection to be given to Amer- 
 ican merchants, masters of vessels, and seamen — the 
 right of establishing consuls in the regency of Tripoli, 
 and the privileges, immunities, and jurisdictions en- 
 joyed by such consuls, to be on the same footing with 
 those of the most favored nation. 
 
 Two Sicilies, — Treaty of December 1, 1845, to be in 
 force ten years from date, cither party reserving the 
 right to terminate it after that period, on giving twelve 
 months' notice of its intention to do so. When import- 
 ing articles of the growth or the manufacture of the 
 United States, American vessels to be on the same 
 footing as to duties, charges, etc., with national ves- 
 sels. This equality as to navigation dues applies only 
 in respect of direct voyages if laden, or of any voyage 
 if in ballast. Merchant vessels of the United States, 
 forced by stress of weather, or other similar cause, into 
 Sicilian ports, to be exempt from port and tonnage du- 
 ties, provided no operation of commerce is carried on. 
 The coasting trade is reserved by each country to its 
 own vessels. The direct importation of articles of the 
 growth, produce, or manufacture of the United States 
 to be subject to the same duty, whether imported in 
 vessels of the United States or in those of the Two Sic- 
 ilies. In the indirect trade, importations under the 
 flag of the United States into the ports of the Two Sic- 
 ilies to be subject to differential duties. A decree was 
 issued, December 18, 1854, by the King of the Two Sic- 
 ilies, extending to the indirect trade of such foreign 
 nations as would be willing to reciprocate all the ad- 
 vantages of the national flag. Under the act of 1828, 
 previously given at length in the article Sicily, page 
 1714, the government of the United States has recip- 
 rocated the privileges thus granted by the govern- 
 ment of the Two Sicilies; and the flag of the United 
 States is therefore equalized, in Sicilian ports, with the 
 national flag in the indirect trade. 
 
 Turkey. — Treaty concluded May 7, 1830, and ratified 
 February 2, 1831. Not limited as to duration. Ves- 
 sels of the United States to be treated, in ports of the 
 Ottoman empire, in like manner as vessels of the most 
 favored nation ; to have the same liberty to pass the 
 canal of the imperial residence, and to go into and come 
 from tlie Black Sea, either laden or in ballast; and 
 may be laden with the produce, manufactures, and ef- 
 fects of the Ottoman empire, except such as are pro- 
 hibited, as well as with those of their own country. 
 United States vessels must sail under their own flag, 
 and are prohibited from lending their flag to the ves- 
 sels of other foreign nations, or to those of the rajahs. 
 Importations into Ottoman ports in vessels of the 
 United States to be subject to the same duties, charges, 
 etc., as importations under the flag of the most favored 
 nation. American merchants established in the states 
 of the Sublime Porte for purposes of commerce, to be 
 at liberty to employ semsars — brokers or factors — of 
 any nation or religion ; such merchants or other Amer- 
 ican citizens residing in the Turkish dominions not to 
 be amenable to Turkish tribunals for offenses conmiit- 
 ted, but to be tried by their own minister or consul, 
 and punished according to his sentence. By virtue of 
 the most favored-nation stipulation, vessels of the Otto- 
 man Porte are admitted into United States ports on 
 the same terms as American vessels. Duties, accord- 
 ing to the tariff of the Ottoman Porte, are based upon 
 the ad valorem principle ; and the treaty nations usual- 
 ly name commissioners every five or six years, who, in 
 
 concert with a commission named by the Sublime Porte, 
 regulate the "fixed values" of merchandise imported. 
 The present rates were fixed by a British commission 
 of this character; and, in regard to many articles of 
 American importation, especially cottons and rum, the 
 mode of valuation works » practical discrimination, 
 which can be remedied only by the action of an Amer- 
 ican commission remodeling existing valuations, as re- 
 spects the manufactures of the United States. 
 
 Tutiis. — Tre'aty of August, 1797, modified by conven- 
 tion of March 26, 1799, and by subsequent treaty of 
 February 24, 1824. Establishes perpetual peace and 
 friendship between the United States and the Bey of 
 Tunis. Vessels of the United States permitted to en- 
 ter all the ports of the kingdom of Tunis on paying the 
 usual duties which are paid by the vessels of the most 
 favored nations. Should the government of Tunis have 
 need of the services of an American vessel not previous- 
 ly engaged, it must have the preference on paying the 
 same freight that is usual with merchants for the same 
 service. Commerce witli Tunis under the United States 
 flag to be conducted on precisely the same footing, as 
 to import duties, fees, and all charges whatsoever, as 
 is commerce under the flag of the most favored nation. 
 American merchants to be permitted to establish them- 
 selves, transact their own business, or appoint their 
 agents, factors, etc., in the territories belonging to the 
 kingdom of Tunis. 
 
 Venezvela. — Treaty of peace, friendship, navigation, 
 and commerce, concluded January 20, 1836; ratified 
 May 31, and proclamation made by President of the 
 United States June 30, of the same year. To continue 
 in force twelve years from date of ratifications ; and fur- 
 ther, until either part}^ gives twelve months' notice of its 
 intention to renounce it. Vessels of the United States, 
 no matter whence they come, or with what laden, to be 
 on a footing with national vessels. The same equali- 
 t}', including bounties, duties, and drawbacks, to apply 
 in regard to exportation or re-exportation. Vessels 
 of the United States shipwrecked, foundered, or in any 
 other way damaged, on the coasts, or within the do- 
 minions of Venezuela, to receive all necessary assist- 
 ance and protection. Whatever may be imported in 
 Venezuelan vessels may also be imported in vessels of 
 the United States, and on the same terms, as to duties 
 and all other charges. The same equality as to ex- 
 ports. Articles, the growth, produce, or manufacture 
 of the United States, to be subject in Venezuela to no 
 higher or other duties than similar articles, the growth, 
 produce, or manufacture of an}' other foreign country. 
 All favors hereafter granted to other foreign nations to 
 apply equally to the United States on similar condi- 
 tions. The customs, tariffs, and commercial regula- 
 tions of Venezuela are subject to frequent, and, occa- 
 sionally, onerous changes. The latest of these — that 
 of April 27, 185C — imposes an extraordinary contribu- 
 tion upon certain imports and e.xports, to take effect 
 from and after July 1, 1856. Among the exports thus 
 affected are coffee, cocoa, indigo, hides, quinia, sarsa- 
 parilla, dye-wood, etc. The extraordinary import duty 
 is 20 per cent, on the amount of regular duties, and 15 
 per cent, on all articles that are included in the free 
 list, excepting gold and silver in bars, bullion, or dnst, 
 printing-presses, printed books, machinery, etc. — Com. 
 Relat. U. S. 
 
 Trebizond, anciently Trapezus, from its resem- 
 blance to a trapezium, a town of Asia Minor, on the 
 southeast coast of the Black Sea, lat. 40° 1' N., long. 
 39° 44' 52" E. Population variously estimated at from 
 15,000 to 30,000. The town is built on the declivity 
 of a hill rising gently from the sea. It is a place of 
 great antiquity ; and, from the year 1203 to the final 
 subversion of the Eastern empire by Mohammed II. in 
 the 15th century, was the seat of a dukedom, or, as it 
 was sometimes called, an empire, comprising the coun- 
 try between the Phasis and the Halys. Its fortifica- 
 tions are still of considerable strength, at least for a 
 
TRE 
 
 1871 
 
 TEI 
 
 Turkish city. The space imclacled within the walls is 
 of great extent ; but it is principally filled with gardens 
 and groves. The houses are mean in their outward 
 appearance, and comfortless within. — TonRNEFOKT, 
 Voyage du Levant; KmsEiR'a- Journey through Asia 
 Minor. Trebizond has two ports, one on the west and 
 one on the east side of a small peninsula, or point of 
 land, projecting a short way into the sea. That on 
 the east is the best sheltered, and is the place of anchor- 
 age for the largest ships. It is, however, exposed to 
 all but the southerly gales ; but it does not appear that, 
 witli ordinary precaution, any danger need be appre- 
 hended. The ground, from one-fourtli to half a mile 
 east from the point, is clean, and holds extremely well. 
 Ships moor with open hawse to the north, and a good 
 hawser and stream anchor on shore, as a stern-fast. 
 At night the wind always comes off the land. Cap- 
 tain Middleton says that the only bad weather is from 
 the northwest; but that, tliough the swell be consid- 
 erable, it does not cause any heavy strain upon the 
 cables. — Nautical Magazine, vol. ii. p. 181. — At Plata- 
 na, near Trebizond, and quite as exposed, Turkish 
 vessels have from time immemorial rode in safety the 
 whole winter; a satisfactory proof that the danger 
 supposed to be incident to the roads along the coast 
 is wholly visionary. — Ibid. 
 
 Trade. — In antiquity, and in more modern times, 
 previously to the conquest of Constantinople by the 
 Turks, and the exclusion of all foreign vessels from the 
 Black Sea, Trebizond was the seat of an extensive 
 trade. Any one, indeed, who casts his eye over a map 
 of Western Asia must be satisfied that this city is the 
 natural emporium of all the countries to the southeast 
 of the Black Sea, from Kars on the east, round by 
 Diarbeker to Amasia on the west. Erzeroum, the 
 principal city of Armenia, is only about 135 miles 
 southeast from Trebizond, Its merchants are dis- 
 tinguished by their superior attainments, and by their 
 enterprise and activit3^ For a lengthened period they 
 derived most part, of their supplies of European com- 
 modities by way of Smyrna or Constantinople; no- 
 thing, liowever, but the impossibility of obtaining them 
 at so convenient a port as Trebizond could have made 
 them resort to such distant markets as those now men- 
 tioned ; and it may well excite surprise, considering 
 the period during which the Black Sea has been open, 
 that eflbrts were not sooner made to establish an inter- 
 course with Armenia, Georgia, and the northwestern 
 parts of Persia, through this channel. We are glad, 
 however, to have to state, that within these few years 
 this has been done , and, notwithstanding the difficul- 
 ties that necessarily attach to every attempt to open 
 new channels of commerce with semi-civilized nations, 
 the experiment has proved more than ordinarily suc- 
 cessful. The policy of Russia has, of late years, given 
 to Trebizond an importance it did not formerly possess. 
 Previously to the 1st of January, 1832, the trade be- 
 tween Europe and Persia, by way of the Black Sea, 
 principally centred in the Russian port of Redout Kal6, 
 at the mouth of the Phasis. This was a consequence 
 of the exemption granted in 1822 to the Russian prov- 
 inces to the south of the Caucasus from the duties 
 charged in the other parts of the empire. But the ex- 
 emption having ceased at the period referred to, and 
 the trans-Caucasian pi'ovinces having been subjected 
 to the same duties as the other provinces, the transit 
 trade to Persia by way of Redout Kal6, Teflis, and the 
 Caspian Sea, almost entirely ceased, and it is now car- 
 ried on through Trebizond, Erzeroum, and Tabreez. 
 In consequence, the increase of trade at Trebizond has 
 been very remarkable. 
 
 Of the exports, silk is by far the most important ; 
 and next to it are nuts, saffron, tobacco, copper, wax, 
 shawls, beans, galls, leeches, etc. Their total value 
 was estimated in 1846 at £479,87<1:, of which silk made 
 nearly a half, or £210,080. See Tdrket. 
 
 Tree-nails, certain long cylindrical wooden pins 
 
 employed to connect the plaiiks of the ship's side and 
 bottom to the corresponding timbers. They are supe- 
 rior to spike-nails or bolts of iron, which are liable to 
 rust and loosen. The thickness of the tree-nails is 
 usually proportioned to the length of the ship, allowing 
 one inch to every hundred feet. 
 
 Trees (_Age of). Among others mentioned in an 
 article in the American Almanac for 1838, p. 102, are, 
 the Wallace oak at EUerslie, Scotland, 700 years. 
 (Some oaks are supposed to have lived 1500 years.) 
 Oak on estate of James Wadsworth, Geneseo, New 
 York, 600 years. Yew trees at Fountain's Abbey, En- 
 gland, 1200 years; andin Scotland, said to be 2500 
 years. Elms, in Switzerland, 335 years. Cedars on 
 Lebanon, 800 years. Olives, in the Garden of Olives, 
 Jerusalem, 800 years. Banian, in Hindostan, 3000 
 years. Cypresses, at Grenada, 800 years. 
 
 Tret. In Commerce, an allowance of 4 lbs. for 
 every lOi lbs. for the waste which certain kinds of 
 goods are liable to from dust, etc. 
 ' Trieste, a city and sea-port of the Austrian domin- 
 ions, the capital of a district of lUyria, situated near 
 the northeast extremity of the Gulf of Venice, lat. (of 
 light-house) 45° 38' 6" N., long. 13° -46' 5" E. Popula- 
 tion in 1850-'ol, of the city only, 50,000 (?), and in- 
 cluding the district comprised within the limits of the 
 free port, 82,596. It is divided into the old and new 
 towns. The former is built upon elevated ground ; the 
 latter, which is lower down, is laid out with greater 
 regularity, and is parti}' intersected by a canal, into 
 which vessels not drawing more than nine or ten feet 
 water enter to load and unload. The harbor of Trieste, 
 though rather limited in size, is easy of access; and con- 
 vfenient.' It is protected from southerly gales by the 
 Molo Teresiano, so called from the Empress Maria 
 Theresa, at the extremity of which the new light-house, 
 mentioned belosv, has been constructed. The port, 
 wieh the mole, forms a crescent one and a half mile in 
 length, being a continued qua}', faced with hewn 
 stones, with stairs and jetties for the convenience of 
 embarkation. On the north side of the port is a dock 
 or harbor, appropriated exclusively for vessels perform- 
 ing quarantine. It is walled round ; and is furnished 
 with hotels, warehouses, and every sort of accommo- 
 dation required for the use of passengers and goods. 
 Ships under 300 tons burden lie close to the quays ; 
 those of greater-size mooring a little farther out. The 
 principal defects of the port are, its limited size, and 
 its being exposed to the northwest winds, which some- 
 times blow with much violence, and throw in a heavy 
 sea. The gales, however^ are seldom of long continu- 
 ance ; and the holding ground being good, when the 
 anchors are backed and proper precautions taken, no 
 accident occurs. The tide at Trieste is scarcely per- 
 ceptible ; but the depth of water is influenced by the 
 wind, being increased by a long-continued sirocco or 
 southeast wind, and diminished by the prevalence of 
 the east-northeast wind, known by the name of Boro. 
 The access to the port is not obstructed by any bar or 
 shallow ; and there is good anchorage in the roads, in 
 from C to 7 and 10 fathoms water. A good sailing 
 vessel may beat in by night or by day, except it blow 
 hard from the northeast or east-northeast, when she 
 had better anchor in the Bay of Hoses, or Pirano, 
 where she will ride in perfect safetj'. Ships bound for 
 Trieste are under no obligation to take pilots; but 
 those entering the port for the first time would do well 
 to take one on making the coast of Istria. Boats are 
 always hovering off Rovigno ; they are not manned by 
 regular pilots, but by fishermen, who, though unfit to 
 be trusted with the management of the ship, know the 
 bearings of the places and the depth of water. The fee 
 usually paid them for pilotage is twenty dollars ; in addi- 
 tion to which, they are supported at the ship's expense 
 during the performance of quarantine. The light- 
 house at the extremity of the Theresian mole is 106 
 feet (Engl.) high. The light is intermittent ; and mav 
 
TEI 
 
 1872 
 
 TRI 
 
 "be seen, supposing the eye of the observer to be eleva- 
 ted 12 feet above the level of the sea, about 12 nautical 
 miles, or from Pirano on the side of Istria, and the 
 shoals of Grado on the Italian coast. A light-house 
 has also been erected on the point of Salvore, bearing 
 from Trieste west by south, distant about 18 miles. 
 The lantern is elevated about 103 feet above the level 
 of the sea. From this point Pirano Bay opens, where 
 vessels may anchor in safety in all sorts of weather. 
 
 Trieste has no command of internal navigation ; but 
 being the most convenient, or rather the only sea-port, 
 not merely of the lUyrian provinces, but of the Duchy 
 of Austria, and the greater part of Hungary, she pos- 
 sesses an extensive commerce. This has been in- 
 creased by the facilities aftbrded to all sorts of mercan- 
 tile transactions by the privilege of porio franco con- 
 ferred on the town, and a considerable extent of con- 
 tiguous country. Under this franchise, all goods, with 
 but very few^exceptions, may be imported into and ex- 
 ported from the city free of all duties whatever. For- 
 eign products, when taken for consumption from Trieste 
 into the interior, are subject to the payment of duties 
 regulated by the interior tariff of Austria. These are 
 very various, consisting partly of the raw and part- 
 ly of the manufactured products of Austria Proper, 
 lUj'ria, Dalmatia, Hungary, and Italy; with foreign 
 articles imported and warehoused. Among tlie prin- 
 cipal articles of raw produce may be specified corn, 
 chiefly wheat and maize, with rice, wine, oil, shuraac, 
 tobacco, wax, etc. ; sillc, sillc rags and waste, hemp, 
 wool, flax, linen rags, hides, furs, sliins, etc. The prod- 
 uce of the mines mates an important item, consisting 
 of quicksilver, cinnabar, iron, lead, copper, brass, lith- 
 arge, alum, vitriol, etc. ; the forests of Carniola furnish 
 timber, for ship-building and other purposes, of excel- 
 lent quality and in great abundance, with staves, cork 
 wood, box, hoops, etc. ; marble also ranks under this 
 head. Of manufactured articles, the most important 
 are, thrown siik, silk stuffs, printed cottons from Aus- 
 tria and Switzerland, coarse and fine linens, and all 
 sorts of leather. Under this head are also ranked soap, 
 Venetian treacle, liquors, etc., with jewelry, tools and 
 utensils of all sorts, glass-ware and mirrors, Venetian 
 beads, refined sugar, and a host of other articles. Of 
 foreign articles imported and reshipped, the most im- 
 portant are sugar, coffee, and dye-stuffs. Trieste is 
 also a considerable dep6t for all sorts of produce from 
 the Black Sea, Turkey, and Egypt. 
 
 Cusioms Regulations. — The custom-house at Trieste 
 has nothing whatever to do with the entry, reporting, 
 etc., of vessels. When a ship arrives, she is reported 
 to the health office ; which publishes a list of arrivals 
 and departures, with a statement of their cargoes, as 
 they appear in the manifests. Ships are cleared by 
 the same office, the masters being assisted by the con- 
 suls of the country to whicli they belong. As soon as 
 a vessel has performed quarantine, she loads or un- 
 loads without any interference or inspection by the 
 customs officers, or by any one else. Goods unsuscep- 
 tible of contagion may be landed during quarantine. 
 Being a free port, the bonding and warehousing sys- 
 tem is, of course, unknown at Trieste. 
 
 Quarantine is strictlj' enforced at Trieste, and the es- 
 tablishments for facilitating its performance are com- 
 plete and efficient. The Board of Health at this port 
 is the central or principal one for the Austrian states ; 
 and maintains an active correspondence with all the 
 principal ports, both in the Mediterranean and else- 
 where. There are twolazarettos — thatcalledSt. Teresa, 
 or Lazaretto Nuono, is appropriated to vessels from the 
 Levant and Egypt, which are, for the most part, sub- 
 jected to the long or full quarantine of forty days. It 
 is spacious, and properly guarded; having a sufficient 
 number of military and medical officers and assistants ; 
 with extensive quays and magazines for housing and 
 airing goods, dwelling-houses and apartments for resi- 
 dent officers and passengers, etc. It is, in fact, one of 
 
 the most perfect estaolishments of the kind in Exist- 
 ence. The other, or old (^Vecchio') lazaretto, contigu- 
 ous to the great mole, is appropriated to ships and pas- 
 sengers performing a quarantine of not more than 
 twenty-eight days ; and, though inferior to the for- 
 mer, is sufficiently capacious and convenient. The 
 sanitary offices, including that of harbor master, are 
 near the centre of the port ; where also are moored ves- 
 sels under observation for a term not exceeding eight 
 days. Here also are facilities for communicating viva 
 voce with persons under quarantine ; and spacious ware- 
 houses, with adequate guards and other officers. But, 
 notwithstanding these conveniences, if a vessel arrive 
 having an infectious malady on board, she is not al- 
 lowed to enter either lazaretto at Trieste, but is sent to 
 an island near Venice, fitted out for the purpose, where 
 assistance may be atlbrded with less risk of propagating 
 infection. 
 
 Careening, Stores, etc. — Timber at Trieste is excel- 
 lent, workmen good, and their wages moderate ; so that 
 it is a very favorable place for careening and repairing. 
 Water is very good, but rather scarce; so that if a 
 large supply be required, due notice must be given. 
 Ships are served in regular rotation. Beef is very 
 good, but rather high priced. Butter and cheese are 
 dear ; and fuel is excessively' so. On the whole, there- 
 fore, Trieste can not be considered as a favorable place 
 for the provisioning of a ship. 
 
 Banking. — There are no public banks at Trieste. The 
 Baiilf of Vienna has an office here, but it is merely for 
 the exchange of its notes for cash, or, more frequent- 
 1}', of large notes for small ones. These notes, being 
 guaranteed by government, are legal tender, and in 
 general circulation, but no other company is allowed 
 to issue notes to be used as a circulating medium. 
 There is not, however, any deficiency of currencj'. 
 Banking business is transacted by private companies, 
 or by individuals, who are subject to certain regula- 
 tions, and are obliged to lay before competent authority 
 an attested statement of the capital embarked in their 
 concerns. Their business principally consists in pro- 
 curing bills of exchange from other places for the use 
 of the merchants of Trieste, or in discounting (in which 
 latter operation they have many private competitors), 
 at the rate of from 4 to 6 per cent, per annum, accord- 
 ing to the nature of the paper offered, and in propor- 
 tion to the scarcity or abundance of cash. 
 
 The Austrian official returns of imports from the 
 United States for Trieste alone, it is seen, exceed the 
 returns for all the Austrian ports, as per United States 
 Treasury Eeports. More than three-fourths of the for- 
 eign commerce of Trieste is carried on along the shores 
 of the Mediterranean. The remainder is distributed 
 between England, the United States, Brazil, Mexico, 
 the Antilles, Kussia, and the Netherlands. The direct 
 trade between the port of Trieste and the two Americas, 
 the Indies, and China, lias within a few years become 
 more active, and the tonnage specially employed by 
 this port in such direct trans-Atlantic commerce nota- 
 bly augmented, in consequence of the successful compe- 
 tition on the part of the states lying on the basin of the 
 Mediterranean with Trieste for a portion of this trade. 
 
 The average annual value of the general commerce 
 of Trieste during the preceding ten years was : Imports 
 140,000,000 francs ; and exports 76,000,000 francs ; a 
 total of 216,000,000 francs. 
 
 The figures from 1839 to 1849 show an increase in 
 imports of 70 per cent., and in exports of 8 per cent. 
 The great difterence between the increased values of 
 total imports and exports is accoimted for by the fact 
 that but a small proportion of the produce or manufac- 
 tures of Austria finds its way to foreign countries 
 through the port of Trieste. Most of this kind of mer- 
 chandise destined for the East, the United States, and 
 South America, is forwarded by the lower Danube, by 
 the Elbe, and by Hamburg and Bremen. Besides, this 
 difference can not be regarded as an evidence that the 
 
TRI 
 
 1873 
 
 TRI 
 
 balance of trade is so heavily against Trieste, when it 
 is considered that many millions of dollars are annually 
 expended in the markets of this port by the 70,000 
 sailors, the 25,000 passengers conveyed by steamships, 
 and the 10,000 vessels that yearly arrive there. 
 
 It is proposed, and not only with the sanction, but 
 under the patronage of the Austrian government, to 
 construct thi^ee flrst-elass steamships to run regularly 
 between New York and Trieste, touching at Corfu, 
 >Ialta, Algiers, Cadiz, aiid Lisbon. Should this proj- 
 ect prove successful (and the high character of its 
 originators is a strong guarantee of its success), its 
 effect upon the commercial and political relations of 
 t|ie United States must be very great. In opening 
 new channels to the industry of the Old World, it will 
 also increase the demand for the raw produce and 
 manjjfactures of the United States. The advantages 
 of tliis proposed steam communication between New 
 York and Trieste will be greatly increased by the com^ 
 pletion of about sixty miles of railroad between Trieste 
 and Vienna. This,, when completed (and the work is 
 in active progress), will connect Trieste with all the 
 principal cities of Europe, and make it the entrepot of 
 a l^rge German trade. It already enjoys steam com- 
 munication witli the Levant, Constantinople, andAlex- 
 andria ; aud, whqn the- proposed line to New York 
 shall have been established, Trieste will become an 
 extensive depot for the raw materials of the .United 
 States. During the four years ending with 1863, New 
 Yorlv received direct from .Trieste merchandise to the 
 value of $2,085,282, and exported direct to the same 
 place goods of the. value of $l,550,575i The follow- 
 ing, summary exhibits the general foreign trade of 
 Trieste in 1831 compared with that of 1850, and also 
 the increase : 
 
 Ysois. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1 Imports 
 from. 
 V. Slnles. 
 
 1861 
 
 Francs. 
 225,3.37,000 
 203,120,0011 
 
 Frsnos. 
 94,451,000 
 91,347,000 
 
 PrancB. 
 319,788,000 
 •293,473,000 
 
 Francs. 
 14,588,000 
 10,547,000 
 
 1850 
 
 Incveaf5elS5l 
 
 23,211,000 
 
 3.104,000 
 
 20,315,000 
 
 4,041,1100 
 
 The following table, translated and condensed from 
 Austrian official documents, will present an interesting 
 statement of the number of American vessels employed 
 in the trade of Trieste from 1842 to 1851, inclusive 
 
 Years. 
 
 1842 
 
 1843 
 
 1844 
 
 1845 
 
 1846 
 
 selB. 
 
 Years. 
 184T 
 
 Vesse 
 
 46 
 
 48 
 51 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 
 
 . 1850 
 
 , 42 
 
 50 
 
 25 
 
 60 
 
 1851 
 
 31 
 
 During the same period, the largest number that 
 entered (the Austrian flag excepted) was 3386 vessels, 
 under the Greek flag; and the smallest, 28, under the 
 Belgian flag. The relative importance of the flag of 
 
 COMMBBOE OF TeIESTE AND 
 
 each nation in the general foreign commerce of Trieste 
 will be seen from the following condensed table : 
 
 NtTMBBR op VEBBELe, OF ALL NATIONS, WHICU ARRIVED AT 
 
 THE Port of Teibbtb during tkn Years, ending with 
 1851, AMD THE Proportion which the Flag of each 
 beaks to the whole Number. 
 
 Flags. 
 
 Austnaa 
 
 Greek 
 
 English 
 
 Sicilian, etc. . . 
 
 Ottoman 
 
 Ionian 
 
 United States . 
 Swedisl), etc... 
 
 Russian 
 
 Sardinhin. . . . . 
 
 French 
 
 Danish 
 
 Dutch 
 
 Papal States . . 
 Hanseatic . . . . 
 
 SpaDish ....... 
 
 PruBaian. ,.'... 
 Others . . . 
 
 Number in 
 
 Proportion 
 
 ten Years. 
 
 to the whole. 
 
 5280 
 
 37-50 pbr cent. 
 
 3385 
 
 24-0 
 
 967 
 
 6-T5 " , 
 
 724; 
 
 5'0. 
 
 4S5 
 
 3-50 " 
 
 448 
 
 3-25 " 
 
 446 
 
 3-25 " 
 
 379 
 
 2-50 " 
 
 359 
 
 2-60 " 
 
 286 
 
 2-0 
 
 252 
 
 1-76 " 
 
 226 
 
 l-t6 " 
 
 222 
 
 1-25 " , 
 
 212 
 
 1-25 " 
 
 126 
 
 0-90 " 
 
 IIT 
 
 0-SO " 
 
 81 
 
 0-60 " 
 
 186 
 
 1-25 " 
 
 COAUIEBOE OP TkIEBTE IN 1856 (VALUE IN FLORINS.) 
 
 Imports. Exports. 
 
 Austrian ports 20,341,302 47,727,808 
 
 Foreign ports 91.627,897 61,418,602 
 
 Total by sea 120,969,19a 109,140,410 
 
 Total by land 32,802,000 34551,722 
 
 We add a tabular statement of the commercial move- 
 ment of that port during a period of ten years ; 
 
 Years. Ships. Tonnage. 
 
 1846 16,T82 985,514 
 
 1847 17,321 1,007,381 
 
 1848. 17,812 926,815 
 
 1849 ?0,6!i3- 1,269.258 
 
 1850 21,124 1,S23;796 
 
 1851.: 24,101 1,408,802 
 
 1852 27,931 1,556,652 
 
 1853 29,317 1,675,886 
 
 1854 26,556 1,730,911 
 
 1855 21,081 1,439,197 
 
 On comparing the average of the iirst three years of 
 this period ivith the average of the last three years 
 (973,220 against 1,631,65S), the increase "within so short 
 a space is found to be in the proportion of 68 to 100. 
 Marseilles is far from exhibiting the same rapidity of 
 progress. The basis of the prosperity of Trieste, be- 
 sides, is all the more solid, as it is owing to the in- 
 crea.sed intercourse both with purely Austrian and for- 
 eign ports. The national trade, for instance, from 1846 
 to 1848,. amounted to 416, 70D tons average per annum; 
 from 1853 to 1855 ithad increased to854,753 tons average 
 per .year, or more than double. During the years 1850 
 and 1855, inclusive, the Austrian tonnage entered in aud 
 out at Trieste was 6,206,316 ; foreign, 2,981,928 tons. 
 The trade with Greece, Egypt, the Levant, and Black 
 Sea, had risen from 257,Hl tons to 496,394 tons aver- 
 age per year during the same period. 
 Venice eok the Yeab 1854. 
 
 CouDtries. 
 
 Trieste. 
 
 Veniee. . 1 
 
 Entered. 
 
 Cleared. 
 
 Entered. 
 
 Cleared. ,| 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 
 55 
 
 29 
 
 , 4 
 
 ' 2 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 443 
 
 8I> 
 
 447 
 
 62 
 
 191 
 
 397 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 19, 
 
 23 
 
 37 
 
 8 
 
 26,007 
 
 5,763 
 
 673 
 
 830 
 
 2,079 
 
 2,268 
 
 00,818 
 
 22.438 
 
 41,644 
 
 9,688 
 
 21,638 
 
 23,319 
 
 1,116 
 
 2,194 
 
 260 
 
 3,677 
 
 4,955 
 
 T,487 
 
 1,569 
 
 66 
 30 
 8 
 
 3 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 453 
 
 87 
 
 440 
 
 61 
 
 234 
 
 681 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 "26 
 24 
 37 
 8 
 
 28;!;81 
 
 i 6,733 
 
 729 
 
 990 
 
 2,910 
 
 2,080 
 
 62,302 
 
 24,230 
 
 36,603 
 
 9,635 
 
 27,724 
 
 37,245 
 
 1,234 
 
 2,010 
 
 3,986 
 
 5,7-21 
 9,227 
 1,363 
 
 8 
 
 13 
 
 1 
 
 "4 
 
 16 
 127 
 80 
 191 
 13 
 41 
 13 
 1 
 
 "is 
 
 4 
 
 26 
 10 
 
 2,740 
 
 2.319 
 
 155 
 
 '622 
 
 1.757 
 
 17,611 
 
 20,156 
 
 18,009 
 
 1,974 
 
 5,083 
 
 2,074 
 
 100 
 
 2,164 
 1,227 
 5,033 
 1,945 
 
 7 
 19 
 1 
 
 ""2 
 15 
 
 1.50 
 90 
 
 205 
 13 
 59 
 12 
 1 
 
 "is 
 
 4 
 
 26 
 9 
 
 2,445 
 
 1,967 
 
 166 
 
 ■354 
 
 1,757 
 
 20,090 
 
 22,667 
 
 22,411 
 
 1,968 
 
 7,056 
 
 1,820 
 
 100 
 
 2'i6i 
 1,227 
 4,562 
 1,783 
 
 
 
 
 
 French ^..... 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' Pontifical States 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,852 
 11,410 
 
 238,078 
 624 6.'8 
 
 2,181 
 11,112 
 
 263,603 
 604,433 
 
 636 
 4S71 
 
 82,943 
 388,628 
 
 632 
 46)5 
 
 92,383 
 383,903 
 
 Austrian 
 
 Total, 1S54 
 
 13,262 
 10,905 
 
 862 703 
 773,477 
 
 18,293 
 10,854 
 
 868,036 
 772,486 
 
 6437 
 4831 
 
 471,576 
 459,661 
 
 5287 
 4548 
 
 476,288 
 405,729 
 
 Total, 1856 
 
 6C 
 
TBI 
 
 1874 TBI 
 
 The treaty of 1829, between the United States and 
 Austria, establishes a perfect reciprocity of commercial 
 intercourse between th^ two countries. Its principal 
 stipulations are as follows : 
 
 There shall be, between the United States territories 
 ajid those of Austria, a reciprocal liberty of commerce 
 and navigation. All the ports, places, and rivers of 
 the territories of either power, open to foreign com- 
 merce, shall be open to the inhabitants of each re- 
 spectively. Austrian vessels arriving, either laden or 
 in ballast, in the ports of the United States, and, recip- 
 rocally, vessels of the United States, either laden or in 
 ballast, arriving in the ports of Austria, shall be treat- 
 ed, on their entrance, during their stay, and at their 
 departure, upon the same footing as national vessels 
 coming from the same place, with respect to the duties 
 of tonnage, light-houses, pilotage, and port charges, of 
 whatever kind or denomination, levied in the name or 
 to the profit of the government, the local authorities, 
 or of any private establishment whatever. All kinds 
 of merchandise, and articles of commerce, either the 
 produce of the soil or of the industry of either country, 
 which may lawfully be imported into each respective- 
 ly, shall be admitted on payment of the same duties 
 and charges, of whatever kind or denomination, as 
 are applicable if imported .under the national flag. 
 This equalization of import duties and other charges 
 to apply to the vessels and cargoes of each country 
 respectively, whether they clear directly from the ports 
 of the country to which they belong, or from the ports 
 of any other foreign country. The produce or manu- 
 facture^ of either country shall be admitted into the 
 ports of the other on the same terms as the like arti- 
 cles, being the produce or manufacture of any other 
 foreign country ; and no prohibition shall be imposed 
 on the importation or exportation of any article, the 
 produce or manufacture of either country, to or from 
 the ports of the other, which shall not equally extend 
 to all other nations. The vessels of both powers, re- 
 spectively, shall be admitted into the ports of either, 
 on the same terms as national vessels, with the produce 
 or manufacture of their own or of any other country. 
 An exact reciprocity shall be observed in the ports of 
 the territories of either power, in respect to the vessels 
 of the other exporting or re-exporting merchandise or 
 produce of any country not prohibited; and the same 
 bounties and drawbacks shall be allowed, whether such 
 exportation or re-exportation be made in vessels of the 
 one party or of the other. The coasting trade is re- 
 served by each power to its own vessels, respectively. 
 All favors hereafter granted by either party, in respect 
 of navigation or commerce, to any other nation, shall 
 become common to the other party, freely, if it was 
 freely granted to such other, or on similar terms if it 
 were conditional. The consuls, vice-consuls, agents, 
 and commissioners of each of the high contracting par- 
 ties shall enjoy, in the ports of the other, the same 
 privileges and powers as those of the most favored 
 nation. The treaty to continue in force for ten years, 
 with the usual twelve months' notice by either party 
 desiring to terminate it after that time. 
 
 Tonnage Duties. — On the 24th January, 1834, the 
 central maritime government of Austria issued public 
 notice that from that date the tonnage duties in force 
 at the port of Trieste should be extended to all ports 
 throughout the empire open to commerce. These du- 
 ties are regulated by orders dated 8th November, 1845, 
 and are as follows : 
 
 FI. Kr. 
 
 National vessels, 50 tons, or under. .'. per ton, 2 
 
 National vessels, 100 tons ^' 4 
 
 National vessels, over 100 tons " 16 
 
 Foreign vesselB, without regard to tonnage " 10 
 
 A mercantile house in New York, long engaged in 
 the direct trade between that port and Trieste, fur- 
 nishes the following statement of charges on a vessel 
 of 1000 tons burden, entering the latter port.: 
 
 PI. Kr. 
 
 Cooperage, at 6 kreutzers per ton 100 
 
 Pilotage, at 3 kreutzers per ton 50 
 
 Health department upon arrival and at departure 2 32 
 
 Marine institute 12 
 
 Light-house dues, 7 kreutzers per ton 116 40 
 
 Total expense on a vessel of 1000 tons . . 281 12 
 
 The florin equals 60 kreutzers =481 cents; conse- 
 quently, the whole expenses amount to $136 &!{-. 
 Whether vessels take freight for several parties, or a 
 single house, the stevedores make the same charges for 
 stowing away the goods. The following are their fees 
 for principal merchandise, viz. : for cotton, 2 florins per 
 ton ; for wool, hemp, flax, oakum, and roots, 1 florin 
 30 kreutzers per ton. Goods of such weight as raisins 
 (black and red), figs, olive-oil, steel, cream of tartar, 
 argol, etc., 30 kreutzers per ton ; rags, grain, sumach, 
 laurel leaves, tobacco, yellow berries, and juniper ber- 
 ries, 1 florin per ton. Goods which are measured, 30 
 kreutzers per ton measurement. Other articles in the 
 same proportion. In discharging vessels, the only ex- 
 penses are the lighters, whicli are provided by the 
 •agents of the vessels, and which are paid for by the re- 
 ceivers of the goods, in accordance with a general tariff, 
 which the proprietors of the lighters have fixed upon 
 by general consent. The captains are obliged to put 
 the goods on board the lighters at their own expense. 
 For this purpose hands can at all times be procured at 
 1 florin 15 kreutzers to 1 florin 30 kreutzers per diem. 
 (65 cents to 64 Cents). Men-of-war, national as well 
 as foreign, and vessels putting in from stress of weath- 
 er, or other necessity (which must, however, be veri- 
 fied), and not transacting any operations of commerce, 
 are admitted to entrance, and allowed to purchase fresh 
 provisions and other necessaries, and to take a pilot, 
 exempt from tonnage duties. Tonnage of national 
 vessels to be ascertained by their register ; of foreign 
 vessels, by Austrian measurement. 
 
 Sanitary ReffuZations. — These are numerous and com- 
 plicated; such only are subjoined as relate to vessels 
 coming from all ports of the Americas, including all 
 the ports of the West Indies : 1. Vessels with clean 
 bills of health to be admitted, with crew and passen- 
 gers, immediately on arrival, to fre(3 pratique. 2. Ves- 
 sels with suspicious bills of health, such as having 
 touched on their. passage at suspected places, to be 
 subjected to ten days' quarantine at the lazaretto, for 
 passengers, crews, and susceptible goods ; and goods . 
 not susceptible, to 5 days. ■ 3. Vessels with foul bills ' 
 of health to be subjected to fifteen days' quarantine at 
 the lazaretto, for passengers, crews, and susceptible 
 goods ; and goods not susceptible, 10 days. The quar- 
 antine charges are very moderate, being, for entry and 
 departure, upon a ship of 100 tons and upward (exclu- 
 sive of 72 cents per diem for wages and food to the 
 gondolier), about $4 32 ; quarantine dues upon goods, 
 6 kreutzers (a little more than 4^ cents) per 100 florins 
 value ($48 50) : and upon susceptible goods, 4 kreut- 
 zers (3i cents) per 1000 lbs. weight. 
 
 General Remctrlcs.> — The development of the maritime 
 commerce of Austria dates bade as far as 1815, or, 
 rather, from that period down to 1830 ; during which it 
 gradually attained, chiefly by the aid of steam naviga- 
 tion, a high state of prosperity. The great commercial 
 activity of the empire is principally concentrated at 
 the port of Trieste ; Venice and I'iume, so far, at least, 
 as it respects foreign trade, being but subsidiary to 
 this vast entrepot. Besides these, Austria possesses 
 on the Adriatic, 25 ports of secondary rank, which 
 claim importance chiefly from their extensive coasting 
 trade. 'The principal of these are Chioggia, 15 miles 
 south of Venice ; Rovigno, in Istria ; Zara, Spalato, 
 and Kagusa, in Dalmatia. This city was founded 
 about the middle of the 15th century, and once enjoy- 
 ed an extensive trade. It still exports manufactures 
 of silk, leather, rosoglio, anchovies, etc. It continued 
 to be a republic under the successive protection of the 
 Greeks, Venetians, and Turks, until 1806, when it was 
 
TRI 
 
 1875 
 
 TRI 
 
 erected by Napoleon into a duchy for Marshal Mar- 
 mont. Trieste, Venice, and Fiume, with some small 
 ports on the Croatian shore contiguous to Fiume, are 
 free ports. Prior to the year 1850, all produce and 
 merchandise of whatever description, transpdrted from 
 one part of the Austrian territories into another (the 
 empire being divided by an internal customs line), 
 were subject to duties of entrance and clearance, equal- 
 Ij' as if they had been imported from, or exported to, 
 a foreign country. By an imperial patent, issued on 
 the 7th June, 1850, this line was suppressed, and all 
 duties, prohibitions, etc., previously existing, T^ere abol- 
 ished ; some formalities being reserved in respect to 
 certain articles of which the government retained the 
 monopoly. In submitting to the emperor his projet 
 for this reform, the minister of finance observed, that 
 " the influence of such a measure, in consolidating the 
 vast and widely-extended resources of the empire, in 
 establishing its unity and augmenting its power, would 
 more than counterbalance the inconsiderable reduction 
 of $1,699,110 which it would cause in the revenues of 
 the empire." 
 
 This liberal measure was soon after followed by an- 
 other, equally beneficial to the foreign commerce of Aus- 
 tria — namely, the new tariff that went into operation on 
 1st February, 1862. In the complicated details of this 
 tariff, there were various changes favorable to Ameri- 
 can trade. The duty on cotton, although considerably 
 reduced from former rates, was, prior to the adoption 
 of this tarifi; 80^ cents per 126-5 lbs. The tariff of 
 1852 reduced it again 48i cents per llOJ lbs. for one 
 year, and the year following to about 4 cents per llOJ 
 lbs. Since this latter period^namely, January 1, 1854 
 — the article has been made free. Still later modifica- 
 tions of the Austrian tariff have been made, but they 
 do not apply to any of the United States staples of ex- 
 port. Previously, tobacco was a strict government 
 monopoly; under the new tariff, individuals are al- 
 lowed to enter it for their own use, at reduced rates. 
 Manufactured, it paid before 1852, $19 40 per 100 lbs. ; 
 under the new tariff, this was reduced to $12 12J- per 
 100 lbs. This duty has been retained in the new tariff 
 of 1854, with an additional duty, however, of 1 florin 
 ^erlivre de Vienna (48^^ cents), on unmanufactured, and 
 2 florins 30 Icreutzers per livre de Vienna ($1 21i), on 
 manufactured. The duties were reduced also on rice, 
 whale oil, and the products of the whale-fishery, wood- 
 en-ware, tools, implements, and machinery for agricul- 
 tural and household purposes, India rubber fabrics, 
 etc. During the first year of the operation of the tariff 
 of 1852, cotton twists paid $3 88 per llOJ- lbs. ; the en- 
 suing year tliis was reduced to $3 39J-. The centner 
 before 1852 was equivalent to 125-5 lbs. ; but, in order 
 to bring about a conformity to the centner of the Ger- 
 man Customs Union, it was fixed that year at llOJ 
 lbs.; that being the weight of the Prussian zoU-cent- 
 ner. Several articles, when imported by sea, are ad- 
 mitted by the tariff of 1852 at rates still'more moderate ; 
 for example, alum, in general rated at 72J cents per 
 llOi lbs., pays only 8^ cents when brought in by sea. 
 As the United States stand on the footing of the most 
 favored nation, by virtue of the treaty of 1829, the 
 provisions of the tariff of 1852 have contributed con- 
 siderably to the employment of United States ship- 
 
 Ping- 
 
 The commercial reform of 1852 was, in a great meas- 
 ure, the result, or rather one of the results, of the revo- 
 lution of 1848. Immediately after tranquillity had 
 been restored, the Baron de Brack, then minister of 
 commerce, was charged with an administrative com- 
 mission to prepare a new tariff upon the following 
 bases, adopted by the Council of Ministers: An as- 
 similation, as nearly as can be, to the tariff of the Ger- 
 man Customs Association ; the substitution of specific 
 for ad valorem duties ; the adoption of the quintal of 
 llOJ lbs., as a basis of quantities. On imports ; The 
 abolition of prohibitions ; adequate protection to na- 
 
 tional industry; a graduating scale of duties on manu- 
 factured articles, according to the amount of labor em- 
 ployed thereon ; a reduction of all taxes on articles of 
 first necessity, either for manufactures or consumption. 
 On exports : Balance-duties (weighin'g-dues), and all 
 necessary formalities as simple as possible ; a substitu- 
 tion of protective duties for prohibitions ; the'abolition 
 of all premiums or drawbacks, unless in certain speci- 
 fied cases. On the preceding bases, the tariff which 
 has been in part considered was submitted to the coun- 
 cil, anfl had, been under consideration several moiiths, 
 when the treaty of a customs league between Prussia 
 and Hanover permitting no further delaj', it was Sub- 
 mitted to the emperor, and signed on the 6th day of 
 November, 1851, at the very time that a commercial 
 congress, to be composed of delegates from the different 
 German states, was summoned to meet at Vienna in 
 January, 1852. The imperial patent, which designated 
 the 1st February, 1852, as the day on which the new 
 tariff should go into effect, contained several orders of 
 a temporary character. One was an extra duty of 10 
 per cent, on the aggregate duties levied on certain 
 merchandise before prohibited. The duty on raw cot- 
 ton was modified, and other temporary' provisions were 
 made, which, so far as they concern American trade, 
 have been already adverted to. 
 
 Indeed, the tariff itself was not designed to be per- 
 maneUt. It was tried only as an experiment, an'd, by 
 limitation, was to expire at the end of October, 1854; 
 the government being meanwhile precluded, on the one 
 hand, from raising the duties on imports for manufac- 
 turing purposes, and on the other froni reducing them 
 on articles manufactured half or in whole. At the 
 same time, the export duties on articles of the former 
 class could not be reduced, nor could similar duties on 
 those of the latter be raised. The imperial patent, 
 moreover, contained one notable provision, viz. : the 
 duration of the tariff was to depend on the contingency 
 of a treaty of commerce (with Prussia) being eilected 
 before the period fixed for its termination. It would 
 shed but little light upon the commercial relations of 
 the United States with Austria to follow up, and re- 
 count in this work, the proceedings of the commercial 
 congress assembled at Vienna during the winter of 
 1852, or to recapitulate the resolutions adopted by the 
 delegates of the southern states before presenting them- 
 selves at Berlin. It will suffice to say, that on the 
 19 th February, 1853, a treaty was .effected between 
 Austria and Prussia, which was acquiesced in by all 
 the other states of the Zoll-Verein. This treaty, stipu- 
 lating as it does for large and reciprocal commercial 
 concessions between the two powers, as a fitting pre- 
 lude to a general customs league between all the Ger- 
 man states, necessarily led to a revision of the tariff of 
 1852. This resulted in the adoption of the tariff now 
 in force; to understand which, however, it must be 
 borne in mind that many of the articles enumerated in 
 that portion of the tariff, though rated at different 
 duties when coming from foreign countries, are free 
 when imported by the frontiers of the German Asso- 
 ciation, or coming from the interior of the associated 
 states. 
 
 These privileged articles ai-e specifically defined in a 
 supplemental appendix to the tariff, dated February 
 10, 1854, and prefaced in the following terms : " As the 
 first result of the arrangement entered into at Berlin 
 by the Executive Commission, conformably to the 23d 
 article of the treaty of commerce and of customs of the 
 19th February, 1853, and for the purpose of correcting 
 some erroneous impressions, public notice is given that 
 the following are the true constructions and modifica- 
 tions of the tariff of the 5th December, 1853. Said 
 constructions and modifications shall be carried into 
 effect so soon as they are received at the different 
 bureaux of customs." (Then follows the list of arti- 
 cles coming under the special provisions of the treaty.) 
 
 The causes that compelled the revision of the tariff 
 
TRI 
 
 1876 
 
 TEI 
 
 of 1852, as well as the adoption of the present tariff 
 (of 1854), are set forth in an article which appeared in 
 the official journal, published at Vienna, of the 15th 
 December, 1853. 
 
 In reference to the treaty with Prussia, this article 
 holds the following language : " Other considerations 
 induced a revision of the tariff of 1852. The treaty 
 with Prussia is the first step in reforming the com- 
 mercial policy of the empire. From it must result, at 
 no very distant day, an Austro-German Custom s Union ; 
 and a general reduction in tariff duties is the most fit- 
 ting prelude to so desirable an event. Besides, the 
 commercial treaty of August 7, 1852, concluded with 
 Parma and Modena, removes all obstacles to an Austro- 
 Italian Customs Union ; and thus the event referred 
 to (an Austro-German Customs Union) would present 
 a guarantee for the prosperity and peace of the conti- 
 nent. The changes and modifications which could 
 contribute to this end should command our most seri- 
 ous consideration. These are principally such reduc- 
 tions in tariff duties as are demanded by the best in- 
 terests of commerce — not, however, to an extent that 
 
 might in any way prove detrimental to the industrial 
 resources of the empire. Succeeding, as it does, a re- 
 strictive system, in operation for more than half a cen- 
 tury, the tariff of 1852 is still encumbered with onerous 
 duties and oppressive restrictions, repugnant to a great 
 association of states accustomed to the most liberal 
 system of commercial policy. Besides, the augment- 
 ed exports of 1852 and 1853 demonstrate the wise policy 
 of a general reduction of tariff duties, and furnish in- 
 contestable evidence that such a measure will most 
 effectually repair the evils of past commercial legisla- 
 tion." TIae preceding remarks contain a summary of 
 the official expose already referred to, and explain the 
 motives that induced the general remodification of the 
 Austrian tariff. " The abolition of the government 
 monopoly of tobacco would remove the most serious 
 and the only remaining restriction on American com- 
 merce. The customs union with the Germanic states, 
 so much desired by Austria, will accomplish this, if it 
 should not be effected before that event shall happen. 
 — If. 3. Com. Relations. The following is an exliibit 
 of the commerce of the U. S. with Austria for 37 years : 
 
 COMMEKOB OF THE UkITBD STATES WITH TeIEBTE AND OTHEE AttBTEIAN PoETS ON THE AdeIATIO, FEOM OotOBEE 1, 1820, 
 
 TO Joiv 1, 185T. 
 
 Years endmg^ 
 
 Sept. 30,1831 
 
 1833 
 
 1833 
 
 1824 
 
 1825 
 
 1826. . . . . 
 
 182T 
 
 1828 
 
 1829 
 
 1830 
 
 Total. 
 
 Sept 30,1831 
 
 1832 
 
 1833 
 
 1834 
 
 1835 
 
 1836 
 
 183T 
 
 1838 
 
 1839 
 
 1840 
 
 Total. 
 
 Sept. 80,1841 
 
 1842 
 
 9 mos., 1843* 
 
 June 30, 1844 
 
 1845 
 
 1846 
 
 1847 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 
 
 1850 
 
 Total. 
 
 June 30, 1851 
 
 1852 
 
 1853 
 
 1854 
 
 1855 
 
 1856 
 
 185T 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Whereof there wns in 
 Bullion and Specie. 
 
 Import. 
 
 Tonnage cleared. 
 
 American. | Foreign. 
 
 $31,781 
 
 38,753 
 
 25,697 
 
 C,536 
 
 8,834 
 
 13,387 
 
 42,671 
 
 119,233 
 
 409,288 
 
 300,8jO 
 
 436,968 
 919,618 
 618,057 
 043,563 
 273,933 
 234,122 
 205,265 
 280,200 
 293,261 
 
 $340,361 
 475,720 
 945,315 
 524,053 
 653,402 
 287,320 
 276.793 
 324;488 
 639,488 
 594,120 
 
 $229,71)2 
 274,375 
 189.137 
 263;S67 ■ 
 108,839 
 193,153 
 163,546 
 237,378 
 191,896 
 132,0C3 
 
 $98,189 
 
 9,200 
 
 13,283 
 
 157,717 
 
 2,033 
 
 4,000 
 
 10,304 
 
 460 
 912 
 
 1,8^5 
 2,361 
 3,818 
 2,185 
 3,240 
 1,879 
 2,090 
 3,008 
 6,884 
 4,062 
 
 $9J7,0a8 
 
 $276,561 
 199,911 
 146,517 
 518,609 
 818,375 
 
 1,138,431 
 
 1,233,370 
 643,228 
 429,578 
 
 1,590,350 
 
 $4,113,563 
 
 936,776 
 408,447 
 964,728 
 384,038 
 829,674 
 878,221 
 125,740 
 162,671 
 196,264 
 
 $5,110,660 
 
 $539. 
 
 1,186, 
 
 564, 
 
 1,473, 
 
 1,202, 
 
 1,968, 
 
 1,611, 
 
 768, 
 
 592, 
 
 1,780, 
 
 $1,986,076 
 
 $161,062 
 362,027 
 314,611 
 680,614 
 492,667 
 
 1,020,099 
 029,465 
 372,378 
 4T7.639 
 378 865 
 
 $2,300 
 44,150 
 
 $296,063 
 $1,900 
 
 23,000 
 4,477 
 2,800 
 
 7',9i9 
 1,500 
 
 31,578 
 
 4,215 
 6,497 
 3,804 
 7,630 
 6,692 
 8,944 
 3,179 
 4,974 
 3,069 
 11,828 
 
 $6,994,931 
 
 $1,258,776 
 
 748,179 
 
 480,240 
 
 1,257,285 
 
 1,438,103 
 
 1,104,468 
 
 1,176,375 
 
 1,701,495 
 
 942,489 
 
 1,179,893 
 
 $4,639,866 
 
 $52,880 
 136,626 
 118,938 
 168,735 
 368,776 
 366,143 
 73,348 
 107,727 
 434,876 
 812,111 
 
 $11,634,297 
 
 $1,811, 
 884, 
 679, 
 1,426, 
 1,801, 
 1,470, 
 1,248, 
 1,800, 
 1,400, 
 1,492, 
 
 $4,783,727 
 
 $418,000 
 413,210 
 72,957 
 233,089 
 831,660 
 379,719 
 187,341 
 885,818 
 409,178 
 407,001 
 
 $46,459 
 
 $40,696 
 
 $3,033 
 
 69,133 
 
 10,350 
 10,520 
 
 8,679 
 10,597 
 15,470 
 13,653 
 
 7.861 
 16,239 
 11,170 
 
 5,C08 
 
 $ll,3ol,803 
 
 $2,265,673 
 2,403,530 
 3,062,484 
 1,097,819 
 1,277,627 
 2,^38,783 
 2,173,065 
 
 $/,169,659 
 
 $230,894 
 829,889 
 171,804 
 206,290 
 122,274 
 206,065 
 283,616 
 
 $13,430,963 
 
 $3,496,467 
 2,733,419 
 2,234,288 
 1,903,009 
 1,899,801 
 2,444,848 
 3.455,081 
 
 $3,i88,064 
 
 $730,788 
 808,749 
 628,667 
 741,910 
 496,283 
 470,641 
 422,305 
 
 $15,808 
 
 $147,736 
 22,d00 
 
 109,7ua 
 
 10,179 
 14034 
 11.735 
 13,015 
 9,617 
 16,910 
 16,181 
 
 139 
 
 38 2 
 
 1,.S21 
 1,701 
 3,337 
 3,6)8 
 4,931 
 12,919 
 3,7.!3 
 2,874 
 6 081 
 
 38,745 
 
 1,201 
 361 
 1,782 
 8,918 
 9,108 
 3,341 
 6,279 
 4,693 
 5,7.58 
 6,889 
 
 42,415 
 
 13 371 
 18,400 
 9,244 
 5,401 
 7,029 
 5,55.' 
 1,514 
 
 * Nine months to June 80, and the fiscal year from this time begins July 1. 
 
 Trinidad. Trinidad is separated from the main 
 land of South America by the Gulf of Paria. It is 
 about 90 miles long and 60 miles wide, with an esti- 
 mated superficial area of 2020 square miles. Capital, 
 Puerto d'Espaiia. Trinidad appears at a distance like 
 an immense ridge of rocks along its whole north front ; 
 but on entering the Gulf of Paria, one of the most mag- 
 nificent, variegated, richly luxuriant panoramas that 
 nature ever formed is presented to the eye of the voy- 
 ager. To the east the waves of the mighty Orinoco 
 dispute for the empire of the ocean with contending 
 billows, and the lofty mountains of Cumana rise from 
 the horizon in stupendous majesty; and on the west 
 appear the cape, headlands, mountains, hills, valleys, 
 
 and plains of Trinidad, enameled with eternal verdure. 
 The fecundity of the soil, its gigantic vegetation, its 
 beautiful rivers, enchanting slopes, forests of palms, 
 groves of citrons, and hedges of spices and perfumes, 
 its fine azure skies and elastic atmosphere, have each 
 and all combined to crown the isle with the appellation 
 of " The Indian Paradise." The island is evidently a 
 section of the opposite continent ; the same strata, the 
 same rooks, fossils, etc., are common to both. Its 
 formation is evidently volcanic, and in many parts 
 volcanic action is still going on, as indicated by its 
 mud volcanoes and other cognate developments. The 
 precious metals are not found here, nor indeed are any 
 others, except in small quantities. Coal is found about 
 
TRI 
 
 1877 
 
 TRI 
 
 five miles from tlie shore. But the most remarkable min- 
 eral phenomenon is the asphaltum, or pitch lake, which 
 covers an area of half a league. 
 
 Staples as in the other islands. United States ves- 
 sels also export heavy quantities of iron, brass, lead 
 (old), and hides. The imports from the United States 
 in 1853 were |537,604, and exports to United States 
 were $31,483. American vessels In Port of Spain in 
 1853, 59 ; tonnage, 11,472. Imports from United States 
 from 1st January to 30th June, 1853, $308,716 ; imports 
 from 1st July to 31st December, 1852, $268,148. 
 
 Port Regulations. — Upon every ship or vessel of 50 
 tons and upward, for every registered ton, 36 cents. 
 Upon every ship or vessel of 25 tons and upward, but 
 under 50 tons, for every ton of registered tonnage, 30 
 cents ; and upon every ship or vessel under 25 tons, 
 for every registered ton, 6 cents. Lumber, staves, 
 bricks, slates, shingles, coal, etc., are also subject to a 
 small wharfage duty. Sugar, cocoa, coffee, rum, indi- 
 go, etc., are liable to an export duty in this island. 
 Trinidad embraces an area of 1970 square miles, con- 
 taining a population of 45,284. 
 
 Trinity House. The full title of this corporation 
 is," The Master, Wardens, and Assistants of the Guild, 
 Fraternity, or Brotherhood of the most Glorious and 
 Undivided Trinity, and of Saint Clement, in the Par- 
 ish of Deptford, Stroud, in the County of Kent" — an 
 institution to whose members is intrusted the manage- 
 ment of some of the most important interests of the 
 seamen and shipping of England. The earlier records, 
 together with the house of the corporation, were de- 
 stroyed by fire in 1714 ; so that the origin of the insti- 
 tution can only now be inferred from usage and the oc- 
 casional mention of its purposes in documents of a for- 
 mer period. A similar societjr, for the like purposes, 
 was afterward established at Hull, and also another at 
 Kewcastle-upon-Tyne in 1537 ; which three establish- 
 ments, says Hakluyt, were in imitation of that found- 
 ed by the Emperor Charles V. at Seville, in Spain ; 
 who, observing the numerous shipwrecks in the voy- 
 ages to and from the "West Indies, occasioned by the 
 ignorance of seamen, established, at the Casa de Con- 
 tratacion, lectures on navigation, and a pilot-major for 
 the examination of other pilots and mariners ; having 
 also directed books to be published on that subject for 
 the use of navigators. According to some authorities 
 the incorporation was founded in the year 1515. It is 
 probable that with Henry VII. originated the scheme, 
 afterward carried into effect by his son, Henry VIII., 
 of forming efficient Navy and Admiralty Boards, which 
 then first became a separate branch of public service. 
 During the reign of Henry VIII. the arsenals at Wool- 
 wich and Deptford were founded, and the Deptford- 
 yard establishment was subsequently placed under the 
 direction of the Trinity House, who likewise surveyed 
 the navy provisions and stores. The earliest official 
 document relating to the Trinity House now extant is 
 a charter of incorporation made by Henry VIII. in the 
 sixth year of his reign. An exemplification of this 
 charter was granted by George II., in the third year 
 of his reign. 
 
 ^ The revenue under the management of the Trinity 
 House arises from the dues payable to the corporation 
 on account of light-houses, buoyage and beaconage, 
 and ballastage ; and from the interest of money in the 
 funds, and the rent of freehold property, amounting to 
 about £166,000 annually. Hitherto by far the greater 
 portion of this large revenue has been expended on 
 pensions to poor disabled seamen, and on the mainte- 
 nance of their widows, orphans, etc. ; and it is admitted 
 that it has been both judiciously and economically ad- 
 ministered. It is henceforth, however, to form part 
 of the " Mercantile Marine Fund." The act provides 
 that payments now chargeable on the " fund" for pen- 
 sions, etc., may be commuted. The expenses of lights 
 houses, ballastage, and beaconage are also to be charged 
 on the " fund," and the rates of toll are to be revised 
 
 and fixed by her majesty in council. The ballastage 
 rates under the Trinity House, being a charge peculiar 
 to the Thames, are to be made peculiarly applicable to 
 services performed for the safety and convenience of 
 the shipping frequenting that river. 
 
 Of this corporation Lord Palmerston lately remark- 
 ed, at the annual dinner given by the board of man- 
 agers, " There is, indeed, a unity of operation between 
 the government that may have to administer the af- 
 fairs of this country and this body; for it is the func- 
 tion of the Trinity Corporation to provide pilots for 
 those thousands of keels that plow the waves that wash 
 our shore ; and, on the other hand, to erect those lights 
 which warn navigators from dangers which they would 
 otherwise have to encounter, and which point out to 
 them the havens where safety is to be obtained." — See 
 article Light-houses. 
 
 Tripang, or Sea Slug (Biche de Mer), a species 
 of fish of the genus Holuthuria, found chiefly on coral 
 rfeefs in the Eastern seas, and highly esteemed in Chi- 
 na, into which country it is imported in large quanti- 
 ties. It is an unseemly-looking substance, of a dirty 
 brown color, hard,, rigid, scarcely possessing any pow- 
 er of locomotion, or appearance of animation. Some- 
 times the slug is as much as two feet in length, and 
 from seven to eight inches in circumference. A span 
 in length, and two or three inches in girth, is, however, 
 the ordinary size. The quality and value of the fish, 
 however, do not by any means depend upon its size, 
 but upon properties in it neither obvious to nor dis- 
 cernible by those who have not been long and extens- 
 ively engaged in the trade. In shallow water the an- 
 imal is taken out by the hand, but in deeper water it 
 is sometimes speared. When taken, it is gutted, dried 
 in the sun, and smoked over a wood fire ; this being 
 the only preparation it receives. The fishery is carried 
 on from the western shores of New Guinea, and the 
 southern shores of Australia, to Cej'lon inclusive. In- 
 • deed, within the last few years it has been successfully 
 prosecuted on the shores of the Mauritius. The whole 
 produce goes to China. In the market of Macassar, 
 the great staple of this fishery, not less than thirty va- 
 rieties are distinguished, varj-ing in price from five 
 Spanish dollars a piaU (133J lbs.) to fourteen times 
 that price, each variety being distinguished by well- 
 known names. The quantity of tripang sent annual- 
 ly to China from Macassar is about 7000 piculs, or 8333 
 cwt. ; the price usually varying from 8 dollars a picul 
 to 110 and 115, according to qualitj-. — Cbawfued's In- 
 dian Archipelago, vol. iii. p. 441. There is also a con- 
 siderable export of tripang from Manilla to Canton. 
 Besides tripang, Jlsh maws and sharks' jins are exported 
 to China from every maritime country of India. 
 
 Tripoli. This regency is the most advanced of all 
 the Barbary states, in civilization. It possesses a vast 
 sea-coast, extending 350 leagues, from Tunis to Egypt. 
 With the exception of where the desert meets the sea, 
 near Monktar, the northern or maritime part of Tripo- 
 li, for a few miles from the coast, has the same fertility 
 and productions as Morocco and Tunis. Its area is es- 
 timated at 100,000 square miles, with a population of 
 1,800,000. Its products are com and fruits, in great 
 variety and abundance ; also cotton, silk, tobacco, saf- 
 fron, madder, and castor-oil. In the interior, senna, 
 dates, and galls are the principal staples. The exports 
 consist of dates, olives, straw mals, earthen-ware, and 
 other domestic manufactures, partly exported by sea. 
 and partly disposed of in barter to Bedouin traders. 
 The other manufactures of Tripoli are carpets, thick 
 cloaks, camlets, goats'-hair sacking, prepared skins, 
 Morocco leather, and potash. These, together with the 
 produce of Central Africa, which annually arrives in 
 caravans, are exchanged for European and colonial 
 goods. The principal trade of Tripoli is with Malta, 
 Tunis, and the Levant. The sea-ports are Tripoli, 
 Bengazi, and Dernah, with several others of little or 
 no importance. 
 
TEI 
 
 1878 
 
 TEO 
 
 The navigation and commerce of the two principal 
 ports, for a series of years, are thus given by Frencli 
 authorities : In 1846 thej-e entered, Turkish vessels, 
 108; Greek, 35; Tuscan, U; Maltese, 14; French, 14; 
 Bussian, 4 ; English, 3 ; Sardinian, 1 ; Austrian and Si- 
 cilian, each, 1. Total, 195 vessels ; of which 167 were 
 laden with merchandise valued at 1,872,000 francs. 
 During the same year^there cleared — Turkish vessels, 
 78 ; Greek, 25 ; Tuscan, 15 ; Maltese, 18 ; French, 14 ; 
 English, B ; Eussian, 2 ; Sardinian, 2 ; Austrian and 
 Sicilian, each, 1. Total, 159 vessels ; of which 121 were 
 laden with produce valued at 983,000 francs. In the 
 port of Bengazi there entered the same year 142 ves- 
 sels, of which 113 were laden. Provisions (chiefly bar- 
 ley) and tobacco are extensively and profitably im- 
 ported into Tripoli. This trade is chiefly monopolized 
 by the Turks, Greeks, and Russians. The vessels of 
 these countries trade with the ports of the Levant, car- 
 rying to those places cargoes of salt taken on board at 
 Zoara. 
 
 CoMMEEoiAi Movements op the Eeqenot of Teipoli in 
 1851 AHD 1854. 
 
 1851. 1854. 
 
 Imports francs 2,995,000 2,297,000 
 
 Exports " 5,817,000 3,524.00} 
 
 Total " 8,812,000 6,821, OOJ 
 
 Navigation returns for this port in 1851 are con- 
 densed as follows : 
 
 Entered 204 vessels 18,360 tons. 
 
 Cleared 191 '• 16.879 " 
 
 FOEEIQN TnAT>E OF TbIPOLI IN 1852 AND 1853. 
 
 Malta 
 
 Turkey 
 
 Kgypt 
 
 Tunis 
 
 Tuscany 
 
 France 
 
 Algeria 
 
 Koman states. 
 Austria 
 
 Imports. 
 
 1852. 
 
 I 1853. 
 
 Francs. 
 
 1,618,000 
 404,000 
 152,000 
 184,000 
 791,000 
 561,000 
 
 > 4,000 
 
 5,000 
 
 150,114 
 
 Franca. 
 ,68r,000 
 390,000 
 285,000 
 220,000 
 7-27,000 
 867,000 
 
 '5,'()00 
 799,600 
 
 1852. I 
 
 1863. 
 
 Franca. 
 
 2,133,329 
 
 1,850,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 310,000 
 
 837,379 
 
 278,000 
 
 25,000 
 
 26,000 
 
 4,000 
 
 Francs. 
 2,698,000 
 1,4.54,000 
 150,000 
 607,60!) 
 861,000 
 614,000 
 
 5,000 
 
 The duty exacted in the Tripolitan ports is four pi- 
 astres per 80 kilograms — equal to about eight cents per 
 ton. Pilots are not often employed; when required, 
 the captain of the port must furnish them free of ex- 
 pense. Quarantine regulations the same as at Con- 
 stantinople. Notwithstanding Tripoli is tributary to 
 the Ottoman empire, there is a separate treaty between 
 the United States and that regency, ratified June 4, 
 1805, placing the commerce between the two countries 
 on the footing of the most favored nation. — Com. Rd. 
 U.S. 
 
 Treaties. — By the treaty concluded with Tripoli June 
 4, 1805, it is stipulated that the consuls and agents of 
 both nations, respectively, shall have liberty to exercise 
 their religion in their own houses; and those of the 
 same religion shall not be impeded in going to the 
 consul's house at the hour of prayer. The consuls 
 shall have liberty and personal security given them to 
 travel within the territories of each other both by land 
 and sea, and shall not be prevented from going on 
 board any vessel that they may think proper to visit. 
 They shall have, likewise, the liberty to appoint their 
 own dragomans and brokers. In case of any dispute 
 arising between the contracting parties, no appeal shall 
 be made to arms, nor shall war be declared under any 
 pretext whatever; but if the consul residing at the 
 place where the dispute shall happen shall not be able 
 to settle the same, the government of the country shall 
 state its grievances in writing, and transmit it to the 
 other ; and the period of twelve calendar months shall 
 be allowed for answers to be returned, during which 
 time no act of hostility shall be permitted by either 
 party ; and in case the grievances are not redressed, 
 and a war should be the event, the consuls and citizens 
 or subjects of both parties, respectively, shall be per- 
 mitted to embark, with their effects, unmolested, on 
 
 board of what vessel or vessels, they shall think proper. 
 If any disputes shall arise between citizens of the Unit- 
 ed States, or any persons under their protection, such 
 disputes shall be settled by the consul of the United 
 States in the same manner as stated above, in Moroc- 
 co. The same provision is made in the treaty with 
 Tripoli, in respect of homicides, as in the treaty with 
 Morocco. The care of the property of citizens of the 
 United States dying in the regency of Tripoli is to be 
 committed to the care of the consul, unless otherwise 
 disposed of by will ; and no hinderance is to be inter- 
 posed to the execution of any will that may appear. 
 
 " The commercial intercourse of the United States 
 within this consular district is dependent solely on the 
 regulations of the mother country. These regulations 
 are set forth in the tariff settled between Turkey and 
 Great Britain on the 31st of October, 1850, and which 
 applies also to the United States, under that clause of 
 our treaty with Turkey which secures to us all the 
 privileges of " the most favored nations." The com- 
 merce of the United States with this regency stands on 
 the same footing as that of the most favored nations. 
 It enjoj'S no exclusive privileges nor suffers any pecul- 
 iar restrictions. There is only a port charge of about 
 three cents the ton, which is levied equally on foreign 
 and national vessels. 
 
 *' The true par or intrinsic value of the piastre of this 
 country is 12^ sous, French ; but we reckon it at 12^ 
 cents. The present bey has, however, issued a gold 
 currency, composed of pieces of 100, 80, 40, 20, and 10 
 piastres each, which are about 20 per cent, deficient in 
 weight; and, consequently, in gold money the piastre 
 is worth only ten cents. The Christian population re- 
 fuse to accept this new gold currency at its nominal 
 value, but the arbitrary power of the bey compels its 
 circulation among his own people, and prices have ad- 
 vanced nominally already since its appearance, without 
 other apparent cause. Whether absolute power can 
 eflfect the magical work of maintaining in free circula- 
 tion two currencies of the same denominations and 
 names, but of different intrinsic values, remains to be 
 seen. 
 
 " The duties on exports to the United States, as to all 
 other countries, are, on oil, 2^ piastres the metal, which 
 is about 5'08 gallons. United States liquid measure. 
 Thus we have 6-j^fj- cents per gallon. This oil is olive- 
 oil, and is of a quality highly esteemed in Europe. 
 The exportation of horses and camels is prohibited, 
 and only allowed as a special favor to individuals or 
 governments. The exportation of grain is generally 
 confined to the bey himself, who consequently makes 
 his own price. A very large portion of the oil is also 
 exported by the bey. The import duties on goods of 
 the United States are established at 3 per cent, ad 
 valorem by treaty. The internal taxes on the products 
 of the soil are levied at 10 per cent., but the manage- 
 ment of assessors, bj' assessing the crop in its growing 
 state, frequently causes the actual tax to exceed this 
 rate. Besides, there are octroi duties, more or less 
 heavy, on all articles of produce sold in the cities for 
 consumption." — Com. Eel. U. S. See Treaties, Com- 
 mercial. 
 
 Trou Weight, the most ancient of the weights 
 used in Scotland ; and though its use is now prohibit- 
 ed by law, it is still occasionally employed in some of 
 the rural districts in weighing wool, cheese, butter, etc. 
 The tron pound was not a well-defined weight, but va- 
 ried from twenty-one to twenty-eight ounces avoirdu- 
 pois. 
 
 Trough of the Sea, in Marine language, the sur- 
 face of water between two waves. 
 
 Troy Weight, one of the most ancient of the dif- 
 ferent kinds used in Britain. The pound English Troy 
 contains twelve ounces, or 5760 grains. It is used in 
 the weighing of gold, silver, and jewels ; the com- 
 pounding of medicines ; in experiments in natural phi- 
 losophy ; in comparing different weights with each oth- 
 
TEO 
 
 1879 
 
 TUL 
 
 or ; and is now made the general standard of English 
 •weight in Great Britain and in the United States. 
 
 Before the American Association for the Advance- 
 ment of Science in 1857, J; B. Gibbon, Esq., Assayer 
 of the Mint of North Carolina, read a paper on the rise 
 and gradual disoontinnance of Troy weight in coin- 
 age and commerce. He stated that about 1900 years 
 ago, or about ififty-two years before the Christian era, 
 Julius Cassar had described the inhabitants of Great 
 Britain and Gaul as making use of brass and iron 
 rings, by weight, for money. Gold-ring money of the 
 Celts was also annually dug up in Ireland ; and simi- 
 lar money was employed by the Scandinavians, on the 
 shores of the Baltic. They were multiples of one cer- 
 tain ounce, or integers of its proportions — the word for 
 ounce being claimed as a purely Celtic one. Recently 
 an embassador wrote from Antwerp that he had pur- 
 chased a, gold chain of Eubens with the links stamped 
 by the goldsmiths of the day to mark their weight and 
 fineness. In South Africa, at the present day, there 
 was a similar employment of metal rings ; and a civil- 
 ized country of antiquity, as appeared from paintings 
 still remaining on walls,, employed rings which were 
 carried to Cush or Ethiopia. Another nation had pieces 
 of coin stamped with the likenesses of idols for the same 
 purpose. The old pound of the Anglo-Saxons was 
 called Easterling, from which came the modern ster- 
 ling. In France there was a pound called the pound 
 of Eochelle, and the Germans named it the pound of 
 Cologne. A new system, by which the pound of silver 
 in tale was also made the pound in gross, was arranged 
 by Charlemagne in the 8th centurj'. In England, un- 
 der William the Conqueror, it was decreed that meas- 
 ures, weights, etc., should remain as they had been un- 
 der his. predecessors. In 1256, by consent of the whole 
 realm, it was determined that the silver penny, called 
 Easterling, should be round, and that it should be of the 
 weight taken from the middle of the ear. Twenty of 
 these penny-weights were to make an ounce, twenty 
 ounces one pound ; eight pounds of silver a gallon of 
 wine ; and eight gallons of wine a bushel, the eighth 
 part of a quarter. Troy weight was supposed to have 
 been derived from the Easterp nations, and transmitted 
 first to Troyes, in France, from C^iro, during the cru- 
 sades. From Troyes it was carried itlto England by 
 the goldsmiths, and found favor there under Henry 
 VIII., who began to debase the standard fineness of 
 silver coins and to reduce their weight. Before this a 
 statute established a common standard by which silver 
 and wheat were assumed to be the natural tests, the 
 one of the other. Unfortunately, neither was exactly 
 suited for the purpose. It had been found by experi- 
 ment with white and red wheat, forty to forty-three 
 grains were required to balance a grain of silver, and 
 from twenty-eight to thirty-five or thirty-six grains of 
 white wheat effected the same thing. In short, grains 
 were not intended toserve as a just measure for perfect 
 comparison, multiplication, or division. 
 
 Acting upon the opinion that the laws of physical 
 nature operate uniformly, and that the heavenly bodies 
 are governed by .flsed rules alike applicable to all mat- 
 ter, while Sir Isaac Newton was Master of the Mint, in 
 the reign of George I., the vibration of a pendulum in 
 the latitude of London, on a level with the sea, was 
 measured, and the length made' to, serve as the stand- 
 ard of the imperial yard of Great Britain. Weights 
 have been based upon a standard arising from a quan- 
 tity of distilled water at a certain temperature, and 
 having a certain cubic content. Upon the advice of 
 the House of Commons, and afterward of a commit- 
 tee of the Eoyal Society, addressed to the Prince Re- 
 gent, it was determined, under George IV., that the 
 standard made by Bird in 176ft should be the legal 
 standard of length in Great Britain ; that the pound 
 Troy should be still continued ; and that 7000 grains 
 should be the pound avoirdupois in the British em- 
 pire. 
 
 By act of Congress in 1828 it was determined that 
 the Troy pound procured by the minister in London in 
 1827 should be the standard, in the United States, to 
 regulate the coinage. Yet there were three standards 
 still in use in the United States coinage— the standard 
 for quantities from Great Britain, the standard for 
 purity from France^ and the standard for proportion 
 from Spain. 
 
 In the United States system many changes had been 
 efiected in the system in force at the Mint. The Troy 
 ounce was divided decimally, and the other proportions 
 were discarded. The French gramine used for silver, 
 and the half yramme used for gold, with their thou- 
 sandth parts, had replaced the old carat grains ; and 
 the proportion was based upon the dollar — a credited 
 but erroneous ounce of silver, the sixteenth part of a 
 pound aToirdupois, divided decimally fof account. The 
 act of 1772, which established the United States Mint, 
 was founded on the report of the first Secretary ; and 
 notwithstanding many changes in the United States, the 
 system there was still subject to the same objections as 
 that of England, being copied from erroneous models, 
 and not founded with scientific ?iccuracy on systematic, 
 uniform, and intelligible views, such as are required 
 for the purposes of coinage, of commerce, of the arts 
 and professions of life, as well in Great Britain as for 
 her colonies, and by the United States. — See Weights. 
 
 Truck SyBtein, or Store Account, a name 
 given to a practice that has prevailed, particularly in 
 the mining and raanufacturiiig districts, of paying the 
 wages of workmen in goods instead of money. The 
 plan has been for the masters to establish warehouses 
 or shops ; and the workmen in their employment have 
 either got their wages accounted for to tl(em by sup- 
 plies of goods from such dep6ts, without receiving any 
 money, or they have got the money, with a tacit or 
 express Understanding that they were to resort to the 
 warehouses or shops of their master for such articles as 
 they were furnished with. 
 
 Trufiles, a sort of vegetable production, like a 
 mushroom, formed under ground. A few have been 
 found in Northamptonshire; they are pretty abundant 
 in Italy, the south of France, and several other coun- 
 tries. They are reckoned a great delicacy. The pates 
 au truffes d^AnguuJhiie are highlj'' esteemed, and are 
 sent as presents to very distant places. — Eees' Cyclo- 
 p(Edia. 
 
 Trust and Trustee. A trustee is he who under- 
 takes to discharge a trust, and a cestui qui irtist is the 
 person who is entitled to the . benefit of a trust. A 
 trusif which is, in fact, a new name given to a use, is 
 defined by Lord Coke to be "a confidence reposed in 
 some, other, not issuing out of the land, but as a thing 
 collateral, annexed in privity to the estate of the land, 
 and to the person touching the land, for ^wbiQh cestui 
 que use has no remedy but by subpoena in Chancery." 
 
 Tscbaik {Turkish ship), is a light galley used on 
 the Danube, and provided with a sail and rudder. The 
 ischaik generally carries from two to twelve guns, and 
 from ten to one hundred men. 
 
 Tulips. They came to England from Vienna, a.d. 
 1578, and have always been among our most esteemed 
 fiowers. They became an object of commerce in the 
 16th century; and it is recorded in the register of the 
 city of Alcmaer, in Holland, that in the year 1639, 
 120 tulips, with the offsets, sold for 90,000 florins ; and 
 in particular, that one of them, called the viceroy, sold 
 for 4203 guilders! The states at last put a stop to 
 this extravagant and ruinous passion for flowers. The 
 tulip-tree (^Liriodendron tulipiferd) was carried to En- 
 gland from America, about 1663. — Haydn. , 
 
 Tulip-tree (lAriodendrpn tuUpifera), one of the 
 most remarkable of our North American forest trees. 
 In most parts of the United States the tree is known 
 under'the name of poplar-tree. The wood is of a light 
 color, with a greater specific gravity than white pine, 
 and is found in most of the States and Territories. The 
 
TUN 
 
 1880 
 
 TUN 
 
 qualities are a moderate resistance to decay, and easy 
 manipulation. The principal defect is the liability 
 to shrink and Tvarp. The wood is in common use, on 
 account of its abundance and cheapness, for the manu- 
 facture of common furniture, shingles, and dry lumber. 
 
 Tunis. The state of Tunis possesses nearly the 
 same natural advantages of soil and climate as Morocco. 
 In ancient times it was one of the granaries of Kome, 
 supplying wheat, maize, barley, olives, grapes, dates, 
 and other fruits. Tobacco, cotton, and indigo have 
 recently been introduced as articles of culture, and 
 small quantities of saffron and opium are also raised. 
 The principal manufactures of Tunis are of red caps, 
 exported to all parts of the Mediterranean ; of soap, at 
 Susa chiefly; and of woolen, silk, and linen fabrics, 
 and morocco leather. The chief imports by sea are 
 cochineal, raw, silk, coffee, sugar, Spanish wool (to 
 make tarbouches, or red caps), wines, specie, etc. Cara- 
 vans arrive annually from Central Africa, bringing 
 slaves, senna, ostrich feathers, gold dust, gum, and 
 ivory, which are bartered for manufactured goods, 
 spices, and gunpowder; while others, from Constanti- 
 nople, bring wax, dried skins, cattle, and sheep, in re- 
 turn for muslins and other woven fabrics, Tunis man- 
 tles, colonial produce, essences, etc. 
 
 There are no official or reliable data from which the 
 value of the general foreign export trade of Tunis can 
 at the present time be gathered. The following state- 
 ment of the average annual exports is based upon an 
 estimate made by the French consul, and found in 
 M.vcgkegoe's Commercial Regulations : 
 
 France. 
 
 Olive-oil 4,OUO,000 
 
 Wool 1,600,000 
 
 Red caps (tarbouches) 1,800,000 
 
 Other woolens 509,000 
 
 Wheat and pulse 280,000 
 
 Nuts, dates, etc 90,000 
 
 Cattle 100,000 
 
 Sponges 200,000 
 
 Wax 40, 000 
 
 Hides 230,000 
 
 Senna 50,000 
 
 Soap 60,000 
 
 Elephants' teeth and gold dust 400,000 
 
 Total average of exports 9,259,000 francs, or nearly 
 $2,000,000. The principal port is Tunis, situated on a 
 salt lake, communicating with the sea by a canal or 
 strait. Large ships anchor in the road or bay. The 
 other chief ports are Biserta, Farina, Hammamet, Sfax, 
 and Gerbis. The commercial relations between the 
 United States and Tunis are regulated by treaty of 
 February 24, 1824. — See Treaties, Commercial. No 
 official data are at hand upon which to base an esti- 
 mate of the character or value of the trade between 
 the United States and this regency. There is no di- 
 rect trade, it is believed, between the United States and 
 Tunis, commercial movements passing mainly by way 
 of Malta and Marseilles. Macgregor gives a statement 
 of the imports into and exports from Tunis in 1839, of 
 which the following is a summary : 
 
 Imports 8,089,000 piasti'es = 25 cents each." 
 
 Exports 5,376,000 " 
 
 Total 13,466,000 " =$3,360,250 
 
 In this total the United States figured for : 
 
 Imports from Tunis 238,000 piastres. 
 
 Exports to Tunis 268,000 " 
 
 Total .500,000 " =$120,500 
 
 In 1842 there entered 341 vessels, with an aggregate 
 of 33,321 tons ; and there cleared 331 vessels, measur- 
 ing an aggregate of 33,425 tons. The trade is con- 
 ducted chiefly under the British, Maltese, French, 
 Neapolitan, Sardinian, Tunisian, and Austrian flags. 
 These import wine, spirits, iron, sugai-, coffee, cotton, 
 beans, and manufactured goods ; and carry back wool, 
 hides, wax, barilla, sponge, oil, almonds, salted fish, 
 nuts, bones, dates, corn and meal, wax, soap, tissues 
 of wool, etc., and leeches. 
 
 The authority cited gives the navigation duties in 
 the different ports of Tunis as follows : 
 
 Duties. 
 
 TuniB. 1 SuBD^MooasUer. 
 
 sfax and Gerbis. 
 
 Anchorage duties . . 
 Captain of port tax. 
 
 $2 m 
 
 125 
 65 
 
 $106t 
 25 
 12i 
 
 $106t 
 3U 
 
 Odabuslii tax 
 
 $4 b'H 
 
 $143i 
 
 $l3f{- 
 
 
 * The present value of the piastre is about 12^ cents. 
 
 Besides these fixed charges, there are also incidental 
 expenses peculiar to Tunis, viz. : 1st. All vessels which 
 enter the Goletta Canal for repairs, or for any other 
 purpose, pay an entrance and departure duty of $5, and 
 $1 25 besides, daily, if the vessel is above 50 tons ; 2d. 
 A vessel taking in ballast from the land is taxed $3 75 ; 
 3d. On every vessel which finds itself unsafe in the 
 roadstead, on account of the bad quality of its cable, 
 or from any other reason, and wishes to get under the 
 shelter of the mole of the Goletta, a duty of 12 caroubes 
 (18f cents) per ton is imposed so long as it remains 
 there, renewable every six months. Besides this duty, 
 the captain of the port receives 75 cents. In addition 
 to the foregoing, the following information is con- 
 densed from official returns communicated to this De- 
 partment: The total port charges on entering the Go- 
 letta (the harbor of Tunis) amount to $6 50 for lights, 
 anchorage, health officer, etc., for vessels of over 30 
 tons ; under 30 tons, one half that charge. These 
 charges apply alike to all vessels, either Tunisian or 
 foreign. 
 
 Export duties — inconsiderable, however — are levied 
 upon oil, wool, and soap. 
 
 The import duties on goods and merchandise are 
 regulated by treaty, and amount to 3 per cent. The 
 articles from the United States which usually find a 
 good market in Tunis are rum, tobacco, small freights 
 of flour, cheap cotton fabrics, provisions, cheese, salt j 
 beef, dried beef, hams, pickles, and biscuit ; but it 
 would not be advisable to risk large cargoes of these 
 articles. The coasting trade is permitted to all for- 
 eign vessels, without paying any other duty than those 
 named in the tariff. The quarantine regulations are: 
 Quarantine of observation, fixed at 10 days, is only re- 
 quired 7 or 8 days, though the vessel pays for 10 ; and 
 when coming from any port in the Mediterranean, she 
 pays $1 25 per day. Besides this tax others arc levied, 
 amounting in the whole to ^26 G2^. On vessels from 
 the Levant, these taxes, according to Macgregor, are 
 levied for 20 days, and amount to 202 p. 8 c. ($50 52). 
 These are the rates at the port of Tunis. At the other 
 ports the quarantine of observation is usually 10 days; 
 expenses nearly the same. — Com. Mel. U. 8. 
 
 With the exception of certain privileges granted to 
 Great Britain and Spain, no privileges permitted to 
 the commerce of foreign nations are denied to the 
 United States. By treaty, Great Britain obtained the 
 privilege of exporting annually for the support of the 
 garrison of Gibraltar, on payment of a duty of $5 per 
 ox (though the fixed duty is $10), 2000 oxen. Spain, 
 when formidable, obtained by treaty the following 
 privileges, viz. : the exportation of oxen on paying a 
 duty of $3 per ox, instead of $10 ; fowls at 15 cents per 
 dozen instead of $1 ; pulse at 30 cents per IJ- bushel 
 instead of 90 cents; and a proportionate reduction on 
 all other eatables. These privileges, however, are at 
 present disregarded. No restrictions are imposed on 
 the commerce of other nations nor on that of the 
 United States. 
 
 The port charges and dues levied on vessels of the 
 United States are simply the anchorage dues, which are 
 exacted according to the tonnage of the vessel. The 
 U. S. Consul says, "T am led to think that the re- 
 strictions which obstruct a direct trade with the Unit- 
 ed States are the high duties levied in the United States 
 on produce in general of this country. If such duties 
 were reduced to a trifling amount, as they are in Great 
 Britain, a powerful and salutary influence would be 
 the result. Take, for example, the coarse wool of thjv 
 
TUN 
 
 1881 
 
 TUR 
 
 conntry, which enters bo largely into our mannfac- 
 tures. Remove entirely, when imported from Morocco 
 in A merioan bottoms, the duty from this one article, and 
 that direct trade which twenty-four years ago existed 
 will again spring up. The great market for the wool 
 of Morocco is even now the United States; but our 
 ship-owners derive no benefit from the demand. It 
 finds its way to the United States through Marseilles 
 and Gibraltar, and French and English vessels make 
 a monopoly of the carrying trade. If, with the extra 
 expenses of transhipment, the additional transporta- 
 tion, the extra commissions, insurance, etc., our manu- 
 facturers now find it to their interest to purchase large- 
 ly of the wool of this country, how much greater will 
 be the demand, and consequently the employment, of 
 American vessels, if a direct trade between the TJnitfed 
 States and Morocco is brought about? It is true, the 
 export duties of this country are liable to sudden fluc- 
 tuations ; but contracts for certain periods can be made 
 with the sultan,- which exempt the contracting parties 
 from being affected by those fluctuations." — Consular 
 Returns U. S. 1854-'55. 
 
 Tunis, the capital of the regency of the same name, 
 on the northern coast of Africa, the Goletta fort being 
 in lat. 36° 48' 30" N., long. 10° 25' 45" E. The Bay of 
 Tunis is somewhat in the form of a horseshoe. Its 
 western extremity, Cape Carthage; is situated about 
 four miles northeast from the Goletta ; and its eastern 
 extremity, Cape Zafrftn, bears from Cape Carthage east 
 by south, distant about 13 miles. The bay is about 
 16 miles deep, and has good anchorage all over, in from 
 10 to 4 fathoms water. It is exposed to the liorth and 
 northeast gales ; but they seldom occasion any damage. 
 Tunis lies on the west side of the bay, being separated 
 from it by a large lagoon, having, where deepest, about 
 7 feet water. The port is at the Goletta, or channel, 
 passing thi'ough tlae narrow belt of land separating the 
 lagoon from the sea ; the entrance to it is by a canal, 
 in which there is at all times 15 feet water; and ships 
 may use it on paying a fee of three dollars a day. It 
 is not, however, much resorted to — all vessels of con- 
 siderable burden loading and unloading from their 
 moorings in the bay by means of lighters. The popu- 
 lation of Tunis has been variously estimated ; and may 
 probably amount to 100,000, being the most populous 
 of any African city after Cairo. The streets are nar- 
 row, unpavcd, and filthy-. The buildings, though of 
 stone, are mean and poor ; and the inhabitants present 
 the picture of poverty and oppression. There is a fort 
 at the Goletta of considerable strength. 
 
 Trade. — Notwithstanding the various drawbacks 
 arising out of the nature of the government, and the 
 ignorance and prejudices of the peoi^le, commerce and 
 industry are in a more advanced state in Tunis than 
 in any other part of Norfhern Africa, Egypt excepted. 
 Though subject to droughts, the climate is, on the 
 whole, excellent. The soil still preserves that exu- 
 berant fertility for which it was famous in antiquity. 
 
 Non quicquid Libycis terib 
 
 Fervens area messibus. — (Sbneo. in Thyest,) 
 
 It seldom receives any other manure than that of 
 sometimes burning the weeds and stubble ; and yet, in 
 despite of its slovenly culture, the crops are luxuriant ; 
 and there is generally a considerable excess of wheat 
 and barley for exportation. Corn is principally shipped 
 at the Biserta, about 50 miles west of Tunis. Olive- 
 oil is one of the principal articles of export. It is of 
 various qualities; some good, and some very indiffer- 
 ent. Susa is said to be the best place for its shipment. 
 Soap of an excellent quality is largely manufactured 
 in the regency. It may be liad either soft or in wedges. 
 The soft is made of barilla and pure oil, and is much 
 esteemed. The hard soap is made from the lees of oil, 
 and is reckoned very strong. The principal soap-works 
 are at Susa. Little, however, is prepared on a specu- 
 lative anticipation of a demand for exportation ; but 
 any quantity may be had by contracting for it a few 
 
 months before the period when it is wanted. A sort 
 of woolen skull-caps are largely exported. They are 
 in extensive demand all over the Levant, and ai-e no- 
 where made in such perfection as here. Ivory and 
 gold dust, hides, wax, morocco leather, sponge, barilla, 
 coral, dates, ostrich feathers, etc., are almong the arti- 
 cles of export. The imports from Europe Consist of 
 woolens, coarse German and Iri«h linens, cotton stuffs, 
 hardware, sugar, coffee, spices, tin plates, lead, alum, 
 dye-stufft, wine, silk, Spanish wool, etc. There is very 
 little direct trade between Tunis and England ; but a 
 good deal is indirectly carried on, through the inter- 
 vention of Malta and Gibraltar. Marseilles has proba- 
 bly the largest share of the trade with the regency. In 
 1880 there entered the different ports of Tunis 194 ships, 
 of the burden of 20,747 tons, exclusive of those engaged 
 in the trade with the other African states and Turkey. 
 Exclusive of the tradeby 6ea, a considerable trade is 
 carried on between Tunis and the interior of Africa, by 
 means of caravans. These Import slaves, gold dust, 
 ivory, ffeathers, drugs, etc. They carry liack cotton 
 stuffs, linens, hardware, spices, cochineal, etc. Naval 
 and military stores imported into Tunis pay no duty. 
 Other articles pay a duty of 3 per' cent, ad talorem on 
 a rated tariff. Obstructions arising out of monopolies, 
 et^, are occasionally thrown in the Way of exportation ; 
 and in general it is necessarj', before proceeding to 
 ship, to obtain a fishery, or license to that effect, from 
 the bey. That, howeVer, may be, for the most part, 
 procured without much difficulty. 
 
 Tunnels. The earliest tunnel for the purpose of 
 Internal navigation was executed by M. Elguet, In the 
 reign of Louis XIV,, at Bezieres, in France. The first 
 in England was by Mr. Brindley, in the Duke of Bridge- 
 water's navigation, near Manchester, about 1760. Era 
 of the Gravesend Tunnel, 1800 — the report upon it, 1801. 
 The Thames Tunnel projected by Mr. Brunei in 1823. 
 This last wonderful undertaking was completed and 
 opened for foot passengers March 25, 1843. — Haydn. 
 See Thames Tunnel. _ The principal railroad tunnels in 
 the United States are : 1. On the Dayton Railroad, at 
 Cincinnati, 10,080 feet in length. 2. Kingwood Tun- 
 nel, on the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, 5000 feet. 
 3. Blue Ridge Tunnel, on the Virginia Central Railroad, 
 about 5000 feet. 4. The Hoosac Tunnel, through a 
 granite formation, western portion of Massachusetts 
 (now In progress). 5. On the Kentucky Central Rail- 
 road, between Cincinnati and Lexington, about 3500 
 feet. 6. The Bergen Tunnel, on the New York and 
 Erie Railroad, near Jersey City, about 5000 feet (now 
 in progress). 
 
 Thames Tunnel. — Projected by Mr. Brunei, to form 
 a communication between the two sides of the river, at 
 Rotherhlthe and Wapping, the most extraordinary con- 
 struction of ancient or modern times. The shaft was 
 begun in 1825. At a distance of 544 feet from the shaft 
 the first irruption took place, May 18, 1827. The sec- 
 ond irruption, by which six workmen perished, Janu- 
 ary 12, 1828. The length of the tunnel is 1300 feet ; 
 its width is 35 feet ; height 20 feet ; clear width of each 
 archway, including foot-path, about 14 feet ; thickness 
 of earth beneath the crown of the tunnel and the bed 
 of the river, about 15 feet. The tunnel was opened 
 throughout for foot passengers March 25, 1843. 
 
 Turban, the head-dress of many of the Eastern 
 nations, consisting of two parts, a cap and a sash, the 
 latter artfully wreathed about the head. The sash of 
 the Turk's turban is white linen ; that of the Persians, 
 red woolen. These are the distinguishing marks of 
 their different religions. Lophi, King of Persia, being 
 of the sect of All, was the first who assumed the red 
 color, to distinguish himself from the Turks, who are 
 of the sect of Omar. — Haydn. 
 
 Turbith, or Tuipeth, the cortical part of the root 
 of a species of Convolvulus, brought from different parts 
 of the East Indies. It is a longish root about the thick- 
 ness of the finger, resinous, heavy, of a brownish hue 
 
TUR 
 
 1882 
 
 TUR 
 
 without and whitish within. It is imported cloven in 
 the middle, lengthwise, and the heart or woody matter 
 taken out. The best is ponderous, not wrinkled, easy 
 to break, and discovers to the eye a large quantity of 
 resinous matter. At first it makes an impression of 
 sweetness on the taste ; but, when chewed for some 
 time, betrays a nauseous acrimony. It is used in 
 medicine, but only to a small extent. — Lewis's Mat. 
 Medica. 
 
 Turbith (mineral), the name given by chemists to 
 the sub-sulphate of mercury. 
 
 Turbot (PhuronecUs maximus), a well-known and 
 higlily esteemed species of fish. Considerable quanti- 
 ties of turbot are now taken on various parts of the 
 coasts of Great Britain, from the Orkneys to the Land's 
 End, yet a preference is given in the London markets 
 to those caught by the Dutch. The latter are said to 
 have sometimes drawn as much as i)80,000 in a single 
 year for turbots sold in London. 
 
 Turkey. The countries included under the above 
 general designation of Turkej', the Levant, etc., are 
 Turkey (European and Asiatic), the pachalic or vice- 
 royalty of Egypt, the kingdom of Greece, and the re- 
 public of the Ionian Islands — a group in the Mediter- 
 ranean, off the west coast of Greece and Epirus, con- 
 sisting of seven principal and several srnaller islands. 
 
 The Ottoman empire includes Turkey in Europe, 
 Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt, and the other tributarj- 
 states in Africa and Asia. Prior to the Greek revolu- 
 tion, Turke}' in Europe possessed an extensive mari- 
 time frontier (nearly two-thirds of her boundary), hav- 
 ing many excellent sea-ports. The dismemberment 
 of Greece, and other subsequent political changes, and 
 the cession of Bessarabia and a part of Moldavia to 
 Russia, have considerably reduced the limits of the 
 dominions of Turkey in Europe. In Africa her power 
 is almost annihilated, and even in Asia her authoritj' 
 is considerably weakened. Algeria has been wrested 
 from her by France ; Egypt merely acknowledges her 
 sovereignty by the payment of an annual tribute ; and 
 the Arabians scarcely recognize the sultan as the head 
 of their religion. The limits and area of the Turkish 
 empire are not exactly defined, and, consequently, very 
 different estimates have been formed of the extent and 
 population both of European and Asiatic. Turkey. The 
 most recent authority estimates the area of Turkey in 
 Europe at 210,000 square miles, and its population at 
 about 15,000,000 ; and that of Turkey in Asia at 437,000 
 square miles, with u population of about 16,000,000. 
 Turkey in Europe possesses a soil remarkably fertile, 
 and a climate highly favorable to the production of the 
 vine, olive, maize, wheat, and rice, vegetables of every 
 description, fruits, tobacco, hemp, flax, the mulberry, 
 various trees from which the most valuable gums are 
 extracted ; and in the southern part the sugar-cane 
 and the cotton-tree. To these add the rich pasturages 
 for horses, cattle, and sheep, everj' variety of game 
 and fish, with a great abundance of mineral riches, to- 
 gether with the geographical position and excellent 
 harbors of European Turkey, and a general idea may 
 be formed of her great natural resources. The prin- 
 cipal species of grain cultivated in European Turkey 
 is Indian corn. Rice is cultivated along the banks of 
 the Maritza and other marshy tracts in the southern 
 provinces, but not in sufficient quantities for consump- 
 tion. The deficiency is supplied by Egypt and Asia 
 Minor. 
 
 Turkey in Asia possesses almost every natural ele- 
 ment of industrial and commercial greatness ; but agri- 
 culture is wholly neglected, and productive industry is 
 altogether unltnown. 
 
 About nine-tenths of the extensive surface of Egypt 
 is sterile and unproductive. The remaining one-tenth, 
 being irrigated by the overflowings of the Nile, yields 
 the richest and most luxuriant crops, which, with the 
 various commodities that pass through Egypt from 
 Arabia, India, and Nubia, form the elements of a large 
 
 export trade. The crops of Egypt are wheat, Indian 
 com, maize, rice, flax, hemp, clover, cotton, indigo, 
 sugar-cane, tobacco, oranges, and the most delicious 
 fruits. 
 
 The sea'rports of Turkey in Europe are as follows : 
 Constantinople, one of the safest ports In the world, 
 and capable of affording shelter to 1200 of the largest 
 class ships ; Salonica, at the bottom of the gulf of that 
 name, an excellent roadstead, and much frequented ; 
 and Enos, the port of Adrianople, on the Maritza. 
 Gallipoli and Rodosto, on the Sea of Marmora ; Varna, 
 on the Black Sea ; and Ibrahilow, Taultcha, Galatz, 
 and Jassaktchi, on the Danube, are ports of consider- 
 able commercial activity. 
 
 On the island of Candia there are two ports, Candia 
 and Canea, but their harbors are neither commodious 
 nor safe. Besides these, there are several other ports, 
 which afford excellent shelter, and in the possession 
 of a more industrious and commercial people than the 
 Turks would attract considerable trade. 
 
 The sea-ports of Turkey in Asia are Erekli ; Scutari, 
 opposite Constantinople ; some indifferent ports on the 
 Sea of Marmora ; and Sm3'ma, the principal port of 
 Asia Minor, and the most important in foreign com- 
 merce. 
 
 In Egypt the sea-ports are Alexandria, Bosetta, 
 Damietta, and Cairo, at the mouths of the Nile ; and 
 Suez and Kosseir, on the Red Sea. 
 
 The principal exports of Turkey are wool, goats' 
 hair, cattle, horses, hides, hare-skins, wheat, raw cot- 
 ton and silk, tobacco, raisins, figs, almonds, mastic and 
 other gums, gall-nuts, vallonea, leeches, honey, wax, 
 saffron, madder, anise seed, linseed, turpentine, saf- 
 flower, orpiment, meerschaum pipes, whetstones, car- 
 pets, silk and cotton fabrics, leather, copper, and me- 
 tallic wares, with Arabian, Persian, Indian, and Chi- 
 nese goods. 
 
 , Next to Constantinople, Adrianople and Salonica are 
 the chief centres of trade ; the former, being a prin- 
 cipal depot for goods brought to Constantinople from 
 England, France, and Italy, supplies all the fairs 
 throughout Roumelia and Bulgaria. 
 
 Next to Smyrna, Aleppo is the chief seat of com- 
 mercial movements in Asia. Caravans bring to this 
 mart pearls, shawls, Indian and Chinese goods, from 
 Bussorah and Bagdad ; camels from Arabia; cotton 
 stuffs and thread, morocco leather, goats' hair, and 
 galls, from the pachalics of Mosul, Diarbekir, Orfa, 
 Aintab, etc. ; furs, goats' hair, wax, gum-ammoniac, 
 etc., from Asia Minor; silk. Mocha coffee, soap, scent- 
 ed woods, ambergris, drugs, and pearls, from Syria and 
 Arabia ; rice, coffee, and Egyptian produce, from La- 
 takia ; sUk manufactures from Brusa and Damascus ; 
 European and United States cotton stuffs, woolens, 
 printed muslins, hardware, watches, wrought amber, 
 and fur, from Smyrna and Constantinople. 
 
 The treaty of Adrianople opened the Black Sea to 
 the commerce of the world, and the passage of the Bos- 
 phorua and Hellespont is free to the flags of all nations. 
 The importation of all articles of foreign commerce is 
 admitted at extremely moderate duties. These are 
 only 5 per cent., viz. : 3 per cent, on goods when land- 
 ed, and 2 per cent, on their being admitted to consump- 
 tion. The duties on exports of native production are 
 12 per cent., of which 9 per cent, is paid when the 
 goods arrive at the port whence they are to be export- 
 ed, and 3 per cent, on their being shipped. This is a 
 very liberal tariff'; though a reduction of the export 
 duty, even should the import duty of 6 per cent, be 
 raised to 10 or 12, would result most favorably to the 
 commerce of Turkey with foreign countries. 
 
 Constantinople. — The harbor of Constantinople is 
 deep, well sheltered, and sufficiently capacious to af- 
 ford safe anchorage for 1200 of the largest-sized ships. 
 Scutari, on the opposite shore of the Bosphorus, one 
 mile distant from Constantinople, is the place of ren- 
 dezvous for caravans from Persia, Armenia, and other 
 
TUE 
 
 1883 
 
 TUK 
 
 places in Asia that trade witli European Turkey. It 
 is also the seat of extensive silk, woolen, and cotton 
 manufactures. 
 
 The only European countries with which the United 
 States could successfully compete in the trade of this 
 port are England and Austria. The vessels of the 
 former import iron, colonial produce, cotton and woolen 
 tissues ; and from Trieste, Austria sends also colonial 
 produce, such as cotton, sugar, molasses, rum, rice, 
 tobacco, etc., and the various manufactures which are 
 always found in abundance in the extensive ware- 
 houses of that port. The number of vessels which 
 entered Constantinople in 1852 were : sailing vessels, 
 9220; steam vessels, fi99 ; total, 9819. Of these there 
 were from Austria 459 sailing vessels ; from Great 
 Britain, 584 ; from France, 244 ; from Brazil, 16 ; and 
 from the United States, 5. The share assigned to 
 these countries respectively, in carrying the trade of 
 Constantinople during 1852, is thus given : Under the 
 British flag there entered during the year 1687 sailing 
 vessels, and 66 steam vessels ; under the French flag, 
 236 sailing, and 55 steam vessels ; and under the Aus- 
 trian flag, 1280 sailing, and 213 steam vessels. Under 
 the flag of the United States there arrived five sailing 
 vessels, and one propelled by steam. It is estimated 
 that Constantinople requires annually, for consump- 
 tion alone, about 6,500,000 lbs. of coffee, 1,200,000 lbs. 
 of sugar, 300,000 lbs. of pepper and spice, 2000 pun- 
 cheons of rum, and large quantities of cheap cotton 
 goods. These are supplied chiefly from the markets 
 of Western Europe, Alexandria, and North and South 
 America. 
 
 jSofom'ca.— Next to Constantinople, Salonica (situ- 
 ated at the bottom of the Gulf of Salonica), the capital 
 of Macedonia, is the most important port of Turkey in 
 Europe. In 1850 its maritime commerce reached up- 
 ward of $3,500,000, viz. : about $2,000,000 for im- 
 ports, and $1,500,000 for exports. The foreign trade 
 of this port is chiefly engrossed by the British and 
 French flags. The imports consist chiefly of cheap 
 cotton and woolen cloths, and various other manufac- 
 tures. Its exports are wheat, barley, maize, timber, 
 wool, sponge, raw silk, wine, sesamum seed, tobacco, 
 and staves. Colonial produce and manufactured goods 
 are supplied to this port — the former from second and 
 third hands— by England and Austria. There is no- 
 thing to prevent the United States from participating 
 in the trade in this species of merchandise. Neither 
 Austria nor England could compete with this countrj- 
 in supplying the vast quantities of colonial produce, 
 and the cheap white and printed cottons, which are re- 
 quired for consumption in this market. In addition 
 to the supplies needed to meet the daily wants of its 
 100,000 inhabitants, Salonica furnishes large quantities 
 of colonial and manufactured goods for the yearly fairs 
 of Parlepi, Lucca, and Seres, where the sales are al- 
 ways made for cash. The high price of French cotton 
 and woolen cloths will always preclude the merchants 
 of France from successful competition in this branch 
 of trade ; and the heavy expenses attending the cir- 
 cuitous trade through Marseilles, Smyrna, Constanti- 
 nople, Trieste, and Venice, would necessarily favor 
 direct exportations from the United States. The 
 prices at Salonica are always from 10 to 12 per cent. 
 higher than at Constantinople or Smyrna. 
 
 The navigation returns for the year 1853-4 exhibit 
 the following results : 
 
 Inward. Oatwnrd. 
 
 In 1853 113,498 tons 111,767 tons. 
 
 Inl854 79,845 " 81,192 " 
 
 This decrease has been principally under Turkish 
 and Greek flags, though there has also been a decrease 
 under British, French, and Sardinian flags, but not in 
 the same proportion. 
 
 The gross returns of trade at the port of Salonica, 
 for the year ending December 31, 1854, show a con- 
 siderable increase in the import trade, viz. : Value of 
 
 imports in 1854, $3,770,235 ; and in 1853, $2,867,765. 
 But the returns exhibit a still more considerable in- 
 crease in the value of the outward trade, viz. : Value 
 of exports in 1854, $5,492,980 ; and m 1853, $3,476,050. 
 This large increase, both in the inward and outward 
 trade with the port of Salonica, may be regarded as an 
 evidence of the improving state of the country. 
 
 Galatz, a town of Moldavia, Turkey, on the left banii; 
 of the Danube, in latitude 45° 25' N., longitude 28° E. 
 Though at some distance inland, Galatz may be said 
 to be the port of the Danube. Of the three principal 
 mouths of the river, the Soulineh (or middle) month, 
 in latitude 45° 10' 30" N., and longitude 29° 41' 20" 
 E., is the only one accessible by vessels of large bur- 
 den. The depth of water at its entrance varies from 
 10 to 14 feet ; from the bar up to Galatz there is no- 
 where less than 18 feet. Lighters are stationed with- 
 out the bar to partially unload large vessels. Vessels 
 of 300 tons burden can lie at the quays. 
 
 COMMEUOE OF MOLDAVIA IN IQSS. 
 
 Exporta. 
 
 128,451,025 
 37,014,262 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Port of Galatz 1,377,638 
 
 By Austria 42,277,577 
 
 Total {piastveO 43,655,315 163,465,288 
 
 Smyrna.— Ihxs port, the chief commercial emporium 
 of Turkey in Asia, has an excellent harbor, and ships 
 of large burden can load and discl;arge close to the 
 quays. Its principal foreign trade is conducted with 
 Great Britain, Austria, France, and the United States. 
 Its exports consist of silk, raw cotton, carpets, copper, 
 opium, hides, madder, wool, besides goats' hair and 
 skins, vallonea, olive-oil, drugs, gums, sponge, figs, 
 raisins, and nut-galls. Imports comprise coffee (up- 
 ward of 6,000,000 lbs. annually) ; woolen, cotton, and 
 silk fabrics; metals, raw and manufactured; sugar, 
 indigo, spirits, cochineal, and spices. The following 
 statement shows the quantities and values of wool im- 
 ported inj» the United States from Turkey during the 
 five years ending June 30, 1855, together with the ag- 
 gregate quantities and values of the same from all 
 countries during the same period : 
 
 Years. 
 
 Pram Tnrkoy. 
 
 From all Countriea. 
 
 Quantities. 
 
 Values. 
 
 Quantities. 
 
 Values. . 
 
 1851 
 
 1852 
 
 1853 
 
 1864 
 
 1866 
 
 Aggregate... 
 Annual aver. 
 
 5,238,292 
 3,866,320 
 4,361,253 
 4,360,326 
 4,676,147 
 
 $479,355 
 
 , 283,666 
 
 372,012 
 
 460,285 
 
 416,222 
 
 32,548,491 
 18,341,238 
 21,695,079 
 20200,110 
 18,634,415 
 
 $3,833,167, 
 1,930,711 
 2,063,718 
 2,822,185 
 2.072.139 
 
 21,981,944 
 4,336,389 
 
 $2,iJ17,630 
 403,606 
 
 111,219,3 13 
 22,243,878 
 
 $13,327,910 
 2,645,582 
 
 From the Argentine republic the United States re- 
 ceives one-third of its raw wool. Next to this countiy 
 ranks Turkey, in this regard ; and the third place is 
 due to Chili.' Inl855, of the entire quantity import- 
 ed, amounting to 18,534,415 lbs., valued at $2,072,139, 
 there came from Turkey 4,676,747 lbs., valued at 
 $416,222 ; of which Turkey in Asia supplied 4,261,250 
 lbs., valued at $386,305. The principal imports into 
 Smyrna, in vessels of the United States, are coffee, 
 sugar, rum, coarse cottons, spices, and dye-stuffs ; for 
 which they carry home, in return, cargoes of wool, 
 opium, copper, fruit, oil of roses, and wine. The navi- 
 gation of Smyrna is steadily increasing. In 1840 there 
 entered 969 vessels of all nations, measuring 107,596 
 tons ; of which number there were 23 American ves- 
 sels, measuring 4304 tons. — See Smyesa. 
 
 The commerce of this port during 1851 amounted to 
 nearly eleven millions of dollars. This trade was thus 
 distributed : 
 
 Great Britain 31,396,563 francs. 
 
 Austria 13,356,803 " 
 
 France 7,954,177 " 
 
 United States 6,475.945 " 
 
 Russia 2,557,906 " 
 
 Holland 911,103 " 
 
 Sardinia 627,596 " 
 
 Tuscany 466,295 " 
 
 Belgium 184,763 " 
 
 Bet/rout. — Beyrout is the sea-port of Damascus, and 
 
TUB 
 
 1884 
 
 TUR 
 
 the chief centre of the trailo of Syria. Its imports con- 
 sist of mnslins, cottons, tin, hnnlwnre, cJotl\s, :ii\(l viri- 
 ons kinds of nnui\ifiictnr©s. Us exports arc silk, i;;ills, 
 madder, gums, vine, and oils. The imports iit this 
 port i(i 1851 (unonnted to abont $4,000,000, and its ox- 
 ports to ;Ji3,000,000. l")iirini^ tho same your there en- 
 tered and cleared '2XA \csscls, measuring an ni^sjroj^atc 
 of l'19,'iT7 tons. Tho commercial niovomOT\ts of I ho 
 port of Beyrout and its dependent trading t.owns,Tripoll, 
 CiiJffa, and I,at.akla, amo\intod in lH5o to a total of 
 45,689,1 (■-' francs, or an increase over lSri'2 of -1,5110,1100 
 francs. Tho following summary for theso yeiu's is 
 taken from French ollicial authorities : 
 
 lu l^i.'':'. tVuni 
 
 In 1S,V-' •• 
 
 I.iiVoTl-., K\iH>rU. Totnt. 
 
 1 'J;l,S4S,T.W ai,SlO,-ll'3 •KMiS'.l.lU 
 
 ■-'ii,so;i,Sf;i 'Jiv-'iiOiSic'iO 4l,Kiii,7U 
 
 Tile tonnage employed in the trtulo of lle3'niut the 
 same years "was: In IS.^.'i, 'J01>,S(it tons; and in ISo'J, 
 -■11,078 tons. This decrease is o\viug to a tailing off 
 in tho coasting trade, especially in cereals, occasioned 
 by the short croi»s (if lS5o. 
 
 In tho general import uioveinent, ICngland hohls tho 
 first rank — tissues, cotton yarn, and cotton goods gen- 
 erally, heing tho chief imports from Groat llritaiii into 
 Syria. 1^'raiice occupies tho second rank; tho iinpcn'ts 
 from that cttuutry into lUiyrout in !185;i amounting in 
 value to M, 071,7-1) francs. Next to Krance comoa Aus- 
 tria. Tlie rotiirns show a value of (>,71-I,2-I'2 francs as- 
 signed to imports under tho Austrian flag; Init these 
 llguros incluile tho value of all the mercluiudise im- 
 ported ill the Austrian steamers that ply lictwecn (\mi- 
 stautinoplo and Smyrna. Tho actual imports tVoin 
 Au.stria into Beyrout amount to al>out one half of this 
 sum. Trieste furnishes hut little for tho consumption 
 of Syria, Tho imports into Syria from that entrepot 
 do not exceed J.')0,000 francs, and consist of colonial 
 wares, and German tissues pnn'hased in the ivarehouses 
 of that cily. I'-gypt supplies ,^yria, through tho port 
 of Heyrout, with grains, especially rice, to a value of 
 about '2, 1(17,050 iS'auca. Uiiviug the past few years 
 raercantilo houses o\' Tioston, Now Ytn-k, and IMiila- 
 dolplua liavo ostablisiied dinn't relations with Syria. 
 The waslunl and uiiwashod wool of that country IVtrnis 
 tho basis of their operations. In 1M5I the first cargo 
 of rellnod sugar from Boston arrived at Ueyrout. The 
 success Avliidi has attended this enterprise will moat 
 probably lead to an important tratle in this desm-iptiou 
 of mcrchandiao, in oxchangofor wool and other S\ riaii 
 products. The chief obstacle to an immediate expan- 
 sion of this trade appears to bo the duty of 30 jjor coiit. 
 with which tho raw wool is burdened in tho I'niteil 
 States, leaving but a small margin for prolit on tho 
 iniportation of this leading product. How important 
 this trade with Syria, as well as with Turkey gcuor- 
 ally, and other wi'ol-]n-oducing ciiuntries might be- 
 come, may lie inltu'u'd from the following stateuient 
 of facts. In 1855 thoro was inipcn-tcd into tho United 
 States, na already staled, ]8,5,'H,'1]5 lbs. of wool. Tho 
 annual production of wool in tho United States, assum- 
 ing that the ipiantity returned for 1850, as per ITnited 
 States census, alfonls n fair average — amounts to 
 5'2,51(;,050 lbs. This, added to the cpiantity im|iint- 
 od, gi\cs 71, 051, .'17 I lbs. The quantity annually ex- 
 ported reduces this li.gurc, say, in round numbers, to 
 70,000,000 lbs. for consumption in tho dill'eront and 
 uumorinis manufactories in the United States. How 
 much of this is consumed in the nninufacturo of carpets 
 there is no means at hand of determining with any ac- 
 cural y ; but it is stated in a publication of high author- 
 ity — till! ,^cinilijic Amtriniii — that in tho \'illage of 
 
 Tliompsonville, Oonnoctlcut, alone, theiM is used aniiu- 
 ally in the luaiiufacture of Itrussols, Axmiiister. and 
 other costly ipialities of carpeting, 10,000,000 Iba. of 
 wool, or more than one half the whole ipumtity im- 
 ported, and one-seventh part x>l' the aggrt'gate (luantily 
 imported and grown in the United States, 
 
 The value of tho foivgohig statement of facta will bti 
 bettor understood when it is added that the Tuited 
 Stales import annually — taking the importations of 
 1855 as an average — woolen manufactures kA' various 
 descriptions to the value of $'.'7,000,000, of which Imi- 
 glnnd furnishes nearly two-thinla, Tlie total num- 
 ber of woolen manntactories in (he United states in 
 1850 was 1,550; capital invested, $'.'8,118,650; lbs, of 
 wool coiisumeil, 70,80'.'.8'„'i) ; value of raw material, 
 $'.'5,755,0;'l ; bauds employed, males, 'J'.', tt78 ; females, 
 10.571; \alue of products, $I;1,*.M17, 515 — in which are 
 included 8'.','.'0l'.,(;5'-> yai-ds of cloth, and ■l,'.".M,:l:it; lbs. 
 of yarn, bcr-ides blankets, hats, etc. M'ere tho r;i\v 
 material supplied in suflicieut ipiautities, the census 
 of 1800 would piiibably add 100 per cent, to tho pre- 
 ceding figures. Tho foreign ti'ade of Ueyrout la car- 
 ried on principally by large class Steamers, under the 
 Austrian, l''reuch, and lirilish llags, which > isit this 
 port regularly, and Hud always abundant freight, con- 
 sisting of the iiroducts of Syria nild the va.st region 
 which lies between SUaneroom and the rivers ICn- 
 phratea and Tigris. 'I'lie prosperity of Heyront and Ihe 
 surrounding cmmlry la imlicated by the tact, that while 
 the populat ion was only 8000 in tho year 1811, it is now 
 estimated at between 50,000 and (:ii,(100. The steam- 
 era of the .Au.'-trian l.loyda Company, in Ularch, 1850, 
 are said to have numbered 50, v ith 10,000 hinse-power, 
 and ji moasnrcment of nearly 30,000 tons, llio I Hi ted 
 Stales consul at that luut, writing under date of Octo- 
 ber 5, :I8.55, says: "I lea ru, upon the I'cst authority, 
 that tho people of this conulry luusider the chith man- 
 ufactured in the United Stjiles superior in ipudity to 
 that of h'ngland ; but since tho pieces of American 
 goods do not uniforudy contain the same nuinhcr of 
 yards like the EngHali pieces, they are slow to |uir- 
 chase, owing to the power of old ideas and habits. It 
 would bo of great service to tho manufacturers if they 
 nnderslooil this fact, and would i-egard it." 
 
 ('(jiiitiii.--T\w commerce of thi.s island is conducted 
 through the ports of Ketiuo, Canoa, niul (^nndia. Its 
 exports consist chielly of olive-oil, barley, wheat, wine, 
 raisins, cotton, llax-seed, almonds, Indian corn, and 
 soap. Tho agricultural productions of Candla are ei- 
 timateil at a value of 18,500,000 francs per annum. 
 Its manut'acturos amount in value to about I!, 000,000 
 franca, of which soa|i appropriates •1,000,000, and coarse 
 cloths for consumption '.',000,000 francs. There are on 
 the island -17 soap factories, which \\vh\ annunlh' about 
 13,000,000 lbs. of soap; and 3000 'oil-presses hi active 
 oiieral ion. About -10, 000 lbs. of silk are produced au- 
 nnall.N on this island, of a quality cqunl to tliat of 
 Adrianople. 
 
 Tho imports and exports during a luu'iod of four coii- 
 seciitii'o years ivere: 
 
 li.ij...rl«. K«|,„0., 
 
 In is-is $i,imi,iii5 ifsi'.'.imii 
 
 In Isw l,ii7s,ii|io I,'.'!i7,tiin 
 
 In isnn i,iM.,',!i5 'j,iiin,Hir. 
 
 In ISI.l (Il,'<,llsil N7li,ni 
 
 Total number of vessels arriving in tho jants of 
 (.'alalia in 1868, 1 173, measuring an aggregate of 50,7-17 
 tons. The imporls during tho sanni year reaclied 
 l|il,028,'.'l'.', inul Iho exporta lji],!l7L',7 13. ' The naviga- 
 tion and commerce of Candla for 18M and J856 are 
 shown in the sulijoined Htatemont : 
 
 Kotlno, 
 Cimdlii 
 
 'I'l.liil fer ISfi,'.. 
 'I'oliil I'm- isr.i. 
 
 Ul V.-HHI 
 
 oof 
 in5 
 
 21T 
 
 'llllll'' 
 
 881 
 
 lioiKirtntiiiiiii. 
 
 
 ICipollllll 
 
 IIM, 
 
 'I'uiiH, 
 
 Vnliii.. 
 
 NU. Ul' I'.IHhtt],!. 
 
 Ti.ii.. 1 
 
 l)l,-WI) 
 
 in,ii'2.i 
 
 *l,lll,7hll 8ll 
 aii7,-Ws sa 
 1I7S,-1KI1 (10 
 
 (Mr, 
 till) 
 a'2B 
 
 '2S,-I IT 
 ^,(iri7 
 
 in,iKU 
 
 
 'i7,Bni 
 
 $i,(iin,(isri 6(1 
 
 1,(170,1171 (10 
 
 10(111 
 SOI 
 
 -H,-HI8 
 -1(1,(1011 
 
 * 
 
 $77n,hS(l no 
 
 ll^7,ll^.^ ao 
 
 ti'lll,9S(l 00 
 
 !)ll,7illl,M0 10 
 1,007,0(11) (10 
 
TUR 
 
 1885 
 
 TUR 
 
 Fkikoipal Imports into Candia pob 1S55. 
 
 Articlea. 
 
 Butter ■. , 
 
 Dried codfish 
 
 Hides and leather 
 
 Hardware 
 
 Furniture 
 
 IleriingB and Bardines . 
 
 Kice 
 
 Kum 
 
 Soda ash 
 
 Tobacco , 
 
 Cotton yarn , 
 
 Brown cottons , 
 
 Sundyy manufactures . , 
 
 I QuantitJGB. 
 
 .bbla. 
 
 1641 
 4318 
 
 Values. 
 
 $31,040 
 23,320 
 65,640 
 
 7,600 
 11,200 
 2T,68S 
 10,040 
 
 3,316 
 48,192 
 10,800 
 22,000 
 
 9,000 
 441,939 
 
 Peincipai. Expobts peom Candia. 
 
 Articles. > 
 
 QunDtities. 
 
 VilUM. 
 
 Olive-oil :tona ; 
 
 Soap cwt. 
 
 Sheep skins No. 
 
 Raw silk pounds 
 
 Cheese cwt. 
 
 Oraoges and lemons .No. 1 
 
 Chestnuts cwt. 
 
 ' • 1,269 
 
 69,845 
 
 13,352 
 
 8,525 
 
 362 
 
 ■6,000,000 
 
 2,000 
 
 $242,261 00 
 475,525 84 
 1,794 48 
 22,3^0 00 
 3,100 00 
 1,800 00 
 4,000 00 
 
 Qandia abounds in produce adapted to the American 
 market ; but the direct trade between the United States 
 and that island is as j-et unimportant. So long, in- 
 deed, as the present duties of 30 and 40 per cent, are 
 levied on their staple exports of coarse wool, olive-oil, 
 soap, etc., it can scarcely be expected that this trade 
 will increase to any considerable extent. It is stated, 
 in a consular return from Candia, that a reduction of 
 these duties, as well as of the duty on raw silk, would 
 tend to establish a highlj- respectable and direct Amer- 
 ican intercourse with the ports of Candia, sufficient, 
 probably, to compete with that of Great Britain and 
 France. In consequence of the almost nominal duty 
 upon the leading productions of the island in Great 
 Britain, the commercial intercourse with England is 
 fast increasing. 
 
 General Bemarhs on Turkey, — The treaty between 
 the United States and the Ottoman Porte dates as far 
 back as May 7, 1830. Its preamble, however, declares 
 that it is "not limited as to duration," and it conse- 
 quently regulates the intercourse between the countries 
 at the present time. Its principal commercial features 
 are — that the merchants of either country, in the prov- 
 inces, ports, etc., of the other, shall pay the same duties 
 and other imposts that are paid bj- the merchants of the 
 most friendly or favored nation ; and that merchant 
 vessels of the United States shall have liberty to pass 
 the canal of the imperial residence, and go and come 
 in the Black Sea, in like manner as vessels of the most 
 favored nation. The tariff of duties is based on an ad 
 valorem system, viz. : Imports 5 per cent,, and exports 
 12 per cent., including, as to both, internal duties. The 
 value of merchandise may be revised every four or 
 five years by commissioners on the part of the differ- 
 ent governments, conjointly with agents appointed for 
 that purpose by the Turkish government. The United 
 States have hitherto appointedno commissioners for this 
 adjustment of valuation ; and it has been represented 
 to the Department that the existing valuation on Brit- 
 ish merchandise, especially cotton goods and rum, sub- 
 jects to heavy discriminations similar articles of the 
 United States, owing chiefly to the difference in weight 
 and prices. Since the return of peace, many improve- 
 ments, tending to facilitate and improve the commer- 
 cial intercourse of Turkey with foreign nations, have 
 been completed or projected. Among others, thalight- 
 bouse system has undergone extensive improvements, 
 and uniform light-dues established for the Bosphorus 
 and Dardanelles, viz.: 50 piastres (between $2 and 
 $2 50) for everj' 100 tons each strait, or 100 piastres 
 per 100 tons for both, entering, and the same return- 
 ing. At Constantinople there are, properly' speaking, 
 no port charges ; but a small fee is required on vessels 
 passing through the Golden Gate to discharge their 
 cargoes. 
 
 The idea of connecting the Mediterranean with the 
 
 Red Sea by means of a ship canal across the isthmus 
 of Suez has long been ^tertained. The level of the 
 latter sea is known to be higher than that of the former 
 by thirty-two feet, and the isthmus was at one time 
 submerged. The levelings, with a view to a canal, 
 which were prosecuted with care during the occupation 
 of the French army, have been followed up by the 
 Viceroy of Egypt, and a plan of the work has recently 
 been settled by a European commission of engineers - 
 assembled in Paris to discuss the details. This comi 
 mission has rejected all plans involving indirect routes 
 across Egj'pt, and has adopted the principle of a direct 
 cutting from Suez to the Mediterranean. The en- 
 trance into the Mediterranean, to be called Port Said, 
 will have an inner basin, and the channel will be 1312 
 feet in breadth. The entrance at the Red Sea, the 
 port^ of Suez, will also have an inner basin, and the 
 channel will have a breadth of 984 feet. Capital suf- 
 ficient for the accomplishment of this work is said to 
 have been subscribed, and the work actually com- 
 menced. Another canal, which has long been con- 
 templated, but opposed by Russia, as menacing the 
 prosperity of Odessa and her trade in the Black Sea 
 and the Levant, is now considered in a fair way of ac- 
 complishment. This canal will be about fifty miles in 
 length, connecting the Danube with the Black Sea, 
 and shortening the distance from Constantinople to 
 Vienna some 600 miles, besides obviating the diffi- 
 cult navigation and the pestilential miasma near the 
 mouths of that river. A charter has been granted, and 
 a company of capitalists organized. — Com. Jiel. U. S. 
 
 Consular Officers in Turkey. — In Mohammedi^n and 
 pagan countries each Christian state asserts for its 
 subjects more or less of exemption from the authority 
 of the local sovereign. Thus, at the present time, 
 throughout Christendom, the general rule prevails that 
 foreigners are subject in all criminal and in most civil 
 matters to the local jurisdiction ; but in all Moham- 
 medan and pagan states a different rule prevails. 
 
 The treaty between the United States and Turkey 
 provides that " if litigations and disputes should arise 
 between the subjects of the Sublime Porte and citizens 
 of the United States, the parties shall not be heard, 
 nor shall judgment be pronounced, unless the American 
 dragoman be present. Causes in which the sum may 
 exceed five hundred piastres shall be submitted to the 
 Sublime Porte, to be decided according to the laws of 
 equity and justice. Citizens of the United States of 
 America, quietly pursuing their commerce, and not 
 being charged or convicted of any crime or offense, 
 shall not be molested ; and even when thej- maj' have 
 committed some offense, they shall not be arrested and 
 put in prison by the local authorities, but they shall 
 be tried by their minister or consul, and punished ac- 
 cording to their ofi'ense, following in this respect the 
 usage observed toward other Franks," Under the 
 existing treaty between the United States and Turkey, 
 our commerce is placed on the footing of the most fa- 
 vored nations ; thus securing to our merchant vessels 
 the privilege of trading to all the points of Turkey in 
 Europe, Asia, and Africa, on the same conditions as 
 those granted to the most favored nations. Thus our 
 vessels may now trade to the ports of Egypt and Asia 
 Minor, to the Turkish islands of the Archipelago, and 
 to the Ottoman ports of Europe, and on the Asiatic 
 shore of the Black Sea. This is at once an immense 
 field for the enterprise of our merchants and seamen. 
 Many facilities are thus offered for the extension of 
 our commerce with the nations of the East ; and con- 
 sular officers may render important services to their 
 countrymen by collecting all the information in their 
 power in regard to the productions and commerce of 
 these countries, and transmitting it to the State De- 
 partment, by which it will be published from time to 
 time for the general advantage of American citizens. 
 — See articles CoNSTAUTiNOFLE, Beyeoot, Galatz, 
 and Smyrna. 
 
TUE 
 
 1886 
 
 TUR 
 
 COMMEEOE or THE UNITED STATES WITH TUEKET, THE LEVAKT, ETC., EKOM OOTOBEK 1, 1820, TO JULV 1, I^ST. 
 
 Years ending 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Totol. 
 
 Whereof there was in 
 Bullion end Specie. 
 
 Export. 
 
 Import. 
 
 Tonnftgo cleared. 
 
 Sept. 30, 1821. . 
 
 1823 
 
 1823 
 
 1824 
 
 1825 
 
 1826 
 
 1827 
 
 1828 
 
 1829 
 
 1830 
 
 Total. 
 
 Sept. 30, 1831 
 
 1832 
 
 1S33 
 
 1834 
 
 1835 
 
 1836 
 
 1S3T 
 
 1838 
 
 1839 
 
 1840 
 
 Total. 
 
 $30,883 
 6,124 
 
 4,8TT 
 
 25, in 
 
 34,373 
 46,897 
 131,734 
 78,374 
 27,600 
 76,801 
 
 $406,997 
 406,197 
 659,783 
 384,257 
 364,591 
 271,488 
 470,826 
 124,667 
 47,384 
 337,539 
 
 $487,880 
 4i:i,321 
 ■664,660 
 409,428 
 398,964 
 318,335 
 602,069 
 202,941 
 74,984 
 413,340 
 
 364,677 
 703,761 
 471,288 
 840,799 
 421,932 
 788,128 
 498,633 
 293,287 
 417,392 
 
 .$157,006 
 68,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 $461,834 
 
 $38,603 
 64,722 
 
 167,208 
 62,4.')8 
 83,202 
 99,085 
 36,659 
 
 142,448 
 83,320 
 
 119,745 
 
 $3,372,078 
 
 $298,304 
 681,886 
 518,411 
 821,221 
 216,822 
 634,949 
 74,653 
 116,461 
 266,054 
 156,873 
 
 $8,883,912 
 
 $886,807 
 746,608 
 686,679 
 383,619 
 280,024 
 634,034 
 111,312 
 257,909 
 349,3.74 
 276,618 
 
 $6,190,377 
 
 $821,698 
 923,629 
 786,044 
 569,511 
 387,563 
 976,371 
 693,161 
 296,633 
 629,190 
 663,476 
 
 Sept. 30,1841.. 
 
 1843.. 
 
 9 mos., 1848*. 
 
 June 30, 1844.. 
 
 1846 
 
 1847 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 
 
 1850 
 
 Total. 
 
 $877,350 
 
 $200,934 
 126,531 
 108,465 
 186,139 
 115,663 
 126,193 
 61,670 
 114,830 
 193,876 
 204,397 
 
 $3,184,694 
 
 $179,612 
 76,615 
 68,014 
 97,245 
 49,546 
 73,910 
 66,672 
 
 1110,321 
 85,120 
 53,344 
 
 $4,062,044 
 
 $380,546 
 202,036 
 176,479 
 283,384 
 165,099 
 200,103 
 127,242 
 , 225,161 
 278,936 
 257,741 
 
 $275,006 
 
 $29,500 
 2,100 
 26,461 
 26,840 
 2,752 
 23,000 
 
 ' ' 300 
 
 J,'928 
 
 $6,346,066 
 
 $614,872 
 370,248 
 182,854 
 386,866 
 781,517 
 760,998 
 577,710 
 406,028 
 374,064 
 801,023 
 
 $112,871 
 $900 
 
 35,278 
 
 June 30, 1861. 
 1882. 
 1868. 
 1864. 
 1855. 
 1856. 
 1857. 
 
 $1,437,478 
 
 $162,204 
 265,825 
 207,358 
 219,496 
 794,259 
 
 1,404,768 
 527,431 
 
 $859,299 
 
 $66,629 
 50,371 
 79,981 
 105,702 
 163,780 
 106,667 
 78,165 
 
 $2,296,777 
 
 $227,733 
 316.196 
 287,389 
 326,198 
 968,039 
 
 1,611,425 
 605,646 
 
 $5,266,180 
 
 $901,236 
 556,100 
 727,616 
 803,114 
 790,889 
 741,871 
 731,850 
 
 $36,175 
 
 $91,378 
 13,870 
 79,881 
 43,530 
 22,000 
 4,901 
 11,587 
 11,406 
 488 
 46,018 
 
 $329,158 
 
 $6,368 
 
 4,319 
 
 3,674 
 
 321 
 
 7,360 
 
 2,700 
 4,282 
 2,530 
 
 $31,554 
 
 $2!86o 
 23 
 
 2,'66o 
 
 1,893 
 1,418 
 1,876 
 2,158 
 1,817 
 1,823 
 3,109 
 60S 
 687 
 2,887 
 
 17,266 
 
 2,935 
 4,805 
 4,514 
 2,246 
 8,010 
 3.631 
 '484 
 1,293 
 2,232 
 2,187 
 
 203 
 
 1759 
 
 27,237 
 
 2,819 
 1,815 
 1,533 
 2,773 
 1,897 
 3,208 
 1,118 
 l,i;66 
 1,912 
 2,689 
 
 230 
 300 
 
 
 21,730 
 
 4,568 
 8,909 
 4,366 
 3,948 
 8,462 
 13,409 
 7,661 
 
 322 
 
 '60!) 
 902 
 1845 
 
 Nine months to June 30, and the fiscal year from this time begins July 1. 
 
 Turkey Red, a fine and durable red dyed upon 
 calico and "woolen cloth : the coloring matter used in 
 its production is madder, but the process for producing 
 it in perfection is tedious and complicated. — See Ban- 
 croft on Permanent Colors. 
 
 Turmeric, the root of the Curcuma longa. It is 
 externally grayish, and internally of a deep lively yel- 
 low or saffron color, very hard, and not unlike, either 
 in figure or size, to ginger. That should be preferred 
 which is large, new, resinous, diflacult to break, and 
 heavy. It is imported from Bengal, Java, China, etc. 
 It has a somewhat aromatic and not verj' agreeable 
 smell, and a bitterish, slightly acrid, but rather warm 
 taste. It used to be in considerable estimation as a 
 medicine ; and is extensively used in India for culin- 
 arj- purposes, entering into the composition of currj' 
 powder ahd other articles : in Europe it is only used 
 as a dye. It yields a beautiful bright yellow color, 
 which, however, is extremelj' fugitive, and no means 
 have hitherto been discovered of fixing it. It is some- 
 times employed to heighten the yellows made with 
 weld, and to give an orange tint to scarlet ; but the 
 shade imparted by the turmeric soon disappears. — 
 Lewis's Mat. Med. ; Banceoft on Colors. 
 
 Turpentine (Ger. Turpentin; Ft. Terebenthine ; It. 
 Trem^ntina ; Russ. Skipidar ; Pol. Terpentyna). There 
 are several species of turpentine, but all of them pos- 
 sess the same general and chemical properties. 
 
 1. Common Turpentine is a resinous juice which ex- 
 udes from the Scotch fir or wild pine {Pinus sylvestris"). 
 The trees which are most exposed to the sun, and have 
 the thickest barks, 3'ield it in the greatest abundance. 
 They begin to produce it when about forty years old. 
 The bark of the tree is wounded and the turpentine 
 flows out in drops, which fall into a hole, or sort of cup, 
 previously dug at the foot of the tree, holding about 
 IJ pint. It is purified by being exposed to liquefy in 
 
 the sun's rays, in barrels perforated in the bottom, 
 through which it filters. In the Southern States the 
 collection of turpentine is chiefly confided to negroes, 
 each of whom has the charge of from 3000 to 4000 
 trees. The process lasts all the year, although the 
 incisions are not made in the trees till the middle of 
 March, and the flow of the turpentine generally ceases 
 about the end of October. The boxes are emptied five 
 or six times during the year, and it is estimated that 
 250 boxes will produce a barrel weighing 320 lbs. 
 Turpentine has a strong, somewhat fragrant odor, and 
 a bitter, disagreeable taste : its consistence is greater 
 than that of honey ; its color dirty yellow ; and it is 
 more opaque than the other sorts. 
 
 2. Venice Turpentine is the produce of the larch 
 (Pinus larix). It is obtained hy boring a hole into 
 the heart of the tree about two feet from the ground, 
 and fitting into it a small tube through which the tur- 
 pentine flows into vessels prepared for its reception. 
 It is purified by straining through cloths or hair sieves. 
 It is more fluid, having the consistence of new honey, 
 a yellowish color, and is less unpleasant to the smell 
 and taste than the common turpentine. Genuine 
 Venetian turpentine is principally obtained from the 
 forests of Baye, in Provence ; but much of that to be 
 found in the shops comes from America, and is, per- 
 haps, oljtained from a different species of iir. 
 
 3. Canadian Balsam, or Tmpentine, is obtained from 
 incisions in the bark of the Pinus balsamea, a native 
 of the coldest regions of North America. It is import- 
 ed in casks, each containing about 1 cwt. It has a 
 strong, not disagreeable odor, and a bitterish taste j is 
 transparent, whitish, and has the consistence of copai- 
 va balsam. 
 
 4. Chian, or Cyprus Turpentine, is obtained from the 
 Pistacia terebinthus, a native of the north of Africa 
 and the south of Europe, and cultivated in Chios and 
 
TUR 
 
 1887 
 
 TUE 
 
 Cyprus. It flows out of incisions made in the bark of 
 the tree in the month of July, and is subsequently 
 strained and purified. It has a fragrant odor, a mod- 
 erately warm taste, devoid of aorimonj' or bitterness, 
 and a white or very pale yellow- Color ; it is about as 
 consistent as thick honey, is clear, transparent, and 
 tenacious. From its comparative high price, Chian 
 turpentine Is seldom procured genuine, being for the 
 most part adulterated either with Venetian or common 
 turpentine. The different species of turpentine may 
 be dissolved in rectified spirit, or pure alcohol ; and by 
 distillation they all give similar oils, which, from their 
 being distilled (and not from any resemblance to alco- 
 hol), are termed spirit of turpentine. If the distilla- 
 tion be performed with water, the produce is an essen- 
 tial oil, the common spirit of turpentine ; and if the 
 distillation be carried on in a retort without water, the 
 product is more volatile and pungent — a concentrated 
 oil, as it were — and is called the ethereal spirit of tur- 
 pentine. The residuum that is left in both cases is 
 a brownish, resinous mass, brittle, capable of being 
 melted, highly inflammable, insoluble in water, but 
 mixing frelely with oils: it is the common rosin of 
 commerce. — Libran/ of Eniertaining Knowledge, Vege- 
 table Substances; Thomson's Dispensatory. 
 
 Exports op ^riaiTS op Turpentine feom the "United 
 States for tub Year ending June 30, 1857. 
 
 whither oxported. 
 
 Prussia 
 
 Sweden and Norway 
 
 Danish West Indies 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Holland 
 
 Dutch Guiana 
 
 Dutch East Indies 
 
 Belgium 
 
 England 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 Malta 
 
 Canada ' 
 
 Other British North A. Possessions 
 
 British West Indies 
 
 British Honduras 
 
 British Guiana ; 
 
 British Possessions in Africa 
 
 British Australia, i 
 
 British East Indies 
 
 France on the Atlantic 
 
 France on the Mediterranean 
 
 French North American Possessions 
 
 French West Indies 
 
 Spain on the Atlantic 
 
 Spain on the Mediterranean ...... 
 
 Philippine Islands '.i 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Porto Rico 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Madeira 
 
 Sardinia 
 
 Turkey in Asia 
 
 Porta in Africa 
 
 Hayti 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Central Republic 
 
 New Granada 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Brazil ....<,,,. 
 
 Uruguay, or Cisplatine Republic. . 
 
 Argentine Republic 
 
 Chili 
 
 Peru 
 
 Ecuador 
 
 Sandwich Islands 
 
 : Other islands in the Pacific 
 
 'China 
 
 VPhale-fisheries 
 
 Total. 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 7,000 
 1,405 
 
 1,013 
 
 197,853 
 
 47,502 
 
 159,818 
 
 30 
 
 ' 1,381 
 
 52,039 
 
 749,874 
 
 33,308 
 
 2,000 
 
 1,000 
 
 17,043 
 
 3,513 
 
 9,099 
 
 282 
 
 7,708 
 
 3,945 
 
 6,050 
 
 25,589 
 
 C,000 
 
 13,076 
 
 84 
 
 967 
 
 1,655 
 
 1,'240 
 
 1,592 
 
 26,350 
 
 1,689 
 
 4,520 
 
 200 
 
 5,251 
 
 2,720 
 
 1,160 
 
 1,208 
 
 1,421 
 
 125 
 
 557 
 
 1,550 
 
 32,801 
 
 10,038 
 
 19,72'> 
 
 53,084 
 
 2^300 
 
 520 
 
 2,765 
 
 • 75 
 
 1,920 
 
 3 
 
 1,522,177 
 
 Viiluc. 
 
 $3,645 
 638 
 535 
 92,723 
 23,268 
 64,483 
 
 23,456 
 
 309,794 
 
 16,219 
 
 870 
 
 625 
 
 11,688 
 
 1,955 
 
 2,996 
 
 215 
 
 3,869 
 
 2,782 
 
 3,535 
 
 15,821 
 
 3,000 
 
 5,119 
 
 49 
 
 439 
 
 871 
 
 564 
 
 1,000 
 
 13,590 
 
 804 
 
 2,333 
 
 T6 
 
 2,597 
 
 1,395 
 
 716 
 
 796 
 
 660 
 
 60 
 
 307 
 
 777 
 
 18,096 
 
 5,770 
 
 10,318 
 
 27,887 
 
 1,486 
 
 330 
 
 1,836 
 
 60 
 
 1,539 
 
 $741,346 
 
 The manufacture of spirits of turpentine in the 
 State of Alabama was commenced witiiin the last 6ight 
 years, and, although upon a very limited scale at first, 
 the annual product has now reached upward of 1,600,000 
 gallons, and that of rosin to above 130,000 barrels. 
 In North Carolina, where the business has been car- 
 ried on for a much longer time, it is estimated that the 
 annual product of spirits amounts to 800,000 barrels. 
 
 and this would give a residue of about 3,200,000 bar- 
 rels rosin., Upon this estimate the value of the spirits 
 of turpentine annually produced in the State of North 
 Carolina is upward of $14,000,000 — nearW equal to the 
 value of the annual agricultural product of the State 
 of Maryland. Add to this the value of rosin when 
 converted into oil, which at the present market value 
 would be $19,200,000, and we find a resource in this 
 natural product of over $33,000,000 in the State of 
 North Carolina alone ; and this estimate does not in- 
 clude the tar, pitch, and naphtha, which are necessary 
 and merchantable articles, and would largely increase 
 the amount. 
 Exports op Robin and Turpentine prom the United 
 States for the Year ending June 30, 1857. 
 
 whither exported. 
 
 Russia on the Baltic and North Seas 
 
 Prussia 
 
 Sweden and Norway 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Danish West Indies 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Holland 
 
 Dutch West Indies 
 
 Dutch Guiana 
 
 Dutch East Indies 
 
 Belgium 
 
 England 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Ireland 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 Malta 
 
 Canada 
 
 Other British North A. Possessions. 
 
 British West Indies 
 
 British Guiana 
 
 British Possessions in Africa 
 
 British Australia 
 
 British East Indies 
 
 France on the Atlantic 
 
 France on the Mediterranean 
 
 French North American Possessions 
 
 French West Indies 
 
 French Guiana 
 
 Spain on the Atlantic 
 
 Spain on the Mediterranean 
 
 Canary Islands 
 
 Cuba .' 
 
 Porto Rico 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Madeira ■ 
 
 Sardinia 
 
 Two Sicilies 
 
 Austria 
 
 Austrian Possessions in Italy 
 
 Turkey in Europe 
 
 Turkey in Asia 
 
 Ports in Africa 
 
 Hayti 
 
 Mexico 
 
 New Granada 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Uruguay, or Cisplatine Republic . . 
 
 Argentine Republic 
 
 Chili 
 
 Peru 
 
 Sandwich Islands 
 
 Other islands in the Pacific 
 
 China 
 
 Total, 1856-'57 
 
 Bnrrelfi. | Vnloe. 
 
 304 
 
 11,464 
 
 103 
 
 2,995 
 
 45 
 
 47,695 
 
 28,239 
 
 52,457 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 175 
 
 70,164 
 
 271,434 
 
 32,427 
 
 4,628 
 
 3,445 
 
 3,650 
 
 10,620 
 
 2,493 
 
 432 
 
 5 
 
 420 
 
 6,365 
 
 6,361 
 
 39,477 
 
 4,723 
 
 10 
 
 166 
 
 11 
 
 l,06:i 
 
 1,298 
 
 . 75 
 
 1,107 
 
 12 
 
 3,107 
 
 215 
 
 3,243 
 
 1,358 
 
 3,940 
 
 2,246 
 
 1,300 
 
 1,525 
 
 675 
 
 35 
 
 184 
 
 5 
 
 1,027 
 
 13,946 
 
 1,180 
 
 970 
 
 2,109 
 
 660 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 25 
 
 841,617 
 
 $1,196 
 
 21,690 
 
 175 
 
 9,581 
 
 97 
 
 102,803 
 
 51,856 
 
 102,759 
 
 59 
 
 43 
 
 343 
 
 125,957 
 
 792,044 
 
 77,828 
 
 7,682 
 
 5,994 
 
 6,246 
 
 45,183 
 
 8,739 
 
 633 
 
 8 
 
 802 
 
 11,695 
 
 12,570 
 
 67,330 
 
 7,721 
 
 25 
 
 200 
 
 2,330 
 
 135 
 3,603 
 
 '21 
 8,369 
 
 387 
 6,738 
 2,443 
 7,664 
 4,424 
 2,512 
 3,005 
 1,381 
 71 
 
 492 
 
 11 
 
 3,615 
 
 25,314 
 
 1,959 
 
 1,840 
 
 4,516 
 
 1,328 
 
 8 
 
 . 30 
 
 56 
 
 $1,544,672 
 
 Oil of Turpentine is the essential oil drawn from tur- 
 pentine by distillation. There are two sorts of this 
 oil : the best, red ; and the second, white. It is very 
 extensively used by house painters, and in the manu- 
 facture of varnish, etc. The distillers have been 
 charged with using it in the preparation of gin. Oil 
 of turpentine is very often adulterated. 
 
 Turpeth Mineral (from its yellow color, which 
 resembles the powdered root of the Convolvulus tur- 
 pethum), the yellow sub-persulphate of mercury. 
 
 Turquoise (Ger. Tiirkiss; Fr. Turquoise; It. Tur- 
 ckina ; Sp. Turquesa\ a precious stone in considerable 
 estimation. Its color, which is its principal recom- 
 mendation, is a beautiful celestial blue, which migrates 
 into pale blue, and is sometimes tinged with green. 
 Specific gravity, 3'127. It is destitute of lustre, 
 opaque, and does not admit of a high polish. It is 
 
TUS 
 
 1888 
 
 TUS 
 
 much vrom in necklaces, and every part of ornamental 
 jewelry, from the size of a pin's head to that of an al- 
 mond ; it contrasts beautifully with brilliants or pearls 
 set in fine gold. — Mawe on Diamonds. Real turquois- 
 es are exclusively furnished by Persia, The mines 
 whence they are obtained are situated near Nishapore. 
 They are the property of the crown, and are farmed to 
 the highest bidder. They bring a rent of from £2000 
 to £2700 a year. — Feaser's Travels on the Shores of 
 the Caspian. 
 
 Turtle. This word is used to signify a species of 
 dove (Columba turtwr), and also a genus of Chelonian 
 reptiles {Chelone, Brongn). 
 
 Tuscany. The Grand Duchy of Tuscany com- 
 prises an area of 8586 square miles, and contained in 
 1854 a population of 1,815,686 inhabitants. Its chief 
 port is Leghorn, situated on the Mediterranean, and 
 possessing extensive artificial facilities for commercial 
 enterprise; indeed, the harbor is entirely artificial. 
 Strictly speaking, Tuscany is an agricultural country 
 — the valley of the Arno being generally considered 
 the most fertile in Europe. The system of culture is, 
 however, imperfect ; and the consequence is, that the 
 grain raised is insuflficient for home consumption. Tus- 
 cany has long been celebrated for its mineral produc- 
 tions. Iron abounds in the island of Elba ; copper, ar- 
 gentiferous lead, sulphur, mercury, alum, coal, marble, 
 and alabaster are found in different parts of the Grand 
 Duchy ; and borax is supplied in great abundance from 
 the borax lagoons of Volterra. 
 
 The manufactures of Tuscany are in a highly flour- 
 ishing condition. These consist of straw-platting and 
 the manufacture of straw hats, and manufactures of 
 silk ; the principal seat of this latter branch of indus- 
 try being at Florence, in which city alone there are 
 upward of 4000 looms. There are also manufactures 
 of wool, especially of woolen cloths and carpets ; man- 
 ufactures of linen, of paper, alabaster, marble, porce- 
 lain, hardwares, and of metal. The internal taxes 
 levied on every branch of productive industrj' through- 
 out the Tuscan territories have long fettered the com- 
 mercial activity of the countrj'. Furniture, machin- 
 erj-, books, live stock — in fact, everj' article in daily 
 use, has to bear enormous duties. Everj- walled city 
 has its own system of taxation, so that the manufac- 
 tures of one town are burdened with oppressive duties 
 (octroi') before they can be admitted for sale into an- 
 other. Such a system necessarily results injuriously 
 to the commercial enterprise of Tuscany ; and its ef- 
 fects are perceptible in the stagnant condition of the 
 foreign commerce of that countr}'. The chief exports 
 
 of Tuscany are olive-oil, hides, straw hats, borax, rags, 
 wool, hemp, potash, coral, marble, tallow, cork, build- 
 ing-timber, and paper ; and the chief imports, colonial 
 produce, salt fish, and British, German, Swiss, and 
 French manufactures. The usual exports of the United 
 States to Tuscany are naval stores : value thereof in 
 1854, $3073, and in 1855, $2930 ; spirits from molasses : 
 value in 1864, $6958, and in 1855, $42,238 ; manufac- 
 tures not enumerated, to the amount of between $2000 
 and $3000. In 1855 the exports of cotton from the 
 United States to Tuscany amounted in value to $4804, 
 and of tobacco to $171,621. The imports of the United 
 States from Tuscany are chiefly silk, piece goods, olive- 
 oil, almonds, figs, soap, small quantities of opium, and 
 rags ; this latter article averaging annually some six 
 million pounds. 
 
 There is no commercial treaty between the United 
 States and Tuscany ; but American vessels enjoy per- 
 fect equality, as respects navigation and import duties, 
 with the Tuscan flag — similar privileges having been 
 granted to the Tuscan flag in the ports of the United 
 States, per President's proclamation, Sept. 1, 1836. 
 
 The general foreign trade of Leghorn in 1851 was, 
 in imports, $14,442,900 ; and in exports, $10,308,120. 
 This is a falling off from the general trade of the pre- 
 ceding year of $933,720. This diminution in the for- 
 eign trade of Leghorn, which is every year becoming 
 more and more perceptible, is accounted for by the fact 
 that a large portion of the extensive trade with Lom- 
 bardy, Parma, Modena, and the Pontifical states, here- 
 tofore the principal source of the commercial prosper- 
 ity of this port, has passed from Leghorn, and is now 
 carried on through the ports of Genoa, Trieste, and 
 Ancona. Besides, the port of Leghorn has of late 
 years been much neglected, and offers neither induce- 
 ments nor proper facilities to foreign flags. Ships of 
 heavy draught can not enter the harbor, especially 
 if laden ; and there are no suitable warehouses, not 
 even for the marble of Carrara, one of the leading ex- 
 ports to the United States. To these causes of the de- 
 cline of the trade of Leghorn is to be added a tax of 
 3 francs 36 centimes for every person who goes ashore, 
 should he remain but an hour. The merchant marine 
 of Tuscany in 1851 comprised 700 vessels, measuring 
 27,000 tons — averaging less than 40 tons to the vessel. 
 In the year 1849 there entered the port of Leghorn 
 1282 vessels (exclusive of 457 steamers), of which 26 
 were American ; and there cleared 1139 (exclusive of 
 454 steamers), of which 24 were American. In 1851 
 the arrivals were 3418 vessels, of which 23 were Amer- 
 
 COMMBEOE BETWEEN TUE UhITED StATBS AND TuSOANT, EXUIBITING THE VAI.UE OP EXPORTS TO AMD ImpOETS 
 COHNITJY, AND THE TONNAGE OP AmIJEICAN AND POEEIGN VESSELS. 
 
 PROM EAOU 
 
 Yean. 
 
 Vnlue of Exports from United States. 
 
 Value of 
 
 Imports from 
 
 Tuscany. 
 
 American 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Foreign Tonnage. [ 
 
 Domestic 
 Produee. 
 
 Foreign 
 Produce. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Entered tlie 
 Hnited Slates. 
 
 Cleared from 
 the U. Slates. 
 
 Entered tlie 
 United Stales 
 
 Cleared from 
 the U. States. 
 
 1846 
 
 1847 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 
 
 1850 
 
 1851 
 
 $5,197 
 30,076 
 45,664 
 
 17^097 
 
 15,173 
 
 11,736 
 
 226,917 
 
 425,595 
 
 337,400 
 
 $23',468 
 
 22,640 
 37,032 
 42,669 
 6,583 
 
 $5,197 
 30,076 
 69,132 
 
 17,697 
 
 37,813 
 
 48,707 
 
 269,686 
 
 431,178 
 
 337,490 
 
 $216,539 . 
 
 866,617 
 1,162,717 
 1,709,604 
 1,696,801 
 1,760,000 
 
 3,387 
 
 6,415 
 5,323 
 7,599 
 6,701 
 B,210 
 11,098 
 16,696 
 12,466 
 10,819 
 
 343 
 1,956 
 2,658 
 1,686 
 2;537 
 1,513 
 1,302 
 2,192 
 2,386 
 2,898 
 
 1,412 
 500 
 1,636 
 3,364 
 7,871 
 4,710 
 4,159 
 1,226 
 4,819 
 7,012 
 1,963 
 2,567 
 
 255 
 37B 
 
 '666 
 !;60 
 485 
 235 
 224 
 387 
 237 
 381 
 
 1852 
 
 1853 
 
 1854 
 
 1856 
 
 1856 
 
 1857 
 
 Quarantine. — The quarantine regulations of Leghorn 
 are the most rigorous of any other port in the Mediter- 
 ranean. Ships approaching Leghorn are visited by 
 two guards sent from the health office, one of whom 
 always acts as pilot. The most recent authoritj' in 
 the possession of the Department on this subject thus 
 sums up the quarantine regulations of this port, so far 
 as they relate to vessels arriving from American ports : 
 
 Days of Quarantine. — According to cases of suspicion 
 for arrivals from America. 
 
 Clean Bills — Days of Observation. — First division : 
 
 from the equator to the tropic of Cancer ; from 1st 
 December to Februarj- inclusive, seven days ; from 1st 
 March to November inclusive, ten daj's ; vessels of 
 war two days less than merchant vessels. Second 
 division : from the tropic of Cancer to Charleston in- 
 clusively, and from the equator to all South America, 
 five days, from 1st December to February inclusive ; 
 seven days, from 1st March to November inclusive. 
 Third division : from the United States between 
 Charleston and Canada. 
 
 Doubtful Bills of Health — Days of Quarantine. — Laz- 
 
TUS 
 
 1889 
 
 TYK 
 
 aretto of St. Rocb, all seasons, and wherever from, from 
 1st December to February inclusive, eighteen days j 
 from 1st March to November inclusive, eighteen days ; 
 vessels of war,, ten days j without susceptible commod- 
 ities, rigid, fourteen days, from 1st December to Feb- 
 ruarj' inclusive ; eighteen days, from 1st March to No- 
 vember inclusive. 
 
 Foul Bills ofHeaUh — Days of Quarantine. — Lazaret- 
 to of St. Koch, allseasons, and wherever from, twenty- 
 five days J without susceptible commodities, from 1st 
 December to February inclusive, eighteen days ; from 
 1st March to November inclusive, twenty-five days ; 
 susceptible commodities, days not given, but time sup- 
 posed to be arbitrary, and dependent on the continu- 
 ance of suspicious circumstances. 
 
 These regulations are still more rigid when vessels 
 arrive from countries in which the plague has been 
 known to ejtist. These include the ^Turkish Le,vant, 
 Egypt, and Barbary. When vessels are subjected to 
 a long CLuarantine, three medical visits are generally 
 Blade ; iind when merely under inspection, two. In 
 extraordinary cases a guard-boat is stationed near the 
 vessel, and paid for at the rate of 64 cents per day. In 
 all. cases of assistance from sanitary officers, the com- 
 mandant of the port determines the amount of com- 
 pensation. The vessels of all nations, whether Tuscan 
 or foreign, pay the same quarantine dues. These dues 
 are, for each sanitary visit 80 cents, and $1 08 for the 
 boat conveying the health officer. For each guard, 
 per day, 58 cents ; or 48 cents if food is supplied. The 
 tonnage duties amount to $11 20 on a square-rigged 
 vessel of 200 tons, with an additional charge of $1 60 
 for every twenty-five tons over that capacity.— C. D, 
 
 Parma embraces an area ,of 2766 square miles, con- 
 tainuig a population in 1854 of 508,784 , inhabitants. 
 The chief productions are maize, wheat, fruit, tobacco, 
 and silk. The principal manufactures are silk fabrics, 
 iron wares, glass, earthen-ware, paper, straw hats, and 
 gunpowder. Commercially, Parma possesses but little 
 interest, her importations being exclusively by land 
 and limited to small quantities of sugar, coifee, and a 
 few articles of luxury, principally of dress and orna- 
 ment. Her exports are cattle, hogs, sausages, and 
 cheese., 
 
 Modena. — This state is of less extent than Parma, 
 and its productions scarcely suffice for the subsistence 
 of the inhabitants. It derives some commercial im- 
 portance from the marble quarries at Carrara, which 
 seem to be inexhaustible. The trade of both these 
 states being inland, and but poorly supplied with any 
 basis for commercial exchanges, is, of course, very in- 
 considerable. By treaty of December 4, 1849, the two 
 states of Parma and Modena adopted the tariff of Aus- 
 tria, and duties are consequently levied at the same 
 rates and in the same manner as those of that empire. 
 
 Lucca. — This little state was annexed to Tuscany 
 October 11, 1847, This took place in .virtue of provi- 
 sions of the Congress of Vienna, when, upon the de- 
 cease of the Archduchess Maria Louisa, the Duke of 
 Lucca became ruler of Parma. The soil is exceeding- 
 ly fertile, and the culture of oil and silk is acquiring 
 some importance — the former being generally esteem- 
 ed the best in Italy, and the latter of fair quality. 
 The imports of Lucca, when an independent state, con- 
 sisted chiefly of sugar, coffee, spices, wine and spirits, 
 salt fish, hemp, flax, cotton, wool, and various manu- 
 factures. Salt and tobacco were government monop- 
 olies, and their importation on private account was pro- 
 hibited. The exports were olive-oil, to an annual 
 value of about $160,000, and fresh fish, of $50,000— 
 the latter sent chiefly to Leghorn from the small port 
 of Viareggio, In manufacturing industry' Lucca is 
 said to surpass both Farma and Modena, Silk is the 
 most important manufacture ; and next rank common 
 woolens and cottons, giving employment, in all, it is 
 estimated, to about 6000 persons, chiefly in the city of 
 Lucca. 
 
 6D 
 
 San Marino. — Eural industry and the manufacture 
 of silk constitute the chief occupation of this little re- 
 public. 
 
 Monaco.— Tim small principalitj', under the protec- 
 tion of Sardinia, by the treaty of November 20, 1815, 
 enjoys a fine climate, and produces oranges, lemons, 
 and olives in abundance. It has also rich pasturages 
 and productive fisheries. It need only be added re- 
 specting these small states, that such articles of their 
 own produce and manufacture, or of the United States, 
 as are interchanged, are so blended with the trade of 
 other countries, that any attempt to specify the quan- 
 tities or values of each respectively would prove abor- 
 tive, even were the amounts sufficiently large to war- 
 rant the effort. — See articles Austria and Teieste, 
 
 Tutenag, the name given in Commercial language 
 to the zinc or spelter of China, — See ZiNO. This com- 
 modity used to be smuggled from China (the exports^ 
 tion of unwrought metals from that empire being pro- 
 hibited) to Hindostan, the Malay Archipelago, and 
 neighboring countries, to the amount, it is supposed, 
 of about 60,000 cwt. a year. In 1820 the British free- 
 traders introduced German spelter or zinc for the first 
 time into the Indian market. In 1826 the importation 
 of tutenag from China into Calcutta ceased ; and it has 
 now been totally superseded throughput India by spel- 
 ter. Of this latter commodity there were exported 
 from Great Britain, in 1850, to the East India Com- 
 pany's territories and Ceylon, 11,628 cwt., besides the 
 quantities furnished by Hambm-g, Eotterdam, Ant- 
 werp, and other Continental ports. 
 
 Typhoon, the name given to a violent tornado or 
 hurricane in the Chinese seas. — See Storms. 
 
 Tyre, the principal city of Phoenicia, and the most 
 celebrated emporium of the ancient world. This fa^ 
 mous citj' was situated on the southeast coast of the 
 Mediterranean, where the inconsiderable town of Tsour 
 now stands, in lat. 33° 17' N., long. 35° 14' 35" E. 
 The trade that is at present carried on at Tsour is too 
 trifling to deserve notice ; but as this work is intended 
 to give some account, however imperfect, of the revo- 
 lutions in the channels of commercial enterprise, we 
 maj', perhaps, be excused for submitting a few state- 
 ments with respect to the commerce carried on by so 
 renowned a people as the Tyrians. Tyre was founded 
 by a colony -from Sidon, the most ancient of the Phoe- 
 nician cities. The date of this event is not certainly 
 known, but Larcher supposes it to have been 1690 years 
 before the Christian era. — Chronologic d'Eerodote. It 
 is singular, that while Homer mentions Sidon, he takes 
 no notice of Tyre, whose glory speedily eclipsed that 
 of the mother citj' ; but this is no conclusive proof that 
 the latter was not then a considerable emporium. The 
 prophets Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel, who flourished 
 from 700 to 600 years before Christ, represent Tyre as 
 a city of unrivaled wealth, whose " merchants were 
 princes, and her traffickers the honorable of the earth." 
 Originally, the city was built on the main land ; but 
 having been besieged for a lengthened period by the 
 Babylonian monarch Nebuchadnezzar, the inhabitants 
 conveyed themselves and their goods to an island at a 
 little distance, where a new city was founded, which 
 enjoyed an increased degree of celebrity and commer- 
 cial prosperity. The old city was, on that account, 
 entitled Palaetyre, and the other simply Tyre. The 
 new city continued to flourish, extending its colonies 
 and its commerce on all sides, till it was attacked by 
 Alexander the Great. The resistance made by the 
 Tyrians to that conqueror showed that they had not 
 been enervated by luxury, and that their martial vir- 
 tues were nowise inferior to their commercial skill and 
 enterprise. The overthrow of the Persian empire was 
 effected with less difficulty than the capture of this 
 single city. The victor had not magnanimity to treat 
 the vanquished as their heroic conduct deserved. In 
 despite, however, of the cruelties inflicted on the city, 
 she rose again to considerable eminence. But the 
 
TYR 
 
 1890 
 
 TTB 
 
 foundation of Alexandria, by diverting the commerce 
 that had formeriy centred at Tyre into a new chan- 
 nel, gave her an irreparable blow ; and she gradually 
 declined, till, consistently with the denunciation of the 
 prophet, her palaces have been leveled with the dust, 
 and she has become " a place for the spreading of nets 
 in the midst of the sea." 
 
 Commerce, — Phoenicia was one of the smallest coun- 
 tries of antiquit}-. It occupied that part of the Syrian 
 coast which stretches from Aradus (the modem Eouad) 
 on the north to a little below Tyre on the south, a dis- 
 tance of about 50 leagues. Its breadth was much less 
 considerable, being for the most part bounded by Mount 
 Libanus to the east, and Mount Carmel on the south. 
 The surface of this narrow tract was generally rugged 
 and mountainous ; and the soil in the valleys, though 
 moderately fertile, did not aiford sufficient supplies of 
 food to feed the population. Libanus and its depend- 
 ent ridges were, however, covered with timber suitable 
 for ship-building ; and besides Tyre and Sidon, Phoe- 
 nicia possessed the ports of Tripoli, Byblos, Berytus, 
 etc. In this situation, occupying a country unable to 
 supply them with sufBcient quantities of com, hemmed 
 in by mountains, and by powerful and warlike neigh- 
 bors on the one hand, and having on the other the 
 wide expanse of the MediteiTanean, studded with isl- 
 ands, and surrounded by fertile countries, to invite the 
 enterprise of her citizens, they were naturally led to 
 engage in maritime and commercial adventures ; and 
 became the boldest and most experienced mariners, and 
 the greatest discoverers, of ancient times. 
 
 From the remotest antiquity, a considerable trade 
 seems to have been carried on between the Eastern 
 and Western worlds. The spices, drugs, precious 
 stones, and other valuable products of Arabia and In- 
 dia, have always been highly esteemed in Europe, and 
 have been exchanged for the gold and silver, the tin, 
 wines, etc., of the latter. At the first dawn of authentic 
 history, we find Phcenicia the principal centre of this 
 commerce. Her inhabitants are designated in the 
 early sacred writings by the name of Canaanites — a 
 term which, in the language of the East, means mer- 
 chants. The products of Arabia, India, Persia, etc., 
 were originally conveyed to her by companies of trav- 
 eling merchants or caravans, which seem to have been 
 constituted in the same way, and to have performed 
 exactly the same part in the commerce of the East, in 
 the dayS of Jacob, that they do at present. — Gen. 
 xxxvii. 25, etc. At a later period, however, in the 
 reigns of David and Solomon, the Phoenicians, having 
 formed an alliance with the Hebrews, acquired the 
 ports of Elath and Ezion-geber, at the northeast ex- 
 tremity of the Eed Sea. Here they fitted out fleets, 
 which traded with the ports on that sea, and probably 
 with those of Southem Arabia, the west coast of India, 
 and Ethiopia. The ships are said to have visited 
 Ophir ; and a great deal of erudition has been expend- 
 ed in attempting to determine the exact situation of 
 that emporium or countrj-. We agree, however, with 
 Heeren, in thinking that it was not the name of any 
 particular place, but that it was a sort of general des- 
 ignation given to the coasts of Arabia, India, and Af- 
 
 rica, bordering on the Indian Ocean ; somewhat in the 
 same loose way as we now use the terms East and 
 West Indies. 
 
 The distance of the Eed Sea from Tyre being verj- 
 considerable, the conveyance of goods from the one to 
 the other by land must have been tedious and expens- 
 ive. To lessen this inconvenience, the Tynans, short- 
 ly after they got possession of Elath and Ezion-geber, 
 seized upon Ehinoculura, the port in the Mediterranean 
 nearest to the Eed Sea. The products of Arabia, In- 
 dia, etc., being carried hither by the most compendious 
 route, were then put on board ships, and conveyed by 
 a brief and easy voyage to Tj're. If we except the 
 transit by Egypt, this was the shortest and most direct, 
 and for that reason, no doubt, the cheapest channel by 
 which the commerce between Southem Asia and Eu- 
 rope could then be conducted. But it is not believed 
 that the Pha;nicians possessed any permanent footing 
 on the Eed Sea after the death of Solomon. The want 
 of it does not, however, seem to have sensibly affected 
 their trade ; and Tyre continued, till the foundation of 
 Alexandria, to be the grand emporium for Eastern 
 products, with which it was abundantly supplied by 
 caravans from Arabia, the bottom of the Persian Gulf, 
 and from Babylon, by way of Palmyra. 
 
 The commerce of the Phcenicians with the countries 
 bordering on the Mediterranean was still more extens- 
 ive and valuable. At an early period they established 
 settlements in Cyprus and Ehodes. The former was 
 a very valuable acquisition, from its proximity, the 
 number of its ports, its fertility, and the variety of its 
 vegetable and mineral productions. Having passed 
 successively into Greece, Italy, and Sardinia, they pro- 
 ceeded to explore the southem shores of France and 
 Spain, and the northern shores of Africa. Thej' af- 
 terward adventured upon the Atlantic, and were the 
 first people whose flag was displayed beyond the Pil- 
 lars of Hercules. 
 
 The commerce and navigation of Tyre probably at- 
 tained their maximum from 650 to 550 years before 
 Christ. At that period the Tj-rians were the factors 
 and merchants of the civilized world, and they enjoj'ed 
 an undisputed pre-eminence in maritime affairs. The 
 prophet Ezekiel (chap, xxvii.) has described in mag- 
 nificent terms the glory of Tyre, and has enumerated 
 several of the most valuable productions found in her 
 markets, and the countries whence they were brought. 
 The fir-trees of Senir (Hermon), the cedars of Lebanon, 
 the oaks of Bashan (the countr;' to the east of Galilee), 
 the ivory of the Indies, the fine linen of Egypt, and 
 the purple and hyacinth of the isles of Elishah (Pelo- 
 ponnesus), are specified among the articles used for her 
 ships. The inhabitants of Sidon, Arvad (Aradus), 
 Gebel (Byblos), served her as mariners and carpenters. 
 Gold, silver, lead, tin, iron, and vessels of brass ; slaves, 
 horses, mules, sheep, and goats; pearls, precious stones, 
 and coral ; wheat, balm, honey, oil, spices, and gums ; 
 wine, wool, and silk, are mentioned as being brought 
 into the port of Tyre by sea, or to its markets bj' land, 
 from Syria, Arabia, Damascus, Greece, Tarshish, and 
 other places, the exact site of which it is difficult to 
 determine. — See M'Cclloch's Com. Diet. 
 
ULT 
 
 1891 
 
 UNI 
 
 U. 
 
 Ultramarine (Ger. UUramarm ; Fr. Bkii d'outre- 
 mer; It. Oltramarino; Sp. Ultramar; Rnss. Ultrama- 
 riii), a very fine blue powder made from the blue parts 
 of Lapia lazuli. It has the valuable property of nei- 
 ther fading nor becoming tarnished on exposure to the 
 air or a moderate heat, and on this acconnt is highly 
 prized by painters. Owing to its great price, it is very 
 apt' to be adulterated. It was introduced about the 
 end of the 15th century. 
 
 Umbrella. Described in early dictionaries as " a 
 portable pent-house to- carry in a person's hand, to 
 screen him from violent rain or heat." Umbrellas are 
 very ancient. It appears, by the carvings at Persepo- 
 lis, that umbrellas were used at very remote periods by 
 the Eastern princes. Sttebuhr, who visited the southern 
 part of Arabia, informs us that he saw a-great prince 
 of that country returning from a mosque preceded by 
 some hundreds of soldiers, and that he and each of the 
 piinces of his numerous family caused a large umbrella 
 to be carried by his side. The old china-ware in pan- 
 tries and cupboards shows the Chinese shaded by an 
 umbrella. It is said that the first person who used an 
 umbrella in the streets of London was the benevolent 
 Jonas Hanway, who died in 1786. — Haydn. Of late 
 years the manufacture of umbrellas has been improved 
 by the use of steel ribs instead of whalebone. The cov- 
 erings are plainly confined to cotton, silfcj gingham, 
 and alpaca. 
 ExpoBTS Op Umheellas and Paeasolb or domestic Mantj- 
 
 PAOTURB PEOSf THE UhITED STATES FOE THE YbAE END- 
 ING June 30, IS6T. 
 
 whither exported. Value. 
 
 Gibraltar $98 
 
 Canada ; 931 
 
 British North American Colonies. . . . ; v 4328 
 
 British West Indies .; i . . . . . 26S 
 
 Africa 188 
 
 Hayti 30 
 
 Mexico ■ 341 
 
 Central Republic ; 65 
 
 New Granada 523 
 
 Sandwich Islands 74 
 
 Total. $6846 
 
 The exports of umbrellas and parasols of foreign 
 manufacture for the same period were. 
 
 To Mexico $1012 
 
 " Whale-fislieries 90 
 
 Total $110i 
 
 Impoets op Umbeellab, Paeabolb, and Stjn-suadeb, of 
 Silk iUn> othee kinds, into tue United' States foe the 
 Yeae BiojiNG June 30, 1857. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Hamburg $45 
 
 Bremen 2,9T0 
 
 Belgium 321 
 
 England 5,301 
 
 Scotland 3B9 
 
 Canada 4S 
 
 France on the Atlantic ' 53,265 
 
 Spain on the Mediterranean , 60 ' 
 
 New Granada 2,991 
 
 Total, year 1S56-'5T $65,360 , 
 
 United Kingdom, a general term by which 
 Great Britain and Ireland are designated. — See'ctrtU 
 cles England, Great Britain, Ireland, and Scot- 
 land. 
 
 United States of America. Lat. 25° 20' and 
 49° N., and long. 67° 47' and 124° 30' W. Length, 
 east and west, about 2600 miles ; and breadth, north and 
 south, about 1700 miles. The United States occupy 
 the middle zone of North America. The frontier of 
 this vast country measures about 10,000 miles in pe- 
 riphery, and of this about 4000 miles are sea-coast and 
 1500 lake coast. 
 
 The seat of government was established as follows : 
 At "Philadelphia," Pennsylvania, commencing 5th 
 September, 1774, and 10th May, 1775 ; at " Baltimore," 
 Maryland, 20th December, 1776; at "Philadelphia," 
 Pennsylvania, 4th March, 1777 ; at " Lancaster," Penn- 
 
 sylvania, 27th September, 1777; at "York," Pennsyl- 
 vania, SOth September, 1777 ; at " Philadelphia," Penn- 
 sylvania, 2d July, 1778 ; at " Princeton," New Jersey, 
 SOth June, 1783; at "Annapolis," Maryland, 26th 
 November, 1783; at "Trenton," New Jersey, 1st No- 
 vember, 1784; and at "New York City," NewTork, 
 11th January, 1785 ; Washington City, district of Co- 
 lumbia, was first occupied in 1800. 
 
 Physical Features. — The United States are traversed 
 by two ranges of mountains, the Alleghanies, and the 
 great mountain mass of North AmeHcij, the Kooky 
 Mountains. These divide the country into three dis- 
 tinct geographical regions; the: Atlantic slope, de- 
 scending from the crest of the Alleghanies to the ocean 
 on the southeast ; the great Mississippi Valley, be- 
 tween the Alleghanies and the Rocky Mountains ; and 
 the western declivity, from the Eocky Mountains to 
 the Pacific. The Alleghanies are a long plateau, crest- 
 ed with several mountain ridges, and groups separated 
 from each other by wide and elevated valleys. They 
 commence in Northern Alabama and Georgia, and 
 reach their culminating point in North Carolina, where 
 they attain an elevation of 6476 feet ; thence passing 
 northeasterly in parallel ridges, varying in height from 
 20b0 feet to 6000 feet, and a breadth of from 20 to 100 
 miles, through Virginia, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, 
 NewYork, Massachusetts, Vermont, New Hampshire, 
 and Eastern Canada, where they terminate in the bold 
 headland of Cape Gaspfe. In New York they reach 
 their highest elevations in the .spur branching off north- 
 westerly, known as the Catskill Mountains and the 
 Adirondack group. In Massachusetts, atMount Wash- 
 ington. In Vermont It attains its highest elevation in 
 the Green Mountains, known as the Mansfield Mount- 
 ain and the Caihers Hump. In New Hampshire, in 
 the White Mountains ; and in Canada, at Mount Logan. 
 
 The Eocky Mountains take a much greater breadth, 
 and the culminating points reach the region of eternal 
 snows, rising in the portion passing through the Unit- 
 ed States to the height of 14,000 feet. This is the 
 great mountain range of the continent, traversing it 
 from Cape Horn to the Arctic Ocean, forming the lon- 
 gest'continuous mountain mass on the face of the globe. 
 Between this range and the Pacific coast are some 
 minor mountain ridges, whose culminations in several 
 places rise far above the snow line, and furnish some 
 active volcanoes. 
 
 The Mississippi River has its entire course in the ter- 
 ritory of the republic, and the valley drained by it, and 
 its nutnerous tributaries, is one of the most fertile tracts 
 on the earth's surface. The most noted feature of the 
 United States is the slightly inclined plain, which ex- 
 tends along the entire Atlantic coast, with a breadth 
 of from 50 to 100 miles in width ; beyond this plain 
 commences the hilly country extending to the foot of 
 the Alleghany ridge. The soil of the Atlantic plain is 
 sandy, but in many places highly productive ; and the 
 hilly portion has a strong, fertile soil, capable of sup- 
 porting a dense population. The Pacific section is 
 traversed by several extensive rivers, and presents a 
 much diversified surface, with varied and picturesque 
 scenery; but some portions are mere desert wastes. 
 Such is said to be the case with the great California 
 basin, the water courses of which are lost in the sands 
 and volcanic regions, or enter lakes with no visible 
 outlet. 
 
 Lakes. — ^All the great lakes, with the exception of 
 Michigan and Champlain, lie partly in Canada, the 
 division line passing centrally through them, and their 
 connecting streams, for a distance of about 1500 miles. 
 The first (the most extensive sheet of fresh water on 
 the earth's surface) in the series is Lake Superior, the 
 surplus waters of which, descending through the Strait 
 of St. Marys into Lake Huron, which, with the accu- 
 
UNI 
 
 1892 
 
 UJNi 
 
 mulated waters from Michigan, pass through the St. 
 Clair Strait and Lake, and the Detroit into Lake Erie ; 
 whence, passing over the precipice of Niagara, and 
 through Niagara Straits, enter Ontario ; Lake Ontario 
 has its outlet by the magnificent St. Lawrence, through 
 Canadian territory, into the Atlantic Ocean. The fol- 
 lowing is a tabular statement of the extent of these 
 fresh-water seas, with their depth and elevation : 
 
 Lnbes. 
 
 Mean 
 
 Monn 
 
 Area. 
 
 Meau 
 
 Elevation 
 
 LongtU. 
 
 Breadth. 
 
 Doptli. 
 
 above Sea. 
 
 
 Miles. 
 
 MUes. 
 
 S(i. Miles. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Superior 
 
 4011 
 
 80 
 
 a2,ooo 
 
 900 
 
 B9S 
 
 Michigan . . . 
 
 320 
 
 TO 
 
 22,400 
 
 1000 
 
 5T8 
 
 G-reen Bay . . 
 
 100 
 
 20 
 
 2,000 
 
 1000 
 
 5T8 
 
 Huron 
 
 240 
 
 80 
 
 20,400 
 
 1000 
 
 678 
 
 St. Clair .... 
 
 20 
 
 14 
 
 360 
 
 20 
 
 6T0 
 
 Erie 
 
 240 
 
 40 
 
 9,600 
 
 84 
 
 665 
 
 Ontario 
 
 180 
 
 SB 
 
 6,300 
 
 50O 
 
 232 
 
 Lake Champlain, lying between New York and Ver- 
 mont, is 128 miles long, and from 1 to 16 wide, and dis- 
 charges its waters through the Sorel into the St. Law- 
 rence. It is computed that these lakes contain 14,000 
 cubic miles of water — a quantity more than five-sevenths 
 of all the fresh water of the earth. The extent of the 
 country drained by them from the northwest angle 
 of Lake Superior to the St. Lawrence, including also 
 the area of the lakes themselves, is estimated at 335,515 
 square miles. — See Lakes, Commerce of. 
 
 Rivers. — The water courses of the United States are 
 on an extensive scale, and afford, with the great arti- 
 ficial connecting linl^s, a system of inland navigation 
 unsurpassed. First in order are those of the Atlantic 
 slope, the waters of which enter directly into the ocean ; 
 the principal of these are the Penobscot, the Kennebec, 
 the Merrimac, the Connecticut, the Hudson, the Dela- 
 ware, the Susquehanna, the Potomac, the James, the 
 Cape Fear, the Great Pedee, the Savannah, the Alta- 
 maha, and St. Johns, etc. These are all navigable 
 streams, some for a great distance inland. Second, 
 the rivers entering the Gulf of Mexico or Sea of Cortez. 
 The Appalachicola, the Mobile, the immense Mississip- 
 pi, the Sabine, the Trinity, the Brazos, the Colorado, 
 and the Kio Grande. The rivers entering the Pacific 
 are the Columbia, the Sacramento and San Joaquin, 
 the Colorado, and Gila, the latter two discharging their 
 waters into the Gulf of California. There are many 
 rivers entering the great lakes, and also the St. Law- 
 rence, the great artery of Canada. — See rivers under 
 proper names. 
 
 A remarkable analogy exists in the structure of the 
 land in the United States and Central and Northern 
 Europe. Gneiss, mica, schist, and granite, prevail 
 over wide areas in the Alleghanies ; and on the Atlan- 
 tic slope, and in the high and middle latitudes of the 
 continent, silnrian strata extend over 2000 miles. The 
 Rocky Mountains, also, are mostly Silurian, except the 
 east ridge, which is of stratified crystalline rocks, 
 amj'gdaloid, and ancient volcanJE productions. The 
 coast range has the same characteristics, with im- 
 mense tracts of volcanic rocks, both ancient and mod- 
 ern, chiefly obsidian. In North America volcanic ac- 
 tion is entirely confined to the coast and highlands 
 along the Pacific; but within the United States at the 
 present day this action is dormant (with the exception 
 of Mount St. Helens), although its activity is very 
 apparent both to the north and south — to the north in 
 Mount St. Elias, and to the south in the Mexican vol- 
 canoes. The principal minerals produced in the Unit- 
 ed States are iron, coal, copper, lead, and gold, with 
 a great number of less importance. Since 1848 the 
 great field of gold gathering has been California, where 
 large quantities have been obtained with little labor, 
 and both silver and quicksilver abound in the same 
 state. Silver, however, is mostly obtained from the 
 lead and copper mines of the Upper Mississippi and 
 Lake Superior countries, where it is found in combi- 
 nation with these metals. The principal deposits of 
 gold, otherwise thaji those of California, occur in the 
 
 primary rocks between the Eiver Bappahannock, in 
 Virginia, and the Coosa, in Alabama ; but it has been 
 found in smaller quantities as far north as Maine. 
 Gold and silver abound also in New Mexico and 
 Western Texas, and probably in the Mesilla territory. 
 The coal-fields ot the States are of prodigious extent. 
 Nearly one-fourth of the country between the Alle- 
 ghanies and the Mississippi is composed of coal-beds; 
 and in Pennsylvania, Maryland, Ohio, Indiana, and 
 Illinois, coal-mining has become of vast importance to 
 general industry. The ascertained areas of the coal 
 formation in the under-mentioned States are as fol- 
 lows : In Alabama, 3400 square miles ; Georgia, 150 ; 
 Tennessee, 4300; Kentucky, 13,500; Virginia, 21,195; 
 Maryland, 550 ; Ohio, 11,900; Indiana, 7700; Illinois, 
 44,000 ; Pennsylvania, 15,437 ; Michigan, 5000 ; and 
 Missouri, 6000 : total, 133,132 square miles. Coal has 
 also been found on the Pacific slope — in California, 
 Oregon, and Washington — and the mineral will no 
 doubt be found in Texas and the adjoining country. As 
 a general remark, it may be stated that the coal east 
 of the highest Alleghanies takes the form of -anthra- 
 cite, while west, and in the valleys of the great central 
 rivers, it is bituminous. Iron is equally abundant 
 with coal, and is usually found in juxtaposition. with 
 it. The principal seats of iron mining are Pennsyl- 
 vania, New Jersey, Ohio, Missouri, Kentucky, and 
 Northern Michigan ; and it is also extensively mined 
 in Northern New York. Pennsylvania, however, is 
 pre-eminent in this industry, and produces at least one 
 half the iron mined in the United States. Copper is 
 mined chiefly in Northern Michigan, but to a less ex- 
 tent in Connecticut, New York, Tennessee, North 
 Carolina, etc. ; and rich copper mines exist also in 
 New Mexico, near the head of the Gila Eiver. Lead is 
 worked chiefly in Illinois, Wisconsin, and Iowa; on 
 the Mississippi, and for many miles around the terri- 
 tory, in which are included Dubuque, Galena, and 
 Mineral Point; and in these regions upward of 30,000 
 tons are annually produced. (With respect to other 
 mineral products refer to the States severally.) 
 
 Historical Summart/. — Eighteen new States have been 
 admitted into the Union since the confederation of the 
 original thirteen colonies, as follows : 
 
 1. Vermont^ which formed a part of the territory of 
 New York and New Hampshire, was admitted on the 
 4th March, 1791. 
 
 2. Kentuchy, which was formerly a part of Virginia, 
 was admitted on the 1st June, 1792. 
 
 3. Tennessee^ formed from the territory ceded to the 
 United States by North Carolina, and which afterward 
 was known as the " Territory south of the Ohio Eiver," 
 was admitted on the 1st June, 1796. 
 
 4. Ohio, the first State formed from the " Territory 
 northwest of the Ohio River" — a territor}' which had 
 been ceded to the United States by Virginia and other 
 claimants, and which was erected into a government 
 as earlv as 1787, was admitted on the 29th November, 
 1802. 
 
 5. Louisiana, a part of the vast territory of the same 
 name purchased of France bythe United States in 1803, 
 and subsequently known as the Territory' of Orleans, 
 was admitted on the 8th April, 1812. 
 
 6. Indiana, the second State formed to the northwest 
 of Ohio, was admitted within its present limits on the 
 11th December, 1816. 
 
 7. Mississippi, which was formed from the territory 
 ceded to the United States by South Carolina and 
 Georgia, was admitted on the 10th December, 1817. 
 
 8. Illinois, the third of the Northwestern States, was 
 admitted on the 3d December, 1818. 
 
 9. Alabama, the second State formed from the South 
 Carolina and Georgia cessions, was admitted on the 
 14th December, 1819. 
 
 10. Maine, originally a province of Massachusetts, 
 but having been permitted to frame a State government 
 by that State, was admitted on the 15th March, 1820. 
 
imi 
 
 1893 
 
 UNI 
 
 11. Missouri, the second State formed from the 
 French purchase, was admitted on the 10th August, 
 1821. 
 
 12. Arhmsas, the third State formed from the Louisi- 
 ana cession, was admitted on the 15th June, 1836. 
 
 13. Michigan, the fourth State formed from the ter- 
 ritory northwest of the Ohio River, was admitted on 
 the 26th June, 1837. 
 
 14. Florida, which has the same limits as when 
 ceded by Spain, was admitted on the 3d March, 1845. 
 
 15. Texas, which had been an independent republic 
 for the ten preceding' years, was admitted by a joint 
 resolution of both Houses of Congress on the 29th De- 
 cemberj 1845. 
 
 16. Iowa, the fourth State formed from the Territory 
 of Louisiana, was admitted on the 28th December, 1846. 
 
 17. Wisconsin, the fifth State fonned from the ter- 
 ritory northwest of the Ohio Eiver, was admitted on 
 the 29th May, 1848. 
 
 And, 18. California, having been governed as a State 
 for upward of a year, was admitted on the 9th T)ecem- 
 ber, 1850 ; and though the last, it is by no means the 
 least important of the members of the great confed- 
 erticy. 
 
 Besides these thirty-one States, which send repre- 
 sentatives to Congress, in number according to thtiir 
 population, there are several local and dependent gov- 
 ernments, which are styled "Territories of the United 
 States." Such are the Territories of Oregon, Wash- 
 ington, Utah, New Mexico, and Minnesota. The Ter- 
 ritory of Nebraska is not yet organized, nor has the 
 vast territory set apart for the Indians any aggregate 
 existence, but each Indian nation, within its own 
 limits, is governed by its own laws. 
 
 1. Oregon was erected into a Territory on the 14th 
 August, 1848 ; 
 
 2. Minnesota on the 3d March, 1849 ; 
 
 3. Utah; and, 
 
 4. New Mexico, on the 9th September, 1850 ; and, 
 
 5. Washington, originally a part of Oregon, was 
 formed into a separate Territory at the session of Con- 
 gress 1852-'53. 
 
 The only Territory now remaining without local 
 government is that portion of the United States em- 
 braced in the Nebraska countrj', and the vast domain 
 extending beyond Minnesota and Iowa westward to 
 the Eocky Mountains, and north of the 43d parallel 
 of north latitude. The tide of immigration, however, 
 has already reached to the edge of the wilderness, and 
 but a few years will elapse before settlement has pro- 
 gressed sufficiently to justify the organization of new 
 governments within these immense solitudes. 
 
 The District of Columbia, or Federal District, is un- 
 der the immediate authority of Congress, and is not 
 represented in that body. It is the seat of the General 
 Government. 
 
 Area of the United States. — The limits of the United 
 States when their independence was achieved (1783) 
 did not exceed 820,680 square miles. Louisiana, pur- 
 chased from France in 1803, and Florida from Spain in 
 1819, added respectively an extent of 899,579 and 
 66,900 square miles. In 1842 and 1846 the Northern 
 boundary was settled by treaties with Great Britain, 
 confirming the rights' of the United States to 308,052 
 square miles, included in the Territory of Oregon, etc. 
 In 1846 Texas was annexed, with an area of 318,000 
 square miles, and by a treaty soon afterward with 
 Mexico an area of 522,955 additional square miles was 
 incorporated. Thus did the territory Of the United 
 States double itself in the first twenty years of its ex- 
 istence, and thus has it increased over three-fold in less 
 than sixty years. The figures are given upon the 
 authority of a statement prepared at the Topographical 
 Bureau for the Census office, and annexed. 
 
 Tebmtohial Inobbase of the Ukitbt> States. 
 
 Territory. Square Milea. 
 
 Area'of the United States at the peace of 1T83 820,680* 
 
 The'purchase of Louisiana added (about) 899,5T9* 
 
 (The limits were indefinite v those here assumed 
 are the boundaries of the treaty of 1819, with the 
 exception of Florida and parts of Mississippi and 
 Alabama.) 
 The acquisition of Florida (treaty of 1819), added 68,900 
 
 Admission of Texas (Emory's map of 1844j 318,000 
 
 Oregon ti-eaty , 308,052 
 
 Treaty with Mexlcot 622,965 
 
 Second treaty with Mexico 27,600 
 
 Total 2,963,666 
 
 The territorial extent of the republic is, therefore, 
 nearly ten times as large as that of Great Britain and 
 France combined; three times as large as the whole 
 of France, Britain, Austria, Prussia, Spain, Portugal, 
 Belgium, Holland, and Denmark, together ; one and a 
 half times as large as the Russian empire in Europe ; 
 one-sixth less only than the area covered by the fifty- 
 nine or sixty empires, states, and republics of Europe ; 
 of equal extent with the Roman empire, or that of 
 Alexander, neither of which is said to have exceeded 
 3,000,000 square miles. — VoltaieE, Sistoire de Russie. 
 
 Considered in lesser divisions, the calculations of the 
 Topographical Bureau show the existence of an interior 
 valley drained by the waters of the Mississippi and its 
 tributaries, nearly as large as the slopes of the Pacific 
 and Atlantic proper together, and one-third larger than 
 the whole domain of the republic upon the adoption 
 of the present Constitution (1789). 
 
 Akba ob EAon Slope and Ratio to the total Aeba of the United States. 
 
 Territory. 
 
 Pacific slope 
 
 Atlantic slope proper 
 
 Northern Lake region 
 
 Gulf region ..- • • 
 
 Atlantic, Lake, and Gnlf east and west of the Mississippi 
 
 Mississippi valley, drained by the Mississippi and its tributaries . 
 
 Atlantic, Including Northern Lake 
 
 MisBlsslppi valley and Gulf, or Middle region 
 
 By second treaty with Mexico 
 
 Aggregate 
 
 614,410 
 112,649 
 325,637 
 
 627,065 
 1,543,093 
 
 Area in 
 Square AlUes. 
 
 766,002 
 
 1,217,562 
 27,500 
 
 2,963,666 
 
 Kfltio of Area of each 
 Slope to total Area 
 orthiited States. 
 
 26-09 
 lT-52 
 3-83 
 11-09 
 32-44 
 41 -47 
 2136 
 52-66 
 
 Thus over two-fifths of the national territory is 
 drained by the Mississippi and its tributaries, and more 
 than one half is embraced in what may be called its 
 Middle Region. One-fourth of this total area belongs to 
 the Pacific, one-sixth to the Atlantic proper, one-twen- 
 ty-sixth to the Lakes, one-ninth to the Gulf, or one- 
 third to the Atlantic, including the Lakes and the Gulf. 
 
 From the charts prepared some years ago by Colonel 
 Gilpin, of Missouri, it will be perceived that a circle 
 described from the forks of the Kansas River, west of 
 Missouri, will tpuch New Orleans and Galveston, or 
 the Gulf frontier, and the 49th parallel of latitude, our 
 
 northern boundary, making these points equidistant 
 fiom tlie centre. On a larger circle, with the same 
 centre, the points of equidistance will be San Francisco, 
 
 * These estimates are lower than those usually made. 
 Morse, in his Gazettes, estimates the area of the Union In 
 1783 at 1,000,000 square miles ; and Major Stoddard, who took 
 possession of Louisiana under the treaty and prepared a very 
 valuable history of it, considers the area to be 1,307,260. 
 These, of course, were but vague estimates, subject to after 
 correction. Again, Oregon has generally been estimated at 
 341,463; Texas, 402,907; California, 448,691.— DEBo-ft-'sXn- 
 dustrial Resources, vol. ill. 
 
 t The Mesilla valley is included in the computation. 
 
UNI 
 
 1894 
 
 UNI 
 
 in California, Fort Vancouver on the Columbia, in 
 Oregon, Quebec and Boston upon the Atlantic, Hud- 
 son's Bay on the extreme north, and Havana, Vera 
 Cruz, and the city of Mexico, on the extreme south. 
 The various great basins, declivities, and table-lands 
 on the continent he estimates as follows : Mississippi 
 basin, 1,123,100 square miles; St. Lawrence, 475,400; 
 Hudson's Bay, 1,077,200; Mackenzie basin, 898,500; 
 Pacific declivity, 420,000; Atlantic declivfty, 270,700 
 square miles. ■ - , . ^ 
 
 Mr. Darby, in his Geographical Dictionary, gives 
 the following aggregates: Valley of the Ohio, 200,000 
 square mile.s ; Valley of the Mississippi proper, 180,000 ; 
 Valley of the Missouri, 500,000; and the Valley of the 
 Lower Mississippi, 330,000. Total, 1,210,000 square 
 miles. 
 
 Lieutenant Maury compares the basins of the Old 
 World with those which are drained into the Gulf of 
 Mexico and Caribbean .seas. 
 
 Mediterranean in Europe 1,160,000 
 
 Nile 620,000 
 
 Euphrateo 196,000 
 
 Indus 312,000 
 
 Ganges 432,000 
 
 Irrawaddy 331,000 
 
 Others of India 1T3,000 
 
 Of WeBtern Europe, Rhine, etc T30.000 
 
 Total of Mediterranean India and "W. Europe . . . 3,854,000 
 
 Basin of Mississippi 983,000 
 
 Basins in Florida and Texas 529,000 
 
 Mexico and Central America 300,000 
 
 Amazon 1,796,000 
 
 Orinoco and all others of the Caribbean Sea 700,000 
 
 Total of Gulf and Caribbean Sea 4,298,000 
 
 8,854,000 
 
 Difference in square miles 444,000 
 
 Lieutenant Maury remarks, " The area of all the val- 
 leys which are drained by the rivers of Europe which 
 empty into the Atlantic, all the valleys that are drained 
 by the rivers of Asia which empty into the Indian 
 Ocean, and of all the valleys that are drained by the 
 rivers of Africa and Europe which empty into the 
 Mediterranean, does not cover an extent of territory 
 as great as that included in the valleys drained by the 
 American 'rivers alone, which discharge themselves 
 into one central sea." 
 
 Dr. Patterson, of Philadelphia, made the centre of 
 representative population of the Union in 1840 in the 
 northwestern extremity of Virginia, and states that it 
 had traveled westw;ard since 17S0, when it was in Bal- 
 timore county, Maryland, 182 miles in very nearly the 
 same parallel of latitude. 
 
 The following table will show the area included 
 within the several geographical divisions which are 
 named : 
 
 AeEA of the SEVBItAl GEEAT DIVISIONS OF THE UNITED 
 
 States. 
 
 Area included in 
 
 The States 
 
 The Territories ; 
 
 XoD-GlaTeholding States not Terri-) 
 
 tories / 
 
 Slaveholding States not Territories . . . 
 
 New England States 
 
 Middle States 
 
 Southern States 
 
 Southwestern States 
 
 Northwestern States , 
 
 East of the Mississippi 
 
 Between the Mississippi and Kockyi 
 
 Mountains , J 
 
 "West of the Mississippi , . . 
 
 North of latitude 36° 80' 
 
 South of latitnde 36° SO' 
 
 West of the Rocky Mountains 
 
 East of the Rocky Mountains 
 
 1,464,106 
 1,472,061 
 
 612,597 
 
 851,508 
 65,038 
 114,«24 
 258,709 
 474,436 
 395,319 
 865,576 
 
 1,200,381 
 
 2,070,590 
 
 1,970,077 
 
 966,089 
 
 870,209 
 
 2,065,!)57 
 
 Per Cent, of 
 total Area. 
 
 49 80 
 50-14 
 
 20-86 
 
 29-00 
 2-21 
 3 90 
 8-81 
 16 15 
 13-46 
 29-48 
 
 40-38 
 70-52 
 67-10 
 3-2-90 
 29-64 
 70-S5 
 
 The United States consist at the present time (1858) 
 of thirty-one independent States and nine Territories, 
 including the District of Columbia, whose areas will 
 be found in the table annexed, prepared at the Topo- 
 graphical Bureau. It is the-only official statement. 
 There were in 1850 sixteen hundred and twenty coun- 
 
 ty divisions included -within the organized States and 
 Territories, but it is impossible to give any satisfac- 
 tory statement of their areas. By reference to the sta- 
 tistical tables of these counties in the United States 
 Census Eeport, it will be found how liable they are to 
 changes, and also what changes were actually effected 
 between 1840 and 1850. 
 
 Aeea of the States and Teekitoeies of the United 
 States. 
 
 state or Territory. 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 California 
 
 Columbia, District of 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Florida 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Indian Ter. (S. of Kansas) 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Kan.oas 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Louisii^na 
 
 Maine 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Minnesota TeiTitory 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Missouri 
 
 Nebraska Territory 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 New Mexico Territoi-y 
 
 Sew York 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Oregon Territory 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Texas. 
 
 Utah Territory 
 
 Virginia 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Washington Territory 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 Area obtained by treaty ) 
 with Mexico ( 
 
 Aggregate. 
 
 Area in 
 Square 
 Miles. 
 
 511,722 
 62.198 
 
 155; 980 
 
 60 
 
 4,674 
 
 2,120 
 
 59,268 
 
 58,000 
 
 55,405 
 
 33,809 
 
 71,127 
 
 50,914 
 
 114,798 
 37,680 
 41,265 
 31,760 
 11,124 
 7,600 
 66,243 
 
 166,025 
 47,156 
 67,380 
 
 335,882 
 9,280 
 
 207,007 
 47,000 
 8,320 
 50,704 
 39,964 
 
 185,030 
 46,000 
 1,306 
 29,385 
 45,600 
 
 237,504 
 
 269,170 
 61,352 
 10,212 
 
 123,022 
 53,924 
 
 27,500 
 
 •iJ,963,6U6 
 
 Per Cent, 
 of total 
 Area. 
 
 1-73 
 1-78 
 8-32 
 
 0-16 
 0-07 
 2 02 
 198 
 1-89 
 1-15 
 2-42 
 1-73 
 3-91 
 1-28 
 1-40 
 1-08 
 0-38 
 0-26 
 1-01 
 5-66 
 1-61 
 2-29 
 11-44 
 0-32 
 7-05 
 1-60 
 0-28 
 1-73 
 1-36 
 6-30 
 1-57 
 0-04 
 1-01 
 1-65 
 8-09 
 9-17 
 2-10 
 0-35 
 4-19 
 184 
 
 Rank of 
 States, etc.. 
 Territorially, 
 
 20 
 18 
 
 7 
 40 
 37 
 88 
 13 
 14 
 16 
 29 
 10 
 19 
 
 9 
 28 
 26 
 SO 
 82 
 86 
 16 
 
 6 
 22 
 11 
 
 1 
 34 
 
 4 
 23 
 ?5 
 21 
 27 
 
 5 
 24 
 39 
 31 
 26 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 83 
 
 The Territory of Nebraska constitutes one-ninth, 
 Utah one-eleventh, Texas one-twelfth. New Mexico 
 one-fourteenth, Oregon one-sixteenth, Missouri and 
 Virginia a little more than one-fiftieth each. South 
 Carolina one-hundredth, Massachusetts one-three hun- 
 dred and eightieth, and Rhode Island one-two thousand 
 three hundredth part of the national area. 
 
 In addition to the above States, it is proposed to add 
 to the Union the States of Minnesota (the bill for the 
 admission having already passed the Senate), Kansas, 
 Oregon (and, when this territory shall be more devel- 
 oped, a further division of Oregon -will take place, add- 
 ing one or more States), Ontonagnon (including the 
 northwestern part of Michigan, and embracing territory 
 as large in extent as New York State), Nebraska, and 
 Washington. It is also proposed, when Texas shall 
 increase sufficiently in population to make a division 
 of that State advisable, to divide it into one or two 
 more States. Ratios of representations for Congress, 
 1790 and 1800, 1 to 33,000 ; 1810, 35,000 ; 1820, 40,000 ; 
 1830, 47,700; 1840, 70,680; 1850, 93,420. Act of 1850 
 fixes the number of members at 233, to which afterward 
 was added 1 for California; Massachusetts, Rhode Isl- 
 and, Connecticut, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Alabama, 
 Tennessee, Kentucky, Missouri, Indiana, Texas, South 
 Carolina, and Georgia, 1 member each for largest frac- 
 tions. Future ratios of apportionment to be determined 
 by the Secretary of Interior, by dividing the number 
 233 into whole representative population, giving States 
 with largest fralotions members to make up the total. 
 Members from new States admitted shall be in addition 
 to the 233 until the next census. 
 
UNI 
 
 1895 
 
 UNI 
 
 POBULATION, PoPtriATION TO SquAEE MUB, CAPITALS, AND POPtntATION OF CAPITAI.8 Or THE STATES ANB TEBEITOSIES 
 
 OF THE United States in the Yeas 1850. 
 
 states nnd TomlflrieB. 
 
 Whites. 
 
 Population, 1860. 
 
 Free Colored, ' Slaves. 
 
 Fopnlation to 
 Square Mile... 
 
 Capitals. 
 
 Montgomery 
 
 Little Rock 
 
 Sacramento 
 
 Raleigh 
 
 Columbia 
 
 Washington Citt 
 
 Hartford 
 
 Dover 
 
 Tallahassee 
 
 Columbus 
 
 Spring^eld 
 
 Indianapolis 
 
 Iowa City 
 
 Frankfort 
 
 Batdn Rouge 
 
 Augusta 
 
 Annapolis 
 
 Boston 
 
 Lansing 
 
 St. Paul , 
 
 Jackson 
 
 Jefferson City.,..., 
 
 Concord ', 
 
 Santa F6 
 
 Albany 
 
 Trenton 
 
 Columbus '. . . 
 
 Salem :., 
 
 Harrisburg 
 
 -Providence 
 
 Nashville...; 
 
 Austin ; 
 
 Fillmore City 
 
 Richmond 
 
 Montpelier 
 
 Olympia. . . : 
 
 Madison 
 
 Population 
 of Capitals. 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 California 
 
 Caroliua, North 
 
 Carolina, South 
 
 Columbia, District of . 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Florida 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Indiana t 
 
 Indian Territory 
 
 Iowa , 
 
 Kansas Territory 
 
 Kentucky ., 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Maine 
 
 Maryland ;.. 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Mfisilla Territory .'. . . . 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Minnesota Territory . . 
 
 Miesissippi.^ !. ... 
 
 Missouri .............. 
 
 Nebraska Territor;^ . , . 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 New Mexico Territory. 
 
 Now York 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Oregon Territory . . . . . 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Rhode Island ' 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Texas 
 
 Utah Territory 
 
 "Virginia 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Washington Territory. 
 Wisconsin 
 
 426,514 
 162,189 
 
 91,635 
 663,028 
 274,563 
 
 87,941 
 863,099 
 
 71,169 
 
 47,203 
 621,672 
 846,034 
 977,154 
 
 191,881 
 
 761,413 
 265,491 
 681,813 
 417,943 
 986,450 
 
 2,265 342,844 771,623 
 
 608 47,100 209,897 
 
 962 .... 92,697 
 
 27,463, 288,684 869,039 
 
 8,960 384,984 668,507 
 
 10,059 3,687 61,687 
 
 7,693 .... 370,792 
 
 18,073 2,290 91,632 
 
 932 39,310 87,446 
 
 2,931 881,682 906,185 
 
 6,436 .... 851,470 
 
 11,262 .... 988,410 
 
 (Inhabited by about 110,000 Indians.l 
 
 ' 338 I .... I 192,214 I 
 
 (No white inhabitants in 1850.) 
 
 16-2 
 
 4-0 
 
 05 
 
 19-1- 
 
 23-8 
 
 1033-7 
 
 78 -i 
 
 43-2 
 
 1-5 
 
 16-6 
 
 15-4 
 
 395,071 
 
 6,038 
 
 296,718 
 
 692,004 
 
 317,456 
 
 61,625 
 
 3,048,328 
 
 466,509 
 
 1,955,050 
 
 12,038 
 
 2,268,160 
 
 143,875 
 
 766,836 
 
 154,034 
 
 11,330 
 
 894,800 
 
 313,402 
 
 1,049 
 
 304,766 
 
 10,011 
 17,142 
 1,366 
 HT23 
 ' 9,064 
 
 2,683 
 
 39 
 
 ' 930 
 
 ! 2,618 
 
 210,981 
 244,809 
 
 90,363 
 
 309,878 
 87,422 
 
 261 
 12-5 
 16 T 
 63 
 137-2 
 (The population can not exceed 10,000, chiefly Indians.) 
 
 " ' ' 7-1 
 
 0-0 
 12-8 
 10-5: 
 
 (No white inhabitan s in 1850.) 
 
 Total. 
 
 19,653,068 
 
 620 
 
 22 
 
 49,069 
 
 23,810 
 
 26,279 
 
 65 
 
 83,626 
 
 8,6T0 
 
 6,422 
 
 397 
 
 24 
 
 64,333 
 
 718 
 
 163 
 
 635 
 
 434,495 
 
 239,469, 
 58,160 
 
 982,405 
 617,762 
 583,169 
 688,084 
 994,614 
 
 397,664 
 
 6,077 
 
 606,626 
 
 682,044 
 
 317,976 
 61,647 
 8,097,394 
 
 489,665 
 
 1^980,329 
 
 12,093 
 
 2,311,786 
 
 147,848 
 1,002,717 
 
 212,892 
 
 11,880 
 
 1,421,661 
 
 314,120 
 ' 1,201 
 
 306,391 
 
 3,204,813 23,191,8T6 
 
 39-6 
 0-3 
 67-3 
 71-4 
 49-6 
 0-0 
 
 0-6 
 
 0-i 
 
 23-2 
 
 39-2 
 
 0-0 
 
 5-6 
 
 8,728 
 2,167 
 6,820 
 4,518 
 6.060 
 40,001 
 13,565 
 4,207 
 1,391 
 8,942 
 4,533 
 8,091 
 
 i,68'3 
 
 3,308 
 
 3,908 
 
 11,763 
 
 3,011 
 
 136,881 
 
 i,229 
 1,333 
 1,881 
 3,000 
 
 , 8,570 
 
 4,846 
 
 60,763 
 
 6,461 
 
 17,882 
 
 600 
 
 7,834 
 
 41,613 
 
 11,498 
 
 629 
 
 200 
 
 27,570 
 
 2,310 
 
 200 
 
 1,871 
 
 7-0 
 
 Aggbegate Population ani> Density of the 
 
 States and Teesitoeies of the 1 
 
 Jnited States. 
 
 
 states and Territories 
 
 Population. 
 
 Density. | 
 
 1790. 
 
 1800. 
 
 1810. 
 
 1820. 
 
 1830. 
 
 1840. 
 
 1850. 
 
 1840. 
 
 1850. 
 
 Alabama 
 
 238,141 
 69,096 
 
 82,548 
 
 73,077 
 
 96,840 
 
 319,728 
 378,717 
 
 14V,899 
 184,139 
 340,120 
 393,751 
 
 434,373 
 
 69,110 
 
 249,073 
 
 - 38,791 
 
 85,416 
 748,308 
 
 14;693 
 251,002 
 64,273 
 
 162,101 
 
 4"S75 
 
 220^955 
 
 15i',7i9 
 341,543 
 .423,245 
 
 8^850 
 
 183,762 
 211,949 
 586,766 
 478,103 
 
 45,365 
 602,361 
 
 69,122 
 345,691 
 106,602 
 
 16i;465 
 880,200 
 
 24,023 
 
 262,042 
 
 72,674 
 
 252,433 
 12,282 
 24,520 
 
 406;6il 
 
 76,556 
 
 228,705 
 
 380,646 
 
 472,040 
 
 4,762 
 
 40,352 
 
 20,845 
 
 214,860- 
 
 246,555 
 
 959,049 
 
 655,500 
 
 230,760 
 
 810,091 
 
 77,031 
 
 416,116 
 
 261,727 
 
 217,713 
 974,622 
 
 127,901 
 14,273 
 
 33,639 
 276,202 
 72,749 
 
 340,987 
 88,211 
 147,178 
 
 66k',3i7 
 
 153,407 
 
 298,335 
 
 407,360 
 
 623,287 
 
 8,896 
 
 78,448 
 
 66,666 
 
 244,161 
 
 277,675 
 
 1,372,812 
 
 638,829 
 
 ,, 681,434 
 
 1,049,463 
 
 83,059 
 
 602,741 
 
 422,813 
 
 235^64 
 1,065,379 
 
 309,627 
 30,383 
 
 39,834 
 297,675 
 76,748 
 34,730 
 5)6,823 
 187,445 
 343,031 
 
 687,917 
 215,739 
 399,456 
 447,040 
 610,408 
 31,639 
 186,621 
 140,465 
 269,328 
 320,823 
 
 1,918,608 
 737,987 
 937,908 
 
 1,348,233 
 
 97,199 
 
 581,185 
 
 681,904 
 
 280,652 
 1,211,405 
 
 5,318 
 
 590,756 
 97,574 
 
 43,712 
 
 309,978 
 
 78,085 
 
 ■64,477 
 
 691,392 
 
 476,183 
 
 685,866 
 
 43,112 
 
 779,828 
 
 352,411 
 
 601,793 
 
 470,019 
 
 T37,699 
 
 212,267 
 
 375,681 
 
 383,702 
 
 284,574 
 
 373,306 
 
 2,428,921 
 
 783,419 
 
 1,619,467 
 
 1,724,033 
 
 108,830 
 
 594,398 
 
 829,210 
 
 29l',948 
 
 1,239,797 
 
 30,945 
 
 6,100 
 
 771,623 
 
 209,897 
 
 92,597 
 
 81,6S7 
 
 370,792 
 
 91,632 
 
 87,445 
 
 906,185 
 
 851,470 
 
 988,416 
 
 192,214 
 
 982,408 
 
 617,762 
 
 533,169 
 
 633,034 
 
 994,614 
 
 397,664 
 
 606,326 
 
 682,044 
 
 317.976 
 
 489,555 
 
 3,097,394 
 
 869,039 
 
 1,980,829 
 
 2,311,736 
 
 147,546 
 
 668,607 
 
 1,002,717 
 
 212,692 
 
 314,120 
 
 1,421,661 
 
 306,391 
 
 6,077 
 
 61,647 
 
 13,294 
 
 11,380 
 
 11-65 
 1-87 
 
 437-12 
 66-32 
 36-83 
 
 0-92 
 11-93 
 
 8-69 
 20-28 
 
 0-86 
 20-70 
 
 8-64 
 16-80 
 42-25 
 54-68 
 
 3-77 
 
 7-97 
 
 8-69 
 30-67 
 44-87 
 61-68 
 14-86 
 38-02 
 37-48 
 83-33 
 20-28 
 18-18 
 
 28 59 
 
 20-21 
 
 0-57 
 
 15-21 
 
 4-02 
 
 069 
 
 861-45 
 
 79-33 
 
 43-18 
 
 1-48 
 
 16-62 
 
 16-37 
 
 29-24 
 
 3-78 
 
 26-07 
 
 12-55 
 
 18-36 
 
 62-41 
 
 127-50 
 
 7-07 
 
 12-36 
 
 10-12 
 
 34-26 
 
 68-84 
 
 66 90 
 
 17-14 
 
 49-58 
 
 80-26 
 
 112-97 
 
 22-75 
 
 21-99 
 
 0-89 
 
 30-76 
 
 2317 
 
 6-66 
 
 0-04 
 
 0-30 
 
 0-07 
 
 0-04 
 
 
 Columbia, District of. 
 
 
 Florida 
 
 
 Illinois 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Michiffan 
 
 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 Ohio , 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Khode Island 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 Texas , 
 
 
 
 
 Minnesota Territory. . 
 New Mexico Territory 
 
 Oregon Territory 
 
 Utah Territory 
 
 Total 
 
 5,308,937 
 Less 12 
 
 9,638,191 
 Less 60 
 
 3,929,827 
 
 5,305,925 
 
 7,239,814 
 
 9,638,131 
 
 12,866,020 
 
 17,069,453 
 
 23,191,876 
 
 9-55 
 
 7-90 
 
 Density of Popiilation to Squabb Milk hj the United 
 
 Years. Density. 
 1790 4 79 
 
 1800 6-4T 
 
 1810 4-21 
 
 Years. 
 1820 
 1830, 
 1840, 
 
 States. 
 
 Density. 
 . 5-39 
 . 7-20 
 . 9-55 
 
 Years. 
 
 1880. 
 
 Density. 
 . 7-90 
 
 For an explanation of the principle upon which the 
 following table may be constructed, see Professor 
 Tockek's Progress of the United States, p. 107. By- 
 starting with the population of 1790 as a basis, which 
 was 3,929,827, and adding three per cent, for every 
 
UNI 
 
 1896 
 
 UNI 
 
 year, making 4,047,721 for 1791, 4,169,152 for 1792, 
 and so on for every year until 1850, Mr. Darby, the 
 Tvell-known geographer, arrived at results -which, when 
 compared with the particular census years, showed as 
 follows : 
 
 Yearn. Estimated. Census. 
 
 1800 -5,'281,468 5,305,925 
 
 1810 7,095,964 7,289,814 
 
 1820 9,586,182 9,638,131 
 
 1830 12,811,118 12,866,020 
 
 1840 17,217,706 17,069,453 
 
 1850 231138,004 23,191,876 
 
 Aggregate Poptji-ation op the United States fob eaoh 
 Yeae eeosi 1790 TO 1860.— ( 1 uE Rate feom 1840 to 1850 
 
 IS ASSUMED AS DATA FOR THE NEXT DbOADB.) 
 
 yoors. 
 
 Aggregate. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Aggregate. 
 
 Yoais. 
 
 Aggregate, 
 
 1790.. 
 
 . 8,029,827 
 
 1814.. 
 
 . 8,117,710 
 
 1838.. 
 
 . 16,131,087 
 
 1791.. 
 
 . 4,049,600 
 
 1816.. 
 
 . 8,353,333 
 
 1839.. 
 
 . 10,593,680 
 
 1792.. 
 
 . 4,178,024 
 
 1310.. 
 
 . 8,695,806 
 
 1840.. 
 
 . 17,069,453 
 
 1793.. 
 
 . 4,800,210 
 
 1817. . 
 
 . 8,845,812 
 
 1841.. 
 
 . 17,600.753 
 
 1794. . 
 
 . 4,481,272 
 
 1818.. 
 
 . 9,102,060 
 
 1842.. 
 
 . 18,148,589 
 
 1795. . 
 
 . 4,666,329 
 
 1819.. 
 
 . 9,366,261 
 
 1843.. 
 
 . 18,713,479 
 
 1T96.. 
 
 . 4,706,504 
 
 1830.. 
 
 . 9,638,181 
 
 1844.. 
 
 . 19,296,971 
 
 1797. . 
 
 . 4,848,919 
 
 1821.. 
 
 . 9,920,600 
 
 1845. . 
 
 . 19,396,674 
 
 1798. . 
 
 . 4,996,706 
 
 1822.. 
 
 . 10,211,848 
 
 1840. . 
 
 . 20,615,871 
 
 1799. . 
 
 . 5,148,994 
 
 1823.. 
 
 . 10,510,618 
 
 1847.. 
 
 . 21,154,444 
 
 1800. . 
 
 . 5,305,925 
 
 1824. . 
 
 . 10,818,659 
 
 1848.. 
 
 . 21,812,893 
 
 1801.. 
 
 . 6,478,407 
 
 1825.. 
 
 . 11,135,727 
 
 1819. . 
 
 . 22,491,805 
 
 1802. . 
 
 . 6,646,176 
 
 1826.. 
 
 . 11,462,088 
 
 1850.. 
 
 . 28,191,876 
 
 1803.. 
 
 . 6,834,898 
 
 1827. . 
 
 . 11,798,018 
 
 1861.. 
 
 . 23,873,717 
 
 1804.. 
 
 . 6,008,246 
 
 1828.. 
 
 . 12,143,780 
 
 1852. . 
 
 . 24,57.5,604 
 
 1805.. 
 
 . 6,197,897 
 
 1839.. 
 
 . 12,499,687 
 
 1853.. 
 
 . 25,298,126 
 
 1806. . 
 
 . 6,393,584 
 
 1830.. 
 
 . 12,866,020 
 
 1854.. 
 
 . 26,041,890 
 
 1807.. 
 
 . 6,596,346 
 
 1831.. 
 
 . 18,284,931 
 
 18.W. . 
 
 . 26,807,521 
 
 1808.. 
 
 . 6,803,528 
 
 1832.. 
 
 . 13,614,420 
 
 1856. . 
 
 . 27,595,662 
 
 1809. . 
 
 . 7,018,283 
 
 1883. . 
 
 . 14,004,789 
 
 186T.. 
 
 . 28,406,974 
 
 1810.. 
 
 . 7,239,814 
 
 13.34. . 
 
 . 14,406,350 
 
 1858.. 
 
 . 29,242,139 
 
 1811.. 
 
 . 7,449,900 
 
 1836.. 
 
 . 14,819,426 
 
 1SS3,. 
 
 . 30,101,857 
 
 1812.. 
 
 . 7,606,206 
 
 1800.. 
 
 . 15,244,344 
 
 I860.. 
 
 . 30,986,661 
 
 1813.. 
 
 . 7,388,729 
 
 1837.. 
 
 . 15,681,447 
 
 
 
 The national census was conducted under the direc- 
 tion of the Secretary of State until the formation of the 
 Department of the Interior (March 3, 1849), when it 
 was made a, subordinate branch of that office. The 
 Statistics were obtained by the marshals of the district 
 courts prior to 1850, and special deputies appointed un- 
 der them. Several months were usually devoted to the 
 labor; and the returns thus obtained, being subject to 
 the errors arising from changes and removals in the 
 interim, consequently were not always reliable. 
 
 The following is an estimate of the progress of popu- 
 lation from the year 1860 to the close of the century : 
 
 Years. 
 1861.. 
 1862. . 
 1868.. 
 1864. . 
 1866. . 
 1866.. 
 1867. . 
 1868.. 
 1869.. 
 1870. . 
 1811.. 
 1872. . 
 1873.. 
 1874. . 
 
 Aggregate. 
 32,028,400 
 82,989,252 
 33.978,928 
 34,998,825 
 35,038,231 
 86,089,377 
 37,170,958 
 33,286,086 
 89,434,663 
 40,617,708 
 41,836,239 
 43,091,532 
 44,384,064 
 45,715,585 
 
 Years, 
 1875. 
 1876. 
 1877. 
 1378. 
 1879. 
 1880. 
 1881. 
 1882. 
 1883. 
 1884. 
 1885. 
 1886., 
 1887. 
 1888. 
 
 Aggregate. 
 47,087,052 
 48,499,663 
 49,964,652 
 61,463,291 
 52,996,889 
 54,686,795 
 56,224,399 
 57,911,130 
 69,648,463 
 61,447,916 
 63,291,363 
 65,190,192 
 67,145,917 
 69,160,294 
 
 Years. 
 1889. 
 1890. 
 1891. 
 1892. 
 1893. 
 1894. 
 1895. 
 1896. 
 1807. 
 1898. 
 1899. 
 1900. 
 1901. 
 
 Aggregate. 
 . 71,238,122 
 ,. 73;382,185 
 . 75,673,639 
 . 77,840,848 
 . 80,176.063 
 . 82.681,344 
 . 86,058,784 
 . 87,610,547 
 . 90,228,863 
 . 92,985,728 
 . 95,723,799 
 . 98,696,612 
 .101,563,377 
 
 Agriculture. — The following table will show the rela- 
 tive number of farms, and quantity of acres in each in 
 the several States and Territories of the United States, 
 as well as the value of farms and implements. The 
 unimproved land embraces such as is in occupancj^ and 
 necessary to the enjoyment of the improved, though not 
 itself reclaimed. Meadow-lands in all of the States, 
 are therefore regarded improved. 
 
 
 Fakming Lands and Imphovements op the United States, I860. 
 
 
 
 states and Territories. 
 
 FarniB, 
 Planta- 
 tions, etc. 
 
 Acres of 
 
 improved 
 
 Land. 
 
 Acres of 
 
 unimproved 
 
 Land. 
 
 Average 
 Number 
 t}{ Acres 
 to each 
 Farm. 
 
 Cost Value 
 of Farms. 
 
 Value of 
 Farming 
 
 and 
 Machinery. 
 
 Average 
 Value of 
 Farms. 
 
 Average 
 Value of ■ 
 Farming 
 
 [mplements 
 and 
 
 Machinery. 
 
 Average 
 Value of 
 
 Farms, Im- 
 plements, 
 and 
 
 Machinery. 
 
 
 41,964 
 
 17,758 
 
 872 
 
 267 
 
 22,446 
 
 6,063 
 
 4,304 
 
 81,769 
 
 76,208 
 
 93,896 
 
 14,805 
 
 74,777 
 
 13,432 
 
 46,760 
 
 21,860 
 
 34,069 
 
 34,089 
 
 33,960 
 
 54,458 
 
 29,229 
 
 28,905 
 
 170,621 
 
 66,963 
 
 143,807 
 
 137,577 
 
 6,386 
 
 29,907 
 
 72,736 
 
 12,198 
 
 29,763 
 
 77,013 
 
 20,177 
 
 167 
 
 3,750 
 
 1,164 
 
 926 
 
 4,435,614 
 
 781,680 
 
 32,464 
 
 16,267 
 
 1,763,178 
 
 580,862 
 
 849,049 
 
 6,878,479 
 
 5.039,545 
 
 6,046,543 
 
 824,632 
 
 6,968,270 
 
 1,500,026 
 
 2,039,606 
 
 2,797,905 
 
 2,138,436 
 
 1,929,110 
 
 3,444,358 
 
 2,938,425 
 
 2,251,438 
 
 1,767,991 
 
 12,408,964 
 
 6,463,976 
 
 9,361,493 
 
 8,633,619 
 
 356,487 
 
 4,072,551 
 
 5,176,178 
 
 643,976 
 
 2,601,409 
 
 10,360,136 
 
 1,045,499 
 
 6,085 
 
 166,201 
 
 132,857 
 
 16,338 
 
 7.702,067 
 
 1,816,684 
 
 3,861,631 
 
 11,18T 
 
 615,701 
 
 876,282 
 
 1,246,240 
 
 16,442,900 
 
 6,997.867 
 
 7,746,879 
 
 1,911,382 
 
 10,981,478 
 
 3,399,018 
 
 2,615,797 
 
 1,836,445 
 
 1,222,576 
 
 2,454,780 
 
 7,016,061 
 
 6,794,246 
 
 1,140,926 
 
 984,955 
 
 6,710,120 
 
 16,643,008 
 
 8,146,000 
 
 6,294,728 
 
 197,451 
 
 12,145,049 
 
 13,808,849 
 
 10,862,363 
 
 1,624,413 
 
 15,792,176 
 
 1,931,159 
 
 23,846 
 
 124,370 
 
 299,951 
 
 80,616 
 
 289 
 146 
 4466 
 103 
 108 
 168 
 371 
 441 
 153 
 186 
 185 
 227 
 372 
 
 97 
 212 
 
 99 
 129 
 309 
 179 
 116 
 115 
 113 
 369 
 126 
 117 
 103 
 641 
 261 
 943 
 139 
 340 
 148 
 184 
 
 77 
 372 
 
 61 
 
 $64,323,224 
 
 16,266,246 
 
 8,874,041 
 
 1,730,460 
 
 72,726,422 
 
 18,880,031 
 
 6,323,109 
 
 96,753,445 
 
 96,133,290 
 
 136,386,173 
 16,667,667 
 
 156,021,262 
 75,814,398 
 54,861,748 
 87,178,645 
 
 109,076,347 
 61,872,446 
 64,738,634 
 63,225,643 
 56,248,997 
 
 120,237,511 
 
 664,846,642 
 67,891,766 
 
 358,768,603 
 
 407,876,099' 
 17,070,802 
 82,431,684 
 97,851,212 
 16,650,008 
 68,367,227 
 
 216,401,543 
 
 28,628,668 
 
 161,948 
 
 1,668,922 
 
 2,849,170 
 
 811,799 
 
 $5,126,663 
 
 1,601,296 
 
 103,433 
 
 40,220 
 
 1,892,641 
 
 510,279 
 
 668,795 
 
 5,894,180 
 
 6,405,561 
 
 6,704,444 
 
 1,172,869 
 
 5,169,03ir 
 
 11,576,938 
 
 2,284,687 
 
 2,463,448 
 
 3,209,584 
 
 2,891,371 
 
 5,762,927 
 
 3,981,525 
 
 2,314,125 
 
 4,425,503 
 
 22,034,926 
 
 3,931,582 
 
 12.760,685 
 
 14,722,541 
 
 497,201 
 
 4,180,864 
 
 6,360,210 
 
 2,161,704 
 
 2,739,282 
 
 7,021,772 
 
 1,641,668 
 
 15,981 
 
 77,960 
 
 183,428 
 
 84,288 
 
 $1533 
 860 
 4443 
 6481 
 3240 
 3114 
 1469 
 1860 
 1261 
 1468 
 1126 
 2073 
 5648 
 1173 
 3S88 
 3202 
 1621 
 1612 
 1161 
 1890 
 5030 
 3-260 
 1192 
 2495 
 3197 
 3170 
 2761 
 1345 
 1857 
 2129 
 2810 
 1414 
 1031 
 
 441 
 2448 
 
 387 
 
 $122 
 
 90 
 
 118 
 
 151 
 
 84 
 
 84 
 
 153 
 
 114 
 
 84 
 
 71 
 
 79 
 
 69 
 
 863 
 
 49 
 
 113 
 
 94 
 
 85 
 
 170 
 
 73 
 
 70 
 
 185 
 
 129 
 
 69 
 
 88 
 
 115 
 
 92 
 
 138 
 
 74 
 
 176 
 
 92 
 
 91 
 
 81 
 
 102 
 
 21 
 
 167 
 
 91 
 
 $1068 
 !'50 
 4661 
 6032 
 8324 
 3198 
 1622 
 1964 
 1345 
 1624 
 1204 
 2142 
 6611 
 1222 
 4101 
 3296 
 1606 
 1782 
 1234 
 1969 
 6215 
 8379 
 1261 
 2583 
 3312 
 3262 
 2889 
 1419 
 1633 
 2221 
 2901 
 1496 
 1138 
 462 
 2605 
 428 
 
 
 
 Columbia, District of . . 
 
 
 Florida 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 
 
 
 
 Minnesota Territory . . . 
 New Mexico Territory. 
 
 Oregon Territory 
 
 Utah Territory 
 
 Total, 1850 
 
 1,449,0751113,032,614 
 
 180,638,000 
 
 208 
 
 $3,271,576,426 
 
 $151,587,688 
 
 $2:i58 
 
 $106 
 
 $2362 
 
 The average number of acres embraced in each 
 farm in the United States is 203, valued at $2258, and 
 upon each farm there is an average of $105 in imple- 
 ments and machinery. In Louisiana, so complicated 
 is the sugar process, the average machinery is $863 to 
 the farm. By another table prepared by sections, it 
 would seem that only about one-thirteenth of the whole 
 area of the organized States and Territories is im- 
 proved, and about one-eighth more is occupied and not 
 
 improved. In New England about twenty-six acres in 
 the hundred are improved, in the South sixteen acres, 
 in the Northwest twelve, and in the Southwest five. 
 In the South the number of acres to the farm is largest, 
 but the value per acre is most in the Middle States. 
 The average value per acre for the Union, improved 
 and unimproved, is $11-14. The whole number of 
 acres occupied is 298,560,614, or nearly one-sixth part 
 of the national domain. — Census Report of 1850. 
 
UNI 
 
 1897 
 
 UNI 
 
 
 AftBiOTTLTTTBAL EATIO TABLES OF THE 
 
 States, 
 
 1850. 
 
 
 
 
 Seotiona, 
 
 Whole Areo 
 in Acre^. 
 
 Land in use. 
 
 Propbrtion of Lnnd 
 in use to Are^. 
 
 • Number 
 
 of 
 
 FamiB. 
 
 Average 
 
 Vnluattf . 
 
 Agricultural 
 
 ImplementB 
 
 to each p-arm. 
 
 Average 
 Number 
 of Acraa 
 to each 
 Farm. 
 
 Average 
 Value 
 
 Acre. 
 
 imptovad. 
 
 unimproved. 
 
 Im- 
 proved, 
 per Cent. 
 
 nnim- 
 provod, 
 per Cent. 
 
 
 41,624,320 
 73,359,360 
 166,673,760 
 151,635,840 
 253,004,160 
 
 629,255,680 
 
 163,002,860 
 
 11,150,634 
 26,200,608 
 26,614,239 
 15,426,730 
 32,643,867 
 352,880 
 048,948 
 
 7,21B,864 
 16.212,717 
 61,109,373 
 33,772,679 
 46,963,790 
 
 4,340,214 
 
 10.862,363 
 
 a6-79 
 35-72 
 16'07 
 1Q17 
 12-90 
 
 ■06 
 
 ■42 
 
 17-34 
 22^10 
 36-94 
 22^27 
 18-56 
 
 69 
 
 7-14 
 
 167,651 
 380,293 
 220,008 
 179,839 
 512,217 
 
 6,869 
 
 12,198 
 
 77-17 
 126-31 
 
 98-37 
 163-68 
 
 79-49 
 
 67-71 
 176-40 
 
 109-55 
 121-08 
 399-00 
 273-87 
 155-41 
 
 683-23 
 
 942-47 
 
 2U-27 
 28-07 
 6-34 
 6-26 
 11 '39 
 
 1-89 
 
 1-44 
 
 Middle States 
 
 
 Southwestern States* ; 
 
 Northwestern States 
 
 California and organized) 
 Territories / 
 
 Total 
 
 1,466,455,6^0 
 
 113,032,614 
 
 18l),628,000 
 
 7-71 
 
 12-31 
 
 1,440,075 
 
 104-61 
 
 202-59 
 
 11-14 
 
 
 Exclusive of -Texas and California. 
 Lite Stock ttpon Fabus and Aqeicuxtubal Pbopttotions of, the States and Tebbitobies, 1840 and 1850. 
 
 states and Territories. 
 
 Horses. 
 
 ABsea 
 
 and 
 
 Mules. 
 
 Horses, 
 
 Asses, and 
 
 Mules. 
 
 Horses 
 
 and 
 Mules. 
 
 MUch 
 Cows. 
 
 Work- 
 ing 
 Oxen. 
 
 Other 
 Cattle. 
 
 Total 
 Neat 
 Cattle. 
 
 Neat 
 Cattle. 
 
 Sheep. 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 California 
 
 Columbia, District of . 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 Delaware • 
 
 Florida 
 
 Georgia.....'... 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Indiana . . . ^ 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Kentuclcy 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Maine .t.^ . • 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Michigan, 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Missouri 
 
 New Hampsliire 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 New Vorlc. . r , , 
 
 i<f orth Carolina 
 
 Oliio. 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Ithode Island 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Texas. 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Virginia ; . , . 
 
 Wisconsin. . . i 
 
 Minnesota Territory . . 
 New Mexico Territory. 
 
 Oregon Territory 
 
 Utah Territory 
 
 1850. 
 
 128,001 
 
 60,197 
 
 21,719 
 
 824 
 
 26,879 
 
 13,852 
 
 10,848 
 
 181,331 
 
 267,653 
 
 314,299 
 
 38,536 
 
 315,682 
 
 89,514 
 
 41.721 
 
 75,684 
 
 42,216 
 
 68,606 
 
 115,460 
 
 225,319 
 
 34,233 
 
 63,965 
 
 447,014 
 
 148.693. 
 
 463,397 
 
 350,398 
 
 6,168 
 
 97,171 
 
 270,636 
 
 76,760 
 
 61,0.57 
 
 272,403 
 
 30,179 
 
 300 
 
 5,079 
 
 8,046 
 
 89,898 
 
 11,859 
 
 1,666 
 
 61 
 
 49 
 
 791 
 
 8,002 
 
 67,379 
 
 10,573 
 
 6,599 
 
 784 
 
 65,609 
 
 44,849 
 
 65 
 
 5,644 
 
 34 
 
 ' 70 
 
 64,547 
 
 41,667 
 
 19 
 
 4,089 
 
 963 
 
 25,259 
 
 3,423 
 
 2,253 
 
 1 
 
 37,433 
 
 75,303 
 
 12,463 
 
 218 
 
 2.1,483 
 
 166 
 
 14 
 
 8,654 
 
 420 
 
 825 
 
 187,896 
 71,758 
 23,385 
 881 
 26,928 
 14,643 
 15,850 
 208,710 
 278,226 
 820,893 
 39,290 
 331,291 
 134,863 
 41,770 
 81,328 
 42,250 
 88,676 
 170,007 
 
 68,044 
 
 447,977, 
 
 173,952 
 
 466,320 
 
 362,657 
 
 ' 6,169 
 
 134,654 
 
 346,939 
 
 89,223 
 
 61,275 
 
 293,886 
 
 30,338 
 
 , 874 
 
 13,733 
 
 8,466 
 
 2i754 
 
 1840. 
 143,147 
 51,472 
 
 2,148 
 
 34,650 
 
 14,421 
 
 12,04.-i 
 
 157,840 
 
 199,235 
 
 241,036 
 
 10,794 
 
 395,853 
 
 99,383 
 
 69,208 
 
 92,220 
 
 61,484 
 
 30,144 
 
 109,227 
 
 196,082 
 
 43,892 
 
 70,602 
 
 474,543 
 
 168,603 
 
 430,637 
 
 365,129 
 
 3,024 
 
 129,921 
 
 341,409 
 
 62,402 
 
 326,43S 
 
 6,735 
 
 1850. 
 -327,791 
 
 93,161 
 
 4,280 
 
 818 
 
 86,401 
 
 19,248 
 
 7'3,876 
 334,223 
 294,671 
 234,654 
 
 45,704 
 247,478 
 105,676 
 138,556 
 
 86,866 
 130,099 
 
 99,676 
 314,281 
 230,169 
 
 94,277 
 113,736 
 931,324 
 221,799 
 541,499 
 630,224 
 
 I8,6:i8 
 
 193,244 
 
 260,456 
 
 317,811 
 
 146,123 
 
 317,619 
 
 64,339 
 
 607 
 
 10,635 
 
 9,427 
 
 4,861 
 
 1850. 
 66,961 
 34,239 
 
 4,780 
 
 104 
 
 46,988 
 
 9,797 
 
 6,794 
 73,286 
 76,156 
 40,221 
 21,892 
 62,274 
 64,968 
 83,893 
 34,135 
 46,611 
 56,350 
 83,485 
 112,108 
 59,027 
 12,070 
 178.909 
 37,809 
 05,881 
 61,527 
 
 8,139 
 20,807 
 86,265 
 81.285 
 48,67T 
 89.513 
 42,801 
 656 
 12,257 
 
 8,114 
 
 5,266 
 
 1850. 
 
 433,263 
 
 165,320 
 
 253,899 
 
 123 
 
 80,226 
 
 24,166 
 182,415 
 690,019 
 541,209 
 389,891 
 
 69,026 
 442,763 
 414,793 
 l-,-'5,390 
 
 93,595 
 ,33,234 
 119,471 
 430,254 
 449,173 
 114,606 
 
 80,465 
 767,406 
 434,402 
 749,067 
 662,105 
 9,875 
 663,936 
 414,051 
 661,018 
 154,143 
 669,137 
 
 76,293 
 740 
 
 10,085 
 
 24,188 
 2,489 
 
 1850 
 
 728,016 
 292,710 
 262,659 
 1,040 
 212,675 
 68,211 
 261,085 
 ,097,628 
 912,036 
 714,666 
 186,621 
 782,612 
 578,342 
 343.339 
 219,686 
 ■289,994 
 274,497 
 783,970 
 791,510 
 267,910 
 211,261 
 ,877,639 
 693,510 
 ,358,947 
 ,168,946 
 36,261 
 777,686 
 760,762 
 930,114 
 343,848 
 ,076,269 
 183,433 
 2,002 
 32,977 
 41,729 
 12,616 
 
 1840. 
 668,018 
 188,766 
 
 . 3,274 
 
 288,650 
 
 53,883 
 
 118,081 
 
 834,414 
 
 626,274 
 
 619,980 
 
 38,049 
 
 . 787,093 
 
 . 381,248 
 
 . .327,266 
 
 .226,714 
 
 282,574 
 
 185,190 
 
 623,197 
 
 488,875 
 
 275,562 
 
 220,202 
 
 1,911,244 
 
 617,871 
 
 1,217,874 
 
 1,172,665 
 
 36,891 
 
 572,608 
 
 822,861 
 
 384,341 
 
 1,024,148 
 
 80,269 
 
 1850. 
 371,380 
 
 91,266 
 . 17,574 
 
 . .150 
 174,181 
 
 27,608 
 
 23,311 
 660,436 
 894,043 
 ,123,493 
 149,960 
 ,102,091 
 110,833 
 451,677 
 177,902 
 188,651 
 746,435 
 304,929 
 762,811 
 384,756 
 160,488 
 ,488,241 
 5r6,249 
 ,942,929 
 ,822,357 
 
 44,296 
 235,661 
 811,591 
 100,680 
 ,014,122 
 ,310,004 
 124,396 
 80 
 377,271 
 
 15,382 
 3,262 
 
 1840. 
 163,243 
 42,151 
 
 ,' ' 706 
 403,462 
 
 39,247 
 7,liS 
 267,107 
 398,672 
 675,982 
 
 15,354 
 ,008,240 
 
 98,072 
 649,264 
 257,«22 
 378,226 
 
 99,618 
 128.867 
 348,018 
 617,3S0 
 219,286 
 i,118,777 
 633,279 
 ,023,401 
 ,767,620 
 
 90,146 
 233,931 
 741,593 
 
 ,681.819 
 
 ,298,772 
 
 3,< 
 
 Live Stock upon Farms and Agricultukal Peoductions of the States 
 
 AND TeKEITOBIES, 
 
 1840 AND 
 
 1350. 
 
 states and Territoriea. 
 
 Swine. 
 
 Value of Live 
 Stock. 
 
 Value of 
 
 Animals 
 
 slaughtered. 
 
 Wheat, Bushels. 
 
 Bye, Bushels. 
 
 Oata, 
 Bushels. 
 
 
 1850. 
 
 1,904,540 
 
 836,727 
 
 2,776 
 
 1,636 
 
 76,472 
 
 . 66,261 
 
 209,453 
 
 2,168,617 
 
 1,916,907 
 
 2,263,776 
 
 323,247 
 
 2,891,163 
 
 517,301 
 
 54,518 
 
 352,911 
 
 31,119 
 
 205,347 
 
 1,532,734 
 
 1,703,635 
 
 63,437 
 
 250,370 
 
 1,013,352 
 
 1,813,313 
 
 1,964,770 
 
 1,040,366 
 
 ]9,80n 
 
 1,068,803 
 
 3,104,800 
 
 692,022 
 
 66,296 
 
 1,829,843 
 
 159,276 
 
 734 
 
 7,314 
 
 30,235 
 
 914 
 
 1840. 
 
 1,423,873 
 
 893,053 
 
 4,678 
 
 131,961 
 
 74,228 
 
 92,680 
 
 1,457,765 
 
 1,496,254 
 
 1,623,603 
 
 104,839 
 
 3,310,538 
 
 823,330 
 
 117,386 
 
 416,948 
 
 143,221 
 
 296,810 
 
 1,001,208 
 
 1,271,161 
 
 . 121,671 
 
 361,443 
 
 1,900,068 
 
 1,649,716 
 
 3,099,746 
 
 1,603,964 
 
 30,689 
 
 878,632 
 
 3,926,607 
 
 203,800 
 
 1,992,166 
 
 51,383 
 
 1850. 
 
 $21,630,112 
 
 6,647,963 
 
 8,351,053 
 
 71 643 
 
 7,467,490 
 
 1,349,281 
 
 2,830,053 
 
 26,723,416 
 
 24,209,258 
 
 22,478,558 
 
 3,689,275 
 
 29,661,436 
 
 ,11,152,276 
 
 9,705,726 
 
 7,997,634 
 
 9,647,710 
 
 8,008,734 
 
 19,403,662 
 
 19,387,580 
 
 3,371,901 
 
 10,679,291 
 
 73,670,499 
 
 17,717,647 
 
 44,121,741 
 
 41,800,083 
 
 1,632,637 
 
 15,060,015 
 
 29,978,016 
 
 10,412,927 
 
 13,643,223 
 
 33,656,669 
 
 4,8J7,335 
 
 92,859 
 
 1,494,639 
 
 1,876,189 
 
 646,968 
 
 1850. 
 
 $4,823,486 
 
 1,163,313 
 
 107,173 
 
 9,033 
 
 2,303,260 
 
 373,665 
 
 614,686 
 6,339,762 
 4,972,236 
 6,567,935 
 
 821,164 
 6,462,593 
 1,458,990 
 1,646,773 
 1,964,800 
 2,500,924 
 1,828,327 
 •3,636,532 
 3,367,106 
 1,532,873 
 2,638,552 
 13,673,833 
 6,767,866 
 7,489,243 
 8,319,843 
 
 667,486 
 3,502,637 
 6,401,765 
 1,116,137 
 1,861,386 
 7,502,986 
 
 920,178 
 2,840 
 32,125 
 
 164.530 
 67,986 
 
 1850. 
 
 294,044 
 
 199,639 
 
 17,328 
 
 17,370 
 
 41.763 
 
 433,511 
 
 1.027 
 
 1,038,884 
 
 9,414,675 
 
 6,314,458 
 
 1,530,581, 
 
 2,143,322 
 
 417 
 
 296,259 
 
 4,494,680 
 
 31,211 
 
 4,925,889 
 
 137,990 
 
 2,981,662 
 
 185,668 
 
 1,601,190 
 
 13,121,498 
 
 2.180,102 
 
 14,487,851 
 
 15,367,691 
 
 41 
 
 1,066,277 
 
 1,619,886 
 
 41,729 
 
 536,958 
 
 11,212,616 
 
 4,286,131 
 
 1,401 
 
 196,516 
 
 211,948 
 
 107,702 
 
 1840. 
 
 838,052 
 
 105,878 
 
 12,147 
 
 87,009 
 
 315,165 
 
 412 
 
 1,301,830 
 
 3,336,393 
 
 4,049,375 
 
 164,693 
 
 4,803,152 
 
 60 
 
 848,166 
 
 3,346,783 
 
 157,923 
 
 2,167,108 
 
 196,626 
 
 1,037,386 
 
 422,134 
 
 774,203 
 
 12,286,41S 
 
 1,960,865 
 
 ie?671,661 
 
 13,213,077 
 
 3,093 
 
 968.354 
 
 4,569,692 
 
 495,800 
 
 10,109,716 
 
 212,116 
 
 1850. 
 17,261 
 8,047 
 
 5,509 
 
 600,898 
 
 8,066 
 
 1,182 
 
 53,750 
 
 83,364 
 
 78,793 
 
 19,916 
 
 416,073 
 
 475 
 
 102,916 
 
 226,014 
 
 481,021 
 
 105,871 
 
 9,606 
 
 44,268 
 
 183,117 
 
 1,255,578 
 
 4,148,182 
 
 229,563 
 
 425,918 
 
 4,805,160 
 
 26,409 
 
 43.790 
 
 89,137 
 
 3,103 
 
 176,233 
 
 458,980 
 
 81,253 
 
 125 
 
 ' ■ 106 
 210 
 
 1840. 
 61,008 
 6,219 
 
 ■5,081 
 
 73<424 
 
 33,546 
 
 308 
 
 60,693 
 
 83,197 
 
 129,621 
 
 3,792 
 
 1,321,878 
 
 1,312 
 
 137,941 
 
 723,677 
 
 636,014 
 
 34,236 
 
 11,444 
 
 68,608 
 
 308,143 
 
 1,665,820 
 
 2,979,328 
 
 213,971 
 
 814,205 
 
 6,613,873 
 
 34,521 
 
 44,738 
 
 304,820 
 
 230,993 
 
 1,432,799 
 
 1,966 
 
 1850. 
 2,965,696 
 666,183 
 
 8,134 
 
 1,263,738 
 
 604,618 
 
 66,586 
 
 3,820,044 
 
 10,087,241 
 
 8,655,014 
 
 1,524,345 
 
 8,201,311 
 
 89,637 
 
 2,181,037 
 
 2,242,151 
 
 1,168,146 
 
 2,366,056 
 
 1,503,288 
 
 5,278,079 
 
 978,381 
 
 3,378,063 
 
 36,552.814 
 
 4,082,078 
 
 13,472,742 
 
 21,533,166 
 
 ■ 216,282 
 
 2,322,155 
 
 7,703,086 
 
 199,017 
 
 2,307,734 
 
 10,179,14^ 
 
 3,414,672 
 
 80,532 
 
 6 
 
 61,214 
 
 10,900 
 
 
 
 Columbia, District of 
 
 
 Florida 
 
 Georgia , 
 
 Illinois . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Maryland , 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ohio 
 
 
 Kliode lalaad 
 
 South Carolina ., 
 
 Texaa 
 
 
 Virginia 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■^ Lutali 
 
UNI 
 
 1898 
 
 UNI 
 
 The annexed tables embrace the returns of agricul- 
 tural products according to the census of 1840 and 
 1850. The quantity of wheat in 1850 is believed to be 
 understated, and the crop was also short. Kough rice 
 is returned for 1850, and clean rice for 1840. Correc- 
 tions have been made in the' cotton and sugar returns 
 since the publication of the Quarto Census, pounds 
 having been intended by the enumerators in many 
 cases where they returned bales or hbgsheads. It is 
 impossible to reconcile the hemp and flax returns of 
 1840 and 1850. No doubt in both cases tons and 
 pounds have often been confounded. In a few of tlie 
 States, such as Indiana and Illinois, the returns of 1850 
 
 were rejected altogether for insufficiency. Letters from 
 Kentucky entitled to high credit state the water-rotted 
 hemp for that year to be not a third as much as the 
 census gives, and the dew-rotted to be about 22,000 
 tons. In this case the whole hemp crop of 1850 may 
 have reached 35,000 or 40,000 tons, and that of 1840 
 25,000 to 30,000 tons. By the manufacturing sched- 
 ules it appears that 18,276 tons hemp were consumed 
 by the manufacturers of Kentucky and Missouri, and 
 by the receipts at the cities of St. Louis, Cincinnati, 
 and New Orleans, with proper deductions, that fourteen 
 or fifteen thousand tons hemp were exported in the 
 rough to other States. 
 
 Agkioditorah PEonnoTioNs of the States anb TraEiToaras, 1840 and 1850. 
 
 Statea and Torritorioa. 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Arkanaas 
 
 California 
 
 Columbia, District of . 
 
 Connecticut . ._ 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Florida 
 
 G-eorgla 
 
 Illinois. 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Mame 
 
 Maryland 
 
 .Massachusetts 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Missouri 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 New York 
 
 NoTth Carolina 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Texas 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Virginia 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 TMinnesota 
 
 „ J New Mexico 
 
 b 1 Oregon 
 
 LUtah 
 
 Oats, 
 Bushels. 
 
 1840. 
 1,406,353 
 189,658 
 
 16,T61 
 
 1,453,262 
 
 - 927,405 
 
 13,829 
 
 1,610,030 
 
 4,983,008 
 
 5,981,605 
 
 216,386 
 
 T, 155,974 
 
 107,353 
 
 1,070,409 
 
 3,534,211 
 
 1,310,630 
 
 2,111,051 
 
 008,624 
 
 2,234,947 
 
 1,296,114 
 
 3,083,524 
 
 20,675,847 
 
 3,193,941 
 
 14,393,103 
 
 10,641,819 
 
 171,617 
 
 1,436,208 
 
 7,036,678 
 
 2,222,684 
 
 13,451,062 
 
 406,514 
 
 Indian Corn, Bushola. 
 
 1850. 
 
 28,764,048 
 
 8,893,939 
 
 12,236 
 
 65,230 
 
 1,986,043 
 
 3,145;542 
 
 1,996;809 
 
 30,0801099 
 
 57,646,984 
 
 52,964863 
 
 8,656 799 
 
 B,672;591 
 
 10,266;373 
 
 1,750,050 
 
 10,749,868 
 
 2,345,490 
 
 6,041,420 
 
 22,446,552 
 
 36,214,637 
 
 1,.573,670 
 
 8,769,704 
 
 17,853,400 
 
 27,941,051 
 
 59,078,695 
 
 19,835,214 
 
 639,201 
 
 16,271,454 
 
 62,276,223 
 
 6,028,876 
 
 2,032,896 
 
 36,264,819 
 
 1,988,979 
 
 16,725 
 
 365,411 
 
 2,918 
 
 9,899 
 
 Iriah and Sweet Potatoes, Busbela. 
 
 1840. 
 20,947,004 
 4,846,682 
 
 89,«5 
 
 1,500,441 
 
 2,099,359 
 
 898,974 
 
 20,905,122 
 
 22,634,211 
 
 28,166,887 
 
 1,406,241 
 
 39,847,120 
 
 6,952,912 
 
 950,528 
 
 8,233,086 
 
 1,809,192 
 
 2,277,039 
 
 18,101,237 
 
 17,332,524 
 
 1,162,672 
 
 4,361,976 
 
 10,972,286 
 
 23,893,763 
 
 83,668,144 
 
 14,240,022 
 
 450,498 
 
 14,722,806 
 
 44,986,188 
 
 1,119,678 
 
 84,677,691 
 
 379,369 
 
 1850. 
 
 246,001 
 
 198,832 
 
 2,689,725 
 240,642 
 
 7,r- 
 
 227,379 
 2,614,861 
 2,083,887 
 
 276,120 
 
 1,402,487 
 
 95,632 
 
 3,486,040 
 
 764,939 
 8,586,381 
 2,869,897 
 
 201,482 
 
 989,006 
 4,304,919 
 
 Total. 
 
 16,398,308 
 620,318 
 6,057,769 
 6,980,732 
 661,029 
 136,494 
 1,067,844 
 94,645 
 4,951,014 
 1,316,933 
 1,402,077 
 21,145 
 3 
 91,826 
 
 1850. 
 5,476,204 
 788,149 
 1,000 
 3,49T 
 80 
 65,448 
 767,226 
 6,986,428 
 157,433 
 201,711 
 
 6. 
 
 998;i70 
 
 1,428,458 
 
 208,993 
 
 '1,177 
 
 4,741,795 
 
 335,505 
 
 Irish and Sweet. 
 
 508,016 
 
 6,629 
 
 6,096,709 
 
 187,991 
 
 62,172 
 
 4,337,469 
 2,777,716 
 1,833,158 
 
 l,8i3','6'34 
 
 879 
 200 
 
 1850. 
 
 6,721,206 
 
 981,981 
 
 10,292 
 
 31,789 
 
 2,689,805 
 
 305,985 
 
 765,054 
 
 7,218,807 
 
 2,672,294 
 
 2,285,048 
 
 282,363 
 
 2,490,666 
 
 1,524,086 
 
 8,436,040 
 
 978,932 
 
 3,585,384 
 
 2;861,<I74 
 
 6,003,277 
 
 1,274,511 
 
 4,304,919 
 
 3,716,251 
 
 18,403,997 
 
 6,716,027 
 
 5,245,760 
 
 6,082,904 
 
 651,029 
 
 4,473,960 
 
 3,845,660 
 
 1,426,1 
 
 4,961,014 
 
 8,130,567 
 
 1,402,056 
 
 21,845 
 
 3 
 
 91,826 
 
 44,028 
 
 1840. 
 
 1,708,856 
 
 293,608 
 
 12,'o'3'5 
 3,414,238 
 
 200,712 
 
 264,617 
 1,291,366 
 2,025,620 
 1,585,794 
 
 234,063 
 1,066,085 
 
 884,841 
 10,392,280 
 1,086,483 
 6,886,652 
 2,109,205 
 1,630,100 
 
 783,768 
 6,206,606 
 2,072,069 
 30,128,«14 
 2,609,239 
 5,805,021 
 9,536,663 
 911,973 
 2,698,313 
 1,904,370 
 
 8,869,'7'8'l 
 
 2,944,660 
 
 419,608 
 
 Barley, 
 Bushels. 
 
 1860. 
 
 3,968 
 
 177 
 
 9,712 
 
 76 
 
 19,099 
 
 66 
 
 11,601 
 110,795 
 46,483 
 25,093 
 96,343 
 
 15i,'731 
 
 746 
 
 112,386 
 
 76,249 
 
 228 
 
 9,631 
 
 70,256 
 
 6,492 
 
 ,685,069 
 
 2,735 
 
 364,368 
 
 166,584 
 
 18,875 
 
 4,683 
 
 2,737 
 
 4,776 
 
 42,160 
 
 26,437 
 
 209,692 
 
 1,216 
 
 6 
 
 'l',799 
 
 statea and Territories. 
 
 Bnrlov, 
 Bushels. 
 
 Buckwheat, Bushels. 
 
 Hay, Tons. 
 
 Clover, 
 seed. 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 California 
 
 Columbia, District of. 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Florida 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Maine 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Missouri 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 New York 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 Soutb Carolina 
 
 Texas 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Virginia 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 o fMinnesota . . . 
 ."S J New Mexico . 
 
 Oregon 
 
 Utah 
 
 s In 
 §1° 
 
 1840. 
 
 7,692 
 760 
 
 ' ' '294 
 33,759 
 5,260 
 30 
 12,979 
 82,251 
 28,016 
 728 
 17,491 
 
 355,'l(!l 
 
 3,694 
 
 165,319 
 
 127,302 
 
 1,054 
 
 9,801 
 
 121,899 
 
 12,501 
 
 !,520,008 
 
 3,574 
 
 212,440 
 
 209,898 
 
 66,490 
 
 3,967 
 
 4,809 
 
 54,'781 
 87,480 
 11,062 
 
 343 
 176 
 
 378 
 
 229,297 
 
 8,615 
 
 55 
 
 250 
 
 184,504 
 
 149,740 
 
 62,516 
 
 16,097 
 
 3 
 
 104,523 
 
 103,671 
 
 105,895 
 
 472,917 
 
 1,121 
 
 23,641 
 
 65,265 
 
 878,984 
 
 3,183,965 
 
 16,704 
 
 ^38,060 
 
 2,^98,692 
 
 1,245 
 
 283 
 
 19,427 
 
 59 
 
 209,819 
 
 214,898 
 
 79,878 
 
 516 
 
 100 
 
 ' ' '3'32 
 
 303,043 
 11,299 
 
 ■ ' 'ill 
 57,884 
 49,019 
 6,212 
 8,169 
 
 5i,'5'43 
 
 73,606 
 
 87,000 
 
 113,692 
 
 61 
 
 15,318 
 
 105,103 
 
 ,856,117 
 
 2,287,885 
 
 15,391 
 
 633,139 
 
 2,113,742 
 
 2,979 
 
 72 
 
 17,118 
 
 298,'4i6 
 243,822 
 10,654 
 
 1850. 
 
 32,685 
 
 3,976 
 
 2,088 
 
 2,279 
 
 516,181 
 
 30,159 
 
 2,610 
 
 23,449 
 
 601,962 
 
 403,230 
 
 89,056 
 
 118,747 
 
 25,752 
 
 756,889 
 
 167,956 
 
 651,807 
 
 404,984 
 
 12,604 
 
 116,925 
 
 598,864 
 
 435,950 
 
 3,728,797 
 
 146,668 
 
 1,448,142 
 
 1,842,970 
 
 74,418 
 
 20,926 
 
 74,091 
 
 8,364 
 
 866,153 
 
 369,098 
 
 275,662 
 
 2,019 
 
 ' ' '373 
 4,805 
 
 1840. 
 12,718 
 636 
 
 'ifiSl 
 
 426,704 
 
 22,483 
 
 1,197 
 
 16,970 
 
 164,932 
 
 178,029 
 
 17,953 
 
 88,308 
 
 / 24,651 
 
 691,858 
 
 106,637 
 
 509,395 
 
 130,805 
 
 171 
 
 49,083 
 
 496,107 
 
 334,861 
 
 3,127,047 
 
 101,869 
 
 1,022,087 
 
 1,811,643 
 
 63,449 
 
 24,618 
 
 81,233 
 
 836,'7'89 
 
 864,708 
 
 30,938 
 
 276 
 157 
 
 15 
 554 
 
 3,551 
 
 92,796 
 
 8,242 
 
 4,309 
 
 125 
 
 40,120 
 
 1,870 
 
 121,596 
 
 10,663 
 
 478 
 
 4,130 
 
 267,174 
 
 2,183 
 
 2,636,299 
 
 9,246 
 
 63,731 
 
 22,088 
 
 277 
 
 26 
 
 1,032 
 
 7 
 
 288,023 
 
 11,506 
 
 15,930 
 
 1840. 
 825 
 
 4,573 
 746 
 
 ' '773 
 
 17,743 
 
 88,691 
 
 83 
 
 742 
 
 115 
 
 86,940 
 
 2,857 
 
 254,795 
 
 11,381 
 
 164 
 
 789 
 
 243,425 
 
 4,531 
 
 447,250 
 
 1,063 
 
 62,195 
 
 49,481 
 
 113 
 
 93 
 
 860 
 
 48,'l3T 
 
 10,597 
 
 133 
 
 1850. 
 188 
 90 
 
 "3 
 
 13,841 
 2,526 
 
 ' '182 
 
 3,427 
 
 18,320 
 
 342 
 
 3,230 
 
 2 
 
 9,097 
 
 15,217 
 
 1,002 
 
 16,989 
 
 84 
 
 619 
 
 676 
 
 103,197 
 
 125,030 
 
 1,828 
 
 376 
 
 5,096 
 
 10 
 
 760 
 
 29,737 
 
 488 
 
 1850. 
 
 547 
 436 
 
 16,628 
 
 1,403 
 
 2 
 
 423 
 
 14,.?S0 
 
 11,951 
 
 2,096 
 
 21,481 
 
 97 
 
 9,214 
 
 2,561 
 
 6,085 
 
 9,285 
 
 588 
 
 4,346 
 
 8,071 
 
 63,051 
 
 96,493 
 
 1,276 
 
 37,310 
 
 63,918 
 
 3,708 
 
 30 
 
 9,118 
 
 14,'9'36 
 23,428 
 5,003 
 
UNI 
 
 1899 
 
 UNI 
 
 states and Temtoriea. 
 
 Value of 
 OrchArd 
 Products. 
 
 Beeswax Wax, 
 and Honey, Pounos 
 Pounds of. of. 
 
 Value of 
 Poultry. 
 
 Home-made Cords of 
 Manufttc- Wood 
 sold. 
 
 Flax- 
 seed, 
 Bush. of. 
 
 Flax, 
 Pounds of. 
 
 Dew-fotted 
 Hemp, 
 Tons. 
 
 Water-rot- 
 Hemp, 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Arkaneas \....:., 
 
 California .. ....... ...w 
 
 Columbia, Uistdct of . 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Florida 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Illinoia 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Iowa , 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Louisiana .- , . 
 
 Maine' 
 
 Maryland '. . 
 
 Maseachusetts 
 
 Michigan ,. . 
 
 MiSBisaippi , 
 
 MisBOUri. ..; ■ 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 New'Jersey 
 
 NewYotk 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 Ohio ..: 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 Tennessee . ; 
 
 Texas ..,.,.. '. . 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Virginia 
 
 Wisconsin '. . 
 
 m TMiunesota '. . 
 
 is j New Mexico 
 
 t, 1 Oregon 
 
 H (.Utah 
 
 1840. 
 $66,240 
 10,680 
 
 3,507 
 
 296,332 
 
 28,211 
 
 1,036 
 
 156,123 
 
 126,756 
 
 110,956 
 
 60 
 
 . 434,936 
 
 11,769 
 
 149,884 
 
 105,740 
 
 38»,m 
 
 16,075 
 
 14,463 
 
 90,878 
 
 239,979 
 
 464,006 
 
 1,701,986 
 
 386,006 
 
 475,271 
 
 613,179 
 
 32,098 
 
 63,275 
 
 367,105 
 
 2i,i'9'44 
 
 706,766 
 
 37 
 
 897,021 
 192,883 
 
 .1- 
 
 ... .650. 
 
 93,304 
 
 41,243 
 
 18,971 
 
 732,814 
 
 863,444 
 
 935,339 
 
 ' 321,711 
 
 1,158,019 
 
 90,701 
 
 189,618 
 
 74,303 
 
 .59,503 
 
 . 359,232 
 
 ' 39T,460 
 
 1,328,972 
 
 117,140 
 
 156,6;i4 
 
 1,755,830 
 
 612,233 
 
 804,275 
 
 839,509 
 
 6,347 
 
 . 216,281 
 
 1,036,572 
 
 830,835 
 
 249,423 
 
 830,767 
 
 131,006 
 
 80 
 
 1840. 
 25,226 
 T,079 
 
 3,3W 
 
 iv — 
 
 75 
 
 19,709 
 
 29,lt3 
 
 30,647 
 
 2,132 
 
 38,445 
 
 1,013 
 
 3,733 
 
 3,074 
 
 1,196 
 
 4,533 
 
 6,835 
 
 56,481 
 
 3,845 
 
 10,p6l 
 
 63,795 
 
 118,923 
 
 33,960 
 
 38,107 
 
 166 
 
 15,857 
 
 60,907 
 
 ,4^660 
 
 65,020 
 
 1,474 
 
 1840. 
 
 $404,994 
 109,468 
 
 3,' 
 176,629 
 
 47,265 
 
 61,007 
 449,638 
 809,204 
 357,594 
 
 16,529 
 636,489 
 283,653 
 123,171 
 218,765 
 178,157 
 
 82,780 
 369,433 
 370,647 
 107,093 
 836,958 
 [,1,'>8,413 
 544,135 
 651,193 
 036,801 
 
 81,702 
 396,364 
 606,969 
 
 13i,'678 
 
 764,698 
 
 16,167 
 
 1850. 
 
 $1,984,120 
 
 638,217 
 
 7,000 
 
 3,015 
 
 193,353 
 
 33,121 
 
 76,1533 
 
 1,338,968 
 
 1,165,902 
 
 1,631,039 
 
 221,293 
 
 2,469,123 
 
 139,332 
 
 613,699 
 
 ' 111,328 
 
 205,333 
 
 340,947 
 
 1,164,020 
 
 1,674,706 
 
 393,465 
 
 112,731 
 
 1,280,333 
 
 2,086,523 
 
 1,712,196 
 
 749,133 
 
 26,495 
 
 909,625 
 
 8,137,790 
 
 266,984 
 
 267,710 
 
 2,166,312 
 
 43,624 
 
 '6,'o'33 
 
 "i,'392 
 
 1840. 
 
 60,955 
 78,606 
 
 'i,'2'37 
 159,062 
 
 87,864 
 9,943 
 
 67,459 
 184,649 
 133,712 
 7,304 
 264,222 
 202,867 
 206.011 
 178;i81 
 273,069 
 
 84,498 
 118,423 
 
 81,931 
 
 116,266 
 
 840,602 
 
 1,053,923 
 
 40,084 
 273,527 
 269,516 
 
 48,666 
 171,451 
 104,014 
 
 408,690 
 23,910 
 
 T03 
 904 
 
 10,787 
 
 36,883 
 
 1,969 
 
 75,801 
 
 "530 
 
 3,446 
 
 72 
 
 619 
 
 26 
 
 18,696 
 
 189 
 
 16,525 
 
 57,968 
 
 33,196 
 
 183,880 
 
 41,728 
 
 '"65 
 
 18,904 
 
 26 
 
 939 
 
 62,318 
 
 1,191 
 
 1850. 
 
 3,921 
 12,291 
 
 17,9?8 
 
 11„1T4 
 
 .60 
 
 5,38.1. 
 
 160,083, 
 
 584,469 
 
 62,660 
 
 ,10Q,«UB 
 
 17,'o'8i 
 
 36,686 
 
 1,162 
 
 7,163 
 
 665 
 
 637,160 
 
 7,662 
 
 132,966 
 
 940,677 
 
 693,796 
 
 446,932 
 
 630,307 
 
 368,131 
 
 1,048 
 
 20,352 
 
 1,000,450 
 
 63,398 
 
 1850. 
 
 "is 
 
 16,432 
 
 7 
 15,968 
 
 1 
 86 
 
 100 
 44 
 
 454 
 
 1356 
 
 3 
 8 
 
 60 
 
 141 
 
 "ei 
 
 640 
 550 
 
 states and Territories. 
 
 Butter and Cheese, Pounds. 
 
 Butter. I Cheese. 
 
 States and Territories. 
 
 Butter and Cheeso, Pounds. 
 
 Buiter. 
 
 . Cheese. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Arkansas. ....;;..,., 
 
 California -..,-... 
 
 Columbia, District of, 
 Connecticut ...-*..... i 
 
 Delaware ■•■... J . 
 
 Florida. .....'. d. ■.■,,. 
 
 Georgia ^ 
 
 Illinois ..•..., 
 
 Indiana -..:... 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Kentucky ' 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Maine 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 1850. 
 
 4,003,811 
 
 1,854,239 
 
 706 
 
 14,872 
 
 6,498,119 
 
 1,055,308 
 
 871,418 
 
 4,640,659 
 
 12,536,643 
 
 13,831,535 
 
 3,171,138 
 
 9,947,633 
 
 633,069 
 
 9,343,811 
 
 3,306,160 
 
 8,071,370 
 
 7,06.5,873 
 
 4,346,234 
 
 1860. 
 
 31,412 
 
 30,083 
 
 160 
 
 1,500 
 
 5,863,377 
 
 3,187 
 
 18,015 
 
 46,976 
 
 1,378,325 
 
 624,564 
 
 209,840 
 
 313,964 
 
 1,957 
 
 2,434,454 
 
 3,975 
 
 7,033,142 
 
 1,011,493 
 
 31,191 
 
 1850. 
 
 4,040,323 
 
 1,884,337 
 
 855 
 
 10,872 
 
 11,861,39* 
 
 1,053,495 
 389,613 
 
 4,687,635 
 13j304,768 
 13,506,099 
 
 3,381,038 
 10,161,477 
 
 ■ 685,036 
 11,678,265 
 
 3,310,135 
 16,159,512 
 
 3(077,870 
 
 4;867,425 
 
 Miasoul^ 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 New York 
 
 North Carolina . 
 
 Ohio. 
 
 Pennsylvania . . . 
 Rhode Island . . . 
 South Carolina . 
 
 'Tennessee 
 
 ■Texas... 
 
 ■Vermont 
 
 Virginia 
 
 "Wisconsin. . . ,. . 
 jffl fMinnesota . . 
 Si J New Mexico 
 
 ^ ] Oregon 
 
 (i Lutah 
 
 1850. 
 
 7,834,359 
 
 6,977,066 
 
 9,487,310 
 
 79,766,094 
 
 4,146,390 
 
 34,449,879 
 
 39,378,418 
 
 996,670 
 
 2,981,350 
 
 8,139,595 
 
 3,344,900 
 
 13137,980 
 
 11,039,359 
 
 3,633,750 
 
 1,100 
 
 111 
 
 311,464 
 
 83,809 
 
 1850. 
 
 203,673 
 
 3,196,663 
 
 365,756 
 
 48,741,413 
 
 95,921 
 
 30,319,542 
 
 3,505,034 
 
 816,503 
 
 4,970 
 
 177,631 
 
 96,299 
 
 8,720,334 
 
 436,293 
 
 400,338 
 
 6,'8'43 
 36,980 
 30,993 
 
 1860. 
 
 8,037,981 
 
 10,173,619 
 
 9,853,966 
 
 129,607,507 
 
 ■ 4f242,311 
 
 55,268,921 
 
 42,383,452 
 
 1,312,178 
 
 2,986,830 
 
 8,817,266 
 
 2,440,199 
 
 20,868,814 
 
 lli36,6Bl 
 
 4,084,033 
 
 1,100 
 
 6,969 
 
 248,444 
 
 114,307 
 
 Statoa and Territorips. 
 
 Dew and 
 water-rotted 
 Hemp, Tons. 
 
 Hemp 
 
 and Flax, 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Maple-sugar, 
 ■Pounds. 
 
 Cane-sugar, 
 Bogaheads 
 of 100 Lbs. 
 
 Molasses, 
 Gallons of. 
 
 Sugar, Pounds 
 
 Ginned Cot- 
 ton, Bales 0: 
 400 Pounds. 
 
 Cotton, 
 gathered. 
 Pounds oi. 
 
 Rough Rice, 
 Pounds. 
 
 
 1850. 
 ""15 
 
 l'7",7S7 
 '"63 
 
 ""7 
 
 10,038 
 
 ""4 
 39 
 150 
 44 
 
 "595 
 
 "133 
 
 1840.' 
 
 5 
 1,039} 
 41} 
 52} 
 
 10} 
 
 1,976} 
 
 3,005} 
 
 318} 
 
 9,992} 
 
 ' '38 
 438 
 2} 
 755} 
 16 
 13,010} 
 26} 
 2,166} 
 1,1301 
 9,879} 
 9,080} 
 2,649} 
 } 
 
 8,'8'44} 
 
 ' '29'} 
 26,594} 
 2 
 
 1850. 
 643 
 9,830 
 60,796 
 
 " "50 
 
 243,904 
 
 2,921,193 
 
 78,407 
 
 437,405 
 
 255 
 
 93,543 
 
 47,740 
 
 795,535 
 
 3,489,794 
 
 lialm 
 
 1,398,863 
 
 3,197 
 
 10,357,484 
 
 37,932 
 
 4,533,309 
 
 3,336,635 
 
 28 
 
 200 
 
 163,651 
 
 6,849,'3'57 
 
 1,227,665 
 
 610,976 
 
 2,969 
 
 1850. 
 87 
 
 2;750 
 346 
 
 '"io 
 
 236,001 
 
 ""s 
 
 '"77 
 
 3 
 
 7,351 
 
 I860. 
 
 ; 83,433 
 
 18 
 
 . 665 
 
 50 
 
 362,893 
 
 216,345 
 
 8,354 
 
 180,325 
 
 3,163 
 
 30,079 
 
 10,931,177 
 
 3,167 
 
 1,430 
 
 4,698 
 
 19,833 
 
 18,818 
 
 6,636 
 
 9,311 
 
 964 
 
 56,539 
 
 704 
 
 197,308 
 
 80,652 
 
 15,904 
 
 7,233 
 
 441,918 
 
 6,997 
 
 40,332 
 9,874 
 
 ■4,'3'86 
 34 
 53 
 
 1840. 
 10,143 
 1,542 
 61,764 
 
 275,317 
 
 329,744 
 
 399,813 
 
 3,727,796 
 
 41,450 
 
 1,377,335 
 
 119,947,720 
 
 357,464 
 
 36,266 
 
 579,237 
 
 1,339,784 
 
 77 
 
 274,858 
 
 1,162,368 
 
 56 
 
 10.048,109 
 
 ■ 7,163 
 
 6,368,386 
 
 3,265,765 
 
 50 
 
 30,000 
 
 258,073 
 
 4,647,'9'34 
 
 1,541,333 
 
 135,238 
 
 I860. 
 
 564,429 
 66,344 
 
 45',i31 
 499,091 
 
 ■"14 
 
 "75s 
 
 178,737 
 
 4S'4',292 
 
 5'o',545 
 
 30'0',96l 
 194,533 
 68,073 
 
 "3,947 
 
 1840. 
 117,138,823 
 6,028,643 
 
 ""384 
 
 12,110,533 
 
 168,892,396 
 
 200,947 
 
 180 
 
 69i.'456 
 162,555;36S 
 
 ' ■5,'673 
 
 193,46i,'577 
 121,133 
 
 51,936','l90 
 
 61,7l'd,'374 
 27,701,277 
 
 3,494,'483 
 
 1850, 
 2,312,253 
 63,179 
 
 1,075,090 
 83,950,691 
 
 "5,688 
 4,435,849 
 
 3,7i9','856 
 700 
 
 6,465,'868 
 
 159,9'36,'613 
 268,854 
 38,208 
 
 'i7','l54 
 
 
 (Jonnecticiil; 
 
 Florida ^ 
 
 
 Indiaua, 
 
 Iowa 
 
 
 Maine 
 
 
 Maasachusetts 
 
 MisaiHsippi 
 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 New York... 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 Ohio : 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 
 
 Virginia 
 
 WiflConsin 
 
 £ fMinnesota 
 
 !a J New Mexico 
 
 "luSh™. '■:"■•■'■■ 
 
UNI 
 
 1900 
 
 UNI 
 
 AGEIOmiBR^L PKODCOTlbKS OF THE STAtBS ASD TeEEITOBIBS Or THE U. S., 1840 AND 1850. 
 
 States and TemtorieH. 
 
 Rice, 
 Pounds. 
 
 Tobacco, Ponnda. 
 
 Wool, Pounds, 
 
 Wine, Gallons. 
 
 Value of Fam. 
 ily Goods. 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 California 
 
 Columbia, District of 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Florida 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Maine 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Maseachuaetts 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Missouri 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 New York 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Texas 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Virginia 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 w TMinnesota 
 
 ^ j New Mexico 
 
 g ] Oregon 
 
 § tUtah 
 
 1840. 
 149,019 
 5,4S4 
 
 4Sl,4aO 
 
 12,3S4,T32 
 460 
 
 16,3T6 
 3,004,534 
 
 771,195 
 60 
 
 2,830,888 
 
 60,590,361 
 7,977 
 
 2,958 
 
 1850. 
 
 164,990 
 
 318,936 
 
 1,000 
 
 7,800 
 
 1,367,624 
 
 933,614 
 
 433.924 
 
 34i;394 
 
 1,044,620 
 
 6,041 
 
 65,501,196 
 
 26,878 
 
 21,407,497 
 
 138,246 
 
 1,246 
 
 49,960 
 
 17,113,784 
 
 50 
 
 310 
 
 83,189 
 
 11,984,786 
 
 10,464,449 
 
 912,661 
 
 74,385 
 20,148,932 
 66,897 
 
 58,863,237 
 1,263 
 
 8,467 
 325 
 70 
 
 1840. 
 273,802 
 148,439 
 
 65,650 
 
 471,057 
 
 372 
 
 75,374 
 
 163,894 
 
 504,830 
 
 1,820,306 
 
 8,076 
 
 53,436,909 
 
 119,824 
 
 30 
 
 24,810,012 
 
 04,965 
 
 1,602 
 
 63,471 
 
 9,067,913 
 
 115 
 
 1,922 
 
 744 
 
 16,773,369 
 
 5,943,375 
 
 325,018 
 
 817 
 
 51,519 
 
 29,560,432 
 
 "^5 
 75,347,106 
 115 
 
 1850. 
 
 667,118 
 
 182,595 
 
 5,530 
 
 526 
 
 497,464 
 
 67,768 
 
 23,247 
 
 990,019 
 
 2,160,113 
 
 2,610,387 
 
 373,898 
 
 3,297,^8 
 
 109,897 
 
 1,364,034 
 
 477,433 
 
 635,136 
 
 3,043,283 
 
 659,619 
 
 1,637,184 
 
 1,108,470 
 
 375,396 
 
 10,071,301 
 
 970,738 
 
 10,196,371 
 
 4,481,570 
 
 129,692 
 
 487,238 
 
 1,364,378 
 
 131,917 
 
 3,400,717 
 
 2,360,766 
 
 263,963 
 
 85 
 
 82,901 
 
 39,6S6 
 
 9,233 
 
 1840. 
 
 .330,858 
 
 64,943 
 
 ' ' 707 
 
 889,870 
 
 64,404 
 
 7,235 
 
 371,303 
 
 660,007 
 
 1,237,919 
 ■23,039 
 
 1,786,347 
 49,283 
 
 1,465,551 
 488,301 
 941,906 
 163,875 
 178,196 
 562,266 
 
 1,260,517 
 397,207 
 
 9,845,395 
 635,044 
 
 8,685,316 
 
 3,048,664 
 183,830 
 299,170 
 
 1,060,832 
 
 8,699,335 
 3,638,874 
 6,777 
 
 I860, 
 
 167 
 
 6 
 
 818 
 47 
 387 
 346 
 
 1381 
 
 ■39 
 
 262 
 
 39 
 
 . 7 
 108 
 
 191 
 
 23 
 
 1774 
 
 229 
 1562 
 
 285 
 
 123 
 1923 
 
 517 
 
 1840. 
 l,692i 
 96 
 
 '651 
 
 17,538 
 
 1,453} 
 
 134} 
 
 2,992t 
 
 1,160 
 
 379 
 
 '737 
 817 
 211 
 2,290} 
 1,741 
 266 
 91 
 70 
 419} 
 1,966 
 1,786} 
 3,014 
 4,317i 
 7,262i 
 
 458 
 2,080 
 1,217 
 
 4,286 
 8,191 
 
 1850. 
 
 220 
 
 86 
 
 53,066 
 
 863 
 
 4,369 
 
 145 
 
 10 
 
 796 
 
 2,997 
 
 14,065 
 
 430 
 
 8,093 
 
 15 
 
 724 
 
 1,431 
 
 4,683 
 
 1,654 
 
 407 
 
 10,583 
 
 344 
 
 1,311 
 
 9,173 
 
 11,053 
 
 48,307 
 
 25,590 
 
 1,013 
 
 5,380 
 
 92 
 
 99 
 
 659 
 
 6,408 
 
 113 
 
 2,363 
 
 1840. 
 
 177 
 
 35 
 2,666 
 
 8,647 
 , 474 
 10,265 
 
 2,'20b 
 
 , 2,884 
 
 3,336 
 
 7,536 
 
 193 
 
 ' " '12 
 
 33 
 
 94 
 
 9,416 
 
 6,799 
 
 28,752 
 
 11,534 
 
 14,328 
 
 803 
 
 648 
 
 663 
 
 ' ' 94 
 18,911 
 
 1840. 
 $1,666,119 
 489,760 
 
 '1,500 
 
 226463 
 
 63,116 
 
 20,206 
 
 1,467,630 
 
 998,667 
 
 1,289,302 
 
 36,966 
 
 2,622,462 
 
 66,190 
 
 804,897 
 
 176,050 
 
 281,943 
 
 113,965 
 
 682,946 
 
 1,149,544 
 
 638,308 
 
 201,626 
 
 4,636,647 
 
 1,418,242 
 
 1,853,937 
 
 1:303,093 
 
 51,180 
 
 980,703 
 
 2,886,661 
 
 674,'6'48 
 
 2,441,672 
 
 12,567 
 
 Actual CEOrs pee Acee, on the Aveeage, ab ebtuesed by the CENBtra Maesualb of the U. S. foe 1849-50. 
 
 Wheat, 
 
 Ry«, 
 
 Indian 
 Corn, 
 Bush. 
 
 Oats, 
 
 Rice, 
 
 Bush. 
 
 Bush. 
 
 Bush. 
 
 Pounds 
 
 5 
 
 
 15 
 
 12 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 22 
 40 
 
 18 
 31 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 
 1850 
 
 6 
 
 7- 
 
 18 
 
 13 
 
 
 11 
 
 14 
 
 33 
 
 39 
 
 
 12 
 
 18 
 
 83 
 
 20 
 
 
 14 
 
 
 33 
 
 86 
 
 
 8 
 
 11 
 
 24 
 16 
 
 IS 
 
 iioii 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 27 
 
 20 
 
 
 13 
 
 IS 
 
 23 
 
 31 
 
 
 16 
 
 13 
 
 31 
 
 26 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 83 
 
 26 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 18 
 
 12 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 34 
 
 26 
 
 
 11 
 
 14 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 
 11 
 
 8 
 
 33 
 
 26 
 
 
 13 
 
 17 
 
 37 
 
 25 
 
 
 7 
 
 15 
 
 17 
 
 10 
 
 
 12 
 
 26 
 
 36 
 
 21 
 
 
 15 
 
 14 
 18 
 
 30 
 
 33 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 1760 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 31 
 
 19 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 30 
 
 83 
 
 26 
 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 18 
 
 13 
 
 
 14 
 
 
 30 
 
 85 
 
 
 To- 
 bacco, 
 PoiindB. 
 
 Seed 
 Cotton, 
 Pounds. 
 
 Irish 
 Pota- 
 toes, 
 
 Bar- 
 ley, 
 Bush. 
 
 Buck- 
 wheat, 
 Bush. 
 
 Hay, 
 Tods. 
 
 Hope, 
 Lbs. 
 
 Hemp, 
 dew- 
 rotted. 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 Connecticut . . . 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Florida 
 
 Georgia 
 
 ininoia ' 
 
 Indiana. ..:... 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Maine 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Massachusetts . 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Mississippi .... 
 
 Missouri 
 
 N._ Hampshire . 
 New Jersey . . . 
 
 New York 
 
 North Carolina. 
 
 Ohio , 
 
 Ppnnsylvauia, 
 Rhode Island . . 
 South Carolina, 
 Tennessee. .... 
 
 Texas 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Virginia 
 
 A^isconsin. .... 
 
 525 
 700 
 
 350 
 600 
 
 575 
 050 
 
 750 
 
 320 
 300 
 760 
 
 400 
 
 950 
 
 Number of Cottost, Sttgab, Eioe, Tobacco, and Hemp Plantations in tub United States. 
 
 states. 
 
 No. of Cotton Plan- 
 tations raising: five 
 . Bales and ovor. 
 
 No. of Sugar 
 Planters. 
 
 No. of Rico Planta- 
 tions, each raifiing 
 20,000 Lbs. and over. 
 
 No. of Tobocco Plan- 
 tations, each raising 
 300 Lba. Rod over. 
 
 No. of Hemp 
 Planters. 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Ai'kansas 
 
 Florida 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Mississippi . . . . 
 
 Missouri 
 
 North Carolina 
 South Carolina, 
 Tennessee . . . ,. 
 
 Texas , 
 
 Virginia , 
 
 Total 
 
 16,100 
 2,175 
 
 nno 
 
 14,578 
 
 21 
 
 4,205 
 
 15,110 
 
 *2,827 
 11,523 
 4,043 
 2,262 
 198 
 
 953 
 i65S 
 
 80 
 
 25 
 446 
 
 5,98T 
 l",726 
 
 2,215 
 5,817 
 
 3520 
 
 4S0T 
 
 74,031 
 
 2681 
 
 15,745 
 
 8327 
 
UNI 
 
 1901 
 
 UNI 
 
 There are in the Southern States 74,081 cotton plant- 
 ations, including all producers of more than five bales ; 
 2681 sugar planters, including the sinallest; 551 estates 
 making more than 20,000 pounds of rough rice each; 
 15,745 tobacco estates of 3000 pounds each and over, in 
 Kentucky, Tennessee, and Virgiiiia ; 8327 hemp plant- 
 ers in Kentucky and Missouri. Only such States are 
 taken as are considered crop States. 
 
 AoBIOiaTCEAI. PEOnuCTIONS Off THE UNITED STATES AMD 
 THEIB AHNUAL VaLDE, AOCOEDINO TO TUB CENSUS OF 1S50. 
 
 Articl«a. 
 
 Indian corn buab. 
 
 Wheat .- " 
 
 Cotton bales 
 
 Hay tons 
 
 Oats bush. 
 
 Butter Iba. 
 
 Cheese ^^ 
 
 Potatoes, Irish busb. 
 
 Potatoes, sweet '. " 
 
 Wool, lbs. 
 
 Tobacco *' 
 
 Cane-sugar hhds. 
 
 RyO' .;.....; bush. 
 
 Orchard products 
 
 Buckwheat busb. 
 
 Peaa and beans ^^ 
 
 Market garden products 
 
 Hemp tons 
 
 Eico Iba. 
 
 Barley bush. 
 
 Molasses galls. 
 
 Beeswax and honey lbs. 
 
 Clover-seed "bush. 
 
 Maple-sugar lbs. 
 
 Hops...... ** 
 
 Flax-seed bush. 
 
 Grass seed (besides clover) '* 
 
 Flax..* lbs. 
 
 Wine galls. 
 
 Silk cocoons lbs. 
 
 Live stock over one year old. 
 
 annual product 
 
 Animals slaughtered 
 
 Poultry on the basis of 1840 . . . 
 
 Feathers 
 
 Milk (not included in butter 
 
 and cheese) 
 
 Cord-wood on the basis of 1840 
 
 Home-made manufactures, one 
 half for agricultural part. 
 
 Small crops, basis of Rhode Isl- 
 and for onions, carrots, etc. , 
 
 Kosiduum of crops, ndt con- 
 sumed by stock, corn fodder, 
 cotton seed, straw, rice flour, 
 and manure 
 
 Cattle, sheep, and pigs, under 
 one year old 
 
 Add . for orchard and garden 
 products of cities, not included 
 in above— milk, butter, poul- 
 try, horses, cows, etc., in, cit- 
 ies and towns 
 
 Total agric, producta, 1849-'50 
 
 S9a,!0T0,000' 
 
 100,4SS,000 
 
 2,'60O,0a0 
 
 13,638,000 
 
 146,000,000 
 
 313,345,000 
 
 105,836,000 
 
 ' 6B,T9T,000 
 
 38,2138,000 
 
 52,500,000 
 
 200,000,000 
 
 237,000 
 
 14,188,000 
 
 8,956,000 
 9,219,000 
 
 ' ' 34,000 
 
 215,000,000 
 
 5,167,000 
 
 13,700,000 
 
 14,853,000 
 
 463,000 
 
 34,253,000 
 
 3,497,000 
 
 502,000 
 
 416,000 
 
 7,709,000 
 
 221,000 
 
 10,800 
 
 $290,036,000 
 
 -100,480,000 
 
 98,604,000 
 
 90,870,000 
 
 ^,976,000 
 
 60,136,000 
 
 6,248,000 
 
 26,319,000 
 
 - 19,185,000 
 
 ■ 15,750,000 
 
 13,893,000 
 
 12,878,000 
 
 7,804,000 
 
 7,724,000 
 
 0,970,000 
 
 5,763,000 
 
 5,280,000 
 
 6,248,000 
 
 4,000,000 
 
 3,618,000 
 
 2,640,000 
 
 2,378,000 
 
 2,345,000 
 
 1,713,000 
 
 1,224,000 
 
 844,000 
 
 884,000 
 
 772,000 
 
 444,000 
 
 5,000 
 
 175,000,000 
 
 65,000,000 
 
 13,000,000 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 7,000,000 
 6,000,000 
 20,000,000 
 
 13,746,000 
 
 6,000,000 
 
 100,000,000 
 60,000,000 
 
 16,000,000 
 
 §1,399,197,000 
 
 Land aotctally oxtltitated rN the beveeal Ceofb of the 
 United States, 1819-'60. 
 
 Products. Acres. 
 
 Indiancorn 31,000,000 
 
 Meadow or pasture lands — that proportion which 
 is regarded improved, and exclusive of hay 
 
 crop. 20,000,000 
 
 Hay 13,000,000 
 
 Wheat 11,000,000 
 
 Oats 7,600,000 
 
 Cotton ......'.:;. 6,000,000 
 
 Eye 1......1 1,200,000 
 
 Peas and beans , . . , 1,000,000 
 
 Irish potatoes 1,000,000 
 
 Sweet potatoes .' 750,000 
 
 Buckwheat 600,000 
 
 Tobacco 400,000 
 
 Sugar 400,000 
 
 Barley 300,000 
 
 Rice.. 1T6,000 
 
 Hemp 110,000 
 
 Flax 100,000 
 
 Orchards 600,000 
 
 Gordcns : 600.000 
 
 Vineyards 260,000 
 
 Other products 1,000,000 
 
 Improved, but not in actual cultivation 17,247,614 
 
 Total improved lands 113,032,614 
 
 We give the estimates of the agricultural products 
 of the United States for the year 1855, as furnished in 
 an official form from the Patent-office. They can not 
 be regarded as strictly ooiTect, but they are as nearly 
 
 as possible. It will be seen that the crop of Indian 
 corn for the year is estimated in value at $360,000,000, 
 while the wheat crop is estimated at only $247,500,000. 
 The cotton crop is estimated at $136,000,000, while the 
 hay and fodder crop is estimated at $160,000,000. 
 
 Vegetable Produots. 
 Indian corn bush. 600,000,000 at $0 60. 
 
 Wheat . 
 
 Eye " 
 
 Barley *' 
 
 Oats " 
 
 Buckwheat " 
 
 Potatoes, all sprts ^' 
 
 Flax-seed " 
 
 Beans and peas . *^ 
 Cloverandgrass) ,, 
 
 seed.. / 
 
 Eice lbs. 
 
 Sugar (cane) .... *' 
 Sugar (maple) . . " 
 
 Wine 
 
 Hops " 
 
 Orchard product 
 
 Garden product 
 
 Tobacco lbs. 
 
 Cotton " 
 
 Hemp tons 
 
 Flax lbs. 
 
 Hay and fodder, tons 
 
 Pasturage 
 
 Total 
 
 165,000,000 . 
 
 14,000,000 . 
 
 6,000,000 . 
 
 170,000,000 . 
 
 10,000,000 , 
 
 110,000,000 . 
 
 68,000,000 . 
 
 9,600,000 . 
 
 1,000,000 .. 
 
 200,000,000 .. 
 505,000,000 .. 
 84,000,000 .. 
 14,000,000 . . 
 2,500,000 . . 
 1,500,000 . . 
 
 1 50. 
 1 00. 
 90. 
 40. 
 60.. 
 
 37.. 
 
 1 26.. 
 
 2 00.. 
 
 3 00.. 
 
 04.. 
 07.. 
 08.. 
 
 30.. 
 
 1 00.. 
 16.. 
 
 190,000,000 . 
 
 1,700,000,000 . 
 
 34,500 . 
 
 800,000 . 
 
 16,000,000 . 
 
 . 10.. 
 . 08. . 
 .100 00.. 
 . 10.. 
 . 20 00. . 
 
 $360,000,000 
 
 247,500,000 
 
 . 14,000,000 
 
 5,940,000 
 
 68,000,000 
 
 6,000,000 
 
 41,260,000 ■ 
 
 72,000 
 18,000,000 
 
 8,0(10,000 
 
 10,000,000 
 
 35,350,000 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 4,200,000 
 
 2,500,000 
 
 525,000 
 
 25,000,000 
 
 60,000,000 
 
 19,000,000 
 
 136,000,000 
 
 3,450,000 
 
 80,000 
 
 160,000,000 
 
 14 3,000,000 
 
 .$1,355,650,000 
 
 * Domestic Animals and Animal Peoduots. 
 
 VahmtioD. Total Value. 
 
 Horned cattle 21,000,000, at $20 each $420,000,000 
 
 Horses, asses, and mules 5,100,000, at $00 each 306,000,000 
 
 Sheep 28,600,000, at $2 each 47,000,000 
 
 Swine 32,000,000, at $5 each 160,000,000 
 
 Poultry 200,000,000 
 
 Slaughtered animals .. ,. 200,000,000 
 
 Butter and cheese. .. . "-'"""""«"" ■ -- 
 Milk (exclusive of) 
 that used for but- 
 ter and cheese) . 
 
 Wool 60,000,000 lbs., at 35c. 
 
 Beeswax and honey. . 16,000,000 lbs., at 15e. 
 
 Silk cocoons 5,000, at $1 
 
 Total , $1,531,405,000 
 
 The aggregate for 1857 will, no doubt, prove much 
 larger. It is quite apparent, from the foregoing, that 
 this is an immense country, and that our resources are 
 of vast extent and magnitude. 
 
 From official statements a comparison is made of the 
 extent to which the various crops are raised in England 
 and Wales and the United States. And from this it 
 appears that England and Wales together have only 
 19 per cent, of the fallow culture of the United States, 
 and only 33 per cent, of the improved land. 
 
 ofV 
 lut-Vl,' 
 
 500,000,000 lbs., at 15c. 
 000,000,000 gala., at 10c. 
 
 75,000,000 
 
 100,000,000 
 
 21,000,000 
 2,400,000 
 ' 6,000 
 
 Articles. 
 
 Wheot 
 
 Oats 
 
 Rye 
 
 Irish potatoes 
 
 Peas and beans 
 
 Turnips 
 
 Carrots 
 
 Indian corn 
 
 Barley ^ . 
 
 Cotton 
 
 Sweet potatoes 
 
 Buckwheat 
 
 Marigolds 
 
 Vetches 
 
 Total 
 
 And the total number of im- 
 proved lands in gross, etc. 
 
 EuglaDd. 
 
 Acres. 
 3,807,846 
 1,302,782 
 72,721 
 
 192,287 
 
 773,188 
 2,267,200 
 
 192,287 
 
 2,667,776 
 
 177,153 
 218,551 
 
 11,671,781 
 
 United States. 
 
 Acres. 
 11,000,000 
 7,500,000 
 1,200,000 
 1,000,000 
 1,000,000 
 
 31,000,000 
 
 300,000 
 
 6,000,000 
 
 750,000 
 
 600,000 
 
 59,350,000 
 
 113,082,614 
 
 From this comparison we can deduce that the Unit- 
 ed States has about five times as many acres in cultiva- 
 tion, and, if the same skill in cultivating and sowing 
 were used, should be able to maintain five times the 
 population, and that without having reaource to any 
 more wild lands. 
 
UNI 
 
 1902 
 
 UNI 
 
 STATOMENT of the EsoEIPTa into the NATIONAI. TEEABtJET FROM CnSTOMS, ISTERSAI. REVENUE, DIEEOT TAXES, AKD 
 
 SALES OP Public Lands, together with tub Expenditubes of the United States, exclusive of Payments ok 
 
 ACCOUNT OP THE EUBLIO DeBT, AND FROM TRUST FUNDS, FeAOTIONS EXCLUDED. 
 
 YeoiB. 
 
 Cub tome. 
 
 iDttsmal 
 
 and diiect 
 
 Taxeo. 
 
 17S9-'91.... 
 
 $4,399,478 
 
 
 1792. . . . 
 
 3,443,071 
 
 $308,943 
 
 1793.... 
 
 4,255,306 
 
 387,706 
 
 1794. . . . 
 
 4,801,066 
 
 274,090 
 
 1795. . . . 
 
 5,533,461 
 
 337,766 
 
 1796. . . . 
 
 6,B0T,9SS 
 
 47I5,29C 
 
 1797. . . . 
 
 7,549,660 
 
 676,401 
 
 1708. . . . 
 
 7,100,062 
 
 044,355 
 
 1799. . . . 
 
 6,610,449 
 
 779,136 
 
 1800,... 
 
 9,080,933 
 
 1,543,62C 
 
 1301.... 
 
 10,750,779 
 
 1,682,377 
 
 1802. . . . 
 
 12,438,236 
 
 828,464 
 
 ISOS... 
 
 10,479,418 
 
 287,05£ 
 
 1304.... 
 
 11,098,465 
 
 101,139 
 
 1306. . . . 
 
 12,936,487 
 
 43,631 
 
 1806. . . . 
 
 14,667,698 
 
 1 75,865 
 
 1807.... 
 
 15,845,522 
 
 47,78< 
 
 1803. . . . 
 
 16,363,550 
 
 27,37C 
 
 1809,... 
 
 7,296,021 
 
 11,562 
 
 1810. , . . 
 
 8,533,309 
 
 19,37£ 
 
 1811.... 
 
 13,313,223 
 
 9,962 
 
 1812.... 
 
 8,963,778 
 
 6,703 
 
 1813. , . . 
 
 13,224,623 
 
 8,661 
 
 1814. . . . 
 
 6,993,772 
 
 3,382,482 
 
 1815 . . 
 
 7,232,942 
 
 6,840,733 
 
 1816. . . . 
 
 36,806,375 
 
 9,378,344 
 
 1817 . 
 
 26,233,343 
 
 4,612,235 
 
 1813.... 
 
 17,176,386 
 
 1,219,613 
 
 1819. . . . 
 
 20,283,609 
 
 313,244 
 
 1320.... 
 
 15,005,612 
 
 137,847 
 
 1821. . . . 
 
 13,004,447 
 
 93,377 
 
 1822 
 
 17,639,762 
 
 88,617 
 
 1823 
 
 19,038,433 
 
 44,580 
 
 1824. . . . 
 
 17,873,326 
 
 40,366 
 
 1326. . . . 
 
 20,098,714 
 
 28,102 
 
 1326, . . . 
 
 23,341,332 
 
 28,223 
 
 1837. . . . 
 
 19,712,233 
 
 22,613 
 
 1828.... 
 
 23,205,624 
 
 19,671 
 
 1829 . 
 
 22,681,966 
 
 25,838 
 
 1830. . . . 
 
 21,922,391 
 
 29,141 
 
 1831.... 
 
 24,224,442 
 
 17,440 
 
 1832. . . . 
 
 23,466,237 
 
 13,422 
 
 1833. . . . 
 
 29,032,509 
 
 3,153 
 
 1834. . . . 
 
 16,214,957 
 
 4,216 
 
 1835. . . . 
 
 19,391,311 
 
 14,723 
 
 1836. . . . 
 
 23,409,940 
 
 1,099 
 
 1837. . . . 
 
 11,169,290 
 
 
 1333.... 
 
 16,153,800 
 
 
 1339. . . . 
 
 23,137,925 
 
 
 1840. . . . 
 
 13,499,802 
 
 
 1841. . . . 
 
 14,437,217 
 
 • ■ • * 
 
 1342. . . . 
 
 13,187,909 
 
 
 imos.ofl843 
 
 7,046,844 
 
 
 1844t... 
 
 26,183,571 
 
 
 1845t... 
 
 27,523,113 
 
 .... 'v 
 
 lS46t. . . 
 
 26,712,668 
 
 .... 
 
 184Tt. . . 
 
 23,747,804 
 
 .... 
 
 184St... 
 
 31,757,070 
 
 
 1849t. . . 
 
 28,346,738 
 
 
 lS50t... 
 
 39,663,686 
 
 . . • . 
 
 1851t... 
 
 49,017,668 
 
 
 1853t... 
 
 47,339,326 
 
 
 1863t. . . 
 
 58,991,866 
 
 
 1854h . . 
 
 64,224,190 
 
 
 1865t... 
 
 53,025,794 
 
 
 1856t. . . 
 
 64,022,868 
 
 
 1357t. . . 
 
 63,376,905 
 
 
 Sales of 
 
 Land and 
 
 MlEcella- 
 
 Deous. 
 
 $4,836 
 83,541 
 11,963 
 
 444 
 
 167,726 
 
 188,628 
 
 165,676 
 
 487,527 
 
 640,194 
 
 765,24« 
 
 466,163 
 
 647,939 
 
 442,282 
 
 696,649 
 
 1,040,238 
 
 710,428 
 
 838,655 
 
 1,135,971 
 
 1,287,959 
 
 1,717,935 
 
 1,991,""" 
 
 2,606,566 
 
 3,274,423 
 
 1,636,872 
 
 1,212,966 
 
 1,303,532 
 
 916,623 
 
 984,413 
 
 1,216,090 
 
 1,393,786 
 
 1,495,946 
 
 1,018,309 
 
 1,517,175 
 
 2,329,366 
 
 3,210,815 
 
 2,623,381 
 
 3,967,682 
 
 4,857,601 
 
 4,767,601 
 
 4,877,130 
 
 6,863,556 
 
 3,214,184 
 
 7,261,118 
 
 3,494,356 
 
 1,470,296 
 
 1,466,063 
 
 1,013,432 
 
 2,320,943 
 
 2,241,021 
 
 2,736,679 
 
 2,598,926 
 
 3,679,679 
 
 2,727,608 
 
 3,707,112 
 
 3,296,412 
 
 2,389,060 
 
 2,405,709 
 
 9,325,514 
 
 11,973,136 
 
 9,395,278 
 
 4,755,608 
 
 Aggregate 
 ol'Heceipta, 
 
 $4,399,473 
 3,652,014 
 4,593,012 
 6,075,155 
 5,926,216 
 7,048,114 
 8,208,682 
 7,762,333 
 7,339,585 
 10,624,997 
 12,500,882 
 13,455,328 
 10,932,153 
 11,687,231 
 13,520,312 
 16,508,309 
 16,359,469 
 17,038,359 
 7,749,836 
 9,299,787 
 14,363,423 
 9,674,968 
 14,068,839 
 11,017,225 
 16,411.634 
 47,403;204 
 32,786,862 
 21,002i663 
 23,871,276 
 16,779,831 
 14,315,780 
 19,481,961 
 20,049,536 
 18,903,60* 
 21,842,906 
 24,763,345 
 21,280,641 
 24,243,504 
 24,224,979 
 24,280,833 
 27,452,697 
 31,107,040 
 33,003,344 
 21,076,774 
 34,163,035 
 48,233,219 
 18,032,846 
 19,372,984 
 30,399,043 
 16,993,853 
 15,9.57,612 
 19,643,967 
 8,066,826 
 28,604,519 
 29,769,134 
 29,499,247 
 26,346,790 
 35,436,750 
 31,074,347 
 43,876,798 
 62,812,979 
 49,728,386 
 61,337,574 
 73,649,705 
 66,003,930 
 73,918,141 
 63,681,613 
 
 Civil List, 
 FoTeigQ In. 
 
 tercourse. 
 and Miscel- 
 laneous. 
 
 $1,083,401 
 654,267 
 472,460 
 705,598 
 1,367,037 
 772,436 
 1,246,904 
 1,111,038 
 1,039,392 
 1,337,613 
 1,114,763 
 1,462,929 
 1,342,636 
 2,191,009 
 3,763,583 
 2,891,037 
 1,697,897 
 1,423,286 
 1,215,804 
 1,101,146 
 1,367,291 
 1,683,038 
 1,729,435 
 2,208,029 
 2,808,871 
 2,989,742 
 3,518,937 
 3,836,839 
 3,067,212 
 2,692,022 
 2,223,122 
 1,967,996 
 2,022,094 
 7,165,303 
 2,748,544 
 2,000,178 
 2,314,777 
 2,886,052 
 3,092,214 
 3,228,416 
 3,064,346 
 4,674,841 
 6,061,789 
 4,399,779 
 3,720,167 
 6,388,371 
 5,524,253 
 5,666,703 
 4,994,662 
 5,581,878 
 6,490,881 
 6,775,626 
 2,867,239 
 6,281,747 
 5,608,207 
 6,783,000 
 6,716,864 
 5,585,070 
 14,017,640 
 14,839,725 
 17,872,967 
 17,379,763 
 17,176,797 
 26,907,372 
 24,183,437 
 25,274,831 
 27,631,922 
 
 Mtlitary 
 
 Establish. 
 
 ment.* 
 
 $835,618 
 
 1,223 594 
 
 1,237,620 
 
 2,733,640 
 
 2,673,059 
 
 1,474,661 
 
 1,194,056 
 
 2,130,337 
 
 2,682,693 
 
 2,025,041 
 
 1,755,477 
 
 1,853,689 
 
 944,953 
 
 1,072,017 
 
 991,136 
 
 1,540,431 
 
 1,564,011 
 
 3,196,985 
 
 3,771,109 
 
 2,665,693 
 
 2,269,747 
 
 12,137,046 
 
 19,906,362 
 
 20,603,366 
 
 15,394,700 
 
 16,475,412 
 
 8,621,075 
 
 7,019,140 
 
 9,386,421 
 
 6,154,518 
 
 6,181,114 
 
 5,685,187 
 
 5,253,295 
 
 6,270,255 
 
 5,692,331 
 
 6,243,236 
 
 6,676,742 
 
 5,701,203 
 
 6,250,630 
 
 6,762,639 
 
 6,943,239 
 
 7,982,877 
 
 18,096,162 
 
 10,064,428 
 
 9,420,813 
 
 13,466,110 
 
 19,417,274 
 
 19,936,312 
 
 14,263,931 
 
 11,621,488 
 
 13,704,382 
 
 9,188,469 
 
 4,158,384 
 
 3,231,317 
 
 9,538,203 
 
 13,579,428 
 
 41,231,606 
 
 27,320,163 
 
 17,290,936 
 
 12,801,764 
 
 11,311,793 
 
 13,424,075 
 
 16,476,826 
 
 14,342,684 
 
 18,900,665 
 
 20,821,024 
 
 24,620,049 
 
 Naval 
 
 EBtablish- 
 
 ment. 
 
 $570 
 53 
 
 61,409 
 410,562 
 274,734 
 382,632 
 1,381,348 
 2,858,082 
 3,448,716 
 2,111,424 
 915.662 
 1,215;231 
 1,189,833 
 1,697,600 
 1,649,641 
 1,722,064 
 1,884,068 
 2,427,769 
 1,664,244 
 1,966,566 
 3,959,366 
 6,446,600 
 7,311,291 
 8,660,000 
 3,908,278 
 3,314,593 
 2,958,695 
 3,847,640 
 4,387,990 
 3,319,243 
 2,224,459 
 2,503,766 
 2,904,632 
 8,049,084 
 4,218,902 
 4,263,878 
 3,913,786 
 3,308,745 
 3,239,429 
 3,856,183 
 3,966,870 
 3,901,367 
 3,956,260 
 3,864,939 
 5,800,768 
 6,362,060 
 6,975,771 
 6,225,003 
 6,124,456 
 6,001,077 
 8,397,243 
 3,072,718 
 6,496,991 
 
 $1,919,589 
 1,877,904 
 1,710,070 
 3,600,647 
 4,350,663 
 2,621,930 
 2,823,691 
 4,623,223 
 6,480,167 
 7,411,370 
 
 Aggregate 
 of Expend- 
 itures. 
 
 6,450,802 
 7,931,683 
 9,406,737 
 9,869,818 
 7,923,313 
 3,987,793 
 8,928,236 
 10,891,640 
 10,768,192 
 13,281,341 
 14,077,047 
 12,726,866 
 
 3,737,030 
 4,002,325 
 4,452,369 
 6,367,224 
 6,081,109 
 4,964,572 
 6,504,389 
 7,414,672 
 6,311,082 
 6,692,004 
 17,829,499 
 28,082,397 
 30,127,686 
 26(963,571 
 23,373,482 
 16,464,610 
 13,808,674 
 16,800,278 
 18,184,630 
 10,723,479 
 9,827,642 
 9,784,156 
 16,830,145 
 11,490,459 
 13,062,316 
 12,264,397 
 12,606,041 
 12,651,439 
 13,220,634 
 13,863,768 
 16,614,033 
 22,049,298 
 13,420,407 
 17,006,419 
 29,666,244 
 31,793,637 
 31,678,735 
 26,483,647 
 23,327,772 
 26,196,840 
 24,361,337 
 10,698,391 
 111,960,055 
 21,870,049 
 26,813,290 
 59,461,177 
 42,811,970 
 67,681,667 
 43,002,168 
 48,005,379 
 46,007,896 
 43,543,268 
 61,018,249 
 60,365,393 
 60,172,402 
 64,378,327 
 
 Population. 
 
 $75,468,4761 4,049,600 
 
 77,227,924 4,173,024 
 
 80,362,634 4,300,210 
 
 78,427,405 ■— — 
 
 1,747,537 
 83,762,172 
 82,064,479 
 79,228,529 
 73,408,670 
 82,976,294 
 83,033,051 
 80,712,632 
 77,054,686 
 86,427,121 
 32,312,150 
 76,723,271 
 69,218,3.19 
 66,196,318 
 57,023,192 
 63,173,217 
 48,005,583 
 45,209,738 
 56,962,828 
 81,437,846 
 99,683,660 
 127,834,934 
 123,491,966 
 103,466,634 
 95,529,648 
 91,016,566 
 39,987,423 
 93,546,677 
 90,875,877 
 90.269,778 
 83; 738,433 
 81,054,060 
 73,987,357 
 67,476,044 
 68,421,414 
 48,665,406 
 39,128,192 
 24,822,235 
 7,001,699 
 4,760,082 
 37,733 
 37,513 
 1,878,224 
 4,857,660 
 11,983,738 
 6,126,078 
 6,737,398 
 15,028,436 
 26,898,953 
 26,143,996 
 16,301,647 
 24,250,495 
 45,669,669 
 65,804,450 
 64,704,693 
 64,228,238 
 62,560,396 
 67,600,396 
 66,336,157 
 44,975,466 
 39,969,731 
 30,963,910 
 29,060.336 
 
 4,481,272 
 
 4,566,329 
 
 4,705,504 
 
 4,843,919 
 
 4,996,705 
 
 5,148,994 
 
 5,306,925 
 
 5,473,407 
 
 5,646.176 
 
 6,824;393 
 
 6,008,240 
 
 6,197,897 
 
 6,393,634 
 
 6,596,346 
 
 6,803,628 
 
 7,018,282 
 
 7,289,814 
 
 7,449,960 
 
 7,666,206 
 
 7,883,729 
 
 8,117,710 
 
 S,.?53,338 
 
 8,695,806 
 
 3,346,312 
 
 9,102,060 
 
 9,366,261 
 
 9,638,131 
 
 9,920,600 
 
 10,211,348 
 
 10,610,618 
 
 10,813,669 
 
 11,135,727 
 
 11,462,088 
 
 11,793,013 
 
 12,143,783 
 
 12,499,687 
 
 12,866,020 
 
 13,234,931 
 
 13,614,420 
 
 14,004,789 
 
 14,400,360 
 
 14,819,425 
 
 16,244,344 
 
 15,681,447 
 
 16,131,037 
 
 16,593,680 
 
 17,069,453 
 
 17,600,752 
 
 18,143,539 
 
 13,713,479 
 
 19,295,971 
 
 19,896,574 
 
 20,616,871 
 
 21,164,444 
 
 21,812,893 
 
 22,491,305 
 
 23,191,376 
 
 23,373,717 
 
 24,576,604 
 
 25,298,126 
 
 26,041,390 
 
 26,807,521 
 
 27,695,662 
 
 28,406,974 
 
 * Including Department of the Interior for and since 1850. The above table does not include the receipts from Loans 
 and Treasury Notes, nor the annual payments on account of the public debt. t For the year ending June 30. 
 
 Statement showing the Amount of the Public Uebt on 
 July 1, 1857, the Amount paid and redeemed since, 
 AND THE Amount outstanding Novembek 17, 1367. 
 
 Loans. 
 
 Public Debt 
 July r, 18ST. 
 
 Eedeemed 
 ■ ' since. 
 
 Outetanding 
 Nov. n, 18ST. 
 
 1842 
 
 » Ct«. 
 
 3,497,634 93 
 
 84,000 00 
 
 11,172,500 00 
 
 10,344,241 60 
 
 8,489,000 00 
 
 « ■ ■ Ct.. 
 
 614,270 82 
 
 25,300 00 
 
 1,759,950 00 
 
 1,435,900 00 
 
 23,000 00 
 
 $ Ots. 
 
 2,833,364 11 
 8,700 00 
 9,412,700 00 
 8,903,341 80 
 8,461,000 00 
 
 1846 
 
 1847 
 
 1848 
 
 Texan indemnity 
 
 Texas debt 
 
 Old funded and! 
 unfunded debtj 
 Treasury notes. . 
 
 Total Nov., 1357. 
 
 28,537,376 73 
 300,629 99 
 
 114,118 54 
 
 108,261 64 
 
 8,863,420 82 
 31,661 57 
 
 150 00 
 
 24.674,105 91 
 263,963 42 
 
 114,118 54 
 
 107,961 64 
 
 29,060,386 90 
 
 3,396,232 39 
 
 26,166,184 51 
 
 Commerce. — By the Constitution of the United 
 States, it is provided that Congress shall hare power, 
 
 1. To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and ex- 
 cises, to .pay the debts, and provide for the common 
 defense and general welfare of the United States ; hut 
 all duties, imposts, and excises shall be uniform 
 throughout the United States; 2. To borrow money 
 on the credit of the United States; 3. To regulate com- 
 merce with foreign nations, and among the several 
 States, and with the Indian tribes ; 4. To establish a 
 uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the 
 subject of bankruptcies, throughout the United States ; 
 5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of 
 foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and 
 measures ; 6. To provide for the punishment of coun- 
 terfeiting the securities and current coin of the United 
 States; 7. To establish post-offices and post-roads; 
 8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts, 
 by securing, for limited times, to authors and inventors 
 
UNI 
 
 1903 
 
 UNI 
 
 the exclusive right to their respective writings and and thus diffused over all the blessings of a free, act- 
 
 discoveries ; 9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the 
 Supreme Courts; 10. To define and punish piracies 
 and felonies committed on the high seas, and offenses 
 against the law of nations; 11. To declare war, grant 
 letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules con- 
 cerning captures on land and water,; 12. To raise and 
 support armies; but no appropriation of money to 
 that use shall be for a longer term than two years ; 
 13. To provide and maintain a navy; 14. To make 
 rules for the government and regulation of the land 
 and naval forces; 15. To provide for calling forth 
 the, militia to execute the laws of the Union,' suppress 
 insurrections, and repel invasions. 
 
 Constitutional Powers. — The power " to regulate for- 
 eign commerce" enabled the government at once to 
 place the whole country upon an equality with foreign 
 nations ; to compel them to abandon their narrow and 
 selfish policy toward us ; and to protect our own com- 
 mercial interests against their injurious competitions. 
 The power to regulate commerce " among the several 
 States," in like manner, annihilated the causes of do- 
 mestic feuds and rivalries. It compelled every State 
 to regard the interests of each as the interests of all ; 
 
 ive, and rapid exchange of commodities, upon the foot- 
 ing of perfect equality. The words being general, the 
 sense must be general also, and embrace all subjects 
 comprehended under them, unless there be some obvi- 
 ous mischief, or repugnance to other clauses, to limit 
 them. In the case there is nothing to justify such a 
 limitation. Commerce undoubtedly is traffic : but it 
 is something more — it is intercourse. It describes the 
 commercial intercourse between nations and parts of 
 nations in all its branches, and is regulated by pre- 
 scribing rules for carrying on that intercourse. 
 
 The mind can scarcely conceive a system for regu- 
 lating commerce between nations which shall exclude 
 all laws concerning navigation ; which shall be silent 
 on the admission of the vessels of one nation into the 
 ports of another, and be confined to prescribing rules 
 for the conduct of individuals in the actual employ- 
 ment of buying and selling or barter. It may, there- 
 fore, be safely affirmed that the terms of the Constitu- 
 tion have at all times been understood to include a 
 power over navigation as well as over trade, over in- 
 tercourse as well as over traffic. — Stoey's Familiar 
 Exposition of the Constitution of the United States. 
 
 Statement exhibitinq the Yalue op Ibon, Manttfactcbes op Iron, awu Teon and Steel, Steel, Suoab, Wines, and 
 ALL Fabeics op whiou Wool, Cotton, Silk, .Flax, oe Hemp, is a component paet, impoeted into tue United 
 States poe tue Yeakb 1847, '48, and '49, and Brandies for tub Years 1855 and 1857. 
 
 Artlcloa. 
 
 1841. 
 
 Value. . 
 
 Vnlue. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Duties. 
 
 Iron, inaaufacturcs of iron, and 
 iron and steel 
 
 Cast, shear, German, and other 
 steel 
 
 Manufactures of wool 
 
 " cotton., 
 
 " sUk....' 
 
 " flax...; 
 
 ** hemp 
 
 Brandies 
 
 \TineB 
 
 Sugar 
 
 Articles of which wool, cotton, silk, 
 flax, or hemp, is a component 
 part, but not classed with either, 
 viz. : 
 
 Silk and worsted goods . .' 
 
 Emhroideries of wool, cotton, silk, 
 and linen 
 
 Clothing, ready-made, and articles 
 of wear 
 
 Laces, thread, and insertings 
 
 " cotton iasertings, trimmings, 
 laces, braids, etc 
 
 Cordage, untarred, tarred, and ca- 
 bles ; 
 
 Twine and pack-thread 
 
 Seines 
 
 8,781,2 
 
 1,126,458 
 10,998,933 
 15,192,876 
 11,733,371 
 
 5,154,837 
 684,880 
 
 9,877,212 
 
 1,965,095 
 
 - 676,404 
 370,028 
 
 398,614 
 
 67,592 
 
 54,809 
 
 446 
 
 12,526,854 
 
 1,284,937 
 15,240,883 
 18,421,589 
 14,643,634 
 
 6,624,648 
 658,075 
 
 9,479,817 
 
 653,222 
 263,859 
 
 716,552 
 
 239,626 
 
 46,675 
 
 502 
 
 13,831,823 
 
 1,227,138 
 13,704,606 
 15,764,841 
 13,791,232 
 
 6,907,242 
 519,774 
 
 8,648,"900 
 
 537,690 
 176,375 
 
 663,991 
 
 146,410 
 
 84,.378 
 
 182 
 
 4,132,780 
 
 194,688 
 3,780,863 
 3,911,677 
 3,653,488 
 1,184,665 
 
 103,954 
 
 2,4i4,'670 
 
 613,072 
 
 176,277 
 36,275 
 
 165,997 
 
 36,602 
 
 10,313 
 
 54 
 
 22,041,939 
 
 2,538,323 
 31,961,793 
 25,917,999 
 30,226,632 
 11,189,463 
 253,730 
 2,859,342 
 6,796,068 
 22,536,663 
 
 1,335,247 
 
 4,664,353 
 
 l,978,k44 
 410,fe91 
 
 1,191,019 
 
 132,172 
 X : 53,'821 
 
 6,537,975 
 
 422,746 
 8,835,366 
 6,383,740 
 7,604,846 
 2,238,384 
 50,746 
 2,859,342 
 2,718,423 
 6,761,536 
 
 333,811 
 
 1,399,305 
 
 693,508 
 82,118 
 
 297,754 
 
 33,048 
 16,146 
 
 23,320,497 
 
 2,633,614 
 31,286,118 
 28,685,726 
 27,800,319 
 11,441,542 
 619,682 
 2,527,262 
 4,274,205 
 42,776,501 
 
 1,630,246 
 
 4,443,175 
 
 1,913,988 
 321,961 
 
 1,129,754 
 
 156,532 
 59,967 
 
 6,998,619 
 
 ' 437,968 
 8,633,566 
 8,035,194 
 7,010,190 
 3,288,999 
 103,916 
 2,827,262 
 1,703,612 
 12,832,960 
 
 396,061 
 
 1,332,952 
 
 575,696 
 64,392 
 
 39,133 
 17,987 
 
 Total. 
 
 68,884,657 
 
 84,590,334 
 
 78,667,928 
 
 21,040,756 
 
 166,089,379 
 
 47.163,850 
 
 184,875,079 
 
 54,282,931 
 
 Statement ExmiiiTiNG A summary View op the Exports 
 TUE Years ending June 30, 1847, '48, ' 
 
 op domestic 
 49, '50, '51, 'I 
 
 Produce, etc., op the United States dtteing 
 52, '53, '54, '86, '66, and '57. 
 
 Yen™. 
 
 Product of 
 
 Haw 
 Produce. 
 
 Specie and 
 Bullion. 
 
 Total Value. 
 
 TliaSeo. 
 
 The Forest,. 
 
 Agr J culture. 
 
 Tobacco. 
 
 Cotton-. 
 
 Manufactures. 
 
 1847 
 
 $3,468,033 
 
 $5,996,073 
 
 $68,450,383 
 
 $7,242,086 
 
 $53,416,848 
 
 $10,351,364 
 
 $2,102,838 
 
 $2,620 
 
 $150,637,464 
 
 1843 
 
 1,980,963 
 
 7,059,084 
 
 37,781,446 
 
 7,551,122 
 
 61,998,294 
 
 12,774,480 
 
 1,068,320 
 
 2,700,412 
 
 132,904,121 
 
 1841...'... 
 
 2,547,654 
 
 5,917,994 
 
 38,858,204 
 
 6,804,207 
 
 66,396,967 
 
 11,249,877 
 
 935,178 
 
 C6li,874 
 
 132,666,'. 55 
 
 I860 
 
 1851 
 
 2,824,818 
 
 7,442,503 
 
 26,547,158 
 
 9,961,023 
 
 71,984,616 
 
 15,196,461 
 
 953,664 
 
 2,045,679 
 
 136,946,912 
 
 3,294,691 
 
 7,847,022 
 
 24,369,210 
 
 9,219,251 
 
 . 112,315,317 
 
 20,136,967 
 
 1,437,893 
 
 18,069,580 
 
 ]90,48),718 
 
 1862 
 
 2,232,342 
 
 7,864,220 
 
 26,378,872 
 
 10,131,283 
 
 87,965,732 
 
 18,862,931 
 
 1,545,767 
 
 37,437,837 
 
 192,368,984 
 
 1863 
 
 3,279,413 
 
 7,915,259 
 
 : 33,463,573 
 
 11,319,319 
 
 ■ 109,456,404 
 
 22,599,930 
 
 1,835,204 
 
 23,548,636 
 
 213,417,697 
 
 1854...;,. 
 
 3,064,069 
 
 li;761,185 
 
 67,104,592 
 
 10,016,046 
 
 , 93,516,220 
 
 26,843,411 
 
 2,764,781 
 
 38,234,566 
 
 263,390,870 
 
 1856 
 
 3,516,894 
 
 12,603,837 
 
 42,667,476 
 
 14,712,468 
 
 88,143,844 
 
 28,833,299 
 
 2,373,317 
 
 53,967,418 
 
 240,708,553 
 
 1856 
 
 3,366,797 
 
 10,694,184 
 
 77,686,455 
 
 12,221,843 
 
 128,382,351 
 
 30,970,992 
 
 3,126,429 
 
 44,148,279 
 
 310,586,330 
 
 1867, 
 
 8,739,644 
 
 14,699,711 
 
 75,722,096 
 
 20,260,772 
 
 131,575,859 
 
 30,806,126 
 
 2,103,105 
 
 60,078,352 
 
 338,985,065 
 
 Statement BxniBiTiNa the Value op certain Aetiolbs impoeted dtteing the Ybaes ending June 30, 1854, 1855, 1856, 
 
 AND 185T (AFTEE DEDUCTING TUB Ee-EXPOETATIOMS), AND THE AMOUNT OF DUTY WHICH ACCECED ON EACH DTTEING THE 
 SAME PeEIODB EEBPBCTIVBIiY. 
 
 ArticIeB. 
 
 18S4. 
 
 1855. 
 
 1856. 
 
 1857. 1 
 
 .Value. . 
 
 Duties. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Duties. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Duties. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Duties. 
 
 
 31,119,654 
 
 32,477,106 
 
 5'>,824 
 
 28,288,241 
 
 - 11,604,656 
 
 335,632 
 
 1,290,975 
 
 6615,926 
 
 8,629,180 
 
 8,153,992 
 
 11,631 
 
 8,486,472 
 
 3,481,397 
 
 100,683 
 
 258,136 
 
 175,777 
 
 22,076,448 
 
 15,742,923 
 
 239,693 
 
 23,946,274 
 
 18,284,663 
 
 65,458 
 
 1,692,687 
 
 833,825 
 
 6,088,157 
 
 3,833,294 
 
 47,919 
 
 7,163,002 
 
 3,985,399 
 
 16,637 
 
 338,617 
 
 268,147 
 
 30,705,161 
 
 24,337,604 
 
 233,736 
 
 21,618,718 
 
 21,295,154 
 
 3,427 
 
 1,964,317 
 
 537,094 
 
 8,478,552 
 
 5,943,181 
 
 46,747 
 
 6,461,615 
 
 6,338,646 
 
 1,028 
 
 390,863 
 
 119,418 
 
 t 
 
 30,848,620 
 
 28,114,924 
 
 604,214 
 
 23,390,148 
 
 41,596,238 
 
 411,662 
 
 2,991,366 
 
 769,486 
 
 8,504,131 
 
 6,846,102 
 
 100,843 
 
 6,829,279 
 
 12,478,871 
 
 123,499 
 
 598,273 
 
 230,846 
 
 
 
 Iron, and manufactures of 
 
 Hemp, unmanufactured ....;... 
 gait 
 
 Coal 
 
 Total 
 
 105,762,014 
 
 29,297,333 
 
 77,930,771 
 
 21,731,6721100,746,110 
 
 27,829,952 128,556,667 
 
 35,710,844 
 
UNI 
 
 19C. 
 
 Statbmekt exuieitinq the Value of MANnFAoinnED Aktioles op somestio Pbodote exported fkom the Uiuted States 
 
 TO FOREIGN COtTNTRlES, FROM JlTNB 30, 1849, TO JTJNE 30, ISST. 
 
 185i:. 
 
 )8S8.' 
 
 Wax 
 
 Kefined sugar . ., " 
 
 Chocolate 
 
 Spirits from grain 
 
 Spirits from molasses 
 
 Spirits from other materials . 
 
 Vinegar 
 
 Beer, ale, porter, and cider 
 
 Linseed oil and spirits of turpentine 
 
 Lard oil 
 
 Household furniture 
 
 Coaches and other carriages 
 
 Hats 
 
 Saddlery 
 
 Tallow candles and soap, and other 
 
 candles 
 
 Snuff and tobacco 
 
 Leather, boots, and shoes 
 
 Cordage 
 
 Gunpowder 
 
 Salt, 
 
 Lead 
 
 Iron — pig, bar, and nails 
 
 " castings 
 
 " all manufactures of 
 
 Copper and brass, manufactures of. 
 
 Medicinal drugs 
 
 Cotton piece goods : 
 
 " printed or colored 
 
 " uncolored 
 
 " twist, yarn, and thread 
 
 " other manufactures of 
 
 Hemp and llaz ; 
 
 " cloth and thread 
 
 '* bags and all manufactures of 
 
 Wearing apparel 
 
 Earthen and stone ware 
 
 Combs and buttons 
 
 Brushes 
 
 Billiard-tables and apparatus 
 
 Umbrellas, parasols, and sun-shades 
 
 Manufactures of India rubber 
 
 Leather and morocco (not sold per 
 
 pound) 
 
 Fire-engines and apparatus 
 
 Printing-presses and types 
 
 Musical instruments 
 
 Books and maps 
 
 Paper and stationery 
 
 Paints and varnish 
 
 Manufactures of glass 
 
 Manufactures of tin J . 
 
 Manufactures of pewter and lead. . . 
 Manufactures of marble and stone. . 
 Manufactures of gold and silver, and 
 
 gold leaf 
 
 Quicksilver 
 
 Artificial flowers and jewelry ,.*... 
 
 Trunks 
 
 Bricks and lime 
 
 Articles not enumerated 
 
 Total 
 
 Gold and silver coin and bullion. . . 
 Totals 
 
 « 
 
 118,056 
 
 28S,056 
 
 2,2B0 
 
 43,314 
 
 14,13T 
 
 11,18,2 
 
 62,251 
 
 229,741 
 
 278,025 
 96,T22 
 68,671 
 20,833 
 
 664,963 
 648,832 
 11)3,638 
 
 51,357 
 130,852 
 
 75,103 
 
 12,797 
 154,210 
 
 79,318 
 
 1,677,792 
 
 105,060 
 
 334,789 
 
 606,631 
 
 3,774,41)7 
 
 17,405 
 
 335,981 
 
 1,183 
 10,533 
 207,632 
 15,644 
 23,987 
 2,827 
 2,295 
 3,39S 
 
 9,800 
 
 3,140 
 
 39,242 
 
 21,634 
 
 119,476 
 99,636 
 67,637 
 
 136,632 
 13,590 
 22,632 
 34,510 
 
 4,583 
 
 45,283 
 
 10,370 
 
 16,343 
 
 3,863,071 
 
 15,196,451 
 2,046,879 
 
 17,243,130 
 
 122,835 
 
 219,588 
 
 3,255 
 
 36,034 
 
 289,622 
 
 16,830 
 
 16,915 
 
 67,975 
 
 145,410 
 
 362,330 
 199,421 
 103,763 
 30,100 
 
 60S,732 
 
 1,143,547 
 
 468,838 
 
 52,054 
 154,257 
 
 61,424 
 
 11,774 
 
 215,652 
 
 164.425 
 
 1,875,621 
 
 91,871 
 351,1586 
 
 1,008,561 
 
 5,571,576 
 
 37,260 
 
 625,808 
 
 1,647 
 6,376 
 1,211,894 
 23,096 
 27,334 
 8,267 
 1,798 
 12,260 
 
 13,309 
 
 9,433 
 
 71,401 
 
 55,700 
 
 153,912 
 
 156,664 
 
 109,834 
 
 185,430 
 
 ■ 27,823 
 
 10,426 
 
 41,449 
 
 , 63,633 
 
 121,bi3 
 
 12,207 
 
 22,045 
 
 3,793,341 
 
 20,186,967 
 13,063,580 
 
 38,266,547 
 
 t 
 
 91,499 
 
 149,921 
 
 3.267 
 
 48,737 
 
 323,941 
 
 i3,i'63 
 12,220 
 48,052 
 152,837 
 
 430,182 
 172,445 
 80,453 
 47,937 
 
 660,054 
 l,316i622 
 
 428,708 
 62,903 
 
 121,530 
 89,316 
 32,725 
 
 118,624 
 
 191,388 
 1,993,307 
 
 103,039 
 
 263,862 
 
 926,404 
 
 6,133,391 
 
 34,718 
 
 571,633 
 
 5,463 
 8,154 
 250,228 
 18,310 
 28,833 
 4,388 
 1,088 
 8,340 
 
 18,617 
 
 16,784 
 
 47,781 
 
 67,733 
 
 217,809 
 
 119,535 
 
 85,369 
 
 194,634 
 
 23,420 
 
 18,460 
 
 57,240 
 
 20,332 
 
 ,114,738 
 
 15,035 
 
 13,539 
 
 2,377,659 
 
 18,862,931 
 37,437,837 
 
 56,300,768 
 
 113,602 
 376,780 
 10,230 
 141,173 
 329,381 
 
 17,582 
 
 20,443 
 
 64,677 
 
 362,960 
 
 714,556 
 184,497 
 91,261 
 
 681,362 
 
 1,671,500 
 
 673,708 
 
 103,216 
 
 180,048 
 
 119,729 
 
 5,540 
 
 181,098 
 
 ' 220,420 
 
 2,097,234 
 
 103,205 
 
 327,073 
 
 1,086,167 
 
 6,926,485 
 
 22,534 
 
 733,048 
 
 2,924 
 13,860 
 233,733 
 53,685 
 31,396 
 6,612 
 1,673 
 6,183 
 
 6,443 
 
 9,652 
 
 32,250 
 
 52,397 
 
 142,604 
 
 122,212 
 
 83,020 
 
 170,501 
 
 22,988 
 
 14,064 
 
 47,628 
 
 11,873 
 
 66,397 
 
 27,148 
 
 32,625 
 
 3,783,700 
 
 $ 
 
 87,M0 
 370,488 
 
 12,257 
 282,919 
 809,965 
 
 131,048 
 16,945 
 63,508 
 
 22,539,930 
 23,548,536 
 
 46,148,466 
 
 763,197 
 
 244,633 
 
 176,404 
 
 63,311 
 
 891,566 
 
 1,651,471 
 
 896,665 
 
 194,076 
 
 212,700 
 
 159,026 
 
 26,874 
 
 308,127 
 
 453,776 
 
 3,472,467 
 
 92,108 
 
 454,789 
 
 1,147,786 
 
 4,130,143 
 
 43,316 
 
 423,035 
 
 24,456 
 
 85,261 
 
 234,388 
 
 34,525 
 
 37,684 
 
 9,601 
 
 3,204 
 
 11,653 
 
 17,018 
 
 6,597 
 
 33,012 
 
 126,128 
 
 187,335 
 
 192,339 
 
 121,823 
 
 229,476 
 
 30,750 
 
 16,478 
 
 88,327 
 
 1,311,513 
 
 442,333 
 
 50,471 
 
 23,673 
 
 33,314 
 
 4,972,084 
 
 69,906 
 626,463 
 2,771 
 334,144 
 1,448,280 
 101,836 
 183,830 
 
 17,281 
 
 45,069 
 1,186,732 
 , 82,945 
 803,960 
 290,526 
 177,914 
 
 64,886 
 
 1,111,349 
 
 1,500,113 
 
 1,052,406 
 
 315,261 
 
 356,051 
 
 156,879 
 
 14,298 
 
 288,437 
 
 306,439 
 
 3,168,696 
 
 630,766 
 
 788,114 
 
 74,006 
 
 360,444 
 
 1,476 
 
 500,946 
 
 1,329,151 
 
 95,484 
 154,630 
 
 26,034 
 
 46,086 
 896,238 
 161,232 
 ' 982,042 
 370,269 
 226,682 
 
 31,243 
 
 1,200,764 
 
 1,829,207 
 
 1,313,311 
 
 367,182 
 
 644,974 
 
 311,495 
 
 27,512 
 
 286,930 
 
 283,316 
 
 3,585,712 
 
 ^34,846 
 
 1,066,204 
 
 91,983 
 
 368,206 
 
 1,932 
 
 1,248,234 
 
 1,216,636 
 
 120,011 
 
 108,003 
 
 30,788 
 
 43,782 
 795,490 
 
 02,499 
 879,443 
 476,394 
 254,208 
 
 45,222 
 
 2,613,655 1,966,845 
 4,616,264 
 
 26,343,411 
 38,234,566 
 
 65,083,977 
 
 2,907,270 
 
 336,250 
 
 2,506 
 34,002 
 , 223,801 
 32,119 
 32,043 
 10,856 
 4,916 
 8,441 
 1,403,107 
 
 36,045 
 
 14,829 
 
 36,405 
 
 106,867 
 
 207,218 
 
 185,637 
 
 163,096 
 
 204,679 
 
 14,279 
 
 5,233 
 
 168,546 
 
 9,051 
 806,119 
 22,043 
 36,203 
 67,393 
 4,014,432 
 
 28,833,299 
 53,957,418 
 
 82,790,717 
 
 384,200 
 
 25,233 
 273,832 
 60,696 
 32,663 
 8,386 
 2,778 
 6,989 
 1,093,638 
 
 5,766 
 
 29,088 
 
 67,517 
 
 133,517 
 
 202,602 
 
 203,013 
 
 217,179 
 
 216,439 
 
 13,610 
 
 6,628 
 
 102,376 
 
 6,116 
 831,724 
 26,386 
 32,457 
 64,297 
 3,663,613 
 
 1,970,992 
 44,143,279 
 
 76,119,271 
 
 1,458,563 
 
 1,311,709 
 
 286,163 
 
 393,244 
 
 190,699 
 
 58,624 
 
 397,313 
 
 289,967 
 
 4,197,687 
 
 607,054 
 
 886,903 
 
 1,785,685 
 3,716,339 
 
 614,153 
 
 1,066 
 
 33,687 
 
 333,442 
 
 34,266 
 
 39,799 
 
 7,324 
 
 733 
 
 6,846 
 
 643,512 
 
 2,119 
 
 21,524 
 
 52,747 
 
 127,743 
 
 277,647 
 
 224,767 
 
 223,320 
 
 179,900 
 
 6,622 
 
 4,818 
 
 111,403 
 
 15,477 
 665,430 
 23,070 
 37,748 
 68,002 
 3,292,722 
 
 29,663,267 
 60,078,352 
 
 .1,731,619 
 
 The power of Congress in laying taxes is not neces- 
 sarily or naturally inconsistent with that of the States. 
 Each may lay a tax on the same property without in- 
 terfering with the action of the other ; for taxation is 
 but taking small portions from the mass of property, 
 whioli is susceptible of almost infinite division. In 
 imposing taxes for state purposes, a State is not doing 
 what Congress is empowered to do. Congress is not 
 empowered to tax for those purposes which are within 
 the exclusive province of the States. When, then, 
 each government exercises the power of taxation, 
 neither is exercising the power of the other. But 
 when a State proceeds to regulate commerce with for- 
 eign nations or among the several States, it is exer- 
 cising the very power which is granted to Congress, 
 and is doing the very thing which Congress is author- 
 ized to do. There is no analogy, then, between the 
 power of taxation anjl the power of regulating com- 
 merce. — Story. 
 
 Domestic Trade. — And first, among the States. It 
 is not doubted that the power of Congress extends to 
 the regulation of navigation, and to the coasting trade 
 and fisheries, within as well as without any State, 
 
 wherever it is connected with the commerce or inter- 
 course with any other State, or with foreign nations. 
 It extends to the regulation and government of seamen 
 on board of American ships, and to conferring privi- 
 leges upon ships built and owned in the United State*) 
 in domestic as well as in foreign trade. It extends tu 
 quarantine laws, and pilotage laws, and wrecks of the 
 sea. It extends as well to the navigation of vessels 
 engaged in carrying passengers, and whether eteam- 
 vessels or of any other description, as to the navigation 
 of vessels engaged in traffic and general coasting busi- 
 ness. It extends to the laying of embargoes as well on 
 domestic as on foreign voyages. It extends to the 
 construction of light-houses, the placing of buoys and 
 beacons, the removal of obstruction to navigation in 
 creeks, rivers, sounds, and bays, and the establishment 
 of securities to navigation against the inroads of the 
 ocean. It extends also to the designation of a particular 
 port or ports of entry and delivery for the purposes of 
 foreign commerce. These powers have been actually 
 exerted by the National Government under a system 
 of laws, many of which commenced with the early 
 establishment of the Constitution ; and they have con- 
 
UNI 
 
 1905 
 
 UNI 
 
 tinned unqneBtioned unto our day, if not to the ijtmost 
 range of their reach, at least to that of their ordinary 
 application. 
 
 Many of the like powers have been applied in the 
 regulation of foreign commerce. The commercial sys- 
 tem of the United States has also been employed some- 
 times for the purpose of revenue ; sometimes for the 
 purpose of prohibition ; sometimes for the purpose of 
 retaliation and commercial reciprocity ; sometimes to 
 lay embargoes ; sometimes to encourage domestic navi- 
 gation, and the shipping and mercantile interest, by 
 bounties, by discriminating duties, and by special 
 
 preferences and privileges ; and sometimes to regulate 
 intercourse with a view to mere political objects, such 
 as to repel aggressions, increase the pressure of war, 
 or vindicate the rights of neutral sovereignty. In all 
 these cases the right and duty have been conceded to 
 the National Government by the unequivocal voice of 
 the people. 1 1 may be added, that Congress have also, 
 from the earliest period of the government, applied the 
 same power of regulating commerce for the purpose 
 of encouraging and protecting domestic manufactures, 
 and'Congress have never abandoned the exercise of it 
 for such a purpose. — Stokt on the ConstUutign. 
 
 Statement exhibiting tui 
 
 Value of 
 
 FOEBIGN MeROIIANPISE, IMPORTED INTO THE UNITED STATES, KE-E 
 
 ■SPOUTED, AND 
 
 CONSUMED ANNDALIY, FBOM 1831 TO 
 
 1857; IN0LH8IVE ; THE ESTIMATEI* PoPtn.ATION AND CONSUMPTION PEE CAPITA. 
 
 .Yean 
 
 eudmg 
 
 Vftlue of foreign MerohBudise. 
 
 Population. 
 
 5=" 
 
 Imports entered 
 
 for Coneitmp- 
 
 tioQ, ezcluaive 
 
 of Specie. 
 
 Domestic Prod- 
 uce exported, 
 exclusive of 
 Specie. 
 
 Foreign Mer- 
 chandlBe ex- 
 ported, ex- 
 clusive of 
 Specie. 
 
 Total Exports, 
 including 
 Specie. 
 
 Imported. 
 
 Re-exported. 
 
 Coneumed and 
 on hand. ' 
 
 Sept. 30, 1821 
 
 62,585,724 
 
 21,'302,488 
 
 41,283,236 
 
 9,960,974 
 
 4 Cle. 
 4 14 
 
 43,696,405 
 
 43,671,894 
 
 10,824,429 
 
 64,974,382 
 
 1822 
 
 83,2*1,541 
 
 22,28fl,2d2 
 
 60,955,339 
 
 10,283.767 
 
 5 92 
 
 68,367,425 
 
 49,874,079 
 
 11,604,270 
 
 72,160,281 
 
 182a 
 
 77,679,267 
 
 27,543,622 
 
 50,035,645 
 
 10,606,640 
 
 4 71 
 
 61,308,936 
 
 47,165,406 
 
 ■21,172,436 
 
 74,699,030 
 
 1824 
 
 80,549,007 
 
 25,337,167 
 
 65,211,850 
 
 10,929,32a 
 
 5 06 
 
 53,846,567 
 
 60,649,600 
 
 18,322,606 
 
 ^ 76,986,657 
 
 1825 
 
 96,340,075 
 
 82,590,64a 
 
 63,749,432 
 
 11,262,106 
 
 5 66 
 
 66,375,722 
 
 66,809,766 
 
 23,793,686 
 
 99,635,388 
 
 1826 
 
 84,974,477 
 
 24,539,612 
 
 60,434,865 
 
 11,674,889 
 
 5 22 
 
 57,652,577 
 
 62,409,855 
 
 20,440,934 
 
 77,606,322 
 
 1821 
 
 79,484,008 
 
 23,403,136 
 
 56,080,932 
 
 11,897,672 
 
 4 71 
 
 54,901,108 
 
 57,878,117 
 
 16,431,830 
 
 82,324,827 
 
 1828 
 
 88,509,824 
 
 21,505,017 
 
 66,914,807 
 
 12,220,455 
 
 5 47 
 
 66,975,476 
 
 49,976,632 
 
 14,044,608 
 
 72,264,636 
 
 1829 
 
 74,492,527 
 
 16,658,47S 
 
 57,834,049 
 
 12,243,236 
 
 4 61 
 
 54,741,.571 
 
 ■ 65,087,307 
 
 12,347,344 
 
 72,358,671 
 
 1830 
 
 70,876,92G 
 
 14,387,479 
 
 66,489,441 
 
 12,666,020 
 
 4 30 
 
 49,575,009 
 
 68,624,878 
 
 13,145,867 
 
 73,840,608 
 
 1831 
 
 103,191,124 
 
 20,033,526 
 
 83,157,508 
 
 13,286,364 
 
 6 25 
 
 82,808,110 
 
 69,218,583 
 
 13,077,069 
 
 81,310,683 
 
 1832 
 
 101,029,266 
 
 24,039,47a 
 
 76,980,793 
 
 18,706,707 
 
 5 61 
 
 75,327,688 
 
 61,726,629 
 
 19,794,074 
 
 87,176,943 
 
 1835 
 
 108,118,311 
 
 19,822,735 
 
 88,295,576 
 
 14,127,050 
 
 6 25 
 
 83,470,067 
 
 69,960,856 
 
 15,577,876 
 
 90,140,433 
 
 183-i 
 
 126,521,338 
 
 23,312,811 
 
 103,208,521 
 
 14,547,393 
 
 7 119 
 
 86,973,147 
 
 80,623,662 
 
 21,636,663 
 
 104,336,973 
 
 1835 
 
 145,895,742 
 
 20,504,495 
 
 ■129,391,247 
 
 14,967,736 
 
 U 64 
 
 122,007,974 
 
 100,459,481 
 
 14,766,321 
 
 121,603,577 
 
 1836 
 
 180,980,035 
 
 21,746,360 
 
 168,233,675 
 
 15,388,079 
 
 10 93 
 
 168,811,392 
 
 106,670,942 
 
 17,767,762 
 
 128,663,040 
 
 1831 
 
 140,98:i,217 
 
 21,854,962 
 
 119,134,255 
 
 15,808,422 
 
 ■i 53 
 
 113,310,871 
 
 94,280,896 
 
 17,162,232 
 
 117,419.376 
 
 183f 
 
 113,717,404 
 
 12,452,796 
 
 101,264;609 
 
 16,228,765 
 
 6 23 
 
 86,652,508 
 
 86,660,880 
 
 9,417,690 
 
 108,486,616 
 
 183S 
 
 162,092,132 
 
 17,404,525 
 
 144,597,607 
 
 10,649,108 
 
 8 68 
 
 146,870,816 
 
 101,635,.533 
 
 10,626,140 
 
 121,028,416 
 
 184C 
 
 107,141,519 
 
 18,190,312 
 
 88,951,207 
 
 17,060,453 
 
 5 21 
 
 86,250,336 
 
 111,060,561 
 
 12,008,371 
 
 132,085,946 
 
 1841 
 
 127,946,177 
 
 15,469,081 
 
 112,477,096 
 
 17,612,507 
 
 6 38 
 
 114,776,309 
 
 103,636,236 
 
 8,181,235 
 
 121,851,803 
 
 1842 
 
 100,162,087 
 
 11,721,533 
 
 88,440,540 
 
 18,165,561 
 
 4 8'* 
 
 87,996,318 
 
 91,7,09,242 
 
 8,078,753 
 
 104^,601,634 
 
 July], 1S43 
 
 64,753,709 
 
 6,5.52,697 
 
 58,201,103 
 
 18,698,615 
 
 3 11 
 
 37,294,129 
 
 77,686,354 
 
 6,139,335 
 
 84,346,480 
 
 1844 
 
 108,435,035 
 
 11,484,867 
 
 96,950,168 
 
 19,241,670 
 
 5 03 
 
 96,390,548 
 
 99,531,774 
 
 6,214,058 
 
 111,206,046 
 
 1845 
 
 117,254,564 
 
 15,346,830 
 
 101,907,734 
 
 19,784,725 
 
 5 15 
 
 105,509,541 
 
 98,455,330 
 
 7,584,781 
 
 114,646,606 
 
 1846 
 
 121,691,796 
 
 11,346,623 
 
 110,345,174 
 
 20,327,780 
 
 5 42 
 
 110,048,869 
 
 101,718.042 
 
 7,865,206 
 
 113,488,516 
 
 1S4T 
 
 146,545,638 
 
 8,011,153 
 
 138,534,480 
 
 20,780,835 
 
 6 60 
 
 116,257,595 
 
 150,574,844 
 
 6,166,754 
 
 158,648,622 ■ 
 
 1848 
 
 154,998,928 
 
 21,128,010 
 
 133,870,918 
 
 21,413,800 
 
 6 25 
 
 140,651,902 
 
 130,203,709 
 
 7,986,802 
 
 154,032,131 
 
 1840 
 
 147,857,439 
 178,133,318 
 
 13,088,865 
 
 134,768,574 
 
 21,956,945 
 
 6 13 
 
 132,505.168 
 
 131,710,081 
 
 8,641,691 
 
 146,765,820 
 
 1850 
 
 14,951,808 
 
 163,186,510 
 
 23,246,301 
 
 7 02 
 
 164,032,033 
 
 134,900,233 
 
 9,475,493 
 
 151,8''8,720 
 
 1851 
 
 216,224.932 
 
 21,698,293 
 
 194,526,630 
 
 24,260,000 
 
 8 02 
 
 200,476,219 
 
 178,620,138 
 
 10,295,121 
 
 218,388,011 
 
 1852 
 
 212,945,442 
 
 17,280,382 
 
 195,656,060 
 
 24,-600,000 
 
 8 00 
 
 195,0T2,6?5 
 
 154,931,147 
 
 12,037,043 
 
 209,641,625 
 
 1853 
 
 267,973,647 
 
 17,558,460 
 
 250,420,187 
 
 25,000,000 
 
 10 00 
 
 251,071,358 
 
 189.860,162 
 
 13,096,213 
 
 230.462,250 
 
 1854 
 
 304,562,381 
 
 24,850,194 
 
 279,712,187 
 
 25,750,000 
 
 10 UO 
 
 275,955,803 
 
 215,166 304 
 
 21,648,304 
 
 278,241,064 
 
 1855 
 
 261,468,520 
 
 28,448,293 
 
 233,020,227 
 
 26,600,000 
 
 8 79 
 
 231,650,340 
 
 192,751,135 
 
 26,163,368 
 
 ■ .27.5,156,846 
 
 185S 
 
 314,639,942 
 
 16,378,578 
 
 298,261,364 
 
 27,400,000 
 
 9 18 
 
 296,650,938 
 
 266,438,051 
 
 14,781,372 
 
 326,064,908 
 
 185T 
 Total 
 
 360,890,141 
 
 33,975,617 
 
 336,914,524 
 
 28,500,000 
 
 8 45 
 
 333,511,295 
 
 278,906.713 14,917,047 
 
 362,960,682 
 
 5,307,803,200|708,396,I22 
 
 4,699,407,177 
 
 
 
 4,497,824,633 
 
 4,010,693,853 602,119,564 5, 020,462,310[ 
 
 Foreign Commerce op each State and Territory, from July 1, 1856, to June 30, 1867. 
 
 TAtUK OF KXPORTS. 
 
 American Produce. 
 
 In American 
 Vessels. 
 
 Foreign Produce. 
 
 In American 
 Vessels. 
 
 In foreign 
 
 -TALUB op rMPOETS. 
 
 In j^merican 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 In foreign 
 Vessels. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Maine 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Massachusetts. . 
 Rhode Island. . . 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 New York 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 Pennsylvania. -. 
 
 Delaware., 
 
 Maryland 
 
 District of Columbia 
 
 Virginia 
 
 North Carolina . . . 
 South Carolina . . . 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Florida 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Texas 
 
 California 
 
 Oregon Territory . 
 Wasbingt. Territory 
 Minnesota Territory 
 Total, 1856-'5T..| 
 
 2,210,649 
 
 283V009 
 
 11,573,933 
 
 642,205 
 
 1,086,686 
 
 77,423.366 
 
 10;613 
 
 5,868,732 
 
 117,276 
 
 9,074,665 
 
 22,735 
 
 5,564,067 
 
 389,592 
 
 10,588,352 
 
 6,116,174 
 
 2,806,693 
 
 ■14,400,506 
 
 71,470,119 
 
 173,965 
 
 81,508 
 
 385,108 
 
 531,162 
 
 989,270 
 
 11,084,903 
 
 3,907 
 
 16,961 
 
 180,637 
 1,834 
 
 14,998,126 
 1,973 
 
 41,773,945 
 
 1,671 
 
 1,145,780 
 
 4,336,'838 
 
 1,670,'263 
 
 24,614 
 
 5,539,082 
 
 4,741,460 
 
 461,859 
 
 6,175,481 
 
 20,068,252 
 
 760,024 
 1,405,715 
 
 136,936 
 1,053,934 
 
 602,105 
 1,125,816 
 
 '8,864 
 • 61,140 
 
 2,400,186 
 
 1,834 
 
 283,009 
 
 26,572,050 
 
 544,178 
 
 1,086,686 
 
 119,197,301 
 
 12,184 
 
 7,014,512 
 
 117,276 
 
 13,405,393 
 
 22,785 
 
 7,234,330 
 
 414,206 
 
 16,127,434 
 
 10,857,634 
 
 3,268,652 
 
 20,575,987 
 
 91,538,371 
 
 933,989 
 
 1,487,223 
 
 522,044 
 
 1,585,096 
 
 i;401,376 
 
 12,210,719 
 
 3,907 
 
 25,8.06 
 
 61,140 
 
 $ 
 824,573 
 
 365,461 
 
 2,842,569 
 
 8,173 
 
 8,817 
 
 12,381,414 
 
 154,620 
 
 163,896 
 
 '13,884 
 
 ' '2,'4ai 
 
 231,336 
 
 1,623,899 
 
 $ 
 402,127 
 
 731,384 
 
 3,2'2'4J583 
 'l5J400 
 137^046 
 'i;405 
 
 . 'lbi548 
 
 ' ' '242 
 125,155 
 
 i5i383 
 
 '3O8 
 
 6bi'd83 
 
 1,316,400 
 
 365,461 
 
 3,573,953 
 
 ■ 8,173 
 
 8,S17 
 
 15,605,997 
 
 i69,'920 
 
 366,'942 
 
 'i5,'379 
 
 242 
 356,491 
 
 'i5,'383 
 
 ■ " "3O8 
 
 2,225,'l82 
 
 1,882,078 
 
 988 
 
 2,709,193 
 
 35,916,647 
 
 460,135 
 
 1,064,819 
 
 161,791,931 
 
 14,2'55,'078 
 
 2,895 
 
 8,534,843 
 
 116,333 
 
 1,203,547 
 
 ■ 206,746 
 1,720,616 
 
 581,985 
 293,672 
 
 ■ ■ 617,730 
 ■22,207,146 
 
 130,473 
 
 1,018,468 
 
 2,320 
 
 107,835 
 
 124,455 
 
 4,159,065 
 
 5,020 
 
 2,163 
 
 782,254 
 16,568 
 
 11,348,'694 
 
 26,357 
 
 61,982 
 
 74,701,564 
 
 3,867 
 
 3,600,171 
 
 2,646,365 
 
 326,'607 
 
 24,748 
 
 299,170 
 
 197,024 
 
 27,427 
 
 91,360 
 
 2,684,822 
 
 136,792 
 
 100 
 
 3,497 
 
 218,490 
 
 176,319 
 
 4,978,349 
 
 ' 'l','554 
 
 2,664,332 
 
 17,656 
 
 2,709,193 
 
 47,266,341 
 
 615,492 
 
 1,116,801 
 
 236,493,485 
 
 3,867 
 
 17,865,249 
 
 2,895 
 
 10,581,208 
 
 116,333 
 
 1,530,154 
 
 231,404 
 
 2,019,786 
 
 779,909 
 
 321,099 
 
 709,090 
 
 24,891,967 
 
 267,265 
 
 . 1,018,658 
 
 5,817 
 
 326,325 
 
 300,774 
 
 9,137,414 
 
 6,r" 
 
 3,717 
 
 232,8l5,320|10e,160,239,338,986,065 
 
 18,620,663 5,354,954 
 
 23,975,617,269,116,170 101,773,971|360,890,141 
 
 6E 
 
UNI 
 
 1906 
 
 UNI 
 
 Sttmmaet Statement op tub Value op the Exports of the Growth, Peoduoe, and Mamupaotuee of the United 
 States dueimg the Yeab ending June 30, 1857. 
 
 Pboduot op the Sea. 
 Fisheries : 
 
 Oil, spermaceti 
 
 Oil, whale and other fish 
 
 Whalebone 
 
 Spermaceti 
 
 Spermaceti candles 
 
 Fish, dried or smoked 
 
 Fish, pickled 
 
 Prodttot op the Forest. 
 Wood: 
 
 Staves and heading 
 
 Shingles 
 
 Boards, plank, and scantling 
 
 Hewn timber 
 
 Other lumber 
 
 Oak bark and other dye -. 
 
 All manufactures of wood 
 
 Naval stores : 
 
 Tar and pitch 
 
 Rosin and turpentine 
 
 Ashes, pot and pearl 
 
 Ginseng 
 
 Skins and furs 
 
 Product op Agriodi-tcee 
 Of Animals ; 
 
 Beef 
 
 Tallow 
 
 Hides 
 
 Horned cattle 
 
 Butter 
 
 Cheese 
 
 Pork (pickled) 
 
 Hams and bacon 
 
 Lard 
 
 Wool 
 
 Hogs 
 
 Horses 
 
 Mules ; 
 
 Sheep 
 
 Vegetable Food : 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Flour 
 
 Indian corn 
 
 Indian meal 
 
 Eye meal 
 
 Bye, oats, and other small grain and pulse 
 
 Biscuit or ship bread 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 Apples 
 
 Onions 
 
 Rice 
 
 Cotton 
 
 Tobacco 
 
 Hemp 
 
 Other agricultural Products : 
 
 Flax-seed 
 
 Clover -seed 
 
 Brown sugar 
 
 Hops 
 
 Mamdtactuees. 
 
 Reiined sugar 
 
 Wax 
 
 Chocolate 
 
 Spirits from grain 
 
 Spirits from molasses 
 
 Spirits from other materials 
 
 Molasses 
 
 Vinegar 
 
 Beer, ale, porter, and cider in casks 
 
 Beer, ale, porter, and cider in bottles 
 
 Linseed oil 
 
 Spirits of turpentine 
 
 Household furniture 
 
 Coaches and parts, and railroad cars and parts 
 
 Hats of fur or silk 
 
 Hats of palm-leaf 
 
 Saddlery 
 
 Trunks and valises 
 
 Adamantine and other candles 
 
 Soap 
 
 Snuff 
 
 Tobacco, manufactured 
 
 Gunpowder 
 
 Leather 
 
 Boots and shoes. ., 
 
 Cables and cordage 
 
 Salt 
 
 Lead 
 
 Iron, pig 
 
 $2,055,980 
 212,805 
 4,170,686 
 616,735 
 638,406 
 322,764 
 3,158,424 
 
 208,610 
 1,544,672 
 
 696,367 
 
 68,331 
 
 1,116,041 
 
 $1,218,348 
 
 632,286 
 
 624,867 
 
 144,840 
 
 693,084 
 
 647,423 
 
 2,805,867 
 
 4,511,442 
 
 5,144,195 
 
 19,007 
 
 6,526 
 
 196,627 
 
 171,189 
 
 22,763 
 
 $22,240,867 
 
 26,882,316 
 
 6,184,666 
 
 967,791 
 
 115,828 
 
 680,108 
 
 663,266 
 
 205,616 
 
 136,280 
 
 77,048 
 
 2,290,400 
 
 $1,216,888 
 
 363,668 
 
 1,307,322 
 
 34,917 
 
 35,121 
 
 670,348 
 
 211,383 
 
 $16,736,458 
 
 $58,333,176 
 
 330,166 
 190,012 
 84,852 
 
 91,983 
 
 1,932 
 
 1,248,234 
 
 1,216,635 
 
 120,011 
 
 108,003 
 
 30,7SS 
 
 26,733 
 
 16,930 
 
 54,144 
 
 741.346 
 
 879,443 
 
 476,394 
 
 180,714 
 
 73,494 
 
 4!5,222 
 
 37,74S 
 
 677,3 58 
 
 530,085 
 
 11,526 
 
 1,447,027 
 
 3:18,244 
 
 497,714 
 
 813,995 
 
 286,163 
 
 190,699 
 
 68,624 
 
 53,390 
 
 $3,789,644 
 
 14,699,711 
 
 7.5,069,634 
 
 131,676,851 
 
 20,260,772 
 
 46,907 
 
 605,555 
 
UNI 
 
 1907 
 
 UNI 
 
 SuMMABY Statement op the Valtte of Expoetb, etc. — Continued. 
 
 Iron, bar. 
 
 M AMUFACTiriiES— Conii'rtued. 
 
 Nails 
 
 Castings of 
 
 All other manufacturea of. 
 
 Copper and brass, and manufactures of . 
 Drugs and medicines 
 
 Cotton piece Goods : 
 
 Printed or colored , 
 
 "White, other than duck , . , 
 
 Duck.; 
 
 All other manufactures of. . 
 
 Hemp, cloth and thread 
 
 Bags and other manufactures of 
 
 Wearing apparel ,' 
 
 Earthen and stone ware 
 
 Combs and buttons 
 
 Brashes of all kinds 
 
 Billiard-tables and apparatus 
 
 UmbriBllas and parasols 
 
 Morocco and leather not sold by the pound 
 
 Fire-enginea 
 
 Printing-presses and type 
 
 Musical instruments 
 
 Books and maps 
 
 Paper and stationery 
 
 Paints and varnish 
 
 Jewelry, real and mock 
 
 Gold and silver, and gold leaf (manufactures of) . 
 Glass 
 
 Tin . 
 
 Pewter and lead 
 
 Marble and stone 
 
 Bricks and lime 
 
 India rubber boots and shoes 
 
 India rubber, all other manufactures of . 
 
 Lard oil 
 
 Oil-cake 
 
 Coal 
 
 Ice 
 
 Gold and silver coin 
 
 Gold and silver bullion 
 
 Quicksilver 
 
 Articles not enumerated ; 
 
 Manufactured 
 
 Kaw produce 
 
 To tal, year 1856- ' 57. 
 
 il,T85i685 
 
 3,463,230 
 
 262,109 
 
 614,153 
 
 $64,596 
 279,331 
 289,967 
 4,19T,68T 
 607,054 
 886,909 
 
 $6,115,177 
 
 1,066 
 
 33,687 
 
 833,442 
 
 34,256 
 
 39,799 
 
 7,324 
 
 733 
 
 6,846 
 
 2,119 
 
 21,524 
 
 62,747 
 
 127,748 
 
 277,647 
 
 224,767 
 
 223,320 
 
 28,070 
 
 15,477 
 
 179,900 
 
 5,622 
 
 4,818 
 
 111,403 
 
 68,002 
 
 331,125 
 
 312,387 
 
 92,499 
 
 1,186,980 
 
 $17,008,439 
 
 9,838,485 
 
 616,861 
 
 219,816 
 
 28,777,372 
 
 31,300,980 
 
 665,480 
 
 3,292,722 
 1,266,828 
 
 $338,985,065 
 
 StTMMABT Statement op the Value of Goods,, Wareb, and 
 Meechandise, imported into the United States dueihg 
 
 TUB FISCAL YBAE ENDING JUNE 30, 1857. 
 Species of MerchandiBe. 
 
 Free of Duty. Value. 
 
 Animals for breed ' $48,345 
 
 Bullion : 
 
 Gold 151,585 
 
 SUver 335,114 
 
 Specie : 
 
 Gold 6,503,051 
 
 Silver 5,472,049 
 
 Cabinets of coins, medals, and other collections 
 
 of antiquities 247 
 
 Models of inventions and improvements in the 
 
 arts 2,997 
 
 Teas 6,757,860 
 
 Coffee 22,386,879 
 
 Copper : 
 
 In plates suited to the sheathing of vessels.. 351,311 
 
 Ore 1,440,314 
 
 Cotton, unmanufactured 62,172 
 
 Adhesive felt for sheathing vessels 20,156 
 
 Paintings and statuary of American artists 93,002 
 
 Specimens of natural history, etc 3,24il 
 
 Sheathing metal 743,372 
 
 Platina, unmanufactured 63,714 
 
 Plaster, unground 90,168 
 
 Wearing apparel and other personal eflfects of 
 
 ' emigrants and citizens dying abroad 413,780 
 
 Old junk and oakum 85,459 
 
 Garden seeds, trees, shrubs, plants, etc 386,504 
 
 Articles the produce of the United States, brought 
 
 back...... :.. 1,201,476 
 
 Guano 279,026 
 
 Articles specially imported for philosophical soci- 
 eties, colleges, seminaries of learning, schools, 
 
 etc. 61,074 
 
 All other articles not subject to duty 20,781,411 
 
 Total $66,729,306 
 
 Merchandise paying Duties ad valorem. 
 
 Manufactures of Wool : 
 
 Piece goods, including wool and cotton $11,009,605 
 
 Shawls of wool, wool and cotton, silk, and 
 
 silk and cotton 2,246,351 
 
 Summary Statement of Imports — Contirmed. 
 
 Species of Merchandise. Value. 
 Manufactures of Wool : 
 
 Blankets $1,630,973 
 
 Hosiery and articles made on frames 1^740,829 
 
 Worsted piece goods, including cotton and 
 
 worsted 11,365,669 
 
 Woolen and worsted yarn 192,147 
 
 Manufactures not specified 693,640 
 
 Flannels 105,779 
 
 Baizes and bookings 119,835 
 
 Carpeting : 
 
 Wilton, Saxony, Aubusson, Brussels, Tur- 
 key, treble ingrained, Venetian, and other 
 
 ingrained 1,784, 196 
 
 Not specified 397,094 
 
 Manufactures of Cotton : 
 
 Piece goods 21,441,082 
 
 Velvets 678,294 
 
 Cords, gimps, and galloons 213,824 
 
 Hosiery and articles made on frames 3,210,287 
 
 Twist yarn and thread 1,401,153 
 
 Hatters' plush, of silk and cotton 11,473 
 
 Manufactures not specified 1,729,613 
 
 Silk and manufactures of Silk : 
 
 Piece goods 22,067,369 
 
 Hosiery and' articles made on frames 839,290 
 
 Sewing silk 211 ,T23 
 
 Hats and bonnets 151,192 
 
 Manufactures not specified 4,442,522 
 
 Floss 30,612 
 
 Eaw 953,734 
 
 Bolting-cloths 57,602 
 
 Silk and worsted piece goods 1.580,246 
 
 Goats' hair or mohair piece goods 503,993 
 
 Manufactures of Flax : 
 
 Linens, bleached or unbleached 9,975,338 
 
 Hosiery, and articles made on frames 0,912 
 
 Manufactures not specified 1,450,292 
 
 Manufactures of Hemp : 
 
 Ticklenhurgs, Osnaburgs, and burlaps ...... 130,864 
 
 Articles not specified 360,469 
 
 Sail duck, Russia, Holland, and Ravens 14,180 
 
 Cotton bagging 14,069 
 
 Clothing : 
 
 Keady-made 347,471 
 
 Articles of wear 1,571,517 
 
UNI 
 
 1908 
 
 UJNl 
 
 StTMMAEY Statement of Imports — Continued. 
 
 Deacription of Merchandise. Vtilue. 
 
 Lacee : 
 
 Thread and insertings. $321,961 
 
 Cotton insertings, fcrimminga, lacea, braids, 
 
 etc 1,129,754 
 
 Embroideriea of wool, cotton, silk, and linen .... 4,443,175 
 
 Floor-cloth, patent, painted, etc 9,524 
 
 Oil-cloth of all kinds 34,761 
 
 Lasting and mohair cloth for shoes and buttons . 99,034 
 
 Gunny cloth and gunny bags 3,139,793 
 
 Matting, Chinese and other, of flags, etc 207,587 
 
 Hats, Caps, Bonnets, Flats, Braids, Plaits, etc. : 
 
 Of leghorn, straw, chip, grass, etc 2,246,928 
 
 Manufactures of Iron and Steel : 
 
 Muskets and rifles 61,170 
 
 Fire-arms not specified 541,175 
 
 Side arms 5,294 
 
 Needles ". . 250,320 
 
 Cutlery 2,140,824 
 
 Other manufactures and wares of, not speci- 
 fied 4,475,545 
 
 Cap or bonnet wire 6,168 
 
 Nails, spikes, tacks, etc 138,756 
 
 Chain cables 293,124 
 
 Mill saws, cross-cut, and pit saws 47,297 
 
 Anchors and parts thereof 32,980 
 
 Anvils and parts thereof 67,926 
 
 Iron, bar 4,423,935 
 
 Rod 809,901 
 
 Hoop 324,675 
 
 Sheet 1,032,389 
 
 i^ig 1,001,742 
 
 Old and scrap 111,680 
 
 Eailroad 7,455,596 
 
 Steel — cast, shear, and German 1,775,21)2 
 
 All other 853,322 
 
 Copper, and manufactures of Copper : 
 
 In pigs, bars, and old 1,659,513 
 
 AVire , 631 
 
 Braziers' 1,355 
 
 Copper bottoms 4,390 
 
 Manufactures of, not specified 166,704 
 
 Rods and bolts 20 
 
 Nails and spikes i 1,723 
 
 Brass, and manufactures of Brass : 
 
 In pigs, bars, and old 18,153 
 
 Wire 4,863 
 
 Sheet and rolled 68 
 
 Manufactures of, not specified 199,928 
 
 Tin, and manufactures of Tin : 
 
 In piga and bars . 1,023,210 
 
 Plates and sheets 4,789,538 
 
 Foil 21,426 
 
 Manufactures of, not specified 31,922 
 
 Lead, and manufactures of Lead : 
 
 Pig, bar, sheet, and old 2,305,768 
 
 Shot 15,437 
 
 Pipes 128 
 
 Manufactures of, not specified 2,076 
 
 Pewter, old 3,874 
 
 Manufactures of 570 
 
 Zinc, and manufactures of Zinc ; 
 
 In pigs 44,764 
 
 Sheets 546,250 
 
 Nails 2,453 
 
 Spelter 447,812 
 
 Manufactures of Gold and Silver : 
 
 Epaulets, wings, laces, galloons, tresses, tas- 
 
 t sels, etc 40,438 
 
 Gold and silver leaf 29,509 
 
 Jewelry, real or imitations of 603,653 
 
 Gems, set 4,437 
 
 otherwise 390,357 
 
 Manufactui'es of, not specified 78,131 
 
 Glaziers' diamonds 898 
 
 Clocks 79,147 
 
 Chronometers 16,442 
 
 Watches, and parts of 3,823,039 
 
 Metallic pens 108,661 
 
 Pens, in packs and otherwise 56,110 
 
 Buttons, metal 13,178 
 
 All other and button moulds 912,871 
 
 Glass, and manufactures of Glass : 
 
 Silvered 243,762 
 
 Paintings on glass, porcelain, and colored. . . 33,783 
 
 Polished plate 525,061 
 
 Manufactui'es of, not specified 142,904 
 
 Glassware, cut 112,940 
 
 " plain 79,738 
 
 Watch crystals 32,170 
 
 Bottles 89,225 
 
 Demijohns 30,399 
 
 Window glass, broad, crown, and cylinder. . 641,093 
 Paper, and manufactures of Paper : 
 
 Writing paper 343,240 
 
 Playing cards 17,281 
 
 Papier-mach^, articles and wares of 33.948 
 
 Paper-hangings 254,591 
 
 Paper and fancy boxes 36,900 
 
 SuMMAEY Statement of Impokts — Continued. 
 
 Doseription of Merchandlee. Value, 
 Paper and manufactures of Paper : 
 
 Paper, and manufactures of, not specified , . 178,228 
 
 Blank books 18.884 
 
 Parchment 5,750 
 
 Printed Books, Magazines, etc. : 
 
 In English 663,597 
 
 In other langaages 179,084 
 
 Periodicals and illustrated newspapers 30,497 
 
 Periodicals and other works in the course of 
 
 republication : 326 
 
 Engravings 182,369 
 
 Mathematical instruments 34,925 
 
 Musical instruments 494,374 
 
 Daguerreotype plates 10,968 
 
 Ink and ink powders 47,734 
 
 Leather, and manufactures of Leather : 
 
 Tanned, bend, sole, and upper 1,606,458 
 
 Skins, tanned and dressed 809,273 
 
 Skivers 68,194 
 
 Boots and shoes 127,651 
 
 Gloves for men, women, and children 1,559,332 
 
 Manufactures of, not specified 45:1,161 
 
 Wares— China, porcelain, earthen, and stone. . . 4,037,064 
 
 Plated or gUt 160,824 
 
 Japanned 46,333 
 
 Britannia 8,984 
 
 Silver-plated metal 1,993 
 
 Silver or plated wire 2,948 
 
 Saddlery — common, tinned or japanned 82,731 
 
 Plated, brass, or polished steel 195,164 
 
 Furs— undressed on the skin 518,792 
 
 Hatters' furs, dressed or undressed, not on 
 
 the skin 1,572,388 
 
 Dressed on the skin 214,405 
 
 Manufactures of fur 49,955 
 
 Wood, manufactures of : 
 
 Cabinet and household furniture 47,696 
 
 Cedar, mahogany, rose, and satin-wood. . . . 15,185 
 
 Willow 175,484 
 
 Other manufactures of. 391,179 
 
 Wood, unmanufactured : 
 
 Cedar, grenadilla, mahogany, rose, and satin 518,251 
 
 Willow 41,773 
 
 Fire-wood and other, not specified 29,457 
 
 Dye-wood in stick 866,043 
 
 Bark of the cork-tree — corks 209,572 
 
 Unmanufactured 17,692 
 
 Ivory — manufactures of. 17,239 
 
 Unmanufactured 507,433 
 
 Marble— manufactures of 25,253 
 
 Unmanufactured 201,978 
 
 Burr stones 111,211 
 
 Quicksilver 961 
 
 Brush^ and brooms 283,968 
 
 Black-lead pencils 38,089 
 
 Slates of all kinds 90,176 
 
 Kaw hides and skins 10,010,090 
 
 Boots and shoes other than leather 30,525 
 
 India rubber — manufactures of 180,535 
 
 Unmanufactured 832,058 
 
 Hair— manufactures of 129,571 
 
 Unmanufactured 453,705 
 
 Grass cloth 43,804 
 
 Umbrellas, parasols, and sun-shades of silk and 
 
 other 65,360 
 
 Unmanufactured Articles : 
 
 Flax-seed or linseed 3,003,824 
 
 Angora, Thibet, and other goats' hair or mo- 
 hair 575 
 
 Wool 2,125,744 
 
 Wines in Casks : 
 
 Burgundy 21,627 
 
 Madeira 65,880 
 
 Sherry and St. Lucar 364,906 
 
 Port 407,564 
 
 Claret 609,403 
 
 Teneriffe and other Canary 565 
 
 Fayal and other Azores 4,704 
 
 Sicily and other Mediterranean 133,894 
 
 Austria and other of Germany 27,259 
 
 Red wines not enumerated 500,537 
 
 White wines not enumerated 252,584 
 
 Wine in Bottles : 
 
 Burgundy 7,064 
 
 Champagne 1,148,469 
 
 Madeira 2,734 
 
 Sherry 11,139 
 
 Port 16,837 
 
 Claret 365,807 
 
 All other 273,242 
 
 Spirits, foreign distilled : 
 
 Brandy 2,527,262 
 
 From grain 1,125,160 
 
 From other materials 218,907 
 
 Cordials 92,396 
 
 Beer, ale, and porter — ^in casks '. 221,290 
 
 In bottles 628,551) 
 
 Honey 202,436 
 
UNI 
 
 1909 
 
 imi 
 
 SnUHAET StATEMEHT 01' IMPOETB— ConHnuffli. 
 ^ DeBcription of Morchondise. Value. 
 
 Molasses $8,259,175 
 
 413 
 
 1T,2S0 
 
 252 
 
 74,028 
 
 347,3S6 
 
 102,502 
 
 958,200 
 
 11,601 
 
 337,881 
 
 153 
 
 146,872 
 
 Oil and Bone of foreign Fishing : 
 
 Spermaceti 
 
 \V hale and other flsb ....!!...!. 
 
 Wlialebone '..'.'. 
 
 Oil — olive, in casks 
 
 " in bottles , '.'.',.. 
 
 Castor 
 
 Linseed 
 
 Rape-seed and hemp-seed 
 
 Palm 
 
 Neat' B-fooi and other animal 
 
 Essential oils 
 
 Tea and coffee from places other than those of 
 their , production, and not excepted by 
 treaty stipulations : 
 
 Teas 17,315 
 
 Coffee 39,879 
 
 Cocoa 187,016 
 
 Sugar— brown ^ 42,614,604 
 
 "White, clayed, or powdered ...,./. 86,820 
 
 Loaf and other refined 68,006 
 
 Candy 1,887 
 
 Sirup of sugar-cane 4,284 
 
 Fruits— almonds 209,605 
 
 Currants 151,418 
 
 Prunes 108,994 
 
 Hums 118,053 
 
 Figs 212,207 
 
 Dates 17,048 
 
 Ifaisins 937,460 
 
 Oranges, lemons, and limes 64!), 544 
 
 Other green fruit 161,587 
 
 Preserved fruit 102,657 
 
 Nuts 183,144 
 
 Spices— Mace 26,754 
 
 Nutmegs 254,637 
 
 Cinnamon 18,866 
 
 Cloves 66,332 
 
 Pepper, black '279,287 
 
 " red 2,400 
 
 Pimento 241,503 
 
 Cassia 201,888 
 
 Ginger, ground 32 
 
 " root 44,123 
 
 Camplior- crude 56,314 
 
 Hefined 34 
 
 Candles — wax and spermaceti 9,667 
 
 Stearin 63,187 
 
 Cheese 143,821 
 
 Soap — perfumed 61,507 
 
 Other than perfumed 139,926 
 
 Tallow 12,507 
 
 Starch 6,635 
 
 Arrow-root 36,751 
 
 Butter 18,654 
 
 Lard 420 
 
 Beef and pork.. 3,614 
 
 Hams and other bacon 7,204 
 
 Bristles 289,681 
 
 Saltpetre— crude 1,156,463 
 
 Befined, or partly refined 363 
 
 Indigo 1,010,609 
 
 I ' "Woad or pastel 1,201 
 
 Cochineal 440,707 
 
 Madder 1,375,473 
 
 Gums — Arabic, Senegal, etc 143,380 
 
 Other gums 466,432 
 
 Borax 94,844 
 
 SmiMAET Statemknt of Impobts— Con^nwd. 
 
 Description of Merchandiae. Value. 
 
 CoppeiM $6,446 
 
 Verdigns 9 bqq 
 
 Brimstone — carude 152 330 
 
 EoUed 12'806 
 
 Chlorid of lime or bleaching powder 320*895 
 
 Soda ash l,084!o31 
 
 Soda, sal gg 48B 
 
 Soda, carbonate of 424 034 
 
 BTilla .'..'.' 3l!oi8 
 
 Sulphate of barytas 48 667 
 
 Acids, acetic, ete , 78*371 
 
 Vitriol— blue or Roman '..'.!.*.*.*,' 5!834 
 
 Oil of 98 
 
 Sulphate of quinine 249 964 
 
 Licorice — root ." ' * 42*091 
 
 Paste.... ;. .■.'.■■.■.■. 392',663 
 
 Bark— Peruvian and Quilla 886,253 
 
 , Other. 268,606 
 
 Ivory and bone black jgg 
 
 Opium 463,463 
 
 C;l"e..... 23 671 
 
 Gunpowder 9 ggg 
 
 Alum 24,636 
 
 Tobacco — unmanufactured 1,368 836 
 
 Snuff 2'626 
 
 Cigars 4,231,096 
 
 Manufactured, other than snuff and cigars . 18,898 
 
 Paints— dry ochre 16,253 
 
 Red and white lead 118,076 
 
 Whiting and Paris white 29,169 
 
 Litharge 17,721 
 
 Sugar of lead 86,795 
 
 Cordage— tarred and cables 92,099 ' 
 
 Untarred 64,433 
 
 Twine and seines ' 69,957 
 
 Hemp, unmanufactured 428,'533 
 
 Manilla, sun, and other hemp of India 3,363,891 
 
 Jute, Sisal grass, coir, etc 334,328 
 
 Cedilla, or tow of hemp or ilax 93,520 
 
 Flax, unmanufactured 220,738 
 
 Rags of all kinds 1,448,125 
 
 Salt 3,033,583 
 
 Coal 772,663 
 
 Breadstuffs — wheat 999 
 
 Barley 3,068 
 
 Oats 110 
 
 Wheat flour 477 
 
 Eye-meal \ 2,070 
 
 Oat-meal 559 
 
 Potatoes 87,672 
 
 Fish, dried, smoked, or pickled : 
 
 Dried or smoked 96 607 
 
 Salmon 3^949 
 
 Mackerel 144 
 
 Herrings and shad 49,313 
 
 AU other. 4,633 
 
 Value of merchandise not enumerated in the pre- 
 ceding abstract : 
 
 At 5 per cent 1,374,024 
 
 At 10 per cent 646,016 
 
 At 15 per cent. 1,698 
 
 At 30 per cent. 3,604,767 
 
 At 26 per cent. 183,493 
 
 At 30 per cent 2,264,645 
 
 At 40 per cent 541,816 
 
 Paying duties $294,160,835 
 
 Free of dnty 66,7 29,306 
 
 Total $360,890,141 
 
 Commercial Regulations of the United States, compiled 
 fiom General Regulations of the Treasury Department, 
 and from other nficial Authorities. — Vessels belonging to 
 the following nations are admitted, under the provisions 
 of law, treaties of commerce and navigation, or conven- 
 tions, into the ports of the United States, on the same 
 terms as American vessels, with the produce or manu- 
 factures of their own or any other country : 
 
 Argentine Confederation, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, 
 Chili, (Denmark,*) Ecuador, Great Britain, Greece, 
 New Granada, Guatemala, Hanover, Hanse Towns 
 (Hamburg, Bremen, and Lilbeck), Mecklenburg Schwe- 
 rin, Netherlands, Oldenburg, Peru, Prussia, Eussia, 
 San Salvador, Sardinia, Sweden and Norway, Tuscany, 
 Two Sicilies,t Venezuela. 
 
 * The treaty between the United States and Denmark ex- 
 pired on the 14th day of April, 1866. 
 
 t By decree of December 18, 1864, equality with the na- 
 tional flag is offered by the government of the Two Sicilies to 
 the vessels of such nations as reciprocate the favor. This 
 equality applies to the direct and indirect trade. I 
 
 Vessels belonging to the following nations, with 
 which the United States have reciprocal treaties on 
 the footing of "the most favored nations," or with 
 which reciprocity exists by virtue of an act of Congress 
 of the 24th day of May, 1828, are admitted into the 
 ports of the United States on the same terms, as re- 
 spects tonnage or navigation duties, as American ves- 
 sels, with the produce or manufactures of their own or 
 any other country : Bolivia, Costa Eica, Mexico, Mus- 
 cat, Ottoman empire, Portugal, and Uruguay. 
 
 The Rights of Commerce. — "As the end of the law of 
 nations is the happiness knd general perfection of the 
 general society of mankind, it enjoins upon every na- 
 tion the punctual observance of benevolence and good- 
 will, as well as of justice toward its neighbors. They 
 ought to cultivate a free, intercourse for commercial 
 purposes, in order to supply each other's wants and 
 promote each other's prosperity. The variety of cli- 
 mates and productions on the surface of the globe, and 
 the facility of communication by means of rivers, lakes, 
 and the ocean, invite to a liberal commerce, as agreea- 
 
UNI 
 
 1910 
 
 UNI 
 
 ble to the law of nature, and extremely conducive to 
 national amity, industry, and happiness. The numer- 
 ous wants of civilized life can only be supplied by mu- 
 tual exchange between nations of the peculiar produc- 
 tions of each ; and who that is familiar with the En- 
 glish classics has not dwelt with delight on the de- 
 scription of the extent and blessings of English com- 
 merce, which Addison has given with such graceful 
 simplicity and such enchanting elegance in one of the 
 
 Spectator's visits to the Royal Exchange ! But as ev- 
 ery nation has the right, and, if disposed to exercise it, 
 of judging for itself in respect to the policy and extent 
 of its commercial arrangements, the general freedom 
 of trade, however reasonablj' and strongly it may be 
 inculcated in the modern school of political economy, 
 is but an imperfect right, and necessarily subject to 
 such regulations and restrictions as each nation may 
 think proper to prescribe for itself." — Kent's Comm. 
 
 Statistioal View of the Commeeoe op the United States, exhibiting the YAP.tTE op Expoetb to and Impoets feom 
 
 EACU POKEION COUNTBY, AND THE TONNAGE OF AMr.EIOAN AND POEBIGN VESSELS AEEIVING FEOM AND DETAETING TO 
 EACH FOEEIGN COUNTEY DUBING THE YEAE ENDING JtTNE 30, 1357 [OFFICIAL.] 
 
 KusBia on the Baltic and North Seas . . 
 
 Kuesia on the JBlack Sea 
 
 Asiatic Kussia 
 
 Kussian Posaessions in North America 
 
 Prussia 
 
 Sweden and Norway 
 
 Swedish West Indies 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Danish West Indies 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Other German porta 
 
 Holland 
 
 Dutch West Indies 
 
 Dutch Guiana 
 
 Dutch East Indies 
 
 Belgium 
 
 England 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Ireland 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 Malta 
 
 Canada 
 
 Other Britiah North Am. Posaessions , 
 
 British West Indies 
 
 British Honduras 
 
 British Guiana 
 
 British Possessions in Africa 
 
 British Australia 
 
 British East Indies 
 
 France on the Atlantic 
 
 France on the Mediterranean 
 
 French North American Possessions . . 
 
 French West Indies 
 
 French Guiana 
 
 French East Indies 
 
 French Posaesaiona in Africa 
 
 Spain on the Atlantic 
 
 Spain on the Mediterranean 
 
 Canary Islands 
 
 Philippine Islands 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Porto Rico 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Madeira 
 
 Cape de Verd Islands 
 
 Azores 
 
 Sardinia 
 
 Tuscany 
 
 Papal States 
 
 Two Sicilies 
 
 Austria 
 
 Austrian Possessions in Italy 
 
 Ionian Republic 
 
 Greece 
 
 Turkey in Europe 
 
 Turkey in Asia 
 
 Egypt 
 
 Other ports in Africa 
 
 Hayti 
 
 San Domingo 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Central Republic 
 
 New Granada 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Brazil - 
 
 Uruguay, or Cisplatine Republic 
 
 Buenos Ayres, or Argentine Republic. 
 
 Chili 
 
 Peru 
 
 Ecuador 
 
 Sandwich Islands 
 
 China 
 
 Other ports in Asia 
 
 Islands in the Pacific 
 
 Whale-iisheries 
 
 Uncertain places 
 
 Total, year 1866-'6T 
 
 Value of Exports. 
 
 Domestic 
 Produce. 
 
 4,356,836 
 
 c:),174 
 
 20,057 
 
 28,775 
 
 80,788 
 
 1,373,306 
 
 76,405 
 
 234,529 
 
 1,419,018 
 
 3,199,708 
 
 11,082,107 
 
 3,980,683 
 309,617 
 343,728 
 12.'>,856 
 
 3,813,638 
 174.528,021 
 
 4;6T1,8.87 
 
 3,450,014 
 
 564,314 
 
 288,435 
 
 13,024,708 
 
 6,911,405 
 
 5,03-2,055 
 425,879 
 
 1,003,976 
 679,835 
 
 3,297,131 
 
 864,898 
 
 35,360,428 
 
 1,868,012 
 137,661 
 729,779 
 84,447 
 
 2,962,097 
 
 7,715,907 
 
 89,027 
 
 66,133 
 
 9,379,582 
 
 1,783,429 
 
 1,619,057 
 
 52,204 
 
 63,108 
 
 62,972 
 
 3,067,901 
 
 387,400 
 
 1,63S,'961 
 1,130,217 
 1,042,848 
 
 187,975 
 
 333,506 
 
 28,163 
 
 2,308,166 
 
 2,216,147 
 
 42,288 
 
 3,017,640 
 
 116,299 
 1,770,209 
 1,860,148 
 6,268,166 
 
 976,370 
 1,202,876 
 2,473,228 
 
 449,733 
 34,646 
 
 803,084 
 2,019,900 
 
 73,987 
 416,253 
 29,609 
 
 Foreign 
 Produce. 
 
 388,085,065 
 
 171,465 
 
 '26,212 
 57,362 
 14,311 
 27,120 
 3,538 
 
 97,677 
 
 654,417 
 
 861,888 
 
 255 
 
 127,244 
 
 16,779 
 
 6,104 
 
 108,169 
 
 1,960,608 
 
 8,162,181 
 
 32,181 
 
 1,000 
 
 58,066 
 
 80,992 
 
 3,550,187 
 
 776,182 
 
 52,863 
 
 34,973 
 
 5,618 
 
 7,910 
 
 143,553 
 
 118,039 
 
 33,212 
 1,364 
 1,000 
 
 4,528,301 
 
 69,174 
 
 46,20!) 
 
 86,137 
 
 45,0:)9 
 
 1,400,426 
 
 79,933 
 
 234,629 
 
 1,516,695 
 
 3,864,215 
 
 11,443,995 
 
 255 
 
 4,107,877 
 
 886,296 
 
 849,832 
 
 238,515 
 
 6,644,320 
 
 177,690,153 
 
 4,704,018 
 
 3,451,614 
 
 617,379 
 
 819,477 
 
 16,574,895 
 
 7,087,587 
 
 6,034,918 
 
 460,352 
 
 1,009,594 
 
 687,745 
 
 8,440,684 
 
 977,037 
 
 36,292,951 
 
 1,946,036 
 
 170,773 
 
 731,143 
 
 86,447 
 
 13,882 
 
 11,211 
 
 916 
 
 171,479 
 
 (,648,861 
 
 152,046 
 
 16,888 
 
 684 
 
 1,396 
 
 17,751 
 
 77,667 
 
 252,727 
 
 70,776 
 
 176,531 
 
 819,617 
 
 2,066 
 
 597,566 
 
 20,722 
 
 267,480 
 
 67,430 
 
 277,041 
 
 29,802 
 
 111,431 
 
 433,967 
 
 58,199 
 
 2,630 
 
 144,849 
 
 2,375,230 
 
 042 
 
 '2i,'oio 
 
 23,975,617 
 
 2,976,979 
 
 7,727,118 
 
 89,942 
 
 237,012 
 
 14,928,443 
 
 1,936,474 
 
 1,635.445 
 
 52,888 
 
 64,608 
 
 80,723 
 
 3,136,468 
 
 337,400 
 
 1,152,920 
 1,882,944 
 1,072,737 
 
 196,364 
 
 410,282 
 
 28,168 
 
 2,434,746 
 
 2,535,164 
 
 44,849 
 
 3,615,206 
 
 137,021 
 
 2,037,689 
 
 1,427,578 
 
 ■5,545,207 
 
 1,006,172 
 
 1,313,807 
 
 2,907,186 
 
 607,932 
 
 87,176 
 
 947,433 
 
 4,395,180 
 
 642 
 
 72,987 
 
 617,268 
 
 29,509 
 
 362,980,682 
 
 Vftlne of Im- 
 ports. 
 
 1,436,394 
 43,626 
 
 ' 40,400 
 
 06,127 
 
 744,812 
 
 12,082 
 
 3,809 
 
 281,569 
 
 4,647,413 
 
 10,723,528 
 
 248 
 
 2,469,762 
 
 618,254 
 
 874,461 
 
 1,287,399 
 
 6,060,311 
 
 123,473,629 
 
 7,216,111 
 
 113,463 
 
 43,958 
 
 114,477 
 
 18,291,834 
 
 8,832,462 
 
 2,653,698 
 
 435,080 
 
 818,353 
 
 698,276 
 
 66,632 
 
 10,766,214 
 
 44,718,778 
 
 3,074,054 
 
 95,049 
 
 69,689 
 
 63,293 
 
 2,050,1 
 
 44,005 
 
 3,053,763 
 
 45,243,101 
 
 6,748,600 
 
 432,836 
 
 34,114 
 
 26,905 
 
 50,869 
 
 217,287 
 
 1,755,002 
 
 64,672 
 
 1,576,953 
 
 396,.562 
 
 25,808 
 
 11,179 
 
 36,533 
 
 7,405 
 
 724,445 
 
 106,168 
 
 1,621,665 
 
 2,290,242 
 
 109,874 
 
 5,985,857 
 
 288,060 
 
 2,468,169 
 
 3,860,618 
 
 21,460,733 
 
 368,297 
 
 2,784,473 
 
 8,742,439 
 
 208,747 
 
 16,803 
 
 204,416 
 
 8,366,932 
 
 6,660 
 
 748 
 
 107,186 
 
 American Tonnage. 
 
 Entered Cleared 
 
 tlio United from the 
 
 states. U. States 
 
 12,684 
 
 604 
 6,701 
 1,661 
 
 15',913 
 7,064 
 30,346 
 
 20,805 
 
 8,861 
 
 8,024 
 
 7,675 
 
 36,970 
 
 1,.047,046 
 
 31,336 
 
 2.710 
 
 2;526 
 
 14,017 
 
 1,240,169 
 
 138,640 
 
 75,090 
 
 0,413 
 
 9,308 
 
 8,966 
 
 3,015 
 
 109,030 
 
 192,190 
 
 31,014 
 
 ' 6,6153 
 1,298 
 
 '"653 
 
 33,118 
 
 27,229 
 
 3,220 
 
 27,739 
 
 684,937 
 
 69,172 
 
 7,549 
 
 651 
 
 1,601 
 
 3,916 
 
 9,958 
 
 18,593 
 
 '6'o',484 
 6,-''" 
 2,093 
 
 9,953 
 
 '14,1 
 53,104 
 1,504 
 27,291 
 37,901 
 
 136,232 
 24,921 
 
 108,209 
 
 2,289 
 
 16,376 
 
 14,372 
 
 123,031 
 
 625 
 
 16,742 
 
 67,1)42 
 
 ' 'l',668 
 48,747 
 
 25,498 
 691 
 
 ' 'l',S90 
 
 949 
 
 3,432 
 
 1,719 
 
 988 
 
 21,834 
 
 7,266 
 
 31,470 
 
 245 
 
 25,207 
 
 8,061 
 
 6,856 
 
 7,191 
 
 40,162 
 
 911,183 
 
 33,982 
 
 23,406 
 
 7,006 
 
 2,023 
 
 1,133,584 
 
 319,986 
 
 106,361 
 
 6,528 
 
 16,372 
 
 19,829 
 
 47,231 
 
 63,837 
 
 228,776 
 
 25,813 
 
 1,836 
 
 20,588 
 
 3,147 
 
 618 
 
 '28,611 
 21,005 
 
 3,749 
 16,679 
 690,241 
 37,633 
 19,847 
 814 
 
 2,662 
 
 8,689 
 16,862 
 
 2,567 
 316 
 
 6,334 
 11,153 
 
 5,029 
 
 2,777 
 
 4,774 
 
 366 
 
 33,010 
 
 86,976 
 
 1,930 
 86,608 
 34,779 
 124,809 
 17,703 
 84,712 
 23,412 
 26,630 
 42,727 
 6S,.533 
 
 1,858 
 16,961 
 69,549 
 
 ' 'l',.364 
 67,983 
 
 360,890,14114,721,370 4,581,213|2,464,946 2,490,170 
 
 Foreiem Tonnage. 
 
 Entered ' Cleared 
 
 the United from tile 
 
 states. U. States. 
 
 1,606 
 
 ' 7,345 
 
 95 
 
 538 
 
 6,141 
 
 56,369 
 
 116,485 
 
 147 
 
 10,062 
 
 774 
 
 1,374 
 
 607 
 
 16,716 
 
 344,889 
 
 68,826 
 
 16,675 
 
 6,133 
 
 2,648 
 
 ,106,858 
 
 382,712 
 
 84,134 
 
 2,122 
 
 3,716 
 
 673 
 
 1,869 
 
 4,764 
 
 36,998 
 
 7,780 
 
 2,133 
 
 4,828 
 
 8,197 
 
 29,697 
 
 1,811 
 
 1,780 
 
 61,308 
 
 11,012 
 
 4,660 
 
 806 
 
 786 
 
 90R 
 
 7, 
 
 6,789 
 
 '2'o',339 
 
 2,118 
 
 294 
 
 470 
 
 182 
 
 678 
 
 7,454 
 
 1,906 
 
 10,655 
 
 141 
 
 2,374 
 
 3,408 
 
 18,243 
 
 241 
 
 496 
 
 7,207 
 
 1,677 
 
 '"187 
 
 6,987 
 
 184 
 
 1,113 
 
 2,716 
 
 '"380 
 3,440 
 ],.334 
 6,592 
 
 ' '3',il3 
 
 2,157 
 
 46,461 
 
 87,919 
 
 '2'6',282 
 
 486 
 
 806 
 
 1,430 
 
 14,864 
 
 388,792 
 
 49,432 
 
 22,090 
 
 870 
 
 900 
 
 ,104,060 
 
 461,246 
 
 24,970 
 
 3,656 
 
 4,887 
 
 1,836 
 
 5,687 
 
 6,376 
 
 20,500 
 
 9,066 
 
 4,897 
 
 1,906 
 
 196 
 
 10,076 
 
 67,687 
 
 1,090 
 
 1,472 
 
 14,^" 
 
 3,560 
 
 12,068 
 
 628 
 
 545 
 
 V 
 
 6,027 
 
 8,119 
 
 1,045 
 
 469 
 
 742 
 4,121 
 
 918 
 14,564 
 
 502 
 1,743 
 2,083 
 3,186 
 2,027 
 1,605 
 11,067 
 6,462 
 
 "'i87 
 9,480 
 
UNI 
 
 1911 
 
 UNI 
 
 GENiuAii Statement or foeeign Impoets into the United Statb8 foe the fiscal Yeab endino June 30, 1357. 
 
 WhonM Imported. 
 
 Russia on the Baltic and N, Seas 
 Russia on the Black Sea .... 
 Russian l^ossessions in N. A. . . . 
 
 Prussia 
 
 Sweden and Norway 
 
 Swedish West Indies 
 
 Denmark^ 
 
 Danish West Indies 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Other German ports 
 
 Holland 
 
 Dutch West Indies 
 
 Dutch Guiana 
 
 Dutch East Indies 
 
 Belgium 
 
 England 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Ireland ., 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 Malta .' 
 
 Canada,. _ 
 
 Other British N. A. Possessions 
 
 British West Indies 
 
 Pritish Ilonduras 
 
 British Guiana _ _ 
 
 British Possessions in Africa... 
 
 British Australia 
 
 British East Indies 
 
 France on the Atlantic 
 
 France on the Mediterranean, 
 French N. Amer. Possessions 
 
 French West Indies 
 
 French Guiana 
 
 Spain on the Atlantic 
 
 Spain on the Mediterranean . . . 
 
 Canary Islands . ; 
 
 Philippine Islands . . .' 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Porto Rico 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Madeira 
 
 pape de Verd Islands 
 
 Azores 
 
 Sardinia 
 
 Tuscany 
 
 Papal States 
 
 Two Sicilies 
 
 Austria 
 
 Austrian Possessions in Italy . . 
 
 Ionian Republic 
 
 Greece 
 
 Turkey in Europe 
 
 Turkey in Asia 
 
 Egypt 
 
 Ports in Africa 
 
 Hayti 
 
 San Domingo : 
 
 Mexico ; 
 
 Central Itepublic 
 
 New Granada 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Uruguay, or Cisplatine Repub. . 
 Buenos Ayres, or Argentine Rep. 
 
 ChiU 
 
 Peru 
 
 Ecuador 
 
 Sandwich: Islands 
 
 Gliina. . ..: 
 
 Other ports in Asia 
 
 Whale-iisheries 
 
 Islands in the Pacific 
 
 Value of Merehandlfle ttom each Country. 
 
 Free of Duty. 
 
 Total, 1856-'5T $66,729,306 
 
 Total. 1865-'56 56,965,706 
 
 $65,830 
 
 ■""15 
 
 ' ' ' '333 
 2,065 
 
 ' 46,696 
 46,828 
 183,130 
 
 33i,'384 
 
 7,302 
 
 1,400 
 
 830,829 
 
 49,835 
 
 5,761,012 
 
 53,070 
 
 4,318 
 
 3,166 
 
 4,424 
 
 17,600,737 
 
 3,695,815 
 
 427,800 
 
 56,957 
 
 1,482 
 
 11,020 
 
 34,341 
 
 424,408 
 
 3,032,409 
 
 61,387 
 
 205 
 
 61,676 
 
 30,411 
 
 3,092 
 
 26,307 
 
 ' fl3|317 
 
 1,035,190 
 
 10,438 
 
 0,948 
 
 S 
 
 14,534 
 
 33,654 
 
 764 
 
 76,229 
 
 60 
 
 51,942 
 
 245 
 
 2,590 
 
 400 
 
 161,936 
 
 1,550,634 
 
 1,609 
 
 5,021,291 
 
 111,637 
 
 ■ 413,932 
 
 1,128,550 
 
 18,030,733 
 
 ' U;04S 
 
 1,365,467 
 
 107,120 
 
 15,750 
 
 67,200 
 
 6,638,806 
 
 ' so! 225 
 
 Paying Duty. 
 
 $1,379,664 
 
 43,626 
 
 40,385 
 
 66,127 
 
 744,580 
 
 10,017 
 
 3,809 
 
 234,863 
 
 4,601,085 
 
 10,540,403 
 
 248 
 
 2,248,378 
 
 510,952 
 
 373,061 
 
 466,670 
 
 6,010,676 
 
 117,712,517 
 
 7,163,041 
 
 109,135 
 
 41,793 
 
 110,053 
 
 691,097 
 
 136,647 
 
 2,225,889 
 
 378,073 
 
 816,871 
 
 , 637,249 
 
 31,391 
 
 10,341,806 
 
 42,686,864 
 
 3,022,667 
 
 94,844 
 
 8,014 
 
 2,023,727 
 
 44,065 
 
 3,590,546 
 
 44,217,911 
 
 5,738,173 
 
 415,883 
 
 34,106 
 
 11,371 
 
 17,206 
 
 216,533 
 
 1,678,773 
 
 54,612 
 
 1,524,011 
 
 378,869 
 
 25,803 
 
 11,179 
 
 36,633 
 
 7,160 
 
 721,855 
 
 106,768 
 
 1,369,730 
 
 739,608 
 
 108,265 
 
 964,566 
 
 176,423 
 
 2,054,237 
 
 2,781,968 
 
 3,429,996 
 
 368,297 
 
 2,773,425 
 
 2,376,982 
 
 101,621 
 
 83 
 
 137,216 
 
 2,728,037 
 
 5,660 
 
 20,-961 
 
 743 
 
 $394,160,835 
 257,684,236 
 
 Total. 
 
 $1,436,394 
 
 43,636 
 
 40,400 
 
 66,127 
 
 744,813 
 
 12,083 
 
 3,809 
 
 281,669 
 
 4,647,413 
 
 10,723,523 
 
 248 
 
 2,469,763 
 
 518,254 
 
 874,461 
 
 1,387,399 
 
 5,060,311 
 
 123,473,539 
 
 7,216,111 
 
 113,453 
 
 43,958 
 
 114,477 
 
 18,291,834 
 
 3,882,463 
 
 2,653,698 
 
 485,030 
 
 818,353 
 
 698,375 
 
 65,632 
 
 10,766,214 
 
 44,718,773 
 
 3,074,054 
 
 06,049 
 
 63,689 
 
 63,293 
 
 692,983 
 
 2,050,034 
 
 44,065 
 
 3,653,763 
 
 45,243,101 
 
 5,748,600 
 
 422,830 
 
 34,114 
 
 25,906 
 
 60,859 
 
 317,287 
 
 1,755,003 
 
 54,672 
 
 1,675,953 
 
 396,563 
 
 26,803 
 
 11,179 
 
 36,633 
 
 7,405 
 
 734,445 
 
 106,158 
 
 1,631,065 
 
 3,390,242 
 
 109,874 
 
 5,985,867 
 
 283,060 
 
 2,468,160 
 
 3,860,618 
 
 21,460,733 
 
 868,397 
 
 3,784,473 
 
 3,743,439 
 
 208,747 
 
 15,803 
 
 204,416 
 
 8,358,932 
 
 5,660 
 
 107,186 
 
 748 
 
 $360,890,141 
 
 In American 
 Vessels. 
 
 $1,214,777 
 
 ' 161234 
 66,137 
 
 459,730 
 13,032 
 
 2b7',893 
 
 261,653 
 
 5,414,961 
 
 1,435,614 
 
 430,376 
 
 303,166 
 
 1,287,399 
 
 3,906,092 
 
 81,818,923 
 
 1,427,118 
 
 82,209 
 
 35,283 
 
 84,760 
 
 9,432,726 
 
 649,605 
 
 1,934,446 
 
 890,073 
 
 695,844 
 
 681,568 
 
 42,333 
 
 10,357,413 
 
 30,005,477 
 
 2,517,502 
 
 ' 59',460 
 
 63,293 
 
 605,299 
 
 1,315,106 
 
 36,808 
 
 3,360,425 
 
 43,069,536 
 
 4,893,701 
 
 99,385 
 
 ' ii',266 
 
 48,466 
 
 78,975 
 
 1,273,497 
 
 . 60 
 
 1,167,330 
 
 141,028 
 
 22,777 
 
 11,179 
 
 7,396 
 677,983 
 
 l,5b2Jl97 
 
 3,182,760 
 
 34,375 
 
 , 3,701,317 
 
 213,882 
 
 2,433,515 
 
 3,149,744 
 
 19,320,149 
 
 314,680 
 
 2,735,169 
 
 8,098,733 
 
 177,803 
 
 16,803 
 
 190,416 
 
 7,866,080 
 
 ' 96,501 
 ,748 
 
 $359,116,170 
 349,972,612 
 
 230,617 
 48,636 
 24,166 
 
 294,082 
 
 3,809 
 
 73,666 
 
 4,395,760 
 
 5,308,673 
 
 248 
 
 1,034,148 
 
 37,878 
 
 71,295 
 
 1,154,219 
 
 41,054,606 
 
 6,788,993 
 
 31,154 
 
 8,675 
 
 39,717 
 
 8,869,108 
 
 3,182,857 
 
 729,252 
 
 44,968 
 
 132,609 
 
 16,707 
 
 33,400 
 
 408,801 
 
 14,713,296 
 
 666,653 
 
 95,049 
 
 87,633 
 
 7,357 
 
 293,333 
 
 2,133,516 
 
 ■854,899 
 
 323,451 
 
 34,114 
 
 14,860 
 
 2,393 
 
 138,313 
 
 481,505 
 
 54,612 
 
 408,833 
 
 356,634 
 
 3,026 
 
 ' 36l633 
 9 
 
 46,463 
 106,163 
 
 19,488 
 107,492 
 
 75,499 
 2,284,540 
 
 74,178 
 
 44,664 
 
 710,774 
 
 2,140,584 
 
 53,787 
 
 59,804 
 646,706 
 
 80,945 
 
 ' iilooi 
 
 491,852 
 6,680 
 10,825 
 
 $101,773,971 
 64,667,430 
 
 From the Domio. 
 ions of each Powor. 
 
 1,619,421 
 
 66,127 
 766,894 
 
 285,388 
 
 4,647,413 
 
 10,723,533 
 
 248 
 
 4,649,876 
 
 6,060,311 
 
 168,523,026 
 
 48,000,858 
 
 57,482,545 
 
 583,714 
 
 217,287 
 
 1,766,002 
 
 54,673 
 
 1,576,968 
 
 422,365 
 
 11,179 
 36,583 
 
 731,860 
 
 108,158 
 
 1,621,666 
 
 2,290,342 
 
 109,874 
 
 6,986,857 
 
 388,060 
 
 2,468,169 
 
 3,880,518 
 
 21,460,733 
 
 368,297 
 
 2,784,473 
 
 3,743,139 
 
 • 208,747 
 
 16,803 
 
 204,416. 
 
 8,356,932 
 
 5,660 
 
 107,186 
 
 748- 
 
 $360,890,141 
 314,639,942 
 
 From the above table we get a clear exhibit of the 
 direction of our foreign trade as regards the imports ; 
 making a brief summary, we see the proportion borne 
 by the following countries during the year 1856-'57 : 
 
 Countries. Imports. Per Cent. 
 
 England $128,473,639 34-31 
 
 France 43,793,827 12-14 
 
 Cuba 45,248,101 12-64 
 
 Brazil 21,480,733 5-94 
 
 Canada 18,291,834 5-07 
 
 British East Indies 10,766,214 2-98 
 
 Bremen , 10,723,623 2-97 
 
 China 8,866,933 2-32 
 
 Scotland ... 7,216,111 2-00 
 
 Other countries 71,565.337 19-83 
 
 Total $360,890,141 lOO-OO 
 
 This summary shows that 80 per cent, of the total 
 imports for 1856-'57 was to countries from which we 
 imported over 2 per cent. Of the total of this 80 per 
 cent. 51 per cent, (against 65 per cent, of exports) came 
 from countries on the west coast of Europe, thereby 
 showing a balance of trade in our favor in our com- 
 merce with these countries. A similar examination 
 of our trade -with the East Indies and countries in the 
 south of Europe would show a balance of trade against 
 this country. The same course of trade is also partic- 
 ularly to be remarked in regard to Cuba, Brazil, and 
 China ; as these three countries show, on an average, 
 an aggregate balance of trade against the United States 
 of over fifty millions of dollars. 
 
UNI 
 
 1912 
 
 UNI 
 
 Commerce op the United States with the principal ooMMEROiAii CotmTnrBS, exhibitinq the aggre&atb Vat.ite of Im- 
 ports PROM EACH Country, eaoo Year, dueinq a Period op thibty-beves conbeoutivb Years, peom 1821 to 1807, 
 
 BOTH inclusive. 
 
 
 
 Values op Impoets into the United 
 
 States feom— 
 
 
 
 
 
 Great Britaia 
 
 France 
 
 Spain 
 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Portagal 
 
 
 
 
 
 and 
 
 
 and 
 
 and 
 
 and 
 
 and 
 
 and 
 
 China. 
 
 
 
 
 Dependencies. 
 
 Dependonciea. 
 
 Dependencies. 
 
 
 Dependeaciee 
 
 Dependencies 
 
 Dependencies 
 
 
 
 
 1821 
 
 $2J,277,938 
 
 $5,90.1,581 $9,653,728 
 
 $2,934,272 
 
 $1,369,869 
 
 $1,909,730 
 
 $748,423 
 
 $3,111,96 
 
 $990,166 
 
 13-22 
 
 39,537,829 
 
 7,059,342 12,376,841 
 
 2,708,162 
 
 1,644,907 
 
 2,535,406 
 
 881,290 
 
 5,242,531 
 
 1,778,766 
 
 1S23 
 
 34,072,578 
 
 6,005,343 14,233,5.10 
 
 2,126,537 
 
 1,603,050 
 
 1,334,532 
 
 533,635 
 
 6,6n,42E 
 
 1,981,02 
 
 
 1824 
 
 33,750,340 
 
 9,907,412 
 
 16,857,007 
 
 2,356,525 
 
 1,101,750 
 
 2,110,668 
 
 601,722 
 
 6,618,602 
 
 2,627,8» 
 
 
 1825 
 
 43,394,812 
 
 11,335,591 
 
 9,566,237 
 
 2,265,378 
 
 1,417,693 
 
 1,639,632 
 
 733,443 
 
 7,533,116 
 
 2,739,521 
 
 
 1828 
 
 82,212,355 
 
 9,538,890 
 
 9,623,420 
 
 2,174,181 
 
 1,292,183 
 
 2,117,184 
 
 765,203 
 
 7,422,188 
 
 2,8t6,54t 
 
 
 182T 
 
 33,053,374 
 
 9,443,682 
 
 9,100,869 
 
 1,722,070 
 
 1,235,042 
 
 2,340,171 
 
 669,001 
 
 3,617,18! 
 
 1,638,55S 
 
 
 1838 
 
 85,591,484 
 
 10,287,505 
 
 8,167,546 
 
 1,990,431 
 
 1,946,783 
 
 2,374,069 
 
 433,565 
 
 5,339,10t 
 
 2,844,392 
 
 
 1829 
 
 27,682,082 
 
 9,616,070 
 
 6,801,374 
 
 1,617,334 
 
 1,303,953 
 
 2,086,177 
 
 687,869 
 
 4,680,841 
 
 2,274,276 
 
 
 1830 
 
 26,804,984 
 
 8,240,835 
 
 8,373,681 
 
 1,356,705 
 
 1,398,640 
 
 1,671,218 
 
 471,643 
 
 3,878,141 
 
 1,873,27( 
 
 
 1831 
 
 47,966,717 
 
 14,737,685 
 
 11,701,201 
 
 1,663,031 
 
 1,120,730 
 
 1,652,216 
 
 397,660 
 
 3,083,206 
 
 3,493,301 
 
 
 1832 
 
 43,496,924 
 
 12,764,615 
 
 10,863,390 
 
 2,358,474 
 
 1,150,804 
 
 1,182,708 
 
 485,264 
 
 5,344,907 
 
 2,865,096 
 
 
 1833 
 
 43,085,865 
 
 13,962,913 
 
 13,431,207 
 
 2,347,343 
 
 1,200,839 
 
 1,166,873 
 
 665,137 
 
 7.541,570 
 
 2,227,726 
 
 
 1834 
 
 62,679,398 
 
 17,557,244 
 
 13,627,434 
 
 2,127,886 
 
 1,126,541 
 
 1,684,368 
 
 699,122 
 
 7,8 2,327 
 
 3,365,856 
 
 
 1835 
 
 66,949,307 
 
 23,362,634 
 
 16,617,140 
 
 2,903,718 
 
 1,316,508 
 
 1,403,902 
 
 1,126,713 
 
 5,! 87,187 
 
 3,841,943 
 
 
 1836 
 
 86,022,915 
 
 37,036,235 
 
 19,345,630 
 
 3,861,614 
 
 1,299,603 
 
 1,874,340 
 
 672,670 
 
 7,324,816 
 
 4,994,820 
 
 
 1837 
 
 53,289,557 
 
 22,497,817 
 
 18,927,871 
 
 3,370,828 
 
 1,468,878 
 
 1,266,906 
 
 928,291 
 
 8,966,337 
 
 6,642,221 
 
 
 1838 
 
 4=1,051,181 
 
 18,087,149 
 
 16,971,394 
 
 2,194,233 
 
 900,790 
 
 1,644,865 
 
 725,058 
 
 4,764,536 
 
 2,847,368 
 
 
 1839 
 
 71,600,361 
 
 33,234,119 
 
 19,276,735 
 
 3,473,220 
 
 1,586,143 
 
 1,546,758 
 
 1,182,323 
 
 3,678,609 
 
 4,849,150 
 
 
 1840 
 
 39,130,921 
 
 17,908,127 
 
 14,019,647 
 
 2,320,896 
 
 1,376.453 
 
 916,678 
 
 539,8I'4 
 
 6,640,829 
 
 2,621,493 
 
 
 1841 
 
 61,099,638 
 
 24,187,444 
 
 16,316,303 
 
 2,440,437 
 
 1,229,641 
 
 1,084,321 
 
 674,841 
 
 3,985,388 
 
 2,449,964 
 
 
 1842 
 
 33,613,043 
 
 17,223,390 
 
 12,176,683 
 
 2,214,620 
 
 914,176 
 
 584,321 
 
 347,684 
 
 4,934,645 
 
 2,274,019 
 
 
 1843 
 
 28,978,582 
 
 7,838,137 
 
 6,980,594 
 
 816,841 
 
 278,674 
 
 485,285 
 
 71,369 
 
 4,385,566 
 
 920,865 
 
 
 1844 
 
 46,453,122 
 
 17,953,412 
 
 13,775,451 
 
 2,136,380 
 
 445,553 
 
 630,510 
 
 257,016 
 
 4,9'31,256 
 
 2,136,386 
 
 
 1845 
 
 49,903,725 
 
 22,069,914 
 
 10,590,544 
 
 1,897,623 
 
 640,067 
 
 783,238 
 
 601,734 
 
 7,28.5,914 
 
 2,912,537 
 
 
 1841! 
 
 49,666,422 
 
 24,330,882 
 
 12,376,432 
 
 1,971,680 
 
 730,160 
 
 753,927 
 
 547,474 
 
 6.5 3,881 
 
 3,141,864 
 
 
 1847 
 
 72,715,311 
 
 25,100,417 
 
 16,383,975 
 
 2,480,684 
 
 613,698 
 
 847,223 
 
 416,150 
 
 6,533,343 
 
 3,622,135 
 
 
 1848 
 
 68,996,979 
 
 28,287,791 
 
 17,333,307 
 
 2,173,166 
 
 764,602 
 
 556,356 
 
 235,877 
 
 8,083,496 
 
 6,293.280 
 
 
 1849 
 
 67,387,983 
 
 24,453,669 
 
 16,110,027 
 
 2,367,551 
 
 757,828 
 
 368,345 
 
 414,884 
 
 5,513,785 
 
 7,742,864 
 
 
 1850 
 
 85,117,507 
 
 27,636,266 
 
 15,864,748 
 
 2,732,660 
 
 1,035,310 
 
 267,986 
 
 470,820 
 
 6,593,462 
 
 8,787,874 
 
 
 1851 
 
 105,323,079 
 
 31,707,410 
 
 22,972,239 
 
 3,124,997 
 
 996,338 
 
 274,781 
 
 504,698 
 
 7,065,144 
 
 10,008,364 
 
 
 1852 
 
 102,710,820 
 
 25,969,499 
 
 24,223,383 
 
 3,290,864 
 
 779,733 
 
 208,356 
 
 404,342 
 
 10,693,950 
 
 8,171,411 
 
 
 1853 
 
 143,219,260 
 
 33,623,999 
 
 26,030,320 
 
 2,549,619 
 
 464,208 
 
 184,497 
 
 649,698 
 
 10,573,710 
 
 13,343,456 
 
 
 1864 
 
 163,018,0J5 
 
 36,972,096 
 
 25,401,338 
 
 3,376,793 
 
 537,768 
 
 294,141 
 
 304,168 
 
 10,508,329 
 
 16,966,898 
 
 
 1855 
 
 129,874,434 
 
 31,801,985 
 
 26,467,445 
 
 3,503,444 
 
 881,129 
 
 227,009 
 
 435,411 
 
 11,048,728 
 
 12,990,110 
 
 
 1856 
 
 154,05j,749 
 
 49,241,803 
 
 33,482,700 
 
 4,615,436 
 
 881,437 
 
 226.158 
 
 366,242 
 
 10,454,436 
 
 14,468,612 
 
 
 1857 
 
 168,523,026 
 
 48,000,858 
 
 57,432,545 
 
 4,649,876 
 
 756,894 
 
 285,368 
 
 533,714 
 
 8,356,933 
 
 15,371,184 
 
 
 
 
 Values op Imports into the United States 
 
 FKOM — 
 
 
 
 
 years. 
 
 Russia. 
 
 Italy.t 
 
 Hayli. 
 
 Brazil. 
 
 , Mexico. 
 
 Venezuela, 
 N. Granada, 
 and Ecuador. 
 
 Central 
 America. 
 
 Argentine Re- 
 public and 
 Uruguay. • 
 
 Cliili. 
 
 Belgium. 
 
 1821 
 
 $1,853,199 
 
 $973,463 
 
 $2,346,257 
 
 $605,128 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1822 
 
 3,307,828 
 
 1,582,033 
 
 2,341,317 
 
 1,436,667 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1823 
 
 2,263,777 
 
 1,339,440 
 
 2,352,733 
 
 1,214,810 
 
 .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1824 
 
 2,209,663 
 
 1,039,439 
 
 2,247,235 
 
 2.074,119 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1826 
 
 2,087,110 
 
 1,464,022 
 
 2,066,329 
 
 2,156,707 
 
 $4,044,647 
 
 $1,837,060 
 
 $50,789 
 
 $749,771 
 
 $229,509 
 
 
 1826 
 
 2,617,169 
 
 1,120,749 
 
 1,611,336 
 
 2,158,678 
 
 3,916,198 
 
 2,079,724 
 
 204,370 
 
 622,789 
 
 629,949 
 
 
 1827 
 
 2,086,077 
 
 1,013,126 
 
 1,781,309 
 
 2,080,971 
 
 5,231,867 
 
 1,560,243 
 
 261,342 
 
 80.066 
 
 184,693 
 
 
 1828 
 
 2,788,362 
 
 1,607,417 
 
 2,163,535 
 
 3,097,752 
 
 4,314,268 
 
 1,484,856 
 
 204,77C 
 
 317,466 
 
 781,863 
 
 
 1829 
 
 2,218,995 
 
 1,409,533 
 
 1,799,809 
 
 2,636,467 
 
 6,026,781 
 
 1,255,310 
 
 311,93] 
 
 916,190 
 
 416,118 
 
 
 1830 
 
 1,621,839 
 
 940,254 
 
 1,597,140 
 
 2,431,460 
 
 5,235,241 
 
 1,120,095 
 
 302,83; 
 
 1,431,883 
 
 182,685 
 
 
 1831 
 
 1,608,328 
 
 1,704,264 
 
 1,530,678 
 
 2,375,829 
 
 5,166,745 
 
 1,207,154 
 
 19S,6n( 
 
 928,103 
 
 413,763 
 
 
 1832 
 
 3,251,862 
 
 1,619,795 
 
 2,053,336 
 
 3,890,845 
 
 4,293,964 
 
 1,439,182 
 
 238,316 
 
 1,660,171 
 
 604,623 
 
 
 1833 
 
 2,772,660 
 
 999,134 
 
 1,740,058 
 
 5,039,633 
 
 6,452,813 
 
 1,524,622 
 
 267,741 
 
 1,377,117 
 
 334,130 
 
 $139,628 
 
 1334 
 
 2,595,840 
 
 1,422,063 
 
 2,113,717 
 
 4,729,969 
 
 8,006,068 
 
 1,727,188 
 
 170,96! 
 
 1,430,118 
 
 787,409 
 
 185,679 
 
 1835 
 
 2,395,245 
 
 1,457,977 
 
 2,347,556 
 
 5,674,466 
 
 9,490,446 
 
 1,662,764 
 
 215,450 
 
 878,618 
 
 917,096 
 
 341,967 
 
 1836 
 
 2,778,554 
 
 1,970,246 
 
 1,823,019 
 
 7,210,190 
 
 5,615,319 
 
 1,696,650 
 
 195,304 
 
 1,053,603 
 
 811,497 
 
 430,009 
 
 1837 
 
 2,816,116 
 
 1,827,181 
 
 1,440,855 
 
 4,991,893 
 
 6,664,002 
 
 1,607,348 
 
 163,402 
 
 1,000,002 
 
 1,180,166 
 
 549,009 
 
 1833 
 
 1,898,396 
 
 944,238 
 
 1,275,7^2 
 
 3,191,233 
 
 3,660,709 
 
 1,616,249 
 
 165,014 
 
 1,029,539 
 
 942,095 
 
 ■ 239,928 
 
 1839 
 
 2,393,894 
 
 1,132,237 
 
 1,377,939 
 
 5,232,955 
 
 3,127,163 
 
 2,073,316 
 
 192,846 
 
 1,160,546 
 
 1,188,841 
 
 465,701 
 
 1840 
 
 2,672,427 
 
 1,157,200 
 
 1,262,834 
 
 4,927,296 
 
 4,176,001 
 
 1,672,643 
 
 189,02] 
 
 787,964 
 
 1,616,859 
 
 274,867 
 
 1841 
 
 2,817,443 
 
 1,151,236 
 
 1,809,634 
 
 6,302,663 
 
 3,284,967 
 
 2,168,121 
 
 186,911 
 
 1,967,747 
 
 1,230,980 
 
 374,853 
 
 1842 
 
 1,350,106 
 
 987,623 
 
 1,266,997 
 
 5,943,314 
 
 1,998,698 
 
 1,730,553 
 
 124,994 
 
 2,417,641 
 
 ■ 831,039 
 
 619,638 
 
 1843 
 
 742,803 
 
 394,1564 
 
 898,447 
 
 3,947,653 
 
 2,782,406 
 
 1,307,013 
 
 132,187 
 
 915,241 
 
 857,556 
 
 171,696 
 
 1844 
 
 1,053,419 
 
 1,016,926 
 
 1,441,244 
 
 6,883,806 
 
 2,387,002 
 
 1,625,095 
 
 189,616 
 
 1,566,955 
 
 760,370 
 
 634,777 
 
 1845 
 
 1,492,262 
 
 2,172,479 
 
 1,386,367 
 
 6,084,593 
 
 1,702,936 
 
 1,440,196 
 
 65,269 
 
 1,771,271 
 
 1,123,690 
 
 709,562 
 
 1840 
 
 1,570,054 
 
 2,082,740 
 
 1,542,962 
 
 7,441,803 
 
 1,858,621 
 
 1,676,043 
 
 116,733 
 
 825,636 
 
 1,276,960 
 
 836,372 
 
 1847 
 
 924,673 
 
 2,018,552 
 
 1,891,680 
 
 7,096,160 
 
 746,816 
 
 1,479,150 
 
 80,581 
 
 354,019 
 
 1,716,903 
 
 948,325 
 
 1843 
 
 1,319,084 
 
 2,234,123 
 
 1,367,174 
 
 7,992,643 
 
 1,531,247 
 
 1,438,907 
 
 18,272 
 
 1,549,161 
 
 1,310,451 
 
 1,325,061 
 
 1849 
 
 840,238 
 
 2,123,678 
 
 901,724 
 
 8,434,363 
 
 2,216,719 
 
 1,672,058 
 
 56,017 
 
 1,789,761 
 
 1,817,723 
 
 1,844,293 
 
 1860 
 
 1,511,572 
 
 2,927^911 
 
 1,544.771 
 
 9,324,423 
 
 2,135,366 
 
 2,512,239 
 
 261,469 
 
 2,653,877 
 
 1,798,877 
 
 2,404,964 
 
 1861 
 
 1,393,783 
 
 2,380,623 
 
 1.831,968 
 
 11,525.364 
 
 1,804,779 
 
 3,152,533 
 
 149,856 
 
 3,284,496 
 
 2,734,746 
 
 2,377,630 
 
 1852 
 
 1,681,620 
 
 2,226,936 
 
 1,870,672 
 
 12,230,283 
 
 1,649,208 
 
 2,872,391 
 
 368,355 
 
 2,141,389 
 
 2,062,160 
 
 2,064,043 
 
 1253 
 
 1,278,501 
 
 2,845,266 
 
 1,985,624 
 
 14,817,981 
 
 2,167,985 
 
 3,189,308 
 
 590,9.37 
 
 2,489,621 
 
 2,214,252 
 
 2,732,168 
 
 1851 
 
 1,544,235 
 
 3,169,421 
 
 2,367,252 
 
 14,110,387 
 
 8,463,J.9t 
 
 4,603,703 
 
 2,360,422 
 
 2,61 2,150 
 
 3,332,167 
 
 3,482,241 
 
 1356 
 
 296.113* 
 
 3,709,363 
 
 2,615,5261: 
 
 15,218,935 
 
 2,882,830 
 
 5,429,094 
 
 286,409 
 
 2,787,896 
 
 3,518,896 
 
 3,398,690 
 
 1S56 
 
 330,581 
 
 3,441,570 
 
 1,984,456 
 
 19,262,667 
 
 3,568,631 
 
 6,613,515 
 
 246,853 
 
 2,683,197 
 
 2,467,819 
 
 3,106,511 
 
 1357 
 
 1,519,420 
 
 3,602,914 
 
 2,400,116 
 
 21,460,733 
 
 5,986,857 
 
 6,344,490 
 
 288,060 
 
 3,152,770 
 
 3,742,439 
 
 5,060,811 
 
 * The figures for 1855 are the aggregate of those given in " Commerce and Xavigation" for Russia on the Baltic and North 
 Sea3, on the Black Sea, and in American and Asiatic Knssia, all embraced in prior reports .under the single title, Russia. 
 
 t Italy, subsequently to 1844, is made to embrace all the Italian states— Sicily, Sardinia, Tuscany, Trieste, etc. ; but after 
 1355, it embraces Sardinia, Tuscany, Papal states, and Two Sicilies, only. 
 
 t Hayti after 1855 embraces the totals given in *' Commerce and Navigation" for Hayti and San Domingo (Dominican Re- 
 public), which were embodied in former reports under the single title, Hayti. 
 
 From these tables it appears that the principal in- 
 crease in the countries of Europe was in Great Britain 
 and its dependencies, France and its dependencies, 
 Spain and its dependencies, Belgium and the Hanse 
 
 Towns. The South American states that show an in- 
 crease are, Brazil, Argentine Kepublic, and Chili. 
 The countries in the north of Europe generally show a 
 decrease. 
 
UNI 
 
 1913 
 
 UNI 
 
 SuMMAitT Statement of the Com'meroe op the United States with the rEiNoiPAL commeeoial OoinsTBrEB, ExiUBiTiNa 
 TUB aggkeqate Value op Exports peom the United States to each Codntrt, each Yeae, dxthinq a Peeiod of 
 
 TIIIETy-SEVEN CONSECUTIVE YeaES, PttOM 1831 TO 1S57, BOTH INCLUSIVE. 
 
 Values of Exports feom the United States to-* 
 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 France 
 
 Spain 
 
 
 
 
 Portngai 
 and 
 
 
 
 Yeare. 
 
 aod 
 
 and 
 
 
 
 and 
 
 
 , Cliina. 
 
 
 
 DependenciflB. 
 
 DependencieB. 
 
 DependencieB. 
 
 Dependencies. 
 
 Dependencies. 
 
 DependencleB. 
 
 Dependencies. 
 
 
 
 1821 
 
 $26,522,872 
 
 $6,474,718 
 
 $7,209,276 
 
 $6,092,061 
 
 $777,407 
 
 $2,327,882 
 
 $438,700 
 
 14,290,560 
 
 $2,132,6« 
 
 1822 
 
 30,041,337 
 
 7,076,332 
 
 8,438,212 
 
 8,801,639 
 
 921,434 
 
 2,434,046 
 
 427,491 
 
 8,935,363 
 
 2,606,016 
 
 1823 
 
 27,571,060 
 
 9,568,924 
 
 10,963,398 
 
 7,767,078 
 
 558,291 
 
 1,966,071 
 
 246,648 
 
 4,636,061 
 
 3,169,439 
 
 1824 
 
 28,027,845 
 
 10,852,304 
 
 15,367,278 
 
 3,617,389 
 
 869,428 
 
 2,183,262 
 
 818,836 
 
 5,301,171 
 
 1,868,273 
 
 1825 
 
 44,217,525 
 
 11,891,326 
 
 5,921,649 
 
 8,898,499 
 
 669,850 
 
 2,701,088 
 
 408,160 
 
 51570,515 
 
 3,121,033 
 
 1820 
 
 28,980,019 
 
 12,106,429 
 
 6,687,351 
 
 4,794,070 
 
 358,380 
 
 2,412,878 
 
 313,863 
 
 2,566,644 
 
 2,116,697 
 
 182T 
 
 32,870,465 
 
 13,588,356 
 
 7,321,991 
 
 3,826,674 
 
 850,877 
 
 2,404,822 
 
 387,270 
 
 3,364,405 
 
 3,013,185 
 
 1828 
 
 27,020,209 
 
 12,038,341 
 
 7,204,627 
 
 3,083,389 
 
 1,106,954 
 
 3,348,167 
 
 291,614 
 
 1,432,802 
 
 2,996,281 
 
 1820 
 
 28,071,084 
 
 12,832,304 
 
 6,888,094- 
 
 4,622,120 
 
 957,948 
 
 2,311,174 
 
 322,911 
 
 1,354,362 
 
 3,277,160 
 
 1830 
 
 81,647,881 
 
 11,806,238 
 
 6,049,051 
 
 4,662,437 
 
 961,729 
 
 2,014,088 
 
 279,799 
 
 742,193 
 
 2,274,880 
 
 1831 
 
 39,901,379 
 
 9,882,079, 
 
 8,661,420 
 
 8,096,609 
 
 640,078 
 
 2,000,793 
 
 296,883 
 
 1,290,885 
 
 2,892,172 
 
 1832 
 
 87,268,556 
 
 13,244,698 
 
 6,399,183 
 
 6,038,466 
 
 815,140 
 
 2,207,861 
 
 294,218 
 
 1,260,622 
 
 4,088,212 
 
 1833 
 
 39,881,486 
 
 14,424,533 
 
 6,506,041 
 
 3,866,361 
 
 420,069 
 
 1,839,834 
 
 442,661 
 
 ■ lj433,789 
 
 2,903,296 
 
 1834 
 
 50,797,650 
 
 16,111,442 
 
 6,296,556 
 
 4,878,739 
 
 494,741 
 
 1,857,114 
 
 822,496 
 
 1,010,488 
 
 4,669,674 
 
 1835 
 
 60,107,134 
 
 20,335,065 
 
 7,069,279 
 
 4,411,063 
 
 602,693 
 
 1,780,496 
 
 821,413 
 
 1,868,580 
 
 3,828,276 
 
 1836 
 
 64,487,550 
 
 21,441,200 
 
 8,081,668 
 
 4,799,167 
 
 700,386 
 
 2,122,469 
 
 191,007 
 
 1,194,264 
 
 4,363,382 
 
 183T 
 
 61,218,813 
 
 20,255,346 
 
 7,604,002 
 
 4,286,767 
 
 507,523 
 
 1,640,173 
 
 428,708 
 
 630,891 
 
 3,764,949 
 
 1838 
 
 63,843,392 
 
 16,282,413 
 
 7,684,006 
 
 3,772,200 
 
 355,862 
 
 1,299,927 
 
 232,131 
 
 1,616,602 
 
 3,291,648 
 
 1839 
 
 68,169,082 
 
 18,924,413 
 
 7,724,429 
 
 2,871,239 
 
 470,914 
 
 1,406,346 
 
 244,384 
 
 1,833,601 
 
 2,801,067 
 
 1840 
 
 70,420,846 
 
 22,349,184 
 
 7,617,347 
 
 4,546,085 
 
 682,546 
 
 1,193,600 
 
 321,266 
 
 1,009,966 
 
 4,198,459 
 
 1841 
 
 62,376,402 
 
 22,235,676 
 
 7,181,409 
 
 3,288,741 
 
 771,210 
 
 087,233 
 
 849,118 
 
 1,200,816 
 
 4,560,716 
 
 1842 
 
 62,306,650 
 
 18,738,860 
 
 6,323,295 
 
 4,270,770 
 
 477,965 
 
 1,047,673 
 
 302,964 
 
 1,444,397 
 
 4,664,613 
 
 1843 
 
 46,901,836 
 
 12,472,453 
 
 3,963,694 
 
 2,370,884 
 
 67,762 
 
 827,865 
 
 168,834 
 
 2,418,988 
 
 3,291,932 
 
 1844 
 
 61,721,876 
 
 16,133,436 
 
 6,751,811 
 
 3,463,385 
 
 295,345 
 
 983,156 
 
 282,170 
 
 1,766,941 
 
 8,566,687 
 
 1845 
 
 61,044,535 
 
 16,143,994 
 
 7,790,442 
 
 3,610,602 
 
 363,607 
 
 1,139,530 
 
 247,180 
 
 2,276,996 
 
 4,946,020 
 
 ■1848 
 
 61,635,446 
 
 15,828,881 
 
 6,792,228 
 
 2,727,448 
 
 730,180 
 
 753,927 
 
 204,976 
 
 1,331,741 
 
 4,608,620 
 
 184T 
 
 98,218,157 
 
 19,819,107 
 
 9,939,424 
 
 2,493,271 
 
 838,908 
 
 1,193,198 
 
 203,571 
 
 1,832,384 
 
 4,334,638 
 
 1848 
 
 91,892,90(1 
 
 20,413,360 
 
 10,143,235 
 
 2,504,653 
 
 748,112 
 
 1,135,750 
 
 346,725 
 
 2,190,013 
 
 4,321,788 
 
 1849 
 
 93,172,336 
 
 15,781,585 
 
 7,370,570 
 
 3,203,679 
 
 883,652 
 
 830,484 
 
 377,130 
 
 1,683,224 
 
 8,314,930 
 
 1850 
 
 88,388,675 
 
 20,183,094 
 
 9,931,240 
 
 3,671,607 
 
 819,632 
 
 1,168,538 
 
 387,358 
 
 1,606,217 
 
 8,206,822 
 
 1851 
 
 136,022,774 
 
 28,636,214 
 
 13,249,053 
 
 1,039,883 
 
 808,268 
 
 1,140,086 
 
 358,301 
 
 2,456,287 
 
 6,047,447 
 
 1852 
 
 132,254,261 
 
 24,812,114 
 
 11,170,183 
 
 ,3,230,390 
 
 860,963 
 
 1,046,788 
 
 416;833 
 
 2,663,177 
 
 6,876,967 
 
 1863 
 
 146,653,624 
 
 27,044,479 
 
 11,847,101 
 
 2,979,332 
 
 884,483 
 
 1,037,844 
 
 417,927 
 
 3,736,992 
 
 8,020,083 
 
 1864 
 
 180,297,255 
 
 32,860,841 
 
 14,332,310 
 
 3,082,310 
 
 1,137,667 
 
 1,074.367 
 
 241,278 
 
 1,398,088 
 
 12,086,258 
 
 1858 
 
 178,789,64c 
 
 33,553,972 
 
 14,311,974 
 
 2,969,669 
 
 1,047,067 
 
 968,138 
 
 423,627 
 
 1,719,429 
 
 10,163,851 
 
 1S6S 
 
 204,126,036 
 
 43,307,584 
 
 16,689,108 
 
 4,448,082 
 
 1,980,065 
 
 1,131,816 
 
 476,944 
 
 2,858,237 
 
 14,239,371 
 
 185T 
 
 222,706,352 
 
 39,226,380 
 
 27,889,568 
 
 5,077,620 
 
 1,450,359 
 
 1,761,224 
 
 1,833,589 
 
 4,395,130 
 
 16,298,466 
 
 Values op Imports into the United States peom— 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Venezueia, 
 
 f 
 
 Argentine Re- 
 
 
 
 Years. 
 
 Russia. 
 
 Italy.t 
 
 Hayti. 
 
 Brazil. 
 
 Mexico. 
 
 N. Granadn, 
 and Ecuador. 
 
 America. 
 
 public and 
 Uruguay. 
 
 CliiU. 
 
 Belgium. 
 
 1821 
 
 $628,894 
 
 $1,099,667 
 
 $2,270,601 
 
 $1,381,700 
 
 .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1822 
 
 529,031 
 
 1,450,184 
 
 2,119,811 
 
 1,403,929 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1823 
 
 643,734 
 
 1,067,906 
 
 2,378,782 
 
 1,841,390 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1824 
 
 231,981 
 
 664,348 
 
 2,368,158 
 
 2,801,904 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . .... 
 
 1828 
 
 287,401 
 
 646,039 
 
 2,054,618 
 
 2,893,784 
 
 $6,470,144 
 
 $2,239,255 
 
 $99,522 
 
 $573,520 
 
 $921,438 
 
 
 1826 
 
 174,643 
 
 630,221 
 
 1,414,494 
 
 2,200,349 
 
 6,281,060 
 
 1,952,672 
 
 119,774 
 
 379,340 
 
 1,447,498 
 
 
 1827 
 
 382,244 
 
 610,221 
 
 1,331,909 
 
 1,863,806 
 
 4,173,267 
 
 944,634 
 
 224,772 
 
 161,204 
 
 1,702,601 
 
 
 1828 
 
 450,498 
 
 920,760 
 
 1,332,711 
 
 1,988,706 
 
 2,886,484 
 
 884,524 
 
 169,272 
 
 154,228 
 
 2,629,402 
 
 
 1829 
 
 386,226 
 
 901,012 
 
 976,158 
 
 1,929,927 
 
 2,331,181 
 
 767,848 
 
 239,854 
 
 626,052 
 
 1,421,134 
 
 
 1830 
 
 416,875 
 
 740,360 
 
 823,178 
 
 1,84^,238 
 
 4,837,488 
 
 496,990 
 
 260,118 
 
 629.887 
 
 1,536,114 
 
 .... 
 
 1831 
 
 462,766 
 
 694,525 
 
 1,318,376 
 
 2,076,096 
 
 6,178,218 
 
 658,149 
 
 306,497 
 
 659,779 
 
 1,368,156 
 
 .... 
 
 1832 
 
 682,682 
 
 687,863 
 
 1,609,008 
 
 2,064,794 
 
 3,467,541 
 
 1,11.7,024 
 
 836,807 
 
 920,366 
 
 1,221,119 
 
 
 1833 
 
 708,306 
 
 372,186 
 
 1,427,903 
 
 3,272,101 
 
 8,408,091 
 
 957,543 
 
 678,016 
 
 699,728 
 
 1,403,940 
 
 $1,005,611 
 
 1834 
 
 330,694 
 
 493,667 
 
 1,430,952 
 
 2,083,351 
 
 8,266,063 
 
 795,567 
 
 184,149 
 
 971,837 
 
 1,470,356 
 
 1,458,642 
 
 1838 
 
 585.447 
 
 236,941 
 
 1,815,812 
 
 2,008,660 
 
 9,029,221 
 
 1,064,016 
 
 183,793 
 
 708,918 
 
 941,884 
 
 748,222 
 
 1830 
 
 911,013 
 
 664,059 
 
 1,240,039 
 
 3,094,936 
 
 6,041,636 
 
 829,265 
 
 189,518 
 
 884.933 
 
 937,917 
 
 2,284,060 
 
 1837 
 
 1,306,732 
 
 623,677 
 
 1,011,981 
 
 1,743,209 
 
 3,880,823 
 
 1,080,109 
 
 157,663 
 
 273,872 
 
 1,487,799 
 
 1,110,587 
 
 1833 
 
 1,048,289 
 
 469,893 
 
 910,255 
 
 2,657,194 
 
 2,164,097 
 
 724,789 
 
 243,040 
 
 296,994 
 
 1,370,264 
 
 1,614,961 
 
 1839 
 
 1,239,246 
 
 438,182 
 
 1,122,669 
 
 2,637,438 
 
 2,787,862 
 
 750,785 
 
 210,241 
 
 468,363 
 
 1,794,653 
 
 607,910 
 
 1840 
 
 1,169,481 
 
 1,478,185 
 
 1,027,214 
 
 2,506,674 
 
 2,616,341 
 
 919,123 
 
 217,946 
 
 519,006 
 
 1,728,829 
 
 2,320,665 
 
 1841 
 
 1,025,729 
 
 ■912,818 
 
 1,156,557 
 
 2,517,273 
 
 2,036,620 
 
 872,937 
 
 149,913 
 
 818,170 
 
 1,102,988 
 
 1,823,882 
 
 1842 
 
 ,836,693 
 
 820,517 
 
 899,966 
 
 2,001,602 
 
 1,634,233 
 
 769,936 
 
 69,466 
 
 681,228 
 
 1,689,676 
 
 1,610,684 
 
 1843 
 
 386,793 
 
 , 728,221 
 
 653,870 
 
 1,762,288 
 
 1,471,937 
 
 745,458 
 
 52,966 
 
 557,234 
 
 1,049,463 
 
 1,970,709 
 
 1844 
 
 665,414 
 
 576,323 
 
 1,128,350 
 
 2,818,252 
 
 1,794,838 
 
 666,078 
 
 '160,276 
 
 906,465 
 
 1,105,221 
 
 2,008,801 
 
 1845 
 
 727,337 
 
 1,419,010 
 
 1,405,740 
 
 2,837,950 
 
 1,182,331 
 
 804,107 
 
 67,649 
 
 600,142 
 
 1,648,191 
 
 1,851,073 
 
 1840.-. . . . 
 
 632,467 
 
 2,269,000 
 
 1,157,142 
 
 7,441,808 
 
 1,581,180 
 
 l'f?'S"J 
 
 120,263 
 
 411,329 
 
 1,768,670 
 
 2,381,814 
 
 1847 
 
 750,460 
 
 8,100,297 
 
 1,298,778 
 
 2.943,778 
 
 692,428 
 
 716,097 
 
 90,568 
 
 412,923 
 
 1,671,610 
 
 3,222,857 
 
 1848... 
 
 1,156,010 
 
 3295,821 
 
 1,098,315 
 
 3,372,434 
 
 4,058,436 
 
 887,631 
 
 50,373 
 
 617,656 
 
 1,924,511 
 
 2,189,935 
 
 1849 
 
 1,135,504 
 
 8,053,387 
 
 602,532 
 
 3,102,977 
 
 2,030.863 
 
 836,418 
 
 136,219 
 
 918,321 
 
 2,017,100 
 
 2,731,307 
 
 1850 
 
 864,941 
 
 8,688,707 
 
 1,350,188 
 
 3,197,114 
 
 2,012,827 
 
 2,309,614 
 
 70,192 
 
 1,126,184 
 
 1,422,721 
 
 !'S^''^^° 
 
 1881 
 
 1,011,691 
 
 4,740,932 
 
 1,847,290 
 
 3,762,916 
 
 1,581;783 
 
 4,088,347 
 2,309,207 
 
 202,391 
 
 1,120,557 
 
 1,895,305 
 
 2,862,012 
 
 1862. . . 
 
 1,200,480 
 
 5,408,344 
 
 1,718,903 
 
 3,021,042 
 
 2,234,929 
 
 473,518 
 
 992,190 
 
 2,339,183 
 
 4,203,770 
 
 1263 
 
 2,456,658 
 
 19,734,140 
 
 1,998,933 
 
 '8,994,444 
 
 3,688,824 
 
 700,997 
 
 346,330 
 
 1,189,912 
 
 2,326,437 
 
 3,208,533 
 
 1854 . .. 
 
 430,616 
 
 4,184,518 
 
 2,209,725 
 
 4,239,241 
 
 3,136,486 
 
 2,138,189 
 
 308,884 
 
 1,274,632 
 
 2,193,259 
 
 6,000,894 
 
 1865 
 
 128,445* 
 
 8,182,899 
 
 12,245.062 
 
 4,261,273 
 
 2,922,804 
 
 2,351,686 
 
 1,202,170 
 
 1,391.599 
 
 3,426,257 
 
 3,927,240 
 
 1586. . 
 
 686,405 
 
 3,046,729 
 
 3,206,486 
 
 5,094,904 
 
 3,702,M9 
 
 8,368,606 
 
 390,021 
 
 1,811,192 
 
 2,867,743 
 
 6,600,623 
 
 1857 
 
 4,729,881 
 
 4,625,788 
 
 4,754,828 
 
 6,546,207 
 
 3,616,206 
 
 3,502,443 
 
 137,021 
 
 2,319,979 
 
 2,907,185 
 
 6,644,826 
 
 " The figures for 1868 are the aggregate of those given in " Commerce and Navigation" for Russia on the Baltic and North 
 Seas on the Black Sea, and in American and Asiatic Russia, all embraced in prior reports under the single title Russia. 
 
 t Italy, subsequently to 1344, is made to embrace all the Italian states— Sicily, Sardmia, Tuscany, Trieste, etc. ; but after 
 1868 it embraces Sardinia, Tuscany, Papal States, and Two Sicilies, only. . „ ^ ,, ^. ^ „ „ . „ . . 
 
 t Hayti after 1865 embraces the totals given in " Commerce and Navigation for Hayti and San Dommgo (Dominican Re- 
 public), ■which were embodied in former reports under the single title Hayti. 
 
 The foUo^wing tables exhibit in a condensed manner 
 the gross exports and imports from the United States 
 each year from 1790 to 1821, inclusive ; also the gross 
 exports, domestic and foreign, the gross imports, the 
 
 exports and imports of specie, and the tonnage cleared 
 from the United States each year from 1821 to 1857, 
 inclusive. The maryelous growth of the foreign trade 
 of this country can not be more clearly shown. 
 
UNI 
 
 1914 
 
 UNI 
 
 Statement exhibiting tjie gross Value of Expoets ant> Imports of tub United States peom 1790 to 1821. 
 
 YcaiB 
 ending 
 Sept. 30. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Years 
 ending 
 Sept. 30. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Domestic 
 Produce. 
 
 Foreign 
 Merchandise. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Domestic 
 Produce. 
 
 Fpreign 
 Merchandise. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Total. 
 
 ITOO. . . . 
 
 $19,066,000 
 
 $539,156 
 
 $SiO,205,156 
 
 $23,000,000 
 
 1806. . . . 
 
 $41,268,727 
 
 $60,283,286 
 
 $101,636,963 
 
 $129,410,000 
 
 1791.... 
 
 18,600,000 
 
 612,041 
 
 19,012,041 
 
 29,200,000 
 
 1807. . . . 
 
 48,699,692 
 
 59,648,558 
 
 108,343,150 
 
 138,500,000 
 
 1792. . . . 
 
 19,000,000 
 
 1,753,098 
 
 20,753,098 
 
 31,600,000 
 
 1808. . . . 
 
 9,483,546 
 
 13,997,414 
 
 22,430,960 
 
 56,990,000 
 
 1793. . . . 
 
 24,00 ),000 
 
 2,103,572 
 
 26,109,572 
 
 81,100,000 
 
 1809. . . . 
 
 31,406,702 
 
 20,797,631 
 
 52,203,238 
 
 59,400,000 
 
 1794.... 
 
 26,600,000 
 
 6,626,283 
 
 33,026,233 
 
 34,600,000 
 
 1810. . . . 
 
 42,366,675 
 
 24,391,295 
 
 66,757,970 
 
 86,400,000 
 
 1796.... 
 
 ,39,600,000 
 
 8,489,472 
 
 47,989,472 
 
 69,766,228 
 
 1811.... 
 
 45,294,043 
 
 16,022,790 
 
 61,816,833 
 
 53,400,000 
 
 1796. . . . 
 
 40,704,007 
 
 26,800,000 
 
 67,064,097 
 
 81,436,164 
 
 1812.... 
 
 80,032,109 
 
 8,495,127 
 
 38,627,236 
 
 77,030,000 
 
 1797. . . . 
 
 29,850,206 
 
 27,000,000 
 
 66,850,206 
 
 76,670,406 
 
 1818.... 
 
 25,008,132 
 
 2,847,865 
 
 27,855,997 
 
 22,006,000 
 
 1798. . . . 
 
 28,537,097 
 
 33,000,000 
 
 61,627,0.17 
 
 63,551,700 
 
 1814.... 
 
 6,782,272 
 
 145,169 
 
 6,927,441 
 
 12,965,000 
 
 1799.... 
 
 33,142,622 
 
 45,523,000 
 
 78,665,522 
 
 79,069,148 
 
 1815.... 
 
 45,974,408 
 
 6,583,850 
 
 52,557,768 
 
 113,041,274 
 
 1800.... 
 
 31,840,903 
 
 39,130,877 
 
 70,971,780 
 
 91,252,768 
 
 1816.... 
 
 64,781,896 
 
 17,138,156 
 
 81,920,452 
 
 147.103,000 
 
 1801. . . . 
 
 47,473,304 
 
 46,642,721 
 
 94,115,925 
 
 111,863,611 
 
 1817. . . . 
 
 63,313,500 
 
 19,358,069 
 
 87,671,569 
 
 99,250,000 
 
 1802.... 
 
 36,708,189 
 
 85,774,971 
 
 72,483,160 
 
 76,333,333 
 
 1818. . . . 
 
 78,364,437 
 
 19,426,696 
 
 93,281,133 
 
 121,750,000 
 
 1803,... 
 
 49,205,961 
 
 13,594,072 
 
 56,800,033 
 
 64,666,666 
 
 1819.... 
 
 60,976,838 
 
 19,166,683 
 
 70,142,621 
 
 87,125,000 
 
 1804. . . . 
 
 41,437,477 
 
 36,231,697 
 
 77,899,074 
 
 85,000,000 
 
 1820.... 
 
 51,683,640 
 
 18,008,029 
 
 69,691,669 
 
 74,450,000 
 
 1805. . . . 
 
 4'3,B87,002 
 
 63,179,019 
 
 95,566,021 
 
 120,600,000 
 
 1821.... 
 
 43,671,894 
 
 21,302,488 
 
 64,974,382 
 
 62,585,724 
 
 Genebal Statement of the annual foreign Commeroe and Navigation of tue United States from October 1, 1820, 
 
 TO July 1, 1S5T. 
 
 Years ending 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Whereof there waa m 
 Bullion nnd Specie. 
 
 Tonnage cleared. 
 
 Domestic. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Export. 
 
 Import, 
 
 American. [ Foreign. 
 
 Sept 
 
 30,1821.... 
 
 $43,671,804 
 
 $21,302,488 
 
 $64,974,382 
 
 $62,686,724 
 
 $10,478,050 
 
 $8,064,890 
 
 804,947 
 
 83,078 
 
 
 1822.... 
 
 49,874,079 
 
 22,236,202 
 
 72,160,381 
 
 83,241,541 
 
 10,810,180 
 
 3,369,846 
 
 813,748 
 
 97,490 
 
 
 1823.... 
 
 47,155,408 
 
 27,543,622 
 
 74,609,030 
 
 77,679,267 
 
 0,872,987 
 
 5,097,896 
 
 ■ 810,761 
 
 119,740 
 
 
 18-24.... 
 
 50,649,500 
 
 25,387,157 
 
 75,986,657 
 
 80,649,007 
 
 7,014,.562 
 
 8,379,836 
 
 919,278 
 
 102,552 
 
 
 1825. . . . 
 
 66,944,745 
 
 32,590,643 
 
 99,.535,388 
 
 96,340,076 
 
 8,932,034 
 
 6,150,765 
 
 960,306 
 
 95,080 
 
 
 1826. . . . 
 
 53,055,710 
 
 24,539,612 
 
 77,595,323 
 
 84,974,477 
 
 4,704,633 
 
 6,830.966 
 
 963,012 
 
 99,417 
 
 
 1827. . . . 
 
 58,021,691 
 
 23,403,136 
 
 32,324,827 
 
 79.484,068 
 
 8,014,880 
 
 8,151,130 
 
 980,542 
 
 131,250 
 
 
 1828. . . . 
 
 50,689,669 
 
 21,696,017 
 
 72,204,686 
 
 88,509,324 
 
 8,343,476 
 
 7,489,741 
 
 897,404 
 
 161,030 
 
 
 1829. . . . 
 
 65,700,193 
 
 16,663,478 
 
 72,363,671 
 
 74,492,524 
 
 4,924,020 
 
 7,403,612 
 
 944,799 
 
 133,006 
 
 
 1830. . . . 
 Total 
 
 59,462,029 
 
 14,337,479 
 
 73,849,508 
 
 70,876,920 
 
 2,17.8,773 8,165,964 
 
 971,760 
 
 133,436 
 
 $536,104,918 
 
 $229,643,834 
 
 $765,748,752 
 
 $798,638,427 
 
 $71,678,494 
 
 $60,144,646 
 
 9,058,617 
 
 1,146,074 
 
 .•Sept 
 
 30, 1831. . . . 
 
 $61,277,057 
 
 $20,033,536 
 
 $81,310,533 
 
 $103,191,124 
 
 $9,014,981 
 
 $7,306,946 
 
 972,604 
 
 271,994 
 
 
 1832,... 
 
 63,137,470 
 
 24,039,473 
 
 87,176,943 
 
 101,029,266 
 
 6,666,340 
 
 5,907,504 
 
 974,865 
 
 387,605 
 
 
 1833. . . . 
 
 70,317,698 
 
 19,823,735 
 
 90,140,438 
 
 108,118,811 
 
 2,611,701 
 
 7,070,368 
 
 1,142,160 
 
 497,039 
 
 
 1834, . . . 
 
 81,024,162 
 
 23,312,811 
 
 104,336,97.9 
 
 126,521,332 
 
 2,076,768 
 
 17,911,632 
 
 1,184,020 
 
 577,700 
 
 
 1835.... 
 
 101,189,082 
 
 20,504,495 
 
 121,693,677 
 
 149,895,742 
 
 6,477,776 
 
 13,131,447 
 
 1,400,017 
 
 680,824 
 
 
 1838.... 
 
 100,916,680 
 
 21,746,360 
 
 128,663,040 
 
 189,980,035 
 
 4,324,386 
 
 13,400,881 
 
 1,315,623 
 
 674,721 
 
 
 1S37. . . . 
 
 96,664,414 
 
 21,854,962 
 
 117,419,376 
 
 140,9S9,217 
 
 5,976,349 
 
 10,516,414 
 
 1,266,622 
 
 766,202 
 
 
 1838 ... 
 
 96,033,821 
 
 12,4.53,796 
 
 108,486,616 
 
 113,717,406 
 
 3,508,046 
 
 17.747,116 
 
 1,408,701 
 
 604,166 
 
 
 1839.... 
 
 103,633,891 
 
 17,404,525 
 
 131,023,416 
 
 102,092,182 
 
 8,776,743 
 
 5,595,176 
 
 1,477,928 
 
 611,839 
 
 
 1840.... 
 Total 
 
 113,895,634 
 
 18,190,312 
 
 132,085,946 
 
 107,141,519 
 
 8,417,014 
 
 8,882,813 
 
 1,047,009 
 
 706,486 
 
 $892,889,909 
 
 $199,451,094 
 
 $1,093,341,903 
 
 $1,303,676,084 
 
 $56,839,893 
 
 $107,469,296 
 
 12,739,909 
 
 5,718,476 
 
 Sept. 
 
 30, 1841. . . . 
 
 $106,882,722 
 
 $15,469,081 
 
 $131,861,803 
 
 $127,948,177 
 
 $10,034,333 
 
 $4,988,633 
 
 1,634,166 
 
 736,849 
 
 
 1842. . . . 
 
 92,969,996 
 
 11,721,538 
 
 104,691,534 
 
 100,162,087 
 
 4,813,639 
 
 4,087,016 
 
 1,536,451 
 
 740,497 
 
 June 
 
 30, 1843*. . . 
 
 77,793,783 
 
 6,583,697 
 
 84,346,480 
 
 64,753,799 
 
 1,520,791 
 
 22,890,689 
 
 1,263,033 
 
 523,949 
 
 
 1844.... 
 
 99,715,179 
 
 11,484,867 
 
 111,200,046 
 
 108,435,036 
 
 6,454,214 
 
 5,880,429 
 
 2,010,924 
 
 906,814 
 
 
 1845. . . . 
 
 99,299,776 
 
 15,346,830 
 
 114,046,606 
 
 117,254,564 
 
 8,606,496 
 
 4,070,242 
 
 2,063,977 
 
 980,275 
 
 
 1846.... 
 
 102,141,893 
 
 11,346,623 
 
 113,488,516 
 
 121,691,797 
 
 3,905,268 
 
 8,777,732 
 
 2,221,028 
 
 968,178 
 
 
 1847. . . . 
 
 150,637,464 
 
 8,011,153 
 
 163,648,622 
 
 146,54.5,638 
 
 1.907,024 
 
 24,121,289 
 
 3,202,398 
 
 1,176,605 
 
 
 1848. . . . 
 
 132,904,121 
 
 21,133,316 
 
 164,036,436 
 
 154,998,928 
 
 15,841,616 
 
 6,360,224 
 
 2,461,280 
 
 1,404,159 
 
 
 1849.... 
 
 132,666,965 
 
 13,088,865 
 
 145,756,830 
 
 147,357,439 
 
 5,404,648 
 
 6,651,240 
 
 2,753,724 
 
 1,675,709 
 
 
 1850. . . . 
 Total 
 
 136,946,912 
 
 14,951,808 
 
 151,808,720 
 
 178,188,318 
 
 7,622,994 
 
 4,638,792 
 
 2,632,788 
 
 1,728,214 
 
 $1,131,468,801 
 
 $129,105,782 
 
 $1,260,664,583 
 
 $1,267,783,782 
 
 $65,010,921 
 
 $86,906,156 
 
 20,774,804 
 
 10,791,249 
 
 June 30, 1861.... 
 
 $196,689,718 
 
 $21,698,298 
 
 $218,388,011 
 
 $216,224,932 
 
 $29,472,762 
 
 $5,463,693 
 
 3,200,619 
 
 1,929,635 
 
 
 1852.... 
 
 192,368,984 
 
 17,289,382 
 
 S09,653,366 
 
 212,945,442 
 
 42,674,135 
 
 6,505,044 
 
 3,230,590 
 
 2,047,576 
 
 
 1853.... 
 
 218,417,697 
 
 17,553,460 
 
 230,976,157 
 
 267,978,647 
 
 27,486,876 
 
 4,301,382 
 
 6,766,789 
 
 2,298,790 
 
 
 1854.... 
 
 263,390,87C 
 
 24,850,194 
 
 278,241,064 
 
 804,563,381 
 
 41,281,604 
 
 6,753,587 
 
 3,911,392 
 
 2,107,802 
 
 
 1855.... 
 
 240,708,563 
 
 28,448,293 
 
 275,156,846 
 
 281,468,520 
 
 56,347,843 
 
 8,689,812 
 
 4,068,979 
 
 2,110,322 
 
 
 1856. . . . 
 
 310,536,330 
 
 16,378,578 
 
 826,964,908 
 
 314,839,942 
 
 45,746,486 
 
 4,207,633 
 
 4,538,864 
 
 2,462,109 
 
 
 1857. . . . 
 
 338,985,066 
 
 23,976.617 
 
 362,960,632 
 
 360,890,141 
 
 69,136,932 
 
 12,401,799 
 
 4,581,212 
 
 2,490,170 
 
 Kine montha to June 30, and the fiscal year from thia time begins July 1. 
 
 The following table shows the extent and progress 
 of the lake tonjiage of the United States for the years 
 1855, 1856, 1857. This branch of our shipping has ac- 
 quired such importance as to require a separate state- 
 ment of its progress and extent. Table of vessels 
 built at the American lake ports in the year 1857, in- 
 cluding lakes Erie, Ontario, Huron, and Michigan. 
 
 
 1855. " 
 
 1856. 
 
 I86J. 1 
 
 No. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 No. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 No. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 steamers 
 
 Propellers... 
 
 Tugs 
 
 Barks 
 
 Brigs 
 
 Schooners . . . 
 
 Scows 
 
 Total. . . . 
 
 8 
 8 
 4 
 2 
 8 
 105 
 
 1,695 
 
 4,313 
 
 251 
 
 776 
 
 1,742 
 
 23,752 
 
 3 
 
 22 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 121 
 
 2,000 
 
 12,755 
 
 896 
 
 2,438 
 
 484 
 
 34,828 
 
 5 
 23 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 96 
 
 5 
 
 4,120 
 
 11,876 
 
 1,412 
 
 1,264 
 
 809 
 
 28,642 
 
 415 
 
 128 
 
 37,439 
 
 157 
 
 53,360 
 
 149 
 
 48,598 
 
 This gives our lake tonnage an increase in three 
 years of 
 
 11 steamers 7,815 tons. 
 
 83propeller3 28,314 " 
 
 24 tuga 2,888 " 
 
 Total steam 39,217 " 
 
 10 harks 4,478 tons. 
 
 9brig3 3,046 " 
 
 327 schooners 93,687 " 
 
 Total sail 100,160 " 
 
 Grand total 189,877 " 
 
 The value of thia new tonnage is as follows : 
 
 YontJ. 
 
 Steiipi. 
 
 Sail. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1855 
 
 $395,000 
 1,132,000 
 1,820,300 
 
 $1,313,300 
 1,604,460 
 1,423,300 
 
 $1,608,800 
 2,786,450 
 2,743,500 
 
 1866 
 
 1867 
 
 Total. . . . 
 
 $2,847,200 
 
 $4,241,050 
 
 $7,088,250 
 
 The total tonnage on the lakes in the Fall of 1857 was 
 888,868 tons, and the value of the same was $15,1 95,100, 
 or nearly forty dollars per ton. 
 
UNI 
 
 1915 
 
 UNI 
 
 Statement of Amebioan Ain> foeeign VebBem, wxth tiieik Tonnage and Ceews, ■which olbabbb feom the TTniteu 
 States fob fokbign Cottnteieb dubing the Yeak ending Jitnb 30, 1857. 
 
 Cleared for 
 
 American Veseela. 
 
 Nam- 
 ber< 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 BoyB. 
 
 Foreign Vesaela. 
 
 Nam- CrewB. 
 
 be., ■'"■'■"'e'- Men. Boy. 
 
 I Boya. 
 
 liiissia on the Baltic and) 
 
 North Seas j 
 
 Kussia on the Black Sea 
 
 Asiatic Kussia 
 
 Russian Foss, ia N. America. 
 
 Prussia 
 
 Sweden and Norway 
 
 Swedish West Indies 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Danish West Indies 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Other German ports 
 
 Holland ' 
 
 Dutch West Indies 
 
 Dutch Guiana 
 
 Dutch East Indies 
 
 Belgium 
 
 England 
 
 Scbtiaad. 
 
 Ireland '. 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 Malta ,.. 
 
 Canada '. . j 
 
 British North American Poss. 
 
 British West Indies 
 
 Brilnsh Honduras 
 
 Biitish Guiana 
 
 British Possessions in Africa. . 
 
 Qther ports in Afiica 
 
 British Australia .' 
 
 British East Indies 
 
 France on the Atlantic 
 
 France on the Mediterranean . 
 French North Ameiican Poss. . 
 French West Indies ...... i .. . 
 
 French Guiana 
 
 French East Indies ' 
 
 French Possessions in Africa. . 
 
 Spain on the Atlantic 
 
 Spain on the Mediterranean . . 
 
 Canary Islands 
 
 Philippine Islands ' 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Porto Rico 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Madeira 
 
 Cape de Yerd Islands 
 
 Azores , 
 
 Sardinia 
 
 Tuscany 
 
 Papal States 
 
 Two Sicilies . . . . , 
 
 Austria. .. I 
 
 Austrian Possessions in Italy . 
 
 Turkey in Europe. 
 
 Turkey in Asia 
 
 Egypt 
 
 Hayti. 
 
 San Domingo 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Central Republic 
 
 New Granada 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Brazil. 
 
 Uruguay 
 
 Buenos Ayres 
 
 Chili 
 
 Peru 
 
 Ecuador . J , 
 
 Sandwich Islands 
 
 Other Islands in the Pacific. . . 
 
 Clilna"...: 
 
 Whale-fisheries 
 
 Uncertain places 
 
 Total clearances, 1856-57. . 
 
 Total arrivals, 1856-'57 
 
 7 
 10 
 
 2 
 103 
 13 
 29 
 
 1 
 43 
 42 
 31 
 11 
 52 
 866 
 61 
 
 3,480 
 
 898 
 
 55T 
 
 36 
 
 66 
 
 66 
 
 88 
 
 70 
 
 85 
 
 271 
 
 67 
 
 12 
 
 ,118 
 
 16 
 
 1 
 
 "71 
 65 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 1,846 
 
 213 
 
 66 
 
 4 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 27 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 14 
 
 22 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 14 
 
 1 
 
 221 
 
 11 
 
 164 
 
 37 
 
 148 
 
 82 
 
 281 
 
 66 
 
 73 
 
 62 
 
 61 
 
 2 
 
 42 
 
 7 
 
 58 
 
 193 
 
 1 
 
 25,498 
 591 
 
 1,890 
 
 949 
 
 3, 
 
 1,719 
 
 988 
 
 21,834 
 
 7, 
 
 81,470 
 
 245 
 
 25,207 
 
 8,051 
 
 6,856 
 
 7,101 
 
 40,162 
 
 911,183 
 
 33,982 
 
 23,406 
 
 7,906 
 
 2,02B 
 
 ,133.534 
 
 319,985 
 
 106,361 
 
 6,523 
 
 16,372 
 
 19,829 
 
 22,010 
 
 47,231 
 
 63,837 
 
 228,775 
 
 25,313 
 
 1,835 
 
 20,638 
 
 3,147 
 
 518 
 
 2sl6il 
 
 21,005 
 
 3,749 
 
 15,579 
 
 590,241 
 
 37,633 
 
 19,347 
 
 814 
 
 V 
 
 3,589 
 15,852 
 
 2,66T 
 315 
 
 5,334 
 11,162 
 
 6,029 
 
 2,7T7 
 
 4,774 
 
 365 
 
 35,976 
 
 1,920 
 85,508 
 34,779 
 124,809 
 17,703 
 84,712 
 22,412 
 26,630 
 42,166 
 68,5'23 
 
 1,358 
 16,951 
 
 1,351 
 
 69,549 
 
 57,9S3 
 
 231 
 
 643 
 26 
 
 28 
 
 100 
 
 82 
 
 27 
 
 839 
 
 199 
 
 1,546 
 
 10 
 
 661 
 
 331 
 
 279 
 
 219 
 
 1,017 
 
 22,651 
 
 940 
 
 211 
 
 287 
 
 76 
 
 44,023 
 
 S,878 
 
 4,237 
 
 269 
 
 576 
 
 664 
 
 899 
 
 1,313 
 
 1,793 
 
 6,369 
 
 ,800 
 
 72 
 
 822 
 
 137 
 
 851 
 
 677 
 
 147 
 
 422 
 
 21,319 
 
 1,537 
 
 614 
 
 83 
 
 105 
 
 136 
 
 484 
 
 78 
 
 12 
 
 163 
 
 311 
 
 128 
 
 106 
 
 167 
 
 11 
 
 1,548 
 
 76 
 
 1,617 
 
 1,670 
 
 6,718 
 
 742 
 
 2,994 
 
 739 
 
 846 
 
 1,143 
 
 1,624 
 
 38 
 
 586 
 
 65 
 
 1,562 
 
 4,762 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 58 
 
 145 
 
 ' ' 55 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 12 
 
 410 
 
 49 
 
 60 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 8.316 
 
 8,727 
 
 218 
 
 24 
 
 29 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 11 
 
 36 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 11 
 
 1 
 
 35 
 211 
 
 2,716 
 
 "28O 
 2,440 
 1,334 
 6,592 
 
 2,113 
 
 2,157 
 
 46,461 
 
 8Ts919 
 
 485 
 
 1, 
 
 14,854 
 
 388,792 
 
 49,422 
 
 22,690 
 
 870 
 
 960 
 
 1,104,650 
 
 461,245 
 
 24,970 
 
 3,556 
 
 4,387 
 
 1,835 
 
 742 
 
 6,587 
 
 6,375 
 
 20,600 
 
 9,058 
 
 *,597 
 
 l,r-- 
 
 196 
 
 10,076 
 
 67,687 
 
 1,090 
 
 1,472 
 14, 
 3,550 
 12,063 
 .623 
 545 
 '1,1 
 ' 6,027 
 
 3,119 
 
 1,045 
 
 469 
 
 4,121 
 918 
 
 14,564 
 
 602 
 
 1,743 
 
 2,083 
 
 3,186 
 
 ■ 2,027 
 1,605 
 
 11,067 
 6,462 
 
 "isi 
 
 1,496 
 9,480 
 
 13 
 120 
 46 
 
 194 
 
 "to 
 
 91 
 1,744 
 2,970 
 
 ' 806 
 
 30 
 
 41 
 
 68 
 
 687 
 
 13,313 
 
 l,f" 
 
 1 
 
 40 
 
 34 
 
 60,643 
 
 23,692 
 
 1,620 
 
 182 
 
 223 
 
 69 
 
 26 
 
 223 
 
 209 
 
 1,289 
 
 400 
 
 220 
 
 76 
 
 11 
 
 425 
 
 2,314 
 
 45 
 
 73 
 
 706 
 
 166 
 
 447 
 
 26 
 
 27 
 
 91 
 
 146 
 
 32 
 
 ' 10 
 
 194 
 47 
 
 904 
 27 
 79 
 S5 
 
 132 
 iTl 
 
 :56 
 
 412 
 250 
 
 37 
 
 1088 
 29 
 
 337 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 23 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 114 
 
 71 
 
 174 
 
 1 
 
 98 
 
 46 
 
 36 
 
 16 
 
 64 
 
 1,276 
 
 110 
 
 96 
 
 35 
 
 12 
 
 8,796 
 
 4, 
 
 775 
 
 59 
 
 96 
 
 62 
 
 90 
 
 84 
 
 96 
 
 807 
 
 37 
 
 42 
 
 129 
 
 16 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 106 
 
 -276 
 
 21 
 
 ■ 28,2M 
 
 691 
 
 280 
 
 4,330 
 
 2,283 
 
 9,024 
 
 1,719 
 
 3,096 
 
 23,991 
 
 53,717 
 
 119,889 
 
 ■ 245 
 
 61,489 
 
 8,836 
 
 7,662 
 
 8,611 
 
 86,017 
 
 .,290,975 
 
 83,404 
 
 46,096 
 
 8,776 
 
 2,933 
 
 !,2S8,234 
 
 731,230 
 
 181,331 
 
 10,079 
 
 20,789 
 
 21,164 
 
 22,752 
 
 , , 62,818 
 
 69,712 
 
 249,276 
 
 747 8 
 
 26 
 13 
 183 
 74 
 
 6,432 
 
 22,444 
 
 3,147 
 
 ■ 518 
 
 196 
 
 38,686 
 
 22 
 
 17,061 
 
 ,906 
 
 604, 63^ 
 
 284 
 
 41,185 
 
 100 
 
 81,410 
 
 7 
 
 1,342 
 
 14 
 
 3,207 
 
 20 
 
 8,171 
 
 43 
 
 21,879 
 
 4 
 
 2,667 
 
 1 
 
 316 
 
 25 
 
 8,453 
 
 28 
 
 12,197 
 
 11 
 
 5,496 
 
 9 
 
 2,777 
 
 14 
 
 4,774 
 
 1 
 
 355 
 
 248 
 
 40,097 
 
 17 
 
 2,836 
 
 260 
 
 50,072 
 
 39 
 
 35,281 
 
 166 
 
 126,652 
 
 91 
 
 19,786 
 
 291 
 
 87,396 
 
 72 
 
 24,439 
 
 77 
 
 28,235 
 
 87 
 
 53,233 
 
 75 
 
 74,985 
 
 ' 2 
 
 1,353 
 
 48 
 
 17,138 
 
 16 
 
 2,860 
 
 78 
 
 69,029 
 
 193 
 
 67,983 
 
 1 
 
 231 
 
 97 
 930 
 
 V- 
 
 ' 4,816 
 
 10 
 
 1,466 
 
 361 
 
 320 
 
 277 
 
 1,704 
 
 38,864 
 
 2,863 
 
 1,363 
 
 327 
 
 110 
 
 104,666 
 
 32.570 
 
 6,8.57 
 
 451 
 
 799 
 
 723 
 
 924 
 
 1,536 
 
 2,002 
 
 7,658 
 
 1,^00 
 
 292 
 
 898 
 
 137 
 
 20 
 
 11 
 
 1,276 
 
 3,491 
 
 192 
 
 495 
 
 22,024 
 
 1,703 
 
 1,061 
 
 59 
 
 132 
 
 78 
 
 •12 
 
 309 
 
 343 
 
 138 
 
 105 
 
 167 
 
 11 
 
 1,742 
 
 122 
 
 2,521 
 
 1,597 
 
 6,79T 
 
 827 
 
 3,126 
 
 •810 
 
 901 
 
 1,B56 
 
 1,874 
 
 38 
 
 685 
 
 154 
 
 1.899 
 
 4,762 
 
 9 
 
 1501 
 57 
 
 150 
 
 11,134 4,580,651154,290 863 
 11,304 4,721,370 161,062 833 
 
 10,969 
 11,024 
 
 2,490,170 
 2,464,946 
 
 119,8Br]l-.il2 
 116,797 1240 
 
 22,103 7. 
 22,828 7, 
 
 ,0i0,82: 
 ,186,316 
 
 I -.74, 167 1 2075 
 |277,869|2073 
 
 The above table giyes us a clear exbibit of the na- 
 tional character of our carrying trade. A condensed 
 summary shows our exports for the fiscal year ending 
 
 TOBryAC(B OLEABSD FKOM THE UNITED STATES, 1856-'57. 
 
 June 30, 1857, to the principal maritime countries to 
 be in the following proportion as to national or foreign 
 
 vessels. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 American Vessels. 
 
 Foreign Vessels. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 American Vessels. 
 
 Foreign Veeaels. 
 
 
 Tons. • 
 1,183,684 
 ' 911,183 
 890,241 
 319,988 . 
 264,089 
 106,361 
 124,809 
 
 Tons. 
 
 1,104,680 
 
 888,792 
 
 14,293 
 
 461,245 
 
 29,688 
 
 24,970 
 
 1.743 
 
 
 Tons. 
 31,470 
 33,982 
 49,616 
 59.649 
 965,733 
 
 Tons. 
 87,919 
 
 49,422 • 
 77,762 
 1,862 
 , .243,257 
 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Cuba 
 
 
 British N. Ameiican Foss. . 
 
 China 
 
 
 British West Indies 
 
 New Granada 
 
 Total 
 
 4,830,661 
 
 2,490,170 
 
UNI 
 
 1916 
 
 UNI 
 
 Statement bhowing tue NAviaATiON ov eaoh State and Terkitoby foe the Yeae ending June 30, 1857. 
 
 Tonnage outered. 
 
 American Vessels. 
 
 Num- 
 ber. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Men. 
 
 Boys. 
 
 Foreign Vessels. 
 
 Men. 
 
 Boya 
 
 Total American and Foreign. 
 
 Num- 
 ber. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Crews. 
 
 Men. 
 
 I Boy s. 
 
 Maine 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Rhode Island ' . . . . 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 Ne-V7 York 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Maryland 
 
 District of Columbia . . 
 
 Virginia 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Florida 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Texas 
 
 California 
 
 Oregon Territory 
 
 Washington Territory. , 
 
 Total entered. ... 
 
 Total cleared .... 
 
 334 
 6 
 
 519 
 1,499 
 
 111 
 
 123 
 5,289 
 
 470 
 
 3 
 414 
 
 6 
 106 
 113 
 198 
 111 
 152 
 92 
 788 
 249 
 354 
 41 
 100 
 
 9 
 142 
 
 1 
 14 
 
 111,375 
 
 736 
 
 26,454 
 
 500,110 
 
 22,850 
 
 28,953 
 
 2,537,273 
 
 153,743 
 
 472 
 
 122,119 
 
 1,267 
 
 95,895 
 
 18,366 
 
 83,205 
 
 47,851 
 
 59,084 
 
 64,562 
 
 473,998 
 
 4l,.596 
 
 100,718 
 
 46,063 
 
 70,179 
 
 3,143 
 
 104,870 
 
 210 
 
 1,264 
 
 3,261 
 33 
 
 1,437 
 18,634 
 
 1,064 
 
 1,431 
 85,446 
 
 5,102 
 
 17 
 
 4,179 
 
 48 
 
 2,616 
 
 764 
 
 2,825 
 
 1,185 
 
 2,466 
 
 1,880 
 
 13,502 
 
 2,081 
 
 4,221 
 
 1,529 
 
 2,406 
 
 95 
 
 4,872 
 
 10 
 
 68 
 
 56 
 
 5 
 
 91 
 
 513 
 
 572 
 
 43 
 
 306 
 
 2,601 
 
 56 
 
 46 
 
 5,480 
 
 17 
 
 141 
 
 ' 'l82 
 
 '"84 
 
 11 
 
 158 
 
 130 
 
 37 
 
 50 
 
 822 
 
 358 
 
 165 
 
 6 
 
 109 
 
 11 
 
 135 
 
 60,294 
 
 4,963 
 
 21,379 
 
 378,621 
 
 9,646 
 
 7,282 
 
 1,421,833 
 
 2,125 
 
 38,122 
 
 4l',262 
 
 17,72: 
 
 1,847 
 44,380 
 68,01T 
 
 6,812 
 
 42,922 
 
 139,816 
 
 48,818 
 
 29,890 
 
 1,439 
 27,051 
 
 4,363 
 46,753 
 
 i',i40 
 
 3,500 
 
 231 
 
 912 
 
 16,032 
 
 406 
 
 315 
 
 71,620 
 
 97 
 
 2,092 
 
 i,875 
 
 ' 659 
 
 82 
 2,001 
 2,176 
 
 359 
 1,126 
 5,S85 
 2,868 
 1,525 
 75 
 1,124 
 
 150 
 2,065 
 
 ' ' 63 
 
 906 
 
 49 
 
 825 
 
 4,100 
 
 167 
 
 169 
 
 10,760 
 
 17 
 
 611 
 
 3 
 
 596 
 
 6 
 
 260 
 
 124 
 
 856 
 
 241 
 
 189 
 
 142 
 
 1,110 
 
 607 
 
 519 
 
 47 
 
 20D 
 
 20 
 
 277 
 
 1 
 
 18 
 
 171,669 
 
 6,699 
 
 47,833 
 
 878,737 
 
 32,495 
 
 36,188 
 
 1,959,106 
 
 2,125 
 
 196,865 
 
 472 
 
 163,381 
 
 1,267 
 
 113,617 
 
 20,21" 
 
 127,685 
 
 116,868 
 
 64,896 
 
 107,484 
 
 613,314 
 
 90,414 
 
 130 60S 
 
 47,502 
 
 97,230 
 
 T,511 
 
 151,623 
 
 210 
 
 2,404 
 
 6,761 
 
 264 
 
 2,349 
 
 34,726 
 
 1,470 
 
 1,T46 
 
 157,066 
 
 97 
 
 7,194 
 
 17 
 
 6,054 
 
 48 
 
 3,275 
 
 846 
 
 4,826 
 
 3,310 
 
 2,815 
 
 3,006 
 
 18,887 
 
 4,899 
 
 5.746 
 
 1,604 
 
 3,580 
 
 245 
 
 6,937 
 
 10 
 
 131 
 
 11.304 4,721,370 161,062 83iJ 
 n;i36 4,531,212 154,805 863 
 
 11,024 
 10,969 
 
 2,464,940 116,797 1240 
 2,490,1711 119,867 1212 
 
 22, a 
 22,104 
 
 7,186,816 
 071,382 
 
 277,S5'J 20i-3 
 274.172 2075 
 
 10 
 19 
 
 '71 
 
 5 
 
 91 
 
 1014 
 
 257 
 
 Statement of the Tonnage of tub 
 
 United States annually, feom 
 
 1789 TO 1814, INCLUSIVE. 
 
 Year ending December 31, 
 
 Registered 
 
 Sail 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Enrolled and 
 
 Licensed Sail 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Total 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Year ending December 31, 
 
 Registered 
 
 Sail 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Enrolled and 
 
 Licensed Sail 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Total 
 Tonnage. 
 
 178.1 
 
 123,893 
 346,264 
 362,110 
 411,438 
 867,734 
 438,868 
 529,471 
 576,733 
 597,777 
 603,376 
 662,197 
 669.921 
 632,907 
 
 77,609 
 182,123 
 189,030 
 163,019 
 153.080 
 189,755 
 218,414 
 256,166 
 279,136 
 294,952 
 277,212 
 302,571 
 314,670 
 
 201, .W2 
 
 274,877 
 502,146 
 564,457 
 520,761 
 628,618 
 747,965 
 881,899 
 876,918 
 818,328 
 939,403 
 972,492 
 947,577 
 
 1802 
 
 660,080 
 597,157 
 672,530 
 749,341 
 808,285 
 848,307 
 769,054 
 910,059 
 984,269 
 T68 852 
 700,624 
 674,853 
 074,633 
 
 331,724 
 
 852,015 
 
 369,874 
 
 •391,027 ■ 
 
 400,4.51 
 
 420,241 
 
 473,542 
 
 440,222 
 
 410,515 
 
 463,650 
 
 509,373 
 
 411,776 
 
 484,677 
 
 892,104 
 949,172 
 1,042,404 
 1,140,308 
 1,208,716 
 1,268,548 
 1,242,696 
 1,860,281 
 1,424,784 
 1,232.502 
 1,269,997 
 1,166,629 
 1,159,210 
 
 1790 
 
 1803 
 
 1T91 
 
 1804 . . . 
 
 1792 
 
 1805 
 
 1793 
 
 1806 
 
 1734 
 
 1807 
 
 1795 
 
 1808 
 
 1796 
 
 1809 
 
 1810 
 
 1797 
 
 1798 
 
 1811 
 
 1799 . . . 
 
 1S12 
 
 1800 
 
 1813 
 
 1801 
 
 1814 
 
 
 
 COMPAEATITE ViEW OF THE EEGISTEUED AWI> ENKOLLED TONNAGE OF TlIE U. STATES FEOM 1815 TO 185T, IN0L1T8TVE. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Registered 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Enrolled 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Total 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Registered Ton- 
 nage in the 
 -Wbale-fisUory. 
 
 steam 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Proportion of the enrolled Tonnage employed in the [ 
 
 Coasting 
 Trade. 
 
 Cod- 
 fisbery. 
 
 Mackerel- 
 fishery. 
 
 Whale- 
 fishery. 
 
 1815 
 
 854,294 
 
 613,838 
 
 1,368,127 
 
 
 
 436,006 
 
 26,610 
 
 
 Ii29 
 
 1810 
 
 800,753 
 
 571.458 
 
 1,372,218 
 
 
 
 479,979 
 
 37,879 
 
 
 1168 
 
 1817 
 
 809,7-24 
 
 590,186 
 
 1,899,911 
 
 4,871 
 
 
 481,467 
 
 53,9(10 
 
 
 349 
 
 1818 
 
 606,083 
 
 619,096 
 
 1,2-;6,181 
 
 16,134 
 
 
 503,140 
 
 5-<,561 
 
 
 614 
 
 1819 
 
 612,930 
 
 647,821 
 
 1,260,751 
 
 31,700 
 
 
 533,656 
 
 65,044 
 
 
 6 6 
 
 1820 
 
 619,047 
 
 661,118 
 
 1,280,166 
 
 35,391 
 
 
 639,080 
 
 60,842 
 
 
 1053 
 
 18-21 
 
 619,896 
 
 679,062 
 
 1,298,958 
 
 26,070 
 
 
 659,435 
 
 51,361 
 
 
 1924 
 
 1832 
 
 623,150 
 
 696,548 
 
 1,324,699 
 
 45,449 
 
 
 573,080 
 
 58,405 
 
 
 3133 
 
 1823 
 
 639,920 
 
 619,644 
 
 1,336,566 
 
 39,918 
 
 24,879 
 
 566,408 
 
 67,621 
 
 
 585 
 
 1824 
 
 663,972 
 
 723,190 
 
 1,369,163 
 
 83,166 
 
 21,609 
 
 683,223 
 
 63,419 
 
 
 180 
 
 1826 
 
 700.787 
 
 722,323 
 
 1,423,110 
 
 35,379 
 
 23,061 
 
 687,278 
 
 70,626 
 
 
 
 1826 
 
 737,978 
 
 796,212 
 
 1,534,190 
 
 41,767 
 
 34,058 
 
 666,420 
 
 03,761 
 
 
 226 
 
 1827 
 
 747,170 
 
 873,437 
 
 1,620,607 
 
 46,663 
 
 40,197 
 
 732,937 
 
 74,048 
 
 
 828 
 
 1828 
 
 812,619 
 
 928,772 
 
 1,741,391 
 
 54,621 
 
 39,418 
 
 768,922 
 
 74,947 
 
 
 180 
 
 1829 
 
 650,142 
 
 610,664 
 
 1,260,797 
 
 57,284 
 
 54,036 
 
 508,858 
 
 101,796 
 
 
 
 1830 
 
 576,675 
 
 615,311 
 
 1,191,776 
 
 38,911 
 
 64,471 
 
 616,978 
 
 61,554 
 
 35,973 
 
 793 
 
 1831 
 
 620,451 
 
 647,394 
 
 1,267,846 
 
 82,815 
 
 34,435 
 
 583,723 
 
 69,977 
 
 46,210 
 
 481 
 
 1832 
 
 686,989 
 
 763,460 
 
 1,489,450 
 
 72,868 
 
 90,818 
 
 649,627 
 
 54,027 
 
 47,420 
 
 377 
 
 1888 
 
 751,036 
 
 853,123 
 
 1,606,149 
 
 101,158 
 
 101,819 
 
 744,198 
 
 62,720 
 
 48,726 
 
 478 
 
 1834 
 
 867,488 
 
 901,463 
 
 1,768,907 
 
 108,060 
 
 122,815 
 
 783,618 
 
 64,403 
 
 61,082 
 
 864 
 
 1885 
 
 885,821 
 
 939,118 
 
 1,824,940 
 
 97,640 
 
 122,815 
 
 792,801 
 
 72,374 
 
 04,443 
 
 
 1836 
 
 897,774 
 
 984,328 
 
 1,883,102 
 
 144,680 
 
 145,556 
 
 873,023 
 
 62,307 
 
 64,425 
 
 1673 
 
 1837 
 
 810,447 
 
 1,086,238 
 
 1,836,686 
 
 127,242 
 
 154,764 
 
 956,980 
 
 80,551 
 
 46,810 
 
 1894 
 
 1838 
 
 822,591 
 
 1,173,047 
 
 1,996,689 
 
 119,629 
 
 193,413 
 
 1,041,105 
 
 70,064 
 
 66,649 
 
 5229 
 
 1839 
 
 831,244 
 
 1,262,234 
 
 2,096,478 
 
 131,845 
 
 204,938 
 
 1,153,551 
 
 72,568 
 
 35,r83 
 
 439 
 
 1840 
 
 839,764 
 
 1,280,999 
 
 2,130,764 
 
 136,926 
 
 201,339 
 
 1,176,634 
 
 76,035 
 
 28,209 
 
 
 1841 
 
 845,803 
 
 1,184,940 
 
 2,130,744 
 
 157,405 
 
 175,088 
 
 1,107,067 
 
 66,551 
 
 11,321 
 
 
 1842 
 
 975,853 
 
 1,117,031 
 
 2,092,390 
 
 151,612 
 
 229,661 
 
 1,045,753 
 
 64,804 
 
 16,016 
 
 377 
 
 1843 
 
 1,009,815 
 
 1,149,297 
 
 2,158,602 
 
 153,374 
 
 236,867 
 
 1,076,165 
 
 61,224 
 
 11,775 
 
 143 
 
 1844 
 
 1,068,764 
 
 1,211,830 
 
 2,280,096 
 
 168,293 
 
 273,179 
 
 1,109,614 
 
 85,224 
 
 16,170 
 
 321 
 
 1845 
 
 1,09.5,172 
 
 1,321,939 
 
 2,417,002 
 
 190,6^5 
 
 326,018 
 
 1,190,898 
 
 69,826 
 
 21,413 
 
 206 
 
 1846 
 
 1,130,286 
 
 1,431,7^8 
 
 2,562,084 
 
 189,980 
 
 347,893 
 
 1,289,870 
 
 72,516 
 
 36,463 
 
 439 
 
 1817 
 
 1,241,312 
 
 1,697,732 
 
 2,839,046 
 
 193,853 
 
 ,404,841 
 
 1,462,633 
 
 70,177 
 
 31.451 
 
 
 1848 
 
 1,361,886 
 
 1,793,155 
 
 3,154,041 
 
 192,179 
 
 427,891 
 
 1,620,988 
 
 82,661 
 
 43,558 
 
 432 
 
 1841 
 
 1,438,941 
 
 1,895,073 
 
 3,834,015 
 
 180,186 
 
 462,394 
 
 1,730,410 
 
 42,970 
 
 73,853 
 
 
 1860 
 
 1,585,711 
 
 1,949,743 
 
 3,635,454 
 
 146,016 
 
 525,946 
 
 1,7.55,796 
 
 85,646 
 
 53,111 
 
 
 1851 
 
 1,726,307 
 
 2,046,133, 
 
 3,772,439 
 
 181,644 
 
 583,607 
 
 1,854,317 
 
 87.475 
 
 50,539 
 
 
 1853 
 
 1,899,448 
 
 2,238,992 
 
 4,138,440 
 
 193,797 
 
 643,240 
 
 2,008,021 
 
 102,659 
 
 72,546 
 
 
 1853 
 
 2,103.674 
 
 2,303,336 
 
 4,407,010 
 
 193,202 
 
 514.097 
 
 2,134,256 
 
 109,227 
 
 59,850 
 
 
 1854 
 
 2.333,819 
 
 2,469,083 
 
 4 802,902 
 
 181,901 ■ 
 
 676,607 
 
 2,273,900 
 
 102,194 
 
 85,041 
 
 
 1856 
 
 2,535,136 
 
 2,676,864 
 
 5,212.001 
 
 186,778 
 
 770,285 
 
 2,491,108 
 
 102,927 
 
 21,624 
 
 70 
 
 1856 
 
 2,431,402 
 
 2,330,249 
 
 4,871,652 
 
 189,213 
 
 673,077 
 
 2,211,935 
 
 95,816 
 
 29,886 
 
 247 
 
 1857 
 
 2,463,967 
 
 2,476,875 
 
 4,940,843 
 
 195,771 
 
 705,784 
 
 2,300,399 
 
 104,572 
 
 28,327 
 
 70 
 
UNI 
 
 1917 
 
 UNI 
 
 COUFABATIVJfi EMPLOYMENT OF AMERXOAN AWD FOBEION ToNNAGE, AS SHOWN IN THE ImfOBTS OF THE UNITED STATES^ 
 
 IN 1821, 1831, 1841, AND 1851. 
 
 States and Tenitoriea. 
 
 In America 
 Veuaols. 
 
 In PorQign 
 Vessels. 
 
 In AnierioBQ- 
 Vessels. 
 
 In Foreign 
 VeBselB. 
 
 In American 
 Vessels. 
 
 In Foreign 
 .Tesiels. 
 
 . ;8B1. 
 
 In Forelgi^ 
 ' Vessels. 
 
 Alabama 
 
 California. , 
 
 Columbia, Dis1>rict of. 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 Delaware ...'. 
 
 Florida 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 LouiBiana , 
 
 Maine 
 
 Maryland 
 
 MassachuBettB 
 
 Michigan 
 
 MiBaiasippi 
 
 Missouri 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 New York 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 Tennessee. 
 
 Texas 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Virginia 
 
 Oregon Territory 
 
 Total 
 
 398,984 
 312,090 
 80,99T 
 11,830 
 167,632 
 
 2,60T,049 
 
 9T2,T95 
 
 3,982,914 
 
 14,64T,T78 
 
 15,132 
 
 850,021 
 
 1T,006 
 
 21,926,685 
 
 200,6T3 
 
 12 
 
 7,8T8,092 
 
 1,080,195 
 
 1,TS7,590 
 
 15,98T 
 946,904 
 
 1,440 
 245,062 
 
 683,668 
 7,499 
 
 87,928 
 178,954 
 
 18,944 
 
 1,703,611 
 
 285,830 
 
 2,773 
 
 1,219,523 
 
 131,586 
 
 143,320 
 
 180,573 
 
 405,066 
 
 21,656 
 
 110,196 
 
 6,969,622 
 
 832,303 
 
 4,513,897 
 
 13,982,768 
 
 27,299 
 
 146,205 
 
 53,617,033 
 
 186,802 
 
 153 
 
 11,628,584 
 562,161 
 853,171 
 
 166,206 
 383,797 
 
 81,115 
 12,982 
 
 5,614 
 163,642 
 
 3,797,0X1 
 109,104 
 312,080 
 286,283 
 
 3,460,384 
 
 9,554 
 
 464 
 
 600,499 
 
 384,992 
 
 104,725 
 
 ,58,025,906 
 
 4,559,818 
 
 93,962,110 
 
 9,229,014 
 
 410,863 
 
 53,863 
 293,221 
 1,188 
 116,712 
 299,977 
 
 8,141,088 
 574,60+ 
 
 5,348,866 
 
 18,835,492 
 
 187,608 
 
 33,875 
 
 61,685 
 
 1,919 
 
 66,688.760 
 
 214,731 
 
 9,663 
 
 9,840,864 
 
 . 333,929 
 
 1,217,965 
 
 7,523 
 
 216,739 
 351,917 
 
 120,461 
 
 V 23,400 
 
 2,768 
 • -2,088 
 
 149,030 
 
 2,115,262 
 126,297 
 762,447 
 
 1,482,611 
 192 
 
 12,116 
 
 396 
 
 9,024,676 
 
 5,629 
 
 1,755 
 
 506,344 
 
 6,663 
 
 339,476 
 
 26,320 
 
 48,786 
 
 4,462,700 
 
 80,527 
 
 320,858 
 
 '38,875 
 
 404,477 
 
 3,609 
 
 1,764 
 
 218,576 
 
 10,187-,465 
 
 968,061 
 
 ,6,662,066 
 
 26,117,884 
 
 182,146 
 
 . 845 
 
 622,039 
 
 44,682 
 
 106,6'68,636 
 
 125,978 
 
 686,460 
 
 11,641,212 
 
 296,209 
 
 1,646,915 
 
 64,'761 
 
 62,745 
 
 : 691,263 
 
 227.339 
 
 103,500 
 
 369,710 
 
 "286 
 22,136 
 
 6'6,i'22 
 
 317,070 
 
 1,048 
 
 2,393,095 
 
 208,629 
 
 988,679 
 
 9,597,493 
 
 13,346 
 
 1,111 
 
 34,977,903 
 
 80,9.'S3 
 
 99,871 
 
 2,627,649 
 
 15,421 
 
 434,397 
 
 3i,970 
 
 326,594 
 
 118,221,877 
 
 14,724,300|l6S,ai6,272 
 
 62,663,088 
 
 Statement of the Ntjmbee and Class of Vessels built, 
 AND THE Tonnage thekeof, in tiik sevbeal States and 
 Tekeitoeies OP THE United States, feom 1815 to June 
 30, 1887, INCLUSIVE. 
 
 years. 
 
 Ships 
 
 nn<l 
 
 Barhs. 
 
 Brig.. 
 
 Schoon- 
 ers. 
 
 Sloops 
 and 
 Canal 
 Boats. 
 
 Steam- 
 ers. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Total 
 Tonnage, 
 
 1816 
 
 l:iO 
 
 2i4 
 
 081 
 
 27-1 
 
 
 1314 
 
 164,624 
 
 1816 
 
 76 
 
 122 
 
 731 
 
 424 
 
 
 1403 
 
 131,668 
 
 ]817 
 
 34 
 
 36 
 
 539 
 
 394 
 
 
 1073 
 
 86,393 
 
 1818 
 
 r>s 
 
 85 
 
 428 
 
 333 
 
 
 8D8 
 
 32,421 
 
 1819 
 
 53 
 
 83 
 
 473' 
 
 243 
 
 
 850 
 
 70,817 
 
 1820 
 
 21 
 
 60 
 
 301 
 
 ,163 
 
 
 834 
 
 47,734 
 
 1821 
 
 43 
 
 89 
 
 247 
 
 127 
 
 
 607 
 
 55,8.56 
 
 1822 
 
 04 
 
 131 
 
 200 
 
 103 
 
 
 623 
 
 76,346 
 
 1823 
 
 56 
 
 127 
 
 260 
 
 108 
 
 15 
 
 622 
 
 75,007 
 
 1824 
 
 66 
 
 156 
 
 377 
 
 ICO 
 
 20 
 
 T81 
 
 90,939 
 
 1825 
 
 50 
 
 197 
 
 538 
 
 163 
 
 35 
 
 9E4 
 
 114,997 
 
 1820 
 
 71 
 
 187 
 
 483 
 
 22T 
 
 45 
 
 1013 
 
 136,433 
 
 1827 
 
 65 
 
 153 
 
 404 
 
 241 
 
 08 
 
 034 
 
 104,343 
 
 1828 
 
 73 
 
 103 
 
 4T4 
 
 106 
 
 33 
 
 834 
 
 98,375 
 
 1829 
 
 44 
 
 63 
 
 483 
 
 145 
 
 43 
 
 785 
 
 77,008 
 
 1830 
 
 25 
 
 CM 
 
 403 
 
 116 
 
 37 
 
 037 
 
 83,034 
 
 1831 
 
 72 
 
 95 
 
 410 
 
 94 
 
 34 
 
 711 
 
 85,963 
 
 1832 
 
 132. 
 
 143 
 
 538 
 
 122 
 
 100 
 
 1005 
 
 144,539 
 
 1833 
 
 144 
 
 163 
 
 625 
 
 185 
 
 65 
 
 1183 
 
 161,626 
 
 1834 
 
 93 
 
 94 
 
 437 
 
 180 
 
 63 
 
 937 
 
 118,330 
 
 1835 
 
 25 
 
 50 
 
 301 
 
 100 
 
 30 
 
 507 
 
 46.338 
 
 1830 
 
 93 
 
 05 
 
 441 
 
 104 
 
 124 
 
 890 
 
 113,637 
 
 183T 
 
 6T 
 
 72 
 
 r.ii7 
 
 163 
 
 135 
 
 949 
 
 123,987 
 
 1833 
 
 60 
 
 79 
 
 501 
 
 153 
 
 •90 
 
 833 
 
 113,135 
 
 1839 
 
 83 
 
 3D 
 
 430 
 
 122 
 
 125 
 
 353 
 
 120,989 
 
 1840 
 
 97 
 
 109 
 
 373 
 
 234 
 
 64 
 
 •873 
 
 118,309 
 
 1841 
 
 114 
 
 101 
 
 310 
 
 157 
 
 78 
 
 762 
 
 118,893 
 
 1342 
 
 116 
 
 91 
 
 273 
 
 401 
 
 137 
 
 1021 
 
 129.083 
 
 1843 
 
 58 
 
 34 
 
 133 
 
 170 
 
 79 
 
 482 
 
 63,617 
 
 1844 
 
 73 
 
 47 
 
 204 
 
 379 
 
 163 
 
 700 
 
 103,637 
 
 1846 
 
 124 
 
 37 
 
 322 
 
 342 
 
 163 
 
 1038 
 
 146,018 
 
 1840 
 
 lOD 
 
 164 
 
 676 
 
 355 
 
 225 
 
 1430 
 
 138,203 
 
 184T 
 
 161 
 
 168 
 
 639 
 
 392 
 
 198 
 
 1593 
 
 243,732 
 
 1848 
 
 261 
 
 174 
 
 701 
 
 647 
 
 175 
 
 1851 
 
 318,075 
 
 1819 
 
 193 
 
 148 
 
 023 
 
 870 
 
 208 
 
 1547 
 
 256,677 
 
 1860 
 
 247 
 
 117 
 
 r>n 
 
 290 
 
 169 
 
 1360 
 
 272,318 
 
 1861 
 
 211 
 
 65 
 
 5 "2 
 
 326 
 
 233 
 
 1367 
 
 293,203 
 
 1352 
 
 9rn 
 
 79 
 
 5S4 
 
 267 
 
 259 
 
 1444 
 
 361,493 
 
 1853 
 
 209 
 
 96 
 
 631 
 
 394 
 
 271 
 
 1710 
 
 425,572 
 
 1854 
 
 334 
 
 112 
 
 601 
 
 336 
 
 281 
 
 1774 
 
 635,616 
 
 1855 
 
 381 
 
 126 
 
 605 
 
 009 
 
 253 
 
 2034 
 
 583,450 
 
 1S56 
 
 306 
 
 103 
 
 594 
 
 479 
 
 221 
 
 1703 
 
 469,393 
 
 18,')7 
 
 261 
 
 63 
 
 504 
 
 383 
 
 263 
 
 1434 
 
 373,304 
 
 Navigation. — When our navigation laws were first 
 enacted in 1789, the registered tonnage of the United 
 States was secured against the protecting navigation 
 laws of other nations by countervailing or protecting 
 provisions. Such provisions were, from time to time, 
 extended, so as to countervail the prohibitory enact- 
 ments of the commercial nations with which we had 
 intercourse. These commercial restrictions have grad- 
 
 ually yielded to the moreliberal principles of free trade 
 in the transportation of freight and passengers, until 
 in that business we have free trade with almost all the 
 nations of the earth, only marred by the charge of 
 light-mouey to our vessels, where we charge none. 
 The removal of restrictions, in our commercial inter- 
 course with other nations, in the carrying business, 
 has not been prejudicial to our foreign commercial 
 marine. The burden of liglit-monej', to which' our 
 tonnage, in the ports of Great Britain and other com- 
 mercial nations, is subject, should be removed by mu- 
 tual agreement, and the tonnage duty now charged on 
 our vessels in the ports of France and some other 
 countries, and on their vessels in our ports, should be 
 taken off, and port charges equalized. 
 
 NUMBEE AND CLASS OP VESSELS BUILT, AND THE TONNAOE 
 THEKEOF, IN EACH STATE AND TeBRITOEY OF THE UNITED 
 
 States, duuing the Yeae ending -June 30, 1857. 
 
 Maine 
 
 M. Hampshire. 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Massachusetts . 
 Rhode Island.. 
 Connecticut . . . 
 
 New York 
 
 New Jersey . . . 
 Pennsylvania . 
 
 Delaiffare 
 
 Maryland 
 
 D. of Columbia 
 
 Virginia 
 
 North Carolina 
 South Carolina 
 
 Georgia ... 
 
 Florida ....... 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Missouri 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Wisconsin .... 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Michigan 
 
 California 
 
 Oregon 
 
 Total, 1367. . 
 
 Total, 1856. 
 
 4 
 
 127 
 
 17 
 
 26 
 
 168 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 23 
 4 
 2 
 
 240 
 9 
 1 
 
 113 
 11 
 39 
 
 237 
 69 
 
 278 
 23 
 
 110 
 23 
 32 
 21 
 
 1434 
 1703 
 
 110,933 
 
 3,718 
 
 66 
 
 66,411 
 
 3,683 
 
 6,040 
 
 67,826 
 
 8,643 
 
 34,258 
 
 4,843 
 
 20,826 
 
 1,483 
 
 3,932 
 
 1,373 
 
 266 
 
 197 
 
 1,333 
 
 221 
 
 136 
 
 920 
 
 1,427 
 
 8,463 
 
 2,400 
 
 2,805 
 
 2,403 
 
 32,665 
 
 7,441 
 
 960 
 
 2S5 
 
 378,804 
 ■169,393 
 
UEU 
 
 1918 
 
 UJiU 
 
 The limited space allotted to the article United 
 States in this work precludes any attempt to give more 
 than the statistics of theproduction, commerce, and nav- 
 igation of the United States proper. Under their sep- 
 arate heads are given the imports and exports of every 
 article of commerce — as Cotton, Bkeadstdffs, Rice, 
 Sugar, Tobacco, etc.; also the trade of each individual 
 State under its proper head ; and under their proper 
 heads the commercial law and the latest statistics re- 
 garding the United States in subjects — as Coins, Com- 
 merce, Canals, Consuls, Eailkoads, Tbleoraph, 
 Shipping, Tonnage, etc. To all of which reference 
 is made for more particular information regarding the 
 United States. 
 
 Uruguay. This small republic, known also as the 
 Banda Oriental, or the Cisplatine Eepublic, lies on 
 the north coast of the estuary of the Eio de la Plata, 
 and contains a population estimated at 120,000— the 
 least of any of the South American States^of which 
 about 16,000 reside at the capital, Montevideo. The 
 soil of Uruguay is fertile, well watered by large rivers, 
 and is peculiarly adapted to grazing and agriculture. 
 Animal products are the staple domestic exports, and 
 consist principally of hides, dry or salted, of horned 
 cattle and horses ; tallow, grease, bones, animal carbon, 
 horns, horse-hair, cow-tails, sheep-skins, and wool. 
 
 Though there is no treaty existing between the Unit- 
 ed States and Uruguay, our commercial intercourse is 
 on a footing of equality with that of other countries ; 
 being favored by no privileges, and being subjected to 
 no restrictions not common to all other foreign na- 
 tions. This intercourse is regulated by the legislation 
 of the republic, and during the past few years has un- 
 dergone several liberal and important modifications. 
 Prior to 1849, an exorbitant impost of $15 per barrel 
 was levied on the article of flour. By decree dated 
 April 6th of that year, this duty was reduced to $2 50 
 per barrel, with a provision that "this, impost shall 
 last no longer than necessary to pay the debt incurred 
 on the article of flour, the liquidation of which shall 
 commence immediately." By subsequent decrees of 
 April, 1852, the export duty on horse-hides, dry or 
 
 salted, and the transit duties upon all merchandise 
 were abolished ; and the former duty of 20 cents per 
 hide on ox and cow hides, dry or salted, was reduced 
 to 7i cents per hide. By the new tariff, however, of 
 October 11, 1853, now in force, the duty on flour is 
 fixed at 35 per cent. ; and all products of the countrj', 
 and all foreign merchandise free of import duty, or 
 that has paid such duty on importation, are free of 
 duty on being exported. The transit duty is' also 
 abolished. This tarifi'has been superseded by another, 
 bearing date July 19, 1856. The provisions referred 
 to remain, however, quite the same. 
 
 The port regulations are liberal — vessels being al- 
 lowed to remain in port twelve days without entering 
 at the custom-bouse, and to land samples, so as to dis- 
 pose of a part or the whole of their cargoes. Should 
 they leave within that period without effecting a sale, 
 they are subject only to pilotage, health-visit, bill of 
 health, and stamps. 
 
 A treaty of commerce and navigation, eto.,was ratified 
 between England and Uruguay, July 17, 1843, which 
 expired toward the close of 1853, and was not renewed 
 at the latest dates from Montevideo. With France a 
 preliminary treaty was concluded April 8, 1836, to con- 
 tinue in force until another treaty should be agreed 
 upon ; or, should none such be subsequently entered 
 into, then to continue fifteen years. The treaty with 
 England, now lapsed, was based upon a principle of 
 reciprocity ; and that with France is upon the princi- 
 ple of the most favored nation. The merchant marine 
 of Uruguay, it is believed, comprises but few, if any, 
 vessels of more than sixty tons burden. It consists of 
 about 300 vessels of beoween twenty and fifty tons 
 each, averaging each about six men, or from 1800 to 
 2000 men in all. These are mostly engaged in the in- 
 ternal and coasting trade, the latter chiefly with Bra- 
 zil ; which trade is also open to foreign vessels, on the 
 payment of the discriminating tonnage. Besides the 
 above, there are five vessels, all of foreign construction, 
 under the Uruguayan flag, measuring in the aggregate 
 about 1500 tons, which make voyages north of the 
 equator. 
 
 COMMEEOE OP Tim UNITED STATES WITU UkUGUAT (FOEMEELT CISPLATINE REPTTBLIo), PEOM OOT. 1, 1830, TO JuiiY 1, 1857. 
 
 Years ending 
 
 Exports. Imports. 
 
 Whereof there -ivaa in 
 Bullion and Specie. 
 
 Tonnage cleared. 
 
 Domestic. \ Foreign. 
 
 Total. 1 Total. 
 
 Export. 
 
 Import. 
 
 American. | Foreign. 
 
 Sept. 30,1831 
 
 1832 
 
 1833 
 
 1834 
 
 1835 
 
 1836 
 
 1837 
 
 1838 
 
 1839 
 
 1840 
 
 Total... 
 
 Sept. 30,1841 
 
 1842 
 
 9 mos., 1843" 
 
 June 30, 1844 
 
 1845 
 
 1840 
 
 1847 
 
 184S 
 
 1849 
 
 1850 
 
 Total. . . 
 
 June 30, 1851 
 
 :8V2 
 
 1883 
 
 18.54 
 
 1855 
 
 1856 
 
 1857 
 
 $3i325 
 
 7,864 
 38,762 
 50,998 
 82,103 
 
 $24,567 
 38,302 
 67,628 
 
 $3,325 
 
 7,'864 
 60,329 
 89,,'!00 
 149,730 
 
 $10,510 
 
 18,631 
 
 626,482 
 
 494,402 
 
 $660 
 
 7,876 
 
 31,667 
 
 $7,397 
 
 350 
 379 
 1,129 
 4,774 
 6,391 
 6,734 
 3,802 
 3,112 
 8,836 
 8,197 
 
 '849 
 
 ■435 , 
 170 
 262 
 230 
 
 $180,051 
 
 $140,031 
 201,999 
 219,676 
 394,266 
 140,986 
 210,406 
 180,636 
 339,859 
 134,638 
 60,024 
 
 $130,497 
 
 $16,193 
 67,908 
 76,649 
 67,910 
 16,150 
 16,498 
 56,303 
 43,86:) 
 13,089 
 I.B18 
 
 $310,548 
 
 $156,224 
 269,907 
 298,126 
 462,176 
 187,136 
 228,904 
 236.839 
 383,723 
 147,727 
 61,542 
 
 $1,148,976 
 
 $345,2.^4 
 
 581,918 
 
 121,703 
 
 144,763 
 
 20,.573 
 
 26,472 
 
 112,810 
 
 623,064 
 
 79,924 
 
 $40,192 
 
 $10,432 
 7,803 
 26,674 
 23,904 
 5,616 
 33,300 
 2,692 
 8,600 
 
 $7,397 
 
 $600 
 4,637 
 
 22,'o83 
 
 3,'odo 
 
 1,806 
 400 
 
 4'/:,17u 
 
 10,107 
 
 14,218 
 0,858 
 
 12.619 
 3,252 
 5,599 
 3,536 
 
 11,949 
 
 2,346 
 
 867 
 
 1,446 
 
 '812 
 
 393 
 
 1,159 
 
 614 
 
 303 
 
 786 
 
 4,413 
 
 2,035 
 
 1,167 
 
 $2,022,321 
 
 ,$32,711 
 181,150 
 296,088 
 480.855 
 394,657 
 517,849 
 976,370 
 
 $374,047 
 
 $13,078 
 11,917 
 12,358 
 62,102 
 27,515 
 33,480 
 29,802 
 
 $2,3a6,368 
 
 $46,789 
 193,073 
 308,446 
 512,987 
 422,172 
 551,329 
 1,006,172 
 
 $1,986,811 
 
 $19,114 
 49,707 
 302,980 
 487,179 
 242,709 
 361,036 
 368,297 
 
 $117,981 
 $12,500 
 
 3,200 
 4,333 
 
 $32,591 
 
 71,247 
 
 1,320 
 2,906 
 8,700 
 17,802 
 16,656 
 12,784 
 22,412 
 
 647 
 3,637 
 1,356 
 1,761 
 3,165 
 
 535 • 
 2,0li7 
 
 Nine months to June 30, and the fiscal year from this time begins July 1. 
 
 In 1854, the number of vessels under the United 
 States flag which entered the port of Montevideo was 
 seventy, with an aggregate tonnage of 22,043 tons; 
 and the number cleared was thirty-nine, with an aggre- 
 gate tonnage of 12,701 tons. Imports from the United 
 
 States in 1854, according to official returns of Uruguay, 
 consisted of rum, 453 barrels; spirits of turpentine, 
 202 barrels ; starch, 2556 casks and boxes ; rice, 2169 
 casks ; refined sugar, 1797 casks ; codfish, 312 boxes ; 
 tubs and buckets, 529 dozen ; bitumen, 133 barrels ; 
 
USA 
 
 1919 
 
 USA 
 
 cinnamon, 150 boxes; Chinese crackers, 998i- pack- 
 ages ; brooms, 1474 dozen ; flour, 19,993 barrels ; hams, 
 2300 ; gin in bottles, 34,438 dozen ; gin in demijohns, 
 31,748; gin in pipes, 200; lumber, 3,662,881 feet; 
 chairs, 1655 oases; tobacco (chewing), 1142 boxes; 
 stearin candles( 1070 boxes. 
 
 By a decree of October 11, 1853, the government of 
 Urnguay opened to ill flags the navigation of the rivers 
 and streams of the republic, on a footing of equality 
 with the national flag ; which decree was superseded 
 by a brief enactment of June 17, 1854, as follows: 
 Art. 1. The navigable rivers and streams of the repub- 
 lic are open to the navigation and commerce of all na- 
 tions. 2. In the navigation of the rivers and streams, 
 foreign vessels are subjected to the same regulations 
 of police and of custom-houses with national vessels. 
 The precise meaning of this act was at first in some 
 doubt. It did not expressly declare whether or not it 
 was applicable to the port of Montevideo. Upon ref- 
 erence to the government of Uruguay, however, by 
 the agents of foreign governments resident at that 
 port, it was announced that the law applies to the 
 port of Montevideo. ' 
 
 Usance, a period of one, two, or three months, or 
 of a fixed number of days, after the date of a bill of 
 exchange, according to the oustom of different pliCces, 
 before the bill becomes due. Double or treble usance 
 is double or treble the usual time ; and half usance is 
 half the time. When a month is divided, the half 
 usance, notwithstanding the differences in the lengths 
 of the months, is uniformly fifteen days. Usances are 
 calculated exclusively of the date of the bill. Bills 
 of exchange drawn at usance are allowed the usual 
 days of grace, and on the last of the three days the 
 bill should be presented for payment. — See Bills of 
 Exchange and Exchange. 
 
 When a bill is drawn at a certain number of days 
 after date or after sight, those days are reckoned ex- 
 clusive of the day on which the bill is drawn or ac- 
 cepted, and inclusive of the day on which it falls due. 
 " After sight" is equivalent to " after acceptance ;" and 
 with regard to notes, it means " after presentment for 
 sight." By the custom of trade, in bills and notes, a 
 month is deemed to be u, calendar or solar month. 
 The irregularity of the respective months is not taken 
 into the account. If a bill at one month be drawn on 
 the 31st January, it will be due on the 28th of February, 
 or 29th if leap-year, and, reckoning the days of grace, 
 will be payable on the 3d of March. 
 
 The three days of grace generally allowed are reck- 
 ened exclusive of the day on which the bill falls due, 
 and inclusive of the last day of grace. When there 
 are no days of grace, and the bill falls due on a Sun- 
 day, Christmas-day, or Good Friday, public fast or 
 Thanksgiving-day, or when the last of the days of grace 
 happens on such a day, the bill becomes payable on the 
 day preceding, and if not then paid must be treated as 
 dishonored. A presentment for payment before the 
 expiration of the days of grace is premature, and will 
 not entitle the holder to charge the antecedent parties. 
 
 Days of grace are allowed on promissory notes as 
 well as on bills, but they are not allowed on checks, or 
 on bills or notes payable on demand. 
 
 When a month is the ordinary usance, a half usance 
 is fifteen days. 
 
 The calculation of the time depends upon the differ- 
 ent modes of computing time. 
 
 All places with which we are in the habit of negotia- 
 ting bills compute their time as we do (except that Rus- 
 sia adheres to the old style), by years reckoned in a se- 
 ries from the birth of our Saviotir, and divided each into 
 twelve months, or 365 (or in every fourth year, 366) days. 
 
 Upon a bill drawn at a place using one style, and 
 payable at a place using the other, if the time is to be 
 reckoned from the date, it shall be computed according 
 to the style of the place at which it was drawn ; other- 
 wise according to the style of the place where it is pay- 
 
 able ; and in the former case the date must be reduced 
 or carried forward to the style of the place where the 
 bill is payable to the time reckoned from thence. 
 
 Thus, on a bill dated the 1st Miay, old style, and 
 payable here two months after date, the time must be 
 computed from the corresponding day of May, new 
 style, viz.. May 13th ; and on a bill dated 1st of May, 
 new style, and payable at St. Petersburg two months 
 after date, from the corresponding day of April, old 
 style, viz., April 19th. — Leone Levi's Com- Law of the 
 World, vol. i. p. 24. 
 
 TTsquebaugh, an Irish spirituous liquor, com- 
 pounded of spirits, raisins, cinnamon, and cloves. 
 
 Usury, an Illegal rate of interest or compensation 
 for the use of money. Usury is generally supposed to 
 be unequivocally condemned in the Scriptures ; but it 
 must be remembered that the present signification of 
 the term is very different from that in former times. 
 We find in Exodus, xxii. 25, " If thou lend money to 
 any of my people that is poor by thee, thou shalt not 
 be to him as an usurer, neither shalt thou lay upon 
 him usury ;" and in Leviticus, xxv. 35, " If thy broth- 
 er be waxen poor « * * * take thou no usury of him 
 or increase." It will be seen from these extracts that 
 the taking of any compensation from the poor is for- 
 bidden, and not a limited rate is regarded as usury. 
 We apprehend that, in a strict acceptation of the term, 
 7 per cent, per annum is usury, as well as the same per 
 cent, a month. In the present time, however, no ar- 
 guments are needed to prove that money is a merchant- 
 able commodity, and therefore as much a matter of 
 profit and subject to fluctuation as other merchandise. 
 We will, therefore, confine ourselves to a ^ort account 
 of the efforts to repeal this relic of a past age, and the 
 laws now in force in the different States. 
 
 The repeal of the usury laws in Great Britain 
 took place August 5th, 1854, by an act of the British 
 Parliament. Such an important change in the com- 
 mercial policy of that country could not have been 
 adopted either suddenly or without mature considera- 
 tion. In fact, the change had been going on gradu- 
 ally for more than twenty years ; and the advantages 
 of experience were thus sought from time to time, as 
 the restrictions were, step by step, removed, and the 
 commercial circles of the country thus finally relieved 
 from the operation of the former vicious laws. In 
 the year 1833 the first important innovation upon the 
 usurj'-law policy was made in England. 
 
 After four j^ears' trial, it was found that commercial 
 and manufacturing people of all classes pronounced 
 the new features of the law to be advantageous in their 
 operation to borrowers, if not to lenders. The next 
 step was in the year 1837, when Parliament granted 
 further relief by removing the usury restrictions upon 
 all commercial paper having twelve months or less to 
 mature. This would seem to cover the ground entire- 
 ly, and to furnish all the relief that commercial circles 
 could reasonably demand. But so satisfied were the 
 English people and the English government, that the 
 usury laws, even in their mildest form, were inopera- 
 tive or prejudicial, that, after various petitions and in- 
 vestigations, the total abolishment of these laws was 
 effected on the 5th August, 1854. The bill to this 
 effect had passed the House of Lords on the 27th July 
 preceding, and was immediately brought forward in 
 the House of Commons, where it was favorably con- 
 sidered and finally passed. The passage of the bill 
 was strongly urged in the House of Lords by the Mar- 
 quis of Lansdowne, by Lord Campbell, and the Lord 
 Chancellor. Lord Brougham supported the bill, both 
 on mercantile and moral grounds. The Marquis of 
 Lansdowne remarked that : 
 
 " The inconvenience which had been found to result 
 from the operation of the laws against usury had been 
 so many and so great, that notwithstanding strong 
 prejudices on the suijject of usury and usurers, it had 
 been found necessary to relax those laws from time to 
 
USA 
 
 1920 
 
 UTA 
 
 time. At the time of the commercial failures in the 
 years 1836 aud 1837, it was foimd that the greatest re- 
 lief which was experienced was the result of a provi- 
 sion which had been introduced not long previously into 
 the act for the renewal of the Bank charter, enabling 
 the Bank of England to dispense with the usury laws," 
 
 Many people, in their aversion to any modification 
 of the usury laws, are under the conviction that if the 
 price of money is not regulated by law, they will be 
 compelled to pay an enormous tax (ranging from 25 to 
 76 per cent, per annum) on loans of money. Those 
 who seriously reflect upon the matter — who have any 
 practical or familiar knowledge of the laws of trade — 
 are unanimous in their opinions that all shackles of the 
 kind should be permanently removed. 
 
 If we examine the usury laws of the dififerent 
 States, we will find in all elaborate and stringent en- 
 actments providing punishment and penalties for the 
 exercise of every one's inalienable right ; namely, that 
 of using their property to the best advantage. 
 
 We give a synopsis of the usury laws of the United 
 States as they are now in force. 
 
 Penalties. 
 
 Loss of excess of interest and law 
 costs. 
 
 Loss of three times excess of interest. 
 
 Loss of excess of interest. 
 
 Loss of three times the whole inter- 
 est and law costs. 
 
 Loss of excess of inteiest, 
 
 Lo3s of all" interest.' 
 
 Forfeiture of contract; and, in crim- 
 inal action, fine not exceeding 
 $1000, and imprisonment not ex- 
 ceeding six months. 
 
 Contract void, and principal and in- 
 terest forfeited. 
 
 Principal and interest forfeited. 
 
 Principal and interest forfeited. 
 
 Loss of excess o'f interest. 
 
 Usurious contracts void. 
 
 Principal and interest forfeited; 
 and, if usury is paid, double the 
 amount of principal and interest. 
 
 Loss of interest. 
 
 Loss of interest. 
 
 Loss of interest. 
 
 Loss of interest. 
 
 Loss of interest. 
 
 10 ner cent, allowed on contract, and 
 loss of interest if exceeding this. 
 
 Loss of five times the interest. 
 
 10 per cent, allowed on contracts. 
 Forfeiture of excess of interest. 
 
 Loss of interest. 
 
 Loss of interest. 
 
 10 per cent, allowed on contracts. 
 Forfeiture of excess of interest. 
 
 10 per cent, allowed on contracts. 
 Forfeiture of excess of interest. 
 
 10 per cent, allowed on contracts. 
 Forfeiture of excess of interest. 
 
 10 per cent, allowed on contracts. 
 Forfeiture of excess of interest. 
 
 Liable to an indictment for misde- 
 meanor. Forfeiture of usurious 
 interest, and fined. 
 
 13 per cent, allowed on contracts. 
 Forfeiture of all interest. 
 
 Loss of interest. 
 
 No penalty. 
 
 From this synopsis we see that the usury laws of 
 New York are the most rigorous, and include, in crim- 
 inal actions, a. fine of $1000 and imprisonment of six 
 months; in merely civil actions, aforfeiture of contract. 
 
 California is the only State that provides no penalty. 
 The Territories are also not subject to any usury laws. 
 
 No argument is needed to prove that such absurd 
 laws are clogs on the commercial prosperity of the 
 country, and that in financial revulsions like the pres- 
 ent they effectually prevent the exercise of any com- 
 mercial elasticity. A parallel could be found by sup- 
 posing restrictive laws against selling flour above $5 
 per barrel ; we would then run as good a chance of 
 starving as our merchants do of commercially starving 
 for want of money when there is an abundance around 
 them, but when the legal interest does not pay capital- 
 
 StaUss. 
 Maine 
 
 Legal Int. 
 
 . 6 per ct 
 
 N. Hampshire 
 
 Vermont 
 
 MassachusettB 
 
 . 6 " 
 6 " 
 6 " 
 
 Ehode Island. 
 Connecticut. . 
 New York . . . 
 
 6 " 
 6 " 
 
 T " 
 
 New Jersey !". 
 
 6 " 
 
 Pennsylvania . G ^'^ 
 
 Delaware 6 " 
 
 Maryland 6 " 
 
 Virginia 6 " 
 
 North Carolina 6 " 
 
 South Carolina T " 
 
 Georgia 7 " 
 
 Alabama S " 
 
 Arkansas " 
 
 Florida 6 " 
 
 Illinois 6 " 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Iowa 
 
 6 " 
 
 6 " 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Louisiana. . . . 
 Michigan 
 
 6 " 
 8 " 
 
 T " 
 
 Mississippi . . . 
 
 6 " 
 
 Missouri 
 
 C " 
 
 Ohio 
 
 6 " 
 
 Tennessee. . . 
 
 6 " 
 
 Texas 
 
 8 " 
 
 Wisconsin . . . 
 California . . . 
 
 12 " 
 10 " 
 
 ists for the risk. — See articles Banks, Commekoe, In- 
 terest, etc. For Usury Laws, Discussions on, etc., 
 see Edinburgh Review, xxvii. 339 (Defense of) ; Ameri- 
 can Quarterly Review, xxii. 177, xxi. }.ib ; N.orth Ameri- 
 can Review, xxxix. 168 (A. H. Everett); Blackwood's 
 Magazine, xxiv. 68 ; Banker^ Magazine, New York, 
 iv. 581 (John Whiffle), 683 (J. K. M'Culloch), 
 V. 781, 842, viii. 845, ix. 241-248 (M'Vickar), 811; 
 Hdnt's Merchants Magazine, iii. 516, v. 40, 115; 
 Bern. Rev., xxvii. 221-328; Quar. Rev., xxxiii. 186. 
 
 Utah, a territory of the United States, mostly com- 
 prised in the Great California Basin, and extending 
 from the crest of the Kocky Mountains on the east to 
 the Sierra Nevada on the west. It has Oregon on the 
 north, California on the west, and New Mexico on the 
 south. Area, 208,775 square miles. In 1850 it was 
 divided into seven counties, and the number of dwell- 
 ings and population were as follows : Dwellinfjs, 2322 ; 
 white inhabitants, 11,330 ; free colored, 24. The coun- 
 ties erected since 1850 are Deseret, Green Eiver, Mil- 
 lard, Juab, and Washington. 
 
 The eastern portion of Utah is drained by the Colo- 
 rado Eiver of the Gulf of California. Its valley has 
 been but imperfectly explored, but, as far as our knowl- 
 edge exists of it, a very small portion of it only can be 
 brought into cultivation. The remaining portion of 
 Utah is comprised in the Great. Basin, and forms a dis- 
 tinct and most peculiar region. The rivers all termin- 
 ate within its limits, in lakes with no visible outlets. 
 The Great Salt Lake is about 35 miles broad and 70 
 long, and the waters contain more salt than can bo held 
 in solution ; hence its borders abound with crystallized 
 salt, and the bottom of the lake is incrusted with it. 
 No living creature can exist in its waters. The valleys 
 are susceptible of cultivation, and are verj' fertile, 
 where they can be irrigated. Timber, although scarce, 
 is verj' durable. Iron ore exists in the mountain 
 ridges, and several furnaces are already in operation 
 smelting it. The temperature is more uniform in the 
 Great Salt Lake valley than on the Atlantic coast; it 
 rarely falls helow zero. There is but little rain, ex- 
 cept on the mountains, from March to October. 
 
 There were in this territory, in 1850, 16,333 acres 
 of land improved, and 30,516 of unimproved in fa;rms ; 
 cash value of farms $311,799, and the value of imple- 
 ments and machinery .$84,288. Live stock — horses, 
 2429 ; asses and mules, 325 ; milch cows, 4861 ; work- 
 ing oxen, 5266 ; other cattle, 2489 ; sheep, 3262 ; swine, 
 914; value of live stock, $546,968. 
 
 Agricultural Products, etc. — Wheat, 107,702 bushels 
 produced; rye, 210; Indian corn, 9899; oats, 10,900; 
 barley, 1799 ; buckwheat, 332 ; peas and beans, 289 ; 
 potatoes, 43,968 ; sweet do. 60 bushels. Value of prod- 
 uce of market gardens, $23,868; pounds of butter 
 made, 83,309 ; of cheese, 30,998 ; molasses, 58 gallons ; 
 beeswax and honey, 10 lbs. ; wool, lbs. produced, 9222 ; 
 flax, 550 ; hops, 50 ; tobacco, 70 ; tons of hay, 4805 ; 
 clover seeds, 2 bushels ; flax-seed, 5 ; value of home- 
 made manufactures, $1392 ; of slaughtered animals, 
 867,985. 
 
 The capital is Fillmore City, but the Great Salt 
 Lake City is where the Legislature meets, and it is also 
 the residence of the governor. The other towns are 
 Palmyra, Springville, Provo, Cedar, Parowan, Manti, 
 Lehi, Brownsville, etc. 
 
 Utah was a part of Alta California, which was ced- 
 ed to the United States at the treaty of Guadalupe 
 Hidalgo February, 1848. Previous to the Mexican 
 war this territory was only known and occupied by 
 trappers and Indians. About the time of the opening 
 of the war, the Mormons were driven from Nauvoo, 
 Illinois, and, after making a temporary sojourn at 
 Council Bluffs, Iowa, they settled in Utah. They 
 organized a government under the title of the State of 
 Deseret, but the United States established a territorial 
 government in 1850, by which the territory is nominally 
 under subjection. 
 
VAL 
 
 1921 
 
 VAL 
 
 V. 
 
 Valonia, a species of acorn, forming a very con- 
 siderable article of export from the Morea and the Le- 
 vant. The more substance there is in the husk, or cup 
 of the acorn, the better. It is of a bright drab color, 
 which it preserves so long as it is kept dry : any damp- 
 ness injures it, as it then turns black, and loses both 
 its strength and value. It is principally used by tan- 
 ners, and is always in demand. Though a very bulky 
 article, it is uniformly bought and sold by weight. A 
 ship can only take a small proportion of her register- 
 ed tonnage of valonia, so that its freight per ton is al- 
 ways high. 
 
 Valparaiso, the principal sea-port of Chili, lat. 
 (Fort St. Antonio) 33° 1' 9" S., long. 71° 41' 5" W. 
 Population perhaps 28,000 or 30,000. The water in 
 the bay is deep, and it affords secure anchorage, except 
 during northerly gales, to the violence of which it is 
 exposed ; but as the holding ground is good, and the 
 pull of the anchor against a steep hill, accidents sel- 
 dom occur to ships properly found in anchoirs and ca- 
 bles. There is no mole or jetty ; but the water close 
 to the shore is so deep, that it is customary for the 
 smaller class of vessels to carry out an anchor to the 
 northward, and to moor the ship with the stern ashore 
 by another cable made fast to the shore. Large ships 
 lie a little farther off, and load and unload by means 
 of lighters. The best shelter is in that part called the 
 Fisherman's Bay, lying between the castle and fort St. 
 Antonio, where, close to a clear shingle beach, there is 
 9 fathoms water. In the very worst weather a land- 
 ing may be effected in this part of the bay. — See 
 MiEKs's Chili and La Plata, i. 440, where there is a plan 
 of Valparaiso. The harbors of Valdivia and Conoep- 
 cion are much superior to that of Valparaiso ; the for- 
 mer being, indeed, not only the best in Chili, but second 
 to few in any part of the world. But Valparaiso, being 
 near the capital, Santiago, and being thecentral depot 
 for the resources of the province, is most frequented. 
 The town is conveniently situated, at the extremity of 
 a mountainous ridge; most part of the houses being 
 built either upon its acclivity or in its breaches. Large 
 quantities of corn and other articles of provision are 
 shipped here for Callao and San Francisco, but prin- 
 cipally for the latter. 
 
 In Valparaiso, the phenomenon of the sea-breeze is 
 finely developed. Valparaiso is situated near the south- 
 ern border of the calm belt of Capricorn when it is at 
 its farthest southern reach, which happens in our late 
 winter and early spring — the Southern summer and 
 autumn. This is the dry season, when the sky is 
 singularly clear and bright. The atmosphere, being 
 nearly in a state of equilibrium, is then ready to obey 
 even tlie most feeble impulse, and to hasten toward the 
 place of any, the slightest rarefaction. 
 
 At about ten in the morning the land begins to feel 
 the sun, and there is a movement in the air. By 3 or 
 4 P.M., the sea-breeze comes rushing in from the south- 
 ward and westward, and strikes the shipping in the 
 harbor with the force of a gale. Vessels sometimes 
 drag before it, and communication with the shore is 
 suspended. By 6 p.m., however, the wind has spent 
 its fury, and there is a perfect calm. — Mauky's Phys. 
 Geography. 
 
 United States. — The United States has ranked next 
 after England and Franco in the foreign trade of Chili ; 
 but, since the incorporation of California as a State of 
 the American Union, the first rank in this trade is now 
 assigned to the United States flag. This trade con- 
 sists in the exportation of cotton textiles, fiour, salted 
 provisions, and miscellaneous cargoes. The article of 
 cotton manufacture called tocuyos is much demanded 
 in Chili, and, until lately, imported from the manufac- 
 tories of England exclusively, is now supplied by the 
 
 United States, and constitutes a leading article of 
 trade. Besides these countries. Chili has also con- 
 siderable trade with several other European and South 
 American nations. From Belgium she receives cigars, 
 refined sugar, woolens, window-glass, gin, cheese, pa- 
 per, and books ; from Central America, bastard pearls, 
 hides, indigo, cochineal, sugar, sarsaparilla, dye-woods, 
 cotton, and coffee ; for which she sends in return, from 
 the warehouses of Valparaiso, textiles of cotton cali- 
 coes. Brazil sends no vessels to the ports of Chili ; 
 but there is some trade carried on between the two 
 countries under the Chilian and foreign flag. Neither 
 has Mexico any direct trade with Chili; but Ham- 
 burgian and English vessels annually supply the port 
 of Mazatlan with valuable cargoes of European mer- 
 chandise taken on board at Valparaiso. Owing to the 
 restrictive character of Mexican commercial regula- 
 tions, this trade is mostly contraband. Valparaiso is 
 the chief port of transit for the commerce of all the re- 
 publics of South America. The manufacturing in- 
 dustry of the southern provinces of Chili has made but 
 little progress. There is but one establishment worthy 
 of being specially noticed — namelj-, a copper foundery, 
 which at the commencement of 1846 was in active op- 
 eration ; and fi-om which that year were exported to 
 foreign countries 4000 quintals of its productions. The 
 ore was supplied from the ports in the northern parts 
 of the republic, and even from the Bolivian port of 
 Cobija. Chili is, however, essentially an agricultural 
 country. Independently of the working of the mines 
 of gold, silver, and copper, and the casting of these 
 metals, almost all the mechanical industry of the re- 
 public is to be found in the flour-mills, the tanneries 
 and currying establishments, and the tailoring shops, 
 where the ponchos or mangos are made. There are, 
 besides these, some establishments for the manufacture 
 of candles and common soap. Still, there is but little 
 probability that the manufacturing industry. of Chili, 
 at least for a great many years to come, will present 
 any competition with the manufactured productions 
 imported from Europe and the United States. The 
 revenues of Chili have augmented in a ratio equal to 
 the increase of its commercial prosperity. Its for- 
 eign debt is yearly curtailed, and the interest on it 
 paid with such punctuality as to have raised the 6 per 
 cent, stock in London to 108. This debt, contracted 
 during the war of Independence, consisted originally 
 of a loan raised in England of £1,000,000. Owing to 
 civil wars, and the generally unsettled state of the 
 country, the debt, with ,tlie accruing interest, soon 
 doubled itself. Under the administration of Secretary 
 Eengifo (in 1830), a compromise was effected with the 
 English creditors, and its terms have since been faith- 
 fully adhered to. In 1852 this debt was reduced to 
 $7,104,000 — one half at 6 per cent., and the remainder 
 at 3. The home debt has been reduced to less than 
 $1,500,000, bearing 3 per cent, interest. The mer- 
 chant marine of Chili has also shared in the general 
 prosperity of the republic. Steam-vessels can at all 
 times obtain coal in the greatest abundance, and of an 
 excellent quality, from the mines of Talcahuano, and 
 at many points along the coast. With such advant- 
 ages for the active development of her physical and 
 commercial resources. Chili has long since drawn to 
 her ports the merchants of the great industrial and 
 commercial nations of the world. Among these, En- 
 gland, France, Germany, and the United States, are the 
 chief competitors for her foreign trade. 
 
 The revenues derived from import duties in 1851 
 amounted to $2,724,718, of which there was collected 
 at the portof Valparaiso $2,426,631. The total amount 
 in 1852 was $3,465,038 77. The following table ex- 
 hibits the quantities and values of copper, in bars, ex- 
 
VAL 
 
 1922 
 
 VAJL, 
 
 ported from Chili to the United States, from 1850 to 
 1855, both inclusive : 
 
 Years. Value. 
 
 1850 $1,008,044 
 
 1851 1,367,191 
 
 1852 1 ,394,481 
 
 1853 1,247,311 , 
 
 1864 : 1,367,206 
 
 1855 1,883,434 
 
 In 1852 the imports into Chili reached in value 
 $15,347^332; and the exports from Chili amounted to 
 $14,087,556. Compared with ihe preceding year, im- 
 ports fell off $537,640, while the exports of 1852 show 
 an increase over those of 1851 of $1,941,227. This 
 perceptible advance in the export trade of Chili in 
 1852 is attributed to the increased activity in working 
 the copper mines of Coquimbo and the silver mines of 
 Copiapo, as also to several heavy shipments of flour 
 and other products to California. 
 
 The following tabular statement exhibits the num- 
 ber of foreign vessels and their tonnage, and the num- 
 ber of national vessels, that entered Chilian ports from 
 1844 to 1851,, both inclusive : 
 
 Yaon. 
 
 Foreign Veaaela. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Chilian VoBsela. 
 
 1844 ,.. 
 
 1487 
 1452 
 1523 
 1434 
 1897 
 1777 
 2599 
 2351 
 
 374,0a8 
 359,859 
 388,557 
 360,007 
 34a,456 
 503,259 
 740,425 
 686,185 
 
 14i9 
 1486 
 1529 
 1S21 
 1623 
 1511 
 1784 
 899 
 
 1845 
 
 1843 
 
 1847 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 . . 
 
 1850 
 
 1861 
 
 
 The number of vessels that cleared in 1850 was 2497, 
 making an aggregate of (entered and cleared) 5096 
 vessels, with an aggregate tonnage of 1,442,426 tons. 
 The number cleared in 1851 was 2205, which, with the 
 2351 given in the table, makes a total of 4556 vessels, 
 measuring in all 1,233,978 tons. This shows a falling 
 off in 1851 of 540 vessels, and 208,447 tons. It will be 
 perceived that the number of national vessels that en- 
 tered Chilian ports in 1851 is put down in the table at 
 899. It must not, however, be inferred from this that 
 the merchant marine of Chili actufilly counts that 
 number of vessels. The figures merely indicate the 
 number of times the national merchant flag entered 
 Chilian ports during the year. Still, within the past 
 few years the merchant marine of Chili has largely 
 increased. Starting from 1848, this increase is found 
 to be — of vessels, 100 per cent., and of tonnage over 
 300 per cent. This is shown by the following state- 
 ment : 
 
 No. of 
 
 Years. 
 1848 
 1849 
 1860 
 
 1851 18U 
 
 1852 215 
 
 An official dispatch to the British government from 
 Chili, under date of September 13, 1855, states that the 
 returns of Chilian trade for 1853 and 1854 shows a great 
 increase in both branCies of import and export; but 
 that the markets were considerably affected by the 
 high price of provisions, which commenced in 1854, and 
 continued up to the date of the dispatch ; owing main- 
 ly to the large exportation of wheat to Australia, where 
 it brought as high as $36 per quarter of eight bushels. 
 "Wool may be said to be, after copper, the chief article 
 of import into the United States from Chili. The fol- 
 lowing tabular statement exhibits tlie quantities and 
 values of wool imported into the United States from 
 Chili, during the five years ending with June 30, 1855, 
 together with the aggregate quantities and values of 
 the same imported from all other countries for the 
 same period — as given by United States authorities : 
 
 106 
 119 
 153 
 
 Aggregate 
 Tonnage. 
 12,628 
 20,022 
 27,601 
 84,517 
 41,509 
 
 Years. 
 
 From all Countries. 
 
 Values. 
 
 From Chili. 
 
 Values. 
 
 
 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 
 1851 
 
 33,643,491 
 
 $3,833,157 
 
 2.109,845 
 
 $125,650 
 
 1852 
 
 18,341.298 
 
 1,980,711 
 
 1,863,189 
 
 169,616 
 
 1853 
 
 21,595,079 
 
 2,669,7)8 
 
 2,664,300 
 
 258,196 
 
 18.54 
 
 20.200,110 
 
 2,882,185 
 
 1,857,447 
 
 161,066 
 
 1866 
 
 18.534,416 
 
 2,072,139 
 
 2,846,902 
 
 317,664 
 
 In 1843 a decree was passed by the Chilian govern- 
 ment providing for the establishment of a statistical 
 board. Since that period full commercial returns have 
 been regularly published, under the title of Estadistica 
 Comerdal de la Mepublica de Chile. From these publi- 
 cations the following tables, exhibiting the general for- 
 eign commercial moveraentsof Chili, from 1844 to 1851, 
 have been compiled : 
 
 Tabtjlak oompabative Statement exhibiting the foe- 
 EiGN Import and Expout" Tk'ade of Chili, the pein- 
 
 OIPAL CotTNTEIES PAETIOIPATING TUEEEIN, AN1> TUB 
 iSUAEE ASSIGNED TO' EACH, IN 1651, AND ALSO THE TOTAL 
 TEADE FOE A PEEIOD OF EIGHT TEAES. 
 
 Countries. Imports. 
 
 France and colonies $1^705,929 
 
 Belgium 195,372 
 
 Holland 402,059 
 
 Germany 1,089,853 
 
 England and colonies 4,319,864 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Sweden and Norway 5,081 
 
 Spain and colonies 145,510 
 
 Portugal 18,168 
 
 Sardinia 74,410 
 
 China ■ 229,348 
 
 United States 4,594,211 
 
 Mexico 23,837 
 
 Central America 42,241 
 
 Ecuador. ; 120,732 
 
 Brazil... 624 877 
 
 Peru 1,616,644 
 
 Bolivia 436,988 
 
 Uruguay 10,352 
 
 Argentine Confederation. . . 170,686 
 
 Polynesia 68,910 
 
 New Granada .... 
 
 Other countries .... 
 
 Total year 1861 $15,884,972 
 
 " " 1850 11,785,193 
 
 " " 1849 10,722,840 
 
 " " 1848 8,601,367 
 
 " 1847 10,068,849 
 
 " " 1816 10,149,136 
 
 " " 1845 9,104,764 
 
 " " 1844 8,596,674 
 
 Exports. 
 
 $851,113 
 
 2,405 
 
 65,739 
 
 469,1&5 
 
 4,643, 69P 
 
 1,390 
 
 2,194 
 
 74,852 
 
 21,309 
 
 • 42,547 
 
 3,515,?35 
 
 T,632 
 
 103,613 
 
 42,774 
 
 613,893 
 
 1,179,247 
 
 209,902 
 
 ' 61,216 
 
 46,624 
 
 59,352 
 
 225,483 
 
 7,802 
 
 $12,146,391 
 
 12,426,269 
 
 10.603,447 
 
 8,353,505 
 
 8,442,035 
 
 8,116,288 
 
 7,601,152 
 
 6,087,023 
 
 Tabulae comparative Statement exhibiting pakticit- 
 LAE Descriptions of the peincipal Aeticles of Mee- 
 
 OUANDIBB, AND THE BEBPECTIVE VADUtq THEREOF, IM- 
 PORTED INTO THE Poets of Chili feom 184'J to 1651, 
 both inclusive. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 Ale and porter 
 
 'Books, printed 
 
 Calicoes 
 
 Cassimeres 
 
 Chairs 
 
 Cloth 
 
 Clothing 
 
 Coal 
 
 Cotton checks 
 
 " drillings 
 
 " handkerchiefs ." . 
 
 " colored 
 
 " shawls 
 
 " and wool shawls 
 
 " silk and wool 
 
 '* stockings 
 
 " tickings 
 
 " thread 
 
 '* unbleached 
 
 " white 
 
 " and wool 
 
 Crape shawls 
 
 Drugs and medicines 
 
 Earthen-ware 
 
 Household furniture 
 
 Iron, assorted 
 
 Jewelry 
 
 Lastings 
 
 Liquors, assorted 
 
 Machinery 
 
 Paints 
 
 Ribbons 
 
 Rice 
 
 Saddles 
 
 Shoes and boots 
 
 Silk shawls and handkerchiefs 
 
 Soap 
 
 Sugar, refined 
 
 " crushed 
 
 Tea 
 
 Tobacco 
 
 Woolen goods 
 
 '^ shawls 
 
 IS<9. 
 
 $10,607 
 22,334 
 
 666,612 
 
 228,459 
 35,846 
 
 170,561 
 43.629 
 
 346,600 
 14,628 
 26,445 
 
 102,950 
 56,287 
 75,289 
 71,627 
 49,966 
 66,678 
 !7,1S6 
 51,511 
 
 681,201 
 1,039,338 
 
 166,849 
 
 102,849 
 86,681 
 71,292 
 22,870 
 77,335 
 38,603 
 36,115 
 13,973 
 14,!;69 
 17,465 
 39,094 
 70,840 
 17,578 
 35,85 
 
 159,948 
 73,227 
 95,423 
 
 226,490 
 31,873 
 
 861,760 
 92,949 
 87.421 
 
 iSlfO. 
 
 1851; 
 
 $16,033 
 
 28,320 
 
 486,547 
 
 235,714 
 
 32.666 
 
 171,217 
 
 18.406 
 
 263,246 
 
 15,166 
 
 43,276 
 
 02,559 
 
 86,666 
 
 S2,S23 
 
 101,931 
 
 43,204 
 
 5i,423 
 
 21,450 
 
 67,026 
 
 475,604 
 
 743,661 
 
 160,634 
 
 120,281 
 
 29,054 
 
 77,865 
 
 46,689 
 
 130,737 
 
 31,755 
 
 12,815 
 
 10,469 
 
 4,000 
 
 19,905 
 
 45,606 
 
 56,693 
 
 15,886 
 
 21,263 
 
 322,617 
 
 69,224 
 
 400,969 
 
 336,634 
 
 21,912 
 
 837,240 
 
 . 62,714 
 
 115,073 
 
 36,490 
 
 616,148 
 
 236,574 
 
 29,873 
 
 164,572 
 
 19,477 
 
 236,473 
 
 17,506 
 
 28,693 
 
 66,542 
 
 9,077 
 
 66,267 
 
 118,737 
 
 42,337 
 
 66,390 
 
 38,498 
 
 47,638 
 
 615,825 
 
 800,872 
 
 ]69,4'i3 
 
 98,278 
 
 29,084 
 
 34,929 
 
 62,621 
 
 86.802 
 
 109,983 
 
 15,665 
 
 16,434 
 
 39,150 
 
 13,647 
 
 88,826 
 
 68,218 
 
 19,162 
 
 43,778 
 
 162,567 
 
 66,427 
 
 663,129 
 
 800,141 
 
 49,675 
 
 659,085 
 
 77,013 
 
 143,801 
 
VAL 
 
 1923 
 
 VAX 
 
 PBINOIVAL AbTIOLKB of 1>0MK8TI0 Peoduob expobted feom 
 TUB Ports op Chili from 1849 to 1851, both inolttsitb 
 — tub FeoduoE of the Mines excepted. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 Wheat.... 
 
 Flour...'.. •.. 
 
 Biscuit 
 
 Barley 
 
 BeaUB 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 Nuts 
 
 Dried fruits 
 
 Salt beef.'. 
 
 Charqdi (aried teeif ) 
 
 Cheese '. 
 
 Tallow, etc 
 
 Hides 
 
 Groat, sheep, and chinchilla j 
 
 skins j 
 
 Wool 
 
 Hams 
 
 Assorted proTisions 
 
 Cords and rope 
 
 Rigging for ships 
 
 Flanks and lumber .......... 
 
 Coal '. 
 
 Guano 
 
 $316,190 
 803,795 
 114,007 
 76,910 
 48,563 
 14,514 
 65,152 
 T2,147 
 2fi,230 
 74,398 
 18,156 
 89,013 
 165,942 
 
 17,754 
 
 64,303 
 
 3,007 
 
 60,454 
 
 2e,614 
 
 988 
 
 310,914 
 
 4,933 
 
 13,615 
 
 $353,6; 
 1,899,606 
 74,952 
 216,368 
 136,737 
 43,806 
 40,039 
 79,911 
 16,960 
 26,643 
 11,746 
 31,046 
 143,3!)6 
 
 31,201 
 
 83,333 
 3,594 
 
 30 571 
 
 7,278 
 
 4.610 
 
 106,372 
 
 7,530 
 
 37,708 
 
 $i2S,78i) 
 
 1,644,215 
 
 120,199 
 
 , 667,406 
 
 167,0,55 
 
 32,722 
 
 78,425 
 
 24,643 
 
 21,839 
 
 34,854 
 
 7,551 
 
 47,554 
 
 99,795 
 
 31,307 
 
 104,301 
 
 800 
 
 18,290 
 
 4,860 
 
 3,825 
 
 29,795 
 
 2,540 
 
 55,392 
 
 The principal ports of Chili open to general foreign 
 tra,de are Valparaiso, Coquimbo, Huasco, Copiabo, Tal- 
 caliuano, Coustitucion, Valdivia, and Anoud. - Vessels 
 from abroad, entering any other than open ports, are 
 liable to seizure. Under the Chilian commercial regu- 
 lations, the coasting trade is prohibited to foreign ves- 
 sels ; but they may discharge portions of their original 
 cargoe? in one or more ports, and load Chilian produce 
 for a foreign port. The port charges are as follows : 
 Tonnage, dues, 25 cents per ton; light dues (where 
 light-houses exist), 3J cents per ton ; roll and captain 
 of the port's fees, $4 ; harbor-master's fees, $8. Na- 
 tional or foreign vessels of war, national or foreign 
 steamers, whale-ships, vessels in distress, or in ballast, 
 or discharging under twenty pacltages, are exempt 
 from tonnage and light dues. When tonnage dues 
 have been paid at one port, they are not levied in an- 
 other. 
 
 Commercial relations between the United States and 
 Chili are regulated by the treaty of May 16, 1832-^ 
 ' raiifications having been exchanged and proclamation 
 madeApril 29, 1834. This treaty establishes the prin- 
 ciple of '' the most favored nation," and contains, be- 
 sides, a stipulation providing that " free ships make 
 free goods," and the usual guarantees for commercial 
 reciprocity. The duration of the treaty was limited to 
 twelve years ; but, by virtue of the twelve-months' no- 
 tice clause, it is still in force. Subsequent and recent 
 commercial legislation of the Chilian government has 
 modified and enlarged the provisions of the treaty of 
 1834. The principle of " the most favored nation" is 
 but another name for differential duties between the 
 nation,^ flag and that of the country with which such 
 treaty is negotiated. These differential duties have 
 been defined by Chili in a law bearing date January 8, 
 1834, and by various subsequent enactments. Such 
 duties, however, have been suppressed, under certain 
 limitations, chiefly by a law of July 16, 1850. The 
 following is a translation of this law, so far as it re- 
 lates to this subject : 
 
 Art. 1. Are suppressed, and of no force, articles 15, 
 16, 17, and 18 of the law of importation of the 8th 
 January, 1834. The law defining diflferential duties. 
 Is also suppressed that section of the law of August 7, 
 1834, by virtue of which national vessels were exempt- 
 ed from tonnage duties, such vessels hereafter being 
 subjected to the same duties as foi«ign vessels. 2. The 
 products of the soil and industry, and, in general, arti- 
 cles of commerce imported into Chili for consumption, 
 in bottoms under a foreign flag, shall pay only the 
 same duties as if imported under the national flag. 
 3. Article? of commerce imported into the republic in 
 vessels of any nation that shall not have accepted the 
 conditions of reciprocity established by the present 
 law. will be subject to a surcharge, or extra duty, equal 
 
 to that imposed by such nation on merchandise brought 
 into its ports in Chilian vessels. 4. To give effect to 
 the foregoing article, the President of the republic 
 shall fix the amount of differential duties authorized 
 by the foregoing article. 
 
 Several decrees have been since issued regulating 
 the amount of these differential or countervailing du- 
 ties. Their principal points are : 1. Vessels of nations 
 that have not accepted the reciprocity law of July 16, 
 1850, shall pay, instead of 25 cents per ton of the ves- 
 sels' measurement, 75 cents per ton'. 2. Merchandise 
 imported in such vessels shall pay, in addition to ex- 
 isting duties, an additional duty of 6 per cent, ad va- 
 lorem. The President of the United States, by his 
 proclamation bearing date Noveinber 1, 1850, accepted 
 the reciprocity granted in the above-recited law and 
 decrees, and all restrictions and discriminations in the 
 commercial relations of the two countries have ceased 
 since that period. 
 
 The customs rates of the tariff of Chili are ad valo- 
 rem on a fixed valuation of the articles of merchandise. 
 By the 8th chapter, articles 2, 3, and 4, of the Chilian 
 custom-house ordinance, it is provided that the tariff 
 of values shall be adjusted by a commission of from 
 five to nine merchants and custom-house officials at 
 Valparaiso, subject to the approval of the government, 
 and the values thus fixed shall be in force one year 
 without change. — See Chitj. 
 
 Value. The exchangeable value of commodities, 
 depends, at any given period, partly on the compara- 
 tive facility of their production, and partly on^he re- 
 lation of the supply and demand. If any two or more 
 commodities respectively required the same outlay of 
 capital and labor to bring them to market, and if the 
 supply of each were adjusted exactly according to the 
 efifectual demand; that is, were they all in sufficient 
 abundance, and no more, to supply the wants of those 
 able and willing to pay the outlay upon them and the 
 ordinary rate of profit at the time, they would each 
 bring the same price, or be exchanged for the same 
 quantity of any other commodity. But if any single 
 commodity should happen to require more or less capi- 
 tal and labor for its production, while the quantity re- 
 quired to produce the others continued stationary, its 
 value, as compared with them, would in the first case 
 -rise, and in the second fall ; and, supposing the cost of 
 its production not to vary, its value might be increased 
 by a falling off in the supply, or by an increase of de- 
 mand, and conversely. But it is of importance to bear 
 in mind that all variations in price arising from any 
 disproportion in the supply and demand of such com- 
 modities as may be freeh' produced in indefinite quan- 
 tities are temporary only; while those that are occa- 
 sioned by change in the cost of their production are 
 permanent, at least as much so as the cause in which 
 they originate. Ageneral mourning occasions a tran- 
 sient rise in the price of black cloth ; but, supposing 
 that the fashion of wearing black were to continue, its 
 price would not permanently vary; for those who pre- 
 viously manufactured blue and brown cloths, etc., 
 would henceforth manufacture only black cloth ; and, 
 the supply being this way increased to the same extent 
 as the demand, the price would settle at its old level. 
 When the price of a freely produced commodity rises or 
 falls, such variation may evidently be occasioned either 
 by something affecting the commodity, or by something 
 affecting the value of money. ' But when, instead of be- 
 ing confined to one, the generality of commodities rise or 
 fall, the fair presumption is that the change is not in 
 them, but in the money with which they are compared. 
 Exclusive, however, of the commodities now alluded to, 
 there is a considerable class whose producers or holders 
 either enjoy an absolute o!*a partial monopoly of the sup- 
 ply. When such is the case, prices depend entirely or 
 principally on the proportion between the supply and 
 demand, and are not liable to be influenced, or only in a 
 secondary degree, by changes in the cost of production. 
 
VAN 
 
 1924 
 
 VAW 
 
 Prices have been often affected by variations in tlie 
 cost and supply of gold and silver, whether arising from 
 the exhaustion of old, or the discovery of new mines, 
 improvements in the art of mining, changes of fashion, 
 etc. Hence it is that tables of the prices of commodi- 
 ties, extending for a considerable period, communicate 
 far less solid information than is generally supposed, 
 and, unless the necessary allowances be made, may lead 
 to the most unfounded conclusions. The real value 
 of any commodity depends on the quantity of labor re- 
 quired for its production ; but supposing that we were 
 to set about inferring this real value, or the ultimate 
 sacrifice required to obtain the commodity, from its 
 price, it might happen (had the quantity of labor re- 
 quired for its production declined, but in a less degree 
 than the quantity required to produce gold and silver), 
 when its value would appear to rise when it had real- 
 ly diminished. "When, however, the rate of wages, as 
 well as the price of commodities, is given upon authen- 
 tic data, a table of prices is valuable, inasmuch as it 
 shows the extent of the command over the necessaries 
 and conveniences of life enjoyed by the bulk of the 
 community during the period through which it ex- 
 tends. Those desirous of detailed information as to 
 the prices of commodities in Great Britain in distant 
 times, may consult the elaborate tables in the third 
 volume of Sir F. M. Eden's worlc On the Poor^ and 
 the fourth volume of MacPhersos's Annals of Com- 
 merce. Arbxjthnot^s Tables of Ancient CoinSj Weights^ 
 Measures^ Prices^ etc., are well known, but the state- 
 ments are not much to be depended upon. The Traite 
 de MetrologU of M. Paucton (4to, Paris, 1780) is the 
 best work on this curious and difficult subject. See 
 also Tooke's History of Prices., vols, i.-vi., which is 
 the most complete history of prices extant. — See arti- 
 cles Commerce, Gold, Money, Pkices, etc. 
 
 Vancouver (or, more properly, Quadra and 
 Vancouver) Island, British North America, be- 
 tween lat. 48° ,20' and 51° K, and long. 123° and 128° 
 W., separated from the main land by Queen Charlotte 
 Sound and the. Gulf of Georgia. Length, northwest 
 to southeast, 300 miles ; greatest breadth, 75 miles. 
 Estimated area, 16,000 square miles; and population, 
 11,463. Surface mountainous, and richly wooded. On 
 its west coast are Nootka Sound, and many other har- 
 bors. This land was named in honor of George Van- 
 couver. This Britisli navigator was born about 1750. 
 He served as midshipman under Captain Cook, in his 
 second and thii'd voyages. In 1790 he was appointed 
 to command the expedition to explore the western 
 coast of North America, to ascertain whether any 
 navigable communication existed between the Atlan- 
 tic and Pacific oceans. Of this voyage, which occu- 
 pied from 1790 to 1795, he compiled an account, but 
 died before its entire completion, May 10, 1798. The 
 island is intersected by high mountain ranges, but it 
 has, notwithstanding, u considerable extent of level 
 and undulating land susceptible of cultivation. Soils 
 very various, being principally, however, of a friable 
 description. The best is a black vegetable mould, 
 producing a most luxuriant vegetation. Climate pe- 
 culiarly mild ; but in winter the rains, accompanied 
 with violent thunder-storms, are heavy, and almost in- 
 cessant. The baj's, rivers, and adjacent seas, swarm 
 with a variety of fish, including salmon, sturgeon, her- 
 rings, etc., with seals, sea-otters, tortoises, etc., and 
 they are also resorted to by whales. The harbors of 
 the island are consequently well situated for carrying 
 on an extensive and profitable fishery, and well fitted 
 for ship-building. The mineral riclies of the island 
 have been very imperfectly explored. Beds of coal 
 are to be met with in its northeast parts. In various 
 localities the beds have been found cropping out at the 
 surface, and large supplies have been obtained with 
 but little difficulty and little expense. The native in- 
 habitants subsist principally by hunting and fishing, 
 especially the latter, and by cultivating the potato. 
 
 They are remarkable for indolence and filth ; their 
 heads are flattened when young by artificial means ; 
 and their legs are ill formed, those of the women being 
 frequently swollen. A settlement established by the 
 English at Nootka Sound in 1788 was suppressed in 
 the following year by the Spaniards, an outrage which 
 nearly occasioned a war with Spain. Since then it- 
 has been almost wholly neglected, till within these 
 few years that some establishments have been formed 
 upon it by the Hudson's Bay Company. Latterly it 
 has been proposed to make it the site of a colony that 
 should prosecute the seal and whale fishery, for which; 
 as already stated, it is supposed to be peculiarly well 
 situated ; and, with a view to the realizing of this 
 project, it has been made over to the Hudson's Bay 
 Company, on condition of their establishing a colony 
 within its limits in the course of the five years follow- 
 ing 1848. Coal is procured at the settlement of Na- 
 naimo, where the Hudson's Bay Company have made 
 a large purchase of land and commenced an extensive 
 coal work. Two valuable beds of coal, varying from 
 five to seven feet in thickness, are found within 100 
 feet of the surface ; the coal is bituminous, and is great- 
 ly prized for domestic consumption and for steaming 
 purposes. The produce of these w^orlts may be in- 
 creased, by increasing the number of hands, to any 
 desirable extent. Another source of wealth and en- 
 terprise may be found in the magnificent ship spars 
 produced on Vancouver's Island, which, in point of 
 size and comparative streng,th, are probably the most 
 valuable in the world, and may be procured in any 
 number, even were the demand to include the supply 
 of spars for the whole British navy. The oil exported 
 from this colony is procured from the native tribes in- 
 habiting the west coast of Vancouver's Island, and is 
 manufactured by them from the whale and dog-fish ; 
 it is of excellent quality, and has a high character in 
 California, where it brings from two to three dollars a 
 gallon, in consequence of its retaining its fluidity and 
 burning freely in the coldest weather. It is estimated 
 that a quantity equal to 10,000 gallons was purchased 
 from the natives of the west coast last year ; and, con- 
 sidering the imperfect means they possess for taking 
 the fish and trying out the oil, it is not unreasonable 
 to propose that with the use of proper means the re- 
 turns of oil would be greatly increased. The oil trade 
 is carried on by a few enterprising individuals who 
 live among the Indians, and collect the article as it is 
 manufactured by the natives. The number of siiips 
 with cargoes which between July 5, 1854, and July 5, 
 1855, entered inward was 25 ; tonnage, 4054. In bal- 
 last, 3; tonnage, 260. Cleared outward with cargoes, 
 16 ; tonnage, 2350. In ballast, 9 ; tonnage, 1353. Port 
 Victoria has five vessels belonging- to if, and Vancou- 
 ver's Island is a rising and flourishing little colony, all 
 the more to be cherished as its people seem to be on 
 good terms with the natives and encourage then-i in 
 industrial pursuits. 
 
 Van Diemen's Land, or Tasmania, a large 
 island belonging to Great Britain, forming part of 
 Australia, lying between lat. 41° 20' and 43° 30' S., 
 and long. 144° 40' and 148° 20' W. It is supposed to 
 contain about 27,000 square miles. This land was dis- 
 covered by the Dutch navigator Tasman in 1642, and 
 was named in honor of Anthony Van Diemen, at that 
 time governor-general of the Dutch possessions in the 
 East Indies ; but it is now frequently called Tasmania, 
 from its discoverer. Previously to 1798, it was sup- 
 posed to form part of New Holland, but it was then 
 ascertained to ije an island. It -was taken possession 
 of by the British in 1803 ; and in 1804 Hobart Town, 
 the capital, was founded. The surface is generally 
 hilly and mountainous ; but though none of the land 
 be of the first quality, there are several moderately 
 fertile plains, and a good deal of the hilly ground is 
 susceptible of being cultivated. On the whole, how- 
 ever, it is not supposed that more than about a third 
 
VAN 
 
 1925 
 
 VAK 
 
 part of the entire surface of the island can he consider- 
 ed arable ; but about a third more may be advanta- 
 geously used as sheep pasture. As compared with 
 New Holland, it is well watered. The climate, though 
 variable, is, generally speaking, good, and suitable for 
 European constitutions ; and it is not exposed to the 
 tremendous droughts that occasion so much mischief 
 in New South Wales. Wheat is raised in considera- 
 ble quantities ; though wool is at present the staple 
 produce of the colony. Van Diemen's Land, like New 
 South Wales, was originally intended to serve as a 
 penal colony, and it received between 1823 and 1850 
 no fewer than 68,243 convicts. It has also received, 
 especially of late years, large numbers of free settlers. 
 In 1850 the total population of the island, exclusive of 
 aborigines, who perhaps do not exceed 3000 or 4000, 
 amounted to 70,194. Of these, 45,916 were free, and 
 24,188 convicts. For some considerable time bade 
 
 great dissatisfaction was felt by the colonists at the 
 continued importation of convicts ; and latterly very 
 vigoroijs measures were taken to effect its suppres- 
 sion. For this purpose it was in 1852-63 finally aban- 
 doned. In truth, after the discovery of the gold-fields 
 in the adjoining continent, it could no longer be con- 
 tinued. 
 
 Trade of Van Diemen's Land. — Hardware, haber- 
 dashery, apparel, cotton and linen goods, woolens, 
 malt liquor, spirits, wine, etc., form the principal arti- 
 cles of import. Here, as in New South Wales, wool 
 forms by far the most important article of export ; next 
 to it is whale-oil, and then follows wheat and flour, 
 live stock, timber, whalebone, mimosa bark, and vari- 
 ous less important articles. The usual excess of the 
 imports over the exports is accounted for by the re- 
 mittances to defray the cost of the convict establish- 
 ment. 
 
 Ponn-ATioK, Tkade, etc, or Van Diemen's Land feom 1839 to 1848, both inoltisite. 
 
 Yean. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Value 0! 
 Imports., 
 
 Value of 
 Exports. 
 
 ■ Shipping. 
 
 Total ordinary 
 Hevenuo. 
 
 Inward. 
 
 Outward. 
 
 1839 
 
 44,121 
 46,057 
 51,499 
 58,902 
 
 .... 
 
 76,194 
 
 £ 
 748,887 
 988,356 
 851,981 
 687,463 
 705,260 
 442,983 
 620,562 
 561,238 
 724,693 
 694,154 
 
 875,165 
 867,007 
 630,501 
 532,600 
 439,890 
 408,799 
 4-22,218 
 682,685 
 6.10,876 
 400,281 
 
 Tonnage. 
 79,2SS 
 85,081 
 84,214 
 82,983 
 92,501 
 68,462 
 73,294 
 74,7E5 
 86,940 
 91,888 
 
 Tonnage. 
 77,656 
 86,701 
 85,201 
 83,806 
 88,984 
 73,756 
 71,422 
 79 430 
 85,861 
 86,988 
 
 136,768 
 
 126,210 
 
 121,733 
 
 121,725 
 
 110,271 
 
 151,136 
 
 128,881 ■ 
 
 107,936 
 
 150,474 
 
 129,645 
 
 1840 
 
 1841 
 
 1S42 
 
 1843 
 
 1844 
 
 1845 
 
 1816 
 
 1847 
 
 1848 
 
 The trade between the United States and Van Die- 
 men's Land commenced in 1834, in which yoar our ex- 
 ports amounted to $7120, and from that period up to 
 1847 averaged annually upward of $20,000; while our 
 imports from that colony during the same period did 
 not exceed an annual average amount of $7000. — See 
 article Australia. 
 
 'Vanilla, the fruit of the Epidendrum vanilla, a 
 species of vine extensively cultivated in Mexico. It 
 has a trailing stem, not unlike the common ivy, but 
 not so woody, which attaches itself to any tree that 
 grows near it. The Indians propagate it by planting 
 cuttings at the foot of trees selected for that purpose. 
 It rises to the height of eighteen or twenty feet ; the 
 flowers are of a greenish yellow color, mixed with 
 white ; the fruit is about eight or ten inches long, of a 
 yellow color when gathered, but dark brown or black 
 when imported into Europe; it is wrinkled on the out- 
 side, and full of a vast number of seeds like grains of 
 sand, having, when properly prepared, a peculiar and 
 delicious fragrance. It is principally used for mixing 
 with and perfuming chocolate ; and is, on that account, 
 largely imported into Spain. Vanilla is principally 
 gathered in the intendanoy of Vera Cruz, in Mexico, 
 at Misantla, Colipa, Vacuatla, and other places. It is 
 collected by the Indians, who sell it to the whites (gente 
 de razon), who prepare it for market. They spread it 
 to dry in the sun for some hours, then wrap it in wool- 
 en cloths to sweat. Like pepper, it changes its color 
 in this operation — becoming almost black. It is final- 
 ly di-ied by exposing it to the sun for a day. There 
 are four varieties of vanilla, all differing in price and 
 excellence ; viz., the vanilla Jina, the zcicate, the reza- 
 caie, and the vasura. The best comes from the forests 
 surrounding the village of Zentila, in the intendanoy 
 of Oaxaca. According to Humboldt, the mean expor- 
 tation of vanilla from Vera Cruz may amount to from 
 900 to 1000 millares, worth at Vera Cruz from 30,000 
 to 40,000 dollars. Vanilla is also imported from Brazil, 
 but it is very inferior. The finest Mexican vanilla is 
 extremely high priced.— S«e Hdmboldt, JVouvelle Es- 
 pagne ; Poinsett's Notes on Mexico. 
 
 ■Variation of the Compass, the angle which 
 the magnetic needle makes with the plane of the true 
 meridian. It is otherwise called the declination. — See 
 Compass. For tables showing the variation in a great 
 
 number of places, and its progressive, annual, and 
 diurnal changes, see Brewster's Treatise on Magnet- 
 ism, 1837, reprinted from the Encyclopcedia Britannica. 
 Varnish (Fr. Vernis'), a fluid which, when spread 
 thin upon a solid surface, becomes dry, and forms a 
 coating impervious to air and moisture. There are 
 two kinds of varnish, namely, spirit and oil varnishes : 
 rectified alcohol is used for the former; and for the 
 latter fixed and volatile oils, or mixture of the two. 
 The solid substances dissolved in the above menstrua, 
 and which constitute what is termed the body of the var- 
 ni.sh, are almost exclusively resinous, and are chiefly the 
 following : 1. Turpentine, all the varieties of which are 
 employed by the varnisher: they form an excellent 
 body, and give strength and glossiness at a small ex- 
 pense ; but they do not dry without other additions. 
 2. Copal, a peculiar resin, very dif^cult to dissolve, btit 
 forming a hard and duraljle ingredient. It is general- 
 ly melted over a gentle fire previous to use. 3. Lac, 
 which gives great toughness and hardness ; but is often 
 inadmissible, on account of its reddish-brown color. 
 4. Mastic, which yields a tough, hard, brilliant, and 
 colorless varnish. 5. Elemi, a resin of a pale yellow 
 green tint, and a valuable ingredient, on account of its 
 toughness and durability. 6. Sandarach, a resin which 
 imparts splendor, but which alone is hot durable. 7. 
 Amier, a valuable ingredient, on account of its hard- 
 ness and durability; but difficult of transparent solu- 
 tion, and hence chiefly used in opaque varnishes. 8. 
 Benzoin, added on account of its fragrancy. 9. Anime, 
 which gives brilliancy and some scent. 10. Gamboge, 
 for yellow varnishes. 11. Dragon's Hood, iof red var- 
 nish. These, together with turmeric, saflVon, and an- 
 notta, are chiefly used on account of their color, and to 
 cover brass and copper under the name of lacquers. 
 12. Caoutchouc : this extraordinary vegetable product 
 has of late been much employed in a variety of prepa- 
 rations used as varnishes. It is invaluable where 
 materials are to be rendered air-tight, as balloons, for 
 example, and where at the same time flexibility, and 
 even elasticity, are required ; but its principal ap- 
 plication in this way is in the manufacture of various 
 waterproof articles. 13. Asphaltum, the varieties of 
 which are indispensable in black oil varnishes. In 
 making spirit varnishes, the strongest alcohol of com- 
 merce should be used (of a specific gravity not exceed- 
 
VEL 
 
 1926 
 
 VEN 
 
 ing 820), and its solvent power over some of the more 
 intractable resins is sometimes improved by the addi- 
 tion of a little camphor. In order to prevent the agglu- 
 tination of the resin, it is often requisite to mix it with 
 sand or pounded glass, by which the surface is much 
 increased, and the solvent energy of the spirit facili- 
 tated. The proportions in wh^ch the several ingredi- 
 ents are used, and the selections for particular pur- 
 poses, are infinitely various. The following are a few 
 good varnishes, in illustration of their varieties : 1. 
 Sph'it Vai^ish. — Sandarach 4 oz., seed lac 2 oz., elemi 
 loz. ; digest the whole in a quart of moderately warm 
 alcohol, and when dissolved add Venice turpentine 2 
 oz. 2. Lac Varnish. — Seed lac 8 oz. ; digest for four 
 days in a warm place with a quart of alcohol, and then 
 strain through flannel. 3. Turpentine Varnish. — ^Mastic 
 12 oz., mixed with 5 oz. of pounded glass, and digested 
 in a quart of oil of turpentine, adding at intervals 
 about half an ounce of camphor in small pieces. When 
 the mastic is dissolved, add to the warm flaid an ounce 
 and a half of previously liquefied Venice turpentine, 
 and stir the whole together. 4. Copal Varnish. — Copal 
 which has been previously melted by gentle heat 3 oz., 
 oil of turpentine 20 oz. (measure): put the oil into a 
 flask placed in boiling water, and add the powdered 
 copal in small portions at a time, so that it may be 
 gradually dissolved; let it stand a few days to clear, 
 andthen pour it off, and if too thick for use, add to it 
 a little warm oil of turpentine. This varnish dries 
 slowly, but is very durable. — See article Paints. 
 Vellum, a species of fine parchment. — See Paech- 
 
 HEST. 
 
 Velvet, a rich kind of stuff all silk, covered on the 
 outside with a close, short, fine, soft shag, the other side 
 being a very strong, close tissue. The nap or shag, call- 
 ed also the velveting of this stufl', isformedof partof the 
 threads of the warp, which the workman puts on a long 
 narrow-channeled ruler or needle, which he afterward 
 cuts by drawing a sharp steel tool along the channel 
 of the needle to the ends of the warp. Florence, Genoa, 
 and some other cities of Italy, are most noted for the 
 manufacture of velvet. There are cotton velvets manu- 
 factured in imitation of the silk ones in England. 
 
 Venezuela, arepublic of SouthAmerica; its terri- 
 tory lies chiefly between lat. 2° and 12° N., and long. 
 60° and 73° W., having on the east British Guiana, on 
 the south Brazil, on the west New Granada, and on 
 the north the Caribbean Sea. The chief wealth of 
 Venezuela consists in its rich and extensive pastures, 
 its mines of the precious metals, and of lead, iron, cop- 
 per, etc., and its valuable forest timber. The agricul- 
 tural and other products of the country which enter 
 into its foreign commerce as articles of export are 
 coflfee, cocoa, cured hides, indigo, fustic, tobacco, cot- 
 ton, cattle, mules and horses, and specie. These form 
 the basis of the foreign commerce of Venezuela, and 
 are exchanged for tissues of cotton, thread, silk, and 
 wool ; flour, provisions, hardware, soap, furniture, glass- 
 ware, brandies, wines, etc. Conformably to the law 
 of May 6, 1849, the ports open to foreign commerce are 
 divided into three classes, namely: ports open for im- 
 portation and exportation ; ports open for importation 
 for local consumption only, and for exportation ; ports 
 open for exportation only. This organization was 
 simplified by a decree of April 15, 1854, of which the 
 following is a translation : 
 
 Ciudad Bolivar, in the province of Guiana ; La Guay- 
 ra, in that of Caraccas ; Puerto Cabello, in that of 
 Carabobo ; La Vela, in that of Coro ; Maracaibo and 
 Barcelona, in the two provinces bearing those names, 
 are declared ports open to commerce, both for importa- 
 tion and exportation, without any restriction. Cuma- 
 na, Carupano, Cariaquito, and Barrancas, in the prov- 
 ince of Cumana ; Pampatar and Juan Griego, in the 
 province of Marguerita ; Soledad, in the province of 
 Barcelona; and Cumarebo, in that of Coro, are de- 
 clared ports open to commerce for importation for local 
 
 consumption only, and for exportation. The custom- 
 houses of the ports open for importation for local con- 
 sumption only can not clear, under a certificate, for- 
 eign produce for other ports, open or not to commerce, 
 except the custom-houses of Cumana, Carupano, and 
 Cariaquito, which are allowed to deliver cockets (cer- 
 tificates of cargo), the two former for the ports of Cari- 
 aco and Rio Caribe, the others for the ports of Irapa 
 and Yaguarapara. 
 
 In the year 1803 the exports of Venezuela were es- 
 timated at a value of nearly $7,000,000 ; of this amount 
 La Guayra exported $2,500,000, Cumana and Barce- 
 lona $1,500,000, Maracaibo and Angostura $1,000,000, 
 Carupano and the smaller ports the remainder. These 
 amounts are in Venezuelan currency — in which all 
 values, derived from Venezuelan official sources, are 
 generally stated. The dollar of the United States is 
 equivalent in value to $1 Zi% in the present currency 
 of Venezuela. The dollar of Mexico, Peru, Chili, Cen- 
 tral America, and of Cuba, is that of the United States. 
 
 Internal Commerce. — The Elver Orinoco is now navi- 
 gated as high up as Nutrias, in the province of Vari- 
 nas ; and the productions of the fertile countries water- 
 ed by this magnificent river are thus added to the com- 
 mercial wealth of the republic. A recent communica- 
 tion from Puerto Cabello affords the following facts : 
 " Several mercantile firms of Puerto Cabello have ap- 
 plied for and obtained from the Congress of Venezuela 
 a charter for a railroad to run nearly west from that 
 city — 54 miles — to San Felipe, in the province of Bar- 
 quisimeto. The estimated cost is $1,400,000 (United 
 States currency), exclusive of land, which, for the most 
 part, will be afforded free of expense. The govern- 
 ment gives all the public land and timber which may 
 be required, either for the road or buildings, and ad- 
 mits the tools, iron, etc., free of duty ; subscribes for 
 $186,916 of the stock ($250,000 in Venezuelan cur- 
 rency). The provinces of Barquisimeto and Corabobo 
 together take $67,290 of the stock. Of the grades, 70 
 per cent, will ha below 80 feet to the mile, and only 5 
 per cent, above 50 feet. There will be 15 bridges, es- 
 timated to cost $104,590. The charter is to continue 
 40 years as an exclusive privilege, and 40 years more 
 the right of property in the road is guaranteed to the 
 company; after which it reverts to the government. 
 The road must be commenced within two years from 
 1st July, 1855, and be completed within four years from 
 the date of its commencement. John Dougherty, of 
 New York, chief engineer of the road, estimates the 
 annual net income at $242,222. San Felipe is situ- 
 ated on the Yariciu River, and is a commanding point 
 for the collection of the products of the interior. Puer- 
 to Cabello is the best harbor in Venezuela." 
 
 The provinces of Varinas, Apure, and the two Guy- 
 anas, are now brought into direct communication with 
 the sea ; and by the establishment, in 1845, of a line 
 of steamers under the auspices of a company from the 
 United States, specially chartered by the Venezuelan 
 government, and by means of the 240 sailing vessels, 
 with a capacity of 36,000 tons, which annually ascend 
 as high as Angostura (Ciudad Bolivar), some 250 miles 
 from the sea, there is but little room to doubt that 
 Venezuela is about to enter upon a career of commer- 
 cial prosperity. At present, the annual exports from 
 Apure and Varinas consist of dry hides (about 100,000), 
 buckskins, coffee, cotton, indigo, cocoa ; and from the 
 latter province between 1,000,000 and 2,000,000 pounds 
 of tobacco. The value of this trade to the United 
 States will be perceived, when it is known that nearly 
 all the hides offered in the Venezuelan markets are 
 taken by this country. 
 
 The value of the'total trade of Venezuela for the 
 fiscal year ending June 30, 1845, has' already been 
 given. For the year ending December 31, 1845, it 
 reached a total of $8,021,040, and the navigation em- 
 ployed 3209 vessels, measuring in the aggregate 190,732 
 tons. 
 
YEN 
 
 1927 
 
 YEN 
 
 COMUEBCE OP THE UmITBD StaTEB WITH VeNEZITBLA, FEOM OoTOBEE 1, 1838, TO JULY 1, 1857. 
 
 Vwneniiog 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Whereof tlierewM in 
 Bullion and Specie. 
 
 Tonnage cleared. 1 
 
 Dotnentic. Foreign. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Export. 
 
 Import. 
 
 American. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 SBi)t. 30,1839 
 
 1840;.- 
 
 Total... 
 
 Sept. 30, 1841 
 
 1842 
 
 9mos., 1843* 
 
 June 80(1844 
 
 1845 
 
 1846 
 
 1847 
 
 184S 
 
 1849 
 
 , 1850 
 
 Total... 
 
 June30,1851'.. 
 
 1852....... 
 
 ,, 1853., 
 
 1854 
 
 1855....... 
 
 1853.. .i.;. 
 
 1807 
 
 $4iy,246 
 554,267 
 
 $27-2,736 
 229,605 
 
 $685, tS I 
 T,W,872 
 
 $1,982,702 
 1,355,166 
 
 $104,482 
 73,957 
 
 S35,041 
 27,621 
 
 9,2-11 
 9,386 
 
 1,560 
 920 
 
 $C67,512 
 
 $532,419 
 499,380 
 483,077 
 442,491 
 635,546 
 684,069 
 571,474 
 400^230 
 431,421 
 678,462 
 
 $502,341 
 
 $230,083 
 
 166,832 
 
 100,425 
 
 88,741 
 
 1^9,585 
 
 197,478 
 
 43,739 
 
 62,798 
 
 106,213 
 
 340,008 
 
 $1,469,853 
 
 $762,502 
 660,213 
 583,602 
 531,232 
 725,130 
 781,547 
 615,213 
 463,028 
 537.634 
 
 1,018,470 
 
 $3,337,868 
 
 $2,012,004 
 1,544,342 
 1,191,280 
 1,423,479 
 1,268,276 
 1,609,000 
 1,322,496 
 1,226,611 
 1,413,096 
 1,920,247 
 
 $185,192 
 
 $145,717 
 71,222 
 21,033 
 45,333 
 152,621 
 164,043 
 7,945 
 38,611 
 132,382 
 490,439 
 
 $62,662 
 
 $3,168 
 27,676 
 95,'816' 
 
 5,05S 
 19,448 
 
 2,959 
 42,409 
 73,517 
 65,870 
 49,730 
 
 18,627 
 
 9,630 
 9,742 
 8,030 
 8,835 
 10,733 
 11,125 
 10,800 
 7,631 
 8,420 
 8,509 
 
 2,470 
 
 1,284 . 
 3,211 
 884 
 1,839 
 1,117 
 1,244 
 ■ 630 
 1,815 
 1,157 
 2,6.7 
 
 $5,158,668 
 
 $861,779 
 726,024 
 749,859 
 
 1,131,604 
 
 1,162,604 
 . 1,643,621 
 
 1,360,148 
 
 $1,525,902 . 
 
 $189,746 
 67,389 
 94,668 
 69,279 
 70,845 
 69,153 • 
 67,430, 
 
 $6,084,470 
 
 $1,044,626 
 793,413 
 844,627 
 1,200,833 
 1,233,449 
 1,712.774 
 1.427,578 
 
 $14,829,830 
 
 $2,380,295 
 1,121,864 
 2,613,780 
 3,072,649 
 3,616,869- 
 ' 4,202,692 
 . 3,860,518 
 
 $1,259,196 
 
 $422,075 
 ■ 94,972 
 257,454 
 400,828 
 270,464 
 '' . 566,970. 
 ,336,100 
 
 ^385,731 
 
 $36,584 
 22,521 
 11,S39 
 66,861 
 9,685 
 22,832 
 36,148 
 
 93,355 
 
 11,761 
 11,244 
 12,001 
 12,263 
 15,087 
 25,618 
 17,703 
 
 18,568 
 
 ■2,891 
 3,109 
 1,789. 
 4,074' 
 4,3^9 
 1,637 
 2,(183 
 
 Nine months to June 30, and the fiscal year from this time begins July 1. 
 
 Commehob op Venezuela 
 
 m THE 
 
 rsAES 1851-'62. 
 
 Contrtriefl. ' ' 
 
 VeaielB. , 
 
 Toonsgo. 1 
 
 Enl^i^ed. 
 
 Cleared. 
 
 Entered. 
 
 Cleared. 
 
 
 ■■3" 
 1 
 9 
 
 43. 
 
 88 
 
 42 
 
 46 
 124 
 5lS 
 
 i96 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 'io 
 
 . 49 , 
 
 37 
 
 -'87 
 
 .■58 
 
 , 103. 
 
 ,1073 
 
 ■ 2 
 
 4- 
 
 1 ,. 
 
 W 
 
 "676 
 
 203 
 
 2,015 
 
 -14,267 
 
 9,621 
 
 ' 6,059 
 
 19,112 
 
 23,777 
 
 23,033 
 
 10,307 
 44 
 
 474 
 
 ,i',895 
 
 11,680 . 
 
 3,350 
 
 11,224 
 
 10,876 
 
 31,374 
 
 31,829 
 
 826 
 
 472 
 
 22 
 
 10,788 
 
 
 
 
 Hanse Xowns 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Spain - 
 
 
 Dnited States 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 Ha^ti and St. Domingo 
 Me.\ico ;... 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 Otlier places 
 
 Total 1S61-' 62... 'i 
 
 1069 
 
 1651 
 
 100,004 
 
 113,810 
 
 Foreign Tpade ov Venezuela, tub Nations tabtioipa- 
 
 TIjNG THEEEIN, THE ShABE ASSIGNED TO EAO^, AND THE 
 
 Amount ov Duties paid bt eaoh ITlag dubing the Veae 
 1864. i 
 
 Countriea. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Import Duties. 
 
 United Slates 
 
 Hanse Towns. 
 
 $1,180,445 
 
 ■ 783,005 
 
 1,649,813 
 
 632,712 
 
 873.680 
 
 253,073 
 
 261,659 
 
 2,682 
 
 27,710 
 
 27,2li9 
 
 $2,420,936 
 
 1,197,035 
 
 273,212 
 
 1,077,592 
 
 408,416 
 
 1,078,272 
 
 441,624 
 
 1(16,0U6 
 
 33,811 
 
 $313,679 
 
 295,917 
 
 712,870 
 
 221,954 
 
 201,630 
 
 96,278 
 
 76,263 
 
 9 
 
 11,340 
 
 8,018 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ofclier coiintries 
 
 Venezuelan currency 
 Or, ill XT. S. oun-oncy 
 
 $5,692,333 
 4,248,500 
 
 $r,139,804 
 5,328,200 
 
 $1,936,943 
 1,445,479 
 
 During the same year there entered the different 
 ports of Venezuela 262 vessels, measuring an aggregate 
 of 11,608 tons ; and there cleared 392 vessels, with an 
 aggregate of 17,645 tons — all under the national flag. 
 Of foreign vessels there entered 494 vessels, measuring 
 in all 76,760 tons ; and there cleared 743 vessels, with 
 an aggregate of 98,152 tons— making a total of 1237 
 vessels, and an aggregate of 174,912 tons, under for- 
 eign flags. 
 
 The Culture and Exportat^ of Cotton.— Notwith- 
 standing many portions of the republic of Venezuela 
 are well adapted to the culti»ation of the cotton-plant, 
 this branch of industry haf been gradually declining 
 during the past ten years. This has been attributed 
 prlnoipally.totwo causes: 1st. The want of roads, or 
 other artificial means of transportation, which reduces 
 the planters to the -necessity of employing mules to con- 
 vey their, produce to market; thus absorbing all the 
 profit which this branch of indi^stry might; otherwise 
 realize. 2d. The superior inducements which, the cul- 
 tivation of coffee, . cocoa, and other tropical produce 
 offer, as respects the amount of labor bestoived on their 
 
 production, the expense of transportation to market, 
 and the price which such produce usually commands. 
 To these may be added the superior quality, of these 
 latter prpducts, for which Venezuela has acquired a 
 high reputation ^n the markets of the world. 
 
 All cotton textiles which are consumed in the re- 
 public are Imported from foreign countries. Ftom the 
 1st July, 1849, to the 36th June, 1850, the total value of 
 cottons imported amounted to $253,586, namely : in na- 
 tional vessels, $26,464 ; and in foreign vessels, $227,122. 
 During the same period, the exports of raw cotton 
 reached 660,117 lbs., valued at $44,248, viz. : in na- 
 tional vessels, 95,200 lbs., valued at $5810; and in for- 
 eign vessels, 564,917 lbs., valiied at $38,438. The ports 
 from which raw cotton was exported in 1849-50, to- 
 gether with the quantities exported during that period, 
 were as follows : ' 
 
 Puerto Cabello 461,924 pounds. 
 
 Maturin 98,200 " 
 
 LaGuayra. 90,693 " 
 
 La Vela 4,.50O " 
 
 Ciudad Bolivar 2,800 " 
 
 Kio Coribe 2,000 " 
 
 From the above it will be perceived that, out of the 
 fifteen ports of Venezuela, no cotton was exported fi'om 
 nine ; among them being two of the most important — 
 CumanU and Maracaibo — although the provinces of 
 Cumana and Maracaibo are not only very extensive, 
 but emineptly adapted to the cultivation of this arti- 
 cle. The species of cotton cultivated in Venezuela is 
 what is denominated the long staple (blapk seed) of 
 Louisiana and Georgia, and 'was introduced from the 
 United States. 
 
 Commercial Megulations, — All foreign nations enjoy 
 equal commercial privileges in Venezuela. Treaties 
 exist between the republic and most of the govern- 
 ments of Europe and America. That with the United 
 States was ratified May 31, 1836, and was to continue 
 in force twelve years, with the usual twelve months' 
 notice after that period. Such notice not having been 
 given by either party, its provisions still continue in 
 force. This treaty guarantees entire reciprocity and"^ 
 perfect liberty of trade, direct and indirect, between 
 the two republics ; and stipulates that all favors to 
 other nations in respect of commerce and navigation, 
 granted by either party, shall immediately become 
 common to the other. Under the provisions of this 
 treaty, and the commercial legislation of Venezuela, 
 Uitited States vessels enjoy the same privileges, and 
 are subject to the same restrictions^ as those of all other 
 nations. American trade, however, would, it is thought, 
 rest upon a firmer basis, and might be greatly extend- 
 ed by a new treaty with that republic, better adapted 
 to the exigencies of present commercial relations than 
 
YEN 
 
 1928 
 
 VEN 
 
 that of 1836, entered into in the very infancy, political 
 as well as commercial, of Venezuela. 
 
 In 1840, four years after the ratification of this treaty, 
 the United States exported to that country 20,034 bar- 
 rels of flour, valued at $147,304. In 1854 our ex- 
 ports of that article reached 40,097 barrels, valued at 
 $318,732; showing an increase in the quantity and 
 value of that oue article, which we exchanged for the 
 hides, coffee, and indigo of Venezuela, of 100 per cent. 
 
 The hides imported into the United States in 1840 
 amounted in value to $288,372. In 1854 they reached 
 as high as $1,623,695; showing an increase, in that 
 single article of our imports, of over 400 per cent. A 
 more liberal tariff of duties on our flour and cotton goods 
 in the ports of Venezuela would continue to augment 
 still more largely this growing trade. The justice of 
 such a measure will be obvious when it is considered 
 that the principal article which the United States im- 
 port from Venezuela (hides) is subject in our ports to 
 a duty of 5 per cent, only; while the principal arti- 
 cle which we furnisli in exchange (flour) is taxed in 
 its ports with a duty of $4 per barrel, which, at a value 
 of from |12 to .$16 per barrel (its average price in the 
 Venezuelan markets), is equal to 25 @ 30^ per cent., 
 besides sundry other duties which are superadded be- 
 fore the article can get into marlcet. These facts are 
 sufficiently suggestive without further comment. Du- 
 ties are levied on a valuation basis, though many ar- 
 ticles in the tariff are liable to specific duties. In- 
 stead of specifying each extra charge separately, these 
 heavy imposts can be best illustrated by an actual 
 case : 
 
 Custom duties on 100 barrels American flour landed 
 at the port of La G-uayi-a, at $4 per barrel import 
 duty $400 00 
 
 10 per cent, on amount of duties on account of late 
 internal war 40 00 
 
 2 per cent, on amount of duties for wharfage 8 80 
 
 a per cent, road tax 8 80 
 
 $457 60 
 20 per cent, on aggregate amount ; contribution ex- 
 traordinary 91 52 
 
 $549 12 
 
 } per cent, for the new church on $4BT 60 2 29 
 
 Total duties, extras, etc $551 41 
 
 Navigation Dues. 
 
 Tonnage duties $0 37i per ton = $0 26 (U. S. our'y.) 
 
 Anchorage IS " =^ 12 " 
 
 Water 12 " = 9 " 
 
 Light-house 6 " = 4^ " 
 
 Entrance 7 " =: 5 " 
 
 Clearance 2 00 " = 154 " 
 
 To captain of the port. . 3 00 " =2 25 
 
 To health officer 3 00 " =2 25 " 
 
 To interpreter 3 00 " =2 25 " 
 
 The ton is Venezuelan measurement, generally 12J^ 
 per cent, more than that of the United States. The 
 value of Venezuelan money differs considerably, as al- 
 ready noted, from that of the other South American 
 states, though of the same denomination. The follow- 
 ing are tlie legal values of some of the foreign coins in 
 circulation in Venezuela, as fixed by the law of May 
 30, 1848 : 
 
 One dollar of the United States equal to $1 841- 
 
 One dollar of Peru equal to 1 34j 
 
 One dollar of Mexico equal to 1 34^ 
 
 live-franc piece of France equal to 1 25 
 
 One shilling of Great Biitain equal to 3H 
 
 One guinea of Great Britain equal to 6 50 
 
 —Com. Ret U. S. 
 
 Articles noted free in the tariff pay, in lieu of all ex- 
 tras, 15 per cent. One of the greatest impediments 
 heretofore existing to the increase of American trade 
 with Venezuela was the restriction imposed on the 
 transitage of American merchandise imported express- 
 ly for the marlcets of New Granada. Some years since, 
 Maraoaibo was declared a place of deposit for such mer- 
 chandise — a measure of the greatest importance to com- 
 merce, as nearly half the imports at that port are des- 
 tined for San Jose de Cucuta, in New Granada. The 
 privilege thus granted was subsequently rendered nu- 
 
 gatory by severe restrictions and onerous duties. A 
 more liberal decree, however, has very lately been pro- 
 mulgated (August 10, 1855), which must necessarily 
 largely augment the imports into Venezuela, and thus 
 promote the general commerce of the republic. — See 
 articles Cakaccas and La Guayra. 
 
 Venice (It. Venezia; Ger. Venedio; ancient, Vene- 
 tia), a fortified city of Austrian Italy, formerly the capi- 
 tal of the republic of that name, on a cluster of Small 
 islands toward the northern extremity of the Adriatic, 
 in lat. 45° 25' 53" N., long. 12° 20' 31" E. Population 
 in 1851 about 123,000. The commerce of Venice, once 
 the most extensive of any European city, is now com- 
 paratively trifling; and the population is gradually 
 diminisliing both in numbers and in wealth. Her im- 
 ports consist of wheat and other sorts of grain from the 
 adjoining provinces of Lombardy and the Black Sea ; 
 olive-oil, principally from the Ionian Islands; cotton 
 stuffs and hardware from England ; sugar, coffee, and 
 other colonial products from England, the United States, 
 Brazil, etc. ; dried fish, dye-stuffs, etc. The exports 
 principally consist of grain, raw and wrought silk, silk 
 goods, glass wares, books, paper, woolen manufactures, 
 fruits, cheese, etc., the products of the adjoining prov- 
 inces of Italy, and of her own industry ; but her manu- 
 factures, so famous in the Middle Ages, are now much 
 decayed. The origin of Venice dates from the period 
 of the invasion of Attila in 452, when a number of the 
 inhabitants of Venetia, and other parts of Italy, taking 
 refuge in the islands of the Adriatic, formed a confed- 
 eration to oppose the barbarians. In 697 they elected, 
 as the head of their government, a doge or duke (dux). 
 The Venetian states formed themselves into a republic 
 in 809. In 997 they took possession of the town of 
 Narenta, a nest of pirates, and thus commenced their 
 maritime power ; they afterward subjugated all the 
 towns of Dalmatia. The crusades were a source of 
 aggrandizement for Venice. At the end of the 12th 
 century, the Venetians made themselves masters of 
 part of the Morea, Corfu, Cephalonia, and Crete. Dur- 
 ing two centuries they monopolized the commerce of 
 India by the route of Egypt ; but they lost this on the 
 discovery of the passage by the Cape of Good Hope. 
 The state attained tlie height of its prosperity in the 
 15th century. It began to decline at the beginning 
 of the 16tli centurj', and its overthrow was completed 
 by the French in 1797, By the treaty of Presburg in 
 1805, it was made over, with the provinces of the con- 
 tinent, to the kingdom of Italy, and was held by the 
 French till 1814, when it reverted to Austria. In 1848 
 the Venetians revolted against the Austrians, and held 
 the city for several months. The government of Venice 
 comprises eight delegations, which bear the names of 
 their capitals: Venice, Padua, Vicenza, Verona, Rovi- 
 go, Treviso, Belluno, and Udine. Population in 1850, 
 2,281,732; do. of provinces, 298,425. The Gulf of 
 Venice is formed by the Adriatic, on the northeast 
 coast of Italy, bounded by the Piave and Brenta. 
 
 Port. — The islands on which Venice is built lie with- 
 in a line of long, low, narrow islands, running north 
 and south, and inclosing what is termed the lagoon, or 
 shallows, that surround the city, and separate it from 
 the main land. The principal entrance from tiie sea 
 to the lagoon is at Malamocco, about li league south 
 from tlie city ; but therear«'Other, though less frequented 
 entrances, both to the south and the north of this one. 
 There is a bar outside Malamocco, on which there are 
 not more than 10 feet at high water at spring tides ; 
 but there is a channel between the western point of the 
 bar and tlie village of San Pietro, which has 16 feet 
 water at springs, and 14 at neaps. Merchant ves.sels 
 usually moor off the ducal palace; but sometimes they 
 come into the grand canal which intersects the city, 
 and sometimes they moor in the wider channel of the 
 Giudecca, Vessels coming from the south for the most 
 part make Pirano or Rovigno, on the coast of Istria, 
 where they take on board pilots, who carry them to the 
 
VEN 
 
 1929 
 
 VEE 
 
 bar opposite to Malamocco. But the employment of 
 Istiian pilots is quite optional -with the master, and is 
 not, as is sometimes represented, a compulsory regula- 
 tion. When one is taken, the usual fee from Pirano or 
 Kovigno to the bar is 20 Austrian dollars. On arriving 
 at the bar, ships are conducted across it and into port 
 by pilots, whose duty it is to meet them outside, or on 
 the bar, and of whose services they must avail them- 
 selves. 
 
 Money. — Formerly there were various methods of 
 accounting here ; but now accounts are kept, as at Ge- 
 noa, in lire Italiane, divided into centesimi, or 100th 
 parts. The lira is supposed to be of the same weight, 
 fineness, and, consequently, value, as the franc. But 
 the coins actually in circulation, denominated lire, are 
 respectively equal in value to about ten cents. The 
 latter are coined by the Austrian government. 
 
 Weights and Meaeures. — The commercial weights are 
 here, as at Genoa, of two sorts : the peso sottile and the 
 peso grosso. The French kilogram, called the libra 
 Italiana, is also sometimes introduced. 
 
 100 pounds peso grosso = 105'188 pounds avoirdupois. 
 
 " " =127-830 pounds Troy. 
 
 " " = 4T-698 kilograms. . 
 
 '* " = 98 435 pounds of Hamburg. 
 
 " " = 96*569 pounds of Amsterdam. 
 
 100 pounds peso sottile =; 66-428 pounds avoirdupois. 
 
 " " = S0-T28 pounds Troy. 
 
 " " = 30-123 kilograms. 
 
 " " ^= 62-196 pounds of Hamburg. 
 
 " *' := 60*986 pounds of Amsterdam. 
 
 The moggio, or measure for corn, is divided into 4 
 staje, 16 quarto, or 64 quartaroli. The staja=2-27 bush- 
 els. The measure for wine, anfora =4 bigonzi, or 8 mas- 
 telli, or 48 sechii, or 192 bozze, or 768 quartuzzi. It con- 
 tains 137 English wine gallons. The botta = 6 bigonzi. 
 Oil is sold by weight or measure. The botta contains 
 2 migliaje, or 80 miri of 25 lbs. peso grosso. The miro 
 =4*028 English wine gallons. The braccio for wool- 
 en =26*6 English inches ; the braccio for silks =24*8 do. 
 The foot of Venice=13*68 English inches. 
 
 The foreign commerce of Venice in 1847 amounted 
 in value to ^6,500,000 francs. The revolutionary move- 
 ments of 1848, the long siege which it endured, and the 
 suspension of its privileges as a free port, completely 
 paralyzed its commercial movements. In 1851 these 
 privileges were restored, and the commerce of Venice 
 has again resumed its wonted activity. 
 
 The imports into the port of Venice in the years 
 1847 and 1848 were:' 
 
 184T.— Foreign imports 36.494,000 francs. 
 
 1848 Foreign imports 9,322,000 " 
 
 iMrOKTS AND EXPOKTS TO AMP FBOM VENICE IN 1851 AND 
 
 1852. 
 
 Yenra. Importij. Eiporta. Total Trade. 
 
 JS51 francs 2,5,800,300 6,T34,100 32,634,4u0 
 
 1862 " 35,798,700 14,206,300 50,005,000 
 
 It will thus be seen that the commercial movements 
 of the port of Venice in 1852 exceeded in value the 
 sum of 60,000,000 francs (nearly f 10,000,000), and show 
 an increase over the totals of 1851 of 17,500,000 francs. 
 This is to be attributed to the restoration of the com- 
 mercial franchise of the port--an act of justice which 
 was delayed until the operations of the second half 
 year of 1851 had already commenced. 
 
 The following table exhibits the navigation of Venice 
 during the two years under review : 
 1851.— Total vessels entered and cleared 1281, of 173,714 tons. 
 1852.-Total " " " 1743, of 234,240 " 
 
 The following statement exhibits the imports and 
 exports to and from Venice in 1853 compared with 
 
 1852: 
 
 v,»™ ImporH. Exiiorts. Total Trade. 
 
 1653' francs 3S,7S8,700 16,654,700 54,403,400 
 
 1852. " 35! 7 98,700 14.206,300 50,005,000 
 
 Increase, 1853. 
 
 3,000,000 1,398,400 4,398,400 
 
 The coasting trade during the year 1853, added to 
 the foregoing, figures a total of 20,644,400 francs, against 
 19,690,100 francs in 1852. Thus : 
 
 COABTINO TbADB of YENIOE In the YBAES 1852 AND 1853. 
 Wean. Imports. Exports. Total Trade. 
 
 1863 francs 10,848,400 9,696,000 20,644,400 
 
 1862 " 10.417,300 9,281,800 19.609.100 
 
 Increase, 1863 . " 431,100 414,200 845,300 
 
 The navigation of this port in 1853, compared with 
 that of 1852, is thus given : 
 
 Entered. Cleared. 
 
 1852 . 
 
 1853 . 
 
 Vessels. 
 . 942 
 . 1025 
 
 Tons. 
 135,462 
 139,263 
 
 Veliaelii, 
 801 
 949 
 
 Tons. 
 
 98,778 
 
 127,262 
 
 During these years it appears that not a single 
 American vessel entered that port, or cleared thence 
 for the United States. This may seem strange when 
 the eye is cast over the following list of leading arti- 
 cles imported into Venice in 1852: 
 
 France. 
 
 Cereals 8,li3,300 
 
 Olive-oil 4,491,400 
 
 Salted fish 4,471,500 
 
 Coal 3,780,000 
 
 Salt 2,490.900 
 
 Dried fruits 1,391,500 
 
 Twist (all kinds) 1,969,200 
 
 Eaw cotton 1,034,900 
 
 Wines and spiilts 963,900 
 
 Iron and steel 861,200 
 
 Wax 704,900 
 
 CoiTee and cocoa 427,900 
 
 Cheese 603,600 
 
 Sugar (brown and reiined) 1,484,600 
 
 From a consular return, dated Venice, April 24; 1856, 
 it appears that there entered that port in November 
 and December, 1855, two American vessels, measuring 
 respectively 663 and 627 tons, having cleared from 
 Richmond and bound to Palermo, after discharge of 
 cargo, consisting of tobacco, valued at $75,000. They 
 left Venice for their destination in ballast. In Janu- 
 ary another American vessel, measuring 248 tons, en- 
 tered in ballast, and cleared for Constantinople with a 
 cargo of hay valued at $2600. — Com. Rel. U. S. 
 , Vera Cruz, the principal sea-port on the eastern 
 coast of Mexico ; lat. 19° 11' 52" N., long. 96° 8' 45" 
 W. Population about 16,0C0. Opposite the town, at 
 the distance of about 400 fathoms, is a small island on 
 which is built the strong castle of San Juan d'UUoa, 
 which commands the town. The harbor lies between 
 the town and the castle, and is exceedingly insecure; 
 the anchorage being so very bad that no vessel is con- 
 sidered safe unless made fast to rings fixed for the 
 purpose in the castle wall: nor is this always a suffi- 
 cient protection from the fury of the northerly winds 
 (los nortes)^ which sometimes blow with tremendous 
 violence. Humboldt mentions, in proof of what is 
 now stated, that a ship of the line, moored by nine ca- 
 bles to the castle, tore, during a tempest, the brass 
 rings from the wall, and was dashed to pieces on the 
 opposite shore. — NouveUe Esjjagne, ed. 2de, iv. 59. Its 
 extreme unhealthiness is, however, a more serious 
 drawback upon Vera Cruz than the badness of its 
 port. It is said to be the original seat of the yellow 
 fever. The city is well built, and the streets clean; 
 but it is surrounded by sand hills and ponds of stag- 
 nant water, which, within the tropics, are quite enough 
 to generate disease. The inhabitants, and those ac- 
 customed to the climate, are not subject to this for- 
 midable disorder; but all strangers, even those from 
 the Havana and the West India Islands, are liable to 
 the infection. No precautions can prevent its attack ; 
 and many have died at Xalapa, on the road to Mexico, 
 who merely passed through this pestilential spot. Dur- 
 ing the period that the foreign trade of Mexico was 
 carried on exclusively by the jfoto, which sailed periods 
 ically from Cadiz, Vera Cruz was celebrated for its 
 fair, held at the arrival of the ships. , It was then 
 crowded with dealers from Mexico and most parts of 
 Spanish America ; but the abolition of the system of 
 regular fleets in 1778 proved fatal to this fair, as well 
 as to the still more celebrated fair of Porto Bello. A 
 light-honse has been erected on the northwest angle of 
 
VER 
 
 1930 
 
 VEE 
 
 the Castle of San Juan. The light, which is a revolving 
 one of great power and brilliancy, is elevated 79 feet 
 above the level of the sea. 
 
 For a considerable period after the town of Vera 
 Croz had throivu off the Spanish yoke, the Castle of 
 San Juan d'UUoa continued in possession of the Span- 
 iards. During this interval the commerce of Vera 
 Cruz was almost entirely transferred to the port of 
 Alvarado, 12 leagues to the southeast. Alvarado is 
 built upon the left bank of a river of the same name. 
 The bar at the mouth of the river, about 1^ mile be- 
 low the town, renders it inaccessible for vessels draw- 
 ing above 10 or 12 feet water. Large ships are obliged 
 to anchor in the roads, where they are exposed to all 
 the violence of the north winds, loading arid unloading 
 by means of lighters. Alvarado is supposed, but proba- 
 bly without much foundation, to be a little healthier 
 than Vera Cruz. The trade has now mostly reverted 
 to its old channel. 
 
 Tlie commercial intercourse of the United States 
 with Vera Cruz depends now solely on the regulations 
 of the mother country (i. e., the capital). Local legis- 
 lation has nothing to do with it, except as regards a 
 few unimportant harbor dues, and municipal taxes im- 
 posed by the " ayuntamiento" (city council). The ex- 
 isting regulations are permanent in name, but may be 
 regarded as temporary in fact, being liable to be changed 
 at any moment by arbitrary decree, or utterly destroy- 
 ed by " pronunciamento." There are no privileges per- 
 mitted the commerce of other nations which are denied 
 to the United States, nor are there any restrictions im- 
 posed on the commerce of other nations and not on that 
 of the United States. It is understood that the Danish 
 commercial treaty is the least favorable to Mexico ; 
 but, practically, all nations may be regarded as on an 
 equal footing. Mexico takes care to make no national 
 distinctions, but she very frequently sells special privi- 
 leges to individuals, as in the cases at San Bias, Mata- 
 
 COMMEBCE OF THE UNITED STATES WITH THE CAPB DE 
 
 moras, and Mazatlan. At Vera Cruz an immense 
 amount of raw cotton is being imported from New 
 Orleans, on the payment of about one half thedaty in- 
 dicated by the existing tariff— .'* permits" to import 
 that article at a greatly reduced rate having been 
 granted to favored individuals. The regular duty is 
 tliree cents per pound, but permits can now-be bought 
 up at second hand at two cents per pound. 
 
 Verd [Cape] Islands. The Cape Verd Islands 
 are situated 329 miles west of Cape Verd, between lat. 
 14° 45' and 17° 13' N., and long. 22° 45' and 25° 25' 
 W. The Archipelago consists of the following ten 
 islands: Sal, Boavista, Mayo, Santiago (St. James), 
 the largest. Forgo, Brava, Grande, Eombo, St. Nicolao, 
 and St. Luzia; and four islets, Branco, Bazo, St. Vi- 
 cente, and St. Antao. Area estimated at 1680 square 
 miles. Population in 1850, 86,738. The white popu- 
 lation in the 'Whole Archipelago is to the colored as 
 one to twentj'. The surface of the islands is in gener- 
 al mountainous, and some of their peaks have a con- 
 siderable elevation. The volcano of Fogo is 9157 feet 
 in height. The soil is extremely various, but mostly 
 fertile ; the absence of trees and the scarcity of water are 
 the causes of frequent and severe distress. Chief vege- 
 table products, maize, rice, and French beans. Coffee, 
 introduced in 1790, has completely succeeded; the cot- 
 ton shrub is indigenous ; indigo grows wild, and tpbaoco 
 is cultivated in some of the islands ; tropical fruits are 
 abundant. The sugar-cane and the vine are culti- 
 vated, but the manufacture of wine is prohibited. The 
 climate of these islands is much varied by extreme 
 heats and droughts, no rain falling during some periods 
 for three or four years. Hence the population are fre- 
 quently subject to distress and suffering. These visita- 
 tions have, on several occasions during the past few 
 years, strongly appealed to the sympathies of the civil- 
 ized nations of the world in behalf of the 87,000 in- 
 habitants of these islands. — See article Mexico. 
 
 VeUD IBI.ANDS, TEOM OOTOBEK 1, 1S20, TO JCLY 1, 1S5T. 
 
 Yoara eDding' 
 
 Sept. 30,1821 
 
 182-2 
 
 1823 
 
 1824 
 
 1825 
 
 1826 
 
 182T 
 
 1828 
 
 1829 
 
 1830 
 
 Total.. 
 
 Sept. 30, 1831 
 
 1832 
 
 1833 
 
 1834 
 
 1835 
 
 1838 
 
 183T 
 
 1838 
 
 1839 
 
 1840 
 
 Total. . 
 
 Sept. 30, 1841 
 
 1842 
 
 9inos., 1843* 
 
 June 30, 1844 
 
 1845 
 
 1846 , 
 
 184T. . . .-. . 
 
 1848 
 
 1840 
 
 ISSP 
 
 Total. . 
 
 June 30, 1851 
 
 1852. . . , . . 
 
 1853 
 
 1S54 
 
 1855 
 
 1856 
 
 1857 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Domestic. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 T6tiil. 
 
 Importe. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Whereof there was in 
 Bullion and Specie. 
 
 Import. 
 
 Tonnage cleared. 
 
 $22,176 
 34,941 
 22,055 ' 
 61,019 
 60,072 
 39,693 
 80,010 
 67,502 
 68,528 
 50,500 
 
 $7,656 
 35,832 
 ' 11,010 
 21,665 
 18,967 
 
 9,299 
 24,155 
 
 9,727 
 13,477 
 
 7,778 
 
 $29,833^ 
 70,773 
 33,065 
 72,684 
 79,030 
 48,992. 
 
 104,165 
 77,229 
 83,005 
 68,338 
 
 $64;o3e 
 
 ■ 47,422 
 66,849 
 66,805 
 89,593 
 
 104,120 
 77,425 
 83,053 
 26,460 
 83,758 
 
 $07,525 
 2'277 
 
 $3,200 
 17,078 
 17,412 
 30,143 
 33,650 
 21,443 
 24,600 
 17,545 
 7,068 
 15,457 
 
 826 
 1,049 
 
 689 
 1,781 
 2,680 
 
 764 
 2,129 
 2,433 
 3,268 
 
 67 
 
 i&i 
 
 $496,856 , 
 
 $45,433 
 66,858 
 
 162,033 
 79,511 
 
 102,440 
 67,210 
 
 136,201 
 96,941 
 77,138 
 82,611 
 
 $159,563 
 
 '$13,557 
 
 19,437' 
 
 44,981 
 
 25,886 
 
 27,747 
 
 8,246 
 
 '27,837 
 
 8,933 
 
 8,415 
 
 207,020 
 
 105,397 
 
 130,187 
 
 75,456 
 
 164,088 
 
 106,874; 
 
 86,553 
 
 85,430 
 
 $916,3T6 
 
 $63,643 
 87,706 
 39,318 
 40,633 
 19,795 
 13,813 
 38,843 
 29,174 
 89,523 
 29,348 
 
 $400 
 1,453 
 1,250 
 
 975 
 4,100 
 8,636 
 
 800 
 
 $216,400 
 
 $32,327 
 27,631 
 11,570 
 20,028 
 9,987 
 5,423 
 15,673 
 9,390 
 4,160 
 
 18,236 
 
 200 
 643 
 944 
 391 
 643 
 987 
 725 
 
 530 
 163 
 816 
 
 2148 
 5C8 
 
 946 
 
 103, 
 53. 
 65! 
 
 .50, 
 81, 
 Tl, 
 
 101, 
 02, 
 47, 
 
 657 
 227 
 238 
 699 
 097 
 ,084 
 ,733 
 ,647 
 ,043 
 
 $187,904 
 
 $13,220 
 
 11,629 
 
 4,978 
 
 6,299 
 
 2,834 
 
 685 
 
 17,848 
 
 6,849 
 
 3,816 
 
 2,167 
 
 $1,104,279 
 
 116,086 
 67,205 
 70,537 
 63,433 
 31,783 
 88,932 
 
 108,672 
 66,462 
 49,210 
 
 $401,796 
 
 $42,661 
 
 17,866" 
 
 4,713 
 
 4,836 
 
 7,579 
 
 857 
 
 2,399 
 
 2-28 
 
 1,853 
 
 $18,293 
 
 $130,194 
 
 300 
 
 10,000 
 1,900 
 1,576 
 
 $9, 
 
 ,360 
 ,704 
 ,200 
 ,000 
 
 31,865 
 
 1,996 
 3,210 
 1,302 
 1,697 
 4,256 
 1,004 
 1,798 
 4,08* 
 2,714 
 1,886 
 
 167 
 883 
 170 
 548 
 240 
 2038 
 4773 
 , 611 
 
 $652,141 
 
 $57,476 
 . 64,425 
 23; 275 
 30,037 
 66,496 
 51,416 
 63,108 
 
 $09,230 
 
 $2,437 
 9,651 
 1,604 
 2,208 
 3,130 
 2,294 
 1,396 
 
 $721,871 
 
 $59,913 
 64,076 
 24,879. 
 32,245 
 53,616 
 53,709 
 64,508 
 
 $82,969 
 
 $1,850 
 18,129 
 41,053 
 8,988 
 24,300 
 36,910 
 25,905 
 
 $22,378 
 
 $4,100 
 
 "sio 
 
 8,443 
 
 430 
 
 $21,464 
 
 $13,957 
 
 1,500 
 
 T,000 
 
 12,063 
 
 12,000 
 
 23,947 
 
 1,505 
 1,623 
 2,181 
 4,391 
 5,743 
 3,188 
 2,603 
 
 730 
 11.53 
 
 243 
 400 
 545 
 
 ■ Nine months to June 30, and the fiscal year from tins time begins July 1. 
 
VER 
 
 1931 
 
 VEE 
 
 In 1842 the imports from the United States amonnted 
 to $57,500, employing 16 vessels with an aggregate 
 tonnage of 1610 tons. An export duty of $5 53 per 
 pipe is lef\'ied on wine. The duties on the principal 
 imports from the United Stales are as follows : 
 
 Flour, per barrel $1 00 
 
 Com, per bushel 6t 
 
 Kiee, per pound 1 
 
 Staves (pipe), per 1000 1 60 
 
 Staves (liogBhead)i per 101)0 1 30 ' 
 
 Staves (barrel), pel- 1000 75 
 
 Lumber, per 1000 feet 1 90 
 
 Port charges iu Madeira amount to about'$18 on a 
 vessel of any tonnage, for health officer, government 
 visits, and custom-house fees. — For Weights and 
 Measures, see p. 1943. 
 
 Verdigris (Ger. Grumman; Fr. Vert-de-gris, Ver- 
 det; y. Verderame; Sp. Cardenillo, Verdete, Vefde-gris; 
 Kuss. Jar), a kind of rust of copper, of a beautiful bluish 
 green color, formed from the corrosion of copper by fer- 
 mented vegetables. 
 
 Its specific gravity is 1'78. Its taste is disagreeably 
 metallic, and, like all the compounds into whibh cop- 
 per enters, it is poisonous. It was known to the an- 
 cients, and various ways of preparing it are described 
 by Pliny. It is very extensively used by painters and 
 in dyeing ; it is also used to some extent in medicine. 
 The best verdigris is made at Montpellier ; the wines of 
 Languedoc being particularly well suited for corroding 
 copper, and forming this substance'. • It is generally 
 exported in cakes of about 25 lbs. weight each. ] It is 
 also manufactured in this country, by means of the re- 
 fuse of cider, etc. The goodness of vfirdigris is judged 
 of from the deepness and brightness of its color, its dry- 
 ness, and its forming, when rubbed on the hand with a 
 little water or saliva, smooth paste, fr.ee from grittiness. 
 — Thomson's Chemistry ; Kees' Cyclopaedia. 
 
 IjaroBTS OF Vebdigbis into the United States pou the 
 Year endimg June 30, 1857. 
 whence imported. PoiindB. Value, 
 
 Hamburg 1,0.97 $302 
 
 England 790 195 
 
 BritiBli American colonies 200 41 
 
 Trance. .;..j:i;ji V ..80,801 9097 
 
 Spain ,220 , 55 
 
 Total 32,548 $.6J0, 
 
 None of this was re-exported, so that the whole may 
 be set down for home consumption. 
 
 Verjuice (Ger. Agrest ; Fr. Verjus ; It. Ayresta ; Sp. 
 Agrai), a kind, of harsh^ austere vinegar, made of the 
 expressed juice of the wild apple, or crab^ The French 
 give this name to unripe grapes, and to the sour liquor 
 obtained from them. 
 
 Vermicelli (Ger. Mideltif Du. Meelneepen, Prop-- 
 pen.; Fr. Vermicelli; It. Vermicelli, TaglioUni ; Sp. .4/e-: 
 irfos), a species of wheaten paste formed into long, i 
 slender, hollow tubes, or threads, used among us in 
 soups, broths,', etc.— (See Macaroni. i 
 
 Vermilion. See Cinnabak. 
 
 Vermont, one of the United States of America, lies 
 between lat. 42° 44' and 45° 00' 80" N., and long. 73° 
 20' \V., and contains an area of 8000 square miles. 
 Population in 1790,«5,589; in 1800,154,465; in 1810, 
 217,895; in 1820, 235,764; in 1840, 291,948; and in 
 1850, 313,611. 
 
 Physical Features^ etc. — This State presents a very 
 considerable variety of surface. It is traversed from 
 north to south by the Green Mountain range, some 
 summits of which rise to a height of 4279 feet above 
 the sea. About the centre of the State they divide 
 into two. ridges, the principal of which passes in a 
 north-northeast direction into CSanada. The Green 
 Mountains are from ten to fifteen miles wide, much in- 
 tersected by valleys abounding with springs and brooks, 
 and are mostly covered with evergreens to their sum- 
 mits, from which they have derived their name. The 
 rivers are inconsiderable ; most of those flowing east are 
 merely small tributaries of the Connecticut ; those on 
 the west side are larger ; and the three principal, viz.. 
 
 Lamoille, Missisque, and Winooski, rise on the east side 
 of the principdl mountain range, which they break 
 through and enter Lake Champlain. 
 
 Laiie Champlmn, a considerable body of water be- 
 tween the States of New York and Vermont, and pene- 
 trating for a few miles into Canada. It is 140 miles 
 in length, and from 1 to 10 in breadth, lying nearly 
 north a;id south ; and contains a great number of small 
 islands, most of which belong to Vermont. The Cham- 
 plain Canal, 63 miles in length; connects it with the 
 Hudson, and large steamboats and vessels of 100 tons 
 navigate the lake from end to end. The scenery along 
 its shores is highly picturesque, and its waters abound 
 in salmon, salmon-trout, sturgeon, and otherfish. Lake 
 Champlain is navigable for large vessels, and has sev- 
 eral good harbors on the Vermont side. It is of the 
 greatest importance to Vermont by giving her facilities 
 for'intemal commerce. From the shape of the lake it 
 gives the large amount of coast line and length of navi- 
 gation^ and makes up for the deficiency of navigable 
 rivers. The American coibmerce of Lake Champlain in 
 1856 was over 20;000 tons. The climate varies accord- 
 ing to differences of level and other circumstances. It 
 is healthy, although the winters are severe. The soil 
 is fertile, but more suitable for pasturage than tillage. 
 Wool is the staple production ; sheep, horses, and cattle 
 are raised in great numbers ; marble, granite, and slate 
 are abundant, and valuable quarries of each are work- 
 ed; iron ore abounds in several localities throughout the 
 State, and from the sulpfiuretjrf iron,in Straflbrd and 
 Shrewsbury, copperas is extensively manufactured. 
 Several mineral springs occur. 
 
 There were in this State in 1850, 2,601,409 acres of 
 land improved, and $1,524,413 of unimproved in farms ; 
 cash value of farms, $63,367,227, and the value of im- 
 plements and machinery, $2,739,282. Live Stock, — 
 Horses, 61,057; asses and mules, 218; milch cows, 
 146,128 ; working oxen, 48,577 ; other cattle, 154,143 ; 
 sheep, 1,014,122; swine, 66,296; value of live stock, 
 $12,643,228. 
 
 Agricultural Products, etc. — ^Wheat, 535,955 bushels ; 
 rye, 176,233; Indian com, 2,032,396 ; oats, 2,307,734; 
 barley, 42,150; buckwheat, 209,819 ; peas and beans, 
 104,649 i potatoes^ 4,951,014 ; value of products of the 
 orchard, $315,255; produce of market gardens, $18,853; 
 pounds of butter made, 12,137;980; of cheese, 8,720,834 ; 
 maple-sugar, 6,349,357 ; molasses, 5997 gallons ; bees- 
 wax and honej-, 249,422 lbs.; wool, pounds produced, 
 3,400,717 ; flax, 20,852 ; silk cocoons, 268 ; hops, 288,023; 
 tons of hay, 866,153: clover seeds, 760 bushels; other 
 grass seeds; 14,936; flaxseed, 939 bushels; and were 
 made 659 gallons of wine. - Valueof home-made manu- 
 factures, $267,710 ; of slaughtered animals, $1,861,336. 
 
 Manufactures, etc. — There were in the State in 1850, 
 11 cotton factories, with a capital invested of $197,500, 
 employing 123 males and 207'female9, producing sheet- 
 ings, etc., valued at 280,300 ; 96 woolen factories, with i 
 a capital of $1,015,175, employing 800 males and 812 
 females, manufacturing 3,130,400 yards of cloth, valued 
 at $1,820,769 ; three establishments making pig-iron, 
 with a capital of $88,000, employing 133 persons, pro- 
 ducing pig-iron; etc., valued at $80,000; 26 establish- 
 ments, with a capital of $290,720, employing 381 per- 
 sons, and making" 5000 tons of castings, etc., valued at 
 $460i831 ; 8 establishments, with a capital of $62,700, 
 employing 57 persons, manufacturing 2045 tons of 
 wrought iron, valued at $168,986 1 83 flouring and grist 
 mills ; 321 saw-mills ; 156 tanneries, with a capital of 
 $411,150, employing 397 persons, valued at $587,466 ; 
 30 printing-offices; 2 dailyj 1 semi-weekly, 31 weekly, 
 and 2 monthly publications. There were on the 1st 
 January, 1856, 8 railroads, with 516 miles of road fin- 
 ished and in operation. Capital employed in manu- 
 factures, $5,001,377 ; value of manufactured articles, 
 $8,570,920. The principal places in the State are 
 Montpelier, the capital, Burlington, Middlebur)", Brat- 
 tleboro, Norwich, St. Albans, and Castleton. 
 
VES 
 
 1932 
 
 VIC 
 
 FOEEIGN COMMKECE OF TUE StATE OE VeEMOM!, PROM OCTOBER 1, 1820, TO JtILY 1, 1857, SHOWING ALSO THE DiSTEIOT 
 
 Tonnage in 1821, 1831, 1841, and 1851. 
 
 Yean ondiog 
 
 Exports. 1 Imports. | Tonnage cleared. 
 
 District Tonnage. [ 
 
 DonioBtic. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Total. 
 
 American. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Registered. 
 
 Enrj)lled and 
 L icensed. 
 
 Sept.3U,183t 
 
 1822. 
 
 1823 
 
 1834 
 
 1835 
 
 1836 
 
 1827 
 
 1828 
 
 1829 
 
 1830 
 
 Total. . . 
 
 Sept. 30,1831 
 
 1832 
 
 1833 
 
 1834 
 
 1835 
 
 18S6 
 
 1837 
 
 1833 
 
 1839 
 
 1840 
 
 Total... 
 
 Sept. 30,1841 
 
 1842 
 
 9 mos., 1843* 
 
 June SO, 1844 
 
 1845 
 
 1816 
 
 1847 
 
 1818 
 
 1849 
 
 1861 
 
 To'al... 
 
 June 30, 1851 
 
 1852 
 
 1853 
 
 1854 
 
 1865 
 
 1856 
 
 1857 
 
 $263,330 
 249,216 
 236,140 
 208,268 
 896,166 
 884,202 
 
 1,259,441 
 239,610 
 808,079 
 663,256 
 
 $8,478 
 
 $263,330 
 257,694 
 236,140 
 208,268 
 396,166 
 884,202 
 
 1,259,441 
 239,610 
 808,079 
 658,256 
 
 $.5,987 
 60,899 
 62,242 
 161,854 
 109,021 
 228,650 
 144,078 
 177,539 
 205,392 
 140,059 
 
 901 
 854 
 
 '665 
 6C6 
 
 24",i6i 
 19,290 
 
 40 
 40 
 
 "35 
 35 
 
 •••• 
 
 1*274 
 
 $6,202,638 
 
 $925,127 
 349,830 
 377,399 
 384,372 
 328,151 
 188,165 
 138,693 
 132,660 
 193,836 
 805,150 
 
 $8,478 
 
 $5,211,176 
 
 $925,127 
 349,820 
 377,399 
 384,372. 
 328,151 
 188,165 
 133,693 
 133,660 
 193,836 
 305.150 
 
 $1,305,719 
 
 $166,206 
 214,672 
 623,260 
 322,806 
 217,853 
 466,846 
 342,449 
 268,417 
 413,513 
 404,617 
 
 46,506 
 
 20,201 
 14,680 
 36,106 
 36,700 
 36,8-3 
 30,045 
 27,011 
 28 480 
 44,766 
 62.084 
 
 14U 
 
 
 877 
 . . .., 
 
 $3,373,413 
 
 $264,005 
 660,293 
 141,834 
 196,574 
 213,976 
 215,316 
 231,985 
 299,269 
 299,933 
 404,749 
 
 $13,982 
 7,216 
 
 28,137 
 216,793 
 338,631 
 183,604 
 282,313 
 234,833 
 338,931 
 
 26,157 
 
 $3,273,413 
 
 $277,987 
 657,509 
 169,971 
 413,367 
 543,607 
 403,830 
 514,298 
 534,102 
 683,869 
 430,906 
 
 $3,320,639 
 
 $246,739 
 
 209,868 
 
 38,000 
 
 97,183 
 
 81,997 
 
 127,223 
 
 239,641 
 
 306,005 
 
 147,721 
 
 463,092 
 
 324,966 
 
 13,500 
 
 15,369 
 ,56.336 
 53,728 
 79,766 
 73,064 
 74,416 
 97,218 
 81,073 
 
 '326 
 1,7S3 
 
 :::; 
 
 4330 
 
 $2,817,939 
 
 $701,713 
 216,088 
 (83,376 
 310,078 
 322,544 
 350,607 
 2fi3,009 
 
 $1,715,407 
 
 $804 
 
 173,025 
 
 11,741 
 
 1,136,166 
 
 2,572,924 
 
 680,843 
 
 365,461 
 
 $4,533,436 
 
 $762,016 
 
 388,113 
 
 94,117 
 
 1,445,244 
 
 2,895,468 
 
 1,031,460 
 
 648,470 
 
 $1,957,469 
 
 $691,268 
 192,593 
 184,613 
 237,279 
 601,593 
 1,560,118 
 2,709,193 
 
 642,460 
 
 104,114 
 42,973 
 14,492 
 29,803 
 ll,ri80 
 20,157 
 21,543 
 
 2,108 
 
 17,734 
 14,606 
 
 6,644 
 10,164 
 
 8.462 
 19,737 
 21,084 
 
 
 S932 
 
 Nine months to June 30, and the fiscal year from this time begins July 1. 
 
 Surlington, Vermont, is the principal port of the 
 State. Its commerce by Lake Champlain, on a bay 
 of "which the town is built, is important, and its con- 
 nections by railroad and steamboat alTord it every 
 facility in its prosecution. The harbor of Burlington 
 is the best on the lake, and more vessels navigating the 
 lake are owned here than at any other place. It is 
 easy of access from the north and south, and to protect 
 it from the west winds a breakwater 900 feet long was 
 erected. Juniper Island is distant four miles from the 
 wharf, and contains eleven acres of ground. A light- 
 house was erected on this island in 1826 ; it is in the 
 form of a truncated cone, thirty feet high, eighteen feet 
 in diameter at the base, and twelve at thd top, and is 
 kept lighted at night during the season of navigation, 
 from the middle of April to the 1st of December. Bur- 
 lington has an extensive and fertile back country, and 
 the mercantile business of the place amounts to about 
 $1,000,000 annually. Tonnage in 1853, 5875 ; in 1856 
 it was 7448 tons. 
 
 Vessels. See articles Ships and Tonnage. 
 
 Victoria (formerly called Australia Felix and 
 Port Philip), a British colonial territory, compris- 
 ing all the part of Australia south of the rivers Mur- 
 rumbigee and Murray, between lat. 34° and 39° S., 
 and long. 141° and 150° E., having on the northeast 
 New South "Wales, on the west the colon)' of South Aus- 
 tralia, and on the south the ocean and Bass's Strait, 
 separating it from Tasmania. Area, 98,000 square 
 miles. Population in 1851, 77,845, of which 46,202 
 were males, and 31,143 females ; in 1855, 300,000, and 
 of these it is estimated that 5000 are aborigines. The 
 territory derived its former name from the fine bay of 
 Port Philip, near the centre of its coast line ; besides 
 which, here are the inlets Western Port, Corner Inlet, 
 Lake King, Port Fairy, and Portland Bay, most of 
 which afford good anchorage, and are the seats of in- 
 
 cipient towns. Surface niostlj' undulating or level, 
 separated into diflerent river basins by hill chains. 
 Temperature at Port Philip ranges from 32° to 90° in 
 the year, and may average about 61° Pahr. Soil niore 
 fertile generally than in New South Wales, though 
 around the borders are extensive tracts of barren land. 
 For about 50 miles from the coast the country is al- 
 most every where of high fertility ; there is also much 
 good land on the banks of the Hume and Hovell ; and 
 although hitherto the corn raised has been inadequate 
 for home consumption, and a supply has been imported 
 from Tasmania, this colony bids fair to become a thriv- 
 ing agricultural region. Sheep and cattle rearing are, 
 however, the principal occupations of the population, 
 and in 1851 the live stock in the province amounted 
 to 5,000,000 sheep, 16,500 horses, and 390,000 horned 
 cattle. In the same year, 100 acres were planted with 
 vines, and 1300 gallons of wine were made, chiefly near 
 Geelong. Wheat, oats, barley, potatoes, salt from the 
 lakes, pumice-stone, lava, and other volcanic products 
 abundant in the western plains, are other chief articles 
 of produce. Some veins of coal, and ores of copper, 
 lead, and manganese, have been met with near the 
 coast ; but few, if any, mines are at present wrought. 
 The principal towns are Melbourne and Geelong. The 
 colony was formerly called Australia Felix, and was at- 
 tached to New South Wales. It was formed into a dis- 
 tinct colony in 1850, under the name of the Province of 
 Victoria. It was first settled by the British about 1834. 
 The commercial relations of the United States with 
 the British possessions in Australia, New Zealand, and 
 the Cape of Good Hope, are regulated by the orders of 
 the local governments, within the limits prescribed to 
 their authority by the legislation of the Imperial Parlia- 
 ment. The repeal of the British navigation laws abol- 
 ished all the restrictions upon foreign commerce, which 
 before that period secured to the British merchant the 
 
VIC 
 
 1933 
 
 YIN 
 
 monopoly of supplying the markets of these distant 
 colonies. The trade is now open to all flags, and the 
 vessels of every nation having commercial treaties with 
 the mother country can freely and upon equal terms 
 enter in the race of commercial competition. Co-oper- 
 ating with this liberal policy of the mother country, 
 the discovery of gold in some of the Australian posses- 
 sions in 1851 contributed largely to infuse new com- 
 mercial life and vigor into that distant part of the 
 globe. Some estimate may be formed as to the extent 
 of the wonderful advance of these colonies in commer- 
 cial and colonial greatness, the increase of their im- 
 ports and exports, and the augmentation of their re- 
 sources generally, by glancing over the subjoined sta- 
 tistics. 
 
 In 1843 the value of the imports of the colony of Vic- 
 toria was $1,229,840 ; that of their exports, $1,539,830. 
 Of this latter sura wool covered nearly $1,000,000, all 
 of which was shipped to Great Britain. Value of im- 
 ports in 1847, $2,188,480; of which $1,592,120 were from 
 Great Britain. Value of exports in 1847, $3,342,555 ; 
 of which wool covered $2,829,025, distributing the bal- 
 ance ($513,530) between the articles of beef,'pdrk, horses, 
 horned cattle, and tallow. Number of vessels in 1847, 
 423, with a toniiage of 47,885. 
 
 The following tables will exhibit the trade of the 
 colony of Victoria from 1851 to the end of the first half 
 of 1854: 
 
 Imports. 
 In the year 1851 $4,870,140 
 
 Exports. 
 
 $4,181,210 
 
 36,685,775 
 
 45.412,870 
 
 24,503,400 
 
 1862 17,654,355 
 
 1853 70,4TS,235 
 
 In the half year of 1854 42,780,340 
 
 Amount of flour from the United States imported in 
 1853, 15,036 tons ; and more than one half of the whole 
 quantity imported. Amount imported from the Unit- 
 ed States in the half year of 1854, 3720 tons; or more 
 than one-third of all imported. 
 
 The total exports from the United States to Aus- 
 tralia for the year ending June 30, 1857, were as fol- 
 lows : 
 
 Boards $214,892 
 
 ManufacofWool . 261,209 
 
 Bacon 111,088 
 
 Flour 893,070 
 
 Tobacco $236,128 
 
 Boots and shoes. . 140,465 
 Other articles 1,451.279 
 
 Total !|;3,2»7,131 
 
 ate, to notice in this place the astonishing production 
 of gold in this colony, compared with the aggregate min- 
 ing operations in other parts of the world, especially 
 in California. The gold diggings in Victoria extend 
 from long. 142° 35' to 147° 30', and from lat. 36° 20' to 
 37° 40', over districts embracing more than 300,000 
 square miles, or more than half the area of the colony. 
 ViCTOEiA Gold, 
 
 , 1851,1 
 
 Amesioas Vessels which aeeived at MELpoTjii»E feom 
 
 Janitakt, 1853, to Septembeh, 1864. 
 
 Frtym New York. 
 
 Ships 62 ; average passage, 121 days. 
 
 Barks 22; " " 118 " 
 
 Brigs / 2; " " 140 I' 
 
 Schooners 7; ^' " 120 ' 
 
 From Boston. 
 
 Ships 25; average passage, 112 days. 
 
 Barks 29; " " 118 " 
 
 Brigs 2; '; ;; 12T ; 
 
 Schooners.... oj 1^4 
 
 Vessels, 173; aggregate tonnage, 77,633. 
 
 Four American brigs made the passage in 90 days, 
 and one schooner in 91 days. These vessels were laden 
 with flour, provisions,lumber,andgeneral cargo. When 
 the marliet is not overstocked, as was the case in 1853, 
 American flour of the best quality (and none else need 
 be exported) brings from $15 60 to $16 80 per barrel 
 Twelve dollars can be laid as the fixed market price 
 for first quality flour, at least until the Australians 
 pay more attention to agricultural pursuits, which will 
 hardly be the case so long as they can find gold nug- 
 gits weighing 98J- lbs. each. American provisions, 
 hams, bacon, butter, cheese, beef, pork, preserves, fur- 
 niture, wooden houses, carriages, wagons, boots, etc., 
 are much sought for in the markets of Victoria, and al- 
 ways command remunerative prices. The facilities 
 for discharging and dispatching ships have greatly in- 
 creased within the past year. Before that period, 90 
 days was considered good dispatch ; now from 12 to 
 30 days is the time ; and, indeed, 30 days is considered 
 unwarrantably long. 
 
 It may be interesting, and not altogether inappropri- 
 
 4,608,188 
 
 $88,707,620 
 
 3,090,342 
 
 89,489,080 
 
 1,130,519 
 
 22,610,380 
 
 8,829,049 
 
 $170,807,080 
 
 From the end of September, 
 
 to December SI, 1852 . 
 From December, 1853,. to Decem-i 
 
 Ber, 1853 
 
 From December, 1853, to Septem-' 
 
 ber, 1854 (by escort only) . 
 
 Compaeibon oe the Aveeage yearly Feoduce op Gold. 
 
 Victoria $60.000, 000 
 
 California 55,000,000 
 
 Eussia (Ural Mountains) 20,000,000 
 
 Aggregate amount (annual) of Victoria, Cali-\ *ioKnnnnoft 
 
 fornia, and Russian mines / »"0.""0.o™ 
 
 — See articles Au.stealia and MELEonENE. 
 
 Vikings, or Sea Kings, among the Danes or 
 Normans leaders of piratical squadrons,' who passed 
 their lives in roving the seas in search of spoil and ad- 
 ventures. The younger sons of the Scandinavian kings 
 or garls, having no inheritance but the ocean, na'tural- 
 ly collected around their standards the youth of infe- 
 rior order, who were equally destitute with themselves. 
 These were the same who in England and Scot- 
 land, under the name of Danes, and on the continent 
 under that of Normans, at first desolated the maritime 
 coasts, and afterward penetrated into the interior of 
 countries, and formed permanent settlements in their 
 conquests. 
 
 Vine. The vine was known to Noah. A colony 
 of vine-dressers from Phocea, in Ionia, settled at Mar- 
 seilles, and instructed the South Gauls in tillage, vine- 
 dressing, and commerce, about 600 B.C. Some think 
 the vines are aborigines of Languedoc, Provence, and 
 Sicily, and that they grew spontaneously on the Medi- 
 terranean shores of Italy, France, and Spain. The 
 vine was carried into Champagne, and part of Ger- 
 many, A.D. 279. The vine and sugar-cane were plant- 
 ed in Madeira in 1420. It was planted in England in 
 1552 ; and in the gardens of Hampton-court palace is 
 an old and celebrated vine said to surpass any known 
 vine in Europe. — See Geapes and Wike. The follow- 
 ing is a tradition in relation to the vine : " When Adam 
 planted the first vine and left it, Satan approached it, 
 and said, 'Lovely plant! I will cherish thee;' and 
 thereupon' taking three animals, a lamb, a lion, and a 
 hog, he slayed them at the root of the tree, and their 
 blood has been imbibed by the fruit to this day. Thus, 
 if you take one goblet of wine, you are cheered by its 
 influence, yet are mild and docile as the lamb ; if you 
 take two goblets, you become furious, and rave and 
 bellow like the lion ; and if you drink of the third gob- 
 let, your reason sinks, and, like the hog, you wallow in 
 the mire." — Ashe. See Wine. 
 
 Vinegar (Ger, £ss?(7 ; Jiu.Azyn; Fr. Vinaigre; It. 
 Aceto; Sp. and Port. Vinagfe; Kuss. Ukzits; Jjat.Ace- 
 tuni). — See Acid (Acetic), for a description of vinegar. 
 Vinegar was known nearly as soon as wine. The an- 
 cients had several kinds of vinegar which they used for 
 drink. The Roman soldiers were accustomed to take it 
 in their marches. The Bible represents Boaz, a rich 
 citizen of Bethlehem, as providing vinegar for his reap- 
 ers, into which they might dip their bread, and kindly 
 inviting Ruth to share with them in their repast : hence 
 we may infer that the harvesters at that period partook 
 of this liquid for their refreshment — a custom still prev- 
 alent in Spain and Italy. It is conjectured that the 
 vinegar which the Roman soldiers offered to our Sav- 
 iour at his crucifixion was that which they used for 
 their own drinking. There was, however, a kind of 
 potent vinegar which was. not proper for drinking till 
 diluted. 
 
VIO 
 
 1934 
 
 VIK 
 
 IUXFOETS OF ViNE&AK FEOM TIIE UhITEP STATES FOE THE 
 
 Yeae ending June 30, 185T. 
 
 whither exported. Gallons. Value. 
 
 Swedish West ilidies. ; 240 $44 
 
 Danisli West' Indies 540 59 
 
 Dutch West Indies 6i074 665 
 
 Dutch Guiana 401 75 
 
 Canada? '. 63,6T4 ' S,250 
 
 Other British North American Poss. 33,149 3,749 
 
 British West Indies 20,337 3,318 
 
 British Honduras 1,805 243 
 
 British Guiana 16,669 1,669 
 
 British Possessions in Africa 3,525 669 
 
 Other ports in Africa 6'J9 101 
 
 British East Indies 1,588 294 
 
 French West Indies.;.... 600 ,60 
 
 Cuba 18,354 2,381 
 
 PortoRieo 396 68 
 
 Hayti 2,850 437 
 
 Jtfexiop 6,860 1,085 
 
 Central Republic 40 5 
 
 KewGranada 6,38T 918 
 
 Venezuela 890 ISS 
 
 Argentine Republic 6,346 818 
 
 Chili 10,T50 1,684 
 
 Peru 16,167 2j583 
 
 Sandwich.Islands 2,422 , 485 
 
 China 2,857, 368 
 
 Whale-fisheries T,754 734 
 
 Total, 1856-'5T 230,065 $30,788 
 
 Tliere were no imports of vinegar, into the United 
 State's fpr the, year ,1857. 
 
 Viol ami Violin. As the lyre of the Greeks was 
 the harp of the moderns, so the viol and vielle of the 
 Middle Ages became the modem violin. The viol was 
 of various sizes formerly, as it is at present, and was 
 anciently very much in use, for chamber airs and songs. 
 Xhat of tliree; strings was introduced into Europe by 
 the jugglers of the 13th century. The violin was in- 
 vented toward the close of the same century. — Abbe 
 Lesglet. The fiddle, however, is mentioned as early 
 as A.D. 1200, in the legendary life pf St. Christopher. 
 It was introduced into England, some say, by Charles 
 II. in 1684. 
 
 Virginia, one of the United States of America, lies 
 between lat. 36' 38' and 110° 43' N., and between long, 
 75° 25' and 83° 40' W. It is 370 miles long, and 20O 
 miles broad at its greatest breadth, containing 61,352 
 square miles. Population in 1790, 747,610; in, 1800, 
 886,149; in 1810, 974,622; in 1820, 1,065,366 ; in 1830, 
 1,211,272; in 1840, 1,233,797; and in 1850, 1,421,661. 
 
 Early History.- — The coast of the country which we 
 now name Virginia is said to have been known to the 
 old Northmen. One of them, Gudleif Gudlaugsen, is 
 said to have sailed in the year 1028 so far to the south. 
 He is supposed to have called the country Huitraman- 
 naland, the Land of the Whitemen, which may be con- 
 sidered the oldest and first name under which these re- 
 gions became ever known to the Europeans. 
 
 The Spaniards, since 1520, included the land under 
 the names of Terra de Ayllon and Florida, and the 
 French, since 1563, under the name otNourelle France. 
 The English invented the name Virginia at first (1583) 
 for the country lying round Pamlico and Albemarle 
 Sound. They composed this name, it is said, for two 
 reasons: first, because it was discovered in the reign 
 of their Virgin Queen, Elizabeth; and, secondly, " be- 
 cause the country seemed still to retain the virgin 
 purity and plenty of the first creation, and the people 
 there the primitive innocence." 
 
 They extended this name at once over a great part 
 of the east coast, and particularly over the vicinity of 
 Chesapeake Bay, which was already discovered from 
 the Roanoke settlements, and which we see included 
 under the name of Virginia on the first map of Vir- 
 ginia, 1590. 
 
 When, since 1606, the Chesapeake Bay was better 
 explored and settled, and when it became the principal 
 centre of the English settlements on the east coast, this 
 region was, par excellence, called Virginia, sometimes 
 New Virginia, while the former settlements and coun- 
 try round Albemarle Sound, then forsaken, were some- 
 times (for instance, on a map of Captain J. Smith) call- 
 
 ed Ould Virginia. This was, ioweVer,, more a popu- 
 lar manner of denomination. The official or legal 
 name of the country was, in the year 16Q6, by King 
 James I. thus confined : He called Virginia, or the Vir- 
 ginian temtory or coast, the whole east coast of North 
 America, from the thirtyrfourth to the forty-fifth de- 
 gree of north latitude. This whole ten'itory was di- 
 vided by the royal patent into two parts, a northern 
 and a southern. The southern commenced in the 
 south at 34° north latitude, and ended in the north 
 at about 40° north latitude. It was called the First 
 Colony, -or the Southern Settlements in Virginia, or 
 Virginia proper. 
 
 When Captain J. Smith and Prince Charles invent- 
 ed and introduced (1616) for Northern Virginia the new 
 name of New England, the appellation Southern Vir- 
 ginia disappeared, and was changed to Virginia. 
 
 By the separation of the territories of Maryland 
 (1632), of Carolana (1629), and of Carolina (1668), the 
 name and province of Virginia lost a great deal of their 
 former extension,' and received at last their present 
 limits, between 38° and 36i° north latitude, so far as 
 our coast is concerned. The changes of the boundaries 
 toward the interior regions have no interest here for 
 us, — Kohl. 
 
 ■ Pliysical Features, etc.-t—As regards surface and soil, 
 this State may be divided into four sections. The 
 eastern includes a .tract of about 100 to 120 miles in 
 width, and is generally low and level, and in some 
 places marshy. It has a light sandy soil, mostly cov- 
 ered with pines. West of the line of the head of tide- 
 water the country becomes undulating and hilly, until 
 it attains one continuous mountain elevation known as 
 the Blue Eidge, crossing the entire width of the State. 
 The alluvial lands in this tract are for the most part 
 very fertile, those of James Kiver especially being un- 
 usually productive. The third section includes the 
 valley between the Blue Eidge and the Alleghany 
 Mountains. This tract, though in parts broken by 
 mountains, is generally the most fertile and healthy 
 part of the State. The fourth section includes the 
 country between the Alleghany chain and the Ohio. 
 This portion, though in mariy places wild and broken, 
 has a great deal of fine fertile land, and vast deposits 
 of coal, iron, salt, etc. Gold is found in Fluvanna and 
 Buckingham counties and vicinity; and many valu- 
 able mineral springs exist. 
 
 There were in this State in 1850, 10,360,135 acres of 
 land improved ; and 15,792,176 unimproved land in 
 farms; cash value of farms, $216,401,543; and the 
 value of implements and machinery, $7,021,772. Live 
 Slock. — Horses, 272,403; asses and mules, 21,483 ; milch 
 cows, 317,619; working oxen, 89,513; other cattle, 
 669,137; sheep, 1,810,004; swine, 1,829,843. Value- 
 of live stock, $33,656,659. 
 
 Agricultural Products, etc. — Wheat, 11,212,616 bush- 
 els ; rye, 458,930 ; Indian corn, 35,224,319 ; oats, 
 10,179,143; barley, 25,437 ; buckwheat, 214,898 ; peas 
 and beans, 521,579; potatoes, 1,316,933; sweet pota- 
 toes, 1,813,634; rice, 17,154 lbs. ; value of products of 
 the orchard, $177,137; produce of market gardens, 
 $183,047; pounds ofbutter made, 11,089,359; of cheese, 
 436,292; maple-sugar, 1,227,665 lbs. ; molasses, 40,322 
 gallons ; beeswax and honey, 880,767 ; wool, 2,860,765 
 lbs. produced ; cotton, 3947 ; flax, 1,000,450 ; silk co- 
 coons, 517; hops, 11,506 lbs.; tobacco, 56,803,227; 
 hay, 369,098 tons ; hemp, 88 tons ; clover seeds, 29,727 
 bushels; other grass seeds, 53,428; flax-seed, 52,318 
 bushels ; and were made, 5408 gallons of wine ; value 
 of home-made manufactures, $2,156,312 ; of slaughter- 
 ed animals, $7,502,986. 
 
 Rivers, etc. — The Potomac Elver separates Virginia 
 from Maryland. James Elver is the largest which be- 
 longs to this State. It is 500 miles in length, and 
 flows from the mountains in the interior behind the 
 Blue Eidge, through which it passes. It is navigable 
 for sloops 120 miles, and for boats much farther, and 
 
VOY 
 
 1935 
 
 VOY 
 
 flows into Chesapeake Bay. The Appomattox is 130 
 miles long, and enters James Biver 100 miles above 
 Hampton Roads, and is navigable 12 miles to Peters- 
 burg. The Eappabannock, 130 miles long, and navi- 
 gable 110 miles for sloops, rises in the Blue Ridge, and 
 flows into the Chesapeake. York River enters ithe 
 Chesapeabe 30 miles below thg Rappahannock, and is 
 navigable 40 miles for ships. The Shenandoah enters 
 the Potomac just before its passage through the Blue 
 Ridge. Of the rivers west of the moimtains, the Great 
 Kanawha rises in Nojth Carolina, passes.lhrough this 
 State and enters .the Ohio, The Little Kanawha also 
 flows into the Ohio. The Afonongahela rises ini this 
 State, though it. runs chiefly in Pennsylvania. - The 
 lower part of Chesapeake Bay lies wholly in this State, 
 is 15 miles wide at its mouth, and enters .the Atlantic 
 between Cape Charles and Cape Heniy. 
 
 Manu/acturest etc. — There were in the State in 1860, 
 24 Cotton faotories, with a capital invested of $1,893,200, 
 employing 1148 males and 1578 females) producing ar- 
 tieles valued at $1,438,109 ; 41 woolen factories, with a 
 capital of $324,700, manufacturing woolen goods val- 
 
 ued at $690,802. Total capital invested in manufac- 
 tures, $18,108,793. Value of manufactured articles, 
 $20jOflO,O0O. There were in January, 1856; 21 rail- 
 roads, with 1295 miles of railroad finished and in op- 
 eration, and 1180, in course of construction. 
 
 , Principal Porfa.-^AIexandria, 100 miles from ' the 
 Chesapeake Bay, lat. 38° 48' N., long. 0° 3' W. from 
 Washington. It is finely situated on the right bank 
 of the Potomac, Wliich has a depth of water here sutfi- 
 cient for, vessels of the largest clasSf being about 24 feet 
 at the wharvesji and 40 feet in the channel. The. ton- 
 nage in 1856 was 7221 tons. Norfolk) situated on the 
 .Elizabeth River, eight miles from Hampton Roads, 
 Chesapeake Bay, in lat. 37° 12' N,, and long. 76° 40' 
 W. Its harbor is capacious and deep,«asy of access, 
 and safe in all weathers. The Roads are formed by 
 an enlargement of James River at its moiith, in Chesa- 
 peake Bay, and they offer an anchorage unsurpassed 
 in the world. On the opposite side of the river is 
 Portsmouth, in connection with which it is the chief 
 naval station, of the Union. The' tonnage of Norfolk 
 in 1856 was 27,757 tons. 
 
 FOBEIGN CoMMEBCQ OF THE STATE OF VjBGINIA, FEOM OoTOBEE 1, 1820, TO JULT 1, 185T, SHOWING ALSO THE DiBTEIOT 
 ' ^ "• ' ' 'TONKAGB IS 1821, 1831, 1841, AND 1851. 
 
 Years en'dfngr ' 
 
 , . , E.porls. „ .- „ 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Tonnage cleared. 
 
 District Tonnage. ] 
 
 DQmesLio. 
 
 Fore^n.-, | , 
 
 .1 fffV 
 
 Total. 
 
 Ameiicap. 
 
 Foretgni 
 
 Registered. 
 
 Enrolled, and 
 Licensed. 
 
 sept. 30,1821;.,.... 
 
 $3,020,170 
 
 SS3;040 
 
 -$8,079,210 
 
 $1,078,4 
 
 33,546 
 
 6,483 
 
 12,216 
 
 45,537 
 
 . .1822 
 
 3,20,8,852 
 
 7,537 
 
 3,217,389 
 
 864,162 
 
 80,;22 
 
 7,41B 
 
 
 
 1823 
 
 4,CQ0,914 
 
 6,874 
 
 4,006:788 
 
 681,810 
 
 28,866 
 
 9,320 
 
 
 
 1824 
 
 3.276,478 
 
 1,086 
 
 3,27^664 
 
 039,787 
 
 46,^77 
 
 8,070 
 
 
 
 182S 
 
 4,122,340 
 
 7,180 
 
 4129)520 
 
 663>862 
 
 41.,'309 
 
 7,610' 
 
 .... 
 
 
 1826. 
 
 4,596,077 
 
 666 
 
 . 4,696;732 
 
 , .635,438 
 
 , 6,0,734 
 
 8,069 
 
 .... 
 
 
 1837, 
 
 4,646,737 
 
 -JMIl- 
 
 .. v4,667,938 
 
 431,765 
 
 53,536 
 
 7,843 
 
 
 
 1858 
 
 ff,3U,me 
 
 ' 3,340,185 
 
 376,238 
 
 42,P6S 
 
 7,278 
 
 
 
 1829 
 
 3,783 493 
 
 3,938 
 
 ' 3,787,431 
 
 395,362 
 
 40,620 
 
 6)771 
 
 
 
 ' 1830 
 
 Total... 
 
 4,788,8-'4 
 
 .4,480 
 
 4,791,284 
 
 / 405.789 
 
 , 43,715 
 
 4)305. 
 
 
 
 $88,775,481' - 
 
 $108,660 
 
 $88,884,041 
 
 $6,001,393 
 
 410,781 
 
 73,163 
 
 
 
 Sept, 30,1831 
 
 84,149,980 
 
 $489 , 
 
 $4,150,475 
 
 ' ^488,522 
 
 48,719 
 
 11,879 
 
 12,309 
 
 24,953 
 
 1832 
 
 4,4f3,916 
 
 i6;734 ■ 
 
 4,510,660 
 
 ' •g53;«39" 
 
 66,783 
 
 19,383 
 
 
 • • • • 
 
 1833 
 
 4,469,6G4 
 
 8.063 
 
 4,467,587 
 
 690,391 
 
 46,627 
 
 21,960- 
 
 1 
 
 
 1834 
 
 6,4«9,240 
 
 ,13 868 
 
 5,483,098. 
 
 83,7,825 
 
 . 49,808 
 
 : 1,7,097 
 
 
 
 1835 
 
 6,054,445 
 6,044,028 
 
 ,9„C18 
 
 6,004,003 
 
 691,256 ' 
 
 43,692 
 
 . 13,957 
 
 
 
 1S3G 
 
 148,012 
 
 6,192,040 
 
 1,106,814 
 
 42,612 
 
 16.719 
 
 
 
 1837. :.■.■■.:. 
 
 B,6ti9,110 
 
 ' ■ 3,604 
 
 3,702,714 
 
 ' 813,862' ' 
 
 29,897 
 
 16,502'. 
 
 
 
 1888 
 
 3,977,895 
 
 . 8,833 
 
 I 3,986,228 
 
 . 577,142 
 
 18,779 
 
 9,711 
 
 
 . . . ■ 
 
 1839 ,. 
 
 , 6,183.424, 
 
 . 3,772 
 
 ,6,187,196 
 
 ,, 913,462 
 
 41,494 
 
 7 895 
 
 
 
 1840 
 
 Total... 
 
 4,769,987 
 
 8,283 
 
 4,7^8,220 
 
 545,085 
 
 48,460 
 
 6,218 
 
 
 
 $48,301,515 
 
 $230,766 
 
 $48,5a2,27I 
 
 $7,217,497 
 
 426,331 
 
 141,381 
 
 
 
 Sept. 30, 1841 
 
 ■ 8i5,628,910' 
 
 $1,376 
 
 $6,030,280 
 
 $377,237. 
 
 63,910 
 
 9,333 
 
 13,155 
 
 32,202 
 
 1842 
 
 3,745,237 
 
 5.169 
 
 3,760,380 
 
 310,705 
 
 45,122 
 
 10,518 
 
 
 
 9mos., 1843' 
 
 ,1,954,510 
 
 2,656 
 
 1,557,165 
 
 187,002 
 
 34,943 
 
 4,363 
 
 
 
 June SO, 1844 
 
 ■ ^,923,238 
 
 19.041 
 
 2,942,279 
 
 2C7,054' 
 
 44,106 
 
 7,343 
 
 
 
 ' ■ 18-16 
 
 ' '■ 2,101i045 
 
 3,<S38 
 
 2,104,681 
 
 267,658 
 
 ' 80,181) 
 
 4,521 
 
 
 
 1846 
 
 8,638,963 
 
 336 
 
 8,529,299 
 
 209,004 . 
 
 48,671 
 
 7,103 
 
 
 
 1847. 
 
 6,648,668 
 
 12.706 . 
 
 6,6"8,374 
 
 380,127, 
 
 63,116 
 
 36,072 
 
 
 
 1848 
 
 3,679,858 
 
 1,6.';4 
 
 3,681,412 
 
 216,081 
 
 48,420 
 
 16,972 
 
 
 
 184!) 
 
 3,369,422 
 
 4,3,6 
 
 3,3T3,738' 
 
 241,!'36 
 
 68,989 
 
 10,689 
 
 
 
 1850 
 
 Total... 
 
 3,413,168 
 
 2,4?8 
 
 ' 3,416,640 
 
 426,629 
 
 42,001 
 
 23,307 
 
 
 
 $35,989,999 
 
 $58,167 
 
 $30,043,166 
 
 $2,8l;6,06ii 
 
 476,442 
 
 lt9,171 
 
 
 
 June 30, 1851 
 
 $3„087,444 
 
 $2,624 
 
 $3,030,068 
 
 $552,933 
 
 34,161 
 
 31,186 
 
 16,33T 
 
 62,402 
 
 1862 
 
 ■3,721,T07 
 
 2,r50 
 
 2,724,667 
 
 735,858 
 
 37,384 
 
 29,089 
 
 
 
 185S 
 
 3,302,561 
 
 4,230 
 
 3,306,791 
 
 • 3C9,004 
 
 85,901 
 
 27,000 
 
 
 
 1854 
 
 , 4,762,218 
 
 l,f30 
 
 4,764,148 
 
 1,276,216 
 
 62,603 
 
 ■30,667 
 
 
 
 1855 
 
 4346,320 
 
 33,599 
 
 4379,928 
 
 , 855,405 
 
 48,790 
 
 22,942 
 
 
 
 1856 
 
 5,489,022 
 
 5,745 
 
 6,495,367 
 
 69i,3S5 
 
 43,079 
 
 24,048 
 
 
 
 185T 
 
 7,234,330 
 
 15,379 
 
 7,249,709 
 
 ' 1,530,164 
 
 60,224 
 
 22,606 
 
 
 
 
 * Nine mon 
 
 hs to June S 
 
 0, and the fisci 
 
 il year from tl 
 
 lis time beg 
 
 ns July 1 
 
 
 
 Vitriol. -See Copperas. 
 
 Vitriol, Oil of. See Acid (Sulphtikic). 
 
 IMPOETS of VITKIOI. INTO THE UNITED STATES FOB TBE 
 
 Ybab ending June 30, 1867. 
 
 ■WlieQce imported. 
 
 Bnie or Roman. 
 
 Oil of. 1 
 
 Founds. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Value. 
 
 
 17,330 
 
 9,403 
 
 2,040 
 
 66,388 
 
 340 
 
 200 
 
 $1051 
 
 716 
 
 136 
 
 3904 
 
 16 
 
 13 
 
 1480 
 191 
 
 $56 
 43. 
 
 
 
 
 
 British West Indies. . 
 Total.. 
 
 96,690 
 
 $583^ 
 
 1071 
 
 $\S 
 
 Voyages. The first great voyage, or voyage prop- 
 
 erly so called, was by order of Necho, pharoah of Egypt, 
 when some Phcenician pilots sailed from Egypt down 
 the Arabic Gulf, round what is now called the Cape of 
 Good Hope, entered the Mediterranean by the Straits 
 of Gibraltar, coasted along the north of Africa, and at 
 length arrived in Egypt, after a navigation of about 
 three years, 604 B.C. — Blaie, Herodotds. The first 
 voyage round the world was made by a ship, part of a 
 Spanish squadron which had been under the command 
 of Magellan (who was killed at the Philippine Islands 
 in a skirmish) in 1519-'20. The era of voyages of dis- 
 covery was the end of the 18th century. — See Com- 
 merce, History of; Pacific Oceas, etc. 
 
WAG 
 
 1936 
 
 WAE 
 
 w. 
 
 TWages. The wages of sundry workmen in En- 
 gland were first fixed by act of Parliament, 25 Edward 
 HI., 1350. Hay-makers had but one penny a day. 
 Master carpenters, masons, tilers, and other coverers 
 of houses, had not more than 3d. per day (about 9d. of 
 the present currency, sterling), and their servants IJd. 
 — ViNER's Statutes. By the 23d Henry VI., 1444, the 
 wages of a bailiff of husbandry was 23s. id. per annum, 
 and clothing of the price of 5s., with meat and drink ; 
 chief hind, carter, or shepherd, 20*. ; clothing, 4*. : com- 
 mon servant of husbandry, 15s. ; clothing, iOd. : woman- 
 servant, 10s. ; clothing, 4s. By the 11th Henrj' VII., 
 1495, there was a like rate of wages, only with a little 
 advance ; as, for instance, a free mason, master car- 
 penter, rough mason, bricklayer, master tiler, plumb- 
 er, glazier, carver, or joiner, was allowed from Easter 
 to Michaelmas to take , 6d. a day, without meat and 
 drink ; or with meat and drink, id. ; from Michaelmas 
 to Easter, to abate Id. A master having under him 
 six men was allowed Id. a daj- extra. The following 
 were the wages of harvest-men in England at different 
 periods : 
 
 
 Per Diem. 
 
 
 Per Diem. 
 
 
 .. d. 
 
 VenT3. 
 
 
 1350 
 
 1 
 
 1T4) 
 
 10 
 
 1460 
 
 2 
 
 1761 
 
 1 
 
 3568 
 
 4 
 
 1788 
 
 1 4 
 
 1632 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 1794 
 
 16 
 
 168S 
 
 1800 
 
 2 
 
 1T16 
 
 9 
 
 1840 
 
 S 
 
 Wake, the track of a ship which she leaves in the 
 water. A vessel directly astern of another is said to 
 be in her wake. 
 
 Wales, a. peninsular portion of South Britain, on 
 its west side, between lat. 51° 23' and 53° 26' N., and 
 long. 2° 41' and 5° 17' W., having on the east the En- 
 glish counties of Chester, Salop, Hereford, and Mon- 
 mouth, and on other sides the Bristol and St. George's 
 channels and the Irish Sea. 
 
 Agriculture is extremely backward. Barley and 
 oats are the chief gi-ains raised ; the culture of potatoes 
 and turnips is extending. Farms mostly small, aver- 
 aging in South Wales only from 50 to 60 acres, where, 
 however, the tenantrj' are far better lodged than in 
 the north. Large numbers of cattle are reared for the 
 English markets. The number of sheep is estimated 
 at 1,250,000, and the annual produce of wool at 10,000 
 packs. A hardy small breed of ponies is reared, es- 
 pecially in the counties of Montgomery' and Merion- 
 eth. The mining interest is highly important. Iron, 
 copper, lead, silver, slate, limestone, and in the south 
 large quantities of coal are raised, which last product 
 is extensively exported, and used in large quantities 
 on the spot for smelting both British and foreign ores. 
 In 1840 South Wales had 132 furnaces in operation, 
 consuming annually about 1,436,000 tons of coal, and 
 producing 505,000 tons of iron ; and North Wales 12 
 furnaces, consuming 110,000 tons of coal, and produc- 
 ing 26,500 tons of iron. The principal iron- works are 
 at and around Merthyr-Tydvil, Tredegar, Aberdare, 
 and Rhuabon ; at Swansea large quantities of Amer- 
 ican and other copper ores are reduced. Manufactures 
 of woolen fabrics, especially of flannel and hosiery, are 
 very generally pursued in the cottages of the peasantry, 
 particularly in North Wales, where Welshpool is the 
 chief mart for these products. The cotton manufac- 
 ture has extended into some of the northern counties; 
 and in 1847, 1860 hands were employed in woolen, cot- 
 ton, and silk factories. A manufactory of slate articles 
 exists at Bangor. Trade principally in the export of 
 mineral produce, cattle, and woolen goods. Principal 
 ports, Swansea, Newport, Cardiff, Caernarvon, and 
 Beaumaris ; besides which Holyhead is a chief packet 
 station for communication with Ireland, and Milford is 
 a naval port, and the seat of a government dock-yard. 
 — Sse articles England and Great Britaik. 
 
 Walnuts, the fruit of the Juglans, or walnut-tree, 
 of which there are several varieties. The walnut is a " 
 large, handsome tree, with strong spreading branches. 
 The fruit is a prettj-, large, smooth, ovate nut, contain- 
 ing an oily kernel divided into four lobes. The nut 
 has been always held in high estimation ; it was called 
 by the Romans Jovis rjlans, the acorn or mast of Jove, 
 and hence the name of the tree. 
 
 The walnut-tree is indigenous to Persia and the 
 countries bordering on the Caspian Sea. Previously 
 to the very general introduction of mahogany, the 
 wood of the walnut-tree was generally, and is yet ex- 
 tensively used in making of furniture. It is much 
 used by turners, and is superior to every other sort of 
 wood for the mounting of guns. Great numbers of wal- 
 nut-trees are annually consumed in the Haute Vienno 
 and other departments of France, in the manufacture 
 of the wooden shoes or clogs used by the peasantry. 
 The nuts are either gathered when ripe, being served 
 up at desserts without any preparation, or they are 
 plucked green and pickled. — Poiret, Hutoire Philo- 
 sophique des Plantes, tome vii. ; Rees' Cyclopcedia, etc. 
 
 Wampum (from Wampi or Wompi, signifying, in 
 the Massachusetts Indian language, white, the color of 
 the shells most frequent in wampum belts), shells, or 
 strings of shells, used by the American Indians as 
 money. These, when united, form a broad belt, which 
 is worn as an ornament or girdle.' It is sometimes 
 called wampumpague, or wampeague, or wampampeague, 
 of which wampum seems to be a contraction. 
 
 Wanghees, sometimes called Japan canes, a spe- 
 cies of cane imported from China. They should be 
 chosen pliable, tough, round, and taper; the knots at 
 regular distances from each other, and the heavier the 
 better. Such as are dark-colored, badly glazed, and 
 light, should be rejected. — Milburn's Orient. Com. 
 Hee article Cane. 
 
 Warehousing System. By this system is 
 meant the provisions made for lodging imported ar- 
 ticles in public warehouses at a reasonable rent, with- 
 out payment of the duties on importation till they bo 
 withdrawn for home consumption. If re-exported, no 
 duty is claimed. 
 
 Expediency and Origin of the Warehousing System. — 
 It is laid down by Dr. Smith, in one of his justly cele- 
 brated maxims on the subject of taxation, that '* every 
 tax ought to be levied at the time and in the manner 
 that is most likely to be convenient for the contribu- 
 tor to pay it." — Wealth of Nations. No one can doubt 
 the soundness of this maxim ; and yet it was verj' 
 strangely neglected, down to 1803, in the management 
 of the customs. Previously to this period, the duties 
 on most goods imported had either to be paid at the 
 moment of their importation, or a hoTid, with sufficient 
 security for their future payment, had to be given to 
 the revenue oflficers. The hardship and inconvenience 
 of such a system is obvious. It was often very diffi- 
 cult to find sureties ; and the merchant, in order to 
 raise funds to pay the duties, was frequently reduced 
 to the ruinous necessity of selling his goods immedi- 
 ately on their anival, when, perhaps, the market was 
 already glutted. Neither was this the only incon- 
 venience that grew out of this system ; for the duties 
 having to be paid all at once, and not by degrees as the 
 goods were sold for consumption, their price was raised 
 bj' the amount of the profit on the capital advanced in 
 payment of the duties ; competition, too, was dimin- 
 ished in consequence of the greater command of funds 
 required to carry on trade under such disadvantages ; 
 and a few rich individuals were enabled to monopolize 
 the importation of those commodities on which heavy 
 duties were payable. The system had, besides, an ob- 
 vious tendency to discourage the carrying trade. It 
 prevented this countrj' from becoming the entrepot for 
 
WAR 
 
 1937 
 
 WAS 
 
 foreign products, by hindering the importation of such 
 aa were not immediately wanted for home consump- 
 tion ; and thus tended to lessen the resort of foreigners 
 to our markets, inasmuch as it rendered it difficult, or 
 rather impossible, for them to complete an assorted 
 cargo. And in addition to all these circumstances, 
 the difficulty of granting a really equivalent drawback 
 to the exporters of such commodities as had paid duty, 
 opened a door for the commission of every species of 
 fraud. 
 
 Warehouses, in which unclaimed and bonded mer- 
 chandise shall be stored, will hereafter be known and 
 designated as follows : 
 
 1st. Stores owned by the United States, or hired by 
 them, prior to the date of these instructions, the leases 
 of which have not yet expired or been canceled. All 
 unclaimed goods must be stored in these stores when 
 there are such at the port available for the purpose ; 
 and they are also to be used for the storage of other 
 foreign merchandise, as hereinafter provided. AU the 
 labor in these stores shall be performed under the 
 superintendence of the officer in charge, at the expense 
 of the owner or importer of the merchandise ; and all 
 charges for storage, labor, and other expenses accruing 
 on the goods, shall not exceed the regular rates for 
 such objects at the port. 
 
 Stores of this description will be known and desig- 
 nated as Class 1. 
 
 2d. Stores in the possession of an importer and in 
 his sole occupancy, which he may desire to place under 
 the customs loclc, in addition to his own lock (said 
 locks to be of a different character), for the purpose of 
 storing dutiable merchandise imported by himself only. 
 
 The entire store shall be appropriated to this solo 
 purpose, under the regulations hereinafter provided ; 
 and for the time of the customs officer necessarily re- 
 quired in attendance at such store, the proprietor shall 
 pay monthly to the collector of the port a sum equiv- 
 alent to the pay of such officer. All the labor on goods 
 so stored must be performed by the importer at his own 
 expense, under the supervision of the officer in charge. 
 Before any importer shall be permitted to use his own 
 store for such purpose, he shall enter into a bond in 
 such sum and with such securities as may be approved 
 bj' the collector and this Department. 
 
 Stores of this description will be known and desig- 
 nated as Class 2. 
 
 3d. Stores in the occupancy of persons desiring to 
 engage in the business of storing dutiable merchan- 
 dise under the warehouse acts, and of performing the 
 labor on such goods, in what is usually termed the 
 storage business. The labor performed on the goods 
 in stores of this class shall be under the control and 
 expense of the owner or occupant.; and the store shall 
 be subject to such further rules as this Department 
 may deem necessary, from time to time, for the safe- 
 keeping of the goods and protection of the revenue, 
 and to be discontinued as a bonded warehouse when the 
 public interest may require. All arrangements as re- 
 gards the rates of storage and the price of labor in these 
 stores must be made between the importer and the 
 owner or occupant of the store, and all amounts due 
 for storage and labor must be collected by the latter, 
 the collector loolting only to the safe custody of the 
 merchandise for the security of the revenue. 
 
 Before any person shall be permitted to open a store 
 of this description, he shall enter.into bond in such sum 
 and with such securities as may be approved by the 
 collector and this Department. 
 
 Unclaimed and seized goods may be stored in this 
 class of stores on the order of the collector ; and the 
 proprietor or occupant shall look to the goods for the 
 storage and charges, at the usual and customary rates, 
 and shall be liable for the safe-keeping of the merchan- 
 dise as for other storage. The collector shall give no 
 permit to withdraw such goods without payment of the 
 legal duties and charges ; and, if sold, shall cause the 
 6G 
 
 storage and charges to be paid out of the proceeds of 
 the sale. 
 
 Stores of this description will be known and desig- 
 nated as Class 3. 
 
 These stores shall be placed in charge of an officer 
 of the customs, under the separate and different locks 
 of the custom-house, and the owner or occupant act- 
 ing as agent for the importers warehousing their mer- 
 chandise in such stores. Should the amount of busi- 
 ness at any one store require, in the judgment of the 
 collector, the services of more than one officer, the own- 
 et or occupant shall be required to pay monthly such 
 additional sum as will be equivalent to the salary of 
 such officer or officers. 
 
 4th. For the storage of wood, coal, mahogany, dye- 
 woods, lumber, molasses, sugar in hogsheads and 
 tierces, railroad, pig, and bar iron, anchors, chain 
 cables, and other articles specially authorized, yards or 
 sheds of suitable construction may be used, to be bond- 
 ed in the manner herein before prescribed. These 
 yards must be inclosed by substantial fences not less 
 than twelve feet in height, with gates provided with 
 suitable bars and other fastenings, so as to admit of 
 being secured by customs locks, and must be used ex- 
 clusively for the storage of the above-named merchan- 
 dise, duly entered for warehousing by the owner or oc- 
 cupant, or for the purpose of general storage of ware- 
 housed goods ; the purpose to be set forth in the appli- 
 cation, and tlie bond to be taken accordingly, as in 
 case of warehouses of the second and third classes. 
 The sheds must be substantially constructed, with or 
 without flooring or roofing, as this Department and the 
 collector may requii'e ; and, when required, the roof 
 or exterior shall be covered with slate or metal. The 
 doors and other openings must be provided with Suit- 
 able fastenings, and be secured by the different and 
 separate locks of the occupant and the customs ; and 
 the occupant shall provide a proper room for the use 
 of the officer in charge. . Collectors of the customs may 
 order unclaimed and seized merchandise of the de- 
 scription authorized (when duly entered), to be deposit- 
 ed in sheds or yards, to be placed in such sheds or yards 
 under the same regulations and conditions as are pro- 
 vided for the deposit of unclaimed or seized goods in 
 warehouses of Class No. 3. 
 
 Sheds and yards of the foregoing description will be 
 designated and known as Class 4. 
 
 The owner or lessee of a store occupied for general 
 business purposes may use the cellar or vault of such 
 store, under the conditions hereinafter prescribed, as a 
 bonded warehouse of Class 2, for the storage of wines 
 and distilled spirits only, and exclusively of his own 
 importation. 
 
 The entire cellar or vault shall be appropriated to 
 this purpose, and shall have no opening or entrance 
 except the one from the street, on which the separate 
 and different locks of the customs and the owner or 
 proprietor of the cellar shall be placed ; and a bond 
 shall be entered into by the owner according to the 
 foregoing form of stores of Class 2. — For articles on 
 Warehousing and Dock System, see Host's Mer- 
 chants' Magazine, vii., xiv., xv. ; De Bow's Rev., 1. ; 
 KiLBs's Register, xxxv., xxxvi. 
 
 "Warp, in weaving, the longitudinal threads of a 
 woven fabric ; they are crossed by the transverse 
 threads, or woof. Warp, a rope or hawser employed 
 occasionally to remove a ship from one place to an- 
 other in a port, road, or river. Hence to warp is to 
 change the position of a ship by pulling her from one 
 part of a harbor, etc., to some other, by means of warps, 
 which are attached to buoys, to otlier ships, to anchors 
 sunk in the bottom, or to certain stations upon the 
 shore, as posts, rings, trees, etc. 
 
 Washington, the capital of the United States of 
 Americaj^is situated on the left bank of the Potomac, 
 at its confluence with the Anacostia, and at the term- 
 ination of the Washington branch of the Baltimore and 
 
WAS 
 
 1938 
 
 WAT 
 
 Ohio Railroad. Lat. (of the National Observatory) 38° 
 53' 39''*3 N., long, 77° 2' 48'' "W". from Greenwich, 
 England. It is 295 miles from the ocean by the course 
 of the river, 38 from Baltimore, and 225 from New- 
 York. The population in 1800 was 3210; in 1810, 
 8208; in 1820, 13,247 ; in 1830, 18,827 ; in 1840, 23,364; 
 in 1850, 45,000; and in 1854, 46,000. 
 
 The Navy Yard is situated on the " Anacostia," a 
 branch of the Potomac River, at the southern termina- 
 tion of Eighth Street, east. It covers an area of about 
 twenty acres, and is inclosed by a substantial brick 
 wall, having a principal entrance at the foot of Eighth 
 Street, through a handsome arched gateway. The 
 mechanical operations of this establishment are various 
 and extensive, and the skill of the workmen and the 
 excellence of the materials employed have been satis- 
 factorily tested in every sea. Anchors of various sizes, 
 for the naval service, are manufactured by the use of 
 two heavy steam-hammers (termed the "Nasmyth 
 Hammer"), one of which weighs 3600 lbs., the other 
 2240 lbs. The forges for this work are kept in blast 
 by a fan-blower attached to the steam-engine in the 
 machinist's department. There is also In operation, 
 in the anchor department, a direct action steam-ham- 
 mer (called the " Kirk Hammer"), in connection with 
 a blast furnace for working up into looms and bars all 
 the scrap iron of the navy. The massive chain cables 
 are made in another shop, which is provided with a 
 powerful hj'drostatic press for testing their strength. 
 — See article District of Columbia for commerce of 
 "Washington. 
 
 ■Washington, a territory of the United States of 
 America, lies between lat. 45° 25' N., long. 108° 30' 
 and 124° 30' W. Area, 113,821 square miles. It is 
 between the Rocky Mountains on the east and the 
 Pacific Ocean on the west, has Oregon on its south 
 border, and the British possessions on the north. The 
 entire population in 1850 was 1201 ; in 1854, estimated 
 at 5000. It is divided into six counties, viz. : Clark, 
 Lewis, Pacific, Pierce, Stevens, and Thurston. The 
 country west of the Cascade Range is the only portion 
 yet settled by a white population; it has a diversified 
 surface, and the valleys bordering the streams have a 
 luxuriant soil. The streams are small, the CowUt? 
 £^ld other small streams entering the Columbia River 
 on the south, the Chickeeles entering Gray's harbor 
 on the west, and a number of other streams entering 
 Puget Sound on the northwest, Puget Sound, Hood's 
 Canal, and Admiralty Inlet abound with fine harbors. 
 The Cascade Range crosses the territory from the south 
 (at the Cascades, on the Columbia River) entirely across 
 it to the north, rising in several peaks above the snow 
 line, as Mount St. Helens (an active volcano). Mount 
 Rainier, Mount Boker, etc. East of this range little is 
 known of the capabilities of -the countr}"- as an agricul- 
 tural region, although there is no doubt of its being 
 well adapted for stock raising. It is drained by the 
 constituents of the Columbia, consisting of Kooskoosky 
 and Peloose rivers of the Lewis Fork, and Spokane, 
 Okonagan, Barrier, and Yakima rivers of Clark's Fork, 
 and Cathalacades entering the Columbia River. 
 
 The Strait of Juan de Fuca, including the waters of 
 Admiralty Inlet, Hood Canal, and Puget Sound, with 
 the Archipelago of Arro up to the 49th parallel, were 
 all surve3'ed by the United States Exploring Expedi- 
 tion. The whole is unsurpassed by an}'- estuary in the 
 'world. They comprise many very fine harbors and 
 safe anchorages, are entirely free from dangers, and 
 cover an area of about 2000 square miles. The coun- 
 try by which these waters are surrounded is remark- 
 ably salubrious, and offers everj- advantage for the ac- 
 commodations of a vast commercial and military ma- 
 rine, with conveniences for docks, and many sites for 
 towns and cities, at all times well supplied with water, 
 and capable of being provided with all needful supplies 
 from the surrounding country, which is well adapted 
 for agriculture. This strait is ninety-five miles in 
 
 length ; average width eleven miles (entrance eight 
 miles in width) ; no dangers exist, and it may be safely 
 navigated throughout. This territory was separated 
 from Oregon in the year 1853, and constituted a separ- 
 ate territory. — Harper's Gazetteer. 
 
 "Watches (Ger. Uhren^ Tasckenuhren ; Fr. Mon^ 
 ires ; It. OriuoU da tasca, o da saccoccia ; Sp. lielojes 
 defaltriqu&ra ; Russ. Karmannue tsckasu), portable ma- 
 chines, generall}'' of a small size, and round, flat shape, 
 that measure and indicate the successive portions of 
 time, having for the most part their motions regula- 
 ted by a spiral spring. When constructed on the most 
 approved principles, and executed in the best manner, 
 a watch is not only an exceedingly useful, but a most 
 admirable piece of mechanism. It has exercised the 
 genius and invention of the most skillful mechanics, 
 as well as of some of the ablest mathematicians, for 
 nearlj'' three centuries. And, considering the small- 
 ness of its size, its capacity of being carried about un- 
 injured in every variety of position, the number and 
 complexity of its movements, and the extraordinaiy 
 accuracj'' with which it represents the successive por- 
 tions of time as determined hy the rotation of the earth 
 on its axis, we need not wonder at Dr. Paley having 
 referred to it as a striking specimen of human ingenu- 
 it}'. Spring watches are constructed nearly on the 
 same principle as pendulum clocks. Instead of the 
 pendulum in the latter, a spring is used in the former, 
 the isochronism of the vibrations of which corrects the 
 unequal motions of the balance. 
 
 Historical Notice. — The invention of spring watches 
 dates from about the middle of the 16th century, and 
 has been warmly contested for Pluygens and Hooke. 
 The English writers generally' incline in favor of the 
 latter. Dr. Hutton says {Mathematical Dictionary/, 
 art. Watch) that the words "Rob. Hooke invenit, 
 1658," were inscribed on the dial plate of a watch pre- 
 sented to Charles II. in 1675. But Montucla affirms 
 {Hlstoire des Maihematiquee, tome ii. p. 413, ed. 1800) 
 that Iluygens made this ^^ belle decouverte" in 1656, and 
 presented a spring watch to the states of Holland in 
 1657. Comparing these statements, it certainly ap- 
 , pears that the claim of Huygens to the priority of the 
 discovery is the better established of the two. We do 
 not, however, believe that either of those distinguished 
 persons owed, in this respect, any thing to the other. 
 The probability seems to be, that the happy idea of 
 employing a spring to regulate the motion of watches 
 occurred to them both nearly at the same time. 
 
 Improvement of Watches. — Owing to the facility with 
 which the longitude may be determined by the aid of 
 accurately going watches, it is of great importance to 
 have them made as perfect as possible. In this view, 
 liberal premiums have been given to the makers of the 
 best marine watches, or chronometers. In the reign 
 of Queen Anne, Parliament offered a reward of £20,000 
 to any one who should make a watch, or other instru- 
 ment capable of determining the longitude at sea, with- 
 in certain limits. This magnificent premium was 
 awarded, in 1764, to the celebrated John Harrison, for a 
 marine watch, which, being tried in a voj'age to Bar- 
 badoes, determined its longitude with even more than 
 the required accuracy. Other premiums, though of 
 inferior amount, were subsequentlj'- given to Messrs. 
 Mudge, Arnold, Earnshaw, etc. Since 1822, two prizes, 
 one of £300 and one of £200, have been annually given 
 to the makers of the two chronometers adjudged to be 
 the best, after having been submitted to a twelve- 
 month's trial at the Royal Observatory at Greenwich. 
 And to such perfection has the manufacture attained, 
 that some of the chronometers employed by naviga- 
 tors, though carried into the most opposite climates, 
 have not varied to the extent of two seconds in their 
 mean rate of going throughout the year. 
 
 Watch Manufacture. — The watch-making business 
 is largely carried on in London ; the artists of which 
 have attained to a high degree of excellence in this do- 
 
WAT 
 
 1939 
 
 WAT 
 
 partment. There may be about 14,000 gold and 85,000 
 silver watches annually assaj'ed at Goldsmiths' Hall, 
 London (Jacob ore the Precious Metals, vol. ii. p. 418), 
 the aggregate value of which is, probably, not much 
 under £600,000. The manufacture is also carried on 
 to a considerable extent at Liverpool, Coventry, Edin- 
 burgh, etc. Watch movements used to be extensively 
 manufactured at Prescot, in Lancashire ; but latterly, 
 we believe, the manufacturers have been withdrawing 
 to Liverpool. On the Continent watches are princi- 
 pally manufactured in Paris, Geneva, and in Neuf- 
 chatel. Some of the French and Swiss watches, par- 
 ticularly the latter, are excellent ; but, generallj' speak- 
 ing, they are slight, and inferior to those made in Lon- 
 don. Paris and Geneva watches are largely exported 
 to foreign countries, and are every where in high es- 
 timation, particularly among the ladies. Watches 
 impressed with any mark or stamp, appearing to be or 
 to represent any legal British assay mark or stamp, or 
 purporting by any mark or appearance to be of the 
 manufacture of the United Kingdom, or not having 
 the name and place of abode of some foreign maker 
 abroad visible on the frame and also on the face, or not 
 being in a complete state, with all the parts properly 
 fixed in the case, may not be imported into the United 
 Kingdom, even for the purpose of being warehoused. 
 —3 and i Will. IV., c. 52, § 58. 
 
 Watches in China. — Large numbers of European 
 watches are imported into China ; and it may be worth 
 mentioning, as a curious instance of the diversity of 
 tastes, that the Chinese, as well as most other Eastern 
 nations, who can afford it, uniformily wear watches in 
 pairs I This sort of extravagance is not, however, 
 confined to watches; but extends to a variety of other 
 articles. Shawls, for example, are invariably worn in 
 India in pairs of exactly the same pattern ; and it is 
 hardly possible, indeed, to find a native dealer who will 
 sell a single shawl. 
 
 Watches and Cloclcs. — Out of thirty-one clock man- 
 ufactories in New England in 1852, four have been de- 
 stroyed by fire, nine have stopped by failure, and five 
 have stopped manufacturing on account of small prof- 
 its. There are still thirteen factories making clocks, 
 but only six of them are running full time, and with a 
 full complement of hands. These six will produce 
 about 95,000 clocks this year. The remaining seven 
 factories will make about 48,000 docks, so that the 
 total production of clocks this year will not exceed 
 143,000. 
 
 The Jerome Manufacturing Company, in 1853 and 
 1854, produced each j'ear 444,000 clocks. Thus they 
 must have produced more than an average of one clock 
 per minute. The factory of J. C. Brown, during 1851 
 and 1852, issued from 80,000 to 100,000. clocks annu- 
 ally, making a total from the two establishments of 
 over 500,000 clocks each year. The Ansonia Com- 
 pany manufactured about 150,000 last year. Thus it 
 ■will be seen that all the thirteen factories now run- 
 ning will make hardly one-fourth of what was pro- 
 duced by three of the large factories now standing still. 
 The question naturally arises. What shall we do for 
 low-priced clocks in the future ? There is still a large 
 amount of fancy clocks on hand, but the wooden-frame 
 " ogee" and " sharp-top Gothic" clocks are not being 
 made, and there is comparatively none in the market. 
 The wooden-frame clocks can not be made for the pricjes 
 that they have been sold at. It is estimated that 
 nearly half a million of dollars have been lost in sell- 
 ing clocks under the cost within the last three years. 
 The clocks for exportation have amounted to about 
 one million of dollars annually, which aided us in the 
 exchanges with the old country. As an instance, we 
 know one house that iihports shawls, linen, collars, 
 and lace goods from Scotland, and makes its exchange 
 in clocks. But if they were to send a bill of exchange 
 it would cost them from 7 to 8 per cent. ; but sending 
 out clocks at 5 per cent, profit or more, it makes them I 
 
 at least 13 per cent, on the clocks, which is a paying 
 business. There are doubtless many similar agents 
 in the exjlortation of the article, which is an advantage 
 to ourselves ; and for this reason we desire to see it 
 fostered, and again take its place among the industrial 
 products of our country. — See Hunt's Merchants' Mag- 
 azine, January, 1867. 
 
 The following table shows the value of clocks im- 
 ported into and exported from the United Sta/tes dur- 
 ing the year ending June 30, 1855, derived from the 
 annual report of the Secretary of the Treasury : 
 
 CountrieB. Imported. ■ Exported. 
 
 Hamburg $684 
 
 Bremen 1,481 
 
 Belgium 163 
 
 Englnnd 15.902 
 
 Ireland '50 
 
 Canada 6 
 
 France 50,577 
 
 Papal States IT 
 
 Mexico 141 
 
 New Granada , 4 
 
 Veneauela 175 .... 
 
 China 59 
 
 Total $69,258 $6281 
 
 Impobts of Watoues and Faets or Watches into the 
 Ukited States for tue Year endihg June 30, 1857. 
 
 $4200 
 
 1698 
 483 
 
 WfaeDco imported. 
 
 Russian Foss. in N. Amer. 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Hremeu 
 
 Holland 
 
 Belgium 
 
 England 
 
 Scotland , . 
 
 Canada '. . 
 
 France 
 
 Cuba. . , 
 
 New Granada 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Brazil , 
 
 Total, 1850^' 57. 
 
 Watchee aod 
 parte of. 
 
 Value. 
 
 $1,620 
 
 1,272 
 
 193,029 
 
 66 
 
 15 
 
 2,463,593 
 
 3,718 
 
 309 
 
 1,155,654 
 
 50 
 
 2,118 
 
 140 
 
 1,455 
 
 $3,823,039 
 
 Watch Crystals. 
 
 Gross. Value. 
 
 16,430 
 V,390 
 
 17,820 
 
 128,173 
 3,992 
 
 $32,170 
 
 Water. It may be thought unnecessary, perhaps, 
 to say any thing in a work of this sort with respect to 
 a fluid sc) well known and so abundant. But, besides 
 being an indispensable necessary of life, water is, in 
 most large cities, an important commercial article. It 
 is in the latter point of view prinoipallj' that we mean 
 to consider it. Inasmuch, however, as the mode of 
 supplying different places with water, and its price, 
 necessarily vary in every possible way, we shall limit 
 our remarks on these subjects to the metropolis only. 
 The few remarks we intend to offer of a general nature 
 will apply indifferently to any populous place, the sup- 
 ply of which with water occasions a considerable ex- 
 pense. 
 
 Quality of Water.— T>t. Ure has made the following 
 statements with respect to thff quality of water : 
 " Water," says he, " is a very transparent fluid, pos- 
 sessing a moderate degree ofi activity with regard tc 
 .organized substances, which renders it friendly to ani- 
 mal and vegetable life, for both which it is, indeed, in- 
 dispensably necessar}'. Hence it acts but slightly on 
 the organs of sense, and is therefore said to have 
 neither taste nor smell. It appears to possess consid- 
 erable elasticity, and yieldsVin a perceptible degree to 
 the pressure of air in the condensing machine. Native 
 water is seldom, if ever, found perfectly pure. The 
 waters that flow within or upon the surface of the 
 earth contain various earthy, saline, metallic, vege- 
 table, or animal particles, according to the substances 
 over or through which they pass. Bain and snow 
 water are much purer than these, although they also 
 contain whatever floats in the air, or has been exhaled 
 along with the waterj' vapors. 
 
 " The purity of water may be known by the follow- 
 ing marks or properties of pure water : 1. Pure water 
 is lighter than water that is not pure. 2. Pure water 
 is more fluid than water that is not pure. 3. It has no 
 color, smell, or taste. 4. It wets more easily than the 
 
WAT 
 
 1940 
 
 WAX 
 
 n-atera containing m^allic and earthy salts, called hard 
 waters, and feels softer when touched. 5. Soap, or a 
 solution of soap in alcohol, mixes easily and perfectly 
 with it. 6. It is not rendered turbid by adding to it a 
 solution of gold in aqua regia ; or a solution of silver, 
 or of lead, or of mercury, in nitric acid ; or a solution 
 of acetate of lead in -water. 
 
 "Water was, till modern times, considered as an 
 elementary or simple substance ; but it is now ascer- 
 tained to be a compound of oxygen and hydrogen." 
 
 To evaporate water enough annually from the ocean 
 to cover the earth, on the average, five feet deep with 
 rain ; to transport it from one zone to another ; and to 
 precipitate it in the right places, at suitable times and 
 in the proportions due, is one of the offices of the grand 
 atmospherical machine. This water is evaporated 
 prhicipally from the torrid zone. Supposing it all to 
 come thence, we shall have encircling the earth a belt 
 of ocean three thousand miles in breadth, from which 
 this atmosphere evaporates a layer of water annually 
 sixteen feet in depth. And to hoist up as high as the 
 clouds, and lower down again all the water in a lake 
 sixteen feet deep, and three thousand miles broad, and 
 twenty-four thousand long, is the yearly business of 
 this invisible machinerj-. What a powerful engine is 
 the atmosphere ! and how nicely adjusted must be all 
 the cogs, and wheels, and springs, and compensations 
 of this exquisite piece of machinery, that it never wears 
 out nor breaks down, nor fails to do its work at the 
 right time and in the right way ! 
 
 In his annual report to the society (Transactions of 
 the Bombay Geographical Society from May, 1849, to 
 August, 1850, vol. ix.), Dr. Buist, the secretary, states, 
 on the authority of Mr. Laidly,the evaporation at Cal- 
 cutta to be "about fifteen feet annually ; that between 
 the Cape and Calcutta it averages, in October and 
 November, nearly three-fourths of an inch daily ; be- 
 tween 10° and 20°, in the Bay of Bengal, it was found 
 to exceed an inch daily. Supposing this to be double 
 the average throughout the year, we should," continues 
 the doctor, "have eighteen feet of evaporation annu- 
 ally." — Maury, Phys. Geog. 
 
 Water for Ships. — Various improvements have been 
 made in the art of preserving water on board ships. 
 Of these the principal are the chamng the inside of 
 the casks in which the water is kept, and the substitu- 
 tion of iron tanks for casks. The latter, being made 
 of the required shape, may be conveniently stowed 
 into any part of the ship. In men-of-war the iron 
 tanks serve as ballast, the water being brought up by 
 ■ a forcing-pump. Water is found to preserve better in 
 them than in any other sort of vessel. Drip-stoneg 
 may be employed with much advantage in the purifi- 
 cation of water. When water is taken on board from 
 a river into which the tide flows, it should, of course, 
 be raised at low ebb. — See article Aqueduct for an 
 account of the supply of water in New York given by 
 the Croton Aqueduct. See articles Gulf Stream, 
 Harbors, Ocean, Tides, etc. 
 
 Water-clocks. The first instruments used to 
 measure the lapse of time, independently of the sun- 
 shine, were clepsydrce, or water-clocks. These were 
 most probably vessels of water, with a small hole 
 through the bottom ; through this hole the water ran 
 out in ii certain time, possibly an hour ; after which 
 the vessel was again filled, to be emptied as before. 
 This invention was a manifest improvement on the old 
 sun-dials, whose perpendicular gnomon gave hours of 
 different length at the various seasons of the year. 
 Something similar to the hour-glass was occasionally 
 used ; and Alfred the Great, probably ignorant of these 
 methods, adopted the burning of a taper as a measure 
 of time. — Haydn. 
 
 "Water-line, the boundarj' of any horizontal sec- 
 lion of the bottom of a ship. The uppermost one is 
 called the load water-line ; the lowest the light water- 
 line. 
 
 Water-logged, a nautical term, denoting the state 
 of a ship when a quantity of water having been re- 
 ceived into the hold by leaking, etc., she has in a great 
 measure lost her buoyancy, and yields to the effect of 
 every wave passing over the deck. 
 
 "Water-mills, used for grinding corn, invented by 
 Belisarius, the general of Justinian, while besieged in 
 Rome by the Goths, a.d. 555. The ancients parched 
 their corn, and pounded it in mortars. Afterward 
 mills were invented, which were turned by men and 
 beasts with great labor ; and yet Pliny mentions 
 wheels turned by water. — Haydn. 
 
 Water-"ways, strong pieces of wood extending 
 round the ship, at the junction of the decks with the 
 sides, to carry off the water. 
 
 "Wave. The common cause of waves is the friction 
 of the wind upon the surface of the water. Little 
 ridges or elevations first appear, which, b}'- continuance 
 of the force, graduall}- increase until they become roll- 
 ing mountains, where the winds sweep over a great 
 extent of water. In rounding the Cape of Good Hope, 
 waves, or rather a swell, are met with so vast, that a 
 few ridges and a few depressions occupy the extent of 
 a mile. But these are not so troublesome to ships as 
 a short swell with more perpendicular waves. The 
 slope in the former is so gentle that the rising and 
 falling are scarcely felt, while the latter, by the sud- 
 den plunging of the vessel, is often destructive. The 
 velocity of waves has relation to their magnitude. 
 The largo waves just mentioned proceed at the rate of 
 from thirty to fortj'" miles an hour. It is a common 
 error to suppose that the water itself advances with 
 the speed of the wave j but, in fact, the form only ad- 
 vances : the substance, with the exception of a little 
 spray, remains rising and falling in the same place 
 with the regularity of a pendulum. When a wave, 
 however, reaches a shallow bank or beach, the water 
 becomes really progressive ; because then, as it can 
 not sink directly down, it falls over forward. No wave 
 rises more than ten feet above the level of the \vater, 
 which, with the ten feet of descent, gives twenty feet 
 for the whole height of the wave above the next de- 
 pression. A wave coming against any obstacle may 
 be dashed up to a much greater elevation.' — E. A. Sec 
 American Journal of Science, ix. (W. Scoresby). See 
 also articles Ocean, Tides, Water, etc. 
 
 "Wax (Ger. Wachs; Fr. Cire,- It. and Sp. Cera; 
 Buss. Wash'), a vegetable product. Several plants 
 contain wax in such abundance as to make it worth 
 while to extract it from them. But all that is known 
 in commerce consists of beeswax. The honey is first 
 pressed from the comb, and the wax is then melted into 
 cakes. It has a slight odor of honey, is insipid, and 
 of a bright yellow hue. It is brittle, yet soft, and 
 somewhat unctuous to the touch. It is often adulter- 
 ated with earth, pea meal, resin, etc. The presence of 
 the former may be suspected when the cake is veiy 
 brittle, or when its color inclines more to gray than to 
 yellow ; and the presence of resin may be suspected 
 when the fracture appears smooth and shining, instead 
 of being granulated. Wax, when bleached or purified, 
 is' white, perfectly insipid, inodorous, and somewhat 
 translucent ; it is harder, less unctuous to the touch, 
 heavier, and less fusible than yellow wax. It is some- 
 times adulterated with the white oxyd of lead to in- 
 ci;ease its weight, with white tallow, and with potato 
 starch. The first is detected by melting the wax in 
 water, when the oxyd falls to the bottom ; the pres- 
 ence of tallow is indicated by the wax being of a dull 
 opaque white, and wanting the transparency which 
 distinguishes pure wax ; and starch may be detected 
 by applying sulphuric acid to the suspected wax, as 
 the acid carbonizes the starch, without acting on the 
 wax. — Thomson's Chemistry, and Dr. A. T. Thom- 
 son's Dispensatory. 
 
 Beeswax is prepared by draining and washing the 
 honey-comb, which is then melted in boiling water, 
 
"WAY 
 
 1941 
 
 WEI 
 
 strained, and cast into cakes. English and foreign 
 wax are found in the market ; the latter being chiefly 
 imported from the Baltic, the Levant, and the coast 
 of Barbarj". Fresh wax has a peculiar honey-like 
 odor: its specific gravity is -96. At about 150° it 
 fuses, and at a high temperature volatilizes, and bums 
 with a bright white flame. It is bleached by being 
 exposed in thin slices or ribbons to light, air, and moist- 
 ure, or more rapidly by the action of chlorine ; but in 
 the latter case it does not answer for the manufacture 
 of candles, which is one of its principal applications. 
 Wax candles are made by suspending the wicks upon 
 a hoop over the cauldron of melted wax, which is 
 successively poured over them from a ladle till they 
 have acquired the proper size, so that the candle con- 
 sists of a series of layers of wax ; the upper end is then 
 shaped, and the lower cut ofl'. Attempts have been 
 made to cast wax candles in moulds, but when thus 
 made they bum irregularly. Bleached or white wax 
 J3 generally adulterated with more or less spermaceti, 
 and sold at difi'erent prices accordingly ; in this case it 
 has not the peculiar lustre of pure wax, and is softer 
 and more fusible. It is also largely adulterated with 
 stearin or stearic acid, which is detected by the odor 
 of fat or tallow which it evolves when highly heated, 
 and by its crumbly texture ; it may also be separated 
 to a certain extent by ether or alcohol. Wax la in- 
 soluble in water, and scarcely acted upon by the acids, 
 so that it forms a good lute or cement : boiling alcohol 
 and ether act partially upon it, and deposit the portion 
 which they had dissolved, on cooling. Some varieties 
 of vegetable wax appear to contain two distinct prin- 
 ciples, which Dr. John has termed cerin and myricm ; 
 the former soluble, and the latter insoluble, in alcohol. 
 Heated with the fixed alkalies, wax forms a difficultly 
 soluble soap. 
 
 EsrOBTS OF Was feom the United States foe tub Year 
 ENDING June 30, 185T. 
 
 Wliither exported. 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Holland , , , 
 
 Belgium 
 
 England 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 Malta 
 
 Canada 
 
 France on the Atlantic 
 
 France on the Mediterranean . 
 
 Spain on the Atlantic 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Portugal , . '. . . 
 
 Austrian Possessions in Italy . 
 
 New Granada 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Peru 
 
 Sandwich Islands 
 
 China 
 
 Total, 1856-'B7. 
 
 Founds. 
 
 10,492 
 
 T,409 
 
 1S,43T 
 
 81,6D8 
 
 1,046 
 
 1,405 
 
 125 
 
 105,2TT 
 
 8,000 
 
 8,4T5 
 
 11,000 
 
 .600 
 
 ],96T 
 
 12,73T 
 
 4,908 
 
 38,736 
 
 5,120, 
 
 43 
 
 1,000 
 
 316,378 
 
 VnluB. 
 
 $3,112 
 
 1,839 
 
 5,338 
 
 22,100 
 
 303 
 
 400 
 
 3 
 
 30,362 
 
 1,568 
 
 2,367 
 
 2,906 
 
 171 
 
 590 
 
 fi,lT9 
 
 ■ 1,772 
 
 11,608 
 
 2,04| 
 
 360 
 
 $91,983 
 
 Way, the sea term for progress. A ship in prog- 
 ress is said to have way upon her ; when stationary, 
 to have no way. 
 
 Wealth. This is a relative term ; for as there is 
 only a certain amount of property in a countrj', so the 
 possession of a large share by one man is the poverty 
 of others. The instances of wealth in the early ages 
 are many and most extraordinary. The mightiest 
 conflagration of wealth on record is that of Sarda- 
 napulus, where riches amounting to one thousand four 
 hundred millions sterling were destroyed. — Athen.zeus. 
 Caacilius Isidorus died at Rome possessed of 4116 slaves, 
 3600 oxen, 200,000 head of other cattle, and money 
 equal to three millions sterling, 8 B.C. — Univ. Hist. 
 See articles Banks, Coins, Gold Money, etc. 
 
 Wear, to put the ship on the other tack by turning 
 her round with her stern to the wind. 
 
 Wearing Apparel, generally considered to in- 
 clude only the clothes and personal property actually 
 worn upon the person, and as such it is admitted free 
 of duty into the United States. 
 
 Exports op weaeinq ArpAREi. feom tiik United States 
 
 foe the YeAE ENDtNG JCNE 30, 1857. 
 
 Whithor exported. Value ' 
 
 Asiatic Kussia 42 23i 
 
 Kussian Possessions in >'orth America 3'433 
 
 Danish West Indies 'gsg 
 
 Hamburg ' 3324 
 
 6,003 
 
 180 
 
 1,250 
 
 1.618 
 
 200 
 
 350 
 
 Bremen 
 Holland 
 Belgium 
 England 
 Scotland 
 Malta.., 
 
 Canada 47 |21 
 
 Other British North American Posses'sions ! 14'27S 
 
 British West Indies . .' 179 
 
 British Hondiu'as 52 
 
 British Guiana. : '..'.'. \\.. 300 
 
 British Australia '.'.'.'.'..', 6,601 
 
 British East Indies ','..'/.','. '30O 
 
 France on the Atlantic 5 778 
 
 France on the Mediterranean 000 
 
 Spain on the Atlantic 100 
 
 Cuba 4,382 
 
 Porto lUco 449 
 
 Sardinia 403 
 
 Two Sicilies \\ 150 
 
 Turkey in Asia ' ". 164 
 
 Ports in AMca .' ' 1,681 
 
 Hay ti ; T82 
 
 Mexico 2,461 
 
 Central Republic 650 
 
 New Granada ' 116,848 
 
 Venezuela 2,365 
 
 Brazil 241 
 
 Argentine Eepuhlic 1 335 
 
 Ohili 11,434 
 
 Peru ] ,098 
 
 Ecuador. .'. 150 
 
 Sandwich Islands 69,748 
 
 Other islands in the Pacific 3,773 
 
 China 2,294 
 
 Whale-fisheries '. . .'. . 29,133 
 
 Total $333,442 
 
 Weaving, the art of forming cloth in a loom by 
 the union or intertexture of threads. The art of weav- 
 ing appears to have been practiced in China from the 
 earliest antiquity — more than a thousand years before 
 it was known in Europe or Asia. Poets assign the 
 art to the spider. Women originally spun, wove, and 
 dyed ; and the origin of these arts is ascribed, by an- 
 cient nations, to diflferent women as women's arts. 
 The Egyptians ascribed it to Isis ; the Greeks to Mi- 
 nerva ; and the Peruvians to the wife of Manco Capac. 
 In most Eastern countries, the emploj-ment of weaving 
 is still performed by the women. Our Saviour's vest, 
 or coat, had not any seam, being woven from the top 
 throughout, in one whole piece. Perhaps, says Dr. 
 Doddridge, this curious garment might be the work 
 and present of some pious women who attended him, 
 and ministered unto him of their substance, Luke, viii. 
 3. The print of a frame for weaving such a vest may 
 be seen in Calmet's Dictionary, under the word Vest- 
 ments. Two weavers from Brabant settled at York, 
 where they manufactured woolens, which, says King 
 Edward, "mp}' prove of great benefit to us and our 
 subjects," 1331. Flemish dj'crs, cloth-drapers, linen- 
 makers, silk-throwsters, etc., settled at Canterbury, 
 Norwich, Colchester, Southampton, and other places, 
 on account of the Duke of Alva's persecution, 1567. — 
 See articles Cotton Manufactures, Woolen Manu- 
 factures, and Manufactures. 
 
 Weights and Measures. Weights are used to 
 ascertain the gravity of bodies — a quality depending 
 partly on their magnitude, and partly on their density. 
 Measures are used . to determine the magnitude of 
 bodies, or the space which they occupj'. — For an ac- 
 count of the weights and measures used in foreign coun- 
 tries, see articles under these heads. 
 
 Weights and measures, and the stamping of gold 
 and silver money, were invented by Phydon, tyrant of 
 Argos, 895 B.C. et seq. — Arundelian Marbles. Weights 
 were originallj' taken from grains of wheat, the lowest 
 being still called a grain. — Chalmers. The standard 
 measure was originally kept at Winchester by the law 
 of King Edgar, a.d. 972. Standards of weights and 
 
WEI 
 
 1942 
 
 WEI 
 
 measures were provided for the whole kingdom of En- 
 gland by the sheriffs of London, 8 Richard I., 1197. 
 A public weighings-machine was set up in London, and 
 all commodities ordered to be weighed by the city, of- 
 ficer, called the weigh-master, who was to do justice 
 between buyer and seller, statute 3d Edward II., 1309. 
 — Stowe. The first statute, directing the use of 
 avoirdupois weight, is that of 24 Henry VIII., 1532.. — ■ 
 Philosophical Transactions^ vol. 65, art. 3. The Frencli 
 adopt the metre of 3'28084, or the 10-millionth part of 
 tlje distance from the pole to the equator, as the stand- 
 ard of measure ; and the kilogram, equal to 2255 lbs, 
 avoirdupois, as the standard of weight, — Haydn. 
 
 Neither the magnitude nor the weight of any body 
 can be determined, unless by comparing it with some 
 other body selected as a standard. It is impossible, 
 indeed, to form any idea in respect of njagnitp.de or 
 weight, except in relation to some definite space or 
 weight with which we are acquainted. We say that 
 one article weighs 1 lb., another 2 lbs., a third 3, and 
 so on; meaning not only that these weights are to 
 each other as 1, 2, 3, etc., but also that the weight or 
 specific gravity of the first is equal to the known and 
 determinate weight denominated a lb., that the second 
 is equal to 2 lbs., and so on. 
 
 Standards of Weight and Measure: — Standards of 
 lineal measure must have been fixed upon at the earli- 
 est period, and appear to have consisted principally of 
 parts of the human body^ — as the cubit, or length of 
 the arm from the elbow to the tip of the middle finger ; 
 the foot ; the ulna, arm, or yard ; the span ; the digit, 
 or finger ; the fathom, or space from the extremity 
 of one hand to that of the other, when they are both 
 extended in opposite directions ; the pace, etc. Large 
 spaces were estimated by measures formed out of 
 multiples of the smaller ones ; and sometimes in day's 
 journeys, or by the space which it was supposed an 
 ordinary man might travel in a day, using a reason- 
 able degree of diligence. But lineal measures can 
 only be used to determine the magnitude of solid bodies ; 
 the magnitude of bodies in a liquid or fluid state hks 
 to be determined by what are called measures of capac- 
 ity. It is probable that, in the infancy of society, 
 shells, or other hollow instruments afforded by nature, 
 were used as standards. But the inaccuracy of the 
 conclusions drawn from referring to them must soon 
 have become obvious; and it early occurred that to 
 obtain an accurate measure of liquids nothing more 
 was necessarj'^ than to constitute an artificial one, the 
 dimensions, and consequently the capacity, of which 
 should be determined by the lineal measures previous- 
 ly adopted. The determination of the gravity or 
 weight of different bodies supposes the invention of 
 the balance. Nothing is known of the steps which 
 led to its introduction ; but it was used in the remotest 
 antiquity. It seems probable that, at first, cubes of 
 some common lineal measure, as a foot, or the fraction 
 of a foot, formed of copper, iron, or some other metal, 
 were used as standards of weight. When the standard 
 was selected, if it was desired to ascertain the specific 
 gravity or weight of any given article, all that was 
 necessary was to put it into one of the scales of the 
 balance, and as many cubes or parts of cubes on the 
 other as might be necessary to counterpoise it. Weights 
 have, however, been frequently derived frotn grains of 
 corn. Helice in this, and in some other European 
 countries, the lowest denomination of weight is sl grain; 
 and 32 of these grains are directed, by the ancient 
 statute called Compodtio Mensurarum, to compose a 
 pennj'-weight, whereof 20 make an ounce, 12 ounces a 
 pound, and so upward. 
 
 In every country in which commercial transactions 
 are extensively carried on, the importance of having 
 weights and measures determined by some fixed stand- 
 ard becomes obvious to every one. But as the size of 
 different parts of the human body differs in different in- 
 dividuals, it is necessarj^ to select some durable article 
 
 — a metallic rod, for example — of the length, of an or- 
 dinary cubit, foot, etc., and to make it a standard with 
 which all the other cubits, feet, etc., used in mensura- 
 tion shall correspond. These standards have always 
 been preserved with the greatest care : at Rome they 
 were kept in the temple of Jupiter, and among the 
 Jews their custody was intrusted to the family of 
 Aaron. -^Paucton, Metralogie^ p. 223. The principal 
 standards used in the ancient world were the cubit of 
 the Jews, from which their other measures of length,: 
 capacity, and weight were deriv^ed ; and the foot of 
 the Greeks and Romans. In England, ancient his- 
 torians tell us that a new, or rather a revived, standard 
 of lineal measure was introduced by Henry L, who or- 
 dered that the ulna; or ancient ell, which corresponds 
 to the modern yard, should be made of the exact length 
 of his own arm, and that the other measures of length 
 should be raised upon it. This standard has been 
 maintained, without any sensible variatiojg.. In 1742 
 the Royal Socioty had a yard made, from a very care- 
 ful comparison of the standard ells or yards of the 
 reigns of Henry VII. and Elizabeth kept at the Ex- 
 chequer. In 1758' an exact copy was inade of the 
 Royal Society's yard ; and this copy havirig been ex- 
 amined by a committee of the House of Commons, and 
 reported by them to be ,equal to the standard yard, it 
 was marked as such ; and this identical yard is de- 
 clared, by the act 6, Geo. IV., c. 74, to bo the standard 
 of lineal measure in Great Britain. 
 
 Uniformity of Weights and Measures. — The confusion 
 and inconvenience attending the use of weights and 
 measures of the same denomination, but of different 
 magnitudes, was early remarked ; and there is hardly 
 a country in which efforts have not been made to re- 
 duce them to the same uniform system. Numerous 
 efforts have been made having this object in view, and 
 enjoiaing the use of the same weights and measures, 
 under ver}"" severe penalties. But, owing to the in- 
 veteracy of ancient customs, and the difficulty of en- 
 forcing new regulations, these statutes have always 
 had a very limited influence, and the greatest diversity" 
 has continued to prevail, except in lineal measures. — 
 See article Decimal Weights and Measures, p. 510. 
 
 Jnvarlahle or Natural Standards. — As the standards , 
 adopted in most countries have been in a great degree 
 arbitrary, it has long been the opinion of scientific 
 men that, to construct a more perfect system of weights 
 and measures, some natural and unchangeable basis 
 should be adopted. It has, indeed, been contended 
 that the measures of the ancients were deduced from a 
 basis of this sort ; aiid that the stadium always formed 
 an aliquot part of the earth's circumference, that part 
 differing among different nations and authors. But 
 no learning or ingenuity can induce any one to believe 
 what is so obviously incredible. The ancients had no 
 means of determining the earthls circumference with 
 any thing like the accuracy required to render it the 
 great unit of a system of measures ; and, what is equal- 
 ly decisive, no ancient author ever makes the slightest 
 allusion to any such standard. 
 
 In modem times, however, the idea of seeking for 
 a unit of weight and measure in, some unchanging 
 natural object has been practically carried into effect. 
 The standards that have been usually proposed for 
 this object have been some aliquot part of the quadrant 
 of the meridian, or the length of a pendulum vibrating 
 seconds in some given latitude. The standard of the 
 second pendulum has been in so far adopted into the 
 existing system of Aveights and measures established 
 in Great Britain by the act of 1823, that the length of 
 the standard yard, as compared with that of a pendu- 
 lum vibrating seconds in the latitude of- London, is 
 specified in the act as follows : 
 
 " Whereas it has been ascertained by the conmiis- 
 sioners appointed by his majesty to inquire into the 
 Subject of weights and measures, that the said yard 
 hereby declared to be the imperial standard yard, 
 
WEI 
 
 1943 
 
 WEI 
 
 ■when compared with a pendulum vibrating seconds of 
 mean time in the latitude of London, in a vacuum at 
 the level of the sea, is in the proportion of 36 inches to 
 39 inches and 1393 ten-thousandth parts of an inch ; 
 be it therefore enacted and declared, that if at any time 
 hereafter the said imperial standard yard shall be lost, 
 or shall be in any manner destroyed, defaced, or other- 
 wise injured, it shall and may be restored by making, 
 under the direction of the Lord High Treasurer, or the 
 commissioners of his majesty's treasury of the United 
 Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, or any three 
 of them for the time being, a new standard yard, bear- 
 ing the same proportion to such pendulum as aforesaid, 
 as the said imperial standard yard bears 'to such pen- 
 dulum." 
 
 " The brass Troy pound weight procured by the min- 
 ister of the United States at London in 1827," was de- 
 clared by act of Congress, May 19, 1828, to be "the 
 standard Troy pound of the Mint of the United States, 
 conformably to which the coinage thereof shall be reg- 
 ulated."' But no direct legislation appears to have 
 taken place in the adoption of any general standards 
 of weights and measures. On the 29th of May, 1830, 
 a resolution passed the Senate directing a comparison 
 to be made, under the authority of the Seoretarj' of 
 the Treasury, of the weights and measures used at the 
 principal custom-houses. This comparison was in- 
 trusted to a-gentleman in every way qualified to un- 
 dertake it, the late Professor Hassler, and, as might 
 have been expected, great discrepancies were found to 
 exist. The mean, however, corresponded nearly with 
 the standards, as fixed by the English laws previously 
 to, and at the epoch of, the Declaration of American in- 
 dependence. Measures were then taken by the Secre- 
 tary of' the Treasury to have uniform and accurate 
 weights and measures, and authentic standards, made 
 under the immediate personal superintendence of Mr. 
 Hassler, and supplied to all the custom-houses. 
 
 While this was being done, on the 14th June, 1836, 
 a joint resolution of Congress directed the Secretarj' 
 of the Treasury "to cause a complete set of all the 
 weights and measures adopted as standards, and now 
 either made or in the progress of manufacture, for the 
 use of the several custom-houses, and for other pur- 
 poses, to be delivered to the governor of each State in 
 the Union, or such person as he may appoint, for the 
 use of the States respectively, to the end that a. uni- 
 form standardof weights and measures may be estab- 
 lished throughout the United States ; " and on the 7th 
 July, 1838,'a section in the " act (chap. 169) to provide 
 for the support of the Military Academy of the United 
 States" provided "that the Secretary of the Treasurj' 
 cause to be made, under the superintendence of Mr. 
 \ Hassler, one standard balance for each state; and, 
 when completed, that he cause them to be delivered to 
 the respective governors for the use of the respective 
 States." 
 
 The distribution of these standard balances, weights 
 and measures, to the several States has been in a great 
 measure, if not entirely, accomplished. By an act of 
 the Legislature of Massachusetts, April 23, 1847, chap. 
 242, it is provided that they shall be hereafter used 
 as the sole authorized public standard of weights and 
 measures of this Commonwealth. 
 
 The standards of weights and measures, made in part 
 or in whole under the direction "of Mr. Hassler, says 
 Professor Bache, have the following origin : 
 
 1. The actual standard of length is a brass scale of 
 82 inches in length, prepared for the survey of the 
 coast of the United States, by Troughton, of London, 
 and deposited in the office of weights and measures at 
 Washington. 
 
 2. The units of capacity measure are the gallon for 
 liquid, and the bushel for dry measure. The gallon is 
 a vessel containing 58372-2 grains <8'3389 lbs. avoir- 
 dupois) of the standard pound of distilled water at the 
 temperature of maximum density of water, the vessel 
 
 being weighed in air in which the barometer is 30 
 inches at 62° Fahrenheit. 
 
 The bushel is a measure containing 543391 -89 stand- 
 ard grains (77-6274 lbs. avoirdupois) of distilled water, 
 at the temperature of maximum density of water, and 
 barometer 30 inches at 62° Fahrenheit. 
 
 The gallon is thus the wine gallon, of 231 cubic 
 inches nearly, and the bushel the Winchester bushel 
 nearly. 
 
 3. The standard of weight was the Troy pound, copied 
 by Captain Kater, in 1827, from the imperial TroV 
 pound, for the United States Mint, and preserved in 
 that establishment. The avoirdupois pound is derived 
 from this ; its Weight being greater than that of the 
 Troy pound in the J)roportion of 7000 to 6760 ; that is, 
 the avoirdupois pound is equal in weight to 7000 grains 
 Troy. 
 
 WEIGHT ANn MEASCEE SYSTEMS OF THE WOELD. 
 
 I. Africa. — Abi/ssinia. — Weights: 1 rotl or rottolo 
 =12 wakea=120 dirhems. Srf/ Capaeity: At Gon- 
 dar, in the interior, 1 ardeb=10 madega; at Masuah, 
 on the Red Sea, 1 ardeb = 24 madega. The other 
 measures are those of Cairo and Alexandria. There 
 is no knowledge of any local system. 
 
 Algeria. — Since the acquisition of this territory by 
 France, the French metrical system is legalized, and 
 may be expected gradually to come into use. As yet, 
 however, the old usances are retained: 
 
 Is ; The theory appears to be as follows : 
 
 24 carob seed = 1 mitkal or metical, the weight for gold, etc. 
 8 mitkal = 1 wakea or ounce. 
 27 , -f^akea =: 1 rotl khebir or. market, pound. 
 18 wakea = 1 do. gheddari, for fruits. 
 16 wakea = 1 do. attari, for spices. 
 141 wakea = 1 do. feuddi, for silver. 
 100 of each of these rotl =: 1 quontar or cantaro corresponding: 
 
 The values of these denominations in the Dictionarj' 
 are from reported observations, and fall below what 
 would be derived otherwise by ascending from the 
 actual mitkal. Liquid Capacity, is measured by the 
 khouUS and its fractions, J, J, J, etc. ; as Dry Capacity^ 
 by the saa. Length is measured by two different pic, 
 the Turkish and Arab ; the latter of which is used for 
 cloth. Each is subdivided by its rob, or eighth part. 
 There are ne itinerary or agrarian measures indigenous. 
 
 Cape of Good Hope (Colony). — English standards are 
 legalized and used here. The same ma}' be said, it is 
 supposed, of the British colonies in Senegambia and 
 at' Sierra Leone, and the smaller establishments on the 
 Gold Coast, as well as of St. Helena and their other 
 islands in the Atlantic. As for Mauritius, on the other 
 side of the continent, that retains still a considerable 
 admixture of its former French usances. 
 
 Canary Islands. — In these islands, the originals of 
 the weights and measures are from Spain ; and the 
 variations of the actual standards, which (except in the 
 case of the vara) seem to be in the sense of degrada- 
 tion, are not more than occur in continental Spain it- 
 self. 
 
 Cape Verd Islands. — This Archipelago, as well as the 
 continental territorj'' under the same Governor-Gener- 
 alship, uses the weights and measures of Portugal. ' 
 The same may be said of the Madeira Group under 
 the same domination; of the Portuguese possessions 
 in Angola and Benguela ; and of the colonies which 
 dwell on the other ocean, along the coasts of SofaH 
 and Mozambique. 
 
 Egypt. — The difiference between the weights and 
 measures actually used in Cairo and Alexandria, the 
 principal markets of Egypt, is so small as to indicate a 
 common original. The great variety which has been 
 stated to exist among the cantaros (or quintals), ac- 
 cording to the various articles intended to be weighed, 
 is probably the result of carelessness or fraud : nor is 
 it clear, as yet, whether this variety affects the hund- 
 red-weight or the unitary pound. It may be supposed 
 that the weights by which the articles of greatest con- 
 sumption — the necessaries of life-^are determined, were 
 
WEI 
 
 1944 
 
 WEI 
 
 the standard from which accident or negligence has 
 deviated. Weight: 1 cantaro=36 oke=100 rotl = 
 14400 drachma. The rotl does not appear to be sys- 
 tematically subdivided. The harsela, applied to weigh- 
 ing silk, 13 evidently the oke, under a special name. 
 Dry Capacity ; 1 ardeb=24 rob. Length; 1 gasab=4 
 derah. The Turkish pic is generally used for cloths ; 
 it is very little longer than the derah, but not correla- 
 tive. Agrarian : 400 square gasab = l feddan al risach, 
 or unitary acre. 
 
 Guinea. — Weight : 1 benda=2 benda-offa=3 eggeba 
 = 5J- seron=8piso oruzan=10|-quinto=16aguirages 
 =32 media-tabla=48 akey. The last denomination, 
 which is the special weight for gold dust, is only theo- 
 retically connected here ; its actual value as reported 
 is nearly half a grain less than the -^ of the benda. 
 
 Liberia. — This Anglo-American negro colony at 
 Cape Mesurado, as well as the independent one of 
 Maryland at Cape Palmas, uses, it may be supposed, 
 standards from the United States. 
 
 Morocco. — ^AU the dependencies of this empire, along 
 the western coast of Barbarj', use the weights and ca- 
 pacity measures of Spain. There are several indigen- 
 ous measures of length given in the Dictionarj', but 
 they are without uniformity. 
 
 Tripoli. — In this appanage of the Turkish empire, 
 as well as in the dependencies of Fezzan and Barca, 
 the weights and measures appear to be of European 
 derivation. Weights: 1 cantaro=100rotl = 1600uzan 
 = 12800 termini. The metical, a special weight for 
 gold and silver, has no connection with the others, un- 
 less it be derived in theory from an ancient rotl or 
 pound of 12 uzan or ounces. The actual weight is re- 
 ported as being exactly -j-J^ of the Venetian pound, 
 from which it may have originated. Liquid Capacity : 
 The mataro for oil is given by gallons in the Diction- 
 ary ; from its reported weight compared with the aver- 
 age speciiic gravity, at ordinary temperatures, of that 
 substance. Dry Capacity : 1 cafiso=20 tiberi. 
 
 Tunis.^Weight : 1 cantaro = 100 rotl = 1600 uzan = 
 12800 metical or termini. In this system, where the 
 same denominations appear to be lighter than the Tri- 
 politan, the metical and uzan are specific weights. 
 Liquid Capacity is determined by weight. Dry Capac- 
 ity: 1 cafiso=16 quiba — 192 saha or zah. Length: 1 
 pic (woolen) = l-j^ pic (silk) = l;^ pic (linen). But 
 these last proportions appear altogether accidental. In 
 this enumeration, the remaining European settlements, 
 viz., those of France on opposite sides of the continent 
 in Senegambia and the Isle of Bourbon, and those of 
 Denmark and Holland in Guinea and Ashanti, have 
 been omitted ; partly because the weights and meas- 
 ures of the mother countries would be naturally ac- 
 cepted among the settlers, but chiefly because of the 
 insignificance in population and trade of the actual es- 
 tablishments. The insular appanages of the Imam of 
 Muscat (viz., Quiloa, Zanzibar, Socotra, etc.), on the 
 eastern side of the continent, are passed over for sim- 
 ilar reasons ; while the native powers, from Morocco 
 through and around to Madagascar, are too uncivilized 
 or too inaccessible, to have or to yield any thing of in- 
 terest in respect to weights and measures. 
 
 II. Amekica. — This continent, for the present pur- 
 pose, is best divided (instead of the usual distinctions 
 of North, Central, and South) into Independent and 
 Colonial America. 
 
 Brazil. — In this empire the originals of weights and 
 measures are from Portugal ; and the actual standards 
 are in general identical, though there are a few varia- 
 tions, both in value and denomination, shown in the 
 Dictionarj". 
 
 IJayti or San Domingo. — This island, which, in the 
 numerous revolutions of policy that it has undergone, 
 has been recently modified from a republic into a form 
 more absolute, and nominall}^ an empire, retains the 
 impress of its double colonization from Spain and 
 France, as well as in the names of localities — on the 
 
 western side French, on the eastern Spanish — as in the 
 weights and measures used there. 
 
 Mexico. — Under this republic, as WSU as under the 
 numerous governments which are continuall}' shifting 
 or springing up in the territories of Central and South 
 America, and which it would require a special and con- 
 temporaneous research to signalize and verify, the 
 weights and measures of Spain have been throughout 
 and are still recognized ; with only such local variations 
 as other causes, besides the cessation of European con- 
 trol and intercourse with a parent power, might be ex- 
 pected naturally to produce. Of course, this compre- 
 hensive field for the influence of the Spanish system 
 does not include vast territories (such as Patagonia, 
 for instance) which, although claimed by foreign or 
 domestic powers, are yet, in fact, domineered over bj' 
 various indigenous tribes, more or less nomadic and 
 uncivilized. Of sj-stematic weights and measures in 
 those territories, there are none in" modern times ; and 
 ancient ones (such as in Mexico and Peru), which re- 
 cent researches have partially systematized, are omit- 
 ted, as neither certain nor of practical application. 
 
 United States of America. — Weight: 1 Mint or Troy 
 pound=12 ounces=240 penn3-weight=5760 grains; 
 1 apothecary pound = 12 ounces = 96 drachms = 288 
 scruples =6760 grains ; 1 commercial pound=16 ounces 
 =256 drams =7000 grains; 1 long ton =20 cwt.=80 
 quarters =2240 commercial pounds; 1 short ton =20 
 cwt. = 2000 commercial pounds. In the actual gov- 
 ernment standards the ounce Troy is divided decimallj', 
 down to the ^„ j„„ part. These weights are identical 
 with those of England. In both countries, they re- 
 pose, in fact, upon actually existing masses of metal 
 (brass) which have been individually declared by law 
 to b.e the units of the system. In scientific theory, 
 they are supposed to rest upon a permanent and uni- 
 versal law of Nature — the gravitation of distilled water 
 at a certain temperature and under a certain atmos- 
 pheric pressure. And in this aspect, the origination 
 is with the grains ; which must be such that 252,458 
 of these units, in brass, will be in just equilibrium with 
 a cubic inch of distilled water, when the mercurj' stands 
 at 30 inches in a barometer, and in a thermometer of 
 Fahrenheit at 62 degrees both for the air and for the 
 water. Unfortunately, the expounders of this theory 
 in England used only the generic term brass, and fail- 
 ed to define the specific gravity of the metal to be em- 
 ployed : the consequence of this omission is to leave 
 room for an error of n o u\) o u '" ever;' attempt to repro- 
 duce or compare the results. This is the minimum pos- 
 sible error : the maximum would be a function of the 
 difference in specific gravity between the heaviest and 
 lightest brass that can be cast. 
 
 Liquid Capacity : 1 gallon = 2 half gallons =4 quarts 
 =8 pints = 16 gills. The gill is not among existing 
 standards of public authority, though it is used in 
 commerce. There are other denominations higher 
 than the gallon, such as barrels, hogsheads, pipes, etc. ; 
 but these are only vessels, not measures, and are always 
 gauged and sold bj^ their actual capacity in gallons. 
 The gallon, in fact, is almost exactly equivalent to a 
 cylinder 7 inches in diameter and 6 inches high. In 
 theorj', it must contain just 231 cubic inches ; and, 
 filled with distilled water at the temperature of maxi- 
 mum density (say 39°-8 Fahr.), weighs, according to 
 the official report, at that temperature and at 30 inches 
 of the barometer, 8-339 commercial or avoirdupois 
 pounds ; or more nearly 58372'1754 grains. It is in 
 the temperature only that this unit diflfers from the 
 former wine gallon of Great Britain. The apothecaries 
 use the same gallon, but divide it difierently, as fol- 
 lows : 1 gallon =8 pints =128 fluid ounces = 1024 fluid 
 drachms=61440 minuns (or drops)=231 cubic inches. 
 These are graduated measures ; they also use some- 
 times the, following approximate ones from vessels in 
 domestic use : 1 tea-cup = 2 wine glasses = 8 table- 
 spoons=32 tea-spoon3=4 fluid ounces. 
 
WEI 
 
 1945 
 
 WEI 
 
 Dry Capacity : 1 bushel = 2 half bushels = 4 pecks = 
 8 gallons. There are also in this, as in the former 
 measure, higher denominations (barrels, sacks, etc.) 
 known in commerce, whose capacity is intended to be 
 constant. They are, however, always gauged by the 
 bushel. This bushel is the old Winchester bushel of 
 England. In fact, it is a cylinder 18'5 inches in diam- 
 eter, and 8 inches deep. In theorj', it must contain 
 2150-42 cubic inches ; and holds of distilled water, at 
 the temperature of maximum density and at 30 inches 
 of the barometer, 77'6274 commercial or avoirdupois 
 pounds ; or more nearly 543391-89 grains. 
 
 Length : 1 yard=3 feet=36 inches=432 lines=5184 
 seconds = 62208 thirds. In the actual government 
 standards, at the custom-houses, the yard is divided 
 decimally into tenths and hundredths. In the meas- 
 urement of cloths, muslins, linens, cotton, silk, and in 
 general of what are termed diy goods, the yard only is 
 used ; subdivided into halves, quarters, eighths, six- 
 teenths, and half sixteenths. This lowest denomina- 
 tion=l'125 inch. Surveyors and engineers employ 
 neither the yard nor the inch, but use the foot and its 
 decimal divisions. Architects and artificers reckon 
 by the foot and subdivisions as given above. Never- 
 theless, the most usual and most recent workman's 
 scales bear the foot divided into inches, and eighths 
 and sixteenths of an inch. Mariners measure by 
 cable lengths and fathoms : 1 cable length =120 fath- 
 oms =240 yards =720 feet. The unit of length— the 
 yard, upon whose subdivisions all the weights and ca- 
 pacity measures repose for verification — is, in fact, de- 
 rived from ancient arbitrary standards of England. In 
 theory, the inch — the -^ of the yard — is presumed to 
 be contained 39'13929 times in the length of a pendu- 
 lum that, in a vacuum and at the level of mid-tide, in 
 the latitude of London, vibrates seconds of mean time. 
 
 Itinerary; 1 statute mile=2 half miles=4 quarter 
 mile3=7^ cable-lengths =8 furlongs=80 chains=320 
 perches or poles =880 fathoms = 1760 yards = 5280 feet 
 = 8000 links = 63360 inches ; 1 nautical league = 3 
 equatorial miles =3'457875 statute miles. Chains and 
 links are denominations employed by land-surveyors, 
 thus : 1 chain =4 poles=66 feet=:100 links. 
 
 Agrarian and Superficial : 1 square mile = 640 acres ; 
 1 acre =4 roods = 10 square chains = 160 square perches 
 =4840 square yards =43560 square feet; 1 square 
 yard=9 square feet = 1296 square inches. -Architects 
 and builders reckon 1 square=100 square feet. 
 
 Solid: 1 cubic yard = 27 cubic feet =46656 cubic 
 inches ; 1 cubic foot=12 reduced feet (plank measure) 
 =1728 cubic inches ; 1 reduced foot (plank measure) 
 =1 square foot X 1 inch thick=144 cubic inches. In 
 practice, all planks and scantlings less than an inch 
 in thickness are reckoned at an inch. 1 perch of 
 masonry =1 perch (16J feet) longXl foot highxl^ 
 feet thick = 25 cubic feet. In fact, the dimensions 
 given for the perch do not result in 25 cubic feet ; but 
 this last nunjber has been adopted for convenience. 
 1 cord of fire-wood=8 feet long X 4 feet high X 4 feet 
 deep =128 cubic feet. 
 
 Danish Possessions. — These include Greenland, Ice- 
 land, and three of the Leeward Islands in the West 
 Indies ; viz., Santa Cruz or St. Croix, St. Thomas, and 
 St. John. In all these the weights and measures of 
 Denmark prevail, though in the islands the English 
 length measures are also used. 
 
 Dutch Possessions. — Holland holds on the continent 
 of America, the government of Surinam, which in- 
 cludes nominally a territory of something less than 
 40,000 square miles, under the name of Dutch Guiana ; 
 on the coast of Venezuela, the islands of Cura9oa and 
 Bonaire, with some lesser islets ; and among the Lee- 
 ward Antilles, St. Eustatius, the south part of St. Mar- 
 tin, and Saba. In all these, the weights and measures 
 of Holland prevail; except in Cura^oa, where the 
 weights are, in fact, and the length measures, both in 
 fact and name, those of Spain. 
 
 English Possessions. — Over the immense territories 
 of British North America the weights and measures 
 of England are legalized ; but in Lower Canada the 
 French settlers still use their former denominations to 
 a great extent. 
 
 In the southern peninsula, where the general name 
 of English Guiana covers the former Dutch colonies 
 of Berbice, Demerara, and Essequibo, the reckoning is 
 by the weights and measures of Holland^ 
 
 The settlements in Patagonia and the adjoining 
 Archipelago, made chiefly with a view to the whale- 
 fishery, recognize the English standards. And as much 
 may be said for the Falkland Isles. 
 
 Of the humorous islands and islets in the West In- 
 dies, among the Antilles and Lucayas, only the chief 
 ones need be mentioned. The weights and measures 
 of a few are still traceable to the source of their earlier 
 colonization. 
 
 In the following islands the English weights and 
 measures are used : Antigua, the Bahamas, Barbadoes, 
 Barbuda, St. Christopher's or St. Kitts, Dominica, 
 Grenada, Jamaica, St. Lucia (French), Montserrat, 
 Nevis, Tobago, Tortola, Trinidad (Spanish), and St. 
 Vincent. 
 
 In the Bermuda Group, English weights and meas- 
 ures are emploj'ed. All these English measures are 
 those before the change in 1825. It would be, there- 
 fore, more literal to say, weights and measures of the 
 United States. 
 
 French Possessions. — France holds on the continent 
 only what used in part to be Cayenne, and is now on 
 the maps as French Guiana ; and among the West In- 
 dia islands, Martinique, Guadeloupe with its depend- 
 encies, Deseada or Desirade, Marie-galante, and the 
 group of Les Saintes, together with about two-thirds 
 (on the northern side) of St. Martin. 
 
 In Guiana, the new metrical system is legalized ; 
 but the older one continues to be used. 
 
 St. Martin reckons by the weights and measures of 
 Holland, and Les Saintes by "those of England. 
 
 The others employ the old French systepi, with 
 some modifications. Thus the former English wine 
 gallon seems to be the standard for liquids, divided as 
 follows : 1 gallon = 2 pots =4 mntes=8 chopines=16 
 roquilles=32 muces ; of agrarran measure, 1 carre= 
 10,000 pas carr^s. Besides these, France owns the 
 isles of St. Pierre and Miquelon, to the south of New- 
 foundland, where the old system prevails. 
 
 Mussian Possessions. — The extensive territories which 
 Russia holds in the northwest corner of America across 
 Behring's Straits are, it may be supposed, under the 
 domain of Bussian customary measures. The estab- 
 lishment which that empire had for nearlj' forty years 
 in Upper California, at Bodega, has been some time 
 since abandoned. 
 
 Spanish Possessions. — The magnificent appanage, 
 continental and insular, which Spain formerly held in 
 America has now dwindled to the islands of Cuba and 
 Porto Eico, where the weights and measures are still 
 those of Spain. 
 
 Swedish Possessions. — The only territory of Sweden 
 is the small island of St. Bartholomew or St. Bart's ; 
 which, though originally colonized from France, has 
 been so long ceded (now nearly seventy years) as to 
 have adopted Swedish weights and measures. 
 
 III. Asia. — An-nam. — Weights: 1 quan=5 ta=10 
 binh=50 yen=500 can ; 1 can (or pound)=l'6 nen= 
 16 luong = 160 dong=1600 ly. From the ly, the sub- 
 divisions are regularly decimal ; viz., the hao, hot, 
 chau, huy, tran, and ai, which last is the atom or mill- 
 ionth part of the ly. The most of these are purely 
 theoretical, for the hao is itself only 0'06 of a grain, 
 very nearly. 
 
 Capacity : In these there is no uniformitj'^ nor au- 
 thenticity, each province ushtg different measures. In 
 Hue there appears to be the following theoretical sys- 
 tem: 1 hoc=10 dau=100 thang=1000 hap=10000 
 
WEI 
 
 1946 
 
 WJil 
 
 thuoc ; 1 thuoo=1200 grains of millet =10 sao ; 1 sao 
 (or a handful) =120 grains of millet ; and 1 toat=250 
 grains of millet. The division of the thuoc into 10 sao 
 and 4'6875 toat would seem to indicate two different 
 systems ; but as the Tonquin millet and our own are 
 not of fhe same size, we have no standard of compari- 
 son or determination. 
 
 Length : There are two thuoc or cubits ; one for geur 
 eral use, the other, which is \ longer than the former, 
 exclusivel}- for cloths, silks, and other woven fabrics. 
 1. Mercers'. — 1 gon=10 that = 30 truong=300 thuoc ; 
 lthuoc(orell) = 10tac=100phan=10001y. 2. Build- 
 ers', etc. — lmau = 10 sao =30 ngu=160 thuoc ; 1 thuoc 
 (or cubit) = 10 tac = 100 phan = 1000 \y. 
 
 Agrarian: This last series is also used by land- 
 measurers in giving the square content of land. They 
 sometimes use another series (called niong luc, in con- 
 tradistinction to the ruong ngu, just given), in which 
 the sao is equal to 16J, thuoc. The man is, therefore, 
 10 per cent, longer in this last series ; and its super- 
 ficial content, when squared, 21 per cent, greater. 
 
 Itinerary: These are very vague and only approx- 
 imate : 1 dam = 2 ly =rather less than half a mile. 
 
 Birmah. — Weight .■ 1 vis = 3 catty = 100 tical. Length : 
 1 bambou=28 taim = 504 palgat. Itinerary: 1 taing 
 =250 bambou =7000 taim. But these are bj' no means 
 certain. 
 
 China. — Weight: Almost every thing in China (tim- 
 ber, liquids, live stock, etc.) is sold by weight, actual 
 or nominal. 1 shik = l^ tam=4 kwan = CO yin=120 
 kan or catty ; 1 kan=16 leung or tael=364 chu=3840 
 lui = 38400 shu, or kernels of grain. The weights 
 above the yin are only nominal and for account ; and 
 those below the tael are generally denoted by the ad- 
 juncts li, ho J tsin^fatj etc., /. e., one tenth, one hund- 
 redth, one thousandth, etc. 
 
 Capacity: This is regulated, as before said, by 
 weight ; the existing Ary measures, which have been 
 adopted for the convenience of commerce for grain and 
 seeds, vary considerably in consequence of the irreg- 
 ularit}' of the material (bamboo) of which they are 
 made. "The theory is supposed to be as follows : 1 ping 
 =6 yu=16 hok = 32 3hik=80 tau ; 1 tau=10 shing = 
 100 kop=200 yeuk=1000 cheuk=10000chau=100000 
 tsut = 1000000 kwal = 6000000 suk, or grains of maize. 
 Of all these, there are only four actual measures ; viz., 
 the tau, the shing, the half-shing, and the kop. These 
 are also upon two different modules, distinguished by 
 the adjuncts shiand tsong; and in proportionate capac- 
 it}'" as 100 to 65 respectively. It may be supposed that- 
 the latter were intended for liquid measures j apd their 
 average contents are so reduced accordingly in the Dic- 
 tionary. 
 
 Length: 1 yan=10 cheung=100 chik=1000tsun = 
 10000 fan. The chik, fixed by the Mathematical Board 
 atPekin=13"125 inches ; used by tradesmen in Canton 
 =14'625 to 14'81 inches ; employed by engineers of 
 public works =12-7 inches; and that hy wliich dis- 
 tances are usually measured =12*1 inches. 
 
 Itinerary: 1 to =25 fan =125 tsun=250 11 or miles ; 
 1 li = 1826 English feet. This is the count since the 
 intervention of European mathematicians at Pekin. 
 The former used to be 1 to =192^ 11=79300 po=396500 
 chik ; 1 li = 1897J English feet. Some ambiguity 
 arises from the use of the same word, 11 (probably from 
 European ignorance of the language in not discrimin- 
 ating between similar but not identical terms), as a 
 lower measure, the -jljy of the fan. The same ambi- 
 guity extends itself also to the following series. 
 
 Agrarian: 1 king = 100 man =400 kok = 1000 fan = 
 24000 po. But these are so uncertain that they have 
 not been given. 
 
 Solid Measures are products of the cheung, which is 
 generally in this series 14-6 English feet. 
 
 Hindostan. — The weights and measures of the in- 
 digenous governments of this vast country (such as, 
 for instance, Sindh, Nepaul, and the confederated 
 
 Sikhs, etc.), are either too little known ox too uncer- 
 tain to admit of stay system. All that will be done is 
 to give the relations of the principal measures in com- 
 mon use, where European domination prevails or Eu- 
 ropean commerce has established itself. 
 
 British Possessions: Bombay. — Weight; 1 candy = 
 20 maunds or raaons = 800 seer = 24000 pice. Dry 
 Capacity: 1 caudy=8para=128adoulie. Calcutta. — 
 Weight: 1 maon or maund=40 seer=640 chattac= 
 3200 sicca. Dry Capacity : 1 pallie = 4 raik = 64 
 khoonke=320 chattac. Length: 1 haut or covid=8 
 gheria^72^aob. /imero?^ ; 1 coss =4000 haut. Agror- 
 rian : 1 biggah = 20 cottah = 320 chattack = 6400 
 square covid. The chattack is, in fact, a surface 5 
 covid in length by 4 covid in width. Madras. — ■ 
 Weight: 1 garc6=20 candy or baruay=400 maund or 
 maon=3200 visay ; 1 visay =40 pollam=400 varahun. 
 Dry Capacity: 1 garce=80 para=400 marcal=320ff 
 puddy =25600 oUock. Liquid Capacity, \]ke the drj', 
 is determined by weight ; and the denominations are 
 the same as in the latter. Agrarian: 1 casseney = 24 
 maon3'=240 square covid. 
 
 Danish Possessions : Serampore and Tranquehar. — 
 The weights and measures here are legally those of 
 Denmark, and by custom those of Calcutta and Mad- 
 ras respectivelj-. 
 
 French Possessions : Pondichery. — The colonial de- 
 nominations and divisions are identical with those of 
 Madras, although the values are different. 
 
 Portuguese Possessiojis : Goa. ■ — Here Portuguese 
 weights and measures are employed. 
 
 Japan. — Weight: 1 picul=100 catty = 1600 tael = 
 16000 mas =160000 condorine. The connection of the 
 other measures is not known. 
 
 Ottoman Asia: Aleppo, Smyrna, etc. — The weights 
 and measures here are so variant, or arc rather so mix- 
 ed up with the units and values of foreign commerce, 
 as not to admit of satisfactory classification. 
 
 Persia. — Weight: 1 batman = 6 ratel = 300 dirhem 
 = 600 mascais. This is the batman of Tauris ; that 
 of Shiraz, which is twice the value, appears properly 
 to be part of the same system. The other measures 
 are unsystematic. 
 
 Siam.— Weight: 1 picul=100 catty = 2000 tael = 
 8000 tical. Dry Capacity: 1 cohi=40 cesti = 1600 sat. 
 Length: 1 vouah==2ken=sok. Itinerary: 1 roiineng 
 = 2000 vouah. 
 
 ly. Europe. — Austrian Empire : Vie/mia. — Weight: 
 1 pfund=2 mark=4 vierling or vierding=16 unze = 
 32 loth=128 quent=512 pfennig. Apothecaries': 1 
 pfand = lj mark=12 unze = 96 drachma = 288 scrupel 
 ^5760 gran. The mark is identical in both series, 
 and is the unit of gold and silver weight, 1 centner 
 =5 stein=100 pfund. Liquid Capacity : 1 fuder=32 
 eimer=128 viertel=1312 (imperial) mass ; 1 mass=2 
 kanne=4 seidel = 8 pfiff. Dry Capacity : lmuth=30 
 metze=120 viertel=240 achtel; 1 achtel=2 muhl- 
 massel=8 futtermassel=16 becher=l^ probmetze. 
 Length: 1 klafter=6 fus3=72 zoll=864 linie=10368 
 punkt. 'itinerary: 1 meile=4000klafter=24000fuss. 
 Agrarian: 1 joch or jochart=3 metze = 576 square 
 ruthe = 1600 square klafter = 57600 square fuss. 
 Prague. — Weight: 1 centner=6 stein = 120 pfund. 
 The lower subdivisions are as in Vienna ; but their 
 values, as well as of the terms just given, correspond 
 with a lighter pound than the imperial standard. Liquid 
 Capacity: lfas8=4eimer = 128 pinte=512 seidel. Dry 
 Capacity : 1 strich=4 viertel=16 massel=192 seidel. 
 Agrarian: 1 joch of Vienna=2 strich. 
 
 Venetian Lombardy : Milan, — Weight: Pesogrosso: 
 1 libbra=4 quarto=28 oncia. Peso sottile; 1 libbra 
 = 12 oncia =288 denaro = 6912 grano. Gold and sil- 
 ver are by the marco, subdivided as follows : 1 marco 
 =8 oncia=192 denaro=4608 grano. Apothecary: 1 
 libbra peso sottile = 12 oncia=:96 drachma=288 scru- 
 polo =6912 grano. In 1803 the French kilogram, with 
 decimal subdivisions, was introduced; which is the 
 
WEI 
 
 1947 
 
 WEI 
 
 new Italian pound or metrical pound of the Dictionary. I 
 1 rubbio=10 libbja metTica=100 oncia=1000 grosso 
 =10000 (ienaro= 100000 grano. Liquid Capacity: 1 
 brenta=3 staja=6 mina— 12 quartaro=16 bassa=48 
 pinta=,96 boco^l«. ,. Dry Capacity,: ,1 moggio,=8 atajo 
 =16 stai:eUo=32 quartaro=128 meta=512 quartino. 
 In the new metrical system capacity is reckoned as fol- 
 lows : 1 soma = 10 miiia = 100 plnta =? 1000 coppo. 
 length: 1 braccio=12 oiicia=144 punto=1728 atomo. 
 New measure in 1^03: 1 metro or braccio=10 palmo 
 = 100 dito =1000 atomo,, Itinerary since 1803 : 1 mig- 
 lio=1000 metro. The old mile of Milan is not cor- 
 relative ; but appears, in theory, to be equivalent to 
 3000 braccio. Agrarian: 1 pertica=24 tavola=96 
 square cavezzo = 3456 square piede. Thepiede, or foot, 
 used here is not employed in any other part of the sys- 
 tem. It seems to have been originally J' of the bracciq. 
 Since 1823: 1 tornatura=100 square palrao. The tor- 
 natura is identical with the French are. Veniq^, — 
 Weight: Peso grosso: i libbra=2 marco=12 oncia= 
 72 saggio=2304 oarato=9216 grano. Peso sottile: 1 
 libbra=12oncia=72saggio =1728 caratp=fp9l2 grano. 
 The peso grosso is, used in general commerce ; the marco 
 and its subdivisions are for gold and silver and, pre- 
 cious stones ! the peso sottile for drugs, colors, coffee, 
 tea, sugar^ silk, rice, and.butter. Thislast is estimated 
 at |-f of the former. When used for medicines, it is 
 subdivided as the Austrian apothecary pound. Liquid 
 Capacity: 1 an£ora=4 )iigonzio=8 conoia or mastello 
 =48 secchio=192 bozza=512 baocale=768 quartuc- 
 cio; 1 botta=5bigonzio. , pry Capacity: lmDggip = 
 4 staJD or staro=16 quarto =64 quartarolo. Length: 
 1 braccio=2 piede. This braccio ip for woolens, etc. .; 
 that for silk is shorter. Itinerary: 1 miglio=1000 
 passo = 5000 piede. , Agrarian:, 1 campo=G40 tavola, 
 or square pertica, or square cavezzo =25920 square 
 piede< IJew measure: 1 migljajo=1000 square passo 
 =25000 square piede. , the metrical weights and 
 measures, depcriljed jinfler Milan, are also employed 
 here as there in all governmental transactions. Oth- 
 erwise the local measures are still in use. In. the oth- 
 er parts of (he Austrian dpminlons, suc^ asr Dalmatia, 
 Hungary, Moravia, etc., local systems, if they ever 
 existed, are now only discernible in .the names and 
 values of a few disconnected and apparently arbitrary 
 measures. 
 
 Baden. — Weight: Old measure: 1 pfund=32 loth 
 =128 quentchen. New measure : 1 pfund=10 zehn- 
 ling=100 centass=1000 pfennig=10000 ass. The 
 new measure was established in 1810, when the value 
 of the pfund was taken at ^ kilogram, and a decimal 
 division adppted ; but the old division is still retained, 
 and is applied both to the old unit and to the new. 
 The mark cif Cologne is employed for gold and silver ; 
 and the value find subdivisions of the Niirnberg apothe- 
 cary pound for drugs and medicines. Liquid Capacity : 
 1 fader=10 ohm=100 stutze=1000 masa=10000 glaa j 
 1 ohm = 15 decalitres of France. Dry Capacity : 1 
 zuber=10 malter=100 sester=1000 masslein =10000 
 becher; 1 sester=15 decalitres of France. Length: 
 1 ruthe=10 fuss=100 zoll=1000,linie=10000 punkt; 
 1 ruthe=3 mfetres of France. . The old fuss was 3 per 
 cent, shorter, but has been merged into the new one. 
 Itinerary : 1 meile = 2 stunden = 8f kilometres of 
 France. Agrarian: 1 morgen=4 viertel or quart = 
 400 square ruthe =40000 square fuss. Solid: 1 klaf- 
 ter, for fire-wood =6 feet long X 6 feet high X 6 feet 
 deep =128 cubic fuss. What js here called deep sig- 
 nifies in every case the length of the billet or log. 
 
 Bavaria.— Weight : lpfund=16 unze=321oth,=128 
 quentphen. A uniform value was established for the 
 unit in 1811, corresponding with the new French 
 weight. The apothecarj^ pound was at the same time 
 defined at -ff of the unit, and is divided like the Num- 
 berg apothecary pound. Gold and silver are by the 
 mark Cologne. liquid Capacity: 1 eimer=60 mass- 
 kanne=240 quartel. Dry Capacity: 1 scheffel = 6 
 
 metze=12 viertel =48 massel or achtel=96 masslein 
 =192 dreissiger ; 1 scheffel =208 liquid masskanne, in 
 actual content. Length: 1 fuss=12 zoll = 144 linie 
 =1728 puntt. This unit was established in 1809, and 
 defined in terms of the old French measure, at 129-68 
 lignes de I'ari^,. The near approach of this value to 3 
 decim&tres in the new French system allows the.fass, 
 as is frequentlj' done, to be decimally divided. Thus 
 the elle of Rhenish Bavaria is 4 fuss of this count, or 
 12 decimetres of France. The legal elle is 2 fuss lOJ 
 zoU of the legal value above. Itinerary: 1 meile= 
 2400 ruthe =24000 fuss ; 1 meile of Anspach=2 stunde 
 =2880 ruthe =28800 fuss. Agrarian: ] juchart, mor- 
 gen, or tagwerk =400 square ruthe=40000 square fuss. 
 Solid : X klaf ter, for fire-wood = 6 feet long X 6 feet high 
 X3J feet deep =126 cubic fuss. In Bhenish Bavaria 
 generally, the billets are 4 feet long, which makes the 
 klafter =144 cubic fuss. ' Augsburg: Niirnberg. — The 
 denominations and values of local measures retained 
 in both of these places, and elsewhere in Bavaria, are 
 giyen in the Bictionarj-. The apothecary weight of 
 Niirnberg, which is general over all Germany for med- 
 icines (as the mark of Cologne is for specie), is f of 
 the old Nurnberg money pound, which last is divided ' 
 as follows : i pfUnd=2 mark=16 unze=16 loth=128 
 quart =512 pfennig-=8220 as-ducat. The apothecarj' 
 pound, as under: 1 pfund=12 unze=96 drachma= 
 228 scrupel=576 obelus or heller=6760 gran. 
 
 Belgiutn.^- Weight : Old measure of Brussels. Com- 
 mercial: 1 livre or pond =4 quarteron=16 once =64 
 satin = 128 gros =9216 grains. Specie : 1 livre or pond 
 =2 mark=16 once = 320 esterlin = 1280 felins=10240 
 as=l pond Troy of Holland. The new weight is the 
 kilogram and its decimal subdiyisions, established since 
 1816. The apothecaries' unitary pound, subdivided 
 like that of Nurnberg, is, since 1817, ^ of the kilogram 
 of France; but in this, respect there is not entire uni- 
 formity. The other measures are all in value corre- 
 sponding with the metrical system of France, and dec- 
 imally subdivided. 'Thus the , unit for liquids (the 
 vat) and that for dry (the mudde) are each =100 litres 
 of France. The unitary el or aune = 1 mfetre ; the 
 agrarian unit (the vierkantebunder')^! are of France, or 
 nearly 4 square perches English ; the metrical miil or 
 mile^l kilometre. Other terms remaining from the 
 old sj'stems, but now disconnected, are given in the 
 Dictionary. 
 
 Bremen..^Weight : 1 pfund =2 mark=16 unze=32 
 loth =128 quentchen =612 ort=498"69 grammes of 
 France, since 1818. There is another pfund used in 
 retail commerce, which is 6 per cent, lighter than the 
 standard. Gold and silver are weighed by the mark 
 pf Cologne, and medicines by the apothecarj^ pound of 
 Niirnberg.. 1 sohifi'pfund=20 liespfund=290;pfund; 
 1 frachtpfund or pfund8chwer=300 pfund; 1 centner 
 =116 pfund. Liquid Capacity: 1 fuder=4 oxhoft = 
 6 ohm=24 anker=120 viertel=270 stubchen=1080 
 quartier=4320 mingel. , Dry Capacity : 1 scheffel=4 
 viertel = 16 spint.i .Length: 1 elle=2 fuss=24 zoll= 
 240 linie. Surveyors divide the fuss decimallj-. Itin- 
 erary: 1 ruthe =2f klafter =8 elle =16 fuss. The 
 usual meile contains 20000 Bhenish feet. Agrarian : 1 
 morgen = 120 square ruthe =30720 square fuss. Solid: 
 1 faden=6 feet long X 6 feet high X 2 feet deep =72 
 cubic fuss. Fire-wood is also sometimes measured by 
 the reep or reif, a circular pile 17J fuss in circumfer- 
 ence, the billets varying from 4J to 6 fuss in length. 
 The reif yields from 1 to 2 faden, accordingly. 
 
 Brunswick.— Weight : 1 pfund = 2 mark=32 loth= 
 128 quentchen = 512 pfennig = 1024 heller; 1 schiff- 
 pfund=20 Hespfund=280 pfund. Gold and silver by 
 the mark of Cologne, medicines by the apothecarj' 
 pound of Niirnberg. 1 fuder=4 oxhoft=6 ohm =240 
 Btilbchen=960 quartier=1920 nSssel ; 1 fass of beer= 
 4 tonne = 108 stilbchen=432 quartier=864 nossel ; 1 
 fassof mum=100 stilbchen =400 quartier =900 nossel. 
 Dry Capacity: 1 scheffel=10 himt=40 vierfass=160 
 
WEI 
 
 1948 
 
 WEI 
 
 becher or locher. Length: 1 elle=2 schuh=24 zoU. 
 Itinerary: 1 ruthe=8 elle=16 sohuh. The usual 
 meile contains 34424 Rhenish feet. Agrarian : 1 mor- 
 gen=120 square ruthe = 30720 square schuh. 
 
 Cracow. — Weight : 1 funt = 2 mark =48 skoyciec. 
 Apothecary weight is that of Nilrnberg. Liquid Ca- 
 pacity: 1 stangiew=2 beczka=72 garnieo=28 kwart. 
 Dry Capacity: 1 korzec=2 polkorzow=4 cwierc = 32 
 garcy or garnieo. Length: 1 stopa=12 calow=144 
 liniow=1728 punkt. The other measures are those of 
 Poland. 
 
 Denmark. — Weight: 1 pund = 2 mark = 16 unze=32 
 lod = 128 quintin=512 ort ; 62 pund=wejght of 1 cubic 
 fod of rain-water at 16^° centigrade. Gold and silver 
 is weighed by a pund nearly 6 per cent, lighter than, 
 but not aliquot with, the commercial pound, and is 
 subdivided like this last, only more minutely, into 
 8192 as =65536 gran. The royal Mint, however, uses 
 the mark of Cologne. Apothecaries' weight is that of 
 Nurnberg. 1 last=16i- skippund=144|; •H'aag=325 
 lispund=433^bismerpund=5200 pund; 1 skippund = 
 20 lispund=320 pund. Liquid Capacity: 1 aam=4 
 anker=20 viertel=40 stubcheu = 77J kande=155 pot 
 = 620 pagel. Dry Capacity : 1 toende =4 f jerding=8 
 skieppe=32 fjerdingkar = 144 pot. Length: 1 aln=2 
 fod = 24 tomme=288 linie. The fod represents -J^ of 
 the pendulum beating seconds, in a vacuum, at the 
 level of the sea, under the mean parallel of 45° north 
 latitude. Itinerary: 1 miil =2400 rode =4000 favn = 
 12000 aln=24000 fod. Agrarian: 1 pflug=8 toende 
 (hartkom)=32 toende (sadeland) = 64 skieppe=256 
 fjerdingkar = 768 album=3072 penge = 17920 square 
 rode = 1792000 square fod. The measures of Holstein 
 are chiefly those of Hamburg, and those of Norway 
 differ only locally, not systematically, from the Danish. 
 
 France. — Weight: 1 kilogram=100 hectogram = 100 
 decagram=1000 gram =10000 decigram=100000centi- 
 gram=1000000 milligram. The unit, or kilogram, is 
 the weight of a cubic decimetre of distilled water at 
 the temperature of maximum density, taken at 4P 
 centigrade, or 39°'2 Fahrenheit. 1 tonneau = 10 
 quintal = 100 m}-riagrams = 1000 kilograms. Apothe- 
 cary weight has not been so symmetrically and uni- 
 formly constructed. In the French pharmaceutical 
 Codex, the gramme has been adopted as the key of the 
 system, and is considered as equivalent to ^ of the old 
 drachms. The once, habitually of 8 drachmes, is then 
 32 grams. But as this number is irrational with a 
 decimal division, a compromise has been made as fol- 
 lows: 1. 1 double livre (kilogram) =2 livre=4 demi- 
 livre = 8 quarterons (of 4 onces) = 1000 grams. 2. 
 1 once=8 gros, or drachme = 640 grain=1280 demi- 
 grain = 32 grams, instead of 31J grams, as it must 
 have been, if the same binary division had been carried 
 through. 
 
 Liquid and Dry Capacity: 1 kilolitre =10 hectolitre 
 = 100 decalitre=1000 litre=10000 decilitre = 100000 
 centilitre =1000000 millilitre. The tmitor litre is the 
 cubic decimetre ; the kilolitre is therefore a cubic 
 metre. The myrialitre = 10 kilolitre. 
 
 Length and Distance: 1 myriametre=10 kilometre 
 =100 hectometre = 1000 decametre = 10000 metre = 
 100000 decimetre = 1000000 centimetre = 10000000 mil- 
 limetre. The metre, or unit, is assumed to be the ten- 
 millionth of the quadrant, or the forty-millionth of the 
 whole circumference of the globe, measured over the 
 poles. The actual value assigned to it, in spite of the 
 pains taken in the geodetical and artistical operations, 
 is, after all, owing to the nature of the very operations, 
 to be considered as onl)' a near approximation. The 
 provisional metre of 1795 is, in fact (as more recent in- 
 vestigations show), nearer the most probable value 
 aimed at than the one adopted in the law of 1799. 
 But the utmost error is only about ^^^^ of the length, 
 or absolutely less than ■gg'iyTj of an inch. 
 
 Agrarian: 1 hectare = 100 are = 10000 centiare or 
 square metres. This part of the system admits the 
 
 same decimal multiplication and subdivisions as the 
 others in theory ; but, in point of fact, the intermedi- 
 ate terms have been rejected. 
 
 Solid: 1 decastere = 10 stere=100 decistere. The 
 store is the cubic metre ; and its content, therefore, is the 
 same as the capacity of the kilolitre. The terms given 
 are all that are retained in the nomenclature. The 
 names even of the old measures of France having been 
 interdicted since 1840 bj' law, their relations and com- 
 binations are of no remaining practical interest. The 
 terms and values will be found in the Dictionary. 
 
 Frankfort. — Weight: 1 pfund=2 mark = 16 unze = 
 32 loth=128 quentchen = 512 pfennig=1024 heller. 
 There is also a commercial pound for retail, called 
 silber-pfund, about 8 per cent, lighter than the former, 
 but similarly divided. Flour and malt are weighed 
 by a pound of 32-]^ loth silber-pfund, meat and butter 
 by 33 loth of the same system, and fish b)^ one of 35 
 loth. Gold and silver are reckoned by Cologne weight, 
 and drugs and medicines by the apothecary pound of 
 Nilrnberg. Liquid Capacity: 1 fuder=6 ohm = 120 
 viertel = 480 eich-mass = 540 neu-mass ; 1 mass = 4 
 schoppen. Dry Capacity: 1 malter or achtel=4 sim- 
 mer=8 metze=16 sechter = 64 gescheid=256 mass- 
 chen or viertel = 1024 schrott. A malter of wheat 
 weighs from 176 to 190 lbs. flour weight ; rye, 165 to 
 480 lbs. flour weight; barley, 150 to 165 lbs. flour 
 weight ; oats, 95 to 110 lbs. flour weight ; flour, 143 
 lbs. flour weight. This includes the tare of the sack, 
 which is reckoned at 3 flour pounds. Length : 1 werk- 
 schuh=12 zoll=144 linie ; 1 ruthe=12i werkschuh= 
 10 feldfuss = 100 zoll = 1000 linie. Agrarian: 1 hufe 
 ^30 morgen=4800 square ruthe = 480000 square feld- 
 fuss. Solid, for fire-wood: 1 klafter = 6 W. long X 7 
 W. high X 3 W. deep ^126 cubic werkschuh ; 1 stecken 
 =3J werkschuh, cubed=43f cubic werkschuh. 
 
 Great Britain. — The imperial standards adopted 
 since 1825 altered only the value of the capacity meas- 
 ures. The weights and the long, agrarian, and solid 
 measures are identical with those of the United States. 
 Capacity measures are the same, both for liquids and 
 things drj'. The origination of these is with the gal- 
 lon, which contains 10 pounds avoirdupois of distilled 
 water at 30 inches of the barometer and 62° Fahren- 
 heit both for the air and the water. Eight of such 
 gallons make the bushel. The old subdivisions and 
 nomenclature, as far as applicable, are retained. 
 
 Weight : Troy and apothecary have been given under 
 the head United States. Avoirdupois: 1 ton=20 
 hundred-weight = 80 quarter = 2240 pound = 35840 
 ounce=573440 dram. Wool: 1 last=12 sack=24 
 wey = 156 tod=312 stone =624 clove=4368 pound. 
 
 Liquid Capacity: Old wine measure : 1 tun = 2 pipe 
 =3 puncheon =4 hogshead = 6 tierce=8 quarter-casks 
 =252 gallon=1008 quart=2016 pint. Old beer meas- 
 ure : 1 butt=l^ puncheon = 2 hogshead=3 barrel = 6 
 kllderkin = 12 flrliin=108 gallon. Ale measure was 
 the same as to the gallon and its subdivisions ; but the 
 firldn of ale was only 8 gallons, and the hogshead of 
 ale 48 gallons, instead of 9 and 54 gallons respectively. 
 
 Dry Capacity: Old measure: 1 last = 2 wey=i0 
 quarter=20 coom=80 bushel=320 peck = 640 gallons 
 = 5120 pint. 
 
 Length : 1 yard =3 feet =36 inches =108 barley-corn 
 =432 line. Cloth measure : 1 French ell = 1-^ English 
 eH = l-J- yard =2 Flemish ell =6 quarters =27 nail =54 
 inch. 
 
 Hamburg. — Weight: 1 pfund = 2 mark=16 unze = 
 32 loth=128 quentchen=512 pfennig. Gold and sil- 
 ver are weighed by the mark of Cologne, and medi- 
 cine by Nilrnberg apothecary weight. 1 schifi'pfund 
 =2J oentner=20 liespfund=280 pfnnd. This is sea 
 freight ; wagon weight is also called schiffpfund, but = 
 320 pfund. Liquid Capacity: 1 fuder=4 oxhoft=5 
 tonne = 6 ahm=24 anker = 30 eimer=120 viertel=240 
 stubchen=480 kanne=960 quartier = 1920 ossel ; 1 
 fass, for whale-oil=lJ tonne=7J stechkanne=120 
 
WEI 
 
 1949 
 
 WEI 
 
 margel = 160 quartier. Dry Capacity ; 1 last, for wheat 
 and grain generally, and seeds =3 wispel=30 scheffel 
 =60 fass=120 hinit=480 spiut ; 1 stock, for oats and 
 barley =1^ last, and similarly subdivided. The schef- 
 fel is hardly used ; the fass is the principal measure. 
 The indications of the steelyard used for weighing 
 grain, and quoted in the Price Cmrent, is upon 4 fass 
 of such grain respectively. The established weight 
 of the fass is : of barley, 68 pfund ; beans, 108 pfund ; 
 oats, 52 pfund ; peas, 100 pfund ; rye, 81 pfund; wheat, 
 86 pfund. Length: 1 «lle=2 fuss=24 zoU=:192 ach- 
 tel. Ship-builders, for the measurement of spars, etc., 
 divide the fuss into 3 palm. Engineers and surveyors 
 use the Rhenisli foot and inch, decimally divided. 
 Itinerary: 1 raeile=200 ruthe =24000 Ehenish fuss. 
 Agrarian: There are two ruthe or perches in land 
 measure, the marschruthe equal to 7 ell, and the geest- 
 ruthe to 8 ell. Of course, 1 square geestruthe=l^§ 
 marschruthe =256 square fuss ; lmorgen=^ 600 square 
 marschruthe = 117600 square fuss. Solid: 1 klafter 
 or faden=6i- F. longXOJ F. high X 2 F. deep=88f 
 cubic fuss ; 1 messbergerfaden = 6J- F. long X 8 F. 
 high X 2 F. deep=106J cubic fuss. 
 
 Hanover. — Weight: 1 pfund=2 mark = 16 unze=32 
 loth =128 quentohen=512 ortchen. Gold and silver 
 are weighed by the mark of Cologne. The apothecary 
 pound is f of the commercial pfund, subdivided like 
 that of Numberg, which last is itself frequentlj' used. 
 Liquid Capacity : 1 fuder =4 oxhoft = 6 ahm = 15 eimer 
 =24 anker=120 viertel=240 6tubchen=480 kanne= 
 960 quartier=1920 nossel ; 1 fass for beer=4 tonne= 
 104 stilbchen = 208 kanne =416 quartier. Dry Capac- 
 ity : 1 last =2 wispel=16 malter=96 himt=288 drit- 
 tel=884 vierfass. Length: 1 elle=2 fuss=24 zoll= 
 192 achtel = 288 linie. Itinerary : 1 meile (since 1818) 
 =1462^ ruthe=11700 eUe=25400 fuss. The old or 
 polizei-meile was 2274 ruthe. Agrarian : 1 morgen of 
 Calenberg = lJ- drohn = 2 vorling= 120 square ruthe = 
 30720 square fuss. 
 
 Hesse Cosset. — Weight: 1 pfund = 16 unze=32 loth 
 =128 quentchen. In retail the pfund of Berlin (which 
 is about 3 per cent, lighter) is emploj'ed, subdivided as 
 above. Gold and silver are by the Cologne ; medi- 
 cine, etc., by the Numberg weight. Liquid Capacity : 
 1 fuder = 6 ohm=120 viertel=480 mas3=1920 schop- 
 pen. Dry Capacity: 1 scheflFel=2 himt=8 metze = 
 32 masschen. Length: 1 waldfuss or standard = 12 
 zoll= 144 linie. Itinerary: 1 ruthe =7 elle = 14 land- 
 fuss, or surveyors' foot. The ruthe is sometimes di- 
 vided decimally into 10 fuss, etc. Agrarian : 1 acker 
 = 150 square ruthe=29400 square landfuss. Solid: 
 1 klafter=5 F. long X 5 F. high X 6 F. deep=150 cubic 
 waidfuss. 
 
 Hesse-Darmstadt. — The old weights- and measures 
 were those of Frankfort. Those established in 1821 
 are as follows : Weight : 1 pfund =32 loth =128 quent- 
 chen = 512 richtpfennig = J kilogram of France. Gold 
 and silver are still reckoned by the mark of Cologne, 
 and Numberg furnishes the apothecary weight. Liquid 
 Capacity: 1 fuder =6 ohm =120 viertel=480 mass = 
 1920 schoppen. The schoppen=J litre of France. 
 Dry Capacity: 1 malter=4 simmer=16 kumpf=64 
 gescheid=256masschen=128 litre of France. Length : 
 1 klafter=10 fu5s=100 zoll=1000 linie. The fuss is 
 ^ metre of France ; the elle is ^ metre. Agrarian: 1 
 morgen=4 viertel=400 square klafter=40000 square 
 fuss. Solid: 1 stecken=5 F. longX5 F. highX4 F. 
 deep =100 cubic fuss. The old stecken was 6x6x4 
 =144 cubic feet, old measure. 
 
 Hollatid. — Since 1817 the values and divisions of 
 the weights anduieasures have been according to the 
 metrical system of France, retaining more or less of 
 the old nomenclature, as will be found under that head. 
 Ionian Isles. — Since 1817, when the new Constitution 
 of these isles was ratified by the English Parliament, 
 the standard weights and measures have been those 
 of Great Britain. There still remain, however, several 
 
 detacned usances of Turkish and Venetian origin, 
 which will be found under their proper heads. 
 
 LObec. — Weight: 1 pfund=2 mark=16 unze=32 
 loth =128 quentchen =512 pfennig. Gold and silver 
 weight is that of Cologne ; apothecary weight of Num- 
 berg. The sohiffpfund and tonne are divided as at 
 Hamburg. Liquid Capacity: 1 fuder =4 oxhoft = 6 
 ahm=24 anker=30 eimer=120 viertel=240 stubchen 
 =480 kanne=960 quartier=1920 plank=3840 ort. 
 Dry Capacity: 1 last=8 dr6mt=24tonne=96 scheffel 
 = 384 fass. Length : 1 elle = 2 f uss = 24 zoU = 144 linie 
 =1728 punkt. Other usances here are the same as at 
 Hamburg. 
 
 Lucca. — The weights and measures of this territory 
 are, in system, the same as those of Tuscany, of which 
 it will hereafter form a part. 
 
 Mecklenburg Schwerin. — What is under this will also 
 applj' to the other Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg 
 Strelitz, both of whose systems of weights and length 
 measures are those of Hamburg ; while the capacity 
 measures are, in fact, those of Lubec. 
 
 Modena. — Weight: 1 libbra or lira =12 oncia=192 
 ferlino ; 1 libbra, for gold and silver=12 oncia=96 ot- 
 ta va = 192 ferlino = 1920 carato =7680 grano. Apothe- 
 caiy: 1 libbra=12 oncia=96 drachma=288 scrUpolo 
 =6912 grano. Liquid Capacity : 1 barile= 20 fiasco = 
 40 boccale. Dry Capacity : 1 sacco = 2 stajo. Agrw- 
 rian: 1 biolca=72 tavola = 288 square ca!vezzo =10368 
 square piede. The piede of Eeggio has the same rela- 
 tions, but a different value, with that of Modena, the 
 citj-. The other measures appear arbitrary. 
 
 Ottoman Empire., or Twrhey in Europe. — Neither our 
 knowledge nor, perhaps, the actual state of weights 
 and measures in this empire, allow of their being ar- 
 ranged in any satisfactorj', systematic exhibition ; and 
 the same may be said of the modem kingdom of Greece. 
 The value and denominations of isolated units have 
 been given before. 
 
 Parma. — Weight: 1 libbra=12 oncia=288 denaro 
 =6912 grano. Gold and silver are weighed by the 
 marco of Milan, or \ty the new Italian pound. The 
 apothecary pound is identical with the commercial lib- 
 bra. The rubbio is 25 libbra. Liquid Capacity is 
 measured as at Milan. Dry Capacity : 1 stajo = 2 
 mina=16 quartarole. Length: 1 pertica=6 braccio 
 di legno=72 oncia=864 punto = 10368 atomo. Agra- 
 rian: 1 bioloa=6 staro=72 tavola=288 square pertica 
 =10368 square braccio. 
 
 Portugal. — Weight: 1 an-atel=2 marco or meio-ar- 
 ratel=4 quarta=16 on9a=128 outava=384 esQropulo 
 = 9216 grao. This weight, from the on9a down, an- 
 swers for all purposes. Gold and silver are reckoned 
 bj' the marco of 8 onfas, and medicines are weighed by 
 a libbra of 12 onfas, which is therefore % arratel. 1 
 tonelada=13Jquintal=54arroba=1728arratel. Liq- 
 uid Capacity: 1 almude=2 alqueire or cantaro = 12 
 Canada = 24 meia-canada = 48 quartilho = 96 meio- 
 quartilho; 1 tonelada=2 pipa or bota=52 almude= 
 104 alqueire. Dry Capacity: 1 moio=15 fanga=60 
 alqueire =120 meio-alqueire=240 quarto =480 outava 
 =960 maquia or meia-outava. Length: 1 covado=3 
 palmo da craveira=24 pollegada=36 dedo=144 grao 
 =288 linha=3466 ponto. The commercial covado, 
 called covado avantejado, has 24} poUegadas. Itiner- 
 ary : 1 brapa = 1^ passo = 2 vara = 6f pe = 10 palmo da 
 craveira; 1 legoa=3 milha=24 estadio. Agrarian: 
 1 geira=4840 square vara. 
 
 Prussia. — The weights and measures were reformed 
 here in 1816. WeigU : 1 pfund=2 mark=16 unze = 
 32 loth =128 quentchen. The unitarj' pfund is-^ot 
 a cubic foot of distilled water, weighed, and reduced to 
 a vacuum at the temperature of 15° Beaumur (65j-° 
 Fahrenheit). Gold and silver are still reckoned by 
 the mark of Cologne, to which the Prussian mark is 
 considered as equivalent ; and the apothecary pound, 
 divided like that of Niimberg, is f pfund. 1 sohiff- 
 pfund = 3 centner =15 stein = 20 liespfund =380 pfund. 
 
WEI 
 
 1950 
 
 WEI 
 
 Liquid Capacity ; 1 fuder = 6 ohm = 12 eimer = 24 anker 
 =720 quart =1440 ossel. The eimer contains 3840 cu- 
 bic zoUe or inches. Bry Capaciti/ : 1 last, for wheat 
 and rye=4 wispel =6 malter = 72 scheffel =288 viertel 
 =1152 met2e=4508 masschen ; 1 last, for barley and 
 oats =48 scheffel. The scheffel is |- of the eimer in 
 absolute capacity, or 3072 cubic zoUe. Length : 1 fuss 
 (rheinfuss)=12 zoll=144 linie=1728 scrupel. This 
 unit has been established at 139, 13 lignes de Paris. 
 The elle is 25^ zolle. Itinerary; 1 ruthe=10 land- 
 fLlss = 12 rheinfuss. The landfttss is al5o subdivided 
 decimally into 10 2oll = 100 linie = 1000 scrupel; 1 post- 
 meile = 2000 ruthe = 24000 rheinfuss. Agrarian : 1 
 morgen=180 square ruthe = 25920 square rheinfuss. 
 iSolid: 1 klafter = 6 F. long X 6 F. high X 3 F. deep 
 =108 cubic rheinfuss; 1 haufen=4J klafter = 18 F.' 
 long X 9 F. high X 3 F. deep = 486 'cubic rheinfuss. 
 The old values and denominations which are still re- 
 tained, as well in the capital as in several principal 
 cities, are given under those heads. 
 
 lioman States. — Under this name is intended what 
 has, until recently, been known as the State of the 
 Church. Late events have shown this last title to be 
 uncertain. Two principal cities comprehend all that 
 is systematic in weights and measures. Bologna. — 
 Weight: 1 libbra = 12 oncia=96 ottava = 198ferlino = 
 1920 carato=7680 grano. This weight serves also for 
 gold and silver, though the new Italian metrical pound 
 (the kilogram) is also employed, as well as the libbra 
 of Eome. In Ferrara, use is still had of the marco of 
 Milan. Apothecary: llibbra=12oncia=96 drachma 
 =288 scrupolo = 6912 grano. This libbra weighs llj 
 commercial oncie. Liquid Capacity : lcorba=2mezza- 
 corba=4 quarterone or qaarterole = 60 boccale=240 
 foglietta. Dry Capacity : 1 corba = 2 stajo or staro = 
 8 quarterone = 32 quarticino or quartuooione. These 
 two corbe are of the same capacity. Agrarian: Itor- 
 natura=140 square pertica = 14000 square pie. Rome. 
 — Weight: 1 libbra = 12 oncia = 288 denaro = 6912 
 grano. The same weight serves for gold and silver, 
 and for medicine. -Liquid Capacity : 1 botta=16 barilo 
 =612 boccale = 2048 foglietta =8192 quartuccio. The 
 barile for oil contains only -J of the above, or 28 boc- 
 cale. But oil has a proper measure, viz. : 1 soma=2 
 mastello or pelle=20 cugnatello =80 boccale; Dry 
 Capacity : 1 rubbio = 2 rubbiatella=4 qaarta=8 quar- 
 tarella=12 staja = 16 starello = 22 scorzo =88 quartuc- 
 cio. Length and Distance : 1 canna (ordinary) = 2 
 braccio = 6 pi6=8 palmo = 24 linea ; 1 canna (archi- 
 tects', etc.) =7^ pie = 10 palmo = 120 oncia =600 minuto 
 =1200 decimo; 1 canna di ara = l^ braccio di ara = 9 
 palmo di ara; 1 catena = 10 stajolo=57^ palmo (archi- 
 tects'). Agrarian: 1 rubbio=4 quarta=:7 pezza=16 
 scorzo = 32 quartuccio = 112 square catena = 11200 
 square stajolo =370300 square palmo (architects'). 
 
 Russia in Europe : St. Petersburg. — Weight : 1 f unt 
 = 12 lana=32 loth=96 zolotnic = 9216 doli. This is 
 used for gold and silver also, and the Nurnberg weight 
 by apothecaries. 1 packen=3 berkowitz = 30 pud = 
 1200 funt. Liquid Capacity : 1 vedro =4 tschetwerk 
 = 8 osmuschka=88 tscharkey. Since 1819 the vedro 
 =100 tscharkey. 1 sarokowaja =13J- anker=40 vedro. 
 Dry Capacity: 1 tschetwert = 2 osmin=4 pajak = 8 
 tschetwerik = 32 tschetwerka = 64 garnetz. Length 
 and Distance: 1 archine=2 stopa=24 verschok=32 
 paletz. This was the old measure. Within the last 
 twenty years, both the English foot and the Rhine 
 foot have come into use ; and since 1831 the former 
 has furnished, it is believed, the normal standard of 
 value. At present the archine is divided into 16 ver- 
 schok. 1 verst = 500 sachine = 1500 archine =24000 
 verschok. The sachine is 7 feet exactly. Besides 
 the verst, the meile of Lithuania is also used, equiv- 
 alent to 28530 rheinfuss. Warsaw, — The legal weights 
 and measures of Poland are supposed to be, since 1831, 
 subordinate to those of the Eussian empire, of which 
 it forms a. part. The establishment in 1819, while 
 
 Poland had still its own Legislature, and which rested 
 upon the French metrical system, is nearly as fol- 
 lows : Weight : 1 funt=16 lana=32 loth =48 skoyciec 
 = 128 drachme = 384 skrupulow=9216 granow=50688 
 granikow = 405504 mllligrammow. The milligram- 
 mow is exactly the milligram of France. The apothe- 
 cary pound is 358f grams of France, and divided like 
 Niirnberg weight. The old funt of Warsaw ■proper 
 was -jlj lighter ; and the old quintal was of 5 kaminieck, 
 orleOfufit. The new kaminieck is of 25 funt. Liquid 
 Capacity : 1 starigiew = 2 beczka = 50 garniec = 200 
 kwarti=800 kwaterki. The kwarti is the litre of 
 France, and the beczka, therefore, the hectolitre. For- 
 merly' thfe beczka was divided into 36 garniec, and 144 
 kwarti." Dry Capacity: 1 korzec=4 cwierc = 32 gar- 
 niec or garcy =128 kwarti— 512 kwaterki. The kwarti 
 is the same for all capacity ; and the korzec is, there- 
 fore, 128 litres of France. Length: 1 lokiec=2 stopa 
 =4 cwierc=24 calow=288 liniow=576 millimetrow 
 = 576 millimetre of France ; 1 sznurow = 10 pretow^ 
 100 precikow = 150 stopa=1000 lawek=1800 calow. 
 The preoikow is the geometrical foot, used by survey- 
 ors. Itinerary distances are measured by the verst 
 of Russia, 8 of which ( = 29633 stopa) make the unitary 
 league. Agrarian: 1 wloka = 30 morgow = 90 square 
 sznurow = 9000 square pretow = 900000 square preci- 
 kow. 
 
 Sardinia. — The weights and measures of the island 
 of Sardinia, which can not be called systematic, will be 
 found in the Dictionary. Duchy of Genoa. — Weight: 
 1 libbra (peso scarso)=12 oncia=288 denaro=6912 
 grano. This is the ordinary weight of commerce, 
 which is used also by apothecaries. The rottolo is ij 
 libbra. The peso grosso is 10 per cent, heavier than 
 the peso scarso, and has sometimes its rbttolo. Gold 
 and silver are weighed by the marco of Turin. The 
 rubbio, or quarter of the centinajo, has 25 libbra in 
 either weight. Liquid Capacity : 1 mezzaruola ^ 2 
 barile = 100 pinta=180amola. Dry Capacity : Imina 
 =8 quarto=96 gombetta. Length: 1 piede liprando 
 = 12 oncia = 144 punto= 1728 atomo; 1 piede manuale 
 = 8 oncia; 1 canna=4|- braccio=10 palmo = 6§- piede 
 manuale. But this last is hypothetical. The land 
 surveyors use a canna of 12 palmo, which is properly 
 a eanella. But canne are found of all lengths, from 
 8 to 12 palmi. Turin. — Weight: 1 libbra=li marco 
 =12 oncia = 96 ottavo=288 denaro = 6912 grano = 
 165888 granottino. For gold and silver the marco is 
 divided as under: 1 marco=8 oncia=192 denaro^ 
 1152 carato = 4608 grano = 110592 granOttino. The 
 apothecary pound is 1:^ marco, and is divided like the 
 same weight at Bologna. IJquid Capacity: 1 carro 
 =10brenta = 360 pinta = 720 boccale=1440 quartino. 
 Dry Capadfy : 1 8accO = 3 stajo = 6 mina = 12 quartierc 
 =48 copeHo = 960 cucchiaro. Length': The smaller 
 measures are divided as at Genoa. 1 pertica = 2 tra- 
 bucco = 10^ raso ^=12 piede liprando. Itinerary : 1 
 miglio = 1300 tesa=4333J piede liprando = 6500 piede 
 manuale. Agrarian: lgiornata=100tavola, or square 
 pertica=400 square trabucco =14400 square piede li- 
 prando. 
 
 Saxony.— ^'FoT the weights and measures of this king- 
 dom, where there has been no recent establishment, 
 will be taken what prevails at Leipsic. Weight: 1 
 pfund=2 mark=16 unze=32 loth=128 quentlein = 
 516 pfennig=7680 gran. Gold and silver are by the 
 mark of Cologne. Apothecary weight is that of Niirn- 
 berg. The centner, or hundred-weight, consists gen- 
 erally of 110 pfund, but for live stock it is only 102 
 pfund ; that called berg-gewicht at the mines, is 114 
 pfund ; and stahUgemicht, for iron and steel, is 118 
 pfund. Liquid Capacity: 1 fuder=24 fa3s=4 tonne 
 =6 ahm=12 eimer = 14 anker =756 kanna =1512 nos- 
 sel = 6048 quartier. The fuder of Dresden is similarly 
 divided, but is smaller, containing only 672 Icanne of 
 Leipsic. Dry Capacity: 1 wispel=2 malter=24 schef- 
 fel =96 viertel = 384 metze = 1536 masschen . Length : 
 
WEI 
 
 1951 
 
 WEI 
 
 1 eUe = 2 fusa=24 zoll=--240 linie. The faes is also 
 decimalty divided. 1 rutlie=10 elle=16 fuss. Itin- 
 erary : 1 polizei-meile=2000 rutlie=16000 elle=S200O 
 fuss i 1 poat-meile = 1500 ruthe = 12000 elle = 24000 
 fuss. Agrarian; 1 morgen=300 square ruthe=76800 
 square fuss. 
 
 The Two Sicilies.—The weights and measures of the 
 island of Sicily are given in the Dictionarj', ' corre- 
 sponding to the localities of Messina, Palermo, and 
 Syracuse ; they are too unsystematic to be detailed 
 here. What follows belongs properly to the city and 
 district of Naples. Weiffht: 1 libbra=12 oncia=360 
 trapeso=7200 accino. This weight is for gold and 
 silver, for silk, for spices, for drugs and colors. All 
 other articles are weighed by the rotolo of 2^ libbre, 
 or 33J oncie. . The apothecary unit is the same lib- 
 bra, but divided as follows: 1 libbra=12 onciai=!l20 
 drachma=360 scrupoto=7200 accino. Liquid Capac- 
 ity! ] carro=2 botta=24baril6=1440 caraffa; 1 sal- 
 ma, for oil=16 staja=256 quarto=320 pignata=i536 
 misurella. Di-y Capacity: 1 carro = 36 tomolo=864 
 misura. Length aTtd Distanqe : 1 canna=8 palmb=96 
 oneia=480 minuto; 1 pertica or passo = 7| palmo; 1 
 miglio=933J passo=7000 palmo. Agrarian: 1 mog- 
 gia=900 square passo = 50625 square palmo. 
 
 Spain. — The weights and measures given for this 
 kingdom apply especially to Castille, and are recog- 
 nised at Madrid. Considerable differences in value, 
 and some also in nomenclature, will be found existing 
 in several of the great provinces- 6f Spain ; as, for ex- 
 ample, in Valencia, where long comparative independ- 
 ence naturally led to a result of this land, which is 
 further contributed to elsewhere by the remarlsable 
 number of distinct races by which Spain is pebpled. 
 But these variations are not suificiently material to be 
 detailed here. 
 
 Weight: 1 libra=2 marco=16 onza=128 ochava= 
 256 adarme=768 tomine = 9216 grano. Gold and sil- 
 ver are by the same weight ; but the marco is the unit, 
 and is divided for gold onlj'', as follows : 1 marco = 50 
 castellano^400 tomine=4800 grano.- This division 
 has been, to be Sure, interdicted by law( but' it still 
 remains, and is especially exemplifled in the former 
 South American dependencies of Spain. In apothe- 
 cary weight : 1 libra = l^ marco=12 onza^96 dracma 
 = 288 escrupnlo=576 obolo=1728 caracter, or quilate 
 = 6912 grano; 1 tonelada=20 quintal=80 arroba = 
 2000 libra; 1 quintal macho = 6 arroba = 150 libra. 
 Liquid Capacity: 1 arroba maj'-or, or cantara=4 quar- 
 tilla=8 sizunibre=82 quartillo=128 copa. This ar- 
 roba, in theorj", should contain 35 libras of distilled 
 water, at the ordinary pressure and temperature. . The 
 arroba menor for oil is divided in tlie same manner, 
 but weighs only 27J libras, as before. Dry Capacity : 
 1 cahiz=12 fanega=144 .almude, or celemine=288 
 medio = 576 quartillo=2304 raci6n=9216 ochavillo. 
 Length : 1 vara=3 pie ortercia=4 palmo or quarta = 6 
 sesma=S6 piilgada=48 dedo=4S2 linea=6184 puntp. 
 Distance: 1 estadal=2 estado, toesa, or braza=2^paso 
 =4 vara=8 codo=i2 pie.' There is also a former es- 
 tadal (before 1801), which still serves as a basis for an 
 agrarian measure, and=ll pie. 1 cuerda=8J vara= 
 ,24f pie =33 palmo mayor. But in Valencia : Icuerda 
 =20 braza=40 vara; 1 legua (till 1568) =3 milla= 
 24 estadio=3000 paso= 5000 vara =15000 pie; llegua 
 (of Philip V.) = 7605 vara=22815 pie. This was a 
 league of which 17J were supposed to make a degree, 
 and was directed to be used on all maps. 1 legua 
 (since 1766)=4800 pas©=8000 vara=24000 pie. It is 
 by this that the distances along the great roads are 
 marked^' Bufthere is also a legua frequently used, 
 estimated at 800 cuerda = 6600 vara=19800 pie. Agra^ 
 rian:. 1 yugada = 50 fanegada = 600 celemin = 2400 
 quartillo = 28800 square estadale =460800 square vara. 
 But in Valencia: 1 yugada =6 cahizada=36 fanegada 
 =7200 square braza, and is but the :^ nearly of the 
 legal 3'ugada. 1 aran^ada (for vineyards and crops of 
 
 oats) =400 square estadale =48400 square pie : the es- 
 tadale being here but 11 pie. 
 
 Sweden.-^WeigM : 1 skalpund (viktualiewigt)=16 
 untz = 32 lod = 128 qwintin = 8848 as. There are sev- 
 eral commercial pounds in this kingdom, applicable 
 under different circumstances aiidto different articles ; 
 but none are commensurable with the skalpuiid, ex- 
 cept that cSiWei jerniaigt, or the iron pound, which is ^ 
 of the other. They are all to' be found in the Diction- 
 ary under the word skeppuhd, by which multiple, in- 
 deed, they are usually counted. Gold and silver is 
 weighed by the mark of Stockholm, which is incom- 
 mensiirable with the sk&lpund, but very nearly half 
 of it. It is di-vided as 'follows: 1 mark=8 untz=16 
 lod=64 qwintin=4384 as. 'The apothecary pound, or 
 libra=7416 as, and is subdivided like the Nilmberg 
 pound. 1 skeppund=20 lispund=400 pnnd. Liquid 
 Capacity: 1 tuhna=48 kanna=96 stop = 384 qwarter 
 =1536 ort, or jungfru. ' Dry Capacity: l'tunna = 2 
 spaun=4 half-spann=8 fjerding=32 kappe=56 kan- 
 na = 112 stop = 448 qwarter = 1792 ort. Length : 1 
 famn = 3 aln = 6 fot = 72 tum=864 lihie. ' But in late 
 times the foot is divided decimally for all purposes. 
 lstang=;8aln=16fot; 1 mil = 2250 stang = 6000 famn 
 = 18000 ;iln = 36000 fot. Agrarian : 1 tunna = 2 
 spannland=4 half-spannland=8 fjerding = 32 kapp- 
 land=^56 kannland=218J square stang = 14000 square 
 aln = 56000 square fot. Solid: 1 vedfamn=^6 I)", long 
 X 6 F. high X 3 E. deep=108 cubic fot. 
 
 /SwJiVzer^awf?.— Kearly every one of the twenty-two 
 cantons of which tliis confederation is conlposed ap- 
 pears to present some variety in the values, subdivi- 
 sions, and nomenclature of its weights and measure. To 
 explain them. summarily is impossible ; to expose them 
 in detail would occupy a space manifestly dispropor- 
 tionate to their practical interest. What prevails at 
 Bern, Lucerne, and Zurich (the three legislative cap- 
 itals, biennially in rotation, of the Swiss confederacy), 
 is all that need be given here. £ern.- — Weight; 1 
 pfund=16 unze = 32 Ioth=128, quent = 512 pfennig. 
 This is the ordinary commercial Weight ; that for gold 
 and silver, etc., is divided into 2 marks, and then like 
 the preceding. The mark in this weight is the old 
 marc of France; the ordinary pfund = 17 ounces poids 
 de marc of France. The apothecarj^ weight,is,ln fact, ' 
 about -i- of 1 per cent, lighter than the Nilrnberg ; it 
 is, no doubt, in theory the same, and is divided sim- 
 ilarly. Liquid Capacity ; 1 landfass = C saum = 24 
 eimer or brenter = 600 mass = 2400 vierteli = 4800 
 becher. Dry Capacity : 1 mutt=12 mass=24 m&ssli 
 =48 immi = 96 achterli=192 sechszehnerli..' -Length: 
 1 fuss=12 zoll=144 linie = 1728 secu;nde. The stein- 
 brecher fuss, used for quarrying and building stone = ' 
 13 zoll. The elle happens to be exactly 1-fi^ of the 
 fuss ; but this is an accidental coincidence, as they are 
 not used commensurahly. Itinerary: 1 ruthe = 1J 
 klafter=3J wald-schritt=4 feld-schritt=10 fuss. The 
 ordinary' Swiss iheile is no longer commensurable with 
 any Swiss foot. It seems to have been originally 
 26666f fuss, for its length would not differ materially 
 from thaf multiple of the fuss. Agrarian ; 1 juchart, 
 or feld acker=40b square rUthe =40000 square fuss. 
 For woodland, the juchart is 460; for gardens, 360; 
 for meadow land, 350 and 320; and, finally, for sub- 
 urban mensuration,. 312J square ruthe. Solid; Iklaf- 
 ter = 6 F. long X 5 F. high X 3J F. deep = 108 solid fuss. 
 Lucerne. — Weight; 1 pfund=36 loth=144 quentchen. 
 This is the division of Lucerne proper ; but the weights 
 of Zurich are also in use. Gold and silver are weighed 
 by the mark of Zurich ; but the apothecarj- pound is 
 the old medicinal weight of France. Liquid Capacity : 
 1 saum=3J- ohm=100 mass=400 SGhoppen=4000 
 prima. Dry Capacity: 1 malter=4 mutt=16 viertel 
 =32 halb-viertel =160 immi =256 becher =2560 prima. 
 Length: 1 elle = 2 schuh, or rbeinfuss. The carpen- 
 ters' foot (tischler-schuh) is nearlj- 3 per cent, shorter ; 
 and the builders' and surveyors' foot (feld-schuh) 10 
 
I 
 
 WEI 
 
 1952 
 
 WEI 
 
 per cent, shorter than the rheiufuss. Other measures 
 are those of Zurich. Zurich.— Weight : 1 pfund = 18 
 unze = 36 loth=144 quenten; 1 pfund (of Antorf, for 
 gold and silver, etc.)=2 mark=16 unze = 32 loth = 128 
 quent=512 pfennig. This weight is ^ of the commer- 
 cial weight. The apothecary pound is that of Lucerne . 
 Liquid Capacity; 1 eimer (lauter-mass) =4 viertel = 
 30 kopf=60 mass =120 quartli=240 stotzen. The 
 eimer (stadt-mass) for wine in retail is subdivided in 
 the same manner, but is 10 per cent, smaller. 1 eimer 
 (trubes mass)=4 viertel=32 kopf=64 mass=128 
 quartli=256 stotzen. This eimer (which, as its name 
 implies, is for wine unrefined, as the lauter-mass is for 
 fined wine) is -^ larger than the latter. Dry Capac- 
 ity: 1 malter=4 mutt = 16 viertel=64 vierling=256 
 mas8li=576 immi. The malter for grain generally, 
 and all dry seeds and fruits {glaitefrucht'), contains 12J- 
 cubic feet ; that for oats and for green articles (legu- 
 minous growth, rauhefrucht) contains 12^ cubic feet. 
 Length : 1 fuss = 12 zoll = 144 linie = 133 lignes de 
 Paris. The same fuss is divided decimally by sur- 
 veyors. The architectural foot, since 1820, is yj^ 
 longer, but divided like the ordinarj' fuss. 1 ruthe= 
 2 elle = 10 fuss. Agrarian: The ordinary juchart=: 
 400 square ruthe=4000 square fuss. There are also 
 juchart in the same variety (except the verj' smallest), 
 and similarly applicable as at Bern. Solid: 1 klaf- 
 ter, for fire-wood = 6 F. long X 6 F. high X 4 F. deep = 
 144 cubic fuss. There are also klafter of 72 and 108 
 cubic fuss, the billets being 2 and 3 feet long respect- 
 ively. The klafter for turf (torb-klafter) contains 12 
 korb of 6 cubic fuss,each=72 cubic fuss. In 1828 a 
 new system of weights and measures was proposed and 
 adopted for the Cantons of Aarau, Basle, Bern, Frei- 
 burg, Lucerne, Solothurn, and Vaud, which rested upon 
 the metrical system of France ; Ijut, except in the 
 Canton of Vaud, it has not been generally carried out. 
 
 Tuscany. — Weiglit: llibbra=12 oncia = 96 drachma 
 = 288 denaro = 6912 grano. The same weight an- 
 swers for gold and silver, and for apothecary use. The 
 legal centinajo or cantaro (as in all the cases hitherto 
 not specially mentioned) is 100 libbre ; but the can- 
 taro for wool, meat, and salt fish is yet 160 libbre. 
 Liquid Capacity: 1 barile = 20 fiasco=40 boccale=80 
 mezzetta=160 quartuccio, weighing 133J- libbra; 1 
 barile for oil, or orcio = 16 fiasco = 82 boccale = 64 mez- 
 zetta = 128 quartuccio, weighing 120 libbre. The 
 soma for oil is 2 barile. The barile of alcohol, brandy, 
 and rum weighs 120 libbre. Dry Capacity : 1 moggio 
 = 8 sacco=24 stajo=48 mina=96 quarto — 384 meta- 
 della=768 mezzetta=1536 quartuccio =3072 bussole. 
 Length: 1 canna=4 braccio = 8 palmo=80 soldo =960 
 denaro ; 1 canna (architects' and surveyors') or pertica 
 = 2J passetto=5 braccio=10 palmo = 60 crazia=100 
 soldo = 300 quattrino=1200 denaro. Itinerary: 1 ca- 
 vezzo = 2 passo = 6 braccio ; 1 raiglio = 566J canna 
 (architects') = 2833J- braccio = 5666J palmo. Agra- 
 rian: 1 saccato = 10 stajolo=13f stioro=165 panoro 
 = 660 square pertica=16500 square braccio. 
 
 Wurtemherg. — Weight : Divided as the Prussian, 
 from which it diff'ers but slightlj' in value. Gold and 
 silver are weighed by the mark of Cologne, and medi- 
 cine by the apothecary weight of Niimberg. Liquid 
 Capacity: 1 fuder = 6 eimer=96 immi=960 mass = 
 3840 schoppen. The eimer is of a different capacity, 
 according as it is for clear or unrefined wine. The 
 latter is nearly 4J per cent, larger than the former. 
 Dry Capacity : 1 scheifel = 8 simri = 32 vierling or 
 viertel = 64 achtel=128 masslein=256 ecklein=1024 
 viertelein. Length: 1 fuss=10 zoll=1001inie=1000 
 punkt. This measure was established in 180G, when 
 the fuss was fixed at 127 lignes de Paris. The elle is 
 not aliquot with the fuss, being 214J- lignes de Paris. 
 1 ruthe=lf klafter=10 fuss. This is the modern 
 division. In the older habits there was 1°, a ruthe 
 of 16 fuss ; 2°, one of 12 rheinfuss ; and 3°, one of 15 
 
 rheinfuss. These different lengths affected, of course, 
 the value of the acre. Agrarian : 1 morgen =4 vier- 
 telmorgen = 384 square ruthe = 38400 square fuss. 
 This is the legal measure, which corresponds in value 
 with the old count of 150 square ruthe (of 16 fuss in 
 length) to the morgen. There is also the little mor- 
 gen (old measure) of 150 square ruthe (No. 3) =33750 
 square rheinfuss ; and the great morgen (old measure) 
 containing 400 square ruthe (No. 2) = 57600 square 
 rheinfuss. 1 juchart or jauchert =1-J morgen. 
 
 The variations in the computation of the mile, the 
 gallon, the hhd., and the barrel, are so great in various 
 countries, that we give a list by way of comparison. 
 Mile. 
 Miglio, since 1803.. . Austr, Lombardy. '6214 miles. 
 
 " d'ltalia Milan 1-11536 " 
 
 " Naples 1-1593 " 
 
 " Eome 0-9253 " 
 
 " Turin 1-5744 " 
 
 " Tuscany 1-0270 " 
 
 Venice 1-1397 " 
 
 Miil Denmark 4-68 " 
 
 Mijl, old measure. .. Holland 3-6394 " 
 
 " marine " 3-4521 " 
 
 " legal, Netherl. " 0-6214 " 
 
 Mil Sweden 0-6235 " 
 
 "of Norway " 6-9216 " 
 
 Mile, legal Great Britain 1 " 
 
 " marine " 1-1428 " 
 
 " Ireland 1-2727 " 
 
 " Scotland 1-12T3 " 
 
 " United States 1 " 
 
 '*■ of land England and U. S. 640 acres. 
 
 Milha Portugal 1-27'!S miles. 
 
 " marine " 1-150T " 
 
 Milla Spain 0-S648 " 
 
 *' marine " 1-1530 " 
 
 Mille, old measure. . France and Belg. . 1-21U " 
 
 " marine " 1-1507 '- 
 
 " metrical " 0-6214 " 
 
 Gallon. 
 
 Imperial, since 1825 Great Britain 1 -20060 gallons. 
 
 For wine, Saxon England, 1000 0-98506 " 
 
 " Eumford.... " 1266 0-93606 " 
 
 " "Winchester.. " 1266 1 " 
 
 " Guildhall " after 1496 0-96970 " 
 
 For ale and beer, 1803. . " till 1825 . 1-22078 " 
 
 For wine Ireland 0-94199 " 
 
 For liquids Scotland 3-58109 " 
 
 For wine , E. and W. Indies. . 1 '- 
 
 For liquids United States 1 " 
 
 For corn, Saxon England 0-12556 bushels. 
 
 " Kumford " 0-12359 " 
 
 " "Winchester.. " 0-12451 " 
 
 " Guildhall.... " 0-12660 " 
 
 Imperial, since 1825 . . . Great Britain 0-12894 " 
 
 For corn United States 0-12600 " 
 
 Barrel. 
 
 For lamp oil Cincinnati ,./:.,. 43 gallons. 
 
 For wine and brandy. . Great Britain 31-5 " 
 
 For beer, before 1803. . " 33-0 '■ 
 
 For ale, etc " .... 36-0 " 
 
 Barcelona wine London 30-0 " 
 
 Claret " 29-0 " 
 
 Lisbon " 35-0 " 
 
 Madeira " 27-5 " 
 
 Port " 34-5 " 
 
 Sherry " 32-6 " 
 
 Brandy, etc United States 31-6 " 
 
 For corn Maryland 5 bushels. 
 
 Forflah " 220 poimds. 
 
 For flour " 196 
 
 For lime " 320 " 
 
 For salted provisions . . " 31 -9 gallons. 
 
 HOGSnEAD. 
 
 For wine, etc. . . . England 63 gallons. 
 
 Of claret " .53 " 
 
 For ale " 53-59744 " 
 
 For beer •' 05-92212 " 
 
 Old measure Scotland 57-29745 " 
 
 For liquids United States. .. . 63 " 
 
 For tobacco, net . Kentucky, mean. 1200 pounds. 
 
 " " . Maryland, *' 800 " 
 
 " " Missouri " . 1200 " 
 
 " " . Ohio " . 750 " 
 
 " " . "Virginia " . 1200 " 
 
 For the greater part of the preceding article we are 
 indebted to the able work of J. H. Alexander, Esq., 
 entitled Universal Dictionary of Weights and Measures, 
 Ancient and Modern, reduced to the standards of the U. 
 S., to which we refer for more extended information. 
 
WEI 
 
 1953 
 
 WEL 
 
 Ancient Weights and Measures. — This subject is in- 
 volved in considerable difficulty, and to enter fully 
 into it would be quite inconsistent with our objects 
 and limits. But the following details, abstracted from 
 the best authorities, may be useful to such of our read- 
 ers as have occasion to look into the ancient authors. 
 
 Table ot' various ancient Weiguts iaccording to different 
 Authorities). 
 
 Englisli Troy Graiiu. 
 ..,.,, { 8-2 Christian!. 
 
 Attic obolus < 
 
 Attic drachma . 
 
 9*1 Arbuthuot. 
 51*9 Chriatiani, 
 54-6 Arbuthnot. 
 69 Faucton. 
 
 Chris toaui. 
 
 ChriBtiani. 
 
 Arbuthnot 
 
 Pauoton. 
 
 Leaser mina 3893 
 
 (5189 
 Greater mina ■<5464 
 
 (6900 
 
 Medical mina 6994 gr. Arbuthnot. 
 
 Talent=60 mins9=J^ cwt English. 
 
 ( 146-5 Eng. Ti-oygr.Arh. 
 Old Greek drachm -< 62 •5=Roman denariuBp 
 
 ( Arbuthnot. 
 
 Old Greek mina 6425 do. 
 
 Egyptian mina. , 
 
 Ptolemaic mina of Cleopatra 
 
 Alexandrian mina of Dioscoridea. 
 
 Homan denarius 
 
 Denarins of Nero., 
 
 Papyriua 61 -T 
 
 ( 415-1 
 Ounce ^ 43T -a 
 
 ( 431-2 
 Pound of 10 oz 4150 
 
 (4981 
 " 12 oz •<5246 
 
 I51T4-4 
 
 do. 
 85 do. 
 
 92 do. 
 
 51 -9=^ Eom. oz. Chr. 
 62-5=^ Kom. oz. Arb. 
 64 Faucton. 
 do. 
 
 Chris tiani. 
 
 Arbuthnot. 
 
 Faucton. 
 
 ChriBtiani. 
 
 Chi'istianL 
 
 Arbuthnot. 
 
 Faucton. 
 
 Arno DBY MEAStruEB. 
 
 Scripture Measures of Length.— C^r&uWi?wi and /fzrfton.) 
 
 Inches. 
 
 0-7425 
 
 2-97 
 
 8-91 
 
 Engliali Feet. 
 
 1-485 
 
 1*7325 
 
 yords. 
 
 2-31 
 
 3-465 
 
 4-62 
 
 , 46-2 
 
 231 
 
 1155 
 
 Miles. 
 
 1-886 
 
 4-158 
 
 33-264 
 
 Digit 
 
 Palm 
 
 Span 
 
 Lesser cubit 
 
 Sacred cubit 
 
 Fathom 
 
 Ezekiel* s reed 
 
 Arabian pole 
 
 Schoenua 
 
 Stadium 
 
 Sabbath day's jaumey. . 
 
 Eastern mile 
 
 Farasang 
 
 Day's journey 
 
 Geeoian Measures of Lemgth. — {Arlmthmt 
 
 Dacfcylos . . . 
 Doron > 
 Dochmej " * 
 
 Dichas 
 
 Orthodoron. 
 Spithame. .. , 
 Pons 
 
 Pons . . . 
 Pygme . 
 Pygon. . 
 Pechys. 
 
 and Button.) 
 
 Inches. 
 . 0-T5646 
 
 30218T 
 
 . T -55468 
 . 83-1015- 
 . 9-06562 
 . 12-08T5 
 
 EnglUli Feet. 
 . 1-00729 
 .. 1-13203 
 . 1-25911 
 . 1-51093 
 
 Englieli Pacea^ 
 . 1-00T29 
 
 . 100-T29ia 
 
 . 805-83^3 
 
 BoMAN Measures of Length — (^Arbuthnot and Hutton.) 
 
 ■ ■ English Inches. 
 
 Digitus transrersus 0-72526 
 
 Uncia, the onnce 0-967 
 
 Palmus minor 2-901 
 
 Pea, tlie foot 11-604 
 
 English Feet. 
 
 Palmipea 1-20875 
 
 Cubitus 1-4505 
 
 Gradus 2-41T5 
 
 l^ces. 
 
 Passua 0-967 
 
 Stadium 120-875 
 
 Mlliare 967 
 
 Orgya . . . 
 Stadios) 
 Duloa / ■ 
 Milion . . . 
 
 EOMAN BUY Measuebs.- 
 
 Hemina . . 
 Sextan us. 
 
 Kodius. 
 
 -(ArJmthTWt and Sutton.) 
 
 English PiatH. 
 
 0-5074 
 
 10148 
 
 English Peck. 
 1-0141 
 
 Xestea . . 
 Ghenlx. 
 
 MedimuB'. 
 
 English Pints. 
 . 0-9903 
 . 1-436 
 
 winch. Bushel. 
 . 1-0806 
 
 Jewish dby Meabuees (acoordmi; to JosepTms). 
 
 English Pints. 
 
 Gachal 0-1949 
 
 Cab 3-874 
 
 Gomer 70152 
 
 English Feet. 
 Seah 1-4615 
 
 winch. Bushels. 
 
 Ephah 1-0961 
 
 Latech. 5-4S0T> . 
 
 Quarter. 
 
 Srer} l-STO^ 
 
 Eomas Measures eoe Liquids {Arlwthnot ami Hutton.) 
 
 English Pints. 
 
 Hemiua 0-69759 
 
 Sextariua 1-19618 
 
 Congius 7-1712 
 
 wine Gallons. 
 
 Urna , 3'6867 
 
 Amphora 7-1T12 
 
 Hhds. 
 
 Culeua '. 2-2766 ' 
 
 Attio Meabuees foe Liquids. 
 
 English Pints. 
 
 Cotylus 0-6743 
 
 Xcates 11483 
 
 Choua 6-8900 
 
 Wine Gnll. 
 
 Meteotes : 10.-3350 
 
 Jewish Measures foe Liquids. 
 
 English Pints. 
 
 Caph 0-8612 
 
 Log 1-1483 
 
 Cab 4-5938 
 
 Wine Gall. 
 
 Hin ,. 1-7225 
 
 Seah 3-44S0 
 
 Bath 10-3360 
 
 Hhds. 
 
 Coron 1-6405 
 
 The following table shows the number of pounds of 
 various articles to a bushel : 
 
 "Wheat 60 pounds. 
 
 Corn, aheUed .... 66 " 
 
 Corn on the coh. . 70 " 
 
 Eye 56 " 
 
 Oats 36. " 
 
 Barley 46. " 
 
 Buckwheat 52 " 
 
 Irish potatoes. ... 60 " 
 
 Sweet j)otatoes ... 50 *' 
 
 Onions 57 pounda. 
 
 Beans 60 " 
 
 Bran 20 " 
 
 Cloveraeed 64 " 
 
 Timothy seed 46 " 
 
 Flax-seed 45 " 
 
 Hemp-aeed 45 " 
 
 Blue grass seed . . 14 " 
 
 Dried peaches ... 38 " 
 
 6H 
 
 — For further information the reader is refeiTed to the 
 Diet, of Weights and Measures, hy J. H.Alexaudee, 
 8vo. Bait., 1855; Banhers' Magazine, Hi. 299 (J. H. 
 Alexandbb) ■,.Norilh Amencan^Rev.„iii.-v. (Pbecival), 
 xiv. (Fakkae) ; Westminster Uev., xvi. ; Edinb. Sev., 
 Ixxvii. 121 ; Hunt's. Merchants' Magazine, xii. 549, iv. 
 333, 434 (D. J. Browne) ; Niles's Register, xiv., xv., 
 XX., xxii., XXX., xl. ; Report of Mr. J. Q. Adams, 8vo.- 
 Weld, or Dyer's Weed (Ger. Wau; Du. Wouw, 
 Wouwe; ¥r^ Gaudei It. Guadarella; L&t. Luteola), is 
 an imperfect biennial, with small fusiform roots, and a 
 leafy stem from one to three feet in height. It is a 
 native of Great Britain, Italy, and various parts of 
 Europe ; and is cultivated for the sake of its stalk, 
 flowers, and leaves, which are employed in the dyeing 
 of yeUow, whence its botanical name Reseda (uteola. 
 Weld requires the growth of nearly two summers be- 
 fore it comes to maturity j and the crop is liable to 
 fail from so many tenses, a-nd is besides so exhausting, 
 that its cultivation is by no means profitable. Weld 
 is preferred to all other substances in giving the lively 
 green lemon yellow. It is, however, expensive ; and 
 it is found, when employed in topical dyeing, to de- 
 grade and interfere with madder colors more than other 
 yellows, and to stain the parts wanted to be kept white. 
 Hence quercitron bark is po w employed in calico-print- 
 ing, to the almost total exclusion of weld.. It is still, 
 however, employed in d3'eing silk a goldpn yellow, 
 and in paper-staining. — Loudon's Eitcyclopadia. 
 
WES 
 
 1954 
 
 WES 
 
 "West Indies {Antilla or AntiUes)^ an Archipelago 
 of islands which extend from the Gulf of Florida to 
 the Gulf of Paria, and form part of the division Cen- 
 tral America, between lat. 10° and 28° N., and long. 
 69° and 85° W. ; bounded on the north and east by the 
 Atlantic, and on the south by the Caribbean Sea, which 
 separates them from the north coast of South America. 
 The northwest group contains the largest islands, or 
 Greater Antilles, as Cuba, San Domingo, Jainaica, and 
 Porto Rico. The other group, or Lesser Antilles, 
 stretching from north to south, consists of Guadaloupe, 
 Martinique, Barbadoes, Trinidad, etc. The Bahamas 
 form a third group. The Lesser Antilles, from Porto 
 Rico to the Gulf of Paria, are by some writers called 
 the Windward Islands, and the smaller group along 
 the coast of Venezuela, the Leeward Islands ; but in 
 British charts the Windward Islands comprise those 
 between lat. 10° and 15° N., and the Leeward those 
 between lat. 15° and 19° N. 
 
 Leewaed Islands. 
 
 Virgin Isles Redonda. 
 
 AnguUla Montserrat. 
 
 St. Martin Antigua. 
 
 St. Uartholomew Barbuda. 
 
 Saba Guadaloupe. 
 
 St. KiiBtatius The Saintes. 
 
 St. Christopher Deaeada. 
 
 Nevis Marie-Galante. 
 
 Dominica 
 
 Windward Islands. \ 
 
 Martinique Curapoa. 
 
 St. Lucia Buen Ayre. 
 
 Barbadoes Los Eoques. 
 
 St, Vincent Orchilla. 
 
 Bequia Blanca. 
 
 The Grenadines Tortuga. 
 
 Grenada Falada. 
 
 Tobago Margarita. 
 
 Trinidad Cubagua. 
 
 Oruba (Joche. 
 
 The total area of the Archipelago is 95,100 square 
 miles. Population, 3,684,000, The Lesser Antilles 
 are of volcanic origin. Climate of the whole tropical, 
 but modified by the surrounding ocean and the elevated 
 land of many of the islands. Sugar, coffee, cotton, 
 dye-woods, and spices, are the chief products and ex- 
 ports. Of these islands, France possesses Guadaloupe, 
 Martinique, Peseada, Marie-Galante, and part of St. 
 Martin; to Spain belong Cuba and Porto Rico; to 
 Denmark, Santa Cruz, St. Thomas, and St. John ; to 
 Holland, St. Eustatius, Saba, Cura9oa, and part of St. 
 Martin ; to Sweden, St. Bartholomew ; Hayti is gov- 
 erned by rulers chosen from the citizens of each of its 
 two goveraments ; Margarita and adjacent isles belong 
 to the republic of Venezuela ; and Anguilla, Antigua, 
 Barbadoes, Dominica, Grenada, Jamaica, Montserrat, 
 Nevis, St. Christopher, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, Tobago, 
 Tortola, Trinidad, Bahamas, and Bermudas, belong to 
 Great Britain. Columbus landed on St. Salvador, 
 'Bahama group, in October, 1492 ; and the Archipelago, 
 under the erroneous impression, at the time of discov- 
 erj"", that it formed part of Asia, was called the West 
 Indies. 
 
 Particular descriptions are given under the heads 
 of the various islands, and we shall therefore limit this 
 article to the statistics of the trade between the United 
 States and the several "West Indies. 
 
 Areas op the '\Ye8t Indies. 
 
 Jslnnds. 
 
 San Domingo 
 
 {Trinidad 
 Jamaica 
 Leeward Islands 
 Windward Islands 
 Bahamas 
 Turks Island and Caicos . 
 
 French /^"aclaloupe 
 
 (Martinique 
 
 Dntch West Indies 
 
 Danish West Indies 
 
 Swedish West Indies 
 
 Total square miles . 
 
 Area in Sq . MDcB. 
 
 20,000 
 
 43,333 
 
 3,SC5 
 
 2,020 
 
 6,550 
 
 8C4 
 
 773 
 
 3,tS3 
 
 484 
 
 631 
 
 883 
 
 600 
 
 193 
 
 25 
 
 91,400 
 
 British West Indies. — There are several small islands 
 in the West India group, but they are, in a commercial 
 point of view, too unimportant to require a separate or 
 more special notice, being all comprised under some of 
 the consular districts for which full returns of trade,, 
 port regulations, etc., are given in the preceding pages. 
 American trade with the West Indies is placed on an 
 equal footing with that of the most favored nations. 
 Indeed, in some of the islands, as in Canada, American 
 vessels are allowed privileges that are not sanction- 
 ed, if not expressly withheld, \>y the colonial regula- 
 tions of the mother countrj-. In both these divisions 
 of the British North American possessions they are ad- 
 mitted, to a certain extent, to the benefits of the coast- 
 ing trade ; thus proving how impossible it is for the 
 mother cduntrj' to frame commercial regulations adapt- 
 ed, in all respects, to the wants and necessities of her 
 colonies in distant quarters of the globe, the effect, if 
 not the design, of which would be to embarrass and 
 clog their intercourse with the neighboring markets. 
 
 The act of the Imperial Parliament, 13 Victoria, 
 chap, xxix.j sees, 4, 5, 6, clothes the governor-general 
 of the East India possessions with ample po*ers to ad- 
 mit to the coasting trade, in that part of the globe, all 
 foreign vessels, whenever, in his opinion, the require- 
 ments of commerce or the interests of her majestj-'s 
 subjects in the East Indies may demand such a conces- 
 sion. By virtue of this authority, the coasting trade 
 of these vast possessions is now thrown open to every 
 flag. A similar act in favor of the \West India and 
 North American possessions would seem to be more 
 imperatively demanded, even as a boon to British sub- 
 jects in these parts, particularly in the West Indies, 
 where but few of the staple articles of food are pro- 
 duced, and such as are imported are necessarilj' bur- 
 dened with the taxes and imposts incident to reship- 
 ment coastwise, and transportation into the interior, 
 before they reach the consumer. Such a measure 
 would be productive of the happiest results ; and, while 
 it would impart additi' nal stimulus to American en- 
 terprise, it would, at the same time, cheapen all the 
 necessaries of life to the North American subjects of 
 Great Britain, who, by reason of their geographical 
 proximity and their different staples of trade, are the 
 natural customers of the United States. 
 
 Official returns received at the Department of State 
 represent American commercial intercourse with the 
 British West Indies generally as being on the most 
 satisfactorj- footing. Indeed, nothing seems wanting 
 to render that intercourse wholly unembarrassed, save 
 a modification, if not a total repeal, of the protective 
 tariff now in force in Great Britain, in favor of some 
 of the staple productions of these islands. 
 
 Danish West Indies, — The colonial possessions of 
 Denmark are the Faroe Islands, Iceland, Greenland, 
 and the islands of Santa Cruz, St. Thomas, and St. 
 John, in the West Indies. Tranquebar and Seram- 
 pore, in the East Indies, were sold to the English East 
 India Company in 1846. The extent and population 
 of these, in 1850, were as follows : 
 
 Sq. Miles. Populntion. 
 
 Faroelslands 4 5 8,160 
 
 Iceland 38,200 60.000 
 
 C.rcenland 3,950 9,400 
 
 West Indies : 
 
 Santairnz 74 23,720 
 
 f^t. 'Jhomas 23 13,666 
 
 St.John 21 2,228 
 
 Total 42,763 111, 164 
 
 Dutch West Indies. — The principal island is Cura- 
 sao, or Cura9oa, in the Caribbean Sea, belonging to 
 the Dutch, off tlie north coast of Venezuela. Lat. 12° 
 N., long. 09° W. Length, forty miles; breadth, ^ix 
 to ten miles. Population (1849) cf Cura<;oa and St. 
 Eustache, 26,311. Shores bold; surface hilly ; soil not 
 rich, and deficient in water, yet a good deal of sugar, 
 indigo, tobacco, and maize are raised. Principal port 
 is Santa Anna, on the southwest side of the island, the 
 entrance to which is narrow, but the harbor secure. 
 
WES 
 
 1955 
 
 WES 
 
 COMMEBOE OF THE UNITED STATES WITH THE BbITISU WeST IhDIES, FEOM OoTOBEE 1, 1320, TO JuiY 1, 1857. 
 
 Years ending 
 
 Sept. 30,1821 
 
 182i!..... 
 
 1823 
 
 1824..... 
 
 1825 
 
 1S28 
 
 182T 
 
 1828 
 
 1829 
 
 1830 
 
 Total. 
 
 Sept. SO, 1831 
 
 1832 
 
 1833 
 
 1834 
 
 1835 
 
 1836 
 
 1837 
 
 1838 
 
 18SD 
 
 1840 
 
 Total. 
 
 Sept. 30, 1841 
 
 184? 
 
 Omos., 1843* 
 
 June 30, 1844 
 
 1845'..... 
 
 1846 
 
 1847 
 
 184S 
 
 1841 
 
 185a 
 
 Total. 
 
 June 30, 1851 
 
 1852 
 
 1853 
 
 1864 
 
 1S65 
 
 1856 
 
 1857 
 
 Exports. 
 
 *2li4,6B2i 
 
 44 ,6U1 
 
 1,617,845 
 
 1,780,703 
 
 1(6S5,574 
 
 2,073,871 
 
 683,105 
 
 26,141 
 
 il,463 
 
 ■" 140 
 
 $3,608,083 
 
 $1,417,201 
 1,6515,443 
 1,764,3j5 
 1,632,100 
 1,755,487 
 1,748,855 
 2,074,798 
 2,U3,J,634 
 2,472,833 
 2^!l07,534 
 
 $19,SJJ,335 
 
 $3,191,683 
 3,204,346 
 2,332,30 1 
 4,114,218 
 4,087.510 
 4,915,083 
 3,'.I78,252 
 4,344,533 
 3,'i35,834 
 3,612,802 
 
 $37,711,5IJ3 
 
 $3,943,560 
 3,512,133 
 4,066,527 
 4,766,338 
 4,788,151 
 4,433,11113 
 5,032,055 
 
 $470 
 
 2,64,1 
 
 10,122 
 
 20,305 
 
 11,472 
 
 31,931 
 
 7,470 
 
 2,706 
 
 5,068 
 
 1,761 
 
 $93,835 
 
 $23,962 
 33,823 
 
 . 69,760 
 64,43.) 
 82,840 
 97,631 
 43,866 
 
 120,218 
 90,642 
 53,000 
 
 $675,186 
 
 $4(1,311 
 23,367 
 25,671 
 21,323 
 136,720 
 82,474 
 20,14) 
 40,347 
 203,0 <7 
 178,644 
 
 $622,59J 
 
 $151,943 
 
 73,056 
 
 106,081 
 
 153,277 
 
 232,9 '2 
 
 51,644 
 
 62,863 
 
 Total. 
 
 $266,102 
 
 452,141 
 
 l,627,a67 
 
 1,771,008 
 
 1,647,046 
 
 2,110,802 
 
 630,575 
 
 28,855 
 
 6,521 
 
 1,'./01 
 
 $8,601,013 
 
 $1,441,253 
 1,68 -,276 
 1,814,005 
 1,536.630 
 1,838,327 
 1,846,436 
 2,113,664 
 2,200,852 
 2,663,475 
 8,068,584 
 
 $20^074,521 
 
 $S,231,9S4 
 3,227,713 
 2,387,980 
 4,136,046 
 4,124,223 
 4,J47,657 
 8,093,3 2 
 4,334,883 
 4,138,:.31 
 3,731,446 
 
 $38,334,102 
 
 $4,103,509 
 3,602,08 ) 
 4,162,613 
 4, 103,675 
 6,021,143 
 4,434,052 
 6,084,318 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Total. 
 
 $.)27,34l) 
 
 335,537 
 
 1,844, 31 
 
 2,758,067 
 
 2,437,122 
 
 2,204,412 
 
 896,207 
 
 123,201 
 
 240,224 
 
 108,873 
 
 $11,334,716 
 
 $(1,303,301 
 1,422,237 
 1,353,239 
 1,163,609 
 1,151,347 
 1,288,287 
 1,481,302 
 1,636.843 
 I4i;6 9 
 1,048,165 
 
 !til2,7«0,i,84 
 
 $855,122 
 
 826,481 
 
 837,836 
 
 687,906 
 
 762,630 
 
 '833,678 
 
 947,1 32 
 
 1,158,863 
 
 997,865 
 
 . 1,126,1,68 
 
 ~$;i,024,93f 
 
 ■$1,003,871 
 1,030,837 
 1,044,264 
 1,126,4.7 
 1,618,670 
 2,285,243 
 2,653,6.8 
 
 Whereof 
 Bullion 
 
 there was In 
 and Specie. 
 
 S»port. 
 
 $2,200 
 7,319 
 
 12,150 
 
 430 
 
 7,848 
 
 '2,'655 
 4,878 
 1,761 
 
 $30,291 
 
 $1,660 
 
 10,879 
 
 4,215 
 
 8,306 
 
 7,740 
 
 12,062 
 
 6,850 
 
 81.947 
 
 80,731 
 
 6.360 
 
 !t2l3,740 
 
 $5,181 
 2,816 
 1,780 
 1,412 
 
 22,348 
 4,000 
 
 78,'633 
 212,884 
 110,011 
 
 ;|i4^,962 
 
 $6:^4,803 
 
 62,602 
 
 2,300 
 
 252,156 
 
 166,300 
 
 34,000 
 
 130,000 
 
 Import. 
 
 »8J1,133 
 
 174,862 
 
 620,730 
 
 828,199 
 
 j638,210 
 
 618,559 
 
 813,336 
 
 84,881 
 
 79,490 
 
 66,736 
 
 $4,076,162 
 
 $429,446 
 411,824 
 880,4)1 
 432,384 
 403,972 
 200,226 
 661,045 
 
 1,266,795 
 273,295 
 652,001 
 
 i(,6,001,479 
 
 $271,306 
 394,330 
 647,407 
 845,234 
 249.740 
 332,881 
 474,167 
 408,264 
 220,204 
 289,1&2 
 
 $8,641,825 
 
 $76,575 
 96,161 
 63,332 
 66,740 
 96,781 
 46,834 
 61,100 
 
 Tonnage cleared. 
 
 22,083 
 
 23,720 
 
 68,360 
 
 91,637 
 
 93,1.67 
 
 99,732 
 
 26,7. 6 
 
 7,974 
 
 5,418 
 
 2,395 
 
 447,072 
 
 40,922 
 66,769 
 64,659 
 61,329 
 63,644 
 66,296 
 63,687 
 66,760 
 76.749 
 73,224 
 
 614,347 
 
 91,687 
 86,691 
 78,002 
 123,601 
 12.1,604 
 124,136 
 91,900 
 114,848 
 101,704 
 
 1,033,715 
 
 88,634 
 , 99,470 
 101,8u8 
 97,383 
 92,030 
 - 81,139 
 106,861 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 8,684 
 7,567 
 6,807 
 8,120 
 7,753 
 
 38,901 
 
 17,903 
 111,367 
 21,775 
 18.288 
 15,134 
 16,276 
 16,088 
 11,245 
 11,258 
 13,364 
 
 163,688 
 
 18,682 
 16,670 
 14,388 
 26,854 
 28,122 
 23,342 
 21,172 
 24,416 
 34,147 
 39,071 i 
 
 24u,814 
 
 42^437 
 38,097 
 46,424 
 3 ,678 
 32,292 
 23,480 
 24,370 
 
 COMMEBOE OP TUE UmiTBD SxATES WITH THE DaNIBH "VVeBT IkuIES, FEOM OcTOBISJ 1, 1820, TO JULT 1, 1857. 
 
 Years ending 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Whereof there was in 
 Bullion and Specie. 
 
 Tonnage 
 
 Jeared. 
 
 
 Domestic. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Export. 
 
 Import. 
 
 American. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Sept- 30, 1821 
 
 *1,316,236 
 
 $438,433 
 
 $1,831,173 
 
 $1,983,574 
 
 $14,681 
 
 $30 ',564 
 
 46,299 
 
 633 
 
 1822 
 
 1,6.13,4)4 
 
 638,256 
 
 2,231,75,1 
 
 2,814,174 
 
 
 177,559 
 
 43,288 
 
 220 
 
 1823 
 
 1,231,152 
 
 631,032 
 
 1,862,154 
 
 1,300,804 
 
 
 342,007 
 
 82,932 
 
 563 
 
 1824 
 
 1,14 ,641 
 
 693,332 
 
 1,847,; 43 
 
 2,110,666 
 
 
 531,522 
 
 86,468 
 
 326 
 
 1825 
 
 1,281,243 
 
 568,177 
 
 1,849,425 
 
 1,4 2,766 
 
 66,724 
 
 ^ 156,093 
 
 37,720 
 
 712 
 
 1826 
 
 1,3 1,6)4 
 
 676,001 
 
 2,067,005 
 
 2,067,900 
 
 
 156,642 
 
 43,584 
 
 1,070 
 
 1327 
 
 1,463,6 1 
 
 538,1.)0 
 
 2,001,831 
 
 2,29.1,34) 
 
 47.350 
 
 263,312 
 
 44,353 
 
 810 
 
 1828 
 
 2,2.12, 435 
 
 608,034 
 
 2,81.1,413 
 
 2,256,123 
 
 65,209 
 
 175,007 
 
 67,982 
 
 2,411 
 
 1829 
 
 1,042,, (10 
 
 282,401 
 
 2,224,411 
 
 2,053,266 
 
 61,200 
 
 154,732 
 
 66,738 
 
 1,299 
 
 1833 
 
 Total. '. . 
 
 1,633.022 
 
 220,723 
 
 1,908,745 
 
 1,665,834 
 
 20,187 
 
 247,326 
 
 62,535 
 
 849 
 
 $15,263,023 
 
 $6,336,669 
 
 $20,605,592 
 
 $13,744,165 
 
 $266,351 
 
 $2,513,754 
 
 461,889 
 
 8,899 
 
 Sept. 30, 1831 
 
 $1,421,076 
 
 $224,612 
 
 $1,648,877 
 
 $1,651,641 
 
 $40,303 
 
 $242,479 
 
 41,730 
 
 2,708 
 
 1832 
 
 1,398,430 
 
 282,341 
 
 1,675,831 
 
 1,111,366 
 
 88,645 
 
 97,1 27 
 
 83,762 
 
 3,803 
 
 1833 
 
 1,27 1,673 
 
 267,200 
 
 1,646,370 
 
 1,138,700 
 
 24,783 
 
 116,783 
 
 33,642 
 
 3,612 
 
 1834 
 
 1,084,203 
 
 354,838 
 
 1,433,010 
 
 1,621,826 
 
 12,114 
 
 83,873 
 
 88,757 
 
 1,727 
 
 1835 
 
 1,288,88) 
 
 231,316 
 
 1,457,196 
 
 1,282,902 
 
 27,665 
 
 71,867 
 
 35,1,76 
 
 581 
 
 1836 
 
 1,326,3 '2 
 
 21 ),092 
 
 1,536,434 
 
 1,825,361 
 
 31,848 
 
 11,675 
 
 32,P65 
 
 3,231 
 
 1837 
 
 1,124,643 
 
 233,850 
 
 1,3.58,492 
 
 1,164,087 
 
 18,434 
 
 2 3.835 
 
 31,667 
 
 6,139 
 
 1838 
 
 943,769 
 
 227,417 
 
 1,177,186 
 
 1,617,747 
 
 100,467 
 
 203,841 
 
 33,168 
 
 719 
 
 1339 
 
 1,014,381 
 
 303,1.54 
 
 1,317,835 
 
 1,465,761 
 
 165,227 
 
 48,997 
 
 83^63 
 
 3,607 
 
 1843 
 
 ^ Total... 
 
 918,931 
 $11,768,432 
 
 180,518 
 
 1,03 1,449 
 
 U69,177 
 
 21,429 
 
 140,187 
 
 27^00 
 
 1,197 
 
 $2,485,198 
 
 $14,253,630 
 
 $13,856,576 
 
 $483,605 
 
 $1,220,464 
 
 348,920 
 
 26,284 
 
 Sept. 30, 1841 
 
 $763,903 
 
 $82,537 
 
 $852,495 
 
 $1,075,530 
 
 $10,931 
 
 $93,303 
 
 29,464 
 
 427 
 
 * 'l842 
 
 791,838 
 
 . 157,260 
 
 94 ,088 
 
 584,321 
 
 55,538 
 
 106,482 
 
 26,740 
 
 
 9mos., 184)* 
 
 672,153 
 
 74,640' 
 
 746,693 
 
 435,235 
 
 4,290 
 
 167,224 
 
 23,036 
 
 853 
 
 Juue 30, 1844 
 
 783,192 
 
 87,130 
 
 870,322 
 
 624,447 
 
 11,' 80 
 
 102,113 
 
 li'^ 
 
 363 
 
 1845 
 
 833,5 13 
 
 16 1,926 
 
 9 4,42 1 
 
 760,80) 
 
 67,995 
 
 32,377 
 
 28,920 
 
 ^'^I 
 
 184S 
 
 959.452 
 
 166,464 
 
 1,125,916 
 
 752,614 
 
 100,270 
 
 91,620 
 
 27,1' 64 
 
 1,875 
 
 1847 
 
 836,672 
 
 152,631 
 
 98 ,303 
 
 848,743 
 
 48,000 
 
 F'! ? 
 
 22,156 
 
 !'^1? 
 
 1843 
 
 876,961. 
 
 .76,874 
 
 ! 63,843 
 
 635,738 
 
 34,0 6 
 
 13 ',831 
 
 ?^'PE 
 
 4,065 
 
 184 1 
 
 727,137 
 
 54,149 
 
 781,340 
 
 33 ',141 
 
 8, 43 
 
 12,379 
 
 25,5 7 
 
 6,426 
 
 1353 
 
 Total. . . 
 
 867,14) 
 
 114,818 
 
 981,9.58 
 $9,246,398 
 
 267.459 
 
 27.1,380 
 
 58,600 
 
 19,376 
 
 2,630 
 
 $8,118,013 
 
 $1,127,379 
 
 $6,272,092 
 
 $615,973 
 
 $930,726 
 
 283,379 
 
 21,676 
 
 June 30, 13 1 
 
 18-)2 
 
 $902,637 
 
 $126,602 
 
 $1,028,281 
 
 $238,8-'4 
 
 $243,.530 
 
 $13,834 
 
 1S.233 
 
 4,178 
 
 810,439 
 
 120,6 7 
 
 931,136 
 
 • l''l,746 
 
 16 ',987 
 
 9,143 
 
 20,4 8 
 
 6,.531 
 
 1853 
 
 91.1,481 
 
 41,160 
 
 r54,641 
 
 184,497 
 
 338,325 
 
 7,915 
 
 14,032 
 
 ?'®B 
 
 lS5i 
 
 928,924 
 
 34,026 
 
 962,950 
 
 286,044 
 
 235,754 
 
 8,412 
 
 22,846 
 
 7,f84 
 
 1355 
 
 843,111 
 
 45.353 
 
 838,464 
 
 22.5,318 
 
 
 22,155 
 
 ?f'?S 
 
 6,120 
 
 
 817,2 10 
 
 86,511 
 
 903,8 11 
 
 225,628 
 
 4S,ino 
 
 5, "30 
 
 21,876' 
 
 955 
 
 1867 
 
 1,419,018 
 
 97,677 
 
 1,816,6 5 
 
 281,569 
 
 469,946 
 
 2,260 
 
 21,834 
 
 2,157 
 
WES 
 
 1956 
 
 COMMEEOB OF TUB UNITED STATES WITII 
 
 TUE Dutch West Int>ieb, fbom October 1, 1820, to July 1, 1857. 
 
 Years ending 
 
 Eiporta. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Wliereof there was in 
 Bullion and Specie. 
 
 Tonnage 
 
 cleared. 
 
 Domestic. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Export. 
 
 Import. 
 
 American, 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Sept. 30, 1821 
 
 $533,259 
 
 ,$14",I,7B4 
 
 $683,043 
 
 $860,950 
 
 $34,360 
 
 $106,676 
 
 18,i28 
 
 823 
 
 1822 
 
 921,072 
 
 157,704 
 
 1,078,776 
 
 1,491,023 
 
 22,460 
 
 137,328 
 
 25,642 
 
 827 
 
 1828 
 
 665,763 
 
 167,065 
 
 812,828 
 
 950,957 
 
 3,700 
 
 98,262 
 
 16,783 
 
 1244 
 
 1824 
 
 589,776 
 
 111,984 
 
 701,759 
 
 997,800 
 
 3,000 
 
 54,408 
 
 19,071 
 
 1406 
 
 1826 
 
 497,194 
 
 77,092 
 
 674,286 
 
 823,607 
 
 
 74,687 
 
 14,809 
 
 
 1826 
 
 434,125 
 
 67,426 
 
 491,551 
 
 554,217 
 
 2,400 
 
 87,141 
 
 12,733 
 
 eii 
 
 182T 
 
 381,578 
 
 44,162 
 
 431,736 
 
 519,706 
 
 
 107,310 
 
 13,374 
 
 212 
 
 1828 
 
 415,343 
 
 41,616 
 
 456,959 
 
 478,337 
 
 17 
 
 89,018 
 
 11,506 
 
 323 
 
 1829\ 
 
 379,874 
 
 18,667 
 
 398,541 
 
 438,132 
 
 
 148,027 
 
 12,217 
 
 363 
 
 1830 
 
 Total. . . 
 
 319,4')5 
 
 42,298 
 
 861,793 
 
 286,609 
 
 2,260 
 
 127,306 
 
 11,043 
 
 124 
 
 $6,183,473 
 
 $857,798 
 
 $5,991,271 
 
 $7,401,2L.8 
 
 $68,187 
 
 $1,029,563 
 
 165,406 
 
 6938 
 
 Sept. 30, 1331 
 
 $870,857 
 
 $45,274 
 
 $416,131 
 
 $343,799 
 
 $70 
 
 $73,237 
 
 11,430 
 
 194 
 
 1832 
 
 357,620 
 
 46,644 
 
 404,164 
 
 328,832 
 
 
 36,072 
 
 9,611 
 
 80 
 
 1883 
 
 283,205 
 
 64,088 
 
 342,243 
 
 380,871 
 
 
 49,162 
 
 11,478 
 
 80 
 
 1834 
 
 234,652 
 
 62,136 
 
 346,688 
 
 354,192 
 
 
 63,484 
 
 11,266 
 
 ISl 
 
 1835 
 
 319,432 
 
 84,110 
 
 403,542 
 
 481,340 
 
 56,000 
 
 69,189 
 
 3,218 
 
 
 1886 
 
 496,458 
 
 67,427 
 
 473,885 
 
 821,906 
 
 22,868 
 
 25,510 
 
 3,624 
 
 223 
 
 1837 
 
 291,779 
 
 80,376 
 
 322,655 
 
 419,107 
 
 
 49,872 
 
 6,203 
 
 563 
 
 1838 
 
 204,234 
 
 46,915 
 
 261,149 
 
 382,591 
 
 23,430 
 
 35,315 
 
 2,948 
 
 168 
 
 1S39 
 
 282,042 
 
 70,975 
 
 353,017 
 
 682,284 
 
 47,625 
 
 38,766 
 
 4,020 
 
 441 
 
 1840 
 
 Total... 
 
 259,438 
 
 42,916 
 
 302,354 
 
 396,479 
 
 17,137 
 
 32,342 
 
 3,790 
 
 1163 
 
 $3,064,517 
 
 $551,311 
 
 $3,615,823 
 
 $4,191,401 
 
 $167,130 
 
 $471,959 
 
 67,385 
 
 3083 
 
 Sept. 30, 1841 
 
 $298,699 
 
 $34,194 
 
 $332,893 
 
 $600,197 
 
 $20,688 
 
 $62,063 
 
 6,666 
 
 720 
 
 1842 
 
 251,650 
 
 15,681 
 
 267,231 
 
 331,270 
 
 5,425 
 
 46,084 
 
 4,254 
 
 528 
 
 9m03., 1843* 
 
 204,937 
 
 10,819 
 
 215,766 
 
 230.671 
 
 
 68,804 
 
 3,794 
 
 24S 
 
 Jane 30, 1844 
 
 303,438 
 
 19,848 
 
 323,286 
 
 336,283 
 
 942 
 
 64,260 
 
 4,981 
 
 89 
 
 1845 
 
 304,080 
 
 33,703 
 
 337,788 
 
 363,324 
 
 17,906 
 
 27,569 
 
 6,035 
 
 
 1846 
 
 264,647 
 
 14,507 
 
 279,154 
 
 398,066 
 
 6,332 
 
 29,169 
 
 5,047 
 
 
 1S4T 
 
 217,214 
 
 16,355 
 
 233,669 
 
 279,038 
 
 6,225 
 
 18,347 
 
 4,370 
 
 113 
 
 1848 
 
 816,666 
 
 22,147 
 
 338,813 
 
 463,616 
 
 8,S09 
 
 99,357 
 
 7,394 
 
 589 
 
 1849 
 
 817,068 
 
 50,252 
 
 367,318 
 
 453,099 
 
 34,018 
 
 39,946 
 
 14,193 
 
 857 
 
 1850 
 
 Total... 
 
 364,336 
 
 66,683 
 
 421,018 
 
 530,146 
 
 41,294 
 
 43,037 
 
 9,283 
 
 161 
 
 $2,842,732 
 
 $274,094 
 
 $3,116,826 
 
 $3,925,599 
 
 $141,719 
 
 $484,116 
 
 65,007 
 
 2806 
 
 June 30, 1851 
 
 $366,898 
 
 $138,089 
 
 $604,987 
 
 $572,470 
 
 $158,644 
 
 $26,859 
 
 7,687 
 
 806 
 
 1852 
 
 299^679 
 
 17,766 
 
 317,445 
 
 662,581 
 
 1,800 
 
 20,097 
 
 4,977 
 
 715 
 
 1853 
 
 251,258 
 
 18,789 
 
 270,047 
 
 409,185 
 
 4,090 
 
 28,076 
 
 5,988 
 
 400 
 
 18B4 
 
 371,880 
 
 22,065 
 
 393,445 
 
 534,978 
 
 11,426 
 
 11,912 
 
 7,925 
 
 090 
 
 1855 
 
 232,640 
 
 7,616 
 
 240,256 
 
 433,841 
 
 6,200 
 
 15,941 
 
 9,222 
 
 96 
 
 1856 
 
 323,664 
 
 6,328 
 
 329,982 
 
 536,875 
 
 6,600 
 
 5,854 
 
 7,816 
 
 664 
 
 1857 
 
 369,517 
 
 16,779 
 
 386,296 
 
 618,264 
 
 T,320 
 
 4,033 
 
 8,051 
 
 486 
 
 COMMBECB OF THE UNITED STATES WITH THE FEENOH "WeST InDIEB, FKOM OOTOBEtt 1, 1320, TO JULY 1, 1857. 
 
 Years ending 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Domestic. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Total. 
 
 if there was in 
 3 and Specie. 
 
 Export. 
 
 Import. 
 
 Tonnage cleared. 
 
 Sept. 30, 1821. . . . 
 1822.... 
 1823.... 
 1824. . . . 
 1325. . . . 
 
 1826 
 
 1827. . . . 
 1828.... 
 1829.... 
 1830.... 
 Total 
 
 Sept. 30, 1331. . . . 
 1832. . . . 
 1833.... 
 1834.... 
 
 1835 
 
 1836 
 
 1837 
 
 1838 
 
 1339 
 
 1840 
 
 Total, 
 
 Sept. 30, 1841 
 
 1842 
 
 9mo,g., 1843*... 
 June 30, 1844 
 
 1345 
 
 1846 
 
 - 1347 
 
 184S 
 
 184') 
 
 1850 
 
 Total, 
 
 June 30, 1851 
 
 1862 
 
 1858 
 
 1854 
 
 1855 
 
 1856 
 
 1857 
 
 $846,597 
 
 913,699 
 
 804,218 
 
 770,615 
 
 937,368 
 
 9P4,115 
 
 979,697 
 
 1,009,437 
 
 1.066,639 
 
 ■ 792,241 
 
 $49,838 
 42,303 
 63,377 
 41,217 
 74,588 
 62,01)9 
 61,166 
 16,334 
 15,763 
 13,628 
 
 $896,435 
 
 961,002 
 
 867,698 
 
 811,732 
 
 1,011,956 
 
 966,174 
 
 1,040,853 
 
 1,024,771 
 
 1,072,407 
 
 806,769 
 
 $900,619 
 969,509 
 938,613 
 884,084 
 848,968 
 973,270 
 921,830 
 896,661 
 777,992 
 618,687 
 
 $4,300 
 1,676 
 
 "8,000 
 2,361 
 4,110 
 600 
 3,405 
 
 $86,363 
 26,648 
 95,127 
 174,508 
 160,383 
 166,555 
 223,463 
 206,963 
 286,237 
 267,574 
 
 43,306 
 46,229 
 30,112 
 36,882 
 43,689 
 43,947 
 60.031 
 54,643 
 65,019 
 47,129 
 
 2,326 
 
 5,087 
 4,148 
 4,536 
 4,137 
 4,317 
 4,326 
 
 $9,019,626 
 
 $704,833 
 606,793 
 613,719 
 661,179 
 549,453 
 471,927 
 506,068 
 430,008 
 685,916 
 433,595 
 
 $429,168 
 
 $13,044 
 19,182 
 24,346 
 19,084 
 34,369 
 30,173 
 59,706 
 • 38,889 
 105,906 
 30,656 
 
 $9,448,694 
 
 $717,877 
 624,975 
 688,065 
 630,263 
 683,822 
 502,100 
 564,768 
 468,897 
 691,821 
 514.251 
 
 $8,629,723 
 
 $671,842 
 678,857 
 511,242 
 416,072 
 447,208 
 417,335 
 414,203 
 310,050 
 702,798 
 836,281 
 
 $3,842 
 
 1,123 
 
 4,529 
 
 800 
 
 16,822 
 
 18,368 
 
 9,995 
 
 14,200 
 
 83,966 
 
 1,494 
 
 $1,641,731 
 
 $181,124 
 
 162,116 
 98,664 
 70,986 
 
 153,068 
 92,627 
 
 122,170 
 79,604 
 48,269 
 
 161,423 
 
 469,947 
 
 35,334 
 26,677 
 27,367 
 26,909 
 22,024 
 18,4,65 
 21,614 
 23,168 
 34,359 
 25,612 
 
 23,876 
 
 2,254 
 4,448 
 6,716 
 5,314 
 2,683 
 2,057 
 2,270 
 1,871 
 1,228 
 1,265 
 
 $6,511,486 
 
 $381,566 
 495,397 
 281,828 
 581,668 
 642,455 
 618,112 
 669,126 
 469,353 
 180,731 
 269,377 
 
 $375,353 
 
 $40,968 
 23,609 
 13,108 
 36,978 
 21,643 
 17,509 
 34,038 
 20,571 
 14,267 
 18,291 
 
 $6,886,839 
 
 $422,622 
 819,006 
 294,986 
 617,546 
 664,103 
 635,621 
 603,164 
 ' 489,924 
 194,998 
 287,663 
 
 $4,804,853 
 
 $198,216 
 199,160 
 136,921 
 374,695 
 415.032 
 348,236 
 151,366 
 127,039 
 71,409 
 76,684 
 
 $120,639 
 
 $4,056 
 6,445 
 4,990 
 
 $1,160,016 
 
 116,261 
 
 92,666 
 
 266,166 
 
 191,394 
 
 215,431 
 
 114,518 
 
 106,699 
 
 39,750 
 
 69,636 
 
 261,419 
 
 22,154 
 99,790 
 24,006 
 37,375 
 83,160 
 31,698 
 22,716 
 21,148 
 7,485 
 11,227 
 
 30,102 
 
 467 
 1,180 
 
 103 
 2,253 
 1,294 
 1,761 
 2,627 
 2,170 
 2,786 
 
 211 
 
 $4,339,503 
 
 $289,679 
 429,846 
 862,613 
 551,526 
 396,837 
 472,119 
 729,779 
 
 $239,986 
 
 $20,702 
 26,698 
 36,738 
 60,602 
 12,864 
 3,026 
 1,364 
 
 $310,281 
 466,444 
 393,251 
 612,027 
 409,701 
 476,144 
 731,143 
 
 $2,096,818 
 
 $22,909 
 46,237 
 62,340 
 
 161,085 
 44,434 
 66,133 
 59,639 
 
 $16,491 
 
 $1,000 
 7,476 
 
 ' 'io'o 
 
 $1,292,323 
 
 ' $18,694 
 42,702 
 23,161 
 37,618 
 42,537 
 51,730 
 61,107 
 
 240,748 
 
 10,888 
 16,f65 
 13,262 
 13,576 
 17,287 
 17,416 
 20,538 
 
 14,762 
 
 871 
 2,119 
 4,741 
 6,097 
 1,672 
 1,842 
 1,906 
 
 Nine months to June 30, an4 the fiscal year from this time begins July 1. 
 
WES 
 
 1957 
 
 WES 
 
 COMMEEOE OF THE UNITED StATEB WITH THE SPAHISH WEBT InDIEB (CUBA EXCEPTED), FEOM OCT. 1, 1820, TO JULY 1, 1657. 
 
 Yean ending 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Foreign. | Total. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Wliereof there was la 
 Bullion and Specie. 
 
 Export. 
 
 Import. 
 
 Tonnage cleared. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Sept. 30, 1891. 
 1822. 
 1823. 
 1824. 
 1825. , 
 1826. 
 1827. 
 1828., 
 1829. 
 1830. 
 
 $176,217 
 150,438 
 256;083 
 300,896 
 216,102 
 2ld,858 
 218,156 
 222,191 
 209,780 
 246,636 
 
 $33,604 
 
 7,606 
 
 26,495 
 
 233,718 
 22,156 
 12«668 
 10,363 
 16,677 
 88,900 
 27,623 
 
 Sept. 30, 1831. 
 1832. 
 1833. 
 1834. 
 1835. 
 1836. 
 1837. 
 1838. 
 1839. 
 1840. 
 
 $2,211,304 
 
 $261,801 
 322,553 
 893,992 
 431,805 
 636,036 
 594,559 
 617,778 
 692,668 
 779,049 
 770,420 
 
 $427,710 
 
 $53,245 
 72,652 
 27,398 
 69,722 
 91,622 
 65,899 
 52,138 
 30,484 
 87,348 
 29,208 
 
 Total... 
 
 Sept. 30, 1841 
 
 1842 
 
 9moB., 1843" 
 
 Juno SO, 1844 
 
 1845 
 
 1846 
 
 1847 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 
 
 1850 
 
 Total. . 
 
 $6,350,566 
 
 $721,845 
 610,813 
 442,034 
 636,962 
 088,149 
 675,441 
 826,079 
 801,722 
 623,292 
 816,062 
 
 $569,616 
 
 $28,087 
 19,718 
 11,321 
 5,177 
 20,775 
 25,905 
 33,986 
 37,012 
 33,234 
 
 ■ 93,591 
 
 June 30, 1861.. 
 1852., 
 1853., 
 1864., 
 1856. 
 1856. 
 1857. 
 
 $6,741,399 
 
 $961,410 
 1,015,663 
 810,411 
 990,886 
 1,144,581 
 1,099,599 
 1,783,429 
 
 $308,805 
 
 $67,200 
 39,542 
 64,143 
 60,997 
 38,937 
 43,125 
 
 152,045 
 
 $208,821 
 168,041 
 281,528 
 640,614 
 238.258 
 223,526 
 228,519 
 237,868 
 243,680 
 273,159 
 
 $626,616 
 933,667 
 813,076 
 856,696 
 793,627 
 770,770 
 969,612 
 
 1,129,130 
 898,832 
 
 1,307,148 
 
 $2,000 
 1,960 
 31,505 
 21,650 
 
 $2,639,014 
 
 $316,046 
 395,111 
 421,390 
 491,627 
 677,657 
 660,458 
 669,910 
 723,062 
 866,397 
 799,628 
 
 $9,099,174 
 
 $1 
 1>I 
 
 580,166 
 ,889,182 
 ,879,324 
 ,246,413 
 364,170 
 209,043 
 481,082 
 636,152 
 ,742,54<) 
 
 $57,105 
 
 $36,683 
 42,360 
 7,080 
 11,050 
 70,950 
 47,086 
 42,823 
 30,498 
 
 115,207 
 31,272 
 
 $6,920,182 
 
 $749,932 
 630,531 
 453,365 
 642,13:) 
 708,924 
 701,346 
 869,064 
 838,734 
 656,626 
 909,653 
 
 $23,926,803 
 
 $2,660,020 
 2,617,001 
 1,076,125 
 2,425,202 
 2,026,263 
 2,277,110 
 2,141,929 
 2,106,296 
 1,964,861 
 2,067,866 
 
 $434,004 
 
 $28,923 
 12,757 
 1,872 
 4,088 
 11,608 
 15,064 
 21,394 
 21,656 
 28,005 
 88,768 
 
 $7,050,204 
 
 $1,018,610 
 1,065,105 
 864,554 
 1,051,883 
 1,183,618 
 1,142,724 
 1,935,474 
 
 $21,162,603 
 
 $2,480,329 
 3,001,223 
 2,800,936 
 2,860,353 
 2,475,998 
 3,870,963 
 5,748,600 
 
 $234,015 
 
 $99,900 
 61,806 
 47,957 
 
 133,780 
 16,000 
 23,250 
 
 483,495 
 
 $12,787 
 
 36,629 
 
 22,738 
 
 8,895 
 
 6,669 
 
 T,841 
 
 13,760 
 
 3,446 
 
 8,664 
 
 7,718 
 
 $127,137 
 
 $16,178 
 9,127 
 8,992 
 11,160 
 15,256 
 8,600 
 68,725 
 86,783 
 23:i44 
 46,6i'6 
 
 $234,055 
 
 $17,799 
 63,457 
 47,043 
 27,021 
 53,453 
 62,679 
 14,157 
 29,919 
 27,664 
 2,600" 
 
 26,277 
 18,016 
 19,179 
 23,626 
 14,700 
 658 
 
 11,134 
 10,660 
 8,409 
 6,068 
 5,969 
 6,879 
 7,194 
 7,843 
 11,051 
 8,734 
 
 1,128 
 180 
 75 
 
 "603 
 323 
 216 
 
 82,931 
 
 9,843 
 13,869 
 15,769 
 21,140 
 22,079 
 17,071 
 19,538 
 22,647 
 22,559 
 
 3,014 
 
 1,061 
 
 717 
 
 219 
 
 741 
 
 172 
 
 423 
 
 1,166 
 
 2,406 
 
 1,160 
 
 952 
 
 172,187 
 
 30,129 
 29,566 
 16,361 
 28,148 
 28,576 
 30,056 
 26,767 
 85,241 
 25,870 
 30,744 
 
 8,996 
 
 730 
 1,134 
 840 
 683 
 ' 622 
 1,378 
 1,879 
 1,150 
 3,898 
 3,108 
 
 283,451 
 
 36,320 
 36,010 
 30,816 
 81,014 
 84,lt0 
 33,964 
 87,633 
 
 14,917 
 
 6,013 
 5,.';44 
 9,429 
 8,528 
 6,692 
 1,990 
 8,550 
 
 Commerce ov tue United States with the Swedish West Indies, 
 
 FEOM OOTOBEE 1, 1820, 
 
 TO July 1, 
 
 1867. 
 
 Yoara ending 
 
 Exportfi. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Whereof there waa in 
 Bullion and Specie. 
 
 Tonnage cleared. 
 
 DomcBtic. 
 
 PoreiRn. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Tolol. 
 
 Export. 
 
 Import. 
 
 American. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Sept. 30, 1821 
 
 $507,077 
 
 $63,149 
 
 $560,226 
 
 $611,116 
 
 
 $292,738 
 
 20,774 
 
 888 
 
 1822 
 
 569,666 
 
 91,247 
 
 660,813 
 
 393,119 
 
 
 76,683 
 
 16,282 
 
 1080 
 
 1823 
 
 241,701 
 
 18,862 
 
 260,063 
 
 185,808 
 
 
 44,181 
 
 8,174 
 
 354 
 
 1824 
 
 204,988 
 
 39,687 
 
 244,670 
 
 102,836 
 
 
 22,520 
 
 8,263 
 
 340 
 
 1825 
 
 193,761 
 
 41,247 
 
 235,008 
 
 81,702 
 
 
 36,563 
 
 7,160 
 
 1S3 
 
 1826 
 
 120,573 
 
 23,284 
 
 143,857 
 
 163,046 
 
 
 40,429 
 
 4,437 
 
 
 1827 
 
 416,822 
 
 26,014 
 
 441,836 
 
 209,536 
 
 
 82,920 
 
 16,277 
 
 
 ■1828 
 
 611,684 
 
 23,616 
 
 635,200 
 
 876,996 
 
 ,<. . 
 
 109,656 
 
 26,663 
 
 636 
 
 1829 
 
 684,623 
 
 23,791 
 
 708,814 
 
 283,049 
 
 
 100,741 
 
 28,246 
 
 828 
 
 1830 
 
 Total. . . 
 
 552,700 
 
 37,727 
 
 690,427 
 
 230,630 
 
 
 157,874 
 
 19,960 
 
 984 
 
 $4,103,290 
 
 $877,124 
 
 $4,480,414 
 
 - $2,637,635 
 
 
 $964,105 
 
 156,116 
 
 4742 
 
 Sept. 30, 1831 
 
 $261,937 
 
 $11,111 
 
 $263,048 
 
 $218,918 
 
 
 $111,142 
 
 7,199 
 
 662 
 
 1832 
 
 141,249 
 
 7,478 
 
 148,727 
 
 53,410 
 
 
 22,215 
 
 4,651 
 
 644 
 
 1838 
 
 100,163 
 
 5,067 
 
 106,220 
 
 32,202 
 
 
 8,936 
 
 3,3t5 
 
 283 
 
 1834 
 
 81,040 
 
 7,902 
 
 88,942 
 
 47,214 
 
 $2400 
 
 24,429 
 
 2,619 
 
 236 
 
 1835 
 
 72:714 
 
 18,641 
 
 86,355 
 
 31,330 
 
 
 22,018 
 
 2,599 
 
 217 
 
 1836 
 
 80,225 
 
 1,620 
 
 81,486 
 
 66,414 
 
 
 10,002 
 
 2,062 
 
 
 1887.. 
 
 84,114 
 
 3,006 
 
 87,119 
 
 68,977 
 
 
 27,207 
 
 2,628 
 
 84 
 
 1838 
 
 74,140 
 
 4,281 
 
 78,421 
 
 46,019 
 
 
 26,013 
 
 1,945 
 
 
 1839 
 
 103,282 
 
 4,130 
 
 107,412 
 
 12,468 
 
 
 3,960 
 
 2,184 
 
 139 
 
 1840 .-. 
 
 Total. . . 
 
 98,710 
 
 8,610 
 
 102,320 
 
 57,645 
 
 
 49,947 
 
 2,203 
 
 189 
 
 $1,087,574 
 
 $61,835 
 
 $1,149,409 
 
 $624,487 
 
 $2400 
 
 $305,863 
 
 81,475 
 
 .,2294 
 
 Sept. 80, 1841 
 
 1843 
 
 $165,184 
 
 $3,707 
 
 $168,891 
 
 $19,760 
 
 .... 
 
 $18,607 
 
 3,456 
 
 95 
 
 129,727 
 
 3,320 
 
 133,047 
 
 28,242 
 
 
 19,475 
 
 2,663 
 
 726 
 
 9mo8., 1848* 
 
 31,228 
 
 2,346 
 
 33,674 
 
 51,318 
 
 
 45,828 
 
 , 949 . 
 
 .... 
 
 June 80, 1844 
 
 1846 
 
 63,884 
 
 1,360 
 
 65,244 
 
 23,719 
 
 $1000 
 
 22,399 
 
 hfl 
 
 141 
 
 88,886 
 
 1,453 
 
 90,339 
 
 12,119 
 
 
 2'1S 
 
 2,135 
 
 
 1846 
 
 138,121 
 
 8,448 
 
 141,669 
 
 5,285 
 
 1012 
 
 2,450 
 
 2,329 
 
 
 1847 
 
 110,062 
 
 3,669 
 
 113,721 
 
 
 
 
 1,607 
 
 
 1848 
 
 75,496 
 
 800 
 
 76,296 
 
 13,786 
 
 
 9,589 
 
 2,260 
 
 79 
 
 1849 
 
 95,128 
 
 737 
 
 95,865 
 
 15,982 
 
 
 9,918 
 
 2,684 
 
 547 
 
 1850 
 
 Total. . . 
 
 98,176, 
 
 1,166 
 
 . 99,342 
 
 2,193 
 
 
 600 
 
 2,464 
 
 382 
 
 $995,892 
 
 $21,996 
 
 $1,017,888 
 
 $167,403 
 
 $2012 
 
 $132,234 
 
 22,004 
 
 1970 
 
 June 30, 1851 
 
 $61,157 
 
 $745 
 
 $61,902 
 
 ■ $29,001 
 
 
 $19,587 
 
 1,819 
 
 
 1852 
 
 90,802 
 
 1,993 
 
 92,795 
 
 4,284 
 
 
 3,229 
 
 2,287 
 
 125 
 
 1S53 
 
 31,024 
 
 1,191 
 
 32,215 
 
 6,876 
 
 
 4,639 
 
 1,136 
 
 
 1854 
 
 12,741 
 
 
 12,741 
 
 22,590 
 
 
 13,166 
 
 367 
 
 
 1855 
 
 68,866 
 
 391 
 
 69,247 
 
 32,229 
 
 
 16,816 
 
 1,866 
 
 146 
 
 1856 
 
 60,702 
 
 
 60,702 
 
 10,192 
 
 
 2,829 
 
 1,012 
 
 85 , 
 
 1867 
 
 76,405 
 
 3,528 
 
 79,933 
 
 12,082 
 
 $2065 
 
 
 1,719 
 
 
 • Nine months to June 30, and the fiscal year from this time begins July 1. 
 
WHA 
 
 1958 
 
 WHA 
 
 French West Indies. — The following table gives the 
 general trade of France with its colonies, in 1853 : 
 
 ColoQles. Imports. Erports. 
 
 Martinique MWi,iil i;T65,57T 
 
 Guadaloupe 423,655 5T0,434 
 
 Bourboil S51,U4T 6S4,J46 
 
 Senegal 281,206 392,369 
 
 Oayenae 56,833 1S4.U44 
 
 India 669,723 21,384 
 
 Algiers 1,132,304 3,395,966 
 
 St. Pierre and Miquelon, etc. . 617,631 378,637 
 
 Isles Mayotte and Madagascar 8,627 36,584 
 
 The trade to Bourbon Island, Guyana, Martinique, 
 and Guadaloupe, out and home, employed in 1848, 492 
 ships ; in 1849, 541 ; in 1850, 486 ; in 1851, 602 ; in 
 1852, 677 ; in 1853, 583. The mean of the six years, 
 565 vessels. 
 
 Swedish West Indies. — The island of St. Bartholomew 
 is the only possessidn of the Swedes in America. It 
 belongs to the Leeward group, and is situate centrally 
 in lat. 17° 50' N., and long. 62° 52' W., distant twelve 
 miles from St. Martin, and about thirty from St. Chris- 
 topher. It is about eight miles long by from two to 
 three miles wide, and contains an area of about twenty- 
 five square miles. Capital, Gustavia. The island is 
 of an irregular shape, and deeply indented by numer- 
 ous small sandy bays, separated by bold and steep 
 rock}' acclivities, of moderate height. In the interior 
 it is hilly, but its loftiest elevations are less than 1000 
 feet. In most parts it is barren and sterile, but has 
 numerous well-cultivated valleys. It produces all the 
 staples of the West Indies — cotton, sugar, tobacco, in- 
 digo, etc., and also lignum vits and iron-wood. Its 
 only exports are cattle and some salt. Water is scarce, 
 and the inhabitants depend for supply on the rains. 
 The only harbor is La Carenage, a safe and commodi- 
 ous one, and much frequented. It is on the west side 
 of the island. Close by is Gustavia, the principal 
 town, a thi'iving place. — i^'or articles on British Eman- 
 cipation, British Colonies, etc., see Eclectic Review 
 (4th series), iv., ix. ; Christian Quarterly Spectator, x. ; 
 Feaser's Magazine, viii. ; Edinburgh Rev., xix., xli., 
 xlv., xl. ; Qimrterhj Rev., xxxii., xxxviii. (Southet), 
 xlv. ; Westminster Review, i. ; Blackwood's Mag., 
 xiv., XV., xvi., xxxi., xxxiv., Ixiii. 
 
 Wiialebone, a substance of the nature of horn, 
 adhering in thin parallel laminae to the upper jaw of 
 the whale. These vary in size from three to twelve 
 feet in length ; the breadth of the largest at the thick 
 end, where they are attached to the jaw, is about a 
 foot. They are extremely elastic. All above six feet 
 in length is called size bone. This article was first 
 known in England about the j'ear 1693. It may be 
 worth while to remark, as evincing the ignorance that 
 at one time prevailed with respect to the whale, that, by 
 an old English feudal law, the tail of all whales belong- 
 ed to the queen, as a perquisite, to furnish her majes- 
 ty's wardrobe with whalebone ! — Blackstose, vol. i. 
 p. 233. The import of whalebone into the United 
 States for a number of years past has been as follows : 
 
 PoandB. 
 
 1852 1,259,900 
 
 1853 6,652,300 
 
 1854 3,445,200 
 
 18i5 2,T9f,530 
 
 1856 2,387,400 
 
 — See Whale-fisheries. Whalebone first became 
 in use in Europe in the 17th century. — See p. 390. 
 
 Whale-fishery.— iFAaie (Comrmn), the Balwna 
 mysticetas of Linnaeus, a marine animal of the cetaceous 
 species, and the largest of all those with which men 
 are acquainted. The whale has, it is affirmed, been 
 found one hundred and sixty feet in length ; but this 
 is most probably an exaggeration. In the Northern 
 seas it is at present seldom found above sixty feet long ; 
 being, however, generally killed before it arrives at its 
 full growth, this is no proof that the animal may not 
 formerly have attained to a much larger size. The 
 bodies of whales are covered, immediately under the 
 
 1347 3,3U,j30 
 
 1843 2,003,000 
 
 184) 2,281,1)1 
 
 1850 2,3 19,20 J 
 
 1851 3,616,5j0 
 
 skin, with a layer of fat or blubber, which in a large 
 fish is from twelve to eighteen inches thick. In young 
 whales this fatty matter resembles hog's lard, but in 
 old ones it is of a reddish color. This is the valuable 
 part of the whale, and the desire to possess it has 
 prompted man to attempt the capture of this mighty 
 animal. The blubber yields, by expression, nearly its 
 own weight of a thick, viscid oil (train oil). The com- 
 mon whale is now rarely found, except within the Arc- 
 tic circle ; but at a former period it was not unfrequent- 
 ly met with on our coasts. There is a good account 
 of the common whale, and of the manner in which the 
 fishery is carried on, in Mr. John Laing's Voynge to 
 Spitzbergen, one of the shortest, cheapest, and best of 
 the innumerable books published on this hackneyed 
 subject. 
 
 1. The Sperm Whale (the Cachalot or Physeter mac- 
 rocephalus). — The principal species are the black-head- 
 ed with a dorsal fin, and the round-headed without a 
 fin on the back, and with fistula in the snout. This 
 whale is known at a distance by the peculiarity of his 
 "spoutings" or "blows." He can be easily detected 
 bj- whalemen, if he happens to be in company with 
 other species of whales. He blows the water or vapor 
 from his nostrils in a single column, to the height, per- 
 haps, of twelve feet, inclining in a forward direction, in 
 an angle of forty-five degrees with the horizon, and 
 visible for several miles. There is also a wonderful 
 regularity as to time in which he " blows," perhaps' 
 once. in ten minutes. He remains on the surface of the 
 water from forty-five to sixty minutes, and under wa- 
 ter about the same time. Unless the whale is fright- 
 ened, whalemen make quite correct calculation as to 
 the chances of overtaking him, or meeting him, or when 
 he will rise to the surface after he has " turned flukes." 
 VVTien the sperm whale is near he can be easily distin- 
 guished by the form of his head, unlike any other va- 
 riety of whale. Its head is enormous in bulk, being 
 fully more than one-third of the whole length of its 
 body, and it ends like an abrupt and steep promonto- 
 ry, and so hard for several feet from its front, that it is 
 quite difficult, if not impossible, for an iron to enter it ; 
 as impervious, indeed, to a harpoon as a bale of cotton. 
 Besides, the sperm whale >has a hump on his back, 
 which distinguishes him from others. This hump is 
 farther forward than the hump on the finback whale. 
 Sperm whales have been captured from seventy to nine- 
 ty feet in length; and from thirty to forty-five feet in 
 circumference round the largest part of their bodies. 
 It is supposed by whalemen, from their appearance, 
 that they live, or some of them at least, to a great age. 
 One writer on this subject thought that the sperm whale 
 would attain the age of many hundred years, and even 
 to a thousand years. This, however, is mere conjec- 
 ture, because there are no dates or facts upon which to 
 found a correct opinion. 
 
 It is supposed, that as the sperm whale advances in 
 age, his head not only retains its ordinary proportions, 
 and to appearance becomes enlarged, but the truth is, 
 the other parts of his body, especially his extremities, 
 do actually diminish in bulk and circumference. In 
 some instances more oil has been taken out of the head 
 of a sperm whale than from the other part of his body. 
 The principal food of the sperm whale is " squid," a 
 molluscous animal. "This is an animal of so curious 
 an order as to merit a word of special notice. The 
 principal peculiarity of this molluscous tribe is the pos- 
 session of powerful tentacula or arms, ranged round 
 the mouth, and provided with suckers, which give them 
 the power of adhering to rocks, or any other substan- 
 ces, with surprising tenacity. Some of this tribe at- 
 tain to a great size, and, as large as the whale is, will 
 furnish it with no contemptible mouthful. In the gul- 
 let of one sperm whale an arm or tentaoulum of a sea- 
 squid was found measuring nearly twenty-seven feet 
 long." Whalemen frequently discover large masses 
 or junks of squid floating about, probably torn in pieces 
 
WHA 
 
 1959 
 
 WHA 
 
 by whales in their search after food. The fiesh of the 
 squid is soft, without bones, and somewhat transpar- 
 ent, like the common sun-fish seen on our shares. It 
 is said that squid have been seen as large as an ordina- 
 ry whale. This food for the sperm whale is found in 
 great abundance in the Pacific seas. 
 
 2. Tha Rigla Whale. — The whale having this gener- 
 al cognomen belongs to the species otJ3alcena mj/stice- 
 tus. There are several varieties included in this spe- 
 cies, as "we shall hereafter observe, and which are dis- 
 tinguished by whaleuien both in regard to some extern- 
 al peculiarity as well as the different localities where 
 they are usually found. The right whale differs from 
 the sperm in the following particulars: His head is 
 sharper, more pointed^-he has no "hump" on his bacic 
 — the column of water which he throws up when he 
 " blows" is divided like the tines of a fork, and it rises 
 from his breathing-holes in a perpendicular direction, 
 from eight to twenty feet. The right whale furnishes 
 the bone (baleen) so much in common use, and called 
 " whalebone." This bone is taken from the mouth and 
 upper jaw of the whale, and is set along laterally in 
 the most exact order several inches apart, decreasing 
 in length from the centre of his mouth, or the arch of 
 his palate, and becoming shorter farther back ; while 
 toward the lips the bone tapers away into mere bris- 
 tles, fdrming a loose hangingfringe or border. At the 
 bottom of this row of bone, where it penetrates the gum, 
 and from eighteen to thirty inclies downward, we find 
 a material that resembles coarse hair, entwining and 
 interlacing the bone, and thus forming a sort of net- 
 work, and so thick, that when the whale closes his lips 
 to press out the water the smallest kind of fish are 
 caught in the meshes, and are unable to escape. In- 
 deed, the edges of the bones or slabs, as they might be 
 termed, are fringed with this coarse hair, and it ex- 
 tends to their extremities, as may be seen in the rough 
 state when landed from whale ships.' The length of 
 the bones or slabs (average eight feet, longest fourteen 
 feet) vary, in a great measure, acfcording to the size of 
 the fish, though some varieties of this species have larger 
 and better bone than others. The value of the bone is 
 enhanced, as ageneral thing, in proportion to its length. 
 The principal food of the right whale is a very small 
 red fish, called "brit." Immense shoals of these fish 
 are seen on whale grounds, and the water to a great 
 distance, even for miles, become*colored with them. 
 
 The right whale does not fight or contend with his 
 mouth or head, as the sperm whale does, but his means 
 of attack and defense are chiefly in his enormous flukes. 
 He will, however, when struck, "root around," as 
 whalemen say, and not unfrequently in this manner 
 upset a boat. This kind of whale, and other varieties 
 distinguished by the baleen, or bone, have no regular 
 time for remaining on the surface of the water aft«r 
 they " breach," nor in remaining under water after 
 they " turn flukes." The length of a large right whale 
 is about eighty feet, and some have yielded theircaptors 
 250 to 300 barrels of oil. Sueh a whale would perhaps 
 weigh not far from eighig tons. The oil of this species 
 of whale is less valuable- than the .«perm. The whale- 
 bone, which now has an advanced price in the market 
 far beyond any previous value attached to it, is obtain- 
 ed from the mouth of the whale about in proportion of 
 1000 pounds to 100 barrels of oil. 
 
 > 3. The Finback Whale-.-^Thia is a smooth, slim fish 
 — ^smaller usually than a right whale. He is found in 
 nearly all latifiudes. He has a " hump" on his back, 
 ■which distinguishes him from the right whale. His 
 head ' and mouth are of the same construction. This 
 whale is known by whalemen, when seen at a suitable 
 distance, by his " blows." The column of vapor risee 
 in a single stream, in a vertical or perpendicular di- 
 rection. This fish is termed Fivhack, on account of a 
 fin on his back, differing in this particular from all oth- 
 er species of whale. The oil obtained from him is of 
 the same quality as the right-whale oil. 
 
 4. Bomhead Whale. — This whale is smooth all over, 
 having no "bonnet on his head," as whalemen say, 
 and as right whales have. Their heads differ in shape 
 somewliat from other whales, and hence the name JBow- 
 head given to them. This species of whale, so far as 
 known,ihave never been found except in the Ochotsk 
 Sea and Arctic Ocean. The Greenland whale, and alsd 
 the species called the great liorqual, are doubtless in- 
 cluded in the name which our whalemen give to the 
 Bowhead. There are several other varieties of the 
 whale tribe, and different names are attached to them, 
 such as the " Scragg," the " Humpback," etc. ; but tlie 
 foregoing are all the kinds w hether of interest or profit 
 to whalemen.' — Rev. Levus Holmes. 
 
 It is probably true, as has been sometimes contend- 
 ed, that the Norwegians occasionally captured the 
 whale before any other European nation engaged in 
 so difiicult and perilous an enterprise. But the early 
 eflbrts of the Norwegians were not conducted on any 
 systematic plan, and should be regarded only in the 
 same point of view as the fishing expeditions of the 
 Esquimaux. The Biscaj'ans were certainly the first 
 people who prosecuted the whale-fishery as a regular 
 commercial pursuit. They carried it on with vigor 
 and success in the 12th, 13th, and 14th centuries. In 
 1388, Edward III. relinquished toPeter de Puyanne a 
 duty of £6 sterling a whale, laid on those brought into 
 the port of Biarritz, to indemnify him for the extraor- 
 dinary expenses he had incurred in fitting out a fleet 
 for the service of his majesty. This fact proves be- 
 yond dispute that the fishery carried* on from Biarritz 
 at the period referred to must have been very consider- 
 able indeed ; and it was also prosecuted to a greater or 
 less extent from Cibourre, Vieux Bouean, and subset 
 quently from Eochelle and other places. — See Memoire 
 sur VAntiquUe de la Peche de la Bakine, by Noel, 12nio. 
 Paris, 1796. The whales captured by the Biscayans 
 were not so large as those that are taken in the Polar 
 seas, and are supposed to have been attracted south- 
 ward in pursuit of herrings. They were not very pro- 
 ductive of oil, but their flesh was used as an article of 
 food, and the whalebone was applied to a variety of 
 useful purposes, and. brought a very high price. This 
 branch of industry ceased long since, and ficm the 
 same cause that has occasioned the cessation of the 
 whale-fishery in many other places — the want of fish. 
 Whether it were that the whales, from a sense of the 
 dangers to which they exposed themselves in coming 
 southward, no longer left the Ic^' Sea, or that'the breed 
 had been nearly destroyed, certain it is, that they grad- 
 ually became less numerous in the Bay of Biscay, and 
 at length ceased almost entirely to frequent that sea; 
 and the fishers being obliged to pursue their prey upon 
 the banks of Newfoundland and the coasts of Iceland, 
 the French fishery rapidly fell ofif. 
 
 The voyages of the Dutch and English to the North- 
 em Ocean, in order, if possible, to discover a passage 
 through it to India, though they failed of their main 
 object, laid open the haunts of the whale. The com- 
 panions of Barentz, 'w ho discovered Spitzbcrgen in 
 1596, and of Hudson, who soon after explored the same 
 seas, represented to their countrymen the amazingnum- 
 ber of whales with which they were crowded. ' Vessels 
 were in consequence fitted out for the Northern whale- 
 fishery by the English and Dutch, the harpooners and 
 a part of the crew being Biscayans. They did not, 
 however, confine their efforts to a fair competition with 
 each other as fishers. The Muscovy Company obtain- 
 ed a royal charter, prohibiting the ships of all 6ther 
 nations from fishing in the seas round Spitzbergen, on 
 pretext of its liaving be^n first discovered by Sir Hugh 
 Willoughby. There can, however, be no doubt that 
 Barentz, and not Sir Hugh, was its original discoverer; 
 though, supposing that the fact had been otherwise, the 
 attempt to exclude other nations from the surrounding 
 seas, on such a ground, was not one that could be tol- 
 erated. The Dutch, who were at the time prompt to 
 
WHA 
 
 1960 
 
 WHA 
 
 embark in every commercial pursuit that gave any 
 hopes of success, eagerly entered on this new career, 
 and sent out ships fitted «qually for the purposes of 
 fishing and of defense against the attacks of others. 
 The Muscovy Company having attempted to vindicate 
 its pretensions by force, several encounters took place 
 between their ships and those of the Dutch. The con- 
 viction at length became general that there was room 
 enough for all parties in the Northern seas ; and in or- 
 der to avoid the chance of coming into collision with 
 each other, they parceled Spitzbergen and the adjacent 
 ocean into districts, which were respectively assigned 
 to the English, Dutch, Hamburgers, French, Danes, etc. 
 
 The Dutch, being thus left to prosecute the fishery 
 without having their attention diverted by hostile at- 
 tacks, speedily acquired a decided superiority over all 
 their competitors. When the Europeans first began to 
 prosecute the fishery on the coast of Spitzbergen, whales 
 were every where found in vast numbers. Ignorant 
 of the strength and stratagems of the formidable foe by 
 whom they were now assailed, instead of betraying 
 any symptoms of fear, they surrounded the ships and 
 crowded all the bays. Their capture was in conse- 
 quence a comparatively easy task, and many were kill- 
 ed which it was afterward necessary to abandon, from 
 the ships being already full. While fish were thus 
 easily obtained, it was the practice to boil the blubber 
 on shore in the North, and to fetch home only the oil 
 and whalebone. And perhaps nothing can give a 
 more vivid idea of the extent and importance of the 
 Dutch fishery in the middle of the 17th century, than 
 the fact that they constructed a considerable village, 
 the houses of which were all previously prepared in 
 Holland, on the Isle of Amsterdam, on the northern 
 shore of Spitzbergen, to which they gave the appropri- 
 ate name of Smeevenberg (from smeereUj to melt, and 
 herg, a mountain). This was the grand rendezvous of 
 the Dutch whale ships, and was amply provided with 
 boilers, tanks, and every sort of apparatus required for 
 preparing the oil and the bone. But this was not all. 
 The whale fleets were attended with a number of pro- 
 vision ships, the cargoes of which were landed at Smee- 
 renberg ; which abounded during the busy season with 
 well-furnished shops, good inns, etc. ; so that many of 
 the conveniences and enjoyments of Amsterdam were 
 found within about eleven degrees of the Pole ! It is 
 particularly mentioned that the sailors and others were 
 every morning supplied with what a Dutchman re- 
 gards as a very great luxury— Ao< rolls for breakfast. 
 Batavia and Smeerenberg were founded nearly at the 
 same period, and it was for a considerable time doubt- 
 ed whether the latter was not the more important estab- 
 lishment. — De Keste, Histoire des Peches. 
 
 During the flourishing period of the Dutch fishery, 
 the quantity of oil made in the North was so great that 
 it could not be carried home b}' the whale ships ; and 
 every year vessels were sent out in ballast to assist in 
 importing the produce of the fishery. But the same 
 cause that had destroyed the fishery of the Biscayans, 
 ruined that which was carried on in the immediate 
 neighborhood of Spitzbergen. Whales became gradu- 
 ally less common, and more and more timid and diffi- 
 cult to catch. They retreated first to the open seas, 
 and then to the great banks of ice on the eastern coast 
 of Greenland. When the site of the fishery had been 
 thus removed to a very great distance from Spitzber- 
 gen, it was found most economical to send the blubber 
 direct to Holland. Smeerenberg was in consequence 
 totally deserted, and its position Is now with difficulty 
 discoverable. 
 
 But though very extensive, the Dutch whale-fishery 
 was not, during the first thirty years of its existence, 
 very profitable. This arose from the circumstance of 
 the right to carry it on having been conceded, in 1614, 
 to an exclusive company. The expense inseparable 
 from such great associations, the wastefulness and un- 
 faithfulness of their servants, who were much more in- 
 
 tent upon advancing their own interests than those of 
 the company, increased the outlays so much, that the 
 returns, great ais they were, proved little more than 
 adequate to defray them, and the fishery was confined 
 within far narrower limits than it would otherwise have 
 reached. But after various prolongations of the char- 
 ter of the first compahy, and the formation of some new 
 ones, the trade was finally thrown open in 1642. The 
 effects of this measure were most salutary, and afford 
 one of the most striking examples to be met with of 
 the advantages of free competition. Within a. fevr 
 years the fishery was vastly extended ; andthough it 
 became progressively more and more difficult from the 
 growing scarcity of fish, it proved, notwithstanding 
 these disadvantages, more profitable to the private ad- 
 venturers than it had ever been to the company, and 
 continued for above a century to be prosecuted with 
 equal energy and success. The famous John de Witt 
 has alluded as follows to this change in the mode of 
 conducting the trade : 
 
 "In this respect," says he, "it is worthy of observation, 
 that the authorized Greenland Company made heretofore lit- 
 tle profit by their fishery, because of the great charge of set- 
 ting out their ships; and that the train oil, blubber, and 
 whale fins were not well made, handled, or cured ; and be- 
 ing brought hither and put into warehouses, were not sold 
 soon enough, nor to the company's best advantage. Where- 
 as, now that every one equips their vessels at the cheapest 
 rate, follow their fishing diligently, and manage all careful- 
 ly, the blubber, train oil, and whale fins are employed for so 
 many uses in several countries, that they can sell tbem with 
 that conveniency, that though there are now fifteen ships for 
 one that formerly sailed out of Holland on that account, and 
 consequently each of them could not take so many whales as 
 heretofore, andnotwithstandingthenewprohibition of France 
 and other countries to import these commodities, and though 
 there is gi-eater plenty of them imported by our fishers — yet 
 those commodities are so much raised in the value above what 
 they were while there was a company, that the common in- 
 habitants do exercise that fishery with profit, to the much 
 greater benefit of our country than when it was (under the 
 management of a company) carried on but by a few." — True 
 Interest of Holland, p. 63, 8vo ed. London, 1T46. 
 
 When in its most flourishing state, toward the year 
 1680, the Dutch whale-fishery employed about 260 ships 
 and 14,000 sailors. 
 
 The English whale-fisherj', like that of Holland, was 
 originally carried on by an exclusive association. The 
 Muscovy Company ws, indeed, speedily driven from 
 the field ; but it was immediately succeeded by others 
 that did not prove more fortunate. In 1725 the South 
 Sea Company embarked largely in the trade, and pros- 
 ecuted it for eight years ; at the end of which, having 
 lost a large sum, they gave it up. But the Legislature, 
 having resolved to support the trade, granted, in 1732, 
 a bounty of 20s. a ton to ever}' ship of more than 200 
 tons burden engaged in it ; but this premium being in- 
 suflicient, it was raised, in 1749, to 40s. a ton, when a 
 number of ships were fitted out, as much certainly in 
 the intention of catching the bounty as of catching fish. 
 Deceived by the prosperous appearance of the fishery, 
 Parliament imagined ,that it was firmly established, 
 and in 1777 the bounty was reduced to 30s. The ef- 
 fect of this reduction showed the factitious nature of 
 the trade, the vessels engaged in it having fallen off in 
 the course of the next five years from 105 to 39 ! To 
 arrest this alarming decline, the hounty was raised to 
 its old level in 1781, and of course the trade was soon 
 restored to its previous state of apparent prosperity. 
 The hostilities occasioned by the American war reduced 
 the Dutch fishery to less than half its previous amount, 
 and gave a proportional extension to that of England. 
 The bounty, which had in consequence become very 
 heavy, was reduced, in 1787, to SOs. a ton ; in 1792 it 
 was further reduced to 25s. ; and in 1795 it was reduced 
 to 20s., at which sum it continued till 1824, when it 
 ceased. 
 
 It appears from accounts given in Macpherson's 
 Annals of Commerce (vol. iii. and iv.), that the total 
 
WHA 
 
 1961 
 
 WHA 
 
 bounties paid for the encouragement of tlie whale-fish- 
 ery, in the interval between 1760 and 1788, amounted 
 to no less than £1,577,935. It will be seen from the 
 official account which follows, that there are no means 
 of furnishing any accurate account of the sums paid as 
 bounties by Great Britain from the year 1789 to 1813, 
 inclusive ; but it is, notwithstanding, abundantly cer- 
 tain that the total bounties paid during the period from 
 1789 to 1824 considerably exceeded £1,000,000. 
 
 An AcoomiT of the Numbeb of Ships annually fitted 
 
 OUT IN GeEAT BeITAIN FOB THE NORTHEKN 'WHALE-FISH- 
 EEY, OF THE TONNAGE AND CeeWS OF SUOH SHIPS, AND OF 
 THE BOTTNTIES PAID ON THEIB AoCOUNT, FEOM 1TS9 TO 1814. 
 
 Yeftra. 
 
 Shipg. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Men. 
 
 BouDtiea paid.. , 
 
 1789 
 
 161 
 
 46,599 
 
 
 
 1T90 
 
 110 
 
 33,232 
 
 4482 
 
 
 1T91 
 
 116 
 
 33,906 
 
 4520 
 
 
 1T92 
 
 93 
 
 26,983 
 
 4667 
 
 
 1T93 
 
 82 
 
 2B,48T 
 
 3210 
 
 
 1T94 
 1T95 
 1T96 
 
 nil 
 
 1T98 
 
 60 
 44 
 51 
 60 
 66 
 
 16,386 
 11,748 
 13,833 
 16,871 
 18,754 
 19,360 
 17 729 
 
 ■2250 
 1601 
 1910 
 2265 
 
 'The documents from 
 which the amount of 
 bounties paid in the 
 years 17S9 to 1806 could 
 
 1T99 
 1800 
 
 6T 
 61 
 
 26S3 
 245') 
 
 be shown, vere destroy- 
 ed in the iire at the Lon- 
 
 1801, 
 
 64 
 
 18,668 
 
 2544 
 
 don custom-house. 
 
 1802 
 
 79 
 
 23,539 
 
 3129 
 
 
 1803 
 
 95 
 
 28,608 
 
 3806 
 
 
 1804 
 
 92 
 
 28,034 
 
 35'.)7 
 
 
 1805 
 
 91 
 
 27,670 
 
 3636 
 
 
 1806 
 
 91 
 
 27,697 
 
 3715 
 
 
 180T) 
 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 No acco 
 
 unts for these y( 
 
 ars. 
 
 1813! 
 
 
 ' 1 
 
 £ i.d. 
 
 1814 
 
 112 
 
 36,576 1 4708 
 
 43,799 11 
 
 We have already noticed several changes of the lo- 
 calities in which the whale-fishery has been carried on 
 at diflforent periods ; and within these, few years others 
 of the same kind have talccn place. The Dutch fishers 
 first began to frequent Davis's Straits in 1719 ; and as 
 the whales had not hitherto been pursued into this vast 
 recess, they were found in greater numbers than in the 
 seas round Spitzbergen. From about this period it was 
 usually resorted to by about three-tenths of the Dutch 
 ships. It was not till a comparatively late period that 
 Davis's Straits began to be frequented by English 
 whalers; and down to 1820, when Captain Scoresby 
 published his elaborate and valuable work on the whale- 
 fishery, that carried on in the Greenland seas was by 
 far the most considei'able. But it will be seen from 
 the subjoined account, that from 1826 down to 1837 the 
 Greenland seas were nearly abandoned. This was 
 principally a consequence of the greater abundance of 
 whales in Davis's Straits, but it was also in part owing 
 to, the various discoveries made by the expeditions fit- 
 ted out by government for exploring the seas and in- 
 lets to the westward of Davis's Straits and Baffin's Bay 
 having made the fishers acquainted with several new 
 and advantageous situations for the prosecution of their 
 business. Since 1837, however, the few ships that 
 have been sent out have gone mostly to the Greenland 
 seas. The sea in Davis's Straits is less incommoded 
 with field-ice than the Greenland and Spitzbergen seas, 
 but it abounds with icebergs ; and the fishery, when 
 carried on in Bafiin's Bay and Lancaster Sound, is more 
 dangerous, perhaps, than any that has hitherto been 
 attempted. The subjoined table shows how rapidly 
 the Northern fishery declined down to 1842, from which 
 period it continued nearly stationary down to 1846, 
 when it revived a little. During the last three years 
 there have sailed for the Northern fishery — 
 
 1850 46 ships ll,160tonB. 
 
 1861 47 " 11,935 " 
 
 1862 49 " 13,467 " 
 
 It should, however, be observed that the fishery is 
 rather for seals than for whales ; the value of the prod- 
 uce obtained from the former considerably exceeding 
 the value of that obtained from the latter. 
 
 During 1852 England imported 6519 tons spermaceti 
 oil, which were almost wholly retained for consump- 1 
 
 tion. During the same year the imports and exports 
 of train oil were, respectively, 14,500 and 2757 tons. 
 
 The import duties that in various countries have 
 been placed upon whale oil, the product of foreign fish- 
 eries, have operated against the whale-fishery. This 
 may be seen from the following statement of the du- 
 ties now (1837) in force in the principal maritime coun- 
 tries : 
 
 Belgium $2 27 per hectolitre of 20 j- gallons. 
 
 Brazil 15 per cent ad valorem. 
 
 China 5 per cent ad valorem. 
 
 France $10 37 per 220 pounds. 
 
 Great Britain Free. * 
 
 Hanso Towns. ... f to 1 per cent, ad valorem. 
 
 Holland Free. 
 
 Russia 52i cents per pood of S6 pounds. 
 
 Spain S3 cents per arroba of 4'24S gallons. 
 
 Sweden 5 cents per lispund of 18 2-3 pounds. 
 
 United States Free. 
 
 Southern Whale-fishery. — This consists of three dis- 
 tinct branches ; viz., 1st, the catch of the spermaceti 
 whale, which furnishes the valuable substance called 
 spermaceti (see the term) ; 2d, that of the common 
 black whale of the Southern seas ; and, 3d, that of the 
 sea-elephant, or Southern walrus. The spermaceti 
 whale (Physeter macrocephalus') is found in all tropical 
 climates, and especially on the coasts of New Zealand 
 and the ai^oining seas. The ordinary duration of the 
 voyage of a ship employed in this department of the 
 fishery is about three years. The common black whale 
 of the Southern seas (^Physeter microps) is met with in 
 various places, but principally on the coast of Brazil, 
 in the bays on the west coast of Africa, and in some of 
 the bays in New South Wales, Van Diemen's Land, 
 etc. Sea-elephants (intermediate between the walrus 
 of the Northern seas and the seal) are principally met 
 with in the seas round the islands of Desolation, South 
 Georgia, and South Shetland, the coast of California, 
 etc. Vast numbers of these animals are annually cap- 
 tured ; vessels frequently load entirely with them ; and 
 they are believed to furnish more oil than the common 
 South Sea whale. -The oil of the black whale and that 
 of the sea-elephant are both known in the market by 
 the name of Southern oil, and they are so very similar 
 that those most versed in the trade can with difficulty 
 distinguish the one from the other. Hence ships com- 
 monly engage indifferently in either fishing, as oppor- 
 tunity oflfers. The usual duration of the voyage of a 
 ship from England in either of the last two depart- 
 ments, or in the two combined, varies from twelve to 
 eighteen months. 
 
 The South Sea fishery was not prosecuted by the 
 English to any extent till about the beginning of the 
 American war ; and as the Americans had already en- 
 tered on it with vigor and success, four American har- 
 pooners were sent out in each vessel. In 1791 seven- 
 ty-five whale ships were sent out to the South Sea ; 
 but the number has not been so great since, and lat- 
 terly it has been unprosperous and declining, in con- 
 sequence partly of the competition of the colonists in 
 Australia, who are incomparably better situated for 
 the prosecution of this branch of industrj', and partly 
 of that of the Americans. The Macrocephalus, or 
 spermaceti whale, is particularly abundant in the 
 neighborhood of the Spice Islands ; and Mr. Craw- 
 ford, in his valuable work on the Eastern Archipelago, 
 entered into some details to show thai the fishery car- 
 ried on there was of greater importance than the spice 
 trade. Unluckily, however, the statements on which 
 Mr. Crawford founded his comparisons were entirely 
 erroneous, neither the ships nor the men employed 
 amounting to more than one-fifth or one-sixth part of 
 what he represented. We subjoin a statement of the 
 Southern whale-fishery carried on from Great Britain 
 since 1819, exhibiting the total number of ships an- 
 nually absent from Great Britain on whaling expedi- 
 tions ; the total number of ships that annually 'Return- 
 ed to Great Britain ; and the annual imports of sperm 
 and common oil, with the prices of each : 
 
WHA 
 
 1962 
 
 WHA 
 
 Statement of the SoTTTnEBN Whale-fishekt oaekied on feom Gbeat Beitaits since 1819; exhibiting the total. 
 Number of Ships annttally absent feom Ueeat Beitain on Whaling Expeditions; the total Numbeb of ^mi'S 
 
 THAT ANNUALLY EETUKNED TO liHEAT BBITAIN ; AND TUB ANNUAL ImPOBTS OP tPEBM AND COMMON (JIL, \MIU THE 
 
 Pkioes of each. 
 
 
 Yean. 
 
 Sliips 
 at Sea. 
 
 Ship» 
 ratumed. 
 
 Sponn Oil imported. 
 
 Common Oil 
 imported. 
 
 PTice of 
 Sperm 
 
 bil 
 per Tun. 
 
 Pries of 
 common 
 
 Oil 
 per Tun. 
 
 Total Vaiwe 
 oftmpom. 
 
 
 1319 
 
 112 
 
 l:;7 
 123 
 118 
 
 114 
 
 96 
 
 83 
 
 73 
 
 80 
 
 83 
 
 92 
 
 104 
 
 108 
 
 106 
 
 110 
 
 9D 
 
 89 
 
 82 
 
 85 
 
 84 
 
 7T 
 
 2? 
 59 
 
 40 
 39 
 53 
 
 41- 
 
 67 
 4-2 
 32 
 38 
 29 
 20 
 26 
 £5 
 2T 
 30 
 19 
 27 
 33 
 20 
 18 
 21 
 22 
 16 
 20 
 10 
 
 Biitlsli. 
 6,S9I 
 59.8 
 4331 
 5095 
 4176 
 3216 
 4485 
 4 57 
 5,3,1 
 5576 
 3i51 
 408 1 
 5i:31 
 4285 
 3113 
 3801 
 4i'50 
 2249 
 3310 
 2027 
 
 Tuns. 
 36TS 
 2717 
 3606 
 
 con 
 
 Tons. 
 4885 
 5)61 
 4570 
 1970 
 
 £ 
 
 ,S5 
 71 
 6) 
 51 
 
 46 
 
 40 
 43 
 55 
 70 
 79 
 74 
 
 75 
 61 
 62 
 0) 
 7.5 
 80 
 84 
 84 
 ••6 
 104 
 98 
 80 
 
 £ 
 33 
 26 
 19 
 22 
 
 21 
 22 
 3) 
 34 
 
 n 
 
 25 
 27 
 43 
 43 
 28 
 25 
 23 
 28 
 32 
 35 
 85 
 25 
 25 
 31 
 40 
 
 £ 
 475 835 
 3is.43i 
 30.3.190 
 35J,i)34 
 
 383,0 6 
 273 04) 
 ',60 488 
 3.')9,827 
 36?,453 ■ 
 275 07a 
 4i)8 082 
 392 040 
 634 747 
 493 301 
 437, -.83 
 490 014 
 688 36 1 
 6,17,0 8 
 6 16 676 
 721,84) 
 6'1.S80 
 537 512 
 633 4 6 
 3u4 OS ) 
 
 
 1820 
 
 
 1821 
 
 
 18i^ , 
 
 
 1823" 
 
 Colonial. 
 
 2 6 
 
 150 
 
 t5 
 
 388 
 
 334 
 
 116 
 
 818 
 
 4 3 
 
 1570 
 
 1589 
 
 2018 
 
 2710 
 
 2260 
 
 .57 6 
 
 2661 
 
 24~4 
 
 132i 
 
 1719 
 
 1964 
 
 873 
 
 Americaii. 
 
 1713 
 3J8 
 
 1172 
 
 BriU«li. 
 
 1723 
 742 
 
 1104 
 454 
 C65 
 130 
 102 
 419 
 192 
 402 
 220 
 149 
 5U 
 1,9 
 381 
 20 
 170 
 724 
 101 
 
 Colonial. 
 063 
 
 613 
 412 
 289 
 474 
 338 
 478 
 9(;4 
 14G! 
 1785 
 2245 
 23 4 
 3137 
 4180 
 42 3 
 7904 
 0315 
 
 62ro 
 
 5433 
 
 < 
 
 1824 
 
 
 1825 
 
 
 18261- 
 
 
 
 
 18-38 
 
 
 132.) 
 
 
 18.^0 
 
 
 18J1 
 
 
 1832 
 
 
 1833 
 
 
 1S34 :. 
 
 
 
 
 1836 
 
 
 
 
 18 ,8 
 
 
 
 
 184) 
 
 
 
 
 1842 
 
 
 
 * The ships for this and the succeeding years, as for the previous ones, do not include colonial shiiJs, but those fmiu Bnt^ 
 ain only. , • t From this year commenced the imperial measure. 
 
 But since then the fishery has rapidlj' declined, and 
 is now quite insignificant. This is seen from the fol- 
 lowing account of the ships and their tonnage cleared 
 out for the Southern -whale-fishery, viz. ; 
 
 1350 8 ships 2316 tons. 
 
 1851 . 
 1852. 
 
 1905 
 16J3 
 
 French Wkale-Jishevt/. — France, -which preceded the 
 other nations of Europe in the whale-fishery, can hard- 
 ly be said, for many years past, to have had much 
 share in it. In 1784 Louis XVI. endeavored to revive 
 the fishery. With this view he fitted out six ships at 
 Dunkirk on his own account, -which were furnished 
 with harpooners and a number of experienced seamen 
 brought at a great expense from Nantucket. The ad- 
 venture was more successful than could have been rea- 
 sonably expected, considering the auspices under -which 
 it was carried on. Several private individuals follow- 
 ed the example of his majesty, and in 1790 France had 
 about forty ships employed in the fishery. The Rev- 
 olutionary war destroyed every vestige of this rising 
 trade. But since the peace, government has. made 
 great efforts for its renewal ; and at present high boun- 
 ties are granted to all vessels fitted out for the whale- 
 fisheries, but especially to those engaged in the sperm 
 fishery. These, however, have not been so successful 
 in forcing ships into this trade as might have been an- 
 ticipated ; for it appears from the official accounts that 
 in 1852 the aggregate burden of the ships cleared out 
 for the -whale-fishery amounted to only 2306 tons. — 
 Administradm des Douanes^ 1852, p. 460 ; M'Culloch's 
 Did. 
 
 American Whale-fishery. — For a lengthened peiiod 
 the Americans have prosecuted the whale-fishery -with 
 greater vigor and success than, perhaps, any other peo- 
 ple. They commenced it in 1690, and for about fifty 
 years found an ample supply of fish on their own 
 shores. But the whale having abandoned them, the 
 American navigators entered with extraordinary ardor 
 into the fisheries carried on in the Northern and South- 
 ern oceans. From 1778 to 1785 Massachusetts employ- 
 ed annually 183 vessels, carrying 13,820 tons, in the 
 former; and 121 vessels, carrying 14,026 tons, in the 
 latter. Mr. Burke, in his famous speech on American 
 affairs in 1774, adverted to this wonderful display of 
 daring enterprise as follows : " As to the wealth," said 
 he, " which the colonies have drawn from the sea by 
 their fisheries, you had all that matter fully opened at 
 
 your bar. You surely thought these acquisitions of 
 value, for they seemed to excite j-our envy ; and yet 
 the spirit by which that enterprising employment has 
 been exercised ought rather, in my opinion, to have 
 raised esteem and admiration. And pray, sir, -what 
 in the world is equal to it ? Pass by the other parts, 
 and look at the manner in -ithich the New England 
 people carry on the whale-fishery« While -ive follow 
 ■ them among the trembling mountains of ice, and be- 
 hold them penetrating into the deepest frozen recesses 
 of Hudson's Bay and Davis's Straits; tvhile wo are 
 looking for them beneath the Arctic circle, we hear 
 that they have pierced into the opposite region of po- 
 lar cold — that they are at the antipodes, and enga,£>'ed 
 under the frozen serpent of the South. Falkland Isl- 
 and, which seemed too remote and too romantic an ob- 
 ject for the grasp of national ambition, is but a stage 
 and resting-place for their victorious industry. Nor is 
 the equinoctial heat more discouraging to them tlian 
 the accumulated winter of both poles. We learn that 
 while some of themdraw the line or strike the harpoon 
 on the coast of Africa, others run the longitude and 
 pursue their gigantic game along the coast of Brazil. 
 No sea but what is vexed with their fisheries ; no cli- 
 mate that is not witness of their toils. Neither the 
 perseverance of Holland nor the activity of France — 
 not the dexterous and firm sagacity of English enter- 
 prise—ever carried this most perilous mode of hardy 
 industry to the extent to which it has been pursued by 
 this recent people — a people who are still in the gristle, 
 and not hardened into manhood." 
 
 United States Whal&fishery. — The first sperm whale 
 taken by the Nantucket whalers was killed by Chris- 
 topher Hussey. He was cruising near the shore for 
 " right" whales, and was blown off some distance from 
 the land by a strong northerly wind, -when he fell in 
 with a school of that species of whale, and killed one 
 and brought it home. 
 
 At what date this adventure took place is not fully 
 ascertained, but it is supposed that it was not far from 
 1712. This event imparted new life to the business, 
 for they immediately began to build vessels of about 
 forty tons, to whale out in the " deep," as it was then 
 -called, to distinguish it from " shore whaling." They 
 fitted three vessels for six weeks, carried a few hogs- 
 heads — sufficient to contain the blubber of one whale 
 — and tried out the oil after they returned home. 
 
 In 1715 there -were six vessels engaged in the -whal- 
 
WHA 
 
 1963 
 
 WHA 
 
 ing business — all sloops, from thirty to forty tons bur- 
 den each, and which produced an income of nearly 
 $5000. — Macy's History of Nantucket. 
 
 As the enterprise increased more capital was invest- 
 ed, larger vesseU were built, longer voyages were made, 
 and new localities for whales were discovered. 
 
 Filty y^ars later, viz., from 1771 to 1775, Massachu- 
 setts alone employed annually 183 vessels in the North 
 Atlantic Ocean, and 121 vessels of larger lurden in 
 the South Atlantic Ocean. > 
 
 The first attempt to establish the sperm-whale fish- 
 cry from Great Britain was made In 1775. Nine years 
 later the French undertook to revive the prosecution 
 of this business. The king, Louis XVI., fitted out six 
 ships himself from Dunkirk, and procured his experi- 
 enced harpooners from Nantucket. Others emulated 
 the example of that monarch ; so that before the 
 Ifrench Kevolution that nation had forty ships in the 
 servica ; 
 
 The Revolutionary war of the American colonies, andj 
 the wars of the French Eevolution, noarly destroyed 
 this flourishing, branch^ of marine enterprise in both 
 countries. Just previous to the war, Massachusetts 
 e^mployed in this service 300 vessels and 4000 seamen, 
 about half of whom were from Nantucket alone. Dur- 
 ing that war fifteen vessels belonging to this island: 
 were lost at sea, and 134 were captured by the enemy. 
 
 It was not until the year 17b2 — many years after 
 the commencement of the enterprise in Nantucket, 
 Cape Cod, Martha's Vinej'ard, and other places on the 
 Sound — that the attention of New Bedford was turned 
 toward the whale-fishery. 
 
 From this date until the present time no permanent 
 obstruction, with the exception of the war of 1812-'15, 
 has occurred to impede the gradual and increasing in- 
 terest given' to this enterprise, and which now assumes 
 commanding commercial importance, and develops un- 
 rivaled energy in its prosecution. 
 
 The whole number of vessels employed in the whale- 
 fishery in this country, as before reported, is 670. 
 Number of ship*, 358; barks, 259; brigs, 17; schoon- 
 ers, 46. Tile tonnage may be put down at 220,000; 
 value of property, at $100 per ton, $22,000,000. 
 
 The number of seinien engaged in this business, al- 
 lowing 30 for each ship, 24 for a bark, 20 for a brig, 
 and 18 for a schooner, would be more than 20,000. 
 
 The fdllowing are the receipts of the whale-fishery 
 of the United States during the year 1857 : 
 
 New liedford .... 
 
 Fairhuven 
 
 Dartmouth 
 
 Westport..^ 
 
 Mattapoisett 
 
 SIppican ., 
 
 Holmes's Hole... 
 
 Nantucket ... 
 
 Edgartown 
 
 Provincetown 
 
 Orleans 
 
 Qloucestei; 
 
 Beverly 
 
 Lynn 
 
 Boston 
 
 I'all Kiver 
 
 Providence 
 
 Warren, R. I 
 
 .New London 
 
 Cold Spring 
 
 StonlngCon ...... 
 
 Greenport 
 
 Mystic 
 
 Sag Harbor 
 
 New York 
 
 Total in 18.57. . 
 Kecelpts in 1850,. 
 
 "1S61.. 
 " " lS-2. . 
 
 " 1858. . 
 
 " " issi:. 
 
 " "1855:. 
 " IS56.. 
 
 106 
 13 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 2 
 1 
 1 
 3 
 19 
 1 
 1 
 
 3 
 3 
 4 
 
 186 
 14-1 
 194 
 116 
 200 
 210 
 146 
 171 
 
 of 
 Sperm. 
 
 48.. ao 
 
 6,431 
 350 
 
 4,751 
 
 1,778 
 8-5 
 835 
 
 2,8;>7 
 880 
 
 1,910 
 
 im 
 
 20 
 
 346 
 
 115 
 185 
 7,00 
 3$8 
 6li3 
 B.STO 
 200 
 
 '692 
 450 
 
 1.467 
 1,8 6 
 
 77,601 
 86,) 57 
 < 8 1536 
 81,321 
 6? 897 
 69,41 S 
 60.285 
 83,389 . 
 
 ■of 
 Whale. 
 
 Ili9.557 
 
 16,722 
 
 45 
 
 , S97 
 
 1,760 
 
 SS76 
 
 6,879 
 
 3 337 
 
 2,636 
 
 3118 
 
 20 
 
 ' 30 
 
 2,501 
 
 147 
 
 800 
 
 5 
 
 6,n07 
 
 27,295 
 
 400 
 
 2.600 
 
 3.2'.'9 
 
 4.900 
 
 2,100 
 
 11.263 
 
 225 863 
 191.752 
 2n,915' 
 SiJ.SSt 
 941.339 
 321,593 
 176iS6 
 196,774 
 
 The WTialemen's Skipping List, of Now Bedford, hag 
 compiled an annual statement of the results of the 
 whale-fishery during the year 1857, including the 
 amount of import^ and exports of oil and bone, prices- 
 current, etc. The number of American vessels em- 
 ployed in the whale-ttphery at present includes 687 
 ships and barks, 18 brigs, and 49 schooners, making 
 an aggregate of 203,148 tous- Of this numljer there 
 has been in the North Pacific Ocean about 150 ships, 
 which is a diminution of .30 as compared with the fleet 
 employed in that quarter in 1856, ^ut few vessels 
 have been added to the whaling fleet during the past 
 year, while several have been withdrawn, and two 
 losl^the Newton,, of New Bedford, and the Indian, Chief, 
 of New London — leaving the aggregate tonnage some 
 665 tons less than at the beginning of the year. The 
 quantity of oil obtained by 109 ships, whose arrivals at 
 the Sandwich lylands have b^en reported, averages 808 
 barrels, wliich is notlvery much from the average of 
 the preceding year. ' In regard; to the fleet in the 
 Okhotak Sea, the accounts are somewhat conflioting — 
 some vessels have met with gpo4 success, while others 
 have done Oomparatively nothing. 
 
 The imports of .oil and bone into the United States 
 in 1857 were Ijrbught in by 173 ships and baiks, 38 
 brigs an4 sfchooners, of which 142 belong to the seven 
 ports embraced in the district of New Bedford, and the 
 remainder to various ports east of New York. We an- 
 Sex a comparison of the imports since 18S0: 
 
 " Year.. 
 
 Sperm Oil. 
 
 Whale Oil. 
 
 Whalebone, 
 
 1860 
 
 Barrels. 
 92 892 
 ! 9,691 
 78 372 
 103,0T7 
 76 696 
 72,6411 
 8 1,941 
 7S440 
 
 Barrels. 
 2l 0,608 
 923,488 
 S4,211 
 260,114 
 319 837 
 184,015 
 197,890 
 230 941 
 
 PoundB. 
 2,869,200 
 3.916 60O 
 ],263,tn0 
 6.652,300 
 3 445,- 00 
 2.707.6.00 
 2,592,700 
 2.058,680 
 
 1851 
 
 lS6i 
 
 1853 
 
 1854 
 
 1865 
 
 1851 '. 
 
 1857 
 
 
 It will be seen from tJic above- that the imports of 
 ."iperm oil in 1857, as compared with 1856, fall short 501 
 barrels, while the imports of whale oil are 33,051 bar- 
 rels in excess of 1856. The increased importation of 
 the latter during the year has arisen^ chiefly from ship- 
 ments via Sandwich Islands from vessels which had 
 not completed their voyages; and consequently we 
 look for a diminished import the present year, various- 
 ly estimated at from 75,000 to 100,000 barrels. Con- 
 siderable shipments of bone have also arrived in the 
 same manner, which will tend still further to reduce 
 th« import of this article the presient year. The stork 
 of sperm oil, whale oil, and whalebone in importers' 
 and speculators' hands, onthe 1st of January, 1858, is 
 given as follows : 
 
 
 Sperm Oil. 
 
 \*h»liOil.- 
 
 Whalebone. 
 
 Xew Bedford 
 
 BAn-els: 
 
 ii7,440 
 
 180 
 
 2 600 
 
 2,409 
 
 630 
 
 820 
 
 2,300 
 
 " 'lis 
 
 1,460 
 170 
 
 "260 
 800 
 250 
 
 58 
 290 
 160 
 
 ;:5 
 
 BaiTels. 
 64,148 
 
 i,V«o 
 i.Ve's 
 
 2,700 
 2,610 
 , 1,000 
 3.242 
 2,255 
 6,600 
 
 too 
 
 "460 
 
 ' ' '20 
 6110 ■ 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 u6,,oa 
 
 2il,'800 
 6,560 
 
 17,560 
 5,000 
 
 60,060 
 
 
 
 Mattapoisett 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Boston and Provincetown 
 
 
 New York 
 
 
 
 Fall River 
 
 Beverly 
 
 HolmeB's Hole 
 
 Salem 
 
 Total 
 
 39" 3 ij 
 
 92.193 
 
 236 500 
 
 
 The following is ii statement of the exports. of oil 
 and wlialebone from the United States for two years : 
 
 Yeani. 
 
 SpemrOtl. 
 
 Whale Oil. 
 
 VThalebane. 
 
 1866 
 
 Barrels. 
 29.0.'J2 
 37 231 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 971 
 
 17.407 
 
 . . - Pounds. 
 2.1100,184 
 1,835,662 
 
 1867 
 
 
WHA 
 
 1964 
 
 WHA 
 
 The increased shipments of oil during 1857, as com- 
 pared with the totals for 1856, were less the result of an 
 actual foreign demand than a desire on the part of our 
 importers to sustain the market here by reducing the 
 stock. The effect, however, was directly the opposite 
 of what had been anticipated, for, by overstocking the 
 London market, prices declined there very rapidly, and 
 our home markets were left without the competition 
 resulting from a domestic and foreign demand, and 
 prices of oil declined to a lower point than thej' have 
 been since 1849. The demand for bone, however, has 
 been unusually active, owing to the fashionable pro- 
 pensity of the ladies to " spread," and the price of this 
 article advanced to a higher point in 1857 than was 
 ever before known. 
 
 We annex a comparison of the average prices of 
 sperm oil and whalebone for seventeen years : 
 
 1S41. 
 1842. 
 1843 . 
 1844. 
 1846. 
 1846. 
 1847'. 
 1848. 
 
 1849 . 
 
 1850 . 
 1851. 
 1S5-3 . 
 1833. 
 1854. 
 1855. 
 1856. 
 185T. 
 
 Sperm Oil. 
 
 100 C. 
 
 94 
 
 73 
 
 63 
 
 90f 
 
 88 
 
 87J 
 lOOi- 
 108 9-10 
 120 7-10 
 127i 
 123i 
 124i 
 148i 
 177 2-10 
 162 
 128i 
 
 30V c. 
 
 31i 
 
 33t 
 
 34J 
 
 36} 
 
 32J 
 
 83i 
 
 86 
 
 39 9-10 
 
 49 1-10 
 
 45 5-16 
 
 68 i- 
 
 6Si 
 
 58S 
 
 71 3-10 
 
 79i 
 
 73J- 
 
 19 0. 
 
 19j 
 
 23 
 
 3Si 
 
 40 
 
 33f 
 
 34 
 
 80J- 
 
 31 8-10 
 
 34 4-10 
 
 34f 
 
 50i 
 
 34f 
 
 391-5 
 
 46l 
 
 68 
 
 97f 
 
 IMPOBTATIONB OF SPBIIM OIL, WnALB OIL, AND WnALEBONE 
 
 INTO THE United States in 1857. 
 
 PorU. 
 
 , Sperm oil. 
 
 WBale OH. 
 
 whttleboDB. 
 
 New Bedford 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 41,108 
 
 5,500 
 
 344 
 
 4,765 
 
 408 
 
 309 
 
 2,012 
 
 61,446 
 
 3,619 
 
 3,456 
 
 1,100 
 
 880 
 
 663 
 
 1,981 
 
 1,866 
 
 692 
 
 201 
 
 103 
 
 480 
 
 131 
 
 225 
 
 113 
 
 700 
 
 108 
 
 353 
 
 63 
 
 94 
 
 346 
 
 20 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 127,362 
 
 17,417 
 
 49 
 
 390 
 
 1,609 
 
 63 
 
 2,143 
 
 149,044 
 
 28,683 
 
 - 5,736 
 
 6,875 
 
 3,331 
 
 5,959 
 
 2,712 
 
 11,263 
 
 3,299 
 
 ■ 371 
 
 2,050 
 
 4,856 
 
 104 
 
 8,930 
 
 318 
 
 800 
 
 2,550 
 
 5 
 
 ■ ' 40 
 20 
 
 PouQda. 
 
 1,350 
 
 103,200 
 
 2,100 
 
 3,'6dD 
 
 26,700 
 1,479,860 
 89,600 
 20,300 
 20,100 
 18,400 
 33,700 
 
 5,800 
 306,300 
 
 6,600 
 
 3,100 
 17,800 
 14,600 
 10,000 ' 
 14,600 
 
 2,100 
 
 17,2d0 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mattapoisett 
 
 Die. of New Bedford. 
 New London 
 
 
 
 
 Provincetown 
 
 New York 
 
 
 Cold Spring 
 
 Mystic 
 
 
 Holmes's Hole 
 
 Fall Eiver 
 
 
 
 
 Philadelphia 
 
 
 Total for 1857. . . . 
 
 78,440 
 
 230,941 
 
 2,058,850 
 
 The imports of oil and whalebone the product of for- 
 eign fisheries into the United States for the year end- 
 ingJuneSO, 1857, were as follows : Oil, $17,280; whale- 
 bone, $252; spermaceti, $413; total, $17,945. 
 
 COMMEECB OP THE UNITED STATES WITH THE "WHALE-riSHEKIES FOE THE YEAES 1856 AND 1857. 
 
 Years endiaj 
 
 Exporta. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Tonnage cleared. | 
 
 Domestic. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Total. 
 
 TotaL 
 
 American. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 J une 30, 1856 
 
 $320,045 
 496,258 
 
 $22,290 
 21,010 
 
 $34'A356 
 517,268 
 
 $68,067 
 107,186 
 
 54,744 
 57,983 
 
 670 
 
 1857 
 
 ExpoETs OF Oil, Whalebone, and Spermaceti (the PnoDnoT op tub FisnEEiES of the United States) feom the 
 United States foe the Yeae ending Jttme 30, 1857. 
 
 Whitter exported. 
 
 Spermaceti Oil. 
 
 Whale an 
 
 d other Fish. 
 
 Whalebone. 
 
 Spermaceti. 
 
 Sperm acetiCandles.] 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Founds. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Russia on the Black Sea 
 
 64 
 
 $90 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Prussia 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 180 
 
 $65 
 
 SiTeden and Norway 
 
 7,015 
 
 12,008 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 803 
 
 $702 
 
 160 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' 400 
 6S4 
 
 ■'622 
 1,175 
 
 4^541 
 
 ■3',5i4 
 
 711,637 
 
 384,075 
 
 10,107 
 
 100 
 
 404,562 
 
 193,062 
 
 5,583 
 
 45 
 
 6,049 
 
 $2,265 
 
 161 
 191 
 180 
 705 
 
 81 
 
 77 
 
 92 
 
 236 
 
 
 Holland 
 
 Dutcli West Indies 
 
 
 i,638 
 721,337 
 
 '2,992 
 1,073,692 
 
 30,801 
 46,363 
 
 546 
 20,431 
 35,811 
 
 '2,'200 
 277,277 
 
 'i,'396 
 197,294 
 
 67,484 
 
 29,942 
 
 1,072 
 1,250 
 
 456 
 500 
 
 
 
 Scotland 
 
 51,744 
 
 84,54i 
 
 ..... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 25,801 
 2,330 
 
 27,'8'43 
 8,033 
 
 lei'.MS 
 
 10,386 
 
 16'4',7i7 
 9,457 
 
 1,517 
 
 980 
 
 
 
 29',889 
 
 8,676 
 
 
 Other British N. Am. Poss. . 
 
 British West ladies 
 
 161 
 ' *410 
 
 210 
 * ' '4'61 
 
 3,176 
 
 81 
 
 6,581 
 
 188 
 
 2,542 
 
 07 
 
 4,490 
 
 208 
 
 ' ' '200 
 
 ' ■ 'l40 
 
 1,250 
 l',658 
 
 251 
 "664 
 
 055 
 360 
 
 298 
 
 180 
 
 
 
 British Possessions in Africa. 
 
 Other porta in Africa 
 
 . . . • 
 
 
 
 .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 6,815 
 
 1,080 
 
 British Australia 
 
 
 
 '6^612 
 
 4,366 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 France on the Atlantic 
 
 
 
 10,310 
 
 6,127 
 
 627,219 
 
 425,866 
 
 3,396 
 
 '1,063 
 
 300 
 
 130 
 
 France on the Mediterranean 
 
 
 
 
 
 4,148 
 
 2,648 
 
 
 
 
 
 French North American Poss. 
 
 
 
 333 
 
 287 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 French Guiana 
 
 
 
 3,185 
 
 2,714 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Spain on the Atlantic 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 350 
 
 142 
 
 Spain on the Mediterranean . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 384 
 
 200 
 
 
 i,951 
 432 
 
 2,877 
 670 
 
 107,388 
 
 6,421 
 
 250 
 
 86,409 
 
 4,232 
 
 182 
 
 i,160 
 
 750 
 
 19,508 
 
 620 
 
 360 
 
 13,331 
 
 
 
 16,783 
 830 
 
 "450 
 217 
 
 6,756 
 
 302 
 
 'iio 
 
 76 
 
 
 
 Madeira 
 
 Cape de Verd Islands 
 
 Hilyti 
 
 150 
 1,363 
 
 ' 361 
 
 240 
 1,737 
 
 '"574 
 
 6,997 
 
 2,886 
 
 128 
 
 603 
 
 843 
 
 "5,699 
 
 2,446 
 
 121 
 
 393 
 
 662 
 
 "'500 
 "'630 
 
 " ' '219 
 '"372 
 
 '746 
 
 "279 
 
 6,680 
 12,764 
 
 '2,628 
 
 2,050 
 4,791 
 
 '761 
 
 
 Central Republic 
 
 
 
 Brazil 
 
 
 .... 
 
 80 
 171 
 
 66 
 
 197 
 
 1,202 
 
 848 
 
 SIO 
 
 163 
 
 18,711 
 
 6,953 
 
 Argentine Republic 
 
 Chili 
 
 8,080 
 
 ' 'I'e'o 
 
 S,'850 
 ' ' '270 
 
 6,431 
 "484 
 "277 
 
 7,129 
 "562 
 "258 
 
 .... 
 
 "•• 
 
 .... 
 
 
 '3,750 
 1,681 
 
 656 
 672 
 
 '456 
 
 
 Sandwich Islands 
 
 China 
 
 900 
 
 Whale-fisheries 
 
 Total year 1856-*6T. ..... 
 
 819,081 
 
 $1,216,888 
 
 414,466 
 
 $363,665 
 
 2,042,390 
 
 $1,307,322 
 
 80,987 
 
 $34,917 104,576 
 
 $35,121 
 
WHA 
 
 1965 
 
 WHE 
 
 For articles on Whale-fishery, see North American 
 Review, xxxviii. (J. E, Wiluams); Hunt's Merchants' 
 Magazine, xiv., xvi ; Democratic Review, xix. ; Quar- 
 terly/ Review, Ixiii. ; Foreign Quarterly, vii. ; Christian 
 Review, xii. ; Living Age, xiii., xiv, ; Edinburgh Re- 
 view, Ixxxvi. 
 
 Wliarf, a sort of quay, constructed of wood or stone, 
 on the margin of a roadstead or harbor, along side of 
 which ship's or lighters are brought for the sake of be- 
 ing conveniently loaded or unloaded. 
 
 VTharfage, the fee paid for landing goods on a 
 whai-f, or for shipping them off. 
 
 ■Wheat (Ger. Weitzen; Da. Tarw; Da..ffvede; Sw. 
 Hvete; Fr. Froment, Bled, Sle; It. Grano, 'Formento; 
 Sp. and Port. Trigo; Buss. Pschenzia; Pol. Pszenicd), 
 a species of bread-corn (Triticum, Linn.), by far the 
 most important of any cultivated in Europe or North 
 America. We are totally ignorant of the country 
 whence this valuable grain was first derived; but it 
 was very early cultivated in Sicily. It is raised in al- 
 most every part of the temperate zones, and in some 
 places as high as 2000 feet above the level of the sea. 
 
 Wheat Production of the United States. — Wheat, 
 where the soil and climate are adapted to its growth, 
 arid the requisite progress has been made in its cul- 
 ture, is decidedly preferred to all other grains, and, 
 next to maize, is the most important crop in the Unit- 
 ed States, not only on account of its general use for 
 bread, but for its safety and convenience for exporta- 
 tion. It is not known to what country it is indigenous, 
 any more than our other cultivated cereals, all of which, 
 no doubt, have been essentially improved by man. By 
 some, wheat is considered to have been coeval with 
 the creation, as it is known that upward of a thousand 
 years before our era it was cultivated, and a superior 
 variety had been attained. It has steadily followed 
 the progress of civilization, from the earliest times, in 
 all countries where it would grow. The introduction 
 of this grain into the Nprth American colonies dates 
 back to the earliest periods of their settlement by 
 Europeans. It was first sown, with other grains, on 
 the Elizabeth Islands, in Massachusetts, by Gosnold, 
 at the time he explored that coast in 1602. In 1611, 
 wheat, as well as other grains, was also sown in Vir- 
 ginia ; and by the year 1648 there were cultivated many 
 hundred acres in that colony. Although premiums 
 were offered as an encouragement of its growth in 1651, 
 it was not much cultivated for more than a century 
 after, in consequence of the ill-directed attention to the 
 culture of tobacco. 
 
 Wheat was introduced into the valley of the Missis- 
 sippi by the ' ' Western Company" in 1718, where, from 
 the careless mode of cultivating it by the early settlers, 
 and the sudden alternations of temperature, it would 
 only yield from five to eight fold, running to straw and 
 blade without filling the ear. In 1746, however, the 
 culture had so far extended, that six hundred barrels 
 of flour were received at New Orleans from the Wa- 
 bash; and by the year 1760 the French of Illinois 
 raised three times as much wheat as they consumed, 
 and large quantities of grain and flour were sent to the 
 same place. Prior to the Kevolution, the primitive 
 soils of New York, New Jersey, and of New England, 
 appear not to have rewarded the cultivation of this 
 grain much, if any, beyond the wants of the inhabit- 
 ants. Considerable quantities were raised on the 
 Hudson, and in some parts of New Jersey and Penn- 
 sylvania, which were exported to the West Indies, and 
 New England, and to Great Britain, France, Portugal, 
 and Spain, in years of scarcity, previously to 1723. 
 
 In 1776 there was entailed upon this country an 
 enduring calamity, in consequence of the introduction 
 of the Hessian or wheat fly, which was supposed to 
 have been brought from Germany in some straw em- 
 ployed in the debarkation of Howe's troops, on the 
 west end of Long Island. From that point this insect 
 gradually spread in various directions, at the rate of 
 
 twenty or thirty miles a year, and the wheat of the en- 
 tire regions east -of the AUeghanies is now more or less 
 infested with the larvae, as well as in large portions of 
 the States bordering on the Ohio and Mississippi, and 
 on the great lakes ; arid so great have been the ravages 
 of these insects, that the cultivation of this grain in 
 many places has been abandoned. 
 
 The geographical range of the wheat region in the 
 Eastern Continent and Australia lies principally be- 
 tween the thirtieth and sixtieth parallel of north lati- 
 tude, and between the thirtieth and fortieth degrees 
 south, being chiefly confined to France, Spain, Portu- 
 gal, Italy, Sicily, Greece, Turkey, Kussia, Denmark, 
 Norway, Sweden, Poland, Prussia, Netherlands, Bel- 
 gium, Great Britain, Ireland, Northern and Southern 
 Africa, Tartary, India, China, Australia, Van Die- 
 men's Land, and Japan. Along the Atlantic portions 
 of the Western Continent it embraces the tracts lying 
 between the thirtieth and fiftieth parallels ; and in the 
 country westward of the Rocky Mountains, one or 
 more degrees farther north. Along the west coast of 
 South America, as well as in situations within the 
 torrid zone, sufficiently elevated above the level of the 
 sea and properly irrigated by natural or artificial 
 means, abundant crops are often produced. The prin- 
 cipal districts of the United States in which this im- 
 portant grain is produced in the greatest abundance, 
 and forms a leading article of commerce, embrace the 
 States of New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Dela- 
 ware, Maryland, Virginia, Ohio, Kentucky, Michigan, 
 Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, Wisconsin, and Iowa. The 
 chief varieties cultivated in the Northern and Eastern 
 States are the white flint, tea, Siberian, bald, Black 
 Sea, and the Italian spring wheat; in the Middle and 
 Western States, the Mediterranean, the Virginia white 
 May, the blue stem, the Indiana, the Kentucky white- 
 bearded, the old red chafi", and the Talavera. The 
 yield varies from ten to forty bushels and upward per 
 acre, weighing per bushel from fifty-eight to sixty- 
 seven pounds. Within a few years a species of wheat 
 has been introduced from Egypt, which, although it 
 has been lying dormant two thousand years, promises 
 to be unusually prolific. Another species from South 
 Australia, weighing seventy pounds to the bushel, has 
 also been introduced. 
 
 It appears that on the whole crop of the United States 
 there was a gain, during ten years, of 15,645,000 bush- 
 els. The crop of New England decreased from 2,014,000 
 to 1,090,000 bushels, exhibiting a decline of 924,000 
 bushels, and indicating that the attention of farmers 
 has been much withdrawn from the culture of wheat. 
 Grouping the States from the Hudson to tlie Potomac, 
 including the District of Columbia, it appears that they 
 produced in 1849 36,085,000 bushels, against 29,936,000 
 in 1839. (In Virginia there was an increase of 1,123,000 
 bushels.) These States embrace the oldest wheat- 
 growing region of the country, and that in which the 
 soil and climate seem to be adapted to the permanent 
 culture of the grain. The increase of production in the 
 ten years has been 6,272,000 bushels, equal to 17"4 per 
 cent. The areaoftilledlandintheseStatesis36,000,000 
 acres, only 30 per cent, of the number of acres returned 
 for tlie whole United States, while the propoi-tion of 
 wheat produced is 46 per cent, of the entire crop of the 
 country. In North Carolina there has been an increase 
 of 170,000 bushels ; but in the Southern States gener- 
 ally there was a considerable decrease. Indiana, Illi- 
 nois, Michigan, and Wisconsin contributed to the gen- 
 eral aggregate, under the sixth census, only 9,800,000 
 bushels ; under the last they are shown to have pro- 
 duced upward of 25,000,000 bushels, an amount greater 
 than the whole increase in the United States for the 
 period. — U. S. Patent Office Report. 
 
 As a curious illustration, of the fluctuations in the 
 price of grain in Great Britain for the last two cen- 
 turies we give the following table, taken from the 
 Enct/cl. Britannica. 
 
WHE 
 
 1966 
 
 AOOOITNT OP TUB AVEEAGE ' PEtOES OF BlJITIBH COBN PBtt TmPEEIAL QiTAETEE, IN ENGLAND AND WaiBS, SINCE 1771, AS 
 ASCERTAINED BY THE KEOEIVEK OF tJOHN KBT0KN3, 
 
 years. 
 
 Wheat. 1 Batle 
 
 y. 
 
 d 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 4 
 9 
 9 
 
 1 
 4 
 1 
 6 
 
 8 
 2 
 3 
 8 
 9 
 1 
 4 
 8 
 6 
 3 
 10 
 
 1 
 9 
 5 
 
 4 
 2 
 
 2 
 10 
 6 
 4 
 4 
 
 6 
 8 
 4 
 
 
 1 
 3 
 
 OntB. 
 
 Eye. 
 
 Years, 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Barley. 
 
 Oats. 
 
 Kye. 
 
 1771 
 
 £ 1. i. 
 2 7 
 2 12 3 
 2 12 7 
 2 14 8 
 2 9 10 
 
 1 19 4 
 
 2 6 11 
 2 3 3 
 1 14 8 
 
 1 16 9 
 
 2 6 
 2 9 3 
 2 14 a 
 2 10 4 
 2 3 1, 
 2 O' 
 2 2 5' 
 2 6 4, 
 2 12 9 
 2 14 9 
 2 8 7 
 2 8 
 2 9 3 
 
 2 12 3 
 
 3 15 2 
 3 18 7 
 2 13 9 
 
 2 11 10 
 
 3 9 
 
 5 13 10 
 
 6 19 6 
 3 9 10 
 
 2 18 10 
 
 3 2 3 
 
 4 9 9 
 3 19 1 
 
 3 15 4 
 
 4 14 
 
 4 17 4 
 
 5 6 5 
 4 15 3 
 
 £ I. 
 1 6 
 1 6 
 1 9 
 1 9 
 1 6 
 1 
 1 1 
 1 3 
 1 
 17 
 
 17 
 
 1 3 
 1 11 
 1 8 
 1 4 
 1 5 
 1 3 
 1 2 
 1 3 
 1 6 
 1 6 
 
 1 iV 
 1 11 
 1 17 
 1 15 
 1 T 
 1 9 
 
 1 16 
 
 2 19 
 
 3 8 
 1 13 
 1 5 
 
 1 11 
 
 2 4 
 1 13 
 
 1 19 
 
 2 "7 
 2 3 
 2 2 
 
 £ ,. d. 
 17 2 
 
 16 8 
 17 8 
 18 4 
 17 
 15 6 
 16 1 
 16 7 
 14 5 
 13 -2 
 14 1 
 
 15 7 
 
 1 5 
 18 10 
 17 8 
 18 6 
 17 2 
 16 1 
 16 6 
 19 '5 
 18 1 
 
 10 9 
 10 6 
 
 1 1 3 
 1 4 5 
 1 1 10 
 16 3 
 
 19 5 
 
 17 6 
 
 1 19 4 
 1 17 
 10 4 
 116 
 1 4 -8 
 
 18 4 
 1 7 T 
 1 8 4 
 1 13 4 
 1 11 5 
 18 7 
 17 7 
 
 £ .. d. 
 1 15 4 
 1 17 9 
 1 14 4 
 1 15 4 
 1 13 10 
 1 7 8 
 1 8 10 
 19 2 
 
 1 4 n 
 
 1 2 10 
 
 17 8 
 1 9 8 
 1 16 9 
 1 13 2 
 1 8 10 
 
 18 
 18 6 
 18 6 
 1 10 9 
 1 15 
 1 12 7 
 1 9 10 
 1 10 2 
 
 1 17 6 
 
 2Y9'S 
 
 2 8 4 
 
 1S12 
 
 £ .. d. 
 6 6 6 
 5 9 9 
 3 14 4 
 3 6 T 
 
 3 18 6 
 
 4 16 11 
 4 6 3 
 8 14 6 
 3 7 10 
 2 16 1 
 2 4 7 
 
 2 13 4 
 
 3 8 11 
 3 8 6 
 2 18 8 
 
 2 18 6 
 
 3 5 
 8 6 8 
 3 4 8 
 3 6 4 
 2 18 8 
 2 12 11 
 2 6 2 
 
 1 19 4 
 
 2 8 6 
 
 2 15 10 
 
 3 4 7 
 3 10 8 
 3 6 4 
 3 4 4 
 2 17 3 
 2 10 1 
 2 11 3 
 2 10 10 
 
 2 14 8 
 
 3 9 9 
 2 10 6 
 2 4 3 
 2 8 
 
 1 18 6 
 
 2 9 
 
 £ -t. d 
 3 6 9 
 2 18 6 
 1 17 4 
 1 10 3 
 
 1 18 11 
 
 2 9 4 
 2 13 10 
 2 5 9 
 1 13 10 
 1 6 
 1 1 10 
 1 11 6 
 
 1 16 4 
 
 2 
 1 14 4 
 1 17 7 
 1 12 10 
 1 12 6 
 1 12 7 
 1 18 
 1 18 1 
 1 T 6 
 19 
 1 9 11 
 1 12 10 
 1 10 4 
 1 11 5 
 1 19 
 1 16 5 
 1 12 10 
 1 7 6 
 1 9 6 
 1 13 8 
 1 11 8 
 
 1 12 S 
 
 2 4 2 
 1 11 6 
 1 7 9 
 
 13 5 
 
 14 9 
 1 8 6 
 
 £ '•: d: 
 2 4 6 
 1 18 6 
 1 5 8 
 
 13 7 
 1 T 2 
 1 12 6 
 1 12 6 
 18 2 
 
 14 2 
 19 6 
 
 18 1 
 
 1 2 11 
 1 410 
 
 15 8 
 
 16 8 
 18 2 
 12 6 
 1 2 9 
 14 5 
 1 5 4 
 10 5 
 
 18 5 
 
 1 11 
 
 12 
 1 3 1 
 
 13 1 
 12 6 
 1 5 11 
 16 8 
 1 2 6 
 19 3 
 
 18 4 
 
 1 7 
 1 2 6 
 1 3 8 
 1 8 8 
 10 6 
 17 6 
 16 S 
 18 7 
 19 1 
 
 £ ,. d. 
 8 18 7 
 B 11 11 
 2 4 8 
 
 1 18 1 
 
 2 5 1 
 2 13 3 
 2 16 4 
 2 9 6 
 2 2 
 1 12 
 1 ,0 10 
 
 1 11 10 
 
 2 15 
 2 2 3 
 2 1 1 
 2 2 
 1 14 2 
 1 14 10 
 
 1 15 10 
 
 2 
 1 14 7 
 1 12 11 
 1 12 9 
 1 10 4 
 1 13 4 
 1 14 9 
 
 1 15 1 
 
 2 2 
 1 17 
 1 16 9 
 1 13 
 1 10 7 
 1 18 n 
 1 1'2 6 
 
 1 16 
 
 2 9 
 
 1 ■ 5' 8 
 1 8 3 
 1 6 6 
 1 9 10 
 
 1772 
 
 1813 
 
 17'3 . 
 
 1814 
 
 1774 .... 
 
 1815 
 
 1775.. 
 
 1816 
 
 1776 
 
 1817 
 
 1777 
 
 1818 
 
 
 1819 
 
 1 77 1 . 
 
 182il 
 
 1780 
 
 1821 
 
 1781 
 
 18 2 
 
 1782 
 
 1823 
 
 1783 
 
 1.324 
 
 1784 
 
 1825 
 
 1T35 
 
 18 6 
 
 17S6 
 
 1827 
 
 1787 
 
 1828 
 
 1783 
 
 1820 
 
 178) 
 
 1830., 
 
 1790 
 
 
 17)1 
 
 
 1702 
 
 1883 
 
 1834 
 
 1793 
 
 1734 
 
 1835 
 
 1795 
 
 183S 
 
 1796 
 
 1837 
 
 1797 
 
 
 1798 
 
 1839 ... .. . 
 
 17 9 
 
 184) 
 
 1800 
 
 1841 :. 
 
 1Sl2 i 
 
 1801 
 
 18J2 
 
 1843 
 
 1813 
 
 1814 
 
 18 4... 
 
 18*5 
 
 1845 
 
 184 i 
 
 18 6 , 
 
 1847 
 
 18 i7 
 
 1348 
 
 1808 
 
 ISOJ 
 
 1810 
 
 1819 
 
 1850 
 
 1851 
 
 1811 
 
 1853 
 
 
 
 
 
 cutic inches, the former being 
 
 NoTB. — The Imperial bushel contains 2218-192, cubic inches, tli(^ Windiester bnahel 2150-42 
 about one thirty-second part larger than the latter,— r See "Weights aod Measuees. 
 
 BRITISH GRAIN TRADE. 
 
 Account showing the Quantities of the diffeebnt Vaeieties of Fobeiqn and Colonial Gbain enteeed foe C'on- 
 
 BtJMPTION in the UnITED KINGDOM IN EAOII OF THE EIGHTEEN VEAES ENDING WITH 185 i, WITH THE TOTAL C.'TTANTITIEB 
 ^ BO ENTEREC, and THE ANNUAL l^NTKIEB \T AN ATEEAQB OF THE ABOVE I EEIOD ; WITH A PIMILAE ACOOTTNT FOB INDIAN 
 
 ( ovi's AND Meal foe the ten and seven Yeaes ending, Ay'ifU 1852. — ^cCompiled feom .vaeiottb paeliamentaey 
 
 Pa PEES ) 
 
 Years. 
 
 Wheat and 
 Flour. 
 
 Barley. 
 
 Oats and 
 Ont-meal. 
 
 R.ve and 
 Rve-mcnl. 
 
 Peas and 
 Pen- nonl. 
 
 Beans and 
 Bean-meal 
 
 Total 
 entered 
 
 Irdian Corn 
 and Meal, 
 
 1S35 
 
 Quarters 
 25,554 
 
 3'1,107 
 
 214,'i7i 
 
 1,813,475 
 
 2.711,7-23 
 
 2,401,4:16 
 
 2,. -47 803 
 
 2,989,645 
 
 91il.5'33 
 
 988 5 5 
 
 315 015 
 
 2.962,9 '8 
 
 4,612,110 
 
 2,in3,765 
 
 6 5 '-^5 4 
 
 4.845 854 
 
 6,275 677 
 
 4135 376 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 130 -53 
 
 110 021 
 
 47,475 
 
 8,192 
 
 694,301 
 
 619,911 
 
 2-22.837 
 
 49.969 
 
 223,543 
 
 ],020,7li^ 
 
 299.430 
 
 404 644 
 
 78 '.688 
 
 833 9^5 
 
 1 544.88^ 
 
 1,023,9117 
 
 8 '6 310 
 
 634,062 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 176,14' 
 
 97,197 
 
 334 0'24 
 
 11,072 
 
 8ii-'.78 1 
 
 517,115' 
 
 27,918 
 
 295 43 r 
 
 45 2H 
 
 258 2,5 
 
 587 434 
 
 779 412 
 
 1,788.167 
 
 87-2.553 
 
 1.37.5635 
 
 1,1,53 '71 
 
 1,193 530 
 
 082 278 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 3 
 
 18 
 
 19 570 
 
 2,6 7 
 
 152,182 
 
 1,857 , 
 
 518 
 
 28,516 
 
 2.724 
 
 23,779 
 
 23 
 
 1.710 
 
 263,510 
 
 55 481 
 
 259.936 
 
 93.431 
 
 23,0 12 
 
 9,,576 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 25,184 
 
 80,9-28 
 
 87,015 
 
 11,018 
 
 170.270 
 
 159,457 
 
 132,857 
 
 80 450 
 
 45.333 
 
 106 ,175 
 
 81,736 
 
 181.811 
 
 193,l'78 
 
 164 77L 
 
 233 092 
 
 179,733 
 
 98.602 
 
 105 5 7 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 69.8 4 
 
 87.796 
 
 109 070 
 
 64 240 
 
 1.'3,.597 
 
 12',517 
 
 207,6 7 
 
 43, -'79 
 
 45,702 
 
 22\630 
 
 197,919 
 
 209,874 
 
 476. '53 
 
 448 704 
 
 432,612 
 
 441,612 
 
 318,5n6 
 
 372 '75 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 436 660 
 
 400,067 
 
 84',n3,3 
 
 1,936,114 
 
 4 615,262- 
 
 3 829,120 
 3,219,035 
 3,487.296 
 1,353,129 
 2,628,360 
 1.492,1,56 
 
 4 54- 1,399 
 
 8.1 I5.6'i4 
 4.624,18) 
 9.6S8 7115 
 7.7-10,821 
 7,7.35,8 3 
 
 6.2 9.-84 
 
 Quarteni. 
 
 io,2'?5 
 38,711 
 
 4.'.2r5 
 7.57-009 
 i.n'-i 918 
 1.637.419 
 2,-2.5.5.061 
 1.576 '63 
 1,8 8 748 
 1.471.097 
 
 
 1817 
 
 1813 
 
 183) . 
 
 1840 
 
 
 1842 
 
 
 
 1845 
 
 184! 
 
 
 
 1S49 . 
 
 1851 
 
 1851 
 
 1852 
 
 Totals 
 
 Average annual con-) 
 sumption for the IS - 
 yeai's ending 1S52.) 
 
 Avera --e annual con-) 
 sumpbion for tht^ 7- 
 years pnding 1862.) 
 
 4l,814,„u8 
 2,439,720 
 
 4,231,185 
 
 9,428,090 
 523,810 
 
 870,786 
 
 11^354,370 
 630,793 
 
 1,162,546 
 
 93:!,2S4 
 61,849 
 
 99,510 
 
 2,183,6-8 
 121,590 
 
 172,393 
 
 4, 10,, 68.) 
 228,216 
 
 39d,3C6 
 
 7-2.841,0.5 
 4,046,739 
 
 6,900,758 
 
 13,321,942 
 1,33-2,104 
 
 1,890,101 
 
 We give here as an interesting statement, and as 
 showing the present liberal Bystem of Great Britain in 
 regard to the importation of wheat from the United 
 States, the tariff import duties on wheat in the princi- 
 pal countries that import from the United States. 
 
 Countries. Import Duties on Wheat. 
 
 Austria Per centner (110 pounds), 16J cents. 
 
 Belgium ISJ cents per 220 pounds. 
 
 Brazil 20 per cent, ad, valorem. 
 
 Chili 25 per cent, ad valorem when under $3 per 
 
 2^ bushels — otherwise free, 
 
 China 5 per cent, ad valorem. 
 
 Peru 75 cents per fanega of 135 bushels. 
 
 Great Britain. , 
 
 Hanse Towns. 
 Holland 
 
 Countrlea. Import Duties on Wheat. 
 
 France Tariff regulated by average monthly prices 
 
 of wheat in home market. 
 24 cents per quarter (8 bushels). North 
 
 American Possessions free. 
 4^ to 1 per cent, ad valorem. 
 $3 20 for 1 last, or 8520 bushels. 
 
 Mexico Generally prohibited. 
 
 New Granada . . . Free. 
 
 Norway 1 toende (3-94 bushels), 63 cents. 
 
 Spain Generally prohibited. 
 
 Cuba $5 per quintal (101 pounds). 22 per cent. 
 
 in favnr of Spanish vessels. 
 
 Sweden Per 4'15T bushels, 60 cents. 
 
 United States 15 per cent, ad valorem. 
 
WHE 
 
 1967 
 
 WHE 
 
 Whiat and Wheat Floue (sT^tfi) as Quabiebs op Wuba?^) iMPOKTitn into Gseat BbCtaih diieihg each or the Teh 
 
 YeABS ENDINti WITU 185,i, EXniUlTlNO TUE (QUANTITIES BROJGKT FEOM EAOU COUNTRY. 
 
 CouQtrle^, 
 
 Russia ......,'. 
 
 Sweden and Norway . ,K: 
 
 Denmark .1. 
 
 Vruasia 
 
 Germany, viz., Hanse-' 
 atic Towns, Olden- 
 burg, Hanover, and 
 Meclilenburg ........ 
 
 Holland '., 
 
 Belgium 
 
 France ' 
 
 Spain 
 
 Italy , 
 
 Malta 
 
 Greece ;.., 
 
 Turkey, including Syria,! 
 Egypt, WaUachia,.and^ 
 Moldavia ) 
 
 Cape of Good Hope ..... 
 
 British East Indies 
 
 Australian SettlemeplfS. . 
 
 British N. Am, Colonies 
 
 United States of America 
 
 All other parts.,.'. ....... 
 
 Total 
 
 1843. 
 
 33,1). 8 
 
 GTS 
 
 69,864 
 
 659,5i;3 
 
 126,521 
 
 85S 
 
 BJ2 
 
 8,131 
 
 1 
 
 6 2IJ6 
 
 3,155 
 
 14,89.1 
 
 3,624 
 
 1,2 2 
 
 113.416 
 
 26,0,)0 
 
 2,674 
 
 Il64,,.r4 
 
 1844. 
 
 Qu^ttora, 
 iU4a;:u 
 10,782 
 »4,4.M 
 651,015 
 
 108,922 
 
 11,T72 
 1,101 
 
 44,875 
 11 
 
 80,230 
 6,168 
 
 4t,790 
 
 83 
 
 2,303 
 
 4,210 
 
 228,000 
 
 8 ,853 
 
 8 
 
 1846, 
 
 Qaarto.'s. 
 
 3u781 
 
 679 
 
 74,170 
 
 424,539 
 
 J51,2I1 
 
 1,6!4 
 
 98,i 
 
 65,809 
 
 4,016 
 S7,463 
 
 4120 
 
 3,240 
 
 7,030 
 
 1,204 
 
 14,035 
 
 229,349 
 
 93,622 
 
 2,090 
 
 .379,20211,141,957 
 
 1946. 
 
 QUHrtflra. 
 
 ao4,8o0 
 
 218 
 61,5o3 
 360,881 
 
 126,572 
 
 473 
 3,064 
 73,774 
 74,041 
 194 ■.i56 
 11,09 
 11,596 
 
 41,5j7 
 
 87 
 
 3dl 
 
 20 346 
 
 327,105 
 
 80^,178 
 
 24 12 
 
 l.j4i,14: 
 
 1841. 
 
 i^aurten, 
 
 o50 587 
 
 8 647 
 
 73,5i;8 
 
 49i,92.- 
 
 154,83- 
 
 11,8011 
 27,46. 
 179,25 
 24 70(1 
 W.850 
 46,.5 
 
 260,779 
 
 2 
 
 201 
 
 13.69 
 
 338 7 3 
 
 1,834,142 
 
 16,26 
 
 4 404.757 
 
 Quartera. 
 
 S.3,l3? 
 
 5 346 
 
 191,787 
 
 :S2S,156 
 
 532,691 
 
 163,97s 
 
 178 3 8 
 
 320,010 
 
 917 
 
 83,170 
 
 8,676 
 
 4)129 
 
 40,340 
 
 2 
 
 2T55 
 
 5 559 
 
 186.:i64i 
 
 296,10- 
 
 11, 03 
 
 i 082,231 
 
 1849 
 
 Quortere. 
 6Jj,65o 
 6,4. 4 
 243.213 
 618,690 
 
 498,98, 
 
 3''8i4g 
 
 366.099 
 
 74i,023 
 
 49- 
 
 . 281.530 
 
 9,0.9 
 
 ' 01,130 
 
 256,54. 
 
 1 
 
 2,028 
 
 15 699 
 
 142,2: 'o 
 
 617,131 
 
 26 83 
 
 1860. 
 
 QuaTt«i9. 
 
 6.,8,li.3 
 
 356 
 
 162.207 
 
 885,li6.' 
 
 330,941 
 
 201,94 
 
 1,145,146 
 
 2,186 
 
 117,823 
 
 10,690 
 
 C82,7:3 
 
 690 
 14 5S4 
 80.394 
 537,1130 
 19,812 
 
 4.kS9,2i;3 
 
 1861. 
 
 Uuartora. 
 
 li-9,6S4 
 
 6 
 
 163,768 
 
 .690,176 
 
 . 264,721 
 
 60.414 
 
 69,()46 
 
 1,193,433 
 
 115 
 
 241.852 
 
 10,585 
 
 165 
 
 873,130 
 
 ] 
 
 22 
 
 104 
 
 129,680 
 
 911 8.-.5 
 
 4 656 
 
 ,8.J0 41: 
 
 1SS5. 
 
 (iunrten. 
 
 733,.k34 
 
 546 
 
 218 834 
 
 462,292 
 
 179,081 
 
 124,963 
 25,; 61 
 
 459.418 
 0,321 
 65,1113 
 17,106 
 
 533.624 
 
 110,033 
 
 1,231.894 
 
 5,272 
 
 4,lu4.602 
 
 Wihmt Trade oflhe.Elbe, etc. — Next to Dantzic, 
 Hamburg is, perhaps, the greatest grain market in the 
 north of Europe, being a depot for large quantities of 
 Baltic corn, and for the produce of the extensive coun- 
 tries traversed by the Elbe. The exports of wheat 
 from Hamburg ^mounted, at an average o'f the eleven 
 years ending with 1841, to 210,871 quarters a year. The 
 price of wheat is frequently less in Hamburg than in 
 Dantzic ; but this lowneas of price i« altogether ascrib- 
 able to the inferiority of the Holstein and Hanover 
 wheats, which are generally met with in great abund- 
 ance in Hamburg. Wheat from the Upper Elbe is of 
 a better quality. Bohemian wheat is occasionally for- 
 warded by the river to Hamburg ; but the charges at- 
 tending its conveyance from Prague amount to full 1 bs. 
 a quarter, and prevent its being sent down, except 
 when the price is comparatively high. In 1841 the 
 shipments of wheat from Hamburg amounted to 507,400 
 quarters, of which 460,900 were for England. 
 
 French Wheat Trade. — It appears from the accounts 
 given by tl^e Marquis Gamier, in the Ia.st edition of 
 his. translation of the Wealth of Nations, th^t.tlie price 
 of the hectolitre of wheat at the niarl^et of Paris amount- 
 ed, at an average of the nineteen years beginning with 
 1801 and ending with 181D, to 20 frahcs 53 cents, whicli 
 is equal, to 30 francs 80 cents the septier; or, taking the 
 excliaiige at 25 francs, to 45s. 5d. the quarter. Count 
 Chaptal, in his valuable worlciSV?- Vhdustre FranQuise, 
 published in 1819, estimates the ordinary average price 
 of wheat throughout France at 18 francs the hectolitre, 
 or 42j>. lOi. the quarter.. The various expenses attend- 
 ing the importation of a quarter of French wheat into 
 Lbndon maj' be talcen at a medium at about 6s. a quar- 
 ter. France, however, has very little surplus produce 
 to dispose of; so that it would be irapossiljle for her to 
 export any considerable quantity without occasioning 
 a great advance of price. 
 
 The mean of the different estimates framed by Vau- 
 ban, Quesnay, Expilly, Lavoisier, and Arthur Young, 
 gives 61,619,672 septiers, or 32,810,000 quarters, as the 
 total average growth of the different kinds of grain in 
 France (^Peuchet Statistiqiie Etimentfiire). We, how- 
 ever, took occasion, in a former article on this subject, 
 to observe that there could not be a doubt that this 
 estimate was a great deal too low ; and the more care- 
 ful Investigations of late French statisticians fully con- 
 firm this remark. The annual produce of the harvest 
 of France was lately (1843) estimated, from returns ob- 
 tained under official authority, at 69,558,000 hectolitres 
 of wheat, and 112,958,000 ditto of other sorts of grain ; 
 making in all 182,617,000 hectolitres, or 62,740,000 im- 
 perial quarters. Of this quantity it is supposed that 
 about 16 per cent, is consumed as seed, 19 per cent, in 
 
 the' feeding of different species of animals, aild 2 per 
 cent, in distilleries and breweries. 
 
 The foreign grain trade of France was regulated, till 
 within these few years, by a law which forbade expbrta- 
 tion, except when the home prices were below certain 
 limits, and which restrained and absolutely forhadS 
 importation, except when they were above certain 
 other limits. The prices regulating importation and 
 exportation differed in the different districts into which 
 the kingdom was divided. Latterly, however, importa- 
 tion has b^en at all times allowe(l under graduated 
 duties, which, like those recently existing in Enj^land, 
 become prohibitory when the prices sink to a certain 
 level. The frontier departments are divided into four 
 separate districts, the plices in each district governing 
 the duties on importation into it, so that it sometilnes 
 happens that grain warehoused in 'a particular port, ' 
 "where it is not admissible except urtder a high duty, 
 has been carried to another port in another district, 
 and admitted at a low duty. An official announce- 
 ment is issued on the last day of each month, of what 
 the duties are to be in each'district during the succeed- 
 ing month. ' 
 
 Spanish Grain Trade. — The exportation of grain 
 from Spain was formerly prohibited under the severest 
 penalties. But in 1820 grain and flour were both al- 
 lowed to be freely exported, and in 1823 this privilege 
 was extended to all productions (frutos) the growth of 
 the soil. There is now, in fact, no obstacle whatever, 
 except the expense of carriage, to the conveyance of 
 grain to the sea-ports, and thence to the foreigner. 
 Owing, however, to the grain-growing provinces being 
 principally situated in the interior, and to the extreme 
 badness of the roads, which ren(iers carriage to the 
 coast both expensive and difficult, the exports are 
 comparatively trifling : this difficulty of carriage fre- 
 quently gives rise to very great differences of prices at 
 places in all parts of the country only a few leagues 
 distant. 
 
 Grain Trade of Odessa. — Odessa, on the Black Sea, 
 is the only port in southern Europe from which any 
 considerable quantity of grain is exported. We be- 
 lieve, indeed, that the fertility of the soil in its vicinity 
 has been much exaggerated ; but the wheat shipped at 
 Odessa is principally brought from Volhynia and the 
 Polish provinces to the south of Cracow, the supplies 
 from which are susceptible of an indefinite increase. 
 Owing to the cataracts in the Dnieper, and the Dnies- 
 ter having a great number of shallows, most part of 
 the grain brought to Odessa comes by land carriage. 
 The expense of this mode of conveyance is not, how- 
 ever, nearly so great as might be supposed. The carts 
 with grain are often in parties of 150 ; the oxen are pas- 
 
WHE 
 
 1968 
 
 WHE 
 
 tared (hiring the night, and they take advantage of the 
 period when the peasantry are not occupied with the 
 harvest, so that the charge on account of conveyance is 
 comparatively trifling. 
 
 Both soft and hard wheat are exported from Odessa ; 
 but the former, which is by far the most abundant, is 
 only brought to England. Supposing British wheat 
 to sell at about 60s., Odessa wheat in good order would 
 not be worth more than 52s. in the London market ; 
 but it is a curious fact, that in the Mediterranean the 
 estimation in which they are held is quite the reverse ; 
 at Malta, Marseilles, Leghorn, etc., Odessa wheat 
 fetches a decidedly higher price than British wheat. 
 
 The hard wheat brought from the Black Sea comes 
 principally from Taganrog. It is a verj- fine species 
 of grain ; it is full 10 per cent, heavier than British 
 wheat, and has less than half the bran. It is used in 
 Italy for making macaroni, vermicelli, and things of 
 that sort ; little of it has found its way to England. 
 
 The voyage from Odessa to Britain is of imcertain 
 duration, but generally very long. It is essential to 
 the importation of wheat in a good condition, that it 
 should be made during the winter months. When the 
 voyage is made in summer, unless the wheat be very 
 superior, and be shipped in exceedingly good order, it 
 is almost sure to heat, and has sometimes, indeed, been 
 injured to such a degree as to require to be dug from 
 the hold with pick-axes. Unless, therefore, means be 
 devised for lessening the risk of damage during the 
 voyage, there is little reason to think that Odessa 
 wheat will ever be very largely imported into Britain. 
 
 The entire expense of importing a quarter of wheat 
 from Odessa to London may be estimated at from 16s. 
 to 18s. The exports of wheat from Odessa, and other 
 ports on the Black Sea, to Constantinople, the Levant, 
 Italy, the south of France, etc., have latterly been very 
 large indeed. In 1846 the exports from Odessa only 
 amounted to 1,279,502 quarters, and in 1847 to 2,016,692 
 ditto : the latter being, we believe, the largest exporta- 
 tion that ever took place in a single year from any 
 single port. Owing to the scarcity in England, above 
 400,000 quarters of the above quantity were shipped 
 for that country, but the speculation entailed a heavj' 
 loss on the importers. The price free on board at 
 Odessa considerably exceeded 40s. a quarter. — E. B. 
 
 United /States. — When we see the growth of wheat 
 keeping up with the progress of population in the old- 
 est States of the Union, we need have no apprehension 
 of a decline in the cultivation of this important crop. 
 The amount of flour exported from New Jersey in 1751 
 was 6424 barrels; from Philadelphia, in 1752, 125,960 
 barrels, besides 86,500 bushels of wheat ; in 1767, 108,816 
 barrels, besides 367,500 bushels of wheat; in 1771, 
 252,744 barrels ; from Savannah, in 1771, 7200 pounds ; 
 from Virginia, for some years annually preceding the 
 Kevolution, 800,000 bushels of wheat. The total ex- 
 ports of flour from the United States in 1791 were 
 619,681 barrels, besides 1,018,339 bushels of wheat; in 
 1800, 653,052 barrels, besides 26,853 bushels of wheat ; 
 in 1810, 798,431 barrels, besides 325,924 bushels of 
 wheat; in 1820-'21, 1,056,119 barrels, besides 25,821 
 bushels of wheat; in 1830-'31, 1,806,529 barrels, be- 
 sides 408,910 bushels of wlieat; in 1840-'41, 1,515,817 
 barrels, besides 868,585 bushels of wheat; in 1845-'46, 
 2,289,476 barrels, besides 1,013,795 bushels of wheat ; 
 in 1846-'47, 4,382,496 barrels, besides 4,399,951 bush- 
 els of wheat; in 1850-'51, 2,202,335 barrels, besides 
 1,026,725 bushels of wheat. According to the census 
 of 1840, the wheat crop of the United States amounted 
 to 84,823,272 bushels ; in 1849, according to the census 
 of 1850, 100,503,899 bushels, although in some of the 
 largest wheat-growing States the crop of 1819 fell far 
 below the average. The production of the year 1857 in 
 the United States is estimated at about 200,000,000 of 
 bushels. 
 
 In the State of Ohio, especially, there was great de- 
 ficiency, as was made apparent by the returns of the 
 
 wheat crop for the ensuing year, made in pursuance of 
 an act of the Legislature of that State. From the al- 
 most universal returns of *' short crop" by the mar- 
 shals in that State in 1849, which fell below that of 
 1839, 2,000,000 bushels, and the ascertained crop of 
 1850, we are fully satisfied that the average wheat crop 
 of Ohio would appear 30 per cent, greater than shown 
 by the census returns. The same causes which oper- 
 ated to diminish the wheat crop of Ohio, were not with- 
 out their effects upon that of other States bordering on 
 the upper portion of the valley of the Mississippi. 
 
 In the London exhibition very little wheat was ex- 
 hibited equal to that from the United States, especial- 
 ly that from Genesee county, in the State of JSfew York 
 — a soft, white variety — to the exhibitor of which a 
 prize medal was awarded by the Eoyal Commissioners, 
 and recently transmitted to Mr. Bell by the President 
 of the United States, the chairman of the American 
 Executive Committee. The red Mediterranean wheat 
 exhibited from the United States attracted much at- 
 tention. The wheat from South Australia was proba- 
 bly superior to any exhibited, while much from our 
 own country fell but little behind, and was unquestion- 
 ably next in quality. — Patent Office Report. 
 
 Statement showing the annual Aveeage Expout Peice 
 or FLomi AT New Yokk feom 1800 till June 30, 1S55 ; 
 
 ALSO THE ANNUAL AVEBAG-E FHICE OF TlOUE IN THE 
 
 Cities op Boston, New Yoek, Philadelpdia, Ualti- 
 MOBE, New Oeleans, and St. Louis, eeom ISOO till June 
 80, 1S55. 
 
 YeBro. 
 
 Export 
 Price. 
 
 BostoQ. 
 
 Nsw 
 Yorlt. 
 
 Philn- 
 delpfaia. 
 
 Balti- 
 more. 
 
 N. Or- 
 lenns. 
 
 St. 
 Louis. 
 
 1800 
 
 $10 00 
 
 $11 00 
 
 $9 38 
 
 S9 75 
 
 $1142 
 
 
 
 1801 
 
 13 00 
 
 12 10 
 
 10 14 
 
 10 85 
 
 11 42 
 
 
 
 1802 
 
 9 00 
 
 817 
 
 6 19 
 
 6 94 
 
 7 00 
 
 
 
 1803 
 
 7 00 
 
 7 55 
 
 6 01 
 
 6 75 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 1804 
 
 TT5 
 
 8 9T 
 
 715 
 
 7 81 
 
 7 33 
 
 
 
 1805 
 
 13 00 
 
 11 25 
 
 9 59 
 
 10 15 
 
 12 08 
 
 
 
 1806 
 
 7 60 
 
 8 25 
 
 7 13 
 
 715 
 
 7 33 
 
 
 
 1807 
 
 8 25 
 
 7 73 
 
 6 76 
 
 710 
 
 7 60 
 
 
 
 1808 
 
 6 00 
 
 6 25 
 
 515 
 
 5 59 
 
 5 75 
 
 
 
 1809 
 
 7 50 
 
 7 63 
 
 6 79 
 
 6 43 
 
 - 6 60 
 
 
 
 1810 
 
 8 25 
 
 9 42 
 
 8 77 
 
 9 67 
 
 9 40 
 
 
 
 1811 
 
 10 60 
 
 10 42 
 
 9 05 
 
 10 40 
 
 10 6T 
 
 
 
 1812 
 
 10 T5 
 
 10 90 
 
 9 08 
 
 9 95 
 
 10 12 
 
 
 
 1813 
 
 13 00 
 
 14 67 
 
 7 76 
 
 9 29 
 
 1017 
 
 $13 60 
 
 
 1814 
 
 14 50 
 
 14 51 
 
 7 76 
 
 7 67 
 
 8 50 
 
 9 00 
 
 
 1815 
 
 9 25 
 
 8 95 
 
 8 17 
 
 8 68 
 
 7 92 
 
 9 00 
 
 
 1816 
 
 7 3T 
 
 9 40 
 
 9 34 
 
 9 75 
 
 8 07 
 
 9 30 
 
 
 181T 
 
 14 75 
 
 12 27 
 
 1172 
 
 12 12 
 
 10 31 
 
 12 50 
 
 
 1818 
 
 10 25 
 
 10 60 
 
 9 42 
 
 986 
 
 9 69 
 
 "10 83 
 
 
 1810 
 
 8 00 
 
 7 70 
 
 6T9 
 
 719 
 
 6 56 
 
 9 62 
 
 
 1820 
 
 5 37 
 
 6 25 
 
 4 81 
 
 4 94 
 
 4 66 
 
 6 20 
 
 
 1821 
 
 4 26 
 
 4 42 
 
 485 
 
 4 92 
 
 464 
 
 6 28 
 
 
 1822 
 
 7 00 
 
 6 04 
 
 6 09 
 
 648 
 
 6 36 
 
 6T6 
 
 
 1823 
 
 7 76 
 
 7 34 
 
 6 93 
 
 6 90 
 
 6 89 
 
 6 68 
 
 
 1824 
 
 6 62 
 
 6 07 
 
 6C3 
 
 5 62 
 
 554 
 
 6 26 
 
 
 1825 
 
 5 37 
 
 6 67 
 
 519 
 
 5 00 
 
 4 88 
 
 4 91 
 
 
 1826 
 
 5 26 
 
 5 24 
 
 5 00 
 
 4 09 
 
 4 78 
 
 4 49 
 
 
 1827 
 
 8 00 
 
 5 04 
 
 614 
 
 6 27 
 
 515 
 
 5 12 
 
 
 1828 
 
 5 50 
 
 6 14 
 
 6 60 
 
 5 29 
 
 5 48 
 
 6 36 
 
 
 1829 
 
 5 00 
 
 6 81 
 
 6 64 
 
 25 
 
 6 37 
 
 7 20 
 
 
 1830 
 
 7 25 
 
 5 26 
 
 5 03 
 
 4 83 
 
 4 86 
 
 4 98 
 
 
 ISBl 
 
 5 62 
 
 6 05 
 
 6 84 
 
 5 82 
 
 5 61 
 
 6 47 
 
 
 1832 
 
 6 87 
 
 6 29 
 
 6 87 
 
 6 62 
 
 5 79 
 
 6 84 
 
 
 1833 
 
 6 50 
 
 6 11 
 
 6 70 
 
 5 85 
 
 5 69 
 
 6 23 
 
 $4 93 
 
 18S4 
 
 6 60 
 
 6 42 
 
 5 0T 
 
 5 21 
 
 4 99 
 
 519 
 
 4 50 
 
 1835 
 
 6 00 
 
 6 43 
 
 6 00 
 
 5 75 
 
 5 84 
 
 6 35 
 
 25 
 
 1836 
 
 7 60 
 
 8 60 
 
 7 78 
 
 7 44 
 
 9 92 
 
 8 55 
 
 8 00 
 
 183T 
 
 10 25 
 
 1018 
 
 9 69 
 
 9 75 
 
 9 43 
 
 9 10 
 
 912 
 
 1838 
 
 9 50 
 
 8 25 
 
 8 02 
 
 7 81 
 
 7 84 
 
 8 67 
 
 7 37 
 
 1839 
 
 6 75 
 
 7 20 
 
 7 40 
 
 6 89 
 
 6 65 
 
 6 57 
 
 719 
 
 ISIO 
 
 5S7 
 
 5 51 
 
 517 
 
 5 22 
 
 BOO 
 
 4 90 
 
 4 93 
 
 1841 
 
 5 20 
 
 5 77 
 
 6 39 
 
 6 34 
 
 6 31 
 
 5,53 
 
 4 75 
 
 1842 
 
 6 00 
 
 6 67 
 
 6 67 
 
 5 47 
 
 6 20 
 
 4 54 
 
 4 66 
 
 1843 
 
 4 60 
 
 4 87 
 
 5 07 
 
 4 60 
 
 4 36 
 
 418 
 
 3 75 
 
 1844 
 
 4 76 
 
 5 13 
 
 4 61 
 
 4 34 
 
 431 
 
 444 
 
 4 50 
 
 1845 
 
 4 61 
 
 6 32 
 
 BOO 
 
 4 69 
 
 4 63 
 
 4 83 
 
 4 93 
 
 1846 
 
 618 
 
 5 68 
 
 519 
 
 4 79 
 
 4 53 
 
 4 38 
 
 4 50 
 
 184T 
 
 5 95 
 
 717 
 
 6 80 
 
 6 02 
 
 6 21 
 
 6 54 
 
 4 93 
 
 1848 
 
 6 23 
 
 6 43 
 
 5 71 
 
 6 67 
 
 5 52 
 
 4 76 
 
 6 25 
 
 1849 
 
 6 35 
 
 6 00 
 
 4 96 
 
 4 84 
 
 4 83 
 
 4 61 
 
 5 43 
 
 1850 
 
 5 00 
 
 6 00 
 
 4 86 
 
 4 97 
 
 4 89 
 
 5 31 
 
 6 25 
 
 1861 
 
 4 77 
 
 6 26 
 
 419 
 
 4 38 
 
 418 
 
 4 00 
 
 4 88 
 
 1E62 
 
 4 24 
 
 6 20 
 
 4 96 
 
 4 23 
 
 4 26 
 
 410 
 
 5 23 
 
 1853 
 
 5 60 
 
 6 27 
 
 5 51 
 
 5 47 
 
 5 39 
 
 548 
 
 5 08 
 
 1854 
 
 7 88 
 
 9 25 
 
 8 02 
 
 814 
 
 813 
 
 7 60 
 
 6 09 
 
 1856 
 
 10 10 
 
 10 25 
 
 9 06 
 
 9 62 
 
 9 57 
 
 9 36 
 
 7 83 
 
 Note. — The price of flour for New Orleans and St, Louis 
 could ttot be obtained for earlier years than those respectively 
 given. 
 
WHE 
 
 1969 
 
 WHE 
 
 Statbmint showinq the Peobcotios of Gsaix, Winu, 
 etc., in 1>iffebemt c0untkib8. 
 
 Austrian Empire . 
 
 British Empire. . . 
 
 France . 
 
 Prussia . 
 
 Russian Empire . 
 
 United States . 
 
 Bavaria 
 
 Belgium, 1319. 
 
 Brazil , . . . 
 Denmark . 
 
 Egypt, 1834 . 
 
 Greece, 1345 . 
 Hamburg 
 
 Holland . 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Papal States . 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Sardinia . 
 
 1837 21,094,591 qrs. 
 
 Wheat qrs. 8,466,946 
 
 Rye and maize qrs. 10,065,781 
 
 Hariey qrs. 4,640,221 
 
 Oats qrs. 9,021,643 
 
 Estimate, 18-18. . 60,045,000 qrs. 
 
 Wheat qra. 18,226,000 
 
 Barley qrs. 9,295,000 
 
 Oats and rye qrs. 30,500,000 
 
 Beans and peaa qrs. 2,025,000 
 
 Value of agricultural 
 
 produce £ 215,613,811 
 
 Spindles No. 27,585,000 
 
 1810 62,738,462 qrs. 
 
 Wheat qrs. 23,927,781 
 
 Meslin and rye qrs. 13,639,444 
 
 Barley qrs. 5,731,497 
 
 Oats qrs. 16,821,391 
 
 Maize qrs. 2,621,349 
 
 Potatoes qrs. 33,085,900 
 
 Production of wine . .galls. 839,230,906 
 
 Estimate, 1846 .... £78,024,900 
 
 26,874,900 
 61,160,000 
 
 898,227 
 288,476 
 208,945 
 306,245 
 
 Produce. 
 
 Grain £ 
 
 Potatoes £ 
 
 Exported, 1849. 
 
 Dantzic .qrs. 
 
 Stettin. ; qrs. 
 
 Konigsberg qrs. 
 
 Memel qrs. 
 
 Average estimated produce, 
 
 1818 52,622,001) qrs. 
 
 Exported. ' 
 
 Wheat qrs. 2,865.222 
 
 Rye qrs. 196,738 
 
 Barley qrs. 110,697 
 
 Oats qrs. 170,836 
 
 1818 118,652,449 qrs. 
 
 Wheat qrs. 15,79,5,575 
 
 Barley and rye qrs. 4,896,881 
 
 Oats qrs. 23,187,600 
 
 Buckwheat qrs. 1,253,800 
 
 Indian com qrs. 74,618,750 
 
 Tobacco produced . . . 218,909,000 
 
 Prod.ofaghculture.. 174,617,485 
 
 Prod, of live stock . . . 63,650,162 
 
 1S50-'51. 
 
 Cotton crop bales. 2,855,257 
 
 Average estimate. 
 
 Grain qrs. 1,990,924 
 
 Potatoes qrs. 2,181,818 
 
 Wheat qrs. 1,668,646 
 
 Rye qrs. 1,920,427 
 
 Barley qrs. 983,649 
 
 Oats -qrs. 2,319,478 
 
 Potatoes bushels. 51,899,107 
 
 Sugar produced tons. 110,000 
 
 (Joffee exported bags. 1,673,256 
 
 Estimate production in Denmark and 
 Holsteln . . . 7,978,216 qrs. grain. 
 
 Wheat qrs. 
 
 Rye qrs. 
 
 Barley qrs. 
 
 Oats qrs. 
 
 Beans and peas qrs. 
 
 Wheat qrs. 
 
 Beans qrs. 
 
 Barley and maize . . .qrs. 
 Cotton, Egyptian.... cwt. 
 
 Cotton, foreign cwt. 
 
 Linseed qrs. 
 
 Currants tons. 
 
 Exported to Great Britain from 
 Hanseatic Towns. 
 
 Sugar cwt 3, 
 
 1849, average of nine years, 
 2,987,876 qrs. 
 
 Wheat qrs. 
 
 Rye qrs. 
 
 Buckwlieat qrs. 
 
 Barley qrs. 
 
 Oats qrs. 
 
 Indian corn qrs. 
 
 Tobacco lbs. 
 
 Oil lbs. 
 
 Produce, 1849, 3,123,851 qrs. grain. 
 
 Wheat qrs. 686,160 
 
 Barley qrs. 218,336 
 
 Eye qrs. 621,980 
 
 Maize qts. 1,660,814 
 
 Oats qrs. 41,501 
 
 Average produce, 6,328,125 qrs. 
 
 Wheat qrs. 2,509,375 
 
 Indian corn qrs. 1,615,625 
 
 Barley qrs. 446,876 
 
 Chestnuts qrs. 343,760 
 
 Rice qrs. 412,600 
 
 61 
 
 374,106 
 
 1,965,436 
 
 2,260,238 
 
 2,884,725 
 
 493,711 
 
 630,000 
 
 S00,000 
 
 450,000 
 
 6,000 
 
 200,000 
 
 31,600 
 
 18,926 
 
 449,736 
 
 952,719 
 
 330,091 
 
 433,930 
 
 821,400 
 
 3,293,750 
 
 1,840,000 
 
 113,928,000 
 
 Spain. 
 
 Sweden & Norway. 
 
 Turkey 
 
 Two Sicilies. 
 
 China . 
 
 COLONIES. 
 
 British Possessions. 
 
 Indies 
 
 Canada 
 
 Cape of Good Hope 
 
 Australia 
 
 New Soutli Wales 
 Ceylon 
 
 Spanish Possess. 
 Cuba 
 
 Dutch Possessions. 
 Java 
 
 1849 11,901,912 qrs. 
 
 Wheat qrs. 6,864,360 
 
 Barley qrs. 2,860,343 
 
 Rye qrs. 1,933,936 
 
 Oats and maize qrs. 1,243,284 
 
 Wine exported galls. 4,254,336 
 
 Sweden, 1837 3,630,486 qrs. 
 
 Wheat qrs. 137,698 
 
 Eye qrs. l,28t,580 
 
 Oats and peas qrs. 1,030,023 
 
 Barley qrs. 1,013,007 
 
 Potatoes qrs. 2,313,811 
 
 Ibraila Export, 184T. Gnlatz, IMS. 
 
 Wheat qrs. 398,568 180,032 
 
 Barley qrs. 306,802 
 
 Indian com. qrs. 629,917 167,101 
 
 7,494,138 qrs. giain. 
 Wheat and maize . . .qrs. 8,000,000 
 
 Olive-oil tons. 70,000 
 
 Silk qrs. 1,400,090 
 
 Cotton tons. 10,000 
 
 Linseed qrs. 30,000 
 
 Exported June 30, 1849-'60. 
 
 Tea 83,246,300 lbs. 
 
 Great Britain lbs. 53,965,800 
 
 Other countries lbs. 29,283,600 
 
 July 1, 1860, to May 20, 1851. 
 Great Britain lbs. 60,192,800 
 
 1850. 
 
 Indigo maunds. 110,000 
 
 1847, total value. . . . £2,576,285 
 
 Qn. Value. 
 
 Wheat 7,558,778 £1,222,785 
 
 Barley 516,727 68,019 
 
 Oats 7,065,730 440,983 
 
 Rye 446,298 50,208 
 
 •Maize 1,137,565 142,294 
 
 Buckwheat ... 432,573 86,614 
 
 Peas 1,753,836 219,230 
 
 Potatoes 4,761,331 356,829 
 
 Hides pieces. 811,991 
 
 .Skins pieces. 261,664 
 
 Tallow lbs. 434,433 
 
 Wool lbs. 1,010,807 
 
 1848. 
 
 Fisheries £ 63,963 
 
 - ' Exported to Great Britain, 1850. 
 
 Cotton lbs. 807,363 
 
 1850. 
 
 Sugar produced tons. 250,000 
 
 Total value of agricul- 
 tural produce $ 9,821,921 
 
 1850. 
 
 Indigo owt. 831,486 
 
 Pepper cwt. 551,605 
 
 Coohinoal lbs. 186,535 
 
 Peoduotion of Wheat in the seveual States of the 
 ^ Union in 1840 and 1850. 
 
 states and Territories. BiishelB ' 
 
 Alabama 838,052 
 
 Arkansas 105,878 
 
 California 
 
 Columbia, District of . . 12;i47 
 
 Connecticut 87,009 
 
 Delaware 315,165 
 
 Florida 412 
 
 Georgia.'. 1,801,830 
 
 Illinois 3,335,393 
 
 Indiana 4,049,375 
 
 Iowa 151,693 
 
 Kentucky 4,803,162 
 
 Louisiana 60 
 
 Maine 848,166 
 
 Maryland 3,346,783 
 
 Massachusetts 167,923 
 
 Michigan 2,157,108 
 
 Mississippi 196,626 
 
 Missouri 1,087,386 
 
 New Hampshire 422,124 
 
 New Jersey 774,203 
 
 New York 12,286,418 
 
 North Carolina 1,960,865 
 
 Ohio 16,671,661 
 
 Pennsylvania 13,213,077 
 
 3,096 
 968,354 
 
 495,800 
 
 Rhode Island 
 South Carolina 
 Tennessee .... 
 
 Texas 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Virginia 10,109,716 
 
 Wisconsin 212,116 
 
 Minnesota Territory ... .... 
 
 New Mexico Territory , . 
 
 Oregon Territory .... 
 
 Utah Territory. . ; 
 
 Total 88,813,270 
 
 1850. 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 294,044 
 
 199,639 
 
 17,228 
 
 17,370 
 
 41,762 
 
 482,511 
 
 1,027 
 
 1,088,634 
 
 9,414,675 
 
 6,214,458 
 
 1,630,681 
 
 2,142,82% 
 
 417 
 
 296,259 
 
 4,494,680 
 
 31,211 
 
 4,926,839 
 
 137,990 
 
 2,981,6!S2 
 
 185,658 
 
 1,601,190 
 
 13,121,498 
 
 2,130,102 
 
 14,487,351 
 
 15,367,691 
 
 49 
 
 1,066,277 
 
 1,619,386 
 
 41,729 
 
 635,955 
 
 11,212,616 
 
 4,286,131 
 
 1,401 
 
 196,616 
 
 211,943 
 
 107,702 
 
 100,486,844 
 
WHE 
 
 1970 
 
 WHJS 
 
 ExrOKTS OF DOMESTIC WhEAT AKD FLOTIIt FEOM THE UsiTEa) STATEB FOR TUE 
 
 Ybae endino Jirara 30, 1857. 
 
 Whither exported. 
 
 ■Wheat. 
 
 Flour. 1 
 
 BuBhels. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Asiatic Russia i'.'..:v.:: .■ 
 
 Russian PosBeyflions in North America 
 
 "iio 
 iiik 
 
 2,000 
 
 ' 274',559' 
 
 8,560,084 ' 
 
 1,019,,529 
 
 138,863 
 
 24,936 
 
 1,665,641' ' 
 
 142,568 
 , 14.,B25 ' 
 
 9,1 00 
 
 1,400 
 
 35,932 
 
 631 
 
 1,146,999 
 
 380,129 
 
 36l',5i7 
 
 393,077 
 
 4,770 
 
 7,907 
 
 S69is62 
 
 12,163 
 210 
 
 l',531 
 
 '$128 
 
 19,479 
 3,125 
 
 417,591 
 
 13,435 325 
 
 1,544,787 
 
 232,455 
 
 41,598 
 
 1,867'4S7 
 
 221,660 
 
 23,<lia 
 
 2'o,862 
 2,000 ■■ 
 •6'4,e83 ' ■ 
 1,040 
 1,850,821 
 615,-675^ ■ 
 
 594,650 
 
 646,002 
 
 7,976 
 
 10,171 
 
 599,686 
 
 17^476 
 440 
 
 2,663 
 
 - - ' 50 
 
 150 
 
 979 
 
 4,602 
 
 34,798 
 
 1,555 
 
 6,201 
 
 4,477 ■ 
 
 13,827 ,' 
 
 6,690 
 
 ■ 2,030' 
 
 6,098 
 
 1,027,066 
 
 121,160 
 
 22,272 
 
 46,391 
 
 - 478 
 
 ■118,857 
 
 436,231 ■ 
 
 246,642 
 
 16,641' 
 
 50,017 
 
 19,03T 
 
 10,029 ' 
 
 98,366 
 
 2,879 
 
 155,544 
 
 ■29,259 ■' 
 
 6,824 " I 
 
 ' 33,021 
 
 • 249 
 
 72,381 ■ 
 
 155; 650 •■ 
 
 2,388 
 
 45,145 ' 
 
 22,293 ' 
 
 6^,671 
 
 2;209 " 
 
 597 
 
 S92 
 
 1,735 
 
 12,893 
 
 10 
 
 ' l,lS3 
 
 4; 028 
 
 50,029 
 
 556 
 
 24,089 
 
 616 
 
 16,991 
 
 47,388 
 
 607,134 
 
 72,961 
 
 ■50,021 
 
 6,639 
 
 1,920 
 
 733 
 
 S,65S 
 
 6r'5 
 
 11,590 ■ 
 
 2,383 
 
 4,814 
 
 $760 
 
 1,303 
 
 6,345 
 
 30,439 
 
 253,649 , 
 
 10,967 
 
 39,228 
 
 30,268 
 
 104,392 
 
 50,875 
 
 14.640 
 
 35,710 
 
 6,905,769 , 
 
 eST,!**'" '- 
 
 154,029 
 
 310,157 
 
 3,792 
 
 717,245 
 
 2,881,803 
 
 1,633,027 
 
 96,767 
 
 G80;7T3- ■- 
 
 188,286 
 
 75,079 
 
 893,070 
 
 22,764 
 
 1,001,505 
 
 198,042 
 
 .43,499 . 
 
 - ■'■"'■'234,166 ■'• 
 
 1,862 
 
 499,188 
 
 1,120,717 
 
 15,791 
 
 324,410 
 
 152,2f'5 
 
 46'l,i4S-> 
 
 16,312 
 
 4,360 
 
 3,196 
 
 12,006 
 
 84,467 
 
 90 
 
 8,565 
 
 29,279 
 
 872,615 
 
 4,224 
 
 179;038 - 
 
 4,996 
 
 126,141 
 
 -361,174 
 
 3,900,467 
 
 512,471 
 
 378,816 
 
 53,526 
 
 . - 15^940 
 
 5,864 
 
 30,882 
 
 5,878 
 
 108,586 
 
 17,945 
 
 29,509 
 
 Swedish West Indies 
 
 
 
 Holland . , . ; 
 
 Dutch West Indies ......... 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 
 
 Other British North American Possessions.. . 
 British West Indies , ' 
 
 British Honduras , 
 
 
 British Posaessiona in Africa 
 
 British Australia i ..*.,,,.(..,.. ., 
 
 
 
 
 French West Indies 
 
 
 
 Spain on thei Mediterranean ., 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Brazil 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 China 
 
 Whftlp-fisheries 
 
 
 Total, 1850-57 
 
 14,670,331 
 
 $22,240,857 
 
 • 8,712,053 
 
 $25,862,316 
 
 EXPOHTB OF FOREIGN WHEAT AKD ElOUR FEOM. THE^UNITBD 
 
 States fob tiie Ybab ending J tine. 30, 1857. 
 
 ■Whither exported. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 wheat Flour. ] 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Cwt. 
 
 Value. 
 
 
 35,670 
 
 6,173 
 
 41,843 
 10,67,8 
 31,165 
 
 $56,302. 
 
 li,'il3 
 
 $67,415- 
 $17,084 
 50;381 
 
 45,985 
 
 540 
 
 8,355 
 
 "560 
 50,880 
 -2,562 
 
 47,818 
 
 $210,203 
 
 1,925 
 
 14,449 
 
 2,'i6o 
 
 $228,677 
 $10,248 
 218,429 
 
 
 British N. Am. Poss. 
 Spain on tlie Atlantic. 
 
 Total 
 
 From -warehouse .... 
 Not from -warehouse'.. 
 
 294 
 27 
 
 The imports of -wheat into the United States are 
 merely nominal, being, for the year ending June 30, 
 1857, as follows : 
 
 Whence imported. Bushels. Value. 
 
 Hamburg - 234 
 
 Sandwich Islands 300 
 
 Other places 24 
 
 Total , 663 , $909 
 
 Formerly the export of breadstuffs from the United 
 States was principally made up of flour, but of late years 
 it has been found advantageous to ship ■wheat in bulk, 
 especially from the interior grain jnarkets, without 
 transhipment; and,- as may be seen from the preced- 
 
 ing statement, at. present the export of wheat is nearly 
 equal that of flour. 
 
 The consumption of the country, per the census fig- 
 ures of product, population, and export, for the years 
 1840 and 1850, and the rate of increase in population 
 being known, the results arc as follows : 
 
 Years. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Consumptipn 
 atSl^ Bushels. 
 
 Actual 
 Export. 
 
 1840 
 
 1850 
 
 1851 
 
 1.7,069,656. 
 , 23,267,726. 
 24,023,916 
 24,780,106 
 25,536,296. 
 26,292,486 
 27,048,673 
 27,804,863 
 
 64,565,447 
 64,182,986 
 64,483,895 
 66,730,815 
 89,377,025 
 93,028,690 , 
 94,670,355 
 97,317,020 
 
 ll,198,0r.S 
 8,8-27,017 
 12,948,490 
 18,600,660 
 18,958,980 
 28,148,596 
 7,821,534 
 30,000,000 
 
 1852 
 
 1853 
 
 1854 
 
 1855 
 
 1856..... 
 
 Years. 
 
 Seed. 
 
 Crop. 
 
 Price in 
 Now York. 
 
 1840 
 
 1850 
 
 8,482,727 
 11,479,922 
 12,000,000 
 11,689,803 
 12,500,000 
 13,000,000 
 13,500,000 
 18,500,000 
 
 84,8-27,272 
 104,479,923 
 110,032,894 
 117,511,501' ■ 
 121,186,048 
 133,172,285 
 114,991,939 
 140,317,000 
 
 $5-44 
 5-62^ 
 6 68 : , - 
 ■■■■4-S7'' - 
 4-?4 
 9-25 
 9-60 
 
 1861 
 
 1852 
 
 1853 
 
 1854 
 
 1855 
 
 1856.; 
 
WHI 
 
 1971 
 
 WHI 
 
 AMOTraTS OP Indian Cob:? and <JoRN-.MEAii, ani> or Wheat, 
 "Wheat Flocb, and Wiieat Suip-imEAD exported feom 
 Trtti United STATfts dubing a Peeiod of thiety-bix 
 
 YBA«B, each ENDlMa on THE SOtH OF JijNE. 
 
 1821.. 
 1822. . 
 18.'3;. 
 1824.. 
 1825. . 
 1826. . 
 182T. . 
 iS'iS. . 
 18,29, . 
 1^0. . 
 1831'.. 
 1832. ; 
 
 issi. . 
 
 1838. . 
 1SS6;. 
 1837, . 
 1838.. 
 1833:'. 
 1S41.. 
 1841.. 
 18i3. . 
 1843.. 
 1844. . 
 1845. . 
 1840. , 
 184T.. 
 1848. . 
 1849. . 
 1850. . 
 1851.. 
 1852.. 
 1853. 
 1854., 
 1865., 
 1856. , 
 ' 185T. . 
 
 Value of Com 
 
 and its 
 MaoufacturoR. 
 
 $616,2T9 
 
 9(J0,656 
 
 •930^489 ■ 
 
 736,340 
 
 8T8,0T3 
 
 1,007,321 
 
 1,022,^64' 
 
 822,858 
 
 974,535 
 
 597,119 
 
 992,051 
 
 758,775 
 
 871,814 
 
 696,433 
 
 1, 217,6(15 
 
 725,262 
 
 911,6J4 
 
 864,391, 
 
 799,510 
 
 I;Al3,516- 
 
 99S,4]i: 
 
 9613,967 
 
 '735,915 
 
 1,045; 037 
 
 1,053,293 
 
 2,181,744 
 
 18,096,546 
 
 B,64S,084 
 
 9,185,994 
 
 4,652,804 
 
 2,335,415 
 
 2,114,605 
 
 2,084,051 
 
 7,077,253 
 
 8,198,693 
 
 8,798,253 
 
 6,142,457 
 
 Viilue of Wheat 
 ' and'lfa' ; 
 aTanufacturea. 
 
 $4,476,357 
 
 6,287,286 
 
 6,161,437 
 
 5,977,265 
 
 4,466,679 
 
 4,411,S70 
 
 4,646.784 
 
 4,464,774 
 
 6,S)72,980 
 
 6,320,603 
 
 10;712,261 
 
 ' 5,229,858' 
 
 ,6,895,157 
 
 4,792,087 
 
 4,607,881 
 
 ' ' 8,819;421 
 
 3,253,767 
 
 3,8(6,110 
 
 7,419,232 
 
 12,208,086 
 
 8,900,668 
 
 8,615,731 
 
 4,339,414 
 
 '7,648,491 
 
 6,101,666 
 
 13,717,332 
 
 32,739,427 
 
 16,482,380 
 
 13,401,748 
 
 8,074,438 
 
 U,8'J4,349 
 
 14,743,261 
 
 19,591,817 
 
 40,616,966 
 
 12,883,937 
 
 45,231,411 
 
 48,982,531 
 
 Whip, ,ia B?a,, language, a rope passed through a 
 ,single block or pulley. 
 
 Whirlpool, ?l. vortex, eddy, or gulf, where the 
 water has a circular motion. Whirlpools are produced 
 by the, meeting of currents which run in different direc- 
 tions, '^'heir danger tq navigation is well known, but 
 is, perhaps,, not equal to the dread which sailors enter- 
 tain of th?m. Some of the most celebrated are the 
 Euripus, near tbexoast of Negropont; the Charybdis, 
 in the Straits of Sicily; god the Maelstrom, on the 
 northern co,^st of Norway. 
 
 , WhirlTvind, a revolving column or mass of air, 
 S.upposed with most probability to be produced by the 
 ineeting of two currents of air blowing in opposite di- 
 rections, but ascribed by some to electricity. It is 
 analogous to the whirlpool. When the opposite cur- 
 rents have the same velocity, the circulation will be 
 maintained at the same spot; but if the motion of one 
 of them is more rapid than that of the other, it will 
 transport the whirling motion with its excess of celer- 
 ity, and a progressive and rotatory motion are thus 
 maintained, at the same time. Whirlwinds generally 
 occur in summer, and are most violent in tropical coun- 
 tries, where they frequently produce most destructive 
 effects. 
 
 Whisky, a spirit obtained by distillation from 
 corn, sugar, or molasses, though generally from the 
 former. Whisky is the national spirit, if we may so 
 term it, of Scotland and Ireland ; but that distilled in 
 the former is generally reckoned superior to that of the 
 latter. — See Spirits. Whisky is a corruption of the 
 Irish word usquebaugh. " This ardent spirit may be 
 manufactured from barley malt alone ; from the raw or 
 unm'alted barley mixed with from a third to a ninth of 
 malt ; from a mixtureof raw barley, wheat, rye, or oats, 
 with from a sixth to a tenth of barley malt ; or from a 
 mixture of raw barley, or big, with sugar; or from 
 sugar or molasses alone. When barley malt is alone 
 used, the processes are simple, and the spirit produced 
 has a more agreeable flavor, and is more esteemed ; 
 but, in consequence of the heavy duty on malt, dis- 
 tillers have been induced to employ large quantities of 
 
 nnmalted grain, and of late yeara no small proportion 
 of sugar and molasses, adding riierely enough of malt 
 to inducfe thii chemical conversion of the starch iii the 
 unmalted grain into graps sugar. 
 
 During the germination of barley (as in its conver- 
 sion into malt) a peculiar substance is jjenerated in the 
 gi-ain called diastase, which acts chemically on the 
 starch of the grain, converting it first into a kind of 
 gum called dextrine, and then into a sweet substance 
 identical in composition With grape sugar. It has 
 been found that this diastase can convert 2000 parts of 
 starch into grape Sugar ; and' it is of this valuable 
 property that the distiller avails himself when he adds 
 malt to his raw grain. To save the more expensh-e 
 article malt, he uses only so much as expiiriraeit has 
 proved will siiffica to change the starch of the raw 
 grain' into sugar when mixed -with it in his mash-tun. 
 The distiller, therefore, to prepare the saccharine fluid 
 for his 'operations, has to go through all the processes 
 of brewing 'before he gets it ready for the still. — See 
 •article Brewing. 
 
 The Manufacture of Whish/: — Cincinnati has become 
 the greatest -ivhisky market in the world, and the Ohio 
 Valley the most important whiskj'-producing region 
 ■with which we are acquainted. The distilleries in the 
 vicinity of Cincinnati are on a large scale, and they are 
 said to exhibit many improvements devised by invent- 
 ive genius. Steam is made to perform nearly all the 
 labor, p'ew men are employed, and they do Jittle else 
 than loolc at the machines as they perform the work. 
 The' quantity of com consumed in a single distillery in 
 Cincinnati is about one thousand bushels per day, from 
 which abotit 4000 gallons of whisky are produced. 
 This gives for this single establishment a consumption 
 of 312,000 bushels of corn per annum, and a production 
 of 1,248,000 gallons of whisky. We have notthe data 
 upon which to base an estimate of the' quantity of 
 whisky produced in the Ohio 'Valley. The quantity 
 sold in the Cincinnati market anhuallyis about 220,000 
 barrels, or about 9,000,000 gallons. This is probably 
 not more than one half the production of Ohio and 
 Indiana alone. We presume that the production is 
 18,000,000 gallons, and find the consumption of corn 
 averaging four and a half million bushels. It is prob- 
 able that the production of whisky in the Ohio Valley 
 is 50,000,000 gallons per annum, involving a consump- 
 tion of 12,500,000 bushels of corn, the average value of 
 which is $5,000,000. The demand for the article is 
 great, and daily increasing. 
 
 White Sea. The entrance to the port of Arch- 
 angel, situated on the right bank of the Dwina, about 
 thirty miles from its mouth, is interrupted by a bar, 
 over which vessels drawing more than fourteen feet of 
 water can not pass. Larger ships discharge and load 
 outside the bar. The trade of Archangel extends as 
 far as Siberia, and alongj-the coasts of the White Sea, 
 east and west. Previous to the founding of St. Peters- 
 burg this was the only place of maritime commerce in 
 the empire. Since that period its trade has consider- 
 ably declined. The Eiver Dwina is connected with 
 the Volga and Neva by canals; but, owing to the 
 rigor of the climate, the port of Archangel is open only 
 from July to September. Its imports consist of colo- 
 nial goods, salt, woolens, and hardwares. In 1852 
 there entered this port 715 vessels, with an aggregate 
 of 56,922 tons ; of which 85 were laden and 630 in bal- 
 last. These all cleared with freight. Of the arrivals 
 there were under the English flag 273 vessels, with an 
 aggregate toniiage of 24,297 tons. 
 
 Ajchacgel. Other Forts. 
 
 Imports in 1852 francs. 1,252,000 201,000 
 
 Exports in 1852 " 20,851.000 656,000 • 
 
 Total, year 1852 " 22,103,000 757,000 
 
 Total custom-house receipts from the five ports of 
 the White Sea, in 1852, 984,000 francs. These ports 
 are Archangel, Oneg, Kola, Kemi, Sounsky. The im- 
 ports of Archangel consist of dry and salted fish, sugar. 
 
WIG 
 
 1972 
 
 WIN 
 
 wines, and other liquors, salt, and peltries. The ex- I 
 ports are flas, linens, linseed, timber, tar, etc. 
 
 ■Wigs. The wig-trade is one of the most curious 
 connected with manufactures in hair. The French are 
 famous in this department. There is a regular hair- 
 harvest in some of the central districts of France ; Paris 
 firms send agents into those districts in the spring of 
 the year, who purchase the beautiful tresses which the 
 country maidens have been cultivating for that pur- 
 pose: this hair-crop is as much an annual affair as a 
 corn-crop in the fields. The price paid is about three- 
 pence (English) per ounce ; but the agents usually pay 
 for the hair with ribbons, handlcerchiefs, and other 
 trinkets, at fairs and markets. Not the least curious 
 feature is, that the agents can distinguish the hair of 
 one district from that of another not far distant — an 
 ethnographical feat which might puzzle a learned 
 naturalist — and attach a money value to this difference. 
 If it be true, as is asserted, that two hundred thousand 
 pounds' weight of women's hair is tlius annually sold in 
 the country districts of France, it must be admitted to 
 form a very singular kind of commerce. The agents 
 sort and clean the hair, and then dispose of it to the 
 Paris firms at about double the former price. Then 
 comes the art of the peruquier to fashion this hair into 
 wigs, perukes, and scalps — some of which command a 
 very higli price. Of the ''transparent wigs," the 
 " ventilating wigs," the " bald white wigs, " the " gos- 
 samer-parting wigs," the "fronts with each hair fixed 
 separately," and other wonders of wig-making, we 
 have been abundantly informed by our advertising 
 peruquiers. 
 
 Wind-mills. They are of great antiquity, and 
 some writers state them to be of Roman invention ; but 
 certainly we are indebted for the wind-mill to the Sara- 
 cens. They are said to have been originally intro- 
 duced into Europe by the knights of St. John, who 
 took the hint from what they had seen in the crusades. 
 — BakerJ' Wind-mills were first known in Spain, 
 France, and Germany, in 1299. — Anderson. Wind 
 saw-mills were invented by a Dutchman in 1633, when 
 one was erected near the Strand, in London. 
 
 ■WindOTWS. See Glass. There were windows in 
 Pompeii, a.d. 79, as is evident from its ruins. It is 
 certain that windows of some kind were glazed so early 
 as the third century, if not before, though the fashion 
 was not introduQcd until it was done by Bennet, a.d. 
 633. Windows of glass were used in private houses, 
 but the glass was imported, 1777. — Anderson. In 
 England about 6000 houses now have fifty windows 
 and upward in each; about 275,000 have ten windows 
 and upward ; and 725,000 have seven windows, or less 
 than seven. The window-tax in England was first 
 enacted in order to defray the expense of and deficiency 
 in the re-coinage of gold, 7 William III., 1695. 
 
 ^W'iIlds. Tlie prevailing winds in the Caribbean 
 Sea and southern parts of the Gulf of Mexico are the 
 northeast trade-winds. They have their offices to per- 
 form in the river basins of inter-tropical America, and 
 the rains which they may discharge into the Missis- 
 sippi Valley now and then are exceptions, not the rule. 
 The winds from the north can not bring vapors from 
 the great lakes to make rains for the Mississippi, for 
 two reasons : 1st. Tlie basin of the great lakes receives 
 from the atmosphere more water in the shape of rain 
 than they give back in the shape of vapor. The St. 
 Lawrence River carries off the excess. 2d. The mean 
 climate of the lake country is colder than that of the 
 Mississippi Valley, and therefore, as a- general rule, 
 the temperature of the Mississippi Valley is unfavor- 
 able for condensing vapor from that quarter. It can 
 not come from the Atlantic, because the greater part 
 of the Mississippi Valley is to the windward of the 
 Atlantic. The winds that blow across this ocean go 
 to Europe with their vapors ; and in the Pacific, from 
 the parallels of California down to the equator, the di- 
 rection of the wind at tlie surface is from, not toward. 
 
 the basin of the Mississippi. Therefore it seemed to 
 be established with some degree of probability, or, if 
 that expression be too strong, with something like ap- 
 parent plausibility, that the rain winds of the Missis- 
 sippi Valley do not, as a general rule, get their vapors 
 from the North Atlantic Ocean, nor from the Gulf of 
 Mexico, nor from the great lakes, nor from that part 
 of tlie Pacific Ocean over which the northeast trade- 
 winds prevail. 
 
 Southeast Trade-winds. — After the northeast trades 
 have blown out their season, wliich in India ends in 
 April, the great arid plains of Central Asia, of Tartary, 
 Thibet, and Mongolia, become heated up ; they rarefy 
 the air of the northeast trades, and cause it to ascend. 
 This rarefaction and ascent, by their demand for an in- 
 draught, are felt by the air which the southeast trade- 
 winds bring to the equatorial Doldrnms of the Indian 
 Ocean : it rushes over into the northern hemisphere to 
 supply the upward draught from the heated plains as 
 the southwest monsoons. The forces of diurnal rota- 
 tion assist to give these winds their westing. Thus 
 the southeast trades, in certain parts of the Indian 
 Ocean, are converted, during the summer and early 
 autumn, into southwest monsoons. These then come 
 from the Indian Ocean and Sea of Arabia loaded with 
 moisture, and, striking with it perpendicularly upon 
 the Ghauts, precipitate upon that narrow strip of land 
 between this range and the Arabian Sea an amount of 
 water that is truly astonishing. Here, then, are not 
 only the conditions for causing more rain, now on the 
 west, now on the east side of this mountain range, but 
 the conditions also for the most copious precipitation. 
 Accordingly, when we come to consult rain-gauges, 
 and to aslc meteorological observers in India about the 
 fall of rain, they tell us that on the western slopes of 
 the Ghauts it sometimes reaches the enormous depth 
 of twelve or fifteen inches in one day . Were the Andes 
 stretched along the eastern instead of the western coast 
 of America, we should have an amount of precipitation 
 on their eastern slopes that would be truly astonishing; 
 for the water which the Amazon and the other majestic 
 streams of South America return to the ocean would 
 still be precipitated between the sea-shore and the 
 crest of these mountains. These winds of India then 
 continue their course to the Himalaya range as dry 
 winds. In crossing this range, they are subjected to a 
 lower temperature tlian that to which they were ex- 
 posed in crossing the Ghauts. Here they drop more 
 of their moisture in the shape of snow and rain, and 
 then pass over into the thirsty lands beyond with 
 scarcely enough vapor in them to make even a cloud. 
 Thence they ascend into the upper air, there to become 
 counter-currents in the general sj'stem of atmospherical 
 circulation. 
 
 Rain-winds are the winds which convey the vapor 
 from the sea, where it is taken up, to other parts of the 
 earth, where it is let down either as snow, hail, or rain. 
 As a general rule, the trade-winds may be regarded as 
 the evaporating winds ; and when, in the course of 
 their circuit, they are converted into monsoons, or the 
 variables of either hemisphere, they then generally be- 
 come also the rain-winds — especially the monsoons — 
 for certain localities. Thus the southwest monsoons 
 of the Indian Ocean are the rain-winds for the west 
 coast of Hindostan. In like manner, the African mon- 
 soons of the Atlantic are the winds which feed the 
 springs of the Niger and the Senegal with rains. Upon 
 every water-shed which is drained into the sea, the 
 precipitation, for the whole extent of the shed so drain- 
 ed, may be considered as greater than the evaporation, 
 by the amount of water which runs off through the 
 river into the sea. In this view, all rivers may be re- 
 garded as immense rain-gauges, and the volume of 
 water annually discharged by any one as an expres- 
 sion of the quantity which is annually evaporated from 
 the sea, carried back by the winds, and precipitated 
 throughout the whole extent of the valley that is drain- 
 
WEST 
 
 1973 
 
 WIN 
 
 od by it. Now, if we knew the rain-winds from the 
 dry, for each locality and season generally throughout 
 such a basin, we should be enabled to determine, with 
 some degree of probability at least, as to the part of 
 the ocean from which such rains were evaporated. 
 And thus, notwithstanding all the eddies caused by 
 mountain chains and other uneven surfaces, we might 
 detect the general course of the atmospherical circula- 
 tion over the land as well as the sea, and make the 
 general courses of circulation in each valley as obvious 
 to the mind of the philosopher as is the current of the 
 Mississippi, or of any other great river, to his senses. 
 
 These investigations as to the rain-winds at sea in- 
 dicate that the vapors which supply the sources of the 
 Amazon with rain are taken up from the Atlantic 
 Ocean by the northeast and southeast trade-winds ; and 
 many circumstances, some of which have already been 
 detailed, tend to show that the winds which feed the 
 Mississippi with rains get their vapor in the southeast 
 trade-wind region of the other hemisphere. For in- 
 stance, we know from observation that the trade-wind 
 regions of the ocean, beyond the immediate vicinity 
 of the land, are, for the most part, rainless regions, and 
 that the trade-wind zones may be described, in a hye- 
 tographic sense, as the evaporating regions. They 
 also show, or rather indicate, as a general rule, that, 
 leaving the polar limits of the two trade-wind systems, 
 and approaching the nearest pole, the precipitation is 
 greater than the evaporation until the point of maxi- 
 mum cold is reached. 
 
 And we know also that, as a general rule, the south- 
 east and northeast trade-winds, which come from a 
 lower and go to a higher temperature, are the evapo- 
 rating winds, i. e., they evaporate more than they pre- 
 cipitate ; wliile those winds which come from a higher 
 and go to a lower temperature are the rain-winds, i. e., 
 they precipitate more than they evaporate. That such 
 is the case, not only do researches indicate, but reason 
 teaches, and philosophy intimates. These views, there- 
 fore, suggest the inquiry as to the sufficiency of the 
 Atlantic, after supplying the sources of the Amazon 
 and its tributaries with their waters, to supply also the 
 sources of the Mississippi and the St. Lawrence, and 
 of all the rivers, great and small, of North America and 
 Europe. A careful study of the rain-winds, in connec- 
 tion with the Wind and Current Charts^ will probably 
 indicate to us the " springs in the ocean" which supply 
 the vapors for the rains that are carried off by those 
 great rivers. *' All the rivers run into the sea ; yet 
 the sea is not full ; unto the place from whence the 
 rivers come, thither they return again." — Mauky's 
 Pki/s. Geog. 
 
 'Wind-sails, in a ship, are made of common sail- 
 cloth, and are usually twenty-five and thirty feet long 
 according to the size of the ship, and are of the form 
 of a cone ending obtusely. When they are made use 
 of, they are hoisted by ropes to about two-thirds or 
 more of their height, with their bases distended circu- 
 larly, and their apex hanging downward in the hatch- 
 ways of the ship. Above each of these one of the 
 common sails is so disposed that the greatest part of 
 - the air rushing against it is directed into the wind- 
 sail, and conveyed into the body of the ship, to pro- 
 duce ventilation, etc. 
 
 Wind'wara, in sea-language, denotes any thing 
 toward that point from whence the wind blows, in re- 
 spect of a ship : thus windward tide is the tide which 
 runs against the wind. 
 
 ■Wine (Ger. Wein; Fr. Yin; It. and Sp. Vino; 
 Port. Vinho; Russ. Wino, Winogradnoe winoe ; Lat. Vi- 
 num 6r. Oivoq ; Arab. Khumr), the fermented juice of 
 the grape, or berries of the vine ( Viiis vinifera). The 
 vine is indigenous to Persia and the Levant ; but it is 
 now found in most temperate regions. The limits 
 within which it is cultivated in the northern hemi- 
 sphere of the Old World vary from about 15° to 48° and 
 52° ; but in North America it is not cultivated farther 
 
 north than 38° or 40°. It is rarely grown at a greater 
 altitude than 3000 feet. From Asia the vine was in- 
 troduced into Greece, and thence into Italy. The 
 Phoceans, who founded Marseilles, carried the vine to 
 the south of France ; but it is doubtful whether it was 
 introduced into Burgundy till the age of the Antonines. 
 The ancient writers give the most contradictory ac- 
 counts with respect to the introduction of the vine into 
 Gaul. — See the learned and exceUent woric ofhE Grand 
 d' AnssY, Vie Privie des Franfais. The species of Vitis 
 indigenous to North America is very different from the 
 Viiis vinifera. In favorable seasons the vine ripens 
 in the open air in England ; and in the 11th and 12th 
 centuries considerable quantities of inferior wine were 
 made from native grapes. Vineyards are now, how- 
 ever, unknown in Great Britain ; but the grapes raised 
 in hot-houses, and used in desserts, are excellent. The 
 vine grows in every sort of soil ; but that which is light 
 and gravelly seems "best suited for the production of 
 fine wines. It succeeds extremely well in volcanic 
 countries. The best wines of Italy are produced in 
 the neighborhood of Vesuvius ; the famous Tokay wine 
 is also made in a volcanic district, as are several of the 
 best French wines ; many parts of the south of France 
 bearing evident marks of extinct volcanoes. Hermit- 
 age is grown among the d^i-is of granite rocks. The 
 most favorable situation for a vineyard is upon a rising 
 ground or hill facing the southeast, and the situation 
 should not be too confined ; 
 
 ap ertos 
 
 Bacchus amat collea. 
 
 The art of expressing and fermenting the juice of 
 the grape appears to have been practiced from the re- 
 motest antiquity. The sacred writings tell us that 
 Noah planted a vineyard soon after the deluge (Gen, ix. 
 20) ; and a modern Latin poet ingeniously represents 
 the vine as a gift from Heaven, to console mankind 
 for the miseries entailed upon them by that grand 
 catastrophe ! 
 
 Omnia vastatis ergo quum cerrieret arvis 
 
 Desolata Deus, nobis felicia viui 
 
 Dona dedit; tristes hominum quo munere forit 
 
 BeliquiaE, mundi solatus vite ruinam I 
 
 VanieHi Freed. Rustioim, lib. xi. 
 Species of Wine. — There are many varieties of vines ; 
 and this circumstance, combined with differences of 
 soil, climate, mode of preparation, etc., occasions an 
 extreme variety in the species of wine. But between 
 places immediately contiguous to each btlier, and where 
 even a careful observer would hardly remark any dif- 
 ference, the qualities of the wines, though produced by 
 the same species of grape, and treated in the same way, 
 are often very different. A great deal evidently de- 
 pends upon the aspect of the vineyard ; and it is proba- 
 ble that a good deal depends on peculiarities of soil. 
 But whatever may be the cause, it is certain that there 
 are wines raised in a few limited districts, such as 
 Tokay, Johannisberger, Constautia, the best Burgundy, 
 Champagne, Claret, etc., that no art or care has hith- 
 erto succeeded in producing of equal goodness in other 
 places. 
 
 The leading character of wine must be referred to 
 the alcohol which it contains, and upon which its in- 
 toxicating powers principally depend ; not exclusively, 
 however ; for some of the lighter wines, if brisk and 
 effervescent, seem to derive from the admixture of car- 
 bonic acid a peculiar exhilarating power not directly 
 proportional to their alcoholic contents. And again, 
 we find other wines, among which certain Burgundies 
 stand foremost, which are eminently heating, though 
 not very strong. The following table shows the quan- 
 tity of alcohol (of the specific gravity of 825 at 60°), by 
 measure, contained in 100 parts by measure of the re- 
 spective wines. Some other vinous and spirituous 
 liquors have been added, for the purpose of showing 
 the relation which they bear to wine in the proportion 
 of alcohol which they contain. 
 
WIN 
 
 Peopo^tioji of Spibit pkb Cent. 
 
 By Aver- 
 
 1974 
 
 WIN 
 
 M«nsure, 
 
 1. Lissa 26-47 
 
 " 24-35 
 
 " 15-90 
 
 2. Kaisla wine. . 26-40 
 
 " . . 25,-TT 
 " .. 23-20 
 
 3. Marsala 26-03 
 
 " 25-05 
 
 " 18-40 
 
 4. Port 25-83 
 
 " 24-29 
 
 " 23-71 
 
 " 23-39 
 
 " 22-30 
 
 " 21-40 
 
 " 19-00 
 
 26-41 
 
 25-12 
 
 25-09 
 
 6. Madeira 24-42 
 
 23-93 
 
 ., " (Sercial)21-4IJ. 
 
 ;, " ,J9-40 
 
 5. Cun-ant-\7ine. 20-55 
 
 7. Shen-y 19 81 
 
 " 19-83 
 
 18-79 
 
 " 18-25 
 
 " (very old) 23-80 
 
 8. Teneri£fe 19-79 
 
 9. Colares 19-76 
 
 10. Lachryma 
 
 Christi.... 19-70 
 
 11. Conetantia . . 14'£0 
 
 " (white) 19-75 
 
 12. " (red) 18-92 
 
 13. Lisbon 18-94 
 
 14. Malaga (1(566) 18-94 
 
 15. Bucelias . : . . . 18-49 
 10. Red Madeira. 22-30 
 
 " " . 18-40 
 
 17. Cape Muschat 18-26 
 IS. Cape Madeira 22-94 
 " " 20-50 
 
 " " 18-11 
 
 19. Stein wine... 10 60 
 ■30. Grape wine . . 18-11 
 
 21. Calcarella... 19-20 
 
 " ...18-10 
 
 22. Vidonia 19-25 
 
 23. Alhz. Flora . . 17-26 
 
 24. Malaga 17-20 
 
 25. White Hermi- 
 
 tage 17-43 
 
 26. Eousillon 19-00 
 
 .... 17-26 
 
 27. Alcatico 16-20 
 
 ■28. ^Etna 30-00 
 
 29. Claret 17-11 
 
 " 16-32 
 
 " 14-08 
 
 " 12-91 
 
 30. Malmsey Ma- 
 
 deira .'. 16-40 
 
 31. Lunol 16-52 
 
 3-'. Sheraaz <red) 15-52 
 
 " .cnrbite) 19-30 
 
 22-96 
 
 19-17 
 
 33. Syracuse 16-28 
 
 34. Sauterne 14-22 
 
 35. Grenache . . , . 21-24 
 i. Burgundy . . . 16-60 
 
 ... 15-22 
 
 ...14-53 
 
 ...11-95 
 
 " ' (20 
 
 years in bottle) 12-16 
 
 37. Hoot ..ii-E 
 
 ' 13-00 
 
 ' (old in 
 cask) 8-S 
 
 38. Johannisberger 
 (1788) 8-71 
 
 39. Hudisheimer 
 (1811) 10-72 
 
 40. Rhenish 7-36 
 
 41. Nice 14-36 
 
 42. Barsac 13-36 
 
 43. Tent 13-80 
 
 44. Champagne 
 (still) 13.80 
 
 (spark- - ' 
 
 ling) 12-80 
 
 (red) 12-61 
 
 " 11-30 
 
 i',. RedIIermitagel2-32 
 40. Vinde Grave 13 94 
 12-80 
 
 47. Frontignac . . 12-79 
 
 48. CoteRotie... 12-33 
 
 49. Gooseberry 
 wine 11-84 
 
 50. Orange wine 
 (average of 
 six samples 
 made by a 
 London 
 manufactu- ' 
 rer) jll-2S 
 
 51. Tokay 9-S3 
 
 52. Elder wine . . S-T9 
 
 63. Cider (highest 
 average) ... 9-87 
 
 Cider (lowest ^ - 
 average) . . . ' 5-21 
 
 64. Perry (average 
 of four sam- 
 ples) 7-20 
 
 65. Mead 733 
 
 66. Ale (Burton) 8-83 
 ' (Edinh'rgh) 6-20 
 ' (Dorches- 
 ter) 5 56 
 
 6-80 
 
 Aver- 
 
 17-84 
 
 12-08 
 
 12-01 
 
 15-20 
 
 4-20 
 
 57. Brown stout . 
 
 58. London porter 
 (.average) .. . 
 
 59. London small 
 
 beer (aver- 
 age) 1-28 
 
 60. Brandy 63-39 
 
 61. Rum 63-68 
 
 62. Gin 51-6'0 
 
 63. Scotch -whis- 
 
 ky 64-32 
 
 64. Irish whisky. 63-90 
 
 It is necessary, however, to observe that the propor- 
 tion of alcohol in the same wine varies materially ac- 
 cording to the age of the wine and other circumstan- 
 ces, and that wines having the same quantities, of al- 
 cohol in each may, notwithstanding, differ essentially 
 in every other respect. Practically wines are distin- 
 guished by their color, hardness or softness on the pal- 
 ate, their aroma, and their being still or effervescing. 
 In many cases, too, the same variety of wine may he 
 distinguished into a number of sub-varieties, differing 
 more orless-inoneor more of these particulars. Thus, 
 in the case of Champagne, some varieties are red, and 
 others white or straw-colored ; some are dry and others 
 sweet ; the aroma of one variety differs from that of 
 another; and, while. some are still, others have every 
 different-degree of effervescing power. The same va- 
 riety exists in the case of clarets, and, indeed, of al- 
 most every description of wine. 
 . The differences in the qualities of wines depend part- 
 ly on differences in the vines, but more on the differ- 
 
 ences of the soils in which they are planted, in the ex- 
 posure of the vineyards, and in the itreatment of the 
 grapes, and the mode of manufactviring- the wine. 
 Though the vine grows in every sort of soil, a rising 
 ground, or gently-sloping hill facing the south, with a 
 loose, gravelly, or rather volcanic soil, is by far tlie 
 best situation for a vineyard. It is in such situations 
 that all the finest wines are produced. 
 
 It would be useless, in a work of this kind, to attempt 
 characterizing the different sorts of wine used. Port and 
 sherry have long enjoyed a decided preponderance in 
 the markets ; and it must be admitted thatj when of 
 good, quality and sparingly used, they are very unex- 
 ceptionable wines. But they are often harsh, and have 
 the disadvantage of being strong and heating, so that 
 they can not be taken, to any thing like excess, by 
 most persons "with impunity. They are well enough 
 for a glass or two, but they are not wines for conversa- 
 tion or society. , It is not probable, indeed, had it not 
 been for the high differential duties with, which. French 
 wines were so long. burdened, that the use of port and 
 sherry would ever have been so general ; -and since the 
 abolition of the differential duty in- 1831, French, wines 
 have begun gradually, though slowlj', to make their way 
 from the highest, to which they have hitherto been most- 
 ly confined, among the middle classes. They are, indeed, 
 superior in almost all respects to every other variety. 
 The best growths of claret. Champagne, and Burgundy, 
 seem to unite all the qualities required to constitute 
 perfect wines. Had they been known iji antiquity, we 
 apprehend they would have engrossed most part of the 
 praise so profusely lavished on the Pramnian, Cecuban, 
 Falernian, and other renowned wines of Greece and 
 Rome. — Bi^ande's Diet. 
 
 Ancient Wines. — The wines of Lesbos and Cliios 
 among the Greeks, and the Falernian and Cecuban 
 among the Romans, have acquired an immortality of 
 renown. Great uncertainty, however, prevails as to 
 the nature of these, wines. Dr. Henderson thinks that 
 the most celebrated of them all, the .Falernian, ap- 
 'proached, in its most essential characters, near to Ma- 
 deira. In preparing their wines, the ancients often 
 inspissated them till they became of the consistence of 
 honey, or even thicker. , These were diluted with water 
 previously to their being drunk ; and, indeed, the habit 
 of mixing wine with water seems to have prevailed 
 much more in antiquity than in modern times. 
 
 Modern Wines. — The principal wines made use of in 
 England are port, sherry, claret. Champagne, Madeira, 
 hock, Marsala, Cape, etc. 
 
 Port, the after-dinner wine, is produced in the prov- 
 ince of Upper Douro, in Portugal; and is .shipped at 
 Oporto, whence its name. When it. arrives icEn- 
 gland, it is of a dark purple or inky color; lias a full, 
 rough body, with an astringent bitter-sweet taste, and 
 a strong flavor and odor of brandy... After it has re- 
 mained some years longer in the wood, the sweetness, 
 roughness, and astringency of the flavor abate ; but it 
 is only after it has been kept 10 or 15 years in bottle 
 that the odor of the brandy is completely subdued, and 
 the genuine aroma of the wine developed. When kept 
 to too great an age, it becomes tawny, and loses its - 
 peculiar flavor. During the process of melioration', a 
 considerable portion of the extractive and coloring- 
 matter is precipitated on the sides of the vessels in the 
 form of crust. In some wines this change occurs much 
 earlier than in, others. A large quantity of brandy is 
 always mixed with the wine shipped from Oporto for 
 England. : Genuine unlnixed port-wine is very rarely 
 met with. We have been so long accustomed to the 
 compounded article, that, were it possible to procure it 
 unmixed, it is doubtful whether it would be at all suit- 
 ed to our taste. According to Mr. Brande's' analysis,' 
 on which, howevef, owing, to the differences in the 
 quality of the wine,, no great stress can be laid, port, 
 as used in England, contains about 23 per cent, of 
 .alcphol. 
 
"Expobtation or Wike fkom LiSbo!*, 1853-1855.' 
 
 1975 
 
 WIN 
 
 To wlxEt Porta. 
 
 Aalborg 
 
 Algiers .,,'..^. 
 
 Ajuda : .. . 
 
 Amsterdam 
 
 Angola 4 , . . , 
 
 Australia 
 
 Bahia...: 
 
 Bengueia ...•' 
 
 Bergeu; w *.,, 
 
 Bissau,...., ..^y.f ., 
 
 Bologne ,,',.'.. 
 
 Bristol 
 
 EuBnos Ayres . . . jvli 
 
 Cape Verd ,. 
 
 .Cadiz 
 
 Oeara '. 
 
 China 
 
 Copenhagen 
 
 Cork 
 
 CroliBtadt 
 
 DuBlini . ; 
 
 Eleinore 
 
 Geuoa 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 Glasgow 
 
 Goa . .' 
 
 Gothenburg^...) 
 
 Halifax 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Havre ...i... 
 
 Island of Gorisco . . . . 
 
 Itrageroe 
 
 Leith ....... 
 
 Libau. .. .'. .. 
 
 Liverpopl, ... 
 London .-. . . . 
 
 Macao .'.J^i'. 
 Marauliao.'. . 
 Mar^eUles... 
 
 Memel . 
 Mozambique , . 
 
 Mogador 
 
 Montevideo ... 
 
 Nantes 
 
 Newcastle 
 
 Newfoundland. 
 
 New Yorlc 
 
 Onim 
 
 Ostend. . ...... 
 
 Para ;..,... 
 
 Parahiba 
 
 Pernamhuco .. 
 
 Petersburg 
 
 Plyraohth 
 
 Poole 
 
 Ppytq Alegre . . 
 Portsmouth . . . 
 
 Qiiebec 
 
 Benders.', i — 
 
 Riga 
 
 Eio Grande . . . 
 Rio de Janeiro. 
 fiio la Plata . . . 
 
 ,Rouen , 
 
 Saiifi',., 
 
 .Santos 
 
 Sedbvey.'. . . . . . 
 
 iSingapare , -.u . i 
 
 Sliga...., 
 
 Soderham 
 
 Southampton . . 
 
 ^Stavanger 
 
 Stqelsholm .... 
 
 St. '^Thomas . . . 
 Toulon ....... 
 
 Wlaardingen. . 
 
 I . 18S4. 
 
 Total . 
 
 Pipes. 
 
 68 
 
 855 
 
 769 
 
 3,866 
 
 135 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 "42 
 
 "sot 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 135 
 1 
 T 
 i 
 
 10' 
 !113- 
 
 T26 
 88 
 
 .63. 
 
 ', . 5 
 253 
 
 1,2"T 
 5S4 
 8:5 
 
 86 
 .... .^ 
 
 1 
 6 
 9 
 
 1,216 
 
 1,93T, 
 
 158 
 
 903 
 
 11,6TS 
 
 45T 
 
 10 
 
 I 
 
 "iB 
 1 
 3 
 
 13 
 
 2T,647 
 
 FipoB. 
 
 10 
 
 160. 
 
 2S 
 
 2,964 
 
 93 
 
 13 
 
 .it 
 
 1S4 
 
 426 
 
 6 
 
 '"is 
 
 54 
 40 
 
 4 
 
 'TOT 
 
 18 
 
 T 
 
 " "l 
 
 ?^ 
 311 
 1,198 
 203 
 C59 
 23 
 
 2^ 
 
 1 
 1,051} 
 
 i.'fi'o 
 
 1 
 
 205 
 1 
 
 864 
 14,005 
 
 J* 
 
 39 
 
 1* 
 
 25} 
 
 '"h 
 
 53 
 
 26,968! 
 
 Pipes. 
 12 
 
 2,2TT 
 7T 
 
 H 
 
 "69} 
 
 64 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 108 
 
 U 
 
 ' 'm 
 
 32} 
 
 sn 
 
 803 
 
 631 
 
 866 
 
 23 
 
 ,■ u 
 
 ,56 
 54 
 i 
 
 "in 
 
 322 
 9 
 5} 
 
 636 
 
 i.'p'oo , 
 
 8,835 
 
 ""} 
 } 
 
 1 
 12 
 
 "23} 
 23 
 
 17,790} 
 
 SCMMAKT OF T^E ExPOBTAWON Of OiL, BbaKBT, 
 
 FsoM Lisbon the Yeabs sfeoified. 
 
 AND Wine 
 
 Years. 
 
 Oil. 
 
 Brandy. 
 
 Wine. 1 
 
 1853 
 
 4106 
 
 269 
 
 2523 
 
 , Pipes. ' 
 
 it 
 
 Pipes. 
 
 27,64T 
 25,966 
 17,790 
 
 1854 
 
 1865 
 
 Total 
 
 6998 
 
 168 
 
 71,403 
 
 Oporto Wine Coi/jpony.— The quality of the wine 
 shipped from Oporto has been materially injured by 
 the monopoly so long enjoyed by the Oporto Wine 
 Company. This company was originally foimded in 
 
 1756, during the admiriiatration of the Marqiiis Pom- 
 bal. A certain extent of territory was marked out by 
 its charter as the only district on the Douro in which 
 wine could be raised for exportation : the absolute dis-' 
 posal of the wines raised in this district was placed in 
 the hands of the company, who were further authorized 
 to fix the prices to be paid for them to the cultivators, 
 to prepare them for exportation, and to fix the price at 
 which they should besold to foreigners ! It is obvious 
 that a company with such powers could not be any 
 thing else than an intolerable. nuisance. What could 
 be more arbitrary and unjust than to interdict the ex- 
 port of all wines raised out of the limits of the com- 
 pany's territory? But even in its own district, its 
 proceedings were oppressive and injurious. The com- 
 pany annually fixed, by a fiat of their own, two rates 
 of prices^ — one for the t^nho defeiloria^ or wine for ex- 
 portation ; the other for inhho de ramo^ or wine for home 
 consumption — atwhich the cultivators were to be paid, 
 whatever might be the quality of tlieir wines ! They 
 had, therefore, no motive to exert superior skill and 
 ingfenuity; but contented theirtselves with endeavor- 
 ing to raise, at the least possible expeiise, the greatest 
 suppl}' of viriho defiUbria, for which the company al- 
 lowed the highest price, , All emulation was thus ef- 
 fectuallj- extinguished,' and the proprietors who pos- 
 sessed vineyards of a superior quality adulterated their 
 wines with inferior growths, so as to reduce them to 
 the average standard. *' In this way,." says Dr. Hen- 
 derson, " the finer prodlicts of the Douro vintages hare 
 remained, in a great measure, unknown to us; and 
 port-wine has come' to be considered as a single liquor, 
 if I may use the expression, of nearly uniform flavor 
 and strength ; varying, it is true, to a certain extent in 
 quality, but stilL-always approaching to a definite 
 standard, and admitting of few degrees of excellence.. 
 The manipulations, the admixtures — in one word, the 
 adulterations — to which the best wines of the Cimo do 
 Douro are subjected, have much the same effect as if 
 all the growths of Burgundywere to be mingled in one 
 immense vat, and sent into the world as the only true 
 ; Burgundian wine. ■ The delicious produce of Rorhan^e;' 
 Chambertin, and. the Clos Voiig^outi would disappear, 
 and in their places'we should find nothing better than 
 a second-rate 'Beaune or .Macon wine." — History of 
 Andeni (end Modern Wines. Not only, however, did 
 the Oporto Wine:Cornpany deteriorate th^ qualify, but 
 ; they also raised the price of their wines to an enor- 
 mous height. Secured against the competition of their 
 countrymen; and enjoying down to^ 1831 a nearly ab- 
 soliite monopoly of the British markets ,for red wines 
 by means of the high duties on those of France, they 
 filled their pockets at our expense. At the very mo- 
 ment when the company were shipping wine for En- 
 , gland at £40 a pipe, they frequently shipped the same 
 wine to other countries, at £20.-^Fleetwood Wil- 
 liams ore the Wine Trade. And the authentic' tables 
 published by Balbi show that the pribe of wiue was 
 trebled and quadrupled under the management of this 
 corporation.^ — Essdi Staiistique sur le Rayanme de Por- 
 
 It is long since the injurious influence of the com- 
 pany on the commerce of England was distinctly 
 perceived and pointed out. So far back as 1767, the 
 Board of Trade laid a memorial before his majesty in 
 council, in which they state, " With respect to many 
 particular regulations of the Oporto Company, whicb 
 we think justly objected to by the merchants as highly 
 grievous and oppressive, we have not thought it neces- 
 sary to enter into a minute description of them, being 
 of opinion that one general' and fatal objection lies 
 against them all; viz., that they all contribute to es- 
 tablish in the company a mondpoly against yohr maj- 
 esty's subjects from which by treatj- they have a right 
 to be exempted." But notwithstanding this ahthori- 
 tative exposition of the injury done to the English by 
 this monopoly, and the esperisnce which every subse- 
 
WIN 
 
 1976 
 
 wm 
 
 quent j'ear afforded of its mischievous influence, such 
 was the inveteracy of ancient prejudice, that it was not 
 till 1831 that we took that step which, had it been 
 taken a century before, would have rid ourselves of its 
 evils as well as a host of others, by equalizing the du- 
 ties on French and Portuguese wines, and putting an 
 end to the injurious preference given to the latter by 
 the Metbuen treaty. In 1833 Don Pedro, whose daugh- 
 ter had been raised to the Portuguese throne mainly 
 by the intervention of the English, issued a decree 
 abolishing the Old Oporto Company. And it might 
 have been ' supposed that once abated, the nuisance 
 would not have been again revived. But such was 
 not the case. A new wine company was subsequently 
 established, with privileges little less oppressive than 
 those of the old company. And as the taste for French 
 wine had made little progress among us in the interval, 
 vfe suflered from the monopoly and adulterations prac- 
 ticed and sanctioned by the new company, as we had 
 done from those of its predecessor. Its mischievous 
 influence being further aggravated by a heavy export 
 duty on wine shipped to any port in Europe, was lat- 
 terly so intolerable, that to defeat it considerable quan- 
 tities of port were imported by the circuitous route of 
 the United States. However, the firm remonstrances 
 of the British government, and the growing dissatis- 
 faction of the Portuguese themselves, have at length 
 succeeded in establishing a more equitable and less 
 illiberal system. In October 1852, the new company 
 was abolished, equal duties (about 14s. a pipe) were 
 imposed on all wines exported, and considerable, though 
 not entire, freedom was given to the trade. — For fur- 
 ther details, see article Oporto. 
 
 Sherry is of a deep amber color ; when good, it has a 
 fine aromatic odor; its taste is warm, with some de- 
 gree of the agreeable bitterness of the peach kernel. 
 When new, it tastes harsh and fiery ; it is mellowed 
 by being allowed to remain 4 or 5 yeats or longer in 
 the wood ; but it does not attain to its full flavor and 
 perfection until it be kept for 15 or 20 years. It is a 
 very strong wine, containing about 19 per cent, of 
 alcohol. It is principally produced in the vicinity of 
 Xeres, not far from Cadiz, in Spain. It is very ex- 
 tensively used in England as a dinner wine. Dry 
 sherrj', or amontiUado, when genuine and old, fetches a 
 very high price. Perhaps no wine is so much adulter- 
 ated as sherry. With the exception of Marsala, the 
 cbnsumption of sherry has been far more influenced 
 than that of any other wine hy the reduction of the 
 duties in 1825. In 1852 the quantity retained for 
 home consumption amounted to 2,606,857 gallons, be- 
 ing 458,000 gallons more than double the quantity re- 
 tained for consumption at an average of 1823 and 1824. 
 
 The province of Valencia, in Spain, produces a great 
 variety of wines. Large quantities of a strong, sweet- 
 ish red wine, called Benicarlo, from the port whence it 
 is shipped, is exported to Cette. It is thence conveyed, 
 by the Canal of Languedoc, to Bordeaux, where it is 
 mixed np with the poorer sorts of the wines of the 
 Gironde, to which it gives color, body, and durability. 
 The Val de Peiias, a pleasant red wine of La Mancha, 
 said by Swinburne to be " the most drinkable, for com- 
 mon use, of any in Spain" (^Travels in Spain, p. 319, 4to 
 ed.), has probably been commended beyond its deserts. 
 But in whatever estimation it may be held in its native 
 province, we doubt whether it is ever likely to be ac- 
 ceptable to foreigners. When carried to the coast, it 
 is conveyed in goat skins smeared with pitch. This 
 gives it the olor de bota, by which it is disagreeably 
 distinguished. 
 
 Claret, the term generally used in England, though 
 not in France, to designate the red wines, the produce 
 of the Gironde. Of these, Lafitte, Latour, Chateau- 
 Margaux, and Haut-Brion, are so generally and de- 
 servedly esteemed, that they always sell at 20 to 30 
 per cent, higher than any others of the department. 
 The first-mentioned is the most choice and delicate, 
 
 and is characterized by its silky softness on the palate, 
 and its charming perfume, which partakes of that of 
 the violet and the raspberry. The Latour has a fuller 
 body, and at the same time a considerable aroma, but 
 wants the softness of the Lafitte. The Chateau-Mar- 
 gaux, on the other hand, is lighter, and possesses all 
 the delicate qualities of the Lafitte, except that it has 
 not quite so high a flavor. The Haut-Brion, again, 
 has more spirit and body than any of the preceding, 
 but is rough when new, and requires to be kept six or 
 seven years in the wood ; while the others become fit for 
 bottling in much less time. 
 
 Among the second-rate wines, that of Bozan, in the 
 parish of St. Margaux, approaches in some respects to 
 the growth of the Chateau-Margaux ; Gorce, in the 
 same territory, is little inferior to Latour ; and the 
 vineyards of Leoville, Larose, Bran-Mouton, Pichon- 
 Longueville, and Calon, in the canton of Fauillac, af- 
 ford wines of good flavor, which, in favorable years, 
 have much of the excellence of the finer growths, from 
 which, indeed, some of the best can with difiiculty be 
 distinguished. Among the third and fourth class wines 
 are those of Pauillac, St. Julien de Kegnac, St. Estephe, 
 Canon, St. Emilion, the wines of Haut Medoc, etc. 
 These have each some distinguishing peculiarity ; but 
 it requires a connoisseur to discriminate between the 
 cognate varieties. In good j'ears the quality is very 
 superior. The aroma of the first growths is seldom 
 fully developed till after they have been kept eight or 
 nine years ; but the secondary qualities come to perfec- 
 tion a year or two sooner. The color often grows darker 
 as the wine advances in age, in consequence of the depo- 
 sition of a portion of its tartar; but when well made, 
 and thoroughly fined, ■ it seldom deposits any crust. 
 See the valuable work of Dr. Henderson on Ancient 
 and Modern Wines; and Jullien, Topoffraphie de Vigno- 
 bles. Bordeaux wines are very rarely exported in a 
 state of purity. We have given in the article Bor- 
 deaux some account of the treatment to which those 
 shipped for England are subjected, and to it we beg to 
 refer the reader. 
 
 Champagne — so called from the province of France, 
 of which it is the produce — is one of the most deserved- 
 ly esteemed of the French wines. The wines of Cham- 
 pagne are divided into the two grand classes of white 
 and red wines, and each of these, again, into still and 
 sparkling ; but there is a great variety in the flavor of 
 the produce of different vineyards. Sillery is univers- 
 ally allowed to be the best of the still wines. It is 
 dry, of a light amber color, has considerable body, and 
 a charming aroma. " Le corps" (says M. Jullien), " le 
 spiritueux, le charmant bouquet, et les vertus toniques 
 dont il est pourvu, lui assurent la priority sur tons les 
 autres." — Topographie de ious les Vignobles. Dr. Hen- 
 derson agrees with Jullien in considering it as one of 
 the wholesoniest of the Champagne wines. The spark- 
 ling wines are, however, the most popular, at least in 
 England. Of these, the wine of Ay, five leagues south 
 from Bheims, is perhaps the best. It is lighter and 
 sweeter than Sillery, and has an exquisite flavor and 
 aroma. That which merely creams on the surface 
 (demi-mousseiix) is preferred to the full frothing wine 
 {grand-mousseux). Being bright, clear, and sparkling, 
 it is as pleasing to the eye as it is grateful to the palate. 
 
 *' Cemis micanti concolor ut vitro 
 Latex in auras, gemmeus aspici, 
 Scintillet exultim; utque dulces 
 Karibus illecebras propiuet 
 "Succi latentis proditor halitusi 
 Ut spuma motu lactea turbido 
 GryGtallinum Ifetis referre 
 Mox oculis properet nitorem." 
 
 Hautvilliers, about four leagues from Bheims and 
 one from Epernay, used formerly to produce wine that 
 equaled, and sometimes surpassed, the wine of Ay. 
 But it is no longer cultivated with the same care ; so 
 that, though still very good, it only ranks in the second 
 
WIN 
 
 1977 
 
 WIN 
 
 class. The best of the red wines of Champagne are 
 those of Verzy, Verzenay, Maily, Bouzy, and St. Basle. 
 " lis ont une belle couleur, du corps, du spiritueux, et 
 surtout beauconp de finesse, de s&ve, et de bouquet."— r 
 JnLLiEN. The Clos St. Thierry, in the vicinity of 
 Bheims, produces wine which, according to JuUien, 
 unites the color and the aroma of Burgundy to the 
 lightness of Champagne. The province of Cham- 
 pagne produces altogether about 1,100,000 hectolitres 
 of wine ; of which, however, the finest growths make 
 but a small part. The principal trade in wine is car- 
 ried on at Bheims, Avise, and Epernay. The vaults 
 in which the vintages are stored are excavated in a 
 rock of calcareous tufa to the depth of 30 or 40 feet. 
 Those of M. Moet, at Epernay, are the most extensive, 
 and few travelers pass through the place without go- 
 ing to see them. The briskest wines (^grands-mout- 
 
 aeux) keep the worst Jullibs. 
 
 Burgundy. — The best wines of this province, though 
 not so popular as those of Champagne, probably be- 
 cause they are very apt to be injured bj' a sea- voyage, 
 enjoy the highest reputation. " In richness of flavor 
 and perfume, and all the more delicate qualities of the 
 juice of the grape, thej' unquestionably rank as the 
 first in the world ; and it was not without reason that 
 the dukes of Burgundy, in former times, were desig. 
 nated as the princes des tons vins." — Henderson, M, 
 JuUien is not less decided : "Les vins des premiers 
 crus, lorsqu'ils proviennent d'une bonne ann^e, reunis 
 sent, dans de justes proportions, toutes les qualUes qui 
 constituent les vms parfaiis; ils n*ont besoin d'aucun 
 melange, d'aucune preparation pour attendre leur plus 
 haut degrS de perfection. Ces operations, que Ton 
 
 qualilie dans certains pays de soins qui aident a la qua- 
 lit6, sont toujours nuisibles aux vins de Bourgogne." 
 
 Romane-Conti, Chambertin, the Clos Vougedt, and 
 liichebourg, are the most celebrated of the red wines 
 of Burgundy. Chambertin was the favorite wine of 
 Louis XIV. and of Napoleon. It is the produce of a 
 vineyard of that name, situated seven miles south from 
 Dijon, and furnishing each year from 130 to 150 pun- 
 cheons, from an extent of about 65 acres. It has a 
 fuller body and color, and greater durability, than the 
 Romane, with an aroma nearly as fragrant. The white 
 wines of Burgundy are less numerous, and, consequent- 
 ly, less generally known, than the others ; but they 
 maintain the highest rank among French white wines, 
 and are not inferior to the red either in aroma or flavor. 
 The entire annual produce of wine in Burgundy and 
 Beaujolais may at present be estimated, at an average, 
 at nearly 3,500,000 hectolitres, of which about 750,000 
 suffice for the consumption of the inhabitants. Since 
 the revolution, the cultivation of the vine has been 
 greatly extended in the province. Many of the new 
 vineyards having necessarily been planted in compar- 
 atively unfavorable situations, a notion has been gain- 
 ing ground that the wines of Burgundy are degenera» 
 ting. This, however, is not the case. On the con- 
 trary, the quantity of bans crus, instead of being dimin- 
 ished, has increased considerably ; though, as the sup- 
 ply of inferior wines has increased in a still greater de- 
 gree, the fine wines bear a less proportion to the whole 
 than they did previously to the revolution. — Jullien. 
 The principal trade in Burgundy is carried on at Dijon, 
 Gevrey, Chalons-sur-Saone, etc. Besides the above, 
 France has a great variety of other excellent wines. 
 
 AOOOITNT OF THE QUANTITIES AND VALUE OP TUB WiNBS EXPOETED FROM FeANOE IN 1852 ; DISTINGUISHING BETWEEN 
 THOSE OF TUE GlEONDE AND THOSE OF OTHEE DEPAETMENTB, AND BETWEEN THOSE EXPORTED IN CASKS AND BOTTLES ; 
 AND SPECIFYING THE QUANTITIES OP THOSE SENT TO EACH COUNTRY AND THEIR TOTAL VALUE. — (ADMINISTRATION DES 
 DOUANBS FOR 1852, p. 241.) 
 
 Countries to which 
 exported. 
 
 Wine in Casks. 
 
 Of the Girondo. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Of other Departments. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Wine in Bottles. 
 
 Of the Gironde. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Of other Departments. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Russia 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Norway 
 
 Denmark 
 
 German League 
 
 Holland 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Hanse Towns 
 
 Hanover 
 
 Mecklenburg Scltweiin 
 
 England 
 
 Spain 
 
 Austria 
 
 Sardinian States 
 
 The Two Sicilies 
 
 Tuscany ....'. 
 
 Xtoman States 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Turkey 
 
 Egypt 
 
 Algeria 
 
 Mauritius -. 
 
 India, English 
 
 " Dutch 
 
 " French 
 
 United States 
 
 Hayti 
 
 Cuba and Porto Rico. . 
 
 St. Thomas 
 
 Jirazll . . . ; 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 New Granada 
 
 Peru 
 
 Chili 
 
 Rio de la Plata 
 
 Uruguay 
 
 Guadaloupe 
 
 Martinique 
 
 Bourbon 
 
 Senegal 
 
 Cayenne 
 
 Fisheries 
 
 Guatemala 
 
 Other places 
 
 Totals 
 
 Hectolitres. 
 
 22,610 
 
 1,237 
 
 2,SU 
 
 8,586 
 
 31,640 
 
 T8,192 
 
 68,365 
 
 88,536 
 
 14,908 
 
 2,535 
 
 10,174 
 
 2.307 
 51,942 
 3,125 
 8,014 
 1,«42 
 161,970 
 
 3,139 
 
 6,267 
 2,639 
 1,369 
 
 3,"l89 
 6,674 
 17,157 
 25,566 
 8,233 
 7,429 
 36,016 
 10,216 
 2,794 
 1,803 
 
 6,379 
 
 Hectolitres. 
 18,549 
 4,643 
 2,003 
 7,720 
 9,183 
 14,013 
 33,362 
 65,111 
 
 16, 
 
 9, 
 627, 
 
 7, 
 
 126, 
 
 3, 
 
 7, 
 
 407, 
 
 29,682,064 
 
 2,886 
 
 42,510 
 
 4,189 
 19.'021 
 
 Hectolitres. 
 
 814 
 162 
 
 'isi 
 
 384 
 
 642 
 
 459 
 
 2,727 
 
 4,9T0 
 486 
 218 
 
 38,364,132 
 
 371 
 
 681 
 
 1,080 
 
 241466 
 
 1,812 
 295 
 
 4,036 
 529 
 
 8,206 
 
 8,097 
 
 676 
 
 1,062 
 
 283 
 
 1,033 
 
 8,072,610 
 
 Hectolitres. 
 7.324 
 560 
 
 5,599 
 
 l6,9>)6 
 2,900 
 
 10,368 
 815 
 420 
 1,633 
 577 
 438 
 306 
 652 
 993 
 563 
 517 
 
 '422 
 
 19,101 
 657 
 1.660 
 8T6 
 6^4 
 678 
 521 
 417 
 910 
 779 
 
 '469 
 
 534 
 
 1,97;! 
 
 19,284,658 
 
 690,867 
 
 29,682,064 
 
 1.698,505 
 
 56,060 
 
 8,012.610 
 
 74,172 
 
 19,281,658 
 
WIN 
 
 1"978' 
 
 wm 
 
 ■ This' makes a total export of 2,419,604 hectolitres, 
 worth 95,403,464 francs, or £3,816,0U0. About ten 
 years ago the exports did' not exceed 1,500,000 hecto- 
 litres, so that there has been a large increase in the in- 
 terval. And were France to adopt a liberal comirier- 
 cial policy, it is not easy to say tb hoW great an ex- 
 tent her exports of wine, in the production of which 
 she is immeasurably superior to every other country, 
 might h'e increased. Exclusive of the above, there 
 were exported from France in the same-year 18,968 
 hectolitres of vins de liqueurs, valued at 2,001,836 francs. 
 
 The total produce of the vineyards of France is es- 
 timated at about 35,000,000 hectolitres (770,000,000 
 ^rop. gallons), worth 540,000,000 francs (£21,600,000). 
 We beg to refer the reader to the article Bordeaux 
 for an account of the influence of the French system of 
 commercial policyon this great department of indus- 
 try. The question, whether the wines of Champagne 
 or Burgundy were entitled to the preference, was agi- 
 tated during the reign of Louis XIVi with extraordi- 
 nar}' keenness^ The celebrated Charles Coffin, rector 
 of the University of Beauvais, published^ during this 
 controversy, the classical ode, partly quoted above, in 
 which Champagne is eulogized, and its superiority vin- 
 dicated with a spirit, vivacity, and delicacy worthy of 
 the theme. The citizens of Rheims were not ungrate- 
 ful to the poet, but liberally rewarded him with an 
 appropriate and munitioent donation of the wine he 
 had' so happily panegyrized. Greneau wrote an ode 
 in praise of Burgundy;' but, unlike its subject, it was 
 flat and insipid, and failed to procure any recompense 
 to its author. The different pieces in this amusing 
 controversy were collected and published in octavo, at 
 Paris, in 1712. — See Le Grand d'Adssv, Vie Privee 
 des Franiais, and the Bior/raphie Universelle, art. Coffin 
 (Charles). Erasmus attributes the restoration of his 
 health to his having drunk liberally of Burgundy ; and 
 has eulogized it in the most extravagant terms. An 
 epistle of his, quoted by Le Grand d'Aussy, shows that 
 Falstaft>nd he would have spent an evening together 
 more agreeably than might have been supposed : " Le 
 premier qui enseigna I'art de faire ce Vin (Bourgogne), 
 ou qui en fit present, nB doit-il point passer plutot pour 
 nous avoir donne la vie que pour nous avoir gratifie 
 d'une liqueur." — Vie Pi-ivee des Frangais. 
 
 Bordeaux Vintage of 1856. — The following table ex- 
 hibits the yield of wine in the Girondein years of full 
 crop, compared with the actual yield of 1856, and the 
 prices ruling at the close of the year: 
 
 
 Full Crop 
 
 Crop 
 
 Price per 
 
 
 of former 
 
 of 
 
 ;Bb]. of four 
 
 
 Venn. 
 
 1856. 
 
 Hhda. 
 
 
 BbU. 
 
 Bbli. 
 
 Franca. 
 
 Chateau Latour, St. Lambert . . 
 
 80 
 
 30 
 
 5600@6TOO 
 
 Chateau Laflte, Pauillao 
 
 125 
 
 50 
 
 5600@ST00 
 
 MoLiton, Brurie, Pauillac 
 
 8* 
 
 SO 
 
 5000 
 
 Gniaud, Larose, St. Julien 
 
 159 
 
 23 
 
 4000 
 
 Pichon Long:ueville, St. Lam- \ 
 
 100 
 
 11 
 
 4000 
 
 bert ( 
 
 
 
 
 Cos. Destournel, St. Esteppe . . 
 
 125 
 
 30 
 
 3T00 
 
 Lagrange, Cabarrus, St. Julien 
 
 225 
 
 4b 
 
 3000 
 
 
 45 
 
 32 
 BO 
 
 8 
 4 
 33 
 
 3000 
 3000 
 2400 
 
 
 Milon, Duhart, Pauillac 
 
 PonlGt Canet, Pauillac 
 
 140 
 
 35 
 
 2000 
 
 
 90 
 90 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 2O0O 
 2000 
 
 Ijruno Devez, St, Laurent 
 
 Chateau d'Auzac, Labarde 
 
 75 
 
 21 
 
 2000 
 
 Cos. Labory, St. Eatephe 
 
 90 
 
 . 21 
 
 2000 
 
 Lynch, Moussas, Pauillac 
 
 60 
 
 25 
 
 2000 
 
 Ducasse, MousBas, Pauillac . . . 
 
 110 
 
 30 
 
 2000 
 
 
 160 
 35 
 
 30 
 
 8 
 
 2000 
 2000 
 
 Solberg, MacDaniel, Margaux . 
 
 I85S. 
 
 
 
 
 Chateau Lafite, Pauillac 
 
 125 
 
 60 
 
 8000 
 
 Mouton, Brune, Pauillac;. 
 
 80 
 
 Wi 
 
 2800 
 
 WuiTE Wines. 
 
 PriceiperBbl. 
 , of four Hhds. 
 
 1856. Entre-deux-meres francs 825® 380 
 
 Cutest " 450® 600 
 
 PetitPreignac " 800 
 
 Petit Boutoc. " 1000 
 
 , Madeira — so called from the island of that name^s 
 
 a wine that has long been in high estimation in this 
 and other countries. Plants of the vine were conveyed 
 from Crete to Madeira in' 1421, and have succeeded ex- 
 tremely well. There is a considerable diiference in the 
 flavor and other qualities of the wines of IVladeira -. the 
 best are produced on the south side of the island. 
 Though naturally strong; they receive an addition of 
 brandy when racked from the vessels in which they 
 have been fermented, ani allother portion is thrown 
 in previously to their exportation. This is said to be 
 requiried to sustain the wine in the high temperature 
 to which it is subjected in its passage to and from In- 
 dia and China, to which" large Quantities 6f it are sent, 
 it being fbund that it is mellowed and its iflavor ma- 
 terially improved by the voyage. It does not, how- 
 ever, necessarily follow that the wines which have 
 made the longest voj-ages are alwtys the best. Much 
 must obviously depend on the original quality of the 
 wine; and' many of the parcels selected to be sent to 
 India are so inferior, that the wine, when brought to 
 London, does not rank so high as that which has been 
 imported direct. But when the' parcel sent out has 
 been well chosen, it is very much matured and im- 
 proved by the voyage; and it not only fetches a high- 
 er price, but is in all respects superior to the direct 
 importations. Most of the adventitious spirit is dis- 
 sipated in the course of the Indian voyage, 
 
 Madeira wines may be kept for a very* long period. 
 " Like the ancient vintages of the Surrentine hills, they 
 are truly JirmisHma t-ina, retaining their qtialities un- 
 impaired in both extremes of cliinate, suffering no de- 
 cay, and constantly improving as they advance in age. 
 Indeed, they can not be pronounced in condition until 
 they have been kept for ten years in the wood, and 
 afterward allowed to mellow nearly twice that time in 
 bottle; and even then they will hardly have reached 
 the utmost perfection of which they are susceptible. 
 When of good quality, and matured as above described, 
 they lose all their original harshness, and acquire that 
 agreeable pungency, that bitter sweetishness, which 
 was so highly prized in the choicest wines of antiquity, 
 uniting great strength' and richness of flavor with an 
 exceedingly fragrant and diffusible aroma, The nutty 
 taste, which is often very marked, is not communica- 
 ted, as some have imagined, by means of bitter alm- 
 onds, but is inherent in the wine." — Henderson. 
 
 Thcf wines of Madeira have latterly fallen into dis- 
 repute in England. The growth of the island, when 
 greatest, was very limbed— flot exceeding 20,000 pipes, 
 of which a considerable quantity went to the West In- 
 dies and America. Hence, when Madeira was a fash- 
 ionable wine in England, every sort of deception was 
 practiced with respect to it, and large quantities of 
 spurious trash were disposed of for the genuine vintage 
 of the island. This naturally brought the wine into 
 discredit, so that sherry' has been for several years the 
 fashionable white wine. It is difficult, however, to im- 
 agine that adulteration was ever practiced to a greater! 
 extent upon Madeira than it is now practiced upon sher- 
 ry. It is not, therefore, improbable that a reaction may 
 take place in favor of Madeira. The quantity entered 
 for borne consumption in England in 1827 amounted to 
 1 308,295 gallons, whereas the quantity entered for home 
 consumption in 1852 ^mounted to only 69,730 gallons. 
 ' Malmseyl a very rich, luscious species of Madeira, is 
 made from grapes grown on rocky grounds exposed to 
 the full influence of the sun's rays, and allowed to re- 
 main on th? vine till they are over-ripe. The trade in 
 Madeira wine is carried on at Funchal, the capital of 
 the island, in lat. 32° 37' N., long. 17° 6'"W. Weights 
 and measures same as at Lisbon. Madeira is said to 
 have suffered very severely from the disease that has 
 recently attacked the vine. 
 
 Tenerijfe wine — so caBed from the island of that name 
 — resembles Madeira, and is not uirfrequently substi- 
 tuted in its stead ; but it wants the full body and rich 
 flavor of the best growths of Madeira. 
 
WEST 
 
 1979 
 
 WIN 
 
 German, :Wmes.-uTh& wine? of Germany imported 
 into England are prineipaliy produced, on the banks 
 of the Khine andMoseUe. ' The Rhine wines consti- 
 tute a distinct order by themselves.! • They are drier 
 than tlie French white wines, and are characterized 
 by a delicate flavor and aroma, called in the country 
 garet which ia quite peculiar to them, s^nd Cf wUch it 
 ■would, therefore, be in vain toiattemptithe description. 
 A notion prevails that they are naturally aoid, artdtbe 
 inferior Itinds, no doubt,iare so; but this lis not the 
 constant character of the Bhine "wines,, which in good 
 years have no perceptible aciditj' to the taste, at least 
 not nibre than is Common to them with the growths 
 of warmer regions. Their chief distinction is their ex- 
 treme durability. Tlie wines made in warm, dry years 
 are always in great demand, amlfettth.very higb prices. 
 The Johannisberger. stands at the head of the Rhine 
 wiries. It has a very choice flavoa: and perfume; and 
 isi characterized by an alr^ost total. want, of acidity-. 
 The vineyard is the property of' Prince Mettecnich. 
 The Stiainberger ranlis pext to thd Joharinisberger. It 
 is the strongest of all the-Khenish wines,, and in favor- 
 able years'has much flavor and delicacy. The produce 
 of certain vineyards on the banks of the Moselle is of' 
 superior quality. The- better sorts ars clear and dry, 
 with alighty pleasant flavor'and high aroma; but they 
 sbmetimes contract a slaty taste from the^strata on 
 which they grow. They arrive at matuiSty in five or 
 six years ; though, when made in a fa\iorable season, 
 they will keep twice that time withoiit experiencing 
 any deterioration. — Henderson on Wines. 
 
 Tolcaij — so called from a townin Hungary, near which 
 it is prodacedVon the' Theiss, 44:iniles'north-northwest 
 from Debneczin. It is the finest of all the liqueur wines. 
 It consists of three varieties, viz. : the Esseac^ flowing 
 spbntaneously from the ripestigrapes, 'and correspond- 
 ing with the Mustum sprnitei defluent amtequcum calcentur 
 MBOB.of the ancients ;i theAueirucIn, obtained by press- 
 ing the grapes with theihand,ia!^maill quantity of good 
 new wine, or must, being at the same time poured over 
 them ; and the Maslas^or inferior variety, produced'by- 
 pouring a larger ^uatitit^ of less choice must over the 
 same berries, and subjecting them to the action of the 
 press. Of these 'varieties, the first, :Which is made only 
 invery small-quantities, is in the highest degree sweet 
 and luscious, and is more sought for as a -rarity than 
 as being pleasant to the palate. It is- on the Ausbruch 
 that the reputation of Tokay depends. Mr. Paget says, 
 "It is sweet, rich, but not cloying; strong; full-bodied, 
 but mild, bright, and dear ; audi has a peculiar flavor 
 of most exquisite delicacy., ' I never tasted it in per- 
 fection tot at private tables, and that only twice; I 
 could them have willingly Confessed, it the finest win^ 
 in the world." The Maslas, or inferior variety, is a 
 much thinner wine, rather sweet, with a preponder- 
 ating flavor of 'the/ dried grape. Mr. Paget' estimates 
 the entire produce of the Tokay vineyards in ordinary 
 years at about 250,000 eimers, of about sixteen bottles 
 each. The best Ausbruch is very dear, and but little 
 that is genuine is seen in England; — ^Paget.'s Travels 
 m:i Hungary, i. 481;'Hbndekson, p. 228; Jdllien, p. 
 446. ; .-.,■"..'- _ •;=- ' 
 
 Italian Wines. — The Sicilian white wine called Mar- 
 sala, from the town (the p.noient Lilybceura) whence it 
 is shipped, and. near which it is made, is now pretty 
 largely consumed is England; the entries for home 
 consumption having increased from 79,686 gallons' in 
 1823 to 387,750 in 1852 ; an extraordinary increase, 
 particularly when it is considered that during the same 
 period, the consumption of most sorts of wine hasbeen 
 nearly stationary, iatterly, however, it has been 
 rather i declining. . Marsala is' a dry wine, the best 
 qualities closely resembling the lighter sorts of Ma^ 
 deira ; but the increased demand for it seems to have 
 been owing as much to its cheapness as to any pecul- 
 iarity of quality. It is, however!, when good, an agree- 
 able dinner wine.. Marsala Iia& been brought to its 
 
 present state of perfection and repute by the care and 
 exertions of two Englishmen, the Messrs. Woodhouse, 
 established ill Sicily, who have an extensive factory in 
 the neighborhood of Marsala. The wine is shipped in 
 large quantities for America, whence a considerable 
 quantity is again conveyed to the West Indies, where 
 it is not tmftequently disposed' of as real Madeira. 
 With th6 exception of Marsala, very little wine either 
 of Sicily or Italy is imported into England.' The wines 
 oC'tho^a countries are, indeed, 'ivithout perhaps a single 
 exception, very inferior to those of Eranlcei The na- 
 tives bestow no care upon the culture ofthe vine, and 
 'their ignorance,,' obstinacy, and" ■Want of skill in the 
 preparation of wine, are said to be almost incredible. 
 In some distrlctsj as in Tuscany and parts of Naples, 
 the. art is, no doubt, better- understood and practiced 
 than in others; the Montepttlciano of the former, said, 
 by S^dit (Bacco in Toscana},iobe cSogni vino il re, and 
 the Ijocrima Christi of the latter, heing the most cele- 
 brated varieties. iButthe lacrlma is bVtter known by 
 name than in reality, it being made in small quanti- 
 ties, and mostly reserved for the royal- cellars. — Hen- 
 derson. Andj despite the superior quality of those 
 now mentioned,' had not- the ' Falernian, Cecuban, and 
 other famous ancient ■wines, been incomparably better 
 than the best of those that are at present produced, 
 they never would have elicited the glowing- pamegyr.- 
 i«s of Horace. — M'CnLLOCH's Com. Diet. 
 
 Few things are more striking to a visitor in Italy 
 from the northof Europe than the straiglit rows of 
 trees of all kinds that run through the corn-fields, at 
 the foot'of Tfhich vines are planted, and trained so as 
 to extend in elegant feitoons from one tree to another, 
 exhibiting the pendent clusters of grapes. If the same 
 ' mode of training'thevines were attempted in the some- 
 what colderciimates of 'France and Germany, the shade 
 of the trees ■would prevent the grapes from ripening.- 
 TMs effect is not produced, in Lombardyj where the 
 berries become ripe, and; when eaten, are of good fla- 
 vor ; but the win^ produced from them is, in general, 
 of a bad or v&vy indiffferent quality.; iThough'much of 
 the wine is -produced from such vines- in the corn-fields 
 as are. distinguished' by the names of Campi Arativi 
 Vitati, or of Campi Arb'arati Vitati, and from vines plants 
 ed in rows at such a distance from each other as to'ad- 
 mit of maize 'being grown between them, and called 
 Ronehi; yet in some parts are vineyards properly so 
 called, because, like those of: France and Germanj', 
 they alone'occupy- the ground, and. are, like them, siip- 
 ported by props. The best wine is produced from the 
 Ronehi, and more especially from, the yineyards prop- 
 erly, so called, in which, however, each vine produces 
 less in quantity than those trained from tree to .tjee. 
 The amount of produce varies greatly according to 
 different years, different districts, and different modes 
 of cultivation. From an approximate estimation made 
 on many farms of various soils, it wonld appear that 
 in the, most productive districts the average produce 
 of large'vines trained to- the trees around the' corn- 
 fields is from 4S to 52 gallons for 100 vines ; and the 
 average produce of vineyards, properly' so called, from 
 58 to 65 gallons of wine to the acre. ■'• ■ 
 
 In Lombardy the wine is generally of a bad quality. 
 Its production is left chjefly to that, description of [Cul- 
 tivators before noticed under the name of colonists, 
 who. exercise little discretion and little care, either in 
 the choicer of the, -kind of grapes they plant or in the 
 management of the juice.- Their chief care is to' ob- 
 tain !the largest quantity, without much regard to the 
 flavor or the aptitude of keeping ; and ,commorily, as 
 soon as it is madej they divide it in equal shares with 
 their landlords. One cause to which the inferiority 
 of the ■Wine is attributed arises from the general predi- 
 lection in favor of red wine, or, as it is called, W^o 
 Nero, which is prized according to the darkness of its 
 color. In order to produce this deep color, the skins 
 of the grapes are left, in the first part of the process. 
 
WIN 
 
 1980 
 
 WJJN 
 
 to ferment with the juice. Sometimes this is suffered 
 to continue during eight or ten days in a vat before 
 the liquor is drawn off, and sometimes still longer, as 
 the longer it continues the darker the wine becoines. 
 The best wines are produced in the district near Va- 
 rese, on the sunny slopes of the hills round the lalses 
 of Como and Garda, and in the Val Calleppio, in the 
 province of Bergamo. The wines of the localities of 
 Sassella and Inferno, in the Valtelline, maintain the 
 ancient renown of the Rhaetian wines, relished by Au- 
 gustus and celebrated by Virgil. 
 
 The wine of the Venetian provinces is, upon the 
 whole, of a much better quality ; its superiority is ow- 
 ing to the nature of the soil, to a better choice of the 
 kinds of grapes that are planted, and to the more care- 
 ful preparation of their juice. The best qualities are 
 produced in the province of Treviso, in the Berici and 
 Euganean Hills, between Vicenza and Padua, in some 
 districts of the province of Udine, and, above all, in 
 the province of Verona, well known for its Valpolicella, 
 the best common wine in the kingdom. 
 
 There is no old wine in the country, except in small 
 quantities, and in the hands of a few amateur proprie- 
 tors. The wine of each vintage is sold in the course 
 of the following year ; and when any of it is kept, even 
 though it should not have become, or shown a tenden- 
 cy to become, vinegar, it will sell at a lower price than 
 new wine, because it is milder, and less agreeable to 
 the taste of the consumer. — E. B. 
 
 Previous to 1851, the annual quantity of wine pro- 
 duced in the kingdom, in average years, was 85,837,705 
 gallons, of which 52,823,203 gallons were produced in 
 the Venetian, and 33,014,502 in the Lombard provinces. 
 The produce of Lombardy not being sufficient for the 
 consumption of its population, nearly 4,402,000 gallons 
 a year more were imported either from the Venetian 
 provinces, which produced much more than was re- 
 quired for their own consumption, or from the neigh- 
 boring states of Modena, Piedmont, and the Papal ter- 
 ritory, according to the respective local produce and 
 prices. But since 1851, when the oidivm attacked all 
 the vines of the country, the produce has so fearfully 
 diminished, that in 1856 the government found it nec- 
 essary to grant a reduction of the direct land-tax on 
 lands chiefly cultivated with vines, in proportion to 
 the ascertained amount of loss. The whole produce 
 of Lombardy in 1852 was reduced to 11,004,834 gallons, 
 and that of the Venetian provinces, in 1854, to 7,538,311 
 gallons of wine. The respective loss of each province 
 was as follows : 
 
 Government of Milan. 
 
 Gallons of Wine produced in 
 
 looc 185Q 
 
 Mantua 10,347,405 3,439,071 
 
 Milan 8,800,585 998,975 
 
 Brescia 3,674,822 747,778 
 
 Pavia 8,264,430 651,112 
 
 Bergamo 2,732,434 1,247,090 
 
 Como 2,665,305 1,988.353 
 
 Cremona 2,063,170 1,981,760 
 
 Sondrio 2,325,100 90,614 
 
 Lodi 1.962,910 964,464 
 
 Total 33,436,251 12,109,213 
 
 Government of Venice. 
 
 Gnllons of Wine produced in 
 
 1847. 18D4. 
 
 Padova 10,454,592 2,631,112 
 
 Vicenza 9,904,350 1,320,580 
 
 Udine 9,.574,206 1,210,532 
 
 Verona 8,683,770 660,290 
 
 Treviso 7,483,287 748,329 
 
 Kovigo 3,961,740 352,154 i 
 
 Venezia 2,751,209 628,232 
 
 Belluno 396,174 187,082 
 
 Total 63,109,328 7,638,311 
 
 Wines of Greece and Cyprus. — The soil in most parts 
 of Greece and of the Grecian islands is admirably fitted 
 for the growth of the vine ; and in antiquity they pro- 
 duced some of the choicest wines. But the rapacity of 
 the Turks, and the insecurity of person and property 
 that has always prevailed under their miserable gov. 
 
 ernment, has eft'ectually prevented the careful cultiva- 
 tion of the vine, and has occasioned in many places 
 its total abandonment- It may, however, be fairl3' 
 presumed, now that Greece has emancipated herself 
 from the iron yoke of her oppressors, that the culture 
 of the vine will attract some portion of that attention 
 to which it is justly entitled, and that at no distant 
 period wine will form an important article of export 
 from Greece. Nowhere, perhaps, has (he destructive 
 influence of Turkish barbarism and misgoveniraent 
 been so apparent as in Candia and Cyprus. While 
 these two renowned and noble islands were possessed 
 by the Venetians they supplied all Europe with the 
 choicest dessert wines. Bacci affirms that, toward the 
 end of the 16th century, Candia sent annually 200,000 
 casks of malmsey to the Adriatic, whereas at present 
 it hardly produces sufficient to supply the wants of its 
 few impoverished inhabitants. — Henderson. The 
 wines of Cyprus, particularly those produced from the 
 vineyard called the Commandery, from its having be- 
 longed to the Knights of Malta, were still more highly 
 esteemed than those of Crete. In the earlier part of 
 last century the total produce of the vintage of the 
 island was supposed to amount to above 2,000,000 gal- 
 lons, of which nearly one half was exported ; but now 
 the wine grown and exported does not amount to one- 
 tenth part of these quantities! The oppression of 
 which they have been the victims has reduced the 
 peasantry to the extreme of indigence. The present 
 population of the island is not supposed to exceed 
 60,000 — a number insufficient to have peopled one of 
 its many ancient cities ; and small as this number is, 
 it is constantly diminishing by the inhabitants avail- 
 ing themselves of every opportunity of emigrating. 
 
 Cape Wines, — The famous Constantia wine is the 
 produce of two contiguous farms of that name at the 
 base of Table Mountain, between eight and nine miles 
 from Cape Town. The wine is very rich and luscious, 
 though, according to Henderson, it yields in point of 
 flavor and aroma to the muscadine wines of Languedoc 
 and Boussillon. But, with this exception, most part 
 of the Cape wines brought to England have an earthy, 
 disagreeable taste, are often acid, want flavor and aro- 
 ma, and are, in fact, altogether execrable. 
 
 American Wine. — The extent of our territory over 
 which the wine culture may be advantageously dif- 
 fused has long afforded a subject of much speculation. 
 It early attracted the attention of the first colonists, 
 who not only attempted to form vineyards of the Eu- 
 ropean vine, but to make wine from our own native 
 grapes. Although the subject has been zealously and 
 sedulously pursued at various periods since, all those 
 dwelling on the easterly half of the continent who have 
 made trial of the foreign grape have never been able 
 to bring their designs to peifection ; and those who 
 have tested their skill in our native varieties have only 
 met with partial success ; j'et a degree of perseverance 
 and enthusiasm seems to have pervaded all the vota- 
 ries of this delightful pursuit, and a warm and mutual 
 interchange of views and sentiments has existed among 
 them, which has been comparatively unknown in otli- 
 er species of culture. Although the operators in re- 
 cent times, from being interspersed over so great an 
 extent of territory, are consequently more widely sep- 
 arated, still the connecting link, by a friendly co-oper- 
 ation in one common cause, may justly and appropri- 
 ately assimilate their united exertions to that joyous 
 period in the history of France when, during the reign 
 of Probus, thousands of all ages and sexes united in 
 one spontaneous and enthusiastic eft'ort for the restora- 
 tion of their vineyards. Indeed, when the far greater 
 limits of our domain are considered, the combined ef- 
 forts of our fellow-countrymen can not fail to produce 
 effects even more important, from the great extent of 
 their influence, and cause each section of our republic 
 reciprocally to respond to the efforts of others, with all 
 their atten<lant advantages and blessings. 
 
WIN 
 
 1981 
 
 WIN 
 
 The earliest attempt to establish a vineyard in the 
 British North American colonies was by the " London 
 Company" in Virginia, prior to 1620. By the year 
 1630 the prospects were sufficiently favorable to war- 
 rant the importation of several French vigneront, who, 
 It was alleged, ruined them by bad management. Wine 
 was also made in Virginia in 1647, and in 1651 premi- 
 ums were offered for its production. On the authority 
 of Beverley, who wrote prior to 1722, there were vine- 
 yards in that colony which produced 750 gallons a year. 
 Beaucharap Plantagenet, In his "Description of the 
 Province of New Albion," published in London in 1648, 
 states that the English settlers in Uvedale (now Del- 
 aware) had vines running on mulberry and sassafras 
 trees, and that there were four kinds of grapes. " The 
 first," says he, "is the Tholouse Muscat, sweet scented; 
 the second, the great foxe and thick grape, after five 
 moneths reaped, being boyled and salted, and well 
 fined, it is a strong red Xeres ; the third, a light clar- 
 et ; the fourth, a white grape, creeps on the land, mak- 
 etli a pure gold-color wine : Tenis Pale, the French- 
 man, of these four made eight sorts of excellent wine ; 
 and of the Muscat, acute boyled, that the second 
 draught will fox [intoxicate] a reasonable pate, four 
 moneths old ; and here may be gathered and made two 
 hundred tun in the vintage moneth, and replanted, will 
 mend." An attempt to establish a vineyard near Phil- 
 adelphia was made by William Penn in 1683 ; also by 
 Andrew Dore in 1685 ; but neither succeeded. 
 
 In 1769 the French settlers on Illinois River made 
 upward of 100 hogsheads of strong wine from the 
 American wild grape. 
 
 The quantity of wine annually produced in the 
 United States has become a subject of some discussion 
 since the appearance of the return in the Seventh 
 Census on that interest. The census of 1810 gave 
 124,000 gallons as the produce of that year. It has 
 been stated in the public prints that since that period 
 the culture of the grape, and the manufacture of wine 
 therefrom, have grown into a business of considerable 
 importance in the States bordering on the Ohio River, 
 and that several hundred acres have been planted in 
 vineyards in that valley, which yield at the rate of 
 more than 45,0i)0 gallons of wine a year. The total 
 product of the Union in 1850 was given at 221,249 
 gallons. But during the intervening period there had 
 been added to our own territory California and New- 
 Mexico, which in tlie latter year produced 60,718 gal- 
 lons. This quantity deducted from the aggregate, 
 leaves 160,531 gallons for the portion of the Union 
 covered by the returns of 1840— indicating a gain of 
 only 36,000 gallons. This is probably an understate- 
 ment, but it seems to prove that no considerable prog- 
 ress has yet been made toward supplying by a home 
 production the demand, to meet which importations 
 "of foreign wines to a verj' large amount are annually 
 made. The consumption of wine in the United States, 
 though by no means general, amounts in the aggregate 
 to a large sum. The imports during the year ending 
 June, 1851, were 6,160,000 gallons, of which probably 
 three-fourths consisted of the wines of France. The 
 value or invoice cost of the article was $2,370,000. 
 The average consumption of foreign wines was, there- 
 fore, in quantity but about one quarter of a gallon for 
 each person, and in value only ten cents. The coinci- 
 dence is somewhat remarkable, that this is almost pre- 
 cisely the rate of consumption of imported wine among 
 the people of Great Britain. But in France, according 
 to official returns, there is produced and retained for 
 consumption 900,000,000 gallons of wine, allowing 25} 
 gallons to each person in the population. 
 
 It appears, from other tables in our census returns, 
 tliat the quantity of ale and spirituous liquors produced 
 in the United States in 1850 exceeded 86,000,000 gal- 
 lons. The amount exported was balanced by the im- 
 ports, and the quantity rejected, in forming the above 
 estimate, for the sake of preserving round numbers; 
 
 the consumption of malt and spirituous liquors for 
 manufacturing purposes, and as a beverage, appears to 
 have been at the rate of nearly four gallons per head. 
 It is the opinion of many, whose inquiries upon the 
 subject entitle them to respect, that among what are 
 called " civilized" nations, the vice of inebriation has 
 always been found 19 prevaiUmost extensively where 
 the vine is not cultivated ; while, on the other hand, 
 where this species of culture is widely disseminated, 
 the temperance of the people is proverbial. If such be 
 the case, we may proudly hope that the day is not far 
 distant when America will fully establish and claim a 
 rivalry with the most favored land of the vine and the 
 olivo, and exultingly disclaim being tributary to any 
 foreign clime. — Patent Office Report. 
 
 Concerning the wine culture in this country, which 
 is yet in its infancy, we find in a recent German pub- 
 lication some interesting facts from the pen of Dr. 
 Gumprecht. The author explains tiie causes of tlie 
 failure of the manifold attempts to domesticate the 
 European grapes in the United States by comparative 
 thermometrical and hygrometrical statements, from 
 which it appears that the ill success is attributable to 
 the greater proportion of moisture to which the vine is 
 subjected here, while the temperature is more favora- 
 ble in Philadelphia, Cincinnati, or St. Louis than in 
 Paris, Dresden, or Prague. The Catawba grape, an 
 indigenous variety, is now extensively cultivated in 
 the West and Southwest, and the Catawba wine bids 
 fair to become an important article of commerce. Ija 
 1854 the vineyards comprised less than three thousand 
 acres, the greater proportion of which was in the 
 vicinitj' of Cincinnati, whence the grape culture has 
 since spread, along both banks of the Ohio, to Pitts- 
 burgh and Cairo, and in a southerly direction through 
 Kentucky and Tennessee to Alabama, and westwardly 
 into Missouri. 
 
 On the Ohio an acre yields on an average 500 gal- 
 lons of wine— an immense yield compared with the av- 
 erage of France, which is only 200 gallons. In 1853, 
 however, which was the most fruitful year since 1848, 
 the yield was most extraordinary, averaging along the 
 Ohio 650 gallons to tlie acre, some vineyards producing 
 from 8O0 to 900 gallons. The wine-growers of Ohio 
 are inainly Germans and their descendants. 
 
 In 1852, notwithstanding the comparatively small 
 area devoted to wine growing, the produce of wine in 
 the United States was estimated at 500,000 gallons ; 
 and in 1851 the mammoth cellar of Messrs. Longworth 
 and Zimmerman, at Cincinnati, contained 80,000 gal- 
 lons. In a few years the product will doubtless be 
 doubled and trebled, since the present high prices of 
 wine pay the producer a fair profit, and the demand is 
 so great that the Cincinnati wine-dealers are scarcely 
 able to keep a stock on hand. 
 
 The juice of the grape is manufactured either into 
 still wine or sparkling wine. The latter, in the prep- 
 aration of which, as in that of Champagne, liquor is 
 added, is the most sought after, and its production has 
 already increased to such an extent that Buchanan 
 estimated the value of sparkling wines raised in Ohio 
 at $175,000 per annum. 
 
 The wine produced in the United States is mostly of 
 the description known as the white wine, but little of 
 it being red. The value of the wine depends, as in 
 Europe, on the character of the soil, the mode of treat- 
 ment, and the weather. The years 1846, 1848, and 
 1851 produced the best wines, both here and in Eu- 
 rope ; the vintage of 1853 was also a good one. In 
 general, the product of the Catawba grape has the fin- 
 est flavor and the greatest durability ; it improves in 
 quality for thirty yearsi According to an analysis 
 made in 1846, the American wines contain from 7 to 
 11 per cent, of alcohol. A sample pf Catawba hock 
 from Longman's cellar, seven years of age, was proved 
 by an analysis to contain from 11 to 11-^ per cent, of 
 alcohol ; and a sample of red wine, of the Cape spe- 
 
WIN 
 
 1982 
 
 WIK,' 
 
 cieB, was found to contain 9|- per cent. Buchanan 
 states that the proportion of alcohol in the American 
 "Wines is about the same as in the wines of France >ai^cl 
 Germany. Brande, however, contends that the French 
 Graves wine contains, 13-94j Barsac 13-86, Sauterne 
 14-22, Eudesheimer of 1800 12-22, and Hock 14-37 per 
 cent, of alcohol. • j » 
 
 Tlie prices of American Wines may be considered 
 high. Ten to twelve bottles of stored still- wine cost 
 from $5 to $8, and sparkling wine brought ,$i2,in 1854. 
 New wine ranges from 40 cents to $1 10. 
 • Of the recent territorial acquisitions' of the United 
 States, California, and Florida will "probably ere long 
 be ranked among the wine-pToducing States. In Cali- 
 fornia the efforts of the. old Catholic missionaries to 
 cultivate the grape resulted satisfactorily, and the 
 manufacture of wine from the domestic grape of Florida 
 was also attended with success; Sir John -Hawkins 
 reports that in 1694 the settlers- in (Florida realized 
 twenty hogsheads -of palatable -wine froni the native 
 grape. The good results whibh were anticipated froni 
 this discovery were, thanks to the political disturbances 
 in which that colony became involved, never realizedi 
 
 In Canada West, where certain species of wild grapes 
 are very- abundant, the manufacture of wine, recently 
 introduced, has been attended with the most signal 
 success. Buchanan's' Journal- pronounces it 'Superior 
 to the imported port-wine.-^i\r. T. Jive. Post. 
 
 The following statement shows' the production of 
 ^^ine in the several States of the Union in the years 
 1840 and 1850, according to the census returns : 
 
 PKOntfOTION OP WlNE 'iN THE UNITED STATES'IN 1840 AND 
 
 ISBO.— (Census Repoet.) 
 
 Stfttea 'and Territorlea.' 
 
 18-40. 
 
 18C0. 
 
 
 GftUons. 
 
 . -177 
 
 ■"25 
 
 ' 2,66« 
 
 832 
 
 '8,647 
 474 
 :10,2fl6 , 
 
 2,209 
 2,8S4 
 2,236 
 7,685 , 
 :, , , ,W3 , 
 
 "12 
 22 
 
 , 94 , ; , 
 
 ■ 9,416 
 
 6,799 
 
 I '-: 28,752 
 
 . , ,11,524 
 
 14,328 
 
 803 
 
 643 
 
 663 , 
 
 "94 
 13,911 
 
 Goilola. 
 
 220 
 
 ;35 
 
 63,056 
 
 863 
 
 4,269 
 
 146 
 
 10 
 
 796 
 
 2,99T 
 
 14,055 
 
 420 
 
 8,093 
 
 ' 15 
 
 ' '724 
 
 : 1,481 
 
 ,4,688 
 
 '1,(:54 
 
 407 
 
 10,563 , 
 
 344, 
 
 1.811 
 
 9,172 
 
 11,058 , 
 
 48,207 
 
 26,590 
 
 1,013 
 
 6,880 
 
 92 
 
 99 
 
 659 
 
 5,408 
 
 113 
 
 2,303 
 
 ^rfcansap .,...,.,. 
 
 (Jalifornia 
 
 Cbluitibia, District of. . 
 
 
 FJorWa, 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Illinoia '..,,.' 
 
 Indiana. 
 
 leiva , . 
 
 
 Maine , , 
 
 Maryland . . ,,,,. . v,. . . , , . 
 MassachUsclts ,..„,,,.,. 
 Michigan...'. '.'.'. "^'". 
 
 
 
 New Hainpgjiire . , 
 
 New York i . . . . . 
 
 North Garblina. .Hj^ .-.ij. 
 
 Ohio ,.,•<••*-;. 
 
 Pennsylvania, ......... 
 
 Rhode Island '..;„.... 
 South Carolina. .;..'.'.. 
 
 Tennessee , 
 
 Te^ap ,, 
 
 VerMont 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 Neiv Mexico Territory. 
 Totals 
 
 u4,rn 
 
 221,24'J 
 
 , ^INE, Spirit^, eto 
 
 , JMPOBTED ANNUALLY INTO THE 
 
 United §.tats?^from 1848 to 1557, ixciusivj 
 
 . 
 
 , DMA. 
 
 WINE IN CASKS. ) ■ . ) 
 
 Madeira. ' . 
 
 ShuTxy. , , , 'h , Sreily. 
 
 Fort. ,, ,,,| , Olarat.i ,| Othpr rod Wine. | 
 
 U alloaa. 
 
 ValuB. 
 
 Capons. 
 
 Valua. 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 VaUe. 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 Value. , , .Gallons. 
 
 Valpe. 1 Gallons. | Valne. | 
 
 1843' .... 
 
 8.949 
 
 $a,076 
 
 4,U85 
 
 $6,491 
 
 1*'^? 
 
 $ti,617 
 
 3.8,593 
 
 $■^5,714 
 
 873,898 
 ',993,198 
 
 $134,698 
 
 
 
 1S41 
 
 16,-E4 
 
 30,575 
 
 18,665 
 
 23,418 
 
 Sl,lSO 
 
 15,000 
 
 ' 223,615 
 
 156,878 
 
 218,239 
 
 340,^7 
 
 $60,096 
 
 1845 
 
 101,170 
 
 14'i,237 
 
 23,616 
 
 88,289 
 
 110,590' 
 
 ' 46,933 
 
 '260,598 
 
 162,358 ' 
 
 l',<)51,862 
 
 ' 24§,633 
 
 '4;i6,668 
 
 143,210 
 
 1«46 
 
 189,797 
 
 122,895 
 
 26,638 
 
 41,761 
 
 209,131 
 
 , 74,000 
 
 372,528 
 
 148,896 1 
 
 I. 961i351 
 
 849,703 
 
 954^646 
 
 316,821 
 
 lS4St.... 
 
 117,117 
 
 128,613 
 
 14,543 
 
 ,26,194 
 
 21,281 
 
 8,988 
 
 . 80,991 
 
 62,861 
 
 , 594,483 
 
 111,468 
 
 1,072,569 
 
 328,814 
 
 1S471: .... 
 
 13,806 
 
 6,717 
 
 77,521 
 
 66,061 
 
 , §2,681 
 
 24,23() 
 
 8,076 
 
 3,791 
 
 661,656 
 
 , 119,844 
 
 639,464 
 
 119,411 
 
 1848 
 
 44,684 
 
 21,630 
 
 215,935 
 
 109,983 
 
 190,294 
 
 67,364 
 
 501,123 
 
 170,'l34 
 
 i:2-'T,'071 
 Ii912j701 
 
 221,416 
 
 781,073 
 
 180,928 
 
 1849 
 
 193,971 
 
 105,302 
 
 170,794 
 
 128,510 
 
 130,851 
 
 33,531 
 
 M1,26S 
 
 272,700 
 
 263,836 
 
 994,468 
 
 '221,177 
 
 1850 
 
 303,125 
 
 150,096 
 
 212,092 
 
 118,952 
 
 91,123 
 
 54.933 
 
 626,211, 
 
 806,364 
 
 1,919,766 
 
 267,445 
 
 1,469,256 
 
 266,988 
 
 I§51 
 
 163,941 
 
 116,008 
 
 250,277 
 
 154,668 
 
 301,010 
 
 98,975 
 
 762,967 
 
 849,849 
 
 1,940,121 
 
 280,333 
 
 1,246,201 
 
 286,727 
 
 1852 
 
 216,C83 
 
 103,91^ 
 
 163,610 
 
 97,680 
 
 91,746 
 
 22,563 
 
 614,816 
 
 240,238 
 
 2,702,012 
 
 406,380 
 
 1,172,816 
 
 229,350 
 
 1S53 
 
 220,403 
 
 105,628 
 
 313,048 
 
 15Bj819 
 
 190,205 
 
 45,794 
 
 66-3,791 
 
 268,005 
 
 2,«83.802 
 
 482,827 
 
 1,374,416 
 
 377,482 
 
 1854 
 
 120,391 
 
 54,270 
 
 415,298 
 
 244,028 
 
 68,870 
 
 , 23,191 
 
 .893,197 
 
 177,935 
 
 2,046,474 
 
 497,006 
 
 1,864,885 
 
 4ri0,196 
 
 1855. , . . . 
 
 71,912 
 
 46,445 
 
 88.3,898 
 
 208,414 
 
 197,700 
 
 65,35? 
 
 186,460 
 
 97,987 
 
 1,371,400 
 
 440,631 
 
 1,519,506 
 
 459,t85 
 
 I806 
 
 44,398 
 
 32,031 
 
 398,392 
 
 970,317 
 
 184,194 
 
 '61,951 
 
 264,816 
 
 158,7^9 
 
 1,516,018 
 
 861,440 
 
 697,834 
 
 285,111 
 
 1.5.57 
 
 106;S53 
 
 65,830 
 
 544,649 
 
 364,906 
 
 2S0,34S 
 
 183,894 
 
 600;2l9 
 
 407,564 
 
 1,897,108 
 
 669,403 
 
 1,180,293 
 
 500,627 
 
 , Date. ,,, 
 
 . , _ WINB, BKANDY, AIJD GRAIN SPIIIIT3. 
 
 OTRKB 
 
 SPIRITS, BEKH, ALE, AND PORTER. . ] 
 
 Qtber \vhlte Wine. . 
 
 , ; Brflndy. 
 
 Grain Spirits. 
 
 other Spirits. 
 
 Beer, Ale, and Porter 
 from England. 
 
 Beer, Ale, and Porter 
 from Scotland. 
 
 ' ,Gltllons. 
 
 VBlne." 
 
 GallenB. ' 
 
 ■ Value. 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Gallons. 1 Value. 
 
 Gallons. | . Value. 
 
 Gnllone. 
 
 Value, 
 
 1843*:.. I 
 
 123,832 
 
 $28)205 
 
 ,191,882 
 
 ,$106,267 
 
 259,129 
 
 $l'.il,647 
 
 136,399 
 
 $32,1195 
 
 6i,61-.d 
 
 $.57,(11.8 
 
 7,423 
 
 $6,836 
 
 -1844^.!i-- 
 
 268,414 
 
 ,, 75,090 
 
 782,510 
 
 ,606,633 
 
 416,918 
 
 171,015 
 
 210,477 
 
 78,027 
 
 107,489 
 
 102,167 
 
 19,236 
 
 18,848 
 
 1845....; 
 
 591,735 
 
 211,183 
 
 1,081,814 
 
 819,460 
 
 606,311 
 
 262,543 
 
 ■.i70,484 
 
 78,957 
 
 79,302 
 
 73,729 
 110,897 
 
 26,711 
 
 21,2!'4 
 
 1846 
 
 705,808 
 
 310,241 
 
 • 963.T47 
 
 839,231 
 
 677,785 
 
 845,352 
 
 221,344 
 
 81,713 
 
 117,621 
 
 33,464 
 
 39,8M 
 
 1846t..'.. 
 
 618,267 
 
 296,736 
 
 331,108 
 
 356,461 
 
 136,323 
 
 86,078 
 
 65,477 
 
 28,862 
 
 46,146 
 
 '42,987 
 
 2,151 
 
 1,895 
 
 1847t.,:. 
 
 278,482 
 
 69,831 
 
 ,623,309 
 
 675,631 
 
 327,635 
 
 143,549 
 
 160,747 
 
 67,806 
 
 132,167 
 
 67,306 
 
 16,375 
 
 8,6t7 
 
 I8i8 
 
 840.687 
 
 193,368 
 
 1,370,111 
 
 1,135,089 
 
 676,683 
 
 827,493 
 
 228,671 
 
 75,943 
 
 130,008 
 
 101,171 
 
 39,232 
 
 21,633 
 
 1849:....- 
 
 971,895 
 
 210,139 
 
 2,961,091 
 
 1,847,514 
 
 796,276 
 
 827,967 
 
 .542,492 
 
 146,784 
 
 146,473 
 
 118,283 
 
 52,297 
 
 80,r,88 
 
 1850 
 
 1,088,801 
 
 215,353 
 
 4,146,802 
 
 2,669,587 
 
 751,183 
 
 361,078 
 
 339,169 
 
 113,779 
 
 150,735 
 
 129,967 
 
 62,856 
 
 41,790 
 
 1851....'., 
 
 1,085,374 
 
 209,847 
 
 3,163,783 
 
 2,128,679 
 
 984,417 
 
 364,204 
 
 309,214 
 
 100,859 
 
 275,336 
 
 189,010 
 
 83,179 
 
 56.73S 
 
 1852 
 
 935,379 
 
 195,870 
 
 2,761,810 
 
 1,792,729 
 
 865,801 
 
 294386 
 
 359,677 
 
 98,940 
 
 262,838 
 
 186,964 
 
 110.752 
 
 67,804 
 
 1853...... 
 
 1,276,290 
 
 306,237 
 
 3,854,966 
 
 3,261.408 
 
 1,060,456 
 
 424,638 
 
 336,477 
 
 106,501 
 
 397,420 
 
 284,347 
 
 131,367, 
 
 77.414 
 
 1864 
 
 1,379,888 
 
 380,204 
 
 2,152,866 
 
 2,255,344 
 
 1,197,234 
 
 664,1569 
 
 399,593 
 
 128,30Sl 
 
 826,671 
 
 424,876 
 
 270,064 
 
 128,667 
 
 1855 
 
 989,354 
 
 322,267 
 
 1,024,497 
 
 1,479,862 
 
 1,190,642 
 
 675,560 
 
 397,672 
 
 161,378 
 
 919,252 
 
 559,900 
 
 345,016 
 
 1SS,-IB7 
 
 1856 
 
 ,617,185 
 
 189,499 
 
 1,715,717 
 
 2,859,342 
 
 1,532,126 
 
 773,276 
 
 772,604 
 
 288,494 
 
 792,165 
 
 504,146 
 
 359,486 
 
 193,600 
 
 1857 
 
 721,417 
 
 300.739 
 
 1,613,328 
 
 1527,262 
 
 1,988,037 
 
 1,125,160 
 
 443,495 
 
 218,907 
 
 1,043,903 
 
 619,727 
 
 375,700 
 
 221,316 
 
 Nine months. 
 
 t Five montliB. 
 
 t Seven months. 
 
 There were no exports of wine of domestic produc- 
 tion from the United States for the fiscal year 1856-57. 
 
 The exports of foreign wine from the United States 
 for the year ending June. 30, 1857, were as follows : 
 
 Value. 
 
 Madeira $6, 101 
 
 Sherry and St. Lucar 11,993 
 
 Poi-t 14,081 
 
 Claret 27,691 
 
 Sicily 9,816 
 
 Red wine unenumerated 54,348 
 
 White wine unenumerated 3,646 
 
 Champagne 22,140 
 
 Wings. In naval matters, passages along the 
 sides of the ship between the fore and after cockpit. 
 
 ■Wire. The invention of drawing wire is ascribed 
 to Eodolph of Nuremberg, a.d. 1410. Mills for this 
 purpose were first set up at Kuremberg in 1563. The 
 first wire-mill in England was erected at Mortlake, in 
 1663. — Mortimer. The astonishing ductility, which 
 is one of the distinguishing qualities of gold, is no way 
 more conspicuous than in gilt wire. A cylinder of 48 
 ounces of silver, covered with a coat of gold weighing 
 only one ounce, is usually drawn into a wire two yards 
 
WIS- 
 
 1983 
 
 "WOO 
 
 of which only weigh one grain ; so that 98 yards df the 
 wire weigh no more than 49 grains, and one single 
 prain of gold covers the whole 98 yards; an4 the thoH^- 
 6and,t)i part of a gfain is above o^e-eighth of an inch- 
 Jong. — Halley. Eight grains of gold covering a cyl- 
 inder of silver are commonly drawn info a wire 13,000 
 feet.long.;, yet so perfectly does it cover itha silver, that 
 even a mioroscbpo does nbt discoyer any appearancie of , 
 the. silver undemeath.^BoYLE. ' ,; ',, ', 
 
 'Wisconsin, one of the northwestern United Statesjt 
 lies between lat. 42'? 3l!)'and 49° 30' N., and between 
 long. Sb° -50' an^'ge" W,, being 600 miles long anci ],60- 
 bi-oad. It contains about 531924 square miles. Popu- 
 lation in 1,840, 30,945 ;iia 1845,150,000; and in 1850, 
 805,191. i •- ■ '■••■! 
 
 The portion south of Green Bay, Fox and' 'Wiscpn- 
 siri rivers, is composed; of timbered and prairie lands,' 
 with some swamps ind •(vet prairies, bav^nga yegetabie- 
 soil from one to two feet deep. North: of tho'Wiscon- 
 sin River commences a hilly region,, swelling as it pro- 
 ceeds nprth.into a mountainous country, with-a rugged 
 and broken-surface, creating, mahy rapids and falls in 
 tKeslreamsj and .affording, jnany wiJJ alnd .pioturepquei 
 views. The northwest part of the State.is CoveVed with 
 immensb forestsbf pinelaixdmuci rough land, especial- 
 ly borderlflg. Lake Superior. Oil the ridge dividing 
 the waters flowing north into Lake Superior, and those 
 flowing! south into the Mississippi, are many smi^U 
 lakes, in which' fish'arei E^btindant. Borderii^gon the 
 Mississippi and Wiscorisip, rivers the soil is rich, aud 
 the larid generally, heavily -timbered. Wisconsin is 
 rich in minerals;' "the great Mississippi lead region lies 
 mostly within its li'mit^; 'iron ofe of the best quality 
 exists bordering the sources of all the streams entering 
 the Mississippi, and copper along the shores of La'ke 
 Superior'; marble, limestone; sandstone, gypsum, and- 
 bthei vatii(ty of minerals abound. . , •'■■■■■ 
 
 • Thetfe were in this Statd-ih 1850,l,0i5,499 aores.of- 
 Ja-nd- improved, and' 1,931, i59 of 'unimproved land in 
 farms; cash valueof farms, $38, 52&,5"63; and the value; 
 of implements and machinery, $1,641,568. 'lAve iSfaek.' 
 — Horses, 30,179; asses and mules, 156; milcii cqws, 
 64,339 -y woi-king oxen, 42,801 ; : otiier cattle, 76,293 ; 
 slieap, 124,896 ; swine, 159,276 : value of live stock, 
 $4,89^,385. ' . , ■- , 
 
 Agricultural Products. — ^Wheat, 4,286,131 bushels; 
 rye, 81,253; Indian com, 1,988,97,9; oats, 3,414,672.; 
 barley, 209,692; buckwheat,. 79,878 ; peas and beans, 
 20; 657; potatoes, 1,402, 077; sweet potatoes, 879; value 
 of products of the orchard, $4823; produce of marlcet 
 gardens, $32,142; ppunds! pf butter made, 3,633,750; 
 of cheese, 400,283 ; maplersugar, 610,976 ; molasses, 
 9874 gallons ; beeswax and honey, 131,005 lbs. ; wool, 
 253,9.63;, flax,, 68,393 ;■ hpps, 15,930 ; tobacco,, 1268 ;• hay, 
 tons of, 275,662; hemp, 2; clover seeds, 483 bushels'; 
 other grass seeds, 5003 ; flaxseed, 1191 ; and v.'cre made 
 113 gallons of wine : value of home-made manufactures, 
 $43,624; of slaughteje4 animals, $920,178. 
 
 The principal rivers are the. Mississippi, which flows 
 along its western border for a distance of 275 miles. 
 The Wisconsin has its entire course within the State, 
 flaws- centrally, and enters the Mississippi on its. western 
 border. It is navigable to the portage of Fox or Nee- 
 nah River, where a canal is being made, which, when 
 completed, with the contemplated improvements of 
 Fox River, will make a navigable communication be- 
 tween the Mississippi and the lakes. The Chippewa 
 enters the Mississippi farther northwest, and is a large 
 river, and St. Croix River forms a portion of its ex- 
 treme western boundary. Rock River rises and flows 
 partly in this State. The other principal rivers are 
 the Menominee on its eastern border, entering Green 
 Bay, and the Montreal, entering Lake Superior; there 
 are also other small streams entering Lake Superior. 
 The, Milwaukee, Sheboygan, as well as others, enter 
 Lake Michigan. The other most noted streams are 
 the Wolf, Bad Axe, and Black Rivers. The principal 
 
 lakes witJlin its borders are Winnebago, Horicon, 
 Kaskohong,.and the four lakes in the south, and man)' 
 small ones in, the, north. The principal places in the 
 State are Madisoh, the capital, Milwaukee, Racinej 
 Kenosha, Osaukee^ Green Bay, Jamesville, and Prairie 
 du Cbien. TJj^^e were in, January,. 1854, four railroads 
 ini the. Ststte,. with 647 miles of road finished' and in 
 operation, and there were 10 banks with a cash capital 
 pf $600,000. , ■ . . ■ 
 
 ,Jfonij/abteres,.e(cj— There were in the State in 1850, 
 9 woolen factories, ■with -a capital invested of|$31,235, 
 employing 25 males, mahufabtiiring ,36,0()0 yards of 
 cloth and 74,350 lbs. of yarn,, valued at $87,992; 1 es- 
 ■ tablishment making pig-iron, with a capital of $15,000; 
 eiiploying (JO' persons, and making 1000 tons of pig- 
 iron, -valued at.$27,0O0 ; 15 establishments, with /a eapi- 
 talof $116,350, employing 228 persons, producing 1344 
 tons of castings,- etc., valued at $216,195 ; 75 flouring 
 aiid grist tnills, 412 saw-mills ; ^4 tanneries ; 42 printi- 
 ingrOfficeS) issuing 6!daily, 5 tri-weekly,- 36 weekly, and 
 1 monthly publication. ; ■ ' ' ' 
 
 FOBSMN COMMBBOB \>V THE ^ATE- -OF 'Wie'OONSIN TEOM 
 
 '1 ! July 1, 1853, TO ijTOY Ij 1851. ' ^ '"' 
 
 .Yflan;eniltng 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Tonnage cleared | 
 
 Total. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Americim, 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 June 30, 18!>4 
 
 .. 1855.. 
 
 1S56 
 
 . i85J.". 
 
 $30,464 
 1T4,057 
 345,493 
 622,044 
 
 $49,174 
 48;lBa 
 2T,G04 
 5.8U 
 
 8,'l49 
 3-2,912 
 46.086 
 
 '460 
 2710 
 2806 
 
 At the Close .of the year 1857, the number of batik^ 
 in, 'Wisconsin bad inqreased to 73 , with a combined capi". 
 tal of $5,6bo3too, and bank-note circulation $3.,fl00,000, 
 the latter ibeing secured,by a collateral deposit of State 
 stocks. ' ■ ' ■ - I • ■ — ' ' ' " 
 
 "Woad (Qer.'Waiii; Du. Weede fV-t: Pastel, Guide, 
 Vouede; It. Guadpne, Guqdo, Glastro; Sp^Pastel,. GUisto), 
 Vcislsatis ft'rectorat! of botanistSj a biennial plant, with a 
 fusiform fijbrous root, and' smooth branchy stem, rising 
 from three to fi-ye fefet in height. Woad is indigenous 
 to most parts ioif Europe ; and was extensively used 
 from a- very remote period, down to "the general intro- 
 duction of indij^o, in the dyeing of blue. It is still 
 cultiyatedito a Qonsiderable extent in France; but in 
 England its Cultivation is chiefly restricted to a few 
 districts in Lincolnshire. ' Afterbeing bruised.by ma- 
 chinery, to express the watery part, it is formed into 
 balls,, which ferment and fall into a dry powder, which 
 is sold to .the dyerj Woad is now seldom employed 
 without a mixture of indigo. By itself it is incapable 
 of giving a' bright and deep blue color ; but the color 
 which it does give is very durable. The best methods 
 of conducting the fermentation and preparation of woad- 
 are still so very illnnderstood, that the goodness of any 
 parcel of it can never be ascertaiiied till it be actually 
 used; so that.it has' the disadvantage of being pur- 
 chased, under the greatest uncertainty as to its true 
 value. At the proper age, indigo plants yield about 
 thirty times as much coloring matter, and of a far supe- 
 rior quality, as an equal weight of woad ; so that there 
 is no prospect that any improvement that ihay be made 
 in its preparation will ever render it, either in good- 
 ness or cheapness, a rival of the- former. — LouDos's 
 3rici/l. of Agriculture ; Bancroft on Colors. 
 
 ■Woods. Mr. Holtzapffel, in his elaborate work 
 on " Turning," gives a very minute description and 
 classiflcation of the various kinds of wood used in the 
 arts. He first points out the -well-known structural 
 difference between exo^ens and endogens, which leads 
 to a separation of all kinds of trees into two great 
 groups; all the true woods (as they are sometimes 
 termed) are exogens; whereas the endogens include 
 the grasses, bamboos, palms, etc. In the countries 
 where bamt)oos and palms are indigenous, the smaller 
 stems are used as tubes for the con-veyance of water, 
 and the larger pieces as joists, etc. In the larger kinds 
 of palm, the fibres appear like streaks or -wires im- 
 bedded in a substance similar to cement or pith. 
 
woo 
 
 1984 
 
 WOO 
 
 laroKTS OP WooTi and MAmrPAOinMBS op Wood, etc., into tue UniTBn Sdates fob the Yeab emding JmiB 30, 185T. 
 
 Whenco imported. 
 
 Manufoclures of Wood. j 
 
 Unmanufactured Wood. 
 
 CorhB. 
 
 Vtinian- 
 ufac- 
 tured 
 Cork. 
 
 Cabinet 
 
 and 
 
 Household 
 
 Furoiture. 
 
 Cedar, 
 
 Mahogany, 
 
 Rose, and 
 
 Satin. 
 
 Willow. 
 
 other 
 
 Manu- 
 
 faetures 
 
 of. 
 
 Cedar, Gren- 
 
 adilla, Ma- 
 
 logany, Roae, 
 
 and Satin. 
 
 Willow. 
 
 Fire-wood 
 and other 
 
 not 
 Ipecified. 
 
 Dye- 
 wood in 
 Stick. 
 
 KusBian Poss. in X. Am. . . 
 
 Sweden and Norway 
 
 Danish West Indies 
 
 $1,019 
 672 
 
 782 
 
 ■ ' 80 
 1,8S0 
 
 "23 
 
 ' 426 
 39,443 
 
 ■ ■ 55 
 252 
 
 ' ' '33 
 660 
 
 ' ' '63 
 101 
 
 2,267 
 
 $828 
 907 
 
 ■ '241 
 4,765 
 
 60 
 
 ■ ■ 60 
 
 7,463 
 90 
 
 ■ ■ 85 
 
 ' ■ 68 
 ' '666 
 
 ' ' 'n 
 
 $5,'868 
 
 112,240 
 
 80 
 
 "690 
 1,666 
 
 ' ' 'l3 
 
 '"10 
 
 ■ ■ '17 
 64,605 
 
 "11 
 
 ""9 
 
 21 
 
 ■ ' '96 
 
 318 
 
 \" " 
 
 "$51 
 
 61 ,'583 
 
 110,836 
 
 1,158 
 
 ' ' '42 
 
 4,830 
 
 66,680 
 
 1,040 
 
 113 
 
 26,'265 
 
 3,752 
 
 468 
 
 "85 
 
 ' '566 
 
 i,'6io 
 
 86,642 
 68 
 
 "'lO 
 82 
 179 
 137 
 
 "iii 
 
 "'26 
 
 T,347 
 
 ■"is 
 
 14 
 
 1,130 
 
 ■"66 
 
 i,'635 
 
 1,463 
 
 639 
 
 54 
 
 3 
 
 13,779 
 
 ■$511 
 345 
 
 ' '696 
 
 ■■S73 
 
 ■'■73 
 
 7,355 
 
 28,881 
 
 111 
 
 3i,^639 
 
 106,'956 
 1,891 
 
 104,'464 
 
 33,248 
 
 43,813 
 
 860 
 
 291 
 
 1,969 
 
 154,346 
 
 $3^367 
 683 
 
 2ii488 
 203 
 
 $664 
 
 ' ' '10 
 
 18 
 
 i,'741 
 67 
 
 i,'252 
 
 7 
 
 3,288 
 
 ■■'21 
 
 ■ '333 
 1,4S8 
 
 160 
 
 ■ ' '71 
 
 ■ '939 
 780 
 
 ■ '526 
 1,636 
 9,801 
 
 137 
 
 i,'323 
 1,735 
 1,445 
 2,061 
 
 ■ ' '25 
 
 ■$iio 
 isjie'e 
 
 1,616 
 T90 
 263 
 
 7,398 
 
 ""2 
 
 1,466 
 
 82,266 
 
 27,584 
 
 89 
 
 524 
 
 4,795 
 
 9,l'44 
 30 
 9 
 
 22,'i81 
 
 6,916 
 
 823 
 
 616,'6i6 
 2.977 
 
 62,212 
 6,694 
 
 29,633 
 
 31,522 
 9,011 
 
 33,377 
 
 ■$144 
 6,704 
 
 iifoo 
 
 i,^«8 
 
 26,932 
 
 83,609 
 
 49,'870 
 22,280 
 
 1M'86 
 
 ■ '192 
 
 "287 
 6,912 
 
 ■■2S8 
 
 "$3S 
 
 ■ ']'71 
 808 
 
 ■■'26 
 
 ■ ' 'ii 
 10 
 
 ■■399 
 i^iim 
 
 4,'865 
 
 
 Holland 
 
 Dutch West Indies 
 
 Dutch East Indies 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Other British N. A. Poss.. 
 
 British West Indies 
 
 British Honduras 
 
 British Poss. in Africa . . . 
 
 Other ports in Africa 
 
 British Australia 
 
 British East Indies 
 
 France on the Atlantic. . . 
 France on the Mediter'n.. 
 
 Spain on the Atlantic 
 
 Spain on the Mediter'n. . . 
 Philippine Islands 
 
 Pnrto Rico ". ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Papal States 
 
 Two Sicilies 
 
 
 
 Hayti 
 
 
 
 Central Republic 
 
 
 
 Chili 
 
 Sandwich Islands 
 
 China 
 
 Totnl year 1856-57.. 
 
 $47,696 
 
 $15,185 
 
 $175,484 
 
 $391,171) 
 
 $518,251 |$41,773 
 
 $29,457 
 
 .$860,048 
 
 $20:1,572 
 
 $17,692 
 
 The natives of the Isthmus of Darien pick out the 
 fibres from some of the palms, and use them as nails j in 
 some specimens they are as hard as rose-wood. Some 
 of the smallest palms are imported into this country 
 for walking-sticks, tmder the names of partridge and 
 Penang canes. Of the four or five hundred varieties 
 of palm-trees known to exist, only a very small num- 
 ber are imported. The palm woods so imported are 
 sparingly employed for cabinet and marquetry work, 
 for billiard ciies, for snuff-boxes, etc. The twisted 
 palm walking-sticks are the central stems or midribs 
 of the leaves of the date palm : they are twisted when 
 green, and stretched with heavy weights until they 
 are thoroughly dry. The nut, or fruit, of many of this 
 group of plants is applicable to uses in the arts ; such 
 as the betel-nut or areca-nut, whose substance is made 
 into necklaces, the tops of walking-sticks, and other 
 small objects; the cocoa-nut, whose shell yields the 
 fibre or coir, now used in England for a great variety 
 of purposes, and the hard portion of the shell, which is 
 turned into cups, vases, buttons, etc. ; the coquilla-nut, 
 the shell of which, being hard and close-textured, is 
 turned into knobs of umbrellas and parasols, small 
 toys, etc. With respect to the simple wants and 
 primitive arts of the people among whom the palms 
 and bamboos grow, the uses of those plants are very 
 numerous ; of the Cocos nucifera, or cocoa-nut palm, for 
 example, the fruit is eaten, the husk of the nut sup- 
 plies coir for cordage, the leaves are used for making 
 baskets and mats, the lower part of the stem yields 
 wood fitted for joists and other kinds of carpentry, and 
 
 different portions of the plant are made to yield oil, 
 sugar, palm wine, and arrack. 
 
 But it is the exogenous or true woods which render 
 the more important services to man, so far as regards 
 the stem or wood itself. The fibres do not appear to 
 differ in size or bulk so much as in density and dis- 
 tance; these two last-named differences give rise to 
 the distinction between hard and soft woods — the 
 former comprising oak, mahogany, ebony, rose-wood, 
 etc. ; and the latter willow, alder, deal, etc. Another 
 classification is that which springs from the direction 
 of the fibres ; if the annual or longitudinal fibres be 
 tolerably straight, and very little interwoven with the 
 medullary rays or interrupted by knots, the wood be- 
 comes elastic and easily rent ; such are lance-wood, 
 hickory, ash, etc. ; but if the fibres are more crossed 
 and interlaced, the wood becomes less elastic, and more 
 rigid and tough ; such are oak, beech, mahogony, etc. ; 
 and if the fibres be entangled to a still greater degree, 
 they produce the non- elastic, tough, cross-grained 
 woods, such as elm, lignum-vitse, etc. Another mode 
 of classification, traced with some minuteness by Mr. 
 Holtzapffel, is that which is determined by the beauty 
 of the surface presented by woods. The knots, occa- 
 sioned by the junction of a branch with the stem; the 
 curls, produced by the confused filling in of the space 
 between the forks or springings of the branches, as in 
 the yew ; the gnarled appearance of the roots, formed 
 at the points of junction of the rootlets or arms of the 
 root with the body of the root itself, as in walnut wood ; 
 the pollard growths of the oak and other trees, which 
 
woo 
 
 1985 
 
 WOO 
 
 owe the beauty of their grain to a crowding together 
 of the little germs that produce the numerous shoots at 
 the top ; the ripple-mark surface, occasioned by a ser- 
 pentine form of the grain, as in satin-wood and syoa- ; 
 more; the bird's-eye pattern, occasioned by a peculiar 
 compression of the grain in isolated spots, as in some 
 lands of maple ; the silver-^raln, which results from a 
 marked distinctness in the medullary rays, as in' the 
 plane, sycamors, and beech — all give rise to. variations 
 in the appearance of the surface of wood, which are the 
 mainspring of the beauty observable in cabinet vioik. 
 Another and very obvious mode of classifying woods is 
 in respect to their color. — 
 
 Mr, Holtzapffel gives a tabular view of all the kinds 
 of wood commonly used in this country. The list in- 
 cludes nearly eighty species of trees, without naming 
 the varieties of each species. He classifies them ac- 
 cording to the services which they are calculated to 
 render. One group includes building woods, subdivided 
 into those fitted for ship-building, for house carpentry,! 
 
 and for hydraulic engineering ; another group includes 
 the woods most useful for machinery and mill-worh, sub- 
 divided according as the wood is suitable for frame- 
 work, for roller^, for teeth of wheels, or for foundery 
 patterns ; a third group comprises the turnery woods, 
 subdi-vided into common soft woods, hard woods, and 
 Tunbridge-ware woods ; a fourth group is made up of 
 furniture woods, separated into common and best ; a 
 fifth group comprises ornamental foreign woods ; a sixth 
 group consists oSdye-nvoodSj arranged according to color; 
 while a miscdlaneous group is formed, subdivided ac- 
 cording tothe elasticity, the toiighness, the even grain, 
 or the durability of the wood* Of course many kinds 
 of wood find a place in two or more of these groups; 
 but the table is valuable, inasmuch as it brings togeth- 
 er before the eye the names of all those woods which 
 resemble each other in some one manufacturing quality. 
 The following tables show the exports (distinguish- 
 ing between domestic and foreign production) of wood 
 and its manufactures for the year ending June 30, 1857 : 
 
 ExpoBTS OF Wood j^-d- Manttpaotures of Wood op domestic -PEOijtTOTiOEr peom the United States poe tue fiscal 
 
 Yeae ENDING June 30,! 1857. ■ 
 
 whither exported, 
 
 Stoves and 
 Heading. 
 
 Sbingles.' 
 
 Boards, Plank, and 
 Scantling. 
 
 Hewn. 
 Timber. 
 
 Other Oak Bark and 
 Lumber. other Dye. 
 
 All Dianufac. 
 tures of Wood. 
 
 .Russia oti the IJIack Sea. 
 
 Asiatic Uussia.. 
 
 Rassian >Iorth America, . 
 
 Prussia.'. j 
 
 SwMen and Norwa^ .... 
 Swedish West-Indies. . . . 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Danish West Indies 
 
 1-Iamhurg 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Hblland. 
 
 Dutch "West Indies 
 
 Dutch Cruiana 
 
 Dutch East Indies 
 
 Belgium 
 
 England 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Ireland 
 
 Gibraltar ■:. j 
 
 Malta 
 
 Canada 
 
 British North America . . 
 
 British West Indies 
 
 British Honduras 
 
 British Guiana 
 
 British Poss. in Africa. . . 
 Otiier ports in Africa .... 
 
 British Australia 
 
 British East Indies 
 
 France on the Atlantic . ; 
 France on the Mediterr'n 
 French North America . . 
 Pretich West Indies ..... 
 
 French Guiana 
 
 Spain on the Atlantic . . . 
 .Spain on the Mediterr'n . 
 
 Canary Islands 
 
 Philippine Islands 
 
 Ciiba.:.' .' 
 
 Porto liico, 
 
 Portugal 
 
 iVfadeira 
 
 Cape de Verd Islands. . . . 
 
 Azores 
 
 Sardinia. .-. 
 
 Two Sicilies 
 
 Austria 
 
 Austrian Italy 
 
 Turkey in Europe 
 
 Turkey in Asia 
 
 Hayti.;.!... 
 
 San Domingo 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Central Bepublic 
 
 New Granada 
 
 Venezuela ..t 
 
 Brazil i 
 
 Uruguay 
 
 Argentine Republic 
 
 Chili 
 
 Peru ...;....! ; 
 
 Ecuador .; 
 
 Sandwich Islands 
 
 Pacilic Islands 
 
 China 
 
 Whale-fisheries 
 
 $2,450 
 '"35 
 
 10 
 C4S 
 
 96 
 
 184 
 
 1,T59 
 
 2,594 
 
 245 
 
 3,885 
 
 147 
 
 894 
 
 239 
 
 12,6T5 
 
 ' 766 
 ' '513 
 ■ 438 
 2T 
 137 
 2,068 
 
 1, 
 
 4 
 2,676 
 2,018 
 
 ', ^ 7 
 
 7,8; 
 
 21,580 
 1,136 
 
 14 
 65 
 
 372 
 
 , 7 
 ■ V V 
 
 $627 
 23,^8 
 
 8,1T6 
 12,W1 
 98, %6 
 
 24,190 
 
 165,649 
 
 18,259 
 
 7, 
 
 7,839 
 
 17,559 
 
 199,310 
 
 18,430 
 
 40,784 
 
 33,494 
 
 1,, 
 
 9,282 
 
 145,!161 
 
 49,163 
 
 438 
 
 29,646 
 
 240 
 
 158,517 
 
 144,267 
 
 : 561,674 
 114, 
 96,460 
 
 928 
 
 2,666 
 
 18,295 
 
 270 
 
 723 
 
 'i,687 
 1,401 
 6,293 
 , 267 
 3,218 
 19,619 
 2,690 
 
 ' ' 185 
 
 " 450 
 
 3,359 
 
 21,638 
 105 
 
 20,664 
 953 
 
 213 
 
 280 
 6,333 
 
 8,131 
 
 3,155 
 
 20 
 
 1,242 
 
 2,55: 
 
 1,59( 
 
 115 
 
 T23 
 
 100 
 
 ' 153 
 
 l,ni: 
 50 
 
 ' 'm 
 
 1,085 
 35C 
 400 
 
 13,843 
 
 180 
 90 
 
 54,563 
 
 296 
 
 64,04fl 
 
 3,887 
 
 ' "646 
 2,920 
 
 615 
 17,520 
 
 7,404 
 14,741 
 
 181 
 
 7,475 
 5,733 
 1,304 
 
 344 
 3,682 
 
 600 
 
 '.'921 
 
 > 4,218 
 
 150 
 
 "615 
 
 4,S8t 
 
 1,42'7 
 
 425 
 
 . .6 
 
 7,368 
 
 .742 
 
 687 
 
 613 
 
 2,939 
 
 2,167 
 
 ' ' iO 
 
 4,821. 
 
 120 
 
 2,665 
 
 •36 
 
 6 
 
 85,645 
 
 2,790 
 
 22,668 
 
 ■ 945 
 
 4,063 
 
 .1,549 
 
 1,322 
 
 '8,' 
 
 1,785 
 1,240 
 
 10; 
 16,521 
 
 326 
 1,171 
 2,152 
 2,636 
 
 68,'4()B 
 
 4,443 
 
 331 
 
 43T 
 
 73 
 
 1,210 
 
 270 
 
 243 
 
 3 
 
 3T 
 
 3,978 
 
 2,450 
 
 2,617 
 
 274 
 
 1,658 
 
 621 
 
 6,743 
 
 5,822 
 
 12,976 
 
 9,796 
 
 1,876 
 
 3 
 
 1,014 
 
 21 
 
 75 
 
 . 7,613 
 
 $630 
 77 
 142,263 
 13,933 
 10,640 
 9,815 
 39,302 
 30,159 
 
 "173 
 
 74,766 
 
 1,809 
 
 33,101 
 
 616 
 
 108 
 
 864,103 
 
 44^023 
 
 300,544 
 
 . 16,626 
 
 53^273 
 
 "34,947 
 
 22,472 
 
 214,892 
 
 33,690 
 
 29,712 
 
 14,970 
 
 1,076 
 
 217,604 
 
 ' 6,561 
 
 19,647 
 
 29,472 
 
 36,724 
 
 876,142 
 117,504 
 4,S06 
 6,339 
 1,192 
 16,761 
 8,100 
 ,3,088 
 
 100 
 
 742 
 
 64,721 
 
 20,011 
 
 38,669 
 
 4,8S5 
 
 32,139 
 
 12,408 
 
 87,040 
 
 101,935 
 
 186,074 
 
 207,119 
 
 38,147 
 
 106 
 
 22,641 
 
 463 
 
 2,495 
 
 24,528 
 
 $2,586 
 12,873 
 
 321,075 
 45,410 
 23,192 
 
 31,883 
 
 35,201 
 
 1,840 
 
 • 13,041 
 ■6,849 
 
 7,625 
 7,745 
 
 711 
 
 2,560 
 
 1,656 
 
 706 
 
 8,812 
 
 70,690 
 
 "'81 
 
 . 6,270 
 98,723 
 3,007 
 6,966 
 
 2,187 
 
 1,004 
 
 55 
 
 3,088 
 
 12,120 
 
 37,934 
 
 14,265 
 
 116,829 
 
 25,410 
 
 848 
 
 174 
 
 76 
 
 8,661 
 ,13,042 
 
 138,464 
 
 6,432 
 
 90 
 
 "153 
 
 1,182 
 
 233 
 
 6,039 
 
 1,2 
 
 5,890 
 
 277 
 
 2,256 
 
 '3,670 
 
 .»- T97 
 
 2,5G1 
 
 14,406 
 
 3,574 
 
 11,919 
 
 1,135 
 
 $460 
 
 . .7,689 
 38,706. 
 36,269 
 
 . 2,464. 
 
 164,260 
 
 7,619 
 
 2,766 
 284 
 
 35,985 
 13,711 
 
 20J 
 
 I'uoo 
 
 $716 
 116 
 
 23 
 
 327 
 
 . 16,318 
 
 66,674 
 
 41,968 
 
 10,358 
 
 2,594 
 
 12,882 
 
 945 
 
 3,908 
 
 155,72'1 
 
 6,876 
 
 382 
 
 4,016 
 
 1,200 
 
 142,433 
 
 62,669 
 
 45,207 
 
 13,103 
 
 12,486 
 
 19,749 
 
 23,958 
 
 251,209 
 
 '21,379 
 
 14,401 
 
 6,413 
 
 11,961 
 
 6,065 
 
 2,275 
 
 1,216 
 
 1,820 . 
 
 408 
 
 965 
 
 1,675,243 
 
 131,904 
 
 6,386 
 
 1,084 
 
 1,008 
 
 2,139 
 
 1,349 
 
 5,199 
 
 " ' ibo 
 
 372 
 
 1,205 
 
 20,260 
 
 44' 
 
 2L576 
 
 2,251 
 
 24,069 
 
 15,413 
 
 42,827 
 
 9,657 
 
 27,346 
 
 ; 42,576' 
 
 10,064 
 
 , 1,348 
 
 17,186 
 
 "1,906 
 
 ' 8,292 
 
 ■ 124,186 
 
 Total, year 1856-'57. . |65,5T9|$2<«55j980|70,646|$212,80S|300,165)it4,170,68ti|$516,736|$638;4()6l $322,754 
 CK 
 
 18,158,424 
 
woo 
 
 1986 
 
 WOO 
 
 ExpoBTB OF Wood ani> Manttfaotubeb 
 
 OF Wood of fobbiow Peodttotion 
 
 BNDIMG JTTNfi 30, 1857. 
 
 FHOM THE UmtKD STA!fES FOE THE YBAB 
 
 Whither exported. 
 
 Manufactures of Wood. 
 
 Unmanufactured Wood. > [ 
 
 Cabinet 
 
 and 
 
 HouBehold 
 
 Fumiture. 
 
 Cedar, 
 Sotln. 
 
 WlUow. 
 
 Other 
 
 Manu- 
 
 factarea 
 
 of. 
 
 Cedar, Grena- 
 dilla, Ma- 
 
 ""a^nTs-ar- 
 
 waiow. 
 
 Fire-wood, 
 and other 
 
 not 
 specified. 
 
 Dye-wood 
 ui Stick. 
 
 Russia on the Baltic and North Seas . . . 
 Asiatic Eussia 
 
 $559 
 
 isoo 
 
 *3SS 
 
 
 
 $300 
 4,'296 
 
 siods 
 
 429 
 23,469 
 i,"488 
 
 i'leo 
 
 9 
 iilM 
 
 $4,450 
 
 4,792 
 
 4,'l66 
 23,141 
 10,204 
 16,640 
 61,105 
 
 "613 
 
 1,003 
 
 's,io3 
 
 14,042 
 1,630 
 
 "im 
 
 "265 
 
 2,679 
 
 946 
 
 6,629 
 
 4,623 
 
 1,105 
 
 ■ 835 
 840 
 
 $28ii 
 
 $2,742 
 
 "l23 
 
 1,033 
 
 ' 619 
 
 24 
 
 2,967 
 
 806 
 
 2,275 
 
 ' 'l50 
 i,'488 
 
 $62,918 
 
 13,'696 
 
 16,186 
 
 636 
 
 167,315 
 
 49,527 
 
 23,143 
 
 65,232 
 
 315,759 
 
 9,138 
 
 9,300 
 
 6,247 
 
 213 
 
 1,516 
 
 6,180 
 
 6,478 
 
 36,728 
 
 20,048 
 
 1,403 
 
 3,000 
 
 66 
 
 168 
 
 6,234 
 
 27 
 
 9,380 
 
 4,242 
 
 63,669 
 
 4,275 
 
 614 
 
 7,143 
 
 760 
 
 "78 
 214 
 330 
 
 Prussia , . . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 Holland 
 
 
 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 Malta 
 
 
 Other British North American Poss. . . . 
 British West Indies 
 
 British Australia 
 
 
 
 France on the Mediterranean 
 
 
 Spain ou the Mediterranean 
 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Portugal 
 
 
 Sardinia 
 
 
 Austria 
 
 Austrian Possessions in Italy 
 
 
 Turkey in Asia 
 
 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Uruguay, or Cisplatine Republic 
 
 JBuenos Ayres, or Argentine Republic . . 
 
 
 
 "Whale-fisheries 
 
 Total, year 1856-'5T 
 
 $2747 
 
 $74 
 
 $624 
 
 485,288 
 
 $162,742 
 
 $2811 $l2.i!26 
 
 $878,143 
 
 
 $2747 
 
 $74 
 
 $624 
 
 $17,664 
 17,724 
 
 $46,428 
 106,314 
 
 $2811 
 
 $4,668 
 7,568 
 
 $cl40.SOS 
 637,335 
 
 Not from warehoTiae 
 
 Wool(Ger. WoBe; Dn. Wol; Da. Uld; Swed. Ull; 
 Ft, Laine; It. and Sp. Lana ; Port, ia, Lda; Russ. 
 Wolna, Scherst; Pol. Welna; Lat. Lana), a kind of 
 soft hair or down. The term is not very well defined. 
 It is applied both to the fine hair of animals, as sheep, 
 rabbits, some species of goats, the vicuna, etc. ; and to 
 fine vegetable fibres, as cotton. In this article, how- 
 ever, we refer only to the wool of sheep — an article 
 which has continued, from the earliest period down to 
 the present day, to be of primary importance, having 
 always formed the principal part of the clothing of 
 mankind iu most temperate regions. 
 
 Species- of Wool. — It has been customary to divide 
 wool into two great classes — ^long and short wools ; and 
 these again into subordinate classes, according to the 
 fineness of the fibre. Short wool is used in the cloth 
 manufacture ; and is, therefore, frequently called cloth- 
 ing wool. It may vary in length fpom one to three or 
 four inches; if it be longer, it requires to be cut or 
 broken to prepare it for the manufacture, the felting 
 property of wool is known to every one. The process 
 of hat-making, for example, depends entirely upon it. 
 The wool of which hats are made is neither spun nor 
 woven ; but locks of it, being thoroughly intermixed 
 and compressed in warm water, cohere and form a 
 solid, tenacious substance. 
 
 Cloth and woolen goods are made from wool possess- 
 ing this property ; the wool is carded, spun, woven, 
 and then, being put in the fulling-mill, the process of 
 felting takes place. The strokes of the mill make the 
 fibres cohere ; the piece subjected to the operation con- 
 tracts in length and breadth, and its texture becomes 
 more compact and uniform. This process is essential 
 to the beauty and strength of woolen cloth. But the 
 long wool of which stuffs and worsted are made is de- 
 prived of its felting properties. This is done by pass- 
 
 ing the wool through heated iron combs, which takes 
 away the laminae or feathery part of the wool, and ap- 
 proximates it to the nature of silk or cotton. Long or 
 combing wool may vary in length from three to eight 
 inches. The shorter combing wools are principally 
 used for hose, and are spun softer than the long comb- 
 ing wools ; the former being made into what is called 
 hard, and the latter into soft worsted yarn. The fine- 
 ness of the hair or fibre can rarely be estimated, at least 
 for any useful purpose, except by the wool sorter or 
 dealer, accustomed by long habit to discern those mi- 
 nute diff*erence3 that are quite inappreciable by com- 
 mon observers. In sorting wools, there are frequently 
 eight or ten different species in a single fleece ; and if the 
 best wool of one fleece be not equal to the finest sort, 
 it is thrown to a 2d, 3d, or 4th, or to a still lower sort, 
 of an equal degree of fineness with it. The best En- 
 glish short native fleeces, such as the fine Norfolk and 
 Southdown, are generally divided by the wool-sorter 
 into the following sorts, all varying in fineness from 
 each other: viz. 1. Prime; 2. Choice; 3. Super; 4. 
 Head; 6. Downrights; 6. Seconds; 7. Fine Abb; 8. 
 Course Abb ; 9. Livery ; 10. Short, coarse, or breech 
 wool. The relative value of each varies, according to 
 the greater demand for coarse, fine, or middle cloths. 
 
 The softness of the fibre is a quality of great import- 
 ance. It is not dependent on the fineness of the fibre ; 
 and consists of a peculiar feel, approaching to that of 
 silk or down. The difference in the value of two pieces 
 of cloth made of two kinds of wool equally fine, but 
 one distinguished for its softness and the other for the 
 opposite quality, is such, that, with the same process 
 and expense of manufacture, the one will be worth 
 from 20 to 25 per cent, more than the other. Mr. 
 Bakewell showed that the degree of softness depends 
 principally on the nature of the soil on which sheep 
 
woo 
 
 1987 
 
 WOO 
 
 are fed ; that sheep pastured oa chalk districts, or light 
 calcareous soils, usually produce hard wool ; while the 
 wool of those that are pastured on rich, loamy, argil- 
 laceous soils, is always distinguished by its softness. 
 Of the foreign wools, the Saxon is generally softer 
 than the Spanish. Hard wools are all defective in 
 their felting properties. In clothing wool, the color 
 of the fleece should always approach as much as possi- 
 ble to the purest white ; because such wool is not only 
 necessary for cloths dressed white, but for all cloths 
 that are to be dyed brijght colors, for which a clear 
 white ground is required to give a due degree of rich- 
 ness and lustre. Some of the English fine-wooled 
 sheep, as the Norfolk aiid Southdown, have black or 
 gray faces and legs. In all such sheep there is a tend- 
 ency to grow gray wool on some part of the body, or 
 to produce some gray fibres intermixed with the fleece, 
 which renders the wool unfit for many kinds of white 
 goods ; foi though the black hairs may be too few and 
 minute to be detected by the wool sorter, yet when the 
 cloth is stoyed they become visible, forming reddish 
 spots, by which its color is much injured. The Here- 
 fordshire sheep, which have white faces, are entirely free 
 from this defect, and yield a fleece without any admix- 
 ture of gray hairs. 
 
 The cleanness of the wool is an important considera- 
 tion. The Spanish wool, for example, is always scoured 
 after it is shorn ; whereas the English wool is only im- 
 perfectly washed on tlie sheep previously to its being 
 shorn. In consequence, it is said that while a pack of 
 English clothing wool of 240 lbs. weight will waste 
 about 70 lbs. in the manufucture, the same quantity of 
 Spanish will not waste more than 48 lbs. Cleanness, 
 therefore, is an object of much importance to Che buyer. 
 Before the recent improvements in the spinning of wool 
 by machinery, great length and strength of staple was 
 considered indispensable in most combing wools. The 
 fleeces of the long-wooled sheep fed in the rich marshes 
 of Kent and Lincoln used to be reckoned peculiarly suit- 
 able for the purposes of the wool-comber ; but the im- 
 provements alluded to have effected a very great change 
 in this respect, and have enabled the manufacturer to 
 substitute short wool of three inches staple in the place 
 of long combing wool, in the preparation of most worst- 
 ed articles. A great alteration has, in consequence, 
 taken place in the proportion of long to short wool 
 since 1800 ; there having been in the interim, accord- 
 ing to Mr. Hubbard's calculations, an increase of 
 132,053 packs in the quantity of the former produced 
 in England, and a decrease of 72,820 in the quantity 
 of >he latter. 
 
 Whiteness of fleece is of less importance in the long 
 combing than in clothing wool, provided it be free from 
 gray hairs. Sometimes, however, the fleece has a dingy 
 brown color, called a wmfer staiuj which is a sure indi- 
 cation that the wool is not in a thoroughly sound state. 
 Such fleeces are carefully thrown out by the wool sort- 
 er, being suitable only for goods that are to be dyed 
 black. The fineness of heavy combing wool is not of 
 so much consequence as its other qualities. The Meri- 
 no or Spanish breed of sheep was Introduced into En- 
 gland about the close of last century. George III. was 
 a great patron of this breed, which was for several years 
 a very great favorite. B ut it has been ascertained that, 
 though the fleece does not much degenerate, the car- 
 cass, which is naturally ill-formed, and affords com- 
 paratively little weight of meat, does not improve ; 
 and as the farmer, in the kind of sheep which he keeps, 
 must look not only to the produce of wool, but also to 
 the butcher market, his interest is rather to return to 
 the native breeds, and to give up the Spanish sheep. 
 They have, however, been of considerable service to 
 the flocks of Engla^d ; having been judiciously crossed 
 with the Southdown, Ryeland, etc. 
 
 Dr. Anderson, in a memorial subjoined to the " Ee- 
 portofthe Committee of the HighlandSociety,"proves, 
 from indisputable records, that from the earliest times 
 
 down to the reign of Queen Elizabeth, the wool of 
 Great Britain was not only superior to that of Spain, 
 but accounted the finest in the universe ; and that even 
 in the times of the Bomans a manufacture of woolen 
 cloths was established at Winchester for the use of the 
 emperors. In later times, wool was manufactured in 
 England, and is mentioned in A.D. 1185, but not in any 
 quantity until 1331, when the weaving of it was intro- 
 duced by John Kempe and other artisans from Flanders. 
 This was the real origin of the English wool manufac- 
 tures, Edward HI., 1331. — Rtmer's Fcedera. The ex- 
 portation prohibited, 1337. The exportation of En- 
 glish wool, and the importation of Irish wool into En- 
 gland prohibited, 1696. The non-exportation law re- 
 pealed, 1824. — Haydn. 
 
 Alpaca Wool. — The alpaca is one among many species 
 of the llama, the wool of which is very beautiful. The 
 first visit of these animals to Europe was an adventur- 
 ous one. Thirty-six traveled across the whole breadth 
 of South America, from Lima to Buenos Ayres, in 1808, 
 and were there shipped to Europe as a present to the 
 Empress Josephine. At Cadiz the poor animals were 
 ill-treated by a rabble, and only a small number were 
 ultimately preserved in Spain; they never reached 
 Josephine. By degrees it was found that alpaca wool 
 was longer, softer, more pliant, and more lustrous than 
 sheep's wool, and the manufacturers of Bradford began 
 to import it for use. Queen Victoria possesses one or 
 two of these animals at Windsor, and some articles of 
 dress were made from the alpaca wool in 1844 ; one was 
 an apron, entirely of alpaca ; another was a striped and 
 figured dress, with silk warp, alpaca weft, and altern- 
 ate silk and alpaca figures ; a third was a plaid dress, 
 woven with an intermixture of alpaca, silk, and worst- 
 ed ; while a fourth was a plain black dress, with cotton 
 warp and alpaca weft. Many attempts have been 
 made to establish the breed of the alpaca in England, 
 but hitherto the enterprise has not .been commercially 
 successful. 
 
 That alpaca wool is coming extensively into use in 
 England is shown by the imports : in 1836 to 1840 they 
 averaged 7000 bales per annum ; in 1841 to 1845, the 
 average was 13,000 bales ; in 1846 to 1850, more than 
 20,000.— See Alpaca. 
 
 Cashmere Wool. — It is an interesting feature in the 
 modem history of the woolen manufacture, that the 
 wool, or rather hair, of the Cashmere goat is becoming 
 a favorite material in cloth of the better kind. Not 
 that all the " Cashmeres" of the shops are really Cash- 
 meres; the morale of trade has not yet reached the 
 point when things are called by their right names ; 
 and the beautiful Asiatic valley is quite innocent of 
 the greater part of those products which rejoice in the 
 name of " Cashmeres." Still the high-born and the 
 wealthy occasionally purchase shawls which were real- 
 ly made in that region, and (what is more interesting 
 to us) attempts are being made to naturalize the ani- 
 mal which produces the beautiful filamentous material 
 in question. The fleece of the Cashmere goat consists 
 of two very dififerent lands of fibre — one of which is a 
 fine, soft, pliable, rich wool, equal to the finest lamb's 
 wool ; while the other, called hemp, is a hard, stiff, 
 coarse, rough kind of hair. The kemp may be used in 
 the manufacture of coarse cloth ; but every fibre must 
 be removed before the fine wool can be employed in 
 shawl-making. This removal is very dlBSoult and 
 tedious, and will be a bar to the spread of the manu- 
 facture, unless some expeditious systepi to effect it can 
 be devised. Prince Albert has some Cashmere goats 
 at Windsor ; and some few months before (he Great 
 Exhibition was opened he caused the fleeces of those 
 goats to be forwarded to two manufacturing firms, one 
 near Leeds, and one near Halifax, there to be subjected 
 to manufacturing processes. The separation of the fine 
 wool from the kemp was a slow manipulative process, 
 which many persons undertook voluntarily and pleas- 
 urably. Of course the expense which would attend 
 
woo 
 
 1988 
 
 WOO 
 
 such a mods of manufacture for ordinary sale would be 
 quite disproportionate to the result obtained ; but the 
 prince's praiseworthy object was answered by showing 
 that tlie Cashmere goat, can be reared, and that the 
 fleecy covering can be wrought into cloth. The arti- 
 ciep produced from the wool in question consisted of a 
 pi^ce .of white cloth, with silk warp and Cashmere 
 weft, woven with a brocaded figure; a piece of similar 
 character, but dyed ; two shawls made wholly of the 
 Cashmere wool ; and a piece of coarse woolen cloth 
 made from the itemp or hair. — /See Cashmere. 
 
 Mauchamp Merino Wool.-^l'a 1828 M. Graux, a farm- 
 er at Mauchamp, in the French department of Aisne, 
 had a lam.b which, as it grew up, became remarliafale 
 for the long, smooth, straight, and silky character of 
 the fibres of the wool. He resolved to insure, so far as 
 he could, a perpetuation of these valuable qualities in 
 the progeny of the lamb. In 1830 he had one ram and 
 one ewe whose wool was of this peculiar kind; in 
 1831 he had four rams and one ewe of the desired kind ; 
 and by 1833 the number was much increased. Thence- 
 forward the, progeny was verj- remarkable; some of 
 the lambs, like their mothers, had the curled elastic 
 wool of ordinary merino sheep ; while the others, like 
 their sires, had the long silky wool. As years ad- 
 vanced, M. Graux was able to obtain a breed of sheep 
 which combined in the wool nearly all the , .qualities 
 of tlie two former kinds ; and thus originated the Mau- 
 champ wool, which now sells in France for 25 per cent, 
 above the best merino. It is found to be nearly equal 
 to the real Cashmere wool in flexible delicacy of fibre, 
 as a material for Cashmere shawls; and when com- 
 bined with the real Cashmere, it imparts a strength in 
 which that wool is deficient. 
 
 Deterioration or Change in the Character of British 
 IFbo^.— It appears to be sufficiently established, by tlie 
 evidence taken before the House of Lords in 1828, and 
 other authorities, that a considerable deterioration, or 
 rather, perhaps, change, has taken place in the quality 
 of British wool,' particularly during the 30 preceding 
 years. The great object of the agriculturist has been 
 to increase the weight. of the carcass and the quantity 
 of the .wool; and it seems very difficult, if not quite 
 impossible, to accomplish this without injuring the 
 fineness of the fleece. Mr. Culley says, that the Here- 
 fordshire sheep, that produce the finest wool, are kept 
 lean, and yield l^.lb. each; he adds, "if they be bet- 
 ter kept, they grow large and produce more wool, but 
 of an inferior quality." This would seem to he uni- 
 versally true. The .great extension of the turnip hus- 
 bandry, and the general introduction of a larger breed 
 of sheep, appears, in every instance, to have lessened 
 the value of the fleece. Speaking of the Norfolk fleeces, 
 Mr. Fison, a wool sorter, says that 25 j-ears ago the 
 weight was 2^ lbs. a fleece, and that now it is 3 lbs. or 3^ 
 lbs. But according to a table furnished by the same 
 gentleman, containingthe resultsof hisexperience,itap- 
 pears that of 15 tods, or 420 lbs., of clothing wool grown 
 in Norfolk in 1790, 200 lbs. were prime, while in 1828 
 the same quantity of Norfolk wool only yielded 14 lbs. 
 prime. The statements of other witnesses are to the 
 same efiect. According to the estimate in Mr, Luc- 
 cock's Treatise on English Wool, which has always en- 
 joyed the highest reputation, the produce Of all sorts 
 of wool in England, in 1800 was 384,000 packs, of 240 
 lbs. a pack. But Mr. Hubbard, a very intelligent and 
 extensive wool-stapler at Leeds has shown that, sup- 
 posing Mr. Lucc.ock's estimate of the number of sheep 
 to be correct, the quantity of wool produced in 1828 
 could not, owing to the greater weight of the fleece, 
 be estimated at less than 463,169 packs ; and it is now 
 (1814) believed to amount to fully 500,000. packs. It 
 is, therefore, probable, notwithstanding the decline in 
 the pxice of wool, that, taking into account the greater 
 weight of the carcass, and the greater weight of the 
 fleece, sheep produce more at present to the farmer 
 I ban at any former period. 
 
 We give below a statement of the quantity of the 
 wool imported into Great Britain in fifteen years, from 
 1840 to 1854, inclusive. 
 
 Years. 
 
 aermsny. 
 
 AuBtraJia. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Pdunds. 
 
 
 1840 
 
 21,812,664 
 
 9,7-.6,248 
 
 49,416,284 
 
 1841 
 
 20.969,375 
 
 12,390,302 
 
 56,170,974 
 
 1842 
 
 16,613,269 
 
 12,Si78.950 
 
 45,881,639 
 
 1843.. 
 
 16,805,448 
 
 17,433,780 
 
 49,243,693 
 
 1844 
 
 61,847,683 
 
 17,632,247 
 
 66,713,761 
 
 1845 
 
 18,484,736 
 
 24,177,217 
 
 76,813,755 
 
 1846 
 
 15,888,705 
 
 21,789,343 
 
 65,285,462 
 
 184T ......; 
 
 12,673,814 
 
 26,056,816 
 
 62,5 2,608 ' 
 
 1848 
 
 14429,161 
 
 30,018,221 
 
 70,864,847 
 
 
 12.750,011 
 
 36,876,171 
 
 76,768 647 
 
 
 9,166,731 
 
 39,018,221 
 
 74,326,718 
 
 
 S,219,236 
 
 41,810,617 
 
 83,311,976 
 
 1852 .. . 
 
 12,765,253 
 
 43,297,402 
 
 93,761,458 
 
 
 11,534,800 
 
 47,077,010 
 
 119,396,549 
 
 
 11,448,518 
 
 47,489,650 
 
 106,121,996 
 
 ZmpoTts. 
 
 An Account of the Quantities of Sheep and Lambs' 
 Wool, foheign and ooloniai, imported into Geeat 
 Bkitain in tub Ybae 1851, distinguishino the Coun- 
 teieb feom which they came, and the quantities 
 beought feom bach, 
 
 Sheep and Lambs' 
 
 Wool, foreign 
 
 and colonial. 
 
 Ptmnda. 
 
 Russia, northern ports 584,067 
 
 Eusslan ports within the Black Sea 5,312,139 
 
 Denmark, including Iceland 1,657,910 
 
 Prussia 43,211 
 
 Hanseatio Towns 8,216,020 
 
 Holland 142,082 
 
 Belgium 496,783 
 
 Franca 908,314 
 
 Portugal proper 2,366,622 
 
 Spain 383,150 
 
 Gibraltar 448,120 
 
 Sardinian territories 14,r56 
 
 Tuscany 408,157 
 
 Papal temtories 158,534 
 
 Naples and Sicily 22o'436 
 
 Austrian territories 495,804 
 
 Malta 181^255 
 
 Turkish dominions 831,240 
 
 Egypt, Syria, and Palestine 1.748,602 
 
 Morocco ;.., '967,010 
 
 British possessionB in South iVfrica 6,816'591 
 
 British territories in India 4,549,620 
 
 China 69,546 
 
 "West Australia 868,595 
 
 South Australia 3,392.603 
 
 New South Wales ! 14,772,132 
 
 Vicjtoria 17,269,521 
 
 Van Diemen's Land 5,198,033 
 
 New Zealand ' " ' 
 
 United States 
 
 Brazil 
 
 809,203 
 594,017 
 179,946 
 863,194 
 
 129,221 
 
 Peru 1,675,644 
 
 All other places 45,135 
 
 Total 81,298,793 
 
 Buenos Ayres or Argentine Eepublic . . . 
 Chili . 
 
 Ee.export3. All Sorts. 
 
 ^ . Ptmnda. 
 
 EuBsia 28,402 
 
 Sweden 285,638 
 
 Norway 14,000 
 
 Hanseatio Towns 800,632 
 
 Holland l,10o]483 
 
 Belgium 7,718,407 
 
 Fi-ance 1,496,811 
 
 Italy 190,31'f 
 
 United States 3,029,968 
 
 Other places 47 170 
 
 Total 13,711,725 
 
 Of late years Russia has become of primary import- 
 ance among the wool exporting countries, especially 
 from her ports on the Black Sea. Provided tranquil- 
 lity could be maintained in South Africa, the probabil- 
 ity is that it would in no very lengthened period rival 
 New South Wales as a wool exporting country. Al- 
 paca, and' other wools of that sort, come from Peru; 
 goats' wool comes principally from Turkey, but the 
 best is that of Thibet. 
 
 United States. — Analogous in the uses for which it 
 serves to cotton, wool is a product of only'less import- 
 ance to the prosperity of the country than that'leading 
 staple of our agriculture and commerce. It is a very 
 gratifying fact that though the number of sheep ha's 
 
woo 
 
 1989 
 
 WOO 
 
 increased in ten years but 12 per cent., the aggregate 
 "weight of their fleeces has augmented 46 per cent. In 
 1840 there were 19,311,374 sheep, yielding 35,802,114 
 lbs. of wool, equal to 1-84 lb. per head. In 1850 the 
 average weight of each fleece was 2-43 IbSi, from which 
 it would appear that such an improvement had taken 
 place in the various breeds of the American sheep as 
 to increase their average product about 32 per cent, 
 throughout the United States.. Anda critical analysis 
 of the returns of sheep and wool proves not only that 
 our breeds are capable of such improvement, but that it 
 has actually taken place. 
 
 In Vermont the greatest attention has been given to 
 sheep-breeding; time, money, and intelligence having 
 been freely applied to the great object of obtaining a 
 breed combining weight and fineness of fleece. These 
 efforts have succeeded so well, that although the num- 
 ber of sheep in that State had declined nearly one half 
 in the period from the sixth to the seventh census, the 
 yield of wool remained nearly the same. The average 
 weight of the fleece in this State in 1840 was 2-2 lbs., 
 and in 1850 it had increased to 3'71, the gain being al- 
 most equal to 70 per cent. In Massachusetts, also, 
 where strenuous exertions have been inade-ii-though 
 not on so large a scale as in Vermont — to improve 
 their sheep, a correspondingly beneficial result has 
 been obtained, and the average weight of the fleece 
 has been increased from 2-5 to 3'1 lbs. The State of 
 New ,York produced 226,000 lbs. more wool in 1850, 
 from 3,453,000 sheep, than from 5, 118,000 in 1840, show- 
 ing that the weight of the fleece had been raised from 
 less than two to nearly three pounds. Our imports of 
 wool during ten years have varied as follows : 
 
 Qttantity and Vaxue op Wool impoeted into the United 
 States from 1841 to 1850, iNOLtrsiVE. 
 
 Years. 
 
 1842 
 
 1848—9 months 
 
 1844 
 
 1845 
 
 1846 
 
 1847 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 
 
 1850 
 
 QuADtity. 
 
 Valu«. 
 
 15,000,410 
 
 $1,091,953 
 
 11,420,958 
 
 797,432 
 
 3,517,100 
 
 245,000 
 
 14,008,000 
 
 851,460 
 
 28,833,040 
 
 1,689,794 
 
 16,558,247 
 
 1,134,226 
 
 8,460,109 
 
 555,622 
 
 11,341,429 
 
 857,034 
 
 17,869,022 
 
 1,177,847 
 
 18,669,794 
 
 1,681,691 
 
 By this statement it is shown that the quaptity of 
 wool brought into the country of late years amounts to 
 almost one-third of that produced in it ; while at former 
 
 periods, as from 1841 to 1845, the amount was nearly 
 one half. The largest proportion of this imported wool 
 came from Buenos Ayres and the neighboring states on 
 the Rio de la Plata, and is of a coarse and cheap variety, 
 costing from sis to eight cents per pounds It always 
 will be cheaper to bring this kind of wool from regions 
 where sheep are reared without care or labor, than to 
 produce it at home; but there is no country in the 
 world in which sheep may, by judicious treatment, be 
 made a som'ce of greater wealth and comfort to its in- 
 habitants than the United States. Tlie importations 
 of wool in 1850-61 exhibit a remarkable increase over 
 the preceding or any former year, amounting in quan- 
 tity to 32,648,693 lbs., and to the value of |3,800,000. 
 
 Peodtiotion of Wool xn the United Stat;eb in the 
 Yeabb 1849 AND 1850, acoobding to the Census Re- 
 pouts. 
 
 states and Territories. 
 
 Alabama poii 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 California 
 
 Columbia, DiBt of. . 
 
 Connecticut ;. 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Florida 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Iowa ,.. 
 
 Kerttucky 
 
 ' Louisiana 
 
 Maine *. 
 
 ^Maryland 
 
 MaBsachusetts 
 
 Michigan 
 
 MisBissippi 
 
 Missouri 
 
 New Hampsliire . . . 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 New York 
 
 North Carolina .... 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Khode Island. . .... . 
 
 South Carolina .... 
 
 Tennessee ..<.„f... 
 Texas .............. 
 
 "Vermont ..! 
 
 Virginia 
 
 "Wisconsin 
 
 Minnesota Territory 
 New Mexico " 
 Oregon *' 
 
 Utah 
 
 Totals 35,802,114 52,516,969 
 
 1840. 
 
 unds 2-20,353 . 
 
 ISEO. 
 657,118 
 
 64,943 
 
 182,695 
 
 " .... 
 
 5,520 
 
 707 
 
 526 
 
 889,870 
 
 497,454 
 
 64,404 
 
 67,768 
 
 7,285 
 
 23,247 
 
 371,303 
 
 990,019 
 
 " 650,007 
 
 2,150,113 
 
 " 1,237,919 
 
 2,610,287 
 
 23,039 
 
 378,898 
 
 1,786,847 
 
 2,297,433 
 
 49,283 
 
 109,89t 
 
 " 1,465,551 
 
 1,364,034 
 
 488,201 
 
 477,433 
 
 941,906 
 
 586,130 
 
 " 153,375 
 
 2,043,288 
 
 " 176,196 
 
 559,619 
 
 562,266 
 
 1,627,164 
 
 " 1,260,517 
 
 1,108,476 
 
 397,207 
 
 376,396 
 
 " 9,845,2:5 
 
 10,071,801 
 
 '625,044 
 
 970,738 
 
 '( .3,685,816 
 
 10,196,37'1 
 
 3,04^,664 
 
 4,481,670 
 
 " ■ 183,830 
 
 129,692 
 
 299,170 
 
 487i23» 
 
 1,060,332 
 
 1,364,878 
 
 '* .... 
 
 131,91T 
 
 3,699,235 
 
 3,400,71T 
 
 2,638,374 
 
 2,86C,T65 
 
 6,777 
 
 283,963 
 
 ** .... 
 
 85 
 
 " 
 
 32,901 
 
 
 29,686 
 
 " .... 
 
 9,222 
 
 ExPOBTS OP Wool eeom the United States poa the eisoal Yeaes ending June S0,1S53, 1854, 1855. 
 
 
 1SB8. 
 
 1854. 
 
 1855. 1 
 
 Pound.. 
 
 Value; 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Pouuds. 
 
 Value. 
 
 
 216,47:J 
 209,194 
 
 $26,567 
 51.387 
 
 114,268 
 195,148 
 
 $83,395 
 41,668 
 
 8S,S80 
 728,904 
 
 $27,802 
 131,442 
 
 Foreign wool 
 
 Total 
 
 4.>5,666 
 
 $77,954 
 
 309,411 
 
 $76,503 
 
 817,790 
 
 $159,244 
 
 Impobts of Wool into thb 
 
 United States foe the 
 
 nsoAL Yeaes 
 
 ENOTNO Jot* 30, 1853, 1S64 
 
 , 1855. 
 
 Whence imported. 
 
 1853. 
 
 1854. 
 
 1855. 
 
 Pounda. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Pounda. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Pounds. 1 Value. 
 
 
 3,884,595 
 2,205,861 
 4,351,259 
 .5,746,857 
 2,664,300 
 2,743,207 
 
 $773,469 
 280,800 
 372,012 
 688,658 
 255,190 
 400,088 
 
 1,896,514 
 12,487 
 4,360,826 
 6,255,638 
 1,857,447 
 6,317,638 
 
 $261,827 
 
 3,487 
 
 460,286 
 
 864,232 
 
 161,066 
 
 1,081,788 
 
 072,434 
 949,828 
 4,261,250 
 5,966,969 
 2,846,902 
 3,637,582 
 
 $158,U44 
 131,664 
 388,305 
 627,718 
 317,564 
 450,844 
 
 
 
 
 Chili 
 
 Otlier places 
 
 Total 
 
 21,695,079 
 
 $2,669,718 
 
 20,200,110 
 
 $2,822,185 
 
 18,634,415 $2,072,13,) | 
 
 Wooleu Manufacture, the art of forming wool 
 into cloth and stuffs. The manufacture of cloth was 
 known, it is supposed, in all civilized countries, and in 
 very remote ages, and probably of linen also. Woolen 
 cloths were made an article of commerce in the time 
 of Julius Csesar, and are familiarly alluded to by him. 
 They were made in England before a.d. 1200, and the 
 manufacture became extensive in the reign of Edward 
 III., 1331. They were then called Kendal cloth and 
 Halifax cloth. — ^E. B. See article Wool. Blankets 
 were first made in England about a.d. 1340. — Camden. 
 No cloth but of Wales or Ireland to be imported into En- 
 gland, 1463. The art of dyeing brought into England, 
 
 1608. — See article Dyeihg. Medleys, or mixed broad- 
 cloth, first made, 1614. Manufacture of fine cloth be- 
 gun at Sedan, in France, under the patronage of Car- 
 dinal Mazarine, 1646. British and Irish woolens pro- 
 hibited in France, 1677. All persons obliged to be 
 buried in woolen, or the persons directiflg. the burial 
 otherwise to forfeit £5, 29 Charles II., 1678. The 
 manufacture of cloth greatly improved in England by 
 Flemish settlei-s, 1688. Injudiciously restrained in 
 Ireland, 11 William III., 1698. The exportation from 
 Ireland wholly prohibited, except to certain ports of 
 England, 1701. English manufacture encouraged by 
 10 Anne, 1712, and 2 George I., 1715. Greater in 
 
woo 
 
 1990 
 
 WOO 
 
 Yorkshire in 1785, than in all England at the Revolu- 
 tion . — Chalmeks. 
 
 Woolen Goods, Varieties of. — The variety of goods 
 which come under the designation of woolen manufac- 
 tures is obviously increasing every year. " Broad- 
 cloth" and " narrow cloth," " Clarendons" and " Pe- 
 tershams," " Cashmeres," " Cashmerettes," "kerseys," 
 "tweeds," "tartans," " linsey - woolseys," "angolas," 
 "vicunas," "Venetians," "llamas," "Sardinians," 
 "Himalayas," "moleskins," "doeskins," "beavers," 
 " trowserings," " vestings," " coatings" — there is real- 
 ly no end to the names; for the manufacturers, not 
 content with having distinguishing names for particu- 
 lar materials and particular modes of manufacture, 
 conjure up new names, on any or no grounds, for the 
 sake of novelty. Many of the names, however, might 
 be made significant of really curious novelties in the 
 manufacture. Thus there is a new ' ' bis-unique cloth," 
 of double thickness, the two surfaces having different 
 patterns, so that the wearer may have either side nut- 
 ward at his pleasure. There is a cloth wholly made 
 from beaver fur — soft, light, and warm — for winter 
 garments. There is, as a third exaniple, the comical- 
 ly-named Irish " rumswizzle," a very excellent brown- 
 ish frieze made of undyed foreign wool. 
 
 Shoddy Trade. — The greater number, perhaps, of our 
 readers may never have heard of that branch of the 
 woolen manufacture called the shoddy trade, which has 
 grown up of late years, and is now of very considerable 
 value and importance. It is principally carried on at 
 Dewsbury, in England, in the centre of the clothing 
 district. Shoddy cloth is fabricated either wholly or 
 partly of old wool ; and instead of being neglected, or 
 used only as manure, old woolen rags are now every 
 ivhere carefully collected, and conveyed to Dewsbury. 
 After being subjected to various processes, they are 
 torn to pieces by the aid of powerful machinery, and 
 reduced to their original state of wool ; and this wool, 
 being respun, either with or without an admixture of 
 fresh wool, is again made into cloth ! Formerly, shod- 
 dy cloth was used only for padding and such like pur- 
 poses ; but now blankets, flushings, druggets, carpets, 
 and table-covers, cloth for pilot and Petersham great- 
 coats, etc., are either wholly or partly made of shoddy. 
 The clothing of the army, and the greater part of that 
 of the navy-, consists principally of the same material, 
 which, in fact, is occasionally worn by every body. 
 Large quantities of shoddy cloth are exported. Great 
 improvements have been effected of late years, not only 
 in the fabric of the cloth, but also in the dyes : this is 
 especially seen in the cloth for soldiers* uniforms, which 
 is no longer of a brick-dust color, but makes a much 
 nearer approach to scarlet. The beautiful woolen table- 
 covers are made wholly of shoddy, being printed by 
 aqua fortis from designs drawn in London and Man- 
 chester, and cut on holly and other blocks on the spot. 
 The analogy between this manufacture and that of 
 paper is so striking that it must force itself on the at- 
 tention of every one, the vilest and most worthless 
 materials being converted in both into the most beau- 
 tiful and useful fabrics. The shoddy trade is, in fact, 
 one of the greatest triumphs of art and civilization. 
 Though of comparatively recent origin, it is rapidly 
 extending itself. It is most active in summer, and is 
 much more languid in winter. 
 
 United States. — The development and growth of our 
 woolen manufactures depends now entirely upon our 
 tariff. To enable our mills to compete with foreign 
 mills, we must have a tariff to counteract the hostile 
 legislation of those foreign countries which overrun our 
 market with their fabrics. When England, France, 
 Prussia, and Austria import wool for their broadcloths, 
 free of duty, the United States must do the same ; or 
 these European manufacturers, in whose favor our tax 
 on imported wool operates, will surpass us so largely 
 in our own markets, that we shall be compelled to stop 
 all our broadcloth spindles. This has been the effect 
 
 of the tariff of 1846 upon our woolen manufactures ; 
 and the prospect of relief to be afforded by Mr. Camp- 
 bell's bill will give life to this decaying branch of our 
 industry. 
 
 The relations of the tariff to our woolen manufac- 
 tures has attracted so much attention of late, that the 
 following table, showing the rate of duty fixed on wool 
 by the various tariffs enacted by Congress since 1789, 
 will be found interesting. 
 
 Tabiff Duties on impoeted Wool fbom 1T89. 
 
 January, 1789, to April, 1816— free. 
 
 April, 1816, to May, 1824 — ^15 per cent, ad valorem. 
 
 May, 1824, to June, 1825 — costing under 10 cents per lb., 15 
 per cent, ad valorem. 
 
 May, 1824, to June, 1825 — costing over 10 cents per lb., 20 
 per cent, ad valorem. 
 
 June, 1825, to June, 1826 — costing under 10 cents per lb., 
 15 per cent, ad valorem. 
 
 June, 1825, to June, 1826 — costing over 10 cents per lb., 25 
 per cent, ad valorem. 
 
 June, 1826, to June, 1828 — costing under 10 cents per lb., 
 15 per cent, ad valorem. 
 
 June, 1826, to June, 1828— costing over 10 cents per lb., 30 
 per cent, ad valorem. 
 
 June, 1828, to June, 1329 — 4 cents per lb. specific, and 40 
 per cent, ad valorem. 
 
 June, 1829, to June, 1830 — 4 cents per lb. specific, and 45 
 per cent, ad valorem. 
 
 June, 1830, to June, 1832 — 4 cents per lb. specific, and 50 
 per cent, ad valorem, 
 
 June, 1832, to June, 1842 — costing under 8 cents per lb., free. 
 
 June, 1832, to June, 1842 — costing over 8 cents per lb. , 4 
 cents specific, and 40 per cent, ad valorem. 
 
 June, 1842, to July, 1846 — costing under 7 cents per lb., 5 
 per cent, ad valorem. 
 
 June, 1842, to July, 1846 — costing over 7 cents per lb., 3 
 cents specific, and 80 per cent, ad valorem. 
 
 July, 1846, to March B, 1857— all wool 30 per cent, ad 
 valorem. 
 
 Mareh 3, 1857, wool 24 per cent. Less than 20 cents a 
 pound, at the place of exportation, free. 
 
 The fiuctuations in this table are remarkable, and, 
 considering their frequency and the extremes to which 
 they run, it is surprising that capital should have been 
 invested in woolen manufactures in this country. 
 
 " The statistics upon the production and importation 
 of wool, and manufactures of wool, have been prepared 
 with care, in order to place the questions connected 
 with the production and importation of wool and manu- 
 factures of wool, involved in the proposition to admit 
 wool as a raw material free of duty, fully and fairly 
 before Congress. It will be seen that in 1840, accord- 
 ing to the census of that year, we manufactured woolen 
 goods to the value of $20,696,999 ; and that in addition 
 we imported manufactures of wool to the value of 
 $8,652,785; making our consumption of the manufac- 
 tures of wool $29,349,784, and the consumption of 
 $1 71 94-100 for each person then in the United States. 
 The census of 1840 does not give the number of facto- 
 ries devoted to, nor the capital employed in the manu- 
 facture of wool. The census of 1850 shows there were 
 1559 factories in the United States, with 28,118,650 of 
 capital devoted to the manufacture of wool, with the 
 particular States in which the factories were situ- 
 ated ; also that the manufactures of wool amounted to 
 $43,207,545, and we imported manufactures of wool to 
 the value of $16,976,575, making our consumption of 
 manufactures of wool $60,184,120, and the consumption 
 of $2 b^\ for each person in the United States. If we 
 estimate the increased value of our woolen manufac- 
 tures since 1850 at the ratio of the increase between 
 1840 and 1850, it gives our manufactures of wool at 
 $56,406,786, for the year 1855 ; and we find the value 
 of our importations of manufactures of wool for 1855 
 to be $23,297,884, making our consumption $79,704,170, 
 and $2 93 18-100 as the consumption of each person 
 then in the United States. These tables also show, at 
 the periods of 1840, 1850, and 1855, the value of the 
 wool produced in the United States, and also the value 
 of wool imported into the United States at the same 
 periods, less the exports of wool. They also show the 
 value of the wool, in the Imported manufactures of 
 wool, at each of those periods, estimating the value of 
 
woo 
 
 v^- 
 
 1991 
 
 WOO 
 
 the wool at one-third of the value of the imports, and 
 exhibit the value of the wool consumed by each per- 
 son in 1840 at 71 26-100 cents; in 1850 at 75 18-100 
 cents; and in 1855 at 92 19-100 cents; and that we 
 consumed in 1840 $3,704,092 more than we produced; 
 in 1850, $7,317,771; and in 1855, $9,678,690. There 
 are no data from which to exhibit the number of fac- 
 tories, nor th« amount of capital employed in the manu- 
 facture of wool, in 1855, nor the character of the goods 
 manufactured ; bnt it is represented that all our facto- 
 ries heretofore engaged in the manufacture of broad- 
 cloths and the finer woolen fabrics have been forced to 
 abandon that description of manufacture, and yield our 
 markets for those articles to the foreign mani^acturer. 
 These tables show that in 1855 we consumed $23,297,384 
 of the manufactures 6f wool more than we jmanufao- 
 tured, and that we consumed $9,678,690 of wool more 
 than we produced, estimating the wool in the manu- 
 factured article at one-third of the value. Now we 
 import $1,940,697 of wool for our manufacturers, who 
 pay a duty of 30 per cent, upon it ; and we import 
 $23,297,384 of the manufactures of wool, on which we 
 pay different rates of duty, viz. ; 30 per cent, on part, 
 25 per cent, onp^rt, and 20 per cent, on part; while 
 with wool tree of duty in other manufacturing coun- 
 tries, the duty operates a discrimination against the 
 labor and capital of our own people. This is peculiar- 
 ly the case as to the coarser fabrics, which we admit at 
 less duty than we impose upon wool. 
 
 " The climate of the United States issuch that man- 
 ufactures of wool are used winter and summer in some 
 of the States, and in the winter months in all, and the 
 finer fabrics are used in all. It is an article, for cloth- 
 ing and other uses, that our climate and our habits do 
 not permit us to dispense with, and which our people 
 can and will manufacture for themselves, if our tariff 
 laws are arranged so as not to discriminate against 
 them, and in favor of other manufacturing nations. 
 
 " When we first imposed a tax on foreign wool. Great 
 Britain and other manufacturing nations taxed it also, 
 and as high as we taxed it. We discriminated in the 
 tax upon the manufactures of wool, imposing a higher 
 tax upon the finer fabrics ; whereapon Great Britain 
 and other manufactnring nations repealed their tax on 
 wool, and secured to their manufacturers the advant- 
 age of obtaining the raw material free of duty. This 
 advantage over us they will continue to enjoy as long 
 as our tax is continued. The reasons why they admit 
 wool free are to be found in the fact that they manu- 
 facture more than they produce, and it is necessary 
 they should be able to sell cheap, ig order to enter ad- 
 vantageously the markets of the world, and it may be 
 also to secure the market of the United States, to the 
 suppression of manufacturing in this country. We 
 also manufacture more wool than we produce, and con- 
 sume more manufactures of wool than we manufacture, 
 and continue our tax on wool. The duty on wool was 
 imposed to promote its production in the United States, 
 and was expected to enhance the price. It has failed 
 
 to secure the object for which it was imposed. The 
 production has not kept pace with our population and 
 consumption of woolen manufactures, and although the 
 prices have been fair, they have not been such as to 
 make wool-growing as profitable a pursuit as many 
 others in the country. In the trial of ten years under 
 the tariff of 1846, there is no greater production of wool, 
 in proportion to the population, than there was prior to 
 that time. It is said we do not produce the inferior- 
 priced wools, costing twenty cents per pound or less ; 
 nor the higher-priced wools, costing fifty cents or more 
 to the pound, and that if; is the lower and higher priced 
 wools that we import for our manufactures, and that 
 the duty has no effect, and does not enhance the price 
 of the wool that we produce ; in consequence of which 
 we are undersold in our own markets, in both the finer 
 and coarser fabrics ; and that the repeal of the tariff on 
 low and the higher priced wools would not affect the 
 price of the wool we produce, and would enable our 
 manufacturers to use more of our wool, by judicious 
 mixture with foreign wool, and give them a fairer 
 competition for the home market, and induce the man- 
 ufacture of the finer fabrics in this country. There' 
 would be difficulty in the execution of such a tariff, 
 because it would be the interest of the importer to put 
 the foreign value of his wool above the fifty or below 
 the twenty cents to obtain free entry. It is believed 
 these causes would render the tax uncertain and un- 
 popular, and make free trade in wool more desirable 
 and more beneficial to the wool-grower as well as the 
 manufacturer. In Great Britain the tax on the foreign 
 wool, when it was as much as sixpence a pound, did 
 not enhance the price to the English wool-grower, al- 
 though it had been imposed and continued, as well to 
 encourage the growth of wool at home as for revenue. 
 The English prices-current and statistics show that the 
 price of wool ranged higher the very first year after 
 the duty was repealed than it had for years before, and 
 has continued to range higher ever since. It is confi- 
 dently believed such would be the case in this country 
 if the duty on the importation of wool was repealed, 
 thereby giving our manufacturers wool on the same 
 terms the foreign manufacturers obtain theirs, viz. : by 
 purchase in the open markets of the world, and that 
 they would be encouraged to increase and extend their 
 business in order to enjoy the benefit of the home mark- 
 et for their goods, the consequences of which would 
 be a constant and greater home demand, at higher and 
 better prices. 
 
 " The ratio at which our population is increasing will 
 render necessary a continued increase in the manufac- 
 tures of wool required for consumption. The import- 
 ance of a home supply of this useful and indispensable 
 article of clothing calls for the most careful investiga- 
 tion of the effects of our laws, and a prompt remedy by 
 their repeal wherever they shall be found prejudicial 
 to a constant and cheap supply from the capital and 
 labor of our own people." — U. S. Treamry Report, 
 December, 1856. 
 
 Imports op Woolens into 
 
 ens United States foe the 
 
 Yeaes 
 
 ENDiNO June 30, 1853, 1854, 1855 
 
 
 Wbence imported. 
 
 Cloths and 
 Cafwimereu. 
 
 Merino 
 Shawls 
 
 . Blantets. 
 
 Hosiery. 
 
 Wonted 
 Goods. 
 
 yam. 
 
 Woolen 
 Embroideries 
 
 Manufactures 
 not apecified. 
 
 Flannels. 
 
 Carpets. 
 
 1S58. 
 
 England 
 
 Haase Towns . . . 
 
 5,741,225 
 
 2,467,767 
 
 2,233,472 
 
 629,442 
 
 785,304 
 
 130,872 
 
 ■ 220,187 
 
 266,219 
 
 1,388,759 
 
 464 
 
 52,472 
 
 18,964 
 
 872,842 
 54,360 
 30,220 
 90,264 
 
 7,266,348 
 509,708 
 
 1,839,476 
 180,865 
 
 147,187 
 
 123,056 
 
 1,394 
 
 9,259 
 
 10,132 
 
 7,834 
 
 9,BT9 
 
 730 
 
 999,178 
 22,004 
 25,008 
 50,717 
 
 88,212 
 
 10,750 
 
 5,160 
 
 5,190 
 
 1,293,932 
 
 1,196 
 
 13,467 
 
 26,888 
 
 Other places .... 
 
 Total 
 
 1364. 
 
 England 
 
 BreAen 
 
 11,071,900 
 
 7,099,690 
 
 3,526,327 
 
 1,771,432 
 
 762,134 
 
 1,402,682 
 
 723,228 
 
 94,419 
 
 825,132 
 
 333,293 
 
 1,455,659 
 
 1,697,977 
 
 2,046 
 
 82,528 
 
 8,039 
 
 1,047,686 
 
 1,072,919 
 93,382 
 36,450 
 70,106 
 
 9,796,387 
 
 7,380,607 
 640,502 
 
 2,211,944 
 242,826 
 
 280,896 
 
 233,493 
 
 47,887 
 
 2,936 
 
 75,055 
 
 28,025 
 
 23,239 
 1,621 
 2,507 
 7,899 
 
 1,096,907 
 
 1,182,375 
 64,937 
 87,297 
 83,455 
 
 106,881 
 
 102,906 
 9,213 
 19,783 
 
 11,227 
 
 1,336,482 
 
 2,853,344 
 
 828 
 
 18,657 
 
 7,334 
 
 Other places 
 
 Total 
 
 1855. 
 England 
 
 13,159,583 
 
 4,847,075 
 
 1,991,626 
 
 1,650,113 
 
 966,147 
 
 1,476,072 
 
 963,161 
 174,624 
 563,358 
 538,961 
 
 1,790,590 
 
 1,144,683 
 
 3,126 
 
 20,982 
 
 1,851 
 
 1,272,857 
 
 791,982 
 
 124,393 
 
 43,037 
 
 124,546 
 
 10,375,879 
 
 5,916,361 
 471,234 
 
 1,933,971 
 268,940 
 
 859,341 
 
 98,190 
 
 18,966 
 
 2,161 
 
 41,282 
 
 35,266 
 
 1,388,064 
 
 212,915 
 14,851 
 18,277 
 31,471 
 
 143,079 
 
 111,0E8 
 11,514 
 8,761 
 3,478 
 
 2,381,863 
 
 1,667,140 
 . 870 
 13,438 
 23,010 
 
 
 Other places .... 
 Total 
 
 9,144,861 
 
 2,240,104 
 
 1,170,642 
 
 l,083j957 
 
 8,690,506 
 
 160,599 
 
 .... 
 
 274,514 
 
 134,811 
 
 1,604,166 
 
woo 
 
 1992 
 
 WOO 
 
 Ex^ETS OF "Wool and Mahitfaotukeb of Wool of foeeign Peoddotion fbom thk Umitbd States foe the Yeak 
 
 ENDING June 30, 185T. 
 
 Whither exported. 
 
 
 1 
 
 So 
 
 ■at 
 
 li 
 
 S"g 
 
 Shawls of Wool, 
 Wool and Cotton, 
 Silk, and SUk and 
 Cotton. 
 
 
 s 
 
 ■< . 
 •li 
 
 EC 
 
 ■41 
 
 — ' c 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 Is 
 
 1' 
 
 1 ■ 
 ■3 
 
 E 
 
 
 
 Asiatic Kiissia 
 
 Russian Possess, in N. Am. 
 
 Sweden and Norway 
 
 Danish West Indies 
 
 
 $360 
 
 'ssi 
 
 226 
 
 $1,100 
 1,019 
 
 ' 'e'oT 
 
 800 
 791 
 
 9,'9'48 
 8,979 
 
 4,092 
 
 1,728 
 
 463 
 
 4,662 
 
 i,025 
 
 ' 792 
 
 420 
 
 10,443 
 
 277 
 
 $373 
 "687 
 
 9,975 
 1,237 
 
 3,401 
 405 
 
 "86 
 
 22,'075 
 
 488 
 
 1,735 
 
 46B 
 
 10,538 
 1,732 
 3,865 
 1,927, 
 2,925 
 i12 
 688 
 
 $701 
 'T22 
 
 'too 
 
 1385 
 2385 
 
 'S72 
 ■373 
 
 $43 
 ■493 
 
 'in 
 
 1478 
 
 $3,096 
 2,589 
 
 1,968 
 
 l6,82S 
 701 
 
 1,873 
 
 $649 
 
 $286,'488 
 5,094 
 
 2,012 
 4,'769 
 
 "m 
 
 i,475 
 
 
 
 $219 
 '280 
 
 
 
 
 
 Scotland 
 
 
 
 $283 
 
 $82 
 
 Other British N. Am. Poss. 
 
 British Honduras 
 
 British Australia 
 
 France on the Atlantic 
 
 French North Amer. Poss. . 
 Cuba 
 
 690 
 '534 
 
 * Porto Rico 
 
 
 Turkey in Asia 
 
 Porta In Africa 
 
 Hayti 
 
 
 
 
 Central Republic 
 
 New Granada 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Chili 1 
 
 
 Peru 
 
 Sandwich Islands 
 
 China 
 
 Total, 1856-'5T 
 
 From warehouse 
 
 Not from warehouse 
 
 .... 
 
 $'83 
 
 $920 
 
 $4T,14S 
 
 $63,(J63 
 
 $6038 
 
 $2184 1 $21,052 
 
 $649 1 $2113,912 
 
 $1306 
 
 $199 
 
 $283 
 
 $226 
 694 
 
 $36,037 
 11,108 
 
 $3.5,100 
 27,(154 
 
 $37110 
 2938 
 
 $636 1 $17,697 
 1648 1 3,365 
 
 .... 1 $184598 
 $649 1 109,314 
 
 $1224 
 82 
 
 $2i9 
 280 
 
 Imports of Wool asd Mahtipaottiiies of Wool into the United States foe the Yeae ending June 30, 185T. 
 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 W 
 
 
 u 
 
 =11 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 S's 
 
 
 •°a 
 
 
 
 <s 
 
 
 S 
 
 « 
 
 
 
 whence imported. 
 
 
 ■s 
 
 '1 
 
 OS 
 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 g 
 li 
 
 || 
 11 
 
 a 
 a 
 
 i 
 
 
 5 
 
 s 
 
 E 
 
 s 
 
 eg 
 
 IB 
 
 &, 
 
 S 
 
 K 
 
 tz. 
 
 o 
 
 
 t 
 
 » 
 
 i 
 
 » 
 
 « 
 
 « 
 
 » 
 
 i 
 
 t 
 
 « 
 
 i 
 
 Russia on the Baltic) 
 and North Seas. . / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,612 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Russia on Black Sea . 
 
 
 43,6>6 
 
 
 
 .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Danish West Indies. 
 
 
 3,3(3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 151 
 
 975,271 
 
 63.834 
 
 160 
 
 3T,775 
 
 23'5,605 
 
 85,527 
 
 8,393 
 
 5,893 
 
 223 
 
 
 
 5iC 
 
 1,588,381 
 11,219 
 
 164,603 
 2,086 
 
 286 
 8 
 
 199,169 
 3,993 
 
 790,826 
 1,774 
 
 36,211 
 228 
 
 27,522 
 415 
 
 9,807 
 
 500 
 225 
 
 Holland 
 
 Dutch West Indies . . 
 
 
 1,960 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Belgium 
 
 
 
 909,331 
 
 12.929 
 
 
 45,051 
 
 18,445 
 
 838 
 
 3,194 
 
 32 
 
 ■ 1,104 
 
 
 
 104,736 
 
 5,771,932 
 42,439 
 
 732 449 
 3-32,083 
 
 1,592,383 
 542 
 
 1,372,722 
 11,414 
 
 7,166,118 
 136,602 
 
 68,177 
 
 694,116 
 5,073 
 
 66,898 
 317 
 
 2,156,691 
 19,830 
 
 Scotland ; . . : 
 
 Ireland 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 888 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 
 8,610 
 
 
 .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 667 
 
 Malta 
 
 
 63,31.9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Canada . 
 
 
 B 
 
 1,402 
 
 163 
 
 21T 
 
 22 
 
 345 
 
 3 
 
 2,181 
 
 72 
 
 195 
 
 Other Brit. N. A. Pos. 
 
 
 
 42 
 
 
 
 1,790 
 
 288 
 
 14 
 
 71 
 
 
 
 British West Indies.. 
 
 
 643 
 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 
 
 ios 
 
 British Honduras 
 
 
 
 
 762 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 British Guiana 
 
 
 6.512 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 British Pos. in Africa 
 
 
 183,426 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 Other ports in Africa. 
 
 
 
 
 34 
 
 .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 British Australia 
 
 
 456 
 
 41 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8,665 
 
 
 18,896 
 
 
 
 
 
 182 
 
 
 88 
 
 France on the Atrtic, 
 
 38 
 
 364 
 
 1,059,479 
 
 833,973 
 
 31.458 
 
 66,772 
 
 3,022,823 
 
 936 
 
 72,311 
 
 22,760 
 
 20,495 
 
 France on the Med'n. 
 
 
 165,816 
 
 
 
 6,868 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Spain on the Med'n.. 
 
 
 1,040 
 
 8i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Philippine Islands . . 
 
 
 
 
 398 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cuba 
 
 
 
 
 2,4,52 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Azores 
 
 
 Sir. 
 
 
 
 
 
 240 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tuscany 
 
 
 30,477 
 
 313 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 Austria 
 
 
 560 
 
 
 107 
 
 
 889 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Turkey in Europe . . . 
 
 
 6,135 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Turkey in Asia 
 
 
 395,332 
 
 
 220 
 
 
 
 
 
 .... 
 
 
 461 
 
 Mexico 
 
 
 3,054 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .... 
 
 Central Republic 
 
 
 899 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 New Granada 
 
 
 312 
 
 48,38C 
 
 '5,iii 
 
 61 
 
 8 
 
 '6,738 
 
 90 
 
 
 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 
 118 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Brazil 
 
 
 14,455 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Uruguay 
 
 
 , 10,102 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Argentine Republic. . 
 
 
 694,736 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Chili 
 
 
 864,010 
 
 878 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sandwich Islands . . . 
 
 
 1,061 
 
 408 
 
 
 
 
 
 123 
 
 
 
 
 China 
 
 Total, ]S5G-'57.. 
 
 
 12,080 
 
 5 
 
 86,294 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 
 79 
 
 576 
 
 2,125,744 
 
 11,009,80,-) 
 
 2 2,tii,351 
 
 1,(;3»,97^ 
 
 1,740,8j9 
 
 1 1,305,669 
 
 192,147 
 
 813,47.-) 
 
 105,779 
 
 2,181,296 
 
WRE 
 
 1993 
 
 WRE 
 
 NtJMUEB op EbTABLISHMENTB, CA3?n!AL KMPLOTED, BA"W MaTEEVAL ITBED, HANDS EMPLOYED, AND AVEEAGE WaGEB PEE 
 
 Month, in tue MAwuFACTnaB of Wool in the United Stateb, 1850. 
 
 states. 
 
 Number of 
 Eatablisll- 
 Dientfl ia 
 operfltion. 
 
 Capital 
 ioTeeted. 
 
 PooDds of 
 Wool used. 
 
 Tons 
 
 of 
 
 Coal. 
 
 Number of Hands 
 employed. 
 
 Males. 
 
 Average Wages 
 per Month. 
 
 Males. Females. 
 
 Value of 
 
 entire 
 Froducte, 
 
 Maine 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 Vermoiit 
 
 Massacliuaetts 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 New York 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Mainland 
 
 Virginia 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Texas 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Ohio.. 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Missouri 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 District of Columbia . 
 Total, 1850 
 
 36 
 
 61 
 
 72 
 
 119 
 
 4B 
 
 149 
 
 2«9 
 
 41 
 
 380 
 
 S 
 
 38 
 
 121 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 25 
 
 130 
 
 15 
 
 33 
 
 16 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 $467,000 
 
 2,437,700 
 
 886,300 
 
 9,089,342 
 
 1,013,000 
 
 3,773,06:j 
 
 4,469,370 
 
 494,274 
 
 3,005,064 
 
 148,500 
 
 244,0()0 
 
 ' 332:640 
 
 . 18,000 
 
 ■ ,68,000 
 
 8,000 
 
 10,900 
 
 249,820 
 
 870,220 
 
 94,000 
 
 171,545 
 
 164,500 
 
 20,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 31,225 
 
 700 
 
 1,438,434 
 
 3,604,103 
 
 2,828,100 
 
 22,229,952 
 
 4,103,370 
 
 9,414,100 
 
 12,638,786 
 
 1,510,289 
 
 7,560,379 
 
 398,000 
 
 430,300 
 
 1,554,110 
 
 30,009 
 
 163,816 
 
 30,000 
 
 6i,200i 
 
 678,900 
 
 1,667,728 
 
 162,250 
 
 413,350 
 
 336,964 
 
 80,000 
 
 14,600 
 
 134,200 
 
 5,000 
 
 8,600 
 
 15,410 
 2,032 
 7,912 
 
 V 
 
 10,777 
 
 45 
 
 100 
 
 357 
 
 2,110 
 
 ' ' 90 
 
 987 
 
 1,071 
 
 15SU 
 
 $495,040 
 
 1,267,329 
 
 830.684 
 
 8,671,671 
 
 1,463,900 
 
 3,325,709 
 
 3,839,292 
 
 548,367 
 
 3,282,718 
 
 204,17-' 
 
 165,568 
 
 488,899 
 
 13,950 
 
 30,392 
 
 10,000 
 
 1,675 
 
 205,287 
 
 578,423 
 
 43,402 
 
 120,486 
 
 115,307 
 
 16,000 
 
 3,500 
 
 32.630 
 
 1,630 
 
 310 
 
 926 
 
 683 
 
 6,167 
 
 987 
 
 2,907 
 
 4,262 
 
 411 
 
 3,490 
 
 122 
 
 262 
 
 478 
 
 16 
 
 40 
 
 4 
 
 16 
 
 25S 
 
 903 
 
 78 
 
 189 
 
 124 
 
 16 
 
 7 
 
 26 
 
 314 
 
 l,20t 
 
 710 
 
 4,963 
 
 771 
 
 2,681 
 
 2,412 
 
 487 
 
 2,236 
 
 18 
 
 100 
 
 190 
 
 15 
 
 33 
 
 4 
 
 $22 57 
 22 86 
 24 46 
 22 S5 
 20 70 
 2412 
 19 97 
 
 26 22 
 
 19 23 
 18 79 
 18 60 
 1817 
 1800 
 
 27 47 
 
 20 00 
 17 66 
 15 30 
 20 14 
 2165 
 2181 
 22 00 
 32 00 
 1114 
 22 43 
 30 00 
 
 $1177 
 14 53 
 
 11 81 
 14 22 
 1518 
 
 12 80 
 11 76 
 
 8 60 
 
 10 41 
 17 33 
 1189 
 
 9 91 
 7 00 
 
 14 10 
 
 20 00 
 
 6 00 
 
 11 11 
 
 10 90 
 
 11 47 
 
 11 05 
 
 12 52 
 6 50 
 
 $753,300 
 
 2,127,746 
 
 1,579,161 
 
 12,770,565 
 
 2,381,825 
 
 6,485,216 
 
 7,030,604 
 
 1,164,446 
 
 5,321,806 
 
 251,010 
 
 295,140 
 
 841,013 
 
 23,750 
 
 88,750 
 
 18,000 
 
 6,310 
 
 818,819 
 
 1,111,027 
 
 90,242 
 
 205,802 
 
 206,572 
 
 56,000 
 
 13,000 
 
 87,992 
 
 2,400 
 
 $^8,118,650 70,862,829 46,370|$^6,705,988 22,6;8 16,574 
 
 $43,207,655 
 
 None ill South Carolina, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas, or California. 
 
 Exports of Wool of domestic Peoduotion feom the 
 United States foe the Yeae ending Jitne 30, 1857. 
 
 whither exported. Pounds. Value. 
 
 England 1,002 $3,517 
 
 Canada 42,800 l/,490 
 
 Other British N. A. Possessions . . .'. 6,400 3,000 
 
 Total, 60,202 $19,007 
 
 ■Wreck, in Navigation., is usually understood to 
 mean any ship or goods driven ashore, or found float- 
 ing at sea in a deserted or unmanageable condition. 
 But in the legal sense of the word in England, wreck 
 must have come to land ; when at sea, it is distin- 
 guished by the barbarous appellations oijhtsam, jetsam, 
 and lagaia. In nothing, perhaps, lias the beneficial in- 
 fluence of the advance of society in civilization been 
 more apparent than in the regulations with respect to 
 the persons and property of shipwrecked individuals. 
 In most rude and uncivilized countries their treat- 
 ment has been cruel in the extreme. Among the early 
 Greeks and Romans strangers and enemies were re- 
 garded in the same point of view. — Hostis apud an- 
 tiquas, peregrinus dicehatur. — Pomp. Festiis; see also 
 Cicero de Offia. Where such inhospitable sentiments 
 prevailed, the conduct observed toward those that were 
 shipwrecked could not be otherwise than barbarous; 
 and in fact they were, in most instances, either put to 
 death or sold as slaves. But as law and good order 
 grew up, and commerce and navigation were extended, 
 those who escaped from the perils of the sea were treated 
 in a way less repugnant to the dictates of humanity; 
 and at length the Roman law made it a capital offense 
 to destroy persons shipwrecked, or to prevent their 
 saving the ship'; and the stealing even of a plank from 
 a vessel shipwrecked or in distress made the party 
 liable to answer for the whole ship and cargo. — Pond. 
 47, 9, 3. 
 
 During the gloomy period which followed the sub- 
 version of the Roman empire, and the establishment 
 of the Northern nations in the southern parts of Europe, 
 the ancient barbarous practices with respect to ship- 
 wreck were every where renewed. Those who survived 
 were in most countries reduced to servitude, and their 
 goods were every where conflscated for the use of the 
 lord on whose manor they had been thrown. — Robert- 
 son's Charles V. But nothing, perhaps, can so strong- 
 ly evince the prevalence and nature of the enormities 
 as the efforts that were made, as soon as governments 
 began to acquire authority, for their suppression. The 
 regulations as to shipwreck in the Laws of Oleron are, 
 in this respect, most remarkable. The o5th and 38th 
 
 articles state, that " pilots, in order to ingratiate them- 
 selves with their lords, did, like faithless and treacher- 
 ous villains, sometimeswillingly run the ship upon the 
 rocks," etc. ; for which offense they are held to be ac- 
 cursed and excommunicated, and punished as thieves 
 and robbers. The fate of the lord is still more severe. 
 " He is to be apprehended, his goods confiscated and 
 sold, and himself fastened to a post or stake in the 
 midst of his own mansion-house, which being fired at 
 the four corners, all shall be burned together ; the walls 
 thereof be demolished ; the stones pulled down ; and 
 the site converted into a marlcet-place, for the sale only 
 of hogs and swine, to all posterity." The 31st article 
 recites, that when a vessel Was lost by running on 
 shore, and the mariners had landed, they often, instead 
 of meeting with help, " were attacked by people more 
 barbarous, cruel, and inhuman, than mad dogs ; . who, 
 to gain their moneys, apparel, and other goods, did 
 sometimes murder and destroy these poor distressed 
 seamen. In this case, the lord of the country is to 
 execute justice, by punishing them in their persons 
 and their estates ; and is commanded to plange them 
 in the sea till they be half dead, and then to have 
 them drawn forth out of the sea and stoned to death." 
 Such were the dreadful severities by which it was at- 
 tempted to put a stop to the crimes against which they 
 were directed. The violence of the remedy shows bet- 
 ter than any thing else how inveterate the disease had 
 become. 
 
 But the fact that divines did not scruple to prostitute 
 religious worship by praying that the adjacent coasts 
 might be enriched with shipwrecks, affords, perhaps, 
 the most striking proof of the barbarism of the times 
 referred to. And incredible as it may seem, this prac- 
 tice was continued down to a comparatively recent 
 epoch. " Cependant il y a encore en AUemagne des 
 pays oil la coutume de confisquer les biens naufragSs 
 n'est point encore abolie. II y a m6me des endroits ou 
 les ministres predicateurs ne font pas difficultd de prier 
 Dieu en chaire qu'il se fasse bien des naufrages sur 
 leurs cotes. Et ces prieres, Thomasius a entrepri/j 
 s^rieusement de les justifier; m^is par des raisons si 
 singulieres, qu'elles ne valoient pas la peine que Bar- 
 beyrao a prisd de les refuter." — Valin, Commentate 
 sur rOrdonnance de 1681, it 586. See also Pdffen- 
 DORFF, Droit de la Nature et des Gens, par Barieyrae, 
 ii. 706. 
 
 The law of England, like that of other modern coun- 
 tries, adjudged wrecks to belong to the king. But the 
 rigor and injustice of this law was modified so early as 
 
WEE 
 
 1994 
 
 WRE 
 
 the reign of Henry I., when it was ruled, that if any 
 person escaped alive out of the ship, it should be no 
 wreck. And after various modifications, it was de- 
 cided, in the reign of Henry III., that if goods were 
 cast on shore, having any marks by which they could 
 be identified, they were to revert to the owners, if 
 claimed any time within a j'ear and a day. By the 
 statute 27 Edw. HI., c. 13, if a ship be lost and the goods 
 come to land, they are to be delivered to the merchants, 
 paying only a reasonable reward or Salvage (which 
 see) to those who saved or preserved them. But these 
 ancient statutes, owing to the confusion and disorder 
 of the times, were very ill enforced ; and the disgrace- 
 ful practices previously alluded to continued to the 
 middle of last century. A statute of Anne (12 Ann. st. 
 2, c. 18), confirmed by the 4 Geo. I., c. 12, in order to 
 put a stop to the atrocities in question, orders all head 
 officers and others of the towns near the sea, upon ap- 
 plication made to them, to summon as many hands as 
 are necessary, and send them to the relief of any ship 
 in distress, on forfeiture of jEIOO; and in case of any 
 assistance given, salvage is to be assessed by three jus- 
 tices, and paid by the owners. Persons secreting any 
 goods cast ashore are to forfeit treble their value ; and 
 if they willfully do any act by which the ship is lost or 
 destroyed, they are guilty of felony without benefit of 
 clergy. But even this statute seems not to have been 
 sufficient to accomplish the end in view ; and in 1753, 
 a new statute (26 Geo. II., u. 19) was enacted, the pre- 
 amble of which is as follows : "Whereas, notwithstand- 
 ing the good and salutary laws now in being against 
 plundering and destroying vessels in distress, and 
 against taking away shipwrecked, lost, or stranded 
 goods, many wicked enormities have been committed, 
 to the disgrace of the nation, and the grievous damage 
 of merchants and mariners of our own and other coun- 
 tries, be it," etc. ; and it is then enacted, that the pre- 
 venting of the escape of any person endeavoring to save 
 his life, or wounding him with intent to destroy him, 
 or putting out false lights in order to bring any vessel 
 into danger, shall be capital felony. By the same 
 statute, the pilfering of any goods cast ashore is made 
 petty larceny. 
 
 We regret, however, to have to state that the plun- 
 der of shipwrecked property is still by no means un- 
 common on the British coasts. The committee on ship- 
 wrecks in 1843 state, that "there is on many parts of 
 the coast a want of that moral principle which should 
 inculcate a just regard for the rights of such property. 
 It is looked upon as a chance gift, which every one has 
 a right to scramble for as he can, notwithstanding the 
 laws which have been passed, from the earliest period, 
 to prevent or punish such depredations. The plunder 
 of shipwrecked property on the coasts has been carried 
 on to an enormous extent, and this seems to have arisen 
 from there having been no persons on the spot, when 
 a wreck had taken place, to look after the property." 
 The committee state that the establishment of the 
 coast-guard has done much to repress these abuses. 
 The latter, however, can not legally interfere, except 
 when the castaway articles are subject to customs du- 
 ties; and the committee suggest that all abandoned 
 property should be vested in the government in trust 
 for those to whom it may belong, as is done in France 
 and Holland.— iJfport of Committee of 1843, p. viii. 
 
 The old English doctrine of wrecks was founded upon 
 the ancient laws of Europe, confiscating stolen goods 
 on conviction of the thief, without paying any regard 
 to the right of the real owner. 
 
 " By the common law, as It was laid down by Sir 
 William Blackstone, goods wrecked were adjudged to 
 belong to the king, and the property was lost to the 
 owner. This he admits was not consonant to reason 
 and humanity ; and the rigor of the common law was 
 softened by the statute of West. 1, 3 Edw. I., ch. 4, which 
 declared that if any thing alive escaped the shipwreck, 
 be it man or animal, it was not a legal wreck, and the 
 
 owner was entitled to reclaim his property within a 
 year and a day. Upon this statute the legal doctrine 
 of wrecks has stood to this day. St. Germain, the 
 author of the Doctor and Student, did not seem to 
 think that even the law under this statute stood with 
 conscience, for why should the owner forfeit the ship- 
 wrecked goods, though it should happen that no man, 
 dog, or cat (to use the words of the statute), should 
 come alive unto the land out of the ship ? The only 
 rational ground of the claim on the part of the crown 
 is, that the true owner can not be ascertained. The 
 imperial edict of the Emperor Constantine was more 
 just than the English statute, for it gave the wrecked 
 goods in every event to the owner; "and this statute 
 is upon just principles, not depending upon the casual 
 escape of an animal." " The statutes of New York, 
 Massachusetts, and other American States, are like the 
 edict of .Constantjne," "for they declare that nothing 
 that shall be cast by the sea upon the land shall be ad- 
 judged a wreck, but the goods shall be kept safely for 
 the space of a year for the true owner, to whom the 
 same is to be delivered on his paying a reasonable sal- 
 vage ; and if the goods be not reclaimed within that 
 time, they shall be sold, and the proceeds accounted 
 for the State."— Kent's Comm., Lect. XXXIV. 
 
 The journal of the Sodete des Arts, gives in a late 
 number an analysis of the statistics of the wrecks which 
 occurred upon the coasts and in the seas of the British 
 Isles in the year 1856, as follows : 
 
 Veara. 
 
 Wreck!. 
 
 Colluioni. 
 
 Togfltlier. 
 
 LItoi lout. 
 
 1852 
 
 958 
 T69 
 898 
 894 
 83T 
 
 6T 
 
 73 
 
 94 
 
 S4T 
 
 816 
 
 1015 
 
 832 
 
 987 
 
 1141 
 
 1163 
 
 820 
 989 
 1B49 
 469 
 S21 
 
 1853 
 
 1854 
 
 1855 
 
 1856 
 
 Total 
 
 4341 
 
 78T 
 
 5128 
 
 4348 
 
 This shows that the number of collisions at sea has 
 regularly increased in a proportion truly frightful; 
 from 57 in 1852, it became 316 in 1866, or five times 
 greater. 
 
 For the year 1856, the number of wrecks and colli- 
 sions is distributed monthly as follows : January, 149 ; 
 February, 154; March, 96; April, 74; May, 57; June, 
 32 ; July, 48 ; August, 51 ; September, 98 ; October, 99 ; 
 November, 129 : December, 166 ; total, 1153. The ton- 
 nage of these vessels amounted to 229,936 ; the number 
 of men employed to 10,014, of whom 521 perished. 
 
 Of the wrecked vessels, 314, or nearly one-third the 
 entire number, were employed solely in the carriage of 
 coals. The coal trade is, then, for England the most 
 dangerous of all that which causes the greatest loss of 
 life, no doubt because the vessels employed for this 
 trade are badly selected, badly commanded, in a very 
 bad condition, and indeed often quite unseaworthy. 
 
 Of these wrecks 506 occurred on the east coast, be- 
 tween Dungeness and Pentland Frith ; 307 on the west, 
 from Land's End to Greenock ; 119 on the south, from 
 Land's End to Dungeness ; 155 on the coasts of Ireland ; 
 12 upon the Isle of Scilly ; 11 upon the Isle of Lundy ; 
 5 upon the Isle of Man ; and 36 upon the Isles of the 
 North, Orkney, etc. 
 
 Of the causes which led to these losses there were 
 148 wrecks from storms ; 17 abandoned on account of 
 unseaworthiness ; 37 sunk on same account; 10 losses 
 from absence of proper signals ; 33 from fogs and cur- 
 rents; 5 from defective compass; 3 from imperfect 
 charts ; 6 by error in calculation of the point ; 12 by 
 error of estimation; 7 by error of pilot; 3 through 
 absence of pilot ; 21 by neglect of soundings ; 2 on ac- 
 count of drunkenness ; 9 on account of general negli- 
 gence ; 10 by neglecting to heave to ; 1 by coming in 
 contact with a foundered vessel ; 4 by fire ; 4 by capsiz- 
 ing ; 7 by causes unknown. 
 
 The Duties of Consular Officers. — By the third section 
 of the act of Congress of April 14, 1792, consular offi- 
 cers, in cases where ships or vessels of the United States 
 shall be stranded on the coast of their respective con- 
 
WEE 
 
 1995 
 
 WEE 
 
 snlates, are required, as far as the laws of the country 
 permit, to take proper measures, as well for saving 
 such ships or vessels, their cargoes, and appurtenances, 
 as for storing and securing the effeeta and merchandise 
 saved, and for taking an inventory or inventories there- 
 of; and the merchandise and effects saved, with the in- 
 ventory or inventories, must, after deducting therefrom 
 the expense, be delivered to the owner or owners. But 
 no consular officer is permitted to take possession of any 
 such goods, wares, merchandise, or other property, 
 when the master, owner, or consignee thereof is pres- 
 ent, or capable of taking possession of the same. In 
 the execution of the duties prescribed by this part of 
 the act, every consular officer is instructed that all 
 vessels, parts of vessels, and any portion of their cargo, 
 belonging to citizens of the United States, saved, and 
 brought into the consular jurisdiction after being wreck- 
 ed, or in consequence of any disaster at sea, are to be 
 proceeded with in the same manner as if the vessel had 
 stranded within the consular jurisdiction; and if sal- 
 vage be claimed and allowed by a competent tribunal, 
 the remainder of the efifects, or the proceeds thereof, if 
 sold, shall be disposed'of in the same manner as is di- 
 rected in the twenty-first chapter of these instructions 
 respecting the estates of persons dying intestate ; pro- 
 vided, in the case of salvage, that the court deciding 
 the same will permit the consular officer to receive the 
 efteots and remainder of the property after the salvage 
 is paid. In some countries (as in Sweden) chartered 
 companies have the privilege of taking possession of 
 all property wrecked ; in others it may be vested in 
 particular magistrates or officers. In such cases the 
 consular officer is not to interfere with the legal func- 
 tion of the proper officer, but he may ask leave, as the 
 representative of the absent master or owner, or as his 
 official adviser if he be present, to assist at the taking 
 of the inventory, the sale, and all other proceedings in 
 relation to the property. It is his duty to protect the in- 
 terest of the owner, and, if his reasonable requests are 
 not complied with, to take the necessary evidence of 
 the facts in the case, and transmit it to the Department 
 of State. 
 
 ^hen any American vessel is wrecked within his ju- 
 risdiction, the consular officer is to give immediate no- 
 tice to the Department of State, naming the vessel and 
 her owners or master, and giving in detail as many of 
 the circumstances attending the loss of the property as 
 may be known at the time. When there is no impedi- 
 ment from the laws of the country, all proceedings in 
 relation to property wrecked are to be the same as 
 those prescribed in the case of property of intestates, 
 and so also with regard to the taking possession and 
 disposing of whatever effects, whether wrecked, aban- 
 doned, or otherwise, unrepresented within a consulate, 
 belonging to any citizen of the United States. He 
 will promptly render such assistance as may be in his 
 power to his shipwrecked countrymen, and institute, 
 whenever it is practicable, energetic proceedings for 
 the protection of their property ; but this instruction 
 gives no authority to incur any expense therefor in the 
 expectation of its being defrayed by the Department 
 of State, the appropriation for the relief and protection 
 of American seamen in foreign countries which is made 
 by Congress not being applicable to such purposes. 
 Whenever it is necessary for the safety of the property, 
 the consular officer will apply to the local authorities 
 for assistance. 
 
 Wreck of an American Vessel. — Ko parts of an Amer- 
 ican vessel, nor any of her equipments, wrecked either 
 in our own or foreign waters, are to be regarded in 
 legal contemplation as " goods, wares, or merchandise," 
 when returned to the person or persons owning the 
 vessel at the time of the wreck, and on proper proof of 
 identification. If, however, they have been subjects 
 of purchase and sale, they become "merchandise," 
 within the meaning of the law, and, as such, become 
 liable to duty on importation, according to their classifi- 
 
 cation under the tariff, and value determined by ap- 
 praisement. 
 
 The parts or equipments of a foreign vessel wrecked 
 in waters not of the United States, and brought into 
 our ports, must be regarded, on importation into the 
 United States, as merchandise, and liable to duty. 
 
 In the case of an American vessel bound on a coast- 
 ing voyage from Buffalo to Detroit, and forced by stress 
 of weather on the Canadian shore, where she was 
 wrecked, it was decided by the Department that the 
 merchandise recovered from the wreck was entitled to 
 free entry, on being returned to the United States, on 
 satisfactory proof that the articles of foreign origin 
 composing her cargo had once paid duty in the United 
 States, and that she was bound in good faith on a 
 coasting voyage, with no intention of touching at a for- 
 eign port of destination. 
 
 The tackle, apparel,, furniture, and ship stores of a 
 foreign vessel wrecked on the coast of the United States, 
 on being recovered and brought into the ports of the 
 United States, to be admitted to free entry, not being 
 considered as goods, wares, or merchandise subject to 
 duty, within the meaning of the law. 
 
 Nvmber of iShipwreeks. — The loss of property by 
 shipwreck is very great. It appears from an examin- 
 ation of Lloyd's List &om 1793 to 1829, that the losses 
 in the British mercantile navy only amounted, at an 
 average of that period, to about 557 vessels a year, of 
 the aggregate burden of about 66,000 tons, or to above 
 l-40th part of its entire amount in ships and tonnage. 
 The following account of the casualties of British ship- 
 ping in 1829 is taken from Lloyd's List : 
 
 On foreign Voyages. — 157 wrecked; 284 driven on 
 shore, of which 224 are known to have been got off, 
 and probably more ; 2 1 foundered or sunk ; 1 run down ; 
 35 abandoned at sea, 8 of them afterward carried into 
 port; 12 condemned as unseaworthy; 6 upset, 1 of 
 them righted ; 27 missing, one of them a packet, no - 
 doubt foundered. Coasters and Colliers, — 109 wrecked ; 
 297 driven on shore, of which 121 known tp have been 
 got off, and probably more ; 67 foundered or sunk, 4 
 of them raised ; 6 run down ; 13 abandoned, 5 of them 
 afterward carried in ; 3 upset, 2 of them righted ; 16 
 missing, no doubt foundered. During the year, 4 
 steam vessels were wrecked; 4 driven on shore, but 
 got off; and 2 sunk. It seemed, from the returns given 
 in the Report of the Commons' Committee of 1843 on 
 Shipwrecks, that these casualties were becoming less 
 frequent. At all events, it appeared that at an aver- 
 age of the three years ending with 1835, 610 ships were 
 annually lost, and that notwithstanding the increase 
 of shipping in the interval, at an average of 1841 and 
 1842, the annual loss amounted to only 611 ships ; the 
 average burden of the lost ships being in both cases, 
 as near as can be ascertained, 210 tons. Hence, if we 
 estimate the value of the ships and cargoes at £20 a 
 ton, the loss of property in 1841 and 1842, from ship-, 
 wreck only, will have been £2,666,200 a year! The 
 loss of life is not exactly known, but it may be taken 
 at from 1000 to 1500 individuals a year. The increased 
 employment of steamships, the multiplication of lights, 
 and the improvement of harbors, all tend to diminish 
 the number of casualties ; and yet they continue to be 
 extremely numerous. In 1852, for example, when the 
 mercantile navy of the United Kingdom (except the 
 colonies) comprised 26,146 ships, there were 1116 wrecks. 
 Of these 533 were total losses, and 582 were partial but 
 heavy losses, the ships being obliged to discharge ; 33 
 of the former, and 24 of the latter, were occasioned by 
 collisions. The loss of lives was estimated at 920. 
 These heav}' losses might be diminished by building 
 better and stronger ships. No doubt, however, the 
 carelessness, ignorance, and incapacity of the maSt. 
 ters is the great source of loss ; and nothing, certainly, 
 will do so much to obviate this as the plan now adopt- 
 ed of making the obtaining of a certificate of fitness, 
 after undergoing an examination by a public board, 
 
WEI 
 
 1996 
 
 IU«J 
 
 indispensable to enable any individual to be appoint- 
 ed to the command of a ship. During the war -with 
 France, 32 ships of the line went to the bottom, be- 
 sides 7 fifty-gun ships, 86 frigates, and a vast number 
 of smaller vessels. And the losses sustained by the 
 navies of France, Spain, Holland, Denmark, etc., must 
 have verj' greatly exceeded those of ours. Hence, as 
 Mr. Lyell has observed, it is probable that a, greater 
 number of monuments of the skill and industry of man 
 will, in the course of ages, be collected togethei- in the 
 bed of the ocean, than will bo seen at one time on the 
 surface of the continent. — Principles of Geology. 
 
 Writing. Pictures were undoubtedly the first 
 essay toward writing. The most ancient remains of 
 writing which have been transmitted to us are upon 
 hard substances, such as stones and metals,, used by 
 the ancients for edicts, and matters of public notoriety. 
 Athotes, or Hermes, is said to have written a history 
 
 of the Egyptians, and to have been the author of hiero- 
 glyphics, 2112 B.C. — UsHEE. Writing is said to have 
 been taught to the Latins by Europa, daughter of Age- 
 nor, King of Phoenicia, 1494 B.C. — Thdoydides. Cad- 
 mus, the founder of Cadmea, 1493 B.C., brought the 
 Phoenician letters into Greece. — Vosstus. The com- 
 mandments were written on two tables of stone, 1491 
 B.C. — UsHEE. The Greeks and Romans used waxed 
 table-books, and continued the use of them long after pa- 
 pyrus was known. — See Papyrus, Parchment, Paper. 
 " I would check the petty vanity of those who slight 
 good penmanship, as below the notice of a scholar, by 
 reminding them that Mr. Fox was distinguished by 
 the clearness and firmness, Mr. Professor Person by 
 the correctness and elegancS^nd Sir William Jones by 
 the ease and beauty, of the characters they respective- 
 ly employed." — Dk. Parr. 
 
 Yacht, formerly a vessel of state, usually employ- 
 ed to convey. princes, embassadors, and other great per- 
 sonages from one kingdom to another. As the prin- 
 cipal design of a yacht is to accommodate the passen- 
 gers, it is usually fitted with a variety of convenient 
 apartments, with suitable furniture. Private pleas- 
 ure-boats, when sufficiently large for a sea-voyage, 
 are also termed yachts. A more modern use of the 
 term is to designate the model boats built for speed 
 and for racing. 
 
 Yachts of the present day include both steam and 
 sailing vessels. The j'acht America^ built by Mr. 
 Steers, of New York, and afterward the winner of the 
 prize at the yacht race, 22d August, 1851, at Cowes, in 
 England, gave American ship-wrights a wider reputa- 
 tion than before. Vessels belonging to the British, 
 American, French, and Kussian yacht clubs are re- 
 leased fron»qaarantine upon the same conditions as 
 ships of war in British ports. 
 
 By acts of Congress, the Secretary of the Treasury 
 is authorized to cause j'achts, used and employed ex- 
 clusively as pleasure vessels, and designed as inodels 
 of naval architecture, and entitled to be enrolled as 
 American vessels, to be licensed on terms which will 
 authorize them to proceed from port to port of the 
 United States without entering or clearing at the cus- 
 tom-house. Such license shall be in such form as the 
 Secretary of the Treasury may prescribe : Provided, 
 such vessels so enrolled and licensed shall not be al- 
 lowed to transport merchandise or carr}' passengers 
 for pay : And provided, further, that the owner of any 
 such vessel, before taking out such license, shall give 
 a bond, in such form and for such amount as the Sec- 
 retary of the Treasurj' shall prescribe, conditional that 
 the said vessel shall not engage in any unlawful trade, 
 nor in any way violate the revenue laws of the United 
 States, and shall comply with the laws in all other re- 
 spects. 
 
 All such vessels shall, in all respects except as 
 above, be subject to the laws of the United States, and 
 shall be liable to seizure and forfeiture for any viola- 
 tion of the provisions of this act. 
 
 All such licensed yachts shall use a signal, of the 
 form, size, and colors prescribed by the Secretary of 
 the Navy j and the owners thereof shall at all times 
 permit the naval architects in the emploj' of the 
 United States to examine and copy the models of said 
 yachts. 
 
 Yanan, or Yanaon, a French settlement within 
 the limits of the British presidencj' of Madras, situate 
 iRar the bifurcation of the Godavery (a river rising in 
 the Deccan), and the river or harbor of Coringa, and 
 about nine miles above the embouchure of the former. 
 The mouth of the Godavery is obstructed by sand- 
 
 banks, which preclude the entrance of ships ; but the 
 Coringa Kiver has a deep channel, which admits of 
 vessels of 200 tons burden proceeding as high as Ya- 
 nan. The French territory dependent on the factorj' 
 stretches along the banks of the two rivers a distance 
 of six miles, and contains an area of 8147 acres, which 
 in 1836 were classified as follows : 
 
 Land under cultivation acres 4310 
 
 Woods and forests " 862 
 
 Barren land " 215 
 
 Public estates " 2760 
 
 The population in 1840 was 6880. Lat. 16° 44', and 
 long. 82° 16'. 
 
 Yard, a long measure used in England, of 3 feet, 
 or 36 inches. — See Weights and Measures. 
 
 Yam(Ger. Gam; Du. Garen; Vt.FH; It.Filato; 
 Sp. Hilo ; Port. Fio ; Russ. Prashd), wool, cotton, flax, 
 etc., spun into thread. — Sie articles Cotton, Linen, 
 Wool, etc. 
 
 Year, Lunar. This is the space of time which 
 comprehends twelve lunar months, or 454 days, 8 
 hours, 48 minutes, and was in use among the Chal- 
 deans, Persians, and ancient Jews. Once in every 
 three j-ears was added another lunar month, so as to 
 make the solar and lunar year nearly agree. But 
 though the months were lunar, the year was solar ; 
 that is, the first month was of thirty days, and the 
 second of twenty-nine, and so alternately ,■ and the 
 month added triennially was called the second Adar. 
 The Jews afterward followed the Roman manner of 
 computation. — Haydn. See Almanac, Calendar. 
 
 Yucatan, a peninsular state of Mexico, Central 
 America, mostly between lat. 17° 30' and 21° 30' N., 
 and long. 87° and 91° W., having north and west the 
 Gulf of Mexico, east the Caribbean Sea, and landward 
 British Honduras, Guatemala, Chiapas, and Tabasco. 
 Area, 7364 square leagues, or 52,947 square miles. 
 Population in 1850, 680,948. Surface mostly level, 
 fertile in the south, but deficient in regular supplies 
 of water, though so inundated in summer as greatly to 
 impede agriculture, in which, as well as manufactures, 
 it appears to be behind the more northern portions of 
 Mexico. Cattle are numerous. Other chief sources of 
 wealth are maize, cotton, rice, tobacco, pepper, sugar- 
 cane, dye-woods, hides, and soap, mostty exported from 
 Campeachy and Sisal. It is divided into five depend- 
 encies and eighteen districts. Principal cities and 
 towns, Merida, the capital, Valladolid, Isamal, Cam- 
 peachy, and Tekae. It also comprises the remarka- 
 ble ruins of Uxmal, Chi-chen, Kabah, and Zayi. The 
 Say of Yucatan is a name sometimes given to the sea 
 immediately north of the Bay of Honduras. The 
 Channel of Yucatan, between that countrj' and Cuba, 
 is 120 miles across. 
 
ZAF 
 
 1997 
 
 ZAN 
 
 z. 
 
 Zaffer, or Zafre. After the sulphur, arsenic, and 
 other volatile parts gf cobalt have been expelled by 
 calcination, the residuum is sold, mixed or unmixed 
 ■with fine sand, under the above name. When the 
 residuum is melted with silicious earth and potash, it 
 forms a kind of blue glass, known by the name of 
 smaltz (see Smaltz), of great importance in the ai'ts. 
 When smaltz is ground verj' fine, it receives in com- 
 merce the name of powder Hue. Zaffer, like smaltz, 
 is employed in the manufacture of earthen-ware and 
 China, for painting the surface of the pieces a blue 
 color. It suffers no change from the most violent fire. 
 It is also employed to tinge'the crystal glasses, made 
 in imitation of opaque and transparent precious stones, 
 of a blue color. It is almost wholly brought from 
 Germany.— .See article- Dyes. 
 
 Zaute, one of the Ionian islands, Mediterranean, 
 eight miles south of Cephalonia. Lat. of north point, 
 37° 56' 5" N., long. 20° 41' 5" E. Length 23J mUes, 
 breadth 6 to 11 miles. Population in 1844, 38,929. 
 Surface mountainous in the west, flat and well culti- 
 vated in the east. Climate mild, and the island still 
 deserves to bp called the flower of the Levant, but is 
 subject to destructive earthquakes. It has numerous 
 olive gardens and vineyards, and produces pomegran- 
 ates, melons, peaches, and citrons ; but its principal 
 export is currants. A small quantity of wine is 
 made, half of which is exported. Olive-oil is inferior 
 in qualify. Bitumen is procured from pits in the 
 south, and salt is manufactured chiefly for home use. 
 Zante, the capital and only town on the east coast, is 
 the largest in the republic. Population, 20,000. It 
 is well built, and its square has a monument to Sir T. 
 Maitland ; its port is. protected by a wall, and has a 
 light-house. It is the see of a Greek protopapas and 
 a Eoman Catholic bishop. It was nearly destroyed 
 hj' an earthquake on 30th October, 1841. Of the re- 
 cent changes in the commercial policy of the Ionian 
 Islands, the following letter from the United States> 
 Consul at Zante, under date of October 4, I860,, gives 
 the details : 
 
 " Currants. — The blight which has ruined the crops of three 
 successive years has also damaged that of this year to such 
 an extent that Zante has produced only 600,000 pounds, and 
 Cephalonia ^,000,000 pouuds of fruit, which has been already 
 sold and shipped for England at the enormous price of $100, 
 $120, and $132 per thousand pounds. It is hoped that next 
 year, by applying pulverized sulphur on the fruit before it 
 gets attacked by the blight, the plants will yield an abundailt 
 crop. The experiment made this year has proved satisfac- 
 tory. Cargoes of sulphur daily arrive from Sicily and Lom- 
 bardy for this purpose. 
 
 " Wine. — The grape vine is affected to the same extent as 
 the currant. The production of this year is not sufficient for 
 local consumption. 
 
 '* Olive-oil. — The crop of the year 1S55 is very abundant. 
 It is calculated thus: Zante, 60,000 barrels; Cephalonia, 
 6000 barrels ; Sta. Maura, 30,000 barrels ; Paxo and Ithaca, 
 30,000 barrels ; Corfu, 150,000 barrels : total, 2T6,000 Ionian 
 barrels for exportation. It is hoped that this enormous pro- 
 duction will give vigor to trade and navigation, which has 
 been for so many years in perfect stagnation. Besides the 
 usual affairs for Austria, England, and France, a large quan- 
 tity of this fluid will probably be exported to the ports of Rus- 
 sia at the Black Sea by Ionian vessels.*' 
 
 The principle upon which duties are levied upon 
 goods imported in the Ionian Islands, is the flag un- 
 der which these are transported. If by vessels of na^ 
 tions under treaty with these states, duty is from 10 
 to 14 per cent, less, according to articles, than on those 
 forwarded by vessels of nations which are not under 
 treaty. In this last condition the American flag 
 stands, and this is the principal impediment to a more 
 regular intercourse of business, between the Ionian 
 Islajids and the United States. To stop this, there is 
 but one way, namelj', to put the American flag on an 
 equal footing with the Ionian. , To insure this, Ionian 
 vessels must enjoy the same privileges in the United 
 States that American vessels enjoy in the Ionian Isl- 
 
 ands. The negotiation must take place in London, 
 through the American embassador and the English 
 government ; because, according to the Ionian consti- 
 tution, all diplomatic questions and agreements be- 
 tween these and foreign states miist be attended to by 
 the government of the protecting sovereign. This 
 done, every other difficulty in introducing and encour- 
 aging American trade in this market can be easily 
 obviated. The articles enumerated ih the following 
 table always find a ready market here. The islands 
 provide also the eastern coasts of the kingdom of 
 Grfeece and Albania with theSe articles bj- transit. 
 All these articles, com, etc., excepted, are imported 
 here from secoiid-hand markets. As regards freight, 
 one example will suffice to prove whether it is worthy 
 the attention of American navigation or not. A ves- 
 sel of 200 tons chartered for the Black Sea, going in 
 'ballast, gets about $3300, 5 per cent, primage, and a 
 gratuity of about $40 and even $100, according to cir- 
 cumstances. Mono}' can be returned to the United 
 States for goods sold here by bills drawn through Lon- 
 don at three months date. In order to obtain money 
 on goods shipped for the United States, a credit must 
 be bpenediin London to value with bills of lading. 
 Legal interest on money, 10 per cent, per annum. 
 
 Olive-oil. — All the islands produce this fluid, and ex- 
 port for Eussia, England, and Trieste. Its price varies 
 according to demand. The averge price is from $8 to 
 $10 per barrel. This is an extensive article of com- 
 merce, and one of thfe principal prod'uctions of the isl- 
 ands. It not only affords wealth to the natives of 
 every class, and encourages commerce, but provides 
 also the immense sOap factories of tha place with the 
 principal material out of which sOap is made for con- 
 sumption and exportation. 
 
 Cwrrants. — All remedies, other than sulphur, adopt- 
 ed by proprietors to stop the blight have proved abor- 
 tive. Sulphur only gave a happy result. Although 
 this is a remedy upon which proprietors can how rely, 
 still they have a 'great many difficulties to overcome 
 before they see their hopes realized. The first of these 
 is the fixing the epoch, or time when the plants and 
 fruit thereof are to be sulphured. This varies accord- 
 ing to the quality of the soil, the temperature of the 
 atmosphere, and the difference of climate of the various 
 localities that produce currants. Besides these' prim- 
 itive difficulties, we perceive another, which we consider 
 by far greater. The most part of the proprietors are 
 so badly off; on account of the failure of the crop for 
 four consecutive years, that it is absolutely out of their 
 power to provide siilphur and encounter the expenses 
 required for such an operation. Still, in spite of all 
 these difficulties, it is generally hoped that the crop of 
 this 3'ear will be comparatively abundant. 
 
 Zanzibar, or Zanguebar, an island off the east 
 coast of Africa, lat. of town 6° 27'.7" S., long. 39° 33' 
 E. Length of island about 40 miles, breadth 15 mQes. 
 Population upward of 200,000, consisting of Arabs, 
 Sowily Africans, and Negro slaves. Population of 
 the town of Zanzibar about 80,000. The island is the 
 metropolis of the Imaum of Muscat's possessions- on 
 the east coast of Africa. The town called ShSinganny 
 is situated on a low point of sand, has a wooden fort, 
 and is irregularly built. The situation is very un- 
 healthy for Europeans. A considerable trade is car- 
 ried on with Arabia, and the ports in the Eed Sea. 
 Between the west shore of the island and main land 
 are dangerous shoals, and several islets, the largest of 
 which is Tnmbal. Ship-building, stone masonry, car- 
 penters, goldsmiths, silversmiths, coppersmiths, and 
 blacksmiths' work is carried on, besides manufactures 
 of inferior cotton goods and trinkets. The exports 
 are cloves, ivory, sharks' fins, sandal-wobd, amber, 
 shells, and cocoa-nuts. 
 
ZEA 
 
 1998 
 
 ZOL 
 
 The principal produce of the island is cloves — the 
 annual produce being from 2,000,000 to 3,000,000 lbs., 
 of which the sultan himself produces about 1,000,000 
 lbs. The value of American trade with Zanzibar 
 may be estimated at about $1,000,000 annually ; It is 
 carried on chiefly from Salem, Massachusetts. Out- 
 ward cargoes consist almost exclusively of New En- 
 gland manufactured cotton goods, the consumption of 
 which reaches an annual average of about 6000 bales. 
 The return cargoes are composed of ivory, gum-copal, 
 cloves, hides, and some minor articles. Voyages from 
 the United States usually occupy a year — vessels al- 
 ways calling at the Persian Gulf and ports of the Red 
 Sea. In 1851 there were ten or twelve American 
 vessels, of about 260 tons each, regularly engaged in 
 this trade. The relations existing between American 
 houses (several of which have been for years estab- 
 lished at Zanzibar) and the sultan and his officials are 
 of the most friendly and liberal character. The stip- 
 ulations of the treaty with the United States are faith- 
 fully observed, and every desirable commercial facility 
 freely extended to American commerce. 
 
 Zea, Indian Corn, or Maize. See Maize. 
 
 Zedoary (Ger. Zittwer; Fr. Zedoaire; It. Zedo- 
 aria; Sp. Cedoaria; Arab. Jvdwair; Hind. JVirbisi), 
 the root of a plant which grows in Malabar, Ceylon, 
 Cochin China, etc., of which there are three distinct 
 species. It is brought home in pieces of various sizes, 
 externally wrinkled, and of an ash color, but internally 
 of a brownish red. Those roots which are heavy and 
 free from worms are to be chosen, rejecting those 
 which are decayed and broken. The odor of zedoary 
 is fragrant, and somewhat like that of camphor ; the 
 taste biting, aromatic, and bitterish, with some degree 
 of acrimony. It was formerly employed in medicine, 
 but is scarcely ever used bj' modem practitioners. — 
 Milbuen's Orient. Com. 
 
 Zinc, or Spelter (Ger. Zinh; Fr. Zinc; It. Zinco ; 
 Sp. Zinco, Cinch ; Russ. 8chpiauter ; Lat. Zincum), a 
 metal of a brilliant white color, with a shade of blue, 
 composed of a number of thin plates adhering together. 
 When this metal is rubbed for some time between the 
 fingers, they acquire a peculiar taste, and emit a verj' 
 perceptible smell. It is rather soft ; tinging the fin- 
 gers, when rubbed upon them, with a black color. The 
 specific gravity of melted zinc varies from 6'861 to 7-1, 
 the lightest being esteemed the purest. When ham- 
 mered, it becomes as high as 7'1908. This metal forms, 
 as it were, the limit between the brittle and the malle- 
 able metals. Its malleability is by no means to be 
 compared with that of copper, lead, or tin ; yet it is not 
 brittle, like antimony or arsenic. When struck with 
 a hammer, it does not break, but j-ields, and becomes 
 somewhat flatter ; and, by a cautions and equal pres- 
 sure, it may be reduced to thin plates, which are supple 
 and elastic, but can not be folded without breaking. 
 When heated to about 400°, it becomes so brittle that 
 it may be reduced to powder in a mortar. It possesses 
 a certain degree of ductility, and may, with care, be 
 drawn out into wire. Its tenacity is such, that a wire 
 whose diameter is equal to -j^th of an inch is capable 
 of supporting a weight of about 26 lbs. Zinc has never 
 been found in a state of purity. The word zinc occurs 
 for the first time in the writings of Paracelsus, who 
 died in 1541 ; but the method of extracting it from its 
 ores was not known till the early part of last century. 
 — Thomson's Chemistry. The compounds of zinc and 
 copper are of great importance. — See Brass. 
 
 The discovery of this metal, so far as the fact is 
 known, is due to the moderns. It is said to have been 
 long known in China, however, and is noticed by Eu- 
 ropean writers as early as a.d. 1231 ; though the meth- 
 od of extracting it from the ore was unknown for near- 
 ly 600 3'ears after. A mine of zinc was discovered in 
 Yorkshire, England, in 1809. Zincography was intro- 
 duced in London shortly after the invention of litho- 
 graphy became known in England, in 1817. — Hatdn, 
 
 lUPOBTB OP ZiKO INTO THE UNITED STATES' FOB THE YeAK 
 
 ENDiNQ June 80, 1857. 
 
 whence imported. 
 
 In Pig.. 
 
 Sheeti. 
 
 Naili. 
 
 ' ■. I 
 
 Value. 
 
 Value. 
 
 
 
 
 $3,368 
 
 
 Danish West Indies . . 
 
 $60 
 
 
 
 
 120,535 
 6,218 
 
 
 Holland.. 
 
 
 
 Dutch West Indies... 
 
 282 
 
 
 Belgium...* 
 
 20,047 
 
 394,337 
 
 $2376 
 
 England.,, 
 
 
 20,616 
 
 77 
 
 Scotland.. 
 
 3,079 
 
 
 
 British N.Ain. Poss.. 
 
 
 1,172 
 
 
 British West Indies . . 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 France on the Atlantic 
 Total, lS66-'57.. 
 
 15,306 
 
 
 
 $44,764 
 
 $646,250 
 
 $2453 
 
 Zinc Paint. — The zinc paint, now brought before pub- 
 lic notice, illustrates at once the ingenuity shown in de- 
 vising means for remedying an evil, and the difficulty 
 of applying the remedy in opposition to popular custom. 
 White-lead is deleterious to health, and nothing has suc- 
 ceeded in rendering it otherwise. Hence attempts are 
 being made to find a substitute j and zinc seems at pres- 
 ent the best fitted for this office. The manufacture of 
 the white oxyd of zinc is a beautiful example of chem- 
 ical action. Metallic zinc is heated in a furnace to 
 which a current of air is admitted ; the zinc vaporizes ; 
 the vapor passes into a series of chambers ; and here it 
 collects on the walls as a light downy flocculent oxyd, 
 which is scraped oS and removed. When ground up 
 with linseed oil, the oxyd forms a white paint, which 
 may be the ground or substance for other colors used in 
 house-painting. Then comes the rivalrj- between the 
 two " whites"— the oxyd of zinc and the carbonate of 
 lead. The chemical virtues of the former are insisted 
 upon ; but the advocates for the latter have not failed 
 to point out the qualities in which it is unquestionably 
 the better of the two — especially in drying more quick- 
 ly than the zinc white, and having more " body" or 
 substance. One among many proposed modes of ap- 
 plying the zinc white is in floor-cloth painting. In 
 this manufacture oil paint is laid on thickly, flrst with 
 a brush and afterward through the medium of carved 
 blocks. The quantitj' of paint consumed is so large, 
 that the white-lead contained in it becomes a sad ene- 
 my to the men employed in the processes ; and hence 
 a recent attempt has been made to adopt zinc white 
 as a substitute. 
 
 ZoU-Verein. The Germanic confederation of 
 states for purposes of commerce came into practical 
 operation by the treaty of March 22, 1833. Prior to 
 that period, the states of which the union is composed 
 did not allow of the introduction of merchandise across 
 their respective frontiers without the payment of du- 
 ties ; numerous prohibitions existed, and the commer- 
 cial relations between sovereignties, whose territories 
 were contiguous, were fettered with oppressive and 
 vexatious restrictions. To introduce a better system 
 of commercial policy, and to remove all unnecessary 
 burdens, which only tend to clog commercial enterprise 
 and choke up the natural channels of trade between 
 neighboring powers, these independent sovereignties 
 have become, for commercial purposes, a consolidated 
 government ; one line of customs on the geographical 
 boundary has been established ; one tariff of duties on 
 imports, exports, and transit, is enforced for all ; and 
 the revenue thus derived is distributed among the 
 members of the confederation, iu proportion to the pop- 
 ulation of each.— For exception to this mode of distrib- 
 uting the revenue, see Fkakkfobt-on-the-Maine. 
 
 The origin of this customs union may be traced to 
 causes, political as well as commercial, having their 
 existence long anterior to the treaty of 18B3. Imme- 
 diately after its organization, with Prussia at its head, 
 had been proclaimed, alarms were spread throughout 
 England, based upon the mistaken idea that the con- 
 federation was planned under the influence of Russia, 
 as a part of her grand political scheme against British 
 prosperity and influence ; a fallacy which for a time 
 
ZOL 
 
 1999 
 
 ZOL 
 
 derived no inconsiderable plausibility from the adop- 
 tion, by most of the states of the confederation, of the 
 long-existing restrictive tarifiF of Prussia. British 
 merchants became alarmed ; and even the government 
 itself shared, to some extent, in the popular delusion, 
 which imaged forth the ruin of British trade, as the in- 
 evitable consequence of the united adoption, by nearly 
 all the states of northern and southwestern Germany, 
 of the commercial policy of the power which it was 
 supposed the secret diplomacy of Russia had placed at 
 the head of the anti-British league. 
 
 This delusion, however, was but of short duration j 
 indeed, the general panic which it excited throughout 
 England was quieted by the more experienced minds 
 of that nation itself, who, viewing the formation of the 
 ZoU-Verein in a more philosophic light, refuted the er- 
 roneous notions which had so generally obtained re- 
 specting it, and demonstrated its purely Germanic or- 
 igin, by their panegyrics on those whose forecast and 
 wisdom had conceived the project, and whose indom- 
 itable perseverance had accomplished its fulfillment. 
 Among those whose able wrRings contributed most to 
 enlighten England, as well as other nations, on the 
 history and objects of the ZoU-Verein, Macgregor, the 
 British statistician, occupies the first rank. Prussia, 
 from her geographical position, was at that time more 
 exposed to attack than any other country in Europe. 
 Her Rhenish provinces weakened rather than strength- 
 ened her power. Easily accessible from Austria, Rus- 
 sia, and the Baltic, and, in the event of war, open to 
 immediate attack on the side of France and Belgium, 
 the Prussian cabinet was convinced that in the mili- 
 tary strength of the territories possessed by Prussia 
 before the treaty of Vienna consisted her only defens- 
 ive strength. When the first French revolution broke 
 out, Austria and several German states had to meet 
 the troops of France long before they approached the 
 Prussian frontiers ; now the latter lay immediately 
 exposed to an army marching in from France and Bel 
 gium. Hence the safety of Prussia depended, in the 
 event of war, upon uniting all Germany by one com- 
 mon bond of mutual interest and security. Besides, 
 the sagacity of the Prussian cabinet was doubly quick- 
 ened by the French revolution of 1830, which had 
 spread apprehension throughout the whole of Ger- 
 many, particularly when the republican infection had 
 spread among the students of the German universities, 
 who, under the name of " Young Germany," had ex- 
 cited no little alarm on the part of the several German 
 governments. The Belgian revolution succeeded ; 
 and then Austria shared in the apprehensions and un- 
 easiness which had so long been felt by Prussia. The 
 Polish revolution quickly followed ; and now Prussia 
 was ready to make any sacrifices in order to unite Ger- 
 many under an apparently commercial, but in reality 
 a political and national bond. 
 
 The necessity of such a union was at once promul- 
 gated with extraordinary industry. The press and 
 the ablest political economists were enlisted in the gen- 
 eral cause. Volumes were scattered among the people. 
 The illiberal commercial systems of England and 
 France ; the prohibitory duties which Russia had just 
 imposed on Poland, virtually closing the best market 
 which Saxony had hitherto found for her fabrics — 
 these considerations were strenuously urged to prove 
 that a general union of fiscal interests was necessary 
 for the present and future prosperity and protection 
 of the countrj', and for maintaining Germany among 
 the great powers of Europe. Their governments and 
 people being thus prepared for union, the kingdoms 
 of Prussia, Bavaria, WOrtemberg, and Saxony, with 
 Hesse Cassel, signed the treaty of March 22, 1833, or- 
 ganizing the German Customs Association, or ZoU- 
 Verein. The Thuringian and other states, Baden, 
 Nassau, and the free city of Frankfort-on-the-Maine, 
 joined at subsequent periods ; and on the 1st of Janu- 
 ary, 1854 (by treaty of September 7, 1851, between 
 
 Prussia and Hanover), Brunswick, Hanover, and Ol- 
 denburg. A new convention has been concluded, not 
 varying, however, materially from the one it super- 
 seded, but providing that in January, 1858, commis- 
 sioners from all the federal states shall meet at the 
 place of sitting of the Diet, on being summoned by it, 
 in order to bring into operation more extended relaxa- 
 tions than those now proposed ; and then, if the now 
 existing impediments (arismg from the difference of 
 circumstances and interests) to a perfect commercial 
 and customs union of the whole of Germany are re- 
 moved, to effect that union by way of treaty. In the 
 mean time, by a separate article, every federal state is 
 required to take care, in concluding or prolonging any 
 treaties of commerce and traffic, that the same shall 
 not hinder nor embarrass a complete commercial union 
 of Germany, or a further approach thereto, at least not 
 beyond the year 1858. ' 
 
 In the annual and triennial congress of delegates 
 from the several states of the union, which the con- 
 vention provides shall meet for settling the accounts, 
 agreeing to alterations in the tariff, etc., Prussia has 
 bnly one vote, like each of the other states. This, 
 however, is not the Only concession which she has 
 made to the other sovereigns of the league. A ref- 
 erence to the geographical positions of the several 
 states of the ZoU-Verein will show that many have 
 no customs frontier to guard against smuggling, or 
 along which to maintain custom-houses ; while all re- 
 ceive an equal share of the revenue collected on goods 
 entering along the general line of the boundary. The 
 consequence is, that Prussia sacrifices about two mUl- 
 ions of dollars annually to the revenues of the other 
 states, exclusive of the fiscal loss sustained by the 
 consumption of smuggled goods introduced along the 
 Rhine, and along Lake Coiistance, into Baden, WUr- 
 temberg, and Bavaria. But Prussia was prepared for 
 these, or even greater fiscal sacrifices, to realize the 
 primary object of her policy — that of extending her 
 power, as she may be said to have done, from the fron- 
 tiers of France and Belgium to those of Austria and 
 Russia — ^from the Alps to the Baltic ; whUe the differ- 
 ent states of Germany composing the union, by the 
 removal of those barrica:des of national defense and 
 international intercourse, and of the numerous lines of 
 customs and customs officers which previously belted 
 every large and petty state in Germany — ^by free trade 
 among themselves, and the free opportunity of inter- 
 changing ideas and of receiving intelligence, may be 
 said to have become consolidated and strengthened 
 into one great nation. 
 
 Among the regulations of the ZoU-Verein, it is pro- 
 vided " that the advantage enjoyed by the inhabitants 
 of the states of the union may be extended in reciproc- 
 ity, according to circumstances, to foreign countries; 
 while, on the contrary, disadvantageous restrictions 
 imposed on the commerce of the union by foreign states 
 should be retaliated by judicious measures, to be adopt- 
 ed for that purpose ;" also, that the tariff of the union 
 may be rectified every three years, and published for 
 the next three years, eight weeks before the commence- 
 ment of the first year — alteration in the rates of certain 
 duties or items in the tariff to be made, if necessary, 
 once a year, and to be published eight weeks before 
 the 1st January, on which day such alteration to be in 
 force. Article 23 of the convention provides " that a 
 meeting of plenipotentiaries of the respective states 
 shall be convened in June each year, to settle accounts, 
 and agree to any change or modification of duties." 
 By this article all the provisions for a change in the 
 tariff have been retained. It therefore remains for other 
 countries to reciprocate with the ZoU-Verein for an in- 
 terchange of their respective productions and fabrics. 
 
 Natural Hesources of tkeprindpal States composing the 
 ZoU-Verein, — The states composing the ZoU-Verein pos- 
 sess the most abundant natural resources. The forests 
 of Germany are extensive and valuable, and her mineral 
 
ZOL 
 
 2000 
 
 IAJVj 
 
 riches are in many parts equal, and in some superior, 
 to those of France. The soil, though in some parts of 
 the north light and roclty, is generally fertile, and pro- 
 duces all kinds of corn and culinary vegetables, besides 
 hemp, flax, tobacco, maize, etc. ; while in the Ehenish 
 countries, and in some parts south of Cologne, vine- 
 yards are extensively cultivated, which produce those 
 agreeable and cool wines generally called Hook and 
 Moselle, the consumption of which is rapidly increasing 
 in the United States. The physical aspect of the states 
 of the confederacy presents almost every feature of 
 natural or cultivated appearance. "The lowlands, 
 light soils, and alluvions of the north ; the hilly coun- 
 try of Nassau ; the undulations of Westphalia, of the 
 Moselle, and west of the Rhine ; the highlands of the 
 Black Forest, and the Odenwald, Thurlngia, and Sua- 
 bia, of Darmstadt, Wurtemberg, and Baden, to the 
 south ; the mountains of the Harz and Taunus ; the 
 Erz-gebirge of Saxony ; the valleys, plains, and heights,, 
 of Silesia ; the plains and Alps of Bavaria ; the Khine, 
 Danube, Elbe, and numerous other rivers ; rocks, corn- 
 fields, vineyards, and pastures, are the principal aspect 
 of the confederation." 
 
 In facilities for commercial intercommunication, na- 
 ture has been equally bountiful to Germany. About 
 sixty navigable rivers, or branches of rivers, intersect 
 this country. They are generally connected by means 
 of canals and railroads, some of which are still in prog- 
 ress of construction. 
 
 The Rhine, from its excellent navigation to the ocean, 
 may he considered one vast port, the principal entre- 
 pots of which are Cologne, Coblentz, Mayence, and 
 Frankfort-on-the-Maine. The Danube carries down 
 the produce of Germany to Austria, Hungarj', and the 
 Black Sea. The Elbe, navigable from Bohemia to 
 Hamburg, and to the sea, waters Bohemia, Saxony, 
 and Prussia, and is connected with the Danube by 
 railroad, at a point where that river is navigable to 
 Lintz, the capital of Upper Austria, from which steam- 
 boats ply to Vienna and the Black Sea. The Memel, 
 and its numerous branches, bring down the timber and 
 other produce of Poland and Lithuania to the ports of 
 the Baltic; and the Oder and Vistula flow through 
 Prussia, and are navigable to the Baltic. 
 
 On the 1st of January, 1854, the German Customs 
 Union, or the Zoll-Verein, entered upon the third pe- 
 riod of its existence. The first continued eight years — 
 from the commencement of 1834 to the end of 1841 ; the 
 second, twelve years — from the commencement of 1842 
 to the end of 1853 ; and the third, upon which it entered 
 
 at the beginning of 1854, is to continue also for twelve 
 years. Two facts of importance mark the commence- 
 ment of the third period : one, the accession of the Steu- 
 er-Verein ; the other, the conclusion of a commercial 
 treaty between Austria and Prussia, which may be re- 
 garded as the basis of a future Austro-Germanic Customs 
 League. The following recapitulation of facts con- 
 nected with these two important events are compiled 
 from official documents, and are deemed necessary to 
 a clear comprehension of the present as well as of the 
 prospective stains of the Zoll-Verein. On the 7th of 
 September, 1851, the two kingdoms of Prussia and of 
 Hanover separately concluded a treaty of a customs 
 union, which, ten years before, had been a subject of 
 fruitless negotiation, reserving the question of a union 
 between their respective Customs Associations (the 
 Zoll-Verein and the Steuer-Verein). As the stipula- 
 tions of this treaty would require a reconstruction of 
 the Zoll-Verein, and, consequently, a renunciation of 
 the treaty of 1841 between the old members of that 
 league, the Prussian cabinet, in the following Novem- 
 ber, gave notice of this renunciation, not for the pur- 
 pose of retiring from a league so beneficial in all its re- 
 sults, but with a view of reorganizing it on a new 
 basis. The Prussian government further gave notice 
 that it would soon communicate propositions to that 
 end, and that a conference, or congress, to take the 
 subject into consideration, would assemble at Berlin. 
 
 The following statement will prove interesting, as 
 exhibiting the revenue and population of the Zoll-Ver- 
 ein from its commencement down to the year 1851 : 
 
 years. Population. Revenue in Tliftlers, 
 
 1834 23,478,120 14,515,T22 
 
 1835 23,478,120 16,580,180 
 
 1836 25,150,216 18,462,873 
 
 1837 26,160,898 17,997,2S5 
 
 1838 26,048,970 20,419,-28T 
 
 1839 26,048,971 20,869,488 
 
 1840 26,048,091 21,606,191 
 
 1841 27,124,116 22,295,452 
 
 1812 27,678,710 23,738,794 
 
 1843 27,628,815 25,762.023 
 
 1844 28,498,138 26,f 60,794 
 
 1845 28,499,566 27,916,956 
 
 1846 28,608,436 20,7!)] ,969 
 
 1817 29,461,381 27,834,688 
 
 1848 29,460,764 23,083,138 
 
 1849 29,461,628 24,144,573 
 
 1860 29,800,063 23,525,092 
 
 1851 29,728,335 22,545,687 
 
 — Com. Rel. U. S. For the port regulations of Prussia, 
 see Pkusbia ; and for more extended information re- 
 garding the states composing the Zoll-Verein the read- 
 er is referred to the articles on the states separately. 
 
ALPHABETICAL INDEX 
 
 TO 
 
 IMPORTANT SUBJECTS 
 
 UPON WHICH INFOEMATION CAN BE FOUND IN ADDITION TO THAT GIVEN UNDEK 
 
 THEIR PKOPER HEADS. 
 
 Abandonment, 1067. 
 
 Acceptance, 170, 173, 1029. 
 
 Acetic acid, 5. 
 
 Acid, 1203, 1384, 1600. 
 
 Adjustment, 1044, 1057. 
 
 Admiralty, 557. 
 
 Adulteration of food, 691. 
 
 Advertising, 1425. 
 
 Affreightment, 291, 751. 
 
 Africa, 274, 435, 441 (cotton), 790, 
 
 805, 832, 835, 994, 1118, 1206, 
 
 1378, 1384, 1443, 1469, 1717, 1943 
 
 (weights and measures). 
 African Company, 395. 
 Agent, 646, 1061. 
 Agriculture, 246, 602, 704, 812, 849, 
 
 1091 1802, 1896. 
 Aguardiente, 488. 
 Alabama, 141, 439 (cotton), 1034, 
 
 1365. 
 Ale, 158, 212, 990, 1159, 1749. 
 Alexandria, 577, 584. 
 .ygiers, 440 (cotton), 741, 1943. 
 Alicante, 1742. 
 Aliens, 1009, 1347. 
 Alliance, Holy, 984. 
 Alloys, 425 (copper). 
 Allspice, 1631, 1748. 
 Almanac, 238. 
 Alpaca wool, 1 987. 
 America, 227 [North, 3711, 383, 438 
 
 (cotton), 800, 1444, 1676 [South, 
 
 1736], 1754, 1944. 
 American commerce, 385. 
 Ammonia, 24, 1668. 
 Amoy, 260, 1700. 
 Amsterdam, Bank of, 121 ; canals, 
 
 248. 
 Anchors, 226, 271, 428, 1148, 1545. 
 Ancient coins, 352. 
 Annuities, 1039, 1063, 1067, 1857. 
 Antwerp, 383. 
 Aquafortis, 7. 
 
 Arabia, 9, 223, 547, 1145, 1384. 
 Archangel, 1334, 1971. 
 Architecture, Naval, 1390. 
 Arcs, Meridian, 672. 
 Arctic- Ocean, 802, 892, 1447, 1639. 
 Ai-dent spirit, 17. 
 Arecibo, 1646. 
 Argand lainps, 1229. 
 Argentine Confederation, 219, 1172, 
 
 1862, 1913. 
 Arkansas, 139, 1034. 
 Arkwright, 465. 
 Armament, 257. 
 Artilioial flowers, 688. 
 Asbestos, 37. 
 Ashes 1671 
 Asia, '428, 832, 1030, 1112, 1656, 
 
 ■ 1711, 1945. 
 Asia Minor. See Turkey and the 
 
 Levant. 
 Asphaltum, 180. 
 Assay, 499. 
 
 GL 
 
 Assurance. See Insurance. 
 
 Astronomy, 793. 
 
 Asuncion, 1493. 
 
 Athens, 380. 
 
 Atlantic Ocean, 241, 500, 915, 1735. 
 
 Atlantic telegraph. See Tele- 
 graph. 
 
 Atrata, 37. 
 
 Auction, 267. 
 
 Australasia, 1469, 1540. 
 
 Australia, 9 [Colonies, 365], 366, 
 833, 1341, 1424, 1459, 1576, 1586, 
 1754, 1789 1932. . 
 
 Australia Felix. See Victoria. 
 
 Austria, 250 (canals), 376, 998, 1179, 
 1608, 1862, 1871, 1928, 1946. 
 
 Average, 1043, 1588. 
 
 Azimuth compass, 397. 
 
 Azores, 664. 
 
 Bacon, 974, 1643. 
 
 Baden, Duchy of, 1847, 1946. 
 
 Baggage, 600. 
 
 Bags, 919. 
 
 Balance of trade, 631. 
 
 Bale, Cotton, 460. 
 
 Ballast, 666. 
 
 Balm of Gilead, 87, 819. 
 
 Balm of Peru, 88. 
 
 Baltic Sea, 249, 528, 637, 619. 
 
 Baltunore, 1839. 
 
 Banana, 1537. 
 
 Banda, Oriental, 1918. 
 
 Bandana handkerchiefs, 468. 
 
 Bank-notes, 97, 384. 
 
 Bank of England 93, 100, 1278. 
 
 Bank of France, 121. 
 
 Bank of United States, 144. 
 
 Bankruptcy, 237, 1033. 
 
 Banks, 1, 281, 294, 309, 476, 480, 
 
 537, 544, 546, 761, 786, 1078, 1096, 
 
 1203, 1274, 1463, 1579, 1798, 1859. 
 Banks, Irish, 119. 
 Banks, Provincial, 114. 
 Banks, Scotch, 117. 
 Baracoa, 497. 
 Barbadoes, 366. 
 Barbarj' States. See Morocco, 
 
 Tripoli, Tunis, etc. 
 Barcelona, 1742. 
 Barges, 184. 
 Barratrj', 1043. 
 Barrel, 1952. 
 Bavaria, 260 (canals), 1179, 1847, 
 
 1946. 
 Bay of Chaleurs, 1402. 
 Bay of Fundy, 764. 
 Beacons, 1238, 1261. 
 Beads, 56. 
 Beaver, 282, 764. 
 Beef, 283, 490, 875. 
 Beer, 17, 212 716, 990, 1169, 1308. 
 Beeswax, 1940. 
 Beet sugar, 716, 1776. 
 Behring, 500. 
 
 Belgium, 51, 213, 214, 341 (coins), 
 458 (cotton), 815, 1179, 1807, 1862, 
 1913, 1947. 
 
 Belize, 984. 
 
 Bell Rock lighthouse, 1221. 
 
 Bells, 700. 
 
 Bengal, 230, 236, 508, 679, 989. 1024. 
 1028. . _ 
 
 Benzoic acid, 6. 
 
 Benzoin, 88. 
 
 Benzole, 1470. 
 
 Bills of exchange, 94, 294, 623, 1029, 
 1460, 1918. 
 
 Bills of health, 1601, 1708. 
 
 Bills of lading, 1708. 
 
 Biographj-, 568. 
 
 Birch canoes, 258. 
 
 Bitumen, 69, 1389. 
 
 Bituminous coal 318. 
 
 Black Sea, 1460. 
 
 Blockades, 1398. 
 
 Blue vitriol, 1127. 
 
 Boats, 28, 167, 223, 258, 427, 432, 
 506, 615, 668, 779, 837, 1005, 1151, 
 1176, 1210, 1219, 1286, 1395, 1456, 
 1632, 1691, 1627, 1650, 1690, 1729, 
 1879, 1996. 
 
 Bobbins, 1166. 
 
 Bolivia, 31, 342 (coins), 1166, 1863. 
 
 Bombay, 231, 1024. 
 
 Bonds, 476. 
 
 Book-keeping, 281, 1147, 1199. 
 
 Books, 167, 1208, 1426. 
 
 Boots and shoes, 1196, 1710. 
 
 Boracic acid, 6. 
 
 Borneo, 1155, 1863. 
 
 Bosphorus, 401. 
 
 Boston, 1002, 1058, 1426, 1710, 1839. 
 
 Bottomrj-, 1046, 1324, 1629. 
 
 Bounties, 665, 742; 1772. 
 
 Bourbon Island, 741. 
 
 Brandy 193, 1551. 
 
 Brazil, 30, 83, 336, 436, 467, 469 
 (cotton), 1490, .1614, 1550, 1637, 
 1757, 1807 (tariff), 1913, 1944. 
 
 Breadstuffs, 218, 685, 843, 844, 1802. 
 
 Breakwater, Delaware, 519, 681. 
 937, 1268. 
 
 Bremen, 931, 1180, 1947. 
 
 Brewing. See Beer. 
 
 Bridges, 602, 704, 1279. 
 
 Brimstone, 1778. 
 
 Britain. See Great Britain. 
 
 British Guiana, 908. 
 
 British North American Possessions. 
 883, 1164, 1376, 1401, 1404, 1452, 
 1588, 1663, 1668. 
 
 Brokers, 1042". 
 
 Bruges, 382. , 
 
 Brunswick, Georgia, 809. 
 
 Brussels carpet, 277. 
 
 Blubbles, Coinmercial, 397. 1177 
 1739. 
 
 Buccaneers, 748. 
 
2002 
 
 Buenos Ayres, 1172. 
 Building, 1390 (sliips). 
 Bullion, 71, 628, 1578. 
 Bunk, 433. 
 Buoys, 1238, 1252. 
 Burgundy, 1977. 
 Bunnah, 1625. 
 Butter, 294, 477, 508, 815. 
 
 Cables, 271, 428, 616, 837, 956, 966, 
 1647, 1830. 
 
 Cacao-nu ■, 304, 332. 
 
 Cadiz, 17-i2. 
 
 Cagliai-i, li;86. 
 
 Cairo, 273, 439. 
 
 Calcutta, 1U21, 1027, 1473. 
 
 Calendar, 1427. 
 
 California, 344 (coins), 645, 833, 836, 
 1034, 1575, 1586, 1604, 1621 (rail- 
 roads), 1679. 
 
 Calms, 554. 
 
 Camels, '273. 
 
 Camphor, 243. 
 
 Canada, 146, 254, 675, 883, 1154, 1178, 
 1375, 1602; 1614 (railroads), 1663. 
 
 Canals, 21 (Ked Sea and Nile), 36 
 (Atlantic and Pacific), 212, 238, 
 602, 703, 842, 975, 1165, 1428, 
 1485, 1765. 
 
 Canaries, 1743, 1832, 1943. 
 
 Candia, 1467, 1884. 
 
 Canes, 1625, 1936. 
 
 Canoe, 28. 
 
 Canton, 302, 1699. 
 
 Caoutchouc, 919, 1025. 
 
 Cape de Verd Islands, 1930, 1943. 
 
 Cape Haytien, 961, 964. 
 
 Cape Horn, 991. 
 
 Cape of Good Hope, 268, 269, 837, 
 1118. 
 
 Capital, 375. 
 
 Caps, 947. 
 
 Carats, 71. 
 
 Caravans, 66, 229, 242, 509. 
 
 Carbonic acid, 6. 
 
 Cardenas, 497. 
 
 Cardinal Points, 397. 
 
 Carding-machiues, 4C4. 
 
 Cargo. See Fruigiit. * 
 
 Caribbean Sea, 915. 
 
 Carpets, 711. 
 
 Carriage, 1706. 
 
 Carriages, 312, 921. 
 
 Cartagena, 1410. 
 
 Carthage, 380. 
 
 Cashmere, 1702, 1987. 
 
 Caspian Sea, 1656. 
 
 Cassia, 1748. 
 
 Casting, 699. 
 
 Catechu, 1833. 
 
 Caj-enne, 741, 912 [pepper, 1512, 
 1747]. 
 
 Cayman Islands, 1126. 
 
 Census, 1541. 
 
 Central America, 342 (coins), 432, 
 907, 1442, 1913. 
 
 Ceylon, 337, 370. 
 
 Chagres, 1412. 
 
 Champagne, 1976. 
 
 Channel. 610. 
 
 Charcoal, 760, 1104. 
 
 Charges, Consular, 414. 
 
 Charleston, 1738, 1840. 
 
 Charms, 43. 
 
 Charter party, 13, 752, 1708. 
 , Charts, 327, 518, 1001, 1317, 1346, 
 1398. 
 
 Chasing, 601, 1629. 
 
 Cheese, 224, 477, 508. 
 
 Cherbourg Breakwater, 938. 
 
 Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, 253. 
 
 Chesapeake Baj-, 5J9. 
 
 Chestnut, 981. 
 
 Chihua, 1363. 
 
 Chili, 342 (coins). 1863, 1913, 1921. 
 
 China, 68, 259 [Cochin, 331], 342 
 (coins), 428, 461 (cotton manufac- 
 tures), 660, 689, 697, 921, 927, 988, 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 1295, 1387, 1473, 1554, 1657, 1698, 
 1719, 1720, 1725, 1820, 1822, 1843, 
 1863, 1913, 1946. 
 
 China-ware, 1542. 
 
 Chincha Islands, 902. 
 
 Chinese sugar-cane, 1778. 
 
 Chronometers, 1280. 
 
 Cigars, 488, 1851. 
 
 Cincinnati, 974. 
 
 Cinnamon, 287, 288, 370, 1748. 
 
 Cinq Codes, 394. 
 
 Claplatine Eepulilic, 1918. 
 
 Citric acid, 6, 1203. 
 
 Citron, 165. 
 
 Civic companies, 396. 
 
 Claims,. Court of, 476. 
 
 Claret, 1976. 
 
 Climates, 436 (cotton), 574, 618, 
 1113. 
 
 Clocks, 1280, 1938. 
 
 Cloth, 681, 845, 1297, 1987. 
 
 Clothing, 1941. 
 
 Clover, 956. 
 
 Cloves, 1749. 
 
 Clyde, 821. 
 
 Coak. See Coke. 
 
 Coal, 366, 498, 757, 783, 1104, 1144, 
 1403, 1470, 1613. 
 
 Coasting trade, 673, 809. 
 
 Coast survey, 570, 945, 1242, 1317, 
 1838. 
 
 Cochineal, 256, 567. 
 
 Cocoa-nut, 287, 370, 1483. 
 
 Cod-fisheries, 665, 672. 
 
 Coffee, 370, 489, 693, 954, 1367, 1548, 
 1639, 1826. 
 
 Coinage, 61, 62, 69, 96, 272, 366, 499, 
 516,541, 627, 830,1031, 1096, 1361, 
 1360, 1611, 1579, 1654, 1680, 1701. 
 
 Coins, 2, 3, 4, 8, 12, 28, 47, 63, 69, 
 76, 86, 166, 263, 286, 423, 427, 483, 
 504, 513, 525, 542, 554, 565, 564, 
 567, 663, 684, 700, 776, 837, 897, 
 913, 1119, 1269, 1286, 1324, 1528, 
 1601, 1603, 1626, 1646, 1649, 1651, 
 1697, 1704, 1724, 1739, 1759, 1791, 
 1835, 1854. 
 
 Coke, 366, 1104. 
 
 Collins steamers, 1754. 
 
 Collision, 1043. 
 
 Cologne water, 582. 
 
 Colombia, 908, 1408. 
 
 Colonies, 386, 716, 740 [British, 878, 
 988, 1020], [Dutch, 1397], [Span- 
 ish, 1746]. 
 
 Columbia Kiver, 1841. 
 
 ColumbuSj Christopher, 799. 
 
 Commandite en companies, 396. 
 
 Commerce, 66, 68, 27.3, 362 (colo- 
 nies), 717, 797, 1017, 1398, 1804, 
 1905. 
 
 Commercial agents, 403, 415. 
 
 Commercial law, 55, 567, 696, 906, 
 1029, 1040, 1179, 1188, 1456, 1495, 
 1794. 
 
 Commercial policy, 402. 
 
 Commercial treaties. See Treaties. 
 
 Commission, 521, 647. 
 
 Companies, Africa, 15. 
 
 Companies, Dutch, 39. 
 
 Companies, East India, 574, 1279. 
 
 Companies, Hudson's Ba}', 766, 802, 
 995. 
 
 Companies, Northwest, 766. 
 
 Companies, Russian, 1668. 
 
 Companies, Stock, 394, 1145. 
 
 Compass, 275, 518, 542, 1302, 1319, 
 1538. 
 
 Connecticut, 1034. 
 
 Constantinople, 381, 1882. 
 
 Consular agents, 415. 
 
 Consuls, 590, 1501, 1694, 1708, 1885, 
 1994. 
 
 Contraband, 1398, 1730. 
 
 Contract, 71, 200, 518, 1042. 
 
 Convov, 894, 484. 
 
 Cook, Captain, 802. 
 
 Coolie trade, 1728. 
 
 Copenhagen, 527, 
 
 Copper, 48, 203, 603, 1703. 
 
 Copper coins, 286. 
 
 Copyright, 190. 
 
 Corfu, 1085. 
 
 Corn, 210, 843, 876. 
 
 Cornelian, 15. 
 
 Corporations, 396. 
 
 Cosmetics, 1649. — See Perfumes. 
 
 Costa Eica, 337, 1441, 1864. 
 
 Cotton, 19, 236, 271, 532, 585, 679, 
 712, 729, 731, 873, 874, 917, 932, 
 954,'1366, 1419, 1515, 1645, 1654, 
 1658, 1686, 1713, 1723, 1784, 1787, 
 1903. 
 
 Cotton manufactures, 9, 59, 165, 182, 
 185, 239, 242, 267, 274, 304, 311, 
 356, 603, 539, 542, 593, 661, 681, 
 712, 761, 774, 816, 821, 845, 1017, 
 1119, 1160, 1156, 1283, 1297, 1311, 
 1329, 1386, 1589, 1785. 
 
 Court of Admiralty, 10. 
 
 Cream of tartar, 6"8, 1818. 
 
 Credit, Letters of, 1204. 
 
 Credit Mobilier, 122, 124. 
 
 Credits, 378. 
 
 Crimea, 1460. 
 
 Cronstadt, 1667. 
 
 Croton aqueduct, 55, 1436. 
 
 Crystals, 681. 
 
 Cuba, 425 (copper), 949, 1742, 1846, 
 1851. 
 
 Cunard steamers, 1754. 
 
 Currants, 889. 
 
 Currency, 1370, 1579. 
 
 Currents, Ocean, 916, 936, 1481. 
 
 Customs, 3, 53, 418, 609, 516, 640, 
 749, 1169, 1570, 1597, 1629, 1700, 
 1729, 1794. 
 
 Cutlery, 946, 1152, 1387. 
 
 Cutters, 184. 
 
 Cyclopedia. See Encyclopedia. 
 
 Damascus, 273. 
 
 Danish colonies, 368, 1954. 
 
 Dantzic, 526. 
 
 Danube, 619, 776. 
 
 Daric, 8. 
 
 Darien, Isthmus of, 1484. 
 
 Dead letters, 1557. 
 
 Debt, 622, 764, 848, 1034, 1094, 1271, 
 1390, 1430, 1436, 1464, 1739, 1763. 
 
 Degree, 569, 795. 
 
 Delawar(<, 135, 267. 1034. 
 
 Delaware and Hudson Canal, 263. 
 
 Delaware Bay, 519. 
 
 Denmark, 249 (canals), 423, 588, 
 653, 1180 1662, 1667, 1733, 1864, 
 1913, 1948 (weights and meas- 
 ures), 1964. 
 
 Deposit, Banks of, 93. 
 
 Desertion, 1694. 
 
 Detroit, 1358. 
 
 Dike, 567, 976. 
 
 Diplomac)', 407. 
 
 Discount, 108. 
 
 District of Columbia, 1937. 
 
 Docks, 232, 243 [Dry, 548], 894, 944, 
 1267, 1276, 1395. ' 
 
 Dock-yards, 552. 
 
 Domain, 600. 
 
 Domicile, 1050. 
 
 Drafts, 294. 
 
 Dragon's blood, 88. 
 
 Dress 433 
 
 Drags, 243, 358, 432, 481, 645, 778, 
 1455, 1479, 1522, 1602, 1632, 1647, 
 1661, 1674, 1688, 1689, 1697, 1751, 
 1881, 1886. 
 
 Drummond liglit, 1227. 
 
 Drj'-rot, 658. 
 
 Dues, Sound. See Sodnd Does. 
 
 Dues, Stade, 923 Sea Tolls. 
 
 Dundee, 1263. 
 
 Dutch 39 [Colonies 368], [East In- 
 dia Company, 396], 976, 1132, 1397 
 [West Indies, 1954], [Whale-fish- 
 ery, I960]. 
 
Dutch Guiana, 911. 
 
 Duties, 237, 503, 544, 556, 1082, 1481. 
 
 Dyes, 5, 49, 275, 476, 498, 546/ 554, 
 556, 567, 714, 774, 780, 1160, 1155, 
 1297, 1384, 1478, 1596, 1603, 1661, 
 1688, 1729, 1886, 1891, 1931, 1953, 
 1983, 1997. 
 
 Dye-woods, 154, 1161. 
 
 Earth, 787. 
 
 Earthen-ware, 1543. 
 
 East India Companj', British, 395 
 434 (cotton), 441, 574, 1014, 1474. 
 
 East India Company, Dutch, 396. 
 
 East Indies, British. See India. 
 
 East Indies, Dutch, 1136, 1454, 1779. 
 
 East Indies, French, 1541. — See 
 France. 
 
 Ecuador, 612, 1864. 
 
 Eddystone light-house, 1220. 
 
 Egypt, 18, 229, 440 (cotton), 459, 
 1443, 1943. 
 
 Elbe, 923; 929, 1967. 
 
 Electric telegraph. See Tele- 
 graph. 
 
 Electrotj'ping, 1537. 
 
 EUineur, 527, 635. 
 
 Emancipation, 1727. 
 
 Embassador, 590. 
 
 Embroideries, 1159. 
 
 Emden, 928. 
 
 Emigrants, 925, 1499. 
 
 Emigration, 1008l 
 
 Encyclopedia, 507, 541. 
 
 Endorsement, 168, 172, 1029. 
 
 Enemies, 1050. 
 
 Engine, 663. 
 
 England, 212, 430 (corn laws), 667, 
 826, 846, 970, 1070, 1276, 1451, 
 1689, 1967. 
 
 Engrossing, 696. 
 
 Enrollment, 1627. 
 
 Erie Canal, 253, 1428. 
 
 Erie, Lake, 1162. 
 
 Erie, Port, 1511. 
 
 Etching, 611. ■ 
 
 Europe, 1623. 
 
 Euxine Sea, 182. 
 
 Exchange, Bills of, 94, 167, 1918. 
 
 Exchange, Eoj-al, 1650. 
 
 Exchange, Stock, 1763. 
 
 Exchequer, 1. 
 
 Expeditions, 56, 1629, 
 
 Exports, 1904. 
 
 Factor, 213. 
 
 Factories, 259. 
 
 Feathers, 555, 585, 1604. 
 
 Fees, Consular, 414. 
 
 Felting. 948. 
 
 Filigrip«60. 
 
 Finance. See Banics and Money. 
 
 Finland, 1170, 1654. 
 
 Fire-arms, 1534. 
 
 Fire-escape, 1208. 
 
 Fire insurahcBj 1058. 
 
 Firs, 1532. 
 
 Fish, 46, 84, 185, 284, 332, 583, 688, 
 921, 1271, 1480, 1877. 
 
 Fisheries, 184 [Pearl, 287], 289, 333, 
 387, 604, 717, 721, 741, 960, 1154, 
 1199, 1242, 1357, 1396, 1401, 1405, 
 1506, 1528 [Salmon, 16681, 1685, 
 1691, 1702, 1765 [Whale, 1958], 
 1963. 
 
 Flags, 1509. 
 
 Flanders, 382. 
 
 Flax, 713, 966, 1092, 1147, 1261, 
 1655. 
 
 Fleet, 684. 
 
 Florida, 143, 1034, 1151, 1249. 
 
 Florin, 982. 
 
 Flour, 208, 486, 490, 694, 875. 
 
 Fluonc acid, 6. 
 
 Fog signals, 1252. 
 
 Foo-chow, 689. 
 
 Foorfhow-foo, 260, 1700. 
 
 Food, 1336. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Food, Adulteration of, 11. 
 
 Foreigner9L699. 
 
 Fractions, Decimal, 516. 
 
 France, 192, 229, 250 (canals), 277, 
 287, 295, 337 (coffee), 341 (coins), 
 368 (colonies), 375, 465 (cotton), 
 649, 665, 765, 952, 1033, 1071, 1102, 
 1157, 1180, 1229, 1285, 1294, 1324, 
 1397, 1438, 1450, 1494, 1609 (rail- 
 roads), 1777, 1805 (tariff), 1825, 
 1847, 1855, 1864, 1913, 1956 (West 
 Indies), 1962 (whale-fishery), 1977 
 (wine). 
 
 France, Bank of, 121, 1948 (weights 
 and measures). 
 
 Franking, 1569. 
 
 Franklin, Sir John, 802. 
 
 Free trade, 385. 
 
 Freight, 82, 291, 1045, 1588, 1607, 
 1619, 1629, 1693, 1707. 
 
 French East India Company, 578. 
 
 French Guiana, 912. 
 
 Fresnel lights, 1226, 1240. 
 
 Fruits, 295, 477, 499, 514, 660, 908, 
 1203, 1261, 1311, 1386, 1477, 1505, 
 1532, 1537, 1538, 1540, 1593, 1604, 
 1634, 1792, 1793. 
 
 Fuel, 1104, 1242, 1508. 
 
 Fuerteventura, 256. 
 
 Fullers' thistle, 1826. 
 
 Funding system, 1763. 
 
 Funds, 400. ■ 
 
 Furnaces, 1099. 
 
 Furs, 283, 616, 1455, 1509, 1661. 
 
 Galatz, 513, 775, 1883. 
 
 Galena, 1193. 
 
 Gallic acid, 6. 
 
 Gall-nuts, 1456. 
 
 Gallon, 1952. 
 
 Galveston, 1840. 
 
 Gas, 760, 1227. 
 
 Gauge, 775. 
 
 Gauntlet, 783. 
 
 Genoa, 381, 1686. 
 
 Geodesj-, 322, 569. 
 
 Georgia, 143, 438 (cotton), 1034, 
 1634, 1G88. 
 
 German Commercial Union, 813, 
 1596, 1998. 
 
 Germany [Banks of, 122], 342 (coins), 
 510, 597. 649, 747, 922, 928, 1103, 
 1179, 1470, 1554, 1593, 1648, 1979, 
 1998. 
 
 Gin, 785, 1147. 
 
 Gin, Cotton, 442. 
 
 Ginger, 1747. 
 
 Glass, 47, 483, 681, 1751. 
 
 Glut, 524. 
 
 Gold, 36, 241, 272 [coins, 345], 353, 
 365, 626, 1031, 1157, 1342,1361, 
 1537, 1574, 1581, 1586, 1664, 1680, 
 1803. 
 
 Gold Coast, 913. 
 
 Gold discoverj-, 78. 
 
 Gonaives, 961. 
 
 Good Hope, Cape of, 267, 269, 837, 
 1118, 1943. 
 
 Grace, Days of, 515, 638, 843. 
 
 Grain, 68o, 1267, 1456, 1462, 1660, 
 1749, 1965. 
 
 Gramme, 1152. 
 
 Grass seeds, 956. 
 
 Great Britain, 251 (canals); 315 
 (coal), 347 (coins), 361 (colonies), 
 375, 384, 425 (copper), 430 (com 
 laws), 453 (cotton), 469 (cotton 
 manufactures), 599, 601, 648, 667, 
 675, 997, 1019, 1033, 1087,. 1100, 
 1181, 1192, 1231,' 1263, 1266, 1274, 
 1438, 1451, 1511, 1554, 1610 (rail- 
 roads), ,1704, 1719, 1753, 1771, 
 1805 (tariff), 1825, 1842, 1846, 
 1865, 1913, 1936, 1948 ('weights 
 and measures), 1955 (West In- 
 dies), 1960 (whale-fishery), 1966, 
 1988 (wool). 
 
 Grecian coins, 352. 
 
 2003 
 
 Greece, 380 1181, 1502. 
 
 Ground-nut, 1462. - 
 
 Guadaloupe, 741. 
 
 Guatemala, 1865. 
 
 Guayama, 1547. 
 
 Guayaquil, 614. 
 
 Guerrero, 1354. 
 
 Guiana, 835, 1943. 
 
 Guiana, British, 741, 808. 
 
 Guiana, Dutch, 1494. 
 
 Guiana, French, 284. 
 
 Guild, 913. 
 
 Gulf of St. Lawrence, 1178. 
 
 Gulf Stream, 326, 500. 
 
 Gums, 156, 778, 782, 819, 1152, 1155. 
 
 1470, 1476, 1661, 1685, 1791, 1833. 
 
 1859, 1886. 
 Gutta-percha, 267, 1025. 
 
 Hair, 243, 1972. 
 
 Halibut, 673. 
 
 Hamburg, Bank of, 121, 931, 1181, 
 
 1948. 
 Hams, 83. 
 
 Handkerchiefs, 92, 467. -, 
 Hanover, 946, 1181, 1865, 1949. 
 Hanse Towns, 211, 382; 467 (cottcm), 
 
 526, 922, 930, 1180, 1288, 1865, 
 
 1913. 
 Harbors, 477, 601, 860, 1257, 1644, 
 
 1839. 
 Hardware, 505, 606; 714, 1387, 1512. 
 Hargreaves, James, 463. 
 Hartshorn, 24. 
 Havana, 484, 497. 
 Haven. See Harbor. 
 Hayti, 267, 342 (coins), 841, 1119, 
 
 1181, 1544, 1674, 1767, 1913, 1944. 
 Hazel-nut, 1464. 
 Health, Bill of, 178. 
 Hemp, 714, 837, 919, 1147, 1527. 
 
 16o6. 
 Herrings, 604, 668, 673. 1405. 
 Hides, 502, 1195, 1515,4726. 
 Hindostan, 222, 498, WW. — See 
 
 India. 
 Historj- of Commerce, 379. 
 Hogs. See Pork Trade. 
 Hogshead, 1952. 
 Holland, 39, 248 (canals), 378, 382, 
 
 1134, 1182, 1396, 1649, 1806 (tar- 
 iff), 1866, 1949. 
 Holland, New, 76. 
 Holstein, Duchy of, 630. 
 Hong Kong, 261. 
 Hongs, 259, 264. 
 Honolulu, 1675. 
 Hooks, 676. 
 
 Horizon, Artificial, 62, 537. 
 Hose and hosier;-, 1761. 
 Hospital [Greenwich, 895], 1694. 
 Hudson, Henrv, 519: 
 Hudson Eiver,"-1428. 
 Hudson's Bay Company, 766, 802. 
 Hungary, 831. 
 Hurl-Gate, 966. 
 Huron, Lake, 1163. 
 Hydriodic acid, 6. 
 Hydrocyanic acid, 7. 
 H3'drograph3', 323. 
 
 Ibraila, 777. 
 
 Iceland moss, 1381. 
 
 Illinois, 137, 253, 283, 296, 1034, 
 1193. 
 
 Immigrants, 594. 
 
 Imports and exports, 629, 1799, 1907. 
 1910. 
 
 Impost. See Tariff and Taxes. 
 
 India, British, 20, 163, 222, 230, 242, 
 276, 281, 383, 441 (cotton), 461, 
 498, 575, 576, 616, 650, 791, 989, 
 1004, 1027, 1161, 1301, 1334, 1474, 
 1575, 1660, 1703, 1712, 1725, 1754, 
 1818. 
 
 India, French East India Company, 
 578 
 
 Indiana, 137, 253, 1034. 
 
2004 
 
 Indian com, 210, 429. 
 
 India rubber, 267, 919, 1297, 1766. 
 
 Indigo, 234, 567, 1013. 
 
 Indorsement, 168, 172. 
 
 Ink, 1025. 
 
 Inland exchange, 622. 
 
 Inland navigation, 247, 975. 
 
 Inns 274. 
 
 Insolvency, 150. 
 
 Insolvents, 150. 
 
 Insurance, Fire, 1208. 
 
 Insurance, Life, 8, 49, 1867. 
 
 Insurance, Marine, 2, 10, 13, 79, 200, 
 
 291, 356, 525, 590, 684, 750, 1209, 
 
 1270, 1324, 1640, 1588, 1629, 1673, 
 
 1693, 1696, 1765. 
 Interest, 764, 1039, 1063, 1919. 
 Inventions, 1501. 
 Invoices, 1708. 
 
 Ionian Islands, 890, 1182, 1997. 
 Iowa, 1034. 
 Ireland, 158, 252 (canals), 610, 563, 
 
 697, 846, 1071, 1611 (railroads), 
 
 1689. 
 Irish banks, 119. 
 Iron, 48, 282, 505, 603, C88, 696, 699, 
 
 714, 780, 946, 1387, 1758, 1782, 
 
 1903. 
 Islands [Coral, 428], [Ice, 1005]. 
 Isle of Wight, 477. 
 Isthmus of Darien, 1484. 
 Isthmus of Suez, 1766. 
 Isthmus of Tehuantepec, 1826. 
 Italy, 248 (canals), 649, 779, 786, 
 
 798, 826, 1182, 1388, 1451, 1486, 
 
 1913, 1950, 1979. 
 
 Jaconet, 467. 
 
 Jamaica, 364. 
 
 Japan, 1159, 1387, 1866. 
 
 Java, 154, 337. 
 
 Jenny spinning, 463. 
 
 Jersey City, 1415. 
 
 Jetsam, 684. 
 
 Jettison, 1046. 
 
 Jewelry. See Peecious Stones. 
 
 Jewish coins, 352. 
 
 Jobber, Stock, 1761. 
 
 Joint-stock companies, 394. 
 
 Juniper berries, 165. 
 
 Junks,^ 266, 1146. 
 
 Jurisdiction of Consuls, 406. 
 
 Jute, 967. 
 
 Kane, Dr. E. K., 896. 
 Kentucky, 138, 1034. 
 Kev West, 683, 1840. 
 Kiiichta, 1657. 
 Kingston, 1123. 
 
 Labrador, 1404. 
 
 Lace, 886, 1093. 
 
 Lading, Bill of, 178. 
 
 Lakes, 245 [Champlain, 2891 426 
 (copper), [Erie, 615], [Huron, 
 1001], 1088, 1244, 1250, 1472 [Su- 
 perior, 1779], 1891. 
 
 Lamps, 1229, 1240. 
 
 I^anyard, 1169. 
 
 La tlata Kiver, 220. 
 
 Larch, 1532. 
 
 Lard, 487. 
 
 Latitude, 519, 669, 795, 992. 
 
 Law of nations, 417, 1043. 
 
 Ijaw's bubble, 397. 
 
 Laws, Corn, 430. 
 
 Laws of Commerce. See Commer- 
 cial Law. 
 
 Laws of merchants, 1347. 
 
 Laws of navigation. See Kaviga- 
 TioN Laws. 
 
 Laws of shipping. See Shipping, 
 Laws of. 
 
 Lazarettos. See Quakantine. 
 
 Lead, Black, 181. 
 
 Lead, Sounding, 1734. 
 
 League, Hanseatic, 930, 
 
 Leather, 221, 602, 592, 607, 1659, 1698. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Leeward Islands, 1954. 
 
 Legal tender, 97, 1831. 
 
 Leghorn, 1888. 
 
 Lenses, 1231. 
 
 Letters, 1558. 
 
 Letters of Marqne, 1589. 
 
 Levant [Company, 395], 401, 417, 
 
 607 614, 1871, 1882. 
 Liability of carriers, 280. 
 Liberia, 466 (cotton). 
 Life-boats, 1214, 1237. 
 Life-buoy, 222, 1212, 1227. 
 Life-preservers, 429. 
 Life insurance, 8, 49, 1062, 1857. 
 Light-houses, 481, 558, 765, 870, 
 
 1167, 1877. 
 Light-ships, 1229; 1237. 
 Lignum vitse, 898. 
 Lime, 285, 851, 920. 
 Limited partnerships, 1496. 
 Linen, 510, 641, 655, 606, 677, 678, 
 
 713, 1092, 1156, 1178. 
 Linseed, 680. 
 Liquor, 499, 814, 819. 
 Lisbon, 1975. 
 Lithography, 611. 
 Liverpool, 602, 1765. 
 Live stock, 1897. 
 Llama, 29. 
 Lloyds', 1041. 
 Loans, 1763. 
 Loans, Maritime, 1324. 
 Lobos Islands, 900. 
 Locomotives, 1606. 
 Logiirithms, 1389. 
 Log-book, 1708. 
 London, 601, 1650. 
 Long-boat, 184. 
 Longitude, 325, 619, 569, 795. 
 Loom, 461. 
 Losses, 1042, 1057. 
 Louisiana, 140, 439 (cotton), 682, 
 
 1034, 1417, 1768, 1769. 
 Lilbeck, 626, 1182. 
 Lucca, 1889. 
 Lucifer matches, 1333. 
 Lumber, 296, 305, 516, 1536, 1842, 
 
 1984. 
 
 Mace, 1747. 
 
 Mackerel, 672. 
 
 Madeira, 1978. 
 
 Madras, 231. 
 
 Magnet, 1270. 
 
 Magnetic needle, 397. 
 
 Magnetic telegraph. See Tele- 
 graph. 
 
 Mahoganj', 985. 
 
 Mails, 20, 21, 1753. See Postage. 
 
 Maine, 253(canals), 1034, 1245, 1545. 
 
 Maize, 429. 
 
 Malaga, 1741. 
 
 Malic acid, 6. 
 
 Malstroem, 1272. 
 
 Malt, 17, 608. 
 
 Malta, 1183. 
 
 Manhattan Island, 1433. 
 
 Manilla, 1526, 1743. 
 
 Manufacture, 460 (cotton), 539, 544, 
 593, 606, 679, 710, 761, 864, 929, 
 1016, 1263, 1288, 1297, 1329, 1652, 
 1786, 1903. 
 
 Maple-sugar, 1778. 
 
 Maps, 291, 327, 793, 1001. 
 
 Marine insurance, 2^ 10, 13, 79, 200, 
 291, 356, 625, 590, 684, 750, 1041, 
 1209, 1629, 1673, 1693, 1696, 1765. 
 
 Mariners. See Seamun. 
 
 Mariner's compass, 397. 
 
 Maritime laws, 1188, 1332, 1398, 
 1590, 1629, 1673, 1690, 1694. 
 
 Markets, 524, 648. 
 
 Marmora, Sea of, 401, 414, 513. 
 
 Martha's Vineyard, 1247. 
 
 Martin, 767. 
 
 Martinique, 368, 745, 1326. 
 
 Maiyland, 90, 134, 295, 1036. 
 
 Masters, 1692, 1707. 
 
 Massachusetts, 128, 196, 671, -1002, 
 
 1035, 1247, 1500, 1619 (railroads), 
 
 1710. 
 Mastic, 916. 
 Matanzas, 497. 
 Mayagiiez 1547. 
 M'Clure, Captain, 802. 
 Measures, 8, 47, 288, 296, 498 [Dec- 
 imal, 517], 664, 663, 696,726, 1152, 
 
 1194, 1266, 1358, 1494, 1509, 1612, 
 
 1533, 1941. 
 Mecca 273 
 
 Mecklenburg, 1648, 1866. 
 Meconic acid, 6. 
 Mediterranean Sea, 600, 619, 737, 
 
 1744. 
 Meerschaum pipes, 1533. 
 Melbourne, 1933. 
 Mercantile actions, 374. 
 Mercantile laws, 1460. 
 Merchandise, 1752. 
 Merchant adventurers, 12. 
 Merchants, 506, 554, 1653.' 
 Mercurj', 1604. 
 Meridian, 570, 1279. 
 Merino wool, 1988. 
 Metals, 424 (copper), 830, 1192, 1306, 
 
 1443, 1522, 1537, 1733, 1842. 
 Mexico, 342 (coins), 437 (cotton), 
 
 459, 832, 1724, 1745, 1793, 1866, 
 
 1913, 1929, 1944. 
 Mezzotint, 611. 
 Michigan, 539, 1035. 
 Michigan, Lake, 1165. 
 Middle Ages, Commerce of, 381. 
 Mile, 1952. 
 
 Milk, 477, 508, 690, 694. 
 Mines, 240, 602, 709, ]089. 
 Mining [Coal, 314], 483, 688, 696, 
 
 699, 949, 1098, 1167. 
 Ministers, Foreign, 407, 590. 
 Mink, 767. 
 Minnesota, 773. 
 
 Mint 340, 346^ 353, 1511, 1679, 1680. 
 Mississippi Kiver, 139, 682, 915, 
 
 1287, 1394, 1417,\1423, 1840. 
 Mississippi State, 4.^9, 1035. 
 Missouri River, 1363. 
 Missouri State, 143, 1035, 1107, 1110, 
 
 1664. 
 Mobile, 1840. 
 Mobilier, Credit, 480. 
 Modena, 1889. 
 Mohammedan States, 417. 
 Molasses, 488, 1420, 1548, 1651, 1768. 
 Moldavia, 776. 
 Money, 16, 72, 427 (copper), 544, 
 
 626, 764, 1078, 1203, 1274, 1586, 
 
 1792, 1919, 1936. 
 Money orders, 1559. 
 Monopolies, 377, 524, 696, 1583, 
 
 1848. 
 Mont de Piete, 1203, 1503. 
 Montreal, 245, 1603. 
 Mooring, 46. 
 
 Morocco, 1368, 1866 1944. 
 Morocco leather, 1198. 
 Mother of pearl, 1507. 
 Mulberrj'-tree, 714. 
 Mule jennyj 465. 
 Muriatic acid, 6. 
 Muscat, 1866. 
 Muskrat, 767. 
 Muslins, 467. 
 Mustard, 1747. 
 Muster-roll, 1708. 
 
 Nankeens, 463. 
 
 Naples, 1471, 1713, 1856. 
 
 Nations, Law of. See Law of Na- 
 tions. 
 
 Naturalization, 22. 
 
 Nautical Almanac, 28. 
 
 Naval stores, 61, 257, 280, 875, 916, 
 917. 
 
 Navesink light, 1247. 
 
 Navigation, Laws of, 1317, 1765. 
 
 Navigation, Steam, 1752. 
 
Navigation, 28, 157, 247, 396, 488, 
 516: 569, 575, 915, 919, 971, 979, 
 1199, 1279, 1291, 1311, 1331, 1398, 
 1462, 1536, 1601, 1626, 1629, 1633, 
 1635, 1646, 1661, 1697. 
 
 Navigators, 308, 510. 
 
 Navy, 681, 684. 
 
 Navy j-ard, 553. 
 
 Needle, Magnetic, 397, 518, 542. 
 
 Negotiable paper. See Pbomissory 
 Notes and Bills of Exchange. 
 
 Nests, Birds', 179. 
 
 Netherlands [Bank; of, 121], 343 
 (coins), 382, 974, 1856, 1913. 
 
 Neutral, 419, 1056, 1328. 
 
 Neutrality, 1050. 
 
 Neutrality. Armed, 60, 526. 
 
 Neva River, 1667. 
 
 New Brunswick, British Province, 
 1668. 
 
 New England, 128, 1617 (railroads). 
 
 Newfoundland, 664, 667, 1663,1669. 
 
 New Granada, 280, 343 (coins), 832, 
 1484, 1867. 
 
 New Hampshire, 1085. 
 
 New Holland, 76, 804. 
 
 New Jersej-, 135, 253 (canals), 1035, 
 1247. 
 
 New Orleans, 1288, 1840. 
 
 New South Wales, 833, 1789. 
 
 Newspapers, 12 (advertisements), 
 1558. 
 
 New York City, 582, 1247, 1369, 
 1390, 1678, 1755, 1776, 1839. 
 
 New York State, 130, 221, 253 (ca- 
 nals), 996, 1035, 1496, 1616 (rail- 
 roads), 1671. 
 
 New Zealand, 804. 
 
 Nicaragua, 36, 1626. 
 
 Niger, 805. 
 
 Nile, 18, 439 (cotton). 
 
 Ningpo, 260, 1700. 
 
 Nitric acid, 7. 
 
 Noah's ark, 58. 
 
 North America, 33, 227, 363 (colo- 
 nies), 371, 384, 438 (cotton), 800. 
 
 North Carolina, 142, 267, 853, 1036, 
 1248, 1787. 
 
 North Sea. See Arctic Ocean. 
 
 Northwest Company, 765. 
 
 Northwest passage, 802, 1148. 
 
 Norway, 304, 843 (coins), 842, 1183, 
 1272, 1760, 1780, 1856. 
 
 Notes, Bank, 98. 
 
 Notes, Promissorj-. See Pkomis- 
 SORY Notes. • 
 
 Nova Scotia, 669, 921, 
 
 Nutmegs, 1747. 
 
 Nutria, 768. 
 
 Nuts, 205, 281, 295, 780, 1300, 1534, 
 1726, 1936. 
 
 Oak, 428, 780, 1266. 
 
 Oak bark, 153. 
 
 Oakum, 241. 
 
 Oats, 686, 
 
 Observatories, 570. 
 
 Ocean, Arctic, 57. 
 
 Ocean, Atlantic, 73. 241, 500, 915. 
 
 Ocean, Indian, 1024. 
 
 Ocean,, Pacific, 500, 1481. 
 
 Ocean steamnavigation. See Steam 
 
 Navigation. 
 Odessa, 1636, 1967. 
 Ohio, 136, 306, 309, 974, 1036. , 
 
 Ohio Eiver, 1363. 
 Oil-cloth, 682. 
 Oil of vitriol, 7. 
 Oils [Camphor, 224], 282 [Clove, 
 
 311], [Cod liver, 334], [Shark, 
 /' 334], 373, 616 [Fusel, 774], 780, 
 
 1227, 1242, 1405 rOlive, 1471], 
 
 [Palm, 1483], [Rape, 1625], 
 
 [Whale, 1958T. - 
 
 Oil-stone, 988. 
 Oiaca, 1354. 
 Oldenburg, 980, 1867. 
 Olibanura, 700. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Olive oil, 1467. 
 
 Olives, 887. 
 
 Ontario, Lake, 246, 1162. 
 
 Opium, 234, 261, 1013, 1021. 
 
 Oporto, 1551, 1975. 
 
 Ordnance, 258, 399, 505 [Survey, 
 
 571], 917, 918. 
 Oregon, 369. 
 Ores, 1100. 
 Ornaments, 567. 
 Orris root, 1098. 
 Ostrich feathers, 657. 
 Ottar of roses, 76. 
 Otter, 768. 
 
 Owner of ships, 1706. 
 Oxalic acid, 7. 
 Oysters, 287. 
 
 Pacific Ocean, 1540. 
 
 Pacific Railroad, 1621. 
 
 Pack, 86. 
 
 Painted glass, 827. 
 
 Painting, 600, 755, 1470. 
 
 Paints, 422, 782, 1194, 1501, 1998. 
 
 Palermo, 1716. 
 
 Palestine, 1790. 
 
 Palm oil, 1469, 1717. 
 
 Panama, 69 513, 1410. 
 
 Panama Isthmus, 86, 37, 1441. 
 
 Papal Dominions, 308. 
 
 Paper, 1605, 1G26, 1635. 
 
 Paper money, 72, 628. 
 
 Para, 31. 
 
 Paraguaj', 72. 
 
 Parana River 1173'. 
 
 Parasols, 1891. 
 
 Paris, 719. 
 
 Parma, 1889. 
 
 Par of exchange, 626. 
 
 Parrj-, Edward, 802. 
 
 Partnerships, 396 (companies), 420. 
 
 Passengers, 596, 876, 1009, 1619, 
 
 1680. 
 Passports, 415, 1708. 
 Pawnbrokers, 52, 1203. 
 Pearl ashes, 24. 
 
 Pearls [Fisheries, 287], 616, 1382. 
 Peat, 757, 1104. 
 Peddlers, 956. 
 Peltrj", 770. 
 
 Pencils, Lead, 181, 477, 921. 
 Pennsylvania, 133, 253 (canals), 
 
 1036, 1107, 1523. 
 Penny postage, 1555. 
 Pensacola, 683. 
 Pensions, 49. 
 
 Pepper, 284, 300, 1713, 1746. 
 Perfumes, 808, 432, 700, 921, 1386, 
 
 1647. 
 Periodicals, 1426, 1600, 1749. 
 Persia, 67, 228, 276, 509. 
 Peru, 241, 343 (coins), 899, 1261, 
 
 1867. 
 Peruvian bark, 152, 1410. 
 Pest-houses, 1601. 
 Philadelphia, 685, 1511, 1839. 
 Philippine Islands, 1312, 1743. 
 Phojnicia, 379^ 1890. 
 Phosphoric acid, 7. 
 Piers, 942. 
 Pilotage; 232, 871. 
 Pimento, 1748. 
 Pinnaces, 184. 
 Pipes, 990, 1348. 
 Pirate, 214. 
 Pisa, 381. 
 
 Pitch, 222, 509, 1392, 1793, 1886. 
 Pittsburgh, 1107. 
 Plaster, Court, 476. 
 Plata River, 220, 1172. 
 Plumbago, 181. 
 
 Policies, 1047, 1051. ( 
 
 Polynesia, 1459. 
 Ponce, 1547. 
 1475, 
 
 Popuiationj^ 285, 622, 726, 1895. 
 
 Porcelain, 715. 
 
 Pork trade, 83, 730,- 876, 973. 
 
 2005 
 
 Port, 985, 1839, 1974. 
 
 Port au Prince, 959. 
 
 Porter, 17, 158. , 
 
 Portland, Maine, 1305, 1839. 
 
 Porto Rico, 496, 1684, 1742. 
 
 Ports, Cinque, 308. 
 
 Portsmouth [England, 653], [New 
 
 Hampshire, 1414, 1839]. . 
 Portugal, 469 (cotton), 799, 1184, 
 
 1264, 1296, 1299, 1476, 1856, 1867, 
 
 1913, 1949. 
 Postage, 1753. 
 Post-office, 21, 1512j 1653. 
 Potass, 24, 1672. 
 Pound sterling, 1759. 
 Powder. See Gunpowder. 
 Power, 993. 
 Prairies, 242, 538. 
 Precious metals, 36, 95, 240, 383, 
 
 385, 1537, 1723, 1808. 
 Precious stones, 248, 274, 275, 540, 
 
 594, 783, 1016, 1119, 1136, 1170, 
 
 1472, 1506, 1646, 1650, 1685, 1688, 
 
 1857, 1887. 
 Premiums, 1042. 
 Preservers, Life, 1211. 
 Press-gang, 1010. 
 Prices, 102, 523, 685, 833, 1798, 
 
 1923. 
 Principles of commerce, 376. 
 Printing, 919, 1582. 
 Privateering, 1323, 1399. 
 Production, 523. 
 Promissory not«, 1029, 1450. 
 Protection, 748, 1797. 
 Protest, 175, 1451, 1709. 
 Provincial banks, 114. 
 Provisions, 1336, 1421, 1543, 1802. 
 Prussia, 211, 250 (canals), 843 
 
 (coins), 812, 1103, 1153, 1343, 
 
 1609, 1759, 1868, 1949, 1998. 
 Prussic acid, 7. 
 Public lands, 1168. 
 Punta Arenas, 433. 
 Pyroligneous acid, 5. 
 Pyx,. Trial of, 70. 
 
 Quadrant, 919. 
 Quebec, 244, 1876. , 
 Quicksilver, 240, 1348, 1680. 
 
 Rafts, 1209. 
 
 Rags, 1488. 
 
 Railroads, 400, 704, 986, 1013, 1098, 
 1109, 1430, 1485, 1647, 1688, 1689. 
 
 Raisins, 1307. " 
 
 Rape-seed [Oil, 1242], 1264. 
 
 Ratan, 1626. 
 
 Reciprocity freatj', 246 (Canada), 
 247, 675, 732. 
 
 Red River, 1363. 
 
 Resins, 916, 1791, 1925 See Gums. 
 
 Respondentia, 1046. 
 
 Revenue [Cutters, 606], 622, 728, 
 1081, 1094, 1159. 
 
 Revenue, Laws of, 1042, 1795. 
 
 Rhine, 778. 
 
 Rhode Island, 1036, 1593. 
 
 Rhumb line, 1892. 
 
 Ribbons, 1683. 
 
 Rice, 1012, 1713. 
 
 Right of search, 1399. 
 
 Rio de Janeiro, 336. 
 
 Rivers, 618. 
 
 Roads, 1295. 
 
 Rockets [Congreve, 399], 1213. 
 
 Rome, 381. 
 
 Roots, 293, 303, 370, 756. 
 
 Roses, Ottar of, 75. 
 
 Rosin. See Tdrpentine. 
 
 Rot, Dry, 558. 
 
 Royal Exchange, 896, 1278. 
 
 Russia, 66, 250 (canals), 343 (coins), 
 425, 458 (cotton), 481, 482, 650, 
 662, 832, 968, 1151, 1159, 1171, 
 1184, 1334, 1460, 1608 (railroads), 
 1685, 1665, 1791, 1792, 1824, 1868, 
 1918, 1950. 
 
2006 
 
 Rum, 488, 1749. 
 Rupees, Lac of, 1156. 
 Russian Company, 395. 
 Rye, 210. 
 
 Sables, 767. 
 
 Sails,' 267. 
 
 Saint Clair, Lake, 1163. 
 
 St. Helena, 965, 1663. 
 
 St. Jago, 497. 
 
 St. Kitt's, 306. 
 
 St. Lawrencej 244, 1178, 1394, 1402. 
 
 St. Louis, 283. 
 
 St. Petersburg, 1658. 
 
 St. Pierre, 743. 
 
 St. Thomas, 530. 
 
 Sale [Bill of, 178], 421 (contract), 
 
 646, 1764. 
 Salmon, 1405. 
 Salonica, 1883. 
 Salt, 604, 710. 
 Salvage, 3. 
 San Domingo, 214, 336, 364, 744, 
 
 957^ 1544, 1768. 
 San Francisco, 240, 1841. 
 San Juan, 1441 [Porto Rico, 1546]. 
 San Salvador, 83, 1868. 
 Sandwich Islands, 1868. 
 Sandy Hoolc, 326. 
 Santa Cruz, 530. 
 Sardinia, 229, 458 (cotton), 1184, 
 
 1869, 1950. 
 Savannah, 809, 1840. 
 Savings banlcs, 148. 
 Saxony, 1201, 1950. 
 Schles'wig, Duchy of, 530. 
 Scotch banlcs, 117. 
 Scotland, 252 (canals), 311, 565, 697, 
 
 820, 846, 1071, 1202, 1263, 1611 
 
 (railroads). 
 Sourvj', 1336. 
 Sea, Caspian, 281. 
 Sea, Dead, 516. 
 Sea^island cotton, 443, 444. 
 Sea of Azof, 1460. 
 Sea of Marmora, 401, 414, 513. 
 Sea of Okotslt, 501. 
 Seals, 668, 768, 1405. 
 Seamen, 407, 415, 481, 538, 543, 592, 
 
 1010, 1709. 
 Search, Right of, 1399. 
 Seas, 971, 1394, 1457, 1711. 
 Seas, Sovereigntj' of the, 1739. 
 Sea-worthy, 1043. 
 Seeds, 274, 311, 443, 498, 680, 956, 
 
 969, 1204, 1264. 
 Segars. See Cigars. 
 Seignorage, 628. 
 Seizure of vessels, 388. 
 Senegal, 741. 
 Shanghai, 259, 260, 302. 
 Shawls, 243, 281, 711. 
 Sheep, 1348. 
 .Sheffield, 505. . 
 Shellac, 1156, 1692. 
 Shells, 289, 477, 991, 1858. 
 Sheriffs, 84. 
 Sherr)', 1976. 
 Shipping, Laws of, 2, 10, 13, 78, 183, 
 
 200, 222, 291, 356, 407, 525. 543, 
 590, 592, 697, 750, 866, 877', 979, 
 1039, 1165, 1208, 1239, 1319, 1331, 
 1399, 1.533, 1589, 1601, 1627, 1629, 
 1673 1692 
 
 Ships, '44, 62, 58, 86, 163, 167, 191, 
 
 201, 226, 243, 266, 271, 272, 275, 
 397, 414, 425, 428, 433, 477, 483, 
 615, 538, 551, 557, 696, 699, 755, 
 779, 782, 919, 920, 927, 947, 949, 
 956, 965, 984, 1045, 1145, 1148, 
 1152, 1154, 1176, 1195, 1199, 1203, 
 1210, 1253, 1278, 1291, 1311, 1330, 
 1333, 1390, 1392, 1395, 1396, 1439, 
 1456, 1478, 1480, 1682, 1590, 1602, 
 1624, 1627, 1629, 1635, 1636, 1647, 
 1660, 1661, 1690, 1698, 1703, 1729, 
 1751, 1758, 1779, 1791, 1833, 1841, 
 1871, 1916, 1937, 1940, 1973, 1996. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Shipping, 237, 414, 421, 481, 518, 
 542, 558, 717, 722, 738, 856, 858, 
 1159, 1242, 1696, 1910. 
 
 Ship's papers, 332. 
 
 Shipwreck. See Wkecks. 
 
 Shoals, 329. 
 
 Shoes [Makers of, 428], 1196. 
 
 Siam, 92, 150, 343 (coins), 1869. 
 
 Siberia, 1666. 
 
 Sicilies, Two, 1115. 1185, 1349, 1482, 
 1870, 1951. 
 
 Sidon, 379. 
 
 Sierra Leone, 914, 1207. 
 
 Sight bill, 178. 
 
 Signals, 1252. 
 
 SUk, 303, 607, 684, 714, 861, 1093, 
 1699. 
 
 Silk manufactures, 213, 510, 714, 
 1119, 1294, 1368, 1538, 1688, 1791, 
 1801. 
 
 Silver, 36 [Coins, 346], 353, 383, 
 1157, 1574j 1579, 1654. 
 
 Simoda, 1133. 
 
 Singapore, 266, 919. 
 
 Skins, 283, 502, 764, 970, 1167, 1195, 
 1455. 
 
 Slaughter-houses, 3. 
 
 Slave-trade, 1123, 1717. 
 
 Smyrna, 514, 1883. 
 
 Snuff-boxes, 499. 
 
 Soda, 26. 
 
 Somers' Isles, 165. 
 
 Sorghum, 1778. 
 
 Sound dues, 527, 534, 588, 931, 1854. 
 
 Soundings, 501, 1194. 
 
 South America, 33, 832. 
 
 South Carolina, 142, 290, 438 (cot- 
 ton), 1036, 1248, 1633. 
 
 Southern Ocean, 1589. 
 
 South Sea bubble, 397. 
 
 Spain, 22, 161, 167, 251 (canals), 
 382, 457 (cotton), 487, 666, 831, 
 1033, 1186, 1306, 1609 (railroads), 
 1674, 1807 (tariff), 1855, 1913, 
 1951 1957 (West Indies), 1975. 
 
 Spanish Colonies, 365, 367, 1957. 
 
 Speculation, 377, 1684. 
 
 Sperm whale, 1958. 
 
 Spices, 275, 281, 307, 308, 311, 370, 
 498, 694, 820, 843, 1296, 1386, 
 1454, 1531. 
 
 Spindles, 463, 679. 
 
 Spinning, 69, 228, 461, 463, 679. 
 
 Spinning-jenny, 463. 
 
 Spirits, 17, 66, 645, 608, 707, 785, 
 814, 1093, 1289, 1650, 1971. 
 
 Spirits of turpentine. See Tukpeu- 
 
 TINE. 
 
 Stade dues, 923, 930. 
 
 Stages, 312, 1606. 
 
 Stamps, 476, 1557. 
 
 Standard of coins, 340. 
 
 Starch, 690. 
 
 Stationerj', 1485. 
 
 Steam-engine, 761, 1606, 1752. 
 
 Steamers, 21, 357, 621, 869, 1341, 
 1666, 1752. 
 
 Steel, 48, 505, 610. 
 
 Sterling silver, 349. 
 
 Stock companies, 394, 1145. 
 
 Stock exchange, 1472. 
 
 Storax, 88. 
 
 Store, Bill of, 179. 
 
 Stores, Naval. See Naval Stores. 
 
 Storms, 1001. 
 
 Straits of Dover, 665. 
 
 Straits of Gibraltar, 817. 
 
 Stranding, 1046. 
 
 Straw hats, 948. 
 
 Submarine telegraph. See Tele- 
 graph. 
 
 Succon', 298. 
 
 Suez, Isthmus of, 21. 
 
 Sugar, 235, 489, 490, 694, 707, 716, 
 781, 954, 1315, 1336, 1369, 1420, 
 1515, 1627, 1548, 1640, 1645, 1712, 
 1903. 
 
 Sulphui-ic acid, 7. 
 
 Sulphurous acid, 7. 
 
 Sumac, 1711. 
 
 Sumatra, 337, 1513. 
 
 Superior, Lake, 426 (copper) 1164. 
 
 Supplj-, 522, 1583. 
 
 Surmam, 911. 
 
 Survey, Coast, 321, 570. 
 
 Sweden, 249 (canals), 343 (coins), 
 
 425, 469 (cotton), 504, 1103, 1186, 
 
 1448, 1769, 1869, 1913, 1951, 1957 
 
 (West Indies). 
 Sweet potatoe, 1571. 
 Switzerland, 458 (cotton), 1186, 1869, 
 
 1951. 
 Swords, 510. 
 Syria, 166. 
 
 Tallow, 1666. 
 
 Tampico, 1353. 
 
 Tanning, 546, 1195, 1833, 1921. 
 
 Tapestiy, 829. 
 
 Tar, 1392. 
 
 Tares. 27. 
 
 Tariff, 12, 232, 237, 387, 418, 503, 
 544, 556, 680, 718, 738, 742, 745, 
 749, 865, 955, 1082, 1142, 1169, 
 1356, 1396, 1407, 1551, 1570, 1592, 
 1653, 1729, 1786, 1874, 1990. 
 
 Tartar, 58. 
 
 Tartaric acid, 8. 
 
 Tasmania, 1924. 
 
 Taxes, 71, 724, 1436, 1584, 1844. 
 
 Tea, 264, 265, 303, 691, 1151, 1657, 
 1699, 1702. 
 
 Tehuantepec, Isthmus of, 36. 
 
 Telegraph, 73, 602, 1253, 1283 [At- 
 lantic, 1735]. 
 
 Temperature, 618. 
 
 Tender, Legal, 97. 
 
 Teneriffe, 255. 
 
 Tennessee, 139, 1036. 
 
 Texas, 242, 437 (cotton), 780, 1036, 
 
 1740, 1772. 
 Thames, 1881. 
 Thermometer, 153, 1113. 
 Tides, 616, 936, 1396. 
 Tiles, 212. 
 
 Timber, 559, 658, 943, 1152, 1176, 
 1291, 1330, 1391, 1456, 1759, 1833, 
 1984. 
 
 Timbuctoo, 805. 
 
 Timothy seeds, 957. 
 
 Tincal, 191. 
 
 Tobacco, 91, 487, 488, 531, 730, 874, 
 876, 982. 1419, 1548, 1686, 1732, 
 
 1741, 1788, 1903. 
 Tobasco, 1352i 
 Tokay, 1979. 
 
 Tolls [Canal, 254], 535, 587, 923, 
 
 932, 1607, 1733. 
 Tonnage, 237, 738, 871, 1159, 1165 
 
 [Steam, 1756], 1910, 1916. 
 Torches, 677. 
 Toronto, 1376. 
 Trade, 1684. 
 
 Trade, Balance of, 84, 631. 
 Trade, Board of, 184. 
 Trade, Coasting, 319. 
 Trade, Free, 748. 
 Trade-winds, 73 241, 1372, 1972. 
 Traniroads, 1605. 
 Transit duties, 237. 
 Transit routes, 986, 1485. 
 Transitu, Stoppage in, 1764. 
 Treasure. See Precious Metals. 
 Treasurj-, 663 [Sub, 1765], 1797. 
 Treasur;' notes, 640. 
 Treaties, 410, 664 [Reciprocity, 675], 
 
 732, 883, 888, 980, 1022, 1132, 
 
 1173, 1407, 1408, 1521, 1697, 1734, 
 
 1874, 1878, 1885, 1923. 
 Tree, Cotton, 434. 
 Tret, 27. 
 Trinidad. 497. 
 Trinity House, 367, 1258. 
 Tripoli, 1869, 1944. 
 Tunis, 1186, 1870, 1944. 
 Turpentine, 422, 609, 1392, 1793. 
 
Turkey, 56, 276, 343 (coins), 395 
 (company), 401, 404, 509, 513, 
 556, 650, 1187, 1545, 1669, 1720, 
 1730, 1870, 1871. 
 
 Tuscany 1187, 1200, 1952. 
 
 Two Sicilies, 18. — See Sicilies. 
 
 Tyro, 379, 880. 
 
 Underwriter, 1037, 1054, 1270. 
 
 United Kingdom. See Great Brit- 
 ain. 
 
 United States, 387, 389, 419, 669, 
 676, 818, 861, 879, 945, 979, 1002, 
 1034, 1049, 1105, 1133„1188, 1451, 
 1597, 1771, 1795, 1820, 1921. 
 
 United States and France, 727. 
 
 United States, Banking in, 125. 
 
 United States, Bank of, 144. 
 
 United States canals, 254. 
 
 United States coal, 316. 
 
 United States coast, 320. 
 
 United States coast survey, 321. 
 
 United States coffee, 338. 
 
 United States coins, 343. 
 
 United States colonies, 362. 
 
 United States, Commerce of, 840, 
 875. 
 
 United States consular sj'stem, 406.' 
 
 United States copper, 426. 
 
 United States cotton, 437, 442. 
 
 United States cotton manufactures, 
 471. 
 
 United States currency, 502. 
 
 United States emigrants, 595, 1008. 
 
 United States fislieries, 333. 
 
 United States liglit-Iiouse sj'stem, 
 1233. 
 
 United States pilots, 1530. 
 
 United States Post-office, 1562. 
 
 United States production of gold, 
 354. 
 
 United States public lands, 1169. 
 
 United States railroads, 1615. 
 
 United Stttes shipping, 1627. 
 
 United States steam tonnage, 1756. 
 
 United States tonnage, 18^. 
 
 United States treaties, 1022. 
 
 United States usurj' laws, 1920. 
 
 United States weights and measures, 
 1944. 
 
 United States whale-fishery, 1962. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 United States wheat, 1968. 
 United States wine, 1980. 
 United States wool, 1988. 
 Upland cotton, 436, 443. 
 Upper Canada, 245. 
 Uric acid, 8. 
 Uruguay, 1374. 
 Uruguay Kiver, 1173. 
 Usances, 638. 
 Usury, 1067, 1072. 
 
 Valetta, 1309. 
 
 Vancouver's Island, 757. 
 
 Van Diemen's Land, 804, 1818. 
 
 Variation of the compass, 398. 
 
 Varnish, 422, 1136, 1159, 1482, 1674. 
 
 Vellum, 1494. 
 
 Venezuela, 272, 337, 1159, 1870, 
 
 1913. 
 Venice, 381, 798, 826, 1873. 
 Venice, Bank of, 121. 
 Vera Cruz, 1352. 
 Verd Islands, Cape, 271. 
 Vermont, 1036. 
 Vessels. /See- Ships. 
 Victoria, 833, 1341, 1782. 
 Vienna, 29. 
 
 Vinegar, 5, 659, 1600, 1931. 
 Violins, 660. 
 Virginia, 141, 267, 927, 1036, 1168, 
 
 1248, 1635. 
 Vitriol, 427. 
 Volga, 619, 1657. 
 Voyages, 1043. 
 
 Wages, 1695. 
 
 Wales, 847, 1613 (raUroads). 
 
 Walnuts, 1300. 
 
 War, Contraband of, 418. 
 
 Wares, Wedgwood, 574. 
 
 Watches, 306, 310, 1280, 1787. 
 
 Water, 53. 
 
 Waves, 936. 
 
 Wax, 988, 1691. 
 
 Wealth, 374. 
 
 Weaving, 1283, 1937. 
 
 Wedgwood ware, 574. 
 
 Weights, 8, 63, 76, 83, 230 [Decimal, 
 
 517], 726, 1152, 1176, 1573, 1602, 
 
 IMl, 1854, 1878. 
 Wells, Artesian, 61. 
 
 2007 
 
 West Indies, 151, 275, 337 (Colo- 
 nies, 363], 483 [Danish, 533], 556 
 [French, 743], [British, 880], 
 [Spanish, 957], 1120, 1544, 1646, 
 1662, 1667, 1674, 1727 [Spanish, 
 1746], [Swedish, 1786]. 
 
 Western Islands, 654. ^ 
 
 Whale-fisheries, 388, 671, 947, 1400, 
 1468, 1676, 1746. 
 
 Wheat, 208, 210, 236, 511, 685, 843, 
 1269, 1461. 
 
 Whisky, 1749. 
 
 White fish, 1357. 
 
 Wicks, 257. 
 
 Wilton carpet, 278. 
 
 Winds, 47 73, 1372, 1858. 
 
 Windward Islands, 1964. 
 
 Wines, 12, 192, 228, 256, 289, 309, 
 706, 733, 812, 845, 887, 999, 1299, 
 1307, 1476, 1551, 1704, 1854, 1903. 
 
 Wisconsin, 138, 1036. 
 
 Wismar, 1648. 
 
 Wood, 157, 179, 202, 205, 226, 229, 
 244, 284, 296, 428, 476, 498, 507, 
 554, 558, 583, 587, 593, 658, 757, 
 841, 898, 917, 944, 966, 983, 991, 
 1112, 1176, 1261, 1271, 1291, 1302, 
 1316, 1382, 1390, 1443, 1455, 1472, 
 1483, 1504, 1632, 1536, 1538, 1641, 
 1687, 1604, 1647, 1673, 1685, 1688, 
 1713, 1826, 1833, 1841, 187.9. 
 
 Wool, 29, 398, 839, 1175, 1342, 1665, 
 1704, 1731, 1789, 1800. 
 
 Woolen manufactures, 243, 276, 281, 
 311, 658, 677, 711, 761, 861, 1538, 
 1702, 1799, 1826. 
 
 Wrecks, 526, 547, 1058, 1166, 1209, 
 1215, 1693. 
 
 Yams, 356, 461. 
 Yawls, 184. 
 Year, Fiscal, 663. 
 Yeddo, 1144. 
 Yucatan, 1161, 1352. 
 
 Zante, 1085. 
 
 Zinc, 203, 427, 1889. 
 
 Zoll-Verein, 211, 1593, 1688, 1759. 
 
 Zones, 573. 
 
 Zuyder Zee, 249. 
 
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